Transfer Of A Learned Neuromuscular Performance To The Ipsilateral And Contralateral Limbs: Dynamic Steadiness And Speed

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Content T his d isserta tio n has been 64— 2589
m icrofilm ed ex a ctly as receiv ed
McKINNEY, Wayne C arson, 1930-
TRANSFER OF A LEARNED NEUROMUSCULAR
PERFORMANCE TO THE IPSILATERAL AND
CONTRALATERAL LIMBS: DYNAMIC STEADI
NESS AND SPEED.
U n iversity of Southern C alifornia, P h.D ., 1963
Education, physical
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
TRANSFER OF A LEARNED NEUROMUSCULAR PERFORMANCE
TO THE IPSILATERAL AND CONTRALATERAL LIMBS:
DYNAMIC STEADINESS AND SPEED
By
Wayne C a rso n McKinney
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d t o t h e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e
R e q u ire m e n ts f o r t h e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
( H i y s i c a l E d u c a tio n )
Ju n e 1963
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS A N G ELES 7, C ALIFOR NIA
This dissertation, written by
...................
under the direction of hL&...Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Date J.Un.Q...19.63
D gE R T A T IO N COMMITTEE
/
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF T A B L E S ........................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIG U R E S........................................................................................... v i
C h a p te r
I . INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 1
The S ta te m e n t o f t h e P rob lem
Im p o rta n c e o f t h e S tu d y
Scope a n d L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y
P ro c e d u re
D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms
O r g a n iz a t i o n o f t h e R em ain in g C h a p te r s
I I . REVIEW OF THE L IT E R A T U R E .................................................... 10
T r a n s f e r o f N o n r e s i s t i v e P e rfo rm a n c e s
T r a n s f e r o f R e s i s t i v e P e rfo rm a n c e s
Summary
I I I . EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE......................................................... 30
S u b je c ts
E x p e rim e n ta l A p p a ra tu s
E x p e rim e n ta l D e sig n
Summary
IV. ANALYSIS OF THE D A T A .............................................................. 51
The G e n e r a l P ro c e d u re o f t h e S t a t i s t i c a l
A n a ly s is
R e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e P e rfo rm a n c e s on t h e
E x p e r im e n ta l A p p a ra tu s
« •
n
Chapter Page
P r e - T e s t R e s u l t s
T r a i n in g Program
P o s t - T e s t R e s u l t s
P r e - T e s t th r o u g h P o s t - T e s t L e a r n in g
P e r c e n ta g e s o f Im provem ent
Summary o f t h e F in d in g s
V. DISCUSSION .................................................................................
Summary
V I. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . .
Summary
F in d in g s
C o n c lu s io n
R ecom m endations
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...........................................................................................
89
110
116
APPENDIXES 127
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. P i l o t S tu d y T e s t - R e t e s t R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f i
c i e n t s f o r t h e P r e f e r r e d U pper L i m b ........................ 56
2 . P i l o t S tu d y T e s t - R e t e s t R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f i
c i e n t s f o r t h e N o n p re fe rre d U pper Limb . . . 57
3 . P r e - t e s t R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r Lower
L i m b ............................................................................................... 58
4 . P r e - t e s t R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r Upper
L i m b ............................................................................................... 59
5 . P o s t - t e s t R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r Lower
L i m b ............................................................................................... 61
6 . P o s t - t e s t R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r Upper
L i m b ............................................................................................... 62
7. P r e - t e s t Mean C om parisons b e tw ee n Groups f o r
Lower Limb V a r i a b l e s ....................................................... 65
8. P r e - t e s t Mean C om parisons b e tw een G roups f o r
U pper Limb V a r i a b l e s ........................................................ 66
9 . P o s t - t e s t Mean C om parisons b e tw ee n G roups f o r
Lower Limb V a r i a b l e s ........................................................ 71
10. P o s t - t e s t Mean C om parisons b etw een G roups f o r
Upper Limb V a r i a b l e s ........................................................ 73
11. D if f e r e n c e s i n Mean G ains w i t h i n G roups f o r
Lower Limb V a r i a b l e s ........................................................ 78
iv
Table Page
12. D i f f e r e n c e s i n Mean G a in s w i t h i n G roups f o r
U pper Limb V a r i a b l e s .......................................................... 80
13. P e r c e n ta g e s o f Im provem ent f o r Group I and
G roup I I ........................................................................................ 83
14. T o ta l P e r c e n ta g e o f Im provem ent f o r G roup I I I . 85
15. P r e - t e s t S c o re s f o r Group I ............................................... 129
16. P r e - t e s t S c o re s f o r Group I I .......................................... 131
17. P r e - t e s t S c o re s f o r Group I I I .......................................... 133
18. T r a i n in g P rog ram Means f o r Group I ........................... 136
19. T r a i n i n g P rogram Means f o r Group I I ........................... 139
2 0 . P o s t - t e s t S c o re s f o r G roup I .......................................... 143
21. P o s t - t e s t S c o re s f o r Group I I ......................................... 145
22. P o s t - t e s t S c o re s f o r Group I I I ..................................... 147
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. The Maze Fram e and Maze B o a r d s ..................................... 34
2. The R ig h t U pper Limb T e s t i n g P o s i t i o n ...................... 35
3. The R ig h t Lower Limb T e s ti n g P o s i t i o n . . . . . 36
4. E l e c t r i c a l D i a g r a m ................................................................... 39
5. T r a i n i n g P rogram L e a r n in g C u rv es f o r E r r o r s . . 67
6 . C o m p ariso n o f P r e - t e s t an d P o s t - t e s t Means f o r
T r a v e r s a l Time a n d E r r o r T i m e .................................... 75
7 . C o m p ariso n o f P r e - t e s t and P o s t - t e s t Means f o r
E r r o r s ........................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The f a c t t h a t man p e rfo rm s i n a u n i l a t e r a l f a s h i o n
when he p a r t i c i p a t e s i n p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s i s a m a t t e r o f
common o b s e r v a t i o n . He a p p e a r s t o h a v e th e anatom y t o p e r
form e q u a l l y w e l l w ith b o th s i d e s o f th e body. G e n e r a ll y ,
why does h e p r e f e r one hand o v e r t h e o th e r ? C ould u n i l a t
e r a l t e n d e n c i e s be due t o c e r e b r a l dom inance? R e g a rd in g
c e r e b r a l d o m in an ce, Z a n g w ill (90) w r o t e :
No lo n g e r c a n t h e human r a c e be view ed a s d i
v id e d i n t o two m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e c a t e g o r i e s - -
s i n i s t e r and " r i g h t - b r a i n e d , " d e x t e r and " l e f t -
b r a i n e d . " H andedness m ust be r e g a r d e d a s a g ra d e d
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; l e f t - h a n d e d n e s s , i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
b e in g l e s s c l e a r - c u t t h a n r ig h t- h a n d e d n e s s and
l e s s r e g u l a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e dom inance o f
e i t h e r h e m is p h e re . In d e e d c e r e b r a l dom inance i s
i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y i t s e l f a g ra d e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ,
v a r y in g i n sco p e and c o m p le te n e s s from i n d i v i d u a l
t o i n d i v i d u a l . (9 0 :2 7 )
T h is o b s e r v a t i o n , w hich was b a s e d on e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h ,
te n d s t o r e f u t e t h e h y p o t h e s is t h a t u n i l a t e r a l p r e f e r e n c e
i s due t o c e r e b r a l dom inance.
1
I f man’ s u n i l a t e r a l te n d e n c i e s a r e n o t d e te rm in e d
by c e r e b r a l d o m in an ce, i t may be assum ed t h a t u n i l a t e r a l
t r a i t s m ust be due l a r g e l y t o e n v ir o n m e n ta l f a c t o r s . I f
t h i s a s s u m p tio n i s m ade, a n o th e r l o g i c a l l y f o l lo w s : u n i l a t
e r a l t e n d e n c i e s r e l a t e d t o p h y s i c a l p e rfo rm a n c e s a r e a
m a t t e r o f h a b i t . H a b it p a t t e r n s c a n be c h an g ed w ith v o l i
t i o n a l e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ; c o n s e q u e n tly ,
i t a p p e a r s f e a s i b l e t o b e l i e v e t h a t man c a n l e a r n t o p e r
fo rm b i l a t e r a l l y . P ro v in s s t a t e d , " . . . h a n d e d n e ss i s
d e te rm in e d l a r g e l y by t r a i n i n g and e n v ir o n m e n ta l f a c t o r s
r a t h e r t h a n by any i n h e r i t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " ( 6 5 :9 3 ) .
S i m i l a r c o n c lu s io n s w ere made by H e l le b r a n d t and H o u tz (41)
and by Way ( 8 3 ) .
I f b i l a t e r a l d e x t e r i t y c a n be d e v e lo p e d by d i r e c t
t r a i n i n g t e c h n i q u e s , c a n i t a l s o be le a r n e d i n d i r e c t l y by
means o f t r a n s f e r ? I n o t h e r w o rd s , w i l l d i r e c t t r a i n i n g
w ith one lim b a i d l e a r n i n g i n t h e n o n - t r a i n e d lim b s? W ill
t h e l e a r n i n g be g r e a t e r i f a n o n - p r e f e r r e d lim b r e c e i v e s
d i r e c t t r a i n i n g ? W ill t h e l e a r n i n g be g r e a t e r i f a p r e
f e r r e d lim b r e c e i v e s d i r e c t t r a i n i n g ? T hese q u e s t io n s
e n la r g e d i n t o one q u e s t i o n may be s t a t e d a s f o llo w s : w hat
i s t h e r o l e o f t r a n s f e r i n r e g a r d t o b i l a t e r a l l e a r n i n g o f
a p h y s i c a l p e rfo rm a n c e ? The p r e s e n t s tu d y r e p r e s e n t s an
3
a tte m p t t o g a in some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e a n sw e rs o f t h e
a fo r e m e n tio n e d q u e s t i o n s .
The S ta te m e n t o f t h e P roblem
The p ro b le m o f t h i s s tu d y was t o d e te rm in e t h e
t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s o f dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s and t r a v e r s a l tim e
t o t h e i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b s f o llo w in g u n i
l a t e r a l t r a i n i n g o f t h e p r e f e r r e d , u p p e r lim b an d o f t h e
n o n p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim b .
Im p o rta n c e o f t h e S tu d y
A tte m p ts h a v e b e e n made t o d e te rm in e t r a n s f e r p a t
t e r n s from p r e f e r r e d t o n o n p r e f e r r e d m u s c u la tu r e and from
n o n p r e f e r r e d t o p r e f e r r e d m u s c u la tu r e . Cook (1 3 ) w r o te :
Our r e s u l t s show no c o n s i s t e n t d i f f e r e n c e s
b e tw e e n h and t o f o o t and f o o t t o h an d t r a n s f e r ,
n o r i n t r a n s f e r from p r e f e r r e d t o n o n - p r e f e r r e d a s
a g a i n s t n o n - p r e f e r r e d t o p r e f e r r e d hand o r f o o t .
T h is does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t su c h d i f f e r
e n c e s do n o t e x i s t . (1 3 :1 6 0 )
Cook l e f t some d o u b t c o n c e rn in g t h e n a t u r e o f t r a n s f e r t o
t h e n o n t r a i n e d lim b s f o llo w in g t r a i n i n g o f th e p r e f e r r e d
and n o n p r e f e r r e d lim b s .
I t may b e o f some im p o rta n c e t o th o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n
m otor l e a r n i n g t o d e te rm in e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s , i f a n y , i n th e
t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s b ro u g h t a b o u t th ro u g h d i r e c t t r a i n i n g o f
t h e p r e f e r r e d a n d n o n p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim b s . I s t h e t r a n s
f e r p a t t e r n t h e same t o t h e i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l
lim b s f o l lo w in g t r a i n i n g o f t h e p r e f e r r e d and n o n p r e f e r r e d
u p p e r lim b s? The a n sw e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n may h a y e some
im p o rta n c e f o r p h y s i c a l e d u c a t o r s , b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e many
p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n an d a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t i e s t h a t r e q u i r e t h e
p e r f o r m e r t o b e p r o f i c i e n t b i l a t e r a l l y . I f t h e t r a n s f e r
p a t t e r n s do d i f f e r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e u n i l a t e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n
o f d i r e c t t r a i n i n g , b i l a t e r a l a c t i v i t i e s may b e l e a r n e d
m ore r e a d i l y by u t i l i z i n g t h e lim b t h a t p ro d u c e s t h e g r e a t
e s t am ount o f t r a n s f e r . More r e s e a r c h w ould b e n e e d e d t o
s u b s t a n t i a t e su c h a p o s t u l a t e . B a s ic t o t h i s , h o w e v e r, i s
t h e f a c t t h a t know ledge n e e d s t o b e ex p an d ed r e g a r d i n g th e
n a t u r e o f t h e t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n o r p a t t e r n s . T h e r e in l i e s
t h e im p o rta n c e o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y .
Scope an d L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y
One h u n d re d and n in e n o r m a l, m ale u n i v e r s i t y s t u
d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e d a s s u b j e c t s i n t h e s t u d y . They w ere
e n r o l l e d i n g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n c l a s s e s a t t h e U n i
v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a . A p e r i o d o f e i g h t w eeks
was r e q u i r e d t o c o m p le te a l l p h a s e s o f t h e e x p e r im e n t. The
tim e was u t i l i z e d a s f o l l o w s : ( 1 ) two w eeks w e re r e q u i r e d
t o c o l l e c t t h e p r e - t e s t d a t a , (2 ) th e p r a c t i c e p e r i o d f o r
t h e two e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s r e q u i r e d f o u r w e ek s, and (3)
two w eeks w ere r e q u i r e d t o c o l l e c t th e p o s t - t e s t d a t a . A
num ber o f t h e s u b j e c t s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e p r e - t e s t and t h e
p o s t - t e s t o n ly .
I t was r e c o g n iz e d t h a t n o i s e may have a n a d v e rs e
e f f e c t on s t e a d i n e s s . The n o i s e i n th e l a b o r a t o r y c o u ld
n o t be c o n t r o l l e d c o m p le te ly ; h o w e v er, i t was n e v e r e x c e s -
s i v e .
The e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a t u s was d e s ig n e d t o m easure
t h e same p e rfo rm a n c e i n a l l f o u r lim b s . T h is g o a l was n o t
a c h ie v e d e n t i r e l y f o r t h e f o llo w in g r e a s o n . The s u b j e c t s
w ere r e q u i r e d t o re m a in s e a t e d f o r u p p e r lim b and low er
lim b t e s t i n g . T h is p o s i t i o n l i m i t e d a n e x a c t d u p l i c a t i o n
o f t h e p e rfo rm a n c e i n a l l lim b s . The p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d
downward on t h e b u t to c k s by t h e t r u n k w e ig h t made t h ig h
a b d u c t io n , a d d u c tio n , and f l e x i o n d i f f i c u l t w ith o u t s h i f t
in g th e body w e ig h t t o t h e c o n t r a l a t e r a l s id e w h ile p e r
fo rm in g . As a r e s u l t , t h e body m ovements f o r lo w e r lim b
p e rfo rm a n c e s d i f f e r e d somewhat from th e body movements f o r
u p p e r lim b p e r f o r m a n c e s .
The p o s t - t e s t r e s u l t s c a n n o t be c o n s id e r e d t o r e p
r e s e n t maximum l e a r n i n g , b u t r a t h e r a p h a se i n t h e l e a r n i n g
p r o c e s s . I f t h e t r a i n i n g p e rio d had b e en fo u r m onths
i n s t e a d o f f o u r w eeks, r e s u l t s no doubt would h av e d i f
f e r e d . I t was p o s s ib l e t o t r a v e r s e th e maze i n l e s s th a n
n in e seconds w ith o u t e r r o r s . T h is was a c c o m p lish e d by two
s u b j e c t s on t h r e e o f t h e 10,816 t r i a l s t h a t w ere ta k e n by
t h e one h u n d re d and n i n e s u b j e c t s d u rin g th e s tu d y .
P ro c e d u re
F o llo w in g a p r e - t e s t o f t r a v e r s a l tim e and dynamic
s t e a d i n e s s o f a l l fo u r lim b s , t h e one h u n d red and n in e su b
j e c t s were d iv id e d i n t o th r e e s t a t i s t i c a l l y e q u a te d g ro u p s .
Members o f one e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s u b s e q u e n tly p r a c t i c e d
w ith th e p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim b. Members o f a n o th e r e x p e r i
m e n ta l group p r a c t i c e d w ith th e n o n p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim b .
One o f th e g ro u p s se rv e d as a c o n t r o l g ro u p and p a r t i c i
p a te d o n ly i n th e t e s t i n g p h ases o f th e s tu d y .
The t r a i n i n g program o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l gro u p s
l a s t e d f o r a p e rio d o f f o u r w e e k s, and t h e s e s u b j e c t s t r a
v e r s e d th e n o n -c h o ic e , s t y l u s maze one h u n d red tim e s d u rin g
t h a t p e rio d o f tim e . T h is was done on t h e b a s i s o f t e n
t r i a l s p e r v i s i t to t h e l a b o r a t o r y , and e a c h s u b j e c t v i s
i t e d th e l a b o r a to r y t h r e e tim e s p e r week.
The p o s t - t e s t was an e x a c t d u p l i c a t i o n o f th e
p r e - t e s t .
A n a ly s is o f v a r i a n c e was u se d t o d e te rm in e th e
h o m o g en e ity o f t h e g ro u p s w hich w ere e q u a te d on th e b a s i s
o f t h e p r e - t e s t d a t a . I t was n e c e s s a r y t o d e te rm in e t h a t
t h e r e w ere no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n
t h e g ro u p s a t th e b e g in n in g o f t h e t r a i n i n g pro gram . The
t - t e s t was u s e d t o d e te r m in e : (1 ) t h e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i
c a n c e , i f a n y , b e tw ee n th e means o f t h e g ro u p s a t t h e c o n
c l u s i o n o f t h e s tu d y and (2) th e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e ,
i f a n y , o f t h e mean g a in s w i t h i n g ro u p s d u r in g th e s tu d y .
P e r c e n ta g e s w ere c a l c u l a t e d t o d e te r m in e : (1 ) t o t a l im prove
m ent and (2 ) im provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r ( 2 8 :1 0 6 ).
The p ro c e d u re w hich was fo llo w e d i s p r e s e n t e d i n
d e t a i l i n C h a p te r I I I .
Definitions of Terms
Dynamic s t e a d i n e s s . - - F o r th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y ,
t h e te rm "dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s " was d e f i n e d a s t h e v o l i t i o n a l
c o n t r o l o f m in u te tr e m o rs o f a lim b a s i t i s b e in g moved
r a p i d l y and v o l u n t a r i l y th ro u g h a r a n g e - o f - m o tio n .
Error time.--Throughout this study, the term "error
time" was defined as the amount of time that the subject
was n o t s te a d y d u r in g a maze t r i a l .
I r r a d i a t i o n .--T h ro u g h o u t t h i s s tu d y , th e te rm
" i r r a d i a t i o n " was d e f in e d a s th e d i f f u s i o n o f n e u r a l im
p u ls e s v i a n e u ro a n a to m ic a l pathw ays i n th e c e n t r a l n e rv o u s
sy ste m t o th e i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b s.
T r a n s f e r . - - F o r th e p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y , th e
te rm " t r a n s f e r " was d e f in e d a s th e e f f e c t s broxight a b o u t by
d i r e c t t r a i n i n g o f a n u p p e r lim b on p erfo rm an ce o f th e same
f u n c t i o n i n n o n t r a i n e d lim b s.
T r a n s f e r p a t t e r n .--T h ro u g h o u t t h i s s tu d y , th e term
" t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n " was d e fin e d as t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and
d e g re e o f l e a r n i n g by th e i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l
lim bs fo llo w in g u n i l a t e r a l t r a i n i n g o f one u p p e r lim b .
T r a v e r s a l t i m e . —F o r th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y , th e
te rm " t r a v e r s a l tim e " was d e fin e d a s th e speed w ith w hich
th e u p p e r o r low er lim b c o u ld c a r r y a m e ta l s t y l u s th ro u g h
an i r r e g u l a r maze t r a c k .
O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e R em aining C h a p te rs
C h a p te r I I c o n ta in s a re v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e deemed
p e r t i n e n t t o th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . A re v ie w o f r e l a t e d
s t u d i e s w ere in c lu d e d w hich c o v e r th e s u b j e c t o f t r a n s f e r
c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y . C h a p te r I I I c o n t a i n s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e
p r o c e d u r e , t h e s u b j e c t s , e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a tu s and e x p e r i
m e n ta l d e s ig n . An a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a ta i s p r e s e n te d i n
C h a p te r IV. The r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e p e rfo rm a n c e s on t h e
e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a t u s , p r e - t e s t f i n d i n g s , t r a i n i n g program
r e s u l t s , p o s t - t e s t f i n d i n g s , p e rc e n ta g e o f t o t a l im p ro v e
m en t, and p e rc e n ta g e o f im provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r a r e
p r e s e n t e d . C h a p te r V c o n ta in s a d e t a i l e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
t h e m a jo r f i n d i n g s o f t h e s tu d y , and C h a p te r VI in c lu d e s
th e summary, c o n c l u s i o n , and reco m m en d atio n s w h ich w ere
b a s e d on t h e f i n d i n g s .
CHAPTER XI
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p te r i s t o p r e s e n t a re v ie w
o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d t o t r a n s f e r a s i t i s d e f i n e d i n
t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y . The l i t e r a t u r e was re v ie w e d c h ro n o lo g
i c a l l y a c c o r d in g t o two m ajo r c a t e g o r i e s : (1 ) t r a n s f e r o f
n o n r e s i s t i v e p e rfo rm a n c e s and (2 ) t r a n s f e r o f r e s i s t i v e
p e rfo r m a n c e s .
T r a n s f e r o f N o n r e s i s t i v e P e rfo rm a n c e s
t
U pper lim b t o u p p e r lim b t r a n s f e r . - - I n 1899,
S c r i p t u r e (71) r e p o r t e d t h a t " c r o s s e d u c a tio n " c o u ld ta k e
p la c e i n n o n r e s i s t i v e a c t i v i t i e s . S e v e r a l s im p le s t u d i e s
w ere done a t t h e Y ale P s y c h o lo g ic a l L a b o r a to r y . The o b j e c
t i v e o f one e x p e rim e n t was t o i n s e r t a n e e d le i n t o a s m a ll
h o l e i n a d r i l l w ith o u t s t r i k i n g th e s i d e s o f t h e d r i l l .
C o n c e rn in g t h i s s t e a d i n e s s e x p e rim e n t, S c r i p t u r e w r o te :
The f i r s t e x p e rim e n t c o n s i s t e d o f tw e n ty
t r i a l s w ith th e l e f t hand w ith a s u c c e s s o f f i f t y
10
11
p e r c e n t . Im m e d ia te ly t h e r e a f t e r tw e n ty t r i a l s
w ere made w ith th e r i g h t h a n d , w ith a s u c c e s s o f
s i x t y p e r c e n t . On th e f o llo w in g day and on each
su c c e e d in g day two h u n d red e x p e rim e n ts w ere made
w ith th e r i g h t h a n d , w ith s u c c e s s e s o f 6 1 , 6 5 , 75,
74, 75, 82, 80, 78, and 88 p e r c e n t . On th e l a s t
day th e l e f t h a n d , w hich had n o t b e en p r a c t i c e d
i n th e m eantim e, was a g a in t r i e d , w ith a s u c c e s s
o f s e v e n t y - s i x p e r c e n t . (7 1 :5 8 9 -5 9 0 )
S c r i p t u r e (71) c i t e d a n o b s e r v a t i o n made by R a i f , a
P r o f e s s o r o f M usic i n th e B e r l i n H o c h sc h u le . R a i f 's s t u
d e n ts w ere g iv e n f i n g e r e x e r c i s e s , s c a l e s , and b ro k e n
a c c o rd s t o p r a c t i c e w ith th e r i g h t hand o n ly . A f t e r a
p e rio d o f two m o n th s, th e l e f t h a n d , w ith o u t p r a c t i c e ,
im proved one h u n d red and s i x t y b e a t s p e r m in u te (7 1 :5 9 0 ).
R e s u lts o f s t u d i e s by S w ift (78) te n d e d t o s u p p o rt
th e h y p o th e s is t h a t n o n tr a in e d lim b s c o u ld b e n e f i t by th e
p e rfo rm an c e o f a t r a i n e d lim b . I t was found t h a t t h e r e was
a p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r o f j u g g l i n g a b i l i t y t o th e n o n tr a in e d
u p p e r lim b fo llo w in g p r a c t i c e by th e c o n t r a l a t e r a l u p p e r
lim b (7 8 ).
Woodworth and M arsh, p io n e e r p s y c h o l o g i s t s , made an
i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a tio n c o n c e rn in g t r a n s f e r and human p e r
form ance i n 1905:
A m erican a d u l t s w ere t e s t e d i n s t r e n g t h o f
g r i p , speed o f ta p p in g and a c c u ra c y o f hand move
m ent. A h ig h d e g re e o f c o r r e l a t i o n (P e a rs o n c o e f
f i c i e n t * » 0 .5 + t o 0 .8 2 ) o b ta in e d b etw een t h e r i g h t
12
and l e f t h ands o f a p e rs o n on th e same t e s t , b u t a
low c o r r e l a t i o n (0 .0 8 t o 0 .3 4 ) a p p e a re d betw een
th e d i f f e r e n t t e s t s o f th e same h an d . In o th e r
w o rd s, a p e r s o n 's e f f i c i e n c y w ith one hand i n any
m otor f u n c t i o n i s a f a i r in d e x o f how w e l l h e can
do w ith th e o t h e r h a n d ; b u t a p e r s o n 's e f f i c i e n c y
i n one m otor f u n c t i o n i s s c a r c e l y any in d e x o f h i s
e f f i c i e n c y i n o t h e r s . (8 8 :4 9 )
S ta r c h (77) c o n d u cted a m ir r o r t r a c i n g e x p e rim e n t
w h ich in v o lv e d th e v a r i a b l e s o f sp eed and s t e a d i n e s s . The
s u b j e c t s w ere r e q u i r e d t o t r a c e an o u t l i n e o f a s i x - p o i n t
s t a r a s s e e n i n a m i r r o r . I t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t :
The e f f e c t o f p r a c t i c e w ith th e r i g h t hand
upon th e l e f t hand i s v e ry c o n s i d e r a b le . . . .
The im provem ent w ith th e r i g h t hand from th e
f i r s t t o th e l a s t r e c o r d was 84 p e r c e n t , i n tim e
and 92 p e r c e n t , i n e r r o r s , a v e ra g e 88 p e r c e n t .
The im provem ent o f t h e r e c o r d made b e f o r e th e
r i g h t hand p r a c t i c e was 85 p e r c e n t , i n tim e and
81 p e r c e n t , i n e r r o r s , a v e ra g e 83 p e r c e n t. (7 7 :
22 -2 3 )
N o rc ro ss (62) was i n t e r e s t e d i n th e p r a c t i c a l a p
p l i c a t i o n s o f t r a n s f e r . He found t h a t l e a r n in g t o u se an
a d d in g m achine w ith one hand enhanced l e a r n i n g when th e
c o n t r a l a t e r a l hand was u s e d . The s tu d y was found t o be
t y p i c a l o f th e e a r l y t r a n s f e r s t u d i e s . H is s tu d y in v o lv e d
v e r y few e x p e r im e n ta l s u b j e c t s and no c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s
( 6 2 ).
I n 1924, L a s h le y (53) s t u d i e d some o f th e p h y s io
l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f t r a n s f e r . He c o n d u cted a s tu d y i n w hich
13
monkeys w ere ta u g h t to open a pro b lem box w ith th e r i g h t
u p p e r lim b . When th e t a s k was le a r n e d th o r o u g h ly , th e l e f t
m otor c o r t e x a r e a o f e ac h a n im a l was d e s tr o y e d . I t was
found t h a t th e monkeys w ere a b le t o open th e pro b lem box
w ith th e l e f t u p p e r lim b . The l e f t u p p e r lim b had n o t b e en
u se d p r i o r t o th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e l e f t m o to r c o r t e x
(5 3 :2 4 9 -2 7 6 ).
Ewert (26) was th e f i r s t i n v e s t i g a t o r t o u s e some
ty p e o f c o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n ta l p ro c e d u re s f o r t r a n s f e r
s t u d i e s . Speed and s t e a d i n e s s v a r i a b l e s o f m ir ro r - d r a w in g
w ere s t u d i e d . W ith o u t ta k in g th e sam ple p erfo rm an ce i n t o
c o n s i d e r a t i o n , i t was found t h a t th e n o n p r e f e r r e d lim b
im proved e ig h ty - tw o p e r c e n t i n tim e and e r r o r s w ere r e
duced by s e v e n t y - s i x p e r c e n t. When t h e in f lu e n c e o f th e
sam ple p erfo rm an c e was e q u a te d , t h e amount o f t r a n s f e r was
t h i r t y - s i x p e r c e n t i n tim e and tw e n ty -o n e p e r c e n t in
e r r o r im provem ent (2 6 :2 3 5 -2 4 9 ).
Munn (6 0 ) u se d a u n iq u e p erfo rm an c e t o s tu d y t r a n s
f e r . S u b je c ts w ere r e q u i r e d t o t o s s a b a l l i n t o a wooden
cup. The b a l l was c o n n e c te d t o th e wooden cup by a c o rd .
The c o rd was t w e n ty - f iv e c e n tim e te r s i n le n g t h . The diam
e t e r o f th e cup c o rre sp o n d e d v e r y c l o s e l y t o th e d ia m e te r
o f th e b a l l . I t was found t h a t :
14
When 50 s u b j e c t s w ere g iv e n 50 t r i a l s w ith th e
l e f t h a n d , fo llo w e d by 500 t r i a l s w ith th e r i g h t
h a n d , on a t a s k i n v o lv i n g e y e -h a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n s ,
a s u b s e q u e n t 50 t r i a l s w ith th e l e f t han d showed
a n a v e ra g e im provem ent o f 6 1 .1 4 p e r c e n t . A c o n
t r o l g ro u p o f 50 s u b j e c t s p o s s e s s in g i n i t i a l
a b i l i t y c o m p a rab le t o t h a t o f t h e e x p e r im e n ta l
g ro u p showed a n a v e r a g e im provem ent o f 2 8 .5 p e r
c e n t . The a v e r a g e am ount o f t r a n s f e r due t o p r a c
t i c e w ith th e r i g h t h an d w a s, t h e r e f o r e , 3 2 .5 9
p e r c e n t . (6 0 :3 3 5 )
G ib so n , J a c k , and R a f f e l l (3 4 ) w ere t h e f i r s t i n
v e s t i g a t o r s t o s tu d y t r a n s f e r o f a c o n d itio n e d r e s p o n s e .
T h is was done i n 1932. U sin g a n e l e c t r i c sh o ck a s a s tim u
l u s , i t was found t h a t t h e c o n d it i o n e d w ith d r a w a l r e s p o n s e
was s e e n i n t h e c o rr e s p o n d in g f i n g e r on t h e hand t h a t d id
n o t r e c e i v e t h e e l e c t r i c sh o c k . T h is phenomenon o c c u r r e d
i n s i x t y - t w o p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s (3 4 :4 1 7 - 4 1 8 ).
Cook (9 ) h ad t e n s u b j e c t s t r a c e a s t a r - s h a p e d maze
a s s e e n th ro u g h a m i r r o r . He found t h a t a l l m u scle g ro u p s
b e n e f i t e d f o llo w in g p r a c t i c e on one lim b . He c o n c lu d e d :
The t r a n s f e r was g r e a t e s t t o t h e sy m m e tric a l
m u scle g ro u p on t h e o p p o s i t e s id e o f t h e body,
n e x t t o t h e m u scle g ro u p on th e same s i d e , and
l e a s t t o t h e m u scle g ro u p w hich i s b o th unsymraet-
r i c a l and o p p o s i t e t o t h e p r a c t i c e d h a n d . . . .
The p e r c e n ta g e o f t r a n s f e r v a r i e s w ith t h e m eas
u r e u s e d . I n tim e sa v e d on t h e f i r s t t r i a l , i t
i s 89 p e r c e n t , 84 p e r c e n t , and 75 p e r c e n t r e s p e c
t i v e l y t o e a c h o f t h e t h r e e m u scle g ro u p s m e n tio n ed
a b o v e . (9 :1 6 0 )
15
Cook (10) u se d t h e same m i r r o r - t r a c i n g p ro c e d u re as
c i t e d ab o v e i n a n o th e r s tu d y . The p u rp o se o f h i s second
s tu d y was t o d e te rm in e t h e number o f t r i a l s n e ed e d t o e l i c
i t t r a n s f e r . He found t h a t , "T h ere i s a l a r g e amount o f
t r a n s f e r t o a l l m u scle g ro u p s t e s t e d , f o r 10, 2 0, 3 0 , and
100 t r i a l s p r a c t i c e " ( 1 0 :6 9 9 ).
A n o th e r s tu d y was r e p o r t e d by Cook (1 1 ) i n 1934.
He a tte m p te d t o d e te r m in e i f th e d e g re e o f t r a n s f e r w ould
be i n h i b i t e d by th e l a c k o f v i s i o n . An i r r e g u l a r maze was
u s e d , and a l l s u b j e c t s w ere b l i n d f o l d e d . I t was found
t h a t t h e k i n e s t h e t i c c u e s w ere n o t i n h i b i t e d due t o t h e
l a c k o f v i s i o n . Cook c o n c lu d e d , "The r e s u l t s i n th e m ain
s u p p o r t t h o s e o f t h e two e a r l i e r e x p e rim e n ts i n t h i s s e r i e s ”
( 1 1 :7 6 2 ) . S u b je c ts w ere n o t b l i n d f o l d e d i n C o o k 's two
e a r l i e r e x p e rim e n ts c i t e d ab o v e.
H u lin and K atz (47) w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e t a c t u a l
and v i s u a l v a r i a b l e s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t r a n s f e r .
T hese i n v e s t i g a t o r s had t h e i r s u b j e c t s l e a r n th e B r a i l l e
a lp h a b e t by v i s u a l and t a c t u a l m eth o d s. They found t h a t :
T h ere i s a re a d y t r a n s f e r from one hand t o t h e
o t h e r i n t a c t u a l l y r e a d i n g t h e B r a i l l e a l p h a b e t .
The t r a n s f e r o f t h e t a c t u a l r e a d i n g a b i l i t y i s
g r e a t e r from a t a c t u a l t r a i n i n g th a n from a v i s u a l
t r a i n i n g , w h ic h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t r a n s f e r i s n o t
c a r r i e d w h o lly i n te rm s o f v i s u a l im a g ery . (4 7 :6 3 1 )
16
Cook (1 2 ) made a n a tte m p t t o an sw er t h e f o llo w in g
q u e s t i o n :
Does t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p r e v io u s p r a c t i c e show
o n ly i n t h e f i r s t few t r i a l s , o r d o e s i t c o n ti n u e ,
th r o u g h o u t t h e w hole t r a n s f e r s e r i e s , t o add i t s
e f f e c t t o t h a t o f a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g ? (1 2 :2 5 5 )
The s u b j e c t s w ere b l i n d f o l d e d w h ile t h e y p r a c t i c e d m i r r o r -
t r a c i n g a s t a r - s h a p e d maze and a f i n g e r maze w i t h a n i r r e g
u l a r p a t t e r n . Ten and t h i r t y t r i a l s w ere u s e d . I t was
c o n c lu d e d t h a t :
T r a n s f e r from 10 t r i a l s p r a c t i c e w ith t h e f i n
g e r m aze, w h ile show ing some e v id e n c e o f p e rfo rm
an ce t r a n s f e r , was so v a r i a b l e t h a t no q u a n t i t a
t i v e d e d u c tio n s c o u ld b e made. I n d i v i d u a l r e c o r d s
i n d i c a t e d t h a t p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r i s n o t m axim al
u n t i l t h e l e a r n e d p a t t e r n had a t t a i n e d a c e r t a i n
d e g re e o f s t a b i l i t y . (1 2 :2 6 6 )
Woodworth (8 7 ) a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t movements
le a r n e d w ith one lim b a r e d e v e lo p e d by t h e n o n t r a i n e d
lim b . He i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e s u b j e c t s d id n o t te n d t o r e
v e r s e t h e movement p a t t e r n s when t h e c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b
was u s e d . "The p la c e r e l a t i o n s t h a t h a d b e e n l e a r n e d w ere
e a s i l y fo llo w e d w ith e i t h e r h a n d " ( 8 7 :1 8 5 ) .
W ickens (8 5 ) s t u d i e d t r a n s f e r o f t h e c o n d it i o n e d
r e s p o n s e t o t h e a n t a g o n i s t i c m u s c u la tu r e o f t h e c o n d it i o n e d
h a n d . An e x te n s o r c o n d itio n e d r e s p o n s e was d e v e lo p e d i n
t h e m id d le f i n g e r o f t h e r i g h t h a n d . When th e hand was
17
tu r n e d o v e r , f l e x o r r e s p o n s e s w ere s t u d i e d i n t h e m id d le
f i n g e r . I t was found t h a t c o n d itio n e d f l e x o r r e s p o n s e s d id
o c c u r w ith o u t t h e b e n e f i t o f d i r e c t p r a c t i c e (8 5 :1 2 2 ).
E a to n (2 4 ) was t h e f i r s t i n v e s t i g a t o r t o c o n t r o l
t h e p o s i t i o n o f th e n o n tr a in e d lim b . U sin g c i r c l e d ra w in g
a s t h e p e rfo rm a n c e , i t was found t h a t th e p e r c e n ta g e o f
t r a n s f e r was g r e a t e r f o r th e g ro u p t h a t had b o th lim bs
f r e e ( 2 4 :2 5 - 3 9 ).
M i l is e n (58 ) was i n t e r e s t e d i n th e d i r e c t i o n - o f -
movement v a r i a b l e when t e s t i n g o f a c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b f o l
lowed t r a i n i n g o f th e o p p o s ite lim b . A c o n tin u o u s c l o v e r -
l e a f - p a t t e r n e d maze was u s e d . One g ro u p o f s u b j e c t s p r a c
t i c e d a c lo c k w is e p a th , and one g ro u p o f s u b j e c t s p r a c t i c e d
a c o u n te r c lo c k w is e p a th . I t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t :
. . . t r a i n i n g was s p e c i f i c t o d i r e c t i o n o f
r o t a t i o n and (2 ) t h a t th e t r a n s f e r o f t r a i n i n g t o
t h e l e f t h a n d was g r e a t e s t i n th e d i r e c t i o n oppo
s i t e t o t h a t used i n t r a i n i n g th e r i g h t h a n d .
(5 8 :6 4 5 )
Speed and s t e a d i n e s s w ere s t u d i e d by A lle n (1 ) i n
1948. U sin g t h e m ir r o r - d r a w in g t e c h n iq u e , s u b j e c t s t r a c e d
t h e p a t t e r n once w ith th e l e f t u p p e r lim b . P r a c t i c e d u r in g
th e e x p e r im e n ta l p e rio d was done w ith th e r i g h t u p p e r lim b
u n t i l a c r i t e r i o n o f tim e l e s s th a n a m in u te w ith o u t more
t h a n one e r r o r was r e a c h e d . C o n tr o l d a t a w ere o b ta in e d
18
from a g ro u p g iv e n two s u c c e s s iv e t r i a l s w ith th e l e f t
u p p e r lim b . S t a t i s t i c a l l y , b o th g ro u p s w ere e q u a l a t t h e
s t a r t o f th e e x p e rim e n t. T here was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f
i c a n t p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r t o th e l e f t u p p e r lim b f o r b o th
v a r i a b l e s , sp eed and s t e a d i n e s s , a t t h e c o n c lu s io n o f th e
e x p e rim e n t (1 :2 1 6 -2 2 6 ).
Ammons and Ammons ( 3 ) , U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u i s v i l l e
p s y c h o l o g i s t s , r e p o r t e d a t r a n s f e r s tu d y i n 1951. They
had one h u n d re d and n in e ty - tw o s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l g i r l s
p r a c t i c e a r o t a r y p u r s u i t t a s k f o r p e rio d s o f e i g h t m in u te s
e a c h . The s u b j e c t s p r a c t i c e d u s in g a v a r i e t y o f h a n d -u s e
c o m b in a tio n s . I t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t :
. . . r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r t r a n s f e r o f p r o f i
c ie n c y to o k p la c e from l e f t t o r i g h t h a n d , th a n
from r i g h t t o l e f t . I t i s c o n c lu d e d t h a t in
r o t a r y p u r s u i t t h e r e i s b i l a t e r a l t r a n s f e r o f
p r o f i c i e n c y . (3 :2 9 4 )
The hand p r e f e r e n c e o f th e s u b j e c t s was n o t i n d i c a t e d .
H e lle b r a n d t (39) h ad s u b j e c t s p r a c t i c e f o u r s t a n d
a r d iz e d a c t i v i t i e s from t h e M acQ uarrie t e s t o f m e c h a n ic a l
a b i l i t y . P r e - t e s t m easures w ere ta k e n w ith b o th u p p e r
lim b s , and th e g ro u p s w ere e q u a te d on th e b a s i s o f lim b
p r e f e r e n c e . F o llo w in g e i g h t weeks o f t r a i n i n g , a n o th e r
t e s t was made w ith b o th u p p e r lim b s. The f o llo w in g f in d in g s
w ere r e p o r t e d :
19
(1 ) M anual d e x t e r i t y im proves s i g n i f i c a n t l y
w ith d i r e c t p r a c t i c e . (2 ) I n g e n e r a l , th e m echan
i c a l a b i l i t y o f t h e d o m in an t lim b im pro ves more
w ith d i r e c t p r a c t i c e t h a n t h a t o f t h e c o n t r a l a t
e r a l e x t r e m i t y . (3 ) t h e u n p r a c t i c e d c o n t r a l a t
e r a l e x t r e m i t y a l s o im proves s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n
m e c h a n ic a l a b i l i t y . (4 ) D e x t r a l im provem ent due
t o c r o s s e d u c a ti o n does n o t a p p ro a c h t h a t a c h ie v e d
by d i r e c t p r a c t i c e . (5 ) The s i n i s t r a l o r n o n p re
f e r r e d s i d e may g a in more a s a r e s u l t o f p r a c t i c e
by t h e c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b t h a n by i p s i l a t e r a l
d i r e c t p r a c t i c e b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e n o t s i g
n i f i c a n t . (6 ) The r e l a t i v e am ount o f m otor
l e a r n i n g t a k i n g p la c e b i l a t e r a l l y a p p e a rs t o
s p re a d m ore n e a r l y e q u a l l y t o th e r i g h t and l e f t
s i d e s when t r a i n i n g in v o lv e s t h e l e s s d i s c r e t e
pathw ays o f th e n o n p r e f e r r e d lim b . (3 9 :1 4 3 )
W a lte r s (8 1 ) s t u d i e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r a t e - o f -
sp e e d t o th e d e g re e o f t r a n s f e r t o th e n o n t r a i n e d lim b .
She u s e d th e T urn and P la c e and D is p la c e T e s ts from th e
M in n e so ta R a te o f M a n ip u la tio n T e s t a s h e r s k i l l c r i t e r i a .
T h ree g ro u p s w ere u s e d : (1 ) a p a ce d g ro u p , w hich t r a i n e d
a t a sp e e d f a s t e r t h a n optim um , (2 ) a s e l f - p a c e d g ro u p ,
w h ich t r a i n e d a t a n optim um s p e e d , and (3 ) a c o n t r o l g ro u p ,
w h ic h t r a i n e d a t a sp e ed s lo w e r t h a n optim um . The mean p e r
c e n t o f im provem ent by th e n o n t r a i n e d lim b a t t h e end o f
f o u r w eeks o f t r a i n i n g was g r e a t e s t f o r t h e s e l f - p a c e d
g ro u p i n th e T u rn and P la c e T e s t. The paced g ro u p and th e
s e l f - p a c e d g ro u p h a d c o m p a rab le r e s u l t s f o r th e D is p la c e
t e s t . The c o n t r o l g ro u p was s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f e r i o r t o th e
paced and s e l f - p a c e d g ro u p s f o r b o th t e s t s ( 8 1 :5 6 7 ) .
20
H e l l e b r a n d t , H o u tz , and P a r t r i d g e (43) w ere i n t e r
e s t e d i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c and p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t r a n s
f e r f o r p h y s i c a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f t h e h a n d ic a p p e d . They
w a n te d t o d e te rm in e w h e th e r u n i l a t e r a l t r a i n i n g i n th e u s e
o f a b elo w -elb o w p r o s t h e t i c d e v ic e w ould i n c r e a s e th e
a b i l i t y o f th e o p p o s ite lim b t o u s e t h e same d e v ic e . The
M in n e so ta R a te o f M a n ip u la tio n T e s t was u se d . The t e s t
i
m ea su re d sp eed o f f i n g e r , h a n d , and arm m ovem ents. A f t e r
th e s u b j e c t s had p r a c t i c e d t e n d a y s , i t was found t h a t :
The u n p r a c t i c e d lim b g a in e d a p p r e c i a b l y i n th e
sp e ed and d e x t e r i t y w ith w hich th e p r o s t h e t i c
d e v ic e was o p e r a te d . Im provem ent was c o n s i s t e n t l y
g r e a t e r by d i r e c t p r a c t i c e t h a n b y t r a n s f e r o f
t r a i n i n g . The n o n - p r e f e r r e d l e f t e x tr e m i t y g a in e d
more from th e p r a c t i c e o f th e more d e x tr o u s r i g h t
s i d e t h a n v i c e v e r s a , b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s w ere
n e v e r g r e a t . (4 3 :2 0 1 )
Ebner and Myers (2 5 ) studied the function of the
corpus callosum during transfer. Using seventeen Macaca
mulatta monkeys as subjects, they performed sections of
the corpus callosum of each animal. It was found that
transfer occurred from upper limb to upper limb despite
the loss of corpus callosum functions (2 5 :3 9 0 ).
Upper limb to lower limb transfer.--Bray (6) was
the first investigator to report experimental findings
regarding transfer of nonresistive performances from the
21
upper limbs to the lower limbs. A specially constructed
mirror-drawing apparatus was used. The apparatus allowed
the subjects to use all four limbs. Bray reported that:
. . .. i n t h e m ir r o r - a c c u r a c y e x p e rim e n t a
t r a n s f e r o f l e a r n i n g from r ig ih t hand t o r i g h t f o o t
t a k e s p la c e . The e f f e c t o f p r e v io u s p r a c t i c e w ith
th e h an d i s t o i n c r e a s e c o n s i d e r a b ly t h e i n i t i a l
a c c u ra c y o f t h e f o o t and t o sa v e t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f
a b o u t s i x t r i a l s . (6 :4 6 6 )
The investigations reported by Cook ( 9 ) (1 0 ) also
emphasized the transfer of mirror-tracing performance from
the upper limbs to the lower limbs. It was found that
there was a positive transfer from the upper limbs to the
lower limbs. Furthermore, it was indicated that the amount
of transfer was the same from upper limbs to lower limbs
and from lower limbs to upper limbs ( 9 :1 6 0 ; 1 0 :7 0 0 ).
Cook (1 1 ) used an irregular maze to investigate
transfer in all four limbs of human subjects. The sub
jects were blindfolded while they traversed the maze with
the lower limbs and upper limbs. Cook concluded:
Measured in absolute units the feet had more
gain from transfer than the hands. In proportion
to amount learned in practice trials, however,
there was no significant difference between the
transfer from foot to hand and hand to foot.
(1 1 :7 6 2 )
22
Transfer of Resistive Performances
Scripture, Smith, and Brown (72) found that practice
with the right hand increased strength in the left hand.
This observation was made at the Yale Psychological Labor
atory in 1894. One subject practiced squeezing a mercury
dynamometer daily for seven days. On the first day the
mercury was raised 2 9 .6 inches with the left hand and 2 8 .8
inches with the right hand. The mercury was raised 4 2 .3
inches with the left hand and 4 8 .6 inches with the right
hand following training of the right hand only (7 2 :1 1 4 -1 1 9 ).
D a v is (2 0 ) o b se rv e d t h a t th e n o n t r a i n e d lim b g a in e d
i n s t r e n g t h and m u s c u la r h y p e r tr o p h y . D a v is , a Y a le U n i
v e r s i t y p s y c h o l o g i s t , w orked w ith S e a v e r , who was a p io n e e r
o f A m erican p h y s i c a l e d u c a tio n . S e a v e r to o k a l l o f th e
a n th r o p o m e tr ic d a t a . D av is d i r e c t e d t h e s u b j e c t s d u r in g
th e s t r e n g t h d ev elo p m en t program . S t r e n g th was d e v e lo p e d
i s o t o n i c a l l y i n t h e r i g h t u p p e r lim b by sw in g in g a f i v e
pound w e ig h t, p r e s s i n g a dynam om eter, and p u l l i n g an e r g o -
g ra p h . On th e b a s i s o f p re v io u s w ork done a t Y a le by
S c r i p t u r e , S m ith , and Brown ( 7 2 ) , a g a in i n s t r e n g t h i n t h e
n o n t r a i n e d u p p e r lim b was e x p e c te d . The i n c r e a s e o f m uscu
l a r h y p e r tr o p h y i n t h e n o n tr a in e d u p p e r lim b , h o w e v e r, was
an u n e x p e c te d r e s u l t o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n (2 0 ).
23
W is s le r and R ic h a rd s o n (86) r e p o r t e d t h a t s t r e n g t h
c o u ld be g a in e d by a n o n tr a in e d lim b i f th e s t r e n g t h o f th e
c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b was im prov ed. F u rth e rm o re , i t was ob
s e rv e d t h a t th e n o n tr a in e d s y n e r g i s t i c m u s c u la tu re a l s o
g a in e d i n m u sc u la r s t r e n g t h ( 8 6 ).
R a g sd a le (66) was i n t e r e s t e d i n a l l p h a se s o f m otor
l e a r n i n g . He d e s c r ib e d a s tu d y t h a t was c o n d u c te d a t th e
U n i v e r s i ty o f W is c o n s in , and he gave h i s o p in io n o f " c r o s s
e d u c a tio n " a s f o l l o w s :
We gave s u b j e c t s p r a c t i c e i n s q u a t t i n g and
p u s h in g up w ith t h e l e g s . P r e lim in a r y and f i n a l
t e s t s w ere g iv e n i n d o in g th e p u sh -u p w ith th e
arm s on th e p a r a l l e l b a r s . I t was found t h a t th e
p r a c t i c e i n p u sh in g up w ith th e le g s in c r e a s e d
th e a b i l i t y t o p u sh up w ith th e arm s from 20 t o 40
p e r c e n t . We have t r i e d a v a r i e t y o f l a b o r a t o r y
e x p e rim e n ts i n c r o s s e d u c a tio n a s a p a r t o f r e g u
l a r c l a s s w ork. I n e v e ry c a s e , p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s
a r e o b ta in e d . T h ere c an be no q u e s t io n t h a t c r o s s
e d u c a tio n does t a k e p la c e t o a v e r y m arked d e g re e
i n c o n n e c tio n w ith many k in d s o f a c t i v i t i e s .
(6 6 :3 0 )
H e l l e b r a n d t , P a r r i s h , and H outz (44) re c o g n iz e d
t h a t " c r o s s e d u c a tio n " h a s some p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r
p h y s i c a l m e d ic in e . F i f t e e n women s u b j e c t s w ere u se d t o
d e te rm in e w h e th e r s t r e n g t h c o u ld be t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e non
t r a i n e d lim b . F o u r t e s t s o f s t r e n g t h w ere u s e d : (1 )
DeLorme ty p e h e av y r e s i s t a n c e and low r e p e t i t i o n s t o th e
knee e x te n s o r s and t h e elbow f l e x o r s , (2) Mosso f i n g e r
24
e rg o g ra p h u s e d a t a r a t e o f s i x t y p e r m in u te , (3 ) M a r t i n 's
S t r e n g t h T e s t , and (4 ) g r i p s t r e n g t h . F o llo w in g th e t r a i n
in g p e r i o d , i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t :
Unilateral heavy resistance exercise which
rapidly augments the strength and staying power of
the ipsilateral limb has a strikingly similar con
comitant on the contralateral unpracticed limb.
(4 4 :8 4 )
H e l l e b r a n d t , H o u tz , and K r i k o r i a n (42) w ere i n t e r
e s t e d i n t h e f a c i l i t a t i o n o f s t r e n g t h i n th e w eak er lim b
th r o u g h c o n c u r r e n t b i l a t e r a l s t r e n g t h d ev elo p m e n t e x e r
c i s e s . I t a p p e a re d t h a t th e w eak er lim b d id b e n e f i t i n
s t r e n g t h i f th e m u s c u la r c o n t r a c t i o n s w ere c o n c u r r e n t i n
b o th lim b s ( 4 2 :4 5 2 ) .
S la te r-H a m m el (75 ) o b se rv e d t h a t f l e x i o n and e x t e n
s i o n e x e r c i s e s o f one u p p e r lim b i n c r e a s e d s t r e n g t h i n th e
c o n t r a l a t e r a l u p p e r lim b . H ow ever, two w eeks f o llo w in g
t h e t r a i n i n g p e rio d t h e s t r e n g t h g a in s w ere l o s t . The
u p p e r lim b s t r e n g t h s had r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r p r e - e x p e r im e n t
l e v e l s ( 7 5 :2 0 9 ) .
Clarke, Shay, and Mathews (8) reported that the
nontrained upper limb actually gained more strength than
the trained upper limb. Subjects flexed their left elbows
against an ergograph. Measures of strength were taken by
cable tensiometer techniques. The subjects trained three
25
days p e r week f o r f o u r w eeks. I t was found t h a t t h e mean
f o r t h e t r a i n e d u p p e r lim b i n c r e a s e d tw e lv e pounds. The
mean f o r th e n o n tr a in e d u p p e r lim b i n c r e a s e d t h i r t e e n
pounds. The mean d i f f e r e n c e o f one pound was n o t r e p o r t e d
t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( 8 :1 8 8 ) .
K le in and W illia m s (51) w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n th e
p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f s t r e n g t h t r a n s f e r f o r th e r e h a b i l
i t a t i o n o f knee i n j u r i e s . S u b je c ts who had s u f f e r e d knee
i n j u r i e s w ere u s e d . The n o n in ju r e d le g s w ere s tr e n g th e n e d
by u s in g th e O xford Method o f s t r e n g t h d ev elo p m en t. Knee
f l e x i o n and e x te n s io n e x e r c i s e s w ere done w ith w e ig h ts
t h a t w ere d e c re a s e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y d u rin g each t r a i n i n g
p e r i o d . S tr e n g th g a in s w ere found i n th e u n e x e r c is e d
q u a d ric e p m u scle g ro u p when th e c o n t r a l a t e r a l m uscle group
was e x e r c is e d (5 1 :5 3 ) .
D arcu s and S a l t e r (17) w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e d i f
f e r e n c e s i n t r a n s f e r b ro u g h t a b o u t by i s o t o n i c and i s o
m e t r ic s t r e n g t h dev elopm ent p r o c e d u r e s . They found t h a t
th e method u se d t o t r a i n th e u p p e r lim b had no i n f lu e n c e
on th e t r a n s f e r o f s t r e n g t h t o th e n o n tr a in e d u p p e r lim b .
Both m ethods b ro u g h t a b o u t e q u a l i n c r e a s e s o f s t r e n g t h to
t h e n o n tr a in e d u p p e r lim b (1 7 :3 3 2 -3 3 3 ).
Mathews and h i s c o -w o rk e rs (57) s tu d ie d t r a n s f e r o f
26
muscular endurance. Twenty-eight subjects flexed their
elbows against a Kelso-Hellebrandt ergoraeter three times
per week for four weeks. The gains in strength were found
to be statistically significant for the trained forearm
flexors and the nontrained forearm flexors. However, the
gain in muscular endurance was statistically significant
in the trained forearm flexors only (5 7 :2 0 6 ).
E ndurance was m easured i n term s o f d i s t a n c e
t h e lo ad was r a i s e d d u r in g a p r e s c r i b e d t e s t b o u t
and was r e c o r d e d i n c e n t im e te r s from a c o u n te r
a t t a c h e d t o th e e rg o m e te r. (5 7 :2 0 7 )
Rasch (67) found statistically significant gains
in strength and hypertrophy of the exercised and nonexer
cised upper limbs. He concluded that, "Unilateral pro
gressive resistance exercises are of value in developing
strength in contralateral limbs" (6 7 :9 0 ).
M u lle r ( 5 9 ) , a German m e d ic a l d o c to r , d o u b te d t h a t
t r a n s f e r c o u ld ta k e p la c e i n th e n o n tr a in e d lim b fo llo w in g
i s o m e t r i c e x e r c i s e . He s t a t e d :
We n e v e r o b se rv e d su ch a n e f f e c t i n o u r e x
p e rim e n ts . Even th e m ost m arked i n c r e a s e s in
m u sc u la r s t r e n g t h o f t h e t r a i n e d m uscle w ere a b
s o l u t e l y o n e - s id e d . What c o u ld be th e r e a s o n
f o r t h i s s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e ? The m ain r e a s o n
f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e may be found i n th e f a c t t h a t
a l l a u th o r s who found c r o s s - o v e r t r a i n i n g e f f e c t s
h av e m easured s t r e n g t h by ju d g in g m axim al dynam ic
w ork w h ereas we to o k a m axim al s t a t i c c o n t r a c t i o n
a s a m easure o f s t r e n g t h . (5 9 :4 3 )
27
M u l l e r 's o b s e r v a t i o n s w ere i n d i r e c t c o n t r a s t t o t h e f i n d
in g s o f D arcu s and S a l t e r ( 1 7 ) , w h ic h w ere c i t e d p r e v i
ous l y .
Rose, Radzyminski, and Beatty (6 9 ) studied transfer of
strength to the quadriceps femoris. Strength was found to
increase in the contralateral limb, which was not exer
cised. These investigators found that muscular hyper
trophy was not transferred to the nontrained limb ( 6 9 :1 6 4 ) .
K ruse and Mathews (5 2 ) found t h a t t h e r e w ere no
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n s t r e n g t h and m uscu
l a r e n d u ra n c e i n a n o n t r a i n e d u p p e r lim b f o llo w in g a n i s o
t o n i c t r a i n i n g program . The c a b le t e n s i o m e t e r and t h e
K e ls o - H e lle b r a n d t E rg o m e te r w ere u s e d t o m easu re s t r e n g t h
and m u s c u la r e n d u ra n c e .
W ello c k (8 4 ) s t u d i e d t r a n s f e r o f m u s c u la r s t r e n g t h t o
t h e knee f l e x o r s a s w e l l a s th e k n e e e x t e n s o r s . Ten su b
j e c t s t r a i n e d t h e i r r i g h t knee f l e x o r s . This was done
a g a i n s t m a n u a lly a p p li e d g ra d e d r e s i s t a n c e . A l l s t r e n g t h
m ea su re s w ere ta k e n w ith a c a b le t e n s i o m e t e r . F o llo w in g
tw e lv e w eeks o f t r a i n i n g , s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t im
p ro v em en ts i n s t r e n g t h w e re e v id e n t i n t h e l e f t kn ee e x te n
s o r s , r i g h t knee e x t e n s o r s , and r i g h t knee f l e x o r s . The
im provem ent i n t h e l e f t k n e e f l e x o r s was tw e n ty - f o u r p e r
28
cent. This improvement was not statistically significant
(8 4 :6 7 4 - 6 7 5 ).
H e l le b r a n d t and W a te rla n d (4 5 ) w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n
t h e n a t u r e o f s t r e n g t h t r a n s f e r t o a n t a g o n i s t i c a s w e l l a s
a g o n i s t i c m uscle g r o u p s . S u b j e c t s w ere a s s ig n e d t o t h r e e
g r o u p s : (1 ) th e e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p p r a c t i c e d w r i s t f l e x i o n
and e x t e n s i o n on a w r i s t e rg o g ra p h , (2 ) a n o b s e r v in g c o n
t r o l g ro u p h e lp e d members o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p , b u t
d id n o t e x e r c i s e , and (3 ) a c o n t r o l g ro u p p a r t i c i p a t e d i n
t h e t e s t i n g p h a se s o f th e s tu d y o n ly . H e l l e b r a n d t and
W a te rla n d fo u n d t h a t :
1. O b s e r v a tio n a lo n e h a s a m e a s u ra b le i n f l u
e n c e on p e rfo rm a n c e . 2. P r a c t i c e l i m i t e d t o th e
f l e x o r s o r e x t e n s o r s o f t h e p r e f e r r e d s i d e a f f e c t s
t h e p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e a g o n i s t - a n t a g o n i s t com plex
o f b o th s i d e s . 3 . The m ost c o n s p ic u o u s change
i n f u n c t i o n a l c a p a c i t y i s d e m o n s tr a te d b y t h e
m u scle g ro u p s u b j e c t e d t o d i r e c t p r a c t i c e . 4.
S i g n i f i c a n t i n d i r e c t t r a i n i n g o c c u rs i n th e r e c i p
r o c a l m u scle g ro u p o f b o th s i d e s . (4 5 :5 5 )
Logan (5 4 ) determined that strength could be devel
oped at a specific angle within the range-of-motion of knee
extension. Logan and Lockhart (5 5 ) tested the hypothesis
that isotonic strength gained at a specific angle in the
range-of-motion of knee extension would be observed in the
contralateral nontrained limb. Subjects were trained iso-
tonically on a spring apparatus that offered the greatest
29
r e s i s t a n c e a t a p p ro x im a te ly one h u n d re d and f i f t e e n d e g re e s
i n t h e r a n g e - o f - m o tio n o f knee e x t e n s i o n . S t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e n g t h g a in s w ere m easured i n th e q u a d ric e p s
o f b o th lo w er lim b s f o llo w in g th e t r a i n i n g p e r i o d . I t was
c o n c lu d e d t h a t :
Im posed dem ands, i n t h e form o f s p e c i f i c t r a i n
in g o f t h e knee e x te n s o r s a t one a n g le i n t h e ra n g e
o f m o tio n r e s u l t i n g r o s s n o n - s p e c i f i c t r a n s f e r to
t h e c o n t r a l a t e r a l knee e x t e n s o r s . (5 5 :6 6 0 )
Summary
S t u d i e s w ere re v ie w e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y a c c o r d in g t o :
(1 ) t r a n s f e r o f n o n r e s i s t i v e p e rfo rm a n c e s and (2) t r a n s f e r
o f r e s i s t i v e p e rfo rm a n c e s . U pper lim b t o u p p e r lim b t r a n s
f e r and u p p e r lim b t o lo w er lim b t r a n s f e r w ere d i s c u s s e d
s e p a r a t e l y f o r n o n r e s i s t i v e p e rfo rm a n c e s . In g e n e r a l , i t
was o b s e rv e d t h a t t r a n s f e r e f f e c t s hav e b e e n n o te d i n
s t r e n g t h , s p e e d , s t e a d i n e s s , a c c u r a c y , m u scle s i z e , d e x
t e r i t y , and s k i l l .
CHAPTER III
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The problem of this study was to determine the
transfer patterns of dynamic steadiness and traversal time
to the ipsilateral and contralateral limbs following uni
lateral training of the preferred upper limb and nonpre
ferred upper limb.
The p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o d e s c r i b e th e
p r o c e d u r e s w hich w ere n e c e s s a r y t o s o lv e th e p ro b lem o f
t h e s tu d y . T h is c h a p t e r i n c l u d e s : (1 ) a d e s c r i p t i o n o f
th e s u b j e c t s a s w e l l a s an e x p l a n a t i o n o f how and why th e y
w ere s e l e c t e d and g ro u p e d ; (2) a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e x p e r
im e n ta l a p p a r a t u s ; (3) a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l
d e s i g n , i n c l u d i n g t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e , t r a i n i n g p ro g ram , and
m ethod o f t r e a t i n g th e d a t a ; and (4) a c h a p t e r summary.
Subjects
S e l e c t i o n .--O n e h u n d re d and n in e s u b j e c t s p a r t i c i -
30
pated in the study. The assumption was made that they were
normal males and were representative of the undergraduate
student body population of the University of Southern
California. The subjects were enrolled in a wide variety
of physical education classes. All of these classes were
in the required physical education service program. The
average age of the subjects at the beginning of the study
was nineteen years and three months.
Subjects participated in the study on a voluntary
basis as well as a class requirement basis. To alleviate
bias concerning the subjects who were required to partici
pate in the study, alternate assignments were made avail
able in lieu of participation in the study. Consequently,
all subjects had an opportunity to make a choice regarding
participation in the study. For learning and motivation
purposes, the free-choice factor was considered of utmost
importance.
Grouping.--Each subject was asked to designate his
preferred upper limb and preferred lower limb. If a sub
ject ate, wrote, and threw with the same upper limb, it was
determined arbitrarily that the upper limb was preferred
for muscular performances. The contralateral upper limb
32
was called the nonpreferred upper limb. If a subject
kicked and/or punted a ball for distance and accuracy with
the same lower limb, it was determined arbitrarily that
the lower limb was preferred for muscular performances.
The contralateral lower limb was called the nonpreferred
lower limb. All subjects stated preference for the right
upper limb and right lower limb for muscular performances.
A pre-test was given to all subjects. The objec
tives of the pre-test were: (1) to determine the beginning
levels of performance for each subject and (2) to group
the subjects into three equal groups for experimental pur
poses. These groups were equated so that no statistically
significant differences were present for the variables
under study. These variables were traversal time, errors,
and error time for all four limbs. Consequently, it was
necessary to equate the groups statistically on twelve
independent measures following the pre-test.
The subjects were placed into three groups following
the pre-test. These groups were designated Group I, Group
II, and Group III. Thirty-six subjects were placed in
Group I. Each subject in Group I was required to train
his preferred or right upper limb during the training pro
gram. Thirty-six subjects were placed in Group II. Each
33
subject in Group II was required to train his nonpreferred
or left upper limb during the training program. Thirty-
seven subjects were placed in the control group or Group
III. The subjects in Group III participated in the test
ing phases of the study only.
E x p e rim e n ta l A p p a ra tu s
Maze b o a r d s .- - T h e maze b o a rd s w ere d e sig n e d and
b u i l t by Brown (7 ). F ig u re 1, page 34, shows one maze
b o a rd i n th e low ered o r lower lim b p o s i t i o n and one maze
b o a r d in th e r a i s e d o r upper lim b p o s i t i o n . The maze
b o a rd shown f o r th e lo w e r lim b p o s i t i o n was used t o t e s t
a n d /o r t r a i n t h e r i g h t upper lim b and r i g h t low er lim b .
T h is was done by r a i s i n g and lo w e rin g t h e maze b o a rd t o th e
d e s i r e d h e i g h t s . To t e s t a n d /o r t r a i n t h e l e f t u p p e r lim b
and l e f t lo w e r lim b, t h e s u b j e c t used t h e maze b o a rd in
th e r a i s e d p o s i t i o n i n F ig u re 1. F ig u re 2 , page 3 5 , shows
a s u b j e c t t r a v e r s i n g t h e maze u s i n g h i s r i g h t u p p e r lim b .
The i n s e t shows th e p lacem en t o f th e s t y l u s in th e hand.
F ig u r e 3 , page 36, shows a s u b j e c t t r a v e r s i n g th e maze
u s i n g h i s r i g h t low er lim b. The i n s e t shows th e p lac em en t
o f t h e s t y l u s on th e f o o t .
The maze boards were made of one-quarter inch
I
34
F ig u re 1
The maze fram e and maze b o a rd s .
F ig u re 2
r i 8 h t U pper lim b ^ S t in g p o s i t i o n .
F ig u re 3
The right lower limb testing position.
37
plyw ood. These m easured se v e n ty -tw o in c h e s i n l e n g t h and
t h i r t y - s e v e n in c h e s i n w id th . An i r r e g u l a r p a t t e r n s im i
l a r t o a p a t t e r n u sed by Cook (11) was sawed from two
p ie c e s o f plywood w h ich w ere n a i l e d t o g e t h e r . T h is p r o
duced two i d e n t i c a l , n o n c h o ic e , maze t r a c k s . The maze
t r a c k s m easured one in c h i n w id th . They w ere l i n e d w ith
c o p p e r s t r i p p i n g o n e - q u a r t e r in c h i n w id th ( 7 ) .
To insure consistent placement of the maze boards
at arbitrarily determined heights throughout the study,
the maze boards were attached to a wooden frame by means
of a pulley system. The height of the maze frame was
ninety-one inches from the floor. The maze boards were
mounted on the maze frame. Three pulleys were attached to
each end of the frame at a point eighty-nine inches from
the floor. One-quarter inch rope was used with the pulleys
to provide a pulley system by which the maze boards could
be raised and lowered manually. To add stability to the
maze boards, three-quarter inch metal tubes were attached
to both sides of the wooden maze frame. Metal loops with
an internal diameter of one inch were fitted around the
metal tubing and attached to the rear of the maze boards.
When the maze boards were raised to the maximum height of
eighty-nine inches or lowered to the minimum height of
38
f o r t y - s i x i n c h e s , th e y w e re h e ld i n p la c e by t h e m e ta l
lo o p s and m e ta l t u b e s .
Wooden blocks were wedged into each maze track at
a point twenty-one inches from the side of the maze board
distal to the starting point. This was necessary to elim
inate unnecessary discomfort for the subject due to body
torque while he was traversing the maze with the lower
limb (Figure 3 , page 3 6 ) .
E l e c t r i c a l s y s te m .- - F i g u r e 4 , page 3 9 , shows th e
e l e c t r i c a l d ia g ra m f o r t h e e l e c t r i c a l equ ip m en t w h ich was
used f o r th e p u rp o s e o f m e a su rin g t r a v e r s a l tim e , e r r o r s ,
and e r r o r tim e . S in g le p u l l s i n g l e th ro w (SPST) s w itc h e s
w ere p la c e d a t t h e s t a r t i n g p o s i t i o n s o f b o th maze t r a c k s .
The s w itc h e s w ere c o n t r o l l e d by t h e p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d by
th e s u b j e c t w ith t h e s t y l u s on a p l a s t i c s t o p p l a t e . The
s to p p l a t e was m ounted d i r e c t l y a b o v e th e s w it c h e s . T hus,
th e s u b j e c t , n o t th e i n v e s t i g a t o r , s t a r t e d and s to p p e d th e
e l e c t r i c a l tim in g and c o u n tin g d e v i c e s .
A double pull double throw (DPDT) switch was
mounted on the maze frame between the maze boards. This
switch controlled the dispersal of electric current to the
maze track that was being utilized by a subject. The maze
Maze
Ma ze
Stylus
SPST 5PST
6 V DC
Clock
TT
Transformer
J \
Counter
6 V O
Clock
SPST |Relay
Control Box
_______ I SPST
F ig u r e 4
E l e c t r i c a l d iag ra m .
w
v£>
40
b o a rd s c o u ld n o t be u se d s i m u lt a n e o u s ly .
The t r a v e r s a l tim e (TT) m ea su re s w ere r e c o r d e d by
means o f a S ta n d a rd E l e c t r i c T im er, Type S - l . T h is tim e r
was c a l i b r a t e d t o m easu re tim e s up t o .0 1 o f a se c o n d .
The t r a v e r s a l t im e r r a n c o n tin u o u s ly from t h e tim e th e su b
j e c t opened th e s i n g l e p u l l s i n g l e th ro w s w itc h e s a t th e
s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e maze t r a c k u n t i l h e c lo s e d t h e same
s w itc h e s a t th e c o n c l u s i o n o f h i s t r i a l . T h u s, t h e t o t a l
tim e e la p s e d p e r t r i a l , t r a v e r s a l tim e , o r sp e ed was r e
c o rd e d .
The e r r o r tim e (ET) m ea su re s w ere a l s o t a k e n by
means o f a S ta n d a rd E l e c t r i c T im er, Type S - l . The e r r o r
tim e tim e r was s e t i n p h a se w ith a V e e d e r-R o o t e l e c t r i c
c o u n t e r , Form 120506 ( 8 2 ) . The c o u n te r r e c o r d e d t h e num ber
o f tim e s t h a t t h e m e ta l s t y l u s made c o n t a c t w ith t h e c o p p e r
maze t r a c k . C o n s e q u e n tly , t h e e r r o r tim e tim e r r e c o r d e d
th e am ount o f tim e t h a t th e s t y l u s to u c h e d t h e c o p p e r maze
d u r i n g a t r i a l . R e c o rd in g s w ere r e a d t o .0 1 o f a se c o n d .
The m e ta l s t y l u s was se v e n and o n e - q u a r t e r in c h e s
i n l e n g t h . I t s d ia m e te r was o n e - h a l f in c h . T h is m eant
t h a t t h e r e was a o n e - q u a r t e r in c h s p a c e b e tw e e n t h e s u r f a c e
o f th e s t y l u s and th e c o p p e r maze t r a c k . T h is was t h e
s u b j e c t 's r a n g e - o f - m o tio n f o r dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s . T h ree
and one-half inches of the stylus were covered by rubber
insulation. The metal portion of the stylus extended
three and three-quarter inches beyond the rubber insula
tion.
Benches.--The subjects were required to sit on a
bench during each trial. A bench was placed parallel to
each maze board. These benches were seventy inches long,
thirty inches high, and thirty inches wide. The distance
that a bench was placed from the maze board depended upon
the length of the subject's upper and lower limbs. Ruled
pieces of adhesive tape were placed on the laboratory floor
at a ninety degree angle to the maze boards to insure that
the bench position was held constant for each subject
throughout the study.
Experimental Design
The problem of this study was to determine the
transfer patterns of dynamic steadiness and traversal time
to the ipsilateral and contralateral limbs following uni
lateral training of the preferred upper limb and nonpre
ferred upper limb. The two variables of dynamic steadiness
and traversal time were studied by utilizing two experi
mental groups of subjects, Group I and Group II, and a
42
c o n t r o l g ro u p o f s u b j e c t s , G roup I I I . The n a tu r e o f t h e s e
g ro u p s was d e s c r i b e d p r e v i o u s ly .
The r e t r o a c t i o n d e s ig n was th e e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s ig n
u se d i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y . The r e t r o a c t i o n d e s ig n in v o lv e s
a p r e - t e s t f o r th e e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s . The
e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s a r e p la c e d i n a t r a i n i n g program w h ile
th e c o n t r o l g ro u p re m a in s i d l e . F o llo w in g th e t r a i n i n g
program f o r th e e x p e r im e n ta l g r o u p s , a l l g ro u p s a r e g iv e n
a p o s t - t e s t , w h ich i s a n e x a c t d u p l i c a t e o f th e p r e - t e s t
< 2 1 :2 1 5 ).
The retroaction design has limitations and advan
tages. The most serious limitation is the fact that,
"The a f t e r - t e s t u s u a l l y r e p r e s e n t s a r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y
s t a g e o f th e t o t a l l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s " ( 2 8 :1 0 5 ) . H ow ever,
t h i s d e s ig n does a llo w a s t a t i s t i c a l c o m p a riso n o f th e
v a r i a n c e w hich may o c c u r b e tw ee n th e g ro u p s a s a r e s u l t
o f t h e t r a i n i n g p ro g ram w hich t h e e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s
u n d e rg o . T h is p ro c e d u re was c o n s id e r e d e s s e n t i a l i n th e
p r e s e n t s tu d y .
A p e r io d o f e i g h t w eeks was r e q u i r e d t o c o m p le te
a l l p h a se s o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n . The tim e was u t i
l i z e d a s f o llo w s : ( 1 ) two w eeks w ere r e q u i r e d t o c o l l e c t
t h e p r e - t e s t d a t a , (2 ) th e p r a c t i c e p e r io d f o r G roups I
43
and I I r e q u ir e d fo u r w eek s, and (3 ) two w eeks w ere r e q u i r e d
t o c o l l e c t th e p o s t - t e s t d a ta .
Testing procedure.--The testing was conducted in
the William Ralph Laporte Research Center, Movement and
Motor Learning Laboratory, Department of Physical Educa
tion, University of Southern California. For reliability,
the data were collected by the investigator. No assistants
were used for any purpose throughout the experimental time
period.
The laboratory temperature was kept at a constant
and comfortable level throughout the study. Lighting of
the maze boards was also kept at an adequate and constant
level throughout the study.
The e x p e r im e n ta l ^ ap p a ratu s was s c re e n e d so t h a t
w a i ti n g s u b j e c t s c o u ld n o t o b se rv e a s u b j e c t who was t r a v
e r s i n g th e maze. I t was n e c e s s a r y t o do t h i s t o i n s u r e a
c o n s t a n t n o n d i s t r a c t i v e l e a r n i n g e n v iro n m en t f o r t h e su b
j e c t and t o p re v e n t o t h e r s u b j e c t s from l e a r n i n g by o b s e r
v a t i o n . H e lle b r a n d t and W a te rla n d found t h a t , " O b s e r v a tio n
a lo n e h a s a m e a su ra b le in f lu e n c e on p e rfo rm a n c e " ( 4 5 :5 5 ) .
For testing and/or training purposes, the subject
sat on a bench facing the maze board. The sitting position
44
was used w h ile th e s u b j e c t t r a v e r s e d t h e maze w ith th e
u p p e r lim b a s w e ll a s th e low er lim b . The s u b j e c t c o u ld
s l i d e h i s b u tto c k s a c r o s s th e bench i f he d e s i r e d t o do so
w h ile t r a v e r s i n g th e m aze. Gregg and h i s c o -w o rk e rs (36)
found t h a t s t a b i l i z i n g t h e body p o s i t i o n h ad no e f f e c t on
t r a n s f e r ( 3 6 :2 7 9 ) .
The height of the maze board was changed for upper
limb and lower limb testing. The uppermost border of the
maze board was raised to a point sixty-six inches above
the floor during upper limb testing and training. The
uppermost border of the maze board was lowered to its mini
mum height of forty-six inches during lower limb testing
and training. The maze board heights were kept constant
throughout the study for all subjects. To accommodate
individual differences among subjects in regard to limb
lengths, the bench was moved closer to or away from the
maze board as indicated for the subject's comfort. The
distance of the bench from the maze board was recorded for
each subject during the pre-test. As a result, the dis
tance of the bench from the maze board was held constant
during the study for each subject.
Each subject was instructed regarding the placement
of the stylus in the hand and on the foot. The stylus was
h e l d i n th e palm o f t h e hand w i t h th e r u b b e r p o r t i o n o f t h e
s t y l u s h e ld b e tw ee n t h e thumb and in d e x f i n g e r . The m e ta l
p o r t i o n o f t h e s t y l u s e x te n d e d beyond th e d i s t a l a s p e c t s
o f t h e thumb and in d e x f i n g e r . The r e m a in in g f i n g e r s and
t h e palm o f t h e hand w ere n o t u t i l i z e d f o r g r i p p i n g t h e
s t y l u s ; h o w ev er, th e y d id s e r v e a s t a b i l i z i n g f u n c t i o n i n
t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e s t y l u s ( F ig u r e 2 , page 3 5 ) . The s t y l u s
was ta p e d on th e p l a n t a r s u r f a c e o f t h e f o o t w ith th e r u b
b e r p o r t i o n o f t h e s t y l u s p la c e d b e tw e e n t h e g r e a t to e and
th e f i r s t to e t o s im u la te th e th u m b -in d e x f i n g e r r e l a t i o n
s h i p f o r th e s t y l u s i n t h e h a n d . The m e ta l p o r t i o n o f t h e
s t y l u s e x te n d e d beyond t h e d i s t a l a s p e c t s o f t h e g r e a t t o e
and th e f i r s t t o e . The re m a in in g t o e s d id n o t come i n t o
c o n t a c t w ith t h e s t y l u s ( F ig u r e 3 , page 3 6 ) . Due t o t h e
v e s t i g i a l n a t u r e o f t h e g r i p p i n g m u s c u la tu r e o f t h e f e e t
o f m ost Homo s a p i e n s , a p ie c e o f a d h e s iv e t a p e was p la c e d
a ro u n d th e s t y l u s and f o o t a t th e m e t a t a r s a l l e v e l . T h is
h e lp e d th e s u b j e c t m a i n t a i n a c o n s t a n t g r i p on th e s t y l u s
w h ile h e t r a v e r s e d t h e m aze.
One demonstration of the testing procedure was
given for all subjects by the investigator. In addition,
each subject was given the following instructions verbally
and in writing on his first visit to the laboratory:
46
The s t y l u s i s t o d e p r e s s th e s t o p p l a t e a t th e
end o f th e m aze. The o p e r a t o r o f th e c o n t r o l s
w i l l s t a t e , " p ro c e e d when r e a d y ." You do n o t have
t o r e a c t i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y t o t h i s s t a te m e n t . Guide
th e s t y l u s th ro u g h th e maze t r a c k . T ry n o t t o
to u c h th e c o p p e r s i d e s o f t h e maze t r a c k w ith th e
s t y l u s . Touch t h e wooden b lo c k i n th e maze t r a c k
on th e s i d e o p p o s ite t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t . W ith o u t
h e s i t a t i o n , g u id e th e s t y l u s b a ck th ro u g h th e maze
t o th e s to p p l a t e . P re s s t h e s t o p p l a t e and h o ld
i t w ith th e s t y l u s u n t i l th e o p e r a t o r o f t h e c o n
t r o l s i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e e l e c t r i c i t y h a s b e en
tu r n e d o f f c o m p le te ly .
The fo llo w in g m easu res w i l l be ta k e n d u r in g
eac h t r i a l :
1. T r a v e r s a l t i m e : t h e t o t a l se co n d s r e q u i r e d
t o t r a v e r s e th e maze ( s p e e d ) .
2. E r r o r s : th e number o f tim e s t h a t t h e s t y
lu s a c t u a l l y to u c h e s th e maze t r a c k d u r in g
th e t r i a l .
3. E r r o r t i m e : th e t o t a l se co n d s t h a t th e
s t y l u s a c t u a l l y sp en d s to u c h in g t h e maze
t r a c k d u r in g th e t r i a l .
As a s u b j e c t , y o u r o b j e c t i v e s sh o u ld be t o
in c r e a s e t r a v e r s a l tim e o r sp eed th ro u g h t h e m aze,
a n d , s i m i l t a n e o u s l y , t r y t o d e c r e a s e e r r o r s and
e r r o r tim e . E q u al im p o rta n c e i s p la c e on a l l
t h r e e m e a su re s. You w i l l be t o l d y o u r s c o r e s im
m e d ia te ly f o llo w in g e a c h t r i a l .
The i n v e s t i g a t o r s a t i n a p o s i t i o n t o o b s e rv e th e
s u b j e c t a s h e g u id e d th e s t y l u s th ro u g h th e m aze. A t r i a l
c o n s i s t e d o f g u id in g th e s t y l u s from th e s to p p l a t e t o th e
wooden b lo c k i n th e maze t r a c k and r e t u r n i n g t o t h e s t a r t
in g p o i n t . I f a s u b j e c t f a i l e d t o to u c h th e wooden b lo c k
i n th e maze t r a c k , th e t r i a l was s to p p e d im m e d ia te ly . T h is
s i t u a t i o n o c c u rre d d u r in g two o f th e 10,816 t r i a l s w hich
w ere ta k e n by th e one h u n d red and n in e s u b j e c t s th ro u g h o u t
t h e s tu d y .
J The p r e - t e s t c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e t r i a l s f o r e a c h o f
t h e u p p e r and lo w er lim b s . T h i r t y se c o n d s r e s t was a llo w e d
b e tw e e n t r i a l s . Dey and Ammons (2 3) found t h a t h a l f - m i n u t e
r e s t s b e tw een t r i a l s le d t o b e t t e r p e rfo rm a n c e th a n e i t h e r
no r e s t p e r io d o r lo n g e r p e r io d s o f r e s t . The f i r s t t r i a l
was g iv e n t o f a m i l i a r i z e t h e s u b j e c t w ith th e a c t u a l t e s t
in g p r o c e d u re . D ata w ere c o l l e c t e d d u r in g th e f i r s t t r i a l
f o r t h e s u b j e c t 's r e f e r e n c e . The mean o f t r i a l s two and
t h r e e c o n s t i t u t e d th e s u b j e c t 's s c o r e f o r e ac h v a r i a b l e on
th e p r e - t e s t . I n o t h e r w o rd s, e a c h s u b j e c t had tw e lv e p r e
t e s t s c o r e s . T hese tw e lv e s c o r e s o r means r e p r e s e n t e d t h e
s u b j e c t 's i n i t i a l p e rfo rm a n c e f o r t h e v a r i a b l e s u n d e r
s tu d y f o r a l l f o u r lim b s . Two w eeks w ere r e q u i r e d t o a d
m i n i s t e r th e p r e - t e s t t o t h e sa m p le . P r e - t e s t s c o r e s a r e
in c lu d e d i n A ppendix A.
The p o s t - t e s t was an e x a c t d u p l i c a t i o n o f th e p r e
t e s t . I t was s t a r t e d f o u r w eeks a f t e r th e c o n c lu s io n o f
t h e p r e - t e s t . P o s t - t e s t s c o r e s a r e in c lu d e d i n A ppendix C.
T r a i n in g p ro g ra m .- - D u r i n g th e f o u r week p e rio d
b e tw e e n th e p r e - t e s t and th e p o s t - t e s t , t h e t r a i n i n g p r o
gram was g iv e n t o Group I and Group I I .
48
Each s u b j e c t i n Group I and Group I I was r e q u i r e d
t o t r a v e r s e th e maze one h u n d red tim e s d u r in g th e f o u r
week p e r io d . The s u b j e c t s v i s i t e d th e l a b o r a t o r y t h r e e
tim e s p e r week f o r a t o t a l o f t e n t r a i n i n g p e r i o d s . A
s u b j e c t t r a v e r s e d th e maze t e n tim e s d u r in g e ac h v i s i t to
th e l a b o r a t o r y . S u b je c ts i n Group I t r a i n e d t h e i r p r e
f e r r e d r i g h t u p p e r lim b s o n ly , and s u b j e c t s i n Group I I
t r a i n e d t h e i r n o n p r e f e r r e d l e f t u p p e r lim b s o n ly . The r e
m a in in g lim bs o f th e s u b j e c t s i n Groups I and I I w ere n o t
t r a i n e d d u rin g th e t r a i n i n g program .
M o tiv a tio n i n any ty p e o f l e a r n i n g i s o f param ount
im p o rta n c e . C o n c e rn in g m o ti v a ti o n , H a r r is o n w ro te :
Many more f a c t o r s a f f e c t m otor l e a r n i n g . The
e m o tio n a l s ta g e i s im p o r ta n t. I t i s commonplace
o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h t h a t th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
a com plex p e r c e p t i o n can be v a r i e d by c h an g in g th e
s e t o f th e p e rs o n , i . e . , w hat one a b s o rb s depends
upon how o n e ’ s a t t e n t i o n i s d i r e c t e d o r how one i s
m o tiv a te d . (3 8 :6 6 )
Due t o th e im p o rta n c e o f m o ti v a ti o n , th e f o llo w in g in c e n
t i v e s w ere u se d w ith th e hope t h a t th e y would s t i m u l a t e
i n t r i n s i c m o ti v a ti o n on th e p a r t o f th e s u b j e c t s : (1 ) each
s u b j e c t had im m ediate know ledge o f h i s r e s u l t s fo llo w in g
each t r i a l , (2) each s u b j e c t was g iv e n th e mean o f h i s t e n
p re v io u s t r a i n i n g p e rio d t r i a l s , and (3 ) th e b e s t i n d i v i d
u a l p e rfo rm a n c e s by a s u b j e c t i n e ach g roup w ere p o s te d a t
49
all times. These incentives provided the bases for compe
tition between groups, competition within each group, and
competition by the subject with his own previous perform
ances .
Treatment of the data.--The reliability of the
performances on the experimental apparatus was determined
by correlation techniques. Coefficients of correlation
were derived by the product-moment method. The test-retest
technique for obtaining reliability of a test was used.
Analysis of variance was used to determine the statistical
significance of the differences between the pre-test means
among the groups. The t-test for the significance of the
difference between means was used to determine-the differ
ence between the groups on the post-test. The t-test was
also used to determine the statistical significance of the
learning that took place within groups throughout the
study. Furthermore, the total improvement for each vari
able and the improvement due to transfer for each variable
were determined by ratio techniques.
Summary
This chapter presented an explanation of the fol
lowing: (1) the selection and grouping of subjects; (2)
th e e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a t u s , w hich in c lu d e d t h e maze b o a r d s ,
e l e c t r i c a l sy ste m , and b e n c h e s ; (3 ) th e e x p e r im e n ta l d e
s i g n ; and (4 ) th e g e n e r a l te c h n iq u e s t h a t w ere u se d f o r
t r e a t i n g th e d a ta .
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
The pro b lem o f t h i s s tu d y was t o d e te rm in e th e
t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s o f dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s and t r a v e r s a l tim e
t o th e i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b s f o llo w in g u n i
l a t e r a l t r a i n i n g o f t h e p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim b and n o n p re
f e r r e d u p p e r lim b.
The p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o p r e s e n t : (1 ) th e
g e n e r a l p ro c e d u re o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s , (2) th e
f i n d i n g s r e g a r d i n g th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e p e rfo rm a n c e s on
th e e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a t u s , (3 ) th e r e s u l t s o f th e p r e
t e s t , (4) t h e f i n d in g s o f th e t r a i n i n g p rogram , (5 ) t h e
r e s u l t s o f t h e p o s t - t e s t , (6 ) th e f i n d in g s r e g a r d i n g l e a r n
in g w i t h i n g ro u p s th ro u g h o u t t h e s tu d y , (7 ) th e p e rc e n ta g e s
o f t o t a l im provem ent and im provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r , and
(8 ) a b r i e f summary o f t h e m ajo r f i n d in g s o f th e s tu d y . A
d i s c u s s i o n o f th e m ajo r f i n d in g s o f t h i s c h a p te r i s p r e
s e n te d i n d e t a i l i n C h a p te r V.
51
52
The General Procedure of the Statistical
A n a ly s is
The five per cent level of confidence was set as
the point at or beyond which any difference between means
would be accepted as having statistical significance. This
confidence level was used to determine significance through
out the study.
The r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e p e rfo rm a n c e s on t h e e x p e r i
m e n ta l a p p a r a tu s was d e te rm in e d by c a l c u l a t i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s
o f c o r r e l a t i o n by t h e product-m om ent m ethod. The fo rm u la s
f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s w ere b a se d on raw s c o r e s when d e v i a t i o n s
a r e ta k e n from z e ro (3 1 :1 4 2 -1 4 3 ). The t e s t - r e t e s t t e c h
n iq u e f o r o b t a i n i n g r e l i a b i l i t y o f a t e s t was u s e d .
The s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a tm e n t o f t h e p r e - t e s t d a ta i n
v o lv e d th e u se o f a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e . The a n a l y s i s o f
v a r i a n c e p ro c e d u re was d e sig n e d t o d e te rm in e th e s t a t i s
t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw ee n means d e r iv e d
from u n c o r r e l a t e d raw s c o r e s ( 3 1 :2 8 1 ). The p r e - t e s t a n a l
y s i s t e s t e d th e f o llo w in g n u l l h y p o t h e s i s : Group 1 , Group
I I , and Group I I I a r e random sam ples draw n from t h e same
n o rm a lly d i s t r i b u t e d p o p u la tio n .
Generally, the remainder of the statistical treat
ment of the data involved the use of the t-test for deter
53
m in in g t h e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e b e tw ee n mean d i f f e r
e n c e s . F o r th e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o s t - t e s t r e s u l t s , th e
fo rm u la f o r u n c o r r e l a t e d means was u se d a s recommended by
G a r r e t t ( 3 1 :2 2 4 ) . The f o llo w in g n u l l h y p o t h e s is was
t e s t e d : th e o b ta in e d mean d i f f e r e n c e s due t o t r a i n i n g r e p
r e s e n t random sa m p lin g f l u c t u a t i o n s w h ich do n o t d i f f e r
s i g n i f i c a n t l y from a p o p u l a t i o n mean d i f f e r e n c e o f z e r o .
The t - t e s t was a l s o u se d t o e v a l u a t e t h e e x t e n t o f
l e a r n i n g from th e p r e - t e s t th r o u g h th e p o s t - t e s t f o r each
g ro u p . F o r t h i s p u rp o s e , th e fo rm u la f o r d e te r m in in g th e
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e d i f f e r e n c e b etw een two c o r r e l a t e d means
was u se d ( 3 1 :2 2 6 ) .
The fo rm u la u se d t o d e te rm in e t h e p e rc e n ta g e o f
im provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r was recommended by Gagne,
F o s t e r , and C row ley ( 2 8 :1 0 6 ) . The fo rm u la e li m in a te d th e
b i a s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t some o f t h e im
provem ent o f a p o s t - t e s t s c o r e c o u ld be a t t r i b u t e d t o t a k
in g t h e p r e - t e s t . The p r e - t e s t s c o r e o f Group I I I was u se d
a s t h e d e n o m in a to r i n t h e fo rm u la .
The fo rm u la u se d t o d e te rm in e t h e p e rc e n ta g e o f
t o t a l im provem ent w as: p r e - t e s t s c o r e d i v id e d by t h e p o s t
t e s t s c o r e m inus o n e . T h is fo rm u la gave t h e a c t u a l g a in i n
p e rfo rm a n c e beyond th e p r e - t e s t p e rfo rm a n c e .
Reliability of the Performances
on the Experimental Apparatus
Pilot study.--The purpose of the pilot study was
to determine the number of trials needed to secure reli
able performances of dynamic steadiness and traversal time.
Due to the nature of transfer, if a large number of trials
were given on a pre-test a learning bias for the variables
under study would result. Conversely, a one-trial test was
considered to be unreliable in a human performance study.
As a result, it was decided arbitrarily that four trials
would be used in the pilot study. Reliability coefficients
then were calculated as follows: (1) the mean of trials one
and two were correlated with the mean of trials three and
four and (2) the raw score of trial two was correlated with
the raw score of trial three. The reliability coefficients
were equivalent for both procedures mentioned above. As a
result, it was decided to use three trials for testing pur
poses for the present study. One trial was used as a prac
tice trial by the subject, and the mean of trials two and
three was used as the test score for each variable in each
limb during the pre-test and post-test.
For correlation coefficients to be statistically
significant with fifteen degrees of freedom, the reliabil-
55
i t y c o e f f i c i e n t m ust r e a c h .4 8 a t t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l
o f c o n fid e n c e and .6 1 a t t h e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f i
d e n c e . A l l p i l o t s tu d y r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s w ere found
t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t beyond t h e one p e r c e n t
l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e . T a b le s 1 and 2 , p ag es 56 and 5 7 , show
th e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s o b t a i n e d d u r i n g th e p i l o t
s tu d y .
W ith t h e e x c e p ti o n o f e r r o r tim e f o r t h e p r e f e r r e d
u p p e r lim b , a l l r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s showed t h a t a h ig h ,
t o v e r y h ig h p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d b e tw e e n t h e
m e a su re s o f t r i a l s two and t h r e e d u r in g t h e p i l o t s t u d y .
P r e - t e s t . --T o d e te r m in e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f a l l v a r
i a b l e s m easured d u r in g t h e p r e - t e s t , th e d a t a from f i f t y
s u b j e c t s w ere c h o s e n a t random f o r s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s .
T a b le s 3 and 4 , p ag es 58 and 5 9 , show t h e r e l i a b i l i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e p r e - t e s t .
R e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s m ust r e a c h .2 8 t o be
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l and
.36 t o b e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e one p e r c e n t
l e v e l w i t h f o r t y - e i g h t d e g r e e s o f free d o m . A l l r e l i a b i l i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t s c a l c u l a t e d f o r th e p r e - t e s t w ere found t o be
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t beyond t h e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f
56
TABLE 1
PILOT STUDY TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS
FOR THE PREFERRED UPPER LIMB
Variables N Mean r
Signifi
cance
Test: Traversal Time 17 3 4 .6 2
.99 .01
Retest: Traversal Time 17 33.7 5
Test: Number of Errors 17 4 8 .4 1
.82 .01
Retest: Number of Errors 17 4 7 .7 6
Test: Error Time 17 2 .9 8
.62 .0 1
Retest: Error Time 17 2 .8 3
N o te : T h is t a b l e sh o u ld be r e a d a s f o llo w s : th e
raw s c o r e s o f s e v e n te e n s u b j e c t s p ro d u ced a mean t r a v e r s a l
tim e o f 3 4 .6 2 se c o n d s on th e t e s t and 3 3 .7 5 se co n d s on
r e t e s t . The c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een th e two s e t s o f raw
s c o r e s was .9 9 . The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t was s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n
f i d e n c e .
57
TABLE 2
PILOT STUDY TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS
FOR THE NONPREFERRED UPPER LIMB
V a r i a b l e s N Mean
S i g n i f i
ca n c e
T e s t : T r a v e r s a l Time
R e t e s t : T r a v e r s a l Time
17 4 2 .2 3
17 4 3 .1 5
.96 .01
T e s t : Number o f E r r o r s
R e t e s t : Number o f E r r o r s
17 5 9 .8 2
17 5 7 .4 7
.97 .01
T e s t : E r r o r Time
R e t e s t : E r r o r Time
17
17
4 .4 4
4 .1 8
.9 1 .01
N o te : T h is t a b l e sh o u ld be r e a d a s f o l lo w s : th e
raw s c o r e s o f s e v e n te e n s u b j e c t s p ro d u ce d a mean t r a v e r s a l
tim e o f 4 2 .2 3 se c o n d s on t h e t e s t and 4 3 .1 5 se c o n d s on
r e t e s t . The c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n th e two s e t s o f raw
s c o r e s was .9 6 . The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t was s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t beyond t h e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n
f i d e n c e .
TABLE 3
58
PRE-TEST RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS FOR LO W ER LIMBS
Variables N Mean r
Signifi
cance
Trial Two: Left Lower Limb
Traversal Time 50 2 9 .9 6
Trial Three: Left Lower Limb .96 .0 1
Traversal Time 50 2 8 .2 3
Trial Two: Left Lower Limb
Number of Errors 50 9 3 .9 0
Trial Three: Left Lower Limb .9 4 .0 1
Number of Errors 50 9 1 .2 8
Trial Two: Left Lower Limb
Error Time 50 1 6 .7 0
Trial Three: Left Lower Limb .87 .0 1
Error Time 50 1 5.92
Trial Two: Right Lower Limb
Traversal Time 50 30 .7 7
Trial Three: Right Lower Limb .86 .01
Traversal Time 50 2 8 .0 1
Trial Two: Right Lower Limb
Number of Errors 50 100.44
Trial Three: Right Lower Limb
C M
00
•
.0 1
Number of Errors 50 9 5 .4 4
Trial Two: Right Lower Limb
Error Time 50 1 2 .3 7
Trial Three: Right Lower Limb
o
00
•
.0 1
Error Time 50 11.42
N o te : T h is t a b l e s h o u ld be r e a d a s f o l lo w s : th e
raw s c o r e s o f f i f t y s u b j e c t s p ro d u ced mean t r a v e r s a l tim e s
f o r th e l e f t low er lim b o f 2 9 .9 6 se c o n d s on t r i a l two and
2 8 .2 3 se c o n d s on t r i a l t h r e e d u r in g t h e p r e - t e s t . The
c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n t h e two s e t s o f raw s c o r e s was .9 6 .
The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
beyond t h e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e .
59
TABLE 4
PRE-TEST RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS FOR UPPER LIMBS
V a r ia b l e s N Mean r
S i g n i f i
cance
T r i a l Two: L e f t U pper Limb
T r a v e r s a l Time 50 2 2 .0 1
T r i a l T h re e : L e f t U pper Limb .96 .01
T r a v e r s a l Time 50 2 1 .5 4
T r i a l Two: L e f t U pper Limb
Number o f E r r o r s 50 6 2 .8 4
T r i a l T h re e : L e f t U pper Limb .66 .01
Number o f E r r o r s 50 6 1 .5 2
T r i a l Two: L e f t U pper Limb
E r r o r Time 50 4 .6 1
T r i a l T h re e : L e f t U pper Limb .67 .01
E r r o r Time 50 4 .4 5
T r i a l Two: R ig h t U pper Limb
T r a v e r s a l Time 50 2 0 .4 6
T r i a l T h re e : R ig h t U pper Limb .95 .01
T r a v e r s a l Time 50 19.5 6
T r i a l Two: R ig h t U pper Limb
Number o f E r r o r s 50 5 2 .2 0
T r i a l T h re e : R ig h t U pper Limb .55 .01
Number o f E r r o r s 50 5 0 .7 4
T r i a l Two: R ig h t Upper Limb
E r r o r Time 50 3 .3 0
T r i a l T h re e : R ig h t U pper Limb .7 0 .01
E r r o r Time 50 3 .0 7
N o te : T h is t a b l e sh o u ld be re a d a s f o llo w s : th e
raw s c o r e s o f f i f t y s u b j e c t s pro d u ced mean t r a v e r s a l tim e s
f o r th e l e f t u p p e r lim b o f 2 2 .0 1 seco n d s on t r i a l two and
2 1 .5 4 se co n d s on t r i a l t h r e e d u r in g th e p r e - t e s t . The
c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een t h e two s e t s o f raw s c o r e s was .9 6 .
The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
beyond th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e .
60
c o n f id e n c e . G e n e r a lly , th e r e l i a b i l i t y f o r t h e lo w er lim b
v a r i a b l e s was h ig h e r th a n t h e r e l i a b i l i t y f o r t h e u p p e r
lim b v a r i a b l e s . The r e l i a b i l i t y ra n g e f o r t r a v e r s a l tim e
was from .86 fo r t h e r i g h t lo w er lim b t o .96 f o r th e l e f t
lo w e r lim b and l e f t u p p e r lim b . The r e l i a b i l i t y ra n g e f o r
t h e dynamic s t e a d i n e s s v a r i a b l e s was from .55 f o r r i g h t
u p p e r lim b e r r o r s t o .9 4 f o r l e f t lo w e r lim b e r r o r s . Dy
nam ic s t e a d i n e s s m ea su re s w ere l e s s r e l i a b l e th a n t r a v e r s a l
tim e m easu res on t h e p r e - t e s t .
P o s t - t e s t . - -The s c o r e s o f t h e same f i f t y s u b j e c t s
t h a t were u se d t o d e te rm in e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e p r e - t e s t
w ere used t o d e te rm in e th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e p o s t - t e s t p e r
fo rm a n c e s. T ab les 5 and 6 , pag es 61 and 62, show th e r e
l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e p o s t - t e s t .
A l l r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r th e p o s t - t e s t w ere
found to be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t beyond t h e one p e r
c e n t l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . G e n e r a lly , th e r e l i a b i l i t y f o r
t h e u p p er lim b m ea su re s was h ig h e r t h a n th e r e l i a b i l i t y f o r
t h e low er lim b m e a su re s. No r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t f o r
t h e u p p er lim bs was found t o be low er th a n .9 0 . The r e l i
a b i l i t y ra n g e f o r t r a v e r s a l tim e was from .93 f o r l e f t and
r i g h t low er lim bs t o .97 f o r l e f t and r i g h t u p p e r lim b s .
61
TABLE 5
POST-TEST RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS FOR LO W E R LIMBS
Variables N Mean r
Signifi
cance
T r i a l Two: L e f t Lower Limb
Traversal Time 50 20.85
Trial Three: Left Lower Limb .93 .01
Traversal Time 50 2 0 .5 1
Trail Two: Left Lower Limb
Number of Errors 50 7 0 .4 2
Trial Three: Left Lower Limb .77 .0 1
Number of Errors 50 6 8 .3 8
Trial Two: Left Lower Limb
Error Time 50 11.67
Trail Three: Left Lower Limb
CO
.01
Error Time 50 11.19
Trial Two: Right Lower Limb
Traversal Time 50 2 0 .6 0
Trial Three: Right Lower Limb .93 .01
Traversal Time 50 2 0 .1 1
Trial Two: Right Lower Limb
Number of Errors 50 72.56
Trial Three: Right Lower Limb .81 .01
Number of Errors 50 7 2 .2 8
Trial Two: Right Lower Limb
Error Time 50 9 .3 0
Trial Three: Right Lower Limb .60 .0 1
Error Time 50 9 .2 2
N o te: T h is t a b l e sh o u ld be re a d a s f o llo w s : th e
raw s c o r e s o f f i f t y s u b j e c t s p rod uced mean t r a v e r s a l tim e s
f o r t h e l e f t low er lim b o f 20.8 5 seco n d s on t r i a l two and
2 0 .5 1 seco n d s on t r i a l t h r e e d u r in g t h e p o s t - t e s t . The
c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een th e two s e t s o f raw s c o r e s was .9 3 .
The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
beyond th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e .
62
TABLE 6
POST-TEST RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS FOR UPPER LIMBS
Variables N Mean r
Signifi
cance
Trial Two: Left Upper Limb
Traversal Time 50 12.45
Trial Three: Left Upper Limb .97 .0 1
Traversal Time 50 1 2 .0 8
Trial Two: Left Upper Limb
Number of Errors 50 3 1 .4 6
Trial Three: Left Upper Limb .9 0 .0 1
Number of Errors 50 3 0 .5 8
Trial Two: Left Upper Limb
Error Time 50 2 .1 6
Trial Three: Left Upper Limb .9 8 .0 1
Error Time 50 1.97
T r i a l Two: R ig h t U pper Limb
Traversal Time 50 11 .3 7
Trial Three: Right Upper Limb .97 .0 1
Traversal Time 50 11.27
Trial Two: Right Upper Limb
Number of Errors 50 2 6 .7 4
Trial Three: Right Upper Limb .9 1 .0 1
Number of Errors 50 2 5 .5 0
Trial Two: Right Upper Limb
Error Time 50 1 .6 4
Trial Three: Right Upper Limb .96 .0 1
Error Time 50 1 .5 3
N o te : T h is t a b l e s h o u ld be r e a d a s f o llo w s : th e
raw s c o r e s o f f i f t y s u b j e c t s p ro d u ced mean t r a v e r s a l tim e s
f o r t h e l e f t u p p e r lim b o f 12.45 se c o n d s on t r i a l two and
1 2 .0 8 se c o n d s on t r i a l t h r e e d u r in g th e p o s t - t e s t . The
c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n t h e two s e t s o f raw s c o r e s was .9 7 .
The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
beyond t h e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e .
63
The r e l i a b i l i t y ra n g e f o r dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s v a r i a b l e s was
fro m .6 0 f o r r i g h t lo w er lim b e r r o r tim e t o a v e ry h ig h
.9 8 f o r l e f t u p p e r lim b e r r o r tim e . G e n e r a ll y , t h e r e l i
a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e p e rfo rm a n c e s o n th e p o s t - t e s t
w ere c o n s i d e r e d t o show t h a t a h ig h p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
d id e x i s t b e tw e e n t h e m e a su re s o f t r i a l s tw o and t h r e e .
D i r e c t p r a c t i c e had a te n d e n c y t o r a i s e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e u p p e r lim b s on th e p o s t - t e s t . T h is was
s e e n v e r y c l e a r l y i n t h e m ore d i f f i c u l t dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s
v a r i a b l e s .
P r e - T e s t R e s u l t s
The p r e - t e s t was t h e i n i t i a l t e s t o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
The g ro u p in g o f s u b j e c t s i n t o G roup I , G roup I I , and
G roup I I I was done on t h e b a s i s o f p r e - t e s t r e s u l t s . To
d e te r m in e t h e e x t e n t o f t r a n s f e r t o th e i p s i l a t e r a l and
c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim bs d u r i n g t h e s t u d y , i t w as n e c e s s a r y t o
show t h e i n i t i a l e q u iv a la n c e o f t h e groups from a s t a t i s
t i c a l s t a n d p o i n t . The n u l l h y p o t h e s is was s t a t e d a s f o l
lo w s: G roup I , Group I I , and Group I I I a r e random sa m p le s
draw n from t h e same n o rm a lly d i s t r i b u t e d p o p u l a t i o n .
A n a ly s is o f v a r i a n c e was u s e d t o d e te rm in e w h e th e r
d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n g ro u p means w e re s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i
64
c a n t . W ith two d e g re e s o f freed o m f o r th e g r e a t e r mean
s q u a re and one h u n d re d and s i x t e e n d e g re e s o f free d o m f o r
t h e s m a ll e r mean s q u a r e , a n F o f 3 .0 8 i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e a c h
t h e f i v e p e r c e n t c o n fid e n c e l e v e l and a n F o f 4 .8 0 i s
n e c e s s a r y t o r e a c h th e one p e r c e n t c o n fid e n c e l e v e l . No
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere found b e tw e e n
t h e p r e - t e s t m eans o f t h e t h r e e g r o u p s . C o n s e q u e n tly , t h e
n u l l h y p o t h e s is was t e n a b l e and t h e g ro u p s w ere c o n s id e r e d
e q u i v a l e n t i n i t i a l l y . The r e s u l t s o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l
a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r e - t e s t a r e shown i n T a b le s 7 and 8,
p ag es 65 and 6 6 .
T r a i n i n g P rogram
The l e a r n i n g c u rv e s f o r e r r o r s w ere t y p i c a l o f a l l
l e a r n i n g c u rv e s f o r a l l v a r i a b l e s ( F ig u r e 5 , page 6 7 ).
C o n s e q u e n tly , t h e s e l e a r n i n g c u rv e s a r e p r e s e n te d a s an
exam p le t o i n d i c a t e t h e p a t t e r n o f l e a r n i n g t h a t to o k p la c e
w i t h i n Group I an d Group I I d u r in g t h e t r a i n i n g p ro g ram .
The training program was assumed to be the inter
mediate factor that produced the ultimate changes which
were noted and which were shown to be statistically signif
icant. The complete results of the training program are
presented in tabular form in Appendix B. Group I means for
65
TABLE 7
PRE-TEST MEAN COMPARISONS BETWEEN GROUPS
FOR LOWER LIMB VARIABLES
V a r ia b le
Group
I
Group
I I
Group
I I I
F
S i g n i f i
cance
L e f t Lower Limb
T r a v e r s a l Time 3 2 .3 0 3 0 .7 2 2 8 .9 5 .57 No
E r r o r s 9 5 .5 8 9 3 .0 6 8 8 .4 2 1.14 No
E r r o r Time 17.89 17.29 1 6 .0 1 1.0 4 No
E r r o r T im e /T r a v e rs a l
Time .55 .56 .55
R ig h t Lower Limb
T r a v e r s a l Time 3 3 .7 0 3 1 .8 1 3 0 .2 3 .3 8 No
E r r o r s 101.49 101 .46 9 8 .4 3 .14 No
E r r o r Time 12.88 12.67 12.0 2 .36 No
E r r o r T im e /T r a v e rs a l
Time .3 8 .4 0 .4 0
N o te : The t a b l e sh o u ld be re a d a s f o llo w s : th e
means f o r l e f t low er lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e w ere 3 2 .3 0 s e c
onds f o r Group I , 3 0 .7 2 se co n d s f o r Group I I , and 28.95
seco n d s f o r Group I I I on t h e p r e - t e s t . The F r a t i o o f .57
was n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t
l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e . The e r r o r t i m e / t r a v e r s a l tim e r a t i o s
i n d i c a t e th e p e rc e n ta g e o f tim e t h a t th e s u b j e c t s w ere n o t
s te a d y .
66
TABLE 8
PRE-TEST MEAN COMPARISONS BETWEEN GROUPS
FOR UPPER LIMB VARIABLES
Variable
Group
I
Group
I I
Group
I I I
F
Signifi
cance
Left Upper Limb
Traversal Time 2 5 .5 0 24.7 6 2 3 .8 1 .11 No
Errors 6 0 .9 0 6 2 .8 8 60. 86 .44 No
Error Time 4 .2 1 4 .6 7 4 .4 3 1 .7 0 No
Error Time/Traversal
Time .16 .19 .19
Right Upper Limb
Traversal Time 2 4 .3 5 2 2 .97 22.8 7 .15 No.
Errors 4 7 .1 8 5 1.07 4 8 .4 0 1.35 No
Error Time 2 .8 4 3 .1 3 3 .1 4 1.19 No
Error Time/Traversal
Time .12 .14 .13
N o te : The t a b l e s h o u ld be r e a d a s f o llo w s : th e
means f o r l e f t u p p e r lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e w ere 2 5 .5 0 s e c
onds f o r Group I , 2 4 .7 6 se co n d s f o r Group I I , and 2 3 .8 1
se co n d s f o r Group I I I . The F r a t i o o f .1 1 was n o t s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f i
d e n c e . The e r r o r t i m e / t r a v e r s a l tim e r a t i o s i n d i c a t e t h e
p e rc e n ta g e o f tim e t h a t th e s u b j e c t s w ere n o t s te a d y .
ERRORS (rounded mean scores)
Group I
Group XL
2 0
30
40
50
601
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TRIAL NUMBER
2^
F ig u r e 5
T r a in in g program l e a r n i n g c u rv e s f o r e r r o r s .
68
t r a v e r s a l t i m e , e r r o r s , and e r r o r tim e f o r th e one h u n d red
p r a c t i c e t r i a l s d u r in g th e t r a i n i n g program a r e shown i n
T a b le 18 i n A ppendix B. Group I I means f o r t r a v e r s a l
tim e , e r r o r s , and e r r o r tim e f o r th e one h u n d red p r a c t i c e
t r i a l s d u r in g t h e t r a i n i n g program a r e shown i n T a b le 19
i n A ppendix B.
Post-Test Results
The t-test was used to analyze the statistical
significance of the difference between the means of the
groups on the post-test. Since there were no statistically
significant differences between the groups on the pre-test,
the following null hypothesis was tested for the post-test
results: the obtained mean differences due to training
represent random sampling fluctuations which do not differ
significantly from a population mean difference of zero.
F o r t h i r t y - f i v e d e g re e s o f freed o m , a t o f 2 .0 3 i s
n e c e s s a r y t o a c h ie v e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a t th e f i v e
p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e , and a t o f 2 .7 2 i s n e c e s s a r y
t o a c h ie v e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a t th e one p e r c e n t
l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e .
The null hypothesis was found to be tenable for all
mean differences for all lower limb variables between Group
69
I and Group II. With the lone exception of left lower limb
error time, all of the differences between the means of
Group I and Group III were found to be statistically sig
nificant. The same statistical results were found for the
differences between the means of Group II and Group III.
The null hypothesis was found to be tenable for all
traversal time mean differences for upper limbs between
Group I and Group II. The mean differences between Group I
and Group II for all upper limb dynamic steadiness measures
were found to be statistically significant. Thus, the null
hypothesis was rejected. All mean differences for all
upper limb variables were found to be statistically signif
icant between Group I and Group III. The mean differences
between all variables for Group II and Group III were also
found to be statistically significant; consequently, the
null hypothesis was rejected. The upper limb performances
exhibited by Group I as well as Group II were statistically
superior to the upper limb performances of Group III.
The error time/traversal time ratio indicates the
relationship between dynamic steadiness and traversal time.
The quotient derived from the ratio is the percentage of
time that the subjects were not steady. Using this quo
tient as an indicator of proficiency of performance, it was
70
s e e n t h a t t h e lim b r e c e i v i n g d i r e c t p r a c t i c e was m ost p r o
f i c i e n t . F o r t h e l e f t u p p e r lim b , t h e e r r o r t i m e / t r a v e r s a l
tim e q u o t i e n t was .16 f o r Group I and .13 f o r Group I I .
F o r t h e r i g h t u p p e r lim b , t h e e r r o r t i m e / t r a v e r s a l tim e
q u o t i e n t was .0 8 f o r Group I and .1 4 f o r Group I I .
T a b le s 9 and 10, p a g e s 71 and 73, show t h e p o s t
t e s t mean c o m p a riso n s b e tw e e n g ro u p s f o r lo w e r lim b s and
u p p e r lim b s r e s p e c t i v e l y . F ig u r e 6 , page 7 5 , shows t h e
c o m p a riso n s b e tw e e n g ro u p s f o r mean t r a v e r s a l tim e s and
e r r o r tim e s o f t h e p r e - t e s t and p o s t - t e s t . The l e n g t h o f
t h e b lo c k s i n F i g u r e 6 i n d i c a t e s tim e i n s e c o n d s . The
volum e o f t h e b lo c k s i n F ig u r e 6 i s n o t t o b e c o n s id e r e d i n
t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e f i g u r e . F ig u r e 7 , page 76, shows
mean e r r o r c o m p a ris o n s b e tw e e n t h e p r e - t e s t and p o s t - t e s t .
Pre-Test through Post-Test Learning
Differences between the means within groups were
compared to determine the degree of learning that took
place for all variables during the study. It was found
that all groups made gains in all variables that were
statistically significant at or beyond the one per cent
level of confidence.
The statistically significant gains in performance
TABLE 9
POST-TEST M EA N COMPARISONS BETW EEN GROUPS FOR L O W E R LIMB VARIABLES
V a r ia b le
Group
I
Group
I I
Group
I I I
Mean
D if f e r e n c e
t
S i g n i f i
can ce
L e f t Lower Limb
T r a v e r s a l Time 19.47 18.15 1 .3 2 1.01 No
19.47 2 3 .2 4 3 .7 7 2 .0 8 .01
18.15 2 3 .2 4 5 .0 9 3 .8 8 .01
E r r o r s 6 7 .2 9 66.12 1 .1 7 .43 No
6 7 .2 9 7 3 .2 8 5 .9 9 2.20 .05
66.12 7 3 .2 8 7 .1 6 2 .6 3 .01
E r r o r Time 11.16 1 0 .7 8 .3 8 .47 No
11.16 12.15 .99 1.22 No
1 0 .7 8 12.15 1.37 1 .6 9 No
E r r o r T im e /T r a v e rs a l Time .59 .57 .52
R ig h t Lower Limb
T r a v e r s a l Time 18.73 1 8 .0 8 .65 .41 No
18.73 2 3 .9 2 5 .1 9 3 .3 0 .01
1 8 .0 8 2 3 .9 2 5 .8 4 3 .7 2 .01
E r r o r s 6 9 ,7 9 6 9 .6 1 .1 8 .06 No
6 9 .7 9 7 8 .6 4 8.85 3 .1 5 .01
6 9 .6 1 7 8 .6 4 9 .0 3 3 .2 1 .01
E r r o r Time 8 .9 1 8.77 .12 .22 No
8 .9 1 10.75 1 .8 4 2 .9 7 .01
8.77 10.75 1 .9 8 3 .1 9 .01
E r r o r T im e /T r a v e r s a l Time .47 .4 8 .45
--v l
TABLE 9 --C o n tin u e d
N o te : The t a b l e sh o u ld be r e a d a s f o llo w s : Group I had a mean o f 19.47 se co n d s
f o r l e f t lo w er lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e . Group I I h a d a mean o f 1 8.15 f o r l e f t lo w er lim b
t r a v e r s a l tim e . The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw ee n th e means was 1 .3 2 . The £ o f 1 .0 1 was n o t
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t beyond t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . The e r r o r t im e /
t r a v e r s a l tim e r a t i o s i n d i c a t e th e p e rc e n ta g e o f tim e t h a t th e s u b j e c t s w ere n o t s te a d y .
TABLE 10
POST-TEST M EA N COMPARISONS BETW EEN GROUPS FOR UPPER LIMB VARIABLES
. Group Group Group Mean t Signifi*
Variable - j . XI m Difference - cance
L e f t U pper Limb
T r a v e r s a l Time 1 1 .4 8 9 .4 7 2.01 1.35 No
1 1 .4 8 1 8.52 7 .0 4 4 .7 2 .01
9 .4 7 18.52 9 .0 5 6 .0 7 .01
E r r o r s 2 8 .1 4 2 2 .1 8 5 .9 6 2 .0 8 .05
2 8 .1 4 4 6 .1 6 18.02 6 .3 0 .01
2 2 .1 8 4 6 .1 6 2 3 .9 8 8 .3 8 .01
E r r o r Time 1 .8 1 1.20 .6 1 2 .3 5 .05
1 .8 1 3 .4 3 1 .6 2 6 .2 3 .01
1.20 3 .4 3 2 .2 3 8 .5 8 .01
E r r o r T im e /T r a v e r s a l Time .16 .13 .1 8
R ig h t U pper Limb
T r a v e r s a l Time 9 .5 4 10.03 .49 .3 0 No
9 .5 4 1 8 .3 8 8 .8 4 5 .4 6 .01
1 0.0 3 1 8 .3 8 8.35 5 .1 5 .01
E r r o r s 15.67 2 4 .8 0 9 .1 3 3 .9 9 .01
1 5.67 3 8 .9 6 2 3 .2 9 10.17 .01
2 4 .8 0 3 8 .9 6 14.16 6 .1 8 .01
E r r o r Time .81 1.45 .64 3 .7 6 .01
.81 2 .6 0 1 .7 9 10.53 .01
1.45 2 .6 0 1 .1 5 6 .7 6 .01
E r r o r T im e /T r a v e r s a l Time .08 .14 .14
TABLE 1 0 --C o n tin u e d
N o te : The t a b l e sh o u ld be r e a d a s f o llo w s : Group I had a mean o f 1 1 .4 8 seco n d s
f o r l e f t u p p e r lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e . Group I I had a mean o f 9 .4 7 f o r l e f t u p p e r lim b
t r a v e r s a l tim e . The d i f f e r e n c e b etw een th e means was 2 .0 1 . The t^ o f 1.3 5 was n o t
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e . The e r r o r tim e /
t r a v e r s a l tim e r a t i o s i n d i c a t e th e p e rc e n ta g e o f tim e t h a t th e s u b j e c t s w ere n o t s te a d y .
J L J E F T J L I E ®
0 G B T l E G
h E f f A ® M
p i ^ i H n r
y 0 $ ! 3 & t s a i ,
< /> 30
^§20
i = S |0
y £20
r ~ < d 1 0
wsssjSfea
G B ^ r
m i S i
0 0 UP
H D
T ^ B r L
e r r o r tim e
posH est error time
F ig u r e 6
C om parison o f p r e - t e s t and p o s t - t e s t means
f o r t r a v e r s a l tim e and e r r o r tim e .
N o te: t h e volum e o f t h e b lo c k i s n o t t o b e c o n s id e r e d i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
th e f i g u r e . The h e i g h t o f a b lo c k i n d i c a t e s tim e i n s e c o n d s . The masked a r e a s o f t h e
p o s t - t e s t a r e i n d i c a t e d i n t h e k e y .
-j
U l
ERRORS (round means)
B Pre-test
EH Post-test
10 0
80
6 0 -
40
20
0
H
£L
2
O
€£
o
s
o
£L
. O
- O
i' . ' . V. V l l ?
i & s
,V.\\V
ii
: : : : :: : : :: : :
1 H
i
a
iX
Ul !
D
■ )
o
I I D
c t :
m r
o m d
;XwJ
f c & : $
l l
!fc
iiO
mo
H
cL
©
l i d
N I F
, o
•saarS
H D
f a
S2.
LEFT LEG
RIGHT LEG LEFT ARM
RIGHT ARM
F ig u r e 7
Comparison of pre-test and post-test means for errors.
c r >
which were made by Group III were unexpected. A comparison
of the mean gains made by Group I from the pre-test through
trials two and three during the training program were anal
yzed statistically. This was done to determine if reminis
cence played a role in regard to transfer. The post-test
followed the pre-test by four weeks. Trials two and three
of the training program follwed the pre-test by four days.
The r e s u l t s t h a t w ere found f o r Group I w ere as
f o l lo w s : ( 1) t h e ;t f o r r i g h t u p p e r lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e was
2 .5 4 . T h is t^ was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e two p e r
c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e ; (2) t h e jt f o r r i g h t u p p e r lim b
e r r o r s was 1 .7 8 , n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ; and (3) th e
t_ f o r r i g h t u p p e r lim b e r r o r tim e was 1 .3 1 , n o t s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .
Tables 11 and 12, pages 78 and 80, show the differ
ences in mean gains within groups during the study.
Percentages of Improvement
The greatest percentages of total improvement as
well as improvement due to transfer were found in the limb
that received direct practice. The contralateral upper
limb's percentage of total improvement and percentage of
improvement due to transfer was second in degree to the
TABLE 11
DIFFERENCES IN M EA N GAINS WITHIN GROUPS FOR LO W ER LIMB VARIABLES
V a r ia b le
Mean
Group D i f f e r _ £
ence
S i g
n i f i
can ce
Group
I I
Mean
D i f f e r
ence
t
S ig
n i f i
can ce
Group
I I I
Mean
D i f f e r
ence
S i g
n i f i
can ce
L e f t low er lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e
P r e - t e s t
P o s t - t e s t
19*47 12*83 6>26
.01
3 0 .7 2
18.15
12.57 6 .3 5 .01
2 8.95
2 3 .2 4
5 .7 1 3 .7 9 .01
L e f t low er lim b e r r o r s
P r e - t e s t
P o s t - t e s t
If ill 28-29 8.57
.01
9 3 .0 6
66.12
2 6 .9 4 7 .4 0 .01
88.42
7 3 .2 8
1 5.14 5 .9 1 .01
L e f t low er lim b e r r o r tim e
P r e - t e s t
P o s t - t e s t
6 .7 3 7 .8 1
11.16
.01
17.29
1 0 .7 8
6 .5 1 8.55 .01
16.01
12.15
3 .8 6 6 .2 6 .01
R ig h t low er lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e
P r e - t e s t
P o s t - t e s t
3 3 .7 0 ^ gy 5 gg
18.73
.01
3 1 .8 1
1 8 .0 8
13.73 5 .5 3 .01
3 0.23
2 3 .9 2
6 .3 1 3 .5 5 .01
R ig h t low er lim b e r r o r s
P r e - t e s t
P o s t - t e s t
1% ' t s 3 1 , 7 0 8 , 0 2
.01
101.46
6 9 .6 1
3 1 .85 7 .0 8 .01
98.4 3
7 8 .6 4
19.79 6 .8 1 .01
R ig h t low er lim b e r r o r tim e
P r e - t e s t
P o s t - t e s t
12.88 _ __ _
g 91 3 .9 7 5 .6 7 .01
12.67
8.77
3 .9 0 6 .1 9 .01
12.02
10.75
1.27 2 .9 1 .01
" * 4
00
TABLE 11— C on tin ued
N o te : The t a b l e sh o u ld be r e a d a s f o llo w s : Group I had a mean o f 3 2 .3 0 se co n d s
f o r l e f t lo w er lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e on t h e p r e - t e s t and a mean o f 19.47 seco n d s f o r l e f t
lo w er lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e on th e p o s t - t e s t . The mean d i f f e r e n c e o f 12.83 was s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t beyond t h e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . T h is i s r e p r e s e n te d by
t h e t o f 6 .2 6 .
TABLE 12
DIFFERENCES IN M EA N GAINS WITHIN GROUPS FOR UPPER LIMB VARIABLES
V a r ia b le
Mean
Gr° u P D i f f e r - t
ence
S ig
n i f i
can ce
Group
I I
Mean
D i f f e r
ence
t_
S ig
n i f i
cance
Group
I I I
Mean
D i f f e r
ence
t
S ig
n i f i
can ce
L e f t u p p e r lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e
P r e - t e s t
P o s t - t e s t u i s 1 4 - 02 6 - 71
.01
24.7 6
9 .4 7
15.29 6 .4 0 .01
2 3 .8 1
18.52
5 .2 9 2 .7 2 .01
L e f t u p p e r lim b e r r o r s
P r e - t e s t
P o s t - t e s t
32*76 15*28
.01
6 2 .8 8
2 2 .1 8
4 0 .7 0 1 9 .3 8 .01
60. 86
4 6 .1 6
1 4 .7 0 6 .7 7 .01
L e f t u p p e r lim b e r r o r tim e
P r e - t e s t
P o s t - t e s t
4 21
£ g j 2 .4 0 12.00 .01
4 .6 7
1.20
3 .4 7 18.26 .01
4 .4 3
3 .4 3
1.00 4 .4 5 .01
R ig h t u p p e r lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e
P r e - t e s t 2 4 .3 5 ... ^
P o s t - t e s t 9 .5 4 1^*81 7,88 ‘01
22.9 7
10.03
1 2 .9 4 6 .7 7 .01
22.87
1 8 .3 8
4 .4 9 3 .2 1 .01
R ig h t u p p e r lim b e r r o r s
P r e - t e s t
P o s t - t e s t
4 7 .1 8 oi ci u 72
15.67
.01
51.07
2 4 .8 0
2 6 .2 7 12.02 .01
4 8 .4 0
3 8 .9 6
9 .4 4 5 .6 9 .01
R ig h t u p p e r lim b e r r o r tim e
P r e - t e s t
P o s t - t e s t
2 84
*g^ 2 .0 3 1 4 .5 0 .01
3 .1 3
1.45
1.68 12.00 .01
3 .0 4
2 .6 0
.44 3 .0 0 .01
oo
o
TABLE 12--C o n tin u e d
N o te : The t a b l e sh o u ld be re a d a s f o llo w s : Group I had a mean o f 2 5 .5 0 se co n d s
f o r l e f t u p p e r lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e on th e p r e - t e s t and a mean o f 1 1 .4 8 se co n d s f o r l e f t
u p p e r lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e on th e p o s t - t e s t . The mean d i f f e r e n c e o f 1 4 .02 was s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . T h is i s r e p r e s e n te d by
t h e t o f 6 .7 1 .
82
lim b t h a t r e c e i v e d t h e d i r e c t p r a c t i c e . The t r a n s f e r p a t
t e r n was t h e same t o t h e low er lim b s o f Group I and Group
I I . The r i g h t low er lim b showed a g r e a t e r p e r c e n ta g e o f
im provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r a s w e l l a s a g r e a t e r p e rc e n ta g e
o f t o t a l im provem ent t h a n t h e l e f t low er lim b , b u t t h e s e
p e r c e n ta g e s w ere lo w er t h a n th o s e found f o r t h e u p p e r lim b
d i r e c t l y c o n t r a l a t e r a l t o t h e t r a i n e d u p p e r lim b .
The t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n f o r Group I w as: (1 ) r i g h t
u p p e r lim b ( d i r e c t p r a c t i c e ) , (2) c o n t r a l a t e r a l u p p e r lim b ,
(3 ) i p s i l a t e r a l low er lim b , and (4 ) c o n t r a l a t e r a l low er
lim b .
The t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n f o r Group I I w as: (1 ) l e f t
u p p e r lim b ( d i r e c t p r a c t i c e ) , (2) c o n t r a l a t e r a l u p p e r lim b ,
(3 ) c o n t r a l a t e r a l lo w e r lim b , and (4 ) i p s i l a t e r a l low er
lim b .
A lth o u g h th e t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s do d i f f e r b etw een
Group I and Group I I i n th e low er lim b s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s
w ere n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . T ab le 13, page 83,
shows th e p e r c e n ta g e s o f t o t a l im provem ent and p e r c e n ta g e s
o f im provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r .
T a b le 14, page 85, shows th e t o t a l p e rc e n ta g e o f
im provem ent f o r Group I I I . I t was n o te d t h a t th e g r e a t e s t
d e g re e s o f im provem ent w ere made by th e n o n p r e f e r r e d
TABLE 13
PERCENTAGES OF IMPROVEMENT FOR GROUP I AND GROUP I I
V a r ia b le
Group I
T o ta l
Im provem ent
Im provem ent
Due to
T r a n s f e r
Group I I
T o t a l
Im provem ent
Im provem ent
Due t o
T r a n s f e r
L e f t Lower Limb
T r a v e r s a l Time
E r r o r s
E r r o r Time
66
42
60
13
7
6
69
41
60
18
8
9
R ig h t Lower Limb
T r a v e r s a l Time
E r r o r s
E r r o r Time
80
45
44
17
9
15
76
46
44
19
9
16
Left Upper Limb
Traversal Time
Errors
Error Time
122
116
132
30
30
37
161
183
289
38
39
50
Right Upper Limb
Traversal Time
Errors
Error Time
155
201
251
39
48
59
129
106
116
37
29
38
TABLE 13--C o n tin u e d
N o te : The t a b l e sh o u ld b e r e a d a s f o llo w s : t h e p o s t - t e s t mean s c o r e f o r l e f t
low er lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e f o r Group I was s i x t y - s i x p e r c e n t b e t t e r th a n t h e p r e - t e s t
mean s c o re f o r l e f t low er lim b t r a v e r s a l tim e . T h i r t e e n p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l im p ro v e
ment o f t h e p o s t - t e s t s c o r e was a t t r i b u t e d t o t r a n s f e r ( 2 8 ) .
00
• F >
85
TABLE 14
TOTAL PERCENTAGE OF IMPROVEMENT FOR GROUP I I I
Variable
Percentage of
Improvement
Significance
Left Lower Limb
Traversal Time 24 .01
Errors 21 .01
Error Time 32 .01
Right Lower Limb
Traversal Time 26 .01
Errors 25 .01
Error Time 12 .01
Left Upper Limb
Traversal Time 28 .01
Errors 32 .01
Error Time 29 .01
Right Upper Limb
Traversal Time 24 .01
Errors 24 .01
Error Time 17 .01
Note: The table should be read as follows: the
post-test score for left upper limb traversal time was
twenty-four per cent better than the pre-test score for
left lower limb traversal time. This improvement was
statistically significant beyond the one per cent level of
confidence.
86
limbs. This was very evident in regard to the more diffi
cult dynamic steadiness variables.
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS
The r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e p e rfo rm a n c e s on th e e x p e r i
m e n ta l a p p a r a tu s was found t o be p o s i t i v e and h ig h f o r a l l
t r a v e r s a l tim e m easu res on th e p r e - t e s t . The ra n g e was
from .86 t o .9 6 . The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r dynam ic
s t e a d i n e s s m easu res w ere a l s o found t o be p o s i t i v e and h ig h
f o r th e low er lim b s . The ra n g e was .8 0 t o .9 4 . The r e l i
a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r th e dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s m e a su re s o f
t h e u p p e r lim b s w ere found t o be p o s i t i v e and low on th e
p r e - t e s t . The ra n g e was from .55 t o .7 0 .
The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r a l l t r a v e r s a l
tim e m easures on th e p o s t - t e s t w ere found t o be p o s i t i v e
and v e r y h ig h . The ra n g e was from .93 t o .9 7 . W ith th e
e x c e p tio n o f th e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t f o r r i g h t low er
lim b e r r o r tim e , th e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r a l l dy
nam ic s t e a d i n e s s m easu res w ere p o s i t i v e and h ig h on th e
p o s t - t e s t . The ra n g e was from .77 t o .9 8 . The r e l i a b i l i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t f o r r i g h t lo w er lim b e r r o r tim e was .6 0 .
Groups I, II, and III were found to be statisti
cally equivalent at the beginning of the present study.
87
A n a ly s is o f th e p o s t - t e s t d a ta was made on th e
b a s i s o f t h e fo llo w in g n u l l h y p o t h e s is : th e o b ta in e d mean
d i f f e r e n c e s due t o t r a i n i n g r e p r e s e n t random sa m p lin g f l u c
t u a t i o n s w hich do n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from a p o p u la
t i o n mean d i f f e r e n c e o f z e r o . C om parison o f Group I w ith
Group I I i n d ic a t e d t h a t th e n u l l h y p o th e s is was t e n a b le
r e g a r d in g th e f o llo w in g m ea su re s a t th e end o f th e p r e s e n t
s tu d y : ( 1) t r a v e r s a l tim e m ea su re s i n th e lo w er lim b s , (2)
dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s m easu res i n th e low er lim b s , and (3)
t r a v e r s a l tim e m easu res i n t h e u p p e r lim b s. C om parison o f
Group I w ith Group I I i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e n u l l h y p o th e s is
had to be r e j e c t e d f o r : ( 1) dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s m easu res in
t h e u p p er lim b s.
W ith th e e x c e p tio n o f t h e mean d i f f e r e n c e s f o r l e f t
lo w er lim b e r r o r tim e , Group I a s w e l l a s Group I I was
found t o e x h i b i t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t s u p e r i o r i t y o ver
Group I I I f o r a l l m easu res i n a l l lim b s on th e p o s t - t e s t .
The mean d i f f e r e n c e s among g ro u p s w ere n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e l e f t lo w er lim b v a r i a b l e o f e r r o r tim e .
The b e s t p e rfo rm a n c e s i n r e g a r d t o t h e p e rc e n ta g e s
o f t o t a l im provem ent and p e r c e n ta g e s o f im provem ent due t o
t r a n s f e r w ere found t o be a r e s u l t o f d i r e c t p r a c t i c e .
T r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s w ere found t o d i f f e r s l i g h t l y b etw een
Group I and Group I I . The t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n f o r Group I
w as: ( 1) r i g h t u p p e r lim b ( d i r e c t p r a c t i c e ) , (2) c o n t r a
l a t e r a l u p p e r lim b , (3) i p s i l a t e r a l low er lim b , and (4)
c o n t r a l a t e r a l low er lim b . The t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n f o r Group
I I w as: (1 ) l e f t u p p e r lim b ( d i r e c t p r a c t i c e ) , (2 ) c o n tr a
l a t e r a l u p p e r lim b , (3) c o n t r a l a t e r a l lo w er lim b , and (4)
i p s i l a t e r a l low er lim b . As was n o te d a b o v e , th e mean d i f
f e r e n c e s b etw een Group I and Group I I f o r a l l lo w er lim b
v a r i a b l e s w ere n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .
G e n e r a lly , th e g r e a t e s t o v e r a l l im provem ent was
found i n th e n o n p r e f e r r e d lim b s . Group I I e x h i b i t e d th e
g r e a t e s t o v e r a l l im provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r t o t h e n o n
t r a i n e d lim b s . Group I I p r a c t i c e d w ith th e n o n p r e f e r r e d
u p p e r lim b .
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
The p roblem o f t h i s s tu d y was t o d e te rm in e t h e
t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s o f dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s and t r a v e r s a l tim e
t o th e i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b s f o llo w in g u n i
l a t e r a l t r a i n i n g o f t h e p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim b and n o n p re
f e r r e d u p p e r lim b . The p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o d i s
c u s s t h e p o s s i b l e p s y c h o lo g ic a l and n e u r o p h y s i o lo g i c a l
f a c t o r s u n d e r ly in g th e f i n d i n g s o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
The t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n f o r Group I i n t h e p r e s e n t
s tu d y was s i m i l a r t o t h e t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s r e p o r t e d by Cook
i n h i s s t u d i e s on " c r o s s e d u c a tio n " (9 ) (10 ) (1 1 ) ( 1 2 ) .
T hese s t u d i e s w ere r e f e r r e d t o i n C h a p te r I I .
In a s tu d y by H e l l e b r a n d t , H o u tz , and P a r t r i d g e
(43 ) th e n o n p r e f e r r e d lim b was o b se rv e d t o d e r i v e m ore im
provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r th a n th e p r e f e r r e d lim b . The
r e v e r s e was o b se rv e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y when p e rc e n ta g e
o f im provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r was c a l c u l a t e d by th e
89
90
fo rm u la recommended by Gagne, F o s t e r , and Crow ley ( 2 8 ).
T a b le 13, page 83, shows t h a t th e f i n d in g s o f t h e p r e s e n t
s tu d y te n d t o c o r r o b o r a te th e o b s e r v a t i o n o f H e l l e b r a n d t ,
H o u tz , and P a r t r i d g e (43) when th e p e r c e n ta g e o f t o t a l im
provem ent r e p r e s e n t s t r a n s f e r . The l i m i t a t i o n f o r u s in g
t h e p e rc e n ta g e o f t o t a l im provem ent t o r e p r e s e n t t r a n s f e r
was d is c u s s e d on page 53.
There is considerable evidence in the present study
and in other studies to indicate that transfer occurs in a
vast variety of neuromuscular performances. The basic
question is: how does transfer occur in the human organ
ism? Andreas, a psychologist at the University of Roches
ter, has summarized three of the common explanations of
transfer:
One o f th e s e em p h asizes th e body symmetry o f
n e rv e and m uscle s t r u c t u r e s and s u g g e s ts t h a t
l e a r n i n g in v o lv in g one hand a c t u a l l y a c t i v a t e s a
s i m i l a r p r o c e s s o f s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n f o r th e o t h e r
h a n d , re d u c e d i n am ount. A d i f f e r e n t e x p la n a t i o n
s t r e s s e s t h e i d e n t i c a l e le m e n ts in v o lv e d i n p e r
form ance w ith e i t h e r h a n d ; i t i s s u g g e s te d t h a t
t h e s e form t h e b a s i s f o r t h e p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r ,
p o s s i b l y th ro u g h l e a r n i n g how t o r e a c t t o c e r t a i n
v i s u a l p e r c e p t s . S t i l l a n o th e r b a s i s f o r th e
t r a n s f e r m igh t be l e a r n i n g t o ig n o re v i s u a l cues
t o some e x t e n t , le a n in g h e a v i l y on k i n e s t h e t i c
g u id a n c e o f hand movement o v e r t h e p a t t e r n w hich
h a s become f a m i l i a r i n p e rfo rm in g w ith th e f i r s t
h a n d . (4 :4 9 1 )
91
Each o f t h e s e e x p la n a tio n s a p p e a rs t o be a t o m i s t i c i n
n a t u r e . How can a n a t o m i c a l - p h y s i o lo g i c a l com ponents be
s e p a r a te d fro m p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s d u r in g human p e rfo rm
an ce?
B oth p s y c h o lo g ic a l and n e u r o p h y s io lo g ic a l f a c t o r s
m u st be t a k e n in to c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n any a tte m p t t o d is c u s s
t h e n a tu r e o f t r a n s f e r i n th e human o rg a n ism . An a tte m p t
t o do t h i s i n r e g a rd t o th e f i n d in g s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y
i s made i n t h e fo llo w in g pages o f t h i s c h a p t e r .
N e u r o p h y s i o l o g ic a l l y , i r r a d i a t i o n w i l l be d is c u s s e d
a s a p o s s i b l e c au se o f t h e t r a n s f e r and t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s
o b se rv e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y . P s y c h o l o g i c a ll y , t h e " id e n -
t i c a l - e l e m e n t s th e o ry o f t r a n s f e r " i s d is c u s s e d as a p o s
s i b l e i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t l e a r n i n g
t h a t to o k p la c e d u rin g t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y . In a d d i t i o n , a
p o s t u l a t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een t h e n e u r o p h y s io lo g ic a l and
p s y c h o l o g ic a l com ponents w i l l a l s o be d i s c u s s e d . F i n a l l y ,
t h e e n t i r e d i s c u s s i o n m ust be c o n s id e r e d a s a p o s t u l a t e ,
a n a s s u m p tio n w ith o u t a b s o l u t e p r o o f , r e g a r d in g th e c a u s i -
t i v e f a c t o r o r f a c t o r s o f t r a n s f e r . S c i e n t i f i c e v id e n c e
c o n c e rn in g t h e cause o f t r a n s f e r re m a in s i n c o n c lu s iv e . As
a r e s u l t , t h e m ain id e a s p r e s e n te d i n t h i s c h a p te r a r e
m eant t o s e r v e as a l o g i c a l b a s i s f o r r e a s o n in g on th e
92
s u b j e c t o f t r a n s f e r .
The c o n c e p t t h a t e x e r c i s e o f one lim b r e s u l t s i n
n e u r o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y i n t h e c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b was i n
f e r r e d by W is s le r and R ic h a rd s o n ( 86) i n 1900. S in c e t h a t
tim e many i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e b een c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e s tu d y
o f i r r a d i a t i o n .
Freem an (2 7 ) s t u d i e d t h r e e s u b j e c t s who w ro te th e
a lp h a b e t i n a n o rm al m anner and by m ir r o r w r i t i n g t e c h
n i q u e s . He c o n c lu d e d :
Our r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t t r a n s f e r e f f e c t s i n
c o o rd in a te d movements a r e a f u n c t i o n o f n e u r a l
i r r a d i a t i o n and fo llo w re c o g n iz e d p r i n c i p l e s o f
b i l a t e r a l c o n d u c tio n . The f a c t t h a t fo rw a rd (o r
backw ard) movements i n one lim b w i l l i n i t i a t e
t e n t a t i v e l y r e v e r s e movements on th e c o n t r a l a t e r a l
s id e h a s lo n g b e en known. T h is i s th e b a s i s o f
w a lk in g and t h e u s u a l ty p e o f accom panying arm
m ovem ents. Such s u p e r i o r i t y i n t r a n s f e r e f f e c t s
a s we have found i n r e f e r e n c e t o r e v e r s e movements
may t h e r e f o r e be p r i m a r i l y a phenomenon o f s p i n a l
i r r a d i a t i o n and due t o a c o n t r a l a t e r a l s p re a d d u r
in g t h e p r a c t i c e p e r i o d . (2 7 :2 8 8 )
D a n ie l (1 5 ) s t u d i e d th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m u scle a c
t i o n p o t e n t i a l s d u r in g maze l e a r n i n g . A f t e r r e c o r d i n g th e
mean m ic r o v o lts p e r o s c i l l o g r a p h d e f l e c t i o n , h e c o n c lu d e d ,
"The t e n s i o n a l l e v e l a p p e a rs t o be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o th e
d i s t a n c e from th e p r e f e r r e d (w orking) lim b" ( 1 5 :6 2 7 ) .
S im ila r r e s u l t s w e re r e p o r t e d by S p e rry ( 7 6 ) .
F u rth e rm o r e , he was one o f t h e f i r s t i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o
93
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c o n t r a l a t e r a l s y n e r g i s t i c and s t a b i l i z i n g
m u s c u la tu re was a l s o in n e r v a te d a lo n g w ith t h e w o rk in g
m u s c u la tu re ( 7 6 :3 1 2 ).
Daniel (16) conducted a study in 1941 to re-evalu
ate his earlier findings, which were cited above. He found
that the level of tension in the contralateral nonworking
limb was highly correlated with the eventual amount of
transfer to the same hand (1 6 :7 1 4 ) .
U sing e le c tro m y o g ra p h ic t e c h n iq u e s , D avis (18)
s t u d i e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i r r a d i a t i o n and l a t e r a l
d i s t a n c e . I t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t :
A c t i v i t y o f t h e lim b d i r e c t l y c o n t r a l a t e r a l
t o th e p rim a ry lo c u s i s a lw a y s , o f c o u r s e , much
l e s s th a n found i n t h e a c t i v e lim b . But o f th e
two lim bs w h ich a r e l o n g i t u d i n a l l y re m o te t h e c o n
t r a l a t e r a l shows a g r e a t e r a c t i v i t y t h a n th e i p s i -
l a t e r a l i n a l l f o u r c a s e s . . . I t i s r e a s o n a b le
t o su p p o se , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e r e i s a rem ote
l a t e r a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o t h e e x c i t a t i o n p a t
t e r n , w ith c o n t r a l a t e r a l e x c e e d in g i p s i l a t e r a l
e f f e c t s . (1 8 :3 5 7 )
The transfer pattern of Group I in the present study was
the same in terms of lateral distance. The transfer pat
tern of Group II differed in the lower limbs only.
In 1943, D avis (1 9 ) i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e m u scle a c
t i o n p o t e n t i a l s e x h i b i t e d i n th e f o u r lim b s c o u ld b e a l
t e r e d i n p r o p o r t io n t o th e amount o f r e s i s t a n c e a p p li e d t o
94
t h e w o rk in g lim b .
The f a c t t h a t th e phenomenon o f i r r a d i a t i o n c an
f u n c t i o n a t t h e s p i n a l l e v e l was i n d i c a t e d by D enslow and
G rah am -S erv ice ( 2 2 ) . They s t u d i e d t h e m u scle a c t i o n p o te n
t i a l s i n t h e h in d lim bs o f d e c e r e b r a te d c a t a . I t was
fo u n d :
. . . when two e l e c t r o d e s w ere p la c e d i n an
’’e l e c t r i c a l l y s i l e n t ” d e n e r v a te d m uscle and when
t h e r e was m a s siv e c o n t r a c t i o n i n n e a rb y m u sc le ,
a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l s w ere o b se rv e d w hich w ere i n d i s
t i n g u i s h a b l e i n c h a r a c t e r from t h o s e r e c o r d e d from
e l e c t r o d e s i n t h e c o n t r a c t i n g m u sc le . (2 2 :2 7 -2 8 )
Shulm an (7 3 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t f l e x i o n o f t h e r i g h t
t h i g h on t h e h i p p ro d u ce d e x te n s i v e m uscle a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l
a c t i v i t y i n t h e r i g h t q u a d ric e p s . No m u scle a c t i o n p o te n
t i a l a c t i v i t y was r e c o r d e d i n t h e c o n t r a l a t e r a l low er lim b .
F o llo w in g s e v e r a l e x p e rim e n ts d e s ig n e d t o s tu d y
t h e s p re a d o f m u scle a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l s i n th e lim b s d u r in g
r e s i s t i v e a c t i v i t i e s , G regg and h i s c o -w o rk e rs (3 6 ) made
th e f o llo w in g c o n c l u s i o n s :
1. O verflow t o t h e u n e x e r c i s e d , c o n t r a l a t e r a l
m u sc le s d id n o t o c c u r d u r in g s im p le , n o n r e s i s t i v e
e x e r c i s e o r d u r in g i s o m e t r i c c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h e
b ic e p s b r a c h i i . 2 . O verflow i n v a r i a b l y a p p e a re d
f i r s t i n th e o p p o s ite t r i c e p s b r a c h i i . 3. O ver
flo w t o t h e c o n t r a l a t e r a l b ic e p s b r a c h i i a p p e a re d
a s th e e x e r c i s e s t r e s s in c r e a s e d . 4 . P o s i t i o n i n g
o f th e u n e x e r c is e d arm and s t a b i l i z i n g th e body
w ith s t r a p s d id n o t i n f lu e n c e t h e a p p e a ra n c e o r
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e o v e rflo w . (3 6 :2 7 8 -2 7 9 )
95
E le c tro m y o g ra p h ic t e c h n iq u e s w ere u se d by G regg and h i s c o -
w o rk e rs (3 6 ) t o m easu re t h e s p re a d o f m u sc le a c t i o n p o te n
t i a l s i n t h e lim b s.
S i l l s and O lso n (7 4 ) o b s e rv e d a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l s i n
t h e c o n t r a l a t e r a l u p p e r lim b and lo w e r lim b d u r in g r e s i s t
iv e w ork. A lth o u g h a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l s w ere r e c o r d e d i n t h e
lim b s d u r in g n o n r e s i s t i v e a c t i v i t y , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s w ere
o f th e o p in io n t h a t a s t r o n g r e s i s t i v e a c t i v i t y was n e c e s
s a r y t o a c t i v a t e n e u r a l im p u lse s i n nonw orking body p a r t s
( 7 4 :2 2 1 ) .
P a n in and h i s c o -w o rk e rs (6 4 ) s t u d i e d t h e s p re a d o f
m u sc le a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l s i n a l l lim b s by u s in g a n e i g h t
c h a n n e l g r a s s in k w r i t i n g e n ce p h alo g rap fa . T h e ir s tu d y ,
r e p o r t e d i n 1961, was d e s ig n e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m u sc le
a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l s i n t h e s t a b i l i z i n g m u s c u la tu r e a s w e l l a s
t h e w o rk in g m u s c u la tu r e . They fo u n d t h a t :
(1) t h e e le c tr o m y o g ra p h ic a c t i v i t y i s n o t lim
i t e d t o t h e c o n t r a l a t e r a l m u sc le b u t i s w id e s p re a d
th r o u g h o u t t h e b o d y , in v o lv in g m u sc le s on t h e same
s i d e a s w e l l a s c o n t r a l a t e r a l t o t h e e x e r c i s e d
m u s c le , i n t h e u p p e r a s w e l l a s i n t h e lo w er e x
t r e m i t i e s ; (2 ) t h e c o n t r a l a t e r a l m u sc le does n o t
show t h e g r e a t e s t e le c tr o m y o g r a p h ic a c t i v i t y ; (3 )
th e e le c tr o m y o g r a p h ic p o t e n t i a l s i n t h e n o n e x e r
c i s e d m u sc le s a r e g r e a t e s t i n t h o s e m u sc le s w hich
a r e u se d t o s t a b i l i z e t h e body w h ile e x e r c i s e i s
b e in g p e rfo rm e d . . . (6 4 :5 1 )
The s c i e n t i f i c a l l y d e te rm in e d e v id e n c e r e g a r d i n g
i r r a d i a t i o n a p p e a rs somewhat c o n f l i c t i n g a t th e p r e s e n t
tim e . H ow ever, tw o c o n c lu s io n s a p p e a r j u s t i f i e d f o llo w in g
a s y n t h e s i s o f t h e f i n d i n g s r e l a t e d t o i r r a d i a t i o n : ( 1)
m u scle a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l s do a p p e a r i n v a r y in g d e g re e s i n
t h e n o n t r a i n e d m u s c u la tu r e and (2) t h e s y n e r g i s t i c m uscu
l a t u r e may r e c e i v e g r e a t e r o v e rflo w o f n e u r a l a c t i v i t y th a n
t h e hom ologous c o n t r a l a t e r a l m u s c u la tu r e d u r in g e x e r c i s e .
How can i r r a d i a t i o n i n th e n o n t r a i n e d lim b s f a c i l
i t a t e l e a r n i n g i n t h e n o n tr a in e d lim b s? The n e u r a l p a t
t e r n s may s e rv e a s t h e b a s i s f o r c o o r d i n a te d i n t e r a c t i o n
b etw een t h e s t a b i l i z e r s , s y n e r g i s t s , and prim e m overs when
d i r e c t p r a c t i c e i s a p p li e d f o llo w in g i n d i r e c t p r a c t i c e . By
means o f n e u r a l s t i m u l a t i o n o f th e m u s c u la tu r e i n t h e n o n
t r a i n e d lim b s , th e c o r r e c t i n n e r v a t i o n p a t t e r n s may b e
fo rm ed . When th e v a r i o u s p r o p r i o c e p t o r s and o t h e r s e n s e
o rg a n s a r e c a l l e d u p o n t o p e rfo rm t h e same t a s k d i r e c t l y ,
t h e l e a r n i n g may b e en h an ced due t o i r r a d i a t i o n . I n o t h e r
w o rd s , i n d i r e c t p r a c t i c e may f a c i l i t a t e d i r e c t p r a c t i c e i f
th e i r r a d i a t i o n h a s b e e n s u f f i c i e n t enough t o s t i m u l a t e th e
i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l m u s c u la tu r e .
I t may be p o s s i b l e t h a t im provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r
i - th e b a s i s f o r t o t a l im provem ent. The im provem ent due t o
97
t r a n s f e r may be s p e c i f i c t o t h e i n t r i c a t e v a r i a b l e s o f t h e
p e rfo rm a n c e , dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s and t r a v e r s a l tim e i n th e
p r e s e n t s tu d y . L e a rn in g t h e s e i n t r i c a t e v a r i a b l e s i n a
c o o r d in a te d f a s h i o n may g r e a t l y enhance t h e t o t a l p e rfo rm
a n c e . I n a d d i t i o n , h o w e v er, th e i n t r i c a t e v a r i a b l e s m ust
b e c o o r d in a te d w ith many o t h e r v a r i a b l e s o f th e p e rfo rm
a n c e . In th e p r e s e n t s t u d y , a few o f t h e s e c o n c o m ita n t
v a r i a b l e s may h av e b e en arm s t r e n g t h , l e g s t r e n g t h , f l e x i
b i l i t y , g r i p s t r e n g t h i n t h e hand and f o o t , m u s c u la r e n
d u r a n c e , f a m i l i a r i t y w ith t h e t a s k , c u e s from v e r b a l s e l f -
i n s t r u c t i o n , v i s u a l c u e s , movements o f t h e bo d y , ey e move
m e n ts, h ead m ovem ents, e m o tio n a l a d ju s tm e n ts t o th e e x p e r i
m e n ta l s i t u a t i o n , e m o tio n a l a d ju s tm e n ts t o th e i n v e s t i g a
t o r , f e e l i n g s o f c o n f id e n c e , and sy m b o lic a s s o c i a t i o n s w ith
t h e i r r e g u l a r maze p a t t e r n . Any o r a l l o f t h e c o n c o m ita n t
v a r i a b l e s , a s w e l l a s o t h e r s , c o u ld h a v e had a n e f f e c t on
t h e l e a r n e r 's t o t a l im provem ent.
N e u r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y , th e p y ra m id a l sy ste m would
be in v o lv e d p r i m a r i l y w ith th e i n t r i c a t e v a r i a b l e s o f a
p e rfo rm a n c e such a s maze t r a c i n g . The e x tr a p y r a m id a l s y s
tem w ould be in v o lv e d p r i m a r i l y w ith t h e c o n c o m ita n t v a r i
a b le s when th e y a r e n e u ro m u s c u la r i n n a t u r e . Youmans (8 9 )
h a s d e s c r i b e d t h e g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n s o f th e s e two sy stem s
98
a s f o l l o w s :
. . . th e p y ra m id a l t r a c t p r o v id e s t h e p a th
f o r c a r r y i n g o u t d i s c r e t e w i l l e d a c t s , t h e e x t r a -
p y ra m id a l sy ste m i s u t i l i z e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
t h e a s s o c i a t e d movements w h ic h accom pany such
a c t s . T h u s, i t may be v i s u a l i z e d t h a t when one
p e rfo rm s a v o l u n t a r y a c t , f o r exam ple p i c k in g up a
p e n c i l , im p u lse s a r e s e t up i n th e t r u e m oto r
a r e a and a r e conveyed by th e p y ra m id a l t r a c t t o
a c t i v a t e t h e s p e c i f i c f i n g e r m u sc le s w hich a re
u s e d , and th e e x tr a p y r a m id a l s y s te m i s a c t i v a t e d
a t t h e same tim e t o p ro d u ce th e a s s o c i a t e d move
m ents o f t h e arm , h e a d , e y e s , and body. F u r t h e r
m ore, a s so o n a s th e m u sc le s a r e p u t i n t o c o n
t r a c t i o n by an a c t o f w i l l t h e p r o p r i o c e p t i v e r e
f l e x e s a r e e l i c i t e d and c o n s t i t u t e an a d d i t i o n a l
m echanism f o r r e g u l a t i n g t h e sm o o th n ess o f p e r
form ance o f t h e a c t . (8 9 :3 5 3 -3 5 4 )
In t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y , many o f th e a fo r e m e n tio n e d
c o n c o m ita n t v a r i a b l e s may be c o n s id e r e d i d e n t i c a l e le m e n ts
o f t h e p e rfo rm a n c e o f maze t r a c i n g ( 2 :1 6 8 ) . T h o rn d ik e and
Woodworth (79 ) w ere t h e f i r s t p s y c h o l o g is ts t o a d v an c e th e
" i d e n t i c a l - e l e m e n t s t h e o r y o f t r a n s f e r . " From a p sy c h o
l o g i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , t h e p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r shown i n t h e
p r e s e n t s tu d y may be a t t r i b u t e d , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , t o th e
h ig h d e g re e o f s i m i l a r i t y b e tw ee n t h e p e rfo rm a n c e s o f th e
lim b s . T h is i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g i n v iew o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a tu s an d e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n to o k f u l l
a d v a n ta g e o f t h e c o n c e p t o f s i m i l a r i t y . The s u b j e c t s w ere
aw are o f many o f th e i d e n t i c a l e le m e n ts o f t h e p e rfo rm a n c e .
C r a t t y (14) h a s s t a t e d t h a t , . . c o n s c io u s a w a re n e s s o f
99
i d e n t i c a l e le m e n ts may impede w h ile l a c k o f a w a re n e ss may
f a c i l i t a t e t h e t r a n s f e r o f m otor e le m e n ts ” ( 1 4 :5 2 9 ) . T h is
o p in io n was n o t s u p p o rte d by th e r e s u l t s o f th e p r e s e n t
s tu d y .
I t i s assum ed t h a t t h e i d e n t i c a l e le m e n ts o f th e
p e rfo rm an c e a s s i s t e d t h e l e a r n e r i n r e g a r d t o th e p e r c e p
t u a l , p s y c h o l o g ic a l , and k i n e s t h e t i c com ponents o f t h e p e r
fo rm an ce. I t seems l o g i c a l t o i n f e r t h a t th e u l t i m a t e d e
g re e o f t r a n s f e r w ould be d e p e n d e n t upon t h e l e a r n e r 's
a b i l i t y t o p u t th e p e r c e p t s o f t h e p e rfo rm a n c e i n t o n e u r o
m u sc u la r a c t i o n . T h u s, t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l e le m e n ts may be
r e q u i s i t e t o th e n e u r o l o g i c a l e le m e n ts f o r t r a n s f e r t o
o c c u r i n th e lim bs o f th e human o rg a n ism .
To a c c o u n t f o r i r r a d i a t i o n t o th e i p s i l a t e r a l and
c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b s , a r e c i p r o c a l servom ech anism sy ste m i s
p o s t u l a t e d . T h is sy ste m w i l l be d e s c r ib e d on t h e b a s i s o f
known n e u ro a n a to m ic a l e v id e n c e , and i t may a c c o u n t f o r th e
s im u lta n e o u s and i d e n t i c a l n e u r a l im p u lse s w hich o c c u r i n
t h e prim e m o v ers, s y n e r g i s t s , and s t a b i l i z e r s o f t h e n o n
t r a i n e d a s w e l l a s t h e t r a i n e d lim b s .
G e n e r a lly , th e p r o c e s s in g o f th e a f f e r e n t s e n s o ry
im p u lse s d u r in g th e e a r l y s t a g e s o f l e a r n i n g w ould in v o lv e
a n a to m ic a l s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e s p i n a l c o rd , b r a i n ste m ,
100
c e r e b e llu m , b a s a l g a n g l i a , and c e r e b r a l c o r t e x . The e f f e r
e n t m otor im p u lse would be r e l a y e d th ro u g h th e p y ra m id a l
and e x tr a p y r a m id a l sy stem s i n th e b r a i n and s p i n a l c o rd e n -
r o u t e t o th e e f f e c t o r s i n th e i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l
lim b s . F o llo w in g a n e x te n s i v e l e a r n i n g p e r i o d , th e a f f e r
e n t im p u lse s may r e a c h s u b c o r t i c a l l e v e l s o n ly . I n some
s i m p l i f i e d p e rfo rm a n c e s , t h e i r r a d i a t i o n may be c o n d u c te d
a t th e s p i n a l c o rd l e v e l v i a i n t e r n u n c i a l and p r o p r i o s p i n a l
n e u ro n s . The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h i s c o u ld o c c u r was i n d i
c a te d i n s t u d i e s w hich w ere r e p o r t e d c o n c e rn in g th e b i l a t
e r a l a s p e c t s o f th e c o n d itio n e d re s p o n s e (22) (33 ) (34)
( 8 5 ) . T hese s t u d i e s w ere d is c u s s e d p r e v i o u s ly .
A d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f th e p o s t u l a t e d r e c i p r o c a l
servom echanism sy ste m f o llo w s . The a f f e r e n t im p u lse s t o
t h e b r a i n a r e t r a c e d . The e f f e r e n t im p u lse s a r e th e n
t r a c e d b a c k t o th e i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l e f f e c t o r s .
P r i o r t o any n e u ro m u s c u la r p e rfo rm an c e th e c o r t i c a l
in v o lv e m e n t m ust be s u b s t a n t i a l . The p re -p e rfo rm a n c e
th o u g h t p r e p a r e s th e n e c e s s a r y p s y c h o lo g ic a l s e t f o r l e a r n
in g t o t a k e p l a c e . The p re -p e rfo rm a n c e th o u g h t p ro c e s s
s h o u ld i n d i c a t e t h r e e t h in g s to th e l e a r n e r : ( 1) th e r e a s o n
f o r l e a r n i n g th e t a s k a t h a n d ; (2) th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i f
a n y , b etw een th e im pending e x p e r ie n c e s and p a s t e x p e r ie n c e s ;
101
and (3 ) how t o s t a r t l e a r n i n g th e new p e rfo rm a n c e . W ith
t h e s e th o u g h ts i n " m in d ," t h e l e a r n e r i s p r e p a r e d t o b e g in
t h e a c t u a l m o to r l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s .
F o r t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , t h e b a s i c s e n s o r y in p u t t o
t h e c e n t r a l n e rv o u s sy ste m was due p r i m a r i l y t o s t i m u l a t i o n
o f : (1 ) i n t r a f u s a l m u scle f i b e r s , (2) G o lg i te n d o n o rg a n s ,
(3 ) j o i n t r e c e p t o r s , and (4 ) v i s u a l s e n s e o r g a n s . In h e r
re v ie w o f th e n e u ro m u s c u la r b a s e s o f m o to r l e a r n i n g , H a r r i
so n (3 8 ) s t a t e d , " I t i s th o u g h t t h a t i n f o r m a ti o n from any
s e n s e o rg a n m ust b e c a p a b le o f p o t e n t i a l i n t e g r a t i o n w ith
t h a t from an y o t h e r s e n s e o rg a n " ( 3 8 :6 4 ) . T hus, th e a f f e r
e n t im p u ls e s from th e v a r i o u s s e n s e o rg a n s s h o u ld be i n t e
g r a t e d by t h e tim e th e y r e a c h th e c o r t i c a l l e v e l .
The a f f e r e n t im p u lse s w ere p ro b a b ly s t a r t e d by t h e
i n t r a f u s a l m u scle f i b e r s and G o lg i te n d o n o rg a n s when th e
m u sc le s o f t h e e x e r c i s e d lim b w ere p la c e d on s t r e t c h . The
w id e s p re a d e f f e c t s o f t h e i n t r a f u s a l f i b e r ' s se rv o m ec h an ism
w ere d i s c u s s e d by L o o fb o u rro w :
S t r e t c h le a d s t o f a c i l i t a t i o n o f t h e s y n e r
g i s t s o f th e s t r e t c h e d m u sc le and i n h i b i t i o n o f
t h e i r a n t a g o n i s t s . I t was t h e n b e li e v e d t h a t th e
s p i n d l e a f f e r e n t s made m o n o sy n a p tic c o n n e c tio n s
w i t h b o th m oto n eu ro n s o f t h e i r own m u s c le , w h ich
t h e y f a c i l i t a t e d , and w ith t h e m o to n eu ro n s o f i t s
a n t a g o n i s t , w h ich th e y i n h i b i t e d . S e r io u s d o u b t
h a s b e e n c a s t on th e m o n o sy n a p tic n a t u r e o f t h e
102
r e c i p r o c a l c o n n e c tio n s o f th e s p i n d l e a f f e r e n t s .
I t h a s a l s o b e e n d e m o n s tra te d t h a t s t r e t c h o f a
m u sc le may evoke c o n t r a c t i o n o f o t h e r m u sc le s
a c t i n g a t a d i f f e r e n t j o i n t i n t h e same lim b .
M o reo v er, s t r e t c h w h ich e x c i t e s t h e te n d o n o rg a n s
o f an e x te n s o r m u scle may ev o k e, i n a d d i t i o n t o
t h e a u to g e n e t i c i n h i b i t i o n and f a c i l i t a t i o n o f t h e
a n t a g o n i s t i c f l e x o r , c o n t r a l a t e r a l e x te n s o r c o n
t r a c t i o n ( F h i l l i p s o n 's r e f l e x ) . (5 6 :9 9 )
The G o lg i te n d o n o rg a n s e r v e s a s a n i n h i b i t i n g
m echanism f o r t h e i n t r a f u s a l m u sc le f i b e r s ( 4 0 :1 1 ) . The
r o l e o f th e G o lg i te n d o n o rg a n s was d e s c r i b e d by L o o f-
bo u rro w :
U n lik e t h e s p i n d l e s , t h e G o lg i te n d o n o rg a n s
a r e i n s e r i e s w ith t h e m u scle f i b e r s . P a s s iv e
s t r e t c h p u ts b o th s p i n d l e s and te n d o n o rg a n s u n d e r
t e n s i o n . The s e n s i t i v e s p i n d l e s re s p o n d t o a l l
d e g re e s o f t e n s i o n , ev en s l i g h t . The h ig h e r
t h r e s h o l d G o lg i te n d o n o rg a n s re s p o n d when t h e
te n d o n i s p la c e d u n d e r m o d e r a te ly h ig h o r s e v e r e
t e n s i o n . A c tiv e c o n t r a c t i o n , t o o , p u ts th e te n d o n
u n d e r t e n s i o n and t h e te n d o n o rg a n s r e s p o n d , w h e re
a s t h e s p i n d l e s a r e " u n l o a d e d ,” so t h e i r f i r i n g
slo w s o r s t o p s . The i n h i b i t i o n o f a n e x te n s o r by
d i s c h a r g e s from t h e G o lg i o rg a n a i n i t s te n d o n i s
accom panied by f a c i l i t a t i o n o f i t s f l e x o r a n ta g o
n i s t . (5 6 :1 0 0 )
T h is same ty p e o f c o n t r o l may t a k e p la c e a lm o s t s i m u l t a n e
o u s ly i n t h e i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b s due t o t h e
p o s t u l a t e d r e c i p r o c a l serv o m ech an ism s y s te m .
R ose and M o u n tc a s tle (70) h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e
i n t r a f u s a l m u sc le f i b e r s and th e G o lg i te n d o n o rg a n s a re
n o t c a p a b le o f s i g n a l l i n g m u scle l e n g t h o r j o i n t a n g le .
103
R e c e n t r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e j o i n t r e c e p t o r s h a v e
b e e n shown t o r e l a y t h e s te a d y p o s i t i o n o f th e j o i n t s t o
t h e c e n t r a l n e rv o u s sy s te m ( 7 0 :4 1 2 ) .
The a f f e r e n t im p u ls e s fro m t h e p r o p r i o c e p t o r s t r a v
e l v i a tw o p r o p r i o c e p t i v e p a th w a y s, th e s p i n o t h a l a m o c o r t i -
c a l p a th and t h e s p i n o c e r e b e l l a r p a th ( 4 6 :9 0 6 ) . B oth o f
t h e s e pathw ays hav e d e c u s s a t i o n s t h a t p r o v id e o p p o r t u n i t i e s
f o r a f f e r e n t im p u lse s t o be r e p r e s e n t e d b o th i p s i l a t e r a l l y
and c o n t r a l a t e r a l l y a t t h e c o r t i c a l and c e r e b e l l a r l e v e l s .
The m e d ia l le m n is c a l sy s te m i s form ed by d e c u s s a t i n g f i b e r s
i n t h e s p i n o t h a l a m o c o r t i c a l p a th , and G o w er's t r a c t i s
form ed by d e c u s s a t i n g f i b e r s i n t h e s p i n o c e r e b e l l a r p a th
( 4 6 :9 0 6 - 9 0 7 ).
I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e im p u lse s from th e j o i n t
r e c e p t o r s d id n o t e n t e r i n t o t h e le m n is c a l sy ste m . R e c e n t
r e s e a r c h re v ie w e d by R ose and M o u n tc a s tle (70) i n d i c a t e d
t h a t :
The e v id e n c e t h a t r e c e p t o r s i n and a b o u t th e
j o i n t s do in d e e d p r o j e c t i n t o th e l e m n is c a l s y s
tem was o b ta in e d by g r o s s e l e c t r o d e r e c o r d i n g o f
th e e l e c t r i c a l r e s p o n s e s evoked i n th e v e n t r o b a s a l
th a la m ic com plex and t h e s o m a tic s e n s o r y c o r t e x by
m e c h a n ic a l s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h o s e t i s s u e s and by
e l e c t r i c a l s t i m u l a t i o n o f a r t i c u l a r n e r v e s . (70 :
413)
T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a p p e a r t o be a v a i l a b l e pathw ays f o r
104
i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a f f e r e n t
im p u ls e s from t h e v a r i o u s p r o p r i o c e p t o r s a t h i g h e r c e n t r a l
n e rv o u s s y s te m l e v e l s .
The i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e v i s u a l and p r o p r i o c e p t o r
im p u ls e s s h o u ld o c c u r a t th e c o r t i c a l l e v e l . B a r t l e y (5 )
d e s c r i b e d th e o p t i c p athw ay :
The o p t i c pathw ay c o n s i s t s o f : (2 ) t h e t r a c t ,
i n c l u d i n g t h e o p t i c n e r v e ; (b) t h e r e l a y n u c l e i o f
t h e l a t e r a l g e n i c u l a t e , t h e p r e t e c t a l a r e a and t h e
s u p e r i o r c o l l i c u l u s ; (c ) t h e r a d i a t i o n t o c o r t e x ,
and p a th s t o th a la m u s and t e c t a l a r e a ; and (d ) t h e
p r o j e c t i o n a r e a s i n c l u d i n g th e c o r t i c a l , th a la m ic
and t e c t a l p r o j e c t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e ,
t h e r e a r e (e ) t h e a s s o c i a t i o n a r e a s . J u s t w here
t o d e l i m i t th e v i s u a l s y s te m i s p r o b l e m a t i c , d e
p e n d in g upon how one v iew s n e u r a l f u n c t i o n s .
(5 :7 1 6 -7 1 7 )
As h a s b e e n shown, th e r o u t e o f t h e a f f e r e n t im
p u l s e s t o th e c o r t i c a l l e v e l o f t h e b r a i n d o es a llo w f o r
c o n t r a l a t e r a l and i p s i l a t e r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f n e u r a l im
p u l s e s . F u r th e r m o r e , i t w i l l be shown t h a t t h e r e a r e e f f e r
e n t pathw ays a v a i l a b l e t o i r r a d i a t e n e u r a l im p u lse s t o th e
c o n t r a l a t e r a l and i p s i l a t e r a l lim b s .
An i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n was made by Inm an,
S a u n d e rs , and Abbot (4 8) c o n c e rn in g b r a i n f u n c t i o n s and
p a t t e r n s o f a c t i o n :
T h ere i s no such t h i n g a s a p rim e m o ver, as
o r d i n a r i l y u n d e r s to o d . T h ere a r e o n ly p a t t e r n s
105
o f a c t i o n . T h is c o n c e p tio n e x te n d s and a m p l i f i e s
t h e axiom l a i d down b y B eevor when h e s a i d w ith
r e g a r d t o t h e b r a i n t h a t i t knows n o th in g o f th e
a c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l m u s c le s , b u t o n ly o f move
m en t. We c a n , t h e n , se e a c e n t r a l p a t t e r n o f
m o tio n c a r r i e d t o t h e p e r i p h e r y . . . (4 8 :3 0 )
The " c e n t r a l p a t t e r n o f m o tio n " c o n c e p t i s b a s i c t o i r r a
d i a t i o n a s w e l l a s t r a n s f e r o f p e rfo rm a n c e .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e e f f e r e n t im p u lse t r a v e l s th ro u g h
t h e v a r i o u s b r a i n a r e a s v i a th e p y ra m id a l and e x tr a p y r a m i-
d a l s y s te m s . G e llh o r n d e s c r i b e d t h e s e sy ste m s a s f o llo w s :
The e f f e r e n t pathw ays in v o lv e t h e p y ra m id a l
and e x tr a p y r a m id a l s y s te m s . The p y ra m id a l sy ste m
was once th o u g h t t o o r i g i n a t e i n t h e g i a n t pyram
i d a l c e l l s o f t h e m otor c o r t e x (B e tz c e l l s ) , b u t
q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d i e s d i s c l o s e d t h a t t h e y a c c o u n t
f o r o n ly 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e p y ra m id a l e f f e r e n t f i
b e r s . The b u lk o f t h e p y ra m id a l s y s te m o r i g i n a t e s
i n t h e o t h e r c o r t i c a l c e l l s . They a r e n o t c o n
f i n e d t o th e m o to r c o r t e x p r o p e r b u t c o m p rise t h e
p a r i e t a l lo b e a s w e l l . The m ajo r p a r t o f th e
p y ra m id a l t r a c t c r o s s e s t o th e o p p o s i t e s i d e i n
t h e d e c u s s a t i o n o f t h e p y ra m id s, b u t 10 t o 15 p e r
c e n t o f t h e p y ra m id a l f i b e r s re m a in u n c r o s s e d .
The e ::tr a p y r a m id a l s y s te m se n d s e f f e r e n t f i b e r s
from t h e c e r e b r a l c o r t e x ( i n c l u d i n g t h e m o to r c o r
t e x ) t o th e pons ( f r o n t o p o n t i n e t r a c t ) , t h e b a s a l
g a n g l i a , th e h y p o th a la m u s , and th e r e t i c u l a r fo rm a
t i o n i n th e b r a i n ste m . (3 2 :1 1 1 )
I t i s o f im p o rta n c e t o n o te t h a t , a n a t o m i c a l l y , t h e pyram
i d a l t r a c t i s now known t o b e e q u ip p e d t o i r r a d i a t e im
p u l s e s s im u lta n e o u s ly i n a b i l a t e r a l f a s h i o n .
The s p i n a l c o rd i s a f i n a l common pathw ay f o r
e f f e r e n t im p u ls e s . W ith in th e s p i n a l c o rd a r e b i l l i o n s o f
106
o f i n t e r n u n c i a l n e u ro n s t h a t may b e o f g r e a t im p o rta n c e f o r
i r r a d i a t i o n . T hese i n t e r n u n c i a l n e u ro n s may be a b le t o
s h u t t l e t h e n e u r a l im p u lse b i l a t e r a l l y on an i n tr a s e g m e n t a l
a s w e l l a s a n i n t e r s e g m e n t a l b a s i s . The l a t t e r may be
f a c i l i t a t e d by means o f sy n a p s e s w ith p r o p r i o s p i n a l n e u ro n s .
The Renshaw F e e d b ac k S ystem may p la y a r o l e w i t h i n
t h e s p i n a l c o rd t o f a c i l i t a t e , i n h i b i t , o r c o n t r o l i r r a d i a
t i o n p a t t e r n s . The r e s e a r c h te n d s t o be i n c o n c lu s iv e r e
g a r d in g t h i s n e u r o l o g i c a l sy ste m . H a r r is o n d e s c r i b e d some
o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f th e Renshaw c e l l s a s f o llo w s :
The Renshaw c e l l s a r e one o f t h e se rv o -m e c h a n
ism s w h ich e n a b le th e n e rv o u s sy ste m t o c o n t r o l
t h e r e a c t i o n a s t h e im p u lse i s g o in g down t h e f i n a l
common m otor p ath w ay . The Renshaw c e l l s a r e s m a ll
n e u ro n s i n t h e v e n t r a l h o r n o f th e s p i n a l c o rd t h a t
fe e d b a ck i n h i b i t o r y im p u ls e s t o t h e m o to r n e u ro n
o f t h e e x t r a f u s a l m u scle f i b e r s . U n lik e o t h e r
s e n s o r y n e u r o n s , th e Renshaw c e l l s do n o t accommo
d a t e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e c e l l s c a n m a i n t a i n h ig h
f r e q u e n c i e s f o r lo n g p e r io d s o f tim e t o keep a
v i g i l a n c e f o r l a s t c h a n c e n e g a t iv e fe e d b a c k . An
a n ti - d r o m i c im p u ls e , a n im p u lse c o n d u c te d a lo n g a
n e rv e f i b e r i n a n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n to t h e n o rm a l,
may a l s o s t i m u l a t e t h e Renshaw c e l l s . T h is c a u s e s
some i n h i b i t i o n o f t h e a n t a g o n i s t m u scle w h ile th e
a g o n i s t m u scle n e u ro n s a r e f i r i n g . ( 3 8 :6 0 -6 1 )
L o o fb o u rro w (56) showed t h a t t h e Renshaw c e l l s do
h av e an a n a to m ic a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e i n t e r n u n c i a l
n e u ro n s o f t h e s p i n a l c o r d . He s t a t e d :
107
S m a ll b ra n c h e s ( r e c u r r e n t c o l l a t e r a l s ) le a v e
th e ax o n s o f m otoneu rons v e r y n e a r th e c e l l b o d ie s
and t e r m i n a t e w i t h in t h e c o r d , r a t h e r th a n em erg
ing i n th e v e n t r a l r o o t s w ith th e axons p r o p e r .
They a r e th o u g h t to e x c i t e s h o r t i n te r n e u r o n s
w i t h i n th e c o rd w hich f i r e a t u n u s u a lly h ig h f r e
q u e n c ie s , u s u a l l y o v e r 1000 p e r s e c . Renshaw
f i r s t d e s c r ib e d r e p e t i t i v e d i s c h a r g e s i n th e s e
i n te r n e u r o n s i n th e v e n t r a l h o r n i n 1946 and th e y
a re now known a s Renshaw c e l l s . On th e b a s i s o f
p h y s i o l o g i c a l e v id e n c e , E c c le s i n f e r s t h a t t h e i r
s h o r t axons p a s s b a c k i n t o th e p o o l o f m otoneuron
so m a ta , w here th e y b ra n c h and r e a c h sy n a p se s in
o v e rla p p in g and d i f f u s e f a s h io n on m otoneurons a t
th e same se g m e n ta l l e v e l . (5 6 :1 0 0 )
Does a r e c i p r o c a l servom echanism sy stem e x i s t i n
th e human o rg an ism t h a t c o u ld f a c i l i t a t e i r r a d i a t i o n t o a l l
lim b s s im u lta n e o u s ly ? The e x i s t i n g e v id e n c e le n d s some
s u p p o rt t o t h i s p o s t u l a t e .
R e m in isc e n c e was found t o have o c c u rre d w i t h in
Group I I I , th e c o n t r o l g ro u p , d u rin g th e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
T h is was assum ed f o llo w in g th e c o n t r o l g r o u p 's s t a t i s t i
c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t g a in i n p e rfo rm an c e f o r a l l v a r i a b l e s
d u r in g t h e e x p e rim e n ta l p e r io d . S e v e ra l i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e
p o r te d t h a t re m in is c e n c e i s a phenomenon t h a t c a n be a s s o
c i a t e d w i t h t r a n s f e r (37) (49) (5 0 ) (68) . How ever, t h e s e
w ere p u r s u i t r o t o r s t u d i e s w hich w ere c o n d u c te d o v e r v e r y
s h o r t p e r io d s o f tim e , f i v e to t e n m in u te s i n t o t a l d u r a
t i o n . G ric e and R eynolds (37) c o n c lu d e d one such s tu d y by
w r i t i n g :
108
The r e s u l t s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h a t b i l a t e r a l
" re m in is c e n c e " i s an i n c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n o f t h e
l e n g th o f r e s t a t l e a s t up t o 10 m in. I n t h i s
r e s p e c t , i t i s s i m i l a r t o th e f u n c t i o n f o r o r d i
n a ry r e m in is c e n c e . (3 7 :2 5 2 )
Group I , an e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p , made a s t a t i s t i
c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t g a in f o r t r a v e r s a l tim e o n ly from th e
p r e - t e s t th ro u g h t r i a l s two and t h r e e o f th e t r a i n i n g p r o
gram . B i l a t e r a l re m in is c e n c e may be an i n c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n
o f " r e s t " a t l e a s t up t o f o u r w eeks. More r e s e a r c h i s
n eed ed i n t h i s a r e a .
The p e rc e n ta g e o f im provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r was
g r e a t e r i n th e lim bs o f th e s u b j e c t s who p r a c t i c e d w ith
t h e i r n o n p r e f f e r e d u p p e r lim b , Group I I . F u rth e rm o re , th e
g a in s made by Group I I I w ere g r e a t e r f o r th e n o n p r e f e r r e d
lim b s th a n f o r th e p r e f e r r e d lim b s . I t a p p e a rs l o g i c a l t o
assum e t h a t l e a r n e r s w i l l fo c u s g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n on a
m otor l e a r n i n g t a s k i f th e y u se n o n p r e f e r r e d lim bs d u rin g
t h e i n i t i a l l e a r n in g s t a g e . The l e a r n e r m ust c o n c e n tr a te
m ore on t h e i n t r i c a t e v a r i a b l e s o f th e p e rfo rm a n c e , b e c a u se
t h e s i t u a t i o n i s new and t h e u se o f th e n o n p r e f e r r e d lim b
i s "n ew ." No p e rfo rm an c e w ith th e p r e f e r r e d lim b w ould
h av e th e same d e g re e o f " n e w n e s s." A p a s t movement e x p e r
ie n c e i s more l i k e l y t o be a v a i l a b l e f o r th e l e a r n e r when
he i s u s in g p r e f e r r e d m u s c u la tu r e .
109
The e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a tu s was d e s ig n e d t o p ro v id e
a u n iq u e l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n f o r th e s u b j e c t s . T h is had a
te n d e n c y t o e li m i n a t e t h e b i a s o f p re v io u s l e a r n i n g , b u t ,
o f c o u r s e , th e e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a tu s c o u ld n o t e q u a l iz e
th e p e rfo rm an c e f o r t h e lim b s . The g r e a t e r im provem ent by
th e n o n p r e f e r r e d lim b s c o u ld be a n t i c i p a t e d , b e c a u se th e
n o n p r e f e r r e d lim b s had a g r e a t e r ra n g e in w h ich th e y c o u ld
im p ro v e .
Summary
A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m ajo r f in d in g s o f th e s tu d y
was p r e s e n te d . An a tte m p t was made t o e x p l a i n th e p o s s i b l e
c a u s e s o f t r a n s f e r by i n t e g r a t i n g p s y c h o lo g ic a l and n e u ro -
p h y s i o l o g i c a l c o n c e p ts . A r e c i p r o c a l se rv o -m e ch a n ism s y s
tem was p o s t u l a t e d t o e x p la in t h e n e u ro a n a to m ic a l pathw ays
r e q u i r e d f o r s im u lta n e o u s n e u r a l im p u lse s t o r e a c h t h e i p s i
l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b s . I r r a d i a t i o n was d is c u s s e d
a s b e in g a p o s s i b l e c a u se o f t r a n s f e r .
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The pro b lem o f t h i s s tu d y was t o d e te rm in e th e
t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s o f dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s and t r a v e r s a l tim e
t o th e i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b s f o llo w in g u n i
l a t e r a l t r a i n i n g o f th e p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim b and n o n p re
f e r r e d u p p e r lim b .
One h u n d red and n in e n o rm al m ale u n i v e r s i t y s t u
d e n ts p a r t i c i p a t e d a s s u b j e c t s i n t h e s tu d y . They w ere
e n r o l l e d i n g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l e d u c a tio n c l a s s e s a t th e U n i
v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a . The s u b j e c t s w ere d iv id e d
i n t o two e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s and one c o n t r o l g ro u p . T hese
g ro u p s w ere found t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y e q u iv a le n t on th e
b a s i s o f t h e p r e - t e s t d a t a .
A p e r io d o f e i g h t weeks was r e q u i r e d t o c o m p lete
a l l p h a se s o f th e e x p e rim e n t. The r e t r o a c t i o n e x p e r im e n ta l
d e s ig n was u s e d , and tim e was u t i l i z e d a s f o llo w s : ( 1) two
110
. . I l l
w eeks w ere r e q u i r e d t o c o l l e c t t h e p r e - t e s t d a t a , ( 2) t h e
p r a c t i c e p e r io d f o r t h e two e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s r e q u i r e d
f o u r w e ek s, and (3 ) two w eeks w ere r e q u i r e d t o c o l l e c t th e
p o s t - t e s t d a t a . The c o n t r o l g ro u p , G roup I I I , p a r t i c i p a t e d
i n t h e p r e - t e s t a n d p o s t - t e s t o n ly .
The e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a tu s c o n s i s t e d o f two i d e n
t i c a l n o n - c h o ic e s t y l u s m azes. The e l e c t r i c a l s y s te m was
d e s ig n e d t o m e a su re : ( 1) t r a v e r s a l t im e , ( 2) e r r o r s , and
(3 ) e r r o r tim e . ( E r r o r s and e r r o r tim e w ere c o n s id e r e d t o
be m ea su re s o f dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s . ) The m azes c o u ld be
r a i s e d and lo w e re d m a n u a lly . As a r e s u l t , t h e s u b j e c t s
w ere a b l e t o t r a v e r s e t h e maze w ith t h e u p p e r and lo w er
lim b s . The s t y l u s was h e l d b e tw e e n t h e thumb and in d e x
f i n g e r o f t h e h a n d . F o r t h e f o o t , th e s t y l u s was p la c e d
on t h e p l a n t a r s u r f a c e b e tw e e n t h e g r e a t t o e and f i r s t t o e .
A p ie c e o f a d h e s iv e t a p e was p la c e d a ro u n d t h e s t y l u s and
t h e f o o t t o i n s u r e a c o n s t a n t g r i p d u r in g t h e t r i a l .
The training program for the two experimental
groups consisted of traversing the maze one hundred times.
These trials were distributed at a rate of thirty trials
per week. One experimental group, Group I, trained the
preferred upper limb only, and one experimental group,
Group II, trained the nonpreferred upper limb only.
112
The p o s t - t e s t fo llo w e d t h e t r a i n i n g program . I t
was a n e x a c t d u p l i c a t e o f t h e p r e - t e s t . (T h ree t r i a l s w ere
t a k e n w i t h t h e u p p e r lim b s and lo w e r l i m b s .)
A n a ly s is o f v a r i a n c e an d t h e t - t e s t w ere u s e d t o
d e te r m in e t h e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e mean d i f f e r
e n c e s b e tw e e n g ro u p s and t h e mean d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n g ro u p s.
I n a d d i t i o n , p e r c e n ta g e s o f t o t a l im provem ent and im p ro v e
m ent due t o t r a n s f e r w ere c a l c u l a t e d .
Findings
1. T h ere w e re no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r
e n c e s b e tw ee n t h e t h r e e g ro u p s on t h e b a s i s o f th e p r e - t e s t
d a t a .
2 . The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s w ere found t o be
p o s i t i v e and h ig h f o r t r a v e r s a l tim e p e rfo rm a n c e s .
3 . The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s w ere found t o be
p o s i t i v e w ith a v a r i a n c e from low t o h ig h f o r dynam ic
s t e a d i n e s s p e rfo rm a n c e s .
4 . W ith t h e e x c e p ti o n o f l e f t lo w e r lim b e r r o r
t i m e , a l l d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw ee n t h e e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s ,
Group I and Group I I , and t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p , Group I I I ,
w ere foun d t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t on t h e p o s t
t e s t .
113
5 . No t r a v e r s a l tim e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n Group I
and G roup XI w ere s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t on t h e p o s t -
t e s t .
6 . No d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw ee n Group I and Group I I
f o r lo w e r lim b m e a su re s on th e p o s t - t e s t w ere s t a t i s t i
c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .
7. A l l u p p e r lim b dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s d i f f e r e n c e s
b e tw e e n Group I and Group I I w ere found t o b e s t a t i s t i
c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t on t h e p o s t - t e s t .
8. A l l g ro u p s made s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t g a in s
i n p e rfo rm a n c e d u r in g t h e s tu d y f o r a l l t r a v e r s a l tim e and
dynam ic s t e a d i n e s s m e a s u re s .
9. The p e r c e n ta g e o f im provem ent due t o t r a n s f e r
was g r e a t e r i n t h e n o n t r a i n e d lim b s f o llo w in g u n i l a t e r a l
t r a i n i n g o f t h e n o n p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim b .
10. The t o t a l im provem ent made by Group I I I was
g r e a t e r i n t h e n o n p r e f e r r e d lim b s .
11. The t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n t o th e lim b s f o llo w in g
t r a i n i n g o f t h e p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim b w a s: ( 1) r i g h t u p p e r
lim b ( d i r e c t p r a c t i c e ) , (2 ) c o n t r a l a t e r a l u p p e r lim b , (3)
i p s i l a t e r a l lo w e r lim b , and (4 ) c o n t r a l a t e r a l lo w e r lim b .
12. The t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n t o t h e lim b s f o llo w in g
t r a i n i n g o f t h e n o n p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim b w as: ( 1) l e f t u p p e r
114
lim b ( d i r e c t p r a c t i c e ) , (2) c o n t r a l a t e r a l u p p e r lim b , (3)
c o n t r a l a t e r a l low er lim b , and (4) i p s i l a t e r a l low er lim b .
C onelus io n
W ith in th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y , th e
f o llo w in g c o n c lu s io n a p p e a rs t o be j u s t i f i e d :
L e a rn in g a b i l a t e r a l n e u ro m u sc u la r p e rfo rm an c e which
r e q u i r e s s e q u e n t i a l m ovement, dynamic s t e a d i n e s s , and sp e ed
o f th e lim b s may b e f a c i l i t a t e d by u n i l a t e r a l t r a i n i n g o f
e i t h e r u p p e r lim b.
Recom m endations
The f o llo w in g recom m endations may pro v e h e l p f u l f o r
i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n t e r e s t e d i n t r a n s f e r and th e e x p e r im e n ta l
a p p a r a tu s u se d i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y :
1. To s tu d y th e p o s t u l a t e t h a t d i r e c t p r a c t i c e
w ith a n o n p r e f e r r e d lim b t h a t p re c e d e s d i r e c t p r a c t i c e w ith
a p r e f e r r e d lim b w i l l enhance l e a r n in g b e t t e r th a n th e op
p o s i t e c o n d i t i o n , t h e d e s ig n sh o u ld b e changed t o in c lu d e
t h r e e t e s t s . T hree grou ps sh o u ld be e q u a te d on t h e b a s i s
o f p r e - t e s t d a ta . A m i d - t e s t sh o u ld be g iv e n a t th e m id
p o in t o f th e t r a i n i n g program . Group I and Group I I
sh o u ld t r a i n th e p r e f e r r e d and n o n p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim bs r e
s p e c t i v e l y d u rin g t h e p e rio d o f tim e from t h e p r e - t e s t t o
115
t h e m i d - t e s t . F o llo w in g t h e m i d - t e s t , G roup I and Group I I
s h o u ld t r a i n t h e n o n p r e f e r r e d and p r e f e r r e d u p p e r lim b s
r e s p e c t i v e l y . Group I I I w ould re m a in a c o n t r o l g ro u p .
2 . I n f u t u r e s t u d i e s i n v o lv i n g t r a n s f e r t o a l l
lim b s , t h e e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a tu s o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y
s h o u ld b e p o s i t i o n e d above t h e s u b j e c t . The s u b j e c t w ould
l i e on h i s b a c k vrtiile he t r a v e r s e d t h e m aze. T h is body
p o s i t i o n w ould e l i m i n a t e t h e d is c o m f o r t o f s h i f t i n g t h e
body w e ig h t w h ile t r a v e r s i n g th e maze w ith a lo w er lim b
w h ile s e a t e d .
3. I t w ou ld be b e n e f i c i a l t o s tu d y t r a n s f e r and
i r r a d i a t i o n s im u lta n e o u s ly . T h is c o u ld be done by u t i l i z
in g e le c tr o m y o g ra p h ic e q u ip m en t i n c o n j u n c t i o n w ith t h e
e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a t u s o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y . N eed le e l e c
t r o d e s c o u ld be p la c e d i n t h e m u scle g ro u p s u n d e r s tu d y .
A . c o m p a ris o n c o u ld t h e n b e made b e tw e e n th e m u sc le a c t i o n
p o t e n t i a l s w i t h i n t h e lim b s d u r in g t h e maze t r i a l and
t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s o f t r a v e r s a l t im e , e r r o r s , and e r r o r
tim e t o t h e i p s i l a t e r a l and c o n t r a l a t e r a l lim b s .
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
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74. S i l l s , F ra n k D . , an d O lso n , A rne L. " A c tio n P o te n
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Boyd, 1960.
A P P E N D I X E S
APPENDIX A
TABLE 15
FRE-TEST SCORES FOR GROUP I
Sub
j e c t
L e f t Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t U pper Limb R ig h t Uppei■ Limb
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET
D.A. 3 3 .9 4 97 1 9 .4 2 5 2 .6 6 126 2 0 .7 2 4 7 .9 0 64 4 .1 5 4 8 .4 8 36 2.22
J .B . 36.15 95 1 5.8 2 2 5 .6 3 85.5 9 .7 2 3 5 .0 5 68 5 .5 3 2 7 .3 4 42 3 .3 0
L.B . 1 6 .8 8 73 10.22 1 5 .3 1 53 6.20 8 .8 0 5 4 .5 3 .7 0 8 .7 0 44 2 .5 3
W.C. 3 3 .5 2 97 2 2.42 30 .6 7 90 13.02 3 6 .8 2 64 4 .3 8 3 0 .1 3 4 5 .5 2.7 6
R .C . 3 2 .9 9 106 .5 1 9 .1 1 3 1 .3 3 122 1 3 .2 2 3 0 .8 3 8 3 .5 5 .2 8 2 5 .9 6 56 3 .1 5
W.D. 4 2 .9 6 104 2 3 .4 7 6 2 .1 2 140 22.9 3 3 5 .4 0 48 4 .0 3 3 2 .7 8 35 2 .6 2
D.E. 32 .5 7 104 19 .3 4 4 5 .0 7 108 1 4 .1 4 2 0 .5 2 4 8 .5 2 .9 4 2 3 .5 0 2 9 .5 1.27
L ,F . 4 0 .3 0 104 .5 2 4 .1 0 3 8 .6 8 1 1 3 .5 14.26 3 6 .2 8 50 3 .4 8 3 7 .2 2 2 3 .5 1 .4 1
A.G. 16.92 70 9 .9 8 13.47 70 6 .4 4 10.16 6 6 .5 4 .5 0 12.01 6 3 .5 3 .3 4
T.G. 2 9 .2 2 89 17.0 1 2 9 .5 9 101 15.76 2 8 .7 8 5 6 .5 3 .5 3 2 4 .2 8 50 2 .8 1
B.G. 4 4 .0 6 115 2 2 .2 5 3 7 .8 4 104.5 1 4 .4 0 4 0 .9 1 6 9 .5 4 .6 0 5 5 .9 5 3 4 .5 2 .0 7
T.H. 7 1 .1 4 131.5 4 1 .7 5 9 0 .6 6 150.5 2 5 .3 8 5 4 .9 4 50 3 .4 0 4 2 .3 4 29 1 .6 0
C.H. 7 6 .16 161 .5 3 6 .7 0 8 4 .8 8 195 2 5 .4 2 5 7 .4 5 6 3 .5 4 .7 9 4 8 .0 2 49 3 .6 8
L.H . 2 1 .0 4 67 1 4 .6 8 16.89 7 4 .5 8 .9 8 9.22 52 4 .6 4 7 .5 0 5 2 .5 3 .5 6
T.X . 21.9 9 77 1 3.26 2 4 .6 8 94 10.82 1 1 .3 8 4 8 .5 2 .5 9 2 7 .7 4 5 4 .5 2 .9 2
K. J . 21.68 85.5 1 1 .7 4 2 4 .5 4 82.5 9 .2 6 2 0 .1 6 57 3 .4 8 2 4 .0 6 4 5 .5 2 .5 0
G.L. 22.22 88 1 2 .1 4 3 7 .0 0 119 12.56 1 6 .0 1 75 5 .3 7 1 5 .8 6 63 3 .9 9
B.Mc. 3 0 .0 1 9 1 .5 17.6 5 4 0 .1 0 112.5 14.16 4 5 .4 0 62 4 .3 1 3 7 .0 1 2 9 .5 1.56
M.M. 2 4 .5 5 8 1 .5 16.16 2 3 .1 0 82 10.06 10.73 51 3 .2 8 9 .2 6 4 3 .5 2 .8 4
R.M. 3 3 .8 0 1 1 3 .5 1 8 .4 2 33.0 5 117 1 4 .9 0 2 0 .8 1 50 3 .2 8 2 2 .8 0 42 2 .1 3
C .P . 24 .5 6 88 1 4 .6 8 1 5 .2 4 7 0 .5 7 .0 0 1 2 .0 4 6 1 .5 5 .0 9 13.9 4 48 2 .7 8
M.P. 2 8 .2 5 87 1 7 .7 2 2 3 .8 5 9 5 .5 1 0 .5 1 2 6 .0 4 84 5 .2 8 1 6 .4 8 55 3 .3 5 £
v £ >
I
TABLE 15— C on tin ued
Sub
L e f t Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t U pper Limb R ig h t U pper Limb
j e c t
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET
L .P . 3 6 .4 4 121.5 1 7.5 1 3 1 .1 8 1 13 .5 12.88 2 7 .0 9 69 4 .5 7 21.56 6 1 .5 3 .6 4
W.P. 2 9 .1 8 109.5 1 6 .7 4 2 9 .0 2 102 .5 12.96 2 9 .6 9 60 4 .7 2 3 0 .1 8 43 3 .0 6
R .R a. 2 3 .5 2 79 14.22 2 1 .4 2 82 9 .1 6 1 5 .9 2 65 4 .6 5 13.45 5 6 .5 2 .8 0
R.Ro. 20.67 62 10.95 1 7 .2 8 7 3 .5 7 .1 4 6 .9 0 5 0 .5 3 .2 8 7 .4 2 5 4 .5 3 .0 1
B .S , 2 0 .6 1 69 14.85 2 0 .4 4 7 0 .5 8 .9 4 11.26 63 4 .1 8 15.06 55 3 .5 2
E .S . 3 1 .7 3 103.5 16.06 2 8 .0 2 9 3 .5 10.86 18.07 59 3 .5 8 1 9 .2 4 5 0 .5 2 .7 9
H .T . 3 6 .4 5 108.5 1 5 ,9 1 4 8 .0 8 129 1 5 .5 4 3 3 .2 6 67 5 .1 3 3 0 .2 0 73.5 4 .9 1
P .T . 2 5 .6 4 82.5 17.4 6 2 7 .5 4 9 2 .5 11.11 2 6 .0 4 63 4 .2 6 2 7 .4 5 35 1 .9 9
S .T . 7 1 .1 0 145.5 2 4 .0 6 6 4 .5 7 141.5 2 0 .4 5 4 4 .6 5 52 2 .9 1 3 9 .4 1 43 2 .2 5
K.W, 2 3 .8 1 88.5 14.33 2 9 .7 7 9 6 .5 12.00 14.37 60 3 .9 0 1 3 .1 8 50 2 .5 0
M.W. 2 3 .0 4 77 12.26 3 3 .3 2 101 1 3 .2 4 19.3 2 5 5 .5 3 .1 8 1 4 .8 8 37 2 .2 4
D.W. 2 8 .3 8 87 18.07 2 4 .2 8 86 10.36 12.66 6 2 .5 4 .3 2 16.66 5 8 .5 3 .6 4
G.W. 2 7 .1 3 91 1 4 .3 4 18.2 9 7 1 .5 7 .2 6 1 7 .7 0 7 1 .5 5 .2 9 14.03 48 3 .0 2
J.W . 3 0 .4 0 89.5 1 9 .1 8 2 3 .5 5 9 3 .5 11.8 2 2 5 .3 6 67 5 .9 0 2 2 .5 0 6 1 .5 4 .6 2
N o te : The t a b l e sh o u ld be r e a d a s fo llo w s : S u b je c t D.A . had a l e f t low er lim b
t r a v e r s a l tim e (TT) s c o r e o f 3 3 .9 4 seco n d s , a l e f t low er lim b e r r o r (E) s c o r e o f 97 , and
a l e f t low er lim b e r r o r tim e (ET) s c o r e o f 1 9 .4 7 se co n d s on th e p r e - t e s t .
o e x
TABLE 16
PRE-TEST SCORES FOR GROUP I I
Sub
j e c t
L e f t Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t U pper Limb R ig h t U pper Limb
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET
D.A. 3 2 .3 4 108 1 8 .7 8 29.4 3 102 1 3.96 2 7 .2 8 69 5 .4 8 2 5 .0 0 5 1 .5 2.86
B.B. 5 0 .1 2 1 24 .5 2 8 .6 3 5 3 .3 4 144.5 2 0 .1 7 5 0 .6 6 81 6 .0 3 2 2.89 50 2 .9 8
A.B. 24 .3 6 74 14 .8 5 2 6 .1 5 93 10.74 1 9 .6 2 70 6 .6 1 2 1 .4 8 60 4 .2 5
R .B . 2 1 .9 9 65 1 3 .3 3 2 7 .7 2 85.5 11.45 3 6 .8 3 60 4 .7 8 3 5 .5 2 3 9 .5 2 .3 6
D.B. 19.91 7 6 .5 1 3.26 1 4 .6 4 63 7 .4 8 1 3.69 7 4 .5 4 .8 0 1 5 .9 0 6 8 .5 3 .8 0
M.B. 3 0 .3 9 8 4 .5 1 5 .7 4 3 0 .4 6 103.5 1 3.22 1 9 .7 0 69 4 .5 6 1 8 .3 4 5 6 .5 4 .1 8
B .B r . 17.73 7 3 .5 1 1 .2 8 1 6 .2 4 69 7 .5 5 1 3 .8 0 52 3 .1 3 1 9 .5 0 4 8 .5 3 .0 2
C.B. 2 4 .1 0 87 1 5 .9 2 2 3 .4 1 86 12.02 1 6 .0 4 4 5 .5 3 .0 5 1 4 .0 8 45 2 .4 8
W.B. 4 0 .1 4 113.5 2 4 .9 2 6 3 .5 2 129 2 0 .8 1 2 9 .2 8 74 5 .3 0 2 0 .6 9 5 2 .5 3 .6 0
B.D. 4 3 .1 4 134.5 1 8 .6 4 5 4 .4 4 166.5 1 8 .4 8 2 8 .3 4 66 .5 5 .0 4 35.26 6 0 .5 3 .4 4
G.E. 19.2 4 79 12.7 6 19.26 85 8 .4 8 1 3 .4 4 5 5 .5 3 .3 4 16.1 7 54 3 .6 6
L .E . 4 8 .7 4 121.5 2 9 .2 0 2 3 .5 5 81 13.86 11.87 6 2 .5 5 .3 4 11.88 66 4 .6 4
R .E . 3 4 .9 6 103.5 1 8 .9 4 3 4 .4 8 101.5 12.56 4 3 .0 4 58 4 .9 5 30.96 3 6 .5 2.02
J . F a . 2 5 .0 4 8 1 .5 16.56 1 9 .9 2 81.5 1 1 .0 4 11.56 5 7 .5 4 .1 0 13.96 65 4 .0 5
J . F i . 15.36 6 1 .5 1 0 .7 8 1 3 .7 0 5 7 .5 6 .0 6 6 .8 0 4 4 .5 4 .3 2 7 .4 4 50 3 .4 8
D .F . 2 0 .2 3 77 1 2 .3 2 1 9 .8 8 84 8 .1 9 22 .3 3 7 1 .5 6 .0 9 22.43 57 3 .8 1
D.G. 2 2 .7 7 6 8 .5 13.9 9 21.66 82.5 9 .8 4 2 2 .3 9 76 6 .7 4 3 0 .9 7 66 4 .1 6
B.H. 16.2 2 6 4 .5 8 .0 8 16.56 60 8.56 12.62 64 4 .2 0 10.39 4 6 .5 2 .3 4
S.H a. 2 3 .3 3 80.5 1 3 .7 4 19.72 6 2 .5 9.21 11.68 6 4 .5 4 .5 2 8 .0 6 53 3 .1 1
S.H e. 2 1 .7 6 83 13.16 2 1 .1 3 84.5 9 .6 4 1 0 .7 0 5 8 .5 5 .0 8 8 .5 4 6 0 .5 3 .9 0
J .K . 2 2 .1 6 71 1 5 .2 8 2 0 .9 1 88 8 .8 4 17.4 4 6 5 .5 4 .4 9 14.25 57 3 .1 6
131
TABLE 16--C o n tin u e d
Sub
j e c t
L e f t Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t U pper Limb R ig h t U pper Limb
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET
A.K. 7 7 .1 8 1 6 0.5 3 0 .0 8 9 3 .1 4 168.5 2 4 .7 4 7 9 .1 0 7 5 .5 6 .1 5 6 3 .8 1 27 2 .6 2
A.M. 2 4 .4 7 75 1 6 .4 1 3 2 .9 4 9 1 .5 12 .3 1 2 6 .8 0 8 7 .5 6 .3 2 2 8 .4 0 5 4 .5 2 .6 9
R.M. 2 4 .1 0 85 1 5 .7 8 2 3 .7 5 9 8 .5 10.22 2 1 .8 4 8 2 .5 5 .9 2 2 2 .7 4 54 3 .0 9
E.M. 2 9 .1 8 89 .5 1 5 .9 2 2 9 .2 2 99 1 2 .7 8 2 1 .9 6 32 1 .7 0 3 4 .7 6 3 7 .5 2.20
C.N. 4 9 .5 8 124 20.10 4 7 .5 6 127.5 1 5 .7 8 3 7 .3 5 49 3 .1 4 3 7 .0 6 37 2 .4 2
N .P . 3 7 .2 8 9 6 .5 19.6 6 3 9 .2 4 123 1 3 .1 8 3 5 .6 6 64 4 .2 6 3 0 .2 0 53 3 .3 6
B .P . 3 9 .4 5 9 3 .5 1 9 .6 2 3 6 .8 6 109 1 7 .6 0 3 0 .9 6 60 5 .3 2 2 9 .9 2 4 4 .5 2 .9 0
R .R . 3 4 .3 8 107.5 2 0 .8 2 3 9 .0 2 141 1 9 .3 4 3 4 .1 8 69 5 .7 0 3 5 .4 0 4 1 .5 2 .1 4
B.R. 4 7 .1 6 140 2 5 .5 6 6 2 .3 4 1 85.5 18.46 4 6 .6 8 51 3 .1 2 3 3 .4 1 3 2 .5 1 .7 4
R .S . 4 4 .8 8 12 7.5 1 9 .7 2 35.4 9 118 1 2 .0 4 3 7 .7 6 7 6 .5 6 .3 5 29 .8 5 5 9 .5 3 .1 0
D .S . 2 2 .7 2 80 1 4.1 3 1 9 .0 8 7 9 .5 8 .9 4 10.95 56 3 .5 1 11.01 49 3 .0 4
S .S . 24 .8 3 7 8 .5 16.07 3 2 .2 6 98 12.66 10.01 4 1 .5 3 .2 0 12.02 49 2 .7 4
B.T. 2 4 .5 4 79 1 6 .1 8 2 5 .9 9 9 9 .5 11.35 9 .4 9 4 9 .5 3 .8 2 1 1 .3 8 42 2 .6 5
s .w . 19.12 7 8 .5 10.46 2 3 .2 0 86 8 .9 1 21.88 52 3 .2 6 18.3 6 58 3 .9 2
W.W. 3 3 .2 2 102.5 2 1 .7 0 3 4 .9 6 118 1 5 .5 1 2 7 .5 1 78 4 .4 1 24 .7 7 5 5 .5 2.68
N o te : The t a b l e sh o u ld be re a d a s f o llo w s : S u b je c t D.A. had a l e f t lo w er lim b
t r a v e r s a l tim e (TT) s c o r e o f 3 2 .3 4 s e c o n d s , a l e f t lo w er lim b e r r o r (E) s c o r e o f 108,
and a l e f t lo w er lim b e r r o r tim e (ET) s c o r e o f 1 8 .7 8 s e c o n d s .
TABLE 17
PRE-TEST SCORES FOR GROUP I I I
S u b je c t
L e ft Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t U pper Limb R ig h t U pper Limb
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET RR E ET
B.B. 2 0 .5 4 74 12.26 2 9 .2 4 111 12.29 10 .2 8 4 0 .5 1.88 1 4 .14 47 2 .0 8
W.B. 2 4 .3 8 80 .5 1 5 .1 0 2 9 .76 9 2 .5 12.42 3 0 .5 2 72 5 .7 4 3 4 .9 9 51 3 .4 4
D.C. 2 0 .0 7 7 5 .5 1 3 .1 0 2 3.66 7 8 .5 9 .7 3 1 4.1 2 5 6 .5 4 .1 8 14.86 5 0 .5 3 .1 8
J .C . 1 8.09 68 1 0 .0 8 1 7.6 1 75 8 .3 0 1 6.4 2 67 4 .2 2 1 5 .3 0 60 3 .0 4
H .F . 13.39 60 8 .3 7 11.88 51 6 .7 4 9.22 53 4 .2 9 8 .4 0 5 0 .5 3 .6 4
R .F . 1 7 .0 8 6 0 .5 11.09 18.57 78 6 .6 1 10.43 45 3 .9 4 9 .4 2 48 2 .7 8
M.G. 4 1 .1 2 102.5 2 6 .26 3 8 .1 2 129 15.97 33.26 6 6 .5 7 .1 1 29.13 5 7 .5 4 .1 7
D.G. 2 5 .5 0 101.5 12.26 2 5 .4 2 9 2 .5 8.68 2 4 .9 0 79 5 .8 4 3 4 .1 8 43 2.12
K.H. 2 0 .5 8 7 5 .5 12.4 1 32.2 9 106 1 3 .9 1 15.52 6 1 .5 4 .6 1 1 7 .7 4 64 4 .9 3
M.H. 3 3 .6 4 95 2 0 .8 4 2 9 .8 4 9 7 .5 1 2.72 18.19 64 4 .1 2 1 7.4 0 5 2 .5 3 .6 0
P . J . 8 2.12 154 2 9 .8 2 9 7 .1 5 168.5 23.19 85.4 4 61 4 .2 8 5 6 .1 2 4 4 .5 2 .3 8
R .J . 4 5 .8 2 125.5 1 9 .6 0 51.7 6 138.5 16.95 3 6 .1 0 74 5 .5 9 3 0 .8 1 5 6 .5 3 .7 2
R .L . 3 1 .7 9 104 1 5 .2 4 33.8 9 111.5 1 2 .6 0 3 0 .0 0 5 1 .5 3 .0 6 2 3 .55 34 1 .7 3
D .L. 2 3.0 5 91 11.96 2 5 .1 8 101 1 1 .3 4 1 3 .7 8 61 3 .9 0 1 1.2 4 48 2 .8 4
B .L . 2 4 .6 0 80.5 1 5 .8 8 1 7 .4 8 7 7 .5 7 .4 8 1 5 .7 0 67 4 .3 0 14.02 5 0 .5 2 .9 0
F .L . 19.99 7 0 .5 12.68 18.06 7 6 .5 7 .6 2 10.2 4 5 5 .5 4 .2 6 10.37 4 8 .5 3 .3 0
B.Mc. 3 0 .0 1 7 9 .5 1 7 .8 0 3 0 .5 1 83 11.19 1 2.16 69 5 .2 4 12.00 5 3 .5 3 .4 0
R.Mc. 2 7 .9 8 101.5 1 3.82 2 6 .6 0 9 3 .5 12.00 2 8 .6 8 4 3 .5 2 .8 9 3 2 .3 4 31 1.88
K.Mc. 2 9 .6 4 86.5 15.53 3 0 .9 4 113 12.22 ' 2 9 .2 1 6 1 .5 4 .3 1 2 5 .4 3 3 9 .5 2.01
J.M , 2 8 .5 5 91 1 8 .5 8 3 1 .5 3 107 1 7 .7 6 , 2 6 .3 5 71 6 .3 3 2 5.45 5 1 .5 4 .0 8
R.N. 1 8 .7 0 65 1 2 .5 0 1 5 .6 4 71 7 .7 6 1 4 .0 4 66 .5 4 .9 2 1 2.92 4 9 .5 3 .2 8
133
TABLE 1 7 - -C on tin u ed
Sub
j e c t
L e f t Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t U pper Limb R ig h t U pper Limb
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET
D .P . 2 3 .9 4 85 1 7 .7 4 2 1 .5 7 7 3 .5 7 .6 7 2 2 .6 2 60 4 .2 2 19.09 5 6 .5 3 .7 0
J .R . 2 1 .3 7 74 12.53 2 5 .6 0 9 9 .5 13 .4 4 1 4 .7 4 68 4 .7 4 1 6 .8 2 61 3 .7 3
D.R. 4 1 .4 0 120 2 2 .5 6 3 3 .8 6 112 1 6 .0 8 2 2 .7 4 5 8 .5 4 .1 2 1 7 .7 8 5 2 .5 2 .9 2
A .S . 2 0 .6 0 82.5 12.86 2 1 .16 7 9 .5 9 .2 6 1 3.2 3 6 5 .5 5 .3 2 1 2 .1 8 59 3 .3 0
D .S . 2 0 .4 2 8 1 .5 1 2 .3 0 17.2 1 7 9 .5 8 .5 3 1 0 .3 8 5 5 .5 3 .7 2 9 .4 6 50 2 .9 4
K .S . 2 4 .3 6 8 7 .5 1 4 .0 8 2 5 .6 0 101 1 0.87 1 6 .6 8 6 0 .5 3 .1 9 21,22 42 2 .3 4
E .S . 2 6 .83 87 17.17 21.10 8 2 .5 10.35 9 .1 5 48 3 .8 4 10.26 4 5 .5 3 .3 8
L .S . 2 7 .8 2 91 1 5.19 2 8 .5 4 101.5 1 1.9 2 2 4 .2 6 6 9 .5 5 .1 5 2 4 .8 6 54 3 .3 6
T .S . 2 3 .0 2 77.5 1 3 .6 1 2 1 .8 0 8 4 .5 9 .9 2 15.05
6 3 .5
5 .3 0 1 5 .5 8 61 4 .3 4
R .T . 5 5 .6 8 1 33 .5 2 8 .5 4 6 9 .7 7 141 1 8 .2 8 6 2 .1 0 65 t 5 .2 7 6 5 .7 0 4 5 .5 3 .2 5
G.T. 1 7 .8 1 76 10.10 2 0 .3 9 82 7 .7 2 1 0 .4 4 52 4 .3 4 11.03 5 2 .5 3 .8 1
C.V. 2 9 .0 5 69 1 6 .2 4 3 2 .9 8 103.5 14.4 2 2 5 .8 4 6 7 .5 5 .2 8 4 6 .8 5 28 1 .9 8
M.W. 2 5 .3 8 98 1 5 .8 8 2 4 .6 2 85 11.4 2 1 2 .4 2 64 3 .9 9 11.29 5 1 .5 3 .3 6
B.W. 3 6 .5 8 96 22.25 4 3 .3 2 131.5 2 1 .4 0 4 5 .0 1 65 5 .2 4 4 5 .4 4 4 7 .5 3 .0 8
L.W. 2 6 .2 2 79 13.46 2 2 .3 4 79 9 .3 0 1 3 .0 8 42 2.11 12.86 3 1 .5 1 .4 0
P.W. 5 3 .9 0 137 2 6 .7 0 5 3 .6 2 154.5 2 0 .8 5 7 9 .7 9 61 3 .2 1 56.0 3 22 1 .0 4
N o te : The t a b l e sh o u ld b e re a d a s f o llo w s : S u b je c t B.B. had a l e f t lo w er lim b
t r a v e r s a l tim e (TT) s c o r e o f 2 0 .5 4 s e c o n d s , a l e f t lo w er lim b e r r o r (E) s c o r e o f 74, and
a l e f t lo w er lim b e r r o r tim e (ET) s c o r e o f 12 .26 se c o n d s.
APPENDIX B
136
TABLE 18
TRAINING PROGRAM MEANS FOR GROUP I
T r i a l s T r a v e r s a l Time E r r o r s E r r o r Time
1 2 1 .6 4
2 2 0 .7 5
3 19.42
4 18.93
5 1 9 .1 1
6 1 9 .3 4
7 1 9 .4 1
8 19.16
9 1 8 .8 0
10 18.76
11 18.69
12 1 7 .8 1
13 17.76
14 1 7 .1 0
15 1 6 .9 0
16 17.35
17 16.33
18 16.59
19 1 7 .0 4
20 1 6 .64
21 1 5 .4 1
22 15.36
23 1 5 .8 8
24 15 .19
25 15.42
26 15.43
27 1 5 .3 0
28 1 4 .82
29 1 5 .0 0
30 1 4 .22
31 14.34
32 1 4 .5 4
33 14.46
34 1 4 .6 8
35 1 4 .3 4
36 1 3 .7 0
37 1 3 .8 1
38 1 3 .9 1
4 5 .8 8 3 .1 0
4 6 .3 5 2 .8 4
4 3 .2 8 2 .6 3
4 0 .9 8 2 .3 7
4 1 .6 8 2 .4 4
3 9 .0 8 2 .2 8
4 0 .7 0 2 ,3 3
4 0 .7 0 2 ,2 9
38 .1 5 2 .1 6
38 .2 5 2 .1 8
4 1 .1 8 2 .4 3
3 7 .8 8 2 .1 4
38 .3 5 2.20
3 7 .4 8 2 .0 6
3 7 .8 8 2.00
3 7 .4 0 2 .0 4
3 6 .8 8 1 .9 8
3 4 .8 5 1.89
3 3 .8 0 1 .8 1
3 4 .7 0 1.86
3 7 .8 8 2.20
3 6 .8 0 2 .0 9
3 4 .4 2 1.85
3 4 .1 5 1 .8 4
3 1 .6 5 1.66
3 2 .6 2 1.7 7
3 2 .4 2 1 .7 2
3 1 .3 5 1 .7 0
3 0 .5 8 1 .5 5
2 9 .9 0 1 .5 4
3 2 .3 5 1.7 6
3 0 .8 8 1 .6 4
2 8 .3 2 1 .5 4
2 8 .7 2 1 .4 7
2 7 .3 2 1 .4 6
2 7 .8 5 1 .4 3
2 5 .7 0 1 .2 9
2 7 .3 0 1 .4 5
137
TABLE 18—C on tin u ed
T r i a l s T r a v e r s a l Time E r r o r s E r r o r Time
39 1 3 .7 4 2 7 .2 8 1 .3 8
40 13.6 3 2 8 .0 0 1 .4 3
41 13 .27 2 7 .8 5 1 .45
42 1 3 .4 0 2 4 .6 0 1.29
43 13.53 2 5 .5 0 1.35
44 1 2 .8 6 24 .3 2 1 .2 0
45 13 .1 4 2 4 .9 5 1 .36
46 1 2 .9 1 2 2 .4 0 1 .1 1
47 1 2 .8 1 2 2 .6 8 1 .1 5
48 1 2 .9 1 2 2 .5 0 1.09
49 1 3 .0 3 2 2 .2 2 1 .0 8
50 1 2 .7 3 2 1 .9 0 1 .0 8
51 1 2 .1 1 2 2 .8 2 1 .1 2
52 1 2 .5 3 2 1 .7 0 1 .1 0
53 1 2 .4 0 2 1 .6 5 1 .0 4
54 1 2 .0 3 2 0 .6 2 1.05
55 1 1 .9 0 2 0 .9 5 1 .0 4
56 11.93 2 0 .3 0 1 .0 0
57 1 2 .2 1 1 9 .8 8 .96
58 12 .2 4 1 9 .4 0 .9 0
59 11.8 4 1 8 .5 8 .8 6
60 1 1 .5 1 1 9 .2 0 .91
61 1 1 .7 0 2 0 .1 0 1 .0 8
62 1 1 .7 4 1 9 .6 0 1 .0 1
63 11 .4 2 2 0 .5 5 .9 8
64 11.3 9 18.65 .89
65 11.26 1 7 .0 2 .93
66 1 1 .3 0 1 7 .4 0 .8 8
67 1 1 .2 2 18.05 .8 8
68 11.00 1 7 .8 2 .8 6
69 10.85 1 7.85 .8 4
70 1 0 .6 1 1 6 .9 0 .8 0
71 10.4 2 1 7.35 .8 8
72 10.67 1 6 .2 8 .81
73 1 0 .4 8 1 6 .4 0 .8 1
74 10.33 1 5 .7 0 .77
75 10.35 1 7 .3 8 .83
76 10.3 4 15.52 .7 4
77 10.2 4 1 6 .2 8 .8 0
138
TABLE 1 8 — C on tin u ed
T r i a l s T r a v e r s a l Time E r r o r s E r r o r 1
78 10.27 1 5 .1 0 .7 4
79 10.43 1 6 .3 8 .8 0
80 10.26 1 6 .1 8 .7 8
81 10.42 1 6 .1 0 .8 1
82 10.20 15.75 .77
83 10.15 1 5 .7 8 .7 8
84 9 .9 2 1 5 .5 8 .8 0
85 10.02 16.85 .84
86 9 .9 3 1 5 .3 0 .77
87 9 .7 0 1 5 .02 .7 0
88 9 .8 1 1 4 .5 8 .7 1
89 9 .8 2 1 5 .8 0 .79
90 9 .6 9 1 4 .6 2 .74
91 9 .6 9 14.85 .75
92 9 .9 6 1 5.12 .7 0
93 9 .9 1 1 4 .6 8 .75
94 9.86 1 4 .8 8 .7 1
95 9 .7 3 1 3 .8 0 .67
96 9 .7 8 14.05 .7 0
97 9 .6 4 14.35 .68
98 9 .5 9 13.7 2 .63
99 9 .5 6 1 3 .1 8 .6 4
100 9 .4 5 1 3 .1 0 .62
N o te : T h is t a b l e s h o u ld b e r e a d a s f o l lo w s : t h e
means f o r Group I on t r i a l one d u r in g t h e t r a i n i n g program
w ere 2 1 .6 4 se co n d s f o r t r a v e r s a l tim e , 4 5 .8 8 e r r o r s , and
3 .1 0 se c o n d s f o r e r r o r tim e . Group I t r a i n e d w ith th e
r i g h t , p r e f e r r e d arm o n ly .
139
TABLE 19
TRAINING PROGRAM MEANS FOR GROUP I I
T r i a l s T r a v e r s a l Time E r r o r s E r r o r Time
1 2 4 .1 7 5 6 .4 0 4 .3 9
2 2 2 .8 7 5 5 .3 5 4 .0 5
3 2 2 .4 1 5 6 .0 2 4 .0 3
4 22.10 5 3 .8 0 3 .8 2
5 2 1 .9 2 5 3 .4 0 3 .8 5
6 22.01 5 2 .8 5 3 .8 0
7 2 2 .1 9 5 3 .1 0 3 .7 2
8 2 2 .1 3 5 4 .6 2 3 .8 9
9 2 1 .7 4 5 4 .1 0 3 .7 6
10 2 0 .9 0 5 1 .4 2 3 .4 6
11. 2 0 .0 3 5 3 .2 5 3 .8 0
12 19.16 5 0 .9 0 3 .5 0
13 18.93 4 9 .6 8 3 .4 9
14 1 8 .8 0 4 9 .4 2 3 .3 1
15 1 8 .4 2 4 9 .8 5 3 .3 4
16 1 8 .1 9 4 9 .2 0 3 .1 7
17 1 7 .5 8 4 9 .0 5 3 .0 3
18 1 6 .9 5 4 8 .1 2 3 .1 0
19 1 6 .5 4 4 6 .5 2 2 .9 6
20 1 6 .1 4 4 7 .0 8 2 .9 4
21 1 5 .9 2 4 7 .0 5 3 .1 0
22 1 5 .6 4 4 5 .8 2 2 .9 5
23 1 5.3 7 4 5 .8 8 2 .9 0
24 15.1 6 4 6 .2 8 2 .9 9
25 14.6 6 4 3 .7 2 2 .7 9
26 14.6 5 4 2 .1 8 2.68
27 1 4.5 9 4 4 .1 0 2 .7 2
28 1 4 .9 8 4 4 .2 2 2 .6 9
29 1 4 .6 1 4 5 .1 0 2 .7 8
30 1 4 .7 4 4 2 .8 0 2 .6 1
31 1 4 .3 1 4 4 .0 8 2.86
32 1 3 .8 7 4 5 .6 8 2.88
33 1 4 .1 1 4 2 .3 0 2 .6 5
34 1 3 .6 5 4 1 .3 5 2 .5 6
35 1 3 .3 3 4 1 .0 8 2 .5 5
36 1 3 .3 6 3 9 .4 5 2 .4 1
37 1 3 .7 5 4 0 .5 2 2 .5 5
140
TABLE 19- - C on tin u ed
i .■■■■yrasgscssasssgessBeT:a,.r.'.M r ' a a e g ^ a a c s s a g M B g g g g e a a a e s B g g B a s
T r i a l s T r a v e r s a l Time E r r o r s E r r o r Time
38 1 3 .4 5 3 9 .5 8 2 .3 6
39 1 3 .2 6 3 9 .2 0 2 .3 0
40 1 2 .6 7 3 7 .8 8 2 .1 7
41 1 2 .6 7 38 .8 5 2 .3 4
42 13 .0 5 4 0 .4 8 2 .4 2
43 1 2 .6 7 3 6 .9 0 2.22
44 1 2 .4 5 3 6 .8 0 2 .1 4
45 12 .3 3 3 5 .3 5 2.01
46 1 2 .2 8 3 5 .7 8 2 .0 4
47 1 2 .3 4 3 5 .6 5 2 .0 7
48 1 2 .0 8 3 6 .0 5 2.01
49
12.21 3 4 .8 5 1 .9 9
50 1 1 .9 0 3 4 .6 2 1 .9 1
51 12 .0 3 3 4 .4 0 2.01
52 1 2 .6 2 3 4 .8 2 2 .0 7
53 12 .3 2 3 4 .7 5 2 .0 8
54 1 1 .9 1 3 2 .0 0 1 .8 4
55 1 1 .6 5 3 1 .7 2 1 .7 7
56 1 1 .7 9 3 2 .7 2 1 .7 8
57 1 1 .9 4 3 1 .8 0 1.86
58 1 1 .9 3 3 1 .4 5 1 .7 5
59 1 1 .7 0 3 2 .7 5 1 .7 6
60 1 1 .5 8 3 2 .2 5 1 .7 5
61 11.68 3 1 .8 2 1 .8 7
62 1 1 .5 8 3 0 .3 8 1.86
63 1 1 .3 8 3 0 .8 8 1 .7 7
64 1 1 .5 0 3 0 .0 2 1 .8 2
65 1 1 .1 9 2 8 .8 8 1 .7 1
66 1 1 .0 5 2 8 .8 0 1 .6 5
67 1 1 .0 6 2 9 .5 8 1.68
68 10.88 2 6 .7 8 1 .5 6
69 1 0 .9 0 2 7 .6 8 1 .6 4
70 1 0 .9 7 2 8 .3 8 1.66
71 1 0 .9 7 2 8 .0 0 1 .7 2
72 1 0 .8 4 2 8 .0 5 1 .6 2
73 1 0 .8 3 2 6 .6 8 1 .5 0
74 1 0 .9 1 2 6 .6 5 1 .5 7
75 1 0 .7 8 2 6 .4 5 1 .4 8
76 1 1 .0 4 2 7 .7 0 1 .6 2
77 1 0 .6 1 2 6 .2 0 1 .5 1
141
TABLE 19—C on tin u ed
T r i a l s T r a v e r s a l Time E r r o r s E r r o r Time
78 1 0 .5 5 2 6 .4 8 1.46
79 1 0 .4 3 2 6 .2 5 1.45
80 1 0 .5 5 2 7 .5 5 1.56
81 1 0 .4 3 2 6 .4 8 1.63
82 1 0 .7 9 2 7 .4 0 1.62
83 1 0 .6 9 2 6 .7 5 1.55
84 1 0 .4 0 2 6 .0 5 1.47
85 1 0 .4 0 2 5 .3 2 1.46
86 1 0 .4 5 2 5 .3 5 1.49
87 1 0 .4 2 2 5 .9 5 1.46
88 10.36 2 4 .2 5 1 .3 8
89 1 0 .5 2 2 5 .0 2 1.46
90 1 0 .2 8 2 5 .4 5 1.49
91 1 0 .4 0 2 5 .9 2 1.55
92 1 0 .5 2 2 4 .9 8 1.47
93 1 0 .4 1 2 4 .9 5 1.39
94 10.22 2 4 .0 5 1.41
95 10.22 2 4 .8 5 1.46
96 9 .8 8 2 4 .2 8 1.38
97 9 .7 4 2 3 .0 2 1.30
98 9 .7 4 2 3 .0 0 1.31
99 9 .8 7 2 4 .1 8 1.42
100 9 .7 2 2 3 .1 0 1 .2 8
N o te : T h is t a b l e s h o u ld be r e a d a s f o llo w s : th e
means f o r Group I I on t r i a l one d u rin g t h e t r a i n i n g program
w ere 2 4 .1 7 se co n d s f o r t r a v e r s a l tim e , 5 6 .4 0 e r r o r s , and
4 .3 9 se co n d s f o r e r r o r tim e . Group I I t r a i n e d t h e n o n p re
f e r r e d l e f t arm o n ly .
APPENDIX C
TABLE 20
POST-TEST SCORES FOR GROUP I
Sub
j e c t
L e f t Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t U pper Limb R ig h t U pper Limb
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET
D.A. 1 5 .2 0 53 7 .6 9 1 5 .6 4 68 8.26 1 0 .9 1 1 6 .5 1 .0 8 8 .8 2 5 .12
J .B . 17.8 4 63 9 .7 2 1 9 .3 8 66 9 .4 8 9 .2 8 2 7 .5 1 .8 7 8 .6 5 32. 5 2.12
L .B . 15.0 2 60 9 .2 4 14.7 5 6 1 .5 6 .9 2 11.32 3 0 .5 1 .9 6 8.06 16 .8 0
W.C. 2 1 .3 2 78 11.67 2 3 .9 2 82 10.56 1 1 .9 1 25 1 .3 4 1 4 .3 4 6 . 5 .4 0
R .C . 21.86 78 12.16 14.8 4 6 6 .5 7 .1 8 13.59 36 1.92 11.00 8 . 5 .4 0
W.D. 1 7.76 55 1 0 .82 22.22 74 1 3.12 8 .1 7 2 7 .5 1 .9 0 6 .7 5 22. 5 1 .2 5
D .E . 2 2 .4 7 5 1 .5 9 .0 2 2 2 .1 4 6 3 .5 7 .3 6 1 2 .2 8 2 1 .5 1.20 10.22 18 .93
L .F . 2 1 .4 3 7 0 .5 12.53 15.6 2 6 7 .5 7 .5 4 9 .8 9 18 1 .1 4 8 .3 0 5. 5 .21
A.G. 18.92 84 1 2 .6 0 1 7 .0 8 6 9 .5 8 .7 8 16.22 2 8 .5 1.21 1 2 .4 4 10 .35
T.G . 17.32 5 8 .5 9.12 1 4 .2 8 60 8 .3 8 1 0 .5 0 1 9 .5 .86 10.27 7. 5 .2 4
B.G. 1 8 .1 0 67 11.55 16.36 6 2 .5 7 .2 8 1 0 .9 0 2 0 .5 1 .5 4 1 1 .9 0 14 .68
T.H . 3 0 .4 2 89.5 1 9 .8 4 3 8 .6 7 1 02 .5 14.76 2 4 .6 5 3 9 .5 2 .5 2 1 9 .0 1 13. 5 .94
C.H. 2 8 .9 2 104 2 1 .3 4 3 8.67 9 8 .5 1 4 .7 8 2 5 .9 2 5 9 .5 4 .6 6 2 1 .7 0 32 2 .0 6
L .H . 2 1 .3 4 6 5 .5 13.06 1 8 .5 8 6 2 .5 8.12 9 .6 9 15.5 1.02 8 .3 4 11. 5 .59
T . I . 19.95 6 6 .5 13.45 2 2 .5 5 82 10.42 1 0 .9 0 47 3 .5 2 8 .6 0 22 . 5 1.2 6
K. Jo 1 7 .6 4 71 10.13 15.27 6 2 .5 6 .4 7 8.02 29 1 .9 4 6.68 18 .8 0
G.L. 16.42 6 6 .5 9 .3 8 15.4 2 7 2 .5 8 .4 8 10.32 30 1 .7 5 8.5 7 4 .12
B.Mc. 1 4 .3 8 58 6.66 11.63 59 5 .1 0 8 .4 0 31 2 .1 5 6 .7 6 12 .4 0
M.M. 1 9 .4 4 6 8 .5 1 3 .3 8 17.96 74 7.99 9 .2 4 38 2 .9 6 7 .0 0 29. 5 1 .6 4
R.M. 2 0 .0 3 7 0 .5 12.87 1 9 .4 0 80 .5 1 0 .9 1 9 .0 4 29 2 .2 4 9 .1 5 18 .79
C .P . 1 5 .9 4 66 9 .2 2 17.09 64 9 .6 4 1 0 .6 0 3 4 .5 2 .3 6 8.7 2 18 .9 8
143
TABLE 2 0 - -C on tin u ed
Sub
j e c t
L e f t Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t U pper Limb R ig h t U pper Limb
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET
M.P, 2 1 .2 4 7 4 .5 1 3 .0 0 1 8 .0 0 7 1 .5 8 .4 4 14.43 5 2 .5 3 .5 8 1 0 .52 16 .6 4
L .P . 2 3 .6 8 89 14.74 20.10 87 9 .8 1 14.5 4 43 2 .5 0 1 2 .1 8 35 2 .0 5
W .P. 1 4 .4 0 5 9 .5 9.66 1 6 .7 8 66 9 .6 4 9 .4 0 3 1 .5 1 .5 6 7 .4 4 13 .6 0
R .R a . 1 8 .42
59 10.10 18.36 68 9 .4 1 10.12 36 2 .5 4 8 .6 2 12 .5 1
R. Ro 1 6 .2 4 5 6 .5 8.00 1 5 .82 6 6 .5 8 .5 8 7 .2 7 14.5 .82 7 .4 2 8 .5 .6 0
B .S . 1 7 .7 8 69 11.62 17.86 56 8.76 1 1 .0 8 16 .74 10.29 1 3 .5 .52
E .S . 2 2 .4 8 82 14.66 1 9.92 71 9 .5 2 8 .9 6 20 1 .3 2 7 .6 2 1 5 .5 .83
H .T . 1 5 .3 2 59 8 .6 0 1 5 .7 8 71 7 .7 3 9 .5 2 2 8 .5 1.88 9 .4 2 2 4 .5 1 .2 9
P .T . 1 8 .3 8 6 0 .5 1 1 .6 1 15.76 68 8.87 8 .9 4 1 3 .5 .66 7 .2 6 8 .5 .3 1
S .T . 1 4 .2 4 5 2 .5 8 .0 4 16.46 61 8.39 8 .3 4 11 .5 8 7 .7 0 12 .4 0
K.W. 2 4 .7 7 6 1 .5 9 .3 4 2 1 .4 1 6 8 .5 9.22 1 6 .3 8 21 1 .3 0 8 .0 8 10 .5 .59
M.W. 1 5 .12 57 7 .9 0 1 5.42 60 6 .7 8 1 0 .3 4 22 1.3 6 9 .1 9 1 3 .5 .75
D.W. 16.69 6 8 .5 10.7 3 1 7 .7 8 73 9 .3 6 7 .6 2 4 2 .5 2 .9 0 6 .6 2 32 1 .9 6
G.W. 2 3 .8 6 6 8 .5 10.5 2 19.99 7 2 .5 8 .0 3 12.2 4 19 .9 1 1 0 .5 0 10.5 .49
J.W . 1 6 .7 0 61 7 .9 6 1 3 .6 0 5 3 .5 6 .7 2 7 .2 3 18 1 .3 4 5 .2 2 14 .55
N o te : The t a b l e s h o u ld be r e a d a s f o l lo w s : s u b j e c t D.A. h a d a l e f t lo w er lim b
t r a v e r s a l tim e (TT) s c o r e o f 1 5 .2 0 s e c o n d s , a l e f t lo w er lim b e r r o r (E) s c o r e o f 5 3,
an d l e f t lo w er lim b e r r o r tim e (ET) s c o r e o f 7 .6 9 se c o n d s .
TABLE 21
POST-TEST SCORES FOR GROUP I I
Sub
j e c t
L e f t Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t U pper Limb R ig h t U pper Limb
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET
D.A. 1 6 .1 4 5 9 .5 10.67 16 .7 4 6 2 .5 8.15 6 .2 9 2 6 .5 2.10 6 .8 3 23 1 .4 6
B .B , 2 2 .0 4 6 7 .5 1 3 .2 4 1 7 .9 1 70 9 .0 5 9 .3 4 2 2 .5 1 .1 4 9 .9 5 2 9 .5 1 .4 0
a . b . 1 6 .5 4 66 10.42 1 7 .6 4 7 4 .5 8.20 7 .9 0 22 1.35 8.77 26 1 .3 6
R .B . 1 6 .3 4 5 9 .5 7 .6 0 14.59 4 9 .5 6 .1 4 8 .3 8 18 .85 7 .8 2 25 1.27
D.B. 1 5 .2 0 6 0 .5 9 .8 3 1 3 .2 4 63 6 .4 4 8.59 2 1 .5 1.29 6 .7 4 10.5 .4 4
M.B. 1 8 .3 8 6 6 .5 1 1 .1 4 17.66 68 8 .7 0 6 .9 4 31 1.75 7 .9 2 41 3 .2 8
B .B r 14.25 5 8 .5 8 .1 4 14.9 4 65 7 .0 0 1 0 .0 4 14 .42 1 4 .3 0 2 8 .5 1 .9 8
C.B. 1 5 .8 0 64 8 .3 2 1 6 .7 0 69 8.07 7 .7 0 1 2 .5 .36 8.15 2 3 .5 1 .2 4
W.B. 1 8 .14 6 8 .5 1 2 .36 2 6 .2 0 7 7 .5 1 1 .1 8 7 .0 0 3 4 .5 1 .8 0 7 .3 5 40 2 .5 0
B.D. 1 6 .8 0 6 5 .5 8 .4 6 19.66 79 8 .9 9 9 .4 8 2 0 .5 .95 1 0 .4 0 19.5 1 .1 6
G .E. 12.6 7 64 7 .1 4 1 4 .2 8 62 5 .6 8 6 .5 0 2 4 .5 1 .6 9 7 .6 5 28 1 .9 1
L .E . 17.52 6 8 .5 1 0 .1 8 16.56 65 8.77 8 .9 6 2 8 .5 1 .7 0 9 .1 6 35 2.00
R .E . 1 8 .8 8 7 6 .5 1 2 .7 0 1 4 .8 0 73 7 .4 9 11.9 6 9 .4 0 11.6 2 19
.92
J . F a . 2 1 .5 2 72 1 4 .5 4 1 7 .6 8 63 10.19 7 .0 6 18 .86 7 .9 4 1 6 .5 .84
J . F i . 1 3 .8 0 5 6 .5 9 .4 7 13.92 60 8.39 9 .5 4 2 5 .5 .96 1 2 .0 4 1 2 .5 . .95
D .F . 1 5 .3 0 58 7 .0 2 1 6 .4 8 66 6 .5 5 8 .1 6 11 .56 1 1 .8 0 21 1.20
D.G. 15.26 6 6 .5 9 .6 4 15.03 65 8 .4 0 7 .5 0 27 1 .4 1 7 .9 4 31 1.86
B.H. 1 6 .0 1 56 9 .1 6 15.96 6 0 .5 8 .7 2 9 .2 0 1 4 .5 .88 1 0.3 3 1 0 .5 .59
S .H a. 1 7 .4 0 6 4 .5 9 .9 7 16.47 7 5 .5 7 .8 6 11.85 16.5 .65 12.59 27 1 .3 8
S .H e. 15.52 57 7 .4 1 15.57 66 8 .6 2 6 .4 2 2 5 .5 1 .4 8 7 .6 8 44 2 .6 9
145
TABLE 21 --C o n tin u e d
Sub
L e f t Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t U pper Limb R ig h t U pper Limb
j e c t
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET TT E TT
J .K . 1 6 .7 4 5 6 .5 7 .8 3 1 4 .2 0 5 8 .5 5 .1 8 9 .1 2 1 1 .5 .56 9 .8 9 29 1 .5 8
A.K. 2 0 .8 5 74 1 6 .8 4 2 4 .8 6 60 10.10 12.16 40 2 .4 4 1 0 .9 4 21 1.22
A.M. 1 7 .6 8 68 1 1 .7 0 20.66 77 1 0 .3 4 10.21 2 6 .5 1 .5 4 11.02 2 5 .5 1 .4 5
R.M. 2 1 .7 7 78 15.03 1 9 .7 8 72 1 0.72 1 1 .2 4 4 1 .5 2 .4 9 13.27 5 0 .5 3 .4 3
E.M. 16.37 55 6 .2 6 16.8 6 6 4 .5 8.97 8.73 4 .12 8 .9 1 9 .3 8
C.N. 1 7 .8 2 6 3 .5 7 .8 4 1 6 .0 8 65 6 .6 4 8 .9 4 18 .88 9 .8 6 1 7 .5 1.2 6
N .P . 1 5 .2 4 6 3 .5 9 .5 6 15.06 65 7 .6 8 7 .5 4 9 .5 .34 9 .0 6 25 1 .6 2
B .P . 2 2 .8 4 7 4 .5 12.19 2 3 .8 8 81.5 1 3 .1 1 16.7 4 23 .99 1 5 .6 8 3 0 .5 1 .5 2
R .R . 2 3 .1 4 8 0 .5 1 4 .4 0 2 4 .3 0 9 2 .5 1 2 .7 2 14.29 26 1 .5 9 1 5 .7 4 3 3 .5 1 .9 3
B.R. 1 8 .7 8 66 1 1 .5 8 1 8 .9 0 7 7 .5 9 .5 0 1 3.52 3 3 .5 1.88 12.89 2 7 .5 1 .2 8
R .S . 2 6 .5 2 89 1 4.62 1 8 .82 7 9 .5 8.56 8.72 2 6 .5 1 .3 5 8 .4 6 2 6 .5 1 .5 9
D .S . 2 0 .4 5 81 14.26 1 6 .9 8 68 8 .9 2 8 .1 4 3 2 .5 1 .9 6 7 .9 5 34 2 .1 7
S .S . 2 2 .3 0 6 7 .5 14.19 3 4 .9 5 91 1 2 .9 8 16.26 30 1 .9 8 13 .74 11 .46
B .T . 2 1 .8 0 60 1 2.92 2 0 .5 9 7 1 .5 10.55 8.75 2 0 .5 1.07 9.86 14 .6 4
s .w . 1 4 .3 0 5 7 .5 7 .6 2 1 4 .4 8 6 5 .5 8.10 10.68 1 7 .5 .82 9 .5 4 1 0 .5 .46
w.w. 2 3 .2 2 7 0 .5 13.92 1 8 .66 75 8.77 7 .0 6 15 .68 7 .1 8 17 .66
N o te : The t a b l e s h o u ld be re a d a s f o llo w s : s u b j e c t D.A. h a d a l e f t lo w er lim b
t r a v e r s a l tim e (TT) s c o r e o f 1 6 .1 4 s e c o n d s , a l e f t low er lim b e r r o r (E) s c o r e o f 5 9 .5 ,
and a l e f t lo w er lim b e r r o r tim e (ET) s c o r e o f 10.67 s e c o n d s .
146
TABLE 22
POST-TEST SCORES FOR GROUP I I I
Sub
j e c t
L e f t Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t U pper Limb R ig h t U pper Limb
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET
B.B. 18.5 7 68 1 0 .4 0 1 5.53 6 9 .5 7 .7 1 8 .9 0 2 8 .5 1 .9 0 10.19 31 1 .8 0
W.B. 2 5 .6 7 83.5 1 5 .3 4 3 2 .6 2 88 1 4 .36 3 2 .4 5 76 5 .8 8 3 3 .1 0 44 2 .5 4
D.C. 18.85 6 5 .5 7 .5 6 1 8 .67 77 9 .3 4 1 2 .0 8 5 1 .5 3 .9 0 12.82 4 6 .5 3 .0 0
J .C . 2 0 .9 0 6 7 .5 1 3 .0 0 2 0 .7 4 78 1 4 .0 8 1 6 .9 8 42 3 .5 8 18 .3 4 42 2 .9 0
H .F . 12.10 48 5 .3 1 14.63 52 4 .8 8 8.02 31 1 .7 4 8 .0 8 4 4 .5 2 .8 2
R .F . 22.88 77 12 .4 4 1 6 .62 52 5 .2 4 9 .3 0 3 5 .5 2 .5 4 8.69 35 2 .3 7
M.G. 3 5 .5 2 93 17.92 3 5 .9 3 1 02.5 1 5 .4 0 3 0 .7 3 74 6 .4 6 2 1 .7 0 56 3 .8 4
D.G. 1 5 .1 8 6 1 .5 7 .8 0 1 4 .1 0 6 4 .5 8.01 1 5 .3 2 60 4 .0 6 16.2 4 5 4 .5 3 .5 9
K.H. 1 9 .2 4 68 9 .2 0 19.29 6 9 .5 9 .1 8 10.42 4 6 .5 3 .9 4 1 0 .9 8 5 2 .5 3 .5 6
M.H. 2 6 .5 2 7 9 .5 15.86 2 5 .0 4 86 1 1 .7 1 1 6 .5 2 34 1 .8 4 16.82 29 1.75
P .Jo 3 1 .3 1 84 15.57 44. 84 96 1 7 .1 8 3 4 .1 8 67 5 .3 6 2 3 .2 2 52 2 .8 2
R . J . 3 7 .1 1 9 7 .5 13.76 4 3 .6 8 104 12.97 3 2 .5 6 59 4 .0 8 3 4 .0 0 38 2 .4 8
R .L . 3 7 .2 6 109 1 7 .2 0 3 6 .0 9 107 13.76 2 7 .0 4 32 2 .0 8 2 3 .8 5 22 1.21
D .L . 2 0 .4 7 84.5 11.11 2 2 .5 2 9 2 .5 10.75 13.82 53 3 .6 0 11.92 35 2.21
B .L . 17.82 67 9 .6 4 1 8 .0 1 7 7 .5 9 .0 4 12.84 3 6 .5 2 .6 1 1 0 .8 0 34 2.22
F .L . 1 8 .7 1 6 6 .5 9 .9 2 1 7 .3 8 56 7.22 9 .6 0 41 3 .1 4 8 .2 4 4 9 .5 4 .3 3
B.Mc. 2 9 .1 0 7 1 .5 14.63 2 2 .5 7 6 1 .5 8.63 14.85 5 5 .5 4 .7 4 13.65 49 3 .6 0
R.Mc. 1 7 .0 0 65 8.46 22.68 85 .5 11.06 17 .62 3 3 .5 1 .9 4 2 4 .0 6 30 1 .7 4
K.Mc. 2 4 .1 6 77 15.16 2 2 .9 2 77 9 .9 4 2 2 .7 0 5 5 .5 4 .2 4 1 6 .37 3 9 .5 2 .2 4
J.M . 2 5 .3 8 72 1 4 .36 2 5 .5 4 80 12.66 18 .5 2 4 2 .5 3 .0 8 1 5 .9 8 16 .85
R.N. 17.06 61 8 .7 0 14.19 64 5 .9 3 9 .8 2 4 4 .5 3 .2 8 9 .6 1 4 4 .5 3 .0 1
147
TABLE 2 2 --C o n tin u e d
Sub
L e f t Lower Limb R ig h t Lower Limb L e f t Upper Limb R ig h t Upper Limb
j e c t
TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET TT E ET
D .P . 2 0 .4 4 64 1 2 .0 4 1 8 .6 0 75 8 .3 1 1 4 .7 0 2 8 .5 1 .6 2 1 5 .1 0 4 1 .5 2 .5 3
J .R . 1 4 .0 0 5 7 .5 7.12 2 0 .0 5 7 0 .5 1 0 .1 4 1 0 .3 8 4 2 .5 3 .5 1 1 0.6 3 4 6 .5 4 .3 2
D.R. 4 2 .2 1 1 04 .5 2 2 .1 6 4 4 .0 5 102 19.26 31.3 5 6 2 .5 6.00 2 4 .2 2 49 3 .5 9
A .S . 19.67 6 3 .5 9 .0 4 1 9 .4 8 77 5 .9 6 1 4 .9 0 42 2 .7 4 12.56 39 2 .3 2
D .S . 1 7 .2 4 71 9 .7 4 1 5 .8 4 65 9 .0 3 1 1.35 4 6 .5 2 .7 8 9 .6 0 34 1 .8 5
K .S . 2 4 .8 2 7 9 .5 1 5.93 2 3 .7 8 79 1 2 .3 1 2 1 .3 8 3 5 .5 2 .7 1 20.01 31 2 .1 8
E .S . 2 2 .3 5 70 12.86 2 0 .3 1 7 2 .5 10.45 9 .1 8 34 2 .4 0 10.1 4 3 4 .5 2 .5 8
L .S . 1 8.43 6 9 .5 9 .8 4 2 1 .6 0 7 6 .5 10.23 2 0 .0 6 65 5 .9 8 1 9 .4 4 38 2 .6 3
T .S . 1 6 .9 6 52 5 .4 6 1 3 .3 0 61 6 .44 9 .9 2 11 .62 8 .6 7 3 4 .5 2 .3 1
R .T . 3 3 .5 4 91 1 6 .3 4 3 4 .0 2 105 16.03 3 3 .5 8 3 4 .5 2 .4 6 3 1 .5 4 33 2 .5 0
G.T. 1 7 .5 1 74 9 .9 6 1 7 .3 8 7 8 .5 9 .2 8 1 7 .5 0 65 4 .0 3 1 5 .2 8 57 3 .5 2
C.V. 2 6 .2 4 70 1 4.54 2 8 .3 6 80.5 14.05 3 1 .5 8 6 5 .5 6.10 3 3 .2 6 26 1.68
M.W. 1 6 .5 1 60 9 .2 7 2 3 .4 3 78 1 0 .44 1 1.06 5 1 .5 3 .4 8 1 0 .3 0 49 3 .5 2
B.W. 2 9 .7 4 76 1 3 .2 1 3 0 .7 4 9 4 .5 1 4 .3 4 1 7 .0 0 44 2 .8 0 5 3 .2 3 3 0 .5 2 .4 2
L.W. 1 7 .55 5 9 .5 7 .7 8 1 5 .9 0 64 8 .4 0 1 1.6 2 2 6 .5 1 .2 7 9 .5 7 21 1 .5 0
P.W. 3 1 .9 7 83 20.88 3 4 .5 7 9 0 .5 14.07 4 5 .2 6 5 4 .5 4 .4 9 4 7 .9 7 3 2 .5 1 .8 4
N o te : The t a b l e s h o u ld b e r e a d a s f o llo w s : s u b j e c t B.B . h a d a l e f t low er lim b
t r a v e r s a l tim e (TT) s c o r e o f 18.57 s e c o n d s , a l e f t lo w er lim b e r r o r (E) s c o r e o f 68 , and
a l e f t lo w er linib e r r o r tim e (ET) s c o r e o f 1 0 .4 0 s e c o n d s .

Asset Metadata

Creator Mckinney, Wayne Carson (author)

Core Title Transfer Of A Learned Neuromuscular Performance To The Ipsilateral And Contralateral Limbs: Dynamic Steadiness And Speed

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Physical Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Physical,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Logan, Gene A. (committee chair), Davis, Elwood Craig (committee member), Lockhart, Aileene (committee member), Morris, Royce (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-300699

Unique identifier UC11359154

Identifier 6402589.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-300699 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6402589.pdf

Dmrecord 300699

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Mckinney, Wayne Carson

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses