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Major Areas Of Conflict In The Control Of College And University Student Daily Newspapers In The United States

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Major Areas Of Conflict In The Control Of College And University Student Daily Newspapers In The United States

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Content This dissertation has been
microfilm ed exactly as received
65-6903
DEVOL, Kenneth Stowe, 1929-
MAJOR AREAS OF CONFLICT IN THE CONTROL
OF COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY STUDENT DAILY
NEWSPAPERS IN THE UNITED STATES.
University of Southern California, Ph. D ., 1965
Education, theory and practice
U niversity Microfilms, Inc., A nn Arbor, M ichigan
Copyright by
KENNETH STOWE DEVOL
196f ?
MAJOR AREAS OF CONFLICT IN THE CONTROL OF COLLEGE
AND UNIVERSITY STUDENT DAILY NEWSPAPERS
IN THE UNITED STATES
by
Kenneth Stowe Devol
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
January 1965
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFO RNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
KENNETH STOWE DEVOL
under the direction of h...%8.Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Dat'. January. 19^5
Dean
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES...................................... v
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION............................. 1
The Problem
The Procedure
The Organization
PART I. THE BACKGROUND
II. JOURNALISM IN HIGHER EDUCATION......... 13
Foundations
The Development
Professional Organizations
Recent Trends
Summary
III. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLLEGIATE PRESS . 28
Backgrounds
The Early Newspaper
The College Daily
Expansion
Summary
IV. THE COLLEGE DAILY NEWSPAPER TODAY .... 40
Scope
Function
Readership
Summary
ii
CHAPTER
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
PART II. THE AREAS OF CONFLICT
LEGAL RESTRAINTS ....
In Loco Parentis
Disciplinary Action
Damages
Constitutional Freedom
Summary
CONFLICTS INVOLVING THE STUDENT PRESS . . . 65
External Groups
Governing Boards
College Presidents
Administrative Officers
Faculty Members
Student Politicians
Summary
DIFFERING VIEWS ON EDITORIAL CONTROL . . . .106
Views of Students
Views of Journalism Educators
Views of Administrators
Summary
PUBLICATION POLICY STATEMENTS..............154
The Colleges and Universities Surveyed
Function of the Newspaper
Boards of Control
Faculty Advisers
Editors and Managers
Content Restrictions
Summary
INTERVIEWS IN D E P T H ......................... 202
Function of the Student Press
Reasons for Major Conflicts
Control of the Student Press
Summary
Page
54
CHAPTER Page
X. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 216
Summary
Summary of the Findings
Conclusions
Recommendat ions
BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................231
APPENDIX A. Statement of Principles of the United
States Student Press Association . .2 50
APPENDIX B. Statement of Principles Concerning
the Student Press by the American
Civil Liberties Union................ 2 54
APPENDIX C. Sample Charter Provisions and By-Laws:
The Illini Publishing Company .... 257
APPENDIX D. Sample Board of Publications and
Editorial Staff By-laws: The
Daily Californian.....................268
APPENDIX E. Sample Code of Ethics: The
Michigan Daily ....................... 281
APPENDIX F. Membership of Twenty-Four
Representative Boards of Publication- 284
iv
41
50
104
113
157
170
174
176
179
182
185
193
199
LIST OF TABLES
College and University Student Daily
Newspapers in the United States.............
Content Analysis of Twenty-Five Categories
of News and Reader Evaluations of Importance
and Interest in Thirty-Five Issues of the
Daily Bruin...................................
Immediate Outcome in Thirty Selected Major
Conflicts Involving Student Daily News
papers ........................................
What Students Think Central Michigan Life
Should Be Allowed to Publish . I 7 I I I- . .
Characteristics of Institutions with
Student Daily Newspapers ....................
Identity of the Publisher or Owner as
Described in Policy Statements .............
Membership of Boards of Publication as
Described in Policy Statements .............
Appointment of the Publications Adviser
as Described in Policy Statements...........
Pre-Publication Censorship as Described
in Policy Statements ........................
Appointment of the Editor as Described
in Policy Statements ........................
Policy Statements Which Include Unit or
Grade-Point Requirements for the Position
of Editor......................................
Responsibility for the Formulation of
Basic Editorial Policy as Described in
Policy Statements.............................
Policy Statements Which Include Regulations
or Restrictions Governing Acceptance of
Advertising...................................
v
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The student-edited college and university daily
newspaper in the United States exerts a significant
influence on the thoughts and actions of members of the
college community. This influence is becoming greater:
(1) as readership of college newspapers increases,
(2) as student editors adopt more professional approaches
to news, (3) as greater responsibility is placed on these
publications as a primary means of communication within
the college community, (4) as acceptance of these publi
cations grows, and (5) as freedom and controversy
continue to be an inseparable part of higher education.
Stories of a variety of controversial themes
appearing in the college press can result sometimes in
nation-wide publicity, though it is not generally agreed
that such coverage itself is detrimental to either the
institution or its goals. One such case occurred at
Harvard in October, 1963. The Harvard Crimson published
a statement by Dean John U. Monro which said that "wild
parties or . . . sexual intercourse" take place in
University dormitories during visiting hours (80:78).
1
The story was distributed by United Press International
and was run in newspapers and magazines throughout the
nation.
The student press can command the spotlight of
publicity to be drawn to itself in a variety of ways.
A White House reception for 400 of the nation's
collegiate editors was held early in 1964 during which
President Johnson welcomed those in attendance. In
another area, the University of Nebraska's Daily
Nebraskan in 1963 was charged by a State Republican
Central Committeeman and former State Senator with
having "undue liberal views" (60). A 32-page booklet
containing material the paper had published was sub
mitted as evidence. And in yet another area, the
attention of the nation had already focused on racial
problems of the University of Mississippi in 1962 when
the editor of the student newspaper appealed for reason
rather than riot in dealing with the enrollment of James
Meredith, a Negro. For her laudable— if locally
unpopular— stand she was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize.
Robert M. Maclver wrote in 1955 for the American
Academic Freedom Project at Columbia University:
This, then, the freedom to express and to
defend his views or his beliefs, the freedom to
question and to differ, without authoritative
repression and without scholastic penalization
is the academic freedom the student particularly
needs.
3
At the present time it is particularly important
that the campus should evoke and sustain this
freedom. Outside the campus, the pressures making
for conformism impinge strongly on him. Some of
them are directed especially toward him. (13:207)
The influence that the college press is capable
of exerting on campus life can be illustrated by the
various upheavals that have shaken administrators,
faculty members, students, and members of the general
public. In some cases material published has resulted
in court action (140), suspension of the publication
(84:18), suspension or expulsion of student writers or
editors (24:109), and disciplinary action against members
of the faculty (112:26) .
Harold C. Hand in 1938 noted that, while 70 per
cent of the student editors thought they had complete
freedom of discussion in their editorial columns, there
was in reality no such freedom as long as the college
president had the "power of expulsion" (11:218).
Several recent cases tend to reflect the concern
that Hand voiced a quarter of a century ago. The most
widely discussed such conflict began openly in 1962 with
a column in the University of Colorado student newspaper
and ended in 1963 with the resignation of President
Quigg Newton (55:1). Those who became embroiled in the
controversy included the writer of the article, the
editor, the board of publications, the general student
4
body through referendum, President Newton, the University
Regents, the State Legislature, former President Eisen
hower, and Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, around
whom the controversy swirled. This incident and others,
typical of conflicts that involve the student press, will
be treated in more detail in Chapter VI.
In Illinois, for example, the governing board of
the four Illinois state universities announced in 1964
that faculty members were to read all newspaper copy
before publication (232) . Administrators of another
public institution, the University of Alabama, reportedly
threatened the editor of the Crimson and White with
severe disciplinary action and possible expulsion if he
continued to write on racial matters (228). In a case
involving a non-sectarian private institution, the
editor of the University of Miami newspaper was relieved
of her responsibilities following an editorial urging
more participation in campus activities by Negroes
(225). And the editor of the University of Rhode Island
Beacon was reportedly threatened with loss of her job if
she printed a story of alleged pornographic movies being
shown at a campus fraternity house (224).
Similar controversies have surrounded small
colleges and church-affiliated institutions. The campus
newspaper at Chicago Teachers College, the Interim, was
suspended after printing a cartoon critical of the
superintendent (230) . The University of Redlands
Bulldog suspended publication following a charge of
administrative censorship by the students and following
removal of a faculty adviser by the president (127:11:7)
A letter to the editor at the College of Emporia, a
Kansas church-affiliated institution, ended with the
dismissal by the Board of Trustees of both the professor
who wrote the letter and the acting president who had
defended the professor (112:26). The Reverend John J.
Dougherty, president of Seton Hall University, suspended
the campus newspaper, the Setonian, for the remainder of
the staff's tenure following a charge that it had
"abused freedom of expression" (117:1). Finally, the
Reverend Theodore M. Hesburgh, president of the
University of Notre Dame, suspended publication of the
Scholastic following disagreement with the editors (84:
18) .
Each of these ten incidents, used here to
illustrate a broad spectrum of controversy, took place
from 1962 through 1964. An analysis of the list
indicates that all types of institutions are represented
large and small, public and private, sectarian and non
sectarian .
Hand urged freedom of campus discussion by
6
adding:
We take the position that democracy is
seriously devitalized the moment any individual
or group is successful in preventing the open and
free discussion of conflicting ideologies. We
also hold that college students can learn to
discriminate between or among conflicting points
of view, an ability which citizens in a democracy
must possess if there is to be any democracy, only
through actually dealing with controversial issues.
We^are convinced, further, that the college news
paper is failing to perform one of its most
important functions when it fails to serve in this
sense as a training ground for democracy. (11:220)
To which Harold Taylor, former president of Sarah
Lawrence College, added:
Without a spirit of trust in our colleges and
faith in our young people, without a belief that
we can settle our affairs with positive, bold,
democratic action, we will move from one timid mis
take to the next into ultimate failure. (129:73)
The Problem
Statement of the Purpose
The purpose of this study was to identify major
areas of conflict in the control of the college or
university student-edited daily newspaper in the United
States. The investigation was conducted primarily in
three ways: (1) views expressed in the literature by
students, faculty members, and administrators involved
with or responsible for student publications; (2) an
analysis of current practices of control as expressed in
publication policy statements adopted by colleges and
7
universities from coast to coast, and (3) an analysis
of responses to interviews conducted with student
editors, faculty members, and administrators of Cali
fornia colleges and universities having student daily
newspapers.
Investigation of conflicts in the control of the
student press included the following areas: (1) fiscal
independence, (2) editorial freedom, (3) the role of
faculty or administrative adviser, (4) the relationship
with student political leaders, (5) appointment and
removal of editorial personnel, and (6) the role of the
student press in the college community.
Finally, methods were explored whereby conflicts
in these areas might be reduced.
Delimitations
The study was delimited to colleges and
universities located in the United States, and, within
that geographical area, to institutions with newspapers
edited by undergraduate students, and to those that are
published at least four times per week, a frequency
generally considered "daily" (8:381). Colleges having
publications which appear fewer than four times per week
were included at times in the chapters reviewing the
literature if such inclusion served to better illustrate
various conflicts. Editor & Publisher International
8
Yearbook and N. W. Ayer and Son’s Directory of Newspapers
and Periodicals were used to compile the institutions
used in the survey of publications policies (8, 1).
It was not the intention of this study to define
the roles of the college president, dean, faculty or
administrative adviser, or student editor, nor to pass
judgment on the opinions of those whose views were
surveyed. Neither was it intended to offer findings as
"utopian" answers to complex problems. It was hoped,
however, that the study might offer greater understanding
to those interested in student publications, an area of
increasing importance.
Limitations
Pour major limitations stand out in a study such
as the one undertaken here:
1. The lack of personal acquaintance with the
various institutions, publications or
conflicts included.
2. The small number of student daily newspapers
in the United States.
3. The lack of previous studies dealing with
the student press.
4. The limited reference to the student press
made in the literature of higher education.
The Procedure
Methods used in this study included extensive
9
library research in reviewing the literature, an original
survey of policies of boards of publication, and personal
interview. Analysis of data obtained was used as a
basis for formulation of recommendations to ease the
various conflicts which tend to surround control of the
college newspaper.
The survey of policies included usable responses
from fifty-six, or 86 per cent, of the sixty-five
colleges and universities having student-edited news
papers published at least four times each week. Requests
were made by mail addressed to the directors of student
publications at each institution with the exception of
those in California, which were visited at a later date.
The composition of the survey and a more detailed
description of methods employed are given in chapter
VIII.
The personal interviews were conducted within
the state of California and included each of the eight
college and university daily newspapers. Sixteen inter
views were conducted with college administrators,
faculty publications advisers, and college editors.
These methods of investigation were used rather
than the statistical approach in the hope of delving
more deeply into the areas of conflict. A panel of
specialists in journalism and higher education agreed
10
that the spectrum of conflict encountered did not lend
itself to significant quantitative analysis.
The Organization
The report is divided into ten chapters.
Chapter I, an introduction to the study, contains the
background, problem, purpose, delimitations, limitations,
procedure, and organization.
Chapter II contains the historical development
of journalism as a discipline of higher education.
Chapter III contains the historical development
of the college student press.
Chapter IV, the last of four chapters dealing
with background material pertinent to the investigation,
includes the scope, function, and significance of the
college daily newspaper today.
Chapter V consists of legal decisions that affect
the control of the student newspaper.
Chapter VI contains descriptions of thirty
incidents illustrating conflict in the control of
student newspapers in a wide variety of institutions—
large and small, public and private, sectarian and non
sectarian.
Chapter VII includes opinions of control of the
student press, and especially editorial freedom as
11
expressed in the literature. It might be noted,
however, that surprisingly little data dealing with the
student press was found in the literature of higher
education.
Chapter VIII consists of findings of an original
survey of editorial policy statements governing control
of college and university daily newspapers in the United
States.
Chapter IX contains results of interviews with
administrators, faculty publication advisers, and student
journalists of the eight colleges and universities in
California which have daily newspapers.
Chapter X includes a summary of the findings,
conclusions, and recommendations.
A bibliography and series of appendices complete
the work.
PART I
THE BACKGROUND
CHAPTER II
JOURNALISM IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Journalism as a discipline of higher education
has been struggling for more than half a century to gain
full acceptance and academic recognition. Since its
outset, it has been rooted in controversy. In 1903
Outlook magazine called the early experiments in educa
tion for journalism "one of the most interesting educa
tional experiments of our time,” but Robert M. Hutchins
thirty-five years later called it the "shadiest
educational venture under respectable auspices" (108:
579). Other influential college presidents, however,
looked upon the plan with more favor. Presidents
Andrew Dickson White of Cornell, Charles W. Eliot of
Harvard, and Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia all
played roles in the molding of education for journalism
as well as for higher education in general (17).
The journalistic profession has shown an equal
lack of unanimity in its reaction to education for
journalism. Historically, many prominent editors
scoffed, saying the best journalism "classroom" would be
the newsroom. Yet, the most respected popular journalist
13
14
of his day, Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York
World and St. Louis Post-Dispatch, recognized the need
for an outstanding journalism school and established
such an institution at Columbia University (108:579).
Mitchell V. Charnley divides journalism education
into three periods: (1) the early trade school approach
preparing the student for newspaper newsrooms, (2) the
period of mass communications, and (3) the period of
full professional status, which he says is just beginning
(48:59). This shift from a narrow approach to a more
diverse curriculum is typical of higher education in
general. Current thought is that no more than 25 to 30
per cent of a student's total college work should be in
journalism courses. This is the stated goal of the
American Council on Education for Journalism (10:375).
Foundations
Frank Luther Mott distinguished professional
journalism from the purely commercial or mechanical
aspects of the operation (16:405). Up to the Civil War,
he pointed out, newspapers primarily were published by
printers in connection with their printing business.
The professional communications approach, if any, was
small. This generalization holds true, even though it
could be argued that Benjamin Franklin and Horace
15
Greeley, for example, were highly professional as we
conceive the term today. Mott reserves professional
status to those schools which emphasize public service
and relate their training to proficiency in writing and
editing.
Using Mott's definition, professional education
for journalism was first seriously considered by Robert
E. Lee in 1869. Lee was President of Washington College
in Virginia (now Washington and Lee University). His
plan was to offer fifty scholarships to boys who would
enter a journalism program. He felt that "journalism
education would serve as a rehabilitating factor
throughout the stricken South" (17:5) . Lee became
President of the institution in 1865 when it had just
forty students and four faculty members. Four years
later he sought fifty scholarships for education in
journalism but death took Lee the year after he proposed
the program. The concept was abandoned in 1878. In
1926 Washington and Lee University, noting Lee's early
goal, established the Lee Memorial School of Journalism
(17:19) .
Lee's efforts were laughed at by some, but given
thoughtful consideration by others. Whitelaw Reid,
Greeley's assistant and successor on the New York
Tribune, noted that "two-thirds or more of [the
16
Tribune's] reporters are, to use the vague phrase, men
of liberal education. I presume the same thing is true
of other leading papers" (16:405). "Our greatest news
papers," he added, "are carried on rigorously upon the
idea that journalism is a profession." In 1872, two
years after Lee's death, one of the first pamphlets on
journalism education appeared. Entitled Hints to Young
Editors, it was published anonymously by "An Editor."
The first comprehensive textbook on journalism, Steps
into Journalism by E. L. Schuman, did not appear until
1894 (16:605).
President Andrew Dickson White of Cornell brought
first major public recognition to preparation for
journalism. "The press," he said, "is a social institu
tion for which potential workers should be provided with
the highest type of training" (17:22). Cornell,
accordingly, offered a "Certificate of Journalism" for
completion of a liberal arts curriculum plus some work
in the printing department. There were no journalism
courses. Those in favor of the program pointed out that
the plan would help develop responsibility and would
develop an "educated" writer. Those in opposition argued
that since there was no special training in the
techniques of journalism it would have to be assumed
that the ability to observe and write must be some sort
17
of "gift." White's early efforts later were praised by
Pulitzer (17:22).
Possible motivation for White's action is seen
in his autobiography: "As I now look back on my early
manhood, it seems that my natural inclination should
have been toward journalism; but although such a career
proves attractive to many of our best bred men now, it
was not so then" (17:22). The Cornell catalog of 1875-76
carried the "Certificate" plan, and other colleges soon
followed the lead.
The reasons for the abandonment of White's plan
are not clear, but two major factors seem important.
First, the death of Mrs. Willard Fiske resulted in a
contested $2,000,000 bequest. This time-consuming
problem took place just after the announcement by White
of his journalism program. Second was White's diplomatic
activity. He was named Commissioner of the Paris
Exposition and United States Minister to Germany for the
years 1879, 1880 and 1881. He resigned as President of
Cornell in 1885. While it was a modest beginning, the
great influence of White had given impetus and wide
recognition to the need for educated journalists.
The first separate courses in journalism were
offered by the University of Missouri, which today still
stands as a leader in the field of education for
journalism (17:35). The courses, first offered in 1878
under Professor David Russell McAnally, head of the
School of English, were "History of Journalism" and
"Materials of Journalism." The courses were dropped
from the catalog in 1885 when McAnally left the
University to join the staff of the St. Louis Globe-
Democrat. Some of his material on journalism, however,
was retained and included in English classes. Other
early leading institutions which offered courses of
instruction in journalism included the University of
Denver (1882), Temple University (1889), the State
University of Iowa (1892), Indiana University (1893),
University of Kansas (1894) , the University of Michigan
(1895) , the University of Nebraska (1898), the
University of Oregon (1902), the University of Chicago
(1899 by correspondence and 1902 on campus), the
University of North Dakota (1903), Iowa State College of
Agriculture and Mechanical Arts (1903), and the
University of Wisconsin (1905) (17:49).
By 1893 momentum had carried journalism
instruction to its next logical development: the
creation of a separate curriculum. This was accomplished
by Joseph French Johnson at the Wharton School of
Business, the University of Pennsylvania. Johnson, a
former staff member of the Springfield Republican and
financial editor of the Chicago Tribune, studied political
economics and history in Germany. The University of
Pennsylvania gave him a free hand in setting up his pro
gram. Prior to the formation of his curriculum, Johnson
had studied the early attitudes of Lee and White and the
courses offered by Missouri. The University of Pennsyl
vania catalog of 1893-94 carried the following description
Journalism— Art and History of Newspaper Making.
One hour. Professor Johnson.
Journalism— Law of Libel, Business Management
Typographical Union, Cost and Revenue,
Advertising, Method of Circulation, etc.
One hour. Professor Johnson.
Journalism— Newspaper Practice. Exercises in
Reporting, Editing of Copy, Conversation, etc.
Three hours. Professor Johnson.
Journalism— Current Topics, Lectures on Live Issues
in the United States and Foreign Countries.
Three hours. Professors Johnson, cheyney,
Falkner, Robinson, Dr. Adams, and Mr. Murrow.
Journalism— Public Lectures by men engaged in the
active work of the Profession. (17:48)
Though the program showed great foresight in
that all of these areas are included in today* s leading
schools of journalism, the curriculum was neglected
after Johnson left Pennsylvania in 1901 to accept the
post of Dean of the School of Commerce at New York
University.
In 1905 the University of Illinois established
the first full four-year journalism curriculum, which
20
was developed by Frank W. Scott. The plan was not
actually put into effect, however, until 1908, one year
prior to a similar program established at the University
of Wisconsin (74:101). The latter was expanded into a
five-year course in 1927. The influence of Wisconsin
and William G. Bleyer, head of the journalism program,
was strong. Bleyer proclaimed the importance of a strong
social science background for journalism students.
The Development
Joseph Pulitzer, one of the most profound
influences on the American press, wrote in 1888, "I see
no reason why a chair for journalism, filled by a man
of real talent and character, could not be made bene
ficial. . . . I have thought seriously upon this subject
s'
and think well of the idea, though I know it is the
habit of newspapermen to ridicule it . . ." (74:101).
Four years later he presented a plan for an endowment to
Columbia University. President Seth Low refused the
offer for reasons not clear. Later, still anxious to
establish a school of serious journalistic considera
tions, Pulitzer arranged for anonymous offers to both
Harvard and Columbia. President Eliot was not at
Cambridge at the time, so the materials were left for
him to read upon his return. Eliot answered the
21
proposal with mild interest. He was interested in the
social problems of his day, as was Pulitzer. Eliot,
however, appeared to express a major interest in the
business functions of journalism (17:58).
President Butler of Columbia, on the other hand,
was on campus when the anonymous proposal arrived and
expressed immediate enthusiasm for the program and its
news-editorial concept. In 1903 Pulitzer, Butler, and
the Board of Trustees came to an agreement establishing
a School of Journalism with an endowment of $2,000,000.
Because of the renown of both the journalist and the
institution, the agreement attracted nation-wide
attention of educators and journalists alike. There
developed, unfortunately, a difference of opinion re
garding the personnel to fill positions on the Advisory
Board. Pulitzer finally suggested that the naming of
the Advisory Board and the actual founding of the School
be postponed until after his death. Pulitzer died
October 29, 1911. The Columbia School of Journalism was
dedicated July 2, 1912, and instruction began the
following fall in temporary facilities (17:66).
The University of Missouri, the first institution
to offer separate courses in journalism began operation
of the nation's first School of Journalism in 1908, five
years after the initial Pulitzer-Columbia agreement,
22
but four years before instruction began at Columbia.
The Missouri Press Association was interested in
establishing a school at the university, but in 1895
the state legislature defeated a bill that would have
established a Chair in Journalism at Missouri. The
following year the press association passed a resolution
calling for such a chair. A leader in the campaign to
establish a School of Journalism at Missouri was Walter
Williams, a member of the association and former
president of the National Editorial Association. When,
in 1908, the School was established, Williams was named
Dean. At the same time, separate courses and sequences
were being established across the nation, usually in
departments of commerce or English. One survey showed
that thirty colleges and universities were offering
courses in journalism by 1912 (16:605).
Work at the graduate level developed simultan
eously at several universities in the mid-1930's. The
University of Missouri awarded the nation's first Ph.D.
degree in journalism in 1934. The following year
Columbia University established its journalism program
as a Graduate School. And in 1938 Northwestern
University's Medill School of Journalism, named for
Joseph Medill, former publisher of the Chicago Tribune,
established a five-year program. Today there are
approximately 1,000 graduate students in the United
States studying journalism. Within the decade ending
in 1958, fifty earned doctorates in journalism were
awarded by seven institutions, according to the American
Council on Education (12:158). The universities and the
number of doctorates awarded in this ten-year period are:
the State University of Iowa (twenty-two), the University
of Missouri (sixteen), the University of Illinois
(seven), the University of Wisconsin (two), and the
universities of Minnesota, Stanford, and Texas (one
each). Journalism professors holding various doctorates
numbered nine in 1927, twenty-five in 1945, 117 in 1954,
and more than 200 by 1960 (10:370) .
Professional Organizations
The move to establish professional organizations
for those interested in education for journalism began
shortly after the turn of the century. Sigma Delta Chi,
national professional journalism society, was founded in
1909 at DePauw University. By 1964 there were more than
eighty-four undergraduate chapters and seventy-seven
professional chapters throughout the nation (234).
Sigma Delta Chi is the leading professional spokesman
for freedom of information and improvement of the ethics
of journalism. Theta Sigma Phi, honorary and
24
professional society for women, was established at the
University of Washington also in 1909.
The fact that thirty colleges offered courses in
journalism in 1912 led to the formation of the American
Association of Teachers of Journalism, the first pro
fessional group for professors. The name was changed
in 1949 to the Association for Education in Journalism.
In 1917 the American Association of Schools and Depart
ments of Journalism was established as a sister organi
zation to A.E.J. The difference between the two groups
was that A.A.S.D.J. established a set of standards for
institutional membership, the first attempt at accredita
tion in journalism. The group first encouraged the
teaching of journalistic techniques, then later adopted
a liberal arts core as best for education in journalism.
Eight schools and departments were approved by
A.A.S.D.J. at its organization. Today approximately
forty are accredited. Both A.A.S.D.J. and A.E.J.
published in 1924 the Journalism Bulletin, which today,
under the title of Journalism Quarterly, still is a
leading publication of educational research in
journalism.
In 1944, the American Society of Journalism
School Administrators was organized, partly as a protest
to what was considered "monopolistic" practices by the
25
A.A.S.D.D. (10:373). Of primary concern to the new
organization were the many problems of teaching jour
nalism. In 1950 the two organizations, A.S.J.S.A. and
A.A.S.D.J., agreed to become coordinate bodies within the
A.E.J. Today total A.E.J. membership has passed 800.
Recent Trends
World War II has been called the "great watershed
in journalism education" (108:581). While the move
toward gaining full recognition of professional status
has just begun for schools of journalism, several recent
trends are speeding the process.
First, there has been a decided swing away from
the "trade school" approach toward the attempt to bring
professional attitudes to the study of the mass media.
The emphasis here is in a liberal arts background that
places the press in proper social, philosophical, and
historical perspective. Examples include two important
grants. One was the establishment in 1936 of the Nieman
Fellowships at Harvard University. The widow of
Lucius W. Nieman, founder of the Milwaukee Journal, left
an endowment to allow twelve newspapermen each year to
study any subject area they wished at the university.
A second was a grant made by Samuel I. Newhouse, owner
of a nation-wide chain of newspapers, which established
26
a Syracuse University Communications Center emphasizing
graduate instruction and research. Other recent notable
contributions by the profession include Hearst Foundation
Scholarships to accredited schools and departments and
the Dow-Jones Foundation scholarships, which include
teacher training in journalism.
Second, there is a shift in emphasis of
journalism schools from newspapers alone to mass media
in general and, further, to the community at large.
Although moving slowly and against some opposition from
the journalistic profession, many major schools of
journalism are developing into centers of "informed
criticism" encompassing the whole area of mass media.
Third, graduate schools are growing in number
and in enrollment. Both the Nieman Fellowships and the
Newhouse Foundation programs are aimed at the graduate
level. Of the 11,766 students enrolled in journalism
schools and departments in 1959, 8 per cent were
enrolled as graduate students (12:102).
Fourth, there is a movement on the part of the
faculties of departments away from the "old newspaper
pro [toward more] serious scholars dedicated to a
searching study of the mass media as an important social
institution worthy of their concern" (108:581).
"Schools of Journalism," warned Dean Eric W.
27
Allen of the University of Oregon, "will utterly fail of
their deeper purpose if they do not . . . succeed in
producing a graduate who is thoroughly grounded not only
in the social sciences, . . . but also in the habit of
keeping up with authentic progress of the best current
thought" (48:59).
Chapter Summary
Journalism was first thought to have a proper
place in higher education nearly one century ago when
Robert E. Lee proposed the idea as President of
Washington College, Virginia. Some of the nation's most
respected college presidents, including Andrew Dickson
White of Cornell, Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, and
Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia, were involved in the
development of the discipline. The study was not, nor
is it yet, universally accepted as a proper one for
higher education, but journalism none the less has
evolved from a "trade school" phase into a period of
emphasis on mass communications and more recently has
approached what is called "full professional status."
CHAPTER III
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLLEGIATE PRESS
Backgrounds
The college daily newspaper, although distantly
related to the colonial political debate, is a direct
product of two distinct movements in American higher
education, both occurring during the period immediately
following the Civil War. The first movement, well known
and well documented, was the development of the extra
curriculum (5, 20). The other, lesser known and not as
well documented, was the development of professional
'Jucation in journalism.
Brubacher and Rudy describe the period during
which college newspapers began to flourish:
Confusion or at least uncertainty about the
objectives of the higher learning was matched by
disappointment in the program of studies. In the
first decade of the century one-third of those
matriculating dropped out before graduation. Of
course unexpected depleting of finances occasioned
some of this exodus, but no small part resulted
from lack of conviction that the college curriculum
was worth the effort to stay. Corroborating this
conclusion, the great popularity of the extra
curriculum stood as a mute protest against the
aridity of the regular curriculum. (5:260)
28
29
It was, they report, during the period from the
Civil War to World War I that the new concepts of
"strenuous extra-curricular activities, by way of clubs,
fraternities, intercollegiate athletics, and publications,
took the place in student hearts once held by literary
societies and oratorical exhibitions" (5:116).
Earlier the literary journal, modeled after
English examples, was the medium of student writers.
Several of the more noteworthy were the Dartmouth
Gazette (1799-1820), possibly the first such publication
and one which printed contributions of student Daniel
Webster, the Yale Literary Cabinet (1806) , and the
Harvard Lyceum (1810-1811) (16:206). These were
published by the various college debating clubs, or
literary societies, the first effective agency of
intellect to make itself felt in the American college
(20:137) .
The first debating clubs probably owed some of
their origin to the general atmosphere of colonial
political debate that surrounded their birth and something
to the political interest of the times (20:138).
Rudolph explains the role of the literary society:
The literary societies . . . owed their
allegiance to reason and in their debates,
disputations and literary exercises they imparted
a tremendous vitality to the intellectual life of
the colleges, creating a remarkable contrast to the
ordinary classroom. (20:138)
30
Students of the time carried this enthusiasm
into accompanying activities, such as the literary
magazines. The mortality rate of these early publishing
efforts, however, was extremely high. Many ceased after
their initial number, possibly because of student
indifference or poor management (5:132). But as time
passed, interest in college publications grew and shifted
away from the literary magazine toward the campus news
paper .
The Early Newspaper
The Dartmouth Daily, first appearing as a monthly
literary publication in November, 1839, claims today in
its masthead to be "The Oldest College Newspaper in
America" (93:159). A poem, "Lexington," by faculty
member Oliver Wendell Holmes, added to the historic
value of the publication's first issue. Early issues,
put together by seniors, were quite heavy reading. As
the publication turned to campus news, sought advertising,
and gained freedom from faculty censorship, it grew to be
a fortnightly, a weekly, and in 1920 a daily.
At Harvard, journalistic achievements began in
1866 with the Advocate, which, after six years, was
challenged by a more newsy Harvard Magenta, a name
changed to the Crimson two years later when the paper
joined in a crusade to change Harvard's colors (57:52).
The Advocate challenged the faculty for attempts to
"strangle free press," managed to survive a censorship
vote by a narrow margin, and received a warning to be
good (15:317). The Crimson in 1883, a decade after its
founding, consolidated with another campus publication,
the Herald, to become a daily. The Crimson office has
housed many notable Americans. Franklin D. Roosevelt,
for example, remained at Harvard in 1904 after having
received his degree so that he might serve as Crimson
editor (57:52) . Cleveland Amory noted in a letter to
the Crimson on its seventy-fifth anniversary issue:
Not long after college I got a job on the
Saturday Evening Post, and this was a direct result
ol talking up what a wonderful job I had done as
editor of the Crimson. The fact that the work
. . . turned out to be editing cartoons . . . and
that I later discovered that the editor . . . had
confused The Crimson with the Lampoon has never
dimmed my nostalgia. (57:52)
The College Daily
The nation's oldest college daily newspaper, the
Yale Daily News, was first published in 1878 and
established a trend that swiftly spread from campus to
campus. By 1886 the Intercollegiate Press Association
was formed among the Yale Daily News, the Harvard Crimson,
and the Daily Princetonian. Dozens of college newspapers
existed by the turn of the century in a movement which
32
had no close equivalent in Europe (5:132). These pub
lications filled their four to six pages with "news
concerning undergraduates and alumni, furnishing
persuasive editorials on local affairs, and giving a
truthful bulletin of the day's doings sensibly and in
small space" (106:731).
Arthur T. Hadley, President of Yale from 1899 to
1921, made the following observation regarding the
collegiate press of his day:
Up to the late 1880's scholars had been
important and then for fifteen years football had
reigned. Since 1903 the other activities, especially
the managerial or journalistic competitions had
challenged for supremacy. In plain English the
editor of The News has now become a "bigger man"
than the captain of the team or the crew. (18:32)
The Yale Daily News cost five cents and was made
up of four 6-by-9-inch pages. In an introductory
article in the first issue, readers were greeted with the
following:
The innovation which we begin by this morning's
issue is justified by the dullness of the times and
by the demand for news among us. . . . There has
been an apparent necessity of having an unpretentious
sheet which should contain the latest news,end
short, pithy articles of interest.
As the Courant remarked in its last issue,
The News is to be published for a few weeks as an
experiment. If it meets with success, it will be
continued through the year. The price, per copy,
is perhaps somewhat exorbitant, but it will be
lowered as soon as we are assured of our financial
support. (26:33)
Taking a page from some of the professional
33
newspapers of the day, the Yale Daily News gained strength
through controversy it stirred up on the Yale campus. It
soon became involved in the continuing college issue of
fraternity members versus independent students. According
to William H. Law, a member of the first staff, the
Daily News "turned to the burning question of the hour to
. . . foment news and sell its copies, . . . and kept
the faculty busy . . . devising the best ways and means
to quell the excitement without too much abridgement of
the Constitutional right of free speech" (26:34).
The publication flourished and became highly
regarded. Up to seventy students seeking the half
dozen or so key staff positions would apply, receive
assignments, and swarm over the campus gathering data.
After months of severe competition, and not without a
bit of luck, the most able and most persevering would
get the call to fill the editorial positions.
The Daily Princetonian in the late 18001s also
spoke with vigor and without hesitation on new methods
of teaching, the elective system, new course offerings,
and the honors system in examinations (25:342).
Expansion
By 1912 there were 400 campus periodicals
listed in advertisers' annuals (119:351). By 1926
34
newspapers alone numbered 400 with circulations ranging
from 500 to 5,000. An example of the latter was the
University of Illinois Daily Illini, which served a
community of 30,000 as the only morning daily. It was
printed in a university-owned plant appraised at
$100,000 (128:579).
Undergraduate newspapers by the 1920*s fell into
one of two categories, either as bulletin boards or as
journals of opinion:
The bulletin boards are harmless sheets packed
full of college gossip. Criticism of the university
is seldom ventured. The editorials exhort the
students to Back the Team, warn freshmen of the
evil consequences of Walking on the Grass, and
advise the use of Better English. The journals of
opinion strike an alien note, jarring to deans and
presidents. Besides purveying news items, they
provoke student opinion on vital subjects and
jealously guard the undergraduate interests. (128:579)
During this same period, the mid 1920*s, papers
from coast to coast, from Yale to the University of
Southern California, openly opposed compulsory chapel
with headlines such as, "You can beat a student to his
knees, but you cannot make him pray" (128:579).
The Boston Evening Transcript in April, 1920,
congratulated Dartmouth for the establishment of its
daily publication with the following editorial:
The student-editors1 decision at Dartmouth
to publish their newspaper six times a week . . .
brings Dartmouth's undergraduate journal into
line with the long list of "daily except Sunday"
papers that have come to be established in all
35
the large eastern institutions and at many in the
west . . . Not only is there a sufficient "supply
and demand" of local material, but also a good
opening for presentation of the news of the world
through an undergraduate journal at Hanover where
no regular morning paper arrives in time to compete
with the students' efforts. And this opportunity
the editors of the Dartmouth have embraced by
securing a promise of news service from the
Associated Press.
In this latter respect, the paper at Hanover
has long been anticipated by other undergraduate
journals, but by only two others in the east— the
Cornell Daily Sun and the Yale News. The achieve-
ment of these papers as full fledged newssheets
has been most remarkable.
. . . the broadly striking thing about all this
development of undergraduate journalism in
America is plainly and simply its character as
the reflection of what undergraduate life in the
American college is. Unfamiliar at home with
student news journals even of weekly issue, the
European university man finds our undergraduate
papers quite the most surprising and distinctly
American attribute that exists in our colleges.
On consideration he sees, however, that it is
not the extensive development of collegiate
newspapering that is at the root of the matter—
surprising revealment of student enterprise and
energy though it is. He sees . . . that it is a
normal growth from the extraordinary development
which the so-called "extra-curricular" activities
have undergone in our American colleges.
. . . That the college press is an honest
reflection of undergraduate conditions, and that
it is in itself a much more vital and creditable
thing than it is a detraction, no man can deny.
(53:439)
Also aiding the expansion of college daily news
papers during this period was the growing number of
schools and departments of journalism throughout the
nation. Many campus dailies were established to function
36
as laboratories for journalism instruction. The
Missourian, for example, accompanied the founding of the
pioneer School of Journalism at the University of Missouri
in 1908.
Thirty-one colleges and universities in the United
States were publishing daily newspapers by 1923 (59:251).
They were: the University of California Californian,
University of Southern California Daily Trojan, Stanford
Daily Palo Alto, Yale Daily News, Chicago Daily Maroon,
Daily Northwestern, Illinois Daily Illini, Indiana
Student, Purdue Exponent, Daily Iowan, Kansan, Harvard
Crimson, Michigan Daily, Minnesota Daily, Missourian,
Nebraskan, Cornell Sun, Columbia Spectator, New York
University Daily News, Syracuse Orange, Ohio State
Lantern, Oklahoma Daily, Oregon State College Barometer,
University of Oregon Emerald, Pennsylvanian, Brown
Herald, Texas Texan, Washington Daily, Wisconsin
Cardinal, Princetonian, and the Dartmouth.
School and Society in 1929 summarized the
collegiate press as follows:
To-day there are thirty-two college daily
newspapers in the country, about half of which
use the telegraph service of some nationally
known news-gathering organization. . . . They
range in size from four to thirty-two pages. . . .
As was to be expected, the college newspaper
has taken the daily newspaper as its model and
has written its news stories, its headlines, its
37
editorials and has adapted its makeup to that of
the regular dailies.
In an endeavor to find out to what extent
staff members receive compensation, a survey was
made and answers received from 230 papers.
Academic credit for work on the staff is the
exception rather than the rule, according to the
reports received, for only six dailies, eight
semi-weeklies, and forty-eight weeklies reported
staff members receiving classroom credit.
When it comes to the question of receiving
actual money for work on the staff, either
business or editorial, it appears to be the rule
rather than the exception that certain members,
at least the editor-in-chief and business manager,
receive a certain definite sum or percentage of
the profits. Twenty-four of the twenty-five
dailies that reported gave financial compensation
to the editor-in-chief, while seven divide the
profits among members of the entire board. . . .
The amounts vary from $100 to $800 a year for
editors of dailies. (100:419)
The first intercollegiate newspaper was published
in 1933 among four institutions, Mt. Holyoke, Smith,
Amherst, and Massachusetts State College (61:26). The
first issue carried four pages of news and sold for five
cents per copy. It was edited by three women and one
young man, all recent college graduates. News was
carried in a light style which was reflected in its
headlines: “Smith Has Become Sandwich Conscious" and
"Sprinkler System Startles Holyoke" (61:26).
The Minnesota Daily in 1940 experimented with
tabloid journalism much to the disgust of many who
grumbled at the smaller page size, "To hell with the
38
doily, we want our Daily back" (64:48). But the student
body voted 4,231 to 2,941 to retain the tabloid concept,
much to the delight of the editor.
Another innovation in the 1940's was the move to
photo-offset printing by the Yale Daily News. With an
expenditure of $22,000, the Daily News realized a
seventy-year-old dream of maintaining its own printing
facilities (134:54). Yale Daily News chairman Stanley s.
Walker predicted larger issues, quicker and better
service, new makeup styles,adjustments in advertising-
copy ratios, and improvements in journalism instruction
as a result of the switch to offset. The trend toward
offset has continued through today, among community
newspapers as well as collegiate.
Today sixty-five college dailies publish in
thirty-three states, many serving their communities as
well as their campuses. Attempting to serve the nation's
student press, weekly as well as daily, is the United
States Student Press Association. It was founded in
1962 at the fifteenth National Student Congress, at which
time the sixty editors present established goals and
means to reach those goals. Some 200 member publications
today are enrolled in the association, which states as
its aims: (1) promoting a free student press,
(2) fostering more effective dissemination of news
39
throughout the college community, (3) focusing on common
problems, (4) stimulating awareness of issues important
to students, and (5) encouraging collegiate journalism
(235).
Chapter Summary
The origins of the college undergraduate news
paper reach back to the colonial political debate and
the early literary journal, but the rise of the extra
curriculum and the development of journalism as a
discipline in higher education brought the movement to
its fruition. Dartmouth had the first college newspaper
in 1839, and Yale the first daily in 1878. Following
World War I more than 400 college campuses had student
newspapers, thirty-one of which published daily. That
total has grown to sixty-five college dailies today in
thirty-three states, many serving surrounding communities
as well as college campuses.
CHAPTER IV
THE COLLEGE DAILY NEWSPAPER TODAY
Scope
Sixty-five colleges and universities in thirty-
three states have student-edited daily newspapers (1,8).
California has the largest number, eight, followed by
Texas with five and New York with four. A complete list
of college dailies is given in Table 1.
Enrollment in these sixty-five colleges and
universities reaches approximately 750,000 (9). Circula
tion figures indicate that more than 500,000 copies of
college newspapers are printed daily to cover these
sixty-five institutions and, in some cases, the surround
ing communities as well (8). Forty-nine are public and
sixteen are private institutions.
Twenty-seven papers listed a publication schedule
of Monday through Friday (8). A four-times-per-week
schedule of Tuesday through Friday was listed fifteen
times, second most frequent. Nine publish six days per
week. A 1961 survey by the National Council of College
Publications Advisers showed that some 2,120 students
were involved in the publication of campus dailies, about
40
TABLE 1
COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY STUDENT DAILY NEWSPAPERS IN THE UNITED STATES*
State College or University Newspaper
Days
Published
Ark. U. of Arkansas Arkansas Traveler T-F
Calif. Fresno State College Collegian MW-F
San Diego State College Aztec T-F
San Francisco State College Golden Gater M-F
San Jose State College Spartan Daily M-F
Stanford University Stanford Daily M-F
U. of California (Berkeley) Daily Californian M-F
U. of California (Los Angeles) Daily Bruin M-F
U. of Southern California Daily Trojan M-F
Colo. Colorado State University Collegian T-F
U. of Colorado Colorado Daily M-F
Conn. U. of Connecticut Connecticut Daily Campus Su-F
Yale University Yale Daily News M-F
111. Illinois State University Daily Egyptian T-S
Northwestern University Daily Northwestern T-F
U. of Illinois Daily Illini T-S
Ind. Indiana University Indiana Daily Student T-Su
Purdue University Purdue Exponent T-S
* Basic Sources: Editor & Publisher International Year Book (New York: Editor &
Publisher, 1964).
N. W. Ayer and Son's Directory of Newspapers and Periodicals
(Philadelphia: N.W. Ayer and Sons, 19635•
TABLE 1— (Continued)
State College or University Newspaper
Days
Published
Iowa Iowa State University Iowa State Daily T-S
U. of Iowa Daily Iowan T-S
Kans. Kansas State University Kansas State Collegian M-P
U. of Kansas University Daily Kansan M-F
Ky. U. of Kentucky Kentucky Kernel T-P
La. Louisiana State University Daily Reveille M-P
Md. U. of Maryland Diamondback T-F
Mass. Harvard University Harvard Crimson M-S
Mich. Michigan State University Michigan State News M-P
U. of Michigan Michigan Daily T-Su
Wayne State University Daily Collegian Su-F
Minn. U. of Minnesota Minnesota Daily M-P
Mo. U. of Missouri Columbia Missourian Su-F
Mont. Montana State University Montana Kaimin T-P
Neb. U. of Nebraska Daily Nebraskan MW-F
N.H. Dartmouth College The Dartmouth M-P
N.J. Princeton University Daily Princetonian SU-F
Rutgers University Rutgers Daily Targum M-P
N.M. U. Of New Mexico New Mexico Lobo MW-P
N.Y. Columbia University Columbia Daily Spectator M-F
Cornell University Cornell Daily Sun M-P
New York University Heights Daily News M-F
Syracuse University Daily Orange M-F
N.C. U. of North Carolina Daily Tar Heel T-Su
Ohio Kent State University Daily Kent Stater T-F
Ohio State University Ohio State Lantern M-F
Ohio University Ohio University Post Su-TTh-S
to
TABLE 1— (Continued)
State College or University Newspaper
Days
Published
Okla. Oklahoma State University Daily O'Collegian T-S
U. of Oklahoma Oklahoma Daily T-S
Ore. Oregon State University Daily Barometer T-S
U. of Oregon Daily Emerald M-P
Pa. Penn. State University Daily Collegian T-S
Temple University Temple University News T-P
U. of Pennsulvania Daily Pennsylvanian M-P
R.I.
Brown University Brown Daily Herald M-F
Tex. Baylor University Baylor Lariat T-P
Texas A. & M. University Battalion T-P
Texas Woman's University Lass-0 M-P
U. of Texas Daily Texan SuT-F
Texas Tech. College Toreador T-S
Utah Brigham Young University Daily Universe M-P
U. of Utah Utah Chronicle M-P
Va. U. of Virginia Cavalier Daily T-F
Wash. Washington State University Daily Evergreen T-F
U. of Washington U. of Washington Daily T-P
W. Va. U. of West Virginia Daily Athenaeum T-F
Wise. U. of Wisconsin Cardinal M-F
u>
half of whom were women (229).
Total budgets ran from $21,700 to $155,000 per
year. Charles L. Allen found in 1958 that average total
expenditures for the year came to $40,012 (29:7).
Advertising income accounted for between 25 and 85 per
cent of the total.
Largest single issues ever published, according
to the N.C.C.P.A. survey, were the 112-page University
Edition of the University of Iowa Daily Iowan and the
100-page Centennial Edition of the Louisiana State
Reveille (229). Pressruns normally ranged from 2,400 to
17,000 with a median of 8,000 per day. Twenty-seven of
the thirty-nine who answered the 1961 survey subscribed
to a wire news service, and twelve covered local
community news as well as campus happenings.
Function
There are a variety of approaches to the college
press today. Those newspapers which see their responsi
bilities primarily as "bulletin boards" of campus events
are, of course, limited in their function. But there are
those which carry international, national, and municipal
news and which do not hesitate to take stands on contro
versial issues. The scope of these publications
apparently is limited only by the boundaries of good
taste and editorial initiative.
45
Roland Bing categorized college newspapers into
two fundamental groups (39:382). First, there are those
devoted to building school spirit and supporting athletic
teams. Such a publication, said Bing, resembles a
"glorified sports page" not worth the time and effort
required to insure its publication; however, he added,
the faculty and staff will never have to explain any
action of the editor to irate alumni or trustees.
Second, according to Bing, there is the newspaper
in which the editor concerns himself, not only with
school spirit and morale, but also with interpreting the
institution to its students, faculty, staff, and alumni.
He also attempts to serve the needs of the college
community. Such an editor usually reserves the right to
criticize or praise the operation of the institution as
he sees fit. Another important function of this type of
newspaper is that the publication provides realistic
experience for students who will go into the mass media
upon graduation. This second type of paper dominates the
college scene, wrote Bing, and it is within this frame
work that some type of freedom and responsibility must be
perfected.
Three examples of editorial initiative were
demonstrated at the time of the assassination of
President Kennedy (94:26). Daily Texan Journalists of
46
of the University of Texas published a four-page extra
Saturday, November 23, 1963, the day following the
assassination. Editors had flown to cover both police
headquarters and the hospital in Dallas. They wired and
telephoned their stories to student staff members on
campus at Austin.
The Daily Iowan, publication of the University
of Iowa, also published a four-page extra. Copies were
at the doorsteps of campus subscribers and on Iowa City
streets within five hours after news of the assassina
tion.
The Kansas State University Collegian destroyed
3,200 early copies to remake the front page of their
regular edition. The Collegian was on the streets with
the Dallas story before many professional Kansas dailies.
Many other college dailies moved with similar speed and
enterprise.
One study of eighty-two colleges and universities
in the United States and Canada reported the primary
function of a college newspaper to be three-fold (121:
339). First, it is to report the news completely and
impartially, giving students the opportunity to develop
journalistic interests and skills. Second, it is to
serve free discussion by guaranteeing full expression to
every significant view on issues of concern to the
47
student body. Third, through the freely chosen editorial
policy of its own staff, it is to take the lead in formu
lating issues as well as in defending a particular point
of view with respect to them.
The 1961 N.C.C.P.A. survey found that six college
daily newspapers function primarily as a laboratory for
journalism courses and another thirteen serve lesser
laboratory functions. Nineteen colleges reported no
connection between the daily and the school or department
of journalism (229).
Robert Maclver noted some special aspects of
collegiate journalism which might tend to affect the
function of the college daily (13:215).
First, the college newspaper is seldom self-
supporting, usually have to rely upon some sort of
institutional or student subsidy, and usually it is
distributed free of charge.
Second, the newspaper usually enjoys a
monopolistic position on campus. While this alone is
not unique in the publishing of a community newspaper,
the importance of monopoly status, according to Maclver,
is the accompanying subsidy that enables the under
graduate publication to publish daily in large
institutions.
Third, official recognition and support offered
48
by the various colleges and universities involves at the
same time certain obligations. By informing its readers
on matters of interest and importance to members of the
college community, the student newspaper plays an
important role, particularly in creating a sense of
"community" within the students and the college as a
whole. It is also useful to the faculty and administra
tion as a sounding board of student attitudes.
A number of university newspapers have attempted
to gain greater autonomy by creating separate corporations,
but, according to Maclver, cases that have arisen in some
of these institutions have made these claims of indepen
dence somewhat questionable.
Readership
Lyle and Wilcox in 1962 undertook to determine
the reading habits of students at the University of
California at Los Angeles following continued criticism
aimed at the Daily Bruin (226). Fraternity groups
accused editors of being anti-fraternity, graduate
students claimed immaturity, student politicians decried
alleged bias against their various causes, and campus
organizations blamed poor attendance on what they
claimed was poor coverage.
A questionnaire asked students to rate
49
twenty-four types of news in each of three categories:
importance to the student body, personal interest, and
reader satisfaction.
Highest rated categories in importance included
intellectual activities, cultural events, faculty-
individual, administration, and general coverage. Each
of the preceding also was rated high in interest except
faculty-individual which was rated medium high. There
were, of course, differences among groups of students.
Women, for example, showed greater interest in women's
news, faculty-individual, and honorary-academic than did
men. Graduate students tended to show a greater interest
in the physical campus and less interest in columnists
and living groups than did undergraduates.
A content analysis taken at the same time showed
that major sports were allotted twice as much space as
any other category except letters, yet major sports
rated seventh in importance to the reader and fourteenth
in interest. Cultural events, while ranking second in
importance and first in interest, accounted for only
2 per cent of the content of the Daily Bruin (Table 2).
Stempel sought comparisons of editors' and
readers' concepts in 1963 by comparing the Lyle-Wilcox
results with answers given by editors attending a
national student editors* conference (123:10). He
50
TABLE 2
CONTENT ANALYSIS OF 25 CATEGORIES OF NEWS AND
READER EVALUATIONS OF IMPORTANCE AND
INTEREST IN 35 ISSUES OF THE
DAILY BRUIN
Rank % of
Order Total % of Positive Reader
of Inches Responses
Total Category Allo Importance Interest
Inches cated Rank
%
Rank
%
1 Major Sports 16.8% 6 88% 14 68%
2 Letters 13 .3 9 86 4 84
3 Student gov't. 7.1 6 88 17 58
4 Students-
individual 6.9 19 68 15 60
5 Editorials 6.8 13 85 9 77
6 Women's news 6.7 24 33 24 30
7 General Coverage 6.6 3 92 3 86
8 Intellectual
activ. 5.5 1 97 2 87
9 Fraternities-
dorms 3 .8 21 58 20 40
10 Schools-
departments 3.3 8 87 11 71
11 Extra-curricular-
social 3.1 9 86 12 70
12 Social-political 2.7 9 86 4 84
13 Faculty-individ. 2.5 3 92 8 78
14 Administration 2.2 3 92 6 83
15 Cultural events 2.0 2 95 1 88
16 Minor sports 1.9 20 63 22 37
17 Other univer
sities 1.7 15 78 7 80
18 Other news 1.6
19 Intramural sports 1.5 22 57 21 38
20 Religious news 1.5 23 50 23 34
21 Physical campus 1.4 18 75 12 70
22 Honorary-academic .8 14 80 18 56
23 Faculty-senate .3 9 86 16 59
24 Special projects .0+ 17 76 19 45
25 Columns .0 16 77 10 72
Source: Lyle, Jack and Wilcox, Walter. Students View
the News— The Daily Bruin Study. Department of Journalism
Research Series. Los Angeles:University of California,
1962.
I reported that his study supported the findings of the
Daily Bruin study. "Both studies/' he wrote, "provide
evidence that student readers may be ready for more
serious newspapers than student editors realize. The
. . . editors overestimated Interest in Sports and under
estimated Interest in four categories of more serious
news" (123:10).
Lyle and Wilcox found that some 45 per cent of
the men and 50 per cent of the women students said they
read the Daily Bruin each morning, and another 33 per
cent of the men and 37 per cent of the women said they
read it most every day. Weighted figures indicated that
82.2 per cent of the UCLA students read the Daily Bruin
every day or almost every day. The percentage was 94.5
for those living in dormitories.
The perceived accuracy ratings, rounded off by
the authors, showed that 10 per cent saw the Daily Bruin
as very accurate, 68 per cent as fairly accurate, 11 per
cent as not very accurate, and 2 per cent as not
accurate at all (226) .
Chapter Summary
More than 2,000 college and university under
graduate journalists publish approximately one-half
million copies of campus newspapers each day of the
52
academic year on sixty-five campuses in thirty-three
states. The functions of these publications were seen
as reporting the news, offering students the opportunity
to practice their journalistic skills, serving as a
medium of free discussion of ideas, and assuming a role
of leadership in areas of interest to students. The
college daily is seldom self-supporting, usually enjoys
a monopolistic position on campus, and traditionally
gains stature through the use of the institution's name.
PART II
THE AREAS OF CONFLICT
CHAPTER V
LEGAL RESTRAINTS
A college, said a New York court in 1962,
should encourage intellectual excitement by providing
an open forum for all who have views to be heard (137).
One of the great dangers of our time, it continued, is
that the people may not hear the issues of the day, and
a function of higher education should be "to awaken the
public mind from the torpor and quiescence of accepted
and conventional opinion." However, the opinion pointed
out, the court cannot impose this ideal policy upon
college officials who are given by law the power of
policy making.
"In general," noted Bakken in his Legal Basis
for College Student Personnel Work, "the state
legislatures have given broad powers to the governing
boards of the state educational institutions of higher
learning, and the courts have upheld this grant of
broad authority" (2:7) . He continued by pointing out
that college publications exist at the will of the
institution's governing board (2:38).
54
55
In Loco Parentis
Courts have generally held that a college or
university stands in loco parentis, Blackwell in
College Law explains this concept as follows:
The power which the officers of a college may
lawfully exert to restrict and to control the
actions of its students is based upon the fact that,
in law, the college stands in the same position to
its students as that of a parent— in loco parentis—
and it can therefore direct and control their con
duct to the same extent that a parent can. (4:104)
In 1928 the New York Supreme Court said that
since the university stands in loco parentis to its
students, the administration of that institution is
free to establish rules for the betterment of the
university and its students and that these rules will
not be interfered with unless they are unlawful or
against public policy (135).
Applied to the student press, these views point
to the concept that the student newspaper may enjoy as
much freedom as the college administration will allow
it to enjoy.
Disciplinary Action
In a major decision, a Montana court summarized
legal thinking about the discipline a college administra
tion may hand out to errant students (143). Included
were the following key points: (1) the student may be
56
suspended without a hearing as formal as one which
might be held in a court of law, (2) if the student is
called before the Dean, informed of the charges, and
given an opportunity to deny or explain, the student is
accorded a sufficient hearing, and (3) the courts will
not interfere with actions of college presidents in
suspending students unless the administrator acted in an
arbitrary manner.
Other decisions serve to illustrate and supple
ment this reluctance of the courts to set aside actions
of college administrators.
A New York Appellate Court upheld the right of
Columbia University to refuse a student who had applied
for readmission following his off-campus public state
ments that there would be a draft revolution during
World War I (142).
A person enrolling in a private college, held a
Florida court, agrees to conform to the regulations
governing that institution (139).
It was determined in a case in a Texas court
that the college catalog constitutes a written contract
between the college and the student once the student has
enrolled under the terms stated in that catalog (146) .
In a case involving Bryn Mawr, the court upheld
the institution's right to exclude at any time any
student whose conduct it regards as undesirable.
57
Furthermore, the college need not prove the charges nor
hold a trial before such dismissal (136).
A female student was refused readmission to
Michigan State Normal School in 1924 allegedly because
she smoked cigarettes and was guilty of what was
determined by college officials to be improper conduct
(145). She argued that some male students and faculty
members smoked, but the court said that this was
not pertinent to the case and upheld the institution's
refusal of readmission.
In 1960 the administration of a state-supported
institution was upheld by the Supreme Court in its
dismissal of a student for persistent criticism of that
administration (144).
A University of Maryland student was refused re
admission upon evidence that she had given newspapers
untrue reports of behavior of university men officials
in dealing with female students (148). When asked by
university personnel whether she had, in fact, furnished
the material in question, she refused to answer. Denial
by the university of her readmission was upheld by the
courts.
A note of caution in dealing with student
discipline has been voiced by the American civil Liberties
Union:
58
Failure to meet academic standards is patently
a ground for probation or dismissal. But since a
student expelled . . . may find it difficult or
impossible to continue his academic careert he
should be protected by every procedural safe
guard. This is particularly necessary since the
courts have rarely granted the student legal re
view or redress; they have assumed that the
academic institution itself is in the best position
to judge culpability. This places the college in
the unique position of being prosecutor and judge
and having at the same time the moral obligation
to serve as a trustee of the student's welfare.
(32:113)
Damages
Whether an individual institution is open to
suit depends upon the legislation of the state in which
the college is located (2:7). State-supported colleges,
generally, are considered agencies of the state and are
not open to suit unless the state legislature has so
indicated (2:7). This concept was established by the
United States Supreme Court in ex parte New York in
1839 (138).
The question of institutional responsibility for
libels published by its various branches is still un
resolved. Bakken summarized it as follows:
Whether or not an institution is liable for
what is published in a college paper will depend
to a great extent upon the policy of the state
in respect to suit against the state for its
torts. (2:38)
Blackwell noted that colleges and universities
cannot escape the possibility of being required to
59
respond to damage suits filed by injured parties.
Separate incorporation of the publication
division of the college may provide some pro
tection, but there is always the uncertainty as
to the extent to which the court will respect the
legal, fiction of separate corporation identity
in the event of suit, if the parent corporation
continues to exercise any substantial degree of
control over the subsidiary. (4:189)
In 1959, however, Vanderbilt University success
fully defended its position as being separate from
student publications (140). A libel suit was filed
against the university, the editor of the student news
paper, and the printer. The university, however, won
dismissal from the suit upon providing evidence that the
newspaper was not a university publication, there was
no advance censorship, no member of the staff was
assigned as publications adviser, students made their
own contracts with printers, and profits and losses
belonged to the editor and business manager.
The plaintiff in this suit alleged that the news
paper libeled her when it reported in its news pages the
legal action she brought against the college humor
magazine. Court records indicate that the plaintiff
told the editor and reporter she wanted publicity in
the case and directed the defendants to her lawyers,
who informed them when the suits were filed. In report
ing the pleading in the humor magazine suit, the news
paper included the charges and pictures on which the
60
humor magazine suit was based. The humor magazine had
allegedly libeled the plaintiff by printing a picture
of her as a child of two years which had been delivered
by the plaintiff's father to the printer of the magazine
to have a copy made for use in a Christmas card.
The court said that there was no evidence of
malice on the part of the newspaper editor and reporter,
that the plaintiff had invited coverage, and that the
defense of privilege was valid since the report in the
newspaper was a fair and accurate report of papers filed
in the court, even though no judicial action had been
taken on them. The verdict was directed for the
defendants.
Legal actions against student newspapers seldom
get to court, however. Smith in the College Press
Review summarized the reasons for limited legal redress:
Legal action is time consuming, and many of
the individuals vho might otherwise sue for libel
are employed by the institution which bears the
legal responsibility for what the publication
does. When the desire is to punish the person
committing the libel, there are other methods
more easily used than the courts. Many cases are
settled out of court with or without the initiation
of court action. In most cases, the institution
possesses means of punitive action which do not
require court action and its attendant publicity.
(120:21)
Constitutional Freedom
61
Several cases cited earlier in this chapter point
to basic questions involving the Constitution— the right
of free speech and the right of due process under the
law. The essential question seems to be whether a
citizen attending a college or university has, on campus,
the same Constitutional rights and privileges he may
enjoy off campus, or, if not, to what degree these rights
may be altered while he is a student. A key 1915 case,
Waugh v. The Board of Trustees of the University of
Mississippi, tends to lead to the conclusion that a
citizen voluntarily gives up some of what normally would
be his Constitutional rights the moment he steps onto the
campus (147). The student argued that the college re
quirement that he renounce allegiance to Greek-letter
organizations before being granted permission to enroll
deprived him of his Constitutional rights under the
Fourteenth Amendment. The court answered by pointing to
a single question: whether the right to attend the
university was an absolute right or a conditional right.
The court, following precedent set in a similar case in
1866, People v. Wheaton (141), answered:
It may be put more narrowly,— whether, under
the Constitution and laws of Mississippi, the
public educational institutions of the state are
so far under the control of the legislature that
it may impose what the supreme court of the state
62
calls "disciplinary regulations."
To this proposition we are confined, and we
are not concerned in its consideration with what
the laws of other states permit or prohibit. Its
solution might be rested upon the decision of the
supreme court of the state. That court said:
"The legislature is in control of the colleges
and universities of the state, and has a right to
legislate for their welfare and to enact measures
for their discipline, and to impose the duty
upon the trustees of each of these institutions
to see that the requirements of the legislature
are enforced; and when the legislature had done
this, it is not subject to any control by the
courts.
It is very trite to say that the right to
pursue happiness and exercise rights and liberty
are subject in some degree to the limitations of
the law, and the condition upon which the state
of Mississippi offers the complainant free
instruction in its University, that while a
student there he renounce affiliation with a
society which the state considers inimical to
discipline, finds no prohibition in the 14th
Amendment. . . . (147:15)
In support of this view, the New York court in
the Stier case pointed out that exclusion from college
does not violate a student's Constitutional rights of
free speech since such expulsion does not prevent him
from speaking and writing as he chooses (144). While it
is particularly urgent, the court continued, for the
academic community to have freedom of inquiry, reasonable
restrictions still may be imposed. The education process
undertaken by universities, the court continued, might
also include the building of "good manners and morals."
The question of an abridgment of a student's
63
Constitutional rights, the court said, must be carefully
weighed against the wisdom of giving university admini
strators wide discretion in disciplinary matters and in
determining the objectives of education. The student
should be free to speak on political questions and to
engage in limited criticism of the administration, the
court said, but when this criticism tends to turn into
personal attack or to exceed any "legitimate process of
change," expulsion by the institution would not be
considered abuse of authority by the administration.
The university's control over its students,
therefore, must be considered greater than the state's
over its citizens.
Spurlock in Education and the Supreme Court
referred to the Waugh decision as he summarized the high
court's view on the question of the Constitutional rights
of the individual on the campus:
College-level students are frequently heard
to remark that seme regulation or disciplinary
action of the school authorities is contrary to
rights established under the Constitution. The
foregoing decision should indicate that such
student remarks, for the most part at least, are
mistaken and based upon faulty knowledge of our
federal system and of the powers of school
authorities as either corporate or quasi
legislative agencies. It is clear that the
states can exact special requirements from those
citizens who attend colleges supported or chartered
by the states. The reasonableness of such require
ments is rarely questioned by the courts after the
people have spoken through their legislature.
(23:159)
64
Chapter Summary
State legislatures and boards of trustees have
been given broad powers in establishing campus policy,
and the courts seldom have overruled administrators'
decisions unless there was evidence that those decisions
were taken in an arbitrary manner. The institutions have
been deemed to stand in loco parentis to their students,
thereby allowing for wide disciplinary action on the
part of college officials. An institution's liability
in a libel suit has not yet been firmly established, but
its right to limit speech and press within the campus
walls has generally been accepted. The college's control
over its students, the courts have said, must be con
sidered greater than the state's over its citizens.
CHAPTER VI
CONFLICTS INVOLVING THE STUDENT PRESS
The purpose of this chapter was to examine thirty
conflicts representative of the many types of controversy
in which the student-edited college and university news
paper has found itself. The method used was a review of
the literature. No attempt was made to draw conclusions
nor to pass judgment on the actions of the student
journalists involved or on those attempting to exert
control. No independent investigation was made to
augment or to determine the degree of authenticity of
the statements made in the literature, but conflicting
sides of the various controversies were presented in
this chapter if they were made available in the litera
ture .
Recent conflicts were given preference, but
earlier incidents were included if they were felt to be
significant. Also, incidents involving weekly newspapers
were included to help paint the broad spectrum of
controversy that confronts the college press. Several
of the case references were from a single source. in
such a case, the first footnote reference applies
65
66
throughout the illustration. Conflicts were drawn from
institutions in all parts of the nation and from colleges
and universities of all sizes and types.
Finally, it should be noted that situations
similar to the ones cited could have taken place without
incident in hundreds of colleges across the nation. It
would be impossible to transfer one of these conflicts
into a new campus environment and to expect the same
reaction as the one described to take place. Indeed, the
Cornell Sun without major conflict revealed plagiarism in
a presidential inaugural address (223), and the Harvard
Crimson publishes evaluations of professors as guides to
new students (206). In these and hundreds of un-noted
similar cases the college newspaper has maintained the
freedom to do the job it had set for itself.
External Groups
Florida State University
The Florida State legislature was the scene of
a 1962 attack against the student daily newspaper, the
Florida State University Flambeau (71:7). An article
entitled "Socialize Natural Resources" caused a legislator
to label the editorial policy of the paper as "communistic,
atheistic, socialistic, and un-American."
"If this kind of thinking prevails in our
67
colleges and universities," the lawmaker was reported to
have said, "we won't need to reapportion. We won't even
need a Legislature."
The article under fire had said in part that
"our precious natural resources and lands are far too
valuable to consign to individual ownership and
management— society as a whole should own and democratic
ally control these important areas of our national life,
the continued existence of which depends upon them."
The editor issued the following statement:
Mr. John Thomas Riggins, president of the
Young Socialists League, is writing a series of
columns dealing with the basic concepts of
Socialism. 1 feel that such columns are valuable
to students in their knowledge of the subjects.
The Flambeau regularly prints columns dealing
with issuesranging from arch-conservative to
arch-liberal.
We have always stood for the rights of
students to discuss freely issues of their
choosing as long as they remain in the bounds
of good taste and libel and do not deal in
personality attacks on individuals. We will
continue to allow our students to voice their
opinions in The Flambeau. I stress that we do
not necessarily agree with this, or other
statements written by columnists, but we do
staunchly defend their rights to express these
opinions. (71:7)
Comment from the professional press of the state
was generally favorable to the student newspaper's stand.
The St. Petersburg Times said:
Neither the commonwealth of Florida nor the
Republic are endangered by a college student's
expressed opinion of socialization of natural
68
resources, however fallacious his reasoning may
have been. But both the state and the nation
are engaged by the disregard of legislators for
freedom of expression both by student editors
and by members of the university faculties.
Academic and press freedom are both involved in
this case. We hope the editors of The Flambeau
and the University Administration stand shoulder
to shoulder against this newest invasion of
freedom. (71:7)
The president of the Young Republicans, who
originally had called the article to the attention of
the legislature, was quoted by the Flambeau as saying
that legislators had asked him to keep in touch and to
report on "further developments with regard to Communist,
Atheistic and Socialistic ideas at FSU" (71:8). He also
was reported to have been issued an invitation to appear
at the next session of the Florida Cabinet to discuss the
situation.
University of Nebraska
A charge by a former state senator that the
University of Nebraska Daily Nebraskan was dominated by
excessive liberal viewpoints drew editorial comments
from more than twenty-five of the state's professional
newspapers (60:3). At a Founders Day meeting of the
Republican Party, the former legislator submitted a
32-page booklet of excerpts, most of which came from the
student newspaper. The excerpts allegedly showed "a
pattern which is clear and never changing. Students are
69
being openly and deliberately indoctrinated with
political philosophies rejected by the overwhelming
majority of Nebraskans of both political parties."
The Daily Nebraskan took exception to the
charges, saying that the more the editors are left to
their own work, the better it would be for all. All but
two of the editorials appearing in the state-wide press
supported the Daily Nebraskan in its rejoinder.
LeMoyne College
An American Legion unit in Syracuse, New York,
in 1962 attempted to prevent the Dolphin, the student
publication of LeMoyne College, from running an advertise
ment of the film Spartacus which was being shown at a
local theater (120:23). A writer involved in the pro
duction of the film allegedly was among those included
on the Hollywood blacklist, an outgrowth of the
McCarthy period. The Legion group withdrew advertising
from the yearbook and forwarded letters to the editor
objecting to the placing of the advertisement of the
film in the newspaper.
Opposition to the American Legion move came
from the Dolphin and from the college administration.
The advertisement ran as scheduled.
70
Governing Boards
William and Mary
A discussion of racial matters in the William and
Mary High Hat in 1945 resulted in the resignation of
editor Mary Kaemmarle and brought a new policy governing
control of student publications (13:220). The President
was instructed by the college governing board to take
corrective action and to insure proper control of
contents of student publications in the future. The
articles in question dealt with social and biological
evidence opposing racial discrimination and welcoming
the time when Negroes would be free to attend class and
to marry on an interracial basis. The editor did not
encourage violation of existing state law, but rather
looked forward to its eventual change, not "today or
tomorrow but perhaps the next day. Neither they or we
are ready for it yet" (45:460).
Much of the Southern press, while generally
disagreeing with Miss Kaemmarle's viewpoints, neverthe
less defended free speech for the college editor, and
a few voiced tentative support for her goals (13:220).
University of Texas
The Regents of the University of Texas objected
in 1956 when the editor of the Daily Texan printed parts
71
of the debate in Congress that favored a bill opposed
by powerful gas and oil interests in Texas (88:13). The
Regents then decided that editor William W. Morris and
the Daily Texan should not discuss state and national
issues. They invoiced a state law that prohibited the
use of state funds for “influencing the outcome of any
election, or the passage or defeat of any legislative
measure."
The editor ran a blank space when an editorial
was censored. The National Observer quoted Morris as
follows:
I felt very strongly responsible to see that
my paper, the Daily Texan, had a strong editorial
voice. We were puttxng out a paper deeply con
cerned with the day's public issues. . . .
If I had it to do over, I'd do exactly the
same thing. I was only 20 at the time, and per
haps I was immature. Now I would be a little
more diplomatic. But what I did was good for
the University of Texas. (88:13)
University of Georgia
An editorial appearing in the University of
Georgia's Red and Black brought a threat from the Regents
shortly before the 1954 Supreme Court decision on
desegregation. The editorial included the following:
With Communism knocking at the Negro's back
door, we cannot afford to let educational
segregation barriers stand. It is as plain as
the red flag in Russia that continued segregation
72
and suppression can and will cause the death of
democracy by the hands of its own leaders. (95:56)
This editorial reportedly caused "shock" among
the Regents (96:268). The editors of the Red and Black,
covering the Regents' meeting, claimed threats to
freedom of the campus press, to which one Regent, himself
a publisher, answered with the following:
I've tried to explain . . . that in their
damn foolery they were hurting the university
and the cause for education in the state. I
frankly told them that money for the Red and
Black would be discontinued unless they did a
better job.
Now there is no question of freedom cf the
press involved. The question is whether or not
the board of regents will be dictated to by a
little handful of sissy, misguided squirts who
have just enough knowledge to think they know it
all. Every time I see one of the little sissy
boys hanging around some college, the more I
think of everyone of them ought to be made to
play football. (96:268)
Illinois State Universities
The Illinois Teachers College Board in early
1964 formalized a policy of control of student news
papers by faculty advisers at four state universities
(75:1). Institutions involved were Illinois State
University at Normal, and Eastern Illinois, Northern
Illinois, and Western Illinois universities. The newly
adopted statement read in part:
A competent faculty sponsor shall have the
right to examine all copy presented for publication,
73
including headlines, and be authorized to correct
and edit copy to meet the standards of accuracy and
good usage and, finally, he shall see proofs of
each page of type, and have the authority usually
vested in the director of a privately owned publi
cation of general circulation. (92:2)
Royal A. Stipes, head of the board, denied claims
of censorship. He said that each university had had
similar policies, but that the latest action merely
formalized those existing policies. He was supported
in this view by President Quincy Doudna of Eastern
Illinois and by Kenneth Hesler, adviser to the Eastern
State News. Editor Connie Schneider, however, said that
the new policy could curtail the student editors. "The
faculty adviser is, in effect, the editor if he desires,"
she said (232) .
Action by the Illinois Teachers College Board
apparently resulted from the dismissal of the former
editor of the Eastern State News who sought to print an
article that was allegedly libelous (232) .
College of Emporia
A letter to the editor of the campus newspaper
by a College of Emporia faculty member mushroomed into
an incident of national interest and concern as both the
faculty member and the President were dismissed by the
college trustees (112:26). The American Association of
University Professors planned an inquiry, and the United
74
States National Student Association sent a representative
to the college to investigate the matter, as did the
Daily Kansan of the University of Kansas.
The 1961 letter, which protested the alleged
forced resignation of the student body president by
college administrators, was noticed by the newspaper
faculty adviser before publication. The professor was
then relieved of his teaching duties. He was later re
instated by the acting president, but this action did
not meet with the approval of the trustees, and they
took action to dismiss both the professor and the
President. High controversy followed. Many of the
faculty voiced confidence in the trustees. Two trustees
resigned. The editor of the student newspaper also
resigned, and four of the faculty threatened similar
action. Eight other students were urged to "seek
another institution where perhaps the environment would
be more compatible." Finally, the Emporia Gazette under
the editorship of William L. White named the dismissed
professor "Man of the Week" along with editorial comment
on the incident. The college, a small church-affiliated
institution, had five presidents within the two-year
period surrounding the incident described.
The letter to the newspaper, written by the
Reverend David A. Butterfield, professor of philosophy.
75
commented upon the case of the resignation of the student
body president after college officials had questioned him
regarding a party in his room. The letter read in part:
The recent resignation of [the] student body
president has bothered me.
It needs to be said that [he] is an honest
person. Members of the committee who "dealt"
with him have testified to his transparency
before them. In fact, had he been less forth
right and honest, he probably would not have
suffered the fate he did. I commend him in
his honesty. I commiserate with him in his
mistaken judgment.
The appalling apathy of the students over
this affair is alarming. is this a student body
of sheep? (112:26)
College Presidents
University of Colorado
The University of Colorado Daily in 1962 became
embroiled in the most widely discussed controversy in
recent years involving a student newspaper. The incident
opened with a criticism which some thought libelous aimed
at Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona and ended with the
resignation of President Quigg Newton in June of 1963.
The statements in question appeared in the Gadfly, a
weekly supplement to the Colorado Daily, and were
contained in a long article that went largely unnoticed
until several days after publication when copies were
sent to Senator Goldwater by editors of the New
Conservative, a new campus publication (131:404). The
article referred to Senator Goldwater as a "murderer, no
better than a common criminal" (120:24). Senator
Goldwater demanded and received apologies from President
Newton, and also received apologies from the Colorado
Daily, the Board of Publications, and the Board of
Regents. The author of the article, Carl Mitcham, re
fused to retract or to apologize. The Board of Publica
tions voted to retain Editor Gary Althen with a
reprimand. Author Mitcham appeared before the University
Discipline Committee, but no action was taken. The
committee said the attack on the Senator, while in part
"injudicious" in choice of language, could not be con
sidered a personal attack and the committee was firmly
upholding the right of students "to engage in free and
open discussion" (55:3).
Senator Goldwater's answer to President Newton's
apology, released to the press before it was received by
the President, said that the President's apology was
appreciated, but that the harm remained. Senator Gold
water commented further:
It isn't what was said about me or who said
it. It was the fact that it has now become
obvious that this type of attack is the rule
rather than the exception at the University of
Colorado.
I am far more concerned about the ability
of people with an un-American philosophy to have
77
that philosophy displayed in the college press and,
in some cases, defended by that press, than I am
about what happens to me or my name. 1 have spoken
with groups of some 250 colleges and schools in
this country, and this is the only one where the
socialists, or whatever you care to call them, seem
to have the ability to do what they want without
censure.
I must because of this, then, come to the
conclusion that you either do not know what is
going on in the University, or you don't care,
and in charity, I will presume the former. To
put it briefly, I doubt that you have the interest
or the concern to be in the position you hold.
(55:2)
President Newton's reply to the Senator read as
follows:
You have made it quite clear that your involve
ment with the University of Colorado goes far beyond
the discomfort you feel at being called names by
college students. For this, I must, in all
sincerity, thank you. At long last, the real issue
has been joined. No longer need we engage in
fruitless exchanges about the bad manners of a
handfulcf students whose violent expressions of
opinion only embarrass their friends and strengthen
their enemies.
What remains now is the simple fact that you
do-not like the way our university is being run.
My first impulse was to reply, as politely as
possible, that I did not consider it any of your
business. But, on reflection, I do not think that
would be accurate. The real issue does involve you,
because you have made yourself a symbol of the
suppressive forces which are waging an all-out
assault on the university.
And your overt assumption of leadership of the
assault can only serve to alert the people of the
state and the nation to the true nature of the
attack.
Moreover, by interfering in the affairs of our
state university in the midst of an election
campaign, you release me from an uncomfortable
78
silence. I cannot speak on the question of who
should be president of the university. But I
most certainly can— and will— speak out on the
question of academic democracy.
We have a genuine democracy of ideas on our
campus. We have fought long and hard to achieve
it, and the fight has been against those who—
like yourself— believe the function of a university
is to indoctrinate* rather than educate; to control
thought* rather than to stimulate it.
The cry you raise has a very familiar ring to
us: "You must silence those who do not agree with
me!"
We have heard it from the John Birchers, from
the Wolvingtons, from the Rozeks* from the Eakins,
from the Bromleys* from the local Goldwaters. It
is always the same: "Our way is the only American
way. All others are un-American and subversive.
You must silence those who do not agree with us!"
Senator* I shall not silence them. (55:2)
At the same time* the writer of the original
article, in attempting to justify his earlier position,
wrote additional uncomplimentary remarks aimed at former
presidents Eisenhower ("lap dog" and "old futzer") and
Kennedy ("slippery ideals"). These appeared in a letter
to the editor published by the Daily (120:24). These
comments reached the Rocky Mountain News just prior to
President Eisenhower's visit to Denver in October of
1962* a Congressional election year. President Newton
then requested the Board of Publications to "again
examine the question of Mr. Althen's qualifications to
continue as editor." The Board* composed of three
students and three faculty members, voted 4 to 2 to
79
retain the editor. President Newton, the same day wrote
to the Regents requesting that responsibility for the
Daily be placed temporarily under the jurisdiction of
the School of Journalism. The Regents declined, but
authorized three additional faculty appointments to the
Board of Publications.
Five days later President Newton dismissed
Editor Althen, a move then supported by the chairman of
the Board of Publications, who reportedly was about to
make a similar recommendation to the board (52:16) .
President Newton then appointed as new members of the
Board of Publications Dean Charles T. Duncan of the
School of Journalism, Dean of Students Arthur Kiendl,
and Dean Lawrence Collidge of the School of Business.
They met and appointed an interim editor. A week later,
after President Newton had explained his action in an
address to the study body, students voted 2,049 to 907
in support of the President's position. But in the
general election of November 6, two anti-Newton candi
dates were elected to the Board of Regents, and one month
later President Newton announced his resignation effec
tive the following June to become president of the
Commonwealth Fund of New York.
President Newton's action in relieving Althen
of his position as editor drew heavy criticism from
Lawrence G. Weiss, former faculty member and Denver Post
80
editorial writer. He listed five justifications for his
criticism of the president: First, neither Senator
Goldwater nor presidents Eisenhower or Kennedy were
injured by the statements run in the Daily. Second,
newspapers throughout history have indulged in severe
political name-calling. Third, the campus ignored the
Goldwater criticism for six days and the Eisenhower
reference for four days before the incidents rocked the
campus. Fourth, President Newton fired the editor not
because of the letters he allowed to be published, but
because of off-campus pressures. Fifth, the President
"made a mockery of campus due process," since the Board
of Publications had held that Althen should not be fired,
the Regents had failed to take direct action in firing
the editor, the faculty failed to recommend the firing
of the editor, and the Senator himself did not demand
the firing of the editor (131:404).
"And to think," wrote Dean Duncan, "that some
good heads-up copy editing— the kind we all try to
teach and practice— would have prevented it alll" (52:16)
City College of New York
The President of the City College of New York in
1926 ordered the college newspaper, the Campus not to
refer in its columns to the college R.O.T.C. course (24:
379). The prohibition was prompted by the actions of
81
the editor, who on Armistice Day ran an issue of the
Campus with editorial pages blank except for several
excerpts of the Manual of Military Training. These
excerpts were headed by the quote: "The inherent desire
to fight and kill must be carefully watched for and
encouraged by the instructor."
Reaction, as might be expected, was immediate.
The editor's job was demanded by some, but a Student
Council referendum showed that 2,092 were opposed to
compulsory R.O.T.C. and 345 were in favor. The President,
however, two days later issued his order to cease all
published reference to the R.O.T.C.
Oakland University
Three swift steps taken by the Chancellor of
Oakland University of Rochester, Michigan, in May 1964
resulted in nation-wide attention being drawn to the
1,500-student institution (227) . Chancellor Durward B.
Varner, charging irresponsible journalism, fired the
editor of the campus newspaper, the Oakland Observer,
suspended its publication, and ordered all copies of the
previous issue destroyed. The controversy surrounded
inquiries by the student newspaper into the sex lives of
men and women students and the intention of Observer
editor Wolf Metzger to print findings of a questionnaire
sent to 288 students living in the university's
82
dormitories. The questionnaire was inspired by reports
of increasing pregnancies of unmarried campus coeds.
A former editor had instituted the questionnaire,
which dealt with family background of students and their
sexual activities on and off campus and which received
a response of about 80 per cent. Metzger, as newly
appointed editor, was tabulating results when Chancellor
Varner ordered him not to publish the results or face
suspension from the college. Metzger's response was an
editorial critical of the chancellor for suppressing
the story and for exhibiting what Metzger called
hypocrisy.
Chancellor Varner called for destruction of all
copies of the newspaper which carried the editorial and,
in a call to the printer, destruction of all type from
which the story was printed. He said that the publica
tion of the survey would have damaged coeds' reputations
and that students had answered frivolously "with the
idea of giving the paper a good story" (88:13).
Hunter College
Internal dissention among members of the
editorial board of the Hunter College student newspaper,
the Arrow, resulted in the 1964 suspension of the news
paper by President John J. Meng (110:2). Five members
of the editorial board had brought impeachment charges
83
against the editor, who in turn editorially questioned
the integrity of the board members. The college Judicial
Board ruled that the dismissal was invalid because of
improper procedures used in the vote.
President Meng said that he was "not prepared
to commission and subsidize one man to operate a news
paper in the name of the entire college, however compe
tent and honest he may be" and that the suspension would
last until "I am assured that a properly authorized
staff is prepared to assume true corporate responsibility
for the paper." He then appointed a committee of two
deans and two students to recommend procedures whereby
a "properly authorized" student newspaper might be
allowed to function.
Brooklyn College
A student-faculty publications committee at
Brooklyn College ruled in 1950 that there be multiple
editorials each time controversial issues were placed
before the reader in the student publication, the
Vanguard (13:221). Shortly thereafter, two students who
had written editorials of opposing viewpoints charged
that their efforts had been altered. The committee on
publications voted to revoke the Vanguard's charter.
The American Civil Liberties Union upon investigation
found that while the articles in question had been
84
edited, there was no evidence to support the charges
of intent to distort or to censor the opinions of the
two student writers. The A.C.L.U. expressed the opinion
that the committee on publications had acted unjustly
and with too much haste in the matter of charter
revocation.
The college president, who earlier had suspended
publication of the Vanguard after the resignation of the
faculty adviser, said nonetheless that the affair was
closed and, further, that the committee on publications
"had over the years been exceedingly patient with the
errors of undergraduate journalism" (13:221).
University of Redlands
Suspension of the University of Redlands Bulldog
in 1962 came at the hands of the student editors them
selves following an administrative decision to authorize
the newspaper advisers to delete material from being
published (127:11:7). Editors were joined in support of
cancellation of the newspaper by members of the Student
Council, the English Department Faculty (28:11), and the
faculty adviser (77:9). President George H. Armacost
labeled the incident "much ado about nothing" (127:11:7).
Yet he did remove Stanley K. Freiberg, assistant
professor of English, from his role as faculty adviser
to the Bulldog for "a complete violation of confidence."
85
President Armacost said that he gave "no permission to
make a public announcement of this" (127:11:7).
Adviser Freiberg issued the following statement
in support of the students' action:
Initially, it must be noted that a college news
paper does not gain whatever freedom it enjoys due
to the public heritage of the freedom of the press
or the provisions of the First Amendment. Whatever
freedom or independence a college newspaper possesses
is conferred upon it by administrative respect for
the tradition of free expression and the educational
values derived therefrom.
Any institution is capable of paying lip-
service to freedom of expression and academic
excellence; but it takes . . . a great deal of
patience and forebearance to concede that a
student critic— however wrong-headed he may be—
should be permitted to express his opinions.
Thus, one must be on guard against such state
ments as "It is assumed that the adviser will
grant freedom to the editor and his staff in
proportion to their ability to accept responsi
bility." Such a statement betrays a basic mis
understanding of the very nature of freedom. It
assumes that freedom is some sort of commodity
or medicine to be measured out in doses, rather
than that freedom is an attitude of mind, an
orientation toward life, a vital philosophy.
When students come to feel (as members of the
Bulldog staff evidently do) that there is more
concern for the maintenance of a smooth-running
administrative machine than for the safeguarding
of the privilege to question, to air unpopular
ideas, and to stretch the mind— bitterness,
apathy and disillusion are inevitable.
If students are to be educated, they must be
encouraged to speak their minds. They will be
troublesome, inarticulate, inaccurate, heretical;
but a little embarrassment for the college is not
86
too great a price for the development of the
mind. (77:9)
Editor David G. Allison wrote that he saw only
three alternatives once the administration had decided
that material considered objectionable should be deleted
by the adviser: (1) censorship from without, (2) censor
ship from within, which he called "even more insidious
. . . because it conceals the existence of the censor
ships," and (3) silence, which he termed neither
resignation nor cold war (31:10). Allison said the
staff had chosen the latter because "it provides a
period of relative stability in which the fundamental
issues can be brought to light and examined. Thus, the
Bulldog has chosen silence so that the University
community can reflect upon the future role of the
Bulldog, not as an isolated thing-in-itself, but as a
part of the larger question: 'Should the Student Body
have the right to regulate its own student activities?*"
A communication signed by seven members of the
English Department included the following views:
The University of Redlands should be
especially proud of its student publication,
the Redlands Bulldog.
The truth at the University of Redlands is
purer because it is possible once a week to
challenge truth as error. Moreover, because of
the assured opportunity to express contending
views and opinions (no matter how noisy, naive,
or dyspeptic), our University is a more
87
transcendent religious community than one in which
any human pretension or partisan plea in the name
of religion or right remains unchallenged.
If we ever want to become a mediocre institution,
all we have to do is master the art of never dis
pleasing. (28:11)
President Armacost1s view was that the adviser
should grant freedom to the editor in proportion to his
ability to accept responsibility. "The question," he
said, "is accuracy and whether it is in good taste and
whether they are saying things damaging to the univer
sity" (127:11:7).
University of Notre Dame
The Scholastic, undergraduate news publication
of the University of Notre Dame, entered the arena of
controversy in March 1963 when university officials
canceled publication of the final issue to be edited by
the then existing group of student editors (84:18). Two
incidents led up to the canceled issue. First, the
Scholastic had proposed that the Reverend Theodore M.
Hesburgh, President of Notre Dame, assume the role as
Chancellor, thereby allowing a layman to become President
and to offer day-to-day leadership of the institution.
Father Hesburgh had become President in 1952 at the age
of 35. Editors said that his many duties took him away
from the university too much and that his absence was
detrimental to the institution. Second, university
88
officials censored what they considered objectionable
material from the issue previous to the one canceled.
Student editors objected, and with that, the following,
and final issue, was canceled.
In a letter to Notre Dame students, Father
Hesburgh said that it was his belief that "discontent
is not all bad," and then added:
The Scholastic had moments of greatness and the
promise of being the best, rather than a mixture
of the best and the worst ever. Several tendencies
marred the greatness: An excessively negative
attitude that felt called upon to scorn everything
under God and to pontificate far beyond the limits
of its writers* modest wisdom; bitter analysis
that often missed the point by ignoring or misre
presenting the facts of the matter; rather crude
and unkind personal criticisms; and on one occasion,
an open lack of integrity on the part of those in
charge that would have cost them their jobs anywhere
else and here too, if the university were indeed
what they were depicting it to be.
Worst of all, the lifelong dedication of
hundreds of valiant priests and brothers, over the
course of 120 years since the birth of Notre Dame,
was brushed off in several penstrokes.
Neither do I consider faculty and students
equal partners in the educative process here,
since students by definition are here to study
under the direction of the faculty, and to learn.
Nor do I consider student leaders to be makers of
broad university policy or weilders of pressure,
except in their own domain. (84:18)
Seton Hall
The Most Reverend John J. Dougherty, President
of Seton Hall University, suspended publication of the
89
Setonian in the spring of 1964 with charges of abuse of
freedom of expression (117:1) . The suspension was to
last until the end of the existing staff's tenure, at
least a month. Approximately 700 students rallying to
protest the suspension had to be dispursed with water
hoses in the hands of local firemen. In a statement
supporting his action, the President said:
It has always been my policy as president
of this university to allow our students the
fullest measure of freedom of expression, con
sistent with the proper regard for their own
responsibilities and the purposes and ideals of
the university.
In recent months, however, there had been
growing evidence that freedom of expression is
being abused in the columns of The Setonian.
There have been misrepresentations of facts
when true facts could have easily been ascer
tained. There has been an unwholesome spirit
that has characterized too many of the articles
appearing in The Setonian. (117:1)
Administrative officers
University of Rhode Island
Charges of administrative threats against her
job and against the autonomy of the University of Rhode
Island Beacon, student newspaper, were made in early
1964 by the editor (224). The controversy arose from
the reported showing of pornographic movies at a campus
fraternity house. The threats surrounded the proposed
printing of the story in the Beacon. The controversy,
90
however, was carried into the columns of the Providence
Evening Standard, which carried items on both the film
incident and the threats of censorship.
The administration first declined comment about
the film incident, but later reportedly called the
Beacon editor at home and requested an appointment for
the following day. At that time it was reportedly made
known that if the story appeared in the Beacon, the
editor would no longer hold that position. The editorial
board decided to run the story, but the administration
reportedly threatened the newspaper with greater
administrative control at the expense of editorial
autonomy. The editorial board then decided not to run
the story. However, when the story reached the
Providence newspapers, pressures were exerted upon the
administration, and the story of the film showing was
subsequently run in the Beacon.
University of Miami
The editor of the Hurricane, student newspaper
of the University of Miami, was relieved of her duties
in 1963 amid differences of opinion as to the reason for
the dismissal (225) . The editor was fired, according to
Vice President H. Franklin Williams, chairman of the
Publications Board, because she did not meet a university
requirement of carrying a full load of studies to be
91
eligible for the editorship.
The editor, while admitting she was not carrying
a full load of academic work, said the real reason for
her dismissal was her authorship of an editorial urging
greater Negro participation in student activities. The
editorial appeared a week before the dismissal. Further,
the editor claimed that she had been dropped from two
journalism class rolls immediately after the editorial.
Previously, she claimed, she had been allowed to miss
class in order to work on the paper. She said that she
was dropped without prior warning.
Vice President Williams, while denying that the
dismissal resulted from her editorial, said that the
editorial nevertheless did give an untrue picture of the
university. The university, he said, had achieved
"complete integration." He said, further, that
"editorial restrictions are negligible and that only
certain restrictions within good journalistic taste such
as morals are clearly taboo subjects" for the student
newspaper.
Columbia University
Editorial views of Reed Harris as editor of the
Columbia University Spectator resulted in 1931 in a
series of actions that drew nation-wide interest.
Wechsler in his Revolt on the Campus reported one
92
alumnus as saying that the students of Columbia had
"fired a shot which will be heard around the college
world" (24:109). Editor Harris pointed a poisoned pen
at high-pressure football, R.O.T.C., and, finally, the
administration of college dining halls. He attacked
what he called "excessive prices, inferior food, and
mistreatment of waiters" (91:35). Wechsler described
reaction of administrators as follows:
Accustomed to deal with the subservient and
the credulous, who took what was offered without
examining the contents, they were appalled by a
critic who resisted them. Harris was marked for
departure. (24:112)
Harris was expelled, and the following Monday a
mass meeting was held on the Library steps by some 4,000
students who voted a major strike for the following
Wednesday.
Several errors and conflicting reports by
Columbia administrators lend increased interest in this
case. First, Harris was expelled on the exact day that
his successor was due to be elected (24:112). Second,
the Dean said he had consulted with President Butler,
a claim the President later denied. Third, President
Butler denied any knowledge of the Harris situation when
asked for a comment by the New York Herald-Tribune.
Wechsler noted that the event had caused such debate
through the press and radio as well as on campus that
93
'•only a recluse could fail to have heard of it three
days later" (24:115). Fourth, the Harris expulsion,
according to administrative reports, was for attacks on
dining room practices, but a year earlier similar attacks
were made by one of Harris1 predecessors without
administrative reprisal (24:114). Fifth, on his depar
ture for a "long-planned" trip to England, the Dean said
that Harris would never be reinstated; Harris, however,
was reinstated following the Dean's departure (24:117).
Reaction to the Harris case from other college
editors differed greatly. The Daily Illini noted,
"Protecting student interests in his college should be
the undeniable right of every editor, even if he is
forced to step on the toes of the administration in
doing so" (91:36). The Cornell Sun, however, said, "A
Dean steps forward, performs a piece of supreme
stupidity, and presents the surprised editor with more
notoriety than the unremitting efforts of a solid year
have been able to produce" (91:36).
University of Chicago
The editor of the University of Chicago Maroon
was dismissed and the publication suspended by the Dean
following the editor's 1951 visit to an East Berlin
youth festival (13:216). The German visit, however,
merely capped a year of controversy surrounding the
94
editor and his extreme political views. A student-
faculty committee earlier had recommended that an
investigation be made. The National Student Association,
while opposing disciplinary action by the Dean, urged
also that an investigation be made into the Maroon and
its relationship to the student body and to the college
as a whole. The N.S.A., in addition, acknowledged abuse
of his position by the editor. Remedial steps were pro
posed by the Dean allegedly to insure that editors
would be elected by and be responsible to the student
body at large.
In explaining his later action in dismissing the
editor, the Dean claimed that the student had gone to
Germany as a representative of the student newspaper
without permission of the university. Publication of
the Maroon was suspended until election of a new editor
could be held.
University of Alabama
Student writers at the University of Alabama,
including editor of the Crimson and White, in 1963 were
prohibited from writing or commenting upon any racial
matters (228). The ban did not apply to the campus
newspaper, but was meant to deal with student journalists
corresponding with the professional media. Failure to
comply with the directive, according to the editor.
would have meant severe disciplinary action and possible
expulsion. The administration had required Alabama
students to sign statements agreeing to comply with the
new policy. An administrative representative said that
university officials "prefer professionals" in coverage
of racial news and said that the action was taken after
long experience with student reporters.
The administration said, however, that the new
policy would have no effect on the Crimson and White and
that the campus newspaper could continue to comment on
racial matters, adding that the paper had always done
pretty much what it wanted. The editor had written on
racial matters during the University of Mississippi
incident a year earlier and was named by the United
States Student Press Association "student editor of the
s'
year." He had urged Alabama adherence to federal law.
University of San Francisco
With charges of attempting to "reduce the paper
to a public relations blurb for the University,"
twenty-five University of San Francisco Foghorn staff
members resigned in the spring of 1964 (30:1). Resigna
tions followed the appointment of a new editor. About
95 per cent of the staff was included in the walk-out,
with only one photographer and the sports writers
remaining (72:1). The editor was appointed by the
96
Publications Council over objections by the staff and
adviser.
A former Foghorn business manager said he felt
the University was "forced to make a choice between
mediocrity and excellence, between an innocuous public
relations bulletin and a vital, exciting organ of news,
comment and opinion" (73:2). The new editor recruited a
staff of seniors for the remainder of the spring semester
and hoped to enlist a complete new staff the following
fall.
The newspaper had previously supported a student
group in its attempt to show on campus an allegedly
anti-catholic movie, "Joan of the Angels," and had
criticized administrative "paternalism" after the dis
qualification of a student body vice presidential
candidate because of his alleged participation in a beer
party in Golden Gate Park (30:1). Roger Geuttinger,
faculty adviser, said he reads all copy before it
appears in print (51:8).
The new editor said that the Publications
Council is made up of six students, four Jesuits, and
the Dean of Students. He said he was supported by three
students, two Jesuits, and the Dean.
Chicago Teachers College
The interim, campus newspaper of Chicago Teachers
97
College, was suspended and then reinstated within 24 hours
in 1963 (230). At issue was a cartoon attaching the
administration. The Dean suspended the paper and
confiscated copies meant for distribution. He explained
that his objection was that the cartoon was not
accompanied by an article presenting both sides of the
story. He said his action was taken so that the paper
would "respect the image of the college and the
community."
Accounts of the incident were carried in the
professional press along with the cartoon. The Interim
resumed operation the following day as the Dean promised
that no disciplinary action would be taken against the
student involved.
Northwestern University
Newspaper headlines across the country resulted
from a misunderstanding between a campus reporter and
the Director of Admissions of Northwestern University at
the beginning of 1964 (88:13). The director threatened
to withdraw the scholarship from the reporter, an action
for which the director later apologized publicly. The
furor arose from alleged discrimination against admission
of Jews to the university, a charge that the reporter
was investigating and that resulted in the misunderstand
ing. A faculty committee looking into the case held
the discrimination charges to be unfounded.
98
Faculty Members
University of Washington
Opposition to the Canwell Committee's investiga
tion of subversive activities led to the dismissal of
the editor of the University of Washington Daily (13:
218). The editor, Leonard Saari, discussed the methods
used by the committee and later spoke in support of a
resolution condemning subversive activities bills as
"invasions of the civil liberties of the people of the
State of Washington." Faculty adviser to the Daily,
charging the editor with promoting the interests of a
special segment of the campus and other various offenses,
asked the journalism faculty, the group holding such
authority, for dismissal of the editor. The request was
granted.
San Jose State College
Charges of Journalism Department abuse of
control of the San Jose State College Spartan Daily were
made and denied in spring 1964 (107:1). The debate,
primarily between members of the journalism and social
sciences departments, was climaxed with a four-hour
public panel discussion (218). objective of those
making the charge of excessive supervision was to allow
99
the Associated Student Body full responsibility for the
publication. The Spartan Daily was accused by some
members of the college faculty of being "coerced to the
will of its department head" (107:1). Censorship of
advertising also was charged (47:3) .
Defenders of the Spartan Daily1s present policy
of close alignment with the Journalism Department pointed
out the importance to students who hope to enter the
field of journalism upon graduation and the dangers of
libel (107:1). The advertisement in question, for the
Planned Parenthood Association, was said to be illegal
in the state of California, and the placement of the
advertisement was scheduled to be investigated (47:3).
A request had been made by the Chairman of the
Student Publications Advisory Committee for the formation
of an ad hoc committee of students and faculty to look
into the controversy.
Student Politicians
Pratt Institute
The prattler of Pratt Institute had existed for
five years before the student government legislative
body came into being in 1945. When the publication ran
a story, cartoon, and editorial implying that representa
tion was not democratic, the Executive Board suspended
100
publication student funds of the Prattler (6:42) .
Somewhat of a compromise was reached when funds
were released and minor retractions were made by the
paper. Crenshaw commented:
The freezing of Prattler funds constituted a
precedent-setting disciplinary measure that could
be interpreted as censorship of and interference
with a free press. . . .
It is believed that the action taken in 1947
by the Executive Board— an action admittedly
hasty and ill-conceived— would not be repeated
today. It is believed further that the existing
plan of referring all matters of financial policy
and administration to an experienced and qualified
faculty-student committee for its consideration
and recommendation is an outgrowth of the experience
undergone by the Pratt Institute pioneers in
student government (6:47)
University of California at Los Angeles
The Student Legislative Council of the Univer
sity of California at Los Angeles voted in May 1964 to
suspend the salaries of the three top Daily Bruin
editors and to terminate the services of another (46:1).
At issue was coverage of the UCLA Spring Sing which the
student group felt was published "in a derogatory
manner." An added question arose because of the fact
that new lines of responsibility for the Daily Bruin had
been formed, and it was uncertain who held authority at
the time of the incident. The new board, created under
the direction of Chancellor Franklin D. Murphy, was an
independent graduate-undergraduate group and was to
101
replace the political Student Legislative Council as
publisher of the newspaper (133:1).
San Fernando Valley State College
In another example of student government's use
of newspaper funding as a lever to achieve desired
political goals, student politicians at San Fernando
Valley State College, California, in May 1964 suspended
the 1964-65 newspaper budget in hopes of gaining a
regular presidential column and "fuller means for A.S.
students for expression" (40:1). The Board also passed
a statement calling for resumption of the publication
only "by the expressed consent of the A.S. Executive
Board." The controversy, fundamentally, is similar to
that at U.C.L.A., which raged the same week. The
Student Body president claimed that the Sundial had not
been giving adequate coverage to Associated Student
activities or policies (130:1).
The Sundial Editor Marty Ball said that the
publication's policy states that the newspaper shall
cover all areas of the college community and shall not
be a public relations organ of the Associated Students,
the faculty, or the administration (130:1). The
publication's policy also stated that all editorial
content is the sole responsibility of the editor, who
in turn, is responsible to the student-faculty Board of
102
Publications. Dr. Ralph Prator, college President,
later suspended all Associated Student funds until a
student-faculty committee could recommend action that
would be aimed at resolution of all budgetary disagree
ments, the newspaper incident being only the last in a
series of controversies that occurred during the academic
year.
University of California at Berkeley
A change in the selection of key editorial
personnel on the staff of the Daily Californian of the
University of California resulted in 1960 in the resigna
tion of the ten members of the Senior Editorial Board,
most of the staff members, and key editors of other
campus publications (58:43). Cause of the exodus was a
revision of editorial staff by-laws which clearly made
the Executive Committee of the student government
association the publisher of the newspaper and which
threw open the Senior Editorial Board to all undergraduate
applicants, regardless of journalistic experience.
The editor of the Daily Californian, said that
the proposal was "completely unacceptable to the Daily
Californian staff and principles of journalism because it
destroys the principle of editorial positions being
based on journalistic competence and previous Daily Cal
experience." The Senior Editorial Board had
103
traditionally selected the top ten editorial personnel
for the following year.
The Executive Committee issued a statement saying
that the previous system encouraged "the continuation of
an inbred philosophy" and that the changes were made "to
insure that the paper will be more responsible to the
student body at large."
The preceding thirty conflicts summarized in
Table 3 can be categorized into three groups: those
dealing with campus controversy, those dealing with
controversial off-campus issues, and those dealing with
news and opinion of racial or sexual matters. Two-thirds
of the cases dealt with campus controversy. In such
cases the disciplinary action tended to be suspension of
the newspaper rather than dismissal of the editor.
Action against the editor was most often found in cases
of off-campus controversy. Conflicts involving the
coverage of matters of race or sex usually resulted in
administrative threats, ultimatums, or reprimands. In
30 per cent of the total number of cases cited, no
immediate definitive action was taken which would involve
control of the publication.
Chapter Summary
Thirty illustrative cases presented in the
104
TABLE 3
i .
IMMEDIATE OUTCOME IN THIRTY SELECTED MAJOR CONFLICTS
INVOLVING STUDENT DAILY NEWSPAPERS
Type of Outcome
Frequency of
Occurrence
Admin. Threat, Ultimatum, or Reprimand 6
Change in Policy or Approach 3
Dismissal of Editor 6
Suspension of Newspaper 8
No Definitive Action Taken 9
Total number of actions reported 32*
*In two instances action was taken both to dismiss the
editor and to suspend the publication.
105
foregoing chapter indicated the wide spectrum of contro
versy in which the student press may find itself.
Incidents have involved off-campus organizations, state
legislative bodies, governing boards, college presidents,
administrative officers, faculty members, and student
politicians. Conflicts have arisen from editorial
policies, misunderstandings, and mistakes. Still, the
college press generally has maintained a high degree of
freedom to pursue whatever purposes and policies it sets
for itself.
CHAPTER VII
DIFFERING VIEWS ON EDITORIAL CONTROL
The university has "run head-on into a new
generation of undergraduates— a generation which shows
itself increasingly concerned with freedom of expression,
and far less willing to assume that teacher knows best."
This comment, appearing in Commonweal in 1963, was in
response to the suspension of the Notre Dame Scholastic
(126:269). For some, the article continued, this is a
symptom of "a world which has lost respect for authority,"
but for others it is "a bright new light."
This view is contrasted with an observation of
the same publication some eighteen years earlier:
There used to be two charges on which college
papers were suspended: youthful humor which was
too suggestive and jibes of various sorts at
specified members of the faculty held too biting
to be ignored. It was usually good publicity
for the paper itself, providing a happy occasion
for organized student protests in the name of
academic freedom and occasionally won the bold
young editors no worse sentences than slightly
extended vacations. (45:460)
And two decades earlier still, in 1926, comments
similar to those of 1963 were being heard, as reflected
by E. C . Hopwood in Scribner's Magazine:
106
107
Charges are made and denied of a distinct
decline in the morals of the college student.
An older generation shakes its head and predicts
disaster. Others see the manifestations of the
"new freedom." (87:172)
Yet the author criticized the college newspapers
of his day for lack of inspiration, lack of interest,
and too much evidence of the "dead hand of the faculty"
(87:174). He summarized college journalism of 1926 as
follows:
To judge college life at all intelligently
by its journalism is a problem. Estimated by
its newspapers, college morale is quite too good
to be true. Estimated by its humor publications,
it is so extreme as to be disturbing. The truth
is somewhere between the two. (87:178)
The point was made, however, that student
publications are closer to all reunifications of college
life than probably any other arm of the institution:
"It remains one of the best mediums through which the
peculiar phenomenon of the undergraduate mind at work
may be observed" (87:172).
The value of the student press as a reflector
of student opinion, warned Schoenfeld in The University
and Its Public, is "in direct proportion to its freedom
from faculty control" (21:26). He described these
choices as being available to the college administrator:
A free student paper with a vigorous editorial
page will give university administrators a running
picture of the undergraduate slant on all manner
of campus politics and procedures. But this un
trammeled student organ can also be an expensive
108
luxury if its irresponsible flailing keeps the
administration in perpetual hot water with its
intra- and extra-campus publics. Bach adminis
tration will have to decide for itself whether
it can afford to keep a militant junior journalist
in the stable or whether it will settle for a
"kept" press. If it chooses the former, it will
acquire all manner of headaches. If it chooses
the latter, it will not need to worry but it
will also slam the door on a fertile source of
student perspective. Certainly an administrator
must never fall into the trap of believing his
student relations to be sound merely because they
are endorsed by an intimidated student editor.
(21:26)
The college campus, as Maclver pointed out, is
"neither a schoolroom nor a barracks" (13:212) . He
noted that more recently it has become particularly
important to secure the right to dissent because of
extreme off-campus pressures aimed at conformity. Some
of these pressures, he noted, are aimed directly at the
student. "Moreover," Maclver continued, "he soon
learns that conformism pays" (13:207). Maclver reviewed
the various justifications used by administrators in
suppressing the student editor:
He has transgressed the limits the administra
tion has laid down respecting the permissible area
of editorial discussion. He has been unfairly
critical of administrative policy and has unduly
harped on institutional shortcomings. He has
shown bias or partiality and distorted the facts.
He has misrepresented the opinion of the student
body. He has shown poor judgment or bad taste.
His writing has been sloppy and careless. He
has paid too much attention to sex and published
vulgar jokes. (13:218)
Maclver continued by noting that the publica
tion's first responsibility is to the student, and not
109
to administrative opinion. It should be free, he wrote,
to criticize the administration. The institution's
administrative officers should have no authority to
censor the publication, "for that is to treat students
like school boys" (13:222).
He ventured, further, that "the most distinguish
ed" institutions have adopted a practice of giving
"practically complete freedom" to the student newspapers
and that some state institutions, even though they may
have more problems than do private colleges and univer
sities in this regard, have "notably succeeded" in
granting a high degree of editorial freedom to student
editors (13:217).
The American Civil Liberties union, in stating
that "the public interest is not served when the academic
community is fearful of experimentation, controversy
and dissent," has urged "full freedom of the press"
(32:111). And all students, it continued, "should take
responsibility for helping to maintain a free academic
community" (32:111).
Seeley in The Function of the University
described what is possibly an administrator's greatest
fear from a free student press, then warned of what he
termed a far greater danger:
Not infrequently there is danger of student
activities drawing toward the University
110
undesirable notoriety, either by some radical
pronouncement or by offending the canons of good
taste. Since the public mind is quick to
attribute to an institution the behavior and
attitude of sane of its members, it may be
claimed that unrestricted freedom may be detri
mental to the total value of the University.
In general, however, the danger is a small one.
Public memory is short and the Universities can
afford to set an example in showing an indifference
to uninformed public opinion. There is far greater
danger lest the University in its efforts to remain
in good graces of influential friends may impose
upon its students a standard of deadly mediocrity.
(22:64)
Further, as Maclver noted, "Banning does not ban
ideas nor do expulsions expel them— rather . . . they
have the contrary effect" (13:213).
Views of Students
"A silent press," wrote William W. Morris,
former editor of the University of Texas Daily Texan,
"is the manifestation of a silent age" (104:234). If
indeed the student press was once silent, it has become
in the past few decades increasingly vocal in its
demands for freedom from control from any outside
source— administration, faculty, or student government.
A 1928 convention of Pi Delta Epsilon, national
honorary journalistic fraternity, passed unanimously a
resolution "viewing with disfavor any policy of
suppression of the freedom of the college press"
(66:198).
Ill
Thirty years later student journalists had
become more specific in their charges of undue control.
At the first Student Editorial Affairs Conference of
the United States National Student Association in 1957,
some thirty undergraduate editors met at the University
of Michigan and claimed that the "aims of the college
student press cannot be achieved unless its independence
from all forms of external interference is maintained
inviolate and complete" (76:361). The group also
formally decried seven ways in which student press
freedom is threatened or abridged: (1) confiscation of
copies of student newspapers because of controversial
contents, (2) suspension, expulsion, or threats of such
action, (3) control of content by faculty or administra
tive censorship, (4) censorship by student government
bodies, (5) censorship through financial pressures,
(6) censorship by civil or ecclesiastical bodies, and
(7) "inordinate and excessive" social pressures to
prevent publication of certain facts or opinions (76:
361) .
Attitudes of the Student Body
Palmer in 1957 found that differences in
attitudes toward censorship of student publications
exist among different college classes (231). Both
freshman and sophomore students tended to demonstrate
112
a neutral attitude toward censorship of the press, but
members of junior and senior classes tended to look with
disfavor on such practices. Very significant differences
(.01 level) were found between freshmen and juniors and
between sophomores and juniors, and significant
differences (.05 level) were found between freshmen and
seniors and between sophomores and seniors. No
significant differences were found between the attitudes
of either freshmen and sophomores or juniors and
seniors.
Central Michigan University students were polled
by Stempel to determine student attitudes on advis
ability of the undergraduate press to comment on fifteen
specific campus situations (124:4). A random sample of
224 undergraduates was selected. Interviews were
conducted with 198, or 88 per cent of those chosen.
Findings are given in Table 4.
Stempel*s reaction to the findings was that
while the editor may worry about editorial freedom,
"his fellow students don*t seem very much concerned
about it" (124:4).
Stempel also raised questions about the high
proportion (75 per cent) of those who opposed naming
students arrested by city police. He claimed that
"such responses certainly indicate a basic unawareness
113
TABLE 4
WHAT STUDENTS THINK CENTRAL MICHIGAN LIFE SHOULD
BE ALLOWED TO PUBLISH
Per cent
Classification Affirmative
____________________________________________Responses
IN THE AREA OP CRITICISM:
Administrative policies .................. 91
Student Senate............................. 86
Student Plays ............................ 69
Student Art Exhibits................... 56
Student Music Recitals................... 52
Dean of Students Sorrells............... 48
Individual Faculty Members ............. 36
President Anspach ......................... 31
IN THE AREA OF FACTUAL INFORMATION:
Names of Scholarship Recipients ......... 96
Number of Votes Cast for Each
Candidate in Campus Elections .... 76
Names of Students in infirmary......... 61
Names of Students Arrested by City
Police.................................. 25
Names of Students Receiving Parking
Tickets............................... 24
Names of Students on Probation........... 17
Names of Students Expelled................ 16
* Source: Stempel, Guido H., III. "What Do Students
Think?" NCCPA Review, Vol. 3, February, 1960, p. 4.
114
of a newspaper's role in its community" (124:4). He
also was puzzled by the 24 per cent who opposed publica
tion of all election results. "One might reasonably
suppose," he wrote, "that students who have grown up
in a democratic society would demand this information."
Two relationships Stempel had expected to find
did not materialize (124:5). First, there was no
relationship between responses to the set of questions
on criticism and the set on factual information. Second,
grade-point averages of students were not related to
responses.
Editors View Their Freedom
A study conducted by Schoonover and summarized
in the NCCPA Review in 1963 noted that nearly two-thirds
of the college editors polled said that advisers did not
check stories prior to publication (115:31). Most of
the editors felt they had a high degree of freedom from
overt control, yet they were free to admit that pressure
to control editorial content did exist (115:33).
Editors said that they are more often argued with than
coerced. Administrative reaction to certain items
appearing in the papers, according to editors polled,
ranged from "yells of rage and pain" and "a fit now
and then," to being called into the president's office
for a "quiet talk" (115:32). Most of the editors, 108,
115
were named to their positions by boards of publications.
Fifteen were appointed by the administration of the
college (115:34).
Editors of college newspapers in the Southern
States reported in The New Republic in 1956 a high degree
of freedom from control (89:11). claiming to have com
plete freedom were editors Charlie Hollar of Oklahoma,
Robert B. Eggleston of Virginia, Edwin M. Yoder of
North Carolina, and Wallace Sherwood of Mississippi.
William W. Morris, however, reported from the University
of Texas that "the presence of a censor in our editorial
and news offices each night is an affront to the
dignity of college journalism."
Significantly, Yoder added that if the Daily
Tar Heel1s freedom is endangered, this danger is from
the students, particularly the student politicians.
Yoder reported a 50 per cent cut in the Daily Tar Heel
budget by student legislators because of disagreements
with the publication's viewpoints.
The dangers of rising costs and greater reliance
on student politicians for financing were noted in the
same year by Richard Meister, a former editor of the
Stanford Daily:
Student body presidents and their assistants
think of the newspaper as their organ, a publicity
vehicle in which to advertise (without cost) the
usual social fare of the collegian. . . . The
116
student leaders cannot see beyond their own back
yards— and neither can the student editors. In
most cases it's common to include the student
editor in the student government hierarchy, in
many cases he is not a student journalist, merely
a student politician. He edits the paper with
this in mind and the result is the spineless,
seemingly blind-to-the-outside-world college news
paper so prevalent today. (101:inside front cover)
This view was echoed by a 1964 editorial appear
ing in the Daily Trojan of the University of Southern
California:
Student governments tend to be full of petty
factionalism that can only lead to the corruption
of a student press, a situation that only would
further blacken the reputation of student
activities. (54:5)
The Post Office Department has been accused of
controlling the inflow of information to the college
press. The Washburn Review reported in 1959 that the
Post Office had refused to forward a pamphlet titled
"The German Democratic Republic: Its Universities and
Students" unless it was specifically asked for. It
allegedly contained "foreign political propaganda"
(63:3). An editorial by Pete Caldwell stated the
Review's position:
The Post Office has been duly informed that
this material was not requested by us. It has
also been informed that, in view of the fact that
it was mailed to us, we expect receipt of it by
return mail. . . .
It appears . . . that the United States is
busily erecting for itself its particular brand
of "Iron Curtain," complete with a committee of
little men deciding for us what we may or may
117
not be allowed to read.. . . This is the ultimate
insult to our intelligence. . . . (63:3)
Student views on editorial freedom were
summarized by John M. Harrison in a 1962 issue of the
Harvard Crimson:
The reasons why the college press should be
free have nothing to do with students1 rights.
They are at the very heart of the educational
process in a free society.
What is at stake is protecting these very
Constitutional freedoms, which are based on a
society whose members are free to examine and
criticize all institutions. These freedoms will
survive only so long as we make it a stated policy
of our educational system to stimulate the critical
faculty, not suppress it because it sometimes may
cause embarrassment. (82:3)
Editors View Their Responsibility
Student editors have expressed the view that their
first loyalty should be to the students and that their
first concern should be of campus issues. "Because of
our limited knowledge and because it is always easier to
snipe at Castro or DeGaulle from Iowa," wrote Robert
Lemay, former editor of the Iowa State Daily, "our goal
was to tackle problems on the University level first.
After all, this was our audience" (98:13). He continued
by noting that certain dangers lay in pursuing the local
issue:
But the coverage that could have cut our freedom
lay mainly in local issues, where we disagreed with,
and at times irritated, the University administration.
But again, never did the administration tell or
118
request us to change our policies.
Dr. James H. Hilton, president, deserves a lot
of commendation on this point. (98:13)
Lemay is supported by Robert Berry, a graduate of
Washington State:
Just as a commercial newspaper in a community
has a responsibility to the community, so, too, a
college editor has a responsibility to the students
and to the college. Too often, the student editor
considers that the students are somehow not a part
of the college community but are constantly at war
with it. (37:10)
Gordon Roberts, former editor of the University
of Georgia Red and Black, stated that the Georgia
administration felt in 1956 that the student newspaper
generally should not comment on items of national or
state importance (89:11).
Mark Acuff, an officer of the United States
Student Press Association and former editor of the New
Mexico Lobo, claimed another reason for a free and
responsible student press:
That the United States commercial press has,
by and large, abdicated its responsibilities in
the realm of free expression and criticism is no
reason why the student press should follow suit.
In fact, it is an excellent reason why the student
press must work all the harder to engender and
encourage a campus dialogue— for the commercial
press is run by accountants these days while the
student press still is run by aspiring journalists.
It is traditionally within the pages of the
student newspaper that the issues of the campus
are debated— and sometimes resolved. The student
press has an historic role on the campus as critic
and gadfly, source of new ideas and proposer of
new solutions. (27:14)
119
Neal Johnston, formerly of the University of
Alabama*s Crimson and White and associated with the
United States National Student Association, wrote in
1963 that a college newspaper which fails to comment
upon the important issues of the day whatever they may
be is the "most dangerously irresponsible paper in the
whole range of the press" (90:8).
Finally, Roger Ebert, former editor of the
Daily Illini, made a strong plea for freedom of the
student press with the following observation:
. . . The great student newspapers exist almost
entirely on campuses where they have operational
and financial independence. . . . Is it coincidence
that precisely these newspapers (on campuses such
as Illinois, Michigan, Harvard, Texas, and Chicago)
and others with similar freedoms are the ones which
are doing, year after year, the best job of inform
ing their readers on important social, educational
and political events? I think not. (67:11)
Views of Journalism Educators
The role of the faculty adviser in undergraduate
journalism appears to be expanding rather than declining,
wrote Iowa Adviser Arthur M. Sanderson in 1964 (113:9).
Maclver also noted this trend a decade earlier when he
wrote, "The censorship and close supervision of under
graduate journalism is an old story, and there is some
evidence that these controls are tending to increase
rather than diminish" (13:216). But he noted that a
120
faculty adviser can serve a useful purpose by pointing
out errors and weaknesses to student staff members. The
adviser should not, however, possess the power of
censorship, he concluded.
Supervision, noted Russell E. Bert of Superior
State College, takes many forms. His 1952 survey of 141
colleges and universities indicated that the smaller
institutions were most likely to exert the greatest
degree of control of student newspapers and that medium
sized institutions would be most likely to grant the
greatest degree of freedom (38:65). His study foresaw
what Maclver and Sanderson later noted— that there
appeared a trend toward greater supervision of the
student press.
An Adviser's Fate
Many professors have no desire to function as a
publications adviser. Melvin Mencher of Columbia quoted
one who said he wouldn't touch the student newspaper
"with a ten-foot pole" (103:17). He noted that mistakes
made in the normal classroom situation "ended up on the
newsroom floor or in the hands of the janitor. Our
students' errors end up in the hands of 8,000 readers."
A survey by Schoonover in 1963 found that 152
of the advisers polled said that the presidents of their
institutions had "expressed disapproval of the student
121
newspaper." Fifty others said there had not been open
criticism by the president, and another twenty-seven
said they were unsure of any criticism by the head of
the institution (115:31). Mencher recalled that one
midwestern newspaper adviser had described his being
moved from a pleasant office location to a basement area
following the student newspaper's publication of
"legitimate stories which offended the college president"
(102:20).
Pressure comes not only from the president, but
often from off campus. Respondents to Schoonover's
survey indicated a variety of sources of pressure:
alumni (listed forty-three times) , church groups
(twenty-eight times), students' parents (twenty-three
times), school backers (twenty-one times), state
governments (eleven times), and city governments (nine
times) (115:33).
Learning Value
Paul A. Atkins, West Virginia University adviser,
urged in 1963 a close tie between the school or depart
ment of journalism and the college newspaper:
I, for one, couldn't disagree more with the
approach of the schools of journalism or communi
cations who divorce themselves from the college
newspaper and its staff. They are abdicating one
of their essential responsibilities. In my opinion,
they share the blame for the editors who have found
themselves in hot water and the papers which have
122
become anathema to college administrations in these
recent years. (90:8)
Sanderson also urged a more active role for
advisers:
Advisers, if they are to be worthy of that most
descriptive job title, need not sit back in their
office chairs to announce that "If the editor wants
any advice, he knows my office number." Let him,
instead, do some real advising when he sees a need
for it. (113:7)
An opposing view has been taken by Irving W.
Rothman, director of student publications at the
University of Pittsburgh:
The student newspaper should not be a laboratory
product of journalism classes because in that way it
limits the interests of student writers, confines
the reportorial potential to a comparatively few,
and subjects editorial opinion to the desires or
cautions of the instructor. (90:12)
Since the Kansan operates as a laboratory. Dean
Burton Marvin of the Kansas School of Journalism
demanded as essential the neutrality of the Kansan in
all political areas both on and off the campus (122:56).
He also noted that the publications represent the
university in the eyes of the students and the citizens
of the state. "Such a rule of operation, essential in a
public institution, cannot be subject to the whim of one
generation of students," he wrote.
Mencher, however, argued that papers that work
as laboratories should be free, "for it would be
somewhat inconsistent for a journalism school which
preaches a free press in the classroom to clasp to itself
a kept press. But the strains and pressures on these
schools and colleges of journalism are considerable and
continuing" (103:11).
Curtis MacDougall of Northwestern urged in 1959
limited use of the student press as a laboratory. He
noted that "you simply cannot use the campus newspaper
to provide the kind of training needed for professional
newspapering today" (99:20). He wrote that he knew of
no accredited school of journalism that used the student
newspaper as a laboratory for more than the fundamental
courses, and that on the smaller campuses the student
newspaper was strictly an extra-curricular activity,
similar to drama or music.
The Importance of Freedom
The debate over the degree of editorial freedom
that a student editor should have is apparently the
major concern of recent writers dealing with the student
press. Mencher noted a semantic problem that might tend
to exist:
In the first place, I don't think the students
who work on daily and weekly college papers are
talking about the same thing as their news advisers,
college administrators and those who scrutinize the
college press— wary alumni, regents and legislators.
When students talk about press freedom they
mean the right to print whatever they wish. It's
124
that simple. Faculty advisers, deans and administra
tors want to reserve the right to examine copy and
to exercise final veto power. The fact that this
power is infrequently used convinces some of them
that their college or university newspaper exists in
an open and free environment.
It doesn't and the students know it. (103:11)
Maclver, another advocate of complete freedom of
the student press, urged that there be "no advance
censorship by any controlling body, whether administra
tive, faculty, or student" (13:222).
Arthur F. Nicholson, publications adviser of
State College, Indiana, Pennsylvania, was equally
adamant:
The fact simply is that a good college cannot
afford to have anything but the freest kind of
student press. On the other hand the college can
easily afford to have a press which feels free to
call attention to unpleasant points of view about
the college and its administration.
It seems to me that no censorship of the press
can be as effective as the reaction of college
students and faculty to the unwise or unfair use
of press freedom. (105:23)
Mencher also voiced the same view:
Student newspaper staffs that know they will be
held responsible for what they print respond to this
trust. . . . These young men and women know they
must face their fellow students. . . .
This responsibility does more for novice news
papermen then any kind of censorship, no matter
how lenient.. . . Censorship serves no other
purpose than to teach students to duck
responsibility. (103:17)
125
The best: educational approach to the question of
adviser control, according to Ernest Jerome Hopkins of
Arizona State, is to "train 'em, then trust 'em"
(86:4).
"Honest differences of opinion," noted
Sanderson, "are not infrequent, for while we claim that
our students are well trained, they definitely are not
trained seals— nor do we expect them to be or want them
to be" (114:9).
Jacob Scher of Northwestern, during a 1960 panel,
commented that he thought efforts to get editors to
agree to a written code did not work well because
responsibility cannot be put into words (111:31). He
claimed that editors feel a sense of responsibility
when they know an institution's problems. The best type
of relationship, he said, is a relationship in which
administrative doors are always open for discussion and
in which opportunity is always available for investiga
tion of the problems.
MacDougall attempted to obtain the use of
sanctions by the American Association of Schools and
Departments of Journalism against institutions that
"in any form whatever" imposed censorship on under
graduate publications. He noted also that it is as
unrealistic to expect the student newspaper to represent
126
the college to the public as it is to expect faculty
members to adhere to an institutional public relations
line:
Colleges "sponsor and own" their faculty members
too, but it is considered to be in the public in
terest that teachers enjoy academic freedom and full
citizenship rights. Any embarrassment a professor
may cause an administration by remarks or activities
is outweighed by the importance to democracy and the
pursuit of truth which freedom entails. (99:20)
Mencher quoted a group of New England editors
named to study a college newspaper and its problems.
The conclusion reached by this committee is similar to
the conclusion found by MacDougall:
There is no way in which the university can
avoid embarrassment from time to time as a result
of the exercise of the freedom of the staff. From
the university's point of view this must be accepted
as a calculated risk which attends its encouragement
of publication of a student newspaper. We believe
that over the years the risk has been and will
continue to be fully justified. (103:17)
"I wonder," Mencher wrote in considering the
possibility of a student's desire to by-pass a censor,
"if the dead hand of censorship doesn't challenge
students to get one by the 'keeper of the gate'"
(103:17).
Finally, from the viewpoint of a free campus
press, Nicholson hit upon a key point as he issued the
following challenge:
As a practical matter, I have often observed
that where a college is well and wisely administered,
the press generally tends to be free. And, by and
127
large, the press tends to be most closely supervised
and censored where the administration is weakest and
most insecure. (105:23)
The Importance of Control
Mencher again brings the issue into focus.
"What all this boils down to," he wrote, "is that you
believe students must be given freedom of expression to
make of it what they will, or you don't" (103:17) .
Garth Sorenson's survey of educators in eighty-
six colleges and universities revealed the following
complaints, all pointing to the lack of ability of
student editors to assume responsibility necessary to
guarantee complete freedom to the editor: "crusading
editors . . . irresponsibility . . . publicity hounds
. . . poor taste . . . vulgarity . . . indecency . . .
personal quarrels . . . administrative embarrassment"
(121:339) .
In urging maximum freedom for the campus press,
Dwight Bentel of San Jose State College nonetheless
summarized in 1956 one area of concern to those who
argue for greater control.
The college editor is a transient. He
comes . . . and goes.
During his four-year educational excursion
across the campus from enrollment to graduation
he pauses briefly to sample the duties of editor
ship, then moves along.
128
When he arrives the student newspaper is waiting
for him, ready made. He had no part in its creation,
has no financial stake in its success, is relatively
unaffected by its continued well-being.
He brings to the editorship a limited experience,
if any. His judgment is circumscribed by his years,
his responsibility may or may not have outgrown his
adolescence.
If his editorship causes embarrassment to the
institution, administration or faculty, or injury
to the student body, or harm to the paper itself,
at the end of his brief term he merely walks away
from the wreckage.
Freedom of the press for the college editor,
then, may be in large measure freedom without
responsibility. Hence it is easy to sympathize with
a college administration that clamps restraint on
him. (34:46)
Many institutions do exert varying degrees of
supervision and control, and, as pointed out earlier,
this supervision is thought to be increasing rather than
decreasing. Bert's 1952 survey pointed out that of 107
colleges without accredited schools of journalism 85 per
cent exercised "supervision" over the editorial policy
of the college newspaper (38:62). And of that figure,
70 per cent exercised "close supervision" and the remain
ing 30 per cent only "modified" supervision.
Among the thirty-four accredited schools and
departments of journalism, 68 per cent said there was
"supervision." Of those, approximately one-third
acknowledged "close supervision" and the remaining two-
thirds only a "modified form of control" (38:64). Bert
acknowledged difficulty in defining the term "supervision,
noting that there were indications of some degree of
"supervision" among colleges that claimed none. There
was indication, also, that "supervision" did not
necessarily mean censorship. It might be helpful to
consider Bert's findings in light of those of other
studies tending to show a greater degree of "freedom."
Of course, "supervision" does not necessarily negate
"freedom." The lack of unanimity may be attributed to
semantics.
Roy French, retired director of the School of
Journalism of the University of Southern California,
approached the problem from the viewpoint of education
for professional journalism:
I feel sure that back of the printed phrase,
"student owned and controlled campus newspaper,"
is an administration, an alumni group, or some
sort of a corporation with legal standing.
Obviously, a constantly shifting student editorial
staff, ages 18 to 21, is not such a body.
What I would like to know is WHY it is "a moral
obligation and a professional duty" to lie to
students directly or by implication by telling
them, teaching them, or even giving them "complete
freedom of the press" while they are in college
since, obviously, they will never have it again
during their entire life as journalists.
Oh sure, they may become publishers and have it,
almost, but that is because they are publishers.
Not because they are journalists. (79:10)
Others, of course, recommended degrees of control
somewhere between the two opposing views offered here.
130
Herman A. Estrin of the Newark College of Engineering,
for example, wrote that faculty censorship should never
be necessary if the staff has the proper training
(68:149). He added that censorship should be employed
"only when some member of the paper directly opposes
the college and threatens the college." Sorenson,
however, conjectured that if "students were mature and
responsible, faculties and institutions of higher
education would not be needed" (121:339).
Views of Administrators
"Few things are more trying to the man on the
job," wrote President John S. Dickey of Dartmouth
College in 1951, "than living day in and day out with
the problems of undergraduate journalism. For every
occasion on which someone beyond the campus is annoyed,
there are probably fifty occasions when the college
official is manhandled with all the zeal of which a
certain type of undergraduate is capable when confronted
with an adult target" (13:217). Still, President Dickey
saw at least three reasons why the "price ought to be
paid." First was the educational value that is available
to a community of scholars that has "its own experience
with the raw material of freedom." Second was more
practical: if the institution steps in to control the
131
student press, the institution itself then is made
responsible for what does get into print. Third was
that a "little censorship leads quickly to more."
One of the difficulties that leads to the
frustration described by President Dickey is that
student editors year after year "vary so widely in
experience, maturity, and sense of responsibility,"
according to President F. L. Morrill of the University
of Minnesota (35:26).
Supporting these views, President Irvin Stewart
of West Virginia University in 1950 added the following
observation:
The relationship between the administration and
the student newspaper may have progressed smoothly
for years and then some incident may occur which
will give rise to heated charges of censorship.
Usually the situation is in the nature of a tempest
in a teapot, which might well have been resolved by
a heart-to-heart talk between administrative
officials and the editor of the student newspaper.
(125:94)
Such talks, however, may bring charges that the
student press is a "kept press" of the administration—
that is, no more than a public relations house organ.
The Daily Bruin in 1964 asked Chancellor Franklin Murphy
of U.C.L.A. for his reaction to such claims being voiced
around the Westwood campus. The Chancellor's succinct
answer probably would be echoed from presidential offices
across the nation:
132
My reading of the Bruin makes me believe that
if anything, it's quite the opposite. I find that
the Bruin rarely has a happy or felicitous comment
to make about the administration. (50:8)
If Chancellor Murphy is correct in his analysis of the
contents of the Daily Bruin, why does he allow these
comments and criticisms to continue? Henry Grattan
Doyle may have offered a partial answer as early as 1928
when he ventured the opinion that "college editors are
likely to be among our most intelligent students"
(65:80). His view received added support by President
Stewart, who wrote in 1952, "It has been my policy to
take each criticism seriously and seek the facts under
lying the practice leading to the criticism" (35:26).
"Half the proposals resulting in better things,"
wrote Sheldon E. Davis in a warm farewell to the
presidency of Teachers College, Dillon, Montana, "have
come from the staff or from students" (62:81) .
President Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia in
1940 used the letters-to-the-editor column of the
Columbia Spectator in hopes of clarifying his stand on
academic freedom (109:359). He had been asked by faculty
members and by the student editor for clarification on
his position in that time of national crisis.
Lamenting the fact that too seldom does the
scholar gain recognition without getting an assisting
boost from some extra-curricular vehicle, Vice President
133
Monroe E. Deutsch of the University of California in 1952
noted that "so far as campus fame is concerned, there is
no comparison between the shining glory won by a leading
actor, politician, or editor, and the infinitesimal
flicker of a sparkle on a Phi Bete key" (7:138).
He also discussed the harmful effect that
excessive time and competition may have on a college
journalist in the pursuit of his goals:
Those who start as cub reporters on the daily
hope to attain the editorship. Competition exists
in each and every one of these fields. What is the
inevitable result? One must work harder on his
debates, his acting, his reporting, than others do;
he must do a better job, and naturally this means
spending more and yet more time. It is said of at
least one college daily that when promotions on the
staff are under consideration careful note is taken
of the precise number of hours each competitor has
worked, whether this is literally true is unimport
ant; in spirit it is true. The competition is so
intense that each who strives spends more and yet
more time on his chosen activity. (7:136)
President Albert Britt of Knox College also
issued a warning for those in the fields of journalism
and drama. He wrote in 1936 that these two areas have
definite value to an institution, but that when competi
tion is so keen as to require the newspaper adviser, for
example, to supervise the election of the college editor
in order to prevent "the honor from becoming a football
of campus politics, the observer must have some doubt
about the entire sanity of the sideshow in question"
(41:40).
134
The Importance of Freedom
Much of the controversy centered around the
question "How much freedom for the college editor?" exists
because of subject matter run by college newspapers. But,
as Vice President Deutsch remarked, "Surely political
activity is as worthy as . . . sports columns or con
cocting jokes for the college papers" (13:211). And
nowhere is it more important, said President Alvin
Eurich of the University of the State of New York, "to
cherish and protect freedom of inquiry, thought, and
speech than on the college campus— the training grounds
for . . . future citizens who must understand the values
and responsibilities of democracy" (116:661).
Doyle noted in 1928 that censorship was not
common among administrators:
Only in a few cases . . . do college authorities
indicate that they approve of censorship in any form.
. . . On the other hand, almost without exception
they appear to believe that student editors should
be given complete authority, but authority accom
panied by the complete responsibility that must
accompany lawful authority in every activity of life.
Many . . . emphasize the fact that censorship is
not only contrary to American ideals of free speech
and a free press, but also that censorship is bad
psychology and bad educational policy. (65:78)
He also recalled an incident that pinpointed one
of the outcomes of censorship (65:78). The George
Washington Chapter of Pi Delta Epsilon journalism
fraternity decided to test the psychological elements of
135
censorship by printing a "razz sheet" edition with one
corner blank and with a blank editorial column. The
blank spaces were studiously cut out by staff members,
who also initiated a whispering campaign of censorship
of the missing contents. The special issues sold
vigorously on campus, unknowing students searched the
print shop for the type, and "unexpurgated copies" sold
for as much as $10.
In criticism of timid administrators, Maclver
commented that some "are so fearful of the false asso
ciation of their institution with the activities of
particular student groups that they seek to ban every
thing controversial from the pure— or stagnant— air of
the campus" (13:211).
Wendell S. Brooks of the University of Oregon in
1927 quoted Attorney Francis J. Heney, who accused
University of California officials of timidity. "You
fired me for fighting," he said. "Now you have called me
back and honored me with the privilege of speaking to
this graduating class, because I am a fighter" (42:292).
Brooks noted that both as an undergraduate and later as a
civic leader Heney was a fighter, but it was only until
he was campaigning forcefully for civic improvements that
his fighting was appreciated by the university. Brooks
also quotes William E. Hocking as beginning his lectures
136
on college values with the opinion that "we teachers have
not convinced our students of the values we set before
them."
Those who usually practice censorship, noted
Doyle, usually apologize for it (65:78). He continued
that it was his belief that student editors would seek
advice to a far greater degree if it is on a voluntary
basis. Lack of censorship, he claimed, does not
necessarily mean lack of contact with faculty or a board
of publications. He warned, however, that the editor
under such a policy should be free to accept or to reject
the advice offered. Sometimes, he noted, the adviser may
be wrong.
President C. Clement French of Washington State
in 1952 voiced the opinion that the crisis in under
graduate journalism usually arises from poor journalistic
practices, irresponsibility, or immaturity, rather than
a desire to crusade:
The real objective is to provide the student
with an experience in which he can learn and develop
judgment and maturity. It would seem to me that a
planned and controlled training program is more
certain to result in sound student development than
in the completely free student activity approach.
(33:32)
Student publications at Iowa State are considered
laboratory productions of the Department of Journalism,
wrote President Charles E. Friley in 1952 (33:32) . When
137
these publications "cross over to the wrong side of the
track and violate the generally accepted principles of
good newspaper conduct," he wrote, the college adminis
tration feels free to discuss these mistakes with the
faculty adviser. "Such discussion," he continued, "is
designed to point out the mistakes and give them an
opportunity to correct them. Such policy has invariably
been successful."
President Stewart of West Virginia, however,
said he tended to deal directly with the student editors
rather than with advisers:
Where the facts do not appear to justify the
criticism, we call that to the attention of the
student editors. This is not with any view of
seeking retractions but merely to see that errors
are not perpetuated in succeeding issues. (35:26)
President Stewart discussed in another article
the students' right to disagree:
In my opinion the delegation to a student
group the authority to decide and to act carries
with it the right to make mistakes; it implies
the right to make decisions other than those
which the university administration might have
made in the same circumstances, otherwise it
is a mirage, a form without substance. (125:92)
He was supported in this view by President
Robert Gordon Sproul, who in 1952 as head of the
University of California, spoke favorably of the
students' right to dissent:
In spite of periodic exasperation, I believe
it is good for a college or university to have a
138
student body which is encouraged to think for
itself by the existence of opportunity to make
mistakes. After all, one of the basic freedoms
we are all trying to protect is the freedom to
criticize and complain— the freedom to "gripe."
(35:26)
He cited advantages to the student in this type
of free student press and at the same time minimized any
"damage" to the university:
It is good for students to carry full responsi
bility for the policies and performance of a campus
newspaper, and the mistakes they make are not only
effective educationally, but are less important
than the administration and public think at the
time they occur. (3 5:26)
Nor did President Colgate W. Darden, Jr. of the
University of Virginia see objection to the student
press in its criticism of administrative policies (36:
48). The student newspaper "is entirely in the hands of
students charged with its publication," he wrote. "I
think it is important that complete latitude be given in
this." He took note of differences that the student
newspaper, the Cavalier Daily, has had with views of the
administration:
The views expressed in our paper are often
quite different from views held by me and others
connected with the university, but I see no
objection to this. It is completely free to
criticize the university's policy and it often
does criticize it constructively. It is my
opinion that a controlled student newspaper
would be of little worth either to the students
or to the institution wherein it is published.
(36:48)
139
Other heads of institutions have expressed
similar support for a free press, chancellor James P.
Hart of the University of Texas expressed a feeling in
1952 that the student newspaper should be "free to oppose
actions and policies of the college administration" (33:
32). Dean of Students Fred H. Weaver of the University
of North Carolina wrote the same year that a student
newspaper "not free to criticize would be a travesty of
journalism and of education" (35:26) . President Morrill
of the University of Minnesota, while acknowledging that
problems of the student press are ever present, said
that the Minnesota Daily is "uncensored and there is no
thought here by the University administration of con
ducting it otherwise" (34:46). President Tom L. Popejoy
of the University of New Mexico said in 1964 that he
defends "full freedom of expression" and bars "pre
publication censorship" of student editors (83:111:14).
And Chancellor R. B. House of the University of North
Carolina said he would "prefer abolishing the publication
to any exercise of faculty or administrative censorship"
(36:48).
President Buell Gallagher of the College of the
City of New York admitted that the Observation Post had
been dominated recently by "students who are Marxist-
oriented and Communist in their sympathies" (118:14) .
140
He noted that the editorial boards are self perpetuating
and that a change in direction of policy, therefore, was
extremely difficult. To his critics who blamed him for
perpetuation of an admittedly unpopular editorial policy,
however, President Gallagher offered this view:
There are no means whereby the president of
the college, or faculty adviser, the student body
or any person or group outside the actual inner
circle of the editorial staff of the paper, can
determine the selection of editors, the assignment
of duties or the editorial and news policies of
the paper. I like it that way. I want no censor.
I like, and defend, a free press. (118:14)
Censorship of student publications would tend
to "drive student opinion underground," according to
President George D. Stoddard of Illinois. He also voiced
a conclusion often heard, that if the university is to
assume the role of censor, it must also assume responsi
bility for "every student utterance" (35:26).
President Dean W. Malott of Cornell, in pro
claiming the Daily Sun's freedom from administrative
censorship, in 1952 noted that such censorship "might
make for conformity, but that course would lead only to
the withering of a healthy force on the campus" (35:26) .
Raymond M. Hughes wrote that as president of
Miami University and of Iowa State he placed great
importance in the selection of the editor. "Certainly,
the administration," he wrote, "is entitled to positive
assurance that the editors of student publications are
141
trustworthy men and women with a high sense of responsi
bility" (14:201). While granting that student publica
tions can present problems to college administrators,
still he acknowledged that censorship was "distasteful"
to him and that he would not do it? and, he added, he
could not ask anyone else to do what he would not do
(14:200).
Chancellor William P. Tolley of Syracuse wrote
that he looked upon the Daily Orange as a "calculated
risk":
We recognize that editorials and news stories
in the Daily Orange will from time to time be a
source of embarrassment to the university, but we
have treated this as a calculated risk. When out
side groups put pressure on the administration to
censure the editors or modify editorial policy,
we make it clear that the Daily Orange does not
speak for the university but speaks only for the
students. The editors are responsible to their
fellow students and any curbing of editorial
powers would come by action of the student body.
(36:48)
Consequences of presidential censure are
discussed by a former faculty member at the University
of Colorado, Lawrence Weiss. He wrote in 1962 that
President Newton's dismissal of student editor Gary
Althen following the appearance of columns critical of
several public figures was a grave and unfortunate act.
(Details of the "Colorado situation" are given in
Chapter VI.) Weiss claimed that the Colorado Daily had
been a "powerful influence" in attempting to move the
142
Institution toward greatness. Coverage, he said, turned
away from "fraternity houses and . . . football" and
into the "arena of ideas and controversy" (131:402).
The action of President Newton, he wrote, had
"threatened to bring the University of Colorado to a
stopping place— if not a turning point— in its drive to
become a 'great university.1 And it has raised, for the
whole academic world to contemplate, the question of
whether any university operated and financed by a state
and subject to state political pressures can become a
'great university' in the fullest sense of the phrase"
(131:402).
In 1951 President Dickey of Dartmouth wrote
about his concept of freedom for the student press. His
views are quoted here at length because they serve as an
outstanding summation of the problem under investigation:
. . . Here at Dartmouth we have had a long
tradition of according to undergraduate journalism
a freedom which is roughly comparable to the freedom
accorded the press in American life generally.
There is no need to tell anyone who is at all
broadly acquainted with American life that we pay
a price for this freedom. That price is paid in
the irresponsibilities and malice which certain
types of individuals practice under the guise of
journalism.
. . . All colleges do not have a tradition of
according such freedom to undergraduate journalism,
and, believe me, the other tradition looks wonder
fully attractive to the man on this job. officially
and personally, directly and indirectly, he is more
often than not the victim on whom the burdens of
a free college press come to rest. . . . Having
143
said that, let me say that on balance I am clear
that I would not alter this core principle of
American life by one jot. I say this because I
believe that to do so would be to take the first
firm step toward altering the best in the character
of America. . . .
The basic objectives of the college bear on
the problem of Dartmouth and, indeed, on the problem
of living with any undergraduate paper where there
is, as here, a tradition of free expression. . . .
First is the educational value involved in
having a community of scholars have its own
experience with the raw material of freedom.
. . . The second reason for this tradition
grows out of the practical advisability of limiting
the responsibility of the official college as to
the irresponsibilities, inaccuracies and immaturities
which are a part of any undergraduate activity. If
the college is to supervise and censor the content
of an undergraduate paper, it cannot escape total
responsibility for what appears in that paper.
As every student and practitioner of the subject
knows, it is almost inevitable that a little censor
ship leads quickly to more. . . . censorship and
supervision of the content of undergraduate journal
ism having the almost inevitable consequence of
producing a "tame press."
. . . Just the other day I was talking about
this problem with another college president who
has the tradition of a supervised paper on his
campus and he not only confirmed this observation
to me but he went on to say that he often yearned
for the vigor and comparatively greater maturity
of a student paper which addressed itself
occasionally to the controversial issues of the
world.
I reminded him of the price which we pay for
having that kind of journalism on this campus and
his reply was, "Yes, but the other way you probably
pay a higher price without knowing it." (36:48)
The Importance of Responsibility
144
Many administrators whose views have appeared in
the literature have tied the necessity of responsible
editing to the guarantee of editorial freedom. "I
believe," wrote E. G. Williamson in 1963, "that those
students who claim that academic freedom is inalienable
should be realistic in appraising the fact that freedom
is a condition to be achieved. . ." (132:217).
President Ralph Prator of San Fernando Valley
State College urged the necessity for a mature approach
to higher education:
A part of the learning process is the achieve
ment of an understanding of responsible behavior.
Students need to knew that an educated person should
not casually offer random criticism and that
constructive criticism is justified by the benefi
cial results it can achieve. The president . . .
must make it clear that to initiate or circulate
unfounded accusations and criticisms is dishonor
able. The college campus is not a place for small
minds and unbridled freedom. The pursuit of
knowledge is a rigorous one and requires sustained
discipline. The students learn their lessons best
if frequently reminded of the level of maturation
it is assumed they have attained when they enroll
in college. (19:51)
Roland Bing expressed as not only desirable but
necessary the "complementary virtues" of freedom and
responsibility (39:383). He added that most administra
tors and faculty members would accept such a position,
but that the real problem would be in "transcribing it
into action."
145
While admitting that he "abhors" censorship in
any form and recommending that the student press be given
the same freedom as society would expect of the press in
general, Chancellor Henry T. Heald of New York University
in 1952 nonetheless noted in granting freedom the
necessity to consider the editors' "demonstrated ability
to think and act as mature individuals" (35:26) . He
further noted that student editors do not always possess
this ability.
President John A. Hannah of Michigan State
compared the editor with other students on the campus:
We believe here . . . that student editors,
like students in all other positions of responsi
bility, should have as much freedom as they can
exercise with judgment, propriety, and a sense of
responsibility. (35:26)
He continued, however, with a warning that
"publications supported with college— meaning public—
funds have no right to embarrass the institution and
handicap it in carrying out its major mission" (35:26) .
President Milton Eisenhower then of Pennsylvania
State advocated even a closer watch on student publica
tions. His recommendation in 1952 was for the
administration "at times" to check the copy of student
publication "for purposes of promoting accuracy and
responsibility in journalism" (35:26).
Williamson sums up the views of those who
146
advocate a conditional freedom of the student press:
As long as that expression is in good taste
and based upon relevant facts, is an attempt to
be thoughtful, and arises out of motivations
congruent with higher learning, then freedom of
the student press is essential to the higher
learning. (132:218)
The Importance of Control
College presidents, noted Dolores M. Freitas in
1940, often express a public relations viewpoint in
relation to problems of the student press (78:432) .
They see the shortcomings of the campus press, she said,
as detrimental to both the students and the college.
"They are," she added, "remarkably tolerant of the
strictly mechanical errors alone" (78:432) .
Complaints against student editors usually can
be categorized into four groups (39:383). First, and
most frequently voiced, editorials often print only one
side of the story or use only a portion of the factual
background material available. Second, news stories
are often inaccurate. Third, the publication brings
poor publicity to the college in pointing out a fault
that exists on campus. Fourth, features and editorials
engage in personal attacks.
Doyle in 1928 recalled a case involving a
literary magazine where a college president was alleged
to have gone so far as to engage in a secret arrangement
147
whereby proofs were submitted to him by the printer
without the knowledge of the staff (65:78).
Dean E. B. Lemmon of Oregon State, while
expressing a belief in imposing the "fewest limitations,
restrictions, and controls necessary," nonetheless made
the following observation:
Student editors who have the paper handed to
them for a year or less on a silver tray and who
seldom if ever are involved in any of its financial
and operational problems or risks are hardly in the
same position as the regular newspaper editor. The
student editor is here today and gone tomorrow, but
the institution and paper go on regardless of any
possible embarrassing damaging actions of the short
term student editor. (35:26)
While acknowledging the administration's right
to "censor," Vice President H. P. Everest of the
University of Washington in 1952 claimed that the need
had not arisen:
We have placed an adviser in charge of the
Daily. . . . Basically and fundamentally there
is the authority within the administration to
censor the news, if that is what one wants to
call it. However, on the basis of our policy
and being a believer in freedom of the student
press we have never had occasion to exercise
that type of control.
We have done only one thing so far as news
and editorial policy is concerned, and that is
to insist on a basic policy. We have asked the
students that they know all the facts on both
sides of the question, if it is controversial,
and that they then present their viewpoints in
the news columns in a factual manner and in the
editorial columns that they be fair and not
vindictive in their presentation.
148
. . . In the eight years that the paper has
been operating on this basis there has been no
single case of censorship. (33:32)
The University of Southern California, according
to Vice President John E. Fields in 1952, considers
itself the publisher of the student newspaper, the Daily
Trojan, and as such "might . . . expect the same
responsibility from the staff members as might be
expected by the publisher of any commercial newspaper"
(33:32). The faculty does not impose censorship, he
noted, but two requests are made of editors:
That the articles be in good taste, that
criticism of university operations on policy,made
by persons other than members of the staff of the
newspaper and reported for publication, should be
channeled to the university public relations office
in order that the truth of the charge may be
ascertained, and that the university's position
may be stated simultaneously with the publication
of the charge. (33:32)
This view was supported in 1960 by President
Louis Norris of MacMurray College:
The college is in the position of the
publisher; students in turn operate within this
framework. So the responsibilities and privileges
of the press fall within that pattern. Students
operate their newspaper with activity fees
collected by the college. Legal liability is
carried by the college. . . .
It would seem to me that the college would
have a right to expect from the students that they
represent the ideals of the college as a framework
around which opinions of students can be expressed.
That doesn't mean that students cannot differ.
Responsibility of the press involves accuracy of
reporting, of interpretation of college policy, of
149
impersonal treatment of issues.
There's an educational function, too. We
want students to grow by experience, by responsi
bility, so we cannot debunk everything they do.
We must leave a certain amount of freedom. The
college, being the publisher, does have the final
word. In some cases, we have to say, "Well, you
just can't do this." (111:28)
In one of the most publicized recent cases of
administrative censorship, the Reverend Theodore M.
Hesburgh of Notre Dame University suspended publication
of the Scholastic. (Background of this incident may be
found in Chapter VI.) In a letter to the students he
reviewed the growth and strength of the institution and
pointed out that "no good university is ever entirely
peaceful" (85:15). He also pointed out some of his
beliefs concerning the place of the student on the
university campus:
The Scholastic had moments of greatness and
the promise of being the best, rather than a
mixture of the best and the worst ever. Several
tendencies marred the greatness: An excessively
negative attitude that felt called upon to scorn
everything under God and to pontificate far
beyond the limits of its writers' modest wisdom;
bitter analysis that often missed the point by
ignoring or misrepresenting the facts of the
matter; rather crude and unkind personal
criticisms; and on one occasion, an open lack
of integrity on the part of those in charge that
would have cost them their jobs anywhere else
and here too, if the university were indeed what
they were depicting it to be.
Worst of all, the lifelong dedication of
hundreds of valiant priests and brothers, over
150
the course of 120 years since the birth of Notre
Dame, was brushed of in several pen-strokes.
Neither do I consider faculty and students
equal partners in the educative process here,
since students by definition are here to study
under the direction of the faculty, and to learn.
. . . Nor do I consider student leaders to be
makers of broad university policy or wielders of
pressure, except in their own domain. (84:18)
President O. P. Kretzmann of Valparaiso University
wrote to support Father Hesburgh's position in the Notre
Dame controversy. His viewpoint came in response to the
opinion expressed in Commonweal that Father Hesburgh
was wrong in suspending publication of Scholastic,
claiming he fell back on "the traditional formula of
suppression and admonition." President Kretzmann wrote:
In this entire controversy the students are
wrong— even tragically wrong— and Father Hesburgh
is right. . . . Father Hesburgh did not fall back
"on solutions of the past." They point to the
future when once more, please God, the ancient
and honorable concepts of authority, liberty
under God, admonition, education and even
(Heaven help us) suppression will once more
become a part of American higher education and
will once more (Heavenbless us) restore the
greatness of the university in the Christian
tradition. (97:379)
President H. Y. Benedict of the University of
Texas in 1936 asked the following:
Why should the editor of The Texan be allowed
by means of The Texan to embroil the university
and thereby render less effective all efforts to
keep the university out of partisan politics?
Above all, the university is entitled to
freedom— freedom from being entangled with the
151
controversial personal opinions of an individual.
No individual is entitled to use The Texan or any
other agency of the university to give his personal
opinions wider circulation and greater authority
than they would otherwise have. An attempt to
use the university to promote a controversial point
of view is an attempted embezzlement. (56:428)
Vice President Carl M. Franklin of the University
of Oklahoma described in 1952 that institution's policy,
one of the few favoring ultimate control of the student
publication. He said that administrators "insist that
all editorial copy be read and approved by the super
visor of publications before it is set in type" (36:48).
The argument in favor of complete control was
stated by Vice President Franklin as follows:
It is not our thought that student ingenuity
should be curtailed in any way. However, we look
upon the Oklahoma Daily as a laboratory for
journalism students much as the chemistry labora
tory fulfills a definite need for the chemistry
students. However, we also consider that some
of the mixtures concocted in the journalism
laboratory are apt to be as volatile as some of
the mixtures concocted by the chemistry students.
We would not think of turning a group of chemistry
students loose in a chemistry laboratory without
faculty supervision. (36:48)
In Closing
"Much as I might wish it," wrote President
Troy H. Middleton of Louisiana State in 1952, "I don't
believe there is any pat answer to the question of 'how
much freedom for the student newspaper?'" (36:48).
Some answers may be found soon, however, through
152
a $50,000 grant to the National Association of Student
Personnel Administrators by the Hazen Foundation of New
Haven (69:8). The study will focus on academic freedom
of college students and will include freedom of
editorial comment and selection of news comment of the
student press, selection of editors, and administrative
"control" through financial support. The study will be1
directed by Edmund G. Williamson, Dean of Students,
the University of Minnesota.
Williamson, long interested in student freedoms,
wrote in 1963 that "to repress students' expression is
indeed a subversion of the very mission of the educational
institution” (132:218).
In commenting on the Notre Dame Scholastic
suspension in 1963, Commonweal noted that "at no time
did the criticism of the students threaten the real
authority of the university." The magazine made the
following observations:
No one has ever devised a foolproof way of
keeping free men from doing or saying irresponsible
things; nor has anyone ever discovered a way of
imposing a sense of responsibility on students.
(126:270)
President Edward A. Fitzpatrick of Mount Mary
College in Wisconsin summarized in 1948 the feeling among
a great many administrators:
So long as the publication is a student
publication and keeps clearly within the
153
institutional purpose, it would be wise to give
students the opportunity to express themselves
without censorship and to have students exercise
control over the staff. (70:99)
For as chancellor Harry Woodbury Chase of New
York University pointed out in 1941, the ultimate test
of freedom is the use one makes of it (49:286).
Chapter Summary
Opinions over the years have differed as to the
degree of editorial freedom student editors should enjoy.
Most college presidents, however, have agreed that
freedom for the campus daily is a "calculated risk," but
one worth taking. Educational and philosophical
justifications are given for student press freedom.
Student editors generally have felt they had a high
degree of freedom from overt control, noting they were
"more argued with than coerced." Journalism educators
tended to agree that the best solution— if idealistic—
to the problem of editorial control was to "train 'em
and trust 'em."
CHAPTER VIII
PUBLICATION POLICY STATEMENTS
The primary purpose of this study was to discover
and analyze various conflicts in the control of the
college or university student daily newspaper in the
United States. It was thought that one area of
investigation that might tend to reflect the degree of
control imposed upon the campus press would be the
various publication policies.
Too great a reliance on this source of data may
have dangers and shortcomings. A publications policy
statement may not reflect accurately the true degree of
control placed upon college newspapers. Also, the policy
may not have been tested, and without precedent upon
which to judge its effectiveness, one may only assume
support from administrators and trustees. Even with
these shortcomings, however, such a study— an original
investigation of policy statements--may prove helpful in
attempting to unwind the complexities of student press
control.
This phase of the study was conducted along the
most fundamental lines of investigation. The "director
154
155
of student publications" at each college or university
having a student newspaper published at least four times
a week was requested to submit a copy of the publications
policy statement in use at his institution. Ayer's
Newspaper Directory and the Editor & Publisher Year Book
were used to compile the population (1, 8). Two
references were used because there were omissions from
one or the other of the works. A total of sixty-five
colleges and universities in thirty-three states was
obtained from the two sources.
Individually typed letters were addressed to
these "directors of student publications." Note was
made of the fact that the study had the endorsement of
the National Council of College Publications Advisers,
Dr. Arthur M. Sanderson, University of Iowa, Executive
Director (209). A follow-up letter was sent approximate
ly one month after the initial mailing to those
institutions which had not responded. In both mailings,
addressed, stamped envelopes were included.
Replies were received from sixty, or 92 per cent,
of the institutions in the population. Of these, fifty-
six, or 86 per cent of the total population, were usable.
Replies took many forms, from succinct statements to the
effect that no such policy was in use, to one detailed
seventy-page document. A summary of responses from
156
these fifty-six institutions, then, is given in this
chapter, which is descriptive rather than statistical
because of the complex and varied nature of the data
collected. Percentages in the tables were rounded to
the nearest whole number.
The Colleges and Universities Surveyed
The "sample" used in this study was the total
population— the total number of institutions in the
United States having campus daily newspapers. Included
are sixty-five colleges and universities in thirty-three
states. The states, institutions, newspapers, and days
published are included in Table 1. Characteristics of
these institutions are shown in Table 5.
Support
The great majority of institutions having campus
daily newspapers were found to be publicly supported
colleges and universities. Forty-nine, or 75 per cent,
were state-supported. Sixteen, or 25 per cent, were
private institutions (12).
Age
Institutions founded prior to the Civil War
numbered thirty-one, and those founded in 1861 or later
numbered thirty-four. The university with the earliest
157
TABLE 5
CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTITUTIONS WITH
STUDENT DAILY NEWSPAPERS
Type of
Institution Number Percentage
Support:
Public 49 75
Private 16 25
Founding:
Pre-1860 31 48
Post-1860 34 52
Location:
East 14 22
Midwest 19 29
South 14 22
West 18 27
Community Population:
To 50,000 33 51
Over 50,000 32 49
Enrollment:
To 15,000 38 58
Over 15,000 27 42
Journalism:
Major 51 78
No major 14 22
All Institutions 65 100
158
founding date was Harvard (1636). Eight of the nine
institutions founded prior to the Revolutionary War were
found to support student daily newspapers. These were
Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Pennsylvania, Brown,
Rutgers, and Dartmouth. Only William and Mary in this
group was without a campus daily* The most recent
institution to be founded was Wayne State University. It
was founded in 1933 as Wayne University and became a
state university in 1956 (12)*
Location
Approximately one half of the colleges and
universities were found to be located in communities
with populations of fewer than 50,000 (223). Thirty-
three were so situated. The remaining thirty-two were
in cities of more than 50,000 population. Locations range
from cities such as New York and Los Angeles (with two
institutions each) to communities such as Hanover, New
Hampshire, and Storrs, Connecticut, each with populations
of fewer than 7,000. A regional breakdown by states
shows that fourteen were found to be located in the
Eastern states, nineteen in the Midwest, fourteen (includ
ing five from Texas and two from Oklahoma) in the
Southern states, and eighteen in the West. California
showed the greatest number of institutions with eight,
followed by Texas with five and New York with four (12).
159
Enrollment
The greater number of college daily newspapers,
as might be expected, appeared in institutions with large
enrollments. However, there were several noteworthy
exceptions. Five universities listed enrollments of
fewer than 5,000; sixteen showed enrollments of between
5.000 and 10,000; seventeen had enrollments between
10.000 and 15,000; twenty-two had enrollments between
15.000 and 30,000; and five indicated enrollments of more
than 30,000. Total enrollments of all sixty-five
institutions in the survey surpassed 725,000 (9).
Circulation
Figures showing circulations of the various
campus dailies were not collected because of the vast
discrepancy in method of showing such data, thereby
making any tabulation all but meaningless. Some
institutions, for example, showed circulation figures as
estimated "readers," often indicating the enrollment of
the institution; some, especially those with a high
degree of independence, showed only paid subscriptions
sold; others show the complete pressrun; still others
indicate as circulation only the number of copies placed
on news racks; circulations of others were not shown in
the reference works (1). one may estimate from these
various figures, however, that total circulation of
university dailies in the United States exceeds 500,000.
Publication Schedule
The most often listed publication schedule was
Monday through Friday, listed twenty-seven times, follow
ed by Tuesday through Friday, fourteen times, and
Tuesday through Saturday, ten times. Nine were listed as
publishing six days per week. None published a full
seven-day-per-week schedule (8).
Function of the Newspaper
Twelve of the fifty-six colleges and
universities responding to the request for policy state
ments indicated that no separate, formal policy statement
was currently governing the newspapers on their campuses.
These included Brown, Cornell, Harvard, Michigan State,
Missouri, Oklahoma State, Princeton, Southern California,
Stanford, Utah, West Virginia, and Yale. These
institutions did, however, indicate that there were
certain controlling factors, such as tradition, depart
mental supervision if the publication was considered
primarily a laboratory instrument, and the usual
restraints of student life if the newspaper was consider
ed primarily an extra-curricular activity. In addition,
representatives of several institutions indicated that
publication policies or practices were currently under
going revision or study. The University of Pennsylvania,
161
for example, indicated that a new policy was in the midst
of a three-year trial basis (202). others included
Fresno State, Kent State, and San Francisco State.
Four eastern private universities, all of long
and strong tradition, reported having no formalized
written policy statement. Cornell, Harvard, Princeton,
and Yale reported endowing their students with complete
editorial control of undergraduate publications.
Robert W. Storandt, Director of Admissions,
Procedures, and President, Board of Directors, the
Cornell Daily Sun, noted that the Sun is "organized as a
private corporation and is completely free of University
supervision.” He noted further:
All of the day-to-day work . . . is completely
in the hands of the student editors and managers.
They are free to write and print whatever seems
appropriate to them and there is no censorship of
any kind. I do take the editors to task occasion
ally for items which have appeared which seem in bad
taste, but this is rarely necessary. For the most
part I think they do a very good job. (212)
A similar philosophy was expressed by William
D'O. Lippincott, Dean of Students at Princeton, who wrote,
"It is simply understood that they are free to print what
they please without prior censorship from the University."
Julia Duff, Administrative Assistant to the Dean
at Yale, made an additional observation concerning the
Yale Daily News:
162
The University does not review any material in
advance of student publication, and in this respect
there is no censorship. Whenever a publication
makes a fool of itself, the University feels free
to say so. (203)
Donal F. Holway, student member of the Harvard
Crimson Executive Board, also noted the absence of a
formal statement:
The Crimson does not have a written "publica
tions policy.'1 . . . The administration of the
University has no control or interest in the paper,
either financial or editorial, and we have no faculty
advisor. Similarly, no other student group has any
influence, so policy is determined by the paper
itself.
There are things which experience has taught
us this community is sensitive about and we exercise
restraint in discussing them. Similarly, we are
always interested in the University's reaction to
what we do, but we do not feel bound by their
opinions. We have published a Confidential Guide
to Courses for forty years with our frank evaluation
of the courses given here, despite complaints and
threats from some faculty members, but we withheld
publication of an expose of the activities in drug
research of some faculty members at the request of
the President of the University. (206)
Among those publications which do operate under
a written set of standards, there appears to be little
unanimity as to form or title of such documents. The
campus press was shown to be operating under by-laws,
constitutions, articles of incorporation, codes of ethics,
statements of principles, handbooks, manuals, style books,
policy statements, and notes to staff members. At
several institutions, the campus paper was found to be
163
operating under more than one of the above mentioned,
though not in conflict. The length of such documents
ranged from two pages to seventy.
News Coverage
Policy statements often list a dual responsibility
in reporting campus affairs, a responsibility to the
students, but an even greater responsibility to the
university itself. Policies at the University of Washing
ton, for example, note that publications on that campus
must be, "above all, committed to the best interests of
the University at large, to which they owe their first
and greatest responsibilities" (149).
The U.C.L.A. policy, adopted in 1964 with a
complete revision in lines of responsibility for the
Daily Bruin, dictates that the publication should not only
strive for the betterment of the university, but also for
the betterment of the Associated Students (165).
Several statements urge responsibility beyond the
campus gates. The Daily Iowan is asked to serve the
college community (184). The Code of Ethics of the
Michigan Daily goes one step further by asking editors to
"refrain from such unwarranted action as may compromise
the University in the eyes of the public" (172).
Texas Woman's University also notes the off-
campus readers
164
(
Since all student publications have an off-
campus reading public, editors must keep in mind the
impression of the University which they may create
in the minds of people who know the situation at the
University only by what they read in University
publications. (192)
Specific examples are included in the policy of
the Board of Control of Student Publications, the
University of Minnesota:
Examples may define the kind of situation in
which a student publication's external influence
and relationships become significant. 1. Let the
Daily publish a feature story on the activities of
"radical" organizations on the campus: off-campus
readers, perhaps misinterpreting the story, em
phasizing it wrongly or even misquoting it, not only
may, but almost certainly will, take it as absolute
proof that the University is a "hot-bed of
communism"; and the University will suffer. 2. Let
the Daily publish a story about coeds' attitudes
toward drinking: it is likely to become the subject
of feature stories and editorials in papers through
out the state, most of them damaging to the
University. 3. Let the Daily, during the biennial
sessions of the state Legislature, publish a
carefully planned, carefully edited story or series
of stories on University needs: the effect may be
amazingly beneficial to the University's cause.
4. Let the Daily publish an article telling of the
scholastic achievements of students: This too may
reflect very favorably on the University.
In other words, University publications (in
particular the Daily) have wide influence and
significance off campus. They always have a casual
off-campus audience, and they are frequently widely
and thoroughly read. If they make mountains out of
campus mole-hills, if they sensationalize or over
emphasize, if they report inaccurately, carelessly
or thoughtlessly, if they editorialize without
attention to possible repercussions, they may cause
responses off campus— sometimes throughout the state
and often in the Legislature— that are unfair or
exceedingly harmful to the "best interests of the
University." If they handle delicate problems
165
thoughtfully and with due attention to this danger,
they may greatly advance the "best interests of
the University."
The importance of this aspect of the editor's
responsibility cannot be over-emphasized. (151)
Responsibility and the dollar are coupled at
Temple University. The policy statement calls attention
to the fact that the cost of university publications is
"underwritten by the University" and that these publica
tions are "designed to serve the University Community,
which is understood to mean the faculty, administrative
members, trustees, and the students" (200).
The concept of the extra-curriculum is emphasized
by both Princeton and Yale. Dean of Students
Lippincott of Princeton, noted that Daily Princetonian
editors are "free to print what they please without prior
censorship," but that "a faculty committee which has
jurisdiction over all extra-curricular activities would,
of course, have the power to revoke the newspaper's
charter or take other punitive action if the publication
proceeded beyond the bounds of good taste" (207).
Yale Administrative Assistant Julia Duff said
that the Daily News is considered an extra-curricular
activity and, as such, "must receive the approval of the
Dean of Undergraduate Affairs" (203). Undergraduate
regulations relating to publications at Yale were
succinctly stated:
166
No student shall prepare or publish any
paper whether a single issue or periodical, on
which the name of the responsible editor is not
stated. A copy of every periodical edited or
published by or under the direction of any student
shall be deposited on the day of publication at
the accessions office of the University Library
and at the Office of the Dean of Undergraduate
Affairs. (203)
Use as a Laboratory
The degree to which the student newspaper should
be used as a laboratory for journalism students has
been a subject of continued debate. Forty per cent of
the policy statements specifically mention the relation
ship that exists between the newspaper and the school or
department of journalism. Seventeen per cent list as a
major function of the publication its use as a journalism
laboratory. Another 18 per cent describe a lesser
instructional role for the newspaper. Five per cent of
the policies deny any association between the student
newspaper and the instructional area of the institution.
The remaining 60 per cent of the institutions either have
no policy statement or do not clearly describe the degree
to which the newspaper is considered a part of the learn
ing experience.
Ohio University, taking what might be called a
middle ground, includes this paragraph in its policy:
While the School of Journalism has no official
connection with the operation of The Post, the
167
faculty of the school has a day-to-day contact with
a majority of The Post staff and with most of the
students who become its editors. The school en
courages its students to work on The Post but in no
way requires such work, since practical editorial
training is handled through a working relationship
with the Athens Messenger. The Post staff members
feel free to talk over their work on the paper with
the journalism faculty, but this exchange is, and
should be, strictly voluntary. (175)
Other institutions, such as the University of
Oklahoma, offer the student daily general supervision of
the journalism school faculty through faculty appoint
ments to the board of publications (196). Still others
are more explicit about connections with the instruction
al area. The Texas A. and M. Battalion Statement of
Principles begins as follows:
The primary objective of student publications
at the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas
is educational, providing practical experience for
students in publication management, writing, editing,
production, and distribution. Coincidentally,
student publications provide printed media for the
dissemination of news and information thereby serving
the College and its community. (190)
Statements that generally commit the newspaper
to serve as a laboratory for journalism students were
forthcoming from a dozen institutions, including Baylor,
Indiana, Ohio State, San Jose State, the University of
Texas, and West Virginia. The University of Kansas notes
that the laboratory function is reserved specifically for
the more fundamental classes in reporting, editing, and
retail advertising (171).
168
An appeal for ethical goals is found in the
Indiana University policy:
The University, in delegating the actual
publication to the students in journalism, asks
only that the Daily Student be a good newspaper,
truly mirroring life and thought on the campus
and in the community in which it is situated,
and ever protecting the name of the University
and advancing its best interests. (170)
The philosophy favoring a laboratory connection
is summarized in the Ohio State Lantern policy, which
includes the following:
It needs to be understood clearly that The
Lantern is not the property of a few students
or a few faculty members or of the administration
or employees to be used as a springboard to ex
press their views. It belongs to the entire
University Community and should be turned to with
confidence as a source of information.
What about supervision? As in actual
professional practice, we believe in as little
as necessity requires.
The only limitations are the rules of
responsible professional journalism— performance
of the kind that will build confidence in The
Lantern.
In addition to its campus-wide communication
function to cover news and provide a vehicle for
expression of student and faculty opinion. The
Lantern serves as an educational laboratory. There
students get an opportunity to perform just as they
would on a professional daily with high standards.
To have less than the best professional
standards would defeat the purposes of the labor
atory. The capricious use of a journalism laboratory
is no more desirable than the careless mixing of
chemicals in the chemical laboratory. (174)
Boards of Control
169
The owners of the University of Iowa Daily Iowan
are defined in policy statements as the "whole
constituency of the University, past, present, and
future" (161).
Ownership of the various publications has been
placed in the hands of boards of publication through a
number of methods (Table 6). In several cases articles
of incorporation have been drawn, but even with such
formal foundations, tradition, responsibility, and
administrative philosophy seem to set the tone of the
publication.
Authority
The various boards of publication operate under
a wide variety of titles and have established lines of
authority according to their various functions and
traditions. Several policies draw the lines of authority
ultimately to the presidents of the institutions or to
the trustees.
Dean Quintus C. Wilson of the University of West
Virginia School of Journalism emphasized that the Daily
Athenaeum is owned by the Board of Governors of the
University, and that he was hired as professor of
journalism, dean of the school, and publisher of the
170
TABLE 6
IDENTITY OF THE PUBLISHER OR OWNER AS
DESCRIBED IN POLICY STATEMENTS:
PERCENTAGE OF RESPONSES
Type
of
Institution
Per cent
Indep.
Pub'n
Corp.
Described
or Owner
Associated
Student
Organ.
as Publisher
College Not
or Clearly
Univ. Stated
Itself
No
Formal
Policy
Support
Public 16 28 40 5 11
Private 8 0 34 0 58
Founding
Pre-1860 23 4 41 0 32
Post-1860 9 33 37 6 15
Location
East 20 10 20 0 50
Midwest 33 0 54 0 13
South 8 8 67 0 17
West 0 55 17 11 17
Community Pop
To 50,000 18 22 34 4 22
Over 50,000 11 22 43 3 21
Enrollment
To 15,000 5 25 36 3 31
Over 15,000 27 18 41 5 9
Journalism
Major 19 25 38 5 13
No major 0 10 30 0 60
Per cent of All
Institutions 14 22 38 4 22
Per cent of Only
Those Institutions
With Statements 19 28 48 5
171
newspaper (214).
The University of Maryland also notes that the
University is the "ultimate publisher" (199). Similar
expressions are found in the policies of Baylor, Brigham
Young, Kentucky, and Texas Woman's College, to name a few.
Baylor calls upon the Board of Publications to work
through the Journalism Department.
One of the recommendations made by the
University of Pennsylvania Committee on Student Affairs
in 1963 was that the publications should not be given
status as a corporation, as has been done on several
other campuses (193).
Several institutions, such as Arkansas,
Connecticut, and New Mexico, point to the associated
student organizations as the groups to which the boards
of publication are directly responsible. However, the
boards of publication of the Berkeley campus and, more
recently, the Los Angeles campus of the University of
California have been removed from direct control by
student government.
General Function
The board of publications, according to Maryland
policy, should "seek to insure the maintenance of the
highest professional standards and ethics ..." (199).
! Kentucky adds that a major function is to provide a
policy of guidance “consistent with the general philosophy
of providing a free and responsible press . . (194).
The board at the University of New Mexico is mentioned
as being ultimately responsible for the publication, add
ing that "any freedom and responsibility devolving upon
the editors, business managers, and their staffs comes
through the Board" (160). Practice at Harvard allows the
Crimson Executive Board to make up major policy subject
only to the approval of all active editors (206).
More specifically, the policy at the University
of Oklahoma calls upon the board to be in “direct super
vision and control of all student publications" (196).
Washington State insists that the board approve all "Razz,
April Fools', and Exchange Editions" (157).
Most institutions call on boards to review
budgets, approve contracts, establish staff salaries,
appoint editors and managers, set general policy, and
hire secretarial and managerial personnel. Board powers
at the University of Minnesota include the awarding of
gold key awards to outstanding staff members and the
naming of annual board of publications scholarship
winners.
Varying degrees of control over staff members are
embodied in statements of some boards, but not others.
173
The University of Illinois policy states that the board
"shall have the power to restrict the type of news and
advertising material to be accepted for publication"
(169). Policy at the University of Maryland summarizes
general sentiment found in relation to control; "This
committee in no way advocates censorship as the means of
’insuring1 the maintenance of the highest professional
standards and ethics" (199).
Membership
There is apparently little agreement in size and
composition of the various boards of publication (Table
7). Some institutions do not have what is normally
considered an independent board, but instead substitute
a board composed of top editors which is responsible
directly to the associated student organization. Such
is the case at the University of Connecticut. In cases
where boards of publication exist as an intermediary
between the newspaper and student government or university
administration, the membership ranges from five members
at Brigham Young to seventeen at Maryland. Appendix F
contains the composition of twenty-four representative
boards of publication.
174
TABLE 7
MEMBERSHIP OF BOARDS OF PUBLICATION AS
DESCRIBED IN POLICY STATEMENTS:
PERCENTAGE OF RESPONSES
Per cent Membership Majority
Type Non- No
of
Student
Student Equal Not Formal
Institution Majority Majority Number Stated Policy
Support
Public 26 12 14 37 11
Private 0 25 0 17 58
Founding
Pre-1860 23 13 9 23 23
Post-1860 18 15 12 30 15
Location
East 20 10 10 10 50
Midwe st 27 13 13 34 13
South 25 17 17 25 17
West 11 16 6 50 17
Community Pop.
To 50,000 22 12 15 29 22
Over 50,000 17 17 8 37 21
Enrollment
To 15,000 15 13 13 28 31
Over 15,000 26 17 9 39 9
Journalism
Major 23 15 13 36 13
No major 10 10 0 20 60
Per cent of All
Institutions 20 14 11 33 22
Per cent of Only
Those Institutions
With Statements 26 18 14 42
175
Faculty Advisers
Faculty advisers, both editorial and business,
are employed in varying degrees in nearly all institutions
surveyed. Advisers were specifically called for in 63 per
cent of the policies received. Again, the wide variety
of functions played by the newspapers on the many campuses
across the nation most often determines the role of
faculty publication advisers. There is little uniformity,
nor need there be if we accept the tradition of diversity
in higher education in the United States.
Appointment
The most common method of appointment of faculty
publications adviser was found to be by the school or
department of journalism (Table 8). Often, however,
policy statements call upon the President to make the
appointment after seeking counsel of other interested
parties, such as schools or departments of journalism or
publication boards. For example, the newly enacted policy
statement at U.C.L.A. calls upon the Department of
Journalism to nominate the adviser in consultation with
the Communications Board. Still, final appointment at
U.C.L.A. is in the hands of the Chancellor.
Where there is a direct affiliation with the
instructional area of journalism, even where the
TABLE 8
176
APPOINTMENT OF THE PUBLICATIONS ADVISER
AS DESCRIBED IN POLICY STATEMENTS:
PERCENTAGE OF RESPONSES
Per cent of Advisers Appointed By:
College
Type Board Dept. or Not No
of of of Univ. Clearly Formal
Institution Pub'n Journ. Pres. Stated Policy
Support
Public 12 16 14 47 11
Private 17 8 0 17 58
Founding
Pre-1860 0 23 4 41 32
Post-1860 21 9 5 40 15
Location
East 20 0 10 20 50
Midwest 7 13 0 67 13
South 17 25 17 25 17
West 11 16 17 39 17
Community Pop.
To 50,000 11 14 7 46 22
Over 50,000 15 15 15 34 21
Enrollment
To 15,000 16 9 13 31 31
Over 15,000 9 21 9 52 9
Journalism
Major 13 18 11 45 13
No major 10 0 10 20 60
Per cent of All
Institutions 13 14 11 40 22
Per cent of Only
Those Institutions
With Statements 16 19 14 51
177
affiliation is minimal, the school or department of
journalism usually is employed in the selection process.
At Pennsylvania State the recommendation of the Director
of the School of Journalism goes directly to the Board of
Directors of the Collegian, Incorporated. It is made
clear in this case that the adviser is not an employee
of the University, but of the Collegian, which pays his
salary.
In another example, the editorial adviser to the
Minnesota Daily is named by the Head of the School of
Journalism and confirmed by the Board of Control of
Student Publications. The faculty adviser at Nebraska
is nominated by the editors and appointed by the
Publications Board. These editors, it was noted, also
may initiate recall action against the adviser if such
action is deemed in the best interest of the publication.
Responsibilities
A wide divergence of opinions as to the function
and responsibility of the faculty editorial adviser also
is evident. Most often the emphasis is on a "close work
ing relationship with editors," as the policy of the
Lass-0 states. Irwin Harris, Manager of Student Activities
at Oregon State, noted that the Corvallis institution has
had "a very minimum of problems" and said he felt the
reason was "largely because of a very close personal
178
relationship" he attempts to establish with the editors
and managers of the newspaper and yearbook (205). He
added that the head of the journalism department did
likewise.
The Style Book of the Kentucky Kernel calls upon
the adviser to "provide technical assistance and guidance
and journalistic counsel" (194)(. The Style Book of the
Indiana Daily Student is more specific. It directs the
adviser to meet once each week with the newspaper staff
to offer a critique and to answer any questions that
students may wish to ask (170).
Censorship
Fifty-one per cent of the policy statements are
specific in prohibiting censorship by the adviser.
Fourteen per cent are explicit in giving the adviser or
board of publications direct powers to delete material
that may be deemed objectionable (Table 9).
The University of Maryland policy is representa
tive of those which limit the powers of the adviser. It
reads in part:
The primary responsibility of the faculty
adviser shall be to offer guidance by way of
suggestions and criticism. This does not mean
that he shall exercise censorship. By permitting
and encouraging the editors . . . to make decisions,
leadership abilities, a sense of responsibility,
and a sound judgment can be fostered. Such a policy
demands thoughtful guidance on the part of the
TABLE 9
179
PRE-PUBLICATION CENSORSHIP AS DESCRIBED
IN POLICY STATEMENTS: PERCENTAGE
OF RESPONSES
Per cent Reporting Pre-Publication
Censorship
Type Not No
of Specifically Specifically Clearly Formal
Institution Prohibited Allowed Stated Policy
Support
Public 49
Private 8
Founding
Pre-1860 27
Post-1860 49
Location
East 10
Midwest 47
South 49
West 44
Community Pop.
To 50,000 41
Over 50,000 38
Enrollment
To 15,000 38
Over 15,000 43
Journalism
Major 44
No major 20
Per cent of All
Institutions 40
Per cent of Only
Those Institutions
With Statements 51
11 29 11
8 26 58
4 37 32
15 21 15
10 30 50
7 33 13
17 17 17
11 28 17
8 29 22
14 25 21
12 19 31
9 39 9
12 32 13
10 10 60
11 27 22
14 35
180
faculty adviser. This end can be reached by the
adviser's close association with the editor and his
staff. (199)
A stronger hand in pre-publication supervision
by the adviser is evident at Washington State. The Board
of Publications statement of policies there notes that
in case of a disagreement with the editor which cannot be
resolved, the adviser has the over-riding voice until
the board can meet or until legal advice can be obtained
(157).
The adviser of the Texas Tech. Toreador is given
authority to review copy prior to publication and to
delete if thought best:
He may read all copy submitted for publication
and may delete copy if he believes that such
deletion is in the best interests of the publication.
He shall report all deletions to the Publications
Committee at the next meeting of the committee. (183)
Temple University is among the institutions
which give the adviser the most authority. He is employ
ed by the board to assume "executive officer" duty,
including naming and training of staff members, making
decisions with the editor involving news and editorial
policy, exercising responsibility for production of the
publications, and censoring material when compromise
with the editor cannot be reached and when the "issue is
so important to University welfare that he must inter
pose." In a highly unusual role, he also is given news
181
judgment authority prior to publication:
Normally, it is expected that the editor and
the adviser will meet before each issue of the
paper to discuss the nature and content of the
editorials and the plan for handling news copy to
implement editorial copy. (200)
No other instance of such direct control by an
adviser could be found in the statements of policy issued
by the various boards. It should be noted, however, that
adviser control, like that of an administrative officer,
often depends more on the personality of the individual
involved than on formally adopted statements. Also, it
should be pointed out that advising can be likened to
the proverbial iceberg— a great deal more exists below
the surface than may be apparent at first glance. Still,
the evidence compiled from these institutions indicates
quite clearly that the role of adviser in most cases is
limited to advising— not directing news, editorial policy
or content and not censoring.
Editors and Managers
Appointment of editors and business and
advertising managers is usually entrusted to the board
of publications, whether an all-student board or a
student-faculty board (Table 10). There are exceptions,
such as a Temple University, where the adviser appoints
staff members with the approval of the board. At Cornell
TABLE 10
182
APPOINTMENT OF THE EDITOR AS DESCRIBED
IN POLICY STATEMENTS: PERCENTAGE
OF RESPONSES
Per cent of Editors Appointed By:
Type Board Department Not NO
of of of Clearly Formal
Institution Pub'n Journalism Stated Policy
Support
Public 44 3 42 11
Private 0 0 42 58
Founding
Pre-1860 27 5 36 32
Post-1860 39 0 46 15
Location
East 20 0 30 50
Midwest 27 7 53 13
South 50 0 33 17
West 39 0 44 17
Community Pop.
To 50,000 37 4 37 22
Over 50,000 32 0 47 21
Enrollment
To 15,000 31 0 38 31
Over 15,000 39 4 48 9
Journalism
Major 40 2 45 13
No major 10 0 30 60
Per cent of All
Institutions 34 2 42 22
Per cent of Only
Those Institutions
L71 C4* a m a v i ^ e / i J i CZ/I
183
a "competition" precedes appointment:
Election to any of the various boards of the
Sun takes place after a period of "competition."
A competition normally runs for eight or ten weeks
during which the competitors are given a variety
of jobs to perform. Those deemed worthy are then
elected . . . and all of these elections are sub
ject to ratification by the Board of Directors.
Each spring the undergraduate board selects a new
slate of editors and managers for the following
year and these elections, too, are subject to
ratification by the Board of Directors. (212)
The Harvard Crimson board also perpetuates itself
through a competitions
Editors are chosen after a competition open to
all undergraduates for one of the four boards— News,
Editorial, Photography and Business. Election is
by the full board of editors upon the recommendation
of the particular board chairman. His recommendation
generally depends on the consensus of the members
of his board, but it does not have to. Executives
for the next year are chosen by the out-going
Executive Board. Theoretically, the choices are only
nominees to the full board, but everyone is so re
lieved to have the business over with that the
choices are generally approved without dissent. (206)
The appointment of top editorial and business
personnel is relegated to the boards of publication,
however, by 52 per cent of the policy statements.
Requirements
Several institutions, more often those which
use the student newspaper to a high degree as an
instructional laboratory, require applicants for the
editorship to be journalism majors or to have completed
a minimum number of units in the area of journalism.
184
Oklahoma, for example, requires ten journalism units
either completed or in progress and at least one semester
on the editorial staff. Arkansas "prefers" a journalism
major.
Grade point averages also are mentioned in
several policy statements as being pre-requisites to
editorships (Table 11). Colorado and Montana State
require at least a "C" average, Maryland a 2.2, Arkansas
a 2.5, and New Mexico a 2.3 grade-point average.
The great amount of time necessary to edit a
college daily is taken into account in several policies.
Washington State, for example, notes in its policy state
ment that the editorship is expected to be the student's
"major activity" outside the classroom (157). The
University of Illinois policy notes that the appointments
are "of such importance and demand so much thought and
attention as to make any other 1 activities' on the part
of the appointee highly undesirable" (169).
Illinois staff members also are restricted in
that they may not serve on publicity committees of the
University. Ohio University, likewise, warns against
conflicts of interest. Oklahoma limits editors to a
minimum of ten units during their tenure and also ex
cludes editors from serving on either the student senate
or the Publications Board.
185
TABLE 11
POLICY STATEMENTS WHICH INCLUDE UNIT OR GRADE-POINT
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE POSITION OF EDITOR:
PERCENTAGE OF RESPONSES
Percentage of Responses
No
Type of Do Not Formal
Institution Require Require Policy
Support
Public
Private
31
8
58
34
11
58
Founding
Pre-1860
Post-1860
13
33
55
52
32
15
Location
East
Midwest
South
West
0
27
42
28
50
60
42
55
50
13
17
17
Community Pop.
To 50,000
Over 50,000
32
19
46
60
22
21
Enrollment
To 15,000
Over 15,000
25
26
44
65
31
9
Journalism
Major
No major
29
10
58
30
13
60
Per cent of All
Institutions 25 53 22
Per cent of Only
Those Institutions
With Statements 33 67
186
Some boards require formal acquiescence to
certain policies before students may assume major
positions of responsibility. Minnesota and Texas Woman's
University require appointees to write their approval of
the policy statement, and New Mexico asks that editors
review the laws of libel before taking office.
Periodic reports are required by several boards.
The Minnesota Board of Control of Student Publications,
for example, requires monthly reports of its editors;
Pennsylvania and Colorado require monthly financial reports
of its business managers; Montana State requires quarterly
reports; and Ohio is one of the several institutions
which require annual reports from both editor and business
manager. The Ohio Campus Affairs Committee also demands
a year-end inventory of both editorial and business
offices. Nebraska, in addition to demanding a final
written report of its editors and managers, asks for an
"efficiency report" on nominees to key positions for the
following year.
Responsibilities
The Colorado Daily Policy Statement describes the
editor's role as having "something of a trustee's
responsibilities to the paper as an institution" (186).
The University of Kansas board emphasizes the importance
of tradition:
187
The Constitution of the Kansan Board is for
the most part unwritten. It is a matter of
tradition, the spirit of which must be carried out
loyally by those who are given responsibility for
publication of the University Daily Kansan. (171)
A firm commitment to editorial freedom for the
student press is made in the rules governing the Daily
Nebraskan. “The editor of each publication," it says,
"shall have the right to make final decisions upon any
questions, with respect to any phase of the operations
of such publications" (187). The Code of Ethics of the
Michigan Daily voices a similar philosophy, one which is
reflected in many policy statements:
The position of the Daily as a representative
of a free press shall be preserved and promoted by
editors through responsible and considered use of
their duties and powers. (172)
Final authority of the editor is spelled out in
a majority of the statements. He usually is called upon
to appoint his subordinates, but some boards retain the
power of confirmation. The U.C.L.A. Communications
Board, by following conditions spelled out in the
Constitution, may even reverse the decision of an editor
to discharge members of his staff. Content responsibil
ity, however, most often rests with the editor. The
Montana State policy is specific:
All articles, letters or other material proposed
for publication in the Kaimin which involve public
controversy are to be submitted for approval before
publication to the Editor and are not to be published
without his approval. (177)
188
Finally, the recommendations of the Committee on
Student Affairs of the University of Pennsylvania urge
that any action taken by the board of publications for
an infraction of policy should be taken against the
editor of the publication, not against the newspaper
itself.
Content Restrictions
Most publication policy statements, whether brief
or extensive, spell out certain restrictions to which
editors must agree upon taking office. Many mention
broad general responsibilities of boards, editors, and
advisers. These general concepts of control were touched
upon in preceding sections of this chapter. Here, we
are concerned only with specific limitations which are
written into the policy statement itself.
News Restrictions
The necessity of responsible editing is
frequently mentioned in statements of policy. Typical
of these is one from Texas A. and M.:
The editors of student publications are
expected to be guided by the accepted ethics of
their profession, keeping within the bounds of
truthfulness, accuracy, sincerity, fair play,
decency, impartiality, et cetera. Editors are
further expected to maintain good faith with
readers, respecting the moral character of
individuals and the reputation of the College.
189
The right to press freedom, as enjoyed by other
free media everywhere, is an inseparable part of the
Battalion and other student publications; these
deriving such inalienable right by law. The College,
nor Student Publications, would have this freedom
abridged. Freedom of the press, however, is not to
be confused with LICENSE to attack, or destroy, or
otherwise perpetrate subversion to the source from
which these periodicals, or any others, derive their
freedom. To the PRIVILEGES afforded by press
freedom, are inextricably joined the RESPONSIBILITIES
for an intelligent fidelity to the public trust.
The editor or journalist who makes use of his power
for selfish or unworthy purpose violates a cardinal
precept of his high calling. That student public
ations at Texas A. and M. College should be exemplary
journals commensurate with the loftiest ideals of
the profession is the zenith to which they aspire.
(190)
Louisiana State echoes this philosophy and offers
a semantic suggestion:
The staff should avoid printing material which
does not serve a constructive purpose in the interests
of the University, or that might within bounds of
reason be interpreted as subversive of American
institutions.
The staff should look with enlightened
skepticism on all proposals that the Reveille
"investigate" this and that. "Study" is a better
word, a more accurate word. The Reveille should
never jump into any campaign or project without
giving thorough study to all sides of a question,
remembering that there are sometimes three, four
or five— not merely two— sides to a question. . . .
Some college editors entertain the quaint notion
that the college press is supposed to "blast" its
way into the attention of its readers. A quarry is
the appropriate place for the sort of business
touched off most efficiently by a detonating cap.
No good professional paper has ever earned reader
confidence by indiscriminate blasting, and none ever
will. (168)
The policy of the Arkansas Traveler calls for
190
{
editors to exert particular care in dealing with articles
critical of the university:
Editors and their staff members have the
important responsibility to undertake research in
depth before publishing articles dealing with
University policy and official actions of the
University. This research should include inter
views with responsible University channels of
information prior to actual publication. This is
particularly important as applied to articles and/or
criticism concerning the governmental or legislative
affairs of the institution in its external relation
ships. (154)
Colorado asks the Daily to see that there is a
"balanced presentation of local coverage as opposed to
national and international coverage" (186). The 1964
revision of the U.C.L.A. Daily Bruin policy is even more
specific in dealing with campus news. it calls upon the
newspaper to give "adequate publicity to college events"
(165). In 1945 the President of Kansas State University
requested the Collegian to run a regular calendar of
events.
The student press is sometimes specifically
mentioned as a medium to distribute official college
notices. This is sometimes mentioned as one of the
required functions of the student newspaper, such as at
Baylor and Texas. Occasionally it is listed as an
obligation or as a tradition.
Daily Iowan policy calls for the newspaper to
carry "as much or more University-related news as any
191
other news media" in the Iowa City area and demands that
reviews of University events, such as dramatic productions,
be constructive, not "criticism for the sake of
criticism" (210).
Several policy statements limit campus newspaper
coverage of campus crime or discipline. The Daily Texan
is denied the use of names in discipline cases. The
West Virginia Daily Athenaeum cannot identify subjects
involved in moral offenses by name, "particularly those
on this campus" (198) . The Michigan Daily calls upon
editors to notify "proper University authorities whenever
possible" before running news of faculty or students
involved in crime stories unless the facts of the case
are a part of the court record. Washington State is
more restrictive in dealing with campus problems of this
type. "The Evergreen," the policy states, "will not
publish news of campus discipline cases, except by the
express request of the Dean of Students or the
President" (157).
Other specific limitations on news coverage,
though not appearing frequently in policy statements,
are listed by the Code of Ethics of the Michigan Daily.
It calls for all interviews with faculty members to be
checked with the interviewee before publication unless
specifically excused by the faculty member himself and
192
requires the deletion of names of business establishments
in news stories unless there is definite news value in
running such names.
Corrections
Corrections, when mentioned in policy statements,
usually are called for in the first issue after learning
of the error. U.C.L.A. adds that not only should the
correction be published in the earliest issue but that
it should appear in a prominent place in the newspaper,
not buried on the back pages.
Daily Californian policy is explicit in demanding
that corrections "of erroneous, unfairly embarrassing or
damaging statements shall be published in the first issue
after the mistake has been discovered. The fact that it
is a correction shall be made clear" (166).
Editorial Restrictions
Publication statements place restraints upon
editors in the area of comment and opinion more often
than in straight news. Responsibility for the formula
tion of basic editorial policy is held by boards of
publication in 49 per cent of the institutions with
policies (Table 12). Still, the most often read demand
is for the exercise of “fair play“ and "professional
honesty and responsibility.- A few statements emphasize
TABLE 12
193
RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE FORMULATION OF BASIC EDITORIAL
POLICY AS DESCRIBED IN POLICY STATEMENTS:
PERCENTAGE OF RESPONSES
Type
of
Institution
Per
Board
of
Pub1 n
cent Responsible
Editorial Policy:
Board
of
Editor Editors
for
Not
Stated
No
Formal
Policy
Support
Public 46 8 14 21 11
Private 8 8 8 17 59
Founding
Pre-1860 27 0 9 32 32
Post-1860 46 12 15 12 15
Location
East 10 20 10 10 50
Midwest 47 0 13 27 13
South 58 0 0 25 17
West 36 10 21 16 17
Community Pop.
To 50,000 48 8 11 11 22
Over 50,000 29 7 14 19 21
Enrollment
To 15,000 44 7 9 9 31
Over 15,000 31 8 17 35 9
Journalism
Major 45 7 13 22 13
No major 10 10 10 10 60
Per cent of All
Institutions 38 8 12 20 22
Per cent of Only
Those Institutions
With Statements 49 9 16 26
194
that all views are acceptable on the editorial pages if
they stay within the bounds of good taste and avoid
libel. The Michigan Daily Code of Ethics, for example,
notes that the editorial page "shall be open to all
points of view" (172). These opinions, however, must be
over the signature of the writer and contain no evidence
of racial bias or personal attack on the character of
individuals. It notes further that before commenting on
state appropriations to the University, the editor is to
consult the chairman of the Board of Control of Student
Publications.
Rules governing the Daily Nebraskan are specific
in that editorial policies of the Nebraskan "shall be
entirely in the hands of student editors, and no faculty
member or University official shall interfere in such
policies. . (187).
Several statements demand neutrality in off-campus
elections. The West Virginia Athenaeum policy is
specific:
We refrain from siding politically in all areas,
even to avoiding comment that might be interpreted
as political partisanship. Yet, we feel free to
seek, even campaign for reforms and new approaches
in government administration and policy, as long as
we stay outside of politics. (198)
Iowa, Washington State and Kansas statements
prohibit editors from backing candidates in elections for
public office, and the Michigan code eliminates the
195
possibility of supporting candidates for election to
positions on the Board of Regents.
Editorial support in student elections also is
restricted on several campuses. Both the Berkeley and
Los Angeles campuses of the University of California call
for neutrality in student elections. Ohio University's
policy, while calling for impartiality in student politi
cal affairs, does allow for exceptions:
It would be improper for The Post to give the
paper's support to any campus faction. This does
not mean The Post must desist in all cases; it
should be judicial and should endeavor to present
all sides as fully as possible. (175)
The New Mexico Lobo is limited in its editorial
comments to "what has appeared in the news" (160). And
the Daily Texan in editorial comment dealing with
controversial matters is required to issue a "statement
of factual foundation" along with the editorial comment
(191).
The responsibilities of editorial boards in
dealing with comment and opinion appearing on editorial
pages is mentioned in several policy statements. The
Illinois Daily Illini, for example, cannot run editorials
or local columns until they have been read by two
members of the editorial board plus the editor prior to
publication. The Brigham Young statement insists that
all editorial policies which "might be controversial must
196
have unanimous approval" of the editorial board before
publication (182).
Policies often call for editorials and columns
to carry the name of the writer. Several, however, make
certain exceptions. Washington State editorials must,
be signed or carry the approval of three ranking editors.
Kansas State calls for signatures on editorials except
in cases where the views expressed are agreed to by a
majority of the staff members listed on the masthead. At
Berkeley the Daily Californian must run signed editorials
unless the Senior Editorial Board gives its unanimous
approval.
Letters to the Editor
Letters to the editor generally receive mention
in the various policy statements. Many call for
encouragement of campus opinion; others merely set guide
lines under which letters may be accepted. A statement
concerning letters is included in the Desk Manual of the
Kansas State Collegian. It is more detailed than most,
but generally reflects the philosophy of statements
adopted across the nation:
Any individual criticized in a letter should
be given opportunity to prepare a reply for
publication in the same issue or as soon as
possible thereafter. Regardless of whether a reply
is obtained, the editor should attempt to present
a fair picture by supplying pertinent supplementary
information or comment.
197
Where any doubt exists as to authorship, the
signature should be verified before publication.
Normally, the Editor should consider for publica
tion only letters from bona fide students and
employees of the College. The Editor should avoid
publishing frequent contributions from any one
person. Letters published must include the
signature or signatures of the author or authors.
It is not the intent of these regulations to
require or permit the Editor to publish only those
letters which express the point of view with which
he agrees. The author of any letter must accept
the same limitations in expression that the
Collegian applies to its own editorial comment. (163)
Not all policies, however, agree with those of
Kansas State. Ohio University, for example, allows names
of letter writers to be withheld. They must, however, be
signed on the original copy submitted to the editor.
Illinois, similar to the Illini policy on editorials,
requires two members of the editorial board plus the
editor to read the letters prior to publication. The
Baylor Lariat may not publish letters that contain
"unfactual statements* (150).
Several institutions require the original signed
letter to be kept on file. The Daily Texan, for
example, must keep letters on file for at least two
years. Verification of the identity of the letter writer
is demanded by the editors of the Louisiana State Daily
Reveille before the letter is sent to the composing room
to be set in type.
Many newspapers carry a brief statement along
198
with published letters. This practice is required at
Kansas State. The statement, which again is representa
tive of those carried by many newspapers, is as follows:
Opinions expressed in letters are those of the
writers and do not necessarily reflect the policy
of the Collegian. The Editor reserves the right to
edit the letters to conform to public law and to
standards of decency and good taste, and to fit
space limitations. No letter may exceed 250 words.
The Editor reserves the right to refuse to publish
any letter. Unsigned letters will not be published.
(163)
Advertising Restrictions
At the University of Illinois the acceptability
of certain types of advertising is left to the discretion
of the Daily Illini board. At Kansas it is left to the
discretion of the business manager, who is given refusal
rights through the Kansan constitution.
Twenty-one per cent of the statements of policy
include a section devoted to advertising restrictions or
regulations (Table 13). The U.C.L.A. policy limits
advertising to an average of not more than 40 per cent of
the total space available in the Daily Bruin. Several
statements, such as the one at Washington State, require
payment for advertising to be made in cash or check;
others, such as at Colorado, require payment in advance
on all political advertising; and still others, such as
at the University of Washington, are specific in requiring
paid political advertising to be so labeled.
199
TABLE 13
POLICY STATEMENTS WHICH INCLUDE
REGULATIONS OR RESTRICTIONS
GOVERNING ACCEPTANCE OF
ADVERTISING: PERCENTAGE
OF RESPONSES
Per
Type
of
Institution
cent of
Included
Advertising Restrictions
No
Formal
Not Included Policy
Support
Public 22 67 11
Private 0 42 58
Founding
Pre-1860 14 54 32
Post-1860 18 67 15
Location
East 0 50 50
Midwest 20 67 13
South 0 83 17
West 33 50 17
Community Pop.
To 50,000 22 56 22
Over 50,000 11 68 21
Enrollment
To 15,000 13 56 31
Over 15,000 20 71 9
Journalism
Major 15 72 13
No major 20 20 60
Per cent of All
Institutions 16 62 22
Per cent of Only
Those Institutions
With Statements 21 79
200
It is quite common for policies to prohibit any
hint of racial bias in advertising, especially in
relation to housing or employment. Also, among those
papers which have detailed advertising policies, limita
tions are placed upon advertising that deals with special
professional knowledge, such as medicine.
Other restrictions most often named in policy
statements are as follows: (1) advertising that is
suspected to be fraudulent or misleading, (2) advertising
identified only by a postal box number, (3) advertising
which does not contain the name of the product or the
advertiser, (4) advertising if an advertiser's account
is in arrears, (5) advertisements in poor taste, (6)
advertising that violates local, state, or federal
statutes, such as games of chance, (7) advertising of
alcoholic beverages, though many statements specifically
make exceptions for beer or light wines, (8) advertise
ment offering matrimony, or social "lonely hearts" clubs,
(9) advertisement of spiritualists or fortune tellers,
and (10) advertising that may tend to detract from the
good name of the university.
Chapter Summary
One of the more significant indications of control
placed upon college and university student newspapers may
201
be obtained from formally adopted publication policy
statements. Each of the sixty-five institutions with
student dailies was asked to submit a copy of such a
policy if any were currently in use. Sixty replies (92
per cent of the total population) were received, and
fifty-six of these (86 per cent of the total population)
were usable. Indications came from 22 per cent of the
institutions that there was no formally adopted policy
statement governing the student newspaper. Policies from
51 per cent specifically prohibited pre-publication
censorship, 14 per cent specifically allowed for such
censorship, and 35 per cent gave no indication of policy
on this matter. Formulation of editorial policy was
listed as the function of the board of publications in 49
per cent of the policies, the editorial board in 16 per
cent, and the editor in 9 per cent.
CHAPTER IX
INTERVIEWS IN DEPTH
In an attempt to explore further the views found
in the literature and in editorial policy statements,
interviews were conducted at each of the eight colleges
and universities in California which have student daily
newspapers. California institutions with student
dailies are Fresno State College, San Diego State College,
San Francisco State College, San Jose State College,
Stanford University, the University of California at
Berkeley, the University of California at Los Angeles,
and the University of Southern California. Six of the
institutions are publicly supported; two are privately
supported. Four are located in the general San Francisco
Bay area, one in Central California, and three in
Southern California. All but one are located in or near
major metropolitan areas.
Sixteen personal interviews were conducted, five
with administrators, five with publications managers and
faculty advisers, and six with student journalists.
The views of one additional faculty adviser included in
this chapter were obtained by correspondence. interviews
202
203
were conducted from June through October, 1964. Open-
ended questions were used in hope of encouraging responses
of greater depth. Average length of time per interview
was approximately one hour. Areas discussed during the
interviews included the function and importance of the
campus daily, the roles of the faculty adviser, the
student editor, and the publications board, and major
conflicts involving the control of the student press.
Responses were recorded as nearly verbatim as
possible and were rechecked by the interviewer immediately
upon leaving the interview. Notes obtained in the inter
view were transcribed into typewritten form as soon after
each interview as possible. In some cases a single page
of notes was required; in other cases several pages were
demanded. Caplow discussed at greater length this inter
viewing procedure in an article appearing in the American
Journal of Sociology, September, 1956 (44:165).
The Function of the Student Press
Data gathered for this study have shown that
much of the controversy involving the university student
newspaper begins with editors' discussions of off-campus
affairs. Yet this type of coverage cannot be expected
to be curtailed, according to interviews conducted in
California. Students also are citizens, it was pointed
204
out, and, in addition, educators attempt to instill in
their students an awareness of national and international
problems. Good coverage of the campus, however, is much
more difficult to accomplish, according to the interviews.
Campus coverage also has more meaning to the reader and
to the institution. There was agreement, therefore, that
campus 'news should come first and that if coverage of
off-campus affairs is desired it should be "localized" or
somehow tied to the campus. It was suggested that editors
do not make enough use of the vast institutional facili
ties available to them. Editors, for example, were urged
to solicit contributions from and to conduct interviews
with faculty members whose disciplines were closely
aligned with newsworthy events. Most often neglected,
noted one administrator, were the areas of business,
economics, and education.
A newspaper*s effectiveness may be measured in
several ways, according to the interviews: (1) the speed
at which newspapers move from distribution racks, (2) the
use made of letters-to-the-editor columns, and (3) the
need of what one source called "newspaper substitutes,"
such as posters, mimeographed newsletters and announce
ments, and public address systems.
The difficulty in isolating the true function of
publications on an urban campus also was pointed out.
205
"Who really knows the makeup of an urban campus/' noted
one source. "it is an elusive thing."
All agreed, however, that the campus newspaper
is vital to the institution. It was noted that it is an
extremely economical means of campus-wide communication,
that the college audience is a choice market for
advertisers, and that campus readers are anxious to
receive their daily copies of the publication. "If the
newspaper were not here," noted one administrator, "it
would come into being anyway."
Reasons for Major Conflicts
A cautious newspaper, noted one adviser, may not
make many enemies, but neither will it make many friends.
Conflicts were considered by those interviewed as being
inevitable. student editors, therefore, should not
consider campus popularity as a prime objective. Anyone
who speaks out on major issues of the day is bound at
times to be mistaken, misunderstood, and criticized. it
also was suggested that controversial stands taken by
editors usually are taken far more seriously off-campus
than on and usually more seriously by students than by
the faculty.
Eight major reasons were given for conflict
surrounding the campus newspaper. All reflect concern
206
with the "public image" of the institution.
1. Alienation comes between the editor and his
reader through errors in fact and in spelling. It was
suggested that the level of tolerance for obviously
typographical errors is much higher than for obvious
reportorial errors.
2. Conflict is aroused more often by omission
of a news story than by commission of an error, according
to one editor. Complaints, he noted, are more frequent
and the complainant more vocal when a story is missed
than when an error gets into print. One administrator
agreed, noting that in his experience the two major
problems surrounding the publication of a student news
paper were space limitations and missed opportunities.
Editors, he added, are aware of both of these short
comings .
3. The inability of the reporter to reach his
news source is a major cause of reportorial error, and,
therefore, conflict between the editor and his reader,
said one administrator. He pointed out the necessity
for understanding between the editor and his campus news
source, and noted the frequency with which news sources
are either off-campus or unavailable to the reporter.
He added that for years he has given off-the-record
background statements to student reporters and has made
an effort to clarify and interpret data for reporters
207
and he said he has "yet to be burned" by a breach of
journalistic ethics.
4. A conflict is inevitable between the press
and the politician on the campus level just as it is at
the community level, according to one editor. The
traditional "watchdog" function of the press clashes
with the desire of political leaders to be "left alone
to do their jobs," it was noted.
5. It was universally agreed that the
inexperience of student journalists inevitably results
in conflict. "There is no such thing as an experienced
staff," noted one administrator. Another administrator
agreed, emphasizing that the student newspaper is merely
part of a larger educational experience and that there
can be no guarantee that the newspaper "will become
better and better over the years any more than bluebooks
will become better and better." He pointed out that
there is a complete turnover in staff members every two
or three years and that there is no "residual knowledge
or experience" to accompany this high rate of turnover.
6. Because the newspaper prints for immediate
response there is a tendency for immediate over
reaction by the reader, according to two sources.
Problems discussed by the newspaper usually do not have
immediate solutions, it was pointed out.
208
7. Much controversy is inevitable, noted one
administrator, because of the nature and function of
higher education itself and its great reliance on and
encouragement of freedom of thought and expression.
8. College and university student daily news
papers, noted one administrator, serve a "highly
intelligent, articulate, and critical audience— better
educated, man-for-man, than even the New York Times."
Control of the Student Press
Control of the student newspaper, according to
one faculty adviser, can be either formal or informal.
The former he identified as restrictive in nature and
dependent ultimately on the President of the institution.
These, he noted, become apparent in a crisis when the
students have acted unwisely. The more informal control
he identified as that which comes about through the
process of education and which includes the faculty
adviser as a teacher rather than as a censor.
The Editor
Editors of California student daily newspapers
control news and editorial content of their publications.
They noted that the important guideline is one of
professional standards and ethics. Two advantages of
editorial freedom were mentioned:
209
1. Editors who have freedom are more likely to
exert editorial leadership, according to one adviser.
All that are needed are two or three students of outstand
ing ability to develop adequate leadership, he said, but
these two or three must know it is “their newspaper."
An administrator in Northern California agreed, adding
that "without freedom you usually do not get
responsibility."
2. Editors who have freedom are more likely to
weigh seriously the pressures that come from their
readers, noted one adviser. Readers tend to complain to
persons they know, and, though this may possibly be an
adviser or even a President, it usually is the editor.
This is especially true if the reader knows the editor
has freedom and has responsibility for what is published.
Most readers who really care about the publication
probably would tend to go to the editor with their
comments and opinions, he noted.
Two limiting factors involving the effectiveness
of editorial freedom of the campus press also were
mentioned:
1. A short term appointment to the position of
editor limited the opportunity for the editor to develop
initiative and leadership, according to one editor. He
said an appointment covering an academic year is
210
preferable to one for a single semester only.
2. The publication is bound to suffer, noted
one administrator, if the editor becomes a "megaphone
for use by antagonists." If he becomes a participant in
the news he loses his objectivity and ceases to accurate
ly mirror the campus scene.
The Faculty Adviser
All those interviewed in California emphasized
freedom from pre-publication censorship, but noted that
informal control still exists through the adviser. Listed
as important in this concept of "working rapport" between
editors and advisers were (1) the adviser's availability
for discussions with editors, (2) his comments and
suggestions following publications, (3) his avoidance of
attempting to dictate contents or policy, (4) his
philosophy as an educator, and (5) his readiness to offer
at any time constructive advice, inspiration, and support.
The Board of Publication
Several suggestions were offered regarding
membership and function of boards of publication:
1. Student members of the board of publications
should be appointed by the board itself. This method,
said one administrator, would eliminate "block voting"
that often accompanies political appointment to the
211
board. One editor agreed, noting that political "yes
men" on the board have a damaging effect on staff morale
and quality. It was noted that in 1962 the students
themselves requested a non-student majority on the
Publisher's Board of the University of California at
Berkeley in hopes of reducing "politics" involving the
Daily Californian. The University of California at Los
Angeles board of publication in 1964 also was removed
from the hands of student politicians. Another observer
noted that student members of the board tend to be less
tolerant of conflicts that arise than do non-student
members.
2. Board members should be appointed for over
lapping terms so as to insure a degree of continuity.
One adviser noted that this would also tend to reduce
the possibility of "political stacking."
3. Newly appointed board members should receive,
prior to their taking office, some type of introduction
to the history, function, and responsibilities of student
publications. This introduction, noted one adviser,
could be in the form of a printed or mimeographed booklet.
This same publication, it was noted, could be distributed
among staff members of the publication as well.
4. The board of publications should adopt the
budget for all campus publications and funds collected
212
from fees should be fixed, not open to political
maneuvering. It was noted that Berkeley and Stanford
publication fees are at a fixed amount per student, and
the University of Southern California includes the student
newspaper allocation in the total University budget. It
was agreed by those interviewed that some system of
funding should be established that would remove political
partisanship or pressure as an element in student news
paper financing.
The Administration
Administrators, noted one source, sometimes see
the student newspaper as a gun with barrels pointed out
at both ends. When you pull the trigger, he said, you
are not really sure which end is going to fire. With
this in mind, several suggestions were offered to
administrators in dealing with the student press:
1. Administrators were advised not to succumb
to the temptation to use the student publication as a
tool of institutional public relations, nor should they
expect student editors to so use it. It is difficult to
deal with the student press with either a "lecture or
Madison Avenue approach," noted one adviser.
2. Administrators were urged to compliment
editors on stories well done and to correct editors when
213
serious errors appear. One student editor said that he
could forecast most calls from the administration and
that such calls came four or five times during the year.
111686 calls dealt with various complaints. He added,
however, that in each case the complaint was justified.
An administrator emphasized that while it is up to the
administration to let editors know when they are wrong so
that they will not perpetuate the error, students in
institutions of higher learning still must have the right
to make mistakes.
3. Administrators were advised to divorce them
selves personally from purely institutional problems
that may need correcting. This must be done if the
administrator is to be fair to himself, the institution,
and the students. When the student newspaper is critical
of an institutional policy or practice, the administrator
must remember, noted one source, that "it is not his
ox being gored, but the institution's."
4. Administrators should not hesitate to tell
critics that the publication is a student newspaper
which has absolutely no connection with the official views
of the college or its administration. It was recommended
that such a statement appear on each editorial page and
that administrators point out to critics of editorial
freedom that if the institution is to assume a role of
214
censorship it must then assume responsibility for all
viewpoints which are voiced.
5. Administrators were warned against the
tendency to "panic" at the first sign of controversy or
get too upset over occasional errors or "broken images."
6. Administrators were reminded that a
university is only as good as its administration is
effective in withstanding pressures of off-campus groups.
It was noted that this would apply to both public and
private institutions.
One administrator noted that the strength and
success of a campus daily is directly related to four
conditions: (1) a campus history of editorial freedom,
(2) fiscal independence,(3) staff training, and (4)
continued and friendly professional counsel "by those
who know both the paper and the university well." His
advice to those who "want something done about the daily"
is to urge those critics to "get involved," to let
editors know how they feel about news and editorial
coverage, and to encourage talented students to
participate. Still, another administrator noted, the
collegiate press is more likely to be a "thorn in the
side of the administration than a jewel in the crown of
journalism."
215
Chapter Summary
To augment the data obtained from the literature
and the original survey of publication policy statements,
interviews were conducted at each of the eight
California colleges and universities which have student
daily newspapers„ It was generally agreed that student
editors in California tended to enjoy a high degree of
editorial freedom and that it was highly desirable that
such freedom be maintained* The responsibility of the
student press was seen as one which was primarily limited
to campus news and opinion rather than to off-campus
affairs. Boards of publication, it was felt, do not
enter into the day-to-day control of the student press,
leaving that responsibility in the hands of student
editors.
CHAPTER X
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
The student-edited college and university daily
newspaper in the United States exerts a significant in
fluence on the thoughts and actions of members of the
university community. This influence takes on added
significance: (1) as readership of university newspapers
increases, (2) as student editors adopt more professional
approaches to news, (3) as greater responsibility is
placed on these publications as a primary means of
communication within the university community, (4) as
acceptance of these publications grows, and (5) as free
dom and controversy continue to be an inseparable part of
higher education.
Summary
Statement of the Purpose
The purpose of this study was to identify major
areas of conflict in the control of the college or uni
versity student-edited daily newspaper in the United
States. The investigation was conducted primarily in
three ways: (1) views expressed in the literature by
216
217
students, faculty members, and administrators involved
with or responsible for student publications, (2) an
analysis of current practices of control as expressed in
publication policy statements adopted by colleges and
universities from coast to coast, and (3) an analysis of
interview responses conducted with student editors,
faculty members, and administrators of California
colleges and universities having student daily newspapers.
Investigation of conflicts in the control of the
student press included the following areas: (1) fiscal
independence, (2) editorial freedom, (3) the role of
faculty or administrative adviser, (4) the relationship
with student political leaders, (5) appointment and re
moval of editorial personnel, and (6) the role of the
student press in the college community. Finally, methods
were explored whereby conflicts in these areas might be
reduced.
Delimitations
The study was delimited to colleges and universi
ties located in the United States, and, within that
geographical area, to institutions with newspapers edited
by undergraduate students, and to those that are published
at least four times per week, a frequency generally
considered "daily'1 (8) . Colleges having publications
which appear fewer than four times per week were included
218
at times in the chapters reviewing the literature if such
inclusion served to better illustrate various conflicts.
Editor & Publisher International Year Book and N. W. Ayer
and Son's Directory of Newspapers and Periodicals were
used to compile the institutions used in the survey of
publication policies (8,1).
It was not the intention of this study to define
the roles of the college president, dean, faculty or
administrative adviser, or student editor, nor to pass
judgment on the opinions of those whose views were sur
veyed. Neither was it intended to offer findings as
"utopian" answers to complex problems. It was hoped,
however, that the study might offer greater understanding
to those interested in student publications, an area of
increasing importance.
Limitations
Four major limitations stand out in a study such
as the one undertaken here: (1) the lack of personal
acquaintanceship with the various institutions, publica
tions or conflicts included; (2) the small number of
student daily newspapers in the United States; (3) the
lack of previous studies dealing with the student press;
and (4) the limited reference to the student press made
in the literature of higher education.
The Procedure
Methods used in this study included extensive
library research in reviewing the literature, an original
survey of policies of boards of publication, and personal
interview. Analysis of data obtained was used as a basis
for formulation of recommendations to ease the various
conflicts which tend to surround control of the university
newspaper.
The survey of policies included usable responses
from fifty-six (or 86 per cent) of the sixty-five
colleges and universities having student-edited news
papers published at least four times per week. Requests
were made by mail addressed to the directors of student
publications at each institution with the exception of
those in California, which were visited at a later date.
The composition of the survey and a more detailed
description of methods employed were given in Chapter
VIII.
The personal interviews were conducted within
the state of California and included each of the eight
colleges and universities having daily newspapers.
Sixteen interviews were conducted with administrators,
faculty publications advisers, and students.
These methods of investigation were used rather
than the statistical approach in hopes of delving more
220
deeply into the areas of conflict. A panel of specialists
in journalism and higher education agreed that the
spectrum of conflict encountered did not lend itself to
significant quantitative analysis.
Arrangement of Chapters
The report was divided into ten chapters.
Chapter I, an introduction to the study, contained the
background, problem, purpose, delimitations, limitations,
procedure, and organization.
Chapter II contained the historical development
of journalism as a discipline of study in higher educa
tion.
Chapter III contained the historical development
of the college student press.
Chapter IV, the last of four chapters dealing with
background material pertinent to the investigation, in
cluded the scope, function, and significance of the
college daily newspaper today.
Chapter V consisted of legal decisions that affect
the control of the student newspaper.
Chapter VI contained descriptions of 30 incidents
illustrating conflict in the control of student newspapers
in a wide variety of institutions— large and small, public
and private, sectarian and non-sectarian.
Chapter VII included opinions of control of the
221
student press, and especially editorial freedom, as
expressed in the literature.
Chapter VIII consisted of findings of an original
survey of editorial policy statements governing control
of college and university daily newspapers in the United
States.
Chapter IX contained results of interviews with
administrators, faculty publication advisers, and student
journalists of the eight colleges and universities in
California which have daily newspapers.
Chapter X included a summary, findings, con
clusions, and recommendations.
A bibliography and series of appendixes completed
the work.
Summary of the Findings
1. Areas of major conflict may be classified as
follows: fiscal independence, editorial freedom, the
role of the faculty or administrative adviser, the
relationship with student politicians, appointment and
removal of editorial personnel, and the role of the
student press in the community.
2. The courts have held that restrictions
imposed by college officials to regulate campus debate
and publication do not infringe upon a student's
222
Constitutional rights of free speech and press because he
is limited in his desire to speak out only as a student,
not as a citizen, and is limited only within the confines
of the campus gates.
3. The courts traditionally have held that
collegiate boards of control and state legislatures
possess broad powers in establishing rules and regulations
for the conduct of all phases of college life, including
publications. Wide acceptance is given to the concept of
the college standing in loco parentis, granting to the
institution powers over its students similar to those
granted to a parent over his children. The courts
generally have not interferred in questions of admini
strative discipline unless there has been evidence of
arbitrary or grossly unfair action taken by the college
administration.
4. The question of institutional liability in a
libel suit against a student newspaper remains largely
unresolved, even though Vanderbilt University in 1959 did
remove itself as a defendant by attesting to the
unusually high degree of independence the student news
paper enjoyed in relation to the university.
5. Presidents generally voiced support for a
free student press, citing educational as well as
philosophical foundations for such support. Most agreed
223
that a free student press is a "calculated risk," but one
worth taking.
6. There was little agreement as to the proper
use of the student newspaper as a laboratory for students
in institutions where there exist schools and departments
of journalism.
7. Appointment of the faculty adviser generally
rested with the President of the institution following
consultation with the schools and departments of journal
ism and with boards of publication.
8. Faculty or administrative supervision of the
student newspaper is expanding rather than diminishing.
It was not established, however, that this trend is
endangering freedom of the college press.
9. Administrators often over-react to what they
consider a violation of student journalistic ethics and
their fears of harm to the image of the institution are
usually greater than actual damage done.
10. Those who opposed a free student press
generally noted concern over the individual differences
in the ability of student editors, the relatively brief
tenure of the editor, and the potential danger to the
"image" of the institution.
11. It was noted that when an institution censors
certain student views it must then assume responsibility
224
for those views which are allowed to be voiced.
12. Eighty-two per cent of the institutions
having student daily newspapers indicated that there was
currently in use some form of written policy statement
governing student publications. Length of these docu
ments ranged from two to seventy pages. Indications came
from four of these institutions that these policy state
ments were undergoing revision.
13. Forty-nine per cent of the policy statements
specified some degree of responsibility for a learning
function in connection with the student newspaper. Seven
per cent specifically denied a journalism laboratory
function, and forty-four per cent made no mention of a
learning or laboratory function.
14. Owner or publisher was said to be an
independent corporation in 19 per cent of the policy
statements, the associated student government in 28 per
cent, and the entire college or university in 48 per cent.
Five per cent did not clearly state the newspaper's
owner or publisher.
15. Fifty-eight per cent of the statements
listed membership of the campus board of publication.
Twenty-six per cent were shown to have student majorities,
18 per cent non-student majorities, and 14 per cent an
equal number of students and non-students.
225
16. Policy statements indicated method of appoint
ment of the publications adviser in 49 per cent of the
cases. In 16 per cent of the cases he was named to his
position by the board of publications, in 19 per cent by
the school or department of journalism, and in 14 per cent
by the college or university President.
17. Pre-publieation censorship was specifically
prohibited in 51 per cent of the policy statements.
Fourteen per cent specifically allowed for such censor
ship, and 35 per cent did not specifically deny nor did
they allow for such action.
18. Appointment of the editor was delegated to
the boards of publication, in 44 per cent of the policy
statements, and to the school or department of journalism
in 2 per cent. Fifty-four per cent of the statements
were not specific in establishing method of editorial
appointment.
19. Thirty-three per cent of the policy state
ments included either unit or grade-point requirements
for candidates for editor. Sixty-seven per cent included
no such requirements.
20. Responsibility for broad editorial policy
was delegated to the boards of publication in 49 per cent
of the policy statements, to the editor in 9 per cent,
and to the editorial board in 16 per cent. Twenty-six
226
per cent of the statements did not specifically delegate
this responsibility.
21. Advertising regulations or restrictions were
included in 21 per cent of the policy statements and were
not included in the remaining 79 per cent.
Conclusions
1. The undergraduate newspaper has enjoyed a
long tradition of prominence and freedom on the American
college and university campus and has become a significant
part of the student scene.
2. Problems of editorial control have existed in
all types of institutions and in all parts of the nation.
Universities with strong traditions of academic freedom,
however, generally appear to offer to the student press a
greater degree of freedom from overt control.
3. The student newspaper has no legal basis upon
which to demand editorial freedom and will find little
support for such demands in the courts. The ultimate
determination as to degree and method of student press
control rests with the President of the institution,
unless this responsibility has been assumed by the
governing board.
4. There appears to be little agreement as to
method of student press control, nor does any single
227
philosophy of control appear to be ideal for the great
variety of institutions that exist in the United States.
5. Members of the college community generally
consider editorial freedom for the student newspaper
philosophically and educationally preferable to a "kept"
press with its inherent shortcomings.
6. Much of the conflict involving the student
press appears to be attributable to a growing concern
that the "proper image" of the institution should not be
endangered by errant undergraduates.
7. The student-edited college and university
daily newspaper in the United States exerts a significant
influence on the thoughts and actions of members of the
college community.
Recommendations
There is no single solution readily available to
all institutions in which there is conflict regarding the
student press. Indeed, if any attempt were made to impose
"utopian" controls on the student newspaper by those
without intimate knowledge of the campus involved, these
attempts almost certainly would run the risk of them
selves being labeled attempts at censorship. The
recommendations to come from this study then, will not be
to establish optimum methods of control for all types of
228
institutions, for no such methods exist. Rather, they are
significant as possible guidelines.
1. A statement should appear on the editorial
page pointing out that opinions expressed on that page
are those of the writer or of the newspaper and that those
opinions do not necessarily reflect the views of the
university, its officials, faculty, alumni, or associated
student organization.
2. Business managers of the student newspaper
should investigate the possibility of obtaining libel
insurance.
3. On a campus where fiscal control still is in
the hands of student politicians, ways of eliminating
this conflict of interest should be given serious study.
4. College and university officials should not
over-react when they feel some harm to the institution is
done by the student newspaper. It should be pointed out
that the public memory is short, and that more harm may
come from the coverage of the ensuing controversy than
might have come from the initial story.
5. Top administrative officials should meet with
editors at least once each term so as to build mutual
confidence, to establish lines of communication, and to
answer any question the students may have concerning the
institution or its operation.
229
6. University officials and editors should meet
at times of important questions to allow for an exchange
of background fact and opinion. While there is no
assurance of accuracy by such a practice, the chance of
spreading unfounded rumors or of gross misrepresentation
of fact is reduced. A defensive silence on the part of an
administrator is far more dangerous to the institution
than his discussion of the problems with honesty and
sincerity.
7. Boards of publication should establish in
writing the broad policies that govern student publica
tions .
8. Boards of publication should establish over
lapping terms of office for their members, encouraging
continuity and discouraging "political stacking" by those
who have power of appointment.
9. The faculty adviser should be employed as an
adviser rather than as a superviser or censor. He should
have no power of censorship.
10. The adviser should take an active role in his
advising responsibilities, not merely wait for problems to
arise. This role might include a weekly informal meeting
with editors during which copies of the newspaper are
discussed and evaluated, suggestions for improvement are
made, and questions from editors are answered.
230
11. Because of the growing importance of student
publications, great care should be exercised in the re
cruitment and appointment of faculty advisers, publica
tions managers, student editors, and board of publication
members.
12. Faculty members of all disciplines should be
encouraged to recommend that talented students consider
the possibility of participating in undergraduate publica
tions .
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Collegiate Press Service, February 14, 1964.
225. Lazarus, Barbara. "U. of Miami Fires Editor,"
Collegiate Press Service, November 3, 1963.
226. Lyle, Jack, and Walter Wilcox. Students View the
News— The Daily Bruin Study. Department
of Journalism Research Series. Los
Angeles: University of California, 1962.
227. Maertz, Hal W. United Press International,
May 5, 1964.
228. "Meyer Silenced by Oath," Collegiate Press Service,
September 21, 1963.
229. National Survey of College and University Student-
Edited Daily Newspapers in the United
States* Iowa city*. National Council of
College Publications Advisers, 1961.
230. "Off and On in One Day," Collegiate Press Service,
October 23, 1963.
249
231.
232.
233 .
234.
235.
Palmer, John T. "A Comparison and Emperical
Analysis of the Attitudes of Certain
Student Groups on Important Issues Related
to University Life." Unpublished doctoral
dissertation. Los Angeles: The University
of Southern California, 1957.
"Papers at Four Schools Put Under Faculty Censor
ship," Collegiate Press Service, February
14, 1964.
Senate, Associated Students, University of
California, Berkeley. Minutes. Berkeley,
California, 1962.
Sigma Delta Chi Directory. Chicago: Sigma Delta
chi, 1964.
United States Student Press Association.
Philadelphia: U.S. Student Press
Association (Undated).
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A
STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES OF THE UNITED STATES
STUDENT PRESS ASSOCIATION
APPENDIX A
STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES
OF THE UNITED STATES STUDENT PRESS ASSOCIATION
ARTICLE I. Whereas the United States Student Press
Association believes the following principles:
1. That freedom of expression and debate by means of a
free and vigorous press is essential to the effective
ness of an educational community in a democratic
society;
2. That where the student press is a function to the
student government, or of the university administra
tion, this should in no way be allowed to impair the
freedom of the student press;
3. That the student press should be free of all forms of
external interference;
4. That it is essential to a free student press that it
be responsible for the views and opinions that it
expresses;
5. That the basic duties of such a free student press
are to present the various opinions of the students
it represents, to present news fairly and without
bias, to interpret local, national and international
events, and issues of interest and import to students
to the best of its ability;
ARTICLE II. And whereas freedom of the student press
has been abridged in the following ways:
1. Confiscation of issues of student newspapers due to
the publication of material which faculty or admini
stration authorities considered detrimental to the
reputation and welfare of the institution, or some
department of the institution;
Source: The United States Student Press Association ,
3457 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
252
253
2. Suspension, expulsion, or threat of similar action
against student editor;
3. Suspension, or threatened suspension of publications
because the publishing or proposed publishing of
matters which faculty, or administrative authorities
considered detrimental to the reputation and welfare
of the institution, or some department of the insti
tution;
4. Control of the content of a student newspaper through
censorship by faculty, administrative authorities,
and the student government so that the student news
paper tended to become a public relations organ of
the institution or an instrument of the student
government;
5. Financial pressure used to limit or retaliate against
editorial policy;
6. By censorship of articles and/or editorial comment,
by civil and academic authorities; and,
7. By inordinate and excessive pressure used to prevent
publication of particular issues or opinions;
ARTICLE III. Therefore the United States Student Press
Association affirms its belief that it should be free
from abuses listed under Article II, and declares the
following fundamental rights, duties, and responsibili
ties necessary for the effective implementation for the
principles of Article I:
1. That the United States student press should be free
from pressure by student governments, university
authorities, or by any other external agencies;
2. That within the restrictions of the laws of libel
and within the scope of their responsibilities and
duties as outlined in Article I, the United States
student press should be autonomous; and,
3. That the United States student press should be free
to develop so that it can continue to fulfill its
role in the academic community.
APPENDIX B
STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE STUDENT PRESS
BY THE AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION
APPENDIX B
STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE STUDENT PRESS
BY THE AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION
A. Freedom of Expression
"The student government, student organizations,
and individual students should be free to discuss,
and to pass resolutions, distribute leaflets, circu
late petitions, and take other lawful action respect
ing any matter which directly or indirectly concerns
or affects them*
"Students should take responsibility for helping
to maintain a free academic community. They should
respect and defend not only their fellow students1
freedoms; but also their teachers' right to the free
expression of views based on their own pursuit of the
truth and their right to function as citizens, inde
pendent of the college or university."
E. Student Publications
All student publications — college newspapers,
literary and humor magazines, academic periodicals
and yearbooks — should enjoy full freedom of the
press. They are too often denied it by college ad
ministrations which fear public criticism. Except
for the relatively few university dailies which are
independent financially, college publications in
general are dependent on the administration's favor
in that they use campus facilities and are subsidized
either directly by the college or indirectly by a
tax on student funds.
Source: American Civil Liberties Union. "Academic
Freedom and Civil Liberties of Students in
Colleges and Universities," AAUP Bulletin,
Vol. 48 (June, 1962), pp. 110-115.
255
256
The college newspapert Whether a daily or a
weekly, the campus paper should report news of student
interest on and off campus, should provide an outlet
for student and faculty opinion through letters to
the editor, and make its own editorial comments on
college and other matters. While these comments
need not necessarily represent the view of the
majority of students, fair space should be given to
dissenting opinion.
The advisory board of the college newspaper, or
college publications board which supervises all stu
dent publications, should be composed of at least a
majority of students, selected by the student govern
ment or council or by some other democratic method.
Other members might include a member of the faculty
of the School of Journalism in universities with such
schools, an alumnus, a local newspaper editor, or
other qualified citizen, and such representation
from the liberal arts faculty and-or Dean's office
as may be mutually agreed upon.
One of the main duties of the publications or
advisory board may be the interviewing of qualified
candidates and the selection of the editor-in-chief
and possibly of all the major staff writers on the
campus newspaper. In colleges where this is not the
practice, some other method of selection appropriate
to the institution should be devised by the student
government to ensure that competent responsible
editors are put in charge and that the college news
paper does not fall into the hands of a self-
perpetuating clique.
The editor-in-chief should be left free to
exercise his own best judgment in the selection of
material to be published. The adults on the board
(or the faculty adviser if the paper has a single
consultant) should counsel the editors in the ethics
and responsibilities of journalism, but neither a
faculty member nor an administrator should exercise
veto power over what may be printed. Should the
board as a whole, after publication, consider that
the paper's editor has exercised poor judgment, in
one or a number of instances, it may take steps to
impeach and remove him from office after holding
hearings and according him due process rights.
APPENDIX C
SAMPLE CHARTER PROVISIONS AND BY-LAWS
THE ILLINI PUBLISHING COMPANY
APPENDIX C
SAMPLE CHARTER PROVISIONS AND BY-LAWS:
THE ILLINI PUBLISHING COMPANY
CHARTER PROVISIONS
(1) NAME
The name of this organization shall be the ILLINI
PUBLISHING COMPANY.
(2) PURPOSE
Subject to the general authority of the President of
the University, the purpose of this organization shall be
to publish and distribute student publications of the
University of Illinois, to operate other related student
enterprises in the field of mass communications, and to
do a general printing and publishing business.
(3) MEMBERSHIP
The corporation shall consist of eight members, four
to be members of the faculty of the University of Illinois
appointed by the President of the University, who shall
designate one of them as Chairman of the Board of Direc
tors and President of the Company. The faculty members
serve for the period designated by the President and until
their successors are appointed. The remaining four mem
bers shall be undergraduate students of the University of
Illinois, elected by students of the University of Illinois
or in such other manner as the President of the University
may from time to time prescribe. No profit shall accrue
to any person by virtue of his membership in this corpora
tion.
BY-LAWS
ARTICLE I - MANAGEMENT
The management of the Corporation shall be vested in
a Board of Directors which shall consist of the members
of the corporation who shall receive no salary either as
members of the corporation or as members of the Board of
Directors.
258
259
ARTICLE II - FISCAL YEAR AND MEETINGS
Section 1. Fiscal Year
The fiscal year of the Company shall end June 30th.
Section 2. Annual Meeting of the Company
The annual meeting of the Company shall be held on
the fourth Tuesday of September. Special meetings of the
Company may be called by the President of the Company or
any three members.
Section 3. Meetings of the Board of Directors
Meetings of the Board of Directors may be called by
the Chairman or any three members.
Subsection i. Quorum. Five members of the Board
shall constitute a quorum. From the close of the spring
semester to the beginning of the fall semester, the
Chairman and/or vice chairman and such members of the
Board as are on campus shall constitute a quorum. In
case of a tie vote, the question shall be referred to the
Dean of Students of the University of Illinois for deci
sion.
Subsection ii. Vote of Chairman. The Chairman shall
have the right to vote on all questions.
ARTICLE III - ELECTION OF MEMBERS
Section 1. Method of Election of Student Members
Unless otherwise prescribed by the President of the
University, two sophomores shall be elected to the Board
for a term of two years, by the Board, from eight nomi
nations made by the Student Senate. Both men and women
students are eligible for this office. Such election
shall be held during the spring semester for each year
and those elected shall take office at the beginning of
the next fiscal year. The eight candidates shall be
nominated by the Student Senate and presented to the
Chairman of the Board of Directors two weeks before the
date of election.
Section 2. Qualifications of Student Members
Each candidate must have second semester sophomore
260
standing in his respective college or school with an
average grade of 3.5.
Section 3. Vacancies in Student Membership Due to
Resignation______________________________
Such vacancies shall be filled in the same manner as
that used in the regular election, as specified in sec
tion 1. The appointee shall fulfill the unexpired term
of the member whom he is succeeding.
Section 4. Appointment of Faculty Members
Faculty members of the Board preferably shall be
chosen from the faculties of the School of Journalism
and Communications and the College of Commerce and Busi
ness Administration; if from some other school or college,
they shall have had three years of publication experience.
At any given time, both the College of Commerce and Busi
ness Administration and the School of Journalism and
Communications shall be represented on the Board.
ARTICLE IV - DUTIES OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Section 1. General
The Board of Directors shall have general supervision
over and conduct of the business of the Company and shall
adopt rules and regulations for the control of the several
publications under its direction.
Section 2. Appointment of Employees
It shall appoint the Editors, Business Managers, and
other officers and employees hereinafter provided for,
determine the method of selection and approve the appoint
ment of such members of the publication staffs as here
after may be provided and shall approve the scale of
compensation of all employees. It shall have power to
remove from office any member of the staffs who does not
abide by its regulations.
Section 3. Supervising Publications
It shall have the right to supervise the management
and policies of the several publications.
Section 4. Contracts and Purchases
It shall approve the scale of advertising and
261
subscription rates of all publications, and contracts for
printing and distributing, including contracts for all
mechanical work done on publications outside the shops
of the Company, and all bills for equipment.
Section 5. Finances
It shall select the depository bank or banks for the
Publishing Company and for its several publications; and
shall have power from time to time to borrow money on
short term notes (secured or unsecured) and to invest
surplus funds.
Section 6. Copyrights
It shall procure copyrights of such material as may
be desirable from time to time, ownership to be vested in
the Corporation. It shall have the sole right to reissue
or republish the contents of any publication.
Section 7. Restriction of News and Advertising
It shall have the power to restrict the type of news
and advertising material to be accepted for publication
in any of its publications.
Section 8. Audit
The Board of Directors shall arrange for a general
audit of the accounts of the Company and its several
publications at least once a year. The audit shall be
conducted by the comptroller's office of the University
of Illinois or by independent public accountants.
Section 9. Matrices
On recommendation of the respective editors and mana
gers of the several publications and approval of the
Board of Directors, suitable matrices shall be awarded
annually by the Company to those students who have served
on publications staffs and the Board of Directors in
accordance with the following plan:
Bronze matrix for the first year's work.
Gold matrix for any person who holds a senior position.
Each publication shall have only four types of mat
rices; that is, a pin for women and a key for men, the pin
and key to be available in bronze or in gold.
262
ARTICLE V - OFFICERS AND THEIR DUTIES
Section 1. Officers of the Company
The officers of the Company shall be a President,
Vice President, General Manager (who shall also be Publish
er of The Daily Illini), Business Manager, and a Secretary;
the President to be named as provided in paragraph 3 of
the Charter Provisions; the Vice President and Secretary
to be elected by and from its members at the annual meet
ing of the Corporation and to hold office for one year.
The General Manager and the Business Manager shall be
elected at a meeting of the Board of Directors held prior
to the close of each fiscal year and their term of office
shall be for the ensuing fiscal year.
Section 2. Officers of the Board of Directors
The officers of the Board of Directors shall be a
Chairman, Vice Chairman, and Secretary, all of whom shall
be the same individuals respectively as the President,
Vice President, and Secretary of the Company. The General
Manager and the Business Manager of the Company are not
eligible for membership on the Board of Directors.
Section 3. Salaries
The General Manager and Business Manager shall receive
such salaries as the Board of Directors may from time to
time authorize. No other officer of the Company or member
of the Board of Directors shall receive a salary.
Section 4. Duties
The duties of the officers shall be those usually
pertaining to their respective offices.
Subsection i. — The President of the Company shall be
the custodian of the funds and securities of the Company
and of the several publications, and either as President
or chairman, as conditions might require, shall appoint
committees and shall make such official reports as may
be required by the laws of the State and the regulations
of the University. He shall preside at all meetings of
the Company, and, as chairman, shall preside over all
meetings of the Board of Directors. He shall be the
Associated Press representative of The Daily Illini.
Subsection ii. — The Vice President shall perform the
duties of the President or Chairman in the absence or
incapacitation of the latter.
263
Subsection iii. — The General Manager of the Illini
Publishing Company and Publisher of The Daily Illini
shall be the custodian of the physical property and the
books of the Company, and of the publications. He shall
represent the Company in all routine dealings with
employees, business concerns, and student managers and
editors of the several publications under the direction
of the Illini Publishing Company. He shall render to the
Board of Directors such reports as the Board of Directors
deems necessary.
Section 5. Officers Bonded
The President, Vice President, General Manager, and
Business Manager of the Company each shall be required
to furnish at the expense of the Company a surety bond
in such sum as shall be determined by the Board of
Directors.
ARTICLE VI - QUALIFICATIONS OF STUDENTS
FOR STAFF POSITIONS
Section 1. General Eligibility Rules
The general rules of eligibility for positions on all
publications under the direction of the Illini Publishing
Company shall be the minimum rules established from time
to time by the Senate Committee on Student Affairs for
eligibility to participate in extracurricular activities.
These minimum rules are as follows:
1. The minimum scholastic requirement for student partici
pation in extracurricular activities shall be freedom
from probation or consent of the College Dean in probation
cases.
2. It shall be the option of the various activity boards
to establish and administer additional extracurricular
activity eligibility rules.
3. The Senate Committee on Student Affairs shall admini
ster the minimum requirement rules for those undergraduate
activities not operating under special activity boards.
4. The Secretary of the Senate Committee on Student
Affairs shall check the records of all students participat
ing in activities and report those individuals falling
below the minimum requirement to the Dean of their College
for his action. Student heads of the various activities
shall be responsible for submitting accurate lists of all
264
participants associated with them to the Secretary of the
Senate Committee on Student Affairs.
Section 2. Conflicting Activities of Staff Members
Subsection i. — The Board of Directors of the Illini
Publishing Company holds that the major junior and senior
positions to which appointment is made are of such import
ance and demand so much thought and attention as to make
any other "activities" on the part of the appointee highly
undesirable. Failure to be governed by this policy will
be considered by the Board as sufficient ground for termi
nating any appointments.
Subsection ii. — Staff members/ except freshmen/ of
the editorial and business staffs of all publications are
barred from serving on the publicity committees of any
other organizations.
Section 3. Eligibility for Daily Illini Positions
Subsection i. — Undergraduates who have earned a
minimum of 28 semesters hours of credit and graduate stu
dents are eligible to apply for positions on the staff
of The Daily Illini.
Subsection ii. — The Board of Directors of the Illini
Publishing Company and the faculty advisors of The Daily
Illini shall determine any variations from subsection i.
In this connection, the Board directs that graduate students
shall not be eligible to hold "senior" positions on The
Daily Illini before June 1, 1951, and shall not be eligible
for top positions (editor-in-chief, executive news editor,
advertising director, circulation manager) before June 1,
1952.
ARTICLE VII - THE DAILY ILLINI
Section 1. Name
The student paper of the University of Illinois shall
be known as The Daily Illini and shall be published daily,
unless directed otherwise by the Board of Directors of
the Illini Publishing Company.
Section 2. Editorial Staff
The editorial staff of The Daily Illini shall consist
of such staff positions and shall perform such duties as
the Board of Directors may from time to time determine.
265
Subsection i. Tenure. — Unless otherwise directed
by the Board of Directors the editorial staff shall assume
charge of the editorial office on June 1 following its
election in May, and shall relinquish it on the following
May 31.
Section 3. The Business Staff
^ m m imim ^
The business staff of The Daily illini shall consist
of such staff positions and shall perform such duties as
the Board of Directors may from time to time determine.
Subsection i. — Tenure. Unless otherwise directed by
the Board of Directors, the Business Staff shall assume
charge of the business office on June 1 following its
selection in May, and shall relinquish it on the succeeding
May 31, provided that such members of the business staff
as may be necessary may be required by the Board of
Directors to serve until July 1 for the purpose of closing
up the business affairs of their term of office.
Section 4. Salaries
The salaries accruing to members of the staff of The
Daily Illini shall be in accordance with those adopted
from time to time by the Board of Directors.
ARTICLE VIII - THE ILLIO
Section 1. Name
The Yearbook of the University of Illinois shall be
known as The Illio and shall be published by the Illini
Publishing Company.
Section 2. Editorial Staff
The editorial staff of The Illio shall consist of such
staff positions and shall perform such duties as the Board
of Directors may from time to time determine.
Subsection i. Eligibility. — Members of the editorial
staff at the time they are to assume their duties must
meet the eligibility requirements of Article VI. No
person shall become a member of The Illio staff who is
not an undergraduate student of the University of Illinois
in good standing.
Subsection ii. Tenure. — Unless otherwise directed
by the Board of Directors the editorial staff shall assume
266
charge of the editorial office on July 1 following its
selection in May and shall relinquish it on the succeeding
June 30. Any editor-elect, however, is expected to begin
promptly before July 1 arrangements for the organization
of staff and contents for The Illio of his term of office
and continue to serve until all work on his book has been
completed.
Section 3. Business Staff
The business staff of The Illio shall consist of such
staff positions and shall perform such duties as the Board
of Directors may from time to time determine.
Subsection i. Eligibility. — The members of the busi
ness staff shall have the same eligibility qualifications
as the editors (see By-Laws Article VI).
Subsection ii. Tenure. — Unless otherwise directed
by the Board of Directors, the business staff shall assume
charge of the business office on July 1 following its
selection in May, and shall relinquish it on the succeed
ing June 30. Any retiring business manager, however, is
expected to continue to serve with respect to his yearbook
until the delivery of books ordered and sold has been
completed, even though such procedure might be delayed
until after July 1.
Section 4. Salaries
The salaries accruing to members of the staff of The
Illio shall be in accordance with those adopted from time
to time by the Board of Directors.
ARTICLE IX - MAGAZINES
Section 1. Title and Interval of Publication
The student magazine of the College of Engineering
shall be known as The Illinois Technograph; that of the
College of Agriculture as The Agriculturist; that of the
College of Commerce as The Trader. Each of these magazines
shall be published by the Illini Publishing Company at
such intervals as the Board of Directors may direct. The
publication of additional magazines or discontinuance of
exdsting magazines may be authorized by the Board of
Directors from time to time.
267
J
Section 2. Staff
The staff of each of the magazines provided for in
Section 1 shall consist of such staff positions and shall
perform such duties as the Board of Directors may from
time to time determine.
Subsection i. Eligibility. — The staff members shall
at the time they are to assume their duties meet the eli
gibility requirements of Article VI. Additional eligi
bility restrictions may be imposed by the faculty advisors
of the above named magazines.
Section 3. Tenure
Unless otherwise directed by the Board of Directors,
the editorial and business staffs of the several magazines
shall assume charge of their respective offices on July 1
following their selection in May and shall relinquish
them on the succeeding June 30. Each editor- and manager-
elect, however, is expected to begin promptly before July
1 arrangements for the organization of staff and plans for
contents and circulation respectively.
Section 4. Salaries
The salaries accruing to members of the staffs of the
several magazines shall be in accordance with those
adopted from time to time by the Board of Directors.
Section 5. College Faculty Advisor or Advisory Committees
The Faculty Advisors or Faculty Advisory Committees
for the several publications may expect the cooperation of
the Board of Directors of the Illini Publishing Company
in all matters pertaining to the general welfare of their
respective publications.
ARTICLE X - AMENDMENTS
These by-laws may be amended at any meeting of the
Board of Directors.
APPENDIX D
SAMPLE BOARD OF PUBLICATIONS AND
EDITORIAL STAFF BY-LAWS:
THE DAILY CALIFORNIAN
APPENDIX D
SAMPLE BOARD OF PUBLICATIONS AND
EDITORIAL STAFF BY-LAWS:
THE DAILY CALIFORNIAN
DAILY CALIFORNIAN PUBLISHER'S BOARD
1. Membership: There shall be fourteen (14) voting
members and two (2) non-voting members of the Board.
A. The Voting Members shall be:
6 students:
1 ASUC President
4 students-at-large selected by the
Publisher's Board and approved by the
ASUC Senate. These students shall have
at least junior standing during their
entire term of office. One of these
students may be a graduate.
1 graduate council president
3 faculty:
1 Journalism professor appointed by the
Academic Senate
1 Business Administration professor appointed
by the Academic Senate
1 Law professor appointed by the Faculty of
the School of Law
3 administration appointed by the Chancellor
1 Public Information Officer
1 Member, Dean of Students Office
1 at-large
2 professional journalists appointed by the
Chancellor and approved by the ASUC Senate.
B. The Non-voting Members shall be:
1 Daily Cal Editor
269
270
1 Daily Cal Business Manager
Co Term of Offices
1. Student members shall serve for one (1) year.
Two of the students-at-large shall be appoint
ed in the spring, two in the fall. (This will
necessitate two of the initial appointments
serving for only six months.)
2. All other voting members shall serve for
three (3) years with the exception of the
initial occupants of these positions.
The first journalism professor shall
serve for one (1) year. The first
Business administration professor
shall serve for two (2) years. The
first Law professor shall serve for
three (3) years. The first at-large
administration representative shall
serve for one (1) year. The first
Public Information Officer shall serve
for two (2) years. The first member
of the Dean of Students Office shall
serve for three (3) years. One
professional journalist shall serve
for two (2) years, the other for three
(3) years.
II. Meetings and Quorum:
The Publisher's Board shall meet once a week while
school is in session. Additional meetings may be
called by the Chairman or a majority of the Board.
A quorum shall consist of eight (8) voting members
of the Board.
III. Functions and Powers of the Board:
A. This body shall be the publisher of the Daily
Californian.
B. The Board possesses final authority of appoint
ment. The Board may remove for stated cause
after hearing by vote of at least 2/3 of the
voting members any such appointments. Such
271
hearings shall be public if so requested by
the person being considered for removal.
C. The Board shall not possess the power of prior
censorship.
D. The Board will elect its own chairman in the
fall of each year for one year. The Chairman
shall be a student member of the Board.
E. These by-laws shall be amended by a two-thirds
(2/3) majority of the Board subject to approval
by the ASUC Senate.
P. This body shall receive and evaluate all
complaints and suggestions regarding Daily
Californian coverage and policy and take the
appropriate action.
272
February 1962
DAILY CALIFORNIAN EDITORIAL STAFF BY-LAWS
ARTICLE 1. FUNCTIONS AND PURPOSE
The Daily Californian is the property of the ASUC
and therefore, under Article III, Section 4a of the
Constitution, the Executive Committee delegates its
responsibility as publisher to the Consultative Board
and charges it with the responsibilities, powers, and
functions outlined herein and in the by-laws of the
Consultative Board.
The Daily Californian serves as a medium of communi
cation to all areas of the campus community; its purpose
is to carry out this function by serving the best
interests of the campus community. The Daily Californian
endeavors to present a balance of news that will appeal
to as many readers as possible. The Daily Californian
acts as a disseminator of information; at the same txme,
it is concerned with the presentation of ideas, in the
hope that these ideas will stimulate and further the
educational experience of the students.
The Daily Californian operates under the canons of
responsible journalism.
The Daily Californian is published daily except
Saturdays and Sundays, and University holidays; it is
published weekly during summer sessions.
ARTICLE II. THE SENIOR EDITORIAL BOARD
A. The Senior Editorial Board shall normally
consist of the Editor, Managing Editor, City
Editor, News Editor, Assistant Editor, Copy
Editor, Sports Editor, and two Assistant City
Editors. A Night Editor shall be chosen by
the remainder of the Daily Californian Staff to
represent them in a non-voting capacity on
the Senior Editorial Board.
B. The Senior Editorial Board shall meet regularly
at a time which shall be determined at the first
meeting of the semester. Any member of the
Senior Editorial Board may call for a special
273
meeting at any time he deems necessary.
Co A quorum shall consist of a simple majority of
the Senior Editorial Board.
D. Executive Committee has final authority in the
appointment, reappointment, promotion,
suspension, demotion, and dismissal of staff
members.
1. The SEB shall recommend at least two quali
fied persons for each SEB position, and
at least one qualified person for every
other salaried position, to the Consultative
Board for consideration with written reasons
for their recommendations. The recommenda
tions shall be presented to DCCB no later
than the 12th publishing week of each
semester.
2. The Editor shall have the power to make
temporary appointments to fill any vacated
position— such temporary appointments
effective until the next regularly
scheduled CB meeting.
3. A staff member may be dismissed for
legitimate cause upon the recommendation
of the Editor, the SEB, or the Consultative
Board subject to the approval of the
Executive Committee. A hearing will be held
in accord with the ASUC Constitution. A
notice of at least one week must be given
the staff member to allow him to ask for a
hearing and prepare his explanation.
4. A staff member may be dismissed for
legitimate cause upon the recommendation
of the Editor or the Senior Editorial
Board, after review by Consultative Board
and subject to the approval of the
Executive Committee.
5. The Senior Editorial Board may recommend
that any position listed may be left un
filled for a designated period of time and
appropriate substitutions made, subject to
the approval of the Consultative Board.
274
E. The Senior Editorial Board shall be responsible
for the day to day operation of the Daily
Californian. As individuals and as a group,
the SEB shall advise staff members in the
performance of their various duties.
ARTICLE III. EDITORIAL POLICY
A. Editorials reflect the views of the writer and
make no claim to represent student or University
opinion. The members of SEB shall be given
reasonable access to the editorial page.
1. Editorials are signed with the writers'
names and positions; they may be signed
"Senior Editorial Board" if there is
complete unanimity of the Board.
2. All front page editorials and guest
editorials must be approved by a 2/3
vote of the SEB.
B. The members of SEB shall be given reasonable
access to the editorial page.
C. Dissenting views of the staff members shall be
published, if possible, in a column or an "As
I See it." These two means of expression will
be open only to staff members. A Column
entitled "One Man's Opinion" shall be open to
any registered University student or University
staff member at the discretion of the Editor
and his assistant. Any column shall be signed
with the writer's name.
D. The Daily Californian editorial policy shall
give members of the campus community a chance
to address themselves to the Editor and the
campus public through the Ice Box, so called
because it serves as a "cooling off" place.
The Daily Californian does not accept obscene,
libelous, or anonymous letters. Letters shall
be signed with the writer's name, address,
phone number, major, and class. Letters to the
editor are accepted from any registered
University student or University staff member
and shall be printed, space limitations and
timeliness of the issue permitting. The above
provisions shall be included on the editorial
page whenever possible.
275
E. The Daily Californian editorial shall state no
preference for ASUC candidates for office.
F. No editorial stand shall be taken which
criticizes or impugns any individual or group
because of race, religion, or national origin.
G. The Daily Californian shall maintain a policy
of editorial freedom while adhering to the
concepts of truth, fairness, accuracy, and
decency.
ARTICLE IV„ NEWS POLICY
A. Daily Californian news policies are governed by
the canons of responsible news journalism.
The news shall be presented in accordance with
the ideals of truth, fairness, objectivity,
accuracy, and decency. Reporters shall check
facts and quotations. Allegations critical of
individuals shall not be published without
thorough investigation and substantiation.
If possible, all news pertaining to a controvers
ial issue shall be presented. The editorial
policies shall not influence the balance of
news coverage. The time element shall be
subsidiary to careful investigation of the facts.
B. The primary purpose of the Daily Californian's
news columns is the dissemination of news of
special interest to members of the campus
community. Staff members shall be attentive to
the newspaper's role as a vital medium for the
academic, social, cultural and economic develop
ment and progress of the student body and the
entire University community.
C. Corrections of erroneous, unfairly embarassing
or damaging statements shall be published in
the first issue after a mistake has been discov
ered. The fact that it is a correction shall
be made clear.
D. The Daily Californian shall give adequate
publicity to the University and the ASUC
sponsored functions in proportion to their
news value on campus.
276
E. Notice of ASUC elections and a full statement
of proposed ASUC Constitutional amendments
shall be published in the Daily Californian
for at least one (1) day during the week
previous to the election. Special election
pages shall include platforms and statements
of candidates as a service to the students on
the last publishing day immediately preceding
the ASUC fall and spring primary elections.
All data on elections rules, procedures and
results are to be verified by the Elections
Council Chairman prior to publication. The
official ballot shall be verified by the
Elections Council Chairman at times set by the
Managing Editor.
ARTICLE V. THE STAFF
A. Unsalaried staff positions not otherwise
provided for herein are to be made by a 2/3
vote of SEB.
B. No staff position shall be denied a registered
University student because of race, religion,
sex, age, past or present political or social
affiliations.
C. Appointments should be made on the basis of
experience, responsibility, competence, and
seniority.
D. Staff positions on the Daily Californian are
open to any student who is carrying at least
12 units of academic work and has maintained
at least a "C" average for the preceding
semester and for all academic work undertaken
at the University.
E. Staff meetings may be called by any staff
member.
ARTICLE VI. SENIOR EDITORIAL BOARD POSITIONS
A. Editor
1. The editor shall be the chief administrative
Officer of the Daily Californian and as
such shall chair all Senior Editorial Board
Meetings. He shall represent the Daily
Californian to outside persons and agencies
277
and he shall determine all general DC
policy, subject to review of the SEB. He
shall have the power to decide all questions
of content of editorials in keeping with
these by-laws.
2. He shall be responsible for the actions of
all editorial staff members acting in their
capacities as members of the Daily
Californian staff and for the adherence to
the news and editorial policies as
established in these by-laws.
3. With the exception of other provisions in
these by-laws, the Editor may veto any
Senior Editorial Board action except the
promotion, demotion, suspension or firing
of a staff member. It shall take a 2/3
vote of the Senior Editorial Board to over
ride the veto.
4. The Editor may suspend a staff member until
the next regularly scheduled Senior Editorial
Board meeting, a period not to exceed one
week.
5. He shall be appointed for a term of one
semester and shall be responsible to the
Consultative Board for the implementation
of these by-laws.
6. He shall, along with the Managing Editor,
represent the Daily Californian on
Publications Board.
7. In his absence, his duties, authority, and
responsibilities shall be invested in the
Managing Editor.
B. Managing Editor
The Managing Editor is responsible for day-to-
day production, for the efficient functioning
of night staffs and for the makeup, in accordance
with these by-laws, of the paper. He shall
chair all staff meetings. He shall have the
responsibility for deciding all questions of
production including style, news gathering,
recruitment and training of personnel, use of
278
office equipment and supplies, night staff
operation, job description and art, photography
and press work. In the Managing Editor's
absence his duties and authority shall reside
with the City Editor. The Managing Editor is
responsible to the Editor for all phases of his
work. He shall represent the Daily Californian,
with the Editor, on Publications Board.
C. City Editor
The City Editor is responsible for news
coverage. He oversees the various news beats
and supervises daily copy reading on city desk.
He shall develop and maintain contacts in all
areas of the University community. He shall be
responsible for the technical quality of news
writing and shall advise reporters on accuracy
and style. He is responsible to the Managing
Editor.
D. News Editor
The News Editor shall be responsible to the
Managing Editor for the day-to-day makeup of
the inside news pages.
E. Assistant Editor
The Assistant Editor shall work with the Editor
in the production of editorial page. He is
responsible for the placement of editorials,
letters to the Ice Box, reviews, cartoons and
columns on the editorial page. He is directly
responsible to the Editor.
F. Assistant City Editors
The two Assistant City Editors shall help
supervise beats, edit copy, handle features
and train cubs. They are also concerned with
special reporting. They shall be responsible
to the City Editor.
G. Copy Editor
The Copy Editor shall be responsible to the
Managing Editor for day-to-day copy editing.
279
H. Sports Editor
The Sports Editor sees that sports events are
adequately covered and supervises the makeup
of the sports page(s). He shall be directly
responsible to the Managing Editor.
ARTICLE VII. OTHER SALARIED POSITIONS
A. Assistant Sports Editor
The Assistant Sports Editor shall work with the
Sports Editor in assigning and covering stories,
editing copy and supervising the makeup of the
sports page. He shall be directly responsible
to the Sports Editor.
B. Office Manager
The Office Manager is responsible to the
Managing Editor for supplies artd files as well
as other duties which may be assigned to him by
the Managing Editor.
C. Executive Secretary
The Executive Secretary shall be responsible
to the Editor for personnel files and records,
and any other duties assigned her by the Editor.
D. Photography Editor
The Photography Editor is responsible for
photographing as well as seeing that processing
and engraving are done. He and his staff are
responsible to the Managing Editor.
E. Night Editors
Each of the night editors is responsible for the
production of one paper each week. He directs
his night staff work, which consists of writing
headlines, editing copy and reading galley and
page proofs. In addition, the Night Editor is
responsible for the coverage of a major beat.
He is responsible to both the City and Managing
Editors.
280
P. Sports Night Editors
Each of the Sports Night Editors is responsible
for the production of one page each week. He
is responsible to the Sports Editor and his
assistant.
ARTICLE VIII. UNSALARIED STAFF POSITIONS
A. Beat Heads are in charge of news coverage for a
particular beat. They are appointed by and
responsible to the City Editor.
B. Assistant Night Editors are reporters who aid a
night editor in the production of the paper and
who may be beat heads or may assist a night
editor in covering a beat. They are responsible
to the City Desk for accurate news coverage and
to the Night Editor and Managing Editor for
night staff work.
C. Senior Reporters are responsible for special
reporting assignments. They may or may not be
assigned to a beat and are responsible to the
City Editor.
D. Reporters are primarily responsible for the
accurate reporting of news. They are responsible
to a beat head and should attend one night staff
a week.
E. Cub Reporters attend training sessions to learn
the methods and style of the Daily Californian
and are then assigned to regular beats. After
a period of training they may be promoted to
the rank of reporter. They are responsible to
beat heads.
ARTICLE IX.
The SEB may recommend changes in these by-laws to
the Consultative Board.
APPENDIX E
I
SAMPLE CODE OF ETHICS
THE MICHIGAN DAILY
APPENDIX E
SAMPLE CODE OP ETHICS: THE MICHIGAN DAILY
The Michigan Daily is a newspaper with a dual
responsibility. As the newspaper of the students of the
University of Michigan, the Daily must serve these
students by reporting campus, local and world news as
completely and accurately as possible. As a newspaper
published under the authorization of the University of
Michigan, the Daily must have at heart the interests of
the University and refrain from such unwarranted action
as may compromise the University in the eyes of the
public.
The position of the Daily as a representative of
a free press shall be preserved and promoted by the
editors through responsible and considered use of their
duties and powers.
The editorial page of the Daily shall be open to
all points of view. Intelligent editorial expression by
all members of the staff shall be encouraged and means
provided for comment by the public. Freedom of expression
grounded on fact shall be the editorial policy of the
Michigan Daily. All material on the editorial page shall
be signed by the writer.
Anything published in either the news or editorial
columns shall conform to a standard of good taste commen
surate with the Daily's place as a leader in the field of
college journalism.
The following list of operating principles shall
be used as a guide to the specific implementation of the
above code. Both the code and the list of operating
principles were revised by the Daily staff of 1962, and
approved by the Board in Control of Student Publications.
I. EDITORIAL PAGE
A. Criteria for publication of editorials shall in
clude good taste, good writing, logical thinking
and regard for the facts.
B. No editorials shall embrace personal attack on the
characters of individuals.
282
283
C. No editorial shall take sides in elections to the
Board of Regents.
D. Before editorials discussing state appropriations
to the University are published, the editor shall
consult the Chairman of the Board in Control of
Student Publications, or in his absence the
Secretary.
II. GENERAL
A. Good Taste
1. Sex crimes, suicides or violent crimes may be
reported if in the public interest to do so.
2. Items of a pornographic nature shall have no
place in the Daily.
3. No writer shall express racial or religious
bias in any story or editorial, nor shall
there be any racial or religious bias in
advertising.
B. Operational
1. Crimes involving members of the faculty or
students shall not be reported without first
notifying the proper University authorities
whenever possible, except as such crimes are
a matter of court record.
2. Members of the staff shall at all times be
encouraged to take advantage of the facili
ties of the University and the broad experi
ence of faculty members in writing articles
of a comprehensive, interpretative nature.
3. The news columns of the Daily shall be open
to campus news of legitimate interest and
shall afford all campus organizations news
space within the confines of good journalism
practice.
4. All interviews with faculty shall be checked
with the interviewee, either personally or
by phone, before they are published unless
the writer is specifically excused by the
interviewee.
5. Names of business establishments (local or
out-of-town), industries, firms or brand
names shall not appear in the Daily news or
editorial columns unless their news value is
of sufficient significance to justify their
publication.
APPENDIX F
MEMBERSHIP OF TWENTY-FOUR REPRESENTATIVE
BOARDS OF PUBLICATION
APPENDIX P
MEMBERSHIP OF TWENTY-FOUR REPRKtBrTMlVI
BOARDS OF PUBLICATION
Arkansas Traveler; 7 members
Students: 4
1 President, student senate
1 Elected by the A.W.S.
1 President of either the inter-fraternity or
panhellenic councils
1 President of either the men's or worsen*•
inter-hall council
Non-students: 3
1 Chairman, Department of Journal ism
1 Member, faculty-at-large appointed by th»
President
1 Director of Information
Chairman is the president of the student senate, whc
shall vote only in case of a tie and shall
report monthly to the student senate.
Non-voting members include the editors of the four
major student publications and the University
Business Manager.
Brigham Young Daily Universe: 5 members
Students: 2
1 President, Associated Students
1 Vice-president in charge of finance.
Associated Students
285
APPENDIX F
MEMBERSHIP OF TWENTY-FOUR REPRESENTATIVE
BOARDS OF PUBLICATION
Arkansas Traveler; 7 members
Students: 4
1 President, student senate
1 Elected by the A.W.S.
1 President of either the inter-fraternity or
panhellenic councils
1 President of either the men's or women's
inter-hall council
Non-students: 3
1 Chairman, Department of Journalism
1 Member, faculty-at-large appointed by the
President
1 Director of Information
Chairman is the president of the student senate, who
shall vote only in case of a tie and shall
report monthly to the student senate,
Non-voting members include the editors of the four
major student publications and the University
Bu s ine s s Manage r.
Brigham Young Daily Universe: 5 members
Students: 2
1 President, Associated Students
1 Vice-president in charge of finance,
Associated Students
286
Non-students: 3
1 Chairman, Department of Journalism
1 Student Coordinator
1 Head, News Bureau
Chairman is the Chairman of the Department of
Journalism.
California, Berkeley, Daily Californian: 14 members
Students: 6
1 President, Associated Students
4 Students-at-large to be selected by the
board for overlapping terms, one of whom
may be a graduate student
1 President, graduate class
Non-students: 8
1 Professor of journalism
1 Professor of business administration
1 Professor of law
1 Public relations officer
1 Representative, Dean of Students
1 Administrator-at-large appointed by the
Chancellor
2 Professional journalists appointed by the
Chancellor and approved by the Student Senate
Chairman is a student member to be selected by the
board.
Non-voting members include the editor and business
manager of the Daily Californian.
287
Connecticut Daily Campus: 14 members
Students: 14, all of whom hold the top editorial
positions on the Daily Campus.
Cornell Daily Sun: 10 members
Students: 5
1 Editor
1 Managing editor
1 Associate editor
1 Business manager
1 Advertising manager
Non-students: 5
1 Faculty member
1 Administrator
1 Ithaca businessman
2 Non-students-at-large
Harvard Crimson: 9 members
Students: 9 top editorial and managerial positions
on the Crimson.
Illinois Daily Illini: 8 members
Students: 4
2 sophomores elected each year for two-year
terms by the board from a list of eight
nominated by the Student Senate
Non-students: 4 appointed to indefinite terms by
the president from the faculties of the Schools
of Journalism or Business Administration or
from among the general faculty who have had at
least three years of publications experience
Chairman is a faculty member to be appointed by the
President.
Daily Iowan; 9 members
Students: 5 elected annually for overlapping terms
at the annual student election
Non-students: 4, one of whom must be an alumnus,
appointed by the President to serve indefinite
terms
Chairman is a faculty member-
Kansas State Collegian: 6 members
Students: 3 elected at large
Non-s tudents: 3
1 Chairman, Department of Journalism
2 Appointed by the President
Chairman is the Chairman of the Department of
Journalism.
Kentucky Kernel: 12 members
Students: 6, appointed by the President from
twelve nominated by a student-administrative
committee
Non-students: 6
3 Appointed by the President for two-year
terms from those nominated by the Faculty
Council
3 Appointed at large from among alumni,
administrators, or prominent journalists
Chairman shall be elected by the board.
Non-voting members includes the editor.
Maryland Diamondbacks 17 members
Students: 8
4 Editors of the four major media
289
4 Who represent a cross-section of campus life
Non-students: 9
1 Chairman, Journalism Department
1 Representative of the President
1 Executive Dean of Student Life
6 Members of the faculty-at-large
Chairman shall be a faculty-member who shall vote
only in case of a tie.
Non-voting members include advisers and editors of
minor campus publications.
Minnesota Daily; 15 members
Students: 11 elected for overlapping two-year terms
at the annual student elections
Non-students: 4
1 Representative, Dean of Students
1 Representative, President
1 Representative, School of Journalism
1 Representative, Department of English
Non-voting members include two faculty publications
advisers.
Daily Nebraskan: 7 members
Students: 3 elected by students at the general
election
1 Sophomore
1 Junior
1 Senior
Non-students: 5 selected by a method to be determ
ined by the Board of Regents
Chairman is a faculty member.
290
Daily Northwestern; 7 members
Students: 3 preferably with publications experience
to be elected by the student Senate from
nominees agreed upon by a joint student senate-
publications board committee
Non-students: 4
3 Faculty or administrative members appointed
by the president
1 Alumnus appointed by the President from
nominees submitted by faculty members of the
board
Ohio University Post: 7 members
Students: 4
1 Appointed by the Campus Affairs Committee
1 Appointed from campus journalism society,
Sigma Delta Chi
1 Appointed from campus journalism society,
Theta Sigma Phi
1 Appointed from campus journalism society,
Kappa Alpha Mu
Non-students: 3
2 Faculty advisers
1 Faculty member appointed annually by the
Campus Affairs Committee
Oklahoma Daily: 7 members
Students: 4
1 Representing the newspaper
1 Representing the yearbook
2 Representing all publications as a group
Non-students: 3
291
i
1 Director, School of Journalism
1 Secretary-Treasurer, Journalism Press, Inc.
1 Faculty member-at-large appointed by the
President
Chairman is the Director of the School of Journalism.
Non-voting members include the general manager of
student publications, the editorial adviser,
and the university public relations director.
Oregon Daily Emerald: 12 members
Students: 5
1 Editor of the Newspaper
1 Editor of the yearbook
3 Students-at-large recommended by the student
body president
Non-students: 7
1 Dean of Students
6 Faculty members-at-large appointed by the
President
Non-voting members include the director of student
publications and business managers of the
newspaper and the yearbook.
Oregon State Daily Barometer: 10 members
Students: 5 appointed and approved by the student
Senate
Non-students: 5
1 Head, Department of Journalism
1 Director of Publications
1 Director, Department of Printing
2 Members of the general faculty
292
Chairman is the Head of the Department of Journalism.
Non-voting members include the publications adviser.
Daily Pennsylvanian; unlimited membership
Students: editors of each of the undergraduate
publications
Non-s tudent s: 5
3 Nominated by the chairman of the University
Senate and the editors
1 Representative, School of Commerce
1 Representative, Vice President of Student
Affairs
Chairman is a faculty member to be selected by the
faculty and administrative members of the
board.
Pennsylvania State Daily Collegian: 12 members
Students: 6
1 Editor
1 Business manager
1 President, Associated Students
1 President, Women Students
1 President, Junior Class
1 President, Sophomore Class
Non-students: 6
1 Director, School of Journalism
1 Editorial adviser
1 Business adviser
3 To be named by the President for three-year
terms
293
Non-voting members may be named by the board.
Rutgers Daily Targum: 12 members
Students: 11
7 Top editors of the Targum
1 President, Targum Association
1 President, Student Council
1 President, Interfraternity Council
1 Representative, independent students
Non-students: 1 faculty or an alumnus who shall
act as treasurer
Non-voting members include the Director of Alumni
and Public Relations and the Dean of Men.
Daily Texan: 9 members
Students: 5
1 President, Student Association
4 With overlapping two-year terms
Non-s tudents: 4
2 Professors of journalism appointed by the
President
2 Professors-at-large appointed by the
President
Texas Woman's College Lass-0: 10 members
Students: 4
3 Editors of the three major student
publications
1 Representative from the student body
selected by the student council
294
Non-students: 6 appointed by the President for
overlapping three-year terms
Chairman is a faculty member appointed by the
President.
Non-voting members include publications advisers.
Wisconsin Cardinal: 8 members
Students: 5 elected by the student body
Non-students: 3 appointed by the President to
indefinite terms

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Asset Metadata

Creator Devol, Kenneth Stowe (author)

Core Title Major Areas Of Conflict In The Control Of College And University Student Daily Newspapers In The United States

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, general,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee chair), Caldwell, Russell Leon (committee member), Wagner, Elmer E. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-365720

Unique identifier UC11359177

Identifier 6506903.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-365720 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6506903.pdf

Dmrecord 365720

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Devol, Kenneth Stowe

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA