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A Historical Study Of The Development Of Governmental Support To Theatre In Great Britain

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A Historical Study Of The Development Of Governmental Support To Theatre In Great Britain

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Content This dissertation has been 64-13, 537 microfilmed exactly as received SHERRIFFS, Ronald Everett, 1934- A HISTORICAL STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT TO THEATRE IN GREAT BRITAIN. University of Southern California, Ph. D ., 1964 Speech-Theater University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan A HISTORICAL STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT TO THEATRE IN GREAT BRITAIN by RonaId Everett S h e r r i f f s A D i s s e r t a t i o n Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Communicat ion-Drama) June 1964 UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA TIIL OH A DU AT E SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES CA LIF ORN IA 0 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by Ronald, .Eyere11 She r r i f £ s under the direction of //is....Dissertation C o m mittee, and npfin,red by nil its mem bers, has been presented to and accepted by the (iraduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the deqree of DOCTOR OF P IIII.O S O rilY ^ Dean D.m- June 1964 DISSKRTATION CO.MMI'ITKK I * . p . ) >U . c? //, l e t l c L ' / ‘ Chan man TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY Importance of the Study Statement of the Problem •Source M a terials and L im ita tio n s D e f in itio n s of Terms Review of the L i t e r a t u r e Preview of Remaining Chapters II. THE EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ATTITUDE TOWARD THEATRE FROM THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY TO 1963 17 In tro d u ct ion The Development of Public A t t it u d e during the E lizabethan Period Subsequent Development of A t t it u d e from the Commonwealth to the N ineteenth Century Pioneer Conceptions of a N atio nal Theatre The C o n trib u tio n of W illiam Archer and Harley G ran v i1le-B arker F i r s t Committee A ction to E s ta b lis h a N ation al T heatre Moral A t t it u d e s in the Twentieth Century Public A t t it u d e toward the Value of T heatre Public A t t it u d e as It Provided a Base for the C re atio n of a N ational Theatre The Development of Public A t t i t u d e by Formal Action to C reate a N atio nal Theatre World War II and the Extension of Govern mental S ocial Programs The Development of Public A t t it u d e toward C onditions and Requirements of Theatre i i Page 1 Chapter Page JIJ. IV. P re se rv a tio n of Values: Government v ersus Commercial P r a c tic e Local Achievements as an I n d ic a to r of Public Att itude Public A ttitu d e toward the Theatre P ro fe s- s ion THE EVOLUTION OF THE PRESENT PROGRAM OF GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT TO THEATRE ......................... In tro d u ct ion E ntertainm ents Duty The E ntertainm ents N a tio n a l Service A ssocia- t ion The Council for the Encouragement of Music and the A rts The Establishm ent of the A rts Council of Great B r ita in The Development of the P ro v in c ia l Repertory System The Development of S p ecial C o n sid e ra tio n for the Old Vic, S a d l e r 's W ells, and Covent Garden as N ation al I n s t i t u t i o n s Support to Theatre from Local Sources A d m in istra tiv e C e n t r a l i z a t i o n of Govern mental Support A National T heatre: Parliam entary Action A N ational T heatre: A c q u is itio n of a S ite A National T heatre: London v ersus the Provinces The M in ister of Fine A rts Proposal THE DEGREE OF CONTROL OR INTERFERENCE WHICH ACCOMPANIED GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT .................... Introduct ion The Function of Censorship The Sunday Observance T ra d itio n The Acknowledged Danger of Governmental Control The E ntertainm ents Duty: E ffect on Commercial Theatre i i i 115 236 Chapter Page The Entertainm ents Duty: C re atio n of a Single Theatre Agency The A rts C o u n c il's E f f o r ts to Develop an Aud ience Commercial D i s t o r t io n s of the S p i r i t of the Exemption from the E ntertainm ents Duty Subsidized T e le v is io n : Major Com petition to the Subsidized Stage Governmental Involvement in the P re s e rv a tio n of Theatres Government and Theatre Employment Governmental Use of the Subsidized Stage for Propaganda Purposes V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . Summary Conelus ions Im p licatio n s and Suggestions fo r F u rth e r Study BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................... 305 328 iv CHAPTER I ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY Importance of the Study The q u e stio n of governmental f i n a n c i a l support to t h e a t r e programs has become an important issu e in the United S t a te s . On the n a ti o n a l l e v e l , l e g i s l a t i o n was con sid e red r e c e n t l y in both the Senate and the House of Repre s e n t a t i v e s , w hile lim ite d programs are in e x is te n c e or under c o n s i d e r a ti o n on the s t a t e and lo c a l l e v e l s . A l though b u ild in g s have been e re c te d in se v e ra l in s ta n c e s , l e g i s l a t i v e a c tio n to c r e a t e co n tin u in g t h e a t r e programs has been delayed by arguments concerning the s p e c i f i c r e l a tio n s h ip s a governmental body should have to such a c t i v i t y , the p r e c is e n a tu re of su pp ort, and the probable r e s u l t s of a continued subsidy. Since t h i s country has l i t t l e h i s t o r y of such support from which to draw c o n c lu sio n s, the p ro grams developed by those n a tio n s which have made major con t r i b u t i o n s to the c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e of t h i s country 2 lo g ic a l l y become our major source of inform ation. Because of the g r e a te r degree of s i m i l a r i t y to our form of govern ment, as compared to the oth er European governments, and because of her a c tiv e t h e a tr e support program, Great B r i t ain provides us with the most important example of c u l t u r a l support on a n a tio n a l le v e l. Statement of the Problem The present program of governmental support for t h e a tr e in Great B r i ta i n is the r e s u l t of a long h i s t o r y of developing public a t t i t u d e s toward government, s o c ia l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and the value of t h e a tr e . The follow ing q u estio n s are designed to probe the v a ria b le r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the B r i ti s h p u b lic , governmental i n s t i t u t i o n s , and the t h e a t r e . 1. How have public a t t i t u d e s toward t h e a tr e evolved to embrace the concept of governmental support ? 2. How has the present governmental program of support evolved? 3. What degree of governmental c o n tr o l or i n t e r ference has accompanied governmental support of th e a tre ? An examination of the in d iv id u a l f a c t o r s which c o n trib u te d to the development of the present system of g ra n ts and sub s i d i e s is e s s e n t i a l to an und erstan ding o f the support p ro gram because t h i s program is not the r e s u l t of any s in g le l e g i s l a t i v e or e x ecu tiv e p o lic y d e c isio n or a c tio n . The many fa c e ts of the system stem from a wide v a r i e t y of pub l i c p r e s s u r e s , p r iv a te experim ents, and p a rliam e n ta ry d e b a te s which, when taken to g e th e r, r e f l e c t changes in the s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and economic t r a d i t i o n s of Great B r i t a i n . The purpose of t h i s study is to produce an acc u ra te d e s c r i p t i o n of the development of the p resen t program of governmental support to t h e a t r e in Great B r i t a i n . Once t h i s development is c l e a r , once the elements of the p resent system can be seen in r e l a t i o n to the p re ssu re s which p ro duced them, then suggested a p p lic a tio n s of elements of the B r i t i s h program to the United S ta te s may be d iscussed more i n t e l l i g e n t l y . Source M a terials and L im ita tio n s This h i s t o r i c a l a n a ly s is of the events important to the development of the present program was made p o s s ib le by the fac t th a t t h e o r i e s , p olicy sta te m e n ts, c o n tr o v e r s i a l is s u e s , and s t a t u s r e p o r t s were given wide p u b lic a tio n . 4 Books and a r t i c l e s w r i t te n by p r i n c i p a l s in the development of support, pamphlets from i n s t i t u t i o n s , newspaper r e p o r t s of d e b a te s, g r a n ts , or o th e r ta n g ib le a c tio n , e d i t o r i a l s , and l e t t e r s to the e d i t o r s of The Times (London) and The Manchester Guardian were c o lle c te d and examined in the course of t h i s study. These newspapers, each enjoy in g the h ig h e s t of r e p u t a t i o n s , r e p r e s e n t both the se a t of the n a ti o n a l government and a major p r o v in c ia l c e n te r--im p o r- ta n t d i s t i n c t i o n s in the e v o lu tio n of a p o lic y financed by a system of nation-w ide t a x a ti o n . Reliance upon published m a te r ia l in tro d u c es two l i m i t a t i o n s to t h i s study. F i r s t , a v a ila b le m a t e r i a l has not been proven to r e f l e c t a c c u ra te ly the a t t i t u d e o f the g e n eral public toward t h e a t r e . D e sc rip tio n s and opinions by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the t h e a t r e world can e a s i l y co n ta in d i s t o r t i o n s enhancing any given program. In order to draw from the w idest a v a ila b le c r o s s - s e c t i o n , The Times was s u r veyed from 1915, when plans were made to tax t h e a t r e to support the war e f f o r t , to the p re s e n t. Over 500 a r t i c l e s p e rta in in g to t h e a t r e were e x tra c te d fo r a n a ly s is from t h i s s o u r c e . The M anchester Guardian was surveyed from 1939, when the C ou n cil for the Encouragement o f Music and Art began i t s program of aid to the i s o l a t e d p o p u latio n s in th e pro vin ces, to the p r e s e n t , and over 150 a r t i c l e s were e x tr a c te d for a n a l y s i s . A second l im i t a t io n to th e u se o f p u b lish ed m ater i a l concerns th e d if f e r e n c e in purposes fo r which i t was w r itt e n and th e purposes o f t h i s stu d y . The changing tren d s in p u b lic a t t i t u d e s toward th e a t r e as an i n s t i t u t i o n are o ft e n su pp ressed or obscured e n t i r e l y by th e a t t e n t io n to th e c r i s i s , p la n , or r o u tin e announcement which prompted the a r t i c l e . The con cep t o f governm ental c o n tr o l o f or i n t e r fer en ce in th e a tr e a c t i v i t y i s a complex one. L e g is la t i v e a c tio n i s record ed ; g ra n ts and s u b s id ie s are reco rd ed ; how ever, the f u l l e f f e c t s o f such a c tio n and f i n a n c i a l aid are a m atter o f c o n je c tu r e . Government in t e n t io n s in th e m atter o f c o n t r o l may be r e v e a le d by a h i s t o r i c a l a n a ly s is such as t h i s . Some in s ig h t in to the r e s u l t s o f g o v ern m ental a c tio n may be gained alon g broad l i n e s . The a c q u i s i t i o n o f such knowledge aw aits f u l l a n a ly s is o f th e p e r s o n n e l, f i n a n c i a l , and a e s t h e t ic base o f th e t h e a t r e , and the community which p ro v id es the a u d ien ce . P rogress in t h is area a w a its in t e n s iv e r ese a r c h o f many k in d s; t h i s study undertakes to tr a c e the fo r c e s which led to th e 6 i n i t i a t i o n o f l e g i s l a t i o n , th e c h a r a c te r and immediate r e s u l t s o f th a t l e g i s l a t i o n , and th e p u b lic r e a c tio n as i t was tr a n s la t e d in t o g a in s or l o s s e s at th e b o x - o f f ic e and p r e ssu r e s for co n tin u a n ce or reform o f th e program. D e f in it io n s o f Terms In order to p r e ser v e th e g r e a t e s t d egree o f c l a r i t y and c o n s is te n c y p o s s i b l e , th e fo llo w in g d e f i n i t i o n s have been a ccep ted fo r purposes o f t h i s stu d y . T heatre program.--T h e term " th e a tr e program" i n clu ded th e a c t i v i t i e s o f le g it im a t e t h e a t r e , opera, and th e b a l l e t . S u p p ort. --A s a p p lie d to t h i s stu d y , "support" in clu ded f i n a n c i a l aid to th e producing o r g a n iz a tio n in the form o f d ir e c t g r a n ts on a r e g u la r b a s i s , g r a n ts to cover d e f i c i t s , ta x r e fu n d s, BBC b r o a d c a s ts , and th e usage o f b u ild in g s and equipment at government ex p en se. A lso i n clu d ed were f i n a n c i a l aid to audience o r g a n iz a tio n s in the form o f r e d u c tio n s in t i c k e t p r ic e s and tr a n s p o r ta tio n c o s t s . Government. - - I n a g e n e r a l s e n s e , th e word "govern ment" in c lu d e s th e e s t a b lis h e d form o f p o l i t i c a l ad m in is t r a t i o n on a n a t io n a l, r e g io n a l, or c i t y l e v e l . In t h i s stu d y , how ever, i t r e fe r r e d t o th e n a t io n a l app aratu s o n ly . R eferen ce to a l o c a l or r e g io n a l a u th o r ity was so s p e c i f i e d . Review o f th e L it e r a t u r e ^ - The stu d y o f governm ental support to t h e a tr e in G reat B r it a in h as not a t tr a c t e d much s c h o la r ly a t t e n t io n . C on seq u en tly, th e standard in d ex es c o n ta in few r e fe r e n c e s to p rev io u s or r e la t e d s t u d i e s . C om p ilation s by Knower and Johnson in th e E d u ca tio n a l T heatre Jou rn al and by Knower and Auer in Speech Monographs c o n ta in no r e f e r e n c e s to t h i s s u b j e c t . The R ead er's Guide to P e r io d ic a l L ite r a tu r e l i s t s s e v e r a l sh ort a r t i c l e s in T heatre A r ts which are o f a v ery g e n e r a l n a tu r e . The Cum ulative Book Index was th e most v a lu a b le g e n e r a l sou rce because in i t were l i s t e d books o n ly r e c e n t ly p u b lish ed by many o f th e men who have been a c t iv e p a r t ic ip a n t s in th e support programs. S p e c i f i c a l l y , G eo ffrey Whitworth was one o f th e le a d in g a d v o ca tes o f a n a tio n a l th e a t r e . B a s il Dean and C h arles Landstone were prominent in th e th e a tr e b e fo r e s e r v in g as a d m in is tr a to r s o f governm ental th e a tr e programs. A. P. H erbert was a very 1 M a te r ia ls r efe r e n c e d in t h i s ch a p ter are docu mented f u l l y in the ch a p ter in which th ey are tr e a te d . 8 s u c c e s s f u l p layw rig h t in th e m u sic a l comedy f i e l d , a member o f P a rlia m e n t, and th e le a d in g opponent o f th e E n te r ta in ments Tax on l i v i n g t h e a t r e . W hitw orth's The Making o f a N a tio n a l T h eatre (1951) c o n ta in s a d e t a ile d account o f th e e v e n t s , p e o p le , and tre n d s w h ich , a f t e r a cen tu ry o f d i s c u s s i o n , f i n a l l y c u l m inated in a p arliam en tary d e c is io n to spend up to one m i ll i o n pounds to b u ild a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e . T his n a tio n a l th e a t r e movement was th e major fo r c e and o b je c t in th e E n g lish t h e a t r e ' s s tr u g g le fo r governm ental su p p ort. W hit w o r th 's c o n tr ib u tio n was in d is p e n s a b le to t h i s stu d y . During th e Second World War, two programs o f govern m ental support to th e a tr e e x i s t e d . B a s i l Dean served as the head o f th e E n tertain m en ts N a tio n a l S e r v ic e A s s o c ia t io n (ENSA) , Great B r i t a i n ' s U .S .O ., and was la r g e ly r e s p o n s ib le fo r th e p o lic y and o p e r a tio n o f th e la r g e s t sup port program th e n a tio n had known. H is a c co u n t, The The a tr e at War (1 9 5 6 ), i s in t e n s e l y p a r tis a n and, in many in s t a n c e s , d e fe n s iv e b ecau se o f the b i t t e r c o n tr o v e r sy surrounding the o r g a n iz a tio n . T his " q u a lity v e r su s quan t i t y " argument did not end w ith th e p ost-w ar d i s s o l u t i o n o f ENSA--whether deserved or n o t, ENSA was c o n t in u a lly 9 p resen ted as th e example o f a p o lic y and r e s u l t s to be avoided in governm ental su p p ort. During t h i s same period o f tim e, th e C ou n cil fo r the Encouragement o f Music and Art (CEMA) was c r e a te d w ith p r i v a te funds but e v e n tu a lly became th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e governm ent. C h arles Landstone has d e sc r ib e d th e f i r s t tw elv e years o f t h i s o p e r a tio n in h i s O ff-S ta g e (1 9 5 3 ). This system seemed to encourage or safegu ard th e p u b l i c a l l y accep ted v i r t u e s n e c e ss a r y fo r su c c e s s and worthy o f n a tio n a l pride so th e C EM A was r e c o n s t it u t e d as the A rts C ou ncil o f B reat B r it a in a f t e r th e war, and i t i s today th e major agent o f governm ental support to t h e a t r e . A. P. H e r b e r t's "No F in e on Fun" was a d e t a ile d c o m p ila tio n o f th e d eb ate in Parliam ent and in th e p ress over th e E ntertainm ent Duty. H is com b ination o f enthusiasm , e x p e r ie n c e , humor, and c o n tin u a l s c h o la r ly r e fe r e n c e to H ansard, the P arliam entary r e c o r d , a l l combined to p r e sen t a h ig h ly p a r tisa n y e t in fo r m a tiv e p ic tu r e o f the h i s t o r y o f t h i s t a x . The changing arguments o f th e proponents o f th e ta x and the system o f exem ptions which became part o f i t were not p resen ted w ith th e same f i r e as were h i s arguments to a b o lis h the t a x - - a s a m atter o f f a c t , arguments su p p o rt ing th e tax were made to look as absurd as p o s s ib le . T h is 10 source i s s t i l l v a lu a b le , how ever, because the Hansard r ec o rd s, th e m se lv e s, are u n biased and H e r b e r t's account o f the d e b a te s in The Times a g r e e s w ith the co n ten t o f th o se debates as p resen ted in The T im es. H e r b e r t's z e a l must be con sid ered when exam ining h i s comments and c o n c lu s io n s , not h is c o m p ila tio n o f e v id en ce . These four works r e p r e se n t th e four major elem en ts in the p u b lic c o n sc ie n c e (a n a tio n a l t h e a tr e , th e wartime ENSA, th e CEMA/Arts C o u n c il, and th e r e j e c t io n o f a p u n ish ing ta x ) c o n tr ib u tin g to th e development o f a t t i t u d e s and, e v e n tu a lly , a p o lic y o f governm ental r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and support fo r th e a tr e . J . B. P r i e s t l y ' s T heatre O utlook (1947) was a p e r sonal e x p r e s s io n o f the s a t i s f a c t i o n s d erived from the t h e a t r i c a l e x p e r ie n c e . H is com parison o f audience r e a c tio n s t o film and l iv e th e a tr e s tr e s s e d th e need fo r a s p e c i f ic o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e th e a tr e to p r eserv e i t s p o te n t i a l v a lu e s . The im portance o f t h i s work was enhanced by P r i e s t l y ' s a c tiv e p a r t ic ip a t io n in govern m entally r e c o g nized in q u ir ie s in to the proper fu n c tio n o f th e a tr e in th e n a tio n a l l i f e . Two works which were a lso o f major im portance in t h is stu d y were l i s t e d in B ak er's Theatre and A llie d A r ts. 11 One, G i l d e r s l e e v e ' s s c h o la r ly Government R e g u la tio n s o f th e E liz a b e th a n Drama (1 9 0 8 ), p r e sen ted an a n a ly s is o f the b e g in n in g s o f th e now t r a d i t i o n a l r e l a t io n s h ip s betw een th e R oyal h o u se h o ld , P a rlia m en t, and th e London a u t h o r i t i e s co n cern in g t h e a t r e . The co m p lica ted system o f l i c e n s i n g th e a tr e a c t i v i t i e s was a ls o examined and r e v e a le d to stem from o v e r la p p in g a u th o r ity on th e part o f Royal and London o f f i c i a l s - - t h e e s s e n t i a l p o in t o f what has been a c o n tin u in g c o n tr o v e r s y . A second im portant work l i s t e d by Baker was D e n t's A T h eatre fo r Everybody (1 9 4 5 ). H is t h e s i s th a t the r e l a t i o n o f th e a tr e to a n a tio n was e s s e n t i a l l y a s o c i a l p rob lem was w e l l argued and c o n c en tr a ted upon the B a y lis admin i s t r a t i o n o f th e Old V ic . D e n t's c o n c lu s io n th a t the prob lem o f a n a t io n a l th e a tr e was n ot one to be so lv e d by government su b sid y a lo n e or th e e sta b lish m e n t o f a M in istr y o f F in e A r ts , but by broad p u b lic support has been demon s tr a t e d to be an a ccu ra te p r e d ic t io n . An in s p e c tio n o f P alm er's Index to The Times from 1915 to th e b eg in n in g o f World War I I and The O f f i c i a l Index to The Times t h e r e a f t e r r e v e a le d some 920 a r t i c l e s in th a t newspaper w h ich, ju d g in g from th e t i t l e s a lo n e , had a p o s s ib le r e l a t io n s h ip to t h i s stu d y . F urther ex am in ation 12 o f each a r t i c l e reduced t h i s l i s t to 520. T h is , in tu r n , was reduced by r e p e t i t i o n and by th e p r a c t ic e o f d iv id in g th e r e p o r tin g o f an ev en t in t o s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s , each o f which d e s c r ib e s i t from th e p o in t o f v iew o f a d i f f e r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n or o f f i c i a l . No index has been com piled or p u b lish ed fo r The M anchester Guardian but th e in d ex fo r The Times proved to se rv e as a s u b s t it u t e as fa r as th e a c tio n s o f P arliam ent or n a t io n a l a g e n c ie s was concerned s in c e The M anchester Guardian p u b lish ed t h i s news w it h in a day o f th e d a te g iv e n in the in d ex . During th e war, The M anchester Guardian o f te n c o n ta in e d as few as s i x pages and th e th e a tr e news alm ost alw ays appeared on th e same two or th r e e p a g es. T h is, in a d d itio n to th e f a c t th a t o th e r or p rev io u s a r t i c l e s were o f te n r e fe r e n c e d in any g iv e n a r t i c l e c o n s id e r ab ly eased t h i s p o r tio n o f th e t o t a l r e se a r c h e f f o r t . S in ce an ind ex was not y e t a v a ila b le fo r e i t h e r newspaper fo r 1963, t h i s tec h n iq u e o f scan n in g th e pages c a r r y in g th e a tr e news, th e e d i t o r i a l and corresp on d en ce s e c t i o n s and ch eck in g a l l r e fe r e n c e s w ith in each a r t i c l e was used e x c lu s i v e l y fo r th a t period o f tim e. The m a te r ia l d is c u s s e d above provided in fo r m a tio n c o n c en tr a ted on a c tio n s and developm ent o f e x i s t i n g p ro grams. I t was augmented by a com b in ation o f s t r a ig h t r e p o r tin g o f e v e n ts and c r i t i c a l a p p lic a t io n o f th e o r y in th e 1962-63 i s s u e s o f Drama, a q u a r te r ly p u b lish ed by th e B r i t i s h Drama League. The p r e se n t e d i t o r , Mr. Iv o r Brown, served on th e Drama P anel o f th e A r ts C o u n cil o f G reat B r it a in and i s regarded as an im portant r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f B r i t i s h th e a tr e as w e l l as a s u c c e s s f u l a d m in is tr a to r o f governm ental su p p o rt. A standard r e fe r e n c e w hich provided d e s c r ip t io n s o f tre n d s in B r it i s h l i f e and government as w e l l as s p e c i f i c a p p lic a t io n s o f s o c i a l w e lfa r e programs was th e E n c y c lo p aed ia B r it a n n ic a . An u n d ersta n d in g o f th e developm ent o f B r i t i s h a t t i t u d e toward th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e g o v e rn ment would have been im p o ss ib le w ith o u t an ex a m in a tio n o f th e in fo rm a tio n i t c o n ta in e d . U n lik e th e d e s c r ip t io n s o f th e p r a c tic e o f g o v e rn m ental support to t h e a t r e , works c o n t r ib u tin g to th e th eo ry on th e b a s is o f which th e programs were c r e a te d were not l i s t e d in th e standard r e f e r e n c e b ib lio g r a p h ie s . Three im portant works from th e n in e te e n th cen tu ry were r e fe r e n c e d or r e p u b lish e d w ith in th e l a s t f i f t y y ea rs or so in books or prominent p e r io d ic a l s . G eo ffr ey W hitworth c it e d a p ro p o s a l fo r a n a t io n a l t h e a tr e made in 1848 by a Mr. E f f i n g 14 ham W ilson . T h is p r o p o sa l came to p u b lic a t t e n t io n in 1864 o n ly b eca u se th e Morning A d v e r tis e r th en had g iv e n c r e d it f i r s t to Lord L ytton and th en to Tom T aylor fo r th e o r i g in a l p la n and Mr. W ilson w rote a l e t t e r s t a t i n g h i s own c a s e . D ickens and Kemble were r ep o rted by W hitworth to favor th e plan on a e s t h e t ic grounds but were p e s s im i s t i c as to i t s p r o sp e c ts o f su c c e s s as an e c o n o m ic a lly p r a c t i c a l p lan . " S u g g estio n s fo r E s t a b lis h in g an E n g lish Art The a t r e ," an 1879 e s s a y by J. R. Planche" was r e p u b lish e d in Volume I I (1909-1910) o f C r a ig 's The Mask. S ir Henry I r v in g p u b lish ed The T heatre and th e S ta te in 1898 w h ich , becau se o f h i s p o s it io n o f le a d e r s h ip in B r i t i s h t h e a t r e , drew s e r io u s a t t e n t io n to th e id e a . Edward Gordon C ra ig , from h i s self-im posed e x i l e in I t a l y , published h i s own p e r i o d i c a l , The Mask, f o r twenty years and in i t th e r e were many a r t i c l e s in support o f a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e on a e s t h e t i c and t h e o r e t i c a l grounds. C r a ig 's dream of a p e rf e c t and f u l l y s a t i s f y i n g t h e a t r e was c lo s e l y a l l i e d to h i s concept of a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e fo r Great B r i t a i n . Craig was unencumbered by c o n s id e r a tio n s fo r th e p r e s e r v a tio n of th e e x i s t i n g commercial t h e a t r e and, t h e r e f o r e , h i s ideas concerning the power o f th e t h e a t r i c a l experience were not forced in to compromises. Perhaps i t was fo r tu n a te th a t h i s a t t i t u d e a cted to deny him a chance to t e s t h i s t h e o r i e s - - a f a i l u r e on h i s p art would have lim ite d th e i n t e r p r e t a t io n s o f h i s c o n c e p ts . As i t s t o o d , h i s id e a s f i r e d th e im a g in a tio n s o f many men, each o f whom approached th e problem from a se p a r a te s ta n d p o in t . W illia m Archer and H arley G r a n v ille -B a r k e r pub l is h e d p r iv a t e ly t h e i r Scheme and E stim a te s fo r a N a tio n a l T h eatre in 1904. In i t , th ey dem onstrated th a t such an endeavor was e co n o m ic a lly f e a s i b l e and c o u ld , i f c e r t a in c r i t e r i a were o b serv ed , a ls o prom ise a h ig h l e v e l o f a e s t h e t i c e x c e lle n c e . H arley G r a n v ille -B a r k e r p u b lish ed an u p -d ated v e r s io n , A N a tio n a l T h e a tr e , in 1930 when th e p ro p o s a l was a g a in r e c e iv in g im portant a t t e n t io n . The com bin a t io n o f g o a ls and s p e c i f i c p lan c o n ta in e d in th e s e works serv ed as th e b a s is fo r th e im portant p r o p o sa ls which f o l low ed, T h eirs was th e most im portant s i n g l e c o n t r ib u t io n to th e developm ent o f a n a t io n a l th e a tr e fo r G reat B r it a in . Today, m illio n s o f pounds are b e in g sp en t in an e f f o r t to a c h ie v e what th ey con vin ced th e n a tio n was n ot o n ly 'a v a l u a b le in vestm en t but e n t i r e l y p o s s ib le to r e a l i z e . These have been th e most im portant so u rc es used in t h i s stu d y . Each was an e n t i t y unto i t s e l f and i t i s a 16 purpose o f t h i s p r o je c t to g a th er them to g e th e r and to p la c e them in a h i s t o r y w ith regard to t h e i r c o n tr ib u t io n to th e developm ent o f a governm ental program o f support fo r t h e a t r e . See th e b ib lio g r a p h y fo r a f u l l c o m p ila tio n o f th e so u rc es from which m a te r ia l has been drawn or which were o th e r w ise o f im portance. Preview o f Remaining C hapters The e v o lu tio n o f t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s toward t h e a tr e from the b e g in n in g o f p u b lic th e a tr e in E liz a b e th a n England to th e p r e sen t c o n c ep ts o f governm ental support i s examined in Chapter I I . The developm ent o f th e p r e se n t pro gram o f governm ental support i s tra ced in Chapter I I I . Chapter IV c o n ta in s an a n a ly s is o f th e d egree o f c o n t r o l or in t e r f e r e n c e w h ich , a c co r d in g to popular b e l i e f , accompan ied governm ental involvem ent in th e B r it i s h t h e a t r e . Chap t e r V c o n s i s t s o f the summary, c o n c lu s io n s , and im p lic a t io n s o f the stu d y . CHAPTER I I THE EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ATTITUDE TO W ARD THEATRE FROM THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY TO 1963 In tr o d u c tio n The e v o lu t io n o f p u b lic a t t i t u d e toward th e a tr e in Great B r it a in was n ot c h a r a c te r iz e d by a grad u al emergence o f support fo r a su b s id iz e d t h e a t r e . The co n cep t o f t h e a tr e as an i n s t i t u t i o n p o s s e s s in g p o s i t i v e v a lu e s worthy o f p u b lic support was a co m p a ra tiv ely r e c e n t developm ent in th e h i s t o r y o f th e B r i t i s h t h e a t r e . The purpose o f t h i s c h a p ter i s to tr a c e th e sp o ra d ic p a tte r n o f a t t i t u d e s c r e ated by th e power s tr u g g le between th e Crown, th e London a u t h o r i t i e s , and th e Church. An a n a ly s is o f th e d e v e lo p in g a t t i t u d e was com p licated by tem porary a l l i a n c e s and chang in g g o a ls on th e part o f th e s e th r e e so u rc es o f power. The in flu e n c e o f th e Church, augmented by an a s s e r t io n o f in d e pendence and power on th e part o f th e London o f f i c i a l s 18 r e s u lt e d in th e most ob viou s e x p r e s s io n o f a t t i t u d e s du rin g th e p eriod o f th e C om m onw ealth--theatre was o u tla w ed . The developm ent o f R oyal power as E liz a b e th a p p lie d i t in th e p r o t e c t io n she gave th e a tr e and th e r e - e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e a tr e w ith th e R e s to r a tio n were more com plex b eca u se no s i n g le th e o ry or e d i c t was brought to b ear on a l l t h e a t r i c a l m a tte r s. The s o c i a l r e v o lu t io n which had i t s b e g in n in g s in th e m iddle o f th e n in e te e n th c en tu ry and which i s o f major im portance today was r e f l e c t e d in th e t h e a t r e . In f a c t , th e th e a t r e became an agent o f s o c i a l change. During t h i s p e r io d , a ls o c h a r a c te r iz e d by developm ents in t r a n s p o r ta t i o n and i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , th e th e a t r e a u d ien ce expanded to in c lu d e p eop le o f a l l r e g io n s and a l l s o c i a l c l a s s e s in Great B r it a in . The g e n e r a l a ccep ta n ce o f th e a t r e as an i n s t i t u t i o n o f s o c i a l im portance paved th e way fo r s e r io u s c o n s id e r a t io n o f th e a tr e as an a r t form in i t s own r ig h t . A lthough th e s o c i a l and a e s t h e t i c v a lu e s o f th e a tr e were g a in in g r e c o g n it io n and a p p ro v a l, i t was not u n t i l th e pub l i c had been su b je c te d to th e p r e ssu r e s o f th e world wars o f th e tw e n tie th c en tu ry th a t th e v a lu e o f " en tertain m en t" came to be c o n sid e r e d as a proper and m o ra lly a c c e p ta b le j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r p u b lic support o f t h e a t r e . F i n a l l y , i t must be r e a liz e d th a t a p u b lic a t t i t u d e toward any em erging i n s t i t u t i o n , most e s p e c i a l l y th e t h e a t r e , was n o t e n t i r e l y dependent upon th e p r e s e n t a tio n o f l o g i c a l arguments o f th e m e r its and c o n tr ib u tio n s o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n to th e s o c i e t y , but upon r e a c t io n t o p e r so n a l e x p e r ie n c e . In G reat B r i t a in , much o f th e p u b lic 's a t t i t u d e was formed as a r e a c tio n to th e c h a r a c te r and b eh a v io r o f th e prime r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f th e t h e a t r e - - t h e a c t o r s , th e m se lv e s. The Development o f P u b lic A ttitu d e D uring th e E liza b eth a n P eriod A lthough when under Roman law , m ed iev a l Church law , and d u rin g th e r e v i v a l o f extrem e P u rita n ism in England, a c to r s were not allow ed c i t i z e n s h i p , t h i s a t t i t u d e did not appear in E n g lis h law under E liz a b e th .^ - The a c to r was n ot allow ed to roam f r e e , how ever, under th e fe u d a l system . Every man owed h i s a lle g ia n c e t o a lo r d , a g u ild , or a town c o r p o r a tio n and th e r e was no p la c e or a llo w a n ce fo r th e w andering a c to r who did not f i t in to t h i s p a tte r n . F eudal s o c i e t y had no h o ld on th e a c to r b ecau se h i s o c cu p a tio n was V ir g in ia C. G i l d e r s l e e v e , Government R e g u la tio n o f th e E liz a b e th a n Drama (New York: The Columbia U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 0 8 ), p. 21. 20 n ot t r a d i t i o n a l . 2 T his s i t u a t i o n d evelop ed in s p i t e o f th e f a c t th a t th e e a r l i e s t g u ild s provided b oth a c to r s and au d ien ces fo r p erform an ces. I t was n o t u n t i l th e T h eatre and th e C urtain were e s t a b lis h e d in 1576 and 1577 th a t London had a t a n g ib le s ig n o f th e r ig h t o f th e a c to r t o h i s p r o f e s s io n . The p r o fe s s io n o f a c tin g was unknown to th e e a r ly g u ild s and t h e ir system o f r e g u la t io n did n ot make a llow an ce fo r i t . S in ce s o c i a l r e g u la t io n was o f paramount im portance to E liz a b e th and th e London a u t h o r i t i e s , a s y s tem o f .c o n tr o l had to be develop ed fo r a c t o r s . The con cep t o f a c to r s as s e r v a n ts t o a p ow erfu l lo rd was expanded and a ' system o f l i c e n s i n g f i n a l l y e v o lv e d . A ccordin g to G ild e r - i s l e e v e , when th e system o f l i c e n s i n g was e s t a b lis h e d by j s t a t u t e in 1572, i t was l i t t l e more than a c o d i f i c a t i o n o f j th e a lr e a d y e x i s t i n g p r a c t i c e s .^ R e g u la tio n o f th e a t r e a c t i v i t y in E liz a b e th a n England to o k t h r e e form s. The a c t o r s , th e p la y s , and th e th e a t r e s were s u b je c t t o r e g u la t io n by th e Crown and th e 2M. C. Bradbrook, The R ise o f th e Common F la y er (London: C hatto and Windus, 1 9 6 2 ), p. 40. 3 I b i d . „. . ^ G ild e r s le e v e , l o c . c i t . 21 London a u t h o r i t i e s . The in f lu e n c e o f th e Church was f e l t l a r g e ly through th e s e two powers. The M aster o f R e v e ls , a minor co u rt o f f i c i a l w ith r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to o v e r se e th e c o n te n t o f th e p la y s , f i r s t appeared du rin g th e r u le o f Henry V II.^ The f i r s t permanent M aster o f R e v e ls was ap p oin ted by Henry V III and placed under th e s u p e r v is io n o f th e Lord C ham berlain--an arrangem ent m aintained to th e p r e se n t day. Bradbrook m aintained th a t Henry V III issu e d th e f i r s t e d i c t fo r b id d in g the p la y in g o f in t e r lu d e s d e a l in g w ith the S c r ip tu r e s in 1 5 3 3 .^ G ild e r s le e v e d isa g r e e d : "Were t h i s a u t h e n t ic , i t would be th e e a r l i e s t form al p ro nouncement co n cern in g c e n so r s h ip . But no such e d ic t was issu e d in 1533."® At any r a t e , c e n s o r s h ip o f p la y s and l i c e n s i n g o f a c to r s were common p r a c t ic e s p r io r to E l i z a b e t h 's a c c e s s io n to th e th ron e. The r e s u l t o f th e r e l i g i o u s s t r i f e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e r e ig n o f Henry V III was e a s i l y seen in th e r e l a t i o n sh ip s betw een l o c a l a u t h o r it ie s and th e Crown. The major c i t i e s in th e then C a th o lic North o f England r e ta in e d the * » 5I b i d . , p. 47 . 6 Ib id . ^Bradbrook, op. c i t . , p. 31. O ° G ild e r s le e v e . op. c i t . . p. 5. 22 g r e a t e s t d egree o f independence from th e c e n t r a l government and posed a c o n tin u a l th r e a t to i t . E f f o r t s to c o n t r o l t h i s area or a t l e a s t t o p reven t th e spread o f p o t e n t i a l l y tr e a so n o u s f e e l i n g s on th e p art o f th e r e l a t i v e l y in e x p e r ien ced c e n t r a l government fo llo w e d a t r i a l - a n d - e r r o r c o u r s e . The c e n s o r s h ip o f p r in te d m atter was fa r more e a s i l y accom p lis h e d than th e c e n so r s h ip o f an a c t o r ' s u tte r a n c e s on s t a g e . The c i v i c t h e a t r e s in th e N orth were under th e c o n t r o l o f th e l o c a l g u ild s and th e P riv y C o u n c il, co n d u ctin g i b u s in e s s in th e name o f th e Crown, attem pted to e n fo r c e i r e g u la t io n o f th e s e th e a t r e s through th e C h u r c h .^ in Lon- j don, how ever, th e Crown c o n t r o lle d some a rea s in d e p e n d e n tly j o f th e Lord Mayor o f London and e x e r c is e d r e g u la t io n j 10 ! through the J u s t i c e s o f th e P eace. The e x is t e n c e o f ■ th e s e d i s t r i c t s under r o y a l r a th e r than m u n icip a l c o n t r o l was a c o n sta n t so u rce o f f r i c t i o n . The Crown r e c e iv e d th e s e lan d s w ith th e d i s s o l u t i o n o f m o n a ste r ie s and two o f them, th e W h ite fr ia r s and B la c k fr ia r s d i s t r i c t s , became im portant t h e a tr e c e n t e r s . ^ To a s o c i e t y dependent upon 9Bradbrook, op. c i t . . p. 32. • ^ G ild e r s le e v e , op. c i t . . p. 143. I b i d . , p. 144. th e spoken word fo r in t e r n a l com m unication, th e t h e a t r e s were in a p o s i t i o n t o e x e r t g r e a t in f lu e n c e d u rin g th e p e r iod o f ch an gin g r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n s in th e R oyal fa m ily . An Act o f P arliam en t and a r o y a l p ro cla m a tio n f a i l e d to s o lv e th e problem o f c o n t r o l c o m p le te ly . M ary's a c c e s s io n t o th e th ron e in 1553 a c te d to i n t e n s i f y th e c o n f u s io n - - t h e Queen favo red C a th o lic is m but h e s i t a t e d to fo r c e i t on' a P r o te s ta n t p o p u la tio n . She did ou tlaw p u b lic d is p u t e s , s p e c i f i c a l l y c i t i n g p r in t in g and j i o i p la y in g as means o f s e d i t i o n and r e v o l t . ^ Mary a ss ig n e d j i i th e ta s k o f c e n s o r s h ip to th e B ish op o f London but by j E l iz a b e t h *8 tim e th e Crown kept th a t power fo r i t s e l f . j I The growth o f th e n o w - t r a d it io n a l power o f th e | j M aster o f R e v els o p e r a tin g under th e s u p e r v is io n o f th e j i Lord Cham berlain t y p i f i e d th e developm ent o f r o y a l a u th o r i t y in G reat B r it a in . The p o s i t i o n o f o f f i c i a l c e n so r was a p r o f i t a b l e one b eca u se th e M aster o f R e v e ls lic e n s e d a s w e l l as p r o h ib ite d p la y s . C o n s is te n t w ith h i s p o s i t i o n o f i r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and power, a f e e was charged fo r th e r e a d in g ; o f a p la y , n o t m erely fo r ap p roval to p r e se n t i t . H is r o y a l o f f i c e allow ed him t o s e l l p e r m issio n to break law s on c e r t a i n o c c a s io n s --s o m e p la y s were p resen ted d u rin g Lent 12I b i d . , p. 10. 24 13 w h ile laws e x is t e d p r o h ib it in g such a c t i v i t y . S in c e th e p r a c tic e o f bu ying such p r o f i t a b l e p o s i t i o n s in th e r o y a l hou seh old was e s t a b l i s h e d , th e p r a c t ic e o f d e v is in g new methods t o p r o f i t by th e p o s i t i o n was a ls o a c c e p te d . G ild e r s le e v e c it e d th e attem p t to e s t a b l i s h power to l i c e n s e p la y e r s as w e l l as p la y s as one such exam p le.^ 4 A l- I though t h i s was p r a c tic e d fo r a tim e , th e l i c e n s i n g o f p la y e r s n ever became th e s o l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h i s o f f i c i a l and i t does n o t e x i s t tod ay as p a rt o f a t r a d i t i o n a l | i ! r e l a t io n s h ip betw een a c to r and governm ent. The g r e a t e s t c o n f l i c t betw een th e Crown and the Lord Mayor o f London was o v er th e lo c a t io n and c o n t r o l o f j t h e a t r e s . In G reat B r it a in th e Church was lo n g used as a j p la y in g p la c e and "as l a t e as 1602 p la y e r s a p p a r e n tly j | claim ed at tim es a s o r t o f p r e s c r i p t i v e r ig h t to perform in j 15 c h u r c h e s." When th e church p ro p erty came under r o y a l r a th e r than m u n icip a l c o n t r o l and th e a t r e s were c o n s tr u c te d ; in th e s e a rea s o u t s id e o f th e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f London law, a i s e r io u s problem d e v e lo p ed . The most la w le s s ele m en ts in I I London s o c i e t y a l s o sought th e p r o te c tio n o f t h e s e p r i v i - ^ I b i d . , p. 44. 15I b i d . . p. 42. 14Ib id . 25 leg e d a r e a s . The t h e a t r e s drew crowds o f r e s p e c t a b le p eo p le in t o d i s t r i c t s where no r e a l p o l i c e p r o t e c t io n could be a ffo rd ed them. London's con cern over th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r i o t and spread o f d is e a s e was f u l l y j u s t i f i e d . The P u r ita n o p p o s it io n to p la y s and p la y e r s on m oral grounds i n t e n s i f i e d r a th e r than c r e a te d m u n icip a l o p p o s it io n t o th e th e a tr e p r a c t ic e s o f th e day. T his s t a t e o f a f f a i r s was not w ith o u t i t s compen s a t io n s in th e developm ent o f B r i t i s h t h e a t r e . The e s t a b - j lish m en t o f t h e s e e a r l i e s t p u b lic t h e a t r e s provided r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y and s e c u r i t y to a c t o r s . T h is , coupled w ith th e l i m i t a t i o n s on a c tin g com panies imposed by th e l i c e n s - | i i in g sy stem , a cted to c r e a te a c l a s s o f p r o f e s s io n a l a c to r s j w ith c o m p a ra tiv e ly h ig h sta n d a rd s w h ich , in tu r n , a c c e l e r - j a ted th e developm ent o f an au d ien ce and p u b lic a ccep ta n ce o f th e sta g e as a l e g i t im a t e o c c u p a tio n . A lthough th e e a se w ith which a c to r s seemed t o earn g r ea t p r o f i t s d istu r b e d th e P u rita n e le m e n ts , a c to r s had f i n a l l y found a p la c e in 1 l th e s o c i a l o r d e r. A lthough E liz a b e t h 's power to l i c e n s e , through her M aster o f R e v e ls , t h e a t r e s in c e r t a in p a r ts o f London was a c c e p te d , th e m u n icip al a u t h o r i t i e s c o n t in u a lly attem pted t o e x e r c is e some c o n t r o l o f th e s i t u a t i o n . The b e g in n in g s o f b u ild in g and f i r e law s w ere marked by a c i t y o rd in a n ce o f December 6 , 1574, which in c lu d e d a p r o v is io n r e q u ir in g ap p roval and l i c e n s i n g o f " p la y in g p la c e s" by the Mayor 16 and Aldermen and the p o s tin g o f a bond by th e owner. Perhaps t h i s ord in an ce was a t e s t o f power or was a means o f k eep in g a l i v e London's d e s i r e s fo r com p lete c o n t r o l , b ecau se G ild e r s le e v e c it e d no e v id e n c e t h a t London was in a p o s i t i o n to e n fo r c e i t . | To London, th e immediate danger o f an u n c o n tr o lle d t h e a t r e was in th e p r o b a b ilit y o f p u b lic d is o r d e r . Appren t i c e s , fo r whom the Alderm en, among o t h e r s , were r e sp o n s i b l e , would be in v o lv e d . In E liz a b e th a n E ngland, la c k o f r e s p e c t fo r th e e s t a b lis h e d s o c i a l order was a major crim e. i I There i s record o f a ro ck -th ro w in g in c id e n t in 1595 which I I d ev elo p ed in to a r i o t . When order was n o t r e s to r e d in a few d a y s, th e f i v e you th s who s t a r te d th e fr a c a s were hanged, drawn, and q u a r t e r e d .^ M aintenance o f th e s t a t u s quo was a c ce p ted as th e c h i e f cure fo r a l l s o c i a l i l l s . Bradbrook contended t h a t p u b lic distu rb an ce's were common- j p la c e and o ff e r e d as e v id e n c e su p p o rtin g t h i s c o n te n tio n 16Ib id . , p. 207. 17 *Bradbrook, op. c i t . . p. 112. 27 18 many r e c o r d s o f r e p a ir s t o th e i n t e r i o r s o f t h e a t r e s . The a t t i t u d e o f E liz a b e t h ' s P riv y C o u n c il toward th e a tr e was not one o f c o n sta n t a p p ro v a l, nor was th e C o u n c il’ s o p in io n o f th e London arguments f o r g r e a te r r e s t r i c t i o n o f th e a tr e one o f c o n sta n t d is a p p r o v a l. W hile th e P riv y C o u n c il did n o t c o n s id e r th e p la y s to be e v i l in th e m se lv e s b u t, r a th e r , to be v a lu a b le " for h o n est r e c r e a tio n s a k e ," ^ th e y o f t e n ordered p ro d u ctio n stopped . . . in tim es o f p lagu e or danger o f p la g u e; b eca u se o f th e r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f u n f i t m a tte r s , j s e d i t i o u s or p e r s o n a l, upon th e s t a g e ; b eca u se o f d is o r d e r s a t such t h e a t r e s , or when r i o t s were j e x p e c te d , fe a r th a t such assem b lages m ight foment d is o r d e r . They som etim es r e s t r i c t e d th e number o f perform ances b eca u se freq u en t r e p r e s e n t a t io n s led p eo p le t o w a s t e f u l and r io t o u s l i v i n g . They forb ad e them on Sunday, in L en t, and som etim es on j Thursday, b ecau se on th a t day th ey in t e r f e r e d w ith ! th e Q ueen's bear b a ite r s .^ O The im portant p o in t i s th a t th e P rivy C o u n c il kept th e means o f such r e s t r i c t i o n under t h e .a u th o r ity o f th e Crown. The London a u t h o r i t i e s agreed w ith th e P rivy Coun- 1 c i l in t h e i r con cern fo r d is o r d e r and p o s s i b l e p lagu e i n f e c t i o n , but th e y did n o t c o n s id e r th e p la y s , th e m s e lv e s , 18I b i d . , p. 113. 19 G ild e r s le e v e , op. c i t . , p. 149. 2 0 I b i d . , p. 150. 28 to be so in n o c e n t. The str o n g h o ld o f P u rita n ism was Lon don and, on a p r a c t i c a l p la n e , th e Aldermen fea r ed th e p la y s would co rru p t th e m orals o f t h e i r c i t i z e n s w h ile , on a s p i r i t u a l p la n e , p la y s were regarded as s i n f u l and p la y e r s as c o n s c io u s s in n e r s . T h is e s s e n t i a l r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r - ; en ce betw een th e Crown and th e London o f f i c i a l s r e s u lt e d in th e in f u s io n o f h a te in t o th e c o n tr o v e r s y . T h is i s n o t I t o deny th e im portance o f th e c h a r a c te r o f th e in d iv id u a ls who occu p ied th e h ig h o f f i c e s o f governm ent, G ild e r s le e v e ; i d e sc r ib e d p e r io d s o f com p arative in d if f e r e n c e to r o y a l c o n - | I t r o l on th e p art o f th e Lord Mayor o f London (an o f f i c i a l commonly s e r v in g a o n e -y e a r term ) and o f a r e l a t i v e l y i P u r ita n a t t i t u d e on th e part o f th e P riv y C o u n c il d u rin g j i th e 1 5 9 0 's . 2 ^ Such s h o r t - l i v e d d i f f e r e n c e s did n o t a l t e r ! I I th e tren d t o alm ost com p lete r o y a l c o n t r o l o f t h e a t r e s , p la y s , and, through th e sp o n so rin g lo r d s , o f a c to r s . No s i n g l e p u b lic a t t i t u d e toward t h e a t r e emerged by th e end o f E liz a b e t h 's r e ig n . W hile th e t h e a t r e was p a tr o n iz e d by th e r o y a l c o u r t and th e " r e h e a r sa ls" in London's p u b lic t h e a t r e s became a h ig h ly popular and p r o f i t a b l e v e n tu r e , th e c i t y f a th e r s opposed i t w ith fo u r 21I b i d . , p. 151. 29 d e fe n sib le arguments: i t was wrong to make money w ithou t r e a lly w orking, u n co n tro lled crowds fomented w ide-spread d iso rd e r , th e danger o f plague was in cr ea se d , and th e th e a tr e was in h eren tly s in f u l. Although the p r e s tig e o f the London th e a tr e grew s t e a d ily , in many q u arters th e s o c i a l sta tu s o f the a cto r remained in doubt u n t il th e th e a tre was accepted as part o f the Tudor and S tu art s o c ia l stru ctu r e in a ca p a city somewhat akin to th a t o f th e trade g u ild s . U n til th a t tim e, the a cto r was nom inally a se r v - i an t. G eneral fea r o f th e sta g e was shared by the c le r g y , ! statesm en , and educators a lik e . The a c to r s , th em selv es, j | had reason to fea r the s it u a tio n in which they were forced : i to work; th ey would have to bear more than th e ir share o f j i r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r r io t and t h e ft which occurred in or around t h e ir th e a tr e s and which was not in t h e ir power to c o n tr o l. Subsequent Development o f A ttitu d e from th e Commonwealth to the N in eteen th Century The in flu e n c e o f the P u rita n s, e s p e c ia lly th o se o f j Crom well's tim e, was f e l t in th ea tre to a fa r g rea ter ex te n t than i t was in th e conduct o f B r it is h government. Cromwell a b o lish ed the House o f Lords and th e th e a tr e and 30 b oth r e tu r n e d , y e t , th e co n cep t o f t h e a t r e as a c e n te r o f s i n f u l a c t i v i t y p e r s i s t s t o t h i s day in la r g e s e c t i o n s o f th e B r i t i s h m i d d le - c l a s s — a c o n d it io n which encouraged th e o f f i c i a l c e n so r t o assume a m oral p o s i t i o n unknown to h i s E liz a b e th a n p r e d e c e s s o r s .^2 C rom w ell's e ig h t e e n - y e a r r u l e was not com plex in i t s e f f e c t on t h e a t r e . With minor e x c e p t io n s , t h e a t r e s were c lo s e d , p r o f e s s io n a l a c tin g was o u tla w ed , and a u d ie n c e s were under heavy p r e ssu re t o c o n form t o th e tim e s . In a d d it io n , fo r alm ost two d ecad es ' i i a u d ien ce s were n ot d e v e lo p in g ; a new g e n e r a tio n was not j i exposed t o t h e a t r e . With th e R e s t o r a t io n , th e b u lk o f th e j p o p u la tio n s t i l l ob served th e P u rita n te a c h in g s and l e f t th e th e a tr e t o th e whim o f th e c o u r t ie r . j i T h is new a u d ien ce o f th e R e s to r a tio n was e n t i r e l y j d i f f e r e n t from th e one w hich preceded Cromwell. By i t s a t t i t u d e s , t a s t e s , and b e h a v io r i t fu r th e r en tren ch ed th e id e a in th e mind o f th e common man t h a t th e th e a t r e was n o t ; fo r him. I t was w id e ly accep ted as f a c t th a t th e c h a r a c te r o f t h i s c o u r tly au d ien ce was th e major d eterm in in g f a c t o r in th e developm ent o f R e s to r a tio n d r a m a .^ T h is a u d ien ce 22John Palm er, The Censor and th e T heatre (London: T. F is h e r Unwin, 1 9 1 2 ), p. 28. ^ A lla r d y c e N i c o l l , World Drama (New York: Har- 31 shared l i t t l e o r n o th in g w ith th e p o p u la tio n o f London and even l e s s w ith th a t o f th e r e s t o f England and t h e i r drama r e f l e c t e d j u s t a s l i t t l e o f th e n a t io n 's v a lu e s . U n lik e th e c o u r t ly t h e a tr e s o f c o n t in e n t a l Europe, t h i s was a p u b lic t h e a t r e , s e t in th e h e a r t o f a c i t y but d evoted t o c o u r tly t a s t e s and dependent upon th e c o u r t fo r i t s a u d i en ce and e x is t e n c e . The c o n tin u a l r i s e o f the m iddle c l a s s o v erto o k t h i s th e a tr e and j u s t as i t absorbed th e sw aggerin g g a l la n t s su rroun din g C h arles I I , i t changed th e comedy o f a r i s t o c r a t i c manners t o a form w hich r e f l e c t e d i t s own t a s t e s . This s o c i a l change a f f e c t e d the th e a tr e bu t did n o t f r e e i t . C h arles I I c r e a te d two p a ten t t h e a tr e s in London (Drury Lane and Covent Garden, w hich r e p la c e d L in c o l n ' s Inn F i e l d s ) and u n t i l th e n in e t e e n t h c en tu ry on ly two th e a tr e s w ere allow ed o f f i c i a l l y to p r e sen t p la y s in London. I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t to understand why t h e s e t h e a t r e s were m od ified and en la rg ed alm ost c o n t in u a lly in order t o accommodate a growing a u d ien ce. Music and p o l i t i c a l b u rlesq u e s u ite d th e t a s t e o f t h i s new au d ien ce and a new form o f drama was develop ed t o c o u r t, Brace and Company, n . d . ) , p. 336. 32 r e f l e c t i t . A fte r The B e g g a r's Opera appeared in 1728, th e p a tte r n was e s t a b lis h e d .^ ^ When W alpole ga in ed P arlia m en t-1 * ary ap p ro val o f th e L ic e n s in g Act o f 1737 as a seem in g ly fr ig h te n e d r e a c t io n to F i e l d i n g ' s The H i s t o r i c a l R e g i s t e r , the a u t h o r it y and power o f th e Lord Cham berlain was r e a f firm ed , w ith s p e c i a l a t t e n t io n to p o l i t i c a l c o n te n t o f p la y s , n ot a t the i n s i s t e n c e o f th e Crown, but by l e g i s l a t i v e d e c r e e . Toward the end o f th e e ig h t e e n th c e n tu r y , th e a t t i tu d es w hich led to r e v o lu t io n in America and France were sp rea d in g throughout Europe. The w orking c l a s s e s were on th e move and th e changes in the s o c i a l order were q u ic k ly r e f l e c t e d in th e t h e a t r e . In England, th e old p a te n t laws rem ained in e f f e c t u n t i l 1834 but new t h e a t r e s and new a u d ien ce s were a m atter o f accom plished f a c t b e fo r e t h i s d a te . As ex p ressed by i f i c o l l , . . . men who would never have thought o f e n te r in g a th e a tr e h a l f a cen tu ry b e fo r e now d e manded t h e i r e n te r ta in m e n t, and a s th e i n d u s t r i a l c i t i e s grew so grew a f r e s h body o f s p e c ta t o r s a n xiou s t o savour th e d e l ig h t s o f th e s t a g e . 5 C le a r ly , the p u b lic a t t i t u d e toward t h e a t r e had changed j u s t as the world had changed from th e tim e o f 24I b i d . , p. 369. 25I b i d . , p. 411. Cromwell, y e t th ere i s no evid en ce th a t any s in g le a ttitu d e or o b je c tio n to th e a tr e had been e lim in a te d . The audience grew and changed as a whole but th e remnants o f the old c la s s str u c tu r e reta in ed t h e ir t r a d it io n a l a ttitu d e s and, as i s c h a r a c te r is tic o f la rg e p o l i t i c a l b o d ie s, th e se m in ority a ttitu d e s were an in flu e n c e fa r out o f p rop ortion to th e ir number o f a c tiv e su p p orters. A major te c h n ic a l developm ent in th e a tr e during th e n in e te e n th century was the in tr o d u ctio n o f gas lig h t - j in g . W ithin lim it s , lig h t could be created and c o n tr o lle d ; at w i l l . A trend toward "realism " a cc ele ra ted because i t s production became a p r a c tic a l r e a l i t y . The in d u s tr ia l r e v -; o lu tio n , the dawn o f the machine a g e, overwhelmed the in - j d iv id u a l. Mankind seemed puny and unable to c o n tr o l i t s j own d e s tin y . The th e a tr e r e fle c t e d t h is sen se o f d isc o u r agement in the d e p ic tio n s o f sordid co n d itio n s surrounding : people trapped by " p rogress." The v a lu e o f th e a tr e as an i agent o f s o c ia l reform and as a r e le a s e from s o c ia l p res su res was e s ta b lis h e d in the p u b lic 's co n sc ie n ce , A new type o f p layw righ t, th e p h ilo so p h er, as opposed to th e showman, was a ttr a c te d to th e th e a tr e and, aided by men such as J. T. G rein, who e s ta b lis h e d in London th e Independent Theatre S o c ie ty in 1891, t h e ir se rio u s 34 stu d ie s o f men, in s t it u t io n s , and s o c ie t y were g iv en the * . 26 op p ortu n ity to d evelop an au dience. Although a la rg e audience was not found fo r t h is drama u n t il the tw e n tie th cen tu ry , i t s e x is te n c e in the la te n in e te e n th century was in d ic a tiv e o f a d evelop in g a ttitu d e toward the s o c ia l valu e o f th e a tr e . Pioneer C onceptions o f a N a tio n a l Theatre E xpressions o f p u b lic a ttitu d e toward th e a tr e were • i a ls o seen in the e a r ly arguments in support o f th e c r e a tio n | o f a n a tio n a l th e a tr e in Great B r ita in . The e a r lie s t pro p o sa l c ite d by Whitworth was th a t o f Mr. Effingham W ilson in 1 8 4 8 .2^ This proposal contained s i x p o in ts. The f i r s t was a recommendation fo r the d is s o lu t io n o f the committee formed fo r the purpose o f p reservin g th e b ir th p la c e o f i Shakespeare because th e ir purpose had been accom plished. His second, and most im portant, su g g estio n was fo r the esta b lish m en t o f a th ea tr e d ed icated to the co n sta n t p re s e n ta tio n o f Shakespeare to th e p eop le. As j u s t i f i c a t io n 2 6 I b id . . p. 523. ^ G e o f f r e y W hitworth, The Making o f a N a tio n a l T h eatre (London: Faber and F ab er, L t d ., 1 9 5 1 ), p. 28. 35 o f t h is p rop osal, W ilson a sse rted th a t the sta g e was the most s u c c e s s fu l agent o f ed u cation and th a t Shakespeare was th e "w orld's g r e a te s t moral te a ch er ." His n ext th ree p o in ts p ertained to p r a c tic a l m a tters: low adm ission p r ic e s , the b e st company, on ly one performance per ev en in g , and p ro v isio n fo r the government to hold th e e n tir e ven tu re in tr u s t u n t il p riv a te su b sc r ip tio n s could support i t . H is f in a l p oint was fu r th e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f th e proposed in s t it u t io n : the " liv in g genius" o f th e crea to r must be i " fo stered and su sta in e d ." W ilson 's concept o f an educa- I t io n a l th e a tr e se rv in g the moral and a e s th e tic needs o f th e j ! community through the p r esen ta tio n o f Shakespeare's p lays gained the approval o f lit e r a r y and t h e a t r ic a l le a d e r s , j s p e c i f i c a l l y D ickens and Kemble, although th ey did not th in ll 28 the plan p r a c tic a l. The second im portant p ro p o sa l, J. R. P lan ch e's e s sa y , "Suggestions fo r E sta b lish in g an E n glish Art The a tr e ," 1879, was rep rin ted by C raig in a 1909 number o f The Mask. A dvocating th e use o f the Theatre F r a ^ a is as a m odel, Planche' en v isio n ed a su b scrip tio n -su p p o rted re p e r tory th e a tr e which would augment the e x is t in g com m ercial 2 8I b i d . , p . 29. 36 th e a tr e by r e s t o r in g f o r g o t te n c l a s s i c s t o th e s t a g e , p r e s e n tin g new p la y s u n lik e ly t o g a in com m ercial p r o d u ctio n , and enhan cin g the r e s p e c t a b i l i t y o f th e p r o f e s s io n —a l l in th e a fte r n o o n so as t o be more c o n v e n ie n t fo r a c to r s and a u d ien ces ( e s p e c i a l l y th o se fa s h io n a b le p eop le w ith o t h e r w ise empty a f t e r n o o n s ) P l a n c h e * saw as th e " p r in c ip le o b je c t o f th e n a t io n a l t h e a tr e . . . th e e d u c a tio n o f th e Q A p r o fe s s io n as much as th a t o f th e p u b lic ." In 1880, Matthew Arnold w rote h i s much-quoted argument fo r th e c r e a tio n o f a n a t io n a l th e a tr e in G reat B r it a in w hich served as a s t a r t in g p o in t fo r th e im portant c o n tr ib u tio n o f W illia m Archer and H arley G r a n v ille -B a r k e r . In a d d itio n t o r e c a l l i n g a e s t h e t ic and s o c i a l argum ents, Arnold p resen ted th e c o n c ep ts o f r e g a in in g a h i s t o r i c g r e a tn e ss and o f e q u a llin g French ach ievem en ts through the c r e a tio n o f a n a t io n a l th e a t r e : W e have in England e v e r y th in g to make us d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith th e c h a o tic and i n e f f e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n in t o which our th e a t r e has f a l l e n . We have remembrance o f b e t t e r th in g s in th e p a s t , and th e elem en ts fo r b e t t e r th in g s in th e fu tu r e . W e have a sp le n d id n a t io n a l drama o f th e E liz a b e th a n age, 29 / J . R. P lan ch e, " S u g g estio n s fo r E s t a b lis h in g an E n g lish Art T h ea tre," The Mask. I I (1 9 0 9 -1 9 1 0 ), 101-102. 30I b id ., p. 103. 37 and a la te r drama which has no lack o f p ie c e s conspicuous by th e ir stage q u a l i t i e s ,.t h e i r v iv a c ity and th e ir t a le n t , and in te r e s tin g by th e ir p ic tu r e s o f manners. W e have had great a c to r s. W e have good a ctors not a few at the present moment. But we have been unlucky, as we so o fte n a r e , in the work o f o rg a n iz a tio n . . . I t seems to me th a t every one o f us i s concerned to fin d a remedy fo r th is m elancholy s ta te o f th in g s , so th a t the p leasu re we have had in th e v i s i t o f the French Company (th e Comddie F r a ^ a is e ) is barren, u n le ss i t leaves us w ith th e im pulse to do s o , and w ith the le sso n how alone i t can be r a tio n a lly done. "Forget"—can we n ot hear th e se fin e a r t is t s sayin g in an undertone to u s, am idst th e ir g r a c e fu l compliments o f a d ieu ? --" fo rg e t your c la p -tr a p , and b e lie v e th a t the S ta te , th e n ation in i t s c o lle c t iv e and corp orate ch a ra cter, does w e ll to concern i t s e l f about an in flu e n c e so important to n a tio n a l l i f e and manners as the theatre." . . . The people w i l l have th e th e a tr e ; then make i t a good one. . . . The th e a tr e i s i r r e s i s t i b l e ; organ ize the th e a tre.’^ The main p oin ts o f Matthew A rn old 's argument were repeated by most major fig u r e s throughout the long h is to r y o f the str u g g le for governm ental support to th e a tr e in Great B r ita in , S ir Henry Irvin g was e a s i l y the lea d in g th e a tr e fig u r e o f h is day. In h is person, a n in eteen th century trend apparent in the work o f Kemble, Macready, P h elp s, H tfilliam Archer and H a rley G r a n v ille -B a r k e r , Scheme and E stim a tes fo r a N a tio n a l T h eatre (New York: D u f fie ld and Company, 1 9 0 8 ), f r o n t i s p i e c e . 38 and Kean, c o n s i s t i n g o f th e p ro d u ctio n o f s p e c ta c u la r m elo drama, reached i t s c u lm in a tio n . The s ta g e was p h y s ic a lly crowded fo r th e sake o f s p e c t a c le a lth o u g h , at th a t t im e , i t was j u s t i f i e d as b e in g a h i s t o r i c a l l y a c c u r a te p r e s e n t a t io n o f th e p a s t. In a d d it io n , th e s e a c to r s a d ju sted p la y s so th a t th e major c h a r a c te r was th e main p oin t o f i n t e r e s t and th e key elem en t in th e v i s u a l e f f e c t at a l l tim e s . U n d erstan d ab ly, such p ro d u ctio n s were to o e x p e n siv e to be produced in g r e a t numbers and r e l a t i v e l y few men b u i l t r e p u ta tio n s w ith them. A fte r te n y e a rs on the s t a g e , I r v in g gained fame in 1870 and in c r e a se d i t t o th e e x te n t th a t in 1878 he became th e l e s s e e and manager o f th e Lyceum th e a t r e in L ondon--a p o s i t i o n he h e ld u n t i l 1899. By th e c l o s e o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , he had b e come th e most im portant a c to r , d i r e c t o r , and producer in G reat B r it a i n , embodying in one fig u r e un usual t h e a t r i c a l s k i l l and econom ic power. As e v id e n c e o f th e esteem in w hich he was h e ld , he was th e f i r s t a c to r to be k n igh ted (1895) and was b u ried in W estm inster Abbey in 1905. Ir v in g la id th e fo u n d a tio n fo r fu tu r e p r o f e s s io n a l arguments fo r government support to B r i t i s h t h e a t r e in h i s paper, r e p r in te d by W hitworth and o r i g i n a l l y read a t a m eeting o f a S o c ia l S c ie n c e C ongress in O ctober o f 1878. 39 His c o n s id e r a tio n o f governm ental su p p o rt, in th e form o f a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e , was d iv id e d in t o two q u e s tio n s : d e s i r a b i l i t y and p o s s i b i l i t y . In r e c o g n iz in g t h a t p r o f i t r a th e r than q u a lit y would be th e o b je c t o f many p rom oters, I r v in g h e ld th a t fo r th e s ta g e to . . b e o f e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e , i t i s n e c e ss a r y th a t th o se who f o llo w i t s a r t should have an i d e a l standard somewhat above th e average o f contem po- O O rary t a s t e . " Ir v in g a ls o r e c o g n iz e d th a t to accom p lish t h i s , a most se cu re b a se would be n e c e s s a r y . The i n s t i t u t i o n c r e a te d would have to be a b le t o compete w ith the e x i s t i n g com m ercial t h e a t r e , i t would have t o m ain tain th e la r g e s t o f com panies, and i t would have t o p rovid e the optimum in s e c u r it y fo r a l l em ployees to e x p e c t th e h ig h e s t d egree o f d e v o tio n from them .*^ Thus, th e e sta b lish m e n t o f a n a t io n a l th e a t r e t o p r eserv e i d e a ls o f q u a lit y seemed in se p a r a b le from the dangers o f s t a t e in t e r f e r e n c e or i t s r e f u s a l to gran t money to an independent c o r p o r a tio n .* ^ Another f a c e t o f th e e v o lu t io n o f p u b lic a t t i t u d e ^W hitw orth, op. c i t . , p. 31. 33I b i d . . p. 32 •^ A u stin B r er eto n , The L ife o f Henry I r v in g (New York: Longmans, Green, and Company, 1 9 0 8 ), pp. 257-25 8. 40 toward a ccep ta n ce o f th e co n cep t o f govern m ental support t o t h e a tr e was th e c o n s id e r a tio n o f th e govern m en t's a b i l i t y t o support i t in an i n t e l l i g e n t manner. To do t h i s , th e governm ent would have t o be e x p e r t in a r t i s t i c m a tte r s. Gordon C r a ig , fo r on e, s e r i o u s l y q u e stio n e d th e governm ent's c a p a b i l i t y in t h i s reg a rd . On what b a s is were a r t i s t s / a c to r s t o be ch osen and what sy stem fo r c h o o sin g government 35 o v e r s e e r s o f a program had t o be develop ed ? C raig c o n - i tin u e d h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n in to th e problem o f governm ental i inadequacy w ith a su rvey o f " th e a tr e le a d er s" from many I n a t io n s . He wanted comment on programs a lr e a d y e x i s t i n g j fo r use in h i s a n a ly s is o f th e s i t u a t i o n in G reat B r it a in , j H erbert T rench, w r itin g from London, contended th a t p u b lic | i su pp ort would lend p r e s t ig e to a g iv e n th e a tr e but th a t th e i ! b e s t in d iv id u a l t a l e n t s would n a t u r a lly g r a v it a t e to th e ! com p arative freedom o f p r iv a te e n t e r p r is e . John K la a ssen , Emmerick, h e ld th a t th e le s s o n o f h i s t o r y was th a t th e i s t a t e was n ot c le v e r enough to ch oose the b e s t a r t i s t s and ; i c i t e d th e problem s o f E u rip id es and Dante in support o f i 35E. Gordon C r a ig , "A N a tio n a l T h ea tre; I t s Advan t a g e s and D isa d v a n ta g e s," The Mask. I I (1 9 0 9 -1 9 1 0 ), 85. 36I b i d . , p. 89. 41 h i s p o i n t . 37 Percy Mackaye, alth ou gh n o t a b le t o speak from American e x p e r ie n c e in n a t io n a l t h e a t r e , argued t h a t I r v in g 's su c c e s s in s p i t e o f E n glan d 's f a i l u r e t o make h i s a n a t io n a l th e a t r e was no c a s e a g a in s t th e v a lu e o f a n a t io n a l th e a tr e but an " a r t i s t i c in d ictm en t" o f th a t g o v ernment.^® Perhaps e v id en ce o f C r a ig 's in te n s e concern fo r i i th e achievem ent o f id e a l or n e a r - id e a l r e s u l t s from a n a t io n a l th e a tr e can be found in h is sta te m e n t, " It seems th a t t h i s th e a tr e i s g o in g to be b u i l t by p i l i n g one humbug on to p o f a n o t h e r . C r a i g ' s r e lu c ta n c e to a c c e p t any th in g ex ce p t p e r fe c t c o n d itio n s b e fo r e com m itting h im s e lf to an a c tio n was a ls o r e f l e c t e d in th a t sta te m e n t. C ontinuing h i s probe o f th e co n cep t o f a s t a t e t h e a t r e , C raig asked England, in g e n e r a l, j u s t what a rt i s - i ! t i c p o lic y th e government would pursue. He conceded th a t support cou ld be found fo r th e "Beerbohm Tree ty p e Sh ak es p ea re," the p ed a n tic and t r i t e P o e l, th e a r t and s o c i a l i s t i c exp erim en ts o f B arker, A rch er, and Shaw, or th e 37I b i d . , p. 83. 3 8 I b i d . ! E. Gordon C raig, "A N a tio n a l T h ea tr e," The Mask, I (F ebruary, 1 9 0 9 ), 225. ............... 42 product o f P in ero and Jones o f th e 1 8 8 0 ' s .4 ® C raig cla im ed t h a t , w h ile some support c o u ld be found fo r any one o f th e s e program s, th e in d iv id u a ls co m p risin g th e t h e a t r e - g o in g p u b lic would n o t c o n s id e r su p p ort fo r th r e e p o l i c i e s o f which th e y did n o t approve in o rd er to e n jo y t h e i r own c h o ic e . C r a ig a n tic ip a te d a n a t io n a l c o n tr o v e r s y by about j f i f t y y e a rs when, in The Mask, he charged t h a t th e n a t io n a l th e a tr e s o f Europe had no r e a l a r t i s t i c program bu t m erely ! e x is t e d as sh ow cases for th e upper c l a s s and th a t th e r e i i were p le n ty o f la r g e t h e a t r e s a lr e a d y in e x is t e n c e in Lon- ' i don to s e r v e t h i s purpose--London was o n ly t r y in g to g e t th e r e s t o f Great B r ita in t o pay f o r her m u n ic ip a l t h e - 41 * a t r e . W hitw orth, an im portant f ig u r e in th e developm ent o f a n a t i o n a l t h e a tr e in G reat B r it a i n , w rote th a t the e a r l i e s t a d v o c a te s o f governm ental support were r e s p o n s ib le fo r th ree o f the most en d u rin g arguments fo r governm ental su pport: G reat B r i t a i n ' s n eed for a m em orial to S h ak es peare (W ilso n ), th e need f o r an "exem plary th e a tr e " p r o v id - j in g a permanent agency fo r p ro d u ctio n o f th e h ig h e s t a e s t h e t i c q u a l it y ( I r v i n g ) , and the need fo r a c e n t r a l ly 4 0 I b i d . . p. 226. 4 1 I b i d . 43 a d m in ister ed o r g a n iz a tio n t o ed u cate th e p o p u la tio n to an a p p r e c ia tio n o f g r e a t drama (A rnold) . ^ The C o n tr ib u tio n o f W illia m Archer and H arley G r a n v ille -B a r k e r Archer and G ra n v ille -B a r k e r p u b lish ed p r i v a t e l y a lim it e d number o f th e Scheme and E stim a tes fo r a N a tio n a l T h eatre in 1904 and, when th e demand had in c r e a s e d , i t was p u b lish ed com m ercia lly in 1908. I t was t h e i r purpose t o ! a ffir m th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a n a t io n a l th e a tr e and to demon- j s tr a te i t s f e a s i b i l i t y assuming c e r ta in c o n d itio n s. They were most aware o f o b j e c t io n s t o a la r g e p u b lic ex p e n d itu re fo r an i n s t i t u t i o n which had not been proven to be o f v a lu e . The n a t io n a l t h e a t r e , as th e y c o n c eiv ed i t , was t o be ". . . a th in g to be d e s ir e d in i t s e l f , no dou b t, but a l s o as th e s t a r t i n g p o in t o f a g r e a t movement. . . . W e regard ; economy not m erely as a n e c e s s i t y l i k e l y t o be fo r c e d upon th e th e a tr e fo r la c k o f l a v is h endowment, but as th e i n d i s -i pensable means to an a r t i s t i c end. T h i s economy was to be ach ieved by c u t t i n g a d v e r t is in g e x p e n s e s ^ and by a _________________________________________________________________________________________I 42 W hitw orth, op. c i t . . p. 37. / Q A rcher and G r a n v ilie -B a r k e r , op. c i t . , p. x x i i i . ^ I b i d . , p. x v i i i . '44 com b in ation o f p r iv a te and government g r a n ts r e s u l t i n g in i reduced ta x or in su ra n ce c o s t s and no i n t e r e s t or d iv id e n d s a c cr u in g from th e i n i t i a l c a p i t a l o u t l a y .4* * C le a r ly , th e su c c e s s o f t h i s v e n tu r e , as measured by i t s a ccep ta n ce as a n e c e ss a r y e d u c a tio n a l f a c i l i t y and as a s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g , though n ot p r o fit-m a k in g , i n s t i t u t i o n was p r e d ic a te d upon th e immediate developm ent o f an ea g er and e n t h u s i a s t i c aud ien ce fo r f i n e t h e a tr e once th a t stim u lu s was a p p lie d . . A lthough such a r e a c tio n w as, and s t i l l i s , p o s s i b l e , th e im p r o b a b ility o f i t s occu rren ce provided a v a l i d o b j e c t io n to th e scheme. A p u b lic s u b s c r ip t io n system as one means o f a ss u r in g a r e g u la r income and au d ien ce was a ls o su g - j g e s t e d .4^ | 3 The p o lic y o f t h i s th e a tr e was to keep in p e r fe c t j s t e p w ith th e t im e s - - n o t to be a " fo r c in g house fo r th e e s o t e r i c drama"47 or in any o th e r way t o l im i t i t s a p p ea l to a s p e c i a l group. The d r a m a tist who worked fo r th e n a- j t i o n a l th e a tr e would have had u n p a r a lle le d freedom and o p p o r tu n ity . He would not have had to w r ite fo r a p a r t ic u la r s t a r , he would not have had t o fa c e a b s o lu te f a i l u r e i 4 5 I b id . . p. 123. 4 7 I b id . . p. 45. 46Ib id .. p. 140. 45 (a h a b it u a l au d ien ce would show some i n t e r e s t ) , and th e r e p e r to r y system would have kept a g iv e n p lay on s ta g e fo r a p eriod o f tim e s u f f i c i e n t fo r i t t o d e v e lo p an au d ien ce A Q i f i t were not im m ediately s u c c e s s f u l. ° The i n s t i t u t i o n th e y e n v isio n e d was to avoid a l l o f th e i l l s o f th e com m ercial th e a tr e o f th a t day. The e s t i m ates o f i n i t i a l and s u s t a in in g c o s t s , as w e l l as o f chances fo r s u c c e s s , were based on: . . . th e assum ption th a t th e s ta g e i s p ro vid ed w ith a l l th e most r e c e n t la b o u r -sa v in g mach in e r y ; th a t th e r e i s a r e h e a r s a l room, rep rod u cin g th e p r o p o r tio n s o f th e s t a g e , and ample wardrobe and p ro p erty room s, behind th e s c e n e s ; th a t a sc en er y s t o r e i s provided as near th e T h eatre as County C o u n cil r e g u la t io n s w i l l a llo w ; th a t th e a u d ito riu m , though n ot unduly la r g e , i s so a r ranged th a t e v er y s e a t has a f u l l view o f th e s t a g e , no one s e a t in any g iv e n p o r tio n o f th e house b e in g n o ta b ly p r e fe r a b le to any o th e r s e a t ; th a t th e h e a tin g and v e n t i l a t i n g a p p lia n c e s are as p e r fe c t as s c ie n c e can make them; th a t th e space betw een the rows and th e mechanism o f th e s e a t s make move ment p r a c tic a b le w ith o u t d is c o m fo r t; and th a t sp a c io u s v e s t i b u l e and s a lo n , w ith r e fr e sh m e n t- rooms, sm oking-room s, and clo a k -ro o m s, are p ro vid ed fo r th e com fort o f th e a u d ien ce. These th in g s we hold in d is p e n s ib le to th e su c c e s s o f a N a tio n a l T h e a tr e .49 The c o n c ep ts o f ad m ission p r ic e s so low as to a c t as a d e te r r e n t to v e r y few , o f a r e sta u r a n t as b e in g a n e c e s s a r y p art o f th e com plex, and o f a most f u l l y mechanized th e a tr e 4 8 I b i d . , p. 92. 4^ I b id . , pp. 2 -3 . 46 were not d erived from moral or a e s th e t ic v a lu e s in h eren t in th e drama, but were a r e a c tio n to th e d e te r io r a tio n o f com m ercial th e a tr e and th e a lie n a tio n o f i t s a c tu a l and p o te n t ia l au d ien ce. The th e a tr e a t the b egin n in g o f the tw e n tie th centu ry was alread y in th e p rocess o f lo s in g i t s p o s itio n o f pre-em inence to th e em erging cinem a. P u b lic a ttitu d e toward th e a tr e was r e f le c t e d in t h is statem ent o f ! need fo r r e sp e c t and com fort on the part o f the audience j and d e d ic a tio n and e f f ic ie n c y on the part o f the th e a tr e . i There would have been no need fo r such sweeping reform i f th e p u b lic had accepted and supported the e x is t in g co n d i t i o n s . W illiam Archer and H arley G ra n v ille-B a rk er were s u c c e s s fu l men o f the th e a tr e and, by reason o f t h e ir train-? t in g and ex p er ien c e , q u a lifie d to gauge the p ub lic a ttitu d e j | toward t h e ir p r o fe ssio n . Archer and G ran ville-B ark er recogn ized th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a governm ental tyranny accompanying support. They a ls o recogn ized th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f th e a d m in istra to rs j o f the proposed in s t it u t io n d e v ia tin g from the o r ig in a l purposes and p o lic ie s and pursuing a p rofit-m ak in g course to the detrim ent o f q u a lity . The v ery d e t a il o f t h e ir 50I b id . . p. 177. p rop osals fo r th e c r e a tio n o f T ru stees and a G eneral S t a f f , com plete w ith an a n a ly s is o f th e fu n ctio n s o f each, was e v id e n tly in a n tic ip a tio n o f a ttitu d e and argument in oppo s i t i o n to the whole p lan on th e b a sis o f t h is problem. Another elem ent o f t h is scheme, one g iv in g p r a c ti c a l e x p r e ssio n in r e a c tio n to a growing awareness o f need, was fo r a sc h o o l as part of th e th e a tr e . T his sc h o o l was proposed to . . m in iste r to the requirem ents o f the th e a tr e in g en e r a l, no le s s to th ose o f th e N a tio n a l The- j a tre in p a r tic u la r ." 51 The authors assumed th a t a cto rs prop erly tra in ed in a l l phases o f t h e ir a r t , not ju s t to the m echanical standards then p re v a len t, would be welcome ! in a l l th e a tr e s by a l l au d ien ces. j i F ir s t Committee A ction to E s ta b lish [ a N a tio n a l Theatre The n a tio n a l th e a tr e movement stemmed from a plan t o b u ild and endow a N a tio n a l Shakespeare M emorial T heatre ! w hich had b een proposed in 1916 (th e te r c e n te n a r y o f S h a k e sp ea r e's death) and to t h i s purpose a fund was s t a r t e d . S i r Carl Meyer donated B 70,000 and a s i t e was 31I b id . , p. 100. 52 Edward J. D ent, A Theatre fo r Everybody (London: T. V. Boardman and Company, L td ., 1 9 4 5 ), p. 140. 48 53 purchased behind the B r i t i s h Museum in London. The co n c e p t o f a n a t io n a l th e a t r e fo r G reat B r it a in was a n o v e l one fo r th a t tim e. The e x i s t i n g European exam ples a l l had . a h i s t o r y o f c o u r tly patronage w h ile th a t e n v is io n e d fo r G reat B r it a in was to be b u i l t by su b s c r ib e r s and governed by t r u s t e e s . A government su b sid y would have been welcomed but not f u l l y e x p e c te d . The o n ly c o n ta c t assumed betw een B r i t i s h r o y a lt y and th e proposed n a t io n a l t h e a t r e was through th e Lord C ham berlain, an o f f i c i a l member o f th e ( R oyal h o u seh o ld , and h i s c e n so r s h ip o f a l l p la y s in G reat B r i t a i n , ^ I t would a ls o pay ta x e s and o th e r w ise comply w ith the law but i t would not f a l l under governm ental co n t r o l . In 1930, H arley G r a n v ille -B a r k e r p u b lish ed a s e q u el to h i s e a r l i e r plan fo r a n a t io n a l th e a tr e e n t i t l e d A N a tio n a l T h e a tr e . T his work was more than an u p -d a tin g o f th e c o s t e s tim a te s from th e 1904 f i g u r e s ; i t was a r e - e v a lu a tio n o f th e problem and p resen ted a s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t p r o p o sa l. S t a r t in g from th e prem ise th a t "good drama makes good a u d ie n c e s, and, in a very r e a l s e n s e , ' 54 W. B ridges-A dam s, The B r i t i s h T heatre (London: Longmans, Green and Company, 1 9 4 4 ), p. 37. good audiences are in th e ir turn the making o f good a c to r s ," he observed th a t the n ecessa ry plays and a cto rs e x is te d and . . i n London's m illio n s , permanent and s h if t in g , su rely an audience. I t i s the o rg a n iza tio n and a r e c o g n itio n o f the need fo r i t , th a t i s la ck in g ; t h is o n ly ." 55 As th e prime fea tu re o f t h is needed o r g a n iz a tio n , | he str e sse d the need for two th e a tr e s under the same ro o f i CfL i f th e th e a tr e as an i n s t i t u t i o n , was to pay i t s own way. j The im portance o f h i s con cep t was a ffirm ed by a 1962 J a r t i c l e in The Times which review ed th e 1930 e f f o r t in i t s a p p lic a tio n to attem pts to cr ea te a n a tio n a l th e a tr e out o f the Old Vic and to put drama and opera companies in the 57 same th e a tr e . ' G ranville-B arker a lso changed h is recommendation j for a dramatic sch ool as part o f the n a tio n a l th e a tr e on j the grounds th a t se v e r a l fin e sch o o ls had come in to b ein g . A side from th ese changes, the o r ig in a l plan was but e x - ! i panded to meet the ch a llen g e o f h igh er p r ic e s . The lib r a r y _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - i ^ H a r ley G ra n v ilie-B a rk er, A N a tio n a l Theatre \ (London: Sidgw ick and Jackson, L td ., 1 9 3 0 ), p. 23 5 6 I b id . . pp. 2 6 -2 7 . 5^The Times (London), February 5 , 1962, p. 14. 50 th e sp a c io u s f o y e r , th e f in e r e s ta u r a n t were a l l r e ta in e d as im portant p a r ts o f th e scheme. G ran ville-B ark er recogn ized th e need fo r an annual subsidy to cover the c o s ts o f in su ra n ce, d e p r e c ia tio n o f equipm ent, and t a x e s , and i f money was not su p p lied from p riv a te sou rces the only a lte r n a tiv e was to apply fo r j government aid.^ ® A gain , h i s e s tim a te s covered th e bare n e c e s s i t i e s in order t o make th e p r o p o sa l seem as f e a s i b l e | as p o s s i b l e . A compromise n e c e s s i t a t e d by in c r e a s e s in j i c o s t s in v o lv ed th e d e c is io n n ot to u n d e r s e ll th e com m ercial t h e a t r e . In t h i s r e v is e d schem e, a llo w a n ce was made fo r a * 1 s h i f t in p u b lic a t t i t u d e toward th e con cep t o f support fo r t h e a t r e . Much l e s s a t t e n t io n was g iv e n to-> ex p lain in g th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f th e a tr e su p p o rt, as compared t o th e 1904 schem e. Perhaps in G r a n v ille -B a r k e r ' s mind, th e main is s u e had become th e n atu re o f the o r g a n iz a tio n to a c h ie v e a lre a d y accep ted pu rp oses. l Moral A t t it u d e s in th e T w en tieth Century In an atm osphere o f "wartime p a n ic , p r e ju d ic e , and 5 8 G r a n v ille -B a r k e r , op. c i t .. p. 95. 51 ignorance""*^ an E n tertain m en ts Duty was c r e a te d by P a r l ia ment t o h e lp fin a n c e B r i t a i n ' s c o n tr ib u tio n t o World War I. I D uring th e P arliam en tary d eb ate which ended in th e passage ; i o f th e a c t , a Mr. Lough s t a t e d : "People who v i s i t p la c e s o f: amusement a t a tim e l i k e t h i s ought to be made t o c o n t r ib u te t o th e war."^® H erbert c o n tr a s te d t h i s a t t i t u d e to th e o f f i c i a l e x p r e s s io n s o f p r a is e t o th e a t r e fo r i t s c o n - ! t r i b u t i o n s to m orale in both wars a t th e b e g in n in g o f h is d e s c r ip t io n o f th e in c o n g r u it ie s which com prised th e sub- I i s ta n c e o f t h i s p a r t ic u la r ta x . O b serva tion s o f t h i s same 61 m oral p r e ju d ic e were made by Dean. Wickham saw t h i s a t t i t u d e on the part o f th e E n g lish to " f e e l th a t in c lu s io n o f th e a t r e w i l l d e f i l e t h e i r tem ple o f lea rn in g " as a 62 r e s u l t o f P u rita n in f lu e n c e . Although he was sp eak in g in i p a r t ic u la r o f th e in c lu s io n o f th e a tr e in th e c u r r ic u la o f | p u b lic u n i v e r s i t i e s , th e a t t i t u d e could have a p p lie d to ~ — I | 5^A. p. H er b e rt, "No F ine on Fun," (London: Methuen! and Company, L t d ., 1 9 5 7 ), p. 16. 6 0 Ib id . ^ B a s i l Dean, The T heatre a t War (George G. Harrap and Company, L td ., 1 9 5 6 ), p. 543. 62 D. G. James (ed.), The U n iv e r s i t ie s and th e The a tr e (London: George A lle n and Unwin, L t d ., 1 9 5 2 ), p. 114. 52 any i n s t i t u t i o n supported out o f th e n a t io n a l tr e a s u r y . The narrow a t t i t u d e s r e s p o n s ib le fo r a s i t u a t i o n in id iich th e p u b lic t h e a tr e was p r o h ib ite d from openin g on Sunday in s p i t e o f th e f a c t th a t s im ila r perform ances were perm itted v i a cinem a, r a d io , and t e l e v i s i o n were a ls o the^ o b je c t o f H e r b e r t’ s a n a l y s is . T h is q u e s tio n had prompted many o th e r le a d e r s t o stu d y th e problem . G r a n v ille -B a r k e r determ ined th a t a com b ination o f i n t e r e s t g r o u p s, in c lu d in g . i h o s p i t a l s , la b o r , P u r ita n s, and sto c k h o ld e r s o f r i v a l • r e c r e a t io n a l f a c i l i t i e s , sto o d in o p p o s itio n to Sunday • i ! t h e a t r e . j i A sh o rt h i s t o r y , "The Law and Sunday," was published in The T im es: 1448 - - Henry VI p r o h ib ite d f a i r s on Sunday 1611 — no c o n t r a c t s , a r r e s t s , p u b lic m e e tin g s, or co u rt p ro ceed in g s on Sunday 1627 - - a tten d a n ce a t p la y s or s p o r ts o u ts id e o n e 's own p a r ish p r o h ib ite d on Sunday 1629 — o p e r a tio n o f p u b lic c a r r ie r s p r o h ib ite d on Sunday 1677 - - a l l work p r o h ib ite d on Sunday ( c h a r it y and o th e r n e c e s s i t i e s e x c e p te d ) 1781 - - p u b lic e n ter ta in m en t p r o h ib ite d on Sunday i f ad m ission by t i c k e t or payment o f money 1899 - - p r iso n r u le s amended t o p r o h ib it payment in part s a t i s f a c t i o n o f sum. adjudged to be paid in r e m is s io n o f imprisonm ent on Sunday 63 H arley G r a n v ille -B a r k e r , The Study o f Drama (Cambridge: U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 3 4 ), p. 81. 53 1931 - - a ttem p t t o open t h e a t r e on Sunday f a i l e d 1932 — P a rlia m e n ta r y a c t t o empower l o c a l a u th o r i t i e s t o l i c e n s e cinem a on Sunday, s u b je c t t o r e t e n t i o n o f s ix - d a y work w eek , c o n tr ib u t e d t o P riv y C o u n c il a d m in iste r e d C inem atograph Fund, and l o c a l c o n d itio n s® ^ D u rin g World War I I , th e r e w ere s e v e r a l a tte m p ts t o open t h e a t r e s on Sunday. In 1 9 41, a M eth o d ist m i n i s t e r , A. L e a th ly H eap, w ro te t o The T im es. c o n te n d in g th a t th e Sun day o f r e s t was a B r it i s h t r a d i t i o n and th a t o n ly th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f " p r o f i t n w anted i t o t h e r w i s e .^ i i On th e day t h i s l e t t e r was p u b lis h e d , P a r lia m e n t, by e ig h t v o t e s , a n n u lle d a w artim e r e g u la t io n a llo w in g t h e a t r e s t o open on Sunday. The argum ents u sed in o p p o s i- ! t i o n t o Sunday th e a t r e were r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f th e ex trem es ta k e n on t h i s is s u e : t h e a t r e made no c o n t r ib u t io n t o c h a r - i i i t y as d id Sunday cin em a; Sunday t h e a t r e w ould ta k e to o ! [ much o f th e a c t o r ' s tim e ; t h i s was j u s t a n o th er o f th e p r o f i t - s e e k e r ' s a tte m p ts t o c l o s e th e c h u rch es (p r o b a b ly a I f if t h - c o lu m n c o n s p ir a c y ); m usic had a lr e a d y b een d eb ased by! c r o o n e r s ; i t w ould c o n tr ib u te to th e " sap p in g" o f m o ra le; ! th e la c k o f a day o f r e s t w ould r e s u l t in an in c r e a s e d 1 in c id e n c e o f m en ta l i l l n e s s among th e p u b lic ; Sunday 64The Times. January 23, 1953, p. 7. 6 5 The Tim es. A p ril 1, 1941, p. 5. 54 th e a t r e w ould be a n o n -C h r is tia n in f lu e n c e and a c t t o d e s t r o y th e s o u l o f E n g la n d ; th e r e was r e a l l y no demand from 66 th e p r o v in c e s f o r i t . The s t r e n g t h o f p r e j u d ic e , th e im p ortan ce o f p e r s o n a l a t t i t u d e , and P a r lia m e n t’ s t r a d i t i o n a l r e lu c ta n c e to a c t in th e fa c e o f a r e a l c o n tr o v e r s y was now here more c l e a r l y d em o n stra ted th a n in t h e s e u n su p p o rted and e s s e n t i a l l y u n c h a lle n g e d s ta te m e n ts on th e I p a rt o f m atu re, r e s p e c t e d , and r e s p o n s ib le members o f th e House o f Com m ons--the same men who d e c id e d th e n a t i o n 's fu tu r e in tim e o f w ar. As r e p o r te d in The T im es, t h e s e argum ents w ere n o t c h a lle n g e d t o d em o n stra te how w ork in g on Sunday would have d e str o y e d th e s ix - d a y w ork in g w eek . The argum ents in d e fe n s e o f Sunday t h e a t r e d id n o t c e n t e r on th e m oral v a lu e s in h e r e n t in drama. I t was argued th a t p e o p le d id n o t need t o a tte n d and th a t th e r e was no su b s ta n c e t o th e c h a r g e s o f planned c o m p e titio n w ith r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s . H e r b e r t, p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e d e b a te as a member o f P a r lia m e n t, l i s t e d th e v a r ie t y o f a c t i v i t y th a t was p e r m is s ib le on Sunday: th e BBC commonly p r e se n te d se v e n dramas th e pubs w ere o p en , th e cin em as w ere o p e n , and th e n ew s p ap ers w ere b e in g s e t up f o r Monday e d i t i o n s . H erb ert 6 6 The Tim es. A p r il 2, 1941, p. 2. .......................5 5: c o n clu d ed h i s argum ent by a sk in g how t h e a t r e c o u ld d e s tr o y a l l o f t h i s r e l i g i o u s b l i s s . ^ The argum ent was renew ed in 1 9 4 3 , b u t w ith a m ajor change in t a c t i c s : e n te r ta in m e n t on Sunday was t o be f r e e t o se r v ic e m e n and no p r o f i t was t o be made by t h e a t r e o r g a n iz a t io n s on S u n d a y . T h e House o f Commons d e c id e d t o d e la y t h e i r d e c is io n p en d in g th e r e s u l t s o f a su r v e y by E q u ity .^9 P a r lia m e n t's d e c is io n was c o m p lic a te d by th e f a c t th a t s in c e December o f 1942 H. M . T ennant and B ronson | i f A lb ery had p r e se n te d Sunday b a l l e t and drama fo r se r v ic e m e n j I t w ith th e a l l o c a t i o n o f s e a t s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a London j w e lfa r e a g e n c y .^ The a c to r s th e m s e lv e s w ere d iv id e d on j th e p r o p o s it io n . At a m ee tin g t o d is c u s s i t , P r i e s t l y | i argued th a t p r e ju d ic e sh o u ld be f o r g o t t e n b e c a u se th e i s o - | | la t e d w ar-w ork ers needed th e t h e a t r e . A s h c r o ft saw th e s ix - d a y w eek in jeo p a rd y and L e s l ie H enson c o u n te r e d th a t th e s i x days c o u ld be sta g g e r e d and t h a t e ig h t y per c e n t o f! a c to r s w ere t r a v e l l i n g on Sunday anyway. P e te r U s tin o v 6 7 I b i d . ^ T h e M anchester G u ard ian . January 2 1 , 1 9 4 3 , p. 4 . ^ I b id . , F eb ru ary 4 , 1 9 43, p. 6 . 70 The Tim es. December 3, 1942, p. 6 . 56 q u e s tio n e d th e pu rpose o f th e w h ole argum ent by t e s t i f y i n g th a t in a y e a r 's s e r v ic e in th e army h e o n ly saw one p la y and t h a t th e r e c r e a t io n problem m ight n o t be s o lv e d a t a l l 71 th rou gh p la y s on Sunday. The d iv id e d o p in io n among th e a t r e le a d e r s r e s u lt e d in P a rlia m e n ta r y in a c t io n w h ich was t o be e x p e c te d , a c c o r d - 7 ? in g t o The T im es. The P u r ita n a t t i t u d e s w ere r e v e a le d t o j e x i s t ; th e y w ere n o t c h a lle n g e d fo r m a lly or s u b je c te d to t w e n t ie t h c e n tu r y pragm atism . I t was n o t c le a r w h eth er th e | P u r ita n argum ent or th e v o ic e o f th e P u b lic M o r a lity Coun c i l was heard in th e e a r ly 1 9 5 0 's . A lth o u g h no P a r lia m e n t ary d e b a te r e s u l t e d , p u b lic a t t e n t io n was c a ll e d t o " d e f i n i t e d e t e r io r a t io n in th e c h a r a c te r o f p u b lic e n te r ta in m e n t 73 on th e s t a g e ," The main is s u e s w ere n u d ity on s t a g e - - n u d ity p e r m itted by law — and th e c e n s o r 's p r a c t ic e o f l i c e n s i n g p la y s w ith them es o f d e g e n e r a c y . The f i n a l r e p o rt o f t h i s C o u n c il r e p e a te d t h e i r o p p o s it io n to nu des on ! s t a g e . 7^ Argum ents in su p p ort o f c o n tin u in g th e p r a c t ic e 71 The M anchester G u a rd ia n . January 1 6 , 1 9 4 3 , p. 8. ^ The T im es, January 2 3 , 1953, p. 7 . 7 3 I b i d . , May 3 1 , 1951, p . 3. 7 4 I b id . , May 4, 1955, p. 6 . 57 o f c e n s o r s h ip , a s p r e se n te d in d e b a te o v er th e a b o l i t i o n o f th e Lord C h am b erlain ’ s pow ers in t h a t r e g a r d , c u r io u s ly ig n o r ed t h i s ch a rg e o f s a n c tio n e d d e g e n e ra c y and co n ten d ed th a t th e c e n so r was n eed ed t o "keep down th e in f lu e n c e s o f th e b r o t h e l- ty p e p la y ," t o k eep in d e c e n c y o f f s t a g e , t o p r o te c t n a t io n a l lan gu age and m o r a ls , and t o p r e v en t o t h e r w is e l e g a l l i b e l o f th e d e a d .^ T h ese argu m en ts, p r e s e n te d ' in a 1962 P a rlia m e n ta r y d e b a te , w ere in d ic a t iv e o f th e la c k ; I o f change in th e c o n te n t o f t h i s f a c e t o f th e P u r ita n a r g u -j i m en t. I In 1 9 3 4 , H a rley G r a n v ille -B a r k e r opposed c e n s o r s h ip , as an i n s t i t u t i o n , on th e ground s th a t i t d id n o t b e t t e r any a r t and th a t th e o n ly p la n c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e 1 c o n c e p t o f freed om under governm ent was t o a llo w th e "good"i 76 t o w in o u t on a f r e e s t a g e . ° A m ajor o b s t a c le t o th e a b o l i t i o n o f c e n s o r s h ip in G reat B r it a in was th a t i t p r o v id e d a form o f p r o t e c t io n known t o th e E liz a b e th a n s but l a r g e ly f o r g o t t e n u n t i l r e c e n t l y . N ot o n ly was th e p u b lic i p r o te c te d from th e p r e s e n t a t io n o f e v i l on th e s t a g e , as i t s s u p p o r te r s somewhat w i s h f u l l y c la im e d , b u t th e p o s s e s - ; ^ I b id . , December 6 , 1 9 62, p. 6 . ^ G r a n v ille - B a r k e r , The Stu dy o f Drama, p. 89. s io n o f a l i c e n s e p r o te c te d th e t h e a t r e owner from c o s t l y l o c a l in t e r f e r e n c e w ith h i s p r o d u c tio n s . A f t e r an o f f i c i a l in q u ir y in t o th e problem s o f c e n s o r s h ip in 1 9 0 7 , th e p o s i t i o n o f R eader o f P la y s under th e s u p e r v is io n o f th e Lord C h am berlain was en d o rsed b u t, s in c e t h e n , many o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f p r e s e n t in g problem p la y s w ith o u t d e p ic t in g th e problem s on s ta g e h ave b een r e c o g n iz e d and a more l i b e r a l p o l i c y h a s g r a d u a lly e m e r g e d ,^ The r e s u l t o f t h i s ( c o n f l i c t o f p u rp o ses was c o n fu s io n among p la y w r ig h t s , d i s - , t o r t i o n o f th e s p i r i t o f th e law by t h e a t r e o w n ers, and | in a c t io n in th e fa c e o f c o n tr o v e r s y on th e p a r t o f P a r l i a - j m en t. ; P u b lic A t t it u d e tow ard th e V alu e o f T h ea tr e j i In 1 9 0 2 , W illia m A rch er e x p r e s s e d h i s f a i t h in th e v a lu e and i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f grow th in th e im p o rta n ce o f t h e a t r e t o th e n a tio n : We co n ten d f o r a p r in c ip le and a sy ste m : th e p r i n c ip l e t h a t a c te d drama o f th e E n g lis h la n g u a g e ou gh t t o rank h ig h among th e i n t e l l e c t u a l g l o r i e s , and among th e in str u m e n ts o f c u l t u r e , o f th e n a t i o n , or t h e a t r e o f th e r a c e ; th e sy ste m o f s e c u r in g t h i s end by g i v in g p u b lic (n o t n e c e s s a r i l y o f f i c i a l ) r e c o g n i t io n and su p p o rt t o t h e a t r i c a l 77 Bridges-Adams , op. c i t . , p. 33. a r t s . Many p e o p le , o f whom I sp ea k w ith a l l r e s p e c t , " d isa p p ro v e" o f th e t h e a t r e a l t o g e t h e r —n o t , as m a tte r s s ta n d , w ith o u t some r e a s o n . But t h e i r d is a p p r o v a l i s a b s o lu t e ly im p o te n t. To d isa p p r o v e o f th e t h e a t r e i s sim p ly t o d isa p p r o v e o f one o f th e m ost u n iv e r s a l and in e r a d ic a b le o f human i n s t i n c t s , w h ich le a d s men t o ta k e p le a s u r e in th e m im etic r e p r o d u c tio n , i d e a l i z a t i o n , or c a r ic a t u r e o f t h e i r own c h a r a c t e r s , m anners, and p a s s io n s . Y ear by y e a r t h e a t r e s m u lt ip ly . T here i s v e r y good r e a so n t o b e l ie v e t h a t n o t o n ly th e a b s o lu te number o f th o s e who fr e q u e n t them , b u t th e r e l a t i v e number in p r o p o r tio n t o th e w h ole p o p u la tio n , i s s t e a d i l y in c r e a s in g . Can i t be dou bted t h a t , fo r good or e v i l — or t h e a t r e f o r good and e v i l - - th e y e x e r c i s e an emormous in flu e n c e ? Can i t be dou bted t h a t t h e i r in f lu e n c e f o r g o o d , as p la c e s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l r e c r e a t io n , s t im u la t io n , and i n - v i g o r a t i o n , m ight e a s i l y be fa r g r e a t e r th a n i t i s ? And i s n o t t h i s end w orth ta k in g some tr o u b le t o a tta in ? ? ® As su b seq u en t e v e n ts w ere t o d e m o n str a te , th e th e a t r e d id n o t c o n t in u a lly expand as A rch er th o u g h t i t w ou ld . The ad ven t o f o t h e r , l e s s dem anding, form s o f e n te r ta in m e n t n e c e s s i t a t e d a new a p p r a is a l o f th e v a lu e o f t h e a t r e . An im p o rta n t s t e p in t h i s e v o lu t io n was th e a ttem p t t o c l a s s i fy t h e a t r e as e i t h e r a n e c e s s i t y or a l u x u r y . T h is q u e s t i o n h as n o t b een f u l l y s e t t l e d t o t h i s d a y - - i t h as b een th e f o c a l p o in t fo r a g r e a t m easure o f th e c o n tr o v e r s y 7 0 A rch er and G r a n v ille -B a r k e r , op. c i t . . p. 172. ^ W h itw o r th , op. c i t . . p. 157. su rro u n d in g th e su p p ort o f t h e a t r e . In an a r t i c l e d e v o ted t o th e A r ts C o u n c il's A nnual R eport o f 1 9 5 7 , The Tim es p r in te d an answ er t o t h e i r own q u e s t io n : "Who n eed s a l l t h i s c u ltu r e ? " The l i v e s o f m ost p e o p le a r e b a d ly in need o f illu m in a t io n . The a l t e r n a t i o n o f d u t ie s and sm a ll p le a s u r e s i s about a l l th e y can hope f o r , u n le s s o p p o r t u n it ie s o f so m eth in g more v i v id a r e brough t tow ard s them . I t was th e r e c o g n it io n o f t h i s f a c t w h ich c r e a te d th e A r ts C o u n c il in th e f i r s t p la c e --a n d th e c o n fid e n c e w h ich b ro u g h t i t t o b ir t h h a s b een l a r g e ly j u s t i f i e d . H aving c r e a te d a p u b lic , h ow ever, i t i s a l l th e more n e c e s s a r y t o e n su re th a t th a t p u b lic g e t s what i t w an ts and n e e d s .80 i j T h is a r t i c l e c o n clu d ed w ith th e sta te m e n t t h a t e v e r y n a tio n j n eed ed a s e n s e o f a d v e n tu r e — th e im p lic a t io n b e in g th a t j i t h e a t r e c o u ld p r o v id e t h i s in a m ost o r g a n iz e d s o c i e t y . j J G r a n v ille -B a r k e r w r o te h i s v ie w s o f th e problem : I A rt i s n o t mere e n te r ta in m e n t, a lth o u g h i t can be m ost e n t e r t a in in g . I t i s a m oral e x e r c i s e , a lth o u g h i t need n e v e r be d e p r e s s in g ly solem n . I t sh o u ld le a v e n th e d a i l y l i f e o f a com m unity. I t f r e e s m en's im a g in a tio n and c o n t r o ls i t . I f i t i s o f good q u a lit y i t s e l f i t s e t s a sta n d a rd o f q u a l i t y , e v en in th e s im p le s t o f t h in g s . Q u a lity i s i t s w atchw ord. T here w i l l be th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw een a n a tu r e i t in f lu e n c e s and one t o w hich i t 80The Tim es. October 10, 1957, p. 11. 61 means n o th in g ; th a t i s th e d if f e r e n c e b etw een cru de ir o n and tem pered s t e e l .® In t h i s same v e i n , H arcou rt W illia m s w r o te , w h ile d e s c r i b in g th e k in s h ip b etw een drama and r e l i g i o n : R e lig io n need n o t mean solem n r i t u a l : we need fa r c e as w e l l as tr a g e d y . But r e v e r e n c e i s n o t an u n d e s ir a b le a t t i t u d e o f m ind. The P u r ita n ban s t i l l hangs abou t th e c o n s c ie n c e o f th e p la y g o e r as a kind o f in h e r it e d t r a d i t i o n . Was i t n o t Shaw who s a id th a t th e r e are s t i l l th o s e who b e l i e v e in th e om n ip resen ce o f G o d --e x c e p t in th e th eatre?® ^ P r i e s t l y b ased h i s b ook , T h ea tre O u tlo o k , on th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t th e r e was su ch a th in g as th e a r t o f th e drama and th a t i t was a communal a r t j ! . . . o f c o n s id e r a b le v a lu e t o our new demo c r a t i c s o c i e t y . I t must s e t th e th e a tr e s q u a r e ly j w it h in th e fram ework o f our com m unity, and must j th e n exam ine i t s p r e se n t s i t u a t i o n , more e s p e c i a l l y i t s econom ic p o s i t i o n (w hich i s o f t e n so c o n - j v e n i e n t ly ig n o r e d ) , and must go on to c o n s id e r i t s j fu t u r e . The q u e s tio n s i t m ust answ er a r e —What i s h ap p en in g t o our T h ea tre now? and th e n What ough t t o happen t o i t in th e n ea r f u t u r e ?83 A nother le a d e r o f t w e n t ie t h c e n tu r y B r it i s h t h e a t r e , T yrone! G u th r ie , s t r e s s e d th e im p ortan ce o f th e a u d ie n c e , th e 81 H a rley G r a n v ilie -B a r k e r , The Use o f th e Drama (London: S id g w ick and J a c k so n , 1 9 4 6 ), p. 78. ®^W hitworth, op . c i t . . p. 214. ®^J. B. P r i e s t l y , T h ea tre O u tlook (London: N ic h o l son and W atson, 1 9 4 7 ), p. 13. 62 "community" in w h ich th e t h e a t r e grew . I t was h i s c o n te n t i o n t h a t th e th e a t r e d id n o t have a m oral aim t o u p l i f t or t o i n s t r u c t . As th e p u rp ose o f a r t was t o p r o v id e tr u th and b e a u ty , th e p u rp ose o f t h e a t r e was t o show mankind him - s e l f - - a pu rp ose " i l l se r v e d by c o n s c io u s m o ra l, s o c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l u sa g e s" d ep en d en t upon i l l u s i o n r a th e r th a n " r i t u a l ." G u th rie e x p la in e d th a t th e r e -e n a c tm e n t on s ta g e : was a sym bol o f l i f e and th a t th e a u d ie n c e im agin ed beyond th e s t a g e sym b ols and sh ared th e em o tio n th e a c to r was s u g g e s t i n g — a l l i n d ic a t iv e o f an a c t i v e , r a th e r th a n p a s s iv e , audiencer® ^ In th e s p r in g o f 1 9 6 3 , Drama pu b lis h e d an a r t i c l e w h ic h , a g a in , s t r e s s e d th e im portance o f a d e f i n i t e p o lic y i fo r t h e a t r e — a p o lic y b a sed on th e im p ortan ce o f th e a u d i- j QC e n c e ’ s fu n c t io n . T h is c a l l f o r th e c r e a t io n and w ide d is s e m in a tio n o f a sta te m e n t o f v a lu e ( d e s i r a b i l i t y ) and a p o s i t i v e p o lic y f o r t h e a t r e , when exam ined a g a in s t th e b ack ground o f g e n e r a l agreem ent among th e a t r e l e a d e r s , a s ; ®^Tyrone G u th r ie , A L if e in th e T h ea tre (New Y ork: ! M cG raw -H ill Book Company, I n c ., 1 9 5 9 ), p. 3 3 8 . ®^Adrian R e n d le , "Mix Me a T h e a tr e ," Drama (S p r in g , 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 3 3 -3 5 . 63 i l l u s t r a t e d a b o v e, was e v id e n c e t h a t a s e p a r a tio n e x is t e d b etw een th e t h e a t r e and th e g e n e r a l p u b lic , t h a t a t t i t u d e s w ere n o t sh ared by t h e a t r e and community le a d e r s , t h a t tr u e a t t i t u d e s o f th e p u b lic (e v e n one o f a p a th y ) w ere e x p r e ss e d p o s s ib ly by P a r lia m e n t's r e lu c t a n c e t o m od ify th e c e n s o r s h ip p roced u re la r g e ly opposed by i t s own s u b s id iz e d t h e a t r e s , th a t c o n tin u a tio n o f th e s t a t u s quo was th e e a s i e s t c o u r s e . P u b lic A t t it u d e a s I t P rovid ed a B ase j fo r th e C r e a tio n o f I a N a tio n a l T h ea tre B a s i l D ean, p o s s e s s in g much p e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e in I th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f a s u b s id iz e d th e a t r e program , agreed th a t th e a u d ien ce was o f m ajor im p ortan ce in th e d e v e lo p ment o f any t h e a t r e w ith t h i s s ta te m e n t: i The p erfo rm ers must u lt im a t e ly b e b ro a d -b a sed upon pop u lar a p p r o v a l; o th e r w is e th e i n s t i t u t i o n w i l l become a c o t e r i e t h e a t r e , s a t i s f y i n g o n ly t o th e few and l i k e l y t o become f o s s i l i z e d . T hese p r in c ip le s are a d m itted by a l l th e a t r e p e o p le , but th e y need r e s t a te m e n t , b e c a u se th e e x tr a v a g a n t c la im s put forw ard on b e h a lf o f th e m echanized dram a, th e in f lu e n c e o f th o s e c la im s upon s ta n d a rd s o f w r it in g and p erfo rm a n ce, make th e need ! f o r such an i n s t i t u t i o n g r e a te r th an e v e r . 86 The need t o e d u c a te an a u d ien ce w hich w ould demand " q u a lity ^ D ean , op. c i t . . p. 537. 64 th e a t r e " was r e c o g n iz e d by C a r y l J en n er: " . . . t h e a t r e e x p o su re m ust be s o l i d b etw een th e a g e s o f fo u r and f i f t e e n ! i f p e o p le are t o know what t h e a t r e i s when th e y a r e a d u lt s . . . . They w i l l n o t demand . . . i f th e y do n o t know i t s p o te n tia ls ." ® ^ D ent a greed t h a t th e p r o v is io n o f t h e a t r e t o c h ild r e n was d esira b le® ® and c r e d it e d th e d evelop m en t o f p r o v in c ia l to u r in g w ith th e e d u c a tio n o f new a u d ie n c e s t o an u n d e r sta n d in g and lo v e o f t h e a t r e - - a n im p o rta n t c o n t r i b u t i o n in an age o f f i lm and t e le v is io n .® ^ ; At a m eetin g o f th e B r i t i s h Drama League in 1930, a sp ea k er r e s p e c te d fo r h i s a c h iev e m en ts in t h e a t r e and s o c i a l c r i t i c i s m , G eorge B ernard Shaw, d e c la r e d : W e w anted a t h e a t r e w h ich r e fu s e d t o g iv e p e o p le m erely what i t w a n ted . T here was needed some i n s t i t u t i o n t o g iv e th e p u b lic th e b e s t u n t i l th e y le a r n e d t o l i k e i t . I want th e S t a t e T h ea tre t o be what S t . P a u l's and W estm in ster Abbey are t o r e lig io n - - s o m e t h in g t o show w hat th e t h in g can be a t i t s b e s t . Dean c r e d it e d Shaw f o r th e sta te m e n t t h a t th e p u b lic w ould 87 C a r y l J e n n e r , "Here L ie s th e A u d ie n c e ," Drama (Summer, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 3 4 -3 7 . ®®Dent, op. c i t . , p. 151. ^ I b id . . p. 150. ^^Whitworth, op. c i t . , pp. 176-177. 65 n e v e r want a N a t io n a l T h ea tre u n t i l th e y w ere g iv e n i t . 9 ^ T h is e v a lu a t io n was c o n s i s t e n t w ith G r a n v ille - B a r k e r ' s " e v e r y th in g f i n a l l y depends on t h i s ; on th e f a i t h t h a t th e r e w i l l alw ays be an ed u ca ted a u d ie n c e f o r good drama once i t i s p r o v id e d ." 92 A lth ou gh t h e s e two le a d e r s a g r e e d , H arcou rt W illia m s s t i l l q u e s tio n e d th e a u d ie n c e 's a b i l i t y t o sh o u ld e r i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . ^ The problem o f e d u c a t - ! in g an a u d ien ce t o a p p r e c ia te th e p la y r a th e r th a n t o w or- ' s h ip th e s t a r s was a l s o a c o n c e r n o f W illia m s . ; j P r o g r e ss was b e in g made, a g r e a t e r p o r tio n o f th e , p o p u la tio n was d e v e lo p in g a g r e a t e r a w aren ess o f th e im - j p o r ta n c e o f t h e a t r e t o th e n a t io n . In 1 9 5 2 , Hugh Hunt h e r a ld e d t h i s "change o f p u b lic a t t i t u d e , b o th by th e s t a t e and by s o c i e t y ," as " th e m ajor change w h ich h as ta k e n p la c e i in th e t h e a tr e o f t h i s c o u n tr y ," and a change w h ich c a ll e d i fo r " ea rn est s tu d y ." The th e a t r e was r e c o g n iz e d "as an im p o rta n t p a r t o f our n a t io n a l l i f e . " 9^ A g r e a t s o c i a l I — - - — _ j l ^■h)ean, l o c . c i t . ^ G r a n v ille - B a r k e r , A N a tio n a l T h e a tr e , p. 109. 9 ^W hitw orth, op. c i t . , p. 214. 9 ^James, op. c i t .. p. 103. 6 6 u p h e a v a l was p a rt o f th e sh o ck o f World War I I . T h e a tr e , as an i n s t i t u t i o n , d id n o t e sc a p e un ch anged. P r o v is io n f o r e n te r ta in m e n t was sp o n so red by th e Board o f E d u c a tio n , th e War O f f ic e , and by th e M in is tr y o f Labour and N a tio n a l S e r v ic e . The f a c t th a t t h i s sp o n s o r s h ip e v o lv e d in t o T rea su ry su p p o rt o f th e A r ts C o u n c il w h ic h , in t u r n , su p - ; p o r ted drama a f t e r th e war ten d ed t o s u b s t a n t ia t e th e t h e - ' ory o f Shaw and G r a n v ille -B a r k e r th a t th e a u d ien ce would d e v e lo p on ce p r o p e r ly s tim u la te d . i B ecau se o f th e s u c c e s s o f th e w artim e t h e a t r e p r o grams in th e p r o v in c e s , th e c o n s id e r a t io n o f a " n a tio n a l" Q C t h e a t r e was a su p p o rted a c t i v i t y a l l o v e r th e n a t io n 7 ( a s opposed to a s i n g le sh ow case in L on don ). " N a tio n a l T hea tr e " was a term u sed t o d e s c r ib e a l l t h e a t r e a c t i v i t y su p p o r ted by th e n a tio n th rou gh i t s govern m en t. A danger i r e c o g n iz e d by W hitw orth was th e u n ifo r m ity w hich was l i a b l e ! | t o r e s u l t from s t a t e c o n t r o l. The M in is te r o f L abour, Mr, i E a r n e st B e v in , r e f l e c t e d th e same c o n c er n when h e a d d r e sse d | th e P r o v in c ia l T h ea tre C o u n c il e a r ly in th e w ar: I ! t have no doubt th a t th e t h e a t r e , l i k e a l l o th er i n s t i t u t i o n s , w i l l undergo g r e a t ch a n g es b e fo r e th e end o f t h i s t i t a n i c s t r u g g le . I hope ^ W hitw orth, op. c i t . , p. 232. 67 i t w i l l . In t h i s m e c h a n ic a l age we lo o k to th e t h e a t r i c a l w orld t o p r e se r v e th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f our p e o p le - - n o t m erely n a t io n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b u t (and th a t i s what m ost a p p e a ls t o me) l o c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . In th e B r i t i s h p e o p le th e r e e x i s t s g r e a t d iv e r g e n c ie s o f c h a r a c te r w h ich a re end an gered by th e c u r r e n t te n d e n c y t o u n ifo r m i t y , and I lo o k fo rw a rd , a t th e end o f t h i s g r e a t s t r u g g l e , t o th e l i v i n g t h e a t r e n o t o n ly com ing in t o i t s own as a means o f l i v l i h o o d , b u t t o i t s becom in g one o f our g r e a t n a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s t o co n v ey to th e p e o p le o f th e w o rld th e r e a l c h a r a c te r o f th e o r d in a r y B r i t i s h p e o p le .9° T here was no q u ic k e sc a p e from th e d an ger o f mass p a r t i c i - j p a tio n d e t e r i o r a t i n g in t o a u n ifo r m ity o f r e s p o n s e —w h ich , : i I was a c o n d it io n B e v in fe a r e d th e s t r e s s o f th e war w ould ! c r e a t e and w h ich he hoped th e a t r e w ould a l l e v i a t e . In th e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , th e s u c c e s s o f any program w as acknow ledged t o r e s t on th e a t t i t u d e s o f th e p o p u la tio n a s a w h o le . I f th e a u d ie n c e to o k no more th an a p a s s iv e i n t e r e s t , any p r o - i gram w ould f a i l and th e pu rp ose o f th e su p p o rt w ould n o t be i a c h ie v e d . To t h i s en d , D ent f e l t th a t i f th e Old V ic and I S a d le r 's W e lls w ere t o a c h ie v e n a t io n a l s t a t u s , th e y w ould i have t o do more th a n rep ro d u ce C o n tin e n ta l s u c c e s s e s ; th e y i w ould have t o d e v e lo p a p a r t ic u la r B r i t i s h e x p r e s s i o n .97 P r i e s t l y saw th e s e e d s o f f a i l u r e in th e f a c t t h a t t h e a t r e ! had n o t a t t a in e d th e d e g r e e o f su p p o rt w i l l i n g l y e x te n d ed 96i b i d . , pp. 232-233. 97Dent> pp. c i t . . p. 151. 6 8 t o th e v i s u a l a r t s a lth o u g h i t w a s, t h e o r e t i c a l l y , c l o s e r t o th e p e o p le — a c o n d it io n r e s u l t i n g from a s tig m a a tta c h e d t o co m m ercia l t h e a t r e . 9® A rch er p r e d ic te d su ch d i f f i c u l t i e s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a program o f s u b s id iz e d t h e a t r e a s e a r ly a s 1 9 0 0 : a d e f i c i e n c y in th e n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r (a te n d e n c y t o s h r in k from id e a lis m ) and n o t th e e x t e r n a l 99 m ach in ery o f su p p o rt w ould p r o v id e th e g r e a t e s t o b s t a c l e . The c o n c e p t o f a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e t h a t w ould com pare fa v o r a b ly w ith t h o s e r e p r e s e n t in g o th e r European n a t i o n s was im p o r ta n t to th e d ev elo p m en t o f a t t i t u d e s in G rea t B r i t a i n . W h i t w o r t h, Archer and G ran ville-B ark er^ ® ^ c o n s id e r e d t h i s as a s tr o n g argum ent fo r a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e . The p r e s s u r e t o c r e a t e a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e f o r p u r p o se s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e .was a p p lie d w h en ever th e o p p o r tu n ity w as p r e s e n te d . In 1 9 5 0 , The Tim es r e p o r te d t h a t th e Tasm anian governm ent had p u rch ased th e T h ea tre R o y a l, H o b a r t/ f o r a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e and had begun a 9 ® P r ie s t ly , op . c i t . , p. 17. ^ A r c h e r and G r a n v ilie - B a r k e r , op . c i t . . p. 176. ■*-®^Whitworth, op. c i t . , p. 2 8 4 . ^ ^ A r c h e r and G r a n v ille - B a r k e r , op. c i t . . p. 174. 69 102 s u b s c r ip t io n cam p aign. T h is a r t i c l e had im p o rta n t im p l i c a t i o n s b e c a u se in 1949 P a rlia m e n t v o te d a sum n o t t o e x c e e d t l , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 f o r th e c r e a t io n o f a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e when a s u i t a b l e p la n was a c c e p te d . The Tasm anian a c t io n p r o v id e d an exam ple as w e l l as a sp ur f o r B r i t i s h a c t io n . W inston C h u r c h ill's r e c o g n it io n o f a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e as a h a llm a rk o f p r e s t ig e in 1906 was c i t e d by W h it w o r th . C h u r c h ill, th e n S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e f o r th e C o lo n ie s , was th e fe a tu r e d sp ea k er a t a b an q u et in honor o f E lle n T e rr y . A fte r o b s e r v in g t h a t b o th F ran ce and Germany su b s id iz e d t h e a t r e on th e b a s is o f a d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l p h i lo s o phy from th a t o f G reat B r it a i n , he s t a t e d t h a t i t was , . . th e d u ty o f th e S t a t e t o be th e g en ero u s b u t d is c r im in a t in g p a te n t o f th e a r t s and s c i e n c e s ; and i f we c o u ld o n ly d iv e r t n a t io n a l a t t e n t i o n from th e o f t e n s e n s e l e s s p r o c e s s o f t e r r i t o r i a l e x p a n s io n , and th e u g ly a p p a ra tu s o f w a r, t o th o s e more g r a c e f u l and g e n t le r f l i g h t s o f fa n c y and o f a m b itio n w h ich w ere a s s o c ia t e d w ith th e t h e a t r e and th e dram a, we sh o u ld more s e c u r e ly v in d ic a t e our c la im t o be a c i v i l i z e d p e o p le . P r e s t ig e was acknow ledged t o be d ep en d en t upon more th an an a r c h it e c t u r a l monument. B a s i l Dean was one o f th e m ost v o c a l cham pions o f c o n c e n tr a tio n upon th e company 102The T im es. A p r il 1 , 1 9 5 0 , p. 5 . •^ W h itw o r th f op. c i t . « p. 5 7 . 70 ra th er than the playhouse in order to produce a r a lly in g p oin t fo r a n a tio n 's id e a ls and a co n tin u in g source o f q u a lity in th ea tr e.'* '^ This co n cen tra tio n on a cto rs was c o n s is te n t w ith P r ie s t ly 's concept o f th e a tr e as providing som ething "more than a su p erio r s u b s titu te fo r the reading o f dram atic literature."^® -* B efore th e a ttitu d e o f the p u b lic would s h i f t , a cto rs would have to dem onstrate t h e ir performance o f a p lay was an art in i t s e l f , th a t the s c r ip t j was a th in g apart from the liv e perform ance, th a t a r e ce p - ! t iv e and r e sp o n sib le audience would en joy a degree o f s a t is f a c t io n a tta in a b le through no oth er media. The ex ten t o f t h is s a t is f a c t io n and th e popular involvem ent in such t h e a tre would be the supreme symbol o f p r e s tig e . The c o n s id e r a t io n o f t h e a t r e a s a h u m an izin g i n f l u e n c e in th e l i v e s o f men was n o t lim it e d t o C h u r c h ill. The M an ch ester G uardian r e p e a te d i t d u rin g a 1940 a p p e a l fo r fu n d s , H arcou rt W illiam s^® ^ antj G r a n v ille -Barker^®® t ^*®^Dean, op. c i t . . p. 5 3 7 . ■ ^ P r ie s t ly , op. c i t . . p. 7 0 . ! _ ^ ~ ^ The M an ch ester G u a rd ia n . January 2 3 , 1940, p. 3 . ■ ^ W h itw o rth , op. c i t . , p. 216. ^®®G ranville-Barker, The Study o f Drama, pp. 9 - 1 0 . acknow ledged i t , and Henry I r v in g c la im e d t h a t th e " stu d y o f th e a tr e " r e v e a le d " p art o f th e p r o g r e s s o f h u m a n ity ."109 That th e s e s o c i o l o g i c a l p u rp o ses and v a lu e s a t t r ib u t e d to th e a t r e w ere im p orta n t e le m e n ts in th e p u b lic a t t i t u d e tow ard th e a t r e was s u g g e s te d in M a ro w itz's in t e r v ie w o f K enneth Tynan, p u b lish e d in th e J u ly -A u g u s t, 1 9 6 3 , number o f E n co re. Tynan r e p lie d t h a t t h e s e p u rp o se s w ere n o t e n t i t i e s in t h e m s e lv e s , as had been s u g g e s t e d , b u t p a rt o f ; a la r g e r " t h e a t r ic a l and a r t i s t i c b e n e f it " d e r iv e d from th e drama. The g e n e r a l p u b lic d id n o t seem t o b e in p o s s e s s io n o f t h i s s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f c o n c e p t and v o c a b u la r y . W hitw orth c o l l e c t e d and p u b l i s h e d ^ - e ig h t e e n popu-j la r argum ents a g a in s t th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e in G reat B r it a i n . Four o f t h e s e co n cern ed th e e r e - j a t io n o f a n a t io n a l th e a t r e a s a s u i t a b l e monument to S h a k e sp ea r e. Two o b j e c t io n s w ere b a sed on F ren ch e x p e r i e n c e w ith th e Come'die F r a ^ a i s e : th e F rench w ere n o t e n - ; i t i r e l y s a t i s f i e d and th e b e s t a c to r s ten d ed t o le a v e fo r ^O^Henry I r v in g , The T h ea tre and th e S t a t e ( B o s t o n : i R ich ard G. Badger and Company, 1 8 9 8 ), p. 14. H O c h a r le s M arow itz, "T alk w ith T ynan," E ncore (J u ly -A u g u s t, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 10. lll^ h it w o r t h , op. c i t . , pp. 68-70 72 g r e a t e r o p p o r tu n ity in p r iv a t e t h e a t r e s . F iv e o f th e a r g u m ents con cern ed th e problem o f in a d eq u a te fu n d s: f e a r s o f p u b lic r e f u s a l t o s u b s c r ib e , g o v ern m en ta l r e lu c t a n c e to g r a n t enough .to g u a r a n te e s u c c e s s , th e prop osed schem es had b een p roven u n f e a s ib le by com m ercial m anagem ents, and t h a t good a c to r s w ould be d isc o u r a g e d by low pay. The a r - gument t h a t su p p o rt to a r t i s t i c e n t e r p r is e from p u b lic fu n d s was a g a in s t B r i t i s h t r a d i t i o n s was c o u n te r e d by th e exam ple s e t by s u b s id ie s t o th e n a t io n a l museums and g a l l e r i e s . T hree o b j e c t io n s to th e n a t io n a l t h e a t r e co n cern ed I th e problem o f a d m in is tr a tio n : an o f f i c i a l a t t i t u d e w ould d e s tr o y a r t , th e p r o v in c e s w ould be ig n o r e d , th e t h e a t r e w ould c a t e r t o a narrow t a s t e . T h ese w ere m ajor d a n g ers and c o u ld n o t be r e f u t e d by c i t i n g p r e c e d e n t-- e x p e r ie n c e w ith governm ent had d em o n stra ted th e v a l i d i t y o f t h e s e d a n g ers t o th e p u b lic . W h itw o rth 's answ er was t h a t a com b in a t io n o f c o n t in u a l p u b lic i n t e r e s t and a b u i l t - i n s y s te m | o f c h e ck s and b a la n c e s c o u ld r e d u c e , i f n o t e lim in a t e a l t o g e t h e r , th e d a n g e r s. A n oth er broad o b j e c t io n was th a t th e j " r e l i g io u s c h a r a c te r o f th e E n g lis h n a t io n w ould r e b e l a g a in s t th e s e r io u s r e c o g n it io n o f th e t h e a t r e ." To t h i s , W hitw orth c o u ld o n ly r e p ly t h a t s e v e r a l r e l i g i o u s le a d e r s w ere on th e N a tio n a l T h ea tre C om m ittee and t h a t th e b e s t way to c o r r e c t i l l s was from w it h in . A p p a r e n tly , th e r e w as 1 no body o f prepared argum ent or c o n se n su s o f p u b lic a t t i tu d e known to W hitw orth from w h ich he c o u ld e x t r a c t a g e n e r a lly a c c e p te d r e b u t t a l . The D evelopm ent o f P u b lic A t t it u d e by Form al A c tio n t o C r ea te a N a tio n a l T h ea tre On A p r il 2 3 , 1 9 1 3 , th e H ouse o f Commons d eb a ted a b i l l in tr o d u c e d a s a t e s t o f P a r lia m e n ta r y o p in io n on th e g e n e r a l q u e s tio n o f s t a t e a id fo r th e a r t s and, in p a r t i c u - i i l a r , fo r th e c r e a t io n and c o n t in u a l su p p o rt o f a n a t io n a l J th e a tr e p ro d u cin g S h ak esp eare and o th e r g r e a t drama. The b i l l d id n o t g a in a s u f f i c i e n t m a jo r ity f o r p a ssa g e but 162 o f th e 194 who v o te d approved o f th e p r i n c i p l e . T h i s en cou ragem en t, when added to th e w id esp rea d in d iv id u a l e f - i f o r t s t o r e v iv e t h e a t r e , r e s u lt e d in th e fo r m a tio n o f th e 113 B r i t i s h Drama Leage in December o f 1918. At th e f i r s t i p u b lic m e e tin g , June 2 2 , 1 9 1 9 , th e p u rp o ses o f th e League w ere announced as th e p r o v is io n o f a c e n t r a l o r g a n iz a tio n i f o r th e many s e p a r a te drama a c t i v i t i e s in G reat B r it a in and j I an am algam ation o f th e a r t i s t i c and s o c i a l t h e o r ie s in t o a 112 113 I b i d ., pp. 1 0 0 -1 1 3 . I b i d . . p. 149. 74 s i n g l e movement.'*-' * -4 In 1 9 2 3 , t h e League ad op ted a p la n t o 115 fin a n ce a n a tio n a l th e a tr e through p u b lic su b sc r ip tio n and in 19 2 4 , when th e f i r s t Labour Government came in to power on a platform in clu d in g th e a b o litio n o f th e E n ter tainm ent Tax, an attem pt was made to in trodu ce n a tio n a l th e a tr e l e g i s l a t i o n ^ 8 —an attem pt abandoned when re p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f the government expressed th e op in ion th a t such a th e a tr e would have to be d ed icated to p lays o f the p a s t .117 In November o f 1 9 2 9 , a n o th er m ajor attem p t was made t o g a in P a rlia m e n ta r y a p p r o v a l o f th e n a t io n a l t h e a t r e schem e. A c o n f e r e n c e , convened a t th e H ouse o f Commons and a tte n d e d by r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s from th e a t r e and govern m en t, s e l e c t e d a j o i n t p a n e l to d e v e lo p a s p e c i f i c n a t io n a l t h e a tr e p lan f o r P a rlia m e n ta r y c o n s id e r a t io n . The m ost n o t a b le f e a t u r e o f th e r e p o r t o f t h i s p a n e l was th e in c lu s io n o f two t h e a t r e s (o n e la r g e and one s m a ll) under th e same | 118 * ro o f --a co in c id e n c e , according to G r a n v ille-B a r k e r, w hose recom m endation fo r th e same arrangem ent was pub- | i i ( 114I b i d . . p. 150 115I b id . , p. 167. 116I b i d . . p . 125 117I b id . . p. 127 U 8 I b i d . . p . 174. 75 lis h e d in 1 9 3 0 . D u rin g t h i s 1929 c o n f e r e n c e , i t w as r e a l iz e d t h a t t h e r e . . . was l i t t l e hope o f our b e in g a b le to i n t e r e s t th e v a s t number o f our p o p u la tio n in th e N a t io n a l T h e a tr e , b u t a s a m in o r ity we co u ld a - c h ie v e our o b j e c t and th e m a jo r ity w ould th en lo o k on t h i s a ch iev em en t w ith p r id e . W e were d o in g an h o n o u ra b le and w orth y t h in g t o p r e ss f o r a N a t io n a l T h e a tr e . T here w ere two p r a c t i c a l w ays by w h ich th e c a u se c o u ld be fu r th e r e d : (1 ) by d e f in in g what i s meant by a " N a tio n a l T h eatre" ( 2 ) by p r o p a g a tin g th e id e a . ^ I As p a r t o f th e propaganda p h a se , a l e t t e r had been c i r c u - i la t e d among " s e le c t " p e o p le a s k in g them i f , w ith o u t com m it- j [ in g th e m s e lv e s t o s p e c i f i c f in a n c in g , th e y approved o f a j N a t io n a l T h e a tr e . W inston C h u r c h ill, th e n C h a n c e llo r o f 120 th e Exchequer, r e p lie d in th e a ffir m a tiv e . The B r itis h Drama League r e lu c ta n tly withdrew th e p rop osal in th e fa ce 1 2 1 i o f an "econom ic b liz z a r d " w h ich h i t th e c o u n tr y in 1930. As th e econ om ic c o n d it io n s s lo w ly im proved , th e p r e s s u r e s t o c r e a t e a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e ou t o f one o f th e ! e x i s t i n g London t h e a t r e s in c r e a s e d . T h is p la n was n o t deemed a c c e p ta b le b e c a u se no t h e a t r e p o s s e s s e d s u f f i c i e n t 1 1 9 I b i d . . p. 171. 120 G r a n v ille - B a r k e r , A N a t io n a l T h e a tr e , p . x i i i . 191 Whitworth, op. c i t . . p. 193. s to r a g e c a p a c it y , no t h e a t r e c o u ld be p u rch ased w ith th e fu n d s a v a i l a b l e ,^ 22 and no t h e a t r e c o n ta in e d th e two s t a g e s w h ich had becom e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e schem e. G r a n v ille - B arker u n d e rsco r ed th e im p ortan ce he a tta c h e d t o th e d u a l t h e a t r e s c o n c e p t by r e f u s in g th e p o s i t i o n o f D ir e c to r o f th e N a tio n a l T h ea tre w h ich had b een o f f e r e d t o him in c o n - 123 n e c t io n w ith a com prom ise p la n c o n t a in in g o n ly one s t a g e . J u s t b e fo r e th e o u tb re a k o f World War I I , th e N a tio n a l T h ea tre C om m ittee p u rch ased a s i t e fo r t h e i r p r o posed N a tio n a l T h ea tre in th e Sou th K en sin g to n s e c t i o n o f London. At th e p u b lic cerem ony c e l e b r a t i n g th e p u r c h a se , Shaw, d e l iv e r i n g th e m ajor a d d r e s s , comm ented: The way t h a t phenom ena, su ch a s th e N a tio n a l G a lle r y and th e B r i t i s h Museum, came abou t was by a s m a ll group o f p e r so n s who u n d e rsto o d th e n a t io n a l and c u l t u r a l im p ortan ce o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s mak in g a s t a r t . A f t e r a tim e th e b e g in n in g th e y made became a n e c e s s i t y . Then th e c r e a te d i n s t i t u t i o n sto o d in th e way o f th e Governm ent who n e v e r w anted i t , b u t f e l t th a t f o r §pme r e a s o n or o th e r th e y had t o keep i t g o i n g , "^4 Shaw c o n c lu d e d h i s a d d r e ss w ith th e rem ark th a t th e s m a ll group r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e n a t io n a l t h e a t r e w ould have t o f o llo w th e same c o u r se i f th e y w ere t o be s u c c e s s f u l . 1 22I b i d . . p. 207 1 24I b i d . , p. 2 1 0 . 123Ib id . . p. 203. 77 In Septem ber o f 1 9 39, th e C om m ittee met t o d isb a n d th e s t a f f and te r m in a te th e fund a p p e a l f o r th e d u r a tio n o f th e w a r. W hile t h i s p r o g r e s s tow ard th e c r e a t io n o f a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e in London was r e c e i v in g c o m p a r a tiv e ly w id e a t t e n t i o n , th e c o n c e p t o f a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e com posed o f many t h e a t r e s was a ls o g ro w in g . B e v in , a r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f g o v ern m en t, dream ed, p u b l i c a l l y , o f " th e a tr e s in th o u sa n d s ; o f p l a c e s . B e n T r a v e r s, d e fe n d in g th e c o n t r ib u t io n o f I clo w n s t o t h e a t r e , argued t h a t th e p u b lic was e n t i t l e d t o j i a l l o f th e v a r i e t y i t w a n ted — th e r e was need f o r " c u ltu r e " j 196 i and " c a r n iv a l." T h is was a ty p e o f in d ir e c t m o d if ic a t io n o f th e pyramid c o n c e p t o f a suprem e n a t io n a l t h e a t r e w ith c h a in s o f l e s s e r t h e a t r e s under i t . The f e a r was th a t t h i s arran gem en t c o u ld le a d t o an i n f e r i o r p r o v in c ia l t h e a t r e — i n f e r i o r b e c a u se i t m erely t r i e d , w ith l e s s t a l e n t and m oney, t o copy th e a c c e p te d p o l i c i e s and p la y s o f London. T h ese argum ents in su p p o rt o f em p h asis on p r o v in - j c i a l t h e a t r e and g r e a t v a r i e t y d id n o t g a in as much a t t e n - ; i t i o n a s d id th o s e fa v o r in g a c e n t r a l t h e a t r e b e c a u se th e r e was th e exam ple o f th e Old V ic t o p u b lic iz e th e l a t t e r . ^ •* The T im es. J u ly 1 6 , 1 9 4 3 , p. 2. 12^ I b i d . , A u gu st 2 5 , 1 9 4 5 , p. 5. The Old V ic was based in London, toured w ith high q u a lity p ro d u c tio n s, owned i t s own th e a tr e and a sso c ia te d f a c i l i t i e s , and p ra ctic ed a m odified re p e rto ry system . U n lik e th e lon g-ru n o rien ted commercial th e a tr e , th e Old V ic was a permanent o r g a n iz a tio n , but i t was n ot alw ays a tru e r e p e r -' to r y p la y in g a d iffe r e n t p la y each n ig h t--u n d e r O liv ie r and! R ichardson, i t was c lo s e r to a sto c k company in i t s op era- ! t io n w ith any given drama p la y in g preplanned short runs andj to u r in g th e p ro v in ces. But no m a tter, s in c e the Old V ic i was s u c c e s s f u l, was p r e s tig e -la d e n , w a s-su b sid iz e d , was j i I based in London and a lso served th e p ro v in c e s, i t became J I a sso c ia te d w ith th e n a tio n a l th e a tr e movement. In many j m inds, i t h eld the s ta tu s o f u n o f f ic ia l n a tio n a l th e a tr e . j I t was no su r p r ise when th e Old V ic jo in ed fo r c e s w ith th e N a tio n a l T heatre Committee in 1 9 4 6 .^ ^ In 1 9 4 9 , Parliam ent v o ted the t l , 000,000 for th e c o n str u c tio n o f a n a tio n a l th e a tr e (a b u ild in g , not a company) when a s a t is f a c t o r y p lan had been subm itted. No r e a l d e c is io n was made as to the p o lic y or a d m in istra tio n o f t h i s new c r e a tio n . Perhaps! t h i s was due to the fa c t th a t th ere was s t i l l a degree o f co n tro v ersy surrounding th e p r o p o sitio n . Harcourt W illiam s ■ ^W hitw orth, op. c i t .. pp. 222-225. 79 w r o te : . , . th e t r a in in g o f a company sh o u ld h ave b eg u n lo n g ago f o r t h i s p u rp ose o f a N a t io n a l T he a t r e and m ust c e r t a i n l y b e begun b e fo r e th e f i r s t b r i c k i s l a i d . In some d e g r e e th e Old V ic h a s su c h a company a lr e a d y in b e in g , b u t i t w ould need t o b e d e v e lo p e d on a more g e n e r o u s s c a l e th a n i t s p r e s e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a llo w s , and a s th e b u ild in g t h a t i s t o h o u se th e N a tio n a l T h ea tr e c a n n o t be c o m p lete d f o r some y e a r s , now i s th e tim e t o ta k e t h e m a tter in h a n d . ■ '•28 The com pany, th e p r o v in c e s , th e p r e s t ig e and sim p l i f i e d a d m in is tr a tio n o f a London t h e a t r e w ere s t i l l r e p r e s e n te d a s b e in g p a r ts o f s e p a r a te p la n s . C le a r ly , a lth o u g h th e g e n e r a l p u b lic was n o t u n it e d , i t was f a m ilia r w ith t h e p o lic y o f th e a c co m p lish ed f a c t —v i r t u e and j u s t i f i c a t i o n c o u ld be found in an i n s t i t u t i o n a lr e a d y in e x i s t ence f a r e a s i e r th an in a vagu e c l u s t e r o f i d e a l s . The Old V ic e x is t e d and g a in e d a c c e p ta n c e a s th e p r a c t i c a l c h o ic e fo r n a t io n a l h o n o r s . W orld War I I and th e E x te n s io n o f G overnm ental S o c i a l Program s The s p e c i a l problem s o f a n a t io n a t war en cou raged th e d ev elo p m en t o f s p e c i a l s o l u t i o n s . P r o g r e ss in th e d evelop m en t o f g o v ern m en ta l a d m in is t r a t iv e m ach in ery i s ■^®Harcourt W illia m s , Old V ic Saga (London: Win c h e s t e r P u b lic a t io n s , L t d ., 1 9 4 9 ), p . 2 1 3 . 80 g r e a t l y a c c e le r a t e d d u rin g su ch p e r io d s - - t h e d e m o n str a tio n o f g o v ern m en ta l com p eten ce and th e in c r e a s e in p u b lic d ep en d en ce upon g o v ern m en ta l program s b oth c o n t r ib u t e t o i th e r e t e n t i o n o f th o s e program s a f t e r th e war or su ch p e r - ; io d o f em ergen cy. In no a r e a h as t h i s been more a p p a ren t th a n in th e f i e l d o f s o c i a l w e lf a r e . Shaw p o in te d o u t th e g r e a t s o c i a l i z i n g in f lu e n c e e x e r te d by war a s e a r ly as 1916. ^ E a r ly in World War I I , W in ston C h u r c h ill, th e n Prim e M in is t e r , d eterm in ed t h a t th e p r e s s u r e s o f war sh o u ld j i n o t r e s u l t in a r e d u c tio n o f th e sta n d a rd o f l i v i n g and crea ted th e B everidge Commission to examine s o c ia l s e c u r ity 130 and a l l i e d s e r v i c e s . A lth o u g h p r o p o s a ls w ere made by th e c o a l i t i o n governm ent in 1944 f o r s o c i a l in su r a n c e and a llo w a n c e p rogram s, th e b u lk o f s o c i a l i z i n g l e g i s l a t i o n was th e work o f th e p o st-w a r Labour Government o f C lem ent A t- 191 l e e . J A c co r d in g -to th e E n c y c lo p e d ia B r it a n n ic a : The i n s t i t u t i o n o f th e w e lfa r e s t a t e was accom p lis h e d by a f a r - r e a c h in g r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n com es. For t h i s t h e r e w ere a number o f c a u s e s : (1 ) th e c o n t in u in g s c a r c i t y o f la b o r , w ith th e r e s u l t th a t th e r e a l w ages underw ent a s l i g h t in c r e a s e w h ile m ost o th e r ty p e s o f incom e d w in d led ; t 1 2 9 "Great B r it a i n ," E n c y c lo p e d ia B r it a n n ic a . 1960 e d . , V o l. X, p . 7 4 0 . 13 0 I b id . 131I b id . 81 (2 ) th e c o s t o f th e v a r io u s schem es d e s c r ib e d was r a is e d by t a x a t i o n , th e b u lk o f w h ich f e l l on th e h ig h e r -in c o m e g r o u p s; ( 3 ) in a s im ila r way money was r a is e d f o r th e c h e a p e n in g o f f o o d , h o u s e s , and o th e r c o m m o d itie s. Im p ortan t i n d u s t r i e s and s e r v i c e s w ere n a t io n a liz e d f o l l o w in g th e D is t r i b u t i o n o f In d u str y A ct o f 1 9 4 5 --a n a c t , th e pu rp ose o f w h ich was t o e s t a b l i s h in d u s tr y i n d e p r e sse d a r e a s (th r o u g h th e c o n t r o l o f f a c t o r y c o n s t r u c t io n l i c e n s e s on th e p a rt o f th e Board o f T rade) b u t w h ich l a r g e ly f a i l e d ; b e c a u se o f a p o l i c y t h a t d is r e g a r d e d th e econ om ic s i g n i f i - i c a n c e o f lo c a t io n .* - 33 The t r a n s p o r t a t io n in d u s tr ie s * -34 and com m u nication s e r v ic e s * -33 w ere n a t io n a liz e d in 1946, coal*-3® in 1 9 4 7 , gas*-37 and e l e c t r i c i t y * - 3 ® in 1 9 4 8 , ir o n , s t e e l ‘ d and th e rem a in in g a v ia t io n in d u str ie s* " 4 ® (BOAC form ed in 1939 a s a g o v ern m en ta l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ) in 1949. A t th e end o f th e w a r, governm ent s e c u r i t i e s formed o n e - h a l f o f a l l p r iv a te p r o p e r ty w h ile th e n a t io n a l governm ent 132I b id . 133I b id . . p . 720. 1 34I b id . . P. 730 135 I b i d .. p . 7 3 2 . 136I b i d . . P. 718 1 37I b i d ., p . 720 138I b i d . . P. 721 139I b i d . . p . 722 140I b id . . P. 732 82 sp en t o n e -th ir d o f th e t o t a l income o f th e n a tio n . G iven t h i s d eg ree o f p u b lic dependence on governm ent, i t was n o t s u r p r is in g th a t th e same p u b lic would apply th e same s o l u t i o n t o th e q u e s tio n o f t h e a t r e - - a t l e a s t t o th e. e x te n t o f m a in ta in in g a p e r m issiv e a t t i t u d e toward g o v ern ment involvem ent in t h e a t r e . The developm ent o f th e g o v ern m ental f e e l i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r th e a t r e was more s y s te m a tic and d e lib e r a t e than t h i s im p lie d . S in ce th e su b m issio n o f B e v e r id g e 's R eport on S o c i a l Insurance and i A l l i e d S e r v ic e s in 1942, th e B r i t i s h u se o f th e term 142 " s o c i a l s e r v ic e " has in c lu d e d " e d u ca tio n and r e c r e a tio n " as w e l l as m ed ica l and d e n t a l c a r e , f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e , and p r o v is io n o f food and h o u sin g . In 1941, R. A. B u tle r became p r e s id e n t o f th e Board| o f E d ucation and i n s t i t u t e d w ide reform s w hich e v e n tu a lly became law under th e E d ucation Act o f 1944.^** B a s i c a l l y , th e a c t a b o lish e d th e elem en tary s c h o o l, as i t had b een , ------------------ m --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 I b i d . , p. 715. 142 " S o c ia l S e r v ic e ," E n cy c lo p ed ia B r it a n n ic a . I960 e d . , V o l. XX, p. 901. 143 " E d u cation ," E n cy clo p ed ia B r it a n n ic a . 1690 e d . , V o l. V II, p. 976. 83 and th e req uirem en t fo r u n iv e r s a l secon dary e d u c a tio n , r e p la c in g th e s e two l e v e l s w ith th r e e : prim ary, secon d ary, and " fu rth er e d u c a tio n ." * 44 The co n cep t o f " fu rth er ed u ca tio n " was d e sc r ib e d as f o llo w s : . . . th e p o s t-se c o n d a r y sta g e o f e d u c a tio n , co m p risin g a l l v o c a t io n a l and n o n -v o c a tio n a l p ro v i s i o n made fo r young p e o p le , who have l e f t s c h o o l, and fo r a d u lt s . F urther e d u c a tio n th u s embraces . . . th e p r o v is io n in c lu d in g , in th e words o f th e a c t , f a c i l i t i e s f o r " le is u r e - t im e o c c u p a tio n s, in such o rg a n ized c u l t u r a l and t r a in in g a c t i v i t i e s as are s u ite d to t h e i r r eq u ire m en ts, f o r any p e r son s over com pulsory s c h o o l age who are ab le and w i l l i n g t o p r o f i t by th e f a c i l i t i e s provided fo r j th a t p u r p o se ."1^5 R e c r e a tio n a l and v o c a t io n a l f a c i l i t i e s fo r a d u lt c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y c e r t a i n l y in clu d ed t h e a t r e . The Board o f Educa- j t i o n had been one o f th e f i r s t governm ental a g e n c ie s t o j r e c o g n iz e t h e a t r e as an a c c e p ta b le c u l t u r a l and r e c r e a tio n -J a l a c t i v i t y f o r a d u lt s . As e a r ly as 1919, when th e War O ffic e S ch o o l o f E d ucation u sed l e is u r e - t im e d r a m a tiza tio n s; t o t r a i n e x - s o l d i e r s t o c i v i l i a n o c c u p a tio n s , e d u c a tio n - a l a u t h o r i t i e s were c o n sc io u s o f the u s e s o f t h e a t r e . In A p r il o f 1939, B a s i l Dean subm itted p la n s fo r c e n tr a liz e d i i p r o v is io n o f e n ter ta in m en t to th e armed s e r v i c e s w ith t h i s 1 4 4 I b i d . . p. 977. 1 4 5 I b id . *4 ^Whitworth, op. c i t . . p. 147. .....................84 r e f l e c t i o n : Have we n ot h ere th e b e g in n in g s o f a tr u e N a tio n a l T h ea tr e, a l i v i n g organism , fa sh io n e d to se rv e th e e n ter ta in m en t n eed s o f th e w hole n a tio n ? By our hard work under th e most t r y in g c o n d it io n s and by unsw erving l o y a l t y t o th e i d e a ls o f N a tio n a l S e r v ic e we s h a l l sta k e an i r r e f u t a b l e c la im t o f u l l e r r e c o g n it io n o f th e v a lu e o f our p r o fe s s io n than we have y e t r e c e iv e d . T h is w i l l be our g r ea t rew ard.*47 Dean a ls o o b served th a t "the t h e a t r e ' s ta s k in u p h old in g th e m orale o f th e n a tio n cannot be perform ed in w ar-tim e at a l l U Q w ith o u t o f f i c i a l support and s a n c t io n ." ° Such support and s a n c t io n came w ith th e j o i n t e f f o r t by th e P ilg r im T rust and t h e Board o f E d ucation t o c r e a te th e C o u n cil fo r th e En couragem ent o f Music and th e A r ts and th e c o o p e r a tio n among t h e armed s e r v i c e s and th e M in is tr y o f Labour and N a tio n a l S e r v ic e t o c r e a t e th e E n tertain m en ts N a tio n a l S e r v ic e A s so c i a t i o n . L an d ston e, an im portant a d m in is tr a to r o f g o v ern m en tal support f o r over a d eca d e, r e c a ll e d th a t C h u r c h ill, « under whom support was s t a r t e d , c o n sid e r e d su b s id iz e d t h e a t r e a " c u lt u r a l fo rc e" and At l e e , whose government e x panded th e c o n c e p t, d e sc r ib e d i t as a "sim ple b r ig h te n in g " ^ D e a n , op. c i t . . p. 545. 148I b i d . , p. 543. 85 ,,149 up o f everyday e x i s t e n c e .' A ccord in g t o D ent, th e r e l a t i o n o f th e t h e a t r e to th e s t a t e was a s o c i a l q u e s tio n not t o be so lv e d by g o v e rn m ental a c t io n alon e and " s t i l l l e s s by the e sta b lish m e n t o f a M in istr y o f F in e A r ts; i t i s p r im a r ily a m atter o f good w i l l and p e r so n a l d e v o tio n from a l l s o r t s and c o n d it io n s 15 0 . o f men and women." P r i e s t l y d e sc r ib e d th e s o c i a l v a lu e o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the t h e a tr e e x p e r ie n c e : T his h eig h ten ed c o l l e c t i v e r e s p o n s e , t h i s sh a r in g o f e x p e r ie n c e , w hich has alw ays been an | e s s e n t i a l part o f r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l , i s som ething • t h a t most o f us u r g e n tly need from tim e t o tim e. And we need i t fa r more th an our G ran dfathers d id , fo r th e y liv e d in sm a ller com m u n ities, were more sn u g ly in terw oven in t o th e fa b r ic o f s o c i e t y , and j r e g u la r ly gath ered t o g e th e r in p la c e s o f w o rsh ip . I t i s not s u f f i c i e n t l y r e a l iz e d even y e t how many p e o p le , e s p e c i a l l y in the huge urban a r e a s , f e e l d e s p e r a t e ly l o n e ly , r o o t l e s s , l o s t . A l l th e s e p eop le . . . should t r y to b r in g th e m se lv e s back in to the community, and I am c e r t a i n l y n o t o f f e r in g p la y g o in g as a s u b s t it u t e fo r r e l i g i o n , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n s c io u s n e s s , n e ig h b o r lin e s s , and a r e a l fa m ily l i f e . But I do d e c la r e t h a t th e Theatre . . . has fa r more to o f f e r than . . . f ilm - g o in g , . . . r a d io , . . . th e new est f i c t i o n . For i f i t i s good T h ea tr e, i t w i l l break down t h e i r se n se o f i s o l a t i o n , by mak in g them share a co m p lica ted s e t o f r e sp o n se s w ith ■ ^ M o r d e c a i G o r e lik , "C leared by C ustom s," T heatre A r ts XXXV ( A p r il, 1 9 5 1 ), p. 4 6 . 150D en t, op. c i t . . pp. 8 - 9 . 8 6 hundreds o f o th er p e o p le , w ith whom th e y are c o o p e r a tin g . . . t o p lay th e p art o f A u dien ce. I t has t o be good T heatre b ecau se bad T heatre does n o t su cceed in c r e a tin g t h i s p art o f A u d ien ce. ^51 T his con cep t o f th e a tr e as a c o n tr ib u to r to th e developm ent and f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e in d iv id u a l, r ec o g n ize d by C h u r c h ill and A t l e e , and as a m otive fo r c e in th e developm ent o f a p u b lic c o n sc ie n c e so e s s e n t i a l to the con cep t o f democracy j was su p erb ly e x p r essed by P r i e s t l y . The p art o f "audience" was understood to be fa r more than th e part o f the " p a ssiv e i v iew er " ; good th e a tr e was fa r more than b r ig h t l i g h t s and i I handsome p e o p le . P r i e s t l y a ls o r e a liz e d th a t such "good j th e a tr e " was n ot g o in g to be produced by governm ental d e cree but th a t a p ro p erly supported th e a tr e could produce a fa r h ig h e r p ercen tage o f "good th e a tr e " than cou ld the e x i s t i n g com m ercial in d u s tr y . The B r i t i s h p u b lic did not seem t o understand th a t a su b sid y would buy b e t t e r odds fo r the p rod u ction o f "good th e a tr e " not such q u a lit y i t s e l f — part o f t h i s q u a lit y was in th e fu n c tio n o f th e aud ien ce and th e p u b lic could n o t a ch iev e e x c e lle n c e as an au d ien ce ' by m erely v o tin g a sum o f money any more than high q u a lit y i ! a c tin g could be purchased at a moment's n o t i c e . C om plaints about s p e c i f i c f a i l u r e s o f su b s id iz e d th e a tr e were o f te n 1 5 1 p r ie s tly , op. c i t . . pp. 73-74. 87 based on th e prem ise t h a t th e th e a tr e had f a i l e d t o d e l iv e r what th e p u b lic had purchased. A major advance in th e accep tan ce o f th e v a lu e o f t h e a tr e was made when B r it i s h u n i v e r s i t i e s f i n a l l y c r e a te d departm ents fo r th e s e r io u s stu d y o f th e drama. Beyond th e s u p e r f i c i a l v a lu e s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p ro d u ctio n (self-> e x p r e s s io n , s e l f - c o n t r o l , p o is e , e t c . ) l i e s th e im portant m atter o f aud ien ce developm ent to w hich u n i v e r s i t i e s can make im portant c o n t r ib u t io n s . G r a n v ille -B a r k e r saw a dan- i I ger o f " c o n fu sin g stu d y w ith accom plishm ent" in th e u n iv e r - j ! s i t y drama departm ent: an i n d iv i d u a l ’ s v i s i o n o f an a r t j i j would be c o n tr a c te d by the measure o f h i s own c a p a b i l i t i e s . T h is im p lied a s k e p tic is m o f th e v a lu e o f stu d e n t i perform ances which m ight r e p la c e c r i t i c a l stu d y in th e ! cu rricu lu m . C r i t i c a l stu d y , in c lu d in g aud ien ce e x p e r i e n c e , ' were more im p ortan t, a c co r d in g t o G r a n v ille -B a r k e r , than p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p ro d u ctio n in th e c r e a tio n o f an aud ien ce * fo r t h e a t r e . Wickham recommended, as th e optimum s i t u a t i o n , p r o f e s s io n a l t h e a t r e s lin k e d through patronage t o j u n i v e r s i t i e s i f th e p u b lic was t o be awakened t o th e p o ten - 152 G r a n v ille -B a r k e r , The Study o f Drama, p. 16. t i a l s o f drama. 155 He a l s o rec o g n ize d th e p r o b a b ilit y o f p u b lic o p p o s itio n t o th e i n c lu s io n o f drama in th e u n iv e r s i t y cu rricu lu m on th e grounds t h a t p u b lic money should n ot be used m erely t o p rovid e "fun” in an e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n . 154 The i n t e n s i t y o f t h i s argument d im in ish e d , how ever, w ith th e e sta b lish m e n t o f a Drama D epartm ent, at 7 \ B r i s t o l in 1 9 4 7 .155 By 1962, t h i s had expanded w ith th e ; e sta b lish m e n t o f departm ents in a l l u n i v e r s i t i e s and th e r e t e n t io n o f f u l l - t i m e a d v is o r s in Drama w ith f o r t y o f the i 146 l o c a l e d u c a tio n a l a u t h o r i t i e s . 15^ Throughout t h i s develop m en t, l i t t l e a t t e n t io n was g iv e n to th e co n cep t o f d e v e lo p in g a p p r e c ia tio n fo r th e a r t o f th e a tr e through a - p e r so n a l u n d erstan d in g o f i t s component p a r ts. The Development o f P u b lic A t t it u d e toward C o n d itio n s and R equirem ents o f T heatre D uring th e war, a g r e a t amount o f p u b l i c i t y was g iv e n to th e advantage o f th e r e p e r to r y th e a tr e but th e ■ l 3 3 James, op. c i t . . p. 113. : 154Ib id . , p. 109 155I b i d . , p. 106 15^Ham ilton Kerr, Hugh L u cas-T ooth , R ichard N ugent, and N ic h o la s R id le y , Government and the A rts (London: Con s e r v a t iv e P o l i t i c a l C en tre, 1 9 6 2 ), p. 17. 89 term was n ot c o m p le te ly u n d ersto o d . A permanent company produ cin g p la y s fo r sh o r t runs i s not a tr u e r e p e r to r y com pany b ecau se i t cannot a d ju st th e run o f a p la y t o meet th e req u irem en ts o f th e au d ien ce but must keep a p lay running lo n g enough to prepare th e n e x t one fo r p r o d u ctio n . In th e r e p e r to r y sy stem , no p lay i s p resen ted c o n tin u o u s ly . P r o f it i s p o s s ib le under th e r e p e r to r y system b ecau se a p la y need o n ly appear when an aud ien ce e x i s t s fo r i t ; a permanent company a llo w s a c to r s t o work and d e v e lo p t o g e th e r u n t i l a h ig h d egree o f q u a lit y i s a c h ie v e d ; a c to r s can expend more o f t h e i r e n e r g ie s on a g iv e n p lay b ecau se th e y are n ot r eq u ire d t o perform e ig h t tim es a week. Com m e r c ia l t h e a tr e has not se en f i t t o commit th e i n i t i a l c a p i t a l n e c e ss a r y fo r th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f a tr u e r e p e r to r y company. The lu r e o f th e p r o f i t s from a lon g run i s s t i l l to o str o n g . The compromise betw een th e com m ercial lon g run and th e "true" r e p e r to r y was th e "weekly r e p er to r y " o f th e p r o v in c e s . U n fo r tu n a te ly , sm a ll tow ns, or la r g e c i t i e s w ith sm a ll th e a t r e - g o in g p u b lic s , did n o t seem to have s u f f i c i e n t au d ien ce to support a p lay fo r a week so f in a n c i a l l o s s e s were common and th e w eek ly change o f b i l l u s u a l l y meant a w eek 's r e h e a r s a l fo r a new p la y b ecau se o f th e stigm a o f f a i l u r e about th e o ld o n e s. A cto rs were soon 90 e x h a u sted by the pace o f c o n s ta n t r e h e a r s a l and perform ance w hich fo r c e d them in t o s to c k c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n s and d i r e c t o r s in t o c la p - t r a p g im m ick s--b o th s ig n s o f t h i r d - r a t e t h e a t r e . A ttem p ts t o r a i s e th e p r o d u ctio n stan dard by r e h e a r s in g two or th r e e weeks did n o t s o lv e th e problem o f f in d in g an au d ien ce to f i l l th e t h e a t r e fo r two or th r e e w eek s. P u b lic e n th u sia sm was f ir e d by argum ents fo r th e c r e a t i o n o f a r e p e r to r y sy stem and c o o le d by e x p e r ie n c e i w ith a t i r e d and overworked i n s t i t u t i o n . The Times argued j ' I f o r th e r e p e r to r y sy stem on th e grounds th a t p l a y s , u n lik e o th e r form s o f a r t , had t o fin d a p u b lic im m ed iately or p e r is h in th e lo n g -r u n s y s t e m . ! The a u d ien ce underwent s i g n i f i c a n t developm ent d u r-j j in g th e tw e n t ie t h c e n tu r y as th e f i l m , r a d io , and t e l e - j v i s i o n i n d u s t r ie s grew. A new mass a u d ien ce was b e in g c r e a te d w h ich p a r t ic ip a t e d p a s s i v e l y , r a th e r than as a r e s p o n s ib le and i n d is p e n s ib le part o f t h e a t r e . Wickham f o b served t h a t a s o c i a l problem was b e in g c r e a te d , n ot j a l l e v i a t e d , by th e new "drama. Commercial b r o a d c a stin g ! and f i l m w ere on t h e i r way t o c r e a t in g a mass au d ien ce 157 The T im es. Ju ly 2, 1943, p. 5. 15 8 James, op. c i t . . p. 112. 91 c h a r a c te r iz e d by a u n ifo r m ity o f v a lu e s and a t t i t u d e s , a l l learn ed through exposu re to th e same e x p e r ie n c e s . The 159 word "drama" had come t o mean f ilm and t e l e v i s i o n ; m i l l i o n s o f p eop le cou ld n o t g e t e x c it e d about th e d e c li n e o f 1 fi fi t h e a t r e b ecau se th e s e new media met t h e i r n e e d s. The m usic h a l l s th ey p a tr o n iz ed in th e 1 9 3 0 's had been r e p la c e d by t e l e v i s i o n and f ilm ; in t r u t h , th e g r e a t b u lk o f th e p o p u la tio n had n ever been exposed to "good" t h e a t r e . P r e se r v a tio n o f V a lu es: Government v s . Commercial P r a c tic e The argument over th e q u e s tio n o f th e b e s t method o f p r e se r v in g th e t h e o r e t i c a l v a lu e s and o p p o r t u n itie s o f t h e a tr e was s t i l l b e in g argued in 1 9 6 2 ^ * a lth o u g h g o v ern m en tal support programs had th en been in e x is t e n c e fo r over tw enty y e a r s . T h is im p lied th a t th e support programs were n ot as s u c c e s s f u l in t h i s regard as t h e i r su p p o rte rs had e n v is io n e d . P r i e s t l y saw th e com m ercial sy stem as w a s t e f u l 159I b i d . , p. 111. 1 6 0 p r ie s t ly , op. c i t . , p. 69. 1 fi 1 Hamilton Kerr, e t a l . , op. c i t . . p. 25. 92 o f " t a l e n t , tim e , and money. He d id n o t o b j e c t t o th e p r o f i t m otive bu t t o th e power o f w e a lth y p eo p le t o mold i 163 th e t h e a t r e t o t h e i r own "dreary t a s t e and o u tlook " - - p u b lic t a s t e co u ld be m anipulated t o some e x t e n t . Money bought s t a r s and s t a r s were th e key t o p r o f i t on th e B r i t is h s t a g e . The e a r n in g o f p r o f i t assu red th e r e t e n t i o n o f l e a s e s on t h e a t r e s . P r i e s t l y saw no argument a g a in s t government n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f most t h e a t r e s " in th e name o f c o m p e titio n and f r e e e n t e r p r is e " s in c e th e y had a lre a d y . been l o s t ; he advocated p u b lic c o n t r o l through a th e a tr e £ l i c e n s i n g a u th o r it y as f a c t o r i e s had been c o n t r o lle d during and im m ed iately a f t e r th e w a r . ^ 4 G r a n v ille -B a r k e r argued t h a t th e com m ercial th e a tr e was n o t c o n s t it u t e d t o p ro v id e a l i v i n g lib r a r y o f th e b e s t j drama. He a l s o r e fu te d th e charge t h a t a sta te -s u p p o r te d t h e a t r e would shy away from th e p ro d u ctio n o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l 1 i p la y s by c i t i n g th e r e c o r d s o f C o n tin e n ta l t h e a t r e s su p - I p orted by th e s t a t e . ^ ^ P r i e s t l y , op. c i t . . p. 39. 163I b i d . . p. 18. 164I b i d . , pp. 3 1 -3 2 . ^ ^ G r a n v ille -B a r k e r , A N a tio n a l T h e a tr e , p. 126. 166 I b id . 93 The fe a r o f governm ental c o n t r o l and i n e f f i c i e n c y was th e t r a d i t i o n a l r e a c t io n t o p r o p o sa ls o f governm ental support to t h e a t r e . T his was n ot an unspoken fe a r in th e d evelop m en t. o f support programs in G reat B r it a in . In 1959, The M anchester Guardian p u b lish ed th e su b sta n ce o f th e annual BBC le c t u r e in Wales by S ir I f o r Evans, P rovo st o f th e U n iv e r s it y C o lle g e , London, in w hich he blamed th e ! W elsh fe a r o f governm ental c o n t r o l fo r th e co m p a ra tiv e ly i sm a ll p o r tio n o f A r ts C o u n cil funds th e y had r e c e iv e d — i Wales r e fu s e d to p r e ss t h e i r c la im s fo r government money 167 and, t h e r e f o r e , r e c e iv e d v e ry l i t t l e . 1 In 1946, th e P o l i t i c a l and Economic P lan n in g (P .E .P ) in q u ir y in t o th e j v i s u a l a r ts a ls o commented on im portant o b j e c t io n s t o th e j e s ta b lish m e n t o f a M in iste r o f F in e A r ts : The M in is te r would be su b je c t t o th e "hazards o f e le c t i o n " and h i s s t a f f 16 8 would be s e l e c t e d through th e C i v i l S e r v ic e system . R e co g n izin g a g e n e r a lly u n fa v o ra b le p u b lic a t t i t u d e toward t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , e s p e c i a l l y in i t s a p p lic a t io n t o th e j i t o th e a r ts which must rem ain independent to make a gen u in e c o n t r ib u t io n , t h i s com m ission su g g ested th a t th e ^ ^ The M anchester G uardian. January 3 0 , 1959, p. 5. 16 ft The A rts E nquiry, The V is u a l A r ts (London: Oxford U n iv e r s ity P r e ss, 1 9 4 6 ), p. 35. '94 M in is te r o f E d ucation was in the b e s t p o s i t i o n t o p r o te c t t h i s freedom w h ile a d m in is te r in g s u p p o r t. ^ 9 The support program, i t s e l f , was se e n t o r e q u ir e r e g i o n a l , r a th e r th an c e n t r a l , c o n t r o l p o in ts * 7 ^ in order t o p reserv e th e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een a d m in is tr a to r s , th e a t r e com p an ies, and a u d ien ce so n e c e s s a r y t o th e s u c c e s s o f th e program. When th e A rts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a in was c r e a te d out o f the C o u n c il fo r th e Encouragement o f Music and th e A r ts (CEMA) in 1946, th e r e g io n a l a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e C EM A was r e t a in e d , as recommended by th e P .E .P . On August 9 , 1946, King George VI issu e d a r o y a l c h a r te r g r a n tin g in c o r p o r a tio n t o a nongovernm ental body, th e A rts C o u n c il, fo r th e purpose o f .................... d e v e lo p in g a g r e a te r know ledge, un der s ta n d in g , and p r a c tic e o f the f i n e a r ts e x c l u s i v e l y , and in p a r t ic u la r t o in c r e a s e th e a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f th e f i n e a r ts t o th e p u b lic through out Our Realm, t o improve th e standard o f e x e c u tio n o f f in e a r t s , and t o a d v is e and c o -o p e r a te w ith Our Government D epartm en ts, l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s and o th e r b o d ie s on any m a tters concerned d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y w ith th e s e o b j e c t s . ^71 T h is was th e f i n a l r e c o g n it io n o f th e govern m ent's 169I b id . 170 I b i d . ^ •7 ^The A r ts C o u n cil o f G reat B r it a in : What I t Is and What I t Does (London: A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n , 1 9 6 3 ), p. 3. o b lig a t io n fo r the " w e ll-b e in g o f th e a t r e and th e in c r e a s e o f th e a t r e a u d ie n c e s" 1^2 f o r many p eop le but for'm any o th e r s i t was j u s t one more p o in t to argu e. With th e c r e a t io n o f the A r ts C o u n c il, th e C h a n c ello r o f th e Exchequer r e p la c e d the M in is te r o f E d ucation as th e o f f i c i a l r e sp o n s i b l e fo r th e e x is t e n c e and a c tio n s o f p u b lic su p p o rt. This M in iste r managed to r e s i s t p r e ssu re from many so u rc es ; t o d i c t a t e t o the C o u n cil and th e government gra n t to th e C o u n cil was a d m in ister ed la r g e ly by th e C o u n cil as i t saw f i t . ^ 2 S p e c i f ic e x c e p tio n s are d is c u s s e d in Chapter IV o f t h i s stu d y . The w id e ly acclaim ed con cep t o f r e g io n a l a d m in is t r a t i o n o f th e a tr e support f i n a l l y proved t o be to o exp en - | s i v e fo r the r e s u l t s thus o b ta in e d --a u d ie n c e s were not j in c r e a s in g in s i z e and h a lf-e m p ty h o u ses cou ld n ot be su b s id iz e d i n d e f i n i t e l y - - a n d a p o lic y o f c e n t r a liz e d e x c e l le n c e was a d o p t e d . S u p p o r t was c o n c e n tr a te d in areas and on i n s t i t u t i o n s which h eld th e most prom ise fo r a c h ie v e ment o f the h ig h e s t q u a l it y . T h is had th e e f f e c t o f 172 G o r e lik , op. c i t . , p. 44 1 7*1 ' Hamilton Kerr, e t a l . , op. c i t . , p. 13. 96 r ed u c in g support in r u r a l a rea s and in c r e a s in g i t in Lon don (Old V ic , Covent Garden, S a d le r 's W e lls) and, t o many, th e f e a r s o f government c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and e v e n tu a l c o n t r o l o f t h e a t r e seemed t o have been r e a l i z e d . T his a l s o had th e e f f e c t o f su p p o rtin g th e co n cep t o f a n a t io n a l th e a t r e as a s i n g l e u n it w hich s e t an example o f e x c e lle n c e fo r th e n a tio n . The p r o p o sa l t o e s t a b l i s h as a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e a netw ork o f l o c a l t h e a t r e s , each r e f l e c t i n g th e v a lu e s and t a l e n t s o f i t s own a r e a , became i d e n t i f i e d w ith i d e a l i s t i c i and im p r a c tic a l in d iv id u a ls in r u r a l a r e a s . j B ridges-A dam s, w r it in g in 1944 fo r th e B r i t i s h j i C o u n c il and d is s e m in a tio n in f o r e ig n n a t io n s , defen d ed th e | i i n c o n s is t e n c i e s betw een B r i t i s h a t t i t u d e and p r a c tic e c o n - J t I c e r n in g th e proposed e s ta b lish m e n t o f a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e . The average Englishm an i s more than s a t i s f i e d w ith h i s n a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , and h i s s in g u la r way o f d em o n stratin g h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n i s t o d i s parage them f r e e l y . ( I f any person o f an oth er r a ce doubts t h i s , l e t him j o i n in th e d is p a r a g e m ent, when he w i l l fin d th a t the Englishm an i n s t a n t l y v e e r s t o th e d e f e n s i v e .) I t i s much th e same w ith i n s t i t u t i o n s which o th e r p e o p le s have and he has n o t; he must n o t t h e r e f o r e be ta k en to o s e r i o u s l y when he p u b l i c a l l y d e p lo r e s our la c k o f t a N a tio n a l T h ea tre. . . . th e E n glish m an 's r e lu c ta n c e t o a c ce p t a N a tio n a l T heatre may perhaps be a sc r ib e d l e s s t o any in h er en t c a r e le s s n e s s fo r th in g s o f th e s p i r i t than t o an in g r a in e d dread o f th e S ta t e poking 97 i t s n ose in t o a f f a i r s w hich i t d oes n o t u n d erstan d . The war, h ow ever, has brought th e p r in c ip le o f S t a t e support (but n o t S t a t e c o n t r o l) q u i e t l y in to g e n e r a l a ccep ta n ce through th e o r g a n is a t io n known as th e C o u n cil fo r th e Encouragement o f Music and th e A r t s .^ 7^ Perhaps a b e t t e r r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n f o r th e p rolonged in a c t io n and t r i a l - a n d - e r r o r approach t o th e problem was p r in te d by an organ o f th e C o n se rv a tiv e P a rty , th e p o l i t i c a l o r g a n iza -j t i o n in power d u rin g th e g r e a t e s t p art o f t h i s h a lf - c e n t u r y I o f d i s c u s s io n : I I t i s th e C o n se r v a tiv e t r a d i t i o n fo r p o l i c i e s t o grow p ie c e m e a l, r a th e r than t o throw over a l l t h a t e x i s t s and t o s t a r t a g a in . Our id e a s are not r e v o lu t io n a r y ; th e y are e v o lu tio n a r y and c o n s t r u c t iv e .^ -7® 1 Under th e same c o v e r , th e C o n se r v a tiv e P arty recommended j J th e a d o p tio n o f a change in th e sy stem o f g r a n tin g su p p o r t.j I The p r a c t ic e was to gran t funds to co v er a planned or u n - { f o r t u n a t e ly in cu rred d e f i c i t . ^ -77 T h is proved a poor p o lic y b eca u se lo n g -te rm (and e c o n o m ic a lly e f f i c i e n t ) arrangem ents were d isco u ra g ed w h ile a premium seemed t o be put on f a i l - ! u r e : i f a company str u g g le d t o break even i t r e c e iv e d l i t - ! t i e or n o th in g ; i f i t f a i l e d , i t sto o d a good chance o f j ^ ^ B r id g es-A d a m s, op. c i t . . pp. 4 2 -4 3 , " ^ H a m ilto n K err, e t a l . . op. c i t . . p. 5. 177I b i d . . p. 23. 98 i b e in g su b s id iz e d s in c e th e need was so ap p a ren t. In t h i s pamphlet a ls o appeared commentary on th e govern m en t's a l l o c a t i o n o f A r ts C o u n cil funds earmarked fo r s p e c i f i c pu rp oses and th e r e lu c ta n c e o f th e S ta t e t o e x e r t c o n tr o l o f th e A rts C o u n cil in tim e o f c o n tr o v e r s y . The fe a r s o f th e d ir e c t assum ption o f c o n t r o l and o f d e v e lo p in g a p u b lic w hich would depend upon g o v e r n m e n ta l■ a c tio n t o th e e x t e n t th a t t h a t , in i t s e l f , became c o n tr o l were ex p ressed more c o n c r e te ly by r e s p o n s ib le le a d e r s in government than by c i t i z e n s , groups o f c i t i z e n s , or even by le a d e r s in t h e a t r e . In 1947, a com m ittee r e p r e s e n t in g many i t h e a t r i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n s and composed o f P r i e s t l y , B u r r e l l,j C r a in fo rd , Dean, Levy, S a n d iso n , and W hitw orth, was formed [ t t t o d is c u s s t i I . . , th e fu tu re o f th e th e a tr e in B r it a in ; i t s r e l a t i o n t o the S t a t e , th e e n te r ta in m e n ts t a x , th e c o s t o f p r o d u c tio n , th e t r a in in g o f a r t i s t s , amateur drama, and th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f a u d ie n c e s. ° At a p u b lic d is c u s s io n o f th e recom m endations o f t h i s com- j m it t e e , S ir S ta ffo r d C rip p s, C h a n cello r o f th e Exchequer, th e M in is te r r e s p o n s ib le fo r th e A rts C o u n c il, sa id th a t th e government would c o n s id e r s e r i o u s l y a l l unanimous ^ ^The Tim es. December 4 , 1947, p. 6 . 99 d e c is io n s o f th e co m m ittee. ^ 9 j t was an im p r e ssiv e and e n co u ra g in g sta tem en t marred o n ly by th e f a c t th a t such unanimous d e c is io n s were t e c h n i c a l l y im p o ss ib le b eca u se th e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f th e T heatre Managers A s s o c ia t io n were n ot empowered t o act in an o f f i c i a l c a p a c it y by t h a t organ- 180 i z a t i o n . The p r o p o sa l t o r e q u ir e an a p p r e n tic e s h ip or t r a i n in g cu rricu lu m fo r b eg in n in g a c to r s was q u ic k ly dropped when i t was r e a l i z e d th a t no agreem ent appeared among th e a c t o r s , th e m s e lv e s , as to what e x p e r ie n c e was r necessary. Cripps commented on th e p r o p o sa ls d is c u s s e d I I | and o p in io n s e x p r e sse d by th e com m ittee: th e unique v a lu e j and fu n c tio n o f the A r ts C o u n c il would be d e str o y e d by r ig-j id govern m ental c o n t r o l ( ’‘a r t to n g u e -t ie d by a u t h o r i t y " ) , * ® ^ i a danger e x is t e d in g iv in g th e A rts C o u n cil to o much money ! and, c o n s e q u e n tly , t o o much power in t h e a t r i c a l a f f a i r s 183 b eca u se i t co u ld th e re b y become a d i c t a t o r o f t a s t e , and; S ta te ow nership o f a l l t h e a tr e s would mean s t a t e c e n so r s h ip ; i o f a l l p la y s and t h i s was n o t a t a l l d e s ir a b le - - h o w e v e r , ~ ^ I b i d . . February 9 , 1948, p. 5 . 18QI b i d . 181I b id . 182I b i d . 183I b i d . , p. 2. 100 th ere was a p lace fo r a sta te-su p p o rted n a tio n a l th e a tr e in 184 th e m idst o f th e p riv a tely -su p p o rted th e a tr e system . These o p in io n s o f th e C hancellor did not support nor r e je c t the r e a l arguments concerning th e degree o f support and co n tr o l a d v isa b le but they expressed th e broad p o lic y w ith in which the government, w ith the consent o f the p eop le, was w illin g to op era te. U nderstandably, as th e amount o f th e subsidy in cr ea sed , p ressu res fo r g re a ter m in is te r ia l r e s p o n s ib ility and c o n tr o l a ls o in creased b ecau se, as the annual grant to the A rts C ouncil exceeded a m illio n pounds, i t became c le a r th at s ig n if ic a n t power to in flu e n c e the e x is tin g and p o te n tia l audience had been c r e a te d . The government was under in cr e a sin g pressure from Parliam ent and the p ress to e s ta b lis h a Royal Commission to review the e n tir e s it u a tio n o f the a r ts in Great B r ita in . The govern ment refu sed such a sweeping move on the grounds th a t such a purpose was too broad to a ch ie v e , th a t com m issions a l ready e x is te d to review the separate p arts o f the whole (th e A rts C oun cil, the Royal Fine Art Commission, the Standing Commission fo r th e museums and g a lle r i e s under Treasury p r o te c tio n , the Hooper Committee a c tin g fo r the 1 8 4 Ib id . 1 0 1 London County C ou n cil, and the B ridges Committee a c tin g fo r the C alou ste Gulbenkian F oun d ation ), and th a t th e c r e a tio n o f Royal Commissions had too o fte n been a s u b s titu te fo r a c t io n .185 At no point in t h is co n tro v ersy over th e c a p a b ili t i e s o f the government was the e x is t in g com m ercial th e a tr e considered as capable o f m eeting the en v isio n e d standards a tta in a b le by the su b sid ized th e a tr e . Commercial managers ; presented on ly what would pay d ivid en d s at the b o x -o ffic e i and "culture" did n o t. The arguments a g a in st governm ental I i i c o n tr o l were accompanied by assu ran ces th a t com m ercial managements would do the job i f guaranteed a g a in st lo s s and j j allow ed to keep any p r o f it . The terms o f t h is arrangement | i would not guarantee q u a lity th e a tr e ; t h a t , a g a in , would be j up to the in d iv id u a l r e sp o n sib le and he would s t i l l have to choose between a ccep tin g the burden o f p u b lic tr u s t and the p o s s ib le op p ortu n ity for quick p r o f it s . Local Achievem ents as an In d ica to r o f P ublic A ttitu d e I f "art is th e achievem ent o f th e p u b lic as w e ll as o f th e a r t is t " as was the co n ten tio n o f the P .E .P . rep o rt 185Harailton Kerr, e t a l . , op. c i t . . p. 22. 1 0 2 on th e v i s u a l arts,^® ^ th e r e a c t io n t o o p p o r tu n ity on th e p art o f th e town and c i t y a g e n c ie s o f government c o u ld be a d i r e c t r e f l e c t i o n o f l o c a l a t t i t u d e toward t h e a t r e . The L ocal Government A ct o f 1948 provided th e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s w ith th e s p e c i f i c power to ta x i t s c i t i z e n s up to a 6d r a t e in England and Wales (4 .8 d r a te in S c o tla n d ) fo r th e p ro- 187 v i s i o n o f e n te r ta in m e n t and e n ter ta in m en t f a c i l i t i e s . The l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s were n ot e x p e cted t o e n te r in t o d i r e c t management o f t h e a t r i c a l a c t i v i t i e s bu t o n ly to c o n s t r u c t t h e a t r e s and, p erh ap s, s u b s id iz e a company when th e y th ou gh t such a c t io n n e c e s s a r y . R e g io n a l a r t s c o u n c ils and a s s o c i a t i o n s were c r e a te d by th e p o p u la tio n in some areas t o meet t h e i r n eeds in a more d i r e c t manner; some towns c o n s tr u c te d t h e a t r e s . On th e a v e ra g e , th e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s c o n tr ib u te d l e s s than o n e -te n th o f a penny r a t e when th e y were a u th o riz ed to le v y a six p en n y r a t e . In an annual r e p o r t , th e A rts C o u n c il com p lain ed : . . . even i f th e y m u lt ip lie d t h e i r c o n t r ib u t i o n by te n fo r th w ith th e y would s t i l l be f u r n is h in g no more than a s i x t h o f what th e y are e n t i t l e d t o p rovid e . . . I t would tra n sfo rm th e s i t u a t i o n ^®^The A rts E nquiry, op. c i t . . p. 42. ^•^H am ilton K err, e t a l . . op. c i t . , p. 18. 103 i f L ocal A u th o r itie s put th e a rts on th e same fo o tin g as P ublic L ib ra ries and regarded them as being an eq u a lly in d is p e n s ib le c i v ic p r o v isio n . -* -8 8 A fte r over a decade o f encouragem ent, th e A r ts C o u n cil began a rg u in g t h a t i t was absurd fo r i t t o c o n tr ib u te one pound to ev ery fourpence (a se v e n ty to one r a t i o ) c o n t r ib u ted by th e community b e n e f i t i n g from one o f th e b e s t r e p e r to r y t h e a t r e s .^ 89 A c le a r - c u t form ula fo r support which would s h i f t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o th e l o c a l p o p u la tio n s gained su p p o rt. A system o f m atching fun ds would c o s t th e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s two m i llio n pounds a n n u a lly - - e ig h t tim es t h e i r 1962 c o n t r ib u tio n y e t i s t i l l on ly o n e -e ig h th o f what th e y were a u th o riz ed t o sp en d . From t h i s , i t seemed l o g i c a l th a t th e A rts C o u n c il m ight have t o withdraw support in such in s ta n c e s in order t o spend more money where th e pub l i c was more w i l l i n g to h e lp th e m s e lv e s . Kenneth Tynan u n derscored t h i s problem o f l o c a l r e f u s a l t o h e lp 'p a y th e 190 c o s t o f th e a tr e . The development o f governm ental sup port programs was in flu en ced by t h is c o n s is te n t r e fu s a l on IS &rhe A rts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n 17th Annual R eport 1961-1962 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 ), p. 16. 189I b i d . , p. 17. 1 9 0 Marowitz, op. c i t . . p. 8 . ........................................ 104 th e part o f th e p u b lic , a c tin g through i t s e le c t e d l o c a l o f f i c i a l s , t o make a r e a so n a b le c o n t r ib u t io n t o i t s own r e c r e a t io n , e d i f i c a t i o n , and w e lf a r e . The f a i l u r e o f th e CEM A and A rts C o u n c il r e p e r to r y schem es, d is c u s s e d in Chap-i t e r II I, was d i r e c t l y t r a c e a b le t o t h i s d i s i n t e r e s t on th e part o f th e g e n e r a l p u b lic . T h eatre i s an e x p e n siv e com m odity in term s o f the e x p e n d itu r e o f money and in d iv id u a l ! e n e rg y . P u b lic r e f u s a l t o expend e i t h e r in q u a n tity s u f f i c i e n t t o dem onstrate s in c e r e i n t e r e s t was e v id e n c e o f j i la c k o f d e s ir e f o r th e a t r e or o f a c r ip p lin g dependence j I | upon th e c e n t r a l government or b o th . j i ' I P u b lic A t t it u d e toward th e T h eatre P r o f e s s io n J j J . B. P r i e s t l y , a s e r io u s and most ca p a b le p la y - j w r ig h t and d i r e c t o r , r e v e a le d in the f o llo w in g e x c e r p t from: h i s im passioned p le a fo r a b e t t e r t h e a t r e , th e c o n d itio n to o o f t e n e x i s t i n g on th e com m ercial s t a g e . What we need i s an atm osphere o f h ig h e r pro f e s s i o n a l s k i l l , e a r n e s t c o - o p e r a t io n , l o y a l team work l i t w ith u n fa d in g gleam s o f th e g en u in e a r t i s t ' s en th u siasm . We n e e d , t o o , a T heatre th a t j a t t r a c t s to i t s e l f p le n ty o f v i r i l e men and d e e p ly fem in in e women, and i s som ething b e t t e r th a n an e x h i b i t io n o f se x u a l o d d i t i e s and p e r v e r s io n s . We n eed , in f a c t , more p s y c h o lo g ic a l m alen ess and fem a le n e ss and a good d e a l l e s s s e x i n e s s . W e want a t h e a t r e t h a t i s n o t a mere shopwindow f o r p r e tty 105 young women on th e make and p o s tu r in g i n t r o v e r t s . In t h i s th e a tr e th e s ta g e and not th e staged oor w i l l be a ll- im p o r t a n t . I t w i l l be a p la c e where s e r io u s p r o f e s s io n a l men and women, p ro p erly tr a in e d and w e l l eq u ip ed , go t o work, as surgeons and p h y sic ia n s go to work in a h o s p i t a l . Let us c le a r away a l l th e s i l l y n o n se n se, th e muddle, th e gam bling, the i n s e c u r i t y , th e e x h ib it io n is m , th e cheap i n f l a t e d e g o s , and s t a r t w ith a c le a n bare s t a g e , s o l i d l y s e t in th e community and lin k ed w ith hundreds o f s im ila r ly s e n s ib le o r g a n iz a t io n s , a sta g e on w hich som ething good and tr u e and g lo w in g can be c r e a t e d .191 A rcher and G r a n v ille -B a r k e r n oted th e problem ere ated by th e employment o f a c to r s p o s s e s s in g l i t t l e or no r e a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n fo r th e sta g e as th e y d e fin e d i t s pur pose . The b e t t e r part o f a c tin g cannot be d i r e c t l y ta u g h t; but c e r t a i n o f i t s c o n s t it u e n t elem en ts can and ought t o be. There must be no excu se fo r th e appearance a t t h i s T h e a tr e , in however unim p ortan t a p o s i t i o n , o f any p erson who i s e n t i r e l y u n s k ille d in th e rudim entary mechanism o f h is c a l l i n g . 1 9 2 The f a c t t h a t a c tin g i s a tra d e fo r which th ere i s no r e c o g n iz e d p r e p a r a tio n , encourages many men, and s t i l l more women, w ith no s p e c i a l a p t it u d e , to "go on th e sta g e " fo r a year or two, and th e n t o drop i t as soon as the n o v e lt y o f th e e x p e r ie n c e has worn o f f . Thus a " c a su a l labor" c la s s i s c r e a te d , th e e x is t e n c e o f w hich i s most p r e j u d i c ia l to th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e lower ranks 1 9 1 P r ie s t ly , op. c i t .. p. 53. 192Archer and G r a n v ille -B a r k e r , op. c i t .. p. 96. 106 o f p r o f e s s i o n a l a c t o r s , whose s o l e chance o f a d e c e n t liv l i h o o d l i e s in c o n t i n u it y o f employm ent, 93 T h is, a p a rt from the E q u it y - lik e argument f o r r e s t r i c t e d en tra n ce in to th e p r o fe s s io n as a means o f p r e s e r v in g em p loym ent, d e sc r ib e d th e c h a r a c te r o f a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f a c t o r s . In d e s c r ib in g t h e i r c o n c ep t o f a drama s c h o o l, Archer and G r a n v ille -B a r k e r em phasized th e danger o f th e sc h o o l b e in g "abused by th e mere t r i f l e r and d i l e t t a n t e , | who th in k s i t would be p le a s a n t to d ab b le in a c a l l i n g which h e im agin es to be an e a sy and i d l e o n e." ^ 94 T h eir concern fo r th e employment o f t h r i l l - s e e k e r s , to th e e x c l u - i sio n o f s e r io u s a c to r s was an in d ic tm en t o f th e th e a tr e in d u str y and th e au d ien ce a t th e tu rn o f th e c e n tu r y . j E ith e r o f th e s e e lem en ts cou ld have a c te d t o r a i s e th e j ! stan d a rd s o f th e t h e a t r e . The com m ercial th e a tr e d id not su p p ly th e c h a lle n g e and ’ e x p e r ie n c e n e c e ss a r y t o d e v e lo p the a c to r s needed by th e n a t io n a l th e a t r e e n v isio n e d by Archer and G r a n v ille -B a r k e r . P la y w rig h ts com plained th a t a c to r s d id not e x i s t fo r th e iplays t h a t th ey wanted t o w r ite s o , t o make a l i v i n g , th e y were fo r c e d t o w r ite fo r th e a v a ila b le ta le n t.^ -93 At t h i s 193I b i d . , p. 101 194I b i d . , p. 97. 195I b i d . . p. 32. , 107 same tim e , Europe saw t h e a t r e as part o f major s o c i a l up h e a v a ls ; Ib se n , S tr in d b e r g , C h ek o ff, G ogol, G o rk i, T o l s t o i , W edekind, and Hauptmann h e ld prom ise fo r th e s t a g e . In 1952, Dame S y b i l Thorndike c r i t i c i z e d th e g e n e r a l to n e o f B r i t i s h t h e a t r e in a sta te m en t p u b lish ed in The T im es: In London I have se e n my p r o f e s s io n change from th a t o f ro g u es and vagabonds and r e b e l s t o o b e d ie n t tr a d e u n i o n i s t s , w ith th e i d e a l o f d i g n i t y and s e c u r i t y . Now anyone can come in t o t h e a tr e w ith o u t d a n g er, and i t has become the r e c o g n iz e d e sca p e fo r a l l , w hether t a le n t e d or n o t , who want t o e x p r e ss th e m se lv e s and f l e e from th e burden o f l i f e . *-96 W . Bridges-Adam s, w r itin g in Drama, traced th e r i s e and f a l l o f th e a c t in g p r o f e s s io n from th e tim e when a c to r s banded to g e t h e r under n o b le s fo r c i v i l p r o t e c t io n , through th e r i s e o f r e s p e c t a b i l i t y in the e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y , to th e k n ig h tin g o f I r v in g in 1895 (an honor f i r s t o ff e r e d him in 1 8 8 3 ), to 1962, when a " d ir ty n eck and a g r ie v a n c e 197 was a l l t h a t was needed fo r ad m ittan ce t o th e West End." P r i e s t l y argued th a t th e system was a t th e h e a r t o f th e jproblem: i t a cted t o d e fe a t th e b e s t e f f o r t s o f th e good 196 The T im es. December 13, 1952, p. 8. 197 W . Bridges-Adam s, ''When Did R e s p e c ta b ility B egin ," Drama (W inter, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 2 6 -2 8 . 19 8 manager and to encourage th e w o rst o f th e w o r st. P er haps the f a c t t h a t Lord L ytton f e l t th a t he had t o r e f u t e p u b lic ly a p u b lish ed charge th a t th e pre-w ar South K en sin g to n s i t e fo r th e N a tio n a l T heatre was th e s i t e o f an o ld plagu e p i t ^99 W as e v id e n c e o f a p u b lic assum ption th a t a l l was n o t h on orab le in a th e a tr e -w o r ld d e d ic a te d t o sham, e f f e c t , and p r o f i t . The wartim e t h e a t r e programs d ev elop ed new a u d i e n c e s which were e s s e n t i a l to th e p o st-w a r boom in B r i t i s h t h e a t r e . D ent, in 1945, saw t h i s au d ien ce to be young, c o n f id e n t , and n o t a fr a id t o make i t s own d e c i s i o n s . T h is new p u b lic found t h a t th e t h e a t r e was not j u s t fo r th e r ic h or th e i n t e l l e c t u a l snob. C raig p u b lish ed a c r i t i c i s m in The Mask o f such a snob au d ien ce and h eld i t t o be th e r u le and n o t the e x c e p tio n in 1912: The au d ien ce avs o n ly a l i t t l e s t i f f nowadays b eca u se a s s e s have brayed from high p la c e s th a t Art i s so m oral and so d eep , so t h i s and so t h a t , t h a t our poor f r ie n d s g e t s t i f f b ecau se th ey f e e l th e y can n ev er be "so good or so c le v e r as a l l t h a t ," T his hum anizing o f the a u d ien ce can be brought 198 p r ies(:i y , pp. c i t . . p. 36. ■ ^ W h itw orth , op. c i t . . p. 207. 2 0 0 Dent, op. c i t . , p. 133. 109 about by g iv in g them good p la y s in a good workman- ly w aj^ for a low p r ic e in w e l l - b u i l t t h e a t r e s • • • C raig did not lim it h is c r it ic is m to th a t one a r t i c l e . In commenting on the fa ilu r e o f th e Beecham opera company, j ! C ra ig e d i t o r i a l i z e d : " It i s un tru e th a t th e P u b lic does notj want Opera, but the P u b lic d oes not want t o go t o f a s h io n - I t a b le g ilt-e d g e d th e a tr e s fo r i t . The P u b lic is n ot a sn ob ." 202 Iv o r Brown, w r it in g in 1962, commented on a f u r - j th e r developm ent in th e new young au d ien ce th a t "did i t s J own th in k in g " : th e new members o f th e la b o r c l a s s had th e j I money to become m iddle c l a s s in th e r eo r g a n iz e d s o c i a l i t ! s t r u c tu r e which r e s u lt e d from th e war and th e ex p a n sio n o f th e W elfare State, but th e y somehow r e ta in e d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e th a t th e th e a t r e was fo r th e r i c h . 20* * The j f i lm and th en t e l e v i s i o n were th e e n ter ta in m en t f o r th e j "common man." A ttem pts were made to p o p u la r iz e th e a r t s , ■ i ' ■ ■" i j I ^ ° * * B r itta n ic u s , "Art and the N a tio n ," The Mask, V ,(1912-1913), p. 14. j 202E. Gordon C raig, "Foreign N o tes," The Mask. I l l ( 1 9 1 0 -1 9 1 1 ), p. 140. 20**Ivor Brown, "The P u b lic and th e P la y ," Drama, Summer, 1962, p. 27. e s p e c i a l l y t h e a t r e , through tra d e u n io n s .20^ Shaw com plained t h a t the " p u b lic i s e i t h e r s a t i s - i f ie d or i n d i f f e r e n t ; th e c l a s s in England w hich f e e l s . s o c i a l m atters does n o t a tten d t h e a t r e , th e c l a s s which ! 205 does a tten d w ants t o be amused, not c o n s c ie n c e - s t r ic k e n .' T his was echoed in two a r t i c l e s in The T im es: George Devinej i o f th e R oyal Court T h eatre saw th e th e a tr e as an i s o l a t e d I art form w ith th e i n t e l l e c t u a l and th e working man both I i 9 n £ a v o id in g i t ; in th e seco n d , p la y g o in g was d e sc r ib e d as aj i m in o r ity h a b it and th e a tr e was se en t o be f a l l i n g in to l i g h t en terta in m en t in order to s u r v i v e . ^07 The Times p u b lish ed a commentary on th e p u b lic a t t i t u d e toward t h e a tr e in 1958. A " s u s p ic io n o f p r iv ile d g e " surrounded th e J t h e a t r e ; "opera was in ten d ed fo r th e w h i t e - t i e crowd i (a lth o u g h i t was f i l l e d w ith b u s in e s s s u i t s ) " ; " p oets were in com p reh en sib le" ; " a r t i s t s were known not t o be r e s p e c t a b le and, t h e r e f o r e , not d e s e r v in g o f su pport"; th e " a r ts j i 2^ " C e n tr e F orty-T w o," Drama, Summer, 1962, p. 17. 1 o 05 1 G. B. Shaw, "The C en sorsh ip o f th e S ta g e in Eng-j la n d ," Shaw on T h e a tr e , ed. E. J. West (New York: H i l l and Wang, 1958), p. 79. 206The T im es. May 2 9 , 1959, p. 15. ^ ^ The Tim es, November 26, 1959, p. 6 , I l l had t o be kep t in t h e i r p la c e f o r th e m oral h e a lt h o f th e 208 n a t i o n . 1 ’ T h is was n o t much t o show fo r a lm o st two d e c a d e s o f su p p o rted t h e a tr e --w h e r e was th e a u d ie n c e th a t i was su p p osed t o d e v e lo p when g iv e n th e o p p o r tu n ity ? S m a ll p u b lic s seem ed t o e x i s t f o r many t y p e s o f t h e a t r e . The young a u d ien ce o f p o st-w a r England found a t h e a t r e t o t h e ir j l i k i n g in th e angry young men o f th e R o y a l C ou rt T h ea tr e j in S lo a n e S q u are, th e s o c i a l c lim b e r s found s n o b -a p p e a l a t ; th e b a l l e t and th e o p e r a , f ilm and t e l e v i s i o n fa n s found a j i f l i g h t and s ta r -s tu d d e d t h e a t r e , and f o r th o s e w ith th e I e n e r g y , th e c l a s s i c s found t h e i r m om ents. Each o f t h e s e ! p u b lic s may have b een r e s p o n s ib le f o r one or more o f th e a t t i t u d e s The Tim es r e p o r te d . Such s p e c i a l p u b lic s would n o t be d is p o se d t o approve o f a n o t h e r 's c h o ic e in e n t e r ta in m e n t. T h is s i t u a t i o n seem ed t o p e r p e tu a te i t s e l f in th e m ajor c i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y London, w here s u f f i c i e n t i a u d ie n c e encouragem en t c o u ld be found m ost o f th e t im e , b u t' I i t la r g e ly f a i l e d in th e p r o v in c e s w here a u d ie n c e s , a c c o r d -! j in g t o M a r s h a ll's r e v ie w o f N ic o ll,^ ® ^ w ere o f a more ! _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i i i 2 08The_ T im e s, March 2 8 , 1 9 5 8 , p . 11. 209jjorman M a r sh a ll, "The D im in ish in g A u d ie n c e ," Drama. Autumn, 1 9 6 2 , pp. 4 1 -4 3 , 1 1 2 i g e n e r a l n a tu r e and n o t d is p o s e d t o su ch s p e c i a li z e d J t h e a t r e . | In a 1956 a r t i c l e , The Tim es q u e s tio n e d th e pub l i c ' s d e s ir e fo r " n ew " p lays. T h i r t y - s i x o f th e f o r t y - t w o p la y s on London s t a g e s a t th a t tim e w ere "new" p la y s and ! 210 s t i l l th e clam or f o r new p la y s p e r s i s t e d . The Tim es . argued t h a t th e p u b lic was c o n fu s in g th e f i lm and t e l e v i s i o n i in d u s tr y , w h ich was d e d ic a te d t o th ei p r o d u c tio n o f new j p la y s , w it h .t h e t h e a t r e and i t s t h e o r e t i c a l d e d ic a t io n t o J I good p la y s . A n a t io n a l t h e a t r e , d e d ic a te d t o th e p r e s e n t s - j t i o n o f th e c l a s s i c s , n eed ed an a u d ie n c e in o rd er t o s u r v i v e and th e p o t e n t i a l a u d ie n c e needed th e e x p o su re t o th e c l a s s i c s to d e v e lo p — one j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r a la r g e i n i t i a l s u b s id y t o th e n a t io n a l t h e a t r e . ; The c o n c e p t o f d e v e lo p in g an a u d ie n c e fo r th e n a t io n a l t h e a t r e in th e y e a r s im m ed ia te ly p r e c e d in g th e ; c o n s t r u c t io n o f t h a t t h e a t r e was an ou tgrow th o f a c o n c e p t o f a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e a s a t o u r in g com pany, n o t as a b u i l d - i [ in g . The im p ortan ce o f th e company was n o t d e n ie d d u rin g ■ j th e lo n g s t r u g g le f o r a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e . G r a n v ille - j B a r k e r 's s t r i c t r e q u ir e m e n ts fo r a p h y s ic a l p la n t w ere 2 1 0 The Tim es. October l y , 1956, p. 3. 1 1 3 1 i b a sed on th e a ssu m p tio n th a t a to p -g r a d e company c o u ld n o t 1 i i be s u s ta in e d w ith o u t th e m ost p e r f e c t o f t h e a t r e s and t h a t j an a u d ie n c e w ould n o t t o l e r a t e th e d is c o m fo r t and d i s t r a c - i t i o n o f th e e x i s t i n g com m ercial t h e a t r e s . The Old V ic Com pany seem ed d e s tin e d t o become th e c o r e o f th e n a t io n a l ! t h e a t r e company s in c e i t s s u c c e s s d u rin g th e 1 9 3 0 's . I t : a t t a in e d in t e r n a t io n a l renow n under O liv ie r and R ic h a r d - r i so n . S in c e th o s e g o ld e n d a y s , i t s p r e s t ig e had s lip p e d . j j W e llw a r th , w r it in g in Modern Drama in 1959 r e f e r r e d t o th e Old V ic a s a " p a in fu l s u b je c t" : I t was n o t m erely t h a t th e r e s id e n t company f a i l e d t o compare w ith th e t o u r in g company: i t f a i l e d t o com pare w ith any com p eten t t h e a t r e com pany. I have se e n b e t t e r p erform an ces o f M acbeth and J u liu s C aesar by A m erican u n d e r g r a d u a te s. L a te r I d is c o v e r e d th a t th e m ost k n o w led g ea b le London p la y g o e r s c o n s id e r th e Old V ic a jo k e and n e v e r go. The a u d ie n c e s are com posed m a in ly o f unwary t o u r i s t s and s c h o o l c h ild r e n . T h is was an extrem e sta te m e n t b u t th e la c k o f a r e b u t t a l i n ! : th e same p e r io d ic a l , th e g r a d u a l d e c r e a s e in p u b lic a c c la im i j and in a u d ie n c e s le n t w e ig h t t o i t . The Old V ic r e c e iv e d j j j ; th e honor o f b e in g form ed i n t o th e N a tio n a l T h ea tre Companyi I I ' b e c a u se i t was t r a d i t i o n a l l y " in lin e " f o r i t and b e c a u se i t s c h i e f c o m p e titio n a t S t r a t f o r d had o th e r com m itm ents 211 G eorge W e llw a r th , " T h eatre in L ondon," Modern Drama, I I (May, 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 4 8 -4 9 . and c o u ld n o t merge w ith th e Old V ic t o c r e a t e a company ' o f th e h ig h e s t a t t a in a b le q u a l it y . I The ch a n g es in p u b lic a t t i t u d e tow ard th e t h e a t r e w ere n o t c h a r a c t e r iz e d . by th e e r a d ic a t io n o f any g iv e n 1 p r e ju d ic e . The o l d e s t argum ents s t i l l e x is t e d in 1 9 6 3 — j u s t t h e i r im p ortan ce had c h a n g ed . W hile m ost p e o p le ; a llo w e d t h a t t h e a t r e c o u ld be r e s p e c t a b le and e v e n c o n - i t r i b u t e t o t h e i r w e l f a r e , o th e r s c o n tin u e d t o c o n s id e r i t w I f l a s s i n f u l a c t i v i t y . W hile th e p u b lic a t t i t u d e tow ard th e p e o p le o f th e t h e a t r e v a r ie d from d e r i s i o n t o a d u la t io n , th e c o n d it io n s o f th e com m ercial t h e a t r e and th e b e h a v io r o f some " s ta r s " and t h e a t r e ow ners in ju r e d th e b u lk o f th e p r o f e s s io n . P la y s have b een b o th w orth y and p u r p o se ly u n w orth y o f r e s p e c t . The r o le o f governm ent changed and th e a c c e p ta n c e o f g o v ern m en ta l in t e r f e r e n c e and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y j I in s o c i a l m a tte r s was assum ed. Once t h e a t r e was r e d e fin e d 1 in a lr e a d y a c c e p te d term s and once a few e x p e r im e n ts had ; I become " t r a d it io n a l" t o a new g e n e r a t io n , th e p u b lic was rea d y t o a c c e p t th e c o n c e p t o f s t a t e su p p o rt. World War I I | i 1 l p ro v id ed a la b o r a to r y f o r s o c i a l e x p e rim en t on a grand J s c a le and much o f th e p u b lic a t t i t u d e tow ard governm ent and t h e a tr e stemmed from e x p e r ie n c e and le g e n d from t h a t p e r io d . CHAPTER I I I i THE EVOLUTION O F THE PRESENT PRO G RAM O F GOVERNM ENTAL SUPPORT TO THEATRE j I n tr o d u c tio n j I The governm ent o f G reat B r it a in h a s su p p o rted c e r t a i n p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s w h ich c o n tr ib u te d t o th e c u l t u r a l d ev elo p m en t o f th e c o u n tr y s in c e i t s a ssu m p tio n o f a d e g r e e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e m ain ten an ce o f th e B r i t i s h Museum i n 1 7 5 3 .* T h is s u p p o r t, in th e form o f an an n u al T reasu ry o r M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n g r a n t , was e x te n d ed t o p u b lic l i b r a r i e s , g a l l e r i e s , and R o y a l A cadem ies d u rin g th e n in e - ; 2 ! t e e n t h c e n tu r y . In h i s 1930 p le a f o r th e c r e a t io n o f a g o v e r n m e n ta lly su p p o rted n a t io n a l t h e a t r e , H a rley G ran- ; i i v i l l e - B a r k e r o b serv ed th a t t h e s e museums, l i b r a r i e s , and i 1 B r i t i s h In fo r m a tio n S e r v ic e , E n terta in m en t and t h e A r ts in G reat B r it a in (L ondon, 1 9 5 6 ), p. 3 . ^I b i d . . p. 4 . g a l l e r i e s r e c e i v in g th e t h e n - t r a d i t i o n a l g r a n ts had b een c o n c e iv e d and e s t a b lis h e d a t th e i n s i s t e n c e o f an im a g in a t i v e m in o r it y - - t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s w ere open t o th e g e n e r a l p u b lic b u t o n ly a s m a ll p a r t o f t h a t p u b lic e v e r v i s i t e d them .^ P r iv a t e e f f o r t s t o e s t a b l i s h c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r th e b e n e f i t o f a l l r ea c h e d a p eak in th e 1 9 3 0 's . BBC ir a d io b r o a d c a s ts p o p u la r iz e d sym p hon ies and to u r in g e x h ib i t s w ere e s t a b lis h e d t o d i f f u s e th e v i s u a l a r t s f u r t h e r . The p r a c t ic e o f g iv in g ex em p tio n from th e E n te r ta in m e n ts Duty on " p a r tly e d u c a tio n a l" ground s was expanded t o i n c lu d e t h e a t r e . D u rin g World War I I , th e governm ent d em o n stra ted i t s c a p a b i l i t y as a p r o v id e r o f c u l t u r a l f a r e fo r th e n a t i o n . As a means o f m a in ta in in g m orale among b o th tr o o p s and war p la n t w o r k e r s, th e E n te r ta in m e n ts N a tio n a l S e r v ic e A s s o c ia t io n (ENSA) was c r e a t e d . T h is was an im p o rta n t phase in th e e v o lu t io n o f g o v ern m en ta l su p p o r t. A s e p a r a te w artim e d evelop m en t was th e C o u n c il fo r th e Encouragem ent i _ * • o f M usic and t h e A r ts (CEMA) w h ich h a s , as an a d d it io n a l p u rp o se , th e p r e s e r v a tio n and m a in ten a n ce o f a r t i s t s , a r t form s, and s ta n d a r d s . At th e end o f th e w ar, th e g o v e r n - 3H a rley G r a n v ille - B a r k e r , A N a tio n a l T h ea tr e (L on don: S id g w ic k and J a c k so n , L t d ., 1 9 3 0 )^ p. 3 . 117 i ment b egan t o w ith d raw from th e d i r e c t p r o v is io n o f t h e a t r e and ad op ted a p o l i c y o f encou ragem en t and su p p o rt t o | e x i s t i n g c o m p a n ie s. P u b lic d i s c u s s i o n o f th e r o l e o f th e governm ent in th e c u l t u r a l l i f e o f th e n a t io n b egan t o r e p la c e th e p e r m is s iv e a t t i t u d e o f th e w ar. ! r The argum ents and d is c u s s io n s c o n c e r n in g th e p rop er j i . f 'fu n c tio n o f governm ent in t h e a t r e c e n te r e d on th e E n te r - ! ta in m e n t D uty and th e prop osed n a t io n a l t h e a t r e . The > ; i a t t e n t i o n g iv e n in th e p r e s s t o th e c o n t in u a l P a r lia m e n ta r y \ I d e b a te s o f t h e s e i s s u e s gave th e p u b lic am ple o p p o r tu n ity j t o p a r t i c i p a t e in th e d evelop m en t o f o f f i c i a l p o l i c y . The E n te r ta in m e n ts D uty on t h e a t r e e x is t e d from 1916 t o 1957 and th e sy ste m o f su p p o rt th rou gh ex em p tio n from t h i s ta x was s u b je c te d t o so many s p e c i a l c o n d it io n s t h a t i t was f i n a l l y a b o lis h e d by th e governm ent t o a v o id a l o s s o f p u b lic c o n f id e n c e . The n a t io n a l t h e a t r e i s s u e d id n o t j •in v o lv e a s la r g e a p u b lic as d id th e ta x i s s u e . W hereas i th e t a x was d is c u s s e d in reg a rd t o i t s e f f e c t on em p loy- ; I ! Im ent, th e s u r v iv a l o f co m p a n ies, and p r o f i t m a rg in s, th e j j | n a t io n a l t h e a t r e d e b a te was c o n d u cte d on a more a e s t h e t i c * p la n e w h ich in v o lv e d o n ly a s m a ll m in o r ity o f th e p o p u la t i o n . W hile t h i s m in o r ity , l a r g e ly com posed o f t h e a t r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s , d e v e lo p e d s ta te m e n ts o f p u rp ose and c o n c e p ts 1 1 8 1 j o f o p e r a tio n f o r th e n a t io n a l t h e a t r e , th e governm ent demonr ! s t r a t e d th e e x t e n t t o w h ich i t f e l t j u s t i f i e d t o s u b s id iz e I c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s by i t s s t e a d i l y in c r e a s in g g r a n ts t o i th e A r ts C o u n c il. The o f f i c i a l stam p o f g o v e rn m e n ta l a p p ro v a l o f th e n a t io n a l t h e a t r e came w ith P a r lia m e n t's 1949 v o t e t o a p p r o p r ia te no more th a n t l , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 t o b u ild j ! su ch an i n s t i t u t i o n . T h is A ct s i g n a ll e d th e g o v e r n m e n t's i n t e n t i o n t o p r o v id e o r h e lp p r o v id e a b u ild in g w h en ever a j s u i t a b l e p la n was su b m itted t o th e T r e a s u r y , n o t i t s in t e n - j ; I t i o n t o p r o v id e and m a in ta in a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e . I t was ] 1 more th a n a d ecad e b e fo r e an a c c e p t a b le p la n was p r e se n te d J and work a c t u a l ly b e g a n . i The e v o lu t io n o f t h e a t r e su p p o rt o f t e n to o k th e form o f ch a n g es in m i n i s t e r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The C EM A program was expanded when r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i t s o p e r a tio n was tr a n s f e r r e d from th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n t o th e T r e a su r y . Many o f th e ENSA program s w ere d is c o n tin u e d a t j ; I th e end o f th e war when th e M in is t e r o f Labour and N a t io n a l jS e r v ic e c o u ld no lo n g e r j u s t i f y th e i n c lu s i o n o f th o s e program s among h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . The T rea su ry had j a lr e a d y assumed th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c i v i l i a n c u l t u r a l program s and th e m i li t a r y s e r v i c e s had r e t a in e d th e adm in i s t r a t i v e s tr u c t u r e w h ich p r o v ided e n te r ta in m e n t f o r tr o o p s 119; I i b e fo r e th e w a r - -th e r e was no f u r t h e r need f o r ENSA on th e ! ! i p a r t o f any g o v e rn m e n ta l m in is t r y and i t was t h e r e f o r e d i s - ; ‘ i s o lv e d . The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c u l t u r a l su p p o rt g r a v it a t e d | j tow ard th e T rea su ry b e c a u se o f i t s lo n g t r a d i t i o n o f d i r e c t g r a n ts t o c u l t u r a l and s c i e n t i f i c i n s t i t u t i o n s and f o r ! i r e a s o n s o f e x p e d ie n c y - - t h e T rea su ry was th e so u r c e o f fu n d s; i a l lo c a t e d t o th e o th e r m i n i s t r i e s . The governm ent r e s i s t e d p r e s s u r e s t o c r e a t e a s e p - j a r a te M in is tr y f o r th e F in e A r ts e v en in th e fa c e o f i c h a r g e s t h a t th e C h a n c e llo r o f th e E xchequer had b een forced in t o th a t r o l e a lr e a d y . The sy ste m had n o t e v o lv e d to th e d e g r e e o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w h ich w ould have 'b e e n r e q u ir e d by th e c r e a t io n o f a s p e c i a l m in is t r y . A program o f T rea su ry su p p o rt t o a c o m p a r a tiv e ly in d ep en d en t A r ts C o u n c il w h ich d i s t r i b u t e d fu n d s t o t h e a t r e a s i t saw f i t e x is t e d and was d efen d ed a s b e in g c o n s i s t e n t w ith ! B r i t i s h t r a d i t i o n s o f freed om in th e a r t s . A rgum ents f a - ' jv o r in g th e c r e a t i o n o f a s p e c i a l m in is tr y d id n o t surm ount ; |f e a r s o f g o v ern m en ta l c o n t r o l and d ep en d en ce upon p o l i t i c a l ; l i a l l i a n c e s in th e a r t s . i The B r i t i s h program o f su p p o rt t o t h e a t r e was s t i l l - in a s t a t e o f e v o lu t io n in 1 9 6 3 . W hile th e A r ts C o u n c il was under th e s u p e r v is io n o f th e T r e a su r y , th e M in is t e r s o f ” 120 ; j E d u ca tio n and o f Works s t i l l e x e r te d in f lu e n c e th ro u g h th e ■ ap p oin tm en t o f th e A r ts C o u n c il, th e im p lem e n ta tio n o f th e j i I " F u rth er E d u cation " program , and th e m ain ten an ce and p r e s e r v a t io n o f b u ild in g s . The governm ent w as s t i l l c o n s id e r in g th e aim s o f su p p o rt program s and a p r a c t i c a l d i v i - j s io n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w ith l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . T e l e v i - I i is io n was d e v e lo p in g g r e a t e r c a p a b i l i t y as a prim e d i f f u s e r j o f t h e a r t s . In th e a b sen ce o f a s p e c i f i c p u rp o se , p r o - j ! s gram, r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e m u n ic ip a l g o v ern m en ts, and know- I ile d g e o f th e r o l e t o be p la y e d by o th e r m ed ia, th e B r i t i s h governm ent w as n o t in a p o s i t i o n t o c r e a te a new m in is t r y . A s i n g l e in q u ir y , in th e form o f a R oyal C om m ission, in t o -th e problem was n o t even a c c e p te d and th e s e p a r a te Commis s i o n s , C om m ittees, and C o u n c ils a lr e a d y in e x is t e n c e w ere ch arged w ith th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f e v a lu a t in g th e problem I in t h e i r own a r e a s o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . i t E n te r ta in m e n ts D uty ' ; | I The d i v i s i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r su p p o rt t o ! I i !t h e a t r e among se p a r a te a g e n c ie s o f th e B r i t i s h governm ent j ; i was m ost c l e a r l y se e n as i t con cern ed th e e x em p tio n s from th e E n te r ta in m e n ts D u ty, W ith P a r lia m e n ta r y a p p r o v a l, th e T r e a su r y , th rou gh th e C om m ission o f Customs and E x c is e , l e v i e d a ta x on a d m issio n t i c k e t s as one means o f p a y in g f o r th e war in 1916. As p a r t o f th e o r i g i n a l a c t , th e i Treasury allow ed exem ptions from th e ta x i f th e e n te r ta in - j i ment w as b o th o f a nw h o lly e d u c a t io n a l1 1 c h a r a c te r and n o t j presen ted for p r o f it . The problems o f how to tax e n te r tainm ent th a t was ed u ca tio n a l and p r o fita b le and how to 1 d i s t i n g u i s h " e d u c a tio n a l" from " am u sing," f i r s t p osed by Mr. David Mason in Parliam ent in 1916 and r e s ta te d by a j | High Court Judge in 1 9 5 6 , were a c o n tin u a l source o f j j t r o u b le .^ E f f o r t s t o p r e s e r v e t h e a t r e by th e c r e a t io n o f s e v e r a l s c a l e s o f t a x f o r c in em a , s p o r t in g e v e n t s , and l i v e t h e a t r e o n ly compounded th e p ro b lem s. In th e o r i g i n a l a c t , th e M in is te r o f E d u c a tio n was g iv e n th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r d e te r m in in g w hat m a t e r ia l was e d u c a tio n a l, th e r e b y q u a l i f y in g f o r e x e m p tio n . A lth o u g h th e p r o v is io n s o f th e 1916 A ct d id n o t s p e c i f y w hat w ould be c o n s id e r e d " e d u c a tio n a l," s an a ttem p t was made t o d e f in e th e n o n p r o fit c o n d it io n . i ; "E ntertainm ents th e whole ta k in g s o f which were devoted i 5 ! : t o c h a r ity " w ere exem pt b u t i f any e x p e n se s w ere t o be i 1 p a id o u t o f t h e s e t a k in g s , th e ta x had to be p aid p en d in g a\ ^A. P. H e r b e r t, "No F in e on Fun" (London: M ethuen and Company, L t d ., 1 9 5 7 ), p. 19. 5 I b id . . p. 1 0 6 .________ - ' ' " ■ ■ 122 I d e c i s i o n by th e T rea su ry a f t e r a c o n s id e r a t io n o f th e s p e c i f i c m e r its o f th e schem e. E n te r ta in m e n ts p r e se n te d byi s c h o o ls w h ich w ere n o t c o n s t i t u t e d f o r p r o f i t w ere e n t i t l e d ! t o ex em p tio n i f a l l p erfo rm ers w ere under i n s t r u c t i o n a t g th e s c h o o l. Such e x e m p tio n , h o w ev er, was t o be w ithd raw n j i f th e s o c i e t y or s c h o o l engaged in some f r i v o l o u s a c t i v it y ^ - - e a c h p r e s e n t a t io n w as t o be ju d ged on i t s own m e r its i and n o t on th e r e p u t a t io n o f th e p ro d u cin g b od y. " Z o o lo g - j i c a l g ard en s n o t c a r r ie d on f o r p r o f i t ” w ere s p e c i f i c a l l y ' d e s ig n a te d as q u a l if i e d f o r e x em p tio n d u r in g th e d i s c u s s io n o f th e o r i g i n a l a c t.® Amendments w ere made in 1923 t o c l a r i f y th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r ex em p tio n a t e v e n ts com b in in g s e v e r a l " e n te r ta in m e n ts " o f a m ixed n a tu r e ( p la y ground equipm ent was p e r m is s ib le a t a flo w e r show b u t a v o c a l c o n c e r t was n o t, a band c o n c e r t a t a zoo m ight lea d t o a d i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n , h o r s e s c o u ld p erform t r i c k s b u t Q c o u ld n o t r a c e ) 7 b u t a s e r io u s t e s t o f th e law was n o t i n i t i a t e d u n t i l 1934. U n t il t h a t tim e , th e p rop osed system ; was n o t e x e r c is e d by any i n s t i t u t i o n o th e r th a n th e zoo s o ; i i i t was n o t known i f i t w as w ork ab le or n o t . 6 I b i d . . pp. 1 0 2 -1 0 3 . 8I b i d . , p . 57. 7 I b i d . . pp. 1 0 3 -1 0 4 . 9 I b i d . . p. 104. ..............................................................................................." " ■ ' ................................................ ■ “ 1 2 3 ; I In 1 9 3 4 , th e Old V ic , r e p r e s e n te d by S ir R e g in a ld ■ Rowe, g a in e d a c o u r t d e c i s i o n o f e l i g i b i l i t y f o r ex em p tio n j | under th e " e d u c a tio n a l" c l a u s e . ^0 The T rea su ry a llo w ed th e i i ex em p tio n t o sta n d and d id n o t s e e k an amendment s p e c i - ! i f i c a l l y d e n y in g th e " e d u c a tio n a l" fu n c t io n o f t h e a t r e - - H erb ert c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h i s was b e c a u se th e Old V ic was i !n o n p r o f it and b e c a u se i t was d o in g r e s p e c t a b le , n o n c o n tr o - j i v e r s i a l work and h e s p e c u la te d t h a t th e r e a c t io n w ould have b e e n d i f f e r e n t had th e f i r s t a p p lic a n t b een a com m ercial t h e a t r e from th e W est E n d .^ T h is c o n c e s s io n by th e T r e a s u ry was la r g e ly due t o th e d e c i s i o n o f C h am b erlain , th e n C h a n c e llo r o f th e E x ch eq u er, t o a ffir m th e " p a r tly e d u c a t io n a l" v a lu e o f some t h e a t r i c a l e f f o r t s . ^ c h a m b e rla in c r e a te d s e p a r a te r a t e s o f t a x f o r th e nonexem pt l i v i n g t h e a t r e to g iv e i t a b e t t e r ch an ce to s u r v iv e th e in c r e a s - j in g c o m p e titio n from cin em a. C u r io u s ly , C h am berlain c l a s s i f i : j ; f i e d p la y s , b a l l e t s , m u sic , l e c t u r e s , v a r i e t y sh ow s, pup- j ' i j p e t s , c i r c u s e s , and t r a v e l in g m en a g er ies a s " l i v i n g j \ i ; ! ;_______________________________________________________________________ _j ; t I 1 ^ I ^ C h arles L a n d sto n e, O ff-S ta g e (London: E le k B ook s,; L t d ., 1 9 5 3 ), p. 6 9 . ■^Herbert, op. c i t . . pp. 57-58. •^I b i d . , p. 53. th e a tr e " e l i g i b l e fo r th e lo w er t a x .- 1 -3 At th e s t a r t o f i th e Second World War, th e Old V ic had b een jo in e d by S t r a t - j fo rd -u p o n -A v o n and a few r e p e r t o r i e s a s com p anies exem pt j i from th e t a x . The E n te r ta in m e n ts D uty was in c r e a s e d and th e n d ou b led a s a means o f r a i s i n g rev en u e d u rin g th e e a r l y p a rtj o f th e war b u t th e same c o m p a ra tiv e r e d u c tio n fo r l i v i n g ! ' i ; I t h e a t r e was r e t a in e d . S ir K in g s le y Wood, th e C h a n c e llo r o fj th e E xch eq u er, a ttem p ted t o le v y a ta x upon th e p u rch ase o f n e w sp a p e r s, p e r i o d i c a l s , and book s in 1 9 4 0 , b u t s tr o n g p r o t e s t s in and o u t o f P a r lia m e n t fo r c e d him t o d e la y and I f i n a l l y t o drop th e id e a a l t o g e t h e r . T h is t a x was o p p osed on th e ground s t h a t i t w ould c o n s t i t u t e a ta x on kn ow led ge and a c t t o p e n a liz e members o f th e p o p u la tio n f o r a tte m p tin g t o e d u c a te th e m s e lv e s . At t h i s same tim e , th e ! c o n c e p t o f " e d u c a tio n a l" came t o a p p ly t o m ost drama and a j i ; 1 g r e a t number o f com p an ies had c o n s t i t u t e d th e m s e lv e s a s j ! ! I n o n p r o fit a c c o r d in g t o th e r a th e r in c o m p le te l e t t e r o f th e i i j ; 1916 law . A buses o f th e s p i r i t o f t h i s law w ere d eb a ted | in P a r lia m e n t in 1942 and 1943: th e m ajor o b j e c t io n was t o ' th e p r a c t ic e s o f p a y in g la r g e s a l a r i e s t o k ey p e r s o n n e l 1 3 I b i d . . p. 27 i 4 I b i d . , p. 198. ....... - - ............................... 125 i : ! r a th e r th a n r e c o r d in g a p r o f i t to th e company and t o e r e - ! i a t in g a p o w e r fu l and s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g p r o d u c tio n o r g a n iz e - ! w h ich c o u ld o u t-b id com m ercial c o m p e tito r s fo r a c t o r s , p la y s , and t h e a t r e s . In O ctob er o f 1 9 43, S ir John A n d er s o n , C h a n c e llo r o f th e E xch eq u er, announced t h a t a com m it- j t e e o f th r e e was b e in g e s t a b lis h e d t o a d v is e th e Com m issionj i 1 o f Custom s and E x c is e on th e e d u c a tio n a l m e r its o f any j ! i g iv e n d r a m a --it was c o n s id e r e d u n f a ir t o h o ld th e C h a n c e l- j j ; lo r o f th e E xchequer r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e d e te r m in a tio n o f j e d u c a t io n a l v a lu e s in a g iv e n p l a y . ^ The M in is te r o f E d u c a tio n who had b e e n ch arged w ith t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i o r i g i n a l l y seem ed t o have l e f t th e jo b t o th e T rea su ry b e - , c a u se i t was n o t s u g g e s te d th a t h i s o f f i c e c o u ld or c o u ld n o t p erform in t h i s c a p a c it y . T h is c o m m ittee, headed by S ir E r n e st P o o le y , a g o v ern o r o f th e Old V ic and l a t e r t o j become Chairm an o f th e A r ts C o u n c il, q u ic k ly d em o n stra ted aj ! I s e l f - d e f e a t i n g r e lu c t a n c e t o e n te r in t o any c o n tr o v e r s y by a d v is in g an ex em p tio n f o r C h a r le y ’ s Aunt on th e ground s i t i |w as a c l a s s i c and r e f u s in g t o recommend a l l p la y s by I j : P r i e s t l y , Maugham, and B a r r ie b e c a u se th e y w ere " c o n tr o - ' ; I 15I b i d . , p. 5 8 . ^ L a n d sto n e, op. c i t . . p. 77. ‘ 126 v e r s i a l m o d ern s.1 1 ^ F or p erfo rm a n ces o f t h i s n a tu r e t h e co m m ittee so o n became i d e n t i f i e d a s " th e t h r e e b lin d m ice" 1 ft i n t h e a t r e c i r c l e s . ° Hugh Beaumont o f H. M. T en n en t, L t d ., t h e m ost p o w e r fu l W est End company and a l s o th e c r e a t o r o f a "non p r o f it " s u b s id ia r y , T enn en t P r o d u c tio n s , L t d ., d e d ic a te d t o th e p r o d u c tio n o f " e d u c a tio n a l" p la y s f o r p u rp o se s o f t a x e x e m p tio n s, was found t o be in a p o s i t i o n , under la w , t o u s e t h i s ta x ex em p tio n t o o u tb id h i s com m ercial r i v a l s , t o t r y o u t new p la y s i n th e ta x -e x e m p t company and, i f s u c c e s s f u l , t o t r a n s f e r them t o th e com m ercial s t a g e , and t o pay h im s e lf la r g e m a n a g e r ia l and p r o d u c tio n f e e s a s w e l l as t o b u ild a s to c k o f sc e n e r y and co stu m e s f o r com m ercial u s e . The b i g g e s t lo o p h o le was n o t th e poor d e f i n i t i o n o f " e d u c a tio n a l" b u t o f " n o n p r o fit." The C o u n c il fo r th e Encouragem ent o f M usic and th e A r ts a ls o became in v o lv e d in t h i s c o n tr o v e r s y a lth o u g h i t d id n o t f u n c t io n t o recom mend p la y s f o r a ta x ex em p tio n o r g r a n t any fu n d s to B eau m on t's co m p a n ies. The C EM A was in a p e r io d o f e x p a n s io n under Lord K eynes and found i t m u tu a lly b e n e f i c i a l t o a s s o c i a t e i t s e l f w ith s u c c e s s f u l London m anagem ents. To 1 8 I b i d . , p. 78. 127 ; i t h i s end i t e s t a b lis h e d an " in a s s o c ia t io n " s t a t u s f o r ! \ i c e r t a i n com p an ies w h ich may n o t have b een r e c e i v in g C EM A i a id b u t w h ich a g reed t o d is p la y t h a t p h rase in th e a d v e r - j I t i s i n g and program s f o r in d iv id u a l p la y s . The C EM A t r ie d I t o d em o n stra te i t s r ig h t t o c o n t r o l th e c h o ic e o f p la y s j p r e se n te d by com p an ies r e c e i v in g t a x ex em p tio n b u t t h i s c la im was r e j e c t e d in 1943 on th e ground s t h a t th e C E M A ; had n o th in g to do w ith th e g r a n tin g o f th e e x e m p tio n , and | ; i t h a t th e e x em p tio n was t o b e g r a n ted t o o r g a n iz a t io n s on j th e b a s i s o f t h e i r t o t a l a c t i v i t y , n o t f o r any s p e c i f i c p l a y . ^ T h is ch an ge in ex em p tio n p o l i c y was th e d i r e c t i r e s u l t o f th e T rea su ry ' s i n a b i l i t y t o d efen d i t s e v a lu a t io n o f any g iv e n p la y , e v en when i t a c te d on th e a d v ic e o f a s p e c i a l c o m m itte e . T h is c o n s id e r a t io n o f th e e n t i r e se a so n a ls o f a c i l i t a t e d th e in s p e c t io n o f a com pany's f in a n c e s and j f a c i l i t i e s . The C E M A was n o t e n t i r e l y d iv o r c e d from, th e t a x ex em p tio n , h o w ev er, b e c a u se c la u s e 8B o f th e sta n d a rd ! I I " in a s s o c ia t io n " c o n t r a c t i t made w ith th e com p an ies ! 1 j : s p e c i f i e d th a t p r o f i t s n o t plow ed back in t o th e company j ! ! w it h in s i x m onths a u to m a tic a lly became th e p r o p e r ty o f th e j Of) ; ;CEMA. T h is c la u s e w as n e v e r e n fo r c e d , t e s t e d in c o u r t , 9 j i , ^ Ib id . . p. 75 2°Iki£L- > P. 79. o r s u b je c te d t o P a r lia m e n ta r y d e b a te so i t was n o t known I i f th e T rea su ry w ould h ave a llo w e d fu n d s exem pted from th e j . * ( i E n te r ta in m e n ts D uty t o go t o th e C EM A o r n o t . The im por- j ta n c e o f a ta x ex em p tio n w as r e v e a le d by th e f a c t t h a t in 1943 th e t a x amounted t o t h i r t y per c e n t o f th e p r ic e o f a d m is s io n . S in c e t h i s t a x was t h e o r e t i c a l l y p a id by th e j ! cu sto m er and o n ly c o l l e c t e d by th e t h e a t r e ow n er, i t j I amounted t o t h i r t y p er c e n t o f th e b o x - o f f i c e ta k in g s ) b e fo r e any e x p e n se s w ere p a id . In a c t u a l i t y , i t was a ta x p a id by th e t h e a t r e management b e c a u se th e p u b lic r e fu s e d t o pay h ig h e r a d m iss io n s a s p r o d u c tio n c o s t s r o s e an d , c o n s e q u e n t ly , th e c o s t s so o n e x ce ed ed th e amount o f th e a c t u a l ' b o x - o f f i c e r e v e n u e . A d e s c r i p t io n o f how t h i s t a x a c te d t o f o r c e com p an ies in t o a n o n p r o fit and g o v e r n m e n ta lly s u p e r v is e d s t a t u s i s c o n ta in e d in C h apter IV. The s o l u t i o n t o th e problem o f d e te r m in in g th e | , e d u c a t io n a l v a lu e o f any g iv e n p la y fa v o r e d by K eynes w as j , t o c o n s id e r th e e d u c a t io n a l aim s o f th e p r o d u c tio n o r g a n - j ! i j i z a t i o n and n o t th e in d iv id u a l p la y and , w h ile t h i s b egan | i t o be p r a c tic e d a s e a r l y a s 1 9 4 3 , on S ir John A n d e r so n 's 21 recom m en d ation , i t d id n o t become o f f i c i a l p o l i c y u n t i l I ^H lerbert, op. c i t . . p. 198. th e a d o p tio n o f th e F in a n c e A ct o f 1946 a f t e r K e y n e s1 ! d e a t h . ^ The C h a n c e llo r o f th e E xch eq u er, D r. D a lto n , a ls o j j amended th e E n te r ta in m e n ts D uty t o in c lu d e b i l l i a r d s and j t a l l o u td o o r s p o r t s e x c e p t r a c in g under th e h e a d in g o f " l i v e I I e n te r ta in m e n t" a n d , t h e r e f o r e , e l i g i b l e f o r th e red u ced i t a x r a t e . The s p i r i t o f th e ta x ex em p tio n had s h i f t e d j i from th e en cou ragem en t o f e d u c a t io n a l v a lu e s in an i n t e l - ; l e c t u a l s e n s e t o p r e s e r v a t io n o f l i v e e n te r ta in m e n t. D u rin g th e a c c e le r a t e d d evelop m en t o f th e W elfa re S t a t e f o llo w in g th e w a r, th e ta x on t h e a t r e was c o n s id e r e d t o a c t t o p r e s e r v e a p la c e on s t a g e f o r th e " e d u c a tio n a l" I p la y by k e e p in g th e n o n e d u c a tio n a l and p r o fit-m a k in g com- | m e r c ia l t h e a t r e from grow in g to o s tr o n g . In 1 9 4 8 , th e r a t e o f ta x on t h e a t r e was c u t in h a l f or b ack t o th e 1939 r a t e . 23 in 1952, th e ta x s t r u c - i tu r e was s p l i t in t o t h r e e l e v e l s , and in 1953 am ateur sp o r t; 1 was a llo w e d an ex em p tio n w h ile am ateur drama was a llo w e d a j p a id a d v is o r a s lo n g a s t h a t p e r so n d id n o t p erform on ; i 9 A ! |s t a g e as d id a symphony c o n d u c to r . ^ A rgum ents t h a t j I j 22 L a n d sto n e, o p . c i t . . p. 78 ^ H e r b e r t , o p . c i t . . p. 199. 2^The Times (London), May 20, 1953, p. 3. am ateur drama and m usic s o c i e t i e s n eed ed a m easure o f , p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e , s p e c i f i c a l l y , c o n d u c to r s and some i a c t o r s , i f th e y w ere t o a t t a i n a h ig h l e v e l o f q u a l i t y — j i h ig h enough t o c o n t r ib u t e t o th e c u l t u r a l w e lfa r e o f t h e i r | c o m m u n itie s--w e r e d e fe a te d in P a rlia m e n t by fo u r v o t e s , j 272 t o 2 6 8 .25 Amendments t o th e ta x w ere r e j e c t e d in 1952 by th e I C h a n c e llo r o f th e E xch eq u er, Mr. R. A. B u t le r , on th e grounds t h a t " i f we w ere t o make d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s . . . we sh o u ld r a p id ly u p s e t c o n fid e n c e in th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e t a x . " ^ The n e x t y e a r , 1 9 5 3 , saw th e same C h a n c e llo r add c r i c k e t t o th e e n te r ta in m e n ts exem pt from th e t a x — in c lu d in g c r i c k e t p la y e d by p r o f e s s io n a ls fo r p r o f i t . E xem ptions t o th e ta x w ere no lo n g e r on th e b a s i s o f p a r t ly e d u c a - i i t i o n a l aim s b u t, w ith th e e x c e p t io n o f c r i c k e t (a t r a d i t i o n a l n a t io n a l p a s t im e ) , on th e n o n p r o f i t - d i s t r i b u t i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n o f th e p r o d u c tio n o r g a n iz a t io n . Two f a c t o r s | ; i c o n tr ib u te d t o t h e e v o lu t io n : " p a r tly e d u c a tio n a l" proved j j I t o be to o d i f f i c u l t to a d m in is te r and i t was th o u g h t th a t I } | 1 p ro d u cers w i l l i n g t o work on a n o n p r o fit b a s is w ould b e ! 2^The M an ch ester G u a rd ia n . May 2 0 , 1 9 5 3 , p . 2. ^ H e r b e r t , op. c i t . . p. 106. .............................................. ' 131' t h o s e who ten d ed t o c o n t r ib u t e t o t h e c u l t u r a l d evelop m en t o f th e p o p u la tio n . P r o f i t s w ere a llo w e d , e v en e n c o u r a g ed , t p r o v id in g th e y w ere plow ed b a ck in t o th e p r o d u c tio n o r g a n - j i z a t i o n and n o t d is t r i b u t e d t o s p e c u la t o r s . H opes t h a t th e E n te r ta in m e n ts D uty on t h e a t r e w ouldj } be a b o lis h e d a lt o g e t h e r ran h ig h when d e b a te s w ere resum ed in 1956 under a new C h a n c e llo r o f th e E xch eq u er, Mr. H arold M a cm illa n . A m o tio n f o r th e r e d u c tio n o r a b o l i t i o n o f th e j t a x on t h e a t r e had b e e n s ig n e d by 3 58 members o f th e House o f Commons.27 An u n fo r tu n a te d i v i s i o n in th e t h e a t r e ran k s p r e v e n te d a c t io n th a t y e a r : i t was argued t h a t a b o l i t i o n o f i th e t a x w ould b e d e t r im e n ta l t o th e n o n p r o fit com p an ies in i ! |t h a t th e y w ould have t o pay r o y a l t i e s and t h e a t r e r e n t a l s a t th e p r e v a il i n g co m m ercia l r a t e s i f t h e i r s p e c i a l id e n t i t y w ere l o s t . The f a c t t h a t t h i s c o u ld be n e g o t ia t e d in ! i I th e l i g h t o f th e s p e c i a l r e q u ir e m e n ts o f t h e s e com p anies d id n o t seem t o c o u n te r th e argum ent. j A f t e r s e v e n m ajor a tte m p ts t o a b o lis h t h i s t a x on I t h e a t r e s in c e 1 9 3 3 , a m otion backed by 235 Members o f 'P a r lia m e n t and r e f e r r in g t o " th e im p ortan ce t o th e p r e s t ig e ! c u l t u r e , and w e l l- b e i n g o f th e n a t io n o f p r e s e r v in g th e j \ i t 2 7 I b id . . p . 1 9 9 . j l i v i n g th e a tr e " 2 ® was a c c e p te d by th e T reasu ry in 1 9 57. | j The C h a n c e llo r o f th e E xchequer o f t h e d a y , Mr. T horny- i c r o f t , announced th e a b o l i t i o n o f th e t a x on t h e a t r e and I | a l l s p o r t and a lo w e r in g o f th e ta x on c in e m a --th e l o s s in : rev en u e was e s tim a te d a t t l 2 ,2 5 0 ,0 0 0 p er y e a r e v en a f t e r a ta x on t e l e v i s i o n l i c e n s e s had b een e s t a b l i s h e d - - i n A p r il o f 1 9 5 7 .29 ! ! i j The E n te r ta in m e n ts N a tio n a l S e r v ic e A s s o c ia t io n B e fo r e th e o u tb rea k o f World War I I , B a s i l Dean p r e se n te d th e War O f f ic e th e o u t l i n e o f a p la n o f o r g a n iz e d p r o f e s s i o n a l e n te r ta in r a o it f o r tr o o p s b ased upon h i s e x p e r ie n c e s in s i m i l a r , b u t u n o f f i c i a l , e f f o r t s in World War I . At f i r s t , t h i s new id e a was s u s p e c t b u t a f t e r th e War O f f ic e r e c e iv e d N avy, Army, A ir F o rce I n s t i t u t e (NAAFI) i a p p r o v a l, i t e s t a b lis h e d D rury Lane as h e a d q u a r te r s fo r i D ea n 's new o r g a n iz a t io n , th e E n te r ta in m e n ts N a tio n a l S e r v - j i c e A s s o c ia t io n (ENSA). W ith in two w eeks o f t h i s a c t io n , Dean had com p an ies equip ped w ith p o r ta b le s t a g e s rea d y to 2® The Tiroes. March 28, 1957, p. 6 . 2 9 I b i d . . A p r il 10, 1957, p. 5. to u r l o c a l m i l i t a r y in s ta lla tio n s .* ^ ® j The e n te r ta in m e n t s u p p lie d by ENSA t o m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l was l a r g e ly fin a n c e d by NAAFI, an o r g a n iz a t io n w hich] I ; c o l l e c t e d p r o f i t s from s e r v ic e c a n te e n s t o u s e f o r th e * b e n e f i t o f th e s e r v ic e m e n . T h is s p o n s o r s h ip o f t h e a t r e i i d id n o t in v o lv e th e d evelop m en t o f a new NAAFI p o l i c y b u t 31 ; o n ly an e x t e n s io n o f e x i s t i n g p r a c t i c e . The p r o v is io n o f ! e n te r ta in m e n t t o th e tr o o p s was d e s ir e d f o r th e m ain ten an ce ; o f m orale by th e s e r v ic e c h i e f s in th e War O f f ic e so th e i i p la n , s in c e i t w ould n o t mean an in c r e a s e in e x p e n d itu r e o f p u b lic m oney, g a in e d a lm o st im m ed iate g o v e rn m e n ta l a p p ro v a l . In answ er t o a q u e s t io n in t h e H ouse o f Lords c o n c e r n - i i I in g th e e d u c a t io n a l and r e c r e a t i o n a l w e lfa r e o f th e t r o o p s , ; Lord C r o f t , an U n d e r -s e c r e ta r y t o th e War O f f ic e , acknow - 32 le d g e d th e n eed f o r a "happy and s tim u la te d arm y." The ; - | c o o p e r a tio n o f th e t h ir d e le m en t o f th e o r g a n iz a t io n , th e ! e n te r ta in m e n t in d u s t r y , was n o t s o e a s i l y o b ta in e d . S a c r i-j i f i c e s Would h ave t o be made by a c t o r s , m an agers, and t h e a t r i c a l equip m en t c o m p a n i e s - - s a c r i f i c e s in pay o r p r o f i t ^®W . M acqueen-P ope, P i l l a r s o f D rury Lane (London: * H u tch in so n and Company, L t d ., 1 9 5 5 ) , pp. 2 1 6 -2 1 8 . • ^ B a s il D ean, The T h ea tre a t War (London: G eorge ;G. H arrap and Company, L t d ., 1 9 5 6 ) , p. 3 4 . 32 The Tim es. November 7, 1940, p. 9 . ______ some w ere n o t w i l l i n g t o m a k e - - if th e schem e was t o w ork. | The a c t i o n o f th e War O f f ic e in r e q u i s i t i o n i n g th e T h ea tr e i i R o y a l, D rury L an e, f o r th e d u r a tio n o f th e war f o r u s e as aj i governm ent b u ild in g se r v e d t o c r y s t a l i z e th e v a r io u s a t t i - ; I tu d e s and e f f o r t s o f t h e t h e a t r e w o r ld . D rury Lane becam e j i an im p o rta n t sym bol o f t h e a t r e ' s c o n t r ib u t io n t o th e war j i e f f o r t . The c o m m itte e s r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f t h i s o r g a n iz a t io n w ere com posed o f r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f th e t h e a t r i c a l tr a d e u n io n s , th e armed s e r v i c e s , and g o v e rn - i m e n ta l m i n i s t r i e s (T r ea su ry and Labour and N a tio n a l S e r v i c e ) . A m ajor p ro b lem , th e s o l u t i o n o f w h ich became an I im p o rta n t t e n e t o f ENSA p o l i c y , co n cern ed th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e n te r ta in m e n t. The e le m e n ts o f th e armed f o r c e s w h ich m ost n eed ed th e m o r a le - b u ild in g e n te r ta in m e n t w ere n o t th e ! e le m e n ts w h ich p r o v id e d th e b u lk o f th e NAAFI c a n te e n i p r o f i t s . The c e n t r a l a d m in is t r a t io n form ed by ENSA e s t a b - S ! lis h e d i t s r i g h t t o a s s ig n p r i o r i t i e s t o th e s e r v ic e u n i t s : ! ' i i j i s o l a t e d s t a t i o n s , some s h i p s , and th e RAF bomber command i 'w ere g iv e n p r i o r i t y o v e r la r g e t r a i n in g and su p p ly c e n t e r s lo c a t e d n e a r m ajor c i t i e s , e v en th ou gh th e c a n te e n s a t t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s p r o v id e d more o f th e c a p i t a l needed t o ; O <3 su p p o rt th e w h o le program . j l B a s i l D ean, d i r e c t o r o f ENSA, c r e d it e d a s i n g l e | | d e c is io n by th e T rea su ry f o r ENSA's f a i l u r e t o e s t a b l i s h | i t s e l f a s a c o m p le te ly in d ep en d en t o r g a n iz a t io n c a p a b le o f j m e e tin g p o st-w a r n e e d s : r a th e r th a n assum e th e burden o f i a d m in is t r a tio n fo r ENSA a s i t d e v e lo p e d program s f o r c i v i l i a n war w o r k e r s, th e T rea su ry a llo w e d NAAFI t o e x te n d i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o m eet any e x p a n s io n in ENSA s e r v i c e s . Dean agreed t o t h i s arran gem en t b e c a u se o f th e p r e s s u r e s i o f t h e war and need t o k eep a d m in is t r a t iv e c o s t s a s low a s p o s s i b l e d u r in g th e p e r io d in w h ich ENSA e x p a n s io n o c c u r r e d . C i v i l d ep a rtm en ts a u th o r iz e d t o p r o v id e su ch e n - ! te r t a in m e n t , p a r t i c u la r ly B e v in 's M in is tr y o f Labour and N a tio n a l S e r v ic e , c o u ld la y c la im t o a p e r c e n ta g e o f th e ENSA/NAAFI e f f o r t . 34 The R o y a l Ordnance F a c t o r ie s r e c e iv e d th e f i r s t ENSA a t t e n t io n . B e v in became im p o rta n t t o th e ENSA p ro- |gram th rou gh t h i s i n i t i a l c o o p e r a t io n - - in h i s m i n i s t e r i a l t | c a p a c it y , B e v in d eterm in ed who worked w here th ro u g h o u t th e I i n a t io n and d e c id e d who c o u ld s e r v e on ENSA's s t a f f as w e l l ; j ! 33 ■ D ean , op. c i t . , pp. 6 1 -6 3 ! 3 4 I b i d . . pp. 129-130. i a s who w ould j o i n w h ich armed s e r v ic e and who w ould w ork in w h ich f a c t o r y . In t h e o r y , he e x e r te d some m easure o f c o n t r o l o v e r b o th t h e a c to r and th e a u d ie n c e . W artim e s e c u r i t y m easu res a l s o a f f e c t e d t h e o r g a n iz a t io n o f t h i s program f o r f a c t o r i e s : lo c a t i o n s o f many i n s t a l l a t i o n s w ere m i l i t a r y s e c r e t s (d is s e m in a t io n o f t h e i r e x a c t lo c a t i o n s w ould h ave in v i t e d a i r a t t a c k ) so e a c h a r e a was g iv e n a cod e d e s ig n a t o r and an in - r e s id e n c e ENSA/Labour l i a i s o n and s c h e d u lin g o f f i c e r t o a d v is e th e c e n t r a l a d m in is t r a tio n o f s p e c i f i c r e g i o n a l n e e d s and p r o b le m s .^ A c to r s o f t e n d id n o t know where th e y w ere g o in g or why th e y c a r r ie d s p e c i f i c j eq u ip m en t u n t i l th e y a r r iv e d a t t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n s and a u g - ! m ented t h e e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s . P resu m ab ly, as th e " c i r c u it " becam e more f a m ilia r t o m an agers, t e c h n i c i a n s , and a c t o r s , a d m in is t r a t iv e problem s i n t e n s i f i e d by r e s t r i c t e d com m u n ication a l s o became a m a tte r o f r o u t in e . W ith th e a p p ro v a l o f th e M in is te r o f S u p p ly , H er- jb e r t M o rr iso n , e n te r ta in m e n t f o r th e R o y a l Ordnance F a c - 36 I t o r i e s became t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f B e v in 's M in is tr y , ! B e v in im m e d ia te ly c r e a te d a F a c to r y and W elfa re D epartm ent j ' i n h is M in is tr y and an A d v iso r y Board t o a c t in c l o s e i 3 5 I b id . , p. 131 3 6 I b id . . p. 132. ................... ""..... 137 a s s o c i a t i o n w it h th e Labour S u p p ly C om m ittees— a l l a c t i v i t y was t o b e c o o r d in a te d by a C e n tr a l C o n s u lta tio n Commit- 37 t e e . M in is tr y o f Labour and N a t io n a l S e r v ic e money w ouldj i fin a n c e ENSA's f a c t o r y e n te r ta in m e n ts and NAAFI money w ould; i f in a n c e m i li t a r y p r o j e c t s and th e same ENSA c o m m ittees j i w ould a d m in is te r b o th as o n e . Of th e L 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 sp e n t by •ENSA d u r in g 1 9 4 2 , L 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 came from th e M in is tr y o f Labour j ! q q t o c o v e r f a c t o r y e n te r ta in m e n ts . ° The M in is t r ie s o f iLabour and N a tio n a l S e r v ic e and o f Su p p ly w ere l a t e r jo in e d I by A g r ic u lt u r e , F u e l and Pow er, and In fo r m a tio n as g o v e r n m en ta l a g e n c ie s r e s p o n s ib le fo r o r r e c e iv in g ENSA s e r v - I i c e s .* ^ 1 B e v in 's e f f o r t s t o keep th e t h e a t r e " a liv e " and t o ;m a in ta in th e sta n d a r d o f e n te r ta in m e n t in th e f a c t o r i e s to o k t h e form o f g r a n tin g d e fer m en ts from m i li t a r y s e r v i c e ; I t o s e l e c t e d p erfo rm ers and t e c h n ic ia n s . The maximum s a la r y •a llo w e d an a c t o r in ENSA s e r v ic e was tlO per w e e k ,^ A f t e r a c a l l fo r v o lu n t e e r s f a i l e d to produ ce th e r e s u l t s a n t i c i - l jp a te d , Dean announced th e i n i t i a t i o n o f a p la n t o a c c e p t i I r - — - _ - . - . . . 3?The T im es, June 2 8 , 1 9 4 0 , p. 3 , j 3 8 jh e T im es. O ctob er 2 9 , 1942, p . 6 , 39 i ^Dean, op . c i t . , p. 138. I . A ^ h e -T im e s-. - A p r i l - l l . — 19-42.— p .— 8 ______________________ ’ e n t e r t a i n e r s fo r s ix -w e e k to u r s o f d u ty w ith ENSA p r io r t o t h e i r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . ^ W ith th e b e n e f i t o f h i n d s ig h t , j j Dean l a t e r w r o te t h a t t h i s s ix -w e e k p la n w as u n w orkab le j b e c a u se th e c o s t s o f r e h e a r s a l and p r o d u c tio n w ould h ave ! j i b e e n p r o h ib it iv e o v e r su ch a s h o r t p e r io d and th e c o n c e p t I o f b o o k in g e x i s t i n g shows i n t o th e ENSA c i r c u i t was a l s o | : i ; l e s s th an p r o f i t a b l e b e c a u se many o f th e s t a r s w ou ld n o t | p erform f o r IslO p e r w eek and had no f e a r o f m i l i t a r y c a l l - j u p . ^ M ost p r o d u c tio n s had l i t t l e r e a l v a lu e w ith o u t th e i s t a r s who p o p u la r iz e d them . T h is s i t u a t i o n d id n o t seem t o b e a l l e v i a t e d by th e f a c t t h a t many o f th e s t a r s c o u ld ; n o t have worked w ith o u t th e d e fe r m e n ts w h ich p r o v id e d su p - i ip o r t in g c a s t s f o r them . B e v in p e r i o d i c a l l y r e p o r te d th e d e fe r m e n ts h i s m in is t r y had g r a n te d t o P a r lia m e n t: in 1943 j I ; an a v era g e o f 1 5 0 -2 0 0 men b e tw e en th e a g e s o f t h i r t y - t h r e e J |an d t h i r t y - e i g h t and 5 2 5 -5 5 0 women b etw een th e a g e s o f / O n in e t e e n and t w e n t y - f iv e w ere g r a n te d d e fe r m e n ts . By th e m id d le o f 1944 t h i s had r i s e n t o 523 men o f m i l i t a r y age ^ The M an ch ester G u a rd ia n . A p r il 1 1 , 1 9 4 2 , p. 6 . ^ D e a n , pp . c i t .« p. 2 3 9 . 43The Tim es. November 12, 1943, p. 8; and December 17, 1943, p. 8. i and 677 women b etw een n in e t e e n and t w e n t y - f iv e d e fe r r e d f o r s a l a r ie d w ork w it h E N S A --th is was in a d d it io n to a " g r e a t many" o ld e r p e o p le who worked a s a r t i s t s or on th e a d m in is t r a t i v e s t a f f . ^ The volum e o f p r o d u c tio n s and immense p e r s o n n e l r e q u ir e m e n ts o f ENSA w ere i l l u s t r a t e d in a 1942 a r t i c l e , in w h ich i t was c la im e d t h a t ENSA had 2 ,3 0 0 a r t i s t s u n d er c o n t r a c t and n eed ed 1 ,5 0 0 more t o m eet a n t i c i p a ted r eq u irem en ts.^ -* A m ajor c o n tr o v e r s y w h ich e v e n t u a lly c o n tr ib u te d t o th e d i s s o l u t i o n o f ENSA c o n cern ed th e q u a l i t y o f t h e e n t e r ta in m e n t p r o v id e d . Four c a t e g o r i e s o f e n te r ta in m e n t w ere c r e a te d f o r ENSA d is s e m in a tio n . C a te g o ry "A" in c lu d e d ip la y s (m u s ic a l and d r a m a tic ), c o n c e r t s , s t a n d a r d - s iz e f e a tu r e f i l m s , and o th e r f u l l - s c a l e shows fo r p r e s e n t a t io n in 46 G a r r iso n t h e a t r e s and la r g e c in e m a s. "'C ategory "B" c o n - I s i s t e d o f s im ila r program s w h ich w ere m o d ifie d f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n in tem p orary b u ild in g s b y s m a ll and h ig h ly m o b ile com p an ies w h ich c a r r ie d t h e i r own p o r ta b le s t a g e s - - a d m is - 44ih e T im es. A p r il 2 8 , 1 9 4 4 , p. 8. I b i d . t Decem ber 2 3 , 1 9 4 2 , p. 2. ^ D e a n , op. c i t . . p. 6 4 . s io n was ch arged t o th e s e tw o c a t e g o r i e s o f e n te r ta in m e n t.47! C a teg o ry "C" c o n s is t e d o f 16mm " su b stan d ard " f i l m s , and " D " j i i I was com posed o f " s in g -s o n g s " ; no a d m issio n was ch arged fo r A O e i t h e r o f t h e s e ty p e s o f e n te r ta in m e n t s . ° D ean's f a ilu r e to e s t a b lis h e n t ir e ly independent l t 1 f in a n c in g e a r ly i n th e war was d i r e c t l y r e la t e d t o t h e j j su b se q u e n t f a i l u r e t o g a in m i n i s t e r i a l s t a t u s , w ith an o f f i c i a l spokesm an in P a r lia m e n t, fo r ENSA.4 ^ An A d v iso r y C o u n c il on P u b lic R e la tio n s was form ed by Dean to k eep : ENSA a p p r a ise d o f P a rlia m e n ta r y o p in io n w ith S ir H erb ert D u n n ico , e x -D ep u ty Sp eak er o f th e H ouse o f Commons, s e r v in g a s Chairm an. D u n n ic o 's p o s i t i o n in ENSA and h i s p r e s t ig e a c te d t o i n t e n s i f y th e c o n tr o v e r s y w h ic h d e v e lo p ed around th e e n te r ta in m e n ts p r o v id e d . D ean 's t r o u b le s became a m at t e r o f p u b lic c o n c e r n l a t e in 1944 when a rem ark by Lord : ■ I M unster w as p r in te d in The T im e s: "W e s h a l l have to lu r e ' ENSA from th e glam our o f P a r is and B r u s s e ls t o g e t e n t e r ta in m e n t t o I n d i a . I n th e same a r t i c l e , Dean c la im e d i |t h a t th e r e w ere no ENSA shows in P a r is a t t h a t tim e and i th a t t h e r e was no NAAFI o p e r a tio n in I n d ia an d , t h e r e f o r e , I . ! 4 7 I b i d . 4 8 i b i d . 4 9 I b i d . . p. 173. ! i so i The T im es. November 7, 1944, p. 2. no f in a n c in g f o r ENSA in t h a t t h e a t r e o f o p e r a tio n s . W ith in s i x m on th s, Dean announced th a t 2 50 a r t i s t s w ere b e in g s e n t t o I n d i a . T w o m onths l a t e r in d e fe n s e o f a ch a rg e o f poor q u a l i t y , C o l l i e K nox, ENSA's D ir e c t o r o f P u b lic R e l a t i o n s , c la im e d t e n com p anies and s e v e r a l " s ta r s " w ere p r e s e n t in g or booked t o p r e s e n t e n te r ta in m e n ts in I n d i a .52 P u b lic i n t e r e s t in ENSA program m ing was f i r s t aroused by a l e t t e r to The Times from an RAF se r g e a n t, R ich ard C oke, who w r o te from th e G a r r ic k C lub in 1945 t h a t D e a n 's c la im s f o r ENSA as a c u l t u r a l o r g a n iz a t io n w ere con*- I s id e r e d fun ny by t h e a t r e p e o p le who saw t h e s e shows as members o f th e armed f o r c e s - - s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e was made to 53 " lo w n ess o f to n e" and " g e n e r a l p o v e r ty o f m a t e r ia l; " In r e p ly t o ENSA's c la im o f q u a l i t y , L aurence I r v in g , a ls o w r it in g from th e G a r r ic k C lu b , ch arged t h a t in f i v e and a I h a l f y e a r s in th e RAF he r a r e ly saw ENSA shows and t h a t a i lady v i o l i n i s t in one who picked up a h and kerchief in her i 5 4 I t e e t h w h ile p la y in g was h a r d ly a c u l t u r a l s tim u lu s . j - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 51I b id . . June 13, 1 9 4 5 , p . 2 . S ^ I b id ., A ugust 2 8 , 1 9 45, p. 5 . 5 3 I b i d . , A ugust 2 4 , 1 9 4 5 , p. 5 . ^ I b i d . , A u gu st 3 0 , 1 9 4 5 , p. 5 . In t h i s a r t i c l e , I r v in g d id n o t c r i t i c i z e th e e n te r ta in m e n t f o r b e in g o u t o f p la c e but co n ten d e d t h a t i t was n o t th e j "harbinger o f a roew epoch o f t h e a t r ic a l h is to r y ." An im- j j p o r ta n t p a r t o f t h i s s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s was a l e t t e r from a form er lie u t e n a n t c o lo n e l and ENSA to u r m anager, a l s o o f j i i j ith e G arrick C lub, who blamed the top a d m in istra tio n a t j Drury Lane fo r the "vulgar v a r ie t ie s " w hich in su lte d and ! i i a l ie n a t e d a u d ie n c e s -- o n e s p e c i f i c p erform an ce was t h e sc e n e o f a mass w a lk -o u t by o v e r 1 ,0 0 0 o f th e a u d ie n c e o f I 1 ,5 0 0 .^ ^ A n oth er l ie u t e n a n t c o l o n e l en d o rsed t h i s a r t i c l e and added t h a t in S ou th W a le s, w here e n te r ta in m e n t was | d i f f i c u l t t o fin d from any s o u r c e , i t w as n e c e s s a r y t o | "parade th e d e f a u l t e r s ," t o o r d e r s o l d i e r s w hose a c t i v i t i e s w ere under v a r io u s c o n d it io n s o f r e s t r i c t i o n f o r d i s c i - i p lin a r y r e a s o n s t o a tte n d th e o c c a s io n a l ENSA o f f e r i n g in ! Sfi i i order to provide an au d ien ce. In another l e t t e r to The J i T im es. Donald W o lfit, a B r it is h a ctor-p rod u cer o f some j n o t e , w r o te t h a t in Septem ber o f 1939 h e o f f e r e d th e s e r v - i | i c e s o f h i s company (a r e p e r to r y o f fo u r p la y s c o m p le te |w it h a l l p r o p e r t ie s and c o stu m e s) t o ENSA. T h is o f f e r was j i ______ | i 55The T im es. A u gust 3 1 , 1 9 4 5 , p. 5 . •***I b id . . September 3 , 1945, p. 5 143 . I r e fu s e d in 1939 and a g a in in 1940 and o n ly p a r t ly a c c e p te d ' in 1 9 4 3 --o n e p la y was a llo w e d t o be p r e se n te d in one G ar r is o n T h e a tr e --a n d t h a t th e r e c e n t a c c e p ta n c e o f h i s o f f e r S7 j d id n o t a to n e f o r th e e a r l i e r p o l i c y o f ENSA. At t h i s p o in t , D e a n 's ENSA s t a f f d i s in t e g r a t e d . The war was o v e r in Europe and many r e tu r n e d t o c i v i l i a n j 'o c c u p a tio n s ; h o w ev er, t h e b i t t e r n e s s w h ich accom panied th e | • r e s ig n a t io n s enhanced th e ap p earan ce o f m ass d e s e r t io n in th e fa c e o f c o n c e n tr a te d f i r e . The tw o m ost im p o rta n t r e s i g n a t i o n s , in th e mind o f th e p u b lic , w ere th o s e o f S ir H erb ert D u n n ico , D ea n 's c h i e f a s s i s t a n t , and C o l l i e K nox, Jwho r e p r e s e n te d ENSA in th e c o r r e sp o n d e n c e colum ns o f The j T im es. When D unnico and Knox b o th blam ed Dean fo r w hat had come t o be s e e n as a sad s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , th e p u b lic had r e a so n t o d i s t r u s t th e w h ole o p e r a tio n . D u n n ic o 's r e s i g n a t i o n was announced in Septem ber o f 1 9 4 5 , a lo n g w ith h i s i :ch a rg e th a t ENSA was u n d er th e "one-m an d ic t a t o r s h ip " o f j ' B a s i l D ean— a s i t u a t i o n n o t t o be t o l e r a t e d c o n s id e r in g th e ! 50 1 j t 4 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n n u a l b u d g et in v o lv e d . The e x t e n t o f D u n n ic o 's s e r v i c e in ENSA ( V ic e - p r e s - iid e n t o f ENSA, chairm an o f fo u r c o u n c i ls : p u b lic r e l a t i o n s , j 5 7 Ib id . ^ ® Ib id ., September 1, 1945, p. 2. 144 i I b r o a d c a s t in g , NAAFI a m e n it ie s , and th e E a ste rn r e g io n a l j e n te r ta in m e n t com m ittee o f ENSA) s in c e 1940 le n t w e ig h t to i h i s s t a t e m e n t s . D u nn ico fo llo w e d t h i s w ith a demand t h a t j I a p u b lic in q u ir y b e e s t a b l i s h e d t o exam ine ENSA's f in a n - j i c e s s in c e th e fu n d s w ere n o t under th e d i r e c t c o n t r o l o f ! 59 I any M in is te r r e s p o n s ib le t o P a r lia m e n t. The same a r t i c l e ) < ; c o n ta in e d a sta te m e n t by a D e a n -a p p o in te e t o th e ENSA I i s t a f f , Mr. E v e ly n W alkden, who a l s o se r v e d a s P a rlia m e n ta r y i P r iv a t e S e c r e ta r y to th e M in is t e r o f F ood, t o th e e f f e c t t h a t ENSA had no r e a l f u n c t io n in p o st-w a r B r it a i n and th a t i C EM A c o u ld and sh o u ld b e th e a g en cy p r e s e r v in g th e b e s t in ; B r i t i s h com m ercial t h e a t r e . D ea n 's r e a c t i o n was a mixed I i b ag o f c r i t i c i s m o f D u n n ic o 's c a p a b i l i t i e s (n o t a r e p r e - 6 0 s e n t a t i v e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l t h e a t r e ) , e x p la n a tio n o f th e a u d it in g sy ste m p r a c tic e d by th e T reasu ry and r e p r e s e n t a - j t i v e s o f e a ch armed s e r v i c e , 61 comment on CEMA's c a p a c i l i - | ( c. o ! t i e s , and j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f h i s u se o f " d i c t a t o r i a l j i ; pow ers" t o r a i s e th e sta n d a r d s o f ENSA p r o d u c tio n s .^ 3 ; i •^ The M an ch ester G u a rd ia n . Septem ber 8, 1 9 4 5 , p. 5 . ^ The T im es, Septem ber 4 , 1945, p. 2 . ^ I b i d . . Septem ber 8 , 1 9 4 5 , p. 2 . 6 2 Ib id . 6 3 Ib id . 145 t The fu t u r e o f ENSA was th e s u b j e c t o f an e d i t o r i a l in The ; : I ; ] Tim es w h ich s t r e s s e d th e q u e s t io n o f t h a t o r g a n iz a t io n 's } f f adequ acy f o r th e t a s k in s t e a d o f th e p e r s o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s among D e a n 's s t a f f . T h is e d i t o r i a l a c c e p te d th e c h a r g e s ( t h a t ENSA p la y e d down t o th e a u d ie n c e and m isju d ged t a s t e s and c o n c lu d e d th a t th e v a lu e s and aim s o f ENSA w ould h ave g A |t o b e changed i f i t was t o c o n tin u e t o e n t e r t a i n t r o o p s . H The r e s i g n a t io n o f C o l l i e Knox, on th e ground s th a t Dean a c te d in an u n c a lle d f o r and a r b it r a r y manner in t h e ! 6 c f i r i n g o f h i s a d m in is t r a t iv e s e c r e t a r y , may h ave assum ed g r e a t e r im p ortan ce t o th e p u b lic b e c a u se i t o ccu rred in th e !m id st o f K nox's d e f e n s e o f Dean— im p ly in g th a t th e a l l e g a - j t i o n s w ere i n d e f e n s i b l e . S h o r t ly a f t e r t h i s announcem ent, The Tim es p r in te d an a r t i c l e d e s c r ib in g th e p la n s o f e le v e n form er e x e c u t iv e s o f ENSA t o c o l l e c t e v id e n c e and p r e s e n t | i t t o a p u b lic i n q u i r y . ^ | No i n v e s t i g a t i o n was t o m a t e r ia liz e and l i t t l e pub- ! l i e a t t e n t i o n was g iv e n t o th e f a c t s o f th e m a tte r . In e f f e c t , Dean and ENSA had b een c o n v ic te d o f some u n d e te r - I t I 6 4 I b i d . , p. 5 . i 6 5 I b i d . . Septem ber 12, 1 9 4 5 , p. 2 . 6 6 I b i d .. September 29, 1945, p. 4. 146 mined w rongd oin g w ith o u t th e b e n e f i t o f a t r i a l . C harges w ere made i n P a r lia m e n t, th ou gh n o t r e p e a te d in p u b lic w here l e g a l a c t io n c o u ld be ta k e n , by W alkden d u r in g d i s c u s s io n s o f a p rop osed r e d u c tio n in ENSA e x p e n d itu r e and Mr. G le n v il H a ll, F in a n c ia l S e c r e ta r y t o th e T r e a su r y , ended th e c o n tr o v e r s y w ith th e f o llo w in g announcem ent: I t h as b e e n d e c id e d t o c l o s e t h i s s id e o f ENSA's a c t i v i t i e s down in A u g u st, and t h e r e a f t e r th e S e r v ic e d ep a rtm en ts th e m s e lv e s w i l l become r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e i r own e n te r ta in m e n t w ith th e a s s i s t a n c e o f th e NAAFI o r g a n iz a t io n and w ith th e ' a id o f NAAFI fu n d s . So ENSA w i l l come t o an h o n o r a b le b u t n o t u n tim e ly end in th e v ie w o f some in A ugust t h i s y e a r . . . . Mr. Dean h as f u l f i l l e d a g r e a t and u s e f u l f u n c t io n t o th e s t a t e d u r in g t h e s e l a s t s i x y e a r s .67 IENSA c e a s e d p r o v id in g e n te r ta in m e n t f o r th e s e r v i c e s on l June 3 0 , 1 9 46, and ENSA, i t s e l f , came t o an end on A ugust 3 1 , 1 9 4 6 .68 D rury Lane was a g a in th e T h ea tr e R o y a l and became .t h e sc e n e o f a s e r i e s o f e x p e n s iv e m u s ic a l c o m e d ie s. The C o u n c il f o r th e Encouragem ent I o f M usic and th e A r ts | The most im p o rta n t a g en cy o f g o v ern m en ta l su p p o rt ^ The M an ch ester G u a rd ia n . May 1 , 1 9 4 6 , p. 5 . ^ ^ e a n , o p . c i t . . p. 5 2 9 . t o th e t h e a t r e , th e C o u n c il f o r th e Encouragem ent o f M usic ! i i and th e A r ts (CEMA), was e s t a b lis h e d a s th e need becam e | ap p aren t in th e e a r ly d ays o f World War I I . The ty p e o f j su p p o rt p ro v id ed by t h i s o r g a n iz a t io n was n o t w ith o u t p r e c e d e n t , h o w ev er, and was n o t j u s t a n o th er m a n if e s t a t io n o f I j t j t h e s o c i a l i z i n g tr e n d o f th e tim e . As e a r ly a s 1 8 5 4 , w ith I ( I t h e p a ssa g e o f th e P u b lic L ib r a r ie s A c t, th e p r o v is io n o f | ; i book s fo r r e c r e a t io n a l r e a d in g was fin a n c e d by m u n ic ip a l ; t a x e s - - e v e n thou gh o n ly a s m a ll m in o r ity o f th e p o p u la tio n 1 69 to o k ad van tage o f th e o p p o r tu n ity th u s p r e s e n te d . ^ In th e 1 9 3 0 ’ s , many program s t o sp read th e a p p r e c ia t io n o f th e i a r t s w ere in e x is t e n c e : th e B r i t i s h Drama League was a c tiv e . t ian d th e BBC was p r e s e n t in g c o n c e r t s and S h a k esp ea re a s a ; r e g u la r p a r t o f i t s program m ing. P r o f e s s io n a l com p anies j I , and sym phonies d e v e lo p e d a lo n g w ith t h i s in c r e a s in g p u b lic i n t e r e s t .^ ® In 1 9 3 5 , an "Art fo r th e P eo p le" program was ! e s t a b l i s h e d by Mr. W . E. W illia m s and su p p o rted th ro u g h th e com bined e f f o r t s o f th e B r i t i s h I n s t i t u t e o f A d u lt Educa I 69W. E. W illia m s , The A r ts and P u b lic P atron age (London: The A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r ia t i n , 1 9 5 8 ), p. 2 . ^ E le v e n t h A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f I G reat B r it a i n , 1955 -6 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 6 ), ! PP. 6 ”7. t i o n , th e C a r n e g ie U n ite d Kingdom T r u s t, and p r iv a t e c o n - ! i t r ib u t o r s t o a rra n g e t o u r in g e x h i b i t io n s o f p a in t in g s f o r , t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c . T h e s u c c e s s o f t h i s program and th e j e x p e r ie n c e g a in e d by i t s fo u n d e r s le d d i r e c t l y t o th e w a r- ! tim e c r e a t io n o f th e CEMA. S t a r t in g w ith a 1939 te le p h o n e j c o n v e r s a t io n b etw een th e Chairm an o f th e P ilg r im T r u s t, \ j 1 Lord M a cm illa n , and th e P r e s id e n t o f th e Board o f E duca- ; t i o n , Lord De La W arr, th e C EM A was e s t a b l i s h e d in Janu ary o f 1940 w it h a L 2 5 ,0 0 0 g r a n t from th e P ilg r im T r u s t . T h e ! i Board o f E d u c a tio n 's d e c i s i o n t o m atch P ilg r im T ru st fu n d s up t o a maximum o f 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 in A p r il o f 1940 was th e " f i r s t d e c la r a t io n o f p u b lic r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e a r t s " ; t h i s | a c c e p ta n c e o f g o v ern m en ta l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a llo w e d th e P i l grim T ru st t o w ithd raw from th e schem e in March o f 1942 a f t e r c o n t r ib u t in g L 6 2 ,5 0 0 t o CEMA?^ Lord M acm illan was ! | i r e p la c e d a s Chairman o f th e C EM A by th e Board o f E duca- { t i o n ' s c h o ic e , Maynard K eyn es, and a d v is o r y p a n e ls t o th e l 7 L C o u n c il w ere e s t a b l i s h e d . The f i r s t method o f encou ragem en t t o th e a r t s em- i I ! p lo y e d by CEM A was t o f in a n c e th e im m ediate e x p a n s io n o f i __________________ ; 7 1 I b i d . , p. 6 . 7 2 I b i d . , p. 11. 7 3 I b i d . _________________ 7 4 I b i d . ____________ e x i s t i n g o r g a n iz a t io n s su ch a s th e Old V ic , w h ich had b e e n \ fo r c e d t o le a v e London by th e a i r r a i d s , b u t t h i s so o n was , augm ented by a program o f d i r e c t p r o v is io n o f e n t e r t a i n - j m en t: b e f o r e C EM A was fo u r m onths o ld i t was s u p p ly in g o v e r j 4 0 0 c o n c e r ts a m o n th ,7" * and by 1943 i t had c r e a te d s i x t e e n j m o b ile t h e a t r e com p an ies in a d d it io n t o i t s b a l l e t and o p era a c t i v i t i e s . 7* * The C EM A a s s i s t a n c e t o e x i s t i n g com p a n ie s and i t s e s ta b lis h m e n t o f new o r g a n iz a t io n s b o th sp rea d th e a p p r e c ia t io n o f th e a r t s among th e p o p u la tio n I and p r o v id e d em ploym ent f o r a r t i s t s . The n o n p r o fit c o n d i t i o n o f a s s o c i a t i o n w ith CEM A was a c c e p te d by p r o f e s s io n a l |a c t o r s ; t h e i r pay c o v e r e d l i t t l e more th a n room , b o a r d , and I p e r s o n a l e x p e n se s (am ou n tin g to a d o n a tio n o f s e r v i c e on th e p a r t o f h i g h - s a l a r i e d s t a r s ) b u t th e o p p o r tu n ity t o rem ain on s t a g e and t o perform a w artim e s e r v ic e com pen s a te d f o r t h i s . ^ P u b lic r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e need fo r C EM A su p p o rt t o I th e a r t s was in d ic a t e d by an a r t i c l e in The T im e s: I j I j The f i r s t y e a r o f th e war was o c c u p ie d in com - j j b a t t in g th e d o c t r in e th a t n o th in g sh o u ld b e done j b e c a u se so m eth in g m igjit happen t o s t o p i t . . . . | 75 I b i d . . p. 9 . 76 I b i d . . p . 10. ^ B r i t i s h In fo r m a tio n Se r v i c e , op . c i t . . p. 6 . The seco n d y e a r proved th a t so m eth in g m ust be done I b e c a u se e v e r y th in g was com bined t o s t o p i t . 7® Later in 1 9 4 2 , The Times p ublished an a n a ly s is o f C EM A j a c t i v i t i e s under th e t i t l e "How a G row ing P op u lar Demand j Has Been M et." In t h is a r t i c l e , th e s it u a tio n during th ej i f i r s t w eek s o f th e war (su d d en unem ploym ent, e v a c u a tio n , I ' I and b la c k o u t) was p r e s e n te d a s th e prim e c a u se o f g o v e r n - J i I i i m en ta l a c t io n t o r e s t o r e n eed ed c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s and f a c i l i t i e s t o th e n a t io n . C EM A program s in a i r r a id s h e l t e r s w ere d e s c r ib e d ( " f l y in g squads" o f f i n e m u sic ia n s v i s i t e d h e a v i ly bombed a r e a s a s soon a s p o s s i b l e a f t e r an a t t a c k - - a p r a c t ic e made e v en more d a n g ero u s by th e u se o f i ;tim e -d e la y f u s e s on th e bom bs) and th e e x t e n t o f t h i s phase o f CEM A a c t i v i t y was s u g g e s te d w ith t h e sta te m e n t t h a t t h i s d e v e lo p e d in t o a program o f 150 c o n c e r ts per w eek . The i I a r t i c l e c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e p o st-w a r demand f o r s t a t e e x - i p e n d itu r e f o r p r o v is io n o f c u l t u r a l program s was c e r t a i n . ! W hile t h i s a n a l y s is acknow ledged CEMA's d r i f t from su p p o rt i |o f am ateurs t o th a t o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s , no m en tion was made j |o f th e p io n e e r e f f o r t s o f a m a teu rs, e s p e c i a l l y in th e a i r r a id s h e l t e r s . In th e W estm in ster a r e a o f London a lo n e , ; | 7 ®The T im es. Janu ary 2 , 1942, p . 6 . ^ I b i d . . August 3 , 1942, p. 5. 151 a v o lu n t e e r o r g a n iz a t io n d e v e lo p e d t o m eet a n eed f o r m u sic in th e s h e l t e r s and gave f o r t y c o n c e r ts p er m onth, t o t a l i n g o v er 4 0 0 by January o f 1942.®® An exam ple o f en cou ragem en t io f l o c a l t a l e n t and o r g a n iz a t io n s t o m eet t h e i r own n e e d s was e s t a b l i s h e d b y su ch am ateu rs b e f o r e CEM A becam e i n v o lv e d in l a r g e - s c a l e p r o v is io n o f e n te r ta in m e n t in s h e l t e r s . The f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l company t o c o lla b o r a t e w ith C EM A was th e Old V ic a lth o u g h t h i s com p an y's c o n s t i t u t i o n j d id n o t a llo w f o r t o u r in g , ch an ge o f l o c a t i o n t o B u r n le y , in th e N orth o f E n glan d , or o th e r w artim e exp ed ien ts.® ^ - jW ith th e f i n a n c i a l a id o f b o th C EM A and th e C a r n e g ie T r u s t, !th e Old V ic m a in ta in e d p o p u la r to u r s in th e p r o v in c e s . Opera and b a l l e t to u r s made p r o f i t s w h ich p e r m itte d th e paym ent o f o ld d e b ts and k e p t S a d le r 's W e lls , th e a d m in is t r a t i o n o f w h ich had a l s o moved to CEMA's w artim e h ea d - iq u a r te r s in B u r n le y , in o p e r a tio n a s a s o lv e n t i n s t i t u - t i o n . ® 2 t ® ®The T im e s. January 2 , 1 9 4 2 , p. 6 . i 8^Edward pen t , A T h ea tre f o r E verybody (London: !T. V. Boardman and Company, L t d ., 1 9 4 5 ), p. 122. 8 2 I b i d . . p. 126. 152 i L a te r in 1 9 4 2 , th e f i n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r C EM A was tr a n s f e r r e d from t h e Board o f E d u c a tio n t o th e i T rea su ry a t th e r e q u e s t o f K eyn es, who a l s o se r v e d a s j i 83 C h u r c h ill’ s m ajor a d v is o r on i n t e r n a t io n a l e c o n o m ic s. K eyn es, from h i s p o s i t i o n o f power in th e T r e a su r y , q u ic k ly d e v e lo p e d a t i g h t a d m in is t r a tio n and expanded th e f u n c t io n s t o f CEMA. In December o f 1 9 4 2 , p a n e ls o f e x p e r ts w ere e s t a b lis h e d t o a d v is e th e C hairm an, K ey n es, on th e s p e c i a l problem s o f m u sic , dram a, and a r t ; K eynes w as chairm an o f ea ch o f t h e s e p a n e ls a s w e l l a s o f th e C EM A w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t no e x p e n d itu r e c o u ld be made w ith o u t h i s s p e c i f i c ; a p p ro v a l a lth o u g h t h e s e p a n e ls w ere g iv e n a d e g r e e o f , e x e c u t iv e power and c a r r ie d on th e d a y -to -d a y work o f CEMA.®4 K eynes a l s o was a s tr o n g su p p o r te r o f C EM A a s s o c i a t io n w ith th e b e s t West End m anagem ents f o r m utu al p r e s - j ; ? t i g e i f n o t f i n a n c i a l a d v a n ta g e. At t h i s tim e th e r e w ere two o th e r d e v e lo p m en ts iw h ich in flu e n c e d CEM A p o l i c y . The B r i t i s h Drama League | i p repared a p la n f o r a n a tio n -w id e sy ste m o f c i v i c t h e a t r e s 83 Landstone, op. c i t . . p. 38. 8 4 I b i d . , p. 6 6 . w hich fe a tu r e d a r e tu r n t o th e r e p e r to r y sy s te m , e n c o u r a g e ment o f new p la y w r ig h ts , u se o f new o r e x i s t i n g b u i ld in g s , and t h e d i v i s i o n o f f in a n c in g b etw een s t a t e and l o c a l fu n d s - - a l l w ith th e aim o f a t t a i n i n g a s e l f - s u p p o r t in g s t a t u s a s 85 soon a s p o s s i b l e . In th e l a s t y e a r o f th e war in E urope, ;th e p u rp ose o f th e C EM A to u r s underw ent a ch a n g e: th e i n d u s t r i a l h o s t e l s r e c e iv e d l e s s a t t e n t i o n and th e tow ns w ith O C . in a d eq u a te t h e a t r e f a c i l i t i e s r e c e iv e d m ore. The empha s i s on to u r in g g r a d u a lly in c r e a s e d d u r in g th e w ar: in 1943 th e r e w ere e le v e n CEM A to u r s w ith 107 w eeks o f p la y in g tim e and in 1944 th e r e w ere f o u r t e e n t o u r s w ith 129 w eeks o f p la y in g tim e.® ? T h is a c t i v i t y stemmed from B e v in 's e a r l i e r !r e q u e s t t h a t C EM A p r o v id e what i t c o u ld t o w ork ers in i s o - 88 la t e d c ir c u m s ta n c e s . ° A f t e r su rm ou n tin g th e i n i t i a l opp o s i t i o n o f th e T h e a t r ic a l M anagers' A s s o c ia t i o n , w h ich th o u g h t i t c o u ld p r o v id e th e same s e r v i c e , th e C EM A q u i e t l y d e v e lo p e d i t s program fo r to u r in g i n d u s t r i a l h o s t e l s . The ’ la c k o f p u b l i c i t y f o r t h i s f a c e t o f CEMA's a c t i v i t y was due ^ The T im es. November 1 8 , 1 9 4 2 , p . 6 . Q g ° Landstone, op. c i t . . p. 59. 8 7 I b i d . . p. 55. 8 8 I b id . . p. 49. t o more th a n s e c u r i t y p r e c a u tio n s : K eynes d id n o t w ant C EM A t o sh a r e th e 1 1 s o c ia lis m " brand a p p lie d t o th e p r o j e c t in j 89 some q u a r t e r s . j None o f th e C E M A p la y s w h ich to u r ed w ere p r e se n te d j I a d m is s io n - f r e e on th e th e o r y t h a t what was f r e e was d e s - I p is e d a lth o u g h th e a d m issio n s ch arged w ere h a r d ly r e s t r i c - I i i t i v e , r a n g in g from one s h i l l i n g ( f o u r t e e n A m erican c e n t s ) J i I in 1942 t o two s h i l l i n g s in 1945 in h o s t e l s and one s h i l l in g and s ix p e n c e t o f i v e s h i l l i n g s in h a l l s and t h e a t r e s in tow ns d u r in g th e same p e r io d .98 C o n s is t e n t w ith K eynes ap p aren t d e s i r e f o r good p u b l i c i t y , th e few a r t i c l e s p u b lish e d w h ich d e s c r ib e d i t s i ! a c t i v i t y w ere q u it e co m p lim en ta ry . C EM A i n s t i t u t e d a p r o gram o f p r e s e n t in g S h a k esp ea re in p u b lic p arks w here t h e a t r e s w ere n o t a v a i la b l e , u s in g " f i r s t - c l a s s " London com- I f p a n ie s ; 9 * S h a k esp ea re was p r e se n te d a t th e R o y a l Ordnance ! Q O i [ F a c t o r ie s and h o s t e l s w ith good r e s u l t s e n t h u s i a s t i c j : i a u d ie n c e s w ere r e p o r te d f o r CEMA's e f f o r t s in s p i t e o f th e j 89 I b i d . . p. 5 1 . 9 0 I b i d . . p. 5 9 . 9 ^The M anchester G u a rd ia n . A p r il 1 8 , 1 9 4 2 , p. 4 . ^2The T im es. A ugust 2 4 , 1 9 4 3 , p. 8. la c k o f t h e a t r e s in th e W elsh m in in g a r e a s .9^ T h is "good p r e ss" was acknow ledged t o be a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f C EM A in a 1943 a r t i c l e p r a is in g th e o r g a n iz a t io n : " . . . s u s p ic io n h a s r a r e ly c r y s t a l l i z e d in t o s p e c i f i c c o m p la in t. 1,94 The sc o p e and f u n c t io n o f CEM A was expanded in May o f 1943 when th e T h ea tr e R o y a l, B r i s t o l , was r e b u i l t and opened under C EM A m anagem ent. At t h i s tim e , th e CEM A was d e s c r ib e d a s b e in g su p p o rted b y th e T r e a su r y , r e c o g n iz in g th e a u t h o r it y o f th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n , and under no r e a l r u l e s ; i t p r o v id e d f a c t o r y c o n c e r ts and drama to u r s and found i t had t o p r o v id e b u ild in g s in o rd er n o t t o l o s e th e a u d ie n c e i t had d e v e lo p e d .9 * * A g a in , i t was CEMA's f o r tu n e t o h ave fa v o r a b le p u b l i c i t y f o r an u n p reced en ted a c t io n . The T h ea tr e R o y a l, B r i s t o l , c o n s tr u c te d in 1 7 6 6 , 9 6 was th e o l d e s t t h e a t r e in e x is t e n c e in G reat B r it a i n . The c i t i z e n s o f B r i s t o l r a is e d fc5,000 t o buy th e t h e a t r e as i t was ab ou t to becom e a w a reh o u se. T h is was an in s p ir in g a c t io n on th e p a r t o f a p e o p le w hose c i t y had b een a l l b u t I b i d . , Septem ber 7 , 1 9 44, p. 6 . 9 4 I b i d . , May 1 1 , 1 9 43, p. 5 . 9 5 I b id . . p. 2 . 96 Audrey W illia m so n , C ontem porary T h ea tre 1 9 5 3 - 1956 (London: R o c k l i f f P u b lis h in g C o r p o r a tio n , 1 9 5 6 ), p. 180. d e s tr o y e d by a ir r a id s and who fa c e d p r o b a b le in v a s io n . ■ ' I T h e ir e f f o r t s to p u rch a se th e b u ild in g and t o tu r n i t in t o j a t h e a t r e once more w ould h ave f a i l e d i f K ey n es, on b e h a lf ! o f CEMA, had n o t in te r v e n e d : he o f f e r e d t o ta k e a tw e n ty - t i one y e a r l e a s e a t fc300 per y e a r , t o p r o v id e f u l l r e p a ir and I I m a in te n a n c e , to pay th e E 5 ,0 0 0 s t i l l due on th e p u rch a se [ i I ; I from fu tu r e p r o f i t s an d , o u t o f th e same p r o f i t s , t o e s - j ' t a b l i s h a fund f o r th e u s e o f th e l o c a l C om m ittee o f T r u s t- 97 e e s f o r th e t h e a t r e . ‘ T h is was in r e tu r n f o r f u l l c o n t r o l o f t h e a t r i c a l p o l i c y on th e p a r t o f C EM A f o r th e c o n t r a c t p e r io d . A bank lo a n o f th e fc5,000 s t i l l n eeded t o j consu m ate th e d e a l was o b ta in e d by K eynes on th e b a s is o f |h i s l e a s e and h i s r e p u t a t io n a lth o u g h th e bank d i s l i k e d , b u t a c c e p te d , a c la u s e a llo w in g C EM A t o te r m in a te i t s le a s e w ith s i x m on th 's n o t i c e . 98 K eynes a l s o s o lv e d th e J | q u e s t io n o f l i c e n s e s fo r th e s t r u c t u r e by r e g i s t e r i n g i t a sj ;a Board o f E d u ca tio n b u ild in g , under w h ich c l a s s i f i c a t i o n j ino l i c e n s e s w ere r e q u ir e d , and e f f e c t i v e l y n e u t r a liz e d j ! ! |T r e a su r y o b j e c t io n t o th e t r a n s a c t io n by p r e s e n t in g th e I M in is tr y an a c co m p lish ed f a c t . T h is u n p r ec e d e n ted u se o f | 97 ^'Landstone, op. c i t . . p. 44. 9 8 Ibid. T r ea su r y fu n d s t o manage a t h e a t r e f o r p r o f i t was su p - ; i j I p o r te d by The M an ch ester G u ard ian on th e ground s t h a t th e j ! la c k o f s u i t a b l e b u ild in g s w as th e m ajor o b s t a c le t o a j r e v i v a l o f th e a r t s in G reat B r i t a i n . ^9 T h is v e n tu r e proved t o be p r o f i t a b l e from th e s t a r t ( in 1 9 4 6 , th e p r o f i t am ounted t o L 1 6 ,0 0 0 , o n e - h a lf j jo f w h ich was earn ed a t th e b a r — a r e c o g n iz e d p a r t o f t h e J t h e a t r e b u sin e ss ^ -®®) and i t s e r v e d a s a sta n d a r d o f e x c e l - I le n c e f o r r e g io n a l t h e a t r e s a l l o v e r E ngland b y p r o v id in g i e n te r ta in m e n t f o r th e l o c a l p o p u la tio n and a c t in g a s a : s t e p p in g - s t o n e fo r t a l e n t on i t s way t o London s u c c e s s . ( ;The B r i s t o l Old V ic Company w as e s t a b l i s h e d in 1946 o v e r i jth e o p p o s it io n o f Lord K eyn es: Tyrone G u th r ie , d i r e c t o r o f th e Old V ic , w anted a s a t e l l i t e o u t s id e o f London w ith i w h ich he c o u ld exch an ge p la y s b u t K eynes was o f th e o p in - | ; io n t h a t in su ch an arran gem en t a d e f i c i t was in e v it a b le .^ ^ r \ j I , The deed was a c co m p lish ed w h ile K eynes w as o u t o f th e j ;c o u n tr y on L en d -L ease c o n fe r e n c e s and Hugh Hunt was a p - j j 99 The M an ch ester G u a r d ia n . May 13, 1 9 4 3 , p . 4 . ^ ^ L a n d sto n e , o p . c i t . . p. 126. 1 0 1 I b i d . , pp. 129-130. p o in te d a s th e f i r s t d ir e c t o r o f th e B r i s t o l Old V ic — th e 1 ■ j w h ole o p e r a tio n from i n i t i a l p la n n in g t o f i r s t p r o d u c tio n \ I i to o k o n ly s i x m onths.^-® 2 In 1 9 5 2 , th e Old V ic to o k o v e r j i th e management o f th e T h ea tre R o y a l, B r i s t o l , w h ich i t had j ib een s h a r in g w ith th e A r ts C o u n c il, s u c c e s s o r t o th e CEMA. T h is w as p a rt o f th e A r ts C o u n c il's w ith d ra w a l from d i r e c t !management f u n c t io n s in th e 1 9 5 0 ’ s and no r e a l p o lic y ! I t c h a n g e s o ccu rred a s fa r a s th e o p e r a tio n o f th e T h ea tre R o y a l w as c o n c e r n e d . T h is was a l s o th e o c c a s io n o f th e j !r e tir e m e n t o f C h a r le s L an d ston e from th e A r ts C o u n c il i I ( A s s o c ia t e Drama D ir e c t o r ) a lth o u g h he c o n tin u e d to s e r v e i 103 ja s G en era l Manager o f T h ea tre R o y a l, B r i s t o l . I The p r a c t ic e o f d i r e c t management o f t h e a t r i c a l com p anies on th e p a r t o f th e CEMA/Arts C o u n c il ended in : 1947 w ith th e d i s s o l u t i o n o f su ch t i e s w ith th e B a l le t 104 f R am bert. T h is p a r t ic u la r group c o n tin u e d to demand morej ! t I e la b o r a t e c o n d it io n s and f a c i l i t i e s u n t i l i t c o s t th e g o v - f ; em in en t t 6 ,9 9 0 f o r th e 1 9 4 6 /7 s e a so n (th e r e s u l t o f to u r in g w ith a f u l l o r c h e s tr a ) a t w h ich tim e i t was d e c id e d t o l-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ! 102 I b id . 103The T im es. March 2 8 , 1952, p. 8 . r r 10^ L an d ston e, o p . c i t . . p. 6 4 . p r e s e n t th e company th e co stu m es and s c e n e r y i t had a c q u ir e d and s e t i t out on i t s own under th e same c o n d it io n s a s o th e r m ajor b a l l e t s e x i s t e d . At th e end o f th e war in E u rop e, C EM A was d iv id in g i t s e f f o r t s b etw een th e p r o v in c e s and London. K e y n e s's c o n c e p t o f s tr e n g th e n in g C EM A th rou gh a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e 'h ig h e s t sta n d a r d s o b ta in a b le on th e W est End seem ed t o j d om in ate th e e f f o r t t o su p p ly th e p r o v in c e s w ith u n sp e c ta c u la r t o u r s . In 1944, th e p lig h t o f th e r u r a l a r e a s f o llo w in g th e C EM A d e c is io n t o c o n c e n tr a te on t h e a t r e l e s s tow ns r a th e r th a n f a c t o r y h o s t e l s came t o p u b lic a t t e n t io n w ith th e ch a rg e t h a t C E M A w as m erely d u p lic a t in g ENSA a c t i v i t y i land d e s e r t in g r u r a l program s w h ich w ere b e g in n in g t o show r e s u l t s . 10® M. C. G lasgow , S e c r e ta r y o f th e C EM A C o u n c il, answ ered t h a t no change o f p o lic y had b een made b u t t h a t / th e e x i s t i n g p o lic y w as d e v e lo p in g : C EM A was n o t founded f o r r u r a l a r e a s o n ly n or t o p r o v id e c o n c e r t s b u t t o ta k e I th e n e c e s s a r y s t e p s t o en cou rage l o c a l i n i t i a t i v e . ^ 7 i (CEMA's e a r ly program s d id n o t in c lu d e th e d evelop m en t o f a *°**The Times. January 3, 1944, p. 5. 1 0 7 I b i d . . January 5, 1944, p. 5. s tr o n g p r o v in c ia l a d m in is tr a tio n and th e move t o r ed u c e th e i ; sc o p e o f i t s p r o v in c ia l a c t i v i t i e s a l s o a c te d t o in c r e a s e j th e im p ortan ce o f r e g io n a l c e n t e r s . T h is b e n e f i t was j d e n ie d in a l e t t e r from B. S a u n d e r s-D a v ie s p u b lish e d in The Tim es on th e grounds t h a t r e g io n a l c e n t e r s c o u ld n o t ! r e p la c e " p e r so n a l c o n ta c t" and t h a t th e i s o l a t e d r u r a l 108 a r e a s w ould become more i s o l a t e d th a n e v e r . In a n o th er ■ \ move t o s tr e n g th e n i t s a d m in is t r a t io n , CEM A e s t a b l i s h e d a n a t io n a l o f f i c e in C a r d if f in May o f 1 9 4 4 .^®9 The E sta b lis h m e n t o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a in When S ir John A n d erson , C h a n c e llo r o f th e E xchequer, i I {announced th a t C EM A w ould be c o n tin u e d a f t e r th e war w ith a new t i t l e , revam ped a d m in is t r a t io n , and R o y a l C h a rter a s th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n , th e su p p o r te r s o f ENSA's i 1 c la im s f o r su ch s t a t u s , in c lu d in g B a s i l D ean, q u i e t l y d i s - j banded and prep ared t o su p p o rt th e g o v ern m en t’ s e f f o r t s . |K eyn es d is c u s s e d th e p u rp o ses o f th e A r ts C o u n c il a t a i [c o n fe r e n c e f o llo w in g th e g o v e rn m e n t's announcem ent: th e ! 1 C o u n c il, in o rd er t o " n o u r ish a l i v i n g i n t e r e s t in th e i > * ^ I b id . . January 1 1 , 1 9 4 4 , p. 2 . , 1 0 9 I b id . . May 20, 1944, p. 2. a rts" must be prepared to h elp w ith the f in a n c ia l aid when ! other funds were not a v a ila b le , in clu d in g th e p ro v isio n o f j f t b u ild in g s , in order to r a is e th e standards o f p re se n ta tio n | i in th e c i t i e s and to make th e a r ts more a c c e s s ib le in th e 'p r o v in c e s .^ ® The f u lf illm e n t o f t h is tw o -fo ld purpose j I » was to prove a problem o f seem ingly co n sta n t compromise. j 1 ! S in ce the n ew ly-created C ouncil was dependent upon an l i I annual Treasury grant and sin c e th e Treasury alread y made j d ir e c t gran ts to oth er c u ltu r a l in s t it u t io n s (museums, g a l l e r i e s , acad em ies), the C oun cil was r e sp o n sib le to th e j C hancellor o f th e Exchequer, who was d esign ated to speak : fo r i t in P arliam ent. j i Between th e announcement o f th e governm ent's in te n - ; tio n s and th e a c tu a l esta b lish m en t o f the A rts C o u n cil, !Lord Keynes observed th a t in th e b eginning th e aim o f gov ernm ental support was to re p la ce what war had denied th e , ! p op u lation but th a t i t was soon found th a t i t was provid in g I what had never e x is te d b efo re th e w a r ,^ ^ The purpose o f •^^The M anchester G uardian. June 1 3 , 1 9 4 5 , p. 3 . ^•^F ir s t Annual Report o f th e A rts C ouncil o f Great B r ita in . 1 9 4 5 -5 (London: The Baynard P ress, 1 9 4 6 ), !p. 20. th e A r ts C o u n c il w a s, a c c o r d in g t o K ey n es, t o I . . . c r e a t e an en v iro n m en t, t o breed a s p i r - i i t , to c u l t i v a t e an o p in io n , t o o f f e r a s tim u lu s j t o su ch p u rp ose th a t t h e a r t i s t and th e p u b lic I can e a ch s u s t a in and l i v e on th e o th e r in t h a t u n io n w h ich h a s o c c a s io n a lly e x is t e d in th e p a st i a t th e g r e a t a g e s o f a communal c i v i l i z e d l i f e . ^ ^ ;K eynes was a ls o co n cern ed w ith th e in f lu e n c e governm ent | i ; m igh t e x e r t upon th e d evelop m en t o f th e a r t i s t . He c o n ten d ed t h a t th e governm ent co u ld se r v e by e n c o u r a g in g , n o t 1 I O by a tte m p tin g t o te a c h or c e n s o r , th e a r t i s t . The need ! fo r f a c i l i t i e s was se e n t o be a g r e a t le s s o n o f th e CEM A e x p e r ie n c e and a lth o u g h su ch f a c i l i t i e s w ere n e c e s s a r y t o ! th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a s tr o n g r e g io n a l t h e a t r e o r g a n iz a - t i o n and e x c e s s i v e p r e s t i g e o f m e tr o p o lita n sta n d a r d s w ould a c t t o i n h i b i t p r o v in c ia l d e v e lo p m en t, i t was deemed im p e r a tiv e th a t London b e d e v e lo p ed in t o a c u l t u r a l c e n te r w ith o u t p e e r .* ^ 4 Keynes a ls o m a in ta in e d th a t th e b e s t way j f o r th e p u rp o ses o f th e A r ts C o u n c il t o be a c h ie v e d was i |th r o u g h su p p o rt t o o th e r o r g a n iz a t io n s , n o t th ro u g h th e | e s ta b lis h m e n t o f s t a t e - r u n e n t e r p r i s e s . | Ten y e a r s a f t e r K eynes s e t f o r t h h i s c o n c e p ts o f I 'v - —— j 1 12I b id . . p. 2 3 . 113I b i d . . p. 2 1 . j 1 1 4 I b i d . , pp. 2 2-23. 1 1 5 I b i d . . p. 6 . ithe fu tu r e A r ts C o u n c il's p u r p o se s, th e A r ts C o u n c il pub l is h e d a p o lic y sta te m e n t w h ich added t o K eynes s t a t u r e and j r e v e a le d how e x p e r ie n c e a c te d t o m od ify th e o r i g i n a l p o l- j i j i c y . The 1 9 5 5 -5 6 A r ts C o u n c il in t e r p r e t e d i t s o b l i g a t io n j ; ! ito a s s i s t and en co u ra g e th e a r t s by im p rovin g p r o f e s s io n a l j t sta n d a r d s o f p erfo rm a n ce, a id in g in th e p r o v is io n o f b u i l d - j in g s , e n h a n cin g d e m o n str a tio n s o f l o c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and 116 p r a c t ic in g a s e l e c t i v e form o f d i f f u s i o n o f th e a r t s . ;The m ajor so u r c e o f c o n tr o v e r s y surroun ded th e e v o lu t io n o f " s e l e c t i v e d if f u s io n " f o r two r e a s o n s : th e p r o v in c ia l c e n t e r s w ere r e sp o n d in g t o a id in a manner w h ich w ould e n c o u r - |a g e th e c o n tin u a n c e o f a s e l e c t i v e p o l i c y , and t e l e v i s i o n jwas in c r e a s in g ly e f f e c t i v e as a mass d i f f u s e r o f th e a r t s . i The rem a in in g g o a ls o f th e A r ts C o u n c il e s s e n t i a l l y p a r a l l e l e d K e y n e s's c o n c e p ts . The A r ts C o u n c il was com posed o f s i x t e e n members !a p p o in te d by th e C h a n c e llo r o f th e E xchequer w ith th e ia p p r o v a l o f th e M in is te r o f E d u ca tio n and S e c r e ta r y o f |S t a t e fo r S c o tla n d , c h o se n as t a le n t e d and e x p e r ie n c e d i n d iv i d u a l s , n o t a s r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f any s p e c i f i c p r e s - t _______ r ^ ^ E le v e n th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f [G reat B r it a i n . 1 9 5 5 -6 . o p . c i t . . p. 3 0 . su r e g r o u p s, fo r s ta g g e r e d f i v e - y e a r terras w ith no p a y .^ ^ The Chairman o f th e C o u n c il was a p p o in ted by th e C h a n c e llo r w h ile th e V ic e-ch a irm a n was a p p o in te d by th e C o u n c il, su b - 118 j e c t t o th e a p p ro v a l o f th e T r ea su r y . ° S e p a r a te Commit t e e s e x is t e d fo r S c o tla n d and W ales w ith ch airm en a p p o in te d from th e C o u n c il and members s e l e c t e d by th e C o u n c il w ith ! th e a p p r o v a l o f th e S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e f o r S c o tla n d ( f o r 119 S c o tla n d ) o r th e M in is t e r o f E d u ca tio n ( f o r W a le s ). Chairm en f o r th e a d v is o r y p a n e ls w ere a p p o in te d from th e C o u n c il w h ile members o f ea ch p a n e l w ere s e l e c t e d by th e C o u n c il fo r t h e ir s p e c i f i c t a l e n t s - - a l s o s e r v in g w ith o u t 120 | p ay. The p r o f e s s io n a l s t a f f o f th e A r ts C o u n c il c o n - ! s i s t e d o f p a id p e r s o n n e l: th e p r in c ip a l e x e c u t iv e o f f i c e r , I th e S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l (a p p o in te d by th e C o u n c il w ith th e a p p r o v a l o f th e C h a n c e llo r ) , th e D ir e c to r s o f th e m u sic , drama and a r t d ep artm en ts and th e D ir e c to r s in th e S c o t t i s h 121 j and W elsh o f f i c e s . A m ajor change was made in a d m in is • ^ The A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a in : What I t I s and What I t Does (Southham pton: The M illb r o o k P r e s s , L t d ., 1 9 6 3 ), p. 3 . 118I b id , 119I b i d . , p. 4 . 1 2 0I b id . , p. 5 121I b id . t r a t i v e o r g a n iz a t io n when th e A r ts C o u n c il was form ed from | i ! th e CEMA. The e x e c u t iv e power o f th e A d v iso r y P a n e ls w as | t r a n s f e r r e d t o an E x e c u tiv e C o u n c il, com posed o f th e j i : ch airm an , v ic e -c h a ir m a n , and p a n e l ch a irm en , w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t Drama had o n ly one v o t e o f s i x —w h ic h , a c c o r d in g 1 i ! I t o L a n d sto n e, r e s u lt e d in r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e e x p a n sio n o f j th e drama program in th e p e r io d im m ed ia te ly f o llo w in g th e !war b e c a u se th e p a id members o f th e A r ts C o u n c il s t a f f had I no v o i c e in broad p o l i c y and laym en d id n o t h ave an a p p re - ' 1 2 2 :c i a t i o n o f th e need f o r v a r io u s r e fo r m s . In 1 9 4 8 , a s p e c i a l P a n e l f o r Opera and B a l l e t was !e s t a b lis h e d o n ly to b e d is s o lv e d in 1949 when i t was d e t e r - | mined t h a t th e r e was to o much o v e r la p b etw een t h i s and th e 123 M usic and Drama P a n e ls . A P o e tr y P a n e l was e s t a b lis h e d : in 1949 a lo n g th e same g e n e r a l l i n e s a s w ere th e o th e r p a n e I s - - s p e c i f i c a l l y , members and a chairm an w ere a p p o in te d |b u t l i t t l e more c o u ld be a c co m p lish ed b e c a u se o f s e v e r e I b u d g e ta ry l i m i t a t i o n s . -^4 That c o n d it io n seem ed t o e x i s t i 122L a n d sto n e, op. c i t . . p. 6 8 . 1 2 3 i j F i f t h A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f j 1 G reat B r it a i n . 1 9 4 9 -5 0 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 0 ), P- 5 . i 124i b i d . , pp . 4 -5 . _______________ ________________________ th ro u g h o u t th e sc o p e o f t h i s stu d y b e c a u se as l a t e a s 1963 th e A r ts C o u n c il's b u d get in c lu d e d l e s s th a n b 4 ,5 0 0 f o r p o e tr y w h ich was d iv id e d among g r a n t s , g u a r a n te e s , a p o e tr y l ib r a r y , and m is c e lla n e o u s e x p e n s e s --n o n e was r e c o r d e d fo r s t a f f s a l a r i e s . The fo rm a l p ronou ncem ent, th e R o y a l C h a r te r , g r a n te d on A u gust 9 , 1 9 4 6 , s p e c i f i c a l l y ch arged th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a in w ith th e d evelop m en t o f . . . a g re a ter knowledge, understanding and p r a c tic e o f th e fin e a r ts . . . and in p a r tic u la r to in crea se the a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f th e fin e a r ts to th e p u b lic . . . to improve the standard o f execu t io n o f th e fin e a r ts and to a d v ise and coop erate w ith . . . government Departm ents, lo c a l a u th o r i t i e s and oth er b od ies on any m atters concerned d ir e c t ly or in d ir e c tly w ith th o se o b je c ts . . . Lord Keynes did not liv e to assume th e chairm anship o f the A rts C ouncil he was so in stru m en tal in c r e a tin g ; he died su d d en ly on E a s te r Sunday in 1 9 46, b u t h i s c o n c e p ts a p - ipeared in i t s Royal C harter and la r g e ly remained as b a sic I p o lic y . ^E ighteenth Annual Report o f the A rts C ouncil o f Great B r ita in , 19 6 2 -3 (London; The Baynard P r e ss, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 8 0 -8 1 . 126 Second Annual Report o f th e A rts C ouncil o f Great B r ita in . 1946-7 (London; The Baynard P r e ss, 1 9 4 7 ), p. 8. The D evelopm ent o f th e P r o v in c ia l j R e p e r to r y System j ! S in c e th e 1 9 0 9 -1 1 b e g in n in g s o f th e r e p e r to r y m ove-j ! ment under Horniman in M an ch ester, th e G lasgow R e p e r to r y j .and th e L iv e r p o o l P la y h o u se , th e p o t e n t i a l v a lu e o f a i 1 s e r i e s o f r e p e r to r y t h e a t r e s h as in flu e n c e d th e c o n c e p t o f n a t io n a l o r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e a t r e in G reat B r it a i n . In i th e o r y , a r e p e r to r y t h e a t r e w ould pre-sent a d i f f e r e n t p la y ea ch d a y , r e p e a t in g p erform an ces o f any g iv e n p la y as th e r e iw as an a u d ie n c e fo r i t . W ith a few e x c e p t io n s , B r i t i s h p r a c t ic e was c h a r a c te r iz e d by a g r e a t d iv e r g e n c e from t h i s j th e o r y , " R ep ertory" was a p p lie d t o an e x h a u s tin g w e ek ly I j change o f b i l l w ith o n ly a few p la y s b e in g p r e se n te d a g a in ■ in a g iv e n s e a s o n . The m ajor c a u se o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n seemed t o be eco n o m ic: th e r e g u la r a u d ie n c e was to o s m a ll i ! t o su p p o rt th e d a ily change (an e x p e n s iv e o p e r a t io n ) - - a n j :A r ts C o u n c il in q u ir y r e v e a le d th a t o n ly abou t th r e e p er I i i i i c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n a tte n d e d th e t h e a t r e and c o n c lu d e d j ; I I t h a t , t h e r e f o r e , m ost towns w ere to o sm a ll t o p r o v id e an 12 fi a u d ie n c e . ° W hile a b so r b in g c o n t in u a l l o s s e s in th e i I ----- - - - — - — — - -- . . . _________________________ j 1 9 7 ! 'W. E. W illia m s , Econom ic and S o c i a l A s p e c ts o f J i th e T h ea tre (London: S t a p le s P r e s s , L t d ., 1 9 5 3 ), p. 3 , j the process o f supporting many l o c a l r e p e r t o r ie s , the A rts C o u n c il a ttem p ted t o a t t r a c t a new a u d ie n c e by p r o v id in g a i ! h ig h e r sta n d a rd o f perform an ce th ro u g h a sy ste m o f s u b s i- j 12Q ' d iz in g e x tr a r e h e a r s a l. J In a few i n s t a n c e s , ex ch a n g es i o f p erform an ces w ere arran ged b etw een n e ig h b o r in g r e p e r to r y |co m p a n ies as a means o f ad d in g t o th e p r e p a r a tio n tim e ! \ ~ ion ; a llo w e d a g iv e n p r o d u c tio n . w T h is id e a , expanded in t o i th e c o n c e p t o f a " th e a tr e g r id " c o v e r in g th e w h ole n a tio n c o n s i s t e n t l y f a i l e d t o a c h ie v e th e d e s ir e d r e s u l t s fo r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s : a la c k o f t h e a t r e s in w h ich t o p la y , la c k o f l o c a l i n t e r e s t in an "im ported" com pany, and c o s t s w h ich iin c r e a s e d f a s t e r th a n d id b o x - o f f i c e r e c e i p t s f o r p la y s o f |c o m p a r a t iv e ly h ig h q u a l i t y . ^31 By I 9 6 0 , th e t h e a t r e w orld seem ed t o have a c c e p te d .t h e f a c t o f th e f u t i l i t y o f th e "w eekly r e p e r to r y " sy stem ; ’ \ ; f ' i t was so u n p r o d u c tiv e th a t th e A r ts C o u n c il s u p p lie d o n ly |m a r g in a l a id f o r tw en ty r e p e r t o r ie s in E n glan d , f i v e in 129 7F i r s t A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a i n . 1 9 4 5 -6 , op. c i t .. p. 12. ^ ^N in th A nnual R eport o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat I B r it a i n . 1 9 5 3 -4 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 4 ), p. 4 0 . i 1 m I b i d . . pp. 2 8 -3 0 . 132 ' S c o tla n d , and none in W a les. W ith in tw o y e a r s , tw o - t t h ir d s o f th e r e p e r to r y com p an ies had sw itc h e d t o a tw o - w eek s c h e d u le e v en th ou gh c o s t s w ere i n i t i a l l y h ig h e r th a n j 133 r e c e i p t s . The p o st-w a r t h e a t r e boom la s t e d u n t i l th e m id - j |1 9 5 0 's when th e r i s e o f t e l e v i s i o n , s e r io u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n | !o f t h e a t r e b u i ld in g s , r i s i n g c o s t s , and s h o r ta g e s o f j |3A ! fu n d s a l l com bined t o c u t th e number o f r e p e r to r y t h e a - ] t r e s from ab ou t 100 ( f o r t y n o n p r o f it , tw e n ty - th r e e r e c e i v - t : in g A r ts C o u n c il g r a n t s ) i n 1955 t o f i f t y - o n e ( t h i r t y - ■jo/: s e v e n n o n p r o f it , t w e n t y - s ix r e c e i v in g a s u b s id y ) by I960, j The A r ts C o u n c il co n ten d e d th a t th e r e p e r to r y movement had 132p j f t e e n t h A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n . 1 9 5 9 -6 0 (London: The Baynard P r e s s . 1 9 6 0 ). , p . 18. j 133 ~ i S e v e n te e n th A nnual R ep o rt o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f ; ;G reat B r i t a i n , 19 6 1 -2 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 ), j p. 3 1 . 134 N in th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat | B r i t a i n , 1 9 5 3 -4 , op. c i t . , p. 3 9 . ! 131 : j E le v e n th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f iG reat B r i t a i n , 1 9 5 5 -6 , op . c i t . , p . 4 0 . • ^ F i f t e e n t h A nnual R ep o rt o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f i G reat B r i t a i n . 1 9 5 9 -6 0 , op. c i t . , p. 2 6 . 170 i grown s in c e th e war d e s p it e t h i s slum p b u t th a t f a c i l i t i e s ' w ould h ave t o be im proved i f th e g a in was t o be p r e s e r v e d . i The problem had grown t o th e p o in t t h a t th e p u b lic sp e n t i L 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 p er y e a r in t h e a t r e s r e c e iv in g A r ts C o u n c il ! su p p ort and th e C o u n c il had t o c o n t r ib u t e a n o th er h i , 5 0 0 ,- 1 t '000 j u s t t o k eep them in e x is t e n c e on a d a y -to -d a y J ' b a s i s . 137 j n an e f f o r t t o r e v e r s e th e tr e n d , th e A r ts ! ; C o u n c il ad op ted a p o lic y o f b u d g e tin g fc l5 0 ,0 0 0 per y e a r f o r th e r e s t o r a t i o n o f p r o v in c ia l f a c i l i t i e s . ^ -3® W hile t h i s a c t io n was c a ll e d f o r , i t was n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o e lim in a t e th e problem s c r e a te d by r i s i n g c o s t s and d e c r e a s in g a u d ie n c e s . i F o llo w in g th e s u c c e s s f u l e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e The a t r e R o y a l, B r i s t o l , th e A r ts C o u n c il a ttem p ted t o c r e a t e a perm anent r e p e r to r y t h e a t r e in Sw ansea, th e f a i l u r e o f 130 w h ich le d t o th e amendment o f C o u n c il p o l i c y . The m ost ! s i g n i f i c a n t c o n c lu s io n drawn from t h i s f a i l u r e was t h a t a I t h e a t r e c o u ld n o t be a p p lie d or g r a fte d t o an a r e a w here I ■ ■ — .......... I 13 7 I b id . , p. 6 . 13ft ! S e v e n t e e n t h A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il < i o f G reat B r it a i n , 1 9 6 1 -2 . op . c i t . , p. 30. ^ •3^S ix th Annual R eport o f th e A r ts C o u n cil o f G reat B r it a i n . 1950-1 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 1 ), p. 25. ■ a d e g r e e o f b o x - o f f i c e su p p o rt had n o t b e e n p ro v id ed th r o u g l I [ s u b s c r ip t io n s or t i c k e t s a l e s p r io r t o th e o p e n in g o f th e j 4 I A I t h e a t r e . F u l l c o n t r o l o f th e t h e a t r e b u ild in g was a l s o a c c e p te d as b e in g o f prim ary im p o rta n ce t o th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a perm anent t h e a t r e . I l j ; I ' In 1 9 5 0 , The Tim es p u b lis h e d th e r e s u l t s o f C h a r le s J L a n d s to n e 's a n a l y s is o f th e f i n a n c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een 1 a r e p e r to r y t h e a t r e and th e com m unity in w h ich i t was l o c a t e d . A t t h i s tim e , L an d ston e was s e r v in g in th e c a p a - i c i t y o f A s s o c ia t e D ir e c to r o f th e Drama P a n e l o f th e A r ts C o u n c il and a l s o a s th e m ajor cham pion o f p r o v in c ia l drama jp rogram s. A f t e r d e te r m in in g t h a t , g e n e r a l ly , o n ly th r e e i i |p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n a tte n d e d t h e a t r e , he co n c lu d e d l t h a t a town n eed ed a p o p u la tio n o f o v e r 7 0 ,0 0 0 i f i t was ! t o su p p o rt a r e p e r to r y w ith o u t a la r g e a n n u a l s u b s id y . He e f ig u r e d t h a t a good company in a s m a ll t h e a t r e c o u ld o p e r - ! I !a t e f o r a p p r o x im a te ly L400 per w eek and t h a t a r e g u la r i w e e k ly a u d ie n c e o f 2 ,1 0 0 ( t h r e e p er c e n t o f 7 0 ,0 0 0 ) w ould | |b r e a k down in t o 262 p er p e r fo r m a n c e --a b o u t t h r e e - q u a r t e r s ]o f th e c a p a c it y o f a s m a ll 3 5 0 - s e a t t h e a t r e . He n o ted 1 4 0 I b id . 1 4 1 I b id . 142The T im es. A p r il 12, 1950, p. 4 . 172. ; I t h a t , a c c o r d in g t o A r ts C o u n c il e x p e r ie n c e , th e i d e a l s i z e j ! i fo r a r e p e r to r y t h e a t r e , in term s o f c o s t s and p r o d u c tio n i ) ; l i m i t a t i o n s , was 7 0 0 -8 5 0 s e a t s and t h a t i t w ould ta k e a t j 9 | i l e a s t th r e e y e a r s t o a t t a i n m in im al r e c o g n it io n and su p p o rt j I , I ! f o r a t h e a t r e in a tow n o f 7 0 ,0 0 0 . L an d ston e was la y in g J f ! [th e groundw ork f o r a l a t e r A r ts C o u n c il d e c is io n t o c o n c e n -j \ \ it r a t e in la r g e r tow ns w here th e c h a n c e s o f s u c c e s s had j |a lr e a d y p roved t o be th e g r e a t e s t . A c c o r d in g t o h i s compu t a t i o n s , a p o p u la tio n o f 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 w ould b e r e q u ir e d t o g a in | ia d e q u a te su p p o rt f o r an 8 0 0 - s e a t t h e a t r e . T h is c o n tr o v e r s y o v e r t h e a t r e s i z e in v o lv e d th e i j |" e c o n o m ic a l" p r e s e n t a t io n o f o p era and b a l l e t a s w e l l as ! dram a. S a d le r 's W e lls r e a so n e d t h a t th e m a in ten a n ce o f i sta n d a r d s in la r g e r t h e a t r e s w ould c o n tin u e t o c o s t more ' th a n th a t f o r w h ich th e a d d i t io n a l s e a t s w ou ld p a y ^ ^ - - im p ly in g t h a t e i t h e r a d m iss io n s w ou ld h a v e t o be r a is e d or j an in c r e a s e d s u b s id y w ould be r e q u ir e d . ; L an d ston e s t a t e d t h a t o v e r f i f t y new r e p e r to r y j com p an ies had b een c r e a te d in th e p e r io d b etw een 1940 and i 1952 and th a t o f th e e ig h t y r e p e r t o r i e s in e x is t e n c e o n ly t w e n t y - f iv e w ere o p e r a te d on a n o n p r o f it b a s i s in o r d e r to : ! ! } ^ ^ ^ M « l 1 1 * ^ — * op. c i t . . p. 136. q u a lif y f o r a r e d u c tio n in th e E n te r ta in m en ts D u ty .* 44 By ! 1 9 5 2 , th e C o u n c il o f R e p e r to r y T h e a tr e s (CORT), e s t a b lis h e d : t in 1943 and com posed o f n o n p r o f i t - d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e a t r e s , j f r e p r e s e n te d tw e n ty -th r e e member r e p e r t o r i e s , n o t a l l o f w h ich r e c e iv e d A r ts C o u n c il s u b s id ie s a lth o u g h m ost s u f - I | fe r e d from s e r io u s f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . * 4 " * T h is o r g a n - j ! i z a t i o n , th e a d m in is tr a tio n c o s t s o f w h ich w ere p a id by ! a s s e s s m e n ts (o n e -q u a r te r o f one p er c e n t o f g r o s s b o x - o f - j | f i c e r e c e i p t s fo r th e y e a r ) t o t a l i n g n o t more th a n L50 per iy e a r per member an d , a s o f 1 9 53, by an A r ts C o u n c il c o n t r i b u t i o n , * ^ was im p o rta n t t o th e c o n tin u a n c e o f th e r e p e r t o r y movement. R e la t io n s b etw een th e r e p e r to r y t h e a t r e s ! and t e l e v i s i o n im proved when i t was announced by a BBC ; r e p r e s e n t a t iv e a t a CORT c o n fe r e n c e t h a t b r o a d c a s ts o f I p la y s seem ed to h e lp a t th e b o x - o f f i c e . * 4 ^ ^ t a n o th er CORTj c o n fe r e n c e , R o lls -R o y c e , L t d ., announced a g r a n t o f fc2,500 j ; t o th e Derby P la y h o u se , a CORT member, w h ich w ould p erm it i I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - t-,| M | 1 | | ■ ! I I — I ■ ■ || ■ ■ ■ _ _ _ _ _ _ I ... I I I ■ J ■ ■ ■ I I j | *44The T im es, May 2 0 , 1 952, p. 2 . i 1 45I b id . , O ctob er 2 0 , 1 9 5 2 , p. 9 . *4* * N in th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat I . B r it a i n . 1 9 5 3 -4 . op . c i t . . p. 3 9 . *4 ^The T im es. March 12, 1955, p. 8 . th e abandonment o f th e w e ek ly s c h e d u le and en co u ra g e th e : I Improvem ent o f sta n d a r d s ; a n o th er £ 2 )0 0 0 was o f f e r e d I f th e I 148 I p la y h o u se c o u ld r a i s e £ 2 ,0 0 0 from o th e r l o c a l s o u r c e s . j ; The o r g a n iz a t io n r e s o lv e d t o u rge more l o c a l su p p o rt o f I : t h i s n a tu r e . ; | I In th e m id st o f th e 1 9 5 5 -6 0 slum p in th e a t r e j a tte n d a n c e , L andstone found t h a t t h i r t e e n o f tw e n ty C0RT- a f f i l i a t e d r e p e r to r y t h e a t r e s r e p o r te d "good" b u s in e s s , 1/.Q w h ile f i v e r e p o r te d th e b e s t b u s in e s s in t h e i r h i s t o r i e s . i L an dston e o b serv ed a new , you n ger e le m en t in th e a u d ien ce and con ten d ed t h a t th e r e t e n t io n and u lt im a t e e x p a n sio n o f t h i s e le m en t in th e a u d ie n c e was a req u irem en t f o r c o n t in u a l s u c c e s s . In 1946, th e n e w ly - e s t a b lis h e d A r ts C o u n c il's p r o gram o f sp o n s o r in g r e p e r to r y c i r c u i t s a l l o v e r th e c o u n tr y j i was c h a r a c t e r iz e d by The M an ch ester G uardian a s a "most : v a lu a b le con trib u tion ." ^ **® E n th u siasm fo r th e program was ' , i * s I dimmed somewhat by th e r e a l i z a t i o n th a t M anchester would n o t be among th e com m u n ities r e c e iv in g a new p la y each week 148 I b i d ., O ctober 2 5 , 1955, p. 12. ^ I b i d . , A ugust 1 7 , 1 9 5 7 , p. 7 . 150 The M anchester G uardian. August 12, 1946, p. 4. b e c a u se th e r e was n o t an a d eq u a te t h e a t r e a v a i l a b l e ^ * a lth o u g h th e c i t y had b een g ra n ted P a rlia m e n ta r y p e r m is sio n i t o p r e se n t p la y s in a s u i t a b l e le c t u r e room o f th e p u b lic lib r a r y a s p a rt o f an " e d u c a tio n a l and c u lt u r a l" p r o - ; i ICO t igram . W ith in a y e a r , th e r e p e r to r y c i r c u i t s p ro v id ed i j :began t o f a i l : in 1 9 4 7 , th e Y o r k sh ir e c i r c u i t o f th r e e j : s i C O r e p e r t o r ie s was l o s t , B r i s t o l ' s T h ea tre R o y a l o p e r a te d J a t a l o s s , th e A r ts T h ea tre in S a lis b u r y , th e M idland T h ea tre Company, and th e W est R id in g T h ea tre a l l f a i l e d t o i g a in fir m a c c e p ta n c e . In 1 9 5 3 , Mr. W. E. W illia m s , S e c r e ta r y - g e n e r a l o f [th e A r ts C o u n c il, announced h i s p la n t o c r e a t e a r e p e r to r y i I" g rid " lin k in g t h e a t r e s in th e m ajor c i t i e s th ro u g h a sc h e d u le d exch an ge o f p r o d u c t i o n s - - a ll t o b e fin a n c e d by an in c r e a s e in r a d io and t e l e v i s i o n l i s t e n i n g l i c e n s e s . ^ 5 He i l a t e r expanded h i s p la n and r e v e a le d th a t he was c o n s id e r - i t ! |i n g a n etw ork c o n s i s t i n g o f o n ly th e fo u r la r g e s t (a b le to ! _ j - - - - - - | ^ ^ I b i d . , November 12, 1 9 4 6 , p. 4 . ! 1 52I b i d , , June 2 5 , 1 9 4 6 , p. 6 . 1 S'? The T im es, November 2 6 , 1 947, p. 2 . 1 i 1 54l b i d . , p . 5 • ^ The M anchester G uardian. March 4 , 1953, p. 3. su p p o rt a th r e e or fo u r w eek run o f a s i n g l e p la y ) c i t i e s ! in G reat B r i t a i n . ^ 6 W o u ld e l e v a t e ea ch o f th e t h e a t r e s j i in so lim it e d a n etw ork t o th e s t a t u s o f th e Old V ic , u s in g b o th A r ts C o u n c il g r a n ts and l o c a l l y s u p p lie d fu n d s. : I W illia m s argued th a t i t was b e t t e r t o g iv e enough money t o ! i ' • I ‘a v e r y few th a n t o w a ste i t a l l : fc20,000 p er y e a r had b een j ; i d iv id e d by o v e r tw en ty r e p e r t o r ie s w ith l i t t l e or no s u e - \ i c e s s . He c o n tin u e d : I t i s one t h in g t o a p p ly S t a t e p a tro n a g e to e le v a t in g sta n d a r d s ; i t i s a n o th e r to u s e S t a t e fu n d s t o s u b s id iz e th e empty s e a t s in a t h e a t r e w h ich h a s b een fo r c e d t o low er i t s s i g h t s by a d o p t in g w e ek ly r e p e r t o r y .1 5 7 I He c o n c lu d e d w ith th e le s s - t h a n - e n c o u r a g in g e s tim a te th a t |t h e p la n m ight b e g in t o show r e s u l t s in f i v e y e a r s . He r e v is e d h i s p la n in 1954 and in c lu d e d e ig h t t h e a t r e s , ea ch i o f w h ich w ould be r e s p o n s ib le f o r n o t more th an f i v e p r o d u c t i o n s .^ ® T h is p la n was n o t im m ed ia tely put in t o o p e r a t i o n fo r s e v e r a l r e a so n s in c lu d in g a la c k o f fu n d s , poor f a c i l i t i e s , and p r o v in c ia l o p p o s it io n . j I j A s e r i e s o f l e t t e r s was p u b lish e d in The Times t ^ ^ The T im es. A u gu st 2 9 , 1 953, p. 8. ; 1 5 7 Ib id . 1 5 8 I b i d . . O ctober 11, 1954, p. 3. I under th e g e n e r a l h e a d in g , "Mirror o f th e A ge," e a r ly in ! 1955 in w h ich some r e a s o n s f o r th e poor c o n d it io n o f j ! t h e a t r e s w ere s u g g e s te d . L le w e lly n R ees ch arged t h a t | ! a u d ie n c e s e x is t e d f o r p la y s th a t " n e ith e r bored nor i n - \ • : s u ite d " them , t h a t unem ploym ent in t h e a t r e was cau sed by j ; i i s c h o o ls w h ich w ere fo r c e d t o a c c e p t more a p p lic a n ts th an , f o r whom th e r e w ere j o b s a v a i l a b l e , and th a t th e A r ts Coun-j 1SQ ■ c i l o f t e n c o n fu se d " g l i t t e r " w ith h ig h s ta n d a r d s . * He j ! | : a l s o c la im ed th a t th e A r ts C o u n c il was g u i l t y o f an in c o n - i i s i s t e n t p o lic y in th a t i t d e v o te d o n ly L 24,823 o f i t s L 66,373 drama b u d get t o t w e n t y - e ig h t r e p e r to r y com panies | w h ile p r o c la im in g th e im p ortan ce o f th e l o c a l r e p e r t o r ie s ; t o th e d evelop m en t o f t h e a t r e in G reat B r i t a i n — ig n o r in g 1 i t s m andate t o make th e a r t s more a c c e s s i b l e t o th e p u b lic , i C h a r le s L an dston e a p p ea led t o th e W est End t o c o n t r ib u t e a i I p o r tio n o f th e fun ds r e q u ir e d to su p p o rt th e p r o v in c ia l j i i j r e p e r t o r ie s s in c e th e com m ercial t h e a t r e was th e c h i e f 1 f\ fi | b e n e f ic ia r y o f th e t r a in in g th e y p ro v id ed f o r a c t o r s . | P h ilip C arr t h e o r iz e d th a t schem es t o c r e a te a more s t a b le j em ploym ent s i t u a t i o n f o r a c to r s in th e p r o v in c e s w ould i - i ! ; ■ ■ ■ - - - _ - I ! 1 5 9 I b i d . . January 1, 1955, p. 9. 1 6 QI b id . ........................ -.........- ..... ............- ------------------------ 178 f a c i l i t a t e th e a d o p tio n o f a tr u e r e p e r to r y s c h e d u le by th e j 161 " w eek ly r e p e r t o r i e s ." I A lth o u g h th e p rob lem s o f in a d e q u a te f in a n c e s a c te d | | t o lo w er p r o d u c tio n sta n d a r d s in m ost c a s e s , a few t h e a t r e s ! managed t o fin d b a c k in g f o r t h e new , u n t r ie d , and unproven ' in p la y s and t e c h n iq u e s . The A r ts C o u n c il g r a n te d L 7 ,5 0 0 | t o th e E n g lis h S ta g e Company a t th e R o y a l C ou rt T h ea tr e in S lo a n e Square t o e n a b le t h i s o r g a n iz a t io n t o e n co u ra g e new p la y w r ig h ts and t o p r e s e n t con tem p orary p la y s in r e p e r to r y 162 d u r in g th e f i r s t f i f t e e n m onths o f i t s e x i s t e n c e . • The E n g lis h S ta g e Company r e c e iv e d a n o th e r L 2 ,0 0 0 from th e | 163 [ John L ew is P a r tn e r s h ip t o c o n tin u e i t s a m b itio u s program . j The p r o g r e s s o f t h i s company was su ch t h a t th e A r ts Coun c i l g u a r a n te e a g a in s t l o s s was n o t n eed ed in 1 9 5 7 .^ ^ : W h ile th e Old V ic a v era g ed o n ly s i x t y - f i v e p er c e n t o f ! j ! c a p a c it y f o r o f f e r i n g s o th e r th a n S h a k e sp e a r e , th e E n g lis h ! | S ta g e Company p r e s e n te d e le v e n p la y s in a s i n g l e se a so n ' ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ » . 1 ■ 1 1 n i l i ■ i ■ i ■ 1 1 . * . i I ! : 1 | ^ ^ I b i d . , Janu ary 3 , 1 9 5 5 , p. 7 . j | 1 6 2 I b i d . , A p r il 2 , 1 9 5 6 , p. 10. ! 163I b i d . , Hay 1 , 1 9 5 6 , p. 5 . ! ! 164 | T h ir te e n th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G rea t B r i t a i n . 1 9 5 7 -8 (L ondon: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 8 ), ! p* 4 i . w h ich drew f u l l h o u se s and a l s o p r e se n te d new p la y s by s i x te e n contem p orary p la y w r ig h ts . Even w ith t h i s d e g r e e o f s u c c e s s , a su b s id y was needed i f some o f th e p la y s d id n o t go on t o a W est End lo n g run a f t e r th e R o y a l C ourt s t a r t j b e c a u se th a t t h e a t r e ' s sm a ll c a p a c it y (4 3 0 s e a t s ) made i t | im p o s s ib le fo r th e b o x - o f f i c e t o c o v e r th e p r o d u c tio n j c o s t s . 166 D u rin g th e 1962-63 s e a s o n , th e E n g lish S ta g e Company began i t s own program o f a s s is t a n c e t o th e p r o - i i v i n c i a l r e p e r to r y t h e a t r e s : th e company r e le a s e d i t s p r o - ! jd u c tio n s t o p r o v in c ia l t h e a t r e s one w eek a f t e r th e London ■ o p e n i n g s . T h i s program was r e c e iv e d w ith much e n th u s i a s m from th e p r o v in c ia l t h e a t r e s . | The T h ea tre Workshop su cceed ed in g a in in g f i n a n c i a l su p p o rt from se v e n London B oroughs w h ich en a b led i t t o c o n t i n u e i t s c o n t r o v e r s ia l program and th e T h ea tre R o y a l, i S t r a t f o r d , r e c e iv e d su p p o rt from two i n d u s t r i e s , tr a d e !u n io n s , b o ro u g h s, open p u b lic c o l l e c t i o n s , as w e l l a s from i ■ 11 ■ ■ I !■ i im mmw i i i 5 I 165 | F if t e e n t h A nnual R eport o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n , 1 9 5 9 -6 0 , op. c i t . , p. 23 • ^ S ix t e e n t h A nnual R eport o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f iG reat B r it a i n , 1 9 6 0 -1 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 ), |p . 2 6 . i | ^ E ig h te e n th Annual Report o f th e A rts C o u n cil o f G reat B r it a in , 1 9 6 2 -3 . op. c i t . , p. 18. ! th e A rts C o u n cil,^ ® Such ev id en ces o f lo c a l support en couraged the A rts C ouncil to m aintain and even in crea se i t s I support to th e se com panies. The dem onstration o f a h ig h j I degree o f s e lf-s u s te n a n c e on the part o f a p r o v in c ia l or sm all London th e a tr e drew th e a tte n tio n o f the A rts C ouncil; I | ! e s p e c ia lly i f the th e a tr e s u c c e s s fu lly competed w ith cinema : and t e le v is io n w h ile p resen tin g drama o f recogn ized m erit. | ’ i I Such th e a tr e s became n a tio n a l examples and were encouraged to r a is e th e ir production standards as high as p o s s ib le . . | The A rts C ouncil had determ ined th a t b efo re a rt could be d iffu s e d , i t had to be developed and, th e r e fo r e , th e en - i couragement o f th e b e st e x is tin g companies and th e ir au d i- ! en ces seemed e n t ir e ly c o n s is te n t w ith the c o n d itio n s o f the C o u n cil's Royal C harter. The A rts C ouncil continued i t s p o lic y o f matching lo c a l co n tr ib u tio n s in s e le c te d in sta n c es as a means o f | ■ encouraging lo c a l su p p o rt: the New Shakespeare Theatre in | ; | L iverp ool was o ffe red fc5,000 i f s u f f ic ie n t lo c a l support j i ! could be found w ith in a s p e c ifie d length o f tirne.^-®^ L ate in 1959 th e A r ts C o u n c il a g a in p u b lic ly 168The_ T im es. A p r il 2 , 1 9 5 6 , p. 10. 1 6 9 I b id . . January 2 9 , 1959, p. 7. q u e s tio n e d th e w isdom o f g r a n tin g fu n d s t o o r g a n iz a t io n s i i w h ich w ere n o t c o n t r ib u t in g t o th e a ch iev em en t o f th e I C o u n c il's g o a l s . T w en ty -sev en p r o v in c ia l r e p e r t o r ie s w ere J I ! | g r a n ted fc87,005 and y e t a tte n d a n c e s t i l l d e c r e a s e d — perhaps! ;th e money was b e in g sp e n t t o pay fo r empty seats, ^ 0 J ; Even th e good r e p e r t o r ie s w ere lo s in g a u d ie n c e s and th e I A r ts C o u n c il e s tim a te d th a t i t w ould c o s t t 3 , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 t o I !c o n s t r u c t a q u a lit y c h a in o f t h e a t r e s w h ich m ight a t t r a c t 171 a u d ie n c e s a g a in . ' The r e p e r to r y d e c lin e was e v e n t u a lly tr a c e d t o t e l e v i s i o n , a u to m o b ile s , and h o u seh o ld g a d g e t s , a l l o f w h ich com bined t o d i s t r a c t th e a u d ie n c e . Substand ard t h e - i I a t r e f a c i l i t i e s ' ^ ^ and lo w -g ra d e a c tin g * * ^ fu n c tio n e d t o a l i e n a t e th e a lr e a d y d i s t r a c t e d a u d ie n c e . In an e f f o r t to p r o v id e th e m ost a id f o r th e l i v i n g t h e a t r e in t h e m ost e c o n o m ic a l m anner, th e C h a n c e llo r o f j | th e E xch eq u er, in 1 9 6 1 , announced th e abandonment o f th e ; N a tio n a l T h ea tre p la n and, c o n s e q u e n tly , u n d iv id e d em p h asis 170 I b i d ., O ctober 2 9 , 1959, p. 4 . 171 I b i d . , p. 13. 172 I b i d . , Decem ber 1 6 , I9 6 0 , p. 8. 173 I b i d . , November 12, I96 0, p. 7 . ! on th e d evelop m en t o f th e p r o v i n c ia l t h e a t r e . 17^ The p la n » | !was opp osed by th e A r ts C o u n c il, CORT, and p r o p o n en ts o f I th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f a n a t io n a l sh ow case and sta n d a r d o f | q u a l i t y , b u t n o t by many in d iv id u a l r e p e r to r y c o m p a n ie s, !e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e in th e n o r th o f E n g la n d .* 7^ When S ir j i J jS elw en L lo y d , C h a n c e llo r o f th e E x ch eq u er, r e v e r s e d h i s !d e c i s i o n t o expand th e p r o v i n c ia l t h e a t r e program , many I r e p e r t o r i e s found th e m s e lv e s in a p o o r e r p o s i t i o n th a n j ib e f o r e b e c a u se th e y had made im provem ents in th e e x p e c t a - | 17 fi t i o n o f g o v e rn m e n ta l a p p r o v a l and a id . The D evelop m en t o f S p e c ia l C o n s id e r a tio n f o r th e Old V ic , S a d le r ’ s W e lls and j C oven t G arden a s N a t io n a l I n s t i t u t i o n s | The m ost im p o rta n t exam ple o f th e A r ts C o u n c il's < d ev elo p m en t o f h ig h sta n d a r d s in t h e p e r fo r m in g a r t s was ! i t s su p p o rt t o e x i s t i n g London i n s t i t u t i o n s w h ich had j j a lr e a d y d e m o n stra te d t h e i r a r t i s t i c p o t e n t i a l and t h e i r j t j a b i l i t y t o a t t r a c t an a u d ie n c e . The s u c c e s s o f th e Old V ic : b e f o r e and d u r in g World War I I , e s p e c i a l l y th e d evelop m en t 174 The M an ch ester G u a r d ia n . March 2 2 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 1. 1 7 5 I b i d . . p . 6 . 1 7 6 I b i d . . O ctober 17, 1961, p. 14. o f i t s i n t e r n a t io n a l r e p u t a t io n , made i t su ch an i n s t i t u - ; ( .t i o n . A t r a d i t i o n o f e x c e lle n c e a ls o d e v e lo p e d around th e I . j o p era a t C ovent G arden and th e b a l l e t a t S a d le r 's W e lls j | I a lth o u g h th e c o m p e titio n t o t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s more n e a r ly ; I approached t h e i r sta n d a r d s th a n d id t h a t t o th e Old V ic . | |An im p o rta n t c o n s id e r a t io n in th e A r ts C o u n c il's d e c is io n j j t o e x te n d m a ssiv e su p p o rt t o t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s was t h e i r | i I p o s s e s s io n o f e x p e n s iv e t h e a t r e f a c i l i t i e s . A la r g e p o r - I t io n o f th e su b s id y was sp e n t on th e m ain ten an ce o f t h e s e : f a c i l i t i e s w ith o u t w h ich th e h ig h sta n d a r d s w ould have been ; im p o s s ib le and th e r e p la c e m e n t o f w h ich w ould have b een i ; im p o s s ib le from a f i n a n c i a l s ta n d p o in t. The A r ts C o u n c il, I i | i t s e x p e n d itu r e s on t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n t in u a lly c h a l le n g e d , j u s t i f i e d i t s e f f o r t s w ith th e argum ent th a t th e ! p r o v in c e s c o u ld e n jo y q u a l it y b a l l e t , o p e r a , and drama o n ly : i I i f th e b e s t com p anies w ere s tr o n g enough t o to u r th e p r o v - ! | i ; in c e s w h ile m a in ta in in g t h e i r s ta n d a r d s — th e c o s t s o f t o u r - I I in g sh o u ld have b een charged t o th e p r o v in c e s s in c e th e y w ere th e b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f th e e x p e n d it u r e .^ ^ T hese th r e e ■ i n s t i t u t i o n s had d e v e lo p e d a t r a d i t i o n and i d e n t i t y w ith : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i l ^ S ix t h Annual Report o f th e A r ts C o u n cil o f G re a t! i B r it a i n . 1 9 5 0 -1 . op. c i t . . p. 29. ! n a t io n a l a ch iev em en t and i t was a m a tte r o f n a t io n a l p r id e i i t o s u s t a i n t h e i r p o s i t i o n .^ 7 ® ] i t C o n s is t e n t w ith t h i s g o v ern m en ta l a t t i t u d e , t h e r e c o n s t r u c t io n o f th e O ld V ic T h ea tr e ( h e a v i ly damaged by bom bs) w as g iv e n a v e r y h ig h p r i o r i t y and i t was reop en ed 179 i n November o f 1 9 5 0 . Im m ed ia tely f o llo w in g t h e w ar, th e O ld V ic Company e s t a b l i s h e d a Young V ic Company, th e Old ;V ic S c h o o l, opened by th e M in is t e r o f E ducation,^® ® and 181 |a l s o a s c h o o l in th e B r i s t o l Old V ic o r g a n iz a t io n . In ! i it h r e e y e a r s , th e Old V ic Company d is c o n tin u e d th e Young \ 'V ic , so u g h t o th e r a u s p ic e s f o r t h e Old V ic S c h o o l, and c o n c e n tr a t e d upon d e v e lo p in g sh ow case p r o d u c tio n s , e s p e c i a l l y j 1Q O j o f S h a k e s p e a r e 's p la y s , f o r London and p r o v in c ia l t o u r s . I To t h i s e n d , t h e Old V ic c r e a te d tw o com p an ies o f e q u a l s t a t u s t o a lt e r n a t e b etw een London and p r o v in c ia l t o u r s and i p lan n ed t o d e v e lo p more B r i s t o l - t y p e a f f i l i a t i o n s . The A r ts C o u n c il in c r e a s e d i t s su p p o rt t o th e London Old V ic | 1 7 8 I b i d . 1 7 9 I b i d . . p. 1 1 . j | *-® Q second A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G rea t B r i t a i n . 1 9 4 6 -7 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 4 7 ), p . 2 1 . i | 1 81I b i d . . p. 2 5 . I t 182 j S ix t h A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat I B r i t a i n . 1 9 5 0 -1 . op. c i t . . pp. 1 1 -1 2 , o r g a n iz a t io n from th e £ 2 7 ,5 0 0 g r a n ted in 1950^®® t o th e ■ » £ 8 3 ,0 0 0 g r a n te d in 1962^®^ w h ile in c r e a s in g i t s a l l o c a t i o n j : t t o drama from £ 4 2 ,0 0 0 t o £ 3 3 5 ,0 0 0 o v e r th e same p e r io d . F u r th e r d e s c r i p t io n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een th e Old V ic and th e governm ent i s in c lu d e d i n th e s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p - ! t e r d e v o ted t o th e N a tio n a l T h e a tr e . j I In 1 9 4 4 , B oosey and Hawkes le a s e d th e C ovent Garden | T h ea tre and p la c e d i t in th e hands o f a n o n p r o fit t r u s t i under th e c h a irm a n sh ip o f Lord K eynes f o r th e p rom otion o f ! IOC o p e r a , b a l l e t , and " o th er s e r io u s m u s ic a l e n t e r p r i s e s ." ° I ; T h is move t o p r o v id e a perm anent home f o r b a l l e t and o p era j in G reat B r it a in was su p p o rted b y The M an ch ester G uar- Jdian,*'®® a le a d in g B r i t i s h new spaper p u b lish e d in a la r g e j : p r o v in c ia l c e n t e r . T h is was n o t th e f i r s t in s ta n c e o f ig o v e r n m e n ta l in v o lv em e n t in C ovent G arden a f f a i r s . S ir !W illia m D avenant r e c e iv e d a R o y a l P a te n t in 1663 from i } ’C h a r le s I I by v i r t u e o f w hich th e f i r s t t h e a t r e was c o n - j ^ •® ® I b i d . , p. 4 7 . IS^E ig h te e n th A nnual R eport o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n . 1 9 6 2 -3 . o p. c i t . . p. 83. l®-*Dent, o p . c i t . . p. 152. *®®The M anchester G uardian. O ctober 2 6 , 1945, p. 4 . j s t r u c t e d on th e p r e s e n t s i t e in 1732 and r e b u i l t , f o llo w in g d i s a s t e r s , in 1 7 9 2 , 1 8 0 9 , and 1 8 5 8 . Before th e e x p ir a t i o n o f th e B oosey and Hawkes l e a s e in 1 9 4 9 , n e g o t i a t io n s i f o r p u rch a se o f th e p r o p e r ty by co m m ercia l d e v e lo p e r s w ere i :c o u n te r e d by a co m p u lso ry p u rch a se o r d e r is s u e d by t h e M in-i ' i s t r y o f Works in 1948 and se r v e d on th e o w n ers, C ovent ; 'G arden P r o p e r t ie s , Ltd.^-®® T h is o r d e r , c h a r a c t e r iz e d as j ; i | i i"unw elcom e t o a l l p a r t i e s co n cern ed " b y th e A r ts Coun- I IRQ : c i l , se r v e d u n d er a new Town and C ou ntry P la n n in g A c t, i i w as w ith d raw n when a f o r t y - t w o y e a r l e a s e was s ig n e d by th e | !M in is tr y o f Works a s from March o f 1 9 4 9 .^ ® The a s s e t s and l i a b i l i t i e s o f th e C ovent G arden Opera T r u st e s t a b l i s h e d by B o o sey and Hawkes w ere assum ed by a new com pany, t h e R o y a l O pera H o u se, C ovent G arden, L t d ., w h ich le a s e d th e p r o p e r ty from th e M in is tr y o f W ork s--from th e A r t C o u n c il's s ta n d p o i n t , t h i s amounted t o a change o f names w h ich d id n o t ^ -^ A rts c o u n c i l o f G reat B r i t a i n , H o u sin g th e A r ts in G reat B r i t a i n , P art I ( P la is t o w : The Curwen P r e s s , | 1 9 5 9 ), p. 1 9 . 1 1 8 8I b id . 189 F ou rth A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f I G reat B r i t a i n . 1 9 4 8 -9 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 ), i p . 2 0 . ! 190 A r ts C o u n c il o f B r ea t B r i t a i n , l o c . c i t . “ ‘ ..................... " '. 187< a f f e c t i t s f i n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y tow ard o p e r a a t C ovent G a rd en .^ 1 jn e s s e n c e , th e M in is tr y o f Works had r e p la c e d : j B oosey and Hawkes in t h e arran gem en t. ; ' i The c o n fu s in g s i t u a t i o n w h er ein th e A r ts C o u n c il ; I e x t e n s i v e l y s u b s id iz e d th e R o y a l Opera a t C ovent G arden, ’th e S a d le r 's W e lls B a l l e t , a l s o p erfo rm in g a t C ovent G ar d en , t h e S a d le r 's W e lls O pera, th e S a d le r 's W e lls T h ea tre |B a l l e t , b o th b ased a t th e S a d le r 's W e lls T h e a tr e , and th e |S a d l e r ' s W e lls S c h o o l was s i m p l i f ie d somewhat in 1956 by ' ' th e is s u a n c e o f a C h a rter o f I n c o r p o r a tio n w h ich jo in e d th e ! i a d m in is tr a tio n s o f a l l o f t h e s e b a l l e t o r g a n iz a t io n s as j ! "The R o y a l B a lle t " b a sed a t th e R o y a l Opera H ou se, C ovent j j G a r d e n . ^ 2 S a d le r 's W e lls Opera c o n tin u e d a s a se p a r a te i n s t i t u t i o n a t i t s own t h e a t r e . C o n s id e r a tio n was g iv e n t o i th e am algam ation o f t h e R o y a l Opera and th e S a d le r 's W e lls I ! i i | Opera b u t th e s u c c e s s a c h ie v e d and m a in ta in e d by e a ch o f | th e com p an ies d e la y e d s p e c i f i c a c t io n . j- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ■ — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 191 F ourth A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f I G reat B r it a i n , 1 9 4 8 -9 * op. c i t . . p. 2 1 . i 192 T w e lfth A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f I G reat B r it a i n , 1956-7 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 7 ), ! pp. 2 2 -2 3 . i • 1 ! 1 Q 3 i I b i d . . p . 2 4 . The C a r l R osa O pera Company w h ic h , w ith o u t a su b s i d y , had o p e r a te d a s a t o u r in g company in c o m p e t it io n w ith C oven t G ard en , fo r c e d t o d is c o n t in u e i t s t o u r s in 1 9 5 2 , | i I r e c e iv e d an A r ts C o u n c il g r a n t in 1953 w h ich a llo w e d a j ir e su m p tio n o f to u r in g on a lim it e d s c a l e . *94 >jhe f o llo w in g y e a r , th e A r ts C o u n c il in c lu d e d th e C a r l R osa O pera among i j i t s com m itm ents when a p p ly in g f o r th e a n n u a l g r a n t from th e i q c 'T r e a su r y . The p r e s s u r e s f o r am algam ation o f th e many |o p e r a v e n tu r e s su p p o rte d b y th e A r ts C o u n c il in c r e a s e d and in 1957 th e C a r l R osa O pera r e f u s e d t o j o i n w ith th e W elsh I ■ N a t io n a l O pera and b o th th e C a r l R osa O pera and t h e S a d - j l e r ' s W e lls O pera w ith d rew t h e i r j o i n t p r o p o s a l t o am al g a m a te when th e A r ts C o u n c il r e f u s e d t o g r a n t what t h e s e 196 o r g a n iz a t io n s c o n s id e r e d t o b e s u f f i c i e n t fu n d s . The :C a r l R osa O pera l o s t i t s A r ts C o u n c il s u b s id y i n J u ly o f 1958*9^ w h ich i n i t i a t e d an im m ed iate P a r lia m e n ta r y d is p u te land a p u b lic argum ent l a s t i n g i n t o 1 9 6 0 . The A r ts C o u n c il i _ | 19S h e T im es, May 9 , 1 9 5 3 , p. 9 . i 1 95I b i d . , O ctob er 7 , 1 9 5 4 , p . 1 0 . 19^T h ir te e n th A nnual R ep o rt o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f j G rea t B r i t a i n . 1 9 5 7 -8 . o p . c i t . . p . 1 4 . , *9?The T im es. March 8 , I9 6 0 , p. 13 189 c o u ld n o t j u s t i f y th e su p p o rt o f th r e e f i r s t - c l a s s o p e r a s ^ ® and th e t 2 1 5 ,0 0 0 i t offered^-99 d id n o t m eet th e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f th e j o i n t p r o p o s a l so th e schem e was w it h - t drawn. C ovent G arden’ s a d m issio n p r ic e s w ere n o t in c r e a s - ! in g a t th e same r a t e a s w ere th e p r o d u c tio n c o s t s . In 11955, W. E. W illia m s , th e S e c r e t a r y - g e n e r a l o f th e A r ts C o u n c il, r e v e a le d t h a t i t c o s t th e governm ent L800 ’’e v e r y tim e th e c u r t a in r i s e s a t C ovent G a rd en .”^®® The f o llo w in g | 'y e a r h e r e v e a le d th a t th e r e w ere o v e r 6 0 0 p e o p le on th e i |p a y r o l l a t C ovent G arden and th a t th e e x p e n se a t S a d le r 's jW e lls , " a lth o u g h n o t o f th e same m agnitud e a s t h a t o f {C ovent G arden," was on a s im ila r s c a l e . H e a d v o ca ted th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e p r a c t ic e o f c o n s t a n t ly in c r e a s in g ■ th e C ovent Garden b o x - o f f i c e p r ic e s so as to r a i s e th e r ev e n u e and a v o id a d v e r se p u b lic r e a c t io n t o a sudden sh arp i i 198-rhe M anchester G u a rd ia n , November 2 8 , 1 9 5 8 , p . 2 j • ^ T h ir te e n th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a i n , 1 9 5 7 -8 , op . c i t . , p . 14. I 2 0 0The T iroes, March 1 2 , 1 9 5 5 , p . 8. ^Q^T w elfth Annual R eport o f th e A rts C o u n cil o f | G reat B r it a in , 1 9 5 6 -7 , op. c i t ., p. 23. i n c r e a s e . I n 1 9 5 9 , t h e governm ent announced a p o l i c y o f m aking th e T r ea su r y g r a n ts t o th e A r ts C o u n c il f o r a t h r e e - y e a r p e r io d o f tim e in s t e a d o f a n n u a lly , a s had b een th e p r a c t i c e , in o r d e r t o a llo w g r e a t e r (and more e c o n o m ic a l) lo n g -te r m p la n n in g on t h e p a r t o f th e A r ts C o u n c il and th e ^ r e c ip ie n ts o f i t s g r a n t s . C ovent G arden was s u b s id iz e d a t jth e r a t e o f f o r t y - t h r e e p er c e n t o f i t s e x p e n s e s (t h e r e m a in in g f i f t y - s e v e n t o b e th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e b o x - i o f f i c e ) f o r th e p e r io d b e tw e en 1959 and 1962 w ith a c e i l i n g i 'o f £ ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 on th e s u b s id y f o r any s i n g l e y e a r - - E 4 5 3 ,0 0 0 I |w as d e te r m in e d t o b e th e g r a n t t o m eet 1959 e x p e n s e s . I ■At t h a t tim e , C ovent G arden had in c u r r e d a d e b t o f £ ,1 0 0 ,0 0 0 \ I land th e T r ea su r y a llo w e d an a d d i t io n a l £ 2 0 ,0 0 0 t o h e lp 204 r e d u c e t h i s . C ovent G arden a lo n e r e c e iv e d o v e r t h i r t y - le ig h t p er c e n t o f th e g r a n t t o th e A r ts C o u n c il from th e i i t T r ea su r y f o r 1959 and W illia m s ju d ged t h i s amount w ould ! 205 j j u s t m eet th e e x p e n se s w ith no m argin f o r e r r o r . 202 The T im e s, O ctob er 1 0 , 1 9 5 7 , p . 3 . 203 F o u r te e n th A n nu al R ep o rt o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n , 1 9 5 8 -9 (L ondon: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 9 ), p. 17. 204 ’i b i d . The T im es. Jan u ary 2 4 , 1 9 5 9 , p. 6 . 205. S a d l e r 's W e lls r e c e iv e d £ 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 , w h ich l e f t o n ly £ 3 6 ,7 3 0 I • t ; i o f th e o r i g i n a l £ 7 0 9 ,7 3 0 a l l o c a t i o n t o be d iv id e d among j : j th e e i g h t o th e r o p era and b a l l e t o r g a n iz a t io n s r e c e i v in g j 206 I A r ts C o u n c il a i d . By 1 9 6 3 , t h i s a n n u a l s u b s id y had i ; I in c r e a s e d t o o v e r £ 6 9 0 ,0 0 0 f o r C ovent G arden, £ 3 8 0 ,0 0 0 f o r j |S a d l e r ' s W e lls , and £ 7 3 ,6 3 5 d iv id e d among e le v e n o th e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s - - a l l o f w h ic h a c c o u n te d f o r o n e - h a lf o f th e ;A r ts C o u n c il's t o t a l e x p e n d it u r e .2 ^2 i t S u pp ort t o T h e a tr e from L o c a l S o u rc e s M odels o f what th e CEM A c a l l e d an "A rts C en ter" |w ere d is p la y e d a t th e end o f W orld War I I a s an a id t o j |r e c o n s t r u c t io n and com m unity p la n n in g . T h ese w ere p a r t o f j a a p la n t o e s t a b l i s h in tow n s w ith p o p u la tio n s r a n g in g from 1 1 5 ,0 0 0 t o 3 0 ,0 0 0 com m unity c e n t e r s c o n t a in in g a 6 0 0 - s e a t t h e a t r e , an e x h i b i t i o n h a l l , and a r e s t a u r a n t - - a l l f o r th e I p re-w a r c o s t o f £ 3 0 ,0 0 0 .2 ® ® A lth o u g h su ch b u ild in g s had a t ! low p r i o r i t y in th e r e c o n s t r u c t io n program , th e y had th e | 2 ® ® F i f t e e n t h A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n , 1 9 5 9 -6 0 , o p . c i t . . p . 89. 2 ® 2E ig h te e n th A nnual R ep o rt o f t h e A r ts C o u n c il o f ! G reat B r i t a i n . 1 9 6 2 -3 . o p . c i t . . p. 82. j j : 208The M anchester G uardian. O ctober 4 , 1945, p. 4 . ! 192 a p p ro v a l o f th e M in is t r ie s o f E d u c a tio n and Town and Coun t r y P la n n in g and th e a u t h o r ity t o e s t a b l i s h a l o c a l t a x t o pay f o r th e b u ild in g c o u ld be g r a n ted by P a rlia m en t on an 200 in d iv id u a l b a s i s . No f lo o d o f a p p lic a t io n s fo llo w e d th e announcem ent o f t h i s o p p o r tu n ity . The L o c a l Governm ent A ct i ! o f 1948 c o n ta in e d a s e c t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y a u th o r iz in g l o c a l ! a u t h o r i t i e s t o le v y a t a x t o su p p o rt and p r o v id e f o r t h e - 210 i a t r i c a l e n te r ta in m e n t. u B e fo r e t h e p a ssa g e o f t h i s A c t, I l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s had t o in tr o d u c e a s p e c i a l b i l l in t o ! I P a rlia m en t t o a s s i s t p la y s h a v in g s c e n e r y and c o stu m e s. ! L o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s had b e e n a u th o r iz e d t o p r o v id e o n ly i | " p le a su r e grounds" ( s i n c e 1 8 4 7 ), p le a s u r e b o a ts ( s i n c e i 1 8 9 0 ), a r t g a l l e r i e s and museums ( s i n c e 1 8 9 2 ), p a v ilio n s 211 < ( s i n c e 1 9 0 7 ), and g e n e r a l-p u r p o s e c i t y h a l l s . T h is 1948 A ct s p e c i f i c a l l y a llo w ed " p r o v is io n f o r e n te r ta in m e n t o f any k in d " and a u th o r iz e d a 6d t a x t o p r o v id e a " th e a tr e , jc o n c e r t h a l l , dance h a l l , or o th e r p r e m ises s u i t a b l e f o r 209I b id . ’ 210 '• ■ ‘ ■ ''B ritish In fo r m a tio n S e r v ic e , op. c i t . . p. 5 . 21H j illia m K e n d a ll, "The C ity F a th e r s and th e ;T h e a tr e ," Drama (A utunn, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 3 6 -4 0 . 2 1 2 g iv in g e n te r ta in m e n ts or h o ld in g d a n c e s .” A t h e a t r e b u ild in g c o u ld be p ro v id ed and a company c o u ld be s u b s i d iz e d c o m p le te ly o r g u a r a n te ed a g a in s t l o s s . In 1952 th e A r ts C o u n c il is s u e d th e f i r s t o f a j j s e r i e s o f u r g e n t r e q u e s t s and t h r e a t s t o th e p r o v in c e s in i |a n a ttem p t t o g a in g r e a t e r l o c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e a t r e !p r o g r a m s.213 More s p e c i f i c a l l y , i t warned th e p r o v in c e s i I t h a t i t c o u ld n o t lo n g a ffo r d t o assum e th e £200 t o £300 I l o s s p er w eek a t h e a t r e t o u r , e v en one p la y in g t o f u l l i O 1 A h o u s e s , r e g u la r ly in c u r r e d . Exam ples w ere made o f :N an tw ich ( p o p u la tio n 8 ,7 8 3 ) , w h ich sp e n t £ 2 0 ,0 0 0 fo r a new !h a l l , and Spennymoor (p o p u la tio n 1 9 ,7 4 0 ) , w h ich sp e n t ! £ 4 ,0 0 0 fo r a new s t a g e in an e x i s t i n g h a l l and £500 in ‘ ' 2 1 5 g u a r a n te e s a g a in s t l o s s under th e 1948 A c t. T h is may t shave had some e f f e c t b e c a u se w it h in s i x m onth s, The Tim es c la im e d s i x t y - s i x l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s w ere m aking f i n a n c i a l | c o n t r ib u t io n s t o t h e a t r e in t h e i r a r e a s . I 212 | B r i t i s h In fo r m a tio n S e r v ic e , o p . c i t . , p. 5 . J 2^ The T im es, November 13, 1 9 5 2 , p . 3 . 214 The M an ch ester G u ard ian , November 1 3 , 1952, p . 3 ! 215 I b id . 216The Tim es, A p r il 9 , 1953, p. 3. The A r ts C o u n c il p ro v id ed s p e c i a l t o u r s t o S c o tla n d and W ales b e c a u se th e ru gged t e r r a i n and i s o l a t e d commu- 217 ■ n i t i e s w ere n o t a b le t o p r o v id e t h e a t r e f o r th e m s e lv e s . ' j i ! ; Two t o u r s , each l a s t i n g n in e w eeks and p la y in g in f i f t y | j i d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s , w ere s e n t o u t t o m eet th e n eed s in S c o t- j ■! I i Ol O | lan d and W ales in 1 9 53. ° In W a les, o n ly two to w n s, ! | Sw ansea and C a r d if f , had p r o f e s s io n a l t h e a t r e s and th e r e s t i o f th e c o u n tr y was se r v e d o n ly by sp o r a d ic r e p e r to r y a c t i v - j 219 ! i t y and th e A r ts C o u n c il's t w ic e - y e a r ly t o u r s . In 1 9 58, | I th e A r ts C o u n c il ex p erim en ted w ith a fo u r-w a y r e p e r to r y exch an ge i n S c o tla n d : fo u r p la y s w ere exch an ged fo r runs o f i { i one w eek in e a ch o f fo u r tow ns a t a c o s t o f l e s s th a n th e i i 7 2 0 £ 2 ,0 0 0 b u d geted f o r th e e x p e r im e n t. In i t s r e p o r t , th e i C o u n c il s t a t e d i t s d e te r m in a tio n t o r e p e a t th e exp erim en t i u s in g a w id e r c h o ic e o f p la y s when fu n d s w ere a v a i la b l e , ! One o f th e f i r s t exam p les o f l o c a l i n i t i a t i v e in * 217 ; The A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a in ; What I t Is and What I t D o e s, o p . c i t . , p. 10. 2 1 8N in th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n , 1 9 5 3 -4 , o p . c i t . , p. 4 1 . 2 1 9 I b i d . , p . 5 4 . i n n a j F o u r te e n th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f i G reat B r it a i n , 1 9 5 8 -9 . o p . c i t . , p. 5 7 . th e p r o v is io n o f t h e a t r e was th e c r e a t io n o f th e M anchester L ib r a r y T h ea tr e in 1946 a f t e r th e c i t y g a in e d s p e c i a l ap - 221 p r o v a l from P a r lia m e n t. In t h i s u n iq u e e s t a b lis h m e n t , t h e C it y L ib r a r ia n se r v e d a s Manager o f th e 2 9 0 - s e a t t h e a t r e w h ich was o c c u p ie d by a perm anent r e p e r to r y company and any l o s s in c u r r e d in th e o p e r a tio n w ould have become im m e d ia te ly p a y a b le ou t o f t a x r e v e n u e s — a lth o u g h , f o r - 222 t u n a t e l y , t h i s p r o v is io n was n o t t e s t e d . W illia m s expanded th e A r ts C o u n c il's c o n c e p t o f l o c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w ith th e recom m endation th a t sm a ll com m u n ities u s e th e 1948 A ct to r a i s e fu n d s fo r r e g io n a l 22^ 22A t h e a t r e program s. From 1952 t o 1957 th e A r ts C o u n c il s t r e s s e d th e u se o f bus s u b s id ie s by p r o v in c ia l t h e a t r e s t o in c r e a s e th e s i z e o f t h e i r a u d ie n c e s by p u b lis h in g r e p o r ts o f q u adrup led b u s in e s s r e s u l t i n g from th e s u b s id y .22^ T h is 2 2 * A rts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a i n , H ou sin g th e A r ts ! i in G reat B r i t a i n . P art I I (P la is t o w : The Curwen P r e s s , j 1 9 5 9 ), p . 6 2 . j 2 2 2 I b id . j 22% . E. W illia m s , Economic and S o c i a l A s p e c ts o f jt h e T h e a tr e , o p . c i t . . p . 1 1 . 224 T w e lfth A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f i G reat B r it a i n . 1 9 5 6 -7 . o p . c i t . . p. 3 7 . j 1 225 1 * T enth A nnual R eport o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n . 1 9 5 4 -5 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 4 ), p j 2 9 . d id n o t le a d t o a w id e a c c e p ta n c e o f th e te c h n iq u e b u t i t may have enhanced th e c o n c e p t o f l o c a l su p p o rt t o a r e g i o n a l a r t s c e n t e r by d e m o n s tr a tin g a d e g r e e o f a u d ie n c e mo b i l i t y . In I 9 6 0 , a c o m b in a tio n o f l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , c i v i c l : and i n d u s t r i a l l e a d e r s , and t h e a t r e f i g u r e s form ed a N orth i 'E a s te r n A s s o c ia t io n f o r th e A r ts w ith a p r o j e c t e d 1*40,000 |a n n u a l b u d g e t: N e w c a stle a lr e a d y g r a n te d £ 1 2 ,0 0 0 per y e a r t o th e a r t s , t h i r t y - f i v e tow n c o u n c i ls in t h e a r e a p lan n ed t o le v y a s m a ll t a x , l o c a l in d u s tr y and th e G u lb en k ian 226 I F o u n d a tio n hoped t o c o n t r ib u t e . T hat same y e a r , th e A r ts C o u n c il r e p e a te d a d v ic e i t had g iv e n in 1953 and 1955 t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t th e r a te p a y - | i e r s sh o u ld p r o v id e th e t h e a t r e b u ild in g in a com m unity o r r e g io n b u t t h a t th e p o l i c y o f t h a t t h e a t r e and th e a u d ie n c e p a t r o n iz in g i t sh o u ld come from th e c i t i z e n body a s a w h o le — t h e b e s t s e r v i c e a l o c a l governm ent c o u ld p erform 'w ou ld be t o p r o v id e a t h e a t r e b u ild in g and t o le a v e th e |m anagem ent o f a company t o o t h e r s . ^ ^ The M an ch ester | G u a r d ia n , com m enting on th e 1 9 5 3 -5 4 A n nu al R ep ort o f th e i I _ __________________________ _ _ 226 ! The M an ch ester G u a rd ia n . O ctob er 2 6 , I 9 6 0 , p . 3 . | 227 S ix t e e n t h Annual R eport o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n . 1 9 6 0 -1 . op. c i t . . p. 6 . A r ts C o u n c il, s t r e s s e d th e im p ortan ce o f one p h ra se w h ich s u g g e s te d t h a t th e c r e a t io n o f an a l e r t a u d ien ce sh o u ld i h ave a h ig h e r p r i o r i t y th a n th e c r e a t io n or en couragem en t o f a r t i s t s . 2 2 ® The M anchester G uardian c o n s id e r e d t h i s t o i ; I be th e m ost im p o rta n t c o n c e p t e x p r e s s e d in th e r e p o r t and j i |s p e c u la te d t h a t th e c r e a t io n o f an a l e r t a u d ie n c e w ould i su r p a ss th e A rt C o u n c il's more s p e c t a c u la r v e n tu r e s in im p o rta n ce. Wide c i t i z i e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n in l o c a l th e a tr e ^ | i p o l i c y would be e v id e n c e o f t h e d evelop m en t o f an a l e r t j |a u d ie n c e . In 1 9 6 0 , W illia m s c a l l e d p u b lic a t t e n t io n t o th e | f a c t th a t th e p r o v in c e s c o n tr ib u te d a p p r o x im a te ly o n e - s i x - j t i e t h o f th e amount a u th o r iz e d fo r e x p e n d itu r e on l o c a l 22Q I t h e a t r e s and o r c h e s t r a s . 7 F u l l u t i l i z a t i o n o f th e a u th o r iz e d 6d t a x r a t e w ould have y ie ld e d £ 1 5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ; a Id r a t e w ould h ave r a is e d £ 2 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r £ 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 more th a n I th e t o t a l T rea su ry g r a n t t o th e A r ts C o u n c il th a t y e a r . I W illia m s c o u ld o n ly c o n c lu d e t h a t many com m u n ities d id n o t I I i i . . — . — ...................... — ■■ 228 The M an ch ester G u ard ian . O ctob er 7 , 1 9 5 4 , p . 6 . ; 229I b i d . . O ctober 13, i9 6 0 , p. 5. 230 I c a r e ab ou t t h e a t r e . u In th e judgm ent o f th e A r ts Coun c i l a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f th e p r o v is io n a l t h e a t r e s had d e t e r io r a t e d and a c te d t o a l i e n a t e th e youn ger e le m e n ts o f th e a u d ie n c e . 2^ Faced w ith i n c r e a s in g ly in a d e q u a te f a c i l i t i e s and l i t t l e hope o f r e v e r s in g th e tr e n d w ith o u t m ajor p o l i c y c h a n g e s, th e A r ts C o u n c il acxnow ledged th a t i t c o u ld |n o t su d d en ly s w itc h t o a p o lic y o f m atch in g th e fu n d s c o n t r i b u t e d by a com m unity b e c a u se m ost o f th e b e s t p r o v in c ia l ! 232 R e p e r t o r ie s w ould f a i l under th o s e c o n d it io n s . W ith in a jyear, the s it u a tio n had improved: th e Treasury grant to the i |A r ts C o u n c il had b een in c r e a s e d to o v e r B 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 and i i n d u s t r i a l s o u r c e s o f p a tro n a g e w ere d e v e lo p in g and c o s t s w ere sh ared a s f o llo w s : b o x - o f f i c e , s i x t y - f i v e p er c e n t; i i (A rts C o u n c il, t w e n t y - e ig h t p er c e n t ; l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , 233 • f i v e per c e n t; p r iv a t e in d u s tr y , two per c e n t . The i iproblem c r e a te d by l o c a l ap ath y was n o t s o lv e d b u t p r o g r e ss was e v id e n t . i At th e b e g in n in g o f th e " th e a tr e slump" in 1955, jth e A r ts C o u n c il n o ted th a t 120 t h e a t r e s had c lo s e d in th e |p r e v io u s q u a r te r -c e n tu r y and h o p e f u lly p r e d ic te d t h a t r e - jm oval o f th e w ea k est e le m e n ts would s tr e n g th e n t h e a t r e in l 230 j The Tim es. October 13 , I 9 6 0 , p. 18. 2 3 1 I b id . . J u ly 24, 1961, p. 7. 2 3 2 I b i d . , O ctober 12, 1961, p. 18. 233 j I b i d . . O ctober 18, 1962, p. 18. I th e lon g run and r a i s e th e g e n e r a l l e v e l o f q u a l it y . 2 3 4 j P r e v io u sly , th e s it u a tio n had come to th e a tte n tio n o f th e j < i London County C o u n cil, which n e g o tia te d an agreement w ith j jth e th e a tr e owners to "safeguard th e e x is te n c e o f enough } 23 5 th e a tr e s to p reserve London's r e p u ta tio n ." Under th e ; ! i , law, th e London County C ouncil h eld th e r ig h t o f approval ;o f a l l plans to change th e use o f th e a tr e s in London; th a t i ia u th o r ity would be used to p r o te c t th e a tr e s , even th o se ; lo ca ted in areas zoned fo r com p aratively p r o fita b le o f f i c e - !b u ild in g s .236 In s p it e o f t h i s , th e number o f th e a tr e s in ! London dropped from 100 in 1950 to 50 in 1962; the 6 00 pro v in c ia l th e a tr e s in 1950 were reduced to 250 by 1962. Of ! th e s e , 55 were r e p e r t o r ie s , 25 were a v a ila b le fo r to u rin g I {com panies, and over o n e-h a If were open on ly in the sum- jm er.23^ Governmental a c tio n to p reserve th e a tr e s i s d e - i scrib ed in Chapter IV. The th e o ry , on which th e A rts C oun cil based so much o f i t s p o lic y , th a t au d ien ces would be a ttr a c te d to a new j i | and com fortably equipped th e a tr e , seemed to be affirm ed by I i i i i the su c c ess o f the new B elgrade Theatre in C oventry. T his j i th e a tr e , la r g e ly provided out o f lo c a l fu n d s, was com plete 2 3 4 I b i d . , O ctob er 13, 1 9 5 5 , p. 3 . 2 3 5 I b i d . , March 2 3 , 1 9 5 5 , p . 4 . ! | f 2 3 6 I b i d . , March 2 3 , 1 9 5 5 , p . 4 . ; 23^W illiam K en d a ll, op. c i t . . p. 36. | w ith lo b b y and r e fr e sh m e n t f a c i l i t i e s w h ich made an e v e n in g i a t th e t h e a t r e a s o c i a l o c c a s io n , ev en fo r th e you n ger j e le m e n ts in th e a u d ie n c e .238 i i i I A d m in is tr a tiv e C e n t r a liz a t io n o f \ G overnm ental Support D u rin g World War I I , G reat B r it a in was d iv id e d in t o c i v i l d e fe n s e r e g io n s and th e C EM A a d m in is tr a tio n was d e v e l oped t o f i t t h i s p a t t e r n . S e c u r it y c o n s id e r a t io n s and r e s t r i c t e d in t e r n a l com m u n ication s en cou raged th e d evelop m en t o f r e g io n a l autonom y w h ich was n o t im m ed ia te ly l o s t a t th e w a r 's en d . The f i r s t m ajor change in t h i s a d m in is t r a t iv e s t r u c t u r e came in 1951 when W . E. W illia m s became D ir e c t o r - g e n e r a l o f th e A r ts C o u n c il, r e p la c in g M iss M. C. G lasgow . R e ta in in g th e London h e a d q u a r te r s o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n and a l l but th r e e o f th e r e g io n a l d ir e c t o r s and a s s i s t a n t s , he j r e o r g a n iz e d t h e r e g io n s , c r e a t in g fo u r ou t o f th e e x i s t i n g j f i v e , t o enhan ce o p e r a t io n a l e f f i c i e n c y .239 In 1 9 5 6 , W illia m s announced p la n s to c l o s e th e r e g io n a l o f f i c e s in England ( t h o s e in S c o tla n d and W ales 238 i f o u r t e e n t h A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a i n . 1 9 5 8 -9 , op . c i t . . pp. 2 7 -2 8 . 239<rhe M anchester G uardian. January 5 , 1951, p. 4 . I w ould be r e t a in e d ) in March o f t h a t y e a r , t o red u ce th e i e x e c u t iv e s t a f f o f th e A r ts C o u n c il from tw e n ty -s e v e n t o | : j n in e t e e n o r tw en ty and t o r e p la c e th e r e g io n a l o f f i c e r s j I ! w ith o f f i c i a l s b ased in London y e t r e t a in in g r e g io n a l f I , r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s - - a l l in th e i n t e r e s t s o f in c r e a s in g e c o n - j i ! oray and e f f i c i e n c y . 240 The r e a c t io n t o t h i s p la n v a r ie d I from a p p ro v a l t o s tr o n g o p p o s it io n . John C h r is t ie f e l t t 1 !t h a t th e A r ts C o u n c il was c o r r e c t in n o t c o n c e n tr a tin g on th e p r o v is io n o f o f f i c e s a s lo n g as th e c a li b e r o f i t s o f - ! 2 A 1 ; f i c i a l s d id n o t s u f f e r . R alph Vaughan W illia m s and o th e r r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f th e m u sic w o rld p r e d ic te d th a t | " s u p e r f ic ia l work" w ould r e p la c e th e know ledge and p e r s o n a l jc o n t a c t o f th e r e g io n a l o f f i c e r s . ^ 4 ^ The B r i t i s h Drama p a sse d a r e s o l u t i o n condem ning th e A r ts C o u n c il's a c t io n a s o v e r c e n t r a liz a t io n and ch arged th a t i t was p a r t o f an ' a ttem p t t o r ed u c e th e number o f t h e a t r e s and th e n t o d iv id e ■ t h o s e rem a in in g in t o e i t h e r com m ercial or n o n p r o fit c u l - j J t u r a l c a m p s , G e n e r a l l y , th e p r o v in c e s th o u g h t th a t th e y i , — . P ■ ■ — ■■■■ — ■ . ■ . 1 ■ — ................. j ! 2 4 0The T im es. January 2 4 , 1 9 5 6 , p. 9 . 2 4 *I b id . . January 2 7 , 1 9 5 6 , p. 9 . 2 42I b i d . , January 2 1 , 1 9 5 6 , p. 7 . 24^The M anchester G uardian, May 2 1, 1956, p. 7. , " ' 2 0 2 w ould h ave l i t t l e c o n t a c t w ith th e A r ts C o u n c il o n ce th e ; l o c a l r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s w ere w ith d raw n . No one had demon s t r a t e d t h a t th e ch an ge w ould r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r e f f i c i e n c y w ith o u t a l o s s in q u a l it y o r th a t th e p r o v is io n o f s m a ll, j r e g io n a l o f f i c e s a c t u a l ly c o s t more th a n w ould th e i n c r e a s e I |t r a n s p o r t a t io n c o s t s and red u ced m an-hours on th e jo b o f 1 |t h e t r a v e l in g o f f i c i a l s . W illia m s was fo r c e d t o i s s u e a i j p u b lic e x p la n a tio n o f th e p la n : t h i s was j u s t th e f i n a l i I i s t e p in th e 1952 r e o r g a n iz a t io n and r e d u c tio n o f d i r e c t I management a c t i v i t i e s , th e l o c a l e d u c a tio n a u t h o r i t i e s m ust ! assum e more r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e a r t s , and th e new o r - j g a n iz a t io n w ould honor a l l com m itm ents and p r o v id e s e r v i c e s i j on a more " s e l e c t iv e " b a s i s . T h e p la n was ad op ted w it h - ; o u t becom in g a P a r lia m e n ta r y is s u e b u t th e s u s p ic io n t h a t th e move t o London was a move t o s tr e n g th e n L on don 's p o s i - i | t i o n a s a c e n te r f o r th e a r t s rem a in ed . i ] j I A N a tio n a l T h e a tr e : P a r lia m e n ta r y A c tio n j The refo rm s in p u b lic e d u c a tio n and th e s u c c e s s o f C E M A d u r in g th e p e r io d o f World War I I and th e in c r e a s in g ^ ^ The T im es. February 3 , 1956, p. 9 . ^ ^ I b i d . , February 1, 1956, p. 9. i ............... 203 v a lu e o f th e A r ts C o u n c il f o llo w in g t h e war a c te d t o dem- ;o n s t r a t e t h a t th e governm ent c o u ld fu n c t io n i n e d u c a t io n a l and c u l t u r a l m a tte r s . The p a ssa g e o f th e N a tio n a l T h ea tr e |A c t in 1949 was b o th a c o n f e s s io n o f f a i t h in g o v ern m en ta l m ach in ery and an acknow ledgem ent o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y tow ard i | th e c u l t u r a l d evelo p m en t o f th e n a t io n on t h e p a r t o f j ! P a r lia m e n t. A sum o f L l , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 was p led g ed t o th e c r e a - ! j j t i o n o f a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e b e fo r e su ch an i n s t i t u t i o n had i b e e n d e fin e d a s b e in g a b u ild in g o r a company o f a c to r s or I I 1 a c o m b in a tio n o f b o th . T h is a l l o c a t i o n o f fu n d s was n o t !v o te d in su p p o rt o f any p a r t ic u la r schem e b u t was made I a v a i la b l e t o th e T rea su ry w h en ever a p la n was su b m itted |w h ic h g a in e d th e M in is t r y 's a p p r o v a l. i The fo rm a l d i s c u s s i o n o f th e prop osed N a tio n a l ; T h ea tr e A ct o f 1949 to o k p la c e on th e Second R ea d in g o f th e 1 b i l l in th e H ouse o f Commons on Janu ary 2 1 , 1 9 4 9 , and in i 9A6 |t h e H ouse o f L ords on F eb ru ary 1 7 , 1 9 49. The o p e r a t iv e | c la u s e rea d as f o llo w s : i | T h a t,th e p u rp o se s o f any A ct o f th e p r e s e n t I S e s s io n t o a u th o r iz e th e T rea su ry t o c o n t r ib u t e ' tow ard s th e c o s t o f a N a tio n a l T h e a tr e , i t i s ! 246 G e o ffr e y W h itw orth , The M aking o f a N a tio n a l I T h ea tr e (London: F aber and F a b e r, L t d ., 1 9 5 1 ), p. 2 4 2 . ■ .... ...... 204 e x p e d ie n t t o a u th o r iz e th e paym ent o u t o f m oneys j p r o v id e d by P a r lia m e n t, upon su ch term s and s u b j e c t t o su ch c o n d it io n s a s th e T rea su ry may t h in k f i t , o f su ch c o n t r ib u t io n s n o t e x c e e d in g one m i l l i o n pounds t o th e fu n d s o f th e S h ak esp eare Memor- j i a l T r u s t, in r e s p e c t o f th e c o s t o f e r e c t in g and e q u ip p in g a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e i n accord an ce w it h a schem e t o be su b m itte d t o th e T rea su ry fo r t h e ; p u rp o se s o f th e same A ct.**" J ! : i I Mr. G le n v il H a ll, F in a n c ia l S e c r e ta r y t o th e T r e a su r y , j I p r e se n te d th e b i l l in th e H ouse o f Commons w ith a s e v e n - j i i 1 p o in t argum ent fo r i t s p a s s a g e . The e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a i I t h e a t r e d e v o ted t o th e p r e s e n t a t io n o f t h e b e s t p la y s by I | 1 th e b e s t a c to r s under th e b e s t c o n d it io n s was a w orth y ;d e s ir e on th e p a rt o f th e B r i t i s h p e o p le and a f i t t i n g m em orial t o th e w o r ld 's g r e a t e s t d r a m a t is t . Such a i t h e a t r e w ould add t o B r i t a i n ' s p r e s t i g e and co u ld p erform a s e r v i c e t o h er urban and r u r a l c i t i z e n s a l i k e . G overnm ent i a s s is t a n c e t o th e a r t s , e v e n in i t s e a r l i e s t form , exem p- j t i o n from th e E n te r ta in m e n ts D uty under c e r t a in c o n d it io n s ,! !had p roven t o be o f b e n e f i t to a l l . The fc l,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 was a ; | f a i r e s t im a t e o f th e c o s t o f a N a tio n a l T h eatre o f th e ty p e ; ] je n v is io n e d by H a rley G r a n v ille -B a r k e r and fc70,000 had a lr e a d y b een r a is e d fo r t h a t p u rp ose from p r iv a te s o u r c e s . | H a ll rem inded th e Members th a t t h e governm ent w ould r e t a i n j 2 4 7 Ib id . ~ 205 some c h e ck on th e p rop osed i n s t i t u t i o n ' s a c t i v i t i e s through! : i ! a s p e c i a l c la u s e i n th e A ct g i v in g th e T rea su ry th e power o f a p p r o v a l o f i t s t r u s t e e s . H a ll a l s o d ir e c t e d a t t e n t i o n i t o th e f a c t th a t t h i s b i l l was c o n c e iv e d as en couragem en t |f o r th e c r e a t io n o f a n a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , n o t a d e t a i l e d ! ; i ; p la n o f a c t io n : ru n n in g c o s t s , r e n t , t a x e s , and A r ts Coun- | c i l su p p o rt s t i l l p osed p r o b le m s.248 Mr. O liv e r L y t t e lt o n , a sp o n so r o f t h e b i l l , p r e - 1s e n te d a s i x - p o i n t argum ent in su p p o rt o f i t s p a s s a g e . He i ! a ffir m e d th e need f o r th e p r e s e n t a t io n o f drama o f th e h ig h e s t q u a l it y a t p o p u la r p r ic e s and r e p o r te d t h a t th e | p r iv a t e p a tr o n who once su p p o rted th e t h e a t r e w a s, o f n e - ! c e s s i t y , b e in g r e p la c e d by th e p u b lic t r e a s u r y . L y t t e lt o n i e m b e llis h e d h i s argum ent by c i t i n g one f u n c t io n o f th e j n a t io n a l t h e a t r e i n F r a n c e , n a m ely , t h e p r e s e r v a t io n o f th e n a t io n a l la n g u a g e . In a n t i c ip a t io n o f p r o v in c ia l o b - ! I ■ ! ; j e c t i o n s t o su ch an e x p e n d itu r e in London, h e d e n ie d t h a t j I t h i s w ould l im i t l o c a l o p p o r tu n ity t o d e v e lo p w orth y t h e a t r e program s. H is f i n a l p o in t had d e f i n i t e p o l i t i c a l j i [ I o v e r to n e s : c o n s i s t e n t w it h th e recom m end ation s o f t h e ! |C o a l i t i o n G overnm ent's W hite Paper on F u ll Em ploym ent, t h is ! i r j--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------- ---------------; j 248Ibid.. pp. 243-247. b i l l would p r o v id e a schem e fo r em p loyin g p e r so n s a t some fu tu r e d a te t o be s e l e c t e d by th e T rea su ry ; i t c o u ld be 249 u sed a s a means o f co m b a ttin g a d e p r e s s io n . Mrs. A rton Gould r o s e in su p p o rt o f th e b i l l and e x p r e sse d h e r p r id e in th e f a c t th a t "a Labour Governm ent sh o u ld have th e honour and im a g in a tio n t o in tr o d u c e t h i s B i l l . " She a l s o v iew ed th e p r o j e c t as th e means o f p la c in g G reat B r it a in in a c u l t u r a l p o s i t i o n e q u a l t o any in 250 E u rop e. C a p ta in B u llo c k warned th e H ouse o f th e d a n g ers o f p a r ty p o l i t i c s in f lu e n c in g th e p o lic y o f a g o v e r n m e n ta lly 251 su p p o rted t h e a t r e . Mr. John W ilm ot s t r e s s e d th e im p ortan ce o f an e x change o f p r o d u c tio n s b etw een th e N a tio n a l T h ea tr e and th e t h e a t r e s c r e a te d in th e p r o v in c e s under th e a u t h o r it y o f I th e 1948 L o c a l Government A ct and em p hasized th e n eed th e s e ! : I l o c a l t h e a t r e s w ould h ave f o r a sta n d a rd o f e x c e ll e n c e in j th e form o f a N a tio n a l T h e a t r e .2" * 2 I i Mr. E. P. Sm ith c a u tio n e d a g a in s t c o n s id e r in g th e 249I b i d . . pp. 2 5 1 -2 5 4 . 2 5 0I b i d . . pp. 2 5 4 -5 5 . 2 51I b id . . pp. 2 5 5 -5 6 . 2 5 2 I b i d . . pp. 2 5 7 -2 5 9 . p r o v is io n o f an e la b o r a te p h y s ic a l p la n t as b e in g th e e r e - ] r a t io n o f a N a tio n a l T h e a tr e . The q u a lit y and q u a n t ity o f th e p la y s produced w ould be o f more im p ortan ce th a n th e j I I gran d eu r o f th e p ro d u cin g medium. He c o n s id e r e d th e ! f c l ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 t o b e a s m a ll sum when com pared t o h i s e s tim a te i ! i J |o f L 3 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 p a id by th e t h e a t r e t o th e governm ent j ! | ( oco 1 jth r o u g h o u t th e h i s t o r y o f th e E n te r ta in m e n ts D u ty. j Mr. E l l i s Sm ith e x p r e ss e d th e f e a r t h a t th e p a ssa g e | o f t h i s b i l l w ould a c t t o d i s t r a c t a t t e n t i o n from th e n eed s I i ; o f th e p r o v in c e s . He argued t h a t a N a tio n a l T h ea tre sh o u ld i j be com posed o f many r e g io n a l t h e a t r e s a s w e l l as a c e n t r a l ! i n s t i t u t i o n in L on d on .23^ i | Mr. O liv e r P o o le h a ile d th e b i l l a s a c u l t u r a l and I i econ om ic trium ph and added th a t i t sh o u ld n o t be opposed m er ely b e c a u se i t d id n o t s o lv e a l l o f G reat B r i t a i n ' s 255 ! t h e a t r e p rob lem s. Mr. S k e f f in g t o n c la im e d t h a t th e I I p r o v in c ia l p o p u la tio n s seemed t o have l i t t l e problem in t r a v e l i n g t o London f o r a p r o f e s s io n a l f o o t b a l l gam e, w h ich c l e a r l y im p lie d t h a t th e p r o v in c ia l i s o l a t i o n was a m a tte r o f m o tiv a tio n r a th e r th a n g e o g r a p h y .23^ i I I " t I 253 I b id . . p . 2 5 9 . 25 I b i d . . pp. 2 6 1 -2 6 3 . j | 255 I b id . . p. 2 6 3 . 2 5 6 I b i d . . p . 264 L ooking ahead t o th e fo r m u la tio n o f a p o l i c y fo r I t h is proposed th e a tr e , Mr. Butcher recommended th e th e a tr e be co m p letely equipped w ith park ing, lob by, and refreshm ent I f a c i l i t i e s . W hile low adm ission p r ic e s were welcom e, th e t ! ! i i th e a tr e should not be allow ed to run at a lo s s over a p er- | I : i j | iod o f years in order to r e ta in an abnormally low t ic k e t | p r ic e —a broad s c a le o f p r ic e s was su g g ested , w ith fo r e ig n j 2 5 7 I t o u r is t s paying th e h ig h e st r a t e s . Mr. Benn Levy, Member o f P arliam ent, p la y w rig h t, j : and member o f th e A rts C o u n cil's Drama P an el, ch a ra c terized ! th e proposed N a tio n a l Theatre as a " liv in g lib ra ry " which I { could perform a s e r v ic e beyond th e c a p a b ility o f th e com- | m ercia l t h e a t r e .2" * 8 The form al d is c u s s io n in th e House o f Lords | r e fle c t e d the a ttitu d e s expressed in th e House o f Commons. ! The Lord C h a n cello r, who a ls o served as P resid en t o f th e i | ! T ravel A s s o c ia tio n , supported the proposal on th e grounds th a t such an in s t it u t io n would a ttr a c t fo r e ig n v i s i t o r s . O n a more elev a ted p la n e, he d escrib ed a N a tio n a l Theatre as a ste p towards th e attainm ent o f the id e a ls o f the | . j [ c i v i l i z a t i o n : t h is th e a tr e could a ct as an ed u ca tio n a l i : I ; 2 5 7 I b i d . . pp. 2 6 5 -2 6 6 . 2 5 8 I b i d . . pp. 2 6 7 -2 7 0 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - “ “ 2 1 0 9 ; I i ! !fo r c e , r a is in g the standards and w idening th e h o riz o n s o f I ' I ith e p eop le. Even though th e c o n str u c tio n o f a N a tio n a l i i I Theatre was not p o s s ib le at th a t tim e , i t was a good p ro j- |e c t to use fo r the p ro v isio n o f employment, i f such a need I i 2 5 9 i :a ro se. i j Lord Soulbury argued th a t although th e e s t a b lis h - j jment o f a N a tio n a l Theatre was d e s ir a b le , i t was not going | i to be s e lf-s u p p o r tin g . The c la u se r e ta in in g a measure of I I government c o n tr o l was understandable but he thought i t ; might be r e g r e tte d from an a r t i s t i c stan d p oin t sometime in jth e fu tu r e . Lord Soulbury contended th at th e estab lish m en t | o f a N a tio n a l Theatre would r a is e th e a tr e sta n d a rd s, pre- ! serv e the language, and provide employment (n o t on ly during ; th e c o n stru ctio n phase, but fo r as lon g as th e in s t it u t io n remained in o p e r a tio n ). 2 < *® I ; | Lord Blackford agreed th a t th e o b ject o f a N ation alj i < ! Theatre was to s e t the h ig h e st p o s s ib le standards fo r the j { ] drama and th a t a heavy annual su bsidy would b e n ecessa ry if j i th e achievem ent o f t h is o b je ct was to be r e a liz e d . He a lso j presented the argument th a t enough th e a tr es w ere th en in i i : ; e x is te n c e in London and th a t th e government should a ssig n a| i | ■ ' ' ■■■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ i ■ i« i ■ n ■ ! 2 5 9 I b id . . pp. 2 7 5 -2 7 9 . 2 6 0 I b id . . pp. 2 7 9 -2 8 5 . ■ h ig h e r p r i o r i t y t o th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a company th a n t o : th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f a b u ild in g . Lord B la c k fo r d c o n clu d ed w ith th e o b s e r v a tio n t h a t th e A r ts C o u n c il had done a v e r y t good jo b w ith lim it e d fun ds and th a t th e govern m ent w ould ► j p r o v id e a b e t t e r s e r v ic e t o t h e a t r e by in c r e a s in g i t s su p - j j p o rt o f th e A r ts C o u n c il. i The N a t io n a l T h ea tre A ct becam e law on March 9 , | 1 9 4 9 , b u t s in c e i t was an e x p r e s s io n o f g o v e rn m e n ta l in t e n t : and n o t o f im m ediate a c t i o n , th e argum ents su rr o u n d in g i t s j ; a p p ro v a l by P a rlia m e n t c o n tin u e d . The i s s u e in v o lv in g th e ; s t r u g g le b etw een London and th e p r o v in c e s g a in e d in im por- 1 j ta n c e t o th e e x te n t t h a t th e governm ent a lm o st r e v e r s e d i t s i j d e c i s i o n in o r d e r t o in c r e a s e i t s a id t o t h e p r o v in c e s . N a tio n a l T h e a tr e : A c q u is it io n o f a S i t e i In 1 9 3 7 , th e N a tio n a l T h ea tr e C om m ittee, a n o n g o v - J j I em in en t a 1 o r g a n iz a t io n , p u rch ased a s i t e in th e S ou th j K en sin g to n s e c t i o n o f London from th e O f f ic e o f Works fo r £ 7 5 ,0 0 0 .^ ^ The 1 ,1 0 0 - s e a t t h e a t r e plan ned f o r th e s i t e was n e v e r c o n s tr u c te d b e c a u se th e war in te r r u p te d th e j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - ' ■ - - - - - - - ■ ■ ■ ■ .— - - - i ; 261 I b i d . , pp. 2 8 7 -2 9 0 . | 2 6 2 The T im es. August 2 5 , 1943, p. 7. ! i campaign to r a is e funds by p u b lic su b sc r ip tio n . During the i w a r, th e s i t e was u sed a s a c i v i l d e fe n s e w a ter s to r a g e a r e a . S t a r t in g in 1 9 4 3 , th e London C ounty C o u n c il, w ith an ! e y e tow ard th e p o st-w a r r e c o n s t r u c t io n o f London, began ! n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e N a tio n a l Theatre Committee fo r a new I I s i t e nearer to th e West End which had been made suddenly i 263 i a v a ila b le through bomb damage. These n e g o tia tio n s con- : tin u e d w ith o u t t a n g ib le r e s u l t u n t i l l a t e in 1945 when th e i | London County C ouncil o ffe r e d to exchange th e South Ken- i j sin g to n s i t e for a new one on th e South Bank o f th e Thames ; between th e Hungerford and W aterloo B rid g es—an area a ls o | made a v a ila b le by enemy a c tio n . 04 By t h is tim e, the N a tio n a l Theatre Committee had merged w ith th e Shakespeare 1 Memorial Committee to form th e Shakespeare Memorial N a tio n - | a l Theatre Committee; th e Old V ic , which had dem onstrated i ; i t s q u a lific a tio n for n a tio n a l th ea tre s ta tu s b efore th e i jw ar, a lso had r e p r e se n ta tiv e s in t h is body and i t was ev e n tu a lly r e c o n stitu te d as the J o in t C ouncil o f th e Na t io n a l Theatre and Old V ic .2* * 3 As part o f th e re co n stru c- 2 6 3 I b id . 26 L I b i d ., December 1 5 , 1 9 45, p. 4 . D en t, op. c i t . . p. 152. t io n planned fo r th e South Bank o f th e Thames, th e London J County C ouncil announced, in 1 9 4 7 , p lans to b u ild a new government c e n te r , com plete w ith o f f i c e s , h o t e ls , and a 266 .N a tio n a l T h e a tr e . L ate in 1 9 5 0 , The Tim es p u b lish e d th e I i announcement th a t on July 1 3 , 1 9 5 1 , th e King would la y th e i j 'fou n d ation ston e on th e South Bank s i t e fo r th e new N ation-J 'a l T h eatre—a th e a tr e made p o s s ib le by th e L l , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 con - j I | itr ib u te d by the governm ent.287 Less than two weeks b efo re I :t h is p u b lic ceremony, th e London County C ou n cil form ally i agreed to exchange the South K ensington s i t e n ext to the j ;W aterloo B r id g e .288 By t h is tim e, th e Shakespeare Memorial |N a tio n a l Theatre Committee had r a ise d L 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 , the London |County C ouncil had co n trib u ted th e eq u iv a len t o f L 1 8 5 ,0 0 0 :by th e exchange o f s i t e s , and the n a tio n a l government was j 2 6 9 |com m itted to an exp en d itu re o f th e au th orized fcl,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 . i |Due to th e i l l n e s s o f the K ing, th e foun dation ceremony |was conducted by the Queen, who claim ed th e th e a tr e could "express w ith i t s tr u th , en rich w ith i t s la u g h ter , and ■ 288The M an ch ester G u a rd ia n . March 2 2 , 1 9 4 7 , p. 6 . 287The T im e s. Decem ber 1 9 , 1 9 5 0 , p. 4 . | 2 6 8 I b i d . , J u ly 4 , 1 9 5 1 , p. 3. ' 2 6 9 I b id . . J u ly 13, 1951, p. 5. 213 adorn w ith i t s p o e tr y and p a g ea n try th e l i f e o f th e n a t i o n ." ^ ® The Times p u b lish e d an a r t i c l e in Septem ber o f 1951 in w hich i t was c la im ed th a t th e s i t e f o r th e N a tio n a l T h ea tre was to o narrow f o r th a t p u rp ose and t h a t th e w a te r fr o n t s i t e c o u ld be u t i l i z e d b e t t e r by a restaurant. In 1 953, a new s i t e was s e l e c t e d n e a r C ounty H a ll and The Man c h e s t e r G uardian r e v e a le d th a t an a r c h it e c t had n o t pub- i lis h e d p la n s fo r a t h e a t r e and t h a t th e T rea su ry had none 272 t o ap p rove. T h is new s i t e was on th e u p stream end o f th e r e c o n s t r u c t io n a r e a w here th e p ro b a b le d e la y s in c o n s t r u c t io n o f th e t h e a t r e w ould n o t prove an e y e s o r e in th e m id d le o f th e w h ole p r o j e c t . A N a tio n a l T h ea tr e; London v e r s u s th e P r o v in c e s In May o f 1 9 5 3 , im m ed ia te ly f o llo w in g th e change in s i t e s fo r th e N a tio n a l T h e a tr e , a m e e tin g o f th e Labour P a r t y 's A r ts and A m e n itie s C om m ittee, under th e ch airm an s h ip o f Dr, B a r n e tt S t r o s s , a greed th a t London a lr e a d y had ^ ^ The M anchester G u a rd ia n . J u ly 1 4 , 1 9 5 1 , p. 3 . 971 The T im es, Septem ber 2 5 , 1 9 5 1 , p. 5 . 272 ’ The M anchester G u ard ian , March 4 , 1 9 5 3 , p. 4 . I ------------------------ 2T4 I ! a " s u b s t a n t ia l number o f t h e a t r e s " and t h a t funds a v a i la b l e f o r th e b u ild in g o f a n o th e r o n e , th e g o v ern m en t's h i , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 in p a r t i c u la r , sh o u ld be sp e n t t o d e v e lo p t h e - ! a t r e in th e p r o v in c e s , perhaps t o b u ild a N a tio n a l T h ea tr e I 273 : in the North o f England. The most im portant o p p o sitio n t i j t o t h i s p la n came from t h e C o u n c il o f R e p e rto r y T h e a tr e s | w h ich r e p r e s e n te d tw e n ty -tw o p r o v in c ia l r e p e r to r y t h e a t r e s i and had g a in e d th e a p p r o v a l o f th e L iv e r p o o l R e p e rto r y j Theatre and th e B r is t o l Old Vic in t h is m atter. The C O R T I | r e s o l u t i o n c o n ta in e d th e argum ent th a t th e B r it i s h t h e a t r e ; n eeded th e " in f lu e n c e and in s p ir a t io n " o f a N a t io n a l T h e- i i | a t r e and urged t h a t th e money fo r one n o t be sp read t o th e | p r o v in c e s .^ 4 No th e a tr e was co n stru cted in London and no plan to i use the funds in th e p rovin ces was adopted. Late in 1 9 5 7 , I | th e B r i t i s h Drama League c h a lle n g e d th e S h a k esp ea re Memor i a l N a tio n a l T h ea tre C om m ittee t o b u ild a N a tio n a l T h ea tr e I "as a m a tter o f c u l t u r a l n e c e s s i t y and s p i r i t u a l f a i t h or r e s ig n f o r t h w i t h . I n 1958, tw o p l e a s , one an a r t i c l e 273 The T im es, May 8 , 1 9 5 3 , p. 5 . | 274 I I b id ., October 2 9 , 1 9 5 3 , p. 7 . j i 275 i i I b id . . November 4 , 1957, p. 5 . ' ............... ........ “ ■ “ ............ 215 I in The Times. a n d th e o th e r in th e form o f a d e p u t a t io n , | in c lu d in g S ir L aurence O l i v i e r , t o th e C h a n c e llo r o f th e E x c h e q u e r ,277 w ere made f o r th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f th e t h e a t r e i ! in London on th e ground s t h a t i t w ould be good b u s in e s s t o i I I do s o - - i t w ould s e r v e a s a t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n and m ight ! I j ! a l s o draw f o r e ig n exch an ge t o G reat B r it a in . I | E a r ly in 1 9 5 9 , Lord E sh e r , Chairm an o f th e G over- i j |n o r s o f Old V ic , d e ter m in e d t h a t p r ic e s had in c r e a s e d t o i th e e x t e n t t h a t th e N a tio n a l T h ea tr e w ould c o s t fc2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 t o c o n s t r u c t and o v e r t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 p er y e a r t o o p e r a te — any 1 : r e d u c tio n m eant a l o s s in q u a lit y u n a c c e p ta b le t o an a u d i- 27 8 e n c e accu stom ed t o th e h ig h sta n d a r d s o f t e l e v i s i o n . ' J u s t p r io r t o t h i s , Mr. F. J . E r r o l l , Econom ic S e c r e ta r y t o th e T r e a su r y , e s tim a te d th e i n i t i a l c o s t o f th e N a tio n a l j T h ea tre t o be f c l,7 5 0 ,0 0 0 and th e o p e r a tin g c o s t s t o be jB 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 p er y e a r and j u s t i f i e d th e g o v ern m en ta l d e la y in c o n s t r u c t io n o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n : th e t h e a t r e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f th e w h o le c o u n tr y had t o be known b e fo r e a d e c is io n 2 7 6 I b id . , J u ly 2 , 1 9 5 8 , p. 11 | 2 7 7 I b id . . J u ly 3 , 1 9 58, p. 7 . | j 278 ! I b id . , March 2 5 , 1 9 5 9 , p . 8. t ic o u ld be m ade, q u e s tio n s r a is e d d u rin g t h e c o n tr o v e r s y o v e r] th e p rop osed d e s t r u c t io n o f th e S t . J a m e s's T h ea tr e c o n c e r n in g th e economy o f r e p a ir in g o ld b u ild in g s as opposed t o th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f new f a c i l i t i e s w ere s t i l l unanswered^1 I i and a N a tio n a l T h ea tre in London m ight te n d t o com p ete w ith | th e e x i s t i n g com m ercial t h e a t r e .^ 9 A d ep u ta tio n from Parliam ent con tacted th e Treasury ! and a d v o c a ted th e c r e a t io n o f a n a tio n -w id e c h a in o f I | th e a tr e s , in clu d in g the Old V ic , in stea d o f the co n stru e - I tio n o f a N a tio n a l Theatre in London, as th e b e st means o f ! 2ft0 j t a k in g drama t o th e p r o v in c e s . In A u gu st o f 1 9 5 9 , The i Tim es p u b lish e d a p r o p o s a l by a s p e c i a l C om m ittee o f th e Labour P a rty in w h ich i t was c la im ed t h a t th e e s ta b lis h m e n t I o f a c h a in o f t h e a t r e s , in c lu d in g th e Old V ic , w ith a p o l- ] ic y o f r e g u la r ly in te r c h a n g in g p r o d u c tio n s c o u ld n o t f a i l ] ] j ; t o a c h ie v e th e i d e a l s o f g o v e r n m e n ta lly su p p o rted t h e a - \ 281 t r e . The m ost prom inent member o f t h i s com m ittee was Mr. H arold W ilso n . In t h i s p r o p o s a l, no r e f e r e n c e was made ^ ^ The M anchester G u a rd ia n . March 1 1 , 1 9 5 9 , p. 2. | ^ °The T im es. May 8 , 1 9 5 9 , p. 8. j ^ ^ I b id . , August 31, 1959, p. 4. 217 t o th e A r ts C o u n c il's c o n t in u a l f a i l u r e t o e s t a b l i s h s im i- i la r c h a in s r i g h t a f t e r th e war when c o n d it io n s w ere more fa v o r a b le : a u d ie n c e s had l e s s ra n g e o f c h o ic e in e n t e r t a i n - intent, c o s t s w ere lo w e r , and a h a b it o f a t te n d in g th e w ar- jtim e C EM A p r o d u c tio n s s t i l l p e r s i s t e d . As th e c o n tr o v e r s y J I |c o n t in u e d , B r i t i s h E q u ity argued t h a t an a tte m p t t o a v o id |t h e i n i t i a l B 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 c a p i t a l o u t la y by form in g a company j jw ith a lim it e d s t a f f , f a c i l i t i e s , and r e p e r t o ir e w ould a c t i j t o d e f e a t th e w h ole p r o j e c t . 2 ® 2 D r. B a r n e tt S t r o s s l a t e r p r e s e n te d a p r o p o s a l in P a rlia m e n t f o r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f I I a N a tio n a l T h e a tr e company w h ich w ould to u r th e p r o v in c e s i i an d , t h e r e f o r e , k eep t h e a t r e from d y in g o u t; th e T rea su ry r e p li e d t h a t th e p r o p o s a l, b e in g new t o th e H ouse o f Corn- 283 m ons, w ould r e c e i v e e v e r y c o n s id e r a t io n . i The f o llo w in g m onth, th e E x e c u tiv e C om m ittee o f th e ! 1 I | J o in t C o u n c il o f th e N a t io n a l T h ea tr e ( r e p r e s e n t in g th e i | S h a k esp ea re M em orial N a tio n a l T h ea tre C om m ittee, th e Old V ic and th e R o y a l S h a k esp ea re T h e a tr e , S t r a t f o r d ) urged th e C h a n c e llo r o f th e E xchequer t o b u ild a N a tio n a l T h ea tr e c o n t a in in g two s t a g e s on th e s i t e o f f e r e d by th e London I i ! | 2 82I b i d . , Janu ary 2 8 , I 9 6 0 , p. 3 . ! i ! 2 8 3 I b i d . . November 18, I9 6 0 , p. 20. 218 C ounty C o u n c il in 1953 and e s tim a te d th e c o s t o f su ch a 2 O A v e n tu r e t o be fc2,3 0 0 ,0 0 0 . T h is com m ittee a l s o announced t h a t th e Old V ic and S tr a tfo r d -u p o n -A v o n m anagem ents had ia g re ed t o m erge, form in g a company o f 150 a c to r s w h ich i !c o u ld p r o v id e p r o d u c tio n s on b o th s t a g e s th r o u g h o u t th e |y e a r , a six -m o n th s e a s o n a t S tr a tfo r d -u p o n -A v o n , and a to u r in g company f o r t h e p r o v in c e s a t an a n n u a l c o s t o f i O Q C ;B 4 5 0 ,0 0 0 . In F eb ru a ry 1o f 1 9 6 1 , th e com bined A r ts and i ' {A m en itie s C om m ittees o f th e C o n s e r v a tiv e and Labour P a r t ie s s e n t a d e p u ta tio n to t h e T rea su ry recom m ending th e form a t i o n o f a N a t io n a l T h ea tre company t o to u r th e p r o v in c e s i f th e n e c e s s a r y fu n d s f o r a b u ild in g w ere n o t a v a i l a b l e . 288 JIn M arch, The Tim es p u b lis h e d a rumor t o th e e f f e c t t h a t I th e governm ent fa v o r e d a tw o -p h a se p la n : th e fo r m a tio n o f a I .n a t i o n a l company and, i f th e need was d e m o n str a te d , th e j e v e n tu a l c o n s t r u c t io n o f a b u i l d i n g .28^ On March 2 1 , 1 9 6 1 , t h e C h a n c e llo r o f th e E xchequer i - ^ S ix t e e n t h A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f 284 G reat B r it a i n , 1 9 6 0 -1 , op. c i t . . p . 15. 2 85 I b id . 286The T im es. F eb ru ary 2 8 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 12 2 ^7The T im es, March 3 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 12. 'announced in Parliam ent the governm ent's d e c is io n not to j ; b u ild a N a tio n a l Theatre but to in cr ea se th e grant to th e jA rts C ouncil fo r the Old V ic , th e Royal Shakespeare Theatre ! O Q Q at Stratford-upon-A von, and th e p r o v in c ia l r e p e r to r ie s . 0 0 ; In the same announcement, the C han cellor claim ed th a t the merger o f th e Old V ic and S tr a tfo r d th e a tr e s cou ld a ct to 1 d estro y th e tr a d itio n s o f ea ch , th a t the p ro v isio n o f th e a tr e s in th e p rovin ces was th e r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f lo c a l i I a u th o r itie s who needed more encouragement in t h is regard , j ( and th a t th e s i t e on th e South Bank was to be preserved in th e event a b u ild in g became p o s s ib le a t a fu tu re d a te . The i M anchester Guardian reported t h is as a "lam entable d e c i sion" which im plied th a t "the drama need not be con sid ered ; an im portant or f ir s t - p la c e e x p r e ssio n o f our c u ltu r a l ' 289 I h e r ita g e ." Three days la t e r , The M anchester Guardian j stru ck a h o p efu l note w ith th e announcement th a t the London | County C oun cil e le c t io n s and th e p erson al op in ion o f Mr, S elw in L loyd, th e C hancellor o f the Exchequer, may r e s u lt 290 in a r e v e r s a l o f the d e c is io n . R eaction in o p p o sitio n 1 _ 1 28 8I b i d . . March 2 2 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 12. j ! 289The M anchester G u a rd ia n . March 2 2 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 1 0 . | 2 9 0 I b i d . , March 2 5 , 1961, p. 4 . 2 2 0 ; t o th e d e c is io n n o t t o b u ild a t h e a t r e came from many q u a r-! i : | } 1t e r s : em p lo y ees o f th e D epartm ent o f P u b lic and S o c i a l | I 291 292 ! A d m in is tr a tio n , th e c o n s t r u c t io n in d u s t r y , t h e a t r e j 293 294 l e a d e r s , th e C o u n c il o f R e p e rto r y T h e a tr e s , th e S o - 295 296! j c i e t y fo r T h ea tre R e se a r c h , th e B r i t i s h Drama L eagu e, ] ! 297 ;and th e London C ounty C o u n c il. D u rin g th e London C ounty C o u n c il's e l e c t i o n s , Mr. iH ayw ard, L eader o f th e C o u n c il, p r e s e n te d a new p r o p o s a l I i t o th e governm ent w h ich had g a in e d b ip a r t is a n a p p r o v a l and | |w as n o t i t s e l f an e l e c t i o n i s s u e . The London C ounty Coun c i l w ould c o n t r ib u t e t l , 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 t o th e c o s t o f th e c o n - i | s t r u c t io n o f th e t h e a t r e ( t o be r a is e d th rou gh a s p e c i a l | t a x ) i f th e T rea su ry w ould c o n t r ib u t e t l , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 .298 When 291The T im e s, May 9 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 13. | j 2 9 2 I b i d . , March 2 7 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 11. I j \ ! 2 9 3 I b i d . , March 2 5 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 9 . ! 2 9 4 I b id . , March 2 8 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 11. 2 9 5 I b id . , March 2 9 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 13. 2 9 6 I b id . , A p r il 3 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 9 . 2 9 7 I b i d . , March 2 2 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 12. 2 9 8 I b id . , A p r il 5 , 1961, p. 6 . Sthe London C ounty C o u n c il fo r m a lly p r e se n te d t h i s p r o p o s a l, ! th e n amended t o s p e c i f y a c o n t r ib u t io n o f h i , 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 on i t s p a r t , t o th e T reasu ry in J u n e, Mr. L loyd prom ised t o ir e c o n s id e r th e g o v ern m en t's d e c is io n " in th e l i g h t o f t h i s |new in f o r m a tio n ." ^ ^ In J u ly , th e C h a n c e llo r announced th e I jgovern m en t' s p la n t o in c lu d e th e Old V ic , th e R oyal S h a k e s p eare T h ea tre a t S tr a tfo r d , and S a d le r 's W e lls in th e schem e jand t o g r a n t L 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 p er y e a r tow ard th e o p e r a tin g c o s t s io f th e p roposed in stitu tio n ." * ® ® T h is i n c lu s io n o f S a d le r 's iW ells fo r c e d a r e d e s ig n o f th e t h e a t r e and The M anchester G uardian found t h i s t o be e v id e n c e o f a la c k o f c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith a l l o f th e p a r t ie s co n cern ed on th e p a r t o f th e j g overn m en t: th r e e t h e a t r e s w ould be r e q u ir e d w h ile o n ly two I w ere c o n ta in e d in th e p la n and in th e c o s t e s tim a te s ,^ ® 1 :The f i n a n c i a l arrangem ent proposed by th e governm ent i n c lu d e d a su b s id y o f L 2 3 0 ,0 0 0 to drama a c t i v i t i e s , t l 7 0 ,0 0 0 i I to o p era and b a l l e t , and none t o th e a c t i v i t y p lan n ed fo r 299 The M ach ester G u ard ian . June 7 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 3 . 3 0 0 I b i d . , J u ly 1 3 , 1 9 61, p. 1. 3 01 , . , I b id . , p. 10. i S t r a t f o r d or f o r p r o v in c ia l t o u r s . T h e go v ern m en t’ s ' J i i n t e n t i o n t o r e c o n s id e r th e w h o le schem e i f any o f th e j i t h r e e com p an ies in v o lv e d d e c id e d n o t t o p a r t i c i p a t e was i ; i i in c lu d e d in th e p r o p o s a l. 1 j D u ring th e d i s c u s s i o n s o f th e f i n a n c i a l b e n e f i t s i : l I and a r t i s t i c d a n g ers o f an am algam ation o f t h e s e t h r e e com - i i ! p a n ie s and th e u se t o w h ich th e Old V ic T h ea tr e and th e I S a d l e r 's W e lls T h ea tr e sh o u ld be p u t, th e R oyal S h a k esp ea re I i i T h ea tre w ith d rew from th e sc h e m e--a n e v e n t term ed th e i ' " l a t e s t a c t in th e n a t io n a l fa r c e " by The M an ch ester Guard- | i a n .^ 0^ The R o y a l S h a k esp ea re T h e a tr e , S t r a t f o r d , d id n o t th e n r e c e iv e a governm ent s u b s id y b u t had managed t o s u r v iv e and t o d e v e lo p i t s own t r a d i t i o n s ; c o n t r a c t s t o d e - i v e lo p London o u t l e t s fo r t h i s company had b een s ig n e d as ; e a r ly a s 1958 (w h ile th e N a tio n a l T h ea tre was s t i l l a " c o ld i i fo u n d a tio n s to n e " ) and i t was d e c id e d t h a t i t s own fu tu r e j | was b r ig h t e r o u t s id e o f a t h r e e - s id e d N a tio n a l Theatre."*®^ The J o in t C o u n c il o f th e N a t io n a l T h ea tre th e n • ^ The T im es. J u ly 1 3 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 8 . ^ ^ The M anchester G u a rd ia n . March 7 , 1 9 6 2 , p. 10. •^O ^The T im es. A p r il 5 , 1 9 62, p. 7 . |p r o p o se d , w ith th e a p p ro v a l o f th e London C ounty C o u n c il, ! !th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f an a m p h ith ea tre a u d ito r iu m on th e e x i s t j in g s i t e w ith p r o v is io n fo r a p roscen iu m t h e a t r e t o be j ; j added t o th e s t r u c t u r e l a t e r — th e Old V ic T h ea tre was to se r v e as th e p roscen iu m t h e a t r e u n t i l one had b een added t o | i i j th e Sou th Bank F a c i l i t i e s . 305 op era h ou se t o r e p la c e th e S a d le r 's W e lls T h ea tre on R oseb ery Avenue was planned fo r a s e p a r a te s i t e on th e S ou th Bank. The Old V ic Company was t o be absorb ed in t o a N a t io n a l T h ea tre Company. The f in a n - i j c i a l c o n s id e r a t io n s in th e p r o p o s a l in c lu d e d an i n i t i a l i ic o n t r ib u t io n o f £ 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 p lu s an an n u al su b s id y o f £ 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 from th e n a t io n a l governm ent and th e d o n a tio n o f jtw o s i t e s , an i n i t i a l c o n t r ib u t io n o f £ 1 ,3 0 0 ,0 0 0 and an an n u a l su b s id y o f £ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 For S a d le r 's W e lls from th e London C ounty C o u n c il.^06 T h is p la n was f i n a l l y ap p roved , o v e r th e o p p o s it io n o f B r i t i s h E q u ity , on J u ly 3 , 1 9 6 2 .3 0 7 i iOn A ugust 2 , 1 9 6 2 , two p la n n in g board s w ere c r e a te d : th e 3 0 5 I b id . , A p r il 18, 1 9 6 2 , p. 12. 3 06 I b id . 307 ' S e v e n te e n th A nnual R eport o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f i G reat B r it a i n . 1 9 6 1 -2 . op. c i t . , p. 25. I N a tio n a l T h ea tre Board ( r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f ! ' t ! an a r t i s t i c d i r e c t o r , a g e n e r a l a d m in is t r a t o r , and t h e | ! I t i com pany) and th e S o u th Bank T h ea tre and Opera H ouse B u ild - I jin g Board ( r e s p o n s ib le fo r th e s e l e c t i o n o f an a r c h i t e c t \ | I and th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f th e t h e a t r e s ) . The N a tio n a l T h ea- | t r e Board w a s -to h a v e tw e lv e members j o i n t l y a p p o in te d by j th e T rea su ry and th e London C o u n c il C o u n c il w h ile o f th e ! ; ! S ou th Bank T h ea tre and Opera House B u ild in g B o a r d 's t e n i m embers, s i x w ere t o b e a p p o in te d j o i n t l y by t h e T rea su ry and th e London C o u n c il, two by S a d le r 's W e lls , and two by i | ; th e N a tio n a l T h ea tre B o a r d . 308 i | The c o n tr o v e r s y w h ich surroun ded th e g o v e r n m e n t's |c r e a t i o n o f a N a tio n a l T h ea tr e d id n o t end w ith t h i s d e c i - I s io n t o in v e s t in t h e a t r e b u ild in g s a s w e l l as a company o f |a c t o r s . In a l e t t e r t o th e e d it o r o f The M anchester G uard- J ia n , Mr. A rth u r B le n k in s o p , A c t in g - s e c r e t a r y f o r th e N orth i t ! j I I E ast A s s o c ia t io n f o r th e A r t s , asked who t h i s N a t io n a l j ! , ! T h ea tr e was f o r , r e p o r t in g t h a t th e "Board" c h o se n e v en j in c lu d e d som eone from th e Bank o f England but no one from 't h e p r o v in c ia l t h e a t r e , and co n clu d ed t h a t i t a l l b e lo n g e d ^ ^ The M anchester G uardian. J u ly 4 , 19 62, p. 2 . ; 225 I I t o London and was n o t a t a l l r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f th e n a t io n . 3 0 ^ The m ethod by w h ich an a r c h i t e c t was t o b e c h o se n became a m a tte r o f p u b lic d i s c u s s i o n and th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f a N a t io n a l T h ea tr e seem ed a s rem ote as e v e r u n t i l S ir L aurence O li v i e r was a p p o in te d D ir e c t o r o f th e N a tio n a l T h e a t r e ,310 S te p h en A lr e n , o f S a d le r 's W e lls , was a p p o in ted i 311 {G eneral A d m in is tr a to r , and K enneth Tynan, drama c r i t i c f o f The O b se r v e r , was a p p o in te d L ite r a r y M a n a g e r . 3 ^ *jhe N a t io n a l T h ea tre b egan i t s f i r s t s e a s o n o f o p e r a tio n in th e autumn o f 1963 in th e r e fu r b is h e d Old V ic T h e a tr e . One p h ase o f th e N a t io n a l T h ea tre schem e had become a r e a l i t y and was h a ile d in Modern Drama as " th e g r e a t e s t in n o v a tio n ;in E n g lis h t h e a t r i c a l h i s t o r y s in c e th e f i r s t perm anent !p la y h o u se was b u i l t in 1 5 7 6 ."3 13 309 The M anchester G u a rd ia n , A u gu st 1 0 , 1 9 6 2 , p. 6 . 3 1 0 I b i d . , p. 1. 311 The T im es, December 7 , 1 9 6 2 , p. 8. 312 I b i d . , March 1 8 , 1 9 6 3 , p . 7 . 313 W illia m A. A rm stron g, " T r a d itio n and In n o v a tio n in th e London T h e a tr e ," Modern Drama, IV , No. 2 (S ep tem b er. 1 9 6 1 ), p. 195. ! The M in is te r o f F in e A rts P rop osal The A r ts C o u n c il o f G rea t B r it a in was e s t a b l i s h e d a s a se m i-in d e p e n d e n t agen cy w ith power t o a l l o c a t e fu n d s g r a n ted t o i t by th e T reasu ry a s i t saw f i t . The C h a n c e l- i I I lo r o f th e E xchequer was r e s p o n s ib le t o P a rlia m en t fo r th e a c t io n s o f th e A r ts C o u n c il. S in c e p u b lic money was b e in g sp e n t and an im p o rta n t c o n c e n tr a tio n o f power w as b e in g { d e v e lo p e d , th e p r o v is io n fo r in s p e c t io n and c o n t r o l had to be m a in ta in ed w h eth er i t was u sed or n o t . The T rea su ry se r v e d a s b o th th e so u r c e o f th e A r ts C o u n c il's fu n d s and th e p r o v id e r o f d i r e c t g r a n ts t o R o y a l a c a d e m ie s, museums, and g a l l e r i e s . The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e c u l t u r a l d e v e l opment o f th e n a t io n s lo w ly g r a v it a t e d t o th e T rea su ry a lth o u g h th e M in is t r ie s o f E d u c a tio n and Works r e t a in e d i j s p e c i f i c f u n c tio n s in n a t io n a l program s o f su p p o rt t o th e I a r t s . C h a n c e llo r s o f th e Exchequer r e p e a t e d ly r e s i s t e d P a rlia m e n ta r y p r e s s u r e s to e x e r t a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f c o n t r o l o f th e A r ts C o u n c il's program on th e ground s th a t such a c t io n w ould "im pinge upon t h e A r ts C o u n c il's a u t h o r it y i jand in d e p e n d e n c e ," th a t th e T reasu ry was n o t in a p o s i - i ] 314,rhe T im es. March 18, 1953, p. 6 . J ^ 1 i t i o n t o t e l l th e A r ts C o u n c il w hat t o d o , ■ L J and t h a t i |g o v e r n m e n ta l in t e r v e n t i o n , in th e form o f p r o v is io n o f ; i , em ploym ent t o g r a d u a te s o f p u b lic u n i v e r s i t i e s and R o y a l | {a c a d e m ie s, was n o t d e s i r a b l e . ^16 C h a n c e llo r s w ere in th e j I |u n u s u a l p o s i t i o n o f b e in g u lt im a t e ly r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e A r ts C o u n c il's a c t io n s w h ile ch a rg ed w it h th e p r e s e r v a t io n o f t h a t b o d y 's in d e p e n d e n c e . P r a is e f o r th e T r e a s u r y 's p a tie n c e w ith th e s i t u a t i o n and r e s t r a i n t in m aking d e t a i l e d o r d e r s f o r th e A r ts C o u n c il was e x p r e s s e d in P a r l ia - | ment d u r in g a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e su p p o rt s y s t e m .317 ! ! | In 1 9 5 6 , on th e o c c a s io n o f th e d is c o n tin u a n c e o f i a d i r e c t g r a n t t o a s m a ll o p era s c h o o l, th e T rea su ry was a c cu sed o f a c t in g on th e b a s i s o f t r a d i t i o n r a th e r th a n 318 | a c c o r d in g t o a p o s i t i v e p o lic y o f c u l t u r a l d e v e lo p m en t. i {D u rin g th e su b seq u e n t P a r lia m e n ta r y in q u ir y , th e T rea su ry | a d m itted t h a t i t made d i r e c t g r a n ts on th e b a s i s o f an e s t a b l i s h e d need and d id n o t , as a m a tte r o f c o n tin u in g * ' i ______ ! 313The M an ch ester G u a rd ia n , June 1 3 , 1 9 5 6 , p. 9 318The T im es, March 7 , 1 9 5 8 , p. 4 . 3 1 7 I b id . . J u ly 1 0 , 1 9 5 9 , p. 9 . ; 3 1 8 I b id . , March 1 , 1956, p. 9 . ! I 3 1 9 ! ' p o l i c y , c o n s u lt s p e c i f i c groups p r io r t o th e g r a n t. 7 ! I j ; In th e c a s e o f th e s m a ll op era s c h o o l, i t was d eterm in ed th a t th e t r a in in g o f f e r e d was so s p e c i a li z e d t h a t th e m ajor ; op era com panies a lr e a d y r e c e iv in g g o v ern m en ta l a id sh ou ld ■ 32f su p p o rt i t i f , in t h e i r o p in io n , i t was w orth s u p p o r tin g . u t I T h is s c h o o l, w hich had tr a in e d ab ou t two d ozen s tu d e n ts in ! |a p erio d o f e ig h t y e a r s , was n o t th e im p o rta n t is s u e in th e i j in q u ir y ; th e prim e is s u e was th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a co n - I |c r e t e p o lic y fo r governm ent a id t o th e a r t s b ased on th e i f a c t u a l n eed s and g o a ls o f th e n a t io n . As e a r ly as 1952, i i recom m endations th a t a com m ittee or R o y a l C om m ission sh ou ld I be e s t a b lis h e d t o exam ine th e A r ts C o u n c il's f u n c tio n OOl | appeared in P a r lia m e n t. T h is s u g g e s t io n was g iv e n a more in t e n s e e x p r e s s io n in 1957 in The T im e s: th e need was fo r a " s e t o f modern p r in c ip le s t o r e p la c e h a n d -to - mouth i l l o g i c a l i t i e s " a s a g u id e f o r th e S t a t e in i t s i !r o le as P a tr o n .^22 «jhe pr ime M in is t e r , Mr. H arold M acm il- 319 I b id . , March 1 6 , 1 9 56, p . 5 . 3 2 < W 321 f The M anchester Guardian, October 2 9 , 1 9 5 2 , p. 2 . ! 322 j The Times, March 2 , 1 9 5 7 , p. 7 . ;■ ' ■ ............ ..." " ........ " ........ 229' la n , refu sed to recommend the esta b lish m en t o f a Royal Com m issio n to review government patronage o f th e a r ts because J ( I he f e l t th a t th e problem was to o broad fo r a s in g le coramis-j ; , i isio n to a rr iv e at co n clu sio n s in an a ccep ta b le amount o f I 393 I tim e. He p referred to depend upon th e e x is t in g s p e c ia l-I I j i purpose com m issions and c o u n c ils . j i i i ■ I The B rid ges R eport, issu e d in 1 9 5 8 , s tr e s s e d th e I j i | ! ;im portance o f rev iew in g th e methods and arrangem ents as iw e ll as the amounts o f the su bsidy and The Times again !claim ed th a t th e tim e had come "to su b jec t the S t a t e 's j f i r s t f a lte r in g experim ent in patronage o f th e a r ts to a 324 i f u l l p u b lic exam in ation ." In th e d is c u s s io n s which fo llo w ed , The Times p ub lish ed B rid g es' a n a ly s is o f the C h a n cello r's fu n ctio n as the M in ister r e sp o n sib le fo r the i a r ts : on the one hand, th e C han cellor was an o u tsid e r to j the world o f th e a r ts and, th e r e fo r e , l e s s lik e ly to e x e rt j c o n tr o l b u t, on th e oth er hand, he was a ls o lik e l y to take j no a c tio n in tim es o f c o n tr o v e r s y .^ ^ | i i ! 3 2 3 I b i d . , March 1 3 , 1 9 5 7 , p. 4 . ! I 3 2 ^ I b i d . , March 7 , 1958, p. 11. i 325 I b i d . , June 4 , 1958, p. 4 . In 1 9 5 9 , S t r o s s le d a P a r lia m e n ta r y b a t t l e t o ’r e a p p r a is e th e m ethods o f s u b s id iz in g t h e a r t s in G reat B r i t a i n , s t a r t i n g w ith an e v a lu a t io n o f e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s and in c lu d in g an e x a m in a tio n o f a d m in is tr a t iv e m ethods |and s a fe g u a r d s a g a in s t a b u se s in th e p r o g r a m s . T h e |a d m in is t r a t iv e problem s in h e r e n t in e n s u r in g a r t i s t i c in d e - |pendence w h ile r e ta in in g "proper a c c o u n ta b ility " were 327 recogn ized as b ein g c e n tr a l to th e in q u iry . Leonard F. Behrens, Chairman o f th e H a lle C oncerts S o c ie ty , claim ed it h a t th e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and n o t th e n e e d s o f an i n s t i t u t i o n i |sh o u ld govern governm ental support and observed th at sup- 32 8 p o r t was th e n to o " h ap h azard ." In I 9 6 0 , a new a ttem p t was made in P a rlia m en t to I ; e s ta b lis h a Royal Commission to examine the s ta te o f fin e j 3 9 9 a r ts in Great B r ita in . The announcements th a t th e 1 I C hancellor o f th e Exchequer had asked th e Standing Commis sio n on Museums and G a lle r ie s to recommend a method o f I b id . , January 2 3 , 1 9 5 9 , p. 11. 327. 326 i I b id . 328 I b i d . , A p r il 2 4 , 1 9 5 9 , p. 1 3 . 329 The M anchester G uardian. February 2 7 , 1960, p. 6 ; r e v ie w in g th e c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n and th a t th e A r ts C o u n cil was t o r e c e iv e a tw e n ty -th r e e per c e n t in c r e a s e in funds ifrom th e T reasu ry w h ich w ould d o u b le th e a id t o drama, iw ith th e p r o v in c ia l r e p e r t o r ie s g a in in g th e m o st, a cted t o 330 end th e a tte m p t, b u t n o t b e fo r e th e T r ea su r y had been d e s c r ib e d a s a de f a c t o M in is tr y o f F in e A r ts and th e e f f o r t had b een weakened by a Labour M ember's sta te m e n t 331 t h a t money, n o t a R oyal C om m ission , was n e e d e d . The Tim es o b serv ed t h a t a p a tte r n had d e v e lo p e d in P a rlia m e n t: g e n e r a l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n - w i t h th e A r ts C o u n c il's m ethods w ould c r y s t a l l i z e in a demand fo r an o f f i c i a l r e v ie w o f th e su p p o rt sy s te m , th e T reasu ry w ould announce an in c r e a s e in th e g r a n t t o th e a r t s an d , in th e g e n e r a l r e j o i c i n g a t th e 332 in c r e a s e , th e o r i g i n a l demand w ould be d rop p ed . The | Tim es rea so n ed t h a t th e need fo r a g e n e r a l r e v ie w o f th e | su p p ort program in c r e a s e d as th e amount o f money sp en t i n - i . 333 ic r e a s e d . In 1942, when th e C E M A w as d e v e lo p in g a h ig h d e g r e e 3 3 ^The T im es. F ebruary 2 7 , I9 6 0 , p. 6 . 3 3 1 I b id . . p. 3 . 3 3 2 I b i d . , p. 7 . 3 3 3 I b i d . , p. 7. o f p u b lic c o n fid e n c e in i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e a r t s , j G e o ffr e y W hitw orth recommended th e r e t e n t i o n o f th e C E M A i j i a f t e r th e war and th e a ssig n m en t t o i t o f th e f u n c t io n s o f | la M in is tr y o f F in e A r t s .3 3 ^ Ten y e a r s l a t e r , th e A r ts I C o u n c il opp osed th e c r e a t io n o f a M in is tr y o f F in e A r ts on i jth e ground s t h a t a r t i s t i c freed om w ould be im p aired by a i 'd ir e c t c h a in o f command w h ich was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f g o v e r n - t m en ta l a g e n c i e s .3 3 * * As th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e T r e a su r y , th e M in is t r ie s o f E d u ca tio n and W orks, and th e A r ts C o u n c il |in c r e a s e d , th e p r e s s u r e s t o c o n s o lid a t e th e e f f o r t and t o i { in c r e a s e th e econom y and e f f i c i e n c y o f th e program a ls o ! in c r e a s e d . In 1 9 5 8 , th e Prim e M in is t e r , H arold M acm illan , I { f l a t l y r e fu s e d t o c o n s id e r th e c r e a t io n o f a M in is te r o f C u ltu r e in answ er t o a q u e s t io n d ir e c t e d t o him in P a r l ia - 00£ m en t. T h is r e f u s a l on th e p a rt o f th e Prime M in is te r ! id id n o t end th e p r e s s u r e t o exam ine th e c o n c e p t. The f o l - i lo w in g y e a r , S ir I f o r Evans co n ten d ed th a t p r o g r e ss in th e f 33£ The T im es. A u gust 1 7 , 1 9 4 2 , p. 5 . 335 E ig h th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f IG reat B r i t a i n , 1 9 5 2 -3 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 ), {p. 7. i 336The T im es, June 18, 1958, p. 13. a d m in is tr a tio n o f support aw aited a change in th e fu n c tio n o f a r t in th e s o c i e t y . 3 3 ^ The need to a cco u n t fo r a l l J p u b lic e x p e n d itu r e s was f o r c in g P a rlia m e n t in t o w a n tin g a 338 M in is te r o f F in e A r ts w ith o u t h a v in g s o lv e d th e problem s i o f a d m in is t r a t iv e im pairm ent o f a r t i s t i c i n d iv i d u a l it y and 1 freed om . The argum ent f o r th e c r e a t io n o f a se p a r a te M in- ! i s t r y fo r th e a r t s on th e grounds t h a t more fu n d s would ; th u s be made a v a ila b le was opposed by th e A r ts C o u n c il, iw h ic h r e p o r te d th a t th e T rea su ry g r a n t had b een in c r e a s e d 339 t e n f o ld in e ig h t e e n y e a r s . The l a t e s t a ttem p t t o c r e a t e a F in e A r ts M in is tr y I or d ep artm en t w ith t h a t s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was by fo u r ! : Members o f P a rlia m e n t a c t in g a s r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f th e f : C o n se r v a tiv e P o l i t i c a l C en ter and a d v o c a tin g th e c o n s o lid a - OAfl i t i o n o f a l l g o v ern m en ta l a id under th e M in is te r o f Works. 5 T h is M in is te r was r e s p o n s ib le fo r g o v ern m en ta l b u ild in g s | and th e th e o r y b eh in d th e recom m endation was th a t s in c e 3 3 7 i b i d . , January 3 0 , 1 9 5 9 , p. 7 . 3 3 8 I b i d . , p. 11. 339 ^E ig h te e n th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a i n , 1 9 6 2 -3 , op. c i t . , p . 6 . 3^ T h e M anchester G uardian. December 17, 1962, p. 3 th e m ost im p ortan t e le m en t o f a id was th e p r o v is io n o f j ) f a c i l i t i e s , th e o f f i c i a l r e s p o n s ib le f o r su ch f a c i l i t i e s was in th e b e s t p o s i t i o n , as compared w ith o th e r m in is - ‘t r i e s , t o o v e r s e e th e e n t i r e p rogram .3 ^ J | In 1 9 6 3 , d u r in g a P a r lia m e n ta r y d is c u s s io n o f j i ; g o v ern m en ta l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o th e a r t s , th e dependence j | - !upon th e " p e r s o n a lit y o f th e C h a n c e llo r o f th e Exchequer j ! j j o f th e day" was argued t o be a m ajor w eak n ess in th e su p - i 0 ! p o rt sy ste m . The econ om ic S e c r e ta r y t o th e T reasu ry i d e s c r ib e d th e p o lic y o f th e govern m en t, s t a t i n g th a t th e governm ent sh o u ld "keep an open mind u n t i l o p in io n became ; c le a r one way or an o th er" and , in a ca n d id moment, added: j I am n o t c le a r t h a t i t would b e r ig h t t o say in g e n e r a l th a t th e a r t s sh o u ld d e v e lo p under s t r i c t governm ent or m i n i s t e r i a l c o n t r o l . I am su r e th e y do much b e t t e r w ith o u t i t . No M in is te r ca n be an a r b it e r o f t a s t e . At p r e se n t th e a r t s I seem t o be f lo u r is h i n g under t h e i r own im p u ls e s . j M ost o f us b e l ie v e t h a t i s th e c o r r e c t way a t th e | p r e s e n t t i m e . 343 i ! The governm ent had acknow ledged th e p o lic y o f w a itin g f o r a t c o n se n su s o f o p in io n t o d e v e lo p b e fo r e making a move; t h i s i ________________________________________________________________________________________ j ' 3^ The T im es. December 17, 1 9 6 2 , p. 10. I 3 4 2 I b id . , March 2 1 , 1963, p. 7. red u ced th e danger o f p o s i t i v e c o n t r o l o f th e a r t s b u t a llo w e d v o c a l e le m e n ts in th e p o p u la tio n and P a rlia m en t t o d e la y a c t io n t o an e x t e n t a l l ou t o f p r o p o r tio n t o t h e i r num bers. The dependence upon th e p e r s o n a lit y o f th e Chan c e l l o r or o th e r f ig u r e in a p o s i t i o n o f power was a ls o 'c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e d evelop m en t o f th e B r i t i s h sy stem : t iKeynes c r e a te d a program w ith l i t t l e a t t e n t io n t o p u b lic |o p in io n p o l l s —h i s o n ly o p p o s it io n seemed t o come from i o f f i c i a l s in th e governm ent co n cern ed w ith th e o b serv a n ce | o f e s t a b lis h e d p r o c e d u r e s. L e a d e r sh ip in th e su p p o rt t o |th e p erfo rm in g a r t s was l e f t t o th e A r ts C o u n c il, a n on - I jg overn m en tal o r g a n iz a t io n o p e r a tin g w it h in th e c o n f in e s o f i i |th e T rea su ry g r a n t. CHAPTER IV THE DEGREE O F CONTROL O R INTERFERENCE W HICH ACCOMPANIED GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT I n tr o d u c tio n As i n t e r f e r e n c e , f o r w h a tev e r r e a s o n , in t o th e " n a tu r a l" d evelop m en t o f t h e a t r e in G reat B r it a in became o r ie n te d t o p a r t ic u la r g o a l s , i t becam e a form o f c o n t r o l o f th a t d e v e lo p m en t. I t i s n o t t h e p u rp ose o f t h i s c h a p te r t o e v a lu a te such c o n t r o l a s b e in g e i t h e r "good" o r "bad" f o r B r i t i s h t h e a t r e a t any p a r t ic u la r tim e b u t t o i s o l a t e i t and exam ine i t s n a tu r e and e f f e c t on th e grow th o f t h e - | a t r e . Two m a n if e s t a t io n s o f governm ent c o n t r o l o f t h e a t r e ! w ere c o n tin u in g t r a d i t io n s r a th e r th a n th e d ir e c t r e s u l t o f r e c e n t ly c r e a te d su p p ort program s. The p r a c t ic e o f c e n s o r s h ip o f p la y s was e s t a b lis h e d by th e T h ea tr es A ct o f 1737 w h ile th e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o h ib it io n o f p u b lic t h e a t r e on Sunday was th e p rod u ct o f th e v a r i a t i o n s o f th e Sunday O bservance A ct w h ich d e v e lo p e d from 1625 t o 1781. C en so r- j 236 s h ip d u r in g tim e o f war a s a means o f m a in ta in in g s e c u r i t y j i ! land m orale was a p a rt from th e p e a c etim e f u n c t io n o f th e o f f i c e o f th e Lord C ham berlain t o p r o t e c t th e p u b lic from ;o u tr a g e o u s d i s p l a y s . The r e t e n t i o n o f b o th p r a c t i c e s , i c e n s o r s h ip and p r o h ib it io n o f p u b lic t h e a t r e on Sunday, wasj i j enhanced by m oral and econom ic c o n d it io n s . i D u rin g th e p e r io d im m ed ia te ly f o llo w in g W orld War i * I I , th e c o n c e p t o f th e b e n e v o le n t c o n t r o l o f th e n a t io n by th e governm ent was a p p lie d to t h e a t r e as w e l l a s in d u s tr y [ i th rou gh a d ju stm e n ts in th e ex em p tio n from th e E n te r ta in m e n t s D u ty. The A r ts C o u n c il's a tte m p ts t o d e v e lo p a u d i- i e n c e s th rou gh su p p o rt t o s p e c i f i c p la y w r ig h ts , ty p e s o f ! p la y s , and s e l e c t e d r e p e r t o r ie s c o u ld h ave been in t e r p r e t e d I ■ in some q u a r te r s t o be exam p les o f in t e r f e r e n c e , i f n o t c o n t r o l , th rou gh th e u se o f p u b lic fu n d s . The d e g r e e o f ; j I s y s t e m iz a t io n o f th e su p p o rt w h ich was a c co m p lish ed by th e J ; i | A r ts C o u n c il a llo w ed some com m ercial e n t e r p r i s e s , ta k in g a d van tage o f th e l e t t e r o f th e la w , t o g a in a s tr o n g e r com p e t i t i v e p o s i t i o n a s compared t o t h e i r l e s s in d u s tr io u s c o lle a g u e s . I G overnm ental in v o lv em en t in th e p r e s e r v a t io n o f i h i s t o r i c monuments, c i t y p la n n in g , and c u l t u r a l su p p o rt th ro u g h th e p r e s e r v a t io n o f s e l e c t e d t h e a t r e s p ro v id ed ! exam p les o f in t e r f e r e n c e w ith a tr e n d tow ard th e r e p la c e ment o f t h e a t r e s w ith more p r o f it a b le o f f i c e b u ild in g s . ! The governm ent was a l s o under g r e a t p r e ssu r e t o p r o v id e employment f o r th o s e e i t h e r a f f e c t e d by th e d e c lin e in I t h e a t r e or who d e c id e d t o e n t e r an a lr e a d y overcrow ded | p r o f e s s io n . T here w ere few in s t a n c e s o f g o v ern m en ta l u s e o f j i t s su p p o rt program s fo r th e p r e s e n t a t io n o f propaganda ‘ m a te r ia l e i t h e r in su p p o rt o f a g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e or to p u b lic iz e th e f u n c t io n o f a s p e c i f i c g o v ern m en ta l a g e n c y . A lth ou gh th e o p p o r tu n ity t o u t i l i z e i t s su p p o rt program s in t h i s manner e x i s t e d , g o v ern m en ta l le a d e r s seemed to I lea d th e o p p o s it io n t o th e p r a c t ic e on th e grounds th a t i t ; would n o t be in th e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f th e n a t io n . The F u n c tio n o f C e n so r sh ip D u rin g a World War I I c o n tr o v e r s y o v er th e g o v e r n - ; i i m e n t's u se o f th e BBC r a d io f a c i l i t i e s fo r propaganda p u r p o s e s , th e p u b lic came t o u n d ersta n d th e a t t i t u d e o f th e i | governm ent toward c e n s o r s h ip in g e n e r a l and toward th e u se i i j o f f a c i l i t i e s h e ld in p u b lic t r u s t in p a r t ic u la r . In 1 9 3 9 ,! ! ! itw o members o f th e House o f Lords q u e s tio n e d Lord M acm illan] in h is ca p a city as M in ister o f Inform ation, about the gov- ; em in en t's a b ilit y to combat N azi propaganda. The M in ister j r e p lie d th a t although much o f the apparatus created to j t j jco n tro l th e B B C (c e n so r s, e t c . ) had been tra n sferred from th e Post O ffice to h is M in istry as a means o f making con - jtr o l more d ir e c t , the government had no in te n tio n o f manag- |in g programming.^ E arly in 1 9 4 0 , th e House o f Lords d is - |cu ssed th e cen so rsh ip o f the cinema in d u stry and, in rep ly i t o Lord S n e ll's remark th a t cen so rsh ip might be j u s t if ie d i j 1 in s p e c if ic in sta n c es w ithou t the adoption o f a wide pro gram, th e U nd er-secretary fo r th e C o lo n ie s, the Marquess o f i i D u fferin and Ava, claim ed th a t film s were censored on the j I b a s is o f v io la t io n s o f th e moral code and tra n sm issio n o f ! j ! in form ation to the enemy. Any film s which avoided th e se I two c r i t e r i a were not a lte r e d in any way and in sta n c e s o f ! poor t a s te on the part o f any p a r tic u la r n ew sreel did not |s e r v e to j u s t if y governm ental c o n tr o l o f th e whole in d u s- i 9 tr y . R egu lation Three o f the wartime Emergency R egulations allow ed newspapers and n ew sreels to submit v o lu n ta r ily to cen so rsh ip by th e B r itis h Board o f Censors and thus be i i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I ; " I *The Times (London), October 5 , 1939, p. 3. i 2 ' I b i d . , January 2 5 , 1940, p. 3. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 240 'freed from the danger o f p ro secu tio n on charges o f s la n der.-* The major co n tro v ersy over wartime ce n so rsh ip p rac t i c e s concerned the d e n ia l o f B B C ra d io b road cast f a c i l i - I ; t i e s t o s e l e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s . In 1 9 4 1 , some rem arks in a i |sp eech by S ir W alter C itr in e which was to be b roadcast to ith e U nited S ta te s were cu t by th e cen sors on th e b a s is o f 1 ! jc o n te n t, not because o f C it r in e 's p o l i t i c a l b e lie f s ^ (he j iwas a spokesman fo r th e Trade Union C on gress), and he !refu sed to make the sp eech , ch arging th a t th e government t jwas tr y in g to d ic t a t e what he should say.*’ At th e same | |tim e , P r ie s t ly com plained about a c tio n taken a g a in st M ichael |Redgrave and o th ers who were not allow ed to perform on th e 1 !BBC becau se th ey attend ed a " P eo p le's C onvention."0 The chairman o f the M anchester Branch o f the N a tio n a l C ouncil j fo r C iv il L ib e r tie s was quick to charge th a t th e government |was s t i f l i n g le g itim a te c r it ic is m in the g u ise o f en fo rcin g ! ■ ^ i Ib id . | ------- ^The M an ch ester G u a r d ia n . March 8 , 1 9 4 1 , p. 6 . i * * I b i d . , March 1 0 , 1 9 4 1 , p. 4 . I i ; ^ I b i d , , March 8 , 1 9 4 1 , p. 4 . 241 w artim e s e c u r i t y and s u g g e s te d t h a t th e news m edia sh o u ld ; be h e ld r e s p o n s ib le f o r w hat th e y had done r a th e r th a n j ! i 7 r e s t r a in e d from d o in g a n y th in g . In P a r lia m e n t, Mr. i A n eu rin Bevan sp oke a g a in s t th e m aking o f p o l i t i c a l o p in io n jth e c a u se o f d is c r im in a t io n in governm ent em ploym ent e x c e p t jw here s e c u r i t y and th e s u c c e s s f u l p r o s e c u tio n o f th e war w ere c o n c e r n e d ; A t l e e , s p e a k in g f o r th e g o v ern m en t, prom- o | is e d t h a t su ch d is c r im in a t io n w ould n o t e x i s t . As th e I d e b a te c o n tin u e d , Mr. D u ff C o o p er, who was th e n s e r v in g as I 1 M in is t e r o f In fo r m a tio n , r e v e a le d t h a t th e d e c i s i o n o f a I j g o v e r n o r o f th e BBC w h ich k e p t f o u r t e e n p erfo rm ers from 'w o r k in g b e c a u se o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n s was b e in g ! 9 ir e v ie w e d . The f o llo w in g d a y , an o f f i c i a l BBC sta te m e n t I was is s u e d t o th e e f f e c t t h a t p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o v e r s y was |a llo w e d but t h a t p a c i f i s t v ie w s in o p p o s it io n t o th e war ! ; 5 10 ' e f f o r t w ere n o t g o in g to b e b r o a d c a s t. w I t w as f i n a l l y j i J n e c e s s a r y f o r th e Prim e M in is t e r , W in ston C h u r c h ill, to I i e n t e r th e c o n t r o v e r s y . U s in g h i s w it t o g r e a t e f f e c t , 7 I b i d . j 8I b i d . , March 1 2 , 1 9 4 1 , p. 5 j | 9 I b i d . , March 13, 1 9 4 1 , p. 5 . r r 1 j ^ I b i d . , March 14, 1941, p. 10. : .......................... ~ ~ " ~ “ " 242 j 1 I ; I C h u r c h ill announced t h a t th e r e l a t io n s h ip s o f m usic and d ra m a tic p erfo rm a n ces t o p o l i t i c a l a c t s and o p in io n s w ere "not a p p a ren t or w orth w h ile e s t a b l i s h i n g ," t h a t p a c i f i s t s : i w ould be a llo w e d t o p erform b u t t h a t some m easure o f c o n - i t r o l w ould have t o b e p r a c tic e d (a " very s p i r i t e d r e n d e r in g o f 'D e u tsc h la n d Uber A l l e s ' c o u ld h a r d ly be a llo w e d " ), and I j !th a t he c o u ld s e e no r e a so n why " th e h o ld in g o f p a c i f i s t v ie w s w ould c a u se a m u sic ia n t o p la y f l a t . " ^ T h is s t a t e - i jment e s s e n t i a l l y ended th e c o n tr o v e r s y and , a lth o u g h charges t w ere made and d is p u t e s f la r e d in P a rlia m e n t a fte r w a r d s , I s e r io u s o p p o s it io n t o th e BBC p o l i c i e s d id n o t assum e m ajor j p r o p o r tio n s . The a d m in is tr a tio n o f c e n s o r s h ip f o r p u rp o ses o f i [w artim e s e c u r i t y and th e m ain ten an ce o f m orale was a f a r I ; s im p le r p r o c e s s th a n was th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e com p lex ! ! . sy ste m o f c e n s o r s h ip o f th e t h e a t r e . In th e f i r s t p la c e , ; a l l power o f c e n s o r s h ip in th e t h e a t r e d id n o t stem from j [ one s o u r c e , th e o f f i c e o f th e Lord C h am b erlain , b u t, under some c o n d it io n s , was th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f C ounty and !Borough C o u n c ils , J u s t i c e s o f th e P e a c e , o r o f th e C h a n c e l- i : •^The T im es, March 21, 1941, p. 2. ---------------- 243' lo r o f th e U n iv e r s it y o f O x f o r d .^ T h is d i f f u s i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e l i c e n s i n g o f t h e a t r e s and n o t th e l i c e n s i n g o f p la y s , a m a tte r in w h ich th e 13 Lord C ham berlain was suprem e. A p la y came under th e !j u r i s d i c t i o n o f th e Lord C ham berlain i f i t was ju d ged t o beJ !a " s ta g e p lay" su b m itted in o rd er t o be p r e se n te d f o r j ! " h ire" in a " t h e a t r e ." ^ T hese th r e e c o n d it io n s w ere g iv e n sim p le d e f i n i t i o n s in th e T h e a tr e s A ct o f 1843. The Lord I !C h a m b erla in 's power was e s t a b lis h e d by th e T h e a tr e s A ct o f I i 1737--W a lp o le n eeded p r o t e c t io n from p la y w r ig h ts who w ere ! | in a p o s i t i o n t o e x p o se th e c o r r u p tio n in P a rlia m en t and managed t o u se th e o b sce n e The G olden Rump a s an exam ple o f j i th e ex trem es produced by an u n cen so red sta g e --w h e n t h e a t r e i was p la c e d in a d i f f e r e n t c a te g o r y th a n th e p r e s s . ^ A l thou gh W a lp o le 's A ct was r e p la c e d by th e T h e a tr e s A ct o f ! i | ! 1 8 43, th e c o n c e p t o f c e n s o r s h ip was n o t ch an ged : an a r b i- i | t r a r y a u th o r ity was e x e r c is e d under no d e fin e d r u le or j ________________________________________________________________________________________ l ^ D . S . P age, The Lav o f th e Am ateur S ta g e (London: S ir Isa a c Pitm an and S o n s, L t d ., 1 9 2 9 ), pp. 1 -3 . ! I 13I b id . , p. 1. 14I b id . . p. 11. ! ^3John P alm er, The C ensor and th e T h e a tr e s (London :j I T. F is h e r Unwin, 1 9 1 2 ), pp. 3 4 -4 2 . j !c u s t o m .^ T h e a tr e , w h ich was s u b je c t t o th e same law s as i i a l l o th e r p u b lic u tte r a n c e d u r in g th e Tudor p e r io d , was j , i p la c e d in a s p e c i a l c a te g o r y in an e f f o r t t o p r e se r v e th e j ' p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l s t a t u s q u o, a lth o u g h th e a c t io n was j | 1 d efen d ed on m oral g ro u n d s. C e n so r sh ip o f th e B r i t i s h s ta g e I was r e t a in e d on th e same m oral grounds a s i t was o s t e n s ib l y 1 - c r e a t e d . ; I In p r a c t i c e , p la y s w ere n o t c e n so r e d by th e Lord | |C h am b erlain b u t by R ead ers o f P la y s d e s ig n a te d by him t o i I (p erfo rm th a t s e r v ic e and t o r e c e iv e th e r e a d in g f e e , w h ich j | was s e p a r a te from th e l i c e n s i n g f e e . ^ T here w ere no q u a l i f i c a t i o n s fo r t h i s p o s i t i o n w h ich c o u ld be u sed as a g e n e r a l t e s t o f com p eten ce and no r e a s o n s n eed ed t o be g iv e n j fo r d e c is io n s c o n c e r n in g th e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f any g iv e n 1 ft S p la y . The power o f t h i s m inor o f f i c i a l in th e B r i t i s h j ' ! governm ent was en d o rsed by many th e a t r e m anagers b e c a u se i | th e p o s s e s s io n o f a l i c e n s e from th e Lord C ham berlain was j p r o t e c t io n from in t e r f e r e n c e on th e p a r t o f l o c a l law j en fo rcem en t o f f i c i a l s . ^ A lth o u g h su ch o b j e c t io n and I b id . . pp. 43- 44, l ^ I b id . . p. 4 9 . i I j 18I b i d . , p. 126. i ’ | l^G. B. Shaw, " S a in t Joan Banned: F ilm C en so rsh ip in te r fe r e n c e was not precluded by law, th e chances o f r e v e r s a l in cou rt acted to in h ib it lo c a l a c tio n . Palmer I reported G ra n v ille-B a r k er ' s argument th a t the censor would j i lic e n s e any play which was lik e many oth er plays and which j i did not fo rce him to th in k or to ev a lu a te a new id ea — i i i j ! d e c e n c y , m o r a lit y , or ir r e v e r e n c e w ere n o t r e a l l y a t is s u e - y t in support o f h is co n ten tio n th a t the censor acted to nar- j I 20 Jrow the scope o f B r it is h drama. Shaw argued th a t only lone r u le was c o n s is te n t ly enforced by the cen sor: "a play ; m ust n o t be made th e v e h i c l e o f new o p in io n s on im p ortan t su b je c ts because new o p in io n s are always q u estio n a b le j o 1 jo p in io n s." The fa c t th a t the Lord Chamberlain was a J member o f th e Royal Household acted to imply ro y a l approval j o f h i s a c t i o n s —h i s l i c e n s i n g o f a p la y p rom oting " q u e s- 1 : tio n a b le op in ion s" would have a ttr ib u ted th o se op in ion s to i ; the Queen. ; ! j P riv a te clu b s were e s ta b lish e d which operated J * j in th e U n ited S t a t e s ," Shaw on T h e a tr e , e d . E. J . W est (New Y ork: H i l l and Wang, 1 9 5 8 ), p. 2 5 1 . 20 P alm er, op . c i t . . pp. 2 1 7 -2 1 8 . ; ! 21 j G. B. Shaw, "The C e n so r sh ip o f th e S ta g e in Eng- j ! la n d ," Shaw on T h e a tr e , e d . E. J . West (New Y ork: H i l l and j I Wang, 1 9 5 8 ), p. 7 6 . o u tsid e o f th e o f f i c i a l cen so rsh ip o f p lays and Goodwin ' ! i i argued th a t th e s u c c e s s o f th e s e c lu b s m ight have h e lp e d t o r e t a i n th e c e n s o r s h ip sy stem by r e l i e v i n g th e p r e ssu r e t o a b o lis h i t . 22 In 1 9 5 7 , th e Home S e c r e ta r y , Mr. R. A. j !B u t le r , was asked in P a rlia m en t i f h e was g o in g to i n t r o - j I j d u c e l e g is la t io n to a b o lish cen so rsh ip sin c e the p riv a te i I o * j I c lu b s w ere a b le t o o p e r a te o u t s id e o f i t . A f te r r e f u s in g i jt o i n i t i a t e su ch l e g i s l a t i o n , B u tle r was rem inded t h a t pub l i c o b j e c t io n t o c e n s o r s h ip was g r o w in g . In 1958 th e !governm ent r e p lie d t o a s im ila r q u e s tio n in P a rlia m en t th a t i 0 i \ the a b o litio n o f cen so rsh ip was b ein g co n sid ered . During j t h is d is c u s s io n in the House o f Lords, Lord M assereene |charged th a t " c er ta in playw rights" wanted th e ir plays banned because the r e s u lta n t p u b lic ity acted to ensure su c- !c e s s in th e p r iv a te th e a tr e c lu b s .23 The fo llo w in g month, I | The M anchester Guardian found the p r a c tic e o f lic e n s in g (p la y s to be " q u estion able" on th ree cou n ts: i t could be i 22C liv e G oodw in, "A View from th e G od s," E ncore (J u ly -A u g u s t, 1 9 6 3 ), p. 5 . \ 23The T im es, May 1 4 , 1 957, p. 4 . j | 2 4 I b i d . , March 7 , 1958, p . 4 . ! 23The M anchester G uardian. March 7 , 1958, p. 5 . ' 247, I avoided by th e a tr e c lu b s , a ct as a d efen se from c i v i l ! I I i a c tio n , and on ly plays (not books or film s ) needed lic e n s e s I i ; i p rio r to p r e s e n ta t io n -- it would have been b e tte r i f th e j i j 1 p u b lic decided what cou ld be presented on th e p u b lic . i 26 is ta g e , A p u b lic d is c u s s io n in L iverp ool in volved the i |e x is te n c e o f a 20,000 member th e a tr e clu b and, although no i ja c tio n was tak en , The M anchester Guardian reported the ! |developm ent o f a wide r e a liz a t io n th a t th e p r a c tic e o f cen so rsh ip did not allow the p resen ta tio n o f "modern plays" 27 which r e fle c t e d s o c ia l te n s io n s . i i There was com paratively l i t t l e record in th e p ress | o f j u d ic ia l a c tio n in r e a c tio n to i l l e g a l p resen ta tio n s | which im plied th a t e ith e r th ere were few v io la t io n s , l i t - i > t i e attem pt to en force the lic e n s in g system , or l i t t l e ! { r e p o r t in g o f th e j u d i c i a l p r o c e d u r e s, in 1 9 5 7 , a P ik e 1 Theatre Club production o f The Rose T attoo in Dublin was j I | ; th e o b je ct o f lo c a l cen so rsh ip p ressu r es. The A ttorney G eneral d escrib ed the p lay as b ein g "lewd, in d e ce n t, o f f e n s iv e ," and ten d in g to "corrupt m inds, m o r a lity , and good 2 6 I b id . , A p r il 18, 1958, p. 8 . 2 7 I b id . , June 6 , 1958, p. 4 . o r d e r ” and an e s tim a te d 500 p e o p le surrounded th e f i f t y - ! i i f i v e s e a t t h e a t r e t o s e e th r e e d e t e c t i v e s announce t o th e i | 1 c a s t , which included the daughter o f a judge and was j [ i d ir e c t e d by th e son o f a Church o f Ir e la n d c le rg y m a n , j u s t i b e fo r e th e o p e n in g c u r t a in t h a t a l l a c to r s who ste p p e d on I i i |s t a g e would be a r r e s t e d . The p la y s t a r t e d im m ed ia te ly j a f t e r th e d e t e c t i v e s l e f t and , a lth o u g h th e y r e tu r n e d and j j t i i sto o d in th e b ack o f th e a u d ito r iu m d u rin g th e b u lk o f th e ! jp e rfo r m a n c e , th e p la y f i n i s h e d , th e c a s t to o k s i x c u r t a in I c a l l s , and no a r r e s ts were made.2 ® L ater, th e D ublin 1 D i s t r i c t C ourt d eterm in ed th a t th e r e was no e v id e n c e th a t i 29 j The Rose T attoo was obscene * and th a t, sin c e th ere were ! no p r e c e d e n t ia l d e c is io n s in I r i s h c o u r t s , E n g lis h Common ' iLaw and A m erican j u d i c i a l p r a c t ic e w ere exam in ed ; i t was ! th e o p in io n o f th e C ourt th a t no problem w ould have a r is e n ] I in th e s a l e o f th e p la y in book form o r in i t s p r o d u c tio n : I I ja s a f ilm and, t h e r e f o r e , no ju r y would or sh o u ld c o n v ic t j on ! th e producer o f the play o f obscene d is p la y .JU In a n o th er exam ple o f th e con d u ct o f o f f i c i a l | ________________________________________________________________________________________ | 2 ® The Times. May 2 5 , 1 9 5 7 , p. 6. i ! 2 9 I b id . , June 1 0 , 1 9 5 8 , p. 6 . ®^The M anchester G uardian. June 10. 1958, p. 4._ cen so rsh ip in B r ita in , th e E nglish Stage Company was r e - ! fused a lic e n s e to perform Samual B e c k e tt's End Game on th ej : i grounds a t h i r t y - l i n e p ra y er sc e n e was " b lasp h em ou s," j a lth o u g h a l i c e n s e was p r e v io u s ly g r a n te d fo r p r o d u c tio n o f! j th e same play in French b efo re the French Ambassador to j ! i j 0 1 I Great B r ita in . Enforcement o f the c o n d itio n s o f th e Lord I jC h a m b erla in 's l i c e n s e was i l l u s t r a t e d by th e f i n i n g o f f i v e I jo f th e s t a f f o f th e Theatre Workshop, in clu d in g Joan L it- | itle w o o d who p a id two p ou n d s, in a c i v i l c o u r t; a sc e n e in I f an o r i g i n a l p r o d u c tio n in w h ich a c h a r a c te r who look ed and I sp oke l i k e S ir W in ston C h u r c h ill was in v o lv e d w ith a r e s t - i lroom door had been d e le te d by th e cen sor as a c o n d itio n o f ! th e lic e n s e and r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f the Lord Chamberlain • a tte n d e d a p erform an ce and to o k n o te s d e s c r ib in g th e sc e n e 32 ;w h ich w ere l a t e r p r e se n te d in c o u r t. i The e x te n t o f the Lord C ham berlain's j u r is d ic t io n i was r e v e a le d in a 1961 a r t i c l e c o n c e r n in g th e d e l e t i o n o f some m a t e r ia l from an u n d erg ra d u a te p r o d u c tio n a t th e Empire T h ea tre a t K in g 's C o lle g e . An u n d erg ra d u a te r e p r e - ' s e n t a t i v e r e p o r te d th a t he had b een in s t r u c t e d n o t to i | j 1 31The T im es. F eb ru ary 1 0 , 1 9 5 8 , p. 3 . j 3 2 Ib id J . , A p r il 17, 1958, p . 6 . ______ ' r e v e a l th e c o n te n t o f th e d e le t e d m a t e r ia l b e c a u se th a t | ‘ i m ight " p r e ju d ic e fu tu r e show s"; The Tim es con ten d ed th a t j j th e c e n so r e d m a te r ia l con cern ed r e l a t io n s h ip s b etw een j ! s o c i a l c l a s s e s . ^ 1 ! | In a 1962 e d i t o r i a l in Drama, i t was r e p o r te d t h a t i ; j i th e c e n s o r was a llo w in g f a r more th a n p r e v io u s ly on s t a g e : i > f i v e p la y s d e a lin g w ith b r o t h e ls and p r o s t i t u t i o n w ere ir u n n in g in London a t th e same tim e . The e d it o r warned o f th e d an ger o f a llo w in g e x p l o i t a t i o n t o r e p la c e ex p o su re o f ’ s o c i a l i l l s in th e t h e a t r e . ^ Four y e a r s e a r l i e r , in 1 9 5 8 , i i The Tim es p r in te d an a r t i c l e w hich acknow ledged a need fo r an o f f i c i a l c e n so r b e c a u se th e s ta g e was d e t e r io r a t in g t o ! th e p o in t o f r e ly in g on sh o ck to h o ld i n t e r e s t . F ea rs w ere i a ls o e x p r e ss e d th a t th e s i t u a t i o n w ould d e t e r io r a t e fu r th e r i f th e f u n c t io n o f th e Lord C ham berlain was assumed by p o lice m en u n tr a in e d in c e n s o r s h i p .^ T h is a r t i c l e was n o t : p a r t o f a s e r i e s exam in in g th e c h a r a c te r o f th e c e n s o r s h ip i n s t i t u t i o n and c o n ta in e d no a n a ly s is o f th e p r o c e s s o f c e n s o r s h ip . C o n sid e r in g th e f a c t th a t th e "R eaders o f i ! „ _ . ___ • ^ I b id . . O ctober 1 7 , 1 9 61, p. 6 . ! ! ^ " H is House in O rd er," Drama. S p r in g , 1 9 6 2 , p. 1 7 .: i « ; The T im es. F eb ru ary 1 , 1 9 58, p. 7 . P la y s" o r "Exam iners o f P la y s" w ere c o m p a r a tiv e ly p o o r ly J p aid p u b lic o f f i c i a l s a p p o in te d t o o f f i c e on th e b a s i s o f o th e r th a n e s t a b lis h e d q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , th e c o n c e p t o f r e l y - j I , in g on u n tr a in e d p o lic e m e n , c i v i l c o u r t s , and th e p u b lic ! I ; i t s e l f w ould n o t appear t o be th e s t e p backward im p lie d in | j I !t h i s a r t i c l e . j i ! At th e b e g in n in g o f World War I I , th e governm ent j \ i r e fu s e d two o p p o r t u n it ie s t o expand i t s l i c e n s i n g pow ers i j in t h e a t r i c a l m a tte r s . In th e l e s s im p o rta n t o f th e tw o , 1 w * th e govern m en t, in a H ouse o f Lords d e b a te , em p hasized th e j !r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e l o c a l p o l i c e a u t h o r i t i e s to d e ter m in e when i t was s a f e fo r t h e a t r e s t o be o p en — th e n a t io n a l g o v - ernm ent o n ly e x e r te d d i r e c t c o n t r o l in m ajor t a r g e t a r e a s . ! In th e H ouse o f Commons, th e Home S e c r e ta r y was r e q u e s te d t o e x te n d th e a p p lic a t io n o f th e 1909 C inem atograph A ct t o j . ban nu des on th e B r it i s h s ta g e b u t th e S e c r e ta r y r e p lie d ! th a t nu des w ere more d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l on s ta g e th a n on I f ilm and t h a t th e cou n ty c o u n c ils had more power in t h i s j | I J r eg a r d , th ro u g h l i c e n s i n g th e p r e m is e s , th an d id th e Lord i C h am b erlain , and th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r in c r e a s in g th e | ! ! c o n t r o l, e s p e c i a l l y in r e g u la t in g th e " b o t t le p a r t ie s " ! ! i ; i j I 3 6 i b i d . . September 14, 1939, p. 4. which were d ir e c t ly r e la te d to the nudes, belonged to lo c a l i a u th o r it ie s . Local a u th o r itie s seemed r e lu c ta n t to ex e r-| j c i s e th e r e s p o n s i b ilit i e s s p e c if i c a lly d esign ated to them j j in t h e a t r ic a l m atters when a c tio n seemed to be in c o n f lic t ! I w ith a c tio n or in a c tio n on th e part o f th e n a tio n a l govern ment. There was no law to prevent a lo c a l a u th o rity from ch arging a producer w ith o b sce n ity but i t was very d i f f i c u lt to gain a c o n v ic tio n in a court o f law—on ly the Lord Chamberlain had th e power to condemn w ith ou t form al t r i a l . The lo c a l a u th o r itie s p o ssessed th e power to lic e n s e music h a lls an nu ally and to a tta c h whatever c o n d itio n s seen f i t to th a t license.*^® In most t h e a t r ic a l m a tters, however, i t seemed th a t the lo c a l a u th o r itie s p referred to depend upon i th e n a tio n a l government ra th er than to expend the energy | requ ired to d e fin e and defend in p u b lic i t s own c r it e r i a ! F l f \ ; o f decency and v a lu e to th e B r itis h p u b lic o f a given th e - ! a t r ic a l perform ance. | Recent p ressu res to in s t it u t e reform s in th e cen so r sh ip system included the esta b lish m en t o f a committee icomposed o f "prominent th e a tr e people" to study the problem 3 ^I b i d . . A p r il 5 , 1940, p. 4 . 3 8 Palm er, op. c i t ,. p. 35. i 3q and major a lt e r n a t iv e s . 7 This was not a governm ent- sponsored com m ittee charged w ith making recommendations I w it h in a s p e c i f i e d le n g th o f tim e b u t a v o lu n ta r y e f f o r t on ith e p a r t o f t h e a t r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o s tu d y th e p rob lem . i ;Late in 1 9 6 2 , a b i l l to make th e Lord C ham berlain's c e n so r - i |s h ip o p tio n a l was introduced in th e House o f Commons. This 1 I" o p tio n a l" f e a t u r e w ould p r o v id e th e de f a c t o p r o t e c t io n i some m anagers w anted w h ile l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s w ould h ave t o b e r e s p o n s ib le f o r th o s e who c h o s e n o t t o s e e k th e Lord C h a m b e r la in 's l i c e n s e . M r . D in g le F o o t, sp o n so r o f th e b i l l , argued t h a t th e " p r e s e n t system " had b e e n in o p e r a t i o n f o r 225 y e a r s , t h a t in 1948 a B r i t i s h T h e a tr e c o n f e r e n c e had p a sse d a r e s o l u t i o n by a v o t e o f 443 t o 7 t o a b o l i s h c e n s o r s h ip , and t h a t o th e r m ed ia , s p e c i f i c a l l y t e l e v i s i o n , d id n o t f a l l u n d er th e same r e g u la t i o n . The j : [ t ’ o p p o sitio n to the in tr o d u ctio n o f the b i l l was led by Mr. j jR ees-D avies who argued th a t t e le v is io n operated under s t r ic t i | J s e lf - r e g u la t in g co d es, th a t the Lord Chamberlain was both J im p a r tia l and operated a t no c o s t to th e governm ent, and i 1 ! t h a t th e " n a tio n n eed ed a l l th e p r o t e c t io n i t c o u ld g e t ^ The T im es. May 2 , 1958, p. 6 . ^ I b i d . . November 24 , 1962, p. 6 . 'a g a in s t o b s c e n it y and b r o t h e l- p la y s " o f t h a t tim e . The v o t e was 134 t o 77 a g a in s t th e b i l l . ^ The M an ch ester G uardian commented th a t th e b i l l was su re t o app ear a g a in b e c a u se th e q u a l it y o f th e o p p o s it io n t o i t : a l l o f th e i j i"Aunt Ednas" had r e a c te d to o v i o l e n t l y and had fo c u se d : i 'p u b lic a t t e n t io n on th e b i l l and on p r u d ish o p p o s it io n t o lit.42 i An u n h era ld ed c o n t r ib u t io n o f th e c e n s o r s h ip sy stem | t o th e t h e a t r e in G reat B r it a in was r e v e a le d in a 1955 i I a r t i c l e in The T im es. The o f f i c e o f th e Lord C ham berlain w a s, a t t h a t tim e , in p o s s e s s io n o f c o p ie s o f "about 5 0 ,0 0 0 j p la y s ," many o f w h ich had n e v e r b een p u b lis h e d . The c o l - I | l e c t i o n , r e p r e s e n t in g 120 y e a r s o f B r i t i s h w r it in g f o r th e ! t h e a t r e , was n o t in good o rd er b e c a u se a b a s ic f i l i n g s y s tem was n o t e s t a b lis h e d u n t i l 1 9 3 6 , but th e p o t e n t i a l v a lu e i o f t h i s c o l l e c t i o n t o t h e a t r e h i s t o r i a n s was r e a l iz e d and |p u b l i c l y a n n o u n c e d .^ The Sunday O bservance T r a d itio n In 1 9 5 3 , an im p o rta n t a r t i c l e appeared in The Tim es ^ The M anchester G uardian. December 6 , 1962, p. 2. 4 2 Ib id . , p. 2 0 . The T im es. May 3 , 1955, p. 14, in w h ich th e B r i t i s h C o u n c il o f C hurches a d v o ca ted r e v i s i o n o f th e Sunday O b servan ce A c ts o f 1625 and 1 7 8 0 /8 1 b e fo r e P a rlia m e n t became to o in v o lv e d in i s o l a t e d in s t a n c e s J L l Il i e f f e c t i v e l y t o c o n s id e r th e w e lfa r e o f th e n a t io n . i ! A c co r d in g t o a s t r i c t in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e Sunday O b serv- j ! an ce A c t, 1781, a l l p u b lic e n te r ta in m e n ts h e ld on Sunday t o jw hich th e p u b lic was a d m itted on payment w ere i l l e g a l . ^ 1 i sT his law had n e v e r b een r e p e a le d a lth o u g h i t was n o t e n - i fo r c e d in many in s t a n c e s as e v id e n c e d by th e w id esp rea d \ \ | a c t i v i t y on Sunday. Page w r o te , in 1 9 2 9 , t h a t th e volum e o f a c t i v i t y on Sunday fo r c e d th e l o c a l p r o s e c u to r s to I 1 { c r e a te t h e i r own law o f p r i o r i t i e s b e c a u se th e y c o u ld n o t i j a r r e s t e v e r y o n e .^ The p r iv a te t h e a t r e c lu b s w h ich o p e r - ;a te d on Sunday b e c a u se th e y p la y ed t o n on p ayin g "members" iw ere in v i o l a t i o n o f th e l i c e n s i n g c o n d it io n s fo r t h e a t r e s ! w h ic h , t e c h n i c a l l y , c o n ta in e d p r o v is io n s p r o h ib it in g t h e a - i 47 »t r e s from b e in g open on Sunday. S in c e t e l e v i s i o n and th e cin em a w ere n ot f o r e s e e n in th e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y , when th e Sunday O bservance A ct was e s t a b l i s h e d , i t was th e j i 4 4 “ ! I b i d ., January 19, 1 9 5 3 , p. 7 . ' ' 4 5 „ , ! P age, op . c i t . . p. 7 9 . 46 47 I b i d . , pp. 8 2 -8 3 . I b i d . , p. 81. ; ------- 256 r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f subsequent Parliam ents to r e d e fin e th e i term " th e a tr e " as t h e need a r o s e . In 1 9 0 9 , cin em as w ere a llo w e d t o open on Sunday i f a c o n t r ib u t io n was made t o " c h a r ity " and in 1 9 1 6 , th e London C ounty C o u n c il r u le d th a t !th e cin em as w ould h a v e t o in c r e a s e t h e i r c h a r it a b le c o n - j tr ib u tio n s to the e x te n t th a t London h o s p ita ls would r e - j A Q j c e iv e a t l e a s t t l 0 0 ,0 0 0 p er y e a r . In 1 9 3 0 , th e London (County C o u n c il, fa c e d w ith an in c o n s is t e n c y in th e la w s, j r u le d t h a t a l l Sunday p erform an ces w ere i l l e g a l and t h i s !seemed to in clu d e museums and g a lle r ie s as w e ll as th e a tr e s { and c in e m a s .^ In 1 9 3 2 , P a rlia m en t a ffir m e d th e d e f i n i t i o n I o f th e a tr e and passed a Sunday E ntertainm ents Act which allow ed cinemas to be open on Sunday as long as a payment was made to a c h a r ita b le t r u s t , and placed th e a tr e in a I : sep arate c a t e g o r y . I n th e lig h t o f th e s p e c ia l problems brought on by World War I I , both Houses o f Parliam ent I |approved the c it y o f M anchester's plan to open cinemas on Sunday in order to provide free entertainm ent fo r s e r v ic e men and the Manchester C ity C ouncil was au th orized to im pose what c o n d itio n s i t deemed n ecessa ry to the op eration ^®Harley G r a n v ille -B a r k e r , The S tu d y o f Drama (C am bridge: U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 3 4 ), p . 7 7 . ^I b i d . . p. 7 8 . __________50A . P. H e r b e r t. "No F in e on Fun" (London: M ethuen 'o f the p lan .*^ The fo llo w in g y e a r , th e government an- ! : i nounced in Parliam ent th e ex ten sio n o f t h is perm ission to j i 1 ' ! th e e n tir e n a tio n : D efense R egu lation 42B s p e c if i c a ll y j I I au th orized the lo c a l a u th o r itie s to open " th ea tres and ! I | !cinemas" to e n te r ta in servicem en on Sundays. An amendment to extend t h is to in clu d e war workers as w e ll as s e r v ic e - ! | men was rev ea led to be pending and included the fo llo w in g jp r o v isio n s: th e a tr e or cinema em ployees were to be assured jone d ay's r e s t in every seven , th e a tr e s would not be r e - iq uired to donate to a c h a r ity , a u th o r itie s in Scotland or C O j in co u n tie s opposing th e measure need not observe i t . * | C onsiderin g the h ig h ly v o c a l o p p o sitio n to Sunday th e a tr e , l i t t l e a c tio n probably r e su lte d from t h is t e n ta t iv e govern- I m ental plan because no p u b lic d is c u s s io n follow ed the announcement in P arliam ent. Almost two years la t e r , in : 1 January o f 1943, The Tim es r e p o r te d a w id e d i v i s i o n in th e | j I th e a tr e world over th e q u estio n o f th ea tre on Sunday, con- | ten d in g th a t the a g ita tio n fo r th e a tr e on Sunday was from | com m ercial q u a r ters, th a t arguments concerning the needs o f | ________________________________________________________________________________________ |a n d Company, L t d ., 1 9 5 7 ), p. 2 5 . | ! ! ^ T h e M anchester Guardian. November 7 , 1 9 4 0 . p. 2 . ! t ■ — 1 * • 1 ■ ...........* - ■ ■ ' ' I 1 ~^The T im es. February 21, 1941, p. 2. ! 258 j th e troop s were an e f f o r t to d iv e r t a tte n tio n , and th a t the! i Sunday th e a tr e clu b s (which had made a s ig n if ic a n t c o n tr i- j I l b u tion to B r itis h th e a tr e ) would be endangered by opening , 53 i I a l l th e a tr e s on Sunday. Ten years la t e r , in 1 9 5 3 , a i b i l l a llo w in g Sunday th e a tr e in England, but ex clu d in g I Scotland and Northern Irela n d , was presented in Parliam ent !and wide p ub lic d is c u s s io n fo llo w ed . The Times str e sse d !th e need fo r a f u l l exam ination o f th e problem and praised jthe sim ila r stand taken by th e C ouncil o f C h u r c h e s . A l though th e b i l l included a p ro v isio n fo r one d a y 's r e s t in I c c every seven for em ployees, fo r ty -e ig h t London a cto rs i (in c lu d in g Miss Peggy A sh croft) signed a p e t it io n which was sen t to a l l Members o f Parliam ent t e s t i f y i n g th a t they >wanted to sta y home on Sunday and not be forced to work in i th e in te r e s t o f some commercial management. ^ The b i l l was i -d efeated by a "wide margin" and a sep arate p rop osal th a t |th e government e s ta b lis h a commission to examine the prob- Ilem fa ile d by one v o te w hich, according to S ir Hugh Lucas- Tooth, U nder-Secretary o f S ta te for th e Home O ffic e and 33The T im es. January 1 3 , 1 9 4 3 , p . 5 . | 54I b id ,, January 2 0 , 1953, p. 7 . 55I b id . j 5 6 I b id . , January 2 9 , 1953, p. 3 . ...................... 259 le a d e r o f th e g o v ern m en ta l o p p o s it io n t o th e s u g g e s te d com m is s io n o f in q u ir y , was a m easure o f P a r lia m e n ta r y r e a c t io n t o th e com m ercial m anagem ents and had l i t t l e t o do w ith th e i" o b s o le t e s t a t u t e s . " * * 7 The Tim es c o n c lu d e d i t s d e s c r ip t io n ■ ' o f t h i s v o t e w ith th e sta te m e n t th a t th e governm ent and | \ | I P a rlia m e n t had " c le a r ly f a i l e d t o b e g in th e rem edy o f an ' u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s i t u a t i o n ." I i The A cknow ledged D anger o f G overnm ental C o n tr o l f The c r e s t o f th e tre n d tow ard g r e a t e r r e l i a n c e upon ig o v e r n m e n ta l s e r v i c e s w h ich c h a r a c t e r iz e d th e p e r io d o f and » j im m e d ia te ly f o llo w in g World War I I was marked by a s t a t e - | ment by Mr. E r n e st B e v in , M in is te r o f Labour and N a tio n a l i I S e r v ic e , in 1 9 4 3 . He in s t r u c t e d tr a d e u n io n s n o t t o s e e k | t h e i r prewar l e v e l o f in d ep en d en ce a f t e r th e war b e c a u se a : lo n g p e r io d o f n a t io n a l c o n t r o l was g o in g t o be r e q u ir e d . j j I j As an exam ple o f th e broad s o c i a l ch a n g es n e c e s s a r y , he j s t a t e d t h a t ea ch w eek 100, 000,000 m eals w ere b e in g se r v e d in v a r io u s communal fe e d in g sy stem s in G reat B r it a in and j t h a t th e 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 " e x p e r t cook s" in th e B r i t i s h Army a lo n e | ; ! , w ould need jo b s when th e war was o v e r - - a l l o f w h ich le d t o | | I 5 7 I b i d . . January 3 1 , 1953, p. 7. h i s c o n c lu s io n t h a t communal f e e d in g would " o f fe r v e r y g r e a t o p p o r t u n it ie s o f b e n e f i t to th e nation."**® T h is ex a m p le, a s extrem e a s i t seem s to d a y , was i n d ic a t iv e o f ; th e v a lu e s p o s s e s s e d by some h ig h g o v ern m en ta l o f f i c i a l s j i d u rin g and a f t e r th e w ar. I t was n o t u n t i l 1953, a f t e r t h e | ; I itr e n d tow ard d e n a t io n a liz a t io n o f in d u s tr y had b e e n e s t a b - i l i s h e d , t h a t th e A r ts C o u n c il p u b lish e d i t s c o n c e p ts o f an i ■ a c c e p ta b le r e l a t io n s h ip b etw een governm ent and th e p r a c t ic e o f th e a r t s . A t t e n t io n was d ir e c t e d t o th e d an ger o f r e - i d u cin g th e a r t s t o f i t an o f f i c i a l p a tte r n in a sta te m e n t i i t h a t th e r e was " l i t t l e s ig n o f su ch r e g im e n ta tio n in th e p u b lic ly su p p o rted a r t s o f G reat B r it a in . "**9 j n a n t i c ip a - j l t i o n o f th e comment t h a t to o much power was put in t o to o j i few hands th ro u g h g o v ern m en ta l s u p p o r t, th e r e p o r t contende< I th a t s e v e r a l hundred p e r so n s had p a r t ic ip a t e d in su p p o rt j d e c is io n s s in c e 1 946, th a t 115 w ere in v o lv e d in 1952 a lo n e , I and th a t t h i s m ight r e s u l t in a more c a t h o l i c program th a n w ould have o ccu rred in a sy stem o f p r iv a te patronage.**® The tw en ty members o f th e Drama P a n el w ere in a c o n s ta n t I ! s t a t e o f change w h ich a c te d t o en cou rage a w ide v a r ie t y | ® ® The M an ch ester G u ard ian . January 1 3 , 1 9 4 3 , p. 7 . ! •^ E ighth Annual R eport o f t h e A rts C o u n cil o f G r e a t! i B r it a in . 1952-3 (London; The Bavnard P r e ss. 1953^r p. 4 . b 0 I b id . . p. „ 6 _______________________________________________ > o f t a s t e s . In 1 9 5 6 , th e A r ts C o u n c il b o a ste d t h a t th e r e was j j "no s i n g l e in s ta n c e on reco rd o f a C h a n c e llo r o f th e Ex c h e q u e r r e q u ir in g or d i r e c t i n g , or e v en a d v is in g , th e A r ts ; i I * 1 'C o u n c il to do t h i s or n o t to do t h a t ." T h is same r e p o r t i C o n ta in e d th e a d m is s io n , h ow ever, t h a t th e g r a n t to th e ! jA r ts C o u n c il was n o t d eterm in ed as a " b lo ck g ra n t" b u t t h a t j !r e q u e s ts fo r fu n d s marked fo r su p p o rt t o s p e c i f i c com p anies i ■ w ere c o n s id e r e d by th e T r e a su r y — i f th e A r ts C o u n c il d e - I c id e d t o w ithd raw i t s a id t o C ovent G arden, fo r e x a m p le, i t w ould n o t be a b le t o u t i l i z e th e fu n d s th u s made a v a ila b le i fo r a n o th er p u r p o se . T h is d e s c r i p t io n o f th e p r e c is e ; r e l a t io n s h ip w h ich e x is t e d b etw een th e T rea su ry and th e iA r ts C o u n c il was fu r th e r clo u d ed by th e sta te m e n t th a t th e c l o s i n g o f th e A r ts C o u n c il's R e g io n a l O f f ic e s w ould r e s u l t j in s a v in g s w h ich w ould be a p p lie d t o su p p o rt program s o u t - j I 6 3 | s id e o f London. J In 1 9 6 1 , th e C h a n c e llo r o f th e Exchequer S elw en L lo y d , acknow ledged in P a rlia m en t th e problem c r e a ted by th e earm ark in g o f fu n d s fo r th e Old V ic and o th e r I | ^ E le v e n th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f I G reat B r i t a i n » 19 5 5 -6 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 6 ), I P • | 6 2 I b id . . p. 16. 6 3 I b i d . . p. 19. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2T62 t h e a t r e e f f o r t s w h ile a tte m p tin g t o m a in ta in th e freed om o f th e A r ts C o u n c il; th e recom m endations o f th e A r ts C o u n c il form ed th e b a s is o f th e T rea su ry p o l i c y and th e T rea su ry I a ttem p ted t o i n t e r f e r e w ith th a t body "as l i t t l e as p o s s i b l e . ! The g r e a t e s t d a n g er o f g o v ern m en ta l p a tro n a g e o f th e a r ts was s e e n t o be a c o n se q u en t d e t e r io r a t io n in th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e in d iv id u a l c i t i z e n t o r e c o g n iz e th e i " v a lu e o f th e a r t s t o a modern s o c ie t y " ; th e a r t s w ere i c r e a te d a s a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e p e o p le , n o t o f t h a t p e o p le 's p o l i t i c a l a d m in is t r a t io n .65 i i ! I i The E n te r ta in m e n ts D u ty: E f f e c t on C om m ercial T h ea tre The E n te r ta in m e n ts D uty was e s t a b l i s h e d in 1916 in : an e f f o r t t o in c r e a s e rev en u e and , as i t was e x p r e s s e d in j t h a t P a rlia m e n t , b e c a u se "some r e s t r a i n t sh o u ld be p la c e d I on th e e x p e n d itu r e o f money on am usem ents o f t h i s k in d d u r in g a tim e o f w a r. "66 The ta x was on th e e n t i r e " ta k in g s" | 6^The T im es, March 2 9 , 1 9 6 1 , p. 4 . 6 c S ix t e e n t h A nnual R eport o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f I G reat B r it a i n . 1 9 6 0 -6 1 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 ), i I p. 8 . < i i j | j ^ H e r b e r t , op. c i t . . p. 11. ' o f th e e n te r ta in m e n t, in c lu d in g th e s a l e o f programs and j ; r e fr e s h m e n ts , as w e l l a s on a d m is s io n s and i t was t o be p aid r e g a r d le s s o f th e p r o f i t o r l o s s in c u r r e d by th e p r o - 67 ; d u c e r . Where t h e r e w ere no t u r n s t i l e s t o r e c o r d th e num- i b e r o f a d m iss io n s p u r c h a se d , t h e C om m ission ers o f Custom s | and E x c is e p r o v id e d r o l l s o f "governm ent t i c k e t s " i f th e j | p rod u cer d id n o t c a r e t o p r o v id e them h i m s e l f - - a l l t i c k e t s ! had t o b ea r a governm ent stam p. A s u c c e s s io n o f C h a n c e llo r s o f th e E xchequer pledgee | ' t o r ed u c e o r a b o lis h th e ta x w h en ever th e governm ent c o u ld jd o w ith o u t t h e r e v e n u e : N e v i l l e C h a m b erla in , in 1 9 3 4 , s a id i j t h a t th e ta x " in i t s p r e s e n t form " was " u n s a t is f a c t o r y , ! b o th t h e o r e t i c a l l y and p r a c t i c a l l y ";**9 John Sim on, in 1 9 3 8 , ! ag reed th a t " t h is t a x ou gh t n o t t o b e a llo w e d a u t o m a t ic a lly t o c o n tin u e w ith o u t v e r y s e r io u s e x a m in a tio n " ;7® K in g s le y [ j Wood, in 1 9 4 0 , s t a t e d t h a t i t w as a " m atter o f r e g r e t t h a t | i 't h e t h e a t r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y , sh o u ld be a f f e c t e d in t h i s 71 way"; Dr. D a lto n , in 1 9 4 7 , a llo w e d t h a t " i f i t w ere an * * 7P a g e, op . c i t . . p. 2 2 . 6 ® H erbert, o p . c i t . . p. 2 1 . • i I 69I b i d . . p. 11. 7® I b id ., p. 12. j 7 1 I b i d . ! e a s ie r tim e” and p o s s ib le to reduce ta x es "the liv in g th e a tre would stand high on th e l i s t " ; 72 and Harold Macmil- ' la n , in 1 9 5 6 , h o p es " th a t t h i s w ould be th e l a s t o c c a s io n :on which i t would be n ecessa ry . . . fo r Treasury M in isters : ! i i !t o d efen d th e ta x upon th e l i v i n g t h e a t r e , o r in d eed th e j j i ^ 73 i !Entertainm ents Duty in i t s p resen t form." The a p p lic a - j | jtio n o f th e ta x to th e a tr e was a b o lish ed in 19 5 7 . These I i : i * i * statem en ts by government M in isters were p u b lic acknowledg- i im ent o f th e f a c t th a t th e t a x was i n t e r f e r i n g w ith th e |B r i t i s h t h e a t r e . Evidence o f the d e c lin e in th e a tr e was presented i j i in a memorandum to Members o f Parliam ent in 1956 as part j o f the e f f o r t to a b o lish the ta x and included a l i s t o f i I ; e ig h t y p r o v i n c ia l t h e a t r e s w h ich had r e c e n t l y c lo s e d and 1 l i s t s o f t o u r in g com p anies sh ow ing a t w e n t y - f iv e per c e n t j ! 7 a t d e c r e a s e in th e t o t a l number in a p e r io d o f th r e e y e a r s . - i i I The r a t e o f th e ta x v a r ie d as th e g o v e rn m e n t's need fo r rev e n u e v a r ie d , r a n g in g from n in e per c e n t o f th e t i c k e t c o s t in 1 9 1 6 , fo r ty -tw o per c e n t d u rin g World War I I , t o ! f i f t e e n per c e n t in 1 9 5 6 .73 | j | 72I b id . 73I b i d . . p. 13. 7 4 I b i d . , p. 138. 7 5 I b i d . . p. 27. H erb ert opposed argum ents t h a t a r e d u c tio n in th e ta x w ould m erely p r o v id e g r e a te r p r o f i t s fo r th e t h e a t r e ow ners on two c o u n t s : th e e x is t e n c e o f one poor s t a t e o f a f f a i r s was no j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e r e t e n t i o n o f a n o th er i 'and in c r e a s in g t a x e s and c o s t s , p a r t o f th e t h e a t r e o w n er's j r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , w ere c r e a t in g i n s t a b i l i t y in th a t b u s i - j n e s s . 7* * A d m ittin g t h a t th e r e w ere r e a s o n s in a d d it io n t o i the ta x which co n trib u ted to d e c lin in g th e a tr e b u sin e ss, I I ' H erb ert c i t e d th e r e c o r d s o f n in e t h e a t r e s s c a t t e r e d jth r o u g h o u t G reat B r it a in d u rin g th e 1 9 5 4 -5 5 s e a so n t o i l - i lu s tr a te th e punishing e f f e c t o f th e ta x . In seven o f the nine th e a tr e s , th e amount paid in Entertainm ents Duty I ex ceed ed th e l o s s in c u r r e d , w h ile , o f th e two r e m a in in g , i I one made a p r o fit and the other su ffered lo s s e s g re a te r than the amount paid in t a x .77 To cou n teract su sp ic io n ! th a t he had s e le c te d th e a tr e s which would serve to i l l u s - j tr a te h is argument, Herbert determ ined th a t o f th e f i f t y - four new productions in the B r itis h commercial th e a tre in j 11 9 5 5 , f o r t y - f i v e ( e ig h t y - t h r e e per c e n t ) f a i l e d t o 7 6 I b i d . , pp. 193-194. 7 7 I b id . . p. 140. - 266, • 7 0 j r e c o v e r t h e i r p r o d u c tio n c o s t s . ° I i P rop on en ts o f th e E n te r ta in m e n ts D uty w ere le d by Mr. Benn L evy, p la y w r ig h t, chairm an o f th e Drama P a n el, and j Member o f P a r lia m e n t. He argued t h a t th e ta x was v o lu n - I I ; t a r y , th a t th e p rom ise o f an ex em p tion en cou raged p ro d u cers t o put a g r e a t e r v a r ie t y o f p la y s on s t a g e - - r e s p e c t a b l e | p la y s w ere s u b s id iz e d w ith o u t th e need f o r a c e n so r and j th e r e was an " in c e n t iv e t o c o n se r v e a l l fu n d s f o r th e t h e - ' 79 ! a tr e " (n o way t o a p p r o p r ia te them f o r p e r s o n a l u s e ) . 7 I S in c e 1 9 4 7 , com m ercial p ro d u cers had b een c o m p la in in g th a t i th e y had b een p la c in g t h e i r p r o f i t s b ack in t o th e b u s in e s s i | and th a t t h i s ta x d is c r im in a te d a g a in s t them b e c a u se th e y | worked f o r a p r o f i t . C h a r le s B. C ochran com p lain ed t h a t i a f t e r o v e r o n e - h a lf o f a c e n tu r y o f d e v o tio n t o t h e a t r e , he j ; was s u b je c te d t o a ta x w h ich im p lie d th a t he was n o t t o be ; tr u s te d and th e exem p tion from w h ich w ould p e n a liz e him fo r i o n I s u c c e s s by p la c in g a l i m i t on h i s e a r n in g pow er. C och ran d is a g r e e d w ith L e v y 's c o n te n t io n t h a t th e unem ploym ent problem c o n c e r n in g many " v a lu a b le t h e a t r e p e o p le " c o u ld be i -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------- ------- ------------------- 78I b i d . , p. 141. ; 79The T iroes. May 1 9 , 1950, p. 5 . 8 ^I b i d . , November 5 , 1947, p. 5. is o lv e d fo r th e good o f t h e a t r e i f a l l p r o f i t s w ere plowed j \ i back in t o th e t h e a t r e and i f ev ery o n e to o k a s a la r y by j o b s e r v in g th a t th e unem ploym ent may have b een th e r e s u l t j | o f " th e r e b e in g no p r o f i t s t o plow b ack from p r e c e d in g s I Q 1 !p r o d u c t io n s ." Levy argued th a t c a p i t a l would be a v a i l - ] | Q O j a b le and th a t i t w ould ea rn th e same i n t e r e s t 0' 1 as would iany o th e r b u s in e s s in v e s tm e n t—h e was n o t a b le t o c i t e | | | iexam p les in su p p ort o f t h i s , and th e r i s k in v o lv e d t o th e i I in v e s t o r was n o t o f f s e t by p o t e n t i a l p r o f i t s . Levy a d m it- i te d t h a t t h e a t r e owed a g r e a t d e a l t o men o f C och ran ’ s i i ;c a l i b e r b u t con ten d ed th a t s in c e Cochran r e in v e s t e d h i s |p r o f i t s anyw ay, th e law m aking t h a t p r a c tic e m andatory jwould n o t a f f e c t him but w ould k eep th e p r o f i t e e r s o u t. ! In 1 9 50, G ile s P la y f a ir r e c o u n te d th e p o lic y o f th e L y r ic T h e a tr e , Hammersmith, w h ich was o p e r a te d on a n on - j p r o f i t b a s i s from 1918 t o 1932 w ith N ig e l P la y f a ir s e r v in g a s a s a la r ie d d i r e c t o r . He t e s t i f i e d t h a t i t w ould have b een i n s u l t i n g to su ch a management t o p r e se n t "p opu lar r u b b ish " once in a w h ile t o reco u p l o s s e s - - a p r a c t ic e *^I b i d . . December 5 , 1947, p. 5 . I j 82I b i d . . May 2 2 , 1 9 5 0 , p. 5 . i I i i 88I b i d . , November 2 9 , 1 947, p. 5 . j 268 |advocated by L ev y .8^ The n o n p ro fit fin a n c ia l s ta tu s o f a J [company was seen by G ile s P la y fa ir as b ein g no guarantee o f q u a lity in th e a tr e . Herbert dem onstrated th a t th e m ainte n an ce o f the tax-exem ption system did not r e s u lt in lower t (p rice s a t the b o x -o ffic e when he compared the f if t e e n s h i l lin g c o s t o f a t ic k e t to a n o n p ro fit and "p artly educa tio n a l" production in v o lv in g a sm all c a st and on ly one s e t i |w ith th e fou rteen s h illi n g sixp en ce c o st o f a t ic k e t to a icom m ercial th e a tr e next d o o r--cla im in g th a t f if t e e n s h i l - j ;lin g s tenpence was the top p rice fo r a most la v is h commer- I i c i a l m u sica l--o u t o f which two s h illi n g s tenpence was paid in Entertainm ents Duty. In t h is in sta n c e , the n o n p ro fit th e a tr e was r e c e iv in g th ree s h illi n g s tenpence more per 1 se a t so ld than was the commercial com p etition and, to top j i t o f f , the n o n p ro fit t ic k e t was stamped " f if te e n s h illi n g s 'in c lu d in g ta x ." Herbert concluded th a t "something queer j Q C [was goin g on." 8 4 I b id . . May 2 5 , 1950, p. 9 . 8 5 I b id . . June 24 , 1950, p. 5. f ....... 269 i ! The Entertainm ents Duty: C reation o f ; a S in g le Theatre Agency In 1 9 5 6 , Mr. D in g le F o o t, r e p r e s e n t in g th e T hea- i t r e s E n te r ta in m en ts Tax C om m ittee, o b serv ed th a t some p a s - is a g e s in th e A r ts C o u n c il's f i r s t an n u al r e p o r t s u g g e s te d I i f I it h a t t h e a t r e o u t s id e o f th e A r ts C o u n c il's p r o t e c t io n and i I 86 j jta x exem p tion was unw orthy o f en cou ragem en t. W. E. j i ! |W illia m s , S e c r e ta r y - g e n e r a l o f th e A r ts C o u n c il, r e p lie d j t h a t a d i s t i n c t i o n had t o be drawn b etw een " a rt and e n t e r - i j ta in m en t" and fu r th e r " p r o t e c t iv e t a r i f f fo r s e r io u s drama" |m ig h t be n e c e ssa r y .® ^ When c o n fr o n te d w ith th e f a c t th a t i th e A r ts C o u n c il's c h a r te r ch arged i t w ith c o o p e r a tin g w ith " o th e r b o d ie s" and th a t n o n p r o fit or ta x -ex e m p t r e s t r i c - j |t io n s were not s p e c ifie d , W illiam s w rote: I I t i s our b u s in e s s . . . t o lo o k a f t e r our own ; c h ic k s w h ic h , in t h i s c a s e , a r e th e n o n - p r o f it r e p e r to r y theatres. . . . P a rlia m e n t h a s a c c e p te d th e p r in c ip le o f p r o t e c t in g n o n - p r o f i t - d i s t r i b u t - j in g com p anies and i t i s w ith t h e s e th a t th e A r ts j C o u n c il i s c o n c er n e d . W e a r e , in t h a t s e n s e , a v e s t e d i n t e r e s t . . . . I f E n terta in m en t Tax w ere j c a n c e l le d , o r , ev en r e d u c e d , th e n o n - p r o f it com- | p a n ie s w ould s u f f e r f i n a n c i a l l y . . . .88 JIn a n o th er l e t t e r t o p r in c ip a ls in th e ta x a b o l i t io n ! t — ■» ■■■■■■■ I ■■■................................... i — — i^— — —— — — — ■— — — — ^ — 1 I I i j ^ H e r b e r t , op . c i t . . p. 116. 8 7 I b i d . , p. 117 8 8 I b i d . , p. 118. !c o n tr o v e r s y , W illia m s w r o te th a t th e "im m ediate co n seq u en ce i i Iwould be th e c lo s u r e o f many o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n s " a s s i s t e d j o n I by th e A r ts C o u n c il. Two f i n a n c i a l ch an ges w h ich c o u ld j ; | r e s u l t from an a b o l i t i o n o f th e ta x w ere an in c r e a s e in I { r o y a lty paym ents t o p la y w r ig h ts and an in c r e a s e in r e n ts fo r t h e a t r e s —n e it h e r o f w h ich was i n e v it a b le and co u ld n o t be n e g o t ia t e d t o keep a g iv e n company or c l a s s o f com panies ;in e x i s t e n c e . T h ese arran gem en ts w h ich th e n o n p r o fit com- Ip a n ie s en jo y ed w ere n o t th e r e s u l t o f l e g i s l a t i o n or agen cy I i i r e g u la t io n , b u t th e r e s u l t o f n e g o t i a t io n b etw een th e p a r - ! qn i t i e s in v o lv e d . u l i j The E n te r ta in m e n ts D uty had b een c r e a te d as a J so u rce o f r e v e n u e , and, w h ile i t f u l f i l l e d t h i s p u r p o se , i t i !c o u ld a ls o b e m a n ip u la ted t o " p r o te c t," a s w ould a t a r i f f , i i 'a s e l e c t e d group o f t h e a t r e s . In 1943, S ir I r v in g A lb e r y I . i p r o p h e s ie d , when exam in in g th e n o n p r o fit a b u s e s , " I f th e t j m a tte r i s a llo w e d t o go to o fa r a lo n g p r e se n t l i n e s we I s h a l l g e t an am ateur d ic t a t o r s h ip ru n n in g th e drama o f th e c o u n tr y , and th a t i s m ost u n d e s ir a b le ." 9 ^ * H erb ert ch arged |t h a t th e A r ts C o u n c il was in t e r e s t e d in power a s w e l l as ' i s_________________________________________________________________________ t j j I 89I b id . . p. 119 90I b i d . , p. 125. | ! 9 1 I b i d . , p. 127. j !a r t and w ould l i k e t o s e e a l l t h e a t r e d r iv e n in t o t h e i r | | ‘ go I idom ain by a p u n it iv e t a x . He argued t h a t s in c e f i n a n c i a l i i f a i l u r e s f o r th e ta x -ex e m p t t h e a t r e s w ere n o t i n e v i t a b l e i f I !th e ta x w ere a b o lis h e d , th e f o llo w in g c o n c lu s io n c o n c e r n in g i j j th e p o lic y o f th e A r ts C o u n c il and th e T rea su ry m ust be ! i i drawn: ! . . . i f th e y lo s e th e t h e a t r e t a x , th e y l o s e power a s w e l l , th e power o f l o f t y p a tr o n a g e - -and j c e n s o r s h ip - - b y t a x ex em p tio n under th e Z o o -c la tx se . . . . They a r e s o r r y th e t a x was h a lv e d in 1 9 4 8 , i was n o t l e f t a t th e peak l e v e l o f 1943. T hen, one I by o n e , th e "com m ercial" f e llo w s c o u ld h ave b e e n c o m p e lle d , or w elcom ed , in t o th e " n o n -p r o fit" pen -- p r o v id e d , o f c o u r s e , t h a t th e y produced none b u t I " s e r io u s " p la y s — a T rea su ry Empire o f E n t e r t a in m ent, e x c lu d in g o n ly low " m u sica l comedy and v a r - : i e t y . " . . . I f t h e ta x g o e s th o s e o r g a n iz a t io n s j need be no w orse o f f , a s we have s e e n . But th e j T rea su ry and th e Custom s w i l l l o s e power t o c h o o se ! th e sh ee p and th e g o a t s , t o d e ter m in e who s h a l l be j ta x e d and who s h a l l go f r e e , t o work what th e A r ts C o u n c il r a s h ly d e s c r ib e s a s "a p r o t e c t iv e t a r i f f . j I | A f t e r more th an tw e n ty y e a r s o f o p p o sin g th e E n te r ta in m en ts , i i I | D u ty in and ou t o f P a r lia m e n t, H erb ert p u b lish e d an a cco u n t o f th e s t r u g g l e , lfNo F in e on F un." and , perhaps c o i n c i d e n t a l l y , fo u r w eeks a f t e r i t s r e l e a s e , th e T rea su ry an nounced in P a rlia m en t th e a b o l i t i o n o f t h i s ta x on t h e a t r e . i In 1 9 62, a n o th er ta x problem was c r e a te d when th e 9 2 I b id . 9 3 I b i d . , p. 175. F in a n ce A ct f o r th a t y e a r in c lu d e d th e a p p lic a t io n o f a j . I : i p u rch ase ta x on th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f t h e a t r i c a l co stu m es i f more th an L500 per y e a r was sp e n t fo r t h a t p u rp ose by any Q A • t h e a t r i c a l company. The sm a ll r e p e r t o r ie s w ere n ot c o n c ern ed b e c a u se th e y c o u ld n o t a ffo r d to b u d get th a t amount if o r costum e c o n s t r u c t io n b u t th e m ajor London i n s t i t u t i o n s , ! i I I | |p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e su p p o rted by A r ts C o u n c il g r a n t s , w ere } j I ta x e d . In e f f e c t , th e T rea su ry was ta x in g p a rt o f i t s ;g r a n t t o th e A r ts C o u n c il, w h ic h , in tu r n , low ered th e I v a lu e o f th a t g r a n t and c r e a te d p r e s s u r e s t o in c r e a s e i t - - . an u n eco n o m ica l method o f r a i s i n g r e v e n u e . ! The A r ts C o u n c il's E f f o r t s I t o D e v elo p an A u d ien ce j The A r ts C o u n c il's e f f o r t s t o d e v e lo p an a u d ien ce 1 f o r a grow in g B r i t i s h th e a t r e in v o lv e d a p p r o v a l o f new i t h e a t r e h ou rs in London, sm a ll b u r s a r ie s t o new p la y w r ig h ts, i i |g u a r a n te e s a g a in s t l o s s f o r p rem iers o f s e l e c t e d p la y s , and [encou ragem en t o f th e m ain ten an ce o f p r o d u c tio n a p p r e n tic e s h ip s by s e l e c t e d t h e a t r e s . In 1954, th e London t h e a t r e s w ere opened e a r l i e r t o en cou rage g r e a te r a tte n d a n c e from ' I QA JHE ig h te en th Annual Report o f th e A rts C o u n cil o f Great B r it a in . 1962-3 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 ), p. 1 2 . jth e s u b u r b s --a u d ie n c e s c o u ld r e t u r n t o th e su b u rb s a t a [ : 95 j r e a s o n a b le hour d u r in g th e w eek. P r i e s t l y o b se r v e d th a t I th e a u d ie n c e had becom e l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e d b e c a u se o f t h i s i i n f l u x o f th e suburban e le m e n t and t h e o r iz e d t h a t th e lo w - i j ! j e r in g o f sta n d a r d s m igh t h a v e a c c o u n te d fo r th e lo n g ru n s j e n jo y e d by " so much n o n se n se" w h ich c o m p elled th e s e r io u s Q6 w ork t o be perform ed in th e s m a lle r t h e a t r e s . I n a d d i- i j t i o n , th e lo n g ru n s a c te d t o l i m i t th e c h o ic e o f p la y s a v a i l a b l e a t any g iv e n tim e on th e London s t a g e . Two w id e ly s e p a r a te d e le m e n ts e x is t e d in th e "new" ! p o stw a r a u d ie n c e : th e p e o p le from th e su b u r b s, new t o th e | glam our o f London t h e a t r e , who demanded to s e e th e s t a r s | in la v is h p r o d u c tio n s and th e more s e r io u s p e o p le a c c u s - i tom ed to th e p r e s e n t a t io n o f s tr o n g d ra m a tic f a r e who wanted t o s e e in th e t h e a t r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e i r l i v e s . A c to r s j ; had b een tr a in e d by w artim e p r o d u c tio n s o f th e c l a s s i c s and j 9 7 j s o had t h i s seco n d e le m e n t in th e a u d ie n c e . T here seem ed ! i j t o be to o few t h e a t r e s t o c a t e r t o t h e s e d iv e r g e n t t a s t e s j 95 The T im es. F eb ru ary 2 7 , 1 954, p. 7. ■ 96 ! J . B. P r i e s t l y , T h ea tr e O u tlook (L ondon: N ic h o l- I so n and W atson, 1 9 4 7 ), p. 4 1 . j | 97 1 j The T im es, March 14, 1953, p. 7. j j I s im u lta n e o u s ly . The A r ts C o u n c il i n i t i a t e d a program o f j ; i o f f e r i n g sm a ll b u r s a r ie s , p r i z e s , and g u a r a n te e s a g a in s t !l o s s t o th e s m a lle r t h e a t r e s w i l l i n g t o e x p erim en t w ith new p la y s and p la y w r ig h ts fo r th e " s e r io u s 1 1 a u d ie n c e . The m ost; j i i s u c c e s s f u l o f t h e s e was th e E n g lis h S ta g e Company w h ich ! j perform ed under th e d i r e c t io n o f G eorge D ev in a t th e R o y a l C ourt T h ea tre in S lo a n e S q u are. In th e f i r s t fo u r y e a r s o f I I i t s o p e r a tio n , 1 9 5 6 -1 9 6 0 , t h i s company s ta g e d t h i r t y - e i g h t jw orld p r e m ie r s , tw en ty o f w h ich w ere th e f i r s t e f f o r t s o f |new p l a y w r i g h t s . 9 8 D ev in e d e v e lo p e d what h e term ed a | " p y lo n system " t o fin a n c e t h i s a c t i v i t y : a p o p u la r p la y w ith m ajor p e r s o n a l i t i e s was p r e se n te d t o packed h o u se s fo r s i x w eek s and th e p r o f i t s w ere a p p lie d t o a su b seq u e n t s e r i e s J i o f e x p e r im e n ta l v e n t u r e s. ^ The A r ts C o u n c il a ls o o f f e r e d fclOO b u r s a r ie s and j p r iz e s t o p ro m isin g p la y w r ig h ts o r s e l e c t e d p la y s perform ed I by th e r e p e r t o r ie s a s a means o f e n c o u r a g in g a f r e s h e x - : ■ ! 1 p r e s s io n in th e p r o v in c e s . L im ited fu n d s w ere a l s o made a v a ila b le t o c e r t a i n r e p e r t o r ie s p o s s e s s in g s u p e r io r 9 8 o s s ia T r i l l i n g , "The Young B r i t i s h Dram a," j Modern Drama. Sep tem b er, 1 9 60, p. 170. 9 % . A. A rm strong, " T r a d itio n and I n n o v a tio n in th e ; , London Thea t r e , " M odem Drama. S ep tem b er, 1 9 6 1 , p . 184._____ te c h n ic a l f a c i l i t i e s fo r th e h ir in g o f a d esig n a p p ren tice i ■ [who would c o n tr ib u te to th e production e f f o r t w h ile g a in in g ex p er ien ce . j The developm ent o f th e T heatre Workshop under Joan I t L ittlew ood to a p o s itio n o f p r e s tig e in B r itis h th e a tr e |was accompanied by a p u b lic co n tro v ersy over th e A rts I [C o u n cil’ s p o lic y o f g ra n tin g a i d - - s p e c i f i c a l l y , th e A rts jC ouncil was accused o f w ith h o ld in g support because i t d is - i approved o f th e "modern” p la y s produced by t h is o rg a n iza - ! | t io n . The Times pub lish ed Joan L ittle w o o d 's account o f th e I ' t t [T h e a tr e W orkshop's grow th from i t s fo r m a tio n in 1945 o u t o f i i j th e rem ains o f th e Theatre Union (d escrib e d by The Man- j C hester Guardian as b ein g th e "most b r i l l i a n t exp erim en tal i [ th e a tr e in th e country") through th e lea n years when mem- 1 b ers paid exp en ses out o f t h e ir own p ockets to acclaim in | 1955 when French c r i t i c s in v ite d th e T heatre Workshop to I i th e P a ris F e s t iv a l as th e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e from Great B r ita in i and p ra ised ev ery th in g to which th e A rts C ouncil had objected. According to H iss L ittle w o o d , th e A rts i \ j - _ S ix t e e n t h A nnual R ep o rt o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n . 1 9 6 0 -1 . o p . c i t . . p . 2 4 . 101The T im es. J u ly 1, 1958, p. 11. : t% \ \ C o u n c il had r e fu s e d t o a id th e T h ea tre W orkshop b e c a u se ! I I i t s p o l i c y was " im p r a c tic a l" and l a t e r in c lu d e d o b j e c t io n j t o th e method o f w ork , s o c i a l a t t i t u d e , and s t y l e o f p r o - ; i d u c tio n . L ittle w o o d was t o ld t o o b se r v e th e m ethods ! em ployed by th e Old V ic and th a t th e a u d ie n c e s t o w h ich h e r I ! company a p p ea led d id n o t w ant "good" t h e a t r e . The F e s t i v a l |s u c c e s s was fo llo w e d by an A r ts C o u n c il g r a n t o f B500 w h ich i was o f f e r e d a g a in f o r th e 195 6 -5 7 s e a so n on th e c o n d it io n ! t h a t th e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s c o n tr ib u te B l,0 0 0 . The A r ts i | C o u n c il ann oun ced, a f t e r th e s e a so n had s t a r t e d , th a t no i | a id w ould be fo rth co m in g i f th e T h ea tr e Workshop rem ained | a t i t s E a st London l o c a t i o n and o f f e r e d two a l t e r n a t i v e s : j to u r m in in g v i l l a g e s or w ork w it h a "young prot^ g^ o f th e I A r ts C o u n cil" who was " b ein g a s s i s t e d in h i s e f f o r t s t o | form a t h e a t r e in L e ic e s t e r ." L ittle w o o d co n clu d ed th e I a r t i c l e w ith a sta te m e n t o f th e A r ts C o u n c il a id t o th e T h ea tre Workshop in i t s t h i r t e e n y e a r s o f o p e r a tio n (B 2 ,4 5 0 in c lu d in g a fclOO b u r sa r y t o S h ela g h D e la n y ) and o f im p o rta n t p r o d u c tio n s t a t i s t i c s : s o ld an a v e ra g e o f t h i r t y - ! se v e n and o n e - h a lf p er c e n t o f s e a t in g c a p a c it y fo r a 3 t h i r t y week se a so n and r e q u ir e d a su b s id y o f se v e n and o n e-! I h a l f cen ts* ( B r it i s h ) per h e a d , w h ich was l e s s th a n th a t j g r a n te d t o o th e r-c o m p a n i.e s,— T h e ^ o f f i c ia l - r e a c t i o n t o t h i s a r t i c l e c o n ta in e d two p a r ts : f i r s t , th e A r ts C o u n c il claim ed i j ' i t h a t L 2 ,6 0 0 had b een g ra n ted t o th e T h ea tre Workshop o v e r a; i p e r io d o f fo u r y e a r s and , se c o n d , th e A r ts C o u n c il was w i l l i n g t o a id th e company i f th e a tte n d a n c e r a t e c o u ld be | i m p r o v e d . The Tim es p u b lish e d an a r t i c l e w h ich su g - j ; i j j g e s te d th a t s in c e L it t le w o o d 's jo b was t o p r e s e n t good i !t h e a t r e and n o t t o k eep a s p e c i f i c b u ild in g op en , sh e w ould i I I p r o fit by a move to West London because th e bulk o f her i !a u d ien ce was t h e r e . ^^3 i n a n o th er a r t i c l e , i t was su g - | ig e s te d th a t two o f th e T h ea tre W orkshop's p r o d u c tio n s , I iD elanv's A T aste o f Honey and G reen's Unto Such G lory, t m igh t do w e l l on com m ercial t e l e v i s i o n and t h a t su p p ort j m ight come from th a t d i r e c t i o n ." * * ® 4 L it t le w o o d 's r e p ly c o n s i s t e d o f a sta te m e n t t h a t th e A r ts C o u n c il d id n o t a g r ee w ith th e need fo r a p e o p le 's t h e a t r e . In A u gust o f i 1 9 5 8 , as a p o s i t i v e r e a c t io n t o th e A r ts C o u n c il's announced |i n t e n t i o n to end su p p o rt t o th e T h ea tre Workshop b e c a u se o f la c k o f p u b lic s u p p o r t, e le v e n l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s met t o 102, ‘i b i d . , J u ly 3 , 1 9 5 8 , p. 11 'The Times. J u ly 2 , 1958, p. 11. 103. 1 0 4 I b id . 1 0 5 I b i d . . J u ly 5 , 1958, p. 7. 278' 106 c o n s id e r m ethods o f r a i s i n g th e n e c e s s a r y fu n d s. u The |A r ts C o u n c il g r a n ted th e fc l,0 0 0 t o th e T h ea tre W orkshop I when n in e o f t h e s e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s in c r e a s e d t h e i r g r a n t ; I t o th e company from t9 6 2 t o 1 1 ,4 5 0 f o r th e 1958-59 s e a s o n . i I T h is a c t io n was ta k e n in Novem ber, a f t e r th e se a so n had a lr e a d y s t a r t e d b u t th e T h ea tre W orkshop w eath ered th e d e la y on th e s tr e n g th o f f i v e fclOO g i f t s w h ich w ere r e - jceived in resp onse to a p u b lic appeal by Graham Green, I ]published in The Tim es, and had alread y opened w ith a i 1 jproduction o f Brendan Behan's The H ostage when th e A rts 107 C ouncil announced i t s d e c is io n . ' i | j This was not th e f i r s t in sta n ce in which th e gov- j ernment delayed a grant u n t il a fte r th e period fo r which i 1 | th e g r a n t was made had s t a r t e d . In 1 9 5 5 , th e S a lis b u r y Arts ■ T h ea tre Company was w ork in g in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e P la y h ou se M a n ch ester, L t d ., and had r e c e iv e d a t w e n t y - s ix week minimum g u a r a n te e from th e p la y h o u se . Customs and E x c is e approved th e s c h e d u le su b m itted f o r th e f i r s t te n w eek s o f p r o d u c tio n and g ra n ted an exem p tion from th e E n te r ta in m en ts D u ty. The exem p tion and th e g u a ra n teed minimum w ere i i 106I b i d . . A ugust 2 8 , 1958, p . 3 . j • ^ I b id . . November 8 , 1958, p. 3. I i | i i i \ I 'th ou gh t t o b e s u f f i c i e n t t o su p p o rt th e p r o je c t a t l e a s t fori | I !the f i r s t s i x m onths o f o p e r a tio n . The s c h e d u le f o r th e ! I i I secon d te n w eeks was su b m itted and work p roceed ed in th e i { e x p e c ta tio n th a t th e ex em p tio n w ould be renew ed s in c e th e ; i j i i f in a n c ia l c o n d it io n s had n o t ch a n g ed . The ex em p tio n was 1 j i ! {re fu se d on th e grounds th a t th e S a lis b u r y A r ts T h ea tr e Com- j !pany was d ep en d en t upon th e P la y h o u se M a n ch ester, L t d ., | |minimum g u a r a n te e and, t h e r e f o r e , t e c h n i c a l l y n o t p r o v id in g i th e e n te r ta in m e n t. A fo rm a l c o m p la in t was e n te r e d , n o t abou t th e c o n te n t o f th e r u l in g , b u t b e c a u se th e d e c is io n | |had b een d e la y e d a lm o st a month and a l o s s o f fc35 p er week I was a c c u m u la tin g . By th e tim e Custom s and E x c is e r e c o n s id e r e d and g ra n ted th e exem p tion o r i g i n a l l y r e q u e ste d and { r e fu s e d , th e company had v o id e d th e c o n tr a c t by a s p e c i a l ■ i I 1 0 8 1 {arrangem ent w ith th e p la y h o u se and d isb a n d e d . j « I The m a ssiv e s u b s id ie s r e q u ir e d by th e le a d in g op era! i i and b a l l e t com panies in London, d e s c r ib e d in C h apter I I I , w ere n o t d i r e c t e v id e n c e o f a g u l f b etw een an i n s t i t u t i o n and th e p u b lic b e c a u s e , in th e c a s e o f n a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , th e p u b lic c o n s is t e d o f more th a n j u s t th o s e who a tte n d e d p e r fo r m a n c es, and in c lu d e d th o s e in fu s e d w ith a j ^ ^ The M anchester G uardian, February 1, 1955, p. 4 . ' sen se o f n a tio n a l p rid e and th o se who accepted th e concept j I i o f support to th e a r ts through means in a d d itio n to th e box-j o f f i c e . There was l i t t l e doubt th a t th e se in s t it u t io n s | i i owed t h e ir e x is te n c e to governm ental in te r fe r e n c e —Covent i Garden would have been lo s t to com m ercial d ev elo p ers and j i !th e Old V ic would not have re c e iv e d th e r e c o n str u c tio n i ip r io r ity which enabled th e company to r e - e s t a b lis h i t s ip o s itio n in London. I j C om m ercial D i s t o r t i o n s o f th e S p i r i t o f th e E xem ption from E n te r ta in m e n ts D uty j The Treasury attem pted to sto p H. M . T ennent's jp r a c tic e o f u sin g a n o n p ro fit su b sid ia r y fo r i t s own g a in i I in 1946 when i t was d is c o v e r e d t h a t th e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f i i t h is su b s id ia r y , Tennents P la y s, L td ., allow ed th e op era- ] ' tio n o f a dance h a ll and, although t h is was never done, i t » * i j changed th e ta x l i a b i l i t y o f the company and s e v e r a l thou - | sand pounds more than i t s a s s e ts suddenly were due in back t a x e s . T e n n e n t q u ick ly d isso lv e d th a t su b sid ia r y and created an oth er, Tennent P ro d u ctio n s, L td ., w ith th e same t !r e s p o n s i b il it i e s as i t s p red ecesso r but w ith ou t th a t t 109 C h a r le s L a n d sto n e , O ff-S ta g e (London: E le k iB o o k s, L t d ., 1 9 5 3 ), p. 9 0 . s p e c i f i c c la u s e . T h is new s u b s id ia r y was g r a n ted a E 5 ,0 0 0 su b s id y by th e A r ts C o u n c il w h ich i t was a b le t o r e tu r n u n u s e d . T h r o u g h i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e A r ts C o u n c il, T ennent p r e se n te d The L a d y 's N ot f o r B u r n in g , A S t r e e t c a r Named D e s i r e , D eath o f a S a lesm a n , R in g around th e Moon, and The H e ir e s s on th e West End w ith o u t r e c e i v in g a g r a n t b u t a ta x ex em p tio n was n eed ed t o pay th e r o y a l t i e s and p r o d u c tio n c o s t s fo r A S t r e e t c a r Named D e s i r e . T h is exem p t i o n w a s, in th e laym an 's o p in io n , g r a n ted t o en co u ra g e th e j ! p r o d u c tio n o f " p a r tly e d u c a tio n a l" p la y s and a g r e a t c o n - I ! | t r o v e r s y e ru p ted o v e r th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f t h i s p a r t ic u la r j 1 1 1 ! p la y fo r th a t s t a t u s . A cco rd in g t o th e la w , p r o f i t s I 1 I w ere a llo w e d as lo n g a s th e y w ere u sed to s tr e n g th e n th e i i p r o d u c tio n company, T e n n e n t's c o m p e tito r s argued th a t th e ' money w h ich was n o t p aid in ta x was used t o o u tb id commer c i a l r i v a l s fo r p la y s , t h e a t r e s , and s t a r s - - t h i s su p p o rt was a form o f in t e r f e r e n c e in th e com m ercial t h e a t r e . In 1 9 5 4 , a T h e a t r ic a l Com panies B i l l was prop osed in th e 110_, . . I b id . , p. 9 1 . ^ H lo r d e c a i G o r e lik , "C leared by C u stom s," T h ea tre A r t s . XXXV ( A p r il, 1 9 5 1 ), 4 4 -4 8 . 112 The T im es. February 16, 1950, p. 10. 282 House o f Commons, th e main in te n tio n o f which was th e p la c i n g o f r e s t r a in t s on th e h ir in g o f s ta r s by H. M . Tennent, Ltd. Testim ony in support o f th e B i l l included a d e s c r ip tio n o f one o f T enn ent's p ro d u ctio n s, Day by the S ea , th e le a s t fo r which in clu d ed two k n ig h ts and one dame, and which I learned t3 ,0 0 0 per week as a n o n p r o fit-d is tr ib u tin g ta x - |exempt v e n tu r e . The governm ent, not convinced th a t abuses | ' e x i s t e d , d eterm in ed t h e B i l l t o be " u n w ork ab le," e s p e c i a l l y I ' in i t s p r o v isio n for se p a r a tio n o f p r o f it and n o n p ro fit ! X13 com panies, and i t was d efea ted w ithou t a v o te . j I S u b sid ized T e le v is io n : Major C om petition J to th e S u b sid ized Stage i In th e a n n u a l r e p o r t p u b lish e d in 1 9 5 3 , th e A r ts ! C o u n c il str e n g th e n e d i t s argum en ts f o r th e d ev elo p m en t and t | m aintenance o f the h ig h e s t standards on sta g e w ith th e I ' announcem ent t h a t th e p u b lic w ould be w i l l i n g t o pay more | money and expend more e n erg y f o r th e h ig h e s t q u a l it y t h e a t r e , w h ile s e c o n d -r a t e t h e a t r e w ould n o t s u r v iv e c o m p a ri son w ith th e h ig h sta n d a r d s o f t e l e v i s i o n and th e c i n e m a . 113 ' The M an ch ester G u a rd ia n . June 2 6 . 1 9 5 4 . n. 2 . I i | * ^ E ighth Annual Report o f th e A rts C ouncil o f i Great B r ita in . 1 9 5 2 -3 . op. c i t .. p. 19. ! 2 831 That same y e a r , W illia m s , from h i s i n f l u e n t i a l p o s i t i o n a s j s e c r e t a r y - g e n e r a l o f th e A r ts C o u n c il, a n a ly z e d th e p o te n t i a l s o f t e l e v i s i o n : i f l e f t a lo n e , com m ercial t e l e v i s i o n j iwould "w allow in show b u s in e s s " and le a v e th e f i e l d o f i | idrama t o th e t h e a t r e , but th e in f lu e n c e o f th e BBC would i !p r e v en t t h a t and th e BBC w ould i n s i s t on p r e s e n t in g th e b e s t t h e a t r e had t o o f f e r t o th e d e tr im e n t o f th e l o c a l 115 (r e p e r to r y company. D en yin g t h a t t e l e v i s i o n was a poor i I s u b s t it u t e f o r a l i v e p erfo rm a n ce, W illia m s c la im e d th a t n o t o n ly was t e l e v i s i o n th e b e s t " d iffu s e r " o f th e a r t s , |b u t i t s " a r t i s t i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s " c o u ld n o t b e d is m is s e d any more th an c o u ld i t s " s o c i a l s ig n if ic a n c e " b e m in im ized . T h is a n a ly s is o f th e f u n c t io n o f t e l e v i s i o n in th e a r t s was i jco m p leted in th e A r ts C o u n c il’ s r e p o r t: "mere d if f u s io n " I ■ was n o t enough. "There m ust be r e p le n is h m e n t, e x p e r im e n t, i !new so u n d in g s. P atron age ca n n o t l i v e in th e p a s t i f i t i s j t o have a f u t u r e ." H ? T h is w arn in g was r e p e a te d in 1 9 5 8 , th e y e a r in d ep en d en t t e l e v i s i o n f i r s t in v e s t e d fcl00,000 in n 5W. E. W illia m s , Econom ic and S o c i a l A s p e c ts o f I th e T h ea tre (London: S t a p le s P r e s s , L t d ., 1 9 5 3 ). p . 15. i j U 6I b i d . . pp. 1 5 -1 6 . | 117 ' ' j E ig h th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f ! I G reat B r it a i n . 1 9 5 2 -3 . o p . c i t . . p . 11. 284 I ‘t h e a t r e .'1 '18 In 1 9 5 9 , a n o th er £ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 was g ra n ted t o t h e - i la tr e and one o f th e "com m ercial" or " in d ep en d en t" t e l e v i s i o n c o m p a n ies, S o u th ern T e le v is i o n Company, n e g o t ia t e d w ith th e Old V ic t o p r e s e n t s i x p la y s a y e a r fo r two j 119 ! jy e a r s . T h is was n o t th e f i r s t in s ta n c e o f t h i s ty p e o f |su p p o r t t o t h e a t r e from th e b r o a d c a s tin g in d u s t r y - - t h e BBC jr a d io had p r e se n te d r e p e r to r y p r o d u c tio n s —b u t i t was a i * ' j s i g n i f i c a n t s t e p in th e d evelop m en t o f c o o p e r a tio n and i {m utual dep en d en ce b etw een t h e a t r e and t e l e v i s i o n . I j W hile t h e a t r e was in an e a r ly s ta g e o f a d ju stm en t t I t o th e grow th o f t e l e v i s i o n , th e In d ep en d en t T e le v is io n A u th o r ity (ITA ) was c r e a te d by th e governm ent o v e r th e c o n - j t i n u a l o b j e c t io n o f th e BBC and g r a n ted an i n i t i a l sum o f £ 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 and £ 7 5 0 ,0 0 0 p er y e a r fo r th e f i r s t te n y e a r s o f 190 | i t s o p e r a tio n (1954 t o 1 9 6 4 ). The o p p o s it io n t o th e !c r e a t io n o f th e ITA encom passed a v a r ie t y o f o b j e c t io n s : I i 118r h ir t e e n t h A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a i n , 1 9 5 7 -8 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 9 - 1 0 . 119 ! F o u r te e n th A nnual R ep ort o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f I G reat B r it a i n . 19 5 8 -9 (London: The Baynard P r e s s , 1 9 5 9 ), jP. 3 0 . i ! 120H erb ert, op. c i t .. p. 142. th e BBC's b e n e v o le n t m onopoly w ould be b r o k e n ,121 B r it a i n i ! ! jwould b e flo o d e d w ith A m erican t e l e v i s i o n f ilm s w h ich w ouldj i I r e s u l t in a d e c lin e in t h e a t r e and an in c r e a s e in un em p loy- 122 ;m ent. The C o u n c il o f R e p e rto r y T h e a tr e s approved th e j i j prop osed c r e a t io n o f th e ITA on th e c o n d it io n th a t th e p r e - i j s e n t a t io n o f e n te r ta in m e n t and n o t th e p rom otion o f s a l e s i i I 12^ Jwas i t s prim e p u rp o se. The e x p e c te d r ev en u e from th e ] 1 | s a l e o f t e l e v i s i o n r e c e iv in g l i c e n s e s was t o com p en sate f o r i j th e l o s s in c u r r e d when th e T reasu ry a b o lis h e d th e E n te r - ! ' ta in m e n ts D uty on t h e a t r e and s p o r t . T e le v is io n had become i I an in c r e a s in g ly im p o rta n t so u r c e o f r ev en u e a s w e l l a s a r e c ip ie n t o f go v ern m en ta l a id . I j In 1 9 6 1 , T. W . W ., L t d ., th e in d ep en d en t t e l e v i s i o n f company f o r Sou th W ales and th e West o f England p u rch ased | th e P r in c e s s T h ea tre on S h a fte s b u r y A venu e, London, and a ls o b ou gh t a " la r g e i n t e r e s t " in th r e e t h e a t r i c a l c o m p a n ies, j Donmar P r o d u c tio n s , L td. (p a r t owner o f th e P i c c a d i l l y j T h e a tr e ), D. A ., L t d ., and C a la b a sh , L t d ., in o rd er t o g a in th e p r o d u c tio n r ig h t s t o m ajor West End p r o d u c tio n s , ^•^The T im es. May 26, 1952, p. 4. ; ! * ' I i ' ^ I b id . . June 8 , 1953, p. 9 . j ! * ^ I b id . . December 7 , 1953, p. 12. in c lu d in g O liv e r , Beyond th e F r in g e , The M ir a c le W orker, and Irma l a D ou ce- - a l l w ith a t o t a l e x p e n d itu r e o f L 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 .^ 2^ T h is company plan n ed t o c o n tin u e th e o p e r a t i o n o f th e P r in c e s s T h ea tre on a com m ercial b a s is and e x p la in e d t h a t th e t r a n s a c t io n w ould make c e r t a i n m a te r ia l a v a ila b le t o t e l e v i s i o n and m ight in f lu e n c e program p o l i c y . In a 1962 a r t i c l e in The T im es, Lord C o t t e s l o e , chairm an o f th e A r ts C o u n c il, acknow ledged th a t th e im pact o f t e l e v i s i o n upon t h e a t r e had b een s e v e r e b u t co n ten d ed th a t t e l e v i s i o n c o u ld n o t p r o v id e th e same e x p e r ie n c e t o th e in d iv id u a l as c o u ld b e in g p a r t o f a la r g e a u d ie n c e fo r ja f i n e p la y su p e r b ly a c t e d . ^25. c o o p e r a tio n and , t o | some d e g r e e , th e m utu al dep en d en ce w h ich was d e v e lo p in g > b etw een th e t h e a t r e and t e l e v i s i o n was c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e | A r ts C o u n c il's p o lic y o f su p p o r tin g i n s t i t u t i o n s c a p a b le i o f f u l f i l l i n g t h e a t r e ' s new f u n c t io n a s th e p r o v id e r o f j q u a l i t y in p u b lic e n te r ta in m e n t. Governmental Involvem ent in the j P reserv a tio n o f T heatres I W . E. W illia m s' 1953 sta te m e n t t h a t t h e a t r e w ould i ^ ^ I b i d . , August 4 , 1961, p. 8 . 1 2 5 I b id . , Hay 29, 1962, p. 7. 287 : be weakened i f i t was spread to o t h in ly over th e n a tio n -- ! I t h a t , to be str o n g , i t should be con cen trated at a compara t i v e l y few p o in ts --in flu e n c e d th e e v o lv in g p o lic y o f lim i t e d in te r fe r e n c e in th e d e str u c tio n o f th e a tr e s . The i 'F ed eration o f T heatre Unions t e s t i f i e d , in an a r t ic le pub- I llis h e d in The T im es, th a t a dozen men owned most o f th e |major th e a tr e s in London and some o f th o se in th e provinces,j j I th a t H. M . Tennent, L td ., su p erv ised most o f th e coopera- jtio n which e x is te d between th e major th e a tr e s in London and \ , i |i n th e p ro v in c e s, th a t co rp o ra tio n s had been formed to r |o p era te th e major London th e a tr e s w h ile most th e a tr e s in th e p rovin ces were owned by in d iv id u a ls , and th a t th ese same men a ls o h eld im portant p o s itio n s in th e p lay-p rod u c- j 127 lin g , c a te r in g , and t h e a t r ic a l a d v e r tis in g com panies. iP r ie s t ly determ ined th a t t h is c o n d itio n o f v ir t u a l c o n tr o l i I o f th e major th e a tr e f a c i l i t i e s acted to weaken th e a tr e because th e se men could not h elp in d u lg in g t h e ir own "com m ercial" t a s t e s - - t h e a t r e w as, to P r ie s t ly , to o im portant a communal art to be en tru sted to a few men who happened to ■ ^ W illia m s , op. c i t . , p. 26. • ^ The T im es. March 16, 1953, p. 11. tl 190 (be r i c h enough t o a c q u ir e p la y h o u s e s ." 0 I t was I ! jP r ie s tly 's op inion th a t t h is co n d itio n would be elim in a ted by th e a d o p tio n o f a sy ste m o f p u b lic c o n t r o l ov er th e 1 lo o ownership and le a s in g o f th e a tr e s . y P r ie s t ly 1s su ggested Icrea tio n o f a Theatre A u th ority to "deal w ith th e a tr e s as a Board o f Trade d e a lt w ith o f f ic e and fa c to r y prem ises dur ing th e war" was opposed by The Manchester Guardian in an i j a r t i c l e w h ich acknow ledged th e need f o r refo rm s but ; * |s t r e s s e d th a t such r efo rm must " sp r in g from th e t h e a t r e i t - I I js e lf" and th a t P r ie s t ly 's method would be "an in v it a tio n to * 1 O f) r e c e iv e th e k i s s o f d e a th ." P r i e s t l y ' s c o n c e p ts o f th e p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n o f t h e a t r e s w ere p u b lish e d i n 1947 b e fo r e h i s ex a m p le, th e Board o f T ra d e, had b een a ccu sed o f p la c in g f a c t o r i e s w ith o u t p rop er r eg a rd t o th e econom ic !a d v a n ta g es o f l o c a t i o n . ! In r e a c tio n to the rezoning which was part o f the i p ostw ar r e c o n s t r u c t io n , B r i t i s h E q u ity p a ssed a r e s o l u t io n in 1946 " a g a in s t th e u se o f t h e a t r e s f o r p u rp o ses o th e r 128 P r i e s t l y , op. c i t . . p. 6 . lOQ I b id . , p. 31. | 130 i The M anchester G uardian. November 20, 1947, p. 4J 289 I 131 'th an t h e a t r e ." No g r e a t p u b lic o u tc r y a g a in s t th e l o s s i I jof th e a tr e s fo llo w ed t h is announcement. I In 1 9 5 5 , a m ajor c o n tr o v e r s y e r u p te d o v e r th e p r o p osed d e s t r u c t io n o f th e S t . J a m e s's T h ea tr e in London. The Times rep orted th a t the th e a tr e was "needed more than ever b efore" because th e p u b lic was la r g er than ever b efo re and t h a t th e n a t io n c o u ld n o t a ffo r d t o l o s e any o p e r a b le 1 3 2 jth e a tr e . No new th e a tr e s had been co n stru cted in over 133 tw enty y e a r s. R e a liz in g th a t th e p o te n t ia l p r o f it s from o f f i c e b u ild in g s might r e s u lt in a wide co n v ersio n o f th e - j ja tr e s and h o te ls to t h is purpose, th e M in ister o f Housing I «. i and L ocal Government amended th e County o f London Plan to X3 4 s tr e n g th e n th e London C ounty C o u n c il's z o n in g a u t h o r it y . !The S t . J a m es's T h e a tr e c o n tr o v e r s y la s t e d u n t i l 1957 w hen, in th e H ouse o f L o r d s, Lord S i l k i n i n i t i a t e d l e g i s l a t i o n t o !d e la y d e s t r u c t io n u n t i l b o th H ou ses o f P a r lia m e n t had s t u d ie d th e p rob lem . Lord B la c k fo r d argued t h a t th e p u b lic I J could not a ffo rd to m aintain th e th e a tr e and th e government I ^3 ^The T im e s. May 1 4 , 1 9 4 6 , p. 8 . ^ 2I b i d . , Janu ary 2 2 , 1 9 5 5 , p. 7 . 1 3 3 i b i d , t J a n u a r y 2 9 , 1 9 5 5 , p . 3 . I 1 3 4 I b i d . . March 12, 1955, p. 4 . |d e c id e d n o t t o in t e r v e n e in t h i s m a tte r , a lth o u g h i t had by { I |t h e n ad op ted a p o l i c y o f i n t e r v e n t i o n , b e c a u s e th e c o n t r a c t s had b e e n s ig n e d b e f o r e th e g o v e r n m e n t's d e c is io n , ;A few m onths l a t e r , a p u b lic cam paign t o r a i s e th e n e c e s - ; |s a r y fu n d s f o r th e p r e s e r v a t io n o f th e t h e a t r e f a i l e d ev en j J th o u g h i t had r e c e iv e d a g r e a t amount o f p u b l i c i t y when i 136 H a r tfo r d H u n tin g to n o f f e r e d t o c o n t r ib u t e , j E a r ly in 1 9 5 6 , P a r lia m e n ta r y i n q u i r i e s in t o th e i i prob lem o f t h e a t r e p r e s e r v a t io n w ere answ ered by th e g o v e r n m e n t 's announcem ent t h a t th e A r ts C o u n c il was g o in g t o | | stu d y th e p roblem as i t a p p lie d t o th e e n t i r e n a t io n and i j th a t g o v e rn m e n ta l p o l i c y d e c is io n s w ould w a it upon th e su b m is s io n o f th e A r ts C o u n c il r e p o r t . W h i l e P a rlia m e n t | ja w a ite d th e c o m p le tio n o f t h i s s t u d y , th e number o f t h e - ! ; a t r e s in G rea t B r it a i n c o n tin u e d t o d e c r e a s e . In A p r il o f i i ,1 9 5 6 , th e L e ic e s t e r Town P la n n in g C om m ittee r e c e iv e d n o t i c e t h a t th e M in is tr y o f H o u sin g and L o c a l G overnm ent had rem oved th e T h ea tr e R o y a l, L e i c e s t e r , from i t s l i s t o f h i s t o r i c b u i l d i n g s , an d , a lth o u g h th e G eo rg ia n S o c ie t y was 135I b i d . , J u ly 3 1 , 1 9 5 7 , p . 3 . j 136 ' ! The M an ch ester G u a rd ia n . O ctob er 4 , 1 9 5 7 , p. 7 . I i X3 7 I ! The T im es. January 2 7 , 1956, p. 3. j I tr y in g to fin d funds fo r i t s p reserv a tio n , th e Committee ! |announced t h a t a " b lo c k o f s t o r e s " w ould r e p la c e th e 120- y e a r -o ld t h e a t r e e v en th ou gh i t was th e o n ly t h e a t r e w it h in . tw en ty m ile s o f t h a t community o f 2 8 6 ,0 0 0 .^ ® 1 | A group o f t h e a t r e le a d e r s spoke a t a m ee tin g o f i Members o f P a rlia m en t in March o f 1957 and s t r e s s e d th e need fo r g o v ern m en ta l a c t io n in s p e c i f i c t h e a t r e m a tte r s . jIn the absence o f S ir Laurence O liv ie r , h is speech was read l |t o the Members by Miss Dorothy T utin and con tained the ! s u g g e s t io n t h a t l e g i s l a t i o n be i n i t i a t e d t o th e e f f e c t th a t i i no t h e a t r e be p u lle d down u n le s s i t was t o be r e p la c e d by 130 another. No immediate a c tio n follow ed t h is su g g e stio n . In A u g u st, 1 9 5 8 , a C o u n c il fo r T h ea tre P r e s e r v a tio n ! was p r i v a t e l y form ed t o g iv e w id e p u b l i c i t y to any p la n s t o ! jd estro y a th e a tr e . T his body gained no o f f i c i a l san e- t i o n . 140 i : 4 The f i r s t p h ase o f th e A r ts C o u n c il's r e p o r t on t h e a t r e s , H ou sin g th e A r ts in G reat B r i t a i n . P art I . was r e le a s e d in 1959 and recommended th a t s in c e th e "change o f ^ * *The M anchester Guardian. A p r il 2 0 , 1 9 5 6 , p. 6 . • ^ The Tim es. March 2 9 , 1 9 57, p. 6. 1 4 0 I b i d . , August 27, 1958, p. 11. iu s e o f an e x i s t i n g t h e a t r e t o some o th e r form o f u se un c o n n e c te d w ith th e a r ts " was no " lo n g e r a p u r e ly l o c a l i ! i i m a tte r ," th e M in is te r o f H ou sin g and L o c a l Government be : empowered to approve a l l p la n n in g a p p lic a t io n s o f t h i s ! 1 4 1 I k in d . In th e secon d p a r t o f th e r e p o r t , r e le a s e d in | i j 1 9 61, th e A r ts C o u n c il s t r e s s e d th e c o n s id e r a t io n o f th e ! I j e f f i c i e n c y o f a p a r t ic u la r t h e a t r e , th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f an 140 ja u d ie n c e t o f i l l i t and a l s o th e ty p e o f t h e a t r e s needed 4 / A |a s w e l l a s t h e i r lo c a t i o n ^ p r io r t o th e m aking o f a d e c i - | s io n t o p r e se r v e th a t t h e a t r e . L e g is la t i o n t o e x te n d some m easure o f p u b lic c o n - | | t r o l , o th e r th a n f i r e or p u b lic s a f e t y m ea su res, o v er th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e a t r e s appeared in th e 1947 Town and I C ountry P la n n in g A c t, C la u se T w enty-N in e o f w hich empowered : th e L o c a l P la n n in g A u th o r ity t o is s u e a " b u ild in g p r e s e r v a - ' t i o n o r d e r r e s t r i c t i n g d e m o litio n or a l t e r a t i o n o f any | b u ild in g w ith h i s t o r i c or a r c h it e c t u r a l m e r it. C la u se 1 T h ir ty o f t h i s A ct c o n ta in e d th e o p e r a tin g p ro ced u res by ^ ^ H ousin g th e A r ts in G reat B r it a i n . P art I (L on don: The A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r it a i n , 1 9 5 9 ), p. 4 . 142I b i d . , P a r t_ I I ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p. 4 . 143I b id . . p. 9 .; i 144 ! | W illia m K e n d a ll, "The C ity F a th e r s and th e j | T h e a tr e ," Drama. Autumn, 1 9 62, p. 3 7 . 1 j “ 2 9 3 I Iwhich th e p reced in g c la u se could be e x e r c is e d . The M in is- i te r o f Housing and L ocal Government was req u ired to com pile l i s s o f b u ild in g s , c l a s s if y in g them as to t h e ir im portance i I to he n a tio n : Grade I in clu d ed th o se b u ild in g s , th e p r e s e r v a tio n o f which was a "m atter o f n a tio n a l concern" (C oven t G arden, D rury L an e, and th e Haym arket w ere t h e o n ly JLondon t h e a t r e s w ith t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n in 1 9 6 2 ); th e i jGrade I I c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s p e c ifie d th a t th e d ev elo p er would i j ihave to d ela y two months a f t e r announcing h is in te n tio n to |d e str o y a b u ild in g in order to a llo w th e lo c a l a u th o r ity to |rev iew th e s it u a t io n ; and th e Grade I I I d e sig n a tio n in d i cated to th e lo c a l a u th o r itie s th a t th e b u ild in g was o f "some i n t e r e s t . This a ct did not make p r o v isio n fo r a i change in th e use o f the b u ild in g or fo r s tr u c tu r a l changes I i in i t s i n t e r i o r and a 1950 O rder was is s u e d w h ich s p e c i f i e d i i i 1 ! th a t p erm ission was not req u ired to change th e use o f th e ! b u ild in g .146 P erm ission had to be granted o n ly fo r th e a lt e r a tio n or d em o litio n o f th e e x t e r io r o f th e b u ild in g . The A rts C ouncil commented on th e problem o f d e f in it io n s in attem pts to p reserve th e b u ild in g s in i t s 1 9 5 8 -5 9 annual i j | r e p o r t: th e "change o f user" r e s t r i c t io n in th e Town and \ ! i - “ ' i 1 1 ] i ; 145I b id . 146I b id . . p. 3 8 . ! I C ountry P la n n in g A ct o f 1948 s p e c i f i e d t h a t th e b u ild in g be j jr e ta in e d a s a p la c e o f " p u b lic e n te r ta in m e n t," a p h rase in c lu d in g s k a t in g r in k s and T u rk ish bath s.A s l a t e as j 1 9 6 2 , th e problem s had n o t b een s o lv e d b e c a u se th e r e was n o | i j law p r o h ib it in g a d e v e lo p e r from o b s e r v in g th e ord er o f a | | l o c a l a u t h o r it y and b u ild in g a new t h e a t r e in p la c e o f an |o l d one and th e n ch a n g in g th e i n t e r i o r in t o a b o w lin g 1 l 148 j a l l e y . The 1957 Town and C ountry P la n n in g A ct c o n ta in e d t i |a n expanded Use C lass in which th e a tr e was placed along | i | w ith c in e m a s, m usic h a l l s , dan ce h a l l s , s k a tin g r in k s , i |p u b lic p o o ls , Turkish b a th s, gymnasiums, and b u ild in g s used j I f o r in d o o r gam es— t h i s e x p a n sio n f i r s t appeared in th e 1950 Orde^, and was r e t a in e d in th e 1957 A c t .^ 4 ^ The A r ts Coun- I c i l p rop osed a s e p a r a te Use C la s s fo r th e a t r e w h ich w ould | have had th e e f f e c t o f r e q u ir in g a p la n n in g a p p lic a t io n f o r : any change in th e u se o f a t h e a t r e b u i l d i n g . ^he i i ! i --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- : 147 j F o u r te e n th A nnual R eport o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f G reat B r i t a i n , 1 9 5 8 -9 , op . c i t . , p. 2 6 . 148K endall, op . c i t . , p. 4 0 . 1 149 I ^Seventeenth Annual Report o f the A rts C ouncil o f ‘Great B r ita in , 1 9 6 1 -2 (London: The Baynard P ress, 1 9 6 2 ), ! ip . 3 3 . ; ! 1 5 0 - , , ! 1962-63 Annual R eport o f th e A rts C o u n cil c o n ta in e d th e | sta te m e n t t h a t no a c t io n had b een ta k e n by th e governm ent j i i i i in r e sp o n s e t o t h i s p r o p o s a l. -^1 j 1 Governm ent and T h ea tr e Employment j | ! During World W ar I I , the M in istry o f Labour and j | j N a tio n a l S e r v ic e d e fe r r e d th e m i li t a r y in d u c tio n o f many i j a c to r s f o r s i x w eeks t o a llo w them t o p erform fo r ENSA. | D u ring th e p e r io d f o llo w in g th a t w ar, t h e governm ent r e s i s t e d p r e s s u r e s t o p r o v id e em ploym ent fo r a c to r s by e s t a b - t ■l i s h i n g s t a t e t h e a t r e s fo r th a t p u rp o se . A lth ou gh em p loy- i | ment p o s s i b i l i t i e s w ere m en tion ed in th e c o n s id e r a t io n o f j t h e N a tio n a l T h ea tre A ct o f 1 9 4 9 , th a t was n o t c o n sid e r e d a jm ajor is s u e or b e n e f i t o f th e p la n . B r i t i s h E q u ity r e a c te d ' t o th e th e a tr e slump by r e p o r tin g th a t th e b o x - o f f i c e s u f - I ! I | fe r e d an e ig h t per c e n t d e c r e a s e in b u s in e s s in 1951 a s ; ! j compared to 1 9 5 0 , th a t o n e -h a lf o f E q u ity's 9 ,2 9 9 members w ere n o t em p loyed , and th a t unem ploym ent was grow ing w o r se . *^2 L a te r th a t y e a r , E q u ity approved th e e s t a b l i s h ment o f a su b com m ittee w ith in i t s own o r g a n iz a t io n to J ! _____ I i j i i cl I ! E ig h te e n th A nnual R eport o f th e A r ts C o u n c il o f ; G reat B r it a i n . 1 9 6 2 -3 . op. c i t . , p . 14. • ^ The Tim es. A p r il 23, 1951, p. 4. _ I " in v e s t ig a t e th e means o f en try" in t o th e a c tin g p r o f e s s io n : i ! o v e r th e o b j e c t io n o f S y b il T h orn dike who saw i t as a move j ! 153 i t o r e s t r i c t th e freed om o f th e a c t o r . As t h i s u n io n j ! i ; 1 |b e g a n to expand i t s a c t i v i t i e s and e n t e r in t o more p u b lic I ; i i : ! d i s c u s s i o n s , The Tim es p u b lish e d an a r t i c l e rem in d in g ! i • ! E q u ity t h a t , a lth o u g h i t had im proved c o n d it io n s f o r i t s l e s s e r m em bers, i t was n o t eq u ip p ed t o assum e c o n t r o l o v e r I I i [ a e s t h e t i c m a t t e r s . T h i s w arn in g was d is r e g a r d e d , and a i p u b lic d e b a te d e v e lo p e d o v e r E q u it y 's p r a c t ic e o f a d v is in g th e M in is te r o f Labour w h ich f o r e ig n p erfo rm ers sh o u ld o r i | sh o u ld n o t r e c e iv e p e r m its t o work in G reat B r it a i n . G or- | j don S a n d is o n , G en era l S e c r e ta r y o f E q u ity , s t a t e d th a t th e | J u n io n had a d v is e d th e ^ M in istry f o r tw e n ty y e a r s and was n o t ! a b u sin g t h i s f u n c t io n by r e f u s in g p e r m its to f o r e ig n p e r - j i | form ers who m ight d e p r iv e B r i t i s h c i t i z e n s o f w o r lc--th e j ! I 1551 'num ber o f p e r m its in c r e a s e d from 378 t o 587 in one y e a r . [ L le w e lly n R e e s , who se r v e d a s S e c r e ta r y G en er a l o f E q u ity from 1940 t o 1 9 47, c la im ed th a t unem ploym ent was n o t , and must n o t b e , a f a c t o r in th e is s u a n c e o f p e r m its and t h a t 1 5 3 l b i d . , May 2 8 , 1951, p. 4 . 1 5 4 I b id . , O ctober 23 , 1952, p. 7. 1 5 5 I b id . . October 25, 1952, p. 7. 297 more B r itis h a c to r s worked o u tsid e o f th e country than were I c£ I d isp la ce d by fo r e ig n e r s in Great B r ita in . J The In corpor ated S o c ie ty o f M usicians did not agree to a p o lic y o f fr e e i exchange o f perform ers and argued th a t m usicians were forced to compete w ith m usicians from a l l n a tio n s (not ju s t j E n g lish -sp ea k in g n a tio n s) and th a t the p u b lic was too ! e a s ily fo o led by fo r e ig n names and d ish o n e st p ress a g e n ts — ! i th e p u b lic should not be allow ed to e x e r c is e i t s own t a s t e j 1 « ; 7 iin t h is m atter. ! T his stand on th e part o f th e m u sicia n s' union drew i j a sharp p u b lic rebuke from The T im es; th e c r e a tio n o f a i i c lo se d shop in th e a r ts would not improve employment or F jth e a r t s , unions had confused p u b lic t a s t e and working con- i i f d itio n s fo r to o g rea t a period o f tim e, and a c to r s had r I ; o fte n claim ed to know what was b e st fo r th e ir au diences but * th e audience must be allow ed to make th a t d e c i s i o n . ^ 8 I I | In 1 9 5 3 , Mr. E. M. Brow ne, D ir e c to r o f th e B r i t i s h i Drama League, was ad vised by th e M in istry o f Labour th a t a perm it was refu sed fo r an I t a lia n a c tr e s s to perform a part | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --— —--------j 156I b i d . . O ctob er 2 8 , 1 9 5 2 , p. 7 . j i j ^ ^ I b i d . , November 3 , 1 9 5 2 , p. 7 . j ! ^ ^ I b i d . . November 11, 1952, p. 7. f ! in a p a r t ic u la r p ro d u ctio n o f a new p la y and th a t E q uity 1 ! ;had s t a t e d t h a t th e p a rt (a S p a n ia rd ) c o u ld b e p la y ed by j l'iQ an unem ployed B r i t i s h a c t r e s s . 7 The I t a l i a n a c t r e s s , j i iM iss Anna P ro c le m er , had in tr o d u c e d th e p la y in t r a n s l a t i o n | i t o I t a l i a n a u d ie n c e s on r a d io and g a in e d a c c la im f o r h er i p erform ance and th e p r o d u c tio n f o r w h ich sh e was r e fu s e d j a p erm it was p a r t o f a lo w -b u d g e t a r t s f e s t i v a l and sh e had i j agreed t o perform a t a "nom inal s a la r y " in o r d e r t o make i th e f e s t i v a l p r o d u c tio n p o s s i b l e . ^ 0 An e a r l i e r r e f u s a l t o g r a n t a p erm it t o J o se F e r r a r had i n i t i a t e d th e w h o le c o n - r | t r o v e r s y ov er E q u it y 's a d v is o r y f u n c t io n to th e M in is tr y o f i | Labour and, in th a t c a s e , th e M in is tr y had r e c o n s id e r e d i t s i i d e c is io n and is s u e d th e p erm it to o l a t e to be o f any v a lu e e i t h e r t o F e r r a r o r to th e p r o d u c tio n in q u e s t io n . No i i jP a r lia m e n ta r y a c t io n or o f f i c i a l p o l i c y sta te m e n t fo llo w e d J ] j I I ' e i t h e r o f t h e s e i n c id e n t s . j j E a rly in 1 9 5 2 , The Tim es o b se r v e d t h a t o f E q u it y 's j 9 ,9 0 0 members, o n ly 6,000 c o u ld fin d work o f some s o r t in t h e a t r e and ask ed why th e le a d in g a c t o r s r e fu s e d t o e n d o r se • ^ The T im es. June 18, 1953, p. 5. 1 6 0 I b i d . , June 2 0 , 1953, p. 3. 161 !r e g u la te d e n tr y in t o th e p r o f e s s io n . The em ploym ent s i t u a t i o n seem ed t o h ave rem ained unchanged fo r s e v e r a l j I y e a r s b e c a u se in 1954 E q u ity p u b lish e d th e r e s u l t s o f a j is u r v e y o f i t s members w h ich in d ic a t e d t h a t f o r t y p er c e n t i | ! earn ed a " f a i r l i v i n g a t b e s t ," t w e n t y - s ix per c e n t earn ed i : I !a " m a rg in a l l i v i n g o n ly ," and t h i r t y - f o u r p er c e n t earn ed | I 169 | no l i v i n g a t a l l in t h e a t r e . ^ E q u ity a ttem p ted t o c o n - ! t r o l th e number o f new a c t o r s who c o u ld become members by e s t a b l i s h i n g a q u ota sy ste m f o r th e r e p e r t o r ie s (w h ich w ere ! blam ed f o r a llo w in g 1 ,6 0 0 new a c t o r s in t o th e " p r o fe ssio n " j e v e r y y e a r ) . The M an ch ester G uardian commented th a t t h i s p la n was i l l - c o n c e i v e d in t h a t E q u ity d id n ot know i f th e i 163 ! 1 ,6 0 0 newcom ers a c t u a l l y came from th e r e p e r t o r i e s . J The ! f o llo w in g y e a r , E q u ity t r i e d t o g a in an agreem ent w ith t h e - ; a t r e m anagers w h ich w ould p r o h ib it th e em ploym ent on th e I ' W est End o f a c to r s w ith l e s s th a n f o r t y w eeks o f e x p e r ie n c e i I e ls e w h e r e . A g a in , The M an ch ester G uardian o b serv ed t h a t , s in c e th e l i m i t a t i o n s on th e r e p e r t o r ie s f a i l e d , t h i s was j u s t a n o th e r E q u ity attem p t t o p r o v id e em ploym ent f o r i t s j j | 161I b i d . , January 1 0 , 1 9 5 2 , p. 8 . j i ^ 3 I b i d . , F eb ru ary 2 0 , 1 9 5 4 , p. 8 . ! — 163The M anchester-G uardian. Nnvemher 22. 1QSAr p 6 ; ' ~ 3oo ;members by r e s t r ic t in g en trance in to the p r o fe ssio n and ! - ! I ;th a t Equity would do b e tte r to determ ine how many e n te r j I \ from where b efore attem p ting r e s t r ic t iv e l e g i s l a t i o n .^ ^ I Equity a ls o attem pted to n e g o tia te c o n tra cts w ith i I th e t e le v is io n in d u stry w ith sim ila r p r o v isio n s. In nego- I j t ia t io n s w ith the BBC, an e f f o r t was made to base an a c- j t o r 's pay on th e s iz e o f th e view in g a u d i e n c e a n d the I I IXTA was approached w ith a plan to employ on ly Equity mem- I i bers and new a cto rs (a ls o E quity members) on an E q u ity -se t 166 quota system . No d is c u s s io n follow ed as to how t h is i i | plan would have a ffe c te d c a s tin g fo r s p e c if ic p rod u ction s. i | In a move to aid th e a tr e , d e le g a te s to th e Trade i j Union Congress approved a p rop osal to urge g rea ter a s s i s t - | ance from the government and from lo c a l a u th o r itie s in i i 167 | p rovid in g employment fo r a c to r s . A sim ila r p rop osal on | b e h a lf o f the V a riety A rts F ed eration th e fo llo w in g year | included a recommendation th a t the government grant funds fo r v a r ie ty and music h a lls and was r e je c te d by th e Trade •^^I b i d . , March 2 , 1955, p. 4 . 165The T im es, May 2 6 , 1 9 5 2 , p. 4 . • ^ I b i d . . November 2 2 , 1 9 5 4 , p. 3 . 167I b i d . . Septem ber 1 1 , 1 9 5 4 , p. 2 . 3 0 1 1 ! I Unions C ongress' g en era l c o u n til and Member o f P arliam ent, \ |Mr. T. O 'B rien, on th e grounds th a t p u b lic money should be used on ly when " rea l a r t i s i t i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s were c r e a te d ." 168 i I | ! Governmental Use o f th e S u b sid ized Stage ! fo r Propaganda Purposes ] The use o f th e sta g e fo r p o l i t i c a l purposes was so i !common or so fe a r e d , e s p e c ia lly in regard to th e r e la t io n - ! ! sh ip between th e church and th e s t a t e , in th e Tudor and j ' S tu art p eriod s th a t measures were c o n tin u a lly employed to * ic o n tr o l t h is a sp ect o f th e a tr e . The Essex con sp iracy w ith i t s u se o f Richard I I in an attem pt to in s p ir e a r e v o lt (alth ou gh th ere was no evid en ce th a t Shakespeare w rote i t j fo r such a purpose) was an e a r ly example o f "governmental" I use o f th e sta g e fo r p o l i t i c a l purposes. In modern tim e s, th e u se o f th e sta g e fo r propa- j i I ganda purposes was con sid ered by th e government o f Great j i ; B r ita in , e s p e c ia lly during World War I I . T h e a tr ic a l te c h - j n iqu es had become commonplace in ed u cation and N azi propa ganda was u t i l i z i n g many media in clu d in g th e th e a tr e . In ! ™ : 1 ! I b i d . . September 7 , 1955, p. 5. 1 9 3 9 , a Member o f th e H ouse o f Commons a d v is e d th e g o v e r n m e n t a l c a b in e t t o s e e C o n fe s s io n s o f a N a z i S p y, w h ich he d e s c r ib e d a s b e in g an e x c e l l e n t p ie c e o f propaganda a g a in s t th e N azi s y s t e m . T h e government was a lso urged by in d i-i : ! iv id u a l Members o f Parliam ent to make g rea ter u t i l i z a t i o n of! 'th e B BC to cou n teract N azi propaganda in Europe. There was f jno record o f th e governm ent's use o f th e B r itis h sta g e fo r ! propaganda purposes as fa r as th e ch o ice or co n ten t o f 1 p lays was concerned during th e war. i r F ollow ing th e war, one attem pt to p u b lic iz e one I ; a sp ect o f the n a tio n a liz a tio n o f in d u stry through th e sta g e ! | was recorded. The M in ister o f F uel and Power sponsored a i i | p la y , B lack M agic, as a " fu rth er means o f d r iv in g home to i th e p u b lic th e f a c t th a t c o a l i s e s s e n t i a l t o th e in d u s - 170 ! t r i a l l i f e o f th e n a tio n ." The Times p la y fu lly com mented th a t alm ost any p lay might fin d support from some | governm ental department sin c e com p etition was bound to i develop between government M in is tr ie s anxious to enhance 171 th e ir own im ages. ' No fu r th er use o f the sta g e fo r such purpose was reported in e ith e r The Times or The Manchester ^ ^ The T im es. J u ly 4 , 1 9 3 9 , p . 8. i •^^I b i d . . January 31, 1947, p. 5 . ^ ^ I b i d . - - 303; j j jG u a rd ia n . j 1 i In I9 6 0 , t h e T rea su ry was ch arged w ith g r a n tin g su p p o rt t o a com pany, th e T h ea tr e W orkshop, w h ich p e r m itte d r 1 . I .th e s a l e o f com m unist p u b lic a t io n s in i t s t h e a t r e . The i iF in a n c ia l S e c r e ta r y t o th e T r e a su r y , a n sw erin g f o r th e j ( t j c h a n c e llo r , s t a t e d t h a t th e T r ea su r y was "not p rep ared t o I i j i n s t r u c t th e A r ts C o u n c il t o e x e r c i s e p o l i t i c a l d is c r im in a - j t io n in th e a l l o c a t i o n o f t h e i r g r a n t s ," th e p u b lic a t io n , i IM usic and L i f e , was n o t a u th o r iz e d by t h e management o f th e ! -T h ea tre W orkshop and i t was rem oved from th e lo b b y when i t i |was d is c o v e r e d , and ig n o r e d th e ch a r g e t h a t t h i s t h e a t r e ! |had a " r a th e r com m unist r e p u t a t i o n ."172 T h is r e a c t io n t o jth e m ajor p o l i t i c a l i s s u e o f th e l a s t two d e c a d e s was a I d e m o n s tr a tio n o f th e g o v e r n m e n t's d e te r m in a tio n n o t t o tu r n i th e s t a g e i t s u b s id iz e d in t o a p o l i t i c a l aren a or t o g a in t ! I i i s h o r t-te r m p o l i t i c a l a d v a n ta g e th rou gh th e p r e s e n t a t io n o f j I any s p e c i f i c p la y . I f c o n t r o l e x i s t e d , i t was o f a v e r y i I j s u b t le t y p e , e x p r e s s e d th rou gh th e T rea su ry ap p oin tm en t o f jth e A r ts C o u n c il, s e l e c t i o n o f Drama P a n e l members from a i c o n t in u a lly ch a n g in g group o f im p o rta n t t h e a t r e f i g u r e s , |and th e a l l o c a t i o n o f g r a n ts t o p r o d u c tio n com p an ies w ith i I ; i I 1 7 2 I b id . . A p r il 16, I9 6 0 , p. 4 . no c o n t r o l over th e s e l e c t i o n o f p l a y s —a r e l a t io n s h ip e s ta b lis h e d during th e tax-exem ption con troversy and r e - * e s ta b lis h e d in th e Theatre Workshop d isp u te . The p r a c tic e o f awarding p r iz e s and b u r sa rie s as encouragement to the iproduction o f new p la y s and to p layw rights was not ch arac t e r i z e d in The Times or The M anchester Guardian as an a t tem p t to c o n tr o l the con ten t o f p la y s in th e n a tio n 's th e - i •a tr e s . ; CHAPTER V I SU M M A R Y , CONCLUSIONS, A N D IMPLICATIONS l | Summary j i This exam ination o f th e development o f the present i ; program o f governm ental support to th e a tr e in Great B r ita in |h a s been a study o f th e in te r a c tio n between a d evelop in g | p u b lic a t t it u d e , governm ental a c tio n , and a stro n g p u b lic i i I j th e a tr e . The program produced by t h is in te r a c tio n was not th e r e s u lt o f any s in g le l e g i s l a t i v e or ex e c u tiv e p o lic y ' d e c is io n or a c tio n but th e product o f p ub lic p r e ssu r e s, I i p riv a te exp erim en ts, and Parliam entary debates which r e - I j ■ fle e te d changes in s o c ia l, p o l i t i c a l , and economic t r a d i t io n s . The purpose o f t h is stud y was to tra ce the fo r c e s which led to th e in it ia t i o n o f le g is la t io n or governm ental « I a c tio n , th e ch aracter and r e s u lt s o f th a t a c tio n , and the i | consequent p u b lic r e a c tio n as i t was tr a n sla te d in to gain s t i or lo s s e s at the b o x -o ffic e and p ressu res for continuance I _____ 3_Q 5___________________________________ !or reform o f th e program. The e v o lu tio n o f p u b lic a ttitu d e to embrace the concept o f governm ental support was in flu en ced by th e d e velopm ent o f tr a d itio n s during the six te e n th cen tu ry power ; I str u g g le between th e Crown, th e London o f f i c i a l s , and th e i i i jChurch, Theatre gained acceptance as a p r o fe ssio n in fe u - |d a l s o c ie t y a fte r playhouses were firm ly entrenched in i t iLondon, c o u r tly p r o te c tio n fo r a cto rs had been e s ta b lis h e d , i land a fte r the Crown a sse r te d i t s r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r the i !p lays p resen ted . The a cto r and th e p lays were under the | |d ir e c t c o n tr o l and p r o te c tio n o f th e Court and could be i removed from London whenever tro u b le d eveloped. The p rac t i c e o f cen so rsh ip o f play con ten t began under Henry VII land con tin u ed , in varyin g form s, under h is su c c e sso r s. The ;Crown did not make s u f f ic ie n t attempt, to lic e n s e a cto rs ^during t h is developm ental period and no tr a d itio n a l lic e n s - ; ! ' f I Jing fu n ctio n emerged although c o n tr o l through th e members o f th e Court p e r s is te d . Theatre b u ild in g s , however, were immobile and became th e cen ter o f co n tro v ersy . The Crown had j u r is d ic t io n over the s e c tio n s o f the London area in Iwhich the th e a tr e s were lo ca ted but lacked the manpower or j I ! |the d e s ir e tp e x e r t f u l l and c o n tin u a l c o n tr o l o f the I crowds which gathered th e r e . This s itu a tio n caused tro u b le jfo r London a u th o r itie s throughout th e Tudor and Stu art p e r io d s . No s in g le p u b lic a ttitu d e toward th e a tr e was 4 I adopted during t h is pre-Commonwealth period in th e h is to r y ! I i o f B r itis h th e a tr e . Even though i t was a popular form o f j ! | jen terta in m en t, th e London a u th o r itie s opposed i t on four |c o u n ts: the crowds drawn to th e th e a tr e were a fo c a l p oint j o f c i v i l d iso rd er (ranging from corru p tion o f morals to i v io le n t d istu rb a n ce) and plague in fe c t io n , i t was wrong to i I make money w ithout r e a lly w orking, and the th e a tr e was i I in h e r e n tly s in f u l. ! I The in flu e n c e o f the Church was most o fte n f e l t I i I through e ith e r th e Crown or th e lo c a l a u th o r it ie s . Spe- ! c i f i c a l l y , the P uritan a ttitu d e toward the th e a tr e was most 1 in f lu e n t ia l during the tim e o f Cromwell when th e a tr e s were i 5 ! clo sed and many were d estro y ed . When C harles II granted : Sp a ten ts fo r two "public" th e a tr e s in 1660, th e Puritan a ttitu d e had not changed, but m erely was not held by th ose in power. The moral fu n ctio n o f the Lord Cham berlain's cen - | so rsh ip o f p lays was not emphasized b efore cen so rsh ip was I s I i i ! affirm ed by Parliam ent in th e L icen sin g Act o f 1737. The ; ; moral j u s t i f i c a tio n for W alpole's Act became part o f th e___ t r a d it io n a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r cen so rsh ip in Great B r ita in . A second t r a d itio n a l a sp ect o f ce n so rsh ip , p r o te c tio n from subsequent p ro se cu tio n , was known to the E liza b eth a n s and su rvived to become a prime fea tu r e o f m id -tw en tieth I century cen so rsh ip . ! The changes in th e s o c ia l order which accompanied i |th e developm ent o f s k i l l s on th e part o f members o f the working c la s s were r e fle c t e d in th e th e a tr e o f the la t e e ig h te e n th cen tu ry . By th e m iddle o f the n in e te e n th cen tu r y , th e developm ent o f gas lig h t in g a c c e le r a te d th e trend toward th e " r e a lis tic " p o rtra y a l o f the s o c ia l problems jbrought on by a growing in d u s t r ia liz a t io n . The th e a tr e !became both an agent o f s o c ia l reform and.a r e le a s e from th e p ressu res o f a changing w orld. I The developm ent o f th e s o c ia l im portance o f th e a tr e ! preceded i t s accep tan ce as an a rt form. W ilson, P lanche, ! Ir v in g , A rnold, and C raig made im portant co n tr ib u tio n s to th e d evelop in g b e l i e f in t h e a tr e 's p o te n tia l as an a rt and as an a s s e t to th e community. Archer and G ran ville-B ark er I tr a n sla te d t h is in to a plan fo r th e c r e a tio n o f a n a tio n a l j th e a tr e --a plan based on the assum ption th a t an e n th u sia s- j i t i c audience would d evelop once th e ir id e a l th e a tr e was I ; su p p li e d ; thie e x is te n c e o f t h is audience would allow the ' T09 I I ith e a tr e to o p e r a te a s a s e lf - s u p p o r t in g i n s t i t u t i o n . Shaw argued th a t p u b lic su p p o rt f o r su ch an i n s t i t u t i o n would d e v e lo p on ce th e p u b lic had le a r n e d t o need i t . A p r iv a t e e f f o r t t o e s t a b l i s h a n a t io n a l th e a tr e i iwas made in 1916 and , in 1 9 3 0 , G r a n v ille -B a r k e r p u b lish e d i |an amended v e r s io n o f th e 1903 p la n he and A rch er d e v e lo p ed I t jw hich in c lu d e d a d u a l- s t a g e c o n c e p t, r e v is e d c o s t e s t i - ! im a te s, r e c o g n it io n o f th e need f o r a c o n t in u a l s u b s id y , and | s u g g e s te d o p e r a t io n a l p r o c e d u r e s. Of some s i g n i f i c a n c e was !t h e change in em p h asis in G ran vi lie - B a r k e r ' s su p p o r tin g l I argum ents (a s compared t o th e 1903 v e r s i o n ) : th e d e s i r a b i l - l i t y o f a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e was assumed t o have g a in e d s u f f i - i I c ie n t a c c e p ta n c e t o a llo w a c o n c e n tr a tio n on means r a th e r ;th a n e n d s . P u b lic a t t i t u d e tow ard th e e x i s t i n g com m ercial !t h e a t r e was su ch th a t G r a n v ille -B a r k e r saw th e ch an ce o f i s u c c e s s to depend upon refo rm s in a u d ien ce com fo rt and p r o - jd u c tio n e f f i c i e n c y . The e x p a n sio n o f g o v ern m en ta l s o c i a l programs d u r in g World War I I was im p o rta n t t o th e d evelop m en t o f s t a t e - s u b s id iz e d t h e a t r e b e c a u se a p e r m is s iv e a t t i t u d e d e v e lo p ed j i n th e p u b lic and th e govern m en t, i t s e l f , became more c o n - j I f id e n t o f i t s a b i l i t y t o a d m in is te r su ch program s. The { i j [Board o f E d u catio n , in c o n j u n c tio n w ith th e P i l grim T r u s t, I e s ta b lish e d th e C ouncil fo r th e Encouragement o f Music and j | the A rts. The M in istry o f Labour and N a tio n a l S e r v ic e , th e armed s e r v ic e s , and Mr. B a s il Dean cooperated in th e forma- Itio n o f the E ntertainm ents N a tio n a l S erv ice A sso c ia tio n . - ;Both C h u rch ill and At le e con sid ered th e a tr e as a co n trib u - J ! | jtio n to th e developm ent and fu lfillm e n t o f the in d iv id u a l. I I j Once th ea tre had been d efin ed as an ed u ca tio n a l and moral I in s t it u t io n (a cen tu ry -lo n g p rocess s ta r tin g w ith W ilson's i j 1948 p r o p o s a ls and c u lm in a tin g in th e o f f i c i a l p ron ou n ce- ! iraents o f C h u rch ill and A t le e ) , the p u b lic found arguments I Jto support what they wanted. World W ar I I served as a ! I lab oratory fo r s o c ia l experim ent and con cepts then d ev el- I {oped c a r r ie d o v e r i n t o p e a c e tim e . This developm ent did not sig n a l th e f u l l acceptance i i |and su ccess o f a l l th e a tr e in Great B r ita in . P ro v in cia l rep ertory th e a tr e s were f a i l i n g to a ttr a c t au d ien ces: the i growth o f t e l e v i s i o n , d e te r io r a tio n o f th e a tr e f a c i l i t i e s , and in cr ea sin g production c o s ts a l l con trib u ted to th is f a ilu r e w hich, in tu rn , acted to encourage a governm ental p o lic y o f co n cen tra tio n on a few th e a tr es which were suc- | |c e s s f u l rath er than to d e fe a t the whole program by spreadirg I , ith e a v a ila b le funds too th in ly to r e a lly a id anyone. I i i ! ; In 1 9 4 8 , C r ip p s , r e p r e s e n t in g th e g o v ern m en t, spoke !of a f e a r on th e p a r t o f g o v ern m en ta l le a d e r s o f th e d i r e c t jassu m p tion o f g o v ern m en ta l c o n t r o l and th e su b seq u e n t d e - | velo p m en t o f a p u b lic w h ich w ould depend upon t h a t g o v e r n - i m en ta l c o n t r o l . ; 1 i j I G e n e r a lly , th e p u b lic r e fu s e d t o ta k e f u l l ad van - j i I ; I jta g e o f th e o p p o r t u n it ie s a ffo r d e d by th e 1948 L o c a l Gov ern m en t A ct t o fin a n c e t h e a t r e c o n s t r u c t io n and t o s u b s i- I * jd iz e r e s id e n t p r o d u c tio n co m p a n ies. A f t e r t e n y e a r s o f i ;e n c o u r a g in g p r o v in c ia l e n t e r p r i s e , th e A r ts C o u n c il d e t e r - Imined t h a t th e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s w ere sp en d in g an a v e ra g e | jo f o n e - s e v e n t ie t h o f th e amount a u th o r iz e d and c o n clu d ed ith a t th e p u b lic r e f u s a l t o expend money and e n e r g y was i n d i c a t i v e o f a la c k o f d e s ir e fo r t h e a t r e or o f a grow in g ;d ep en d en ce upon th e c e n t r a l govern m en t. i The p a ssa g e o f th e N a tio n a l T h ea tr e A ct in 1949 i was e v id e n c e o f g o v ern m en ta l in t e n t t o a id in th e c r e a t io n i !o f a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e by c o n t r ib u t in g t o th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f a t h e a t r e b u ild in g . No p o l i c y , a d m in is tr a tio n or o p e r a t i o n was s p e c i f i e d in t h i s A c t; t h e s e d e t a i l s w ere l e f t t o th e T rea su ry w h ich was ch arged w ith a n a ly z in g th e p r o p o s a ls |w hich w ere su b m itte d . P a rlia m e n t was d e s c r ib e d r e p e a t e d ly a s b e in g r e l u c - i ! I [ ta n t t o .a c t .in j:h e _ J fe ^ _ o J L x m tx o x e x sy _ . T h ea tr e le a d e r s . land th e A rts C ouncil opposed cen so rsh ip but o th ers supported : I j it and Parliam ent refu sed to change th e law. The Times argued th a t t h is re lu cta n ce acted to encourage v o c a l oppo s i t i o n by a m inority to attem pts to allow th e a tr e on Sun- i i jday— a t a c t i c w h ich proved s u c c e s s f u l . j : The r e p u ta tio n earned by a cto rs was a major fa c to r ! I in th e development o f p u b lic a ttitu d e toward th e a tr e , j P r ie s tly , A rcher, G ra n v ilie-B a rk er, and Thorndike com- i i I I p lain ed th a t in s u f f ic ie n t tr a in in g and inadequate m otiva- | |tio n were c h a r a c te r is tic s o f most a cto rs and th a t unexempla- j'ry beh avior in p u b lic by some co n trib u ted to th e problem. As l a t e as 1 9 5 8 , The Tim es r e p o r te d an a t t i t u d e on th e p a r t o f th e p u b lic t h a t th e a r t s had t o be k ep t in t h e i r p la c e j |fo r th e moral h e a lth o f th e n a tio n . There was no evid en ce jthat t h is a ttitu d e was shared by th e e n tir e p u b lic; th ere |was evid en ce th a t the g en era l p u b lic was composed o f many I |s p e c ia l p u b lic s, each o f which d efin ed th e a tr e d if f e r e n t ly . I The A rts C o u n cil's ch arter contained r e c o g n itio n o f th e governm ent's o b lig a tio n fo r th e w e ll-b e in g o f th e a - jtre and the in crea se o f th ea tre au d ien ces. The p u b lic did !not seem to understand th a t an a c tiv e audience was not only j i jin d isp e n sib le to th e development o f th e a tr e but th a t i t j j * J IcouId be purchased or c r e a te d by governmenta l d e c r e e ._______ •C om plaints c o n c e r n in g s p e c i f i c f a i l u r e s t o produce "good j th e a tr e " on th e p a r t o f th e A r ts C o u n c il u s u a lly stemmed ! i from t h i s la c k o f u n d e r s ta n d in g . j I The p u b lic a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e a t r e had undergone |many ch a n g es d u r in g th e p e r io d exam ined in t h i s stu d y b u t (th e r e was no e v id e n c e t h a t any s i n g l e a t t i t u d e had b een ! (e lim in a te d . The im p ortan ce o f o ld a t t i t u d e s ch a n g ed , but th e a t t i t u d e s t h e m s e lv e s , a s su p p o rt was g r a n ted t o th e a t r e . Once s p e c i f i c su p p o rt was g r a n te d t o t h e a t r e i t d id n o t become a u to m a t ic a lly p a r t o f n a t io n a l t r a d i t i o n b u t was made t o sta n d a t e s t o f tim e . The B r i t i s h t r a d i t i o n was d e s c r ib e d as one in w h ich p o l i c i e s grew p ie c e m e a l. The program s g r a d u a lly e v o lv e d and w ere n o t c r e a te d w ith a { S in g le a c t io n in much th e same way a p e r m is s iv e a t t i t u d e i i is lo w ly d e v e lo p e d as one s p e c i f i c exam ple o f g o v ern m en ta l 1 ! ^ su ccess fo llo w e d a n o th er or as argum ents in su p p o rt o f t h e - ' i ja tr e g r a d u a lly a c cu m u la ted . The p r e s e n t program o f g o v ern m en ta l su p p o rt d e v e l oped ov er a p e r io d o f two c e n t u r i e s . In 1 753, th e g o v e r n ment assum ed f i n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r th e B r i t i s h Mu- i i jseum , an i n s t i t u t i o n w h ich was s t a r t e d and su p p o rted by an j | i |a c t i v e m in o r ity in th e B r i t i s h p u b lic . P u b lic l i b r a r i e s | j ! land g a l l e r i e s we r e added t o th e g o v ern m en t's r e s p o n s i b i l i - : t i e s a s th e y w ere d e v e lo p e d . In th e 1 9 3 0 ’ s th e g o v ern m en t,j th ro u g h th e BBC, b egan r e g u la r su p p o rt (em ploym ent and a u d ie n c e -b u ild in g d is s e m in a tio n ) t o sy m p h o n ies, to u r in g a r t e x h i b i t io n s became p o p u la r and su ch c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s i I :w ere g r a n ted an ex em p tio n from th e E n te r ta in m en ts D u ty. In 11943, th e C o u n c il f o r th e Encouragem ent o f M usic and th e |A r t s , th e body d i s t r i b u t i n g some o f th e T rea su ry fu n d s , was d eterm in ed t o have no o f f i c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e ta x {ex em p tio n s o r to t h e sy stem o f c e n s o r s h ip . i A s m a ll s i t e fo r a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e was purchased p r i v a t e l y in 1937, in 1943 a n a t io n a l t h e a t r e became p a rt j o f p ostw ar r e c o n s t r u c t io n p la n n in g fo r London and, f o l lo w in g an o f f e r t o exch an ge s i t e s made in 1 9 4 5 , th e fo u n d a tio n 1 s to n e was l a i d on a new s i t e in 1951. C o n str u c tio n was n o t begun im m ed ia tely a f t e r th e fo u n d in g cerem ony b e c a u se no r e a l p la n s e x is t e d and th e s i t e was changed a g a in in 1953. P r e s s u r e s t o c a n c e l th e b u ild in g p la n s p e c i f i e d in th e N a tio n a l T h ea tre A c t o f 1949 r e s u lt e d in a 1961 T reasu ry j d e c i s i o n to r e p la c e th e b u ild in g w ith in c r e a s e d su p p ort to 't h e p r o v in c e s . A f t e r a p e r io d o f h e c t i c n e g o t i a t i o n s , th e ; London C ounty C o u n c il a greed to sh a re th e c o s t s o f a Lon- \ J j | d o n -b a sed N a tio n a l T h ea tre and Opera H ouse and in th e i ; I autumn o f 1963 th e N a tio n a l T h ea tre Company opened i t s ______ i t . f i r s t season in th e Old V ic Theatre which i t was to occupy pending th e co n str u ctio n o f new f a c i l i t i e s on the South ;Bank s i t e . i . • The government p a r tic ip a tio n in th e esta b lish m en t 1 |o f th e N a tio n a l Theatre was ju s t one r e s u lt o f th e programs Ibegun in World War I I . The Entertainm ents N a tio n a l S erv ice A sso c ia tio n was created to m aintain the m orale o f troop s i iand war w orkers. A lack o f fin a n c ia l independence, d is in t e g r a tio n o f th e s t a f f and a co n cen tra tio n on q u a n tity ra th er than q u a lity a l l co n trib u ted to th e governm ent's d e c is io n t |to d is s o lv e t h is program a t the end o f World W ar I I . i j The C ouncil for th e Encouragement o f Music and the A rts was crea ted to p reserve and m aintain a r t i s t s , a rt !form s, and stand ard s. T his C ouncil soon came under th e |le a d e r sh ip o f Keynes and under th e p r o te c tio n o f the Treasury and the su ccess o f t h is C ouncil was recogn ized I i jwhen, in 1 9 4 6 , i t was r e c o n s t it u t e d as th e A r ts C o u n c il o f i JGreat B r ita in . j The major problem o f the p r o v in c ia l r e p e r to r ie s was t ' th e la ck o f p u b lic in te r e s t in th e a tr e as evidence by th e ;sm all percentage o f the t o t a l p opu lation which attended i I jth e a tr e . Attem pts to e s ta b lis h " th eatre g rid s" or produc- 1 i j i : i tio n .e x c h a n g e pjtograms_£aile.d._he.causLe_aud_iences__were__eyen_ 1 .. I sm a lle r fo r o u t-o f-to w n com p an ies th a n fo r l o c a l a c t in g | g r o u p s. T h ea tre was n o t s u c c e s s f u l l y g ra n ted t o a commu- j ' J n i t y w h ich had a h i s t o r y o f ig n o r in g i t , o r s o th e A r ts 'C o u n c il c o n clu d ed a f t e r r e v ie w in g t h e i r c o n s i s t e n t f a i l u r e | l t o e s t a b l i s h t h e a t r e s th ro u g h o u t th e n a t io n . The c r e a t io n I o f th e B e lg r a d e T h ea tre in C o v en try th ro u g h community | e f f o r t and th e i n i t i a l s u c c e s s o f t h a t t h e a t r e su b s ta n tia te d i I Jth e A r ts C o u n c il's th e o r y th a t su ch l o c a l e f f o r t c o u p le d i ! w ith th e p r o v is io n o f th e f i n e s t accom m odations f o r th e | a u d ien ce w ould a c t t o r e v iv e p r o v in c ia l t h e a t r e , j A c co r d in g t o p o p u la r o p in io n , exem p tion from En- I | te r ta in m e n ts Duty was d ep en d en t upon th e e d u c a t io n a l c h a r - j a c t e r o f a p a r t ic u la r p la y . T h is " e d u c a tio n a l" t e s t so o n ! proved t o be unw orkable an d , a lth o u g h i t was s t i l l a p p lie d ■ t o a w h ole s e a s o n , th e prim e r e q u i s i t e fo r exem p tion became : ! a n o n p r o f i t - d i s t r i b u t i n g f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s . T h is was n o t ! j i i j g e n e r a lly u n d ersto o d by th e p u b lic and c o n t r o v e r s ie s d e v e l- i oped o v er th e e d u c a t io n a l v a lu e o f some p la y s . The c o n c e p t o f t a x p r o t e c t io n fo r " su p e r io r " t h e a t r e became o f f i c i a l | p o lic y fo r a p e r io d f o llo w in g World War I I . i The T reasu ry was th e so u r c e o f governm ent fu n d s andj j i | t r a d i t i o n a l l y made th e g r a n ts t o museums, g a l l e r i e s , and . s c i e n t i f i c s o c i e t i e s and i t assum ed th e b u lk o f g o v e r n -_ _ imental r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r th e a r ts although th e M in is tr ie s o f Education and Works reta in ed t h e ir r e s p e c tiv e fu n ctio n s o f a d v isin g on A rts C ouncil membership and m aintain in g j ( ! i p u b lic b u ild in g s . i J P ressu res fo r th e c r e a tio n o f a M in istry o f Fine i 1 jArts in crea sed as th e Treasury grant to th e A rts C ouncil 1 jin crea sed . The government r e s is t e d th ese p ressu res on th e i i jgrounds th a t no s p e c if ic purposes, programs, or r e la t io n s h ip s to oth er a u th o r itie s or media had been determ ined land, th e r e fo r e , th a t no problems would have been solved by i I th e c r e a tio n o f a s p e c ia l M in istry . I t was argued th a t th e i C hancellor o f the Exchequer alread y fu n ction ed as a M in is te r o f Fine A rts but th a t he was hampered by h is r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to keep governm ental exp en ses as low as p o s s ib le . The C han cellor was d escrib ed as not being equipped to make i a e s th e t ic d e c isio n s and b ein g forced to w ait u n t il a con- jsensus o f op inion developed b efore he could make a d e c i- i s io n . This was seen to a ct as both a stre n g th and a weak n e s s . Not being p e rso n a lly in volved in th e a r t s , the C hancellor was not lik e l y to fo rce h is p erson al t a s t e s on |the programs but he was a ls o u n lik e ly to take d e c is iv e jaction during a co n tro v ersy . As was to be ex p ected , the I ‘d ir e c t c o n tr o l o f th e support programs by th e Treasury____ 318 i d e c r e a se d a s th e f u n c t io n s o f th e A r ts C o u n c il expand ed . f D u rin g a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e p u rp o ses o f g o v ern m en ta l su p p o rt t o th e a r t s , i t was d eterm in ed by one f a c t i o n in |P a r lia m e n t th a t a id sh o u ld be g r a n te d on th e b a s is o f i i |e x p e c te d c o n t r ib u t io n s t o th e c u l t u r a l l i f e o f th e n a t io n i I :r a th e r th a n upon t r a d i t i o n . D is c u s s io n o f t h i s n a tu r e in i I P a r lia m e n t c r y s t a l l i z e d i n t o demands f o r a f u l l i n v e s t i g a I i j t io n i n t o th e su p p o rt program s b u t t h i s p r e s s u r e was r e - i I i li e v e d by th e g o v ern m en t1s in c r e a s e in th e amount g r a n ted j to th e A r ts C o u n c il. P a rlia m e n t f a i l e d to f o llo w th ro u g h ■ in i t s demands and no f u l l - s c a l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n was i n i t i - i I ;a te d . G overnm ental in t e r f e r e n c e e v o lv e d in t o a d e g r e e o f ig o v er n m e n ta l c o n t r o l as i t co n cern ed c e n s o r s h ip , Sunday ■ th e a tr e , and ex em p tio n s from th e E n te r ta in m e n ts D u ty. The i |p r a c t i c e o f w artim e c e n s o r s h ip was j u s t i f i e d f o r r e a s o n s o f i !m orale and n a t io n a l s e c u r i t y and news b r o a d c a s ts w ere a llo w e d v o l u n t a r i ly t o subm it t o c e n s o r s h ip and th e r e b y a v o id p r o s e c u tio n on c h a r g e s o f s la n d e r or v i o l a t i o n o f s e c u r i t y . C h u r c h ill s p e c i f i c a l l y r e fu s e d t o a p p ly c e n s o r - |s h i p in p o l i t i c a l m a tte r s even th ou gh p o l i t i c a l d is p u t e s i i jc o n c e iv a b ly c o u ld h ave a f f e c t e d th e war e f f o r t . In p e a c e - I 11im e, th e c e n s o r s h ip o f p l a y s . w h ich a c te d a s a p r o t e c t i on ' “ 319 'sy ste m , was j u s t i f i e d on m oral g ro u n d s. The l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s w ere n ot r e s t r i c t e d by law from p r o s e c u tin g w h a tev er th e y deemed t o b e im m oral o r o b sc e n e b u t in th e few a t - j 1 ! tem p ts made t o ban s p e c i f i c p la y s th e c o u r ts r u le d th a t th e ! p la y s w ere n o t im m oral or o b s c e n e . For th e m ost p a r t , th e i 1 ■ I i l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s w ere c o n te n t t o r e l y upon th e governm ent i ev en though th e y h e ld th e power t o l i c e n s e th e t h e a t r e s i f i ! jn o t th e p la y s . The s i t u a t i o n was f u r th e r c o m p lic a te d by | ith e e x is t e n c e o f th e Sunday t h e a t r e c lu b s w h ich w ere n o t j t is u b j e c t t o c e n s o r s h ip b e c a u se t h e y , t e c h n i c a l l y , p r e se n te d :p la y s t o a p r iv a t e and n on p ayin g a u d ie n c e and b e c a u se th e y w ere l e g a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d a s " clu b s" and n o t as t h e a t r e s . jThe s u c c e s s o f t h e s e Sunday c lu b s was argued t o be a f a c t o r in th e f a i l u r e o f th e governm ent t o a b o lis h c e n s o r s h ip : th e y p rovid ed a way t o a v o id c e n s o r s h ip and a c te d t o r e - i i : 1 ; l i e v e th e p r e s s u r e s t o a b o lis h i t . j | The Sunday O bservance A c ts w ere s t i l l in e f f e c t lo n g a f t e r ty p e s o f p u b lic e n te r ta in m e n t o th e r th a n t h e a t r e had d e v e lo p ed and w ere a llo w ed t o o p e r a te on Sunday. 1 A s u c c e s s io n o f C h a n c e llo r s o f th e E xchequer t e s t i - j f i e d t h a t th e E n te r ta in m en ts Duty had an a d v e r se e f f e c t on J i ; i [ t h e a t r e . T h is was i l l u s t r a t e d by th e p r e s e n t a t io n in P ar- i !1iam ent o f l i s t s o f t h e a t r e s w h ich had p aid an amoun t in ____ ; " 320 ta x which had exceeded t h e ir fin a n c ia l lo s s e s . The ta x was crea ted as a source o f revenue during World War I and re ta in e d fo r purposes o f revenue alth ou gh , fo llo w in g World War I I , i t was m anipulated in a manner c a lc u la te d to act as! ia p r o te c tiv e t a r i f f fo r s e le c te d th e a tr e s . The adm ission i p r ic e s fo r a tax-exem pt production were no lower than th o se fo r the p r o f it - d is t r ib u t in g th e a tr e s; th e exem ption allow ed ! ■a h igh er margin o f p r o f it , h igher p roduction standards I f i( t h e o r e t ic a lly ) and a g r e a te r degree o f permanence fo r th e th e a tr e company. One West End production firm , H. M . ! Tennent, L td ., e s ta b lis h e d a n o n p r o fit-d is tr ib u tin g sub- i s id ia r y and thereby gained an advantage over i t s commercial r i v a l s . The government acted to d e fe a t a b i l l which would :have reduced the op p o rtu n ity to p r o fit by th e ta x exemp- | t io n . In 1957 th e Entertainm ents Duty on th e a tr e was ; a b o lish ed and from th a t p o in t on, production gran ts to ! th e a tr e s were la r g e ly adm inistered through th e A rts Coun c i l . j W hile the government was d ir e c t ly r e sp o n sib le fo r | c e n so r sh ip , p ro h ib itio n o f th ea tre on Sunday and th e E nter- I t tainm ents Duty, a l l o f which acted to in h ib it or r e s t r i c t [ th e a tr e a c t iv it y , i t a lso attem pted to aid B r itis h th e a tr e i i t I by t a k in g s te p s t o p r e s e r v e p la y h o u s e s . By 1957 a comp l e t e! ' sy stem by w hich t h e a t r e s c o u ld be s e l e c t e d and p r e ser v ed had n o t been d e v e lo p e d and g o v ern m en ta l p o lic y was based ;on fo u r d ocum ents: th e 1 9 4 7 , 1948 and 1957 Town and C ountry ^ P lann in g A c t s , and a 1950 O rder. The b a s ic e x p r e s s io n o f i ! p o l i c y w as th e 1947 A ct in w h ich th e l o c a l p la n n in g a u th o r - ! | i t y was a u th o r iz e d t o is s u e b u ild in g p r e s e r v a t io n o rd ers | r e s t r i c t i n g th e d e m o litio n o r a l t e r a t i o n o f b u ild in g s w ith I ]h i s t o r i c or a r c h it e c t u r a l m e r it . Of m ajor im p o rta n t was i i j th e f a c t th a t t h i s A c t c o n ta in e d no p r o v is io n fo r p r o h i b it - | in g ch an ge o f u s e or i n t e r i o r s t r u c t u r a l ch an ges in th e j b u i ld in g s . S u b seq u en t l e g i s l a t i o n f a i l e d t o p r o h ib it c h a n g es in th e i n t e r i o r o f th e b u ild in g and th e U se C la ss ! c o n t a in in g t h e a t r e w as expanded t o in c lu d e a g r e a t d iv e r - | s i t y o f in d o o r e n te r ta in m e n ts . The A r ts C o u n c il's c o n c ep t ; o f a t h e a t r e p r e s e r v a t io n p o l i c y b a sed on th e e f f i c i e n t d ev elo p m en t o f th e B r i t i s h t h e a t r e , in c lu d in g th e c r e a t io n j | o f a s e p a r a te U se C la s s fo r t h e a t r e s , was n o t adop ted by j ! th e governm ent d u rin g th e p e r io d o f t h i s stu d y . The governm ent c r e a te d and su p p orted th e com m ercial | c o m p e titio n t o i t s own BBC t e l e v i s i o n m onopoly, th e In d e - j pen d en t T e le v is io n A u t h o r it y , w h ich became th e c h i e f com pe- ! t i t i o n t o th e s u b s id iz e d t h e a t r e . The A r ts C o u n c il used ! i th e argum ent t h a t th e p u b lic w ould se e k and pay f o r t h e ___ t h e a t r e o f th e h ig h e s t q u a l it y in s p i t e o f t e l e v i s i o n ' s p roven dom inance o v e r th e s e c o n d -r a te t h e a t r e t o j u s t i f y i t s c o n c e n tr a tio n on a few t h e a t r e s w h ich h e ld p rom ise o f 'p r o v id in g such q u a l i t y . T e le v is i o n was se e n t o be th e b e s t d i f f u s e r o f th e a r t s and a medium w h ich p o s s e s s e d i t s own a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s . As th e com m ercial t e l e v i s i o n compan- j i e s pu rchased t h e a t r e s and r i g h t s t o p r o d u c tio n s , th e y |becam e more d ep en d en t upon t h e a t r e f o r q u a l it y m a te r ia l and I t h e a t r e , in tu r n becam e more d ep en d en t upon t e l e v i s i o n fo r f i n a n c i a l su p p o r t. I G e n e r a lly , th e governm ent r e s i s t e d p r e s s u r e s t o j p r o v id e employm ent f o r p erfo rm ers th ro u g h th e su p p o rt p ro grams a lth o u g h one o f th e o r i g i n a l p u rp o ses o f th e C o u n c il : f o r th e Encouragem ent o f M usic and th e A r ts was t o m a in ta in it h e s k i l l s o f a r t i s t s - - a p u rp ose w h ich was a c h ie v e d th rou gh su p p o rt to w ork in g co m p a n ies. The g r e a t e s t problem w h ich jd e v e lo p e d in reg a rd t o em ploym ent con cern ed E q u ity 's u n o f f i c i a l fu n c tio n a s a d v is o r t o th e M in is tr y o f Labour and N a tio n a l S e r v ic e on a p p lic a t io n s f o r work p e r m its from f o r e ig n p e r fo r m er s. A lth o u g h em ploym ent o f a c to r s w as men- ; tio n e d as a p o s s ib le a d van tage in th e d is c u s s io n o f th e I N a t io n a l T h ea tre A ct o f 1 9 4 9 , t h i s was n o t p r e se n te d as a f I Im ajor p u rp ose o f t h a t l e g i s l a t i o n . ______________________________ ........... ' 323 : ! ; The E s s e x c o n s p ir a c y was a m ajor exam ple o f " gov- j ern m en ta l" u s e o f th e s t a g e f o r propaganda p u r p o se s. In more r e c e n t t im e s , th e r e w ere n o t su ch c o n sp ic u o u s exa m p les, j i n o t e v e n as a r e s u l t o f th e p r e s s u r e s o f W orld War I I , > i > i i a lth o u g h th e p u rp o se s and te c h n iq u e s o f propaganda w ere j | i iknown. W ith one m inor e x c e p t io n , th e governm ent d id n o t I ad op t a p o lic y o f u s in g th e s u b s id iz e d s ta g e fo r propaganda |p u r p o s e s d u rin g th e p ostw ar n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f in d u s tr y . |C h a rg es th a t c o n t r o v e r s i a l t h e a t r e r e c e i v in g g o v ern m en ta l ! a id w ere i n f i l t r a t e d by com m unists w ere ig n o r e d by th e g o v ern m en t. | C o n c lu s io n s From th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e p u b lic t h e a t r e in i s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y England t o 1 9 6 3 , th e same s e t o f u n fa v o r - ; a b le a t t i t u d e s ( d is o r d e r , d i s e a s e , m oral c o r r u p tio n , in h e r -j e n t l y s i n f u l a c t i v i t y ) e x is t e d in th e p u b lic b u t th e im por-j t ; ta n c e o f th o s e a t t i t u d e s underw ent ch a n g es a s th e c h a r a c te r o f th e a u d ie n c e ch a n g ed . S in c e th e m id d le o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , e x p r e s s io n s o f fa v o r a b le a t t i t u d e s tow ard t h e a t r e | ! I accu m u lated and d e v e lo p e d in t o j u s t i f i c a t i o n s o f g o v e r n - im e n ta l su p p o rt t o t h e a t r e . A r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t p o p u la r ! i ; I e n te r ta in m e n t c o u ld c o n t r ib u t e t o th e m o ra l, i n t e l l e c t u a l , ; ~ .....- -------------------------- ;-------------324’ i a e s t h e t i c , and c u l t u r a l m a tu r ity o f b o th th e in d iv id u a l andi I th e n a t io n d e v e lo p ed among an i n f l u e n t i a l m in o r ity w h ich j in c lu d e d th e m ost im p ortan t f i g u r e s in th e governm ent o f i 1 th e p a st f i f t y y e a r s as w e l l as t h e a t r e le a d e r s . 1 Much o f th e s u c c e s s o f th e e f f o r t t o e x te n d su p p o rtj ! | I t o t h e a t r e r e s u lt e d from an aw aren ess o f th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i !w h ich accom panied th e a c c e p ta n c e o f a p u b lic t r u s t on th e i * Jp art o f k ey g o v ern m en ta l o f f i c i a l s . T here was no e v id e n c e i !t h a t t h i s t r u s t was c o n s c io u s ly a b u s e d --a t r i b u t e t o th e | c a li b e r and t r a d i t i o n s o f t h o s e o f f i c i a l s . i I The sy ste m o f g o v ern m en ta l su p p o rt t o t h e a t r e in l [G reat B r it a in had n o t e v o lv e d by 1963 t o th e p o in t th a t a j s i n g l e agen cy a d m in iste r e d a l l program s a f f e c t i n g t h e a t r e . The A r ts C o u n c il was n o t th e m ost im p ortan t e le m en t in th e ; su p p ort program ; t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n rem ained w ith th e T r e a s - | u ry w h ile th e M in is t r ie s o f E d u ca tio n and Works s t i l l r e - ; ! ta in e d t h e i r c u l t u r a l f u n c t io n s . W hile th e T rea su ry r e c e iv e d a d v ic e from th e A r ts C o u n c il, i t s t i l l earm arked th e Jb u lk o f i t s fu n d s f o r th e su p p o rt o f s p e c i f i c m ajor i n s t i - |t u t i o n s i n London. The A r ts C o u n c il was a llo w e d to fu n c - i ; t i o n w ith a g r e a t e r d e g r ee o f freedom in th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ! i I 1 (g r a n ts t o r e p e r to r y t h e a t r e s , b u r s a r ie s t o p la y w r ig h ts , a n d1 | i : p r iz e s f o r new pl a y s . The A r ts Co u n c i l ' s a ttem p t t o _ encourage lo c a l i n i t i a t i v e in th e developm ent o f th e a tr e f a ile d and a p o lic y o f s e le c t iv e d iff u s io n o f the a rts r e s u lt e d : th e a tr e could not be g ra fted to a community which I did not want i t and a r ts had to be developed b efo re th ey j could be d issem in a ted . The th r ee governm ental programs I which receiv ed th e w id est p u b lic ity and th e most b it t e r i I o p p o sitio n , c e n s o r sh ip , E ntertainm ents D uty, and th e Sunday j | |O bservance, were not c o n tr o lle d by th e A rts C ou n cil. Cen- i Iso rsh ip and Sunday Observance were e s ta b lis h e d and could be amended o n ly by Parliam ent w h ile the E ntertainm ents Duty i on th e a tr e was e s ta b lish e d and a b o lish ed by th e T reasury. !a b e n e fit o f t h i s la ck o f a u th o r ity on th e part o f th e A rts ! (c o u n c il was i t s freedom from having to defend outmoded (tr a d itio n s in d is c u s s io n s o f th e fu n ctio n o f government in i i ;th e a r t s . t j i The r e la t io n s h ip between th e fu tu re o f B r itis h |th e a tr e and th e n e c e s s ity o f u sin g a degree o f s e l e c t i v i t y in th e p reserv a tio n o f th e a tr e s was o u tlin e d by th e A rts C ou n cil but th e government fa ile d to is s u e a c le a r op era t i o n a l p o lic y in th a t regard. No p o lic y was e s ta b lis h e d on ith e b a s is o f th e B r is t o l or Covent Garden a c tio n s . No j ( le g is la t io n was enacted to p ro h ib it a lte r a tio n to the !in te r io r s of th e a tr e s or to th e o u tr ig h t purchase o f ______ t h e a t r e s . i T hroughout th e sc o p e o f t h i s s tu d y , th e p r o v in c ia l j o f f i c i a l s c o n s i s t e n t l y r e fu s e d t o e x e r t or d e v e lo p t h e i r > ! a u t h o r it y b u t seem ed in c lin e d t o w a it f o r th e c e n t r a l g o v - I i em in en t t o make a d e c is io n . The A r ts C o u n c il d e s c r ib e d j ’t h i s a t t i t u d e a s th e g r e a t e s t d a n g er o f g o vern m en tal su p - j | I I p o r t — th e in d iv id u a l w ould ten d t o f o r g e t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l - ! i i i - i j i t y t o e v a lu a t e th e r e l a t i v e m e r its o f w orks o f a r t . i | I m p lic a tio n s and S u g g e s tio n s f o r F u r th e r S tu d y A lth o u g h th e B r i t i s h governm ent d em on strated an | a b i l i t y t o r ed u c e th e econ om ic h a za rd s o f t h e a t r e p ro d u c- | ! t i o n a s a means o f e x te n d in g th e a u d ie n c e 's o p p o r tu n ity t o ! e x p e r ie n c e a v a r i e t y in t h e a t r i c a l f a r e , i t a ls o demon s t r a t e d a r e lu c t a n c e t o fo r m u la te a p r e c is e p o lic y o f c u l - i ' t u r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w ith w h ich th e o p e r a tio n o f s p e c i f i c j • i ; program s w ould be c o o r d in a te d . P erhaps a d e g r e e o f su ch ' ■ i r e lu c t a n c e was i n e v it a b le in a s o c i e t y w h ich t r a d i t i o n a l l y h arb ored a f e a r o f a b u se s o f g o v ern m en ta l pow er. A lth o u g h i n s u f f i c i e n t c o o r d in a tio n b etw een program s a d m in iste r e d by ‘ I j s e p a r a te g o v ern m en ta l a g e n c ie s or b o d ie s fu n c t io n in g fo r j t ! th e governm ent stemmed from a sp o r a d ic d evelop m en t o f p ro - i : grams„ to_jn eet ..apparent_needjs.»_itL _cauld_not„be__excused_as___ 327 j b e in g i n e v i t a b l e , d e s i r a b l e , or beyond th e w it o f man t o 'c o r r e c t . j ■ A more d e t a ile d d e s c r ip t io n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p Ibetw een th e governm ent and a p o p u la r t h e a t r e a w a its a f u l l a n a ly s is o f th e p e r s o n n e l, f i n a n c i a l , and a e s t h e t i c b a se o f |t h e t h e a t r e in q u e s tio n and o f th e com m unity w h ich p r o v id e s i i t s a u d ie n c e . A f u l l u n d e r sta n d in g o f th e e v o lv in g fu n c - j t io n o f th e A r ts C o u n c il a s a n on govern m en tal a d v is o r t o I th e T reasu ry a w a its th e stu d y o f th e f ig u r e s in v o lv e d , th e ] i c o l l e c t i o n o f a l l p e r tin e n t c o r r e sp o n d e n c e , and an a n a ly s is i j o f p u b lic r e a c t io n s t o T reasu ry d e c i s i o n s . A stu d y o f th e jc o m p o sitio n o f and sy ste m o f ap p oin tm en t o f members t o th e A r ts C o u n c il may r e v e a l a h id d en and perh ap s u n c o n sc io u s j I c o n t r o l o f t h i s body by th e governm ent o f th e d ay. In th e i * f i n a l a n a l y s i s , th e v a lu e o f t h e a t r e must be d eterm in ed by an a c t iv e t h e a t r e p u b lic r e p r e s e n t in g a l l segm en ts o f a i j s o c i e t y r a th e r th a n by e le c t e d o r a p p o in te d o f f i c i a l s i f i th e s o c i a l p o t e n t i a l s o f an a r t a r e t o be r e a l i z e d . Weak n e s s e s and i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in th e B r i t i s h sy ste m o f su p p o rt I ca n be tr a c e d t o a tte m p ts t o com p en sate f o r th e la c k o f | su ch an a u d ie n c e p r io r t o th e fo r m u la tio n o f program s, th e I i i | pu rpose o f w h ich was th e d evelop m en t o f su ch an a u d ie n c e . B I B L I O G R A P H Y BIBLIOGRAPHY Books A r c h e r , W illia m , and G r a n v ille -B a r k e r , H a r le y . Scheme and E stim a te s fo r a N a tio n a l T h e a tr e . New York: D u f- f i e l d and Company, 1 9 08. The A r ts E n q u iry . The V is u a l A r t s . 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The Use o f th e Drama. London: i Sidgw ick and Jackson, 1 9 4 6 . | G u th rie, Tyrone. A L ife in th e T h eatre. New York: McGraw-j H i l l Brook Company, I n c ., 1 9 5 9 . j H erbert, A lan P. '^o Fine on F un.M London: Methuen and Company, L td ., 1 9 5 7 . I Ir v in g , Henry. The Theatre and the S t a t e . Boston: Richard' G. Badger and Company, 1 898. | J s p e s , D. G. ( e d . ) . The U n i v e r s i t i e s and th e T h e a tr e . London: George A lle n and Unwin, L td ., 1952. j , K err, H a m ilto n , e t a l . G overnm ent and th e A r t s . London: C o n s e r v a tiv e P o l i t i c a l C e n tr e , 1962. Landstone, C h arles. O ff-S ta g e . London: E lek Books, L td ., 1 9 53. M acqueen-P ope, W . P i l l a r s o f D rury L an e. London: H u tc h in so n and Company, L t d ., 1955. N ic o ll, A lla r d y c e . World Drama. New York: H arcourt, Brace and Company, n .d . P age, D. S . The Law o f th e Am ateur S t a g e . London: S ir Isaac Pitman and Sons, L td ., 1 929. __________j P alm er, Joh n . The C ensor and th e T h e a tr e s . London: T. ! F is h e r Unwin, 1 9 1 2 . P r ie s t ly , J . B. Theatre O utlook. London: N ich olson and W atson, 1 94 7. The S c o t t i s h N a tio n a l P la y e r s . The S c o t t i s h N a t io n a l.- T h ea tr e V e n tu re . G lasgow : The S c o t t i s h N a tio n a l P la y e r s , 1953. j Shaw, G. B. "The C e n so r sh ip o f th e S ta g e in E n g la n d ," Shawl on T h e a tr e . E d ite d by E. J . W est. New Y ork: H i l l i and Wang, 1958. Pp. 6 6 -7 9 . Shaw, G. B. "The Problem P la y --A Sym posium ," Shaw on j T h e a tr e . E d ite d by E. J . W est. NewJYork: H i l l j and Wang, 1958. Pp. 5 8 -6 5 . * ’ * * ' j ___________ . " S a in t Joan Banned: F ilm C e n so r sh ip in th e U n ited S t a t e s ," Shaw on T h e a tr e . E d ite d by E. J . W est. New York: H i l l and Wang, 1958. Pp. 243-2511 t W hitw orth , G e o ffr e y . 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Creator Sherriffs, Ronald Everett (author)

Core Title A Historical Study Of The Development Of Governmental Support To Theatre In Great Britain

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Communication (Drama)

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Theater

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Butler, James H. (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member), Berger, Stephen E. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-352941

Unique identifier UC11359153

Identifier 6413537.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-352941 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6413537.pdf

Dmrecord 352941

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Sherriffs, Ronald Everett

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA