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Development And Analysis Of Some Tactual Measures Of Intelligence For Adolescent And Adult Blind

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Development And Analysis Of Some Tactual Measures Of Intelligence For Adolescent And Adult Blind

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Content This d isser ta tio n has been 64— 3094
m icro film ed ex a ctly as receiv ed
CULL, E oline C h ristin e, 1900-
DEVELOPM ENT AND ANALYSIS OF SOME
TACTUAL MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE
FOR ADOLESCENT AND ADULT BLIND,
U n iversity of Southern C alifornia, P h .D .,1963
Education, psychology
U niversity Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, M ichigan
COPYRIGHT by
EOLINE CHRISTINE CULL
196A
DEVELOPMENT AND ANALYSIS OF SOME TACTUAL MEASURES
OF INTELLIGENCE FOR ADOLESCENT AND
ADULT BLIND
by
Eoline Christine Cull
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Educational Psychology)
June 1963
UNIVERSITY O F SO U THERN CALIFORNIA
GRADUATE SC H O O L
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS A N G ELE S 7, C A LIFOR N IA
This dissertation, writteti by
under the direction of h3X...Dissertation C om
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
Eoline _ Christine ..Cull
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
Date. June... 1 . 9 . 6 3 .
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairm&n
PLEASE NOTE: Many pages in this thesis tend
to "curl”. Filmed in the best
possible way.
UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS, INC.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For invaluable assistance in providing
subjects and testing facilities, grateful acknowl
edgment is due: Mr. Moxom, and the Braille
Institute of America, Los Angeles; Dr. Lazar and
Mr. Kaplan of the Foundation for the Junior Blind,
Los Angeles; Dr. Buscaglia and Mr. Brown of the
Pasadena City Schools; and to all subjects, blind
and sighted, who volunteered and participated in
the actual testing situation.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION AND THE PROBLEM ...........
Handicapped groups and measurement needs
Statement of the problem
Scope
Questions needing answers
Basic assumption
Definition of terms
Importance of the problem
Organization of the Remainder of the
Dissertation
II. PERCEPTION, TESTING, AND THE HANDICAPPED
Perception
Tests and Testing
Rehabilitation and Training for
Handicapped Persons
The Blind and Rehabilitation
Summary
AND BLIND 35
III. DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEASURES 57
Development
Instructions to the Subjects
Summary
IV. ADMINISTRATION OF THE MEASURES TO SIGHTED
SUBJECTS AND NOTES ON SUBJECT RESPONSES
AND T I M E S .............................. 94
V
Chapter Page
Admini s trat ion
Notes of sighted subjects and their
Performance
Summary of chapter
V. FINDINGS FROM ADMINISTRATION TO SIGHTED
SUBJECTS...................................112
Data processing
Chapter summary
VI. ADMINISTRATION OF TESTS TO BLIND SUBJECTS
AND RESULTS.................................131
Administration of the Measures to blind
subj ects
Findings
Data processing
Summary of chapter
VII. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST OF PERFORMANCE OF
BLIND AND SIGHTED SUBJECTS............... 158
Subject
Timing
Item Analysis
Statistical Analysis
VIII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 192
Review of Project
Conclusion
Recommendations
REFERENCES......................................... 212
APPENDIX 219
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.
2 .
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8 .
9.
10.
11.
Composition of Sighted Groups by Age, Sex,
and Education ..............................
Mean Time Needed per Section, in Minutes, by
Groups ST and SV .........................
Individual Scores per Section for Members of
Group ST ..................................
Individual Scores per Section for Members of
Group SV ..................................
Mean Number of Cubes Transposed During Thirty
Second Intervals .........................
Reliability Measures .......................
Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard Devia
tions for Scores of Groups ST on Test
Sections Tactuallyaand Visually and on
Criterion Measures .......................
Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard
Deviations for Scores of Group SV on Test
Sections, Tactually and Visually ........
Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard
Deviations for Scores of All Sighted
Subjects on Test Sections, Tactually and
Visually . v ...........................
Results of t-Tests Comparing the Scores of
Groups ST and SV .........................
Results of t-Tests Comparing Scores for
Responses to Visual and Tactual Stimula
tion of Groups ST and SV
vi
Page
98
100
102
103
109
110
114
115
116
118
120
vii
Table Page
12. Results of t-Tests Comparing Scores for
Responses to Visual and Tactual
Stimulation for All Sighted Subjects . . . 121
13. Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix for Group ST,
Sighted Who Felt of Items F i r s t ........... 123
14. Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix for Group SV
Sighted Who Saw the Items First ..... 125
15. Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix for All
Sighted Subjects Combined to form one
Group..................................... 127
16. Composition of Blind Groups by Age, Sex,
Education, and Handedness............... . 135
17. Individual Scores per Section, Groups BL and
B R ...........................................138
18. Reliability Measures Based on the Performance
of the Blind Subjects................... 143
19. Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard
Deviations for Scores of Group BL, Blind
with no Usable Vision................... 145
20. Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard
Deviations for Scores of Group BR, Blind
who used Residual Vision................. 146
21. Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard
Deviations for Scores of the Group of All
Blind Subjects.............................. 147
22. Results of t-Tests Comparing Mean Scores of
Group BL with Group B R ......................149
23. Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix for Blind
Subjects with Nc£Usable Vision ........... 151
viii
Table Page
24. Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix for Blind
Subjects with Residual Vision ............... 152
25. Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix for All Blind
Subjects.....................................153
26. Mean Time, By Sections, For Responses to
Tactual Items for the Various Groups. . . . 161
27. Mean Number of Cubes Transposed by Groups
Using Various Combinations of Fingers and
Comparing Right and Left Hand Performance 167
28. Reliability Measures.......................... 169
29. Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard
Deviations for Responses to Tactual
Stimulation for Group ST, on Test Sections
I through X and the Criterion Measures 171
30. Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard
Deviations for Responses to Tactual
Stimulation for Group SV, on Test Sections
I through X and the Criterion Measures . . 172
31. Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard
Deviations for Responses to Tactual Stimu
lation for all Sighted Subjects on Test
Sections I through X and the Criterion
Measures.......................................173
32 Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard
Deviations for Responses to Tactual Items
and Criterion Measures for Ail Subjects,
Blind and Sighted............................174
33 Comparisonsjwlth t-Scores of the Average
Scores of the Total and Subgroups of the
Blind and Sighted Subjects.................176
ix
Pag1
179
181
183
185
188
219
222
225
228
231
Comparisons with t-Tests of the Average
Scores of All Blind with All Sighted
Subjects ..................................
Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix for Tactual
Responses of Group ST ...................
Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix for Tactual
Responses of Group SV .....................
Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix for Tactual
Responses of All Sighted Subjects ........
Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix for All Subjects
Blind or Sighted .........................
Responses Made to Items in Section I by the
Separate Groups of Subjects Under the
Various Conditions.......................
Responses Made to Items in Section II by
the Separate Groups of Subjects Under the
Various Conditions .................
Responses Made to Items in Section III by
the Separate Groups of Subjects Under the
Various Conditions .......................
Responses Made to Items in Section IV by the
Separate Groups of Subjects Under the
Various Conditions .......................
Responses Made to Items in Section V by the
Separate Groups of Subjects Under the
Various Conditions . . . .................
Responses Made to Items in Section VI by the
Separate Groups of Subjects Under the
Various Conditions .......................
X
Table
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
Page
Distributions of Time Requirement in Seconds to
Traverse Each Maze Three Times by Various
Groups Under Specific Conditions ........ 237
Responses Made to Items in Section VIII by
the Separate Groups of Subjects Under the
Various Conditions ....................... 240
Responses Made to Items in Section IX by the
Separate Groups of Subjects Under the
Various Conditions ..................... 243
Distribution of Subject Scores Indicating
the Number of Cubes Transposed during
Thirty Second Intervals Using Various
Combinations of Fingers Under Specific
Conditions.................................... 246
Range of Times, in Seconds, Required by the
Groups for Each Item in Section 1........ 249
Range of Times Required by the Subgroups for
Each Test in Section II.......................253
Range of Times, in Seconds, Required by the
Groups for Each Item in Section III. . . . 257
Range of Times, in Seconds, Required by the
Groups for Each Item in Section IV...........261
Range of Times, in Seconds, Required by the
Groups for Each Item in Section V ...........265
Range of Times, in Seconds, Required by the
Groups for Each Item in Section VI...........269
Range of Times, in Seconds, Required by the
Groups for Each Item in Section VII .... 273
Table xi
Page
56. Range of Times, in Seconds, Required by the
Groups for Each Item in Section VIII. . . 277
57. Range of Times, in Seconds, Required by the
Groups for Each Item in Section IX...........281
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. Section I, Similarities, all items .... 61
2. Close-up of Items 12 and 13, Section I. . . 62
Similarities
3. Section II, Differences, all i t e m s ............63
4. Items 4 and 11, Section II, Differences . . . 65
5. All items, Section III, Parts of a Whole . . 66
6. Item 11, Section III, Item 7, Section IV . 67
7. All items, Section IV, Whole from Its Parts 68
8. Rotation and Inversion.................... 69
9. All items, Section V, Rotated............. 70
10. Item 3, Section V, Rotated, Item 9,
Section VI, Inverted................... 71
11. All items, Section VI, Inverted........... 73
12. All mazes, Section V I I .................... 74
13. Close-up of Mazes 3 and 9, Section VII . . 75
14. All pattern cards for Sections VIII and IX 77
15. Center card is pattern figure for Item 2,
Section VIII and Item 2, Section IX 78
16. All test cards, Section VIII, Across Space 80
17. All test cards, Section IX, Over Time . . . 81
18. F r a m e s..................................... 84
19. Shield..................................... 84
xii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Handicapped persons in American Society.
American Society is organized and operated
according to the requirements of nonhandicapped individu
als. Those persons who are handicapped need special
considerations based on their disability. There are
handicaps which can be reduced or corrected by the use of
special equipment or through special treatments or
training. Some handicaps are readily apparent to other
persons while some are not seen by the casual observer
and still others require skilled diagnosis to be
recognized.
Handicapped youths and young adults would
normally be a part of the working force in industry and
business. However, when the potential labor force
exceeds the demand, employers can be highly selective in
choosing applicants to fill positions. They hesitate at
such times to hire persons who fail to meet stated job
requirements. If employed, handicapped persons often
prove to be steady, dependable, and efficient workers.
The need for extra precautions or protection and at times
for special .equipment serves as a deterrent to their
acceptance for employment when nonhandicapped workers
are available.
While our country has accepted as a fact the need
of handicapped persons to become contributing members of
society, it has often failed to accept the handicapped
individual unless he has demonstrated some outstanding
accomplishment. The acceptance that exists has come
about from the efforts of leaders x^orking with the handi
capped, from the work of pioneers, and from the labor of
cohesive groups bound by a common disability.
A special group of handicapped persons.
One of the groups which is striving to build a
place for itself in society is the blind. Their handicap
is one which is easily noticed by other people.
Finestone estimates the number and age distribution of
blind persons in the United States.
. . . the number of blind persons in the United
States as of July 1, 1959 is estimated to be about
355,000 or an average of 1.98 blind persons for each
one thousand of the general population. Of this
number about 10 per cent are under twenty-one years
of age while at least fifty per cent are over sixty-
five. Available figures also seem to indicate that
there are more blind men than women, and that
blindness is somewhat more prevalent among the
nonwhite than the white population. (20:147)
Many of the long-term blind have adjusted to their handi
cap and hence have found a place in our culture. One
subgroup which needs special treatment and/or training is
composed of blind youths and young adults.
Objective methods of measurement are needed if
society is to identify the potentialities of the members
of such groups and counsel them toward maximum develop
ment of their assets. One area in itfhich professional
staffs, working with the blind feel a lack, is that of
measures of ability which are contingent on senses other
than sight. Therefore, this study sought to develop a
set of measures, utilizing tactual stimulation, which
would prove psychometrically useful in working with blind
youths and young adults.
Some needs of workers with the blind.
Assuming that the visually handicapped are to be
assisted, it is here proposed that a constructive
approach would be to assess what a blind person has
rather than focusing on what he has not. Since no two
persons are disabled in exactly the same manner, each one
must be dealt with individually. There are groups of
persons with similar disabilities and for them assist
ance may be based on a general classification adjusted to
each individual. To be most effective a counselor needs
to know about the individual, his disability, and the
environment in which he lives.
Standardized tests. Standardized tests for pur
poses of vocational and educational guidance have been
developed for use in schools, in industry, and in clinics.
Testing programs under standardized conditions are
frequently closed to the handicapped person because of
his disability. The individual may be unable to perform
the tasks required because of inability to perceive the
items, inability to respond to the items, or inability to
perform under standard conditions.
Specialized instruments. There is a need for
measures, which would depend on various sources of
stimulation, to be used with persons having specific
disabilities. Prior to the meeting of an Institute on
on the Roles of Psychology and Psychologists in
Rehabilitation t?hich was held at Princeton, New Jersey on
February 3-7, 1958, many topics needing research were
submitted in a pre-institute "Survey of Needed Research"
of the National Council on Psychological Aspects of
Disability. The following topics were included under the
area of
Psychological Evaluation, Tests, and Techniques:
(1) Urgent need for adjusted test norms for
special disability groups on whom already
standardized tests are used.
(2) Specific tests constructed for special
disability groups whose physical limitations impose
artificial barriers to true appraisal.
(3) Use of tests with various handicapped groups
--administration problems. (52:135)
Measurement deficiencies felt by workers with the blind.
Measures of abilities and aptitudes are needed
for work with the blind. Some of the blind have always
been without sight while others have lost their vision
as a result of accident or disease. The person who was
born blind has often lacked the opportunity to try out
different abilities. The individual who becomes blind
later in life has usually been very dependent upon sight
and has little conception of the degree to which he can
rely on his other senses. There is a lack of adequate,
objective measures for use with these individuals.
6
Present status of testing the blind.
Tests are being used with the blind to evaluate
the individual for specific purposes. Often standard-
a : . - .
ized tests, or parts of tests, are used in a nonstandard
fashion, while others have been modified and adapted for
use xtfith the blind. Hayes (26) modified the Stanford-
Binet for use with the blind. Verbal scores from the
Wechsler-Bellevue have been used. Bauman (5) has sought
to establish norms for the blind on tests which were
developed for use with sighted subjects and which have
been used extensively with blind subjects.
Raskin in a 1955 report of vocational counseling
of blind students, lists the following tests as represen
tative and as having been used predominantly in both a
1948 and a 1955 stxidy. He classifies them according to
the function being measured.
Intelligence:
Wechsler-Bellevue, verbal scale; Hayes-Binet.
Dexterity tests:
Pennsylvania Bi-Manual; Minnesota Rate of
Manipulation.
Interest Inventories:
Kuder Preference Record; Lee-Thorpe Occupational
Interest Inventory.
Personality tests:
Bell Adjustment Inventory; Bauman Emotional
Factors Inventory.
7
Bauman in a Manual of Norms for tests used in
counseling blind persons, says
Norms are presented here for five measures of
manual speed and dexterity. Others have been used
with satisfaction by other psychologists; the only
reason norms are being presented for this particular
group of tests is that enough records are available
to make fairly large and therefore presumably
reliable groups even when subdivided in terms of
amount of vision, sex, and age. (5:16)
The tests used were the Minnesota Rate of Manipulation,
the Penn Bi-Manual Worksample, Small Parts Dexterity
(Crawford), Screw Driver Dexterity, and the Emotional
Factors Inventory. In discussing these measures she
stresses the importance of the administrator observing
and noting reactions during the testing period.
Difficulties in testing the blind.
Group tests. A greater amount of time must be
allotted for a blind person to take a test than for a
sighted person. Group tests could be administered by
using braille editions, through dictation, or through the
use of a recorder. Braille editions are bulky and
present a storage problem. Moreover, the instructor
should know enough braille to make corrections or detect
errors. Tape-recorded and/or dictated questions could be
misunderstood with little opportunity for correction,
8
they could suggest the answers, or they could require
several repetitions which are seldom clarifying and con
sume considerable time. The subject would need adequate
hearing ability and manual dexterity sufficient to oper
ate the machines without distraction.
The testee must have some way of recording his
answers. If he types or writes longhand he cannot
reread his answers to detect and correct errors. If he
uses a braille writer the person who checks his paper
must be able to read braille. If the recorder is used he
must know how to organize his answers and speak clearly
as well as knowing how to operate the machine. Some
blind persons can answer questions using cursive writing
with a line guide but the writing may be almost
illegible.
Individual tests. Many of the difficulties in
group testing are also present in individual testing. In
addition they require trained or closely supervised
personnel for administration. They may require special
equipment and they need a special room.
General difficulties. Any child or person may
answer a test question with words that mean little to him,
9
but that will happen more often with the blind person. He
may say that the American flag is red, white, and blue,
but if he has never been able to see, the answer would be
just words.
Lowenfeld says of testing the blind that
Practically all efforts to provide scientific
tools for the measurement of the intelligence,
aptitudes, and interests of the blind have been
confined to the adaptation of tests designed for the
seeing. There are a number of problems which con
front anyone who wants to adapt tests for use with
the blind. The standardization of tests presents
considerable difficulty because the number of blind
people is comparatively small, they are scattered,
and far less homogeneous than other groups because of
varying degrees of vision, age at onset of blindness,
and other personal characteristics. Tests which are
put into braille can be read by the blind only at
about 1/3 of the reading rate of visual readers and
skill in braille reading and comprehension varies
greatly among the adult blind. Many tests can be
read aloud to the blind client who may give his
answers either orally, in braille, in typing, or by
some other method of symbol notation. The observa
tion of time limits in such cases provide further
complications. It must also be recognized that many
tests use items with which blind persons cannot be
expected to be familiar since they were not exposed
to them in an equal way with the seeing for whom the
tests were designed. (33:192)
THE PROBLEM
Purposes of the study. It x?as the purpose of this
study to make some contribution toward filling the need
for improved psychometry of the blind. The study sought
10
to develop some measures of mental abilities in which the
subject would respond to tactual stimulation. The pro
ject was limited to the development and selection of the
measures over a difficulty level suitable for counseling
with adolescent and adult ages. It was beyond the scope
to make final tests of predictive validity or to secure
extensive norming. However, concurrent validity with
other tests was sought on small samples.
Scope. This project was limited to the develop
ment of the measures and standardization of procedures in
their use, and to measures of concurrent validity with
other tests on small samples. Tentative norms were
secured on a small group of sighted persons (blindfolded
and seeing) and on a small number of blind. There was no
opportunity or attempt to achieve norms on large and
representative numbers.
Questions needing answers. The purpose and scope
of the problem investigated here can be cast into a
framework of questions as follows:
1. Can figural materials, which are to be reacted to
from touch, be employed for intelligence test
items?
2. Can useful ranges of individual differences in
ability to react adaptively with such materials
11
be found?
3. Will such distributions be those of "intelli
gence"; that is, can they be shown to correlate
with measures of accepted validity?
4. Do these items measure different abilities or do
all of the items measure the same thing?
5. Will tactual tests have reliability?
Subordinate to these questions would be others
relating to more specific details.
6. Will there be significant differences in scores
when sighted subjects respond to the items using
tactual as opposed to visual stimulation?
7. Will individual differences be apparent in the
answer patterns of different subjects?
8. Will the performance of a group of blind persons
parallel that of a group of sighted persons
responding to tactual stimulation?
9. Are age, sex, education, and total time for
testing important factors in influencing
performance?
10. Do the items in this study discriminate or are
they too easy or too difficult?
Procedure.
Securing responses to items. The procedure of
this study depended upon securing responses to the
tactual material from sighted as well as blind subjects.
The former were tested in both sighted and blindfolded
12
conditions, to determine the answers to some of the
relevant questions stated above.
Course of the investigation. The problem was
limited and clarified. "Touch" was;the one medium of
stimulation to be used by all subjects. The sighted
subjects were to use "vision" as well as "touch" to
respond to all items.
Basic assumption. This project proceeded under
the basic assumption that raised figures would be valid
items for measuring mental abilities.
Definitions. Several terms used in this study
needed precise definitions for lucidity.
Blindness. Finestone et al., cite and explain the
definition of blindness most commonly used.
In the United States the definition of blindness
most frequently used by federal and state governments
reads as follows: "Central visual acuity of 20/200
or less in the better eye, with correcting glasses;
or central visual acuity of more than 20/200 if there
is a field defect in which the peripheral field has
contracted to such an extent that the widest diameter
of the visual field subtends an angular distance no
greater than 20 degrees." In simpler terms, a person
is said to have visual acuity of 20/200 if at a
distance of 20 feet he can recognize symbols and
objects which a person with normal vision can
recognize at a distance of 200 feet. It may also
happen that an individual has practically normal
visual acuity, but the field of vision is so re
stricted that he can see only a very limited area at
13
a time and can make very little practical use of his
vision. A person who suffers from either of these
types of visual handicap is so limited in his choice
of occupation that from an economic point of view
he is blind. (20:146)
Legally blind. Those individuals who qualify
under the above definition will be designated legally
blind.
Sighted. Webster says that sighted refers to one
"having the use of one's sight: seeing" (49:2115). The
term is used in this dissertation to mean one who is not
legally blind.
Perception. English and English define percep
tion as
. . . an event in the person or organism,
primarily controlled by the excitation of sensory
receptors, yet also influenced by other factors of
a kind that can be shown to have originated in the
life history of the organism. (17:378)
Webster defines it as the "awareness of the elements of
environment through physical sensation: reaction to
sensory stimulus; physical sensation as interpreted in
the light of experience" (49:1675).
Nonsymmetry. A condition in a body, a design, a
grouping, an arrangement or external form marked by the
lack of bilateral conformity, geometrical regularity or
14
the like. The property of having dissimilar, unequal, or
nonparallel form on both sides of a dividing line.
Finger numbering. The fingers are numbered in
this study as in typing: thumb; 1 (index finger); 2
(middle finger); 3 (ring finger); and 4 (little finger).
Rotated. Turned around. To turn about an axis
or point of a plane as with the letter "L" when turned
from 1 to 360 degrees. For example, this "L" is shown
rotated:
Iriverted. Turned over. “Flopped over.*1 Turned
upside down. To turn through a plane as the letter ,1P1 1
is shown inverted:
“Flopped over.** This term was accepted while
working with subjects. One person used it during the
administration of the test and it proved to be so
effective with other subjects that it was retained and
used.
Subjects. Thirty sighted subjects served as
volunteers for the first phase of this project. They
were between the ages of 15 and 35. Members of both
sexes were used but no effort was made to equate the
15
numbers in the two sexes. The sighted subjects were
divided into two groups, one of which responded to touch
first and then to vision. The other group responded to
vision first and then touch.
For the second phase of the project thirty blind
volunteers were utilized. These subjects did the test
only once and they were not restricted to one medium of
stimulation but were permitted to use any residual vision
that they possessed. It was difficult to locate subjects
of the desired age level (15 to 35) so volunteers were
sought in the age range of 15 to 40 and accepted if they
were older than that.
Data processing. The scores on the various
measures were processed to study 25 variables. Means and
standard deviations were obtained for each of the
variables. Intercorrelations between each variable and
all of the others were procured. The material was also
processed for factor analysis.
Importance of the Problem
The Federal Government encourages industry and
private citizens to help the handicapped. Working
through the states, disabled individuals are subsidized,
16
trained, or cared for depending on their present status
and potentialities for becoming contributing members of
society. Physical evaluation by medical personnel is the
first step in determining eligibility for, and type of,
treatment needed. Nature of training, limited by exist
ing physical conditions, must be decided upon. Interests
and abilities need to be weighed before any training is
started and the probable effects of the disability on
desired training evaluated. The effects of training or
employment on the disability must also be considered.
With the blind it is relatively easy to measure
vocabulary and numerical ability. It is less easy to
guage the ability of the individual to receive stimula
tion and to respond to various types of information
obtained through senses other than sight, as relatively
few measures exist for this purpose. Most jobs require,
or at least can use, the hands and the sense of touch in
daily activity. The hands may be used in a strictly
mechanical manner to perform specific operations but they
can also be used to obtain valuable information for
mental activity as well.
The problem in this study was to develop some
17
measures of mental abilities which utilized the capacity
of the individual to perceive and evaluate information
received through manual tactual stimulation. These
measures should be of value in planning, in training, and
in assisting the individual to develop self-esteem and
the desire to operate at maximum efficiency and to
ultimately become a contributing member of society.
Organization of the dissertation
Chapter I has presented the problem and a discus
sion of some of the needs in work with handicapped
persons, especially the blind.
Chapter II reviews the professional literature
related to the psychometry of the blind. The specific
fields discussed were perception, tests and testing, and
rehabilitation of handicapped persons with special
reference to the blind.
Chapter III describes the development of the
group of measures employed in the study. It also presents
the criterion measures selected, the aids created for the
administration of the test, and instructions for each
section and for special items.
Chapter IV reports on the administration of the
18
tests to sighted subjects, with an analysis of the
responses to individual items and a rating of reliability.
Chapter V discusses the findings on the adminis
tration of the measures, tactually and visually, to the
sighted subjects. Intercorrelations, means, and standard
deviations and factor analyses were included.
Chapter VI reports on the administration of these
measures to legally blind subjects. Any needed changes or
special instructions were described. The reliability,
intercorrelations, means, standard deviations, and factor
analyses for this group were discussed.
Chapter VII compares and contrasts the performance
of sighted subjects responding to tactual stimulation with
that of blind subjects. Answers were sought to the
questions raised in Chapter I.
Chapter VIII summarizes the study and draws con
clusions from the results achieved by the administration
of these measures to the different groups of subjects.
Recommendations are made on the basis of the results
achieved in this project and the conclusions emerging
from them.
CHAPTER II
PERCEPTION, TESTING, AND THE HANDICAPPED AND BLIND
Developing measures for handicapped persons
requires a consideration of restrictions imposed by
handicaps in general as well as a consideration of
difficulties resulting from specific disabilities. Any
disabling condition may affect the manner in which an
individual perceives and responds to test items. A
handicap can influence the way in which a person
approaches a testing situation whether it be an affective-
emotional influence or a physical inability to perceive
or to respond to usual sensory stimulation. Perception,
tests and testing, and the individuality of the handicap
are all elements of a total testing situation.
PERCEPTION
What is perception? Good says that it is
(1) in its most limited sense, awareness of external
objects, conditions, relationships, etc., as a result
of sensory stimulation; (2) more broadly, awareness
of whatever sort, however brought about. (23:389)
An organism may become aware of an object as a
19
20
result of stimulation of any or all of the sensory chan
nels. The set of the organism influences which stimuli
are responded to by awareness. The eye may gaze at an
object in space but unless there is awareness the organ
ism does not perceive it. When an individual is hungry
he tends to perceive more food related stimuli than when
he is satiated.
Awareness is also limited by the physical ability
of the subject to be stimulated. Under anesthesia a
person fails to become aware of stimuli which he would
perceive if he were not anesthetized. Disease or acci
dent, and their aftermaths, may affect an individual's
ability to be stimulated in ordinary ways.
Change is an important element of perception.
Where neither the subject nor the stimulus is changed
awareness tends to fade. If a shrill whistle becomes
jammed and one is unable to stop it, the organism per
ceives it less and less clearly until awareness ceases to
exist. When the situation is altered awareness will
again be present.
People have preferred sensory channels which
differ from person to person, from object to object, and
21
from time to time. The visual sensory channel tends to
predominate for most persons but everyone prefers other
channels for some things. The novice tends to perceive
a piano through visual channels but the master prefers to
perceive it through the channels of sound and touch.
Should an organism retain only one channel of
stimulation it could still become aware of objects in its
environment. Handicapped persons may have lost input
through one or more sensory channels. Under those condi
tions they must depend on the remaining channels to
become aware of their surroundings. When disease has
destroyed a person's ability to feel he may burn himself
critically unless he learns to protect himself by utiliz
ing the other sensory channels. An individual who has
lost his sight or hearing can function by responding to
information received through his remaining senses. He
may not perceive a situation in the same way that others
do, but he will be able to make decisions and plan
actions on the basis of what he does perceive.
Studying perception. Morgan submits that
. . . the scientist's problem in studying percep
tion is to discover and understand the principles
that govern our awareness of ourselves and of
22
objects, qualities, and relationships in our environ
ment. (38-160)
Allport (1) reviewed and classified theories of percep
tion. Bartley summarizes much of the thinking about
perception.
Perceiving has been taken by all psychologists
to be a process by which the organism relates itself
to its surrounds. In perceiving, the individual
interprets, discriminates, and identifies objects and
conditions experienced to be existing in the
environment. (3:4)
Dvorine considers the consolidation of the various
sense impulses into a whole.
All the stimuli received by the brain are not
given the same degree of attention at the same time.
One of the factors which contributes to a smooth,
well integrated performance of any skill is the
ability of the organism to abstract from the constant
flux or stimuli, at the appropriate moment, only
those stimuli which need to be brought to the fore
ground within the focus of attention. All other
stimuli are relegated to the background, either as
a frame of reference or to store them for future
recall.
Each of the senses thus sends to the brain its
own specialized form of sensation. All of the
sensations are grouped there into one unified brain
pattern which the individual learns to associate
with specific things. (16:382)
Essential features of perception.
Kingsley (32:331) lists four qualities that he
considers to be essential features of perception. They
23
are: (1) sensory experience; (2) meaning; (3) patterning
of the sensory qualities; and (4) sensory discrimination.
Dember presents what he considers as the rudi
ments of a perceptual system.
It is simply that they are equipped with devices
that simultaneously have two properties: (1) they
are sensative to certain types of physical energy,
or information; and (2) they are capable, when
properly stimulated, of delivering messages that
modify the machine’s output. (15:6)
Dashiell stresses the importance of the awareness
of objects and their relationships.
. . . the direct apprehending of objects and their
relations, of situations and events, that are
physically present to sense. Besides the process of
sensing . . . there is occurring in all such cases
some supplementing, interpreting, giving-meaning-to-
and-using the sensory impressions. Man is not a
passive recipient of imprints from things around him;
he is actively seeking his way, and the sounds,
smells and sights are utilized by him as guiding
cues. (14:569)
Limitations of the senses. The senses, which are
so important to perception, have definite limits within
which they can be stimulated. Morgan says that
Every sense has its absolute threshold--the
minimum of stimulus energy to which it will respond.
This absolute threshold varies, of course, with the
individual, with the sense involved, and with the
kind of stimulus impinging on it. (38:161)
Kingsley speaks of the range within which we
24
perceive.
Perception ranges from a minimal level of barely
sensing stimuli through the literal interpretation of
cues as to size, shape, motion, texture, distance,
and the like, to those which involve a wealth of past
experience and training in order to provide the
appropriate interpretation of a stimulus. (32:330)
Variety of channels of perception. Cutsforth
says that "in the ordinary conduct of life the individual
uses all of his different sense channels but he learns to
depend on some channels more than others (12:70)."
Fernald, in discussing the remedial techniques in
basic school subjects, stresses the variety of channels
available for use.
A study of the history of the learning process
in connection with reading will show that every
conceivable technique has been used in teaching the
child to read, whether the content to be learned has
been letters, phrases, or phonetic elements. (19:25)
The influence of physical handicaps on perception
The average individual has learned to respond to
stimuli received through the various sensory channels in
selective ways. If one of the channels has never func
tioned adequately he has had to learn to rely on the
other channels for his awareness of the surrounding world.
When he has had the use of certain channels and then loses
them he has to learn to employ the messages received from
25
the other channels. Morgan feels that every individual
depends on certain channels more than the others but that
anyone could learn to utilize the messages from the other
channels.
Vision, hearing, and the chemical senses are the
sensory channels that we use most in perceiving the
world. If these channels are functioning properly,
we hardly need any other senses to appreciate what
is going on around us. For this reason we tend to
ignore what we could do, if we had to, with our skin
senses. In general we rely on our skin senses only
for such simple experiences as itches and tinglings,
feelings of hot and cold, and painful sensations of
injury. Actually the skin senses are capable of
telling us much more than that. We could, for
example, identify many objects by their touch or even
read Braille, as the blind have been forced to
do. (38:501)
Blindness and perception
Components common to the blind and the sighted.
Two aspects of perception that must be considered by
everyone have been suggested by Whiteman.
All of us, whether blind or sighted, have two
problems related to the receipt and handling of
information from the outside world. The first
problem deals with the differentiation of the
sensory field and the second problem relates to the
integration of sensory experience and motor
adjustments.
We see, therefore, that the identification by
the blind person of the objects in his surroundings
and their interrelationships involves a shift in
sensory emphasis from vision to the other sensory
modalities such as hearing, touch, smell. (50:49)
26
Compensation for loss of vision. In discussing
the rehabilitation of the blind, McKay points out that
new senses are not developed.
Contrary to popular belief, nature does not
compensate for loss of vision by the development of
a "sixth sense." The blind person must learn to
utilize his remaining senses of hearing, touch, and
smell as a means of gathering information from his
environment. In walking, for instance, he orients
himself by the reflection of sound from the buildings
along the street, by the difference of grass or pave
ment under his feet, by identification of the bakery
or florist's shop through the sense of smell. He
does this by concentrated attention on the evidence
of his senses and by the use of intelligence in
interpreting and synthesizing such evidence into
useful working knowledge. With long practice such
observation and synthesis become almost automatic,
although the element of nervous tension is seldom
absent. In the beginning, however, great patience
and ingenuity are required and every change of
location presents the challenge of a new problem.
(37:405)
Dependence on hearing and touch. The blind are
forced to learn, according to Bauman, to depend upon hear
ing and touch instead of sight for awareness of the world
around them.
It seems fair to say, then, that although blind
persons are compelled to learn to use touch to get
information others get through vision, their sense of
touch is not more acute than it would have been had
they seen; they learn to interpret sound cues which
are of no importance to those who see, but no
individual's hearing is actually improved because he
loses his vision. Nor do they have unusual creative
or artistic talents although some of them do
27
demonstrate considerable ingenuity in meeting life
situations which ordinarily require use of vision.
(4:13)
Warning against over-evaluation of substitutions.
A warning is sounded by Farrell, however, against over
emphasis on the use of substitute senses for that of
vision.
There is, however, one definite limitation to the
substitution of fingers for eyes and that is the
extent of view. Eyes can see over a wide range and
for long distances. Fingers can see only what they
can touch and the horizon of the blind is thereby
restricted to the reach of the arms .... In any
consideration of methods and tools of learning,
these two factors, the substitution of touch for
sight and the restricted horizons, must never be
overlooked. (18:94)
Method of perception important
Perception plays an important part in one's
adjustment to the environment in which he lives. It
forces the blind person to become aware of the world
around him through channels of stimulation which ordinar
ily tend to be merely supplementary. It is important for
workers with the blind to accept the fact that the visual
channels of observation have to be replaced by others.
Therefore, the worker must furnish adequate stimulation
to the individual so that he can function in a situation.
The blind person must be encouraged to use his other
28
senses and his counselor can help with suggestions, with
proper assessment of the present potentialities, and with
guidance of training.
TESTS AND TESTING
Measurement and evaluation are techniques that
have been employed to help individuals utilize the
abilities they possess. Tests and testing are the tools
commonly used in these techniques. McDonald says:
. . . a logical distinction can be made between
measurement and evaluation. A measurement procedure
is an arrangement for determining the amount of
behavior change. We evaluate behavior change when
itfe compare the measured change to some criterion of
acceptable performance. (36:563)
The results of tests can be used by a counselor as a
basis for suggesting a plan of action or they can be used
by the individual who desires to arrive at a decision
concerning some aspect of his life. In any case the
results of tests should only be used in conjunction with
all other available pertinent information.
Development of the testing movement
Response to a felt need. Tests were developed
to be used in deciding whether a child could profit from
the educational environment of that time. As they were
29
used, more and more ways in which they could be applied
were discovered. This resulted in the development of
distinct tests for specific purposes. During World Wars
I and II, several measures were developed and used by the
services with large groups of persons to satisfy specific
needs.
Direct answer to explicit requirements. Zook
comments as follows:
It is well known that the measurement of individ
ual ability, achievements, and characteristics offers
the most solid basis on which students may be assisted
in their choice of studies and occupations. Although
individual measurement was once regarded with natural
suspicion, research in this field has made such rapid
progress as now to command the respect and confidence
of personnel officers both in schools and colleges,
on the one hand, and in industry, on the other. The
movement may, indeed, now be regarded as having
established itself as the chief source of information
on which educational and personnel officers may rely
to aid them in their processes of selection and
guidance of individuals. (53:v)
Assumptions underlying the use of tests and testing
Back of the testing movement is the assumption
that objective measures administered under controlled
conditions can furnish valid and useful information about
the subject. Thorndike and Hagen discuss assumptions
relevant to measurement and evaluation.
Our basic assumption is that sound decisions
30
arise out of relevant knowledge of the individual or
individuals. We assume that the more we know about
a person that relates to our present decision, and
the more accurately we know it, the more likely we
are to arrive at a sound decision about him or a
wise plan of action for him. By the same token, we
assume that the more relevant and accurate informa
tion we can provide the individual about himself, the
more likely he is to arrive at a sound decision on
his own problem. It may be necessary for us to
qualify this assumption as we proceed. There may be
limits on the amount and kind of information that can
be used in a particular situation. We shall indicate
that knowledge in and of itself is not wisdom. But
in its general form the assumption is basic not only
to educational and psychological measurement but also
to all science. We assume basically that knowledge
is good, that knowledge is power, that knowledge is
the basis for effective control of the problems that
confront us from day to day. This is the basic tenet
of our faith. (46:8)
How tests are being utilized
Decision making. The value of tests in making
decisions is emphasized by Cronbach and Gleser.
Our society continually confronts people with
decisions for which they have inadequate information.
It is for this reason that psychological and educa
tional tests exist. Some of the problems on which
tests are brought to bear are purely individual.
Equally numerous are occasions when an administrator,
teacher, or clinician turns to tests for assistance
in making decisions about many people .... The
value of a test depends on many qualities in addition
to its accuracy. (11:1)
Practical and research functions. Anastasi points
out that tests are being used in research as well as in
practical ways.
31
It is clearly evident that psychological tests
are currently being employed in the solution of a
wide range of practical problems. One should not,
however, lose sight of the fact that such tests are
also serving important functions in basic research.
Nearly all problems in differential psychology, for
example, require testing procedures as a means of
gathering data. As illustration, reference may be
made to studies on the nature and extent of individ
ual differences, the identification of psychological
traits, the measurement of group differences, and
the investigation of biological and cultural factors
associated with behavioral differences. For all such
areas of research--and for many others--the precise
measurement of individual differences made possible
by well-constructed tests is an essential prerequi
site. Similarly, psychological tests provide
standardized tools for investigating such varied
problems as age changes within the individual, the
affects of education, the outcome of psychotherapy,
the impact of propaganda, and the influence of
distraction on performance. (2:4)
Limitations of tests
In development of measurement methods. The
failure to distinguish the kinds of psychological phenom
ena that can and cannot be measured has been a drawback
in developing measurement methods according to Nunally.
. . . Psychological science is concerned with
human behavior, with the action, words, judgments,
and preferences of people--all of which are open to
measurement. Psychological science is not concerned
with purely subjective phenomena; until the individ
ual does something about his feelings, there is
nothing to measure. (39:12)
Tests are subject to error. Odoroff in speaking
of tests in guidance, placement and training praises
32
their value but warns about their limitations.
. . . Certainly tests have demonstrated that they
are better than curbstone opinion. Nevertheless, it
must be remembered that tests are merely devices by
which samples of the behavior of the individual are
obtained under controlled conditions. They are, of
course, subject to error. But in the hands of an
experienced individual, who is aware of their limita
tions, the inferences which may be obtained from them
are extremely useful .... Nevertheless, the test
must be interpreted with caution. As has been
indicated, although they provide selected samples of
behavior, they do not yield perfect measures of
intelligence. The limitations of this tool, however,
are known whereas the limitations of other methods
of estimating intelligence may not have been
established. (40:195)
Test scores provide measures but not evaluations.
Insight and judgment must be used in working with test
results according to Thorndike and Hagan.
It cannot be too much emphasized that measure
ment at best provides only information, not judgment.
A test will yield only a score, not the conclusion
to be drawn from that score. The information pro
vided in a test score is not a substitute for insight.
This information is the raw material with which
insight must work, in the clinic, in the classroom,
and in the research laboratory. Experience, training,
and basic sagacity roust provide the insight that will
take a set of data about an individual or group, know
how much faith to place in them and what meaning to
give them, and draw from them a sound conclusion or
plan of action. (46:13)
Testing programs for handicapped persons
The efficiency and dependability of standardized
measures are affected by disabilities possessed by the
33
person being tested. The scores on such measures must be
considered not only from the point of view of actual per
formance on the test but also from the viewpoint of
interpretation and use of the scores obtained from
measures which were developed and standardized for persons
without disabilities. Thurstone in reporting the pro
ceedings of an invitational conference on testing
problems sums up as follows:
Perhaps the most important implication of such
studies as I have been discussing lies in the
direction of recognizing the need for the construc
tion of individual tests of mental abilities. The
group tests we now use have been useful in studying
of growth curves for numbers of children but the
thorough study of mental growth seems to point in
the direction of studies of individual growth, as
it has even in the case of physical growth. It is
clear that for very young children, for people with
certain types of handicaps and for the later age
ranges we shall find it difficult to make large
group studies as we do with children of school age,
and that individual tests of the primary abilities
will be more use to us. (48:31)
Importance of norms.
Interpretation of scores depends on norms. Norms
are established for a test by finding a measure of
central tendency, usually the mean, and the standard
degree of deviation from it. These measures may then
serve as "yardsticks" for comparing the performance of
34
an Individual with the average of the group. Scores
obtained on a standard test by a member of a handicapped
group were seldom achieved under the same conditions as
those of the nonhandicapped.
The indispensability of norms in interpreting
test scores is expressed by Garrison and Force.
Norms are essential to the interpretation of test
scores. Achievement, aptitude, and intelligence test
scores are samples of an individual's performance in
certain areas. Both the test and the norms should
be appropriate for the individual being measured.
(22:42)
Testing the physically handicapped. Many
problems are encountered in testing the physically
handicapped. Anastasi points out some of the difficul
ties .
The growing emphasis upon rehabilitation and
training of the physically handicapped has created
an increasing demand for appropriate testing
instruments.
Testing the blind presents a very different set of
problems from those encountered with deaf subjects.
Oral tests can be more readily adapted for blind
subjects while performance tests are least likely to
be applicable. . . . In addition to the usual oral
presentation by the examiner, other suitable testing
techniques have been utilized, such as phonograph
records and tape or wire recordings. Some tests are
available in braille. The latter technique is some
what limited in its applicability, however, by the
greater bulkiness of material printed in braille as
compared with inkprint, by the slower reading rate
for braille and by the number of blind persons who
35
are not facile braille readers. The subject's
response may likewise be recorded on braille or on a
typewriter. Specially prepared embossed answer
sheets or cards are also available, especially for
use with true-false, multiple-choice and other
objective-type items. In many individually adminis
tered tests, of course, oral responses can be
obtained. (2:269)
The need of special measures for the blind.
One of the pioneers in developing and modifying
tests for the blind was Hayes. He discusses the value
of mental measurements in working with blind children.
It is a surprise to many people to learn that
there is any need for the application of mental
measurements to blind children, and it is equally a
matter of surprise that such measurements can be and
have been made .... But where teachers' judgments
and standard measurements have been compared we find
the same striking differences of opinion which have
motivated the almost universal use of tests in
schools for the seeing, and in grades which have
been determined on the basis of teacher judgment
alone enormous differences in ability are disclosed
by tests. (27:263)
Dangers in using tests with the blind. Hayes
also warns against some of the dangers of using group
intelligence tests with blind children.
Group intelligence tests may be used for general
surveys in schools for the blind, but as with group
achievement tests, facility with Braille is such an
important factor that it may mask the operations of
functions classified under intelligence. (25:172)
In working with the adult blind, Hayes suggests
36
that many of the same difficulties would be present.
We do not recommend a wide use of nor a major
dependence upon group intelligence tests with blind
adults, though there seems to be no reason why they
may not be used for supplementary evidence under cer
tain conditions. Due to the slowness of Braille
reading . . . , the group tests are very time-
consuming, and are economical of the tester's time
only when a sizable group is tested simultaneously,
a condition which might not occur very often in a
rehabilitation center. Adult subjects would probably
vary as greatly as children in the facility with
which they could read Braille and someone on the
staff should be familiar with Braille in order to
correct the test pamphlets, even when stencils are
provided. Of course many of the tests can be given
orally, asking the subjects to indicate their choice
of four alternatives in a best-answer test, for
instance, by marking one of a series of four dots
embossed on a special test sheet to correspond with
the number of the alternative answer chosen. But a
good many of the test items require that the subject
write an answer, and so would have to be omitted if
the subject could not write Braille. Also we cannot
use seeing norms when a group test is given orally.
These norms are based upon the time limits within
which subjects cover as much material as they can.
When the tests are given orally there is no obvious
place to stop, so we generally give the whole series
of items from very easy to very difficult, and the
score if inflated by correct answers well beyond the
point which would be reached if a time limit were
imposed. Also some subjects understand material read
to them which they might not comprehend when they
themselves read it. Finally, the group tests we have
used with blind children yield distinctly lower IQ's
than those obtained with individual tests, and it
might be more confusing than illuminating to have
widely different IQ's recorded on a client's record
sheet. A partial solution is to record MA's rather
than IQ's for group intelligence tests, since these
vary less than do IQ's from comparable figures
obtained from individual tests. Further there is the
37
practical problem whether office space could be
spared for the bulky materials needed for tests given
in Braille. (25:169)
Tests commonly used with adult blind. In review
ing the testing of blind subjects, Dabelstein points out
that certain measures have been used more often than
others.
In adjustment centers,where the clients are
mainly adults, we would suggest that their first
testing be with the Wechsler-Bellevue Scale, which
was developed for testing adults, and is generally
found interesting and challenging by them. Relatively
few modifications in test procedure become necessary
in testing the blind. But the omission of the per
formance tests will necessitate a revision of
Wechsler's patterns. (13:171)
The acceptance of individual differences in
American life has contributed to the acceptance of the
person x$ho deviates from normal in many ways. Hefferman
credits this acceptance with the desire to meet the needs
of handicapped persons.
To this acceptance, we can attribute the tremen
dous accomplishment during more recent years to meet
needs of children who deviate from normal in sensory
acuity, physical adequacy, intellectual endowment,
or emotional stability. Efforts to meet the needs of
every child in our society have revealed the simple
fact that the more we know about any child, the
better we are able to serve him. (28:228)
Developing concepts in the use of tests with the
blind. Tests have been used and are being used with the
38
blind. Salmon discusses changing concepts moving through
their use.
The use of aptitude tests with the blind is
presently emerging from a period during which they
have received far more enthusiastic acclaim than
scientific analysis and application. When we consider
that statistical analysis reveals that very few
aptitude tests can be proved to be reliable and virtu
ally none of them can be proved to be valid, we recog
nize an indictment of vocational aptitude tests for
the blind, since it has not yet been possible to
administer such tests to a sufficient number of blind
subjects to correlate them properly and standardize
their results with the results obtained from their
administration to seeing subjects. However, experi
ence is producing a more cautious approach to the use
of vocational aptitude tests for the blind than has
recently prevailed; and the careful use of such tests
for diagnostic purposes in a spirit of sound research
promises to develop them eventually into highly useful
diagnostic instruments. The earlier, poorly founded
hope that vocational aptitude tests could provide
specific prognosis of the vocational success of blind
persons is gradually being replaced by a more
realistic understanding of the nature and purpose of
such tests. This understanding is best epitomized,
perhaps by an excerpt from Aptitudes and Aptitude
Testing, by Walter Van Dyke Bingham: "A test of
aptitude samples certain abilities and characteristics
of the individual as he is today .... The
responses he makes under specified conditions are
ascertained--specimens of his performance when
motivated in prescribed ways . . . , aptitude tests
do not directly measure future accomplishment. They
make no such pretense. They measure present
performance. Then, in so far as behavior, past and
present, is known to be symptomatic of future
potentialities, the test data supply a means of esti
mating those potentialities only." The use and
development of aptitude tests in the light of this
understanding will not only afford an opportunity to
validate them on the findings of more tried and
39
proved diagnostic techniques, but will also serve to
further validate and add significant support to these
techniques. (43:216)
Tests for use with blind youths and young adults
must take into consideration perceptual problems, response
difficulties, and the utilization of the scores to help
the individual and his counselors. The results must be
interpreted and used as supplementary measures which may
furnish clues of value in the person's total situation.
Objective tests are being used with blind people.
Many of them have been developed and standardized on
populations with normal vision. There is a need for tests
to be used with blind youths and young adults which have
been developed for them. These measures should take into
consideration perceptual problems, response difficulties,
and the way in which the scores can be used to help the
individual blind person or his counselors. The scores
should be used to supplement all other available informa
tion about the particular individual.
REHABILITATION AND TRAINING FOR HANDICAPPED PERSONS
Handicapping conditions affect a person's ability
to perceive or respond. Testing conditions are important
40
in diagnosis and prognosis. Maximum utilization of all
persons demands the rehabilitation of handicapped
individuals.
Definitions of rehabilitation. Webster says that
rehabilitation
. . . is the physical restoration of the sick or
disabled person by therapeutic measures and reeduca
tion to participation in the activities of a normal
life within the limitations of his physical
disability. (49:1914)
For the individual who has never possessed certain
abilities, the term habilitation can be used meaning "the
qualifying of oneself." Kessler expresses much the same
conception of rehabilitation when he says that it is "the
restoration of the handicapped to the fullest physical,
mental, social, vocational, and economic usefulness of
which he is capable (31:15)."
Disabled as Persons. Greve warns that "after a
disability occurs, a man must continue to be a part of,
rather than apart from, life (24:15)." Patterson
comments:
. . . there appears to be a common element in all
treatment that may account for the effectiveness of
divergent methods. This element appears to be
related to what Zilboorg calls "the rediscovery of
the patient," and may be summarized as a respect for
the patient as an individual, a person, and
41
confidence in his capacities for improvement and for
taking responsibilities for himself. (41:441)
Mental reaction to body condition. Somatopsych-
ological relations, according to Wright (51:2) are those
dealing with variations in pysique which affect the
psychological situation of a person. Webster says that
the term refers to "primary somatic disease which produce
secondary mental symptoms (49-2171)." Wright further
makes a distinction between disabilities and handicaps.
It should be clear then, that a handicap must be
evaluated in terms of the demands of the situation in
which the person finds himself. In general we do not
consider children to be physically handicapped because
their pysical abilities are less than those of adults.
And, to draw upon an even more pointed example, we do
not consider all mankind handicapped because men are
not as fleet as the deer, as strong as the lion, or
able to soar into the air. Similarly, even severe
disabilities need not represent major handicaps. For
example, a blind person may not be handicapped in
work that does not require visual orientation; a
person whose job does not require rapid locomotion
may find his wheel chair no more frustrating than a
bus ride is to the person who takes it for granted
that he has to ride a bus to work every morning.
(51:9)
Evaluation of disabilities.
Importance of individualization. Hellebrandt
emphasizes the need to fit evaluation to the person being
considered at that time.
All biological structures are characterized by
42
great variability in the manner in which they react to
apparently identical stress. Disability evaluation
must therefore be individualized. Basic to the
physiologic concept of disability evaluation is
appreciation of the influence of regional defects on
the functional capacity of the whole. The living
machine operates under wide margins of safety. Seem
ingly irreparable damage may stimulate compensatory
adjustments which result in astonishing degrees of
fitness, if the handicapped individual is given the
opportunity to operate in areas of activity which
by-pass his specific disabilities. The keystone upon
which rehabilitation rests thus resolves itself into
the dynamic assessment of the fitness of the whole
man, and the matching of residual abilities to the
demands of fields of endeavor for which the individual
concerned possesses the requisite aptitudes, strength,
endurance, training and skill. (29:174)
Importance of attitudes. The evaluation of a
person is influenced by his attitudes towards himself and
towards the testing situation as well as those of other
people. Odoroff says
The needs of the disabled do not differ markedly
from those of the able-bodied. Except for the
presence of a disability, their needs and their
problems are those of their non-disabled neighbors.
Their disabilities frequently become handicaps
because of the attitudes of others. The disabled,
therefore, need not be a group needing services from
an agency set up specifically for them. Rather their
needs can be served by specialization within an
agency forming part of the regular administrative
machinery. Any other type of organization would tend
to segregate the disabled by emphasizing their
differences. (40:192)
Changing expectations of the handicapped.
Relationship to society. An acceptance of
43
handicapped persons has been evolving through the ages
and with it changing demands are made of the individual.
Martmer pinpoints several of the issues that have been
and are being faced.
Throughout the ages the child with a handicap has
been a concern to his parents and to the social order.
In primitive societies such a child, unable to with
stand the hazards of nature or to defend himself
against his enemies, was eliminated early in life.
In other societies the child with a handicap was con
sidered a hazard to the group. Because such a child
required additional care, he interfered with the
rapid movement of the group when danger threatened.
In flight from an enemy, he might easily be captured.
To prevent his becoming a victim of practices worse
than death, his own group frequently decreed his
early death.
Awakening social conscience and modern medicine
have gradually developed the realization that the
child with a handicap is first of all a human being
essentially no different from other children, that
his handicap may be corrected or improved, and that
he might be expected to participate in a range of
activities open to all citizens. The child with a
visible physical handicap was the first to receive
the benefit of these changed attitudes. More recently
the recognition that other handicaps are amenable to
treatment has improved the outlook for almost every
child. (35:xi)
Fernald comments:
Our study seems to show that normal perception,
retention, and memory for these same visual symbols
could be developed by individuals whose failure seems
to be due to inability to learn through visual and
auditory channels, if tactual and kinesthetic experi
ences were involved in the learning process. (19:167)
44
Utilization of the Assets of the Handicapped.
Assessing; the assets of the handicapped. To uti
lize the potentialities of the handicapped, workers are
realizing more and more that the utilization of the
potentialities of a disabled person is hindered by a lack
of adequate measures. Garrison and Force consider these
needs.
One of the difficulties in the diagnosis of the
needs of handicapped children is the inadequacy of
existing instruments for evaluating their general
intellectual level. The factors which tend to invali
date the results of intelligence tests administered
to the handicapped are limited experience, motor hand
icaps, and sensory deficiencies. Most psychologists
have used existing instruments and clinical judgment
for diagnosis and classification pending the develop
ment and validation of instruments which would take
into account certain inadequacies inherent in the
handicapping condition. (22:33)
Problems in training. Rehabilitation personnel
generally favor training handicapped persons in an envi
ronment similar to the one in which they will be working.
Odoroff feels that there is a need for the handicapped to
desire and the nonhandicapped to approve the use of regu
lar training facilities for the disabled.
Rehabilitation agencies have generally followed
the practice of training the disabled in the same
schools and classes as the non-disabled. Educators
in the United States have long been aware of the need
for providing curricula which takes into consideration
45
individual differences. Training personnel have had,
therefore, considerable experience in making curric
ular modifications for the particular needs of the
individual. The needs of the disabled are the
varying needs of any individual with problems.
More important than special schools, organized
specifically to meet the needs of the disabled, is the
need for organizing particular sequences of courses
or particular adaptations of methods of teaching. The
stress currently laid on the importance of counseling
and guidance for the disabled takes cognizance of the
immense psychological advantage accruing from a policy
which permits the disabled to receive services with
the non-disabled and to be regarded as normal. Making
training facilities available to the disabled on the
same basis as they are to all citizens has the addi
tional advantage of affording full opportunity in all
forms of training, without tending to limit the occu
pations open to the disabled. Organization of
sequence of courses and adaptations of teaching meth
ods designed to meet the needs of the disabled, rather
than special classes, is recognition of the individual
differences without segregation of the disabled.
(40:201)
Working with the handicapped calls for the utili
zation of normal procedures adjusted to the specific needs
of the individual. There may be several individuals suf
fering from the same handicap who will have some problems
in common. It would be possible then to treat these sub
jects as one would others, but making adjustments to fit
the particular handicap in special ways.
THE BLIND AND REHABILITATION
One of the subgroups of disabled persons is the
46
blind. Usually they need special equipment and training
to help them adjust to an environment in which most
persons are sighted. McKay in speaking of the rehabili
tation of the blind considers the traditional view of that
disability and the aim of rehabilitation.
Blindness has traditionally been considered the
most serious of physical handicaps and the one which
presents the most difficult problems in rehabilita
tion. While this is to a certain extent true, the
very real and substantial problems presented by
blindness are magnified and distorted far beyond their
actual significance by the muddy mass of superstition,
prejudice and sentiment which from earliest times has
obscured and retarded the wheels of progress in the
welfare of blind people.
The aim in rehabilitation of the blind is to
enable each blind individual to enjoy an active, nor
mal, independent life most nearly like the life he
would have led had he not lost his sight. To achieve
this, it is necessary, first of all to regard the
blind person as an individual, and a normal human
being. (37:401)
Ross feels that blindness should not be considered
as being synonymous with incapacity.
Today blindness is no longer a blanket term for
incapacity in countries where all the known devices
for helping those without sight are in use. Under
ideal conditions they can read the best of books, or
hear them recorded; listen to radio, engage in sports,
share in community life, travel by themselves, go
through college with the help of readers by govern
ment grant, take vocational training, hold responsible
jobs, move nimbly through the streets with their
Seeing Eye dogs, or have home teachers illumine unex
pected paths for them to follow. By such means as
these, it is possible to veer from self-pity to
47
self-help, from dependency to independence. But only
a small proportion of the world's sightless have
access to these practical benefits. (42:5)
Social Work with the Handicapped.
Rehabilitation and self-support. Public welfare
for the blind tends to be based on the need in the United
States for an individual to be self-supporting. TenBroek
and Matson place these needs second to the needs for food
and shelter.
In American society, the need for rehabilitation
and self-support--with all that that implies--is
second only to the need of sufficient food and shelter
to keep body and soul together. For rehabilitation
and self-support for the rehabilitable are inseparably
connected with basic moral, social, and political
tenets of our system: with individualism, with self-
reliance and initiative, with dignity and worth of the
human person, with equality of opportunity (both
economic and social), and with full rights of partici
pation in the normal activities of the community. If
the opportunity for rehabilitation and self-support
for the rehabilitable is not a basic need in psycho
logical terms, it is in our system surely a basic
social need--as basic as the fundamental principles
of American democracy. (45:106)
Basic Assumption underlying Casework with the
Blind. Casework with any client underlies practice i^ith
the blind. Finestone points out that the work also needs
special knowledge with regard to blindness and an under
standing of the worker's attitudes toward blindness.
Social casework practice with blind persons rests
48
on a base of knowledge, attitudes and skills common
to social casework practice with any client group in
any setting. Along with this common base, specialized
knowledge of the nature and problems incident to
blindness is necessary. Basic assumptions underlying
casework with blind persons include the importance of
the caseworker's awareness of his own attitudes toward
blindness, and the applicability of democratic values
characterizing casework in general. Blindness is not
necessarily the core problem of all blind persons; the
degree and quality of the visual condition vary, and
the way in which the condition is experienced and
reacted to similarly varies. It is the person, with
his feelings, behavior, potentialities, and needs who
is at the center of attention in casework, not physicaL
differences per se. Blindness does not necessarily
connote neurosis, or dependency, or inferiority.
Blind persons should not be routinely exempted from
meeting social norms of adjustment and productivity;
on the other hand, such expectations should be based
on individual capacity and potentiality. (20:17)
Problems and Potentials of the Blind.
Awareness of the blind and their possible
contributions. The world is awakening to needs and
capabilities of blind persons according to Farrell.
The modern world is becoming increasingly
conscious not only of the problems confronting its
citizens in the dark but also of the potential con
tribution to society that can be made by the
sightless. It must be remembered that human blind
ness is as old as life itself. And from the earliest
times blindness has aroused compassion, based primar
ily on two almost conflicting emotions: fear and
sympathy. Fear, not of the blind but that their own
sight might be lost, engenders in people a sympathy
that makes them want to help the blind and to make
life as easy as possible for them. This urge to
help takes many forms and covers a wide range.
49
On the other hand, the essential human factor,
especially in handicapped people, must never be
ignored, and the danger of overloading the blind with
cumbersome devices must be avoided. The development
of scientifically perfect contrivances is today rela
tively simple. It is more difficult to take the
measure of the human spirit of the visually handi
capped which causes them to want to succeed on their
own. (18:3)
The importance of the potentialities is stressed
by Lowery.
The potentialities of a blind person are more
important than the problem of blindness. Loss of
vision does not result in total incapacitation, and
there is nothing fixed in blindness ithat predisposes
the individual toward crippling neurosis. (34:15)
Acuteness versus efficiency of Perception.
Training as an important factor in perception.
The blind person must learn to depend on sensory cues that
the sighted persons relegate to a supplementary place in
perception. Chevigny and Braverman consider the differ
ences between perceptual acuity and keeness of perception.
Perceptual acuity was confused urith developed
keenness of perception .... The senses of the
blind do not increase in acuity, and there is closer
integration than had been thought in the workings of
the several modalities. The individual discovers,
often to his own astonishment, the volume and signi
ficance of the information hearing and touch had
always conveyed but to which little value had been
ascribed because of the importance he had always
attached to sight. Visualization continues, being
fed data on which to function by the remaining
modalities. As in reorganization in musculature, the
50
process of learning to depend on information hitherto
considered secondary in importance is initiated by
the attempt to function and is born of a feeling of
necessity. Training can hasten and guide the process.
It need hardly be added that deficiencies in hearing
or touch greatly lower the capacity to reorganize.
(8: 21)
Carroll stresses the distinction between acuteness
and efficiency and offers an explanation of the increase
in sense efficiency.
The distinction between sense acuteness and sense
efficiency is a very important one here, both for the
individual blind person and for the field of rehabili
tation of the blind.
The increase in sense efficiency, where it exists,
has a twofold explanation. It is partly the result of
of concentration. . . . It is also the result of
training . , . and of experience.
In the same way, over a period of time, many blind
people do learn to interpret sound and smell and taste
and touch better than the average person. But this
is by no means unversal among blind people, and as
long as we believe that it is, and cling to the notion
of "compensation,"fwe set blind persons apart in some
magic supersensory area. And so long as work for the
blind is influenced by this erroneous concept, we will
neglect the important development of sense training
in blind people and leave it to take place "naturally."
(6f20)
Importance of the visual factor
Effects of deviations from normal vision. Impres
sions of the world around us are based primarily on
visual perception for most persons. Fouracre discusses
51
the effects of changes in the ability to perceive visually.
More impressions reach the brain for interpreta
tion through the sense of sight than through all the
other senses combined. Therefore, any deviation from
normal vision has an important effect on the individ
ual. Visual acuity is the measure which is applied
in differentiating among the normal seeing, the
partially sighted, and the blind. As with other
handicaps, there is no precise definition of the
degree of disability. Personality factors, cause of
the defect, and other considerations may allow func
tioning above or below the level indicated by the
measure. (21:999)
Normal functioning of the visual factor. The
differences between the way in which blind and sighted
persons perceive a situation are important. Whiteman
weighs these differences.
The eye is a distance receptor par excellence.
Its main effectiveness is that it enables the
individual to grasp quickly and accurately and at a
distance vital properties of objects. These proper
ties include size, shape, shading, color, texture,
speed of movement, spatial location. The other
distance receptors, hearing and smell, are of much
less efficiency in this regard. Such properties as
size, shape, texture, shading, and color can be
neither smelled nor heard. The apprehension of speed
of movement and spatial location of objects is both
slower and less accurate in the case of hearing and
smell, if only because many objects are silent and
odorless. The size, shape, texture and spatial
location of objects cannot be perceived by the contact
receptors, touch and taste. These involve proximity
to the object, and some objects are too far away to
be touched or tasted. Then, too, exploration of an
object by touch or taste is much more time-consuming
than its visual apprehension. (50:28)
52
Cause of blindness as an important factor.
Rehabilitation influenced by the cause of
blindness. The effects of various jobs on specific causes
of blindness must be considered in rehabilitation of the
blind. McKay stresses side-effects of some conditions.
The eye affection responsible for blindness has a
bearing on the choice of employment and the selection
of pastime activities, e.g. the patient threatened
with detachment of the retina should not be placed at
work which involves stooping, heavy lifting, or the
hazard of a blow on the head. The glaucoma patient
should avoid activities which may cause nervous
tension (e.g. fine handwork, or, in some cases, the
study of Braille.)
The etiological factor underlying the eye affec
tion is of equal importance, e.g. diabetes, in
addition to causing cataracts, may also have impaired
the sense of touch, which to the blind person serves
as a partial substitute for vision. Syphilis pro
ducing atrophy of the optic nerve may also have
affected the hearing, on which the blind individual
depends in finding his way about. Brain tumor may
impair the power of orientation. (37:402)
Diabetes and Multiple Sclerosis. Diabetes and multiple
sclerosis are common causes of blindness in youth and
young adults. Carroll in discussing the total effects of
these diseases points out that they are often accompanied
by loss of acuity in the other senses especially cutane
ous discriminations. Brain tumors resulting in blindness
often tend to affect the sense of balance and direction
so that the blind person has an added handicap.
53
The advance of diabetes often causes sensory loss,
including that of finer cutaneous discrimination. It
often happens, therefore, that newly blinded diabetics
believe that they do not have sufficient tactile
acuity to learn Braille. Experience shows that this
is rarely so: the block to Braille is not lowered
acuity but attitude.
The combination of multiple sclerosis and blind
ness is known to most workers for the blind, since
sight loss is part of the multiple sclerosis syndrome.
The problem in most cases is primarily one of medicine
and physical rehabilitation, but the worker in the
field of blindness should have some knowledge of the
nature of the disease. Unless he knows of its
periods of remission and of the high incidence of
euphoria, he may be badly misled in his handling of
these cases. (6:297)
Comparison between blind and sighted.
Similarities. Whiteman in making a psychological
appraisal of blindness points out similarities and differ
ences between the blind and the sighted. He feels that
the greatest similarity lies in the use of symbolic
rather than sensory control over behavior. Individuals
in either group fail to respond to stimuli present in the
surroundings because of natural limitations of sensory
ability. Each group must learn to adjust to the impres
sions he perceives.
Differences. One of the outstanding differences
between the two groups is the selective effect on loco
motion and manipulation. With the blind the dominance of
54
the nonvisual senses usually results in the development of
increased discriminatory skill in specific nonvisual
senses. Attitudes encountered and developed differ
between the two groups although neither encounters any
one of them exclusively.
Differentiating factors among the blind. Varia
tions in visual efficiency among those of comparable
visual acuity is one of the most outstanding differences.
The degree of learning to function varies. Responses to
attitudes and development of attitudes vary from person to
person. The reaction to blindness is the result of the
total situation and the individual's response to the
complete set of influences as they affect his personal
feeling.
SUMMARY
Rehabilitation of handicapped persons is a goal in
American society. The utilization of the potentialities
of these individuals is an asset to society and a contri
bution to the person's self-esteem. A blind person need
not be barred from any field of endeavor because of his
disability but there may well be specific tasks that he
will be unable to perform because of his visual
55
limitations.
Tests and testing are important tools to be used
in assessing the potentialities of an individual and in
planning courses of training in keeping with his needs
and abilities. There is a scarcity of measures for use
with blind persons which by-pass their visual limitations
and depend on the other channels of perception.
Perception plays an important role in measurement
and rehabilitation. When any channel of sensory stimula
tion is seriously limited or lacking the person affected
must learn to depend on the other channels in order to
function in society. The blind have lost input through
the visual channel but they can learn to respond to input
through the other senses and can make decisions based on
what they do perceive. When more than one sense is lost
or when all of the senses have decreased in efficiency it
will be more difficult but the person can still function
by learning to use what he has left.
Measures to be used with blind youths and young
adults could be developed which utilize those input
channels which are still available. The sense:of hearing
can be used both in assessment and in training. The
senses of touch and smell can be depended upon for certain
situations. Tests to be used with the blind should meet
the standards of a good measurement situation and at the
same time utilize sensory channels that are available to
the individual. The instruments must either be related
to some felt needs of the subjects or they must be able
to challenge their interest and cooperation.
Perception affected by capacity, the principles
of rehabilitation, and the type of testing instruments
available are all elements which enter into the measure
ment and evaluation of blind persons. This study
endeavored to develop some measures of intelligence which
would interest and challenge the individual while he was
functioning through the sense of touch.
CHAPTER III
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEASURES
Development of measurement of the intelligence of
blind persons has been hampered by a dearth of instruments
which do not have to be modified or administered under
nonstandard conditions. Verbal items can be administered
orally and have been used with the blind but if they were
standardized under time limits it was necessary to make
use of special norms or to adjust the time element.
Mechanical manipulations have been employed by permitting
unauthorized practices or by enlarging the instructions
to the subject. This chapter reports the development of
a group of measures which utilize tactual stimulation to
gauge the intelligence of blind youths and young adults.
Producing the Test
A large pool of items was to be produced. The
subjects were to be required to respond to the tactile
qualities of the stimuli. The aim in the preparation of
the items was to be able to test specific mental abili
ties, namely, identification of similarities or
57
58
differences, recognition of the whole from its parts and
conversely, the parts from the whole, discernment of
figures in rotated or inverted positions, ability to find
a path to a goal or traverse a maze, discernment of
similarities across space and remembrance of figures over
a period of time. The mechanical ability to transfer cubes
from one box to another, one at a time and using only two
fingers, was also to be sampled.
The first two groups of items served a dual
function. They were planned to orient the subjects to the
media being used and to check the ability to discern,
through the sense of touch, which figure in a group was
similar to or different from a pattern figure or in some
cases different from the other members of a group of
figures. It did not prove practical to use loose items
which the subject could pick-up and rearrange. Figures of
various shapes and sizes were pasted on cards to consti
tute an item. When the figure did not have enough depth,
subjects reported that their responses were not to the
total item as planned but only to that part of which the
subject was aware. Various weights of cardboard were
experimented with and illustration board number 69 medium
59
weight was selected.
Individual items were designed and constructed
from this illustration board but during the preliminary
trials these figures proved to be unsatisfactory as various
layers of a figure would separate from the base and peel
off. At the same time several items showed promise of
being effective measures. After a search for a material,
which could be cut to a desired size and shape without
peeling or chipping, plastic vinyl floor tile was adopted
for use. A card with sufficient firmness was needed as a
base for each item. Pressed board was selected and cut
into cards of convenient size.
Preparation of Items and Sections
All items were prepared on 5 by 8 cards cut from
pressed board. Two colors of pressed board, brown and
black, were used to assist the examiner and were alter
nated between sections. The figures which were glued onto
the cards, were cut from vinyl tile. Pink tile was used
on the black background and tan on the brown. The colors
employed did not constitute stimuli to be discriminated,
but were used only to assist the examiner. The figures
developed were of various sizes and might be letters,
60
numbers, or geometric designs. The decision as to which
figures were chosen for use depended upon the aptitude
being tested.
Section I. The ability to identify similar
figures. This group of items was arranged with a pattern
figure on the card at the subject's left and five or six
figures from which to choose at the right. Figure 1 is a
photograph of all items used in this section. The subject
was to select from the group of figures at the right of
the card the one which was the same size and shape as the
pattern figure at the left. There were thirteen items in
this section and they were presented to all subjects in
the same order. Figure 2 is a close-up of two of the
items in this section.
Section II. The ability to select the different
figure in a group. For this section seven cards were
designed with a pattern figure at the left and five
figures from which to choose at the right. Six cards
were developed containing five or six figures, one of
which was different in size and shape from the others.
Figure 3 is a photograph showing all items in the section.
In each case the subject was to select the different
61
gj^ffK>«aa^s!gg8
Figure 1. --Section I, Similarities, all items.
Item 12
Figure 2. --Close-up of Items 12 and 13
Section I, Similarities
63
■Ah^waBBBt
Figure 3. --Section XI, Differences, all items.
64
figure. Figure 4 is a close-up showing the two types of
items.
Section III. The ability to recognize the parts
of a whole. A pattern figure was placed at the left of
each of the twelve cards which were developed for this
section. At the right of the card there were five pairs
of figures all of which had been cut from larger figures,
only one of which had been the same size and shape as the
pattern figure. The part figures were presented in pairs
as parts of a base figure. On some of the cards the part
figures were merely separated slightly and on others they
were rotated as well as separated. Figure 5 is a photo
graph of all of the items in this section. The top item
on Figure 6 is a close-up of item 11.
Section IV. The ability to recognize the whole
from its parts. The pattern figure at the left of these
cards was composed of two figures which had been cut from
a larger figure. At the right of the card there were
five figures one of which was the same size and shape as
the one from which the pattern figure had been cut. The
subject was to select the figure which had been cut.
There were twelve items in this section. Figure 7 is a
65
Figure 4. --Items 4 and 11, Section II, Differences
Figure 5. --All items, Section III, Parts of a Whole
O'*
c r \
67
Figure 6. --Item 11, Section III
Item 7, Section IV
Figure 7. — All items, Section IV, Whole from Its Parts. ^
00
photograph of all of the items in this section while a
close-up of item 7 is the bottom item on Fugure 6.
Section V . To discern a figure in a rotated
position. All of the figures on any one of these cards
were cut from the same model, which was some nonsymmetri-
cal figure. The pattern figure and one other were cut
v/ith the model having one side up, while all the other
figures were cut from the reverse side of the model. The
subject was to select from the group that figure which
was the same as the pattern figure. The idea back of the
items in Sections v and VI is illustrated in "L" figures,
some of which are rotated and others inverted, as in
figure 8.
Figure 8. --Rotation and Inversion.
Figure 9 is a photograph of all items in Section V. A
close-up of item three in this section is shown by the
top design in Figure 10.
Section VI. The ability to discern a figure in
an inverted position. The subject was to locate the one
Figure 9. --All Items
Section V, Rotated
Figure 10. — Item 3, Section V, Rotated
Item 9, Section VI, Inverted
72
figure in the group at the right of these cards which had
been cut from the reverse side of the pattern figure.
That is, he was to find the figure which had been
“flopped over." There were twelve items in this section
and a photograph of them is presented in figure 11. A
close-up.of item 9 is included in figure 10.
Section VII. The ability to find a path to a
goal or to traverse a maze. Two types of mazes were
designed. In the one group of six mazes the subject was
to move his finger along the surface of the card from the
START to the GOAL with out jumping over obstacles, but
finding a way around them. In the other group of mazes,
strips of tile one-eighth inch wide were used and the
subject's finger was to trace a path to the GOAL while
remaining on the strips of tile. He was not to jump
across breaks or from one strip of tile to another, but
was to follow a consecutive path. Dead-ends and/or
alternate routes x^ere employed in these mazes and the
subject was required to find the path to the goal.
Figure 12 is a photograph of all of the mazes while
figure 13 presents close-ups of the two different types
of mazes.
Figure 11. — All items, Section VI, Inverted
u>
74
75
Figure 13. — Close-up Mazes 3 and 9, Section VII
76
Section VIII. The ability to perceive and
identify similar figures across space. Two cards were
used simultaneously for each of the twelve items in this
group and were presented to the subject separated by a
distance of 30 inches. The pattern card was at the sub
ject's left and the test card at his right. The test card
contained five to seven figures from which the subject was
to select the one which was the same size and shape as the
pattern.
For the convenience of the test administrator the
same pattern card was used for both Sections VIII and IX
in several instances. All pattern cards are presented in
Figure 14. In the top row the first two cards were used
for both sections, the third one for Section IX and the
fourth for Section VIII. The first two in the second row
were used for both, the third for Section IX and the
fourth for Section VIII. The first three in the third row
were used for both and the last one for Section VIII. The
first card in the bottom roitf was used for both, the next
two for Section IX and the last one for Section VIII.
Figure 15 presents a close-up of the pattern card
and the test cards which served as the second items in
I M 8 4 3 ©|§|?. © I tl XZ 1 3 2 4 1 8 1 3 Vf S 3 1 8 20 S U 2 2 9344
Figure 14. --All pattern cards for Sections VIII and IX
78
Item 2
1
Section IX
Section VIII
Figure 15. --Center card is pattern figure for
, Section VIII and Item 2, Section IX.
945991
79
Sections VIII and IX. Figure 16 presents a photograph of
all of the test cards used in Section VIII while Figure 17
is the photograph of the test cards for Section IX.
Section IX. The ability to remember a figure over
a period of time. Two cards were used for each item in
this section of the test to check memory for size and
shape of figures. The subject familiarizes himself with
the one figure contained on the pattern card. After a
thirty second delay, and without contacting the pattern
card again, the test card was presented and the subject
was to select the figure which was the same size and
shape as the pattern figure. There were twelve items in
this group.
Section X . The ability to transpose cubes from
one box to another using two fingers and moving only one
cube at a time. One-quarter inch cubes were cut from
sugar pine. Tito open boxes, 4x5x1 1/2 inches, were
placed next to each other, with the box containing the
cubes closer to the subject. While he was working with
his right hand the boxes were at his right, and vice versa
when he was using his left hand.
Figure 16. — All Test Cards, Section VIII, Across Space
00
o
Figure 17. --All Test Cards, Section IX, Over Time
82
Criterion Measures
Validating tests for the subjects were deemed
necessary. Two vocabulary and one space relations measure
were selected. Part III of SCAT form 2A (10), which had
been prepared for use with persons in grades 10, 11, and
12, was chosen for one vocabulary measure and designated
Vocab I. Since many of the subjects to be tested were
college students a second vocabulary measure was selected.
Part III of SCAT form 1A (9), which had been developed for
college level subjects was decided upon and labeled
Vocab II. The space relations section of the SRA Primary
Mental Abilities Test (47) was picked for use and named
Space.
Aids for the Administration
Response recording. Mimeographed answer sheets
were prepared for recording the responses to Sections I
through X. The answers sheets had places for the subject's
name, comments, dates and times. The cover sheet, that
used to record the responses to Section I, had space for
other desired information as sex, date of birth, handed
ness, and which type of stimulation was responded to
first. Since all sighted subjects would do the test
83
twice the lower section of the answer sheets was divided
into two parts with two columns at the left and two at
the right of the page. Response choice and time required
for making the response could be recorded there for each
item.
A special form was needed for Section VII so that
three time-scores could be recorded at the left and three
at the right of the answer sheets. Each sighted subject
would traverse each maze three times by touch and three
times by sight and so it was important that the perform
ances visually and tactually be reported in detail.
Since Section X was an interpolated activity between the
presentation of the pattern and the test card in Section
IX, it was desired that an answer sheet be prepared where
all pertinent information could be recorded. A form was
designed with three columns at the left and three at the
right of the lower portion for recording response selec
tion in IX, time to make choice in IX and the number of
cubes in X.
Frames. To keep the items from slipping away
from the subject, two frames were prepared. Each frame
had a base of illustration board 10 by 7 1/2 inches to
84
which a second similar sheet, with a 5 by 8 inch section
cut out, was pasted. The individual items of the test
would fit into this frame and when advisable the adminis
trator could hold it steady.
Figure 18. --Frame.
Blindfolds. A shield to permit the subject to
feel the items without seeing them was prepared by
fastening tapes to a sheet of illustration board, 14 by
10 inches, so that it could be suspended from the sub
ject's neck to cut off his view of the test items.
Figure 19. --Shield.
Order of response. Randomness of order of
tactual versus visual stimulation was obtained by having
each subject select one, from a group of ten capsules, in
a box. Half of the capsules were marked with an "A" and
the other half with a "B." Subjects drawing "A" capsules
responded to touch first, and vice versa.
[Liming. A regular watch was used to determine the
time in minutes required for each section of the test. A
stop-watch was used to determine the time required for
responses to individual items. This was recorded to the
nearest second.
Instructions to Subjects
General
Preliminary comments. The subject was told, "I am
doing some research on items to which response will be to
the sense of touch. You are requested, for purposes of
comparison, to do the whole test twice, once feeling of it
and once looking at it. The capsule you selected deter
mined whether you vrould respond to touch first or to sight.
You may have as much time as needed for every item but I
am checking the time you take so if you hear this clicking
sound it is just the stop-watch, for my own information."
Instructions by sections
Section I. "There is a frame on the table in
front of you. Feel it. I will place a sample card in the
frame. There is a figure at the left of the card. Which
86
of the figures at the right is the same size and shape as
the pattern figure?" For subjects responding to tactual
stimulation first the following was added, "There are five
figures at the right of the card and if an item has more
than five figures to choose from I will tell you. Here is
your first item." When a new item was presented to a sub
ject it was found to be advisable for the tester to indi
cate when the change had been completed, by some remark
such as "try this one" or "here is the next item." Spe
cial comments were needed as follows: Item 4, "on this
card you have six instead of five figures to choose from."
Item 8, "Be sure that you feel all of the figures on this
card." Item 9, "There are six figures to choose from this
time."
Section II. "In this section you are to find the
different figure. There is a figure at the left of this
card. Which of the five figures at the right is different
from the pattern figure?" Item 6, "On this card you are
to find the figure which is different in shape from the
pattern figure. Size is not to be considered, just shape."
Item 8 through 13, "You are still looking for a 'different1
figure but instead of having a pattern at the left and
87
several designs to choose from you will be given a group
of figures and from the group you are to select the one
that is different from the others." Item 8, "There are
only five figures on this card and you are to pick the one
that is most different from the others."
Section III. "The cards in this section contain a
pattern figure at the left. Which of the pairs of figures
at the right were out from the pattern figure?" Item 7,
"On this and the following cards the parts of the base
figures have usually been rotated before being glued on the
card but any pair will combine to form a base figure.
Which pair will form this pattern figure?"
Section IV. "This section is just the opposite of
the last one in that now you are given a pair of figures
at the left for your pattern and you are to determine
which of the figures at the right was the same base figure.
In some cases the parts of the pattern figure have been
rotated and in others merely separated, slightly,"
Some special instructions. Before starting Sec
tions V and VI the subject was given a card with eight
figures, all cut from the same model (a letter "P") half
of which were cut from one side and the rest from the
88
reverse side of the model. If the subject had difficulty
perceiving the relationship he was given a sample “P" and
told to fit it over the figures on the card. It was dur
ing this phase of the project that a subject expressed
the distinction between the figures by using the term
"flopped over” which was retained because it seemed to
give other subjects a clear picture of the differences
between the figures. When the subject seemed to under
stand the relationship the next section of the test was
introduced.
Section V . Two sample cards were used for this
section to be sure that the subject realized what the task
was and because nonsymmetry had been achieved in several
cases by the use of notches, which was the important
variable in these cases, and in other cases the nonsymme
try was a part of the base figure without the use of
notches. The subject was told, "All of the figures on
these cards have been cut from the same pattern but in
only one case was the same side of the model facing up as
in the pattern figure. Find the figure that is the same
as the pattern." If the subject still seemed doubtful
about what was expected he was told to find the figure
89
which had not been "flopped over."
Section VI. "All figures on any one of these
cards have been cut from the same design. All were cut
from the same side of the model except one. You are to
find the figure that is different from the pattern figure,
that is, the one that has been ''flopped over'."
Section VII. "This section is a group of mazes.
You will be given cards with an index tab at the left like
this. That marks the starting point of the maze. At the
right of the card feel this piece of sandpaper which marks
the goal. You are to see how quickly you can go from the
START to the GOAL using one finger and going around
obstacles. You are not to jump over barriers but go
around them. It might be easier for you to keep a finger
of the right hand on the GOAL and move the finger of the
left hand toward it as you move from START to GOAL. You
are to do each maze three times and be sure that 1 know
when you are starting a trial so that I can time each run
separately."
Starting with item seven of the mazes new instruc
tions were given. "With the mazes from 7 through 12 you
’ride the rails1 instead of staying 'down in the hollow.1
90
You are not to jump across spaces. You will find choice
points where you must decide which way to go. Some mazes
have branches which are dead-ends and you will have to
return from them to the main path. Others have more than
one route to the goal and you can choose between them.
You will do each of these mazes three times seeing how
quickly you can reach the GOAL. Go ahead.”
Section VIII. "With this next group of items we
will use two frames separated from each other. A pattern
card will be placed in the frame at your left. The test
item will be placed at your right. You are to determine
which of the figures on the card at the right is the same
size and shape as the pattern figure on your left."
Item 3, "There are six figures to choose from on this
card." Item 8, "There are seven figures to choose from
on this card and they are arranged in a circle."
Section IX and X . Although these two sections
were administered at the same time, that was not mentioned
as the first instructions were given. The subject was
told, "You will be presented a card containing a pattern
figure. Familiarize yourself with the figure, noting
both shape and size. Then return the card to me. After
91
a delay of thirty seconds a test card will be presented
and you are to determine which of the figures on it is
the same size and shape as the one on the pattern card,
without referring to it again.1 1 After the subject had
tried the sample item he was told, "In order that you
will not become bored during the delay I have a task for
you. Here are two boxes." The tester placed the boxes
at the subject's right. "The box nearest you contains
some small cubes and you are to see how many of them you
can move to the second box, one at a time, using your
thumb and first finger, during the thirty second delay.
Then the test card will be presented and you are to
identify the figure which is the same as the pattern
figure."
Before each presentation of a new pattern card
the tester informed the subject which fingers to use in
transferring the cubes for that trial. With the right
hand for items 1 through 4, he used the thumb and fingers
1, 2, 3, and 4 in order. For items 5 through 8, the
boxes were moved to the left of the subject and he used
the thumb and fingers of the left hand in the same order
as he had those of the right hand. For item 9 he used
92
fingers 1 and 2 of the right hand, no thumb, and for item
10 fingers 3 and 4. The left hand, fingers 1 and 2 were
used for item 11, and for item 12, fingers 3 and 4. The
performance of this task constituted Section X of the test.
Instructions for criterion measures.
Vocab I and II. The instructions were the same
for these two measures. The subject was told to read the
directions and study the example. Then he was given a
prepared sheet on which to record his answers and time
was limited to ten minutes for each measure. If he
finished in less than ten minutes a note was made of the
time required by him.
Space. The subject was given the instruction
sheet for this measure. When he had studied it, he was
given the test and allowed to work on it for ten minutes.
Summary of Chapter
Items were produced to meet specific requirements.
They were arranged in sections to measure stated abilities.
Instructions for the subjects were prepared so that the
individual would understand what he was expected to do and
so that all would follow the same directions. Several
93
aids for the tester were created to help him administer
and score the items and sections of the test.
CHAPTER IV
ADMINISTRATION OF THE MEASURES TO SIGHTED SUBJECTS
AND NOTES ON SUBJECTS, RESPONSES, AND TIMES
A measure of the differences in performance under
sighted and blindfolded conditions was desired so a pre
liminary study was done with sighted subjects. It was
hoped that this would point up some of the difficulties
which might be encountered in working with the blind and
that a comparison between performance under the two
circumstances would prove valuable.
Administration
Groups of sighted subjects
Volunteers between the ages of 15 and 35 were
enlisted. Each subject was randomly assigned to Group ST
or SV in accord with the capsule he drew from a box of
ten. Members of Group ST had a shield adjusted from
their necks in such a fashion that they would not see the
items during the first administration of the test. After
94
95
they had responded to all items using the sense of touch
they repeated the whole test using the sense of sight.
Group SV used the blindfold for their second response to
the test items after they had reacted to all items
visually on the first performance.
Individual administration of tests.
It was necessary to administer the test individu
ally when the subjects responded to tactual stimulation
and therefore it was practical to administer it individu
ally when using visual stimulation. In this way the
tester could observe how the subject performed under the
two conditions. Directions were given for each section of
the test and when necessary were repeated for separate
items. The second time the subject responded to the items
he was told, as a matter of information, about errors he
made or differences in alternatives selected under the two
types of stimulation.
Record keeping
The administrator put down on the record sheet the
alternative selected by the subject in response to each
item in Sections I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VIII, and IX. The
time, in seconds, required for the testee to make his
selection of alternatives was also recorded for each item.
Section VII was a group of mazes which the subject tra
versed three times and the duration of each trial was
recorded to the nearest second. Section X was an inter
polated task used in conjunction with Section IX and each
trial was limited to thirty seconds. No limits were
imposed on the time required for the subject to make a
choice for the items in Section IX. The number of cubes
transposed (Section X) under each set of conditions was
recorded on the same record sheet as the response choices
and time needed to decide on an alternative for the items
in Section IX.
Methods of scoring.
The number of correct choices served as the
scores for Sections I, II, III, IV, V, VIII, and IX. The
total time required to traverse each maze three times
served as the score for Section VII, the shorter time
representing the better performance. The score for
Section X was the total number of cubes transferred from
one box to the other during the twelve 30-second
intervals, using the various combinations of fingers.
97
Notes on Sighted Subjects and Their Performance
Composition of the two groups of sighted subjects.
Several of the subjects who volunteered to assist
in this project were still in high school, some were
undergraduate college students, others graduate students
and still others were working adults. One was a 16 year
old high school drop-out during his sophomore year. Only
one member of this group of persons was left-handed.
There were more women volunteers than men, 21 to 9 respec1
tively. Ages ranged from 15 through 35 years. Table 1
presents a breakdown of the composition of the two groups
of sighted subjects.
Total time for the ten sections.
The total time required by the sighted subjects
to complete the created items twice, ranged from one hour
and fifty-six minutes to four hours and fifty-seven
minutes with an average of two hours and thirty-eight
minutes. This did not include the time used in explain
ing each section and making clear what was wanted in each
case. Time used for supplementary instructions in a
section after the person had started the first item was
included. The total overall time averaged about three
98
TABLE 1
COMPOSITION OF SIGHTED GROUPS BY
AGE, SEX, AND EDUCATION
Subjects in Group STa Subjects in Group SV^
Sex Age Education0 Sex Age Education0
F 16 10 F 22 16
M 32 13 M 18 12
F 33 14 M 16 9
F 17 11 F 16 10
M 20 14 F 16 10
F 15 9 F 15 9
F 35 18 F 16 10
F 34 17 F 16 10
M 22 16 M 16 10
F 20 15 M 35 19
F 20 15 M 24 17
F 21 16 F 20 12
M 22 17 F 20 15
F 20 15 F 35 15
F 35 17 F 19 15
Totals: 4 Male, 11 Female Totals: 5 Male, 10 Female
a Group ST was those subjects who responded to tactual
stimulation first.
k Group SV was those subjects who responded to visual
stimulation first.
c Education refers to the school grade in which the
subject was enrolled, or the highest grade completed.
Numbers 13 and up signify collegiate grades.
and a half hours.
The amount of time required when responding to
tactual stimulation was much greater than that needed for
visual stimulation and is shown in Table 2. The order of
response under the two conditions also seemed to influence
the amount of time required. Members of Group ST who
reacted first to touch, required an average of two hours
and eight minutes for the tactual operation but only
forty-one minutes for the visual trials. Group SV needed
one hour and forty-nine minutes for touch and only thirty-
seven minutes for vision. When all of the sighted sub
jects were considered as one group the average time for
responses to tactual stimulation was one hour and fifty-
nine minutes and only thirty-nine minutes for sight.
Group ST used 3.2 times as long for tactual stimulation
as for visual. Group SV used 2.9 times as long and the
combined group used 3.0 times as long for tactual as for
visual stimulation.
Review of section scores for individuals.
Scores were available for each sighted person
based on their response to each section under the two
types of stimulation. Table 3 presents this information
100
TABLE 2
MEAN TIME NEEDED PER SECTION, IN MINUTES,
BY GROUPS ST AND SV
Group ST Group SV
Section Tactual Visual Tactual Visual
I 132 34 105 38
II 148 38 101 33
III 231 58 215 43
IV 195 41 181 32
V 222 60 178 48
VI 223 57 194 45
VII 244 81 208 71
VIII . . . 204 44 134 37
IX & X 325 197 315 218
Totals3 1924b 6l0b 1631° 565°
a The total time for all sighted subjects was 3555 tactu-
ally and 1175 visually. Mean time tactually per sub
ject was 1 hour and 59 minutes; visually it was 39
minutes.
k Mean time for Group ST, tactually was 2 hours and 8
minutes and visually was 47 minutes.
c Mean time for Group SV, tactually was 1 hour and 49
minutes and visually was 37 minutes.
101
for Group ST and Table 4 contains similar information for
Group SV. Mean scores for the sections, under the two
conditions, together with standard deviations are included
to summarize this data.
The sign test, as explained by Siegel (44:68)was
applied to the scores for each person under the two types
of stimulation for each section. It failed to confirm the
null hypothesis that there is no difference in performance
when the subjects react to the same item visually and
tactually.
Item responses
The responses for each item were tallied by sec
tions, groups, and methods of stimulation. The patterns
of responses were examined by sections to locate the items
on which no errors were made, and to determine whether
errors were all made under one type of stimulation, were
scattered among the incorrect alternatives or concentrated
on one wrong figure, and whether the order of stimulation
type appeared to influence the number and distribution of
errors.
Test Section I. This section was designed to test
the ability of a subject to select from a group of designs
TABLE 3
INDIVIDUAL SCORES3 PER SECTION FOR MEMBERS OF GROUP ST
Subj ect I II III IV
Sections
V VI VI Ic VIII IX Xd
101 11 12 5 9 8 8 531 10 8 214
V 12 13 10 9 11 10 111 12 11 364
102 T 8 10 6 4 11 10 392 9 10 214
V 13 13 11 11 10 9 101 12 11 358
103 T 11 13 9 8 7 7 407 12 9 231
V 12 13 11 11 12 11 52 12 12 377
104 T 11 12 9 7 7 10 611 12 11 206
V 12 13 10 11 11 10 86 11 11 338
105 T 9 13 8 8 11 10 414 11 10 138
V 13 13 11 12 11 12 82 11 11 264
106 T 10 11 6 4 6 7 522 10 10 181
V 13 12 11 9 11 9 87 12 12 350
107 T 9 12 9 6 9 11 380 10 12 275
V 12 13 9 12 8 11 98 11 12 350
108 T 9 9 5 7 8 10 574 ii 9 223
V 13 13 11 12 12 12 99 12 12 362
109 T 10 10 4 5 7 7 242 12 8 147
V 12 13 9 9 10 11 57 8 11 298
110 T 11 11 5 10 5 9 528 7 7 253
V 13 13 10 10 9 10 72 11 11 329
111 T 11 13 9 10 9 9 338 11 11 239
V 13 13 12 11 9 11 99 12 12 461
112 T 10 10 7 6 7 8 537 10 11 207
V 12 12 10 11 10 11 79 12 12 393
110 T 11 11 5 10 5 9 528 7 7 253
V 13 13 10 10 9 10 72 11 11 329
111 T 11 13 9 10 9 9 338 11 11 239
V 13 13 12 11 9 11 99 12 12 461
112 T 10 10 7 6 7 8 537 10 11 207
V 12 12 10 11 10 11 79 12 12 393
113 T 12 13 8 8 11 9 344 10 10 197
V 12 13 12 12 12 12 115 12 12 323
114 T 12 13 6 7 7 6 373 10 10 277
V 12 13 12 12 12 11 71 11 11 444
115
T
A 10 12 6 9 11 7 762 10 11 181
V 13 13 12 12 12 12 117 12 12 338
Meane T 10.3 11.6 6 . 8 7.2 8.3 8.5 463.7 10.3 9.8 213.8
V 12.5 12.9 10.7 10.9 10.7 10.8 88.4 11.4 11.5 356.6
S.D.f T 1.2 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.0 1.5 132.5 1.3 1.4 41.1
V .5 .4 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.0 19.9 1.1 .5 50.0
a Scores were number of items correct for each Section except VII and X.
There were 13 possible correct responses for Sections I and II, and 12
for Sections III, IV, V, VI, VIII, and IX.
b 5 ! Tii re£ers to (-fog scores achieved when the subject responded to tactual
stimulation and "V" when the subject looked at the items.
c Section VII was a time score and the smaller number represented the
better performance.
^ Section X was scored by a count of the number of cubes the subject trans
posed from one box to another during thirty second intervals using various
combinations of fingers.
e Mean scores for the group to the nearest decimal place.
f Standard deviations for these scores to one decimal place.
102
TABLE 4
INDIVIDUAL SCORES3 PER SECTION FOR MEMBERS OF GROUP SV
Subj ect I II III IV V VI VI Ic VIII IX
Xd
201
Tb
9 12 7 9 11 10 301 11 12 243
V 13 12 8 12 10 10 92 12 11 341
202 T 10 13 7 6 9 9 543 10 9 188
V 12 13 10 11 8 11 118 12 11 289
203 T 10 12 7 6 9 10 472 10 10 272
V 13 12 ' 8 9 9 11 116 12 12 320
204 T 11 12 8 9 8 10 383 12 11 284
V 13 13 11 9 10 7 107 11 11 370
205 T 10 13 6 7 '4 9 628 9 10 179
V 13 13 11 11 11 8 79 11 12 314
206 T 9 13 7 10 8 11 375 11 12 227
V 11 13 . 10 9 9 8 97 11 12 325
207 T 12 13 8 9 11 9 335 12 9 255
V 12 13 12 11 11 12 100 11 10 334
208 T 11 11 7 7 5 7 332 10 10 254
V 13 13 12 9 10 12 89 12 11 374
209 T 12 12 8 7 8 8 537 10 11 202
V 12 12 8 10 9 7 136 12 10 272
210 T 13 12 10 9 9 8 488 11 10 233
V 13 12 11 11 10 11 90 12 12 379
211 T 10 12 8 7 8 8 514 8 10 345
V 11 13 9 10 7 8 107 11 10 494
212 T 10 12 7 8 8 8 348 12 10 271
V 11 13 11 11 10 11 128 11 11 384
210 T 13 12 10 9 9 8 488 11 10 233
V 13 12 11 11 10 11 90 12 12 379
211 T 10 12 8 7 8 8 514 8 10 345
V 11 13 9 10 7 8 107 11 10 494
212 T 10 12 7 8 8 8 348 12 10 271
V 11 13 11 11 10 11 128 11 11 384
213 T 11 11 4 8 9 10 434 11 11 193
V 13 13 9 10 10 11 85 12 10 317
214 T 11 13 7 11 8 12 401 12 11 274
V 13 13 11 12 12 12 84 12 11 416
215 T 10 13 8 6 7 8 326 8 8 231
V 13 13 12 10 11 11 86 11 12 368
Meane T 10.6 12.3 7.3 7.9 8.1 9.1 428.1 10.5 10.3 243.4
V 12.0 12.7 10.2 10.3 9.8 10.0 100.9 11.5 11.1 353.1
S.D.f T 1.1 .7 1.3 1.5 1.9 1.4 98.0 1.4 1.1 43.7
V .8 .5 1.5 1.1 1.3 1.9 17 .2 .5 .8 55.0
a Scores were number of items correct for each Section except VII and X.
There were 13 possible correct responses for Sections I and II, and 12
for Sections III, IV,/VI, VIII, and IX.
b hjh refers t0 the scores achieved when the subject responded to tactual
stimulation and "V" when the subject looked at the items.
c Section VII was a time score and the smaller number represented the
better performance.
^ Section X was scored by a count of the number of cubes the subject
transposed from one box to another during thirty second intervals using
various combinations of fingers.
e Mdan score to one decimal place.
^ Standard Deviation for this group of measures to one decimal place.
103
104
the one which was the same size and shape as a pattern
figure. A tally of the item responses for the two
sighted groups reacting to the two conditions of stimula
tion is included in Table 39, in the appendix. No errors
were made when the subjects responded to items 7 and 9.
When responding visually to items 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6 no
errors were made but tactually both groups made one error
each on item 1, Group SV had two errors on items 3 and 4,
while Group ST had one error on item 5 and three on item 6.
Errors were made when responding to both types of stimu
lation on items 2, 8, 10, 11, 12, and 13 by members of
both groups. On item 2 both groups made more errors
visually than tactually. The total number of errors on
this section was 94. Group ST made 49 errors--41
tactually and 8 visually. Group SV made 45 errors--35
tactually and 10 visually.
Test Section II. The ability of the subjects
to pick out a figure which is different from a pattern or
from other members of a group was tested by Section XI.
The tally of the responses to the items in this test sec
tion are contained in Table 40. There were fewer errors
in this section than in Section I. No errors were made
105
on items 2, 5, 7, and 9 and only one error on item 1,
tactually. The errors made on items 3, 4, and 10 were
made under tactual stimulation by members of both groups.
Errors were made and scattered under both types of
stimulation by members of the two groups of subjects on
items 6, 8, 11, 12, and 13. The total errors for this
section was 48. Members of Group ST made 23 errors--21
tactually and 2 visually. Group SV members made 15 errors
--11 tactually and 4 visually.
Test Section III. The items in this section were
created to test the ability of the subjects to recognize
the parts of a whole. The tally of individual responses
for this section is reported in Table 41. There were
errors made on each item in this section, although in
response to visual stimulation no one made errors on
items 2 and 3. Furthermore, Group ST had no errors visu
ally on items 6 and 10. There were 197 errors on this
section. Group ST made 97 errors--78 tactually and 19
visually. Group SV made 100--71 tactually and 29
visually.
Test Section IV. The ability to recognize the
whole when its parts were presented was checked by this
106
section. Table 42 shows the tally of the responses
chosen for these items. Responding to visual stimula
tion, no errors were made on items 1, 3, 4, 7, and 8.
Total errors in this section were 173. Group ST had 89
errors--72 tactually and 16 visually with one person
being unable to reach a decision on one item tactually.
Group SV made 85 errors--60 tactually and 25 visually.
Test Section V. This section tested the ability
of the subjects to recognize a 'figure in a rotated
position. The tally of response choices is recorded on
Table 43. Visually no one made an error on item 6. The
total of errors in this section was 166. Group ST made
76 errors--56 tactually and 20 visually. Group SV made
90 errors--57 tactually and 33 visually.
Test Section VI. The ability to select inverted
figures was checked by this section. Table 44 contains a
tally of the responses to the various items in this
section. Group ST made no errors on item 9 while members
of Group SV made two errors visually and three tactually
on the same item. There were 144 errors for this section.
Group ST had 70 errors--52 tactually and 18 visually.
Group SV made 74 errors--44 tactually and 30 visually.
107
Test Section VII. This section of the test was
a group of mazes and the scores were the number of seconds
required to traverse each maze three times. The varia
tions in amount of time needed by the members of the two
groups to traverse the mazes under the two conditions of
stimulation is included in Table 45. The mean time for
each item under each condition is also presented in that
table.
Test Section VIII. This section was designed to
test the ability of the subject to recognize similarities
when the pattern and the test choices were separated by a
stretch of space. Table 46 is a tally of the choices
made by the subjects in the two groups. No errors were
made on items 4,6,7,8, and 12 when the subjects were
responding to visual stimulation. There was only one
error made on item 5 and it was made by a member of Group
ST responding to visual stimulation. There were 64 errors
on this section. Group ST made 34 of them--25 tactually
and 9 visually. Group SV had 30 errors--l6 tactually and
14 visually.
Test Section IX. The ability of the subject to
remember a figure, while performing an interpolated task
during a 30 second interval, was measured by this section.
Table 47 contains a tally of the choices made on these
items. No errors were made on item 4 and only one on
items 1 and 6. The error on item 1 was made tactually by
a member of Group ST, which felt of the items first. The
error on item 6 was made visually by a member of Group SV
that responded to vision first. There were 81 errors on
this section. Group ST accounted for 41 of them--33
tactually and 8 visually. Group SV made 40 errors--26
tactually and 14 visually.
Test Section X . An interpolated task to fill a
30 second interval was desired and transference of cubes
from one box to another was selected. The score for this
section was the count of the number of cubes transposed
between the two boxes. Table 48 presents the distribu
tion of the individual scores and includes the mean scores
achieved under the various conditions using different
combinations of fingers. Several subjects expressed sur
prise that they could function as well as they did with
their left hands. Only one of the sighted subjects
classified himself as being left-handed. Table 5 shows
the mean scores under the various conditions comparing
109
the right and left-hand performance.
TABLE 5
MEAN NUMBER OF CUBES TRANSPOSED DURING
THIRTY SECOND INTERVALS
Method Hand First
Thumb
Second
and
Third Fourth
First
. and
Second
Third
and
Fourth
Right 22.3 26.0 21.4 20.0 24.8 12.2
Tactually
Left 24.2 23.2 22.3 21.1 13.0 10.8
Right 34.8 35.2 33.7 31.8 25.1 18.9
Visually
Left 35.4 34.5 32.7 28.8 23.4 19.1
Time per item.
Time could be an important factor in any testing
program. Although no restrictions were imposed for any
of these measures the time in seconds was recorded for
the project. The amount of time required for any item
might be an indication of the difficulty or of the suita
bility of specific items. Extreme amounts of time were
required by some of these subjects. Some items demanded
much more time and the response choices did not reflect
a commensurate value in all cases. The range, median,
and mean time per item for all sections were compiled and
are presented in the appendix, Tables 49 through 58.
110
Reliability of test sections
The reliability of those test sections which were
scored by counting the number of correct responses was
estimated through the use of the split half technique.
The self-correlations of the half sections and the relia
bility of the whole test sections as estimated from the
Spearman-Brown formula are presented for the scores of all
sighted subjects responding to tactual stimulation.
TABLE 6
RELIABILITY MEASURES FOR SIGHTED SUBJECTS
Test Section Odd-Even Correlations Reliability
I -.29 -.82
II .12 .21
III .23 .37
IV .13 .23
V .15 .26
VI .05 .10
VIII .05 .10
IX .09 .17
Meaning of a negative reliability is not considered
here.
Summary of Chapter
Sighted subjects were recruited and the test was
administered to each person twice. Half of the subjects,
Group ST, were blindfolded for the first administration
of the test and half, Group SV, used the blindfold during
Ill
the second administration of the instrument. The
measures were administered individually to each subject.
There were wide variations in the amount of time
required for the groups to complete the test twice,
tactually and visually. Individuals varied greatly in
the amount of time they used in reaching decisions. No
time limits were imposed on any subject except in
Section X where the testee performed a task during twelve
30 second intervals. The criterion measures were admin
istered under specific time limits.
The effectiveness of these items as measures
varied. More errors were made when subjects responded to
tactual than to visual stimulation. There were a few
items on which no errors were made, and some in which all
errors were made under tactual stimulation. Several
items appeared to be effective measures as errors were
made under all conditions and the alternatives chosen
were scattered among all possible responses. The average
time per item tended to be greater on those items where
more errors were made.
CHAPTER V
FINDINGS FROM ADMINISTRATION TO SIGHTED SUBJECTS
The responses of sighted subjects to the new
measures were studied statistically. There were 25
variables on each subject. They were the scores on
Sections I through X tactually, on Sectons I through X
visually, on Vocab I and II, on Space, on Age, and on
Sex of the individual.
Data Processing
All subtests were intercorrelated, together with
the criterion measures, age and sex. Hence intercorre
lation matrices were available for both groups and for
the combination of all sighted subjects. They appear in
Tables 7 through 9.
Factor analyses were made of these intercorrela
tions for Group ST, Group SV, and the two groups combined.
These were obtained through the program for principal
component factor extraction and varimax orthogonal
rotation on IBM 7090.
112
Intercorrelations
The intercorrelations, for Group ST are contained
in Table 7. The correlations between the scores for the
20 created measures range from a positive .67 to a
negative .50. When the criterion measures, Age and Sex
were included the range increased and the intercorrela
tions varied from a positive .78 to a negative .57.
Table 8 gives the intercorrelations, means and
standard deviations for Group SV whose members responded
to visual stimulation first. The range for the created
measures was from a positive .84 to a negative .56. When
the criterion measures, Age and Sex x?ere included the
range increased from a positive .89 to a negative .69.
The scores of the two groups were combined and
treated as a whole. Table 9 shows the intercorrelations,
means, and standard deviations for those scores. The
negative correlations were of smaller magnitude than for
either of the groups alone. There were fewer values
above .40 than for the subgroups. The range was from a
positive .70 to a negative .36 for the created measures.
When all of the intercorrelations were considered the
range was from a positive .87 to a negative .45.
TABLE 7
INTERCORRELATIONS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S. D.) V
TACTUALLY (T) AND VISUALLY (V) AND ON i
8 9 10 11 12 13
Steilaritias T 1
V 2
Differences T
3
V
h
Parts of a Mhol© T
5
V 6
Mhol© f^cna Its Parte T
7
V 8
Rotated T
9
V 10
Inverted T 11
V 12
Mazes T
13
V
Hi
Across S^paeo T
15
V 16
Over Time T
17
V 18
Cubes T
19
V 20
Vocabulary I 21
Vocabulary II 22
Space 23
Ag© 2 l i
&3S
25
=M JZ 09 13 30
-23 -03 -21 38
33 J& J3
07 09
17
-09 -31 30 11 -07
06 22
-07
21 -08 30
30 26 16
-13 25
-18
33
36
05
28 32 -20
U9 27 -13 37
18
-13
20 ”o! “S
-27
01
29
12
23
JZ
22
35 09
15 36
33
03
-05
31
-02
-01
Beeiisial points omitted in correlation figures and values of hO or above underlined.
TABLE 7
/ 114
DEVIATIONS (S. D.) TOR SCORES OF GEtOUP ST ON TEST SECTIONS
VISUALLY (V) AND ON CRITERION MEASJRES
10 11 12 13 lh 1$ 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 2h 2S Mean S. D.
30 ^0 11 -07 -13
-07 21 -08 30 27
16 -13 2S -18 05
05 28 32 -20 11
-13 37 18 -13 Oh
-27 29 12 3h
01 _h2 23 18
22 35 3 1 09 27
15 36 M -05 Jh
ii 33 31 ^6
03 -02 37
-01 12
37
03 02
-19
-02 19
-36 29 -06 07 -15
16
17 26 02 10
10 -23 -21
-37
20
35
32 - 67 37
18
-Oh
“f
21 29 OU
-lit -20 03 Ht
06
31
ill
30 25
07 25 13
-2lt
33 26 -12 07 -30
-10
13
26 -03 l i t
33 -05 17 35
-22
-19 L6 11 16 -08
-25
" ’ f i t
36 27
02
-26
2h 11
-UO
31
1
31
11
08
35
-12
-15 21 JO
-09 07 03 06
13
IS 3h 19
M
-19
-12 h7
M
-u 3h
18 h7
33 23 09
38 1© 01
JS
05
15 33
30 03 -08
10
-22
I H
“I
JiO
19 ho
-06 11
Jl
oh
-28 38 26 III 22
-13 JO
12
35
-07
-02 o5 01 11
01 -02 -10 -10
15
-02 -08
25
-08
oh
I t O
2g
lit
-10
29
16
15
16
l i t
23
28 17 3 ! t -19
JZ
12
-Oh -07
-30 -32 -02 -02
JB
25
60
01 ~%2
-28 10.27 1.17
Oh 12.h7 •52
-05
lie 60
1.35
2h 12.87 .35
-11 6.80
l.7h
01 10.73 1.03
-31
7.20 1.93
oh 10.93
1.16
*
8.27 1.98
10.67 1.29
19 8.53 1.51
12 10.80 1.01
JJ
h63.67 I32.h5
01 88„h0 19.88
08
10.33 1.29
-38 llohO 1.06
-Ih
9.80
1.37
-3h 11.53
.52
„f>l
213.80 hl.08
I57
356.60 50.03
21
2h.l3
h.02
00 21.53 5.53
18 29.00
9.6h
-01
2h.l3
7.38
.27 •h6
ined.
TABLE 8
INTERCQRRELATIONS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ( S. D.)
TACTUALLY (T) AND VISUALLY (V) AND ON
1 2 3 1 * 5
6 7
8
9 10 n 12
13
Similarities T 1 26, -22 -22
In
27 15
06 10 2 1 * -29 17 15
V 2 -20 -26 n -03 08
-13
J6
H*
28
—03
Differences T
3 2 1 * 23 29 15
36 03 22
33 -05 13
V
l i
-36 07
-10 -38 15
06 08 -11*
Parts of a Whole T
5 23
08 O l * 17
-10
-35 -09 -06
V 6 16
05 -38 56 -23
37 -31
Whole fr&a Its Parts T
V
7
8
33 31
31
62
17
03
33
-38
03
Rotated T
V
9
10
-11*
31
2?
23
M
-33
-37
Inverted T 11
-03 -10
V 12
Mazes T
V
13
1 1 1
Across Spaeo T
15
V 16
Over Tiisa T
V
17
18
Cubes T
V
19
20
Vocabulary I 21
Vocabulary II 22
^paoe
23
Ag©
21*
Sex
25
Decimal points emitted in correlation figures and values of 1*0 of above undsrlinedL
TABLE 8
115
EVIATIONS ( S. Do) FOR SCORES OF GROUP SV OK TEST SECTIONS
ISO ALLY (V) AND ON CRITERION MEASURES
10 11 12 13 Hi 15 16 17 18 19 18
19 20 21 22 23
-29 -06 —02
25 31*
-08
28 -28
-19 23 32 -05
35 -15 -11 13
-02 27
-H*
08
29 21* 02
sx
19 36 30 30 25 25
23 02
25
1*0
17 JO
-05
18 23 32 17
-11 -15 07 38 35
—l l *
-35
16
-09 19
16
-31
23 -22
-07
26 22
03
12 -01 —10 11 07
-Ol*
05 -01 08 21 20 -23
03 -33
-21 -22 -06 -03
-32
-16
15
0 1 *
-21
-13
*
-60
-12
-33
-09 -28 -29 -12
09
—6l
-10 02 -08 -n -08 lib
-20 —10 -ii
-11 21
Jk
32 26 30
60
Jx
3!
1
S. D.
21 * -29 17 15 01* 27
56 l l * 28 -03 -55 01
22 33 -05 13 -08 -06
15 06 08 -11* -27 -02
-10 -35 -09 -06 22 -01*
[6 -23 37 -31 Jl 13
62 03 -38 -31
17 33 03 -18 23
• l i t 31 23 -33 26 J6
27 JO -37 =£6 39
-03 -10 -%> J Z
-hi -28 23
16 Jl
09
27 -20
-12 -26
18 -02
22 16
-0 1* -06
12 -09
02 -01
13 Jk
10.60
12.1 * 0
12.27
12.73
7.27
10.20
7.93
10.33
8.13
9.80
9.13
10.00
1*28.13
100.93
10.1*7
11.53
10.27
11.07
2 1* 3. 1 * 0
353.13
20.33
15.27
29.93
20.27
.33
1.12
.83
.70
. 1 * 6
1.28
1.1*7
1.53
1.05
1.86
1.26
1.36
1.85
98.02
17.23
1.36
.52
1.10
.80
1*3®70
5U.96
6.67
8.82
12.66
6.52
. 1 * 9
in@d0
TABLE 9
XKTERCOBEELATIONS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S. D.) fi
TEST SECTIONS TACTUALLY (T) AND VISUALLY (V) AN
1 2 3 h 5
6 7 8
9
10 11 12
13
Similarities T
1 -03 32 -10 27 2h 37 -06 -1 1 1
20 -36 10 00
V 2
-19 -17 -15
20 02 08 01 30 15 19 12
Differsness T
3 20
Jl
2li
J k
20
15
06 08 00 -Hi
V
li
Il6
•*
21
Hi
-Oli
15
12
19 -13
Parts of a Nhols T
5 17 25
21 -16 11 -02
-13
V
6
17 27 -03 -27 38
-06
Whoio £?m It© Parts T
7 18
15 13 30 11 -03
V 8
Jtk
36 19
"M
10
Rotated T
9
02 32 -16
V 10 -18
*
07
Inverted T
V
11
12
-08
-16
Maze© T
V
13
111
Across %>aca T
15
V 16
Oror Tims T
V
17
18
Cubes T
V
19
20
Vocabulary I 21
Vocabulary II 22
Sg&G0
23
Ag® 2h
Ses
25
Baetoal points omitted in eorrolation figures and values of UO or above underlined.
TABLE 9
116
EVIATIONS (S. D.) FOR SCORES OF ALL SIGHTED SUBJECTS OH
AMD VISUALLY (V) AMD ON CRITERION MEASURES
10 11 12
13 m 15
16 17
18
19 20 21 22 23 2 1 * 25
Mean S. D.
20 -36 10 00 00 16 11 — 16 -21 11
15 o5 07 05 — Hi 01
10.1*3
1»H *
30
15 19 12 -20 -12
31
-06 22
-23 -15 19 2 1 * -02
17 -10 12.1*3
.68
06 08 00 -11* 11 09 07 15 03 11 O lt 08
-05 35 — 19 -03 11.93
1.11
15
12
19 -13 -lit 03 -33
-26
-Hi
06 12
3 1 *
20 28 10 -22 12.80
.la
-16 11 — 02
-13
16 18 21
35
18
29 22
27 18 23 13 13 7.03
1.52
Jl -27 38 -06
— ill
05
11 -20 30 -05 29 37 19
JO 12 -30 10.1*7
1«28
13 30 11 -03 05
26
17 15 -09 22
17 27 17
10 08
-31* 7.57 1.76
36 19
"H
10 -02
13
23
25 Hi
-Oli
09 JO 09 Jl — o5 10.63 lol3
02 32 -16
j i
26 23 31 -13 -05 -15 27 19 -09 30 36 8.20 1.88
-18
A
07 -31 32 12 -15 25 -3 1 * -05 26 28 21 21
-31* 10.23 1.33
-08 16 18
13
Jl
-02
13 -19
12 O li -09 13 -03 8.83 1 .U 1 *
-16 -20
23 09
-21 21 -16 02
3 U
■oi
-13 37
-08 10.1*0 1.52
22
35
01
13 -23 -13
-06 -02 12 — o l* 1 * 1 * 5 .9 0 115.91
-06 38 26
-17
18 -10 -1*3 -1*5 -30 -Hi 27 91.67
19.36
-12 33 -06 -Hi -06 — 02 -01 — 22
09 -15
10.1*0 1.30
29 17
12 Hi -01 -05 -05 17 -11
11.1*7
.82
07 13
-20
09
05
-06
08
-06
15
— 02
06
10
28
-oli
-18
10.03
11.30
1.25
.70
70 10 -01
15 13
— 16 228.60
li!*.31
27 25 3it 25
-28
35U.8? 51.67
Jl
JO 62 -07 22.23 5.75
32 '70
3*
-02
-05
18.1*0
29.1*7
7.90
11.07
05 22.20 7.12
o30 . 1 * 7
117
Means
Comparisons with t-scores were made between the
means of the created measures for Groups ST and SV,
tactually and visually, and between the means of the two
groups on Vocab I and II, Space, Age and Sex, Table 10.
In only two cases was the difference between the two
groups as high as the 5 per cent level. Group ST, who
responded to the created measures using touch first, had
a higher score on Vocab II than did Group SV. The calcu
lated "t1 1 fell between the 5 and 1 per cent levels of
significance. Vocab II had been developed for students
in the first two years of college. A check of Table 1
shows that there were more students 17 years of age or
younger in Group SV than in Group ST, 7 to 2 respectively.
This difference in number of youths who were in the
younger age bracket ando consequently below college level
educationally, could have had an influence on the results
in this case although Age, altogether, did not prove
to be significantly different for the two groups. Group
SV, who responded to the items visually on their first
testing, had a higher score on Space than did Group ST.
This was one of the criterion measures and was not
1X8
TABLE 10
RESULTS OF t-TESTS COMPARING THE SCORES OF
GROUPS ST AND SV
Test
Section
Superior
Group t-Scores
Level of
Significance3
RESPONDING TO VISUAL STIMULATION
I ST .38 NS
II ST 1.11 NS
III ST
1.02 NS
IV ST 1.36 NS
V ST 1.80 NS
VI ST 1.38 NS
VII ST 1.76 NS
VIII SV .33 NS
IX ST 1.53 NS
X ST .19 NS
RESPONDING
TO TACTUAL STIMULATION
I SV .68 NS
II SV
1.66 NS
III SV
1.21 NS
IV SV .77 NS
V ST .27 NS
VI SV 1.07 NS
VII SV .79 NS
VIII SV .38 NS
IX SV 1.04 NS
X SV 1.64 NS
RESPONDING TO CRITERION MEASURES
Vocab I ST 1.81 NS
r ocab II ST
2.21 .05
Space SV 2.09 .05
Age ST older 1.40 NS
Sex SV more : males .35 NS
a Degrees of freedom equal 28 (15 + 15 - 2 = 28). Mini
mal values of t required for significance at the 5 and
1 per cent levels for 28 df are 2.05 and 2.76 respec
tively. NS indicates that the value given was not
significant.
119
reacted to tactually. Sex and Age may have exerted an
influence on these results.
When the means of the two groups were compared
under the two conditions of stimulation the differences
were significant at the 5 per cent level or beyond in most
cases. The t-scores are reported in Table 11. In all
cases in which the two groups were combined the t-scores
were highly significantly in favor of visual performance.
Those values are presented in Table 12. Group SV failed
to show significant differences between the means, visu
ally and tactually, for Section II, Differences and for
Section VI, Inverted. In all other cases the performance
under visual stimulation was superior to that on the same
section, tactually.
Standard Deviations
There was considerable overlap between the two
groups when the ranges from the mean minus one standard
deviation and the mean plus one standard deviation were
compared for all variables.
Factor Analyses
Factor analyses were made of the intercorrela
tions obtained for these twenty-five variables for each
120
TABLE 11
RESULTS OF t-TESTS COMPARING SCORES FOR RESPONSES TO
VISUAL AND TACTUAL STIMULATION OF GROUPS ST AND SV
Test Better Level
Section Score t-scores Significance3
FOR GROUP ST
I visually 6,28 .001
II
ii
3.25 .01
III
II
7.30 .001
IV
II
6.14 .001
V
I!
3.75 .01
VI
11
4.70 .001
VII
II
10.36 .001
VIII
1.1
2.39 .05
IX
II
4.25 .001
X
<1
8.16 .001
FOR GROUF SV
I
11
4.86 .001
II
II
1.67 NS
III
II
5.35 .001
IV
II
4.05 .01
V
II
2.74 .05
VI
It
1.41 NS
VII
11
12.17 .001
VIII
11
2.50 .05
IX
11
2.16 .05
X
It
6.47 .001
a Degrees of freedom equal 14 (15 - 1 = 14) Minimal
values of t required for significance at the 5, 1, and
.1 per cent levels for 14 df are 2.15 , 2.
98, and 4.14
respectively. NS indicates that the value achieved was
not significant.
121
TABLE 12
RESULTS OF t-TESTS COMPARING SCORES FOR RESPONSES TO
VISUAL AND TACTUAL STIMULATION FOR ALL
SIGHTED SUBJECTS
Test
Section
Better
Score
t-Scores Level
Significance3
I Visually 8.00 .001
II
it
3.96 .001
III
SI
9.29 .001
IV
It
7.84 .001
V
tt
4.72 .001
VI
It
4.02 .001
VII
II
16.12 .001
VIII
It
3.82 .001
IX
It
4.88 .001
X
tl
9.99 .001
a Degrees of freedom equal 29 (30 - 1 = 29). Minimal
values of t required for significance at the 5, 1,
and .1 per cent levels for 29 df are 2.05, 2.75, and
3.65 respectively.
122
group and for the two groups combined. The extracted and
rotated factors appear in Tables 13 through 15.
Factors emerging for Group ST. The matrix for
Group ST, whose members responded to touch first, is pre
sented in Table 13. A factor appears with loadings on
Vocab I and II and Age. This same factor also has sizable
loadings on three other measures each of which was a
response to visual stimulation. The three were Whole from
Its Parts, Differences, and Inverted. This is probably a
verbal factor which tends to become clear when the subject
can see what is being discussed.
A second factor shows high negative loadings for
Cubes visually and tactually, together with a positive
loading for sex. The Cube section was a mechanical task
of transposing quarter-inch cubes from one box to another
and this factor suggests that the task with the small
cubes tends to be easier for women than men.
The third factor to appear is loaded on Similari
ties, Differences, Whole from Its Parts, and Parts from
the Whole. Since these are for the tactual responses it
suggests that the factor might be the ability to discrimi
nate through the sense of touch.
TABLE 13
a
VARIMAX ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX FOR GROUP ST, SIGHTED WHO FELT OF ITEMS FIRST
Variables
F a c t o r s .......................
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14l 15
Similarities
Differences
Parts of the Whole
Whole from Its Parts
Rotated
Inverted
Mases
Across Space
Over Time
Cubes
Vocab I
Vocab II
T -25 -19 70 15 07 -25 19 -36 -01 00 06 -10 -37 00 00
V 04 08 -07 -13 03 08 07 94 13 -16 -02 -08 02 00 00
T 11 -03 79 -08 -05 -11 33 -12 -19 09 -11 37 09 19 00
V 52 -10 38 -26 -57 12 -12 03 -19 18 -01 -21 -13 08 01
T 24 -10 39 04 23 36 14 -13 -11 24 -17 68 04 -07 -01
V 08 -23 29 -36 18 -27 62 40 -05 08 07 06 22 -11 01
T 17 -11 88 -08 -05 06 -04 13 21 -07 23 -17 06 12 00
V 64 -21 01 -25 01 20 38 02 04 -01 37 38 -10 -04 00
T 35 23 00 -78 -07 05 18 14 -22 06 08 26 13 -13 00
V 11 11 02 -17 08 -31 68 -10 26 40 05 -31 -20 00 00
T 23 06 -11 -24 -10 89 -19 10 -03 -08 00 18 02 00 00
V 52 15 25 -15 16 -06 10 -05 -04 21 72 02 00 -01 00
T 03 07 -03 -15 06 -02 06 13 98 -08 -01 00 -02 -05 00
V -06 -02 05 j;92 13 18 -04 09 24 -14 05 09 -07 08 00
T 05 14 00 10 04 -05 -02 -16 -10 94 09 18 00 01 00
V 02 -36 13 -39 47 18 41 13 36 -10 -21 04 16 -16 -01
T 10 -16 -15 -29 19 08 06 -04 10 11 10 89 00 03 00
V 25 -15 01 -13 88 -09 -08 04 09 12 12 20 -06 04 00
T 19 -88 05 05 -05 16 -05 15 01 -33 -IS 04 -06 11 -01
V -21 -91 11 00 16 -19 03 03 -01 08 05 15 01 -13 00
88 15 25 02 02 21 19 01 -09 -16 -02 14 01 -14 00
84 18 16 14 12 13 -02 04 06 15 33 08 00 19 00
Space -01 08 11 08 -09 -08 94 04 -05 -13 03 19 09 02 00
Cubes T 19 -88 05 05
V -21 -91 11 00
Vocab I 88 15 25 02
Vocab II 84 18 16 14
Space -01 08 11 08
Age 86 -18 -32 -22
Sex 08 57 -19 -24
-05 16 -05 15 01 -33 -IS 04 -06 11 -01
16 -19 03 03 -01 08 05 15 01 -13 00
02 21 19 01 -09 -16 -02 14 01 -14 00
12 13 -02 04 06 15 33 08 00 19 00
-09 -08 94 04 -05 -13 03 19 09 02 00
11 -08 -16 06 07 06 -04 00 06 -03 00
-23 05 15 03 -67 00 00 -07 -07 21 00
Decimal points omitted,
k Values of .40 and above underlined.
124
Space, which was a factor pure measure, loads with
three visual responses for this group of subjects. They
are Parts of the Whole, Rotated, and Over Space.
Factors Emerging for Group SV. The members of
Group SV responded to vision first and the matrix of
factors is presented in Table 14. A somewhat different
loading of factor is found for this Group than for Group
ST. The first factor to appear has high loadings on
Vocab I and II and Age which parallels the loadings for
Group ST. But Space also loads high for this group as
against a very low loading for the other group. This
factor is also loaded for visual response on two of the
created measures, being negative on Mazes and positive on
Cubes. The second factor to appear has positive loadings
on Space and Sex, strong negative loadings on Over Space,
visually and positive loadings on visual responses to
Differences and Parts of the Whole. This might be a
spatial visualization factor.
The third and fourth factors to appear involve
visual responses to created measures.
There is a fifth factor appearing which shows
positive loadings on four tactual measures. They are the
TABLE 14
VARIMAX ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX3 FOR GROUP SV, SIGHTED WHO SAW THE ITEMS FIRST
1 2 3 4 5 6
F a
7
c t
8
o r
9
s .
10 11 12 13 14; 15
Similarities T 16 -06 -25 24 18 21 -■72a -36 04 -05 15 -26 -16 -09 -01
V 25 -28
zM.
09 -03 12 01 16 04 -02 18 02 05 06 00
Differences T 05 30 08 02 02 -88 -06 21 -02 23 12 -07 01 00 00
V 21 59 17 27 04 -17 37 -24 42 -14 -05 09 01 28 00
Parts of the Whole T 14 -01 11 -08 -08 -18 -89 19 -12 04 -27 04 05 04 00
V 25 54 -13 48 06 -11 -30 08 45 00 03 24 07 14 00
Whole from Its Parts T 31 03 04 -07 89 -11 -07 -02 -01 15 -09 20 -03 -10 00
V 20 -08 -05 15 15 -19 01 -08 -12 92 07 -03 01 -01 00
Rotated T 03 16 12 11 26 -07 -09 -20 -88 12 -02 14 01 03 00
V 13 21 -63 26 34 -14 -04 07 24 28 16 32 -17 -19 -01
Inverted T 10 -13 -18 -10 67 -44 47 11 -21 -06 -03 -05 -09 03 -01
V 09 -19 -13 92 00 05 05 03 -09 18 -02 23 01 -03 00
Mazes T -04 -08 04 -22 -23 -07 00 -01 17 07 20 -90 -01 -02 00
V -74 -07 34 -16 -10 00 -27 -23 -23 -03 -15 -14 -13 22 00
Across Space T 20 06 -10 20 88 11 -11 -11 -19 12 04 16 02 14 00
V -03 -90 -18 20 08 20 -01 -07 -07 -07 19 -12 01 08 00
Over Time -03 -33 10 56 67 19 26 01 -01 -02 00 08 06 -12 00
V @0 03 -15 05 -04 -17 -04 96 15 09 10 00 -01 -01 00
Cubes T 11 08 10 -02 05 03 -11 -09 -11 -12 -95 11 04 00 00
V 49 12 17 05 -02 10 -05 -02 15 10 -'81 05 -08 02 00
Vocab I 89 12 -11 10 11 -07 -15 -11 -09 18 -21 09 12 11 01
Vocab II
.
00 -10 -15 05 -01 03 -13 -11 -10 15 -19 -03 -21 -05 -01
Across Space T 20 06 -10 20
V -03 -90 -18 20
Over Time T -03 -33 10 56
V 90 03 -15 05
Cubes T 11 08 10 -02
V 49 12 17 05
Vocab I 89 12 -11 10
Vocab II
’ '
00
-10 -15 05
Space 74 47 09 -16
Age 56 -34 -01 19
Sex -11 -45 27 -06
a Decimal point omitted,
k Values of 40 and above underlined.
88 11 -11 -11 -19 12 04 16 02 14 00
08 20 -01 -07 -07 -07 19 -12 01 08 00
67 19 26 01 -01 -02 00 08 06 -12 00
-04 -17 -04 96 15 09 10 00 -01 -01 00
05 03 -11 -09 -11 -12 -95 11 04 00 00
-02 10 -05 -02 15 10 ->81 05 -08 02 00
11 -07 -15 -11 -09 18 -21 09 12 11 01
-01 03 -13 -11 -10 15 -19 -03 -21 -05 -01
-10 -14 -04 16 22 -19 -20 02 10 09 -01
28 02 -23 12 01 44 -28 -17 -31 03 00
-35 -02 -37 01 -26
00
o
I
-11 -60 -04 07 00
Ln
126
Whole from Its Parts, Inverted, Over Space, and Over Time.
This factor might be an ability to discriminate between
figures tactually.
Factors emerging when all sighted subjects are
studied. When the sighted subjects are considered as
one group by merging the data obtained from Groups ST and
SV, a somewhat different pattern of factors emerges. This
factor matrix is presented in Table 15. The first factor
to appear is the verbal one with high loadings on Vocab I
and II and Sex. The Whole from Its Parts is also loaded
on this factor.
The second factor to emerge is loaded on three
tactual and one visual measure. Inverted and Over time
show positive loadings while Similarities has a negative
loading. This factor might be the ability to discriminate
especially when dealing with unusual types of stimulation.
One factor emerges with loadings on cubes visually
and tactually which suggests that it might be
coordination.
Tactually, Differences and Parts of the Whole
emerge as loaded on a factor which might be the ability to
distinguish small differences in size and shape.
TABLE 15
VARIMAX ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX FOR ALL SIGHTED SUBJECTS COMBINED TO FORM ONE GROUP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a .
8
L . U
9
l a
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Similarities T -02 -55 10 24 -08 -10 -18 -09 -26 11 02 13 03 -55 -05 -06
V 16 07 -15 -10 -05 05 07 -08 12 77 -01 05 01 01 01 -06
Differences T -11 02 -04 46 10 -01 05 13 07 -16 -28 -11 -23 -60 04 -04
V 17 09 03 -12 11 10 02 84 -10 -17 -14 06 -01 12 -03 -07
Parts of Whole T 15 04 18 84 04 -11 -09 -12 14 -08 -11 -12 00 -3)8 Q3 03
V 10 -40 09 13 01 17 -14 56 30 30 -38 -10 -09 -10 01 -19
Whole from Parts T 14 15 14 04 -03 20 -14 11 -07- 04 -02 -07 05 -74 00 -02
V 56 12 -02 15 -15 08 -10 06 06 -01 -05 -25 -45 -05 11 -31
Rotated T 27 21 -11 07 13 -18 -14 -07 -11 00 00 -79 -07 -06 04 -15
V 21 -29 -22 -18 -09 24 43 14 19 29 -24 01 -28 -11 -19 -21
Inverted T 08 82 -02 06 03 01 -08 04 04 12 07 -14 00 -14 00 04
V 37 -15 -08 -05 16 05 -13 15 15 13 16 -12 -07 -06 -04 -68
Mazes T 06 -05 -15 -08 -75 05 15 -06 07 02 01 03 -02 02 01 10
V -39 18 12 15 -37 -17 05 03 -08 -10 22 -67 01 -05 00 07
Across Space T 03 08 -11 09 22 10 -82 -01 -03 -10 14 -08 00 -15 05 -07
V 04 06 21 16 -50 09 02 -24 11 39 00 -33 -06 -12 03 -19
Over Time T -02 43 12 26 -11 18 -31 -30 04 -06 -05 -24 -13 -01 39 15
V 11 00 -06 12 -09 10 01 -05 77 13 04 10 -02 09 01 -08
Cubes T 00 14 89 14 10 05 14 00 -15 -16 01 -03 -02 -11 -12 08
V 19 -20 83 03 03 14 00 05 08 -07 17 06 04 -05 16 -02
Vocab I 87 04 06 13 10 07 05 17 -04 11 -30 -02 03 -10 -07 -06
Vocab II 94 -03 02 02 00 00 01 02 03 09 -13 09 08 -07 03 -11
Over Time
Cubes
Vocab I
Vocab II
Space
Age
Sex
T -02 43
V 11 00
T 00 14
V 19 -20
87 04
94 -03
20 -07
79 10
03 -05
12 26 -11
-06 12 -09
89 14 10
83 03 03
06 13 10
02 02 00
13 13 02
22 -05 -16
-19 11 07
Decimal point omitted.
Values of 40 or above underlined.
18 -31 -30 04 -06 -05 -24 -13 -01 39 15
10 01 -05 77 13 04 10 -02 09 01 -08
05 14 00 -15 -16 01 -03 -02 -11 -12
14 00 05 08 -07 17 06 04 -05 16
07 05 17 -04 11 -30 -02 03 -10 -07
00 01 02 03 09 -13 09 08 -07 03
00 11 17 03 00 -88 09 -01 -08 01
-14 -14 05 25 06 21 -11 -16 10 -01
-79 15 -14 -14 -09 01 -23 03 17 -03
08
-02
-06
-11
11
-03
04
127
128
Although Space loaded with other measures when
the two groups were considered separately it emerges
factor free when all sighted subjects are considered as a
single group. Sex also tends to emerge factor free when
all sighted subjects are considered as a group.
Chapter Summary
A review of the results obtained by administering
these measures to sighted subjects suggests tentative
answers to some of the questions posed in Chapter I.
Question 1. Can figural materials, which are to
be reacted to from touch, be employed for intelligence
test items? The results achieved, especially on Sections
III, Parts of the Whole, IV, the Whole from Its Parts,
V, Rotated, and VI, Inverted would tend to confirm that
they could.
Question 2. Can useful ranges of individual
differences in ability to react adaptively with such
materials be found? The tables of individual scores pre
sented in Chapter IV would support the contention that
useful ranges would emerge.
Question 3. Will such measures correlate with
129
measures of accepted validity? There were some acceptable
correlations among the measures but on the whole they
showed little correlation.
Question 4. Do these items measure different
abilities? The factor analytical study seems to confirm
that different abilities are being measured.
Question 5. Will tactual tests have reliability?
The reliability measures reported in Chapter XV are not
large and in the case of Section I a negative value is
obtained. In all other cases the measures are positive.
Question 6. Will there be significant differences
in scores when sighted subjects respond to the items using
tactual as opposed to visual stimulation? This question
with this group of subjects was definitely answered in the
positive.
Question 7. Will individual differences be
apparent in the answer patterns of the different subjects?
Individuality was evident in the answer patterns of these
s ight ed subj ec t s.
Question ID. Do the items in this study discrimi
nate or are they too easy or too difficult? Some of these
items failed to discriminate for this group of subjects,
130
probably because they were too easy. Other items proved
to be discriminative.
The review of this work with sighted subjects and
the results achieved indicated that it would be advanta
geous to administer these items to a group of blind
subj ects.
CHAPTER VI
ADMINISTRATION OF TESTS TO BLIND SUBJECTS
AND RESULTS
Responses of sighted subjects to these test items,
as they were administered in the first phase of this
project, indicated that these measures did show differ
ences among the members of the groups tested and that
individuals presented varying patterns of achievement for
the different sections. These findings served as the
basis for deciding to continue the study with groups of
legally blind subjects.
Administration of the Measures to Blind Subjects
The subjects
Adult Blind. The Braille Institute of America,
Los Angeles, was contacted and arrangements were made to
test legally blind volunteers at the Institute. The
sighted subjects in this project had been between the
ages of 15 and 36 so the same range was requested for
blind subjects. Institute personnel advised extending
131
132
the range to 40 years so volunteers were recruited to
that age range. After the testing program had started,
other blind persons who were past the age of 40 expressed
an interest in the test and testing program and requested
that they be permitted to participate in the experiment.
Age had not proved to be an important factor for the
sighted subjects except for Space and Vocabulary items,
so all volunteers were accepted and tested. Only one of
the subjects at the Braille Institute was under 20 years
of age and the oldest was 69.
Adolescent subjects. One 17 year old girl was
tested in the Pasadena Schools. She was legally blind
but did have usable residual vision. Arrangements to
test other adolescent blind subjects were made at the
Foundation for the Junior Blind. Five of these subjects
completed all of the test items and one subject responded
to part of them. These youths were between the ages of
15 and 19.
Thus a total of 30 blind subjects, ranging in age
from 15 to 69, was tested. Although all of these sub
jects were legally blind, eight of them had sufficient
vision to influence test performance and results. The
133
blind with no usuable vision were placed in Group BL. The
eight who used the residual vision they possessed were
placed in Group BR. The most noticeable difference
between these eight and the others was the time required
to complete the total tactual battery.
Testing the blind subjects
Directions to the subjects. Blind subjects were
given the same directions used with the sighted subjects.
When necessary, help in locating the cards or figures on
the cards was given. The subject was watched to see that
he did not miss any of the solution choices and was
directed to them if he had trouble locating the
individual figures.
Time limits. There were no time limits on the
items but a record was kept of the time required by the
subjects to make their decisions as to which figure
satisfied the requirements of each item. The time for
each item was recorded in seconds. The total time needed
for each section was recorded in minutes.
Criterion measures. The two vocabulary measures
used with the sighted subjects were administered to all
the blind subjects. The administrator read the test word
134
and the five possible choices, usually twice, but oftener
upon request. The subject indicated his selection of
possible choices and it was recorded on his answer sheet.
There seemed to be no practical way of administering the
space relations measure to the blind subjects so it was
omitted from this phase of the project.
Observations about the Subjects
Each blind subject classified himself with a
response to the question "Are you right or left handed?"
His age and present school grade or highest grade com
pleted was obtained from the records of the institution
where he i*as tested, or from the subject himself. This
material is presented in Table 16.
Group BL was those legally blind persons who had
no usable vision for testing purposes. This group was
composed of 17 male and five female subjects. Three of
the male subjects classified themselves as being ambi
dextrous, while three said they were left handed. Eleven
male and five female subjects in this group were right
handed.
Group BR was those legally blind individuals who
had sufficient residual vision to influence performance.
TABLE 16
COMPOSITION OF BLIND GROUPS BY AGE, SEX, EDUCATION, AND HANDEDNESS
Sex Age Education Handedness Sex Age Education3 Handedness
GROUP BL
M 36 12 Right
M 37 16 Right
M 34 12 Plight
M 42 12 Left
I T
J . 19 10 Right
M 31 2b Ambidextrous
F 45 13 Right
M 24 12 Right
M 29 15 Right
M 40 12 Right
F 39 12 Right
M 36 16 Right
M 22 4 Leftc
F 35 12 Right
M 57 10 Left
M 69 13 Right
F 26 9 Right
M 16 10 Right
M 19 13 Right
M 15 9 Right
M 16 9 Ambidextrous
M 33 15 Ambidextrous
17 Male, 5 Female
F 20
GROUP BR
13 Right
F 29 14 Right
F 32 16 Right
F 42 13 Left
F 34 16 Right
F 23 10d Right
F 17 11 Right
F 15 8 Left
^ ----------------------------------------------------------------
8 Female, 0 Male
The school grade in which the subject
was enrolled or highest grade completed.
Numbers 13 and up signify schooling
beyond the high school level.
This subject had been blind since birth
and the parents had kept him at home
until recent entrance into the program
at Braille Institute.
This subject’s right hand was withered.
This subject had been educated in
Mexico and came to the United States
after she was an adult.
135
136
There were no males in this group, which was composed of
eight women, two of whom classified themselves as left
handed.
The date of onset of blindness varied from birth
to recent times but was not included in the table. Some
subjects had lost their sight rapidly and others had
gradually become blind. Some had been blinded recently
while others had been blind since birth. Many of the
subjects had accompanying disease factors which
complicated their condition.
Comments on the Procedures
The test was administered individually to each
blind subject without the use of the blindfold. The time
per item was recorded in seconds and each section of the
test was timed in minutes except for Sections IX and X.
Since Section X was an interpolated measure between the
presentation of the pattern in Section IX and the choice
card, these two measures were timed together. The items
in Section IX were also timed in seconds from the pre
sentation of the choice card until the subject made his
selection. Each item (task) in Section X was performed
during a thirty-second interval.
137
The sections of the test were scored the same as
with the sighted subjects except for Section VII, the
Mazes. To adjust the scores to account for "fouls'1 com
mitted during the performance a decision was made to
accept the best time for each maze as the score for that
item. Some sighted subjects had a tendency to skip spaces
or jump over obstacles. The same occurred with some
blind subjects. When a subject fouled on all three trials
he was penalized by having the average time for the best
performance added to his best score.
Findings
Individual scores
The scores each person made on each section of
the test are reported in Table 17. Mean and standard
deviations for the two groups of blind subjects are
included. The scores show variations in individual per
formance and in the patterning of section scores. There
is an overlap between the two groups when the range from
the mean plus one standard deviation and the mean minus
one standard deviation are considered. The mean scores
of the blind subjects who used residual vision are higher
138
TABLE 17
INDIVIDUAL SCORES PER SECTION, GROUP BL
Subj ect I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X
301 11 13 10 9 11 12 114 10 11 152
302 10 13 5 8 9 6 82 10 10 155
303 10 13 7 8 8 8 92 9 10 163
304 11 12 10 12 10 12 77 11 10 161
305 10 12 9 7 10 8 98 9 10 134
306 10 13 8 6 9 4 118 8 9 176
307 6 4 6 2 2 5 100 5 7 137
308 12 13 7 7 7 9 64 11 10 195
309 12 12 7 9 5 11 53 12 12 272
310 11 13 6 6 9 10 93 10 10 175
311 10 9 8 8 5 9 51 10 10 103
312 12 13 9 2 11 11 31 12 12 224
313 12 13 10 8 8 8 77 12 9 200
314 8 10 5 1 2 6 175 7 9 143
315 11 13 9 6 8 9 48 10 10 190
316 13 13 7 6 5 2 175 10 8 216
317 10 10 6 6 6 6 131 8 10 123
318 10 11 4 8 8 6 110 5 6 216
319 12 13 8 8 10 8 56 12 11 242
320 11 13 11 9 11 10 60 12 12 162
321 11 11 8 10 9 10 39 10 9 267
322 10 11 7 6 5 7 100 10 9 288
Mean 10.6 11.7 7.1 7.4 7.6 8.1 88.4 9.7 9.7 186.1
S.D. 1.5 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.6 39.0 2.1 1.5 50.2
INDIVIDUAL SCORES1 PER SECTION, GROUP BR
401 12 13 9 12 10 11 25 11 12 270
402 11 12 7 7 6 4 41 12 11 219
403 11 13 8 10 9 10 31 11 11 188
404 13 13 10 11 9 10 25 12 10 335
405 13 13 10 8 11 9 22 11 10 217
406 13 13 10 10 12 11 47 10 10 205
407 12 12 10 10 12 8 39 12 12 244
408 11 13 8 9 3 4 34 11 8 226
Mean 12.0 12.8 9.0 9.6 9.0 8.4 33.1 11.3 10.5 238.0
S.D 0.9 0.5 1.2 1.6 3.1 2.9 8.7 0.7 1.3 46.3
139
in each case than those of the blind with no usable
vision. The performance of the two groups on Section VI,
Inverted show the greatest similarity.
Time Analysis
The time measures for each item were studied and
the range, the median, and the mean were compared for the
two subgroups and the group of all blind subjects. Tables
49 through 57 in the appendix present this information in
detail. The time required for the items varied between
individuals as indicated by the range. The median and
mean scores show that some items in each section required
larger amounts of time for the subjects to reach their
decisions than others did.
Response analysis
The number of subjects who chose each of the
possible alternatives for the items is recorded in the
appendix tables 39 through 48. They are reported by item
for each section. The blind subjects with residual
vision responded with no wrong choices to more items than
the blind with no usable vision. An item by item review
for each section follows. The mean time used by the
members of the separate groups is included in the tables.
140
Test Section I. Detailed information for this
section is in Table 39. It shows that the members of
Group BR made no errors on items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 12,
13. The members of Group BL made no errors on items 3, 4,
6, 7, and 9. Although there were no errors on item 9 by
the members of the Group BL one person was unable to
select any of the alternatives offered for this item.
These results suggest that the items in this section are
too easy for blind persons of this age range and that
their greatest value for these subjects was orientation to
the type of item.
Test Section II. Table 40 shows the responses for
this section. Members of Group BR made no errors on items
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, and 13 and only one error
on items 9 and 12. The members of Group BL made no errors
on items 1, 2, and 9, and on item 8 one person failed to
select any of the alternatives and one made a wrong
selection. For subjects of this age level the section
should be revised and some more difficult items developed.
Test Section III. The record of responses for
Section III is contained in Table 41. Members of Group BR
made no errors on items 4, 6, and 8. Group BL had their
141
best record of responses on item 2 but three subjects
failed to select the right alternative and two of them
chose the same wrong figure.
Test Section IV. The itemized report of re-i
sponses on Section IV is in Table 42. Members of Group
BR made no errors on items 1, 3, and 7. Only one member
of Group BL made an error on item 1 but more errors were
made on the other items.
Text Section V. The tally of responses for this
section is in Table 43. Members of Group BR made no
errors on item 1. Members of Group BL made more than one
error on each item and on item 12 three subjects were
unable to select any of the choice figures.
Test Section VI. The patterns of responses for
this section were similar for the two groups as shown
by Table 44. One member of Group BR made no errors on
item 5. On item 6, one member of Group BL was unable
to decide on any of the alternatives, 8 selected the
correct response and thirteen chose wrong figures. Half
of the members of Group BR selected the correct figure
and half were in error on that item.
142
Test Section VII. This was the Mazes and each
person worked until he completed the item three times.
Table 45 shows time groupings for these mazes. There is
some overlap between Group BR and BL but residual vision
was a help on this section.
Test Section VIII. Table 46 again shows that
those persons with residual vision were able to select the
correct responses better than those who had no usable
vision. Members of Group BR made no errors on items 1, 4,
5, 7, 8, 9, and 12. No errors were made on items 5 and
12 by members of Group BL. This suggests that these two
items should be revised or placed first and second in
order of presentation.
Test Section IX. The response tally for Section
IX is presented in Table 47. Members of Group BR made no
errors on items 1, 4, 7, and 8. Only one error was made
on items 1, 3, 7, and 8 by members of Group BL.
Test Section X. Table 48 reports the number of
cubes the subject was able to transpose from one box to
another using various finger combinations for 30-second
intervals. The finger combinations and hand used,
appeared to influence performance.
Reliability of test sections
Reliability measures for those test sections
which were scored by counting the number of correct
responses were estimated through the application of the
split half technique. The self-correlations of the half
sections and the reliability of the whole sections, as
estimated from the Spearman-Brown formula, are presented
for the scores of the blind subjects, in Table 18.
TABLE 18
RELIABILITY MEASURES FOR BLIND SUBJECTS
Test Section Odd-Even Correlations Reliability
I .27 .43
II .57 .73
III .25 .40
IV .46 . 63
V .60 .75
VI .60 .75
VIII .63 .77
IX .27 .43
Data Processing
The responses of the blind subjects to these
measures were subjected to statistical analyses. There
were 16 variables on each subject. These were the scores
144
on Sections I through X, Vocab I and II, Education, Total
time, Age and Sex. The scores on all variables were inter
correlated and hence matrices were available for both
groups of blind and the two combined. These and factor
analyses were obtained through the program for principal
component factor extraction and varimax orthogonal rota
tion on IBM 7090.
Intercorrelations
The intercorrelations, means and standard devia
tions for Group BL are contained in Table 19,for Group BR
in Table 20, and for the two groups combined in Table 21.
The intercorrelations for Group BL were studied.
This was the group with no usable vision and they had
several correlations of .40 or above. The range of corre
lations for the ten created measures varied from a
positive .80 to a negative .68. When the criterion mea
sures were included the range increased on the positive
side to .92 while the largest negative correlation was
still .68.
The intercorrelations for Group BR, the blind with
residual vision ranged from a positive .90 to a negative
.65. When the criterion measures were added the range
TABLE 19
INTERCORRELATIONS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S.D.)
FOR SCORES OF GROUP BL, BLIND WITH NO USABLE VISION
1 2
3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Mean S.D.
Similarities 1 80
14 £4 5k
32 -31 72
4£ 42
25 29
62 -11 -07 -37 10.59 1.50
Differences 2 16
5k
62 27 -16
62 42
29 32
42
72 15 -10 -33 11.73 2.12
Parts of Whole
3 36
4£
42
-28 27
51
-07 -10 —08 01 -20 -29 -20 7.14 2.38
Whole from Parts
4 1A
65
=62 62
22
28 32
41
&
-11
09 -01 7.36 2.59
Rotated 5
ii zA5 41 42
07 36 46 67 22
03
-07 7.65 2.70
Inverted 6 -68
51
67 10 28
31 50 -33 -05 22 8.05 2.61
Mazes 7
=5k =22
-28
-24
-26 -36 07 02 88.36 39.02
Across Space 8 78 36 23 27
5k =42 -38 -14
9.68 2.06
Over Time 9 03
10 22
42 =42
-29 -03 9.73 1.49
Cubes 10 -30 -22 02 -32 -38 -16 186.09 50.20
Vocab I 11
31
71
13
38 18 19.50 7.18
Vocab II 12 78 19 31
16 17.64 6.4O
Education
13
16
31
01 11.27
3.41
Total Tic©
14
38 -06 133.91 45.02
Age 15
00
32.73 13.42
Sex 16 .77
.43
Decimal points omitted* Values of 40 or above underlined
TABLE 20
INTERCORRELATIONS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S.D.)
FOR SCORES OF GROUP BR, BLIND WHO USED RESIDUAL VISION
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14
15 16 Mean S.D.
Similarities 1
33
SO
29
62
64 -21 -22 00
41
08 11 05 £72 38 00 12.00
.93
Differences 2 26
42
00
51 =42 =65=42
09 15 20
03
-11
23 00 12.75 .46
Parts of Whole
3
42
77 67 -19 -17 09 38 05 13
-08 -81
14
00 9.00 1.20
Whole from Parts
4
37 72 -25 -16 31
J>2
06 -07 -16 £52 -08 00 9.63
1.60
Rotated 5 80 01 -19 60
04
36
34 29 15 00 9.00 3.12
Inverted 6 -26 ;£0
M
21
44
36 30 d& 30 00 8.38 2.88
Mases 7 -19 02
dA
-60
=22
16 £2 00
33.13 8.74
Across Space 8 31
Ji
17 09 20 -01 26 00 11.25 .71
Over Time 9 07
42 24 44
-15 -01 00 10.50
1.31
Cubes 10 -02 -16 -09 -67 33
00 238.00 46.30
Vocab I 11
21 21
21
62
00 18.38 7.60
Vocab II 12 86 29
61 00 17.88 7.18
Education
13 29
22
00
12.63 2.83
Total Time
14 04
00
77.13 a.51
Age 15
•
00 26.50
9.34
Sex 16 .00 .00
Decimal points omitted. Values of Jfl or above underlined.
C T i
TABLE 21
INTERCORRELATIONS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S.D.)
FOR SCORES OF THE GROUP OF ALL BLIND SUBJECTS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16______ Mean S.D.
Similarities 1 77 33 67
3k
36 76
44 si
17 23
SS
-36 -11
=sg
10.97 1.50
Differences 2
24
Sk S3
27 -27 64
44 34 05 37 66 -01
-13
-40 12.00 1.88
Parts of Whole
3 Ml Mi 44 da
35
S3
16 -10 -04 07 -39 -30 -39 7.63 2.27
Whole from Parts
4
67
kg
-68
61
Sk 44
22 30
SI
-33 -03
-28 7.97 2.55
Rotated 5
S3 da 42 SI
15
33
42
S3
-04 00 -19 8.00 2.83
Inverted 6 -22
ja S3
14 32 33
42
-31
00 10
8.13 2.64
Mazes 7
=62
d3 da
-15 -22 -39 62 17 42 73.63 41.69
Across Space 8
n M
17 22
=24
-38 -35 10.10 1.92
Over Time 9 14
16 22
41 =44
-28 -18
9.93 1.46
Cubes 10
-24
-17 08
=2i
-32 -39 199.93 53.73
Vocab I 11
3k 74
15
41
16 19.20 7.17
Vocab II 12
78 15 36 09 17.70 6.49
Education
13
05 31 -12 11.63 3.27
Total Time
14 40 34
118.77 47.24
Age 15 15 31.07 12.62
Sex 16 .57 .50
Decimal points omitted. Values of 40 or above underlined.
148
increased to a positive .95 and a negative .81.
When the two groups were combined into one the
correlations between the created measures varied from a
positive .77 to a negative .68. When the criterion
measures were included the highest positive correlation
was .91 while the greatest negative correlation remained
at .68.
Means
Comparisons with t-scores were made between the
means of the created and the criterion measures for these
two groups. Table 22 summarizes the results of these
calculations. The scores which were time measures, that
is, the Mazes and Total Time to complete all ten sections
showed very highly significant differences in favor of
the group with residual vision. Sex differences were also
highly significant since all members of Group BR were
women and Group BL had 17 men and 5 women. At the 1 per
cent level, Group BR was significantly better than
Group BL for Section I, Similarities, and Section VIII,
Across Space. Group BR was significantly better at the
5 per cent level than Group BL for Section II, Differ
ences, Section III, Parts of the Whole, Section IV, the
149
TABLE 22
RESULTS OF t-TESTS COMPARING MEAN SCORES OF
GROUP BL WITH GROUP BR
Test Group With Value Level of
Section Better Score of t Significance
I BR 2.94 .01
II BR 2.27 .05
III BR 2.70 .05
IV BR 2 .64 .05
V BR .89 NS
VI BR .27 NS
VII BR 6.05 .001
VIII BR 3.02 .01
IX BR 1.31 NS
X BR 2.52 .05
Vocab I BL .34 NS
Vocab II BR .41 NS
Educationl BR 1.05 NS
Total Time BR 4.45 .001
Age BL-- Older 1.36 NS
Sex BL--MoreMen 8.50 .001
Degrees of freedom equal 28 (22 + 8 - 2 = 28)
Minimal values of t required for significance
at the 5, 1, and .1 per cent levels for 28 d.f.
are 2.05, 2.76, and 3.67 respectively.
NS indicates that the value given was not
significant.
150
Whole from Its Parts, and Section X, Cubes. The differ
ences were not significant for the remaining sections,
namely: Section V, Rotated; Section VI, Inverted; Section
IX, Over Time; Vocab I; Vocab II; Education; and Age.
Standard deviations
When the area between a minus and a plus one
standard deviation from the mean was considered for these
measures there was considerable overlap except in the
time measures for the Mazes and the count of Cubes trans
posed from one box to another.
Factor Analyses
Factor analyses were made of the intercorrela
tions obtained from these sixteen variables for each of
the subgroups and for all of the blind subjects combined
into one group. The extracted and rotated factors
appear in Tables 23, 24, and 25.
A general-verbal-educational factor appears for
all groups. For the group which used their residual
vision, age loads on this factor also and Mazes show a
negative loading. Since Mazes are a time measure and the
shorter time represents the better performance, the
negative rating is understandable.
151
TABLE 23
VARIMAX ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX FOR BLIND SUBJECTS
WITH NO USABLE VISION
« « ■ • « . F a c t o r s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Similarities 13 18 84 -11 -03 26 05 -06 31
Differences 04 29 81 14 12 23 09 26 16
Parts of the Whole 23 -10 10 00 15 13 84 -03 -10
Whole from Its Parts 58 21 51 -08 -17 -09 30 09 23
Rotated 47 28 49 02 03 01 34 46 02
Inverted 61 17 32 06 -04 -30 36 -17 00
Mazes -84 -17 -13 -01 -03 -04 -12 -f28 -13
Across Space 38 14 78 -04 30 04 09 -34 03
Over Time 37 03 60 j 31 18 -08 39 -31 -25
Cubes 18 -23 27 -01 20 08 -14 -13 78
Vocab I 11 94 14 -14 -15 -08 -04 00 -13
Vocab II 15 91 21 13 -09 -09 -03 12 -08
Education 27 62 59 07 -22 -06 00 18 04
Total Time -30 13 -03 -01 -21 -05 -08 79 -12
Age 02 26 -11 -01 -83 05 -16 18 -16
Sex 05 13 -20 00 04 -81 -09 -03 -06
Decimal points omitted with values of 40 or above
underlined.
TABLE 24
152
VARIMAX ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX FOR
BLIND SUBJECTS WITH RESIDUAL
VISION
• « •
1 2
. F
3
a c
4
t o
5
r s
6 7 8 9
Similarities 95 07 -14 -03 07 22 -12 00 00
Differences 16 21 -74 28 52 06 -17 00 00
Parts of the Whole ■ . ' 9 6 03 -06 -06 19 -09 16 00 00
Whole from Its Parts 27 -07 05 -15 94 -09 00 00 00
Rotated 78 26 46 25 21 04 12 00 00
Inverted 59 33 11 24 67 17 -01 00 00
Mazes -11 -71 38 40 -22 25 27 00 00
Across Space -18 14 34 -86 -26 01 15 00 00
Over Time 10 29 91 -06 25 -06 -09 00 00
Cubes 32 -07 -09 -84 34 14 -18 00 00
Vocab I 01 98 17 00 12 05 -03 00 00
Vocab II 07 96 "02 08 -01 -01 25 00 00
Education -04 93 23 03 -08 23 -14 00 00
Total Time -82 27 -04 33 -24 11 26 00 00
Age 17 64 -19 -28 -06 67. 01 00 00
Sex (all women) 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Decimal points omitted. Values of 40 or above underlined.
153
TABLE 25
VARIMAX ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX
FOR ALL BLIND SUBJECTS
1 2
. F
3
a c
4
t o
5
r s
6 7 8 9
Similarities -28 14 82 27 -02 23 -09 -11 -08
Differences 09 27
21
24 15 20 -15 08 09
Parts of the Whole -18 -11 04 64 19 33 -13 -07 -06
Whole from Its Parts -37 17 47 60 -09 04 -02 19 -05
Rotated 04 30 37 74 01 09 -03 07 05
Inverted -29 24 12 69 -06 -26 -18 -04 02
Mazes 73 -18 -16 -39 -02 -22 09 -24 -03
Across Space -45 17 59 21 28 06 -45 10 -12
Over Time -29 15 21 52 22 03 -62 -02 03
Cubes -54 -22 52 03 10 07 16 01 06
Vocab I 02 93 02 09 -14 -10 -04 -05 -05
Vocab II 04 93 11 14 -06 -03 -01 04 01
Education -04 72 46 25 -20 02 -20 12 13
Total Time 80 15 -04 -15 -20 -13 20 15 04
Age 21 36 -11 -06 -67 -03 13 00 00
Sex 24 10 -33 -06 -02 -73 01 -01 -01
Decimal points omitted. Values of 40 or above underlined.
154
Group BL has one tactual factor loading on the
Whole from Its Parts, Rotated, and Inverted while Mazes
load negatively on it. This factor could be an ability
to visualize figures moving in and through space. A
second tactual factor loads on Similarities, Differences,
Whole from Its Parts, Rotated, Across Space, and Over
Time, and suggests an ability to discriminate between
figures. Education was also loaded on this factor and
might indicate experience with figures of the types used
for these measures. Age and Sex emerge as factor pure
for this group.
Group BR has a tactual factor which loads on
Similarities, Differences, Rotated, and Inverted and
could be the ability to discriminate. A second tactual
factor loads on Rotated and Over Time with Differences
loading with an opposite sign. This might represent a
memory factor. Mazes loads with an opposite sign on
another tactual factor found in Across Space and Cubes.
This factor might be the ability to manipulate figures.
Differences, Whole from Its Parts and Inverted all load
on one factor which might be the ability to visualize the
movement of figures in and through space.
155
When all of the blind subjects are combined into
one group the general-verbal-educational factor appears.
Age and Sex both emerge factor free when the total group
is considered. A tactual factor emerges loaded positively
on Mazes and Total Time and negatively on Across Space and
Cubes. The difference in signs is explained by the time
measure for the first two sections. This would probably
be a manipulative factor. Similarities, Differences,
Whole from Its Parts, Across Space, Cubes, and Education
all load on a factor which could be the ability to
discriminate. The educational element suggests that in
the schools the subject has had an opportunity to
encounter these types of figures. Another tactual factor
is loaded on Parts of the Whole, the Whole from Its Parts,
Rotated, Inverted, and Over Time which suggests a factor
of ability to visualize movement of figures in and
through space.
Summary of Chapter
The utilization of these measures with legally
blind subjects has been described. Some subjects
retained sufficient vision to influence performance and
results. During the administration of the tests the
156
subjects were observed to see that they understood the
task and located the items and figures on them.
The results achieved in this phase of the project
suggest possible answers to the questions raised in
Chapter I.
Question 1. Can figural materials, which are to
be reacted to from touch, be employed for intelligence
test items? The results achieved suggest that these
items can be used for testing abilities.
Question 2. Can useful ranges of individual dif
ferences in ability to react adaptively with such mater
ials be found? The table of individuals' scores confirm
that useful ranges of differences will be found.
Question 3. Will such distributions be those of
"intelligence"; that is, can they be shown to correlate
with measures of accepted validity? There was several
instances in which correlations of .40 or above were
obtained between the tactual measures and those selected
to serve as criterion measures.
Question 4. Do these items measure different
abilities or do all of the items measure the same thing?
The results of factor analysis suggests that different
157
things are being measured.
Question 5. Will tactual tests have reliability?
The reliability ratings for the responses of the blind
subjects rangeJ:from .40 to a .77.
Question 7. Will individual differences be
apparent in the answer patterns of different subjects?
The answer patterns varied from subject to subject.
Question 9. Are age, sex, education and total
time for testing important factors in influencing perform
ance? Education seemed to be related to success on the
vocabulary measures but exerted little influence on the
tactual measures. Total Time was closely related to
scores on the mazes but showed little relation to the
other test sections.
Question 10. Do the items in this study discrimi
nate or are they too easy or too difficult? Most of the
items were discriminative in working with the blind sub
jects although a few seemed to be too easy and one or two
might have been too difficult, largely because of the way
they were constructed.
A comparison of the results achieved by the
N
sighted and by the blind should result in more positive
answers to these questions.
CHAPTER VII
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST OF PERFORMANCE OF
BLIND AND SIGHTED SUBJECTS
An answer was desired to the question of how the
performance of blindfolded sighted subjects compared
with that of blind subjects. The data were checked for
evidence of similarities and differences in performance
between the two groups. The material was considered
first for the subgroups, that is Group ST, Group SV,
Group BL, and Group BR. Then the performance of all of
the blindfolded sighted subjects was compared with that
of all of the blind subjects.
Subj ects
There were the same number of blind and sighted
subjects but the two subgroups of the sighted were the
same size while the blind were divided 22 to 8. There
were only eight of the blind with sufficient vision to
affect performance and they formed the subgroup BR.
Tables 1 and 16 show the distribution of the subjects
158
159
with regard to these characteristics. The age range for
the sighted subjects was 15 to 35 and for the blind 15 to
69. There were 17 male and 13 female blind subjects while
the sighted were divided 9 male and 21 female. The
education of the sighted varied from ninth grade to one
doctoral candidate. The formal education of the blind
varied from second grade through baccalaureate degrees.
Each subject was asked whether he was right or left
handed. There was only one sighted subject who classified
himself other than right handed (left handed) so that
information was not included in Table 1. Twenty-two of
the blind subjects were right handed, 5 left handed and 3
ambidextrous.
Timing
The Total Time in minutes required for the 10
created measures was longest for the blind group with no
usable vision and shortest for the blind with residual
vision. The sighted group which was blindfolded for their
first contact with the items required more time than the
group which had seen the items first. But when all of the
blind were compared with all of the sighted the mean
160
times varied only .3 of a minute or 18 seconds. Table 26
presents this material by subgroups and by total groups.
Item Analysis
The item responses for each section and the mean
time required for the subjects to respond is presented for
the groups and subgroups of the blind and sighted in the
appendix in Tables 39 through 48. A review of this
material, together with suggested changes, is presented
by sections.
Test Section I, Similarities. The tally of the
response for the items in Section I and the mean time
required for the subjects to make their decisions is pre
sented in the appendix Table 39. There was no item in
this section for which all subjects made the correct
selection, but more correct answers were given to items 3
and 9 than to the others. Greater amounts of time were
needed for items 8, 10, 11, 12, and 13 than for the
others. It would probably be practical for this age
group to use items 3, 4, and 9 as samples before starting
the testing. The remaining items might then be rear
ranged in the order of 7, 2, 5, 1, 6, 11, 12, 13, 10, and
TABLE 26
MEAI'J TIME, BY SECTIONS, FOR RESPONSES TO TACTUAL ITEMS
FOR THE VARIOUS GROUPS
Test
Section ST SV
. . .G r
BL
o u p s
BR
‘ 'All* • All '
Sighted Blind
I 8. 8a 7.0 8.8 4.8 7.9 7.8
II 9.9 6.7 9.4 4.4 8.3 8.1
III 15.4 14.3 17.9 9.3 14.8 15.6
IV 13.0 12.1 13.6 6.9 12.5 11.8
V 14.8 11.9 17.4 11.5 13.3 15 .8
VI 14.9 13.0 17.8 10.3 13.9 15.8
VII 16.3 13.9 14.0 7,8 15.1 12.3
VIII 13.6 8.9 13.2 5.9 11.3 11.3
[X & X 21.7 21.0 21.8 16.5 21.3 20.3
Total
Time 128.3 108.7 133.9 77.1 118.5 118.8
a All times in minutes.
162
8. It is further suggested that two more difficult items
be devised for this section as some subjects had perfect
scores. One of the sighted subjects, who had seen the
items on first testing, one of the blind, and three of the
blind with residual vision had perfect scores on this
section of the test.
Test Section II, Differences. The record of
responses and time needed for this section is reported in
Table 40. No errors were made on item 5. On item 2, one
blind subject made an incorrect choice. Two subjects who
were blindfolded first and one who had seen the items
first made errors on item 3 but the blind subjects made no
errors on that item. There were 18 blind and 11 sighted
subjects who had perfect scores for this section. This
section should undoubtedly be revised by eliminating items
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 9. The remaining items should be
rearranged in the order of 8, 10, 13, 12, 4, and 11. Four
new items should be devised for the section to bring the
number up to ten.
Test Section III. There were no perfect scores on
this section of the test. The tally of responses and mean
time required for each item is presented in the appendix
163
Table 41. The fewest errors on any of these items was 6
on item 2. Sample items for this section should be care
fully checked and probably another one or two added. The
items in this section should be rearranged in the order
2, 3, 4, 8, 5, 7, 11, 1, 5, 10, 12, and 9. The subjects
required more time to reach decisions on these items than
on those of Sections I and II.
Test Section IV. Three blind subjects, one with
residual vision, made perfect scores on this section.
Table 42 shows the individual responses and the mean time
needed for the items in this section. There was no item
where the correct choice was made by every subject but the
fewest errors were made on item 1, two of which were in
Group ST and one in Group BL. These items should be
rearranged in order 1, 3, 2, 4, 6, 7, 12, 8, 10, 11, 5,
and 9.
Test Section V, Rotated. Two members of Group BR
made perfect scores on this section. Table 43 is a record
of the possibilities selected and the mean time needed by
the subjects to reach a decision. No item was answered
correctly by all subjects. It is recommended that these
items^ be rearranged in the order 1, 2, 6, 3, 9, 4, 5, 7,
164
11, 10, 8, and 12.
Test Section VI, Inverted. Perfect scores were
made on this section by two members of the blind group
with no usable vision and one member of the sighted group
which saw the items first. Item responses and mean time
are recorded in the appendix Table 44. No item was
answered correctly by all subjects. The order of presenta
tion should be changed to 5, 2, 10, 11, 9, 1, 4, 3, 7, 8,
12, and 6.
Test Section VII, the Mazes. The score for the
items in this section was the number of seconds needed for
the best of the three trials on going from START to GOAL.
In cases where a subject had "fouled" on all three trials
the average time for the rest of his group was added to
his time. Table 45 gives the average time for each sub
group and the total groups. It is suggested that the
subjects be permitted to explore each maze for a short
period, 15 to 30 seconds depending on difficulty, before
trying to traverse the maze. Then each subject could be
given one trial to go from start to goal and returned to
the starting point if he fouled. The order of administer
ing the mazes should be changed to 2, 1, 4, 5, 6, 3, 7, 9,
165
8, 12, 11, and 10,
Test Section VIII, Across Space. Five members of
Group BL, 3 of Group BR, 3 of Group ST, and 4 of Group SV
made the correct selections of the alternatives for each
of these items. The distribution of the responses for
each item and the mean time is shown in the appendix Table
46. There was no item that everyone answered correctly
but on item 5 there was only one error and that was made
by a member of Group BL. Items 5 and 12 could be omitted
and two more difficult items created to replace them. The
remaining items should be rearranged in the order 1, 4, 11,
7, 8, 9, 3, 10, 6, and 2.
Test Section IX, Over Time. Three members of
Group BL, two of Group BR, one of Group ST, and two of
Group SV answered all items in this section correctly.
Table 47 shows the distribution of individual responses
for the items in this section. None of the items was
answered correctly by everyone. Items 1, 6, and 7 could
be omitted and three more difficult items created. The
remaining items in this section should be rearranged in
the order 4, 3, 8, 10, 11, 9, 5, 2, and 12.
Test Section X, Cubes. This section was a measure
166
of the manual ability to transfer cubes from one box to
another using various combinations of fingers. Table 27
presents a summary of group performance which compares
right and left hand action. Table 48 in the appendix
presents the task by task analysis. Group SV, whose
members saw the items the first time they responded to
them, had better scores than either Group ST or BL. The
same group tended to have better scores with the right
hand than the group of blind which used residual vision
and had better scores with the left hand. When all the
sighted subjects are compared with all the blind subjects
the mean scores of the sighted are better except in one
case. When the subjects used the first and second
fingers on the left hand without using the thumb, the
blind group had a higher score than the sighted. Since
using fingers without the thumb is awkward and unnatural
and shows no apparent relation to usable ability, it is
suggested that for items 9, 10, 11, and 12, the subject
be permitted to choose which finger he would like to use
with the thumb and that he use that combination for two
trials with the right hand and two with the left.
167
TABLE 27
MEAN NUMBER OF CUBES TRANSPOSED BY GROUPS USING VARIOUS
COMBINATIONS OF FINGERS AND COMPARING RIGHT
AND LEFT HAND PERFORMANCE
Group
Thumb
and
First
Thumb
and
Second
Combinations
Thumb Thumb
and and
Third Fourth
First
and
Second
Third
and
Fourth
Right 21.2 21.0 1916 18.3 13.7 10.6
ST
Left 23.0 21.0 22.0 20.3 13.3 9.9
Right 23.0 24.9 23.1 21.7 15.9 13.7
SV
Left 25.3 25.2 22.5 21.7 14.4 11.6
Right 17.6 17.4 17 .2 16.6 12.2 8.3
BL
Left 18.8 19.1 18.2 17.4 13.3 9.9
Right 19.6 22 .1 19.4 19.6 16.1 8.9
BR
Left 26.0 28.4 26.4 22.6 19.5 10.5
Right 22.3 23.0 21.3 20.0 14.8 12.1
All sighted
Left 24.2 23.1 22.3 21.0 13.8 10.8
Right 18.1 18.7 17.8 17 .4 13.2 8.4
All blind
Left 2C.7 21.6 20.4 18.8 15.0 10.1
Responses were to tactual stimulation.
168
Reliability measures
The reliability values obtained through the
split-half technique corrected by the Spearman-Brown
formula were reported in Table 6 for the sighted subjects
and Table 18 for the blind. All subjects, blind and
sighted, were combined into one group and the measures
of reliability ranged from .04 to .58 for the various
sections of the test. Then the sections which were
scored by counting the number of correct items were con
sidered as one test and reliability values were obtained
for the various groups. These values were much larger
than those for the individual sections. Table 28
presents the values for all subjects by sections and for
the test as a whole by groups.
Statistical Analysis
Comparison and contrast of the performance of
blind and sighted subjects depended upon the scores
being processed by groups and subgroups. The scores on
the variables were intercorrelated and matrices were
available for the various groups. Factor analyses were
obtained through the program for principal component
169
TABLE 28
RELIABILITY MEASURES
Odd-Even Correlations Reliability
All Subjects
Section I .02 .04
II .41 .58
III .04 .08
IV .32 .48
V .40 .57
VI .40 .57
VIII .40 .57
IX .17 .29
By Groups for Test as a Whole
Group
ST .73 .84
SV .87 .93
All Sighted .85 .92
BL .89 .94
BR .52 .68
All Blind .79 .88
All Subjects .72 .84
170
factor extraction and varimax orthogonal rotation on
IBM 7090. Seventeen variables were processed for the
sighted subjects and included Space which was not given
to the blind. The scores for Sections I through X
tactually were the same as used in Chapter V except for
Section VII, which was changed from the time for three
trials on each maze to the best time for each maze with a
penalty for fouls. Education was included in this
processing as an added variable for the sighted subjects.
Intercorrelations
The intercorrelations, together with the means
and standard deviations for sixteen variables are pre
sented for the blind in Chapter VI, Tables 19, 20, and 21.
For the sighted subjects Space was presented as a
variable together with the same sixteen as for the blind.
That material is presented in Tables 29, 30, and 31. The
intercorrelations, means and standard deviations for all
subjects combined into one group are presented for the
sixteen variables in Table 32, The blind subjects had
more correlations of .40 and above than did the sighted
subjects on these measures.
TABLE 29
INTERCORRELATIONS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S.D.)
FOR RESPONSES TO TACTUAL STIMULATION FOR GROUP ST, ON TEST SECTIONS I THROUGH X
AND THE CRITERION MEASURES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 Mean S.D.
Similarities 1
J2Z
13 51 -34 ;^Q -28 03 »19 21 -12 -15 -09 -48 -50 -28 21 10.27 1.16
Differences 2
62
i2 26
-13
16 26 11
34 19 -06 -39 -19 -05
48
11.60 1.35
Parts of Whole
3
18 27 37 -29 35 67 17
4Z
33 07 -13 09 -11 23 6.80
1.74
Whole from Parts
4
06 01 -02
-14
-20
14 33
30 19 01 -08
-31 03 7.20
1.93
Rotated 5 36 -02 07
M -24 44
25 31 22 40
11
19 8.27 1.98
Inverted 6 —08 -10 26 11 38 26 16 30 22 19 -18
8.53 1.51
Mazes 7
31 -03 -32 -21 12 -14 39 29 -36
-34
105.60 26.95
Across Space 8
24 -39 -08 25 -05 18
04
08 -08
10.33 1.29
Over Time 9 11 15 16 20
13 23 -14 14
9.80 1.37
Cubes 10 11 -05 17 -01
24 =H
—04 214.47 42.24
Vocab I 11 78
11
00 60 21 25 24.13 4.02
Vocab II 12 68 36
6£
00 01
21.53 5.53
Education
13 37 60 12 -19 14.47 2.70
Total Time
14
42
-12 -21 128.27 37.98
Age 15 01 -26
24.13 7.38
Sex 16 18 .27 .46
Space 17 29.00 9.64
Decimal points omitted* Values of 40 and above underlined.
TABLE 30
INTERCORRELATIONS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S.D.)
FOR RESPONSES TO TACTUAL STIMULATION FOR GROUP SV, ON TEST SECTIONS I THROUGH X
AND THE CRITERION MEASURES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Q
✓ 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 Mean S.D.
Similarities 1 »22
42
15 10 -29 05 27 -20
to
o
1
24 34
17 37 36 26 -08 10.60 1.12
Differences 2 23 15 03 33 09 -06 -28 -17 17 —02 -14 -23 03
-07 27 12.27 .70
Parts of Whole
3
08 17 -35 -10
—04
-26 36 30 25 23 -09 33 25 7.27 1.28
Whole from Parts
4 31
-26
24
60 18
41
32 17 08
42
-45 17
7.93 1.53
Rotated 5 31 13
4k
16 15 23
16 27
=14
19 18
-31 8.13 1.85
Inverted 6 10
42 11
-01
14
07 -08 -31
18 -29 —O4 9.13 1.36
Mases 7 -13 -24
=4& 14 19 29 -31 13 25 02 88.27 18.35
Across Space 8
44
02 05 -12 -15 10 18 -36
-33 10.47 1.36
Over Time 9 03
-10 —08 -05 -09 08 -18 -18 10.27 1.10
Cubes 10 30 26 20 -16 25 09 31 242.93
43.60
Vocab I 11
82
03 62 -17 68 20.20 6.72
Vocab II 12
ki
00 76 01
54
15.27 8.82
Education
13
-16 80 18 30 12.60 3.27
Total Tims 14 07 -27 02 108.07 28.99
Age 15 17 17 20.27 6.52
Sex 16 -23 .33 .49
Space 17 29.93
12.66
Decimal points omitted. Values of 40 and above underlined. ro
TABLE 31
INTERCORRELATIONS, MEANS, AMD STANDARD DEVIATIONS (S.D.)
FOR RESPONSES TO TACTUAL STIMULATION FOR ALL SIGHTED SUBJECTS
ON TEST SECTIONS I THROUGH X AND THE CRITERION MEASURES
1 2 3
4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 Mean S.D.
Similarities 1 32 27 37
-14
-36 -19 16 =16 11
04
07 00 -16
-14
01 05 10.43 1.14
Differences 2
SX kk
15 08 -36 09 15 11 09 -05 -17^0 -19 -03 35 11.93
1.11
Parts of Whole
3
17 21 11 -27 18 35 28 27 18 08 -15 13 13 23 7.03 1.52
Whole from Parts
4
15 30 -17 26 15 21 27 17 09 -03 08
-34
10 7.57 1.76
Rotated 5 31 05 26 31 -06 29 19 28 -08 30 36 -09 8.20 1.88
Inverted 6 -09 18 41 12 13 04 -03 -01 13 -03 -09 8.83 1.44
Mases 7 10 -16 -45 11 27 16
24 31 -12 -17 96.93 24.31
Across Space 8
33 -15 -01 -01 -11 12 09 -15 -22 10.40 1.30
Over Time 9 13
-06 —06 01 -01 10
-14
-02 10.03 1.25
Cubes 10 09 -01 07 -16
13
-16 16 228.70 44*60
Vocab I 11 88 68 12 62 -06
42
22.17 5.80
Vocab II 12 ag 25 70 -02 32 I8.4O 7.90
Education
13
20
n
12 09 13.53 3.09
Total Tima
14 34
-20 -10 118.17 34.75
Age 15 05 —04
22.20 7.12
Sex 16 -05 .30 .47
Space 17 29.47 11.07
Decimal points omitted. Values of 40 and above underlined.
■ * nI
w
TABLE 32
INTERCORRELATIONS, MEANS, AND STANBABD DEVIATIONS (S.D.)
FOR RESPONSES TO TACTUAL ITEMS AND CRITERION MEASURES
FOR ALL SUBJECTS, BLIND AND SIGHTED
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 Mean S.D.
Similarities 1 62
33
51
31
11 ^42 19 31
07
14 24
-28 -02 -23
10.70
1.34
Differences 2 32
5k 42
21 -29 48
34 24 19 18
33 -13 -13 -25 11.97 1.53
Parts of Whole
3 38 39 31 zM
28
42
14
00 05 02 -31
-10
-13 7.33 1.94
Whole from Parts
4
S S L
J5Q z51
ss
37 31 21 22 31 -23 04 -26 7.77 2.18
Rotated 5 5k “26 37
44
08 32 30
4£ -05 06 01 8.10 2.38
Inverted 6 -32 36
5k
17 29 20
31 -22 -03 01 8.48
2.14
Mazes 7 -37
-34 -31
01 00 -08
42
04 12 85.28 35.82
Across Space 8
J|8
25 12 12 27 -32 —26 -28 10.25 1.63
Over Time 9 14
08 08 25 -27 -15 -17 9.98 1.35
Cubes 10 —O4 -07 15 -36 -26
-34 214.32 51.06
Vocab I 11 87
11 14 34
00 20.68 6.64
Vocab II 12
XL
19
42
01 18.05 7.18
Education
13
10 27 -08 12.58 3.30
Total Tine 14 35 12 118.47 41.12
Age 15 21 26.63 11.10
Sex 16 • 43
.50
Decimal points omitted. Values of 40 and above underlined.
'-j
Means and standard deviations
The means for the various subgroups are quite
similar except for Group BR who used the residual vision
they possessed. The better scores of all groups were on
Test Sections I and II. The areas between a minus 1 and
a plus 1 standard deviation for the groups showed con
siderable overlap.
Comparisons with t-scores were made between the
means of the created measures and the criterion measures
for these groups and are presented in Table 33. The two
sighted groups differed significantly in only one in??
stance, that of the advanced vocabulary measure and the
difference was in favor of the group which felt of the
items first. The two blind groups varied significantly
on more than half of the variables in favor of the blind
with residual vision. The scores of Group BR were higher
on Sections I, Similarities, II, Differences, III, Parts
of the Whole, IV, the Whole from Its Parts, VII, the
Mazes, VIII, Across Space, X, the Cubes, Total Time, and
Sex. The differences were highly significant on the
Mazes and Total Time, both scores being time measures,
and on Sex. Group BR was composed of all women while
TABLE 33
COMPARISONS WITH t-SCORES OF THE AVERAGE SCORES OF THE TOTAL AND SUBGROUPS OF
THE BLIND AND SIGHTED SUBJECTS
Test
Section
30
STa vs SV
df
BL vs BR
35
STa vs BL
df
SV vs BL
21
STa vs BR
df
SV vs BR
I .77 BR-2.94** .71 .02 BR-3.68** BR-3.04**
II 1.63 BR-2.27* .24 1.17 BR-2.88** 1.91
III .80 BR-2.70* .48 .21 BR-3.38** BR-3.03**
IV 1.12 BR-2.64* .21 .81 BR-2.98** BR-2.23 *
V .19 .89 .82 . .64' .49 .59
VI 1.11 .27 .69 1.61 .13 .66
VII 1.98 BR-6.05** 1.54 .01 BR-9.14** BR-9.33**
VIII .28 BR-3.02** 1.16 1.36 BR-2.14* 1.73
IX 1.00 1.31 .14 1.23 1.14 .40
.X 1.74 BR-2.52* 1.80 SV-3.55** 1.13 .23
Vocab I 1.88 .34 ST-2.43* .30 1.87 .54
Vocab II SV-2.24* .41 1.91 . 86 . 86 1.01
Education 1.66 1.05 ST-3.11** 1.17 1.50 .02
’otal Time 1.54 BR-4.45** .39 SV-2.06* BR-3.84** BR-2.75
Ageb 1.48 1.36 BL-2.45* BL-3.65. .59 1.59
Sexc .33 BL-8.50** BL-3.33**fBL-2.74® BR-2.25* BR-2,54*
a Initials of the superior group are entered when the difference is significant.
* Significant at the .05 level, ** significant at the .01 level.
b The Group BL had a higher average age than the other groups.
c Group BL had more male members than any of the other groups. Group BR was all women
177
only 5 of the 22 members of Group BL were women.
In comparing Groups ST and SV with BL, the blind
with no usable vision, the differences between the means
on the created measures were significant in only one
instance. Group SV had a significantly higher score on
transferring cubes from one box to another, Section X,
than Group BL. Group SV was the group of subjects who
had performed the tasks using vision before they re
sponded to the items under tactual stimulation.
On the criterion measures Group ST was signifi
cantly better than Group BL on Vocabulary I and had
significantly more education. Group BL required a
significantly longer time to complete the ten sections
than Group SV. The blind group was significantly older
than either of the sighted groups and was made up of a
significantly higher proportion of male subjects than
either of the sighted groups.
The blind group with residual vision had signi
ficantly better scores than either of the sighted groups
or the blind xtfith no usable vision on Sections I,
Similarities, III, Parts of the Whole, IV, the Whole
from Its Parts, and VII, the Mazes. On Section II,
178
Differences, their score was significantly higher than
that of Groups ST and BL but was not significantly dif
ferent from that of the sighted subjects who had seen the
items the first time they reacted to them. On the two
time measures, Section VII, the Mazes and Total Time
Group BR required very significantly less time than
Groups BL and ST. Total Time for Group SV was signifi
cantly more than for Group BR while the difference in
time for the Mazes was highly significant. The differ
ences in Sex for the various groups was significant as
Group BR was all women, Group BL mostly men, and Groups
ST and SV contained both sexes but with somewhat more
women than men.
Comparisons with t-scores between groups composed
of all of the sighted subjects and all of the blind
subjects are presented in Table 34. The blind required a
significantly shorter time than the sighted subjects on
Section VII, the Mazes. The sighted transposed signifi
cantly more cubes from one box to the other during
specified periods of time than the blind. The educa
tional level of the sighted was significantly higher than
that of the blind. The blind were significantly older
179
TABLE 34
COMPARISONS WITH t-TESTS OF THE AVERAGE SCORES OF
ALL BLIND WITH ALL SIGHTED SUBJECTS
Test Superior Level of
Section Group Value of t Significance
I Blind 1.54 NSa
II
u
.07 NS
III
!i
1.20 NS
IV
it
.70 NS
V Sighted .32 NS
VI
ii
1.25 NS
VII Blind 2.60 .05
VIII Sighted .70 NS
IX
ii
1.34 NS
X
ii
2.22 .05
Vocab I
ii
1.74 NS
Vocab II
11
.37 NS
Education
ii
2.29 .05
Total Time
ii
.05 NS
Ageb
ii
3.29 .01
Sexc
ii
2.08 .05
a Value of t is Not Significant
^ The sighted subjects had a lower average age
c The sighted subjects had a higher proportion of
women.
180
than the sighted and had significantly more men than the
sighted.
Factor Analyses
All subtests were intercorrelated, together with
the criterion measures, Education, Total Time, Age and
Sex. The test requiring vision (Space) did not,of course,
appear on the matrices for the handicapped group but was
included for the sighted groups. Intercorrelations were
available for the responses of sighted subjects respond
ing to the created measures tactually and for the re
sponses of the blind subjects. Factor analyses were made
of these intercorrelations for each group and combination
of groups. These were obtained through the program for
principal component factor extraction and varimax
orthogonal rotation on IBM 7090. The rotated factors
appear in Chapter VI, Tables 23, 24, and 25 for the blind
subjects. Tables 35, 36, and 37 present the material for
the sighted subjects and Table 38 shows the rotated
factors when all subjects are considered as one group.
Rotated factors in Group ST. Table 35, Rotated
Factor Matrix for Group ST, presents information for this
group. A general verbal-educational-age factor appears,
TABLE 35
VARIMAX ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX
FOR TACTUAL RESPONSES OF GROUP ST
Factors
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Similarities .... -16 -18 -14 12 58 34 -11 -31 -22 -04 55 00
Differences .... 07-27 -08 22 Zl 12 -33 -31 15 33 02 36
Parts of the Whole . 21 -21 -09 34 25 -31 -14 -18 -02 70 -01 05
Whole from Its Parts 18 04 -04 -10 _97 -03 01 03 -02 -09 02 -04
Rotated..... 23 03 13 -02 07 -14 -10 12 89 29 -07 03
Inverted..... 16 -06 -04 -07 -05 -94 11 14 "16 16 906 -01
M a z e s ....... 01 93 16 15 -05 05 18 19 -05 -06 -04 -02
Across Space .... 04 13 21 94 -04 07 05 08 01 18 03 02
Overtime 08 03 -08 08 -13 -07 -06 07 16 96 -01 00
C u b e s ............. 07-16 ^93 -20 +08 -05 03 01 -19 10 04 00
Vocab I ..... 85 -10 -04 -06 19 -25 -22 -17 19 07 -08 -03
Vocab I I ..... 91 07 11 19 16 -13 -05 17 -06 08 -01 16
Education... 78 -22 -07 -10 04 09 24 28 15 11 17 -22
Total Time... 19 20 -03 09 -06 -14 09 94 06 01 -06 -02
A g e 74 29 -32 -01 -23 02 20 17 29 07 -18 -01
S e x ......... 08 -42 42 11 -30 -15 -09 -12 64 -27 02 -07
S p a c e....... -01 -16 04 -04 06 10 .^96 -08 09 10 02 02
181
182
with saturations on the verbal tests, educational level
and age. None of the tactual tests loads on it. Several
other factors were extracted and rotated, as the table
shows, but only one clear group factor is evident, the
6th in Table 35, which saturates three of the variables.
For some reason sex loads on three of the unclear fac
tors (the 2nd, 3rd, and 9th, each of them being a
doublet). Of interest is the singlet for the Space test,
factor 7, saturating none of the created tests to any
extent.
In summary, a general-verbal-education-age
factor appears, together with one group factor saturating
three of the created variables, and beyond these, several
singlets and doublets of yet unclear meaning. The number
of cases, 15, precluded further speculation.
Rotated factors for Group SV. Table 36, Rotated
Factor Matrix for Group SV, gives the information for
this group. As in the previous group, a general verbal-
educational-age factor appears. A tactual test group
factor is also evident, 2nd in the table, saturating dif
ferent variables than did the one good group factor for
ST. Sex is a singlet, while Space forms a doublet with
TABLE 36
VARIMAX ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX
FOR TACTUAL RESPONSES OF GROUP SV
Factors
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Similarities .... 21-04 -21 ^91 08 -13 06 -04 22 -01 -11 00
Differences .... -04 -01 09 11 10 97 01 13 -12 -03 03 00
Parts of the Whole . 18 -11 05 -24 -18 17 08 13 -87 09 -21 00
Whole from Its Parts 28 81 -10 -16 -07 17 18 13 -08 16 31 03
Rotated 17 19 30 -06 -06 02 90 -16 -06 -05 -06 -01
Inverted 04 74 18 11 -10 37 13 -03 36 -17 10 -28
Mazes 18 -13 17 -01 28 04 05 03 08 ^90 -12 -01
Across Space .... -08 63 -14 -32 -11 00 39 -24 -04 -06 36 03
Over Time -03 89 09 19 09 -30 -02 -07 07 16 -04 08
Cubes 18 03 10 -08 ^88 -13 -07 17 -16 31 -05 -01
Vocab I 71 06 -10 -12 -14 14 22 55 -07 -08 18 -01
Vocab I I 88 00 03 -20 -07 -02 05 37 01 -03 03 -08
Education £5 -08 12 07 02 -15 11 09 -07 -09 -07 10
Total T i m e 00 -05 -89 -23 09 -12 -28 P0 04 17 16 01
A g e ................. 90 24 -10 -15 -14 10 -04 -11 -14 -06 -12 -04
S ex 06 -21 14 -12 -05 -04 07 -16 -20 -12 ^91 01
Space 28 -07 02 08 -14 15 -24 88 -11 -01 13 01
184
one vocabulary test. Again, the small number of cases
permits no serious speculation over the meaning of the
results, beyond the two group factors, 1st and 2nd which
appear.
Rotated factor matrix for Groups ST and SV
combined. Table 37 shows the results for the combined
groups. This analysis could be expected to give somewhat
clearer results since it was obtained on combined
subjects. The general-verbal-educational-age factor again
appears, and as before does not saturate any of the
created variables, a point of significance worth discus
sion later. Two or more group factors of possible signi
ficance may be seen in factors 2, 3, 5, 7, and 9 of Table
37. Space preserves a tie with vocabulary I and Sex con
tinues to be evident here and there. To summarize,
factor analyses of the correlated variables on sighted
subjects with tactual scores for the created measures
clearly indicate the following:
(1) An independent verbal-educational factor
saturating age as well. Since the vocabulary of a person
is known to continue to strengthen during continued
education and cumulating experience, then it is ^
TABLE 37.
VARIMAX ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX
FOR TACTUAL RESPONSES OF ALL SIGHTED SUBJECTS
Factors
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Similarities 00 48 -05 “02 -12 03 57 -09 -20 -13 10 00
Differences..........-14 48 13 -06 -10 -34 02 -37 -43 06 -14 -03
Parts of the Whole . . 15 15 34 -15 -25 -18 07 -12 -61 -02 05 01
Whole from Its Parts 14 7j5 11 20 -14 -03 -11 -06 -04 02 00 00
Rotated 28 17 36 ^49 10 07 -28 -15 00 25 06 00
Inverted 05 17 24 -03 -09 05-"372 -01 -03 -04 05 00
Mazes ............ 26 -18 -07 18 63 18 00 08 08 12 09 11
Across Space .... -04 33 44 03 21 19 -03 16 -14 05 21 02
Over Time -01 02 73. 05 -14 01 -28 -01 -13 -02 -07 -01
Cubes 10 04 02 16 -75 -02 -04 -10 -09 06 04 06
Vocab I 82 18 -07 00 01 ^42 -11 01 -08 05 19 -05
Vocab I I 91 09 -04 03 13 -21 01 10 -07 -12 05 -01
Education 89 -02 03 -13 -05 02 08 03 12 -02 -14 -04
Total T i m e 22 -07 04 17 15 09 -02 58 09 00 00 00
A g e 81 -06 09 -02 -02 17 -13 21 -10 17 01 11
S e x 03 -21 -09 ^79 02 05 04 -12 -09 -04 -02 00
Space 16 01 -07 08 -12 80 05 -10 -11 -01 -01 00
oo
U i
186
appropriate that age and educational level team with the
two vocabulary tests in the factor shown in all three
analyses.
(2) The created tactual measures appear factori-
ally independent of the verbal-educational factor, in no
case being saturated with it. The variables do not
clearly compose themselves into solid group factors, the
pattern varying between Group ST and SV and not made much
clearer in the combined data. But the independence of
these measures of the verbal-educational factor is
certain.
(3) The factor-pure Space test maintains its
purity in the results, combining with no tactual test and
consorting in a doublet with Vocabulary I.
(4) About sex as a correlated variable, the less
said the better at this time, for the varimax rotation
seems to link it up inconsistently with one or more other
variables.
Rotated factor matrix for Group BL. This matrix
is presented in Chapter VI, Table 23. The same clear
general verbal-educational factor is found for the 22
blind subjects with no usable vision as for the sighted
187
subjects, but with less saturation on Age. In addition,
two non-verbal abilities with the tactual tests are
evident, with one of them saturating education to some
extent. Education did not load on any of the tactual
factors with the sighted subjects.
Rotated factor matrix for Group BR. This is the
material presented in Table 24. With only eight cases no
points perhaps should be made, but the factor picture is
sufficiently like that of the Group BL to warrant at least
inclusion of the table. The evidence of two or more non
verbal factors, independent of the verbal-educational
factor is quite clear.
Rotated factors for combined Groups BL and BR.
This matrix is presented in Table 25. The results of
this table appear to have good meaning. The verbal-
educational factor is certain and clear and is neatly
unloaded on the created tactual tests. For them, a time
factor is evident.
Factor Matrix when all subjects are combined into
one Group. Table 38 contains the factor matrix when all
sixty subjects participating in the project were combined
into one group. Here the general-verbal educational
TABLE 38
VARIMAX ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX
FOR ALL SUBJECTS BLIND OR SIGHTED
F a c t o r s
________ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Similarities 75 -08 -05 -18 -29 05 -07 04 00
Differences.......... 68 -14 -25 -21 -03 -11 01 09 -04
Parts of the Whole . . 26 04 -38 -04 -29 01 -01 40 00
Whole from Its Parts . .51 -15 45 -24 -30 25 05 -01 13
Rotated 37 -26 07 -01 01 11 10 -07
Inverted 03 -19 -71 -01 -23 00 06 -05 07
Mazes -27 -03 28 10 60 -14 03 -08 -02
Across S p a c e........ 44 -08 -42 -27 -21 -21 -35 -06 03
Over Time 14 -04 _ - j 5 7 -13 -16 -13 -29 14 -07
Cubes 16 00 -07 zhl "36 -10 12 -09 -08
Vocab I . . . . . . . . 03 z89 -13 03 04 02 03 -01 09
Vocab I I 09 -07 05 06 13 -05 07 03
Education .i 21 ^78 -24 -12 05 04 00 -11 -18
Total Time . . . . . . -09 -16 15 15 63 21 05 -05 00
Age -05 -36 08 30 14 47 05 01 00
Sex -18 00 01 53 05 05 08 -05 -03
188
189
factor appears without the age component. Two non-verbal
tactual factors emerge convincingly without saturations
from Education, Time, Age or Sex.
Conclusions from the analyses
In spite of the small number of subjects, the
factor analyses permit some conclusions. First, a
general-verbal factor emerges identifiable in all groups.
This is consistent with general expectations. When edu
cational level is placed in the matrix, it loads on this
factor. Age loads on it with the exception of the blind
group with no usable vision and when all subjects are
combined into one group. This is appropriate since
subjects were as young as 15 years of age and still
attending school, and some of the blind subjects had been
"protected" since birth and received very little formal
education.
Second, there is a tendency for the created
tactual measures to be independent, as though they might
sample a variety of independent factors of ability,
resisting as they seem to do: (1) capture by a verbal-
educational factor and (2) combination into group factors.
In contrast, with the blind subjects tactual factors
190
tend to appear but they remain free of the verbal-
educational factor.
Third, a time factor emerges in much of.the data,
though not all. Total test time, the maze scores, and
the cube scores load on it. It is much more clearly
evident in the handicapped than in the sighted subjects,
and suggests either confusion or considerable factor
specificity.
Fourth, the blind subjects show, in addition to
the verbal and time factors, two fairly well defined non
verbal tactual abilities. One saturates Education and
its best test representations seem to have a common
factor of identification (similarities, differences,
whole from its parts, across space, and cubes). The
other is represented best in parts from wholes, inver
sions, and rotations, with respectable loadings in
identification over time (memory).
Fifth, a general conclusion is that the non
verbal non-visuomotor factor make-up in the visually
handicapped subjects is much clearer and more convincing
than in the normals. Whether groups are treated
separately or in combination, this conclusion seems
probable.
Sixth, a conclusion that the tactual tests are
factorially distinct from the vocabulary tests. These
verbal measures therefore cannot be taken as "criteria
for validity" nor perhaps vice versa. Educational level
is factorially associated only with the verbal factor in
sighted subjects, but loads on both the verbal and one
non-verbal factor in the blind. Hence "education" is
hardly an unambiguous criterion for the tactual tests.
Another so-called criterion was Space, known to be
factorially pure. Its purity was maintained in the
sighted subjects. Of course it was not administered to
the blind since it required response to visual
stimulation.
CHAPTER VIII
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Review of the Project
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to make some contri
bution to improved psychometry of the blind. Measures of
mental abilities in which the subject responded to tac
tual stimulation were created and tried out. The project
was limited to the development and selection of measures
over a difficulty level suitable for counseling with
adolescent and adult ages. It was beyond the scope of
this study to make final tests of predictive validity or
to secure extensive norming, although concurrent validity
with other tests was sought on small samples.
Method of Measurement
The procedure for measurement of mental abilities
was the utilization of the capacity of the individual to
perceive and evaluate information received through
manual-tactual stimulation. Items for Sections I through
192
193
IX were made from vinyl floor tile glued to cards of
pressed board, while the material used in Section X was
quarter-inch cubes of sugar pine.
The test sections were planned to measure the
following abilities: I, to identify similar figures;
II, to select the different figure from a group or a
pattern; III, to recognize the parts of a whole; IV, to
recognize the whole from its parts; V, to discern a
figure in a rotated position; VI, to discern a figure
in an inverted position; VII, to find a path to a goal
or to traverse a maze; VIII, to perceive and identify
similar figures across space; IX, to remember figures
over a period of time; and X, to transpose cubes from
one box to another using two fingers and moving only one
cube at a time.
Two vocabulary measures, Parts three of SCAT 2A
and 1A and a space relations measure from the SRA
Primary Mental Abilities test, were selected as
criterion measures.
Sub.j ects
After much preliminary exploration of a consider
able number of items with cooperative subjects, the final
194
test items were settled upon and administered to groups
of blind and sighted subjects. Subjects who were legally
blind did not use the blindfold and were permitted to use
any residual vision they might possess. The group of
blind with no usable vision was designated as Group BL
while the blind subjects who used their residual vision
were labeled Group BR. All sighted subjects responded
tactually and visually to every item. The group of
sighted who responded to tactual stimulation first was
named Group ST. Sighted subjects, who used vision the
first time they responded to the items and the blindfold
for their second performance, were placed in Group SV
Procedures
The test was administered individually to all
subjects and all sighted subjects were tested before the
blind. They were placed in Group ST or SV in accordance
with the letter in the capsule that they selected from a
box of ten, half of which were marked "A" and half "B."
Each person responded to all sections and all items
within the sections in the same order. Alternatives
chosen and the time needed to reach a decision were
recorded for each item.
195
Findings
Time required for testing. The range of time
needed for subjects to decide on which choice met the
demands of the item demonstrated marked differences
between subjects. The difficulty of an item, the subject
responding, and the method of stimulation all influenced
the time required for response to an item or a section.
There was also a great variation in the amount of time
for the subjects to complete the total test as well as
for individual items and sections. Significantly less
time was needed when the subject could see the item than
when he felt of it. The persons who used an extreme
amount of time to make their selections were seldom those
with the most correct responses. Through observation
during the testing process it was noted that subjects
taking the most time were indecisive and that they
finally tended to select a particular alternative not so
much because they felt sure of their decision as because
they no longer were able to feel the differences in the
items so any choice would do. Sighted subjects who
needed the longer times when blindfolded usually used
slightly less than mean time when using vision. The items
196
which were answered correctly by most subjects were
usually those that took the least time for decision.
Item responses. The tallies of item responses
indicated that some items were very easy and others
extremely difficult. The distribution of errors for the
more difficult items was scattered over the various
alternatives and for the less difficult items there was
little consistency in the item of a section and in the
alternatives chosen in error. Some items contributed
nothing to individual differences while in other cases
there was evident need for more difficult items.
Measures of reliability. The split-half tech
nique together with the Spearman-Brown formula for esti
mating reliability from two comparable halves of a test
were used to calculate reliabilities for those sections
of this test which were scored by counting the number of
correct alternatives selected by the subject. These
values varied for the separate sections of the test and
with the group of blind subjects achieving higher rating
than the group of sighted subjects. The reliability
measures obtained for the sections, when the scores of
the blind and the tactual scores of the sighted were
197
treated as one group, ranged from .04 to .58.
When the scores from the various sections were
combined to form one test and reliabilities were com
puted for the different groups and subgroups they were
higher than those obtained for the individual sections.
The lowest reliability rating under these conditions was
a .68 for Group BR, 8 blind subjects who used their
residual vision. The blind subjects with no usable
vision had a rating of .94. The reliability rating was
.84 when all subjects, blind and sighted, were considered
as one group.
Reactions to the test. Various subjects com
mented that they found the test interesting and the test
ing experience enjoyable. Several subjects remarked
about enjoying Section VII, the Mazes, more than any
other section. The first two sections of the test served
a dual function in that they helped the subject orient
himself to the media while he was making decisions re
garding the items.
Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard
deviations. The scores of the various groups and
subgroups were processed to procure correlations, means
198
and standard deviations. The scores of the blind groups
produced higher correlations than those of the sighted.
The differences in the mean scores when the sub
jects responded to the same items under tactual and
yisual conditions were significantly different for the
two groups of sighted subjects and for the total group of
sighted subjects, except in two cases. The mean scores
achieved when the groups responded to visual stimulation
were higher than those attained when the subjects reacted
to the same items using the sense of touch. For the
second section, Differences, the group xvhich responded to
tactual stimulation first was not significantly differ
ent under the two types of stimulation. There were ten
members of this group who made the same score, six making
no errors, under both conditions. Five members of the
group had better scores visually. In the group whose
members responded to tactual stimulation first there were
five persons who made the same score under both condi
tions, four of them making no errors, and ten who made
higher scores under visual conditions. In the sixth
section, Inverted, the group that looked at the items
first had no significant difference in performance under
199
the two conditions. Three members of that group had the
same score visually and tactually, four had better scores
tactually, and eight had better scores visually. Two
subjects in the group who responded to touch first had
the same score under the two methods, one was better
tactually and twelve were better visually.
There was only one case in which significant
differences appeared between the means of the two sighted
groups responding to tactual stimulation and the blind
group with no usable vision. The sighted group that had
seen the items first transferred significantly more cubes
from one box to the other using various combinations of
fingers during thirty second intervals than did the blind.
The difference between the two sighted groups on that
task was not significant.
Mean scores were usually higher when the subject
responded to visual rather than tactual stimulation.
Group mean scores tended to follow similar general pat
terns under the two conditions. When the range between
a plus and minus one standard deviation were compared
there was a substantial overlap among the various groups
responding to the same type of stimulation. The overlap
200
was much less pronounced when the groups responded to
different stimulus conditions.
Factor analytic findings. Principal component
factor analyses with varimax orthogonal rotations were
performed. (1) A general-verbal-educational factor
appeared in all groups. Age as a correlated variable
loaded on this factor for the sighted groups, but not so
much for the blind. (2) None of the created tactual
measures loaded on this factor for any group, showing
that the measures appeared to sample other than the
verbal-educational ability. (3) Factor organization was
unclear on the sighted subjects for the tactual tests,
the findings tending to be singlet and doublet factors
not easy to interpret, except that perhaps in one case
figural memory may have emerged. But for the blind there
appeared to be two interpretable group factors which may
be tentatively identified as discrimination of shapes and
visualization of movement of figures through space.
(4) The Space test, which was factorially pure in its
preparation, was given the sighted subjects. It tended to
remain factorially aloof from the tactual tests, suggest
ing independence of visual and tactual domains, just as
201
the latter seemed factorially apart from the verbal.
Conclusions
Within the limitations of this study it is
possible to arrive at some conclusions regarding these
measures and their value. The conclusions will be pre
sented as emerging from the answers to the questions
raised in the presentation of the problem.
Conclusion One. "Can figural materials, to be
reacted to from touch,be employed for intelligence test
items?" The results achieved by sighted and blind sub
jects to the measures developed in this project indicate
that three dimensional figural materials can be used
successfully as test items. The size of the form and the
complexity of the shape of the figures influenced the
speed and ease of selecting an alternative for an item.
There are variations from item to item and from person to
person. The validity of the measures as "intelligence"
is considered below. The conclusion is reached, that
figural materials, to be reacted to from touch, can be
used to study differences betxveen individuals.
Conclusion Two. "Can useful ranges of individual
202
differences in ability to react adaptively with such
materials be found?" The scores of blind and sighted
subjects responding to tactual stimulation vary between
and within sections. Group scores being compared tend
to follow the same general patterning. Therefore, it
appears that useful ranges of individual differences do
emerge. It is concluded that useful ranges of individual
differences will emerge when subjects respond to tactual
figural materials.
Conclusion Three. "Will such distributions be
those of ’intelligence1; that is, can they be shown to
correlate with measures of accepted validity?" The
measures chosen for use as criterion measures in this
project emerged as separate factors. Since the tactual
tests are factorially distinct from the vocabulary test
the latter cannot be taken.as criterion measures. The
Space Relations test was included for the sighted sub
jects and it also emerged factor pure. The intercorrela
tions between these "criterion" measures and the tactual
measures were negligible and so it is impossible to
conclude that the distributions achieved on the tactual
measures are those of "intelligence" except on a logical
203
basis.
Conclusion Four. "Do these items measure dif
ferent abilities or do all of the items measure the same
thing?" Factor analyses show two non-verbal non-visual
factors appearing when tactual responses of all subjects,
blind and sighted, are considered. This trend is more
pronounced for the visually handicapped than for the
normal. On this basis it is concluded that the items do
measure different abilities. These factors are judged,
from the tests loading on them, to be the ability to
discriminate shapes of figures and the ability to visua
lize figures and movement of figures in space. There is
a hint that memory and manipulative factors would appear
if more subjects were used.
Conclusion Five. "Will tactual tests have relia
bility?" Variations from section to section of this test
are shown in the reliability measures achieved in this
study. When all subjects are considered as one group
they range from .04 to .58 which implies that some sec
tions should be revised to increase their reliability.
When the scores from the several sections are combined
and considered as one test the reliabilities measured by
204
groups are much higher than they were by sections and
range from .68 to ,94. These measures suggest that
tactual tests can have reliability.
Conclusion Six. "Will there be significant
differences in scores when the subjects respond to the
items using tactual and visual stimulation?" The differ
ences in mean scores when subjects respond to the same
items under visual and tactual conditions are signifi
cant . Group patterning tends to be similar even though
the responses to visual and tactual stimulation differ
significantly. This suggests the conclusion that the
ability to respond to tactual stimulation could be
developed and improved by conscious training for
confidence in acceptance of impressions.
Conclusion Seven; "Will individual differences
be apparent in the answer patterns of different sub
jects?" Individual differences were apparent in the
answer patterns of section scores as well as in the tal
lies of responses to specific items and in the time
needed to reach decisions. The conclusion drawn from
these differences is that the media employed rn testing
does not destroy variations in response to stimuli.
205
Stated somewhat differently, the conclusion is reached
that regardless of the mode of stimulation, individual
differences will appear when different persons respond to
the same items.
Conclusion Eight. "Will the performance of a
group of blind persons parallel that of a group of
sighted persons reacting to tactual stimulation?" Blind
folded sighted persons and legally blind individuals
showed a remarkable similarity of performance except in
the cases of those legally blind subjects who retained
sufficient residual vision to influence performance. The
conclusion is that whether a person is sighted or blind
he can gain information through the sense of touch and
make decisions on the basis of that information.
Conclusion Nine. "Are Age, Sex, Education, and
Total Time for tactual sections important factors in
influencing performance?" Age, Sex, Education, and Total
Time failed to be important factors in the responses to
tactual items in this project. Age and Education were
closely correlated with the verbal factor. Sex and Total
Time failed to emerge as important in the analysis of the
results of this study. Therefore it is concluded that
206
none of these variables plays an important role in
responses of subjects aged fifteen and above, to items
which depend on tactual stimulation.
Conclusion Ten. "Do the items in this study dis
criminate or are they too easy or too difficult?" Item
response analysis reveals that some items are too easy,
that some sections need new items developed, and that in
most sections the order of presentation should be
altered. The conclusion follows that items of this type
are valuable but must be tried out to determine their
appropriateness for a specific purpose.
Conclusion Eleven. When the total project is
considered it is impossible to assert emphatically that
specific factors are tapped by these measures. The
results achieved by the small number of subjects tested
in this study lead one to conclude, however, that speci
fic factors are being assessed. One factor which seems
to be indicated is the ability to discriminate tactually
between figures of different shapes and sizes. Another
factor appears to be related to the ability to visualize
figures or designs which are moved or being moved
through space.
207
Recommendations
On the basis of the results achieved with these
measures, the conclusions drawn from them, and the need
for improved psychometry of the blind, certain recom
mendations are made with regard to these measures.
Recommendation One. Although it has not been
shown that these items correlate with life success, train
ing for blindhood, or vocational and educational success,
a potential value is found in them since individual
differences appear and they present "face" validity. It
is, therefore, recommended that research be continued.
There would be several directions that the research could
take including the following.
1. Improve the measures; that is, change them
mechanically so that it is easier for the subject to find
the figures and to recognize the salient points. This
should include spacing, arrangement on the base card,
number of possible alternatives, and clear, accurate
cut-out figures.
2. Arrange the items in order of least to most
difficult. The sections could be rearranged in the order
of Similarities, Differences, Across Space, Over Time
208
and Cubes, Parts of the Whole, the Whole from Its Parts,
Rotated, Inverted, and Mazes.
3. Eliminate items which have not proved to be
discriminative and add more difficult ones to replace
them. Sections named Similarities, Differences, Across
Space and Over Time are most in need of this type of
revision.
4. Standardize the administration, scoring, and
interpretation. Directions should be clearly stated and
the subjects helped to locate and not miss any of the
alternatives. Requirements should be flexible since many
of the blind are newly or multiplely handicapped. It is
suggested that since large numbers of blind persons are
seldom concentrated in an area, sighted subjects be used.
All subjects, blind included, should be blindfolded so
that each person is forced to respond to all items
tactually.
Recommendation Two. Although vinyl floor tile has
been very satisfactory in this study it is heavy and the
total test weighs considerable. Therefore, it is sug
gested that a commercial media, which is durable and
light weight, be sought for the items. The figures must
209
stand out from the background without cutting or antagon
izing the subject. The standardized test could then be
reproduced for use in schools, hospitals, rehabilitation
centers, and for workers with the blind.
Recommendation Three. No time limits should be
used with these measures. The purpose of this set of
items is not to measure achievement, per se, but to
search for potential abilities that the subject could
utilize.
Recommendation Four. It is felt that these
measures should continue to be administered individually.
At the present time, there is no provision by which the
subject can record his own choice of alternative. Valu
able clues concerning the subject's total situation can
be obtained by the tester when he is concentrating on
just one subject. The need to compete with others is
eliminated with individual testing.
Recommendation Five. Items of this type should
be studied for use as teaching devices with exceptional
children.
Recommendation Six. An effort should be made to
extend downward the age groups responding to these test
210
items. In the lower grades it might be feasible to
administer only certain sections of the test, such as
Similarities and Differences. Then as the pupils advance
in school other sections could be included in a testing
program.
Recommendation Seven. Observation of the manner
in which subjects responded to tactual stimulation sug
gest the following. Blind persons, especially, should be
encouraged to have confidence in their ability to handle
stimulation received through the sense of touch. Many
blind persons need to be inspired to study a situation
and arrive at a conclusion about it without using undue
time in the process. Care should be taken that they do
not feel rushed but vacilating should be discouraged.
R E F E R E N C E S
212
1.
2 .
3.
4.
5.
6 .
7.
8.
9.
10.
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A P P E N D I X
219
TABLE 39
RESPONSES MADE TO ITEMS IN SECTION I BY THE SEPARATE
GROUPS OF SUBJECTS UNDER THE VARIOUS CONDITIONS,
WITH CORRECT RESPONSE INDICATED BY PARENTHESIS,
AND MEAN TIME OF RESPONSE
Groupa
Condi
tion^
• *
1
Choices
2 3 4
(5) Time
ST T 1 0 0 0 14 17.9
Item ST V 0 0 0 0 15 1.7
number SV T
1
0 0 0 14 11.6
1 SV V 0 0 0 0 15 2.3
BL T 2 0 0 1 19 14.3
BR B 0 0 0 0 8 8.3
• • • •
1
(2)
3 4 5
ST T 0 12 1 2 0 17.6
Item ST V 0 11 4 0 0 1.9
number SV T 0 14 1 0 0 11.0
2 SV V 0 13 2 0 0 1.8
BL T 0 22 0 0 0 15.0
BR B 0 8 0 0 0 3.9
1 2 3 (4) 5
ST T 0 0 0 15 0 16.8
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 1.6
number SV T 0 0 1 13 1 11.3
3 SV V 0 0 0 15 0 1.7
BL
T 0 0 0 21 1 14.2
BR B 0 0 0 8 0 6.5
1 2 3 4 5 (6)
ST T 0 0 0 0 0 15 15.5
Item ST V 0 0 0 0 0 15 1.2
number SV T 0 0 0 0 2 13 12.5
4 SV V 0 0 0 0 0 15 1.8
BL T 0 0 0 0 1 21 15.0
BR B 0 0 0 0 0 8 3.5
TABLE 39--Continued
220
Group3
Condi
tion^ 1
1
2
Choices
_ *31.
4 5 Time
ST T 0 0 14 0 1 17.1
Item ST V 00 0 15 0 0
1.3
number SV T 0 0 15 0 0 9.9
5 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 1.4
BL T 0 1 20 0 1
13.5
BR B 0 0 8 0 0
1.9
1
(2) 3 4 5
ST T 2 12 0 0 1 16.9
Item ST V 0 15 0 0 0 1.1
number SV T 0 15 0 0 0 11.7
6 SV V 0 15 0 0 0 1.4
BL T 1 21 0 0 0 11.5
BR B 0 7 1 0 0 2.1
(1)
2 3 4 5
ST T 15 0 0 0 0 15.7
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 1.4
number SV T 15 0 0 0 0 14.6
7 SV V 15 0 0 0 0 1.5
BL T 21 0 0 0 0 13.5
BR B 7 1 0 0 0 3.3
1 2 3 4 (5) 6
ST T 1 3 0 3 8 0 29.1
Item ST V 0 0 0 0 15 0 2.4
number SV T 0 3 0 5 7 0 28.2
8 SV V 0 1 0 1 13 0 2.4
BL T 2 4 0 5 11 0 20.1
BR B 0 2 0 1 5 0 7.4
1 2 3
(4)
5 6
ST T 0 0 0 15 0 0 17.5
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 0 1.1
number SV T 0 0 0 15 0 0 14.4
9 SV V 0 0 0 15 0 0 1.3
BL T 0 0 0 21c 0 0 13.0
BR B 0 0 0 8 0 0 4.3
TABLE 39--Continued
221
Groupa
Condi
tion^* 1
Choices
2 (3) 4 5 Time
ST T 1 7 7 0 0 24.8
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 2.9
number SV T 0 6 9 0 0 16.1
10 SV V 0 2 13 0 0 2.1
BL T 0 12 10 0 0 27.6
BR B 0 0 8 0 0 10.1
1 2
.(3).
4
. 3.. . .
ST T 0 4 11 0 0 25.9
Item ST V 0 1 14 0 0 2.4
number SV T 0 4 11 0 0 26.1
11 SV V 0 2 13 0 0 2.3
BL T 0 5 17 0 0 20.8
BR B
0 3 5 0 0 6.8
(1).
2
. 3 .
4
. 5 . . .
ST T 6 1 1 0 7 38.6
Item ST V 13 0 0 0 2 2.9
number SV T 10 2 2 0 1 23.3
12 SV V 14 0 0 0 1 2.7
BL T 16 1 0 1 4 34.4
BR B 8 0 0 0 0 8.3
1
(2)
. 3
4
. 5 . . .
ST T 1 10 2 2 0 38.5
Item ST V 0 14 0 1 0 2.7
number SV T 0 8 6 0 1 22.9
13 SV V 0 15 0 0 0 3.1
BL T 2 13 5 1 1 40.3
BR B 0 8 0 0 0 9.5
a Group refers to scores being considered. ST responded
to tactual stimulation first, SV to visual first. BL
the blind with no usable vision and BR had residual
vision.
k Condition refers to type of stimulation: "T" tactual,
"V” visual, "B" both,
c One blind subject unable to decide on any choice for
Item 9.
222
TABLE 40
RESPONSES MADE TO ITEMS IN SECTION II BY THE SEPARATE
GROUPS OF SUBJECTS UNDER THE VARIOUS CONDITIONS,
WITH CORRECT RESPONSE INDICATED BY PARENTHESIS,
AND MEAN TIME OF RESPONSE
Group3
Condi-
tionb 1
Choices
__2 O) 4 _ 5 Time
ST T 1 0 14 0 0 12.3
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 1.5
Number SV T 00 0 15 0 0 8.2
1 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 1.4
BL T 0 0 21 0 1 11.4
BR B 0 0 8 0 0 2.4
1 2 3
(4)
5
ST T 0 0 0 15 0 20.9
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 1.6
number SV T 0 0 0 15 0 17.9
2 SV V 0 0 0 15 0 1.9
BL T 0 0 1 21 0 18.9
BR B 0 0 0 8 0 2.9
1 2
3 4. .(5). . .
ST T 0 0 2 0 13 24.0
Item ST V 0 0 0 0 15 1.9
number SV T 0 0 0 1 14 12.3
3 SV V 0 0 0 0 15 1.9
BL T 0 0 0 0 22 14.6
BR B 0 0 0 0 8 2.8
1 2 3
(4)
5
ST T 1 1 1 12 0 26.9
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 2.4
number SV T 0 1 1 12 1 20.8
4 ST V 0 0 0 15 0 2.1
BL T 2 0 0 18 2 27.5
BR B 0 0 0 8 0 5.3
TABLE 40--Continued
223
Group3
Condi
tion^ 1 2
(3) 4 5 Time
ST T 0 0 15 0 0 16.9
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 1.3
number SV T 0 0 15 0 0 12.7
5 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 1.3
BL T 0 0 22 0 0 14.2
BR B 0 0 8 0 0 2.3
(1)
2
3
4
5
ST T 14 0 0 1 0 19.9
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 2.6
number SV T 15 0 0 0 0 13.0
6 SV V 14 0 1 0 0 3.6
BL T 20 1 0 0 1 17.0
BR B 8 0 0 0 0 4.5
(1)
2 3 4 5
ST T 15 0 0 0 0 22.9
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 1.4
number SV T 15 0 0 0 0 14.3
7 SV V 15 0 0 0 0 1.8
BL T 20c 0 1 0 1 19.3
BR B 8 0 0 0 0 3.5
1
(2) . 3
4
5
ST T 1 12 l 0 0 33.2
Item ST V 0 15 0 0 0 2.2
number SV T 0 14 0 1 0 13.5
8 SV V 0 14 1 0 0 2.1
BL T 0 20c 0 1 0 20.6
BR B 0 8 0 0 0 5.8
1 2
(3)
4 5 6
ST T 0 0 15 0 0 0 25.0
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 0 1.6
number SV T 0 0 15 0 0 0 13.5
9 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 0 1.5
BL T 0 1 21 0 0 0 17.1
BR B 0 1 7 0 0 0 3.1
TABLE 40--Continued
224
Condi-
Group3 tionb 1
(2) 3 4 5 6 Time
ST T 0 14 0 1 0 0 18.4
Item ST V 0 15 0 0 0 0 1.5
number SV T 0 13 0 0 1 1 17 .9
10 SV V 0 15 0 0 0 0 1.5
BL T 0 20 1 0 0 1 17.5
BR B 0 8 0 0 0 0 2.5
2 3 4 5
(6)
ST
i j t
0 1 1 1 0 12 26.7
Item ST V 0 0 1 0 0 14 2.0
number SV T 0 0 0 1 1 13 27.7
11 SV V 0 0 0 0 0 15 2.0
BL T 2 0 2 0 2 16 24.5
BR B 0 0 0 0 0 8 3.0
\
2
3
4
5 . (6) .
ST T 0 2 0 2 0 11 35.7
Item ST V 0 1 0 0 0 14 1.9
number SV T 1 0 0 0 0 14 23.1
12 SV V 0 0 0 0 0 15 2.0
BL T 1 2 0 0 0 19 28.9
BR B 0 0 0 0 1 7 6.9
1
(2) ,
. 3 4. 5
6 .
ST T 0 12 0 0 2 1 28.6
Item ST V 0 15 0 0 0 0 2.5
number SV T 0 14 1 0 0 0 22.8
13 SV V 0 13 1 0 1 0 2.5
BL T 1 18 1 1 0 1 23.5
BR B 0 8 0 0 0 0 9.1
- Group refers to scores being considered. ST responded
to tactual stimulation first, SV to visual first. BL
the blind with no usable vision and BR had residual
vision.
k Condition refers to type of stimulation: "T" tactual,
"V" visual, "B” both.
c One blind subject unable to decide on any choice for
Item 9.
22.5
TABLE 41
RESPONSES MADE TO ITEMS IN SECTION III BY THE SEPARATE
GROUPS OF SUBJECTS UNDER THE VARIOUS CONDITIONS,
WITH CORRECT RESPONSE INDICATED BY PARENTHESIS,
AND MEAN TIME OF RESPONSE
Group3
Condi
tion^
(1)
2 3 4 5 Time
ST T 8 2 0 5 0 55.9
Item ST V 13 0 0 0 2 4.5
number SV T 7 5 0 2 1 41.1
1 SV V 13 0 0 0 2 4.0
BL T 14 4 0 3 1 56.7
BR B 7 1 0 0 0 11.9
. 1 .
2
,.4. ,
. 5 . . .
ST T 0 0 14 0 1 46.9
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 2.3
number SV T 0 0 14 0 1 32.4
2 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 2.2
BL T 0 1 19 0 2 32.9
BR B 0 1 7 0 0 4.9
. i .
2
O)
4
. 5 . .
ST T 0 0 14 1 0 38.3
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 2.0
number SV T 2 0 13 0 0 24.9
3 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 2.1
BL T 2 0 18 2 0 34.5
BR B 1 0 7 0 0 6.1
1 2 3 5
ST T 3 0 1 11 0 40.3
Item ST V 0 0 0 13 2 5.3
number SV T 1 1 0 10 3 35.4
4 SV V 3 0 0 12 0 4.7
BL T 2 1 1 17 1 42.2
BR B 0 0 0 8 0 11.6
TABLE 41--Continued
226
Group
Condi-
tionb 1 2
(3) 4 5 Time
ST T 4 0 6 0 5 58.7
Item ST V 0 0 14 0 1 3.6
number SV T 4 1 6 2 2 40.2
5 SV V 1 0 13 0 1 4.1
BL T 5 0 16 0 1 62.9
BR B 0 0 4 0 4 14.4
I
2
3
4
(5)
ST T 3 1 3 0 8 48.5
Item ST V 0 0 0 0 15 2.3
number SV T. 2 0 1 3 9 40.7
6 SV V 0 0 1 0 14 2.3
BL T 4 0 4 2 12 64.4
BR B 0 0 0 0 8 15.1
(1)
2
3
4
5
ST T 9 0 4 2 0 66.7
Item ST V 12 0 3 0 0 5.4
number SV T 10 2 2 1 0 49.7
7 SV V 9 0 6 0 0 4.8
BL T 13 1 7 1 0 73.1
BR B 5 0 3 0 0 21.6
• • * * • * • t • . ; .
.2 . . 3 . .4. .(3). * * • « « *
ST T 0 3 0 3 9 76.0
Item ST V 0 2 0 0 13 4.7
number SV T 0 1 1 2 11 40.4
8 SV V 0 1 0 0 14 3.3
BL T 1 1 0 4 16 65.7
BR B 0 0 0 0 8 20.5
; . (2) . 3
4
5
ST T 0 4 3 2 6 51.2
Item ST V 0 13 0 1 1 3.7
number SV T 0 8 3 1 3 42.5
9 SV V 0 13 0 2 0 3.9
BL T 1 6 6 7 2 59.9
BR B 0 5 0 3 0 19.0
TABLE 41--Continued
227
Groupa
Condi
tion1 5 1 2 3 (4) 5 Time
ST T 1 1 4 5 4 74.3
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 7.3
number SV T 1 5 2 5 2 68.7
10 SV V 1 0 0 11 3 7.1
BL T 2 3 2 12 3 76.7
BR B 0 0 1 6 1 24.6
1 . (2) . 3
.4.
. 5 . . .
ST T 3 9 l 0 2 94.5
Item ST V 1 13 0 0 1 6.9
number SV T 0 8 0 3 4 72.3
11 SV V 0 14 0 0 1 7.4
BL T 3 14 0 1 4 88.8
BR B 1 6 1 0 0 32.1
(I)
2
3
.4.
. 5 . . .
ST T 5 3 1 6 0 72.4
Item ; ST V 10 3 0 2 0 8.7
number SV T 8 5 1 0 1 55.4
12 SV V 8 4 0 3 0 8.0
BL T 10 6 1 2 3 67.9
BR B 1 4 2 1 0 25.6
Group refers to the scores being considered at this time.
ST is the group of sighted subjects which responded to
tactual stimulation first, SV is the sighted subjects
responding to visual stimulation first. BL is the blind
with no usable vision and BR is the blind who used their
residual vision.
^Condition refers to the type of stimulation. "Tn means
the subject responded to tactual stimulation. "V" refers
to the response to visual stimulation. "B, r refers to
the response to both types of stimulation by the group
of blind with residual vision.
228
TABLE 42
RESPONSES MADE TO ITEMS IN SECTION IV BY THE SEPARATE
GROUPS OF SUBJECTS UNDER THE VARIOUS CONDITIONS,
WITH CORRECT RESPONSE INDICATED BY PARENTHESIS,
AND MEAN TIME OF RESPONSE
Group3
Condi-
b
tion 1 2
Choices
(3) 4 5 Time
ST T 2 0 13 0 0 29.5
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 2.0
number SV T 0 0 15 0 0 21.2
1 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 1.5
BL T 1 0 21 0 0 26.0
BR B 0 0 8 0 0 3.0
;
2
3 .
(4)
. 5
ST T i 0 0 13 0 32.9
Item ST V 0 0 1 14 0 2.3
number SV T 0 0 0 15 0 35.6
2 SV V 0 0 0 15 0 2.0
BL T 0 3 3 16 0 23.9
BR B 0 1 0 7 0 5.4
I
2
. 3 .
4
.(5). . .
ST T 0 2 0 0 13 35.6
Item ST V 0 0 0 0 15 3.0
number SV T 1 2 0 0 12 30.9
3 SV V 0 0 0 0 15 2.7
BL T 2 1 0 0 19 28.8
BR B 0 0 0 0 8 10.5
1 2 (3)c
4 5
ST T 1 1 11 1 0 54.3
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 2.3
number SV T 2 2 9 2 0 44.9
4 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 2.9
BL T 2 0 17 2 1 48.1
BR B 1 0 6 1 0 8.9
TABLE 42--Continued
229
Group3
Condi
tion*3 I 2 3 (4) 5 Time
ST T 0 3 6 5 1 46 .5
Item ST V 0 0 3 12 0 4.9
number SV T 0 4 7 4 0 32.9
5 SV V 0 0 6 9 0 3.4
BL T 0 3 5 14 0 39.1
BR B 0 0 4 4 0 18.6
1 2 (3) 4 5
ST T 0 5 10 0 0 38.7
Item ST V 0 2 13 0 0 3.1
number SV T 0 3 11 1 0 35.2
6 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 2.5
BL T 0 3 17 0 2 42.1
BR B 0 1 6 1 0 15.6
I .
(2) . 3 4
. 5... . .
ST T 1 9 0 1 4 62.7
Item ST V 0 15 0 0 0 3.9
number SV T 1 9 0 2 3 58.7
7 SV V 0 15 0 0 0 4.0
BL T 4 13 0 1 4 52.6
BR B 0 8 0 0 0 27.4
(1).
2
3
4
. 5 . , .
ST T 7 2 5 0 l 42.7
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 2.2
number SV T 11 1 1 1 l 46.7
8 SV V 15 0 0 0 0 2.0
BL T 9 5 4 0 4 50.7
BR B 7 0 1 0 0 8.6
« • « . ; .
.2.
. 3 . .4. .(5). .
ST T 4 0 8 1 2 62! 7
Item ST V 1 0 1 0 13 5.9
number SV T 2 1 3 6 3 65.3
9 SV V 1 0 1 2 11 3.7
BL T 3 1 6 7 5 57 .0
BR B 2 0 1 1 4 18.3
230
TABLE 42--Continued
Groupa
Condi
tionb 1 2 3 (4) 5 Time
ST T 1 0 6 8 0 45.9
Item ST V 0 0 6 9 0 4.3
number SV T 0 2 4 9 0 46 .4
10 SV V 0 0 7 8 0 5.0
BL T
1
4 8 9 0 49.1
BR B 0 0 1 7 0 27.0
(1)
2
3
.4.
. 3 . . .
ST T 8 0 7 0 0 35.3
Item ST V 14 0 1 0 0 2.9
number SV T 9 1 5 0 0 32.6
11 SV V 8 2 5 0 0 3.3
BL T 11 1 10 0 0 45.3
BR B 5 0 3 0 0 11.9
1 . (2) . 3
.4.
. 3 . . .
ST T 2 8 4 0 1 48.1
Item ST V 0 14 1 0 0 2.9
number SV T 0 13 2 0 0 33.2
12 SV V 0 14 1 0 0 3.5
BL T 0 11 9 1 1 49.8
BR B 0 7 1 0 0 12.4
a Group refers to the specific group responding. ST is
the group of sighted subjects who responded to tactual
stimulation first. SV is the sighted subjects respond
ing to visual stimulation first. BL is the group of
blind subjects with no usable vision. BR is those blind
persons who used their residual vision.
b Conditions refers to the type of stimulation. T means
tactual, V means visual, and B means both.
c One member of the sighted group whose members felt of
the items first was unable to select any of the alter
natives for item number 4.
TABLE 43
231
RESPONSES MADE TO ITEMS IN SECTION V BY THE SEPARATE
GROUPS OF SUBJECTS UNDER THE VARIOUS CONDITIONS,
WITH CORRECT RESPONSE INDICATED BY PARENTHESIS,
AND MEAN TIME OF RESPONSE
Groupa
Condi
tion*3 1
(2)
Choices
3 4 5 Time
ST T 0 - 13 1
r\
\J 1 41.1
Item ST V 0 15 0 0 0 8.1
number SV T 0 14 0 0 1 28.7
1 SV V 0 12 3 0 0 7.7
BL T 2 16 3 0 1 48.8
BR B 0 8 0 0 0 23.8
1 2 3 4 (5)
ST T 1 0 0 1 13 43.7
Item ST V 0 0 1 0 14 4.9
number SV t : 0 1 0 0 14 27.9
2 SV V 0 0 0 0 15 6.7
BL T 0 2 1 4 15 50.1
BR B 0 0 1 0 7 33.1
.(1)
2
3
4
. 5 .
ST T 13 1 0 1 0 63.2
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 7.6
number SV T 11 1 0 1 2 57.7
3 SV V 14 1 0 0 0 7.1
BL T 16 1 1 3 1 59.0
BR B 6 0 0 2 0 43.0
1 2
3
4.
5 .
(6) . « * *
ST T 0 1 1 1 0 12 57.4
Item ST V 0 0 1 0 0 14 6 .5
number SV T 2 0 1 1 1 10 44.7
4 SV V 0 0 1 2 0 12 6.3
BL T 1 1 4 1 0 15 49.5
BR B 0 1 0 0 0 7 18.0
TABLE 43--Continued
232
X5roupa
Condi
tion1 3 I
(2)
3 4 5 6
ST T 2 8 1 2 1 1 60.5
Item ST V 0 15 0 0 0 0 5.4
number SV T 1 13 0 1 0 0 43.6
5 SV V 2 13 0 0 0 0 5.4
BL T 1 16 3 0 0 2 56.0
BR B 1 6 0 0 1 0 20.5
(1)
2 3 4 5
ST T 12 0 0 1 2 68.9
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 4.9
number SV T 12 1 2 0 0 62.1
6 SV V 15 0 0 0 0 5.5
BL T 16 1 2 1 2 58.3
BR B 7 1 0 0 0 33.0
1 2 (3) 4 5
ST T 1 1 12 1 0 40.5
Item ST V 1 0 14 0 0 5.5
number SV T 0 4 11 0 0 37.9
7 SV V 1 1 13 0 0 5.5
BL T 0 2 16 1 3 55.0
BR B 1 0 4 1 2 35.5
1 2 3 4 (5)
ST T 2 1 3 2 7 51.7
Item ST V 0 0 3 1 11 10.3
number SV T 2 1 5 2 5 50.1
8 SV V 2 0 2 2 9 10.7
BL T 4 2 2 2 12 57.6
BR B 0 1 0 2 5 33.4
■ • * « • • . ; .
2.
. 3 .
(4) . 5
ST T 2 0 1 12 0 52.1
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 5.3
number SV T 0 0 1 14 0 40.8
9 SV V 0 0 1 14 0 6.2
BL T 0 3 1 13 5 67.3
BR B 0 2 0 6 0 23.5
TABLE 43--Continued
233
Group3
Condi
tion*5 1 2
(3)
4 5
j
ST T 0 2 11 1 1 53.5
Item ST V 2 0 11 1 1 9.9
number SV T 2 4 7 1 1 42.7
10 SV V 1 1 12 1 0 7.2
BL T 0 0 10 6 6 84.7
BR B 1 0 5 2 0 42.1
\
2
3
4
5 (6) .
ST T 0 0 0 0 5 10 50.4
Item ST V 2 0 0 1 0 12 6.1
number SV T 1 1 2 0 2 9 52.9
11 SV V 1 1 0 1 0 12 8.1
BL T 0 1 3 1 1 16 71.9
BR B 1 0 0 0 0 7 25.4
i
2
. 3 .
(4) 5
ST T
3 3 5 1 3 60.4
Item ST V 3 0 1 9 2 12.5
number SV T 3 3 3 3 3 55.9
12 SV V 4 0 2 6 3 9.7
BL T 5 1 4 7C 2 91.1
BR B 1 1 0 4 2 47 .6
a Group refers to the responses made by the members of
specific groups. ST is that group of sighted subjects
which responded to tactual stimulation first. SV is
the sighted subjects responding to visual stimulation
first. BL is the blind with no usable vision; and BR
is the blind who used their residual vision.
k Condition refers to the type of stimulation. T means
the subject responded to tactual stimulation. V refers
to the response to visual stimulation. B refers to the
response to both types of stimulation by the group of
blind with residual vision.
c One blind subject was unable to decide on any of the
choices offered for item 12.
234
TABLE 44
RESPONSES MADE TO ITEMS IN SECTION VI BY THE SEPARATE
GROUPS OF SUBJECTS UNDER THE VARIOUS CONDITIONS,
WITH CORRECT RESPONSE INDICATED BY PARENTHESIS,
AND MEAN TIME OF RESPONSE
Groupa Condition*31 2
Choices
3 4 (5) 6 7 Time
ST T 0 0 0 2 13 28.7
Item ST V 0 0 1 1 13 7.9
number SV T 0 0 0 1 14 24.1
1 SV V 0 0 1 1 13 7 .9
BL T 0 2 1 2 17 33.7
BR B 0 2 0 2 4 26.3
1 2
(3)
4 5
ST T 0 1 14 0 0 27.9
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 3.9
number SV T 0 0 15 0 0 21.5
2 SV V 0 0 14 0 1 3.8
BL T 1 1 19 0 1 34.4
BR B 0 0 7 0 1 16.8
(1)
2 3 4 . 5. . .
ST T 5 3 1 5 1 72.4
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 8.7
number SV T 10 1 1 3 0 21.5
3 SV V 14 0 1 0 0 6.1
BL T 16 2 1 1 2 64.0
BR B 4 1 3 0 0 27.1
1
(2)
3 4 5
ST T 1 10 1 2 1 46.7
Item ST V 0 10 4 0 1 9.3
number SV T 1 11 3 0 0 53.7
4 SV V 1 9 3 1 1 8.1
BL T 1 17 1 2 1 48.3
BR B 1 5 2 0 0 18.3
TABLE 44--Continued
235
Group3 Condition^* I 2 3 (4) 5
Time
ST T 0 0 0 14 1 49.4
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 5.4
number SV T 0 0 0 15 0 35.1
5 SV V 0 2 0 13 0 7.6
BL T 0 1 1 19 1 51.9
BR B 0 0 0 8 0 20.5
1 2
(3)
4 5
ST T 3 1 5 1 5 93.0
Item ST V 1 0 12 1 1 9.9
number SV T 0 2 6 7 0 68.3
6 SV V 0 2 11 0 2 9.7
BL T 4 2 8 3 4 96.7
BR B 3 0 4 1 0 47 .4
1
(2)
3 4 5
ST T 4 7 0 2 2 65.9
Item ST V 0 15 0 0 0 6.7
number SV T 0 11 0 1 3 45.0
7 SV V 1 13 0 0 1 6.1
BL T 6 9 4 2 1 89.0
BR B 3 5 0 0 0 12.1
1 2 3 4
.(5). .
ST T 2 1 1 1 10 51.9
Item ST V 1 0 1 1 12 12.5
number SV T 1 1 1 2 10 49.9
8 SV V 2 1 0 1 11 9.0
BL T 5 4 3 2 8 57.6
BR B 1 1 0 2 4 25.3
I 2 (3) 4 5
ST T 0 0 15 0 0 42.7
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 6.9
number SV T 0 1 12 2 0 64.8
9 SV V 0 0 13 1 1 7.1
BL T 2 1 17 1 1 64.6
BR B 2 0 6 0 0 ' 23.6
236
TABLE 44--Continued
Groupa Condition*5 1 2 3
W
5 Time
ST T 0 0 0 14 1 52.4
Item ST V 0 0 0 12 3 7.3
number SV T 0 0 0 13 2 49.7
10 SV V 2 0 0 13 0 5.7
BL T 1 1 0 18 2 55.4
BR B 0 0 1 7 0 19.1
1
(2)
3 4 5
ST T 0 14 0 1 0 68.9
Item ST V 1 14 0 0 0 7.7
number SV T 2 12 0 0 1 53.6
11 SV V 0 14 0 0 1 5.4
BL T 0 17 2 0 3 63.3
BR B 0 7 0 0 1 31.3
U)
2 3 4 5 6 7
ST T 7 1 3 1 0 3 0 74.1
Item ST V 14 0 0 0 0 0 1 7.7
number SV T 7 2 3 1 0 0 2 69.0
12 SV V 12 1 1 0 0 0 1 5.7
BL T 11 7 1 0 0 3 0 79.8
BR B 6 0 0 0 0 0 2 24.4
a Group refers to the specific group responding ST is
the group of sighted subjects who responded to tactual
stimulation first. SV is the sighted subjects respond
ing to visual stimulation first. BL is the group of
blind subjects with no usable vision. BR is those blind
subjects who used their residual vision.
Condition refers to the type of stimulation. T means
tactual, V means visual, and B means both.
c One blind subject was unable to decide on any of the
alternatives offered for item 6.
237
TABLE 45
DISTRIBUTIONS OF TIME REQUIREMENT IN SECONDS TO TRAVERSE
EACH MAZE THREE TIMES BY VARIOUS GROUPS UNDER
SPECIFIC CONDITIONS
Group Condition 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-30
Mean
Time
ST T 0 1 9 3 2 15.6
Maze ST V 14 1 0 0 0 4.0
number SV T 1 7 6 1 0 10.4
1 SV V 11 4 0 0 0 4.8
BL T 0 7 6 6 3 14.3
BR B 5 3 0 0 0 5.9
1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-30
ST T 1 8 4 2 0 10.5
Maze ST V 14 1 0 0 0 3 .6
number SV T 3 8 2 2 0 9.0
2 SV V 15 0 0 0 0 3.5
BL T 6 6 7 1 2 11.5
BR B 6 2 0 0 0 4.5
1-5 6-10 11-15 16-25 26-50
ST T 0 1 6 6 2 16.7
Maze ST V 7 8 0 0 0 5.5
Number SV T 0 3 6 5 1 15.5
3 SV V 6 9 0 0 0 6 .0
BL T 0 7 7 3 5 17.7
BR B 8 0 0 0 0 8.8
1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-30
ST T 0 12 3 0 0 9.3
Maze ST V 13 2 0 0 0 4.1
Number SV T 1 9 5 0 0 8.7
4 SV V 12 3 0 0 0 4.6
BL T 4 11 1 3 3 12.1
BR B 2 6 0 0 0 6.9
TABLE 45--Continued
238
Group Condition 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-35
Mean
Time
ST T P 4
10 1 0 12.1
Maze ST V 14 1 0 0 0 3.7
Number SV T 0 5 8 2 0 12.0
5 SV V 13 2 0 0 0 4.0
BL T 2 9 4 4 3 12.9
BR B 3
1-5
5
6-10
0
11-15
0
16-20
0
21-35
5.5
ST T 1 9 2 2 1 10.6
Maze ST V 15 0 0 0 0 3.0
Number SV T 4 6 2 2 1 10.1
6 SV V 15 0 0 0 0 3.0
BL T 6 5 4 5 2 11.4
BR B 5
1-10
3
11-15
0
16-20
0
21-30
0
31-50
5.3
ST T 2 1 4 7 3 24.0
Maze ST V 9 6 0 0 0 8.7
Number SV T 0 2 3 6 4 26.3
7 SV V 9 4 2 0 0 11.2
BL T 3 4 6 7 2 19.2
BR B 6 2 0 0 0 8.9
1-10 U t2 0 ?1t3Q 3l74Q
41t70 * • «
ST T 0 3 4 5 3 33.7
Maze ST V 6 9 0 0 0 11.4
Number SV T 0 3 9 3 0 25-3
8 SV V 4 9 2 0 0 14.0
BL T 0 8 7 4 3 25.5
BR B 3
1-10
5
11-20
0
21-30
0
31-50
0
51-90
12.1
ST T 0 5 5 3 2 32.0
Maze ST V 15 0 0 0 0 7.7
number SV T 0 5 7 3 0 25.7
9 SV V 12 3 0 0 0 9.0
BL T 2 10 5 3 2 23.8
BR B 5 3 0 0 0 11.1
TABLE 45--Continued
239
51- ioi- : 201- 251- Mean
Group Condition 1-50 100 200 250 350 Time
ST T 1 2 6 5 1 156.7
Maze ST V 15 0 0 0 0 19.9
Number SV T 0 2 10 0 3 159.1
10 SV V 15 0 0 0 0 22.7
BL T 7 7 6 1 1 99.1
BR B 8 0 0 0 0 27.3
61- 101-
1-10 11-30 31-60 100 150
ST T 0 0 3 8 4 82.0
Maze ST V 9 6 0 0 0 10.0
Number SV T 0 0 1 11 3 83.1
11 SV V 8 7 0 0 0 10.6
BL T 0 5 8 9 0 53.6
BR B 2 5 1 0 0 17.3
61- 101-
1-10 11-30 31-60 100 300
ST T 1 3 5 5 1 61.9
Maze ST V 14 1 0 0 0 6.3
Number SV T 0 10 1 2 2 43.1
12 SV V 13 2 0 0 0 7.4
BL T 3 9 7 3 0 32.1
BR B 5 3 0 0 0 9.9
240
TABLE 46
RESPONSES MADE TO ITEMS IN SECTION VIII BY THE SEPARATE
GROUPS OF SUBJECTS UNDER THE VARIOUS CONDITIONS,
WITH CORRECT RESPONSE INDICATED BY PARENTHESIS,
AND MEAN TIME OF RESPONSE
Group3 Condition^ 1 2
(3)
Choices
4 5 6 7 Time
ST T 0 0 15 0 0 18.6
Item ST V 2 0 13 0 0 1.5
number SV T 1 0 14 0 0 9.5
1 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 1.4
BL T 1 1 20 0 0 15.6
BR B 0 0 8 0 0 4.8
(1)
2 3 4 5
ST T 11 1 0 0 3 34.8
Item ST V 12 3 0 0 0 2.1
number SV T 9 1 0 1 4 21.5
2 SV V 11 2 0 0 2 2.0
BL T 10 1 2 0 9 39.0
BR B 7 1 0 0 0 16.8
1 2 3 (4) 5 6
ST T 1 0 3 11 0 0 54.9
Item ST V 0 0 1 14 0 0 2.0
number SV T 0 0 0 13 2 0 24.1
3 SV V 0 0 0 15 0 0 1.8
BL T 0 0 3 177 2 0 46.3
BR B 0 0 1 7 0 0 5.0
1 2 3 (4)
5
ST T 0 0 1 13 1 36.1
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 1.5
number SV T 0 0 1 14 0 23.1
4 SV V 0 0 0 15 0 1.4
BL T 0 0 1 20 1 38.5
BR B 0 0 0 8 0 7.4
TABLE 46--Continued
241
Groupa Condition^3 1 2
Choices
3 4
(5)
Time
ST T 0 0 0 0 15 22.3
Item ST V 1 0 0 0 14 1.3
number SV T 0 0 0 0 15 18.8
5 SV V 0 0 0 0 15 1.6
BL T 0 0 0 1 21 22.5
BR B 0 0 0 0 8 5.4
(1)
2 3 4 5
ST T 11 0 0 1 3 41.5
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 2.5
number SV T 8 0 0 4 3 28.5
6 SV V 15 0 0 0 0 2.0
BL T 16 0 1 3 2 40.1
BR B 6 1 1 0 0 6.8
1 2 3
(4)
5
ST T 0 1 0 13 1 24.7
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 1.4
number SV T 0 0 0 15 0 19.7
7 SV V 0 0 0 15 0 1.5
BL T 1 0 1 17 3 27.6
BR B 0 0 0 8 0 5.8
(1)
2 3 4 5
6 7
ST T 13 0 0 0 0 0 2 69.3
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.0
number SV T 14 0 0 0 0 0 1 24.9
8 SV V 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.5
BL T 17 1 0 0 0 0 4 40.9
BR B 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.3
1 2
(3)
4 5
ST T 0 0 13 0 2 35.1
Item ST V 1 0 14 0 0 1.4
number SV T 0 0 15 0 0 20.6
9 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 1.3
BL t 2 0 16 0 4 37.1
BR B 0 0 8 0 0 5.3
TABLE 46--Continued
242
Group3 Condition*3 1
(2)
Choices
3 4 5 Time
ST T 2 10 0 3 0 68.1
Item ST V 0
15 0 0 0 3.2
number SV T 0 12 0 2 1 36.1
10 SV V 2 12 1 0 0 3.0
BL T 1 19 2 0 0 55.9
BR B 0 7 1 0 0 17 .5
1
m
3 4 5
ST T 0 15 0 0 0 36 .4
Item ST V 1 14 0 0 0 3.1
number SV T 0 14 1 0 0 28.2
11 SV V 0 15 0 0 0 1.5
BL T 0 19 2 1 0 40.5
BR B 1 7 0 0 0 10.1
1 2 3 (4) 5
ST T 0 0 0 15 0 31.8
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 1.7
number SV T 0 1 0 14 0 22.5
12 SV V 0 0 0 15 0 1.7
BL T 0 0 0 21 1 26.9
BR B 0 0 0 8 0 5.1
a Group refers to the specific group responding. ST is
the group of sighted subjects who responded to tactual
stimulation first. SV is the sighted subjects
responding to visual stimulation first. BL is the
group of blind subjects with no usable vision. BR is
those blind subjects who used their residual vision.
b Condition refers to the type of stimulation. T means
tactual; V means visual; and B means both.
243
TABLE 47
RESPONSES MADE TO ITEMS IN SECTION IX BY THE SEPARATE
GROUPS OF SUBJECTS UNDER THE VARIOUS CONDITIONS,
WITH CORRECT RESPONSE INDICATED BY PARENTHESIS,
AND MEAN TIME OF RESPONSE
Groupa Condition^(1) 2
i
3
Choices
4 5 6 7 Time
ST T 14 1 0 0 0 12.3
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 1.7
number SV T 15 0 0 0 0 6 .4
1 SV V 15 0 0 0 0 1.2
BL T 21 0 1 0 0 9.1
BR B 8 0 0 0 0 3.0
1
(2)
3 4 5
ST T 1 8 0 5 1 20.1
Item ST V 0 15 0 0 0 2.4
number SV T 0 13 0 2 0 15.9
2 SV V 2 13 0 0 0 1.8
BL T 0 12 0 8 2 19.3
BR B
0 7 0 1 0 3.4
(1)
2 3 4 5
ST T 13 0 2 0 0 16.3
Item ST V 14 0 1 0 0 1.9
number SV T 14 0 0 1 0 11.2
3 SV V 13 0 2 0 0 1.5
BL T 21 0 1 0 0 18.9
BR B 7 0 1 0 0 3.8
1 2
(3) .4-. .5. . .
ST T 0 0 15 0 0 15.1
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 1.9
number SV T 0 0 15 0 0 11.9
4 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 1.7
BL T 3 0 18 0 1 15.9
BR B 0 0 8 0 0 3.8
244
TABLE 47 --Cont inu ed
Groupa Condition^ 1 2
Choices
3 4 (5) 6 7 Time
ST T 0 0 4 0 11 16.2
Item ST V 1 0 5 1 8 2.8
number SV T 0 0 1 0 14 11.4
5 SV V 0 0 6 0 9 2.2
BL T 4 0 4 1 13 19.3
BR B 0 1 4 0 3 4.9
1 2 3 (4) 5
ST T 0 0 0 15 0 14v5
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 1.9
number SV T 0 0 0 15 0 11.7
6 SV V 0 0 0 14 1 2.3
BL T 1 0 0 20 1 17.4
BR B 1 0 0 7 0 5 .6
1 2
(3)
4 5
ST T 0 2 13 0 0 17 .1
Item ST V 0 0 15 0 0 2.2
number SV T 0 0 15 0 0 10.2
7 SV V 0 0 15 0 0 1.9
BL T 0 1 21 0 0 16.8
BR B 0 0 8 0 0 3.5
(1)
2 3 4 5 6 7
ST T 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 32.5
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.3
number SV T 10 0 0 0 0 5 0 18.1
8 SV V 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.5
BL
r P
A 21 0 0 1 0 0 0 17.2
BR B 8o 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.0
1
(2)
3 4 5
ST T 0 12 0 3 0 15.8
Item ST V 0 15 0 0 0 1.8
number SV T 0 12 0 3 0 19.0
9 SV V 1 13 0 1 0 2.0
BL T 0 12 0 9 1 26.3
BR B 1 7 0 0 0 3.5
TABLE 47--Continued
245
Group3 Condition^ 1 2
Choices
3 4 ,(5) Time
ST T 0 1 1 0 13 27.9
Item ST V 0 0 0 0 15 1.8
number SV T 0 0 2 0 13 27.6
10 SV V 0 0 0 0 15 2.6
BL T 0 0 2 1 19 27.1
BR B 0 0 1 0 7 4.3
1 2 3
w
5
ST T 1 0 2 12 0 25.8
Item ST V 0 0 0 15 0 1.1
number SV T 0 0 0 13 2 25.9
11 SV V 0 0 0 15 0 1.3
BL T 0 0 1 20 1 27.4
BR B 0 0 1 7 0 2.6
(1)
2 3 4 .5. . .
ST T 6 3 3 3 0 28.5
Item ST V 15 0 0 0 0 1.9
number SV T 5 0 0 0 3 30.4
12 SV V 14 0 0 1 0 2.8
BL T 16 2 1 1 2 38.6
BR B 7 1 0 0 0 5 .6
a Group refers to the specific group responding. ST is
the group of sighted subjects who responded to tactual
stimulation first. SV is the sighted subjects
responding to visual stimulation first. BL is the
group of blind subjects with no usable vision. BR is
those blind subjects who used their residual vision.
k Condition refers to the type of stimulation. T means
tactual; V means-visual; and B means both.
TABLE 48
246
DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECT SCORES INDICATING THE NUMBER OF
CUBES TRANSPOSED DURING THIRTY SECOND INTERVALS
USING VARIOUS COMBINATIONS OF FINGERS
UNDER SPECIFIC CONDITIONS
Group Condition 1-iO 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-on Mean
ST T 0 6 9 0 0 21.7
Right ST V 0 1 1 11 2 35.9
Thumb SV T 0 6 7 2 0 22.9
and SV V 0 0 5 7 3 33.7
First BL T 1 17 3 1 0 17.6
BR B 0 5 3 0 0 18.1
1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-on
ST T 0 6 9 0 0 21.0
Right ST V 0 0 3 8 4 35.3
Thumb SV T 0 2 11 2 0 24.9
and SV V 0 0 4 7 4 35.1
Second BL T 1 15 6 0 0 21.6
BR B 0 2 6 0 0 18.7
1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
ST T 0 8 7 0 0 19.6
Right ST V 0 1 1 12 1 34.3
Thumb SV T 0 5 9 1 0 23.1
and SV V 0 0 7 6 2 33.0
Third BL T 3 13 5 1 0 17.2
BR B 0 5 3 0 0 17.8
1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
ST T 2 9 3 1 0 18.3
Right ST V 0 1 6 6 2 31.0
Thumb SV T 0 0 5 9 1 21.7
and SV V 0 5 9 1 0 25.3
Fourth BL T 3 13 5 1 0 16.6
BR B 0 6 1 1 0 17.4
TABLE 48--Continued
247
Group Condition 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 Mean
ST T 0 4 11 0 0 23.0
Left ST V 0 0 2 12 1 35.5
Thumb SV T 0 3 10 2 0 25.3
and SV V 0 0 3 10 2 35.3
First BL T 1 14 7 0 0 18.8
BR B 0 0 7 1 0 20.7
1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
ST T 5 10 0 0 0 21.1
Left ST V 0 4 9 2 0 34.9
Thumb SV T 2 12 1 0 0 25.2
and SV V 0 4 9 1 1 34.1
Second BL T 13 8 1 0 0 19.1
BR B 0 6 2 0 0 21.6
1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
ST T 1 4 8 2 0 22.1
Left ST V 0 0 4 9 2 33.4
Thumb SV T 0 5 9 1 0 22.5
and SV V 0 0 6 8 1 32.0
Third BL T 0 16 6 0 0 18.2
BR B 0 0 6 2 0 20.4
1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
ST T 2 5 8 0 0 20.3
Left ST V 0 2 7 6 0 28.6
Thumb SV T 0 5 10 0 0 21.8
and SV V 0 0 10 4 1 28.9
Fourth BL T 2 13 6 1 0 17.4
BR B 0 3 5 0 0 18.8
1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
ST T 2 12 1 0 0 13.7
Right ST V
0 2 11 2 0 25.2
First SV T 1 13 1 0 0 15.9
and SV V 0 3 11 1 0 25.0
Second BL T 7 15 0 0 0 12.2
BR B 1 5 2 0 0 13.2
248
TABLE 48--Continued
Group Condition 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 Mean
ST T 9 5 1 0 0 10.6
Right ST V 2 7 6 0 0 18.6
Third SV T 1 14 0 0 0 13.7
and SV V 0 11 4 0 0 19.1
Fourth BL T 15 7 0 0 0 8.3
BR B 5 3 0 0 0 8.4
1-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-35
Left ST T 3 10 0 2 0 13.3
First ST V 0 0 1 12 3 22.8
and SV T 3 5 7 0 0 14.4
Second SV V 0 0 4 6 5 24.0
BL T 7 12 0 2 1 13.3
BR B 0 1 4 3 0 15.0
1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-35
ST T 1 8 4 1 1 9.9
Left ST V
1 0 4 6 4 18.4
Third SV T 0 8 4 3 0 11.6
and SV V
1 0 2 8 4 19.7
Fourth BL T 6 6 7 2 1 9.9
BRa B 1 2 2 1 0 10.1
a One member of Group BR was unable to transpose any
cubes under this condition.
TABLE 49
249
RANGE OF TIMES, IN SECONDS, REQUIRED BY THE GROUPS FOR
EACH ITEM IN SECTION I
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 7-45 16 17.9
Item ST V 1-3 2
1.7
Number SV T 5-21 11 11.6
1 SV V 1-3 2 2.3
BL T 3-66 13 14.3
BR B 4-16 10 8.3
SIGHTED T 5-45 12 14.7
1 1
V 1-3 2 2.0
BLIND B 3-66 10 12.7
Item ST T 5-64 12 17 .6
Number ST V 1-5 1 1.9
2 SV T 2-32 9 11.0
SV V 1-3 2 1.8
BL T 1-46 12 15.0
BR B 1-7 3 3.9
SIGHTED T 2-64 10 14.3
i r
V 1-5 2 1.8
BLIND B 1-46 7 12.1
ST T 4-45 14 16.8
Item ST V 1-3 2 1.6
Number SV T 4436 8 11.3
3 SV V 1-3 2 1.7
BL T 2-45 13 14.3
BR B 2-28 3 6 .5
SIGHTED T 4-45 13 14.1
n
V 1-3 2 1.6
BLIND B 2-45 9 12.1
TABLE 49--Continued
250
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 5-43 12 15.5
Item ST V 1-3 1 1.2
Number SV T 5-29 12 12.5
4 SV V 1-7 1 1.8
BL T 2-40 13 15.0
BR B 1-8 2 3.5
SIGHTED T 5-43 12 14.0
r t
V 1-7 1 1.5
BLIND B 1-40 8 12.0
ST T 3-56 13 17.1
Item ST V 1-2 1 1.3
Number SV T 3-28 9 9.9
5 SV V 1-3 1 1.4
BL T 2-42 10 13.5
BR B 1-4 1 1.9
SIGHTED T 3-56 9 13.5
i t
V 1-3 1 1.4
BLIND B 1-42 8 11.4
ST T 1-40 14 16.9
Item ST V
1-2 1 1.1
Numb er SV T 3-43 7 11.7
6 SV V 1-3 1 1.4
BL T 2-50 8 11.5
BR B 1-4 2 2.1
SIGHTED T 1-43 7 14.3
i t
V 1-3 1 1.3
BLIND B
1-50 6 9.0
ST T 5-36 15 15.7
Item ST V 1-3 1 1.4
Number SV T 8-33 13 14.6
7 SV V 1-3 1 1.5
BL T 4-52 10 13.5
BR B 1-8 ci2 3.3
SIGHTED T 5-36 13 15.1
t t
V 1-3 1 1.4
BLIND B 1-52 8 10.8
TABLE 49-“Continued
251
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 5-67 28 29.1
Item ST V 1-5 2 2.4
Number SV T 6-95 20 28.2
8 SV V 1-5 2 2.4
BL T 2-61 13 20.1
BR B 2-17 5 7.3
SIGHTED T 5 t95 24 28.7
ii
V 1-5 2 2.4
BLIND B 2-61 10 16.7
ST T 3-42 18 17.5
Item ST V
1-2 1 1.1
Number SV T 4-28 14 14.4
9 SV V 1-2 1 1.3
BL T 2-33 13 13.0
BR B 2-9 4 4.3
SIGHTED T
3-42 14 15.9
ii
V
1-2 1 1.2
BLIND B 2-33 9 10.6
ST T
7 .50 26 24.8
Item ST V 1-8 2 2.9
Number SV T 7-44 12 16.1
10 SV V 1-3 2 2.1
BL T 4-164 18 27 .6
BR B
3-25 5 10.1
SIGHTED T
7 t50 19 20.4
it
V 1-8 2 2.5
BLIND B 3-164 13 23.0
ST T 9-60 22 25.9
Item ST V
1-6 2 2.4
Number SV T 9-93 22 26.0
11 SV V
1-6 2 2.3
BL T
3-92 15 20.8
BR B
1-14 6 6 .8
SIGHTED T
9-93 22 26.0
ii
V
1-6 2 2.4
BLIND B
1-92 11 17.0
TABLE 49--Continued
252
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 12-73 •36 38.6
Item ST V 1-6 2 2.9
Number SV T 8-73 19 23.3
12 SV V 1-4 3 2.8
BL T 6-116 28 34.4
BR B 2-21 4 8.3
SIGHTED T 8.73 22 30.9
ii
V 1-6 3 2.8
BLIND B 2-116 19 27.4
ST T 6-75 40 38.5
Item ST V 1-6 2 2.7
Number SV T 7?63 14 22.9
13 SV V 1-6 2 3.1
BL T 5-123 28 40.3
BR B 1-35 3 9.5
SIGHTED T 6-75 23 30.7
n
V 1-6 2 2.9
BLIND B 1-123 16 32.1
TABLE 50
253
RANGE OF TIMES REQUIRED BY THE SUBGROUPS FOR EACH
TEST IN SECTION II
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 5-47 8 12.3
Item ST V 1-3 1 1.5
Number SV T 4-15 8 8.2
1 SV V 1-2 1 1.4
BL T 1-28 8 11.4
BR B 1-4 2 2.4
SIGHTED T 4-47 8 10.2
ri
V 1-3 1 1.5
BLIND B 1-28 5 9.0
ST T 5-70 15 20,9
Item ST V 1-3 2 1.6
Number SV T 5-43 13 17.8
2 SV V 1-3 2 1.9
BL T 5-50 15 18.9
BR B 1-5 2 2.9
SIGHTED T 5-70 15 19.4
ti
V 1-3 2 1.7
BLIND B 1-50 13 14.6
ST T 3-86 21 24.0
Item ST V 1-2 2 1.9
Number SV T 4-29 8 12.3
3 SV V 1-3 2 1.9
BL T 3-34 15 14.6
BR B 1-6 2 2.8
SIGHTED T 3-86 11 18.1
it
V 1-2 2 1.9
BLIND B 1-34 8 11.5
TABLE 50--Continued
254
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 6-86 18 27.0
Item ST V 1-5 2 2.4
Number SV T 10-36 19 20.8
4 SV V 1-5 2 2.1
BL T 4-104 19 27.5
BR B 2-13 3 5.3
SIGHTED T 6-86 18 23.9
it
V 1-5 2 2.3
BLIND B 2-104 11 21.6
ST T 8t 35 14 17 .0
Item ST V 1-3 1 1.3
Number SV T 5-36 9 12.7
5 SV V 1-2 1 1.3
BL T 3-40 10 14.2
BR B 1-4 1 2.3
SIGHTED T 5-36 12 13.8
it
V 1-3 1 1.3
BLIND B 1-40 8 11.0
ST T 4-40 20 19.9
Item ST V 1-5 2 2 .6
Number SV T 7-23 11 13.0
6 SV V 1-9 3 3.6
BL T 4-57 13 17 .0
BR B 1-9 2 4.5
SIGHTED T 4-40 19 16.3
ti
V 1-9 2 3.1
BLIND B 1-57 10 13.7
22.9
1.4
14.3
1.8
19.3
3.5
18.6
1.6
15.1
ST T 3-94 13
Item ST V
1-2 1
Number SV T 5-43 11
7 SV V
1-5 2
BL T 4-58 13
BR B 1-7 3
SIGHTED T 3-94 12
it
V 1-5 1
BLIND B
1-58 10
TABLE 50--Continued
255
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 8-93 28 33.2
Item ST V 1-5 2 2.2
Number SV T 4-29 14 13.1
8 SV V 1-3 2 2.1
BL T 4-71 13 20.6
BR B 1-15 5 5.8
SIGHTED T 4-93 14 23.2
t i
V 1-5 2 2.2
BLIND B 1-71 12 15.9
ST T 10-53 18 23.6
Item ST V 1-3 1 1.6
Number SV T 3-32 11 13.5
9 SV V 1-3 1 1.5
BL T 3-52 14 17 .1
BR B 1-6 2 3.1
SIGHTED T 3-533 14 19.1
I I
V 1-3 1 1.6
BLIND B 1-52 12 13.4
ST T 5-39 17 18.4
Item ST V 1-3 1 1.5
Number SV T 6-92 13 17.9
10 SV V 1-5 1 1.5
BL T 5-85 10 17.5
BR B 1-6 1 2.5
SIGHTED T
5-92 13 18.2
i t
V 1-5 1 1.5
BLIND B 1-85 10 13.5
ST T 10-75 23 26.7
Item ST V
1-6 2 2.0
Number' SV T 6-105 19 27.7
11 SV V 1-3 2 2.0
BL T 8-47 25 24.5
BR B
1-6 2 3.0
SIGHTED T 6-105 19 27.2
t t
V
1-6 2 2.0
BLIND B
1-47 17 18.8
256
TABLE 50--Continued
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST JC 11-68 ±9 35.7
Item ST V 1-5 2 2.0
Number SV T 7-68 17 23.1
12 SV V 1-4 2 1.9
BL T 8-81 20 28.9
BR B 1-21 3 6.9
SIGHTED T 7-68 28 29.4
t i
V 1-5 2 1.9
BLIND B 1-81 15 23.0
ST T 6t76 24 28.6
Item ST V 1-5 2 2.5
Number SV T 7-75 17 22.8
13 SV V 1-5 2 2.7
BL T 4-79 21 23.5
BR B 2-24 4 9.1
SIGHTED T 6-76 19 25.7
t i
V 1-5 2 2 .6
BLIND B 2-79 16 19.7
257
TABLE 51
RANGE OF TIMES, IN SECONDS, REQUIRED BY THE GROUPS FOR
EACH ITEM IN SECTION III
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 16-103 63 55.9
Item ST V 2-17 3 4.5
Number SV T 10-101 42 41.1
1 SV V 2-7 4 4.0
BL T 11-205 31 56.7
BR B 5-20 10 11.9
SIGHTED T 10-103 44 48.5
II
V 2-17 4 4.2
BLIND B 5-205 29 49.8
ST T 12-112 42 46.9
Item ST V 1-4 2 2.3
Number SV T 10-105 24 32.4
2 SV V 1-3 2 2.2
BL T 6-90 21 32.9
BR B 2-9 4 4.9
SIGHTED T 11-112 30 39.6
m
V 1-4 2 2.3
BLIND B 2-90 17 25.5
k ST T 8-86 35 38.3
Item ST V 1-3 2 2.0
Number SV T 6-74 19 24.9
3 SV V 1-4 2 2.1
BL T 8-92 30 34.5
BR B 2-13 4 6.1
SIGHTED T 6-86 24 31.2
ii
V
1-4
2 2.0
BLIND B
2-92 24 26.9
TABLE 51--Continued 258
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 12-74 40 40.3
Item ST V 1-30 3 5.3
Number SV T 6-119 32 35.4
4 SV V 2-14 3 4.7
BL T 6-142 30 42.2
BR B 2-32 6 11.6
SIGHTED T 6-119 32 37.8
i t
V 1-30 3 5.0
BLIND B 2-142 27 34.0
ST T 13-113 66 58.7
Item ST V 2-7 4 3.6
Number SV T 14.93 41 40.2
5 SV V 2-11 3 4.1
BL T 13-194 59 62.9
BR B 3-43 8 14.4
SIGHTED T 13-113 45 49.5
t t
V 2-11 3 3.8
BLIND B 3-194 35 50.0
ST T 14-105 38 48.5
Item ST V 1-4 2 2.3
Number SV T 7-151 37 40.7
6 SV V 2-4 2 2.3
BL T 9-245 56 64.4
BR B 3-42 5 15.1
SIGHTED T 7-151 38 44.6
II
V 1-4 2 2.3
BLIND B 3-245 38 51.3
ST T 24-103 73 66 .7
Item ST V 2-21 4 6.1
Number SV T 10-215 35 49.7
7 SV V 2-13 4 d4.8
BL T 7-155
72 73.1
BR B 4-47
11 21.6
SIGHTED T 10-215 52 58.2
ti
V 2-21 4 5.4
BLIND B 4-155 35 59.4
TABLE 51--Continued
259
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 16-235 60 76.0
Item ST V 2-26 4 6 .2
Number SV T 13-90 32 40.4
8 SV V 2-5 3 3.3
BL T 6-139 55 65.7
BR B 5-71 11 20.5
SIGHTED T 13-235 54 58.2
n
V 2-26 3 4.7
BLIND B 5-139 45 53.6
ST T 12-89 47 51.2
Item ST V 1-9 3 3.5
Number S V T 11-132 35 42.5
9 SV V 2-7 4 3.9
BL T 8-140 39 59.9
BR B 4-64 11 19.0
SIGHTED T 11-132 40 46.8
i i
V 1-9 3 3.7
BLIND B 4-140 35 49.0
• * •
ST T 25-145 72 74.3
Item ST V 2-18 6 7 .4
Number SV T 23-305 52 68.7
10 SV V 3-14 6 7.1
BL T 12-153 73 76.7
BR B 7-71 17 24.6
SIGHTED T 23-305 52 71.5
it
V 2-18 6 7.3
BLIND B 7-153 62 62.8
ST T 28-383 78 94.5
Item ST V 1-22 5 6 .5
Number SV T
15-242 49 72.3
11 SV V
2-20 6 7.4
BL T 10-243 69 88.8
BR B 5-105 15 32.1
SIGHTED T 15-383 50 83.4
> t
V
1-22 6 6.9
BLIND B 5-243 61 73.7
TABLE 51--Continued
260
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 18-177 69 72.4
Item ST V 2-28 7 9.5
Number SV T 8-139 46 55.4
12 SV V 3-32 6 8.0
BL T 14-131 69 67.9
BR B 10-64 15 25 .6
SIGHTED T 8-177 51 63.9
ti
V 2-32 7 8.7
BLIND B 10-131 46 56.7
TABLE 52
261
RANGE OF TIMES, IN SECONDS, REQUIRED BY THE GROUPS FOR
EACH ITEM IN SECTION IV
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 4-55 30 29.5
Item ST V 1-3 2 2.0
Number SV T 5-59 19 21.2
1 SV V 1-2 1 1.5
BL T 5-94 18 26.0
BR B 1-7 2 3.0
SIGHTED T 4-59 20 25.3
i i
V 1-3 2 1.8
BLIND B 1-94 10 19.9
ST T 6-120 30 32.9
11 em ST V 1-5 2 2.3
Number SV T 5-157 17 35.6
2 SV V 1-4 2 2.0
BL T 5-86 17 23.9
BR B 1-15 3 5.4
SIGHTED T 5-157 19 34.2
1 1
V 1-5
2 2.2
BLIND B 1-86 14 19.0
ST T 16-67 29 35.6
Item ST V 1-6 3 3.0
Number SV T 6-78 22 30.9
3 SV V 1-5 2 2.7
BL T 7-78 23 28.8
BR B
3-20 6 10.5
SIGHTED T 6-78 27 33.2
II
V 1-6 3 2.8
BLIND B 3-78 17 23.9
TABLE 52--Continued
262
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 13-105 52 54.3
Item ST V 1-4 2 2 .3
Number SV T 10-122 31 44.9
4 SV V 1-7 2 2 .9
BL T 8-151 34 48.1
BR B 3-20 9 8.9
SIGHTED T 10-122 41 4 9 .4
ti
V 1-7 2 2 .6
BLIND B 3-151 28 37 .7
ST T 13-138 45 46.5
Item ST V 1-17 3 4 .9
Number SV T 16-68 29 32.9
5 SV V 2-9 3 3 .4
BL T 7-104 38 39.1
BR B 4-61 6 18.6
SIGHTED T 13-138 35 39.7
1 1
V 1-17 3 4 .1
BLIND B 4-104 34 33.6
ST T 12-111 32 38.7
Item ST V 1-10 2 3.1
Number SV T 10.94 29 35.2
6 SV V 1-5 2 2.5
BL T 7-139 38 42.1
BR B 3-41 6 15.6
SIGHTED T 10-111 29 37 .0
ti
V 1-10 2 2 .8
BLIND B 3-130 34 3 5.0
ST T 18-211 52 62.7
Item ST V 1-10 4 3.9
Number SV T 7-217 42 58.7
7 SV V 3-6 4 4 .0
BL T 13-148 40 52.6
BR B 3-92 9 27 .4
SIGHTED T 7-217 43 6 0 .7
ti
V 1-10 4 3.9
BLIND B 3-148 33 45.9
TABLE 52--Continued
263
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 11-107 40 42.7
Item ST V 1-5 2 2.2
Number SV T 13-171 34 46.7
8 SV V 1-4 2 2.0
BL T 8-138 33 50.7
BR B 2-17 4 8.6
SIGHTED T 11-171 35 44.7
n
V 1-5
2 2.1
BLIND B 2-138 26 39.5
ST T 19-155 50 62.7
Item ST V 2-11 6 5.9
Number SV T 12-233 45 65.3
9 SV V 2-10 3 3.7
BL T 10-178 45 57 .0
BR B 3-36 17 18.3
SIGHTED T 12-233 45 64.0
V 2-11 3 4.8
BLIND B 3-178 32 46.7
ST T 12-137 40 45.9
Item ST V 1-8 4 4.3
Number SV T 14-131 40 46 .4
10 SV V 1-11 5 5.0
BL T 6-170 40 49.1
BR B
10-96 14 27 .0
SIGHTED T 12-137 40 46 .2
tl
V 1-11 5 4.6
BLIND B 6-170 28 43.2
ST T 13-98 31 35.3
Item ST V 1-6 3 2.9
Number SV T 6-75 32 32.6
11 SV V 1-7 3 3.3
BL T 6-132 38 45.3
BR B
4-30 10 11.9
SIGHTED T 6-98 31 34.0
M
V 1-7 3 3.1
BLIND B
4-132 19 36 .4
264
TABLE 52--Continued
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 11-181 38 48.1
Item ST V 2-5 3 2.9
Number SV T 10-90 27 33.2
12 SV V 1-10 3 3.5
BL T 7-219 32 44.8
BR B 3-31 5 12.4
SIGHTED T 10-181 30 40.6
it
V 1-10 3 3.2
BLIND T 3-219 29 36.2
TABLE 53
265
RANGE OF TIMES, IN SECONDS, REQUIRED BY THE GROUPS FOR
EACH ITEM IN SECTION V
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 8-180 30 41.1
Item ST V 3-37 5 8.1
Number SV T
10-95 24 28.7
1 SV V 3-17 6 7.7
BL T 8-184 40 4 8 .8
BR B 10-56 14 2 3 .8
SIGHTED T 8-180 24 34.9
(i
V 3-37 6 7 .9
BLIND B 8-184 31 42.1
ST T 15-80 40 43.7
Item ST V 2-12 4 4 .9
Number SV T 11-94 20 2 7 .9
2 SV V 2-18 5 6 .7
BL T 4-227 32 50.1
BR B 4-98 20 33.1
SIGHTED T 11-94 32 35.8
it
V 2-18 5 5 .8
BLIND B 4-227 31 45.6
ST T 22-175 56 6 3.2
Item ST V 3-14 6 7 .6
Number SV T 10-214 40 57.7
3 SV V 1-15 6 7.1
BL T 6-276 44 5 9 .0
BR B 9-203 20 4 3 .0
SIGHTED T 10-214 44 6 0 .4
1 1
V 1-15 6 7 .3
BLIND B 6-276 36 5 4 .8
TABLE 53--Continued
266
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 15-170 57 57.4
Item ST V 3-14 5 6.5
Number SV T 17-120 36 44.7
4 SV V 2-13 7 6.3
BL T 7-152 32 49.5
BR B 6-56 14 18.0
SIGHTED T 15-170 45 51.3
II
V 2-14 6 6.4
BLIND B 6-152 27 41.1
ST T 17-155 64 60.5
Item ST V 2-14 5 5.4
Number SV T 4-127 37 43.6
5 SV V 2-10 5 5.4
BL T 15-115 56 56.0
BR B 8-51 10 20.5
SIGHTED T 4-155 41 52.1
tf
V 2-14 5 5.4
BLIND B 8-115 37 46.6
ST T 18-211 49 68.9
Item ST V 2-17 4 4.9
Number SV T 8-347 33 43.6
6 SV V 1-15 3 5.5
BL T 11-269 44 58.3
BR B 6-129 10 33.0
SIGHTED T 8-347 44 65.5
It
V 1-17 4 5.2
BLIND B 6-269 41 51.6
ST T 12-103 35 40.5
Item ST V 1-16 5 5.5
Number SV T 10-120 28 37.9
7 SV V 1-24 4 5.5
BL T 10-184 42 55.0
BR B 4-129 22 35.5
SIGHTED T 10-120 32 39.2
11
V 1-24 5 5.5
BLIND B 4-184 38 49.8
TABLE 53--Continued
267
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 15-111 59 51.7
Item ST V 2-32 5 10.3
Number SV T 13-150 35 50.1
8 SV V 3-46 8 10.7
BL T 21-117 55 57.6
BR B 6-72 28 33.4
SIGHTED T 13-150 41 50.9
1 1
V 2-46 6 10.5
BLIND B 6-117 50 51.1
ST T 18-85 51 52.1
Item ST V 2-14 4 5.3
Number SV T 7-175 29 40.8
9 SV V 3-14 5 6.2
BL T 8-262 52 67 .3
BR B 4-81 9 23.5
SIGHTED T 7-175 42 46 .5
it
V 2-14 5 5.8
BLIND B 4-262 42 55.6
ST T 11-107 53 53.5
Item ST V 2-46 5 9.9
Number SV T 10-85 39 42.7
10 SV V 3-22 5 7.2
BL T 15-291 61 84.7
BR B 7-187 20 42.1
SIGHTED T 10-107 41 48.1
it
V 2-46 5 8.6
BLIND B 7-291 58 73.4
■ • •
ST T 25-102 40 50.4
Item ST V 4-10 6 6.1
Number SV T 14-153 40 52.9
11 SV V 4-22 6 8.1
BL T 19-270 53 71.9
BR B 6-67 18 25.4
SIGHTED T 14-153 40 51.7
ii
V
4-22 6 7.1
BLIND B
6-270 39 59.5
268
TABLE 53--Continued
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 27-187 46 6 0 .4
Item ST V 5-28 8 12.5
Number SV T 14-115 45 55.9
12 SV V 3-19 8 9.7
BL T 14-219 74 91.1
BR B 14-103 40 47.6
SIGHTED T 14-187 44 58.1
it
V 3-28 8 11.1
BLIND B 14-219 63 79.5
TABLE 54
269
RANGE OF TIMES, IN SECONDS, REQUIRED BY THE GROUPS FOR
EACH ITEM IN SECTION VI
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 9-80 24 28.7
Item ST V
4-22 7 7.9
Number SV T 9-48 22 24.1
1 SV V 3-19 7 7.9
BL T 8-155 26 33.7
BR B 5-51 13 26.3
SIGHTED T 9-80 23 26.4
it
V
3-22 7 7.9
BLIND B 5-155 26 31.7
ST T
10-66 23 27 .9
Item ST V
1-10 3 3.9
Number SV T 9-58=— - 20 21.5
2 SV V
3-6 3 3.8
BL T 10-94 23 24.4
BR B 5-55 11 16.8
SIGHTED T
9-66 21 24.7
it
V
1-10 3 3.8
BLIND B 5-94 20 29.7
ST T
18-256 57 72.4
Item ST V
2-21 8 8.7
Number SV T 11-76 23 32.8
3 SV V 3-13 6 6.1
BL T 9-137 45 64.0
BR B
8-74 15 27.1
SIGHTED T
11-256 45 52.6
tt
V
2-21 7 7.4
BLIND B 8-137 30 54.2
TABLE 54--Continued
270
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 12--171 30 46.7
Item ST V 2-29 8 9.3
Number SV T 7-307 35 53.7
4 SV V 3-26 6 8.1
BL T 9-161 41 48.3
BR B 7-32 16 18.3
SIGHTED T 7-307 31 50.2
i i
V 2-29 8 8.7
BLIND B 7-161 30 40.3
ST T 9-215 25 49.4
Item ST V 2-8 5 5.4
Number SV T 6-72 34 35.1
5 SV V 3-22 5 7.6
BL T 12-157 52 51.9
BR B 5-67 11 20.5
SIGHTED T 6-215 28 42.2
1 1
V 2-22 5 6 .5
BLIND B 5-157 30 43.5
ST T 24-205 80 93.0
Item ST V 4-28 8 9.9
Number SV T 31-124 64 68.3
6 SV V 2-24 8 9.7
BL T 7-327 66 96.7
BR B 8-198 26 47.4
SIGHTED T 24-205 68 80.7
u
V 2-28 8 9.8
BLIND B 7-327 62 83.5
ST T 36-131 51 65.9
Item ST V 2-24 5 6.7
Number SV T
6-192 35 45.0
7 SV V
3-28 5 6.1
BL T 12-304 70 89.0
BR B 7-24 10 12.1
SIGHTED T 6-192 45 55.5
ii
V 2-24 5 6.4
BLIND B 7-304 50 68.5
TABLE 54— Continued
271
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 12-137 34 51.9
Item ST V 4-35 7 12.5
Number SV T 15-167 31 49.9
8 SV V 3-34 8 9.0
BL T 12-232 45 57.6
BR B 5-53 21 25.3
SIGHTED T 12-167 34 50.9
1 !
V 3-35 8 10.7
BLIND B 5-232 40 48.9
ST T 19-98 36 42.7
Item ST V 3-15 6 6.9
Number SV T 13-352 37 64.8
9 SV T 3-17 6 7.1
BL T 12-140 48 64.6
BR B 5-92 7 23.6
SIGHTED T 13-352 36 53.7
it
V 3-17 6 7.0
BLIND B 5-140 40 53.7
ST T 20-103 55 52.4
Item ST V 3-23 7 7.3
Number SV
T 11-193 40 49.7
10 SV V 2-19 4 5.7
BL T 11-204 46 55.4
BR B 3-44 9 19.1
SIGHTED T 11— 193
40 51.0
ii
V
2-23 6 6 .5
BLIND B 3-204 30 45.7
ST T 23-178 52 68.9
Item ST V 2-31 5 7.7
Number SV T 13-165 46 53.6
11 SV V
2-10 5 5.4
BL T
8-361 41 63.3
BR B
5-96 18 31.3
SIGHTED T 13-178 46 61.2
tfl
V 2-31 5 6 .5
BLIND B
5-361 40 54.7
TABLE 54--Continued
272
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 23-144 65 74.1
Item ST V 2-19 7 7.7
Number SV T 19-208 47 69.0
12 SV V 3-11 4 5.7
BL T 17--284 63 79.8
BR B 7-56 15 24.4
SIGHTED T 19-208 58 71.5
ii
V 2-19 6 6.7
BLIND B 7-284 44 65.0
273
TABLE 55
RANGE OF TIMES, IN SECONDS, REQUIRED BY THE GROUPS FOR
EACH ITEM IN SECTION VII
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 7-30 15 15.6
Item ST V 3-7 4 4.0
Number SV T 5-19 9 10.4
1 SV V 3-8 5 4.8
BL T 6-30 13 14.3
BR B 3-10 5 5.9
SIGHTED T 5-30 11 13.0
ii
V 3-8 4 4.0
BLIND B 3-30 10 12.0
ST T 5-18 9 10.5
Item ST V 3-6 3 3.6
Number SV T 3-19 9 9.0
2 SV V 3-4 3 3.5
BL T 3-55 8 11.5
BR B 3-6 4 4.5
SIGHTED T 3-19 9 9.7
ii
V 3-6 3 3.5
BLIND B 3-55 6 9.6
ST T 9-34 16 16.7
Item ST V 3-8 6 5.5
Number SV T 10-34 13 15.5
3 SV V 5-9 6 6.0
BL T 7-46 12 17.7
BR B 8-10 8 8.8
SIGHTED T 9-34 14 16.1
ti
V 3-9 6 5.8
BLIND B 7-46 10 15.3
TABLE 55--Continued
274
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 6-13 9 9.3
Item ST V 3-6 4 4.1
Number SV T 5-14 7 8.7
4 SV V 3-9 4 4.6
BL T 4-27 10 12.1
BR B 4-10 6 6.9
SIGHTED T 5-14 9 9.0
ii
V 3-9 4 4.4
BLIND B 4-27 9 10.7
ST T 6-19 13 12.1
Item ST V 3-6 3 3.7
Number SV T 7-20 12 12.0
5 SV V 3-7 4 4.0
BL T 4-31 9 12.9
BR B 3-7 6 5.5
SIGHTED T 6-20 12 12.0
IB
V 3-7 4 3.8
BLIND B 3-31 9 11.0
ST T 4-26 8 10.6
Item ST V 3-4 3 3.0
Number SV T 3-33 7 10.1
6 SV V 1-4 3 3.0
BL T 3-23 10 11.4
BR B 3-10 5 5.3
SIGHTED T 3-33 7 10.3
ii
V 1-4 3 3.0
BLIND B 3-23 7 9.7
ST T 15-49 22 24.0
Item ST V 4-14 8 8.7
Number SV T 11-48 25 26.3
7 SV V 8-17 10 11.2
BL T 10-34 17 19.2
BR B 5-14 8 8.9
SIGHTED T 11-49 22 25.1
it
V 4-17 10 10.0
BLIND B 5-34 15 16.4
TABLE 55— Continued
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 16-62 32 33.7
Item ST V 6-17 12 11.4
Number SV T 18-35 26 25.3
8 SV V 9-23 13 14.0
BL T 13-47 21 25.5
BR B 9-19 11 12.1
SIGHTED T 16-62 28 29.5
M
V 6-23 12 12.7
BLIND B 9-47 19 22.0
ST T 14-89 28 32.0
Item ST V 5-10 7 7.7
Number SV T 15--49 23 25.7
9 SV V 6-12 9 9.0
BL T 10-75 19 23.8
BR B 7-20 9 11.1
SIGHTED T 14-89 25 28.9
1 1
V 5-12 9 8.4
BLIND B 7-75 15 20.4
ST T 37--274 151 156.7
Item ST V 10--29 21 19.9
Number SV T 87--286 129 159.1
10 SV V 16-30 22 22.7
BL T 10-346 89 99.1
BR B 17-43 25 27.3
SIGHTED T 37-286 134 157.9
n
V 10-30 22 21.3
BLIND B 10-346 46 80.0
ST T 41-139 76 82.0
Item ST V 4-14 10 10.0
Number SV T 40-144 78 83.1
11 SV V 8-14 10 10.6
BL T 12-97 53 53.6
BR B 8-32 ' 17 17.3
SIGHTED T 40-144 76 82.5
ti
V 4-14 10 10.3
BLIND B 8-97 36 43.9
TABLE 55--Continued
276
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 10-267 45 61.9
Item ST V 3-21 6 6.3
Number SV T 11-141 26 43.1
12 SV V 4-11 7 7.4
BL T 7-74 26 32.1
BR B 5-20 9 9.9
SIGHTED T 10-267 31 52.5
H
V 3-21 6 6.9
BLIND B 5-74 17 26.2
TABLE 56
277
RANGE OF TIMES, IN SECONDS, REQUIRED BY THE GROUPS FOR
EACH ITEM IN SECTION VIII
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 7-37 19 18.6
Item ST V 1-3 1 1.5
Number SV T 4-15 9 9.5
1 SV V 1-3 1
1.4
BL T 4-37 13 15.6
BR B 2-10 3 4.8
SIGHTED T 4-37 12 14.1
i i
V 1-3 1 1.4
BLIND B 2-37 10 12.7
ST T 6-84 32 18.6
Item ST V 1-6 2 2.1
Number SV T 7-82 17 21.5
2 SV V 1-4 2 2.0
BL T 5-147 32 39.0
BR B 2-58 8 16.8
SIGHTED T 6-84 23 28.2
PI
V 1-6 2 2.0
BLIND B 2-147 26 33.1
ST T 5-378 29 54.9
Item ST V 1-4 2 2.0
Number SV T 6-43 22 24.1
3 SV V 1-4 2 1.8
BL T 9-228 35 46.3
BR B 2-10 5 5.0
SIGHTED T 5-378 23 39.5
it
V 1-4 2
1.9
BLIND B 2-228 19 35.3
TABLE 56--Continued
278
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 12-124 20 36.1
Item ST V 1-3 1 1.5
Number SV T 7-48 20 23.1
4 SV V 1-2 1 1.4
BL T 8-270 21 38.5
BR B 4-14 6 7.4
SIGHTED T 7-124 20 29.6
it
V 1-3 1 1.5
BLIND B 4-270 16 30.2
ST T 8-41 19 22.3
Item ST V 1-2 1 1.3
Number SV T 6-53 18 18.8
5 SV V 1-3 2 1.6
BL T 6-56 20 22.5
BR B 3-11 3 5.4
SIGHTED T 6-53 18 20.5
II
V 1-3 1 1.4
BLIND B 3-56 15 17.9
ST T 9-107 43 41.5
Item ST V 1-4 3 2.5
Number SV T 7-55 28 28.5
6 SV V 1-3 2 2.0
BL T 5-163 32 40.1
BR B 2-16 5 6.8
SIGHTED T 7-107 34 35.0
it
V 1-4 2 2.3
BLIND B 2-163 22 31.2
ST T 10-50 18 24.7
Item ST V 1-3 1 1.4
Number SV T 9-46 15 19.7
7 SV V
1-2 1 1.5
BL T
7-66 24 27 .6
BR B
2-10 5 5.8
SIGHTED T
9-50 16 22.2
II
V 1-3 1 1.4
BLIND B
2-66 17 21.8
TABLE 56--Continued
279
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 21-467 43 69.3
Item ST V 1-3 2 2.0
Number SV T 6-42 23 24.9
8 SV V 1-3 1 1.5
BL T 9-98 33 40.9
BR B 1-15 6 8.3
SIGHTED T 6-465 31 47.3
it
V 1-3 2 1.7
BLIND B 1-98 21 32.2
ST T 9-59 38 35.1
Item ST V 1-3 1 1.4
Number SV T 4-38 18 20.6
9 SV V 1-2 1 1.3
BL T 6-147 29 37.1
BR B 2-9 6 5.3
SIGHTED T 4-59 22 27.9
I I
V 1-3 1 1.3
BLIND B 2-147 21 28.6
ST T 20-292 42 68.1
Item ST V 2-7 3 3.2
Number SV T 16-59 34 36.1
10 SV V 1-6 3 3.0
BL T 7-132 57 55.9
BR B 5-51 10 17.5
SIGHTED T 16-292 36 52.1
m
V 1-7 3 3.1
BLIND B 5-132 34 45.7
ST T 10-101 32 36 .4
Item ST V 1-8 2 3.1
Number SV T 9-64 22 28.2
11 SV V
2-6 2 2.9
BL T 11-135 21 40.5
BR B 3-25 9 10.1
SIGHTED T 9-101 30 32.3
11
V 1-8 2 3.0
BLIND B 3-135 19 32.4
TABLE 56--Continued
280
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 9-125 21 31.8
Item ST V 1-3 2 1.7
Numb er SV T 5-60 21 22.5
122 SV V 1-4 2 1.7
BL T 6-51 24 26.9
BR B 1-10 4 5.1
SIGHTED T 5-125 21 27 .1
It
V 1-4 2 1.7
BLIND B 1-51 18 21.1
TABLE 57
281
RANGE OF TIMES, IN SECONDS, REQUIRED BY THE GROUPS FOR
EACH ITEM IN SECTION IX
I 1
2
■o,
r
Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 2-28 9 10.3
Item ST V 1-7 1 1.7
Number SV T 2-13 6 6 .4
1 SV V 1-2 1 1.2
BL T 3-22 7 9.1
BR B 1-11 2 3.0
SIGHTED T 2-28 8 8.3
i i
V 1-7 1
1.4
blind B 1-22 5 7.4
ST T 5-56 20 20.1
Item ST V 1-6 2 2.4
Number SV T 4-52 12 15.9
2 SV V 1-4 2 1.8
BL T 3-44 16 19.3
BR B 2-5 3 3.4
SIGHTED T
4-56 15 18.0
ii
V 1-6 2 2.1
BLIND B 2-44 14 15.1
ST T
8-36 16 16.3
Item ST V
1-6 2 1.9
Number SV T
5-23 11 11.2
3 SV V 1-5 1 1.5
BL T 3-64 14 18.9
BR B
2-9 3 3.8
SIGHTED T
5-36 12 13.7
ii
V
1-6 1 1.7
BLIND B
2-64 10 14.8
282
TABLE 57--Continued
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 4-43 13 15.1
Item ST V 1-5 2
1.9
Number SV T 4-35 9 11.9
4 SV V 1-3 2
1.7
BL T 3-53 12 15.9
BR B 2-10 3 3.8
SIGHTED T 4-43 10 13.5
ii
V 1-5 2 1.8
BLIND B 2-53 10 12.7
ST T 4-58 14 16.2
Item ST V 1-5 3 2.8
Number SV T 3-28 9 11.4
5 SV V 1-8 2 2.2
BL T 3-38 19 19.3
BR B 2-9 4 4.9
SIGHTED T 3-58 12 13.8
61
V 1-8 2 2.5
BLIND B 2-38 14 15.4
ST T 4-36 14 14.5
Item ST V l-5>-
2 1.9
Number SV T 3-30 10 11.7
6 SV V 1-6 2 2.3
BL T 3-59 14 17.4
BR B 1-17 3 5 .6
SIGHTED T
3-36 11 13.1
ti
V
1-6 2 2.1
BLIND B 1-59 13 14.2
ST T 10-27 16 17.1
Item ST V 1-3 2 2.2
Number SV T 3-25 10 10.2
7 SV V 1-3 2 1.9
BL T 3-43 13 16.8
BR B 2-8 2 3.5
SIGHTED T 3-27 15 13.6
It
V 1-3 2 2.0
BLIND B 2-43 9 13.3
TABLE 57--Continued
283
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 5-240 14 32.5
Item ST V 1-2 1 1.3
Number SV T 2-43 16 18.1
8 SV V 1-3 1
1.5
BL T 5-35 14 17.2
BR B 1-5 3 3.0
SIGHTED T 2-240 14 25.3
n
V 1-3 1 1.4
BLIND B 1-35 9 13.4
ST T 6-36 16 15.8
Item ST V 1-3 2 1.8
Numb er SV T 3-53 11 19.0
9 SV V 1-6 2 2.0
BL T 3-102 21 26.3
BR B 1-8 2 3.5
SIGHTED T 3-53 14 17.4
1 1
V 1-6 2 1.9
BLIND B
1-102 14 20.2
ST T 8-103 24 27.9
Item ST V 1-3 2 1.8
Number SV T 9-83 19 27.6
10 SV V 1-7 2 2.6
BL T 4-110 19 27.1
BR B 2-11 3 4.3
SIGHTED T 8-103 20 27.7
ii
V 1-7 2 2.2
BLIND B
2-110 14 21.0
ST T
10-52 26 25.8
Item ST V
1-2 1 1.1
Number SV T 8-59 28 25.9
11 SV V
1-4 1 1.3
BL T 2-87 18 •27.4
BR B 1-7 2 2.6
SIGHTED T 8-59 27 25.9
ii
V
1-4 1 1.2
BLIND B
1-87 10 20.8
TABLE 57--Continued
284
Group Condition Range Median Mean
ST T 5-56 31 28.5
Item ST V 1-3 2
1.9
Number SV T 4-64 33 30.4
12 SV V 1-6 3 2.8
BL T 3-158 26 38.6
BR B 2-9 5 5 .6
SIGHTED T 4-64 31 29.4
II
V 1-6 2
o o
. J
BLIND B 2-158 20 29.8

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Asset Metadata

Creator Cull, Eoline Christine (author)

Core Title Development And Analysis Of Some Tactual Measures Of Intelligence For Adolescent And Adult Blind

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Educational Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Meyers, Charles Edward (committee chair), Ayers, Anna Jean (committee member), Carnes, Earl F. (committee member), Lefever, David Welty (committee member), Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee member), Thorpe, Louis P. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-308118

Unique identifier UC11358793

Identifier 6403094.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-308118 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6403094.pdf

Dmrecord 308118

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Cull, Eoline Christine

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA