University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

An Analysis Of The Changing Focus Of Marriage Counseling

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An Analysis Of The Changing Focus Of Marriage Counseling

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Content C opyright by Ruth B lock M ichaelson 1964 A N ANALYSIS OF THE CHANGING FOCUS OF MARRIAGE COUNSELING by Ruth Block M ichaelson A D is s e r t a tio n P resen ted to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t of th e R equirem ents f o r th e Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (S ociology) August 1963 UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA GRAD U A TE SC H O O L U N IV ER SITY PARK LOS A N G E L E S 7, C A L IF O R N IA This dissertation, written by ................. Ru th . Block.. Mi cb.n.el son .............. under the direction of h.^X...Dissertation C o m mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean D ate A ugust 1963 DISSERTATIO N~CeM M ITTEE ! / , < v . ^ * t e a — < _ " Chairman h . M t d k j U t TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF T A B L E S ...................................................................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................... v i i C h a p ter I . THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED . . . 1 I n tr o d u c tio n The Problem Im portance o f th e Study D e lim ita tio n s o f th e Study L im ita tio n s o f th e Study D e f in iti o n s o f Terms O rg a n iz a tio n of th e Rem ainder of th e D i s s e r t a t i o n I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................................................ 29 P io n e e r C o n trib u tio n s to M arriage C o u n selin g R ecent C o n trib u tio n s to M arriage C o unseling T h e o r e tic a l C o n s id e ra tio n s R e la te d S c i e n t i f i c S tu d ie s C o n clu sio n I I I . METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY AN D SELECTION OF THE S A M P L E ............................ 81 Development o f th e H ypotheses S e le c tio n o f th e Sample M ethodology D e s c r ip tio n o f th e S c a le s C h ap ter Page IV. RESEARCH M ETHODS A N D STATISTICAL FINDINGS . . . 108 P ro cessin g th e Data D e s c rip tio n of th e Sample T estin g th e Hypotheses Summary Im p lic a tio n s fo r S ociology, Family L ife E ducation, and M arriage Counseling S uggestions fo r F u rth e r Research A. Census P op u latio n Data B. M arriage C lin ic F olders C. R a tio n a le fo r S e le c tio n of Sample C lin ic s D. D e sc rip tio n and R a tio n a le of C l a s s i f i c a tio n s E . Judges 1 Rankings V. SU M M A R Y A N D CONCLUSIONS 181 APPENDIXES 207 BIBLIOGRAPHY 245 LIST OF TABLES T able Page 1. Average Age o f E a s te rn , C e n tr a l, and W estern Sample P o p u la tio n .............................................................. 113 2. Average Age D iffe re n c e between Mates .................. 115 3. Years o f School Completed by Sample P o p u la tio n in 1940-1950-1960 by Per C e n t ................................. 117 4. Years o f School Com pleted by U nited S ta te s P o p u la tio n in 1940-1950-1960 by Per Cent . . 119 5. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f O cc u p atio n s, in Sample and in th e U nited S ta te s f o r 1940, 1950, I960 by Per C e n t ................................................................................. 121 6. R e lig io u s A f f i l i a t i o n o f Sample P o p u la tio n . . 124 7. Mixed M arriages in Sample P o p u la tio n in Raw D ata F o r m ................................................................................. 127 8. R e lig io u s A f f i l i a t i o n o f Mixed M arriages in Sample P o p u la tio n in Raw D ata F o r m ................... 128 9. M a rita l S ta tu s o f Sample P o p u la tio n 1940, 1950, and I960 by Per C e n t ...................................... 129 10. M a rita l S ta tu s o f th e U nited S ta te s P o p u la tio n 1940, 1950, 1960 by Per C e n t .................................. 131 11. Per Cent D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Number of C h ild re n L iving in Home in Sample P o p u la tio n , 1940, 1950, 1960 132 T ab le Page 12. Ages o f C h ild re n L iv in g in Homes o f Sample P o p u la tio n by Number and Per Cent f o r 1940, 1950, 1960 135 13. Per Cent D i s t r i b u t i o n of Ages o f C h ild re n in F a m ilie s in th e U n ited S ta te s in 1960 . . . . 135 14. S ources o f R e f e r r a l by Region and Year . . . . 137 15. C o u n s e lo rs' D eg rees, Background, and Sex fo r 1940, 1950, 1960 138 16. Rank and P e rc e n ta g e o f S i t u a t i o n a l I n t e r a c t i o n a l , and P s y c h o lo g ic a l Problems f o r 1940, 1950, and 1960 142 17. Per Cent and R anking by Judges on Problems ca u sin g M ild to S evere C o n f lic t in M arriage in Terms of T r e a t a b i l i t y and P ro g n o sis . . . 144 18. M odified Scalogram o f J u d g e s 1 Rankings o f P r o b l e m s ...................................... 147 19. Rank and P e rc e n ta g e o f A ll C l a s s i f i e d Problems fo r 1940, 1950, and 1960................................................ 148 20. Comparison between Ju d g e s' R ankings and Frequency D ata by Sign T e st . . . . . . . . . 151 21. Frequency and Per Cent o f S ta te m e n ts R e fe rrin g to Problem s, C ounselor A pproach, and T r e a t ment T echniques as Recorded in Case P ro to c a ls 154 22. Rank and Per Cent o f R e fe re n ce s to U n c la s s if ie d Problems and C om plaints f o r 1940, 1950, I960 156 23. Per Cent and J u d g e s' R ankings on C ounselor Approach in Terms o f Time and D e p t h ...................... 161 24. M odified Scalogram on J u d g e s ' Rankings o f C ounselor Approach ......................................................... 163 v T able 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. Rank and P ercen tag e of C o u n selo rs' L evels of Approach fo r 1940, 1950, and 1960 ........................ Rankings of C ounselor Techniques between 1940-1960, 1940-1950, 1950-1960 by Sign T e sts Rank and P ercentage of C ounseling Techniques f o r 1940, 1950, and 1960 .......................................... Types of C ounseling S essio n s and C onferences Used by C ounselors in 1940, 1950, and I960 D u ra tio n of M arriage C ounseling S essio n s by Length of Time and Number of C ounseling Hours fo r 1940, 1950, and 1960 ............................ Consensus o f Ju d g e s1 Rankings and P ercen tag es on Problem S cale ............................................................. Ranking by Ten Judges on Twelve Problems . . . Ranking by Ten Judges on C ounselor Approach from P re se n t Time P erio d s to Depth L evels . . Page 165 168 170 173 176 242 243 244 v i LIST OF FIGURES F ig u re Page 1. E d u c a tio n L ev e l f o r Sample f o r 1940, 1950, and 1960 118 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED I n tr o d u c tio n I m p lic it in th e co n cep t o f m e n ta l h e a l t h i s th e p s y c h o s o c io b io lo g ic a l view o f man as a s o c i a l c r e a t u r e , liv irig in a fa m ily and in a s o c ie ty w ith o th e r human b e in g s . The fa m ily as a s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n h as as i t s c o re r e l a t i o n s h i p two p a r e n ts t i e d to g e th e r in an e m o tio n a l a x is from w hich stem s many f e e l i n g s , n e e d s, and a c tio n s .^ - M arriag e in some form i s an i n s t i t u t i o n o f a l l s o c i a l sy stem s. The fo u n d a tio n s upon which th e i n s t i t u t i o n i s b u i l t and th e m a te r ia l and d e s ig n from w hich i t fu n c ti o n s a r e d e v e lo p in g , fo re v e r-c h a n g in g , l i v i n g human b e in g s . The p ro c e s s e s prom oting th e e le m e n ta ry s e a rc h f o r ^R obert D. Mooney, "The Meaning and S ig n if ic a n c e o f Fam ily H e a lth ," M arriag e and Fam ily L iv in g , XIX, No. 2 (May, 1957), 133-34. 1 com pleteness and u n i t y , as th e y a re in p a r t e x e m p lifie d in m a rria g e , a re im p elled by fo rc e s many o f which as y e t e lu d e n th e a n a ly s is o f modern s c ie n c e . A ccording to H e rb e rt and J a r v i s , modern m a rria g e i s th r e a te n e d n o t only by academ ic c r i t i c s b u t in a more sub t l e and dangerous way by th e p a t te r n s and c ro s s c u r r e n ts o f p re s e n t day e x is te n c e . They contend t h a t m a rria g e s a re s u b je c te d to s o c i a l p re s s u re s from o u ts id e which s c a r c e ly e x i s te d in form er ages or were sp re a d more w id ely and not re c o g n iz e d as m ajor problem s. They p o in t out th e g r e a t mass o f n o v e l in flu e n c e s c o n fr o n tin g in d iv id u a ls w ith in th e p a s t g e n e ra tio n : m ovies, r a d io , t e l e v i s i o n , au to m atio n , w e lfa re s t a t e , atom ic ag e, space th o u g h ts , p s y c h o a n a ly tic a l th e o r ie s of p e r s o n a lity , and th e d e c lin e o f o rthodox r e l i g i o n .^ Folkman adds t h a t our s o c ie ty i s e x p e rie n c in g th e most r a p id , th e most in t e n s i v e , and th e most e x te n s iv e s o c i a l change in a l l human h i s t o r y , and t h a t a lth o u g h 2 Emily H. Mudd, The P r a c tic e o f M arriage C o unseling (New York: A s s o c ia tio n P re s s , 1951), p. 228. o W. L. H e rb e rt and F. V. J a r v i s , A Modern Approach to M arriage C o unseling (London: Methuen and Company, L td ., 1959). alm ost ev e ry a s p e c t of l i f e h as been a f f e c te d by i t , none has been more s e v e re ly a f f e c te d th a n th e d o m e stic .^ When we c o n s id e r th e fa m ily as one o f th e b a s ic u n i t s o f s o c ie ty , we must ag ree w ith S k id m o re's w arning t h a t th e need f o r h e lp in g m a rria g e s and f a m ilie s t h a t a re t o t t e r i n g , s h a t t e r e d , or f a l l i n g a p a r t i s trem en d o u s. ^ R e c o g n itio n o f t h i s need i s s t a t e d in th e f i r s t b a s ic p r in c ip l e o f th e M arriage Guidance C o u n cil o f Eng land : 1 Every happy m a rria g e in v o lv e s some m easure o f s a c r i f i c e . . . . No two people can l i v e in tim a te ly and c o n te n te d ly to g e th e r u n le s s each i s p rep ared to g iv e as w e ll as t o ta k e , t o make a d ju s tm e n ts , to abandon some claim s and to g iv e way to o th e r s . . . . S u c c e s s fu l m a rria g e , th e fo u n d a tio n o f happy fam ily l i f e , i s v i t a l to th e w e ll b e in g o f s o c ie ty .^ In an e f f o r t to meet t h i s growing c h a lle n g e , w ith ^ J . D. Folkman, "M arriage and Fam ily P roblem s," P roceedings o f M a rita l C o u n selin g W orkshop. Sponsored by M innesota D epartm ent o f P u b lic W elfare and N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M ental H e a lth , M in n e a p o lis, Ja n u a ry , 1962 (B eth esd a, M aryland: U. S. P u b lic H e a lth S e r v ic e , 1962), pp. 2 -3 . ^Rex A. Skidm ore, H ulda G a r r e t t , and C. Jay S k id m ore, M arriage C o n s u ltin g (New Y ork: H arp er and B ro th e rs , 1956), pp. 3-10. ^ J . H. W a llis and H. S. B ooker, M arriage C ounsel ing (London: R outledge and Kegan, 1958), pp. 7, 26, and 44. th e r e a l i s t i c c r i t e r i o n t h a t th e happy fam ily is "one which manages to so lv e i t s problem s, not one which has no prob lem s,"^ a d i s c i p l i n e has emerged w ith in th e p a s t few d e c ades which h as attem p ted to focus upon th e m arriag e p a ir and th e problem s a r i s i n g from t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . Mudd s t a t e s th a t m arriag e c o u n se lin g "as an a r t is o ld , as a Q s c ie n c e , new b o rn ." B ossard e x p la in s i t as d e a lin g d a ily w ith men and women through whose c h ild r e n a new growth o f w orld s o c ie ty must be achieved sin c e i t d e a ls w ith th e fam ily as a con n e c tin g lin k in th e c h a in of l i f e . ^ Skidm ore, how ever, claim s th a t m arriag e co u n se lin g la ck s s t r u c t u r e in th e eyes o f i n t e l l i g e n t laymen, th e u n iv e r s i ty p u b lic , th e a d m in is tra tio n o f u n i v e r s i t i e s , and p r iv a te and p u b lic ag e n cie s because i t i s in a s t a t e o f flu x . He says th a t th e g o a ls , aim s, p u rp o ses, te c h n iq u e s , and fo cu ses a re s t i l l u n c l e a r . ^ ^John Levy and Ruth Monroe, The Happy Fam ily (New York: A lfre d A. Knopf, 1938), pp. 45-52. ®Mudd, op. c i t . , p. 229. q James H. S. B ossard and E lean o r S to k er B o ll, The S ociology o f C hild Development (New York: H arper and B ro th e rs , 1959), pp. 68-88. 10 Skidmore, e t a l . , op. c i t . , p. 44. 5 The purpose o f t h i s stu d y , t h e r e f o r e , i s to attem p t to c l a r i f y and to u n d erstan d b e t t e r th e p r a c t ic e o f m a rr i age c o u n se lin g th rough a sy ste m a tic ex am in atio n o f i t s s t r u c t u r e and s e r v ic e . Through th e assessm ent and e v a lu a t i o n o f problem s and c o m p la in ts, te c h n iq u e s , in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e , and em phasis o f m arriag e c o u n se lin g d u rin g th e p a s t two d ecad es, a more focused p ic tu r e o f m arriag e coun s e lin g as a s c ie n c e and a p r o fe s s io n w i l l emerge. The Problem S tatem ent o f th e problem .--A s su g g ested by Mudd, "M arriage c o u n se lin g should be co n sid e re d in r e l a t i o n to th e tim es in which i t fu n c tio n s i f any s i g n i f i c a n t u n d e r sta n d in g o f i t s p la c e in contem porary s o c ie ty i s to be e v a l u a t e d . T h u s , th e s e le c tio n o f th e y e a rs 1940, 1950, and I960 fo r t h i s stu d y may h e lp us p e rc e iv e im pacts o f complex c o n d itio n s o f a c c e le r a te d changes which may, or perhaps may n o t, r e f l e c t changes in th e k in d s o f problems f a m ilie s bro u g h t to p r o f e s s io n a l so u rc e s. Some o f th e c o m p le x itie s faced in s o c ie ty w ere: ^Hfudd, op. c i t . , pp. 14-21. 6 12 1930-1940: Economic D ep ressio n Unemployment Labor U nrest P u b lic Dependency 1940-1950: World a t War World War I I D em obilizat ion Loss o f F a th e rs Korean War Beginning I n f l a t i o n New I n d u s tr ie s In c re a se d M o b ility Women in In d u stry Broken Homes 1950-1960: Space Technology Cold War N uclear T h reat Aut omat ion In creased I n f l a t i o n L e isu re Time i o A lso marks th e p erio d o f th e f i r s t s p e c if ie d m arriage c o u n se lin g c l i n i c s in Am erica. Women W orking M o b ility The lo n g -ra n g e o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s tu d y i s t o in v e s t i g a t e w here m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g h a s b ee n i n o r d e r t o be a b le t o p r e d i c t where i t i s g o in g . T h is s tu d y a tte m p ts an o b j e c t i v e a n a l y s i s o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g th ro u g h th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f v a r i a b l e s . By in c lu d in g outw ard s i t u a t i o n a l e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s w hich c r e a t e problem s i n m a rria g e as w e ll a s th e u n d e r ly in g f a c t o r s o f th e psychodynam ics o f th e in d i v i d u a l s in v o lv e d , a b e g in n in g s t e p tow ard th e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s may be a c h ie v e d . The d im e n sio n o f r e l a t e d n e s s i s in c lu d e d i n a f u r t h e r e f f o r t to d e te rm in e w h e th e r i t i s a compound o r a s e p a r a te v a r i a b l e p ro d u c in g problem s o f i t s own. In o r d e r to c r y s t a l l i z e and sum m arize b a s ic p r i n c i p l e s o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g , t h i s s tu d y i s th e f i r s t to a tte m p t th e c o n s o lid a t io n o f more th a n one m a rria g e coun s e l i n g c l i n i c w ith th e a t te n d a n t e x p e r ie n c e s , know ledge, and d i v e r s i f i e d a p p ro ac h es in te c h n iq u e s and fo c u s . Through o b je c ti v e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e q u a n t i f i c a t i o n s , i t i s hoped t h a t a method f o r th e p e r io d ic a s se ssm e n t o f a l l m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s may be r e a l i z e d . These o b je c ti v e s a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y s t a t e d in th e fo llo w in g q u es- t i o n s : 1. Are th e ty p e s o f c o m p la in ts and problem s l i s t e d by m a rria g e c o u n s e lo rs th e same? 2. W ill th e problem s and c o m p la in ts l i s t e d by m ar r ia g e c o u n s e lo rs d i f f e r by r e a s o n o f d i f f e r e n c e i n fo cu s and em phasis due to th e d if f e r e n c e in p e rio d s o f tim e? 3. What a r e th e b a s ic te c h n iq u e s and t o o l s o f c o u n s e lin g used by m a rria g e c o u n s e lo rs ? 4. What i s th e av erag e ty p e o f in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e used by m a rria g e c o u n s e lo rs? 5. Has th e r e been a change in th e a c t u a l p r a c t i c e o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g com m ensurate w ith th e changes in d ic a te d in th e l i t e r a t u r e ? 6. Are th e r e changes in th e p u b lic mind tow ard th e a c c e p ta n c e o f p r o f e s s io n a l m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g ? The l a s t q u e s tio n w i l l be i n d i r e c t l y approached th ro u g h an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e changes in th e f a c t o r s o f a g e , e d u c a tio n , o c c u p a tio n , r e l i g i o n , m a r i t a l s t a t u s , num b e r o f c h i ld r e n , and ty p e s o f r e f e r r a l so u rc e s f o r c l i e n t s from 1940 to I960. To b e g in to meet th e o th e r f iv e o b je c t i v e s , th e fo llo w in g h y p o th e se s a re s p e c i f i c a l l y s t a t e d : T here i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e ty p e s o f problem s c o u n s e lo rs fo cu sed upon betw een th e y e a rs o f 1940 and I960. T here i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in th e em p h a s is c o u n s e lo rs p la c e d upon c l i e n t problem s compared t o th e em phasis p la c e d upon th e dynam ic s o f th e c o u n s e l o r - c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e y e a rs o f 1940 and 1960. T here i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in th e l e v e l s o f approach c o u n s e lo rs u sed betw een th e y e a rs o f 1940 and 1960. T here i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in th e te c h n iq u e s o f c o u n s e lin g used by m a rria g e coun s e l o r s betw een th e y e a rs o f 1940 and I960. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e s e t by c o u n s e lo rs betw een th e y e a rs o f 1940 and 1960. T here i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in th e d u ra t i o n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c a s e s betw een th e y e a rs o f 1940 and 1960. - 10 Im p o rtan ce o f th e Study The im p o rta n ce o f t h i s s tu d y i s c o n c e iv e d a s b e in g th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w ith m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g in an a tte m p t t o d e f in e a r e s e a r c h ap p ro ach to w ard an e v e n tu a l u n i f i e d fram e o f r e f e r e n c e . H i l l and H ansen p r e s e n t f iv e c o n c e p tu a l ap p ro ac h es t o th e s tu d y o f m a rria g e and th e fa m ily : 1. The I n t e r a c t i o n a l ap p ro a c h . 2 . The S t r u c t u r e - f u n c t i o n ap p ro a c h . 3 . The S i t u a t i o n a l ap p ro a c h . 4 . The I n s t i t u t i o n a l ap p ro a c h . 13 5. The D ev elo p m en tal a p p ro ac h . Brim , e t a l . , su g g e s t t h a t t h e o r i e s on m a rria g e and fa m ily problem s have f a l l e n i n t o two m ain c l a s s e s : (1) econom ic f a c t o r s and (2) c l i n i c a l p r o c e s s e s , and th e y add e x p e c ta tio n s o f r o l e p erfo rm a n ce s as a t h i r d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . They a l s o r e p o r t : One i s n o t h e lp e d much by tu r n in g to th e e v id e n c e b e c a u se no more th a n h a l f a dozen s tu d i e s ■^Reuben H i l l and D onald H ansen, ’’The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f C o n c e p tu a l Frameworks U t i l i z e d i n F am ily S tu d y ," M a rria g e and F am ily L iv in g , XX II, No. 4 (November, I9 6 0 ), 2 9 9 -3 1 1 . 11 o f s c i e n t i f i c q u a l i t y have b een r e p o r te d and . . . th e s e r e p o r t c o n f l i c t i n g r e s u l t s . 1^- T h is stu d y a tte m p ts t o g e t s c i e n t i f i c d a ta w hich w i l l b e g in to com pile e v id e n c e t h a t m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g i s an a d ju n c t i v e p ro c e ss t o th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f m a rria g e and th e fam i l y to d a y . W hether or n o t t h i s stu d y on m a rria g e c o u n s e l in g w i l l f i t in to H i l l ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f an i n t e r a c t i o n a l o r s i t u a t i o n a l approach to th e knowledge o f m a rria g e , o r t o th e problem c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s as su g g e ste d by Brim , may n o t be as m e an in g fu l as d is c o v e r in g , p e rh a p s , t h a t a th e o ry o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g may be ev o lv ed th ro u g h th e combined knowledge o f th e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c tio n o f th e p ro c e s s and th e f a c t o r s in v o lv e d . T h is stu d y sh o u ld have s ig n i f ic a n c e f o r s tu d e n ts o f fa m ily l i f e in A m erica, f o r laymen i n t e r e s t e d in th e problem s o f m a rria g e and fa m ily l i v i n g , f o r p r o f e s s io n a l o r g a n iz a tio n s con cern ed w ith th e s e t t i n g o f s ta n d a rd s and p r a c t i c e s , and f o r th o s e peo p le p r a c t i c i n g o r i n t e r e s t e d in c l i n i c a l m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g , r e g a r d le s s o f ap p ro ac h : ■ ^ O rv ille G. Brim , J r . , Roy W. F a i r c h i l d , and E ^gar F. B o r g a tta , R e la tio n s betw een F am ily P ro b le m s," M arriag e and F am ily L iv in g , X X III, No. 3 (A ugust, 1961), 219-226. 12 1. As a p a r t o f p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e i n e s t a b l i s h e d and r e l a t e d p r o f e s s io n s . 2. As an i n d iv i d u a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l t y , p a r t o r f u l l tim e . 3. As a s e r v ic e o f a community ag en cy , c l i n i c , o r o th e r group as s o c i a l a g e n c ie s , n o n p r o f it com m unity o r g a n iz a tio n s , p s y c h i a t r i c c l i n i c s , fa m ily c o u r t s , s c h o o ls , c h u rc h e s , o r u n iv e r s i t i e s . ^ D e lim ita tio n s o f th e Study S cope.- -T h r e e groups a re b e in g used in t h i s s tu d y . These groups w ere s e le c te d from t h i r t y - f i v e c e n te r s o f f e r in g u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s e r v ic e s which in c lu d e d m a rria g e coun s e l i n g . I t was found t h a t n in e te e n o f th e t h i r t y - f i v e c e n te r s had been f u n c tio n in g f o r tw en ty c o n s e c u tiv e y e a r s , from 1940 to 1 9 6 0 . ^ S in ce p r e m a r it a l c o u n s e lin g , p a r e n t- c h i ld pro b lem s, in d iv i d u a l casew ork c o u n s e lin g , and ed u ca t i o n f o r m a rria g e w ere t o be ex c lu d e d from t h i s r e p o r t , o n ly n in e c e n te r s o f f e r e d n o n p r o f i t , s p e c i f i c m a rria g e ^Skidmore, et a l . , op. c it., pp. 63-64. ^M udd, op. cit. , pp. 251-325. 13 c o u n s e lin g as t h e i r predom inant s e r v i c e . F iv e o f th e s e w ere r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a n o n s e c ta r ia n approach and were n o t p h ilo s o p h ic a lly d e d ic a te d t o any s p e c i f i c r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e . To p ro v id e s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n in th r e e geo- g ra p h ic a re a s o f th e U nited S t a t e s , c l i n i c s r e p r e s e n tin g th e e a s t e r n , c e n t r a l , and w e s te rn s e c tio n s o f th e c o u n try w ere s e l e c t e d . Two e a s t e r n m a rria g e c l i n i c s were e lim in a te d from t h i s g ro u p in g b ecau se o f p r o f e s s io n a l s t a f f s o f l e s s th a n th r e e (only one c o u n s e lo r s e rv in g ) and b ecau se o f lim ite d ca se lo a d s compared to th e o th e r c l i n i c s . ^ For th e s e r e a s o n s , and a f t e r c o n s id e r a b le co rre sp o n d e n c e on th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f re c o rd s f o r th e p e rio d s s p e c i f i e d , th e th r e e m a rria g e c l i n i c s were s e l e c t e d . C o u n selo rs w ith in th e s e th r e e c l i n i c s were s t r a t i f ie d by th e y e a r s , 1940, 1950, and 1960 and a c c o rd in g to c a se lo a d s . From fo u r to e ig h t c o u n s e lo rs were d is c o v e re d to be h a n d lin g th e m a jo r ity o f c a s e s , p e r c e n ta g e -w is e , in each c l i n i c f o r each o f th e tim e p e r io d s . Two o r more c a s e s from each o f th e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c o u n s e lo rs w ere s e le c te d random ly. Peatman and S c h a f e r 's "T ab les o f Random 17 See Appendix C. 14 Sam pling Numbers" w ere used t o s e l e c t th e s t r a t i f i e d c a s e s . O n e hundred and f o r t y - f o u r u s a b le c a s e s were o b ta in e d . G a th e rin g D a ta .--T h e d a ta o f th e sam ples were g a th e re d th ro u g h v i s i t s to each o f th e th r e e m a rria g e coun s e l i n g c e n te r s d u rin g Ju n e , J u l y , and August o f 1960. A ll c a se p r o to c a ls w ere p e r s o n a lly d u p lic a te d w ith th e i n v i o l a b i l i t y o f c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y p re s e rv e d . The C om m unities. --T he e a s t e r n and w e s te rn communi t i e s in w hich t h i s stu d y was made w ere la rg e m e tro p o lita n a re a s w ith p o p u la tio n s o v er 2 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 . The c e n t r a l com m unity was a ls o a m e tr o p o lita n a r e a w ith a p o p u la tio n in e x c e ss o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 .^ B ecause o f th e u nique s e r v ic e o f th e s e le c te d m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s where fa m ily s e r v ic e a g e n c ie s were e x c lu d e d , socioeconom ic g ro u p in g s co u ld n o t be p r o p o r ti o n a ll y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e group s t r u c t u r e o f th e s e com m unities b ec au se n o t a l l s o c i a l c l a s s e s would ^ A l l e n L. Edw ards, S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly s is (New York: R in e h a rt and Company, I n c . , 1953), pp. 340-341. ■^L. W allace H offm an, "Toledo C om pletes a New B u ild in g f o r i t s F am ily C ourt C e n te r ," F e d e ra l P r o b a tio n , Ju n e , 1954, p. 1; and A ppendix A. 15 a v a i l th e m se lv e s o f th e s e s e r v i c e s . The community s t r u c t u r e o f th e t h r e e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s m a in ta in p a r t i c u l a r a p p ro a c h e s. The e a s t e r n sam ple i s a f f i l i a t e d w ith th e U n iv e r s ity D epartm ent o f P s y c h ia tr y ; th e c e n t r a l sam ple i s p a r t o f th e Fam ily C ourt s e t t i n g , and th e w e s te rn sample i s o f a m u l t i d i s c i p lin e d a p p ro ac h . T his w i l l be c o n s id e re d in th e s e c tio n on th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s stu d y . F u r th e r q u e s tio n s r e g a rd in g th e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f f in d in g s i s found in C h a p te r IV. L im ita tio n s o f th e Study A lthough th e c o n s o lid a t io n o f more th a n one m ar r i a g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c p ro v id e s b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f g e n e r a l m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p r a c t i c e s , i t i s lim ite d when i t e x c lu d e s th e p r i v a t e p r a c t i t i o n e r . However, b ecau se o f s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f c a se r e c o rd s w ith in each m a rria g e c l i n i c , random s e l e c t i o n o f c a s e s a f t e r th e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f c o u n s e lo rs h a n d lin g th e m a jo r ity o f c a s e s was o b ta in e d o b j e c t i v e l y . The d if f e r e n c e s in ap p ro ac h es m ight be q u e s tio n e d f o r hom ogeneity o f sam ple g ro u p in g s . Y e t, in a t te m p tin g t o c l a r i f y m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g fo c u s , t h i s d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n would c o n t r o l , somewhat, f o r b i a s . 16 The e x c lu s io n o f p r e m a r ita l c a s e s , p r i v a t e c o u n s e l in g c a s e s , community a g e n c ie s , fa m ily s e r v i c e s , and u n i v e r s i t y c o u n s e lin g p re v e n ts th e a c c e p ta n c e o f t h i s s tu d y as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l l m a rria g e and fa m ily c o u n s e lin g . A lthough i t w i l l n o t r e f l e c t a l l a s p e c ts o f m a rria g e coun s e l i n g , i t does p ro v id e f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p ro c e s s e s which c o u ld be a p p lie d in a more com prehensive r e p o r t . The l i m i t a t i o n o f n o n r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f s o c io e c o n omic groups i s due, in p a r t , t o th e n e c e s s a r i l y sm a ll num b e r o f c a se r e c o r d s i n th e c l i n i c s compared t o p r o p o r tio n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in th e l a r g e r community. E x am in atio n o f th e ch an g in g f a c t o r s d e n o tin g more g e n e ra l a c c e p ta n c e o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g d u rin g th e tw e n ty -y e a r span may c l a r i f y t h i s la c k . The ch an g in g p e rc e n ta g e o f o c c u p a tio n a l and e d u c a tio n a l l i m i t s w i l l i n d i r e c t l y r e f l e c t t h i s . The q u e s tio n m ight a r i s e about th e la c k o f a co n t r o l group. In t h i s stu d y th e u se o f a c o n t r o l group i s n o t in d ic a t e d b ec au se th e o b je c ti v e i s to stu d y th e chang in g fo cu s in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g from 1940 t o 1960. The y e a r o f 1950 m ight be c o n s id e re d a ty p e o f c o n t r o l . The d if f e r e n c e in c a se r e p o r t i n g f o r th e th r e e c l i n i c s was a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s in c e r e f e r e n c e s o r s t a t e m ents w ere com piled from each c a se and num bered. The 17 f u lln e s s or b r e v ity o f ca se r e p o r ts would in v a l i d a t e f i n d in g s . P e rc e n ta g e s per v a r i a b l e , p er c l i n i c , p e r y e a r were used to o f f s e t t h i s . The l i m i t a t i o n o f th e u se o f ju d g es f o r c l a s s i f i c a tio n s m ight r a i s e a q u e s tio n as to th e v a l i d i t y o f r e s u l t s s in c e th e method used f o r ju d g in g th e r e f e r e n c e s o r s ta te m e n ts was d esig n ed b o th f o r o b j e c t i v i t y and fo r con v e n ie n c e o f th e q u a l if i e d people s e rv in g as ju d g e s . That th e means j u s t i f i e d th e end was seen when th e number o f s ta te m e n ts were c a te g o r iz e d w ith u n fo re s e e n ea se o f con se n su s. The s c a lin g n o m e n cla tu re , how ever, was more d i f f i c u l t and th e r e i s q u e s tio n as to th e c l u s t e r o f v a r i a b l e s w ith in each h e a d in g . The answer must be g o tte n s t a t i s t i c a l l y i n f u r t h e r stu d y th ro u g h f a c t o r a n a ly s is . A nother l i m i t a t i o n i s th e la c k o f q u a n tif ie d r e f e r ence to th e g o a ls o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g . T h is , to o , m ight be achieved by a n a ly s is o f s p e c i f i c c a s e s , c o r r e l a t i n g te c h n iq u e s t o problem s and i n v e s t i g a t i n g in fo llo w -u p s t u d i e s . Note must be ta k e n t h a t th e problem s and c o m p la in ts l i s t e d by th e c o u n s e lo rs may n o t be th e c l i e n t 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s problem and can n o t be used as b e in g r e p r e s e n ta ti v e o f problem s in m a rria g e from th e i n d i v i d u a l 's v ie w p o in t. These c o m p la in ts, as w r i t t e n in th e c a se r e c o rd s , w i l l r e f l e c t , somewhat, th e in d iv id u a l c o u n s e lo r 's b i a s . Sam pling from s i x t y - e i g h t c o u n s e lo r s , how ever, w i l l n e g a te t h i s somewhat. F i n a l l y , th e s e rio u s l i m i t a t i o n o f t h i s stu d y i s t h a t th e r e s u l t s may n o t be u n iv e r s a lly a p p lie d . I t i s re c o g n iz e d th ro u g h o u t t h a t th e d a ta p re s e n te d c o n ta in to o sm a ll a group from which to g e n e ra liz e and can only be s u g g e s tiv e u n t i l f u r t h e r knowledge i s o b ta in e d . D e f in itio n s of Terms C ounselor em p h asis. - - I n t h i s s tu d y , c o u n s e lo r em p h a s is r e f e r s to th e l e v e l o f approach and th e fo cu s o f c o u n s e lo rs , as analyzed by ju d g es from s ta te m e n ts made by th e co u n e e lo r or th e c l i e n t . I t d e a ls w ith th e s u b je c t c o n te n t o f th e c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s . I t i s c l a s s i f i e d in term s of th e im m ediate, s u r f a c e , p re s e n t m a r i t a l s i t u a t i o n concerned w ith to p ic s o f com plaints and problem s, c u r r e n t i n t e r a c t i o n , o c c u p a tio n a l, and b u d g etin g s i t u a t i o n s ; th e p a s t memory r e c a l l o f e a r l y m a rria g e i n t e r a c t i o n s , c o u r t s h ip , a d o le sc e n c e , c h ild h o o d , and fam ily background; th e d eep er le v e l o f r e f e r e n c e s to f e e l in g s and em o tio n s, gain ed i n s i g h t s , and th e r e l a t i n g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f dream 19 m a t e r i a l s . F o c u s. - - T h is te rm i s d e fin e d o p e r a t i o n a l l y t o i n c lu d e th e em p h asis, d i r e c t i o n , and approach o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g as se en th ro u g h r e c o r d s o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lo r s . I t i s d e s c r ib e d in th r e e g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s : problem s and c o m p la in ts ; c o u n s e lo r em phasis and le v e l s o f ap p ro ac h ; and te c h n iq u e s and m ethods o f c o u n s e lin g . I n t e r a c t i o n a l P ro b lem s. - -T h is p ap er a c c e p ts A ck er m an's d e f i n i t i o n o f d y ad ic i n t e r a c t i o n as th e p e r c e p tio n and e x p e c ta tio n o f r o l e s and th e l e v e l s o f i n t e r a c t i o n in c u r r e n t m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s in e m o tio n a l, s e x u a l, and 0 0 s o c i a l b e h a v io r . w Problem s in i n t e r a c t i o n may be c o v e rt o r o v e r t , based upon A ckerm an's th r e e r u b r i c s . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f e m o tio n a l problem s i s c o n s id e re d c o v e rt and sy m b o lic; s e x u a l problem s a r e c o n s id e re d b o th c o v e rt and o v e r t ; and s o c i a l problem s a re c o n s id e re d o v e r t , stem ming from com m unication. 20 N athan W. Ackerman, The Psychodynam ics o f Fam ily L if e (New Y ork: B a sic Books, I n c . , 1958), p. 138-143. 21I b i d . , p. 139. 20 In te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e . - - In t h i s p ap e r, th e o p era t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n r e f e r s to th e c o u n s e lo r 's use o f time w ith h i s c l i e n t s and to h i s ch o ice o f in d iv id u a l se ssio n s f o r ea ch , c o n jo in t in te r v ie w s , and co n fe re n c e s w ith o th e r fam ily members. The term in te rv ie w i s d e fin e d as p ro v id in g an o p p o rtu n ity to t a l k over q u e s tio n s o r problem s w ith a w e l l - t r a i n e d and u n d e rsta n d in g p e rso n , su g g ested by the P h ila d e lp h ia M arriage C ouncil f o l d e r . ^2 a.s e x p la in e d by H artm an: In te rv ie w in g , w hether i t i s form al or in fo rm a l, s tr u c tu r e d or u n s tr u c tu r e d , always in v o lv e s a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een two o r more people and th e su c c e ss o r f a i l u r e o f th e in te rv ie w depends on how p o s i t i v e l y th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e s e people i s form ed.^3 M arriage c o u n s e lin g .--T h e re a re alm ost as many d e f i n i t i o n s of m arriag e c o u n s e lin g as th e re a re m arriage c o u n s e lo rs , b u t upon ex am in atio n c e r t a i n b a s ic fundam entals seem to be in agreem ent. Skidmore s t a t e s t h a t m arriag e c o u n se lin g i s an a r t whereby a tr a in e d person a s s i s t s o th e rs w ith c o u r ts h ip , 22 See Appendix B. 23 Henry L. Hartman, Techniques in In te rv ie w in g (T oledo, Ohio: The U n iv e r s ity of Toledo P re s s , 1962), p. 1. 21 m a r i t a l , o r fa m ily problem s to u n d e rs ta n d th e m se lv e s and t o grow in ways such t h a t th e y w i l l be a b le more a d e q u a te ly A / t o a c h ie v e m ature l i v i n g . He c o n tin u e s : In a p r o f e s s io n a l s e n s e , m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g i s th e p ro c e s s o f a t r a i n e d c o u n s e lo r h e lp in g p e rs o n s , c o u p le s , o r f a m ilie s to h e lp th e m selv es in making p la n s and s o lv in g problem s about c o u r t s h ip , m a rria g e o r th e fa m ily . O r d i n a r ily , th r e e a s p e c ts o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g a re c o n s id e re d : p r e m a r i t a l , in v o lv in g c o u r ts h i p pro b lem s; m a r i t a l , r e l a t e d to husband and w ife s i t u a t i o n s ; and fam i l y , w hich in c lu d e s th e p a r e n t - c h i l d c o n s t e l l a t i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n s . ^5 S te w a rt e x p l a i n s : M arriag e c o u n s e lin g i s a p ro c e ss where a c o u n s e lo r h e lp s p e rs o n s , c o u p le s o r f a m il ie s to make p la n s and to s o lv e problem s i n 3? e a s o f c o u r t s h ip , m a rria g e and fa m ily r e l a t i o n s . 1 6 E a r l i e r d e f i n i t i o n s , r e f l e c t i n g a t tim e s a p a r t i c u l a r fo c u s , in c lu d e s ta te m e n ts o f agreem ent in d e f i n i t i o n : G ladys G aylord d e f in e s i t as . . . a p ro c e s s in which a t r a i n e d c o u n s e lo r h e lp s p e rs o n s , c o u p le s , o r f a m ilie s to h e lp 24 Skidm ore, e t a l . , op. c i t ., pp. 11-13. 25 Rex A. Skidm ore, " F a c to rs i n M a r it a l Problem s and R ole o f th e S o c ia l Worker in M arriag e C o u n s e lin g ,” P ro ceed in g s o f M a r it a l C o u n selin g W orkshop. Sponsored by M innesota D epartm ent o f P u b lic W elfare and N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f Men t a l H e a lth , M in n e a p o lis, J a n u a ry , 1962 (B e th e sd a , M d.: U. S. P u b lic H e a lth S e r v ic e , 1962), pp. 7 -1 2 . ^ C h a r l e s W illia m S te w a rt, M arriag e C o u n selin g (New Y ork: Abingdon P re s s , 1961), p. 21. 22 th em selv es in making p la n s and s o lv in g problem s about c o u r ts h ip , m a rriag e and th e f a m ily .27 The N a tio n a l C o u n cil on Fam ily R e la tio n s and th e Am erican A s s o c ia tio n o f M arriage C o u n selo rs ag ree on th e f o llo w in g : M arriage c o u n s e lin g i s reg ard ed as a s p e c i a l iz e d f i e l d o f fam ily c o u n s e lin g c e n te r in g la r g e ly on th e in and w ife . Mudd h as in c lu d e d s e v e r a l o th e r d e f i n i t i o n s of m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g which a re v a lu a b le . Dr. R o b ert L aid - law , in 1950, s t a t e d : M arriage c o u n s e lin g i s a form o f s h o r t- te r m psy ch o th erap y d e a lin g w ith in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h ip s in which problem s r e l a t i n g to m a rria g e a re th e c e n t r a l f a c t o r . The f i e l d i s su b d iv id ed in to p r e m a r ita l and p o s tm a r ita l c o u n s e lin g .^9 Dr. F re d e r ic k A. A lle n , d e s c rib e d m a rria g e coun s e l i n g as . . . a m a tte r o f " g e ttin g to g e th e r on a d e c is io n " which in term s o f m a rria g e may mean e i t h e r to s ta y to g e th e r o r to s e p a r a te . M arriage c o u n s e lin g can h e lp a couple work th ro u g h to a new q u a l ity in fam ily l i v i n g on th e b a s is o f ^ G la d y s G aylord, '*Marriage C o unseling in W artim e," A nnals o f th e American Academy o f P o l i t i c a l and S o c ia l S c ie n c e , Septem ber, 1943, p. 39. 28 Skidm ore, e t a l . . op. c i t . . p. 8. ^Mudd, op. c i t . . p. 206. te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een husband 23 g e t t i n g to g e th e r on m utual concerns and f in d in g out what th e y r e a l l y want to d o .^ 0 Dr. 0. Spurgeon E n g lish s a id : M arriage c o u n s e lin g sta n d s in an a n c i l l a r y r e l a t i o n to p s y c h ia tr y ; i t i s somewhat dependent upon i t and y e t c o n tr ib u te s a g r e a t d e a l t o psy c h i a t r i c work. I t a ls o f i l l s a v e ry im p o rta n t m e n tal hy g ien e fu n c tio n in th e community. . . . I t i s in c e r t a i n r e s p e c ts a s p e c ia l f i e l d and r e q u ir e s a s p e c ia l p r e p a r a t i o n .31 J a n e t Fow ler N e ls o n 's d e f i n i t i o n seems to summar iz e ad m irab ly . She s t a t e s : M arriage c o u n s e lin g , b oth m a r i t a l and p r e m a r i t a l , i s c o n s id e re d a s p e c ia liz e d f i e l d o f fa m ily c o u n s e lin g , concerned w ith th e i n t e r p e r so n a l r e l a t i o n s o f th e two p a r t n e r s , in which th e c l i e n t i s aid ed to a s e lf-d e te rm in e d r e s o l u t i o n o f h i s problem . Today, m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g i s g e n e r a lly ac ce p ted as a p s y c h o s o c io lo g ic a lly o r ie n te d p ro c e ss w ith em phasis upon th e i n t e r a c t i o n and in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een two people w ith th e m a rriag e c o u n s e lo r tr a in e d in a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n e d approach. Problem s, C o m p lain ts. --T h ese term s a re d e fin e d in t h i s stu d y as sta te m e n ts made by th e c l i e n t s r e f e r r i n g t o -^ I b i d . , p. 206. 32I b i d . , p. 207. 31Ib id . , p. 207. 24 s it u a ti o n s and o th e r p e rso n s, in te r a c ti o n s between them se lv e s and t h e i r m ates, and in n e r - d ir e c te d or p sy c h o lo g i c a lly in d iv id u a l m a n ife s ta tio n s which d is tu rb e d them and which th ey co n sid ered to be problems and which th e y com p la in e d about d u rin g th e m arriage c o u n selin g s e s s io n s . Although th e re is aw areness, as Karpf p o in ts o u t, th a t o r i g i n a l or p re s e n tin g problems and com plaints d e sc rib e d by 33 th e c l i e n t s are o fte n not th e b a s ic problem , th e focus in t h i s study i s on th e q u a n t ita tiv e enum eration o f th e tim es such problems a re m entioned in co u n se lin g se ssio n s and are l i s t e d or mentioned by th e co u n se lo r in h is case p r o to c a ls . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of th e problems in to s i t u a t i o n a l , i n t e r a c tio n a l, and p sy c h o lo g ic a l is based upon c o n s id e ra tio n of th e s o c ia l f a c to r s o f th e m a r ita l r e l a t i o n s h i p , th e i n t e r a c tio n f a c t o r s , and th e p e r s o n a lity s tr u c tu r e s of the in d iv id u a ls P sy ch o lo g ical Problem s. - - I n t h i s stu d y , psycho lo g ic a l problems r e f e r to sta te m e n ts made by th e c l i e n t s 33 Maurice J . K arpf, "Some Guiding P rin c ip le s in M arriage C o u n selin g ," M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g . X III (May, 1951), 49-55. <1/ V ic to r E is e n s te in ( e d . ) , N eu ro tic I n te r a c tio n in M arriage (New York: B asic Books, I n c ., 1961), p. 264. 25 d is c u s s in g s p e c if ic p e rs o n a lity problems of s e l f o r o f m ate, ex clu d in g i n te r a c ti o n between them or re f e re n c e to o th e rs th an th e one in d iv i d u a l's b e h a v io r and m a n ife sta - tio n s of th e p a r t i c u l a r problem. Based upon Coleman s 36 and W olberg's suggested c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , th e judges ana lyzed sta te m e n ts and ranked them in o rd er from m ild to s e v e re p sy c h o lo g ic a l d is tu rb a n c e s w hich, alth o u g h d ir e c te d to th e in d iv id u a l p e rs o n a lity s tr u c t u r e , were th e source of th e problems in th e m arriag e. S itu a t io n a l problem s. - -Kane 1s d e f i n i t i o n of s i t u a t i o n as in flu e n c e s o u tsid e of o n e s e lf which impinge upon an in d iv id u a l i s accepted in t h i s p ap er, although h i s l i s t of s o c io lo g ic a l f a c to r s as e d u c a tio n , r e l i g i o n , income, re s id e n c e , and e th n ic background a re not adhered to in th e 37 o p e r a tio n a l concept used. A ccording to Kane, s i t u a t i o n a l problems may be not only o v ert in n a tu re b u t a ls o c o v e rt. 3 5 James Coleman, Abnormal Psychology and Modern L ife (New York: S c o tt, Foresman and Company, 1950), pp. 160-457. 36 Lewis R. Wolberg, The Technique o f Psychotherapy (New York: B asic Books, I n c ., 1959), pp. 597-641. 37john j . Kane, S o c ia l Problems: A S itu a t io n a l - Value Approach (Englewood C l i f f s , N .J .: P re n tic e - H a ll, 1962). 26 The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s i t u a t i o n a l problem s i s d iv id e d in to c o v e rt a t t i t u d i n a l s i t u a t i o n s ; o v e rt b e h a v io r c r e a tin g s i t u a t i o n s ; economic s i t u a t i o n s and s i t u a t i o n s in v o lv in g o th e r p e o p le , and c a u sin g problem s in th e m a rria g e . S t a t e ments a re c o n s id e re d to be in th e realm o f s i t u a t i o n a l problem s when th e y a re n o t an a c tiv e p a r t o f th e dy ad ic i n t e r a c t i o n , n o r a p a r t o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l s e l f - r e f e r e n c e . T ec h n iq u es. --T h is term d e s ig n a te s a l l sta te m e n ts an aly zed by ju d g es to r e f e r to th e tr e a t m e n t , method o f c o u n s e lin g , o r p s y c h o lo g ic a l to o ls used by th e c o u n s e lo r. W o l b e r g 's , ^ G e h r k e 's , ^ M u d d 's,4 ^ Skidm ore1 s ,4 ^ and y O P o r t e r 's d ia g n o s tic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f tre a tm e n t methods a re m odified to c a te g o r iz e th e methods re v e a le d in s t a t e ments o r r e f e r e n c e s o f th e c o u n s e lo r which d e s c r ib e what th e y were doing w ith in th e c o u n s e lin g s i t u a t i o n . R a tio n a le ^^W oiherg, op. c i t . , pp. 250-257; 523-547. 39 S h irle y Gehrke and James Moxom, " D ia g n o stic C la s s i f i c a t i o n and T reatm ent T echniques in M a r ita l C o u n s e lin g ," Fam ily P ro c e s s . X (Septem ber, 1962), 260-264. 4 ^Skidm ore, e t a l . , op. c i t . , pp. 256-267. 41Mudd, op. c i t . , p. 201. 4 ^E. H. P o r te r , J r . , An I n tr o d u c tio n t o T h e ra p e u tic C o u n selin g (B oston: Houghton M if f lin C o ., 1950), pp. 201- 205. 27 f o r th e use o f d e s c r i p t i v e term s s e le c te d i s p re s e n te d in Appendix D. O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e Remainder o f th e D i s s e r t a t i o n C h ap ter I I rev iew s th e r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e in fo u r p a r t s . The f i r s t p a r t c o n s is ts o f a c h ro n o lo g ic a l h i s t o r i c a l r e p o r t o f th e p io n e e r e f f o r t s tow ard e s t a b l i s h i n g th e d i s c i p l i n ^ o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g . The second p a r t d e a ls w ith th e v a * ie d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g as an a d ju n c tiv e p ro c e ss and th e e f f o r t tow ard s ta n d a r d iz a tio n t o p r o f e s s ib n a liz e th e d i s c i p l i n e . The t h i r d s e c tio n a t tem p ts to i n t e g r a t e t h e o r e t i c a l assum ptions th ro u g h exam i n a t i o n o f th e g o a ls and fo cu s o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g , and th e f o u r th s e c tio n p r e s e n ts e m p iric a l s tu d ie s in th e f i e l d o f m a rria g e problem s. C h ap ter I I I d e s c r ib e s th e r a t i o n a l e f o r th e h y p o th e s e s and th e method o f c o l l e c t i n g and c o l l a t i n g th e d a ta . A lso in c lu d e d i s th e d e s c r i p t i o n and background of th e th re e sample c l i n i c s and th e s e l e c t i o n o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e coun s e l o r s . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system s a re e x p la in e d and th e developm ent o f s c a le te c h n iq u e s d e s c rib e d . C h ap ter IV r e p o r ts th e s t a t i s t i c a l fin d in g s o f th e stu d y . Each h y p o th e s is i s su p p o rte d or r e j e c t e d by ap p ro - 2 8 p r i a t e s t a t i s t i c a l p ro c e d u re s . These a re d e s c r ib e d and r e p o r te d in t h i s c h a p te r . The b ackground and s o c i a l f a c t o r s o f th e s u b je c ts a re a l s o g iv e n . C h a p te r V g iv e s an o v e r a l l s ta te m e n t o f th e s tu d y and o f f e r s some s u g g e s tio n s f o r a p p l i c a t i o n tow ard f u r t h e r s t u d i e s . CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The p re s e n t c h a p te r h as th e fo llo w in g o b je c ti v e s : (1) a summary o f th e c h r o n o lo g ic a l h i s t o r y o f p io n e e r e f f o r t s in th e f i e l d of m a rriag e and fam ily c o u n s e lin g ; i (2) a r e p o r t on r e c e n t approaches to m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g and th e a tte m p ts t o e s t a b l i s h m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g as a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p r o fe s s io n and d i s c i p l i n e ; (3) an atte m p t to i n t e g r a t e e x p l i c i t and im p lied t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s id e r a tio n s th ro u g h th e ex a m in a tio n of g o a ls , f u n c tio n s , and p ro c e s se s o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g as s ta te d by m a rriag e c o u n s e lo r s ; and (4) a r e p o r t on s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h p r o je c ts on a s p e c t o f m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g . P io n ee r C o n trib u tio n s to M arriage C ounseling The chronology which le d to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s w i l l d em o n strate th e growth o f t h i s em erging p r o f e s s io n . T his chronology w i l l be 29 30 p re s e n te d in fo u r p e rio d s o f tim e : th e f i r s t p e rio d w i l l co v er th e years from 1850 t o 1919; th e second p e rio d from 1920 to 1929; th e t h i r d p e rio d from 1930 to 1939; and th e fo u rth p e rio d from 1940 t o 1950. M arriage c o u n s e lin g o f a s o r t h a s always ta k e n p la c e . As long as f a m ilie s have e x i s t e d , problem s have e x i s t e d . Groves r e p o rte d t h a t H indu w r itin g s showed th a t th e r e was concern about th e fa m ily and t h a t th e u s e fu ln e s s o f m a r it a l c o u n s e l was re c o g n iz e d .^ Both th e Old and New T estam ents m ention c o u n s e lin g a id . P roverbs 11:14 s t a t e s , "Where no c o u n se l i s , peo p le f a l l : b u t in th e m u ltitu d e o f c o u n s e llo r s th e r e i s s a f e t y , " and S t. P a u l, in th e e a r ly C h r is t ia n E ra , endeavored t o sa fe g u a rd th e fam ily and a c te d in th e r o l e o f an a u t h o r i t a t i v e c o u n s e lo r. L a te r L u th e r, Swedenborg, and o th e rs gave in d iv id u a l c o u n se l to 2 many r e g a rd in g m a r it a l and fam ily problem s. M arriage c o u n s e lin g was u s u a lly an in fo rm a l v o lu n t a r y a c t i v i t y . Only w ith in th e p a s t few decades h as th e r e ^■Ernest R. G roves, "A Decade o f M arriage C o u n sel in g ," A nnals o f th e American Academy o f P o l i t i c a l and S o c ia l S c ie n c e , November, 1940, p. 72. ^Rex A. Skidm ore, H ulda G a r r e t t , and C. Jay Skidm ore, M arriage C o n su ltin g (New York: H arper and B ro s ., 1956), pp. 14-16. 31 b een any r e a l movement to w ard a p r o f e s s io n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g w hich in c lu d e d t r a i n e d p e rs o n n e l w ith s p e c i a l s k i l l s , s ta n d a r d s , and e t h i c a l r u l e s o f c o n d u c t. I t b egan 3 i n Europe and in th e U n ite d S t a t e s a t ab o u t th e same tim e . F i r s t p e r io d . 1850-1919. —As e a r l y a s 1850 th e r e w ere a few g e n e r a l p r i v a t e a g e n c ie s p ro v id in g m a r i t a l and fa m ily h e lp in A m erica. In th e u n i v e r s i t i e s th e f i r s t c o u rs e on th e fa m ily was ta u g h t by D r. C h a rle s R. H enderson a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C hicago in 1893. D u rin g th e e a r l y 1 9 0 0 's t h r e e n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s w ere form ed. F i r s t , in 1909 th e N a ti o n a l Com m ittee o f M en tal H ygiene was o rg a n iz e d t o fo c u s upon m e n ta l i l l n e s s and t r e a tm e n t . T h is l a t e r became th e N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n f o r M ental H e a lth . Second was The Fam ily W e lfa re A s s o c ia t i o n o f A m erica, s t a r t e d i n 1911 t o prom ote th e e s t a b l i s h ment o f fa m ily s e r v i c e s . By 1936 t h i s g ro u p , known a s The F am ily S e rv ic e A s s o c ia tio n o f A m erica, em phasized a p sy c h o l o g i c a l ap p ro ach in h e lp in g w ith p e r s o n a l, m a r i t a l , and fa m ily p ro b lem s. The t h i r d was The A m erican S o c ia l H ygiene ■^Ibid. , pp. 1 4-26; Em ily H. Mudd, The P r a c t i c e o f M a rria g e C o u n se lin g (New Y ork: A s s o c ia tio n P r e s s , 1 9 5 1 ), pp. 1-72. 32 A s s o c ia tio n , which began i n 1914. A program in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g was d ev elo p ed b u t i t was l a t e r d is c o n tin u e d , and th e o r i g i n a l em phasis upon v e n e r e a l d is e a s e c o n t r o l and sex e d u c a tio n was m a in ta in e d . P r o v is io n f o r fa m ily tre a tm e n t u n d er c o u r t j u r i s d i c t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d by 1910. A D om estic R e la tio n s D iv is io n o f th e C ity C ourt of B u ff a lo , New Y ork, was th e f i r s t t o h a n d le c r im in a l m a tte rs r e l a t i n g t o th e fa m ily . C i n c i n n a t i , O hio, fo llo w ed t h i s example in 1914. In 1924 a C ourt of D om estic R e la tio n s f o r Lucas County was e s t a b l i s h e d in T o led o , Ohio, which a tte m p te d to r e h a b i l i t a t e b ro k en f a m ilie s as w e ll as to g u id e and p r o t e c t th e c h i l d re n . The id e a became more f u l l y d ev elo p ed in 1938 when a m a rria g e c o u n s e lo r was a p p o in te d t o be a tta c h e d t o th e co u rt and t h i s com prehensive p la n became known as th e Fam ily C ourt C e n te r. In E urope, Mangus H ir s c h f e ld e s t a b l i s h e d in 1919 th e B e r lin I n s t i t u t e f o r th e Study o f Sex. I t s main fu n c t i o n was to se rv e a s a c o n s u l t a t i o n c e n te r f o r a d v ic e and g u id an ce f o r p r e m a r ita l c o u p le s . In sum m ation, w ith in t h i s span o f tim e o f 1850 to 1919, t h r e e n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s were o rg a n iz e d in America t o p ro v id e tr e a tm e n t f o r m e n ta l i l l n e s s , v e n e r e a l d is e a s e , 33 and p e r s o n a l, m a r i t a l , and fam ily problem s. The f i r s t c o u rse on th e fam ily was ta u g h t a t one o f th e u n i v e r s i t i e s , and dom estic r e l a t i o n s d iv is io n s in th e c o u r ts were e s t a b lis h e d which p rovided th e im petus f o r th e l a t e r e s t a b l i s h ment o f a m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g s e r v ic e in th e fa m ily c o u r ts . In E urope, B e r lin opened i t s f i r s t c o n s u lta t io n c e n te r f o r guidance to p r e m a r ita l c o u p le s. Second p e r io d . 1920-1929. ^ —The p io n e e r s tu d ie s o f K a th e rin e B. D avis (1 9 2 1 ), G ilb e r t H am ilton (1928) and H a rt and S h ie ld s (1926)-* were th e f i r s t t o in v e s t i g a t e fi s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s w ith in m a rria g e s. B efore th e s e in v e s t i g a t i o n s a p p e ared , most o f th e s c i e n t i f i c stu d y and S la rv e y J . Locke, P re d ic tin g A djustm ent in M a rri age (New York: Henry H olt and Company, 1951); M arie E, Kopp, "The Development of M arriage C o n s u lta tio n C e n ters as a New F ie ld o f S o c ia l M e d icin e ," American J o u rn a l o f O b s te tr ic s and G ynecology, J u ly , 1933, p. 123; R alph P. Bridgm an, "Guidance f o r M arriage and Fam ily L i f e , " Annals o f th e American Academy o f P o l i t i c a l and S o c ia l S c ie n c e . March, 1932, pp. 144-164. ^Because of th e g r e a t numbers o f a u th o rs whose w r i tin g s are m entioned in t h i s s e c tio n o f th e c h a p te r , in d iv id u a l books and a r t i c l e s a re n o t f u l l y c i t e d h e r e . A f u l l docum entation o f th e books and a r t i c l e s may be found in th e b ib lio g ra p h y . g D ata were c o l le c te d a t th e s e d a te s b u t p u b lic a tio n o f them was a t a l a t e r d a te . 34 r e s e a r c h on th e fa m ily had been d i r e c t e d t o th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a s p e c ts o f m a rria g e and th e fa m ily . In th e f i e l d o f c o u n s e lin g s e r v i c e s , p a r a l l e l movements co ncerned w ith th e eu g e n ic a s p e c ts o f m a rria g e were e v id e n t in Am erica and in E urope. In A m erica th e P lanned P arenthood F e d e ra tio n o f Am erica was o rg a n iz e d in 1921 t o h e lp c o n t r o l th e s iz e o f f a m i l i e s . In Europe th e E h e b e r a tu n g s te lle , under th e d i r e c t i o n o f D r. K a rl K autsky, was opened in V ienna in 1922 t o fo c u s upon m e d ic a l and eu g e n ic problem s in m a rria g e . Leagues f o r S ex u al H ygiene e s t a b l i s h e d m a rria g e c o n s u l t a t i o n c e n te r s in Germany, A u s tr ia , Denmark, and Sweden. By 1923 t h e r e w ere m a rria g e c o n s u l t a t i o n c e n te r s in Dortmund and D resden, and th e M a trim o n ia l A dvice B ureau was s t a r t e d in V ienna. At th e tim e t h a t th e f i r s t o f f i c i a l m a rria g e c o n s u l t a t i o n c e n te r in Z u ric h , S w itz e rla n d , was e s t a b l i s h e d in 1929, a s im ila r s p e c i f i c m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c e n te r was opened in A m erica by D r. Abraham and D r. Hannah S tone in th e Community Church o f New York. P r e m a r ita l c o u n s e lin g and th e p h y s ic a l a s p e c ts o f m a rria g e were th e m ajor em phases. C o u n selin g s e r v ic e s d i r e c t e d t o th e n eed s o f c o l le g e s tu d e n ts on compus began d u rin g t h i s decade w ith th e opening in 1925 o f th e M ental H ygiene S e rv ic e a t Y ale 35 U n iv e rs ity under th e d i r e c t i o n o f Dr. A rth u r R uggles. Dr. A rth u r L. B eeley d ir e c te d a s im ila r s e rv ic e c a lle d th e Bureau o f Student C ounsel a t th e U n iv e rs ity of Utah in 1927. M arriage c o u n se lin g was added to t h i s s e rv ic e by 1947. Dr. Henry Bowman a ls o e s ta b lis h e d s tu d e n t c o u n s e l ing a t Stephens C ollege in 1934, and in 1937 P en n sy lv an ia S ta te C ollege co n tin u ed t h i s tr e n d . In 1929, th e Rosenwald Fund o f Chicago in v ite d tw enty n a t io n a l r e p r e s e n ta ti v e p r o fe s s io n a ls to d is c u s s th e need f o r m arriag e and fam ily c o n s u lta tio n c e n te r s and to p ro v id e s e rv ic e s in sex e d u c a tio n , c h ild c a r e , home management, and community r e l a t i o n s . I t has been shown th a t between th e y e a rs of 1920 and 1929 re s e a rc h s tu d ie s on f a c to r s w ith in m a rria g e s, r a t h e r th a n em phasis upon m arriage as an i n s t i t u t i o n , were begun. Eugenic a s p e c ts o f m arriage were em phasized d u rin g t h i s p e rio d and a few m arriage c o u n se lin g c e n te r s were fu n c tio n in g b o th in America and in Europe. The American c o lle g e campus was p ro v id in g c o u n se lin g s e rv ic e s and th e f i r s t n a tio n a l m eeting was c a lle d t o survey th e need f o r p ro v id in g more m arriage and fam ily c o n s u lta tio n c e n te r s . T hird p e rio d , 1930-1939. - - I n America a number of p r iv a te m arriage c o u n s e lin g c e n te r s began to a p p e a r. In Los Angeles th e American I n s t i t u t e o f Fam ily R e la tio n s , under th e d i r e c t i o n o f Dr. Paul Popenoe, opened in 1930 w ith i t s main purpose to p ro v id e p r e m a rita l and m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g . In 1931, in Ohio, th e C leveland M atern al H e a lth A s s o c ia tio n was opened f o r p r e m a rita l c o u n s e lin g . The M arriage C ouncil of P h ila d e lp h ia , P en n sy lv a n ia , under th e d i r e c t i o n o f Emily Mudd, opened in 1932 to focus on m a r ita l and fam ily problem s. By 1936 th e J o u rn a l o f S o c ia l Hygiene r e p o r te d th ir ty - tw o s p e c i f i c a l l y o rie n te d m arriag e c o u n se lin g c l i n i c s fu n c tio n in g in th e U nited S t a t e s . At t h i s same tim e , two hundred m a rriag e ad v ice c l i n i c s empha s iz in g m edical f a c to r s were in o p e ra tio n in Germany. R esearch s tu d ie s co n tin u ed in th e i n v e s tig a tio n of f a c t o r s c o n tr ib u tin g to m a r ita l ad ju stm en t and h ap p in ess in m a rriag e . The fo llo w in g people c o n trib u te d s i g n i f i c a n t s tu d ie s w ith in t h i s em phasis: Bernard (1933), Burgess and C o t t r e l l (1939), Terman, e t a l . (1938), K ir k p a tr ic k (1 9 3 7 ), W illiam s (1938), and K elly (1939). O ther in v e s tig a to r s were beg in n in g to g e th e r evidence on s t r e s s and c o n f l i c t w ith in a d ju s te d and m a la d ju ste d f a m ilie s . A ngell (1936), Cavan and Ranck (1938) worked in t h i s a re a . T his ty p e o f 37 in v e s tig a tio n co n tin u ed through 1940 and 1950 and w ith s i g n i f i c a n t c o n tr ib u tio n s from M irra Komarovsky (1940), E a rl Koos (1946), and Reuben H i l l (1949). O ther p r o f e s s io n a l groups began to c o n tr ib u te to th e f i e l d of m arriag e and th e fa m ily . Knowledge from th e m edical f i e l d which was a p p lic a b le to th e stu d y of m arriag e and th e fam ily was provided by D ickinson (1931), DeWees (1 9 3 8 ), and Stone and Stone (1939). T his ty p e of c o n t r i b u tio n co n tin u ed w ith th e w r itin g s o f Dr. M aurice Levine (1 9 4 3 ), Dr. H elen D eutsch (1945), and Dr. W alter S tokes (1948). John Bradway (1938), and l a t e r Paul A lexander (1948), made c o n tr ib u tio n s from th e le g a l p ro fe s s io n . A c o n c i l i a t i o n c o u rt as a b ran ch o f th e S u p e rio r Court of C a lif o r n i a was e s ta b lis h e d in 1939, and one o f i t s purposes was to p ro v id e tr a in e d m arriag e c o u n s e lo rs in h e lp in g to p re se rv e m a rria g e s. Ten y e a rs l a t e r , th e S ta te of W ashing to n in a u g u ra ted t h i s ty p e o f c o u r t. Textbooks on th e fam ily and m arriag e were r e le a s e d by W aller (1938) and Baber (1939). E rn e st R. Groves o ffe re d th e f i r s t e d u c a tio n fo r m arriag e co u rse on th e cam pus a t th e U n iv e rsity o f N orth C a ro lin a (1934). In 1938, th e N a tio n a l C ouncil on Fam ily R e la tio n s 38 and th e Bureau of M arriage Counsel and E ducation in New York were o rg an ized . In summary of th e 1930 p e rio d , th e re was an i n c re a s in g number of m arriage c o u n selin g c e n te rs opening in both America and in Europe. The em phasis in re s e a rc h con tin u e d in th e d ir e c tio n of d is c o v e rin g f a c to r s w ith in mar ria g e s and fa m ilie s which produced m a r ita l s a t i s f a c t i o n s or c o n f l i c t s . P h y sic ia n s, law yers, and u n iv e r s ity f a c u lty members were c o n trib u tin g to th e growing knowledge on th e fam ily and m arriag e. C o n c ilia tio n c o u rts began d u rin g t h i s decade, and th e N a tio n a l C ouncil on Family R e la tio n s was o rg a n iz e d . F ourth p e rio d , 1940-1950. --No longer p io n e e rin g , but c o n trib u tin g s i g n i f i c a n t l y and p r o l i f i c a l l y to th e f i e l d of m arriage and th e fam ily , re s e a rc h continued in th e in v e s tig a tio n of adjustm ent and m aladjustm ent in m arriag e. S tu d ies by Winch (1941), Judson T. Landis (1946), Locke (1951),^ and Terman and Oden (1947) re-em phasized th a t re s e a rc h on b a s ic f a c to r s w ith in m arriage was p ro d u c tiv e . ^Locke did h is re s e a rc h in 1944, alth o u g h h is m a te r ia l was not re le a s e d in book form u n t i l 1951. 39 D uring t h i s decade, te x tb o o k s on fam ily l i f e and m a rria g e , and books w r i t t e n fo r th e g e n e ra l p u b lic on th e s e s u b je c ts , were p u b lish e d . Some o f th e c o n tr ib u to r s w ere: Groves (1941), Becker and H i l l (1942), Bowman (1942), Folsom (1 9 4 3 ), P aul L andis (1945), Nimkoff (1947), B urgess and Locke (1 9 4 5 ), D uvall and H i l l (1945), Judson and Mary L andis (1 9 4 8 ), and B ossard (1948). G o ld s te in (1945) brought th e p a s to r a l v iew point to th e f i e l d o f m arriag e c o u n se lin g in th e 1 9 4 0 's. L a te r Wood (1950) and H iltn e r (1953) and o th e rs made s im ila r c o n t r ib u tio n s . The p sy c h o lo g ic a l view on m arriage c o u n s e l in g was em phasized by Adams (1946) and N elson (1947). Ware (1940), Berkow itz (1948), and H o llis (1949) shared th e casew ork approach to m arriag e c o u n se lin g from th e f i e l d of s o c ia l work. K in se y 's r e p o r t in 1948 had s i g n i f i c a n t impact upon m arriag e c o u n se lin g w ith i t s focus upon th e se x u a l r e l a tio n s h ip and e x p e c ta tio n s o f men and women. In 1948 John Cuber w rote one o f th e f i r s t books d e s c r ib in g m arriag e c o u n se lin g as a s p e c if ic d i s c i p l i n e . The o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e American A s s o c ia tio n of M arriage C o u n selo rs, in 1942, brought n a t io n a l r e c o g n itio n to th e f i e l d o f m a rriag e co u n se lin g as a p ro fe s s io n . Dur- 40 in g t h i s same p e r io d , th e London M arriage G uidance C e n te r was opened to work f o r good fa m ily l i f e and to f o s t e r s u c c e s s f u l m a rria g e and p a re n th o o d . By 1947, t h i s c e n te r became known a s th e N a tio n a l Guidance C o u n c il and c o o r d i n a te d th e whole p o lic y o f m a rria g e g uidance in E ngland. M eanwhile, in A m erica, a n n u a l n a t i o n a l c o n fe re n c e s on fa m ily l i v i n g were in tro d u c e d . The f i r s t o f th e s e was th e Groves C onference on th e C o n s e rv a tio n o f M arriage and th e Fam ily a t C hapel H i l l , N o rth C a r o lin a , in 1942, and in 1944 th e P e n n sy lv a n ia S ta te C o lleg e Annual I n s t i t u t e on M arriage and Home A djustm ent was h e ld . In summary o f th e p e rio d from 1940 t o 1950, i t h a s been shown t h a t r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and p u b lic a t i o n s c o n tin u e d to add to th e knowledge o f m a rria g e and th e fa m ily . C o n trib u tio n s from s o c i o l o g i s t s , m i n i s t e r s , p s y c h o lo g is ts , and s o c i a l w o rk ers r e f l e c t e d th e m u l t i d i s c i p lin e d approach t o t h i s f i e l d . K in s e y 's r e s e a r c h was a ls o a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n . D uring th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e d ec ad e , th e f i r s t book on m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g as a s p e c i f i c p r o f e s s io n , was p u b lis h e d . N a tio n a l c o n fe re n c e s on fa m ily l i f e w ere in tro d u c e d and, in 1942, th e Am erican A s s o c ia tio n o f M arriage C o u n selo rs and th e London M arriage G uidance C e n te r in Europe w ere o rg a n iz e d . R ecent C o n trib u tio n s to M arriage C ounseling From 1950 t o 1960 m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g began to emerge as a p r o f e s s io n . No lo n g e r r e l y i n g upon i t s s i s t e r f i e l d s t o d is c o v e r i t s i d e n t i t y , th e v a s t body o f knowledge c o n tr ib u te d from th e f i e l d s of a n th ro p o lo g y , p sychology, s o c i a l psychology, s o c io lo g y , p s y c h ia tr y , e d u c a tio n , law, m e d icin e, s o c i a l w ork, and th e m in is tr y were absorbed and in c lu d e d in academ ic c u r r i c u l a in th e f i e l d o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g and in th e s ta n d a rd s s e t by i t s p r o f e s s io n a l o r g a n iz a tio n s . However, m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g has n o t p ro duced i t s own t h e o r e t i c a l framework w ith th e n e c e ss a ry s c i e n t i f i c d a ta to v a l i d a t e i t . From 1945 to 1961 e le v e n books r e f e r r i n g to m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g by t i t l e can be found to r e p r e s e n t t h i s em erging p r o fe s s io n . They a r e : G o ld s te in 's M arriage and Fam ily C o u n selin g (1 9 4 5 ), C u b e r's M arriage C ounseling P r a c tic e (1948), Mudd's The P r a c tic e o f M arriage C o u n selin g (1 9 5 1 ), S k id m o re's M arriage C o n s u lt ing (1 9 5 6 ), S to n e 's M arriage C o u n selin g (1 9 5 6 ), M ace's M arriage C o unseling (1 9 5 8 ),' THe American A s s o c ia tio n o f M arriage C o u n s e lo r's M arriage C o unseling Casebook (1 9 5 8 ), W a llis and B o o k e r's M arriage C o u n selin g (1 9 5 8 ), H e rb e rt and J a r v i s ' A Modem Approach to M arriage C o u n selin g (1 9 5 9 ), 42 Joh n so n ’s M arriage C o u n selin g : Theory and P r a c tic e (1961), and S te w a r t's M arriage C ounseling (1 9 6 1 ). A lthough each o f th e s e books b rin g s a unique v iew p o in t and background, none o f them c o n trib u te to an i n t e g r a t i v e approach to th e u n d e r sta n d in g of m arriage c o u n s e lin g . To u n d erstan d b e t t e r m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g in i t s p re s e n t s t a t u s , an exam in atio n o f th e a tte m p ts to s ta n d a r d iz e g o a ls , em phases, and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s from o th e r coun s e lin g s e rv ic e s must be made. In o rd e r to ac ce p t m arriag e c o u n se lin g as a p r o fe s s io n , i t i s n e c e ss a ry to examine f i r s t th e concept of p ro fe s s io n a lis m . T his concept assumes c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which d i s t i n g u i s h p ro fe s s io n s from o th e r common o c c u p a tio n a l p u r s u i t s : 1. An i n t e l l e c t u a l b a s is f o r p r a c tic in g a sp e c ia liz e d a r t . 2. A r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r a c t i t i o n e r and c l i e n t which in v o lv e s t r u s t and accep tan ce o f a u th o r i t y on th e p a r t of th e c l i e n t . 3. The r o l e o f th e p r o f e s s io n a l a s s o c ia tio n as i t fu n c tio n s in r e l a t i o n to members of th e p ro f e s s io n and as a sou rce of a u th o r ity in form ing p u b lic p o lic y . 43 4. The e x is te n c e o f p r o f e s s io n a l codes o f e t h i c s d e d ic a tin g th e p r a c t i t i o n e r t o h i s a r t and th e p u b lic good. 5. In r e l a t i o n t o th e code o f p r o f e s s io n a l e t h i c s , th e d isav o w al o f p e rs o n a l p e c u n ia ry m o tiv es and Q th e avoid an ce o f co m m ercialism .0 C arr-S a u n d ers and W ilson in c lu d e t r a d i t i o n a l s t a t u s as a p a r t o f p r o fe s s io n a lis m , b u t add: W e have found t h a t th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l te c h n iq u e to th e o rd in a ry b u s in e s s of l i f e , a c q u ire d a s th e r e s u l t o f p ro longed and s p e c ia liz e d t r a i n i n g , i s th e c h i e f d is t in g u is h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e p r o f e s s i o n s .9 P erh ap s, as Lee S te in e r e x p la in s , th e growth of m arriag e c o u n s e lin g , b e fo re p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n o f s ta n d a rd s and t r a i n i n g , h a s p e rm itte d a ran g e o f p r a c t ic e under i t s t i t l e from o u tr ig h t charlatanism'*'® to th e c a r e f u l l y s tr u c t u r e d purposes of th e American A s s o c ia tio n o f M arriage C o u n se lo rs. Aaron R u tled g e a g re e s t h a t th e u n tr a in e d , Q J o e l B. M ontague, J r . , "M edicine and th e C oncepts o f P ro f e s s io n a lis m ," S o c io lo g ic a l I n q u ir y . XXXII, No. 2 (March, 1962), 45-50. Q A. M . C a rr-S a u n d ers and P. A. W ilson, The P ro fe s sio n s (London: C larendon P re s s , 1933), 485-491. l®Lee R. S t e i n e r , " F ig u re s on C h a rla ta n is m ," The American P s y c h o lo g is t, V I I I , No. 11 (November, 1953), 21. 44 n o n p r o fe s s io n a l who s e t s up p r a c t ic e as a m a rriag e c o u n s e l- 11 o r poses a r e a l problem . The is s u e i s f u r t h e r clouded by th e many q u a l i f i e d people who look upon m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g as a te c h n iq u e o r s k i l l which can be used in an a d ju n c tiv e c a p a c ity , r a t h e r th a n s e e in g i t as a p r o fe s s io n in which only q u a l i f i e d m a rria g e c o u n s e lo rs may p a r t i c i p a t e . The m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y ap p ro ach , a lth o u g h i n t e l l e c t u a l l y and a c a d e m ic a lly b ro ad en in g , seems to in c lu d e somewhat, i t s own o b so le sce n ce as a s e p a r a te p r o fe s s io n . Skidmore l i s t s th e so u rc e s f o r m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g s e r v ic e s used to d ay as f r ie n d s and r e l a t i v e s , p u b lic a d v i s e r s and mass m edia, clergym en, p h y s ic ia n s , n u r s e s , la w y e rs, e d u c a to rs , s o c i a l w o rk e rs, and p r o f e s s io n a l m ar r ia g e c o u n s e lo rs . P s y c h o lo g is ts and p s y c h i a t r i s t s a re a ls o c a lle d upon to c o u n s e l in m a r it a l r e l a t i o n s . He b e l ie v e s , how ever, t h a t th e in fo rm a l c o u n s e lin g o f f e r e d by f r ie n d s and r e l a t i v e s i s u s u a lly s u b je c ti v e ly - o r i e n te d and may 12 o f te n prove h a rm fu l. ■^Aaron L. R u tle d g e , "The F u tu re o f M arriage Coun s e l i n g , " The M e rrill-P a lm e r Q u a r te r ly , Summer, 1955. ■^Skidmore, e t a l . , op. c i t . . pp. 63-64. 45 O r d in a r ily a s in c e r e d e s i r e t o h e l p p e o p le i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o r e s u l t i n e f f e c t i v e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g . Sometimes th e am ateur may be h e l p f u l b u t many tim e s he o n ly c o m p lic a te s m a t t e r s , i n c r e a s in g problem s r a t h e r th a n h e l p i n g . 13 U n f o r tu n a te ly A m ericans a re r e l u c t a n t to " s e e k h e lp " u n t i l a problem becomes s e r i o u s . Our c u l t u r e 's em phasis upon s e l f - r e l i a n c e and in d iv id u a lis m te n d s t o p re c lu d e e a r l y c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith in d i v i d u a l s o r a g e n c ie s q u a l i f i e d to h e l p o th e r s in th e s o lv in g o f p e r s o n a l o r fa m ily p ro b lem s. One i n v e s t i g a t o r d is c o v e re d t h a t b a r te n d e r s a r e most f r e q u e n tly sought out by t r o u b le d p e o p l e . ^ P u b lic a d v is e r s who u se b r i e f a d v ic e te c h n iq u e s may p ro v id e a s u r f a c e ty p e o f s e r v i c e t o th e g e n e r a l p o p u la t i o n , b u t a r e n o t q u a l i f i e d u s u a lly t o m eet th e n eed s o f c o u p le s who must have p r o f e s s i o n a l h e lp in m a rria g e coun s e l i n g . The tim e and fo c u s needed t o e x p lo re th e dynam ics Rex A. Skidm ore, " F a c to r s in M a r it a l Problem s and R ole o f th e S o c ia l W orker i n M a rria g e C o u n s e lin g ," P ro c e e d in g s o f M a r it a l C o u n se lin g W orkshop, S ponsored by M in n e so ta D epartm ent o f P u b lic W e lfa re and N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M en tal H e a lth , M in n e a p o lis , J a n u a ry , 1962 (B e th e s - d a , M d.: U. S. P u b lic H e a lth S e r v ic e , 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 7 -1 2 . ^ J . D. Folkm an, "M a rria g e and F am ily P ro b le m s," P ro c e e d in g s o f M a r it a l C o u n s e lin g W orkshop. Sponsored by M in n e so ta D epartm ent o f P u b lic W e lfare and N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M ental H e a lth , M in n e a p o lis , J a n u a ry , 1962 (B e th e s- d a , M d.: U. S. P u b lic H e a lth S e r v ic e , 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 2 -3 . 46 o f b a s ic c o n f l i c t s w ith in th e m a rria g e r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n n o t be p ro v id e d th ro u g h mass m edia. As su g g e s te d by D u v a ll, Once upon a tim e t h e r e w ere s e l f - a p p o i n t e d c o u n s e lo r s in e v e ry h a m le t. They h e a rd a l l th e q u e s tio n s and knew a l l th e a n sw e rs. . . . B ut t h e i r m ethods no lo n g e r s ta n d up to d a y b e c a u se o f th e c o m p le x ity o f t o d a y 's problem s and d i f f i c u l t i e s . 15 The N a tio n a l C o n feren c e on F am ily R e la tio n s s t a t e s t h a t m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g i s an in e s c a p a b le f u n c tio n o f th e p a s to r s in c e he m a in ta in s s ta n d a r d s o f m a rr ia g e , a d m in is- 16 t e r s th e s a c ra m e n ts , i s c a l l e d d u rin g fa m ily c r i s i s . P a s t o r a l c o u n s e lin g h a s grown in p a r a l l e l developm ent to m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g in th e p a s t two d ec ad e s and o f te n o v e r la p s i n f u n c tio n . However, when we c o n s id e r th e b a s ic p rem ise o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g as " s y m p a th e tic a lly t r y i n g to h e lp i n d i v i d u a l s t o h e lp th e m se lv e s t o w ork out p ro b lem s, we may a c c e p t th e v a l u a b le s e r v ic e o f th e c l e r g y man b u t must r e a l i z e h i s l i m i t a t i o n s as a m a rria g e coun- ^ E v e ly n M i l l i s D u v a ll, B u ild in g Your M a rria g e . P u b lic A f f a i r s P am p h le ts, No. 113 (W ashington: Government P r i n t i n g O f f ic e , 1 9 5 9 ), p. 26. ^ S k id m o r e , e t a l . , op. c i t . , pp. 6 3 -6 4 . • ^ I b i d . , p. 64. 47 s e l o r in th e a f o r e s a id p r i n c i p l e . B ecause o f h i s p o s i t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y and c o n t r o l w ith h i s g o a l tow ard s p i r i t u a l s a l v a t i o n (which c o n ta in s v a lu e ju d g m e n ts), th e clergym an may e t h i c a l l y c o u n s e l b u t h i s g o a l would n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be th e same as th e p r o f e s s io n a l m a rria g e c o u n s e l o r 's g o a l, which i s m ain ly co n cern ed w ith th e c l i e n t ' s r a t i o n a l s e l f - d i r e c t i o n . The p h y s ic ia n , to o , i s o f te n p la c e d i n th e p o s i t i o n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lo r when he f u l f i l l s s t a t e re q u ire m e n ts f o r p r e m a r it a l h e a l t h c e r t i f i c a t i o n o r when p o st m a r i t a l m a la d ju stm e n ts produce symptoms o f p h y s ic a l d i s t r e s s . However, as D r. Kenneth Appel p o in ts o u t, "The d o c t o r s ' accustom ed ways o f th e ra p y a r e so d e f i n i t e l y c o n c r e te , a g g re s s iv e and a u t h o r i t a r i a n as to r e n d e r s e r v ic e s t h a t a re 18 I b i d . , pp. 6 3 -6 4 ; Simon D oniger ( e d . ) , Sex and R e lig io n Today (New Y ork: A s s o c ia tio n P r e s s , 1953); C a r r o l l A. W ise, P a s t o r a l C o u n selin g (New Y ork: H a rp e r and B r o s ., 1951); Andrew L. Wade and J o e l V. B errem an, "Are M in is te r s Q u a lif ie d f o r M a rriag e C o u n se lin g ? " S o cio lo g y and S o c ia l R e se a rc h , XXXIV, No. 2 (November-December, 1950), pp. 106- 112; L eland F o s te r Wood, "The T ra in in g o f M in is te r s f o r M arriag e and F am ily C o u n s e lin g ," M arriag e and F am ily L iv in g . X II, No. 2 (S p rin g , 1950), 4 6 ; Wayne E. O a te s, "The P a s to r as a M a rriag e C o u n s e llo r ," M arriag e and Fam ily L iv in g . XVII, No. 1 (F e b ru a ry , 1955), 6 4 -6 7 ; W o rc e ste r P e rk in s , "What C o n tr ib u tio n Should th e Clergym an Make to M arriag e C o u n sel- i n g ," M a rriag e and Fam ily L iv in g . XIV, No. 2 (May, 1952), 126; S ylvanus D u v a ll, "The M in is te r as M arriag e C o u n s e lo r," M arriag e and F am ily L iv in g . IX, No. 3 (A ugust, 1947), 63- 64. 48 awkward, i n e f f e c t i v e and a n y th in g b u t s u i t a b l e . " ^ K rausz ad d s: "A lthough th e d o c to r i s q u a l i f i e d and e x p e rie n c e d in h i s own f i e l d , r a r e l y i s he w e ll t r a i n e d in th e f i e l d o f 2 0 m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g ." Many tim e s a sy m p a th e tic n u rse i s c a l l e d upon to s h a re th e problem s a r i s i n g from c o n f l i c t s in a m a rria g e r e l a t i o n s h i p . Sometimes she may be th e o n ly o u ts i d e r who i s p e rm itte d to see th e s i t u a t i o n . However, she w i l l be lim ite d by th e la c k o f p r o f e s s io n a l t r a i n i n g in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g te c h n iq u e s which w i l l p re v e n t any a c t i v i t y o th e r th a n r e f e r r a l . The n u r s e ’ s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o s u c c e s s f u l fa m ily l i v i n g i s o f a s p e c i f i c n a tu r e and can be u s e f u l in aw areness o f fa m ily needs f o r m a r i t a l c o u n s e lin g and 21 community r e s o u r c e s f o r r e f e r r a l . The law yer in do m estic r e l a t i o n s c a s e s o f te n fin d s h im s e lf in th e p o s i t i o n o f b e in g a m a rria g e c o u n s e lo r, as ^M udd, op. c i t . . p. 205. ^^Erw in 0 . K rau sz, "The H iy s ic ia n in M arriag e and F am ily C o u n s e lin g ," M arriag e and Fam ily L iv in g . V I, No. 3 ( F a l l , 1944), 76. ^ % a t i o n a l C o u n c il on Fam ily R e l a t i o n s , "The N urse on C o u n selin g and E d u catio n f o r M a rria g e ," M arriage and F am ily L iv in g . V I, No. 4 ( F a l l , 1944), 75-76. 49 22 w e ll a s a l e g a l a d v i s e r . The law o f f i c e , how ever, should be th e im p o rta n t f o c a l p o in t f o r th e r e f e r r a l o f n o n le g a l fa m ily problem s t o th o s e who can do th e b e s t jo b w ith 23 them . The i n t e g r a t i o n o f law and c o u n s e lin g was p i o n e e re d by Judge P au l W. A lex an d er w ith th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e F am ily C ourt in T o le d o , Ohio. O n e -th ird o f th e sam ple f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h was o b ta in e d from t h i s s o u rc e . Judge A lex a n d er p o ses a b a s ic p h ilo s o p h y f o r th e S t a t e 's r e c o g n i t i o n o f i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o " t r e a t " s i c k m a rria g e s j u s t as i t does e m o tio n a lly d is t u r b e d j u v e n i l e s . He l i s t s th e f u n c tio n s o f th e fa m ily c o u r t a s : 1. J u d i c i a l a. A tte m p ts t o f in d th e f a c t s and a p p ly th e la w s . b . S a fe g u a rd s th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and l e g a l r i g h t s o f th e p a r t i e s co n c e rn e d . c . D ecid es th e c a s e . 2. T h e ra p e u tic a. To s e r v e , h e l p , h e a l , w ith em phasis upon p lilto n L. Grossm an, "M a rria g e C o u n s e llin g and th e L aw yer," Case and Comment, N ovem ber-Decem ber, 1954, p. 16. ^^Skidmore, e t a l . . op. c i t . , p. 125. 50 24 th e p re v e n tiv e r a t h e r th a n th e p u n itiv e . However, th e Fam ily C ourt u ses q u a l if i e d m arriage c o u n se lo rs on i t s s t a f f and re c o g n iz e s th e d iv is io n between th e p ro fe s s io n s o f law and m arriage c o u n se lin g toward p ro v id in g s e rv ic e s f o r m a rriag e s and f a m ilie s in need of c o u n se lin g and le g a l a id . In th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n , c o u rse s in p r e p a r a tio n fo r m arriage have provided a type o f p re v e n tiv e approach. T eachers in m arriage e d u c a tio n do have th e o p p o rtu n ity to encourage v a lu e s and u n d e rsta n d in g r e l a t e d to m arriage and fam ily l i f e . However, alth o u g h th e y can h e lp in d iv id u a ls through c o u n s e lin g , d e s ir e and i n t e r e s t w i l l not q u a lif y 25 te a c h e rs as p r o fe s s io n a l m arriage c o u n s e lo rs . Dr. Mudd says th a t e d u c a to rs are handicapped because o f th e s tr u c - 26 tu r e in which th ey fu n c tio n . S o c ia l work is a p r o f e s s io n a l s e rv ic e ren d ered to people fo r th e purpose of a s s i s t i n g them as in d iv id u a ls or ^ P a u l W. A lexander, "The Fam ily C ourt o f th e F u tu re ," J o u rn a l of th e American J u d ic a tu re S o c ie ty . A ugust, 1952, pp. 44-45; "Fam ily Cases Are D ifferen t--W h y Not Family C o u rts?" Kansas Law Review, O ctober, 1954, pp. 27-28. 25 ^Skidmore, e t a l . . op. c i t . . pp. 143-160. 26 Mudd, op. c i t . , pp. 29-35. 51 in groups to a t t a i n s a t i s f y i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s and s ta n d a rd s o f l i f e in accordance w ith t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r w ish es and in harmony w ith th o s e of th e community. A lthough s o c i a l w ork e r s h ave been d o ing fa m ily casew ork f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s, t h e i r i n t e r e s t in m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g developed p r i n c i p a l l y a f t e r 1930 and i s to d ay one o f s e v e r a l s p e c ia liz e d s e r v ic e s o f s o c i a l work. The s o c i a l w o rk e r, as th e m a rria g e coun s e l o r , works w ith in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , works w ith m a rria g e and th e fa m ily as a w hole, and i s a c q u a in te d w ith community re s o u r c e s and r e f e r r a l a g e n c ie s . M arriage and fam ily c o u n s e lin g i s an im p o rta n t a d ju n c t to t h i s f i e l d , b u t many s o c i a l w orkers have had no t r a i n i n g in s p e c i f i c m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g te c h n iq u e s , n o r a re th e y exposed to an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y approach. At th e p re s e n t tim e th e r e seems to be more r i v a l r y and le s s ac ce p tan c e o f th e s k i l l s o f o th e r s , such as s o c i o l o g i s t s , p s y c h o lo g is ts , p h y s ic ia n s , clergym en, home ec o n o m ists, g e n e t i c i s t s , and la w y e rs, a l l o f whom make im p o rta n t c o n t r ib u t io n s to th e growing body o f 27 knowledge in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g . The p s y c h o lo g is t h a s c o n trib u te d to m a rriag e coun s e l i n g , b u t has been tr a i n e d in th e p ro c e s se s o f in d iv id u a l 27 'Skidmore, e t a l . , op. c i t . , p. 162. 52 o r group p s y c h o th e ra p y r a t h e r th a n in th e fo c u s o f th e i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een m a te s. James Howard a s k s , "What i s i t t h a t th e p s y c h o lo g i s t s e e s in m a r i t a l c o u n s e lin g ? I s i t p eo p le w ith a p ro b lem m a rria g e o r a m a rria g e w ith problem p e o p le ? " 2 ® He rem in d s us t h a t most m a r i t a l c a s e s w hich come t o p s y c h o lo g i s t s a r e in a h ig h ly c r i t i c a l s t a t e and t h a t o f t e n th e em phasis i s on p e r s o n a l i t y problem s w ith in th e m a rria g e . He c o n c lu d e s : I d o n ’t know how we s h a l l p ro c e e d , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y , th e c u r r e n t s t a t e o f developm ent o f th e p s y c h o lo g is t i n m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g i s b ased upon r e f e r r a l s t h a t come i n as m a r i t a l c o u n s e lin g b u t a r e c o n c e rn e d w ith p o t e n t i a l l y s u i c i d a l , hom i c i d a l and e x tre m e ly d i s t u r b e d p e o p le . I d o n 't t h i n k y e t t h e r e h a s b een one c a s e in th e l a s t s i x m onths, a t l e a s t , w hich h a s in v o lv e d a problem o f th e m a r r i a g e .29 The e m o tio n a l problem s b ro u g h t to th e p s y c h i a t r i s t a r e o f te n r e l a t e d t o c o u r t s h i p , m a r i t a l , and fa m ily s i t u a t i o n s . Skidm ore p o in ts t o th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e p s y c h i a t r i s t as a m a rria g e c o u n s e lo r b ec a u se o f h i s tr e a tm e n t 30 fo c u s on one p e rso n and th e p r o h i b i t i v e c o s t s . James Howard, "The P s y c h o lo g is t S p e a k s ," P ro c e e d in g s o f M a r it a l C o u n s e lin g W orkshop, S ponsored by M in n e so ta D epartm ent o f P u b lic W e lfa re and N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f Men t a l H e a lth , M in n e a p o lis , J a n u a ry , 1962 (B e th e sd a , Md.: U .S. P u b lic H e a lth S e r v ic e , 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 14-15. 29i b i d . ^ S k id m o re , op. c i t . . p. 125. 53 A r e c e n t tr e n d i s th e growing f i e l d o f s o c i a l p s y c h ia tr y in which th e fam ily i s th e focus o f tr e a tm e n t. Ackerman and o th e rs in th e g e n e ra l f i e l d o f fa m ily th e ra p y 31 d e s c r ib e t h i s ap p ro ach , b u t, as D r. S. B ernard W o rtis , a p s y c h i a t r i s t , s t a t e s : . . . m a rria g e c o u n s e l c l i n i c s a re b e s t o rg an iz e d o u ts id e o f p s y c h ia tr ic i n s t i t u t i o n s , b u t may be u nder c lo s e s u p e rv is io n o f p s y c h i a t r i c a l l y tr a in e d p h y s ic ia n s . ^ To u n d e rsta n d m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g as a d i s t i n c t d i s c i p l i n e , th e American A s s o c ia tio n of M arriage C ounselors h a s s e t up sta n d a rd s and u n iv e r s i t y c u r r i c u l a a re in th e p ro c e ss o f p r e s e n tin g c o u rse s which w i l l meet th e s e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . In a d d i tio n , m a rriag e c l i n i c s a re s u g g e stin g t h a t t h e i r s ta n d a rd s be used as t r a i n i n g program s, and e x p e r ts in th e f i e l d a re adding t h e i r th in k in g . T his i n t e g r a t i v e approach may p ro v id e th e fo u n d a tio n f o r m arriag e c o u n s e lin g as a p ro fe s s io n . In 1948 a j o i n t com m ittee o f th e N a tio n a l C o u n cil on Fam ily R e la tio n s and th e American A s s o c ia tio n o f M a rri age C o u n selo rs ac ce p ted th e ta s k o f d e f in in g sta n d a rd s f o r ^ ^Nathan W . Ackerman, The Psychodynamics o f Fam ily L ife (New York: B asic Books, I n c . , 1958), pp. 304-315. "^Mudd, op. c i t . , p. 8. 54 q u a l i f i e d m a rria g e c o u n s e lo r s , and su g g e s t th e fo llo w in g : M a rriag e c o u n s e lin g i s h e r e re g a rd e d as a s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d o f fa m ily c o u n s e lin g w hich c e n t e r s l a r g e l y on th e i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een husband and w if e . I t in v o lv e s many d i s c i p l i n e s and i s i n t e r - p r o f e s s i o n a l in c h a r a c t e r . Those who w ish t o e n t e r t h i s f i e l d , how ever, w h e th e r p h y s ic ia n , cle rg y m a n , p s y c h i a t r i s t o r s o c i a l w o rk e r, r e q u i r e a common body o f s c i e n t i f i c know ledge, te c h n iq u e s and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . S ta n d a rd s f o r a c c e p ta b le and re c o g n iz e d m ar r i a g e c o u n s e lo r s a r e h e r e w ith p r e s e n te d in te rm s o f : 1. Academic t r a i n i n g . 2. P r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e rie n c e and q u a l i f i c a - t i o n s . 3. P e r s o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . 1. Academic T r a in in g : (a ) E very m a rria g e c o u n s e lo r s h a l l have a g r a d u a te o r p r o f e s s i o n a l d e g re e from an approved i n s t i t u t i o n as a minimum q u a l i f i c a t i o n . T h is d e g re e s h a l l be i n one o f th e f o llo w in g f i e l d s : E duca t i o n , Home E conom ics, Law, M e d icin e , N u rs in g , P sy ch o lo g y , R e lig i o n , S o c ia l A n th ro p o lo g y , S o c ia l Work, S o c io lo g y . (b) W hatever th e f i e l d o f m ajo r e m p h a sis, t h e r e s h a l l be in c lu d e d a c c r e d it e d t r a i n i n g i n : Psychology o f p e r s o n a l i t y d ev elo p m en t; E lem ents o f p s y c h ia tr y ; Human b io lo g y : sex anatom y, p h y s io lo g y , and g e n e t i c s ; S o c io lo g y o f m a rria g e and th e f a m ily ; C o u n se lin g te c h n iq u e s . 2 . P r o f e s s io n a l E x p e rie n c e : ( a ) The c a n d id a te s h a l l h av e had a t l e a s t th r e e y e a r s o f re c o g n iz e d p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e rie n c e s u b s e q u en t t o o b ta in in g h i s d e g r e e , and s h a l l have had a c t u a l e x p e rie n c e as a c l i n i c a l a s s i s t a n t in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g u n d er approved s u p e r v is io n . (b) H is q u a l i f i c a t i o n s s h a l l in c lu d e : (1 ) D ia g n o s tic s k i l l 55 in d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g between th e s u p e r f i c i a l and th e deeper le v e l ty p e s of m a la d ju s t m ent, and th e a b i l i t y t o re c o g n iz e when th e l a t t e r ty p e r e q u ir e s r e f e r r a l to o th e r s p e c i a l i s t s ; (2) A s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e tow ard in d iv id u a l v a r i a t i o n and d e v ia tio n , . . . and th e a b i l i t y to d is c u s s sex problem s o b je c tiv e ly . 3. P e rso n a l Q u a li f ic a ti o n s : (2) The c a n d id a te s h a l l p o ssess p e rso n a l and p r o fe s s io n a l i n t e g r i t y in accordance w ith accep ted e t h i c a l s ta n d a rd s ; (b) The c a n d id a te s h a l l have an a t t i t u d e o f i n t e r e s t , warmth, and k in d n ess toward p e o p le, combined w ith a h ig h degree o f i n te g r a tio n and em o tio n al m a tu rity ; (c) The p e rso n a l ex p e rien ce o f m arriag e and parenthood i s a decided a s s e t .^3 R e ce n tly a survey was s e n t to le a d in g c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s o f f e r in g programs in m arriage c o u n s e lin g , as w e ll as to th r e e w ell-know n m arriag e c o u n se lin g c l i n i c s , ask in g th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s : 1. Do you have a g ra d u a te program le a d in g to a degree w ith a m ajor in M arriage C ounseling? 2. Do you have a g ra d u a te program le a d in g to a d egree w ith a m ajor in one of th e b e h a v io ra l sc ie n c e s and a m inor in M arriage C ounseling? 3. Do you have a g ra d u a te co u rse or c o u rse s in OO "M arriage C o u n se lin g ," M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g , X I, No. 4 (W inter, 1949), 5 -6 . 56 in M arriage C ounseling o ffe re d on an e l e c t iv e b a s is? 4. Do you have a g rad u ate cou rse or co u rses in su b je c t m a tte r o f which M arriage Counseling is a p a rt? 5. Do you have a S o c ia l Work cu rricu lu m in which s p e c if ic co u rses in M arriage C ounseling are included? 6. Do you have a s p e c if ic M arriage C ounseling c u r ricu lu m in S o c ia l Work? I t was found th a t fo u rte e n per cen t of th o se con ta c te d were o f fe rin g programs w ith a major in M arriage C ounseling: Brigham Young U n iv e rs ity ; Teachers C o lleg e, Columbia U n iv e rs ity ; th e U n iv e rsity of S outhern C a lif o r n ia ; th e U n iv e rsity of P ennsylvania; Purdue U n iv e rs ity ; F lo rid a S ta te U n iv e rs ity ; and Boston C o lleg e. Degrees given were M aster of A rts , M aster of S o c ia l Work, B achelor o f S o c ia l Work, D octor of Science in E du catio n , D octor of P hilosophy, D octor of M edicine, and Advanced C urriculum C e r t i f i c a t e . The departm ents in which th ey were given included Home and Family L ife E ducation, E ducation, Human Development and Family R e la tio n s , S ociology, School of S o c ia l Work, Psy chology, C hild W elfare, E d u catio n al Psychology, and Home 57 Economics. I t was concluded th a t a g re a t v a r ie ty e x i s t s in th e r e l a t i v e l y sm all number o f programs o f fe re d , but t h a t a common core of course work does seem to e x i s t . I t was a ls o n o te d , however, t h a t co u rse s in g e n e tic s , p h y s ic a l and psy c h o lo g ic a l m edicine, sexology, and fam ily casew ork were n / poorly re p re s e n te d . Advanced or s p e c ia liz e d tr a in i n g in m arriage coun s e lin g a t o th e r th a n u n iv e r s ity s e ttin g s i s a v a ila b le a t th e fo llo w in g p la c e s : 1. American I n s t i t u t e o f Family R e la tio n s , Los A ngeles, C a lif o rn ia . 2. M arriage C ouncil o f P h ila d e lp h ia , P h ila d e lp h ia , P ennsylvania. 3. Menninger F oundation, Topeka, Kansas. 4. M e rrill-P a lm e r School, D e tr o it, M ichigan. Minimum sta n d a rd s s e t by th e se m arriage c l i n i c s are as fo llo w s: American I n s t i t u t e of Family R e la tio n s : M.A. degrees in Psychology, S ociology, E du catio n , S o c ia l Work, B.D. and LL.B. ■^Gerhard Neubeck, "Academic Programs in M arriage C o u n selin g ," M arriage and Family L iv in g . X X III, No. 23 (August, 1961), 276-278. 58’ M arriage C ouncil o f P h ila d e lp h ia : G raduate d eg ree s and s ix m onth's su p e rv ise d t r a i n i n g . Menninger F o undation: Ph.D. in Psychology o r M.A. in S o c ia l Work p lu s th r e e y e a rs in a c tu a l c o u n s e lin g , e q u iv a le n t to advanced d o c to r a l d egree in Theology, S o cio lo g y , C h ild Developm ent, Fam ily R e la tio n s h ip s . M e rill-P a lm e r S chool: A ccepts s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d in g ra d u a te sch o o ls o r in d iv id u a ls e s ta b lis h e d in a p r o fe s s io n . As Skidmore s t a t e s : The p ro fe s s io n o f m arriag e c o u n s e lin g w i l l d e pend n o t only upon c l e a r l y d e fin e d s ta n d a rd s , b u t upon le g a l r e c o g n itio n , p ro g re s s iv e u n iv e r s i t y c u r ric u lu m developm ent, re s e a rc h program s, a c tiv e p ro f e s s i o n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s and improved p u b lic r e l a t io n s . 35 To attem p t m eaningful r e s e a r c h in m a rriag e c o u n s e l in g , a framework must be p ro v id ed . The ex am in atio n o f th e f u n c tio n s , g o a ls , and purposes o f m arriag e c o u n se lin g as d e s c rib e d by m arriag e c o u n s e lo rs w i l l su g g est th e t h e o r e t i c a l em phasis a t th e p re s e n t tim e. T h e o r e tic a l C o n sid e ra tio n s A lthough th e re i s agreem ent in th e ac ce p tan c e o f m arriag e c o u n se lin g as a p ro cess fo c u sin g upon th e r e l a tio n s h ip and i n t e r a c t i o n between husband and w ife , th e r e ■^Skidmore, e t a l . » op. c i t . , pp. 381-393. 59 a re d if f e r e n c e s in th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e p ro c e s s . For exam ple, C h r is te n s e n speaks o f th e p ro c e s s o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g as fo c u s in g upon th e d e t a i l e d a p p l i c a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c in fo rm a tio n t o p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n a liz e d problem s w ith in an i n t e r a c t i v e s e t t i n g . Gehrke and Mwcom, on th e o th e r h an d , say t h a t th e p ro c e s s o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g fo c u se s upon th e m a rria g e r e l a t i o n s h i p r a t h e r th a n upon s p e c i f i c problem s. They in c lu d e each m a te 's t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y a d ju stm e n t as a p a r t o f t h i s p ro c e s s . To e x p la in t h i s in term s of i n t e r a c t i o n th e fo llo w in g fo rm u la i s su g g e s te d : A » Husband and h i s t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y a d ju stm e n t B = ■ W ife and h e r t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y a d ju stm e n t C “ The m a rria g e r e l a t i o n s h i p x * * R e s u lt o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f A and B w ith in C 37 and t h e i r e f f e c t upon each o th e r . S te w a rt d is c u s s e s m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g as a s o c i a l sy stem which in c lu d e s f a c t o r s o f th e i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a - •^^Harold T. C h r is te n s e n , M arriage A n a ly s is (New Y ork: The Ronald P re s s , 1950), p. 471. 3 7 S h ir le y Gehrke and James M>xom, " D ia g n o stic C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and T reatm en t T echniques in M a rita l C o u n sel in g ," Fam ily P ro c e s s , I (S eptem ber, 1962), 254-255. 60 t i o n s h i p . These f a c t o r s a re r i g h t s , d u t i e s , e x p e c t a t i o n s , and r o l e s . Based upon P a r s o n 's s o c i a l sy stem he d e f in e s th e c o u n s e lo r r o l e as p ro v id in g n o rm a tiv e p a t t e r n s . H is th e o ry i s i l l u s t r a t e d by a d iag ram : W l f e H e lp e r * * S eek er C o u n selo r . C l ie n t > „ <------------------ » S e e k e r « -------------------- > S o n D au g h te r The i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e s s i s a c h ie v e d by a two-way com m unication w hich he c a l l s " t e l e , " a te rm ta k e n from M oreno. The m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s i s se e n a s : (a ) h e lp in g i n d iv i d u a ls t o se e t h e i r own r o l e im ages in t h e i r e x p e c ta tio n s o f o th e r s as w e ll as o f th e m s e lv e s ; (b) h e l p in g them to see th e c o n f l i c t betw een t h e i r r o l e e x p e c ta t i o n s and a c t u a l b e h a v io r ; and (c ) d e v e lo p in g a l t e r n a t e ways to a d j u s t . The t h e o r e t i c a l em phasis i s based upon 38 r o l e th e o r y . The m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s i s sum m arized by Skidm ore as one w hich te n d s t o b r in g th e c l i e n t in c r e a s e d 38 C h a rle s W illia m S te w a r t, M a rriag e C o u n se lin g (New Y ork: Abingdon P re s s , 1961), pp. 26-40. u n d erstan d in g of h im s e lf, h is m arriage p a r tn e r , and th e members of th e fam ily in such a way th a t th e n eed s, g o a ls , v a lu e s , and o b je c tiv e s o f a l l are more ad e q u ate ly met. This process may in c lu d e : (1) s tre n g th e n in g m o tiv a tio n ; (2) allow ing v e n t i l a t i o n of f e e l in g s ; (3) g iv in g inform a ti o n ; (4) m odifying environm ent; (5) h e lp in g d e fin e s i t u a t i o n s ; (6) aid in making d e c is io n s ; (7) re o rg a n iz in g behav io r p a t te r n s ; and (8) f a c i l i t a t i n g r e f e r r a l . To achieve th e g o als of in c re a se d u n d e rsta n d in g , t h i s p ro cess cannot be s tr u c tu re d by a s e t number of in te rv ie w s e s s io n s . The number of co u n selin g s e s s io n s w i l l v a ry , depending e n t i r e l y on th e c l i e n t and h is problems and on th e e s ta b lis h e d 39 p o lic y of th e m arriage c l i n i c . C uber's d e s c r ip tio n of th e p ro cess of m arriage co u n selin g in c lu d es l i s t e n i n g , g iv in g th e c l i e n t inform ation, in t e r p r e t i n g , a s s i s t i n g in making im portant d e c is io n s , and m odifying to some e x te n t the o v e rt b eh av io r p a tte r n s o f th e c l i e n t . The fu n c tio n of m arriage c o u n selin g i s d e c is io n a l and d e f i n i t i o n a l , according to Cuber, and in c lu d e s ad v ice- g iv in g and th e r e o rg a n iz a tio n of behavior.^® •^Skidm ore, e t a l . pp. 227-235. ^ J o h n F. Cuber, "F unctions o f th e M arriage Coun s e l o r ," M arriage and Family L iv in g , V II, No. 4 (W inter, 1945), pp. 3-5. 62 In d e s c r ib in g th e g o a ls o f th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lo r , N arram ore s t a t e s t h a t th e p ro c e ss o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g sh o u ld in c lu d e h e lp f o r th e c l i e n t in th e e x p r e s s io n and r e l e a s e o f s tro n g f e e l i n g s ; a c c e p ta n c e o f th e f a c t t h a t a d ju stm e n ts in m a rria g e r e q u ir e tim e ; an u n d e rs ta n d in g of h im s e lf ; an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h i s m ate; an u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e c o u n s e lin g r e l a t i o n s h i p ; a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e r o l e each spouse assum es in m a rria g e ; t r a n s l a t i o n o f new u n d e rs ta n d in g in to a p p r o p r ia te a c tio n ; and m o tiv a tio n t o ward fo cu s on th e m a rria g e and tow ard u s e f u l and e n jo y a b le 41 a c tio n w ith th e m ate. A s im ila r o r i e n t a t i o n i s su g g e ste d by Mudd. In r e f e r e n c e to tre a tm e n t methods and in th e s t r u c t u r i n g of th e c l i e n t ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e agency, th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s w i l l in c lu d e th e e x p l o r a tio n o f c l i e n t ' s f e e l i n g s and b e h a v io r ; e x p lo r a tio n o f th e s i t u a t i o n o r problem ; sy m p a th e tic l i s t e n i n g ; r e a s s u ra n c e and a p p ro v a l; o f f e r i n g o f s u g g e s tio n s , a d v ic e , and p ro p o s a ls o f a c t i v i t y ; o f f e r i n g o f in fo rm a tio n and e d u c a tio n ; i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; and th e d is c u s s io n o f r e f e r r a l . / 1 Clyde M. N arram ore, The Psychology o f C o u n selin g (Grand R a p id s, M ich .: Zondervan P u b lis h in g H ouse, I9 6 0 ), Ch. I I . 63 Through e v a lu a tio n , th e c o u n s e lo r hopes to g iv e p s y c h o lo g ic a l su p p o rt and c l a r i f i c a t i o n t o a id in th e d e velopm ent of in c re a s e d i n s i g h t . The aims o f c o u n s e lin g a re su g g e ste d as g iv in g n e c e s s a ry su p p o rt to s tr e n g th e n m a rria g e s or t o fa c e s e p a r a tio n s w ith g r e a t e r m a tu r ity ; to h e lp c l i e n t s so lv e m a r i t a l problem s; to p re v e n t m a r it a l d i f f i c u l t i e s th ro u g h p r e m a r ita l c o u n s e lin g ; to enhance fa m ily s o l i d a r i t y and s a t i s f a c t i o n s th ro u g h fam ily l i f e e d u c a tio n and r e s e a r c h . The j o i n t in te rv ie w w ith both p a r tn e r s i s c o n s id e re d o f p o s s ib le th e r a p e u tic v a lu e , alth o u g h i t r e q u ir e s c o n s id e r a b le s k i l l , t a c t , and stam in a on th e p a r t o f th e c o u n s e lo r. The j o i n t in te rv ie w o f te n h e lp s each p a r tn e r see th e o th e r one o b je c ti v e ly because o f th e p r o te c tin g p re se n c e o f th e c o u n s e lo r ; i s h e l p f u l in d is t in g u is h i n g betw een r e a l i t y and f a n ta s y o f i n t e r a c t i o n ; and can s e t th e s ta g e f o r e a s i e r com m unication to be used l a t e r . ^ A ckerm an's d e f i n i t i o n o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c ts o f th e dynamics o f fam ily l i v i n g i s based upon s o c ia l p ro c e s s e s . T his may be e q u a lly a p p lic a b le to th e m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s . He e x p la in s : ^M udd, op. c i t . , pp. 189-201. 64 J u s t as p e r s o n a lity cannot be conceived in a s o c i a l vacuum, so a ls o s o c i a l p ro cess cannot be conceived in a p e r s o n a lity vacuum. S o c ia l p ro cess a b s tra c te d from th e b e h a v io r of people h as no m eaning. In o rd e r to e lu c id a te s o c ia l p ro cess b oth in s id e and o u ts id e th e fam ily group, th e i n d iv i d u a l’ s ad a p tiv e r e l a t i o n s to s i g n i f i c a n t sm a ll groups and to w ider s o c ie ty must be d e fin e d . S o c ia l a c tio n i s th e e x te n s io n o f mind in to o rgan ized p a tte r n s o f human r e l a t i o n s . . . . . . . The mind of th e in d iv id u a l a lre a d y con t a i n s a d e p o s it of s o c ia l ev e n ts reco rd ed out of th e p a s t. I t m eets each new s o c ia l s i t u a t i o n w ith b o th th e p e rc e p tio n s o f th e new ex p e rien ce and th e d e p o s its of th e o ld . The a c tio n which ensues i s a fu n c tio n of th e psychic in te r p la y o f p e rc e p tio n s c o n d itio n e d by p a st ex p e rien ce and th e new s i t u a t i o n . In th e i n t e r a c t i o n between in d iv id u a l and group th r e e le v e ls of phenomena are in v o lv e d : th e s t r u c t u r e of th e environm ent, in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , and th e i n t e r n a l o rg a n iz a tio n o f p e rso n a l i t y . These phenomena are o f te n in te r p r e t e d as d i s t i n c t p ro c e s s e s . They are in f a c t , however, f a c t s of a la r g e r u n i t , th e l i f e p ro cess i t s e l f . They encompass th e e x p re s s io n s of p e r s o n a lity w ith in a d e fin e d environm ent. They fu n c tio n t o g e th e r as in te rc o n n e c te d p a r ts of a feed -b ac k sy ste m .^2 In p re s e n tin g a guide f o r d a ta le a d in g to d iag n o s i s , c a te g o r ie s are provided fo r a s s e s s in g some of th e fo llo w in g : (1) th e p re s e n tin g problem , which may in c lu d e d is tu rb a n c e s w ith in an in d iv id u a l, in r e l a t i o n s h i p s , in f u n c tio n s , or in a s p e c ia l s i t u a t i o n o c c u rrin g in s id e or o u ts id e th e fam ily u n i t ; (2) id e n tif y in g d a ta (socioeconom ic / o Ackerman, op. c i t . , p. 52. 65 f a c t o r s ) ; (3) c u r r e n t f u n c tio n in g , w ith p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r ence t o th e c u r r e n t m a r it a l r e l a t i o n s h i p in c lu d in g d e s c r ip t i o n s o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n a l p ro c e ss betw een them; (4) p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e a s se ssm e n t; (5) d ev elo p m en tal h i s t o r y in c lu d in g p a s t problem s in r e l a t i o n to fam ily background 43 f a c t o r s , and p a s t i n t e r a c t i o n s in th e r e l a t i o n s h i p . Ackerman su g g e sts cognizance be ta k e n o f th e c o v e rt as w e ll as th e o v e rt m a n if e s ta tio n s o f c o n f l i c t in m a r it a l d is c o r d . He s u g g e sts t h a t th r e e d i s t i n c t , though o v e rla p ping le v e ls o f phenomena a re im p lic a te d : (1) th e p ro c e s se s o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , (2) th e p ro c e ss o f em o tio n a l i n t e g r a t i o n ; (3) th e in n e r p ro c e s s e s o f th e in d iv id u a l p s y c h e .^ Beatman a g r e e s , in d is c u s s in g th e tre a tm e n t p ro cess f o r m a r it a l d is c o r d , and su g g e sts th e th re e -d im e n s io n a l p ic tu r e o f casew ork tre a tm e n t tow ard th e i n t e g r a t i o n of (1) s o c i a l f a c t o r s and t h e i r im pact on p e rs o n a l and fam ily f u n c tio n in g , (2) th e p e r s o n a lity s t r u c t u r e of th e i n d iv i d u a l , and (3) th e i n t e r a c t i o n , e i t h e r as a re s o u rc e or as an impediment t o fam ily s t a b i l i t y . ^ ^ A ck erm an , op. c i t . , 138-154. ^ I b i d . , p. 281. 45 V ic to r W . E is e n s te i n , e d . , N e u ro tic I n t e r a c t i o n in M arriage (New York: B asic Books, I n c . , 1956), p. 264. 66 Summary and c o n c l u s i o n s .--F ro m th e f o r e g o in g , one m ust c o n c lu d e t h a t a lth o u g h t h e r e i s much ag reem ent among th e e x p e r t s in m a rria g e and f a m ily c o u n s e lin g , t h e r e i s no one t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew ork in w hich m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g f u n c t i o n s . A lth o u g h th e te rm , " p r o c e s s ," i s u s e d , i t i s d e s c r i p t i v e o n ly . We may sum m arize by s t a t i n g t h a t th e f o llo w in g t h e o r e t i c a l a s su m p tio n s have som etim es b een s t a t e d in d e t a i l , b u t a re o f t e n im p lie d in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g l i t e r a t u r e : 1. M a rria g e c o u n s e lin g i s b a se d upon th e a c c e p t ance o f c o n f l i c t as a n o rm al m a n i f e s t a t i o n . I t assum es t h a t c o n f l i c t w i l l r e s u l t when two o r more p e rs o n s a s s o c i a t e w ith each o th e r and a tte m p t t o i n t e g r a t e i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n to a new u n i t . P eo p le who m arry h av e c e r t a i n n eed s met th ro u g h m a r r ia g e , and as lo n g as th e s e n eed s a re m e t, th e m a rria g e can be s t a b l e even w ith ex trem e d e g re e s o f n e u r o s is in e i t h e r p a r t n e r . H ow ever, when so m eth in g u p s e ts t h i s b a la n c e , c o n f l i c t s r e s u l t . M a rria g e as th e b e g in n in g o f a fa m ily u n i t i s a v i t a l t e s t i n g 67 ground f o r a l l human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . ^ 2. M arriage c o u n s e lin g assumes t h a t to a d eg ree people a re a b le t o change t h e i r a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r. The p ro c e ss of such change can a r r iv e as o u tlin e d by Gehrke. a. The couple h as reac h ed an im passe in h av in g t r i e d many d i f f e r e n t ways o f h a n d lin g t h e i r p ro b lem s. b. They have come f o r c o u n s e lin g t o h e lp b re a k th ro u g h t h i s im passe. c. A t h i r d p erso n is n e c e s s a ry to a s s i s t in b r id g in g t h i s gap by e n a b lin g b alan ce d i n t e r a c t i o n th ro u g h m ean in g fu l communica t i o n tow ard in c re a s e d u n d e rsta n d in g of 47 th em selv es and t h e i r e f f e c t on each o th e r . Skidmore ag ree s when he says t h a t a sym p a t h e ti c t h i r d p e rso n , p o s s e s s in g c o u n s e lo r s k i l l s , can be of c o n s id e ra b le a s s is ta n c e A Q th ro u g h p erso n to p e rso n i n t e r a c t i o n . ° ^M udd, op. c i t . , p. 12. ^ G e h r k e , e t a l . » op. c i t . , pp. 254-255. 48 Skidmore, op. c i t . , pp. 186-201. 68 d. The fo cu s o f c o u n se lin g i s upon th e mar r ia g e r e l a t i o n s h i p i t s e l f r a t h e r th a n upon th e in d iv id u a ls who happen t o have m a r i t a l p ro b lem s. e . As q u ic k ly as i t i s f e a s i b l e , th e t h i r d perso n can be removed from th e i n t e g r a t i v e p ro c e s s . 3. The m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s , t h e r e f o r e , c o n ta in s th e elem ents o f one o r more p erso n s p re s e n tin g problem s stemming from ac u te or ch ro n ic c o n f l i c t to be sh ared w ith a s k i l l e d t h i r d p erso n who w i l l fo cu s upon th e r e l a t i o n s h ip and th ro u g h i n t e r a c t i o n , p ro v id e tre a tm e n t which w i l l h e lp t o modify a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r. A tte n tio n i s now d ir e c te d to a lim ite d number o f s c i e n t i f i c s tu d ie s d ir e c te d tow ard in v e s tig a tin g f a c t o r s in m a rriag e c a u sin g c o n f l i c t , and a few r e c e n t e f f o r t s tow ard th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e p ro c e ss o f m a rria g e coun s e lin g . R e la te d S c i e n t i f i c S tu d ie s Brim, F a i r c h i l d , and B o r g a t ta 's su rv ey on th e 69 r e l a t i o n s betw een tw e n ty -fiv e f a c to r - a n a ly z e d fam ily pro b lems was com piled from a sample o f fo u r hundred and f o r t y - e ig h t fam ily re sp o n d e n ts a c ro s s th e U nited S t a t e s , ta k e n from p a r t o f a stu d y made by th e U nited P re s b y te r ia n Church in 1959. The a n a ly s is showed f i f t e e n f a c t o r s d id d is c r im in a te in re g a rd t o no common v a r ia n c e or i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e problem s. T h is , th e y r e p o r t , was a d ra m a tic f in d in g , p a r t i c u l a r l y s in c e th e few c o n tr o ls and r e l a t i v e l y poor d e f i n i t i o n s of problem s were lim itin g f a c t o r s . The f iv e m ajor problem s in th e r e l a t i o n s h i p to f a m ilie s w ith h ig h problem c o n te n t and th o se w ith low problem c o n te n t w ere: (1) c h i ld r e a r i n g , (2) hu sb an d -w ife r e l a t i o n s , (3) s t y l e o f l i f e (socioeconom ic s t a t u s ) , (4) community a c t i v i t y , and (5) r e l i g i o n . The m ajor lim i t a t i o n s o f th e stu d y , th e y r e p o r t , were th e use o f th e s e lf - a d m in is te r e d r e s t r i c t e d check l i s t of problem s and th e o p p o rtu n ity fo r some t o o v e r - r e p o rt and o th e rs to deny. A lso , t h a t only f iv e background v a r ia b le s were u se d : (1) number o f c h i l d re n , (2) sex o f re sp o n d e n t, (3) r u r a l o r urban home, (4) a g e , and (5) e d u c a t i o n . ^ ^ O r v i l l e G. Brim, J r . , Roy W . F a i r c h i l d , and Edgar F. B o rg a tta , 'd e l a t i o n s between Fam ily Problem s,*1 M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g , X X III, No. 3 (A ugust, 1961), 219-226. 70 A. Joseph Brayshaw r e p o r ts on a th r e e - y e a r r e s e a r c h p r o je c t in England and W ales, a n a ly z in g more th a n tw en ty - f iv e tho u san d c a se s re c o rd e d by m a rriag e c o u n s e lo rs . In com paring p re s e n tin g symptoms b ro u g h t by c o u p le s who had been m arried f o r e ig h te e n y e a rs o r more w ith n ew ly -m arried c o u p le s , seven main co m p lain ts were compared:^® Newly M arried M arried 18 Y ears Problem ----------------------- ----------------------------- % Rank % Rank 1. Sex 40 1 15 4 2. L iv in g c o n d itio n s 24 2 7 6 3. P a r e n ta l in flu e n c e 22 3 9 5 4. I l l - h e a l t h 14 4 29 1 5. In co m p atab i1i t y 12 5 23 3 6. I n f i d e l i t y 6 6 26 2 7. Income 3 7 6 7 Brayshaw ran k s th e problem of income as number 7, but in a stu d y by F lo re n c e H o llis in 1949, f i n a n c i a l prob lems and money m a tte rs ranked f i r s t , w ith f i f t y p er c e n t o f Joseph Brayshaw, "M iddle-Aged M arriag e : I d e a l ism , R ealism and th e Search f o r M eaning," M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g , XXIV, No. 4 (November, 1962), 358-364. 71 th e sam ple r e p o r tin g t h i s as t h e i r b a s ic c o m p la in t. Her sample was random ly s e le c te d from one hundred f a m ilie s o f e le v e n fa m ily a g e n c i e s . S k i d m o r e ' s stu d y based on a c o lle g e campus sample in 1949 found t h a t problem s o f money w ere a ls o th e m ain c o m p la in t. In 1946, L andis i n v e s tig a te d a group o f e ig h t hundred and e ig h te e n p a r e n ts o f c o lle g e s tu d e n ts who r a te d th e fo llo w in g a r e a s as b e in g th e most d i f f i c u l t to work th ro u g h : s e x u a l a d ju s tm e n t, f in a n c e s , s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s , in - la w s , r e l i g i o n , la c k o f m utual f r i e n d s . ^ T h is c o n t r a s t in th e ra n k in g o f money problem s may be due t o th e d if f e r e n c e in th e y e a rs o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o r t o th e d if f e r e n c e in v a lu e s betw een England and A m erica. F a c to rs which have been found in m a rria g e a d j u s t ment s tu d i e s d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g a d ju stm e n t and m alad ju stm en t in m a rria g e may be in d i c a t i v e o f th e ty p e s o f problem s and c o m p la in ts b ro u g h t to m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s . B ur gess and C o t t r e l l l i s t e d f iv e f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g m a rria g e r e l a t i o n s h i p s : (1) c u l t u r a l background, (2) psychogenic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , (3) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c ia te d w ith s o c i a l ^ ^ F lo re n ce H o l l i s , Women in M a r ita l C o n f lic t (New Y ork: Fam ily S e rv ic e A s s o c ia tio n o f A m erica, 1949). ^^Skidmore, e t a l . , op. c i t . , pp. 341-345. 72 ty p e s ( r o l e s ) , (4) econom ic, and (5) re sp o n se a t t i t u d e s and p a t t e r n s . E leven a re a s were c o r r e l a t e d to u n h ap p in ess when s c a le d and w eighted tow ard ad ju stm en t o r m alad ju stm en t in m a r r ia g e : 1 . F in an ces 2. R e c re a tio n 3. R e lig io n 4. D em onstration o f a f f e c t i o n 5. F rie n d s 6 . In tim a te r e l a t i o n s h i p s 7. C aring fo r baby 8. T able manners 9. Convent i o n a l i t y 10. P hilosophy 11. I n - l a w s ^ In L o c k e 's stu d y , th e fo llo w in g item s d i f f e r e n t i a te d between th e h a p p ily -m a rrie d and th e d iv o rce d groups in th e c r i t e r i a o f s e rio u s m a r i t a l d i f f i c u l t i e s : 1. A f f e c tio n a l and sex r e l a t i o n s h i p s 2. Economic d i f f i c u l t i e s 53 E rn e st W . B urgess and Leonard S. C o t t r e l l , P re d i c t i n g Success o r F a ilu r e in M arriage (New York: P re n tic e H a ll , 1939). 73 3. S o c ia lly d isap p ro v ed b e h a v io r 4 . I n d i v i d u a l i s t i c b e h a v io r 5. M iscellan eo u s item s (in -la w i n t e r f e r e n c e , i l l h e a l t h , c o n s ta n t b ic k e rin g ) The u n d if f e r e n t i a t i n g item s w ere: d i f f e r e n t amusement i n t e r e s t s , r e l i g i o u s d if f e r e n c e s , and c r u e l t y to s t e p - c h i l - d r e n .^ Although th e se s tu d ie s r e v e a l f a c t o r s p e r tin e n t to th e u n d e rsta n d in g of th e m arriag e r e l a t i o n s h i p , s c i e n t i f i c s tu d ie s on th e a s p e c ts o f m arriag e c o u n se lin g are few er in number. Exam ination o f th e 1963 is s u e o f C u rren t S o c io lo g ic a l R esearch r e v e a ls one hundred and e ig h t p r o je c ts in p ro g re ss on m arriage and th e fa m ily , but only one study o th e r th an th e p re s e n t one i s l i s t e d as in v e s tig a tin g an a sp e c t o f m arriage c o u n s e lin g . A few o f th e t i t l e s o f m arriag e c o u n se lin g s tu d ie s done in th e p a st w i l l show b o th th e range and th e d is c r e t e q u a l ity of in v e s tig a tio n . In 1931, Hixenbaugh re p o r te d on an a n a ly s is of one hundred and one c a se s in th e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f m a r it a l ad ju stm en t ^S larv ey J . Locke, P r e d ic tin g A djustm ent in Mar r ia g e (New York: Henry H olt & C o ., 1951), pp. 75-76 ■ ^E linor Ryan H ixenbaugh, " R e c o n c ilia tio n o f M ari t a l M alad ju stm en t," S o c ia l F o rc e s . December, 1931, pp. 230-236. 74 In 1948, B erkow itz r e p o r te d on a casew ork approach tow ard tr e a tm e n t te c h n iq u e s . ^ In 1959, th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f a l c o h o l i c and n o n a lc o h o lic m ates was r e p o r te d by B u llo c k and Mudd. ^ In 1961, A ppel, e t a l . , and F ulcom er, e t a l . , r e p o r te d on th e u se o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g in u n i v e r s i t y 5 8 s e t t i n g s , and C a r r o l l , e t a l . , r e le a s e d a r e p o r t o f th e 59 p sy c h o th e ra p y o f m a r i t a l c o u p le s . 7 At th e p r e s e n t tim e , th e tr e n d tow ard fa m ily u n i t c o u n s e lin g i s b e in g r e s e a r c h e d , sp earh ead ed by Ackerman. The te c h n iq u e s used in v o lv e (1) th e psychodynam ic e v a lu a - Cfi J . B e rk o w itz, "An Approach t o th e T reatm ent o f M a r ita l D is c o r d ," J o u r n a l o f S o c ia l C asew ork. XXIX, No. 9 (November, 1948), 355-361. "^Sam uel B u llo c k and Em ily H. Mudd, "The I n t e r a c t i o n o f A lc o h o lic Husbands and t h e i r N o n a lc o h o lic Wives d u rin g C o u n s e lin g ," The A m erican J o u r n a l o f O r th o p s y c h ia tr y , XXIV ( J u ly , 1959). ■ *® K . E. A ppel, H. M. Goodwin, H. P. Wood, and E. L. A sk ren , " T ra in in g in P sy ch o th e ra p y : th e Use o f M arriage C o u n selin g in a U n iv e r s ity T eaching C l i n i c , " American J o u r n a l o f P s y c h ia tr y , CXVII (1 9 6 1 ), 709-711; David M. F ulcom er, S heldon Edelm an, and Edwin L ew is, " I n t e r d i s c i p lin a r y M arriag e C o u n selin g in a U n iv e r s ity C o u n selin g S e r v ic e ," M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g , XXIV (A ugust, 1961), 273-279. 59 Edward J . C a r r o l l , C. G lenn Cambor, Jay V. Leo p o ld , M iles D. M i l l e r , and W a lte r J . R e is , "P sy ch o th erap y o f M a r ita l C o u p le s ," Fam ily P r o c e s s , I I (M arch, 1963), 25-33. 75 t i o n by th e c l i n i c i a n ; (2 ) sp o n ta n eo u s e v a l u a t i o n o f i n t e r view e v e n ts by fa m ily gro u p v ie w in g own f ilm ; (3 ) i n t e r a c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s by th e B ales m ethod; (4) s p e c i a l s tu d y o f fa m ily i d e n t i t y and v a l u e s ; (5) s p e c i a l s tu d y o f a g re e m e n t, d is a g re e m e n t, and c o a l i t i o n i n fa m ily r e l a t i o n s ; (6) in v e s t i g a t i o n o f p r e ju d ic e and s c a p e g o a tin g ; and (7) r o l e o f th e t h e r a p i s t A p r e lim in a r y r e p o r t on a s tu d y i n p r o g r e s s a t th e p r e s e n t tim e h a s b een is s u e d by th e F am ily S e rv ic e A sso- c i a t i o n . In I960 a n a tio n -w id e o ne-day c e n su s o f a l l fa m ily a g e n c ie s was made. Two h u n d red and e ig h ty a g e n c ie s r e p o r te d on a t o t a l o f one th o u sa n d and e i g h t c a s e s . F iv e h u n d red and s e v e n ty -s e v e n c a s e s w ere fo llo w e d f o r one y e a r , o r u n t i l th e c a se was c lo s e d . I t was fo u n d , upon c o m p a ri son o f a p p l ic a n ts w ith th e g e n e r a l p o p u la tio n , t h a t th e c l i e n t s w ere a l i t t l e above th e a v e ra g e p o p u la tio n in ed u c a t i o n (sam p le: 1 2 .2 ; U n ited S t a t e s ; 1 0 .9 ) ; below a v e ra g e p o p u la tio n in income (sam p le: 63 p e r c e n t u n d er $ 6 ,0 0 0 ; ^^N athan W. Ackerman, F ra n c e s L. Beatm an, and San fo rd Sherm an, E x p lo rin g th e Base f o r F am ily T herapy (New Y ork: F am ily S e rv ic e A s s o c ia tio n o f A m erica, 1 9 6 1 ), p . 67. f t 1 D orothy Fahs B eck, P a tte r n s i n Use o f F am ily Agency S e r v i c e . F am ily S e rv ic e A s s o c ia tio n p a m p h le t, New Y ork, 1962, pp. 2 -2 6 . 76 U n ite d S t a t e s : 5 0 .4 p e r c e n t ) ; and above a v e ra g e i n u rb a n s e t t i n g s (sam p le: 91 p e r c e n t ; U n ite d S t a t e s : 52 p e r c e n t ) . The stu d y r e p o r t s t h a t th e m ain so u rc e o f r e f e r r a l s w ere fa m ily and f r i e n d s and t h a t th e a v e ra g e number o f i n t e r v iew s p e r c a se was 6 .7 . The p e rc e n ta g e and age o f c h i l d r e n l i v i n g in th e home w ere: Number and Age Sample U n ite d S t a t e s No c h i l d r e n 15.6 4 3 .1 Under s ix 4 8 .8 3 0 .5 Ages 6 t o 11 4 7 .5 3 0 .0 Ages 12 t o 17 4 0 .7 2 6 .3 The p e rc e n ta g e o f problem s and c o m p la in ts w e re : Problem P er Cent M a r it a l 4 5 .2 C h ild re n 3 1 .5 P s y c h o lo g ic a l 2 7 .4 ( a d u l t s ) Economic 3 8 .6 Employment 1 8 .0 V o c a tio n 1 1 .1 P h y s ic a l i l l n e s s 18.4 M en tal i l l n e s s 10.4 77 When com paring th e p r i n c i p a l problem as se en by th e c l i e n t and by th e c o u n s e lo r , th e fo llo w in g r e s u l t e d , by p e r c e n t Problem C l ie n t C ou n selo r M a r ita l problem s 29.5 23.6 Economic 18.7 7 .8 C h ild re n 9 .4 13.5 P e r s o n a lity 8.3 23.9 62 Em ily Mudd's c o n t r i b u t i o n th ro u g h h e r use o f 2,559 c o n s e c u tiv e c a se s in te rv ie w e d from 1936 th ro u g h 1949, and h e r p r e s e n ta ti o n o f s ix t e e n d e t a i l e d c a se s t u d i e s , was th e f i r s t r e c o r d o f th e p ro c e s s o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g as p r a c t i c e d . However, c a se stu d y approach does n o t p erm it r e p r o d u c ib le m ethodology. Some o f th e background f a c t o r s d e s c r ib in g th e c l i e n t p o p u la tio n w ere: 1. Sex 2. Age Frequency % Men 805 32 Women 1754 68 16-20 271 11 21-25 846 33 26-30 575 22 31-35 340 13 36-40 242 9 41 p lu s 246 10 62Ib id . 78 Frequency 3. R e lig io n 4. E ducation 5. M a rita l S ta tu s 6. No. Years M arriage 7. R e f e r r a l Sources P ro te s ta n t 1507 59 Jewish 634 25 C a th o lic 313 12 Unknown 72 3 O ther 33 1 Grammar 192 8 High School 1025 40 C ollege 1037 41 C ollege + 204 8 M arried 1514 59 S ep.-D iv. 64 3 One o r le s s 257 16 1 - 5 564 36 6 -10 332 21 11 p lu s 348 22 In d iv id u a l 884 34 P ro fe s s io n a l 492 20 A gencies 415 16 E ducation S er. O ther63 637 131 27 3 Mudd's study and th e r e s u l t i n g book gave a compre h e n siv e p ic tu r e of th e p r a c tic e of m arriage co u n selin g in a m arriage c o u n se lin g c l i n i c . C onclusion The purpose o f t h i s c h a p te r has been (1) th e p re s e n ta tio n of a c h ro n o lo g ic a l background of r e la te d f i e l d s 63Mudd, op. c i t . , pp. 73-86. 79 tow ard th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s ; (2) th e exam in atio n o f e f f o r t s tow ard th e emergence of m a rriag e c o u n se lin g as a p r o fe s s io n ; (3) th e a tte m p ts to in t e g r a t e t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c ts , w hether s ta te d o r im p lied as th e o ry , as a needed s te p in procedure t o produce m eaningful r e s e a r c h ; and (4) th e exam in atio n o f a few a v a ila b le s tu d ie s r e l a t e d to t h i s g e n e ra l f i e l d o f in q u iry . C o n trib u tio n s from r e l a t e d f i e l d s o f m arriag e and th e fam ily provided th e fo u n d a tio n fo r th e emergence o f m a rriag e c o u n se lin g as a p r o fe s s io n . The e s ta b lis h m e n t of p r iv a te m arriag e c l i n i c s , th e acadeimic c u rric u lu m provided in u n i v e r s i t i e s , th e sta n d a rd s s e t by th e p r o f e s s io n a l o r g a n iz a tio n f o r m arriag e c o u n s e lo rs , and acknowledgment of th e need f o r m arriag e c o u n s e lin g by o th e r co u n se lin g p ro fe s s io n s have c o n trib u te d to th e r e c o g n itio n o f m arriag e c o u n s e lin g as a unique d i s c i p l i n e . Agreement by m arriage c o u n se lo rs on th e p u rp o ses, aim s, and p ro ced u res o f th e m arriage c o u n s e lin g p ro cess p ro v id e s s p e c u la tiv e t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s , b u t th e i n t e g r a t i o n o f th e v a r ie d approaches and a h o l i s t i c type o f s c i e n t i f i c in v e s tig a tio n rem ains to be accom plished. The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s stu d y i s based on th e l i t e r - 80 a t u r e review ed and w i l l be e x p la in e d in C h a p te r I I I in th e developm ent o f th e h y p o th e s e s . CHAPTER I I I M ETHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY AN D SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE Development o f th e H ypotheses In th e su rv ey o f th e l i t e r a t u r e , th e a c c e p ta n c e o f ) m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g as a f i e l d c e n te r in g la r g e ly upon th e r e l a t i o n s h i p and i n t e r a c t i o n betw een husband and w ife was n o te d . T his sta te m e n t was is s u e d by th e N a tio n a l C o u n c il on F am ily R e la tio n s and th e American A s s o c ia tio n o f Mar r ia g e C o u n selo rs in 1 9 4 8 ,^ and, in d e f i n i t i o n , a c c e p te d by o 3 A Gehrke and Moxom, S te w a rt, and Skidm ore. Gehrke and ■ '" ’’M arriag e C o u n s e lin g ," M arriage and F am ily L iv in g , X I, No. 4 (W in te r, 1949), 5 -6 . ^ S h irle y Gehrke and James Moxom, " D ia g n o s tic C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and T reatm ent T echniques in M a r ita l C o u n sel in g ," Fam ily P r o c e s s , I (S eptem ber, 1962), 254-255. ^ C h a rles W illia m S te w a rt, M arriage C o u n selin g (New Y ork: Abingdon P r e s s , 1961), pp. 26-40. ^Rex A. Skidm ore, " F a c to rs in M a r ita l Problem s and R ole o f th e S o c ia l Worker in M arriage C o u n s e lin g ," P ro c eed in g s o f M a r ita l C o u n selin g W orkshop, Sponsored by M innesota 81 Moxom c o n tin u e th e d e s c r ip tio n by d e s c r ib in g th e m arriag e c o u n se lin g p ro cess as in c lu d in g th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f ac u te or ch ro n ic problems to a tr a in e d t h i r d p e rso n , b u t s t r e s s t h a t th e i n t e r a c t i o n between th e husband and w ife i s th e f o c a l p o in t fo r m arriag e c o u n s e lin g .^ C h ris te n s e n , how e v e r, s t a t e s t h a t th e m arriage c o u n s e lin g p ro c e ss d e a ls w ith p a r t i c u l a r p e rs o n a liz e d problem s w ith in an i n t e r a c t i v e s e t t i n g . ^ The q u e s tio n r a is e d by th e l i t e r a t u r e i s t h i s : " I s th e focus of th e m arriag e c o u n se lo r upon th e i n t e r a c t i o n a l p ro cess between th e husband and w ife o r upon th e problem s and co m p lain ts brought by th e m a r it a l p a i r to th e m arriag e c o u n se lo r? " To answer t h i s q u e s tio n , Ackerm an's su g g ested c a t e g o r ie s fo r th e d ia g n o s is of problem s in m a r ita l r e l a t i o n sh ip s was s e le c te d fo r in v e s tig a tio n . A ccording to Acker man, th e s e d ia g n o s tic c a te g o r ie s w i l l d e s c rib e u n d e rly in g dynamics o f su rfa c e problem s. For exam ple, a m a r ita l Departm ent o f P u b lic W elfare and N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M ental H e a lth , M in n eap o lis, Ja n u a ry , 1962 (B eth esd a, M d.: U. S. P u b lic H ea lth S e rv ic e , 1962), pp. 7-12. ^Gehrke and Moxom, op. c i t . , pp. 254-255. ^H arold T. C h ris te n s e n , M arriage A n aly sis (New York: The Ronald P re s s , 1950), p. 471. 83 problem may c o n c e rn s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s o c c u rr in g in s i d e o r o u ts id e th e fa m ily u n i t ; may in v o lv e c o n f l i c t w ith in th e i n t e r a c t i v e p ro c e s s e s b etw een h usband and w if e , o r may be an i n t r a p s y c h i c problem w i t h i n one i n d i v i d u a l w hich i s c a u s in g c o n f l i c t in th e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . ^ T h is com p re h e n s iv e d e s c r i p t i o n in c lu d e s th e fo c u s upon th e r e l a t i o n s h i p and i n t e r a c t i o n b etw een th e husband and w if e , and a l s o in c lu d e s s i t u a t i o n s and p e r s o n a l i t y problem s w hich must be fo cu se d upon a s w e ll . 1. Two ty p e s o f a n a ly s e s w i l l be made in t h i s stu d y in o rd e r t o f o rm u la te th e f i r s t h y p o th e s is . One ap p ro ac h w i l l se e k t o d e te rm in e w h e th e r ju d g e s ' r a n k in g s o f problem s w ith in th e c a t e g o r i e s o f s i t u a t i o n a l , i n t e r a c t i o n a l , and p s y c h o lo g ic a l f o r th e y e a rs o f 1940, 1950, and I960 a re in c o n c o rd a n c e . Twelve ty p e s o f problem s w i l l be c l a s s i f i e d w ith in th e s e th r e e m ain c a t e g o r i e s . I f t h e r e i s agreem ent among th e ju d g e s t h a t th e s e tw elv e problem s a r e c o n s i s t e n t l y ra n k e d w ith in th e t h r e e m ajor h e a d in g s f o r th e th r e e tim e p e r io d s , th e u se o f th e c a t e g o r i e s w i l l be s t a t i s t i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d . ^N athan W . Ackerman, The Psychodynam ics o f F am ily L if e (New Y ork: B a sic Books, I n c . , 1 9 5 8 ), pp. 304-315. 84 The second approach w i l l an a ly ze and compare th e ra n k in g s assig n e d by th e ju d g e s w ith ra n k in g s a s sig n e d th ro u g h frequency o f r e f e r e n c e i n th e c a se r e c o r d s . I f th e r e i s agreem ent, th e use o f o u ts id e r a t e r s f o r th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and ra n k in g o f problem s an aly zed from ca se re c o rd s w i l l be j u s t i f i e d . The f i r s t h y p o th e s is , t h e r e f o r e , i s proposed to i n v e s t i g a t e i f th e r e i s any change in c o u n s e lo r fo cu s in th e s e th r e e ty p e s o r c a te g o r ie s o f problem s betw een th e y e a rs o f 1940 and 1960. The h y p o th e s is w i l l assume no d if f e r e n c e in fo cu s w ith in th e s e c a te g o r ie s f o r th e s e tim e p e r io d s . T his h y p o th e s is w i l l d e f in e th e c a te g o r ie s o p e ra t i o n a l l y a s : s i t u a t i o n a l problem s, i n t e r a c t i o n a l problem s, and p s y c h o lo g ic a l problem s. 2. Brim, e t a l . , ^ Brayshaw,9 H o l l i s , ^ S kidm ore,"^ ^ O rv ille G. Brim, J r . , Roy W . F a i r c h i l d , and Edgar F. B o r g a tta , ’’R e la tio n s betw een Fam ily P ro b le m s,’’ M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g , X X III, No. 3 (A ugust, 1961), 219-226. ^A. Joseph Brayshaw, "M iddle-Aged M a rriag e : I d e a l ism , R ealism and th e S earch f o r M eaning," M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g . XXIV, No. 4 (November, 1962), 358-364. •^■^Florence H o l l i s , Women in M a r ita l C o n f lic t (New York: Fam ily S e rv ic e A s s o c ia tio n o f A m erica, 1949). l-4tex A. Skidm ore, H ulda G a r r e t t , and C. Jay S k id m ore, M arriage C o n s u ltin g (New York: H arper and B r o s . , 1956). 85 and L a n d i s ^ n st s p e c if ic problems as main co m p lain ts in m a r it a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Locke summarizes problems which 13 d i f f e r e n t i a t e h a p p ily m arried and d iv o rce d groups. The case re c o rd s in t h i s stu d y w i l l be analyzed beyond th e scope o f s p e c if ic problems and co m p lain ts brought to m arriag e c o u n se lin g c l i n i c s . To perm it a more com prehensive u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e r e l a t i v e im portance c o u n s e lo rs p la ce upon c l i e n t s ' problems and c o m p la in ts, o th e r a s p e c ts o f th e m arriage co u n se lin g p ro cess w i l l be in c lu d e d , such as th e approach c o u n se lo rs use in m eeting th e s e problems and th e tre a tm e n t te c h n iq u e s th ey apply to th e c a s e s . The p r o p o rtio n a l re c o rd in g o f th e s e th r e e c a t e g o rie s w i l l p re s e n t th e ty p e o f focus c o u n se lo rs em phasize in case re c o rd s and w i l l a ls o in c lu d e problems l i s t e d by m arriag e c o u n se lo rs in th e l i t e r a t u r e . The second h y p o th e s is w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , s t a t e th a t th e r e is no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e em phasis coun s e lo r s p la c e upon c l i e n t problem s compared to th e empha s i s p laced upon th e dynamics o f th e c o u n s e lo r - c lie n t r e l a tio n s h ip between th e y e a rs o f 1940 and 1960. ^ I n Skidmore, i b i d . ^ H a rv e y J . Locke, P re d ic tin g A djustm ent in Mar r ia g e (New York: Henry H o lt & Company, 1951). 86 3. The sta n d a rd s s e t by th e N a tio n a l C ouncil on Fam ily R e la tio n s and th e American A s s o c ia tio n of M arriage C ounselors in c lu d e th e sta te m e n t t h a t th e m arriage c o u n s e l o r should have in h is p r o f e s s io n a l e x p e rie n c e d ia g n o s tic s k i l l s to perm it him to d i f f e r e n t i a t e between th e su p e r f i c i a l and th e deeper le v e ls of m aladjustm ent in o rd e r to be ab le to r e f e r th e l a t t e r to o th e r s p e c i a l i s t s . - ^ This would seem to imply th a t d ep th le v e l focus as a p a rt of th e m arriag e c o u n se lin g p ro cess is not a c c e p ta b le , b u t should be r e f e r r e d . Role t h e o r i s t s , lik e S te w a rt, are in c lin e d to s t r e s s th e immediate ongoing r e l a t i o n s h i p in m arriage 15 c o u n se lin g . The p re s e n t study w i l l in v e s tig a te th e c a te g o r ie s sug g ested by Ackerman: (1) th e r e c o g n itio n and acceptance o f problem s and c o m p la in ts; (2) th e e v a lu a tio n o f c u rr e n t fu n c tio n in g , in c lu d in g re fe r e n c e to th e i n t e r a c t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s ; (3) th e developm ental h i s t o r y , in c lu d in g p a st problem s in r e l a t i o n to fam ily background f a c to r s and p a st r e l a t i o n s h i p s in th e m a rria g e ; and (4) th e deeper person- ^ " M a rria g e C o u n s e lin g /' lo c . c i t . - ^ S te w a r t} lo c . c i t . 87 1 (\ a l i t y a s s e s s m e n t . 0 The h y p o th e s is advanced h e re t h a t th e r e i s no d i f f e re n c e in c o u n s e lo r s ' le v e ls o f approach betw een 1940 and i9 6 0 i s based upon A ckerm an's g u id e tow ard th e assessm en t o f m a r i t a l c o n f l i c t . ^ T his approach encom passes th e a c c e p ta n c e o f th e s u p e r f i c i a l as w e ll as th e d e e p e r le v e ls o f m alad ju stm e n t and a ls o i n v e s t i g a t e s th e i n t e r a c t i v e p ro c e s s . 4. The h y p o th e s is on th e d if f e r e n c e s in tre a tm e n t and te c h n iq u e s o f c o u n s e lo rs i s su g g e ste d by Cuber and M udd's d e s c r i p t i o n s o f te c h n iq u e s used by m a rria g e coun s e l o r s . They s u g g e s t: sy m p a th e tic l i s t e n i n g ; g iv in g i n f o r m a tio n ; i n t e r p r e t i n g ; a s s i s t i n g in making d e c is io n s ; m odi f y in g o v e rt b e h a v io r; e x p lo rin g f e e l i n g s ; r e a s s u r i n g ; and 18 o f f e r i n g s u g g e s tio n s , a d v ic e , and p ro p o s a ls o f a c t i v i t y . ° These w i l l be m o d ifie d and ran k ed a c c o rd in g to th e number 1 f% Ackerman, op. c i t . , pp. 138-154. ^ Ib id . ^®John F. C uber, "F u n c tio n s o f th e M arriag e Coun s e l o r , " M arriage and F am ily L iv in g . V I I , No. 4 (W in te r, 1945), pp. 3 -5 ; Emily H. Mudd, The P r a c tic e o f M arriag e C o u n selin g (New Y ork: A s s o c ia tio n P r e s s , 1951), pp. 189- 2 0 1 . 88 of tim es co u n selo rs made sta te m e n ts in th e case re c o rd s r e f e r r i n g to trea tm en t te c h n iq u e s. A com parison of th e ranks w i l l be made to determ ine i f th e re is a d if f e r e n c e in th e type of trea tm en t co u n selo rs gave in 1940 compared to 1960. 5. The h y p o th e sis in v o lv in g in te rv ie w s tr u c t u r e is 19 based upon Mudd's d is c u s s io n of j o i n t in te rv ie w in g and upon th e growing i n t e r e s t in th e l i t e r a t u r e of fam ily u n it c o u n selin g suggested by Ackerman, Beatman, Sherman, and 20 o th e rs . Types of in te rv ie w s used by c o u n se lo rs between th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960 w i l l be compared to see i f th e re i s a d if fe re n c e . The h y p o th e sis w i l l be s ta te d in th e n u l l form. The types of in te rv ie w s taken from th e face sh e e ts o f th e case re c o rd s w i l l in clu d e in d iv id u a l s e s s io n s , con j o i n t s e s s io n s , and fam ily co n feren c es. 6. The h y p o th e sis on th e d u ra tio n o f m arriage c o u n selin g se ssio n s is suggested through th e la c k of e m p iric a l in fo rm atio n about th e number of tim es c l i e n t s are ^M udd, lo c . c i t . ^^Nathan W . Ackerman, Frances L. Beatman, and San fo rd Sherman, E xploring th e Base fo r Family Therapy (New York: Family S erv ice A sso c ia tio n o f America, 1961), p. 67. 89 seen by m arriage c o u n s e lo rs. Skidmore says th e re i s no s e t number of in te rv ie w s t h a t seems b e s t and t h a t th e number w i l l v a ry depending upon th e c l i e n t , h i s problem , and th e 9 1 p o lic y of th e c l i n i c . D e sp ite th e s e v a l id l i m i t a t i o n s , t h i s stu d y w i l l in v e s tig a te th e d u ra tio n o f m arriag e coun s e lin g s e s s io n s between th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960. The h y p o th e sis w i l l s t a t e t h a t th e re w i l l be no d if fe re n c e between th e s e tim e p e rio d s in th e d u ra tio n o f m arriage c o u n se lin g s e s s io n s . S e le c tio n o f th e Sample The ca ses used in t h i s stu d y were s e le c te d from th r e e m arriag e c o u n se lin g c l i n i c s lo c a te d in th e e a s te r n c e n t r a l , and w e ste rn s e c tio n s o f th e U nited S ta te s . T his s e le c tio n was made from t h i r t y - f i v e c o u n se lin g c e n te r s 22 o f f e r in g u n d if f e r e n tia te d s e r v ic e s . The co u n se lin g cen t e r s were s t r a t i f i e d according to geo g rap h ic lo c a tio n . N in eteen c e n te r s were found to have been in o p e ra tio n d u r ing or b e fo re th e y e a r 1940 and in co n tin u o u s o p e ra tio n th ro u g h 1960. Ten c e n te r s were e lim in a te d from th e n in e te e n because o f unique em phasis or u n d if f e r e n tia te d s e r v ^Skidm ore, op. c i t . , pp. 227-235. ^Mudd, op. c i t . , p. 264. 90 i c e s , le a v in g n in e c e n te r s fu n c tio n in g as m a rria g e coun s e lin g c l i n i c s fo r th e g e n e r a l p u b lic . Four o f th e s e were e lim in a te d because o f predom inant o r i e n t a t i o n t o one p h ilo s ophy o r r e l i g i o u s f a i t h , r e s u l t i n g in one m a rria g e c o u n s e l ing c l i n i c m eeting th e s e c r i t e r i a and r e p r e s e n tin g th e c e n t r a l and w e ste rn g eo g rap h ic r e g io n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , w ith th r e e c e n te r s m eeting th e c r i t e r i a in th e e a s t e r n s e c tio n . Two o f th e s e were e lim in a te d b ecause o f ex tre m ely sm all ca se lo ad s (fo u r or le s s c a s e s p er m o n th ); a p o lic y o f one in te rv ie w p er c a s e ; or only one p r o f e s s io n a l c o u n s e lo r 23 fu n c tio n in g . The d a ta were c o l l e c t e d d u rin g th e p e rio d o f Ju n e , J u ly , and A ugust, 1962. The c a se s fo r th e y e a rs 1940, 1950, and 1960 were s t r a t i f i e d ac c o rd in g to ca se loads f o r in d iv id u a l coun s e lo r s f o r each of th e s e y e a rs in each o f th e th r e e c l i n i c s . P re m a rita l c a s e s and c a se s w ith le s s th a n two i n t e r view s were e lim in a te d in o rd e r to meet th e c r i t e r i a o f h y p o th e ses r e l a t i n g to problem s and t o in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e . Cases r e p r e s e n tin g th e n egro p o p u la tio n w ere e lim in a te d in th e e a s te r n sample because th e r e were no com parable sam ples f o r th e o th e r two c l i n i c s . A minimum number o f e ig h t ^Reported f u l l y in Appendix C. 91 c o u n s e lo rs p e r c l i n i c p e r y e a r w ere found t o be a s s ig n e d to th e m a jo r ity o f c a s e s w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e e a s t e r n sample w hich s t a f f e d fo u r c o u n s e lo rs in 1940. Two c a s e s p e r c o u n s e lo r w ere drawn by use o f a t a b l e o f random num b e r s in a l l c l i n i c s f o r th e th r e e tim e p e r io d s in o r d e r to a s s u r e th e same number o f c a s e s f o r ra n k o r d e r c o m p a riso n s. Four c a s e s p e r c o u n s e lo r w ere random ly s e l e c t e d from th e e a s t e r n , 1940, sam ple in o rd e r to o b ta in f o r t y - e i g h t c a s e s from e a c h c l i n i c f o r th e th r e e y e a r s . A t o t a l o f 144 c a s e s were drawn r e p r e s e n t i n g 68 c o u n s e lo r s . M ethodology The 144 c a s e p r o to c a ls w ere d u p lic a te d by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r , u s in g a s t r i c t p ro c e d u re o f co d in g to in s u r e c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y . E very s ta te m e n t w ith in th e c a se r e c o r d as w e ll as summary s ta te m e n ts o f th e c o u n s e lo r s w ere coded by number; ty p e d and c u t in t o s t r i p s . T here was no d i f fe re n c e in th e av e ra g e number o f r e c o rd e d pages p er c a se betw een th e th r e e g e o g ra p h ic lo c a ti o n s o r th e tim e p e r io d s . Case p r o to c a ls w ere from one to t h i r t y pages i n le n g th . A t o t a l o f 20,075 u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s t r i p s w ere p r e s e n te d to th r e e ju d g e s f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . T hree ju d g e s - - t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r , one m a rria g e 92 c o u n s e lo r, and one c l i n i c a l p s y c h o lo g is t- - s e p a ra te d th e s e sta te m e n ts by re fe re n c e to y e a r per c l i n i c in to th r e e g ro ss g ro u p in g s: (1) th o se r e f e r r i n g to problem s and c o m p la in ts, (2) th o se r e f e r r i n g to c o u n se lo r approach, and (3) th o se r e f e r r i n g to te c h n iq u e s o r tre a tm e n t p ro ced u res. I t was found t h a t many sta te m e n ts placed in th e problem and com p la in t group were a ls o a p p lic a b le to th e c o u n se lo r approach group. When t h i s was agreed upon by th e th r e e ju d g e s, th e s e sta te m e n ts were ta b u la te d in b oth c a te g o r ie s . There was no d u p lic a tio n in th e ca te g o ry o f tre a tm e n t fo c u s. The sta te m e n ts grouped under problem s and co m p lain ts were su b d iv id ed and c l a s s i f i e d as (1) problems r e f e r r i n g to s i t u a t i o n s , (2) problems r e f e r r i n g to i n t e r a c t i o n w ith m ate, and (3) problems r e f e r r i n g to p e r s o n a lity . In th e s i t u a t i o n a l problem group, th e fo llo w in g f i f t e e n s p e c if ic d e s c r ip tiv e v a r ia b le s were s e le c te d by th e j u d g e s : ^ 1. C h ild re n 2. D iv o rc e -s e p a ra tio n 3. F inances 4. Forced m arriage 5. G ossiping 24 R a tio n a le and d e s c r ip tio n s in Appendix D. 6 . I n f i d e l i t y 7. In -law s 8. I n t e r e s t s 9. N eg lect 10. Poor housekeeping 11. R e lig io n 12. S lo v e n lin e s s 13. V alues 14. V ocation 15. W ife' s w orking R e fe re n ce s and sta te m e n ts to problem s in i n t e r a c t i o n w ith mate were com piled and la b e le d in to th e fo llo w in g n in e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s : 1 . Temperament c o n f l i c t 2. Role c o n f l i c t 3. Lack o f a f f e c t i o n 4. S exual m aladjustm ent 5. Poor com m unication 6 . Nagging and com plaining 7. Sarcasm and t h r e a t s 8. Ar gument s and quar r e 1s 9 P h y s ic a l abuse N in eteen p s y c h o lo g ic a l problem s were grouped and la b e le d a s : 1 . E g o c e n tr ic ity 2. I r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y 3. Inadequacy--dependency 4. J e a lo u s y 5. N e rv o u s n e s s --te n s io n 6 . P h y s io lo g ic a l--p s y c h o s o m a tic 7. R i g id ity 8. P a s s i v ity 9. A g g re s s iv ity 10. Anger 11. C r i t i c a l n e s s 12. T em per--rage 13. A lcoholism 14. Gambling 15. Lying 16. S te a lin g 17. S exual a b e r r a tio n s 18. S evere d e p re s s io n 19. M ental i l l n e s s . The group o f s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to c o u n s e lo r approach and fo cu s o f em phasis were c a te g o riz e d in to tw elve 95 tim e -a n d -d e p th l e v e l s : P re se n t P erio d 1. Problem s and co m p lain ts 2. C u rre n t r e l a t i o n s h i p 3. Budget 4. V o c a tio n --o c c u p a tio n P a s t P erio d 5. E a rly m a rriag e 6. C o u rtsh ip 7. A dolescence 8. C hildhood 9. Fam ily background Depth l e v e l 10. F e e lin g s --e m o tio n s 11. I n s ig h t 12. Dreams The d e c is io n to c l a s s i f y tre a tm e n t te c h n iq u e s in th e tw elv e c a te g o r ie s l i s t e d below was based in p a r t upon Mudd's sta te m e n t t h a t term s have been d e fin e d and re d e f in e d in a k ind o f i n t e r p r o f e s s i o n a l badm inton as th e y r e f l e c t th e th in k in g o f p erso n s w ith d i f f e r e n t b a c k g ro u n s, t r a i n i n g , 96 and p o in ts o f v i e w . ^ Cognizance was ta k e n o f th e r e c e n t tr e n d to e f f e c t d ia g n o s tic te rm in o lo g y unique to th e i n t e r - 26 p e rs o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s in m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g , b u t i t was d ec id ed to ac ce p t th e te rm in o lo g y s t a t e d in th e summaries o f c a se s s in c e a l l th r e e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s seemed to agree in te rm in o lo g y . The fo llo w in g tre a tm e n t te c h n iq u e s were s e le c te d by th e ju d g e s: 1 . Case h i s t o r y ta k in g 2. Te s t ing 3. As s ignment s - -b i b 1i o th e r apy 4. A d v ice--g u id an ce 5. P robing 6 . C o n fro n ta t ion 7. P e r s u a s io n -- re a s o n in g 8. Problem s o lv in g 9. S u p p o r ti v e - - c a th a r ti c 10. E v a lu a tiv e 11. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 12. D ia g n o s tic ^"*Mudd, op. c i t . , p. 177. 2^Gehrke and Moxom, op. c i t . , pp. 254-255. 97 The c r i t e r i o n fo r th e acceptance or r e j e c t i o n of a sta tem en t or re fe re n c e in a p a r t i c u l a r c a te g o ry was th e tw o-to-one agreem ent among th e th re e ju d g e s. Unanim ity a u to m a tic a lly placed th e sta te m e n t. I f th e re were th re e v ary in g o p in io n s, th e sta tem en ts and th e s e le c te d c l a s s i f ic a t i o n s were given to a second group o f fiv e ju d g es. These judges were s t a f f members o f a m arriage and fam ily c l i n i c in no way involved in th e r e s e a rc h . The f iv e included one c l i n i c a l p sy c h o lo g is t, two m arriage c o u n s e lo rs , and two g rad u ate s tu d e n ts - in - tr a in in g in a c l i n i c a l program of co u n se lin g . I f a th re e -to -tw o d e c is io n could not be met by t h i s group in p la c in g th e rem ainder of th e sta te m e n ts in s p e c if ic c a te g o r ie s , the sta te m e n ts were d is c a rd e d . Of th e 20,075 o r ig in a l sta te m e n ts , 2,509 were d isc a rd e d because of in a p p ro p ria te n e s s fo r any of th e c a te g o r ie s by m a jo rity d e c is io n . The rem aining 17,566 were grouped as fo llo w s: P roblem s--com plaints 8,222 C ounselor emphasis 6,038 Techniques of tre a tm e n t 3,306 T o ta l 17,566 D e s c rip tio n of S cales Two s c a le s were c o n s tru c te d in an attem p t to provide 98 r e p r o d u c ib il ity in c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s . The use of o u ts id e r a t e r s fo r ju d g in g s e le c te d c a te g o r ie s was employed in o rd e r to v a l id a t e th e procedure used in th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e v a r ia b le s w ith in th e s e c a te g o r ie s . The ch o ice o f s c a lin g by ran k o rd e r p e rm itte d s t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t o f com parative d a ta in o r d in a l s c a le form. The ra n k -o rd e r type in com parative judgment i s a u s e f u l tech n iq u e when only a lim ite d number o f judges are in v o l v e d .^ B asic te c h n iq u e s fo r c o n s tr u c tin g r a t i n g s c a le s were adhered to : 1. Use of ju d g es. 2. Rienomena to be r a te d . 3. L o g ica l continuum . 4. Sample of p o p u la tio n in which s c a le w i l l be u s e d .2® In t h i s stu d y , te n judges r a te d v a r ia b le s analyzed from 14,360 sta te m e n ts d e s c rib in g problems and com plaints and c o u n selo r em phasis. The continuum c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was lo g ic a l ly indexed from m ild to v ery sev ere problems fo r th e 27 C la ir e S e l l t i z , Marie Jahoda, e t a l . , R esearch Methods in S o c ia l R e la tio n s (New York: Henry H olt and Com pany, I n c ., 1959), p. 350. 28W . J . Goode and P. K. H a tt, Methods in S o c ia l R esearch (New York: McGraw and H i l l ) , 1952, Ch. 16-17. 99 problem s c a l e , and from th e p r e s e n t p e rio d o f tim e , th ro u g h th e p a s t , to depth le v e ls f o r th e s c a le on c o u n s e lo r ap proach and em phasis. The s c a le s were a p p lie d to and com pared w ith th e sam pling d a ta o f s ta te m e n ts from ca se r e c o rd s. S c a le s w ith f iv e or seven c a te g o r ie s a re most f r e q u e n tly em ployed, b u t many i n v e s t i g a t o r s have used as many as n in e o r e l e v e n . ^ F iv e c a te g o r ie s were used in th e problem and co m p lain t s c a le and tw elv e were used in th e c o u n s e lo r approach s c a le . In o rd e r to p ro v id e s u c c in c t c a te g o r ie s to be u t i l i z e d by th e ju d g e s , th e f o r t y - t h r e e v a r i a b l e s under problem s and co m p lain ts were subsumed in to tw elve in d ic e s . I t was re c o g n iz e d t h a t a lth o u g h th e o r d in a l s c a le would d e f in e th e r e l a t i v e p o s it io n o f th e v a r i a b l e s w ith r e s p e c t to c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , no im p lic a tio n of d is ta n c e betw een th e p o s itio n s on th e s c a le was im p lie d . To meet th e c r i t e r i o n fo r o r d in a l s c a lin g , th e r a t i o n a l e f o r com bining v a r i a b l e s w ith in th e tw elve dim ensions was met by h av in g th e e ig h t ju d g es who had coded th e s ta te m e n ts p la c e th e 43 l i s t e d problem s (ty p ed on c a rd s ) in to th e tw elv e s e le c te d c a t e g o r ie s . S e l l t i z in c lu d e s M u rra y 's s u g g e s tio n t h a t th e ^ S e l l t i z , e t a l . , op. c i t . , p. 347. 100 r e l i a b i l i t y of r a t i n g s i s u s u a lly enhanced c o n s id e ra b ly by h av in g s e v e r a l r a t e r s w orking as a team making independent judgm ents, com paring t h e i r r a tin g s and d is c u s s in g d is c r e p a n c ie s , and making second independent judgm ents t h a t are 3 0 th e n pooled or av erag ed , was follow ed. The fo llo w in g c a te g o r ie s were agreed upon: 1. Economic c o n d itio n s c a u sin g s i t u a t i o n a l prob lems : a. F inances b. V o c a tio n --o c c u p a tio n c . W ife 's w orking 2. A ttitu d e s ca u sin g s i t u a t i o n a l problem s: a. C o n f lic tin g i n t e r e s t s b. Forced m a rria g e --p r e m a rita l g u i l t s c. R e lig io u s c o n f l i c t s d. Value d if fe re n c e s 3. O th er-th an -m ate in d iv id u a ls c a u sin g s i t u a t i o n a l problem s: a. C h ild re n b. In-law s c. I n f i d e l i t y 3QI b i d . , p. 354 B ehavior and a c tio n s c a u s in g s i t u a t i o n a l p ro b le m s: a. Poor househ o ld management b. N e g le c t- - f r e q u e n t absences c . S lo v e n lin e s s d. G o ssip in g e. S e p a r a tio n - - d iv o r c e C overt c o n f l i c t s c a u sin g i n t e r a c t i o n a l p ro b lems : a. Temperament c la s h b . Role c o n f l i c t s c. Lack of a f f e c t i o n C o v e rt-o v e rt c o n f l i c t s c a u s in g i n t e r a c t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s : a. S exual m alad ju stm en t O vert c o n f l i c t s c a u sin g i n t e r a c t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s a. Poor com m unication b. E x c e ssiv e nagging c. Sarcasm and t h r e a t s d. P h y s ic a l abuse Immature b e h a v io r c a u sin g in d iv id u a l psycho l o g i c a l c o n f l i c t : a. E g o c e n tr i c it y b. I r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y 9. N e u ro tic b eh a v io r ca u sin g in d iv id u a l psycho lo g ic a l c o n f l i c t : a. Inadequacy--dependency b. N e rv o u sn e s s--te n s io n c. Psychosom atic co m p lain ts d. P a s s iv ity e. R ig id ity f . Je a lo u sy 10. H o s tile b eh a v io r ca u sin g in d iv id u a l psycholog i c a l c o n f l i c t a. A ggression b. C r iti c a ln e s s c . Anger d. Tem per--rage 11. S o c io p a th ic b eh av io r c a u sin g in d iv id u a l psycho lo g ic a l c o n f l i c t : a. A lcoholism b. Gambling c . Lying d. S te a lin g e . Sexual a b e rr a tio n s 103 12. P sy c h o tic b e h a v io r c a u sin g in d iv id u a l psycho l o g i c a l c o n f l i c t : a. Severe d e p re s s io n --w ith d ra w a l b. L a b e lle d m ental i l l n e s s S ince t h i s was a p i l o t v e n tu r e , i t was d ecid ed t h a t , alth o u g h ite m a n a ly s is r a t h e r th a n judgment r a t i n g s would y ie ld a more v a l i d in s tru m e n t, th e n ex t s te p could proceed w ith o u t s t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t a t t h i s p o in t. The above c a te g o r ie s were ty p e s on tw elv e c a rd s and p re se n te d to te n a d d i tio n a l o u ts id e ju d g es fo r ra n k in g . These ju d g e s w ere f iv e m a rriag e c o u n s e lo rs and f iv e c l i n i c a l p s y c h o lo g is ts n o t in v o lv e d in th e stu d y h e r e t o f o r e . They were asked to ran k th e tw elve c a rd s in co m p arativ e o rd e r from m ild to se v ere problem s in term s o f t r e a t a b i l i t y and p ro g n o s is . These ra n k in g s were p laced on a m odified O *1 scalogram J i and a c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y was o b ta in e d by use o f a sc o re m a trix as su g g ested by Good- 32 enough. The tw elve item s were p laced in columns and th e te n ju d g e s ’ r a t i n g s p laced in rows. The summing o f th e ^^D escribed in C hapter IV. 32 A lle n L. Edwards, T echniques o f A ttitu d e S cale C o n s tru c tio n (New York: A p p le to n -C e n tu ry -C ro fts, 1957). 104 rows produced th e sc o re m a tr ix ; th e column sums, th e f r e q u e n c ie s o f th e re s p o n s e s . These t o t a l s were c o n v e rte d i n t o p r o p o r tio n s by d iv id in g each column o f th e sc o re m a trix by th e number o f ju d g e s . D e v ia tio n s from th e ra n k o r d e r were c o n s id e re d e r r o r s . The t o t a l number o f e r r o r s in t h i s s c a l e , a c c o rd in g to t h i s te c h n iq u e , was 32. The c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y was 1 - .24 = » .7 6 . A ccord in g to Goodenough, i f th e c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y i s l e s s th a n .8 5 , th e s c a le i s a q u a s i - s c a l e . The e m p iric a l r u l e when ju d g in g r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y by h av in g no c a te g o ry w ith more e r r o r th a n n o n e rro r was o b ta in e d . The c u t t i n g p o in t in th e s c a l e - a n a l y s i s was s e t by in s p e c tio n w ith th e c r i t e r i o n t h a t more th a n h a l f o f th e ju d g e s must ra n k w ith in th e same c a te g o r ie s d ev elo p ed . The second s c a le based upon c o u n s e lo r approach was developed by th e same p ro c e d u re . The fo llo w in g tw elv e in d ic e s o f c o u n s e lo r approach w ere g iv en to th e te n ju d g e s who were asked to ra n k them in o rd e r from p r e s e n t p e rio d fo cu s to d ep th f o c u s : 1. Emphasis on c o m p la in ts and problem s 2. Emphasis on c u r r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p in m a rria g e 3 . Emphasis upon b u d g e tin g 4 . Em phasis upon v o c a tio n a l h e lp 105 5. Emphasis upon e a r ly m a rria g e r e l a t i o n s h i p 6. Emphasis upon c o u r ts h ip p erio d 7. Emphasis upon a d o lesc en ce 8. Emphasis upon ch ild h o o d memories 9. Emphasis upon fam ily b a c k g ro u n d --p a re n ta l r o l e s 10. Emphasis upon f e e lin g s and em otions 11. Emphasis upon in s i g h t and u n d e rsta n d in g 12. Emphasis upon dream m a te r ia ls 33 The m o d ified scalogram was drawn and tw e n ty -f iv e d e v ia tio n s re c o rd e d , which produced a c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y of .7 9 . T h is would in d ic a te a q u a s i - s t a l e , b u t n o te was ta k e n o f th e r e l a t i v e h ig h c o e f f i c i e n t w hich, p e r h a p s , w ith m o d ific a tio n , could become a v a l i d te c h n iq u e f o r a t t a i n i n g r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y . The te n ju d g es a ls o ranked th e tw elv e problem s in to f iv e c a te g o r ie s : m ild , somewhat s e r i o u s, s e r io u s , v e ry s e r io u s , and se v e re in term s o f tre a tm e n t and p ro g n o s is . R e s u lts are ta b u la te d in C h ap ter IV. These are q u a s i - s c a l e s , b u t do show t h a t th e a g re e ment by two s e ts o f ju d g es on th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f item s i s f e a s i b l e . A lso , th e s e s c a le s show t h a t term s which a re o p e r a tio n a lly d e s c r ip tiv e may be l o g i c a l l y s c a le d to a s s e s s ■^See C h ap ter TV. 106 problem s and co m p lain ts and co u n se lo r approach. These s c a le s , i f p ro p e rly v a l id a t e d , could be used in m arriage co u n se lin g c e n te r s f o r p e rio d ic assessm ent of c o u n s e lo rs ' view s on co m p lain ts and t h e i r c o u n selin g em phasis; in te a c h in g s i t u a t i o n s f o r e v a lu a tin g s tu d e n ts ' aw areness o f m ildness or s e v e r ity of co m p lain ts p ro v id ed , o f c o u rse , v a l i d i t y has been e s ta b lis h e d through th e com parison ra n k ing o f a la rg e number of e x p e r ts ; or as a check in to th e ty p e o f approach in d iv id u a l c o u n se lo rs may use w ith p a r t i c u l a r problem s. The most s ig n i f i c a n t problem d e a ls w ith o b ta in in g a v a l i d i t y m easure. As S e l l t i z , Jahoda, e t a l . . s t a t e : Even a c u rso ry exam ination of th e r e le v a n t l i t e r a t u r e re v e a ls t h a t , whereas e v a lu a tio n of th e r e l i a b i l i t y of r a t i n g s c a le s i s common, m easures of v a l i d i t y a re r a r e l y r e p o r te d . The re a so n i s th e d e a rth o f a v a ila b le e x te r n a l c r i t e r i a a g a in s t which r a tin g s can be compared. As a m a tte r of f a c t , r a t i n g s them selves have o fte n been used as c r i t e r i a fo r checking th e v a l i d i t y of o th e r ty p e s o f m easuring i n s t r u m e n t s . ^ They e x p la in , however, th a t i f th e item s being measured a re r e l a t i v e l y o b je c tiv e so th a t t h e i r meaning i s u n i form ly und ersto o d by th e judges and i f th e r a t i n g s are o b ta in ed under o p tim al c o n d itio n s w ith s p e c if ie d common ■ ^ S e lltiz , op. c i t . , p. 356. 107 fram es o f r e f e r e n c e , one may assume t h a t i f th e o b ta in e d r a t i n g s a re r e l i a b l e , th e y are p ro b ab ly a ls o v a l i d . The s c a le s a re p re se n te d in t h i s r e p o r t as q u a s i - s c a l e s , co n s tr u c t e d as a p i l o t i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e u se o f s c a le forms fo r a s s e s s in g problem s and le v e ls o f c o u n s e lo r approach in m arriag e c o u n s e lin g . CHAPTER IV RESEARCH M ETHODS A N D STATISTICAL FINDINGS P ro cessin g th e D ata P ro cessin g of s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a .--T h e d a ta were processed as fo llo w s: fiv e c a te g o rie s d e s c rib in g th e hypoth e s e s —S itu a t io n a l Problem s, I n te r a c tio n a l Problem s, Psycho lo g ic a l Problem s, C ounselor Emphasis, and T echniques--w ere d efin ed and c l a s s i f i e d in to v a r ia b le s fo r each group. The frequency of sta te m e n ts applying to each c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was o b ta in e d . These were converted to p ro p o rtio n s and per c e n ts and placed in rank o rd er fo r th e th re e tim e p erio d s being in v e s tig a te d . The d a ta were fed in to form ulae to t e s t s t a t i s t i c a l in fe re n c e of s ig n ific a n c e beyond chance le v e ls . These d a ta , along w ith th o se obtained from th e face re c o rd s of each c a se , were computed through th e f a c i l i t i e s of th e W estern D ata P ro cessin g S e rv ic e . C a lc u la tio n s which could not be processed because o f u n a v a ila b le p ro grams were performed by th e in v e s tig a to r . 108 109 The s t a t i s t i c s u s e d .- - C h i sq u a re was employed in t h i s stu d y b ec au se i t i s d esig n ed s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r u se in t e s t i n g h y p o th e se s w ith d a ta , which a r e in th e form o f fr e q u e n c ie s o r w hich can be c o n v e rte d t o f r e q u e n c ie s , and m eets o r d in a l s c a le c r i t e r i a . No assum ption t h a t th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u nder o b s e rv a tio n a re n o rm a lly d i s t r i b u t e d in th e p o p u la tio n i s n e c e s s a r y . I t e n a b le s c o n c lu s io n s to be formed as to w h eth er a s s o c i a t i o n a p p a re n t betw een v a r i a b l e s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s i g n i f i c a n t t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l i a b l e . The t e s t does n o t m easure amount o f a s s o c i a t i o n , b u t only w h eth e r th e amount i s s u f f i c i e n t l y la r g e n o t to be accounted f o r by ch an ce. The c h i sq u a re s t e s t e d d i s t i n c t i o n s b ased upon th e y e a rs 1940, 1950, and 1960, and th e d i s t i n c t i o n s b ased upon th e f r e q u e n c ie s o f th e v a r i a b l e s u nder exam ina t i o n . I t i s e x p re s s e d as th e sum o f th e r a t i o s betw een th e observed and ex p e cte d fre q u e n c y o v er th e ex p e cte d f r e quency . K e n d a ll's c o e f f i c i e n t o f concordance was a n o th e r te c h n iq u e used in t h i s stu d y b ec au se i t p ro v id e s a s in g le m easure o f r e l a t i o n s h i p among ra n k s g iv e n by s e v e r a l ju d g e s . I f th e r e is agreem ent in ra n k in g s beyond t h a t w hich m ight be produced by sam pling v a r ia n c e , th e com posite ra n k in g i s s i g n i f i c a n t . T h is s t a t i s t i c i s d e fin e d as th e r a t i o o f th e 110 observed sum o f th e squ ares o f th e d e v ia tio n s o f th e sums of ran k around t h e i r mean, ex p ressed by symbol S, to th e v a lu e t h i s S would have i f th e r e were p e r f e c t agreem ent among th e s e v e r a l ra n k in g s. A h ig h W ( c o e f f i c i e n t o f con cord an ce) does not assume t h a t th e ra n k in g s a re n e c e s s a r ily c o r r e c t , o r o b je c tiv e , but i f th e ra n k in g s a re in s i g n i f i ca n t agreem ent, t h i s can be accepted as th e b e s t e s tim a te o f th e " tr u e r a n k in g ," somewhat lik e t h a t a s s o c ia te d w ith l e a s t sq u ares method. The c h i square was used to d e t e r mine th e s ig n if ic a n c e of th e c o e f f i c i e n t o f concordance. The sig n t e s t was a ls o used because i t does not r e q u ir e assum ptions as to th e form of th e d i s t r i b u t i o n , n or does i t assume t h a t a l l s u b je c ts are drawn from th e same p o p u la tio n . The only assum ption u n d e rly in g th e t e s t i s th a t th e v a r ia b le under c o n s id e r a tio n i s c o n tin u o u sly d i s t r i b u t e d . T his t e s t , based upon b in o m ial d i s t r i b u t i o n , was used in t h i s study to compare ran k in g s in d eterm in in g th e d i r e c t i o n o f d if f e r e n c e . The tw o - ta ile d t e s t was accep ted because i t p ro v id es an a l t e r n a t e h y p o th e sis th a t th e r e s u l t s may n o t have come from th e same p o p u la tio n w ith re s p e c t to th e c e n t r a l v a lu e . The n u l l hypothes te s te d by th e sig n t e s t i s th a t p (XA>X B) " p (xAc xB ) - 1/2 I l l S ince t h i s stu d y i s focused p r im a r ily on d e te rm in in g what s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s , i f any, e x i s t in com pari sons among th r e e tim e p e r io d s , a le v e l of s ig n if ic a n c e was determ in ed b e fo re h a n d . The d e te rm in a tio n o f th e s i g n i f i cance o f c h i sq u are was made by c o n s u ltin g th e t a b l e of c h i sq u are f o r g iv e n d e g ree s o f freedom which v a ry w ith th e number o f c e l l s in th e c o m p u ta tio n a l t a b l e . In t h i s p ap e r, th e c h i squ are i s r e p o rte d and s ta te d as s i g n i f i c a n t o r non s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 le v e l . The d e te rm in a tio n o f th e s ig n if ic a n c e of th e sig n t e s t fo r v a lu e s o f n to 20, app ro x im ated th e fre q u e n c ie s f o r th e b in o m ia l d i s t r i b u t i o n where p e q u a ls .5 . The .05 le v e l f o r th e two t a i l e d t e s t was s e le c te d . D e s c rip tio n o f th e Sample S tu d ie s o f th e ty p e p re se n te d h e re have u s u a lly been o b ta in e d by n o n p r o b a b ility sam pling, which in c lu d e s a c c id e n ta l or p u rp o siv e sam ples. The a c c id e n ta l sample i s one ta k e n b ecau se o f a v a i l a b i l i t y , as sam pling from th e f i l e s o f o n e 's own c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g . The p u rp o siv e sample i s one a r b i t r a r i l y s e le c te d because ev id en ce in d ic a t e s i t i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n . D ata from t h i s ty p e of sam pling in t h i s f i e l d a re u s u a lly r e p o r te d thro u g h 112 q u a l i t a t i v e a n a ly s is of case s tu d ie s . These lim ita tio n s have been met in t h i s study thro u g h th e use o f s t r a t i f i e d random sam pling and q u a n t i t a t i v e m ethodology. The p o p u la tio n was s t r a t i f i e d to g eo g ra p h ic lo c a tio n and to c a se lo a d s of c o u n se lo rs w ith in th e s e lo c a tio n s . A sim ple random sample te ch n iq u e based upon a ta b le o f random numbers was used in o rd e r to a s su re t h a t each case would have eq u al chance o f s e le c tio n . A c o n s ta n t p ro p o rtio n was m ain tain ed w ith in th e s t r a t a o f co u n se lo r c a se lo a d s w ith two c a se s randomly p u lle d per c o u n s e lo r. Because th e r e may be i n t e r e s t in com paring or r e p l i c a t i n g d a ta , a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e p re s e n t sample w i l l be p re se n te d in t h i s c h a p te r and some d a ta w i l l be p r e se n ted as a c o n tr ib u tio n to th e f i e l d of m arriag e c o u n s e l ing and fam ily l i f e e d u c a tio n . Some a n a ly se s w i l l be made o f background f a c to r s o f age, o c c u p a tio n , e d u c a tio n , m a ri t a l s t a t u s , r e l i g i o n , number o f c h ild r e n , r e f e r r a l s o u rc e s, and co u n se lo r backgrounds. Age d i s t r i b u t i o n .--T h e d a ta re g a rd in g age o f sample p o p u la tio n i s p re se n te d in T able 1. The average age o f m ales in th e t o t a l sample i s 113 TABLE 1 AVERAGE AGE OF EASTERN, CENTRAL, AND WESTERN SAMPLE POPULATION 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 R egion M F M F M F M F E a s te r n 3 5 .4 2 9 .4 31.3 28.3 32.3 2 9 .8 3 3 .0 29.2 C e n tr a l 3 2 .8 30.3 3 8 .2 3 4 .0 2 8 .1 25.6 3 3 .0 3 0 .0 W estern 3 6 .4 3 2 .4 34.3 32.9 4 1 .3 38.6 37.3 34.6 A verage Age in 34.9 30.7 3 4.6 31.7 33.9 31.3 34.5 31.2 Sample T o ta l Range 20-60 18-53 21-57 18-58 21-59 18-55 20-60 18-58 o f Ages 114 34.5 and th a t of fem ales, 3 1 .2 . I t w i l l be n o ted th a t th e average age fo r both male and female i s h ig h e r f o r th e w estern th an f o r th e e a s te rn and c e n t r a l p o p u la tio n . The t o t a l age range i s from 18 to 58 y e a rs fo r th e fem ale, and from 20 to 60 y e a rs fo r th e m ale. There is l i t t l e change in average age p o p u la tio n fo r e i t h e r male or fem ale from 1940 to 1960, although the youngest p o p u la tio n f o r both male and female appears in th e c e n tr a l group in I960: 28.1 fo r males and 25.6 fo r fem ales. P a ra d o x ic a lly , th e o ld e s t aged group occurs a ls o in t h i s y ea r in th e w estern sam ple, w ith males a t 41.3 and fem ales a t 3 8 .6 . Compared to Mudd's study,'*' th e age group re p re se n te d h e re compares a p p ro x i m ately to 35 per cen t of th e p o p u la tio n in th a t stu d y . Table 2 shows th e age d if fe re n c e between th e h u s band and w ife , w ith th e average age d iffe re n c e ra n g in g from 17 months between mates in 1950 in th e w estern group to 6 y e a r s 1 d if fe re n c e in th e 1940 e a s te r n sam ple. The o v e r a ll average age d iffe re n c e i s approxim ately 3 y e a rs . The range o f y ea rs between mates i s from 0 to 22 y e a rs . •bsmily H. Mudd, The P ra c tic e o f M arriage C ounsel ing (New York: A sso c ia tio n P re ss, 1951), 115 TABLE 2 AVERAGE AGE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MATES 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 R egion 1 Y rs. Mo. Y rs. Mo. Y rs. Mo. Y rs. M o E a s te rn 6 0 3 0 2 6 3 8 C e n tr a l 2 6 4 0 2 6 3 0 W estern 4 0 1 5 2 8 2 7 T o ta l Y ears 1 D iffe re n c e 4 2 2 10 2 7 3 2 T o ta l Range o f Y ears 1 0 - 18 0 - 22 0 - 12 0 - 22 D iffe re n c e 116 E d u c a tio n .—The fin d in g s re g a rd in g th e le v e l o f e d u c a tio n are p re se n te d in T able 3. I t w i l l be noted t h a t 70 per c e n t o f th e males and 65 p er c e n t o f th e fem ales who came to m arriag e c o u n selin g c e n te r s were h ig h school and c o lle g e g ra d u a te s , or had some c o lle g e background, w h ile only 26 p er ce n t each of th e m ales and th e fem ales did not com plete h ig h sc h o o l. More fem ales th a n m ales com pleted h ig h school c o n s is te n tly in 1940, 1950, and 1960, b u t th e r e were tw ice as many m ales as fem ales w ith c o lle g e d e g re e s. \ The c h a rt in F ig u re 1 shows th e combined p e rc e n ta g e s o f male and fem ale p o p u la tio n , w ith more th a n tw o -th ird s o f th e sample a t h ig h school g ra d u a te le v e l or above in ed u ca t i o n . Compared to th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n le v e l o f ed u ca t i o n as shown in T able 4 , t h i s sample shows an above a v e r age e d u c a tio n p o p u la tio n . T his i s in agreem ent w ith th e e d u c a tio n le v e ls of th e sample p o p u la tio n s o f th e Fam ily 2 S e rv ic e A sso c ia tio n and th e Emily Mudd stu d y . O ccu p atio n s.--T h e o c c u p a tio n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s s t r a t i f i e d in th e c a te g o r ie s used by th e U nited S ta te s 2 D iscussed in C hapter I I . 117 TABLE 3 YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED BY SAMPLE POPULATION IN 1940-1950-1960 BY PER CENT 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 E d u c a tio n ” — — — — M F M F M F M F E lem en ta ry 4 - 8 18.7 18.7 16.7 1 0 .4 12.5 8.3 1 6 .0 12.5 H igh S chool 9 -11 8.3 12.5 10.4 10.4 12.5 16.7 10.4 13.2 H igh S chool G ra d u a te s 3 3 .3 3 7 .5 18.7 3 7 .5 3 1 .3 33.3 2 7 .8 3 6 .1 C o lle g e 1-3 y r s . 8.3 14.6 2 0 .8 18.7 8.3 8.3 12.5 13.9 C o lle g e D egree 2 5 .0 8.3 2 9 .2 14.6 3 5 .4 2 2 .9 2 9 .8 15.3 P o st G rad u ate 6 .3 2 .1 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 2 .1 .7 T rade and B u s in e s s 0 .0 6 .2 4 .2 8 .4 0 .0 10.4 1 .4 8.3 S chool 118 Per Cent 40 30 22 10 4-11 H .S. 1-3 C o ll. O ther Grad. C o ll. Grad. F ig . 1 . --E d u c a tio n le v e l fo r sample fo r 1940, 1950, and 1960. I 119 TABLE 4 YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED BY UNITED STATES POPULATION in 1940-1950-1960 BY PER CENTa Level of 1940 1950 1960 E ducation M F M F M F 0-8 Grade (Elem entary) 61.9 57.2 4 9 .0 4 5 .0 4 1 .8 3 7 .8 1-3 y r s . High School 14.2 15.7 16.3 17.4 18.7 19.7 High School G raduate 12.0 16.2 17.6 22.6 21.2 27.8 1-3 Y rs. C o lleg e 4 .9 6 .0 6 .8 7.5 8.6 9 .0 C ollege Degree 5 .4 3.7 7 .1 5 .0 9.7 5 .8 aU. S ., Bureau of th e Census. S t a t i s t i c a l A b s tra c t of th e U nited S ta te s (W ashington: Government P r in tin g Of- f i c e , 1962), p. 117. 120 Census p o p u la tio n d a ta ^ in T able 5. I t i s e v id e n t th a t th e c l i n i c sample i s h e a v ily loaded in th e upper o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s, w ith 79 p er c e n t o f th e m ales of th e t o t a l sample a t t h i s le v e l. In th e A and C c a te g o r ie s which in c lu d e th e p r o f e s s io n a l, s e m i- p ro f e s s io n a l, c l e r i c a l , and s a le s o c c u p a tio n s, th e d i s t r i b u t i o n in th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n in 1940, 1950, and 1960 shows a la r g e r p erce n tag e o f fem ales th a n m ales, w h ile th e re v e rs e i s tr u e in th e c l i n i c p o p u la t i o n . The B and D c a te g o r ie s d e s c r ib in g m anagers, execu t i v e s , o f f i c i a l s , c ra ftsm e n , and s u p e rv is o rs agree fo r both sample and g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n . In 1950, th e c l i n i c sample had more u n s k ille d m ales, 10.4 per c e n t, th a n th e U nited S ta te s p o p u la tio n w ith 8 p er c e n t, b u t was c o n s is te n tly low er fo r b oth m ales and fem ales in 1940 and 1960. A com p a ris o n o f th e c l i n i c and g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n in 1960 shows more th a n tw ice as many m ales in th e upper A and B d i v i s io n s , w ith 44 per c e n t fo r th e c l i n i c to 21 p er ce n t f o r th e U nited S ta te s . The C, D, and E c a te g o r ie s , which d e s c r ib e th e m iddle group, y ie ld e d 42 per c e n t fo r males in th e c l i n i c compared to 53 p er c e n t in th e g e n e ra l 3 U .S ., Bureau o f C ensus, Census o f P o p u latio n Summary, G en e ra l. S o c ia l and Economic S t a t i s t i c s (Washing to n : Government P r in tin g O ff ic e , I9 6 0 ), p. 219. TABLE 5 DISTRIBUTION OF OCCUPATIONS, IN SAMPLE A N D IN THE UNITED STATES FOR 1940, 1950, I960 BY PER CENT 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 Occupation C lin lc W aited' U nited C U n ic U nited C lln ic S ta te s S ta te s S ta te s _________________M F M F M F M F M F M F M F A. T ech n ical, P ro fe s s io n a l, 20.8 8.3 6 .1 13.0 20.8 6 .2 7.3 12.4 25.0 2 .1 10.3 13.4 22.2 5.6 Sem i-Prof. B. Managers, Offici alc E xecutives 20,8 2 *1 9,6 3,5 16,7 0 10,7 4,3 18,7 2 ,1 10,7 3,7 18,7 2 ,8 P ro p rie to rs C. C le r ic a l, KindreJTwork- 22,9 20*8 12,7 28,4 22,9 16,7 12*8 35,8 22,9 14,6 13,8 37,5 22,9 17,4 e rs D. Craftsm en, Foremen, Super- v is o r s 12.5 0 14.9 1.1 18.8 2 .1 18.6 1.5 14.6 0 19.5 1.2 15.3 .7 E. O perators and Kindred 14*6 0 17.9 18.1 8.3 0 2 0 .1 1 9 .2 4 .2 2 .1 19.9 15.4 9 .0 .7 Workers 121 TABLE 5 —C ontinued 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 Occupation C lin ic U nited S ta te s C lin ic U nited S ta te s C lin ic U nited S ta te s C lin ic M F M F M F M F M F M F M F F. S ervice Workers 4 .2 4.2 5 .8 11.0 0 6.2 5 .8 12.2 8.3 8.3 6 .0 13.4 4 .2 6 .2 G. Dom estics, U n sk illed 2 .1 4 .2 9.3 18.7 10.4 2.1 8.3 9.2 2 .1 2 .1 7.0 8.4 4 .9 2 .8 H. House w ives, S tu d en ts, Unemployed 2 .1 60.4 0 0 2.1 66.7 0 0 4.2 68.7 0 0 2 .8 65.3 I . Farm Work 0 0 24.0 4.3 0 0 15.3 3.6 0 0 8.3 1.7 0 0 J . Occupation Not Reported 0 0 .7 1.5 0 0 1.1 1.8 0 0 4.6 5.7 0 0 T o ta l N 48 48 48 48 48 48 144 144 N> S3 123 p o p u la tio n . The F and G d iv is io n s , which re p r e s e n t th e lower s t r a t a , showed 10 per c e n t f ^ r th e c l i n i c and 13 per c e n t fo r th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n . The p ro p o rtio n s seem to be r e l a t i v e l y th e same in com parison w ith th e o th e r c a t e g o r ie s . There i s no r e p r e s e n ta tiv e sam pling fo r th e farm c a te g o ry because o f th e th r e e c l i n i c s e t t i n g s in m e tro p o li ta n a re a s . In c l a s s i f y i n g 63 o cc u p atio n s of th e sample o f 288 in d iv id u a ls , th e fo llo w in g ty p e s o f o cc u p atio n s were not r e p r e s e n te d : a c to r s , a c tr e s s e s , a r t i s t s , b a k e rs , bus d r i v e r s , b a r te n d e r s , c a r p e n te r s , ch a u ffeu rs, cooks, e l e c t r i c i a n s , e le v a to r o p e r a to rs , fa rm e rs, firem en , forem en, g u ard s, j a n i t o r s , linem en, m aintenance men, m etal w o rk ers, m usi c ia n s , n u rs e s , p a i n t e r s , p o r te r s , p h a rm a c ists, p sy ch o lo g i s t s , p s y c h i a t r i s t s , shoem akers, s h e r i f f s , s t e a m f i t t e r s , t y p i s t s , watchmen, and w eld e rs. R e lig io n .--T h e r e s u l t s on r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n are p re se n te d in T able 6. More th a n h a l f o f th e sample i s P r o te s ta n t, w ith C a th o lic and Jew ish p ro p o rtio n s about 15 per cen t each. The p erce n tag e o f P r o te s ta n t a f f i l i a t i o n rem ained a p p a re n tly th e same fo r a l l th r e e tim e p e rio d s , b u t in 1950 th e re was only 8 p er c e n t o f C a th o lic re p re s e n - 124 TABLE 6 RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION OF SAMPLE POPULATION R e lig io u s A f f i l i a t i o n 1940 1950 1960 1940- 50-6< N 7 » N % N 7 o N 7 » P r o te s ta n t 56 58.3 62 6 4.5 62 64.5 180 62.5 C a th o lic 20 20.2 8 8.3 16 16.7 44 14.9 Jew ish 16 1 7.0 20 2 0 .8 11 11.4 47 16.4 No F a ith 0 0 4 4 .2 7 7.3 11 3 .8 O th ers 4 4 .2 2 2 .2 0 0 6 2 .3 T o ta l 96 96 96 288 125 t a t i o n and in 1960, the Jewish group apportioned only 11 per c e n t. The tre n d to c o u n selin g acceptance w ith in spe c i f i c f a i t h s e ttin g s may have accounted fo r t h i s change. In 1950 and 1960 th e re were many m arriage co u n selin g c l i n ic s fu n c tio n in g w ith in s p e c if ic r e l i g i o u s denom inations. These c l i n i c s may have absorbed some of th e C a th o lic and Jewish c l i e n t e l e . Another f a c to r may have been th e m obil i t y and f lu c tu a tio n o f p o p u la tio n s h i f t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e c e n tr a l c l i n i c s e t t i n g . The U nited S ta te s census d a ta 4 on r e lig i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n fo r th e y ea r 1950 show 58.8 per cen t P r o te s ta n t, 33 per cen t C a th o lic , 6 .2 per cen t Jew ish, and 2 per cen t O thers. Compared to 1950 in th e c l i n i c sam ple, we fin d a s l i g h t l y la rg e r p ro p o rtio n of P ro te s t a n t s , 64.5 per c e n t; d ec id ed ly u n re p re s e n ta tio n p ro p o rtio n of C a th o lic s , 8.3 per c e n t; and Jew ish, 21 per c e n t; w ith th e C a th o lic group being u n d e rre p re se n te d and th e Jewish group o v e rre p re se n te d . The O th e r - fa ith group compares e x a c tly . Perhaps Jewish groups tend to accept the norms of th e P ro te s ta n t v alu es in coming to s e c u la r s e ttin g s fo r c o u n se lin g . I t is a lso in te r e s t i n g to n o te th e tre n d of 4 U. S ., Bureau o f th e Census, S t a t i s t i c a l A b stra c t o f th e U nited S ta te s (W ashington: Government P rin tin g Of f i c e , 1962), p. 117. 126 p r o f e s s in g "no f a i t h 1 1 on fa c e s h e e t d a ta . In 1940, no one a d m itte d to t h i s , h u t th e p e r c e n t in c re a s e d from 4 to 7 p er c e n t betw een 1950 and 1960. T able 7 d e a ls w ith th e number o f mixed m a rria g e s in th e sam ple. Of 144 m a rria g e s in th e sam ple, o nly 27, or 18 p er c e n t, were o u t - o f - f a i t h m a rria g e s . In th e ra n k in g o f p ro b lems in th e r e s e a r c h d a t a , problem s o f r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r ences w ere ranked in th e 29th p o s i t i o n o f th e 43 problem s. T his may be due to th e sm a ll p r o p o rtio n o f t h i s ty p e o f m a rria g e in t h i s stu d y . The h ig h e s t in c id e n c e o f mixed m a rria g e o ccu rs among P r o t e s t a n t s , w ith 23 o f th e 27 m ar r ia g e s c o n ta in in g one P r o te s ta n t p a r tn e r . A gain, t h i s may be due t o more th a n h a l f o f th e p o p u la tio n o f th e stu d y a t t e s t i n g to P r o te s ta n t f a i t h . T able 8 p r e s e n ts th e ta b u l a t i o n o f a l l m a rria g e s in w hich each p a r tn e r gave h i s s p e c i f i c d en o m in atio n . Subgroup mixed m a rria g e s w ith in th e d en om ination o f P r o te s ta n tis m a re l i s t e d . I M a rita l s t a t u s . - - P a ta r e g a rd in g m a r i t a l s t a t u s o f th e sample a re p re s e n te d in T able 9. As shown in th e t a b l e , th e g r e a t e s t p r o p o rtio n o f th e sample a re in f i r s t m a rria g e s , w ith 87 p e r c e n t. The y e a rs 1940 and 1950 r e p o r t th e same p e rc e n ta g e o f c o u p le s in f i r s t m a rr ia g e s , 127 TABLE 7 MIXED MARRIAGES IN SAMPLE POPULATION IN RA W DATA FORM R e lig io n s 1940 1950 1960 lO ti P r o te s ta n t- C a t h o lic 4 1 7 12 P r o te s ta n t- J e w is h 0 1 a. 0 1 P r o te s ta n t-A g n o s tic 0 3 6 9 P ro te s ta n t-B u d d h is t 1 0 0 1 C a th o lic -J e w is h 0 0 1 1 C a th o lic -A g n o s tic 0 1 1 2 Je w ish -A g n o stic 0 0 1 1 T o ta l 5 6 16 27 128 TABLE 8 RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION OF MIXED MARRIAGES IN SAMPLE POPULATION IN RA W DATA FORM Mixed M arriages 1940 1950 1960 T o ta l A g n o s tic -C a th o lic 1 1 2 A g n o s tic - C h ris tia n S cience 1 A g n o stic -Je w ish 1 A g n o stic -L u th e ra n 2 A g n o stic -M e th o d ist 1 A g n o stic-N azaren e 1 A g n o s tic - P r o te s ta n t 1 A gnostic-Q uaker 1 A g n o stic -U n ite d B re th re n 2 Assembly o f G od-Lutheran 1 B a p tis t- C a th o lic 1 B a p t i s t - C h r i s t i a n S cience 1 B a p tis t-L u th e ra n 1 B a p tis t - P r e s b y te r i a n 1 B u d d h is t- P r o te s ta n t 1 C a th o lic -C h u rc h o f C h r is t 1 C a th o lic -G re e k Orthodox 1 C a th o lic -L u th e ra n 1 C a th o lic -M e th o d is t 1 1 C a th o li c - P r o te s ta n t 3 4 C h r is t ia n S c ie n c e -L u th e ra n 1 1 Church o f C h ris t-M e th o d is t 1 E p is c o p a lia n -P r e s b y te r ia n 1 E v a n g e lic a l-M e th o d ist 1 Greek O rth o d ix -Jew ish 1 J e w is h -P r o te s ta n t 1 L u th eran -U n ite d B re th re n 1 L u th e ra n -U n ity 1 L u th eran -S ev en th Day A d v e n tis t 1 M e th o d is t- P re s b y te r ia n 2 M e th o d is t- P ro te s ta n t 1 M e th o d is t- U n iv e r s a lis t 1 P r e s b y te r ia n - P r o te s ta n t 1 P ro te s ta n t-Q u a k e r _1 __ __ T o ta ls 12 16 18 46 TABLE 9 MARITAL STATUS OF SAMPLE POPULATION 1940, 1950, A N D 1960 BY PER CENT Number of 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-■60 M arriages M F T M F T M F T M F T 1 st 93.8 89.6 91.7 93.8 89.6 91.7 77.1 79.2 78.1 88.2 86.1 87.2 2nd 6.2 8.3 7.3 6.2 4.2 5.2 12.5 12.5 12.5 8.3 8.3 8.3 3rd 0 0 0 0 2.1 1.0 2.1 4.2 3 .1 .7 2 .1 1.4 4th 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.2 0 2.1 1.4 0 .7 Widowed 0 2.1 1.0 0 4 .2 2.1 4 .2 4 .2 4 .2 1.4 3.5 2.4 130 b u t 1960 shows a d ec id ed d e c re a s e in f i r s t m a rria g e s and an in c r e a s e in second m a rria g e s , from 92 p er c e n t t o 78 p er c e n t f o r th e fo rm e r, and from 6 p e r c e n t to 12 p e r c e n t in th e l a t t e r , d o u b lin g th e p r o p o rtio n o f second m a rria g e c l i e n t e l e from 1940 to 1960. T h ird and f o u r th m a rria g e c o u p le s , alth o u g h sm a ll in p e rc e n ta g e , do show some in c r e a s e from no f o u r th m a rria g e s r e p o r te d in 1940 to 5 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n r e p o r te d in 1960. In 1940 o n ly 7 p er c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n had been d iv o rc e d as compared t o 17 p e r c e n t in 1960. A r e l a t i v e upward tr e n d in d iv o rc e i s shown in th e g e n e r a l p o p u la tio n d a ta o f T ab le 10. In 1940 in t h i s s tu d y , raw d a t a showed no one who had been d iv o rc e d more th a n on ce; in 1950 th e r e was o nly one fem ale d iv o rc e d tw ic e ; w h ile in I960 th e r e w ere th r e e peo p le d iv o rc e d tw ic e , two d iv o rc e d th r e e tim e s , and tw elv e d iv o rc e d once. The re m a rrie d widows o r widow ers coming to m a rria g e c l i n i c s showed th e same ty p e o f in c r e a s e . Two p er c e n t o f th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n w ere re m a rrie d a f t e r lo s s by d e a th and t e n p e r c e n t re m a rrie d a f t e r d iv o r c e . Com parisons w ith th e g e n e r a l p o p u la tio n in m a r i t a l s t a t u s i s shown in T ab le 10. C h ild r e n . - - The number o f c h ild r e n l i v i n g in th e home i s shown i n T ab le 11. A pproxim ately 80 p e r c e n t o f 131 TABLE 10 MARITAL STATUS OF THE UNITED STATES POPULATION 1940, 1950, 1960 BY PER CENTa Number o f M a rriag e s 1940 1950 1960 M F M F M F S in g le 3 4 .8 27.6 2 6 .2 19.6 25.3 19.0 M arried 59.7 59.5 6 8 .0 6 6 .1 69.3 65.9 Widowed 4 .2 11.3 4 .2 12.2 3 .5 12.5 D ivorced 1.2 1.6 1.7 2 .2 1 .8 2 .6 aU. S . , D epartm ent o f Commerce, Bureau o f th e Cen- su 6, S t a t i s t i c a l A b s tr a c t o f th e U n ited S t a t e s , 1962 (Wash in g to n : Government P r in t in g O ff ic e , 1962), p. 35. 132 TABLE 11 PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF NUM BER OF CHILDREN LIVING IN H O M E IN SAMPLE POPULATION 1940, 1950, 1960 Number o f 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 C h ild re n Home N % N % N 7 o N % 0 16 33.3 11 22.9 4 8.3 31 21.5 1 11 22.9 13 27.1 12 25.0 36 25.0 2 12 25.0 14 29.2 19 39.6 45 31.2 3 7 14.6 7 14.6 7 14.6 21 14.6 4 1 2 .1 3 6.2 5 10.4 9 6.3 5-7 1 2 .1 0 0 1 2.1 2 1.4 T o ta l 48 48 48 144 133 th e sample had one o r more c h i ld r e n in th e home. T here was an in c re a s e o f c o u p le s coming to m a rria g e c l i n i c s w ith fo u r or more c h ild r e n in v o lv e d . In 1940, 2 p e r c e n t o f th e sample p o p u la tio n had 4 or more c h i ld r e n compared to 10 p er c e n t o f th e sample h a v in g t h i s number o f c h i l d r e n in 1960. There was a d e c re a s e in th e p e rc e n ta g e o f c o u p le s w ith no c h i ld r e n from 33 p er c e n t in 1940 t o 8 p er c e n t in 1960. These f in d in g s a g re e w ith th e c o n c lu s io n s o f th e v a r io u s s tu d i e s o f m a r i t a l s a t i s f a c t i o n w hich show t h a t th e p re se n c e o f c h i l d r e n in a fa m ily does n o t in c r e a s e th e chances o f m a r i t a l h a p p in e s s .^ The f a c t t h a t 33 p e r c e n t o f c h i l d l e s s c o u p le s came to m a rria g e c l i n i c s in 1940 and on ly o n e - f o u rth as many came in 1960 may r e f l e c t a tr e n d tow ard th e a c c e p ta n c e o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s f o r m a rria g e s in v o lv in g more people th a n j u s t th e c o u p le , p ro v id in g a b a s i s f o r th e grow ing i n t e r e s t in c o n jo in t and fa m ily c o u n s e lin g . O n e -th ird o f th e sample p o p u la tio n had two c h i ld r e n in th e fa m ily , and seven c h i ld r e n was th e maximum number o f c h i ld r e n in th e home. In 1940 66 p er c e n t had one o r more c h i l d r e n , in 1950 77 p e r c e n t had 5 Harvey J . Locke, P r e d ic tin g A djustm ent in Mar r i a g e (New York: H enry H o lt and Company, 1951), pp. 159- 165. 134 c h ild r e n , and in 1960 92 per ce n t o f th e sample had c h i l d re n . T his in d ic a te s t h a t th e number o f c h ild r e n in fa m ilie s involved in m a r ita l problem s i s in c re a s in g and t h a t h av in g c h ild r e n i s n o t a d e t e r r e n t to seek in g h e lp f o r p ro b lem s. Table 12 shows th e ages of th e c h ild r e n in th e c l i n i c sample and T able 13 g iv e s th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ages o f c h ild r e n fo r th e y ea r I960 in fa m ilie s o f th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n . There were 225 c h ild re n in v o lv ed in th e 144 c a s e s , w ith over 80 per c e n t of th e p o p u la tio n having c h ild r e n between th e ages o f one th rough tw elve y e a rs . Almost h a l f of th e sample (46 p er c e n t) had c h ild re n under s ix y e a rs . T his in c re a s e of c l i n i c fa m ilie s w ith c h ild r e n under s ix is shown from 1940 to 1950, but th e r e i s no change in th e number between th e y e a rs o f 1950 and I960. There i s l i t t l e f lu c t u a t i o n in o th e r age c a te g o r ie s . The t o t a l number o f c h ild r e n involved in m a r ita l problem c a se s has alm ost do u b led --fro m 27 per c e n t in 1940 to 42 per ce n t in 1960. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ages of c h ild re n w ith in th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n in I960 in T able 13 shows 31 per c e n t under s ix y e a rs o f age. The sample p o p u la tio n in T able 12 shows 50 per c e n t of th e c h ild re n under s ix y e a rs o f age. 135 TABLE 12 AGES OF CHILDREN LIVING IN HOM ES OF SAMPLE POPULATION BY NUM BER AND PER CENT FOR 1940, 1950, 1960 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 C h ild re n N % N 7, N % N 7 o I n f a n ts 2 3 .8 5 7 .1 2 2 .1 9 4 .2 1-5 y r s . 28 43.5 30 4 4 .1 47 49.4 105 46.6 6-12 y r s . 24 38.7 24 35.3 35 36.5 83 3 6 .8 13-18 y r s . 8 13.0 9 13.5 11 11.6 28 12.4 T o ta l 62 68 95 225 TABLE 13 PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF AGES OF CHILDREN IN FAMILIES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1960a Ages o f C h ild re n Per Cent Under 6 y e a rs 30.8 6-17 y e a rs 26.0 Under 18 y e a rs 56.9 No c h ild re n 4 3 .1 aU .S ., Department o f Commerce, Bureau o f th e Cen- s u s > Summary, G en eral, S o c ia l, Economic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f P o p u la tio n , 1960 (W ashington: Government P r in tin g O ffic e , 1960). 136 R e f e r r a l s o u r c e s .--T h e l i t e r a t u r e g e n e r a lly su g g e s ts t h a t th e m a jo rity o f r e f e r r a l s t o m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s w i l l come from fa m ily and f r i e n d s . T ab le 14 i s p re s e n te d in c a te g o r ie s r e p r e s e n tin g th e th r e e g e o g ra p h ic r e g io n s and th e th r e e tim e p e r io d s . The d a t a show a p p r o x i m a tely th e same p e rc e n ta g e o f r e f e r r a l s from s e l f , fa m ily , f r i e n d s , and mass m edia f o r th e y e a rs 1940 and 1960. T here i s an in c r e a s e in r e f e r r a l s t o m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s from th e p r o f e s s io n s o f law , m i n i s t r y , and p s y c h ia tr y : in 1940 th e r e w ere 8 p er c e n t law yer r e f e r r a l s , w hich in c re a s e d to 19 p e r c e n t in 1960; in 1940 6 p e r c e n t o f r e f e r r a l s w ere from m i n i s t e r s , and t h i s d o u b led t o 12 p e r c e n t in 1960; and in 1940 th e r e were no p s y c h i a t r i c r e f e r r a l s but in 1960 6 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e f e r r a l s w ere from p s y c h i a t r i s t s . C ounselors* b a c k g ro u n d s. --T a b le 15 i s p re s e n te d to compare changes in th e background and t r a i n i n g o f peo p le who c o u n s e l in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s . Of s i x t y - e i g h t m a rria g e c o u n s e lo rs in th e sam ple, 71 p e r c e n t a re m ale and 29 p er c e n t fem ale. A lthough th e r e i s a t o t a l o f more c o u n s e lo rs w ith m a s te r s ' d e g re e s i n 1960 th a n in 1940, th e number o f c o u n s e lo rs a t th e d o c t o r a l l e v e l d e c re a se d from seven c o u n s e lo rs h o ld in g t h i s d e g re e in 1940 t o t h r e e TABLE 14 SOURCES OF REFERRAL BY REGION AN D YEAR 1950 1960 1940-50-60 s E ast Cen t r a l West T o tal E ast Cen t r a l West T o tal E ast Cen t r a l West T o ta l E ast Cen t r a l West T o tal 1. 12.5 37.5 31.3 27.1 18.7 37.5 56.3 37.5 12.5 12.5 56.3 27.1 14.6 29.2 47.9 32.3 2. 18.8 12.6 31.3 20.8 31.3 6.3 12.5 16.7 31.2 6.3 18.8 20.8 20.8 16.7 20.9 19.4 3. 0 18.3 6.3 8.4 6.3 31.9 6.3 14.6 6.3 43.8 6.3 18.8 4 .2 31,3 6.3 13.9 4. 12.5 6.3 12.5 10.4 18.7 0 12.5 10.4 18.7 0 6.3 8.3 16.7 2.1 10.4 9.7 5. 12.5 0 6.3 6.3 0 6.3 0 2 .1 25.0 6.3 6.3 12.5 12.5 4 .2 4 .2 7.0 6. 0 0 12.5 4 .2 6.3 0 12.5 6.3 6.3 0 6.3 4 .2 4 .2 0 10.4 4 .9 7. 0 18.7 0 6.3 0 18.7 0 6.3 0 0 0 0 0 12.5 0 4 .2 8. 18.7 6.3 0 8.3 6.3 0 0 2.1 0 0 0 0 8.3 2.1 0 3.5 9. 0 0 0 0 6.3 0 0 2.1 18.7 0 0 6.3 8.3 0 0 2.9 10. 12.5 0 0 4 .2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 .2 0 0 1.4 11. 6.3 0 0 2.1 6.3 0 0 2.1 0 0 0 0 4 .2 0 0 1.4 12. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.3 0 2.1 0 2.1 0 .7 13. 6.3 0 0 2.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 .1 0 0 .7 aS = Sources: 1. S e l f - r e f e r r a l 5. M in iste rs 10. 2. F a m ily --frie n d s 6. Mass media 11. 3. Lawyers 7. Court s 12. 4. P h y sician s 8. C lin ic s 13. 9. P s y c h ia tr is ts Nurses S o c ia l w orkers Red Cross Teachers CO TABLE 15 COUNSELORS' DEGREES, BACKGROUND, AND SEX FOR 1940, 1950, 1960 1940 1950 1960 T o tal Degree M F Background Degree M F Background Degree M F Background 1. M.D. 2. Ph.D. D.Sc. 3. M.A. 1 1 P sy ch ia try Psychology 4 1 Physiology 2 1 Education M.D. 4 0 P sy c h ia try M.D. Psychology Ph.D. Ph.D. D.S.W. 4. M.S.W. 3 2 5. LLB 0 1 6. B.D. 0 0 ? * B.A. 0 4 B.S. T o ta l 10 10 E ducation S o c ia l Work L ib. A rts B.A. B.S. 0 2 S o c ia l Work D.S.W, M.A. M.S. 4. 2 M.L. M.S.W. 3 1 LLB 1 0 B.D. 2 0 E ducation M.S. Educat ion 0 5 Philosophy S o c ia l Work 14 10 0 0 6 A nthropology 1 2 S o c ia l Work 10 Sociology E ducation M.A. M.S. 7 2 Psychology Speech Pathology 18 M.S.W. 3 2 S o c ia l Work 14 LLB 1 0 Law 3 B.D, 4 0 C lergy 6 B.A. B.S. 1 1 S o c ia l Work Lib. A rts 11 17 7 68 > - * 00 139 c o u n se lo rs w ith t h i s degree in 1960. A s im ila r d e c re ase in th e number o f b a c h e lo r s ' degrees i s e v id e n t, w ith fo u r c o u n se lo rs in 1940 compared to two c o u n se lo rs in 1960 h av ing t h i s d eg ree . Psychology, e d u c a tio n , and s o c ia l work p rovide th e major background fo r th e c o u n se lo rs in t h i s sam ple. Summary. --A n a ly sis o f th e sample under study shows i t i s composed p rim a rily of c o u p le s: in t h e i r t h i r t i e s , w ith approxim ately th r e e y e a r s ' age d if fe re n c e between h u s band and w ife ; who have h ig h school and c o lle g e e d u c a tio n s; belong to th e upper o c c u p a tio n a l c l a s s ; are predom inantly P r o te s ta n t, w ith few i n t e r f a i t h m a rria g e s; are in t h e i r f i r s t m a rria g e ; have one or more c h ild re n between th e ages o f one and tw elv e; have been r e f e r r e d to th e m arriage c l i n i c through in fo rm al so u rces of fam ily and frie n d s or through s e l f - r e f e r r a l ; and are counseled m ainly by male m arriage c o u n se lo rs w ith m a s te rs ' degrees in e d u c a tio n , psychology, or s o c ia l work. Also p re se n te d in t h i s s e c tio n were d a ta re g a rd in g e d u c a tio n a l and o c c u p a tio n a l f a c to r s which would d e fin e a h ig h e r-th a n -a v e ra g e , or upper-m iddle c l a s s , s t r a t a a c c e p t ing th e co u n selin g o f p r iv a te n o n p ro fit m arriage c l i n i c s ; 140 showing r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n s ,m a r it a l s t a t u s , and in v o lv e ment o f c h ild r e n in a segment o f fam ily l i f e which adm its to problem s and seeks aid in s o lv in g them. To whom th e fin d in g s may be a p p lie d .--W hen a sample h as been s t r a t i f i e d to p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , c a u tio n must be used in ap p ly in g th e r e s u l t s to o th e r th a n th e sample s tu d ie d . However, sin c e th e c a se s were c o lle c te d by random sam pling from th re e geographic lo c a tio n s in th e U nited S ta te s , th e r e s u l t s may be compared w ith o th e r sam pling p o p u la tio n s o f in v e s tig a tiv e s tu d ie s in t h i s f i e l d . T e s tin g th e H ypotheses H y p o th esis 1 . --T h ere i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe re n c e in th e ty p e s of problem s c o u n se lo rs focused upon between th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960. O p e ra tio n a lly d e fin in g th e term s o f t h i s h y p o th e s is r e s u l t s in 1A: an a n a ly s is o f ju d g e s ' ra n k in g s o f problems reco rd ed by m arriage coun s e lo r s in th e c a te g o r ie s o f s i t u a t i o n a l , p s y c h o lo g ic a l, and i n t e r a c t i o n a l f o r th e y e a rs 1940, 1950, and 1960 w i l l show no change as m easured by th e c h i sq u a re , th e sig n t e s t , and th e K endall c o e f f i c i e n t of concordance. The r e s u l t s of 141 t h i s in v e s tig a tio n are p resen ted in th e fo llo w in g ta b le s . Table 16 shows th e fin d in g s by p ercentage and rank o f th re e main types o f problems fo r th e th re e tim e p e rio d s. A l though rank o rder of th e types of problems did not change fo r th e th re e tim e p e rio d s, the c h i square o f 30.67 w ith 4 degrees of freedom is c o n sid erab ly g re a te r th a n th e fig u re re q u ire d fo r s ig n ific a n c e a t the .05 le v e l (1 1 .6 7 ), and we may r e j e c t the h y p o th e sis w ith confidence and s t a t e th e re i s a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e in th e types of problems coun s e lo rs focused upon between th e y ea rs 1940 and I960. The d iffe re n c e s are in th e co n tin u in g d ir e c tio n of le s s focus on in te r a c ti o n a l problems from 1940 to I960, w ith 26 per cent to 17 per c e n t, and a steady in c re a se in focus on s i t u a t i o n a l problems through th e se y e a rs , from 38 per cent to 46 per c e n t. The focus on p sy c h o lo g ica l problems is approxim ately equal fo r 1940 and I960 w ith 36 per cen t fo r both p e rio d s, but i t decreased somewhat in 1950. The i n feren ce here seems to c o n tra d ic t th e th e o r e t i c a l emphasis in th e l i t e r a t u r e on in te r a c tio n and r o le p la y in g c o n f l i c t being th e fo c a l p o in ts in m arriage co u n selin g . In t h i s study th e focus o f m arriage c o u n selin g , as determ ined by th e s ig n if ic a n t frequency o f re fe re n c e by th e co u n selo r to th e th re e types of problem s, shows 76 per cen t a tte n tio n to 142 TABLE 16 RANK AN D PERCENTAGE OF SITUATIONAL, INTERACTIONAL, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS FOR 1940, 1950, AND 1960 Problem s 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 % Rank % Rank % Rank % Rank S i t u a t i o n a l 38.4 1 4 5 .8 1 4 6 .1 1 4 5 .1 1 P sy c h o lo g ic a l 35.6 2 29.5 2 36.5 2 31.4 2 I n t e r a c t i o n a l 2 6 .0 3 24.7 3 17.4 3 23.5 3 Chi squ are - 30.67 4 d f 143 s i t u a t i o n a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l problem s and 23 per c e n t r e f e r e n c e s ta te m e n ts to i n t e r a c t i o n a l problem s. In o rd e r t o an a ly ze th e ra n k in g o f a l l problem s and c o m p la in ts , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s ac ce p ted and ranked by ju d g e s a re shown in T able 17. T his q u a s i- s c a le shows t h a t in th e o p in io n of te n ju d g e s , s i t u a t i o n a l problem s a re c o n sid e re d m ild t o somewhat s e r io u s in t r e a t a b i l i t y ; i n t e r a c t i o n a l problem s are judged as b ein g s e rio u s from tre a tm e n t s ta n d p o in t ; and p s y c h o lo g ic a l problem s range from v e ry s e rio u s to se v ere f o r tre a tm e n t purposes and p ro g n o s is . T able 18 p re s e n ts a m o d ified scalogram based upon th e ju d g e s ’ r a n k in g s , w ith a c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y o f .76. Com p a rin g T able 16 w ith th e s c a le in T able 17, i t can be d eterm in ed t h a t th e m arriag e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s in t h i s stu d y sp en t 45 p er c e n t of t h e i r tim e and focus on s i t u a t i o n a l problem s; 23 p er c e n t on i n t e r a c t i o n a l problem s; and 31 p er c e n t on p s y c h o lo g ic a l problem s. T able 19 ra n k s th e tw elve c l a s s i f i e d problem s s c a le d by th e ju d g e s. T his ra n k in g i s based upon th e p e r cen tag e of freq u en cy of r e f e r e n c e to problem s in sta te m e n ts from th e ca se r e c o r d s . Comparison of T ables 17 and 19 w i l l show some agreem ent betw een th e ra n k in g of d a ta o b ta in e d from ca se re c o rd s w ith ju d g e s ' ra n k in g s . I f t h i s agreem ent TABLE 17 PER CENT A N D RANKING BY IN M ARRIAGE JUDGES O N PROBLEM S CAUSING MILD TO SEVERE CONFLICT IN TERM S OF TREATABILITY A ND PROGNOSIS3 Problems- -Complaint s 5 Rank In c lu s iv e V a riab les W 6 < u t H O £ to d o •H O J b u •r4 V 3 c f l C O C O * H 0 4 J 0 ) O r-i a £ > n o Q> > 4 4-> 5 1. Economic c o n d itio n s causing s i t u a t i o n a l problems 2. A ttitu d e s causing s i t u a t i o n a l problems 3. O ther people causing s i t u a t i o n a l problems 4. A ctions causing s i t u a t i o n a l problems 5. C overt c o n f lic ts cau sin g in te r a c ti o n a l problems 6. C o v e rt-o v e rt problems causing in te r a c ti o n a l problems 90 .10 ,60 .30 .10 20 .70 .10 20 .60 .20 .10 .70 .20 ,20 .80 100 100 100 100 100 100 F in an c es, occupa t i o n , w if e 's working R e lig io n , v a lu e s , i n t e r e s t s , forced m arriage In -la w s, c h ild re n , i n f i d e l i t y S e p a ra tio n , n e g le c t, poor housekeeping, s lo v e n lin e s s , g o ssip in g Temperament d i f f e r en c es, r o le con f l i c t s , la c k of a f f e c tio n Sexual m a la d ju st ment i - * P sychological Problem s TABLE 17—C ontinued Pr ob lems—Complaint s T o ta l % Rank In c lu siv e V ariab les • u > 2 6 c f l Q ) } -i f-1 Q ) o && 7. Overt c o n f lic ts causing i n te r a c ti o n a l problems 8. Immature behavior causing p sy ch o lo g ical c o n f lic ts 9. N eu ro tic behavior causing p sy c h o lo g ical c o n f l i c t s 10. H o s tile behavior causing p sy c h o lo g ical c o n f lic ts 11. S o cio p ath ic behavior causing p sy c h o lo g ica l c o n f lic ts 20 .70 .10 .30 .70 100 .10 .70 .20 100 9 .20 .60 .20 100 10 .10 .90 100 11 Poor communication, nagging, sarcasm , argument s , phys ic a l abuse 100 8 E g o c e n tric ity , I r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y Inadequacy, p a s s iv i t y , r i g i d i t y , je a lo u s y , psycho som atic com plaints A ggression, anger, ra g e , tem per, c r i t i c a l n e s s A lcoholism , gam- b lin g , ly in g , s te a li n g , sex a b e rra tio n s I — 1 - C " L n TABLE 17 —C ontinued Problem s--C om plaints 1 2 3 4 5 T o tal 1 Rank In c lu s iv e V a ria b le s 4 * SsC to > p u £ 12. P sychotic behavior causing p sy c h o lo g ica l c o n f lic ts .10 .90 100 12 M ental i l l n e s s , extreme d e p re s sio n C o m p lete ranking o rd ers in Appendix E. ^1 * * Mild 2 - Somewhat S erio u s 3 = S erious 4 » Very S erious 5 “ Severe 146 147 TABLE 18 MODIFIED SCALOGRAM O F JUDGES' RANKINGS OF PROBLEM S Judges Problems 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 T o ta l 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 6 3 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 7 4 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 6 5 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 7 6 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 8 7 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 7 8 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 7 9 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 6 10 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 7 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 9 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 9 T o tal 9 10 9 11 9 8 7 8 9 8 88 E rro rs ® 32 P ro p o rtio n of e r r o r s « .24 C o e ff ic ie n t of r e p r o d u c ib il ity ® .76 C u ttin g score fo r judges = 5 .5 148 TABLE 19 RANK A N D PERCENTAGE OF ALL CLASSIFIED PROBLEM S FOR 1940, 1950, AND I960 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n --------------------------------------------------------------------- of Problems Per , Per „ . Per „ , Per „ . _ Rank „ ^ Rank „ ^ Rank _ Rank Cent Cent Cent Cent 1. S itu a tio n s w ith o th e r 17.4 1 18.3 1 24.2 1 21.0 1 people 2. Economic s it u a ti o n s 8.7 5 12.5 2 9.3 4 10.5 2 3. N eu ro tic behavior 12.6 2 10.8 4 9.6 3 10.4 3 (p sy c h o lo g ic a l) 4 ' ^ p sy c h o lo g ic a l) 6 ' 7 8 8‘ X 5 12' 2 2 9 ' 8 9 5. Sexual malad justm ent 10.6 3 11.6 3 5.7 8 8.7 5 ( in te r a c tio n ) 6. S o c ia l i n t e r a c tio n 10.3 4 6.6 8 8.3 5 7 .8 6 (o v e rt) 7. Em otional in te r a c ti o n 5 .1 10 6.5 9 7 .8 6 6.9 7 (c o v e rt) 8. S itu a tio n a l a c tio n s - - 4 .0 11 7.3 7 7.2 7 6.9 8 beh av io r 9. S itu a tio n a l a t t i t u d e s 8.3 6 7 .7 6 5 .4 9 6 .7 9 149 TABLE 19--C o n tin u e d 10. P sychotic behavior (psycholog i c a l) 11. Immature behavior (psycholog ic a l) 12. S o cio p ath ic behavior (psycholog i c a l ) 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 C la ssific a tio n ---------------------------------------------------------------------- o f Problems Per „ , Per „ , Per ^ . Per _ . Cent Ratlk Cent Rank Cent Rank CentRank 5 .7 9 4 .7 10 4 .6 10 4 .8 10 3.7 12 3 .8 11 3.5 11 3.6 11 6.9 7 2.3 12 2.2 12 2 .8 12 150 i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i t w i l l v a l i d a t e th e ra n k in g p ro ced u re o f th e ju d g e s . For exam ple, in b o th t a b l e s , s i t u a t i o n a l problem s a re ranked in f i r s t and second p la c e s ; i n t e r a c t i o n a l problem s ra n k f i v e , s i x , and se v en ; and p sy c h o lo g ic a l problem s ra n k t e n , e le v e n , and tw e lv e . However, th e r e a re d i f f e r e n c e s o f ra n k in g s w ith in th e s u b c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s betw een th e two t a b l e s . In T able 17, th e ju d g e s ra n k s i t u a t i o n s con cern ed w ith economic problem s as th e f i r s t s i t u a t i o n a l problem . In T able 19, th e f i r s t s i t u a t i o n a l problem i s ranked as s i t u a t i o n s in v o lv in g o th e r p e o p le . The ju d g e s ra n k p s y c h o tic b e h a v io r as number tw e lv e w ith in th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l c a te g o ry in T able 17. S o c io p a th ic b e h a v io r, how ever, i s ranked by freq u en cy as number tw elv e in th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l c a te g o ry of T able 19. In o rd e r to compare th e s e d if f e r e n c e s s t a t i s t i c a l l y , th e s ig n t e s t was a p p lie d to th e two ty p e s o f ra n k in g s . The h y p o th e s is of th e s ig n t e s t s t a t e d th e r e would be no agreem ent betw een th e ra n k in g o f th e ju d g e s on th e tw elv e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f problem s compared w ith th e ra n k in g s ob ta in e d th ro u g h fre q u en cy o f o c c u rre n c e from th e s ta te m e n ts o f th e c a se r e c o r d s . T able 20 g iv e s th e r e s u l t o f .40 which i s s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e .05 l e v e l of chance and p e r m its th e a c c e p ta n c e o f agreem ent betw een th e two r a n k in g s . 151 TABLE 20 COMPARISON BETW EEN JUDGES' RANKINGS A ND FREQUENCY DATA BY SIGN TEST Prob lems essaBBStssx3ass3Esasacs Rank o f Judges Agreement o f D ata S itu a tio n s 1 + 2 + 3 - 4 - I n te r a c tio n s 5 + 6 + 7 + P sy c h o lo g ic a l 8 - 9 - 10 + 11 + 12 + x * 4/12 .40 ( tw o -ta ile d ) Q - P - .5 .05 le v e l 152 T h is v a l i d a t e s th e ra n k in g p ro ced u re o f th e ju d g e s . The K endall c o e f f i c i e n t of concordance (W) was a p p lie d to th e tw elve ra n k in g s o f problem s. The W of .78 was s i g n i f i c a n t , when t e s t e d by c h i square w ith 11 d e g re e s o f freedom , a t 2 5 .7 4 . T his showed t h a t f o r th e th r e e tim e p e rio d s th e r e was agreem ent beyond th e .05 l e v e l f o r th e ra n k in g of th e tw elve problem s. T h is , a g a in , v a l i d a t e s th e ra n k in g p ro c e d u re , b u t i s to be c o n s id e re d a f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s o f th e d a ta and does n o t r e f u t e n o r ac c e p t th e o r i g i n a l h y p o th e s is . By s t a t i s t i c a l acce p tan c e o f th e ra n k in g p ro c e d u re , and by th e c h i sq u are te c h n iq u e a p p lie d in T able 16, we may r e j e c t th e h y p o th e s is of no change in th e ty p e s o f problem s c o u n s e lo rs focused upon betw een 1940 and 1960 when ranked in th e c a te g o r ie s o f s i t u a t i o n a l , psycho l o g i c a l , and i n t e r a c t i o n a l . H y p o th esis 2 . --Hy p o th e s is 2 s t a t e s th e r e is no s i g n i f i c a n t change in th e em phasis c o u n s e lo rs p laced upon c l i e n t problem s compared t o th e em phasis p laced upon th e dynam ics o f th e c o u n s e lo r - c lie n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e y e a rs of 1940 and I960. O p e ra tio n a lly d e fin e d , t h i s hypoth e s i s s t a t e s : (2A) an a n a ly s is of th e p ro p o rtio n of s t a t e ments p laced in th e c a te g o ry o f problem s and c o m p la in ts 153 compared to th e p r o p o rtio n of s ta te m e n ts p la ced in th e c a t e g o r ie s o f c o u n s e lo r approach and tre a tm e n t te c h n iq u e s in th e ca se re c o rd s f o r 1940, 1950, and 1960 w i l l show no change as m easured by c h i sq u a re . T able 21 shows th e f r e quency and p e rc e n ta g e o f sta te m e n ts re c o rd e d in th e ca se re c o rd s w ith in th e th r e e c a te g o r ie s : (1) problem s and com p l a i n t s , (2) c o u n s e lo r ap proach, and (3) te c h n iq u e s . The c h i squ are of 154.9 shows a s i g n i f i c a n t change in th e number o f s ta te m e n ts a p p lie d to each o f th e th r e e c a te g o r ie s : problem s, c o u n s e lo r ap p ro ach , and te c h n iq u e s f o r th e th r e e tim e p e rio d s . In o rd e r t o e v a lu a te th e problem c a te g o ry o n ly , which i s b a s ic t o th e s t a t e d h y p o th e s i s , c h i sq u are was a p p lie d in a co n tin g en c y t a b l e betw een th e freq u en cy o f r e f e r e n c e to problem s in 1940 and t h a t o f 1960. The r e s u l t of 28.5 w ith 1 d eg ree o f freedom r e j e c t s h y p o th e s is 2 and a c c e p ts th a t th e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t change beyond th e .05 l e v e l of chance in th e freq u en cy of problem r e f e r e n c e betw een 1940 and I960. The p e rc e n ta g e in c re a s e from 37 p er c e n t in 1940 to 50 p er ce n t in 1960 shows t h a t r e f e r e n c e to problem s in c re a s e d in com parison w ith th e o th e r s ta te m e n ts in th e ca se r e c o r d s , which d e c re a s e d in u se . For exam ple, approach s ta te m e n ts were reco rd ed 42 p e r c e n t o f th e tim e in 1940 and 34 p e r c e n t of TABLE 21 FREQUENCY A N D PER CENT OF STATEMENTS REFERRING TO PROBLEMS, COUNSELOR APPROACH, A N D TREATM ENT TECHNIQUES AS RECORDED IN CASE PROTOCALS 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 R eferences F % F % F 7 c F 7 c Problems 992 37.3 3,385 47.3 3,845 49.7 8,222 46.8 Approach 1,118 42.0 2,316 32.3 2,604 33.6 6,038 34.4 Techniques 552 20.7 1,464 20.4 1,290 16.7 3,306 18.8 T o tals 2,662 7,165 7,739 17,566 Chi square = 154.9 df = 4 Chi square =28.5 d f - 1 (1940-1960) 155 th e tim e in 1960. Technique s ta te m e n ts w ere re c o rd e d 21 p e r c e n t o f th e tim e in 1940 and 17 p e r c e n t in 1960. These r e s u l t s may be compared w ith th e approach le v e ls o f h y p o th e s is 3 , where i t w i l l be shown t h a t fo cu s upon p ro b lems and c o m p la in ts shows th e same tr e n d of em phasis by fre q u en cy o f r e c o r d in g from 1940 to I960. T ab le 22 i s p re s e n te d in o rd e r to summarize a l l s p e c i f i c problem s by num ber, p e rc e n ta g e , and ra n k in g . T his t a b l e shows fo u r problem s c o n s i s t e n t l y ranked as m ajor com p l a i n t s f o r th e t h r e e tim e p e r io d s : s e x u a l m a la d ju stm e n t, in - la w s , c h i l d r e n , and f i n a n c i a l problem s. These f in d in g s f L ag ree w ith t h r e e o f th e f iv e f a c t o r s Brim, e t a l . , l i s t e d as h av in g h ig h problem c o n te n t w ith c h i l d - r e a r i n g , husband- w ife r e l a t i o n s , and economic s t a t u s . The f in d in g s o f t h i s stu d y do n o t a g re e w ith th e o th e r two f a c t o r s th e y c o n s id e re d o f h ig h problem c o n te n t: community a c t i v i t y and r e l i g io n . T here i s a ls o agreem ent w ith t h r e e o f th e seven main c o m p la in ts l i s t e d in B rayshaw 's s t u d y s e x , p a r e n t a l ^ O r v i lle G. Brim , J r . , Row W. F a i r c h i l d , and Edgar F. B o r g a tta , " R e la tio n s betw een Fam ily P ro b le m s," M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g , X X III, No. 3 (A ugust, 1961), pp. 219- 226. ^A. Jo sep h Brayshaw, "M iddle-Aged M a rria g e : I d e a l ism , R ealism and th e S earch f o r M eaning."M arriag e and TABLE 22 RANK A N D PER CENT OF REFERENCES TO UNCLASSIFIED PROBLEM S AND COMPLAINTS FOR 1940, 1950, 1960 Problem 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 R eferences N % Rank N % Rank N % Rank N % Rank 1. Sexual malad justm ent 105 10.6 1 392 11.6 1 218 5.7 3 715 8.7 1 2. In-law s 74 7.5 2 301 8.9 2 322 8.3 2 697 8.5 2 3. C hildren 53 5.3 4 221 6.5 4 393 10.2 1 667 8.1 3 4. Finances 58 5 .8 3 228 6 .8 3 179 4.6 5 465 5.7 4 5. I n f i d e l i t y 45 4.5 5 97 2.9 13 216 5.6 4 358 4 .4 5 6. Inadequacy 39 3.9 7.5 129 3 .8 7 171 4 .4 6 339 4 .1 6 7. V ocation 20 2 .0 20 154 4.6 5.5 127 3,3 11 301 3.7 7 8. I n te r e s t s 37 3.7 9 154 4 .6 5.5 96 2.5 18.5 287 3.5 8 9. P sychotic 34 3.4 10 120 3.5 9 115 3 .0 13 269 3.3 9 10. No a f f e c tio n 20 2.0 20 110 3.3 10 130 3.4 10 260 3.2 10 11. Anger 7 .7 33.5 89 2.6 14 155 4 .0 8 251 3 .1 11.5 12. S ep aratio n 8 .8 31.5 82 2.4 15 161 4 .2 7 251 3 .1 11.5 13. P h y sio lo g ic a l 20 2 .0 20 121 3.6 8 104 2.7 15 245 3 .0 13 14. Im m aturity 22 2.2 18 103 3 .0 11 110 2.9 14 235 2.9 14 15. Arguments 39 3.9 7.5 98 2.9 12 86 2.2 20 223 2.7 15 16. A ggression 25 2.5 15 67 2.0 16 120 3.1 12 212 2.6 16 17. Temper 17 1.7 24 64 1.9 18 96 2.5 18.5 177 2.1 17 18. C r itic a ln e s s 17 1.7 24 53 1.6 21 99 2.6 16 169 2 .0 18 19. Values 29 2.9 13.5 61 1.8 20 72 1.9 21 162 2 .0 19.5 TABLE 22—C ontinued 1 am 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 R eferences N % Rank N % Rank N % Rank N 1 Rank 20. Role c o n f lic t 2 .2 40 63 1.9 19 97 2.5 17 162 2 .0 19.5 21. Poor communication 5 .5 37.5 14 .4 38.5 133 3.4 9 152 1.9 21 22. Temperament 29 2.9 13.5 48 1.4 23 71 1.8 22 148 1.8 22 23. P h y sical abuse 31 3 .1 11.5 50 1.5 22 49 1.3 25.5 130 1.6 23 24. Poor housekeeping 10 1.0 29.5 65 1.9 17 49 1.3 25.5 124 1.5 24.5 25. D epression 23 2.3 17 38 1.1 27 63 1.6 23 124 1.5 24.5 26. Alcoholism 41 4 .1 6 30 .9 32 35 .9 29 106 1.3 26 27. W ife 's working 8 .8 31.5 41 1.2 26 53 1.4 24 102 1.2 27 28. Jealo u sy 24 2.4 16 45 1.3 25 31 .8 30 100 1.2 28 29. R e lig io n 16 1.6 26 35 1.0 29 39 1.0 28 90 1.1 29 30. Forced m arriage 7 .7 33.5 27 .8 35 48 1.2 27 82 1 .0 30 31. Tensions 31 3.1 11.5 34 1.0 30 16 .4 37 81 1 .0 31 32. Sexual a b e rra tio n s 18 1.8 22 36 1.1 28 23 .6 35 77 .9 32 33. Nagging 10 1.0 29.5 32 .9 31 29 .8 32 71 .9 33 34. Sarcasm 17 1.7 24 28 .8 33.5 24 .6 33.5 69 .8 34 35. E g o c e n tric ity 15 1.5 27.5 24 .7 36 24 .6 33.5 63 .8 35 36. S lo v e n lin e ss 0 0 42.5 47 1.4 24 8 .2 41 55 .7 36 37. N eglect 15 1.5 27.5 28 .8 33.5 10 .3 39.5 53 .6 37 38. W ithdrawal 6 .6 35.5 14 .4 38.5 30 .8 31 50 .6 38 39. R ig id ity 5 .5 37.5 21 .6 37 17 .4 36 43 .5 39 40. Lying 6 .6 35.5 2 .05 41.5 13 .3 38 21 .3 40 TABLE 22--C o n tin u ed Problem R eferences 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 N % Rank N % Rank N % Rank N % Rank 41. S te a lin g 0 0 42.5 7 .2 40 10 .3 39.5 17 .2 41 42. Gambling 3 .3 39 2 .05 41.5 3 .1 42 8 .1 42 43. G ossiping 1 .1 41 0 0 43 0 0 43 1 .01 43 T o tal 992 3,385 3,845 8,222 158 159 in f lu e n c e and incom e. T here i s no m en tio n o f c h i l d r e n as c a u s e s o f c o m p la in ts in th e Brayshaw s tu d y f o r th e c o u p le s m a rrie d f o r 18 y e a rs o r lo n g e r. Economic d i f f i c u l t i e s a re c o n s id e re d a m ajo r com p l a i n t in f a m il ie s in th e s tu d i e s o f H o llis ,® S kidm ore,^ L a n d i s , B urgess and C o t t r e l l , ** and L o c k e . T h i s stu d y a g re e s . In th e L an d is s tu d y , s e x u a l a d ju s tm e n t, f in a n c e s , and in -la w s a re m ajor co m p lain ts.* ® These a re a ls o m ajor c o m p la in ts in t h i s s tu d y . L an d is does n o t l i s t problem s c o n c e rn in g c h i ld r e n . T h is c a te g o ry i s a ls o o m itte d i n th e Locke s tu d y as d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g betw een h a p p ily m a rrie d and d iv o rc e d g ro u p s. T here seems t o be agreem ent betw een th e F am ily L i v in g . XXIV, No. 4 (November, 1962), pp. 358-364. ^ F lo re n c e H o l l i s , Women in M a r it a l C o n f lic t (New Y ork: F am ily S e rv ic e A s s o c ia tio n o f A m erica, 1949). Q 7Rex A. Skidm ore, H ulda G a r r e t t , and C. Jay S k id m ore, M arriag e C o n s u ltin g (New Y ork: H arp er and B r o s . , 1956. *®In S kid m o re, e t a l . , i b i d . **E rnest W. B urgess and L eonard S. C o t t r e l l , P re d i c t i n g S u ccess o r F a i l u r e in M a rriag e (New Y ork: P r e n tic e H a l l , 1939. 12 Locke, op. c i t . 1 1 • LJS k id m o re , e t a l . . op. c i t . 160 fin d in g s of t h i s study and th e re s e a rc h s tu d ie s mentioned w ith th e ex c e p tio n of th e ca te g o ry of c h ild r e n , which i s c o n sid ered a major com plaint in m a r ita l problems brought to m arriage c o u n selin g c l i n i c s , but n o t c o n sid ered as such in o th e r s tu d ie s . H ypothesis 3 . --H y p o th esis 3 s t a t e s th e re i s no s ig n i f ic a n t d if fe re n c e in th e le v e ls of approach and em p h asis co u n selo rs used between th e y e a rs of 1940 and I960. This h y p o th e s is , when o p e r a tio n a lly d e fin e d , s t a t e s : (3A) an a n a ly s is by ju d g e s' ran k in g s of m arriage c o u n s e lo rs ' approach in th e c a te g o rie s of focus upon th e p a s t, th e p re s e n t, and w ith in depth le v e ls fo r th e y e a rs 1940, 1950, and I960 w i l l show no change as measured by c h i square and K e n d a ll's c o e f f ic ie n t o f concordance. Tables 23 and 24 give th e p ercentage and ran k in g by te n judges on tw elve c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s d e s c rib in g c o u n s e lo rs ' approach and le v e l of em phasis, and th e scalogram i n d i c a t ing th e ju d g e s' c h o ic e s. The p ercen tag e range of a l l ra n k ings was from 70 to 100 fo r acceptance of each c l a s s i f i c a tio n according to th e c r i t e r i o n . D ev ia tio n s were c o n sid ered e r r o r s in o rd er to o b ta in th e c o e f f ic ie n t of r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y , which was .79. True s c a le r e p r o d u c ib ility TABLE 23 PER CENT A N D JUDGES' RANKINGS O N COUNSELOR APPROACH IN TERM S OF TIME A N D DEPTH Emphasis and Approach 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 T o ta l Rank P resent Period 1. Problem s-- .90 .10 100 1 Complaints 2. Budget .10 .70 .10 .10 100 2 3. V ocation .80 .10 .10 100 3 4. I n te r a c tio n .70 .20 .10 100 4 P ast P eriods 5. E a rly Mar .20 .80 100 5 ria g e 6. C ourtship .10 .10 .70 .10 100 6 7. Adolescence .10 .70 .10 .10 100 7 8. Childhood .10 .10 .80 100 8 9. Family Back .10 .10 .80 100 ground 9 TABLE 23—C ontinued Emphasis and Approach 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 T o ta l Rank Depth Levels 10. F e e lin g s — Emotions 11. In sig h t 12. Dreams .10 .80 .10 .10 .90 1.00 100 100 10 11 12 TABLE 24 MODIFIED SCALOGRAM O N JUDGES’ RANKINGS OF COUNSELOR APPROACHa Judges Approach 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 T o ta l 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 7 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 8 4 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 7 5 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 7 6 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 7 7 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 7 8 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 8 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 8 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 9 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 T o tal 8 10 12 10 10 10 7 8 10 10 95 E rro rs = 25 P ro p o rtio n o f e r r o r s = .21 C o e ffic ie n t o f r e p r o d u c ib ility = .79 Ju d g es' c u ttin g sco re =5.5 aSee Appendix E fo r com plete ran k in g s 163 164 should be a t l e a s t .8 5 . However, th e d i r e c t i o n o f a g re e ment p e rm its ac ce p tan c e o f th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s w ith know ledge o f i t s l i m i t a t i o n s . T able 25 g iv e s th e ra n k and p e rc e n ta g e o f s t a t e m ents d e s c r ib in g c o u n s e lo r fo c u s , o r le v e l o f ap p ro ach , from th e d a t a and p la c e d in to th e ra n k in g o rd e r s e le c te d by th e ju d g e s . The c h i sq u are o f 5 8 .0 based on a c o n tin g e n c y two- by-tw o c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t o t a l approach s ta te m e n ts betw een 1940 and 1960 r e j e c t s h y p o th e s is 3 and a c c e p ts t h a t th e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e approach betw een th e s e two tim e p e rio d s beyond th e .05 l e v e l of chance. The d i f fe re n c e i s ap p a re n t in th e in c re a s e in em phasis on p re s e n t le v e ls of tim e from 33 per c e n t in 1940 to 40 p er c e n t in 1960, w ith th e in v e rs e tr e n d in p a s t - l e v e l em phasis from 50 per c e n t in 1940 to 43 per c e n t in 1960. T h is stu d y shows 17 per c e n t o f th e s ta te m e n ts d e s c r ib in g c o u n s e lo r em phasis d e a l t in d ep th le v e ls o f ap proach. W e can co n c lu d e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t w h ile m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g g e n e r a lly c o n fin e s i t s m ajor e f f o r t s o f fo cu s to th e p re s e n t and th e p a s t , i t i s n o t lim ite d t o t h i s and e x p lo re s d ep th le v e ls w ith c l i e n t s . Examining th e ra n k in g s by p er c e n t , we fin d th e 165 TABLE 25 RANK AN D PERCENTAGE OF COUNSELORS' LEVELS OF APPROACH FOR 1940, 1950, AND 1960 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f Approach 1940 1950 1960 T o ta l % Rank % Rank % Rank 7. Rank P re se n t 32.9 31.7 40.5 3 5 .0 1. Problems 19.7 2 14.2 5 24.1 1 19.5 2 2. Budget 1.2 10 1.1 12 .1 12 .7 12 3. V ocation 1. 8 9 2 .0 10 .2 10.5 1.2 10 4. I n t e r a c t i o n 10.2 5 14.4 4 16.1 3 14.4 4 P ast 50.5 4 7 .1 43.5 47.6 5. E a rly Mar 19.9 1 19.0 1 21.4 2 20.2 1 r ia g e 6. C o u rtsh ip 5.3 8 4 .1 7 3.5 8 4 .1 8 7. A dolescence 5 .4 7 3.5 8 4 .3 7 4 .2 7 8. Childhood 10.3 4 5 .1 6 4 .4 6 5 .8 6 9. Fam ily 9 .6 6 15.4 3 9 .9 5 12.0 5 Depth 16.7 19.5 16.0 17.4 10. F e e lin g s 15.9 3 15.4 2 13.6 4 14.7 3 11. I n s ig h t .8 11 3.5 9 2.2 9 2.7 9 12. Dreams 0 12 1.6 11 .2 10.5 .7 11 T o ta l number i ,: 118 2,316 2,604 6 ,0 3 8 Chi square = * 5 8 .0 1 d f (1940-1960) main focus of m a rriag e c o u n s e lo rs i s on problem s and com p l a i n t s and on e a r l y m arriag e r e l a t i o n s h i p s fo r b o th 1940 and 1960. There i s a tre n d tow ard in c r e a s in g fo cu s and em phasis upon p re s e n t i n t e r a c t i o n le v e ls by th e c o u p le s . T h is was 10 per c e n t in 1940 and in c re a se d to 16 p er c e n t in 1960. T his d i r e c t i o n confirm s th e em phasis in th e gen e r a l l i t e r a t u r e on i n t e r a c t i o n and r o l e s as th e fo cu s o f m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g . However, ac co rd in g to th e d a ta o f t h i s s tu d y , th e main focus rem ains upon problem s and com p l a i n t s r a t h e r th an upon i n t e r a c t i o n a l le v e ls . The l e a s t a t t e n t i o n in m arriag e c o u n s e lin g , a c c o rd ing to th e s e d a ta , seems to be in f i n a n c i a l , v o c a t i o n a l , and dream c o u n s e lin g , a l l of which ran k in th e l a s t th r e e d i g i t s o f th e s c a le . The f i r s t f iv e ran k in g s f o r th e th r e e p e rio d s o f tim e c o n s i s t e n t l y in c lu d e re f e r e n c e s to p ro b lem s, p re s e n t i n t e r a c t i o n , e a r ly m a rriag e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and f e e l i n g s . Fam ily background and ch ild h o o d memories appear w ith in th e s e f i r s t f i v e , w ith ch ild h o o d ra n k in g 4 in 1940, and fam ily background ra n k in g 3 and 5 in 1950 and 1960 r e s p e c tiv e ly . The K endall c o e f f i c i e n t of concordance t e s t was a p p lie d t o th e ra n k in g s o f th e th r e e y e a rs . The W o f .93 w ith th e c h i square t e s t of s ig n if ic a n c e a t 3 0 .6 9 , and 11 167 d eg rees of freedom , showed agreem ent in th e r e l a t i o n s h i p of ra n k in g s fo r th e th re e y e a rs s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e .05 le v e l. T his v a l i d a t e s th e ran k in g procedure of th e judges so t h a t th e c h i square r e s u l t achieved in Table 25 may be accep ted w ith co n fid e n c e . The o p e r a tio n a l h y p o th e sis of no change in th e c a te g o r ie s o f focus in th e c o u n s e lo r s ’ approach i s r e j e c t e d . H ypothesis 4 . --T here is no s ig n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e te c h n iq u e s of co u n se lin g used by m arriage c o u n se lo rs between th e y e a rs of 1940 and I960. T his h y p o th e s is , when placed in o p e r a tio n a l te rm s, s t a t e s : (4A) an a n a ly s is of th e ran k in g s o f tre a tm e n t te c h n iq u e s used by m arriage c o u n s e lo rs in tw elve c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s fo r th e y e a rs o f 1940, 1950, and 1960 w i l l show no change as measured by c h i sq u a re , th e sig n t e s t , and K e n d a ll's c o e f f ic ie n t of con co rd an ce. Table 26 g iv es th e com parative ran k in g s o f te c h n iq u e s used between th e y e a rs 1940 and I960, 1940 and 1950, and 1950 and 1960, ex p ressed through th e sig n form ula o f : P (Xa >Xb) - p (Xa <Xb ) = 1/2. The tw o - ta ile d sig n t e s t a t .05 ap p lied to our d a ta shows .674 between 1940 and I960, 1.3 between 1940 and TABLE 26 RANKINGS OF COUNSELOR TECHNIQUES BETW EEN 1940-1960, 1940-1950, 1950-1960 BY SIGN TESTS Techniques Rank 1940 Rank 1960 Sign of D iffe re n ce Rank 1940 Rank 1950 Sign of D iffe re n ce Rank 1950 Rank 1960 Sign of D ifferen ce Case H isto ry 10.5 12 — 10.5 12 _ 12 12 0 T estin g 8 9 - 8 10 - 10 9 + Assignments 7 8 - 7 9 - 9 8 + Advice 2.5 3 - 2.5 3 - 3 3 0 Probing 9 6 + 9 2 + 2 6 - C o n fro n tatio n 5.5 7 - 5.5 7 - 7 7 0 P ersuasion 12 11 + 12 11 + 11 11 0 Problem Solving 10.5 10 + 10.5 8 + 8 10 - S upportive 2.5 1.5 + 2.5 4 - 4 1.5 + E valuat ive 5.5 5 + 5.5 6 - 6 5 + I n te r p r e ta tio n 4 1.5 + 4 1 + 1 1.5 - D iag n o stic 1 4 1 5 5 4 + (two t a i l e d ) .05 x = .674 (6/12) x = 1.3 (4/12) x = 1.6 (3 /8 ) 169 1950, and 1.6 betw een 1950 and 1960. These th r e e v a l u e s , a c c o rd in g to th e t a b l e , show t h a t we ac c e p t th e n u l l h y p o th e s is o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een any o f th e s e th r e e ra n k in g s o f te c h n iq u e s . T h e re fo re we ac ce p t th e s ta te m e n t t h a t th e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e or change w ith in th e th r e e tim e p e rio d s f o r th e tr e a tm e n t te c h n iq u e s used by th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lo rs in t h i s stu d y . T able 27 g iv e s th e ra n k and p e rc e n ta g e of s t a t e ments d e s c r ib in g th e tw elv e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f te c h n iq u e s used by th e c o u n s e lo rs . The tw o-by-tw o c o n tin g e n c y t a b l e betw een th e number o f s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to te c h n iq u e s in 1940 and th e num b e r in 1960 y ie ld e d th e c h i sq u a re o f 29.6 w ith 1 d eg ree o f freedom , which i s s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e .05 l e v e l . T h is d if f e r e n c e in th e number o f re c o rd e d s ta te m e n ts by c o u n s e lo rs i s m ean in g fu l in th e grow ing p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g re c o rd k e e p in g , and in th e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t com plete re c o rd s w i l l in c lu d e n o t o nly th e p ro b lem b u t th e te c h n iq u e s th e c o u n s e lo rs use in a tte m p tin g to meet th e s i t u a t i o n . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s u p p o r tiv e , and a d v ic e - g iv in g te c h n iq u e s were used by th e c o u n s e lo rs of t h i s sam ple 52 p er c e n t o f th e tim e f o r a l l th r e e tim e p e r io d s . C a s e - h is to r y - 170 TABLE 27 RANK A N D PERCENTAGE OF COUNSELING TECHNIQUES FOR 1940, 1950, A N D I960 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Techniques 1940 1950 1960 1940-50-60 % Rank % Rank % Rank % Rank Case h is t o r y 1.1 10.5 .3 12 .2 12 .4 12 T e stin g 4.9 8 1.8 10 2 .8 9 2.7 10 Assignments 6 .0 7 4 .6 9 3.6 8 4 .5 8 A dvice-guid anc e 16.7 2.5 14.3 3 16.1 3 15.4 3 Probing 4.3 9 15.8 2 8.5 6 11.0 4 C o n fro n ta tio n 8.5 5.5 5.5 7 5 .0 7 5 .8 7 P ersu asio n .4 12 .9 11 .8 11 .8 11 Problem so lv in g 1.1 10.5 5.3 8 2.4 10 3.5 9 Support ive 16.7 2.5 13.1 4 19.5 1.5 16.2 2 E v alu a tiv e 8.5 5.5 5.6 6 10.5 5 8.0 6 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 13.6 4 25.1 1 19.5 1.5 21.0 1 D iag n o stic 18.3 1 7.7 5 11.1 4 10.8 5 T o ta l N (552) (1,464) (1,290) (3,306) Chi square = 29.6 1 d f 1940-1960 171 ta k in g and p ersu a sio n were c o n s is te n tly ranked in th e l a s t th r e e p la ces of th e 12-p o in t ranking schema. There was a d ec re ase in th e use of assignm ents and b ib lio th e r a p y b e tween th e y ears of 1940 and 1960. Although probing, su p p o rtiv e , and e v a lu a tiv e te c h niques and problem so lv in g , p e rsu a sio n , and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n were methods used more fre q u e n tly in I960 th an in 1940, th ey were used in both tim e p e rio d s. The in c re a s e in t h e i r use i s sm all, p erce n tag e -w ise, and is noted in o rd er to r e in f o rc e th e co n clu sio n th a t th e re was l i t t l e or no dif feren ce in th e ty p es of tech n iq u e s co u n selo rs used between th e y ea rs of 1940 and I960. The a p p lic a tio n of th e K endall c o e f f ic ie n t of concordance upheld t h i s h y p o th e sis of no change, w ith th e W of .90 which was s i g n i f i c a n t l y beyond th e .05 le v e l, and w ith c h i square which was 32.4 w ith 11 degrees of freedom. The high le v e l of agreement shown by th e ran k in g o f p ercen tag es fo r th e th re e y ea rs g iv e s f u r th e r proof th a t th e ran k in g s of th e tre a tm e n t te c h n iq u e s of co u n selo rs in 12 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s fo r th e y ea rs of 1940, 1950, and I960 showed no change and th e h y p o th e sis i s ac cep ted . H ypothesis 5 . --H y p o th esis 5 s t a t e s th e re i s no 172 s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e s e t by c o u n s e lo rs betw een th e y e a rs o f 1940 and 1960. O p e ra tio n a l l y d e f in e d , t h i s h y p o th e s is s t a t e s : (5A) an a n a ly s is o f th e in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e used by m a rria g e c o u n s e lo rs in th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f in d iv id u a l s e s s io n s , c o n jo in t s e s s io n s , and fa m ily c o n fe re n c e s f o r th e y e a rs o f 1940, 1950, and I960 w i l l show no change as m easured by c h i sq u a re . T able 28 shows th e ty p e s o f in te rv ie w s c o u n s e lo rs used as ob ta in e d from fa c e or summary s h e e ts o f each c a se re c o r d . The c h i sq u a re o f 2 5 .4 w ith 4 d e g re e s o f freedom i s s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e .05 le v e l (9 .4 9 ) and p e rm its us t o r e j e c t th e h y p o th e s is and s t a t e t h a t th e r e i s a s i g n i f ic a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e ty p e s o f in te rv ie w s s e t by coun s e l o r s d u rin g th e th r e e y e a r s . T h is d i f f e r e n c e i s e v i denced, u s in g th e y e a rs o f 1940 and I960, th ro u g h th e in c re a s e d use o f c o n jo in t c o u n s e lin g from 5 to 15 p er c e n t and th e d e c re a se d u se o f in d iv i d u a l c o u n s e lin g from 89 t o 83 p e r c e n t. I n d iv id u a l c o u n s e lin g o f c l i e n t s s t i l l con t i n u e s t o in v o lv e about 86 p e r c e n t o f a l l c o u n s e lin g in th e t h r e e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s f o r th e th r e e tim e p e r io d s , b u t th e tr e n d tow ard th e u se o f c o n jo in t th e ra p y c o n firm s th e growing r e p o r t s on th e u se and ad v an tag es o f s e e in g b o th m ates t o g e t h e r , and th e e v id en ce i s in th e p e r - 173 TABLE 28 TYPES OF COUNSELING SESSIONS AND CONFERENCES USED BY COUNSELORS IN 1940, 1950, A N D 1960 S e ssio n s 1940 1950 1960 T o ta l N % N % N % N % In d iv id u a l 233 89.2 321 88.4 385 82.7 939 86.0 C o n jo in t 14 5.4 32 8.8 69 14.8 115 10.5 Fam ily Conference 14 5.4 10 2 .8 10 2.5 34 3.5 T o ta l N 261 363 464 1088 Chi square = 2 5 .4 4 d f 174 c e n ta g e in c re a s e f o r th e th r e e tim e p e r io d s . T hat i t was b e in g p r a c tic e d in 1940 i s an i n t e r e s t i n g phenomenon which may form a h i s t o r i c a l b a se upon w hich to t r a c e i t s growth as a u n iq u e in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e b e g in n in g in th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s . The f l u c t u a t i n g p e rc e n ta g e tr e n d in th e c a te g o ry o f fa m ily c o n fe re n c e i s n o t to be e v a lu a te d as fa m ily c o u n s e lin g , p er se . I t s u s e , a c c o rd in g to th e c a se r e c o r d s , was to g iv e o r r e c e iv e in fo rm a tio n re g a r d in g one o f th e in d iv id u a ls in c o u n s e lin g . However, i t was con s id e re d a ty p e o f in te rv ie w s e s s io n f o r th e c a se and was e v a lu a te d as a ty p e o f c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n f o r t h i s stu d y . T his ty p e o f group c o n fe re n c e was in e f f e c t in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s as e a r l y as 1940. In fo rm a tio n on u n i l a t e r a l c o u n s e lin g , or se e in g one mate a lo n e , f o r th e d u r a tio n o f th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s was o b ta in e d from th e d a ta . T his c a te g o r y , how e v e r , can n o t be compared w ith th e th r e e ty p e s l i s t e d in T ab le 28 s in c e th e in d iv id u a l seen alo n e would always be counted in th e in d iv i d u a l - s e s s i o n in te rv ie w . I t was found, how ever, t h a t in 1940 28 p er c e n t of th e sample p o p u la tio n had been in u n i l a t e r a l c o u n s e lin g , compared to 8 p er c e n t in 1960. W hether t h i s was due t o th e sam pling c r i t e r i o n o f s e l e c t i n g c a s e s h av in g more th a n one in te r v ie w , 175 or to th e p o lic y of m arriage co u n selin g c l i n i c s encouraging th e o th e r m ate’ s a tte n d a n c e , cannot be a s c e r ta in e d . I t would seem from th e d a ta th a t th e re is evidence o f a tre n d toward both mates v i s i t i n g m arriage c o u n selin g c l i n i c s fo r h e lp in m a r ita l problem s, but t h i s r e p o r t does n o t w arra n t t h i s assum ption at t h i s p o in t because of lim ite d c o n tr o ls . H ypothesis 6 . --H y p o th esis 6 s t a t e s th e re i s no s ig n i f ic a n t d iffe re n c e in th e d u ra tio n o f m arriage c o u n s e l ing ca ses between th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960. In o p e ra t i o n a l term s, t h i s h y p o th e sis s t a t e s : (6A) an a n a ly s is of th e d u ra tio n of m arriage co u n selin g cases through th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of th e t o t a l number of co u n selin g hours and th e t o t a l le n g th of tim e fo r m arriage c o u n selin g in m arriage c o u n selin g c e n te r s fo r th e y ea rs 1940, 1950, and I960 w i l l show no change as measured by c h i square. Table 29 p re se n ts the t o t a l le n g th of tim e given to m arriage co u n selin g cases and th e number of se ssio n s f o r each c a se . The c h i square of 60.0 w ith 16 degrees of freedom, is s ig n i f ic a n t beyond th e .05 le v e l, and th e h y p o th e sis is r e je c te d . There i s a s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e in th e d u ra tio n o f m arriage co u n selin g cases fo r 1940, 1950, and 1960. This d if fe re n c e i s in d ic a te d in th e change from 38 per cen t 176 TABLE 29 DURATION OF MARRIAGE COUNSELING SESSIONS BY LENGTH OF TIME AND NUM BER OF COUNSELING HOURS FOR 1940, 1950, A N D 1960 s s a K n a a a B B K n a 9 s c x m s a B C 3 a > K B K a 0 B a t C 3 M K s a 3 V B E a M a 0 H a M M B B H 1940 1950 1960 T o ta l Time ■ -------- N % N % N % N 7 o 1. 1 week 7 14.6 0 0 0 0 7 4 .8 o r le s s 2. 2-3 8 16.7 7 14.6 2 4 .3 17 11. 8 weeks 3. 1 month 7 14.6 16 33.3 18 37.5 41 28.4 4. 6 weeks 8 16.7 7 14.6 8 16.7 23 15.9 5. 2 months 5 10.4 8 16.7 5 10.4 18 12.5 6. 3 months 9 19.6 6 12.5 4 8.3 19 13.2 7. 4-5 months 3 6.2 3 6 .2 7 14.6 13 9 .0 8. 6 months 0 0 0 0 1 2 .1 1 .7 9. 7-8 1 2 .1 1 2 .1 3 6 .2 5 3.5 months T o ta l N 48 48 48 144 Chi square * 60. 0 16 d f C ounseling Hours 2-3 22 4 5 .8 3 6 .2 3 6 .2 28 19.4 4-5 10 20.8 6 12.5 10 20.8 26 18.0 6-7 6 12.5 18 37.5 8 16.7 32 22.2 8-9 5 10.4 15 31.2 11 22.9 31 21.5 10-11 4 8.3 3 6 .2 4 8.3 11 7.6 12-13 0 0 2 4 .3 3 6 .2 5 3 .5 14-17 1 2 .1 0 0 4 8.3 5 3 .5 18-20 0 0 1 2 .1 2 4 .3 3 2 .1 21-29 _0 0 _0 0 __3 6 .2 __ 3 2 .1 T o ta l N 48 48 48 144 Chi square = 52.7 16 df 177 of th e c a ses in s e s s io n fo r 2 months o r lo n g er in 1940 to 42 per c e n t in s e s s io n fo r t h i s p e rio d of tim e in 1960. In 1940, only 8 per c e n t o f th e sample p o p u la tio n rem ained in co u n se lin g fo r 4 to 8 m onths, w h ile in I960, 30 per c e n t o f th e sample p o p u la tio n rem ained in c o u n s e lin g f o r t h i s le n g th of tim e. In v e r s e ly , i t is shown t h a t in 1940, 31 per c e n t of th e c l i n i c p o p u la tio n rem ained in c o u n se lin g fo r a p e rio d of 2 to 3 weeks compared t o only 4 per c e n t rem ain ing in co u n selin g f o r t h i s p e rio d of tim e in I960. Over h a l f o f th e c l i e n t s o f th e sample p o p u la tio n (57 per c e n t) rem ained in c o u n s e lin g f o r one to two months. The number of s e s s io n s per c a s e , in th e lower h a l f of T able 29, a ls o shows s i g n i f i c a n t change w ith th e c h i square v a lu e of 5 2 .7 , w ith 16 d eg ree s of freedom beyond th e .05 le v e l. The change i s evidenced by th e in c re a s e from 23 per c e n t of th e c a se s in 1940 having from 6 to 9 s e s s io n s to 40 per c e n t, or double th e amount, coming f o r th e s e numbers o f s e s s io n s in 1960. There i s no change in th e p ro p o rtio n o f th e sample having e i t h e r 4 o r 5 s e s s io n s , or 10 or 11 s e s s io n s , between 1940 and 1960. The d e c re a se of th e p ro p o rtio n of th e sample coming f o r le s s th a n 1 m onth's c o u n se lin g was from 46 per c e n t in 1940 to 6 per 178 c e n t in 1960. T his a ls o i s in d i c a t i v e o f lo n g e r te rm coun s e lin g in m arriag e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s . In 1960 we f in d 10 per c e n t o f th e sample p o p u la t i o n coming f o r 18 to 29 s e s s io n s . In 1940, 17 s e s s io n s were th e maximum. Due to sta n d a rd s o f re c o rd k e e p in g , a l l th r e e m arriag e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s f i l e d com pleted c a se s fo r each o f th e t h r e e y e a rs so th e d a ta do n o t i n c lu d e on-going c a s e s . Because th e s e c a s e s were random ly p u lle d from com pleted f i l e s , th e s e d a ta may be ac ce p ted w ith o u t b ia s . Summary.- - T e s tin g th e s ix m ajor h y p o th e ses by s ix o p e r a tio n a l d e f i n i t i o n s through ju d g e s ' ra n k in g s , th e use o f c h i sq u a re , K e n d a ll's c o e f f i c i e n t o f co n co rd an ce, and th e s ig n t e s t gave th e fo llo w in g r e s u l t s : 1. The tre n d from 1940 t o 1960 was s i g n i f i c a n t l y in th e d i r e c t i o n o f le s s fo cu s upon i n t e r a c t i o n a l problem s and more em phasis upon s i t u a - 1 t i o n a l and e n v iro n m e n ta l problem s. The focus upon p s y c h o lo g ic a l problem s rem ained th e same. 2. A s i g n i f i c a n t in c re a s e o f c o u n s e lo r em phasis on c l i e n t s ' problem s, when compared p ro p o r t i o n a t e l y to s ta te m e n ts on c o u n s e lo r approach and te c h n iq u e s from th e case r e c o r d s , was e v id e n t in 1960 compared to 1940. Sexual m al ad ju stm e n t, in -la w s , c h ild r e n , and f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s were th e m ajor co m p lain ts as l i s t e d by c o u n s e lo rs. The m arriage c o u n s e lo rs ' em phasis upon s i t u a t i o n a l , i n t e r a c t i o n a l , and p sy c h o lo g ic a l prob lems and th e on-going i n t e r a c t i o n s o f couples in th e p re se n t p e rio d o f t h e i r liv e s in I960 was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from th e em phasis of c o u n se lo rs in 1940, who focused somevrtiat more upon th e p a st h i s t o r y of fam ily background and th e e a r l i e r m a r ita l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f th e c o u p les. There was no s i g n i f i c a n t change in th e t e c h n iq u e s or tre a tm e n t used by c o u n se lo rs betw een 1940 and I960. A d v ic e -g iv in g , su p p o rt, and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n were th e main te c h n iq u e s used. There was a s i g n i f i c a n t change in th e ty p e s of in te rv ie w s e s s io n s shown by th e in c re a se d use of c o n jo in t co u n se lin g augmenting or s u p p la n t ing in d iv id u a l s e s s io n s , although in d iv id u a l s e s s io n s rem ained th e main ty p e of in te rv ie w f o r m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g . The d u r a tio n of m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s in c re a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from le s s th a n one m o n th 's c o u n s e lin g w ith two to t h r e e s e s s io n s per ca se in 1940 to one to two m onths' c o u n s e l ing w ith s ix to e le v e n s e s s io n s per c a se in 1960. CHAPTER V SU M M A RY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary The p re s e n t stu d y was u n d e rta k e n w ith the fo llo w in g o b je c ti v e s : (1) to d eterm in e w hether th e r e have been changes in th e k in d s of problems d e a lt w ith in m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g , (2) to d eterm in e changes in th e approach of m a rriag e coun s e l i n g , (3) to d eterm in e changes in th e b a s ic to o l s and te c h n iq u e s used by m arriag e c o u n s e lo rs , and (4) to d e t e r mine tr e n d s in th e ty p e of in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e and th e d u r a tio n of c o u n se lin g s e s s io n s in m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g . S ix h y p o th eses were t e s t e d to a s c e r t a i n th e chang in g focus of m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g . A ll o f th e s e h y p o th e ses were o p e r a tio n a lly d e fin e d . Ju d g e s' ra n k in g s were used to an aly ze and q u a n tify d a ta . Two s c a lin g te c h n iq u e s were d ev ised as su g g e stiv e in stru m e n ts tow ard th e assessm ent of th e focus o f m arriag e c o u n s e lin g w ith re g a rd to problem s and t o c o u n se lo r approach. The sample c o n s is te d of 144 181 182 c a se s of 68 m arriag e c o u n se lo rs from th r e e m arriage coun s e lin g c l i n i c s lo c a te d g e o g ra p h ic a lly in th r e e s e c tio n s of th e U nited S t a t e s , y ie ld in g 20,075 d e s c r ip tiv e sta te m e n ts which were c l a s s i f i e d f o r th e y e a rs 1940, 1950, and 1960. A ll of th e h ypotheses were s ta te d in th e n u l l form as fo llo w s: 1. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e ty p e s of problems c o u n se lo rs focused upon between th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960. 2. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t change in th e em phasis c o u n se lo rs placed on c l i e n t problem s compared to th e em phasis placed on th e dynamics o f th e c o u n s e lo r - c lie n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960. 3. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e le v e ls o f c o u n se lin g approach used between th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960. 4. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e te c h n iq u es of c o u n selin g used by m arriage c o u n s e l o rs between th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960. 5. There is no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e in te rv ie w s tr u c t u r e s e t by c o u n se lo rs between th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960. 183 6. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e d u ra t i o n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c a s e s betw een th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960. T e s ts o f s ig n i f ic a n c e w ere a p p lie d t o a l l o f th e f in d in g s and th e y a re r e p o r te d in th e body o f th e d i s s e r t a t i o n . For e a se o f r e f e r e n c e th e y a re r e c a p i t u l a t e d below . F in d in g s and c o n c lu s io n s on th e d if f e r e n c e in th e ty p e s of problem s focused on by c o u n s e lo rs betw een 1940 and I960 The d if f e r e n c e betw een ty p e s o f problem s fo cu se d on in 1940 and th o s e in 1960 was s i g n i f i c a n t w ith th e c h i sq u a re of 30.67 r e q u ir in g th e r e j e c t i o n o f th e n u l l h y p o th e s i s , w hich p o s tu la te d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e two tim e p e r io d s . The d if f e r e n c e was seen in th e co n ti n u i n g d i r e c t i o n of le s s fo cu s on i n t e r a c t i o n a l problem s betw een m a te s, from 26 p er c e n t t o 17 p e r c e n t, and more fo cu s on s i t u a t i o n a l or e n v iro n m e n ta l problem s, from 38 to 46 p er c e n t , w ith fo cu s on p s y c h o lo g ic a l problem s re m a in in g a t 36 p er c e n t fo r b o th p e rio d s o f tim e . R e la tin g th e outcome o f t h i s h y p o th e s is to th e t h e o r e t i c a l assum ption b ased on A ckerm an's s u g g e s tio n s o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e s o c i a l p r o c e s s , c o n s id e re d in t h i s stu d y as th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s , th r e e ty p e s o f problem s were a s se ss e d : s i t u a t i o n a l , i n t e r a c t i o n a l , and psycholog i c a l . From th e fin d in g s in th e d a ta , th e th ree -p ro n g ed approach to problems may be accepted as a fu n c tio n of th e m arriage co u n selin g p ro cess. To d e fin e m arriage co u n selin g as fo cu sin g on in te r p e rs o n a l r e la tio n s h i p s or in te r a c tio n s between husband and w ife is lim itin g . A ccording to th e d a ta in t h i s stu d y , t h i s type of emphasis i s only a p a rt of th e focus used in m arriage co u n selin g . From t h i s r e se a rc h we fin d th a t a t a l l p erio d s of tim e in v e s tig a te d (1940, 1950, and 1960), s i t u a t i o n a l problem s, p sy c h o lo g ic a l i problem s, and in te r a c t i o n a l problems were always ranked in t h i s o rd e r, w ith th e p ercen tag es fo r th e th re e y ea rs show in g : s i t u a t i o n a l , 45 per c e n t; p sy c h o lo g ic a l, 31 per c e n t; and i n t e r a c t i o n a l , 23 per c e n t. The q u a s i-s c a le o f ju d g e s ' ran k in g s compared to th e frequency ran k in g s of th e d a ta were found to be s i g n i f i c a n tly in agreement w ith th e sig n t e s t r e s u l t of .40 beyond th e .05 le v e l. A p p lic a tio n of K e n d a ll's c o e f f ic ie n t of concordance y ie ld e d .92 fo r th e ran k in g of problems fo r 1940, 1950, and 1960 from th e ju d g e s' c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s . T his c o e f f ic ie n t of agreement was s ig n i f ic a n t w ith th e c h i square v alu e of 30.36 beyond th e .05 le v e l o f chance. 185 F in d in g s and c o n c lu s io n s on th e d i f f e r e n c e s o f c o u n s e lo r em phasis on problem s com pared t o th e dynam ics o f th e c o u n s e l o r - c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e y e a rs o f 1940 and 1960. The d i f f e r e n c e i n th e fre q u e n c y o f r e f e r e n c e to problem s in p r o p o r tio n to th e fre q u e n c y o f r e f e r e n c e t o th e c a t e g o r i e s o f c o u n s e lo r approach and tr e a tm e n t te c h n iq u e s was s i g n i f i c a n t betw een th e y e a r s o f 1940 and 1960 w ith th e c h i sq u a re o f 1 5 4 .9 . The n u l l h y p o th e s is was r e j e c t e d and th e in c r e a s e o f problem r e f e r e n c e in p r o p o r tio n to a l l o th e r s ta te m e n ts in c a se r e c o r d s was a c c e p te d f o r th e s e tim e p e r io d s . A c o n tin g e n c y t a b l e betw een t o t a l r e f e r e n c e t o problem s betw een 1940 and I960 r e s u l t e d in th e c h i sq u a re o f 2 8 .5 w hich was s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e .05 l e v e l and r e - i n f o r c e d r e j e c t i o n o f th e b a s ic h y p o th e s is , and th e a c c e p ta n c e o f th e in c r e a s e o f problem r e f e r e n c e f o r th e s e tim e p e r io d s . To i n t e r p r e t th e s e f i n d i n g s , i t must be r e a l i z e d t h a t 37 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l s ta te m e n ts in th e c a s e r e c o rd s in 1940 r e f e r r e d to problem s and c o m p la in ts . In 1960 t h i s in c re a s e d to 50 p e r c e n t , o r h a l f o f a l l th e s t a t e m ents in th e p r o t o c a l s . The c a te g o ry o f c o u n s e lo r ap p ro ach in 1960 used 34 p er c e n t o f th e s ta te m e n ts and 19 p e r c e n t 186 r e f e r r e d to th e tr e a tm e n t te c h n iq u e . T his re -e m p h a siz e s th e t h e o r e t i c a l assu m p tio n of t h i s stu d y t h a t problem s in m a rria g e a re b a s ic f a c t o r s to be c o n s id e re d in u n d e rs ta n d in g th e f u n c tio n s o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g . The f i r s t fo u r ra n k in g problem s w ith w hich th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lo r was con cern ed f o r a l l t h r e e y e a rs i n v e s t i g a t e d w ere: (1) s e x u a l m a la d ju stm e n t, (2) in - la w s , (3) c h i l d r e n , and (4) f in a n c e s . These ty p e s o f problem s ranked c o n s i s t e n t l y in th e f i r s t fo u r p la c e s o f a p o s s ib le f o r t y - t h r e e . The low est r a n k in g s , from f o r t y to f o r t y - t h r e e , were problem s d e a lin g w ith ly in g , s t e a l i n g , gam bling and g o s s ip in g . F in d in g s and c o n c lu s io n s on th e d i f f e r e n c e s in th e le v e ls o f c o u n s e lin g approach used by c o u n s e lo rs betw een th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960 The d if f e r e n c e betw een c o u n s e lo r approach in 1940 and 1960 was s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e .05 l e v e l w ith th e c h i sq u are v a lu e o f 5 8 .0 a p p lie d to th e number o f s ta te m e n ts d e s c r ib in g approach. The d if f e r e n c e i s seen in th e in c r e a s in g em phasis on th e p re s e n t tim e p e rio d o f th e l i v e s o f th e c o u p le , from 33 per c e n t in 1940 to 40 p e r c e n t in 1960. The em phasis on th e p r e s e n t p e rio d was based on s ta te m e n ts 187 p e r ta in in g to im m ediate problem s and c o m p la in ts (20 p e r c e n t) and on th e o n -g o in g i n t e r a c t i o n betw een th e husband and w ife (14 p e r c e n t ) . T his em phasis o f c o u n s e lo r s on b o th problem s and i n t e r a c t i o n s u p h o ld s th e im p lic a tio n s o f t h i s stu d y t h a t m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p r a c t i c e i s concerned w ith more th a n one a s p e c t o f fo c u s . When th e c o u n s e lo r em phasis was upon th e p a s t p e rio d o f th e l i v e s o f th e c o u p le s , as was e v id e n t in 1940, th e main fo cu s d e a l t w ith e a r l y m a rria g e r e l a t i o n s h i p s (20 per c e n t) and fam ily backgrounds (12 p er c e n t) . The s e l e c t i o n o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s fo r c o u n s e lo r em phasis was s c a le d on th e ra n k in g s o f ju d g e s , and th e r e l a t i v e l y h ig h c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y , .7 9 , te n d s t o j u s t i f y th e a c c e p ta n c e o f th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s . The Ken d a l l c o e f f i c i e n t o f concordance among ra n k in g s f o r th e t h r e e tim e p e r io d s o f 1940, 1950, and I960 was .9 3 . The c h i sq u a re a p p lie d to th e c o e f f i c i e n t was s i g n i f i c a n t a t 30.69 beyond th e .05 le v e l . T his f u r t h e r j u s t i f i e s th e u se o f th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ra n k in g s . That m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g i s concerned w ith th e p r e s e n t, th e p a s t , and d ep th le v e ls i s in agreem ent w ith A ckerm an's c a te g o r ie s o f th e need t o a s s e s s n o t o n ly th e c u r r e n t f u n c tio n in g o f th e m a r i t a l p a i r ( i n t h i s s tu d y , 46 188 per c e n t) , but a ls o th e developm ental h i s t o r y , because th e in d iv i d u a l's p e rc e p tio n of th e p re se n t i s based upon b o th th e new ex p erien ce and th e psychic in te rp la y of p a st e x p e r ie n ces (46 per cen t in t h i s stu d y ). R eco g n itio n of co v e rt as w e ll as o v e rt m a n ife s ta tio n s of c o n f l i c t in m a r ita l d i s c o rd , suggested by Ackerman, i s supported by th e depth approach of co u n selo rs ta p p in g f e e l in g s , in s i g h t f u l s t a t e m ents, and dreams (18 per c e n t in t h i s stu d y ). F indings and co n c lu sio n s on th e d if fe re n c e s in tre a tm e n t te c h n iq u es used by co u n se lo rs between th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1960 The d if fe re n c e between ty p es o f te ch n iq u e s used in 1940 compared w ith th o se used in 1960 was ran k ed , and the sig n t e s t of .675 a t th e .05 le v e l re q u ire d t h a t we accept th e n u l l h y p o th e sis o f no s ig n i f ic a n t change between th e kinds of te ch n iq u e s used by co u n selo rs in 1940 and in I960. Comparisons were a lso made between th e y e a rs of 1940 and 1950, and 1950 and 1960. The sig n t e s t r e s u l t s were 1.3 and 1.6 r e s p e c tiv e ly , showing no s ig n i f ic a n t change. The K endall c o e f f ic ie n t of concordance was .90 w ith th e c h i square of 32.5 showing s ig n ific a n c e beyond th e .05 le v e l of chance th a t th e re was agreement in th e ran k in g s fo r th e th r e e tim e p e rio d s. Again, by concordance of ra n k in g s , no 189 d i f f e r e n c e s w ere e v id e n t. The a c c e p ta n c e o f th e n u l l h y p o th e s is o f no s i g n i f ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e in th e r e f e r e n c e s t o th e c h o ic e o f t r e a t m ents o f c o u n s e lo rs does n o t n e g a te th e Cuber and Mudd s ta te m e n ts r e g a r d in g th e ty p e o f tr e a tm e n t m ethods used in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g . T echniques c o n s i s t e n t l y used by th e c o u n s e lo rs in t h i s r e p o r t w ere: i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , 21 p er c e n t ; s u p p o r t, 16 p e r c e n t; and a d v ic e - g iv in g , 15 p er c e n t. These th r e e te c h n iq u e s a re l i s t e d by b o th Cuber and Mudd. F in d in g s and c o n c lu s io n s on th e d i f f e r e n c e s in ty p e s o f i n t e r view s t r u c t u r e betw een 1940 and 1960 The com paring th e th r e e ty p e s o f i n t e r v i e w s - - i n d i v i d u a l , c o n j o i n t , and fa m ily c o n fe r e n c e --u s e d in 1940, 1950, and 1960, th e c h i sq u a re o f 2 5 .4 was s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e .05 l e v e l and r e j e c t e d th e h y p o th e s is o f no d i f f e r e n c e , p e r m ittin g th e a c c e p ta n c e of a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ence betw een th e ty p e s o f in te r v ie w s d u rin g th e s e tim e p e r io d s . The d if f e r e n c e was e v id e n t betw een 1940 and 1960 w ith th e in c re a s e d use o f c o n jo in t c o u n s e lin g , from 5 to 15 p er c e n t , and th e d e c re a s e d use o f in d iv i d u a l c o u n s e lin g from 89 t o 83 p e r c e n t. These f in d in g s a g re e w ith th e tr e n d e v id e n t in r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e in th e f i e l d o f fa m ily 190 c o u n s e lin g . S eein g c o u p le s to g e th e r in j o i n t s e s s io n s was a ty p e o f in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e used by m a rria g e c o u n s e lo rs as e a r l y as 1940. The in c r e a s in g tr e n d o f in te rv ie w in g b o th m ates to g e th e r i s m e a n in g fu l, but th e predom inant ty p e o f in te rv ie w in I960 was c o u n s e lin g each in d iv i d u a l in s e p a r a te s e s s io n s . The tr e n d o f fa m ily c o n fe re n c e s d e c re a s e d from 5 p e r c e n t in 1940 to 2 p e r c e n t in I960. When th e s e ty p e s o f fa m ily c o n fe re n c e s w ere u se d , th e y were s p e c i f i c a l l y d e sig n e d t o b r in g in fa m ily members to d is c u s s one o r th e o th e r m a r i t a l p a r t n e r . There was no a tte m p t tow ard p r a c t i c i n g fa m ily c o u n s e lin g as d e s c rib e d by Ackerman and o t h e r s . There was a s i g n i f i c a n t d e c re a s e in u n i l a t e r a l c o u n s e lin g from 28 p e r c e n t in 1940 to 1 p e r c e n t in I960. As r e p o r te d by Skidmore and H e rb e rt and J a r v i s , u n i l a t e r a l c o u n s e lin g , o r s e e in g one sp o u se , i s lim ite d and u s u a lly p la c e s more em phasis on th e in d iv i d u a l th a n on th e m a rria g e r e l a t i o n s h i p . W hether f o r t h i s r e a s o n or b ec au se o f b e t t e r p u b lic r e l a t i o n s and l e s s stig m a f o r b o th m ates to e n t e r c o u n s e lin g , u n i l a t e r a l c o u n s e lin g seemed to be a d e c lin in g f e a t u r e o f th e s t r u c t u r e o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g in t h i s m a rria g e c l i n i c sam ple. 191 F in d in g s and c o n c lu s io n s on th e d i f f e r e n c e s in th e d u r a tio n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s b etw een 1940 and I960 The d if f e r e n c e in th e d u r a tio n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e l in g c a s e s betw een th e y e a rs o f 1940 and I960 was s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e .05 l e v e l w ith th e c h i sq u are o f 6 0 .0 r e q u i r i n g r e j e c t i o n o f th e n u l l h y p o th e s is w hich had p o s tu l a t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e s e two tim e p e r io d s . T h is d i f f e r e n c e was in th e lo n g e r tim e p e rio d s o f ■ * > c o u n s e lin g f o r I960 o ver th o s e f o r 1940. In 1940, 31 per c e n t o f th e sam ple had l e s s th a n one m o n th 's c o u n s e lin g compared to 4 p e r c e n t w ith le s s th a n one m o n th 's c o u n s e l in g in 1960. Seven to e i g h t months o f c o u n s e lin g was th e maximum amount o f tim e sp e n t w ith any c a se f o r 1940, 1950, and I9 6 0 , b u t in 1940 and 1950 o n ly 2 p e r c e n t s ta y e d t h i s lo n g , w h ile in 1960 6 p er c e n t were in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g f o r t h i s le n g th o f tim e . In 1960 65 p er c e n t of th e sample rem ained in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g f o r one to two months com p ared to 42 p e r c e n t re m a in in g f o r t h i s le n g th o f tim e in 1940. The number o f c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s p er c a se was compared betw een 1940 and 1960, and th e c h i sq u a re o f 52.7 was s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e .05 l e v e l o f ch an ce, so t h a t we 192 can ac c e p t th e h y p o th e s is o f change in th e number o f s e s s io n s , as w e ll as th e change in th e d u r a tio n o f m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g c a se s betw een 1940 and 1960. In 1940 23 p er c e n t of th e c a s e s were seen from s ix to n in e tim e s , w h ile in 1960 40 p e r c e n t had t h i s number o f c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s . In 1940 46 p er c e n t o f th e c a se s were co u n sele d in two to th r e e s e s s io n s , w h ile in 1960 48 p er c e n t were co u n sele d in s ix to e le v e n s e s s io n s . T his tr e n d tow ard more c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s i s e v id e n t a ls o in th e f a c t th a t 10 per c e n t r e c e iv e d e ig h te e n to tw e n ty -n in e c o u n s e lin g h o u rs in 1960, compared to only 2 p e r c e n t in a maximum number of tw elve t o se v e n te e n s e s s io n s in 1940. The l i t e r a t u r e on m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g h a s l i t t l e t o su g g e st about th e d u r a tio n o f c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s o th e r th a n to g e n e r a liz e t h a t th e re i s no s e t number o f i n t e r view s b ecause th e number w i l l v a ry depending on th e c l i e n t and th e problem , and th e p o lic y o f th e c l i n i c s . T h e re fo re , th e f in d in g s in t h i s stu d y b r in g a com posite view o f th e number o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s p er ca se and th e d u r a tio n of m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c a s e s s tr u c tu r e d in th r e e c l i n i c s e t t i n g s . The in c re a s e d d u ra tio n o f m a rria g e coun s e lin g and th e in c re a s e d number o f s e s s io n s in d ic a te s ac ce p tan c e o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g as a th e r a p e u tic p ro c e ss 193 r e q u i r i n g s u f f i c i e n t tim e and im p ly in g a th o ro u g h i n v e s t i g a t iv e ap p ro ach by c o u n s e lo r s . To sum m arize th e f in d in g s on th e s i x h y p o th e s e s , we may s t a t e : 1. The f u n c tio n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g in c lu d e s th e a c c e p ta n c e and r e c o g n i t i o n o f problem s b ased on c o n f l i c t betw een two p e o p le . 2. These problem s can be c l a s s i f i e d , w ith in th e c o n s t r u c t o f f e r e d by Ackerman, as b e in g based on s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n s i n s i d e o r o u ts id e th e f a m ily , th e i n t e r a c t i o n a l p ro c e s s in th e m a ri t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , and d is t u r b a n c e s w ith in th e p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l . 3. The f u n c tio n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g in c lu d e s th e ty p e o f c o u n s e lo r ap p ro ach and em phasis w hich may fo c u s on p r e s e n t tim e p e r io d s , p a s t tim e p e r io d s , and w ith in - d e p th l e v e l s . 4 . The f u n c tio n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g in c lu d e s tr e a tm e n t te c h n iq u e s and may in v o lv e b o th co u n s e l i n g and c l i n i c a l a s p e c t s . The m ajo r t e c h n iq u e s in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g a re i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s u p p o r t, and a d v ic e - g iv in g . 5. The s tr u c t u r e o f m arriag e c o u n se lin g i s in th e form of in te rv ie w s e s s io n s which a re predom in a n tly in d iv id u a l w ith one m arriag e co u n se lo r se e in g each mate s e p a r a te ly . O c c a sio n a lly , c o n jo in t co u n se lin g may be used in com bination w ith in d iv id u a l s e s s io n s or as th e main ty p e of c o u n se lin g in te rv ie w . Fam ily c o u n s e lin g , i n c lu d in g o th e rs th a n th e husband and w ife , a re n o t a p a r t of th e in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e in mar r ia g e c o u n s e lin g . 6. The s tr u c t u r e of th e tim e elem ent or d u ra tio n of m arriag e co u n se lin g p ro v id es an average o f one to two months of c o u n se lin g w ith from s ix to e le v e n s e s s io n s per c a se . The maximum may co n tin u e fo r e ig h t months w ith from e ig h te e n to tw e n ty -n in e s e s s io n s . This study ag rees w ith C h r is te n s e n 's d e s c r ip tio n of m arriag e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s , when he sa y s: F u ll tim e focus in th e m arriage c o u n se lin g c l i n i c i s u s u a lly more s p e c i f i c a l l y upon th e problem s in m arriage and th e fa m ily , w ith th e mar r ia g e c o u n se lin g c l i n i c c o n c e n tra tin g upon th e m arriag e and fam ily f i e l d vAiere o th e r e d u c a tio n a l or c l i n i c a l ag e n cie s may devote but a p a r t of t h e i r tim e to t h i s . The c o i t e r s a re s e t up to d e a l s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith problem s o f m arriag e and 195 fam ily in te r a c ti o n . I t s work is p rim a rily th a t of d ia g n o sis and tre a tm e n t through co u n se lin g , o fte n supplemented w ith re s e a rc h and e d u c a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s . M arriage c l i n i c s as d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from p r iv a te m arriage co u n selin g p r a c tic e s are u s u a lly in c o rp o ra te d o rg a n iz a tio n s u sin g s p e c i a l i s t s from th e f i e l d s of p s y c h ia try , psychology, sociology and o th e r s .^ T h is, of c o u rse , answers only one p a rt o f th e q u es t io n of where m arriage co u n selin g is done, and f u r th e r in v e s tig a tio n based upon the re s e a rc h method p rese n ted h e re must be made in p r iv a te m arriage co u n selin g p ra c t i c e s as w e ll as in th e p ro fe s s io n a l d is c ip li n e s o f psy chology, p s y c h ia try , e d u c a tio n , m in is try , law, n u rs in g , and s o c ia l work in o rd er to meet th e q u e stio n f u l l y . To answer th e q u e stio n of what th e m arriage coun s e lin g process is and how i t is accom plished, th e in v e s t i g a t i o n of th e problems as w e ll as th e c o u n s e lo r's approach and tre a tm e n t have been o ffe re d . "Why is m arriage co u n selin g unique?" To answer t h i s , a f u r th e r study of o th e r p ro fe ssio n s u sin g m arriage co u n selin g as an a d ju n c tiv e te c h n ic a l s k i l l must be made in o rd er to compare and to d isc o v e r e m p iric a lly s im ila r or c o n tra s tin g f a c t o r s . The re s e a rc h q u e stio n s and th e ■^Harold C h riste n se n , M arriage A nalysis (New York: The Ronald P re ss, 1950), p. 471. 196 m ethodology of t h i s stu d y may be used as a b a s is f o r t h i s ty p e o f assessm en t. I m p lic a tio n s f o r S o c io lo g y . Fam ily L ife E d u c a tio n , and M arriage C ounseling When a s c i e n t i f i c stu d y i s com pleted a f t e r th e d a ta and c o n c lu sio n s a re r e p o r te d , i t i s im p o rta n t to p re s e n t g e n e r a liz a ti o n s and in f e re n c e s f o r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f th e f in d in g s . However, i t i s a ls o n e c e s s a ry t o apply c a u tio n by p r e s e n tin g th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e f in d in g s . The p re s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s n o t to be re g a rd e d as a f i n ish e d p ro d u c t, b u t as a com prehensive p re lim in a ry a n a ly s is which can be r e p l i c a t e d fo r v a l i d i t y th ro u g h a p p l ic a tio n t o o th e r sam pling p o p u la tio n s w ith in th e m a rriag e coun s e l i n g f i e l d . The b a s ic o b je c tiv e s s ta te d s p e c i f i c a l l y in Chap t e r I have been ac h iev e d . However, th e q u e s tio n o f th e a c c e p ta n c e o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g by th e p u b lic , which was to be approached th ro u g h th e in v e s t i g a t i o n o f s o c io lo g ic a l f a c t o r s of age, e d u c a tio n , o c c u p a tio n , r e l i g i o n , m a r it a l s t a t u s , number o f c h i ld r e n , and ty p e s o f r e f e r r a l , rem ains t o be summarized. A ccording t o th e d a ta , th e r e was l i t t l e change in 197 th e age o f th e sample p o p u la tio n who came to m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s betw een 1940 and 1960, w ith th e male av erag e age b e in g a p p ro x im a te ly 34 and th e fem ale age 31, w ith th e age ra n g in g from 18 to 60 y e a r s . These f ig u r e s i n f e r t h a t m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g may be sought by th e te e n a g e r , th e young a d u l t , and th e m id d le-ag ed . T here was a ls o l i t t l e change from 1940 t o 1960 in th e av erag e age d if f e r e n c e betw een m a te s, th e av e ra g e f o r th e sample b e in g about th r e e y e a r s . T here w ere c o u p le s who w ere o f th e same age as w e ll as th o s e who had up to tw en ty -tw o y e a r s ' d if f e r e n c e betw een them. T his v a r i a b l e o f age d if f e r e n c e betw een m ates who have problem s c o u ld be in v e s t i g a t e d f u r t h e r and an a ly ze d in a f u tu r e stu d y . In 1940 18 p e r c e n t o f th e sample p o p u la tio n was a t th e e le m e n ta ry le v e l o f e d u c a tio n . In I960 ap p ro x im a te ly 10 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n was a t t h i s l e v e l . The in c r e a s e o f c o lle g e l e v e l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in m a rria g e coun s e l i n g c l i n i c s from 18 p er c e n t in 1940 to 27 p e r c e n t in 1960 and th e c o rre sp o n d in g d e c re a s e o f c l i e n t s a t th e e l e m entary l e v e l o f e d u c a tio n i s in agreem ent w ith th e ed u c a t i o n l e v e l o f th e sam ples s tu d ie d by Em ily Mudd and th e F am ily S e rv ic e A s s o c ia tio n . A lthough th e tr e n d in th e g e n e r a l p o p u la tio n was tow ard h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a l le v e ls 198 betw een th e s e two p e r io d s , th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s a t t r a c t e d c l i e n t s w ith above a v e ra g e e d u c a tio n s . The o c c u p a tio n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e l in g c l i e n t s i s m ain ly in th e f i r s t f o u r c a t e g o r i e s d e s c r ib e d by U n ited S t a t e s p o p u la tio n d a t a as p r o f e s s i o n a l , sem i- p r o f e s s i o n a l , e x e c u tiv e , s a l e s , c l e r i c a l , and s u p e r v is o r y . Com bining th e l e v e l o f e d u c a tio n and th e o c c u p a tio n a l c a t e g o r ie s o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i e n t s r e s u l t s i n an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g i n c l i n i c s e t t i n g s i s a c c e p te d by th e u p p er m id d le s t r a t a o f s o c i e t y . The sam ple p o p u la tio n in t h i s stu d y was p redom i n a n tly o f P r o t e s t a n t f a i t h , w ith th e p r o p o r tio n o f Je w ish and C a th o lic f a i t h s n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e g e n e r a l popu l a t i o n . Only 18 p e r c e n t o f th e sam ple was in v o lv e d in mixed m a rr ia g e s . The c o n s i s t e n t r a n k in g o f r e l i g i o u s problem s around th e 5 0 th p e r c e n t i l e in 1940, 1950, and 1960, e i t h e r im p lie s a l e s s i n t e n s i v e fo c u s on r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s as a m ajor problem , o r may be due sim p ly t o th e b i a s o f th e sam ple p r o p o r ti o n s . The im p l ic a tio n s o f th e f in d in g s on r e l i g i o u s f a c t o r s , t h e r e f o r e , c a n n o t be g e n e r a l i z e d u n t i l d a t a a re com piled from m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s r e p r e s e n t i n g o th e r s p e c i f i c r e l i g i o u s o r i e n t a t i o n s . 199 The d a ta o b ta in e d from m a r ita l s t a t u s and c h ild r e n in v o lv ed showed a decided tre n d toward th e accep tan ce of m arriag e c o u n se lin g by th e widowed and th e d iv o rc e d . The in c re a s in g number o f c h ild r e n involved in tr o u b le d mar r ia g e s as shown in th e c l i n i c sample ag rees w ith th e con c lu s io n s o f s tu d ie s on m a r ita l s a t i s f a c t i o n . The p resen ce of c h ild r e n in a fam ily does not in c re a s e m a r it a l h a p p i n e s s . The in c re a s in g tre n d o f r e f e r r a l to m a rriag e coun s e lin g c l i n i c s by o th e r p r o fe s s io n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y from th e law, th e m in is tr y , and p s y c h ia tr y , n o t only im p lie s th e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y c h a r a c te r of m arriag e c o u n s e lin g , but a ls o th e re c o g n itio n and accep tan ce by th e s e p ro fe s s io n s of m arriag e c o u n se lin g as a unique p r o fe s s io n . In so c io lo g y , th e most adequate and a c c u ra te know ledge o f th e fam ily has been gained through tr e n d s which were in d ic a te d s t a t i s t i c a l l y as s i z e , r a t e s of m a rriag e s and d iv o r c e s , u r b a n iz a tio n , economic b a s e , lo s s o f c e r t a i n h i s t o r i c a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l f u n c tio n s , fam ily c r i s e s , mate s e l e c t i o n , and m a r ita l ad ju stm e n t. There has been v ery l i t t l e in th e s o c ia l p sy c h o lo g ic a l f i e l d s in th e o ry and m ethodology which in te g r a te s s o c i a l , p e rs o n a l, and i n t e r a c t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s . T h e re fo re , in a d d itio n to th e background 200 d a ta provided by t h i s sam ple, a c o n tr ib u tio n to s o c io lo g i c a l methodology h as been o ffe re d f o r com parative s tu d ie s w hich, h e r e to f o r e , have been r e s t r i c t e d to survey ty p e d e s ig n s. The methodology o f a n a ly s is o f ca se re c o rd s th ro u g h ra n k in g s and q u a n t i t a t i v e t e s t s of s ig n if ic a n c e is an attem p t to meet th e r e s t r i c t i v e approaches betw een th e c l i n i c a l and th e r e s e a r c h o r i e n t a t i o n . L oevinger d is c u s s e s t h i s impasse and s t a t e s t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p , t r a n s a c t i o n , and p ro cess are c lic h e s of th e p s y c h ia tr ic c l i n i c , and t h a t in o rd e r to r e s e a rc h one must s o r t in to d i s c r e t e c a te g o r ie s . F u rth e r, th a t independent m easures of v a r ia b le s can be r a te d o b je c tiv e ly provided th e sc o rin g or r a t i n g i s done 2 w ith o u t p r e - e x is t in g knowledge o f p a r t i c u l a r a p p lic a tio n . These c r i t e r i a were observed in t h i s r e s e a r c h w ith the added f a c to r of th e r a t i n g s c a le s b ein g developed from m a te r ia l in th e sta te m e n ts of th e case re c o r d s , r a t h e r th a n c a te g o riz e d f i r s t and ca ta lo g u e d a fte rw a rd s . The fin d in g s in t h i s stu d y have su p p o rted some g e n e ra lly accep ted n o tio n s re g a rd in g m arriag e c o u n se lin g ^Jane L oevinger, " C o n flic t o f Commitment in C lin i c a l R e se a rc h ," American P s y c h o lo g is t, X V III, No. 5 (May, 1963), pp. 241-251. 201 and have r e f u te d o th e r s . The in c r e a s in g i n t e r e s t in r o l e th e o ry and th e i n t e r a c t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s i s f r u i t f u l tow ard th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f m a rria g e a d ju s tm e n t, b u t i s o n ly a p a r t o f th e la r g e r framework o f th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s which in c lu d e s r o l e s and i n t e r a c t i o n , b u t c o n s id e r s o th e r a s p e c ts as w e ll. Problem s o f c l i e n t s , c o u n s e lo r a p p ro ac h , tr e a tm e n t te c h n iq u e s , in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e , and d u r a tio n o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g c a s e s a re p a r t o f th e p ro c e s s . The in c re a s e d a c c e p ta n c e and u se o f m a rria g e co u n s e l i n g s e r v ic e s i s b o th a p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e commentary upon s o c ie ty . T hat th e b a s ic u n i t , th e f a m ily , i s more tr o u b le d in a ch an g in g s o c ie ty , and t h a t th e c o n f l i c t s betw een husband and w ife a re more and more a p p a r e n t, i s perhaps d y s f u n c tio n a l, and y e t th e r e a l i s t i c a c c e p ta n c e o f a g e n c ie s p ro v id in g e x p e rt h e lp and g u id an ce i s a h o p e fu l s ig n . I d e a l l y , u sin g knowledge g a in ed from tr o u b le d m ar r i a g e s as a b a s is f o r d is c u s s io n in p re v e n tiv e program s would be even more c o n s t r u c t i v e . For exam ple, u sin g th e ty p e s o f problem s c o n s id e re d in t h i s stu d y f o r p r e s e n ta ti o n to c o u rs e s in m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g , to fa m ily l i f e e d u c a tio n program s, and t o p r e m a r i t a l c o n fe re n c e s would c o n t r ib u t e e m p ir ic a l in fo rm a tio n 202 w hich i s more v a l i d th a n s p e c u la tiv e id e a s . F in d in g s o f r e s e a r c h s tu d i e s such as t h i s as w e ll as o th e r s in th e f i e l d would im plem ent a more p rag m a tic approach to fa m ily l i f e program s w ith le s s academ ic em p h asis. Where ca se stu d y m ethods a re used in c o u rse r e q u ire m e n ts , th e in d ic e s proposed in t h i s stu d y m ight be a p p lic a b le f o r com posite sum m arizing and com parison. The q u e s tio n o f th e g o a ls o f m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g was n o t w ith in th e scope o f t h i s s tu d y , b u t m ention must be made of th e need f o r fo llo w -u p s tu d i e s which w i l l y ie ld outcom es and g o a ls of th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s and sh o u ld be c o n s id e re d as a f i f t h a s p e c t to be in v e s tig a te d in o rd e r t o c o n s tr u c t a com plete a n a ly s is o f th e m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p ro c e s s and an u lti m a t e th e o ry o f m a rria g e coun s e l i n g . A f u tu r e p r o je c t based upon t h i s ty p e o f d a ta i s s u g g e s te d . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system proposed in t h i s r e s e a r c h p r e s e n ts a b a s i s f o r th e m uch-needed assessm en t o f a l l m ar r ia g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s as w e ll as o f p r iv a te m a rria g e c o u n s e lin g p r a c t i c e s . A p e r io d ic te n - y e a r cen su s r e p o r tin g to a c e n t r a l agency would n o t o n ly i n t e g r a t e and o rg a n iz e , b u t would y i e l d p r a c t i c a l s o lu t io n s to q u e s tio n s c o n f r o n t in g t h i s em erging p r o f e s s io n . 203 S u g g estio n s f o r F u rth e r R esearch The fo re g o in g s e c tio n com prised a b r i e f sk e tc h of th e background d a ta r e s u l t i n g from t h i s study w hich may be u s e f u l in a re a s o f so c io lo g y fo r th e u n d e rsta n d in g of a segment o f s o c ie ty which i s acknow ledging b a s ic fam ily problem s and c o n f l i c t s and i s r e a l i s t i c a l l y a tte m p tin g to fa c e them by coming to m arriag e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s . Sug g e s tio n s were a ls o made fo r th e im p lic a tio n s o f th e fin d in g s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h fo r fam ily l i f e e d u c a tio n and fo r mar r ia g e c o u n s e lin g . The p ro g re ss o f m arriag e c o u n s e lin g has been a n a l yzed fo r th e p a s t two decades. The growth of t h i s type of s e rv ic e i s e v id e n t when one r e a l i z e s t h a t t h i r t y - f i v e y e a rs ago th e re was n o t a s in g le s p e c ia liz e d m arriag e c o u n se lin g c e n te r in th e U nited S t a t e s , and by 1955 th e r e were more th a n th r e e hundred ag e n cie s o f f e r in g fam ily c o u n s e lin g . F u tu re o b je c tiv e s stemming from t h i s study are as f o llo w s : 1. P e rio d ic rev ie w , ex am in atio n , and c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e g o a ls , p u rp o ses, and s e r v ic e s o f mar r ia g e c o u n se lin g c l i n i c s . 2. C om parative re s e a r c h s tu d ie s w ith o th e r mar- r ia g e c o u n se lin g c e n te r s , p r iv a te p r a c t i c e , and o th e r p ro fe s s io n s p r a c tic in g m arriage c o u n s e l in g . Follow -up s tu d ie s o f ca se s toward d is c o v e rin g g o als and purposes o f th e m a rriag e c o u n s e lin g p ro cess through th e c l i e n t s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . Comprehensive q u e s tio n n a ire s and in te rv ie w s toward a t t a i n i n g th e c o u n s e lo rs ' views o f th e m arriage c o u n se lin g p ro c e ss. P e rio d ic assessm ent and e v a lu a tio n of fam ily l i f e e d u c a tio n programs and te a c h in g m ethods. E sta b lish m e n t of a sy ste m a tic d e f i n i t i o n of term s as a sym bolic b a s is f o r g e n e ra l use in m arriag e c o u n s e lin g p r a c tic e . P ro f e s s io n a l sta n d a rd s and a f f i l i a t i o n fo r mar r ia g e c o u n s e lin g c l i n i c s as w e ll as fo r p r iv a te p r a c t i t i o n e r s . The use o f ta p e re c o rd in g s and th e B ales i n t e r a c tio n s c a le as a d ju n c tiv e m easures to th e m ethodology p re se n te d in t h i s stu d y . The in v e s tig a tio n o f th e p o s itiv e a s p e c ts o f th e m a rriag e r e l a t i o n s h i p as re v e a le d in s t a t e - 205 merits i n c a se re c o r d s to be p ro c e s se d w ith th e same ty p e o f m ethodology proposed in t h i s r e s e a rc h . Fam ily pro b lem s, as fa m ily s t r e n g t h s , a re n o t i s o l a t e d v a r i a b l e s , b u t a re c l u s t e r s w hich a re dynam ic, f l u i d , i n t e r r e l a t e d , and i n t e r a c t i n g . However, a lth o u g h one must i s o l a t e in o rd e r to i n v e s t i g a t e , th e i s o l a t i o n and th e c o n c e n tr a tio n on th e p ath o lo g y o f fa m ily l i f e i s to be co n s id e re d o n ly th e b e g in n in g o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . E x te n s io n o f t h i s knowledge to in c lu d e an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f s tr e n g th s and r e s o u r c e s f o r h e lp in g f a m ilie s to a t t a i n t h e i r f u l l 3 p o t e n t i a l i t i e s i s th e lo n g -te rm o b je c ti v e . As summarized by Skidmore,^ th e fa m ily i s th e b a s ic i n s t i t u t i o n o f s o c ie ty . I f we a re g o ing t o have a s tro n g s o c i e t y , we need t o have s tr o n g f a m i l i e s . M arriage i s th e w e lls p r in g o f th e fa m ily , so to s tr e n g th e n and b u ild fam i l i e s we need to s tr e n g th e n and b u ild h e a lth y m a rria g e s . ^ H e rb e rt A. O tto , "What I s a S tro n g F a m ily ," Mar r i a g e and F am ily L iv in g , XXIV, No. 1 (F e b ru a ry , 1962), pp. 77-80. ^Rex A. Skidm ore, "Summary o f R e c o rd e rs ' F in d in g s ," P ro c e e d in g s o f th e M a r ita l C o u n selin g W orkshop, Sponsored by M innesota D epartm ent o f P u b lic W elfare and N a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M ental H e a lth , M in n e a p o lis, Ja n u a ry , 1962 (B e th e sd a , M d.: U. S. P u b lic H e a lth S e r v ic e , 1962), p. 22. 206 The fam ily i s in tr o u b le . T his y e a r a m illio n co u p les w i l l go t o c o u n s e lo rs--a n d th e r e a re probably two o r th r e e o th e r m illio n s who should go to m arriag e c o u n s e lo rs —and a m il lio n men, women, and c h ild r e n w i l l be a f f e c te d d i r e c t l y by d iv o rc e in th e U nited S ta te s . M arriage c o u n se lin g i s one approach toward a s s i s t i n g th e tro u b le d fa m ily . M arriage co u n se lin g h e lp s about 50 per c e n t to 85 per c e n t of th e c l i e n t s . Human b eings have p o s itiv e r e s o u r c e s , and mar r ia g e c o u n s e lin g can h e lp to ta p them, to f r e e them, and to use them. I t i s suggested h o p e f u lly t h a t t h i s in v e s tig a tio n be co n sid ered as a p ro v o c a tiv e study toward f u r th e r r e se a rc h s tu d ie s and not an end in i t s e l f . A P P E N D I X E S APPENDIX A CENSUS POPULATION DATA APPENDIX A CENSUS POPULATION DATA P o p u la tio n f o r th e Sample C l in ic A reas and th e U nited S tates^- A rea U nited S ta te s Los A ngeles Toledo P h ila d e lp h ia 1940 132,164,569 1,504,277 282,349 1,93 1 ,3 3 4 1950 151,3 2 5 ,7 9 8 1 ,9 7 0 ,3 5 8 303,616 2 ,0 7 1 ,6 0 5 1960 179,323,175 2 ,4 7 9 ,0 1 5 318,003 2 ,0 0 2 ,5 1 2 U. S . , D epartm ent o f Commerce, Bureau o f th e Cen s u s , S t a t i s t i c a l A b s tra c t o f th e U n ited S t a t e s , 1962 (W ashington: Government P r i n t i n g O f f ic e , 1962). 209 APPENDIX B MARRIAGE CLINIC FOLDERS OF PHILADELPHIA, INC. A FFILIA TED W IT H VUe PemUtflaania D IV IS IO N O P FAM ILY STUDY D EPA RTM EN T O F PSY CH IATRY c%cka&l a j M edicine 38 2 8 - 3 0 LOCUST STREET P H I L A D E L P H I A 4 , PA. P hone—BAring 2 -7 5 7 4 O FF IC E H O U R S BY A P P O IN T M E N T O N L Y 9 A .M .-5 P .M . M o n d a y th r o u g h F r id a y 6-9 P .M . T h u r i d a y 211 hiked Ma'i'iiacfe Gam cii OjJjeU the G m m m dif The primary purpose of Marriage Council of Philadelphia is to help men and women to a better understanding of what married life in volves and thereby to aid them in achieving a richer and more satisfying marriage relationship. Marriage Council offers its services to married persons and to those contemplating marriage, regardless of their race, creed or national origin. The staff consists of experienced, professional workers holding graduate degrees with addi tional special training in marriage counseling. Medical and legal supervisory committees, com posed of prominent physicians and lawyers, aid the staff. COUNSELING SERVICES Counseling is available both before and after marriage. Clients are helped to face their dif ficulties realistically, to utilize their resources in solving their problems, and to develop com petence in their interpersonal relations. Two types of counseling service are offered: 1. Individual Counseling Interviews 2. Group Counseling A l l persons have at least one individual inter view, Following this a recommendation is made for the type of counseling which is considered to be most helpful. A fee is charged for appointments. The fee scale, which has been approved by the Medical Supervisory Committee, is on a sliding scale. For the first interview, the fee range is not less than $5.00 nor more than $25.00. The continu ing fee, based on the scale, is decided with the counselor during the first interview. EDUCATION FOR MARRIAGE AND FAMILY LIFE Members of the staff, trained in Education for Marriage and Family Living, are available to lead discussion groups on courtship, preparation for marriage, marriage adjustment and family living. Home, church and civic groups; schools and colleges use this service. The fee is estab lished when the group plans the discussion series with the Supervisor. The usual minimum is $25.00 for a single meeting. LIBRARY SERVICE A lending library of selected volumes on mar riage, family relations and personal adjustment is available. TRAINING PROGRAM Marriage Council and the Division of Family Study serve a larger community by offering ac credited graduate training in marriage counsel ing to qualified and experienced professional men and women. Senior medical students also are oriented to marriage counseling. RESEARCH Staff members are engaged in investigating factors contributing to success or failure of the relationship between husband and wife, alcohol ism and marital conflict and the effectiveness of marriage counseling. J im Mcmiacje Q m m l h £ufLfmted Research is now supported in part by grants. Our basic income has always come from fees for counseling, group discussions, training, and, to a greater degree, from the contributions of people in a yearly membership. Since the Coun cil's continuing responsibility is for its chief function—marriage counseling—it must still de pend upon the generosity and vision of inter ested persons. Yearly Membership ...........................................$ 5.00 Contributing Membership ............................... 10.00 Sustaining Membership ................................... 25.00 Supporting Membership 50.00 and up M o A ^ l U l C j e , GtoMCil OF PHILADELPHIA, INC. 3828-30 LOCUST STREET, PHILADELPHIA 4, PA. ............................................................................19............ Wishing to support the aims and purposes of Marriage Council, I enclose $..................................... N A M E...................................................................................... ADDRESS.................................................................................................... O C C U PA T IO N .......................................................................... Contributions to Marriage Council have been n d e i deductible for income tax purposes. STAFF D IR E C T O R M rs . E m ily H . M u d d , M .S .W ., P h .D ., S c.D . .^ - R i c h a r d N . H e y , B .D ., A dm inistrative Assittant C O U N S E L O R S M rs . H ild a M . G o o d w i n , D .S .W ., Chief Supervisor M rs . E lv ir a W . B r ig g , M .S .W ., Supervisor M rs . E l i z a b e t h A n t h o n y , M .S .W . M r. W i l l i a m F. E a s t m o n , M .A ., B .D . F r e d e r ic k G . H u m p h r e y , M .S .W . J o h n K o tis , M .S .W . E D U C A T IO N F O R M A R R IA G E A N D FA M ILY L IV IN G R ic h a r d N . H e y , B .D ., Supervisor M rs . S y lv i a R. S o c k s , M .S .S ., Assistant Supenitor M rs . V i r g i n i a K . H e n d e r s o n , M .A . M E D IC A L E D U C A T IO N M a r ti n G o l d b e r g , M .D . P S Y C H IA T R IC C O N S U L T A N T W i l l i a m L. P e l t z , M .D . R ESEA RC H M a r v in S te in , M .D ., Consultant S a m u e l C . B u llo c k , M .D ., Consultant H o w a r d E. M itc h e ll, P h .D ., Project Director G e n e v i e v e B u r to n , E d .D . A . S ta f f o r d M e tz , M .A ., P h .D . J o h n K o tis , M .S .W . C O M M U N IT Y R E L A T IO N S M rs . L u cy G r e y S tim s o n FACULTY, DIVISION OF FAMILY STUDY M rs . E m ily H . M u d d , M .S .W ., P h .D ., D ir e c to r Professor of Family S t u d y in Psychiatry A . I r v in g H a ll o w e l l, P h .D . Prnfts'or of An th ro po lo g y in Psychiatry M rs . H i l d a M . G o o d w i n , D .S .W . Assistant Professor of P jw i//> Stu d y in Psychiatry H o w a r d E. M itc h e ll, P h .D . Research Asst, Professor of Family Study in Psychiatry R ic h a r d N . H e y , B .D . Associate of Family S t u d y in Psychiatry G e n e v i e v e B u r to n , E d .D . Associate of Family S t u d y in Psychiatry M rs . S y lv i a S a c k s , M .S .S . Instructor of Family Stu dy in Psychiatry J o h n K o tis , M .S .W . Instructor of Family Stu dy in Psychiatry SUPERVISORY COMMITTEES M E D IC A L F r e d e r ic k H . A lle n , M .D ., Chairman H a r o l d H . M o r r is , J r . , M .D , P h ilip Q . R o c h e , M .D E l i z a b e t h K irk R o s e , M .D . LEG A L H o n . N o c h e m S . W in n e t, Chairman R o b e r t D . A b r a h a m s G e o r g e F. B. A p p e l J o h n A . B a lla r d R a lp h C . B u s s e r, J r . W i l b u r H . H a in e s , J r . T k e A m e r ic a n I n s titu te o f F a m ily R e la t io n s FLOYD M ANDERSON, ED.D. E x tc u tiv * D irecto r PAUL LLOYD, PH.D. P r a il d tn l PAUL POPENOE, SC.D. F o u n d o r a n d P re iid o n t E m o rltu i A N O N -P R O F IT EDUCATIONAL, C O U N S E L IN G , A N D RESEARCH O R G A N IZA TIO N 5287 Sunset Boulevard Los Angeles 27, California Telephone: HOIIywood 5*5131 THE A M ER IC A N INSTITUTE O F FAMILY RELA TIO N S The American Institute of Family Relations resulted from the first organized attem pt to bring all the re sources o f modern science to the promotion of success ful m arriage and family life. As a non-profit m arriage education, counseling, and research organization in corporated in 1930, the Institute's policies are directed by a board of trustees com posed of public-spirited men and women who give their services without remuneration. The services of the Institute are provided through its four departm ents, counseling, family, research, and education, as well as through its publications. THE DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING P r e m a r ita l c o u n s e lin g is a p e rso n a l service a d a p ted to the needs of the individual. It generally involves a study of the young couple's personalities, tem peram ents, and emotional attitudes which are important in m arriage adjustments; a study of their personal and family histories to discover the factors th at may affect the success of the m arriage; and a study of their educational needs in relation to adjust ment to m arriage, sex, and financial m atters. Con sultations a re usually held a week apart, and each person is given an opportunity to discuss his or her own problems. M arriag e cou n selin g, designed for those who have not attained the success which they sought is also a personal service. Even when the situation seems hopeless to husband and wife, the Institute's counsel ors have been able to help the partners re-evaluate their relationship, and, in a majority of cases, to find the satisfaction which they have missed. So that each may b e able to talk freely, husband and wife are seen separately, but by the sam e counselor. G roup counseling is an important adjunct to indi vidual consultations. Under skilled leadership, in groups of from six to ten persons, this service is available to (a) m arried couples in which husbands and wives may b e in different groups m eeting a t the sam e time; (b) the adult unmarried, single, widowed, and divorced; and (c) those who are overweight. The latter group em phasizes not merely the necessary diet and exercise (under the supervision of the p ar ticipant's own physician), but particularly those emo tional problems which a re usually factors contributing to obesity. O th er ty p es o f counseling include counseling for adolescents, personality improvement, preparation for retirement, heredity, and special sex problems. C ounselor train in g is available for m ature, success fully married people with higher academ ic degrees. The program , covering an academ ic year, includes lectures, seminars, group case-conferences, written work, wide reading, and, finally, actual counseling under individual supervision. W rite to the Institute for further details. THE FAMILY DEPARTMENT The Institute's expanded quarters include ample facilities for play therapy, testing, and all the spe cial help which children may need. In addition, coun seling is provided to parents to aid them in under standing and dealing constructively with the behavior of their children. A number of the Institute's counselors have had thorough training and broad experience in child guidance clinics elsewhere, and are well quali fied to deal with both generations. Because of the large staff, it is not necessary to m aintain the long waiting list th at is so frustrating to anxious parents. A M other's Study G roup, under trained leader ship, helps in the development of a better understand ing of children. In five weekly meetings such topics as constructive discipline, maintaining self-identity, and handling emotions are discussed. An unusual o p portunity is offered, a t very slight cost, w hereby chil dren who accompany their mothers a re observed in play situations (in another part of the building) by a child-guidance expert. At the close of the series find ings and recommendations a re given to the mothers. R em edial Education: a continuous series for chil dren and adolescents who need help in developing good study habits or in improving their school work. THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Fam ily Living C onferences bring to any commu nity a team of experts from the Institute's staff who conduct meetings on subjects of particular moment to that area. These conferences, usually held from one to three days with from six to nine sessions a day (some held simultaneously), may include dis cussions on personality improvement, preparation for m arriage, parent-child relationships, preparation for retirement, social and business relationships, and other vital topics. P rep aration for P aren th o o d is a service for expec tant parents which is designed to educate mothers for the birth experience and to acquaint both hus bands and wives with the physical and emotional aspects of pregnancy, delivery, post-natal care, and the care of the infant. Exercise classes for mothers- to-be, supplemented by informal group discussions, are held in the morning and are available to any woman who has her obstetrician's approval of her participation in them. Similar classes are offered by the Institute in outlying communities. Evening meet ings once a month for both husbands and wives include motion pictures and talks by physicians and counselors especially trained in this field. A training course to p rep are qualified women to become instructors in these classes is held semi annually. Inform al talk s a n d discussions in series of five weeks or m ore a re held at the Institute and in other areas on the following topics: 1. U nd erstand in g O urselves a n d O th ers is aimed at clarifying w hat emotional maturity is, what makes a person act maturely or immaturely, and w hat can be done to increase his level of con structive behavior in his relationships with others. 2. A re You R eady for M arriag e? Designed to help couples planning to m arry to acquire attitudes, information, and skills conducive to a satisfying and growing marital relationship. An evaluation will b e m ade of possible emotional interaction after m arriage, and attitudes toward work, money, recreation, sex, children, etc., which are funda mental to good marital adjustment. 3. M aking M arriag e M ore Satisfying. The primary focus is on promoting individual understanding of how and why a husband and wife react to and affect each other as they do. In addition, consid erable attention is given to the process of re solving disturbing differences and destructive patterns. 4 . F ou n d atio ns for Effective P aren th o o d is d e signed to help parents gain an increased under standing of the basic influences and principals of child-rearing and to subsequently Increase their abilities to work out the diverse problems they face with their children. 5. Sex A ttitudes In th e Fam ily considers the devel opm ent of healthy attitudes toward the human body and human sexuality from infancy to adult hood and its significance to personal maturity and marital happiness. Primary focus will be on how such attitudes can b e developed in the d ay by day experiences and atm osphere of family life. 6 . H elping P aren ts a n d Teens to U nd erstand Each O ther. To explore with the teen-ager the constant changes and problems that he must face, and to help parents to understand and adjust to the teen-age world. 7 . The C onfusing W orld of W orking W om en considers the question of how the American woman, enjoying comforts and freedom never before known, can keep a sense of direction in the midst of the confusing world about her. How can she most effectively adjust to her changing roles and preserve the values of the past while creative ly meeting new challenges and making life an increasingly meaningful experience? 8. N ew H orizons for the W idow ed a n d Divorced is designed for men and women who have lost their m arriage partners and who want to make their lives more meaningful and cope more ad e quately with the diverse pressures and frustrations which beset them. 9. Less W ork, M ore Fun in H om em aking helps the young wife and mother to reduce tension and fatigue by learning to streamline her daily routine and to derive greater satisfaction from her career as a homemaker. W orkshops in th e techniques of counseling, available to professional people, are held each August at the Institute. In other communities where clergymen, teachers, attorneys, physicians, youth group leaders, and others desire to take advantage of the experience gained by the Institute during more than thirty years of service to the public, courses in the techniques of counseling are offered in a ten-or- twelve week series, or in a more concentrated three- day series. A S p eak ers' Bureau includes experienced lecturers and discussion leaders whose services are available for single meetings or a series. Churches, clubs (in cluding service dubs), schools and colleges, profes sional groups, and other organizations may make arrangements for these programs through the Institute. THE DEPARTMENT OF RESEARCH This departm ent carries on continuous research in problems of family life and in the evaluation of counselor techniques, looking toward the develop ment of more effective methods in counseling. PUBLICATIONS "Fam ily Life," the Institute's monthly bulletin, brings to its readers for only $1.00 a year timely articles on current trends in this field, news notes from all over the world, information on new pam phlets, and critical reviews of the latest important books on pertinent subjects. M ore th an 100 p am p h lets provide easy-to-read material on m arriage, family life, and personality problems. O f these, “ Preparing for M arriage" and “ Building Sex into Your Life" are especially popular, as are Dr. Popenoe's books. A price list will b e sent free upon request. APPENDIX C RATIONALE FOR SELECTION OF SAMPLE CLINICS APPENDIX C RATIONALE FOR SELECTION OF SAMPLE CLINICS U n d if f e r e n tia te d C ounseling S e rv ic e s S t r a t i f i e d to G eographic R e p re s e n ta tio n T h ir ty - f iv e c o u n se lin g c e n te r s o f f e r in g u n d i f f e r e n t ia t e d s e rv ic e s in th e U nited S ta te s were s t r a t i f i e d to r e p r e s e n t th e e a s te r n , c e n t r a l , and w e ste rn s e c tio n s . E a s te rn 1. C ounseling S e rv ic e , B oston, Mass. 2. C hild Study A s s o c ia tio n , New York, N. Y. 3. F lo r id a S ta te U n iv e rs ity , T a lla h a s s e e , F la . 4 . M arriage C o n s u lta tio n , C enter of Community Church, New York, N. Y. 5. M arriage C ouncil of P h ila d e lp h ia , P h ila d e l p h ia , Pa. 6. Jew ish Fam ily S e rv ic e , New York, N. Y. 7. Jew ish I n s t i t u t e of M arriage and th e Fam ily, 214 Opening Year 1925 1928 1930 1930 1932 1935 2X5 New York, N. Y. 1936 8. M arble C o lle g ia te Church, New York, New York 1937 9. M arriage and Fam ily C o u n c il, I n c ., Chapel H i l l , N. C ar. 1940 10. P en n sy lv an ia S ta te C o lle g e , S ta te C o lle g e , Pa. 1940 11. M argaret Sanger R esearch Bureau, New York, N. Y. 1946 12. M others' H ea lth C e n te r, B rooklyn, N. Y. _ _ 1947 13. Fam ily S e rv ic e of Reading and Berks County, R eading, Ohio 1948 14. M arriage C o u n selin g , Richmond, Va. 1948 15. Furman U n iv e r s ity , G re e n v ille , S. Car. 1949 C e n tra l 1. C in c in n a ti S o c ia l Hygiene S o c ie ty , C in c in n a t i , Ohio 1917 2. M atern al H e a lth A s s o c ia tio n , C lev elan d , Ohio 1931 3. D i s t r i c t of Columbia S o c ia l Hygiene S o c ie ty , W ashington, D. C. 1933 4. S tephens C o lle g e , Columbia, M iss. 1934 5. Fam ily S e rv ic e , C in c in n a ti, Ohio 1935 6. F i r s t Community Church, Columbus, Ohio 1935 7. Fam ily C ourt C e n te r, Toledo, Ohio 1938 216 8. A s s o c ia tio n fo r Fam ily L iv in g , C hicago, 111. 1943 9. S o uthern M ethodist U n iv e r s ity , D a lla s , Tex. 1944 10. U n iv e rs ity of C hicago, C hicago, 111. 1945 11. U n iv e r s ity o f M ichigan, Ann A rbor, Mich. 1947 12. M e rrill-P a lm e r I n s t i t u t e , D e t r o i t , Mich. 1948 13. Ohio S ta te U n iv e r s ity , Columbus, Ohio 1948 14. S t. M ic h ae ls, Richmond, Ind. 1948 15. The M enninger F o u n d atio n , Topeka, Kan. 1950 W estern 1. Fam ily R e la tio n s C e n te r, San F ra n c is c o , C a l i f . 1928 2. American I n s t i t u t e o f Fam ily R e la tio n s , Los A ngeles, C a l i f . 1930 3. Fam ily S e rv ic e of Los A ngeles, Los A ngeles, C a l i f . 1945 4. Utah S ta te U n iv e r s ity , Logan, Utah 1945 5. U n iv e rs ity of U tah, S a lt Lake C ity , Utah 1947 U n d if f e r e n tia te d C ounseling S e rv ic e s in O p eratio n C o n se c u tiv e ly from 1940 to 1960 E a s te rn 1. C o unseling S e r v ic e , Boston 2. C h ild Study A s s o c ia tio n 3. F lo r id a S ta te U n iv e rs ity 4. M arriage C o n s u lta tio n 5. M arriage C o u n cil o f P h ila d e lp h ia 6. Jew ish Fam ily S e rv ic e 7. Jew ish I n s t i t u t e o f M arriage and th e Fam ily 8. M arble C o lle g ia te Church 9. M arriage and Fam ily C ouncil 10. P e n n sy lv a n ia S ta te C o lleg e C e n tra l 1. C in c in n a ti S o c ia l Hygiene S o c ie ty 2. M a tern al H e a lth A s s o c ia tio n 3. D i s t r i c t o f Columbia S o c ia l Hygiene S o c ie ty 4. S tephens C o lleg e 5. Fam ily S e rv ic e 6. F i r s t Community Church 7. Fam ily C ourt W estern 1. Fam ily R e la tio n s C e n ter 2. American I n s t i t u t e o f Fam ily R e la tio n s 218 The fo llo w in g c e n te r s were o m itted b ecause o f un d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s e r v ic e s or unique em phasis: Name Reason 1. C h ild Study A s s o c ia tio n P a r e n t- c h ild r e l a t i o n sh ip s 2. Jew ish Fam ily S e rv ic e U n d if f e r e n tia te d s e r v ic e s 3. S o c ia l Hygiene S o c ie ty , C i n c in n a ti, Ohio 4. Fam ily S e rv ic e 5. M atern al H e a lth A s s o c ia tio n 6. Fam ily R e la tio n s C en ter 7. F lo r i d a S ta te U n iv e rs ity P redom inantly p r e m a r ita l 8. S o c ia l Hygiene S o c ie ty 9. S tephens C o lleg e 10. P e n n sy lv a n ia S ta te C o lleg e R e s t r i c t e d to s tu d e n ts E a s te rn 1. B o sto n , Mass. 2. M arriage C o n s u lta tio n C e n ter o f Community C hurch, New York 3. M arriage C ouncil of P h ila d e lp h ia c a s e s and f a c u l ty C e n te rs F u n c tio n in g as M arriage C ounseling C e n te rs f o r th e G en eral P u b lic 219 4 . Jew ish I n s t i t u t e o f M arriage and th e Fam ily 5. M arble C o l le g i a te Church 6. C hapel H i l l , N o rth C a ro lin a C e n tr a l 1. F i r s t Community Church 2. Fam ily C ourt W estern 1. A m erican I n s t i t u t e o f Fam ily R e la tio n s F iv e M arriag e C o u n selin g C e n te rs n o t P h ilo s o p h ic a lly n o r P red o m in an tly O rie n te d to One R e lig io u s F a ith E a s te r n 1. C hapel H i l l , N orth C a ro lin a 2. M arriage C o u n c il o f P h ila d e lp h ia 3. B o sto n , Mass. C e n tr a l 1. Fam ily C ourt W estern 1. A m erican I n s t i t u t e o f Fam ily R e la tio n s 220 N o nprofit M arriage C ounseling C enters R e p re se n ta tiv e of Three G eographic L ocations O ffe rin g More Than One In terv iew Per Case w ith a Minimum S ta f f of Three P ro fe s s io n a l C ounselors E a s te rn - M arriage C ouncil of P h ila d e lp h ia C e n tra l - Family Court W estern - American I n s t i t u t e of Family R e la tio n s Chapel H i l l , N orth C a ro lin a--C ase load extrem ely sm all. Four cases per month. M ajo rity of cases i n t e r viewed once because of r u r a l a re a and d is ta n c e . B oston, M assachusetts--O nly one paid p ro fe s s io n a l coun s e lo r . F if t y per cen t of ca ses in terv iew ed only one t ime. APPENDIX D DESCRIPTION AND RATIONALE OF CLASSIFICATIONS APPENDIX D DESCRIPTION AN D RATIONALE OF CLASSIFICATIONS S i t u a t i o n a l Problems 1. C h ild re n In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to d isa g re e m e n ts o f a u t h o r it y o f a d u lts over c h i ld r e n in th e fa m ily ; p ro b lems o f d i s c i p l i n e . 2. G o ssip in g In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to e x c e s s iv e g o s s ip in g by m ate. 3. In -la w s In c lu d e s a l l sta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to members o f th e o th e r m a te 's fa m ily when th e y (th e c l i e n t ) assume th e s e p erso n s to be p a r t o f t h e i r problem by a c t u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e o r by n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s . In c lu d e s b r o t h e r s , s i s t e r s , a u n ts , u n c le s , c o u s in s as w e ll as p a r e n ts . A lb re c h t P aul H. G la s s e r and L ois N. G la s s e r , "Role Re v e r s a l and C o n f lic t betw een Aged P a re n ts and T h e ir A dult C h ild r e n ," M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g , XXIV, No. 1 (F e b ru a r y , 1962), pp. 46-51. 222 223 r e p o r ts b a s ic c o n f l i c t s between p a re n ts and a d u lt m arried c h ild r e n to be in r o le r e v e r s a l , r o le c o n f l i c t and p e rso n a l problem s, where th e m arried c h ild te n d s to become lik e p a re n ts to t h e i r e l d e r s . K irk p a tric k ^ d e s c rib e s fo u r pos s i b i l i t i e s a r i s i n g from such c o n f l i c t s : 1. P a re n ts may r e s i s t unduly th e r e v e r s a l o f r o le and i n s i s t upon s u p e rio r m oral judgm ents. 2. P a re n ts may c lin g to th e p a r e n ta l p r iv ile g e of d e fin in g what is r i g h t and wrong. 3. C h ild re n may push p a re n ts toward r o le r e v e r s a l . 4. C h ild re n may r e s i s t t r a n s i t i o n o f r o l e r e v e r s a l and c o n tin u e dependency. 4. I n f i d e l i t y In c lu d e s r e f e r e n c e s to e x t r a - m a r i ta l r e l a t i o n s h i p s (p a s t or p r e s e n t) ; to th e " o th e r man" or th e " o th e r woman"; th e t r i a n g l e ; a d u lte r y . 5. F req u en t a b s e n c e s --n e g le c t In c lu d e s a l l sta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to unexplained ab sen ce s; co n tin u ed o v e rn ig h t ab sen ces; n e g le c t. 6. Forced m a rria g e --p r e m a rita l g u i l t s In clu d e s a l l sta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to r e g r e t or rem orse fo r p r e m a rita l se x u al a c t i v i t y w ith mate or o th e r s ; to f a c t t h a t m arriage was fo rc ed because o f pregnancy. K ir k e n d a ll's ^ r e s e a r c h was based upon th e h y p o th e sis th a t p r e m a rita l se x u a l e x p e rie n c e should be a p p ra ise d of i t s O C lif f o r d K ir k p a tr ic k , The Fam ily as P ro cess and I n s t i t u t i o n (New York: The Ronald P re s s , 1955), p. 498. •^Lester K irk e n d a ll, P re M a rita l In te rc o u rs e and I n te r p e r s o n a l R e la tio n s h ip s (New York: J u lia n P re s s , I n c ., 1961). 224 e f f e c t in cem enting o r in a l i e n a t i n g th e c o u p le . He a s k s , "How would th e male and fem ale a p p ra is e th e e x p e rie n c e in term s o f in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a t d i f f e r e n t i n t e r v a l s o f tim e , perh ap s when t h e i r judgm ent was tem pered by o th e r m a tu rin g e x p e rie n c e s ? " C h ris te n s e n r e p o r t s t h a t p ro p o r t i o n a t e l y more m ales approve o f p r e m a r it a l c o i t u s th a n do fem ales and t h a t t h i s i s c o n s i s t e n t l y t r u e in th r e e modern w e s te rn s o c i e t i e s . K in s e y 's r e s e a r c h r e p o r te d 31 p er c e n t o f women r e g r e t t e d such c o i t u s . 7. Poor h o u se k eep in g In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to poor o r m is management o f h o u seh o ld d u t i e s . H a llid a y and P a o lu c c i^ g iv e t y p i c a l id e a s on home management g o a ls ; 1. N u t r i t i o u s m eals served on tim e . 2. House k e p t c le a n and n e a t. 3. Home ru n e f f i c i e n t l y w ith minimum o f f u s s . 4. House k ep t a t t r a c t i v e . (As r e p o r te d by sa m p le .) 8. R e lig io n In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to r e l i g i o u s d if f e r e n c e s c r e a t i n g problem o r c o m p la in t. 9. S lo v e n lin e s s In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to n e g a tiv e man n e ris m s , b e h a v io r, d r e s s , p h y s ic a l ap p earan ce c o n s id e re d re p u g n a n t by th e c l i e n t . R e fe rs p a r t i c u l a r l y to c a r e l e s s n e ss in outw ard m a n if e s ta tio n s ; s lo p p in e s s ; o b e s ity . H arold C h r is te n s e n and George C a rp e n te r , "V alue B ehavior D is c re p a n c ie s R eg ard in g P r e m a r ita l C o itu s i n Three W estern C u l tu r e s ," American S o c io lo g ic a l R eview , XXVI, No. 5 (O c to b e r, 1961), 66-74. ^Jean H a llid a y and B e a tric e P a o lu c c i, "An E x p lo ra t i o n o f Home Management G o a ls ," M arriag e and F am ily L iv in g , XXIV, No. 1, (F e b ru a ry , 1962), 68-73. 225 10. Finance s In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to problem s w ith h a n d lin g money; b u d g e tin g ; n o n su p p o rt. 11. V ocat io n In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to h u s b a n d 's w ork; em ployment; jo b ; o c c u p a tio n ; b u s in e s s (b o th p a s t and p r e s e n t ) . 12. W if e 's w orking In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y to problem s and c o m p la in ts b ec au se o f w i f e 's work. D i f f e r ences in p e r c e p tio n o f fa m ily power s t r u c t u r e a re re v e a le d th ro u g h e f f e c t s o f fa m ily l i f e when w ife w orks. When w ife works th e r e may be a ten d en cy fo r h e r to assume more i n f l u ence in d e c is io n m aking. In our c u l t u r e to d a y , i t i s assumed t h a t i t i s a c c e p ta b le f o r th e husband to have th e g r e a t e r in f lu e n c e on d e c is io n making o r f o r each spouse t o have e q u a l in f lu e n c e . Dominance o f th e w ife may be assumed to be a d e v ia n t p a t t e r n . H ence, w ives who have th e g r e a t e r in f lu e n c e in d e c is io n making may e x p e rie n c e g r e a t e r g u ilts .® In a r e s e a r c h o f m a rrie d women's employment and th e c o n s e quences f o r th e fa m ily , i t was found t h a t c h i ld r e n o f w ork in g m others d id n o t d i f f e r g r e a t l y from nonworking m others in term s o f h e a l t h , s c h o o l, problem s, and d e lin q u e n c y . ^ R easons f o r w orking g iv e n by women w ere: (1) o u ts id e stim u l a t i o n ; (2) a d d i t i o n a l income; (3) jo b o f f e r ; enjoym ent o f w ork; (4) use o f e d u c a tio n .® David M. H e e r, "Husband and W ife P e rc e p tio n s o f Fam ily Power S t r u c t u r e , " M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g . XXIV, No. 1 (F e b ru a ry , 1962), 65-67. ^ P e a r l J e p h c o t t , Nancy S e e a r, and John H. S m ith, M arried Women W orking (New Y ork: The H um anities P r e s s , 1961). ®Mildred W. W eil, "An A n a ly s is o f th e F a c to rs In f lu e n c in g M arried Women's A c tu a l o r Planned Work P a r t i c i p a t i o n ," Ampriran S o c io lo g ic a l R eview , XXVI, No. 1 226 13. S e p a ra tio n —d iv o rc e In clu d e s a l l sta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to p a st o r p r e s e n t s e p a ra tio n s from m a te ; d e s e r tio n ; a n d /o r r e fe r e n c e to p re se n t c o n s id e ra tio n o f s e p a ra tio n or d iv o rc e . Monahan^ says t h a t in o rd e r to know p r e c is e ly what p ro p o rtio n o f m a rriag e s end in d iv o rc e , one must know how long m a rriag es l a s t b e fo re t h e i r d is s o lu tio n . The Family C ourt of T oledo, Ohio, r e p o r ts an average d u ra tio n of 2 .0 y e a rs between s e p a r a tio n and d iv o rc e ; P h ila d e lp h ia r e p o r ts a median d u ra t i o n from m arriage to s e p a r a tio n a t 5 .1 y e a rs . D ata on d e s e r tio n and nonsupport c a ses confirm ed th e fin d in g th a t co u p les who have d i f f i c u l t y in m arried l i f e m a n ife st t h e i r problem in th e f i r s t y e a r most of a l l , w ith d im in ish in g frequency t h e r e a f t e r . 14. C o n flictin g ; i n t e r e s t s In clu d es a l l sta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to la c k o f or c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s ; no m utual or common i n t e r e s t s in use o f l e i s u r e , r e c r e a t i o n , f r ie n d s , tim e , en erg y ; la c k of or to o concerned w ith s o c i a b i l i t y w ith o u ts id e people and s i t u a t i o n s ; a c tiv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s i t u a t i o n s . 15. Value c o n f l i c t s In clu d e s a l l sta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to b a s ic p h ilo s o phy of l i f e ; a s p e c ts of involvem ent m easuring th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f human w an ts; d e s ir e s which se rv e fo r cho ice among e n d s.10 (F ebruary , 1961), pp. 91-96. ^Thomas P. Monahan, "When M arried Couples P a r t: S t a t i s t i c a l Trends and R e la tio n s h ip s in D iv o rc e ," American S o c io lo g ic a l Review, XXVII, No. 5 (O ctober, 1962), pp. 625-633. ■ ^Irvin A. S pau ld in g , "Of Human V a lu e s," S ociology and S o c ia l R e se a rc h , XLVII, No. 2 (Ja n u a ry , 1963). 227 I n te r a c tio n a l Problems 1. Temperament c o n f lic t In clu d es a l l sta tem en ts r e f e r r i n g to b a s ic d i f f e r ences in le v e ls of s e n s i t i v i t y and energy u se ; r e a c tio n s to e x te r n a l or i n te r n a l s tim u li; h ig h or low a c t i v i t y le v e ls ; r e l a t i v e warmth or co ld n ess to o th e rs ; q u ie tn e s s or n o is in e s s ; in tr o v e r tiv e o r outg o in g . S h i b u t a n i 's l l use of th e term temperament as p a rt of th e in t e r a c t i o n pro cess and d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from r o le p lay in g is accep ted . 2. Role c o n f lic t Includes a l l sta tem en ts r e f e r r i n g to in c o n g ru itie s in e x p e c ta n c ie s of o t h e r 's b eh av io r and a t t i t u d e s ; d i s c re p a n c ie s between e x p e c ta tio n s and r e a l i t y ; co n fu sio n in r o l e s . C onjugal power c o n f l i c t s are o fte n r e f l e c t e d in d e c is io n r o le d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n when both husband and w ife may sim u ltan eo u sly tr y to play th e dominant r o l e . Parson and B ales hold th a t th e s o c ia li z a t io n process in v o lv es th e su c c e ssiv e i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n of r o le m odels. When t h i s is n ot achieved, i t w i l l tend to produce u n s ta b le m a r ita l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .13 3. Lack of a f f e c tio n Includes a l l sta tem en ts r e f e r r i n g to la ck o f o v ert or co v e rt dem o n stratio n s of a f f e c t io n ; no lo v e; h a te . U rom atsu S h ib u ta n i, S o c ie ty and P e r s o n a lity : An I n te r a c tio n a l Approach (Englewood C l i f f s , N. J . : P re n tic e - H a l l , 1961). 12 Murray A. S tra u s , "C onjugal Power S tru c tu r e and A dolescent P e r s o n a lity ," M arriage and Family L iv in g . XXIV, No. 1 (F ebruary, 1962), 17-25. l^ T a lc o tt Parsons and R. F. B a les, Working Papers in th e Theory of A ction (Glencoe, 11 1 .: The Free P re ss, 1953). 228 4 . Sexual m aladjustm ent In clu d es a l l sta tem en ts r e f e r r i n g to problems w ith mate in sex u al need d if fe re n c e s or in c o m p a ta b ility . Ex clu d es in d iv id u a l se x u al a b e rr a tio n s or d is t o r t i o n s which c l i e n t ac ce p ts as h is own problem. 5. Poor communication In clu d es a l l sta tem en ts r e f e r r i n g to th e com plaint o f lack o f communication and th e sh a rin g o f th o u g h ts, f e e l in g s, p la n s , b eh a v io r; la ck of s e n s itiv e lis te n i n g as w e ll as v e r b a l communication. G o ttsc h a lk -^ s t a t e s th a t speech i s a h a b it p a tte r n t h a t h ig h ly t y p i f i e s man and i s th e phe nomenon t h a t , to a la rg e e x te n t, communicates h is em otional im pulses and c o n f l i c t s through s o c ia lly acq u ired symbolic r e p r e s e n ta ti o n s . 6. Nagging In clu d es a l l sta tem en ts r e f e r r i n g to c o n sta n t com p la in in g and nagging by one or th e o th e r mate. 7. S a rc a s m --th re a ts In clu d es a l l sta tem en ts r e f e r r in g to h u r t f u l , n e g a tiv e remarks and v e ile d in s in u a tio n s and t h r e a t s . 8. A rg u m en ts--q u arrels In clu d es a l l sta tem en ts r e f e r r i n g to v io le n t q u a r r e l s (ex clu d in g p h y sic a l c o n ta c t) ; argum ents; c o n sta n t b ic k e rin g ; use of p r o fa n ity ; b u lly in g . ^ L . A. G o ttsc h a lk and G. Hambidge, J r . , "V erbal B ehavior A n a ly sis: A S ystem atic Approach to th e Problem of Q u an tify in g P sychologic P ro c e s s e s ," Jo u rn a l of P ro je c tiv e T echniques, XIX (1955), 387-409. 229 9 . P h y s ic a l abuse In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g t o p h y s ic a l ab u se; b r u t a l i t y ; b e a tin g s ; w h ip p in g s; s l a p s ; f i g h t s . P s y c h o lo g ic a l Problems 1. E g o c e n tr ic ity In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g t o i n d i v i d u a l 's n a r c is s is m ; s e lf - c e n te r e d n e s s and s e l f i s h n e s s . 2. I r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's e m o tio n a l im m a tu rity ; th o u g h tle s s n e s s ; g e n e r a l im p u l s iv it y ; i n s t a b i l i t y ; c h i l d i s h n e s s . 3. In adequacy--dependency In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's f e e l i n g s o f i n f e r i o r i t y ; e x c e s s iv e dependency; in a d eq u ac y ; poor s e l f c o n c e p t; f e a r f u l n e s s ; i n s e c u r i t y . 4 . J e a lo u s y In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's extrem e je a lo u s y ; d i s t r u s t . 5. N e r v o u s n e s s -- te n s io n In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's la c k o f ca lm n e ss; nerv o u s m a n if e s ta tio n s ; extrem e te n s io n . 6 . P h y s io lo g ic a l d is o r d e r s In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g t o i n d i v i d u a l 's 230 p h y s ic a l c o m p la in ts and p ro b lem s; psychosom atic c o m p la in ts ; extrem e f a t i g u e ; e n d o c r in o lo g ic a l pro b lem s; h a n d ic a p s ; c h ro n ic and a c u te i l l n e s s e s ; h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n ; m e d ica l d ia g n o s e s . 7. R i g i d i t y In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's i n f l e x i b i l i t y ; s a d i s t i c and p u n ish in g a t t i t u d e s ; s t i n g i n e s s ; s tu b b o rn n e s s ; r e j e c t i o n . 8. P a s s i v i t y In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's w ith d ra w a l; su b m issiv e a t t i t u d e ; em o tio n a l i s o l a t i o n ; la c k o f a f f e c t ; s e c r e t i v e n e s s ; i n e r t i a ; boredom. 9. A g g re s s iv ity In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's a g g r e s s io n ; d o m in a tio n ; demands and b o s s in e s s . 10. Anger In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's c o v e rt o r o v e r t a n g e r; h o s t i l i t y ; re s e n tm e n t; i r r i t i b i l i t y ; c r o s s n e s s ; an tag o n ism . \ 11. C r i t i c a l n e s s In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s ; la c k o f a p p r e c i a t i o n ; n e g a tiv is m . 12. T em per--rage In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's v i o l e n t tem per o u t b u r s t s ; ta n tru m s . 231 13. A lcoholism In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g t o e x c e s s iv e d r in k in g ; a c u te a lc o h o lis m . 14. Gambling In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g t o com pulsive o r e x c e s s iv e gam bling. 15. Lying In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g t o i n d i v i d u a l 's e x c e s s iv e , c h r o n ic , th o u g h tle s s and a c u te ly in g . 16. S ex u al a b e r r a t io n s In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's se x u a l problem s n o t in c lu d e d in s e x u a l i n t e r a c t i o n o r m al a d ju stm e n t w ith m ate; f r i g i d i t y ; im potency; h o m o se x u a lity ; m a s tu r b a tio n ; tr a n s v e s tis m ; p e d o p h ilia ; p e d e ra s ty . 17. S te a lin g In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to s t e a l i n g and/ o r s o c i a l l y f ra u d u le n t d e a lin g s . 18. D e p re ssio n s In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's despondency; se v e re d e p r e s s io n ; e x c e s s iv e w o rry ; f r u s t r a t i o n ; g e n e ra l m oodiness; s u i c i d a l t h r e a t s . 19. M ental i l l n e s s In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l 's p a s t o r p r e s e n t b e h a v io r which he o r o th e r s (laym en and e x p e r ts ) have a t t r i b u t e d to m e n tal i l l n e s s ; p re p s y c h o tic 232 m a n if e s ta tio n s ; em o tio n a l i l l n e s s ; d e l u s io n a l b e h a v io r ; p a ra n o ic o r sc h iz o p h re n ic d ia g n o s e s ; extrem e a n x ie ty ; i r r a t i o n a l i t y ; f e a r f u l n e s s ; c o n fu s io n . D ir e c tio n and L evel o f C o u n selo r Approach 1. Budget In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g t o f i n a n c i a l and b u d g e tin g in fo rm a tio n . 2. V o c a tio n --o c c u p a tio n In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g t o th e c l i e n t ' s and c o u n s e lo r 's d is c u s s io n o f v o c a tio n a l and employment s i t u a t i o n s . 3. P ro b le m s--c o m p la in ts In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to th e s p e c i f i c c o m p la in ts , problem s and symptoms o f th e c l i e n t . In gen e r a l , th e t h e r a p i s t s t a r t s w ith th e problem s and symptoms most p r e s s in g to th e c l i e n t , fo c u sin g h i s a t t e n t i o n f i r s t on th e more obvious i s s u e s , and th o s e t h a t th e c l i e n t i s more a b le to f a c e . 15 4 . P re s e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts d e s c r ib in g th e c u r r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith mate e x c lu d in g problem and c o m p la in t a r e a s ; b o th p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e f a c t o r s . James B. T a y lo r and W illiam R. C a tto n , J r . , "Problem s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n in C l i n i c a l S o c io lo g y ,” S o c i o lo g ic a l I n q u ir y , XXXIII, No. 1 (W in te r, 1963), 34-44. 233 5 . E a rly m a rria g e In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g t o th e r e l a t i o n s h ip o f th e c l i e n t to h i s mate in p a s t i n t e r a c t i o n s . . 6 . C o u rts h ip In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to th e r e l a t i o n s h ip o f c l i e n t t o mate from f i r s t m eeting to tim e o f m ar r i a g e . 7. A dolescence In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to p e rio d s r e c a l l e d by c l i e n t in th e y e a rs betw een 13 to 20 b e f o r e c o u r ts h i p w ith m ate. 8. C hildhood In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to th e c h ild h o o d memories o f th e c l i e n t . S ince most o f th e ev id e n c e p o in ts t o th e f a c t t h a t e a r l y ch ild h o o d e x p e rie n c e s a re more c r u c i a l f o r th e fo rm a tio n o f p e r s o n a lity th a n l a t e r o n es, i n d iv i d u a ls w i l l te n d to a c t in ac co rd an ce w ith t h e i r b a s ic "human n a t u r e , ” b u t w i l l have t o c o n t r o l or h id e f e e l i n g s in a l l seco n d ary in v o lv e m e n ts. 9. F am ily background In c lu d e s a l l s ta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to th e memories o f th e c l i e n t o f h i s p a r e n ts and s i b l i n g s and fa m ily b ac k ground and h i s t o r y . P a r e n ta l e x p e c ta tio n s become i n t e r n a l iz e d so t h a t when l a t e r exposed t o s i t u a t i o n s in v o lv in g s ta n d a rd s o f b e h a v io r, th e in d iv i d u a l r e - e x p e r ie n c e s th e ^ H e lm u t W agner, " I n te r p e r s o n a l R e la tio n s and Role P la y in g ," A m erican S o c io lo g ic a l R eview . XXVIII, No. 1 (F e b ru a ry , 1963), 132. 234 e f f e c t a s s o c ia te d w ith h is e a r l i e r e f f o r t s to meet them. ^ 10. F eelin R S --em o tio n s In c lu d e s a l l sta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to th e f e e l in g l e v e l and em o tio n a l a s p e c ts of th e c l i e n t when he r e v e a ls deep er a re a s th a n th e s u rfa c e co m p lain t or problem s. He w i l l r e le a s e or speak of g u i l t s , a n g e r, f e a r , lo v e , h a t e , je a lo u s y . 11. I n s ig h t In c lu d e s a l l sta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to th e c l i e n t 's u n d e rsta n d in g and v e r b a l i z a t i o n o f th e i n s i g h t s he has re c e iv e d th rough th e c o u n s e lin g s i t u a t i o n . Movement tow ard g a in in g a more r e a l i s t i c v ie w p o in t w i l l be e v id e n t. M udd^ says t h a t fo r i n s i g h t , c u r r e n t and p a s t em otions ( f e e lin g s ) must be r e l i v e d in a th e r a p e u tic atm osphere so t h a t e f f e c t may be d isc h a rg e d and i r r a t i o n a l i t i e s b ro u g h t so c l e a r l y t o th e s u rfa c e t h a t th e y can be re c o g n iz e d , a t f i r s t in th e s a f e ty of th e tre a tm e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p and l a t e r in r e a l l i f e . Wolberg says t h a t in s i g h t p ro v id e s m o tiv a tio n in to th e a l l e v i a t i o n of more c o n sc io u s c o n f l i c t s . 20 Exam ples: " I know I got so w o rrie d about ray jo b I l o s t s ig h t o f th e r e a l is s u e ...m y f e e lin g s tow ard my w if e " ; " I r e a l i z e t h a t in my r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith my husband one o f us must lead and th e o th e r fo llo w ." ■ ^ B e r n a r d c. Rosen, "Fam ily S tr u c tu r e and A chieve ment M o tiv a tio n ," American S o c io lo g ic a l R eview , XXVI, No. 4 (A ugust, 1961), 574-584. -^Lewis R. W olberg, The Technique o f P sychotherapy (New York: B asic Books, I n c ., 1959), 370. ■ ^ E m i l y h . Mudd, The P r a c tic e o f M arriage C o u n sel ing (New York: A s s o c ia tio n P re s s , 1951), p. 202. ^^Wolberg, op. c i t . , p. 302. 235 12. Dreams In clu d e s a l l sta te m e n ts r e f e r r i n g to th e r e l a t i n g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f dreams b o th p a s t and p r e s e n t. "The use o f dreams in c o u n se lin g and th e r a p e u tic c o n ta c ts i s a le g itim a te fu n c tio n f o r many s p e c i a l i s t s in human b e h a v io r, n o t j u s t fo r th e p s y c h i a t r i s t or p sy c h o an aly st . . . th e unconscious m a n ife sts i t s e l f as a p a rt o f th e whole p e r- C ounselor Techniques and Treatm ent 1. Case h is t o r y ta k in g Focused in te rv ie w ; c irc u m sc rib in g th e a re a o f sub j e c t co v erag e; c o l l a t i n g h i s t o r i c a l d a ta ; sy ste m a tic in q u ir y .22 2. T e s tin g - - in v e n to r ie s D isc u ssio n of t e s t r e s u l t s ; problem s lo c a te d in th e t e s t s and in v e n to r ie s ; sy ste m a tic d is c u s s io n o f t e s t ite m s. Skidmore p o in ts out ty p es o f t e s t s used by m arriag e coun s e lo r s a s : (1) p e r s o n a lity , tem peram ent, and sex in v e n t o r i e s ; (2) p r o je c tiv e te c h n iq u e s ; and (3) m arriage and ad ju stm en t s c h e d u le s .23 The t e s t s used by th e th re e mar r ia g e c o u n se lin g c l i n i c s in t h i s sample w ere: 1940. --No t e s t s a d m in iste re d in e a s te r n sam ple; v o c a tio n a l t e s t s a d m in iste re d in c e n t r a l sam ple; B e rn re u te r P e r s o n a lity In v e n to ry ; B e ll A djustm ent In v e n to ry ; W illough by E. M. S cale and P e r s o n a lity Schedule (C la rk -T h u rs to n e ); ^ A a ro n L. R u tled g e , "D isc u ssio n on A r t ic le o f The Use o f Dreams in P re m a rita l C o u n se lin g ," M arriage and Fam i l y L iv in g . XXIV, No. 3 (A ugust, 1961), 260-262. 9 9 W olberg, op. c i t . , pp. 92, 174, 207, 690. ^ R e x A. Skidm ore, Hulda G a r r e tt, and C. Jay S kid more, M arriage C o n su ltin g (New York: H arper & B ro s ., 1956), 236 M innesota P e rso n a l T r a i t s R atin g S cale (Edna H e id b re d e r); Neym ann-Kohlstedt D ia g n o stic T e st: I n tr o v e rs io n -E x tro v e r - sio n ; O tis I n te ll ig e n c e T e s t; G u ilf o r d ’s "An In v en to ry o f F a c to rs STDCR"; V o catio n al I n t e r e s t L ocator (N. A. Luf- burrow , B a ltim o re , 1933) in w e ste rn sam ple. 1950. - -E a s te r n sam ple: Background In v e n to ry ; Ad ju stm en t Schedule A; M arriage A djustm ent Schedule 1A; Engagement A djustm ent Schedule Adjustm ent B; no t e s t s ad m in is te re d in c e n t r a l sam ple; Jo h n so n 's Temperament A nal y s i s ; R orschach in w e ste rn sam ple. 1960. - - E a s te r n sam ple: M arriage A djustm ent Schedule 1A; Background In v e n to ry ; no t e s t s a d m in iste re d in c e n t r a l sam ple; Johnson Temperament A n a ly s is; MMPI; Thematic A pperception T e s t; W echsler A dult I n te ll ig e n c e S cale in w estern sam ple. 3. Ass ignment s --b ib lio g ra p h y Assignm ents and d is c u s s io n s o f books, pam phlets; assignm ent and d is c u s s io n o f suggested ta s k s , w r i t t e n m a te r i a l s , a u to b io g ra p h ie s , d a ily lo g s . S k id m o re ^ su g g e sts th e use o f th e many p u b lic a tio n s w r i tte n on fam ily l i f e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when problems a re r e la te d to la c k o f in fo rm a tio n . In te rv ie w s and b ib lio th e r a p y can complement each o th e r ; assignm ents can p rovide r e le a s e and o r g a n iz a tio n fo r c l i e n t . The N a tio n a l C ouncil on Fam ily R e la tio n s s t a t e s th a t a c c u ra te m a te r ia ls should be made a v a ila b le to c l i e n t s . 25 A ssignm ents made by c o u n se lo rs in sample in c lu d e : 1. Budget p la n . 2. L is ts o f problem s. 3. D iary of week’ s happenings. pp. 267-269. 24I b i d . , pp. 270-272. 2 5 ^ a tio n a l C ouncil on Fam ily R e la tio n s , "M arriage C ounseling through Jo u rn a lism and th e R a d io ," M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g . VI, No. 4 (November, 1944), 73. 237 4. L is t of household d u tie s . 5. L is t of changes d e s ire d . 6. L is t o f ways s it u a ti o n s can be improved. 7. What l i f e means to you. 8. Dreams. 9. Moods and im p ressio n s. 10. L is t o f r e a c tio n s . 11. L is t of what a good mother does. 12. E arly childhood memories. 13. L is t o f r o le s person p lay s in a week. B ib lio th e ra p y included th e fo llo w in g : The Happy Family (Levy-M unroe), The Mature Mind ( O v e r s tr e e t) , Id e a l M arriage (Van de V eld e), New P a tte rn s in Sex Teaching ( S t r a i n ) , M arriage (G roves), Guide to C onfident L iving (P e a le ), Growing Together (B a c m e iste r), Id e a l Wife (Berge- l e r ) , P re p a ra tio n fo r M arriage (Popenoe), M arriage Is What You Make I t (Popenoe), Middle Age R evolt ( B e r g e le r ) , F a c ts o f L ife (D u v a ll), Twixt 12 and 20 (Boone), T h eir Mothers Sons ( S te c k e r ) , R elease from Tension (F in k ), The Psychology o f Women (D eutsch), The Importance of F eelin g I n f e r io r (Roy), The Power of Sexual S urrender (R obinson). 4. A dvice--guidance S u g g estio n s; recom m endations; e x te r n a liz a t io n of i n t e r e s t s ; environm ental m an ip u la tio n ; e d u c a tiv e ; inform a tio n g iv in g .26 5. Probing Acute q u e s tio n in g ; seeking f u r th e r in fo rm a tio n ; provoking f u r th e r d is c u s s io n .27 Examples: (1) " I asked th e c l i e n t how h er husband f e l t about th e d iv o rc e " ; (2) " I asked him what he r e a l l y wanted out o f h is r e la tio n s h i p w ith h is w ife " ; " I probed th e a re a f u r th e r . . ^W olberg, op. c i t .. pp. 12, 29. 27 'E . H. P o rte r, J r . , An In tro d u c tio n to T h erap eu tic C ounseling (B oston: Houghton M ifflin C o., 1950), p. 201. 238 6. C onfrontation 2 8 C h a lle n g in g ; demanding; d e s e n s it iz i n g . Examples: (1) "Your w ife s t a t e s t h a t your u n c o n tro lla b le tem per s e ts o f f every argum ent. Is t h i s tr u e ? " (2) "C o u ld n 't you be fa n ta s y z in g and w anting som ething t h a t w i l l never e x i s t? " (3) "We have made v ery l i t t l e p ro g re ss and u n le s s you want to work a t i t , i t would be j u s t as w e ll to conclude th e co u n se lin g s e s s io n s now." (4) As he ta lk e d o f h i s w i f e 's fam ily h i s v o ic e r a is e d and anger seemed to be m ounting. I c a lle d t h i s to h i s a t t e n t i o n . 7. P e rs u a s io n --re a s o n in g Appeals to re a so n and i n t e l l i g e n c e ; p re s s u r e s ; c o e rc e s . In p e rsu a siv e th e ra p y , ap p e als a re made to th e person to h e lp him abandon n e u r o tic aims and symptoms and to h e lp him g a in s e l f r e s p e c t. He i s urged to ig n o re h is symptoms, to b rin g him in to harmony w ith h is environm ent and to induce him to th in k o f th e w e lfa re of o t h e r s . 29 Examples: (1) " I s tr u c tu r e d th a t a problem i s n ev er t r i v i a l as long as i t b o th e rs h e r and t h a t she must fo rc e h e r s e l f to r e l a t e p o s it iv e l y and n e g a tiv e ly and not to be so w o rried about th e outcom e." (2) " I p o in te d out how he r e se n ts h e r and attem p ted to t r y to h e lp h e r in h e r o v e r p o s s e s s iv e n e s s . I ex p lain e d to h e r th e reaso n s she b e lie v e d he re s e n te d t h i s p o sse ssiv e n e ss because o f h i s b ac k ground. However, d e s p ite t h i s re a so n in g approach, th e c l i e n t could not be persuaded to s u b s i s t . " (3) " I review ed th e d i f f i c u l t i e s he had l i s t e d and suggested t h a t i t seemed more re a s o n a b le to make a c le a n b re a k th a n to c lin g to th e id e a o f a fre s h s t a r t . He seemed to g ra sp t h i s and g rad u a l l y became somewhat r e c o n c ile d to t h i s kind o f th in k in g ." (4) " I to ld him t h a t based upon th e m a te r ia l he had g iv e n , we would have to review th e s i t u a t i o n slow ly and m ethodi c a l l y . He was r e l u c t a n t a t f i r s t , b u t g ra d u a lly accepted i t . " ^ S h irle y Gehrke and James Moxom, "D iag n o stic C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and Treatm ent Techniques in M a rita l C ounsel in g ," Family P ro c e s s , I , No. 2 (Septem ber, 1962), 253-264. ^^Wolberg, op. c i t . . pp. 24-25. 239 8. Problem so lv in g C o n s id e ra tio n o f s o lu tio n s , ch o ices and d i f f e r e n t co u rse s of a c t i o n . 30 Skidmore p re s e n ts th e e c l e c t i c method o f re c o g n iz in g th a t th e problem belongs to th e c l i e n t ; c o u n se lo r h e lp s c l i e n t th in k th ro u g h and f e e l p o s i t i v e l y about h i s s i t u a t i o n ; le av es b a s ic d e c is io n s to c l i e n t ; a s s i s t s in working through s a t i s f a c t o r y solutions.31 Prob lem i s d e s c rib e d ; th in k in g i s d ir e c te d to th e p o s s ib le causes o f th e b e h a v io r; in d iv id u a l encouraged to ta k e i n i a - t i v e in s p e c if ic changes; c o u n se lo r may o f f e r a l t e r n a t e ' c o u rse s of a c tio n ; c l i e n t chooses th e most pro m isin g . Example: (1) "We d isc u sse d in g r e a t d e t a i l p la n s she would have to make i f she decided to have th e b ab y ." 9. E v a lu a tiv e C l a r i f i c a t i o n ; r e f l e c t i v e ; attem p t to u n d e rsta n d what c l i e n t is sa y in g ; how he sees i t ; r e s t a t e s ; r e d e f in e s ; s u m m a r i z e s . 32 Examples: (1) " I to l d h e r t h a t she seemed to show r e a l s tr e n g th of c h a ra c te r and she sa id t h a t she had gained in s ig h t in to h e r own shortcom ings and f e e l s s t r e n g t h ened by b ein g ab le to face h e r s e l f . " (2) "We review ed many o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s in th e m arriage which th e y had s t a r t e d w ith in c o u n se lin g and we d isc u sse d th e p ro g re ss or la c k o f p ro g re ss in each s i t u a t i o n . " (3) "Most of th e rem arks th e c l i e n t makes seem more concerned w ith h is own f e e lin g s and i t i s d i f f i c u l t fo r him to ex p re ss f e e lin g s about h i s w ife and m a rria g e ." 10. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n N o n -a u th o r ita tiv e uncovering of d efen se mechanisms, p e r s o n a lity p a t t e r n s ; r o le c o n f l i c t s , r e s i s t a n c e s , a n x ie ty , 30I b i d . , p. 536. •^Skidm ore, e t a l . , op. c i t . . pp. 279-288. -^W olberg, op. c i t . , pp. 12-29. 240 oo f e e l i n g s , em otions toward in d u cin g o b j e c t i v i t y and in s i g h t . Examples: (1) " I p o in te d out t h a t one o f th e re a so n s he might s t i c k to t h i s m arriag e was because o f th e s e c u r ity i t bro u g h t him in l i e u o f h i s in s e c u re b ack g ro u n d ." (2) " I to ld h e r how he was b e in g overpowered by h e r love and t h a t he i s w ithdraw ing from th e r e l a t i o n s h i p because a t t h i s tim e he cannot han d le i t . " 11. S u p p o rtiv e C a th a r s is ; v e n t i l a t i o n ; re a s s u ra n c e ; ac c e p ta n c e . Designed to r e l i e v e a n x ie ty and f e e lin g s o f g u i l t and to promote c l i e n t 's co n fid e n ce in h is a b i l i t y to h an d le h is s i t u a t i o n a d e q u a te ly . H o llis su g g e sts th e s e s te p s in psy c h o lo g ic a l su p p o rt: (1) Encourage c l i e n t to speak f r e e ly , e x p re s s in g f e e lin g s about h i s s i t u a t i o n ; (2) ex p ress sym p a t h e ti c u n d e rsta n d in g o f c l i e n t 's f e e lin g s and accep tan ce o f h is b e h a v io r; (3) in d ic a te your i n t e r e s t in h i s d e s ir e f o r h e lp ; (4) when p sy c h o lo g ic a l su p p o rt i s th e predom inant tre a tm e n t method, i t r e s t s upon a warm, g o o d -p aren t ty p e of r e l a t i o n s h i p between c l i e n t and c o n n s e lo r. Examples: (1) " I agreed t h a t t h e i r m arriag e does sound v e ry unhappy f o r b o th of them ." (2) I su p p o rted Mrs. X v ery d e f i n i t e l y in h e r d e s ir e to have some member of h e r own fam ily w ith h e r fo r a few w eeks." 12. D ia g n o stic L ab e lled dynam ics, summarized by c o u n se lo r b u t n o t v e r b a liz e d to c l i e n t ; r e l a t i o n s h i p s and a t t i t u d e s d ia g n o s- t i c a l l y a p p ra ise d b u t not used to d eterm ine d i r e c t i o n of th e r a p y .^5 Examples: (1) "The im p ressio n of th e co u n se lo r a t t h i s p o in t was n o t in te r p r e t e d to th e c l i e n t , but i t seems t h a t th e c l i e n t i d e n t i f i e s w ith h is m other and is a sk in g fo r an a u t h o r it y f ig u r e to g iv e him d i r e c t i o n . " (2) " In many ways th e c l i e n t rem ains q u ite immature and egocen t r i c and h i s dependency needs are g r e a t . " - ^ I b i d . , p. 441. ^M udd, op. c i t . , p. 202. 35 Wolberg, op. c i t ., p. 47. APPENDIX E JUDGES’ RANKINGS TABLE 30 CONSENSUS OF JUDGES' RANKINGS AND PERCENTAGES O N PROBLEM SCALE Problem Per Judges 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 T o ta l Cent 1 SS SS M SS S S S VS VS VS Se Se 9 .75 2 M M SS S SS S S VS vs VS Se Se 10 .83 3 M M SS SS S S VS M vs Se Se Se 9 .75 4 M M M SS S S s VS vs VS Se Se 11 .92 5 M S M SS S VS s VS vs VS Se Se 9 .75 6 . M M SS M SS S s vs s S Se Se 8 .67 7 M M SS S S M s vs s Se Se Se 8 .67 8 M SS SS SS S S M SS s VS VS Se 7 .58 9 M SS SS SS VS S s vs vs VS Se VS 9 .75 10 M M SS M s S SS s Se VS Se Se 8 .67 Per Cent .90 .60 .70 .60 .70 o 0 0 • .70 .70 .60 .70 .90 .90 M = Mild VS = Very S erious SS = Somewhat S erio u s Se = Severe S = S erious C u ttin g Score = .55 242 Cutting sc o re 1 1 tn U ! H O r+ 10 V O 0 0 O N tn JN 0 0 N O h-* Judges ! O J t - 1 c n vO H* I-* t — 1 M H - * H - * t-o N O Economic cr\ t o 0 0 N O S 3 4> t o N O N O t - 1 A ttitu d e s 0 0 O N tO (-0 t o C O tn t o t o to t o Sexual O N 4> - P > 4> O N •£> t o tn 4> ■ 0 - tn Communicat ion tn tn U N U1 Ui N O 4> on UN 4> O ther People ON t o O N ON ON ON O N - 0 ON Act io n s —Behavior -vj no '-O ON •vj 'v j O N 'v j Emotions •vj 10 0 0 N O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 vO 0 0 0 0 Im m aturity O N M O V O 11 10 10 vO V O 0 0 vO vO H o s t i l i t y ■vj 0 0 10 10 vO vO 10 10 10 10 10 N eu ro tic Behavior - J h * i-* 11 V O 11 I - 1 11 I - 1 N O N-1 NO H -* h-> 11 S o cio p ath ic 00 NO i - 1 N O h-1 NO f— * N> h-1 N O t - 1 NO 11 11 N -* t o i - 1 N O P sychotic * 3 a S H M o w Ui o 25 5 w ► V 50 8 G G LO NJ U> TABLE 32 RANKING BY TEN JUDGES O N COUNSELOR APPROACH FROM PRESENT TIME PERIODS Approach ---------- 12 1. Problems 2 1 2. Budget 1 2 3. V ocation 3 3 4. P resent ^ , I n te r a c tio n 5. E arly M arriage 4 5 6. C ourtship 6 7 7. Adolescence 7 6 8. Childhood 8 8 9. Family Background 10. F eelin g s 10 10 11. In s ig h t 11 11 12. Dreams 12 12 Judges' Choices 8 10 TO DEPTH LEVELS Judges 3 4 5 6 7 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 6 3 3 4 5 4 4 6 5 4 5 5 5 6 6 3 6 4 7 7 7 8 9 8 8 8 7 8 9 9 9 9 7 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 10 10 10 6 ------------------- T o ta l 8 9 10 1 1 1 9 8 7 2 7 3 3 10 8 4 4 4 7 5 5 5 8 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 2 8 8 2 9 9 8 11 10 3 8 10 11 11 9 12 12 12 10 8 10 8 C u ttin g score = .55 244 b i b l i o g r a p h y BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Ackerman, Nathan W . The Psychodynami.es of Family L i f e . New York: Basic Books, I n c ., 1958. _________ , Beatman, F rances L . , and Sherman, Sanford. E xploring th e Base fo r Family T herapy. New York: Family S erv ice A sso c ia tio n of America, 1961. Adams, C liffo rd Rose. How to Pick a M ate: A Guidebook to Love, Sex and M arriag e. Garden C ity , N. Y .: Blue Ribbon Books, 1947. _________ , and Packard, Vance 0. 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" F a c to rs A sso c ia te d w ith M ari t a l A djustm ent among I n d u s t r i a l W o rk ers." Unpub lis h e d Ph.D. t h e s i s , Ohio S ta te U n iv e r s ity , Columbus, Ohio. G lo v er, L elan d . "The T eacher of M arriage and th e Fam ily as C o u n selo r. U npublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a , Ju n e, 1950. H a r te r , Aubrey. "A djustm ent of High School S e n io rs and th e M a rita l A djustm ent of T h e ir P a re n ts in a S o u th ern C a lif o r n i a C i t y ." U npublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s ity of S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a , 1950. H u rv itz , N athan. " M a rita l R oles and A djustm ent in a M iddle C la ss G roup." U npublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a , 1958. K ep h art, W illiam M. "A Study o f D iv o r c e - - P h ila d e lp h ia C ounty, 1937-1950." 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Asset Metadata

Creator Michaelson, Ruth Block (author)

Core Title An Analysis Of The Changing Focus Of Marriage Counseling

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Sociology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Sociology, general

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Peterson, James A. (committee chair), Lasswell, Thomas E. (committee member), Michael, William B. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-321943

Unique identifier UC11358836

Identifier 6406241.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-321943 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6406241.pdf

Dmrecord 321943

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Michaelson, Ruth Block

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA