University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Class Consciousness And Social Mobility In A Mexican-American Community

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Class Consciousness And Social Mobility In A Mexican-American Community

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Content This dissertation has been 64-2598 m icrofilm ed exactly as received PENALOSA, Fernando, 1925- CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS AND SOCIAL MOBILITY IN A MEXICAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY. University of Southern California, P h .D ., 1963 Sociology, general University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS AND SOCIAL MOBILITY IN A MEXICAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY by F ernando P e n a lo s a A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r t h e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ( S o c io lo g y ) June 1963 UNIVERSITY OF SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA GRADUATE SCH O O L UNIVERSITY PARK LOS A N G ELES 7, C A LIFOR N IA This dissertation, written by Fernando P e n a lo s a under the direction of h%S....Dissertation C o m mittee, and a p p ro v ed by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y ......................... D ean Date Jime... 19-6-3-............................... mSSERTA^'I0Ni COMMITTEE / ..... ' - • C hairm an ACKNOWLEDGMENTS F o r w h a te v e r m e r i t t h i s r e p o r t may have I am h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d and d e e p ly g r a t e f u l t o th e many f i n e p e o p le o f M exican d e s c e n t i n Pomona whom i t was my p r i v i l e g e to i n t e r v i e w . I am a l s o in d e b t e d and g r a t e f u l to P r o f e s s o r s Edward C. McDonagh, Thomas E. L a s s w e ll, and J o s e p h E. W eckler f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n p r e p a r a t i o n o f th e p r e s e n t r e p o r t , and f o r y e a r s o f en co u rag e m en t, i n s p i r a t i o n , p a t i e n c e , and u n f la g g in g m o ral s u p p o r t. TABLE OP CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.................................................................................. . i i i LIST OP T A B L E S ..............................................................................................v i i LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS ......................................... . . . . . . x iv C h a p te r I . THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OP TERMS . . . . 1 S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms Im p o rta n ce o f th e Study O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e Study I I . REVIEW OF THE LITE R A T U R E ........................................... 10 I n t r o d u c t i o n The M exican-A m erican P o p u la tio n E th n ic D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n P e r c e p tio n o f S t a t u s D i f f e r e n c e s S t r a t i f i c a t i o n in M exican-A m erican Communities C r i t e r i a o f S t r a t i f i c a t i o n T y p o lo g ie s I I I . THE METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN ...... .... 64 I n t r o d u c t i o n P la n n in g S ta g e I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e M exican- American P o p u la tio n Sam pling F i e l d P ro c e d u re s T e s ti n g o f H ypotheses iv V Chapter Page IV. POMONA'S MEXICAN COMMUNITY............................... . 86 S o c i a l H i s t o r y S o c i o c u l t u r a l O r ig in s P r e s e n t S o c i o c u l t u r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s O c c u p a tio n and O th e r C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R e sp o n d e n ts V o lu n ta r y A s s o c ia t io n s L e a d e r s h ip R e s i d e n t i a l A reas V. PERCEPTION OP STATUS DIPPERENCES ..................... 169 P e r c e p t i o n o f S o c i a l C l a s s e s P e r c e p t i o n o f Mexican C la s s System C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R e s p o n d e n ts and Number o f C l a s s e s P e r c e iv e d P e r c e p t i o n o f Anglo C la s s System C r i t e r i a o f S o c i a l S t a t u s V I. SELF-PERCEPTION BY MEXICAN-AMERICANS . . . 206 S e l f - P l a c e m e n t i n C la s s S t r u c t u r e S e l f - P e r c e p t i o n and O th e r P e r c e p t i o n s o f R e sp o n d e n ts V II. SOCIAL AND OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY ..................... 235 I n t r o d u c t i o n M o b i l i t y and C la s s P e r c e p t i o n s o f R e sp o n d e n ts M o b i l i t y and C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R e sp o n d e n ts V I I I . TOWARD A TYPOLOGY OP MEXICAN-AMERICANS . - 2 8 l The S t a t u s D im ension I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f S t a t u s L e v e ls S o c i a l C la s s and M o b i l it y S o c i a l C la s s and Economic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R e sp o n d e n ts vi Chapter S o c i a l C la s s and C u l t u r a l C h a r a c te r i s t i c s o f R esp ond ents S o c i a l C la s s and P e r c e p t io n s o f R esp o n d en ts The S o c i o c u l t u r a l Dimension IX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ......................................... The Mexican Community S t a t u s P e r c e p tio n and S o c i a l M o b ility S t a t u s and S o c i o c u l t u r a l T y p o lo g ies APPENDIX A. INTERVIEW SCHEDULE (ENGLISH VERSION) APPENDIX B. INTERVIEW SCHEDULE (SPANISH VERSION) . APPENDIX C. CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS . . . . Page 321 344 348 352 BIBLIOGRAPHY 355 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Comparison o f th e Age o f Pomona S p a n ish - Surname P e rso n s i n th e W r i t e r 's Sample w i t h D ata from th e U. S. Census o f i 960 . . 81 2. Comparison o f th e Income o f Pomona S p a n ish - Surname F a m ilie s In th e W r i t e r 's Sample w ith D ata from th e U. S. Census o f i 960 . . 83 3- Com parison o f th e S c h o o lin g o f Pomona S p a n ish - Surname P e rso n s i n th e W r i t e r 's Sample w ith D ata from th e U. S. Census o f i 9 6 0 ..................... 84 4. P o p u la tio n o f Pomona, 1900-1960 100 5* M a r i t a l S t a t u s o f R e sp o n d e n ts ...................................... 107 6. G e n e ra tio n and Age o f R e sp o n d en ts . . . . . . 109 7 . S c h o o lin g and Age o f R e s p o n d e n t s .......................................112 8. G e n e ra tio n and S c h o o lin g o f R esp o n d en ts . . . 114 9 . G e n e ra tio n and Language P r e f e r e n c e o f R e s p o n d e n t s .............................. 116 10. S c h o o lin g and Language P r e f e r e n c e o f R esp o n d en ts ....................................................................117 11. Age and Language P r e f e r e n c e o f R e sp o n d en ts . . 118 12. O ccu p atio n and G e n e ra tio n o f R esp on dents . . . 124 13. O ccup ation and Age o f R e s p o n d e n t s ................................. 125 vii v l i i Table Page 14. O ccu p atio n and Language P r e f e r e n c e o f R e s p o n d e n t s .............................................. 126 15- O ccu patio n and I n d u s t r y o f A ll Employed P e rso n s i n Sample H ouseholds .................................... 130 16. O ccu p a tio n and S c h o o lin g o f R esp o n d en ts . . . 134 17* O c cu p a tio n o f Head o f H ousehold and Income . . 136 18. G e n e ra tio n and Income o f R e sp o n d en ts ...................... 138 19- Age and Income o f R e s p o n d e n t s ............................................139 20. Language P r e f e r e n c e and Income o f R e sp o n d e n ts. 140 21. S c h o o lin g and Income o f R esp o n d e n ts . . . . . 142 22. A dult Mexican P o p u la tio n and Sample S ize I n R e s i d e n t i a l A reas .......................................... 153 23- L ength o f R e sid e n c e and A r e a .................................................154 24. Home Ownership and L ength o f R e sid e n c e . . . . 156 25- R e s i d e n t i a l Area and Home O w n e r s h i p ............................157 26. R e s i d e n t i a l Area and O ccu p a tio n o f Head o f H o u s e h o l d .............................................. 159 27. R e s i d e n t i a l Area and Income o f R e sp o n d en ts . . 160 28. R e s i d e n t i a l Area and Language P r e f e r e n c e o f R esp o n d en ts . . . . . . . ................................... 162 2 9 . R e s i d e n t i a l Area and M a r i t a l S t a t u s o f R e sp o n d en ts . ................................... 164 30. R e s i d e n t i a l Area and Age o f R e sp o n d e n ts . . . 165 31. R e s i d e n t i a l Area and G e n e ra tio n o f R e s p o n d e n t s ............................................................. 166 ix Table Page 32. R e s i d e n t i a l Area and S c h o o lin g o f R e sp o n d e n ts . 168 33- S c h o o lin g and C o n sc io u sn e ss o f C la ss D i v i s i o n s .................................................................. 173 34. C la s s S e lf - P la c e m e n t and C o n sc io u sn e ss o f C la s s D i v i s i o n s .........................................................................174 35* Age and C o n sc io u sn e ss o f C la s s D iv is io n s . . . 175 3 6 . Language P r e f e r e n c e and C o n sc io u sn e ss of C la ss D i v i s i o n s .........................................................................176 37* M emberships and C o n sc io u sn e ss o f C la s s D iv i s i o n s . . . ' .........................................................................177 38. Income and C o n sc io u sn e ss o f C la ss D iv i s i o n s . 178 39* G e n e r a tio n and C o n sc io u sn e ss o f C la s s D iv i s i o n s . . .. . . . . . . . .......................... 179 40. S c h o o lin g and Number o f C la s s e s P e rc e iv e d . . 188 41. Language P r e f e r e n c e and Number o f C la s s e s P e r c e iv e d .................................... .. .. . . . . . 189 42. Age and Number o f C la s s e s P e r c e i v e d ............................ 190 43. G e n e r a tio n and Number o f C la s s e s P e r c e iv e d . . 192 44. O ccu p atio n and Number o f C la s s e s P e r c e iv e d . . 194 4 5 . Number o f Mexican and Anglo C la s s e s P e r c e iv e d . 196 46. C r i t e r i a Used i n D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g S o c i a l C l a s s e s ............................................................................................. 201 47. S o c i a l D i f f e r e n c e s P e r c e iv e d and C r i t e r i a Used f o r S o c ia l C l a s s e s .............................................. 203 X Table Page 48. O ccu p atio n and C r i t e r i a Used f o r S o c ia l C l a s s e s ............................................................................................. 205 49- C la s s S e lf - P la c e m e n t and Number o f C la s s e s P e r c e i v e d ......................... 208 50. Income and C la s s S e lf - C o n s c io u s n e s s ...................... 211 51. Age and C la ss S e l f - C o n s c i c ’’s n e s s ......................................212 52. Language P r e f e r e n c e and C lass S e l f - C o n sc io u sn e ss ..............................................................................213 53- V eteran s* S t a t u s and C la s s S e lf - C o n s c io u s n e s s . 214 54. S c h o o lin g and C la s s S e lf - C o n s c io u s n e s s . . . . 215 55- C o n sc io u sn e ss o f C la s s D iv is io n s and C la s s S e l f - C o n s c io u s n e s s .............................................................. 216 56. Number o f C la s s e s P e r c e iv e d and C la ss S e l f - C o n sc io u sn e ss .............................................................................. 217 57* O ccu p a tio n and C la s s S e lf - C o n s c io u s n e s s . . . 219 5 8 . G e n e ra tio n and C la s s S e l f - C o n s c io u s n e s s . . . 220 59. Number o f Fam ily Members w ith Whom S p a n ish Spoken and C la s s S e lf - C o n s c io u s n e s s . . . . 221 60. M o b ility and C la ss S e lf - C o n s c io u s n e s s . . . . 222 61. R e s i d e n t i a l Area and C la s s S e lf - P la c e m e n t . . 224 6 2 . O ccu p atio n and C la s s S e lf - P la c e m e n t ..................... 226 6 3 . G e n e ra tio n and C la s s S e lf - P la c e m e n t . . . . . 228 64. S c h o o lin g and C la s s S e lf - P la c e m e n t . . . . . . 231 6 5 . Language P r e f e r e n c e and C la s s S e lf - P la c e m e n t . 233 x l Table Page 6 6 . F a t h e r s ' O c c u p a tio n and R e s p o n d e n ts ' S c h o o lin g 237 67* F a t h e r s ' O c c u p a tio n , R e s p o n d e n ts ' S c h o o lin g and R e s p o n d e n ts ' O c c u p a tio n ........................................ 238 6 8 . S c h o o lin g and M o b i l i t y o f R e s p o n d e n ts . . . . 240 69* F a t h e r s ' O c c u p a tio n and R e s p o n d e n ts ' O c c u p a tio n 241 70. F a t h e r s ' O c c u p a tio n and R e s p o n d e n ts ' M o b i l i t y . 244 71. O c c u p a tio n and M o b i l i t y o f A ll R e s p o n d e n ts . . 246 72. O c c u p a tio n and M o b i l i t y o f Employed R e s p o n d e n t s ................................................................... 247 73- O c c u p a tio n o f Heads o f H o u seh o ld and M o b i l i t y o f H o u s e w i v e s .................................................................................248 74. M o b i l i t y and E t h n i c S e l f - I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . . . 250 75- M o b i l i t y and C l a s s S e l f - P l a c e m e n t ............................. 251 7 6 . M o b i l i t y and Number o f C l a s s e s P e r c e i v e d . . . 254 77* R e s i d e n t i a l Area an d P r e v io u s R e s i d e n t i a l A rea 257 7 8 . R e s i d e n t i a l and O c c u p a t io n a l M o b i l i t y . . . . 259 79- R e s i d e n t i a l Area and M o b i l it y , oj^ R e sp o n d e n ts . 260 80. R e s i d e n t i a l S t a b i l i t y , and O c c u p a tio n a l M o b i l i t y . . . . . / .................................................262 V " x v \ 81. Home O w nership and M o b i l i t y o f R e s p o n d e n ts . . 264 82._ Number o f Y e ars i n P r e s e n t Employment and M o b i l i t y .................................................................................................265 83* Income and M o b i l i t y o f R e s p o n d e n ts . . . . . . 267 84. G e n e r a t i o n and M o b i l i t y o f R e sp o n d e n ts . . . . 270 xii Table Page 85* Age, Sex and M o b i l i t y o f R e s p o n d e n t s ..................272 86. R e l i g i o u s P r e f e r e n c e and M o b i l i t y o f R e s p o n d e n t s ..........................................................................274 87- Language P r e f e r e n c e and M o b i l i t y o f R e s p o n d e n t s ................................................................... ..... . 276 88. Language Spoken i n Fam ily an d M o b i l i t y o f R e s p o n d e n t s .......................................................................... 277 89* Use o f S p a n ish -L a n g u a g e Media o f Communication and M o b i l i t y o f R e s p o n d e n t s .................................279 90. Number o f S p a n is h Language Media o f Communica t i o n Used and M o b i l it y o f R e sp o n d e n ts . . . 280 91. C o e f f i c i e n t s o f C o n tin g e n cy f o r M ajor V a r ia b l e s o f th e S t u d y .............................................. 284 92. M o b i l i t y and S o c i a l C lass o f R e sp o n d e n ts . . . 296 93* O c cu p a tio n and S o c i a l C la s s o f R e sp o n d e n ts . . 299 94. T o t a l F am ily Income and S o c i a l C la s s o f R e sp o n d e n ts ............................................................................... 301 95* R e s i d e n t i a l Area and S o c ia l C la s s o f R e s p o n d e n t s ...........................................................................302 9 6 . S c h o o lin g and S o c i a l C la ss o f R e sp o n d e n ts . . 304 97* G e n e r a tio n and S o c i a l C la s s o f R e sp o n d e n ts . . 306 98. Language P r e f e r e n c e and S o c i a l C la s s o f R e s p o n d e n t s ............................... 308 99- Age and S o c i a l C la s s o f R e s p o n d e n t s ..................309 100. S o c i a l C la s s and C la s s C o n s c io u s n e s s . . . . . 311 101. S o c i a l C la s s and Number o f C l a s s e s P e r c e iv e d . 313 xiii T ab le Page 102. S o c i a l C la s s and C la s s S e lf - P la c e m e n t . . . . 31^- 103. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f R e sp o n d e n ts i n S t a tu s and S o c i o c u l t u r a l D im ensions o f T y p o l o g y ........................................................................................ 320 LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS F ig u r e Page 1. R e s i d e n t i a l A reas o f Pomona ......................................... 6 j xiv CHAPTER I PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem The p r e s e n t s tu d y i s an a tte m p t t o i n v e s t i g a t e some o f th e d im e n sio n s o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n among th e p e r so n s o f Mexican d e s c e n t r e s i d i n g i n th e c i t y o f Pomona, C a l i f o r n i a , w ith p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s and s o c i a l m o b i l i t y . The s tu d y em p h asizes p e r c e p t i o n by p e rs o n s o f Mexican d e s c e n t ( r a t h e r th a n by A nglos, a s i n so much o f th e l i t e r a t u r e ) o f th e M exican-A m erican and A nglo-A m erican c l a s s s t r u c t u r e s , and o f t h e i r own c l a s s p o s i t i o n . The r e s e a r c h e r was i n t e r e s t e d i n th e p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s o f such p e r c e p t i o n s t o c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e s p o n d e n ts such as l o c a t i o n o f r e s i d e n c e , o c c u p a tio n , s c h o o lin g , u se o f th e S p a n ish la n g u a g e , and incom e. The p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s o f s o c i a l m o b i l i t y to t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and p e r c e p t i o n s i s a n o th e r im p o r ta n t fo c u s o f th e r e s e a r c h . The l a s t p hase o f th e problem h as b een th e a tte m p te d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an in d e x o f s o c i a l s t a t u s f o r M exican-A m ericans and a s o c i o c u l t u r a l ty p o lo g y f o r t h i s g r o u p . The b a s i c a ssu m p tio n o f t h i s s tu d y i s t h a t members o f th e M e x io a n -d e sc e n t p o p u l a t i o n of Pomona have been u n d e rg o in g th e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d p r o c e s s e s o f u r b a n i z a t i o n , a c c u l t u r a t i o n , and s o c i a l m o b i l i t y , and t h a t by s tu d y in g th e s e p r o c e s s e s i n a h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t and t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w ith g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n iz e d r e l e v a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s p o p u l a t i o n , an u n d e r s ta n d in g c o u ld be g a in e d o f th e ongoing dynam ics o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t h i s e t h n i c community. The w r i t e r s i n g l e d o u t a number o f v a r i a b l e s and h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t th e y w ould eac h be a s s o c i a t e d w ith a l l o f th e others,* f u r t h e r , t h a t eac h w ould be a s s o c i a t e d w ith upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y . The h y p o th e s iz e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e a s f o l l o w s : 1. These v a r i a b l e s were h y p o th e s iz e d to be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h eac h o t h e r : h ig h o c c u p a tio n a l s t a t u s , o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y , h ig h incom e, b e t t e r r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , home o w n e rsh ip , l o n g e r r e s i d e n c e , more s c h o o lin g , l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n , v e t e r a n 's s t a t u s , P r o t e s t a n t 3 r e l i g i o n , E n g lis h - la n g u a g e p r e f e r e n c e , and l a r g e number o f m em berships i n v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s . (The o p p o s i t e s o f t h e s e were a l s o h y p o t h e s iz e d t o be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h eac h o t h e r . ) 2. T hese v a r i a b l e s were h y p o th e s iz e d t o be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h e ac h o t h e r , b u t n e g a t i v e l y w ith th o s e l i s t e d u n d e r c a te g o r y 1: g r e a t e r number o f p e rs o n s i n f a m ily w ith whom S p a n ish i s spoken, g r e a t e r number o f S p a n is h - la n g u a g e com m unication m edia u se d , and g r e a t e r age. 3- The a b i l i t y o f r e s p o n d e n ts to p e r c e i v e c l a s s d i v i s i o n s in t h e Mexican community was h y p o th e s iz e d to be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 1 and n e g a t i v e l y w ith t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c a te g o r y 2. 4. The number o f c l a s s d i v i s i o n s p e r c e i v e d by r e s p o n d e n t s was h y p o t h e s iz e d to be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h th e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 1 and n e g a t i v e l y w ith th e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 2. The a b i l i t y t o p l a c e o n e s e l f i n th e c l a s s d i v i s i o n system was h y p o th e s iz e d to be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w ith t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 1 and n e g a t i v e l y w ith t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c a te g o r y 2. 6. H igh s e l f - p l a c e m e n t in th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e was h y p o t h e s iz e d to be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 1 and n e g a t i v e l y w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 2. 7• Low s e l f - p l a c e m e n t i n t h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e was h y p o t h e s i z e d t o be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w ith t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 2 and n e g a t i v e l y w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 1. 8. High s o c i a l c l a s s (a s i n d i c a t e d by an in d e x t o be c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d i n t h e c o u rs e o f t h e s tu d y ) was h y p o t h e s i z e d to be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h th e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 1 and n e g a t i v e l y w ith t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 2. 9- Low s o c i a l c l a s s was h y p o t h e s i z e d to be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 2 and n e g a t i v e l y w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c a t e g o r y 1. 10 . I t was f i n a l l y h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t h i g h s o c i a l c l a s s ( c a t e g o r y 8) w ould be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h th e t y p e s o f p e r c e p t i o n i n d i c a t e d a s c a t e g o r i e s 3, 4., 5 , and 6 , and t h a t e a c h o f t h e s e w ould be a s s o c i a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h e a c h o f th e o t h e r s . 11. Low s o c i a l c l a s s was h y p o t h e s i z e d t o b e .... a s s o c i a t e d n e g a t i v e l y w i t h c a t e g o r i e s 3> 4, 5 j and 6. 5 D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms The p r i n c i p a l te rm s u s e d i n t h e s tu d y a r e d e f i n e d h e r e . In m ost c a s e s o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s o f th e body o f th e d i s s e r t a t i o n . M exican-A m erican A M exican-A m erican i s a p e r s o n o f Mexican d e s c e n t p e r m a n e n tly r e s i d e n t i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . "M exican- A m erican p o p u l a t i o n " . and " M e x ic a n -d e s c e n t p o p u l a t i o n " a r e c o n c e iv e d o f a s synonymous te r m s . Any i n d i v i d u a l who i s d e s c e n d e d from S p a n is h - s p e a k in g p e r s o n s p e r m a n e n tly r e s i d e n t i n Mexico and who r e s i d e s i n t h e c i t y of" Pomona i s a member o f Pom ona's M exican-A m erican community. Community A comm unity i s a r e l a t i v e l y s e l f - c o n t a i n e d g ro u p s h a r i n g a common t e r r i t o r y w i t h i n w h ich a r e l o c a t e d th e p r i n c i p a l f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f i t s r e s i d e n t s ' o r d i n a r y n e e d s . In t h i s s tu d y "com m unity" g e n e r a l l y r e f e r s t o th e p o p u l a t i o n r e s i d i n g w i t h i n t h e Pomona c i t y l i m i t s . "M exican-A m erican community" r e f e r s t o a l l M exican-A m eri c an p e r s o n s r e s i d e n t i n t h e comm unity o f Pomona. C o lo n la The S p a n is h - la n g u a g e term c o l o n l a I s u s e d to r e f e r t o th e M exican-A m erican s e t t l e m e n t p r o p e r , i . e . , t h e a r e a o f h i g h e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f th e M e x ic a n -d e s c e n t p o p u l a t i o n w i t h i n w hich a r e l o c a t e d th e p r i n c i p a l M exican b u s i n e s s c o n c e rn s and i n s t i t u t i o n s . S o c i a l c l a s s A s o c i a l c l a s s i s c o n s t i t u t e d by i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e p e r c e i v e d by community members t o occu py s i m i l a r s t a t u s p o s i t i o n s , h e n ce a s s h a r i n g a s i m i l a r s t y l e o f l i f e . C la s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s C la s s c o n s c io u s n e s s i s t h e a b i l i t y t o make j u d g m ents a s t o th e s o c i a l c l a s s m em bership o f o n e s e l f and o f o t h e r s . C la s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s h a s b een s t u d i e d i n te rm s o f r e s p o n d e n t s ' v e r b a l e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i r own and o t h e r s ' s t a t u s w i t h i n th e M exican-A m erican comm unity. S o c i a l m o b i l i t y By s o c i a l m o b i l i t y i s m eant a change i n a p e r s o n 's s t a t u s o r i n h i s g ro u p m em bership. In t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n s o c i a l m o b i l i t y i s t r e a t e d p r i m a r i l y i n te rm s o f o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y , l e s s i m p o r t a n t l y i n te rm s o f change o f r e s i d e n c e o r e t h n i c a f f i l i a t i o n . O c c u p a tio n a l m o b i l i t y T h is s t u d y u s e s " o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y " i n th e r e s t r i c t e d s e n s e o f change i n ra n k e d o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s from t h e p a r e n t a l to t h e s u c c e e d in g g e n e r a t i o n . Im p o rta n c e o f th e S tud y T here a r e s e v e r a l e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s c o n t a i n i n g m a t e r i a l on s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n M exican-A m erican c o m m u n ities and s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e M exican-A m erican sub-com m unity h a s som etim es b e en s t u d i e d a s p a r t o f th e l a r g e r com m unity. (T hese a r e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p te r I I . ) However, t h e r e s e a r c h e r c o u ld f i n d no i n t e n s i v e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s tu d y b a s e d on a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l sam ple o f an e n t i r e M exican-A m erican community. Inasm uch a s a b o u t t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f a l l M exicans i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s l i v e i n M exican s e t t l e m e n t s o r c o l o n i a s ^ t h e s e a r e o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t and im p o r ta n c e . 1Jo hn H. Burma, S p a n is h - S p e a k in g G roups i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s (Durham: Duke U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1954 )> p . 88. U n lik e th e w r i t e r ' s s t u d y , how ever, m ost p r e v io u s s t u d i e s have fo c u se d upon t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s and h av e l a r g e l y I g n o re d th o s e M exicans who l i v e o u t s i d e t h e c o lo n i a s i n p re d o m in a n tly Anglo n e ig h b o r h o o d s . The w r i t e r to o k a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f th e e n t i r e M exican-A m erican p o p u la tio n o f t h e - c i t y o f Pomona. The r e s e a r c h h e re r e p o r t e d , how ever, d e a l s o n ly w i t h s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w i t h in t h e Mexican com m u n ity ; i t i s n o t c o n c e rn e d w i t h th e p o s i t i o n o f th e Mexican p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e t o t a l community. The r e s e a r c h i s c o n c e iv e d o f p r i m a r i l y a s a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o th e s o c i o l o g i c a l stud y o f th e M exican- d e s c e n t p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e U n ited S t a t e s , and s e c o n d a r i l y as a c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e stu dy o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . I t s p o t e n t i a l im p o rta n c e may be a t t r i b u t e d to i t s focu s on th e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f th e s e two f i e l d s o f I n t e r e s t , and to th e m e th o d o lo g ic a l a p p ro a c h u t i l i z e d . O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e Study The m ethod o f t h e stu d y has been t o (1) rev ie w t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and th e M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n ; ( 2 ) s t a t e t h e h y p o th e s e s r e l e v a n t to f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f a M exican-Am erican community; (3 ) stu d y th e s o c i a l h i s t o r y and p re s e n t s o c i a l c o n d itio n s o f th e community chosen f o r stu d y ; (4) d e v i s e , p r e t e s t and admin i s t e r th e r e s e a r c h in s tru m e n t to a random a re a sam ple o f th e s e l e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n f o r th e p u rp o s e o f t e s t i n g th e r e l e v a n t h y p o th e s e s ; (5) r e p o r t an d an aly ze th e f i n d i n g s ; and (6) draw c o n c lu s io n s and c o n s t r u c t a ty p o lo g y based on th e c o n c l u s i o n s . CHAPTER II REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE I n t r o d u c t i o n The p u b l is h e d l i t e r a t u r e p e r t i n e n t to th e r e s e a r c h e r 's t o p ic was review ed b e f o r e th e s tu d y was d e s ig n e d o r th e h y p o th e s e s fo r m u la te d . The m ost im p or t a n t works were o f c o u rs e th o se d e a l in g w ith s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n among th e M exican-Am erican p o p u la tio n , e s p e c i a l l y th o s e by B a r k e r , ! C l a r k , 2 G r i f f i t h , 3 Simmons,^ ^George C. B a rk e r, " S o c ia l F u n c tio n s o f Language i n a Mexican American Community," Acta Am ericana, V ( J u ly , 1947), 185- 202. 2M a rg are t C la rk , H e a lth i n th e Mexican American C u ltu r e (B e rk e le y : U n i v e r s i ty o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1959)* •^Beatrice G r i f f i t h , American Me (B oston: Houghton M i f f l i n C o., 1948). ^O zzie Simmons, "Am ericans and Mexican Americans i n South Texas" (u n p u b lis h e d Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , H arvard U n i v e r s i ty , 1952). 10 11 T a y l o r , 5 T u c k , 6 an d Watson and S am o ra.^ U s e fu l a l s o were q Q t h e s t u d i e s o f L a s s w e ll^ and Rogers-7 on co m m un ities w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l M exican-A m erican m i n o r i t i e s . B e s id e s t h i s s m a ll number o f s t u d i e s a n a lo g o u s to t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s own, th e g e n e r a l l i t e r a t u r e on th e M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n and much o f th e r e l e v a n t work i n th e f i e l d o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n was a l s o r e v ie w e d . The M exican-A m erican P o p u l a ti o n T h is e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s "an a g g r e g a t i o n o f k i n s h i p u n i t s , t h e members o f w hich e i t h e r ^ P a u l S c h u s t e r T a y l o r , An A m erican-M exican F r o n t i e r (C hapel H i l l : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth C a r o li n a P r e s s , 1 9 3 4 ). % lu th D. Tuck, Not W ith t h e F i s t (New York: H a r c o u r t , B race and C o ., 1 9 4 6 ). ^Jam es B. Watson and J u l i a n Sam ora, " S u b o r d in a te L e a d e r s h ip i n B i c u l t u r a l Com m unity," Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l Review , XIX (A u g u st, 1 9 5 4 ), 4 1 3 -2 1 . ^Thomas E. L a s s w e ll, " S t a t u s S t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n a S e l e c t e d Community" ( u n p u b lis h e d Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 1953)* ^ R o b e rt B. R o g e rs, " P e r c e p t i o n o f t h e Power S t r u c t u r e by S o c i a l C la s s i n a C a l i f o r n i a Community" ( u n p u b lis h e d Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 6 2 ). 12 t r a c e t h e i r o r i g i n i n term s o f d e s c e n t from a common a n c e s t o r o r i n term s o f d e s c e n t from a n c e s t o r s who a l l b e lo n g e d to th e same c a t e g o r i z e d e t h n i c g r o u p . 1 '10 F u r t h e r m ore, a c c o rd in g t o W illia m s , t h e y s h a r e c e r t a i n p h y s i c a l o r c u l t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and th u s " a re r e g a r d e d by o t h e r members o f some l a r g e r c o l l e c t i v i t y w i t h in whose power system th e y l i v e , as d i f f e r e n t and as an o b j e c t o f o u t- g r o u p s e n t i m e n t s . " 11 T h is i s a p o p u l a t i o n , however, e a s i e r t o d e f i n e th a n to i d e n t i f y . B e fo re 1930 th e U n ite d S t a t e s B ureau o f th e Census i n c l u d e d M exicans w i th in th e w h ite p o p u l a t i o n , b u t i n t h a t y e a r th e y were t r e a t e d a s a s e p a r a t e gro u p u n l e s s d e f i n i t e l y w h ite , In d ia n o r Negro. "Not o n ly were p e rs o n s o f Mexican b i r t h and p a r e n t a g e i d e n t i f i e d . . . b u t a l s o an a tte m p t was made to i d e n t i f y a s 'M ex ica n ' p e r s o n s o f S p a n ish c o l o n i a l d e s c e n t and th e ‘L C :,T a l c o t t P a r s o n s , The S o c i a l System (G lencoe: F re e P r e s s , 1951)* P* 172. 11Robin M. W illia m s , J r . , " R a c ia l and C u l t u r a l R e l a t i o n s , " i n J o s e p h B. G i t t l e r , e d . , Review o f ^ S o c io l o g y : A n a ly s is o f a Decade (New York: John W iley & Sons, 1957)* p . 425. 13 "i p s m a ll number o f g r a n d c h i l d r e n o f M exican im m ig r a n ts ." I n 1940 t h e B u reau o f t h e Census u s e d m o th e r tongue i n i d e n t i f y i n g th e M exican p o p u l a t i o n ; f o r t h e 1950 and i 960 c e n s u s e s t h e B u reau h a s u s e d S p a n ish su rn am es. T h is l a t t e r m ethod w ould a p p e a r t o be so f a r th e b e s t d e v i s e d , a t l e a s t f o r th e s o u th w e s te rn s t a t e s : In te rm s o f t h e a v a i l a b l e e v id e n c e t h e r e a p p e a rs to be no r e a s o n f o r assu m ing t h a t th e u s e o f s u r names to i d e n t i f y t h e S p a n ish -A m e ric a n p o p u l a t i o n i s any l e s s a d e q u a te t h a n p r o c e d u r e s p r e v i o u s l y u s e d ; and, i n some r e s p e c t s , i t s u s e may le a d t o a g e n u in e im provem ent i n th e q u a l i t y o f th e s t a t i s t i c s .1 3 B ecause t h e names o f some p e r s o n s o f Mexican d e s c e n t a r e n o t d i s t i n c t i v e and b e c a u se some p e o p le have chang ed t h e i r names ( e s p e c i a l l y th r o u g h m a r ria g e o r a d o p ti o n ) Manuel e s t i m a t e s t h a t f i g u r e s on th e M exican p o p u l a t i o n b a s e d on S p a n is h surname c o u n ts a r e a b o u t 2 .5 p e r c e n t l o w .- ^ T a l b e r t b e l i e v e s t h a t even "th oug h t h e ■^U. S. B ureau o f th e C ensus, P e rso n s o f S p a n is h Surnam e, U n ite d S t a t e s Census o f P o p u l a t i o n : 1950* V ol. IV, S p e c i a l R e p o r ts , P a r t 3 , Chap. C (W ashington, D. C . : U. S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 3 3 ) , p . 5* 13 I b i d . , p . 6. l 4 H e r s c h e l T. M anuel, E d u c a tio n o f Mexican an d S p a n is h -S p e a k in g C h ild r e n i n Texas ( A u s t i n : F u n d f o r R e s e a r c h i n th e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f T ex a s, 1 9 3 0 ), p . 410. 14 'P e rs o n o f S p a n ish Surname A pproach' may g iv e an u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e t o t a l p e r s o n s o f S p a n is h o r M exican b a c k g ro u n d , i t d o e s a p p e a r t o be th e b e s t a v a i l a b l e s o u rc e o f i n f o r m a t i o n . "15 A lthough h i s r e s e a r c h l e d him to e s t i mate t h a t th e surnam e c r i t e r i o n l e a d s t o an u n d e r s t a t e m e n t o f th e S p a n is h a n d M exican p o p u l a t i o n o f New Mexico by about 1 0 p e r c e n t , W innie a g r e e s t h a t " t h e surname c r i t e r i o n seem s to o f f e r as good a g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a s a n y from t h e t e c h n i c a l s t a n d p o i n t ." 1 ^ I n the 1950 Census 8 6 .1 p e r c e n t o f a l l p e r s o n s o f f o r e i g n b i r t h o r p a r e n t a g e h a v in g a S p a n is h surname a n d /o r Mexican o r i g i n h a d b o th o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; 6 .2 p e r cent h a d S p a n ish surnam es b u t w ere n o t o f Mexican o r i g i n ; 7-6 p e r c e n t were o f Mexican o r i g i n b u t d i d n o t hav e Span i s h s u rn a m e s . 1^ E t h n i c D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and S o c ia l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n P a rso n s h a s o b s e rv e d t h a t " c l a s s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n 15ptobert H. T a l b e r t , Spanish-N am e P eople i n th e S o u th w est and West ( F o r t W orth: Texas C h r i s t i a n U n i v e r s i t y , 1955), P . 11. l^ W illia m W. W innie, J r . , "The S p a n is h Surname C r i t e r i o n f o r I d e n t i f y i n g H isp a n o s i n th e S o u th w e s te rn U n ite d S t a t e s , S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXXVIII (May, i 9 6 0 ), 365- 17 U. S. B u re a u o f t h e C ensus, o p . c i t . , p. 7* 15 w i t h i n e t h n i c g ro u p s i s t h e r u l e r a t h e r th a n t h e e x c e p t i o n . W illia m s s i m i l a r l y o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e n o t i o n t h a t r a c i a l o r c u l t u r a l c a t e g o r i e s a r e I n t e r n a l l y homogeneous I s , o f c o u r s e , r e p e a t e d l y d is p r o v e d by s e r i o u s r e s e a r c h . W ith in e v e r y m i n o r i t y a r e l i n e s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b a s e d upon su c h f a c t o r s a s s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . . . r e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n , p l a c e o f o r i g i n and l e n g t h o f r e s i d e n c e . . . I d e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s , and m i l i t a r y o r a c c o m o d a tiv e a t t i t u d e s to w a rd th e m a j o r i t y g r o u p i n g . 19 The M exican -A m erican g ro u p c o n s t i t u t e s no e x c e p ti o n to t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s a l t h o u g h th e c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s i n t e r n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n I s , o f c o u r s e , a m a t t e r to be i n v e s t i g a t e d by e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h . D i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s have " d i s c o v e r e d ” v a ry in g num bers o f s o c i a l s t r a t a In d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c g r o u p s . As Simpson and Y In g e r have n o t e d , "The num ber o f c l a s s e s u t i l i z e d i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f r a c i a l and e t h n i c com m u n ities h a s v a r i e d from z e ro t o f i v e , d ep en d in g upon su c h m a t t e r s as th e a u t h o r ' s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , t h e c r i t e r i a u se d t o d e f i n e o r i d e n t i f y s o c i a l c l a s s e s , who d o es t h e c l a s s i f y i n g and th e ■ ^ P a rso n s, op. c i t . , p . 173* ^ W i l l i a m s , l o c . c i t . , p . 447 16 n a t u r e o f t h e com m u n ities t h e m s e l v e s . " 2^ In t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y , t h e w r i t e r ' s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n i s b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on th e p e r c e p t i o n s o f a sam ple o f th e e t h n i c g ro u p i n q u e s t i o n (s e e C h a p te r V). The w r i t e r h a s been i n f l u e n c e d by P a r s o n s ' s t a te m e n t t h a t : The v a lu e system o f an e t h n i c g ro u p may v a ry from t h a t p aram ou nt i n t h e dom inant s o c i e t y . . . . The a c t i o n s o f an e t h n i c g ro u p s h o u ld be I n t e r p r e t e d i n te rm s o f i t s d i s t i n c t i v e c u l t u r e , I n c l u d i n g i t s own I n t e r n a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and t h e ways i n w hich i t c a n , a c c o rd in g t o i t s v a l u e s , a p p r o p r i a t e l y a r t i c u l a t e w i t h th e m ain c l a s s s y s t e m . 21 Broom and Shevky, who p e r c e i v e th e M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r e l a t i v e h o m o g en e ity w i t h r e f e r e n c e to s t a t u s , sa y t h a t t h e problem o f I n t e r n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t b e c a u se o f th e v e ry n a rro w s t a t u s d i s t r i b u t i o n p r e v a i l i n g i n t h a t p o p u l a t i o n . 22 S a u n d e rs 20 George Simpson and J . M ilto n Y in g e r, "The S o c io lo g y o f Race and E th n ic R e l a t i o n s , " i n R o b e rt K. M erton , L eo n ard Broom, and L eon ard S. C o t t r e l l , J r . , e d s . , S o c io lo g y Today: Problem s and P r o s p e c t s (New Y ork: B a s ic Books, 1959)* P* 395* 21T a l c o t t P a r s o n s , "A R e v is e d A n a l y t i c a l A pproach t o th e T heory o f S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " I n R e in h a rd B en dix and Seymour M a rtin L i p s e t , e d s . , C l a s s , S t a t u s and Power; a R e a d e r i n S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n (G len c o e, 111. : F re e P r e s s , 1953)> PP* 118-119* 22L eo n ard Broom and E s h r e f Shevky, "M exicans i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , " S o c io lo g y and S o c i a l R e s e a rc h , XXXVI ( J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 1 9 5 2 ), 155* 17 s u g g e s ts t h a t M exican-Am erican c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s to some d eg ree b o th d e te rm in e and r e f l e c t th e e x t e n t o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n . . . . There a re d i f f e r e n c e s o f a t t i t u d e and b e h a v io r . . . t h a t c o r r e l a t e ro u g h ly w ith s u b j e c t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s i n d i v i d u a l s make o f t h e i r own s t a t u s and th e s t a t u s o f o t h e r s . R e c o g n itio n o f th e s e d i f f e r e n ce s i s one b a s i s f o r th e s u b j e c t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w hich, i n t u r n , by d is c o u r a g in g a s s o c i a t i o n betw een p e rs o n s o f u n l i k e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f o s t e r s f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s . 23 The problem o f s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n and p e r c e p t i o n o f th e M exican-A m erican c l a s s s t r u c t u r e i s tw o fo ld : p e r c e p t i o n o f s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h in th e Mexican group i t s e l f , and p e r c e p t i o n o f th e Mexican g r o u p 's p o s i t i o n i n th e community-wide s t a t u s s t r u c t u r e . M exican-Am erican c l a s s s t r u c t u r e i n th e S o u th w est, as r e p o r t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e , i s h e a v i ly b a se d on p e r c e p t i o n s and e v a l u a t i o n s o f Anglo in f o r m a n ts . In th e view o f th e l a t t e r , th e s t a t u s o f M exicans i s u n i v e r s a l l y c o n s id e r e d to be r e l a t i v e l y low. McDonagh h as s t u d i e d t h e c o m p arativ e p o s i t i o n which th e Mexican e th n i c group o c c u p ie s i n th e American s t a t u s system , a s s e r t i n g t h a t ( l ) s o c i a l s t a t u s i s p ro b a b ly i n th e low er q u a r t i l e o f a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e l i s t o f e th n i c g ro u p s, ( 2 ) o f f i c i a l l e g a l s t a t u s seems to be e q u a l to th e m a j o r i t y S a u n d ers, C u l t u r a l D if f e r e n c e and M edical Care (New York: R u s s e l l Sage F o u n d a tio n , 1 9 5 ^ P* 80. 18 group . . . ( 3 ) e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t u s i s v e ry m odest i n term s o f fo rm a l s c h o o lin g c o m p lete d and (4) economic s t a t u s i s p r o b a b ly i n th e lo w e r q u a r t i l e o f e t h n i c g ro u p s i n te rm s o f p ay r a t e s and p e r c e n ta g e o f M exicans i n s k i l l e d jo b s and th e p r o f e s s i o n s . 24 S o c ia l d i s t a n c e s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t by B ogardus i n d i c a t e t h a t o u t o f 30 d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c gro u p s M exicans i n 1926 had a r a n k o f 21. In 1946 M exicans had a r a n k o f 24 and M exican-A m ericans 22; i n 1956, 28 and 22 r e s p e c t i v e l y . I f th e s c a l e i s v a l i d , i t i n d i c a t e s c o n s i s t e n t l y low e t h n i c s t a t u s f o r M exicans and M e x ica n -A m erica n s.25 The c a s t e - l i k e n a t u r e o f r e l a t i o n s betw een Anglo Am ericans and Mexican Am ericans h a s b e en n o te d by s e v e r a l s t u d e n t s o f Mexican Am ericans i n s o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a and e ls e w h e re . In th e l a t e 1 9 2 0 f s P aul S. T a y lo r s t u d i e d M exican-Anglo r e l a t i o n s i n f o u r s o u th w e s te rn Texas com m u n i t i e s , i n a l l o f w hich th e M exicans and M exican- Am ericans were r e s l d e n t i a l l y s e g r e g a t e d , l i m i t e d a lm o st e x c l u s i v e l y to a g r i c u l t u r a l work, d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t in Pii Edward C. McDonagh, " S t a tu s L e v e ls o f M e x ica n s," S o c io lo g y and S o c i a l R e s e a rc h . XXXV (November-December, 19 50), 459. ^ E m o ry S. B o gardus, S o c ia l D is ta n c e (Los A ng eles, 195 9), p . 33. 19 many o t h e r ways, and v i r t u a l l y b a r r e d from i n t e r m a r r i a g e . 2^ G o ld s c h m id t's p re -w a r Wasco s tu d y showed t h a t "any s o c i a l advancem ent o f . . . a Mexican was w ith in h i s own gro u p ; he d id n o t e n t e r the s o c i a l s p h e re o f the w h ite com m u n ity ." The g r o u p 's i n t e r n a l u n i t y l e d them to h a v in g a community o f t h e i r own.2^ Tuck r e p o r t e d t h a t a lth o u g h b e fo r e World War I I i n San B e rn a rd in o t h e r e were no l e g a l r e s t r i c t i o n s a g a i n s t M exicans, t h e i r employment, e d u c a t i o n a l , s o c i a l , and h o u sin g o p p o r t u n i t i e s w ere l i m i t e d and l a r g e l y s e g r e g a t e d . The M exicans in t h i s c i t y w ere s a id by Tuck t o c o n s t i t u t e a c a s te o r s e m i - c a s t e , such g ro u p s b e in g "p erm an en t lo w e r g r o u p in g s i n w hich th e y a r e su p po sed t o s t a y and a g a i n s t w hich b a r r i e r s have been e r e c t e d to p r e v e n t t h e i r r i s e . " 2® Some o f th e s e m i- c a s te b a r r i e r s a p p e a r to have been lo w e re d d u r in g th e World War I I p e r i o d , when t h e r e were i n c r e a s e d employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r M exicans a t h i g h e r wages and i n more d i v e r s e o c c u p a t i o n s . 29 2® T aylor, op . c i t . , p p . 250-77* 27 w a l t e r G o ldschm id t, As You Sow (New Y ork: Har- c o u r t B race and C o ., 1947), P* 59* 2®Tuck, op . c i t . , p. 4 4 . 2 9 c h a r l e s p. Marden, M i n o r i t i e s i n American S o c i e t y (New York: American Book Co., 1 9 5 2 ), p. 139* A lso, I t sh o u ld be remembered t h a t e v e r sin c e e a r l i e r p e r i o d s o f h i s t o r y , Mexicans have I n t e r m a r r i e d w ith Anglos, and th o ro u g h ly C a u c a so id -a p p e a rin g i n d i v i d u a l s have seldom s u f f e r e d from an i n f e r i o r c a s t e p o s i t i o n . N e v e r th e le s s , w ith r e s t r i c t e d I n t e r m a r r i a g e , th e t a c i t o r e x p l i c i t s u p e r i o r - i n f e r i o r n a t u r e o f e th n i c r e l a t i o n s , and th e l i m i t a t i o n o f Mexicans to c e r t a i n ty p e s o f jo b s , the p o s i t i o n o f th e Mexicans s t i l l ap p ro x im ate s e m i- c a s te . L a s s w e l l 's p o s t- w a r stu d y o f " C itr u s C ity " showed an a c c e p te d c a s t e - l i k e dichotom y i n t o "w hite" and "M exicans," w ith th e l a t t e r group c o n s id e r e d even by l i b e r a l w h ite r e s i d e n t s as an i n f e r i o r s u b d i v i s i o n . M arriage between th e two grou ps was s a i d to be " u n th in k a b le ," In L a s s w e l l 's f i r s t s e r i e s o f i n t e r v i e w s r e s p o n d e n ts ten d e d to i d e n t i f y a s e p a r a t e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n f o r each group, a lth o u g h when a c t u a l f a m i l i e s were s t r a t i f i e d th e ten d en cy was not as s t r o n g . Some Mexican f a m i l i e s were p la c e d i n th e upper s t r a t a and some Anglos i n th e low er s t r a t a . 3° R o g e rs' r e c e n t stu d y o f "O rchard C ity ," a town in c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a , showed t h a t e th n ic d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w i t h in th e community c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d M exican-Americans o n D L a s s w e ll, op. c i t . , p . 8 5 . 21 and A nglos: " P e e lin g s tow ard th e Mexican group were q u i t e com parable to th o se i d e n t i f i e d as ' r a c e 1 f e e l i n g s in o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f th e U n ited S t a t e s . " 3 1 In th e s o u th e rn C olorado r u r a l c o m m u n i t y s t u d i e d by Watson and Samora i t was shown t h a t "th e A n g lo -S p an ish r e l a t i o n s h i p h as some o f th e p r o p e r t i e s o f a c a s t e system . Spanish and Anglo a re p r a c t i c a l l y endogamous." 3 2 For so u th e rn Texas Simmons r e p o r t s i n t e r e t h n i c r e l a t i o n s as s t i l l a p p ro x im a tin g s e m i - c a s t e .33 The a p p a r e n t l y low r a t e o f Anglo-Mexican i n t e r m a rria g e i s i n d i c a t i v e o f t h i s ty p e o f i n t e r - e t h n i c r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, c o n tr a r y to th e u s u a l ten d e n cy o f m in o r i t y group men to o u t-m a rry more th a n th e 34 women do, i n Los A ngeles County more M exlcan-Am erican women th a n men m arry o u t , w heth er to w h ite o r to o t h e r r a c e s . Burma b e l i e v e s t h a t i n t e r m a r r i a g e i s more common a t th e u p p e r and lo w er c l a s s l e v e l s th a n a t th e m iddle ^ R o g e r s , pp. c i t . , p. 88. 3^Watson and Samora, l o c . c i t . , p. 4 l6 . 33simmons, op. c i t . , p. 29- 34sim pSOn and Y ln g er, l o c . c i t . , p . 555* 22 c l a s s l e v e l . P e rc e p tio n o f S t a tu s D iff e r e n c e s The l i t e r a t u r e on th e p e r c e p tio n o f s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e s i s too v a s t t o be summarized i n a few p a g es. R a th e r, th e r e s e a r c h e r w i l l rev iew n o tio n s from t h i s l i t e r a t u r e which d i r e c t l y in f lu e n c e d th e d esig n o f the stu d y , p lu s the l i t e r a t u r e d e a lin g s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith th e p e r c e p tio n o f s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e s in Mexican-American com m u n itie s . The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between R e s p o n d e n ts ’ p e r c e p tio n s and r e s e a r c h e r s ' p e r c e p tio n s a re s t r e s s e d i n th e a v a i l a b l e s t u d i e s i n t h i s a r e a . C a rls so n , f o r example, n o te s t h a t : To a s c e r t a i n p e o p l e 1s b e l i e f s about c l a s s and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i s , o f c o u rs e , no s u b s t i t u t e f o r th e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t ’ s own a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , b u t such a stu d y may p ro v id e him w ith e s s e n t i a l d a t a . 36 On th e o t h e r hand, i t i s im p o rta n t n o t to a tte m p t to fo rc e a p re c o n c e iv e d c l a s s s t r u c t u r e upon th e d a ta . W e a re 35john H. Burma, S panish -S p eak in g Groups i n th e U n ited S t a t e s (Durham: Duke U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 195^)> p. 88. /* G osta C a rls so n , S o c ia l M o b ility and C lass S tr u c t u r e (Lund: C. W . K. G leerup , 1958)., p. 19* 23 w arned by N elson and L a s s w e ll t h a t t h e r e I s no r i g i d fram ew ork w hich can be l a i d o v e r s o c i e t y by w hich to draw an a b s o l u t e s o c i a l c l a s s h i e r a r c h y ; t h a t t h e r e i s no s i n g l e 'a b s o lu te * o r 'r e a l * c l a s s c o n s t r u c t ; t h a t s o c i a l c l a s s i s d ep en d e n t n o t on a s e r i e s o f v a r i a b l e s advanced by a r e s e a r c h e r and r i g h t l y o r w ro n g ly m a n ip u la te d by him . . . . When s o c i a l c l a s s a s an i r r e d u c i b l e con c e p t has been ta k e n i n t o th e f i e l d and p r e s e n t e d to a s e r i e s o f r a t e r s w id e ly d i f f e r e n t i a t e d as to c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , c o n se n su s as to th e number o f c l a s s e s and r e a s o n s f o r a ssig n m e n t h a s been f a r s h o r t o f a t t a i n m e n t . I n s t e a d o f a c c e p t in g t h i s f o r what i t i s , a s o c i a l f a c t , th e r e s e a r c h e r . . . h as com pounded th e problem by c o n s t r u c t i n g and d e v i s i n g t e c h n iq u e s to re d u c e a l l s i t u a t i o n s , a l l tim e , and a l l p e rs o n s to s t a b l e , un ch an g in g u n i t s . . . and th e n a t t r i b u t e d to them an a r t i f i c i a l r a t i o n a l i t y w hich i s r e a l o n ly to th e r e s e a r c h e r . 37 I t i s g r a t u i t o u s t o assume t h a t a l l p e rs o n s p e r c e iv e c l a s s o r o t h e r s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e s . In d e e d , some p e o p le deny t h a t t h e y do. Thus I t i s d e s i r a b l e f i r s t to a sk re s p o n d e n ts what d i f f e r e n c e s t h e y do n o te among t h e i r f e l l o w s , to see I f s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e s a r e i n c l u d e d , and I f t h e s e a r e o f prim e Im p o rta n c e . In h i s s tu d y o f V e n tu ra , C a l i f o r n i a , S a rg e n t was c a r e f u l n o t t o f o r c e q u e s t io n s on s o c i a l c l a s s , s t a t u s o r o t h e r s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l s by ^ H a r o l d A. N elson and Thomas E. L a s s w e ll, " S ta tu s I n d i c e s , S o c ia l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n and S o c i a l C l a s s ," S o c i o l ogy and S o c ia l R e s e a rc h , XLIV ( J u ly - A u g u s t, i 9 6 0 ), 413. 24 assum ing t h a t such were p e r c e i v e d by a l l p e r s o n s . B efo re any m en tio n was made o f s t a t u s p e r c e p t i o n , S a rg e n t a sk ed t h i s q u e s t i o n : "What would you sa y a re t h e m ost im p o r ta n t d i f f e r e n c e s fo und among th e p e o p le o f V en tu ra ? T hat i s , what d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s o r c a t e g o r i e s would you d i v i d e them i n t o ? "38 S a rg e n t r e p o r t e d t h a t c l a s s o r s t a t u s c a t e g o r i e s t o t a l e d 31 p e r c e n t o f th e a n sw e rs, w h ile ab o u t 35 o r . 40 p e r c e n t o f th e an sw ers were o r i e n t e d tow ard c l a s s o r so cioecono m ic s t a t u s . From a b o u t a f o u r t h to a t h i r d o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts w ere i g n o r a n t o f , o r c o n fu se d by, th e c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l c l a s s . S o c ia l c l a s s e s a re g e n e r a l l y conceded to be "co n s t r u c t s w hich men have im posed upon c e r t a i n o b j e c t i v e l y e x i s t e n t phenomena as t h e y a re p e r c e i v e d and c o g n i t i v e l y r e a c t e d to by t h e m ."39 While some s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , W arner f o r exam ple, t h i n k o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s as s t a t u s l e v e l s and p a r t i c i p a t i o n g ro u p s , o t h e r s such as C e n te rs ■consider them a s r a t h e r l o o s e l y s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r e s t S t a n s f e l d S a r g e n t, " C la s s and C la s s - C o n sc io u sn e ss i n a C a l i f o r n i a Town," S o c ia l Problem s, I (Ju n e , 19 5 3 ), 2 3 . 3 ^ R ic h ard C e n te r s , "Toward an A r t i c u l a t i o n o f Two A pproaches to S o c i a l C la s s Phenom ena," I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f O pinion and A t t i t u d e R e s e a rc h , IV (W in ter, 1 9 5 0 ), 500. 25 g r o u p s . ^ 0 C la s s e s a re d e r i v e d In W a rn e r's c a se from c l a s s a s c r i p t i o n / In C e n t e r 's c ase from c l a s s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . ^ 1 These a r e , o f c o u rs e , p e r c e p t i o n s by r e s e a r c h e r s and n o t p r i m a r i l y by in f o r m a n ts , a s i n th e c a se o f th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h . The w r i t e r found i t n e c e s s a r y t o number h i m s e l f among th o s e r e s e a r c h e r s who a re ’’r e l u c t a n t to a c c e p t a p r i o r i and have been u n a b le to d i s c o v e r e m p i r i c a l l y t h e r e a l i t y o f c l a s s i n th e sen se o f f u l l y d e v e lo p e d s h a r p l y d e f in e d s t r a t a co m p rise d o f i n d i v i d u a l s who a re aware o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n s and c a p a b le o f c o r p o r a t e a c t i o n . L a s s w e l l 's s t u d y o f C i t r u s C ity (n e a r Pomona and i n many ways s i m i l a r ) r e v e a l e d "a community i n w hich an a r e a sample o f r e s i d e n t s d id n o t c o n c e p tu a li z e a s r i g i d a p a t t e r n o f s o c i a l c l a s s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n as r e s e a r c h e r s u s in g s e l e c t e d r a t e r s have r e p o r t e d to e x i s t i n o t h e r 4oI b i d . , pp. 5 03 -5 0 5 . ^ I b i d . , p. 513. ^ L e o n a r d Broom, " S o c ia l D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " i n R o b e rt K. M erton, L eonard Broom and L eo nard S. C o t t r e l l , J r . , e d s . , S o c io lo g y Today: Problem s and P r o s p e c t s (New Y ork: B a sic Books, 1959)> P* ^35* 26 c o m m u n i t i e s . " ^ i t h as a i So been shown t h a t as o n e 's s o c i a l c l a s s d i f f e r s , th e image o f th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e one has a l s o v a r i e s . ^ The lo w e r s t r a t a , p a r t i c u l a r l y , o f t e n have l i t t l e know ledge o r " f e e l " f o r th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r co m m unities. P e rso n s i n th e s e s t r a t a a r e f r e q u e n t l y i n a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e rn in g c a t e g o r i e s o f p e o p le and f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t to t h i n k a b s t r a c t l y . 46 On th e o t h e r hand, t o u p p e r c l a s s p e rs o n s f i n e c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e o f more im p o rta n c e , and t h e s e p e o p le g e n e r a l l y have s u p e r i o r e d u c a tio n . The lo w er c l a s s p e r son has p e rh a p s n o t r e a d a b o u t o r d i s c u s s e d such m a t t e r s , and i n any c ase i s more c o n ce rn e d w ith th e prob lem s o f making a l i v i n g and c a r i n g f o r h i s f a m i l y 's b a re n e c e s s i t i e s . K ah l, however, b e l i e v e s t h a t " p e o p le make th e ^ T h o m a s E. L a s s w e ll, " R e p ly ," American S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , XX (F e b ru a ry , 1 9 5 5 )j 83* 44w. Lloyd W arner, M archia Meeker and K enneth E e l l s , S o c i a l C lass i n America (New York: H arper & B r o s ., i 9 6 0 ), p. 19* ^ X jeo n a rd Schatzman and Anselm S t r a u s s , " S o c ia l C la ss and Modes o f C om m u n icatio n ," American J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y , LX (J a n u a ry , 1955)* 338. 46 W. Lloyd W arner, American L i f e : Dream and R e a l i t y (C h icag o : U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 1953)* p p . 143-44 . f i n e s t d i s t i n c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g th o s e whom th e y know h e s t and te n d t o merge o t h e r s i n t o b r o a d e r c a t e g o r i e s . "^7 i f we would v a l i d l y d e s c r i b e t h e community c o n s e n s u s , i f su ch e x i s t s , we s h o u ld have a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ple o f o p i n i o n s , a d h e rin g t o th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t " e f f e c t i v e s t a t u s judgm ents may be made by any o r a l l members o f a community who a r e i n i n t e r a c t i o n , and t h a t t h e s e judgm ents may f u r n i s h a t l e a s t a p a r t i a l b a s i s f o r d i f f e r e n t i a l a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r to w ard d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s o f community mem bers."^® The number o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d by in f o r m a n t s i s a c r u c i a l v a r i a b l e . Cuber and- K enkel b e l i e v e t h a t i n a g iv e n community t h e r e a re a lm o st as many s o c i a l c l a s s sy stem s as t h e r e a r e o b s e r v e r s , w h e th e r th e o b s e r v e r s be to w n sp eo p le o r r e s e a r c h e r s . ^9 j n L a s s w e l l 's f i r s t s e r i e s o f i n t e r v i e w s i n C i t r u s C ity , f o r exam ple, no s i n g l e num b e r o f s t r a t a was a g re e d upon by more th a n 17 p e r c e n t o f ^ J o s e p h A. K ahl, The American C la s s S t r u c t u r e (New York: R in e h a r t and C o., 1 9 5 7)> P* 32. ^®Thomas E. L a s s w e ll, "A Study o f S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n Using an Area Sample o f R a t e r s , " American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XIX (Ju n e , 195^)* 310. ^ J o h n F. Cuber and W illiam F. K enkel, S o c ia l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s (New York: A p p le to n - C e n tu ry C r o f t s , 195^)* h i s r e s p o n d e n t s . 5 0 in th e second s e r i e s o f i n t e r v i e w s , where in f o r m a n ts were a sk e d to p l a c e d e f i n i t e f a m i l i e s , no number o f s t r a t a was chosen by more th a n 32 p e r c e n t o f h i s r e s p o n d e n t s . S t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n M exican-A m erican Communities A lthough r e s e a r c h e r s i n th e M exican-A m erican f i e l d have each come up w ith a f a i r l y d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e f o r eac h community s t u d i e d , t h e r e i s o n ly p a r t i a l agreem ent a s betw een th e com m unities. Such • l a c k o f agreem ent may be due e i t h e r t o d i f f e r e n t c on cep t u a l i z a t i o n s by r e s e a r c h e r s o r to th e n a t u r e o f th e com m u n it i e s th e m s e lv e s . Two o v e r a l l view s o f th e M exican-A m erican c l a s s system have been g iv e n by Scherm erhorn and Burma i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s u rv e y s o f th e l i t e r a t u r e . S cherm erhorn d e s c r i b e s th e M exican American s t a t u s system as f o l lo w s : At th e bottom o f th e s c a l e a r e th e m ig r a to r y w o rk e rs, and t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o r e r s , who a re th e m ost m o b ile . . . . Among th e more s e t t l e d com m unities t h e r e i s a k in d o f tw o fo ld c l a s s ■ ^ L a ssw ell, "A S tud y o f S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n Using an Area Sample o f R a t e r s , " p. 311 • 29 d i v i s i o n : an u p p e r group o f 'b i g p e o p le ' who have su c ce ed e d i n term s o f American m iddle c l a s s s t a n d a r d s , t o g e t h e r w ith a d i s o r g a n iz e d f r i n g e ; and th e l a r g e mass o f common p e o p le , w ith t h e i r d i s o r g a n iz e d f r i n g e .51 Burma sp eak s a ls o o f a tw o - f o ld d i v i s i o n . The lo w er c l a s s i s " p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n , d w e llin g in h o v e ls , f o llo w in g th e h a r v e s t o r doing manual day l a b o r , sem i i l l i t e r a t e , w ith l i t t l e hope f o r th e f u t u r e . "52 At th e bottom o f th e m iddle c l a s s a r e th e r a i l r o a d w o rk e rs and s e m i s k i l l e d i n d u s t r i a l w o rk e rs; h i g h e r a r e th e s k i l l e d w o rk e rs, i n d u s t r i a l a r t i s a n s , and th e s m a ll e r b u sin e ssm e n . . . . Most o f th e s e p e o p le own t h e i r own homes, a re r e s p e c t a b l e , l i t e r a t e c i t i z e n s , and send t h e i r c h i l d r e n to p u b l i c s c h o o ls , som etim es t o c o l l e g e . 53 Burma a s s e r t s t h a t th e a v erag e Anglo p e r c e i v e s two c l a s s e s , lo w er and m id d le , b u t t h a t M exicans g e n e r a l l y d i v id e th e c o lo n ia i n t o t h r e e by b r e a k in g down th e m id dle c l a s s i n t o an u p p e r c l a s s and a m id d le c l a s s . 54 Among th o s e who have c o n d u c te d f i r s t - h a n d e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h , L a s s w e ll p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a lth o u g h some 51 R. A. S cherm erhorn, These Our People (B oston: D. C. H eath and Co., 1949)> PP* 189-90. 52Burma, op. c i t ., p. 94. 5 3 i b i d . , pp. 9 4 - 9 5 . 5 ^ i b i d , , p. 94. 30 would e x p e c t t h a t Mexicans i n C i tr u s C ity m ig h t d e s c r i b e a more complex s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n f o r t h e i r own group th a n f o r th e A nglos, no M exican in fo rm a n t i d e n t i f i e d more th a n two c l a s s e s w ith in h i s own g ro u p , b u t some i d e n t i f i e d f o u r Anglo c l a s s e s . A f te r d e s c r i b i n g San B e r n a r d i n o 's t w o - c l a s s system Tuck n o te d t h a t " to t r y to make i t f i t a t r i p l e d i v i s i o n o f ’u p p e r , ’ ’l o w e r , ’ and ’m i d d l e ’ i s to v i o l a t e th e d i s t i n c t i o n s w hich i t s members make and t h e te rm s i n w hich th e y e x p r e s s th e m ." ^ ^ C la rk d e s c r i b e d a t w o - c l a s s system f o r th e Mexican community o f San J o s e , C a l i f o r n i a , a lth o u g h th e two c l a s s e s were s a i d to be p o o r ly d e f i n e d : The ’h i g h e r c l a s s ’ mem bers' d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e c o lo n y ’ s c l a s s s t r u c t u r e i s s i m i l a r to th e view o f M exican-A m erican s o c i e t y h e ld by t h e San Jo se A nglos, who f o r th e m ost p a r t r e f e r to S p a n is h sp e a k in g p e o p le as e i t h e r ’low c l a s s ' o r 'h i g h c l a s s . '57 Simmons d e s c r i b e d t h e M exican-A m erican community o f McAllen, T exas i n term s o f a tw o - c l a s s system w ith ^ L a s s w e l l , " S ta tu s S t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n a S e l e c te d Community," pp. 116-17* 5 6 i» u c k , o p . c i t ., p. 133* - ^ C la r k , op. c i t ., p p . 16-19* 31 v a ry in g s u b d i v i s i o n s . 58 T here i s g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t i n th e McAllen Mexican_£ommunity t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l s , l a r g e l a n d - o w n e r - f a r m e r s , and th e s u b s t a n t i a l b u sin e ssm e n a r e m id d le c l a s s . Between t h i s s m a ll g ro u p and th e l a r g e lo w e r c l a s s i s a m id d le g ro u p o f w h ite c o l l a r w o rk e rs and s m a ll sh o p k e e p e r s , who form t h e lo w er segm ent o f th e m id d le c l a s s . Lehman w r i t e s t h a t t h e M exicans o f n e a r b y Chino occu py t h r e e s o c i a l l e v e l s , e a c h o f w hich l i v e s i n a d i f f e r e n t r e s i d e n t i a l s e c t i o n o f th e c i t y . The h i g h e s t c l a s s l i v e among Anglos o f a p p ro x im a te ly t h e same so c io ec o n o m ic s t a t u s . 59 When B a rk e r s t u d i e d T u c so n ’ s M exican community i n t h e 1 9 4 0 's i t had a b o u t 2 0 ,0 0 0 p o p u l a t i o n , p e rh a p s th e l a r g e s t M exican community whose c l a s s s t r u c t u r e h a s been a n a ly z e d . He d i s t i n g u i s h e d f i v e so c io ec o n o m ic c l a s s e s : ( l ) an u p p e r c l a s s o f w e a lth y "Old F a m i l i e s " ; (2) a lo w e r- u p p e r c l a s s o f y o u n g e r and l e s s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d members o f th e u p p e r g ro u p who l i v e "on b o th s i d e s o f th e t r a c k s " ; 5 ® S im m o n s, o p . c i t . , p . 339- 5 9 v i c b o r Boyd Lehman, "A S tudy o f t h e S o c i a l A d ju stm en t o f th e M exican A m ericans i n Chino and a P r o p o s e d P la n o f Community A c tio n u n d e r School L e a d e r s h ip " ( u n p u b lis h e d M a s t e r 's t h e s i s , C larem o n t G ra d u a te S c h o o l, 1 9 4 7 ). 32 (3 ) a m id d le c l a s s o f s m a ll s h o p k e e p e r s , c l e r k s and s k i l l e d w o rk e rs ; (4 ) an u p p e r - lo w e r c l a s s o f s t e a d i l y em ployed u n s k i l l e d o r s e m i - s k i l l e d w o rk e rs ; and (5) a lo w e r c l a s s o f u n s k i l l e d m ig ra n t w o r k e r s . 6 ° C r i t e r i a o f S t r a t i f i c a t i o n The s o c i a l l e v e l s p e r c e i v e d i n t h e s t u d i e s o f t h e s e M exican com m unities may be c o n c e iv e d o f a s s t e r e o t y p e s . They a re o f th e ty p e w hich L a s s w e ll c a l l s ’’group s t e r e o t y p e s . " L a s s w e ll n o t e s t h a t : T here a r e many g ro u p s t e r e o t y p e s o f s o c i a l c l a s s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , accom p an ied by norms and s a n c t i o n s . A p a r t o f th e p e r s o n 's c o n c e p tio n o f l o c a l s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e y a r e a p p l i e d to p e r s o n s w i t h whom one i s i n a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n i n a r e l a t i v e l y i m p o r t a n t w a y . 61 Such s t e r e o t y p e s o f c o u r s e , n e ed n o t c o in c id e w i t h th e s t e r e o t y p e s b r o u g h t to h i s work by th e r e s e a r c h e r from h i s p e r u s a l o f th e l i t e r a t u r e o r from h i s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h r e s p o n d e n t s . As C e n te r s n o t e s , 6 ° B a r k e r , l o c . c i t . , pp. l 8 9 - 92. 6liphomas E. L a s s w e ll, " O r i e n t a t i o n s Toward S o c i a l C l a s s e s , " Am erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y , XLV (May, i 9 6 0 ), 587. 33 C la s s e s a re p s y c h o - s o c i a l g ro u p in g s , som ething t h a t i s e s s e n t i a l l y s u b j e c t i v e i n c h a r a c t e r , depen d en t upon c l a s s c o n s c io u s n e s s ( i . e . a f e e l i n g o f group m em bersh ip), and c l a s s l i n e s o f c le a v a g e may o r may n o t conform t o what seem to s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s t o be l o g i c a l l i n e s o f c le a v a g e i n th e o b j e c t i v e o r s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s e n s e . 62 T h is phenomenon o f d i f f e r e n t i a l p e r c e p t i o n has a ls o been n o te d by D a v is : "T here a re many gaps i n th e p e r c e p t i o n o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and . . . su b g ro u p in g s which a re q u i t e obv iou s, to some p e o p le are j u s t n o t seen as su c h by o t h e r s . "63 F u rth e rm o re , a c c o rd in g to L a n d e c k e r 's D e t r o i t s tu d y , b o th a continuum and d i s c r e t e c l a s s e s may p o s s i b l y be found i n th e same s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e : The view s u g g e s te d by t h e s e f i n d i n g s i s t h a t n e i t h e r th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e n o r th e s t a t u s continuum h y p o th e s i s t a k e s p re c e d e n c e o v e r th e o t h e r , but r a t h e r t h a t eac h i s a p p r o p r i a t e to a d i f f e r e n t p o r t i o n o f th e t o t a l system o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . 64 Numerous i n v e s t i g a t o r s have d e m o n s tra te d t h a t in ; #-------------- ^ 2R ic h a rd C e n te r s , The P sychology o f S o c ia l C la s s e s ( P r i n c e t o n : P r in c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1949)> p . -2 7 . ^ J a m e s a . D a v is, " C u l t u r a l F a c to r s i n th e P e r c e p t i o n o f S t a t u s Sym bols," Midwest S o c i o l o g i s t , XXI (December, 19 5 8 ), 10, c i t e d by Thomas E. L a s s w e ll, " S o c ia l C l a s s e s as A f f e c t i v e C a t e g o r i e s , " S o c io lo g y and S o c ia l R e s e a r c h , XLVI ( A p r il, 1 9 6 2), 313- 6^W erner S. L an d e ck e r, "C la ss B o u n d a r ie s ," American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review , XXV (December, i 9 6 0 ), 877- s t a t u s p e r c e p t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n more t h a n one c r i t e r i o n i s a lm o s t u n i v e r s a l l y i n v o l v e d . I n C e n t e r 's s t u d y th e f o u r m ost f r e q u e n t l y m e n tio n e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w ere b e l i e f s , e d u c a t i o n , f a m i l y and m o n e y . ^5 T h ere i s u s u a l l y e i t h e r a t a c i t o r an e x p l i c i t a s s u m p tio n t h a t th e v a r i o u s c r i t e r i a u s e d c o r r e l a t e d h i g h l y w i t h e a c h o t h e r , i . e . , e a c h i n d i v i d u a l i s assum ed t o have a c e r t a i n c o n s i s t e n c y a b o u t h i s s t a t u s , a l t h o u g h e m p i r i c a l l y I t i s known t h a t t h e r e a r e many e x c e p t i o n s . L e n s k i 's D e t r o i t s t u d y showed some f a m i l i e s r a n k in g h ig h on a l l f o u r v a r i a b l e s u s e d (in co m e, e d u c a t i o n , o c c u p a t i o n , e t h n i c i t y ) , some low on a l l , some f a m i l i e s low on some and h i g h on o t h e r s . ^ Such s t a t u s I n c o n s i s t e n c y w ould a p p e a r I n t h e c a s e o f t h o s e M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s, h a v in g a low e t h n i c i t y r a t i n g , b u t who may have a h i g h r a t i n g on one o f t h e o t h e r t h r e e v a r i a b l e s . R e l i g i o n I s a c l a s s - r e l a t e d v a r i a b l e t h e im p o r ta n c e o f w hich i s i n c r e a s i n g l y s t r e s s e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e l a t i v e h o m o g e n e ity o f t h e M exican -A m erican ^ C e n t e r s , o p . c i t . , pp. 7 8 - 8 8 . 66 G e rh a rd L e n s k i, " S o c i a l P a r t i c i p a t i o n and S t a t u s C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , XXI (A u g u st, 1 9 5 6 ), 458. 35 p o p u la tio n w ith r e f e r e n c e to r e l i g i o n makes r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n l e s s u s e f u l i n s t u d i e s such as th e p r e s e n t one. L e n sk i, however, a s s e r t s t h a t th e range o f v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t e d by r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n seems t o be as g r e a t as t h a t a f f e c t e d by c l a s s mem bership. " S o c i o - r e l ig i o u s group membership i s a v a r i a b l e com parable in im po rtance t o c l a s s , b o th w ith r e s p e c t to i t s p o ten c y and w ith r e s p e c t to th e ra n g e , o r e x t e n t , o f i t s i n f l u e n c e . " ^ On th e o t h e r hand, w h e th er i n d i v i d u a l s use r e l i g i o n as a c r i t e r i o n f o r e v a lu a tin g , o t h e r s ' s t a t u s , i s a q u e s tio n to be d e cid ed by e m p ir ic a l r e s e a r c h . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , however, in many s t u d i e s o f s t a t u s ' system s we do n o t know which c r i t e r i a a r e b e in g u sed by re s p o n d e n ts . As B arb er sa y s, W e do n o t know i f p e o p le in a l o c a l community are b ein g ran k e d on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r f u n c t i o n a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i a l r o l e s , income, i n h e r i t e d w e a lth , a n c e s t r y o r s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e . . . . I t i s very l i k e l y t h a t d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e community a re u s in g d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a o f e v a l u a t i o n , b u t t h e r e i s no way o f knowing what c r i t e r i a a re being used o r who i s u sin g which c r i t e r i o n . 68 ^ G e r h a r d L e n sk i, The R e lig io u s F a c to r (Garden C ity , New York: Doubleday and Co., 1961), p. 2 9 5. B ernard B a rb e r, S o c ia l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n (New York: H a rc o u rt B race and Co., 1 9 5 7 ), P* 117* 36 V a r io u s c r i t e r i a h av e b e e n d i s c u s s e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e on M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n c o m m u n itie s . In San J o s e , f o r e x a m p le , C l a r k fo u n d t h a t t h e c r i t e r i a w ere p r i m a r i l y incom e and s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g , b u t a l s o s p e e c h , e d u c a t i o n , o c c u p a t i o n a n d p r o p e r t y o w n e r s h i p . ^9 In San B e r n a r d i n o p e o p le w i t h good m an n e rs and an i n t e r e s t i n c u l t i v a t e d ways w ere t h o u g h t o f a s members o f t h e e d u c a t e d c l a s s , e v e n th o u g h t h e i r f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n m ig h t n o t be e x t e n s i v e . Money a c h i e v e d th r o u g h sh a d y o r e x p l o i t a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s d i d n o t b r i n g h i g h s t a t u s . 7 ° Simmons c i t e d o c c u p a t i o n a s t h e c h i e f c r i t e r i o n o f s t a t u s i n M cA llen and San A n to n io , b u t n o t e d t h a t r e l a t i v e s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e m id d le c l a s s i s a l s o d e p e n d e n t on e d u c a t i o n , f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d , i n t e r e s t i n t h e M exican g r o u p , and r e p u t a t i o n a s a l e a d e r o f t h e M exican com m unity and r e a d i n e s s t o s e r v e i t . 71 In t h e 1 9 2 0 's Gamio n o t e d t h a t d a rk s k i n n e d M e x ica n s s u f f e r e d a b o u t t h e same t y p e o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a s N e g ro e s , b u t t h a t medium c o m p le c te d M exican s w ere a b l e 6 9 c i a r k , op. c i t ., p. 1 9 . 70ipuck, op. c i t ., p. 135- 71sim m ons, o p . c i t ., p p . 3 5 8 -6 6 . 37 t o u s e s e c o n d - c l a s s p u b l i c f a c i l i t i e s . Even l i g h t - brown s k i n n e d M e x ic a n s w ere e x c l u d e d from h i g h c l a s s f a c i l i t i e s , w h i l e w h i t e M e x ica n s m ig h t be f r e e l y a d m i t t e d , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e y sp o k e f l u e n t E n g l i s h . S o c i a l a n d O c c u p a t i o n a l M o b i l i t y In i t s m o st g e n e r a l s e n s e , s o c i a l m o b i l i t y may be d e f i n e d a s "a n y t r a n s i t i o n o f an i n d i v i d u a l o r s o c i a l o b j e c t o r v a l u e - - a n y t h i n g t h a t h a s b e e n c r e a t e d o r m o d i f i e d by human a c t i v i t y - - f r o m one s o c i a l p o s i t i o n t o a n o t h e r . "73 S o c i a l m o b i l i t y i s g e n e r a l l y c o n c e d e d t o o c c u r i n two p r i n c i p a l , i n t e r r e l a t e d m odes, h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l . The l a t t e r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s " t h e r e l a t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n a t r a n s i t i o n o f an i n d i v i d u a l ( o r a s o c i a l o b j e c t ) from one s o c i a l s t r a t u m to a n o t h e r . "7^ V e r t i c a l m o b i l i t y , w h ic h h a s b e e n t r e a t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t r e p o r t p r i m a r i l y i n o c c u p a t i o n a l te r m s may o c c u r i n s e v e r a l w a y s: ( l ) o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a n g e i n v o l v i n g a c h a n g e "^ M an u el Gam io, M ex ican I m m ig r a tio n t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s ( C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , 1 9 3 0 ) , P . 5 3 . 7 3 p i t i r l m A. S o r o k i n , S o c i a l and C u l t u r a l M o b il i t y ( G le n c o e : F r e e P r e s s , 1959)* P* 133* 7 ^ I b i d . 38 i n s o c i a l p o s i t i o n ; (2) p ro m o tio n o r dem otion w i t h in a s p e c i f i c o c c u p a t i o n a l g ro u p ; (3 ) a g in g o r s e n i o r i t y ; (4) i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l o c c u p a ti o n a l c h a n g e s, p a r t i c u l a r l y betw een f a t h e r s and so n s ; (5) a s c e n t o r d e s c e n t o f an e n t i r e o c c u p a ti o n a l g r o u p . Tiie m a jo r s o u rc e s o f such m o b i l i t y a p p e a r to be th e r e l a t e d p r o c e s s e s o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , u r b a n i z a t i o n and m i g r a t i o n . ^ These s o c i o dem ographic p r o c e s s e s i n t u r n can be r e l a t e d to changes i n th e c o m p o s itio n o f th e l a b o r f o r c e I t s e l f . The g e n e r a l m o b i l i t y s i t u a t i o n o f t h e M exican- American p o p u l a t i o n i s a n a lo g o u s t o t h a t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s as a w h ole, d e s c r i b e d by Caplow: There a p p e a rs to be more o c c u p a t i o n a l a s c e n t th an d e s c e n t . Given th e c o n d i t i o n s o f an expand in g economy, i n w hich m a n a g e ria l and t e c h n i c a l f u n c t i o n s a r e ex p an d in g even r e l a t i v e l y , t h i s may w e ll be th e c a s e : t h e movement from c o u n tr y to c i t y . . . . The i n c r e a s e i n a v e ra g e e d u c a t i o n a l a c h ie v e m e n t, and t h e p r o g r e s s i v e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f w a g e -e a rn in g p o s i t i o n s i n t o th e m id d le c l a s s - - a l l a re w e ll-d o c u m e n te d t r e n d s w hich f a v o r upward m o b i l i t y . 77 ^ T h e o d o r e Caplow, The S o c io lo g y o f Work (M inneapo l i s : U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n eso ta P r e s s , 1 9 5 4 ), p . 60. ^ S e y m o u r M. L l p s e t and R e in h a rd B endix, S o c i a l M o b ility i n I n d u s t r i a l S o c ie ty ( B e rk e le y : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 5 4 ), p . 204. ^ C a p lo w , op. c i t . , p. 79* 39 The r e s e a r c h e r h a s i n t e r p r e t e d v e r t i c a l m o b i l i t y i n term s o f i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y . T h is a p p ro a c h h a s c e r t a i n s h o r tc o m in g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o v e r l o o k i n g a t l e a s t one i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f s o c i a l m o b il i t y , i . e . i n t r a - g e n e r a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y i n te rm s o f c han ges i n jo b s i n th e c a r e e r o f e i t h e r f a t h e r o r son. L i p s e t and B endix n o te d t h a t su c h c h a n g e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y more f r e q u e n t t h a n commonly th o u g h t, a l t h o u g h m ost m o b i l i t y i s c o n f i n e d t o w i t h i n e i t h e r th e m a n u a l- o c c u p a tio n c a t e g o r y o r to th e n o n m a n u a l-o c c u p a tio n c a t e g o r y , t h e r e b e in g l i t t l e movement from m anual to nonm anual j o b s .^ S A n o th e r p e r t i n e n t p ro b lem r e v o l v e s a b o u t th e c h o ic e o f an o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e , and t h e p o s s i b l e v a l i d i t y o f such a s c a l e . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s o p h i s t i c a t e d o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e w ould have b een a l a r g e - s c a l e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t i n i t s e l f , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e th e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e M exican-A m erican community i s a t su c h v a r i a n c e w ith t h a t o f t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . Caplow h a s n o te d t h a t a l t h o u g h "no s i n g l e - d i m e n s i o n a l r a t i n g o f o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s w i l l s a t i s f a c t o r i l y r a n k t h e m a jo r o c c u p a ti o n s . . . " ^ L i p s e t and B en d ix , op. c i t . , p. 180. 4o o c c u p a t i o n a l d e s i g n a t i o n i s a t once a m ajo r i n d i c a t o r o f g e n e r a l s o c i a l p o s i t i o n . "79 Each m ajo r c a t e g o r y o f o c c u p a t i o n s , how ever, a c c o rd in g t o Alba Edwards, c h i e f d e s i g n e r o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e B ureau o f t h e Census r e p r e s e n t s "a l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n gro u p w ith a some w hat d i s t i n c t i v e s t a n d a r d o f l i f e , and to a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y and s o c i a l l y ." ® ^ I t i s i n te rm s o f such l a r g e c a t e g o r i e s t h a t t h e w r i t e r ’ s r e s e a r c h h a s b e en c o n d u c te d . He has a c c e p te d th e b a s i c a ssu m p tio n s i n h e r e n t i n m ost o c c u p a ti o n a l s c a l e s , I . e . , t h a t th e more s k i l l I n v o lv e d i n a Jo b , th e h i g h e r i t i s ra n k e d by t h e p o p u l a t i o n ; t h a t w h ite c o l l a r work r a n k s h i g h e r t h a n m anual w ork; t h a t se lf-e m p lo y m e n t s t a t u s i s p r e f e r a b l e to em ployee s t a t u s ; and t h a t c le a n Jobs ra n k h i g h e r th a n d i r t y J o b s . ^ l Caplow b e l i e v e s t h a t th e B ureau o f th e Census c a t e g o r i e s can be s l i g h t l y r e a r r a n g e d a s s i x " so c io -e c o n o m ic c l a s s e s , " v i z . , u n s k i l l e d w o rk e rs, 79caplow , op. c i t ., p. 57* 8 °Alba M. E dw ards, C om parative O c c u p a tio n a l S t a t i s t i c s f o r th e U n ite d S t a t e s , 1870-1940 (W ashington, D. C . : Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 19 4 3)> P* 179* ^ C a p lo w , op. c i t . , pp. 42-43* 41 s e m i s k i l l e d w o rk e rs , s k i l l e d w o rk e rs , m anagers ( i n c l u d in g p r o p r i e t o r s and o f f i c i a l s ) and p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n s .® 2 The l i t e r a t u r e on th e v e r t i c a l m o b i l i t y o f M ex ica n - A m ericans s t r e s s e s f o u r m ain a s p e c t s o f t h i s t o p i c : ( l ) th e r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll amount o f I t , (2) I t s t h r e a t to t h e -so c ia l s o l i d a r i t y and c u l t u r a l s u r v i v a l o f t h e g ro u p , (3) i t s i n c r e a s e i n r e c e n t y e a r s , (4) th e d i f f i c u l t y in d e te r m in in g i t s e x t e n t . E s p e c i a l l y s t r e s s e d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e i s th e id e a t h a t t h e m o b ile , more a c c u l t u r a t e d M exicans te n d to le a v e th e e t h n i c e n c la v e s and d i s a s s o c i a t e th e m s e lv e s from Mexican a c t i v i t i e s . A ccording to Broom and Shevky, one o f th e p ro b lem s i n th e a r e a o f s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n I s to d e te rm in e to what e x t e n t th e M exican grou p h a s l e f t m ig r a to r y l a b o r , become o c c u p a t i o n a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , i n c r e a s e d i t s s t a b i l i t y o f employment and a c h ie v e d v e r t i c a l m o b ility .® ® A p p a re n tly upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y , to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , h a s alw ays been common among Im m ig ran ts from M exico. T a y lo r q u o te s an A rizo na l a b o r a g e n t as s a y in g : Those who have j u s t come from Mexico a re th e b e s t . They a r e f i n e ; th e y d o n ’t know a n y th in g . A f te r 82I b i d . , p. 33. ®®Broom and Shevky, l o c . c i t ., p. 152. 42 t h e y have been h e re two o r t h r e e y e a r s th e y g e t A m ericanized; want b e t t e r h o u s e s , e t c . , and l e a v e . 84 McWilliams p r e d i c t e d a decade ago t h a t " in a n o th e r g e n e r a t i o n M exican-Am ericans w i l l be found i n a l l w alks o f l i f e - - i n th e a r t s , th e p r o f e s s i o n s , i n th e c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s - - a n d i n s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r s . " ^ ^o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , i f we lo o k a t th e t o t a l p i c t u r e i n S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , h i s p rop hecy has been h a l f - r e a l i z e d a t th e h a l f - g e n e r a t i o n mark; t h a t i s , Mexicans a r e found i n a l l w alks o f l i f e , b u t a r e n o t y e t found i n some o c c u p a ti o n a l f i e l d s in what co uld be c o n s id e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t num bers. The f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g th e m o b i l i t y o f th e M exican- American p o p u l a t i o n can be d iv id e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s , th o s e prom oting such m o b il i ty , and th o s e a c t i n g to r e t a r d i t . B ro a d ly sp e a k in g , th e most im p o r ta n t f a c t o r i s th e d e g re e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n to th e American m i d d l e - c l a s s way o f l i f e . The l i t e r a t u r e on th e s u b j e c t i s f a i r l y w e ll i n agreem en t t h a t c o n tin u in g ad h erence to Mexican c u l t u r a l v a lu e s and a f a i l u r e to a c c u l t u r a t e to th e m a j o r i t y c u l t u r e a re f a c t o r s r e t a r d i n g upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y f o r th e ®^Taylor, op. c i t ., p. 128. ^ M c W illia m s, op. c i t ., p. 302. M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n . 86 j t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t low s t a t u s , a low m o b i l i t y r a t e , and a low d e g re e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n a r e a l l i n t e r r e l a t e d i n t h e c a s e o f t h e M exican- Am erican p o p u l a t i o n . Hyman b e l i e v e s he can e x p l a i n th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een low s t a t u s and l a c k o f upw ard m o b il i t y by a system o f b e l i e f s and v a lu e s w i t h i n th e lo w e r c l a s s e s w h ich i n t u r n r e d u c e s t h e v e ry v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s t h a t w ould a m e l i o r a t e t h e i r p o s i t i o n . . . . The com ponents o f t h i s v a lu e sy stem . . . i n v o l v e l e s s e m p h a sis upon t h e t r a d i t i o n a l h ig h s u c c e s s g o a l s , i n c r e a s e d a w a re n e s s o f t h e l a c k o f o p p o r t u n i t y t o a c h ie v e s u c c e s s , and l e s s em p hasis upon th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f g o a l s w hich i n t u r n would be i n s t r u m e n ta l f o r s u c c e s s . ^7 Kluckhohn i s one o f th o s e who have p o i n t e d o u t th e r e l e v a n c e o f t h e l a c k o f m o b i l i t y m o t i v a t i o n s among so many o f th e M exican -A m e ric a n s. The M exican-A m erican lo w e r c l a s s and th e A nglo-A m erican lo w e r c l a s s may i n many ways a c t u a l l y have more i n common w i t h e a c h o t h e r t h a n e i t h e r h a s w i t h i t s own m id d le c l a s s . DfZ M e lfo rd E. S p i r o , "The A c c u l t u r a t i o n o f Am erican E th n i c G r o u p s ,” A m erican A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , LVTI (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 5 ), 1243. ^ H e r b e r t H. Hyman, "The V alue System s o f D i f f e r e n t C l a s s e s , ” I n R e in h a r d B e n d ix and Seymour M a rtin L i p s e t , e d s . , C l a s s , S t a t u s and Power, a R e a d e r i n S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n (G le n c o e : F re e P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 ), PP* 526-27- Kluckhohn o b s e rv e s t h a t : Mexican o r i e n t a t i o n s - - i n o u r system s e c u r e v e ry l i t t l e f o r i n d i v i d u a l s e x c e p t a l a c k o f m o b i l i t y and a g e n e r a l l o w e r - c l a s s s t a t u s . I n deed th e o t h e r group i n Am erica w hich has o r i e n t a t i o n s m ost s i m i l a r to th e Mexican i s th e n o n a s p i r i n g , g e n e r a l i z e d l o w e r - c l a s s g ro u p , w hich from th e p o i n t o f view o f th e t o t a l s o c i e t y i s p r i m a r i l y a r e s i d u a l g r o u p . 88 The c u l t u r a l v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s r e f e r r e d t o by K luckhohn, o f c o u r s e , a re s p e c i f i c a l l y l o w e r - c l a s s M exican, r a t h e r th a n M exican v a lu e s i n g e n e r a l . T here a r e c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f th e v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n o f lo w e r c l a s s M exicans, w hich i f th e y p e r s i s t i n th e U n ited S t a t e s among p e r s o n s o f Mexican d e s c e n t would c e r t a i n l y m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t o r a t l e a s t be in c o n g r u e n t w ith th e a c c e p ta n c e o f th e American m id d le - c l a s s v a lu e s n e c e s s a r y f o r s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n w i t h i n th e American c l a s s sy ste m . The M exican i s s a i d to be o r i e n t e d tow ard p r e s e n t tim e , r a t h e r th a n to w a rd th e f u t u r e as i n th e Am erican m id d le c l a s s , and to be n o t i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , b u t r a t h e r o r i e n t e d to w ard h i s e x te n d e d f a m ily . S i m i l a r l y h i s te n d e n c y t o be f a t a l i s t i c , and to be a n x io u s to p l a y th e r o l e d e f i n e d f o r him m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c ^ F l o r e n c e Rockwood K luckhohn, " C u l t u r a l F a c t o r s i n S o c i a l Work P r a c t i c e and E d u c a ti o n ," S o c i a l S e r v ic e Review, XXV (March, 1951 )> 44. 45 m o b i l i t y . A l s o p e r t i n e n t a r e th e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een M exicans and Anglos w ith r e g a r d t o a t t i t u d e s tow ard ch ang e, to w a rd work and e f f i c i e n c y , tow ard a c c e p ta n c e and r e s i g n a t i o n , to w a rd d ependency, and to w a rd fo rm al o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I t i s im p o r ta n t to c o n s i d e r t h a t some o f th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s may d e r i v e from th e c u l t u r a l background o f M exico, some from th e M ex ican -A m erican 1s l o w e r - c l a s s p o s i - t i o n , and some from h i s s u b o r d i n a te e t h n i c s t a t u s . O ther f a c t o r s to be c o n s id e r e d i n c l u d e th e s e l e c t i v e a s p e c t s o f m ig r a ti o n and th e f a c t t h a t we a re c o n s i d e r i n g a p o p u la tio n t h a t i s p r i m a r i l y A m erican -b o rn . F u rth e rm o re , as th e im m ig ran t g e n e r a t i o n becomes an I n c r e a s i n g l y s m a ll e r m in o r i t y w i t h i n th e M exican-A m erican g ro u p , i t would seem a p p a r e n t t h a t th e c h a n c e s o f M exican v a lu e s p e r s i s t i n g become i n c r e a s i n g l y s lim . Burma n o t e s t h a t M exican-A m erican c u l t u r e i s a m ix tu r e o f Anglo and Mexican e le m e n ts , and t h a t t h i s t r a n s i t i o n a l c u l t u r e h a s been a v a i l a b l e to im m igrants and to m ig r a n ts from c o l o n i a s e ls e w h e re e v e r s in c e th e ® 9 saun ders, op. c i t . , pp. 117-40. a n n e x a t i o n o f t h e S o u th w e s t t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s i n th e l 8 4 0 f s . 9 ^ W hile l a r g e n u m b e rs o f im m ig r a n ts and t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s h av e re m a in e d i n t h e c o l o n i a s , l e a d i n g a b i c u l t u r a l l i f e , o t h e r s h a v e become c o m p l e t e l y a c c u l t u r - a t e d , w h i l e t h e i r p l a c e s h a v e b een t a k e n b y more r e c e n t i m m ig r a n ts from M exico. Y e t e v en w i t h i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n c u l t u r e , a num ber o f v a r i a n t c u l t u r a l p o s i t i o n s a r e open t o t h e im m ig r a n t and h i s d e s c e n d a n t s , a s t h e M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n com m unity i s t o l e r a n t o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s an d e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . 91 I t s h o u l d be rem em b ered t h a t m o b i l i t y and a c c u l t u r a t i o n a r e i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s , t h a t i s , t h e y in v o lv e n o t o n l y m o t i v a t i o n and a c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e p o t e n t i a l l y m o b ile and a c c u l t u r a t e d , b u t a l s o an a c c e p t i n g , f a c i l i t a t i n g a t t i t u d e and a c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e h o s t s o c i e t y . As Simmons n o t e s , "A n glo s t e n d t o r e w a r d i n p r a c t i c e t h o s e M e x lc a n -A m e rie a n s who a re m o s t l i k e them s e l v e s I n i d e a s a n d a c t i o n p a t t e r n s . "92 S i m i l a r l y , S p iro n o t e s t h a t : 9°B urm a, o p . c i t . , p . 124. ^ S c h e r m e r h o m , o p . c i t . , p . 188. ^ 2 Slmmons, op . c i t . , p . 402. 47 The Am erican c l a s s system . . . p r e v e n t s th e m o b i l i t y o f t h e u n a c c u l t u r a t e d , and , s i n c e s o c i a l m o b i l i t y i s a m o tiv e o f param o unt im p o rta n c e , s o c i a l c l a s s r a t h e r th a n e t h n i c community becomes o n e 's r e f e r e n c e g ro u p . But t h i s r e f e r e n c e group can become o n e 's m em bership g ro u p o n ly by a d o p tin g i t s sy m b o ls, t h a t i s , by becom ing a c c u l t u r a t e d . . . . M o b i l i t y a s p i r a t i o n s l e a d to an a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e a c c u l t u r a t i v e p r o c e s s . 93 Thus, a s t h e seco n d g e n e r a t i o n i n l a r g e numbers came to m a t u r i t y and e x p e r ie n c e d some o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y c o i n c i d e n t w i t h th e World War I I p e r i o d , th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s was t h e r e b y g r e a t l y a c c e l e r a t e d , an e f f e c t a t p r e s e n t i n c r e a s i n g l y i n e v id e n c e . The c u l t u r e i n w hich m o b ile M exicans have a s p i r e d t o become a c c u l t u r a t e d i s t h a t o f t h e g e n e r a l i z e d Am erican m id d le c l a s s , o r " c o re c u l t u r e . " Loeb n o t e s t h a t c e n t r a l to t h i s c u l t u r e i s th e s u c c e s s m o t i v e : The h i g h l y e v a l u a t e d v a lu e s o f th e c u l t u r e a re th o s e w hich r e q u i r e th e p u t t i n g o f f o f Im m ediate s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r th e o b t a i n i n g o f f u t u r e g a i n s . . . . E d u c a tio n , o r th e s c h o o l sy ste m , f o r many r e a s o n s , p r o v i d e s th e m a jo r pathw ay f o r s o c i a l m o b i l i t y b e c a u se i t p r o v i d e s th e o p p o r t u n i t y to l e a r n t h e c o re c u l t u r e . 94 ^ S p i r o , l o c . c i t . , p . 1244. ^ M a r t i n B. Loeb, " I m p l i c a t i o n s o f S t a t u s D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n f o r P e r s o n a l and S o c i a l D ev elo pm ent," H arvard E d u c a ti o n a l Review, X X III (Summer, 1 9 5 3 ), 171-72. 48 W r i t e r s on t h e s u b j e c t a r e i n g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t t h a t t h e " s u c c e s s f u l " M e x ic a n s, i . e . t h o s e who have b e e n u p w a rd ly m o b ile a r e t h e m ost e d u c a te d and a c c u l t u r a t e d o n e s . 9 5 >9 6 , 9 1 , 9 8 , 9 9 ,1 0 0 M 0 r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , i n n e a r b y " C i t r u s C i t y , " t h e A nglos b e l i e v e t h a t t h e more " p r o g r e s s i v e " had b e e n a b l e t o r a i s e t h e i r s t a t u s a s M exicans by s p e a k in g E n g l i s h on t h e s t r e e t , m oving o u t o f t h e o l d 'M exican Town' i n t o an a d j a c e n t new t r a c t w i t h s u p e r i o r h o u s i n g , b u t a l s o i n h a b i t e d e x c l u s i v e l y ■by M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s, 'g o i n g o n ' i n s c h o o l , a t t e n d i n g a P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n f o r M exicans r a t h e r t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l C a t h o l i c C h u r c h .101 W hile i t i s c r u c i a l t o c o n s i d e r t h e n e x u s b e tw een e d u c a t i o n and o c c u p a t i o n a l a c h ie v e m e n t, i t m ust n o t be f o r g o t t e n t h a t f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s can o f t e n be ^ B a r k e r , l o c . c i t . 9 ^ C la r k , l o c . c i t . 07 ^ 1 Humphrey, l o c . c i t . 9^Donovan S e n t e r and F l o r e n c e Hawley, "The Grammar S c h o o l a s t h e B a s ic A c c u l t u r a t i n g I n f l u e n c e f o r N a tiv e New M e x ic a n s ," S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXIV (May, 1 9 ^ 6 ) , 298-407 - Q Q ^ S im m o n s , l o c . c i t . 100W atson and Sam ora, l o c . c i t . 101'L a s s w e l l, " S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n a S e l e c t e d Com m unity," p p . 84-85- an i m p o r t a n t in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . S t u d i e s i n G re a t B r i t a i n and Sweden a p p e a r t o show " n o t o n ly t h a t h o l d in g f a t h e r ' s s t a t u s c o n s t a n t , e d u c a ti o n w i l l i n f l u e n c e th e s o n 's s t a t u s , b u t a l s o t h a t h o l d in g e d u c a t i o n c o n s t a n t , f a t h e r ' s s t a t u s w i l l be o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e ." 1 0 2 ,1 0 3 C a r ls s o n h a s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d s o c i a l m o b i l i t y a s t a k i n g p l a c e i n two m ain s t e p s : from f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s t o s o n 's e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t u s ( th e p r e - e d u c a t i o n a l s t e p ) , and from th e l a t t e r t o th e s o n ' s o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s ( t h e p o s t - e d u c a t i o n a l s t e p ) . He c o n s i d e r s t h a t w h ile o c c u p a t i o n a l d a t a g iv e us th e end r e s u l t o f th e m o b i l i t y p r o c e s s , e d u c a t i o n a l d a t a i n d i c a t e th e means o f m o b i l i t y .-*-04 On th e o t h e r h an d , e d u c a ti o n may be f a r .from b e in g t h e d o m inant f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g m o b i l i t y . As A nderson p o i n t s o u t , " a b i l i t y , w h e th e r h e r e d i t a r y o r n o t , and a s s o c i a t e d m o t i v a t i o n , v a r y in g i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f s c h o o l i n g , p l a y a p o w e r fu l r o l e i n g e n e r a t i n g m o b i l i t y . " 105 R. H a ll and D. V. G l a s s , " E d u c a ti o n a l and S o c i a l M o b i l i t y , " i n D. V. G la s s , e d . , S o c i a l M o b i l i t y i n B r i t a i n (London: R o u tle d g e and Kegan P a u l, 1954)> p . 129. 103 c a r l s s o n , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 2 9- 3 3 . 1Q^ I b i d . , p . 122. -*-05c. A rn o ld A nderson, "A S k e p t i c a l Note on th e R e l a t i o n o f V e r t i c a l M o b i l i t y to E d u c a t i o n , " A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y , LXVI (May, 1 9 6 1 ), 569* N e v e r th e le s s , th e American p u b l i c sc h o o l system has been c i t e d by numerous w r i t e r s as th e s i n g l e most im p o rta n t c h an n el f o r upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y i n t h i s c o u n try , e s p e c i a l l y f o r im m ig ran ts and t h e i r c h i l d r e n . 1 0 6 ,1 0 7 ,1 0 8 Such a s i t u a t i o n i s f a c i l i t a t e d by th e i n c r e a s i n g p r o p o r t i o n o f non-m anual jo b s f o r w hich fo rm al e d u c a tio n i s n eeded . L ip s e t and B endix b e l i e v e t h a t "th e e x p a n sio n o f American e d u c a tio n r e f l e c t s b o th th e n e ed to su p p ly t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l f o r th e p o s i t i o n s w hich r e q u i r e c o n s id e r a b le edu c a t i o n and th e f a c t t h a t e d u c a ti o n a l re q u ire m e n ts f o r jo b s have been in c re a s e d " -1 -0^ By " e t h n i c m o b il i ty " i s meant th e " p a s s in g " from th e M exican-Am erican e t h n i c group to membership i n th e dom inant, A nglo-Am erican s o c i e t y . Such movement i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s id e r e d , a t l e a s t by Anglos, as upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y , and i s o f t e n accom panied by c e r t a i n symbols a ls o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f upward m o b il i ty . 10^W arner, Meeker and E e ls , op. c i t . , p. 23. 10^K ahl, op. c i t . , p. 2 9 3. 10^Caplow, op. c i t . , p . 79- ■ ^ ^ L ip set and B endix, op. c i t . , p . 189* 51 T h e re a r e s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e a v e n u e s o f e s c a p e up an d o u t o f t h e M e x ic a n s e m i c a s t e p o s i t i o n f o r t h o s e so i n c l i n e d . One i s b y a b s o r p t i o n i n t o t h e A nglo g r o u p , e i t h e r t h r o u g h i n t e r m a r r i a g e ( p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r f e m a l e s , who t h e r e b y l o s e t h e i r t e l l t a l e S p a n i s h s u r n a m e s ) , o r o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y w i t h a n a c c o m p a n y in g r e l u c t a n c e t o a d m it M ex ican a n c e s t r y . Broom a n d S h e v k y n o t e t h a t : T h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who h a v e a d v a n c e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y , e i t h e r e c o n o m i c a l l y o r i n e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t u s , h a v e t e n d e d t o l o s e t h e i r i d e n t i t y w i t h t h e g r o u p an d h a v e m oved aw ay fro m t h e e t h n i c e n c l a v e s w h ic h a r e e n t i r e l y l o w e r c l a s s . H O One a t t e m p t e d m e th o d o f e t h n i c m o b i l i t y i s t o c a l l o n e s e l f " S p a n i s h " r a t h e r t h a n " M e x i c a n ." T h i s m e th o d h a s b e e n u s e d w i t h o u t s t a n d i n g s u c c e s s i n s o u t h e r n C o lo r a d o a n d n o r t h e r n New M e x ic o , w h e re t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e o r i g i n a l M e x ica n s e t t l e r s a r e now g e n e r a l l y know n, a t l e a s t b y o u t s i d e r s , a s " S p a n i s h A m e r i c a n s ." A lth o u g h n o t f r e q u e n t l y t h e c a s e i n Pom ona, e l s e w h e r e i n S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a McDonagh a n d R i c h a r d s s t a t e t h a t M e x ica n h i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s a r e e x p e c t e d t o " a s su m e t h e r o l e o f an A m e ric a n o f S p a n i s h a n c e s t r y . " H I A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e 110Broom a n d S h e v k y , l o c . c i t . , p . 1 5 4 . ^^-M cD onagh a n d R i c h a r d s , o p . c i t . , p . 1 7 6 . 52 a u t h o r s , t h i s te n d e n cy f o r th e s u c c e s s f u l to d e f i n e th e m s e l v e s a s S p a n i s h "adds s t a t u s to t h e S p a n ish and d e t r a c t s from th e n a t u r a l a b i l i t i e s o f th e I n d i a n a n c e s t r y . 1,112 Thus th e A ng los g e t th e h a b i t o f r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l a s S p a n is h and th o s e n o t so s u c c e s s f u l a s M e x i c a n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t o some p e r s o n s born i n Mexico o r who t a k e p r i d e i n t r a c i n g t h e i r a n c e s t r y to M exico, t h e term " S p a n is h " may have u n f a v o r a b l e c o n n o t a t i o n s , as i t f r e q u e n t l y d o e s in Mexico i t s e l f . S ch erm erh o rn n o te s t h a t " th e few i n d i v i d u a l s . . . who t r y t o f i t i n w i t h th e Anglo view t h a t th e y a r e 'S p a n i s h ’ a r e r i d i c u l e d among t h e i r own p e o p l e as p r e t e n d e r s . " 11^ But t h i s s i t u a t i o n w ould seem t o be r a p i d l y c h a n g in g , w i t h an i n c r e a s i n g u s e o f t h e term "S p a n ish " by members o f th e se co n d and l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s . T here i s f u r t h e r m o r e , a n o th e r i m p o r t a n t te n d e n c y w h ic h i s to r e g a r d th e te r m s "Mexican" and " S p a n ish " a s synonymous a n d hence t o use them i n t e r c h a n g e a b ly . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l 112I b i d . , p. 1 7 7 - 11^ T a l b e r t , op. c i t . , p. 8. . l l 4 g ch e rm e rh o rn , o p . c i t . , p . 189* m o b i l i t y h a s lo n g b e en n o te d by s o c i o l o g i s t s , i . e . , t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t p e r s o n s moving up t h e s o c i a l l a d d e r w ould a l s o be moving to h i g h e r - s t a t u s r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s .-^ 5 * 1 1 6 ,1 1 7 Simmons n o t e s t h a t : In San A n to n io , t h e num erous a r e a s o f se co n d s e t t l e m e n t ta k e n o v e r by M exican -A m erican s a r e i n d i c a t i v e o f a w id e s p r e a d u r g e , a t l e a s t on th e p a r t o f th e se co n d g e n e r a t i o n to l e a v e th e c o l o n i a and th e d e p r e s s e d c o n d i t i o n s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e i t . Most o f t h e s e a r e a s . . . a r e a d j a c e n t t o th e c o l o n i a o r a r e l o c a t e d f a r from t h e b e t t e r Anglo n e ig h b o r h o o d s . I t i s w e ll known t h a t many p e r s o n s u se m em berships i n v o l u n t a r y a s s o c i a t i o n s a s a means o f p ro m o tin g t h e i r own upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y : i n m ost com m u n ities h i g h e r s t a t u s p e r s o n s b e lo n g , on t h e a v e r a g e , to a l a r g e r number o f v o l u n t a r y a s s o c i a t i o n s. They u se v a r i o u s ty p e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m em berships i n v a l i d a t i n g a d e s i r e d s t a t u s . M exican-A m erican c u l t u r e , h ow ev er, h a s been c h a r a c t e r i z e d ■^■^Caplow, op . c i t . , pp . 6 0 -6 1 . -I 1 zT Broom and Shevky, l o c . c i t . , p . 154. 117 S a u n d e rs , op. c i t . , p . 9 6 . lif t Simmons, op . c i t . , p. 466. Lloyd W arner and P a u l S. L u n t, The S o c i a l L i f e o f a Modern Community (New Haven: Y ale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 1 ), p . 329* 54 by fam ilism : great value placed on having a la rg e and c lo s e ly k n it fam ily, w ith k in sh ip r e la t io n s regarded much more h ig h ly than non-kin r e la tio n s h ip s . Another fa c to r r e la te d to fam ily p a ttern which has_.been w id ely noted as r e la te d to m o b ility i s the overwhelming tendency toward eth n ic endogamy. Mobile persons have been p o stu la te d by various w r ite r s as being more prone to marry Anglo spouses, p o sse ssio n o f such a spouse being regarded as a symbol o f s t a t u s .1 2 0 ,1 2 1 ,1 2 2 T ypologies Inasmuch as the research er was in te r e s te d in con str u c tin g sta tu s and c u ltu r a l ty p o lo g ie s o f the population under study, i t was n ecessary to review the pub lished work on s o c ia l c la s s ty p o lo g ie s and ty p o lo g ie s o f the Mexican- » ■ descent population o f the United S ta te s . l^Norman D. Humphrey, "The Stereotype and the S o c ia l Types o f Mexican American Y outh ," Journal o f S o cia l Psychology, XXII (August, 1 9 4 5) , 6 9 -7 8 . 1 PI Simmons, op. c i t . , p . 4 l4 . 1 2 2 Simpson and Yinger, op. c i t . , p. 55* 55 A lthou gh t h e r e a re some e x c e l l e n t i n d i c e s o f s o c i a l s t a t u s c o n s t r u c t e d by s o c i o l o g i s t s none o f t h e s e 0 a p p e a re d to be a p p r o p r i a t e f o r th e w r i t e r ' s p u r p o s e s . A r e c e n t s tu d y by Kahl and D a v is12^ showed t h a t W a rn e r's "In d e x o f S t a t u s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " (which in c l u d e d th e f a c t o r s o f o c c u p a ti o n , r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , ty p e o f r e s i d e n c e , and so u rc e o f incom e) was fo u n d to be th e b e s t m easure b e ca u se o f i t s h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n w ith s i x o t h e r s c a l e s t e s t e d . The w r i t e r u se d th e f i r s t two o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , b u t found ty p e o f r e s i d e n c e an i m p r a c t i c a l c r i t e r i on, and th e s t a t u s ra n g e to o n a rro w f o r th e u se o f th e c r i t e r i o n o f incom e. Lawson and Boek found t h a t th e s o c i a l c l a s s r a t i n g s g iv e n by I n t e r v i e w e r s c o r r e l a t e d w e ll w ith th e o t h e r m e a su re s, a lth o u g h income c o r r e l a t e d p o o r l y w ith th em . -^4 W ith r e f e r e n c e to th e M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n , th e a v a i l a b l e t y p o l o g i e s have been s o c i o c u l t u r a l l y r a t h e r 1 o o Jo se p h A. Kahl and James A. D avis, "A Com pari son o f In d e x e s o f S ocio-E conom ic S t a t u s , " American S o c io lo g i c a l Review, XX (1955 )> 317-25. 1 o il Edwin D. Lawson and W a lte r E. Boek, " C o r r e l a t i o n s o f In d e x e s o f F a m i l i e s ' Socio-E conom ic S t a t u s , " S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXXIX (December, i 9 6 0 ), 149-52 . 56 t h a n c l a s s - o r i e n t e d , s o m e tim e s c o n f u s i n g s e v e r a l t y p e s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a p p r o a c h e s , a n d a r e g e n e r a l l y o u tm o d e d . T h ey a r e o f a g e n e r a l l y d e s c r i p t i v e n a t u r e , a n d few a t t e m p t s , i f a n y , h a v e b e e n made t o q u a n t i f y a n y o f t h e t y p o l o g i e s . S a u n d e r s , f o r e x a m p le , h a s i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e s u b g r o u p s among t h e S p a n i s h - s p e a k i n g o f t h e S o u t h w e s t : t h e S p a n i s h - A m e r i c a n s ( o f New M exico a n d C o l o r a d o ) , t h e M e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n s , a n d t h e M e x i c a n s . He c a l l s "M exi c a n s " t h o s e p e r s o n s l e g a l l y o r i l l e g a l l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s on a t e m p o r a r y b a s i s , a n d who e x p e c t t o r e t u r n t o M e x ic o . S a u n d e r s o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e y a r e s u b j e c t t o few p r e s s u r e s t o w a r d a c c u l t u r a t i o n . F o rm e r M e x ic a n s a n d t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s , who came t o t h i s c o u n t r y l a r g e l y b e tw e e n 19 2 0 a n d t h e 1 9 3 0 's h e c a l l s " M e x l c a n - A m e r l c a n s . " Of t h i s g r o u p h e s a y s t h a t : H a v in g come i n d i v i d u a l l y o r i n s m a l l , i m m e d ia te f a m i l y g r o u p s fro m a b r o a d a r e a i n M exico a n d b e i n g m ore w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e S o u t h w e s t t h a n t h e S p a n i s h - A m e r i c a n s , t h e M e x ic a n -A ra e r ic a n s h a v e n o t t h e same o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e f a m i l i a r e l e m e n t s o f t h e i r c u l t u r e t h a t t h e S p a n i s h - A m e ric a n s e n j o y a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , a r e s u b j e c t e d t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e t o t h e i m p a c t o f A nglo a c c u l t u r a t - i n g f o r c e s . 126 1 2 ^ S a u n d e r s , o p . c i t . , p p . 4 4 -6 3 * 1 2 ^ I b i d . , p . 5 6 . 57 Thus S a u n d e rs c h a r a c t e r i z e s th e S p a n is h - s p e a k in g p o p u l a t i o n in te rm s o f l e n g t h o f r e s i d e n c e and a l s o i n term s o f t h e d e g re e t o w hich t h e y a re s u b j e c t to p r e s s u r e s tow ard a c c u l t u r a t i o n . S a u n d e rs does n o t r e c o g n iz e g e n e r a t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s as m a jo r t y p o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s , n o r d o e s he r e c o g n i z e any " o l d s e t t l e r s " o t h e r th a n t h o s e o f C o lo ra d o and New Mexico. McDonagh an d R i c h a r d s , how ever, d i d d i s t i n g u i s h th e " o l d n a t i v e g ro u p " t h a t l i v e d in th e S ou th w est b e f o r e i t became a p a r t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s from th e "new n a t i v e group" o f c h i l d r e n o f Mexican Im m ig ra n ts. The o t h e r two g ro u p s w ere c o n s i d e r e d to be t h e "w e tb a c k s" o r i l l e g a l im m ig ra n ts , and th e Mexican n a t i o n a l s , o r c o n t r a c t - l a b o r e r s t e m p o r a r i l y i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s (b r a c e r o s ). T his c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w ould a p p e a r to be b a s e d on t h e f a c t o r s o f r e s i d e n c e ( l e n g t h and p e rm a n e n c e ), n a t i v i t y and l e g a l i t y o f e n t r y , b u t does n o t ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e l a r g e number o f l e g a l im m ig ra n ts . An e a r l i e r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by B ogardus had d i v i d e d M exicans i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s i n t o f i v e c a t e g o r i e s . 127McDonagh and R i c h a r d s , op. c i t . , p . 174. 58 1. N a tiv e b o rn M exicans o f s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s ' s t a n d in g . 2. A r i s t o c r a t i c S p a n ish f a m i l i e s : d e s c e n d a n ts o f f a m i l i e s who w ere l e a d e r s i n th e Southw est i n e a r l y d a y s . 3* S p anish -M ex ican s o f r e c e n t m i g r a t i o n : p e r sons who have f l e d from r e v o l u t i o n . 4. E d u ca te d M exicans who- a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e c u r r e n t r u l i n g p e o p le o f M exico. 5. U n s k ille d l a b o r e r s who have im m ig ra te d in r e c e n t y e a r s . - ^ 8 B o g a rd u s 1 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a p p e a rs to ta k e s e v e r a l f a c t o r s i n t o a c c o u n t; n a t i v i t y ( g e n e r a t i o n ) , l e n g t h o f r e s i d e n c e , s o c i a l c l a s s ( e i t h e r o f p e o p le co n ce rn e d o r o f t h e i r f o r e b e a r s ) , r e a s o n s f o r l e a v in g Mexico, and o c c u p a ti o n . C a te g o r ie s 3 and 4 would a p p e a r n o t to be m u tu a l ly e x c l u s i v e , w h ile c a t e g o r y 2 i g n o r e s th e non- a r i s t o c r a t i c "S p an ish " s e t t l e r s o f t h e e a r l y S o u th w e st. The p r e c e d in g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s le a v e o u t what i s p e r h a p s th e m ost im p o r ta n t v a r i a b l e o f a l l : d e g re e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n to Anglo norm s. In each o f th e ty p e s men t i o n e d t h e r e a r e th o s e g ro u p s and i n d i v i d u a l s who a re 12®Emory S. B ogardus, The M exican in t h e U n ited S t a t e s (Los A n g eles: U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 3 4 ), pp. 9 -1 2 . r e l a t iv e ly more o rien te d toward Mexican cu ltu re than are o th ers. I t should a lso be noted th at use o f the term "Spanish" or "Spanish-Mexican" In the ty p o lo g ie s i s spurious and m islead in g, sin c e the type o f cu ltu re brought from Mexico, reg a rd less o f the r a c ia l e x tr a c tio n o f the in d iv id u a ls or fa m ilie s bringing i t i s Mexican c u ltu r e , not s t r i c t l y Spanish as such. Of course, Mexican cu ltu re i s h e a v ily indebted to Spanish c u ltu r e , and Mexican cu ltu re i s very h eterogeneous, in fa c t may be sa id to e x i s t in a v a r ie ty o f su b cu ltu res, none o f which, however, properly can be denominated as "Spanish." Too o fte n the term "Spanish" has been used, both by s o c io lo g ic a l w r ite r s and E nglish and Spanish-speaking people in general to d i s tin g u ish "high-type" from "low-type" s tr a ta . This i s as erroneous in the United S ta te s as i t would be in Mexico I t s e l f . Another drawback to th ese ty p o lo g ie s i s th at they are s t a t i c . They are not regarded as rep resen tin g the r e s u lt o f the e f f e c t s o f a c c u ltu r a tio n a l p ro cesses op era t ing w ith in the framework o f h is to r y . Too o ften h is to r y Is regarded as something that happened some time ago, once and fo r a l l . Present s o c io c u ltu r a l co n d itio n s are the outcome 6o o f h i s t o r i c a l f o r c e s t h a t o p e r a t e d In th e p a s t and down t o th e p r e s e n t c o n ti n u e t o . o p e r a t e . The w r i t e r ' s c o n te n t i o n I s t h a t th e ty p o lo g y o f M exicans I n th e U n ite d S t a t e s n e e d s t o be c a s t i n a h i s t o r i c a l fram ew ork. The h i s t o r i c i t y o f any s o c i o l o g i c a l s t a t e m e n t s made a b o u t U n ite d S t a t e s M exicans n e e d s to be r e c o g n i z e d . T here i s e x t a n t a volu m inou s l i t e r a t u r e on th e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n s . W ith r e f e r e n c e t o th e " o l d - s e t t l e r " p o p u l a t i o n , p e r h a p s th e b e s t known o f t h e i r d e s c e n d a n ts a r e th e "H isp a n o s" (who o f t e n c a l l th e m s e lv e s " m a n ito s" o r " m e j i c a n o s " ), d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e o r i g i n a l r a c i a l l y m ixed E u ro p e a n iz e d s e t t l e r s o f New Mexico and s o u t h e r n C o lo rad o when t h i s a r e a was u n d e r S p a n is h r u l e , b u t a d m i n i s t e r e d and c o l o n i z e d from M exico. U n t i l r e c e n t l y m ost o f t h e H isp a n o s l i v e d i n I s o l a t e d r u r a l a r e a s and w ere e c o n o m ic a lly and s o c i a l l y h a n d i c a p p e d . I n r e c e n t y e a r s th e y have become i n c r e a s i n g l y u r b a n i z e d a s many h av e b e e n f o r c e d o f f t h e i r l a n d s . Many H isp a n o s l e f t New Mexico and C o lo rad o d u rin g •'-‘^ G e o r g e I . S anchez, The F o r g o t t e n P eo p le (A lb u q u e rq u e : U n i v e r s i t y o f New Mexico P r e s s , 1 9 ^ 0 ), p . 27. 61 t h e W o rld War I I and p o s t - w a r p e r i o d s . Some came t o S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , a n d a s i z e a b l e num b er a r e t o be f o u n d i n Pomona a n d n e a r b y c o m m u n itie s . I n T e x a s t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h o s e M e x ic a n s who w e re i n T e x a s b e f o r e i t was s e p a r a t e d from M exico a r e known a s " T e x a s M e x i c a n s ." They e s t a b l i s h e d c o l o n i a s t o w h ic h l a t e r I m m i g r a n t s h a v e come a n d w h e re t h e y " a c c u l - t u r a t e d t o t h e p e c u l i a r T e x a s - M e x ic a n v a r i e t y o f M ex ican c u l t u r e a s m o d i f i e d b y Anglo c u l t u r e r a t h e r t h a n d i r e c t l y t o t h e l a t t e r . "130 E ven th o u g h some o f t h e s e p e o p l e can t r a c e t h e i r f a m i l y r e s i d e n c e I n T e x a s f o r s i x g e n e r a t i o n s , t h e y a r e p r o u d o f b e i n g M e x ic a n s . ^ 1 T h i s c a n be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e a t t i t u d e o f l a r g e n u m b e rs o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a M e x ic a n s , who r e f e r t o t h e m s e l v e s a s " S p a n i s h . " I n t h e Pomona a r e a t h e o r i g i n a l M exican s e t t l e r s i n t e r m a r r i e d w i t h t h o s e who came from M exico a t a l a t e r d a t e , b e g i n n i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y I n t h e 1 8 8 0 's . The p r o d u c t s o f t h e s e i n t e r m a r r i a g e s , who b e g a n t o c a l l t h e m s e l v e s 1 3°sim m 0n s , o p . c l t . , p . 519* 1 3I i b i d . , p . 5 2 1 . 62 " S p a n is h ," m a rr ie d n o t o n ly eac h o t h e r , but a l s o th o s e who im m ig rated from Mexico d u rin g th e f i r s t two d ecades o f t h i s c e n t u r y . Most o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e w hich d e a l s w ith " th e M exi can i n t h e U n ited S t a t e s " d e a ls w ith th e problem s o f Mexican im m ig ra n ts and t h e i r c h i l d r e n , and em phasize th e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s o f , on th e one hand, c o n tin u e d a d h e r ence to Mexican c u l t u r a l s t a n d a r d s , and on th e o t h e r hand, n o n a c c e p ta n c e by th e g e n e r a l Anglo p o p u l a t i o n . In t h i s c a s e h i s t o r i c a l d e p th I s m inim al and th e c r u c i a l f a c t o r i s d e g re e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n . The one m a jo r ty p e n o t c o v e re d In th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s t h a t o f th e te m p o ra ry r e s i d e n t s . There a r e , f o r exam ple, s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g American s c h o o ls and c o l l e g e s . -*-32 T here a re t o u r i s t s and p e rs o n s h e re te m p o ra r i l y on b u s i n e s s . More I m p o r t a n t l y , t h e r e a re th e w o rk ers Im p o rte d u n d e r c o n t r a c t f o r l i m i t e d p e r i o d s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l work, th e b r a c e r o s . These gro u p s a re o f o n ly p e r i p h e r a l i n t e r e s t to t h i s s tu d y Inasm uch a s t h e r e i s no way to n o ^ R alph L. B e als and Norman D. Humphrey, No F r o n t i e r t o L e a rn in g (M in n e a p o lis : U n i v e r s i ty o f M in nesota P r e s s , 1957)* i d e n t i f y th e w etbacks, i f any, i n Pomona, and t h e r e a re no b r a c e r o camps in t h e c i t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e a r e u n d o u b te d ly fo rm er members o f t h e s e groups i n Pomona, d e s p i t e th e v i g i l a n t e f f o r t s o f t h e l o c a l im m ig ra tio n s e r v i c e . McWilliams e s t i m a t e s t h a t p e rh a p s 80 p e r c e n t o f a l l M exican im m igrants i n C a l i f o r n i a o r i g i n a l l y e n te r e d i l l e g a l l y . -*-33 ■^^Carey M cW illiam s, F a c t o r i e s i n t h e P ie Id (B o sto n : L i t t l e , Brown and Co., 1939)> P* 125- CHAPTER I I I THE METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN In tr o d u c tio n There are th r ee p r in c ip a l approaches to th e study o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n in a p a r t ic u la r com m unity.1 One approach c o n s i s t s o f a s e l f - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p r o c e ss whereby community members are asked to e s tim a te t h e i r own p la c e s in the c l a s s s t r u c t u r e . Another approach o b ser v es the d is t r ib u t io n in th e p o p u la tio n o f c e r t a in v a r ia b le s ( e . g . , o c c u p a tio n , e d u c a tio n , incom e) purported to be in d ic e s o f th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e . In a t h ir d approach, based on th e r e p u ta tio n o f in d iv id u a ls , resp o n d en ts are asked to c l a s s i f y one an oth er in to c a t e g o r ie s and to d e s c r ib e the s t r a t i f i c a t i o n system o f t h e ir community. Lundberg and h is c o lle a g u e s n o te t h a t: ■^George A. Lundberg, C larence C. Shrag and Otto N. Larsen, S o c io lo g y (Rev. e d .; New York: Harper & B r o s ., 1 9 5 8 ) , p. 4 8 9 . 64 65 Each o f th ese approaches i s 'o b j e c t iv e 1 to the ex ten t th at the r u le s and procedures o f the s c ie n t i f i c method are fo llo w ed . . . . S o c io lo g is ts . . . o fte n fin d th a t the d iffe r e n t methods d es crib e approxim ately the same s t r u c t u r e .2 The w riter has attem pted to use a l l three methods, at le a s t in p a rt. I t should be emphasized that the presen t study i s p rim arily em p irical and d e s c r ip tiv e . I t sum m arizes the w r ite r 's search o f the lit e r a t u r e , the r e s u lts o f in terv iew in g an area sample o f Pomona's Mexican- Americans, and h is o b serv a tio n s o f the community. Planning Stage The main problems in the planning o f the f i e l d research centered around the q u estio n s to be asked, th e ir wording and sequence, and sample d esign . A schedule of q u estio n s to be asked in the in te rv ie w was developed in an e f f o r t to ob tain the data needed fo r the t e s t in g o f the hypotheses, and fo r gatherin g o f oth er inform ation fo r d e s c r ip tiv e purposes. Both E n glish and Spanish-language v er sio n s were prepared. The in te rv ie w schedule was then p r e te ste d by in te rv ie w in g a random sample o f f i f t e e n per sons, s e le c te d from the c i t y d ir e c to r y , in the c i t i e s o f 2Ibid. 66 Claremont, M on tclair, La Verne and San Dimas, a l l o f which ad join Pomona. As a r e s u lt o f the p r e t e s t ex p erien ce, the o r ig in a l d ra ft o f the in te r v ie w schedule was r e v ise d and w r itte n in i t s d e f i n i t i v e form. (See Appendixes A and B . ) Because lo c a tio n o f r e sid en ce was a v a ria b le in some o f the w r it e r ’ s hypotheses and in the sampling method, i t was n ece ssa r y to id e n t if y and d e lin e a te the areas in which the Mexicans o f Pomona r e s id e (See Figure l ) . A v a r ie ty o f c r i t e r i a , both o b je c tiv e and s u b je c tiv e , were taken in to account in doing t h i s . Some o f the areas have names or w e ll-d e fin e d boundaries; in oth er ca ses areas are bounded by n atu ral or man-made b a r r ie r s , by planning zones, by the c i t y l i m i t s , or by recogn ized a r t e r i a l s . The two most im portant o f th e se a r t e r i a l s are Garey Avenue and H olt Avenue which in t e r s e c t to d iv id e the c i t y in to the g e n e r a lly recogn ized four major areas o f Pomona: n o rth e a st, n orthw est, so u th e a st, southw est. The o ld er part o f the c i t y l i e s fo r the most p art a few b lock s both north and south o f Holt Avenue. T r a d itio n a lly , the Mexicans have re sid ed in the area south o f Holt ( e s p e c ia lly west o f Garey), but have moved in s iz e a b le numbers to the o ld er area north o f H olt. With the b u ild in g o f new housing in L in c o ln Ave 1 1 th S t L e x in g to n S t FIGURE 1 RESIDENTIAL AREAS OF PO M O N A S a n Antonio Ave. 68 the areas north, south and west o f the o ld er part o f town, Mexicans have taken up resid en ce In th ese areas as w e ll, p a r tic u la r ly In the neighborhoods adjacent to the o r ig in a l areas o f con cen tration . Approximately tw o-th ird s o f Pomona's Mexican population l i v e in the southwestern se c to r . The other th ir d i s f a i r l y w ell d is tr ib u te d over the remaining area o f the c i t y . There i s no major area of the c i t y where persons o f Mexican descent do not re sid e although they are more concentrated in some neighborhood areas than in o th e rs. Conferences were h eld w ith lo c a l r e a lto r s and w ith c i t y o f f i c i a l s to obtain a consensus o f s o c ia l evalu ation o f areas. Real e s ta te advertisem ents were stu d ied w ith referen ce to the s e l l i n g p ric e o f houses in d iffe r e n t areas. Centers o f con cen tration o f the Mexican population were determined by p lo tt in g on a map o f the c i t y a dot for every Spanish-surname household l i s t e d in the Pomona c i t y d ire cto ry . Several days were spent d riv in g down v ir t u a lly every s tr e e t in Pomona looking p rim arily fo r sharp changes in type o f housing from one block or neighborhood to 6 9 a n o t h e r . The f i n a l outcom e was t h e d e l i n e a t i o n o f s i x t e e n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s i n t h e s o u t h w e s t , and tw e lv e a r e a s i n t h e r e m a in d e r o f t h e c i t y . A reas l a t e r w ere com bined f o r p u r p o s e s o f a n a l y s i s when i n t e r a r e a l d i f f e r e n c e s p ro v e d t o be t r i v i a l , o r i f t h e num ber o f M exican i n h a b i t a n t s was to o s m a ll f o r sa m p lin g p u r p o s e s . The t w e n t y - e i g h t o r i g i n a l a r e a s w ere com bined i n t o se v en hom ogeneous a r e a s on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w r e s u l t s ( s e e F ig u r e 1 ) . B ased on t h e p r o c e d u r e s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , a r e a s w ere c l a s s i f i e d as f o l l o w s : E x c l u s i v e (no M exican s r e s i d e d i n t h i s a r e a ) ; Most D e s i r a b l e (A); Very Good (B ); F a i r (C ); Poor (D ); Bad (E ). The o b v io u s p r e j u d i c e s o f r e a l t o r s ' g i v i n g p o o r r a t i n g s t o a r e a s w i t h h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f m i n o r i t y g ro u p m em bers, i n c l u d i n g M e x ica n s, d i d n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e w r i t e r ' s a t t e m p t o b j e c t i v e l y to e v a l u a t e h o u s in g and n e ig h b o r h o o d c o n d i t i o n s . The w r i t e r ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s a g r e e s v e ry c l o s e l y w i t h th e much more d e t a i l e d s u r v e y o f Pomona h o u s in g c o n d i t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t one y e a r l a t e r b y A s h l e y . 3 3 -^Thomas J . A s h le y , A R e p o rt t o t h e C o u n c il o f th e C i ty o f Pomona, C a l i f o r n i a on t h e Q u a l i t y o f H ousing i n t h e C i t y o f Pomona (Pomona, 1 9 6 1 ). 70 There are se rio u s d i f f i c u l t i e s in volved in any sampling o f a p opu lation o f persons o f Mexican d escen t, p a r tic u la r ly i f a complete coverage o f the p op u lation on a random b a sis i s d e sir e d . Even i f census data had been a v a ila b le , a m u ltista g e area sample would have been out o f the q u estion u n le ss a l l Mexicans were to l i v e in a s in g le area or group o f areas; such i s not the case in Pomona. The b a sic problem was how to be able to lo c a te a l l Mexican households or persons so that e lim in a tio n o f persons would not produce a s y s te m a tic a lly b ia sed sample. I d e n tif ic a t io n o f the Mexican-American Population The p opu lation stud ied by the research er c o n siste d o f a l l a d u lts o f Mexican d escent r e sid in g in the c i t y o f Pomona. D e fin itio n o f t h is problem c o n s titu t e s an academic and p r a c t ic a l problem o f con sid erab le p rop ortion s. The research er f o u n d i t n ecessa ry to d ev ise an a rb itra r y d e f in it io n fo r the purposes o f h is research . "Persons o f Mexican descent" were con sidered to be a l l Spanish-surname persons r e sid e n t in Pomona who were born in Mexico or whose foreb ears were born in Mexico. Not a l l foreb ears on both maternal and p atern al sid e s needed to have been born in 71 M exico. P e rs o n s o f m ixed d e s c e n t w ere i n c l u d e d w i t h i n th e d e f i n i t i o n , p r o v id e d t h a t e i t h e r ( l ) t h e y i d e n t i f i e d th em s e l v e s w i t h th e Mexican community o r n a t i o n a l i t y , o r (2) t h e y w ere r e a r e d i n a S p a n is h - s p e a k in g f a m i ly o r n e i g h b o r hood m ost o f th e members o f w hich w ould o th e r w is e f a l l i n t o th e d e f i n e d p o p u l a t i o n . The a c t u a l o p e r a t i o n s in v o lv e d i n i d e n t i f y i n g i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e p o p u l a t i o n a r e i n c l u d e d i n th e d i s c u s s i o n on sa m p lin g below . F o r p u r p o s e s o f b r e v i t y , a l t h o u g h t h e y r e p r e s e n t i n a c c u r a t e u s a g e , th e te rm s "M exican" o r "M exican-A m eri can" have been s u b s t i t u t e d f o r th e more cumbersome " p e r s o n o f M exican d e s c e n t" i n t h i s s tu d y . The te r m in o lo g y u s e d i n i d e n t i f y i n g M exicans by b o th M exicans and o t h e r s i s f r e q u e n t l y c o n f u s in g . T h ere a p p e a rs t o be a te n d e n c y f o r b o th g r o u p s i n c r e a s i n g l y t o u se some te rm o t h e r th a n "M e x ic a n ." In S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a t h e t r e n d i s to w a rd t h e u se o f " S p a n is h " ; i n T exas i t i s to w a rd t h e use o f " L a t i n A m e ric an ." And w h ile some ( th e H is p a n o s , f o r exam ple) r e s e n t t h e u se o f th e term "M exican" by o u t s i d e r s , t h e y may c o n t i n u e to use i t among t h e m s e l v e s .^ These t e n d e n c i e s ^Jam es B. W atson and J u l i a n Sam ora, " S u b o r d in a te L e a d e r s h ip i n a B i c u l t u r a l Community," Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , XXIX (A u gust, 1 9 5 4 )> 4 1 3 -2 1 . 72 are r e in fo r c e d by the Anglo tendency to d efin e as "Spanish" and th e r e fo r e as " h ig h -ty p e ," th ose Mexican-Americans most c l o s e ly approaching Anglo c u ltu r a l and p h y sic a l ch a ra c te r i s t i c s . ^ In an e f f o r t to a s c e r t a i n e t h n i c s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t h e w r i t e r a sk ed e a c h r e s p o n d e n t i n h i s sam ple th e q u e s t i o n , "When p e o p le a sk you 'What i s y o u r n a t i o n a l i t y ? 1 w hat do you u s u a l l y a n sw e r?" As m ig h t be e x p e c te d , th e overw helm ing m a j o r i t y (118 o r 8 0 .3 p e r c e n t ) s a i d "Mexi c a n ," " o f M exican d e s c e n t , " "M exican-A m erican" o r u s e d some s i m i l a r te rm . A s i z e a b l e m i n o r i t y (24 o r 1 6 .3 p e r c e n t ) , how ever, s a i d " S p a n ish " o r " S p a n is h - A m e ric a n " ; 3 r e s p o n d e n t s s a i d t h e y w ere I n d i a n s . I n a l l c a s e s , how ever, th e H is p a n ic e t h n i c and l i n g u i s t i c h e r i t a g e had been d e r i v e d from M exico. Only one p e r s o n i n t e r v i e w e d i n S p a n is h s a i d he was a n y th in g o t h e r t h a n M exican. Of the 24 in d iv id u a ls id e n t ify in g them selves as Spanish, Spanish-American or o f Spanish d escen t, 4 were Hispanos and 8 were members o f "old C a lifo r n ia fa m ilie s" ^Ozzie Simmons, "Americans and Mexican-Americans in South Texas" (unpublished Ph.D. d is s e r t a t io n , Harvard U n iv e r sity , 1 9 5 2 ), p. 173* 73 o r a t l e a s t th e y b o re t h e name o f an o ld C a l i f o r n i a f a m i ly . At l e a s t h a l f o f t h e i r f o r e b e a r s were o l d C a l i f o r n i a n s , a lth o u g h some o f t h e s e r e s p o n d e n ts had one p a r e n t born i n M exico. Thus, o n ly h a l f o f th e s e p e o p le c o u ld claim any d i s t i n c t i o n o f b e lo n g in g to an " o ld S p a n ish f a m i ly ." Sam pling The m ech an ics o f sam plin g i n th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h w ere as f o l lo w s . The names o f a l l p e rs o n s w ith S p a n ish surnam es l i s t e d i n th e c i t y d i r e c t o r y as l i v i n g i n Pomona, t o g e t h e r w ith t h e i r a d d r e s s e s and o t h e r i n f o r m a ti o n i n c l u d ed , were c o p ie d on t o 3 x 5 c a r d s , one c a r d f o r each p e r s o n o r m a r r i e d c o u p le l i s t e d . The d i r e c t o r y l i s t s o n ly a d u l t s and i s s a i d by th e p u b l i s h e r to be more th a n 99 p e r c e n t c o m p l e t e . 6 U n f o r t u n a t e ly th e sam ple c o u ld n o t c o n ta in p e r so n s who had moved to Pomona s in c e t h e d i r e c t o r y was com p iled . The so u rc e u se d f o r th e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w h e th e r a surname was S p a n ish was th e mim eographed l i s t o f 5.* 000 ^ P e r s o n a l com m unication from J . R. L uskey, P r e s i d e n t , Luskey B r o t h e r s ' C o ., I n c . , p u b l i s h e r s o f th e d i r e c t o r y , d a te d Septem ber 6, i 9 6 0 . 74 7 common Spanish surnames used by the Bureau o f the Census. The l i s t p resen ts many d i f f i c u l t i e s o f use, in th at i t l i s t s some surnames which only ra rely are Spanish (e.g., Weyler or Chen) but which are u su a lly o f some other n a tio n a l o r ig in . Sim ilarly there are common surnames which can be o f other n a t io n a lit ie s , e.g., S ilv a , which can be Portuguese or I ta lia n as w ell as Spanish. L ike w ise, there are many other surnames, fa r from being rare, which are not included; the w r it e r 's , for in sta n ce. The Bureau o f the Census l i s t was adhered to , except th a t the few surnames l i s t e d but known by the researcher to be d e f in it e ly not Spanish were elim in a ted . Furthermore, sur names in the c i t y d irectory, but which were not on the Census Bureau l i s t , were tran scribed on to the cards i f e ith e r ( l ) the w riter knew them to be Spanish surnames, or (2) they were variant or erroneous s p e llin g s of names on the lis t. According to Winnie the use o f su b jectiv e judgments in Spanish surname c l a s s if ic a t io n provides much more r e lia b le data than re ly in g on the l i s t in a p urely 7 U. S. Bureau o f the Census, Common Spanish Sur names, Vol. IV, Pt. I l l , General Coding, Attachment H; n .p ., n.d. 75 Q m e c h a n ic a l f a s h i o n . The surnam es o f 12 r e s p o n d e n ts i n t h e w r i t e r ’ s sam ple w ere S p a n ish b u t n o t on th e Census l i s t . A t o t a l o f 2 ,4 4 6 names o f Pomona S p a n ish -su rn a m e p e rs o n s was l i s t e d . 9 The c a rd s w ere th e n s o r t e d and g ro u p ed by r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a . W ith in e a c h r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , th e p e r s o n s r e s i d e n t t h e r e were f i r s t a r r a n g e d by a d d r e s s ; e a c h p e rs o n was a s s ig n e d a number i n c o n s e c u tiv e s e r i a l o r d e r . Using a t a b l e o f random num bers10 a 6 p e r c e n t sam ple was drawn from e a c h r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a . In a d d i t i o n , a few e x t r a names were drawn from eac h a r e a to be h e l d i n r e s e r v e i n t h e e v e n t o f an i n a b i l i t y to o b t a i n an i n t e r v i e w w ith a sam ple member. As t h e s e names were s e l e c t e d , th e y w ere l a b e l e d " A l t e r n a t e # 1 ," " A lte r n a te # 2 ," ^ W illiam W . W innie, J r . , "The S p a n is h Surname C r i t e r i o n f o r I d e n t i f y i n g H ispan os i n t h e S o u th w e ste rn U n ited S t a t e s , " S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXXVIII (May, i 9 6 0 ) , 366. ^ T h is com pares w i t h th e e s t i m a t e o f 2,9 4 3 a d u l t s o b t a i n e d b y th e I960 c e n s u s th r o u g h a 25 p e r c e n t sam ple o f S p an ish -S u rn am e p e r s o n s : U. S. B ureau o f t h e C ensus, U. S . Census o f P o p u la tio n and H ousing: I9 6 0 . Census T r a c t s , Los A ngeles-L ong Beach, C a l i f . , S ta n d a r d M e t r o p o li t a n S t a t i s t i c a l Area (W ash ing ton , D. C . : Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 5 2 ), p . 60 6 . 10Rand C o r p o r a t i o n , A M i l l i o n Random D i g i t s , w ith 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 Normal D e v ia te s (G len co e: F re e P r e s s , 1955)* 76 e t c . I f i t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r v i e w a p e rs o n i n t h e o r i g i n a l sam ple drawn from a g iv e n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , an a tt e m p t was made to c o n t a c t t h e p e r s o n d e s i g n a t e d a s a l t e r n a t i v e # 1 ; i f more th a n one a d d i t i o n a l name was needed, a l t e r n a t i v e s w ere c o n t a c t e d i n n u m e r ic a l o r d e r . F i e l d P r o c e d u r e s An a t t e m p t was made to i n t e r v i e w e v e r y p e r s o n i n t h e sam ple; t h e o n ly r e a s o n s f o r n o t making an i n t e r v i e w w ere ( l ) p e r s o n was n o t o f M exican d e s c e n t ; (2) p e r s o n r e f u s e d t o be i n t e r v i e w e d ; ( 3 ) p e r s o n h ad moved and e i t h e r c o u ld n o t be l o c a t e d o r had moved to o f a r f o r i t t o be p r a c t i c a l to c o n t a c t him ; (4 ) p e r s o n was d e c e a s e d . O t h e r w i s e , i n e v e r y c a s e , t h e p e r s o n was i n t e r v i e w e d . R e p e a te d c a l l b a c k s w ere made u n t i l e i t h e r t h e p e rs o n was i n t e r v iew ed o r a r e f u s a l made. Of a l l i n t e r v i e w s 5 6 .4 p e r c e n t w ere c o m p le te d w ith t h e f i r s t v i s i t , 2 7 .2 p e r c e n t were c o m p le te d w i t h th e se co n d v i s i t , and 1 0 .2 p e r c e n t w i t h th e t h i r d ; o n ly 1 6 .4 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s in v o lv e d more th a n two c a l l b a c k s . The l a r g e s t number o f c a l l b a c k s made was se v e n . I n t e r v i e w i n g was begun i n O c to b e r, i 960 and was c o m p le te d i n A u g u st, 1 9 6 1 . 77 A f t e r th e p r o s p e c t i v e in f o r m a n t had been l o c a t e d , th e w r i t e r in tr o d u c e d h i m s e l f , b r i e f l y e x p la in e d th e p u r pose o f h i s r e s e a r c h , and r e q u e s t e d th e p r i v i l e g e o f an i n t e r v i e w . I t was e x p la in e d t h a t t h e p e rs o n had been s e l e c t e d a t random, and t h a t a l l in f o r m a ti o n d iv u lg e d would be k e p t i n th e s t r i c t e s t c o n fid e n c e , a l s o t h a t he m ig h t be n e i t h e r a b le n o r w i l l i n g to answ er a l l th e q u e s t i o n s , b u t t h a t i t was n o t im p o r ta n t i f such o c c u r r e d . The w r i t e r a tte m p te d to a s c e r t a i n i n w hich la n g u a g e th e re s p o n d e n t w ished to have th e i n t e r v i e w c o n d u c te d . Younger p e r s o n s w ere ap p ro a ch e d i n E n g li s h , and i n v i r t u a l l y a l l c a s e s t h i s p ro v e d to be th e p r e f e r r e d la n g u a g e ; i n th e c a se o f e l d e r l y p e r s o n s , th e r e v e r s e s i t u a t i o n p r e v a i l e d . Where t h e r e was d o u b t, p a r t i c u l a r l y I f th e p r o s p e c t spoke h e a v i l y a c c e n t e d E n g li s h , th e w r i t e r a sk ed "Do you w ish me to a sk th e q u e s t i o n s i n S p a n ish o r E n g lis h ? " In c a se th e p e rs o n s a i d i n e f f e c t " I t makes no d i f f e r e n c e , " th e la n g u a g e I n w hich th e w r i t e r and i n te r v ie w e e had been c o n v e r s in g was c o n tin u e d . Of th e t o t a l number o f i n t e r v i e w s 104 o r 7 0 .7 p e r c e n t were c o n d u c te d i n E n g li s h , and 43 o r 29*3 p e r c e n t i n S p a n is h . The r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll number o f p e r s o n s p r e f e r r i n g S p a n ish were e i t h e r p e r s o n s who spoke l i t t l e o r no E n g lis h o r who spoke f l u e n t E n g lis h , b u t p r e f e r r e d to speak S p a n ish w ith S p a n is h - s p e a k in g p e r s o n s . A lthough th e w r i t e r h a s no way to s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s c o n c l u s i o n , i t i s h i s o p in io n t h a t more s a t i s f a c t o r y answ ers were o b t a i n e d i n E n g lis h th a n i n S p a n is h . T h is o p in io n may have r e s u l t e d b e c a u se n o n - s p e a k e r s o r p o o r s p e a k e r s o f E n g li s h w ere on th e a v e ra g e l e s s w e ll e d u c a te d . S i m i l a r l y , i t would a p p e a r t h a t even f o r p e rs o n s whose command o f E n g li s h i s i n a d e q u a te , t h e i r c u l t u r a l e x p e r ie n c e i n th e American e n v i r o n ment h as b een b r o a d e r and r i c h e r t h a n t h e i r e x p e r ie n c e o f M exican c u l t u r e . U s u a lly t h e i r l e a r n e d and s e m i- l e a r n e d v o c a b u la r y i s g r e a t e r i n E n g li s h th a n i t i s i n S p a n ish , p e rh a p s even t h a t o f s p e a k e r s o f p o o r E n g lis h . T h e ir S p a n ish v o c a b u la r y i s more l i k e l y t h a n n o t to r e f e r to a r u r a l type o f c u l t u r e , w h ereas th e q u e s t i o n s o f th e i n t e r view s c h e d u le p e r t a i n m a in ly to an u rb an e n v iro n m e n t. A nother p o s s i b l e f a c t o r may have been th e g r e a t e r s t a t u s d i f f e r e n t i a l betw een th e w r i t e r and th e S p a n is h - s p e a k in g r e s p o n d e n ts t h a n betw een th e w r i t e r and th e E n g li s h - s p e a k in g r e s p o n d e n t s . L en sk i and L e g g e tt n o te t h a t : R e se a rc h h as made i t c l e a r t h a t th e b e h a v io r o f r e s p o n d e n ts i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by th e 79 r e la t iv e p o s itio n s o f respondent and in te r v ie w e r in the c a ste and c la s s system s o f s o c ie t y . . . . When in te rv ie w s in v o lv e communication between the c la s s e s or between th e c a s te s , an elem ent o f r e tic e n c e becomes e v i d e n t .H In order to secure the 6 per cen t sample o f 147 c a s e s, i t was necessary to co n tact a t o t a l o f 210 p erso n s. Use o f the 63 a lte r n a te s was made n ecessary by th e fa c t th a t 17 p ersons refu sed , 3 were d eceased, 26 were not lo c a te d , and 17 were not o f Mexican d escen t. Each o f two o f th e se c a te g o r ie s , the r e f u s a ls and the n o n -lo ca ted persons r e p r e se n ts a source o f p o s s ib le b ia s . I t was found th a t th ere was u n d errep resen tation o f the fo llo w in g types o f p erso n s: s e m i-s k ille d workers, married p erso n s, persons r e n tin g t h e ir p lace o f r e s id e n c e , and persons who spent r e l a t i v e l y le s s time in a given r e sid e n c e . The sample was a lso u n d errep resen ta tiv e of Mexicans w ith non-Spanish surnames and o f persons who had most r e c e n tly moved Into Pomona. The o n ly f a c t o r s , how ever, fo r which s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e could be claim ed are home ownership and r e s id e n t i a l s t a b i l i t y . ■^Gerhard E. Lenski and John C. L egget, "Caste, C la ss, and Deference In th e Research I n te r v ie w ," American Journal o f S o c io lo g y , LXV (March, i 9 6 0 ), 463* 80 P erso n s who r e n t e d t h e i r l i v i n g q u a r t e r s w ere u n d e r r e p r e s e n te d i n th e sample as compared w ith home ow ners. While 15 o r 6 0 .0 p e r c e n t o f n o n - lo c a te d m overs were r e n t e r s , o n ly 40 o r 27.4 p e r cen t o f th e sample p e rs o n s were r e n t e r s . Chi sq u a re f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l . P erso n s who moved away and were n o t l o c a t e d a l s o a p p e a re d to be l e s s s t a b l e , as m ig ht be e x p e c te d o f a group p r i m a r i l y made up o f r e n t e r s . While 14 o r 87-5 p e r c e n t o f th e movers f o r which t h e r e were d a ta had l i v e d l e s s th a n 6 y e a rs a t th e a d d re ss l i s t e d i n th e c i t y d i r e c - t o r y , o n ly 82 o r 5 5 -8 p e r c en t o f th e w r i t e r ' s sample were i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . The c h i sq u a re f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . Thus th e w r i t e r ' s sample i s b i a s e d i n th e d i r e c t i o n of t h e more s t a b l e e le m e n ts in th e M exican-A m erican community. The w r i t e r ' s 6 p e r c e n t sample o f S panish -su rn am e a d u l t s in Pomona may a ls o be compared w ith th e a d u l t s in th e Census B u re a u 's 25 p e r c e n t sample o f S p an ish -su rn am e p e rs o n s in Pomona. I t w i l l be n o te d from T able 1 t h a t th e median age o f S p an ish -su rn am e a d u l t s o b ta in e d by th e w r i t e r and by th e U. S. Bureau o f th e Census a re a b o u t the same, 37*2 and 37-1 r e s p e c t i v e l y . 81 TABLE 1 COMPARISON OP THE AGE OP POMONA SPANISH-SURNAME PERSONS IN THE WRITER’S SAMPLE WITH DATA PROM THE U. S. CENSUS OP I960 Age W rite r 1s Sample U. S. C en sus3 Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t 21-29 35 2 3 -8 777 2 6 .5 30-39 50 3 4 .0 908 3 0 .9 40 -4 9 24 1 6 .3 515 1 7 .6 50-59 21 1 4 .3 376 1 2 .9 60-69 12 8 .2 215 7 .1 70 o r o v e r 5 3-4 152 5 -1 T o ta l 147 1 0 0 ,0 2 ,9 4 3 b 100 .1 Median 3 7 .2 3 7 .1 a U. P o p u la tio n S. and B ureau o f H o u s in g : th e C en sus, U. S. C ensuses o f i 9 6 0 . Census T r a c t s , Los A n g e les- Long B each, C a l i f . S ta n d a rd M e t r o p o li t a n S t a t i s t i c a l A rea, p . 606. ^ I n c l u d e s 1 ,4 0 2 m ales and 1 ,5 4 1 fe m a le s . 82 T able 2 i n d i c a t e s a h i g h e r e s t i m a t e o f t o t a l f a m ily income by th e w r i t e r th a n by th e Census B ureau. The m edian o b t a i n e d by th e w r i t e r i s h i g h e r by $575. T hus, th e w r i t e r ' s sample may be b i a s e d n o t o n ly i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e more s t a b l e e le m e n ts i n th e p o p u l a t i o n , 1 P b u t a l s o th e more p r o s p e r o u s . Since w i t h r e f e r e n c e to s c h o o lin g t h e w r i t e r d e a l t w ith a l l a d u l t s , b u t th e Census B ureau o n ly w ith th o s e 25 y e a r s o f age o r o l d e r , th e two s e t s o f .f i g u r e s i n T able 3 a re n o t s t r i c t l y c o m p a rab le. I t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b le t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e m edian number o f y e a r s o f s c h o o l in g f o r th e w r i t e r ' s younger p o p u l a t i o n , 9.b-, i s h i g h e r th a n t h a t f o r t h e Census B u r e a u 's somewhat o l d e r p o p u l a t i o n , 8 .7 - T e s tin g o f H ypo theses H ypo theses were t e s t e d by c o m p ilin g c o n tin g e n c y t a b l e s and c a l c u l a t i n g th e s t a t i s t i c s o f c h i s q u a re and o f 12I t s h o u ld be f u r t h e r n o te d t h a t th e i 960 Census was ta k e n i n 1 9 5 9 ^ hence p a r t o f th e d i f f e r e n c e may be a t t r i b u t a b l e to . i n f l a t i o n . 83 TABLE 2 COMPARISON OF THE INCOME OF POMONA SPANISH-SURNAME FAMILIES IN THE WRITER'S SAMPLE WITH'DATA FROM THE U. S. CENSUS OF I960 W r i t e r ' s Sample U. S. C ensus3 Num P er Num P er Income b e r c e n t b e r c e n t Under $ 4 ,0 0 0 32 2 3 .4 380 2 8 .5 4 ,0 0 0 - 5 ,9 9 9 43 3 1 .4 429 3 2 .1 6 ,0 0 0 - 7 ,9 9 9 37 2 7 .0 308 2 3 .1 8 ,0 0 0 o r o v e r 25 1 8 .2 218 1 6 .3 T o t a l 137 1 0 0 .0 1 ,3 3 5 1 0 0 .0 Median $ 5 ,7 0 4 $ 5 ,1 2 9 a U. S. B ureau o f th e C ensus, U. S. C ensuses o f P o p u la tio n and H o u sin g : i 9 6 0 . Census T r a c t s . Los Angeles- Long B each, C a l i f . S ta n d a r d M e t r o p o li t a n S t a t i s t i c a l . A rea, TABLE 3 COMPARISON OF THE SCHOOLING OF POMONA SPANISH-SURNAME PERSONS IN THE WRITER'S SAMPLE WITH DATA FROM THE U. S. CENSUS OF I9 6 0 Number o f Y ears o f S c h o o lin g Com pleted W riter* s Sample u. S. C ensus3 Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r P er c e n t 0-8 59 40.1 1 ,4 1 9 5 5 .3 9-11 47 3 2 .0 623 2 4 .1 12 o r more 41 27.9 532 2 0 .6 T o t a l 147 100.0 2 ,5 7 4 1 0 0 .0 M edian 9 .4 8 .7 a P e rso n s 25 y e a r s o f age o r o v e r. U. S. B ureau o f th e C ensus, U. S. C ensuses o f P o p u la tio n and H o u sin g : I9 6 0 . Census T r a c t s . Los Angeles-Long B each, C a l i f . S ta n d a rd M e tr o p o lita n S t a t i s t i c a l Area, p . 606. th e c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o n tin g e n c y (c). S t a t i s t i c a l n u l l h y p o th e s e s were r e j e c t e d a t th e .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . In th e c a s e o f n o n s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s , d i s c u s s i o n of th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s has u s u a l l y been o m it t e d from t h i s r e p o r t , u n l e s s t h e r e were p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g r e a s o n s f o r doing so . CHAPTER IV POMONA'S MEXICAN COMMUNITY The C i ty o f Pomona i s i n t h e e a s t e r n m o s t p a r t o f Los A n g eles C ounty, a p p r o x i m a t e ly 28 m i l e s from th e C iv ic C e n te r o f Los A n g e le s. The m a jo r c i t i e s o f P a sa d e n a , San B e r n a r d i n o , R i v e r s i d e and S a n ta Ana a r e a l s o a l l l o c a t e d w i t h i n a r a d i u s o f 30 m il e s from Pomona. I t i s s i t u a t e d i n t h e Pomona V a lle y , 1 8 ''by 20 m i l e s , b o r d e r e d by th e San G a b r i e l M oun tain s on th e n o r t h , th e San Jo s e H i l l s on t h e w e s t, and t h e P u e n te H i l l s on t h e s o u th . O ccupying an a r e a o f a b o u t 20 s q u a r e m i l e s , t h e c i t y l i e s a t an a l t i t u d e o f betw een 760 and 1 ,1 5 0 f e e t above se a l e v e l and e n jo y s a M e d ite r r a n e a n s u b t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e . R a in , f a l l i n g m o s t ly i n t h e w i n t e r m onth s, a v e r a g e s 1 9 -2 7 in c h e s a n n u a l l y . The a v e r a g e mean t e m p e r a tu r e i s 61 d e g re e s F a h r e n h e i t , w i t h an a v e ra g e maximum t e m p e r a t u r e o f 78 and an a v e ra g e minimum o f 45- The c i t y i s s e r v e d by t h r e e m a jo r t r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l r a i l r o a d s (S a n ta Fe, S o u th e rn P a c i f i c and Union P a c i f i c ) 86 87 and t h r e e m ajo r U. S. highway r o u t e s (60, 66 and 7 0 ) . A g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n o f th e s u r r o u n d in g a r e a i s p r i m a r i l y i n c i t r u s , l i v e s t o c k , d a i r y , p o u l t r y , v e g e t a b l e s , and d e c id u o u s f r u i t s . The c i t y i t s e l f i s th e l o c a t i o n o f more th a n one h u n d red d i v e r s i f i e d i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s . - 1 ' S o c i a l H i s t o r y From t h e p o i n t o f view o f th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h r e p o r t , th e m ost im p o r ta n t a s p e c t o f t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f Pomona i s t h a t d e a l in g w ith th e developm ent o f e t h n i c and c l a s s r e l a t i o n s i n th e c i t y . The e a r l y h i s t o r y o f th e r e l a t i o n s betw een t h e S p a n is h - s p e a k in g p e o p le and th e E n g li s h - s p e a k in g p e o p le i n th e Pomona a r e a can be t r a c e d th r o u g h t h r e e g e n e r a l s t a g e s . F i r s t , t h e r e was th e p e r i o d o f M exican a sc e n d a n c y , b e f o r e 1848, when th e S p a n is h s p e a k in g p e o p le w ere v i r t u a l l y th e o n ly i n h a b i t a n t s o t h e r th a n t h e I n d i a n s . D uring th e second p e r i o d , 1848-1875> th e f i r s t wave o f Am ericans came i n and began r a p i d l y to a c q u i r e l a n d h o l d i n g s . The two e t h n i c g ro u p s g e n e r a l l y 1 Pomona C ity P la n n in g Commission, F a c ts ab o u t Pomona (Pomona: The Commission, 1 9 5 5 P* !• 88 a c c e p te d eac h o t h e r on a b a s i s o f s o c i a l e q u a l i t y . Dur in g th e t h i r d p e r i o d , 1875-1890, th e S p a n ish -sp e a k in g p e o p le l o s t v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e i r la n d , and began to occupy l a r g e l y a se co n d a ry p l a c e on an e th n ic s c a l e . What i s now Pomona was p a r t o f th e Rancho San Jo se g r a n t e d i n 1837 by th e Mexican governm ent to t h r e e o r i g i n a l ow ners, Ygnacio P alom ares, R icard o V e ja r, and L uis A renas, who u se d th e la n d f o r c a t t l e r a i s i n g . The P alom ares and V e ja r f a m i l i e s i n t e r m a r r i e d w ith each o t h e r , w ith th e landow ning Yorba fa m ily o f Orange County and w ith p ro m in en t Anglo and S p a n is h -s p e a k in g f a m i l i e s o f Sou thern C a l i f o r n i a . As long as th e y commanded economic power, th e s e e a r l y landow ning f a m i l i e s i n t h e i r many b ran c h es c o n tin u e d to e n jo y h ig h p r e s t i g e and i n t e r m a r r i a g e w ith th e dom inant Anglo gro up d u rin g th e American p e r i o d . The f i r s t two d e cad es o f Anglo r u l e were g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p e a c e f u l c o o p e r a tio n betw een th e two p r i n c i p a l e th n i c g ro u p s. M ig ra tio n c o n tin u e d from Mexico, l a r g e l y , a s Burma n o t e s , "a two-way t r a f f i c o f sh e p h e rd s , cowboys, ra n c h h a n d s, and common l a b o r e r s who d id n o t t h i n k o f th e m se lv e s as im m ig ra tin g ; t h e y went n o r t h to work as th e y went e a s t , w e s t, and s o u th , and i t was i n c i d e n t a l t h a t 89 th e y c r o s s e d an i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o r d e r to work and r e c r o s s e d p i t to r e t u r n hom e.' Members o f th e o ld landow ning f a m i l i e s m a in ta in e d g r e a t s o c i a l d i s t a n c e betw een them s e l v e s and th e more r e c e n t and l e s s a f f l u e n t im m ig ran ts from Mexico. The econom ic d e c l i n e o f t h e s e f a m i l i e s began d u r in g th e 1 8 6 0 ' s w ith a s u c c e s s io n o f d ro u g h t y e a r s a s s o c i a t e d w ith a d ro p i n th e demand f o r b e e f . The lan do w n ers h a d f u r t h e r to f i g h t lo n g le,gal b a t t l e s t o prov e t i t l e , h ad d i f f i c u l t y com prehending t a x a t i o n and Anglo l e g a l s y s tem s, and had gone d e e p ly i n t o d e b t a t e x c e s s iv e r a t e s o f i n t e r e s t . S a le o f la n d , f o r c e d o r o t h e r w is e , became an econom ic n e c e s s i t y . The g r e a t ra n c h e s were s u b d iv id e d f o r sm all fa rm s , o r c h a r d s , and r e s i d e n t i a l l o t s . 3 > ^ When members o f th e u p p e r s tr a tu m began to c a l l th em se lv e s O John H. Burma, S p a n ish -S p e a k in g Groups i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s (Durham: Duke U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19 54), P« 40. 3 W . W . R obin son , Panoram a: a P i c t u r e H is to r y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a (Los A n g e le s: T i t l e I n s u r a n c e and T r u s t Company, 1953)* 4 Bess Adams G a rn er and Miriam C o lco rd P o s t, The S t o r y o f th e Adobe de P alom ares i n Pomona, C a l i f o r n i a (C lare m o n t, C a l i f . : S au nd ers P r e s s , 1 940 ), pp. 11-14. "S p an ish " to d i s t i n g u i s h th e m s e lv e s from t h e d e sc e n d a n ts o f th e l o w e r - c l a s s s e t t l e r s , with wtiom at f i r s t th e y r e f u s e d t o i n te r m a r r y , i s n o t k n o w n ; ^ late i n the 1 8 8 0 's b o th group s were s t i l l known as " M e x i c a n s . " ^ I n t e r e s t i n g l y , d e s c e n d a n ts o f th e low er s t r a t u m s t i l l l a t e r began to (and g e n e r a l l y s t i l l do) c a l l t h e m s e lv e s " S p a n is h " t o d i s t i n g u i s h th e m se lv e s from th e n u m e ro u s Mexican im m igrants o f th e 1 9 1 0 's and 1 9 2 0 's . A p p a r e n t l y , the u s e of "S p a n ish by grown c h il d r e n o f th e l a t t e r g r o u p dates from a b o u t th e World War I I p e r i o d . In 1868 t h e fam ily o f Rober*t S. A r n e t t came from M i s s i s s i p p i to what I s now Pomona a s its f i r s t American s e t t l e r s . O thers soon a rr iv e d , b u t d id not im m e d ia te ly d is p la c e th e l o c a l p eo ple from p o s i t i o n s o f l e a d e r s h i p . As l a t e a s th e 1 8 7 0 's p e rs o n s of M e x i c a n d e s c e n t h e ld prom inent p o s i t i o n s in th e com m unity- For exam p le, F ra n c is c o P alo m ares, son o f Ygnacio ^ served a s County S u p e r v is o r from 1872 to 1875* In 1 8 7 0 seven S p a n ish - ^ Carey McWilliams, North f r o m Mexico ( P h ila d e lp h ia J . B. L ip p i n c o t t C o ., 1949), p. 90. ^Emma H. Adams, To and Fro, Up and Down in South ern C a l i f o r n i a , Oregon and W ash in g to n T e r r i t o r y ( C i n c i n n a t i : C ra n sto n and Stowe, 1 8 8 8 ) , p. 129* 91 surname p e rs o n s p e t i t i o n e d f o r th e f o u n d a tio n o f th e P alo m a res School D i s t r i c t , w hich a t t h a t tim e i n c l u d e d Pomona. When th e d i s t r i c t was form ed, Ramon V e ja r and F r a n c i s c o Palo m ares s e rv e d as t r u s t e e s . ^ The s i t u a t i o n began t o change when th e r a i l r o a d s a r r i v e d i n th e a r e a and th e f i r s t s t e p s were ta k e n to e s t a b l i s h a c i t y . The 1 8 7 0 's and l 8 8 0 's were th e p e r i o d s o f r a i l r o a d e x p a n s io n i n S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a and th o u sa n d s o f r a i l r o a d w o rk e rs were im p o rte d from Mexico. Many o f t h e r a i l r o a d l a b o r camps became th e Mexican c o lo n i a s o f to d a y .® B ecause r a i l r o a d work was s e a s o n a l , th e w o rk e rs k e p t d r i f t i n g o f f t o o t h e r ty p e s o f o c c u p a ti o n s , such as t h e p i c k i n g o f o ra n g e s and lem ons. A c o n t i n u a l r e c r u i t m ent o f r a i l r o a d w o rk e rs from Mexico was th e r e b y made n e c e s s a r y . These w o rk e rs h e lp e d to b u i l d th e S o u th e rn P a c i f i c R a i l r o a d w hich came t o Pomona i n 1875*^ The coming o f th e r a i l r o a d had a d u a l e f f e c t on t h e s t a t u s r e l a t i o n s among p e r s o n s o f M exican d e s c e n t i n ^Roy L. D r i s c o l l , e d . , Pomona V a lle y Community Book (Pomona: A rth u r H. Cawston, 1 9 5 0 ), pp. 153-57* ®McWilliams, o p . c i t . , p. 169. ^ D r i s c o l l , op. c i t . , p p . 87- 8 8 . th e Pomona a r e a . In th e f i r s t p l a c e , i t b ro u g h t i n a new and n o n a c c u l t u r a t e d l o w - s t a t u s g ro u p o f M exicans, th u s lo w e rin g th e p o s i t i o n o f th e g ro up a s a w hole. S eco n d ly , th e r a i l r o a d began to b r i n g i n a g r e a t many A nglo-A m erican im m ig ra n ts. The l a t t e r , f o r th e m ost p a r t , came as f a m i l i e s , hence had l i t t l e n eed to c o n t r a c t m a r i t a l u n io n s w ith th e M exicans. F u rth e rm o re , th e d e c l i n e i n t h e w e a l t h and p r e s t i g e o f th e o l d landow ning f a m i l i e s made such u n io n s i n c r e a s i n g l y l e s s a t t r a c t i v e . The num erous p ro g en y o f th e o ld f a m i l i e s th u s had l i t t l e a l t e r n a t i v e to m a rry in g each o t h e r , th e Mexican newcomers, o r M issio n I n d i a n s . Pomona was f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d as a c i t y when a second p ro m o tio n a l v e n tu r e was s u c c e s s f u l i n 1881; th e c i t y was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n 18 8 7 . By t h i s tim e t h e r e were no S p a n ish -su rn a m e p e o p le e i t h e r on t h e Board o f T r u s t e e s o f t h e sc h o o l d i s t r i c t o r s e r v in g as c i t y o f f i c i a l s . No l o n g e r were M exicans among th e l o c a l e l i t e . I n c r e a s i n g s e t t l e m e n t , a b u rg e o n in g c i t r u s i n d u s t r y , (660 a c r e s were u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n i n Pomona by 1885).» and th e a r r i v a l o f f u r t h e r r a i l c o n n e c tio n s a l l a id e d I n th e r a p i d A m e ric an i z a t i o n o f t h e a r e a . The coming o f th e A tc h is o n , Topeka 93 and S an ta Fe in 1886, th e y e a r o f a g r e a t la n d boom, h e lp e d dev elo p th e n e ig h b o rin g f o o t h i l l com m unities o f C larem ont, La Verne and San Dimas. The San Pedro, Los A ngeles and S a l t Lake R a il r o a d , now th e Union P a c i f i c , re a c h e d Pomona in 19 0 3 .IO In g e n e r a l , i t can be s a i d t h a t th e b u i ld i n g o f th e r a i l r o a d s , th e coming o f M exicans and E a s te r n e r s i n s i z e a b l e num bers, th e fo u n d in g o f Pomona and th e grow th o f th e l o c a l c i t r u s I n d u s t r y were a l l i n t e r r e l a t e d and ro u g h l y contem poraneous e v e n t s . G arner and P o st c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e e a r l y p a r t o f t h i s e r a as f o llo w s : By 1890 th e l i f e o f th e Rancho San Jo se had become t h a t o f an American f r o n t i e r though even a t t h i s tim e th e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p le In th e V a lle y were o f H isp a n ic o r i g i n . They a c c e p te d th e Anglo-Saxon e ra b u t were n o t y e t a b so rb e d i n t o i t . 11 An i n d i c a t i o n o f th e c u l t u r a l I s o l a t i o n o f th e group I s t h e f a c t t h a t n o t a s i n g l e S p an ish-surnam e p e rs o n was g r a d u a te d from Pomona e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls d u rin g th e y e a r s 1887 th ro u g h 1890.12 10I b i d . , p. 93- in 1 G arn er and P o s t, op. c i t . , p. 21. 12Pomona C ity P u b lic S c h o o ls, F i r s t Annual R ep o rt (Pomona: D a lly Times P r i n t i n g House, 1891)> P* 84. 94 Pomona c o n tin u e d f o r lo n g t h e r e a f t e r a s a s m a ll town i n a p r e p o n d e r a n t l y r u r a l a r e a . In 1887 th e r e s i d e n t i a l and b u s i n e s s p a r t s o f town e x te n d e d o n ly one b lo c k n o r t h o f H o lt Avenue, b u t some t e n b lo c k s to th e s o u t h . The town e x te n d e d a b o u t seven b lo c k s b o th e a s t and w e st o f G arey Avenue. -*-3 Some o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e s i d e n ce s s o u th o f H o lt a r e s t i l l s t a n d i n g and now o c c u p ie d p r i m a r i l y by M exican f a m i l i e s . 1^ The s o c i a l c l a s s system f o r lo n g was p r i m a r i l y two f o l d : m i d d l e - c l a s s Anglos owned th e c i t r u s o r c h a r d s and b u s i n e s s e s ; M exicans p ic k e d f r u i t , m a in ta in e d t h e r a i l r o a d s and d i d o t h e r t y p e s o f u n s k i l l e d j o b s . Some fo und b e t t e r work e ls e w h e r e , some w ent b ack to M exico. What was p r o b a b ly a c o lo n y o f d w in d lin g s i z e was r e i n f o r c e d , b e g in n in g aro u n d t h e t u r n o f th e c e n t u r y , w ith th e g r e a t e s t im m ig ra tio n waves o f all.-. For t h r e e d e c a d e s , 1900- 1930, M exicans came i n l a r g e num bers f l e e i n g p o v e r t y and ^ t . D. B e a s le y , P i c t u r e s q u e Pomona (New York: Photo E n g ra v in g Co., 1 887)• 14 Compare p h o to g r a p h s i n Pomona F i r e D epartm en t S o u v e n ir (Pomona: P u b lis h e d i n th e I n t e r e s t o f th e R e l i e f Fund o f t h e Pomona F i r e D e p artm en t, 1903)* 95 r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n d i t i o n s i n Mexico and coming t o f i l l th e lo w e st s t r a t a in Pomona s o c i e t y . The m a j o r i t y o f p e r s o n s o f Mexican d e s c e n t in Pomona today a r e th ese Im m ig ran ts and t h e i r c h i l d r e n . The a r e a s from w hich th e im m ig ran ts came have l a r g e l y been t h e p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n a r e a s o f c e n t r a l h i g h la n d Mexico, p a r t i c u l a r l y th e s t a t e s of G u a n aju a to and J a l i s c o . ^ i t I s a ls o t h e a re a w h ere th e re w as the l a r g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f la n d i n th e hands o f big p r o p r i e t o r s , w i t h " l /T the peons o b lig ed to em igrate p e r io d ic a lly . In the re se a r c h e r 's sample, a higher percentage o f respondents came from the s t a t e s o f Guana juato_(31 • 3) and J a lis c o (l8-7) than any other Mexican s t a t e s , and the same was true o f Immigrant parents of respondents ( 2 5 .0 and 19-6 r e s p e c tiv e ly)- Im m igrants In t h e w r i t e r ' s sample came to the U n ite d S t a t e s p r e p o n d e r a n t l y in t h e two d e c a d e s 1910-1919 and 1920-1929; 4 3 .8 and 3 7 .5 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y . P a r e n t s o f r e s p o n d e n ts came p r i m a r i l y cfiuring t h e th re e ^ M a n u e l Gamio, Mexican Im m ig ratio n t o the U n ite d S t a t e s (C hicago: U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1930), p . 156. • ^ I b id ., pp. 22- 2 3 . 96 d e ca d es 1 9 0 0 -1 9 2 9 (89*3 p e r cent o f th e t o t a l ) w ith as many coming i n th e d e c a d e 1910-1919 (45.0 p e r c e n t) as i n th e o th e r tw o d e c a d e s. One r e s p o n d e n t came a s r e c e n t l y a s th e decade 1950-1959 and one p a r e n t d u r in g th e decade 1860-1869. D urin g th e e a r l y decades o f the c e n t u r y "M exicans" w e re s e g r e g a t e d in Pomona movie t h e a t e r s , s c h o o l s , and e ls e w h e re , a l t h o u g h th e "S p an ish " from whom t h e y were p h y s i c a l l y now i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , w ere riot s e g r e g a t e d n o r lo o k e d down u p o n . 17 S i n c e about W orld War I , however, t h e Mexicans o f d i f f e r e n t s o c ia l c l a s s e s and e th n i c o r i g i n s have g r a d u a l l y b een e ra s in g w h a te v e r b o u n d a r ie s e v e r s t o o d between them and h a v e l a r g e l y f u n c t i o n e d as a s i n g l e subm erged e th n ic g ro u p , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g f r e q u e n t l i p - s e r v i c e p a i d to th e " f i n e o ld S p a n ish f a m i l i e s . " Many o f the d e s c e n d a n ts o f t h e p i o n e e r S p a n ish sp e a k in g f a m i l i e s s t i l l l i v e in t h e Pomona a r e a . ^ In ^ R i c h a r d W . A rm our, Drug S t o r e Days (New York: McGraw-Hill B o o k Co., 1 9 5 9 ) , p. 1 4 0 . 1 o The r e s e a r c h e r was I n t e r e s t e d in o b s e r v in g t h a t t h e o ld e r g e n e r a t i o n s , a s judged b y t h e i r p o r t r a i t s , w ere l a r g e l y E u ro p e a n in a p p e a ra n c e . The more r e c e n t g e n e r a tio n s o f th e s e f a m i l i e s are l a r g e l y m e s ti z o in a p p e a ra n c e m o s tly a s a r e s u l t o f e x te n s iv e i n t e r m a r r i a g e w ith Mexican imm i g r a n t s and M i s s i o n I n d i a n s . c o n t r a s t to t h e e a r l y days when t h e f a m i l i e s owned t h o u sands o f a c r e s , o n ly a v e ry few f a m ily members owned aB much a s a h u n dred a c r e s by th e 1 9 2 0 's . By t h e 1 9 6 0 's t h e s e p e o p le , I f th e y owned la n d a t a l l , had h o ld in g s co n f i n e d t o a few c i t y o r c o u n tr y l o t s . Many o f th e p e rs o n s b e a r i n g th e o l d f a m ily names l i v e i n o ld h o u s e s , n o t w e ll m a in ta in e d , i n th e l e s s d e s i r a b l e p a r t s o f town and th e b re a d w in n e rs a r e engaged p r i m a r i l y i n manual o c c u p a tio n s o f v a r i o u s s o r t s . In th e e t h n i c s t r u c t u r e a new e l i t e has a r i s e n to t a k e th e p l a c e o f t h e o l d f a m i l i e s : se c o n d - g e n e r a t l o h M exican-A m ericans s u c c e s s f u l i n b u s i n e s s and th e p r o f e s s i o n s . The c h i l d r e n o f th e im m ig ran ts o f 1 9 1 0 's and 1 9 2 0 's a re now i n th e p r o c e s s o f rem oving th e l a s t s e g r e g a t i o n a l b a r r i e r s betw een th e m s e lv e s and th e m a j o r i t y p o p u l a t i o n . Not o n ly th e p o s i t i o n o f th e M exican-A m erican com m u n ity , b u t th e c i t y as a whole h a s , o f c o u r s e , been u n d e rg o in g im p o r ta n t s o c i a l c h an g e s. Since World War I I Pom ona's c i t r u s a c r e a g e h a s r a p i d l y been r e p l a c e d by t r a c t h o u sin g d e v e lo p m e n ts, and Pomona can no l o n g e r be r e g a r d e d p r i m a r i l y as an a g r i c u l t u r a l c e n t e r . With th e p o p u l a t i o n grow th i n th e Los A ngeles b a s i n , and i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y a t t r i b u t a b l e to World War I I and t h e Cold War, th e Pomona r e g i o n i s i n c r e a s i n g l y more su burban y e t m a in ta in s an i n d u s t r i a l c h a r a c t e r . I n th e words o f Pomona1s M ayor: F o rm e rly th e t r a d i n g and s o c i a l c e n t e r o f a l a r g e a g r a r i a n economy, Pomona i s r a p i d l y c o m p le tin g th e t r a n s i t i o n to a c o m m e r c i a l - i n d u s t r i a l com plex. The m edian income i n th e community c l o s e l y a p p ro x im a te s t h a t f o r th e whole c o u n ty . . . . Long r a t h e r i s o l a t e d from th e m e t r o p o l i t a n c e n t e r . . , to d a y i t i s s t i l l e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e and r e s e r v e d i n n a t u r e . 1-9 The change i n th e econom ic b a se o f th e Pomona a r e a has had im p o r ta n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r th e employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s a v a i l a b l e f o r Pomona 1s M exicans as d is c u s s e d below . Because o f t h e c o n ti n u i n g m ig r a ti o n o f Anglos to Pomona, th e Mexican m i n o r i t y h a s rem ain ed a s m a ll p r o p o r t i o n o f th e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , hen ce n o t o v e r l y " v i s i b l e . " Nor have th e newcomers been i n t e r e s t e d i n m a i n t a i n in g th e o ld " c i t r u s " c a s t e sy ste m . A ll o f th e s e t r e n d s have gone hand i n hand w ith t h e c o n ti n u i n g a s s i m i l a t i o n o f second g e n e r a t i o n M exicans a s th e o l d e r Im m igran t g e n e r a t i o n , w i t h i t s employment h i s t o r y o f f r u i t p i c k i n g and r a i l r o a d ^ A r t h u r H. Cox, Youth i n Pomona (Pomona, 1 9 5 9), p. 2. 99 m a in te n a n c e , g r a d u a l l y d i e s o f f . The g ro w th o f th e Mexi can p o p u l a t i o n o f Pomona, shown i n T able 4 i s a t t r i b u t a b l e n o t o n ly t o n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e , b u t a ls o to c o n ti n u i n g i n - m ig r a ti o n from n e a rb y r u r a l and su bu rb an com m u nities, o t h e r s t a t e s , and, to a d e c r e a s i n g e x t e n t , from M exico. The M exican-A m erican community o f Pomona h as long been s t a b l e . F or exam ple, a b o u t h a l f o f th e Mexican p u p i l s a t Frem ont J u n i o r High i n 1941 had been b orn i n Pomona, and o v e r 80 p e r c e n t had a ls o been e n r o l l e d i n Pomona s c h o o ls th e p r e v io u s y e a r . Pomona's M exicans a re n o t now, and have n e v e r b e e n , p r i n c i p a l l y o f th e m ig ra n t l a b o r c l a s s so o f t e n d e s c r i b e d as " t y p i c a l " i n th e l i t e r a t u r e . In o t h e r ways i t a ls o a p p e a ls t h a t th e M exican- American p o p u l a t i o n o f Pomona i s i n c e r t a i n ways q u i t e a t y p i c a l o f M exican com m unities i n t h i s s t a t e . B eard c o n c lu d e d some two d ecad es ago t h a t , th e Mexican p o p u l a t i o n i n Pomona i s more s t a b l e , b e t t e r h o u sed and more h i g h l y e d u c a te d th a n most Mexican g ro u p s i n C a l i f o r n i a com m un ities. The e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s h i g h e r s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g d o u b t l e s s r e s i d e s i n th e n o n - m ig r a to r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e p o p u l a t i o n and th e g e n e r a l te n d e n c y f o r th e b re a d w in n e rs i n th e homes to be r e g u l a r l y 100 TABLE 4 POPULATION OP POMONA, 1900-19603 M exican Non-Mexican Y ear Number Per c e n t Number P e r c e n t T o t a l 1900 100 1 .8 5 ,4 2 6 9 8 . 2 5 ,5 2 6 1910 200 2 .0 1 0 ,0 0 7 9 8 . 0 1 0 ,2 0 7 1920 1 ,3 0 0 9 .6 1 2 ,2 0 5 9 0 . 4 1 3 ,5 0 5 1930 1 ,8 0 0 8 .7 1 9 ,0 0 4 9 1 . 3 . 2 0 ,8 0 4 1940 2,0 0 0 8.5 2 1 ,5 3 9 9 1 -5 2 3 ,5 3 9 1950 3 ,1 9 2 9 .0 3 2 ,2 1 3 9 1 . 0 3 5 ,4 0 5 I9 6 0 6,1 61 9 .2 6 0 ,9 9 6 9 0 . 8 6 7 ,1 5 7 aE s t im a te s by w r i t e r from v a rio u s p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e U. S. B ureau o f th e Census; f o r 1950, U. S. Bureau o f th e C ensus. P e rso n s o f S p a n ish Surname (W ashington, D. C. : Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1953; f o r I9 60, U. S. B u re a u o f t h e C ensus, U. S. C ensuses o f P o p u la tio n an d H ousing, I9 6 0 . Census T r a c t s , Los A ngeles-L ong B each, C a l i f . S ta n d a r d M e tr o p o li t a n Area (W ashington, D. C. : Govern- m ent P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 6 2 ). 101 20 em ployed. S o c i o c u l t u r a l O r ig in s The c u l t u r a l m i l i e u from w h ich t h e Im m igrants h a v e come and which i n p a r t t h e y have b r o u g h t w i t h them to t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , i s d i f f i c u l t to d e f i n e . I t s m ost o u t s t a n d in g f e a t u r e , how ever, p r o b a b ly has been i t s h e t e r o g e n e i t y , w ith r e f e r e n c e to b o th r e g i o n a l and c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s . 21 N e v e r t h e l e s s , m ost w r i t e r s have e m p h asized t h e "fo lk " n a t u r e o f th e c u l t u r e from w hich m ost o f th e im m igrants a re s a i d to have come: " r e l a t i v e l y hom ogeneous, molded i n t o i t s p h y s i c a l e n v iro n m en t and s o c i a l l y i n t e g r a t e d . " 22 As Humphrey d e s c r i b e s i t : The group l i f e s ta n d s u n e q u iv o c a l l y above th e i n d i v i d u a l - - t h e n o ncon form er can f i t i n no p la c e . F o r a lm o st a l l s i t u a t i o n s t h e r e a r e r e a d y made d e f i n i t i o n s ; a l l t h a t i s known and d e s i r e d o f l i f e f i n d s e x p r e s s io n w i t h i n th e g ro u p , as d e f in e d by 20 E. A lic e B eard, "A Study o f th e Mexican P u p ils i n t h e Fremont J u n i o r High S chool, Pomona, C a l i f o r n i a , i g 4 0 - 4 l " ( u n p u b lis h e d M a s t e r ’s t h e s i s , C larem ont C o l le g e s , 19 4 1 ), p . 28. 21 Ralph L. B e als and Norman D. Humphrey, No F ro n t i e r to L e a rn in g (M in n e a p o lis : U n i v e r s i t y o f M innesota P r e s s , 19 5 7 ), P* 10. 22Norman D. Humphrey, "The G e n e ric F o lk C u ltu re o f M exico," R u ra l S o c io lo g y , VTII (December, 1 9 4 3 ), 364. 102 th e group. The s e c u r i t y o f th e group i s o f p a r a mount Im p o rta n ce , f o r upon I t I n d i v i d u a l s e c u r i t y r e s t s . 23 Yet Pomona im m ig ran ts have come a s much from sm all towns and c i t i e s as from p e a s a n t v i l l a g e s . F u rth e rm o re , a few had m i d d l e - c l a s s s t a t u s i n Mexico, a lth o u g h m ost had been members o f th e mass l o w e r - c l a s s gro u p g e n e r a l l y c a l l e d g ente hum ilde (humble p e o p le ) . A rriv in g i n a la n d where t h e r e were more o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r advancem ent th a n th e y had known i n Mexico, th e im m ig ran ts to v a ry in g d e g re e s tu r n e d t h e i r b a c k s on th e homeland and began l e a r n i n g American ways. Many, however, r e t a i n e d a deep l o y a l t y to th e o ld c o u n try . Mexican immi g r a n ts have g e n e r a l l y been d e s c r ib e d as r e l u c t a n t to become n a t u r a l i z e d American c i t i z e n s , e i t h e r o u t of l o y a l t y to Mexico o r from a f a i l u r e to p e r c e i v e any b en e f i t s t h a t th e y c o u ld d e r iv e from chang ing t h e i r c i t i z e n ship s t a t u s . In th e sam ple in te r v ie w e d by th e w r i t e r , 43*8 p e r cen t o f th e im m ig ran ts had become n a t u r a l i z e d American c i t i z e n s ; of th e p a r e n t s o f r e s p o n d e n ts who w ere im m igrants and f o r which d a t a were a v a i l a b l e , o n ly 3 2 .2 p e r c e n t had 23Ibid., p. 365. become n a t u r a l i z e d . Only 32 o f th e w r i t e r ' s sam ple w ere b o rn i n M exico; th e o t h e r 115 were n a t i v e - b o r n A m ericans. The l a t t e r came from a v a r i e t y o f g e o g r a p h i c a l b a c k g ro u n d s, a lth o u g h o n ly 2 were b o rn o u t s i d e o f th e s o u th w e s te rn s t a t e s . In f a c t 7 6 , o r 6 6 .1 p e r c e n t o f th e A m erican- b o rn were b o rn i n S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , b u t o n ly 4, o r 3*5 p e r c e n t i n o t h e r r e g i o n s o f C a l i f o r n i a ; 2 8 .7 p e r c e n t w ere b o rn i n o t h e r s o u th w e s te rn s t a t e s . Of th e t o t a l num b e r o f A m erican-born r e s p o n d e n t s , 50, o r 43*5 p e r c e n t were b o rn i n th e Pomona V a lle y ; 32, o r 2 7 .8 p e r c e n t i n Pomona p r o p e r . A t o t a l o f 29 i n d i v i d u a l s , o r 2 5 -2 p e r c e n t o f a l l n a t i v e - b o r n r e s p o n d e n t s , were n a t i v e - b o r n Am ericans o f n a t i v e - b o r n p a r e n t s . Some o f t h e s e t h i r d and l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n p e r s o n s were d e s c e n d a n ts o f o l d C a l i f o r n i a f a m i l i e s , w h ile some w ere s c io n s o f o l d e r f a m i l i e s i n o t h e r s t a t e s , e s p e c i a l l y from th e S p an ish -A m erican o r H ispano a r e a . In Pomona, im m ig ra n ts , s e c o n d - g e n e r a t io n M exicans, o ld C a l i f o r n i a n s and H isp an os l i v e i n th e same a r e a s , p a r t i c i p a t e I n t h e same o r g a n i z a t i o n s , s o c i a l i z e and e x t e n s i v e l y i n t e r m a r r y w i t h each o t h e r a lth o u g h th e v a r i o u s ty p e s c o n tin u e d i f f e r e n t i a l l y to i d e n t i f y th e m s e lv e s . 104 A ll o f th e g ro u p s m e n tio n e d a re u n d e rg o in g s i m i l a r s o c i o p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , i . e . , a c c u l t u r a t i o n and u r b a n i z a t i o n . In s e v e r a l s e n s e s t h e M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y u r b a n iz e d . In th e f i r s t p l a c e , many o f th e im m ig ra n ts a re p r o d u c ts o f a r u r a l e n v iro n m en t i n Mexico and have undergone c hanges i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f an u rb an way o f l i f e , th e second g e n e r a t i o n even more so. Then, t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e r p e r c e n ta g e o f th e M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n r e s i d i n g i n u rb a n a r e a s . L ik e w is e , t h e com m unities i n w hich th e y r e s i d e have i n many c a s e s been tr a n s f o r m e d from sm a ll tow ns o r su b u rb s i n t o s i z e a b l e c i t i e s . T here h as a ls o b een a change i n th e o c c u p a ti o n a l s t r u c t u r e , w ith a d e c r e a s in g p e r c e n ta g e o f M exican-A m erican w o rk e rs i n r u r a l o c c u p a t i o n s such a s r a n c h in g and f r u i t p i c k i n g , and an i n c r e a s e i n th e p e r c e n ta g e o f p e r s o n s i n u rb a n employment su c h as m a n u f a c tu r in g , c o n s t r u c t i o n and s e r v i c e s . A ll o f th e s e t r e n d s a p p e a r to be e v i d e n t from t h e Pomona d a t a . The t r e n d tow ard u r b a n i z a t i o n o f t h e group h as r e s u l t e d i n a g r e a t e r d e g re e o f h e t e r o g e n e i t y . As S aun ders n o t e s " c l a s s d i v i s i o n s have grown s h a r p e r and th e v a r i o u s s u b -g ro u p s w i t h i n th e S p a n is h - s p e a k in g group a re n o t so 105 homogeneous a s th e y once w e r e . " 2^ Thus t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n has tu r n e d a f u l l c y c l e . S t a r t i n g o u t as a tw o- c l a s s p a t t e r n o f landow ners and l a b o r e r s , th e p a t t e r n was l e v e l e d to a s i n g l e s e m i- c a s te group u n d e r A nglo-A m erican d o m in a tio n , b u t i n r e c e n t y e a r s u n d e r th e tw in im p a ct o f u r b a n i z a t i o n and i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n has changed once more to a t w o - c l a s s (o r c o n c e iv a b ly t h r e e - c l a s s ) system . P r e s e n t S o c i o c u l t u r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s The s c h o o l, r a t h e r t h a n th e f a m i ly , i s th e c h i e f lo c u s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n to American m i d d l e - c l a s s norm s. T h is i s due t o th e m ain c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e M exican f a m ily i n th e U n ited S t a t e s : l a r g e f a m i l i e s w ith m ale dominance and c o n s i d e r a b le i s o l a t i o n o f th e women, o n ly a sm a ll p r o p o r t i o n o f whom p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e l a b o r f o r c e . 25 Humphrey m a i n t a i n s t h a t changes i n fa m ily s t r u c t u r e 2^L y le S a u n d ers, C u l t u r a l D i f f e r e n c e and M ed ical Care (New York: R u s s e l l Sage F o u n d atio n , 195^)* P* 9^* ^ R a i p h L. B e a ls , " C u l t u r a l P a t t e r n s o f M exican American L i f e , " i n P ro c e e d in g s , F i f t h Annual C o n fe re n c e , S o u th w e ste rn C ou n cil on th e E d u c a tio n o f S p a n is h -S p e a k in g P eople (Los A ng eles, 1 9 5 1 P* 9- 106 c o n s t i t u t e a good in d e x o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n . T r a d i t i o n a l l y th e Mexican f a t h e r i s e x p e c te d t o be p r o v i d e r and p r o t e c t o r , t h e m oth er a homemaker and r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t o r . R e c r e a t i o n and o t h e r s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s te n d to be s t r o n g l y fa m ily o r i e n t e d , th e fa m ily i n c l u d i n g a f f i n a l r e l a t i o n s . Ameri c a n -b o rn M exicans a re s a i d to p l a c e a h i g h valu e on an e x te n d e d ty p e o f f a m ily system . M a rrie d c h i l d r e n o f t e n l i v e i n an a d j o i n i n g h o u s e , i n a house a t th e r e a r , o r a t l e a s t w i t h i n s h o r t w a lk in g d i s t a n c e . The m a r r ie d s t a t u s i s t h e a c c e p te d one among th e . M exicans o f Pomona (se e T able 5)* Of th e w r i t e r * s e n t i r e sam ple o n ly 14, o r 9-5 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l were s i n g l e (n e v e r m a r r i e d ) . The t o t a l number o f d i v o r c e d and s e p a r a t e d (15) s l i g h t l y e x ceed s t h e number o f s i n g l e (1 4 ). I t i s a ls o v e ry l i k e l y t h a t some p e rs o n s l i s t e d as s i n g l e , widowed, s e p a r a t e d o r m a r r ie d h a d a t some tim e a c t u a l l y b een d i v o r c e d . Of th e w r i t e r ' s sam ple o f 56 m a r r ie d m ales, 6, o r 1 0 .7 pep c e n t w ere m a r r ie d to A nglos. There w ere no m a r r ia g e s to members o f any o t h e r d i f f e r e n t e th n ic g ro u p . Norman D. Humphrey, "Changing S t r u c t u r e o f th e D e t r o i t M exican F am ily; an In d ex o f A c c u l t u r a t i o n , " American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, IX (December, 1941), 622, 107 TABLE 5 MARITAL STATUS OP RESPONDENTS M ales Fem ales M a r i ta l S t a tu s Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t T o t a l P e r c e n t M arried 56 8 6 .2 . 5 2 6 3 . 4 108 7 3 -5 S in g le 6 9 . 2 8 9 - 8 14 9 -5 D iv o rced - - 0 .0 8 9 . 8 8 5 - 4 S e p a ra te d 1 1 .5 6 7*3 r 4 . 8 Widowed 2 3 .1 8 9 - 8 10 6 . 8 T o t a l 65 1 0 0 . 0 82 1 0 0 .1 147 1 0 0 .0 108 F i r s t and se c o n d g e n e r a t i o n s have been s t r o n g l y endogam ous. T hree members o f t h e sam ple e a c h had an Anglo p a r e n t . A nother i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t i s t h a t a l l " S p a n i s h ” ( i . e . , H isp an o s and C a l i f o r n i a n s ) i n t h e sam ple w ere m a r r i e d e i t h e r t o f i r s t , s e c o n d , o r t h i r d g e n e r a t i o n "M exicans" o r to A n glo s, none to o t h e r " S p a n i s h ." I n m ost h o u s e h o ld s s t u d i e d by th e w r i t e r t h e r e were a t l e a s t two g e n e r a t i o n s , and t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s were n o t uncommon, w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y w ide ra n g e o f a g e s . Ages o f r e s p o n d e n t s v a r i e d from p e r s o n s i n t h e i r e a r l y t w e n t i e s t o p e r s o n s i n t h e i r m id d le e i g h t i e s (s e e T ab le 6 ) . The m edian age o f t h e M exican b o rn g e n e r a t i o n i s 55*3> o f th e se c o n d g e n e r a t i o n a d u l t s , 3^*1* F o r a l l A m e ric an -b o rn a d u l t s t h e m edian age i s 3 ^ .2 . The Im m ig ran t g e n e r a t i o n , I n s u f f i c i e n t l y r e p l e n i s h e d by r e c e n t a r r i v a l s i s r a p i d l y becom ing an aged p o p u l a t i o n , w h e rea s t h e A m erican -b o rn g e n e r a t i o n s more c l o s e l y re s e m b le th e r e s t o f th e Anglo a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n . The f i g u r e s on t h e M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n can be com pared w i t h t h o s e o f th e t o t a l a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n o f Pomona, a s e s t i m a t e d by t h e w r i t e r from t h e i 960 c e n s u s d a t a : f o r m a le s t h e m edian age o f a d u l t s was 3 6 .8 , f o r f e m a le s 3 5 for a l l a d u l t s TABLE 6 GENERATION AND AGE OF RESPONDENTS Age G e n era tio n 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 T o ta l Median F i r s t » 2 7 12 8 2 1 32 55-3 Second 24 41 11 5 3 2 — 86 34.1 T h ird 5 1 1 1 — - - _ _ 8 27-5 F o u rth 2 1 1 1 - - — - - 5 34.5 C a li f o r n ia n s 2 3 3 2 — - - - - 10 39.5 H ispanos 2 2 1 — 1 6 34.5 T o ta l 35 50 24 21 12 4 1 1 4 7 . 37-2 c h i sq u a re = 58 .4 3 p = < .01 C = .533 F am ilism and an o r i e n t a t i o n to e x te n d e d k i n s h i p r e l a t i o n s have g e n e r a l l y been c o n s i d e r e d a s o b s t a c l e s to upward m o b i l i t y . However, h o u s e h o ld s w i t h more th a n two g e n e r a t i o n s o r w ith c o l l a t e r a l r e l a t i o n s a r e n e i t h e r com mon i n Pomona, n o r d oes th e p r e s e n c e o f n o n - n u c l e a r f a m i ly members i n a h o u s e h o ld b e a r any a p p r e c i a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t o t a l f a m i ly s i z e . Only 18 f a m i l i e s o r 1 2 .2 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l have any members o t h e r th a n a g iv e n s e t o f p a r e n t s and t h e i r o f f s p r i n g . The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f s c h o o l , a c c u l t u r a t i o n , and upw ard m o b i l i t y (o r l a c k o f i t ) a r e p a t e n t . C h a ra c t e r i s t i c a l l y , l a c k o f s c h o o l in g h as a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d th e M e x ica n s' c h a n c e s o f a c c u l t u r a t i n g and becoming u p w a rd ly m o b ile . Broom and Shevky n o t e t h a t : R e t a r d a t i o n i n t u r n , im posed an e d u c a t i o n a l c e i l i n g on t h e g ro u p w i t h th e v i c i o u s c i r c l e c o n s e q u e n c e s ; l i m i t e d s c h o o lin g r e t a r d e d a c c u l t u r a t i o n , s e t a r b i t r a r y jo b c e i l i n g s , 2?U. S. B ureau o f th e C ensus, U. S. C e n su ses o f P o p u l a t i o n and H o u sin g : I9 6 0 . Census T r a c t s , Los A n g e le s - Long B each, C a l i f . S ta n d a rd M e t r o p o l i t a n S t a t i s t i c a l Area (W ash in g to n , D. C . : Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 6 2 ), p p . 1 04-105. Ill c o n s t r i c t e d job o p p o r t u n i t i e s , and th e g ro u p became sy m b o liz ed by I t s s t e r e o t y p e .28 The s e r i o u s p ro b lem s o f t h e second and t h i r d g e n e r a t i o n s have b een e a r l y d r o p o u ts and p o o r s c h o o l a t t e n d a n c e , b e c a u se o f fo rm e r l a x e n fo rc e m e n t o f sc h o o l a tt e n d a n c e law s and o f many p a r e n t s 1 f a i l u r e t o com pre hend th e v a lu e o f e d u c a ti o n b e c a u se o f t h e i r own l i m i t e d e x p o su re t o I t . S e g r e g a te d s c h o o ls d id n o t h e l p s o lv e any o f t h e s e p ro b le m s. T ab le 7 i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n Pomona s c h o o lin g i s I n v e r s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h age, t h e r e b e in g c o n s i s t e n t l y h ig h m edian y e a r s o f s c h o o l in g f o r th e y o u n g e r age g ro u p s . T h is a s s o c i a t i o n h o ld s f o r b o th m ales and f e m a le s . While 65*7 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s aged 20 -2 9 were h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s , o n l y 2 4 .0 p e r c e n t o f th o s e 30-39> 1 2 .5 p e r c e n t o f th o s e 4 0 -4 9 and 1 4 .3 o f t h o s e 50-59 were h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s . T here were no h ig h sc h o o l g r a d u a t e s among any o f t h e 17 p e r s o n s aged 60 o r o v e r . On th e o t h e r hand, i n t h e 60 o r o v e r g ro u p 8 8 .2 p e r c e n t had 8 o r fe w e r y e a r s o f s c h o o l i n g , w h ile i n th e 20-29 age g ro up o n l y 2 .9 p e r c e n t had 8 o r few er y e a r s pQ L eo n ard Broom and E s h r e f Shevky, "M exicans i n th e U n ited S t a t e s , " S o c io lo g y and S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , XXXVI ( J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 1 9 5 2 ), 153* I TABLE 7 AGE AND SCHOOLING OF RESPONDENTS 0-8 9-11 12 o r More T o ta l Num Per Num P er Num Per Num Per Age b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t Median 20-29 1 2 .9 11 3 1 .4 23 6 5 .7 35 1 0 0 .0 1 1 .8 30-39 14 2 8 .0 24 4 8 .0 12 2 4 .0 50 1 0 0 .0 9 .9 40-49 12 5 0 .0 9 37-5 3 12 .5 24 1 0 0 .0 8.5 50-59 17 8 1 .0 1 4 .8 3 1 4 .3 21 100.1 4 .8 60-89 15 8 8 .2 2 1 1 .8 — — — — 17 1 0 0 .0 2 .8 T o ta l 59 4 0 .1 47 3 2 .0 41 2 7 .9 147 10 0 .0 9 .4 Males 24 3 6 .9 22 3 3 .8 19 2 9 .2 65 9 9 .9 9-5 Females 35 4 2 .7 25 30.5 22 2 6 .8 82 100 .0 9-2 c h i sq u are = 66.51 1 1 A .01 c = • 558 112 113 o f s c h o o l in g . T able 8 shows an i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een g e n e r a t i o n and s c h o o lin g . L a r g e ly b e c a u se o l d e r p e rs o n s a re c o n c e n tr a te d i n th e e a r l i e r g e n e r a t i o n s t h e r e i s an i n v e r s e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een g e n e r a t i o n and s c h o o l in g ( s e e Table 5 )- These f i g u r e s can be compared w i t h th o s e o f th e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f Pomona o v e r 25 f o r i 9 6 0 , where 4 7 -8 p e r c e n t had 8 o r few er y e a r s o f s c h o o l i n g , 2 4 .2 p e r c e n t had 9 t o 11 y e a r s , and 2 8 .0 p e r c e n t w ere h ig h sc h o o l g r a d u a t e s . T h e m edian number o f y e a r s c o m p lete d was 8 . 7 , a s compared w ith 9-4 f o r a l l M exican a d u l t s . The l i n g u i s t i c p a r t o f th e M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s1 c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e o f t e n s u r v i v e s , at l e a s t i n th e o r a l form , som etim es to th e e x c l u s i o n o f E n g l i s h . 30 a s l a t e as 1950 E n g li s h was th e m oth er ton g u e o f o n ly 7 p e r c e n t o f 6 9 9 ,2 2 0 M exicans o f f o r e i g n o r mixed p a r e n t a g e . ^ Language i s a l s o u n i v e r s a l l y one o f t h e sym bols o f s o c i a l and 29u. S. B ureau o f th e Census, o p . c i t . , pp. 104- 1 0 5 . 3 °W illiam L. A ltu s , "The M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n ,1 1 J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P sy c h o lo g y , XXIX (May, 1 9 ^ 9 ), 213. 31 Burma, op. c i t . , p . 73* TABLE 8 GENERATION AND SCHOOLING OF RESPONDENTS G e n e ra tio n Y ears o f S ch ooling T o ta l Median 0- 8 9 -12 12 o r More Num- b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t F i r s t 29 90 .6 1 3 .1 2 6-3 32 1 00 .0 3.5 Second 24 27-9 37 4 3 .0 25 2 9 .0 86 99-9 1 0 .0 L a te r 6 20.7 9 3 1 .0 14 4 8 .3 29 10 0 .0 1 1 .3 T o ta l 59 40.1 47 3 2 .0 41 2 8 .0 147 100.1 9-4 c h i square = 47.26 P = < • 01 C = .493 tr ii 115 c u l t u r a l s t a t u s . The w id e s p r e a d u se o f b o th la n g u a g e s ( o f t e n i n th e sam e. s e n t e n c e ) among Pom ona's M exican- A m ericans w ould a p p e a r t o con note a r a p i d l y a c c u l t u r a t i n g e t h n i c g ro u p . Of a l l i n t e r v i e w s 7 0 .7 p e r c e n t were c o n d u c te d i n E n g l i s h and 2 9 .3 p e r c e n t i n S p a n ish . Male and fe m a le p r o p o r t i o n s (3 2 .3 and 2 6 .8 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y i n S p a n is h ) w ere n o t n o t i c e a b l y d i f f e r e n t . Of A m erican- b o rn r e s p o n d e n t s , 8 6 .1 p e r c e n t were i n t e r v i e w e d in E n g l i s h , b u t o n l y 1 5 .6 p e r c e n t o f th e im m ig ra n ts . Of th o s e i n t e r v i e w e d i n - S p a n i s h , 37-2 p e r c e n t were A m erican- b o rn (se e T ab le 9)- Of th o s e r e s p o n d e n ts w ith a t l e a s t a h ig h sc h o o l e d u c a ti o n 95*1 p e r c e n t w ere i n te r v ie w e d i n E n g li s h ; o f th o s e w ith 8 o r few er y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g 6 4 .4 p e r c e n t w ere i n t e r v i e w e d i n S p a n is h (see T a b le 1 0 ) . Of r e s p o n d e n ts i n t h e i r t w e n t i e s , 97*1 p e r c e n t w ere i n te r v ie w e d in E n g l i s h , and o f th o s e i n t h e i r t h i r t i e s , 8 6 .0 p e r c e n t. More th a n 90 p e r c e n t o f a l l th o s e 60 o r o v e r w ere i n t e r view ed i n S p a n is h (se e T ab le 1 1 ). The w r i t e r s e c u r e d d a ta from r e s p o n d e n ts c o n c e rn in g t h e i r u se o f S p a n is h -la n g u a g e m edia o f com m unication, h y p o t h e s i z i n g t h a t th o s e i n th e h a b i t o f l i s t e n i n g to 116 TABLE 9 GENERATION AND LANGUAGE PREFERENCE OF RESPONDENTS ___________ Language__________ E n g lis h S p a n ish T o ta l Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- P er G e n e r a tio n b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t F i r s t 5 1 5 -6 27 8 4 .4 . 32 1 0 0 .0 Second 73 8 4 .9 13 15-1 86 1 0 0 .0 L a t e r 26 8 9 -7 3 1 0 .3 29 100 .1 T o ta l 104 7 0 .7 43 29-3 147 1 0 0 .0 c h i sq u a re = 6 0 .0 4 p = < . 0 1 C = .5 3 9 117 TABLE 10 SCHOOLING AND LANGUAGE PREFERENCE OF RESPONDENTS Y e a rs o f S c h o o lin g Languag S p a n is h ;e E n g l i s h T o ta l Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t 0 - 8 38 6 4 .4 21 3 5 .6 59 1 0 0 .0 9 - H 3 6 .4 44 9 3 .6 47 1 0 0 .0 12 o r More 2 4 .9 39 9 5-1 41 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 43 2 9 -3 104 7 0 .7 147 1 0 0 .0 Median 4 . 0 - - 1 0 .6 9 -4 c h i s q u a r e = 5 8 .6 3 p = < . 01 C = . 534 118 TABLE 11 AGE AND LANGUAGE PREFERENCE OF RESPONDENTS ___________ Language______________ S p a n ish E n g lis h T o ta l Num- Per Num- P er Num- P e r Age b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t 20-29 1 2 .9 34 97*1 35 1 0 0 .0 30-39 7 1 4 .0 43 8 6 .0 50 100. 0 40-49 8 33*3 16 6 6 .7 24 1 0 0 .0 50-59 13 6 1 .9 8 38.1 21 1 0 0 .0 60-69 11 91*7 1 8 .3 12 1 0 0 .0 70-79 2 5 0 .0 2 5 0 .0 4 1 0 0 .0 80-89 1 100.0 •— — 1 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 43 2 9 .3 104 7 0 .7 147 1 0 0 .0 Median 53-7 — 33-7 — 37-2 c h i sq u are = 51*46 p = < . 0 1 C = -509 119 S p a n ish -la n g u a g e t e l e v i s i o n o r r a d io p ro g ram s, o r who a t t e n d S p a n ish -la n g u a g e m ovies, would be th e l e s s a c c u l- t u r a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s and hence l e s s l i k e l y to be upw ardly m o b ile . A n e g l i g i b l e number o f re s p o n d e n ts (2) s u b s c r ib e d to S p a n is h -la n g u a g e new sp ap ers. Only 12, o r 8 .2 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d r e a d in g S p a n is h -la n g u a g e m ag azin es. The w r i t e r d id n o t a tte m p t to t e s t any h y p o th e s e s w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e s e two m edia. An a p p r e c i a b ly l a r g e r number o f re s p o n d e n ts r e p o r t e d l i s t e n i n g to S p a n is h -la n g u a g e r a d i o o r t e l e v i s i o n program s (4 2 .9 and 57-1 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . Only 3 2 .7 p e r c e n t o f a l l re s p o n d e n ts r e p o r t e d a tte n d a n c e a t l e a s t once a y e a r a t S p a n is h -la n g u a g e m ovies, d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t a downtown Pomona movie house showed such f i lm s e v ery Tuesday n i g h t d u r in g th e p e r i o d o f th e w r i t e r ' s r e s e a r c h , and th e y a re shown In t h e a t e r s i n o t h e r n e a rb y com m unities as w e ll. I t i s a r e a s o n a b le h y p o th e s is t h a t th e use o f S p a n ish i n th e home would be n e g a t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith h ig h s t a t u s and upward m o b i l i t y . Of a l l re s p o n d e n ts 7.6*2 p e r c e n t spoke S p a n ish to t h e i r p a r e n t s , 65*7 p e r c e n t spoke S p a n ish o r b o th la n g u a g e s t o t h e i r husbands o r w iv e s, 120 53*6 p e r c e n t spoke S p a n ish o r b o th la n g u a g e s to t h e i r c h i l d r e n , and th e c h i l d r e n o f o n ly 3 4 .7 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s spoke S p a n ish o r b o th la n g u a g e s t o them. T hus, w h ile m ost r e s p o n d e n ts spoke S p a n is h to t h e i r p a r e n t s , t h e i r sp o u s e s and c h i l d r e n spoke to them m o s tly i n E n g l i s h . Economic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s U ndo ubtedly t h e f a c t o r m ost c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to th e g e n e r a l l y low s o c i a l s t a t u s o f th e Mexican i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s h a s been h i s low o c c u p a ti o n a l s t a t u s and h i s p o v e r t y . " In th e m e a su ra b le i n d i c e s o f w e l f a r e , M exicans i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s r a n k c l o s e to th e lo w e s t i n com p ariso n w i t h o t h e r m i n o r i t y g r o u p s . "32 McDonagh and R ic h a rd s s t a t e t h a t " h i s econom ic s t a t u s i s p r o b a b l y i n t h e lo w e st q u a r - t i l e i n te rm s o f pay r a t e s and th e low p e r c e n ta g e o f 33 M exicans i n s k i l l e d j o b s and t h e p r o f e s s i o n s . " H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e M e x ica n ’ s p a t t e r n o f employment 32Marden, op. c i t ., p. 143- 33 Edward C. McDonagh and Eugene S. R ic h a r d s , E th n ic R e l a t i o n s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s (New York: A p p le to n -C e n tu ry C r o f t s , 1 9 5 3 ); P* 199* 121 has l i m i t e d h i s c h a n c e s f o r economic advance and s o c i a l m o b i l i t y . G e n e r a ll y s p e a k in g , as McW illiams n o t e s : Only a p a r t i c u l a r c l a s s o f e m p lo y ers has em ployed Mexican l a b o r i n t h e S o u th w e st; l a r g e - s c a l e i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s ; r a i l r o a d s ; s m e l t e r s ; c o p p e r m in es; s u g a r b e e t r e f i n e r i e s ; f a r m - f a c t o r i e s ; l a r g e f r u i t and v e g e t a b l e e x c h a n g e s. . . . I f a c o n c e rn em ploys M exicans, i t w i l l u s u a l l y be found t h a t th e y d om in ate o r a r e u sed e x c l u s i v e l y In s p e c i f i c ty p e s o f employment r a t h e r th a n b e in g s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h th e p l a n t . 3^ Jo b s o f t e n s t i l l t e n d to be in u n d e s i r a b l e l o c a t i o n s , d e a d -e n d ty p e s and s e a s o n a l o r c a s u a l . A decade ago Deal sum m arized th e Pomona V a lle y s i t u a t i o n as one i n w hich M exican i n d u s t r i a l w o rk e rs were s t i l l p r e d o m in a n tly em ployed In th e ’’h a r d , h o t , and h e a v y ” j o b s . 35 a v i s i t to any l o c a l i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t o r l a r g e - s c a l e c o n s t r u c t i o n job w i l l q u i c k l y v e r i f y t h i s I m p r e s s io n . In th e l a t e 1 9 2 0 's th e seco n d g e n e r a t i o n M exicans had begun t o se e k I n t e g r a t i o n I n t o American s o c i e t y and were c h a n g in g to a p ro p e r ty -o w n in g and b u s i n e s s l e v e l , 36 b u t t h e d e p r e s s i o n u n d o u b te d ly re d u c e d s o c i a l - — - — — J M cW illiam s, op. c i t . , p. 215- 3 5 Q erald V. D e al, "A S tud y o f th e V o c a tio n a l Oppor t u n i t i e s i n Pomona V a lle y f o r M ex ica n -A m erica n s” (unpub l i s h e d M a s t e r 's t h e s i s , C larem ont G ra d u a te S c h o o l, 1951)* p. 56. 36;Emory s . B ogard u s, The M exican in t h e U n ited S t a t e s (Los A n g e le s: U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 2 3 ), p. 51* m o b i l i t y . 37 Also many f i r s t and second g e n e r a t i o n w o rk e rs r e t u r n e d t o Mexico d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . I t may be assumed t h a t t h e b e t t e r t r a i n e d and b e t t e r a d j u s t e d p e rs o n s te n d e d t o re m a in i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . They began to. p r o f i t from t h e r e a l c h an g es coming d u rin g and a f t e r W orld War I I . D u rin g t h e l a s t two d e c a d e s o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r M exicans In n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l work g r e a t l y Im proved and many crop w o rk e rs fo u n d em ploym ent in d e fe n s e p l a n t s and In th e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y . But when th e war was o v e r and many o f th e I n d u s t r i e s c l o s e d , some o f th e w o rk e rs went b a ck to a g r i c u l t u r e , w here t h e y 'h a d to cope w ith p ro b le m s o f low w ages, and t h e c o m p e ti t io n w i t h b r a c e r o s and " w e tb a c k s ." In th e Pomona V a l le y , some o f t h e e f f e c t s o f th e war p e r i o d w ere p e rm a n e n t. There was an o v e r a l l I n c r e a s e in u n i o n i z a t i o n , h i g h e r wages and r e g u l a r em ploym ent. By t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 's i n d i c a t i o n s a p p e a re d t h a t M exican- Am erican w o rk e rs w ere b e in g a c c e p t e d a t h i g h e r and h i g h e r l e v e l s i n t h e s k i l l h i e r a r c h y . At t h a t tim e t h e m a jo r o b s t a c l e s i n th e way o f t h e i r f i n d i n g p e rm a n en t s u i t a b l e 37 W a lte r G o ld sc h m id t, " S o c i a l C la s s and Dynamics o f S t a t u s i n A m e ric a ," American A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , LVII (Decem ber, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 2 1 2 -1 4 . 123 employment were s a id t o be th e p r e j u d i c e s o f e m p lo y e rs who te n d e d to c o n s id e r a l l M exicans a l i k e , and th e f a c t t h a t few M exicans p o s s e s s e d th e t r a i n i n g f o r jo b s r e q u i r i n g s p e c i a l a b i l i t y o r s k i l l s . 3® The p r e s e n t w r i t e r ' s f i n d i n g s a p p ea r to i n d i c a t e c o n ti n u i n g improvement i n th e econom ic and employment s t a t u s o f M exicans and M exican -A m erican s, a t l e a s t i n th e c i t y o f Pomona. T able 12 i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e second g e n e r a t i o n h a s th e h i g h e s t a v e ra g e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s , and t h a t l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s a re b e t t p r j o f f t h a n th e im m ig ra n ts. Age i s a l s o a f a c t o r , b u t n o t as i m p o r t a n t as g e n e r a t i o n . T ab le 13 r e v e a l s t h a t t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s o f p e r s o n s u n d e r 40 i s somewhat b e t t e r th an t h a t o f th o se 40 an d o v e r. The u n d e r ly in g f a c t o r i n b o th c a s e s i s u n d o u b ted ly a c u l t u r a l one in v o lv in g s c h o o lin g and t h e u se o f th e E n g l i s h la n g u a g e . In T able 14 i s seen th e much low er a v e ra g e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s o f th o s e s p e a k in g S panish d u r in g t h e i n t e r v i e w . The w r i t e r c o u ld f i n d no r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n e t h n i c s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y . The p e r c e n t a g e o f p e rs o n s i n e a c h o c c u p a t i o n a l c a te g o r y i d e n t i f y i n g as "S panish " was w h ite c o l l a r 20 .0; s k i l l e d , 3&Deal, op. c i t ., p . 100. TABLE 12 / OCCUPATION AND GENERATION OP RESPONDENTS G enera t i o n O ccupation T o ta l R e l i e f and L ab o rers Semi - S k i l l e d S k i l l e d White C o lla r Num- Per b e r c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t F i r s t 19 5 9 .4 5 15-6 5 15 .6 3 9 .4 32 10 0 .0 Second 25 29.1 28 32 .6 19 22.1 14 1 6 .3 86 100.1 L a te r 12 4 1 .4 4 1 3 .8 10 34.5 3 10 .3 29 10 0 .0 T o ta l 56 38.1 37 2 5 .2 34 23.1 20 13.6 147 10 0.0 c h i squ are = 13. 86 P = .04 C = . 294 i — 1 ro 4 = - TABLE 13 AGE AND OCCUPATION OP RESPONDENTS Age O ccupation Sub t o t a l Housewives T o ta l R e l i e f and L ab o rers Semi- S k i l l e d S k i l l e d White C o lla r Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per cen t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t 20-39 12 23.5 16 31 .4 13 25.5 10 19 .6 51 34 4 0 .0 85 10 0.0 40-89 18 4 5 .0 10 2 5 .0 8 2 0 .0 4 1 0 .0 4o 22 35.5 62 10 0 .0 T o ta l 30 33-0 26 2 8.6 21 23.1 14 15 .4 91 56 38.1 147 100.0 c h i sq uare = 4.6 5 P = .04 C = .221 125 TABLE 14 LANGUAGE PREFERENCE AND OCCUPATION OF RESPONDENTS Language P r e f e r ence R e l i e f and L ab o rers Semi - S k i l l e d S k i l l e d White C o lla r T o ta l Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t Spanish 26 60.5 9 2 0 .9 7 1 6 .3 1 2 .3 43 10 0 .0 E n g lis h 30 2 8 .8 28 26.9 27 2 6 .0 19 18 .3 104 10 0.0 T o ta l 36 38.1 37 2 5 .2 34 23.1 20 13*6 147 10 0 .0 c h i sq u a re = 1 5 - 34 p = < .01 C = .307 126 127 1 4 .7 ; s e m i - s k i l l e d , 1 8 .9 ; l a b o r e r s , 1 2 .8 ; p e rs o n s on r e l i e f , 2 2 .2 . P e rh ap s t h e m ost s t r i k i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e p r e s e n t employment p a t t e r n as c o n t r a s t e d w ith t h a t o f two o r t h r e e d e c a d e s ago h a s b een t h e s t r o n g move away from a g r i c u l t u r a l and r a i l r o a d em ploym ent. Only some o f th e o l d e r p e o p le have rem ain ed i n a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d w ork, t h e o n ly k in d o f work w ith w hich t h e y w ere f a m i l i a r . T h is t r e n d c o u ld have been f o r e s e e n i n a s u rv e y c o n d u c te d a t Pom ona's Frem ont J u n i o r High Sch ool i n 1941, in w h ic h 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e Mexican p u p i l s ' f a t h e r s were em ployed i n a g r i c u l t u r a l work b u t o n l y 14 p e r c e n t o f th e p u p i l s i n t e n d e d to do t h e same k i n d o f w o r k .39 Two decad es l a t e r , i n th e w r i t e r ' s sam ple o n ly a h a n d f u l o f th e g a i n f u l l y em ployed w ere engaged i n a g r i c u l t u r a l work; n am ely 5 -7 p e r c e n t o f a l l w o rk e rs i n th e h o u s e h o ld s c o n t a c t e d . C o n s t r u c t i o n w ork, b e c a u se o f th e Los A ngeles a r e a ' s r a p i d l y e x p a n d in g h o u s in g , fre e w a y s and com m ercial p l a n t s , i s a m a jo r l o c a l i n d u s t r y . I t now form s one o f t h e m ost v i t a l s o u r c e s o f employment f o r Pom ona's M exicans; m ost o f th o s e i n c o n s t r u c t i o n work a r e i n th e common 39]3eard, op. c i t . , p . 57* 128 l a b o r e r c a t e g o r y . T h e re h a s b e e n , h o w e v e r, c o n s i d e r a b l e i m o b i l i t y up t h e s k i l l h i e r a r c h y , e v e n to t h e c o n t r a c t o r l e v e l . The r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll num ber o f M exicans i n c l e r i c a l p o s i t i o n s a p p e a r s t o be due n o t so much to d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a s to t h e l a c k o f p r o p e r l y q u a l i f i e d a p p l i c a n t s . ^ -0 A s m a l l num ber o f M exicans i n Pomona h av e t h e i r own b u s i n e s s e s , a n d many o f them r r e m a r g i n a l . The b u s i n e s s e s a r e o f v a r i o u s t y p e s , b u t m ost a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e c o l o n i a a r e a and c a t e r t o M ex ican c l i e n t e l e . In t h e Pomona a r e a M exican p r o f e s s i o n a l s a r e c o n s p i c u o u s b y t h e i r v i r t u a l a b s e n c e . In 1951 D eal c o u l d f in d - no S p a n is h - s u r n a m e p r o f e s s i o n a l s l i s t e d i n t h e c l a s s i f i e d s e c t i o n o f t h e t e l e p h o n e d i r e c t o r y a l t h o u g h t h e r e w e re some p e r s o n s i n t h e C h r i s t i a n m i n i s t r y and i n t h e t e a c h i n g p r o f e s s i o n a t t h a t t l m e . ^ l Ten y e a r s l a t e r , t h e same s i t u a t i o n p r e v a i l s , w i t h no Pomona M ex ica n -A m erica n e m p lo y e d i n a n y o f t h e major p r o f e s s i o n s a s v e r i f i e d by a c a r e f u l c h e c k o f t e l e p h o n e and c i t y d i r e c t o r i e s . T h e re a r e , h ow ev er, m i n i s t e r s ( a l l i n c h a r g e o f M exican c h u r c h e s ) , t e a c h e r s (some i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y M exican s c h o o l s , ^ ° D e a l, o p . c i t ., p. 86. 4 l Ibid., pp. 90-91- 129 some n o t ; none above th e h i g h sc h o o l l e v e l ) and one c h i r o p r a c t o r . In 1963 t h e r e were I n Pomona no la w y e r s , m e d ic a l d o c to r s , d e n t i s t s , p h a r m a c i s t s , o r c o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r s o f Mexican d e s c e n t . Employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r M exicans i n t h e Pomona V a lle y a re now, i n c o n t r a s t t o M cW illiam s' g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t , o f f e r e d by a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f e m p lo y ers; a t o t a l o f 105 d i f f e r e n t e m p lo y e rs f o r t h e 17^ em ployed p e r sons i n t h e sample h o u s e h o l d s . Only 22 em p loyers h i r e d more t h a n one M exlcan-A m erican p e rs o n (from th e sample h o u s e h o l d s ) . The l a r g e s t s i n g l e e m p lo y e r has seven em ployees from t h e s e h o u s e h o ld s . T a b le 15 p r e s e n t s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e w r i t e r ’ s l a b o r f o r c e by o c c u p a tio n a n d i n d u s t r y . T h is t a b l e ' c l e a r l y d e m o n s tr a te s how a g r i c u l t u r e h as d e c r e a s e d i n im p o rta n c e as an em p lo y er o f Pom ona's M exicans; o n l y 5 -7 p e r c e n t a r e so em ployed. With one e x c e p t i o n (a r a n c h hand) a l l w ere u n s k i l l e d and s e m i s k i l l e d w o rk e rs em ployed by f r u i t p a c k in g h o u s e s , and o f t h e s e o n ly o n e was a f r u i t p i c k e r . Manu f a c t u r i n g a c c o u n te d f o r 2 9 .9 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l employed p e r s o n s . The c o n s t r u c t i o n I n d u s t r y employed 4 2M cW illiams, op. c i t ., p. 215- TABLE 15 OCCUPATION AND INDUSTRY OP ALL EMPLOYED PERSONS IN SAMPLE HOUSEHOLDS O ccupation L a b o re rs S e m i- S k ille d S k i l l e d White C o l la r T o ta l . I n d u s t r y Num- Per b e r c e n t Num- P er Num- Per b e r c e n t b e r c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num- Per b e r c e n t A g r ic u ltu r e 4 4 0 .0 6 6 0 .0 10 1 0 0 .0 C o n s tr u c tio n 18 5 6 .2 5 15-6 9 28.1 - - 32 9 9 .9 Manufa c t u r i n g U t i l i t i e s , T r a n s p o r t a ti o n and Communi 13 2 5 .0 24 4 6 .2 11 21.1 4 7 .7 52 1 0 0 .0 c a t io n Trade and 3 6 0 .0 2 4 0 .0 5 10 0 .0 F i n a n c i a l S e rv ic e 2 8 .7 4 1 7 .4 5 21.7 12 5 2 .2 23 10 0 .0 E s ta b lis h m e n ts 4 1 5 .4 6 23.1 8 3 0 .8 8 3 0 .8 26 100.1 P r i v a t e S e rv ic e 5 7 1 .4 1 1 4 .3 1 1 4 .3 — 7 10 0 .0 Government 1 5 -3 7 3 6 .8 4 21.1 7 3 6 .8 19 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 50 2 8 .7 53 3 0.5 38 2 1 .8 33 19-0 174 1 0 0 .0 131 1 8 .4 p e r c e n t o f a l l em ployed p e r s o n s . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e (5 6 .2 p e r c e n t ) w ere u n s k i l l e d l a b o r e r s . O c c u p a tio n and O th er C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R e sp o n d e n ts T ab le 15 s e t s f o r t h d a ta on th e o c c u p a ti o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r a l l p e r s o n s g a i n f u l l y em ployed i n t h e h o u s e h o ld s i n w hich an i n t e r v i e w was o b t a i n e d . In r e l a t in g o c c u p a ti o n t o t h e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s in t h e re m a in d e r o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , how ever, o n ly th e o c c u p a tio n s o f th e r e s p o n d e n t s th e m s e lv e s have been c o n s i d e r e d . In c a s e s where s t a t u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d , h o u sew iv es have b een c l a s s i f i e d by th e o c c u p a ti o n o f t h e head o f th e h o u s e h o ld . The a s su m p tio n h e r e i s t h a t i n o u r s o c i e t y women's c l a s s p o s i t i o n d e r i v e s c h i e f l y from t h a t o f t h e i r h u sb a n d s o r f a t h e r s . ^3 In a s s i g n i n g s p e c i f i c o c c u p a tio n s to eac h o f t h e s i x m a jo r o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n u se d by th e U n ite d S t a t e s B ureau o f t h e Census h a s g e n e r a l l y ^ R i c h a r d C e n te r s , The P sy ch o lo g y o f S o c ia l C l a s s e s ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 ), p . 35- 132 b e e n f o l l o w e d , w i t h a few e x c e p t i o n s . ^ The m a j o r d e v i a t i o n h a s b e e n t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s " S e r v i c e W o r k e r s " a n d " P r i v a t e H o u s e h o l d W o r k e r s , " i n a s m u c h a s t h e s e do n o t c o n s t i t u t e s p e c i f i c l e v e l s i n t h e h i e r a r c h y o f s k i l l s . T he s e r v i c e an d h o u s e h o l d o c c u p a t i o n s h a v e b e e n d i s t r i b u t e d , t h e r e f o r e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l e v e l o f s k i l l i n v o l v e d . T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , j a n i t o r s a n d d i s h w a s h e r s h a v e b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s " L a b o r e r s " ; n u r s e ' s a i d e s a n d h o u s e k e e p e r s a s " S e m i - S k i l l e d " a n d v o c a t i o n a l n u r s e s and c o o k s a s " S k i l l e d . " The w r i t e r e l i m i n a t e d t h e t e c h n i c a l o c c u p a t i o n s ( h e l d by o n l y two p e r s o n s i n t h e h o u s e h o l d s c o n t a c t e d ) i n t h e B u r e a u o f t h e C e n s u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b y p l a c i n g th em w i t h t h e c l e r i c a l a n d s a l e s o c c u p a t i o n s t o w h i c h t h e y a r e m ore c l o s e l y a l l i e d . The w r i t e r ' s c a t e g o r y " L a b o r e r s " i n c l u d e s fa rm l a b o r e r s , a n d h i s c a t e g o r y " P r o p r i e t o r s a n d M a n a g e r s " i n c l u d e s f a r m e r s and f a r m m a n a g e r s . W ith t h e e x c e p t i o n s n o t e d , t h e w r i t e r ' s c a t e g o r y " S e m i - S k i l l e d " i n c l u d e s " O p e r a t i v e s " i n t h e C e n s u s B u r e a u c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , w h i l e " S k i l l e d " i s sy n o n y m o u s w i t h " C r a f t s m e n a n d F o r e m e n ." B e c a u s e o f t h e ^ T h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d Ln_. A p p e n d ix C. 133 s m a ll num bers i n v o lv e d and th e c lo s e resem b lan c e on m ost v a r i a b l e s , th e c a t e g o r i e s " C l e r i c a l and S a l e s , " " P r o p r i e t o r s and M anagers" and " P r o f e s s i o n a l s " have been com b in e d i n t o a s i n g l e "W hite C o l la r " c a te g o r y i n th e t a b l e s i n t h i s r e p o r t . Of a l l r e s p o n d e n ts o t h e r th a n h o u se w iv e s , 89*0 p e r c e n t were em ployed, w ith o n ly 6 .6 p e r c e n t unem ployed and 4 .4 p e r c e n t r e t i r e d . A ll w h ite c o l l a r w o rk e rs w ere em ployed. Unemployed p e rs o n s were m ost f r e q u e n t among th e u n s k i l l e d l a b o r e r s (1 3 -3 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l ) . The v a r i a b l e o t h e r th a n o c c u p a tio n p o s s i b l y m ost c l e a r l y r e l a t e d to s t a t u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i s e d u c a t i o n . The lo w e s t median num ber o f y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g f o r r e s p o n d e n t s i n t h e w r i t e r ' s sam ple was f o r l a b o r e r s (8.2), w h ile t h e h i g h e s t was f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s (17*0). The n e x t h i g h e s t (1 2 .2 y e a r s ) was f o r s a l e s , c l e r i c a l and t e c h n i c a l w o rk e rs . C o n tra ry t o e x p e c t a t i o n s , th e m edian number o f y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g f o r s e m i - s k i l l e d w ork ers (1 0 .5 ) was h i g h e r t h a n t h a t f o r s k i l l e d (9*7) which i n t u r n was h i g h e r t h a n t h a t f o r t h e m anagers and p r o p r i e t o r s (8.5)* When c a t e g o r i e s a re com bined as i n T able 16, th e c h i s q u a r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l . TABLE 16 SCHOOLING AND OCCUPATION OP RESPONDENTS Years o f S chooling O ccupation Sub t o t a l Housewives T o ta l R e l i e f and L ab o rer s Semi- S k i l l e d S k i l l e d White C o lla r Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t 0-8 16 48.5 7 2 1 .2 7 2 1 .2 3 9-1 33 26 44.1 59 100 .0 9-11 11 35-5 9 2 9 .0 9 2 9 .0 2 6 .5 31 16 3 4 .0 47 1 0 0.0 12 o r More 3 11.1 10 37-0 5 18.5 9 33-3 27 14 34.1 4 l 9 9 .9 T o ta l 30 3 3 .0 2 6 . 2 8 .6 21 23.1 14 15-4 91 56 38.1 147 100.1 Median 8 .2 - - 10.5 - - 9-7 — 1 2 .0 — 8.9 9-4 - - c h i sq u a re = 16.3 0 P 02 C = .390 i — 1 u> 4^ 135 The w r i t e r o b t a i n e d from e a c h r e s p o n d e n t an e s t i m a t e o f t o t a l f a m i ly incom e. A lth o u g h t h e r e i s a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een o c c u p a ti o n and f a m i l y incom e, th e l a t t e r v a r i a b l e i s a l s o d e p e n d e n t upon t h e num ber o f b r e a d w in n e r s i n t h e f a m i ly . As an i n d e x o f econom ic and s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , t o t a l f a m i ly income m ost a l s o be view ed i n r e l a t i o n to f a m i ly s i z e . The l a r g e r f a m i l i e s e n jo y th e h i g h e r in c o m e s: a m edian a n n u a l incom e o f $6 ,1 9 2 f o r f a m i l i e s w ith f i v e o r more m em bers. For f a m i l i e s w ith fe w e r th a n f i v e members th e m ed ian a n n u a l incom e d ro pped t o $5*357- However, l a r g e r f a m i l i e s have a s m a l l e r p e r c a p i t a f a m i ly incom e: $ 1 ,6 4 4 f o r f a m i l i e s w ith f o u r o r few er members, b u t o n l y $ 1 ,0 4 4 f o r f a m i l i e s w ith f i v e o r more members l i v i n g i n t h e same h o u s e h o ld . The l a r g e r t h e number o f b re a d w in n e r s t h e h i g h e r i s th e p o t e n t i a l f a m i ly incom e. For f a m i l i e s w i t h one b r e a d w in n e r t h e m edian i s $5*600; w ith two b r e a d w in n e r s $7*75°; and f o r f a m i l i e s w ith t h r e e o r more b r e a d w in n e r s $ 8 ,0 0 0 p e r y e a r . T a b le 17 shows t h a t t o t a l f a m i l y income i s a s s o c i a te d w i t h t h e o c c u p a ti o n o f th e h e a d o f th e h o u s e h o l d : th e h i g h e r r a n k i n g t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y , th e h i g h e r th e I TABLE 17 OCCUPATION OP HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD AND INCOME O ccupation T o ta l Annual Fam ily Income T o ta l Median Under $4,000 $ 4 ,0 0 0 - $5,999 $6 , 000- $7,939 $8,0 0 0 o r Over Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t R e l i e f 6 75-0 2 ■ 2 5 .0 8 1 0 0 .0 $1,667 L ab o re rs 17 37-0 15 32.6 10 21.7 4 8.7 46 1 0 0 .0 4,857 S e m i-S k ille d 4 1 1 .4 14 4 0 .0 11 31.4 6 17.1 35 9 9 .9 5 ,9 3 8 S k i l l e d 3 9 .4 11 3 4 .4 11 34.4 7 2 1 .9 32 101.1 6 ,2 5 0 White C o lla r 2 12 .5 1 6 .2 5 31.2 8 5 0 .0 16 9 9 .9 8,000 T o ta l 32 2 3 .4 43 3 1 .4 37 2 7 .0 25 i b . 2 137 10 0.0 $5,704 c h i sq uare = 32..91 F 1 = < .01 C = .440 0 0 cr\ 137 incom e; $ 1 ,6 6 7 f o r h e a d s o f h o u s e h o ld on r e l i e f , $ 4 ,8 5 7 f o r l a b o r e r s , $5 ;9 3 8 f o r s e m i - s k i l l e d w o r k e r s , $6 ,2 5 0 f o r s k i l l e d w o rk e r s , and $ 8 ,0 0 0 f o r w h ite c o l l a r w o r k e r s . The same r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s betw een o c c u p a ti o n and p e r c a p i t a f a m i l y incom e, e x c e p t t h a t f a m i l i e s w ith a s k i l l e d w o rk e r a s t h e h e ad o f t h e h o u s e h o ld had a lo w e r p e r c a p i t a income ($1 , 5 3 8 ) th a n t h e f a m i l i e s w ith a s e m i - s k i l l e d w o rk e r a t th e h e a d o f th e h o u s e h o ld ( $ 1 ,7 0 8 ) . T h is d i s c r e p a n c y i s e x p l a i n e d by th e c o m p a r a tiv e ly l a r g e r f a m i l i e s o f th e s k i l l e d w o rk e rs . T o ta l f a m i ly income i s a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s i n d i c a t i v e o f c u l t u r a l p o s i t i o n . The se co n d g e n e r a t i o n h as t h e h i g h e s t m edian incom e $ 6 ,0 9 4 , t h e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n th e l o w e s t , $ 4 ,0 0 0 , a s shown i n T a b le 18. T a b le 19 d e m o n s tr a te s t h a t th e y o u n g e r th e age c a t e g o r y , t h e h i g h e r i s t h e m edian incom e, e x c e p t f o r age 80- 8 9 * w hich c o n t a i n s o n ly one c a s e . T a b le 20 i n d i c a t e s t h a t r e s p o n d e n t s s p e a k in g S p a n ish d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w had a m edian incom e o f $4,667* th o s e s p e a k in g E n g l i s h , o f $ 6 ,0 6 8 . B ecause s c h o o l in g and o c c u p a ti o n a r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r and t h e l a t t e r w i t h incom e, i t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t s c h o o l in g and incom e would be a s s o c i a t e d as TABLE 18 GENERATION AND INCOME OP RESPONDENTS T o ta l Annual Fam ily Income Under $4,000 $ 4,00 0- _ $5,999 _ _ $6 , 000- $7,999 $8,000 o r Over T o ta l Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- P er Num- Per G e n e ra tio n b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t Median F i r s t 15 5 0 .0 7 23.3 4 1 3 .3 4 1 3 .3 30 9 9 .9 $4,000 Second 14 17*3 25 30 .9 22 27 .2 20 24.7 81 100.1 6,094 L a te r 3 1 1 .5 11 4 2 .3 11 4 2 .3 1 3 .8 26 99-9 5 ,8 0 0 T o ta l 32 2 3 .4 43 3 1 .4 37 27 .0 25 1 8 .2 137 10 0 .0 $5,704 c h i sq u a re 1 1 ro U J • 05 P = < . 01 C = .379 O O co TABLE 19 AGE AND INCOME OF RESPONDENTS Age T o ta l Annual Fam ily Income T o ta l Median Under $4,000 $4,000- $5,999 $6 , 000- .. $7., 999 . $8,000 o r Over Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t 20-29 3 9.1 11 33-3 13 39.4 6 1 8 .2 33 100.0 $6,2 5 0 30-39 5 1 0.4 17 35-4 13 2 7 .1 13 27 . I 48 100.0 6,1 8 2 40-49 3 13 .6 11 5 0 .0 6 27-3 2 9 .1 22 100.0 5,571 50-59 12 63-2 1 5 .3 5 26 .3 1 5 -3 19 100.1 3,376 60-69 5 5 0 .0 2 2 0.0 — 3 3 0 .0 10 100.0 3,000 70-79 4 100 .0 4 10 0 .0 2,667 80-89 — - - 1 100.0 1 10 0.0 4 ,5 0 0 T o ta l 32 2 3 .4 43 3 1 .4 37 2 7 .0 25 1 8 .2 137 100.0 5,704 c h i sq u a re = 43.45 p - < .01 c = .491 139 TABLE 20 LANGUAGE PREFERENCE AND INCOME OF RESPONDENTS Language T o ta l Annual Fam ily Income T o ta l Median Under $4,000 ■ $ 4,0 00- $5,999 $6 , 000- $7,999 $8,000 o r Over Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c en t Num- Per b e r cen t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t S panish 18 4 5 .0 10 2 5 .0 7 17-5 5 12.5 40 10 0.0 $4,667 E n g lis h 14 1 4 .4 33 34 .0 30 30.9 20 20.6 97 99 .9 6,06 8 T o ta l 32 23 .4 43 31.4 37 27.0 25 1 8 .2 137 10 0.0 5,70 4 c h i square = 15- 14 P = < .01 C = .315 H O 141 shown i n T ab le 21. R e sp o n d e n ts w ith 8 o r fe w e r y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g had a m edian income o f $4,357* th o s e w ith 9 to 11 y e a r s , $5 .,5 8 3 * and th o s e w ith a t l e a s t 1 2 , $6 , 3 7 5 . V o lu n ta r y A s s o c ia t io n s The commonest ty p e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a f f i l i a t i o n among th e M exicans o f Pomona i s w ith a c h u rc h , w hich was d e f i n e d by th e w r i t e r as e i t h e r c h u rc h m em bership o r c u s tom ary a tte n d a n c e a t a p a r t i c u l a r c h u rc h . Broom and Shevky a s s e r t t h a t " th e c h u rc h i s th e p r i n c i p a l agency o f c u l t u r a l c o n s e r v a t i o n f o r M exicans i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s and r e i n f o r c e s th e s e p a r a t e n e s s o f t h e g r o u p . "^5 Pomona g e n e r a l l y f o llo w s th e p a t t e r n o f s e g r e g a t e d c h u rc h e s , a lth o u g h i t c a n n o t be d e n ie d t h a t a c e r t a i n amount o f th e s e g r e g a t i o n i s v o l u n t a r y . I t can h a r d l y be s a i d t h a t s e g r e g a t i o n e x i s t s a t a l l i n Pom ona's C a th o lic c h u rc h e s , b u t o f th e P r o t e s t a n t s i n th e sam ple (1 8 ), c o n s t i t u t i n g 1 2 .2 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l , o n ly two b e lo n g e d t o an Anglo c h u rc h . In Pomona th e v a s t m a j o r i t y a t t e n d C a th o l i c c h u rc h e s , e s p e c i a l l y th e S p a n is h - la n g u a g e S acred 4s -'Broom and Shevky, l o c . c i t . , p . 157* TABLE 21 SCHOOLING AND INCOME OP RESPONDENTS Years of Schooling Total Annual Family Income Total Median Under $4,000 $4,000- &5 j .999 _ $6,000- $7,999 $8,000 or Over Num ber Per cent Num ber Per cent Num- Per ber cent Num ber Per cent Num ber Per cent 0-8 20 36.4 16 29.1 10 18.2 9 16.4 55 100.1 $4,357 9-11 9 20.9 15 34.8 11 25.6 8 18.6 43 99-9 5,583 12 or More 3 7-7 12 30.8 16 41.0 8 20.5 39 100.0 6,375 Total 32 23-4 43 31.4 37 27.0 25 18.2 137 100.0 5,704 chi square = 12. 91 P .04 C = .294 142 143 H e art C a th o lic Church l o c a t e d i n t h e Mexican d i s t r i c t . More th a n h a l f o f th e w r i t e r ’ s sam ple (33 men and 53 women) a t t e n d S a c re d H e a rt. Most o f th e r e s t o f th e C a t h o l i c s , 8 men and 15 women, a t t e n d S t. J o s e p h 's C a th o lic Church, th e l a r g e s t p a r i s h i n Pomona, and w hich i s o verw h elm in g ly Anglo i n m em bership. R esp on dents r e p o r t e d b e lo n g in g to a t o t a l o f 14 d i f f e r e n t c lu b s o r g ro u p s (7 C a th o lic and 7 P r o t e s t a n t ) a t t h e i r c h u rc h . Pom ona's Mexican workingmen have b een i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a wide v a r i e t y o f l a b o r u n io n l o c a l s o f Pomona and n e a rb y c i t i e s . In f a c t , n e x t to c h u rc h m em bership, a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h l a b o r u n io n s was th e m ost common k in d among th e w r i t e r ' s r e s p o n d e n t s : 32 men and 1 woman. R e sp o n d en ts b e lo n g e d t o 21 l o c a l s o f 13 d i f f e r e n t t r a d e u n io n s . A t o t a l o f 23 m em berships were h e ld i n 7 d i f f e r e n t f r a t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Of t h e s e , o n ly t h r e e were non- M exican: two r e s p o n d e n ts b e lo n g e d to th e E lk s , one to th e R o s ic r u c l a n o r d e r , and one b e lo n g e d to th e K nig h ts o f Columbus. . On. t h e oJther.-hand, o n ly one re s p o n d e n t r e p o r t e d m em bership i n any M exlcan-A m erican c i v i c o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n t h i s c a s e th e League o f U n ite d L a t i n American C i t i z e n s . 144 Of t h e w r i t e r ' s sam ple, 10 men and 24 women r e p o r t e d b e lo n g in g to t h e P a r e n t- T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n a t t h e s c h o o ls a t t e n d e d by t h e i r c h i l d r e n . In a d d i t i o n , 12 r e s p o n d e n ts r e p o r t e d one m em bership i n e a c h o f 12 d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s w hich can be b r o a d l y d e f i n e d a s c i v i c . Only 8 r e s p o n d e n ts r e p o r t e d b e lo n g in g to an o r g a n i z a t i o n r e l a t e d t o t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n o r o c c u p a ti o n ( o t h e r th a n a l a b o r u n i o n ) . These 8 r e s p o n d e n ts h e ld 11 m em berships I n su ch o r g a n i z a t i o n s . O th e r th a n c h u rc h , c i v i c , u n io n and o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , members o f t h e w r i t e r ' s sample b e lo n g e d to few o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The o n l y v e t e r a n s ' o r g a n i z a t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d was t h e Am erican L e g io n , w ith 3 members. T here were two M exican-A m erican s o c i a l c l u b s , e a c h w ith one member from t h e sam ple. I t may be c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e M exicans In t h e w r i t e r ' s sam ple w ere n o t c o n s p ic u o u s i n Anglo o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n w hich new t e c h n i q u e s f o r m o b i l i t y and f u r t h e r a c c u l t u r a t i o n c o u ld be a c q u i r e d . More p e r s o n s b e lo n g e d t o a c h u rc h th a n t o any o t h e r ty p e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n : 87*1 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s . Of th e s e 7 8 .1 p e r c e n t a t t e n d e d M exican c h u rc h e s and 2 1 .9 a t t e n d e d Anglo c h u rc h e s . The n e x t m ost common ty p e o f m em bership was i n c i v i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s : 29.2 p e r cen t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s . Of t h e s e , however, 71*5 p er c e n t b e lo n g e d to t h e i r l o c a l P a r e n t - T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n . O f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s 2 2 .4 p e r c e n t belonged t o l a b o r u n i o n s . To f r a t e r n a l g ro u p s b e lo n g e d 1 2 .2 p e r c e n t , o f whom 77 .8 p e r c e n t b e lo n g e d t o M exican lo d g e s , and t o church g ro u p s , 1 0 .9 p e r c e n t , o f whom 7 5 -0 p e r c e n t b e lo n g e d t o Mexican c h u rc h g r o u p s . The two l e a s t i m p o r t a n t c a t e g o r i e s were th o s e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l , b u s i n e s s and e m p lo y e e s' a s s o c i a t i o n s (5 -4 p e r c e n t ) an d s o c i a l c l u b s , o n ly 1 . 4 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s . I n th e a b se n c e o f e x te n s iv e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a f f i l i a t i o n s i t a p p e a r s t h a t s o c i a l c o n ta c t s an d i n t e r a c t i o n a r e f a i r l y w e l l l i m i t e d t o th e jo b , the c h u r c h , t h e n e ig h b o r hood, and th e k i n s h i p g r o u p . Of th e t o t a l sam ple only 7*5 p e r c e n t w ere a f f i l i a t e d w i t h no o r g a n i z a t i o n w h a ts o e v e r , w h ile f o r 33-3 p e r c e n t o f th e sample t h e only m em bership r e p o r t e d was c h u rc h m em bership and f o r a n o th e r 1 . 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e sam ple o n ly a u n io n m em bership. An a d d i t i o n a l 1 2 . 2 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d b o t h c h u rc h and u n i o n m em bership (bo th e s s e n t i a l l y a s c r i b e d s t a t u s e s ) , but no. o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a f f i l i a t i o n s . Only 67 r e s p o n d e n ts (27 men and 4 0 women), 146 c o n s t i t u t i n g 4 5 .6 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l w ere a f f i l i a t e d w i t h one o r more o r g a n i z a t i o n s , o t h e r t h a n a c h u rc h o r a l a b o r u n io n . L e a d e r s h ip J u d g in g from th e m eager r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f M exican- A m ericans i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i t would a p p e a r t h a t o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p r a c t i c e i n l e a d e r s h i p a r e m in im a l. Tuck n o t e d t h a t i n San B e r n a r d in o " t h e f i v e o r s i x acknow ledged l e a d e r s h o ld t h e i r p o s i t i o n by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e a b l e t o work i n a w id e r , b o l d e r f a s h i o n f o r l a r a z a ." T h is i s t h e g ro u p w hich h a s a s s i m i l a t e d Am erican ways and w h ic h h a s d e v e lo p e d e x t e n s i v e Anglo c o n t a c t s . ^6 In an a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i f y th e l e a d e r s o f Pom ona's M exican p o p u l a t i o n , e a c h member o f th e w r i t e r ' s sam ple was a sk e d th e q u e s t i o n , "Who w ould you sa y a re th e m ost im p o r t a n t p e r s o n s o f M exican o r i g i n h e r e i n Pomona?" A t o t a l o f 27 d i f f e r e n t " i m p o r t a n t p e o p le " w ere named; o n ly one d id n o t have a w h ite c o l l a r o c c u p a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , ^ R u t h D. Tuck, Not w i t h th e F i s t (New Y ork; H ar- c o u r t , B race and C o ., 1 9 4 6 ), pp . 1 3 7 -1 3 8 . r e s p o n d e n ts named 8 f a m i l i e s o r lin e a g e s ( i . e . , f a m ily nam es) as b e in g among th e " im p o rta n t p e o p l e ." In a l l c a s e s th e s e f a m i l i e s had been among th e f i r s t p e o p le o f Mexican d e s c e n t to s e t t l e in th e Pomona V a lle y . Only 13 p e rs o n s were m en tio n ed more th a n o nce. The l a t t e r i n c lu d e d 4 s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , 3 b u sin e ssm e n , and 1 eac h o f th e f o l lo w in g : c h i r o p r a c t o r , p o l i c e o f f i c e r , p u b l i s h e r , m i n i s t e r , m i l l w r i g h t and r e a l e s t a t e b r o k e r . The o c cu p a t i o n s o f p e r s o n s m en tio n ed o n ly once w e re: 4 h o u se w iv es, 3 p o l i c e o f f i c e r s and 1 each o f th e f o llo w in g o c c u p a ti o n s : b u i l d i n g c o n t r a c t o r , m i n i s t e r , newspaperm an, r e s t a u r a n t owner, t e a c h e r , t i l e c o n t r a c t o r , and u n io n s e c r e t a r y . Prom r e s p o n d e n t s ’ answ ers and h i s s tu d y o f th e community, th e w r i t e r was a b le to i d e n t i f y o n ly t h r e e l e a d e r s who c o u ld r e a s o n a b l y be c a l l e d o u t s t a n d i n g . T h is group i n c l u d e s Mr. A and Mr. B, who w ith t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e " v o te s " o f 32 and 25 were f a r ahead o f t h e i r n e a r e s t com p e t i t o r , Mr. C w ith o n ly 14. T here i s l i t t l e q u e s t io n t h a t Mr. A and Mr. B a r e th e b e s t known and m ost p ro m in e n t members, o f Pom ona's M exican-A m erican community. The Pomona P r o g r e s s - B u l l e t i n f r e q u e n t l y c a r r i e s news a b o u t th e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e s e two men, p a r t i c u l a r l y Mr. B. The 148 l a t t e r f i r s t g a in e d fame f o r h i s a c t i v i t i e s i n b e h a l f o f M exican-A m erican y o u th , b u t i n r e c e n t y e a r s h a s been p ro m in e n t i n Anglo s e r v i c e c lu b s and b u s in e s s m e n 's g ro u p s . Mr. A, on th e o t h e r hand, a s c h o o l t e a c h e r and r a d i o an n o u n c e r, i s much more o r i e n t e d , as a l e a d e r , to th e M exican-A m erican community. Mr. C, s t r o n g l y o r i e n t e d to w a rd th e M exican community, had been a m i l i t a n t f i g h t e r f o r c i v i l r i g h t s f o r M exicans, s c o r i n g some n o t a b l e s u c c e s s e s on t h e l o c a l sc en e some y e a r s ago. D uring th e p a s t few y e a r s , how ever, he seems to have been more o r l e s s i n a c t i v e . The w r i t e r was i n t e r e s t e d i n knowing why i n d i v i d u a l s had been n o m in ated as " im p o r ta n t" by th e i n t e r v i e w e e s . R e sp o n d e n ts w ere a sk e d why th e y c o n s id e r e d such i n d i v i d u a l s i m p o r t a n t . Answers v a r i e d g r e a t l y , from a sim p le s t a te m e n t o f th e p e r s o n 's o c c u p a tio n to a d e t a i l e d s t a t e m ent o f b e n e f i t s th e i n d i v i d u a l had s e c u r e d f o r th e M exican community. The m ost f r e q u e n t r e a s o n f o r naming a p e rs o n (21 c a s e s ) was th e p o s s e s s i o n o f an o c c u p a tio n p e r c e i v e d as p r e s t i g e f u l by th e r e s p o n d e n t: p a r t i c u l a r l y o w n e rsh ip o f o n e 's own b u s i n e s s , b u t f r e q u e n t l y a l s o th e o c c u p a tio n s o f 149 t e a c h e r and p o l i c e o f f i c e r . Twelve p e r s o n s w ere c i t e d f o r t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n c i v i c a n d /o r p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y ( i n e i t h e r th e M exican-A m erican a n d /o r Anglo f i e l d ) , w h ile n in e p e r s o n s w ere more s p e c i f i c a l l y men t i o n e d a s n o te d f o r t h e i r g i v in g o f v a r i o u s k i n d s o f a s s i s t a n c e , i n c l u d i n g a d v ic e , to members o f t h e l o c a l M exican comm unity. Two p e r s o n s were c i t e d f o r t h e i r power one was m e n tio n e d a s h a v in g a " l o t o f p u l l " w h ile t h e o t h e r was c h a r a c t e r i z e d as "a b ig s h o t . " Two o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s w ere m e n tio n e d b e c a u s e o f th e amount o f p u b l i c i t y t h e y r e c e i v e : " h e 's alw ays i n th e p a p e r ." R e s i d e n t i a l A reas One f r e q u e n t l y m e n tio n e d f e a t u r e o f M exican- American r e s i d e n t i a l p a t t e r n s t h a t i s a l s o n o t i c e a b l e i n Pomona i s t h e te n d e n c y f o r p e r s o n s o f M exican d e s c e n t to be c o n c e n t r a t e d i n c e r t a i n a r e a s , n e ig h b o rh o o d s and b lo c k s o f a c i t y . The a r e a o f h i g h e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n Pomona i s i n th e s o u th w e s te r n s e c t o r o f t h e c i t y w h ile a r e a s o f s e c o n d a ry c o n c e n t r a t i o n l i e c l o s e t o t h i s c o re on s e v e r a l s i d e s . A few o t h e r a r e a s a r e a t a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e . In t h e Anglo v iew , a r e a s o f h ig h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 150 Mexican r e s i d e n c e s a r e alm o st by d e f i n i t i o n th e l e s s d e s i r a b l e a r e a s . But i m p a r t i a l o b s e r v a t i o n o f p h y s i c a l c o n d it i o n and a p p e a ra n c e o f houses., s t r e e t s , and b u s i n e s s e s would co n firm t h i s p o i n t o f view . A f u r t h e r c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r , from th e Anglo v ie w p o in t, i s th e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f N egroes i n th o s e a r e a s where th e M exicans a re a ls o c o n c e n t r a t e d . O th er f a c t o r s have been th e e n fo r c e d r e s i d e n t i a l s e g r e g a t i o n o f fo rm e r y e a r s , and th e g e n e r a l l y low economic s t a t u s o f Pomona's Mexican p o p u l a t i o n . As d is c u s s e d i n C h a p te r I I I , . s e v e n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s o f th e c i t y w ere c l a s s i f i e d , i n o r d e r o f d e s i r a b i l i t y : A, B, C, D, and E. Area A i n c l u d e s th e N o r t h e a s t , g e n e r a l l y c o n s id e r e d th e b e s t o f any o f th e l a r g e d i s t r i c t s i n Pomona; t h e Gan- e sh a H i l l s a r e a , th e m ost e x c l u s i v e , b u t i n which o n ly one S p a n ish surname p e r s o n , a c a r e t a k e r , r e s i d e s ; and t h e e x c e l l e n t r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a n o r t h , e a s t , and s o u th o f th e Ganesha H i l l s . T here a re v e ry few o l d d w e llin g s i n t h i s a r e a . I t i s o v e rw h elm in g ly m id d le c l a s s . Area B i s a c o m p o site m o s tly o f f r i n g e a r e a s , b u i l t w i t h i n r e c e n t y e a r s ( i n c l u d in g K ello gg P ark, Valwood, Westmont and th e South End) and composed o f m id d le and w o r k i n g - c l a s s n e ig h b o rh o o d s . Here th e w r i t e r a ls o i n c l u d e d th e o l d e r n e a r N o r th e a s t and n e a r N o r th w e s t, a l s o m iddle t o w orking c l a s s i n c h a r a c t e r . The e a s t e r n p o r t i o n o f Area C i s th e s e c t i o n g e n e r a l l y known as th e S o u t h e a s t, w ith th e e x c e p ti o n o f t h e near-dow ntow n c o m m e rc ia lly zoned a r e a . I t i s p r i m a r i l y a w o r k in g - c la s s a r e a , b u t I s q u i t e h e te r o g e n e o u s w ith r e f e r e n c e to h o u sin g , w hich c o u ld be r a t e d from v e ry good t o v e ry p o o r. I t s e a s t e r n t h i r d i s zoned f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s and can be c o n s i d e r e d p o o r. The w e s te r n s e c t i o n o f C, t o g e t h e r w ith A re as D and E have th e h i g h e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M exican Am erican p o p u l a t i o n i n Pomona, and th u s make up the c o lo n i a p r o p e r . The o l d e s t a r e a s w i t h i n th e c o l o n i a are D and E. Area D i s l a r g e l y zoned f o r com m ercial and l i g h t i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s ( i t i n c l u d e s m ost o f Pom ona's down town shopping a r e a ) and i s a ls o th e l o c a t i o n o f Pom ona's e x p a n d in g C iv ic C e n te r. Many d w e llin g s a re b e in g d e m o lish ed i n the a r e a to make way f o r com m ercial and p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s , and b e f o r e many y e a r s have p a s s e d i t w i l l no l o n g e r be an im p o r ta n t p a r t o f th e c o l o n i a , i f in d e e d any d w e l l i n g s a t a l l re m a in w i t h i n th e a r e a . The number (as d e te rm in e d by t h e w r i t e r from th e c i t y d i r e c t o r y ) o f 152 M exican Am erican a d u l t s l i v i n g i n e a c h a r e a and t h e sam ple s i z e f o r e a c h a re shown i n T a b le 22. The w r i t e r s e c u r e d d a t a on how lo n g e a c h r e s p o n d e n t h a d l i v e d i n h i s c u r r e n t p l a c e o f r e s i d e n c e (s e e T a b le 2 3 ). I t w ould a p p e a r t h a t Area D, 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s from w hich h ad l i v e d l e s s th a n 6 y e a r s i n t h e i r p r e s e n t r e s i d e n c e , w ould be th e m ost u n s t a b l e from t h e p o i n t o f view o f l e n g t h o f r e s i d e n c e , a lt h o u g h th e sam ple from D i s to o s m a ll (10) t o e n a b le one t o make any d e f i n i t i v e s t a t e m e n t i n t h i s r e g a r d . A reas r a n k in g h i g h e r th a n D a r e more s t a b l e (A, B, C) w h ile E i s a l s o more s t a b l e , i n f a c t c o n s i d e r a b l y more so th a n th e h i g h e r r a n k in g a r e a s . Thus 6 6 .7 p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n t s i n Area E h ad l i v e d i n t h e i r p r e s e n t homes f o r 6 y e a r s o r m ore, w h ile o n ly 35*1 p e r c e n t o f t h o s e i n A reas A and B, and o n ly 3 8 .2 p e r c e n t o f t h o s e i n A rea C had r e s i d e d t h e r e a s lo n g . T hese d i f f e r e n c e s , shown i n T a b le 23 a r e s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i c a l l y a t t h e .0 1 l e v e l . Thus th e m ost s t a b l e a r e a a p p e a r s t o i n c l u d e th e l e a s t d e s i r a b l e p o r t i o n s o f t h e M exican c o lo n y i n s o u t h w e s t e r n Pomona. S t a b i l i t y , c o n s e r v a t is m , p o v e r t y , and l a c k o f m o b i l i t y may be c o n s i d e r e d t h e k e y n o te s o f t h i s a r e a . 153 TABLE 22 ADULT MEXICAN POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE IN RESIDENTIAL AREAS M exican A d u lts Area Num b e r P er c e n t Sample S ize Num- P er b e r c e n t P e rc e n ta g e Sample i s o f Mexican A d u lts A 240 9 .8 14 9 .5 5 .8 B 379 15-5 23 1 5 .6 6 . 1 C ( E a s t e r n ) 242 9 .9 15 1 0 .2 6 . 2 C (W e s te rn ) 668 2 7 .3 40 2 7 .2 6 . 0 D 164 6 .7 10 6 .8 6 .1 E ( N o r t h e r n ) 417 1 7 -0 25 1 7 .0 6 .0 E ( S o u t h e r n ) 336 13-7 20 1 3 .6 6 . 0 T o t a l 2446 9 9 .9 147 9 9 .9 6 . 0 TABLE 23 LENGTH OF RESIDENCE AND AREA Number o f Years Under 6 6 o r Over T o ta l Area Number P er c e n t Number P er c e n t Number P er c e n t A and B 24 6 4 ,9 13 35-1 37 10 0 .0 C 34 6 l . 8 21 3 8 .2 55 10 0.0 D 9 9 0 .0 1 1 0 .0 10 10 0 .0 E 15 33-3 30 6 6 .7 45 10 0 .0 T o ta l c h i 82 sq u a re 5 5 .8 = 15-98 P 65 = < .01 4 4 .2 147 100 .0 i— 1 vn 155 I t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t r e s i d e n t i a l s t a b i l i t y and home o w n e rsh ip would b e a s s o c i a t e d . T a b le 24 i n d i c a t e s t h a t r e s p o n d e n t s who own t h e i r own homes have c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e s i n l e n g t h - o f - r e s i d e n c e c a t e g o r i e s o f s i x y e a r s o r m ore, w h e re a s r e n t e r s have c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e s In l e n g t h - o f - r e s i d e n c e c a t e g o r i e s o f f i v e y e a r s o r l e s s . The c h i s q u a r e f o r T ab le 24 I s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .01 l e v e l . The d a t a show a g e n e r a l te n d e n c y to w a rd a h i g h e r r a t e o f h om e-ow nership i n t h e h ig h e r r a n k in g a r e a s . A reas A and B a r e c l e a r l y s e e n in T a b le 25 t o have a h i g h e r r a t e o f home o w n e rsh ip t h a n th e o t h e r a r e a s (th o u g h i n t h i s i n s t a n c e r e s i d e n t i a l s t a b i l i t y i s l e s s th a n In a re a E p e r h ap s b e cau se o f t h e new ness o f A and B ), b u t t h e d i f f e r ence betw een t h e p e r c e n t a g e i n C on t h e one hand (6 9 -1 ) and D and E on th e o t h e r ( 6 5 - 5 ) i s n e g l i g i b l e . The c h i sq u a re f o r T a b le 22 i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . The w r i t e r o r i g i n a l l y h y p o t h e s iz e d t h a t th e h i g h e r r a n k in g th e a r e a , t h e h i g h e r w ould be t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f M exicans em ployed i n t h e h i g h e r - r a n k i n g o r more s k i l l e d o c c u p a ti o n s . T a b le 26 i n d i c a t e s a c o n s i s t e n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e p e rc e n ta g e o f a l l h e a d s o f h o u s e h o ld who a r e u n s k i l l e d TABLE 24 HOME OWNERSHIP AND LENGTH OP RESIDENCE Owner sh ip Number o f Years T o ta l Under 3 3-5 6- 10 11--20 Over 20 Num b e r Per c e n t Num- Per b e r c e n t Num- b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Own 14 1 3 .1 34 3 1 .8 24 2 2 .4 26 24 .3 9 8 .4 107 100.1 Rent 19 47-5 15 37-5 3 7*5 3 7-5 ” " ■ — •• 40 10 0.0 T o ta l 33 22 .4 49 3 3 .3 27 1 8 .4 29 19-7 9 6 .1 147 99-9 c h i sq u a re = 26.53 P = < .01 i — 1 V Ji a\ 157 TABLE 25 RESIDENTIAL AREA AND HOME OWNERSHIP Area • 1 1 1 1 1 Home Own O w nership R ent T o ta l Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t A and B 33 8 9 .2 4 1 0 .8 37 1 0 0 .0 C 38 6 9 .1 17 3 0 .9 55 1 0 0 .0 D and E 36- 6 5 .5 19 3 4 .5 55 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 107 7 2 .6 40 2 7 .4 147 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a re = 6 . 7 7 P = .04 l a b o r e r s , from th e h i g h e s t r a n k in g a r e a . A, down th ro u g h th e lo w e s t r a n k in g a r e a , E. The r e v e r s e s i t u a t i o n h o ld s f o r p e r s o n s i n th e w h ite c o l l a r c a te g o r y . The h i g h e s t p e r c e n ta g e o f s k i l l e d w o rk e rs i n any a r e a i s 47*8 p e r c e n t f o r Area B. The p r e c e d in g r e l a t i o n s h i p s show q u i t e c l e a r l y th e a s s o c i a t i o n betw een th e ra n k o f an a r e a and th e r a n k o f o c c u p a tio n s fo llo w e d by r e s i d e n t s o f Mexican d e s c e n t i n e a c h o f t h e s e a r e a s . I t s h o u ld be f u r t h e r n o te d t h a t th e modal o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y f o r Area A i s w h ite c o l l a r ; f o r B, s k i l l e d ; f o r C and D, and f o r E, l a b o r e r s . The c h i s q u a re f o r T ab le 26 i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l . The m edian t o t a l f a m i ly income f o r a l l r e s p o n d e n ts i s $ 5 ,7 0 4 . The m edians f o r A reas A, B and D ($7^750, $6,875 and $ 6,41 7 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) a r e above th e t o t a l m edian, w h ile th o s e f o r a r e a s C ($5>300) and E ($ 4 ,6 6 7 ) a r e below . W ith th e e x c e p ti o n o f Area D, th e ra n k c o r r e l a t i o n o f incom e w ith q u a l i t y o f a r e a i s c o m p le te ly c o n s i s t e n t . T a b le 27 r e v e a l s t h a t f o r th e h i g h e s t income c a t e g o r y ($ 8 ,0 0 0 o r o v e r ) , income i s p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith r a n k o f a r e a , w hereas f o r th e lo w e s t income c a t e g o r y (u n d e r $ 4 ,0 0 0 ) income i s n e g a t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith r a n k TABLE 26 RESIDENTIAL AREA AND OCCUPATION OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD ___________________O ccupation___________________________________ Semi- ! White R e l i e f L ab o re rs S k i l l e d S k i l l e d C o lla r T o ta l Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Area b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t A . . — • 1 7 .1 4 28.6 2 14 .3 7 5 0 .0 14 10 0.0 B 1 4 .3 2 8 .7 3 1 3 .0 11 4 7 .8 6 26.1 23 9 9 .9 C and D 3 4 .6 24 36.9 16 24.6 18 27.7 4 6 .2 65 10 0 .0 E 5 11.1 24 5 3 .3 12 26.7 3 6 .7 1 2 .2 45 10 0 .0 T o ta l 9 6 .1 51 34.7 35 2 3 .8 34 23.1 18 1 2 .2 147 9 9 .9 c h i sq u a re = 45.75 P ii m O C = .487 v jI vo TABLE 27 RESIDENTIAL AREA AND INCOME OP RESPONDENTS Area Under $4,000 $4,00 0- . $5,999_._ $6,000- ... $7,999 . $8,000 o r Over T o ta l Median Num b e r Per c e n t Num-. b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t A 1 7 .7 3 23.1 3. 23.1 6 4 6 .2 13 100.1 $7,750 B 2 9 .5 5 2 3 .8 5 2 3 .8 9 4 2 .9 21 10 0.0 6,875 C and D 14 23 .0 21 34 .4 20 3 2 .8 6 9 .8 61 100 .0 5,591 E 15 35.7 14 33-3 9 21.4 4 9 .5 42 99.9 4,6 6 7 j T o ta l 32 23 .4 43 31.4 37 27 .0 25 1 8 .2 137 100 .0 $5,704 c h i sq uare = 24. 68 P = < .01 C = .391 091 l6l o f a r e a . The a r e a s h a v in g t h e l a r g e s t p e r c e n t a g e s in th e i n t e r m e d i a t e b r a c k e t s a re C and D. The l a r g e s t p e r c e n ta g e o f re s p o n d e n ts who i d e n t i f i e d t h e i r " n a t i o n a l i t y " as "Mexican" was found i n Area A (100 p e r c e n t ) and th e lo w e s t i n Area B (73-9 p e r c e n t) . The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een a r e a and s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was n e i t h e r p a t t e r n e d n o r s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . There i s on t h e o t h e r hand a p e r f e c t c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ra n k o f a r e a and ra n k o f p e r c e n ta g e o f r e s p o n d e n ts w ith whom i n t e r v i e w i n g was c a r r i e d on i n th e E n g li s h la n g u a g e as i s shown i n T able 28. The c h i sq u a re f o r t h i s t a b l e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l . As f a r a s s i z e o f f a m i ly i s c o n ce rn e d , t h e r e were no f a r r e a c h in g c o n c lu s io n s w ith r e f e r e n c e to a r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . There i s a s l i g h t n o n s i g n i f i c a n t te n d e n c y to w ard l a r g e r f a m i l i e s in th e b e t t e r (A and B) and in th e lo w e s t r a n k in g (E) a r e a s . The h ig h e r ra n k in g a r e a s are p re d o m in a n tly f a m ily a r e a s . The lo w e r ra n k in g t h e a re a , th e g r e a t e r i s t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f in c o m p le te n u c l e a r f a m i l i e s . Of a l l widowed, d iv o r c e d o r s e p a r a t e d p e r s o n s , o n ly 2 a re found i n Area B, and th e o t h e r 23 a r e a l l in a r e a s C, D o r E. S in g le p e r s o n s a p p e a r to be f a i r l y w e ll 162 TABLE 28 RESIDENTIAL AREA AND LANGUAGE PREFERENCE OF RESPONDENTS Language E n g l i s h S panish T o ta l Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Area ber cent b e r c e n t b e r c e n t A 14 100.0 14 10 0 .0 B 19 82.6 4 17-4 23 1 0 0 .0 C 39 70.9 16 29-1 55 1 0 0 .0 D 6 60.0 4 4 0 .0 10 10 0 .0 E 26 57-8 19 4 2 .2 45 10 0 .0 T o ta l 104 70.7 43 29-3 147 1 0 0 .0 c h i square = 1 1 . 5 3 P = *03 C .-~ . 270 163 d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e v e n a r e a s . T a b le 29 shows t h a t t h e h i g h e r r a n k i n g t h e a r e a , t h e h i g h e r i s t h e p r o p o r t i o n w h ic h m a r r i e d p e r s o n s c o n s t i t u t e o f a l l r e s i d e n t s i n t h e a r e a . Chi s q u a r e f o r T a b le 29 i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l . I n a c c o r d w i t h t h e commonly h e l d i d e a t h a t i t i s t h e y o u n g e r and b e t t e r e d u c a t e d m a r r i e d M ex ican c o u p l e s t h a t move o u t o f o l d e r c o l o n l a a r e a s and s e t t l e i n t h e new, b e t t e r r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s , T a b le 30 i n d i c a t e s some t e n d e n c y f o r y o u n g e r p e r s o n s t o l i v e i n t h e b e t t e r a r e a s . T h e re a r e l i k e w i s e c e r t a i n t e n d e n c i e s e v i d e n t i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s p o n d e n t s by a r e a a c c o r d i n g t o g e n e r a t i o n . From T a b le 31 i t i s s e e n t h a t t h e r e a r e no f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n p e r s o n s i n t h e b e s t a r e a (A ), a s i z e a b l e num ber o f them i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e a r e a s (B, C and D) and a s t i l l l a r g e r p e r c e n t a g e i n A rea E. F o r t h e s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n , t h e a r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p i s r e v e r s e d . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e s m a l l e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s a r e fo u n d a t t h e e x tr e m e s an d t h e l a r g e s t p e r c e n t a g e s i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e a r e a s (B, C and D). I t can. be h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n p e r s o n s h a v e b e e n m o b ile a n d h av e moved o u t t o t h e b e t t e r 164 TABLE 29 RESIDENTIAL AREA AND MARITAL STATUS OF RESPONDENTS A rea M a r i t a l M a r r i e d S t a t u s N ot M a r r i e d T o t a l Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t A a n d B 31 83-8 6 1 6 .2 37 1 0 0 .0 C a n d D 50 7 6 .9 15 23.1 65 1 0 0 .0 E 27 60. 0 18 4 0 .0 45 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 108 73-5 39 2 6 .5 147 100.0 c h i sq u a re = 6 . 4 7 p = .04 165 TABLE 30 RESIDENTIAL AREA AND AGE OP RESPONDENTS A rea Age 20-39 i o 00 T o t a l Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t A a n d B . 24 6 4 .9 13 35-1 37 1 0 0 .0 C an d D 38 5 8 .5 27 41.5 65 1 0 0 .0 E 23 5 1 .1 22 4 8 .9 45 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 85 5.7-8 62 4 2 .2 147 1 0 0 .0 166 TABLE 31 RESIDENTIAL AREA AND GENERATION OP RESPONDENTS _______________ G e n e r a tio n __________________ F i r s t Second L a t e r T o ta l Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- Per Area b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t A __ 13 9 2 .9 1 7 -1 14 100.0 B 5 21.7 14 6 0 .9 4 1 7 .4 23 100.0 C and D 13 2 0 .0 34 5 3 - 0 18 2 7 .0 65 100.0 E 14 3 1 .1 25 5 5 .6 6 1 3 .3 45 100.0 T o ta l 32 2 1 .8 86 5 8 .5 29 1 9 -7 147 1 0 0 .0 a r e a s , w h ile f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n p e rs o n s h av e n o t b e e n as m o b ile and have p r e f e r r e d t o rem a in i n t h e a r e a s o f h ig h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e i r e t h n i c f e l l o w s . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s i s m ore l i k e t h a t o f th e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n th a n o f th e se c o n d . They a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d in a r e a s o f h ig h M exican e th n ic d e n s i t y ; 24 o u t o f 29 l i v e i n a r e a s C, D, and E. Table 3 2 shows a te n d e n c y f o r r e s p o n d e n t s i n h i g h e r ra n k in g a r e a s to have had more s c h o o l i n g . 168 TABLE 32 RESIDENTIAL AREA AND SCHOOLING OP RESPONDENTS Area Y ears o f S c h o o lin g T o t a l 0- 8 9 -11 12 o r More Num- b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t A and B 9 2 4 .3 15 4 0 .5 13 3 5 .1 37 9 9 -9 C and D 29 4 4 .6 18 2 7-7 18 2 7 .7 65 1 0 0 .0 E 21 4 6 .7 14 3 1 .1 10 2 2 .2 45 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 59 4 o . l 47 3 2 .0 41 2 7 .9 147 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a r e = 4 .3 8 p = .0 4 C = .17 0 CHAPTER V PERCEPTION OF STATUS DIFFERENCES One o f th e p r i n c i p a l aim s o f th e r e s e a r c h h e re r e p o r t e d c e n t e r e d on s e c u r i n g d a ta on p e r c e p t i o n by mem- b e r s o f a M exican-A m erican community o f th e p a t t e r n o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t h a t community. T h is aim d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y from t h a t o f much r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d In th e l i t e r a t u r e , w here th e M exican-A m erican c l a s s s t r u c t u r e was d e l i n e a t e d on th e b a s i s o f d a ta p r o v id e d by Anglo i n f o r m a n ts . The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s a l s o u n iq u e In t h a t i t u t i l i z e d an a r e a sam ple r a t h e r th a n s e l e c t e d I n f o r m a n ts , a s i n t h e c a se o f a l l s t u d i e s o f M exican-A m erican c l a s s s t r u c t u r e known to th e r e s e a r c h e r . Data were s e c u re d on th e ty p e o f s o c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s c o n s i d e r e d im p o r ta n t by Mexican i n f o r m a n ts i n Pomona, th e number o f M exican and Anglo c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d , and th e c r i t e r i a u se d i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g v a r i o u s s o c i a l c l a s s e s from e a c h o t h e r . C a te g o r ie s o f p e r c e p t i o n have i n t u r n been r e l a t e d t o c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l and economic 169 170 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e s p o n d e n t s such a s o c c u p a t i o n , s c h o o l i n g , and the. a r e a o f r e s i d e n c e . B e fo re he made any m e n tio n o f s o c i a l c l a s s , th e r e s e a r c h e r a sk e d eac h o f h i s r e s p o n d e n t s th e q u e s t i o n , "What w ould y o u sa y a r e t h e m ost i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s fo u n d among th e p e o p le o f M exican o r i g i n h e re i n Pomona? T h a t i s , w hat d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s o r ty p e s would you d i v id e them i n t o ? " A t o t a l o f 61 r e s p o n d e n t s , c o n s t i t u t i n g 4 1 .5 p e r c e n t o f th e w r i t e r ' s sam ple were e i t h e r u n a b le to p e r c e i v e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e Mexican p o p u l a t i o n o f Pomona, o r u n w i l l i n g to s t a t e t h e i r o p i n io n w i t h r e g a r d to su c h d i f f e r e n c e s . Of th e a n sw e rs g iv e n to th e q u e s t i o n , 4 0 .7 p e r c e n t w ere o r i e n t e d to w a rd c l a s s o r so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s ; 32.6 p e r c e n t w ere o r i e n t e d to w a rd a c c u l t u r a t i o n ; 1 1 .6 p e r c e n t w ere o r i e n t e d to w a rd e d u c a t i o n ; 1 0 .5 p e r c e n t d e a l t w ith p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s and 4 .7 p e r c e n t w ith r e l i g i o n . In an sw er to t h i s q u e s t i o n , one e s p e c i a l l y k n o w le d g e a b le i n f o r m a n t c l a s s i f i e d Pom ona's M exican- Am erican p o p u l a t i o n i n t o f o u r c a t e g o r i e s , a s f o l l o w s : ( l ) One g ro u p i s th e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n ; t h e y a r e d i f f e r e n t i n t h a t t h e y d o n 't sp e ak E n g l i s h . They d o n 't t a k e p a r t i n s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s u n l e s s S p a n is h i s u s e d . 171 ( 2 ) The y o u n g e r g ro u p o f M ex ican-A m erican k i d s t h a t a r e m o s tly t h e same w ay; t h e y d o n 't l i k e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a n y th i n g t h a t i s Anglo- A m erican. (3 ) The m a r r i e d , m o s t l y y o u n g e r, g e n e r a t i o n p e o p le who w i s h t o d i s a s s o c i a t e th e m s e lv e s com p l e t e l y from t h e M exican -A m erican c u l t u r e . ( 4 ) One g r o u p t h a t i s t r y i n g t o c u l t i v a t e t h e M exican c u l t u r e and k e e p i t g o in g and a t th e same tim e be good A m erican c i t i z e n s s o c i a l l y and c i v i c - a l l y . T h is c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n p o i n t s up th e c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s o f g e n e r a t i o n , a g e and la n g u a g e u s a g e . The same in f o r m a n t th e n p r o c e e d e d t o d e s c r i b e th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e p r i m a r i l y i n o c c u p a t i o n a l te r m s . P e r c e p t i o n o f S o c i a l C l a s s e s I n Pomona e a c h r e s p o n d e n t was n e x t a s k e d t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n ; " P e rh a p s you h a v e h e a r d p e o p le sp e a k o f t h e s o - c a l l e d s o c i a l c l a s s e s , su ch a s th e u p p e r c l a s s , t h e w orking c l a s s , t h e lo w e r c l a s s , t h e m id d le c l a s s , e t c . Among t h e p e o p le o f M exican ( o r S p a n is h - s p e a k i n g ) o r i g i n h e r e i n Pomona how many s o c i a l c l a s s e s w ould y ou s a y t h e r e a r e ? What do y o u c a l l them ?" The number o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d by r e s p o n d e n t s v a r i e d from 1 t o 4, w i t h a mode a t 2, a mean 172 o f 2 .3 and a m edian o f 2 .6 . The te rm in o lo g y was q u i t e v a r i e d a l s o , and some r e s p o n d e n ts were a t a l o s s t o a s s i g n l a b e l s t o c l a s s e s t h e y c o u ld d e s c r i b e . A number o f r e s p o n d e n ts (3 9 )* c o n s t i t u t i n g 26.5 p e r c e n t o f t h e e n t i r e sam ple, were u n a b le o r u n w i l l i n g to an sw er th e q u e s t i o n s a sk ed c o n c e rn in g s o c i a l c l a s s . R e sp o n d e n ts who p e r c e i v e d c l a s s d i v i s i o n s i n th e M exican community ( i . e . , two, t h r e e o r f o u r c l a s s e s ) had more s c h o o lin g , had h i g h e r s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n i n th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , were y o u n g e r, and a h ig h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f them were i n te r v ie w e d i n E n g lis h th a n was th e c a s e w ith th o s e who p e r c e i v e d no c l a s s d i v i s i o n s . A ll o f th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s , p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le s 33* 3^* 35* and 36 a re s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l . In a d d i t i o n th e y h e l d more o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m em berships o t h e r th a n i n c h u rc h o r l a b o r u n io n , h ad h i g h e r incom es and w ere more num erous among th e l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s ; t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le s 37* 38 and 39 a re s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . T here were no s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s w ith r e s p e c t t o r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , o c c u p a ti o n a l c a te g o r y , s o c i a l m o b i l i t y , o r sex . 173 TABLE 33 SCHOOLING AND CONSCIOUSNESS OP CLASS DIVISIONS Y ears o f S c h o o lin g Do Not P e rc e iv e C lass D iv is io n s P e rc e iv e C lass D iv is io n s T o ta l Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t 0 - 8 40 6 7 .8 19 3 2 .2 59 1 0 0 .0 9-11 16 3 4 .0 31 6 6 .0 47 1 0 0 ,0 12 o r More 8 19-5 33 80.5 41 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 64 4 3 .5 83 5 6 .5 147 10 0 .0 c h i sq u a re = 25.3 8 p = < . 0 1 c = .384 174 TABLE 34 CLASS SELF-PLACEMENT AND CONSCIOUSNESS OF CLASS DIVISIONS Do Not P e r c e i v e C la s s D i v i s i o n s P e r c e iv e C la s s D i v i s i o n s T o t a l s C l a s s - S e l f P la ce m e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Upper and M iddle 8 1 2 .9 54 87-1 62 1 0 0 .0 Working 11 4 7 -8 12 5 2 .2 23 1 0 0 .0 Lower 7 4 3 .8 9 5 6 .2 16 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 26 2 5 .7 75 7 4 .3 101 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a re = 1 4 .0 8 p = < . 01 C = • 350 TABLE 35 AGE AND CONSCIOUSNESS OF CLASS DIVISIONS Age Do Not P e r c e i v e C la s s D i v i s i o n s P e r c e iv e C la s s D i v i s i o n s T o t a l s Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t 20-39 27 3 1 .8 58 6 8 .2 85 1 0 0 .0 4 0 -8 9 37 5 9 -7 25 4 0 .3 62 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 64 4 3 -5 83 5 6 .5 147 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a r e = 1 1 .3 4 p = < . 01 C = . 268 176 TABLE 36 LANGUAGE PREFERENCE AND CONSCIOUSNESS OF CLASS DIVISIONS Language Do Not P e r c e i v e C la s s D i v i s i o n s P e r c e iv e C la s s D i v i s i o n s T o ta l Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t E n g l i s h 35 3 3 -7 69 6 6 .4 104 1 0 0 .1 S p a n is h 29 6 7 -4 14 32 .6 43 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 64 4 3 .5 83 5 6 .5 147 1 0 0 .0 c h i sq u a re = 1 4 .1 9 p = < . 01 C = .297 177 TABLE 37 MEMBERSHIPS AND CONSCIOUSNESS OF CLASS DIVISIONS Do Not P e r c e i v e P e r c e iv e C la s s C la s s Number o f D i v i s i o n s D i v i s i o n s T o t a l M em berships3 Num- P e r Num- Per Num- P er H eld b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t None 43 5 3 -8 37 4 6 .2 80 1 0 0 .0 One 12 3 0 .0 28 7 0 .0 40 1 0 0 .0 Two o r More 9 3 3 .3 18 6 6 .7 27 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 64 4 3-5 83 5 6 .5 147 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a r e = 7*56 p = .03 a O th e r th an i n ch u rch o r l a b o r u n io n . TABLE 3 8 INCOME AND CONSCIOUSNESS OF CLASS DIVISIONS Do T o ta l Annual Not P e rc e iv e Class D iv is io n s P e r c e iv e C la s s D i v i s i o n s T o ta l F a m ily Income Num b e r Per c e n t Num ber P er c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Under $4,000 19 59-4 13 4 0 .6 32 1 0 0 .0 4 ,0 0 0 - 5 ,9 9 9 18 4 1 .9 25 5 8 .1 43 1 0 0 .0 6 , 000- 7,.000 14 3 7 .8 23 6 2 .2 37 1 0 0 .0 8,0 0 0 o r Over 6 2 4 .0 19 7 6 .0 25 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 57 4 1 .6 80 5 8 .4 137 1 0 0 .0 c h i sq u a re = 7 . 4 7 P = • 03 C = .2 2 7 179 TABLE 39 GENERATION AND CONSCIOUSNESS OF CLASS DIVISIONS Do Not P e r c e iv e C lass D i v i s i o n s P e r c e iv e C la ss D iv i s i o n s T o ta l G e n e ra tio n Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t F i r s t 21 6 5 .6 11 3 4 .4 32 1 0 0 .0 Second 33 3 8 .4 53 6 1 .6 86 1 0 0 .0 L a te r 10 3 4 .5 19 6 5 .5 2.9 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 64 43-5 83 5 6 .5 147 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a re = 8 .3 6 p = .0 2 C = .232 180 E s s e n t i a l l y , _t h i s p a r t o f th e r e s e a r c h aimed a t e l i c i t i n g any c o g n i t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f c l a s s ( s t e r e o t y p e s ) p r e v a l e n t i n th e Mexican community. D e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e n a t u r e o f th e M exican-A m erican s o c i a l c l a s s e s g iv e n to th e r e s e a r c h e r by in f o r m a n ts were n e i t h e r c o n s i s t e n t n o r p a r t i c u l a r l y e x p l i c i t i n m ost c a s e s . Some in f o r m a n ts w ere more p e r c e p t i v e th a n o t h e r s , and each view ed th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e from h i s own p e r s p e c t i v e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , some g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s emerge from t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s f u r n i s h e d by th e more a r t i c u l a t e in f o r m a n ts , a lth o u g h even among t h i s group te r m in o lo g y v a r i e d c o n s i d e r a b l y , and th e number o f c l a s s e s from one to f o u r . In d e s c r i b i n g a t w o - c l a s s system , in f o r m a n ts g e n e r a l l y d e p ic te d a p o o r, s e m i - l i t e r a t e grou p o f u n a c c u l- t u r a t e d and u n s k i l l e d w o rk e rs and t h e i r f a m i l i e s as th e bottom s tr a tu m and a group o f b re a d w in n e rs h o ld in g s k i l l e d o r w h ite c o l l a r jo b s , who were c o n c e rn e d w ith e d u c a tio n and "im provem ent" a s an u p p e r s t r a tu m . A f r e q u e n t o b s e r v a t i o n was t h a t p e o p le i n t h e u p p e r gro u p were " t r y i n g to g e t ahead" w h ile th o s e In th e lo w er group " d o n 't t r y " o r " d o n 't c a r e . " One in fo r m a n t d e s c r i b e d th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e two g ro u p s as f o l l o w s : 181 T h e r e 's an u p p e r c l a s s and a peon c l a s s . The peon c l a s s a r e n ' t s t r i v i n g to b e t t e r th e m s e lv e s ; l i f e i s j u s t an e x i s t e n c e . The u p p e r c l a s s a re s t r i v i n g f o r b e t t e r e d u c a ti o n f o r th e m s e lv e s and t h e i r f a m i l i e s an d o v e rlo o k th e f a c t t h a t t h e y ' r e i n th e m i n o r i t y . They a r e i d e n t i f i e d by t h e way t h e y c o n d u c t th e m s e lv e s i n a p l a c e o f b u s i n e s s . The u p p e r c l a s s can m in g le w ith w h i t e s w i t h o u t f e e l i n g i n f e r i o r i n any way. The o t h e r g ro u p i s u n e d u c a te d ; th e y a r e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s when among t h e m a j o r i t y . A n o th er in f o r m a n t s a i d "The m id d le c l a s s i s more c o n c e rn e d w i t h e d u c a ti o n and advancem ent o f t h e r a c e a s a w h o le; th e w orking c l a s s i s m o s tly th e o l d e r p e o p le , s a t i s f i e d a s t h e y a r e now." T h is r e l a t i o n s h i p o f g e n e r a t i o n and m o b i l i t y was p o i n t e d o u t by a n o t h e r in f o r m a n t who f e l t t h a t " e a c h g e n e r a t i o n i s a s t e p ah ead o f th e p r e c e d i n g on e, i n s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g and a d ju s tm e n t to s o c i a l l i f e . " Some p e r s p e c t i v e s d i f f e r e d r a d i c a l l y from e a c h o t h e r . W hile one i n f o r m a n t s t a t e d t h a t Pom ona's M exicans c o n s i s t e d o f " m o stly m id d le c l a s s , w i t h a few p o o r p e o p l e , " a n o t h e r b e l i e v e d t h e y were " m o s tly w orking c l a s s , w i t h a few p r o f e s s i o n a l s ." In eac h c a s e th e r e s p o n d e n t p l a c e d h i m s e l f i n t h e l a r g e r g ro u p . The f i r s t in f o r m a n t was th e w ife o f a s e m i - s k i l l e d w o rk e r, t h e se co n d was a w h ite c o l l a r w o rk e r. Thus t h e f i r s t in f o r m a n t a p p e a rs to have g ro u p e d h e r s e l f t o g e t h e r w i t h a l l th o s e above h e r i n t h e 182 c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , w h ile th e seco n d in f o r m a n t a p p e a r s to have g ro u p e d h i m s e l f w i t h a l l th o s e below him i n t h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e . D e s p ite th e f a c t t h a t th e se co n d in f o r m a n t i s o f h i g h e r s t a t u s (n o t o n ly o c c u p a t i o n a l l y , b u t e c o n o m ic a l l y , e d u c a t i o n a l l y , and r e s i d e n t i a l l y ), he h a s p l a c e d him s e l f i n t h e lo w e r s tr a tu m o f a t w o - s t r a t a sy ste m , t h e f i r s t in f o r m a n t p l a c i n g h e r s e l f i n th e to p s t r a tu m o f a tw o- s t r a t a sy ste m . One p e r s o n who p e r c e i v e d h e r s e l f i n th e u p p e r s tr a tu m n o t e d t h a t " t h e r e a r e p e o p le who a r e s m a r t e r , have b e t t e r p o s i t i o n s and homes; b u t some p e o p le j u s t d o n 't t r y . " A d i f f e r e n t p o i n t o f view was ta k e n by an in f o r m a n t who p e r c e i v e d h e r s e l f i n th e b o tto m s t r a t u m : "Those t h a t a re w e l l o f f d o n 't m in g le w ith th e o t h e r s ; t h e y a r e a l i t t l e b i t s n o b b i s h . " A v e ry p o o r b u t p e r c e p t i v e sm a ll b u sin e ssm a n o f v e r y humble o r i g i n s , and w i t h l i m i t e d e d u c a ti o n and com mand o f E n g l i s h d e s c r i b e d t h e c l a s s system a s f o l l o w s : "As f o r t h e lo w e r c l a s s , i t s s o c i a l medium i s d i f f e r e n t , b e in g made up o f th e f r u i t p i c k e r s and c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k e r s , w h ile t h e m id d le c l a s s c o n s i s t s o f th o s e who have had a c e r t a i n amount o f s c h o o l in g , t e a c h e r s , f o r 183 e x a m p le ." T his man p l a c e d h i m s e l f i n t h e lo w er c l a s s . T h ere a p p e a r s to be a n o t h e r d e f i n i t e te n d e n c y to « e q u a te "w orking c l a s s " and "m idd le c l a s s . " Among th o s e i n f o r m a n ts p e r c e i v i n g two s o c i a l c l a s s e s , o n ly two d i s t i n g u i s h e d betw een "w orking" and " m id d le ." The m o st f r e q u e n t d i s t i n c t i o n made was betw een "m id d le " and " l o w e r ." The d a ta c o l l e c t e d d e f i n i t e l y i n d i c a t e t h a t th e d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een w h i t e - c o l l a r and b l u e - c o l l a r w o rk e rs i s n o t r e l e v a n t t o c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s a s p e r c e i v e d by t h o s e i n f o r m a n ts d e s c r i b i n g a t w o - c l a s s sy ste m . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w i t h one e x c e p t i o n , a l l p e r s o n s named by r e s p o n d e n t s as M exican l e a d e r s w ere w h ite c o l l a r w o r k e r s . I n f o r m a n ts t h u s p e r h a p s make th e d i s t i n c t i o n i m p l i c i t l y . In an y c a s e , as a r e s u l t o f h i s s t u d y th e r e s e a r c h e r fo u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o d i s t i n g u i s h betw een w h ite and b lu e c o l l a r w o rk e rs i n s e t t i n g up h i s s t a t u s ty p o lo g y . The d e s c r i p t i o n s o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s f u r n i s h e d by I n f o r m a n ts p e r c e i v i n g t h r e e c l a s s e s o r s t a t u s l e v e l s a re c o n g ru e n t w i t h t h o s e j u s t d e s c r i b e d . They f a l l i n t o two m ain c a t e g o r i e s ( l ) a t r i p a r t i t e d i v i s i o n I n t o econom ic o r o c c u p a t i o n a l l e v e l s , and (2) t h e more p e r c e p t i v e d i v i s i o n i n t o " d o n 't c a r e , " " s t r i v e r s " and " e l i t e " l e v e l s . 184 As an exam ple o f t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y , one i n f o r m a n t d e s c r i b e d t h e c l a s s system a s f o l l o w s : "The h ig h c l a s s make a l i t t l e more money; th e y have t h e i r own b u s i n e s s e s . The medium c l a s s work f o r somebody e l s e . The low c l a s s w ork when t h e y can o r d e pend on c o u n ty a i d . " A n oth er i n f o r m a n t d i v i d e d Pom ona's M exicans i n t o th e w e l l - t o - d o o r s t o r e ow ners; p e o p le w i t h good s k i l l e d j o b s , and th e " r e g u l a r n o d -h e a d s " o r u n s k i l l e d w o r k e r s . A more e x p l i c i t d e s c r i p t i o n was g iv e n by th e i n f o r m a n t who s a i d : T h e r e ' s th e v e r y p o o r , t h e p o o r h av e more c h i l d r e n ; th e y d o n 't work s t e a d y o r d o n 't t r y to work s t e a d y . The m id d le c l a s s a r e t h o s e t h a t have s t e a d y em ploym ent, and a r e b u y in g a home o r a c a r ; t h e y have t h e n e c e s s i t i e s o f l i f e w i t h o u t s t r u g g l i n g so h a r d . The h i g h e r - u p p e o p le have money, a r e w e a lth y , t h e y a re b e t t e r o f f t h a n th e r e s t o f u s ; b e t t e r hom es, c a r s , e d u c a t i o n . The d e s c r i p t i o n s f a l l i n g i n t o t h e se co n d c a t e g o r y a r e s i m i l a r t o th o s e o f t h e f i r s t , e x c e p t t h a t th e y a r e m ore e x p l i c i t a b o u t th e m em bership o f t h e to p s t r a tu m . Thus one i n f o r m a n t b e l i e v e d t h a t " t h e o n e s i n th e u p p e r c l a s s s o c i a l l y a r e o l d C a l i f o r n i a f a m i l i e s , " w h ile a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e to p c l a s s a s c o n s i s t i n g o f "P e o p le l i k e Mr. X and Mr. Y who a r e w o rk in g f o r t h e b e t t e r m e n t o f o u r p e o p l e . " O th e r s n o te d t h e b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n o f t h e u p p e r c l a s s o r th e e x c e l l e n t q u a l i t y o f t h e i r S p a n is h and 185 E n g l i s h . Some n o te d t h e i r more a c t i v e s o c i a l l i f e and a b i l i t y to a f f o r d e x p e n s iv e ty p e s o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t . The in f o r m a n ts p e r c e i v i n g t h r e e c l a s s e s were more i n c l i n e d th a n th o s e p e r c e i v i n g two to use d e r o g a to r y te r m in o lo g y w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e lo w e s t s tr a tu m . One in f o r m a n t c h a r a c t e r i z e d them a s h a v in g v i c e s , a n o th e r as c o n s i s t i n g o f th e d e l i n q u e n t s , a n o th e r a s h a v in g q u ic k te m p e rs , w h ile a n o th e r c a l l e d them "P a c h u c o s." The p i c t u r e w hich em erges from an e x a m in a tio n o f r e s p o n d e n t s ' d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e s o c i a l c l a s s s t r u c t u r e i s a c o n g ru e n t, i f n o t a c o n s i s t e n t o ne. T hat i s , th e d e s c r i p t i o n s do n o t c o n t r a d i c t e a c h o t h e r ; t h e y a p p e a r to d i s a g r e e p r i m a r i l y w ith r e g a r d to w here th e b o u n d a rie s s h o u ld be draw n. Four d i f f e r e n t s t a t u s l e v e l s a p p e a r i n th e d e s c r i p t i o n s : ( l ) a p o o r, s e m i - l i t e r a t e group o f u n s k i l l e d w o rk e rs who do n o t t r y to " g e t a h e a d " ; (2) a r e s p e c t a b l e gro u p o f w orking c l a s s p e o p le , i n t e r e s t e d i n e d u c a ti o n and g e t t i n g ah ead ; (3) b e t t e r - p a i d w o rk e rs, e s p e c i a l l y w e ll e d u c a te d and a c c u l t u r a t e d ; (4) a b u s i n e s s o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s o c i a l and c i v i c e l i t e . Almost a l l in f o r m a n ts who d ic h o to m iz e d th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e d id so betw een l e v e l s ( l ) and ( 2 ) ; o n ly one in f o r m a n t drew t h e 186 bo u n d ary betw een (2) and (3) and o n ly t h r e e in f o r m a n ts drew i t betw een l e v e l s (3) and (4 ). These in f o r m a n ts g ro u p in g l e v e l s (2) (3) and (4) i n t o one s o c i a l c l a s s g e n e r a l l y c a l l e d i t "m iddle c l a s s , " and c a l l e d l e v e l (1) "lo w er c l a s s . " I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, each o f th e s e two c l a s s e s were c a l l e d "w orking c l a s s " by^ a few in f o r m a n ts ; as a m a t t e r o f f a c t , a l l in f o r m a n ts who drew th e l i n e betw een (3) and (4) c a l l e d th e combined ( l ) - ( 2 ) - ( 3 ) c l a s s t h e "w orking c l a s s . " P e rso n s p e r c e i v i n g t h r e e c l a s s e s m ost f r e q u e n t l y o m it t e d m e n tio n in g e i t h e r l e v e l (3) o r l e v e l ( 4 ) , i . e . , th e y combined t h e s e two l e v e l s . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R e sp o n d e n ts and Number o f C la s s e s P e r c e iv e d The number o f M exican-A m erican s o c i a l c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d by r e s p o n d e n ts i n th e w r i t e r ' s sam ple v a r i e d from one t o f o u r . Of t h e r e s e a r c h e r ’ s sam ple 7 3 -4 p e r c e n t w ere a b le to s t a t e th e number o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s th e y b e l i e v e d e x i s t e d among th e p e r s o n s o f Mexican d e s c e n t i n Pomona. Of t h e s e r e s p o n d e n t s .23 -1 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d one - - c l a s s , 4 1 .7 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d two c l a s s e s , 3 1 .5 p e r c e n t 187 p e r c e i v e d t h r e e c l a s s e s , and 3*7 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d f o u r c l a s s e s . The te n d e n c y to p e r c e i v e a g iv e n number o f c l a s s e s was a s s o c i a t e d w ith c e r t a i n o b j e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e s p o n d e n t s . Thus, f o r exam ple, th e more s c h o o lin g a r e s p o n d e n t h ad , th e more l i k e l y he was to p e r c e i v e two c l a s s e s th a n one c l a s s ; o r on th e o t h e r hand, as i n d i c a t e d i n T able 40, th e p r o p o r t i o n s o f r e s p o n d e n ts i n e a c h o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s p e r c e i v i n g t h r e e o r f o u r c l a s s e s were v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l . The c h i s q u a re f o r t h i s t a b l e i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l . The p r o p o r t i o n o f p e r s o n s p r e f e r r i n g E n g lis h f o r th e i n t e r v i e w was h i g h e r among r e s p o n d e n ts p e r c e i v i n g two to f o u r c l a s s e s and lo w e r among th o s e p e r c e i v i n g o n e, th a n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f S p a n ish s p e a k e r s , a s m a n if e s te d i n T ab le 4 l , th e c h i s q u a re f o r w h ich i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l . S i m i l a r l y , th e p r o p o r t i o n o f p e rs o n s u n d e r 40 y e a r s o f age p e r c e i v i n g two to f o u r c l a s s e s was h i g h e r , and th e p r o p o r t i o n o f th o se p e r c e i v i n g one c l a s s was lo w e r th a n f o r re s p o n d e n ts o v e r 40, a s seen i n T a b le 42. The c h i s q u a re f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . 188 TABLE 40 SCHOOLING AND NUMBER OP CLASSES PERCEIVED Y ears of S c h o o lin g Number o f C la s s e s P e rc e iv e d T o ta l One Two Three o r Four Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t 0 -8 16 45-7 7 2 0 .0 12 3 4 .3 35 1 0 0 .0 9-11 5 13-9 18 5 0 .0 13 3 6 .1 36 1 0 0 .0 12 o r More 4 1 0 .8 20 5 4 .1 13 35-1 37 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 25 23-1 45 4 1 .7 38 35-2 108 1 0 0 .0 chi s q u a r e = 1 7 -4 2 p = < . 01 C = . 373 189 TABLE 41 LANGUAGE PREFERENCE AND NUMBER OF CLASSES PERCEIVED Number o f C la s s e s P e r c e iv e d T h ree o r One Two Four T o t a l Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- P er Language b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t E n g l i s h 13 1 5 .9 39 4 7 .6 30 3 6 .5 82 1 0 0 .0 S p a n is h 12 4 6 .2 6 2 3 .1 8 3 0 .8 26 1 0 0 .1 T o t a l 25 23 . I 45 4 1 .7 38 3 5 -2 108 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a r e = 1 0 . 8 9 p = < . 0 1 C = .303 190 TABLE 42 AGE AND NUMBER OF CLASSES PERCEIVED Number o f C l a s s e s P e r c e iv e d T h ree o r One Two_____ Four T o t a l Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- P e r Age b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t 2 0 -3 9 11 1 5 -9 33 4 7 -8 25 3 6 .2 69 99 -9 4 0 -8 9 14 3 5 -9 12 3 0 .8 13 3 3 .3 39 100. 0 T o t a l 25 2 3 .1 45 4 1 .7 38 3 5 .2 108 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a re = 6 .0 9 P = .04 C = .230 191 W ith one e x c e p t i o n , th e l a t e r th e g e n e r a t i o n o f th e r e s p o n d e n t th e h i g h e r was th e p r o p o r t i o n o f r e s p o n d e n ts p e r c e i v i n g two to f o u r c l a s s e s , and th e s m a l l e r th e p r o p o r t i o n o f th o s e p e r c e i v i n g o n ly one, a s shown i n T ab le 43- The m odal c a t e g o r y f o r th e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n was one c l a s s , f o r th e second g e n e r a t i o n two c l a s s e s , and f o r l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s t h r e e o r f o u r c l a s s e s . Chi s q u a re f o r t h i s t a b l e i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . In a d d i t i o n to t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s i n sam p lin g d e s ig n , th e v a r i o u s r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s d e l i n e a t e d by th e w r i t e r were s e t up b e c a u se o f a b a s i c a ssu m p tio n t h a t s t a t u s o f an a r e a and s t a t u s o f p e r s o n s r e s i d i n g in i t and t h e i r modes o f p e r c e p t i o n were a s s o c i a t e d v a r i a b l e s . Almost h a l f o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts i n t h e h i g h e r (A and B) and lo w e r (E) r a n k i n g a r e a s c o u ld p e r c e i v e no c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s among Pom ona's Mexican p o p u l a t i o n , w h ile o n ly s l i g h t l y more th a n a t h i r d o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts i n Areas C and D were u n a b le to do so . I t would a p p e a r a s th o ugh p e r s o n s i n th e i n t e r m e d i a t e a r e a s w ere somewhat more c l a s s c o n s c io u s . When we c o n s i d e r th e r e s p o n d e n ts who d i d s t a t e t h e y p e r c e i v e d two o r more s o c i a l c l a s s e s , how ever, a somewhat d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e em erges. In A reas A and B more 192 TABLE 43 GENERATION AND NUMBER OF CLASSES PERCEIVED G e n e r a tio n Number < o f C la s s e s P e r c e iv e d T o ta l One Two T hree o r Four Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r ~ P er c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t F i r s t 10 4 7 .6 7 3 3 .3 4 1 9.0 21 99-9 Second 12 1 8 .5 30 4 6 .2 23 3 5 .4 65 1 0 0 .1 L a t e r 3 1 3 .6 8 3 6 .4 11 5 0 .0 22 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 25 2 3 .1 45 4 1 .7 38 35-2 108 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a re = 1 0 .5 5 p = .04 C = .298 TABLE 4 4 OCCUPATION AND NUMBER OP CLASSES PERCEIVED Number o f C la s se s P e rc e iv e d One Two Three o r Pour T o ta l O ccupation Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Mean R e l i e f 2 50.0 __ 2 5 0 .0 4 100.0 2 .0 0 L ab o rers Semi- 10 27.8 11 30.6 15 41 .6 36 100.0 2.22 S k i l l e d S k i l l e d W hite- 7 2 5 .0 10 35-7 11 39-3 28 100.0 2 .1 8 C o lla r 3 15-8 11 5 7 .9 5 26.3 19 10 0.0 2.11 T o ta l 25 c h i sq uare 23.1 - 8.74 45 4 1 .7 P = 38 .02 35-2 C = . 108 274 10 0.0 2.16 i —1 VO -pr 195 num ber o f S p a n is h - la n g u a g e com m unication m edia u t i l i z e d . P e r c e p t i o n o f A nglo C l a s s S y s te m Each r e s p o n d e n t was a ls o a sk e d to d e s c r i b e th e Anglo c l a s s sy ste m by means o f th e q u e s t i o n : "Now, co n s i d e r i n g a l l t h e p e o p le o f Pomona e x c e p t th o s e o f M exican d e s c e n t , how many s o c i a l c l a s s e s would you s a y t h e r e a r e ? " T a b le 45 shows t h a t 33 r e s p o n d e n ts w ere a b le to s p e c i f y t h e number o f c l a s s e s n e i t h e r f o r t h e Mexican g ro u p n o r f o r th e Anglo g ro u p . Of th o s e who c o u ld n o t d e s c r i b e a c l a s s s y s te m s , 6 c o u ld do so f o r th e A nglos, and o f th o s e who c o u ld n o t do so f o r t h e A nglos, 17 c o u ld do so f o r t h e M exicans. Of th o s e who p e r c e i v e d o n ly one c l a s s among t h e M exicans, a lm o s t h a l f (12) gave no answ er c o n c e rn in g Anglo c l a s s e s : o f th o s e who d id , 6 p e r c e i v e d th e same num ber among t h e A nglos, a lth o u g h a lm o s t as many (5) p e r c e i v e d two c l a s s e s among t h e Anglos. The p r o p o r t i o n o f t h o s e p e r c e i v i n g two, t h r e e o r f o u r M exican c l a s s e s who w ere u n a b le t o answ er th e q u e s t io n a b o u t Anglo c l a s s e s w ere r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll: 6 . 7 , 5*9, and 0 .0 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y . Of th o s e who p e r c e i v e d two M exican s o c i a l c l a s s e s , 33*3 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d two c l a s s e s among th e 193 p e rs o n s p e r c e i v e d two c l a s s e s th a n th re e o r f o u r c l a s s e s ; the same i s t r u e in Areas C and D, but th e d i f f e r e n c e i s s l i g h t . In Area E the r e l a t i o n s h i p i s r e v e r s e d , w ith few er p e rs o n s p e r c e i v i n g o n ly two. None o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n ce s, however, re a c h th e .05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e . Table 44 shows th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een the number of c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d and th e o c cu p a tio n o f t h e re sp o n d en t (or o f th e h e ad o f h o u seh o ld i f th e re s p o n d e n t was a h o u se w ife ). I t i s seen t h a t l a b o r e r s and s e m i - s k i l l e d w o rk ers p e r c e i v e d a mean number o f c l a s s e s ( 2 .2 2 and 2 .1 8 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) h ig h e r th a n th e mean f o r a l l resp o n d e n ts ( 2 .1 6 ) , w h ile s k i l l e d w orkers and w h ite c o l l a r w orkers p e r c e i v e d a mean number o f c l a s s e s ( 2 .1 0 and 2.11 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) low er th a n th e mean f o r a l l r e s p o n d e n ts . Chi sq u a re f o r th e t a b l e re a c h e s th e .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i cance. This i s th e o n ly s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p found which was i n a d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e to t h a t p r e d i c t e d by t h e w r i t e r . There was no a s s o c i a t i o n between num ber o f c l a s s e s p e r c e iv e d and any o f th e fo llo w in g v a r i a b l e s : sex, number of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m em berships, t o t a l fa m ily incom e, number of fam ily.m em b ers w ith whom S p a n ish was spo ken o r the 196 TABLE 45 NUMBER OF MEXICAN AND ANGLO CLASSES PERCEIVED Number o f Mexican Number o f C la s s e s P e rc e iv e d Anglo C la s se s Sub- No P e rc e iv e d Five Four T hree Two One T o ta l Answer T o ta l Five - - 1 1 — 1 Four — 4 3 3 10 1 11 Three — - - 26 24 2 52 2 54 Two - - - - 1 15 5 21 2 . 23 One - - 1 - - 6 7 1 8 S u b - t o t a l - - - 32 42 13 91 6 97 No Answer - -* *“ “ 2 3 12 17 33 50 T o ta l . . 4 34 45 25 108 39 147 197 A nglos, 53*3 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d t h r e e c l a s s e s among th e Anglos and 6 . 7 p e r c e n t f o u r c l a s s e s among th e A nglos. Of th o s e who p e r c e i v e d t h r e e M exican c l a s s e s 7 6.5 p e r c e n t a l s o p e r c e i v e d t h r e e among t h e A nglos, w i t h 8 .8 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v i n g f o u r and one c a s e p e r c e i v i n g f i v e among th e A nglos. A ll r e s p o n d e n t s who p e r c e i v e d f o u r c l a s s e s among th e M exicans d i d l i k e w i s e f o r t h e A n g lo s. T ab le 45 p o i n t s o u t th e s t r o n g te n d e n c y f o r Pom ona's M exicans to p e r c e i v e t h r e e s o c i a l c l a s s e s among Pom ona's A n g lo s. Of a l l r e s p o n d e n t s who w ere a b le to answ er th e q u e s t i o n a b o u t Anglo c l a s s e s , 5 6 .7 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d t h r e e Anglo c l a s s e s ; 2 3 .7 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d tw o, 1 1 .3 p e r c e n t p e r c e iv e d f o u r , 8 .2 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d one and 1 .0 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d f i v e . Thus T a b le 45 m a n i f e s t s a s t r o n g te n d e n c y t o p e r c e i v e two s o c i a l c l a s s e s among th e M e x ica n s, w ith a lm o s t as s t r o n g a te n d e n c y to p e r c e i v e a t h r e e c l a s s sy ste m . The te n d e n c y t o p e r c e i v e t h r e e Anglo c l a s s e s , how ever, i s more th a n tw ic e a s s t r o n g a s th e te n d e n c y to p e r c e i v e two Anglo c l a s s e s . W hile 25 r e s p o n d e n t s p e r c e i v e d b u t a s i n g l e s o c i a l c l a s s f o r th e M e x ica n s, o n ly 8 d i d so f o r th e Anglos. Of a l l r e s p o n d e n t s d e s c r i b i n g b o th s y s te m s , 38 p e r c e i v e d 198 more Anglo th a n Mexican c l a s s e s , 51 p e r c e i v e d th e same number, and o n ly 2 p e r c e i v e d more Mexican th a n Anglo c l a s s e s . A t h r e e - c e l l c h i - s q u a r e t a b l e c a l c u l a t e d f o r th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e .01 l e v e l . C r i t e r i a o f S o c i a l S t a t u s The r e s e a r c h e r was i n t e r e s t e d i n th e c r i t e r i a u se d by r e s p o n d e n ts i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g th e v a r i o u s s o c i a l c l a s s e s . For exam ple, Anglos a r e s a i d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t M exicans p a r t i a l l y a c c o rd in g to d a rk n e ss o f pigm en t a t i o n . 1 But i n e v a l u a t i n g th e s t a t u s o f M exicans, th e l a t t e r th e m s e lv e s do n o t u se th e c r i t e r i o n o f s k in c o l o r . There was no c a s e o f th e u se o f t h i s c r i t e r i o n i n th e sample i n t e r v i e w e d by t h e w r i t e r . One c r i t e r i o n fo u n d to be im p o r ta n t by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s , b u t n o t by th e w r i t e r i s r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a . T h is c r i t e r i o n was n o t u s e d by any r e s p o n d e n t i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g th e M exican-A m erican s o c i a l c l a s s e s , a lth o u g h i t ■^Manuel Gamio, M exican Im m ig ra tio n to th e U n ited S t a t e s (C h icag o: U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 19 3 0 ), p. 53. 199 was u s e d tw ic e f o r th e Anglo c l a s s e s . A c tu a lly t h e r e would a p p e a r to be more c o r r e l a t i o n betw een house ty p e and s o c i a l c l a s s t h a n betw een t h e l a t t e r and r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s i n Pomona. Such would a p p e a r t o be th e case b e c a u se o f h o u sin g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n e a r l i e r y e a r s . Those who w anted b e t t e r h o u sin g d id n o t move i n t o b e t t e r a r e a s ; t h e y sim p ly b u i l t a b e t t e r house on an empty l o t i n th e same a r e a . The d e s i r e to r e s i d e in th e same a r e a s a s f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s h as a l s o been an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r . On th e o t h e r hand, some M exican f a m i l i e s occupy r e l a t i v e l y p o o r d w e ll in g s i n b e t t e r r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s . Each r e s p o n d e n t i n th e w r i t e r ' s sample was asked b r i e f l y to d e s c r i b e th e s o c i a l c l a s s e s he had named. In many c a s e s d e s c r i p t i o n s were g iv e n w i t h o u t s p e c i f i c c l a s s l a b e l s . R esp on dents were n o t alw ays c o n s i s t e n t a b o u t t h e i r use o f c r i t e r i a . Thus, f o r exam ple, th e y m ight make u se o f a g iv e n c r i t e r i o n in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g th e low er c l a s s from th e m id d le c l a s s , y e t d i s t i n g u i s h th e u p p e r c l a s s from th e m id dle c l a s s on an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t b a s i s . The c r i t e r i a u se d by r e s p o n d e n ts i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g v a r i o u s - s o c i a l c l a s s e s have been c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r a number o f h e a d in g s by th e w r i t e r . T ab le 46 r e v e a l s th e number o f 200 tim e s eac h c r i t e r i o n was u se d by r e s p o n d e n ts i n c h a r a c t e r - i z i n g th e Mexican a n d Anglo c l a s s sy ste m s i n Pomona. Some r e s p o n d e n t s , of c o u r s e , u sed more th a n one c r i t e r i o n . The ty p e s o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s t h a t were c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r each c a t e g o r y o f c r i t e r i a a re as f o llo w s . Economic p o s i t i o n . T h is c a te g o r y r e f e r s to th e p o s s e s s i o n (or l a c k ) o f w e a lth o r o t h e r m a t e r i a l p o s s e s s i o n s , and c r i t e r i a r e f e r r i n g t o s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g . O c c u p a tio n . This c a t e g o r y r e f e r s e i t h e r to ty p e 2 o f o c c u p a tio n , o r s i t u s o r ty p e of i n d u s t r y . M o b ility o r i e n t a t i o n . Under t h i s h e a d in g have b e en g ro u p ed c r i t e r i a r e l a t i n g to p e r s o n s h a v in g o r l a c k in g an o r i e n t a t i o n to w ard s o c i a l m o b i l i t y , g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d to by r e s p o n d e n ts a s "w anting t o g e t a h ea d . " E d u c a tio n . Under t h i s h e ad in g a r e i n c l u d e d th e p o s s e s s i o n o f o r t h e d e s ir e by r e s p o n d e n ts f o r an a d e q u a te e d u c a t i o n e i t h e r f o r th e m se lv e s o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n . Way o f l i f e . Under t h i s h e a d in g have been t a b u l a t e d c r i t e r i a d e s c r i p t i v e o f w hat i s g e n e r a l l y known as 2By " s i t u s " i s meant a s e c t o r o f th e economy, s u c h as i n d u s t r y , a g r i c u l t u r e , commerce, o r d o m e stic s e r v i c e . 201 TABLE 46 CRITERIA USED IN DIFFERENTIATING SOCIAL CLASSES C r i t e r i o n Number o f R esp o n d e n ts Using Given C r i t e r i o n * M exican C la s s e s Anglo C la s s e s Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Economic P o s i t i o n 30 39-5 41 5 1 -3 O ccup ation 16 21 .1 18 2 2 .5 M o b ility O r i e n t a t i o n 14 1 8 .4 12 15-0 E d u c a tio n 12 15-8 12 1 5 .0 Way o f L if e 14 1 8 .4 11 1 3 .8 S o c i a b i l i t y 11 1 4 .5 8 1 0 .0 R e s i d e n t i a l Area - - - - 2 2 .5 T re a tm e n t o f M exicans * " * “ — — 2 2 .5 T o ta l 76 80 ♦Since some r e s p o n d e n ts gave more th a n one c r i t e r i o n , p e r c e n t a g e s do n o t add up t o 100, n o r can t o t a l s be o b t a i n e d by summing f i g u r e s i n "Number" column. 202 " s u b c u l t u r e " o r " s t y l e o f l i f e , " i n c l u d i n g i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n - a l d i f f e r e n c e s , and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r , su ch as th e way p e o p le " a c t" and d r e s s , e . g . , w h e th e r " r e s p e c t a b ly " o r n o t . S o c i a b i l i t y . Under t h i s h e a d in g have been in c l u d e d c r i t e r i a r e l a t i n g to p e o p l e 's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n " s o c i a l " e v e n ts and " c i v i c " a c t i v i t i e s ; and t h e i r m em bership i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g r e f e r e n c e s to th e s t a t u s l e v e l o f Mexican community. The p r e c e d in g c a t e g o r i e s a l l r e f e r t o c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f Mexican c l a s s e s . T here were two c r i t e r i a u se d f o r Anglo c l a s s e s b u t n o t f o r M exican c l a s s e s . These r e f e r to r e s p e c t i v e l y ( l ) th e t r e a t m e n t o f M exicans by A nglos, and (2) a r e a o f r e s i d e n c e . r e s p o n d e n ts w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e m ost im p o r ta n t d i f f e r e n c e s p e r c e i v e d i n th e M exican community w ith th e c r i t e r i a th e y employed i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g th e s o c i a l c l a s s e s o r l e v e l s , a s shown i n T ab le 47. Those s e e in g a c c u l t u r a t i o n as th e m ost i m p o r t a n t c a t e g o r y o f d i f f e r e n c e s u se d o c c u p a t i o n m ost f r e q u e n t l y among th e c r i t e r i a o f s o c i a l c l a s s . Those r e s p o n d e n ts who p e r c e i v e d c l a s s o r s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e s and a s s i s t a n c e t o th e I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to compare th e judgm ents o f TABLE 47 SOCIAL DIFFERENCES PERCEIVED AND CRITERIA USED FOR SOCIAL CLASSES Most Im p o rtan t S o c ia l Economic P o s i ti o n Occupa t i o n M o b ility O r ie n ta t i o n Educa t i o n Way o f L ife S o c ia b i l i t y No D if f e re n c e s P e rc e iv e d No. Per c e n t No. Per c en t No. Per c en t No. Per c en t No. Per c e n t No. Per c en t Sub t o t a l C r i t e r i o n T o ta l A c c u ltu r a t i o n 3 14 .3 6 28.6 4 19.0 3 1 4 .3 3 14.3 2 9.5 21 12 33 C lass o r S ta tu s 11 28 .2 5 1 2 .8 7 1 7 .9 4 10 .3 8 20.5 4 10.3 39 6 45 E d u catio n 3 23*1 3 23.1 1 7-7 4 3 0 .8 1 7 .7 1 7 .7 13 1 14 O ther 4 80.0 — 1 2 0 .0 5 8 13 S u b to ta l 21 26 .9 14 17-9 13 1 6 .7 11 14.1 12 1 5 .4 7 9 .0 78 27 105 No d a ta 9 4 7 .4 2 10.5 1 5 .3 1 5 .3 2 10.5 4 2 1 .0 19 44 63 T o ta l 30 3 0 .9 16 16.5 14 1 4 .4 12 1 2 .4 14 1 4 .4 11 1 1 .3 97 71 168 203 204 a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t , u s e d eco n o m ic p o s i t i o n a s a c r i t e r i o n m ore t h a n a n y o t h e r . T h o se p e r c e i v i n g e d u c a t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s a s m o st i m p o r t a n t a l s o u s e d e d u c a t i o n a s t h e i r c h i e f c r i t e r i o n o f s o c i a l c l a s s . Members o f d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s t e n d e d t o e m p h a s iz e d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a , b u t n o n e o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s , shown i n T a b le 48, r e a c h t h e s t a t i s t i c a l l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h u s, t h e h i g h e r r a n k i n g t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y , t h e m ore t e n d e n c y t h e r e was t o e m p h a s iz e o c c u p a t i o n , b u t l e s s t e n d e n c y t o e m p h a s iz e e c o n o m ic p o s i t i o n and s o c i a b i l i t y . The m o d a l c a t e g o r y f o r a l l o c c u p a t i o n a l l e v e l s was e co n o m ic p o s i t i o n ; i n a d d i t i o n t h e s k i l l e d w o r k e r s h a d a s t a t i s t i c a l mode i n m o b i l i t y o r i e n t a t i o n an d t h e w h i t e c o l l a r w o r k e r s h a d a s t a t i s t i c a l mode i n o c c u p a t i o n . TABLE 48 OCCUPATION AND CRITERIA USED FOR SOCIAL CLASSES O ccupation C r i t e r i o n Used f o r S o c ia l C la s se s Sub t o t a l No Data T o ta l Economic P o s itio n Occupa t i o n M o b ility O r ie n ta t i o n Educa t i o n Way of L ife S o c ia b i l i t y No. Per c en t No. Per cen t Per No. c en t Per No. cen t No. Per c e n t No. Per c en t R e l i e f 1 5 0.0 1 5 0.0 2 7 9 L ab o rers 10 38.5 2 7 .7 3 H . 5 1 3-8 6 23.1 4 15 .4 26 26 52 S e m i-S k ille d 7 29-2 4 16.7 2 8.3 4 16.7 4 1 6 .7 3 12.5 24 19 43 S k i l l e d 6 26.1 4 1 7 .4 6 26.1 4 17-4 1 4 .3 2 8.7 23 15 38 S k ille d -W h ite C o lla r 6 27 .3 6 27.3 3 13.6 3 13-6 3 13.6 1 4.5 22 4 26 T o ta l 30 16 14 12 14 11 97 71 168 CHAPTER VI SELF-PERCEPTION BY MEXICAN-AMERICANS The p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r d e a l t w ith th e s o c i a l - c l a s s s t r u c t u r e o f Pom ona's M exican-A m erican community as p e r c e i v e d by th e members o f t h a t community. The p r e s e n t c h a p t e r i s c o n c e rn e d w ith each i n f o r m a n t 's p e r c e p t i o n o f h i s own p la c e i n t h a t s t r u c t u r e . S e l f - P l a c e m e n t i n C la s s S t r u c t u r e A fte r b e in g a sk e d to d e s c r i b e t h e M exican-A m erican c l a s s s t r u c t u r e o f Pomona, e a c h re s p o n d e n t was a sk ed "Which s o c i a l c l a s s would you p u t y o u r s e l f i n ? " I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, l 4 p e rs o n s who w ere u n a b le to p e r c e i v e c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n th e M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n (o r a t l e a s t who s t a t e d t h e y were u n a b le to p e r c e i v e such d i f f e r e n c e s ) , were a b l e to s t a t e t h e i r own s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n , as t h e y p e r c e i v e d I t . In such c a s e s i t can o n ly be assum ed t h a t t h e y a re p l a c i n g th e m s e lv e s i n a c l a s s o f 206 th e Anglo o r g e n e r a l c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , o r e l s e th e y b e l i e v e t h a t a l l M exicans a r e a t th e same l e v e l i n t h e Anglo o r g e n e r a l c l a s s s t r u c t u r e . S e l f - p e r c e i v e d c l a s s l e v e l s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T ab le 49. P e rs o n s c l a s s i f y i n g th e m s e lv e s a s u p p e r c l a s s saw th e m s e lv e s a s b e lo n g i n g t o t h e to p c l a s s i n e i t h e r a tw o -o r t h r e e - c l a s s sy s te m . P e rs o n s c l a s s i f y i n g th e m s e lv e s a s m id d le c l a s s p r e d o m in a n tly (44 o u t o f 59 c a s e s ) p l a c e d th e m s e lv e s e i t h e r i n th e to p c l a s s o f a tw o- c l a s s sy stem o r i n th e medium c l a s s o f a t h r e e - c l a s s s y s tem . P e rs o n s c l a s s i f y i n g th e m s e lv e s a s lo w e r c l a s s m a in ly ( l y o u t o f 19 c a s e s ) p e r c e i v e d th e m s e lv e s e i t h e r a s members o f a s i n g l e c o lo n y -w id e s o c i a l c l a s s o r as b e lo n g in g to t h e b otto m c l a s s o f e i t h e r a t w o - c l a s s o r a t h r e e - c l a s s sy s te m . T a b le 49 shows t h a t o f r e s p o n d e n t s p e r c e i v i n g a t w o - c l a s s sy stem r o u g h l y e q u a l p r o p o r t i o n s p l a c e d them s e l v e s i n t h e to p l e v e l (53*7 p e r c e n t ) and i n th e b ottom l e v e l (4 6 .3 p e r c e n t ) . Of r e s p o n d e n t s p e r c e i v i n g a t h r e e - c l a s s s y s te m , th e o v erw helm ing m a j o r i t y p l a c e d th e m s e lv e s i n t h e m id d le l e v e l ( 8 1 .8 p e r c e n t ) . The f o u r r e s p o n d e n t s who p e r c e i v e d f o u r s o c i a l c l a s s e s a l l p l a c e d th e m s e lv e s i n one o f th e two m id d le l e v e l s . Of p e r s o n s p e r c e i v i n g a TABLE 49 CLASS SELF-PLACEMENT AND NUMBER OF CLASSES PERCEIVED C l a s s S e l f - P l a c e m ent S i n g l e C l a s s Two - C l a s s S ystem T h re e - C l a s s System F o u r - C l a s s S ystem T o t a l Top C l a s s B ottom C l a s s Top C l a s s M id d le C la s s B ottom C l a s s S eco n d C l a s s from Top S econd C l a s s from Bottom No. P e r c e n t No. P e r c e n t P e r No. c e n t No P e r . c e n t No. P e r c e n t No. P e r c e n t No P e r . c e n t P e r No. c e n t No. P e r c e n t U pper __ _ _ _ _ — 1 33-3 2 66.7 3 100.0 M id d le 3 ■5.6 19 35-2 6 11.1 — - - 25 4 6 .3 — - - 1 1 .7 54 100.1 W orking 8 4 0 .0 - - - - 9 4 5 .0 - - 1 5 .0 — 5 .0 — 2 10.0 20 100.0 Lower 4 30.8 — — --- 5 38.5 4 3 0 .8 13 100.1 T o t a l 15 16.7 20 2 2 .2 20 2 2 .2 2 2 .2 26 28.9 4 4 .4 1 1 .1 2 2 .2 90 10 0 .2 Mean U pper 2.6 7 M id d le 2 .4 4 W orking 1 . 85 Lower 2 .0 0 c h i sq u a re = 2 4.5 2 p = < . 0 1 C = .430 r o o 00 209 s i n g l e c l a s s system , 4 0 . 0 p e r c e n t were u n a b le t o s t a t e t h e name o f t h e c l a s s o r c h a r a c t e r i z e i t i n any way; o f t h o s e p e r c e i v i n g two c l a s s e s , 8 - 9 p e r c e n t were u n a b le to p l a c e th e m s e lv e s w i t h i n i t and 2 . 9 p e r c e n t o f t h o s e p e r c e i v i n g a t h r e e - c l a s s sy ste m , w h ile t h e r e were no p e r so n s p e r c e i v i n g a f o u r - c l a s s sy s te m who w ere u n a b le to p l a c e th e m s e lv e s i n t h e system . The c h i sq u a re f o r Table 49 i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l . Of t h e w r i t e r ' s t o t a l sam p le o f 147, 40 r e s p o n d e n t s , o r 27-2 p e r c e n t were u n a b le o r u n w i l l i n g t o c a t e g o r i z e t h e i r own s o c i a l c l a s s m em bership. Of th e 107 r e s p o n d e n t s who were a b l e and w i l l i n g to do so, 3 o r 2 .8 p e r c e n t c l a s s i f i e d th e m s e lv e s a s u p p er c l a s s , 59 o r 55-1 p e r c e n t as m id d le c l a s s , 23 o r 2 1 .5 p e r c e n t as w o rk in g c l a s s , and 16 o r 1 5 -0 p e r c e n t a s lo w er c l a s s . The an sw ers o f an a d d i t i o n a l 6 r e s p o n d e n t s , c o n s t i t u t i n g 5 -6 p e r c en t w ere c l a s s i f i e d as " o t h e r . " The M exicans o f Pomona, as com pared w ith C e n t e r s ' n a tio n w id e sam ple, were l e s s l i k e l y to c a l l th e m s e lv e s u p p e r c l a s s o r w orkin g c l a s s , b u t more l i k e l y to c a l l th e m s e lv e s m id d le o r lo w e r c l a s s . In C e n t e r s ' s t u d y th e p e r c e n t a g e s w e re : u p p e r c l a s s , 4j 210 m id d le , 26; w orking, 52; and " d o n 't know," 3*^ The w r i t e r ' s p e rc e n ta g e o f 27.2 f o r th e " d o n 't know" c a te g o ry , as compared t o C e n te r s ' p e rc e n ta g e o f o n ly 3 can be a t t r i b u t e d n o t o n ly to g r e a t e r i n a b i l i t y to answer th e q u e s t io n , b u t a l s o to t h e f a c t t h a t in Pomona re sp o n d e n ts were n o t f o r c e d to choose a c a te g o r y . R espondents who c l a s s i f i e d th em se lv e s as u p p er, m id d le , w orking o r low er c l a s s were i n a number o f r e s p e c t s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from th o se who c o u ld n o t answ er the q u e s t io n o r whose answ er co uld n o t be c l a s s i f i e d u n d er one o f the f o u r c l a s s e s m entioned. Persons o f th e l a t t e r c a te g o r y had low er incom es, were o l d e r , more o f them p r e f e r r e d S panish f o r the i n t e r v i e w , th e y had l e s s s c h o o lin g , and o f the men few er were v e t e r a n s . And u n d e r s t a n d a b l y , a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n were a ls o a b le to p e r c e iv e c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s and p e r c e iv e d a l a r g e r number o f c l a s s e s . These d i f f e r e n c e s , a l l s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l , a re shown i n T a b le s 50, 51, 5 2 , 53, 5^, 55, and 5 6 . In a d d i t i o n , r e s p o n d e n ts who d i d n o t p la c e th e m se lv e s i n one o f th e f o u r c l a s s e s had l e s s s k i l l e d o c c u p a tio n s , were more o f 1R ic h a rd C e n te rs , The Psychology o f S o c ia l C la s se s ( P r i n c e t o n : P rin c e to n U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1 9 ^ 9 ), P* 72. 211 TABLE 50 INCOME AND CLASS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS T o ta l P e r c e iv e Annual Own C lass Do Not Own P e rc e iv e C la ss T o ta l F am ily Num- Income b er Per cent Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Under $4,000 14 43.8 18 5 6 .2 32 10 0 .0 4 ,0 0 0 - 5 j 999 32 74.4 11 2 5 .6 43 10 0 .0 6 ,0 0 0 - 7 ,9 9 9 28 75.7 9 2 4 .3 37 1 0 0 .0 8,000 o r More 22 88.0 3 1 2 .0 25 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 96 70.1 41 2 9 .9 137 100.0 c h i square = 15.25 P = < .01 C = • 317 212 TABLE 51 AGE AND GLASS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS Age P e r c e i v e Own C l a s s Do N ot P e r c e i v e Own C l a s s T o t a l Num b e r P e r c e n t Num- P e r b e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t 20-39 66 7 7 .6 19 2 2 .4 85 10 0.0 40-89 35 5 6 .5 27 43 .5 62 100.0 T o t a l 101 6 8 .7 46 31•3 147 100.0 c h i s q u a r e = 7 .5 4 p = < . 01 C = .221 213 TABLE 52 LANGUAGE PREFERENCE AND CLASS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS Language P e r c e iv e Own C la s s Do Not Own P e r c e iv e C la s s T o ta l Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t E n g lis h 81 7 7 .9 23 22.1 104 100.0 S p a n ish 20 4 6 .5 23 53-5 43 100.0 T o ta l 101 6 8.7 46 3 1 .3 147 10 0.0 c h i s q u a re = 13 -7 8 P = < .01 C = .293 214 TABLE 53 VETERANS' STATUS AND CLASS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS P e r c e iv e Do Not P e r c e iv e Own C la s s Own C la s s T o ta l V e t e r a n s ' S t a t u s Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t V e t e r a n s 27 93-1 2 6 .9 29 100.0 Non- V e t e r a n s 23 63*9 13 36.1 36 100.0 T o ta l 50 7 6 .9 15 23.1 65 1 0 0 .0 chi square =6.18 p = .02 215 TABLE 54 SCHOOLING AND CLASS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS P e rc e iv e Do Not P e rc e iv e Own C lass Own C la s s T o ta l Years o f Nuin- Per Num Per Num- P e r S c h o o lin g b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t 0-8 28 47-5 31 5 2 .5 59 1 0 0 .0 9-11 38 8O.9 9 19-1 47 1 0 0 .0 12 o r More 35 85 .4 6 1 4 .6 41 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 101 6 8 .7 46 31-3 147 1 0 0 .0 chi square = 20.77 p =<.01 C = *352 216 TABLE 55 CONSCIOUSNESS OF CLASS DIVISIONS AND CLASS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS P e r c e i v e Own C l a s s Do N ot P e r c e i v e Own C l a s s T o t a l Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t P e r c e i v e C l a s s D i v i s i o n s 75 9 0 .4 8 9*6 83 100.0 Do N o t P e r c e i v e C l a s s D i v i s i o n s 26 4 0 .6 38 59*4 64 100.0 T o t a l 101 6 8 .7 46 3 1 -3 147 100.0 c h i s q u a r e = 39*42 p = < . 0 1 C = .460 217 TABLE 56 NUMBER OF CLASSES PERCEIVED AND CLASS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS Number o f C l a s s e s P e r c e i v e d P e r c e iv e Own C la s s Do Not Own P e r c e i v e C la s s T o t a l Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t One 15 6 0 .0 10 4 0 .0 25 1 0 0 .0 Two 40 8 8 .9 5 1 1 .1 45 1 0 0 .0 T h re e o r Four 35 92.1 3 7 . 9 38 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 90 8 3 -3 18 1 6.7 108 1 0 0 .0 chi square = 12.69 p = < .01 C = .324 218 th e im m ig ra n t t h a n o f th e A m e ric an -b o rn g e n e r a t i o n s , and spoke S p a n is h to a l a r g e r number o f f a m ily members. These d i f f e r e n c e s , a l l s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l , a re p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le s 57, 58> and 59* P e rso n s who had been u p w a rd ly o r downw ardly m o b ile w ere more o f t e n a b le t o s t a t e c l a s s th a n t h e non m obile r e s p o n d e n t s ( s e e T ab le 6 0 ). S e l f - P e r c e p t i o n and O th e r P e r c e p t i o n s o f R e s p o n d e n ts The r e s e a r c h e r was i n t e r e s t e d i n any p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een t h e m anner i n w hich r e s p o n d e n t s p e r c e i v e th e m s e lv e s i n th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e and c e r t a i n o t h e r p e r c e p t i o n s o f r e s p o n d e n t s . I t was h y p o t h e s iz e d , f o r ex am p le, t h a t th e h i g h e r th e s e l f - p e r c e i v e d s o c i a l c l a s s t h e l a r g e r w ould be th e mean num ber o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d by members o f t h a t " c l a s s . " In T ab le 49 i t was shown t h a t p e r s o n s i d e n t i f y i n g th e m s e lv e s as u p p e r c l a s s p e r c e i v e d a mean o f 2 .6 7 c l a s s e s ; t h e means f o r t h e o t h e r s e l f - p e r c e i v e d c l a s s e s were m id d le , 2 .4 4 c l a s s e s ; w o rk in g , I .85 c l a s s e s ; and lo w e r, 2 .0 0 c l a s s e s . A ll p e r sons i d e n t i f y i n g a s u p p e r c l a s s w ere a b le t o s t a t e th e number o f c l a s s e s th e y p e r c e i v e d , w i t h 8 .5 p e r c e n t o f th e 219 TABLE 57 OCCUPATION AND CLASS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS P e r c e i v e Do N ot P e r c e i v e Own C l a s s Own C l a s s T o t a l Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- P e r O c c u p a t i o n b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t R e l i e f 3 3 3-3 6 6 6 .7 9 1 0 0 .0 L a b o r e r s 29 6 1 .7 18 3 8 .3 47 1 0 0 .0 S e m i - S k i l l e d 27 7 3 .0 10 2 7 .0 37 1 0 0 .0 S k i l l e d 24 7 0 .6 10 2 9 .4 34 1 0 0 .0 W h ite C o l l a r 18 9 0 .0 2 1 0 .0 20 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 101 6 8 .7 46 3 1 .3 147 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a r e = 11. 04 p = .0 3 C = .26 4 220 TABLE 58 GENERATION AND CLASS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS G e n e r a t i o n P e r c e i v e Own C l a s s Do N o t Own P e r c e i v e C l a s s T o t a l Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t F i r s t 15 4 6 .9 17 5 3-1 32 1 0 0 .0 S e c o n d 64 7 4 .4 22 2 5.6 86 1 0 0 .0 L a t e r 22 7 5 -9 7 2 4 .1 29 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 101 6 8 .7 46 3 1 .3 147 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a re = 9 * 1 3 P = *02 C - .242 221 TABLE 59 NUMBER OP FAMILY MEMBERS WITH W HOM SPANISH SPOKEN AND CLASS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS P e r c e i v e Do Not P e r c e i v e N um ber o f Own C l a s s Own C l a s s T o t a l F a m i l y Num P e r Num P e r Num P e r M em bers b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t 0 -2 57 6 2 .6 34 37-4 91 1 0 0 .0 3 -4 44 7 8 .6 12 2 1 .4 56 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 101 6 8 .7 46 3 1 -3 14-7 1 0 0 .0 chi square =4.05 p = .04 222 TABLE 60 MOBILITY AND CLASS SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS P e rc e iv e Do Not P e r c e iv e Own C la s s Own C la s s T o t a l Type o f M o b i l it y Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Upward 45 7 6 . 3 14 2 3 .7 59 1 0 0 .0 None 25 5 4 .3 21 4 5 .7 46 1 0 0 .0 Downward 30 7 5 . 0 10 2 5 .0 40 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 1 0 0 6 9 - 0 45 3 1 .0 145 1 0 0 .0 chi square =6.70 p = .03 C = .210 223 m id d le c l a s s u n a b le to do so, 1 3 -0 p e r c e n t o f th e w orking c l a s s and 1 8 .8 p e r c e n t o f th e lo w er c l a s s u n a b le to do so. Of p e rs o n s u n a b le to s t a t e th e s o c i a l c l a s s t o w hich th e y b e l i e v e d t h e y b e lo n g e d , 7 0 .0 p e r c e n t w ere u n a b le to s t a t e th e number o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s t h e y p e r c e i v e d i n th e Mexican community. I f th e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s a r e d ic h o to m iz e d i n t o th e h i g h e r - r a n k i n g (A, B, C), and lo w e r - r a n k in g (D and E ), i t i s se en ( in T able 6 l ) t h a t p e rs o n s i n th e h i g h e r ra n k in g a r e a s ra n k th e m s e lv e s h i g h e r as to s o c i a l c l a s s . VJhile 7 1 .9 p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts i n th e h i g h e r - r a n k i n g a r e a s p e r c e i v e d th e m s e lv e s as u p p e r o r m iddle c l a s s , o n ly 4 3 .2 p e r c e n t o f th o s e i n th e lo w e r - r a n k in g a r e a s d id so. On th e o t h e r h an d , w h ile 29*7 p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts i n th e lo w e r - r a n k in g a r e a s th o u g h t th e y were lo w e r c l a s s , o n ly 7.8 p e r c e n t o f th o s e i n th e h i g h e r - r a n k i n g a r e a s th o u g h t so . Chi s q u a re f o r T ab le 61 i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l . A l l s o u r c e s c o n s u l t e d by t h e w r i t e r . a r e i n a g r e e m e n t t h a t o c c u p a t i o n i s a n i m p o r t a n t , i f n o t t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t , c r i t e r i o n u s e d by M e x ic a n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e i r own s t a t u s a n d t h a t o f o t h e r s . TABLE 6 l RESIDENTIAL AREA AND CLASS SELF-PLACEMENT A rea C la s s i S e l f - P l a c e m e n t ? r - r t - j ,1- T o t a l U pper M id d le W orking Low er Num' b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r Num- c e n t b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t A, B, and C 1 1. 6 45 7 0 .3 13 20.3 5 7-8 64 10 0 .0 D a n d E 2 5 .4 14 3 7 .8 10 27.0 11 29.7 37 99-9 T o t a l 3 3-0 59 5 8 .4 23 2 2 .8 16 15.8 101 100.0 c h i s q u a r e = 10.59 p = < .01 C = .308 ro ro Simmons b e l i e v e s , f o r exam ple, t h a t " O c c u p a tio n a l s t a t u s i s o r d i n a r i l y s u f f i c i e n t t o d e te r m in e m em bership i n one p c l a s s o r th e o t h e r . " I t may be t r u e i n f a c t o f Am erican •3 s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l . Thus s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n s h o u ld be c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e r e l a t i v e r a n k in g o f o c c u p a t i o n s . The w r i t e r h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t i n Pomona th e h i g h e r th e r a n k i n g o f th e o c c u p a ti o n o f th e r e s p o n d e n t , t h e h i g h e r he w ould r a n k h i m s e l f a s to s o c i a l c l a s s . D ata i n s u p p o r t o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 62 where i t i s se e n t h a t f o r e v e r y o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y , th e p e r c e n t a g e o f p e r s o n s c l a s s i f y i n g th e m s e lv e s a s m id d le c l a s s i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f th o s e c l a s s i f y i n g th e m s e lv e s a s w orking c l a s s , w hich i n t u r n i s h i g h e r th a n t h a t f o r lo w er c l a s s ( e x c e p t i n t h e c a s e s o f w h ite c o l l a r w o rk e rs and th o s e on r e l i e f ) . W ith r e f e r e n c e to th e m id d le , w orkin g and l o w e r - c l a s s c a t e g o r i e s , w h ite c o l l a r w o rk e rs r a t e d th e m s e lv e s t h e h i g h e s t , l a b o r e r s , t h e l o w e s t . The sem i- 20 z z i e Simmons, "A m ericans and M exican A m ericans i n S o u th T exas" ( u n p u b lis h e d Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , H a rv ard U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 5 2 ), p . 358. ^ P r o f e s s o r Edward C. McDonagh p u r p o r t s t h a t o c c u p a t i o n te n d s t o be a t l e a s t t h e " a d j e c t i v e " i f n o t t h e "noun" o f s o c i a l c l a s s i n Am erica (S em inar l e c t u r e , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , J a n u a r y 10, i 9 6 0 ). TABLE 62 OCCUPATION AND CLASS SELF-PLACEMENT C la ss S e lf - Placem ent T o ta l Upper Middle Working Lower Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per O ccupation b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c en t b e r c e n t R e l i e f _ K L L „ 1 3 3 .3 _ ^ — i 2 6 6 .7 3 1 0 0 .0 L ab o re rs - - 13 4 4 .8 9 3 1 .0 7 24.1 29 99-9 S e m i-S k ille d 1 3-7 17 6 2 .9 5 18.5 4 1 4 .8 27 99-9 S k i l l e d 1 4 .2 15 62.5 . 7 29.2 1 4 .2 24 100.1 White C o lla r 1 5 .6 13 72.2 2 l l . l 2 1 1 .1 18 10 0 .0 T o ta l 3 3-0 59 58 .4 23 2 2 .8 16 15.8 101 100.0 2 26 227 s k i l l e d w o r k e rs , h ow ev er, r a t e d th e m s e lv e s on t h e average h i g h e r t h a n th e s k i l l e d w o rk e rs and a l s o had a lo w e r p e r c e n ta g e o f r e s p o n d e n t s i n th e n o - d a t a c a t e g o r y . Chi s q u a r e f o r t h i s t a b l e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . Two f a c t o r s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to o c c u p a t i o n were n o t a s s o c i a t e d w ith p e r c e p t i o n o f o n e 's own c l a s s p o s i t i o n : employment s t a b i l i t y and incom e. N e i t h e r s t e a d i n e s s of employment n o r t o t a l fa m ily incom e a f f e c t e d r e s p o n d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i r own s t a t u s . The r e s e a r c h e r h y p o t h e s iz e d t h a t a r e s p o n d e n t 's d e g re e o f o r i e n t a t i o n to w ard M exican c u l t u r e w ould i n f l u e n ce h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f h i m s e l f i n th e s t a t u s s t r u c t u r e . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c o n s i d e r e d h e r e a s i n d i c a t i n g the d e g re e o f o r i e n t a t i o n t o M exican c u l t u r a l v a lu e s in c lu d e s i z e o f f a m i l y , g e n e r a t i o n , ag e and se x , v e t e r a n ' s s t a t u s , r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n , m em bership i n v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s , s c h o o lin g and u se o f t h e S p a n ish l a n g u a g e . The w r i t e r c o u ld f i n d no a s s o c i a t i o n betw een any o f t h e s e f a c t o r s and s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e c l a s s sy ste m , e x c e p t y e a r s o f s c h o o l in g and la n g u a g e o f i n t e r v i e w . The o v e r a l l I m p r e s s io n o f T able 63> th e c h i square f o r w hich i s n o n s i g n i f i c a n t , i s t h a t i n s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n a s TABLE 63 GENERATION AND CLASS SELF-PLACEMENT C lass S e lf-P la c e m e n t_____________________ Upper Middle Working Lower T o ta l Num- P er Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per G e n e ra tio n b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t F i r s t 6 4 0 .0 5 33.3 4 26.7 15 100.0 Second 2 3.1 42 65.6 11 17.2 9 14.1 64 100 .0 L a te r 1 4 .5 11 50.0 7 31.8 3 13 .6 22 99.9 T o ta l 3 3-0 59 5 8 .4 23 2 2 .8 16 1 5 .8 101 100.0 r o r o 00 229 t o s o c i a l c l a s s l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s a r e i n an i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n b e tw e e n t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n s . T h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y ( a l s o n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ) f o r y o u n g e r p e r s o n s t o g r a n t t h e m s e l v e s h i g h e r s t a t u s . The m e d ia n a g e o f t h o s e r a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s u p p e r c l a s s i s 3 4 .5 ; m i d d l e c l a s s , 3 4 .2 ; w o r k i n g c l a s s , 3 5 -0 ; a n d l o w e r c l a s s , 3 9 -5 . The w r i t e r o r i g i n a l l y h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e s e l f - p e r c e i v e d s o c i a l c l a s s , t h e g r e a t e r w o u ld b e t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t i n g P r o t e s t a n t a n d no r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n . The s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f P r o t e s t a n t s i n t h e w r i t e r ' s s a m p le make d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , t h e t e s t i n g o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . I n a n y c a s e t h e w r i t e r ' s d a t a sh o w ed no t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s . The w r i t e r h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e m ore y e a r s o f s c h o o l i n g an i n d i v i d u a l h a d , t h e h i g h e r w o u ld b e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f h i s o c c u p y i n g h i g h s o c i a l s t a t u s . I t was f u r t h e r h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e s o c i a l c l a s s , t h e h i g h e r w o u ld b e t h e m ean y e a r s o f s c h o o l i n g f o r i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h a t c l a s s . T a b l e 64 r e l a t e s e a c h i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f - p l a c e m e n t i n t h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e t o t h e n u m b e r o f y e a r s o f 230 s c h o o lin g t h a t i n d i v i d u a l h ad. I t w i l l be seen t h a t h ig h s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith a h ig h amount o f s c h o o lin g . The l e s s e d u c a tio n a p e rs o n h a d , th e l e s s l i k e l y he was to c o n s i d e r h i m s e l f m idd le o r u p p e r c l a s s . The m edian number o f y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g f o r th o s e c o n s i d e r in g th e m s e lv e s u p p e r c l a s s was 1 2 .0 ; f o r m id d le c l a s s , 1 0 .8 ; f o r w orking c l a s s , 9 * 7i and f o r th e lo w e r c l a s s , 8 .2 . The c h i s q u a re f o r . t h i s t a b l e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . The l e a s t s c h o o le d g ro u p ( th e s e w ith from 0 to 8 y e a r s o f s c h o o l in g ) w ere th e m ost l i k e l y to p e r c e i v e one s i n g l e c l a s s f o r th e M exican-A m erican g ro u p , o r e l s e n o t be a b le to p l a c e th e m s e lv e s a t a l l . Of t h i s c a te g o r y 49*2 p e r c e n t w ere u n a b le t o s t a t e th e s o c i a l c l a s s to w hich th e y b e l i e v e d th e y b e l o n g e d . . Thus we may assume t h a t a b i l i t y to have s o c i a l c l a s s p e r c e p t i o n i s to a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t d e p en d e n t upon th e amount o f s c h o o lin g . I t was th e l e a s t e d u c a te d r e s p o n d e n ts who were l e a s t a b le to g iv e th e w r i t e r i n f o r m a ti o n a b o u t s o c i a l c l a s s . Thus any d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o c i a l c l a s s o b t a i n e d by th e w r i t e r from h i s r e s p o n d e n ts i s b i a s e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f th e p e r c e p t i o n s o f th e b e t t e r e d u c a te d M e x ican -A m erican s. S in c e th e a b i l i t y to speak E n g li s h f l u e n t l y , and TABLE. 64 SCHOOLING AND CLASS SELF-PLACEMENT Years o f S chooling C lass S e lf -Placem ent T o ta l Upper Middle Working Lower Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t 0-8 _ _ 11 3 9 .3 8 28 .6 9 32.1 28 10 0.0 9-11 1 2.6 24 6 3 .2 9 23.7 4 10.5 38 10 0.0 12 o r More 2 5-7 24 6 8 .6 6 17-1 3 8 .6 .35 100 .0 T o ta l 3 3-0 59 5 8 .4 23 2 2 .8 16 i 15-8 101 10 0.0 Median 1 2 .0 1 0 .8 9-7 8 .2 c h i sq uare = 10.55 P = .03 C = .308 r o oo M 232 an o r i e n t a t i o n tow ard American c u l t u r e a r e p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y I n o u r s o c i e t y , we w ould ex p ec t t h a t t h e s e v a r i a b l e s would be a s s o c i a t e d . Thus th e w r i t e r h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t p e r s o n s p r e f e r r i n g to use E n g li s h f o r .... th e i n t e r v i e w would have a h i g h e r s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n and t h a t th e h i g h e r t h e c l a s s , th e g r e a t e r would be th e p r o p o r t i o n o f E n g lis h s p e a k e r s i n t h a t c l a s s . T ab le 65 I n d i c a t e s t h a t th e E n g li s h - s p e a k in g r e s p o n d e n ts were more l i k e l y to c a l l th e m se lv e s u p p e r o r m id d le c l a s s (6 2 .8 p e r c e n t ) , th e S p a n is h -s p e a k in g r e s p o n d e n ts somewhat more l i k e l y to c a l l th e m s e lv e s w ork ing o r lo w e r c l a s s (57-1 p e r c e n t ) . The c h i s q u a re f o r t h i s t a b l e I s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . W ith r e f e r e n c e to languages spoken i n th e home, th e w r i t e r o r i g i n a l l y h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t p e r s o n s who spoke E n g lis h t o p a r e n t s , spou se and c h i l d r e n and whose c h il d r e n spoke E n g li s h to them, would on th e a v e ra g e p l a c e them s e l v e s h i g h e r i n th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e th a n th o s e who spoke S p a n ish (o r b o th la n g u a g e s , e x c e p t i n th e c ase o f lang uage spoken to p a r e n t s ) . In each o f th e f o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p s th e te n d e n c y was I n th e e x p e c te d d i r e c t i o n , b u t.n o n e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . V TABLE 65 L A N G U A G E PREFERENCE A N D CLASS SELF-PLACEM ENT Language C lass S e lf-P la c e m e n t T o ta l . . . . Upper M iddle Working Lower Num h e r Per c en t Num b e r Per Num- c e n t b e r Per cen t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c en t E n g lish 2 2.5 52 6 4 .2 18 22.2 9 11.1 81 100 .0 S panish 1 5 .0 7 3 5 .0 5 25.0 7 35-0 20 100.0 T o ta l 3 3 .0 59 5 8 .4 23 2 2 .8 16 15.8 101 10 0 .0 c h i square = 4.61 p = .04 C = .210 233 234 The w r i t e r o r i g i n a l l y h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e s e l f - p e r c e i v e d s o c i a l c l a s s , t h e s m a l l e r w o u ld be t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f p e r s o n s r e p o r t i n g t h e u s e o f S p a n i s h - l a n g u a g e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s m e d i a . No r e l a t i o n s h i p was f o u n d . CHAPTER VII SOCIAL AND OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY I n t r o d u c t i o n In t h i s s t u d y o f Pom ona's M exican-A m erican com m u n ity , th e r e s e a r c h e r h a s i n v e s t i g a t e d b o th h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l m o b i l i t y , b u t w i t h e m p h a sis on t h e l a t t e r . V e r t i c a l m o b i l i t y h a s b een m e a su re d h e r e e n t i r e l y i n te rm s o f o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y . O th e r ty p e s o f m o b i l i t y ( e . g . , e t h n i c ) have been c o n s i d e r e d b u t a r e much more d i f f i c u l t t o m e a su re . The w r i t e r s e t up a s th e c r i t e r i o n f o r upward m o b i l i t y th e f o l l o w i n g : i f a r e s p o n d e n t was i n a h i g h e r o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y (th e o r d e r from h i g h e r t o lo w e r b e in g a s f o l l o w s : w h ite c o l l a r , s k i l l e d , s e m i s k i l l e d , u n s k i l l e d ) t h a n h i s f a t h e r he was c o n s i d e r e d t o have been u p w a rd ly m o b ile . T h is m easure o f m o b i l i t y i s commonly e m p lo y e d .1 I f th e r e s p o n d e n t was a n o n -em p lo y ed h o u s e w if e , ■^Gosta C a r l s s o n , S o c i a l M o b i l i t y and C la s s S t r u c t u r e (Lund: C. W . K. G le e r u p , 1 9 5 8 ), p p . 5 8 -1 2 0 . 235 236 i t was th e o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y o f th e h e ad o f th e h o u s e h o l d w hich was m easu red a g a i n s t h e r f a t h e r ' s . In c o n s i d e r i n g th e t o p i c o f v e r t i c a l o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y , t h e r e s e a r c h e r exam ined th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n to r e s p o n d e n t 's e d u c a t i o n and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e l a t t e r to h i s o c c u p a t i o n . W ith r e f e r e n c e to th e p r e - e d u c a t i o n a l s t e p T a b le 66 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y o f th e f a t h e r , th e h i g h e r t h e e d u c a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y o f th e r e s p o n d e n t , e x c e p t t h a t c h i l d r e n o f s e m i - s k i l l e d w o rk e rs h ad a much lo w e r m ed ian number o f y e a r s o f s c h o o l in g ( 5 -2 ) th a n d id t h e c h i l d r e n o f l a b o r e r s ( 8 . 8 ) . The p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e t a b l e , a s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e c h i s q u a r e t e c h n i q u e , a r e due t o chance i s .45- The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t r e s p o n d e n t 's s c h o o l in g i s in d e p e n d e n t o f f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a t i o n c a n n o t t h e r e f o r e be r e j e c t e d . The p o s t - e d u c a t i o n a l s t e p h a s a l r e a d y been c o n s i d e r e d i n C h a p te r IV w here i t was shown (T a b le 16) t h a t t h e r e i s a h ig h d e g re e o f a s s o c i a t i o n betw een r e s p o n d e n t 's s c h o o l in g and o c c u p a ti o n (a c h i s q u a r e o f 1 7 *6 6 , s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l ) . When b o th s t e p s a r e c o n s i d e r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a s i n T a b le 6 7 , th e c h i TABLE 66 FATHERS1 OCCUPATION AND RESPONDENTS' SCHOOLING Years o f S chooling T o ta l 0-8 9-11 12 o r More F a t h e r 1s Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per O ccupation b e r c en t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c en t Median L abo rer 31 37-3 30 36.1 22 26.5 83 99-9 8 .8 Semi- S k i l l e d 9 6 0 .0 3 2 0 .0 3 2 0 .0 15 10 0.0 5 -2 S k i l l e d 11 36.7 11 36.7 8 26.7 30 100.1 8 .9 W h ite -C o lla r 7 4 1 .2 3 17-6 7 4 1 .2 17 10 0 .0 9 .0 T o ta l 58 4 0 .0 47 32.4 4o 27.6 145 100.0 chi. square = 5*58 P = -45 ro U ) -s i 238 TABLE 67 FATHERS' OCCUPATION, RESPONDENTS' SCHOOLING AND RESPONDENTS' OCCUPATION F a t h e r s ' O ccupation and R e sp o n d e n ts' R e s p o n d e n ts' R e l i e f L a b o re rs S e m i-S k ille d O ccu pation S k i l l e d White C o l l a r T o tal Y ears o f S ch o o lin g Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per cen t L a b o re rs and S e m i- S k ille d 0 -8 L a b o re rs and 34 85-0 6 1 5 .0 4o 100.0 S e m i-S k ille d 9 o r More S k i l l e d and 32 5 5 .2 26 4 4 .8 58 ■ 100.0 W hite C o lla r 0-8 S k i l l e d and 12 6 6 .7 6 3 3 .3 18 100 .0 White C o lla r 9 o r More 14 4 8 .3 15 5 1 .7 29 100.0 T o ta l 92 6 3 .4 53 3 6 .6 145 100.0 c h i sq u a re = 12.65 P = < .01 c = .283 239 sq u a re i s s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l , b u t i t i s s m a lle r (1 2 .6 5 ) showing t h a t e d u c a tio n i s a s t r o n g e r i n d i c a t o r by i t s e l f th a n when u se d t o g e t h e r w ith f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a ti o n . The w r i t e r h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t th e g r e a t e r th e num b e r o f y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g , th e g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n t h e r e would be o f upw ardly m obile p e rs o n s and t h a t th e few er th e number o f y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g th e g r e a t e r p r o p o r t io n o f downwardly m obile p e rs o n s t h e r e would be i n t h a t c a t e g o ry . Median y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g o f nonm obile p e rs o n s were- h y p o th e s iz e d to be l e s s th a n t h a t o f upw ardly m obile p e rs o n s and more th a n t h a t o f th e downwardly m o b ile . Table 68 shows t h a t th e h i g h e s t m edian number o f y e a r s (1 0 .7 ) i s f o r th e upw ardly m obile re s p o n d e n ts . The median number o f y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g i s th e same ( 8 .5 ) f o r b o th th e nonm obile and th e downwardly m obile re s p o n d e n ts . Thus, w h ile e d u c a tio n i s h e l p f u l i n upward m o b i l i t y , i t i s n e i t h e r a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r n o r a g u a ra n te e o f such m o b i l i t y . T able 69 i n d i c a t e s no a s s o c i a t i o n betw een f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n and r e s p o n d e n t 's o c c u p a tio n , th e p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a c h i s q u a re as h ig h as t h a t o f th e t a b l e b e in g 240 TABLE 6 8 SCHOOLING AND MOBILITY OF RESPONDENTS Y e a r s o f S c h o o l i n g Type Of M o b i l i t y T o t a l Upward None Downward Num b e r P e r <~ent Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t 0 -8 15 25-9 23 39-7 20 34.5 58 1 0 0 .1 9-11 20 4 2 .6 13 2 7 .7 14 2 9 .8 47 1 0 0 .1 12 o r More 24 6 0 .0 10 2 5.0 6 15-0 40 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 59 4 0 .7 46 3 1 .7 40 27-6 145 1 0 0 .0 M ed ian 1 0 .7 8. 5 8 .5 9 -4 c h i s q u a r e =: 1 2 .1 3 p = . 02 C = . 278 t TABLE 69 FATHERS' OCCUPATION AND RESPONDENTS' OCCUPATION F a t h e r s ’ O c c u p a tio n R e s p o n d e n t s 1 O c c u p a tio n T o t a l R e l i e f and L a b o r e r s S em i- S k i l l e d S k i l l e d W hite C o l l a r Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t L a b o r e r s 31 3 7 .3 23 27-7 19 22 .9 10 1 2 .0 83 99-9 S e m i - S k i l l e d 9 6 0 .0 3 20.0 2 13-3 1 6 .7 15 10 0.0 S k i l l e d 12 4 0 .0 7 23-3 7 23.3 4 13-3 30 99-9 W hite C o l l a r 4 23.3 3 17-6 5 29.4 5 29-4 17 99-9 T o t a l 56 38.6 36 2 4 .8 33 22.8 20 13.8 145 100.0 .49 . On t h e o t h e r hand, i f we t a b u l a t e th e d a t a s e p a r a t e l y f o r e a c h group o f r e s p o n d e n ts (housew ives and p e rs o n s o t h e r th a n h o u se w iv e s ), and f o r eac h c a te g o ry o f f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n , the modal c a t e g o r y f o r th e second ( r e s p o n d e n t) g e n e r a t i o n i s a lo w e r r a n k in g one, w ith t h r e e e x c e p t i o n s : h ousew ives whose f a t h e r s were l a b o r e r s were more l i k e l y to be m a rr ie d to l a b o r e r s th a n to p e r s o n s o f any o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y ; and employed r e s p o n d e n ts whose f a t h e r s w ere s e m i - s k i l l e d w o rk ers w ere more l i k e l y them s e l v e s t o be s e m i - s k i l l e d th a n to be i n any o t h e r c a te g o r y w h ile t h o s e whose f a t h e r s were l a b o r e r s were m ost l i k e l y t o be s e m i - s k i l l e d . Thus t h e r e h as been a s t r o n g te n d e n c y tow ard e i t h e r downward m o b i l i t y o r n o n - m o b il i ty , a lth o u g h th e c h i s q u a re f o r n e i t h e r c a te g o r y o f re s p o n d e n t i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . Of a l l r e s p o n d e n t s , 4 0 .7 p e r c e n t have been up w a rd ly m o b ile , 31*7 p e r c e n t nonm obile and 27*6 p e r c e n t downwardly m o b ile . Thus, a lth o u g h th e w r i t e r had h y p o t h e s iz e d t h a t a p e r s o n 's o c c u p a tio n (o r t h e o c c u p a tio n o f o n e 's husband ) would be more l i k e l y to f a l l i n th e c a te g o r y o f th e f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n t h a n in any o t h e r c a te g o r y , w ith d im in is h in g p r o b a b i l i t y th e f a r t h e r a c a t e g o r y i s from t h a t o f t h e f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a t i o n , t h i s h y p o t h e s i s fo u n d no s u p p o r t i n t h e d a t a . Somewhat u n e x p e c te d a l s o was th e s i z e a b l e number o f r e s p o n d e n t s who had b e en downw ardly m o b ile . The c a s e s o f downward m o b i l i t y m o s tly seem t o in v o lv e a d ro p i n th e s k i l l h i e r a r c h y from th e im m ig ran t to th e se co n d g e n e r a t i o n . Y et i t s h o u ld be r e a l i z e d t h a t downward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y i s n o t a lw ay s i n v o l v e d . Thus i t f r e q u e n t l y h a ppened t h a t th e f a t h e r h ad been a s k i l l e d m anual l a b o r e r o r sm a ll m e rc h a n t i n M exico; su ch f a t h e r s w ould be c l a s s i f i e d g e n e r a l l y as lo w e r c l a s s i n Mexico and would p e r h a p s a l s o have t h e v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h a t c l a s s . F u r th e r m o r e , i t i s a l s o l i k e l y t h a t t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g ro u n d was e x tr e m e l y l i m i t e d , w i t h a h ig h r a t e o f i l l i t e r a c y among t h i s g ro u p , and few s p e a k e r s o f f l u e n t E n g l i s h . The son o r d a u g h te r , on t h e o t h e r hand, by a c h i e v i n g a b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n and s p e a k in g E n g l i s h a l t h o u g h f o l lo w in g o n ly a s e m i s k i l l e d o c c u p a ti o n may a c t u a l l y have a c h ie v e d a s t a t u s somewhere i n th e lo w e r r e a c h e s o f th e m id d le c l a s s . T h e r e f o r e th e d a t a on downward o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b il i t y s h o u ld be c a u t i o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d . T a b le 70 shows t h a t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s whose 244 TABLE 70 FATHERS* OCCUPATION AND RESPONDENTS' MOBILITY T ype o f M o b i l i t y Upward None Downward T o t a l F a t h e r s 1 Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- P e r O c c u p a tio n b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t L a b o r e r 52 62.7 31 37-3 — 83 1 0 0 .0 S e m i - S k i l l e d 3 20.0 3 2 0 .0 9 6 0 .0 15 1 0 0 .0 S k i l l e d 4 13-3 7 2 3 .3 19 6 3 .3 30 9 9.9 W h ite C o l l a r — — 5 2 9 .4 12 7 0 .6 17 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 59 4 0.7 46 31-7 40 2 7.6 145 1 0 0 .0 chi square =55-^0 p = < .01 f a t h e r s were s e m i s k i l l e d , 6 0 . 0 p e r c e n t w ere downw ardly m o b ile ; o f th o s e whose f a t h e r s w ere s k i l l e d w o r k e r s , 63*3 p e r c e n t w ere downw ardly m o b ile ; and o f th o s e whose f a t h e r s w ere w h i t e - c o l l a r w o r k e r s , 7 0 .6 p e r c e n t were downw ardly m o b ile . T hus, t h e h i g h e r r a n k in g t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e f a t h e r , t h e h i g h e r was t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f th e r e s p o n d e n t s b e in g downwardly m o b ile . C o n v e r s e ly , o f th o s e r e s p o n d e n t s whose f a t h e r s w ere l a b o r e r s , 6 2 .6 p e r c e n t have been u p w a rd ly m o b ile . Chi s q u a r e f o r t h i s t a b l e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .01 l e v e l . On th e o t h e r hand m ost o f t h e s e m i - s k i l l e d , s k i l l e d , and w h ite c o l l a r r e s p o n d e n t s have been u p w a rd ly m o b ile (se e T a b le 71)* F or t h e em ployed r e s p o n d e n t s (se e T a b le 7 2 ) , t h e r e s p e c t i v e p e r c e n t a g e s a r e 53*8, 5 2 .4 , 7 1 -4 f o r t h e h o u se w iv e s (s e e T a b le 7 3 ), t h e r e s p e c t i v e p e r c e n t a g e s a r e even h i g h e r , i . e . , 8 1 . 8 , 7 6 . 9, and 83*3- Working r e s p o n d e n t s who were l a b o r e r s , w ere m o s tly downw ardly m o b ile (5 6 .7 p e r c e n t ) w h ile h o u se w iv e s whose h u sb a n d s w ere l a b o r e r s w ere m o s tly n o n m o b ile (69*2 p e r c e n t ) . Thus i t w ould a p p e a r t h a t m a r r i a g e m ig h t be one o f t h e e a s i e r m ethods o f upw ard s o c i a l m o b i l i t y . The s l i g h t te n d e n c y to w a rd upward m o b i l i t y i n th e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t 246 TABLE 71 OCCUPATION AND MOBILITY OP ALL RESPONDENTS Type o f M obility- Upward None Downward T o ta l Num- P e r Num- P er Num- Per Num- Per O c cu p a tio n b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t R e l i e f and L a b o re rs — - - 31 5 5 .4 25 4 4 .6 56 100.0 Semi- S k i l l e d 23 63 -9 3 8 .3 10 27.8 36 100.0 S k i l l e d 21 63.6 7 21.2 5 15.2 33 100 . 0 White C o l l a r 15 7 5 -0 5 25.0 - - - - 20 100.0 T o ta l 59 4 0 .7 46 3 1 .7 40 27.6 145 1 0 0 .0 c h i sq u a re = 40 .0 1 p = < . 01 c = .465 247 TABLE 72 OCCUPATION AND MOBILITY OP EMPLOYED RESPONDENTS ____________ Type o f M o b ility __________ Upward None Downward T o t a l Num- P e r Num- P er Num- P e r Num- Per O ccu p a tio n b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t L a b o re rs - - - - 13 4 3 .3 17 5 6 .7 30 1 0 0 .0 Semi- S k i l l e d 14 56.0 3 1 2 .0 8 3 2 .0 25 1 0 0 .0 S k i l l e d 11 55*0 4 2 0 .0 5 2 5 .0 20 1 0 0 .0 White C o l la r 10 7 1 .4 4 28 .6 - - 14 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 35 39*3 24. 27 .0 30 3 3 -7 89 1 0 0 .0 248 TABLE 73 OCCUPATION. OF HEADS OF HOUSEHOLD AND MOBILITY OF HOUSEWIVES Type o f M o b i l i t y U pw ard None Downward T o t a l O c c u p a t i o n Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t R e l i e f a n d L a b o r e r s 18 6 9 .2 8 3 0.8 26 1 0 0 .0 S e m i- S k i l l e d 9 8 1 .8 — _ 2 1 8 .2 11 1 0 0 .0 S k i l l e d 10 7 6 .9 3 23 .1 — 13 1 0 0 .0 W h ite C o l l a r 5 8 3 -3 1 1 6 .7 — - - 6 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 24 4 2 . 9 22 39-3 10 1 7 -9 56 1 0 0 .1 249 a p p e a rs t o be th e c a s e l a r g e l y because m ore t h a n h a l f o f th e p a r e n t a l g e n e r a t i o n (5 6 -5 p e r c e n t ) were l a b o r e r s . The m ost p e r t i n e n t f a c t o r s a re l i k e l y e d u c a t i o n and th e c h an g e i n th e c o m p o s itio n o f Pom ona's l a b o r f o r c e in t h e p a s t tw e n ty t o f o r t y y e a r s , e s p e c i a l l y th e v i r t u a l d i s a p p e a r ance o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s in u n s k i l l e d a g r i c u l t u r a l work. T a b le 74 r e l a t e s o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y to e t h n i c s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . I t i s e a s i l y s e e n t h a t a somewhat h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f p e rs o n s c a l l i n g t h e m s e lv e s "S p a n ish " have b e e n u p w ardly m ob ile (5 2 . 2 p e r c e n t ) th an o f the r e s p o n d e n t s c a l l i n g th e m s e lv e s "M exican" (on ly 39*0 p e r c e n t ) . The g r e a t e s t p e r c e n t a g e ”‘6f th e u p w a rd ly m obile p e r s o n s , how ever, c o n tin u e d t o c a l l t h e m s e lv e s "M exican" (7 8 .0 p e r c e n t ) , an d o n ly 2 0 .3 p e r c e n t c a l l e d th e m s e lv e s " S p a n is h ." Of p e r s o n s c a l l i n g th e m s e lv e s " S p a n is h ," t h e r e were t w i c e as many u p w ard ly m o b ile as t h e r e w ere downw ardly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s , w h ile i n t h e case o f th o se s e l f - i d e n t i f y i n g as "M exican" t h e r a t i o was o n l y 1 .4 to 1. T ab le 7 4 does n o t r e a c h th e .0 5 l e v e l o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . P e rh a p s th e u p w a rd ly m o b il e do c a s t o f f t h e i r M exican e t h n i c i d e n t i t y , b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t i n th e . g r e a t num bers s u g g e s t e d by t h e l i t e r a t u r e . 250 TABLE 74 MOBILITY AND ETHNIC SELF-IDENTIFICATION T y p e o f M o b i l i t y E t h n i c S e l f - I d e n t i f i c a t i o n T o t a l M e x ic a n S p a n i s h I n d i a n a n d O t h e r Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num- P e r b e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Upw ard 46 7 8 .0 12 2 0 .3 1 1 .7 59 1 0 0 .0 None 39 8 4 .8 5 1 0 .9 2 4 .3 46 1 0 0 .0 Downward 33 82.5 6 1 5 .0 1 2.5 40 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 118 8 1 .4 23 1 5 -9 4 2 .8 145 1 0 0 .1 251 M o b i l i t y an d C l a s s P e r c e p t i o n s o f R e s p o n d e n t s M ost o f t h e h i g h - s t a t u s p o s i t i o n s o c c u p i e d by M e x ic a n - A m e r ic a n s i n t h e o p e n - c l a s s s y s te m o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a p p e a r t o b e a c h i e v e d r a t h e r t h a n a s c r i b e d . T h i s i s a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n w h ic h h a s b e e n v e r i f i e d f o r P o m o n a 's M e x ic a n - A m e r ic a n s . The r e s e a r c h e r i n i t i a l l y a ssu m e d t h a t i f a M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n e n j o y s m i d d l e - c l a s s s t a t u s , i t i s m ore l i k e l y t h a n n o t b e c a u s e h e h a s b e e n u p w a r d ly o c c u p a t i o n a l l y a n d s o c i a l l y m o b i l e . As p a r t o f t h e t e s t i n g o f t h i s a s s u m p t i o n , t h e w r i t e r h y p o t h e s i z e d t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e s e l f - p e r c e i v e d s o c i a l c l a s s , t h e m ore u p w a rd o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y t h e r e w o u ld b e , an d t h e l o w e r t h e c l a s s , t h e m ore downward m o b i l i t y . A c c o r d in g t o T a b l e 75 a s l i g h t l y h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f u p w a r d ly m o b i l e p e r s o n s p l a c e d t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e c o m b in e d u p p e r an d m id d le c l a s s e s t h a n among t h e d o w n w ard ly m o b i l e a n d a s l i g h t l y l o w e r p e r c e n t a g e i n t h e c o m b in e d w o r k in g an d l o w e r c l a s s e s t h a n among t h e d o w n w ard ly m o b i l e . The o n l y p e r s o n s t o i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s a s u p p e r c l a s s h a d b e e n u p w a r d ly m o b ile . The c h i s q u a r e f o r t h i s t a b l e d o e s n o t r e a c h t h e .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . The w r i t e r w i s h e d t o know w h e t h e r t h e f a c t t h a t a TABLE 75 MOBILITY AND CLASS SELF-PLACEMENT Type o f M o b i l i t y ■ ; 1 1 ■ —■ » * C l a s s S e l f - P la c e m e n t T o t a l U pper M id d le W orking Lower Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Upward 3 6 .7 27 60.0 10 22.2 5 11.1 45 100.0 None - - - - 13 52.0 6 2 4 .0 6 2 4 .0 25 100.0 Downward _ — — — 18 60.0 7 2 3.3 5 I 6.7 30 100.0 T o t a l 3 3 .0 58 58.0 23 23.0 16 16.0 100 100.0 252 253 r e s p o n d e n t h a d been u p w a rd ly m o b ile had any e f f e c t on how he p e r c e i v e d th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e and s t a t u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s among th e M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n . The d a t a c o n c e r n in g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n a r e s p o n d e n t ’ s s o c i a l m o b i l i t y and t h e most i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s n o t e d by t h a t r e s p o n d e n t among th e M exican A m ericans o f Pomona show no d e f i n i t e te n d e n c y . A lth o u g h th e r e s e a r c h e r h y p o t h e s iz e d t h a t th e more m o b ile i n d i v i d u a l s w ould p e r c e i v e a l a r g e r number o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s , T a b le 76 shows q u i t e d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s . Downward l y m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s p e r c e i v e d t h e l a r g e s t mean number o f c l a s s e s , 2 . 29 , t h e u p w ard ly m o b ile th e n e x t l a r g e s t , 2 . 2 0 , and t h e n on m obile r e s p o n d e n t s p e r c e i v i n g th e s m a l l e s t mean number o f c l a s s e s ( 2 .0 0 ) . The n onm obile r e s p o n d e n t s h a d th e l a r g e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f no an sw e rs to th e q u e s t i o n , w h i l e th e l o w e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f r e s p o n d e n t s n o t f u r n i s h i n g d a t a was t h a t o f th e downw ardly m o b ile . Chi s q u a r e f o r T a b le 76 d o e s n o t r e a c h th e .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , h o w ever. TABLE 76 MOBILITY AND NUMBER OF CLASSES PERCEIVED a c s w a s e a i n j »i ■ - t . ? i ■ r ’fia a s c ^ g e . i : ., i . s 1 t ; " Tsa a a g s ^ a ^ a a c a a s L . i ^ - a . . : . . i . a . .a h j b a — J - a Number o f C la s se s P e rc e iv e d Type of M o b ility One Two Three o r Four T o ta l Mean Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per cen t Upward 8 1 7 .8 21 46 .7 16 35.6 45 100.1 2 .2 0 None 8 26.7 15 5 0 .0 7 2 3 .3 30 100.0 2 .0 0 Downward 8 25-8 8 25.8 15- 4 8 .4 31 100 .0 2.2 9 T o ta l 24 22.6 44 41.5 38 3 5 .8 106 99-9 v i \ ■ ro vjt 255 M o b i l i t y a n d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R e s p o n d e n t s In t h i s s e c t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d t h e p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y o r n o n m o b i l i t y a n d c e r t a i n r e l e v a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s a m p le m e m b e rs. C on s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n g i v e n t o r e s i d e n t i a l s t a b i l i t y a n d m o b i l i t y , and i n w h ic h p a r t s o f t h e c i t y a r e t o b e f o u n d t h e m o re m o b i l e i n d i v i d u a l s . In P om ona a t l e a s t o n e - t h i r d o f t h e M e x ic a n p o p u l a t i o n l i v e s o u t s i d e t h e c o n f i n e s o f w h a t i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e M e x ic a n a r e a . They a r e o u t s i d e e i t h e r b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e m oved o u t from t h e c o r e d i s t r i c t , o r e l s e h a v e m o v e d d i r e c t l y from c o m m u n i t i e s o t h e r t h a n P o m o n a. E ach r e s p o n d e n t I n t h e w r i t e r ' s s a m p l e was a s k e d f o r h i s p r e v i o u s a d d r e s s a n d t h e l e n g t h o f r e s i d e n c e I n h i s p r e s e n t a n d p r e v i o u s r e s i d e n c e s , I n a n a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e how o f t e n p e o p l e moved a b o u t . T h e w r i t e r c a l c u l a t e d t h e m ean l e n g t h o f tim e s p e n t a t t h e r e s p o n d e n t ' s l a t e s t two r e s i d e n c e s ; i n c a s e t h e r e s p o n d e n t h a d m oved s i n c e t h e c i t y d i r e c t o r y was c o m p i l e d , t h e m ean r e f e r s t o t h e l a s t t h r e e r e s i d e n c e s . O f t h e w r i t e r ' s s a m p l e , 56 r e s p o n d e n t s , o r 3 8 .1 p e r c e n t h a d s p e n t a m ean o f 1-5 256 y e a r s i n t h e i r l a s t two r e s i d e n c e s , 51 r e s p o n d e n ts , o r 3 4 .7 p e r c e n t had s p e n t 6-10 y e a r s , and 40 r e s p o n d e n t s , o r 27.2 p e r c e n t had s p e n t from 11 to 36 y e a r s . Of th e t o t a l sample o f 147, some 47 p e rs o n s had moved to t h e i r p r e s e n t a d d re s s from o u t s i d e th e c i t y o f Pomona. A lso, 3 p e rs o n s had l i v e d t h e i r e n t i r e l i f e t i m e s i n t h e i r p r e s e n t r e s i d e n c e . Thus 97 p e rs o n s had moved from one Pomona a d d r e s s to a n o t h e r . The r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s from and to w hich t h e s e p e r s o n s moved a re shown i n T able 77* Each o f t h e a r e a s r e c e i v e d p e r s o n s from a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r a r e a s , and from o u t s i d e Pomona as w e ll; th e s e o u t - o f - town m ig r a n ts c o n s t i t u t e from o n e - f o u r t h to o n e - h a l f o f th e p o p u l a t i o n o f each o f th e a r e a s . In th e w e s te r n p o r t i o n o f C, 44 p e r c e n t o f th e sam ple had moved from a n o th e r a d d r e s s i n th e same a r e a ; i n th e n o r t h e r n p o r t i o n o f E, 56 p e r c e n t had moved from a n o t h e r a d d r e s s i n th e same d i s t r i c t . No o t h e r a r e a even a p p ro a c h e d th e s e p e r c e n t a g e s . Of th e 97 moves w i t h in Pomona more th a n h a l f (51) w ere to a r e s i d e n c e i n a n e ig h b o rh o o d o f th e same ra n k , w h ile a b o u t two and a h a l f tim e s a s many p e o p le moved i n t o a h i g h e r r a n k in g a r e a a s moved i n t o a low er ra n k in g a r e a ( r a t i o o f 33 to 13)* Thus th e p re d o m in a n t te n d e n c y i s to TABLE 77 RESIDENTIAL AREA AND PREVIOUS RESIDENTIAL AREA Area o f P re s e n t R e s i dence Area o f ] Previous R esidence Another C ity No Other R e s i dence T o ta l A B c D E Num b e r • Per c e n t Num b e r ■ Per c e n t Num b e r ■ Per c e n t Num b e r ■ Per cen t Num b e r - Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r - Per c e n t A 1 7-1 3 21.4 2 1 4 .3 __ - _ 3 21 .4 5 35.7 _ — 14 9 9 .9 B 1 4 .3 3 13-0 4 1 7 .4 1 4 .3 4 1 7 .4 10 43.5 - - — 23 9 9 .9 C - - — 1 1.8 23 4 1 .8 2 3-6 13 23.6 14 25-5 2 3-6 55 9 9 .9 D 1 10.0 3 30.0 1 10.0 5 50.0 _ _ — 10 100.0 E 9 20.0 1 2.2 21 46 .7 13 28.9 1 2.2 45 100.0 T o ta l 2 1 .4 7 4 .8 39 26.5 7 4 .8 42 28.6 47 32.0 3 2 .0 147 100.1 257 ) I 258 s t a y a t th e same r e s i d e n t i a l l e v e l , b u t I f a fa m ily moves to a new l e v e l , i t i s much more l i k e l y to move up th a n down. I t sh o u ld be remembered a ls o t h a t most p a r t s o f Areas A and B a re new, i . e . , c o n s t r u c t e d s in c e World War I I , w ith a g o o d ly p o r t i o n b u i l t w ith in th e p a s t f i v e o r t e n y e a r s . Of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i s a p o s s i b l e a s s o c i a t i o n between r e s i d e n t i a l and o c c u p a ti o n a l m o b i l i t y , i . e . , w h e th er th e p e rs o n s who a re moving up th e s k i l l s h i e r a r c h y a re a ls o th e ones who have been moving to b e t t e r r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s , and downwardly m obile p e rs o n s th e r e v e r s e . T able 78 g i v e s , however, no e v id e n c e f o r t h i s type o f a s s o c i a t i o n i n Pomona. The p e r c e n ta g e s o f upward, down w ard, and no m o b i l i t y o f e i t h e r ty p e a re q u i t e e v e n ly d i s t r i b u t e d among t h e same t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o f th e o t h e r type o f m o b il i ty . There i s a te n d e n c y , however, f o r th e i n m ig ra n ts from o t h e r com m unities to be o c c u p a ti o n a l l y upw ardly m obile r a t h e r th a n e i t h e r downwardly m obile o r nonm obile. There i s fu rth e rm o re no a p p a re n t a s s o c i a t i o n betw een l e v e l o f an a re a and m o b i l i t y o f i t s r e s i d e n t s (se e T able 79)* The w r i t e r was a ls o i n t e r e s t e d in a p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een r e s i d e n t i a l s t a b i l i t y and o c c u p a tio n a l 259 TABLE 78 RESIDENTIAL AND OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY Type: O f < s s s s a a s a s c s s s a s s a e e s s e s s s s a s K a a x s & a c s a e M a s s s s D ccupational M o b ility Type of Upward None Downward T o ta l R e s i d e n t i a l M o b ility Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per cent Num b e r P e r c e n t Num ber P er c e n t Upward 13 39.4 11 33-3 9 2 7 -3 33 100.0 None 17 3 3 .3 18 35-3 16 3 1 .4 51 100.0 Downward 5 From A nother 38.5 3 23.1 5 3 8 .5 13 100.1 C ity No R e sid e n 22 4 8 .9 14 31.1 9 2 0 .0 45 100.0 t i a l Move 2 6 6 .7 _ — — — ' 1 33*3 3 100.0 T o ta l 59 4 0 .7 46 31*7 40 27.6 145 1 0 0 .0 260 TABLE 79 RESIDENTIAL AREA AND MOBILITY OP RESPONDENTS ___________ Type o f M o b ility ___________ Upward None Downward T o ta l Num- P er Num- Per Num- P e r Num- P e r Area b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t A 7 50.0 3 21.4 4 28.6 14 1 0 0 .0 B 12 5 2.2 3 1 3.0 8 3 4 .8 23 1 0 0 .0 G 19 34.5 23 4 1 .8 13 23.6 55 9 9 -9 D 6 66.6 2 22.2 1 11.1 9 9 9 - 9 E 15 34 .1 15 34.1 14 3 1 .8 44 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 59 4 0 .7 46 31-7 40 2 7 .6 145 1 0 0 .0 m o b i l i t y , i . e . , w h e th e r th e p e o p le who move f r e q u e n t l y a re more l i k e l y to be u pw ard ly o r downwardly m o b ile . T ab le 80 shows t h a t f o r p e r s o n s who have sp e n t a mean o f 1-5 y e a r s i n t h e i r l a s t two r e s i d e n c e s , t h e r e i s a s much upward as downward m o b i l i t y . For p e r s o n s sp e n d in g a mean o f 6 o r more y e a r s th e te n d e n c y i s d e f i n i t e l y upward; t h e r e i s l i k e w i s e a lo w e r p e r c e n ta g e o f downwardly m o b ile th a n o f nonm obile p e r s o n s . Upwardly m ob ile re s p o n d e n ts s p e n t a m edian 7*1 y e a r s i n t h e i r l a s t two p l a c e s o f r e s i d e n c e , t h e nonm obile re s p o n d e n ts 6 . 2 y e a r s and th e downwardly m o b ile 6 . 0 y e a r s . The c h i sq u a re f o r t h i s t a b l e does n o t r e a c h th e .05 l e v e l o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t i s d i f f i c u l t to say w h e th e r o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y I s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r e s i d e n t i a l m o b i l i t y In t h i s M exican-A m erican community. Home o w n ersh ip i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s id e r e d to be i n d i c a t i v e and sym b olic o f s t a b i l i t y and r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . In I t s e l f i t i s a symbol o f some s o r t o f a c h ie v e d s t a t u s . On th e o t h e r hand, among th o s e w o rk ers c o n s t a n t l y m i g r a t i n g , who m ust t r a v e l i n s e a r c h o f employm ent, o r whose em ploy ment I s n o t s t e a d y i n ty p e , th e a ch iev e m e n t o f home ow ner s h ip i s made d i f f i c u l t . On th e h i g h e r ru n g s o f th e s o c i a l 262 TABLE 80 RESIDENTIAL STABILITY AND OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY Mean Y ears a t L a t e s t Two Type o f M o b i l i t y None Downward Upward _ Num- P er Num- P e r Num- P er T o t a l Num- P er R e s id e n c e s b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t 1-5 19 3 4.5 17 3 0 .9 19 34-5 55 9 9 .9 6-10 23 45-1 16 3 1 .4 12 2 3 .5 51 1 0 0 . 0 11-36 17 4 3 .6 13 3 3 .3 9 2 3 .1 39 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 59 4 0 .7 46 31-7 4o 27.6 145 1 0 0 .0 Median 7 -1 6 . 2 6 . 0 6 .5 263 l a d d e r , how ever, a l a r g e amount o f h o r i z o n t a l m o b i l i t y would n o t a p p e a r to be i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith home o w n e rsh ip , b u t few M exicans a re on t h e s e h i g h e r r u n g s . In f a c t , s t a b i l i t y and perm anency o f employment and r e s i d e n c e have o r d i n a r i l y been p o s t u l a t e d as co n d u civ e to jo b s e c u r i t y , o c c u p a t i o n a l advancem ent, and v ic e v e r s a . B ecause o f t h e s e i n t e r r e l a t e d f a c t o r s , th e w r i t e r h as h y p o th e s iz e d a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f homeowners among th e o c c u p a t i o n a l l y m o b ile , a l e s s e r p r o p o r t i o n among th e o c c u p a t i o n a l l y non- m o b ile and th e s m a l l e s t p r o p o r t i o n among th e downwardly o c c u p a t i o n a l l y m o b ile . T able 81 in d e e d does show t h a t among th e u pw ard ly m o b ile th e homeowners outnum ber th e r e n t e r s more th a n k to 1, w h ile among th e n o n m o b ile .and downwardly m o bile th e homeowners outnum ber th e r e n t e r s s l i g h t l y o v e r 2 to 1. T here i s c o n v e r s e l y a s t r o n g te n d e n c y f o r homeowners to be u pw ardly m o b ile , w h ile f o r th e r e n t e r s th e te n d e n c y i s more to w ard n o n m o b ility o r downward m o b i l i t y . Chi sq u a re f o r t h i s t a b l e does n o t r e a c h th e .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . C o n tra r y to th e s ta te m e n t made above c o n c e rn in g employment s t a b i l i t y , T ab le 82 a p p e a rs to show an i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een t h i s f a c t o r and upward o c c u p a t i o n a l 264 TABLE 81 HOME OWNERSHIP AND MOBILITY OP RESPONDENTS Type o f M o b i l i t y Home Upward None Downward T o ta l Owner Num P e r Num Per Num P er Num P e r s h i p b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t Own 48 4 5 -3 31 2 9 .3 27 25-5 106 1 0 0 .1 R en t 11 2 8 .2 15 38.5 13 3 3 .3 39 1 0 0 . 0 T o ta l 59 4 0 . 7 46 31-7 40 2 7 -6 145 1 0 0 .0 265 TABLE 82 NUMBER OF YEARS IN PRESENT EMPLOYMENT AND MOBILITY Number o f Years i n P r e s e n t Type o f M o b i l it y Upward None Downward T o ta l Employ ment Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Not w ork in g * 2 9-5 11 5 2 .4 8 3 8 .1 21 1 0 0 .0 0-1 15 4 8 .4 8 25-8 8 2 5 .8 31 1 0 0 .0 2-5 19 5 5 -9 8 23-5 7 2 0 .6 34 1 0 0 .0 6 -1 0 8 4 2 .1 3 1 5 .8 8 4 2 .1 19 1 0 0 .0 11 o r more 14 4 3 .8 11 3 4 .4 7 2 1 .9 32 1 0 0 .1 T o t a l 58 4 2 .3 41 2 9 .9 38 2 7 .7 137 9 9 .9 Median o f Those W orking 4 . 3 5 .2 5 .5 * I n c lu d e s unem ployed, r e t i r e d , and p e r s o n s on r e l i e f . 266 m o b i l i t y . The h i g h e s t m edian number o f y e a r s i n p r e s e n t employment was f o r th e downw ardly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s ( 5 -5 ) and th e l o w e s t f o r t h e u p w a rd ly m o b ile ( 4 .3 ) - F o r 0-5 y e a r s on t h e jo b t h e te n d e n c y i s f o r upw ard m o b i l i t y , w h ile f o r 6 o r m ore y e a r s t h e te n d e n c y i s f o r downward m o b i l i t y . Chi s q u a re f o r t h i s t a b l e d oes n o t r e a c h th e .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . I f i t be assum ed t h a t h ig h s t a t u s i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith b o th h i g h incom e and w ith upward m o b i l i t y , th e n i t would f o l l o w t h a t h i g h income s h o u ld be a s s o c i a t e d w ith upward m o b i l i t y . F u rth e r m o re , i t I s assum ed t h a t c e r t a i n income l e v e l s a re n e c e s s a r y to p u r c h a s e th e s t a t u s symbols a p p r o p r i a t e t o g iv e n l e v e l s i n th e s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y and t h a t r e s p o n d e n t s a r e aw are o f t h e s e sy m bo ls. The w r i t e r t h e r e f o r e h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t th e h i g h e r t h e t o t a l f a m i ly Income t h e g r e a t e r w ould be t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f u p w a rd ly m o bile p e r s o n s . The l a t t e r would have a h i g h e r a v e ra g e Income t h a n dow nw ardly m o b ile p e r s o n s . The d a t a f o r t e s t in g t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 84 w hich shows t h a t u p w a rd ly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s have t h e h i g h e s t m edian f a m ily incom e ( $ 6 , 6 l 5 ) j a lt h o u g h dow nw ardly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s have a h i g h e r m edian incom e ($ 5 ,2 5 0 ) t h a n do 267 TABLE 83 INCOME AND MOBILITY OF RESPONDENTS T o ta l Type o f M o b i l it y Annual Upward None Downward T o t a l F am ily Num - P e r Num P er Num P er Num P er Income b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t Under $ 4 ,0 0 0 14 1 2 .5 16 5 0 .0 12 3 7 .5 32 1 0 0 .0 4 ,0 0 0 - 5 ,9 9 9 15 3 4 .9 17 39-5 11 25.6 43 1 0 0 .0 6 ,0 0 0 - 7 ,9 9 9 19 5 2 .8 6 1 6 .7 11 30.6 36 1 0 0 .1 8 ,0 0 0 o r Over 16 6 6 .7 5 2 0 .8 3 1 2 .5 24 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 54 4 0 .0 44 3 2 .6 37 2 7 .4 135 1 0 0 .0 Median $ 6 ,6 1 5 $ 4 ,6 0 0 $ 5 ,2 5 0 c h i s q u a re = 2 2 .7 6 P = < • 01 C = . 380 * 268 t h e n o nm ob ile r e s p o n d e n t s ( $ 4 ,6 0 0 ) . W ith one e x c e p ti o n i n e a c h c a s e th e h i g h e r th e income c a t e g o r y , t h e h i g h e r i s th e p e r c e n t a g e o f u p w a rd ly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s , and th e lo w e r th e p e r c e n t a g e o f downw ardly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s and th e lo w e r th e p e r c e n t a g e o f n o n m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s . Chi s q u a r e f o r T a b le 83 i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .01 l e v e l . The r e s e a r c h e r h a d o r i g i n a l l y h y p o t h e s iz e d t h a t th e h i g h e r th e s o c i a l c l a s s , th e g r e a t e r would be th e p r o p o r t i o n o f h o u s e h o ld s i n w hich one sp o u se would be o f Anglo o r i g i n , and a l s o t h a t t h e r e w ould be a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f such s p o u s e s i n t h e u p w a rd ly m o b ile h o u s e h o ld s th a n i n th e downw ardly o r n o n -m o b ile o n e s . S in c e o n ly s i x Anglo w iv e s and one Anglo h u sb a n d w ere foun d i n a l l h o u s e s c o n t a c t e d , t h i s num ber i s to o s m a ll f o r t h e t e s t i n g o f any h y p o t h e s e s . B ecause o f th e l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s a v a i l a b l e to many M exicans and M exican-A m erican s u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g t h r e e o r f o u r d e c a d e s ago, few g o t a h e a d , a l t h o u g h o p p o r t u n i t y f o r m o b i l i t y h a s been much 269 b e t t e r f o r t h e l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s . 2^ Many M exican immi g r a n t s e x p e r i e n c e d downward o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y w i t h i n t h e i r own l i f e t i m e , and t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n th e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e p a r e n t a l g e n e r a t i o n . The im m ig ra n t, i f a s k i l l e d w o rk e r, m anager, o r w h i t e - c o l l a r w o rk e r, o r th e o f f s p r i n g o f o ne, h a s o f t e n h a d t o ta k e u n s k i l l e d o r s e m i s k i l l e d work b e c a u s e o f job d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e p re -W o rld War I I p e r i o d . Only 1 6 .1 p e r c e n t o f t h e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n have been u p w a rd ly m o b ile (s e e T able 8 4 ) . On th e o t h e r han d , i n Pomona h a l f o f th e se c o n d g e n e r a t i o n have been u p w a rd ly m o b ile . L a t e r ' g e n e r a t i o n s have n o t done a s w e l l , w i t h e q u a l num bers b e in g u p w a rd ly and down w a r d ly m o b ile . The p e r c e n t a g e o f l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n p e rs o n s who have b een no n m o b ile i s n e a r l y th e same a s f o r t h e se co n d g e n e r a t i o n ; t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n p e r so n s who have been downw ardly m o b ile i s a lm o s t i d e n t i c a l to t h a t o f th e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n . W ith e q u a l num bers g o in g p Em ory S . B o g a r d u s , " S e c o n d G e n e r a t i o n M e x i c a n s , " S o c i o l o g y a n d S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , X I I I ( J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 1 9 2 9 ), 283. R o b e r t H. T a l b e r t , S p a n is h - N a m e P e o p l e i n t h e S o u t h w e s t a n d W est ( F o r t W o rth : T e x a s C h r i s t i a n U n i v e r s i t y , 1955)* P P . 4 5 -4 6 . 270 TABLE 84 GENERATION AND MOBILITY OF RESPONDENTS G e n e ra tio n Type o f M o b ility T o ta l Upward None Downward Num b er P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t F i r s t 5 1 6 .1 15 4 8 .4 11 35.5 31 1 0 0 .0 Second 44 5 1 .2 23 2 6 .7 19 22 .1 86 100. 0 L a te r 10 35-7 8 2 8 .6 10 35 .7 28 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 59 4 0 .7 46 3 1 .7 40 27.6 145 1 0 0 .0 c h i sq u are = 1 2 .8 9 E > = .02 C = . 286 271 up and down, l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s a p p e a r a s a t o t a l i t y to be n o n m o b ile ; i n th e se co n d g e n e r a t i o n a lm o s t e i g h t - t e n t h s o f th e r e s p o n d e n t s a r e e i t h e r h o ld in g t h e i r own o r a d v a n c in g ; o n ly a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s o f th e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n a r e so d o in g . The d a ta r e p o r t e d i n T a b le 84. a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l . In view o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n s o f M exican-A m ericans have h a d b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n a l and o c c u p a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s th a n t h e i r e l d e r s , i t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e why t h e d a ta o f T able 85 show t h a t upward m o b i l i t y i s i n v e r s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith a g e . Of th e y o u n g e r r e s p o n d e n t s (aged 20 to 39 )j 5 2 .4 p e r c e n t w ere u p w ard ly m o b ile , b u t o n ly 2 4 .6 p e r c e n t o f th e o l d e r r e s p o n d e n t s (aged 40 o r o v e r ) . On th e o t h e r hand, 4 1 .0 p e r c e n t o f th e o l d e r r e s p o n d e n t s were downw ardly m o b ile , b u t o n ly 17*9 p e r c e n t o f th e y o u n g e r r e s p o n d e n t s . The t a b l e a l s o shows t h a t m ale r e s p o n d e n t s a re d i v i d e d a lm o s t e q u a l l y among th e u p w a rd ly m o b ile , n o nm obile an d downwardly m o b ile c a t e g o r i e s , w h e r e a s th e f e m a le s a r e m ost h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n th e upw ard c a t e g o r y and l e a s t so i n th e downward c a t e g o r y . T h is m o b i l i t y a d v a n ta g e , p e rh a p s hypergam y, o f th e fe m a le s com p a r e d t o t h e m ales i s o n ly p a r t i a l l y a c c o u n te d f o r by a g e , 272 TABLE 85 AGE, SEX AND MOBILITY OF RESPONDENTS Type o f M o b ility Upward None Downward T o ta l Age and Sex Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r - Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r - Per cen t M ales, 20-29 17 50.0 8 23.5 9 26.5 34 100.0 M ales, 40-89 5 17.2 12 • 4 1 .4 12 4 1 .4 29 100.0 S u b to ta l 22 34 .9 20 31-7 21 3 3 .3 63 99-9 Fem ales, 20-39 27 5 4 .0 17 3 4 .0 6 12.0 50 100.0 Fem ales, 40-89 10 31.2 9 28.1 13 4 0 .6 32 99*9 S u b to ta l 37 45 .1 26 31.7 19 23.2 82 100.0 Both S exes, 20-39 44 5 2 .4 25 29.8 15 17-9 84 100.1 Both S exes, 40-89 15 24 .6 21 34.4 25 4 1 .0 61 100.0 T o ta l 59 4 0 .7 46 31-7 4o 27.6 145 100.0 c h i sq u a re c h i sq u a re c h i sq u are (b o th s e x e s ) = (m ales) (fe m a le s) = 13.81 7 .3 4 9 .3 9 P =<• p = • P =<• 01 c 03 01 • 295 273 a l a r g e r p e r c e n ta g e o f b o th th e o l d e r fe m a le s and m ales h a v in g been downwardly m obile t h a n upw ard ly so , b u t w ith o n ly a s l i g h t l y h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e f o r th e m ales ( 4 1 .4 ) th a n f o r th e fe m a le s ( 4 0 . 6 ) . Of th e y o u n g e r r e s p o n d e n ts 5 4 .0 p e r c e n t o f th e fe m a le s and 5 0 .0 p e r c e n t o f th e m ales were up w ard ly m o b ile . When e i t h e r fe m a le s o r b o th se x e s a re c o n s i d e r e d , th e c h i s q u a re i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l ; c h i s q u a re f o r th e m ales i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . T h e i r a v e ra g e y o ung er age and th e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a c c u l t u r a t i o n o f f e r e d by m i l i t a r y e x p e r i e n c e s have c o n t r i b u t e d to th e upward m o b i l i t y o f th e v e t e r a n s i n th e M exican-A m erican p o p u l a t i o n . While 4 4 .8 p e r c e n t o f th e v e t e r a n s have been upw ard ly m o b ile , o n ly 25-0 p e r c e n t o f th e m ale n o n - v e t e r a n s were so; on th e o t h e r hand 33-3 p e r c e n t o f th e n o n - v e t e r a n s were downwardly m o b ile , b u t o n ly 2 1 .0 o f th e v e t e r a n s . These d i f f e r e n c e s a re n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . C o n v e rsio n t o P r o t e s t a n t i s m i s a n o th e r f a c t o r w hich h a s been c i t e d as b e in g a s s o c i a t e d w ith upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y o f M e x ic a n -A m e rlc a n s. T h e r e fo r e i t i s somewhat s u r p r i s i n g to o b s e rv e T ab le 86 w hich a p p e a rs to show more 274 TABLE 86 RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE AND MOBILITY OF RESPONDENTS R e li g i o u s P r e f e r e n c e Type o f M o b ility T o ta l Upward None Downward Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b er P e r c e n t Num b e r Per c en t C a th o lic 54 4 5 .0 36 3 0 .0 30 25.0 120 100.0 P r o t e s t a n t 5 2 9 .4 6 3 5 .3 6 35-3 17 100.0 None — “ — — • 4 5 0 .0 4 5 0 .0 8 100.0 T o ta l 59 4 0 .7 46 3 1-7 40 27.6 145 100.0 chi square =4.42 p = .05 upward m o b i l i t y f o r C a th o l i c s , no ten d en cy f o r P r o t e s t a n t s and a te n d e n cy tow ard downward m o b i l i t y f o r p e rs o n s r e p o r t in g no r e l i g i o u s .a f f i l i a t i o n . Chi sq u are i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . V i r t u a l l y a l l th e l i t e r a t u r e on Mexicans in th e U nited S t a t e s s t r e s s e s th e la c k o f f lu e n c y i n E n g lis h as a s tro n g d e t e r r e n t to upward s o c i a l m o b il i ty . T h e re fo re th e w r i t e r was i n t e r e s t e d i n r e l a t i n g language p r e f e r e n c e to m o b ility d a ta . T able 87 shows t h a t p e rs o n s who spoke Spanish d u rin g th e in te r v ie w were p re d o m in a n tly e i t h e r nonmobile o r downwardly m obile (8 1 .0 p e r c e n t ) , w hile alm ost h a l f (49-5 p e r c e n t ) o f th e E n g lis h s p e a k e rs had been upw ardly m o b ile . The c h i sq u a re f o r t h i s t a b l e i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l . T able 88 shows t h a t f o r a l l f o u r k i n s h i p r e l a t i o n s h ip s s t u d i e d , re s p o n d e n ts sp e ak in g E n g lis h (o r who spoke bo th lan g u a g es to t h e i r p a r e n t s , o r who were spoken to by t h e i r .c h ild r e n i n E n g lis h ) were more h e a v i ly r e p r e s e n te d among th e upw ardly m o b ile, and l e s s so among th e nonm obile and downwardly m o b ile , th a n th o s e c a s e s in which S panish was u sed . Thus i t i s a p p a re n t t h a t th e u se o f th e E n g lis h language i s d e f i n i t e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith upward o c c u p a tio n a l 276 TABLE 87 LANGUAGE PREFERENCE AND MOBILITY OF RESPONDENTS Type o f M o b ility Upward None Downward T o ta l Language Num Per Num P er Num Per Num Per P r e f e r e n c e b e r c e n t b er c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t S panish 8 19-0 17 4 0 .5 17 40 .5 42 1 0 0 .0 E n g lis h 51 4 9 .5 29 2 8 .2 23 22 .3 103 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 59 4 0 .7 46 31-7 40 27.6 145 1 0 0 .0 chi square =11.82 p = < .01 C = .275 TABLE 88 277 LANGUAGE SPOKEN IN FAMILY AND MOBILITY OF RESPONDENTS ___________Type o f M o b ility _______ Upward None Downward T o ta l Num- P er Num- P er Num- P e r Num- Per b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t Language Spoken to P a r e n ts • • E n g lis h o r b o th S panish 19 40 55 -9 3 6 .0 7 39 2 0 .6 3 5 .1 8 32 23 .5 2 8 .8 34 i l l 1 0 0 .0 9 9 .9 T o ta l 59 4 0 .7 46 31-7 40 27.6 145 1 0 0 .0 Language Spoken to S p o u s e : E n g lis h S p an ish o r b o th 24 27 6 6 .7 3 8 .6 6 22 1 6 .7 3 1 .4 6 21 16.7 3 0 .0 36 70 100.1 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 51 4 8 .1 28 2 6 .4 27 2 5 .5 106 1 0 0 .0 Language Spoken to C h i l d r e n : E n g lis h S p a n ish o r b o th 29 23 5 0 .0 3 4 .3 16 22 27.6 32.8 13 22 2 2 .4 32.8 58 67 10 0 .0 99.9 T o ta l 52 4 1 .6 38 3 0 .4 35 28.0 125 1 0 0 .0 Language Spoken to R espondent by C h i l d r e n : E n g lis h S p an ish o r b o th 38 11 4 8 .1 2 6 .2 20 17 2 5 .3 4 0 .5 21 14 2 6 .6 3 3 .3 79 42 10 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 49 4 0 .5 37 30 .6 35__ 2 8 .9 121 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a re c h i sq u a re = 7 = 5 .55 P = .46 p = “ • a 03 (To sp o u se) 02 (To r e s p o n d e n t by c h i l d r e n 278 m o b i l i t y . The o n ly r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r w hich th e c h i s q u a re t a b l e r e a c h e d th e .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , how ever, were la n g u a g e spoken to sp o u se and la n g u a g e spoken by c h i l d r e n . W ith r e f e r e n c e t o th e u se o f S p a n is h - la n g u a g e com m u n ic a tio n s m ed ia, T a b le 89 r e v e a l s t h a t , w i t h one e x c e p t i o n , th e p e r c e n t a g e o f u s e r s i s low er among th e u p w a rd ly m o b ile and h i g h e r among th e downw ardly m o b ile th a n th e p e r c e n t a g e o f n o n u s e r s , f o r th e t h r e e m edia o f r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n and m o v ie s. Only th e c h i s q u a re f o r m ovies r e a c h e s t h e .05 l e v e l o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . When a l l f i v e S p a n is h - la n g u a g e m edia o f communica t i o n ( r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n , m o v ies, n e w sp a p e rs and m a g a z in e s ) a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n te rm s o f th e number o f m edia u t i l i z e d by u p w a rd ly m o b ile , n o n m o b ile and dow nw ardly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s , a s i n T a b le 90, i t i s se e n t h a t among th o s e who u se d two o r fe w e r o f th e f i v e m edia t h e r e was a h i g h e r p e r c e n t age o f u p w a rd ly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s and a s m a l l e r p e r c e n t a g e o f downw ardly m o b ile th a n among th o s e who u s e d t h r e e o r more m e d ia . Upw ardly m o b ile p e r s o n s u s e d a mean o f 1 .2 4 m e d ia , n o nm o bile p e r s o n s 1 .4 3 and dow nw ardly m o b ile 1-75- T h is t a b l e i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . 279 TABLE 89 USE OF SPANISH-LANGUAGE MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION AND MOBILITY OF RESPONDENTS Type o f M o b i l i t y Upward None Downward T o t a l Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- P e r b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t Use R a d io 25 3 9-7 22 3 4 .9 16 2 5 .4 63 1 0 0 .0 Do Not Use R adio 34 4 1-5 24 2 9 .3 24 2 9 .3 82 100.1 Use T e l e v i s i o n 32 38.1 25 2 9 .8 27 3 2 .1 84 1 0 0 .0 Do Not Use T e l e v i s i o n 27 4 4 .3 21 3 4 .4 13 2 1 .3 61 1 0 0 .0 A tte n d M ovies 12 2 5 .5 17 3 6 .2 18 3 8 .3 47 1 0 0 .0 Do Not A tte n d M ovies 47 4 8 .0 29 2 9 .6 22 2 2 .4 98 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 59 4 0 .7 46 3 1 -7 40 2 7 - 6 .1 4 5 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a r e = 7 * 1 9 P = -03 (M ovies) 280 TABLE 90 NUMBER OP SPANISH LANGUAGE MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION USED AND MOBILITY OF RESPONDENTS Type o f M o b ility Number o f Upward None Downward T o ta l Types o f Num- P e r Num- P e r Num- Per Num- P er Media Used b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r cen t b e r c e n t None One Two Three Four 17 18 18 5 1 51-5 4 0 .0 4 2 .9 2 5.0 2 0 .0 9 15 15 7 2 7 .3 3 3 .3 3 5 .7 3 5 .0 7 12 9 8 4 21.2 26.7 21.4 4 0 .0 80.0 33 45 42 20 5 100. 0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 T o ta l 59 4 0 .7 46 3 1 .7 40 27.6 145 1 0 0 .0 Mean 1.2 4 1 .4 3 1 .7 5 1 .4 4 c h i sq u a re = - 6 .7 7 P = .0 3 CHAPTER V I I I TOWARD A TYPOLOGY OP MEXICAN-AMERICANS B ased on th e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s t u d y , th e w r i t e r h a s a t t e m p t e d t o c o n s t r u c t a t y p o lo g y o f M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s . W hile t h e r e s u l t s may n o t be v a l i d f o r any com m unity o t h e r t h a n Pomona, t h e y may s t i l l have h e u r i s t i c v a lu e i n s t u d y in g M exican -A m erican c o m m u n itie s e ls e w h e r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a . The r e s u l t i n g t y p o l o g y h a s a s t a t u s d im e n sio n and a s o c i o - c u l t u r a l d im e n s io n . The S t a t u s D im ension S o c i a l c l a s s s c a l e s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w e d b y th e r e s e a r c h e r a p p e a r e d to be o f v e ry l i m i t e d p o t e n t i a l v a lu e I n t h e s t u d y o f Pom ona's M exican -A m erican p o p u l a t i o n , a g ro u p w i t h a c o m p a r a t i v e l y n a rro w s t a t u s r a n g e . The r e s e a r c h e r f u r t h e r m o r e w ish e d t o a v o id a n y m e c h a n ic a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f s t a t u s s c a l e s t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n u n d e r s t u d y . He h a s u s e d h i s own judgm ent c o n s i d e r a b l y i n a s s i g n i n g r e s p o n d e n t s to l e v e l s i n h i s c o n s t r u c t e d s t a t u s 281 282 ty p o lo g y , I n d e e d even I n s e t t i n g up th e ty p o lo g y I n th e f i r s t p l a c e . F u r th e r m o r e , w h ile t h e r e a r e e x t a n t d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e c l a s s sy ste m s i n a number o f M exican-A m erican c o m m u n itie s, t h e y m e r e ly d e s c r i b e th e sy ste m s ( u s u a l l y b a s e d on d a t a s e c u r e d from k ey i n f o r m a n t s ) , w i t h o u t g i v in g any s o r t o f n u m e r ic a l I n d e x o r s c a l e . T h e ir a p p l i c a b i l i t y to Pom ona's M exican com m unity, l i k e t h e more q u a n t i t a t i v e c l a s s i n d i c e s , a p p e a re d t o be h i g h l y q u e s t i o n a b l e . T h e r e fo r e th e r e s e a r c h e r a t t e m p t e d t o c o n s t r u c t h i s own ty p o lo g y on t h e b a s i s o f th e r e s u l t s o f t e s t i n g h i s h y p o th e s e s . In r e v ie w in g t h e r e s u l t s o f t e s t i n g t h e s e h y p o th e s e s , th e outcom es w ere g e n e r a l l y i n th e e x p e c te d d i r e c t i o n , w i t h some i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n s . One i m p o r t a n t a s s o c i a t i o n was fo und t o be I n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n : number o f c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d and o c c u p a ti o n o f r e s p o n d e n t . In t h e c a s e o f s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s t h e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een th e n o n m o b ile and th e downw ardly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s ; t h e same was t r u e o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een s k i l l e d and s e m i - s k i l l e d w o r k e rs . R e s i d e n t i a l Area D f r e q u e n t l y d id n o t f i t i n a s c a l e from A to E; on some v a r i a b l e s t h e r e s p o n d e n t s r e s i d e n t t h e r e r a n k e d lo w e r 283 th an th o s e i n C, on some h i g h e r . T h is a r e a , w ith o n ly 10 c a s e s , i s p ro b a b ly an anomaly due to sam pling e r r o r . On most o f th e v a r i a b l e s t h i r d and l a t e r - g e n e r a t i o n r e s p o n d e n ts (m o stly nonm obile p e rs o n s , b o th g e o g r a p h i c a ll y and o c c u p a t i o n a l l y ) resem b led th e im m igrant g e n e r a t i o n more th an th e y d id th e second g e n e r a t i o n . On th e b a s i s o f th e s e r e s u l t s th e w r i t e r has a tte m p te d to c o n s t r u c t a ty p o lo g y p a r t i c u l a r l y d e s c r i p t i v e o f th e community s t u d i e d . The ty p o lo g y was a r r i v e d a t th ro u g h a s e r i e s o f a p p ro x im a tio n s, s t e p by s te p from i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b l e s th ro u g h v a r io u s c o m b in a tio n s, a t each s ta g e ta k in g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n th e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f v a r i a b l e s o f i n d i v i d u a l re s p o n d e n ts . S u b je c tiv e judgm ents n e c e s s a r i l y e n te r e d i n t o v a r io u s s t a g e s o f th e p r o c e s s , in c l u d i n g c a s e s where d a ta re c o rd e d c o n t r a d i c t e d th e w r i t e r ’ s o b s e r v a t i o n s in th e community and i t s homes. The f i r s t s te p was to examine th e c o r r e l a t i o n s among th e v a r io u s v a r i a b l e s d e a l t w ith in the c o u rse o f th e r e s e a r c h . T able 91 shows th e c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o n t i n gency (C) c a l c u l a t e d f o r each o f th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among th e 12 c h i e f v a r i a b l e s o f th e s tu d y . Of th e 66 c e l l s i n th e t a b l e , 2 a re l e f t v a c a n t because each r e p r e s e n t s a s u b c la s s o f a n o th e r v a r i a b l e . Of th e rem ain in g TABLE 91 COEFFICIENTS OF CONTINGENCY FOR MAJOR VARIABLES OF THE STUDY C O C G 8 Q J o w to G G C O < to o C O C Q C O *H 1 — 1 C O i — ! 0) to o 1 Q J c u C G c0 G *H < G G bC O o o •H C O > T J H to G Q J G •H ■ H -P G "H O Q J Q J G •H bQ < D -P -P G -P O P > C O O H cd G C O C O Q ) Q J • r t • H G * H • H o G 0) G a E T J i— I t> to Q J Q J to O O b0 < G cu G o •H C O to £> O to to . c G 0J G Q J o O C O P G C O g k C O G o cd G < u bO o G 0) O O H G 0 ) <H O C O P fG o < o H « S O O 2 (G o o C lass S e lf-P la c e m e n t • 308 .210 N .S .a N.S. N.S. N.S. • 308 N.S. • 350 .430 C lass S e lf-C o n s c io u s n e ss .352 .293 .242 .221 • - ro < T \ -P = - .317 N.S. .210 .460 .324 Number o f C la sse s .274b P e rc e iv e d ■ 373 • 303 .298 .230 N.S. N.S. N.S. c C onsciousness o f C lass D iv is io n s .384 .297 .232 .268 N.S. .227 N.S. N.S. M o b ility .278 .275 . 286 .295 ..465 • 380 N.S. R e s i d e n t i a l Area .170 .270 N.S. N.S. .487 •391 Income .294 • 315 .379 .491 .440 O ccupation .390 .307 .294 .221 Age • 558 .509 • 533 G e n e ra tio n .493 .539 Language P re fe re n c e .534 a N.S. I n d i c a t e s s t a t i s t i c a l l y n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p . ^ R e la tio n s h ip i n d i r e c t i o n o p p o s ite to t h a t p r e d i c t e d . cV a ria b le a s u b c la s s o f c r o s s - v a r i a b l e . 284 285 c e l l s , 49 I n d i c a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r w hich c h i sq u a re r e a c h e d a t l e a s t th e .05 l e v e l o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e ; th e c o rr e s p o n d in g C 's a r e g iv e n in th e c e l l s . F o u rte e n o f th e c e l l s m arked "N .S ." r e p r e s e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w hich were n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . I t was a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e r e were c l u s t e r s o f v a r i a b le s w hich i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d h i g h ly w ith eac h o t h e r , b u t l e s s h i g h l y w ith o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . In d ex e s were c o n s t r u c t e d f o r eac h o f t h e s e c l u s t e r s . One o f them, c a l l e d by th e w r i t e r " A c c u l t u r a t i o n S t a t u s " c o n s i s t e d o f th e v a r i a b l e s o f s c h o o lin g , lan g u a g e p r e f e r e n c e , g e n e r a t i o n and age; f o r e ac h o f t h e s e f o u r v a r i a b l e s th e h i g h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s were found to be w ith th e o t h e r t h r e e . A nother such c l u s t e r o f v a r i a b l e s was co m p rised o f o c c u p a tio n , incom e, r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a and m o b i l i t y . R e s i d e n t i a l a r e a and m o b i l i t y were each found to be most h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith o c c u p a tio n and income b u t were n o t c o r r e l a t e d w ith eac h o t h e r . With one e x c e p ti o n , o c c u p a tio n and income were e a c h m ost h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith th e o t h e r two v a r i a b l e s . R egarded s e p a r a t e l y , m o b i l i t y was n o t i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o an In d ex o f "Economic S t a t u s . " The t h i r d c l u s t e r , r e l a t e d to r e s p o n d e n t s ’ c l a s s 286 p e r c e p t i o n s , c o n s i s t e d o f th o s e v a r i a b l e s c a l l e d by th e w r i t e r “C o n s c io u s n e s s o f C la s s D i v i s i o n s , " “Number o f C la s s e s P e r c e i v e d , 1 1 " C la s s S e l f - C o n s c i o u s n e s s ," and “C la s s S e l f - P l a c e m e n t ." F o r t h r e e o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s , th e se co n d h i g h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n was w i t h s c h o o l in g , f o r one v a r i a b l e i t was th e t h i r d h i g h e s t . O th e rw is e , f o r e a c h o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s , th e h i g h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s were foun d t o be w ith th e o t h e r two f e a s i b l e c o m p a ris o n s . An in d e x o f “C la s s C o n s c io u s n e s s " was form ed from th e f i r s t and t h i r d v a r i a b l e s m e n tio n e d ab o v e. In g e n e r a l i t was fo u n d t h a t th e c o n s t r u c t e d i n d e x e s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r more h i g h l y t h a n d id any o f th e com ponents o f th e in d e x e s w ith e a c h o t h e r . " A c c u l t u r a t i o n S t a t u s " and "Economic S t a t u s " w ere found to c o r r e l a t e h i g h l y w i t h m o b i l i t y and w i t h each o t h e r . " C la s s C o n s c io u s n e s s " was fo u n d to c o r r e l a t e h i g h l y w ith " A c c u l t u r a t i o n S t a t u s " b u t n o t w i t h e i t h e r "Economic S t a t u s " o r m o b i l i t y . The n e x t s t e p was to combine a c c u l t u r a t i o n - s t a t u s and e c o n o m ic - s t a t u s s c o r e s i n t o a s i n g l e " S t a t u s I n d e x ." For th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een t h e " S t a t u s Ind ex " and m o b i l i t y , t h e o b t a i n e d C o f .470 was h i g h e r th a n th e 287 c o r r e l a t i o n o f m o b i l i t y w i t h any o t h e r v a r i a b l e , b u t n o t c o n s i d e r a b l y above t h a t f o r th e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een m o b il i t y and o c c u p a tio n ( .4 2 6 ) . Thus, t h e i n c l u s i o n o f th e o t h e r s i x f a c t o r s r a i s e d th e c o r r e l a t i o n w ith o c c u p a tio n by o n ly 1 0 .3 p e r c e n t . For th e a s s o c i a t i o n betw een " S t a tu s Index" and "C lass C o n sc io u sn e ss" th e o b t a i n e d C o f .445 was l a r g e r th a n t h a t o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n o f any c l a s s p e r c e p t i o n v a r i a b l e w ith any o t h e r v a r i a b l e , e x c e p t th e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een "C o n sc io u sn e ss o f C la s s D i v i s i o n s " and " C la ss S e l f - C o n sc io u sn e ss" w hich i s a l i t t l e o v e r 3 p e r c e n t l a r g e r . The o b t a i n e d C o f .3 2 0 betw een th e s t a t u s in d e x and c l a s s s e l f - p l a c e m e n t was h i g h e r t h a n t h a t f o r th e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een c l a s s s e l f - p l a c e m e n t and any s i n g l e economic o r a c c u l t u r a t i o n f a c t o r , a lth o u g h I t was l e s s th a n 4 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r th a n t h a t w ith s c h o o lin g and r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a (b o th .3 0 8 ) . I t was n o te d t h a t th e s t a t u s in d e x was more h i g h ly a s s o c i a t e d w ith m o b i l i t y and c l a s s c o n s c io u s n e s s t h a n th e l a t t e r were w ith e i t h e r o f t h e s e p a r a t e In d e x e s and f u r t h e r t h a t economic s t a t u s as such had v e ry l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on c l a s s c o n s c io u s n e s s e x c e p t In so f a r as b o th were a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e f a c t o r s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n . In r e l a t i v e terras i t was o b se rv e d t h a t th e s t a t u s in d ex s c o r e s g e n e r a l l y c o r r e l a t e d h i g h e r w ith th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n v a r i a b l e s th a n w ith th e economic o n es. S u r p r i s i n g l y , however, th e c o r r e l a t i o n w ith income (.6 1 2 ) was a lm o st as h ig h as t h a t w ith s c h o o lin g (.6 1 4 ) d e s p i te th e f a c t t h a t th e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een s c h o o lin g and income was r e l a t i v e l y low (.2 9 4 ) compared t o , f o r exam ple, t h a t between s c h o o lin g and o c c u p a tio n (.4 0 3 ) o r income and o c c u p a tio n (.4 4 0 ) . Yet th e c o r r e l a t i o n between th e s t a t u s in d e x and o c c u p a tio n (.5 5 6 ) was c o n s id e r a b ly l e s s th a n t h a t betw een th e fo rm er and s c h o o lin g o r income. Thus i t could be argued t h a t w h ile o c c u p a tio n by i t s e l f m ight be p e rh a p s th e b e s t s i n g l e i n d i c a t o r o f s o c i a l s t a t u s , i t i s l e s s p o w e rfu l as an in d e x th a n th e combined use o f s c h o o l in g and income. The power o f a c o n s t r u c t e d in d e x b e a r s an i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n o f i t s com p o n e n ts , t h a t i s , th e low er th e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s , th e g r e a t e r th e e f f i c i e n c y o f th e in d e x . The o c c u p a tio n a l v a r i a b l e co u ld be re g a rd e d as a m e d ia tin g one; income te n d s to depend on o c c u p a tio n which i n t u r n depends on s c h o o lin g . Thus o c c u p a tio n c o r r e l a t e s h ig h ly w ith b o th s c h o o lin g and incom e, b u t th e l a t t e r two 289 to a much l e s s e r d e g re e w ith each o t h e r . I t may be t h a t s c h o o l in g c r e a t e s th e d e s i r e s and p o t e n t i a l i t i e s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s t y l e o f l i f e ; a g iv e n income p u r c h a s e s th e n e c e s s i t i e s and sym bols r e q u i s i t e f o r such a s t y l e o f l i f e . N e i t h e r income n o r s c h o o l in g a lo n e g u a r a n t e e s p o s s e s s i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r s t y l e o f l i f e ; n e i t h e r one g u a r a n t e e s th e o t h e r . F o llo w in g t h i s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g , t h e w r i t e r p r o c e e d ed to c o n s t r u c t a "S c h o o lin g -In c o m e In d ex " by d i v i d i n g e a c h o f th e v a r i a b l e s i n t o f o u r r a n k e d c a t e g o r i e s e a c h . The in d e x s c o r e .was d e r i v e d by a d d in g s c h o o lin g r a n k to income r a n k . The s c o r e s t h u s d e r i v e d were fo u n d t o be p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t , w i t h th e e x c e p ti o n o f o n ly one r e s p o n d e n t , w ith th e mean s t a t u s in d e x s c o r e s f o r th e same g ro u p s o f r e s p o n d e n t s . Thus t h e use o f o n ly t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s , s c h o o l in g and Incom e, ra n k e d g ro u p s o f r e s p o n d e n t s i n e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same f a s h i o n as t h e more cumbersome " S t a t u s I n d e x ." C o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o n tin g e n c y w ere c a l c u l a t e d f o r th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s c h o o lin g -In c o m e s c o r e t o th e v a r i a b l e s o f th e s tu d y . S in c e th e g e n e r a l s t a t u s in d e x i n c o r p o r a t e d th e m ost i m p o r t a n t o f th e c u l t u r a l and econom ic v a r i a b l e s , and 290 t h e s c h o o lin g - in c o m e s c o r e o n l y tw o, i t was to be e x p e c te d and fo u n d t h a t th e l a t t e r in d e x w ould c o r r e l a t e l e s s h i g h l y w i t h t h o s e v a r i a b l e s . And w h ile t h e c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h m o b i l i t y was a l s o lo w e r , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e c l a s s - p e r c e p t i o n v a r i a b l e s w ere h i g h e r th a n any c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n any o f t h e l a t t e r and any c u l t u r a l o r econom ic c r i t e r i o n o r c o m b in a tio n o f c r i t e r i a . T hus, t h e s c h o o lin g - in c o m e s c o r e s t i l l c o r r e l a t e d h i g h l y w i t h t h e econom ic and c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s , a l t h o u g h n o t a s h i g h l y a s d i d t h e g e n e r a l s t a t u s i n d e x , w h ile i t c o r r e l a t e d more h i g h l y w i t h c l a s s - p e r c e p t i o n v a r i a b l e s t h a n d i d any s i n g l e econom ic o r c u l t u r a l c r i t e r i o n o r c o m b in a t i o n o f c r i t e r i a . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f S t a t u s L e v e ls The n e x t p ro b le m was to a s c e r t a i n w h e th e r t h e c o n s t r u c t e d I n d e x e s c o u ld be u s e d a s t y p o l o g i e s o r w h e th e r t h e y c o u ld be u s e d to I d e n t i f y t h e s t a t u s l e v e l s i n t h e M e x ican -A m erican com m unity a s d e s c r i b e d by t h e w r i t e r ' s r e s p o n d e n t s . Assuming t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t e d g e n e r a l s t a t u s and s c h o o lin g - in c o m e i n d e x e s w ere ro u g h i n d e x e s o f s o c i a l s t a t u s among t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f M exican d e s c e n t In Pomona, t h e w r i t e r w ished to d i s c o v e r any p o s s i b l e " n a t u r a l " b r e a k s i n th e s t a t u s s c a l e . He i n s p e c t e d th e t a b l e s p r e s e n t i n g t h e c r o s s - t a b u l a t i o n o f th e in d e x e s w ith th e k e y v a r i a b l e s i n an e f f o r t to l o c a t e i n th e f i r s t p l a c e , colum ns o f c e l l s c o n t r i b u t i n g e x c e e d in g ly sm a ll p r o p o r t i o n s o f th e t o t a l c h i s q u a r e , o r s e c o n d ly , b re a k s i n th e s t a t u s con tinuum o c c a s io n e d by sh a rp ch ang es i n p e r c e n t a g e s . I t was much e a s i e r to o b se rv e th e r e l a t i v e hom ogeneity o f r e s p o n d e n ts a t th e ends o f th e s c a l e s th a n i t was to i d e n t i f y b re a k s in th e m idd le o f th e continuum . That i s , th e m ost o b v io u s sh a rp b re a k s were betw een th e lo w e st c a te g o r y and th e n e x t lo w e s t, and betw een t h e h i g h e s t and th e n e x t h i g h e s t . Thus, i t a p p e a re d a t f i r s t s i g h t t h a t t h e community had w e ll d e f in e d lo w er and up per s t a t u s g ro u p s , w ith a continuum (p e rh a p s a r e s i d u a l c a t e g o r y ) i n betw een. These r e s u l t s a p p e a re d to th e w r i t e r t o be b a s i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t w ith t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f Pom ona's M exican- American c l a s s s t r u c t u r e s e c u r e d from i n f o r m a n ts , a lth o u g h no a tte m p t was made e m p i r i c a l l y t o d e m o n s tra te t h i s con s i s t e n c y . The ty p o lo g y w hich h a s been s e t up by th e w r i t e r i s h e a v i l y b a se d on h i s c o n s id e r e d judgm ent, w i t h no 292 a tte m p t to d i s g u i s e i t s a d m i t te d ly s u b j e c t i v e e le m e n t. O b je c tiv e d a ta and i n f o r m a n t s ’ s t a te m e n t s c a r r y one o n ly so f a r ; from t h a t p o i n t onward in fo rm e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s c a l l e d f o r . At one extrem e o f th e continuum i t was e a s y to i d e n t i f y a l e v e l o f s u c c e s s f u l p e o p le , a t the o t h e r a l e v e l o f f a i l u r e s . The l a t t e r c a t e g o r y , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by in fo r m a n t s as " th o s e who d o n ’ t c a r e , " as " th e poor" o r "low er c l a s s " h as been i d e n t i f i e d as C lass I i n th e w r i t e r ' s sy stem . T h is l e v e l c o n s i s t s o f th e p o o r e s t , l e a s t a c c u l- t u r a t e d and l e a s t s k i l l e d p e r s o n s . Most o f th e re s p o n d e n ts b o th w ith incom es o f l e s s th a n $4,000 and w ith l e s s th a n f i v e y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g (hence g e n e r a l l y i l l i t e r a t e o r f u n c t i o n a l l y i l l i t e r a t e ) were grouped h e r e . A ll p e rs o n s on r e l i e f were i n c l u d e d i n t h i s c a te g o r y ; a l l employed p e r s o n s a t t h i s l e v e l a r e l a b o r e r s . A ll th e s e p e o p le l i v e i n th e c o l o n i a . The m ost t y p i c a l o f t h e l e v e l s , w ith th e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f r e s p o n d e n t s , was d e s i g n a t e d as C lass I I . These p e o p le a r e s t e a d i l y employed as l a b o r e r s , sem i s k i l l e d o r s k i l l e d w o rk e rs , have Incomes o f betw een $4 ,000 and $7*999 and have a t l e a s t f i v e y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g . They 293 l i v e i n a l l a r e a s o f th e c i t y e x c e p t A. W hile m o s tly l i v i n g i n t h e c o l o n i a , t h i s i s th e g ro u p t h a t a t l e a s t " i s t r y i n g . " The r e s e a r c h e r p l a c e d i n C la s s I I I th o s e p e o p le who had i n f a c t a c h ie v e d a m odest d e g re e o f s u c c e s s : th e " s t r i v e r s " who had been d e s c r i b e d by in f o r m a n ts as w a n tin g a b e t t e r l i f e f o r th e m s e lv e s and e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n . W hile n o t a c h i e v i n g f u l l m i d d l e - c l a s s s t a t u s , t h e b r e a d w in n e r s i n t h e s e f a m i l i e s a r e among th e more s k i l l e d and b e t t e r p a i d w o rk e rs among Pom ona's M exican- A m ericans. R e sp o n d e n ts w ere c l a s s i f i e d i n I I I p r o v id e d t h e y p o s s e s s e d any one o f t h e f o l lo w in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : (a ) th e y r e s i d e d i n Area A a t th e tim e o f th e i n t e r v i e w , % (b) t h e y h a d w h i t e - c o l l a r em ploym ent, o r (c ) had a t o t a l f a m i ly incom e o f $ 8 ,0 0 0 o r o v e r . T hose r e s p o n d e n t s who had a c h ie v e d th e c o m p lete e q u i v a l e n t o f Anglo m i d d l e - c l a s s s t a t u s w ere d e s i g n a t e d a s C la s s IV . T h is I s th e " e l i t e " l e v e l i d e n t i f i e d by i n f o r m a n t s , d e s c r i b e d by th o s e lo w e r I n t h e s t a t u s h i e r a r c h y a s " s o c i e t y , " b u t u s u a l l y by th e m s e lv e s as " m id d le c l a s s , " w hich i n e f f e c t t h e y a r e . T h is i s th e m ost h i g h l y s c h o o le d and m ost p r o s p e r o u s g r o u p . R e sp on d e n t s w ere p u t In t h i s c l a s s p r o v id e d th e y p o s s e s s e d any 294 two o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s en u m erated i n th e p r e c e d in g p a r a g r a p h . A ll p r o f e s s i o n a l s and o t h e r c o ll e g e g r a d u a t e s were i n c l u d e d h e r e . Some o f C la s s I I I , b u t a l l o f C lass IV r e s i d e o u t s i d e th e c o l o n i a . In a s s i g n i n g r e s p o n d e n ts to g iv e n s o c i a l c l a s s l e v e l s , th e w r i t e r f e l t i t n e c e s s a r y to make some f o u r t e e n e x c e p ti o n s when a g iv e n a ssig n m e n t d id v i o le n c e to th e s p i r i t o f th e scheme. E x c e p tio n s were made i n c a s e s where income was o b v io u s ly i n c o r r e c t l y r e p o r t e d , when t h e house o r n e ig h b o rh o o d was s u p e r i o r o r f a r i n f e r i o r to i t s s u r ro u n d in g s , hence o u t o f k e e p in g w ith th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e a r e a , when t h e r e was good r e a s o n to q u e s t i o n th e o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y a s s i g n e d , o r when a p e rs o n o b v io u s ly (view ed s u b j e c t i v e l y ) d id n o t " f i t " a g iv e n l e v e l . Having c o n s t r u c t e d t h i s f o u r f o l d ty p o lo g y and h a v in g a s s i g n e d each r e s p o n d e n t to one o f th e f o u r c l a s s l e v e l s , t h e w r i t e r n e x t e x p lo r e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een each r e s p o n d e n t 's a s s i g n e d l e v e l and h i s o t h e r r e l e v a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . C o n tin g en cy t a b l e s were c o n s t r u c t e d and th e s t a t i s t i c s o f c h i s q u a re and i t s d e r i v a t i v e , th e c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o n tin g e n c y , were c a l c u l a t e d . In th e d i s c u s s i o n w hich f o llo w s o f t h e r e s u l t s o f such c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e v a r i a b l e o f a s s i g n e d s t a t u s l e v e l i s r e f e r r e d to a s " s o c i a l c l a s s , " w i t h no i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t s u c h a c o n s t r u c t i s " r e a l " i n a p h i l o s o p h i c s e n s e . The c o n c e p t o f " s o c i a l c l a s s " i s a n o m in a l c o n s t r u c t u s e d by t h e w r i t e r t o d e s c r i b e h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e sy stem o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w h ich o b t a i n s among p e r s o n s o f M exi can d e s c e n t i n Pomona. S o c i a l C la s s and M o b i l i t y T a b le 92 shows t h a t t h e r e i s o n l y a weak a s s o c i a t i o n b e tw e e n upw ard s o c i a l m o b i l i t y and s o c i a l c l a s s ; th e C f o r t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n i s o n l y .383* I t i s t h u s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e t h a t h i g h s t a t u s h a s b e en u s u a l l y t h e r e s u l t o f upw ard s o c i a l m o b i l i t y o r low s t a t u s th e r e s u l t o f f a i l u r e v e r t i c a l l y to r i s e i n t h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e . I n C l a s s IV, f o r e x am p le , a l t h o u g h 9 o u t o f 13 w ere u p w a rd ly m o b ile , t h e o t h e r 4 w ere n o n m o b ile : t h e y w ere w h i t e - c o l l a r o f f s p r i n g o f w h i t e - c o l l a r p a r e n t s , hen ce o f a s c r i b e d m i d d l e - c l a s s s t a t u s . The one p e r s o n i n C la s s I who c o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d u p w a rd ly m o b ile was t h e i l l i t e r a t e w if e o f a s e m i - s k i l l e d w o r k e r . Most o f t h o s e i n C l a s s I w ere n o n m o b ile (11 o u t o f TABLE 92 MOBILITY AND SOCIAL CLASS OF RESPONDENTS Type o f M o b i l i t y C l a s s : : ■ 1 r 1 . ) 11 T o t a l I I I I I I IV Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r : P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Upward 1 1 .7 30 5 0 .8 19 32 .2 9 15 .3 59 10 0 .0 None 11 23.9 27 58 .7 4 8.7 4 8 .7 46 100.0 Downward 6 1 5 . 0 27 67'. 5 7 17.5 ~ — _ — 40 10 0 .0 T o t a l 18 12 .4 84 5 7 .9 30 20.7 13 9-0 145 10 0.0 c h i s q u a r e = 24.95 1 1 A 01 c = .383 r v > vo Ch 297 o f 1 8 ) , a lt h o u g h a c a s e c o u ld be made f o r a l l e g i n g t h a t a l l p e r s o n s on r e l i e f h a d been downw ardly m o b ile . I n a d d i t i o n , 6 o t h e r r e s p o n d e n ts on th e lo w e s t l e v e l h a d in f a c t been downw ardly m o b ile . C l a s s I I c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s b e l o w t h e a v e r a g e A n g lo s t a t u s , b u t t h e u s u a l A n g lo e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t t h i s m a j o r i t y o f M e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n s h a v e e i t h e r n o t t r i e d o r n o t s u c c e e d e d i n " g e t t i n g a h e a d " i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y v a l i d . L ess t h a n o n e - t h i r d {27 o u t o f 84) had i n f a c t been n on - m o b ile . On th e o t h e r hand, th e same p r o p o r t i o n had been downw ardly m o b ile . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , a number o f p a r e n t s o f th e downwardly m obile i n C la s s e s I and I I had worked as s k i l l e d o r w h i t e - c o l l a r w o rk e rs . On th e o t h e r han d , a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h o s e i n l e v e l I I (30 o u t o f 84) had been u p w ard ly m o b ile , i . e . , had a t l e a s t im proved t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n a l i f n o t a l s o t h e i r s o c i a l s t a t u s . T h u s w h i l e l e v e l s I arid I I r e p r e s e n t l a r g e l y t h e n o n m o b i l e a n d d o w n w a r d ly m o b i l e r e s p o n d e n t s , t h e o p p o s i t e h o l d s t r u e f o r l e v e l s I I I a n d IV , m o s t o f w hose m em bers h a v e b e e n u p w a r d l y m o b i l e ( r e s p e c t i v e l y 19 o u t o f 30 a n d 9 o u t o f 1 3 ) . 298 S o c i a l C l a s s a n d E c o n o m ic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R e s p o n d e n t s S i n c e e c o n o m ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w e re an i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l c l a s s s c h e m e , i t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t s o c i a l c l a s s r a t i n g s w o u l d c o r r e l a t e h i g h l y w i t h t h e e c o n o m ic v a r i a b l e s . I n f a c t t h e h i g h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n ( .6 4 4 ) o f s o c i a l c l a s s w i t h a n y v a r i a b l e w as w i t h o c c u p a t i o n ( s e e T a b l e 9 3 )> d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t o c c u p a t i o n was o n l y one o f t h e s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s c o n s i d e r e d . ' No d i s t i n c t i o n h a d b e e n made b e t w e e n s e m i - s k i l l e d w o r k e r s o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d l a b o r e r s o r s k i l l e d w o r k e r s on t h e o t h e r , a n d w h i l e a w h i t e c o l l a r o c c u p a t i o n " q u a l i f i e d " a p e r s o n f o r C l a s s I I I a n d p o s s i b l y f o r C l a s s IV , i t was n o t a r e q u i s i t e f o r m e m b e r s h ip i n t h o s e l e v e l s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , C l a s s I c o n t a i n e d a l l p e r s o n s on r e l i e f , i t s e l f r a t h e r a n i n d i c a t i o n o f l a c k o f o c c u p a t i o n . C la s s I was composed a lm o s t e x c l u s i v e l y o f l a b o r e r s and p e r s o n s on r e l i e f (17 o u t o f 18) w h ile C la s s IV was c o m p ris e d m o s t l y o f w h i t e - c o l l a r w o rk e rs (11 o u t o f 13)* C l a s s I I was composed m o s tly o f l a b o r e r s and s e m i - s k i l l e d (61 o u t o f 8 5 ) and C l a s s I I I m o s t ly s e m i - s k i l l e d and s k i l l e d TABLE 93 OCCUPATION AND SOCIAL CLASS OP RESPONDENTS C lass I I I I I I IV T o ta l Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per O ccupation b e r c e n t b e r c en t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t L ab o re rs and R e l i e f 17 3 0 .4 37 66.1 2 3.6 56 100.1 S e m i-S k ille d 1 2.7 24 6 4 .9 11 29-7 ,1 2.7 37 10 0.0 S k i l l e d - - _ _ 23 6 7 .6 10 29.4 1 2 .9 34 99-9 White C o lla r ~ — 1 5 -0 8 4 0 .0 11 55-0 20 10 0 .0 T o ta l 18 1 2 .2 85 57-8 31 2 1 .2 13 8 .8 147 10 0.0 c h i sq u are = 104.03 P = < .01 C = .644 66s 300 (21 o u t o f 3 1 ), a lth o u g h t h e r e was v i r t u a l l y no d i f f e r ence i n th e r a t i o o f s e m i - s k i l l e d to s k i l l e d w o rk e rs i n any o f th e f o u r l e v e l s . The n e x t h i g h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n o f s o c i a l c l a s s was w ith income ( .6 3 7 ; see T ab le 9^)* P e rso n s w ith incom es o f l e s s th a n $ 4 ,0 0 0 had been p la c e d i n C la s s I o n ly i f t h e y a l s o had l e s s th a n 5 y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g . On th e o t h e r hand , r e s p o n d e n ts w ith incom es o f $ 8 ,0 0 0 o r more m ight q u a l i f y f o r I I I o r IV , th o u g h such a h ig h income was n o t a n e c e s s a r y r e q u i s i t e f o r m em bership i n such c a t e g o r i e s . The a s s o c i a t i o n o f c l a s s w ith income i s c l e a r , however; th o s e i n C la s s I had a m edian income o f $ 2 ,1 2 5 , th o s e i n I I , $ 5 ,4 1 2 , th o s e i n I I I , $ 8 ,0 0 0 and th o s e i n IV, $ 9 ,0 0 0 . The o n ly r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a ta k e n a c c o u n t o f i n a s s i g n i n g r e s p o n d e n ts to s o c i a l l e v e l s was Area A, th e o n ly d e f i n i t e l y m i d d l e - c l a s s a r e a i n th e c i t y . A re s p o n d e n t was c l a s s i f i e d i n I I I , and p o s s i b l y i n IV, i f he r e s i d e d i n t h i s a r e a . D e s p ite t h i s l i m i t e d u se o f th e a r e a l c r i t e r i on, th e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een s o c i a l c l a s s and r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a was found to be f a i r l y h ig h , .528 (se e T ab le 95)* A lthou gh C la s s I I and I I I members l i v e d i n a l l a r e a s o f th e c i t y , no member o f I l i v e d i n e i t h e r A o r D, and a l l TABLE 94 TOTAL FAMILY INCOME AND SOCIAL CLASS OF RESPONDENTS Income C lass T o ta l I I I I I I IV Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c en t Under $4,000 14 43-8 16 5 0 .0 1 3-1 1 3-1 32 100.0 4 ,0 0 0 -5 ,9 9 9 3 7 .0 34 79 .1 6 13*9 _ _ - - 43 10 0.0 6 ,0 0 0 -7 ,9 9 9 — 28 75-7 7 1 8 .9 2 5 .4 37 10 0.0 8,000 o r o v e r ' --- _ — 2 8 .0 14 5 6 .0 9 3 6 .0 25 100 .0 T o ta l 17 12 .4 80 5 8 .4 28 20.4 12 8 .8 137 10 0.0 Median $2,125 $5,412 $8,000 $9,000 c h i square = 93.3 0 P = < .01 C = .637 301 TABLE 95 RESIDENTIAL AREA AND SOCIAL CLASS OF RESPONDENTS aaasasii i ra il as; C lass I I I I I I IV T o ta l R e s i d e n t i a l Num Per Num Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Area b e r c en t b e r c e n t b e r c en t b e r c e n t b e r c e n t A - - 1 7 .1 5 35-7 8 57 • 1 I t 99-9 B 1 9 .3 9 39.1 8 3 4 .8 5 21 .7 23 99-9 C 8 14.5 39 7 0 .9 8 14.5 _ _ 55 9 9 .9 D - - 5 5 0 .0 5 5 0 .0 10 100.0 E 9 20 .0 31 6 8 .9 5 11.1 45 100.0 T o ta l 18 12,2 85 57-8 31 2 1 .2 13 8 .8 147 10 0.0 c h i sq uare = 5 6 .9 0 p = < . 0 1 c = .528 302 303 members o f IV l i v e d i n e i t h e r A o r B. Members o f I and I I w ere c o n c e n t r a t e d i n C and E ( r e s p e c t i v e l y 17 o u t o f 18 and 70 o u t o f 85) w h ile th o s e i n I I I w ere c o n c e n tr a te d i n A, B, and C (21 o u t o f 31)* A ll p e r s o n s l i v i n g i n D were e i t h e r I I o r I I I . S o c i a l C lass and C u l tu r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R esp o ndents T ab le 96 shows t h a t w h ile s c h o o lin g i s a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r In s o c i a l c l a s s , a g iv e n amount by no means g u a r a n t e e s a p a r t i c u l a r c l a s s r a t i n g . The d i f f e r e n c e s a re e a s i e r to se e a t the e x tre m e s : t h e r e w ere no h ig h sc h o o l g r a d u a t e s i n C lass I , w hile m o st o f th o s e In IV (8 out o f 13) were h i g h sc h o o l g r a d u a t e s , and no one had l e s s th a n 9 y e a rs o f s c h o o lin g . On t h e o t h e r han d , th e I n t e r m e d i a t e s t a t u s l e v e l s I I and I I I e a c h in c lu d e d some i n d i v i d u a l s who had n e v e r a t t e n d e d sc h o o l (3 and 1 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) and some who h a d a tt e n d e d j u n i o r c o ll e g e (4 i n each l e v e l ) . The m edian number o f y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g was f o r l e v e l I , 1 .7 ; f o r I I , 9 . 5 ; f o r I I I , 9 . 8; and f o r IV, 1 2 .0 . T hus, w h ile t h o s e i n I a r e e d u c a t i o n a l l y g r e a t l y h a n d i cap p e d , and th o s e i n IV e d u c a t i o n a l l y a d v a n ta g e d , s c h o o lin g TABLE 96 SCHOOLING AND SOCIAL CLASS OF RESPONDENTS Number o f Years o f S chooling C lass T o ta l I I I I I I IV Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c en t 0-8 15 25.4 32 5 4 .2 12 20 .3 _ _ , __ 59 99-9 9-11 3 6 .4 31 6 6 .0 8 1 7 .0 5 10.6 47 10 0.0 12 — — --- 22 5 3 .7 11 26 .8 8 1 9 .5 41 100.0 T o ta l 18 1 2 .2 85 5 7 .8 31 21.2 13 8 .8 147 100.0 c h i sq u are = 27.31 P = < .01 C = .396 u> o 305 i s o n ly a p o t e n t i a l f a c t o r i n prom o tin g m o b i l i t y from I I to I I I . Those In I I have on th e a v erag e a lm o st as much s c h o o lin g as th o s e i n I I I , b u t have n o t managed to r i s e above th e o t h e r s w ith r e s p e c t to e i t h e r income, o c c u p a tio n o r r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , i . e . , to o b t a i n even some minimum symbol o f m iddle c l a s s s t a t u s . Thus th e c o r r e l a t i o n o f s o c i a l c l a s s w ith sc h o o lin g i s f a i r l y low, - 396. T able 97 shows t h a t most o f th o se In C lass I a re o f th e im m igrant g e n e r a t i o n (12 o u t o f 1 8 ), b u t m ost o f th o se i n IV (11 o u t o f 13) a re second g e n e r a t i o n M exican- A m ericans. C la ss I I I had a l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f second g e n e r a t i o n th a n d id I I (22 o u t o f 31 and 49 o u t o f 85 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) and a s m a ll e r p r o p o r t io n o f f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n (5 o u t o f 31 and 14 o u t o f 85 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . L a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s ( i . e . , n a t i v e - b o r n o f n a t i v e p a r e n t a g e ) were m ost h e a v i l y c o n c e n tr a te d i n I I (22 out o f 2 9); o n ly 2 were i n I , 4 in I I I and 1 i n IV. A ll t h i r d and f o u r t h g e n e r a t i o n p e rs o n s e x c e p t 2 were I n I I j 7 o f 10 " o ld C a l i f o r n i a n s " were i n I I , and 4 o f 6 H isp an o s. Thus th e s o - c a l l e d "S p an ish " were f o r t h e most p a r t i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e as to s o c i a l c l a s s from th e mass o f th e M exican-Am erican p o p u l a t i o n . Of th o s e 11 I n d i v i d u a l s who TABLE 97 GENERATION AND SOCIAL CLASS OP RESPONDENTS G e n era tio n C lass ' T o ta l I I I I I I IV Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t F i r s t 12 37.5 14 4 3 .8 5 15-6 1 3.1 32 1 00.0 Second 4 4 .7 49 5 7 .0 22 25*6 11 1 2 .8 86 100.1 L a te r 2 6 .9 22 75-9 4 13-8 1 3*4 29 10 0.0 T o ta l 18 1 2 .2 85 5 7 .8 31 21,2 13 8 .8 147 100.0 c h i squ are = 29.86 P = < .01 C = .411 u> o Ch 307 were p a r t C a l i f o r n i a n o r p a r t H ispano, a l l b u t one (who was i n I ) , were In I I , th u s more r e s e m b lin g th e "M exican1 ' th a n th e "S p a n ish " p a r e n t . The f a i r l y h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n o f g e n e r a t i o n and s o c i a l c l a s s (.4 1 1 ) I s l a r g e l y a t t r i b u t a b le t o th e s u c c e s s e s o f th e second g e n e r a t i o n . While t h e u se o f th e S p a n ish la n g u a g e may be a d e t e r r e n t to s o c i a l m o b i l i t y , u se o f th e E n g lis h lan g u a g e i s no g u a r a n t e e o f s u c c e s s i n th e s t a t u s r a c e . A ll mem b e r s o f C la s s IV a re f l u e n t i n E n g li s h , b u t o n ly 4 o f th e 18 members o f C la s s I . About th e same p r o p o r t i o n o f C la s s I I and C la s s I I I a re f l u e n t i n E n g lis h (7 2 .9 and 8 0.6 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . The l a c k o f a s t r o n g w e l l - d e f i n e d a s s o c i a t i o n betw een la n g u a g e p r e f e r e n c e and s o c i a l c l a s s shows up In th e r e l a t i v e l y low c o r r e l a t i o n betw een th e tw o, -394, as shown i n T ab le 98- T able 99 shows t h a t th e o l d e r M exicans have been m ost p ro n e to f a l l b e h in d , th e y ounger M exicans m ost l i k e l y t o su c c e e d In g e t t i n g ah ea d . Of th o s e i n C lass I , o n ly 1 6 .7 p a r c e n t w ere u n d e r 40 y e a r s o f a g e , w h ile o n ly 1 5 .4 p e r c e n t o f th o s e i n C la s s IV were 40 y e a r s o f age and o v e r. I n C lass I I , 6 2 .4 p e r c e n t w ere u n d e r 40 and 51*8 o f th o s e i n C lass I I I . Thus th e a s s o c i a t i o n betw een age and s o c i a l TABLE 98 LANGUAGE PREFERENCE AND SOCIAL CLASS OF RESPONDENTS C lass Language I I I I I I IV T o ta l Num b e r Per cen t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t S panish 14 32-6 23 53-5 6 1 4 .0 — 43 100.1 E n g lis h 4 3 .8 62 59-6 25 24 .0 13 12.5 104 99-9 T o ta l 18 1 2 .2 85 5 7 .8 31 21 .2 13 8 .8 147 10 0.0 c h i sq uare = 27.10 P = C .01 C = .394 U) o 00 TABLE 99 AGE AND SOCIAL CLASS OP RESPONDENTS C lass Age I I I I I I IV T o ta l Num- Per b e r c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c en t Under 40 3 3-5 53 6 2 .4 18 2 1 .2 11 1 2 .9 85 100.0 40 and ov er 15 24.2 32 51-6 13 2 1 .0 2 3 .2 62 100.0 T o ta l 18 1 2 .2 85 5 7 .8 31 21 .2 13 8 .8 147 10 0.0 Median 5 6 .6 36. 0 37-0 33.9 c h i sq u are = 18.27 P = < .01 C = .332 309 310 s t a t u s i s n o t a s t r o n g o n e, a s shown by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o n tin g e n c y o f .332 g e n e r a t e d by T ab le 100. The y o un g e s t g r o u p on th e a v e ra g e was IV, w i t h a m edian age o f 3 3 -9 y e a r s , a n d the o l d e s t I , w i t h a m edian o f 5 6 . 6 . On th e o th e r h a n d , th e m ed ian s f o r I I and I I I w ere n o t n o t i c e a b l y d i f f e r e n t , 3 6 .0 a n d 37-0 r e s p e c t i v e l y . T hus, w h ile y o u th may be a n a s s e t I n g e t t i n g a h e a d , I t does n o t g u a r a n t e e s u c c e s s ; f u r t h e r m o r e , some members o f I I may g a in e n t r a n c e to I I I a s t h e i r e a r n i n g s o r s a v i n g s i n c r e a s e w ith age and th e y r e a c h h i g h e r incom es o r can a f f o r d to move i n t o a m i d d l e - c l a s s r e s i d e n t i a l d i s t r i c t . S o c i a l C la ss and P e r c e p t i o n s o f R e s p o n d e n ts One o f t h e o r i g i n a l h y p o t h e s e s o f t h e r e s e a r c h was t h a t t h e h ig h e r t h e s t a t u s o f r e s p o n d e n t s , th e more c o n s c io u s they w o u ld be o f t h e i r own s o c i a l s t a t u s and t h a t o f o t h e r s . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s c o r r e l a t e d more h i g h l y ( .4 0 4 ) w ith s o c i a l c l a s s (s e e T a b le 100) th a n did s c h o o l i n g w i t h any o f t h e f o l l o w i n g : c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f c la s s d i v i s i o n s ( . 3 8 4 ) , num ber o f c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d (.3 7 3 )* c la s s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( . 3 5 2 ) o r c l a s s s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n TABLE 100 SOCIAL CLASS AND CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS C la s s C la s s C o n s c io u s n e s s S co re T o t a l 0 1 2 Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t Num b e r P er c e n t I 13 7 2 .2 4 2 2 .2 1 5 .6 18 1 0 0 .0 I I 19 2 2 .4 21 2 4 .7 45 5 2 .9 85 1 0 0 .0 I I I 4 1 2 .9 8 2 5 .8 19 6 1 .3 31 1 0 0 .0 IV 2 1 5 -4 — — — — 11 8 4 .6 13 1 0 0 .0 T o t a l 38 2 5 .9 33 2 2 .4 76 5 1 .7 147 1 0 0 .0 c h i s q u a re = 3 1 .4 1 p = < . 01 C = . 420 312 ( • 3 0 8 ) , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t s c h o o l i n g a p p e a r s t o be th e s i n g l e m o st i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s . S c h o o lin g - in c o m e s c o r e s c o r r e l a t e d e v en h i g h e r ( . 4 6 5 ) , b u t p e r h a p s h e r e s c h o o l i n g w as w e i g h te d to o h i g h l y , and . 404 i s p r o b a b l y a r e a s o n a b l e a p p r o x i m a t i o n . In any c a s e t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s w i t h s o c i a l c l a s s i s s i g n i f i c a n t w h i l e t h a t w i t h m o b i l i t y i s n o t . The c o r r e l a t i o n s o f s o c i a l c l a s s w i t h num ber o f c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d ( . 3 8 2 ) a n d w i t h c l a s s s e l f - p l a c e m e n t ( . 2 8 1 ) a r e much w e a k e r t h a n t h a t w i t h c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( s e e T a b l e s 101 and 1 0 2 ) . F o r a l l l e v e l s e x c e p t I , t h e m o dal num ber o f c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d was 2. The p e r c e n t a g e o f members o f C l a s s e s I I , I I I and IV p e r c e i v i n g t h r e e c l a s s e s w ere n o t n o t i c e a b l y d i f f e r e n t ( 2 4 . 2 5 .8 a n d 2 3 .1 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . A l l p e r s o n s p e r c e i v i n g f o u r c l a s s e s w ere m em bers o f l e v e l I I . C l a s s IV was t h e g ro u p m o st p r o n e t o p e r c e i v e two c l a s s e s ( 6 1 .5 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s ) . I t c a n n o t be s a i d t h a t t h e r e i s a s t r o n g te n d e n c y f o r a h i g h e r s t a t u s p e o p l e t o p e r c e i v e m ore c l a s s e s ; a l l t h a t c an s a f e l y be a s s e r t e d i s t h a t h i g h e r s t a t u s p e o p le a r e m ore l i k e l y t h a n lo w e r s t a t u s p e o p l e t o p e r c e i v e two o r t h r e e c l a s s e s t h a n t o p e r c e i v e a s i n g l e c l a s s o r n o t t o be TABLE 101 SOCIAL CLASS AND NUMBER OF CLASSES PERCEIVED C l a s s Number o f C l a s s e s P e r c e i v e d T o t a l 0 1 2 3 4 Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t Num b e r P e r c e n t I 9 5 0 .0 7 38.9 __ „ 2 11.1 . . . . 18 1 00 .0 I I 24 2 8 .2 10 1 1 .8 26 - 3 0 .6 21 24.7 4 4 .7 85 10 0 .0 I I I 5 16.1 7 22.6 11 35-5 8 2 5.8 --- --- 31 10 0 .0 IV 1 7-7 1 7-7 8 61 .5 3 23-1 “ — _ — 13 100 .0 T o t a l 39 26.5 ‘ 25 17-0 45 30.6 34 23-1 4 2 .7 147 99-9 c h i s q u a r e = 23. 13 P = C .01 C = .369 U ) H U ) TABLE 102 SOCIAL’CLASS AND CLASS SELF-PLACEMENT C lass C lass S e lf -Placem ent T o ta l Lower Working Middle Upper Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c e n t I 4 10 0.0 __ __ __ 4 100.0 I I 7 11 .9 14 23.7 37 62.7 1 1 .7 59 100.0 I I I 5 18,5 7 25.9 14 5 1 .9 1 3.7 27 100.0 IV — — — — 2 1 8 .2 8 7 2 .7 1 9 .1 11 10 0.0 T o ta l 16 15-8 23 2 2 .8 59 5 8 .4 3 3 .0 101 10 0 .0 ch i sq uare = 8.63 P = • 02 C = .281 L O 1 — } ■£r 315 a b le t o s t a t e th e number o f c l a s s e s a t a l l . T able 102 w ith I t s C o f o n ly .281 shows t h a t a ssig n m e n t o f s o c i a l s t a t u s by r e s p o n d e n ts and by th e w r i t e r a r e n o t s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n a c c o rd . The use b y r e s p o n d e n t s o f th e term "u p p er" a p p e a rs m e a n in g le s s , i t h a v in g been u sed o n ly by one p e rs o n e a c h i n I I , I I I , and IV . On th e o t h e r hand , no p e r s o n i n IV c a l l e d h i m s e l f "lo w e r c l a s s , " w h ile no r e s p o n d e n t i n I c a l l e d h i m s e l f a n y th in g d i f f e r e n t . T here w ould seem t o be no g a in s a y in g th e n o t i o n t h a t no one i n IV i s a lo w e r c l a s s p e r s o n , even by Anglo s t a n d a r d s , w h ile a l l th o s e in I a r e low er c l a s s , by b o th Anglo and Mexican s t a n d a r d s . A lth o u g h th e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f t h e Mexican g ro u p , p e rh a p s r e l a t i v e l y more c o n s c io u s o f t h e Anglo c l a s s sy s te m , c o n s id e r them s e l v e s m a in ly m id d le c l a s s (8 o u t o f 1 1 ) , th e y may a ls o be c o n s c io u s o f th e e l i t e w i t h i n t h e i r own l e v e l , hence t h i n k o f th e m s e lv e s as i n t h e m id d le p a r t o f th e M exican- Am erican c l a s s sy ste m . Somewhat s u r p r i s i n g l y , a h i g h e r p e rc e n ta g e o f th o s e i n I I th a n I I I c o n s i d e r th e m s e lv e s low er o r w orking c l a s s ( 1 1 .9 and 1 8 .5 ; 23*7 and 2 5 .9 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) and a h i g h e r p e r c e n ta g e a s m iddle c l a s s (6 2 .7 f o r I I and 51*9 f o r I I I ) . These a re s m a ll d i f f e r e n c e s i n any c a s e , and a re c o n g ru e n t w ith th e sm a ll d i f f e r e n c e s found w ith r e g a r d to r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , s c h o o lin g and o c c u p a tio n . S in ce p e r c e p t i o n s o f r e s p o n d e n ts and o f th e r e s e a r c h e r a r e n o t c o n g ru e n t, i t r a i s e s th e q u e s t io n as to w h e th er t h e d i s t i n c t i o n made by t h e w r i t e r betw een l e v e l s I I and I I I i s an a r t i f i c i a l l y s t a t i s t i c a l one, o r one r e f l e c t i n g a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s i n th e community and p e r c e i v e d by i t s members. The d i s t i n c t i o n betw een th e u se o f "low er c l a s s " and o t h e r te r m in o lo g y i s p e r t i n e n t , and t h e r e i s no q u e s t io n b u t t h a t I and IV a re s e p a r a t e from th e main body, b u t to what e x t e n t more p r e c i s e s ta te m e n t s can be made i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . The S o c i o c u l t u r a l Dim ension I t sh o u ld be a p p a r e n t from th e p r e c e d in g t h a t th e c l a s s d i v i s i o n s p u t a t i v e l y e s t a b l i s h e d by th e r e s e a r c h e r f o r Pom ona's Mexican community do n o t c o rre s p o n d w i t h th e t y p o l o g i e s o f M exicans i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s which a p p e a r i n th e l i t e r a t u r e . T h e r e fo r e a r e e x a m in a tio n o f th e more g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n o f th e s o c i a l ty p e s i n th e M e x ic a n -d e sc e n t p o p u l a t i o n a p p e a re d n e c e s s a r y . As a r e s u l t o f h i s re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e and o f th e Pomona d a t a , th e r e s e a r c h e r 317 p r o p o s e s a M exican-A m erican s o c i o c u l t u r a l ty p o lo g y b a s e d on d e g re e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n and l e n g t h o f r e s i d e n c e . A cco rd in g t o th e l a s t - m e n t i o n e d c r i t e r i o n , M exicans i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s c o u ld be d i v i d e d i n t o (a) te m p o ra ry r e s i d e n t s , (b ) im m ig ra n ts , (c) c h i l d r e n and o t h e r d e s c e n d a n t s o f imm igrants,* (d) d e s c e n d a n ts o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f th e S o u th w e st b e f o r e i t became p a r t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . C a te g o ry ( a ) c o n s i s t s o f p e r s o n s (su c h a s b r a c e r o s , " w e t b a c k s , 1 1 exch an g e s t u d e n t s , t r a v e l l i n g b u s in e s s m e n , d i p l o m a t i c o f f i c i a l s , and t o u r i s t s ) who a r e n o t M exican- A m ericans a c c o r d in g t o th e r e s e a r c h e r ' s d e f i n i t i o n . C a te g o r i e s (b) and (c ) c o n s t i t u t e th e p o p u l a t i o n u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s M exican-A rnerican. C a te g o ry (d ) i s g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d to by a number o f d i f f e r e n t te r m s , d e p e n d in g on g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a l e , e . g . , " H is p a n o s ," " C a l i f o r n i a n s , " o r " T e x a s -M e x ic a n s ." I t s h o u ld be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t th e w r i t e r ' s t y p o lo g y p r e s e n t s a num ber o f d i f f i c u l t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith r e f e r e n c e t o b o u n d a r i e s and to q u a n t i f i c a t i o n . In d e a l i n g w ith d e g re e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n to Am erican m id d le - c l a s s norm s, i t i s o b v io u s t h a t t h e d i v i s i o n s w i t h i n eac h o f t h e f o u r ty p e s form a c o n tin u u m , r a t h e r t h a n d i s c r e t e 318 s u b ty p e s . What i s in v o lv e d i s th u s n o t so much ty p in g , a s s c a l i n g . T h is i s a problem n o t d e a l t . w i t h i n t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h ; i t i s in d e e d a c o m p lete r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t i n i t s e l f . W ith r e f e r e n c e to t h e f o u r t y p e s t h e m s e lv e s , i t s h o u ld be o b v io u s t h a t we a r e d e a l i n g w ith i d e a l ty p e s i n t h e W eberian s e n s e . Most o f th e w r i t e r ' s sam ple f i t s n i c e l y i n t o one o r a n o th e r o f th e c a t e g o r i e s o r t y p e s , b u t a c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f c a s e s do n o t . Some i n d i v i d u a l s c o u ld f i t a s w e l l i n t o ( c ) c h i l d r e n and o t h e r d e s c e n d a n ts o f im m ig ra n ts a s i n t o (d) d e s c e n d a n ts o f th e i n h a b i t a n t s o f th e S o u th w e st b e f o r e i t became p a r t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , f o r t h e y a re o f f s p r i n g o f an H isp an o and a M exican im m ig ran t o r a s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n M ex ica n -A m erica n . Some r e s p o n d e n t s h ad one Anglo p a r e n t and one p a r e n t from one o f t h e M exican c a t e g o r i e s . In th e l a t t e r c a s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p i c t u r e becom es c lo u d y . Thus a new q u e s t i o n a r i s e s a s to when i s a p e rs o n t o be r e g a r d e d a s M exican and when a s an A nglo. T hus, n o t o n l y a r e t h e r e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e f i n i n g e a c h o f th e t y p e s , c l a s s i f y i n g p e r s o n s i n t o them, b u t t h e r e i s a ls o t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f d raw ing t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f t h e M exican-A m erican e t h n i c 319 g ro u p I t s e l f , a problem f i r s t b ro a c h e d i n C h a p te r I I o f t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r , and c e r t a i n l y n o t s e t t l e d by th e w r i t e r ' s r e s e a r c h . A n o th e r c o m p lete r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t i s t h e r e b y i n d i c a t e d . T a b le 103 shows t h e c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e w r i t e r ' s sam ple a c c o rd in g to th e s t a t u s and s o c i o c u l t u r a l d im e n sio n s o f h i s t y p o l o g i e s . The r e s u l t s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a s t h o s e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 9 7 > w here s o c i a l c l a s s was c r o s s - t a b u l a t e d w ith g e n e r a t i o n . The c h i s q u a r e f o r T able 103 i s s l i g h t l y l a r g e r , t h e r e b y l e n d i n g some s u p p o r t to c la im s o f v a l i d i t y f o r t h e t y p o lo g y . T here I s a t l e a s t some a s s o c i a t i o n b etw een i t s two s t u d i e d dim en s i o n s (th e t h i r d d im e n sio n , t h a t o f d e g re e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n was n o t s t u d i e d i n t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h ) . TABLE 103 CLASSIFICATION OF RESPONDENTS IN STATUS AND SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF TYPOLOGY S o cio c u l t u r a l Type C lass 1 ' ■ i ■ ! - » - T o ta l I I I I I I IV Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t Num b e r Per c en t Num b e r Per c e n t B 12 37.5 14 43-8 5 15-6 1 3-1 32 10 0 .0 C 4a 4.5 50a -» b 56.8 23 26.1 l l a 12.5 88 99-9 CD 1 9-1 10 90 .9 - - 11 100.0 D 1 6 .2 l l b 6 8 .8 3 1 8 .8 1 6 .2 16 100.0 T o ta l 18 1 2 .2 85 57-8 31 2 1 .2 13 8 .8 147 10 0.0 c h i sq u a re = 30.26 p = < . 01 C = .413 a In c lu d e s one h a lf-A n g lo p e rs o n . ^ In c lu d e s one h a lf - M is s io n In d ia n p e rso n . 320 CHAPTER VII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION I n an a t t e m p t t o e x p l o r e some o f t h e d im e n s io n s o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n among p e r s o n s o f M exican d e s c e n t i n th e c i t y o f Pomona, t h e w r i t e r t e s t e d a num ber o f h y p o t h e s e s r e l a t e d to c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s and s o c i a l m o b i l i t y and a t t e m p t e d t o d e l i n e a t e th e s o c i a l s t a t u s system o f th e com m unity and c o n s t r u c t a t y p o lo g y o f M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s . The w r i t e r assum ed t h a t th e p o p u l a t i o n u n d e r s tu d y was u n d e r g o in g t h e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d p r o c e s s e s o f u r b a n i z a t i o n , a c c u l t u r a t i o n and s o c i a l m o b i l i t y , and t h a t s t u d y i n g t h e s e p r o c e s s e s i n a h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t and t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d r e l e v a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s p o p u l a t i o n , t h a t an u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o u ld be g a i n e d o f t h e o n g o in g dyn am ics o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s M exican d e s c e n t p o p u l a t i o n . The w r i t e r h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t h i g h e r s t a t u s p e r s o n s would be m ore c l a s s c o n s c i o u s and a l s o r a t e th e m s e lv e s h i g h e r i n t h e s t a t u s s t r u c t u r e and t h a t c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , 321 322 s t a t u s , and m o b i l i t y would be a s s o c i a t e d w ith a number o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e s p o n d e n t s , n o t a b l y n e g a t i v e l y w ith a g e , b u t p o s i t i v e l y w i t h o c c u p a tio n , incom e, r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , s c h o o lin g , and u se o f t h e E n g li s h la n g u a g e . T h e .d a ta s e c u r e d f o r t h e t e s t i n g o f th e h y p o th e s e s , and r e p o r t e d and a n a ly z e d i n th e p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r s , were s e c u r e d c h i e f l y th ro u g h i n t e r v i e w s w ith 147 r e s p o n d e n t s , c o n s t i t u t i n g a 6 p e r c e n t a r e a sample o f th e a d u l t p e r s o n s o f Mexican d e s c e n t o f Pomona. The M exican Community The h i s t o r i c a l developm ent o f t h e p a t t e r n o f M exican-A m erican s e t t l e m e n t i n th e a r e a was ta k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n th r o u g h o u t th e r e s e a r c h . What i s now Pomona was f i r s t s e t t l e d from Mexico by M exican c i t i z e n s , b u t s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r became p a r t o f th e U n ited S t a t e s . B ecause o f a d v e rs e w e a th e r and m ark e t c o n d i t i o n s , and an i n a b i l i t y to compete e c o n o m ic a lly and p o l i t i c a l l y w ith th e incom ing A m ericans, th e g r e a t S p a n is h - s p e a k in g landow ning f a m i l i e s l o s t v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e i r la n d s i n th e 1 8 7 0 's and 1880*s . C a t t l e r a n c h e s became fa rm s, o r c h a r d s and r e s i d e n t i a l la n d . A c i t r u s f r u i t i n d u s t r y sp ra n g up, r a i l r o a d s c o n v e rg e d on Pomona i n th e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h ile M exican im m ig ra n ts came i n l a r g e num bers i n t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t o p i c k th e f r u i t and work on th e r a i l r o a d s . The im p o v e ris h e d o l d e r f a m i l i e s c a l l e d th e m s e lv e s ’'S p a n i s h 1 ’ to d i s t i n g u i s h th e m s e lv e s from t h e im p o v e r is h e d new com ers, who began to c o n s t i t u t e th e lo w er s tr a tu m o f a s e m i - c a s t e sy ste m . The l a t t e r began t o b re a k down d u r in g t h e World War I I p e r i o d , when many M exicans d e s e r t e d th e f i e l d s f o r i n d u s t r i a l em ploym ent. At th e same tim e , some M exicans began t o move away from th e e t h n i c e n c la v e i n s o u th w e s te rn Pomona to a l l s e c t i o n s o f th e c i t y . W hile t w o - t h i r d s s t i l l l i v e d i n th e e n c la v e by i th e tim e o f t h e w r i t e r ’ s s tu d y , th e M exicans o f Pomona had a lm o s t c o m p le te ly d e s e r t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d em ploym ent. I t was a p r o p i t i o u s tim e to i n v e s t i g a t e th e em ergin g c l a s s s t r u c t u r e and th e e x t e n t o f p a s t m o b i l i t y o f th e p o p u l a t i o n , s i n c e t h e r e had been no r e c e n t s t u d i e s o f M exican- A m erican s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s y s te m s , and none done on an a r e a - s a m p le b a s i s . Changes i n s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and m o b i l i t y have been p r i m a r i l y c o n c o m ita n ts o f th e i n t e r r e l a t e d p r o c e s s e s o f u r b a n i z a t i o n and a c c u l t u r a t i o n . The Im m ig ran ts moved from 324 a p re d o m in a n tly r u r a l c o u n try to a much more u rb a n one. H ere, an i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e r p e rc e n ta g e o f them and t h e i r d e s c e n d a n ts have moved from r u r a l a r e a s to towns; the towns th e m se lv e s have become i n c r e a s i n g l y u r b a n iz e d o r s u b u rb a n iz e d ; M exican-A m ericans have i n c r e a s i n g l y tu rn e d from a g r i c u l t u r a l employment to i n d u s t r i a l , comm ercial and g o v e rn m e n ta l employment. A c c u l tu r a tio n has meant p r i m a r i l y a moving from l o w e r - c l a s s Mexican c u l t u r e w ith i t s g r o u p - c e n te r e d , t r a d i t i o n a l v a lu e s , to m id d l e - c l a s s American c u l t u r e w ith i t s i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , d e f e r r e d g r a t i f i c a t i o n and s u c c e s s - c e n t e r e d v a lu e s . Many M exicans have a c q u ire d th e m o tiv a t i o n to become upw ardly m o b ile , p a r t i c u l a r l y as a r e s u l t o f i n c r e a s i n g amounts o f s c h o o lin g and i n c r e a s i n g c o n ta c t s w ith Anglos a s s e g r e g a tio n b a r r i e r s have been removed. M o b ility and a c c u l t u r a t i o n have been two c l o s e l y a s s o c i a te d p r o c e s s e s . M exicans in Pomona have n o t been i n t e g r a t e d in to Anglo v o l u n ta r y a s s o c i a t i o n s i n la r g e num bers, w ith the e x c e p tio n o f l a b o r u n io n s and th e p a r e n t s ' and t e a c h e r s ' a s s o c i a t i o n s . The v a s t m a j o r i t y , 100 o u t o f 128, w hether C a th o lic o r P r o t e s t a n t , a t t e n d Mexican c h u rc h e s. S o c ial 325 c o n t a c t s w ith e i t h e r Anglos o r M exicans a re m o s tly l i m i t e d to th e jo b , c h u rc h , n e ig h b o rh o o d , and k i n s h i p g ro u p . The h a n d fu l o f p e r s o n s who have a c h ie v e d p o s i t i o n s o f l e a d e r s h ip among t h e i r f e llo w M exican-A m ericans a re f a i r l y w id e l y , b u t n o t u n i v e r s a l l y known by th e l a t t e r . The w r i t e r u se d a v a r i e t y o f o b j e c t i v e and s u b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a t o ran k (from A to E) th e m ajo r r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s (5) o f t h e c i t y a c c o rd in g to s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y . The r e s p o n d e n ts (10) from one a r e a (D), how ever, d id n o t * i c o n s i s t e n t l y r a n k above th o se i n E o r below th o s e i n C. I t was found t h a t the h i g h e r ra n k in g a r e a s had a h i g h e r r a t e o f home ow n ersh ip th a n th e low er r a n k in g a r e a s . Rank o f a r e a and r a n k in th e h i e r a r c h y of o c c u p a ti o n a l s k i l l s were a ls o found to be h i g h l y a s s o c i a t e d . With th e e x c e p t i o n o f Area D, median income was p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith ra n k o f a r e a . F u rth e rm o re , ran k o f a r e a and ra n k o f p e r c e n ta g e o f r e s p o n d e n ts in te r v ie w e d i n E n g lis h were p e r f e c t l y c o r r e l a t e d . The h i g h e r ra n k in g a r e a s had a h i g h e r p e rc e n ta g e o f m a rrie d r e s p o n d e n t s . H ig h er p r o p o r t i o n s o f s e c o n d - g e n e r a t io n re s p o n d e n ts w ere to be found in th e h i g h e r ra n k in g a r e a s t h a n th e p r o p o r t i o n o f th e f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n o r t h i r d - o r l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n r e s p o n d e n ts 3 2 6 ( i n c l u d i n g H isp an o s and " o ld C a l i f o r n i a n s " ) . The f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n was c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e lo w e r - r a n k in g a r e a s , t h e t h i r d and l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s i n th o se o f th e i n t e r m e d ia te ra n k . S t a t u s P e r c e p t i o n and S o c i a l M o b i l it y In t h e i n t e r v i e w s th e w r i t e r a tte m p te d to s e c u r e r e s p o n d e n t s ' e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e i r own s t a t u s , d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e c l a s s sy ste m , and e v id e n c e o f i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y . In e a c h c a s e th e w r i t e r a tt e m p t e d to a s c e r t a i n w h e th e r t h e r e w ere any r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een r e s p o n d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f th e c l a s s system a n d su ch econom ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as o c c u p a t i o n , income, a n d r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a and su c h c u l t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s c h o o l in g and use o f the S p a n is h la n g u a g e . A b a s i c a s s u m p tio n o f t h e stu d y was t h a t r e s p o n d e n t s used t h e same c r i t e r i a i n e v a l u a t i n g o t h e r s ' s t a t u s a s th e y u s e d i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e i r own, and t h a t c e r t a i n c r i t e r i a - - v a r i a b l e s a l t h o u g h n o t m e n tio n e d by r e s p o n d e n t s , a f f e c t t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s . When a sk e d as t o th e m ost i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s to be fo u n d among th e M exicans o f Pomona, an i n a r t i c u l a t e , r e t i c e n t o r i g n o r a n t 4 1 . 5 p e r c e n t c o u ld n o t answ er th e 327 q u e s t i o n . Of th o s e who c o u ld , a b o u t t w o - f i f t h s answ ered i n term s o f c l a s s o r socio eco n o m ic s t a t u s , a b o u t a t h i r d i n term s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e s , a t e n t h i n term s o f e d u c a t i o n , a t e n t h i n term s o f p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s and a t w e n t i e t h i n term s o f r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s . When d i r e c t l y a sk e d ab o u t s o c i a l - c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s among th e M exicans o f Pomona, s l i g h t l y o v e r o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e r e s p o n d e n ts were u n a b le o r u n w i l li n g to answ er th e q u e s t i o n . T h e r e f o r e i t c a n n o t be assumed t h a t s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n c o n c e p ts a r e u n i v e r s a l l y m a t t e r s o f common know ledge among t h e s e p e o p le . F u rth e rm o re , th o s e r e s p o n d e n t s who d i v i d e d Pomona’ s M exicans i n t o two o r more s o c i a l c l a s s e s o r s t r a t a were s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t on a number o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s from th o s e who d id n o t do so : t h e y had more s c h o o lin g , th e y p l a c e d th e m s e lv e s h i g h e r i n th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , t h e y were y o u n g e r, had h i g h e r incom es and more were i n t e r v i e w e d i n E n g li s h . F u rth e rm o re , t h e y were more a c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y and were more h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n l a t e r th a n e a r l i e r g e n e r a t i o n s . Of r e s p o n d e n t s a n sw e rin g th e q u e s t i o n a b o u t s o c i a l c l a s s 23-1 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d one c l a s s , 4 1 .7 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d two, 31-5 p e r c e n t p e r c e i v e d t h r e e , and o n ly 3-7 328 p e r c e n t f o u r . T hus, o f t h o s e p e r c e i v i n g c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e overw helm ing m a j o r i t y p e r c e i v e d two o r t h r e e c l a s s e s . The g e n e r a l p i c t u r e w hich em erged from d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t w o - c l a s s sy ste m s was t h a t o f a p o o r , s e m i - l i t e r a t e g ro u p o f u n a c c u l t u r a t e d and u n s k i l l e d w o rk e rs ( o f t e n s a i d n o t to " c a r e " o r t o " t r y " ) and t h e i r f a m i l i e s a s th e b o t tom s t r a t u m . The u p p e r s t r a t u m , g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s "m idd le c l a s s , " was s a i d to c o n s i s t o f p e r s o n s w ith s k i l l e d o r w h ite c o l l a r j o b s , and who were c o n c e rn e d w i t h e d u c a ti o n and " g e t t i n g a h e a d ." A few in f o r m a n ts (from among th o s e p e r c e i v i n g t h r e e o r f o u r c l a s s e s ) f u r t h e r v a r i o u s l y s u b d i v i d e d t h i s u p p e r s t r a tu m i n t o (a) a r e s p e c t a b l e g ro u p o f w o r k i n g - c l a s s p e o p le , i n t e r e s t e d i n an e d u c a ti o n and g e t t i n g a h e a d ; (b) w h ite c o l l a r w o r k e r s , e s p e c i a l l y w e l l e d u c a te d and a c c u l t u r a t e d ; (c ) a b u s i n e s s o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s o c i a l and c i v i c e l i t e . T here was a d e f i n i t e te n d e n c y to e q u a te "w orking c l a s s " and "m idd le c l a s s . " Among t h o s e in f o r m a n ts p e r c e i v i n g two s o c i a l c l a s s e s , o n ly two d i s t i n g u i s h e d betw een "w orking" and " m id d le ." The m ost f r e q u e n t d i s t i n c t i o n made was b etw een "m id d le " and " l o w e r ." The d i s t i n c t i o n 329 betw een b l u e - c o l l a r and w h i t e - c o l l a r w o rk e rs was n o t co n s i d e r e d to be r e l e v a n t to c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s by th o s e in f o r m a n ts who d e s c r i b e d a t w o - c l a s s system . D e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h r e e - c l a s s sy stem s f e l l i n t o two main t y p e s : ( a ) a t r i p a r t i t e d i v i s i o n i n t o economic o r o c c u p a ti o n a l l e v e l s ; and (b) a d i v i s i o n i n t o " d o n 't c a r e , " " s t r i v e r " and " e l i t e " l e v e l s . Only one in f o rm a n t p e r c e i v in g t h r e e c l a s s e s made any d i s t i n c t i o n betw een w h ite c o l l a r and m anual w o rk e rs . D e s c r i p t i o n s u se d i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g th e d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s were p u t u n d e r a number o f d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s . Almost t w o - f i f t h s o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts d e s c r i b i n g th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e u se d c r i t e r i a o f econom ic p o s i t i o n , w h ile a f i f t h u s e d o c c u p a tio n , a lm o st a f i f t h u se d th e c r i t e r i o n o f o r i e n t a t i o n to w a rd upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y and a lm o st a f i f t h t h a t o f way o f l i f e . Almost a s i x t h u se d e d u c a t i o n , and a lm o s t a s e v e n th u sed c r i t e r i a r e l a t e d to s o c i a b i l i t y . S u r p r i s i n g l y , no r e s p o n d e n t u se d r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g any M exican s o c i a l c l a s s . The num ber o f c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d by r e s p o n d e n ts was r e l a t e d to a number o f v a r i a b l e s . Thus, th e more s c h o o lin g a r e s p o n d e n t h a d , th e more l i k e l y he was to p e r c e i v e two 330 c l a s s e s th a n one c l a s s , b u t s c h o o l in g made no d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h r e e o r f o u r c l a s s e s . P e rso n s s p e a k i n g E n g l i s h i n th e i n t e r v i e w were more h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t e d among th o s e p e r c e i v i n g two o r more c l a s s e s th a n th e S p a n is h s p e a k e r s . S i m i l a r l y , p e r s o n s u n d e r 40 p e r c e i v e d on th e a v e ra g e a l a r g e r number o f c l a s s e s t h a n d i d th o s e 40 and o v e r , and l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s p e r c e i v e d more c l a s s e s th a n e a r l i e r o n e s d id . On th e o t h e r h a n d , th e mean num ber o f c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d was ( c o n t r a r y t o t h e w r i t e r ' s h y p o t h e s i s ) i n v e r s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith r a n k o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y . Of t h e 91 r e s p o n d e n t s d e s c r i b i n g b o th th e Mexican and Anglo c l a s s s y s te m s , 38 p e r c e i v e d more Anglo th a n M exican c l a s s e s , 51 p e r c e i v e d th e same number and o n ly 2 p e r c e i v e d more M exican t h a n Anglo c l a s s e s . Thus t h e y p e r c e i v e d a more com plex c l a s s system f o r th e A ng los, w ith a m odal number o f two M exican c l a s s e s (4 1 .7 p e r c e n t ) and t h r e e Anglo c l a s s e s (5 6.7 p e r c e n t ) . Of t h e t o t a l sam p le, 2 J . 2 p e r c e n t c o u ld n o t o r w ould n o t s t a t e t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i r own s o c i a l c l a s s m em bership. These l e s s c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s p e r s o n s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i n a num ber o f ways from th e o t h e r r e s p o n d e n t s . They h ad lo w e r in c o m e s, w ere o l d e r , w ere 331 S p a n i s h - s p e a k i n g , h a d l e s s s c h o o l i n g , and f e w e r o f t h e m en w e re v e t e r a n s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e y h a d l e s s s k i l l e d o c c u p a t i o n s , w e re m o re h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t e d among t h e i m m i g r a n t s t h a n among t h e A m e r i c a n - b o r n , a n d s p o k e more S p a n i s h i n t h e hom e. The l a r g e r t h e n u m b e r o f c l a s s e s p e r c e i v e d , t h e l e s s was t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f n o t b e i n g a b l e t o s t a t e o n e ' s s e l f - p e r c e i v e d s o c i a l c l a s s . U p w ard ly a n d down w a r d l y m o b i l e r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e b e t t e r a b l e t o s t a t e t h e i r s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n t h a n t h e n o n m o b i l e . Of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a b l e a n d w i l l i n g t o c a t e g o r i z e t h e m s e l v e s , 3 - 0 p e r c e n t c l a s s i f i e d t h e m s e l v e s a s u p p e r c l a s s , 5 8 . 4 p e r c e n t a s m i d d l e c l a s s , 2 2 . 8 p e r c e n t a s w o r k in g c l a s s , a n d 15*8 p e r c e n t a s l o w e r c l a s s . The h i g h e r a r e s p o n d e n t r a t e d h i m s e l f , t h e l a r g e r w as th e n u m b e r o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s h e p e r c e i v e d and t h e l e s s l i k e l y he w as n o t t o b e a b l e t o s t a t e t h e n u m b e r o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s a t a l l . R e s p o n d e n t s i n t h e h i g h e r r a n k i n g r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s r a n k e d t h e m s e l v e s h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e I n t h e lo w e r r a n k i n g a r e a s . R e s p o n d e n t s i n h i g h e r r a n k i n g o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s r a n k e d t h e m s e l v e s h i g h e r , e x c e p t t h a t s e m i s k i l l e d w o r k e r s on t h e a v e r a g e r a t e d t h e m s e l v e s h i g h e r 332 th a n s k i l l e d w o rk e rs . R e sp o n d e n ts w ith a g r e a t e r amount o f s c h o o lin g ra n k e d th e m s e lv e s h i g h e r th a n th o s e w ith l e s s s c h o o l in g , and E n g l i s h - s p e a k e r s ra n k e d th e m s e lv e s h i g h e r t h a n S p a n i s h - s p e a k e r s . In s tu d y in g i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y , t h e w r i t e r fo u n d no a s s o c i a t i o n betw een f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a t i o n and r e s p o n d e n t 's e d u c a t i o n , b u t a s t r o n g a s s o c i a t i o n b etw een t h e l a t t e r and r e s p o n d e n t 's o c c u p a tio n . F u r t h e r m ore, t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s o f no a s s o c i a t i o n betw een f a t h e r ' s and r e s p o n d e n t 's o c c u p a tio n c o u ld n o t be r e j e c t e d . Upwardly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n ts had th e h i g h e s t m edian y e a r s o f s c h o o lin g ( 1 0 .7 ) , a lt h o u g h t h a t f o r th e nonm obile and down w a rd ly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n ts was th e same (8 .5 )* Of a l l r e s p o n d e n ts 4 0 .1 p e r c e n t had been u p w ardly m o b ile , 31*3 p e r c e n t nonm obile and 27*2 p e r c e n t down w a rd ly m o b ile . These p e r c e n t a g e s a r e e s p e c i a l l y a t t r i b u t a b le t o th e f a c t t h a t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts whose f a t h e r s were s e m i - s k i l l e d 6 0 .0 p e r c e n t w ere downwardly m o b ile , o f th o s e whose f a t h e r s w ere s k i l l e d , 6 3 -3 p e r c e n t were down w a rd ly m o b ile ; and o f th o s e whose f a t h e r s were w h ite c o l l a r w o rk e r s , 7 0 .6 p e r c e n t w ere downwardly m o b ile . The l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e s o f u p w ard ly and no nm obile r e s p o n d e n ts were l a r g e l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t o f t h o s e r e s p o n d e n t s w h o se f a t h e r s w e r e l a b o r e r s , 6 2 . 6 p e r c e n t h a d b e e n u p w a r d l y m o b i l e , a n d t h a t 5 6 . 5 p e r c e n t o f a l l f a t h e r s h a d b e e n l a b o r e r s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e , u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t m o s t o f t h e s e m i - s k i l l e d , s k i l l e d , a n d w h i t e c o l l a r r e s p o n d e n t s h a d b e e n u p w a r d l y m o b i l e . -More o f t h e s e m i - s k i l l e d t h a n o f t h e s k i l l e d h a d b e e n u p w a r d l y m o b i l e , b u t f e w e r t h a n t h e w h i t e c o l l a r w o r k e r s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d w e l l o v e r h a l f o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s who w e r e l a b o r e r s h a d b e e n dow n w a r d l y m o b i l e . T h u s , I n a g e n e r a l w ay , h i g h o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u p w a r d m o b i l i t y , i n t h e r e s p o n d e n t g e n e r a t i o n ; t h e r e v e r s e h o l d s t r u e i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n fro m t h e p a r e n t a l g e n e r a t i o n . T h e r e i s no s u b s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t u p w a r d l y m o b i l e M e x i c a n s t a k e o n a " S p a n i s h 1 ' i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ; o n l y o n e - f i f t h o f t h e u p w a r d l y m o b i l e i n t h e w r i t e r ' s s a m p l e h a d d o n e s o , a s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h o n e - t e n t h o f t h e n o n m o b i l e a n d a lm o s t o n e - s i x t h o f t h e d o w n w a r d ly m o b i l e . U p w a r d ly m o b i l e p e r s o n s t e n d e d t o p l a c e t h e m s e l v e s h i g h e r i n t h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e t h a n d i d t h e o t h e r r e s p o n d e n t s , b u t a s I n t h e c a s e o f e t h n i c s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e w as n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . 334 There was a ls o a n o n s i g n i f i c a n t ten d en cy f o r downwardly m obile p e rs o n s to p e r c e iv e a l a r g e r number o f s o c i a l c la s s e s th an th e upw ardly m o b ile . Most re s p o n d e n ts i n t h e i r l a s t r e s i d e n t i a l move had moved to a home i n an a r e a o f th e same ran k ; o f th o se who d id n o t , about two and a h a l f tim es as many re s p o n d e n ts moved i n t o a h ig h e r ra n k in g a re a as moved i n t o a low er r a n k in g a r e a . There was no a s s o c i a t i o n o f o c c u p a tio n a l m o b il i t y and ty p e o f r e s i d e n t i a l m o b il i ty , perh ap s because o f th e d i f f e r e n t tim e s c a le o f each. With one e x c e p tio n , th e h i g h e r th e income c a te g o ry , th e h ig h e r was th e p e rc e n ta g e o f upw ardly m obile re s p o n d e n ts , and th e low er th e p e rc e n ta g e o f th e downwardly m ob ile. M o b ility and s c h o o lin g were a ls o found to be a s s o c i a t e d . The second g e n e r a t i o n has been the most upward l y m o b ile : 51-2 p e r c e n t as c o n t r a s t e d w ith o n ly 15*6 p e r c e n t o f th e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n and 34.5 p e r c en t o f th e g e n e r a tio n s a f t e r th e second. C onv ersely, th e second g e n e r a tio n had th e lo w e st p e rc e n ta g e o f downwardly m ob ile, 22.1 p e r c e n t as c o n t r a s t e d w ith 34.4 p e r c e n t f o r th e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n and 34.5 p e r c e n t f o r g e n e r a tio n s a f t e r th e second. And a lth o u g h l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s had a low er 335 median age than th e second g e n e r a tio n , age was i n v e r s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith upward m o b ility . Use o f th e E n g lis h language was found to be p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith upward m o b il i ty , and use o f S p a n ish -lan g u ag e communication media found t o be i n v e r s e l y a s s o c i a t e d . S ta tu s and S o c i o c u l t u r a l T y polo gies The w r i t e r concluded h i s study w ith an a tte m p t to c o n s t r u c t s t a t u s and s o c i o c u l t u r a l ty p o lo g ie s fo r Mexi cans in th e United S t a t e s . The i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f the main v a r i a b l e s o f th e stu d y were examined to see i f th e re was any c l u s t e r i n g t o g e t h e r . I t was found th a t c e r t a i n v a r i a b l e s c o r r e l a t e d much more h ig h ly w ith some v a r i a b l e s than w ith o t h e r s . One o f the i d e n t i f i e d c l u s t e r s in c lu d e d the v a r i a b l e s o f s c h o o lin g , language p r e f e r e n c e , g e n e r a t i o n and age; a n o th e r c l u s t e r in c lu d e d o c c u p a tio n , income, r e s i d e n t i a l a re a and m o b ility ; a t h i r d c l u s t e r was com p r i s e d o f v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d to r e s p o n d e n ts ' c la s s p e r c e p t i o n s . The w r i t e r c o n s tr u c te d an index f o r each o f th ese th r e e c l u s t e r s o f v a r i a b l e s and c a l l e d them , r e s p e c t i v e l y , " a c c u l t u r a t i o n s t a t u s , " "economic s t a tu s " (which e x clu d ed th e v a r i a b l e o f m o b i l i t y ) , and " c la s s c o n s c io u s n e s s ." The 336 a s s o c i a t i o n s m easured by th e c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o n tin g e n c y among th e s e t h r e e in d e x e s were g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r t h a n f o r any o f th e I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f th e components o f th e s e in d e x e s . In a d d i t i o n , upw ardly m obile and downwardly m o b ile re s p o n d e n ts were found t o have a h i g h e r d e g re e o f c l a s s c o n s c io u s n e s s th a n th e no n m o b ile, b u t th e d i f f e r e n ce s were n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The w r i t e r com bined th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n and economic i n d i c e s I n t o a s i n g l e " s t a t u s i n d e x ," d e r i v e d from a r i t h m e tic a d d i t i o n o f the; two s c o r e s . I t was co n clu d ed t h a t economic s t a t u s as su c h had v e ry l i t t l e I n f l u e n c e on c l a s s c o n s c io u s n e s s e x c e p t i n so f a r as b o th w ere a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e f a c t o r s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n . I t was f u r t h e r fo u n d t h a t th e s t a t u s i n d e x 's c o r e s c o r r e l a t e d more h i g h ly w i t h s c h o o l in g and income th a n w i t h any o t h e r v a r i a b l e s , d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t th e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een s c h o o lin g and income was much low er th a n t h a t betw een s c h o o lin g and o c c u p a tio n o r income and o c c u p a ti o n . Thus w h ile o c c u p a tio n by i t s e l f m ig h t have b e e n c o n s id e r e d th e b e s t s i n g l e i n d i c a t o r of s o c i a l s t a t u s i t w ould be l e s s p o w e rfu l a s an in d e x than th e combined u se o f s c h o o lin g and incom e. The w r i t e r n e x t c o n s t r u c t e d a sc h o o lin g -in c o m e 337 in d e x , th e s c o r e s f o r which were found to he a lm o st p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e mean g e n e r a l s t a t u s s c o r e s f o r th e same group o f r e s p o n d e n ts . The u se o f o n ly t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s th u s ra n k e d r e s p o n d e n ts i n e s s e n t i a l l y th e same f a s h i o n as th e g e n e r a l s t a t u s in d e x . I n s p e c t i o n o f th e b re a k s i n th e two c o n tin u a r e v e a l e d , in t h e w r i t e r ' s judgm ent, th e a p p earan ce o f f o u r s t a t u s l e v e l s o r c a t e g o r i e s . A m iddle l e v e l c o n ta in e d much more th a n h a l f o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts . Below t h i s l e v e l were th e p o o r e s t , l e a s t a c c u l t u r a t e d , and l e a s t s k i l l e d p e rs o n s in th e Mexican community. P e rso n s above th e m id dle l e v e l were d iv id e d i n t o two l e v e l s , a lo w e r one c o n s i s t i n g o f th e more s k i l l e d and b e t t e r p a id s t e a d i l y employed w o rk e rs and t h e i r f a m i l i e s , and an u p p e r one c o n s i s t i n g o f th e most p r o s p e r o u s and m ost h i g h ly s c h o o le d i n d i v i d u a l s . A ll o f th e l a t t e r group were o f w h i t e - c o l l a r s t a t u s and m ost o f them l i v e d in t h e b e t t e r r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s . A ll r e s p o n d e n ts e x c e p t 14 c a s e s " s u b j e c t i v e l y ” a s s ig n e d e lse w h e re were a s s ig n e d t o t h e s e l e v e l s (denom inated I , I I , I I I , and IV) on th e b a s i s o f a number o f c r i t e r i a . I f a p e rs o n p o s s e s s e d one o f t h e fo llo w in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s he was c l a s s i f i e d i n I I I , i f he p o s s e s s e d two, i n IV: (a) r e s i d e d In 338 Area A, (b) had w h i t e - c o l l a r em ploym ent, (c ) had an income o f $ 8 ,0 0 0 o r o v e r. R esp o n d e n ts i n I had incom es o f l e s s th a n $ 4 ,0 0 0 and had l e s s th a n 5 y e a r s o f s c h o o l in g . A ll p e r s o n s on r e l i e f were p l a c e d i n I . On th e o t h e r hand, a l l p r o f e s s i o n a l s and a l l c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s were c l a s s i f i e d i n IV. S o c i a l c l a s s , i n th e se n se o f th e l e v e l s j u s t d i s c u s s e d , was foun d to c o r r e l a t e w eak ly w ith upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y . I t was t h e r e f o r e n o t t r u e among t h i s Mexican p o p u l a t i o n t h a t h ig h s t a t u s i s alw ays th e r e s u l t o f upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y o r low s t a t u s th e r e s u l t o f a f a i l u r e v e r t i c a l l y t o r i s e i n th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , a lth o u g h m ost o f th o s e i n IV had been u p w ard ly m o b ile and m ost o f th o s e i n I n o n m o b ile. L e v e ls I and I I r e p r e s e n t l a r g e l y th e non- m o b ile and downwardly m o b ile r e s p o n d e n t s , w h ile m ost o f th o s e i n I I I and IV had been u p w a rd ly m o b ile . S o c i a l c l a s s was found to c o r r e l a t e more h i g h l y w ith o c c u p a tio n th a n w ith any o t h e r v a r i a b l e , d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t o c c u p a tio n was o n ly one o f th e s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s c o n s i d e r e d . The n e x t h i g h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere w ith i n come, r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , g e n e r a t i o n , s c h o o lin g , la n g u a g e p r e f e r e n c e , and a g e . 339 1 C la ss c o n s c io u s n e s s was found to c o r r e l a t e more h i g h l y w ith s o c i a l c l a s s th an d id s c h o o lin g w ith any s t a t u s - p e r c e p t i o n v a r i a b l e , d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t s c h o o l in g a p p e a rs to be th e s i n g l e m ost im p o r ta n t f a c t o r in c l a s s c o n s c io u s n e s s . I t was n o t p o s s i b l e to a s s e r t t h a t t h e r e was s tr o n g te n d e n c y f o r h i g h e r s t a t u s p e o p le to p e r c e iv e more c l a s s e s ; a l l t h a t c o u ld s a f e l y be a s s e r t e d was t h a t h i g h e r s t a t u s p e o p le were more l i k e l y th an lo w er s t a t u s p e o p le to p e r c e i v e two o r t h r e e c l a s s e s th a n to p e r c e i v e a s i n g l e c l a s s o r n o t to be a b le to s t a t e th e number o f c l a s s e s a t a l l . Assignm ent o f s o c i a l s t a t u s by re s p o n d e n ts and by the w r i t e r were n o t found t o be s u b s t a n t i a l l y in a c c o rd . The use o f th e term "up per" a p p e a re d to be m e a n in g le s s , b u t no p e rs o n in C la ss IV c a l l e d h im s e lf "lo w er c l a s s " w h ile no re s p o n d e n t i n C la ss I c a l l e d him s e l f a n y th in g d i f f e r e n t . A ll th o s e i n C la s s I would a p p e a r t o be lo w e r c l a s s by b o th Mexican and Anglo s t a n d a r d s . The h i g h e s t s t a t u s grou p, p e rh a p s more c o n sc io u s o f th e Anglo sy stem , c o n s id e r e d th e m se lv e s m a in ly m iddle c l a s s . The sm a ll d i f f e r e n c e s in c l a s s s e l f - a s s i g n m e n t 340 betw een t h o s e r e s p o n d e n t s i n l e v e l s I I and I I I r a i s e d th e q u e s t i o n a s to w h e th e r th e d i s t i n c t i o n made by t h e w r i t e r betw een l e v e l s I I and I I I was an a r t i f i c i a l l y s t a t i s t i c a l o r s u b j e c t i v e o n e, o r one r e f l e c t i n g a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s In th e M exican-A m erican community as p e r c e i v e d by i t s members. The d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw ee n th e u s e o f " lo w e r c l a s s " an d o t h e r te r m in o l o g y i s p e r t i n e n t , and t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n b u t t h a t I and IV a r e s e p a r a t e from th e m ain body, b u t f u r t h e r a s s e r t i o n s a r e q u e s t i o n a b l e . The c l a s s d i v i s i o n s p u t a t i v e l y e s t a b l i s h e d by th e w r i t e r do n o t c o r r e s p o n d c l o s e l y e i t h e r w ith th e s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n sy ste m s o r w i t h th e t y p o l o g i e s o f M exicans I n th e U n ite d S t a t e s w hich a p p e a r i n th e l i t e r a t u r e . T hese l a t t e r t y p o l o g i e s a r e s o c i o c u l t u r a l r a t h e r t h a n c l a s s - o r i e n t e d , c o n fu s e s e v e r a l l e v e l s o f a b s t r a c t i o n , and a r e g e n e r a l l y outm oded. D i f f e r e n t w r i t e r s h av e used l e n g t h o f r e s i d e n c e , o c c u p a t i o n , s o c i a l c l a s s , n a t i v i t y , c i t i z e n s h i p , r e l i g i o n , l e g a l i t y o f e n t r y , and p h y s i c a l t y p e . Some have em ployed a s p u r i o u s d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een "M exican" and " S p a n i s h ." Most o f th e t y p o l o g i e s u s e more th a n one o f th e s e c r i t e r i a , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y th e same ones f o r e ac h t y p e d e s c r i b e d . M o reo ver, t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s 341 e n c o u n t e r e d l e a v e o u t t h e m o st c r u c i a l v a r i a b l e o f a l l , d e g r e e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n t o A nglo n o r m s : i n e a c h o f t h e t y p e s d e s c r i b e d t h e r e a r e t h o s e g r o u p s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e r e l a t i v e l y m ore o r i e n t e d t o w a r d M e x ic a n c u l t u r e t h a n a r e o t h e r s . T h e se t y p o l o g i e s a r e a l s o s t a t i c . T h ey do n o t r e f l e c t a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p o s s i b l e t y p e s a s r e s u l t s o f t h e e f f e c t s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n a f r a m e w o r k o f h i s t o r y . The h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e t y p o l o g i e s i s n o t g e n e r a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d . The w r i t e r p r o p o s e d a t y p o l o g y o f M e x ic a n s b a s e d on d e g r e e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n and l e n g t h o f r e s i d e n c e . E a c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g g r o u p s c o u l d b e d i v i d e d a l o n g a c o n tin u u m g o i n g fro m t h e l e a s t a c c u l t u r a t e d g r o u p t o t h e m o s t- a c c u l t u r a t e d g r o u p ; t e m p o r a r y r e s i d e n t s , i m m i g r a n t s , c h i l d r e n and g r a n d c h i l d r e n o f i m m i g r a n t s , a n d d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e S o u t h w e s t b e f o r e i t becam e p a r t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s t y p o l o g y p r e s e n t s a n u m b e r o f d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h r e f e r e n c e to b o u n d a r i e s a n d t o q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , i . e . , s c a l i n g . V /ith r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t y p e s th e m s e l v e s , w h ic h a r e W e b e r ia n i d e a l t y p e s , m o s t o f t h e w r i t e r ' s s a m p le f i t s n i c e l y i n t o o n e o r a n o t h e r o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s , b u t a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r do n o t , e . g . , o f f s p r i n g o f a n y two o f t h e t y p e s . L i k e w i s e , some r e s p o n d e n t s h a d one A n g lo p a r e n t a n d o n e p a r e n t fro m o n e o f t h e M e x ic a n c a t e g o r i e s . H ence o n e o f t h e u n r e s o l v e d p r o b l e m s o f t h e r e s e a r c h i s t h e o p e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t M e x ic a n t y p e s , a n d o f t h e t o t a l M e x ic a n - A m e r ic a n e t h n i c g r o u p a s a w h o le . A P P E N D I C E S APPENDIX A 1 . 2 . 3 - 4 . 5 - 6 . 7 - 8 . 9 - 10 . 11. 12. 13 . 14 . INTERVIEW SCHEDULE (ENGLISH VERSION) How l o n g h a v e y o u l i v e d a t t h i s a d d r e s s ? Do y o u own o r r e n t t h i s h o u s e ? W hat w as y o u r a d d r e s s b e f o r e y o u m oved h e r e ? How l o n g d i d y o u l i v e a t . t h a t a d d r e s s ? A re y o u m a r r i e d , s i n g l e , w id o w e d , d i v o r c e d , o r s e p a r a t e d ? How m any p e o p l e l i v e h e r e ? W hat i s t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o y o u ? W hat s c h o o l ( s ) do y o u r c h i l d r e n a t t e n d ? Do y o u h a v e a n y o t h e r r e l a t i v e s l i v i n g h e r e ? ( S t a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o r e s p o n d e n t ) A re t h e r e a n y o t h e r p e o p l e l i v i n g h e r e ? (N u m b er) W hat l a n g u a g e do y o u o r d i n a r i l y u s e i n s p e a k i n g t o y o u r p a r e n t s ? W hat l a n g u a g e do y o u o r d i n a r i l y u s e I n s p e a k i n g t o y o u r w i f e ( h u s b a n d ) ? W hat l a n g u a g e do y o u o r d i n a r i l y u s e i n s p e a k i n g t o y o u r c h i l d r e n ? W hat l a n g u a g e do y o u r c h i l d r e n u s e i n s p e a k i n g t o y o u ? A re y o u a v e t e r a n ? 344 345 15- Do you s u b s c r i b e to any new spaper? Which o n e ( s ) ? 16. Are t h e r e any m agazin es t h a t you e s p e c i a l l y l i k e t o re a d ? 17* Do you have any f a v o r i t e program s on r a d i o o r TV? 18. Do you e v e r l i s t e n to o r w atch S p a n is h -la n g u a g e program s? 19. Do you go to th e m ovies? About how o f t e n w ould you sa y you go to see an American movie? 20. About how o f t e n would you say you go to see a movie i n S p anish? 21. When someone a sk s you "What i s y ou r n a t i o n a l i t y ? " What do you u s u a l l y answ er? 22. What would you say a r e th e m ost im p o r ta n t d i f f e r e n c e s fo und among th e p e o p le o f Mexican (o r S p a n is h - s p e a k in g ) o r i g i n h e re i n Pomona? T hat i s , what d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s o r ty p e s would you d iv id e them i n t o ? 23- Who would you sa y a r e th e m ost im p o r ta n t p e o p le o f Mexican (o r S p a n i s h - s p e a k i n g ) o r i g i n h e re i n Pomona? 24. Why a re th e y I m p o r ta n t p e o p le ? 2 5 . P e rh ap s you have h e a r d p e o p le speak o f th e s o - c a l l e d s o c i a l c l a s s e s , such as t h e u p p e r c l a s s , th e w orking c l a s s , t h e lo w e r c l a s s , th e m iddle c l a s s , and so on. Among th e p e o p le o f M exican (o r S p a n is h - s p e a k in g ) o r i g i n h e r e i n Pomona how many s o c i a l c l a s s e s would you sa y t h e r e a r e ? What do you c a l l them? 26. Can you d e s c r i b e th e k in d s o f p e o p le who b e lo n g i n e a c h o f t h e s e c l a s s e s ? F o r exam ple, what a r e th e p e o p le l i k e who b e lo n g to t h e . . . c l a s s ? 27. Which s o c i a l c l a s s would you p u t y o u r s e l f in ? 346 28. Now, c o n s i d e r i n g a l l th e p e o p le o f Pomona, ex ce p t th o s e o f Mexican d e s c e n t , would you say t h a t t h e r e a re v a r i o u s s o c i a l c l a s s e s ? How many a re t h e r e ? What do you c a l l them? 29. Can you d e s c r i b e th e k in d s o f p e o p le who b e lo n g i n each o f t h e s e c l a s s e s ? For exam ple, what a r e the p e o p le l i k e who b e lo n g to th e . . . c l a s s ? 30. Would you t e l l me where you work? 31. How lo n g have you been t h e r e ? 32. What i s y o u r job t h e r e ? 33* Where does y ou r w ife work (o r h u sb a n d )? 34. How lo n g h a s she (he) been t h e r e ? 35* What i s h e r ( h i s ) job t h e r e ? 3 6 . Does anyone e l s e h e r e i n th e h o u se work? I f so, w here and what k in d o f work does he ( s h e ) do? R e l a t i o n s h i p O c cu p a tio n Firm a* b . c . ; 37* Would you mind t e l l i n g me a p p ro x im a te ly t h e t o t a l an n u al income r e c e i v e d by y our fa m ily ? 3 8 . W ill you t e l l me i f you b e lo n g t o any o r g a n i z a t i o n s , s o c i e t i e s o r c lu b s ? Do you go to . any p a r t i c u l a r church? Which one? Do you b e lo n g to any s o c i e t i e s o r c lu b s a t th e chu rch ? 39* Do you b e lo n g t o a u n io n ? a s o c i a l club? a v e t e r a n s o r g a n i z a t i o n ? any p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ? a lo d g e? any c i v i c o r g a n i z a t i o n ? any L a t i n American o r g a n i z a t i o n o r s o c i e t i e s ? any o t h e r c l u b s , s o c i e t i e s , o r a s s o c i a t i o n s ? 347 40. W ould y o u m in d t e l l i n g me y o u r a g e ? 41. How f a r d i d y o u go i n s c h o o l ? 42. How f a r d i d y o u r w i f e ( h u s b a n d ) go i n s c h o o l ? 43. A v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n o n b i r t h p l a c e , o c c u p a t i o n , c i t i z e n s h i p , g r a d e s c o m p l e t e d a n d d a t e o f e n t r y t o U. S. ( f o r p e r s o n s b o r n i n M e x i c o ) . Y e a r P e r s o n B i r t h p l a c e O c c u p a t i o n C i t i z e n s h i p E n t e r e d U .S . S u b j e c t F a t h e r M o th er G r a n d p a r e n t s 1) 2 ) 3). 4) S pouse F a t h e r - i n - l a w M o t h e r - i n - l a w S p o u s e 's g r a n d p a r e n t s x) 2 ) 3) 4) 1 . 2. 3- 4. 5- 6 . 7* 8. 9. 10 . 11 . 12 . 13- 14. 15- APPENDIX B INTERVIEW SCHEDULE (SPANISH VERSION) C u d n to t i e m p o h a v l v i d o Ud. e n e s t a c a s a ? Le p e r t e n e c e l a c a s a o l a e s t d r e n t a n d o ? En dc5nde v i v f a a n t e s de c a m b i a r a q u f ? C u d n to t i e m p o v i v i d e n e s a c a s a ? E s Ud. c a s a d o , s o l t e r o , v i u d o , d i v o r c i a d o o r s e p a r a d o ? C u d n t a s p e r s o n a s v i v e n a q u f ? C u d l . p a r e n t e s c o t i e n e n c o n U d .? A c u d l e s c u e l a v a ( n ) s u ( s ) h i j o ( s ) ? T i e n e Ud. o t r o s p a r i e n t e s v i v i e n d o a q u f e n l a c a s a ? ( I n d i q u e e l p a r e n t e s c o ) Hay o t r a s p e r s o n a s q u e v i v e n a q u f ? C u d n t a s ? A c o s tu m b r a Ud. h a b l a r l e s a s u s p a p d s en e s p a n o l o en i n g l e s ? A c o s tu m b r a Ud. h a b l a r l e a s u e s p o s a ( o ) en e s p a n o l o e n i n g l e s ? A c o s tu m b r a Ud. h a b l a r l e s a s u s h i j o s en e s p a n o l o e n i n g l e s ? S u s h i j o s l e h a b l a n e n e s p a n o l o e n i n g l d s ? E s Ud. V e t e r a n o ( a ) ? R e c i b e Ud. a l g d n p e r i d d i c o ? C u d l? 348 349 16. C u i le s r e v i s t a s o r m a g a z in e s l e g u s t a n l e e r ? 17- T ie n e Ud. a lg u n o s p ro g ram a s f a v o r i t o s en e l r a d i o o en l a t e l e v i s i o n ? 18. E scucha o ve Ud. l o s p ro g ram a s en e s p a n o l? 19• Va Ud. a l c in e ? Cada cuOndo va Ud. a v e r una p e l f c u l a a m e ric a n a ? 20. Cada cuOndo va Ud. a v e r una p e l f c u l a en e s p a n o l? 21. Cuando a l g u i e n l e p r e g u n t a , "CuOl e s su n a c i o n a l l d a d ? " quO a c o stu m b ra Ud. c o n t e s t a r l e ? 22. CuOles d i r f a Ud. que son l a s d i f f e r e n c i a s mas i m p o r t a n t e s que se e n c u e n tr a n e n t r e l a s p e r s o n a s de o r i g e n m exicano a q u f en Pomona? Es d e c i r , en quO g ru p o s o t i p o s l a s p o n d r f a Ud.? 23- QuiOnes d i r f a Ud. que son l a s p e r s o n a s mas i m p o r t a n t e s e n t r e l a g e n te de o r i g e n m exicano a q u f en Pomona? 24. PorquO son p e r s o n a s i m p o r t a n t e s ? 2 5 . Q uizes Ud. ha o fd o m e n ta r l a s lla m a d a s c l a s e s s o c i a l e s , a s f como l a c l a s e a l t a , l a c l a s e , t r a b a j a d o r a , l a c l a s e h u m ild e o b a j a , l a c l a s e m ed ia, e t c . E n tr e l a g e n te de o r i g e n m exicano a q u f en Pomona cuO ntas c l a s e s s o c l a l e s o p in a Ud. que hay? cOmo l a s lla m a ? 26. Puede Ud. d e s c r i b i r m e l o s t i p o s de g e n te que p e r t e n e c e n a cada una de e s t a s c l a s e s ? Asf p o r e je m p lo , cOmo e s l a g e n te que p e r t e n e c e a l a . . . c l a s e ? 2 7 . A cuOl de l a s c l a s e s s o c i a l e s c r e e Ud. que p e r t e n e c e ? 28. S i tomamos en c u e n ta to d a l a g e n te de Pomona, con l a e x c e p c io n de l a s p e r s o n a s de o r i g e n m ex ica n o , c u ^ n ta s c l a s e s s o c i a l e s d i r f a Ud. que hay? C u r ie s son? 2 9 . Puede Ud. d e s c r i b i r m e l o s t i p o s de g e n te que p e r t e n e c e n a cada unade e s t a s c l a s e s ? A sf, p o r 350 30. Q uiere Ud. decirm e d ln d e t r a b a j a ? 31. C u ln to s tiem po ha t r a b a j a d o a l l f ? 32. C u ll e s su t r a b a j o a l l f ? 33- D<5nde t r a b a j a su e s p o s a ( o ) ? 34. Cuanto tiem po ha t r a b a j a d o a l l f ? 35* C u ll es su t r a b a j o a l l f ? 36. Hay o t r a s p e rs o n a s a q u f en l a c a sa que t r a b a j a n ? Dlnde t r a b a j a n y q u l c l a s e de t r a b a j o hacen? P a r e n te s c o O c u p ac iln Companfa a. b . 37* S e r f a Ud. ta n am able de decirm e aproxim adam ente c u l n t o s son l o s i n g r e s o s m o n e ta r io s t o t a l e s de l a f a m i l i a p o r ano, e s d e c i r , cu an to gana? 38. Q u iere Ud. decirm e s i p e r t e n e c e a a lg u n a s o r g a n i - z a c io n e s , s o c ie d a d e s , o c lu b e s ? Va Ud. a c i e r t a i g l e s i a ? C u ll? P e r te n e c e Ud. a a lg u n a s o c ie d a d o c lu b de l a i g l e s i a ? 39- Es Ud. miembro de algiln s i n d i c a t o o uni<5n? a l g l n c lu b s o c i a l ? a lg u n a o r g a n i z a c i l n de v e te r a n o s u o r g a n i z a c i l n p o l f t i c a ? a lg u n a l o g i a ? a lg u n a o r g a n i z a c i l n c i v i c a ? a lg u n a o r g a n i z a c i l n o s o c ie d a d l a t i n o a m e r i c a n a o m exicana? a l g l n o t r o c lu b , s o c ie d a d , o r g a n i z a c i l n o a s o c i a c i l n ? 40. Q uiere Ud. decirm e c u l l e s su edad? 41. H asta q u l ano l l e g l Ud. en l a e s c u e l a ? 42. H a sta q u l ano lleg<5 su e s p o s a ( o ) en l a e s c u e la ? 351 43< D a t o s s o b r e l u g a r de n a c i m l e n t o , o c u p a c i( 5 n , c i u d a d a n f a , y fepha.. de e n t r a d a a l o s EE. UU L u g a r d e Ano P e r s o n a N a c i m l e n t o 0 c u p ac lc 3 n C l u d a d a n f a EE. S u j e t o P a d r e M ad re A b u e l o s ’ 1) 2 ) 3) 4 ) E s p o s a ( o ) S u e g r o S u e g r a A b u e l o s de l a e s p o s a (o d e l e s p o s o ) 1) 2) 3 ) 4 ) Entrc5 UU. APPENDIX C C L A SSIFIC A T IO N OF OCCUPATIONS U n s k il l e d L a b o re rs b a b y s i t t e r b r i c k l a y e r h e lp e r cook h e l p e r d is h w a s h e r d o m e s tic (housew ork) f o l d e r , h o s i e r y fo rem an , farm fo u n d ry l a b o r e r f r u i t p i c k e r g a r d e n e r g ro u n d s k e e p e r h a t c h e r y l a b o r e r hod c a r r i e r j a n i t o r k i l n u n l o a d e r l a b o r e r , n . e . c . l a b o r e r , c o n s t r u c t i o n l a b o r e r , farm , n . e . c . l a b o r e r , lum ber m i l l l a b o r e r , r a i l r o a d l o a d e r ( b o x c a r s ) m aintenancem an h e l p e r m u le te e r o i l e r o r d e r f i l l e r (w a reh o u se) p a c k e r (c a n n e r y ) p a rk a t t e n d a n t p e d d l e r p o u l t r y k i l l e r h e l p e r p o u l t r y w e ig h e r s h a r e c r o p p e r s t e n c i l e r s t o c k e r , i r o n t e a m s t e r t r a s h c o l l e c t o r t r e e p r im e r t r u c k d r i v e r h e l p e r t r u c k l o a d e r w a i t r e s s S e m i-S k i-lled Workers a s b e s t o s w orker a s s e m b le r , a i r c r a f t a s s e m b le r (sw iv e l p r o d u c t s ) a s s e m b le r , toy a s s e m b le r , t r a i l e r a u to s e r v i c e a t t e n d a n t b o x e r ( h o s i e r y ) b u t t o n h o l e maker c a n n e ry o p e r a t i v e c a r p e n t e r , a p p r e n t i c e c h e m ic a l m ix e r c o n c r e t e p o u r e r d ry c l e a n i n g o p e r a t i v e farm t e n a n t 352 f r u i t g r a d e r and p a c k e r furnacem an g a rm e n t m achine o p e r a t o r h o u s e k e e p e r i n s p e c t o r , s t e e l m e ta l f i l e r , g r i n d e r , p o l i s h e r m e ta l f i n i s h e r m ilk r o u t e man mine o p e r a t i v e and l a b o r e r n u rse ry m a n n u r s e 1s a id e p a i n t e r , a u to m o tiv e p a i n t e r , equipm ent 353 p a i r e r ( h o s i e r y ) p ip e l a y e r p s y c h i a t r i c t e c h n i c i a n s t o k e r s t r e e t sw eeper o p e r a t o r t i r e re p a irm a n t r a c t o r o p e r a t o r t r u c k d r i v e r v erm in e x t e r m i n a t o r w e a v e r, t e x t i l e w e ld e r w ire d raw ing m achine o p e r a t o r S k i l l e d a i r c r a f t i n s p e c t o r a u d i o v i s u a l t e c h n i c i a n , a s s i s t a n t a u to body re p a irm a n b e a u t i c i a n b l a c k s m i t h b o o k b in d e r b r i c k mason c a b in e tm a k e r c a r p e n t e r c a s t e r , p o t t e r y cem ent f i n i s h e r cement mason cook c o re m aker (f o u n d r y ) c ra n e o p e r a t o r fo rem an , la u n d ry fo rem a n , m e ta l p l a t i n g fo rem an , w a te rw o rk s Workers f o r m - s e t t e r , c o n c r e t e . i n s t a l l e r ( a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g ) la n d s c a p e g a rd e n e r , lo c o m o tiv e e n g i n e e r m a c h i n i s t m aintenancem an m ec h a n ic , a u to m o b ile m e c h a n ic , d i e s e l m e ta l m o ld e r m i l l w r i g h t n u r s e , v o c a t i o n a l p a i n t e r , c o n s t r u c t i o n p ip e f i t t e r roundhousem an s u p e r v i s o r , m a t e r i a l s d e p a rtm e n t t a i l o r t i l e s e t t e r t o o l m aker C l e r i c a l , S a l e s and T e c h n ic a l bank t e l l e r b o o k k e e p e r c a s h i e r c l e r k , drug s t o r e c l e r k , g r o c e r y c l e r k , o f f i c e c l e r k , p o s t o f f i c e c l e r k t y p i s t d r a f t s m a n , d e s ig n k e y p u n ch o p e r a t o r r e s e r v a t i o n a g e n t , a i r l i n e s e c r e t a r y s t e n o g r a p h e r s u r v e y crew c h i e f M anagers, O f f i c i a l s and P r o p r i e t o r s b a k e ry owner b a r ow ner b u y e r c o n t r a c t o r , b u i l d i n g farm owner g r o c e r m an a g er, a s s i s t a n t p o l i c e c o m m issio n e r r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n s e r v i c e owner r e s t a u r a n t owner shoe r e p a i r s t o r e owner t o r t i l l a f a c t o r y owner u p h o l s t e r y shop owner P r o f e s s i o n a l a r c h i t e c t c o u n s e l o r , s c h o o l e n g i n e e r m i n i s t e r s o c i a l w o rk e r, m e d ic a l t e a c h e r B I B L I O G R A P H Y BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Adams, Emma H. To and P ro , Up and Down i n S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Oregon and W ashington T e r r i t o r y . C i n c i n n a t i : C ra n s to n and Stowe, 1888. Armour, R ic h a rd W . Drug; S to r e D ays: My. Youth Among; th e P i l l s and P o t i o n s . New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book C o., 1959* B a rb e r, B e rn a rd . S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n j a C om parative A n a ly s is o f S t r u c t u r e and P r o c e s s . New Y o rk : H a r c o u rt, B race and C o ., 1957* B e a ls , R a lp h L. and Humphrey, Norman D. No F r o n t i e r to L e a rn in g ; th e M exican S tu d e n t i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . M in n e a p o lis : U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n e so ta P r e s s , 1957- B o g ard u s, Emory S. The M exican i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . Los A n g e le s: U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1934. __________ . S o c i a l D i s t a n c e . Los A n g e le s, 1959- B r a c k e t t , P ran k P. H i s t o r y o f Pomona V a lle y , C a l i f o r n i a , w ith B i o g r a p h i c a l S k e tc h e s o f t h e L ead ing Men -and Women o f t h e V a l l e y . Los A n g e le s : H i s t o r i c R ecord Company, 1920. Burma, John H. S p a n is h - S p e a k in g Groups i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . Durham: Duke U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1954. Caplow, T h eo d o re. The S o c io lo g y o f Work. M in n e a p o lis : U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n e so ta P r e s s , 1954. 356 357 C a r ls s o n , G o s ta . S o c i a l M o b i l it y and C la ss S t r u c t u r e . Lund: C. W . K. G le e ru p , 1958. C e n te r s , R ic h a r d . The P sy ch o lo g y o f S o c i a l C l a s s e s : a Study o f C la s s C o n s c io u s n e s s . P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e to n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1949* C la r k , M a rg a r e t. H e a lth i n t h e M exican-A m erican C u l t u r e : a Community S tu d y . B e rk e le y : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1959* C uber, John P. and K enkel, W illiam P. S o c ia l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . New York: A p p le to n - C e n tu ry C r o f t s , 1954. D r i s c o l l , Roy L . , ed . Pomona V a lle y Community Book. Pomona: A r th u r H. Cawston, 1950. Gamlo, M anuel. M exican Im m ig ra tio n t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s : a S tud y o f Human M ig r a tio n and A d ju s tm e n t. C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 1930. G a rn e r, B ess Adams. Windows i n an Old Adobe. Pomona: Pomona P r o g r e s s B u l l e t i n , 1939- G o ld sc h m id t, W a lte r. As You Sow. New York: H a r c o u r t, • B race and C o., 1947* G r i f f i t h , B e a t r i c e . American Me. B o sto n : Houghton M i f f l i n C o., 1948. K ahl, J o s e p h A. The American C la s s S t r u c t u r e . New Y ork: R i n e h a r t and C o., 1957- L e n s k i, G e rh a rd . The R e l i g i o u s F a c t o r . Garden C ity , New Y ork: D oubleday and C o ., 1961. L i p s e t , Seymour M a rtin and B end ix, R e in h a rd . S o c i a l M o b il i t y i n I n d u s t r i a l S o c i e t y . B e r k e le y : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a . P r e s s , 1959- L u nd berg, G eorge A ., S h ra g , C la re n c e C ., and L a rs e n , O tto . S o c i o l o g y . Rev. e d . ; New York: H a rp er and B r o s . , 1958. 358 MeDonagh, Edward C. and R i c h a r d s , Eugene S. E th n ic R e la t i o n s i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . New York: A p p le to n - C e n tu r y - C r o f t s , 1953- M cW illiam s, C arey . F a c t o r i e s in t h e F i e l d : The S t o r y o f M ig r a to ry Farm L a b o r i n C a l i f o r n i a . B o sto n : L i t t l e , Brown, and C o., 1939* __________ . N o rth from M e x ic o : The S p a n is h -S p e a k in g P eople o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s . P h i l a d e l p h i a : J . B. L i p p i n c o t t Co., 194-9* t M anuel, H e rs c h e l T. The E d u c a tio n o f Mexican and S p a n is h - S p eak ing C h ild r e n i n T e x a s . A u s tin : Fund f o r R e s e a rc h i n th e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f T ex as, 1930. Marden, C h a r le s F. M i n o r i t i e s in American S o c i e t y . New Y ork: American Book Company, 1952. __________ , and M eyer, G la d y s. M i n o r i t i e s i n Am erican S o c i e t y . Second e d i t i o n . New York: American Book Co. , 1962. P a r s o n s , T a l c o t t . The S o c i a l S y stem . G le n co e : F re e P r e s s , 1951* Rand C o r p o r a tio n . A M i l l i o n Random D i g i t s w ith 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 Normal D e v i a t e s . G le n c o e : F ree P r e s s , 1955- R e i s s , A l b e r t J . , J r . O c c u p a tio n s and S o c i a l S t a t u s . New York: The F re e P re ss o f G lencoe, 1961. ScEnchez, George I . The F o r g o t t e n • P e o p l e : A S tu d y o f New M e x ic a n s. 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New York: H arper and B ro s ., I960. A r t i c l e s and P e r i o d i c a l s A ltu s , W illiam D. "The American M exican: The S u r v iv a l o f a C u l t u r e ," J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , XXIX (May, 1 9 4 9 ), 211-20. A nderson, C. A rn old. "A S k e p t i c a l Note on t h e R e l a t i o n o f V e r t i c a l M o b ility to E d u c a ti o n ," American J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y , LXVI (May, 1 9 6 1 ), 5 6O-7 O. 3 6 0 B a r k e r , George C. " S o c i a l F u n c tio n s o f Language i n a M exican-A m erican Community," Acta A m ericana, V ( J u l y , 1 9 4 7 ), 1 85 -2 0 2 . B e a l s , R a lp h L. " C u ltu r e P a t t e r n s o f M exican-A m erican L i f e , " i n P r o c e e d in g s , F i f t h Annual C o n f e re n c e , S o u th w est C o u n c il on t h e E d u c a tio n o f S p a n is h - S peak in g P e o p l e . Los A n g e les, 1951, PP* 5-13* B o g a rd u s, Emory S. "Second G e n e r a tio n M e x ic a n s," S o c io lo g y and S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , X I I I ( J a n u a r y - F e b r u a ry , 1 9 2 9 ), 2 7 6- 8 3 . Broom, L eo n ard . " S o c i a l D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " i n R o b e rt K. M erton, L eonard Broom, and L eo nard S. C o t t r e l l , J r . , e d s . , S o c io lo g y T o d a y : Problem s and P r o s p e c t s . New York: B a s ic Books, 1959, pp . 4 2 9 -4 1 . __________ , and Shevky, E s h r e f . "M exicans i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s : A Problem i n S o c i a l D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , " S o c io lo g y and S o c i a l R e s e a rc h , XXXVI (J a n u a r y - F e b ru a ry , 1 9 5 2 ), 1 5 0- 5 8 . Burma, John H. " R e se a rc h Note on th e M easurem ent o f I n t e r r a c i a l M a r r ia g e ," Am erican J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y , LVI (May, 1 9 5 2 ), 5 8 7 -8 9 . C e n t e r s , R ic h a r d . "Towards an A r t i c u l a t i o n o f Two A pproaches to S o c i a l C la s s Phenom ena," I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f O p inio n and A t t i t u d e R e s e a r c h , IV (W in te r, 1 9 5 0 ), 4 9 9 - 5 1 4 . G o ld sc h m id t, W a lte r . " S o c i a l C la s s and th e Dynamics o f S t a t u s i n A m e ric a," Am erican A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , LVII (December, 1 9 5 5 ), 1209-17- H a l l , J . R. and G la s s , D. V. " E d u c a tio n and S o c i a l M o b il i t y , " i n D. V. G la s s , e d . , S o c i a l M o b i l it y i n B r i t a i n . London: R o u tle d g e and Kegan P a u l, 1954, pp. 291-307. Humphrey, Norman Daymond. "The Changing S t r u c t u r e o f th e D e t r o i t M exican F a m ily : An In d e x o f A c c u l t u r a t i o n ," A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , IX (December, 1 9 4 4 ), 3 6 1 6 2 2 - 2 6 . Humphrey, Nonman Daymond. "The G e n e ric F o lk C u ltu r e o f M ex ico ," R u r a l S o c io lo g y , V I I I (December, 1 9 4 3 ), 364-77- __________ . "The S t e r e o t y p e and t h e S o c i a l Types o f M exican- American Y o u th s ," J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , XXII (A ugust, 1 9 4 5 ), 6 9 -7 8 . Hyman, H e r b e r t H. "The V alue System s o f D i f f e r e n t C l a s s e s : A S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e A n aly s i s o f S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " i n R e in h a r d B endix and Seymour M a r tin L i p s e t , e d s . , C la s s , S t a t u s and Power: A R e a d e r i n S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . G le n co e : F re e P r e s s , 1953, PP- 4 2 6 -4 2 . K ahl, J o s e p h A. and D a v is, James A. "A C om parison o f In d e x e s o f Socio-E conom ic S t a t u s , " American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XX (Ju n e , 1 9 5 5 ), 3 1 7-25 . K luckhohn, F l o r e n c e Roekwood. " C u l t u r a l F a c to r s i n S o c i a l Work P r a c t i c e and E d u c a t i o n , " S o c i a l S e r v ic e R ev ie w , XXV (March, 195 1 ), 40-45- L a n d e c k e r, W erner S. " C la s s B o u n d a r i e s , " American S o c io l o g i c a l . Review, XXV (December, i 9 6 0 ), 868-77* L a s s w e ll, Thomas E. " O r i e n t a t i o n s Toward S o c i a l C l a s s e s , " Am erican J o u r n a l o f S o c i o lo g y , LXV (May, i 9 6 0 ), 5 8 5 -8 7 . . " R e p l y ," Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , XX (F e b ru a ry , 1 9 5 5 ), 80-83- __________ . "A S tudy o f S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n Using an Area Sample o f R a t e r s , " Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XIX (Ju n e , 1 9 5 4 ), 310-13- Lawson, Edwin D. and Boek, W a lte r E. " C o r r e l a t i o n s o f In d e x e s o f F a m i l i e s ' S ocio-E conom ic S t a t u s , " S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXXIX (December, i 9 6 0 ), 1 4 9 -5 2 . 3 6 2 L e n s k i, G e rh a rd . " S o c i a l P a r t i c i p a t i o n and S t a t u s C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n , " Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , XXI (A ugust, 1 9 5 6 ), 4 5 6 -6 4 . __________ and L e g g e tt , John C. " C a s te , C la s s and D e fe re n c e i n th e R e s e a r c h I n t e r v i e w , " A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y , LXV (March, i 9 6 0 ), 463-67* Loeb, M a rtin B. " i m p l i c a t i o n s o f S t a t u s D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n f o r P e r s o n a l and S o c i a l D e v elo p m en t," H arv ard E d u c a t i o n a l R eview , X X III (Summer, 1 9 5 3 ), 1 6 8 -7 4 . McDonagh, Edward C. " S t a t u s L e v e ls o f M e x ic a n s ,1 1 S o c io lo g y and S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , XXXIII ( J u l y - A ugu st, 1 9 4 9 ), 449-59* N e lso n , H a ro ld A. and L a s s w e ll, Thomas E. " S t a t u s I n d i c e s , S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n and S o c i a l C l a s s , " S o c io lo g y and S o c i a l R e s e a rc h , XLIV (J u l y - A u g u s t , i 9 6 0 ), 410- 13* P a r s o n s , T a l c o t t . "A R e v is e d A n a l y t i c a l Approach to th e T heory o f S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " i n R e in h a rd B en d ix and Seymour M a rtin L i p s e t , e d s . , C l a s s , S t a t u s and Power: A R e ad e r i n S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . G le n c o e : F re e P r e s s , 1953, PP* 9 2 -1 2 8 . S a r g e n t, S. S t a n s f e l d . " C la s s and C l a s s - C o n s c io u s n e s s In a C a l i f o r n i a Town," S o c i a l P ro b le m s , I (Ju n e , 1 9 5 3 ), 22-27* Schatzrnan, L eonard and S t r a u s s , Anselm. " S o c i a l C la s s and Modes o f C om m unication," Am erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y , LX ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 5 5 ), 3 2 9-38 . Sim pson, George E. and Y in g e r, J . M ilto n . "The S o c io lo g y o f Race and E th n ic R e l a t i o n s , " i n R o b e rt K. M erton, L eo n a rd Broom, and L eo n ard S. C o t t r e l l , J r . , e d s . , S o c io lo g y Today: Problem s and P r o s p e c t s . New Y ork: B a s ic Books, 1959, PP* 376-99* S p i r o , M e lfo rd E. "The A c c u l t u r a t i o n o f Am erican E th n ic G ro u p s ," Am erican A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , LVII (December, 1 9 5 5 ), 1 2 4 0 -5 2 . 363 W atson, James B. and Samora, J u l i a n . " S u b o rd in a te L e a d e r s h ip i n a B i c u l t u r a l Community: An A n aly s i s , " Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l Review , XIX (A ugust, 1 9 5 4 ), 413-21. W illia m s , Robin M., J r . " R a c ia l and C u l t u r a l R e l a t i o n s , " i n J o s e p h B. G i t t l e r , e d . , Review o f S o c io lo g y ; A n a ly s is o f a D ecad e. New Y ork: John Wiley and Sons, 1957* PP- 4 2 3-64 . W innie, W illiam W., J r . "The S p a n ish Surname C r i t e r i o n f o r I d e n t i f y i n g H isp an o s i n th e S o u th w e s te rn U n ited S t a t e s : A P r e l i m i n a r y E v a l u a t i o n , " S o c i a l F o r c e s , • XXXVIII (May, 1960J, 3 6 3- 6 6 . R e p o rts and P am ph lets A sh ley , Thomas J;. A R e p o rt t o th e C o u n c il o f th e C ity o f Pomona, C a l i f o r n i a on th e Q u a l it y o f Housing i n th e C i ty o f Pomona; a Survey C onducted Between June and Septem ber 1 9 6 1 . Pomona, 1961. B e a s le y , T. D. P i c tu r e s q u e Pomona: A B r i e f D e s c r i p t i o n o f th e N a t u r a l A d v a n tag e s, C lim a te a n d P r o d u c ts o f Pomona, Los A ngeles C o., C a l . New Y ork: Photo E n g ra v in g C o., 1887- Cox, A r th u r H. Youth i n Pomona: A R e p o rt from th e Mayor o f Pomona to th e G overnor o f th e S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a , Pomona, 1959- Edw ards, Alba M. C om parative O c c u p a tio n a l S t a t i s t i c s f o r th e U n ite d S t a t e s , 1 8 7 0 -1 9 4 0 . W ashin gto n, D. C . : Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1943- G a rn e r, B ess Adams and P o s t, Miriam C o lc o rd . The S to r y o f th e Adobe de P alo m ares i n Pomona, C a l i f o r n i a . C la re m o n t, C a l i f o r n i a : S au n d ers P r e s s , 1940. Pomona C i ty P la n n in g Commission. F a c ts About Pomona. R e s e a rc h A n a ly s is , 1 9 5 5 - Pomona: C i ty P la n n in g Com mission, 1955- 364 Pomona C ity P u b lic S c h o o ls. F i r s t Annual R e p o r t . Pomona: D a ily Times P r i n t i n g House, 1891* Pomona F i r e D epartm ent S o u v e n ir . Pomona: P u b lis h e d i n th e I n t e r e s t o f th e R e l i e f Fund o f th e Pomona F i r e D e p t., 1903* R obinson, W . W . Panorama: A P i c t u r e H i s t o r y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a . Los A n g e les: T i t l e In s u r a n c e and T r u s t C o., 1953* U. S. Bureau o f th e C ensus. Common S p a n ish S u rn am es. (Vol. IV, P t. I l l , G e n era l Coding, A ttachm ent H). N . p . , n .d . _______ . P e rso n s o f S p a n ish Surname (U. S. Census o f P o p u la tio n : 1950. V ol. IV, S p e c ia l R e p o r ts , P t. 3, Chap. C). W ashington, D. C . : Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1953* _____. U. S. C ensuses o f P o p u la tio n and H ou sing : I 9 6 0 . Census T r a c t s . Los A ngeles-Long Beach, C a l i f . S ta n d a rd M e tr o p o li t a n S t a t i s t i c a l A re a . W ashing to n , D. C. : Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 19.62. T heses B eard, E. A lic e . "A Study o f th e Mexican P u p ils i n t h e Frem ont J u n i o r High S ch o o l, Pomona, C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 4 0 -4 1 ." U n pu b lish ed M a s t e r ’ s t h e s i s , C larem o n t C o lle g e s , 1941. i D eal, G e ra ld V. 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Creator Penalosa, Fernando (author)

Core Title Class Consciousness And Social Mobility In A Mexican-American Community

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Sociology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Sociology, general

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor McDonagh, Edward C. (committee chair), Lasswell, Thomas E. (committee member), Weckler, Joseph E. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-303649

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Penalosa, Fernando

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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