University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

An Analysis Of Selected Areas Of British Further Education, 1926-1938

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An Analysis Of Selected Areas Of British Further Education, 1926-1938

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Content T his d isser ta tio n has been 62— 37 53 m ic ro film e d ex a ctly as re ce iv ed W ILBUR, L e slie E ugene, 1924- AN ANALYSIS O F SELECTED AREAS OF BRITISH FURTHER EDUCATION, 1926-1938. U n iv ersity of Southern C alifornia, P h .D ., 1962 Education, adult University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan Copyright by LESLIE E U G E N E W IIBUR 1962- AN ANALYSIS OF SELECTED AREAS O F BRITISH FURTHER EDUCATION 1926-1938 by L e s lie Eugene W ilbur A D i s s e r t a t io n P r e se n te d to th e FACULTY O F THE GRADUATE SCH O O L UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t ia l F u lf illm e n t o f the R equ irem ents f o r th e D egree DOCTOR O F PHILOSOPHY (E d u cation ) January 1962 UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA GRADUATE SC HOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES 7. CA LIFOR N IA This dissertation, written by .Leslie_.Eug£ne-.Wilhur.................... under the direction of h..±s— Dissertation C om mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Dean DISSERTATION COMMITTEE | f. v. Chairman TABLE OP CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES V LIST OF TABLES v i i i C h a p te r I . INTRODUCTION 1 Type o f D i s s e r t a t i o n D e l i m i t a t i o n s P ro c ed u r e A ssu m p tio n s D e f i n i t i o n s W orkers* E d u c a tio n A d u lt Educ a t io n F u r th e r E d u c a tio n A p proved A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A d u lt E d u c a tio n O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e D i s s e r t a t i o n D i s s e r t a t i o n s G overnm ent P u b li c a t i o n s B o o k s - - E n g lis h E d u c a tio n B o o k s— E n g lis h H i s t o r i c a l B ackground P e r i o d i c a l s and P a m p h lets H i s t o r i c a l B ackground E d u c a tio n i n E n g la n d E le m e n ta r y E d u c a tio n S e c o n d a r y E d u c a tio n H ig h er E d u c a tio n A d u lt E d u c a tio n IV . BRITISH FURTHER EDUCATION 1 9 2 6 -1 9 3 8 : COURSES IN EVENING INSTITUTES AND EVENING COLLEGES. . . 82 The D a ta C o u r se s O f f e r e d in th e E v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v e n in g C o lle g e s --A c a d e m ic a s a Group A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l C o u r s e s - - E n g lis h A n a ly s is o f I n d i v i d u a l C o u r s e s - - L a n g u a g es A n a ly s is o f I n d i v i d u a l C o u r s e s — A r t I I . REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 16 I I I . THE SETTING OF THE STUDY Chapter Page A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l C ourses--M usic A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l Courses — S o c ia l S c ie n c e s A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l Courses — M athematics A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l C ourses — N atural S cien ce Courses O ffered in the E vening I n s t it u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s--V o c a tio n a l as a Group A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts —Mining A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je cts — Chemical Trades A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je cts — E n gin eerin g and M etal Trades A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je cts — T e x tile Trades A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts— C lo th in g Trades A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts — Pood and Drink A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts — Book P r in t and Paper Trades A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts — B u ild in g , Woodworking, and F u rn itu re A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts — M iscella n eo u s Trades A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts —• P r o fe s s io n a l and Commercial A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts — -Domestic A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts —Manual S u b je c ts V. EXTRA-M URAL A N D SIMILAR COURSES SUPERVISED BY UNIVERSITIES O R UNIVERSITY COLLEGES, A N D COURSES U N D ER T H E C O N T R O L A N D DIRECTION O F APPROVED ASSOCIATIONS FOR ADULT EDUCATION, O T H E R T H A N VACATION COURSES................................. . „ lltf A n a ly sis o f T otal Groups A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts —L ite r a tu r e and Language A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts —Econom ics and I n d u s tr ia l H is to r y , In clu d in g Geography A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts —Economics A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts —I n d u s tr ia l H isto ry A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b jects--G eograp h y A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b je cts--G e n e ra l H isto ry H i Chapter Page A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l C la s s e s —A e s t h e t ic s A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l C la s s e s —N a tu ra l S c ie n c e A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s - - S o c io lo g y A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c ts — P h ilo so p h y and P sy c h o lo g y V I. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . 20i]. E v en in g I n s t i t u t e s and E ven in g C o l l e g e s - - G en eral S u b je c ts O v e r a ll C hanges— T o ta l Groups O v e r a ll C h a n g e s--In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts O v e r a ll C h a n g e s--S u b je c ts by P er ce n ta g e E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C ou rses in C o lle g e s - - V o c a t io n a l S u b je c ts O v e r a ll C hanges—T o ta l Groups O v e r a ll C hanges— I n d iv id u a l S u b je c ts O v e r a ll C hanges—S u b je c ts by P er ce n ta g e C o u rses in E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C ou rses in C o lle g e s : R e la tio n to Unemployment E xtra-M u ral and S im ila r C ourses S u p e r v ise d by U n i v e r s i t i e s or U n iv e r s it y C o lle g e s , and C ou rses Under th e C o n tro l and D ir e c t io n o f Approved A s s o c ia t io n s f o r A d u lt E d u c a tio n , O ther th an V a ca tio n C ou rses O v e r a ll C h a n g e s--T o ta l Groups O v e r a ll C h a n g e s--In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts Show ing I n c r e a s e O v e r a ll C hanges— I n d iv id u a l S u b je c ts Show ing D ecrea se O v e r a ll C hanges—D if f e r e n c e s b y S ex I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s - - D if f e r e n c e s by Sex O v e r a ll C h a n g e s--P er ce n ta g e Change by S e x I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s — P er ce n ta g e Change b y S e x R ecom m endations f o r F u rth er Study BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................ 230 APPENDIX............................................................................ 2^7 Iv LIST O P FIGURES Figure Page 1 . E nrollm ent in Academic C ou rses—Evening I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s (Seven C o u r s e s ) .............................. 85 2 . E nrollm ent in Academic C ou rses—Evening I n s t it u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s - - E n g lis h .............................................................................................. 90 3 . E nrollm ent in Academic C ou rses--E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s - - L a n g u a g e s .........................................................................................92 I*. E nrollm ent In Academic C ou rses—Evening I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s--A r t ................... 95 5 . E nrollm ent in Academic C ou rses—Evening I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C o lleg e s--M u sic . . . . 98 6 . E nrollm ent in Academic C ou rses--E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s — ' S o c ia l S c ie n c e s ........................................................................ 101 7 . E nrollm ent in Academic C ou rses—Evening I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C o lle g e s -- M a th e m a tic s................................................................................ 10L|. 8 . E nrollm ent in Academic C ou rses--E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s — N atural S c i e n c e ....................... 107 9« E nrollm ent in V o ca tio n a l T rain in g C o u rses-- Evening I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s (Twelve C ourses) ................................................................... 109 1 0 , E nrollm ent in V o c a tio n a l T rain in g C o u rses-- Evening I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s — M i n i n g ...........................................................................................112 1 1 , E nrollm ent in V o ca tio n a l T rain in g C ou rses— Evening I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s — Chem ical T r a d e s ........................................................................115 1 2 , E nrollm ent in V o ca tio n a l T rain in g C o u rses-- Evening I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s — E n gin eerin g and M etal Trades . . . . . . . . .118 v Figure Page 1 3 o E n rollm en t in V o c a tio n a l T ra in in g C ou rses— E vening I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C o lle g e s - - T e x t ile T rades .......................................................................... 121 1I 4 .. E n rollm en t in V o c a tio n a l T ra in in g C ourses — E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C o lle g e s - - C lo th in g T ra d es................................................................................I 2I 4 . 1 5 . E n rollm en t in V o c a tio n a l T ra in in g C o u r se s-- E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C o lle g e s — Food and D rink T r a d e s ............................................................127 1 6 . E n rollm en t in V o c a tio n a l T ra in in g C o u rses— E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C o lle g e s — Book P r in t in g and Paper T r a d e s ...........................................129 1 7 o E n rollm en t in V o c a tio n a l T ra in in g C o u r s e s -- E vening I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C o lle g e s - - B u ild in g , Woodworking and F u r n itu r e Trades . . 132 1 8 . E n rollm en t in V o c a tio n a l T ra in in g C o u rses— E vening I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C o lle g e s — M is c e lla n e o u s Trades .................................................. 135 1 9 . E n ro llm en t in V o c a tio n a l T ra in in g C o u r se s-- E vening I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C o lle g e s — P r o f e s s io n a l and Commercial Trades ............................ 138 2 0 . E n ro llm en t in V o c a tio n a l T ra in in g C o u rses- - E vening I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C o lle g e s - - D om estic T r a d e s ...........................................................................llj.2 2 1 . E n rollm en t In V o c a tio n a l T ra in in g C o u r s e s -- E vening I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C o lle g e s — Manual S u b je c ts . ......................................................................ll}.5 2 2 . E n rollm en t In T o ta l C l a s s e s ........................................................ II4.9 23* E n rollm en t in L ite r a tu r e and L anguage................................1 5 > ij. 2lj.. E n rollm en t in Econom ics and I n d u s t r ia l H isto r y I n c lu d in g Geography . . . . . ...................................... 159 25* E n rollm en t in Econom ics and I n d u s t r ia l H isto r y In c lu d in g G e o g r a p h y .................................................................1 61^ . 2 6 . E n rollm en t In Econom ics and I n d u s t r ia l H is to r y In c lu d in g Geography ................................................. 165 vi Figure Page 27• E n rollm en t in Econom ics and Indus t r i a l H is to r y In c lu d in g G e o g r a p h y ........................ 169 2 8 . E n rollm en t in I n d u s t r ia l H is to r y ..................................170 29* E n rollm en t In Econom ics and I n d u s tr ia l H is to r y In c lu d in g G e o g r a p h y ........................................................... - 175 3 0 . E n rollm en t In G e o g r a p h y .......................................................... 176 31* E n rollm en t In G eneral H is t o r y ................................................l 8 l 3 2 . E n rollm en t in A e s t h e t i c s ..........................................................181+ 33* E n rollm en t in N a tu ra l S c ie n c e ................................................18 9 3I 4 .• E n rollm en t in S o c i o l o g y ............................................................ I 9I 4 35>. E n rollm en t in P h ilo so p h y and P sy c h o lo g y ........................199 vii LIST OP TABLES Table Page lo E v en in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v en in g C o lle g e C o u r se s— G en eral S u b je c ts 1 9 2 6 -1 9 2 7 .............................................. 258 2 . E v en in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v en in g C o lle g e C o u r se s— G en era l S u b je c ts 1928 . ............................................. 259 3 . E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v en in g C o lle g e C ou rses — G en eral S u b j e c t s 1 9 2 8 -1 9 2 9 ............................................. 260 I 4 .0 E v en in g I n s t i t u t e s and E ven in g C o lle g e C o u rses — G en era l S u b je c ts 1 9 2 9 -1 9 3 0 ............................................. 261 5 . E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v en in g C o lle g e C ou rses — G en eral S u b je c t s 1 9 3 0 -1 9 3 1 ............................................. 262 6 . E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v en in g C o lle g e C o u r se s— G en eral S u b je c ts 1 9 3 1 -1 9 3 2 ............................................. 263 7 . E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v en in g C o lle g e C ou rses — G en eral S u b je c t s 1 9 3 2 -1 9 3 3 ................................................ 2 6I 4 . 8 . E v en in g I n s t i t u t e s and E ven in g C o lle g e C o u rses — G en eral S u b je c ts 1933-193^ 4-.................................................265 9 . E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v en in g C o lle g e C ou rses — G eneral S u b je c ts.....1 9 3 ^ -1 9 3 5 ............................................. 266 1 0 . E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E ven in g C o lle g e C o u r se s— G en eral S u b j e c t s .....1 9 3 5 -1 9 3 6 ............................................. 267 1 1 . E v en in g I n s t i t u t e s and E ven in g C o lle g e C o u rses — G en eral S u b je c ts .....1 9 3 6 -1 9 3 7 ............................................. 268 1 2 . E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v en in g C o lle g e C o u r se s— G en eral S u b j e c ts .....1 9 3 7 -1 9 3 8 .............................................. 269 1 3 . E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v en in g C o lle g e C o u rses— V o c a tio n a l S u b je c ts 192 6 -1 9 2 7 . .......................... 271 II4.0 E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v en in g C o lle g e C ou rses — V o c a tio n a l S u b je c ts 1928 ................................................... 272 1 5 o E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E ven in g C o lle g e C o u r se s— V o c a tio n a l S u b je c ts 1 9 2 8 -1 9 2 9 273 I 60 E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E ven in g C o lle g e C o u r se s— V o c a tio n a l S u b je c ts 1 9 2 9 -1 9 3 0 2 7 ^ 4 - v i i i Table Page 1 7 . E v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v e n in g C o lle g e C o u r s e s - - V o c a t io n a l S u b j e c t s 1 9 3 0 -1 9 3 1 275 1 8 . E v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v e n in g C o lle g e C o u r s e s — V o c a t io n a l S u b j e c t s 1 9 3 1 -1 9 3 2 276 19o E v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v e n in g C o lle g e C o u r s e s - - V o c a t io n a l S u b j e c t s 1 9 3 2 -1 9 3 3 277 2 0 , E v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v e n in g C o lle g e C o u r s e s - - V o c a t io n a l S u b j e c t s 1933-19314- 278 2 1 , E v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v e n in g C o lle g e C o u r s e s — V o c a t io n a l S u b j e c t s 1 9 3 ^ -1 9 3 5 2 79 2 2 , E v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v e n in g C o lle g e C o u r s e s - - V o c a t io n a l S u b j e c t s 1 9 3 5 -1 9 3 6 280 2 3 , E v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v e n in g C o lle g e C o u r s e s - - V o c a t io n a l S u b j e c t s 1 9 3 6 -1 9 3 7 2 8 l 2l\.m E v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v e n in g C o lle g e C o u r s e s — V o c a t io n a l S u b j e c t s 1 9 3 7 -1 9 3 8 „ ........................... 28 2 25* E x tr a -M u r a l and A pproved A s s o c i a t i o n C o u r se s 1 9 2 6 -1 9 2 7 2 8 I 4 . 2 6 , E x tr a -M u r a l and A p proved A s s o c i a t i o n C o u r se s 1 9 2 7 -1 9 2 8 .............................................................................. 2 85 27* E x tr a -M u r a l and A p proved A s s o c i a t i o n C o u r se s 1 9 2 8 -1 9 2 9 ........................................................................................ . 2 8 6 2 8 , E x tr a -M u r a l and A p proved A s s o c ia t i o n C o u r se s 1 9 2 9 -1 9 3 0 .............................................................................................. 287 2 9 , E x tr a -M u r a l and A p proved A s s o c i a t i o n C o u r se s 1 9 3 0 -1 9 3 1 .............................................................................................. 2 8 8 3 0 , E x tr a -M u r a l and A p proved A s s o c i a t i o n C o u r se s 1 9 3 1 -1 9 3 2 .............................................................................................. 2 8 9 3 1 • E x tr a -M u r a l and A p proved A s s o c ia t i o n C o u r se s 1 9 3 2 -1 9 3 3 .............................................................................................. 290 3 2 , E x tr a -M u r a l and A p proved A s s o c i a t i o n C o u r se s 1933-19314 - ..................................................................................................291 33<> E x tr a -M u r a l and A p proved A s s o c i a t i o n C o u r se s 1 9 3 1 4 --1 9 3 5 .......................... 292 I x Table Page 3I4.0 Extra-M ural and Approved A sso c ia tio n C ourses 1935-1936 ................................................................................ 293 3$ . Extra-M ural and Approved A sso c ia tio n Courses 1936-1937 ................................................................................ 291; 360 Extra-M ural and Approved A sso c ia tio n Courses 1937-1938 ................................................................................ 295 x CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION England of the n in eteen tw en ties and t h i r t i e s , the s e t t in g fo r t h is stu dy, had a t l e a s t one th in g in com** mon w ith th e U nited S t a t e s , The B r it is h had th e ir depres sio n , to o , one which began alm ost a decade before our own. For us " r e lie f" became a freq u en tly used word w ith new con n otation s; fo r the B r itis h the word "dole" was the E n g lish co u n terp a rt. Both n a tio n s became fa m ilia r with the e f f e c t s o f mass unemployment. S e ttin g a sid e the e f f e c t s of s tr a ite n e d home s i t u a tio n s, fo r the c h ild re n o f compulsory school age, l i f e in the classroom continued much th e same as i t had been In sofar as the ed u cation al con ten t was concerned. There were, to be su re, some slow a lt e r a t io n s , but g e n e r a lly the elem entary sch ools on both sid e s o f the A tla n tic Ocean continued to turn out th e ir products reg a rd less o f public demand. In the U nited S ta te s a r a p id ly in crea sin g per centage were en ter in g high sch o ol; in England th e p ercen t age in crea sed more slo w ly (l8 3 :5 6 )o U n til the beginning of World War I I , secondary education in our sense o f the word was fo r a m in ority of B r it is h c h ild r e n . This i s not to say th a t th ere was no opportunity fo r fu r th e r education fo r the Englishman p ast sc h o o l- 1 le a v in g a g e . I f a n y th in g , th e v a r ie t y o f o p p o r tu n itie s would be g r e a te r than he would f i n d i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s du rin g the tw e n tie s and t h i r t i e s . A dult e d u c a tio n i n the U n ited S t a te s was g e n e r a lly c o n sid er ed to be ed u ca tio n f o r c i t i z e n s h i p and u ltim a te c u lt u r a l a s s im i l a t io n . Edu c a t io n f o r immigrants and a d u lt ed u ca tio n were n e a r ly synonymous (£ 3 ' 1 9 ) . In th e U n ited S ta t e s the la b o r union movement remained l a r g e l y a lo o f from a d u lt e d u c a tio n . In c o n tr a s t th e la b o r unions in England provided a d u lt ed u ca tio n much o f th e le a d e r s h ip in a d d itio n to funds r a is e d by dues a ss e s sm e n ts. In G reat B r ita in th e W orkers1 E d u cation al A s s o c ia tio n dominated fu r th e r ed u ca tio n o f a v o lu n ta ry n a tu re (5 3 :17)« There was a ls o fu r th e r ed u ca tio n o f a n o n -v o lu n ta iy s o r t , o ffe r e d in th e even in g I n s t i t u t e s and even in g c o l l e g e s . In th e se two typ es o f i n s t i t u t i o n s even a wider v a r ie t y o f s u b je c ts was o f f e r e d . The unemployed a d u lt In England had a v a ila b le c o u r ses which were p r im a r ily c u lt u r a l or academic in n a tu r e , but h e a ls o co u ld tak e any number o f s u b j e c ts which would p rovid e him w ith voca t i o n a l t r a in in g . In a s o c i e t y w h erein en tran ce to secondary ed u cation was sh a rp ly r e s t r i c t e d , one in which th ere was a se v e r e unemployment o f lo n g sta n d in g , what s u b je c ts d id a d u lts p r e fe r ? Assuming an in c r e a s e In the p ercen ta ge o f male unemployed, was th e r e a corresp ond ing 3 r is e In the percentage o f male students? These are the kinds o f q u estion which t h i s study w i l l attempt to answer. The a n a ly s is o f the changes o f B r it is h fu rth er education from 1926 to 1930 may a ls o o f f e r some in s ig h ts in to the fu n c tio n s o f contemporary B r itis h fu r th e r educa t io n . At the same tim e, analyzin g an ed u cation al system oth er than th a t o f our own n a tio n may, to borrow Kluck- hohn’ s fig u r e o f speech, h o ld up a mirror fo r U3 so th a t we see our own ed u cation al i n s t it u t io n s more c le a r ly than b e fo r e . Therein l i e s much o f the value of comparative education as w e ll as the s ig n ific a n c e o f t h i s stu dy. Type o f D iss e r ta tio n The study Is o f a period between the World Wars, 1926-1938. I t i s o f a h i s t o r i c a l natu re. However, i t goes beyond a survey and in to a n a ly s is ; thus It w i l l a ls o tr e a t causal-com parative r e la t io n s h ip s . The “whats” of the study are a n ecessary p r e r e q u is ite to the B whys" and they may be more e a s i ly answered. N e v er th e le ss, the answers to the nw h ys,w the reasons fo r th ese changes, are the u ltim a te g oal o f th e stu d y . D e lim ita tio n s More than a decade in the l i f e of a n a tio n i s a long period o f time to examine. And the f i e l d o f fu rth er education in B r ita in i s a broad one. C onsequently, an k im m ediate problem i s th a t of d e lim itin g th e stu d y . The f i r s t d e lim ita tio n i s th a t o f tim e. A lthough th e B r it is h Board o f E d ucation p u b lish ed an annual r ep o rt during th e w hole p e r io d betw een the w ars, i t was n o t u n t i l 1926 th a t th e Board began to in c lu d e a s u b s ta n tia l amount o f c o n s is t e n t s t a t i s t i c s on fu r th e r e d u c a tio n , p a r tic u l a r l y th e even in g i n s t i t u t e and even in g c o lle g e c la s s e s ; u n iv e r s ity p r e p a r a to r y , th r e e -y e a r and t u t o r ia l c la s s e s ; on e-year and term in a l c la s s e s ; and u n iv e r s ity e x te n sio n c l a s s e s . C on sequ en tly t h is stu d y w i l l be narrowed. I t w i l l b eg in w ith th e 1926-27 R eport; i t w i l l end w ith th e 1937-38 R ep ort, w hich was the l a s t one p u b lish ed b e fo r e th e b eg in n in g o f World War I I . N a tu r a lly th ere w i l l be in clu d ed m a te r ia l p r io r to 1 9 2 6 , but t h is w i l l be c o n fin e d to what seems n e c e ss a r y a s a frame o f r e fe r e n c e fo r th e p eriod o f th e s tu d y . There w i l l be no sy ste m a tic attem pt to a n a ly ze fu r th e r ed u ca tio n p r io r to 1 9 2 6 ; n e ith e r w i l l th e re be an a n a ly s is o f th e e v e n ts subsequent to 1939, s in c e ch ron ology makes them o f l e s s im portance in s o fa r as a n a ly zin g t h i s segm ent o f the d e p r e ssio n i s con cern ed . The second d e lim ita tio n i s a p p lied to th e f i e l d o f B r it is h e d u c a tio n . I t i s im portant th a t th e read er be aware o f th e p la c e o f fu r th e r ed u ca tio n w ith in B r it is h e d u c a tio n . Thus a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e g en era l system i s In clu d ed , f o r i t h as v a lu e as background far understand in g fu r th e r e d u c a tio n . However, th e re i s no attem pt a t an e x h a u stiv e a n a ly s is o f th e r o le s o f th e o th e r a rea s o f B r it i s h e d u c a tio n . E lem entary, prim ary, secon d ary, and h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , to m ention a few , d eserv e prolonged stu d y , but such in t e n s i v e r e se a r c h i s n o t germane to th e purpose o f t h i s s tu d y . The d e lim it a t io n o f the a rea g e o g r a p h ic a lly i s a ls o a n e c e s s i t y . T his stu d y n o t o n ly ex clu d es B r it i s h ed u ca tio n beyond th e b ou n d aries o f England proper; i t d e a ls p r im a r ily w ith urban E ngland. I t i s tr u e th a t fu r th e r e d u c a tio n went on in r u r a l E ngland. However, rural stu d e n ts and c l a s s e s make up such a sm all p e r ce n ta g e o f th e t o t a l number (2 7 6 :7 0 ) th a t such f i g u r e s , which were l i k e l y to be in a c c u r a te when th ey were p r e s e r v e d , are g e n e r a lly exclu d ed from th e s tu d y . F in a lly th e r e i s th e d e lim it a t io n im posed upon th e sc o p e o f t h i s stu d y o f fu r t h e r e d u c a tio n . F u rth er e d u c a tio n , a c c o r d in g to th e E d u c a tio n A ct o f 19ljl^> encom p a s s e s any form o f e d u c a tio n beyond seco n d a ry b u t n o t w ith in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n (£ :1 0 !j.-0 5 ). F or th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y , su ch o r g a n iz a t io n s as th e B o y s’ B rig a d e and th e Young Women's C h r is tia n A s s o c ia t io n a re e x c lu d e d . In f a c t , the e x c lu s io n s are so numerous th a t th e y can be e s t a b lis h e d m ost c l e a r l y by e x c lu d in g a l l fu r t h e r ed u ca t io n ex ce p t th o s e s u b j e c ts tau gh t in even in g c o l l e g e s , even in g i n s t i t u t e s ; u n iv e r s it y p r e p a r a to r y , th r e e -y e a r and t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s , o n e -y ea r and term in al c o u r se s; and u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s io n c l a s s e s o P ro ced u re The p r o c e d u r e i t s e l f had f o u r m ain s t e p s , th e f i r s t o f w h ich in v o l v e d r e a d in g and r e s e a r c h in th e g e n e r a l f i e l d o f B r i t i s h e d u c a t i o n . N o th in g ta k e s p la c e i n i s o l a t i o n . T h is tr u is m h o ld s f o r t h e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n ; o n ly th e p e r so n who i s aware o f , f o r e x a m p le, t h e h i s t o r i c a l r o l e s o f e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s and grammar s c h o o l s can c o n c e i v e th e chasm t h a t l a y b e tw e en t h e two e d u c a t io n a l t r a c k s i n th e t w e n t i e s and t h i r t i e s . F or any one segm ent o f an e d u c a t io n a l s y s te m t o h a v e m eaning i t m ust be r e l a t e d to th e t o t a l s y s te m . H ow ever, t h a t m eaning m ust be i n t e r p r e t e d as an e x p r e s s io n o f t h e s o c i e t y i t s e l f . Much o f th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e sy s te m i s d e r iv e d from i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e s o c i e t y w h ich form s and i s form ed by i t 0 Thus th e se co n d s t e p i n th e p r o c e d u r e was t h a t o f b u i ld in g up a backgroun d in t h e E n g li s h s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f t h a t p e r io d o I n e x t r i c a b ly m in g le d w it h s o c i a l h i s t o r y w ere t h e f i n a n c i a l and p o l i t i c a l e v e n ts o f th e p e r io d . F or a lm o st two d e c a d e s E n glan d was im m ersed in a f i n a n c i a l d e p r e s s io n ; t h e Labour P a rty came to pow er f o r th e f i r s t tim e i n th e t w e n t i e s . Such e v e n t s w ere p a r t o f th e back grou n d o f w hat w ent on in E n g li s h e d u c a t io n . A w areness o f them sh o u ld i n c r e a s e o n e ’ s I n s i g h t In to r e l a t e d phenomena su ch a s v o lu n t a r y 7 pay c u ts fo r tea c h e rs and a grow ing p r e ssu re f o r secondary ed u cation fo r a l l ch ild ren ,, The th ir d ste p a ls o in v o lv ed th e e sta b lish m e n t o f a s e t o f r e la t io n s h ip s , th o se between fu r th e r ed u cation o f th e tw e n tie s and t h i r t i e s and th o se movements in a d u lt and w orkers' ed u ca tio n which had preceded th e p e r io d 0 Not one o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n s upon which r e se a r c h was con c e n tr a te d sprang fo r th in 1926. Some were born s h o r tly b e fo re th e war; o th e rs rep resen ted m u tation s o f o r g a n iza tio n s w ith a r e l a t i v e l y lo n g h is t o r y . A ll d eriv ed p a rt o f t h e ir meaning from th e t o t a l movement which preceded them and in consequence read in g wa3 req u ired in the h is t o r y o f E n g lish a d u lt and w ork ers1 e d u c a tio n . The f i n a l ste p was th a t o f co n cen tra ted stu dy and r e se a r c h on fu r th e r ed u cation w ith in th e lim it a t io n s o f th e stu d y . E x tr a c tio n o f o r ig in a l d ata was n o t e a s y . The B r it is h seem to have se n t much of t h e ir a d m in istra t i v e t a le n t o v e rse a s; a t l e a s t t h is seemed t o b e tr u e , i f we based our c r i t e r ia on the d e s ir e to com p ile s t a t i s t i c s . There were annual r ep o rts from the M in is tr ie s of Labour and F in a n ce. These fu r n ish ed s t a t i s t i c s o f a g e n e r a l n a tu r e . Then, to o , there were th e annual r e p o r ts o f th e B r itis h I n s t i t u t e of Adult E d u cation . However, th e Board o f E ducation R eports were the major so u r c e . T h ese, in a d d itio n to the r e p o r ts o f th e U n iv e r s ity Extra-M ural Departm ents and the W orkers' E d u cation al 8 A s s o c ia tio n , were so u rces fo r some o f th e d a ta . U nfor tu n a te ly , th e se o r g a n iz a tio n s did n o t alw ays c o n sid er p e r tin e n t some o f the data which would have been th e most d e s ir a b le f o r t h i s stu d y . L aski p o in ted o u t in 1926 the la c k o f o b je c tiv e s t a t i s t i c s in B r it is h ed u ca tio n ( 2 2 3 ! ll) « P e e r s, to o , m entioned the p a u c ity o f reco rd s in a d u lt edu c a tio n (21+9:35>6) • N e v e r th e le s s , in te g r a te d w ith m a te r ia l from secondary so u r c e s , th e o r ig in a l so u rces d id make i t p o s s ib le to a n a ly ze some o f th e changes o f B r it is h fu r th e r ed u c a tio n betw een th e w ars. Assum ptions There were se v er a l assum ptions. The f i r s t was th a t the d e lim ita tio n o f fu rth er education to evening c o ll e g e s , evening i n s t i t u t e s , u n iv e r s ity extra-m ural de partm ents, and approved a s s o c ia tio n s f o r a d u lt education, c h i e f l y the Workers1 E ducational A s so c ia tio n , was a v a lid one. The second was th a t th e d e lim ita tio n o f th e stu d y to the urban a rea s would n o t in tro d u ce a s i g n if i c a n t d i s t o r t io n o f th e d ata upon which th e a n a ly s is was b a sed . The th ir d was th a t th e p erio d 1926-1930 had s i g n if ic a n c e and u n it y , in s o fa r as fu r th e r ed u c a tio n was con cern ed . 9 D e f in it io n s Workers* Education This i s a somewhat m islea d in g p h ra se, I t e x p r e sse s a t h e o r e t ic a l id e a l much b e tte r than i t d e sc rib es a s t a t e o f a f f a i r s . T r a d it io n a lly , th e term has been used alm ost synonymously w ith w o r k in g -c la ss e d u c a tio n 0 As l a t e as the f i r s t decade o f th e n in e te e n th cen tu ry ’’work ing" meant doing manual la b o r , and those who d id p h y s ic a l work were co n sid er ed to be o f a c l a s s , Raybould fu r n ish e s a d e s c r ip tio n o f the group. The term "working c l a s s ” meant som ething th a t was f a i r l y g e n e r a lly un d erstood , i f not o f te n d e fin e d . I t m eant, among o th er t h in g s , the c l a s s in th e com munity which had c r e a te d trade u n io n s, th e c o -o p er a t i v e movement, working men*s c lu b s , and th e Labour P a rty , I t In clu d ed th e ’’lab ou rin g c l a s s e s , ” manual w orkers, and w a g e -ea r n e rs, I t had i t s own p a r tic u l a r brand o f e d u c a tio n --p u b lic elem entary; i t s own h o u sin g --ch ea p and n a sty ; I t s own mode of d r e ss and speech; I t s own p a stim es; sometimes i t s own fo o d , (78:38) However, by the end o f the f i r s t decade th ere was c le a r l y a second meaning fo r ”workers* e d u c a tio n ,” To M arxist workers i t meant ed u cation to oppose the system of c a p it a lis m . The s ta t e d aims o f the N a tio n a l C ouncil o f Labour C o lle g e s make t h i s meaning e x p l i c i t . Aims and M ethods,--T o provide Independent Working C la ss E ducation in order to enable th e workers to develop t h e ir c a p a c it ie s and to equip them fo r t h e ir Trade Union, Labour and C o-op erative a c t i v i t i e s gen e r a l l y in the work o f b rin g in g an end to th e system of c a p it a lis m and enabling th e workers to a ch iev e t h e ir s o c i a l and in d u s t r ia l em ancipation, (39*67) 10 N e v e rth e le s s , a s b o th Peers (21+9:11+2) and Raybould p o in t o u t, working w ith th e h and s, w h ile i t may a t one tim e have been an adequate d e f i n i t i o n o f w orker, was much too narrow to a p p ly to a l l th e w orkers of th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry ; f o r along w ith th e b lu e - s h ir t e d w orkers were the b la c k -c o a te d c le r k s and o f f i c e w orkers p a id on a weekly b a sis* E v e n tu a lly in t h i s s i t u a t i o n th e term "worker" came to be th e l a b e l f o r " a l l w orkers by hand or b r a i n ” (78:11+3). When th e term w o rk e rs' e d u c a tio n i s used in t h i s stu d y , i t w i l l be u sed , as i t was predom inantly d u rin g th e G eorgian p e rio d , to l a b e l e d u c a tio n f o r th o se i n th e bro ad group, in c lu d in g b o th manual and non-manual occupa tio n s* A dult E d u catio n T his term i s perhaps more e a s i l y d e fin e d than e i t h e r " f u r th e r e d u c a tio n " o r "w orkers' e d u c a tio n ," sin c e " a d u lt" r e f e r s c l e a r l y to a c h ro n o lo g ic a l scale* The M in istry of E d u ca tio n , f o r th e purpose o f i t s r e g u l a ti o n s , defines, a d u lts as "person s o f a t l e a s t e ig h tee n y e ars of age" (100:399)- In g e n e ra l E n g lish usage i t excludes v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n and h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , conno ting work ingm an's e d u c a tio n (2 1 9 :5 7 ). H utchinson sums up th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a d u lt e d u c a tio n . A dult e d u c a tio n i s ta k e n to mean th o se form s o f e d u c a tio n which a re un d ertak en v o l u n ta r il y by m ature 11 p eo p le ( in th e U n ited Kingdom meaning p erso n s above th e age o f e ig h te e n ) and which have as t h e ir aim th e d evelop m en t, w ith o u t d ir e c t regard to t h e ir v o c a tio n a l v a lu e , o f p e r so n a l a b i l i t i e s and a p titu d e s , and th e encouragem ent o f s o c i a l , m oral and i n t e l l e c t u a l r e s p o n s ib i li t y w ith in th e framework o f l o c a l , n a tio n a l and w orld c it i z e n s h i p . . . . th e term p resu p p oses a g e n e r a l stan d ard o f l i t e r a c y r e s u lt in g from com pulsory ch ild h o o d e d u c a tio n . (197 sSU-) There i s in a d d itio n the a s s o c ia tio n o f l i b e r a l s tu d ie s w ith a d u lt e d u c a tio n , p a r t ic u la r ly during th e in te r -w a r p e r io d when a d u lt ed u ca tio n was la r g e ly th e work o f th e U n iv e r s ity Extra-M ural departm ents in l i a i s o n w ith th e Workers' E d u ca tio n a l A s so c ia tio n (195*65)• F u rth er E ducation F u rth er ed u c a tio n i s d e sc r ib e d by the 19Mj . Educa tio n A ct as ed u c a tio n fo r p erso n s over com pulsory sc h o o l age on an e ith e r p a r t-tim e o r f u ll- t im e b a sis,, G en era lly i t seems to be d e fin e d as ed u c a tio n beyond com pulsory s c h o o l, e ith e r o f v o c a tio n a l or c u ltu r a l self-im p rovem en t (£ :1 0 6 ). F urther ed u ca tio n i s a term u sed to d e sc r ib e th e area o f ed u c a tio n w hich i s n o t h ig h e r ed u ca tio n in the t r a d it io n a l se n se and y e t i s p a st th e age o f com pulsory a tte n d a n c e . I t i s a l s o , in th e case o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n s an alyzed in t h is stu d y , p a r t-tim e e d u c a tio n , w hich i s in a d d itio n to r e g u la r em ploym ent. Approved A sso c ia tio n fo r Adult Education Approved A s s o c ia tio n s f o r A dult E ducation were th o se which q u a lif ie d f o r e d u c a tio n a l su p p ort g ra n ts 12 a c c o r d in g to th e 1 9 2 6 R e g u la tio n s f o r A d u lt E d u c a tio n , The b u lk o f th e c o u r s e s co n d u cted under th e s e p r o v is io n s w ere o r g a n iz e d and a d m in is tr a te d by th e W orkers' E duca t i o n a l A s s o c ia t io n (3 1 3 :9 )* The u n i v e r s i t i e s and u n i v e r s i t y c o l l e g e s co o p era ted in s e v e r a l k in d s o f e x tr a -m u r a l c o u r s e s w h ich w ere o f f e r e d a t th e r e q u e s t o f th e a d u lt a s s o c i a t i o n s . The g e n e r a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s u sed b y th e Board o f E d u c a tio n w ere as f o l l o w s : 1* U n iv e r s it y t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s . In t h e s e t h e s tu d e n ts p le d g e th e m se lv e s to m eet fo r two h o u rs w e ek ly f o r 2 4 w eeks i n each o f t h r e e s u c c e s s iv e y e a r s . The c l a s s i s under th e c o n t r o l and s u p e r v is io n o f a U n iv e r s it y J o in t C om m ittee, h a l f th e members o f w h ic h , a s a r u l e , a r e a p p o in te d b y th e U n iv e r s it y and h a l f by th e W ,E.A . The t u t o r i s ap p o in te d by th e U n iv e r s it y J o i n t C om m ittee, and th e c l a s s I s o r g a n iz e d a lm o st in v a r ia b ly b y t h e W .E.A. S tu d e n ts a r e r e q u ir e d to p a r t i c i p a t e In c l a s s - w ork, and t o su b m it e s s a y s t o th e T u to r; b u t no e x a m in a tio n s a re h e ld and no c e r t i f i c a t e s g i v e n . The c l a s s d o e s n o t n o r m a lly in c lu d e more th a n 21). s t u d e n ts . . . and th e aim o f th e c o u r s e i s to r e a c h th e sta n d a r d o f U n iv e r s it y work in H onou rs, w here th e s u b j e c t m akes t h i s p o s s i b l e . An Advanced T u to r ia l C la s s must h a v e am ongst i t s s t u d e n ts a t l e a s t t w o - t h ir d s who h a v e p a sse d s a t i s f a c t o r i l y th ro u g h a T u to r ia l C la s s in th e sam e, o r a r e l a t e d s u b j e c t . The c o u r s e m u st e x te n d o v e r n o t l e s s th an 21). w e ek s, and th e number o f s tu d e n ts m ust n o t b e fe w e r th an 9 and n o t more th an 2I 4 .0 2* P r e p a r a to r y C la s s e s , A P re p a r a to r y C la s s m ust p r o v id e a c o u r s e g iv in g a s u i t a b l e p r e p a r a tio n f o r s tu d e n ts I n te n d in g t o p r o c e e d to T hree Y ear T u to r ia l C la s s e s , and m u st occu p y n o t l e s s th e n two h o u rs a week f o r 21). w eeks o f th e 13 y e a r , n o t l e s s th an h a l f o f each m e e tin g b e in g d e v o te d to c l a s s w ork . The number o f s tu d e n ts m ust n o t e x c e e d 3 2 . . . • T h ese c l a s s e s a ls o a r e u n d er th e c o n t r o l and s u p e r v is io n o f th e U n iv e r s it y J o i n t C om m ittee. 3 * One Y ear C l a s s e s . T h ese are c l a s s e s w h ich p r o v id e m e e tin g s o f n o t l e s s th an one and a h a l f h o u r s ' d u r a t io n , and p r e f e r a b ly o f two h o u r s , in n o t l e s s th a n 20 w eek s o f th e y e a r . In e a ch m e e tin g h a l f th e tim e m ust be g iv e n t o c l a s s w o rk , and th e s t u d e n ts m ust b e p r e p ared to do w r it t e n w ork . The sta n d a r d m ust b e com p a r a b le w ith t h a t o f a P r e p a r a to r y C la s s , a lth o u g h a O ne-Y ear C la s s n e e d n o t b e arran ged a s a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a T h ree-Y ea r C la s s . The number o f s t u d e n t s m ust n o t e x c e e d 3 2 . . . • The c l a s s m ust b e under th e c o n t r o l and s u p e r v is io n o f a R e s p o n s ib le Body ap p roved b y th e Board o f E d u c a tio n . i}.. T erm in al C o u r s e s . A T erm in al c o u r s e p r o v id e s m e e tin g s o f n o t l e s s th an one and a h a l f h o u r s ' d u r a tio n ( o r , in s p e c i a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s , o f n o t l e s s th a n one and a q u a r te r h o u r s ' d u r a tio n ) in n o t l e s s th a n 1 2 w eek s o f th e y e a r . The number o f s tu d e n ts i s n o t l i m i t e d , and w r it t e n work i s n o t dem anded, a lth o u g h In a l l s u i t a b le s u b j e c t s i t s h o u ld be e n c o u r a g e d . The c l a s s e s a ls o m ust be u n der t h e c o n t r o l and s u p e r v is io n o f a r e s p o n s ib le bod y ap p roved b y th e B o a rd . U n iv e r s it y E x te n s io n C o u r se s. T h ese a re o r g a n iz e d by th e L o ca l C om m ittees who c h o o se t h e i r L e c tu r e r s from p a n e ls a p p o in te d b y t h e U n iv e r s i t y . In o r d e r to s e c u r e r e c o g n it io n and gran t a id from th e Board o f E d u c a tio n a c o u r s e m ust p r o v id e n o t l e s s th a n 18 h o u r s o f i n s t r u c t i o n In m e e tin g s o f n o t l e s s th an one and a h a l f and n o t m ore th a n two h o u r s ' d u r a t io n , w h ic h may b e d iv id e d i n t o L e c tu r e P e r io d s and C la s s P e r io d s . O nly t h o s e s tu d e n ts who a r e p rep a red to a t t e n d f o r th e w hole m e e tin g and to do w r i t t e n work may b e e n te r e d on th e r o le o f s t u d e n t s , w h ich m ust c o n t a in n o t more th a n 32 n am es. No r e c o r d s n e e d b e k e p t o f a tte n d a n c e o f p e r so n s o th e r th a n s tu d e n ts w hose nam es a r e e n te r e d on th e r o l l . The c o u r se m u st b e u n d er th e c o n t r o l and s u p e r v i s i o n o f a U n i v e r s i t y . (3 9 ? 2 7 -2 0 ) lU- 6 * E ven in g I n s t i t u t e s and E ven in g C o lle g e s . T hese i n s t i t u t i o n s a re th e l a r g e s t and th e m ost w id e ly d is t r ib u t e d m eans o f f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n . (3 3 8 :2 9 ) They are d e sig n e d f o r wage e a r n e r s , and th e c l a s s e s u s u a lly m eet a f t e r $ :0 0 P.M. There i s a w id e v a r ia t io n in th e c o u r se o f f e r i n g s . The i n s t r u c t io n as a r u le i s of a m ore advanced sta n d a rd and w id er ra n g e in th e C o lle g e s . (3lj-$sl83) (32$*7!?) O rg a n iza tio n o f the D is s e r t a t io n The in tr o d u c to r y c h a p te r b e g in s ' by d e lin e a t in g th e problem a s w e l l as d is c u s s in g i t s p u rp o se and s i g n i f i c a n c e . S e c o n d ly , th e r e i s an e x p o s it io n o f th e t y p e , d e l im i t a t io n s , p roced u re and a ssu m p tio n s o f th e s t u d y . T h ir d ly , th e c h a p te r in c lu d e s th e d e f i n i t i o n s o f some o f th e term s u sed in th e s tu d y . F in a lly , th e r e i s th e d e s c r ip t i o n o f th e o r g a n iz a t io n o f th e d i s s e r t a t i o n . C hapter I I ta k e s up th e r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e — d i s s e r t a t i o n s , b o o k s, p e r io d ic a l s and p a m p h le ts. C hapter I I I d e v e lo p s th e s e t t i n g o f th e s tu d y — th e so c io e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s o f th e p e r io d , th e r e l a t i o n s h ip o f fu r th e r e d u c a tio n to e d u c a tio n in G reat B r it a i n , and th e d evelop m en t o f B r i t i s h f u r th e r e d u c a tio n . C hapter IV p r e s e n ts and a n a ly z e s d ata on th e e v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s and e v e n in g c o l l e g e s b etw een th e w a r s . C hapter V p r e s e n ts and a n a ly z e s d a ta on e x tr a m ural and s im ila r c o u r s e s s u p e r v is e d by u n i v e r s i t i e s o r u n i v e r s i t y c o l l e g e s , and c o u r s e s under the c o n t r o l and d i r e c t i o n o f approved a s s o c i a t i o n s f o r a d u lt e d u c a tio n 1 $ o th e r than v a c a tio n c o u r s e s . Chapter VI summarizes and draws c o n c lu s io n s from th e d a ta and a n a l y s is p r e se n te d In C hapters IV and V. I t a l s o makes recom m endations f o r f u r th e r s t u d y 0 The d a ta upon w hich th e graphs are b ased are p r e se n te d in th e A ppendix. There i s in a d d itio n a s y n t h e s is o f t h e p e r c e n ta g e changes w hich took p l a c e . S in c e th e s e p e r c e n ta g e s h i f t s r e p r e s e n t su pp lem en tary d a ta and are n o t v i t a l to C hapters IV and V, th ey a r e r e s t r i c t e d to ta b u la r form . CHAPTER I I REVIEW OP RELATED LITERATURE D i s s e r t a t i o n s T h ere a r e n o d i s s e r t a t i o n s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s b e a r in g d i r e c t l y on th e f i e l d o f th e s t u d y . H ow ever, t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l w h ich a r e r e l a t e d i n an o b liq u e f a s h i o n . G eorge B o ro d a y * s The R o le o f W ealth and E d u c a tio n i n E n g lis h C la s s S t r u c tu r e , i s u s e f u l as a so u r c e o f b a c k grou n d in fo r m a tio n on th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n b e tw e en w e a lth and e d u c a tio n in G rdat B r i t a i n . The im p o rta n ce o f p u b lic s c h o o l e d u c a tio n t o s o c i a l s ta n d in g h e lp s to e x p la in t h e h ig h m o t iv a t io n o f B r i t i s h p a r e n ts tow ard t h e i r c h i l d r e n ’ s a t t e n d in g t h e p r e s t i g e I n s t i t u t i o n s . T here I s , n o n e t h e le s s , no m a t e r ia l b e a r in g d i r e c t l y on f u r t h e r e d u c a t io n . N o e l H o t t e r s h e a d 's A C om p arative S tu d y o f W orld M ovem ents i n A d u lt E d u c a tio n , d o e s in c lu d e som e m a t e r i a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l , p e r t i n e n t to B r i t i s h f u r t h e r e d u c a t io n . B u t th e d e v e lo p m en t i s one o f b ro a d p a t t e r n s d e a lin g w ith s e v e r a l n a t i o n s , and t h e o r i e n t a t i o n i s in r e l a t i o n to a d u lt e d u c a t io n i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . C o n se q u e n t ly , t h e v a lu e was c h i e f l y l i m i t e d t o th e b ib lio g r a p h y f o r th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s t u d y . Mary P a lm e r 1s The D ev elo p m en t o f C h a r a c t e r is t ic P a t te r n s o f A d u lt E d u c a tio n i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , E n g la n d . Denmark and Germ any, d id h a v e a fe w u s e f u l b i b li o g r a p h i c a l 17 r e f e r e n c e s . N e v e r th e le s s , th e to p ic was So broad t h a t th e a n a ly s is o f the p a tte r n s o f E n g lish a d u lt e d u c a tio n , w h ile i n t e r e s t i n g , o f f e r e d l i t t l e th a t was not a v a ila b le from o th e r s o u r c e s . Van Gamp’ s The N a tio n a l U nion o f T each ers in E ngland had v a lu e a s background r e a d in g , even though i t d id n o t b ear d i r e c t l y on th e t o p i c . The work o f th e t e a c h e r ’ s u n ion h a s b een an im p o rta n t f o r c e in th e d e v e lo p ment o f B r it i s h e d u c a tio n . G-overnment P u b lic a tio n s For th e p u r p o se s o f t h i s stu d y a v ery im p o rta n t s i n g l e p u b lic a t io n i s the F in a l R ep ort o f th e A d u lt Edu c a t io n C om m ittee, u s u a lly c a l l e d th e 1919 R e p o r t. There seem s to be v e r y l i t t l e c o n t r a d ic t io n to W a lle r 's s t a t e m ent: "The R ep ort . . . i s p rob ab ly th e m ost im p o rta n t s i n g l e c o n tr ib u t io n e v er made to th e l i t e r a t u r e o f a d u lt e d u c a tio n " (2 9 * 1 5 )# The 1919 R ep ort and th e 1902 E d u ca tio n A ct w ere s im ila r i n t h e i r m agnitude in B r it i s h e d u c a tio n . They w ere d i s s i m il a r i n th e s e n s e t h a t th e 1902 A ct r e p r e s e n te d a c tio n w ith im m ediate e f f e c t s , w hereas the 1919 R eport was recom m endation f o r a c t i o n . N e v e r t h e le s s , th e y have fu r t h e r s i m i l a r i t y in th a t b o th are r e f e r r e d to m ost f r e q u e n t ly as landm arks from w h ich o th e r e v e n ts ta k e t h e i r r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s . 1 8 W h ile i t i s u s e f u l f o r g e n e r a l b a c k g r o u n d and a s p e l l i n g o u t o f t h e p h ilo s o p h y and h o p e s o f a g r o u p who w ere s e r i o u s l y c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e f u n c t i o n an d f u t u r e o f a d u l t e d u c a t i o n , t h e 1 9 1 9 R e p o r t w as n o t e s p e c i a l l y v a l u a b le a s a s o u r c e o f f a c t u a l m a t e r i a l f o r t h i s s t u d y , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e much o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a w as in term s o f t h e n u m b ers o f s t u d e n t s a t an i n s t i t u t i o n and la c k e d f u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t . T h ere i s a l s o a s i m i l a r i t y b e tw e e n th e Hadow R e p o r t o f 1 9 2 6 and t h e 1 9 1 9 R e p o r t in t h a t b o t h r e p r e s e n t e d s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d , l o g i c a l a r g u m en ts i n f a v o r o f e d u c a t i o n a l im p r o v e m e n t. And b o th h a d t o w a i t d e c a d e s t o s e e an y t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e i r h o p e s i n t o r e a l i t y . S i n c e H adow ’ s r e p o r t w as on th e t o p i c o f t h e e d u c a t io n o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t , i t m ig h t h a v e h a d a m arked e f f e c t on f u r t h e r e d u c a t io n i f i t s r e c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r r a i s i n g th e s c h o o l - l e a v i n g age h a d b e e n f o l l o w e d . The F is h e r A c t o f 1 9 1 8 and th e S p en s R e p o r t o f 1 9 3 6 h a v e v a l u e , n o t s o much a s s o u r c e s o f f a c t u a l m a t e r i a l , a s t h e y h a v e a s e v id e n c e o f c o n c e r n , a l b e i t im m e d ia t e ly i n e f f e c t i v e , w it h e d u c a t i o n . The F i s h e r A c t sh ow s an a w a r e n e s s o f t h e n e e d f o r d a y c o n t i n u a t i o n s c h o o l s w h ic h , h a d t h e l e g i s l a t i o n ta k e n e f f e c t , w o u ld h a v e , i n t u r n , a f f e c t e d f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n . H o w e v er , t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e a c t t o e x e r t a d i s c e r n i b l e i n f l u e n c e i s sy m b o lic o f th e c l a s h b e tw e e n e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y and g o v e r n m e n ta l a c t i o n . There was c o n s i s t e n t l y a p o w erfu l and s u c c e s s f u l r e s i s t ance to in c r e a s e d e x p e n d itu r e f o r e d u c a tio n d u rin g th e two d eca d es a f t e r W orld War I . There w ere a ls o w e a lth y members o f s o c i e t y who s to o d to g a in from th e e x p l o i t a t io n o f th e cheap la b o r o f c h ild r e n ( 3 1 2 : 2 2 ) . I r o n i c a l l y , i t was n o t o n ly th e r ic h who fo u g h t th e e x ten sio i'; o f ed u c a t io n a l p r i v i l e g e . The e n th u sia sm o f w o r k in g -c la s s p e o p le was a b i t dampened by th e th o u g h t o f l o s i n g th e incom e b rou gh t in by w orking c h ild r e n ( 1 5 9 :1 3 6 - 3 7 )* Thus th e P is h e r A ct was c a u g h t in a c r o s s f i r e . I t s f a i l u r e was n o t s u r p r is in g . In a s im ila r way, th e recom m endation o f th e Spens R ep ort in 1936 t h a t th e s c h o o l- le a v in g age b e r a is e d , a lth o u g h th e recom m endation had t o be dropped w ith th e approach o f W orld War I I , r e f l e c t s an in c r e a s in g p r e ssu r e f o r more e d u c a tio n f o r th e p o p u la tio n w hich fu r n is h e d th e s tu d e n ts f o r f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n . The E d u c a tio n A ct o f 19hi|.* th e p r o v is io n s o f w h ich r e p r e s e n t th e a ch iev em en t o f many o f th e d e s i r e s e x p r e ss e d In th e e a r l i e r e d u c a tio n a c t s and r e p o r t s , I s o f a s t a t u r e s im ila r to th a t o f th e E d u c a tio n A ct o f 1 9 0 2 . W ith th e a s c e n s io n to pow er o f th e Labour P a r ty , th e s c h o o l- le a v in g a g e was r a is e d , seco n d a ry e d u c a tio n was made more g e n e r a lly a v a i la b l e , and th e pathw ays to h ig h e r e d u c a tio n w ere w ideneda F u r th e r e d u c a tio n was s p e l l e d o u t as a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f p u b lic e d u c a tio n even to th e in c lu s io n o f l o c a l 20 c o u n ty c o ll e g e s * The A d u lt E d u c a tio n Com m ittee p u b lish e d a s e r i e s o f " p a p ers” p r io r to and d u rin g th e p e r io d o f th e stu d y * The f i r s t o f th e s e r e p o r t s , p u b lish e d in 1 9 2 2 , i s a r e p o r t on th e c o o p e r a tio n b etw een u n i v e r s i t i e s , l o c a l e d u c a tio n a u t h o r i t i e s , and v o lu n ta r y b o d ie s . I t h a s e ch o es o f th e 1919 P in a l R ep ort o f th e A d u lt E d u ca tio n C om m ittee, T here i s v e r y l i t t l e in th e way o f s t a t i s t i c a l in fo rm a t i o n , b u t th e comments on th e e f f e c t o f t h e 1918 E duca t io n A ct s t a t u t e s w h ich r e q u ir e d th e L o ca l E d u c a tio n A u t h o r it ie s to " su p p ly or a id th e su p p ly o f a d u lt e d u c a tio n " ( 3 1 7 : 8 ) s u g g e s t th a t th e r e was an in c r e a s e in th e e f f o r t o f th e L .E .A .'s to make p r o v is io n s f o r a d u lt e d u c a t i o n . Paper Number Two i s a "R eport on th e R e c r u itm e n t, T r a in in g , and R em uneration o f T u to r s," I t h a s v a lu e as a so u r c e o f in fo r m a tio n on th e te a c h e r s in th e t u t o r i a l c l a s s program . The th ir d pap er d is c u s s e s "The D evelopm ent o f A d u lt E d u c a tio n in R ural A r e a s," T h is i s p ro b a b ly th e m ost th orou gh tre a tm en t o f a problem w hich a p p a r e n tly was n o t s o lv e d d u rin g th e p e r io d o f th e s tu d y . The q u e s t io n o f why th e r e was c o m p a r a tiv e ly l i t t l e done in th e way o f a d u lt e d u c a tio n f o r r u r a l com m unities i s answ ered th o r o u g h ly in t h i s r e p o r t* "The D evelop m ent o f A d u lt E d u ca tio n f o r Women," th e t o p ic f o r th e fo u r th p a p e r , p o in t s out th e f a c t o r s 21 w hich made fu r t h e r e d u c a tio n f o r women p red o m in a n tly a m id d le - c la s s r a th e r than a w o r k in g -c la s s movement ( 3 2 0 : 2 ) . There I s some u s e f u l h i s t o r i c a l background about grow th o f a d u lt e d u c a tio n f o r women. P apers f i v e and s i x d is c u s s " B r itis h M usic" and "The Drama in A d u lt E d u c a tio n ." They o f f e r l i t t l e w hich seem s p e r tin e n t to th e t o p ic o f th e stu d y,, Paper s e v e n , on th e o th e r h an d , h a s some v a lu e , f o r i t d e a ls w ith th e s u b je c t " F ull-T im e S t u d ie s ." I t s u s e f u ln e s s l i e s p a r t ic u l a r l y in p o in tin g o u t th e lim it e d number o f s c h o la r s h ip s a v a ila b le a t O xford and Cambridge (3 2 3 :5 . £ > !♦ • ) and th e h ig h fre q u en cy o f e x te n s io n or t u t o r i a l c o u r s e s in th e p r e p a r a tio n o f f u l l - t i m e stu d e n ts ( 3 2 3 : 7 )• Paper E ig h t , " N atu ral S c ie n c e i n A d u lt E d u c a tio n ," in a d d itio n to d is c u s s in g th e need f o r n a tu r a l s c ie n c e , a ls o p o in ts o u t some o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s which in 1927 w ere I n h ib it in g th e grow th in th e number o f s t u d e n t s . There was a sh ortage in the su p p ly of capable s c ie n c e tea c h e rs d e s p ite the moderate demand f o r them. A fu r th e r handicap was the la r g e number o f stu d e n ts d e f i c i e n t in m athem atical tr a in in g ( 32l|.:5l ) • One o f the more u s e fu l papers i s number n in e , "Pioneer Work and Other Developm ents in A dult Education*" P u b lish ed In 1927. I t d e s c r ib e s some o f the e f f e c t s o f the 19214. A dult E d ucation R e g u la tio n s, which e s t a b lis h e d more form al requirem ents f o r the q u a l if i c a t i o n fo r 22 f i n a n c i a l su pp ort* There are a ls o some f ig u r e s on th e numbers o f o n e -y e a r , p r e p a r a to r y , and te r m in a l c la s s e s * The in c r e a se d amount o f f a c t u a l in fo r m a tio n r e f l e c t s th e in tr o d u c tio n o f more s y s te m a tic m ethods o f g a th e r in g i n fo r m a tio n . The new r e g u la t io n s m eant f i n a n c i a l su p p ort f o r s c h o o ls in th e form o f g r a n ts in a id f o r c o u r se s o r g a n iz e d by "approved a s s o c ia t io n s " (3 2 5 :5 )* Thus the com m ittee by means o f q u e s tio n n a ir e r e q u ir e d more in form a t io n o f th e o r g a n iz in g b o d ie s (3 2 5 :1 1 )* The r e s u l t s are e s p e c i a l ly v a lu a b le , f o r th e y a re ta b u la te d and d is c u s s e d in some d e t a il* "The Scope and P r a c tic e o f A dult E d u c a tio n ," w hich i s the T enth P ap er, has s e v e r a l u s e f u l s e c t io n s # There i s f i r s t an a ssessm e n t o f th e p a s t tw e n t y - f iv e y e a r s o f a c t i v i t y . W ritten in 1 9 3 0 , midway betw een th e w orld w a rs, i t n o te s t h a t th e r e i s "growth in c o n te n t and c h a r a c te r o f e d u c a tio n i t s e l f , a w id en in g o f th e range o f s t u d ie s and an e x te n s io n o f th e a c t i v i t i e s in t o new d ir e c t io n s and among new s e c t io n s o f th e community" ( 3 2 5 : 1 ) • And th e r e was th e c r y w hich was to become f a m i li a r , th a t sta n d a rd s in c o u r se s o th e r th an th o s e o f th e t r a d it io n a l t u t o r i a l p a tte r n w ere in f e r i o r in q u a lit y (3 2 5 :6 5 )* The com m ittee in c lu d e w ith t h e i r c r i t i c i s m a c a r e f u l l y co n s t r u c te d s e r i e s o f d e f i n i t io n s o f th e v a r io u s k in d s of c l a s s e s o f f e r e d under th e 192i+ . r e g u la t io n s ( 3 2 6 : 7 7 )* 23 The f i n a l p ap er, the e le v e n th in th e s e r i e s , i s "Adult E ducation and the LoE.A." I t ech oes th e concern of the p r e v io u s r ep o rt ov er th e "haphazard" and " in e f f e c t iv e n atu re o f a d u lt ed u c a tio n in 1933" ( 3 2 7 s v iii) „ T his paper h as an e x te n s iv e d is c u s s io n o f th e developm ent o f the L .E .A .'s and p o in ts out th e change in the r e la tio n s h ip o f a d u lt ed u ca tio n to th e o th er l e v e l s of E n g lish educa t io n . The Board o f E d u cation r e p o r ts a re th e sou rce of the s t a t i s t i c s fo r th e p e r io d o f th e stu d y; th ey are o f v i t a l im portance to the a n a ly s is o f any l e v e l o f B r it is h e d u c a tio n . They a r e , p a r t ic u la r ly in th e y ea rs p r io r to 1926, la r g e ly d is c u s s io n s o f th e p r e v io u s y e a r ’ s a c t i v i t i e s . They d e sc r ib e problem s, propose s o l u t i o n s , and o fte n lam ent th e f a ilu r e to a c t on th e p rev io u s y e a r ’ s s u g g e s tio n s . Much o f the m a te r ia l i s o f a p h ilo s o p h ic a l r a th er than a s t a t i s t i c a l n a tu r e . . N e v e r th e le s s , in g r a d u a lly in c r e a s in g am ounts, th e re i s some f a c t u a l m ater i a l which i s p r e sen ted s y s t e m a t ic a lly each year from 1925 u n t il th e eve o f World War I I , which marks th e end o f the p e r io d o f t h i s study,, Two r e c e n t government p u b lic a tio n s u s e fu l fo r p o st Wibrld War I I background are E d u cation 1 9 0 0 -1 9 5 0 . w hich i s s t i l l a v a ila b le in a 1958 r e p r in t from Her M a je sty 's S ta tio n e r y O f f ic e , and The O rgan ization and F inance o f A dult E d ucation in England and Wales (1 9 5 3 )o 2k T hese do tou ch b r i e f l y on th e p e r io d b etw een th e w orld w a r s, b u t t h e ir m ajor em phasis i s upon e d u c a tio n in p o 3t World War I I E n g la n d . T here a r e numerous o th e r govern m en tal p u b lic a t io n s o u ts id e th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n . One o f th e m ost g e n e r a lly u s e f u l I s th e Annual A b str a c t o f S t a t i s t i c s ,w h ich c o m p ile s a m ass o f in fo r m a tio n in expanding am oun ts, b e g in n in g in th e m id -n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . In a d d itio n to some s t a t i s t i c a l in fo r m a tio n on e d u c a tio n th e r e a re a ls o am assed f ig u r e s on a w ide v a r ie t y o f s u b j e c t s su ch as h o u sin g and em p loy m en t. B ook s—E n g lis h E d u ca tio n An annual b u t n on -govern m en tal p u b lic a t io n I s th e Year Book o f E d u c a tio n . The Year Book was f i r s t p u b lish e d in 1 9 3 2 , ta k in g as I t s aim "a d e t a i le d su r v e y o f th e v a r i ous b ran ch es o f e d u c a tio n in E ngland and W ales and a som e what l e s s com p reh en sive trea tm en t o f S c o tla n d and Ir e la n d " ( 9 2 : 1 ) . T h is i s a u s e f u l so u rc e f o r some in fo r m a tio n on th e fin a n c e o f e d u c a tio n i n E ngland and W a les, and on f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n as w e ll as th e a d u lt e d u c a tio n m ovem ent. The approach I s one o f su rv e y r a th e r than i n t e n s iv e a n a l y s i s . C o n se q u e n tly , th e p e r t in e n t s e c t i o n s h a v e a lim it e d u s e f u ln e s s a s r e s e a r c h s o u r c e s 0 The 193lj. Y ear Book o f E d u ca tio n h a s some m a te r ia l on f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n ; h o w ev er, t h i s i s c o n fin e d to c r e a tiv e 2£ ed u c a tio n . The 1937 and. 193$ e d itio n s are o f g r e a te r v a lu e to t h i s stu d y , th e 1937 in clu d in g some s t a t i s t i c s on fu r th e r ed u ca tio n in th e U nited Kingdom, and th e 1938 c o n ta in in g some in form ation o f a d u lt ed u cation in England and Waleso But th e purpose of th e p u b lic a tio n , th a t of g iv in g g en era l in tr o d u c to r y in form ation , w h ile i t makes th e a r t i c l e s u s e fu l as survey read in g p relim in a ry to r e se a r c h , a t th e same tim e p reclu d es the a u th o r's narrow ing and deepening in to h is f i e l d . B o o k s--E n g llsh H is to r ic a l Background For g en era l h i s t o r i c a l background to th e p eriod between th e two w orld w ars, th ere are a t l e a s t s ix books which con cen tra te on th a t p e r io d . Of th ose s i x , th e most thorough and the m ost c a r e fu lly documented i s Mowat's B r ita in Between th e Wars, 1 9 l8 -1 9 ii0 . Perhaps the n e x t most u s e fu l source i s Graves and H odge's The Long Week-end. Of the books on t h i s p e r io d , t h i s i s the one which p u ts th e g r e a t e s t em phasis on lit e r a t u r e and th e a r t s . M ontgomery's The T w enties i s , as the author d e sc r ib e s i t , "an inform al s o c ia l h is to r y « M I t co n ta in s l i t t l e about the p reced in g decade, and i t does n ot go beyond the tw e n tie s . Montgomery chooses to put an emphasis on th e more b iz a r r e ev en ts o f a l i v e l y d ecad e. 26 C o llie r and Lang’ s J u s t th e Other Day was pu b lish ed in 1932 0 C on seq u en tly, th e auth ors w r ite of what to them was r e c e n t h i s t o r y . The book communicates some in s ig h t in to th e r e l a t iv e im portance w hich th o se immersed in th a t p erio d a tta ch ed to contem porary e v e n ts , but i t la c k s o b je c tiv it y ,, L ife Since 1900» by Charles Furth, emphasizes the breaking away from Edwardian p attern s of l i f e 0 The book i s e s p e c ia lly u s e fu l fo r i t s d e ta ile d p o r tr a its of E n glish l i f e im m ediately before and im m ediately a ft e r World War I , Of the group, G old rin g's The N ineteen Twenties i s the l e a s t u s e fu l in that i t i s an extrem ely b ia sed account of the p eriod , u sin g the years of the d ep ression as a s to c k p ile of evidence f o r the need of v io le n t economic and s o c ia l reform s. The in te r p r e ta tio n of events seems to be f i l t e r e d through a rath er strong p reju d ice a g a in st the e f f e c t s of c a p ita lism in England of the tw e n tie s , A Short H istory of the B r itis h Working C lass Move ment 1788-19U-7, by C ole, i s v a lu a b le as a h is to r y o f the group from which ad u lt education, p a r tic u la r ly the W.E.A., drew most o f i t s stu dents in th e e a r ly y e a r s. Less b ia sed than G oldring’s b r ie f h is to r y , th is work g iv e s a broad and thorough background fo r the various currents w ith in the movements. 27 Of th e books which take as t h e ir t o p ic B r it i s h ed u cation as a w h o le, C u r t is ’ H isto r y o f E ducation in Great B r ita in seems to be th e m ost com prehensive. There i s a la r g e amount o f f a c t u a l m a te r ia l cou p led w ith a sy ste m a tic attem pt to e x p la in th e r e la t io n s h ip s between e v en ts in e d u c a tio n a l h is to r y * The s e c t io n on a d u lt edu c a tio n i s th e most com prehensive su b se c tio n on t h a t to p ic in a g e n e r a l h i s t o r y o f B r i t i s h e d u c a tio n . C u rtis a ls o has w r itte n a g e n e r a l h i s t o r y o f E n g lish e d u c a tio n , E d ucation in B r it a in S in c e 1 9 0 0 . which seems to have been intend ed f o r more popular consum ption. In s p i t e of the narrowed l i m i t s o f th e tim e p e r io d , th ere i s n o t a s u b s t a n t ia l In cr ea se In d e t a ile d or f a c t u a l i n fo rm a tio n . Barnard’ s A Sh ort H is to r y o f E n g lish E ducation from 1770 to 19lUl- does n o t attem p t to d e a l in t e n s i v e ly w ith th e whole o f E n g lis h e d u c a tio n a l h is to r y ,, I t d o e s, how ever, g iv e a u s e f u l b r i e f su rvey and some Im agin ative treatm en t o f th e mass o f f a c t u a l d a ta , p a r t ic u la r ly the c o r r e la t io n o f e d u c a tio n a l e v e n ts w ith o f f i c i a l a c t s , b i l l s , and rep o rts,, A lexan d er’ s E d ucation in England c o n c e n tr a te s on e x p la in in g th e i n t r i c a c i e s o f B r i t i s h e d u c a tio n . An Index would make th e in form a tion much more r e a d ily a v a i la b l e . And the e x p la n a tio n s are l a r g e ly lim it e d to the post-W orld 28 War I I s y s te m , sp e n d in g l i t t l e tim e w ith t h e h i s t o r i c a l d ev elo p m en t o f th e num erous e d u c a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s * The S t r u c t u r e o f E n g lis h E d u c a tio n , by A r m fe lt, i s a l s o an ex a m in a tio n o f E n g lis h e d u c a tio n . I t i s more h i s t o r i c a l than A le x a n d e r , b u t l e s s a n a l y t i c a l . T here a r e r e l a t i v e l y few book s l i m i t e d to E n g lis h a d u lt o r w ork ers o r f u r t h e r e d u c a t io n . T hose w h ich e n com pass th e p e r io d b etw een th e two w o r ld w ars a r e e s p e c i a l l y sm a ll In num ber. Of th o s e fe w , th e m o st u s e f u l I s P eers* A d u lt E d u c a tio n . P ee rs u s e s a c o m p a r a tiv e ap p roach to th e t o p i c , and he draws from th e e x p e r ie n c e o f many y e a r s i n E n g lis h a d u lt e d u c a t io n . The s e c t i o n s on th e p e r io d 1 9 1 9 to 1939 a r e g iv e n o v e r f o r th e m ost p a r t to th e W .E.A . and t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s . H ow ever, t h i s im b a la n c e i s u n d e r s ta n d a b le , s i n c e , a lm o st from i t s i n c e p t io n , th e W .E.A . d om in ated a d u lt e d u c a tio n t o th e e x t e n t t h a t th e t u t o r i a l c l a s s becam e th e p r e s t i g e program , and th e u n i v e r s i t i e s had to do th e b u lk o f t h e i r work th r o u g h W .E.A. a rran gem en ts f o r c l a s s e s . P eers* book i s a l s o v a lu a b le f o r I t s a sse m b ly and p r e s e n t a t io n o f some s t a t i s t i c a l m a t e r ia l on t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s , a lth o u g h I t i s n o t e x t e n s iv e and I s c o n fin e d t o th e p re-W orld War I p e r io d 0 The b i b l i o g ra p h y I s n o t c o m p r e h e n siv e , and th e a u th o r la m e n ts th e p a u c it y o f r e c o r d s on th e e a r ly y e a r s o f a d u lt e d u c a tio n ( 7 2 : 3 5 6 ) . 29 A much l e s s comprehensive work is A llaw ay's book l e t Adult Education in England„ This has value in that i t does p resen t in b r ie f form a tracin g of the h is to r y and development of B r it is h ad u lt ed u cation . There i s , however, almost as thorough a treatm ent in th e se c tio n s on adult education in C u rtis' general ed u cation al h isto ry ,, Hodgen1s Workers' Education in England and the U nited S ta te s i s lim ite d in u s e fu ln e s s, having been pub lis h e d in 1925* I t i s worthwhile fo r i t s comparison of the form ative period s of workers' ed u cation al systems in England and the United S t a t e s . Perhaps the outstand in g fig u r e in E n glish adult education, c e r ta in ly th e key person in the Workers' Educa tio n a l A s so c ia tio n , i s A lbert Mansbridge. Any study o f t u t o r ia l c la s s e s must in clu de h i s An Adventure in Working- C lass E ducation. He was the lea d er In the development o f the W.E.A., and h i s book i s a h is to r y of the movement up to 1915* There i s com paratively l i t t l e s t a t i s t i c a l inform ation; there i s much p h ilosoph y, th at o f a lead er in w ork in g-class ed u cation . S tock s' book, The Workers' E ducational A s s o c ia tio n ; the F ir s t F if t y Y ears, has sev era l advantages over Mans bridge 's work, perhaps the g r e a te s t being th a t i t covers an a d d itio n a l t h ir t y y e a rs. I t i s a lso l e s s d o c tr in a ir e , 30 sin ce Mansbridge was concerned w ith p leading the cause of the W.E.A. Although S to c k s 1 w ritin g i s a lso W.E.A. o r ie n te d , there i s l e s s p assion and more fa c tu a l inform a- tio n in her book. The W.E.A. The Next Phase, by Raybould, i s the most valu ab le sm all book on workers1 education. I t is w r itte n w ith th e purposes o f analyzing what the W.E.A. was, what i t i s c u r r e n tly , and what i t is l i k e l y to become. The reasoning i s based on a la r g e amount of fa c tu a l m a teria l which i s a lso presen ted in some d e t a i l . His i s p o s s ib ly the on ly source which in clu d es a n a ly s is o f sub j e c t s and of stu dent o ccu p a tion s. The m ajority of h is ch arts begin in 1928 and are in c lu s iv e to 19i}-8, sh o r tly b efo re the p u b lic a tio n o f h is book. This i s one of the few books in th e area to in clu de a s t a t i s t i c a l appendix, which although b r ie f i s n ot d u p licated in oth er non governmental p u b lic a tio n s . P e r io d ic a ls and Pamphlets The most prom ising p e r io d ic a l, the Workers' Edu c a tio n a l A sso c ia tio n p u b lic a tio n , The Highway, required the g r e a t e s t amount of reading time o f any s in g le p e r io d i cal,, I t s not being indexed by any of the guides a v a ila b le in the U nited S ta te s meant th a t the i s s u e s , some of which came from as fa r away as S e a t t l e , Chicago, and New York, had to be covered in d iv id u a lly . From such an examination 31 a reader acquires a p ic tu r e of the gradual development of a p e r io d ic a l w ith a lim ite d budget and an unusual devotion on the part of i t s p erson n el. But there i s very- l i t t l e in terms of thorough system atic p r e sen ta tio n of fig u r e s on c la s s en rollm en ts. There are annual r e p o r ts, but th e se are la r g e ly f in a n c ia l rath er than rep orts on academic m a tters. There are a lso l i s t s of su b je cts which are to be o ffe r e d in the succeeding months. The purpose of the magazine i s th a t o f b u ild in g enrollm ents and m orale, not providing s t a t i s t i c s fo r h i s t o r i c a l a n a ly s is a The Highway does provide much in s ig h t in to the a ttitu d e s o f the W.E.A. personnel toward E n glish ed u cation . There i s no shortage o f c r it ic is m o f such problems as the shortage of funds fo r ad u lt education, or the damage done to c h ild la b o r e r s, or the need for extending the sch o o l- lea v in g age. Such problems as th ese incur denunciation reg u la r ly fo r the two decades between th e wars. School and S o c ie ty p resen ts m aterial on E n glish education in a much more d isp a ssio n a te fa sh io n than does The Highway, and understandably s o . The purpose o f the rep orts of School and S o c ie ty i s th at of keeping i t s read ers aware of what i s going on in Great B r ita in . This p e r io d ic a l is u se fu l fo r a general survey of E n glish edu c a tio n , and sometimes E n glish a d u lt education, as seen through American e y e s . Because of lim ite d space there i s very l i t t l e in the way o f comprehensive fa c tu a l 32 m aterial* I t should, a lso be kept in mind th a t th e choice o f s e le c t io n s w i l l be based on what an American e d ito r deems im portant, n o t n e c e s s a r ily on what seemed outstand ing to B r it is h ed u cators0 The la r g e s t con cen tration of fa c tu a l Information on E n glish adu lt education during the period o f the study Is to be found In the London p u b lic a tio n , th e Journal of Adult E ducation. Other E n glish p e r io d ic a ls which are u se f u l to a le s s e r exten t are Adult Education and Journal o f E ducation* The usable Inform ation derived from Adult Edu c a tio n i s m ainly confined to the post-World War I I p erio d . The Journal o f E ducation, in try in g to cover a l l of English ed u cation , has to tr e a t adult education in a g e n e r a liz e d fa s h io n . The Times Educational Supplement fu r n ish es a day by day flow o f su g g estio n s fo r and rea ctio n s a g a in st edu c a tio n a l change. As w e ll as servin g as a general medium fo r general announcements about educational p o lic y , the Times a lso serves as a forum o f op in ion . There i s a lso the valuab le stream o f d e sc r ip tio n s of experim ental work going on In adult ed u cation . The complement of t h is ed u cation al p e r io d ic a l i s , of course, the parent London Times, which provides a valu ab le record o f events a f f e c t ing B r itis h ed u cation . 33 UNESCO pam phlets are o f somewhat l i m i t e d u s e f u l n e s s , s in c e th ey are l a r g e l y con cern ed w ith contem porary in t e r n a t io n a l ed u ca tio n ,, In su b seq u en t d e c a d e s, th e p r e se n t f a c t s w i l l ta k e on h i s t o r i c a l v a l u e . There sh ould be no sh o r ta g e o f f a c t s . R ather than h a v in g d i f f i c u l t y f i n d in g s p e c i f i c in fo r m a tio n , r e s e a r c h e r s in the d eca d es to come may be overwhelm ed by th e g r e a t mass o f s t a t i s t i c s com p iled by th e p a r t i c i p a t i n g n a t i o n s . G e n e r a lly sp e a k in g , th e E n g lis h p e r io d ic a l s are more h e l p f u l th an th o s e of th e U n ite d S t a t e s . T his i s h a r d ly s u r p r i s i n g , s in c e th e Am erican r e a d in g au d ien ce o f an a r t i c l e on E n g lis h a d u lt e d u c a tio n , w h ile i t may be i n t e r e s t e d in som ething n o v e l in a f o r e i g n la n d , i s n o t l i k e l y to be r e c e p t i v e to a v e r y heavy d i e t of s t a t i s t i c s w hich are l a r g e l y i n a p p l ic a b l e , i f n o t m eaning l e s s , w it h in an American fram e o f r e fe r e n c e ,, On th e o th e r hand, m ost B r i t i s h w r it e r s a re not l i k e l y to be con cern ed w ith in t e r l a r d in g paragraphs w ith a mass o f num bers. I f a w r ite r , does In c lu d e f i g u r e s , and i f he i s p a r t is a n , h e w i l l have c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d them to su p p ort h i s c a s e , E n g lis h and Am erican p e r io d ic a l s are u s e f u l f o r th e d i s c u s s i o n o f i s s u e s and e v e n t s . They p r o v id e th e in fo r m a tio n abou t th e c o n t e x t w it h in which s t a t i s t i c s tak e on m eaning. But f o r c o n s i s t e n t , m e th o d ic a l s t a t i s t i c a l f a c t s , th e Board o f E d u ca tio n r e p o r ts o v e r th e p e r io d o f y e a r s rem ain th e m ost r e l i a b l e so u r c e a v a i l a b le O CHAPTER I I I THE SETTING O P THE STUDY T here a r e th r e e m ain com p onents to th e s e t t i n g o f t h i s s t u d y . One i s t h a t o f th e p e r io d i t s e l f , G rea t B r i t a i n o f th e t w e n t ie s and t h i r t i e s . A n oth er i s t h a t o f th e g e n e r a l sy ste m o f B r i t i s h e d u c a t io n . F i n a l l y th e r e i s th e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e lo p m en t o f f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n in E n g la n d . A l l o f th e s e a r e im p o r ta n t s t r a n d s . S in c e s c h o o ls a r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e en s o c i e t y and i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s , i t b e h o o v e s u s to know so m e th in g o f th e s o c i a l f o r c e s w h ich w ere in o p e r a tio n d u r in g th e y e a r s b e tw e en th e two w o r ld w a r s . I d e a l l y , one sh o u ld be f a m i l i a r w ith th e w h o le o f B r i t i s h h i s t o r y , s i n c e e v e r y d eca d e d i s p l a y s th e a f f e c t s o f a l l th e p r e c e d in g y e a r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , we w i l l c o n c e n tr a t e on th e p e r io d b e tw e en th e w a r s, th e two d e c a d e s w h ich G raves c a l l s "The Long W eek- E n d .” H i s t o r i c a l Background The term " w eek -en d ” i s a p p r o p r ia te f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . T here i s th e c o n n o ta tio n o f in t e r r u p t e d c o n t i n u i t y , and th e tim e b e tw e en w ars w a s, a t l e a s t f o r la b o r , a r e n e w a l o f th e b a t t l e t h a t had b een in t e r r u p t e d .b y th e F i r s t W orld War. T h ere h ad been much la b o r u n r e s t a f t e r th e tu r n o f th e c e n t u r y , a g r o w in g a n ta g o n ism b e tw e e n th e 3 5 > w orkers and m anagement. S tr ik e s were g r a d u a lly in c r e a s in g in freq u en cy and in serio u sn ess* , In 1 9 1 2 , th e w o r st p r e war y e a r , ij.0,890,000 w orking days were l o s t ( 3 2 : 6 6 ) . Thus th e s t r i k e s w hich came a f t e r th e war ended were n o t a su d den develop m en t b u t w ere r a th e r a resu m p tion o f a c t i v i t i e s w h ich th e war had p o stp o n e d . The s t r i k e s w ere sym b olic o f more th an a d e s ir e f o r in c r e a s e d w a g es. They a ls o r e p r e se n te d th e c o n tin u a t i o n , p a r t ic u la r ly in th e c o a l-m in in g in d u s tr y , o f problem s w h ich w ere born w e ll b e fo r e World War I and were to con tin u e through W orld War I I , The bu lk o f B r it a i n ' s m ining in d u s tr y was s t i l l u s in g th e m ethods o f the n in e te e n th c e n tu r y ( 6 6 : 1 1 4 .1 ) w h ile tr y in g to compete in a tw e n tie th c e n tu r y econom y. The m a jo r ity o f m ine-ow ners had fo u g h t b i t t e r l y a g a in s t modern te c h n iq u e s; w ith p ea ce came German and F rench c o m p e titio n made e f f i c i e n t by m o d e r n iz a tio n . In e sse n c e th e s i t u a t i o n was one in w h ich , a lth o u g h th e r e w ere a p p a r e n tly two s i d e s , th e m iners and ow n ers, b a t t l i n g ea ch o th e r , In r e a l i t y th ey were b oth f ig h t in g a g a in s t c ir c u m sta n c e s w hich c o n tin u e d in e x o r a b ly to o p era te a g a in s t c o a l s a l e s , mine p r o f i t s , h ig h e r w ages, and am icab le s e t t l e ment o f s t r i k e s . Perhaps th e peak o f the f r i c t i o n betw een w orkers and owners came In 1926 w ith th e G eneral S t r i k e . A gain t h i s move r e p r e se n te d an a c tio n w h ich , a cco r d in g to F u rth (32:!|.6-l|.9) m ight w e ll have happened in 1919 as th e 37 c u lm in a tio n to an in c r e a s in g number o f s t r i k e s . In any c a s e , th e s t r i k e s e ttle m e n t was a trium ph f o r S ta n le y B ald w in , th e Prime M in is te r , and a c a la m ity fo r th e u n io n s . A lm ost f o r t y - f i v e thousand railw aym en w ere o f f th e job f o r an a d d it io n a l f i v e m onths, and d is p u te in th e c o a l in d u str y w ent o n . Some o f th e w orkers had to a c c e p t c u t s In pay upon t h e i r r e tu r n ; o th e r s w ere u n ab le to f in d reem ploym ent (66: H4 .7 ) • But alon g w ith unemployment and s t r ik e s came In c r e a s in g aw areness o f the u n io n s. D esp ite a subsequent drop in membership, th e unions had made a v iv id Impres s io n on th e "w hite c o lla r " workers and th o se in the govern in g c l a s s e s . G eneral s t r i k e s were d e c la r ed i l l e g a l i n 1927* t h i s a c t sta n d in g u n t i l i t s r e p e a l by the S o c i a l i s t government in I 9I 4 .6 . A concom m itant problem was th a t o f unem ploym ent. T h is , t o o , was n o t a sudden phenomenon cau sed by th e d i s charge o f the B r i t i s h se rv ic em a n . I t I s tr u e th a t th e r e le a s e o f th e s o l d i e r s and s a i l o r s d id a g g r a v a te th e employment s h o r ta g e , b u t th e r e w ere a lr e a d y la r g e numbers o f unem ployed b e fo r e th e f i r s t World War ( 6 6 :1 4 .2 ) and u n t i l th e se c o n d . V e te r a n s, d isc h a r g e d j u v e n i l e s , (h ir e d f o r th e d u r a tio n , f i r e d f o r a v e t e r a n ) , u n h ired j u v e n i l e s , and th e c i v i l i a n a d u lt unem ployed com bined to make a p o o l o f th e o u t-o f-w o r k w h ich was to m a in ta in a minimum o f one m i ll i o n from 1921 u n t i l ( 6 6 :1 4 .2 ) th e b e g in n in g o f B r it i s h 36 rearmament. With the ch ron ic unemployment came another d e v ic e which was to become p a rt o f B r it is h s o c ie t y f o r two decades --th e " d o le .” D ole became th e su b je c t fo r j e s t a3 w e ll as c o n tr o v e r sy . I t sta r te d as "unemployment donation" to v etera n s during r e le a s e from the armed fo r c e s ( 2 1 :1 4 .2 ) . As a stopgap measure i t was in ten d ed to be tem porary. N otw ith stand ing th e I n te n tio n , " It was im p o ssib le to do w ith ou t th e d o le . The workers who were working p resen ted a s u f f ic i e n t danger to in d u s tr ia l s e c u r ity , w ithout adding a m illio n s ta r v in g w o rk less to the r is k s . The f i r s t few months of 1919 were a crescend o o f unrest" (21:14-3) • Thus, the d o le , l i k e the unemployment, went on. Much o f the m u sic -h a ll com edians’ m a te r ia ls were based on "dole" sk etc h e s in th e e a r ly tw e n tie s (6 6 :5 2 ). At the o th er end o f th e system , the government was f ig h t in g the th r e a t o f bankruptcy. With unemployment came sim u lta n eo u sly d e crea sed revenues and in c r e a se d ex p en ses, e ith e r o f which would have been a s e r io u s problem a lo n e , to g eth er which c a lle d fo r in c r e a se d ta x e s and c u ts in the budget in o th er a r e a s . The Army, th e Navy, and the A ir Force b u d g ets, alon g w ith war p e n sio n s, were cu t in 19220 The e x te n t of the red u c tio n s i s in d ic a te d by the fo llo w in g recommended c u ts : A ir Force #5*5 m illio n ; Army 20 m illio n ; Navy 21 m illio n ; War p en sio n s 3 .5 m illio n ; and ed u cation 18 m il lio n (66:33)<> E ducation was a ls o a n a tu ra l ta r g e t , 39 p a r tic u la r ly new school co n stru ctio n and te a c h e r s 1 s a la r ie s 0 There was something o f a week-end q u a lity to the f i r s t year a fte r the end of World War I* There was f i r s t the r e l i e f which fo llo w s v ic to r y and arm istice,. The re-*' , , turning husbands and sons and fa th e r s , d e sp ite the r e l a tiv e absence o f job s, imparted a kind o f h olid a y atmosphere to so c ie ty u n t il 1920. In c o n tra st w ith the peak year o f unemployment, 1921, when there were two and o n e-h a lf m il lio n unemployed, there was a r e la t iv e ly sm all labor prob lem immediately a fte r the war (9 0 :1 1 4 - 1- 1 +2 ) . Placed in per sp e c tiv e a g a in st the other adjustm ents o f the p eriod , th a t of th e returning veteran seems l e s s d i f f i c u l t than one would exp ect. However, along w ith the veteran and the l a s t shot came a gen eral em otional r ea c tio n which was to c o lo r the a ttitu d e o f much o f the population u n t il the eve of the second World War. Chamberlain returned in 193^ to a crowd which acclaim ed him as a kind of hero. Although he was denounced by some at th e time fo r h i s co n cessio n s, the general denunciation was not to come u n t il war arrived in 1939o The m anifest yearning for peace was r e la te d to the general a ttitu d e of many of r ev u lsio n toward the war (9 0 :1 3 9 ). The veterans had come home d is illu s io n e d with war. England had mustered over nine m illio n men o f which over three m illio n became c a s u a lt ie s , a m illio n of them ho d ea d . T h is d is illu s io n m e n t was augm ented by th e c o n t r a s t betw een what L loyd George had p r o m ise d --a la n d f i t f o r h e r o e s to l i v e in --a n d r e a l i t y w ith th e w e ek ly d o l e . A fte r a "War to end Wars" h o s t i l i t i e s were r e a r o u se d a t home in th e b a t t l e s f o r jo b s and h o u s in g . There was th e n , as a f t e r W orld War I I , th e problem o f th e v e te r a n w ith com m issio n e d s t a t u s who had to r e tu r n to an o f f i c e d e sk or unem ploym ent. Added to t h i s atmosphere o f disenchantm ent was the apparent f u t i l i t y o f the v ic t o r y i t s e l f . The war ended, but wars co n tin u ed in Turkey and R u ss ia . And w ith th e p u b lic a tio n o f books by le a d e r s from v a r io u s n a t io n s , n o t a l l o f which agreed , th ere was r a is e d the q u e s tio n o f the wisdom of E n g lis h le a d e r s h ip ( 9 0 : 1 3 9 ) . Along w ith th e s e r e l a t i v e l y f a c t u a l a cco u n ts w r itt e n a t the upper stratum came a f lo o d o f b ook s, b io g r a p h ie s and n o v e l s , e x p r e ss in g th e p erso n a l e r o sio n o f and r e v u ls io n towards w ar. H ow ever, th e p o st-w a r r e a c t io n was n o t e n t i r e l y a sombre one by any m eans. W ith th e v ic t o r y c e le b r a t io n came a g e n e r a l e m a n cip a tio n from th e V ic to r ia n stan d ard w hich had been g o in g th rou gh a g r a d u a l l i b e r a t i o n d u rin g th e Edwardian p e r io d ( 6 7 : 2 0 1 ) . Women had been l ib e r a t e d in to f i e l d and f a c t o r y w ork, and a f t e r th e S ex D i s q u a l i f i c a tio n A ct o f 1 9 1 9 t th e y e n te r e d f r e q u e n t ly in t o th e p r o f e s s i o n s ( 6 6 : l6 0 )o They w ere to e n la r g e t h a t beachhead and to in c r e a s e t h e i r numbers in f a c t o r i e s and in o f f i c e s . Ill T h e ir b a t t l e f o r e n fr a n c h ise m e n t had to be won i n two s t a g e s , th e f i r s t o f w h ich was p u n c tu a te d b y num erous p o l i t i c a l a s s a u l t s and c o u n t e r a s s a u lt s . N e v e r t h e le s s , th e v o t e was g r a n te d t o th o s e women o f t h i r t y y e a r s o f a g e (and o ld e r ) in 1918 and to th e y o u n g s te r s , tw e n ty -o n e and a b o v e , a d ecad e l a t e r . M ention o f V ic t o r ia n l i b e r a t i o n c a r r ie s w ith i t th e c o n n o ta tio n o f s e x u a l l i b e r a t i o n a s w e l l . R e v o lt a g a in s t c o n v e n tio n n a t u r a l l y enough a f f e c t e d human r e l a t io n s h ip s and t h e i r p o r t r a y a l in l i t e r a t u r e ( 9 0 : 1 3 9 ) . On s t a g e N o e l Coward’ s p la y s and t h e i r c a s u a l a t t i t u d e tow ard s e x a re o f t e n m en tio n ed a s b e in g t y p i c a l o f th e t w e n t i e s . A ld ou s H u x le y 's n o v e ls o f th e tw e n t ie s seem to b e c i t e d g e n e r a lly a s sam p les o f w r it in g w h e r e in s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s , i f n o t p r o m isc u o u s, a r e a t l e a s t d e p ic t e d w i t h o u t th e E dw ardian i n h i b i t i o n s . Even b i r t h c o n t r o l , p r e v i o u s l y ta b o o in c o n v e r s a t io n , came i n f o r open and g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n ( 6 6 : l 6 i|.). O b serv in g th e u p p er s u r fa c e o f s o c i e t y , a p e r so n m ig h t f e e l t h a t th e women o f th e tw e n tie s e x p r e s s e d l i b e r a t i o n in th e m ost fla m b o y a n t manner ( 6 7 : 2 1 2 ) . The s k i r t o f th e E dw ardian woman had r e a c h e d th e a n k le s . By 1926 i t b a r e ly r ea c h e d th e k n e e s . C lo th in g w h ich b e fo r e th e war had w eig h ed pounds was exch anged fo r f u l l o u t f i t s w e ig h in g o u n c e s , th a n k s to th e s y n t h e t ic r a y o n . Women, who outnum bered men by te n s o f th ou san d s a f t e r th e w ar, k2 a lso took on a more m asculine appearance. England of the tw en ties had i t s s t y l e of the "flapper" with a boyish shape0 However, th ese s t y l e s , along w ith fewer s o c ia l r e s t r i c t i o n s , were la r g e ly confined to the upper and upper- middle c la s s e s . The segment o f s o c ie ty which s e t fash ion s and e x h ib ited change most rap id ly in s o c ia l conventions was a lso the group which dominated the p ic tu r es and a r t i c le s in the newspapers and m agazines. Looking back, one might conclude that s o c ie ty in general was lib e r a te d and that women led the lib e r a t io n . One might a lso conclude that there was a prosper ous England. C erta in ly for large numbers th ose were prosperous tim es. In the United S ta te s during the same period there were many who were r e la t iv e ly u n affected by the d ep ressio n . In e ith e r country the middle c la s s fam ily that was w e ll o f f was somewhat in su la ted from the sub merged mass o f the unemployed and was perhaps even a l i t t l e b e tte r o f f because of lowered p r ic e s. There was some p r o sp er ity , even during the time of the d ep ressio n . But fo r the poor, e x isten ce continued much as i t had before the war. For the man, l i f e might be the ten aciou s hanging-on-to a job which held l i t t l e p o s s i b i l i t y of a r a is e or a promotion, i t s g r e a te st value being th a t i t was the p referab le a lte r n a tiv e to unemployment,, For the l e s s fo rtu n a te man, l i f e was a d a ily excursion to the il-3 Labour Exchange, hoping f o r work, watching days w ithou t work len g th en in to months and sometimes y e a r s . For the woman, l i f e was a m ixture of hard work in cramped h o u sin g , s t r e tc h in g e it h e r a d im in ish in g paycheck or an inadequate d o le payment. And the shadow which was fo r e v e r p resen t was th e fe a r o f b ein g l a i d o f f o r o f never fin d in g work. While one England was c e le b r a tin g i t s em ancipation from s o c i a l c o n v e n tio n s, the other England was s t o c k p ilin g th e I n s e c u r it ie s d e r iv e d from inadequate m edical c a r e , i n s u f f i c i e n t h o u sin g , and p e r e n n ia l fe a r of l o s s o f employ ment . Being aware o f th e se f e a r s , we can g a in some in s ig h t in to the post-W orld War I I changes In Great B r it a in . With members o f th e Labour Party in c o n tr o l, th ese problems to them had r e a l i t y in t h e ir own l i v e s and the l i v e s o f t h e ir su p p o r te r s. T heir a c c e s s io n marked the end o f th e lo n g week-end fo r the c o n se r v a tiv e p a r ty , which had , d e s p it e two b r ie f in te r m iss io n s (90:167) managed to r e t a in th e balan ce o f power between the w ars. However, n e ith e r L ab ourite nor C o n serv a tiv e—nor L ib e ra ls--w ro u g h t e f f e c t s in E n g lish b eh avior as dram atic as those r e la t e d to the changes in tra n sp o r ta tio n and com m unication o The motor c a r , w ith i t s g a s o lin e e n g in e , meant more f l e x i b l e tr a n s p o r ta tio n fo r the m iddle c l a s s e s . For the upper c la s s e s th e autom obile meant a m echanical s u b s t it u t e fo r t h e ir p r iv a te c a r r ia g e s . For th e ir young ■ kk I t was an e x c itin g means o f m o b ility , fo r the eld ers a s ta tu s symbol. The R olls-R oyce became what the f o u r - in - hand had been. The auto a lte r e d the e x is tin g pattern s of housing by enabling f a m ilie s to l i v e fa r th e r from in d u s t r i a l areas (6 6:179 ); i t ra p id ly Increased the market fo r m echan ically apt la b o r . The rapid p o p u la r iz a tio n o f the sm all r e l a t iv e l y in exp en sive autom obile n ot only created jobs in manufacturing and m aintenance; i t a ls o gave la r g e numbers a new m o b ility . Rural areas f e l t th e impact of the expansion o f urban r e s id e n t s . And urban cen ters b e came a c c e s s ib le to country d w e lle r s. The in e v ita b le r e s u lt was an in creasin g homogeneity o f both p o p u la tio n s. C oincident with the interchan ge o f suburban and c i t y pop ulations was the Increased power o f the mass media, p a r tic u la r ly the newspaper and rad io (3 8 :1 6 0 ). For the newspapers I t was a time o f in creased c ir c u la t io n , com peti tio n , and c o n s o lid a tio n . The audience a t which the press aimed was predom inantly composed o f the middle and low er- middle c la s s e s . Only the S o c i a l i s t D aily Herald sh o t f o r the lab orin g c l a s s e s , a ch ievin g a c ir c u la t io n of about 100,000 during the tw e n tie s , when Beaverbrook's D a ily Mail was approaching a m illio n in c ir c u la t io n . The com p etition reached i t s peak in la v is h n e s s in the t h i r t i e s , when new su b scrib ers were o ffe r e d variou s g i f t s , even l i f e in su ran ce. The winner o f the b a t t le was the D ally E xpress, the f i r s t to pass the mark of two m illio n c o p ie s . In the war fo r c ir c u la t io n , growth fo r a few was phenomenal; fo r many, d e c lin e in c ir c u la t io n was eq u a lly rap id . The su rv ivo rs o f the b a t t l e , a sid e from those too sm all or p r o v in c ia l to t i l t w ith the London d a l l i e s , numbered seven la r g e com binations— among them owning about th r e e -fo u r th s of the pre33 (67:2ij.6), Along w ith the d riv e fo r c ir c u la tio n came a change in the newspapers' p resen ta tio n o f the news. Excluding k *1© Times, which became almost the o f f i c i a l B r it is h jour n a l, and the Manchester Guardian, which was o f e q u a lly h igh rep u ta tio n abroad, the m ajority o f newspapers began, in th e ir tu g-of-w ar fo r the read er, to adopt the techniques o f enticem ent rath er than e le v a tio n . Even before World War I, Lord N o r th c liffe had demonstrated many o f the te c h niques of g iv in g the reader what the reader wanted. He recogn ized the importance o f the su rp rise elem ent in the news. But he a ls o recog n ized — and put to u s e — the im portance o f in trod u cin g to p ic s about which people were already t a lk in g . Thus, fo r example, government boon d oggling was a standard ta r g e t. The group to which he ca tered was enlarged by h is b ringing in s t o r ie s which appealed to the fem inine read er, and by h is introdu cing c h ild r e n 's fe a tu r e s fo r the f i r s t tim e. The g rea ter expansion o f audience by the in tro d u c tio n o f se n sa tio n a l m a teria ls took p lace a f te r h is d eath. The s a l a b i l i t y o f newspapers w ith crime s t o r ie s was to be 1 * 6 more v iv id ly demonstrated in the m id -th ir tie s by h is com petitors* The development of radio stands out in v iv id con t r a s t to th a t o f the newspapers and m agazines. W ireless b roadcasting came in 1920 in England, where alm ost from the beginning i t developed under governmental c o n tr o l. The Post O ffic e , which derived i t s power over broadcasting from the I 90I 4 . W ireless Telegraphy A ct, chose a monopoly as the a lte r n a tiv e to the chaos which e x is te d in American broadcasting as a r e s u lt o f the scramble o f p r iv a te e x p lo it a t io n and expansion* The B r it is h Broadcasting Com pany (1922) was the r e s u l t , lic e n s e d f o r e ig h t s t a t io n s in th e b egin n in g. U nlike th e newspapers, which were a t one anoth er’ s th r o a ts, the B r it is h Broadcasting Corporation (as i t b e came under ro y a l ch arter in 1926) moved on an u n ru ffle d and moral p la n e . I t s creator and, su b seq u en tly, i t s p h i l osopher, J . C. W. R e ith , was the son o f a m in is t e r . He brought to h i s job the c o n v ictio n th a t the task o f a p u b lic monopoly was to bring the b e st in to the homes, not "entertainm ent . . . a lo n e." The development of broad c a stin g f a c i l i t i e s was d e lib e r a te and sy s te m a tic , but a lso experim ental enough to introduce short-wave broadcast to the empire in 1927 and p i l o t t e le v is io n programs in 1929. In sofar as comparisons are concerned, the develop** ment o f the B r it is h motion p ic tu r e in d u stry was more. comparable to th a t o f the newspaper than to th a t o f th e ra d io in d u s tr y . I t began b e fo r e World War I w ith a hodge podge o f sm all e n tre p r en eu rs. Weak from the b e g in n in g , the E n g lish In d u stry o ffe r e d l i t t l e r e a l co m p etitio n to th e American movie industry,, Hollywood became th e produc t io n c e n te r o f a sm a ll, pow erful group who dominated d i s t r ib u t io n and e x h ib it io n as w e ll as p r o d u ctio n . In s p it e o f governm ental f i a t to encourage the e x h ib itio n -~ a n d thus th e p r o d u ctio n —of B r it i s h f i l m s , th e B r it i s h p u b lic o f the tw e n tie s and t h i r t i e s l iv e d la r g e ly on a d i e t o f American f i l m s . The queues were o fte n lo n g , in s p it e of th e f a c t th a t even a t six p en ce a se a t was d ea r. N ever t h e l e s s fo r th e person l i k e P r i e s t l e y ’s T u rg is, a minor c le r k , a t r ip to th e " flik s " was a n e c e ssa r y r o u tin e a t l e a s t once i f n o t se v er a l tim es a week. Names such as C lara Bow, Tom Mix, and Rudolph V alen tin o were as w e l l - known In England as they were in the U n ited S t a t e s . In b oth c o u n tr ie s th ere were m illio n s o f in d iv id u a ls fo r whom the m otion p ic tu r e s r ep resen ted a few hours tr a n s p o r ta tio n from l i f e as i t was to l i f e as i t sh ould b e . L ife as i t was had some s i m i l a r i t i e s fo r the low er-m idd le and lo w er c l a s s e s In both c o u n t r ie s . Great B r it a in and th e U n ited S t a t e s had t h e ir r etu r n in g s e r v i c e men, unemployment, and f in a n c ia l d i f f i c u l t i e s . Loss of s t a t u s , unemployment, and p o v erty have elem en ts in common in any c o u n tr y . There were n e v e r t h e le s s , a la r g e number o f d if f e r e n c e s as th ere would be betw een any two c u l t u r e s . Perhaps th e m ost v i v id c o n tr a s t was in th e way th e two c o u n tr ie s d e a lt w ith t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e d e p r e s s io n s . In th e U n ited S t a t e s th e re came th e New Deal w h ich , w h ile I t made m is ta k e s , d id ta k e p o s i t i v e a c tio n to prime the economic pump and in c r e a se th e flo w o f n a tio n a l income® In G reat B r it a in the g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e o f th o se in c o n t r o l o f government and fin a n c e was to w a it out th e em ergency, to w eather i t by t ig h t e n in g b e l t s , lo w erin g w ages, and r a is in g th e number o f hours in th e work w eek. F in a n c ia l l y , th e two decades were a p e r io d o f fum bling} s o c i a l l y th ey were a time o f new freedom f o r some; p o l i t i c a l l y th ey w ere y e a r s o f ferm ent r a th e r than r a d ic a l change. G reat B r it a in betw een th e wars was f i l l e d w ith p arad oxes; perhaps most com plex m u l t i - c l a s s s o c i e t i e s a r e . W hile thousands o f men "on the dole" l in e d up In hope o f work, a c r o ss town, the " b righ t young p eop le" were p la n n in g p a r t i e s , some o f which in t h e ir c o m p e titio n f o r o r i g i n a l i t y had th e g u e s t s d r e sse d as sa v a g e s , c ir c u s c h a r a c te r s — even b a b ie s (2 1 :1 3 5 )* With the exp an sion of th e new spap ers, and the t e c h n ic a l improvement o f m otion p ic t u r e s came a l e v e l i n g o f f o f t a s t e . S im u lta n eo u sly the B r i t i s h B ro a d ca stin g C orporation was r e s o l u t e l y t r y in g to e n lig h te n th e p u b lic w ith l e c t u r e s and good m u sic 0 At a tim e when B r i t i s h in d u str y was s t i l l on i t s k n e e s, w a itin g f o r th e r e tu r n o f i t s dom ination in th e m arkets o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , p r i v a t e l y speed rec o rd s were b ein g broken w ith r e g u la r it y by b o a ts , c a r s , and a ir p la n e s . I t was in many ways a s o c i e t y o u t of j o i n t , s t i l l n o s t a lg ic f o r the s t a b i l i t y o f th e Edwardian tim es w h ile pushing fo r th e l ib e r a t io n from V ic to r ia n sta n d a rd s. There was a huge ferm en t, but the r e s u l t a n t e x p lo s io n was to be d elayed u n t i l a f t e r World War I I . E d u cation in England A s im ila r p r e ssu re was b u ild in g up i n e d u c a tio n . The e d u c a tio n a l r e v o lu t io n which took p la c e In 1914}. was la r g e ly a removing o f the l i d from a k e t t l e which had been b o ilin g v ig o r o u s ly fo r s e v e r a l d eca d es. The F is h e r Report had urged i n a more s p e c ta c u la r fa s h io n reform s which were to be proposed w ith ou t su c c e s s by e d u c a tio n a l le a d e r s f o r tw enty y ea rs a f t e r th e r e p o r t . To comprehend th e s e p r e ssu r e s which were su p p ressed by governm ental d eterm in a tio n n ot to in c r e a s e e d u c a tio n a l e x p e n se s, one must be acq u a in ted w ith th e B r i t i s h e d u c a tio n a l sy stem . The prim ary purpose of t h i s s e c t io n of the s e t t in g o f the stu d y i s to d e s c r ib e b r i e f l y E n g lish educa tio n in g e n e r a l--e le m e n ta r y , secondary and h ig h e r . Some knowledge o f th e B r i t i s h e d u c a tio n a l system i s n e c e s s a r y to th e f i t t i n g o f fu r th e r ed u ca tio n in t o I t s p l a c e „ Our main concern i s w ith th e system during th e years o f our study,. However, u n d erstan d in g th e se tw elv e years r e q u ir e s 5o an acquaintance w ith something of the g en era l h is to r y of B r it is h ed u cation , and a b r ie f survey o f some of the s a lie n t h i s t o r i c a l developments seems worthwhile,, Elementary Education In any n a tio n we fin d th at the ed u cation al system i s in e x tr ic a b ly bound up w ith the s o c ie t y , r e f le c t in g and perpetu ating the valu es and the p reju d ices o f those who form and con trol the means of ed u cation . In the United S ta te s we are prone to think now in terms of fre e pu blic education through th e secondary l e v e l „ Constant a s s o c ia tio n w ith our system makes i t appear to be the n atu ral one or the norm. But remember th a t the United S ta te s was born out of a r e a c tio n a g a in st strong c e n tr a l co n tro l and that an ea rly and b a sic concept was th a t of lo c a l fin a n c ia l management of the ed u cation al system . Education was consid ered a p u b lic r e s p o n s ib ilit y ; the id ea th at fr e e p u b lic education should be a philanthropy of the r ic h fo r the poor did not have th e r ig h t s o i l in the United S t a t e s . England, on the other hand, developed I ts public elem entary education under much d iffe r e n t circum sta n c e s. In the c e n tu r ie s o f development prior to the tw e n tieth , B r it is h secondary and elem entary education were c lo s e l y r e la te d to the E n glish c la s s str u c tu r e . Education beyond elem entary school was la r g e ly the p r iv ile g e of th e 51 m iddle and upper c l a s s e s . E lem entary, on the o th e r hand, was co n fin e d alm ost w h o lly to th e low er c l a s s e s . Popular e d u c a tio n , th a t i s ed u ca tion f o r the m a sses, was thought o f as a kind o f r u l i n g - c l a s s d u ty 0 But i t was duty not e n t i r e ly f r e e o f an u l t e r i o r m o tiv e . In a d d itio n to humane or r e l i g i o u s m otives th e r e was th a t o f s e l f - i n t e r e s t . I t was f e l t th at th e re was l e s s danger of an u p r is in g o f the poor i f th ey were in c u lc a te d w ith th e v a lu e s to be found in C h r i s t i a n i t y , Thus, te a c h in g the poor was of paramount urgency i f th ey were to be a b le to read the B ib le and to absorb i t s v a lu e s , . There was no p u b lic elem entary ed u ca tio n in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y . Operated w ith o u t any s o r t o f s t a t e c o n t r o l, th e i n s t i t u t i o n s took on a v a r ie t y o f form s, some charging s u b s t a n t ia l f e e s , th e m a jo rity b e in g f r e e or charging nom inal f e e s . There were se c u la r sc h o o ls as w e ll as r e l i g i o u s l y o r ie n te d s c h o o ls . There were s c h o o ls run by in d iv id u a ls fo r income; th e r e were s c h o o ls supported by in s t it u t io n s - - c h u r c h e s and in d u s tr y . Perhaps th e most c e le b r a t e d , in poetry and in subsequent ed u ca tio n h i s t o r y q u o ta tio n s , are th e dame s c h o o ls , as th e name s u g g e s ts , u s u a lly run by an o ld la d y w ith o u t much tr a in in g whose primary a c t i v i t y was baby s i t t i n g a group o f c h ild r e n . The day schools--coim non or p r lv a te --w e r e somewhat b e t t e r o rg a n ized , a l b e i t s t i l l w ith out any so r t o f tr a in e d su p e r v isio n ; th ey u s u a lly took o ld e r c h ild r e n than d id the dame sc h o o ls. Both i n s t i t u t i o n s 52 charged f e e s , a lth o u g h th e amounts were sm all* There were no f e e s f o r the r e s t o f the elem en tary sc h o o lso The S o c i e t y fo r Promoting C h r is tia n Knowledge (S.PoC0Ko), had begun c h a r it y sc h o o ls b e fo r e th e end o f the se v e n te e n th c e n tu r y . S im ila r to the Sunday S c h o o ls in th a t th e y were m ain tain ed by the church or church- a f f i l i a t e d grou p s, th e y were o p era ted during the week main l y f o r day p u p i l s . T heir main s t r e s s was on r e l i g i o n , r e la t e d r e a d in g , and in d u s tr y . S in ce th e c h ild r e n were d e s tin e d to be w ork ers, the in d u s t r ia l s k i l l s were c l o s e l y r e la t e d to t h e i r fu tu r e p o s it io n s in th e community. The " c ir c u la t in g sch o o ls" o f Wales were s t i l l an oth er p a t t e r n , a m ixtu re o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c and r e l ig i o u s l y in s p ir e d elem en tary e d u c a tio n . G r i f f it h Jon es o f L lan d - dowror (W a les), a Welsh v ic a r , began the movement by e s t a b l i s h in g s c h o o ls which had as t h e ir c h ie f g o a l th e te a c h in g o f th e poor to read th e B ib le and g iv in g them r e l i g i o u s in d o c t r in a t io n . The te a c h e r s were a s s ig n e d on a kind o f c i r c u l a t i n g b a s i s , sp en din g s e v e r a l months in each s c h o o l. The sc h o o lh o u se s th em selves were somewhat tem porary, s in c e w hatever vacan t prem ises cou ld be found were p u t to u s e . The movement i t s e l f was t r a n s it o r y , sh r in k in g w ith the r i s e o f th e Sunday s c h o o l s 0 The Sunday S c h o o ls , as t h e i r name s u g g e s t s , were op erated on th e l e f t o v e r day o f a s ix -d a y work w eek. The movement was r a p id i n growth and h ig h in p o p u la r ity ; th e m o tiv es were an amalgam o f p h ila n th r o p y and s e l f - i n t e r e s t . S in c e th e cu rricu lu m was m ainly rea d in g and r e l i g i o u s in d o c t r in a t io n m ingled w ith some manual la b o r , many o f th o s e who p a r t ic ip a t e d as te a c h e r s o r as f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n t s were warmed by a r e l i g i o u s f e r v o r . A warmth o f a d i f f e r e n t s o r t f i l l e d some f a c t o r y owners and mana g e r s , who gave a l i v e l y endorsem ent as w e ll a s f i n a n c i a l su pp ort t o s c h o o ls w hich d id n o t c u t in t o w orking h ou rs and draw c h ild r e n away, as did th e c h a r ity day sc h o o ls* Much l e s s s u c c e s s f u l were th e d ir e c t - a t t e m p t s to s e t up " in d u str y s c h o o ls ." These were in te n d ed to se r v e as a n e c e s s a r y a l t e r n a t i v e to id l e n e s s on th e p a rt o f unemployed pauper c h ild r e n betw een the ages o f th r e e and f o u r t e e n . They were o r ie n t e d toward in d u s tr y r a th er than r e l i g i o n , th e hope b e in g t h a t th e e a r ly e s ta b lis h m e n t of the h a b it o f hard work would u lt im a t e ly be o f b e n e f i t b o th to th e matured worker and t o an in c r e a s in g ly i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y . These s c h o o ls c a r r ie d w ith them a d o u b le h a n d i cap: f a c t o r y managers regarded them a s c o m p e tito r s f o r c h i ld la b o r ; p a r e n ts lo o k e d a t them as la c k in g th e a d v a n t age o f f a c t o r y work, a wage which co u ld be added to th e fa m ily incom e0 The problem o f what to do w ith th e mass o f c h i l dren o f elem en ta ry s c h o o l age was a tta ck ed in two dram atic methods du rin g th e f i r s t q u a rter o f th e n in e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . The m o n ito r ia l system and th e exp erim en ts o f Robert Owen $k r e f le c t e d two o f the main currents o f B r it is h ed u ca tio n a l thoughto They were both in n ov atio n alo Yet on the one hand, the m o n ito ria l system , w ith i t s a t t r a c t io n based on e f f i c i e n c y — and economy— c o n tr a s ts sharply w ith what i s now consid ered to be the en lig h ten ed p r a c tic e s of Robert Owen. The m o n ito ria l sch o o ls made use o f p u p ils to teach and su p erv ise p u p ils , the e ld er and advanced assuming the bulk o f the te a c h e r ’ s d u tie s so th a t, arranged in a h i e r a r c h ic a l fa sh io n , w ith the a d u lt teach er a t the to p , the p u p ils expanded h i s powers enormously. Although the system was rath er m echanical in so fa r as both teach in g techniques and c o n tex t were concerned, i t kept th e c h i l dren under c o n tr o l--a n d they learn ed som ething. Above a l l , i t was in e x p e n siv e , so in ex p en siv e th a t i t was used as an argument to support a proposal fo r a tax-su p p orted two years o f fr e e ed u ca tio n . Although the b i l l d ie d , i t s demise r ev ea led the two m ilit a n t fo r c e s a g a in st p u b lic ed u ca tio n , the church, which consid ered elem entary educa tio n i t s p re ro g a tiv e; and th ose w ealthy members o f s o c ie ty who f e l t th a t educating the poor would do them damage, making i t d i f f i c u l t fo r them to accept a s t a t i c subordinate r o le in so c iety ,. The Church of England was to remain the primary source of r e s is ta n c e a g a in st p u b lic education in s p it e of the Government's in c re a sin g f in a n c ia l p a r t ic ip a t io n , which began in 18 3 3 w ith th e f i r s t o f a s e r i e s o f g r a n ts to e d u c a tio n . In a d d itio n to i t s r e a c tio n on the b a s is o f i t s p r e r o g a tiv e to c o n tr o l p u b lic e d u c a tio n , the Church o f England was a ls o p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e r e s i s t ance toward p u b lic ed u ca tio n o f th e r e l i g i o u s d i s s e n t e r s , who r e fu se d to support th e e x te n s io n o f a system which w ould, th ey f e l t , be dominated by the e s t a b lis h e d church. T his s i t u a t i o n , an im passe during which v a r io u s sc h o o l b i l l s were proposed u n s u c c e s s f u lly , co n tin u ed alm ost th ree d e c a d e s. Then in 1862 the E d ucation Departm ent, which had been c r e a te d in l 8f? 6 , is s u e d I t s R evised Code. This p u b lic a t io n In trod uced th e con cep t o f "payment by r e s u l t s , ” an arrangement which had v a rio u s e f f e c t s , some o f them l o n g - l a s t i n g , on B r it i s h elem en tary e d u c a tio n . The t e e t h In the new code were provided by in s p e c to r s whose r e p o r ts on a c h i l d ' s a b i l i t i e s in the "th ree R's" determ ined whether or n o t th e sc h o o l would r e c e iv e I t s f i n a n c i a l gra n t f o r th e c h i l d . The e f f e c t s o f t h i s p r e s sure are n o t s u r p r is in g . Under t h i s kind o f p r e s s u r e , th e te a c h e r s o f t e n tended to s t r e s s r o te le a r n in g aimed a t the s t u d e n t 's p a ssin g the t e s t . Other s u b je c ts were l i k e l y to be n e g le c te d in fa v o r of the g r a n t-e a r n in g s k i l l s . And the te a c h e r 's antagonism toward and fe a r o f the sc h o o l In sp e c to r s were f o s t e r e d by such a s i t u a t i o n . S ch ool atten d an ce r o se as the number and q u a lit y o f te a c h e r s d ecrea sed ( 1 0 : 1 3 1 - 3 2 ) . 56 Further government p a r tic ip a tio n came w ith the 1870 Education A ct. Although th ere was s t i l l no s in g le system of pu blic education, the country was d iv id ed in to school d i s t r i c t s , each of which was evaluated by the Education Department. The r e lig io u s groups were allowed a chance to remedy those inadequacies which were d i s covered. I f th e ir measures were not forthcom ing, then the school board was authorized to e s ta b lis h s u f f ic ie n t elementary sch o ol f a c i l i t i e s . The fin an cin g o f such e ff o r t s came from three sou rces—lo c a l ta x e s , government g r a n ts, and f e e s - - f o r education was s t i l l not considered to be g r a tis or compulsory. Insofar as r e lig io n was con cerned, these s c h o o ls , w h ile not w holly se c u la r , were not denom inational. Thus there continued to be the two ty p e s, th e ch u rch -con trolled schools and the l o c a l l y con t r o lle d , non-denom inational sc h o o ls. However, even in most non-church schools B ib le reading was compulsory0 Both types o f schools were put under the con trol of the lo c a l education a u th o r itie s by the 1902 Education A ct, Although both ty p e s--th e board schools and the voluntary (u su a lly denom inational) sch o o ls—maintained th e ir i d e n t i t i e s , the Local Education A u th o r itie s were made resp o n sib le fo r the f in a n c ia l support and the r a is in g of the q u a lity of the voluntary sch ools to the le v e l of the board sc h o o ls. The 1890 Code had r e lie v e d pressure £7 on the sch ools by a b o lish in g the basing o f grants on “payment by r e s u lts " in the s tu d e n ts ’ achievement In read in g , w r itin g , and a r ith m e tic . The 1902 Act exerted p r e s sure o f a new s o r t , c a ll i n g fo r surveys and Improvements across England. The tone of the Act i t s e l f i s s i g n i f i ca n t, fo r i t marks the turning p o in t of the dominant pu b lic a t t it u d e . Prior to 1902 elementary education was considered to be mainly a p h ilan th ro p ic g e stu r e , made g ru d gin gly, toward the low er c l a s s e s . A fter the 1902 Act there i s evid en t a new a t t it u d e , one which co n sid ers the p ro v isio n o f elem entary education to be the duty o f the community and the government. S ir Robert Morant, who had joined the School Board in 189^, i s mentioned most o fte n as th e champion of E n g lish ed u ca tio n , p a r tic u la r ly e l e mentary ed u cation . He was r e sp o n sib le fo r a s e r ie s of r e g u la tio n s which helped shape the development of E n glish education during th e years o f expansion a fte r the 1902 Act and p rior to World War I . In the afterm ath o f World War I another education a c t, the 1918 F ish er A ct, took another important step fo r elem entary ed u cation , th a t o f a b o lish in g f e e s Q From t h is p o in t on, th e nature o f elem entary education stayed much the same u n t il the Education Act o f 19ipi}-* There were in creased s p e c ia l s e r v ic e s during the tw en ties and t h ir t ie s . There was a recurrent but i n e f f e c t i v e movement to extend the sc h o o l-le a v in g ag e. However, the major changes were 58 to be postponed u n t il the end o f World War I I . Secondary Education E n glish education between the wars was in a sta te of tr a n s itio n between two kinds of public education; one in the tr a d itio n a l B r itis h se n se, the other in the more fa m ilia r American se n se. One of the paradoxes of B r itis h education i s the term " p u b lic” that i s s t i l l attached to the g reat p r iv a te sc h o o ls, the o p p o site of "public” in the American d e f in it io n o f f r e e , g e n e r a lly a v a ila b le ed u cation . The g reat Public Schools o f England are s t i l l the p r e stig e in s t i t u t i o n s , th e means o f establishm ent of sta tu s or i t s confirm ation. N ev erth eless, what we know as pu blic education now rep resen ts the larger amount of B r itis h education, p a r tic u la r ly sin c e the f i r s t World War. The greater number o f students attend fr e e sc h o o ls, and even the "P ublic” sc h o o ls, which s t i l l charge s t i f f f e e s , have had an in crea sin g number of "free p la c e s ” fo r outstanding stu dents whose parents are unable to provide th e f u l l amount which the in s t it u t io n o r d in a r ily demands. Those students who do manage to q u a lify fo r entrance in to such sch ools as Charterhouse or Rugby have su b sta n tia l advant age both s o c i a ll y and econom ically, sin ce graduation from Public School i s s t i l l a g e n e r a lly accepted sta tu s symbol. Looking back to the previous cen tu ry, one sees some o f th e r ea so n s f o r th e g r e a t d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a P u b lic S c h o o l ed u cation ,, These s c h o o ls were th e o u ts ta n d in g o f f sh o o ts o f th e L a tin Grammar S c h o o ls . E q u a lly , perhaps more im p o rta n t, th e y were th e t r a in in g i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r th e c h ild r e n o f th e up per-m idd le and upper c l a s s e s . Up to and in c lu d in g m ost o f th e n in e t e e n th c en tu ry th e r e was v i r t u a l l y no p u b lic system o f secon d ary e d u c a tio n . There w ere, and had b e e n , some p r o v is io n s even d u rin g the f o u r t e e n t h c e n tu r y f o r "poor s c h o la r s ." But th e grammar s c h o o ls , w hich were secon dary r a th e r than prim ary s c h o o l s , e x i s t e d a s c e n te r s o f p r e p a r a tio n f o r th e u n i v e r s i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e le a r n e d p r o f e s s io n s o f church and la w . L a tin p la y e d a h e a v y r o le in th e cu rricu lu m ; Greek a ls o e n te r e d l a t e r as p a r t o f th e s t u d e n t s ' s t u d i e s . They were f a r removed from what one th in k s o f as p u b lic secon d ary e d u c a tio n . T h eir s t u d e n t s , a c co r d in g to W ilson ( 9 1•!) were th e so n s n e it h e r o f the n o b i l i t y n or o f th e v i l l e i n s a I n s te a d th e y were th e o f f s p r in g o f th e m i d d le - c l a s s , f o r th e m ost p a r t a g g r e s s iv e ly c lim b in g by means o f th e la d d er o f e d u c a tio n . Thus, d u rin g th e m id d le a g e s , th e s c h o o l and th e u n i v e r s i t y se rv e d as t r a in e r s and s u p p lie r s o f th e members o f th e upper ranks o f th e s t a t e and th e church. T his s t a b le s i t u a t i o n d is in t e g r a t e d w it h th e R eform ation and th e con seq u en t b a t t l e s betw een th e Church o f E ngland and th e P r o t e s t a n t s e c t s . Dominated by th e 60 e s t a b l i s h e d c h u r c h , th e s c h o o ls and u n i v e r s i t i e s were c l o s e d to th e c h ild r e n o f d i s s e n t e r s . T h eir numbers s w o lle n by th e e x p a n s io n o f W esleyan M ethodism , t h e n o n c o n f o r m is ts r e s i s t e d t h e a tte m p ts to s e t up a s t a t e sy ste m o f e d u c a t io n , s i n c e t h i s sy ste m , t h e y f e l t , w ould i n e v i t a b l y h a v e b e e n A n g lic a n . I r o n i c a l l y , th e A n g lic a n ch u rch was a l s o a g a in s t s t a t e e d u c a t io n , f e e l i n g t h a t e d u c a tio n was th e p e r s o n a l and p r i v a t e dom in ion o f th e church (9 1 :8 ) « . The r e s u l t was an im passe* The Grammar S c h o o ls A ct ( I 8I 4 .O) in tr o d u c e d one c h a n g e . A lth o u g h i t im p lie d t h a t an endowed s c h o o l m igjit demur from t e a c h in g a n y th in g o th e r than Greek or L a t in , i t d id open th e door t o t h e i r b e in g ta u g h t as e x tr a sub j e c t s . On th e o t h e r h a n d , i n many o f t h e more p o p u la r and a c t i v e s c h o o l s , t h e c o n d it io n s were sc a n d a lo u s (.91:9) • A la r g e number o f f e r e d v e r y p oor fo o d and b o a rd in g a r r a n g e m ents to m atch . D i s c i p l i n e was h a r s h from th e m a ste r s and b u l ly i n g common from th e l a r g e b o y s . The c l a s s e s were o f t e n so la r g e t h a t th e o n ly means o f k e e p in g o r d e r was the t h r e a t o f f l o g g in g o H eadm aster o f E ton K e a te s was r e p o r te d f l o g g i n g e ig h t y b oys in one day i n 1 8 3 2 when he was s i x t y y e a r s o l d . He had 198 b oys in h i s g ro u p , th e Upper S c h o o l ( 1 0 : 2 0 ) o The a l t e r n a t i v e , or p erh ap s th e r e s u l t , o f t e r r o r i z a t i o n was d is o r d e r and r e b e l l i o n by t h e s tu d e n ts * 61 At W inchester th ere were sev era l r e b e llio n s in the l a s t quarters o f the eigh teenth and the f i r s t quarter of the n in eteen th c e n tu r ie s. In 1793 the boys h e ld the C ollege b u ild in g s for two days and, f ir e d no doubt by the news from -revolutionary Prance, s e t up the red cap of l i b e r t y 0 In l 8l 8 another r i s ing of W inchester had to be put down by two companies of s o ld ie r s w ith fix e d bayon ets. At Rugby in 1797 the boys blew up the door of the headm aster's study with gunpowder. ( 1 0 : 2 1) These l i v e l y a c t i v i t i e s were p a r t ia lly a r e f le c t io n o f the lack on the part o f the boarding sch ools o f any con cern fo r the stu d en ts' use o f le is u r e tim e. D rinking, gambling, and r e la te d a c t i v i t i e s were not unusual fo r the more mature stu dents of the la rg e r boarding schools* F ig h tin g , to o , was a common pastime among the boys, as was "fagging* or b u lly in g , w ith the older boys e s t a b lis h ing a m a ster-slave r e la tio n sh ip w ith the p r e -te en a g er s* This custom of b u lly in g continued in to th e e a r ly tw en tieth cen tu ry, according to such B r it is h w riters as George OrweH and Robert Graves. However, secondary education was n ot a l l b u llie s or young debauchees. The sm aller, more common grammar sc h o o ls, which the boys attended only during the day, were much m ilder than W inchester or Rugby. So were the p rivate sc h o o ls, a lb e it o c c a sio n a lly coming clo se to g en teel impoverishment. Although there was the pressure fo r them to p attern them selves a fte r the la rg e r p r e stig e sc h o o ls, and there was as wide a v a r ia tio n o f q u a lity , they did have the advantage o f c lo s e r su pervision o f the boys. 62 By the m idd le o f th e e ig h te e n th cen tu ry th e schools and u n i v e r s i t ie s had reached t h e i r low poin to The grammar sc h o o ls con tin u ed to tea ch th e c l a s s i c s - - L a t i n and Greek* W hile t h i s curricu lu m had had some j u s t i f i c a t i o n in s o c ie t y where th e m a jo rity o f stu d e n ts were d e s tin e d to be church men or la w y e rs, as the decades had evaporated so had the s c h o la r s . Many o f the endowed sc h o o ls had been e sta b lish e d s p e c i f i c a l l y as grammar s c h o o ls . Thus i t was i l l e g a l ac cording to a d e c is io n in l8o£, to add anything e l s e to th e curricu lu m . This p o lic y made a r ith m e tic , w r itin g and the modern languages i l l e g a l , but a v a ila b le on th e s id e fo r a d d itio n a l f e e s . The r u r a l grammar sc h o o ls fa c e d very l i t t l e demand fo r t h e ir w ares. Bernard c i t e s the ca se o f th e head m aster o f W h itg ift S c h o o l, Groydon, who as l a t e as 1866 had h e ld h i s o f f i c e fo r t h i r t y years w ith ou t a s i n g le p u p il (1 0 :1 9 )• The endowment which con tin u ed to pay the head m aster's s a la r y d id n o t s t i p u l a t e th a t th e r e had to be s tu d e n ts . Out o f ste p as they were w ith th e needs o f s o c i e t y , th e endowed sc h o o ls had e it h e r to reform or p e r is h . They su rv iv ed through th e refo rm a tio n which began to tak e p la c e during th e I 8I 4 .OS0 P art o f the fo r c e fo r change was a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e changing tone o f s o c i e t y i t s e l f . Along w ith in c r e a s in g i n d u s t r i a li z a t i o n came an a l t e r a t io n o f the g e n e ra l te n o r , an in c r e a s in g ly u t i l i t a r i a n o u tlo o k 0 63 T h is a t t i t u d e was m a n if e s t i n the gro w in g c l a s s o f manu f a c t u r e r s and f a c t o r y owners who ten d e d to be p ragm a tic about e d u c a tio n a s w e l l as in d u stry © Thus, i t i s n o t s u r p r is in g t h a t th e y would be c r i t i c a l o f a s t a p l e d i e t o f L a tin and Greek c l a s s i c s as p r e p a r a tio n f o r e n tr a n c e in t o an age o f in d u s t r y . S im u lta n e o u s ly w ith th e c r i t i c i s m o f th e c u r r i c u lum came th a t by th e i n c r e a s i n g l y e v a n g e l i c a l segm ent o f s o c i e t y w hich r e a c t e d s t r o n g l y a g a in s t th e lo w m oral to n e and th e p oor c o n d it io n s o f room and board a t many of th e s c h o o l s . The p r e s s u r e s were s u f f i c i e n t t o e s t a b l i s h th e atm osphere f o r r e fo r m . The c a t a l y s t f o r t h e change came in th e p e r so n s o f a new crop o f h e a d m a ste r s, o f whom Samuel B u tle r and Thomas A rnold r e p r e s e n t th e b e s t known ( 1 0 : 8 5 ) . B u t l e r ' s c h i e f c o n t r ib u t io n la y i n h i s in t r o d u c t i o n o f more e f f i c i e n t t e a c h in g m eth o d s, th e h e a r t o f w hich l a y in h i s c u t t i n g away the deadwood o f L a tin gram mar, h o ld in g r e g u la r e x a m in a tio n s , and g i v i n g r e c o g n it io n and reward on th e b a s i s of m e r it . The e f f i c a c y o f h i s te c h n iq u e s was d e m o n stra ted by th e Shrewsbury b o y s' d om in atin g a t O xford and Cam bridge. B u tle r and A rnold w ere r o u g h ly contem porary in t h e i r c a r e e r s , B u t le r becom ing h ead m aster o f Shrew sbury in 1 8 3 6 , and A rnold assum ing th e d u t i e s o f h ea d m a ster a t Rugby i n 1 8 2 8 . Where B u t l e r ' s r e p u t a t io n was more i n th e 6 1 1 - area of teaching methods, Arnold*s was more an organ iza tio n a l improvement, in volvin g c lo s e r su p ervision o f the stu d e n ts, sm aller liv in g groups» and b e tte r study f a c i l i t i e s 0 His innovations le d to a gen eral improvement in the educational atmosphere# Values played an im portant r o le in h is reform ation o f the sc h o o l. R elig io n and lib e r a l culture provided the touchstones fo r h is s t r e s s of e th ic a l over p h y sic a l c o n tr o l. This b r ie f sketch o f the two men i s not intended to be more than a glim pse o f the fo r c e s which were a t work. There are, o f cou rse, books o f eulogy and of debunking w ritten about Arnold, the more famous o f the two. But even a b r ie f glance a t th e ir careers g iv e s us some n otion of th e reco n stru ctio n beginning before the m id-century and the in flu e n c es which were not only to leav en B r it is h secondary education, but were to p reserve the grammar and pu blic sch ools as the groom ing-place3 f o r the ch ild ren o f the middle and upper c la s s e s as w e ll as the tr a in in g grounds for those s e le c t few who were to enter th e E n glish u n i v e r s i t ie s . I r o n ic a lly , had the reform n ot been e f fe c t e d , i t seems l i k e l y th at the in te rv e n tio n of the s t a t e in to secondary education might have been a c c e le r a te d . There was some in t e r e s t in secondary education shown on the part o f the B r itis h government. In l 66i^ the Clarendon Commission (formed 1861) reported on the nin e c h ie f public sc h o o ls, laud in g th e ir character b u ild in g 65 q u a l it i e s and t h e ir progress during the p ast two decades, and c r i t i o i z i n g the appropriateness of th e curriculum and the e f f e c t iv e n e s s of the tea ch in g , I t s recommendations le d to the P ublic Schools Act of 1868, which introduced some reform o f th e governing bodies and some r efu r b ish in g of the curriculum , making i t somewhat sim ila r to th e German Gymnasium, which allow ed some modern fo re ig n langu ages, m athematics, n a tu ra l sc ie n c e and music or drawing* Pour years l a t e r fu r th e r proof o f the se rio u sn e ss of the governm ent's in t e r e s t in schools was provided by the twenty-one volume rep ort of the Taunton Commission on 9lp2 sch ools which were n e ith e r elementary nor p u b lic , n e ith e r aided by the government nor owned p r iv a t e ly , the sch ools which had been excluded from the work of the Clarendon Commission. The report has w ith in i t numerous ideas which were to come into e f f e c t much l a t e r . However, when the government passed the Endowed Schools Act (1869)» o s te n s ib ly a fo llo w -u p on the rep o rt, there was very l i t t l e in the way o f forward m otion. The main e f f e c t of the Endowed Schools Act and the Public Schools Act (1 8 6 8 ), according to Barnard (10:155) was to bring new l i f e to most endowed secondary sch o o ls and to in crea se in t e r e s t in secondary education fo r g i r l s . These Commission Reports and t h e ir afterm ath are i l l u s t r a t i v e of se v e r a l fa c e ts of B r itis h ed u cation . F i r s t , they show th a t th ere was a segment of the government 6 6 which was in te r e s t e d in , and aware of the need f o r , an organized system o f secondary ed u cation . The thoroughness of the rep orts le a v e s no doubt o f the s in c e r it y o f in te n tio n o f the committeeo Second, there was a quickening and some improvement as a r e s u lt of th e ir p u b lic a tio n 0 But th ir d , and perhaps of o verrid in g im portance, the govern m en ts f a i lu r e to do very much about the rep orts r e f l e c t s the g en era l a tt itu d e o f the r u lin g c la s s e s toward education o f the masses* A lso , u n fo rtu n a te ly , parliam ent fo r se v e r a l decades a fte r the issu ance o f the rep ort h eld no statesman who was w illin g to b a t t le fo r the ex ten sio n of ed u cation . That there was p ressu re fo r the expansion a t the secondary l e v e l was evid en t from the a lte r a t io n s in the operation s o f some of the elem entary s c h o o ls . There had been some r e d is tr ib u tio n o f secondary sch o ol endowments as a r e s u lt of the Endowed S ch ools Act o f 1869; n everth e l e s s , the a ctio n s o f the Commissioners were inadequate and d e su lto r y , s in c e there was no o v e r a ll plan on a n a tio n a l s c a le . S in ce the need fo r secondary education s t i l l e x is t e d , i n s u f f i c i e n t ly met by p r iv a te means, some o f the elem entary sch ools began to expand upwards, o f f e r ing su b je cts such as mathematics and sc ie n c e to o ld er stu dents who e le c te d to remain beyond the sc h o o l-le a v in g age. These "upper standards” even o ffe r e d a g r ic u ltu r e , languages, and a r t s . Since the Education Department gave 6? g r a n ts f o r t h e s e s u b j e c t s , i t was in e f f e c t a id in g s e c o n d ary e d u c a t io n . D uring th e rem a in in g th r e e d e c a d e s th e r e was a grow ing movement among th e more a c t i v e , l a r g e r s c h o o l b oard s to o f f e r h ig h e r -g r a d e s c h o o ls o r " h ig h er t o p s , ” w hich w ere seco n d a ry s c h o o ls s a i l i n g under th e c o lo r s of e le m en ta ry e d u c a tio n . T h is a c t io n m ight seem to be in d e f ia n c e o f th e I 8 7 O E d u ca tio n A c t, w h ich l i m i t e d s c h o o l board s to th e c o n t r o l o f e le m e n ta r y e d u c a t io n . In p r a c t i c e , h o w ev er, th e b oards w h ich expanded e le m e n ta r y ed u ca t i o n upwards met w it h a p p ro v a l r a th e r than c e n s u r e . The r e s u l t o f t h i s e x p a n sio n was an a l l e v i a t i o n w h ich h e lp e d to p o stp o n e u n t i l the end o f th e c e n tu r y a s o l u t i o n i n th e form o f a n a t i o n a l sy stem o f e d u c a t io n . H owever, w ith th e tu rn o f th e c e n tu r y came th e E d u ca tio n A ct o f 1 9 0 2 , e x tr e m e ly im p ortan t b e c a u se o f th e b a s ic change i t in tr o d u c e d in th e B r i t i s h e d u c a t io n a l s y s te m . I t s p a s sa g e was a d i f f i c u l t o n e, f o r i t s h i f t e d th e c o n t r o l o f th e s c h o o ls from th e " sc h o o l b oards" to the l o c a l e d u c a tio n a u t h o r i t i e s , u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d to as th e L .E .A . The o p p o s it io n came n o t o n ly from t h o s e who fa v o r e d th e r e t e n t i o n o f th e s c h o o l b oard s b u t a l s o from th e r e l i g i o u s n o n c o n fo r m is ts , who o b j e c t e d to ta x fu n d s b e in g p a id to s c h o o ls w hich b e lo n g e d to th e e s t a b l i s h e d ch u r c h , m ost o f t e n th e Church o f E ngland In r u r a l a r e a s ( Sii-slip) • N e v e r t h e le s s , w ith th e p a ssa g e o f tim e the new 68 sy stem became f ir m ly e s t a b l i s h e d and began to work a s e r i e s o f ch an ges in th e s c h o o l system ,, At th e seco n d a ry l e v e l , th e Board o f E d u ca tio n was f o r c e d to d e c id e j u s t what a secon d ary s c h o o l w as, s in c e g r a n ts w ere now a llo w a b le to them . The Board d e fin e d i t a s h a v in g a b ro a d er sc o p e and b e in g more advanced than e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s , o f f e r i n g a g e n e r a l e d u c a t io n - - m o r a l, p h y s i c a l , and m e n t a l. I t could, be a day or b o a rd in g s c h o o l w hich o f f e r e d a c o u r se o f n o t l e s s than fo u r y e a r s to s tu d e n ts up t o and beyond th e age o f s i x t e e n . There were s t i l l e c h o e s o f th e Grammar S c h o o l and P u b lic S c h o o l c u r ricu lu m : t e c h n i c a l e d u c a tio n was s t i l l s u b o r d in a te to academ ic t r a d i t i o n ( 1 0 : 25^-)* N e v e r t h e le s s th e "dual system " o f se co n d a r y edu c a t i o n c o n tin u e d . W ith th e in t r o d u c t io n o f t h e 1902 A ct came c o u n ty o r m u n ic ip a l seco n d a ry s c h o o l s , e s t a b l i s h e d and su p p o rted by th e l o c a l c o u n c i l s . H ow ever, th e grammar s c h o o l s , aged and endowed, rem ained in e x i s t e n c e and, i n f a c t , were now a id e d by L .E .A . f u n d s . A lth ou gh th e grammar s c h o o ls s u r v iv e d , w it h i n f i v e y e a r s a f t e r . t h e p a s sa g e o f th e a c t a change had b een in tr o d u c e d w hich opened th e door to seco n d a ry e d u c a tio n f o r some o f th e b r ig h t e r e le m e n ta r y s tu d e n ts on th e b a s i s o f e x a m in a tio n . T hese " fr e e p la c e s " were c a l l e d " s p e c ia l p la c e s " a f t e r 1 9 3 2 , b u t th e p r i n c ip l e rem ained c o n s i s t e n t : f e e s were a d ju s te d by the L .E .A . a c co r d in g to th e incom e 69 o f th e p a r e n ts ; s t u d e n t s o f h ig h a b i l i t y b u t o f lo w s o c i a l s ta n d in g were in tr o d u c e d i n i n c r e a s i n g numbers i n t o the fo r m e r ly s o c i a l l y e x c l u s i v e s c h o o l s . The p e r io d a f t e r th e f i r s t World War was one o f g ra d u a l e x p a n sio n p u n c tu a te d by t h r e e e d u c a tio n e v e n t s — th e F is h e r A c t ( 1 9 1 8 ) , t h e Hadow R eport (1 9 2 6 ) and th e E d u ca tio n A ct o f 1 9 3 6 0 U n f o r t u n a t e ly , th e g e n e r a l f i n a n c i a l d e p r e s s io n began to sq u e e z e th e governm ent w it h i n c r e a s in g p r e s s u r e s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e passage o f th e 1 9 1 8 F is h e r A c t. C o n se q u e n tly , some o f th e more p r o g r e s s iv e m easures, such a s t h e r a i s i n g o f th e s c h o o l - l e a v i n g age t o f i f t e e n and th e exp an d in g o f day c o n t in u a tio n s c h o o ls f o r yo u th s up t o s i x t e e n , had to l i e v i r t u a l l y i n a c t iv e f o r o v e r a d e c a d e . On th e o t h e r h an d , th e r e were some s u g g e s t i o n s w h ich w ere im plem ented: ( 1 ) c h i ld l a b o r was d e c la r e d i l l e g a l under the age o f tw e lv e and more c l o s e l y s u p e r v i s e d o v e r t h a t a g e ; ( 2 ) th e h o lid a y or s c h o o l camps w ere expanded; ( 3 ) L .E .A .' s w ere a llo w e d to e s t a b l i s h and s u p p o r t n u r se r y s c h o o ls ; (I4.) f e e s were e lim in a te d from e l e m entary s c h o o l s ; ( 5 ) th e g r a n t sy ste m was a l t e r e d , and in g e n e r a l th e powers o f th e L .E .A .' s were expand ed . What th e a c t f a i l e d to a c c o m p lish d i r e c t l y i t in f lu e n c e d i n d i r e c t l y by p l a n t in g ”th e s e e d s o f reform w hich h a v e begun to germ in a te a f t e r l y i n g dorm ant f o r some tim e ” ( 1 0 : 2 7 3 ) . The i n f l u e n c e on seco n d a ry e d u c a tio n o f th e 1 9 2 6 Hadow Com mittee R eport was more d i r e c t than t h a t o f th e F is h e r Report., The Hadow R e p o r t, The E d u cation o f the A d o le s c e n t, s u f f e r e d from th e same g e n e r a l f i n a n c i a l anemia w h ich , in com b in ation w it h a m o n o lith ic c o n se r v a t i v e f a c t i o n , ten d ed to a tte n u a te any p r o g r e s s iv e movement in e d u c a tio n . I t s p r in c ip le was one o f making secon dary e d u c a tio n g e n e r a lly a v a i l a b l e , n o t r e s t r i c t e d to th e tr a d i t i o n a l 10 per c e n t o f th e s c h o o l p o p u la t io n . "Elementary" e d u c a tio n , a term which c a r r ie d str o n g s o c i a l c l a s s conno t a t i o n s , was to be a b o lish e d a s a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n in fa v o r o f nprim aryn and " seco n d a ry." Thus, a l l c h ild r e n would a tten d prim ary s c h o o l u n t i l an age betw een e le v e n and tw e lv e , " e le v en p l u s ," and w ould a t t h a t p o in t move i n t o one o f th r e e secon dary sc h o o l c h a n n e ls — grammar s c h o o l, l a r g e l y academ ic; t e c h n ic a l and tra d e s c h o o l s , aimed a t su p p ly in g s k i l l e d workers to in d u s tr y ; and "modern sc h o o ls which would be th e i n s t i t u t i o n s fo r the m a jo r it y o f th e s c h o o l p o p u la tio n . The r e o r g a n is a tio n o f th e s c h o o ls on th e b a s i s o f the C o m m ittee^ recom m endations was a slow p r o c e s s , r e q u ir in g a d d it io n a l m onies a t a tim e when th e government was t r y in g to red u ce e d u c a tio n a l e x p e n se . Thus, by 1938, 6 3 »£ per c e n t o f th e secon d ary sc h o o l p o p u la tio n were a tte n d in g r eo r g a n iz e d s c h o o ls ( 1 0 : 2 7 9 ) • The f i n a l a c t b e fo r e the commencement of th e secon d World War was t h a t o f 1 9 3 8 , w h ich r a is e d th e s c h o o l- le a v in g age to f i f t e e n . However, the move was 71 sc h e d u led to go in t o e f f e c t on Septem ber 1 , 1 9 3 9 , a d a te w hich was to be n u l l i f i e d by i t s p r o x im ity to th e war. The r e s u l t was th a t th e A ct o f 193& turned o u t t o be l a r g e l y a d e c la r a tio n o f in t e n t io n and a fo resh a d o w in g o f the A ct o f 19i|4f w hich im plem ented m ost o f th e recommenda t i o n s p u t f o r t h i n the pre-w ar p e r io d . H igh er E d u cation B r i t i s h h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , l i k e secon dary e d u c a tio n , in i t s e a r ly y e a r s was a m ixtu re o f p h ila n th r o p y i n t e r la r d e d w ith in d o le n c e . The c o l l e g e s a t Oxford and Cam b r id g e had been endowed w ith th e in t e n t io n o f a id in g im p o v e r is h e d s t u d e n t s . However, by the se v e n te e n hundreds an in c r e a s in g p r o p o r tio n o f th e stu d e n ts w ere f e e - p a y in g c h ild r e n o f p a r e n ts who were w e l l - o f f f i n a n c i a l l y . Some o f th e s tu d e n ts were o f th e n o b i l i t y , t h e i r p r i v i l e g e e x te n d in g to th e d r e s s a t the u n i v e r s i t i e s . As th e s o c i a l l e v e l r o s e , th e academ ic l e v e l f e l l , so t h a t toward th e end o f th e c e n tu r y c h a r g e s s im ila r t o th o s e aimed a t the grammar s c h o o ls were made toward th e u n i v e r s i t i e s as b ein g th e t r a in in g grounds f o r ign oran ce and im m o r a lity . The Church of England p layed a str o n g r o l e in the developm ent o f th e u n i v e r s i t i e s : from 1 6 6 2 on, d i s s e n t e r s had b een r e fu s e d adm ittance to th e u n i v e r s i t i e s by v i r t u e o f t h e i r r e f u s a l to tak e th e oath o f c o n fo r m ity . This e x c lu s io n fo r c e d them in t o form in g t h e i r own s c h o o ls o f 72 h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , w hich were c a l l e d " acad em ies." Thus, th e r e was te m p o r a r ily a d u al system a t th e u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l on th e b a s i s o f r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n , . As th e n o n -c o n fo r m ist academ ies d im in ish e d , toward th e end o f th e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y th e r e were two o th e r movem ents, one s lo w , th e o th e r r e l a t i v e l y r a p id „ Oxford and Cambridge were g o in g s lo w ly through a p r o c e ss o f r e form; ex a m in a tio n s were a p p lie d w ith in c r e a s in g fr e q u e n c y , even though th e p a s s d egree c a r r ie d w ith i t m inim al r e q u ir e m e n ts. The secon d d evelop m en t, more s p e c t a c u la r , was t h a t o f th e fo r m a tio n o f th e U n iv e r s it y o f London, th e f i r s t ele m en ts o f w hich were form ed in 1 8 2 8 . Prom i t s in c e p t io n th e i n s t i t u t i o n was o r ie n t e d toward s c ie n c e and modern s t u d i e s and away from th e o lo g y . I t s f e e s were o n ly a f r a c t i o n o f th o s e a t Oxford or Cambridge; and i t s s t u d e n t s , n o t h a v in g to l i v e in r e s id e n c e , r e p r e s e n te d a b road er p o p u la tio n than th o se o f Oxford or Cam bridge. I t s s u c c e s s on a s e c u l a r b a s i s p ro v id ed th e m o tiv a tio n f o r th e fo rm a tio n o f th e c o n fo r m ist i n s t i t u t i o n , K in g ’ s C o l l e g e , in London, w h ich to g e t h e r w ith U n iv e r s it y C o lle g e ( o r i g i n a l l y t i t l e d Gower S t r e e t C o lle g e ) c o n s t it u t e d the new U n iv e r s it y o f London. The a d d it io n a l e x p a n sio n o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n i n clu d ed th e fo r m a tio n o f th e g r e a t c i t y u n i v e r s i t i e s and t e c h n ic a l c o l l e g e s 0 W ith th e in c r e a s e o f human knowledge and th e grow ing power o f th e n o n -C o n form ists came th e 73 e x te n s io n o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n to more and more o f th e g en e r a l p o p u la tio n (5>2:2l|.)o Now, under th e p r e ssu r e o f i n t e r n a t io n a l c o m p e titio n b a sed on th e p rod u cts o f h ig h e r edu c a t i o n , th e r e seems to be a grow ing d e te r m in a tio n th a t t a le n t e d stu d e n ts sh o u ld have h ig h e r e d u c a tio n made a v a i l a b le to them in s p i t e o f any f i n a n c i a l i n a b i l i t y ( 5 2 : 2lj.6 ) . A d u lt E d u cation The e a r ly a ttem p ts a t a d u lt e d u c a tio n were o f a r e l ig i o u s - p h i la n t h r o p i c n a t u r e « A lthou gh one m ight s u r m ise th a t th ey would in v o lv e te a c h in g a d u lts to rea d th e B i b l e , t h i s o b j e c t i v e would ap p ly o n ly to such e x p e r i m enters a s John P ie r s o n and John R e y n o ld s, who were en d eavorin g "to b r in g them to an aw ful se n s e o f God and man" ( 31U.:lt|-2) • T his experim en t i s th e e a r l i e s t , March o f 1 7 0 0 , and i t c o n t r a s t s w ith th e aims o f th e Birmingham Sunday S o c i e t y . T h eir p la n was to ex ten d te a c h in g to th o se beyond Sunday s c h o o l a g e , and t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n , n o t c o n fin e d to S u nd ays, co v ered th e th r e e R 's p lu s g e o graphy, b o o k k eep in g , draw ing, n a tu r a l s c ie n c e and moral i n s t r u c t i o n . In a th in t r i c k l e , t h e s e two c u r r e n ts seem to be th e fo r e r u n n e r s o f th e im m ediate flo w o f a d u lt e d u c a tio n and th a t l a t e r flo w which was to come in an in c r e a s in g amount i n th e m id -n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . The e a r l i e s t p a tte r n s seem t o r e s u l t from a com b in ation o f d e a r th and abundance. There was a la c k o f e d u c a tio n f o r th e poor a t th e prim ary l e v e l . T h is r e s u l t e d in an abundance o f i l l i t e r a t e p o o r . Combined w ith t h e s e e le m en ts was th e d e s i r e o f some r e l i g i o u s s o u ls to sp read th e s c r i p t u r e s and th e r e s u l t was an a d u lt s c h o o l m ovem ent, f i r s t s t a r t e d in B r i s t o l in 1812 ( 2 3 o T each in g th e poor to read th e B ib le e le v a t e d them m o r a lly , t e a c h in g them v i r t u e s . At th a t tim e t h i s s o r t o f e d u c a tio n p osed no s u b v e r s io n . I t d id n o t com p e te w ith th e u n i v e r s i t i e s or make th e poor d is c o n te n t e d w ith t h e i r l o t . A sam ple a d d it io n to th e c a te c h ism has econom ic o v e r t o n e s . ’’Such q u e s t io n s were pu t as 'What are la w s ? 1 The answer th e p oor w ere r e q u ir e d to make w as, •Laws are w is e i n s t i t u t i o n s t o p r e s e r v e th e r i c h in t h e i r p o s s e s s io n s and to r e s t r a i n th e v i c i o u s p o o r '" ( 8 7 1 8 )* The a p p reh en sio n i m p l i c i t in t h i s c a te c h ism tu rn ed o u t to have some f o u n d a tio n . Around 1 8 3 0 a secon d s t a g e o f a d u lt e d u c a tio n seemed to b e g in . The g e n e r a l com p osi t i o n o f th o s e w orkers i n t e r e s t e d in e d u c a tio n ap p ears to h ave b een t h a t o f an im p o v e rish ed , i l l i t e r a t e , a lm o st s i l e n t g ro u p . W ith th e in c r e a s e o f th e demand o f in d u s tr y f o r s k i l l e d a r t i s a n s r a th e r than u n s k i ll e d la b o r e r s came a grow ing c o n s c io u s n e s s i n f i l t r a t i n g p o l i t i c s , in d u s tr y , and e d u c a tio n . I t I s n o t s u r p r is in g t h a t th e s e e f f e c t s sh o u ld be p e r v a s iv e , f o r i t I s h a r d , . perhaps I m p o s s ib le , to keep a m an's in c r e a s in g s o p h i s t i c a t i o n com p artm en tal- ize d o T eaching him to read th e B ib le I n c r e a s e s h is a b i l i t i e s to sen d and r e c e i v e o th e r com m u nication s. I t a llo w s him to com m unicate, to r e c e i v e new id e a s and to sh are and d i s c u s s them w ith o t h e r s . With an in c r e a s e in th e number o f l i t e r a t e poor a d u lts in the 1 8 3 0 s , th e C h a r t is t s movement a r o s e , b e n t on a w o r k e r s’ program o f e d u c a tio n , one w h ich w ould ex ten d e d u c a tio n to t h e i r c h i l dren (1 4 .3 : 8 6 ) . T h is a s p e c t o f the program i s a f a m ilia r one in t h i s c e n tu r y as w e l l . One o f the p e r e n n ia l g o a ls o f Am erican im m igrants i s th a t o f e d u c a tio n f o r t h e i r c h ild r e n , f o r whom th e y f e e l e d u c a tio n w i l l be the la d d e r toward h ig h e r s o c i a l and v o c a t io n a l s t a t u s . W ith th e in c r e a s e o f th e u se of steam -pow er and m achinery In f a c t o r i e s , th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y owners became i n c r e a s i n g l y p r e o c c u p ie d w ith th e n o tio n t h a t w orkers sh o u ld know more a b o u t, and thus take a g r e a te r I n t e r e s t i n , th e m achines th e y were o p e r a tin g . T his a t t i tude a t th e l e v e l o f management i s one elem en t w hich h e lp s e x p la in th e r i s e in p o p u la r it y o f M echanics' I n s t i t u t e s . T h eir grow th was accom panied by the sh r in k in g o f th e A d u lt S c h o o ls , w hich had been m a in ly con cern ed w ith t r a in in g a d u lt s to rea d th e S c r ip t u r e s . Whereas th e prime m overs o f th e A d u lt S c h o o ls were m o tiv a te d by the f u r t h e r ance o f C h r i s t i a n i t y through th e B ib le (5>:107)* th o s e o f the M echanics' I n s t i t u t e s were d ir e c t e d by o th e r m o tiv e s . The main one seem s to have b een to stu d y th e s c i e n c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e o f a p r a c t i c a l n a tu r e . At t h e i r p eak, 76 about 1850, th e re were over s i x hundred o f the i n s t i t u t e s , probably th e most famous o f which was th e London Mechanics' I n s t i t u t e , l a t e r known as Birkbeck C o lle g e , now famous as p art o f the U n iv e r s ity o f London. Their subsequent d e c lin e i s e q u a lly i n t e r e s t i n g . There seem to have been s e v e r a l r e a so n s. For on e, th e r e was developm ental shrinkage; some o f them developed in to te c h n ic a l i n s t i t u t e s and c o l l e g e s . Those a t Leeds, Brad fo r d , and H u d d ersfield would be examples o f t h i s s o r t o f phenomenon. Another cau se o f t h e ir d im in u tion was th a t o f a sh ortage o f fu n d s. With expansion had come an en larged need fo r a b le l e c t u r e r s , a demand which could n o t be m et. Along w ith t h is growing market fo r le c t u r e r s came a demand fo r payment, s in c e th ere were n ot enough v o lu n ta ry l e c tu r e r s to f i l l th e I n s t i t u t e s ' n e e d s. Even the "Penny R e a d in g s,” the read in g aloud o f m a ter ia l fo r th o se whose read in g a b i l i t i e s were in a d eq u a te, dw indled as th e number o f l i t e r a t e s in c r e a s e d , fo r th ey were able to do t h e ir own r e a d in g . F in a ll y , th ere was a s h i f t in the k in d of popula t io n the I n s t i t u t e s were a t t r a c t in g . There was a gradual adop tion o f them by the m iddle c l a s s e s and a r e j e c t io n o f them by the group fo r which th ey were in ten d ed , the la b o r in g c l a s s e s (23:l4-59)o There were attem pts to a t t r a c t th e u n s k ille d 77 w ork ers, who were n o t drawn to th e M echanics I n s t i t u t e s as were th e s k i l l e d workers and a r t i s a n s . There w ere moral o v e rto n e s to the e d u c a tio n a l i n t e n t , s in c e i t was hoped th a t th e Lyceums would become a s u b s t it u t e fo r th e more a lc o h o lic r e c r e a t io n c e n te r s o These a ttem p ts, alth o u gh th e ad m ission p r ic e s were k ep t low and th e appeal was kept w id e, were not v ery s u c c e s s fu l* About the "why” o f t h e ir com parative f a i l u r e one can make a t l e a s t one g u ess* Probably th e m a jo r ity o f p e o p le In th e low er c l a s s e s wanted very l i t t l e i n th e way o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s tim u la tio n a f t e r working a l l day. Assuming th a t low er c la s s t a s t e s are rou gh ly com parable, n o tw ith sta n d in g a se p a r a tio n in tim e and sp a ce, we have o n ly to p o in t a t th e g e n e r a l letrel o f today*s mass e n t e r ta in m e n t, p a r t i c u la r ly in American t e l e v i s i o n . I t i s tru e th a t th e re are a few o u tsta n d in g programs, f o r example the Ford F oun dation su pp orted show Omnibus. Making th e c a se s tr o n g e r , even when th e c l a s s e s are f r e e and o f a wide a p p e a l, as they are in th e C a lifo r n ia ju n io r c o l l e g e th e r e are s t i l l a m a jo r ity o f p e o p le who p r e fe r t e l e v i s i o n an d /or b eer; i n th e l a t e n in e te e n th c en tu ry th e low er t a s t e s ran to b eer and /or gin * In th e h ig h e r l e v e l s , upper and m iddle c l a s s , such experim ents were more s u c c e s s f u l (22:1+60), At t h a t l e v e l "Lyceums" became "Atheneums." Although t h e i r popu l a r i t y was r e l a t i v e l y b r i e f , i t c o n tr a s te d sh a rp ly w ith 78 th a t o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n s fo r th e low er c l a s s e s . Why? Probably f o r a com b ination o f r e a s o n s . C le a r ly a t th a t tim e and a t th a t l e v e l i t was f a s h io n a b le to have i n t e l l e c t u a l a s p i r a t i o n s . A lso th e ” s o ir e e s " had th e appeal o f n o v e l t y . In a d d itio n th e r e i s the mundane c o n sid e r a t io n o f f a t i g u e . The man who la b o r s p h y s i c a ll y a l l day i s somewhat r e lu c t a n t to ven tu re f o r t h , assum ing he has the a p p ro p ria te costum e, when he c o n s id e r s t h a t th e a f t e r - math o f the a f f a i r w i l l be g o in g to bed hours p a s t h i s u su a l b ed tim e. Perhaps e a r l y - r i s i n g a c ts a s a d e te r r e n t both to v ic e and e d u c a tio n . C u r tis f e e l s th a t th e b eg in n in g s o f the U n iv e r s it y E x te n sio n movement should a ls o be th e p o in t from which we d a te the modern p e r io d o f a d u lt ed u ca tio n ( 2 2 :1 4 .6 7 ) . There i s 3ome l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n , s in c e t h i s would mark th e en tra n ce of h ig h e r ed u cation in t o th e f i e l d ,. However, i t seems more l o g i c a l to agree w ith Hodgen in p la c in g th e d iv id in g l i n e a t 1900 (lj.3 : v i i ) , s in c e U n iver s i t y E x te n sio n seems to have p a r a lle le d th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e M echanics I n s t i t u t e r a th e r than the a c t i v i t i e s o f th e la b o r o r g a n iz a tio n s during the e a r ly tw e n tie th century# With th e form ation of th e W orkers1 E d u cation A s s o c ia t io n (1 9 0 3 ), a th ir d p erio d o f a d u lt e d u c a tio n began. I t seems t h a t from th e b eg in n in g th e re was a l i a i s o n b e tween the W.E.A. and th e U n iv e r s it y E x te n sio n (8 3 : 2 1 4 .)# 79 The more one rea d s abou t th e W .E.A. th e more l i k e l y i t seem s t h a t t h i s was one o f B r it a i n * s o r i g i n a l c o n t r ib u t i o n s to e d u c a t io n , f o r , c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e a d u lt ed u ca t i o n p r io r t o 1 8 3 0 dom inated by th e r u lin g c l a s s e s and th e c h u r c h , and t h a t o f th e n e x t s e v e n t y y e a r s , w h ich had th e a s p i r a t i o n s o f th e worker m in g led w it h th o se o f th e r e l i g i o n i s t and p h i l a n t h r o p i s t , th e b i r t h and grow th o f t h e W orkers’ E d u c a tio n a l A s s o c ia t io n c a r r ie d w ith i t th e d o m in a tio n by la b o r o f i t s own a d u lt e d u c a t io n . Other f e a t u r e s w h ic h d i s t i n g u i s h e d i t w ere t h a t i t a p p o in te d a f u t u r e A rch bish op o f C an terb u ry, W illia m Tem ple, as i t s p r e s id e n t ; i t f e a t u r e d c l o s e c o o p e r a tio n b etw een th e u n i v e r s i t i e s and th e a d u lt s t u d e n t grou p s; and i t s t r e s s e d th e t u t o r i a l method ( 5 : 1 0 9 ) • The to n e o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n i n i t s fo r m a tiv e y e a r s i s s e t f o r t h by P r ic e : The e d u c a t io n a l demand i t (W .E.A.) s e t i n m otion was much more fu n d am en tal and f a r - r e a c h in g th an th e prom otion o f U n i v e r s i t y E x te n s io n l e c t u r e s o The c r e a t i o n o f th e A s s o c ia t i o n was i n i t s e s s e n c e a c h a lle n g e to e d u c a t io n a l p r i v i l e g e and i n j u s t i c e , and i t p r o v id e d an o r g a n iz a t io n i n w h ich w orking p e o p le and e d u c a t i o n a l i s t s c o u ld c a r r y on a c e a s e l e s s f i g h t f o r e d u c a tio n a l e q u a l i t y and th e r e s t o r a t i o n to th e w orkers o f t h e i r e d u c a t io n a l h e r i t a g e « (7 3 :1 7 ) The em p h asis had s h i f t e d from t h a t o f p r e p a r in g w orkers f o r in d u s t r y to th a t o f a d a p tin g i n d u s t r i a l c i v i l i z a t i o n to th e w orkers by means o f in c r e a s e d k n o w led g e. There was i n a d d it io n a s h i f t o f to n e from t h a t 8 0 o f someone a c c e p tin g th e p r i v i l e g e o f e d u c a tio n to t h a t o f someone demanding h i s r ig h t C I 4 -: 17) • Thus, th e W.E.A. be came the channel through which th e se demands could be organ ized and expressed,, However, th ere was some a c t iv e disagreem ent on the su b je c t o f what the w orkers’ needs w ere. There arose a f t e r 1900 o th er groups concerned w ith w ork ers’ e d u c a tio n . These grou p s, th e Labour C o lle g e and th e P lebs League, f e l t th a t th e W.E.A. was a to o l o f th e c a p i t a l i s t c la s s C U-3:lU-3) • C on seq u en tly, th e y f e l t th a t fo r the W.E.A. to a c t as a c o o r d in a tin g agency r a th e r than a Marxian p r o p a g a n d is ts body was fo r i t to be a t o o l of th e c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s . Denied g ra n ts by the A dult Education Regula tio n s b ecau se of t h e ir p o l i t i c a l approach to s t u d i e s , the Labour C o lle g e s (th e Labour C o lle g e l a t e r c lo s e d ) even t u a l l y came under the N a tio n a l C ou n cil o f Labour C o lle g e s . I t i s in t e r e s t in g to n o te th a t A llaw ay q u e s tio n s the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f the N .C .L.C . as an e d u c a tio n a l body because o f i t s la c k o f o b j e c t i v i t y ( l \ .i 2 2 ) 9 One su sp e c ts th a t h i s own view i s somewhat l e s s than o b j e c t iv e when he sa y s: I t (th e N iC .L .C .) tends to i n t e r e s t the more extreme and l e s s i n t e l l e c t u a l l y minded o f the tr a d e un ion i s t s . . . [and! has been p a r t ic u la r ly s u c c e s s f u l in tea c h in g i t s stu d e n ts the M arxist jargon . . . which many are ab le to u se w ith g r e a t f a c i l i t y b u t seem ing l y l i t t l e u n d erstan d in g. (I4 -r2 3 ) The W.E.A. has shown more foreb earan ce than has 81 P rofessor Allaway. This p a tien ce i s su rp risin g in the l i g h t of the sn ip in g o f the Labour C ollege jo u rn a l, The P le b s. Perhaps the W.EoA. i s indebted to the N.C.L.C. and i t s c r it ic is m s , sin c e the e f f e c t has been to force the W.E.A. to a s s e s s c o n tin u a lly i t s own philosophy and r e la tio n s h ip w ith i t s stu d e n ts. I r o n ic a lly , the N.C.L.C. has been fo rced away grad u ally from i t s p o s itio n on the extreme l e f t , sin c e the adamant M arxists have withdrawn to jo in the M arxist movement i t s e l f . I t i s n ot hard to allow the W.E.A. and i t s c r i t i c s to dominate a survey o f B r itis h Adult E ducation, p a r tic u l a r l y in the period between the w ars. But t h is domina tio n should n ot be allow ed to obscure the e x is te n c e o f a m u lt ip lic it y o f forms of B r itis h fu rth er education. The non-voluntary o r g a n iz a tio n s, p a r tic u la r ly the evening i n s t i t u t e s and evening c o lle g e s , had enrollm ents sub s t a n t i a l l y la r g e r than those In the volun tary a s s o c ia tio n s . Together, the W.E.A. and the u n iv e r s ity e x tr a mural agen cies captured more a tte n tio n because th e ir e f f o r t s were n ov el and voluntary and because the p r e s tig e o f a t u t o r ia l or le c tu r e approach was h ig h er than th a t of the p u b lic ly -fin a n c e d , non-voluntary groups. N everth eless they rep resen t l e s s than h a lf o f the ad u lts attending c la s s e s in fu rth er ed u cation . A thorough a n a ly sis must encompass both voluntary and non-voluntary groups. C H APTER IV BRITISH FURTHER EDUCATION 1926-1938: COURSES IN EVENING INSTITUTES A N D EVENING COLLEGES The Data Although th e re were numerous o rg a n iza tio n s a c tiv e in fu rth er education during the period of t h is stu dy, B r it is h d a ta-gath erin g was la r g e ly a h i t or m iss a f f a ir u n t i l the Adult Education Act of 1926, From th a t year on, the B r itis h Board o f Education did accumulate s t a t i s t i c s sy s te m a tic a lly on fu r th e r education on an o v e r a ll b a s i s . These were p resen ted in tabular form in the y e a r ly r e p o r ts . The Board1s purposes in the accumulation of s t a t i s t i c s seem to have been s e v e r a l. There was, o f course^ the need fo r s p e c if ic fig u r e s upon which fund req u ests could be based. And there was a lso the need fo r s p e c if ic fig u r e s which would serve as a b a sis fo r in fe re n c es about the fu tu re y ea r. N e v er th e le ss, in terms of analyzin g the r e la tio n s h ip s among the variou s i n s t i t u t i o n s , very l i t t l e was done• For the purpose o f a n a ly s is , there are two broad d iv is io n s to be made: one Is th a t o f the cou rses o ffer ed In evening i n s t i t u t e s and evening c o lle g e s ; the oth er i s th at of the cou rses o ffe r e d under the d ir e c tio n o f the u n iv e r s it ie s or o f a d u lt education bodies in l i a i s o n w ith 82 83 the u n i v e r s i t i e s • This ch ap ter i s concerned m ain ly w ith the even in g i n s t i t u t e s and c o l l e g e s . Courses O ffered in th e Evening I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C olleges--A cad em lc as a Group A stu d en t a tte n d in g an even in g i n s t i t u t e o r ev en ing c o ll e g e had a v a ila b le more than twenty d if f e r e n t c o u r s e s . In order to e x p lic a t e and analyze the p a tte rn s o f en r o llm en t, the c o u r se s have been sep a ra ted in to two c a te g o r ie s : th o se co u r ses which are n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y v o ca t i o n a l , alth ou gh t h e ir c o n te n t ( i . e . , E n g lish ) may be a p p lie d to a v o c a tio n ; and th o se co u rses w hich are c le a r l y v o c a tio n a l t r a in in g . (See F igu re 1) This se p a r a tio n se r v e s s e v e r a l p u rp o ses. I t makes i t p o s s ib le to p e r c e iv e on a r e l a t iv e b a s is the p re fe re n c e o f stu d e n ts f o r v o c a tio n a l or academic c o u r ses during the d e p r e ssio n y e a r s . Such a se p a r a tio n a lso e s t a b lis h e s a group o f s u b je c ts s im ila r to th o se o ffe r e d in the v o lu n ta ry a s s o c i a t i o n s , so th a t we can compare the in c r e a s e s o f n o n -v o lu n ta ry w ith th e v o lu n ta r y grou p s. In a d d itio n th e d i v i s i o n makes i t p o s s ib le to compare th e growth p a tte r n s o f the even in g i n s t i t u t e s w ith th o se o f the even in g c o l l e g e s . There sire sev en s u b je c ts which seem to be g e n e ra l in nature ra th er than aimed s p e c i f i c a l l y a t v o c a tio n a l t r a in in g . E n g lis h , la n g u a g es, a r t , m u sic, th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s , th e n a tu r a l s c i e n c e s , and m athem atics come - LE G E N D - PREP — UNIV. E X I - x - - IYR TERM ------- EVENING INSTITUTE - EVE. EVENING COLLEGE - EVE. INST COLL. mi, n Ue s* ji 'si ‘ s>4 ‘ >5 -s* ACADEMIC COURSES E . I . 6, EC, C 7 . COURSES 2 c j e > --- 9 7 ------- c J O -- 9S — 9 4 _ _ 9 5 ----- 92 — 9/ — 9 0-- 3 9 — 6 6-- <57---- U-- 5 5 ----- 0 4 ---- 5 3 -- at— ai— <30 — 7 9 — T6 — 77---- 7 6 - 73__ 7 1 & ,2 0£ £VM. /A /rr 161 , 151 \ 9 9 * 0 4 5 7 / 7 0 6 , Bis / y 127 499 \ ^ 3 9 6 ,6 9 4 T “ I I P i-u ro 1 86 c lo s e s t to the academic su b je cts supervised or co n tro lled by the u n iv e r s it ie s . A ll of th e se w i l l be examined sep a ra tely in order to analyze th e ir p a ttern s o f growth r e la tiv e to one another0 As a combined group the evening i n s t i t u t e s and evening c o lle g e s had 879A 59 stu dents en ro lled in 1926 in the seven academic s u b je c ts . This number dropped, r o se , and f e l l to a bottom of 7 8 6 ,83^ - in 1932. Subsequent l y , i t climbed back to end at 996,32^, a gain of 116,865 or 13 per c e n t. This seems to r e f l e c t two in flu e n c e s . There was a strong economy d r iv e , beginning in 1926, to in h ib it the growth o f adult ed u ca tio n . The year 1932 marked in a rough fa sh io n the bottom o f the d ep ression , so that there was a slow r is e in the general economy. W e can in fe r th at t h is r is e was accompanied by an in crease in the number o f jobs a v a ila b le . Greater a v a ila b ilit y of jobs would seem to be an encouragement to sch o o l e n r o ll ments, even in academic s u b je c ts . The evening i n s t i t u t e s , the bulk of whose popula tio n was in the urban c e n te r s, p a r tic u la r ly London, began the period w ith about f i v e times as many students as there were in the evening c o lle g e c o u r ses, 728,208, to l 5 l , 2 5 l . During the f i r s t four years the number o f s t u dents taking c o lle g e courses clim bed r eg u la r ly to s l i g h t l y over two hundred thousand (2 0 2 ,2 3 0 )0 In th a t same period the number o f stu d en ts in evening i n s t i t u t e s d eclin ed 87 sharply (low p o in t, 1 9 2 7s 686, 69)4) w ithout regain in g the o r ig in a l population by 1930 (721,8714-). Prom 1930 to the end of the period ( 1 9 3 7- 3 8 ) both programs decreased in numbers before they regained th e ir pop ulation; the evening i n s t i t u t e s dropped the f a r t h e s t , h i t t i n g th e bottom in 1932 at 598 ,661. The evening c o lle g e s struck th e ir low p oin t in 193U- at 179*721. Not u n t il 1935 did the evening in s t it u t e s reach a p o in t approximating th e ir numbers in 1926. I t took the evening c o lle g e s u n til 1936. At the end of the period ( 1937- 3 8) both programs were above th e ir b eginn in gs, the evening i n s t i t u t e s at 7 6 8 ,8 2 5 (a gain of 1|J0,617 or 6 per cen t) and the evening c o lle g e s at 227,14-99 (a gain of 76, 2)48 or 50 P © ** c e n t ) . The decreases in enrollm ent can be explained by the cutback in funds coupled w ith the in creasin g s e v e r ity of the d ep ression , accompanied by decreased a v a i la b i li t y of jo b s. Reverse those f o r c e s , and apparently adult school enrollm ents r i s e . The d iffe r e n c e between the growth p attern s o f the evening c o lle g e s and the evening in s t it u t e s m erits explana tio n a ls o . Note th a t the evening c o lle g e gain in e n r o ll ment was greater num erically as w e ll as on a percentage b a s is . Part o f th e explanation l i e s in the nature o f the organ ization s them selves. The evening c o lle g e s had a semantic advantage, the t i t l e "college" having greater p r e stig e than " in s t it u te ." Evening i n s t i t u t e s were more 88 c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to c o n tin u a tio n s c h o o ls , somewhat p a r a l l e l to seco n d ary e d u c a tio n . The even in g c o l l e g e s , on th e o th er hand, had l e s s a s s o c i a t i o n w ith p o s t-e le m e n ta r y s c h o o lin g , even though much o f t h e i r c o u r se c o n te n t and th e ir l e v e l of in s t r u c t i o n w ere s im ila r to th o se o f th e ev en in g i n s t i t u t e s * A crude p a r a l l e l to the d if f e r e n c e in t h e i r a p p e a ls can be dem onstrated by c o u r se s o f f e r e d i n any American e v e n in g h ig h s c h o o l and American ju n io r c o lle g e ev en in g d i v i s i o n w ith in th e same community. For exam p le, s im ila r cou rse c o n te n t can b e found in elem en ta ry E n g lis h co u r se s in e it h e r i n s t i t u t i o n . N e v e r t h e le s s , th e e n r o l l ment w i l l o fte n be g r e a te r a t the ju n io r c o ll e g e b ecau se of th e g r e a t e r p r e s t i g e in ta k in g a ’’c o l l e g e ” c o u r se, even though th e s u b je c t i s h ig h s c h o o l E n g lis h . This grow th d i f f e r e n t i a l i s a lso l i k e l y to be a r e f l e c t i o n o f the in c r e a s e d u r b a n iz a tio n o f E ngland 0 T r a n sp o rta tio n was im proving r a p id ly and farm p o p u la tio n s were s h r in k in g . I f th e sm a ll town had an ev en in g sc h o o l fo r a d u l t s , i t was more l i k e l y to b e an i n s t i t u t e th an a c o lle g e o C o n se q u en tly , a d e c re a se In r u r a l a d u lt stu d e n t p o p u la tio n and an in c r e a s e in urban a d u lt p o p u la tio n would b r in g more stu d e n ts in to th e p r o x im ity o f e v e n in g c o lle g e s o 89 A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l C o u r s e s -- E n g lis h (S ee F ig u r e 2 ) I n 1926 th e t o t a l number o f s tu d e n ts ta k in g E n g lis h e i t h e r in e v en in g i n s t i t u t e s or i n e v e n in g c o l l e g e s was 278,17 3* T his number d e c r e a s e d , r e a c h in g i t s low p o in t o f 2 2 2 ,7 1 5 in 1 9 3 2 0 The f i n a l e n r o llm e n t was 2 7 1 ,8 3 3 , a l o s s o f 6,51^0 o r 2 p er c e n to T h is o v e r a l l d e c r e a s e i s an example o f th e p o t e n t i a l a b i l i t y o f s t a t i s t i c s to m is le a d t h e o b s e r v e r . As we s h a l l s e e , what i s tr u e o f th e w hole i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e o f a l l th e p a r t s . The number o f s tu d e n t s ta k in g E n g lis h in th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s g r a d u a lly d e c r e a s e d , r e a c h in g a low o f 196,14.56 in 1 9 3 2 . A sid e from a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e i n 1 9 3 6 , th e numbers I n c r e a s e d u n t i l th e end o f th e p e r io d . N ever t h e l e s s , th e f i n a l number (2ij.2,l63) r e p r e s e n te d a l o s s o f 1 6 ,6 5 0 o r 6 p er c e n t compared w ith t h e s t a r t i n g number o f 2 5 8 ,8 1 3 . D uring th e same p e r io d th e e v e n in g c o l l e g e c o u r s e s showed a r i s e u n t i l 1931* a f a l l t o a low p o i n t ( s t i l l above th e b e g in n in g ) in 1935* and a r a p id g a i n u n t i l th e en d , f i n i s h i n g a t 29,14-70, a g a in o f 1 0 ,1 1 0 o r 52 p e r c e n t . E xam in ation o f th e o r g a n iz a t io n s s e p a r a t e ly r e v e a ls a sharp c o n t r a s t in e n r o llm e n t p a t t e r n s . The 6 per c e n t d e c r e a s e i n the l a r g e p o p u la tio n o f th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s e a s i l y o b sc u r e s a 52 p er c e n t g a in In e v e n in g c o l l e g e 192(3 290-29 2& 0-2& 270- 2 7 260. lia s fl q 250- 2 $ Z 240- 2* 4 230- a 220. 2 2 3 o 2 io- a 3 200. 2 0 **190- 19 *27 *28 ’29 *30 *31 *32 *33 *34 *35 ACADEMIC COURSES E.I.&E.C. I. ENGLISH 3 6 37 V 19.360 O r z U J > u l > o Figure 2 ° en rollm en ts when th e two groups are combined. The e x p la n a tio n s fo r the f a l l in E n g lish e n r o l l ments in even in g i n s t i t u t e s and th e r i s e in those in even in g c o ll e g e s may be r e la t e d t o what was ta k in g p la c e in B r it is h ed u ca tio n a t elem en tary and secondary l e v e l s * More stu d e n ts were s ta y in g in sc h o o l fo r a lo n g e r tim e. E n g lish was one o f the s u b je c t s req u ired o f a l l s tu d e n ts . Assuming th a t more o f th o s e stu d e n ts who a tten d e d the evening i n s t i t u t e s had t h e ir need fo r E n g lish s a t i s f i e d in a lo n g e r p erio d o f elem en tary e d u c a tio n , i t seems th a t they were l i k e l y t o ta k e co u rses o th er than E n g lis h . I f we assume a h ig h e r l e v e l o f a s p ir a tio n in the evening c o l le g e stu d e n t, th en i t seems l i k e l y th a t an in c re a se d amount o f E n g lish in low er ed u ca tio n m ight have stim u la te d h i s t h i r s t f o r m ore, p a r t ic u la r ly I f th ere was in h is p e r s o n a lity a resp o n se to th e appeal of " c o lle g e ” over " i n s t it u t e ." A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l C ourses— Languages' (See F ig u re 3) There were 7 7 *1014- stu d e n ts e n r o lle d in 1926 in language c o u r se s in the even in g i n s t i t u t e s or even in g c o l l e g e s . The n e x t year th e en rollm en t f e l l to the lo w e st p o in t, 7i}-*677« The h ig h e s t number, 9 6 , 8 3 9 , was reached in 1930; th e f i n a l en rollm en t was 9 3 *8 3 9 * an o v e r a ll in c r e a se o f 1 6 ,7 3 5 or 22 per c e n t. ftU o ACADEMIC COURSES EJ. & EC 2. LANGUAGES 9a,at9 $7 .< 1 4 1 * 5 — * 4 / —< A 57— 42 6 4 K ©7 //W 7 T 50. 7-49 Oi 5 0 — 77 *“’ < ? 7 fK f. 6 0 C L .. 2 fr ,5 ? 5 ' 4 -- — 75 74 75 7 5 -- 93 The number o f stu d e n ts ta k in g ev en in g i n s t i t u t e lan gu age c o u r se s waned and waxed tw ice du rin g th e p e r io d o f th e stu d y . A year a f t e r th e b e g in n in g y e a r , th e number had dropped to ^ 6 ,1 9 1 , a d e c r e a se o f n e a r ly 5 * 0 0 0 . W ithin th r e e y e a r s (1930) the s i z e o f th e group had clim b ed to 5£*f?98; th r e e years more saw th e number f a l l to a bottom o f i}.3*711 low er than i t s s t a r t in g number. By 1937 th e s i z e o f th e group had grown to 57»l55* w hich r e p r e s e n te d an in c r e a s e o f 6 , 14.06 or 13 per c e n t over th e o r i g i n a l number in 1 9 2 6 . The p a tte r n o f change in e n r o llm en ts may r e f l e c t s e v e r a l f o r c e s a t worko The immediate drop f o llo w e d th e cu tb a ck in fu n d s f o r a d u lt e d u c a tio n and may b e a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e con seq u en t d ecrea sed a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c l a s s e s . The su b seq u en t growth was perhaps th e r e s u l t o f two r e l a t e d in f lu e n c e s in the economy. The f i r s t was t h a t o f a g ra d u a l s h i f t in th e amount o f f o r e ig n tra d e; th e second was th a t o f the in c r e a se d s a l a b i l i t y o f f o r e i g n l i n g u a l f lu e n c y as a s k i l l . The a b i l i t y to speak a n oth er la n g u a g e m ight o c c a s io n a lly have been a d d itio n a l w eig h t in an em p loyee' s f a v o r • T h is was a l s o a p e r io d o f d e c r e a sin g i n s u l a r i t y f o r E ngland. Improved tr a n s p o r ta tio n and comm unication were I n c r e a s in g the p ro x im ity o f Englishm en to o th e r n a t i o n a l s . The n e c e s s i t y f o r fo r e ig n lan gu age grew as tim e and d is ta n c e sh ran k . This need invaded the s c h o o ls 9k i n t h e form o f i n c r e a s e d s t u d e n t en rollm en ts. The e v e n in g c o l l e g e la n g u a g e c o u r s e s c lim b e d s t e a d i l y from th e b e g in n in g ( 2 6 , 3 5 5 ) to r e a c h a peak o f Ip.,2li.l in 1 9 3 0 o A lth o u g h th e s i z e d e c r e a se d in th e f i v e su b seq u e n t y e a r s , th e b o tto m o f 3 1 ,^ 6 1 w h ich i t h i t in 1935 was s t i l l o v e r f i v e th o u sa n d l a r g e r th a n th e b e g in n in g g r o u p . In s p i t e o f two y e a r s ' i n c r e a s e , a t th e end o f th e p e r io d th e number was 3 6 , 6 8)4 ., a g a i n o f 1 0 , 3 2 9 , or 39 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e b e g in n in g y e a r . E n r o llm e n ts i n f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s i n c r e a s e d in b o th th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s and t h e e v e n in g c o l l e g e s , b u t th e r e was a s h i f t toward t h e e v e n in g c o l l e g e s on a p e r c e n ta g e b a s i s . The e x p la n a t io n f o r t h i s s h i f t was p r o b a b ly r e l a t e d t o t h e same m o tiv e s w h ic h e f f e c t e d th e s h i f t i n E n g lis h tow ard th e e v e n in g c o l l e g e s . T hese w ere a d u lt s ; ta k in g a " c o l l e g e ” c o u r s e i n , s a y , F rench w ould h ave had more p r e s t i g e th a n ta k in g th e same c o u r se a t an " i n s t i t u t e " Then, t o o , th e urban p o p u la t io n w ou ld have been more l i k e l y to come i n t o c o n t a c t w ith employm ent i n v o l v i n g th e u s e o f a f o r e i g n la n g u a g e . A n a ly s is o f I n d i v i d u a l C o u r s e s - - A rt (S e e F ig u r e k ) In th e com bined p o p u la t io n s o f b o th g ro u p s t h e r e w ere a t o t a l o f 2 6 , 8 9) 4 - s t u d e n t s ta k in g a r t c o u r s e s I n 1 9 2 6 o In 1927 th e number had r e a c h e d a bottom o f 2 5 , 6 7 8 . In 1931 th e number r e a c h e d a p eak o f 1 4 .6 ,3 0 3 b e fo r e rAtOOSAA/CS so— a 7 0 - 7 60— to — SO— 5 — 4 0 - 4 — 3 0 - 5 — £V£- 2 0 — i — to— I — 1926 '2 7 '2 6 '2 9 '5 0 ' 2 > l t>7. ' 55> '5 4 " 3 6 "3 0 '3 7 ACADEMIC C O U R S E S El. & EC. 3. ART 46,303 46,148 +19.Z5 4- • +72 % 44,0 75 + 1 9,704 — . • / 2,0 73 450 ^>sr. avsst - 1 © % o-O — Figure U vo vn 96 d e c re a sin g to an end o f ij.6, llj.8, a g a in o f 1 9 , 2£l4 - or 72 per cento I t seems a b i t s t a r t l i n g th a t en rollm en ts in a r t c o u r ses should have r is e n during a d e p r e ssio n . The explan a tio n f o r t h i s growth i s to be found in th e changes taking p la c e in th e domain o f b u s in e s s . I t i s tru e th a t heavy in d u str y was o p era tin g at a f r a c t io n o f i t s c a p a c ity . However, in the f i e l d s o f s e r v ic e s and d is tr ib u t io n th ere was a h e ig h te n in g pace during the d e p r e ssio n y e a r s . In th e post-Edw ardian period co m p etitio n became in c r e a s in g ly f i e r c e . One im portant means o f warfare was th a t o f adver t i s i n g . Although some o f the tech n iq u es may seem un s o p h is t ic a te d when compared w ith th o se o f tod ay, th e b a s ic d e v ic e , th a t of Impinging on th e p o t e n t ia l cu stom er's a t t e n t io n , was th e same. The commercial a r t i s t was th e sp e c ta c u la r worker in s ig n s and graphic a r ts ; a t an ob scure l e v e l th e r e were la r g e numbers o f a r t "workers'1 who d id the s i g n s , p i c t u r e s , and la y o u t work fo r sm a ll b u s i n e s s e s . There was a r a p id ly expanding market fo r th e se t a l e n t s . A side from two years o f r e l a t i v e l y s l i g h t decreases (1 927, 1932) th e number o f stu d e n ts In even in g i n s t i t u t e a r t co u rses grew from 2i+,371 in 1926 to I|l4.,075 in 1937, The in c r e a se o f 19,7014- was again o f 81 per c e n t. The even in g c o ll e g e co u rses in a r t s ta r te d w ith an en rollm en t o f 2,5>23. A fter f i v e years t h i s number had 97 grown to 3 ,9 8 7 * However, t h i s 1933- f i g u r e was th e h ig h w a te r mark, s i n c e th e number d e c r e a s e d u n t i l 193^> r i s i n g o n ly s l i g h t l y by th e end,, The f i n a l f i g u r e o f 2 ,0 7 3 r e p r e s e n te d a d e c r e a s e o f i|_^0 or 18 per c e n t from th e f i r s t p e r io d * The com bined f i g u r e s o f th e two i n s t i t u t i o n s r e f l e c t o v e r a l l g r o w th . A s e p a r a tio n of t h e two r e v e a ls a b a s i c s h i f t away from a r t c o u r s e s i n t h e e v e n in g c o ll e g e s . As th e number o f a r t s t u d e n t s was grow in g in th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s , t h e e n r o llm e n t was s h r in k in g in th e ev en in g c o l l e g e s . The "why1 * l i e s p a r t i a l l y w ith what seems to have been happening w i t h i n th e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e m s e lv e s . These a r t c o u r s e s were more v o c a t io n a l than a ca d em ic. A lso th e y had l e s s in th e way o f g e n e r a l v a l u e . U n lik e in c r e a s e d t r a i n in g i n E n g li s h , which was a p p l i c a b l e , t o most v o c a t i o n s , t r a i n i n g in a r t was n o t b r o a d ly a p p lic a b le * The s e r io u s a r t s t u d e n t , i f he p la n n e d t o embark on a c a r e e r o f a r t or a r t h i s t o r y , w ou ld n o t h ave b e e n l i k e l y to move from th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e to th e e v e n in g c o l l e g e . Rather h e would g r a v i t a t e tow ard an a r t s c h o o l or a t u t o r i a l program w it h in th e v o lu n ta r y a s s o c i a t i o n s * A n a ly s is of I n d iv id u a l C o u r s e s -- M usic (See F ig u r e 5> ) In 1926 th e com bined p o p u la tio n s o f e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e and e v en in g c o l l e g e m usic c l a s s e s t o t a l l e d 67,325>. 1926 '27 'ZS '29 ‘3 0 *31 *32 33 ACADEMIC COURSES [E.I.& E,C .] 9 0 _ 4. MUSIC 3 4 ’ 35 '3 6 ’37 60— 70— 67,325 6 2 ,6 .3 .1 ^ 59.156 0 62,62.1 V z 4 50 \ 6 ^ ,4 8 9 / ♦ 16,164 / ♦ 24 % '76. € > * > \ ♦ 16,600 ♦ 22% in 7— 3 0 G - 1 5 — 6.856 jfp^i <?z>zz. Figure 5 vo cd 99 T h is number r e a c h e d i t s lo w e s t (E>9,7f?6) n e x t y e a r , and rea ch ed an u l t im a t e t o t a l o f 8 3 , 1 4 .8 9 , a g a in o f 16,161}. o r 2I 4 . p er c e n t . P a rt o f t h i s e x p a n sio n can be a t t r i b u t e d to what was g o in g on in E n g lis h s o c i e t y d u rin g th e t w e n t ie s and t h i r t i e s . These w ere th e g r e a t days o f th e E n g lis h m usic h a l l . In s p i t e o f th e g r a d u a lly in c r e a s in g in r o a d s o f m otion p i c t u r e s on l i v e e n te r ta in m e n t, t h e r e was s t i l l an a c t i v e demand f o r m u s ic a l t a l e n t . Of c o u r s e ,o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f th e e n r o l l e e s e v e r had m usic f o r a v o c a t i o n . The m a jo r ity e n r o ll e d e i t h e r f o r in c r e a s e d s k i l l in t h e i r i n d iv id u a l e f f o r t s o r a s p a r t i c i p a n t s i n community m u s ic a l g r o u p s . M u sic— i t s a p p r e c ia t io n a n d /o r i t s p r o d u c tio n — was a f a i r l y in e x p e n s i v e form o f p l e a s u r e . A lth o u gh th e m u s ic a l in str u m e n t i t s e l f may h ave c o s t more th an th e a r t i s t ’ s f i r s t can vas and s e t o f b r u s h e s , s u b s e q u e n tly a r t p r o d u c tio n m ight h ave c o s t more in term s o f m a t e r i a l s . B oth s u b j e c t s would have a t t r a c t e d p a r t i c i p a n t s d u rin g a p e r io d o f mass unem ploym ent, when t h e r e was a su r p lu s o f in v o lu n ta r y l e i s u r e tim e . The p o p u la tio n o f th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e m usic c o u r s e s dropped, c lim b e d , d rop p ed , and c lim b e d a g a in . The i n i t i a l number o f 6 2 ,8 3 1 rea ch ed 6l4.,ip93 a t i t s f i r s t peak in 1930 and a f t e r i t s se c o n d f a l l c lim b e d back up t o f i n i s h a t 7 8 , 6 3 1 , w h ich was an o v e r a l l in c r e a s e o f 1 3 ,8 0 0 100 or 22 p e r c e n t* D uring th e same p e r io d th e e n r o llm e n t in e v e n in g c o l l e g e c o u r s e s in m u s ic , b e g in n in g a t c lim b e d to a peak o f 5*808 b e f o r e d r o p p in g , c lim b in g s l i g h t l y , and r i s i n g to f i n i s h a t 6 ,8 5 8 ,, I t s f i n a l f i g u r e r e p r e s e n t s an in c r e a s e o f 2,361+ o r 53 Pe r c e n t o v e r th e o r i g i n a l e n r o llm e n t. N o te , h o w ev er, t h a t th e b u lk o f the a d u lts were e n r o l l e d in e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e c l a s s e s . The 53 p er c e n t g a in o f the e v e n in g c o l l e g e s r e p r e s e n t s a n u m e r ic a l g a in abou t o n e - s i x t h as g r e a t a s th a t o f th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s . A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l C l a s s e s - - S o c i a l S c ie n c e s (S e e F ig u r e 6 ) T here w ere 2 0 ,2 7 7 s t u d e n t s to b e g in w it h in th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e and e v e n in g c o l l e g e s o c i a l s c i e n c e c o u r s e s . T h is number dropped to l8 ,3 3 lj., i t s lo w e s t p o i n t , in th e n e x t y e a r . At t h e end t h e r e were 25*51+2 s t u d e n t s , w hich r e p r e s e n te d an in c r e a s e o f 5*265 or 26 p er c e n t . The p e r io d b etw een th e two w orld w ars was a l i v e l y one f o r th e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . There was an in c r e a s in g amount o f a t t e n t i o n from i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n and from th e g e n e r a l p u b l i c . In th e u n i v e r s i t i e s a l a r g e r number o f s t u d e n t s w ere m ajorin g in s o c i a l s c i e n c e and a g r e a t e r amount o f r e s e a r c h was b e in g done a t t h e g r a d u a te l e v e l . As C hapter I I I s u g g e s t e d , th e r e was an in c r e a s in g amount o f p o p u la r a t t e n t i o n b e in g fo c u s e d on 1926 * 27 *26 *29 *30 ACADEMIC COURSES 5. SOCIAL SCIENCES 4— 3- O Z 4 25- 2 - 2,369 £0^4.. 20,277 V ^ ro rA t * 3 2 * 3 3 *34 * 3 5 * 36 * 3 7 & E.C . 4,472 y *2,063 yT * • 6 7 °/6 ✓ / / 25,542 ' *5,265 ♦ 26 * / © 21,070 - *3.162 102 s o c ie t y by n o v e ls and p la y s with, a " s o c ia l m essage Along w ith th e grow ing disenchantm ent over World War I came a r is in g apprehension about th e d ir e c t io n which in te r n a tio n a l c u r re n ts seemed to be ta k in g . Thus, i t i s n o t s u r p r isin g th a t b o th i n s t i t u t i o n s would e x p e r ie n c e an in c r e a se d en ro llm en t in th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s . The number o f stu d e n ts in even in g i n s t i t u t e s o c ia l s c ie n c e c o u r ses began a t 1 7 ,8 8 8 . A fte r a s e r ie s o f m ild clim b s and d e c lin e s i t reached a bottom o f 15>,30U in 1932 a f t e r which i t clim bed and dipped s l i g h t l y to end at 21,07(1 The f i n a l f ig u r e in c lu d e s a g a in o f 3»l82 or 18 per c en t over the i n i t i a l number. The growth p a tte rn o f the evening c o lle g e courses was somewhat more r e g u la r , s ta r tin g w ith 2 ,3 8 9 . By 1937 i t had clim bed up to i4 .jJ4 .7 2 , an in crea se o f 2 ,0 8 3 or 87 per cen t over th e o r ig in a l number. The h ig h percentage in crea se exaggerates on ly s l i g h t l y the gain in enrollm ent of the evening c o ll e g e s . Compared to the o r ig in a l number, th e gain i s a dramatic o n e. B ut, of co u rse, i t i s e a s ie r to double a sm all number than to double a la r g e one. N e v e r th e le ss, the num erical g a in , although i t i s sm aller than th a t o f the evening i n s t i t u t e s , i s c lo s e to a thousand w ith in being e q u a l. The d is p a r ity between th ese two methods o f comparison i s a reminder o f the importance of having both fo r a balanced eva lu ation o f growth. 103 A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l C la s s e s - - M athem atics (See F igu re 7) There were 306,877 students e n r o lled in mathematics cou rses in evening i n s t i t u t e s or evening c o ll e g e s during 1926. This number reached i t s lo w e st p o in t, 257*9^9 in 1933• At th e c lo s e o f the period o f the study there were 3lj.6,901 stu d e n ts, a gain o f I 4 . 0 , 0 2J 4 . or 13 per c e n t. Mathematics was c le a r ly the most popular course o ffe r e d by e it h e r i n s t i t u t i o n . There seem to be two causes fo r the p o p u la r ity . One i s the socioeconom ic m atrix i t s e l f These were two decades of rapid and expanding a p p lic a tio n o f the s c i e n t i f i c developments a c c e le r a te d by the f i r s t world war. In s p it e o f the f a lt e r in g of the general economy, th e d issem in a tio n o f new s c i e n t i f i c knowledge con tin u ed . One o f the languages of sc ie n c e i s mathem atics; a p p lied sc ie n c e i s tr a n sla te d in t o employment in an in d u s t r i a l l y advanced s o c i e t y . The employee whose a r ith m e tic a l tr a in in g was elem entary was l i k e l y to be h ig h ly m otivated i f h is se c u r ity or advancement was a ffe c te d by h is mathe m a tica l a b i l i t y . A second elem ent to the exp lan ation la y in the general a p p lic a b ilit y o f m athem atical tr a in in g . As Englfah had a broad v a lu e , one which extended to v i r t u a ll y every occupation wherein communication was in v o lv ed , in a sim i la r fa sh io n mathematical tr a in in g could be put to u se in a wide v a r ie ty o f v o c a tio n s. r s / v / o s r * t / o o y * / v 0f 1920 '2 1 '2 6 '2 9 3 0 ‘31 '3 * ' 34- ' 3-5 ' 3 0 '3 7 ACADEMIC COURSES D. & EC. 6 . MATH 31 “ 30 — 19 — 28 — 17 _ 2 6 - 13 — 24 — 2 55j323 2i - 2 1 20 — 1 9 - id - n - id— \ < 3 — 1 4 - 1 3 — 3 Q 6 J Q 7 7 5I;5 54//4Vt: 84,84-1 +3 3 2 67 +65y< b7,570 262,060 +6,73 7 346^9 0 1 •+40^024 + 13% SKT. //V SS7 198,619 ZS 7,9+ 9 Figure 7 H O •P - / I T / V S o s S W O C /J /IS /0 S 105 The stu d e n ts in th e m athem atics c o u r se s o f the evening i n s t i t u t e s numbered 255*323 in 1926. This number dipped s l i g h t l y , r o s e s l i g h t l y to remain s t a b le and then dropped daarpiiy in a bottom of 1 9 8 ,6 1 9 in 1932. Climbing slo w ly and then more r a p id ly , the en rollm en t had reached 262,060 (an o v e r a ll in c r e a se o f 6 ,737 or 3 Per c e n t) by 1937. The evening c o lle g e m athem atics co u rse en ro llm en ts were 51*55)4- in 1926. W ithin f i v e years th e y had r is e n to 6 7 ,5 7 0 . Three y ea rs l a t e r (1933) they had f a l l e n back to a bottom of 5 8 , 2 1 4 -9 * Pour y ea rs l a t e r th ey had in c re a se d to th e f i n a l number, 8I 4 ., 8I 4 .I , which was an o v e r a ll g a in o f 33*287 or 65 per c e n t. E nrollm ents in even in g c o ll e g e m athem atics c o u r se s were the la r g e r both in terms o f numbers and p e r c e n ta g e s . T heir marked exp an sion , which c o n tr a s ts w ith the moderate in c r e a se in even in g i n s t i t u t e m athem atics c o u r s e s , probably r e f l e c t s some o f th e same ca u ses as th ose which brought about th e s h i f t to even in g c o lle g e E n g lish c o u r se s: th ere was an in c r e a s in g amount o f ed u ca tio n a t th e elem entary and secondary l e v e l ; the p r e s t ig e o f the " c o lle g e " was g r e a te r than th a t o f the " in s t it u t e " ; th ere was a sip h on in g o f p o p u la tio n , p a r t ic u la r ly o f young a d u lt s , from th e r u r a l comm unities to th e urban c e n t e r s . 106 A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l C l a s s e s - - N a tu r a l S c ie n c e (S e e F ig u r e 8) I n 1926 th e number o f s tu d e n ts ta k in g n a t u r a l s c i e n c e c o u r s e s in e v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s or e v e n in g c o l l e g e s was 1 0 2 ,8 0 9 , The b ottom , 1 0 2 ,1 0 8 , was rea ch ed th e n e x t y e a r . U lt i m a t e l y , th e t o t a l e n r o llm e n t was 128,1+18, w hich r e p r e s e n te d a g a in o f 25>609 or 25 p er c e n t . The in c r e a s e d e n r o llm e n t in n a tu r a l s c ie n c e was p a r t i a l l y a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e grow ing g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t in s c i e n t i f i c k n o w led g e. T h is e x p a n sio n was n o t l i k e l y to b e r e l a t e d to a d r iv e toward v o c a t io n a l t r a i n i n g . To be s u r e , t h e r e must h ave been some s tu d e n t s who managed to u s e t h e i r know ledge to an o c c u p a tio n a l a d v a n ta g e • But g e n e r a l ly th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f u t i l i t a r i a n a p p l ic a t io n o f n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s u b j e c t m a tter w ere very c ir c u m sc r ib e d * I m p r a c t ic a l it y n o t w ith s ta n d in g , th e i n t e r e s t I n t h e s u b j e c t i s m a n if e s t . The number o f e n r o llm e n ts in e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e n a tu r a l s c ie n c e c o u r s e s began a t 5 8 ,2 3 2 . The n e x t year r e f l e c t e d a downward movement w h ich a su b seq u e n t tw o -y ea r clim b managed to o f f s e t * However, th e n e x t s e v e r a l y e a r s b ro u g h t a p o p u la tio n d e c r e a s e w hich ended a t th e low p o in t o f I 4 .9 ^7JU-8, in 193i+ • Prom th e lo w p o in t th e numbers in c r e a s e d r a p id ly to f i n i s h w ith a h ig h o f 6 5 ,3 1 7 and an In c r e a s e o f 7*081+., or 12 per c e n t o v er th e o r i g i n a l number. TH O L'JAU O r 1910 26 30 5 2 . 5 5 107 ACADEMIC COURSES EJ. 8, EC 7 NATURAL SCIENCE 128,4-18 + 2 5 ,6 0 9 + 25% 6 5 ,3 1 7 + 7 0 64- + 4 2 % 5 8 .2 33 fys. /jy/r. / 49/46 102.009 102.106 1 5 6 1 5 5 154 1 9 5 44,576 / ■rfV-T. £Ot<.. 43- ------116 y 6 3 ,1 0 1 / + 1 8 , 5 2 5 ------ 1 1 7 f +42% ------ 116 ------ 115 ------ 114 ------ 113 ____lit ' ------ Ill ------H O ------ 109 ------ 106 ------107 ------106 ----- IOJ ------ 104 ------ 1 o*> ------io« ------10( ---IOO F ig u r e 8 jartrs/TVrtx 108 The g e n e r a l growth p a tte r n o f n a tu r a l s c ie n c e co u rses i n the even in g c o ll e g e s was one o f in c r e a s e „ S ta r tin g a t I 4 I4 . , 577» the enrollm en t grew, in te r r u p te d by- two r e l a t i v e l y minor d e c r e a se s (1929, 1933-3^4-) to & h ig h end p o in t of 6 3 ,1 0 1 . This f i n a l f ig u r e r ep r e se n te d an a d d itio n a l 18 , 52 $ s tu d e n ts , a g a in of I 4.2 per cen t over the number in 1926. S ta r t in g w ith a sm a ller en r o llm en t, th e even in g c o lle g e s managed to overtake th e even in g i n s t i t u t e s . This o u ts tr ip p in g may be c o r r e la te d w ith th e academic or non - v o c a tio n a l n atu re o f th e s u b j e c t, although i t sh ou ld not be fo r g o tte n th a t th e even in g i n s t i t u t e s d id show an in c r e a s e . N e v e r th e le s s , an exam ination of th e in te r n a l p a tte rn o f growth r e v e a ls th a t as l a t e a s 1 93U- the evening i n s t i t u t e s were down over 8,000 from t h e ir 1926 e n r o llm en t. C onsequently th e d if fe r e n c e between th e accu m u lative t o t a l s o f the two i n s t i t u t i o n s would probably be g r e a te r than t h e ir f i n a l t o t a l s would s u g g e s t. Courses O ffered in th e Evening I n s t i t u t e s and Evening C o lle g e s —V o ca tio n a l as a Qroup (See F igu re 9) The ev en in g i n s t i t u t e s and the even in g c o ll e g e s o ffe r e d a wide v a r ie t y o f co u r ses c l o s e l y r e la te d to v o ca t io n a l t r a in in g (See Appendix A )• The tw elve examined in t h i s study in clu d e m ining; chem ical trad es; c lo th in g tr a d e s, e n g in e e r in g and m etal tra d es; t e x t i l e tr a d e s ; 7 ~ £ A /S O f y-H O U fA U P r I92<b '2 7 2& ,'2 9 'SO '31 'i « 'a * , '3 4 ' S9 ' h C r - VOCATIONAL TRAINING C O U R S E S EL & . E.C.fS-19] 1,571,6 4-4 + 575,251 ■ L J0> 9 5 9 ,5 2 0 4 206,997 4 29 ^ 4— 452,524 ' > ■ +>00,254 4 y f + <52 /£ EVENING COLLEGE 20 6> . 2 70 I — 1 O--- I-1 <2 Figure 9 EVEMIW G IW /T. 7 3 0 ,3 2 5 110 food and drink tra d es; book p r in t and paper tra d es; b u ild in g , woodworking, and fu r n itu r e trad es; m iscellan eo u s trad es; p r o fe s sio n a l and commercial; dom estic; and manual s u b je c ts . These dozen embrace a l l but a sm all fr a c tio n o f the stu dents e n r o lle d in su b je c ts other than the seven more academic ones presen ted in the previous s e c tio n . The in d iv id u a l trades are not of g r ea t s ig n ific a n c e per s e , although i t i s in t e r e s t in g to n o te the r is in g or f a l l i n g p o p u la rity of various occu p ation s. What i s of importance are the s h i f t s in enrollm ents o f the two i n s t i tu tio n s in r e la tio n to each o th e r . In the previous an aly s i s there seemed to be a movement toward the evening c o l le g e s in courses which were r e l a t i v e l y n o n -v o c a tio n a l. The n e x t step i s to examine enrollm ents in v o c a tio n a l courses to see i f there i s a m eaningful s h i f t in student p o p u la tio n s. As a combined group, the stu dents w ith in the voca tio n a l tra in in g courses showed a gradual in crea se In th e ir numbers. In 1926 there were 996,593* This number grew, dropping fo r two su c c e s s iv e years (1931* 1932) b efore recommencing a r i s e which ended w ith l,371>81|i; in 1937* This f i n a l fig u r e included a gain o f 375*251 or 38 Pel* cen t o f th e o r ig in a l enrollm ent. One im p lic a tio n seems c le a r : mass unemployment did not d eter the expansion o f v o c a tio n a l tr a in in g c la s s e s . Between 1926 and 1938 the t o t a l number of unemployed Ill (Including w holly unemployed, tem porarily stopped, and ca su a ls) rose from 1,262,39 7 to 1,927,005* The peak, ju s t under three m illio n , came in 1932-33, a . p eriod during which enrollm ents were beginning to r i s e . Separated according to the two i n s t i t u t i o n s , the evening i n s t i t u t e s and the evening c o ll e g e s , the m ajority o f stu d en ts were e n r o lle d in the evening i n s t i t u t e s , ldiich began w ith 730,323 and rose to 939,320, a gain of 208,997 or 29 per c e n t. During the same tim e, th e courses in the evening c o lle g e s sta r te d w ith 266,270 stu d en ts and ended w ith l4 .3 2 ,£ 2l|., a growth o f 1 6 6 ,2 $l\. or 62 per c e n t . Although th e numerical gain o f the evening c o lle g e s was sm aller than th a t o f the evening i n s t i t u t e s , i t i s important to n ote th a t the percentage g a in i s almost double th a t o f the evening i n s t i t u t e s . The evening c o l le g e v o c a tio n a l cou rses as a group would seem to have enjoyed a p ro p o rtio n a tely g r e a te r in crea se in p op u larity during the period o f the stu d y. The r i s e i s perhaps an- V other r e f le c t io n o f the steady movement of pop ulation toward in d u stry and the c i t i e s , where the evening c o lle g e s were more l i k e l y to be fu n c tio n in g . A n a ly sis o f I n d iv id u a l S u b je c ts - - M ining (S ee F ig u re 10) The group as a whole showed an o v e r a ll in c re a se in enrollm en t. S ta r tin g a t 1 5 ,1 2 7 , the number o f stu d en ts f e l l fo r two s u c c e s s iv e y e a r s, bottom ing a t 1 0 ,8 2 2 in 1928. iyze> 26- 25- 24- 23- 42- 0 21 - 10- 1 7 - 16- 15- « li lt - 1^26 11 ’ 26 ' z g 30 ' 3 \ '31 ’ 33 '34 *35 ‘ 3C> 37 € • • # • • # • • * • • VOCATIONAL TRAINING CLASSES [EJ.<3,E.c 1 8.MINING 25,136 / -v 1 0 ,0 1 1 + 66 °/4 Z 4 15,127 S 1 1 ,6 7 7 V N X % £V£- \ 10,622 lO 0 8- 7 1 5- h A - 3 \ \ . 1 6 ,9 5 4 . ♦ 7,277 ♦ 6214. 3.450 ^ ^ Figure 10 3 . 4 2 A 112 113 For th e n e x t fo u r y ea rs the s i z e o f th e group rem ained r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e , b e fo re r i s i n g c o n s i s t e n t l y to end a t 2 5 , 1 3 8 , an o v e r a ll g a in o f 1 0 ,0 1 1 or 66 per cent* The i n i t i a l drop in en rollm en t in even in g i n s t i t u t e m ining c o u r se s may have s p e c i a l s ig n if ic a n c e when i t i s c o n tr a s te d w ith a s l i g h t r i s e in even in g c o ll e g e e n r o llm en ts du rin g th e same p e r io d . These were the years s h o r t ly a f t e r th e G eneral S t r i k e , which was e v e n tu a lly broken but which did throw a d d itio n a l numbers o f m iners in to the ranks o f the unemployed. Goal p ro d u ctio n was alm ost h a lv e d in the 1926 s t r i k e , dropping from 2l).3>197 to 126,279 thousand t o n s . However, th e n e x t year p rod u ction had more than r e c o v e r e d . E n rollm en ts fo llo w e d c o a l p rod u ction f ig u r e s in an approxim ate f a s h io n , g r a d u a lly d e c lin in g and r i s i n g . P a r a d o x ic a lly , th e number o f stu d e n ts began to r i s e b e fo r e c o a l tonnage reached i t s lo w e s t (1933)« M ining, in c o n tr a s t to the t e x t i l e in d u s tr y , d id s t i l l c o n tin u e to d is p la y some v i t a l i t y . England was a c o a l-b u r n in g n a tio n ; h e a tin g n eeds a lo n e were enough to ensure a s iz e a b le c o a l m arket. Used c lo t h in g could be handed down, b u t used c o a l had l i t t l e secon dary v a lu e . C on sequ en tly th e re rem ained a need f o r workers and a need f o r fu r th e r e d u c a tio n fo r th e more a m b itio u s. The c o n tr a st betw een th e growth in th e m ining tr a d e s c l a s s e s and th e c o n tr a c tio n o f t e x t i l e tr a d e s en ro llm en ts i s a ls o a con trast betw een th e m eta b o lism o f i n d u s t r i e s . Of th e two groups th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s had th e la r g e r number o f s t u d e n t s , b e g in n in g w ith 11,677* f a l l i n g to 7 * 2 0 3 by 1 9 2 8 , th e n r i s i n g to f i n i s h w ith l8,95i}.» an in c r e a s e o f 7*277 o r 62 p er c e n to The e v en in g c o l l e g e s a l s o showed an o v e r a l l g a in , commencing w ith 3 , 1 ±5 0 , h i t t i n g a low o f 3 , 14.28 the n e x t y e a r , and th e n c lim b in g to 6,l81j. by th e en d . The f i n a l f i g u r e was 2,73^4- more than t h a t o f 1 9 2 6 , and i t r e p r e s e n te d a p e r c e n ta g e g a in of 79 p er cen to S u p e r v iso r y em p loyees, on th e o th e r hand, d id n o t go o u t on s t r i k e . I f wa assume th a t t h e r e was a h ig h e r p e r c e n ta g e o f s u p e r v is o r y p e r so n n e l in th e e v e n in g c o l l e g e c o u r se s and t h a t t h e i r m o tiv a tio n s were somewhat d i f f e r e n t from th o s e o f th e g e n e r a l g ro u p , th e n i t seem s p l a u s i b l e t h a t th e number o f e v e n in g c o ll e g e s tu d e n t s would b e r e l a t i v e l y u n a f f e c t e d . These a ssu m p tion s would a l s o h e lp t o e x p la in th e h ig h e r p e r c e n ta g e g a in o f th e ev en in g c o l l e g e s co u p led w ith a low er n u m erical g a l n , s i n c e the p r o p o r tio n o f s u p e r v is o r y em ployees to th e t o t a l number o f w orkers would be r a th e r s m a ll. A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s - - Chem ical Trades (S ee F ig u r e 1 1 ) The t o t a l number o f s tu d e n ts ta k in g c o u r s e s in the ch e m ic a l tr a d e s showed an o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e . There were 7 ,9 7 0 to b e g in w ith o A year l a t e r th e number reach ed I t s lo w e s t p o i n t , 7 * 9 0 2 o A f t e r c lim b in g and d e c li n i n g t w i c e , 1 9 2 6 *27 '23 ‘29 30 31 ’ 32 *33 *34 *35 ‘ 3 6 ‘37 K 13- _VOCATIONAL TRAINING CLASSES [e.I.< 5 . E.c] 9. CHEMICAL TRADES < n 12— o 1 1 — Z t o — 4 9 — D 7.970 6~ — —--- 0 / ~ o r A / . __ 7 7.081 I H 1— 6&a * 7,9OZ /v/. /* v c /v 6 4 7 \ /\ / T < 14,459 *£>,409 + 61% / / / / / / / V " / 12,377 4 5,295 *n $y° 9 / 2.0© 2 ■ * - 1 . 1 9 4 . - * ■ 1 3 5 % P vrv O— Figure 11 116 the f i n a l enrollm ent was llj.,l|.59, which rep resen ted a g a in of 6 , 14.89 or 81 per c e n t. I t i s not su rp risin g th a t in years of a growing a p p lic a tio n o f sc ien ce to industry th at there would be an expansion in chem ical trades c o u r se s. There i s , however, a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e b e t w e e n the growth p attern s o f the mining trad es cou rses and the chemical trades c o u r ses. During the years when the mining trades cou rses were shrinking in s i z e , there were in crea sin g numbers of e n r o lle e s in the chem ical trades c l a s s e s . The exp lan ation may l i e in one of the b a sic d iffe r e n c e s between the mining in d u stry and the chem ical in d u stry . T e ch n o lo g ic a lly , mining stayed much the same dur ing th e period between the w ars. As w i l l be r e c a lle d from Chapter I I I , one of the causes fo r the unfavorable compe t i t i v e p o s itio n o f the B r itis h was th e ir slow ness in con v e r tin g to new techn iqu es and machinery. The chemical in d u stry , on the oth er hand, was la r g e ly an o ffsp r in g of the f i r s t World War. The expansion o f knowledge had been a c ce le ra te d by the demands o f wartime chem ical production; the afterm ath of the war saw the d issem in ation o f t h is knowledge in to commercial peacetim e u se . But th ere was not a la r g e , lo n g -sta n d in g pool o f tra in ed personnel in chem istry as there was in m ining. Consequently the climb in enrollm ent in chemical trades c la s s e s r e f l e c t s the demands of a r e l a t i v e l y new in d u str y . 117 W ith in t h i s group th e ev en in g c o l l e g e s tu d e n ts c o n s t i t u t e d a m a j o r it y . There were 7*082 a t th e o u t s e t and 1 2 ,3 7 7 a t th e en d 0 T h eir i n i t i a l number in c r e a s e d by 5,29J? or 75> p e r c en to The e v en in g i n s t i t u t e s a l s o showed an o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e , s t a r t i n g w ith 8 8 8 and, a f t e r a s e c c n d - year drop to 6I 4 .7 , ending w ith 2 , 0 8 2 , a g a in o f 1 , 1914- or 135> Pe r c e n t . The e n r o llm e n t s t a t i s t i c s o f th e two i n s t i t u t i o n s m e r it se p a r a te e x a m in a tio n , e s p e c i a l l y in t h i s s u b j e c t ; th e r e wa3 an im p ortan t d i f f e r e n c e betw een t h e i r n u m erica l and p e r c e n ta g e i n c r e a s e s . The p e r c e n ta g e g a in o f the e v en in g i n s t i t u t e s was c l e a r l y th e l a r g e r , but t h i s g a in was based on a n u m erical g a in o f l,1 9 lj. s t u d e n t s . The e v e n in g c o l l e g e s , on th e o th e r han d , g a in e d 5 ,2 9 $ . T h is n u m erica l g a in i s perhaps a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e grow ing t e c h n ic a l c o n te n t in th e c h e m ic a l t r a d e s . A p p a ren tly th e h ig h e r th e l e v e l o f th e s u b j e c t , the g r e a t e r th e l i k e l i h o o d o f i t s b e in g more p op u lar in th e e v en in g c o l l e g e s . A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s - - E n g in e e r in g and M etal Trades (S ee F igu re 12) Combined in t o one g r o u p , th e number o f s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d in c l a s s e s i n e n g in e e r in g and m eta l tr a d e s showed an i n c r e a s e . There were 1 0 1 ,7 8 6 in 1926; the number c lim b e d , endin g a t 2 1 3 ,6 6 0 , Of t h i s amount, th e in c r e a s e ov er th e o r i g i n a l group was 1 1 1 , 8714-, or 1 1 0 p er c e n t . TMOU SAMO S 1926 U 0 (0 Z U i V - *27 *26 ’29 *30 * 3 1 '32 '33 '34 *35 *36 *37 VOCATIONAL TRAINING CLASSES [E ! & E.C.l 10. ENGIN. < 5 , METAL TRADES > 3 .6 0 0 2 1 — 16— 15 — W — 15— It— I I — / / + 111,674 ♦ llO% 146,174 f + 71,209 / +95% 101.706 10— 7 ~ c > s y t/. 9 — 6— 74,905 7-- £!S£. * / 6 — 5— 4— ^ /j^r 2 _ 20,621 67,466 * 4o,665 + 1 5 2 % I — P CD Figure 12 119 In b o th p r o p o r tio n and s i z e , th e grow th o f th e e n r o llm e n ts in e n g in e e r in g and m e ta l tr a d e s was o u ts ta n d in g . Remember t h a t th e s e were d e p r e s s io n y e a r s „ There w ere n e v e r l e s s than a m i ll i o n unem ployed; u s u a lly th e t o t a l was c lo s e to two m illio n ,. N o tw ith sta n d in g th e odds a g a in s t employment th e r e was a marked r i s e in th e number o f a d u lts ta k in g v o c a tio n a l t r a in in g c o u r s e s . For many th e s e w ere y e a r s o f v o c a tio n a l a n x ie t y . T aking a c la s s may h ave r e p r e se n te d a c tio n as th e a lt e r n a t iv e t o p a s s i v i t y w h eth er m o tiv a te d by th e f i g h t to h o ld a job o r th e b a t t l e to a c q u ir e o n e . A lso n o tew o rth y i s th e r e f l e c t i o n In th e grow th curve o f th e r i s i n g s e r io u s n e s s o f th e unemployment p ro b lem . A lthough th e r e was n o t as sharp a d ip as th e r e was in c h e m ic a l tr a d e s c o u r s e s , th e r e was c l e a r l y a l e v e l i n g o f f d u rin g th e e a r ly t h i r t i e s . I t seem s l i k e l y th a t th e e n g in e e r in g and m eta l tr a d e s c o u r s e s were r e la t e d t o a w id er v a r ie t y o f o c c u p a tio n s . C on seq u en tly a g e n e r a l im provem ent or d e c lin e in in d u s tr y w ould h a v e had a more profound e f f e c t on th e number o f o p p o r tu n it ie s a v a ila b le to t h e s e s t u d e n t s . The m a jo rity o f th e stu d e n ts were e n r o lle d in even in g c o lle g e c o u r s e s . In 1926 th e r e were 7lv>965; by 1937 th ere were lip6, 17I 4 -, a g a in o f 71»209 or 95 per c e n t. The even in g i n s t i t u t e s began w ith 2 6 ,8 2 1 and f in is h e d w ith 6 7 *^8 6 , an in c r e a se o f Ij.0,665 or 1^2 per c e n t. 120 The g r o s s s t a t i s t i c s are a r e a so n a b ly a c c u r a te r e f l e c t i o n o f what happened to th e e n r o llm e n ts o f b o th i n s t i t u t i o n s ; b o th in c r e a s e d d r a m a tic a lly du rin g the p e r io d o f th e s t u d y » The e v en in g c o l l e g e s showed th e g r e a t e s t n u m er ica l grow th , but s i n c e th e y had th e m a j o r it y o f th e s tu d e n ts to b e g in w it h , th e p e r c e n ta g e g a in rem ained lo w er than th a t o f th e e v en in g i n s t i t u t e . The p a t te r n i s s i m i l a r to th a t in th e c h e m ic a l t r a d e s . P r e s t i g e , a w id e r v a r i e t y o f s u b j e c t s , and a h ig h e r l e v e l o f te a c h in g seemed t o e x e r t t h e i r g r e a t e s t a t t r a c t i o n i n a s u b j e c t a r ea w h e r e in th e r e was an expanding amount o f new k n ow led ge. A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s — T e x t i l e tr a d e s (See F ig u r e 1 3) The number o f s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d in c o u r se s In e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s o r ev en in g c o l l e g e s showed an o v e r a l l d e c r e a s e . The i n i t i a l combined e n r o llm e n ts t o t a l e d 2 2 , ^ 6 . T h is number had shrunk to llj.,89lj-, by the tim e I t rea ch ed I t s lo w e s t In 1933• By th e end o f th e p e r io d th e group had shown some i n c r e a s e , endin g a t 1 6 ,1 ^ 2 ^ f o r an o v e r a l l l o s s o f 6 ,1 2 1 or 27 p er c e n t . T his was an area w h erein c o u ld be se e n th e e f f e c t s o f a change in th e I n d u s t r ia l economy o f the n a t i o n . B e f o r e th e f i r s t World War, England had had alm ost u n c h a l le n g e d c o n t r o l o f th e t e x t i l e in d u s tr y w it h in the tr a d e a r e a s o f th e B r i t i s h E m pire. Then came World War I and th e r i s i n g i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n o f some o f th e newer n a t i o n s . 2 1 — 1926 ‘27 *28 '29 ’ 3 0 ’ * > \ *52 *33 '34. ‘35 *30 *37 VOCATIONAL & EVENING CLASSES [e .I.&E.c] ^Jl. TEXTILE TRADES \ r o r /iz \ < n 12,546 J O — 19— ie— 17— 16.513 O 16— £V£ ■ C O C £?~ ~~*,-------- 15— Z 14— 13 — 4 12— < f > II — lO — 7— n 6 ,0 3 3 U 6 — \ \ 16,^25 - 0,121 - 27% 14,894 1 1 , 3 3 7 / - 5.126 / - 31 % 1 0 , 4 4 1 6- 5— 4— 3— I — Figure 13 121 122 The one c o u n tr y in p a r t i c u la r w hich was a b le to com pete s u c c e s s f u l l y was Ja p an 0 Cheap J a p a n ese c o t t o n s flo o d e d th e m ark et w hich B r i t a i n had t r a d i t i o n a l l y b een a b le to m o n o p o liz e ( 3 2 : 8 0 ) o The w it h e r in g o f e a s t e r n m ark ets meant t h a t th e B r i t i s h t e x t i l e in d u s tr y was h i t e s p e c i a l l y h ard d u rin g th e d e p r e s s io n . There was l i t t l e i n th e way o f new know ledge to be a c q u ir e d , and t h e r e was e v e n l e s s , i t must h a v e seem ed, in job p o s s i b i l i t i e s . Of th e two i n s t i t u t i o n s , th e e v en in g c o l l e g e s had th e g r e a t e r number o f s t u d e n t s , commencing w ith 1 6 , £ 1 3 , h i t t i n g a low o f 10,l|lj.l (193&) and. en d in g a t 1 1 , 3 8 7 » w h ich r e p r e s e n te d a d e c r e a s e o f £ ,1 2 6 or 31 per c e n t o f th e i n i t i a l g r o u p . The e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s e n r o lle d 6 ,0 3 3 to b e g in w i t h , h i t t h e i r l o w e s t , ^ ,Q o 6 r i n 1 9 3 2 , and c lo s e d a t £ , 0 3 8 . The f i n a l number showed a l o s s o f 99£ or 17 p er c e n t . S e p a r a te e x a m in a tio n o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s r e v e a l s a d i f f e r e n c e in t h e i r p r o g r e s s d u rin g th e m id -y e a r s o f th e p e r io d . T e x t i l e t r a d e s c o u r s e s in th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s h i t t h e i r lo w e s t w ith th e d e p r e s s io n , s e v e r a l y e a r s b e f o r e th e lo w p o in t o f e v e n in g c o l l e g e c o u r s e s . In a d d i t i o n , th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s d is p la y e d a p r o p o r t io n a t e ly g r e a t e r reb ou n d . The f i r s t phenomenon may be a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e more r a p id r e sp o n s e o f lo w e r l e v e l c o u r s e s to ch an ges in econom ic c o n d i t i o n s . The stu d e n t whose p r o j e c t e d academ ic c a r e e r was to be one o r two s e m e s te r s 123 would perhaps have been more l i k e l y to s e t a s id e h i s a s p ir a tio n s in th e l i g h t o f d e c r e a sin g job a v a i l a b i l i t y * However, th e a d u lt whose p la n s were more a m b itio u s, and more e s p e c i a l l y th e one who was mid-way In s e v e r a l s e m e s te r s , may have been more determ ined to se e i t through. Then, t o o , th ere i s an elem en t o f s e l e c t i v i t y In th e ev en ing c o l l e g e s ; s tu d e n ts a ttem p tin g a more a m b itiou s program were l i k e l y to have more d r i v e . The la r g e r in c r e a s e 3hown by the even in g i n s t i t u t e in the l a t t e r y ea rs may a ls o have been r e la t e d to the mare f a c i l e resp o n se o f stu d e n ts to a l e s s demanding program. Both i n s t i t u t i o n s probably r e f l e c t e d th e b eg in n in g o f the Impact on th e t e x t i l e in d u s tr y o f th e p r e p a r a tio n s f o r World War I I . Wars r e q u ir e s o l d i e r s ; s o ld ie r s req u ire uniform s; and uniform s r e q u ir e t e x t i l e s . Comparison o f I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s - - C lo th in g Trades (S ee F ig u re lit.) I n i t i a l l y , th e en ro llm en t o f the combined groups was 1 2 ,2 3 1 . The number o f stu d e n ts ta k in g c o u r se s In c lo t h in g tr a d e s in c r e a se d on an o v e r a ll b a s i s , f i n a l l y rea ch in g 2 0 , 0 5l4 -> an in c r e a se o f 7*823 or £ > I p per c e n t. A sid e from a o n e -y ea r d ip in 1 932, th e number o f stu d e n ts In c lo t h in g tr a d e s c o u r se s shows a stea d y grow th. This in c r e a se d u rin g a tim e when t e x t i l e tra d es enrollm ents were f a l l i n g may seem p a r a d o x ic a l; I t i s n o t i n e x p l i c a b le . Remember th a t a la r g e amount o f th e t e x t i l e in d u str y was F*/OOS4/Y/>/ V=)Z(o Z ' T '2 8 '2 9 ' 2>0 ' 6 1 . '62 ' 6 6 '6 4 ' 6 * VOCATIONAL TRAINING CO URSES EJ.&EC. 12. CLOTHING T R A D E S 6 6 6 1 2 0 — 19 — 1 6 — A r - f Aj- 1 + — / / / / \ / \ / \ V 2 o p 5" 9 + 7,82 3 + 64-% — 15 — 14 — n - P — ■Aj— — 9 16— 12 — 12,23/ / r o s x c 6,311 ££ > * .£ .. II-- — 5 10— —4 9 — r i r — I £-y£-. S/SSi7 H ro — O i = ~ / ’ A'C£/S4//&S 125 dependent upon overseas sa le s* When th a t market dlmini&hed, b u sin ess shrank a cco rd in g ly . C lothing tra d es, on the o th er hand, had la r g e ly to do w ith th e dom estic m arket. This was an age o f changes, and one o f the a lte r a tio n s in s o c ie ty was a movement away from homemade garm ents. The s h i f t was toward ready-made c lo th in g ; the c re a tio n o f c lo th e s was accompanied by the crea tio n o f jo b s 0 The number of stu d en ts in the evening c o lle g e courses was 6,311 in 1926. Before i t reached 1937* th e number climbed to a h igh o f 7*199 (193D and f e l l to a low of 5*930 (1933)* At the end of the period the t o t a l was 6,370* a gain o f 59 or 1 per c e n t. W ithin the same span o f years the s iz e o f the group of stu d en ts in evening i n s t i t u t e cou rses expanded from a beginning number o f 5*920 to reach a peak o f 13*681+, an in crease o f 7*76]+ or ' 131 pen cen t over the i n i t i a l enrollm ent. The c o n tr a st o f the expansion o f the enrollm ent in evening i n s t i t u t e t e x t i l e trade courses w ith the almost s t a t i c enrollm ent in the evening c o lle g e c la s s e s may have been a r e f l e c t io n o f the nature of the su b ject i t s e l f . There was not a la r g e amount o f academic inform ation p re r e q u is it e to employment in th e c lo th in g tr a d e s. There were, o f co u rse, s k i l l s in v o lv ed , and there was some tr a in in g to be acquired . N e v er th e le ss, the su b je ct was n ot a l l i e d to e x te n siv e te c h n ic a l knowledge as were chemi c a l trades courses or en gin eerin g trades c o u r ses. Thus, 126 i t was congruous th a t th ere should have been a movement I towards evening i n s t i t u t e c o u r se s, which tended to be of lower l e v e l and b r ie fe r d u ration „ A n alysis o f In d ivid u al S u b je c ts -- Food and Drink (See Figure 1^) The t o t a l number o f stu d en ts taking food and drink courses in evening i n s t i t u t e or evening c o lle g e s was 2,628 in 1926, This number reached 6,611 in 1936 but decreased to 6,597 in the f i n a l year, having gained 3>8&9 or II4.7 per cen t over the i n i t i a l number. The expansion of fu rth er education in food and drink trades should not be taken as an in d ic a tio n that the general population was ea tin g and drinking in an in c r e a sin g ly l i v e l y manner. There was, n e v e r th e le s s, a growing amount o f " se r v ic e ” b u sin ess which catered to those who could afford i t s s e r v ic e s . World War I had a lso had i t s e f f e c t s on food p rep aration , speeding up the development o f ways o f preserving food . Canned and b o ttle d e d ib le s were becoming more common. With the in crease in a v a ila b ilit y and d ecrease in p rice came increased demand, which le d , in turn, to more em ployees. I t seems s ig n if ic a n t th a t in the course enrollm ents there i s only a s l i g h t r e f le c t io n of the in c re a sin g num ber of unemployed In the t h i r t i e s . Apparently the demand fo r personnel in food and drink trades continues d e sp ite a su b sta n tia l decrease in the number o f employed consumers. 192€j *27 ‘2d '29 '30 '31 '32 '33 '34 *35 '30 '37 * • • » • * • • • • 1 , VO C A TIO N A L T R A IN IN G C L A S S E S [E.I. & E.C.] 13. FO O D & DRINK t 7- — 6— 6.6H / 6 .4 9 7 • * 3 .6 0 9 + 147 °/o 5— / vfl 0 z 4 < n 3 0 1 I- 2 — 2,1 1 3 Figure 1$ H rv> 128 The m a jo r ity o f s t u d e n t s w ere e n r o lle d i n e v e n in g c o l l e g e c o u r s e s . To b e g in w ith th e r e were 2 ,1 7 8 ; t h i s number peaked a t I ] .,637 (193^1-) was ip, 1 4 .8 1 4 . a t the e n d , w hich was an i n c r e a s e o f 2 ,3 0 8 or 106 p er c e n t . The e n r o llm e n t o f th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e c l a s s e s a l s o in c r e a s e d , b e g in n in g a t 1 4 - 5 2 , h i t t i n g a to p o f 2 ,1 1 3 (1938) and c l o s in g a t 2 , 0 1 3 , a g a in o f 1 ,5 8 1 or 3lp5 p er c e n t . The t o t a l .e n r o llm e n ts in b oth i n s t i t u t i o n s w ere s m a ll, compared w ith th e l a r g e numbers o f s t u d e n t s in m in in g tr a d e s or c h e m ic a l t r a d e s . When s e p a r a t e d , th e e n r o llm e n t f i g u r e s s u g g e s t a s h i f t toward th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s . A lth o u gh th e y began w ith abou t o n e - f o u r t h , t h e i r g a in was p r o p o r t io n a t e ly much l a r g e r . The e x p la n a t i o n f o r t h i s g a in may h a v e la in i n th e s u b j e c t i t s e l f and i t s r e l a t i v e s i m p l i c i t y . T h is w ould e x p la in th e r i s e in e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e c o u r s e s ; th e s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e in th e number o f e v e n in g c o l l e g e e n r o l l e e s would s u g g e s t t h a t th e r e m ust h a v e b een some a r e a s o f th e s u b j e c t w hich r e q u ir e d f a i r l y e x t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g . A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s — Book P r in t and Paper Trades (S ee" F ig u re 16) The t o t a l number o f s t u d e n t s e n r o lle d in c o u r s e s in book p r i n t and p ap er t r a d e s showed an i n c r e a s e b etw een 1926 and 1 9 3 7 o I t began a t 8 ,1 3 5 , d ip p ed to a low o f 7 , 691+ th e n e x t y e a r , and r o s e to an end p o i n t o f 1 3 , 8 0 6 , a g a in o f 5 * 6 7 1 or 7 0 p er c e n t over th e o r i g i n a l e n r o llm en t / ‘ A'Oi/SM MAS 1 926, '27 '28 'Z9 '80 * 5 1 *52 '55 '54 '85 ' 54. *5 7 /* > 1 2 — VOCATIONAL TRAINING C O U R SE S El & EC. 14. BOOK PRINTING & PAPER T R A D E S ✓ 13,806 +5,671 + 7 0 % 10- 6 , 1 3 ' ~ 9.Q9Z +3,696 +60 % a— 7^664 6J96 5— 1,939 I j463 Figure 16 130 This r is e in enrollm ents in book p r in tin g and paper trad es during the d ep ression may seem su r p r isin g . Part of the exp lan a tio n i s to be found in Chapter I I I of t h is stu d y. Unemployment n otw ith stan d in g, the tw en ties and t h i r t i e s were the decades o f mass c ir c u la t io n . While the t o t a l number o f newspaper p u b lish ers d ecreased , the number o f co p ies o f newspapers b a llo o n ed . Sim ultaneously the number o f books and the s i z e o f the e d itio n s grew. The number o f la rg e book p u b lish er s d ecreased , but the amount of p r in tin g grew. In consequence, although there was the m an ifest dip in c la s s enrollm ents in 1932, generally the trad es in v o lv in g the use of paper were a t r e l a t i v e l y f u l l employment. The g r e a te r number of stu d en ts were in evening c o lle g e c o u r ses. At the s t a r t th ere were 6 ,1 9 6 . At the end of the period t h is number had grown to 9 ,8 9 2 , a growth o f 3*696 or 60 per c e n t. The evening i n s t i t u t e enrollm ent began at 1,939* reached i t s low p o in t of 1,14-69 the second year, and then climbed to 3*91ij- a t the f i n i s h a r is e of 1,975* or 102 per c e n t. The percentage growth of the evening i n s t i t u t e s was la r g e r , but the advantage i s d e c e p tiv e . A ctu ally the num erical gain of the evening c o lle g e s was s u b s ta n t ia lly la r g e r , alm ost double the n e a r ly two thousand o f the evening I n s t i t u t e s . There seems l i t t l e q u estion th a t both enjoyed s u b s ta n tia l g a in s . Perhaps the in crea se o f the 131 even in g i n s t i t u t e s can be a sc r ib e d to the en larged demand fo r s k i l l e d p r in te r s * I t may w e ll be th a t t h i s same demand would a ls o a f f e c t even in g c o ll e g e e n r o llm e n ts, A fu r th e r in flu e n c e m ight have come from the tr a in in g f o r the paper tr a d e s , which would e n t a i l more knowledge o f a t h e o r e t ic a l s o r t , th e k in d more l i k e l y to be found in even in g c o l l e g e s . A n a ly s is o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts — B u ild in g , Woodworking, and F u rn itu re (See F igu re 17) In 1926 th e re were 7ij.*133 stu d e n ts e n r o lle d in even in g i n s t i t u t e or even in g c o lle g e c o u r ses in b u ild in g , woodworking, and f u r n it u r e . T his number in c r e a se d f o r th r ee y ea rs; then w ith in th e n e x t two years i t dropped to i t s lo w e s t p o in t, 71*14-71 • The f i n a l t o t a l en rollm en t was 96,Ij.86, a g a in o f 2 2 ,3 5 3 or 30 per c e n t over th e f i r s t numb e r . This g a in in en rollm en t may seem dram atic when I l l u s t r a t e d g r a p h ic a lly (se e F igu re 1 7 ) . The s i z e o f th e n u m erical changes I s a ccen tu a ted by the r e l a t io n o f th e number o f years to th e range o f the e n r o llm e n ts. I t i s w orthw hile to n o te the low p o in t o f th e t o t a l e n ro llm en t, fo r I t c o in c id e s w ith what was going on In house b u ild in g * In 1930, when S ta te a s s is t a n c e was s t i l l e x t e n s iv e ly p ro v id ed , th ere were 202,060 hou ses b u i l t . Of th o s e , 50,12lj. were c o n str u c te d w ith S ta te a s s is t a n c e r A /O C /S A J Y C S 132 1926 2.7 2© VOCATIONAL TRAINING C O U R SE S E J. A EC. IS. BUILDING, WOODWORKING, A FURNITURE — 97 , 9 6 , 4 6 6 + 2 2 ,3 J 3 +30 % 75 — 77 — — 9 5 V — — 9 1 6 4 — — 07 61 — — 6 4 60 — 6 6 57 — — 0 1 M — y*— 30— 55 — 29 — 54 — — 79 U — 53 — 27 — 5 2 — — 77 76— 5/ 74,133 — 75 25— 50 — — 74 — 7 3 46,939 22— 47 — 71.471 2 1 — 4 4 — V 2 0 , —70 Figure 17 133 and 9 1 ,6 9 1 w ith o u t i t . The t o t a l (in c lu d in g 60,21^.5 b u i l t by L ocal A u t h o r itie s ) came to 2 0 2 ,0 6 0 , The n e x t y e a r , when S ta te a s s is t a n c e was v i r t u a l l y withdrawn from h ou ses b u i l t by p r iv a te e n t e r p r is e (o n ly 2,f?65 were su b s id iz e d ) the t o t a l dropped to 1 8 3 ,8 0 7 . The n e x t y e a r , how ever, th e t o t a l b u i l t clim bed back to 2 0 0 ,8 1 2 , rea ch in g 329,106 by 193£ and sta y in g near th a t f ig u r e u n t i l 1939, I t appears th a t b u ild in g , l i k e the consum ption o f fo o d , con tin u ed in s p i t e o f the d e p r e s s io n . There may be som ething o f iro n y in th a t th e m a jo rity o f c o n s tr u c tio n work was probably c a r r ie d on by w orkers who had l i t t l e chance o f owning th e hou ses they h e lp e d b u ild . This was n o t an iron y co n fin ed to England; th e same was l a r g e ly tru e in th e U nited S t a t e s during t h i s p e r io d . The m a jo rity o f stu d e n ts were e n r o lle d in even in g c o ll e g e c o u r s e s . B egin ning a t lj.6,939, th e en ro llm en t expanded and c o n tr a c te d , f i n a l l y r ea ch in g 6 6 , 8 7 8 , an in c r e a s e o f 1 9 ,9 3 9 or I 4.3 Per c e n t . The number o f stu d e n ts in even in g i n s t i t u t e c o u r se s a ls o r o s e and f e l l s e v e r a l tim e s . At th e o u t s e t , the number was 2 7 , 1 9 k • A fte r rea ch in g a bottom o f 2 0 ,7 1 2 , th e en ro llm en t clim bed to a f i n a l f ig u r e o f 2 9 ,6 0 8 , a g a in o f 2 ,k lk - or 9 per c e n t . The g r e a te r in c r e a se in th e number o f even in g c o ll e g e stu d e n ts in t h i s c a te g o r y seems somewhat p u z z lin g . One would ex p e ct alm ost the o p p o s ite p a t t e r n . The answer to t h i s phenomenon may be tw o -f o ld . The r a p id r i s e and 13k f a l l o f numbers m ight tend to sip hon o f f some of th e s t u d en ts to th e o th e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . More l i k e l y i s the p o s s i b i l i t y th a t th e r e was an in o r d in a te p r e ssu re f o r urban d w ellin g s* In a d d itio n i t may w e ll be th a t th e d u ration o f tr a in in g was e s p e c i a l l y lo n g f o r th ese t r a d e s . A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l Sub.1 s e t s — M isc e lla n e o u s Trades (See F igu re 18) The number o f stu d e n ts ta k in g m isc e lla n e o u s trade co u r ses in ev en in g i n s t i t u t e s o r evening c o ll e g e s showed an o v e r a ll d e c re a se during th e p eriod o f th e stu d y . S ta r tin g a t 9*631, th e group in c r e a se d to a h ig h p o in t of 1 1 ,0 7 8 (1930) b e fo r e d e c lin in g to th e lo w , 3 ,3 8 6 (193U-) and r ea ch in g th e f i n a l , l4 ., 1 0 0 , a number 5 ,5 3 1 sm a lle r than th a t o f 1 9 2 6 , The d ecrea se was 57 per c e n t o f the o r ig in a l s i z e . There was a m a n ife st drop in th e t o t a l en rollm en t In m isc e lla n e o u s t r a d e s , a c a t c h - a l l c a te g o r y . A fte r what seemed to be a prom ising r i s e , why was th e r e a p r e c ip ito u s and near-perm anent d e c lin e ? There are th r ee elem en ts to the e x p la n a tio n . One in v o lv e s th e changes which were ta k in g p la c e w ith in th e s o c i e t y i t s e l f . As Chapter I I I p o in ted o u t, tr a n s p o r ta tio n was undergoing a profound change. World War I had speeded up the i n e v it a b le s h i f t from horse-draw n v e h ic le s to h o r s e le s s o n e s. Along w ith the movement towards m ech an ization th ere came a w ith e r in g away o f s e r v ic e s r e la t e d to d r a ft a n im a ls. The buggy whip T'/SOC'SAS/GS mo> 27 '20 * 29 30 51 5 2 '55 '54 ’55 5& bl 1 2 — II — 1 0 — 9 — 6 — 7 — ^ — 5 — 4 — 5— 2 — I — VOCATIONAL TRAINING C O U R SE S EJ.&EC. 16- MISC. TRADES / / , 076 9,651 9,566 /A/fTT %7bt><b 2150 _ — — ■ 4/00 -*S3/. - S f % 2,l4<}-6547 - 75^, "1,956 + ai6, 4 72 5 4 1,140 Figure l8 H V j J V JT. 136 manufacturer became a kind of symbol for a n a ch ro n istic industry,, Leather i t s e l f was fo r the f i r s t time fa c in g se r io u s com p etition from sy n th e tic materials® The number o f minor but s k i l l e d occupations was bound to sh rin k . Another cause for 1iie d ecrease was probably th at of more c a r e fu l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . One phenomenon n o tic e a b le during the period i s a r is in g concern over accurate s t a t i s t i c a l r eco rd s. In the tw e n tie s , th e B r it is h seemed to be r e l a t i v e l y unconcerned about s t a t i s t i c a l record s, p a r t ic u la r ly in a d u lt ed u cation . W e have already mentioned L ask if s lament about the paucity of r e l ia b l e f ig u r e s . There was, in th e t h i r t i e s , however, a d is c e r n ib le a l t e r a tio n in t h is casu al approach toward record k eep in g . Per haps, th en , th is d ecrease may be p a r t ia lly the r e s u lt of more d e lib e r a te c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . F in a lly , when one n otes the tim ing of th e d ecrea se, which coin cid ed w ith in c r e a sin g numbers of unemployed, I t seems s ig n if ic a n t th a t the number o f e n r o lle e s was r is in g in most of the oth er su b je cts as the m iscellan eou s tra d es d e c lin e d . The wide v a r ie ty o f su b je c ts to be found in the evening i n s t i t u t e s and evening c o lle g e s o ffe r e d an opp ortu nity to tr a in fo r a new, even more prom ising, jo b . Consequently I t i s p la u s ib le th a t t h is decrease in e n r o ll ment may have shown th e e f f e c t s of a movement towards other s u b je c ts . 137 The l a r g e s t number o f e n r o ll e e s w ere In e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e c o u r s e s . There w ere 8 , lj-91 to b e g in w it h , b u t a f t e r r e a c h in g a top o f 9 ,3 6 6 (1930) th e number d e c r e a se d to a low o f 1 ,5 ^ 3 (1933) th en clim b ed to 2 , lipU- a t th e c o n c lu s io n , a d e c r e a se o f 6,3^-7 or 75 p e r c e n t . During th e same span o f y e a r s th e e v en in g c o l l e g e e n r o llm e n t showed a r i s e , s t a r t i n g a t 1,11^0, p eak in g a t 2 , 1 3 0 , and en d in g a t 1 ,9 5 6 , a g a in o f 8 l6 or 72 per c e n t . The g r o s s downward movement sh o u ld n o t b e a llo w e d to o b scu re th e d i f f e r e n c e s in th e e n r o llm e n ts o f the two i n s t i t u t i o n s . A c t u a lly th e e v en in g c o l l e g e s were g a in in g d u rin g th e tim e o f th e stu d y ; u n t i l the f i g u r e s are s e p a r a te d , t h e i r growth p a r t i a l l y o f f s e t s the s e v e r e d e c lin e o f e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e e n r o llm e n ts . T his c o n t r a s t betw een the two I n s t i t u t i o n s i s u n d ersta n d a b le i f one r e c a l l s th e more academ ic a p p ea l o f th e ev en in g c o l l e g e s . Those s tu d e n ts who had embarked on le n g th y o r a m b itio u s programs would be more l i k e l y to h ave a str o n g i n t e r e s t in c o n tin u i n g . There was a l s o new know ledge to be d is se m in a te d through e d u c a tio n ; p ro b a b ly th e r e was more o f t h i s a v a i l a b le in th e e v e n in g c o l l e g e s , even in th e m is c e lla n e o u s t r a d e s . A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l C ourses — P r o f e s s io n a l and Commercial (S ee F ig u re 19) The t o t a l number o f s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d in e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e and e v e n in g c o l l e g e p r o f e s s i o n a l and com m ercial 7 ~ £ M / o r rs/oc/sr/vos 50 49 46 47 46 45 44 45 42 41 '25 ‘2 7 *26 *Z9 '3 0 *31 *32 ‘33 *34 '55 ‘ 3 6 VOCAT. TRAINING COURSES [L I. A E.c ] 1 7 . PROFESS. < 3 . COMMERCIAL r o s * 74 4 4 3 ,6 1 7 / / / / / \ \ \ \ / / \ \ ' / 415, Z o j.' / / / / / / / / / * 3 7 496,350 ♦ 5 2 ,7 3 3 ♦ 1 2 V o SA/XT 0 , 0 0 4 37 36 35 34 33 3 1 r s r . oosa. H 30 75,612. Figure 19 139 c o u r s e s was )4l}.3,6l7 in 1 9 2 6 , A f t e r a r i s e t o i|7 8 ,2 l|9 (1930) t t h 0 number shrank to i t s l o w e s t , Ij.l£,203 ( 1 9 3 2 ), The f i n a l e n r o llm e n t was lv96,3£0# an in c r e a s e o f £ 2 ,7 3 3 or 12 p er c e n t o v e r the o r i g i n a l f i g u r e 0 The o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e , a s w e l l as th e sharp d ip i n th e t h i r t i e s , seem s to h a v e b een r e l a t e d to what was ta k in g p la c e in th e E n g lis h b u s in e s s w o r ld . As was p o in t e d out i n C h apter I I I , in th e a fte r m a th o f World War I th e r e was an exp an d in g group o f w h ite c o l l a r or b l a c k - c o a t e m p lo y e e s. As b u s i n e s s e s expanded, t h e i r num b e r o f c l e r k s and s e c r e t a r i e s and o f f i c e w orkers grew a l s o . As i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , a lth o u g h th e pay was u s u a l l y l e s s f o r o f f i c e w ork, th e p r e s t i g e o f w h ite c o l l a r o v er b lu e c o l l a r was o f t e n enough to o f f s e t th e d i s p a r i t y . Then, t o o , t h e r e was th e dream o f r i s i n g i n th e b u s i n e s s . The le g e n d o f o f f i c e boy to p r e s id e n t e x i s t e d on b oth s i d e s o f th e A t l a n t i c . But n o te a l s o th e drop in c l a s s e n r o llm e n ts c o i n c i d en t w ith th e d e c r e a s e in t h e number o f p e o p le em ployed. When a b u s in e s s d e c l i n e s , one o f th e f i r s t a r e a s the manager exam ines w ith a c r i t i c a l eye i s th a t o f th e ju n io r e m p lo y e e s, A ngel Pavement d e p i c t s v i v i d l y th e p r e c a r io u s s i t u a t i o n in w h ich a m inor em ployee la b o r e d , r e j o i c i n g when b u s in e s s was good and f e e l i n g d esp on d en t when i t w ent b a d 0 340 The l a r g e s t number o f stu d en ts were ta k in g even in g i n s t i t u t e c o u r s e s . There were 3 6 8 , 0014. o f the stu d e n ts in 1926. A fte r a dip and r i s e th e number reached i t s lo w e st p o in t, 3 1 3 , 2 1 4.6 , in 1933o The u ltim a te en ro llm en t, 3 7 0 ,9 9 9 , was a g a in of 2 ,9 9 5 or 1 per cen to The even in g c o lle g e s showed a g a in , s t a r t i n g a t 77,613 and ending a t 1 2 5 ,3 5 1 , an in c r e a se o f 1+9,738 or 66 per cento A n a ly sis o f th e p ro g ress o f the two i n s t i t u t i o n s r e v e a ls some i n t e r e s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s . At the o u t s e t , th e even in g i n s t i t u t e s had the bulk o f the e n r o l l e e s , about f i v e tim es the number o f th ose in even in g c o ll e g e c o u r s e s . However, a t the end o f th e p e r io d th e even in g c o ll e g e s had gain ed n e a r ly f i f t y thousand, whereas th e even in g i n s t i tu te s added th ree thousand. The e x p la n a tio n f o r th e d is p a r it y may l i e in th e range of a b i l i t i e s req u ired in p r o f e s s io n a l and commercial work. At the bottom m ight be found c le r k s and t y p i s t s , a t th e top th o se j o s t l i n g fo r s u p e r v is o r ia l and m anagerial p o s i t i o n s . Because o f the spread o f needs f o r fu r th e r e d u c a tio n , th ere would be a la r g e number of v a r io u s ly m otivated s tu d e n ts . The major i t y would l o g i c a l l y be on the low er rungs o f th e la d d er ; co n seq u en tly th e even in g i n s t i t u t e s would be ca rryin g most o f t h i s lo a d , which showed no g r e a t r i s e . The even in g c o l l e g e s , on th e o th e r hand, dim inish ed o n ly s l i g h t l y during the e a r ly t h i r t i e s , g a in in g alm ost f i f t y thousand stu d e n ts during th e p erio d o f the stu d y . i i a H erein may l i e a n o th er p a r t o f th e e x p la n a tio n f o r th e d is p a r a te c h a n g e . I f th e e v e n in g c o l l e g e s were a t t r a c t in g a h ig h e r stra tu m o f th e grou p , th e s e s tu d e n ts would be l e s s in s e c u r e in tim es o f r i s i n g unemployment, s in c e the l o w e s t group were u s u a l l y th e f i r s t to be sacked,. The ranks o f th e e v en in g c o l l e g e s t u d e n ts would thus be r e l a t i v e l y im p erviou s t o th e f o r c e s t h a t decim ated th e i n s t i t u t e c l a s s e s . Comparison o f I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s - - D om estic (See F ig u r e 20) The number o f s tu d e n ts ta k in g d o m estic c o u r se s in the e v en in g i n s t i t u t e s or e v en in g c o l l e g e s showed a g a in du rin g th e p e r io d o f stu d y . In 1926 th e r e w ere 2 2 9 ,Oil}.; a t the end th e r e were 3 2 2 , 6 8 6 , an in c r e a s e o f 93*872 or Ipl per c e n t o f th e i n i t i a l e n r o llm e n t. As one m ight su rm ise from th e e a r l i e r i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f th e r i s e in fo o d and d r in k e n r o llm e n ts , d om estic s u b j e c t s a ls o made s i z e a b l e g a in s , o v e r n in e t y th ou san d . H owever, th e e x p la n a t io n f o r t h i s in c r e a s e i s n o t e n t i r e l y th e sam e. P a rt o f th e in c r e a s e can be a s c r ib e d to th e grow ing a c t i v i t y in consumer s e r v i c e s . But o th e r ch an ges in s o c i e t y were o f e q u a l im portance in s o fa r as d om estic s u b j e c t s were c o n c e r n e d . For o n e , th e r e was an in c r e a s in g amount o f freedom f o r women. Along w ith t h i s freedom came a d e c r e a s in g amount o f home e d u c a tio n in th e d o m estic a r t s . C o n se q u en tly th e re was an in c r e a s e d demand fo r 1926 ' n '18 '2 9 '5 0 *51 '82 '5 5 '5 + VOCATIONAL TRANING COURSES EJ.A E.C. 1 8 . DOMESTIC '5 5 '3 7 J 5 _ 35— 3 4 — 3 * — / 3 8,3 f 6 +14,3 36 + 60 % » - 36— 34— 3 0 33— 23— 32— iS — « — 14— 26— 229,0 |4 fl— 25— 2 4 ,0 2 0 ^ 20— 24— 2 04 904 Figure 20 i n s t r u c t i o n w it h in academ ic w a l l s . One m ig h t a l s o i n f e r t h a t t h e r e w ou ld h a ve been a l i v e l y c o m p e t itio n f o r d o m e stic em ploym ent. J u s t a s th e r e were in th e U n ite d S t a t e s many p e o p le more or l e s s d r iv e n to d o m e stic s e r v i c e by mass unem ploym ent, s i m i l a r l y in England th e r e was b r i s k c o m p e titio n f o r d o m e stic em ploym ent. Of th e t o t a l group, t h e l a r g e s t number o f s t u d e n t s were e n r o ll e d in e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e c o u r s e s . To b e g in w ith th e r e w ere 20l;,99l4. s t u d e n t s . F i n a l l y , th e e n r o llm e n t was 281;,330, w h ich showed a r i s e o f 79*338 or 39 p er c e n t . The e v e n in g c o l l e g e s , s t a r t i n g a t 2 l;,0 2 0 , f i n i s h e d w it h 3 8 , 3 5 6 , a g a in o f llj.,336 or 60 per c e n t . I t sh o u ld n o t come as a s u r p r is e t h a t t h e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s h e ld a lm o st n i n e t y per c e n t o f th e s tu d e n ts ta k in g d o m e stic s u b j e c t s . There was n o t a l a r g e amount o f academ ic know ledge to be absorb ed ; th e r e w ere no h ig h e x e c u t iv e p o s i t i o n s to hope f o r . I n s te a d t h e r e was t r a i n in g o f a t r a d i t i o n a l and o f t e n m inim al s o r t to be a c q u ir e d In o r d e r to q u a l i f y as a t r a in e d em p lo y ee. The e v e n in g c o l l e g e s d id , n e v e r t h e l e s s , show a g a in , b u t i t was o n ly a sm a ll f r a c t i o n o f th e t o t a l in c r e a s e o f th e e v en in g i n s t i t u t e s . A n a ly s is o f I n d i v i d u a l C o u r s e s - - M anual S u b j e c t s (S e e F ig u r e 21) In 1926 th e t o t a l e n r o llm e n t was 69> 775* The f i n a l number o f s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d in e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e and e v e n in g c o l l e g e c o u r s e s i n m anual s u b j e c t s was 11 4-2 , 2 8 3 , an i n c r e a s e o f 7 2 ,£ o 8 or lOlj. p e r c e n t o v e r t h e b e g in n in g e n r o llm e n t • Judged on th e b a s i s o f n u m e r ic a l o r p e r c e n t a g e g a i n s , th e i n c r e a s e in m anual s u b j e c t e n r o llm e n t s I s an o u t s t a n d in g o n e . T h ese c o u r s e s w ere p r e d o m in a n tly t r a i n in g In v a r io u s m anual t a s k s ; n e v e r t h e l e s s th e r e was an im p r e s s iv e m ovement tow ard f u r t h e r e d u c a t io n e v e n In t h i s s u b j e c t . P erhap s t h i s g r o w th In w hat m ig h t seem to be a s u b j e c t u n l i k e l y t o a t t r a c t s t u d e n t s was an e x p r e s s i o n o f th e p r e s s u r e f o r e d u c a t io n beyond e le m e n ta r y l e v e l f o r th e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s e s . T hese a d u l t s w ere th e o n e s m ost l i k e l y to b e c u t o f f from se c o n d a r y e d u c a t io n a t t h e end o f c h ild h o o d . C o n s e q u e n tly t h i s grow th may h a v e b e e n a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e p o s tp o n e d d r iv e tow ard f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n . The r i s e m ig h t a l s o b e a t t r i b u t e d p a r t i a l l y t o th e e f f e c t s o f e x te n d e d and p e r v a s i v e un em p loym ent. C om p eti t i o n f o r jo b s was k e e n ; t h e h o p e f o r some s o r t o f a d v a n ta g e was p r o b a b ly as im p o r ta n t t o th e i n d i v i d u a l a s t h e a c t u a l p o s s e s s i o n o f I t . The m a j o r it y o f s t u d e n t s w ere t a k in g t h e i r c o u r s e s \9l<b *27 'Z t> *50 '5 2 '5 5 '54- '35 5 * VOCATIONAL TRAINING C O U R S E S E . I . & EC. 19. M ANUAL S U B JE C T S IO te~ 142,203 B— /I— * 9— 6— 7 Total . 6 9j77S'~ ijbes^ G7 $ \ 0^ £V£. fA7fr. £ V £ . CO/LL. t r vn Figure 21 /> /< ? t/Ss* A /O S from th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s , w h ich had an e n r o llm e n t o f 5 7 ,9 1 0 tfco s t a r t w ith and w hich numbered 1 3 9 ,1 6 8 a t t h e e n d 0 The in c r e a s e o v e r th e f i r s t number was 7 1 ,2 5 8 , o r - 105 p e r c en to The number o f e v e n in g c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s a l s o in c r e a s e d , grow in g from th e o r i g i n a l f i g u r e o f 1 ,8 6 5 to a f i n a l number o f 3 , 1 1 5 , w hich in c lu d e d a r i s e o f 1 , 2 5 0 , or 67 p e r c e n t . A b r i e f i n s p e c t i o n o f F ig u r e 21 w i l l r e v e a l w h ich i n s t i t u t i o n c o n d u cted a l l b u t a sm a ll f r a c t i o n o f th e manual s u b j e c t s c l a s s e s . T hese w ere s u b j e c t s w ith p erh a p s th e l e a s t academ ic c o n t e n t ; t h e i r p r e v a le n c e in e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s and s c a r c i t y in e v e n in g c o l l e g e s can be i n t e r p r e te d as sy m b o lic o f th e in c r e a s in g d i f f e r e n c e b etw een th e f u n c t i o n s o f th e two i n s t i t u t i o n s . That c o n t r a s t in c r e a s e d m ark ed ly d u rin g th e p e r io d o f th e s t u d y . CHAPTER V EXTRA-MURAL AND SIMILAR COURSES SUPERVISED BY UNIVERSITIES O R UNIVERSITY COLLEGES, AND COURSES UNDER THE CONTROL AND DIRECTION O F APPROVED- ASSOCIATIONS FOR ADULT EDUCATION, O TH ER TH AN VACATION COURSES The o th er broad area o f B r it is h fu r th e r ed u cation was t h a t which in clu d ed co u rses su p ervised by the u n iv er s i t i e s or u n iv e r s it y c o l l e g e s , and cou rses under c o n tr o l and d ir e c t io n o f approved a s s o c ia tio n s fo r a d u lt education# As a group th e se were c a ll e d the v olu n tary a s s o c ia t io n s , s in c e the t y p ic a l p a tte r n was th a t of the a s s o c ia t io n ( i . e . , W.E.A.) o r g a n izin g a c la s s and then h ir in g a tu to r . There were th ree sub-groups w ith in t h is area: one con s i s t e d of th ose co u r ses which aimed a t the p rep aration o f the u n iv e r s it y stu d en t on a t u t o r i a l b a s i s . These cou rses were org an ized c h i e f l y by th e Workers’ E d u cation al A s so c ia t io n . Another was th a t o f th e u n iv e r s ity e x te n sio n c o u r s e s . F i n a ll y , th ere were cou rses g e n e r a lly lim ite d to one year or even a sh o r te r p e r io d , th e term in al c o u r se s . For each o f th e se groups there are i n i t i a l l y seven s u b je c ts to examine: (1 ) lit e r a t u r e and language; ( 2 ) econom ics, in d u s tr ia l h i s t o r y , and geography; (3 ) h is to r y ; (I4 .) a e s t h e t ic s (in c lu d in g music and a r t) ; ( 5 ) n a tu ra l s c ie n c e s ; ( 6 ) s o c io lo g y ; (7 ) p h ilosop h y and p sych ology . 1^7 1 1 4 . 8 In 1931 i n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y and geography were r e p o r te d s e p a r a t e ly , making two a d d it io n a l s e t s o f f i g u r e s a v a i l a b le . The B r i t i s h M in is tr y o f E d u ca tio n a ls o in c lu d e d in i t s r e p o r ts s e p a r a te f i g u r e s on men and women. Con s e q u e n tly t h i s in fo r m a tio n w i l l be in t e g r a t e d in t o th e d a ta . A n a ly s is o f T o ta l Groups (See F ig u re 22 j se e Appendix C) D uring th e p e r io d o f th e s tu d y , th e p r e p a r a to r y , th r e e y e a r , and advanced t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s showed the l e a s t amount o f grow th, s t a r t i n g a t 1 1 ,9 5 8 and e n d in g a t li{.,953* th e grow th o f 2 ,9 9 5 b e in g a p e r ce n ta g e grow th o f 25 P©r c e n t . As a s e p a r a te grou p , the m a les showed the l e s s e r in c r e a s e , s t a r t i n g a t 7,514-5* endin g a t 8 , 6114., and g a in in g 1 ,0 6 9 (lip per c e n t) a s compared w it h 1 ,9 2 6 (l+ L i. per c e n t) f o r th e women, who began w ith I).,l).13 and f i n i s h e d w ith 6 ,3 3 9 . A lthou gh i t was th e s m a lle s t group, th e p o p u la tio n o f th e u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n c o u r s e s , b e g in n in g a t 3 ,1 8 5 and endin g a t 9 , 1 + 1 4 -6 , showed th e secon d l a r g e s t n u m erica l in c r e a s e (6 ,2 6 1 ) and th e l a r g e s t p e r ce n ta g e in c r e a s e (197 per c e n t ) 0 The women showed th e l a r g e r I n c r e a s e , 3 ,2 9 0 (+198 p er c e n t) compared to 2 ,9 7 1 (+195 p er c e n t ) f o r th e men. f t l t r 27 20 I t TOTAL C L A S S E S ! i 32.3 6 + 2 0 .0 Z I r 1 6 2 . 5 % 7 .0 6 7 +10.69*5 + 167 . 8 % 1 5 , 2 4 4 ^Q *trr.*\ U p J 3 + 2 ,9 9 5 + 2 6 % TOTAL 9.4 4 6 6 ,1 * 1 + 1 6 4 .* % + •*.2 7, 5 .9 2 3 T + A I 3 * ~ ---- " -•OSS + L 6 2 6 4 4 f t.f c 7 # - * * * • . I % 4 j49 5 ♦ 2 ,9 T I + 194. 9 % F ig u r e 2 2 i5 o The one y e a r and te r m in a l c o u r s e s showed th e g r e a t e s t n u m erica l in c r e a s e d u rin g th e 1 9 2 6 -3 7 p e r io d . B e g in n in g w ith 1 2 ,2 9 5 , 337 more than the u n i v e r s i t y p r e p a r a to r y group o f th e same y e a r , th e p o p u la tio n in c r e a s e d w ith a m inor d ip in 1935 u n t i l i t rea ch ed th e peak o f 3 2 ,1 3 6 in 1937® The in c r e a s e o f 2 0 ,0 2 1 was an in c r e a s e o f I 6 3 p er c e n t o v e r th e b e g in n in g f i g u r e 0 In term s o f p e r c e n ta g e in c r e a s e by s e x , t h e r e was a g r e a t e r g a in in th e number o f men, 1 0 ,6 9 5 (+168 per c e n t) a lth o u g h th e In c r e a s e d number o f women, 9 ,3 2 3 (+157 p e r c e n t) was a ls o s u b s t a n t i a l . As a f i r s t s t e p tow ard i n t e r p r e t in g t h e s e c h a n g e s, th e r e l a t i v e demands o f th e t h r e e k in d s o f c o u r se s sh o u ld be r e i t e r a t e d . As C hapter I p o in te d o u t , th e p r e p a r a to r y , t h r e e y e a r , and advanced t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s were th e m ost d i f f i c u l t . T h eir s t u d e n ts w ere r e q u ir e d t o s ig n up f o r a p r o t r a c t e d le n g t h o f tim e; th e y had t o s t a y up w ith a str e n u o u s program o f r e a d in g and w r i t i n g ; th ey w ere I n v o lv e d in th e c o u r se w h ich m ost n e a r ly app roxim ated a u n i v e r s i t y program . The u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n c o u r s e s , on t h e o th e r han d , d id n o t in v o lv e th e s t u d e n t ' s embarking on a t h r e e - y e a r program . A lthou gh th e c o u r s e c o n t e n t was o f r e l a t i v e l y h ig h l e v e l , the demands f o r w r it in g and r e a d in g a b i l i t i e s were n o t h ig h , s i n c e th e m ee tin g s were c h i e f l y l e c t u r e s . T hese w ere o r g a n iz e d by th e u n i v e r s i t i e s 1$1 them selves, u su a lly by the extra-m ural department, . although not a l l the u n iv e r s it ie s included th a t service,, The term inal courses and one-year courses were a lso l e s s demanding0 Although th ere were o fte n reading assignm ents or recommendations,both the reading and w r it ing were u su a lly s u b s ta n tia lly l e s s than in the tu to r ia l program. These were o fte n taught by u n iv e r sity graduates or even day teaching p erso n n el, but the approach was a more popular one, p la c in g a lig h t e r burden on the stu d en t. The varying requirements of the courses them selves seem to be r e la te d to the d iffe r e n c e s in growth. The preparatory, th r ee -y ea r , and advanced tu to r ia l c la s s e s showed th e sm a llest gross in crea se, but these were the most demanding c l a s s e s 0 What is e s p e c ia lly s ig n if ic a n t i s th a t there was a markedly greater gain in the numerical and percentage in crease o f the number of women in the c la s s e s . This in ord in ate in crease in th e percentage of fem ales may r e f l e c t the change in women's sta tu s in England of the tw en ties and t h i r t i e s . World War I had unlocked for women the door on many occupations other than cooking and housekeeping and c h ild -b e a r in g . The door could never be c lo sed again; in ste a d i t gradually opened w id er, Concommitantly the p o s s i b i l i t i e s for fu rth er education were h eigh ten ed . As women in the ad u lt classroom became l e s s of a n o v e lty , the lik e lih o o d of greater numbers was in creased , fo r there must have been a backlog o f demand 1 5 2 f o r fu r th e r e d u c a tio n , p a r t i c u la r ly a t a l e v e l resem b lin g u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a tio n . The g r e a te r p o p u la r ity o f th e u n iv e r s it y e x te n s io n c o u r ses can be e x p la in e d somewhat by t h e ir l e s s stren u ou s approach to fu r th e r education,. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te th a t h e r e , t o o , th e women showed a s l i g h t l y g r e a te r in c r e a s e , both n u m e r ic a lly and in p e r c e n ta g e . The n a t io n a l d e p r e ssio n and accompanying unemployment d id n o t d ep ress e n r o llm en ts; i f a n y th in g , th e y seem to have had a p o s i t i v e c o r r e la t io n . Note th a t th e l a r g e s t in c r e a s e , n u m e r ic a lly alm ost t e n - f o ld th a t o f th e o th e r two program s, came in th e one year and term in al c o u r s e s . These co u r ses came c lo s e to p o p u la r iz in g know ledge, and t h e ir demands upon the stu d e n t were f a i r l y s m a ll. The en rollm en t f ig u r e s su p p ort th e in fe r e n c e t h a t th e r e was du rin g th e se y ea rs a growing demand f o r e d u c a tio n beyond th a t p rovid ed by elem en tary s c h o o ls , which provided form al ed u ca tio n fo r th e m a jo r ity o f th e E n g lish p o p u la tio n . There i s , how ever, a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in the growth o f fem ale e n r o llm e n ts . In one year and term in a l c o u r ses th e men, n o t th e women, showed the g r e a t e r g a in . The m en's a sc e n sio n may have been r e la t e d to t h e i r l e i s u r e tim e. Granted t h a t m arried m others would have l i t t l e f r e e tim e to a tte n d c l a s s when th ere was din n er to be p rep ared , th e c h ild r e n to be f e d , and the d is h e s to be done; f o r the 153 s in g le woman and the m arried or s in g le man there was probably about the same amount o f time a v a ila b le fo r a t tending c la s s e s wherein a minimum o f preparation was r e q u ired . C onsequently, i t would seem l o g ic a l th a t in these courses the two sexes would be on a more n e a r ly equal f o o t in g . A n a ly sis of In d iv id u al S u b je c ts -- L iter a tu r e and Language (See F igure 23) A fter an exam ination o f the combined populations o f the three groups, we have s t i l l n o t answered th is q u estio n : What s ig n if ic a n t changes took p la c e in the in d iv id u a l su b je c t enrollm ents? These were the more aca demic c la s s e s , in much c lo s e r l i a i s o n with h igh er educa tio n and in l e s s co n ta ct w ith vo ca tio n a l tr a in in g . During the d epression, were stu d en ts a ttr a c te d towards economics as a p o s s ib le means o f a lle v i a t i n g th e ir situ a tio n ? Or were the lib e r a l a r ts l i k e l y to g a in p op u larity during a period of su rp lu s le is u r e time? A n alysis o f in d iv id u a l su b je cts su ggests answers to such q u estio n s. The stu d en ts in the one-year and term inal courses c o n s titu te d the la r g e s t o f th e th ree groups. They d i s played the l a r g e s t growth in numbers and p ercen tage. The combined group (men and women) was 3*578 in 1926. A fter clim bing to i t s h ig h p o in t of 7*885 in 1930, the number of stu d en ts g ra d u a lly d ecreased , fin is h in g at 5*607* which was an o v e r a ll in c r e a se o f 2,029» This in crease amounted I C > Z < P ' 2 7 '26 “ 29 '5 0 ' 5 1 '52 'Jb '5 4 '55 '36 ' 5 7 LITERATURE & LANG UAG E 7 665 2.774 2 ,2 5 0 U0M£U L O O O )* --- k/OM EJJ 2&i%- 3.576 2505 2,203*^ 1660 ^ 0 5 , 6 0 7 ,* 2.029,+56.7% “ ^ o b 6 5 7 ,+ 145+ ,+ 6 6 .oy» ♦ 2 , 6 5 6 , - 6 7 , - 2 , - b y o «1,950 ,7 576 ,+ 4 1 ,6 7. 1,766 ,+ 106 ,7 6 .4 % 1,032 ,*6+6 * 44.4 1,12.4 ,* 399 *<5.6*/u 1,070 ,-175 ,-1 5 .9 % -----------------*5 2 6 , 7 2+7 ,+ 67.9$ Figure 23 H to 57 p e r c e n t o f the o r i g i n a l number. The in t e r n a l h ig h p o in t as w e l l as th e c o n c lu d in g g a in in e n r o llm e n t are con son an t w ith th e a p p ea l o f o n e - yea r and te r m in a l c o u r s e s » There was an in c r e a s in g urban p o p u la tio n , and d e s p it e d isp aragem en t o f th e mass m ed ia, t h e i r in c r e a s in g in f lu e n c e was f e l t by th e m a j o r it y o f th e B r i t i s h p o p u la t io n . L it e r a t u r e and la n g u a g e had a broad a p p e a l, one t h a t would have been su p p o rted by i n c r e a s in g th e g e n e r a l a v a i l a b i l i t y o f r ea d in g m a t e r i a ls . T h is i s n o t t o sa y th a t r ea d in g a l u r i d new spaper w i l l t h r u s t an a d u lt i n t o a c l a s s on S h a k e sp ea r e. I t does V seem l i k e l y , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h a t as book p r ic e s d e c r e a se and book a c c e s s i b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s , more a d u lt s are l i k e l y to want to ta k e a b r i e f , n o t v ery demanding, c o u rse in l i t e r a t u r e or la n g u a g e . This was a ls o th e p e r io d when the number o f f r e e l i b r a r i e s was g ro w in g , w h ich would a l s o have an e f f e c t on r e a d in g h a b it s and e d u c a tio n a l a s p i r a t i o n s . W ithin th a t group the women composed a m a jo r ity and showed t h e g r e a t e r in c r e a s e o f p ercen ta g e growth,. They numbered 2 ,2 0 3 In 1 9 2 6 , reach ed 5 » 1 H in 1930* and su b sid e d to 3*657 a t the en d . The in c r e a s e , 1,1+51+, 66 p er c e n t compared w ith lp2 per c e n t fo r th e men, who began a t 1 ,3 7 5 * expanded to 2,77^1- (1 9 3 °) * and f i n i s h e d a t 1 , 9 5 0 , h a v in g g a in e d 575• The g r e a t e r in c r e a s e o f th e number o f women in 156 o n e -y e a r and te r m in a l c o u r se s in l i t e r a t u r e and lan gu age d oes n o t match up w ith t h e i r o v e r a l l p a t te r n o f e n r o l l m ent. T his i s p rob ab ly r e l a t e d to th e s u b j e c t i t s e l f . A lthough th ey r e q u ir e v e r b a l a b i l i t y (an area i n which women su p p o sed ly e x c e l) th e y r e q u ir e much l e s s in th e way o f background or p r e ce d in g cou rse w ork 0 Thus, th ey w ere l i k e l y to be more p o p u lar w ith t h e woman who was a b le to g e t away f o r an e v en in g a week and who had c u lt u r a l a s p i r a t i o n s . The s e c o n d - la r g e s t group ta k in g c l a s s e s in l i t e r a tu r e and lan gu age was t h a t o f th e p r e p a r a to r y , th r e e -y e a r and advanced t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s . As a combined group th e y began a t 2 ,9 0 3 and m a in ta in ed a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b le number, c l o s i n g the p e r io d w ith 2 , 8 3 6 , 67 l e s s th a n t h e i r i n i t i a l number, or a p e r ce n ta g e d e c r e a se o f 2 p er c e n t . This sh rin k a g e c o n t r a s t s sh a r p ly w ith th e grow th o f th e p r e c e d in g group, but th e d e c re a se i s e x p l i c a b l e . F i r s t , l e t us se e what ch an ges took p la c e in the r a t i o o f women to men. W ithin th e group th e women outnumbered th e men to b e g in w it h , 1 ,6 6 0 to l,2 i|-3 . Both se x e s showed no marked in c r e a s e or d e c r e a se d u rin g the p e r io d ; how ever, th e women f i n i s h e d a t 1 , 7 6 6 , w hich showed a g a in o f 10 6 or 6 per c e n t . The men, on th e o th e r han d, ended w ith 1 , 0 7 0 , a d e c r e a se o f 1 7 3 * or 11;. p er c e n t . 157 The o v e r a l l d e c r e a s e m e r its a n a l y s i s , f o r i t i s d e c e p tiv e o When we a n a ly z e t h e g r o u p , we f i n d t h a t the number o f men was d e c r e a s in g , b u t th e number o f women r o s e d u rin g t h a t t im e 0 These c o u r s e s were more d i f f i c u l t ; c o n s e q u e n tly th e i n h i b i t e d grow th i s u n d e r s ta n d a b le . But d i f f i c u l t y n o t w it h s t a n d in g , t h i s s u b j e c t d id a t t r a c t an in c r e a s in g fem a le e n r o llm e n t. The group o f s tu d e n ts In th e u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s io n c o u r s e s was th e s m a l l e s t , 1 ,0 0 6 to b e g in w i t h . T h eir s i z e d id i n c r e a s e , r e a c h in g i t s peak ( 2 , 2 3 0 ) in 1 9 3 1 , and g r a d u a lly r e c e d in g to 1 ,6 5 2 a t th e e n d . The o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e , 6L|.6, was 61* per c e n t o f th e b e g in n in g number. The s i z e o f the u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n group r e sem b les t h a t o f th e p r e p a r a to r y c l a s s e s , b u t th e grow th p a t t e r n more n e a r ly r e se m b le s t h a t o f th e o n e -y e a r g r o u p . The u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s i o n c o u r s e s managed to grow sub s t a n t i a l l y . T h eir g a in s were l i k e l y to b e due to t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y b r i e f d u r a tio n a s w e l l as t h e i r d e c r e a se d demands on th e s t u d e n t . W ith in th e group t h e women outnumbered th e men, 725 to 281 a t th e o u t s e t , 1,601}. to 626 a t th e i n t e r v a l h ig h p o i n t , 1,121*. to 528 a t th e e n d . The s i z e o f the women's group had I n c r e a s e d 55 P©r c e n t , t h a t o f th e m en’ s 88 p er c e n t , in p e r c e n ta g e s the l a r g e r o f th e tw o0 H owever, t h i s p e r c e n ta g e d i f f e r e n t i a l d o es n o t o f f s e t th e n u m e r ic a lly g r e a t e r g a in o f th e fe m a le e n r o llm e n t. I t 158 seems t h a t f o r many women th e r e m ust h a v e b een d u rin g t h i s tim e a grow ing amount o f l e i s u r e tim e and an in c r e a s in g d e s i r e f o r c u lt u r e ,, A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s — E conom ics and I n d u s t r i a l H is t o r y , I n c lu d in g Geography (S ee F ig u r e 21+) At th e o u t s e t o f t h i s stu d y s t a t i s t i c s f o r a l l th r e e s u b j e c t s w ere com bined. T h is co m b in a tio n had two e f f e c t s : (1) i t n e c e s s i t a t e d p o stp o n in g s e p a r a t e a n a l y s i s u n t i l th e Board o f E d u c a tio n began making a v a i la b l e f i g u r e s f o r each s u b j e c t i n d iv i d u a l ly (2) i t made n e c e s s a r y th e com b ining o f th e s e p a r a t e s t a t i s t i c s in o rd er to p r e s e r v e th e c o n t i n u i t y o f th e o r i g i n a l group u n t i l the end o f th e s t u d y . The f i r s t group to be exam ined in c lu d e s a l l th r e e s u b j e c t s „ The l a r g e s t e n r o llm e n t o f s tu d e n ts in th e s u b j e c t s o f e c o n o m ic s, i n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y , and geograp h y was in th e o n e -y e a r and te r m in a l c o u r s e s . A lth ou gh i t was n o t th e l a r g e s t to b e g in w ith ( 3 , 0 5 9 ) i t s h ig h p o in t (5>Ol6) in 1931 and c o n c lu d in g f i g u r e ( 3 *1 +3 1 ) w ere th e l a r g e s t . The f i n a l number was an in c r e a s e o f 3 7 2 , a p e r c e n ta g e g a in o f 12 p er c e n t o f th e o r i g i n a l number. One w ould e x p e c t t h e s e s u b j e c t s to a t t r a c t la r g e numbers o f s t u d e n t s in a p e r io d when th e E n g lis h economy seemed to be f a l t e r i n g , and th e r a p id r i s e to th e 1 9 3 1 peak would su p p o rt t h a t e x p e c t a t i o n . But th e su b seq u e n t T/vao/AA/Dr f92(o '27 '26 29 '6 0 '61 'z>l '^ 5 ' 64- '6 5 '66 '5 7 ECONOMICS & INDUSTRIAL HISTORY— INCL. GEOGRAPHY 2 p52. -» « 7 < 3 --&6.47I -2.517 - 2 6 - !.£'/• 1,926 - I.15Z - s r s / o 1,60 9 ■ X ? ? ^C/A^eAJ Figure 2h -0 ,1 1 4 + 4 0 0 + 5 f c .O /» + 619 t 6 4 .7 jo -------» & 2 9 -----------* 5 6 4 '\1<p -*141 - 1 (o-7 jo 4 <bt>.5 '/£ -------- 2 4 6 -*176 v 2-5 4 .6 °/oy- u 160 d e c li n e , even though th e f i n a l f ig u r e was s l i g h t l y g r e a te r than the b eg in n in g o n e, n e a r ly n egated th e in c r e a s e . N e v e r th e le s s , the o n e -y ea r and term in al c l a s s e s did show a g a in . The r e l a t i v e sm a lln e ss o f th e in c r e a s e may im ply th a t the amount o f t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r e s t remained about th e same. Perhaps th e person whose l i f e was a f f e c t e d by economic d e p r e ssio n took a more d ir e c t p ath towards change, p r e fe r in g to do som ething about h i s s i t u a t i o n r a th e r than th e n a t io n 's problem . W ithin th e group the men outnumbered th e women, b eg in n in g a t 2 , 3^5 and endin g at 2 , 3 1 7 * a d e c re a se o f 28 or 1 per c e n t o f the o r i g i n a l number. The number o f women in c r e a se d from 71))- to 1,111}., a g a in o f J 4 .O O or 56 per c e n t . T h eir g a in , c o n t r a s t in g w ith th e d e c lin e in m en's e n r o l l m ents, i s c o n s is t e n t w ith t h e i r p a tte r n o f growth in o th e r o n e-y ea r and term in a l c o u r s e s . I t should be n o te d , more o v e r , th a t t h e i r f i n a l number, in c lu d in g t h e i r in c r e a s e , Is s t i l l l e s s than th e m en 's. I t can be e a s i e r to grow la r g e r i f one i s sm all to b e g in w ith . The second l a r g e s t group was th a t o f th e u n iv e r s i t y p r ep a ra to ry , th ree year and advanced t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s . They were the l a r g e s t (3*830) to b e g in w ith ; t h e i r num b ers g r a d u a lly d ecrea sed u n t i l the end a t 2 , 5 5 2 , a d e c re a se o f 1,278* a l o s s o f 33 P©r c e n t o f th e f i r s t number. The p rep aratory c l a s s e s had th e h ig h e s t sta n d a rd s, and in th e se s u b je c ts th ey had a ls o the h ig h e s t l o s s e s . This 161 d ecrease, coming as i t did at the most academic l e v e l of fu rth er education, has s p e c ia l s ig n if ic a n c e „ I t su ggests a d e c lin e in in t e r e s t , i f not a r e je c tio n of the t r a d i tio n a l approach to these subjects,. In terms of s e x e s , the men outnumbered women by a su b sta n tia l number, beginning at 3 , 0 7 5 , and a fte r a s l i g h t dip and r i s e , f a l l i n g to 1,923 at the end. This f i n a l fig u r e was 1 ,1 5 2 l e s s than the number o f men in th e beginning and was a decrease o f 38 Per c e n t. The number of women decreased a ls o , although not so much, beginning at 71^ and dim inishing slow ly to 629 at the end. The lo s s was 126j the decrease in terms o f percentage o f the o r ig in a l number was 17 p er c e n t. The women's enrollm ent, although i t decreased, d isp layed a s u b s ta n tia lly sm aller shrinkage than the men's group. The f a c t th a t both sid e s dim inished supports the in feren ce that both groups were r ea c tin g to sim ila r changes. The f a c t that the men's c la s s e s underwent a markedly g rea ter decrease su ggests that there may have been a d iffe r e n c e in the amount o f rea ction to the changes. The sm a lle st group of students taking c la s s e s in economics, in d u s tr ia l h is t o r y , and geography was th at in the u n iv e r sity ex ten sio n c o u r se s0 . Their population was ip93 to b egin w ith , climbed to a peak of 1,309 in 1931 * and decreased to 812, an o v e r a ll gain o f 319 or 65 per cent a t the end of the period,. 162 Apparently th ese su b jects managed to m aintain and even Increase th e ir numbers w ithin the more casual framework of the u n iv e r s ity exten sion le c t u r e s . The f i n a l fig u r e , rep resen tin g a g a in , does not reveal the much higher peak in 1931» This sharp r is e and f a l l su ggests that there may have been a surge o f in t e r e s t sh o r tly a fte r the crash of the United S ta te s , and the in te r n a tio n a l tremors co in cid en t w ith i t . The number of men was the la r g e r , beginning at 1 *2 3, reaching a top of 911 in 1931, f in is h in g at 561*, an in crease of 11*1 or 33 per c e n t. There were 70 women at the o u tset; t h is number had grown to i t s peak (398) in 1931« At the end i t had shrunk to 21*8, a gain of 179 or 251* per c e n t. These percentages have s ig n ific a n c e , for they do r e f l e c t p roportionate in c r e a se , but they are somewhat exaggerated by the sm allness of the groups. However, on the b a sis of both numbers and p ercen tages, women as a group showed the g r e a te s t in c r e a se . Again, one should r e c a ll that E n g lish s o c ie t y 's a ttitu d e towards women who p a r tic ip a te d in v o c a tio n a l and educational a c t i v i t i e s wa3 undergoing a change between the wars. Then, to o , there must have been a snow balling e f f e c t . In a c la s s where there were very few women, the pressure a g a in st them must have been much greater than th a t in a c la s s where they had e sta b lish e d the stren gth of a siz e a b le female 163 group. A n a ly sis o f In d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s - - Economics (See F ig u re s 25* 26) In 1931, th e combined s t a t i s t i c s o f c la s s e s in econom ics, in d u s t r ia l h i s t o r y and geography were sep arated in to in d iv id u a l r e p o r t s . C on seq u en tly, in a d d itio n to examining th e s t a t i s t i c s fo r the combined groups f o r th e t o t a l p e r io d , we can a ls o examine th e in d iv id u a l s u b je c ts fo r the p erio d 1931 to 1937» In 1931 th e l a r g e s t number o f stu d en ts In econom ics were e n r o lle d in one year and term in al c o u r s e s . As in a l l o f the groups ta k in g econ om ics, t h e ir numbers s t e a d i l y decreased u n t i l th e end o f the p erio d o f stu d y . There were 2 , 971} - stu d e n ts to b e g in w ith ; the number had d im in ish ed to 1 ,5 0 8 a t th e end. The d e crea se was 1 , 24.66 or i+9 per c e n t. On th e b a s is o f t h i s sh o r te r p e r io d , we can se e th a t econom ics was unm istakably d e c r e a sin g in p o p u la r it y , l o s i n g m ost h e a v ily in th e on e-year and term in a l programs. The e x p la n a tio n f o r th e d ecrea se seems to be much th e same as th a t fo r the p r e v io u s ly d is c u s s e d combined grou p s, o n ly now we can narrow down to econom ics the r e j e c t i o n of t r a d i t io n a l academic c o n te n t and a b s tr a c t s o lu tio n s fo r p a in fu l and p r e se n t r e a l i t y . W ithin th e group th ere were 2 ,2 69 men i n i t i a l l y . This number had f a l l e n to 1 ,1 1 0 , l o s i n g 1 ,1 5 9 or 5 l p er c e n t . The women numbered 705 to b e g in w ith ; a t th e end T '/soos’ j u o r ECONOMICS & ND. HISTORY- INCLUDING - GEOGRAPHY J 3 ,0 5 9 1,057 _ _ H q . Figure 25 J~ I9}l 32 33 34 35 37 _C0N0MICS (C O N 'r 0/C ecoA/oAf/cz * / *£>. /j/s r o x r - 4 * 0 4 * * />a/y) 2 ,9 7 - o /89<J-1 ,056. < 4 , 1 0 8 ~/4Ci - 4 9.3 % "*/pyS - 7 * 2 - 3 3 -57o iy/0 -//59 ~5/jy» j?o& -SSZ -SOJ% _o398 -307 - O . ^ r -29 3 - 43.3 - 379 -So.4.y» /35 -'2>3 - 49.6 Z(*8 I a ,« Figure 26 166 th e re were 398, a l o s s o f 307 or i|4 p er c e n t . T heir d e c r e a se was the s m a lle r , n u m e r ic a lly and by p e r c e n ta g e . T heir m utual d e c r e a s e s may r e f l e c t the same c a u s e s , but th e d if f e r e n c e in amount o f d e c re a se may be e x p la in e d by the o f f s e t t i n g e f f e c t which women's grow ing em an cip ation would h a v e . E conom ics, even though becoming somewhat o u t o f f a s h io n , was s t i l l a new area o f knowledge to be shared w ith male s t u d e n t s . The group o f s tu d e n ts ta k in g econom ics in p re p a r a to r y , th r e e -y e a r and advanced t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s was the second l a r g e s t to b e g in w ith (2,95>2) but was th e l a r g e s t a t the end ( 1 , 8 9 6 ) . I t s d e c r e a se was 1,05>6 or 36 per c e n t . The m ost s e r io u s program su r v iv e d , b u t i t , to o , shows the in road s o f d e c r e a sin g e n r o llm e n ts . I t seems s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t a t the end o f th e p e r io d th e p rep a ra to ry c l a s s e s would emerge th e l a r g e s t group. Perhaps we can i n f e r from th a t th a t th e a t t r i t i o n was p r o p o r tio n a te ly low er in th o se c l a s s e s where th e stu d e n ts had s tr o n g e r m o tiv a tio n cou p led w ith lo n g -r a n g e a m b itio u s. I t was much e a s i e r to drop o u t o f a o n e-y ea r and ter m in a l program than I t was from a t u t o r i a l c l a s s . I t may h ave been th a t th o s e w ith th e deeper in s ig h t to be g a in ed from exten d ed stu d y were l e s s l i k e l y to r e j e c t econ o m ics. W ithin th e group th e r e were more men than women. There were 2 ,2 7 8 men in 1 9 3 1 J t h i s number had shrunk to 167 1 , $ 1 $ a t th e end, l o s i n g 7 63 or 3^ per c e n t . The number o f women was 67) 4 .; t h i s had low ered to 3 8 1 by th e en d , a d e c r e a se o f 293 or I 4 J4 . per c e n t . C le a r ly a m in o r it y , th e women fo llo w e d a f a m i li a r p a tt e r n o f d e c r e a s e . A lthough th e m en's p e r c e n ta g e l o s s was sm a lle r , n u m e r ic a lly men dropped over tw ic e as many stu d e n ts* The u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n c o u r se s in econom ics had th e s m a lle s t e n r o llm e n t. There were 1 ,0 2 0 in th e b e g in n in g and 508 a t th e en d . The l o s s was $ 1 2 or $0 p er c e n t . Of th e t o t a l group the men a ccou n ted f o r th e l a r g e s t number, b e g in n in g w ith 7 $ 2 , ending w ith 373* and l o s i n g 379 or $ 0 p er c e n t . The women d u rin g th e same p e r io d began w ith 2 6 8 , dropped to 135> and l o s t 1 3 3 or $0 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r o r i g i n a l p o p u la tio n . For b oth men and women as s e p a r a te g r o u p s, econom ics fa r e d p o o r ly in th e u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n c l a s s e s . There seem s to be v e ry l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in p e r c e n ta g e l o s s when we make t h a t s e p a r a t io n , and the groups are so sm a ll as to make i t d i f f i c u l t to a t t r i b u t e g r e a t w e ig h t to t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a l . The ca u se f o r t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y in d e c r e a se i s n o t u n fa m ilia r : u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n c o u r s e s made l e s s str en u o u s demands on two groups which p rob ab ly had about th e same amounts o f l e i s u r e tim e* There were few er w orking c l a s s men in t h i s g ro u p . 168 A n a ly s is o f I n d i v i d u a l S u b j e c t s — I n d u s t r i a l H is t o r y (S ee F ig u r e s 2 7 » 28) L ik e e c o n o m ic s, i n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y i s a s u b j e c t f o r w h ic h s e p a r a t e s t a t i s t i c s f o r th e p e r io d ( 1 9 3 l “37) a re a v a i l a b l e o D u rin g t h i s tim e t h e l a r g e s t number o f s t u - d e n ts w ere e n r o l l e d in o n e - y e a r and t e r m in a l c o u r s e s . There were 1,365> s t u d e n ts t o b e g in w i t h . In t h e se co n d y e a r th e group had r e a c h e d i t s l o w e s t e n r o llm e n t , 8I 4 J 4 .* At th e end t h e r e w ere 1 , 1 3 6 , a l o s s o f 229 or 17 p e r c e n t . A p p a r e n tly eco n o m ics and i n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y had i n common a d e c l i n i n g a p p e a l d u r in g t h i s p e r io d . P erhaps i n a d d i t io n to th e i m p l i c i t i r o n y i n s t u d y in g s u b j e c t s w h ich seem ed to h a v e come up w it h an sw ers w hich w ere in a d e q u a te o r I n a p p l i c a b l e , t h e r e was an Im p ortan t a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e . M a n sb rid g e, S t o c k s , and R aybould m e n tio n t h e d e c l i n e o f th e e n th u s ia s m t h a t f i r e d th e e a r l y s tu d e n ts , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e i n th e W .E.A. t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s . Keep i n mind t h a t th e r e was i n 1903 and th e s u c c e e d in g d ecad e a k in d o f r e l i g i o u s f e r v o r a b o u t e d u c a t io n f o r w o r k e r s . E d u c a tio n was t o g i v e w ork ers t h e t o o l s to a l l e v i a t e t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . C o n se q u e n tly two s t u d i e s w ou ld b e o f s p e c i a l v a lu e f o r t h i s p u rp o se: eco n o m ics and I n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y . ... In t h e two d e c a d e s t h a t f o l l o w e d i t was i n c r e a s i n g l y e v id e n t t h a t no g e n e r a l r e n o v a tio n o f th e economy h a d ta k e n p l a c e . I n d i v i d u a ls h a d r i s e n , to be s u r e , b u t any g e n e r a l movement o f t h e lo w e r c l a s s e s was ECONOMICS & IND. HIS TORY - INCLUDING - GEOGRAPHY 1,057 755 --*234 Figure 27 T n d u s t r i a l h is t o r y 55 56 ' s7 1,361 \ . v-u 6 7 7 \ r v r / ^ 5 6 2 . |00 . 79 lOO x-------- fcSx^^- ~ — ~ 1 ^ 5 6 -229 - 1 6.6 # 779 + 5 5 + 4 .4 ° / > - o S 57 - 262 - 4 2 .5 ^ 510 - 1/9 - 27.7^> 206 - 12/ - 5 6 . a : + Z + 2 % 106 + 5 6 * £ 5 .9 % •*40 + 6 * 25% Figure 2 8 171 alm ost im p ercep tib le* There were more men than women* There were 7U-6 men to b e g in w ith ; t h i s number ranged between a bottom of ££9 (1932) and a top o f 877 (1933) to f i n i s h a t 779 fo r a g a in o f 33 or I 4 . per cent* During the same p erio d th e number of women e n r o lle d d ecreased from 619 to 28^ ( 1 9 3 2) and ended a t 33> 7 > which was 262 or ip 2 per c e n t l e s s than the i n i t i a l fig u r e,, S ep aration of the two groups does provide us w ith an in t e r e s t in g phenomenon* The o v e r a ll d ecrease becomes a la r g e d ecrease in th e number of.women and a s l i g h t ga in in th e number o f men* There were probably enough men l e f t in the la b o r movement to preven t a l o s s in enrollm en t, although the g a in was s l i g h t by comparison w ith o th er s u b j e c t s . However, there, were few er women in the labor movement and e v id e n t ly more who p referred the more a b s tr a c t s u b je c t, econom ics, • to th e stu d y o f in d u s tr ia l h i s t o r y . The second la r g e s t group was th a t o f the stu d en ts ta k in g h i s t o r y in p rep aratory, th ree year and advanced t u t o r ia l c l a s s e s . There were lp29 of them in 1931* Although th e number grew to a peak of £62 in 1932, by the end o f the p eriod o f the study i t had dropped to 3 10, a d ecrea se o f 119 or 28 per c e n t. One can in te r p r e t t h i s l o s s to mean th a t th e re w a s.a drop in the i n t e r e s t o f the more se r io u s stu d en ts as w e ll as th ose in th e term inal and on e-year c o u r s e s . The causes are probably much the same— 172 a com bination o f disenchantm ent and a tr a n s fe r o f I n t e r e s t to o th e r f i e l d s o Of t h i s group th e m a jo r ity were men, 329 o f them a t f i r s t , lp.5 o f them in 1932, and 208 o f them f i n a l l y a drop o f 121 or 37 per c e n t . The number o f women rem ained f a i r l y s t a b l e , b e g in n in g a t 1 0 0 , rea ch in g II4.7 in 1932, and c lo s in g a t 102 fo r a g a in o f 2 or 2 per c e n t . Once more i t i s found th a t se p a r a te grouping reveals a d if f e r e n c e betw een the g e n e r a l p a tte r n and th e se p a r a te co u r ses o f male and fem ale e n r o llm e n ts. There was a s i z e a b le drop in th e number o f men, b u t a m inu scu le g a in f o r women e n r o lle e s # How can t h i s c o n tr a s t be ex p la in ed ? These are the m ost d i f f i c u l t c l a s s e s , ones w hich demand the l a r g e s t amount o f tim e and e f f o r t . Thus, a d ecrea sed g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t i s l i k e l y to a f f e c t e n r o llm en ts m ost m arkedly in th o se c l a s s e s w herein m o tiv a tio n h a s to be a t i t s h i g h e s t . Remember th a t th e r e were o n ly a hundred women to b eg in w ith ; i t can be assumed t h a t t h i s to p ic would a t t r a c t a more d e d ic a te d group r a th e r than th o se se a rc h in g f o r c u lt u r a l improvement. The u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n c o u r ses had th e s m a lle s t en r o llm en ts in i n d u s t r ia l h i s t o r y . The t o t a l group number ed 100 a t th e o u ts e to A lthough i t clim bed as h ig h as 219 in 193 6 , i t ended a t II4 .6 , an in c r e a se o f 1 ^ .6 or !p6 per c e n t. This r i s e , c o n tr a s tin g as i t does w ith th e l o s s e s o f th e o th e r two grou p s, i s probably lin k e d to th e s o c i a l l e v e l 173 o f th e s tu d e n t p o p u la t io n . The u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n c o u r s e s w ere more l i k e l y to a t t r a c t s tu d e n ts who, i f n o t o f m iddle c l a s s o r i g i n , d id h ave m iddle c l a s s a s p i r a t i o n s . They a ls o had more l e i s u r e tim e and, than ks to th e r e l a t i v e a b sen ce o f h ard p h y s ic a l la b o r , more p h y s ic a l en ergy a t th e end o f a w orking d a y . These c o u r s e s a l s o demanded th e l e a s t amount o f homework, so t h a t each e v e n in g was more o r l e s s a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d u n i t o f l e c t u r e , unaccompanied by th e la r g e amounts o f o u t s id e r ea d in g w ith w hich t u t o r i a l s t u d e n ts had to w r e s t l e . About t w o - t h ir d s o f th e group were men. In 1931 th e r e w ere 68; in 1936 t h e r e were 1 5 7 » a t th e end th e r e were 1 0 6 , a g a in o f 38 o r 56 p er c e n t . The number o f women a l s o showed an i n c r e a s e , s t a r t i n g w it h 3 2 , r e a c h in g a h ig h o f 79 in 1 9 3 2 , and f i n i s h i n g a t 1^.0, a g a in o f 8 o r 25 p e r c e n t o f th e o r i g i n a l f i g u r e . S e p a r a te a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t s t h a t , a lth o u g h th e numbers o f b oth men and women in c r e a s e d , the e x te n s io n l e c t u r e s a t t r a c t e d men i n in c r e a s in g numbers u n t i l 1 9 3 6 , w hereas th e number o f women rea ch ed i t s h ig h f i v e y e a r s e a r l i e r . I t may be in f e r r e d from t h i s d i s p a r i t y t h a t th e l e c t u r e s had f o r th e men o f t h i s group a r i s i n g p op u lar a p p ea l u n t i l a s h o r t tim e b e f o r e World War I I . On the o th e r h a n d , f o r th e women, i n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y seems to have b een l o s i n g th e a t t r a c t i o n t h a t i t had in th e mid d e p r e s s io n year o f 1931» A n a ly s is or I n d iv id u a l C l a s s e s - - Geography (See F ig u r e s 29* 30) The t h ir d and l a s t o f th e s u b j e c t s f o r w h ich s h o r t e r term ( 1 9 3 1 - 3 7 ) s t a t i s t i c s a r e a v a i la b l e i s g eo g ra p h y . The l a r g e s t number o f s tu d e n ts ta k in g geograp h y w ere e n r o lle d in one y ea r and te r m in a l c o u r se so There w ere 677 to b e g in w ith and 7 6 7 a t th e end, a g a in o f 1 1 0 o r 16 p e r c e n t . T his g a in i s to be e x p e c te d , i f we p a u se t o lo o k a t what was ta k in g p la c e in th e o u t s id e w o r ld , M u s s o lin i was c a r v in g ou t an I t a l i a n Em pire; H i t l e r was d i r e c t i n g an a g g r e s s iv e German e x p a n sio n ; th e Jap an ese m i l i t a r i s t le a d e r s were exp an d in g e a stw a r d . Geography became more i n t e r e s t i n g when i t was background t o e v e n ts w h ich im pinged th e m se lv e s on th e B r i t i s h th rou gh new spaper h e a d l i n e s . W ith in t h i s group th e r e w ere more men th an women, 380 a t th e s t a r t and J 4.28 a t th e en d , an in c r e a s e o f 1L }_ 8 or 39 p er c e n t . The number o f women a l s o in c r e a s e d ; t h e i r group s t a r t e d w ith 297 and grew to 3 5 9 * g a in in g 6 2 or 21 p er c e n t . N u m e r ic a lly and by p e r c e n ta g e , men as a group d is p la y e d th e l a r g e r i n c r e a s e . T h eir d i r e c t c o n t a c t w ith geography was l i k e l y to become th e more i n t i m a t e . A lso th e in c r e a s in g tempo o f th e i n t e r n a t io n a l f r i c t i o n s p ro b a b ly a rou sed a more l i v e l y r e sp o n se in t h e m ale, s t im u la t in g an i n t e r e s t i n g eo g ra p h y . The seco n d l a r g e s t group was t h a t o f th e p r e p a r a t o r y , th r e e - y e a r and advanced t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s . T h eir -7-//OC/S4 S J O f m t> V 7 6 '29 '10 ECONOMICS & IND HISTORY-jNCL .GEOGRAPHY 3- 1 - o H -J v n Figure 29 7y/Ot/fAAJO£ 1 9 3 1 '3 £ '33 '34 '35 '3 < £ > '37 G EOGRAPHY , £ t h £ c a t j 'r opr £ C o /jo a a ic / SA/CL W JTO & V //UC£ $£C>4-/2AP#y J I - -rorA<-, e> n y 7& 7 ■mo + 1 6 .2 f° 0 . 3<50»— 29 7 119 91 M OJueu r/e*//££ 30 -® 4 2 < 2 > _ «,a.9 76 -o 55p f < £ ,2 , • 1 10.9 /. 54(3 + ,7^ + 10/. 2/* - < 2 0 0 + <5/ + 6*. I ^ ISA - 3/ " = is ^ r * j - 25.5/4 146 + 93 175.5 ^ "6 ■ £ > ■ 6 Y ‘ M O n 177 number grew from 1 7 2 to 3M >» gain in g 17l(. or 101 per c e n t. Evaluated as percentage or num erical g a in s, th ese in creases are m a n ifestly la r g e r than those o f e ith e r o f the other two groups o f c la s s e s . The growth in the number o f s e r io u s ly in te r e ste d stu dents may r e f l e c t the breadth of the r is in g sta tu r e of geography, fo r th ese rep resen t the most academi c a lly minded o u tsid e o f u n iv e r sity w a lls . Within the preparatory, three-year and advanced tu t o r ia l c la s s e s there were more men than women. In the beginning there were 119 men; a t the end there were 200, an in crea se o f 81 or 68 per c e n t. The number o f women grew during the same period; i n i t i a l l y th ere were 53* f i n a l l y llj.6, which r e fle c t e d a gain o f 93* or 176 per c e n t. Note th a t th ere was a g reater r is e in the number and percentage o f women stu d e n ts. They sta r te d with a group l e s s than o n e-h a lf as la r g e as the m en's, which would make a percentage in crease e a s ie r . N ev erth eless, i t seems evid en t th at even in the most demanding c la s s e s in geo graphy, as in s o c ie t y the b a r r ie rs a g a in st women f e l l , the number of women stu dents grew. The sm a lle st group, th a t o f the students taking u n iv e r s ity ex ten sio n c o u rses, was the only one of the three to show a decreaseo I t began w ith 189 stu dents and ended w ith 158, a l o s s o f 31 or 16 per cento I t seems a b i t puzzling that in any group there should be a decrease In geography enrollm ents. There 178 seem to be two l i k e l y e x p la n a tio n s . One i s d erived from the in c r e a s in g governm ental and in d u s t r ia l demand f o r employees w ith some g eo g ra p h ica l background. This p ressu re would n o t d ecrease th e number o f stu d e n ts; i f a n y th in g , i t would tend to in c r e a se i t 0 However, tr a n s fe r o f the knowledgeable p o p u la tio n from the classroom to govern ment or in d u str y would d e p le te the ranks o f the u n iv e r s it y in s t r u c t o r s . And w ith a d ecrea se in th e ir numbers would come decreased a v a i l a b i l i t y o f tra in ed l e c t u r e r s . The e f f e c t o f a drop in t h e ir p o p u la tio n would be m a g n ified , fo r each absen t le c t u r e r would be m u ltip lie d by a number o f p o t e n t ia l s tu d e n ts . A second e x p la n a tio n r e l a t e s to what was tak in g p la c e w ith in the o th er two groups. The preparatory and the term in al groups were growing r a p id ly . I t seems p la u s ib l e th a t some of t h e ir stu d en ts may have been drawn from the ranks o f the p o t e n t ia l u n iv e r s ity e x te n sio n s tu d e n ts . The numbers in the e x te n s io n cou rses were so sm all as to r e f l e c t in an exaggerated fa sh io n what would be minor d e c re a ses in c l a s s e s numbering hundreds. In t h i s group th e r e were i n i t i a l l y more women than men. To b eg in w ith there were 98 women, but t h i s number decreased to 73* dropping 25 or 26 per c e n t . The number o f men during t h i s time a ls o dropped from 91 to 85, a l o s s o f 6 or 7 P©r c e n t. / 17 9 A n a ly s is o f In d iv id u a l S u b je c t s — G eneral H is to r y (See F ig u re 31) The l a r g e s t number o f stu d e n ts were ta k in g g e n e r a l h is t o r y w ith in th e one year and term in al c o u r s e s . This group s ta r t e d w ith 1,2^ 2 and a f t e r s e v e r a l d ip s and r i s e s , ended a t th e peak o f 1|.,399, an in c r e a se o f 3 , 114-7 or 2]p2 per cen t o f the o r i g i n a l number. The tr u n c a tio n o f th e graphic e x p r e ssio n o f th e t o t a l in c r e a se m inim izes th e r a p id it y and d is ta n c e o f th e growth o f the o v e r a ll e n r o l l ment in h i s t o r y c l a s s e s . The expansion i s o u tsta n d in g ; the e x p la n a tio n i s t h r e e - f o ld . There w as, fo r o n e , th e n atu re o f the su b je c t i t s e l f . H is to r y , l i k e l i t e r a t u r e , made the l e a s t demand fo r p r e r e q u is it e cou rse work. I t s appeal was a broad o n e , ex ten d in g a c r o ss the boundary l i n e s o f m ost v o c a tio n s . S e c o n d ly , th ere was th e c u lt u r a l c o n te n t. In a p erio d when an expanding stratum o f s o c i e t y was becoming more c o n sc io u s o f a r t and m usic and h i s t o r y , a l b e i t in a w atered down and p o p u la r iz ed form , th e re was l i k e l y to be a broad movement toward f a i r l y b r i e f co u rses such as th o se in th e o n e-y ea r and term in a l program s. An in t r ig u in g p o s s i b i l i t y , u n fo r tu n a te ly one th a t r e s i s t s c o n fir m a tio n , i s th a t th e expansion i s an e x p r e s s io n o f the a t t r a c t io n o f h is t o r y i t s e l f . I t i s tru e th a t the p a s t i s o f te n stu d ie d to in t e r p r e t th e p r e se n t and to prepare f o r the f u t u r e . Granted a ls o th a t in a 180 d e p r e s s io n i t w ou ld be l o g i c a l t o t r y t o a p p ly t h e l e s s o n s o f th e p a s t in o r d e r t o im prove m an's l o t * B ut t h e r e may h a v e b e e n a n o th e r a t t r a c t i o n . There i s a l s o t h e ro m a n tic a p p e a l o f h i s t o r y , u s in g "rom antic" in th e l i t e r a r y s e n s e o f d e p a r tu r e i n tim e o r p l a c e . The " f l i c k s " o f f e r e d e s c a p e from h a r s h r e a l i t y ; th e s t u d y o f h i s t o r y in v o lv e d th e w o r ld a s one m ig h t l i k e i t to b e - - i n v o l v i n g o t h e r men who a r e v iew ed w it h an o m n is c ie n t e y e , knowing t h e i r f u t u r e * Of th e t o t a l g r o u p , th e number o f men was s m a lle r i n i t i a l l y b u t l a r g e r f i n a l l y th an th e number o f women. There w ere 599 men t o b e g in w ith ; t h i s number grew to 2,1+12 by th e end o f th e p e r io d , h a v in g g a in e d 1 ,8 1 3 o r 3 0 3 p e r c e n t o f th e o r i g i n a l num ber. The women s t a r t e d w ith 653 i n t h e i r g r o u p , f i n i s h i n g w ith 1 , 9 8 7 , a g a in o f 1,331+ n u m e r ic a lly and 20i|. p e r c e n t i n term s o f th e o r i g i n a l s i z e . The men h e l d th e edge b o th n u m e r ic a lly and in p e r c e n t a g e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , b o th g rou p s e x h i b i t e d su ch an e x p a n s io n t h a t th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f o r th e com bined g ro u p s seem s v a l i d f o r th e two s e p a r a t e l y . The se c o n d l a r g e s t number o f s t u d e n t s w ere t h o s e ta k in g g e n e r a l h i s t o r y th rou gh p r e p a r a to r y , t h r e e - y e a r and ad van ced t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s 0 The t o t a l b e g in n in g grou p o f 9 8 8 r e a c h e d i t s z e n it h i n 1936 w ith 1 ,8 8 6 s t u d e n t s . The n e x t y e a r , th e l a s t , i t had dropped to 1 ,7 1 1 * an i n c r e a s e o f 723 o r 73 p e r c e n t . T h is g a i n , a lth o u g h n o t |92&> 27 ' 2 6 * 2 9 ' 5 0 ' S i ' a a ' a s ' 3 4 ' y £ * Sfe ' s i GENERAL HISTORY / 2*412 , > Id 5 . + s o e .7 * /* /\9«7 , *I334 , + 204.3^ I — JK I224 *-900 * 3 * 5 4 > > /< - • /0 7 9 ,-*4/* *62.7*/, 1149 757 ,■ * S c >7 , + 9 4 . 5 ^ ^LC6A ,<-34-0,-* 125,6c /a ------ —* 0 > 2 C > ,*• 4 (9 ( J - ZO S.S'/o 1 ~ & T £ a/ 2ol 67! 00 H O 182 so s p e c t a c u la r as t h a t o f th e ter m in a l and o n e -y e a r c o u r s e s , i s n o n e t h e le s s con son an t w ith th e o v e r a l l expan s i o n in h i s t o r y c o u r se s * I t shows t h a t th e r e was a g a in in th e lo n g -te r m stu d y by r e l a t i v e l y a c a d e m ic a lly o r ie n t e d s t u d e n t s • Of th e t o t a l group th e men were i n th e m a jo rity * They s t a r t e d w ith 633 and had grown to 1 , 114.9 by th e n e x t to l a s t year* The l a s t yea r brough t w ith i t a d e c r e a s e to 1 ,0 7 9 , w hich was 14.16 or 63 p er c e n t g r e a t e r than th e f i r s t number. There were 325 women a t th e s t a r t , 737 in 1936* and 6 3 2 th e f i n a l year* This was an in c r e a s e o f 3 0 7 » or 95 p e r c e n t . T his h ig h e r p e r c e n ta g e i s somewhat d e c e p t i v e . I t sh o u ld n o t be a llo w e d to mask th e n u m e r ic a l l y g r e a t e r g a in o f th e m ale gro u p . P r o p o r t io n a t e ly , th e women e x h ib it e d a h ig h e r growth r a t e . H owever, th e r e w ere a t th e end s t i l l more men e n r o lle d in th e t u t o r i a l program. The s m a lle s t number were In th e g e n e r a l h i s t o r y c o u r se s under u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s io n . T h is number was [465 a t th e o u t s e t , reach ed 1 , 214-2 a t I t s top in 1931* and ended a t 1 , 2214., show ing an in c r e a s e o f 7 5 9 , a g a in o f I 63 per c e n t over th e i n i t i a l number. T his e n r o llm en t g a in in u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n h i s t o r y c o u r se s c o n t r a s t s w ith th e drop in u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n geograp hy c o u r s e s . Perhaps th e r e was n o t any g r e a t govern m en tal or i n d u s t r i a l demand f o r l e c t u r e r s in 183 h i s t o r y . I t seems l i k e l y t h a t h i s t o r y as a s u b j e c t en jo y ed g r e a t e r p r e s t i g e w it h in th e group who a tte n d e d u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s io n l e c t u r e s . The ap p eal seem s to h ave been so broad t h a t t h e o t h e r two groups c o u ld expand d r a s t i c a l l y w ith o u t any a p p r e c ia b le e f f e c t on th e u n iv e r s i t y e x te n s io n c l a s s e s . The women outnumbered th e men t o b e g in w it h , 26l\, to 2 0 1 , b u t th e s i t u a t i o n had b een r e v e r s e d by th e l a s t y e a r , when th e r e were 620 men and 6 0I 4 . women, d e s p it e th e f a c t t h a t th e number o f women had rea c h e d 671 in 1931• The men had g a in e d I 4 .1 9 or 209 p e r c e n t; th e women had g a in e d 3^-0 or 129 p er c e n t . T h is s h i f t i n m a j o r i t i e s s e r v e s as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f th e v a lu e o f i n t e r i o r a n a l y s i s f o r had th e women h e ld t h e i r 1931 p o p u la tio n , w h ich d i s p la y e d a r a p id g a in , t h e i r s would h ave b een th e la r g e r g ro u p . I n any c a s e , b o th groups g a in e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y . The m ale stu d e n t e n r o llm e n t * e x h ib itin g the more im p r e s siv e grow th , may r e f l e c t a d is p r o p o r tio n a t e in c r e a s e o f l e i s u r e tim e f o r one segm ent o f th e B r i t i s h p o p u la tio n , i f i t i s assum ed t h a t th e u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n c l a s s e s had a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h p r o p o r tio n o f th e m id d le c l a s s p o p u la tio n . A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l C l a s s e s - - A e s t h e t i c s (See F ig u r e 32) The l a r g e s t number o f s tu d e n ts were ta k in g a e s t h e t i c s in one year and te r m in a l c o u r s e s . The group numbered 1 ,1 0 2 in 1 9 2 6 . By th e end of th e p e r io d , 1937> th e r e were 1926 *27 »28 '29 *30 >31 f32 »33 *3h *35 *36 *37 A E STH E T IC S S i + I fe D A 4150.1 ' / • \< o b > & 4lt)9.5'A IfJO ’ £,,970 5 <35 T 0 7 * C 207 v o v e v iii * * * 4/0A*ie»j A A G A / Figure 32 1,086 1065 - » lto 6 4 > X ^ 5 0 5 +5/.&y. 666 1 —*656 ytr&Jc, .,5 7 9 + 5 0 3 + 1 0 Q -8 J C , i<57 4100 + = > 4.6 7 ° 2.99 1<58 1 i4U'/o g £- 2 ,7 5 6 , a g a in o f 1,651+ o r 150 p e r c e n t , Thl3 dram atic grow th in th e number o f s tu d e n ts ta k in g c o u r se s in m usic and a r t a p p r e c ia tio n o r the developm ent o f a r t i s t i c t a s t e may come as a s u r p r i s e , e s p e c i a l l y when one r e c a l l s Chapter I I I and i t s d e l in e a t i o n o f the d e p r e s s io n y e a r s . Remember, th ou gh , t h a t th e r e were s e v e r a l E n glan ds; concom m itantly w ith th e despondency o f two m i l l i o n unemployed th e re was th e r e l a t i v e p r o s p e r it y o f some o f th o se in b u s in e s s e s l e s s a f f e c t e d by th e d e p r e s s io n . C le a r ly th e r e was a g a in in th e s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n ; th e c a u se s f o r th e growth may be found in th e grow ing m idd le c l a s s t a s t e f o r c u lt u r e and in the n a tu re o f a e s t h e t i c s c o u r s e s . Perhaps even more so than l i t e r a t u r e , c e r t a i n l y more so than h i s t o r y , a e s t h e t i c s co u ld have claim ed to make a m inim al demand upon th e s t u d e n t 's form a l e d u c a tio n a l background. T his was a d i s t i n c t a d v a n ta g e • W ithin th e group th e r e were more women than men. I n i t i a l l y th e r e were 697 women; t h i s number grew to 1 ,6 6 8 , a g a in o f 971 or 139 p e r c e n t . The number o f men expanded from 2+05 to 1 , 0 8 8 , an in c r e a s e o f 6 8 3 , or 169 per c e n t . Though th e m en's p e r c e n ta g e o f g a in was h ig h e r , a e s t h e t i c s was c l e a r l y th e women's dom ain. One would e x p e c t t h i s to have been a s e x - lin k e d e n r o llm e n t. What comes as a s u r p r is e i s the pronounced grow th in th e number o f men e n r o lle d in a e s t h e t i c s . Perhaps the d if f e r e n c e i s a 186 c u ltu r a l one, a e s t h e t ic s being consid ered l e s s effem in ate in England than i t i s in the U nited S t a t e s , N e v e r th e le ss, one should not assume th a t th ese fig u r e s im ply a g r ea t body o f Englishmen ready to l i s t e n to DeBussy, During t h is time England had i t s share o f hardened P h i l l i s t l n e s j the share probably c o n s titu te d a m ajority o f the general p op u lation . The second la r g e s t number of students were e n r o lle d in u n iv e r s ity e x te n sio n c o u r se s. In 1931 there were 5^5 o f them. A fter a s e r ie s o f r is e s and d e c lin e s the f i n a l number was 888, a gain o f 303, or 52 per c e n t. Although th ere were i n i t i a l l y few er women than men in the group, th e f i r s t fig u r e of 276 grad u ally grew to 579, an increase, o f 303 or 110 per cen t g rea ter than the o r ig in a l number. During th a t time there was no t o t a l change in the number of men (309) d e sp ite a low o f 176 and a h ig h of 32I 4 - during the p erio d . The s iz e o f the t o t a l group and the male and fem ale enrollm ent p a ttern s support two in te r p r e ta tio n s : (1) there was n ot a la r g e body of stu d en ts a tten d in g u n iv e r s i t y ex ten sio n a e s t h e t ic s co u r ses, but there was an in c re a se ; and (2) there seems l i t t l e q u estion th a t what growth appeared was due to the r i s e in the number o f women. Granted th a t there had to be new male stu d en ts even fo r t h is number of men to remain s t a t i c from year to year, a e s t h e t ic s as a pathway to c u ltu re must have e x e r te d a grow ing en ticem en t to women. The s m a lle s t group o f stu d e n ts ta k in g a e s t h e t i c s were e n r o lle d in p r e p a r a to r y , th r e e -y e a r and advanced t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s . There were I 4.98 a t f i r s t 0 A fte r r e a c h ing a top o f 7 5 9 , th e en ro llm en t d r i f t e d to 686 a t the end, an in c r e a s e o f 188 or 38 per c e n t . The en ro llm en t p a tte r n in th e t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s i s e v id e n c e th a t the growth in numbers was n o t c o n fin e d to the l e s s stren u o u s and more pop u lar p r e s e n t a tio n s o f th e s u b j e c t . The group i t s e l f c o n ta in e d more women than men. In th e b e g in n in g th e re were 287 women; a f t e r rea ch in g a h ig h number o f 396 in 1928, t h e en ro llm en t rem ained r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e , g r a d u a lly dropping to 3 8?* an in c r e a s e o f 100 or 35 pen c e n t over the o r i g i n a l number. The number o f men a ls o In c r e a s e d , s t a r t in g w ith 211 and ending w ith 299* a g a in o f 88, or I 4.2 per c e n t . Note th a t h e r e , to o , th e r e was a d is p a r a te g a in in th e s i z e o f th e women's c l a s s e s . For both groups th e numbers were sm a ll to b e g in w ith and n o t huge a t th e con c lu s io n ; n e v e r t h e le s s th e women, s t a r t in g w ith th e sm a lle r e n r o llm e n t, managed to su rp a ss th e f i n a l t a l l y o f men in t u t o r i a l a e s t h e t i c s c o u r s e s . This phenomenon seems to be e x p lic a b le on th e b a s is o f the e x p la n a tio n fo r the o th e r two groups: a e s t h e t i c s was c u lt u r e , and a r i s i n g aw areness was mother to an in c r e a se d n e e d . 188 A n a ly s is o f I n d i v i d u a l C l a s s e s - - N a tu r a l S c ie n c e s (S e e F ig u r e 33) The l a r g e s t number o f s t u d e n t s w ere e n r o l l e d In th e o n e -y e a r and te r m in a l n a t u r a l s c ie n c e c o u r s e s . T here were lj.19 s t u d e n t s to b e g in w it h ; t h i s number r e a c h e d i t s z e n i t h in 1 9 3U - a t 3 ,0 ® 0 • The group ended in 1937 w ith an e n r o llm e n t o f 2 , 8 6 9 , w h ich r e p r e s e n t e d a g a in o f 2 , 1 4 - 5 0 , o r ^85 p e r c e n t . T h is g r o w th , phenom enal b o th i n num bers and p e r c e n t a g e , r e f l e c t s th e ex p an d in g s c i e n t i f i c i n t e r e s t o f th e B r i t i s h s o c i e t y in g e n e r a l . The m ass m edia d id much d u rin g th e t w e n t ie s and t h i r t i e s to p o p u la r iz e s c i e n c e . For t h e a d u lt s t u d e n t o u t s id e t h e u n i v e r s i t y w a l l s , n a t u r a l s c i e n c e was th e a r e a o f s c i e n c e l e a s t e x p e n s iv e to t e a c h and th e on e l e a s t e x p e n s iv e t o t a k e . The la b o r a to r y m a t e r i a ls l a y a l l ab ou t h im . W ith in th e group t h e r e w ere more men th a n women. There w ere 2I 4 .2 a t th e o u t s e t , 1 ,9 5 8 a t t h e p eak (1 9 3 ^ ), and 1,I}.73 a t th e e n d . The f i n a l f i g u r e c o n t a in s an in c r e a s e o f 1 ,2 3 1 o r 509 p e r c e n t . There was a r i s e in th e number o f women a l s o . S t a r t i n g a t 1 7 7 , t h e group in c r e a s e d u n t i l t h e en d , f i n i s h i n g a t 1 , 3 9 6 , an i n c r e a s e o f 1 , 2 1 9 , o r 6 8 9 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n i t i a l f i g u r e s . A e s t h e t i c s may h a v e b e e n th e woman's dom ain; n a t u r a l s c i e n c e a p p ea rs to h a v e b een th e m a n 's— i n a l l th r e e g r o u p s . In t h e o n e - y e a r and te r m in a l c o u r s e s t h i s 1922 ' 2? ' 2* l ‘> ' 5 0 NATURAL SCIENCE -V Figure 3 3 ✓ / 2,a6<> + 24Sd + £< 54-7 & /.0S3 /47a +i2 at ,, + 50(5.7/4 ^ ia s c » 41219 *68a7 /, l?>d 4 7<3/ tZ l'iA jo 75 O + G ‘ !>1 + il<5.2/i _ y 5S», ♦ 3 5 6 > H 4 .|* /o f -400(4 250 ^t&lp.T/, ^ ^ 5 5 + 2 I< / ,4157.7^ — *?o5> - + I lO |_ j *»&.'!> frag 190 p a tte r n la e v id e n t, although l e s s so than In the o th er two g ro u p s. I t seems l i k e l y th a t th e g r e a te r g a in o f the men i s an e x p r e ssio n o f th e c u ltu r a l p a tte r n i t s e l f . In E n g lish cu ltu re,m en and s c ie n c e seem to be more com p a t ib le than men and a e s t h e t i c s . I t should be p oin ted o u t, however, th a t In t h is group th e women d id make a la r g e r p ercen tage g a in , which would dem onstrate in c r e a sin g c u lt u r a l acceptance o f a fem in in e i n t e r e s t in s c ie n c e . The second l a r g e s t group was th a t o f the stu d en ts ta k in g n a tu r a l s c ie n c e cou rses In th e p rep ara tory , th r e e - year and advanced t u t o r ia l c l a s s e s . There were 3^3 o f them in the b e g in n in g , 1 ,2 1 9 a t th e top (1935)* and 1 ,1 3 0 a t th e end, which rep resen ted an in c r e a se o f 787 or 229 per c e n t. This g a in , sm all by comparison w ith th a t o f the on e-yea r and term in al c o u r se s , i s doubly s i g n i f i c a n t . I t i s a dramatic in c r e a s e , r e f l e c t i n g in another group the o u tsta n d in g r i s e in th e p o p u la r ity o f n a tu ra l s c ie n c e . But In a d d itio n the kind o f course should be c o n sid er ed . This i s n o t j u s t a r i s e in stu d e n ts l i s t e n i n g to le c t u r e s ; th ese are stu d e n ts e n r o lle d in courses which demand much more o u ts id e read in g and w r itin g fo r an extended p erio d of tim e, as lon g as th r ee years fo r many o f them. This Is more than a b r i e f response to th e p o p u la r iz a tio n o f scien ce, The m a jo rity of th e group were men, 193 to s t a r t w ith , 788 a t th e peak (1935) aod f i n a l l y 730# a*! in c r e a se o f 537# or 278 per c e n t. The women In th e group numbered 191 150 a t f i r s t , I 4 .5I a t th e top (1935) and I 4 .O O at the end, making an in c r e a se of 2$Q or 167 per cen t over the s iz e o f the o r ig in a l group0 In the t u t o r i a l cou rses an in o rd in a te in c r e a se in the number o f men stu d e n ts makes i t s appearance. Both groups r e f l e c t an ou tstan d in g growth; con seq u en tly th a t of the males has to be e s p e c ia lly la r g e in order to be s u b s t a n t ia lly the g r e a te r . These were decades o f the rapid expansion o f knowledge in n atu ral s c ie n c e . Further education d issem in ated th a t knowledge in g r e a te r depth than the newspapers and m agazines; the t u t o r ia l program aimed a t the most e x te n s iv e and in te n s iv e study fo r the student o u tsid e th e stream of h igh er ed u ca tio n . The s m a lle s t group was th a t e n r o lle d in the n a tu ra l sc ie n c e cou rses o f the u n iv e r s ity e x te n s io n . This group began a t 2 3 0* peaked a t 79ij-* and ended a t 556, an in c r e a se o f 336 or U|6 per cen t over the s i z e of the o r ig in a l group. The sm alln ess o f the i n i t i a l s i z e and growth o f th ese co u rses r e l a t i v e to th e other two groups can be in t e r preted as a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e s t r a in of o u tsid e demands on h ig h er e d u c a tio n . Both government and in d u stry were becoming more aware o f the p r a c tic a l value of train ed men in n a tu ra l s c ie n c e as w e ll as in the p h y sic a l s c ie n c e s . Thus, the r e l a t i v e l y sm all ( s t i l l in i t s e l f s u b s ta n tia l) in c re a se may show the p ressu re on teachin g p erso n n el. In a d d itio n there was the pressure from the u n iv e r s it ie s 192 t h e m s e l v e s , who h a d f i r s t c a l l o n l e c t u r e r s , w i t h i n o r w it h o u t th e w a l l s 0 I t s h o u ld a l s o b e r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e r e w as n o g r e a t d e s i r e on t h e p a r t o f t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s to e n c o u r a g e u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s i o n p rog ram s* T h ere w ere some d e d i c a t e d p e o p l e i n t h e f i e l d , b u t e x t e n s i o n w ork I n t h e e y e s o f t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s was a r a t h e r g r u b b y a f f a i r , to b e k e p t i n a c l e a r l y s u b o r d i n a t e s t a t u s and t o be h a n d le d i n a som ew hat g r u d g in g f a s h i o n . T h ese a t t i t u d e s w ere n o t p e c u l i a r to E n g l i s h h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . I n t h e U n it e d S t a t e s t h e r e w ere o u t s t a n d in g u n i v e r s i t i e s , s u c h a s W is c o n s in , w h ic h em b raced th e c o n c e p t o f t h e b r o a d e s t p o s s i b l e u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s i o n a c t i v i t i e s . B u t t h e r e w ere t h e n , a s now , o t h e r A m erica n u n i v e r s i t i e s w h ic h t o o k a r a t h e r s n o b b is h a t t i t u d e to w a rd e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s f o r a n y o n e o t h e r th a n a f u l l - t i m e , day s t u d e n t . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e g ro u p w ere m en. B e g in n in g w it h 137* r e a c h in g a h i g h o f I4.73 (1 9 3 1 ) and r e a c h i n g a f i n a l number o f 353* t h e number o f m ale s t u d e n t s I n c r e a s e d by 2 1 6 , o r 1 5 6 p e r c e n t . The number o f women In t h e g r o u p a l s o i n c r e a s e d * S t a r t i n g a t 93* h i t t i n g a to p o f 396 (1 9 3 0 ) c l o s i n g w it h 20 3* t h e f e m a le g ro u p added 110 o r 1 1 8 p e r c e n t t o t h e i r r a n k s . T h e ir g a i n s , h o w e v e r , w ere o v e r sh a d o w e d by th e m e n 's , b o t h i n p e r c e n t a g e and num berso The p a t t e r n o f m a le e n r o l l e e s i n u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s i o n n a t u r a l s c i e n c e c o u r s e I s c o n s o n a n t w i t h 193 th ose of th e other two groups, And th ese In cr ea ses, in h ib ite d as they may b e, are l i k e l y to be in response to th e same a p p ea ls, ones which have already been d escrib ed . A n alysis of In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts— S o cio lo g y (See F igure 3 k ) The la r g e s t group o f stu d en ts e n r o lle d In s o c io lo g y were In one-year and term inal c o u r ses. Their o r ig in a l num ber was 1 ,556; one year l a t e r the enrollm ent h i t bottom a t 1 ,2 2 0 . The s iz e in creased s t e a d ily u n t i l the end, f i n i s h ing w ith 8 ,9 0 9 , an in crease o f 7,353 1+73 per cent g rea ter than the f i r s t f ig u r e . The expansion o f so c io lo g y enrollm ents in a l l three groups i s the g r e a t e s t o f any of the su b je cts analyzed in t h is ch ap ter. The one-year and term inal courses were l e s s strenuous than th e t u t o r ia l c la s s e s and more e a s i ly expandable than those o f the u n iv e r s ity ex ten s io n . Their rapid and s iz e a b le expansion Is p a r t i a l l y a product o f th ese two q u a l i t i e s . This growth i s a lso a r e f le c t io n o f the in c re a sin g amount o f knowledge in the s o c ia l s c ie n c e s . The mass media had played t h e ir r o le in p u b lic iz in g th e more b iz a rr e a sp ects o f man’ s behavior as a s o c ia l anim al, but there seems to have been a profound change in the d ir e c tio n of man's search f o r answers to h i s problems. In the p r e - World War I years the more common hope had been th a t the study and a p p lic a tio n o f economic theory would lea d man VN * tO > 9 *°C t'-'sr J < M • a (0 S ) p ( 0 C M < 0 r O 0 iO 0 C M r- C M •3 C M ' > o o _J o o o C O 19h C M O '1' 1 - v'r =<d CM ■ H CM 0\ < 0 'S ^ s<7Ast/s/?o/yy < 0 CM o 195 onward and upward. In th e a fte r m a th o f World War I th e r e seemed to be a tu r n in g toward th e stu d y o f man h i m s e l f , a lo n e or In g r o u p s. The y e a r s a f t e r World War I I h ave se e n th e b u rgeon in g o f s o c i o l o g y , p s y c h o lo g y , and a n th r o p o lo g y , but th e y e a r s betw een th e war3 seem t o have been the ones d u rin g w hich th e d i r e c t i o n was s h i f t e d . The b a llo o n in g e n r o llm e n ts in s o c i o lo g y im ply su ch a s h i f t was ta k in g p la c e w it h in B r i t i s h f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n . The men were u l t i m a t e l y in th e m a jo r ity in t h i s g rou p , b e g in n in g w ith 6 8 7 * h i t t i n g a low o f 531+ th e n e x t y e a r , grow ing to 5*650 by th e end, w hich was a g a in o f Ip,9^3 or 722 per c e n t over th e i n i t i a l s i z e . The women’ s grou p , i n i t i a l l y th e l a r g e r , in c r e a s e d i n numbers a l s o , commencing w ith 869* A year l a t e r th e e n r o llm e n t had f a l l e n to th e b ottom , 6 8 6 . At t h e end t h e i r numbers had in c r e a s e d to 3*258 , an in c r e a s e o f 2,3^ 7 or 275 p e r c e n t . Even as n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , s o c io lo g y seems to h ave a t t r a c t e d men in in o r d in a te num bers. Women's e n r o llm e n ts d is p la y e d a phenomenal g a i n , and t h e i r sm a lle r p e r c e n ta g e in c r e a s e i s p a r t i a l l y th e e f f e c t o f t h e i r s t a r t i n g w ith th e la r g e r e n r o llm e n t. N e v e r t h e le s s the men e n r o lle d in i n c r e a s i n g l y g r e a t e r numbers than women d id in th e o n e - year and te r m in a l c o u r s e s . The secon d l a r g e s t e n r o llm e n t was in th e p r e p a r a t o r y , t h r e e - y e a r and advanced t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s 0 There were 1 ,3 0 5 s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d to b e g in w ith ; t h i s number 19^ rea ch e d i t s low s p o t of 1,093 1932, a f t e r which i t clim bed to 2,909 by th e end . This number was an in c r e a s e of 1 , 6014. or 123 P©r cento S o cio lo g y a ls o dem o nstrated i t s a p p e a l to the p r e p a r a t o r y , t h r e e - y e a r , and advanced t u t o r i a l s t u d e n t s . T h eir i n c r e a s e , la r g e as i t was, would have been double i f 1932 were u sed as the s t a r t i n g p o i n t . S e t t i n g a sid e th e i n t e r n a l low p o i n t , i t i s found t h a t t h i s in c r e a s e in t u t o r i a l s tu d e n ts r e f l e c t s th e appeal of a r e l a t i v e l y new d i s c i p l i n e , one w hich a ttr a c te d the more s e r io u s s tu d e n t as w e ll as th e l e s s s e r i o u s . These were p e r i l o u s tim es f o r s o c i e t y , awash in a d e p re s s io n between the waves of two world w a rs. C onsequently i t i s n o t i l l o g i c a l t h a t l a r g e numbers of a d u l t s should be e n r o l l i n g in a r e l a t i v e l y new d i s c i p l i n e which m ight r e v e a l some o f th e answers to m an's q u a n d a r ie s . W ith in the group th e r e were more men th an women ta k in g s o c io lo g y . S t a r t i n g from 963, th e number o f men re a c h e d i t s lo w e s t, 806 (1932) b e fo r e i t clim bed to the end p o i n t o f 1 ,9 1 9 , which was an in c r e a s e of 956 o r 99 p e r c e n t . The women, s t a r t i n g a t 3^-2, a ls o showed an in c r e a s e i n t h e i r num bers. A lthough th e s iz e of t h e i r group d id s h r in k to 287 i n 1932, they d id f i n i s h w ith 990, a g a in of 6^8 o r 190 p e r c e n t of th e o r i g i n a l amount. T h eir p e rc e n ta g e g a in was th e l a r g e r of th e two g ro u p s , b u t n u m e r ic a lly th e men were s u p e r i o r . This 197 d if f e r e n c e may be due to th e c u ltu r a l v a lu e s , but th e re would s u r e ly be l e s s p r e ssu r e a g a in s t a woman's tak in g s o c io lo g y than th e r e would be a g a in s t h e r e n r o llin g in n a tu r a l s c i e n c e , A more p r o f it a b le q u e stio n m ight be ”Why was th e re an in c r e a s e , a l b e i t a sm a ller one?” The answer to th a t may be th a t women, to o , e s p e c i a l ly th e more th o u g h tfu l o n e s, were in t e r e s t e d in the e x p la n a tio n s o f man*s beh avior en m asse. The r e s u l t o f t h i s i n t e r e s t would be c l a s s e n r o llm e n t. Remember, th a t th e se are th e most demanding c l a s s e s , ones which weed ou t th e determ ined from th e im p u lsiv e# The s m a lle s t group, th o se e n r o lle d in th e u n iv e r s i t y e x te n s io n s o c io lo g y c o u r se s , s t a r te d w ith 91+ s t u d e n ts . This number in c r e a se d u n t i l i t reached 2 ,7 3 2 , which was a g a in o f 2 ,6 3 8 or 2 ,8 0 6 per c e n t over the i n i t i a l number# The enorm ity o f the p ercen tage g a in tends to e x a g g era te th e num erical g a in . The p ercen tage in c r e a se should be tempered w ith an awareness of th e sm all s i z e o f th e o r ig i n a l c la s s # I t i s in t e r e s t i n g to n o te th a t t h i s was one d i s c i p l i n e w herein th e u n i v e r s i t i e s did expand t h e i r p a r t i c i p a tio n . Assuming th a t t h i s i s a compound o f stu d en t demand and u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n c o o p e r a tio n , i t can be in fe r r e d th a t th e r e was a s iz e a b le upsurge o f i n t e r e s t on both sides<» 198 There were more men than women in the g ro u p . The men began w ith 6Ip and in c r e a s e d t h e i r number to a f i n a l f i g u r e o f 1 ,5 1 0 , a g a in o f 1,14-50 or 2,1|.17 per c e n t . The women* s group g a in e d in s i z e , to o , s t a r t i n g a t and en d in g a t 1 ,2 2 2 , which r e f l e c t e d an in c r e a s e o f 1 ,1 8 8 or 3 , 1+ 9U - per c e n t o v e r th e o r i g i n a l e n r o llm e n t. Any m eaning f u l com parison o f p e r c e n ta g e s i s a lm o st im p o s s ib le , f o r th e movement from t w o - d i g i t to f o u r - d i g i t numbers g i v e s to o much w e ig h t to the d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e o r i g i n a l f i g u r e s . On th e b a s is o f n u m erical g a in s one can s a f e l y sa y t h a t in t h i s as w e ll as th e o th e r two groups th ere seems to have been a s e x - lin k e d in c r e a s e i n grow th. The e x p la n a tio n s f o r the phenomenon in th e p r e v io u s two groups seems e q u a lly d e f e n s i b l e f o r t h i s o n e . A n a ly s is o f I n d iv id u a l S u b j e c t s - - P h ilo so p h y and P sy ch o lo g y \S e e F ig u r e 35) A lthough th e y began w ith th e secon d l a r g e s t grou p , th e s tu d e n ts In th e o n e -y ea r and term in a l c o u r se s f i n i s h e d w ith th e l a r g e s t e n r o llm e n t. T h eir i n i t i a l number was 1*329; t h i s number dw indled to l,2 lp l the f o llo w in g year b e fo r e c lim b in g to a f i n a l e n r o llm en t o f li.,3lj-5* a g a in o f 3*018 o r 227 p e r c e n t over th e o r i g i n a l f i g u r e . T his s u b s t a n t i a l in c r e a s e can be a s c r ib e d to s e v e r a l c a u s e s , m ost o f w hich have a lre a d y been d is c u s s e d in r e l a t io n s h ip to o th e r s u b j e c t s . 1926 '27 'Z& '29 'so 's/ -52 *55 ■ PHILOSOPHY & PSYCHOLOGY 4 - 1 ,1 9 7 — I — Figure 35 , 4,543 * '5016 4 - £26-9^ 5,129 4 1033 + 49.62 200 The s o c i a l s c i e n c e s w ere i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r p e n e t r a t i o n o f th e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f th e E n g li s h p u b lic # A lth o u g h t h e r e was n o t th e same p u b l i c a w a r e n e ss o f F reud or h i s c o l l e a g u e s w h ich our co n tem p o ra ry s o c i e t y e x h i b i t s , t h e r e was an i n c r e a s i n g amount o f p o p u la r e x p o s i t i o n in th e m ass m ed ia , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e f e r e n c e t o c h i l d - r a i s i n g . C o n s e q u e n tly , t h e r e w ere a l a r g e number o f p e o p le who w ere i n t e r e s t e d in know ing more ab ou t p s y c h o lo g y . The o n e - y e a r and t e r m in a l c o u r s e s c a te r e d to t h o s e a d u l t s who w an ted a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t c o u r s e . U n f o r t u n a t e ly on e d o e s n o t know how many o f th e e n r o llm e n t s to a s s i g n to p h ilo s o p h y and how many t o p s y c h o lo g y . I t i s assum ed t h a t t h e m a j o r it y o f e n r o l l e e s w ere t a k in g p s y c h o lo g y , t h a t th e v e r y h ig h e n r o llm e n t in s o c i o l o g y would c o r r e sp o n d r o u g h ly to t h e p a t t e r n o f e n r o llm e n t i n p s y c h o lo g y , and t h a t th e e n r o llm e n t in p h ilo s o p h y w ould p r o b a b ly b e a rough p a r a l l e l to t h e m od erate i n c r e a s e i n a e s t h e t i c s . T h ese a ss u m p tio n s are t a c i t in any d i s c u s s i o n l i m i t e d to e i t h e r p h ilo s o p h y or p s y c h o lo g y a lo n e . W ith in th e group t h e r e was a s l i g h t m a j o r it y o f m en. The 1926 e n r o llm e n t o f m a les was 7 1 9 , a f i g u r e w h ich drop p ed t o 592 (1 9 2 7 ) and th e n r o s e to an end p o i n t o f 2 ,1 7 7 , an I n c r e a s e o f 1 , 14.58 or 203 p e r c e n t . The wom en's grou p a l s o grew In nu m bers, s t a r t i n g a t 6 1 0 and c lim b in g t o 2 ,1 6 8 a t t h e en d , an i n c r e a s e o f 1 ,5 5 8 o r 255 pe** c e n t . 201 Although the claim might be made th a t the combina tio n o f su b je cts co n cea ls two d if f e r e n t p a ttern s o f growth, one can say th a t fo r them to d if f e r would require ex tra ordinary shrinkage on the part o f one0 The growth is such th a t there must have been in c re a se s of both sexes in both s u b je c ts . The men did have a m ajority; i t was, however, so small th a t th e g rea ter in c re a se of women in percentage and numbers outweighs the s ig n ific a n c e of the men’ s major i t y . I f the su b je c ts are sep arated , one can sp e c u la te , but not very s a f e l y . Probably th e men showed a g rea ter gain in psych ology, th e women a g rea ter gain in ph ilosop h y. But th ese are on ly gu esses based on what was observed in a e s t h e tic s and s o c io lo g y . The preparatory, th ree-year and advanced t u t o r ia l c la s s e s in philosophy and psychology sta r ted w ith the la r g e s t number, 2,091* At the end the enrollm ent had climbed to reach the second la r g e s t number, 3 ,1 2 9 , an in crea se o f 1 ,0 3 8 or $ 0 per c e n t. The in crea se i s much l e s s than th at of the one-year and term inal c o u r se s, but remember th a t th e se are the courses o f extended duration and p rep aratio n . Considering th e demands o f the cou rse, t h is i s a s iz e a b le g a in . There were more men than women in th is group,, In 1926 there were 1,197 men e n r o lle d : t h is number reached i t s peak o f 1 ,7 3 2 (1 9 3 1) then shrank s l i g h t l y to end a t 1 , 5914., an o v e r a ll in crea se of 397 or 33 per cento 202 During t h i s tim e the number o f women began a t 610 and grew to 1,535* a g a in o f 6 J L |_ 1 or 72 per c e n t . There was a m a jo r ity o f men in th e t u t o r i a l c la s s e s , b u t g r e a te r w e ig h t should be g iv e n to th e in c r e a s e s them s e l v e s . In s p i t e o f b eg in n in g w ith an en rollm en t h a l f the s i z e o f th e m en 's, th e women very n e a r ly e q u a lle d th e u l t i mate number o f men. T heir n u m erical g a in and t h e i r p e r cen ta ge g a in were s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r . S p e c u la tio n s about the r e l a t i v e g a in s are on somewhat fir m e r ground in the t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s 0 The d iff e r e n c e in g a in s i s la r g e r ; thus th e l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e i r showing th e g r e a te r g a in in one or b oth o f th e s u b j e c ts i s in c r e a s e d . And th a t p r o b a b ilit y i s fu r th e r su pp orted by th e freq u en cy o f t h e i r g r e a te r g a in in t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s i n o th e r sub j e c t s . The u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n co u rses had the s m a lle s t e n r o llm e n t. They began w ith 3 1 2 , reached a peak o f 1,6L|_5 (1935)* and ended w ith 1 ,5 8 2 s tu d e n t s , a g a in o f 1 ,2 7 0 or 14-07 per c e n t over the o r i g i n a l number. N e v e r th e le s s the sm a lln e ss o f th e i n i t i a l group sh ou ld n o t obscure th e dram atic exp an sion o f th e e x te n s io n c la s s e s in p h ilo so p h y and p sy c h o lo g y . I t may be in fe r r e d from th e s i z e o f the in c r e a s e th a t b oth s u b j e c t s enjoyed s u b s t a n t ia l g a i n s . An a d d itio n a l in fe r e n c e i s th a t f o r t h i s growth to take p l a c e , th e u n iv e r s it y e x te n s io n p e r so n n el must have had in c r e a se d p a r t i c i p a t i o n and support from th e u n i v e r s i t i e s t h e m s e lv e s • The women outnumbered th e men in t h i s group* There were 199 women to b e g in w ith ; th e y u l t i m a t e l y reach ed an e n r o llm e n t o f 9 7 1 > an in c r e a s e o f 772 or 3 88 p er cen t* The number o f men a l s o showed an i n c r e a s e , s t a r t i n g a t 113» r e a c h in g a peak o f 6 8 3 (1935) and f i n i s h i n g w ith 6 1 1 , a g a in o f I 4.98 or I 4 J 4 .I p e r c e n t o v e r th e o r i g i n a l e n r o llm e n t. N o tw ith sta n d in g th e r e l a t i v e s m a lln e ss o f the num bers, th e r e are p e r c e p t i b l e — and s i g n i f i c a n t - - i n c r e a s e s . The g r e a t e r g a in o f th e women's group i s la r g e enough to make i t p o s s i b l e t h a t th e fem a le e n r o llm e n t o u t s t r ip p e d the m en's in b oth s u b j e c t s . However, i f s p e c u la t io n i s l i m i t e d to o n e, th e l i k e l i h o o d i s t h a t the g r e a t e r g a in was in p h ilo s o p h y . T his in f e r e n c e i s b ased on th e women's ascen d an ce in a e s t h e t i c s . Both groups r e f l e c t th e i n f l u e n c e s th a t h av e been d is c u s s e d p r e v io u s ly : th e exp an s io n o f new k n o w led g e, i t s p o p u la r iz a t io n in th e mass m ed ia, and th e grow ing p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f women in a rea s t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e s e r v e d to men. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS T his stu d y i s b u i l t around the movement o f c l a s s e n ro llm en tso S t a t i s t i c s fo r any one year have l im i t e d v a lu e , f o r th e y la c k r e l a t i v i t y ; th ey g iv e one no in d ic a t i o n o f ch an ge. They p rev en t one from knowing w hether th e r e i s an in c r e a s e or a d e c re a se ta k in g p l a c e , fo r o n ly th e a d ja c en t y ea rs can t e l l one t h a t . C o n seq u en tly , t h i s stu d y h a s a n a ly zed a s e r i e s o f years in the l i f e o f E n g lis h f u r th e r e d u c a tio n in an attem p t to draw some c o n c lu s io n s about what was ta k in g p la c e in a wide v a r i e t y o f educa t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s f o r a d u l t s . The two p r e ce d in g c h a p te r s have been d ev o ted to th e exa m in ation o f data on th e b u lk o f B r i t i s h f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n , ran gin g from th e g e n e r a l and v o c a tio n a l c l a s s e s o f the e v en in g i n s t i t u t e s and ev en in g c o l l e g e s to th e more academ ic grou p , which in c lu d e s the t u t o r i a l s t u d e n t s . What can be co n clu d ed about th e s e s tu d e n ts , t h e i r s u b j e c t s , and t h e i r I n s t i t u t i o n s du rin g the d e p r e ssio n years? Evening I n s t i t u t e s and E vening C o l l e g e s - - G eneral S u b je c ts The f i r s t c o n c lu s io n to be drawn i s th a t g e n e r a l s u b j e c t s co n tin u ed to e x e r t a str o n g appeal in s p i t e o f I n c r e a s in g unem ployment. During a p e r io d o f e s p e c i a l l y 2 0 1 + 205 k een c o m p e t itio n f o r jo b s t h e r e was a g a in in th e group o f c o u r s e s n o t aimed a t any s p e c i f i c v o c a t i o n a l t r a in in g * Only p a r t o f t h i s r i s e can be a t t r i b u t e d to t r a i n i n g en g en d ered by c o m p e t itio n f o r jo b s ; th e r e was a l s o a r i s in g p r e s s u r e f o r e d u c a t io n beyond e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l i n g . T h is p r e s s u r e i s e x p r e s s e d e ls e w h e r e in th e numerous b u t vain, a tte m p ts to r a i s e th e s c h o o l - l e a v i n g a g e . A nother c o n c lu s io n t h a t can be drawn h a s to do w ith th e two i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e m s e lv e s . There was a p e r c e p t i b l e d i f f e r e n c e in th e p a t t e r n s o f grow th o f th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s and th e e v e n in g c o l l e g e s . Throughout th e p e r io d o f th e stu d y th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s had th e m a j o r it y o f s t u d e n t s , b u t t h e i r in c r e a s e was s u b s t a n t i a l l y th e s m a l l e r , n u m e r ic a lly as w e l l as by p e r c e n t a g e . I t can be c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h i s s h i f t was th e e x p r e s s io n o f more th an one c a u s e . There was th e r i s i n g p r e s t i g e o f " c o lle g e " as c o n t r a s t e d to " i n s t i t u t e , ” a name t h a t s t i l l had th e c o n n o ta tio n o f th e n in e t e e n t h c e n tu r y M echanics* I n s t i t u t e s 0 A lso th e r e was th e u r b a n iz a t io n o f the s o c i e t y I t s e l f o The farm and c i t y were m oving c l o s e r t o g e t h e r ; s im u lta n e o u s ly t h e r e was a p o p u la tio n s h i f t toward la r g e c i t i e s , w here th e e v e n in g c o l l e g e s were more l i k e l y to be fo u n d . O v e r a ll C h a n g e s --T o ta l Groups In th e b e g in n in g and a t th e end o f th e p e r io d o f th e s t u d y , th e t o t a l e n r o llm e n t o f th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s 206 was much l a r g e r th a n t h a t o f t h e e v e n in g c o l l e g e s . Between t h e y e a r s 19 26 and 1937 t h e e n r o llm e n t s b o th i n t h e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s and i n t h e e v e n in g c o u r s e s in c o l l e g e s show ed i n c r e a s e s . The e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e s b egan w it h 7 2 8 ,2 0 8 and en d ed w it h 7 6 8 ,8 2 5 * h a v in g g a in e d 1+0,617* the e v e n in g c o u r s e s i n c o l l e g e s s t a r t e d w it h 1 $ 1 , 2f>l and f i n i s h e d w i t h 2 2 7 , 1 +9 9 * i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r s i z e by 76,21^8. From t h i s one c o n c lu d e s t h a t d u r in g t h e d e p r e s s i o n t h e r e was n o t a d e c l i n e i n p o p u l a r i t y o f g e n e r a l o r n o n - v o c a t i o n a l s u b j e c t s . I n s t e a d t h e r e was a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e . N ot a l l o f t h i s i n c r e a s e ca n b e a s c r i b e d to t h e p r e s s u r e g e n e r a t e d b y jo b c o m p e t i t i o n . Some o f t h e s e e n r o llm e n t s a l s o r e p r e s e n t a g e n e r a l d e s i r e f o r e d u c a t io n b eyon d e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l i n g . In term s o f n u m e r ic a l and p e r c e n t a g e g a i n , t h e g r o w th o f t h e e v e n in g c o u r s e s in c o l l e g e s was t h e g r e a t e r , 76,21+8 a g a i n s t ij.0,617* 50 p e r c e n t a g a i n s t 6 p e r c e n t . As a com bined g r o u p t h e i r p e r c e n t a g e i n c r e a s e was 1 3 p e r c e n t . The s i z e o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e in g r o w th s u p p o r ts a se c o n d c o n c lu s i o n : t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e g ro w th o f t h e e v e n in g c o l l e g e s i n t h e a r e a o f g e n e r a l s u b j e c t s , m aking t h e e v e n in g c o l l e g e s m ore aca d em ic i n a p p e a l . T h is a l t e r a t i o n seem s to r e f l e c t a r i s i n g demand f o r a d u l t e d u c a t io n o u t s i d e th e " i n s t i t u t e s . " The " c o l l e g e s " o f f e r e d more p r e s t i g e , ev en th o u g h t h e c o u r s e s d id n o t d i f f e r m a r k e d ly . O verall Chang63-- I n d iv id u a l S u b je c ts The en rollm en t p a tte r n s in E n g lish and a r t fu r n is h f u r th e r support f o r th e s i g n i f i c a n t change ta k in g p la c e w ith in th e even in g c o l l e g e s and even in g i n s t i t u t e s , E n g lish showed a d e c re a se in i t s t o t a l e n r o llm e n t. The ev en in g i n s t i t u t e c o u r ses in E n g lish d ecrea sed 16,6^ 0; how ever, during th e same p e r io d the c o u r ses in evening c o l l e g e s in c r e a se d t h e i r s i z e by 1 0 ,1 1 0 . T his s h i f t in E n g lish su pp orts th e c o n c lu sio n th a t the s tu d e n ts in the even in g i n s t i t u t e s were moving away from th e more academic s u b je c ts as th e even in g c o ll e g e stu d e n ts moved toward them in growing numbers. The number o f stu d e n ts ta k in g a r t c o u r se s in th e evening c o ll e g e s showed an o v e r a ll d e c re a se o f Ip^O. N e v e r th e le s s , s i n c e th e even in g i n s t i t u t e s gain ed 19,701}. during th a t tim e, th e t o t a l o f stu d e n ts ta k in g a r t in both ty p e s combined r e f l e c t e d an o v e r a ll in c r e a s e . The movement toward even in g i n s t i t u t e a r t c o u r ses i s consonant w ith th e s h i f t in E n g lish c o u r s e s , even . though t h e ir d ir e c t io n s are o p p o s it e . I n s t i t u t e a r t c o u r ses had a d ecrea sed emphasis on th e academic s id e o f a r t and p la c ed more s t r e s s on th e c r e a t iv e use o f a r t i s t i c m edia. 208 O verall Changes—Subjects by Percentage This con clu sio n can be fu rth er supported by s t a t i s t i c a l evid en ce. In terms o f th e ir percentage o f the t o t a l group in the f i r s t year o f the study compared w ith the f in a l year of the stu dy, the evening c o lle g e groups showed a gain in a l l but one s u b j e c t -- a r t . The sm a llest p ercen t age gain (1 per cen t) was in music; the la r g e s t (7 per cent) was in m athem atics. The remainder gained fr o m to 6 per cent during the period 1926-37. See Appendix A fo r tabular p resen ta tio n o f t h is data. Evening I n s t it u t e s and Evening Courses in C o lleg es--V o ca tio n a l Subjects Overall Changes—Total Groups The evening i n s t i t u t e s were much the la r g e r of the two kinds o f s c h o o l,. Beginning w ith 730*323, the in s t i t u t e s grew to 939,320, having gained 208,997o The courses in evening c o lle g e s en ro lled 266,270, to 3ta r t with and c lo sed with L } .3 2 , 5 > 2lv, a growth of 166,251|. Their in crea ses expressed in terms o f percentages o f the i n i t i a l enrollm ent g iv e the h ig h er, 62 per cen t, to the evening c o lle g e s when compared w ith 29 per cent fo r the evening in s t it u t e s * Prom th is summary i t can be observed th at in t h is area o f fu rth er education there was a su b sta n tia l growth in v o ca tio n a l course en rollm en ts. This growth supports 209 the c o n c lu sio n th a t the e x is te n c e o f a la r g e p o o l o f unemployed d id n o t d e te r stu d e n ts from ta k in g fu r th e r job tr a in in g ; r a th e r i t seems to have stim u la te d th e ir d e s ir e fo r v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . O verall C hangea--Individual S u b jects Of the tw elv e s u b j e c t s , o n ly two showed a d ec re a se in en r o llm en t. The number o f stu d e n ts ta k in g t e x t i l e c o u r ses d ecrea sed in both ty p e s o f s c h o o l. The number o f even in g i n s t i t u t e co u rses showed th e s m a lle s t d e c r e a se , b eg in n in g w ith 6,033 and ending w ith 5*038# h a v in g l o s t 955 or 17 per c e n t o f th e f i r s t number. The even in g c o l le g e en rollm en t began a t 1 6 ,5 1 3 and c lo s e d w ith 11,387# d e c r e a sin g by 5*126 or 31 par c e n t. The en rollm en t in m isc e lla n e o u s tra d es d ecreased du rin g th e p erio d o f th e stu d y . A t o t a l o f 9*631 stu d e n ts w ere e n r o lle d in the b e g in n in g . T his number f e l l to lj.,100, a l o s s o f 5*531 ° r 57 per c e n t. The d ecrea se was the r e s u l t o f a la r g e d e c lin e (6,34-7) in th e number o f evening i n s t i t u t e stu d e n ts combined w ith a r e l a t i v e l y sm all r i s e (8 l6 ) in th e ev en in g c o lle g e stu d e n t p o p u la tio n . The drop in en ro llm en t in t e x t i l e c o u r ses does im ply a group aw areness o f th e r e a l i t i e s o f B r it is h in d u s tr y . The d ecrea se o f B r it is h t e x t i l e s a le s in th e in te r n a tio n a l m arket and th e con seq u en t d e c lin e o f the m anufacturing threw an in o r d in a te number o f w orkers ou t 210 of employment. I t can be concluded th a t the p o p u la r ity of v o c a tio n a l co u rses wa3 a s e l e c t i v e a f f a ir ; th ere was a c o r r e la t io n between th e lik e lih o o d o f employment and o n e 's c h o ic e in fu r th e r ed u ca tio n . Of th e tw elve in d iv id u a l s u b j e c t s , th e evening c o lle g e s showed the la r g e r num erical g a in in seven : chem ical tr a d e s; e n g in e e r in g , m etal tra d es; food and drink tra d es; book tra d es and paper tra d es; b u ild in g , woodwork in g , and fu r n itu r e tr a d e s; m isc ella n eo u s tra d es; and pro f e s s i o n a l and commercial tr a d e s . The evening i n s t i t u t e s showed a la r g e r num erical in c r e a se in f i v e s u b je c ts : m ining trad es; t e x t i l e tra d e s; c lo th in g tr a d e s; dom estic tr a d e s; and manual tr a d e s . Examined on th e b a s is o f g a in s ex p ressed as p e r c en ta g es o f th e i n i t i a l e n r o llm en ts, the two groups r e v e a l an equal d is t r ib u t io n . Each sch ool has s i x su b je c ts in which i t ha3 a h ig h er p ercen tage in c r e a s e . The evening i n s t i t u t e s e x h ib ite d a h ig h er p ercentage in c r e a se in chem ical tra d es; en g in eerin g m etal tr a d e s; t e x t i l e tr a d e s; c lo th in g tra d es; food and drink tra d es; and book trad es and paper tr a d e s . The c la s s e s In the even in g c o lle g e s had the g r e a te r p ercen tage g a in in m ining tra d es; b u ild in g , woodworking, and fu r n itu r e tr a d e s; m isc ella n eo u s tra d es; p r o f e s s io n a l and commercial tr a d e s; dom estic tr a d e s; and manual tr a d e s . 211 On the b a s is o f num erical g a in s , the evening c o l le g e s seem to have made th e ir in c r e a se s in the trad es in v o lv in g h igh er s k i l l s . But when cne evaluates by per c e n ta g e s, the o p p o site seems tr u e . On the b a s is o f t h is in c o n s is te n c y , i t must be concluded that there was l i t t l e sig n o f a growing d iffe r e n c e in fu n ctio n in so fa r as l e v e l o f v o c a tio n a l s k i l l was concerned. Apparently both the evening i n s t i t u t e s and the evening c o lle g e s were a t t r a c t ing in c re a sin g numbers o f stu d en ts in su b je c ts in v o lv in g a wide range o f s k i l l s . O verall Changes--Sub.iects by Percentage A n alysis by percentage supports the preceding co n c lu sio n . When th e number o f evening c o lle g e e n r o lle e s i s taken as a percentage of the combined group, th e major i t y o f su b jects show a l o s s in the percentage o f evening c o lle g e stu dents during the p eriod of the stu d y. Seven su b je cts showed decreases in the proportion o f evening c o lle g e stu d en ts: chemical trad es; engineering m etal trad es; t e x t i l e tra d es; c lo th in g trad es; food and drink tra d es; book trad es and paper trad es; and manual tr a d e s. The evening c o lle g e s managed to show a percentage gain between 1926 and 1937 in mining trad es; b u ild in g , woodworking, and fu r n itu r e trad es; m iscellan eou s trad es; p r o fe s sio n a l and commercial trad es; and domestic trades grew in the s iz e o f th e ir share o f the combined enrollm ents o f b o th k in d s o f i n s t i t u t i o n . P e r c e n ta g e a n a l y s i s b y s u b j e c t r e v e a l s n o s i g n i f i c a n t g r o u p in g i n t h e e v e n in g c o l l e g e s . The a b s e n c e o f a p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f i n c r e a s e s i n th e m ore t e c h n i c a l c o u r s e s s u p p o r ts t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t n e i t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n g a in e d i n o r d i n a t e l y in t h e m ore t e c h n i c a l t r a d e s . T h ere i s m ore s i g n i f i c a n c e to t h e number o f s u b j e c t s i n w h ic h t h e e v e n in g c o l l e g e c l a s s e s d e c r e a s e d . S in c e th e p e r c e n t a g e o f e v e n in g c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s d e c r e a s e d in t h e m a j o r it y o f s u b j e c t s , t h i s may s u p p o r t t h e c o n c lu s i o n t h a t t h e r e w as a c o n c e n t r a t io n o f e v e n in g c o l l e g e g a i n s i n t o a m in o r it y o f s u b j e c t s . C o u r se s i n E v e n in g I n s t i t u t e s and E v e n in g C o u r se s in d o l l e g e a : R e l a t i o n t o U nem ploym ent 1 , A c o m p a r iso n o f th e g r o w th p a t t e r n s o f th e tw o s u b j e c t g r o u p in g s , a ca d em ic and v o c a t i o n a l , r e v e a l s a f g r e a t e r g r o w th b o th i n num bers and p e r c e n t a g e s in th e v o c a t i o n a l s u b j e c t s . T h is d i f f e r e n c e may r e f l e c t t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e d e p r e s s io n on th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f em p lo y m en t. W ith t h e d e c r e a s e o f jo b o p p o r t u n i t i e s and th e i n c r e a s e o f l e i s u r e t im e , a l b e i t in v o lu n t a r y l e i s u r e , a p p a r e n t ly t h e r e wa3 an in c r e a s e d d r i v e to w a r d s v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g , e v e n th o u g h t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f em p loym en t w as v e r y s m a l l . 2o An a d d i t i o n a l e x p la n a t io n may l i e in t h e n a t u r e o f t h e u n o c c u p ie d tim e i t s e l f . L e is u r e tim e* when i t i s t h e r e s u l t o f u n em p loym en t, i s n o t l i k e l y t o b e c o n d u c iv e to t h e s tu d y o f a ca d em ic s u b j e c t s * The f r u s t r a t i o n o f b e in g u n a b le t o f i n d w o rk , th e t e n s i o n o f l i v i n g a m a r g in a l e x i s t e n c e , th e boredom o f l i f e w it h o u t p r o d u c t i v e l a b o r - - a l l o f t h e s e a r e more l i k e l y to b e a l l e v i a t e d in s tu d y w h ich seem s to b e d i r e c t e d to w a rd th e s o l u t i o n o f t h e s e p r o b le m s , ev en th o u g h th e s t u d e n t , w hen h e a s s e s s e s h i s s i t u a t i o n r e a l i s t i c a l l y , may r e c o g n iz e t h a t th e od d s a g a in s t h im a r e h i g h . In t h e o r y , a r t may b e an a p p r o p r ia te s u b j e c t f o r an un em p loyed a d u lt t o p u rsu e when h e ca n sp en d tw e lv e h o u r 3 a d ay In th e g a l l e r i e s ; i n p r a c t i c e h e may h a v e a g r e a t e r d e s i r e t o s tu d y a s u b j e c t w h ich seem s to o f f e r m ore in th e way o f h op e f o r em p loy m e n t. The h y p o t h e s is t h a t d u r in g a p e r io d o f e x te n d e d f i n a n c i a l d e p r e s s io n and w id e s p r e a d unem ploym ent t h e r e w ou ld b e a d e c r e a s e In e n r o llm e n t in v o c a t i o n a l c o u r s e s seem s to b e n u l l i f i e d , E x tr a -M u r a l and S im ila r C o u r se s S u p e r v is e d b y U n i v e r s i t i e s o r U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e s * and C o u r se s U nder t h e C o n tr o l and D i r e c t i o n o f A p proved A s s o c ia t i o n s f o r A d u lt E d u c a tio n , O ther th a n V a c a tio n C o u r se s O v e r a ll C h a n g e s --T o ta l G roups D u r in g th e p e r io d o f t h e s tu d y a l l t h r e e o f th e g r o u p s - - p r e p a r a t o r y , t h r e e - y e a r and a d v a n ced t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s ; u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s i o n c o u r s e s ; o n e - y e a r and te r m in a l c o u r s e s — in c r e a s e d in n u m b ers. T h ere w ere d i s c e r n i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s In t h e i r g r o w th . The p r e p a r a to r y , 2 i b th r e e -y e a r and advanced t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s group showed a d i s t i n c t l y s m a lle r in c r e a s e , b o th in term s o f numbers and o f p e r c e n ta g e o I t 3 g a in was 2 ,9 9 5 (25 par c e n t) c o n t r a s t e d w ith 6 ,2 6 1 (197 p er c e n t) f o r th e u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s io n c o u r se e n r o llm e n t and 2 0 ,0 2 1 ( I 63 p er c e n t) f o r th e o n e -y e a r and te r m in a l c o u r se e n r o llm e n t. The f i r s t c o n c lu s io n to be drawn a b o u t a l l th r e e o f th e grou p s com bined i s th a t th e econom ic d e p r e s s io n d id n o t d e p r e s s e n r o llm e n ts in t h i s a r ea o f E n g lis h fu r t h e r e d u c a tio n . A f u r t h e r c o n c lu s io n i s th a t s in c e th e r e w ere a d e c r e a s in g number o f " w ork ers," t h i s grow th had w ith in i t a grow ing p e r c e n ta g e o f m id d le c l a s s s t u d e n t s . The W orkers' E d u c a tio n a l A s s o c ia t io n had become a m isnom er afta? World War I I b e c a u se o f th e s c a r c i t y o f w o r k e r -s tu d e n ts . That s h i f t was ta k in g p la c e In th e p e r io d b etw een th e two w orld w a r s• In a d d it io n i t can be c o n c lu d e d th a t th e r e wa3 a s i g n i f i c a n t ch an ge w it h in th e e n r o llm e n ts o f th e th r e e grou p s r e l a t i v e to one a n o th e r . On th e b a s i s o f t h e i r g a in s , i t can be s a id t h a t d u rin g t h i s p e r io d o n e -y e a r and te r m in a l c o u r s e s d em o n stra ted th e g ro w in g p r e fe r e n c e o f a d u lt s tu d e n ts f o r r e l a t i v e l y b r i e f , l e s s dem anding c o u r s e s in th e academ ic f i e l d s . The r i s e o f u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n c o u r s e s f u r n is h e s a d d it io n a l e v id e n c e f o r t h i s c o n c lu s io n . 2 1 5 The phenomenon o f r i s i n g e n r o llm e n ts in n o n -v o c a - t i o n a l e d u c a tio n can b e a t t r ib u t e d to th e s c a r c i t y o f o p p o r tu n ity f o r se co n d a r y and h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , but o th e r f o r c e s w ere a ls o a t work: th e urban p o p u la tio n was grow in g ; th e ra n k s o f th e m id d le c l a s s w ere ex p a n d in g ; th e b a r r ie r s to women w ere lo w e r in g ; and th e m ass m edia w ere c r e a t in g a more g e n e r a lly in fo rm ed p u b lic , a l b e i t su p e r f i c i a l l y s o . I t can be o b serv ed from th e c o m p a r a tiv e ly s m a ll I n c r e a s e o f th e m ost dem anding c l a s s e s th a t t h e r e was n o t a p r o p o r tio n a te r i s e in th e number o f s e r io u s s t u d e n t s . T h is may be a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e e f f e c t s o f ch eap mass e n te r ta in m e n t. M otion p i c t u r e s , n ew sp a p er s, m a g a z in e s, and th e w i r e l e s s in c r e a s e d t h e i r p o p u la r ity r a p id ly b etw een th e w a r s. They m ust have had an im p act on some p o t e n t i a l s tu d e n ts who w ere w i l l i n g to s e t t l e f o r th e pub and th e w i r e l e s s . H ow ever, i t can b e c o n clu d ed from th e s t a t i s t i c s t h a t th e amount o f f u r th e r e d u c a tio n c o n tin u e d to r i s e d e s p it e i t s p e r v a s iv e c o m p e titio n . O v e r a ll C hanges— I n d iv id u a l S u b je c ts Show ing I n c r e a s e The s u b j e c t w h ich showed th e g r e a t e s t amount in c r e a s e was s o c i o lo g y . I t s g a in s were l a r g e s t on an a g g r e g a te b a s i s , t o t a l i n g 1 1 , 5 9 5 * and th e y su p p o rt th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e r e was a r i s i n g i n t e r e s t in m an's r e l a t io n s h ip to s o c i e t y . The co n cern ov er s o c i a l 216 i n s t i t u t i o n s was n o t c o n fin e d to E ngland; in th e U n ite d S t a t e s th e r e was a ls o a grow ing amount o f a t t e n t io n b e in g g iv e n to s o c i e t y . In b o th c o u n tr ie s th e re was c le a r l y som eth in g aw ry. The se a r c h f o r answ ers was moving beyond e co n o m ics. P h ilo so p h y and p sy c h o lo g y ( f o r w h ich th e f ig u r e s a r e g iv e n as one group) and g e n e r a l h i s t o r y , a lth o u g h t h e ir a g g r e g a te t o t a l s ( 5 , 3214- and lj.,6 2 9 ) are each about o n e -h a lf th a t o f s o c io lo g y , a ls o fo llo w e d a s im ila r grow th p a t te r n . T h eir s m a lle s t in c r e a s e was in th e p rep a ra to ry c l a s s e s , th e l a r g e s t in th e o n e -y e a r and ter m in a l g r o u p s. The in c r e a s e in p h ilo so p h y and p sy c h o lo g y , a lth o u g h n o t as s p e c ta c u la r a s th e grow th in s o c io lo g y , seem s to have b een lin k e d to th e same c a u s e . Assuming th a t th e in fe r e n c e o f g r e a t e r grow th In p sy ch o lo g y i s a v a lid o n e , we can co n clu d e th a t t h i s e x p a n sio n was an oth er e x p r e s s io n o f the se a r c h f o r answ ers to q u e s tio n s w hich s o c i a l and econom ic c a la m it ie s had p o se d . In th e c a se o f p sy c h o lo g y , th e se a r c h was an I n t r o s p e c t iv e o n e , in v o lv in g th e a n a ly s is o f th e w orkings o f th e in d iv id u a l, w hereas th e s o c i o l o g i s t c o n c e n tr a te d on man in s o c i e t y . B oth f i e l d s opened avenues to new know ledge In a p e r io d when th e n eed fo r f r e s h answ ers was e v id e n t . I t may a ls o be con clu d ed th a t th e in c r e a se d e n r o l l m ents a re a f u r th e r r e f l e c t i o n o f th e se a r c h f o r a n sw ers. T r a d it io n a lly th e stu d y o f h is t o r y h as been a means o f 217 in te r p r e tin g th e p resen t and a n tic ip a tin g the fu tu r e . There i s , how ever, an a d d itio n a l c o n sid e r a tio n . Immersion in h is t o r y a ls o o f f e r s a r e t r e a t from the p r e se n t; i t s a t t r a c t io n I s p ro p o rtio n a te to the u n p lea sa n tn ess o f p r e se n t r e a l i t y . Something o f the same appeal may be found in a e s t h e t ic s , which a ls o showed an in c r e a s e . However, I t s t o t a l growth (2,ll|.J?) wa3 l e s s than o n e -h a lf o f th e two p reced in g s u b j e c ts . A e s t h e t ic s , w ith i t s r is in g e n r o ll m ent, sh ares w ith h is to r y an a d d itio n a l a p p ea l, th a t of c u ltu r a l v a lu e s . One may conclude th a t both su b je c ts h elp ed to s a t i s f y a growing m iddle c la s s d e s ir e fo r c u l tu r a l e le v a t io n . The mass media may have been debasing t a s t e fo r some o f the p o p u la tio n , b u t fo r la r g e numbers they were a t l e a s t c r e a tin g an awareness o f h is to r y and the a r ts --a n d t a s t e . The o n ly o th er su b je c t to show g a in s in a l l th ree groups was n a tu r a l s c ie n c e . I t s in c r e a se (3*573) was g r e a te r than th a t o f a e s t h e t ic s . On th e o th er hand, i t s growth p a tte r n was n o t th a t o f the p reced in g s u b je c ts . The e x te n sio n cou rses were th e s m a lle s t group, making the p rep aratory group the second la r g e s t . The c o n siste n c y o f the g a in s in n a tu r a l s c ie n c e len d credence to th e c o n c lu sio n th a t th ere was an expand in g body o f stu d e n ts o f variou s degrees o f s e r io u s n e s s . World War I had a c c e le r a te d the a c q u is itio n and dlssem inattn 218 o f s c i e n t i f i c know ledge. M essages and m achines were mov in g fa r th e r and f a s t e r , and w ith th e in c re a se d tempo th ere was a r is e in g e n e r a l in t e r e s t in s c ie n c e . T his r is e i s found r e f le c t e d In fu r th e r e d u c a tio n . O v era ll Changes— In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts Showing D ecrease The la r g e s t a ggregate d ec re a se was found In the su b je c t o f econom ics (1 9 3 1 -1 9 3 7 )• A ll th r ee groups shrank, th e combined d ecrea se b ein g 3*03i|.* Of t h i s t o t a l l o s s the g r e a t e s t sh are was th a t o f the o n e-year c o u r ses; the d ecrea se o f e x te n s io n c o u r ses was th e s m a lle s t . C le a r ly th e r e was a c o n s is t e n t drop in i n t e r e s t in econ om ics. The c o n c lu sio n I s th a t the r i s e o f s o c io lo g y and p sych ology was r e la t e d to th e d e c lin in g p o p u la r ity o f econ om ics. Prolonged econom ic d e p r e ssio n and se v e r e unemployment had thrown in to q u e stio n th e v a l i d i t y o f t r a d it io n a l econ om ics, a t l e a s t f o r th o se l i k e l y to e n r o ll in even in g c l a s s e s . For a m in o r ity , p a r tic u la r ly th o se who were w e ll o f f , t h e ir p r o sp e r ity was a co n firm a tio n o f the r ig h tn e s s o f th e economic sy stem . In f a c t , th e common a ttitu d e o f th o se who dom inated in d u stry and th e govern ment was th a t th e system was in no need o f change; th e ir d eterm in a tio n to stan d f a s t rem ained in t a c t u n t il th e eve o f World War I I . I n d u s tr ia l h is to r y (1931-1937) had th e second h ig h e s t l o s s , alth ou gh th a t d ecrea se (3^8 ) was much 219 s m a lle r th an t h a t o f econom ics® The p a t te r n i s s im ila r to t h a t o f e c o n o m ic s, th e g r e a t e s t d e c r e a se b e in g in o n e -y e a r cou rses® A c t u a lly th e e x te n s io n c o u r s e s managed to r e g i s t e r a s l i g h t in c r e a s e (I4 .6 ) d u rin g th e p e r io d . The d e c lin e in e n r o llm e n ts in i n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y seem s to have b een c o in c id e n t w ith th e drop in econ om ics s t u d e n t s . I t may be c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e d e c r e a s e o f i n t e r e s t i n , or r e j e c t i o n o f , th e s e s u b j e c t s was c a u se d p a r t i a l l y by th e seem ing in c o n s is t e n c y o f th e econom ic sy stem i t s e l f . The s e n i l i t y o f in d u s tr y and th e im p oten cy o f th e la b o r movement d u rin g th e t w e n t ie s and t h i r t i e s c a l l e d in t o q u e s tio n th e t r a d i t i o n a l v iew o f b o th . G eography (1931*“ 1 9 3 7 ) l o s t ground in o n ly one g ro u p , th e e x te n s io n c o u r s e s , and t h a t l o s s was o f f s e t by g a in s in th e o th e r p rogram s. The p a tt e r n o f ch an ges showed l i t t l e c o n s is t e n c y , f o r th e la r g e r in c r e a s e was in th e p r e p a r a to r y c o u r s e s . The m ost f e a s i b l e c o n c lu s io n s a re th a t th e r e was a grow th in i n t e r e s t in g eograp h y and t h a t th e in c r e a s e was e s p e c i a l l y e v id e n t in th e more demand in g c o u r s e s . G eography d ra m a tized by new spaper h e a d lin e s i s l i k e l y to be more i n t e r e s t i n g than f a c t s abou t la n d s w h ich rem ain te x tb o o k a b s t r a c t io n s . Combined t o g e t h e r o v e r th e lo n g e r p e r io d (1 9 2 6 - 1 9 3 7 ) e c o n o m ic s, i n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y and geograp h y show a l o s s in o n ly one g r o u p , t h a t o f p r e p a r a to r y c o u r s e s . B ut know ing a s we do t h a t w it h in th e com bined c o u r s e s th e r e 220 was a g e n e r a l movement toward th e o n e -y ea r and term in a l and th e u n iv e r s it y c o u r s e s , one can in t e r p r e t th e d e c re a se as one o f th e c a u se s f o r th e r e l a t i v e l y sm all in c r e a s e e x h ib ite d by th e combined p rep a ra to ry g r o u p s0 The o n ly o th e r s u b je c t w hich showed a p a r t ia l d e c r e a se was th a t o f l i t e r a t u r e and la n g u a g e. The p r e p a r a to ry c la s s e s d im in ish ed ( 6 7 ) w h ile th e e x te n s io n c la s s e s g a in e d 6 1 ^ .6 and th e o n e -y e a r c la s s e s 2 , 0214-. The d im in u t io n o f the p rep a ra to ry c l a s s e s p in p o in ts by sub j e c t th e c o n tr ib u tio n o f l i t e r a t u r e and la n g u a g e prepa?a - to r y c la s s e s to th e c o m p a ra tiv e ly sm all g a in in th e t o t a l e n r o llm en t in p rep a ra to ry c l a s s e s . The c o n tr a s tin g g a in s in e x te n s io n and o n e -y e a r c la s s e s are s u b s t a n t ia l enough to o f f s e t th e l o s s and to su p p ort th e c o n c lu s io n th a t l i t e r a t u r e and lan gu age p a r t ic ip a t e d in th e grow ing p o p u la r iz a tio n o f c u ltu r e and a e s t h e t i c s . O v er a ll C h a n g e s--D iffe r e n c e s By Sex When th e o v e r a ll in c r e a s e i s se p a r a ted in to in c r e a s e s by men or women, th e p rep a ra to ry c la s s e s show th e g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e . There was a g a in o f 1 ,9 2 6 per c e n t) in th e number o f women and a g a in o f 1 ,0 6 9 ( 1 1+ per c e n t) in th e number of men. The o th e r two g r o u p s --e x te n - s io n c o u r se s and o n e -y e a r c o u r se s--sh o w e d s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s , compared w ith th e p r e p a r a to r y . 221 The f a c t t h a t women I n c r e a s e d t h e i r e n r o llm e n ts s u b s t a n t i a l l y more th an men d id in th e p r e p a r a to r y , t h r e e - y e a r , and t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s h a s s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . One can c o n c lu d e t h a t a d is p r o p o r t io n a t e number o f women w ere ' w i l l i n g to e n r o l l in th e m o st s tr e n u o u s acad em ic program i n f u r t h e r e d u c a t io n . I t seem s l i k e l y t h a t t h e i r g r e a t e r num bers and p e r c e n ta g e r e s u l t e d from th e p e n t-u p demands f o r e d u c a t io n . The p e r io d b etw een th e w ars saw a m arked ch an ge in t h e a t t i t u d e o f s o c i e t y tow ard women. T h e ir e m a n c ip a tio n in c lu d e d m ore th a n fr a n c h is e m e n t; in g r o w in g num bers th e y a l s o a p p ea red in a r e a s w h ich had t r a d i t i o n a l l y b een r e s e r v e d to m en. T here w ere th e m id d le c l a s s women w h ose h u sb a n d s c o u ld a f f o r d t o l e t them a t t e n d c l a s s o n ce a w e e k , and th e w ork in g women w hose l e i s u r e tim e and new s t a t u s p e r m it t e d them to e n r o l l in c l a s s . T h e ir g r o u p s , a s can b e s e e n from th e e n r o llm e n t f i g u r e s , grew i n th e t w e n t ie s and t h i r t i e s . B oth s e x e s f o llo w e d th e r e l a t i v e o r d e r o f th e th r e e g r o u p s , t h e p r e p a r a to r y grou p b e in g th e s m a l l e s t and t h e o n e -y e a r t h e l a r g e s t . The g r e a t e s t p e r c e n ta g e in c r e a s e s (men- - 1 9 5 p er c e n t ; women- - 1 9 8 p e r c e n t ) w ere in e x t e n s io n c l a s s e s . U n iv e r s i t y e x t e n s io n c l a s s e s w ere com posed m a in ly o f l e c t u r e s r a th e r th a n th e i n t e n s i v e r e a d in g and w r i t i n g program i n th e t u t o r i a l c l a s s e s . T h u s, we can c o n c lu d e t h a t f o r b o th g r o u p s , i f one 222 e v a lu a te s by p ercen ta ge In c r e a se , a l e s s demanding approach to knowledge was the more p op u lar 0 Women showed the la r g e r growth in t h e ir share of s e r io u s s tu d e n ts , but th ey a ls o were f i l l i n g a s iz e a b le number of the s e a t s in th e le c t u r e h a l l s „ In d iv id u a l S u b .je c ta --D iffe r e n c e s By Sex The m a jo rity o f s u b je c ts showed fo r women g a in s th a t were la r g e r n u m er ica lly than the in c r e a se in th e num ber o f men. L ite r a tu r e and la n g u a g e, economics and in d u s tr ia l h i s t o r y (In clu d in g geograp h y), economics (alone^ a e s t h e t i c s , and p h ilo so p h y and psych ology in c re a se d by a g r e a te r number o f women than o f men. In g en era l h i s t o r y , n a tu ra l s c ie n c e , and s o c io lo g y , th e number o f men showed a g r e a te r num erical in c r e a se than did th a t o f the women. Although one can b u ild a case f o r in d iv id u a l cou rses r e f l e c t i n g c u ltu r a l i n t e r e s t s according to se x , when one combines according to se x the su b je c ts r e f l e c t i n g the g r e a te r num erical in c r e a s e s , a sweeping c o n c lu sio n cannot be made. There seems to be some p a tte r n , w ith l i t e r a t u r e and la n g u a g e, and a e s t h e t ic s su pp orting the theory th a t women were more l i k e l y to e n r o ll in c u lt u r a l c o u r s e s . But t h e ir g a in s In economics and in d u s t r ia l h i s to ry seem to have in common o n ly a kind o f p e r v e r s it y in going a g a in s t the dominant c u r r e n t. The men’ s g a in s are somewhat more c o n siste n t; t h e ir preponderance in h i s t o r y , 223 n a tu r a l s c ie n c e , and s o c io lo g y seem to r e f l e c t c o n s is t e n t s e le c t io n according to c u ltu r a l v a lu e s . Two s u b j e c t s — in d u s tr ia l h is to r y and geography— r e f le c t e d mixed in c r e a s e s . However, th ere was a con s is te n c y in the d if f e r e n c e s , sin c e in both c la s s e s th ere was a g r e a te r num erical in c re a se fo r the women in the p re p aratory c l a s s e s . The men, on th e other hand, showed the la r g e r in c r e a se s in the e x te n sio n and on e-year c la s s e s in both s u b je c ts . These f a c t s support by in d iv id u a l su b je c t the g en era l c o n c lu sio n th a t women showed th e g r ea ter p referen ce f o r the more d i f f i c u l t c o u r se s, in t h is ca se even th ose w ith d e c lin in g e n r o llm en ts. O verall Changes— P ercentage Change by Sex Comparing the p ercen tage o f women in th e c la s s e s in the f i r s t year w ith t h e ir p ercen tage a t th e end of the period a ls o r e v e a ls some s ig n if ic a n t changes. An examina tio n o f th e t o t a l fo r a l l su b je c ts r e v e a ls a g a in in the preparatory c l a s s e s , no change in the e x te n sio n c la s s e s , and a d ecrea se in on e-year c la s s e s during th e p erio d 1 9 2 6 - 1937. The percen tage o f women in th e p rep aratory c la s s e s grew from 37 per c en t to l±2 per c e n t; th e ir percen tage began and ended a t £2 Per c en t in the e x te n sio n c o u r ses; i t dropped from ( 4.8 per cen t to J ^7 per c en t in th e on e-year c o u r se s. This fu r n ish e s a d d itio n a l evid en ce f o r the con c lu s io n th a t th e p a tte r n s o f women's en rollm en ts were 22k s i g n if ic a n t ly d if f e r e n t from th e men’ s . There seems to be a p o s it iv e r e la tio n s h ip betw een the d i f f i c u l t y o f a program and the lik e lih o o d o f fem ale en ro llm en t. Perhaps th e women who atten d ed even in g c la s s e s were l i k e l y to be more a g g r e s s iv e , or a t l e a s t more 3 e r io u s , than th e men s tu d e n ts . In a d d itio n , perhaps the men who l e f t th e house in the even in g were l e s s l i k e l y to embark on a se r io u s ed u c a tio n a l program. In d iv id u a l S u b je c ts — P ercentage Change by Sex Grouped by types o f c la s s e s , the in c r e a se s in th e p ercen tage o f women took p la c e in a m a jo rity o f prepara tory c la s s e s , seven out o f te n . They a ls o h e ld th e m ajor it y o f in c r e a se s in the o n e-year c l a s s e s , s i x ou t o f te n . However, th e ir number o f percen tage in c r e a se s was in a m in o r ity , fo u r out o f te n , in the e x te n sio n c la s s e s . A nalyzing th e changes by p ercen tage accom plish es two th in g s: ( 1 ) i t r e in fo r c e s s t a t i s t i c a l l y the c o n c lu sio n th a t th ere was a s ig n if ic a n t change in en rollm en ts during the p eriod o f the study; and (2 ) i t r e v e a ls th a t th e ir d iffe r e n c e s were n o t the r e s u lt o f numbers accum ulated in a few c la s s e s . Rather one fin d s th a t the p a tte r n o f - p ercen tage g a in s was spread over a number o f s u b je c ts , and th a t the m a jo r itie s correspond to th e g en era l p a tte rn s o f num erical g a in . R ecom m en d ation s f o r F u r th e r S tu d y One o f th e m ajor l i m i t a t i o n s to t h i s s tu d y was t h a t im p o sed by g e o g r a p h y . I d e a l l y , r e s e a r c h in B r i t i s h e d u c a t io n , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h ere s t a t i s t i c s a r e i n v o l v e d , s h o u ld b e c a r r ie d o u t i n E n g la n d . T h is s tu d y i s l i m i t e d l a r g e l y t o t h o s e m a t e r i a ls a v a i l a b l e i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . On th e b a s i s o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w it h E n g lis h e d u c a t o r s , i t seem s l i k e l y t h a t a p e r s o n in E n g la n d w it h a c c e s s to th e B r i t i s h l i b r a r i e s and t o th e r e c o r d s o f B r i t i s h e d u c a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w o u ld h a v e s e v e r a l p r o m is in g a r e a s t o i n v e s t i g a t e . 1 . One o f th e common p o s t W orld War I I la m e n ts i s t h a t t h e W ork ers' E d u c a tio n a l A s s o c i a t i o n i s now m is nam ed, f o r m o st o f i t s s t u d e n t s a r e m i d d l e - c l a s s r a t h e r th a n w o r k e r s . The s h i f t seem s t o h a v e ta k e n p la c e d u r in g th e p e r io d o f t h i s s t u d y . The s e m a n tic ch a n g e d e s e r v e s some r e s e a r c h . A t th e o u t s e t o f t h e W orkers' E d u c a tio n a l A s s o c i a t i o n t h e ter m “w orker" had th e c o n n o t a t io n o f b e in g u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d . T h u s, th e p u r p o se o f th e A s s o c i a t i o n w as t o f u r n i s h h im w it h w h at s o c i e t y d e n ie d h im . Now t h e r e a r e few u n d e r p r iv ile g e d i n th e W .E .A . c o u r s e s . “W orker" now c o n n o te s "m anual la b o r e r ," b u t t h a t i s a s in a p p r o p r ia t e a s " u n d e r p r iv ile g e d ." The " w ork ers" a r e l a r g e l y m id d le - c l a s s c i t i z e n s , in c lu d in g t e a c h e r s , c i v i l s e r v a n t s , w h ite c o l l a r e m p lo y e e s , and v e r y fe w " w ork ers" in th e t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e . 226 2o A m inor a r e a , b u t one w orth f u r t h e r s tu d y , i s t h a t o f th e com bined s t a t i s t i c s on p s y c h o lo g y and p h i l osophy,, T h is co m b in a tio n may o b scu re a s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t d u rin g th e p e r io d . I t seem s l i k e l y th a t c l a s s e s In p s y c h o lo g y m ust h ave b een I n c r e a s in g ly p o p u la r d u rin g th e t w e n t ie s and t h i r t i e s . U n f o r t u n a t e ly , so lo n g a s th e f i g u r e s are p o o le d w ith t h o s e on s tu d e n ts In p h ilo s o p h y , th e assu m p tio n h a s to be i n f e r e n t i a l . 3 . There i s an a rea o f n eed f o r f u r t h e r stu d y in th e p e r io d p r io r to 1 9 2 6 , s in c e c o n s i s t e n t f i g u r e s are a v a i l a b l e o n ly from t h a t y ea r o n . A gain th e r e a r i s e s th e n e c e s s i t y f o r d i r e c t r e s e a r c h b a sed on th e r e c o r d s a t th e a g e n c ie s th e m s e lv e s . I 4.0 A nother need i s f o r in fo r m a tio n on th e s e x o f th e s tu d e n ts in th e e v e n in g i n s t i t u t e c o u r s e s and th e e v e n in g c o u r s e s in c o l l e g e s . I t would be p a r t i c u l a r l y w o r th w h ile to know w hat th e p r o p o r tio n o f fe m a le s was in th e v o c a t io n a l s u b j e c t s , s in c e betw een th e wars t h e r e may have been a s h i f t ta k in g p la c e in t h i s p o p u la tio n as w e l l as t h a t in th e academ ic c o u r s e s o f th e t u t o r i a l and u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s io n v a r i e t i e s . 5 . One s u b j e c t v i r t u a l l y n e g l e c t e d by t h i s stu d y i s t h a t o f th e age o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s . One o f th e fr e q u e n t comments about th e c o m p o s itio n o f th e W orkers' E d u c a tio n a l A s s o c ia t i o n i s t h a t th e p o st-W o rld War I I s tu d e n ts have a s u b s t a n t i a l l y h ig h e r m edian age than d id th e s tu d e n ts in 227 th e b e g in n in g o f th e movem ent. R e la te d to th e problem i s th e q u e s t io n o f th e number o f c o u r s e s tak en by a stu dent* I t may w e l l be th a t t h e s e o ld e r s tu d e n ts have ten ded to c o n tin u e ta k in g c l a s s e s through th e d e c a d e s . In any c a s e , th e in c r e a s e i n th e m edian age may w e l l have made m ost o f . i t s p r o g r e s s d u rin g th e y e a r s betw een World War I and. World War I I . U n t i l f u r t h e r stu d y i s done we can o n ly g u e s s . 6* The b a t t l e o f th e M a r x ist o r ie n t e d w ing o f th e a d u lt e d u c a tio n a g a in s t th e W.E.A. was b i t t e r and some what o n e - s i d e d . M argaret H od gen 's book d e s c r ib e s some o f th e c o n t r o v e r s y , b u t h e r stu d y ends i n 1925* j u s t b e f o r e th e p e r io d o f t h i s s tu d y . S in c e t h a t tim e , th e r e h as b e e n l i t t l e r e s e a r c h done on th e c o n f l i c t betw een th e M a r x ists and th e W .E.A. E n g lis h f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n h a s had r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e s t u d y . The B r i t i s h p u b lic s c h o o ls have been th e s u b j e c t s o f much a t t e n t i o n , b o th in E ngland and th e U n ite d S t a t e s . The E n g lis h p o in t t o them as p a r t i c u l a r l y B r i t i s h i n s t i t u t i o n s , and th e y rem ain th e p r e s t i g e s c h o o l s , a p a s s p o r t to h ig h s t a t u s in th e s o c i e t y . E lem en tary e d u c a t i o n h a s been reexam in ed in th e y e a r s a f t e r World War I I ; th e e d u c a t io n a l r e v o l u t i o n h a s c e n te r e d on th e e le m en ta ry and p o s t - e le m e n t a r y e d u c a tio n , th e name ’’e le m e n ta r y ” i t s e l f b e in g d is c a r d e d b e c a u se o f th e u n p le a sa n t c o n n o ta t i o n s o f c l a s s w h ich I t c a r r i e s . And, o f c o u r s e , m ost A m ericans have a vague n o t io n o f E n g lis h h ig h e r e d u c a t io n . 228 w h ich to them i s e i t h e r O xford o r C am bridge. The w id e n in g o f o p p o r tu n ity in B r i t i s h h ig h e r e d u c a tio n h a s b e e n a c com panied by i n t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h ,, H ow ever, E n g lis h f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n h a s b e e n r e l a t i v e l y n e g l e c t e d . T hose g r o u p s w ith a p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t , e s p e c i a l l y th e W o rk ers1 E d u c a tio n a l A s s o c ia t i o n , h a v e c o n d u c te d r e s e a r c h , b u t g e n e r a l ly w ith th e p u r p o se o f su p p o r t in g a d e c i s i o n o r p r o p o s in g a c h a n g e , u n d e r s ta n d a b ly w ith a s e l f i s h m o tiv e,, T h ere i s a g e n e r a l n e e d f o r o b j e c t i v e r e s e a r c h in f u r t h e r e d u c a t io n . The im p o rta n ce o f th e s t u d e n t s th e m s e lv e s seem s to b e u n d e r e s tim a t e d . I t was n o t e a s y f o r s t u d e n t s d u r in g th e t w e n t ie s and t h i r t i e s to p u t in s e v e r a l e v e n in g h o u r s in s tu d y o r in c l a s s a f t e r w ork in g f o r e ig h t o r m ore h o u r s . The e a s i e r p a th , and th e on e ta k e n by a m a jo r it y i n s i m i l a r c ir c u m s t a n c e s , was t h a t o f tu r n in g on th e w i r e l e s s o r a m b lin g down t o th e p u b . L ook in g b ack th r o u g h th e smoke o f W orld War I I , one can s e e t h a t th e e v e n in g c l a s s e s m ust h a v e f u r n is h e d a l a r g e number o f th e b e t t e r d is c ip lin e d members o f th e B r i t i s h armed f o r c e s . The r o le o f th e p la y in g f i e l d s a t E ton h a s had more th an s u f f i c i e n t c r e d i t ; b a t t l e s w ere a l s o won in th e p o o r l y - l i g h t e d , c h i l l y c l a s s room s u sed a f t e r h o u rs f o r f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n c l a s s e s . 229 The b e g in n in g o f W orld War I I ended an e r a in B r i t i s h e d u c a t io n . A new e r a b eg a n when th e p e a c e f u l r e v o l u t i o n o f 19IU4- opened th e se c o n d a r y s c h o o l d o o r s to th o u sa n d s o f c h i l d r e n who, had t h e y grown up tw e n ty y e a r s s o o n e r , w ould h a v e had t o c o m p le te t h e i r s c h o o l i n g i n a d u l t e v e n in g c l a s s e s . S o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n and r e v i s e d t a x a t i o n h a v e ten d e d t o b r in g t h e "two E n g la n d s” o f v e r y r i c h and v e r y p oor c l o s e r t o g e t h e r . H is t o r y d o es n o t r e p e a t i t s e l f ; th e s o c io e c o n o m ic m a tr ix w i t h i n w h ich E n g lis h f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n f u n c t i o n e d b etw een th e W orld Wars can n e v e r be r e p r o d u c e d . The p e r io d o f t h i s stu d y com bined a u n iq u e s e t o f c ir c u m s ta n c e s w h ich in c lu d e d p r o lo n g e d econ om ic d e p r e s s io n as w e l l as r a p id and p ro fo u n d s o c i a l and t e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s . A r e t u r n to t h o s e y e a r s o f c ir c u m s c r ib e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s in se c o n d a r y e d u c a t io n h e lp s e x p l a in some o f th e w h ats and whys o f p a s t and con tem p orary B r i t i s h f u r t h e r e d u c a t io n . BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books 1 , Adam, G en eral S ir R o n a ld . Problem s in A d u lt E d u c a tio n . London: Ruddock and S o n s, 1 9 5 6 . 2o A d u lt E d u c a tio n A fte r th e War. R eport o f th e B .I .A .E . London: O xford U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , H. M ilfo r d , 191* 5. 3o A le x a n d e r , W illia m P, E d u ca tio n in E ngland; the R a tio n a l S y stem . How I t W orks. New York: S t . M a rtin ’ s P r e s s , 1951*• 1*. A lla w a y , A. J . A d u lt E d u c a tio n in E n glan d , a B r ie f H is t o r y . L e ic e s t e r , E ngland: 1957 • 5 . A r m fe lt, R o g er. The S tr u c tu r e o f E n g lis h E d u c a tio n . London: Cohen and W est, 1955* 6 0 B akke, Edward W. The Unemployed Man; a S o c ia l S tu d y . London: N Isb e t and C o ., L t d ., 1 9 3 3 o 7 . B ark er, E r n e s t . B r it i s h U n i v e r s i t i e s . London and New Y ork: P u b lish e d f o r th e B r i t i s h C o u n c il by Longmans, Green and C o ., 1914-9. 8 . B arlow , S ir M ontague. E d u ca tio n A c t, 1902 w ith N o t e s . London: B u tte rw o rth and C o ., 1903* 9 . B arlow , S ir M ontague, and H o lla n d , R ic h a r d . The Edu- c a t io n A c t. 1 9 1 8 . London: N a tio n a l S o c i e t y ’ s D e p o s ito r y , 1 9 lB . 1 0 . B arnard, Howard C. A S h o r t H is to r y o f E n g lis h Educa t io n from 1760 to 191-Uu London: U n iv e r s it y o f London P r e s 3 , 1 9 5 7 . 1 1 . B aron, G eo rg e. A B ib lio g r a p h ic a l Guide to th e E n g lis h E d u c a tio n S y stem . L onson: U n iv e r s it y o f London, 1 9 5 1 . 12o Brew, J o se p h in e M „ In form al E d u ca tio n ; A d ven tu res and R e f l e c t i o n s . London: Faber and F a b e r, L td 0, 191*6. 1 3 . B rogan, Colm . The E d u c a tio n a l R e v o lu tio n . London: P . M u lle r , 1951*. 231 liv. 1 5 . 16 o 1 7 . 18. 1 9 . 20. 2 1. 2 2. 2 3 . 214-. 2 5 . 26. 27. 232 C arr-Saunders, A lexander M 0, and J o n es, D. Gardog. A Survey o f the S o c ia l S tru ctu re o f England and Wales as I llu s t r a t e d by S t a t i s t i c s . O xford, London: Oxford U n iv e r sity P r e ss, H, M ilfo rd , 1927. Champness, E rn est F 0 A dult S c h o o ls, a Study in P io n e e r in g . W a llin g to n , Surrey: The R e lig io u s E ducation P r e ss, 19)4-1 o C lark e, F red . E ducation and S o c ia l Change. London: The Sheldon P res 3 , 19U-0• _________ . The Study o f E ducation in England0 London: Oxford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , H. M ilfo rd , 19l|.3« C o le, G. D. H ., and P o stg a te , Raymond, The B r it is h Common P eop le 17^-6 to 1938. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1939. C o le , George D. H. B r it is h Working C la ss Movement 1789 to 1937. New York: M acmillan Company, 1938. _________ . A Short H isto ry o f the B r it is h Working- C la ss Movement 1789 to 19JU -7« London: G. A llen and Unwin, 19148. C o llie r , John, and Lang, Dan. J u st th e Other Day. New York: Harper and B ros. P u b lish e r s, 1932o C u r tis , S ta n le y J . E ducation in B r ita in S in ce 1 9 0 0 . London: D akers, 1952. _. H isto r y o f E ducation in G reat B r it a in . London: U n iv e r sity T u to r ia l P r e ss, 19j?0. D a n g e r fie ld , G eorge. The Strange Death o f L ib e ra l England. New York! Smith and H aas, 1935o D ent, Harold C. B r itis h E d u cation ,, R evised e d .; London and New io r k : P u b lish ed fo r the B r it is h C ouncil by Longmans, Green and C o ., 19)4-9. o The E ducation A ct, 19hil. P r o v is io n s . P o s s i b i l i t i e s and Some Problem s. 3rd e d .j London: U n iv e r sity o f London P r e ss, 19l|-7. . _. E d ucation in T r a n sitio n , a S o c io lo g ic a l Study o f th e Impact o f War on E n g lish E d u cation . 1939 to 19U3. New York: Oxford U n iv e r s ity P r e ss, i m . 233 2 8 , D e n t, H arold C, P art-T im e E d u ca tio n In G reat B r it a in : an H is t o r i c a l O u tlin e . 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Burrow arid C o ., L t d ., 1 9 2 8 . 35* G ans, John M * G reat B r it a in ; A Stu dy o f C iv ic L o y a lt y C h icago: U n iv e r s it y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 2 9 . 3 6 . G o ld r in g , D o u g la s . The N in e te e n T w e n tie s: a G eneral S u rvey and Some P e r so n a l M em ories. London: N ic h o lso n and W atk in s, 191+5. 3 7 . G raves, John T . P o lic y and P r o g r e ss in S econdary E d u ca tio n 1902 to 1914-2. London and New York: T . N e lso n a n d 'S o n s, L t d ., 191+3* 3 8 . G raves, R o b e r t, and H odge, A la n . The Long W eek-end. New York: M acm illan C o ., 19^ 1. 3 9 . Handbook and D ir e c to r y o f A d u lt E d u c a tio n . Com piled under a u s p ic e s o f B .I .A .E . 1 9 2 6 -2 7 . London: H. F . W. Deane and S o n s, The Year Book P r e ss L t d ., 1 9 2 7 . ^ 0 . Hansome, M ariu s0 World W orkers E d u c a tio n a l M ovem ents, T h eir S o c i a l S i g n if i c a n c e . 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London: H.M .S.O., 1922. Adult Education Committee. Paper Number 2: Report on the Recruitm ent, Training and Remuneration o f T u tors, London: H.M.S.O., 1922. _______ Paper Number The Development o f Adult Education in Rural A reas. London: H.M.S.O. 1922. ________ . Paper Number 1;: The Development o f Adult Education fo r Women. London: H.M.S.O., 1922. _________ . Paper Number B r itis h Music. London: H.M.S.O., 19214-. _________ . Paper Number 6; The Drama in Adult Edu c a tio n . London: H.M .S.O., 1927. _________ . Paper Number 7s Full-Tim e S tu d ie s« , London: H.M.S.O., 1927. 321}.. 325 o 326. 327. 328. 329. 330. 331. 332. 333o 33^. 335. 336. 337. 338. 339. 251}. Adult Education Committee. Paper Number 8: Natural Scien ce in Adult Education. London: H.M.S.O., 1927. ________ Paper Number 9s Pioneer Work and Other Developments in Adult Education. London: H.M.S.O., 1927. _. Paper Number 10: The Scope and P ractice o f Adult E ducation. London: H.M .S.O., 1930. _. 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London: H.M.S.O., 19 26. 3 5 5 . 3 5 6 . 3 5 7 . 3 5 8 . 2 5 6 S t a t i s t i c a l A b str a c t f o r th e U n ite d Kingdom 192li- 1 9 3 8 . London: H.M.S.O., 191+0. UNESCO. A d u lt E d u c a tio n , C urrent Trends and P ra c t i c e s " P a r is : 191+9. __________. I n t e r n a t io n a l D ir e c to r y o f A d ult Educa t i o n . P a r i s : 1 9 5 2 o . U n i v e r s i t i e s in A d ult E d u c a tio n . P a r is : 1 9 5 2 . A PPEN D IX A E V E N IN G INSTITUTES A N D E V E N IN G C O L L E G E C O U R S E S —G E N E R A L SU BJECTS TA B LE 1 E V EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SE S—G E N E R A L SUBJECTS 1926-1927 Subject Evening I n s titu te s Evening Courses in C ollege Combined e n tr ie s C lasses C lass e n tr ie s C lasses C lass Evening courses as e n tr ie s a per cen t o f to ta l E nglish 11,017 258,813 7l4i 19,360 7 278,173 Languages 2,650 50,7^9 1,271 26,355 3k 77,101; Art 1,177 21;,371 129 2,523 9 26,891; Music 2,530 62,831 192 h,h9h 7 67,325 S o cia l Sciences 757 17,888 116 2,389 12 20,277 Math 11,872 255,323 2,291; S i,5 & 17 15,127 Natural Science 3,013 58,233 2,U22 W*,576 2i3 102,809 Total 728,208 151,251 17 879,1i59 Source: S t a t is t ic s derived from B r itish Board o f Education rep o rts. T A B L E 2 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SE S—G E N E R A L SUBJECTS 1928 Subject Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Combined entries Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of to tsi English 9,l+l+o 214.2,677 776 20,U60 8 263,137 Languages 2,105 1+6,191 1,380 28,1486 38 7l+, 677 Art l,0 l£ 22,888 136 2,790 11 25,678 Music 2,017 5U,97U 2 1 1 + 1 + , 782 8 59,756 Social Sciences 60$ 15,71+5 126 2,589 1 1 + 18,331+ Math 10,168 21+8,583 2,311 55,156 18 303,739 Natural Science 2,758 55,636 2,1+72 1+ 6,71+ 2 1 + 6 102,108 Total 686,69I + 160,735 19 81+ 7,1+ 2 9 TA B LE 3 E V EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV E N IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SE S—G E N E R A L SUBJECTS 1928-1929 Subject Evening In s titu te s Evening Courses in College Combined e n tries Classes Class e n trie s Classes Class e n tries Evening courses as a per cent of totaL English 9,77l* 21$, 683 850 21,1*58 8 270,11*1 Languages 2,310 1*9,3 ft 1,1*51* 29,713 38 79t 06h Art 1,163 2$,538 11*3 2,811 10 28,31*9 Music 2,123 55,771* 220 5,19>* 9 60,968 Social Sciences 679 17,921 11*7 2,726 13 20,61*7 Math 10,610 251,073 2,420 57,393 19 306 j 1 * 66 N atural Science 2,310 . 56,816 2,510 1*9,567 1 * 7 106,383 Total 705,156 168,862 19 87l*,Ol8 T A B LE U EV E N IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SES—G E N E R A L SUBJECTS 1929-1930 Subject Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Combined entries Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of total EJnglish 9,720 21*3,613 925 23,970 9 267,583 Languages 2,368 51,056 1,595 3U, 1 * 6 7 1 * 0 85,523 Art 1,261 28,377 161* 3,260 10 31,637 Music 2, 2$1 58,568 220 5,11*1 8 63,709 Social Sciences 673 17, 201* 158 2,922 15 20,126 Math 10,639 251,056 2,1*71* 59,752 19 310,808 Natural Sciences 2,863 58,171* 2,1*51* 1*9,289 1 * 6 107,1*63 Total 708, 0 1 * 8 178,801 20 886,81*9 ro TA B LE ^ EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O LLEG E C O U R SES—G E N E R A L SUBJECTS 1930-1931 Subject Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Combined entries Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of total English 9,829 21^,790 1,055 27,167 10 271,957 Languages 2,57k 55,598 1,905 i a ,2ia k3 96,839 Art 1,387 30,567 187 3,702 11 3k, 269 Music 2,U59 6U,i;93 252 5>,808 8 70,301 Social Sciences 661; 17,850 173 3,536 ■17 21,386 Math 10,706 251,U liO 2,739 67,570 21 319,010 Natural Sciences 2,826 57,136 2,539 53,206 k8 110,3142 Total 721,87k 202,230 22 921;,101; TA B LE 6 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O LLEG E C O U R SES—G E N E R A L SUBJECTS 1931-1932 Subject Evening Institutes Evening Courses in College Combined entries Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of total English 9,07k 220,626 1,09k 27,326 11 2k7,952 Languages 2,581 55,0U3 1,903 39,900 k2 9k,951 Art 1,923 k2,3l6 215 3,987 9 k6,303 Music 2,352 61,191 217 k,867 7 66,058 Social Sciences 622 16,391 18k 3,926 19 20,317 Math 10,021 226,151 2,69k 6k,2k3 22 290,39k Natural Sciences 2,700 52,830 2,702 5k,396 51 107,226 Total 67k,5k8 198,653 23 873,201 ro O n U J TA B LE 7 E V EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SES—G E N E R A L SUBJECTS 1932-1933 Subject Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Combined entries Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of total English 8,l5U 196,li56 1,106 26,259 12 222,715 Languages 2,298 U6,273 1,871 36,561; 10; 82,837 Art 1,663 35,158 193 3,532 9 38,690 Music 2,135 56,157 208 Uj 598 8 60,755 Social Sciences 551 15,301; 189 3,873 20 19,177 Math 8,92 9 198,619 2,632 60, 381; 23 259,003 Natural Sciences 2,530 50,691; 2,701; 52,963 51 103,657 Total 598,661 188,173 786,83U T A B LE 8 E V E N IN G - INSTITUTES A N D E V E N IN G C O L L E G E C O U R S E S —G E N E R A L SU B JE C T S 1933-193U Subject Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Combined entries Classes Class entries Class Classes entries Evening courses as a per cent of total English 8,011 200,569 1,055 21*,287 11 221*,856 Languages 2,286 1*3,711 1,017 33,285 h3 76,996 Art 1,7 6U 38,1*50 183 3,103 8 h i ,853 Music 2,292 59,503 257 5,362 8 61*, 865 Social Sciences 626 16,581 202 3,808 19 20,389 Math 8,690 199,700 2,630 58,21*9 23 257,9h9 Natural Sciences 2,533 b9, 7 1 * 8 2,705 52,725 51 102,1*73 Total 608,262 181,119 23 789,381 T A B L E 9 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SE S—G E N E R A L SUBJECTS 193l*-1935 Subject Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Classes Class entries Classes Class Evening courses as entries a per cent of totaL Combined entries English £ 8,9U7 232,^01 1,0 55 21* , 218 9 256,719 Languages 2,3U6 JU U ,07U 1,769 31, 1 * 6 1 1 * 2 75,535 Art 1,71*7 39,386 118 2,295 6 1 * 1,681 Music 2,1*35 60,263 252 5,168 8 6$,h31 Social Sciences 666 18,761 175 3,129 11* 21,890 Math 9,388 227,697 2,61*8 5 9 ,1 * 1 * 1 * 21 287, 11a Natural Sciences 2,7U2 56,966 2,722 5 1*, 006 1 * 9 110,972 Total 678, 6 1 * 8 179,721 21 858,369 ro & TA BLE 10 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O LLEG E CO U RSES—G E N E R A L SUBJECTS 1935-1936 Subject Evening In stitu te s Evening Courses in College Combined entries Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of total English 9,31*2 21*0,791* 1,058 21*,157 9 261*i95l Languages 2,1*17 1*5,159 1,782 31,030 1)1 76,189 Art 1,876 1*2,377 98 1,979 1 * 1 * 1 * , 356 Music 2,735 65,817 288 6,029 8 72,81*6 Social Sciences 717 21,1*1*2 195 3,1*87 1 1 * 21*,929 Math 10,058 21*6,306 2,763 63,318 20 309,621* Natural Sciences 2,965 61,992 2,81*5 55,517 1 * 7 117,509 Total 723,887 185,517 20 909,1*01* ro O n — 0 T A B L E 1 1 E V E N I N G IN S T IT U T E S A N D E V E N I N G C O L L E G E C O U R S E S — G E N E R A L S U B J E C T S 1936-1937 Subject Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses1 in College Combined entries Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening Courses as a per cent of totaL English 9,91;9 238,921 1,193 27,291 10 269,772 Languages 2,937 90,281; 1,779 33,192 h0 83,U76 Art 1,903 i a ,6^3 109 2,030 9 1+3,673 Music 3,0i|2 70,7U7 310 6,886 9 77,633 Social Sciences 811; 21,798 201; 3,637 Ik 29,399 Math 10,626 293,627 2,991 72,319 22 329,9U6 Natural Sciences 3,099 69,220 2,997 99,629 I 1 8 121;, 8h9 Total 7ia,800 201h 9kk 22 91+6, 7 U 1 + 268 TA BLE 12 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O LLEG E C O U R SES—G E N E R A L SUBJECTS 1937-1938 Subject Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Combined entries Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of totaL English 9,725 21*2,163 1,21*9 29,1*70 11 271,633 Languages 2,771 57,155 1,878 36,681* 39 93,839 Art 1,975 1 * 1 * , 075 105 2,073 1 * 1*6,11*8 Music 3,296 76,631 315 6,858 8 83,1*89 Social Sciences 818 21,070 233 3,372 18 25,51*2 Math 11,016 262,060 3,31*8 81*, 81*1 2 1 * 31*6,901 Natural Sciences 3,077 65,317 3,030 63,101 1 * 9 128,1*18 Total 768,825 227,1*99 23 996,321* APPENDIX B EVENING INSTITUTES AND EVENING COLLEGE COURSES—VOCATIONAL SUBJECTS TA B LE 13 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O LLEG E CO U RSES—V O C A T IO N A L SUBJECTS 1926-1927 Subject Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Combined entries Classes Class entries Classes Class Evening courses as en tries a per cent of totaL Mining 776 11,677 271; 3,U50 23 15,127 Chemical 76 888 U86 7,082 89 7,970 T extile k$l 6,033 825 16,513 73 22,5U6 Eng. Metal 1,889 26,821 U,0U2 71,965 Ik 101,786 Clothing 352 5,920 355 6,311 52 12,231 Food and Drink 23 U52 103 2,176 83 2,628 Book Print and Paper Trades 103 1,939 33k 6,196 76 8,135 Building, Woodworking, > Furniture 1,715 27,191; 2,335 1;6,939 63 7U,133 Miscellaneous Trades k 59 8,1491 53 l,lli0 12 9,631 Professional and Commercial 16,100 368,001; 3,201 75,613 17 IU3,617 Domestic 10,121; 201;, 991; 1,188 21;, 020 10 229, 011; Manual 3,152 67,910 97 1,865 3 69,775 Total 730,323 266,270 27 996,593 Source; S ta tis tic s derived from B ritish Board of Education reports# ro 2 T A B L E 1 1 1 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SES—V O C A T IO N A L SUBJECTS 1928 Evening I n s t it u t e s Evening Courses in C o lle g e S u b ject C la sses C lass e n tr ie s C la ss C la sse s e n tr ie s Evening cou rses as a per cen t o f totaL Combined e n tr ie s M ining 680 10,066 2U6 3,1*28 23 13,U9U Chemical Trades 3k 61 i7 1|96 7,233 92. 7,902 Eng* and M etal Trades 1,67k 27,099 3,966 77,337 7U 101*, 636 T e x tile Trades 398 3,9 83 830 16,112 73 22,093 C loth in g 39U 7,130 362 6,912 1 * 9 111, 01*2 Food and D rink Book P r in t and Paper 22 U6ii 110 2,1*98 8 1 * 2,962 Trades B u ild in g , '.Yoochvorking 79 9 1,U69 322 6 ,223 Gl 7,69 k F u r n itu r e 1,620 27,697 2,367 1 i9,660 6 1 * 77,337 M isc e lla n e o u s T rades P r o fe ssio n a l and 376 3, 1|3 C rM 1,209 13 9,639 Commercial 111, 3 73 336,33k 3 ,lil6 80,969 19 1*37,323 Dom estic 9,812 206,910 1,211 21i,776 11 231,686 Manual S u b jects 2,932 69,1*92 96 1,913 3 71,1*07 T o ta l 721,710- 278,316 28 1,000,237 TA B LE 15 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D E V EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SES—V O C A T IO N A L SUBJECTS 1928-1929 Evening I n s titu te s Evening Courses in C ollege Combined en tr ie s Subject C lasses Class e n tr ie s C lasses C lass e n tr ie s Evening courses as a per cent o f to ta l Mining 505 7,203 289 3,619 33 10,822 Chemical Trades 80 1,001* 51*1 7,781 89 8,785 Eng. and Metal Trades 1,75? 29,1*96 1 * , 055 79,711 73 109,207 T e x tile Trades 1*20 5,925 816 15,782 73 21,707 C lothing Trades 1 * 6 1 * 7,91*5 321* 6,063 1*3' 1U,008 Food and Drink 23 1*67 155 3,305 88 • 3,772 Book P rin t and Paper Trades 101 1,71*5 361* 6,502 79 8,21*7 B u ild in g, ■Woodworking Furniture 1,573 25,238 2,1*67 1 * 9,660 66 7l*,898 M iscellaneous Trades 1*09 8,986 76 1,602 15 10,588 P ro fessio n a l and Commercial ll*,560 353,557 3,598 83,^29 19 1*37,086 Domestic 10,301* 217,621 1,321* 25,91*5 11 21*3,566 Manual Subjects 3,520 81,611 181 3,192 1 * 81*, 803 Total 71*0,798 286,691 28 1,027,1*89 TA BLE 16 EVENING INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O LLEG E CO U RSES—V O C A TIO N A L SUBJECTS 1929-1930 Evening In stitu te s Evening Courses in College Subject Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of totaL Combined entries Mining £70 7,950 295 3,899 33 11,81*9 Chemical Trades 91 1,191* 550 7,81*1 87 9,035 Eng. & Metal Trades 2,017 35,955 1*,285 86,336 71 122,291 T extile 1*26 5,915 827 15,578 72 21,1*93 Clothing 518 8,91*8 367 6,996 1 * 1 * 1 1 * ,9 1 * 1 * Food and Drink 35 833 182 3,792 82 1*,625 Book Print and Paper Trades 116 2,01*7 1*10 7,1*93 79 9,51*0 Building, Woodworking Furniture 1,750 27,539 2,576 51,1*71 65 79,010 Miscellaneous Trades 1*36 9,191 73 1,672 15 10,863 Professional and Commercial 15,013 361*, 866 3,9 1 0 9 3 ,5 1 1 20 1*58,377 Domestic 10,926 229,017 1,1*62 29,005 11 258,022 Manual Subjects 3,898 83,159 157 2,773 3 90,932 Total 781,611* 310,367 28 1,091,981 TA BLE 17 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D - EV EN IN G C O LLEG E C O U R SES—V O C A TIO N A L SUBJECTS 1930-1931 Evening In stitu te s Evening Courses in College Subject Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of total Combined entries Mining 570 8,071 300 3,611 31 11,682 Chemical Trades 111* 1,610 632 10,327 87 11,937 Eng. & Metal Trades 2,087 37,138 1*,595 9 3 ,1 * 1 * 1 * 72 130,582 T extile Trades 381 h ,6$ l 807 13,61*9 7k 18,300 Clothing Trades $97 10,307 391 7,095 i*i 17,1*02 Food and Drink $9 1,161* 19h i*,017 78 5,181 Book Print and Paper Trades 1$0 2,727 k3h 8,308 75 11,035 Building, Woodworking Furniture 1,831 27,1*55 2,856 55,659 67 83,111* Miscellaneous Trades h$h 9,366 70 1,712 15 11,078 P r o fe ssio n and Commercial 15, 2 1 * 3 368,872 U,578 109,377 23 1*78,21*9 Domestic 11,710 21*6,1*98 1,586 31, O il* 11 277,512 Manual Subjects l*,39l* 100,1*03 159 2,786 3 103,189 Total 818,262 31*0,999 29 1,159,261 TA B LE 18 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O LLEG E C O U R SES—V O C A T IO N A L SUBJECTS 1931-1932 Subject Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Combined entries Classes Class entries Classes Class Evening courses as entries a per cent of total Mining U87 7,U78 301 3,972 35 11,1450 Chemical Trades 91 1,303 628 9,31a 88 10,61* Eng. & Metal Trades 2 ,0 5 l 35,368 ' 14,675 92,262 72 127,630 T extile Trades 312 3,81* 739 11,509 75 15,353 Clothing Trades 653 11,586 3814 7,199 H 4 0 17,78U Food and Drink 67 1,200 220 U ,208 78 5, 1;08 Book Print and Paper Trades 126' 2,327 U58 8,383 78 10,710 Building, Woodworking Furniture 1,753 27,125 2,951 55,592 67 82,717 Miscellaneous Trades 35U 7,208 79 1,8143 20 9,051 Professional and Commercial 11,726 3U 9,O O l* ’ 14,607 106,8147 23 1455,851 "Domestic 11,231 233,1498 • 1,6U2 32,020 12 265,516 Manual Subjects 3,975 93,177 118 2,092 2 95,269 Total 773,118 335,268 30 1,108,386 TA B LE 19 E V EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SE S—V O C A T IO N A L SUBJECTS 1932-1933 Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Subject Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of total Combined entries Mining 1 * 7 2 7,861 287 it,090 3 1 * 11,951 Chemical Trades 82 1,071 671 9,992 90 11,063 Eng. & Metal Trades 1,9UU 31,898 It, 732 91,805 7 1 * 123,703 T extile Trades 306 3,806 702 11, 1 * 0 1 75 15,207 Clothing Trades 353 9,1*65 303 5,937 39 15, 1 * 0 2 Food and Drink Book Print and 77 1,21*3 21*0 It, 619 79 5,862 Paper Trades Building, Woodworking 135 2,350 1 * 6 7 7,971* 77 10,321* Furniture 1, 1 * 0 8 20,712 2,887 50,759 71 71,1*71 Miscellaneous Trades Professional and 119 2,875 72 1,719 37 l*,59l* Commercial 13,399 312,395 It, 606 102,808 25 1*15,203 Domestic 11,799 239,269 1,81*2 3 1 *, 050 12 273,319 Manual Subjects l*,0i* 8 93,71*2 1 1 * 9 2,925 3 96,667 Total 726,687 328,079 31 1, 051*, 766 T A B L E 20 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SE S—V O C A T IO N A L SUBJECTS 1933-1931* Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Subject Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of totaL Combined entries Mining 690 13,919 321* i*,968 26 18,887 Chemical Trades 101 1 ,U x2 688 10,523 88 11,965 Eng. & Metal Trades 2,206 1x0,107 1 x ,693 89,312 69 129,1*19 Textile Trades 337 lx, 085 691* 10,809 73 Hx,89lx Clothing Trades ^20 13,361 301* 5,930 31 19,291 Food and Draink 7 l* 1,218 2 1 * 3 1*,1*97 79 5,715 Book Print and Paper Trades ll*9 2,821 1 * 7 5 8,21*0 7 1 * 11,061 Building, Woodworking Furniture 1,1x96 21,921 2,939 1x9,71*2 69 71,663 Miscellaneous Trades 59 1,51x3 97 2,130 58 3,673 Professional and Commercial 13,282 313,21x6 lx,750 102,637 25 1*15,883 Domestic 12,086 . 21*3,698 1,81*2 31*,1*98 12 278,196 Manual Subjects lx,287 101*, 601* 159 3, 01*0 3 107,61*1* Total 761,965 326,326 30 1,088,291 T A B L E 21 E V E N I N G IN S T IT U T E S A N D E V E N I N G C O L L E G E C O U R S E S — V O C A T I O N A L S U B J E C T S 1 9 3 1 + -1 9 3 5 Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Subject Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of totaL Combined entries Mining 778 16,511 3 5 1 + 5,731+ 26 22,21*5 Chemical Trades 122 1,791 685 11,103 86 12,8 9 1 + Eng. & Metal Trades 2,1+52 16,297 5,051 95,701+ 67 11+2,001 T extile Trades. 3 1 * 2 U,291 707 10,611 71 H+,902 Clothing Trades 12,678 367 6,725 35 19,1+03 Food and Drink Book Print and 7k 1,31+2 250 l+,637 78 5,979 Paper Trades Building, Woodworking 151* 3,081 1 + 9 1 + 8,606 7 1 + 11,687 Furniture 1,588 25,070 3,057 52,001 67 77,071 Miscellaneous Trades Professional and 62 1,585 85 1,801 53 3,386 Commercial 11*,121* 3l+l+,325 i+,895 10l+,205 23 1+1+8,530 Domestic 12,756 251+, 722 1,855 33,021 11 287,71+3 Manual Subjects U ,8 1 iJ U 115,677 179 3,055 3 118,732 Total 827,370 337,203 29 1,161,573 ro T A B LE 22 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SES—V O C A T IO N A L 'SUBJECTS 1935-1936 Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Subject Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of total Combined entries Mining 8 1 * 2 17,508 391* 6,193 26 23,701 Chemical Trades 128 2,067 62 9 10,11*1 83 12,208 Eng# & Metal Trades 2,670 51,998 5,1*17 107,890 67 159,888 T extile Trades 352 U,509 735 10,780 71 15,289 Clothing Trades 575 12,881 386 6,578 3 1 * 19,1*59 Food and Drink Book Print and 95 1,552 237 1 * , 1 * 1 * 8 7 1 * 6,000 Paper Trades Building, Woodworking 1 51* 3,2U3 515 9,180 7 1 * 12,1*23 Furniture i,51*o 2U,35U 3,218 55,1*21* 69 .79 , 778 Miscellaneous Trades Professional and 7 1 * 2,00l* 81 1,71*1 1 * 6 3,71*5 Commercial 15,153 365,960 5,109 109,952 23 1*75,912 Domestic 13,19li 256,1*32 1,901 33,135 11 289,567 Manual Subjects 5,5o6 129,1*78 180 2,991* 2 132,1*72 Total 871,986 3^8,h^6 29 1,230,1*1*2 280 T A B LE 23 EV EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SE S—V O C A T IO N A L SUBJECTS 1936-1937 Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses: in College Subject Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of total. Combined entries Mining 892 18,159 391 .6,178 25 2k,337 Chemical Trades 133 2,07k 702 10,685 8k 12,759 Eng. & Metal Trades 2,863 57,910 5,96U 127,029 69 18k,939 T extile Trades 363 5,oU8 752 10, lil4l 67 . Ik,k89 Clothing Trades 597 13,115 390 6,52k 33 19,639 Food and Drink Book Print and 116 2,113 257 k,k98 68 6,611 Paper Trades Building, Woodworking 189 3,75k 529 9,k58 72 13,212 Furniture 1,712 27,727 3,k22 63,697 70 91,k2k Miscellaneous Trades Professional and 87 2,037 88 1,968 b9 k,oo5 Commercial 15,367 366,650 5,551 119,110 25 k85,760 Domestic 13,802 266,023 2,011 35,k09 12 301,k32 Manual Subj ects 5,817 130,709 183 2,885 2 133,59k Total 895,319 397,882 31 1,293,201 TA B LE 2 k E V EN IN G INSTITUTES A N D EV EN IN G C O L L E G E C O U R SE S—V O C A T IO N A L SUBJECTS 1937-1938 Evening In stitu tes Evening Courses in College Sub j act Classes Class entries Classes Class entries Evening courses as a per cent of total- Combined entries Mining 917 18,951; 386 6,180 25 25,138 Chemical Trades 139 2,082 765 12,377 86 10,059 &ig. & Metal Trades 3,328 67, 1 * 8 6 6,607 106,170 68 213,660 T extile Trades 378 5,038 792 11,387 69 16,025 Clothing Trades 602 13,681; 370 6,370 32 2o,c50 Food and Drink Book Print and 131 2,013 268 0,080. 69 6,097 Paper Trades Building, Woodworking 183 3,912; 571 9,892 72 13,806 Furniture 1,8149 29,608 3,621 66,878 69 96,086 Miscellaneous Trades Professional and 89 2,110; 98 1,956 08 0,100 Commercial 15,800 370,999 5,759 125,351 25 U96,3^0 Domestic 11;, 586 280,330 2,201 38,356 12 322,686 Manual Subjects 6,111; 139,168 196 3,115 2 102,283 Total 939,320 032,520 32 1,371,800 ro 00 r \ 3 A PPE N D IX G E X T R A -M U R A L A N D SIM ILA R C O U R S E S SU PE R V ISE D B Y UNIVERSITIES O R U N IV ERSITY C O L L E G E S, A N D C O U R S E S U N D E R T H E C O N T R O L A N D D IR E C T IO N O F A P P R O V E D A SSO C IA TIO N S F O R A D U L T E D U C A T IO N , O T H E R T H A N V A C A T IO N C O U R S E S T A B LE 25 E X T R A -M U R A L A N D A PP R O V E D ASSOCIATION C O U R S E S 1 9 2 6 -1 9 2 7 Preparatory, three year and advanced tu torial classes University Extension Course O ne Year & Terminal Courses Students Students Students Subject Class M en W om en Total'1 ' Class M en W om en Total Class M en W om en Total Literature and Language 1 1 * 8 1,21*3 1,660 (57*) 2,903 1 * 7 281 725 (72*) 1,006 168 1,375 2,203 (62*) 3,578 Economics and Ind. H ist. (in c l. 223 Geography) 3,075 755 (20*) 3,830 23 1 * 2 3 70 (11**) 1 * 9 3 157 2,31*5 7 1 1 * (23*) 3,059 History 5 1 * 663 325 (33*) 988 27 201 261* (57*) 1 * 6 5 53 599 653 (52*) 1,252 Aesthetics (in c l. music, art) ■ 2 1 * 211 287 (58*) 1 * 9 8 29 309 276 (1*7*) 585 la 1 * 0 5 697 (63*) 1,102 Natural Science 19 193 150 (10**) 3 1 * 3 13 137 93 (1*0*) 230 2 1 * 2 1 * 2 177 (1*2*) 109 Sociology 72 963 3 1 * 2 (26%)' 1,305 5 60 3 1 * (36*) 9 1 * 69 68 7 869 (56*) 1,556 Philosophy and Psychology 102 1,197 891* (1*3*) 2,091 1 1 * 113 199 (61**) 312 50 719 610 (1*6*) 1,329 Total 6 1 * 2 7,51*5 1*,1*13 (37*) 11,958 158 1,521* 1,661 (52*) 3,185 570 6,372 5,923 (1*8*) 12,295 Source: S ta tistic s derived from B ritish Board of Education reports. * f The percentage of wom en is given in parentheses above the total# TA BLE 26 E X T R A -M U R A L A N D A PPR O V E D ASSOCIATION C O U R SES 1927-1928 Preparatory, three Year and Advanced Tutorial Classes University Extension Course One Year & Terminal Courses Students Students Students Subject Class M en W om en tfotal Class M en W om en Total Class M en W om en Total Literature and Language 165 1,332 1,802 ($7%) 3,13k I1 8 321 698 (68*) 1,019 239 1,796 2,91*3 (62*) U, 739 Economics and Ind H ist. (In cl. Geography) 217 2,693 76 9 {22% ) 3,1*62 ll* 272 92 (16*) 32b 1 1 * 2 2,031 7 1 * 7 (27*) 2,778 History 63 762 371 (33*) 1,133 21 192 26U (63*) 10-6 72 799 908 (91**) 1,667 Aesthetics (Incl, music, art) 26 170 319 (6#) 1 * 8 9 32 321* 390 (92*) 67I * 68 961 983 (61**) 1,91*1* Natural Science 20 209 139 (1|0*) 3U8 8 7l* 96 (U3*) 130 3 1 * 299 31*0 (93*) 639 Sociology 71 927 392 (28*) 1,279 7 106 26 {20% ) 132 61 931* 686 (96*) 1,220 Philosophy and Psychology 113 1,161* 96 7 (1*9*) 2,131 19 132 209 (61*) 310 99 992 6 1 * 9 (92*) 1,210 Total 675 7,297 1 * , 719 (39*) 11,976 ll*8 1,10-6 1,691 (a*) 3,107 678 6,991* 7,1*08 (93*) 11*, 002 1 0 0 9 V J1 T A B L E 2 7 E X T R A - M O R A L A N D A P P R O V E D A S S O C I A T I O N C O U R S E S 1928-1929 Preparatory, Three Tear and Advanced Tutorial Classes University Extension Course One Year & Terminal Courses Students Students Students Sub j ect Class M en W om en ■fetal Class M en W om en Total Class M en W om en Total Literature and Language 162 1,261* 1,753 (58*) 3,017 55 368 788 ( 68*) 1,156 266 2,075 3,31*7 (62*) 5, 1 * 22 Economics and Ind. H ist. (in c l. Geography) 2,1*25 6 1 * 8 (21*) 3,073 20 261 111* (30*) 375 157 2,099 81*0 (29*) 2,939 History 61 713 359 (33*) 1,072 20 180 261 (59*) 1 * 1 * 1 62 6 1 * 1 751 (51**) 1,392 Aesthetics (in cl, music, art) 36 289 396 (58*) 685 28 176 332 (65*) 508 75 559 1,01*5 (65*) 1, 601* Natural Science 21* 261 186 ( 1 * 2*) 1 * 1 * 7 12 157 99 (39*) 256 1 * 3 1 * 11* 1*80 (51**) 891* Sociology 91 1,138 U U o (28*) 1,578 13 11*8 11*1 (1*9*) 289 9 1 * 1,108 838 (1*3*) 1,91*6 Philosophy and Psychology 129 1,322 1,103 (1*5*) 2,1*25 29 223 389 (61**) 612 80 871* 836 (1*9*) 1,710 Total (1*0*) (58*) (51*) 688 7,1*12 it,885 12,297 177 1,513 2,121* 3,637 777 7,770 8,137 15,907 £ -------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------- ------- ----------------- -------—. — ---------- Q\ TA B LE 28 E X T R A -M U R A L A N D A P P R O V E D ASSOCIATION C O U R S E S 1929-1930 Preparatory, Three Year and Advanced T utorial Classes U niversity Extension Course One Year & Terminal Courses Students Students Students Subject Class M en 1 romen Total Class M en W om en Total Class M en W om en Total L itera tu re and Language 199 1,160 1,689 (99*) 2,81+9 62 .1 + 0 7 981 (71*) 1,388 3 1 + 9 2,391 1 + , 1 + 9 9 (65*) 6,890 Economics and Ind H ist. (in c l. Geography) 192 2, 1 + 1 + 1 792 (2 1 +*) 3,193 30 1 + 9 6 189 (29*) 6 1 + 9 193 2,618 1, 1 1 + 6 (30*) 3,761+ H istory 59 636 373 (37*) 1,009 .30 277 392 (96*) 629 7 1 + 909 . 678 (1+3*) 1,983 A esthetics (in c l. music, a rt) 33 210 362 (63*) 972 37 227 1 + 8 1 (68*) 708 71 99U 911 (62*) 1,1+65 N atural Science 2 1 + 2 6 1 + 177 (1 + 0*) 1 + 1 + 1 17 221 1 1 + 3 (39*) 3 6 1 + 1 + 9 1 + 0 1 + 986 (57*) 990 Sociology 93 1,098 1 + 8 3 (31*) 1,981 11 133 68 (31+*) 201 1 1 1 + 1,102 1,11+7 (51*) 2, 2 1 + 9 Philosophy and Psychology 125 1,229 1,131+ (1+8*) 2,363 39 309 1 + 8 1 (61*) 790 96 1,099 1,068 (1+9*) 2,167 T otal (10*) (97*) (93*) % 681 7,038 l+,966 12, 001+ 222 2,030 2,699 U,729 9 1 + 2 9,073 10,039 19,108 ® TA B LE 29 E X T R A -M U R A L A N D A P P R O V E D ASSOCIATION C O U R SE S 1930-1931 Preparatory, Three Year and Advanced T u to rial Classes U niversity Extension Course One Year & Terminal Courses Students Students Students Subject Class lien W om en 'Jotal Class Men W om en Total Class Men W om en Total lite r a tu r e and Language 166 1,222 1,861+ (6056) 3,086 95 6 0 1 + 1,1+57 (7156) 2,061 392 2,771+ 5,111 (6536) 7,885 Economics and In d H ist. (in c l. Geography) 198 2,650 800 (2356) 3,1+50 ko 613 28k (3256) 897 19U 2,639 1,057 (2956) 3,696 H istory 6 l 697 367 (3l+$) 1,061+ 35 289 387 (5736) 676 73 778 798 (5156) 1,576 A esthetics (in c l. music, a r t) . 33 229 3l+ 9 (60$) 578 h3 293 5 2 1 + (6 1 *56) 817 89 622 1,159 (65$) 1,781 N atural Sciences 32 363 229 <3$ 37 312 396 (56J6) 708 78 889 700 m Sociology 110 1,206 628 <3W> 1,831+ 27 323 173 (3556) 1 + 9 6 126 1,2 7 1 + 1,219 (1+9$) 2,1+93 Philosophy and Psychology 130 1,301 1,185 (1+8$) 2,1+86 1 + 6 10.6 669 (62J6) 1,085 113 1,129 1,311 (51+$) 2,1+ 1+ 0 Total 730 7,668 5,1+22 (10.56) 13,090 323 2,850 3,890 (5856) 6,71+0 1,065 10,105 11,355 ro o o oo TA B LE 30 E X T R A -M U R A L A N D A PP R O V E D ASSOCIATION C O U R SE S 1931-1932 Preparatory, Three Year and Advanced T u to rial Classes U niversity Extension Course One Tear & Terminal Courses Students Students Students Subject Class Men W om en T otal Glass M en W om en l o ta i Class Men W om en Tlotel L ite ra tu re and Language 168 1,198 1,867 (61$) 3,065 111 626 1, 6 0 1* (72%) 2,230 3 61+ 2,1+85 1+,617 (65%) 7,102 Economics 166 2,278 67U m h9 752 268 (26%) 1,020 151 2,269 705 (21+ % ) 2,97U H istory, Ind. 2 1 + 329 100 ( 2 ® 5 68 32 (32£) 100 69 7 1 + 6 619 m Geography 9 119 53 (31% ) 172 8 91 98 ( 5 ? $ 30 380 297 (W 677 H istory, General 76 795 517 m 60 571 671 m 153 1,603 1,665 m A esthetics (incl< music, a rt) 33 282 33l+ 1 + 2 32U 565 106 69I + 1,383 (67*) 2,077 N atural Science 1 + 0 1*85 2 1 + 8 38 1 + 7 3 321 95 1,202 830 $8 Sociology 86 1,002 hhO m 23 256 225 12 1 + 1,515 1,062 m Philosophy and Psychology 168 1,732 1,380 m 53 h99 727 m 131 1,253 1,367 m Miscellaneous - - - - - - - - 2 23 28 Total 770 . 8,220 5,613 l ^ $ f ] 389 3,660 l+,5ll m 1,225 12,170 12,573 2 ^ 7 ? ] M ....... .... — —— _____________________________________________ _______________ 00 TA B LE 31 E X T R A -M U R A L A N D A PPR O V E D ASSOCIATION C O U R SE S 1932-1933 Preparatory, Three Year and Advanced Tutorial Classes University Extension Course One Year & Terminal Courses Students Students Students Subject Class M en W om en Total Class M en W om en Total Class M en wom en Total litera tu re and (6036). (6936) (■ 6 7 3 6 ) Language 167 1,228 1,82*2 3,070 110 68k 1,519 2,203 3 3 1 + 2 , 21+0 1+ ,1 + 7 1 6,711 Economics 170 2,301 606 m 35 567 161+ (227f l 137 2,038 670 H istory, General 92 1 ,0 0 8 586 m 57 5H + 665 m 202 2,372 1,881+ a s History, Ind. 30 kl$ 1U7 5 58 52 1 + 5 559 285 Geography 9 112 57 (3li?) 16 9 7 57 60 (61?) 117 35 1 + 3 7 301 da?) 738 Aesthetics (in cl,» (5736) (61?) (65?) music, art) 30 21+ 1 318 559 33 2 1 + 3 388 631 103 732 1,31+3 2,075 Natural Science l+ o 1491 252 (3li36) 7U 3 26 315 230 117 1,511 1,079 Sociology 6 1 + 806 287 CM ' — 'H 1 + 5 538 1 + 7 0 152 1,957 1 ,1 2 2 $ 8 Philosophy and Psychology 160 1,683 1,215 m 50 1 + 7 6 607 138 1,536 1,398 Total 762 8,285 5,310 (3956) 13,595 368 3,1+52 1+,155 (55?) 7,607 1,263 13,382 12,553 (U8?) 25,935 r\3 \o O T A B L E 32 E X T R A -M U R A L A N D A P P R O V E D ASSOCIATION C O U R SE S 1933-1931* Preparatory, Three Year and Advanced Tutorial Classes University Extension Course O ne Year & Terminal Courses Students Students Students Subject Class M en W om en tfotal Class M en W om en T o t a l Class M en W om en Total Literature and Language 161* 1 ,1 2 2 1,779 (61*) 2,901 100 597 i,l*5i (73*) 2, 01*8 303 2,085 1*,062 (66*) 6,11*7 Economics 160 2,015 568 m 32 522 170 (25*) 692 110 1,626 1*35 (21*) 2 ,0 6 1 H istory, General 81 899 572 m 52 1 * 7 2 583 m 177 1,915 1 ,9 0 1 (50*) 3,817 H istory, Ind. 18 227 91 ( a S S 7 98 79 m 68 877 103 m Geography 11* 188 119 (39%) 307 5 35 75 (68*) 110 38 1 * 5 1 303 Aesthetics (in c l. music, art) 32 236 3 1 * 8 (58*) 601* 1*0 321 522 (62*) 8 1 * 3 103 835 1,213 (59*) 2, 01*8 Natural Science U5 567 291* m 26 3 1 * 1 * 21* 1 * 111 1,715 1,305 m Sociology 81* 1,051* 1 * 21* m 1*0 1*62 101 (1*7*) 873 197 2, 1*20 1,51*9 (39*) 3,969 Philosophy and Psychology 1 1 * 9 1,1*96 1,219 06%) 2,715 58 566 803 (59*) 1,369 139 1,1*83 1,701 (53*) 3 , 181* Total 7 1 * 7 7,821* 5,1*11* (111*) 13,238 1,276 13, 1*08 12,882 (56*) 7,755 1,276 1 3, 1*08 12,882 (1*9*) 26 ,2 9 0 TA B LE 33 E X T R A -M U R A L A N D A PPR O V E D ASSOCIATION C O U R SE S 1931+-1935 Preparatory, Three Year and Advanced T u to rial Claeses Students U niversity Extension Course Students One Year & Terminal Courses Students Subject Class Men W om en T otal Class Men W om en Total Class Men W omen T otal L ite ra tu re and Language 172 Economics ^33 H istory, General 70 H istory, Ind. 23 Geography I k A esthetics (in c l. music, a r t) 32 N atural Science ££ Sociology 122 Philosophy and Psychology 153 1,190 1,616 850 279 183 221+ 667 1,576 1 ,5 2 2 ( 61*) 1,814.3 3,033 399 556 130 102 372 668 1,372 m Up*} l,l+0o (62%) 5:96 (3i+ * ) 3I 4 9 1,016 m 95 3ii 38 6 8 U 2 28 62 (69*) 591 1 ,2 9 2 1 ,8 8 3 592 358 86 1 + 7 330 339 737 II4 O U52 31 71 li9U 27U 582 (1$ (56%) 810 (2x 6S (688 (60*) 8 2 1 + (1+5*) 613 ( 1+ 1+*) 1,319 57 633 808 1,14, 326 2 ,l5 l k,283 98 1,1+12 1+ 60 173 1,825 1,81+1; 5 1 + 593 1+21 3 1 + 365 276 111+ 977 1,261 151; 1,958 1 ,1 2 2 21t l4 3,113 1,808 (50*) 3 ,6 6 9 ' ,0: ( 1 + . (56*) 2,238 (36*) 3,080 3 162 1 ,7 6 9 1 ,8 3 0 3,599 T otal 783 8,107 ( 1 + 2*) 5,791 13,898 (53*) (1+8*) M 370 3,713 1+,1bk 7,857 1 ,3 9 11+, 163 13,305 27,1+68 £ TA BLE 3 h E X T R A -M U R A L A N D A PPR O V E D ASSOCIATION C O U R SE S 1935-1936 Preparatory, Three Tear and Advanced Tutorial Classes University Extension Course One Tear & Terminal Courses Students Students Students Subject Class M en W om en to ta l Class Men Women Total Class M en W om en Total Literature and Language 159 Economics 133 H istory, General 86 H istory, Ind. 2 1 * Geography ^9 A esthetics (in c l. music, art) 1 * 0 Natural Science • 68 Sociology 1 )|Q 11*5 Philosophy and Psychology ( 60%) 1,112 1,61*7 2,759 1,778 1*80 930 593 301* 127 226 153 361* 768 1,822 mi m i ( 52%) 395 759 1*51 1 805 m ( 50%) 1,336 1,355 2,691 87 31 10* 8 7 1 * 5 30 78 70 580 1,280 503 162 1 * 0 8 123 69 316 310* 913 683 520 76 81 6 1 * 3 281* 718 962 (692) 1,860 m i (S6J 9' (3$ (5® (672) 959 (U S S (582) 1,61*5 316 2,o£L 3,932 107 1,1*15 51*6 133 1,378 1,286 56 705 322 38 375 366 130 880 1,1*70 120 1,378 957 307 3,597 2,562 173 1,956 1,727 (662) 5,983 (282) ' l,9 6 l m ( 31%) 1,027 ci a (632) 2,350 m w (1*72) 3,683 Total 823 8,61*0 6,006 1*00 3,939 U, 726 1,380 13,735 13,168 26,903 £ \jO T A B LE 35 E X T R A -M U R A L A N D A PPR O V E D ASSOCIATION C O U R SE S 1936-1937 Subject Preparatory, Three Tear and Advanced Tutorial Classes Students Class M en W om en Total University Extension Course O ne Year & Terminal Courses Students Students Class M en W om en Total Class M en W om en Total Literature and Language 173 Economics ^ 0 History, General ]_o^ History, Ind. 26 Geography 2.6 Aesthetics (in c l. music, art) 38 Natural Science 66 Sociology 156 Philosophy and Psychology 161 (6058) 1,138 1,693 2,831 1,515 1,1U9 285 168 318 693 1,762 377 737 1 1 4 - 3 U46 355 3714 870 m mi (H (53*) 673 f f l m m ) l,iili5 1,151 2,896 91 22 58 10 1 1 39 17 68 602 1,202 (67*) 1,8014 312 1,9U7 U,053 (68*) . 6,000 310 138 88 1,217 388 m 527 661 188 2,055 1,657 m 757 62 69 819 375 m 123 116 ho lao 359 ( h W 231 I 483 (68%) 71h 125 858 l,b l7 (62%) 2,275 22I 4 121 123 1,3014 1,073 m 062 8144 m I 4 O O It,903 2, 7I4 I4 m 596 911 (60*) 1,507 169 1,770 1,807 (Sue) 3,57? Total 860 8,1473 6,1146 l^ J iS I 4 O I 4 3,832 14,538 l,5 llt 15,283 13,873 2 ^ ® r v > > 0 ■ 4 = * T A B L E 36 E X T R A -M U R A L A N D A PPR O V E D ASSOCIATION C O U R SES 1937-1938 Preparatory, Three Tear and Advanced Tutorial Classes University Extension Course O ne Year & Terminal Courses Students Students Students Subject Class M en W om en Total Class M en W om en Total Class M en W om en Total Literature and Language 170 1,070 1,766 (62$) 2,836 8 1 * 528 1, 121* (682) 1,652 295 1,950 3,657 (652) 5,607 Economics 123 l,5 l5 381 $ 8 26 373 135 83 1,110 398 m History, General 98 1,079 632 (37%) 1,711 56 620 601* (1*92) 1, 221* 212 2, 1*12 1,987 th S t) 1 * ,399 H istory, Ind, 20 208 102 (33%) 310 6 106 1 * 0 (25 8 62 779 357 (312) 1,136 Geography 18 200 11*6 9 85 73 1 * 0 1 * 2 8 359 m A esthetics (in d * music, art) 38 299 387 (56%) 686 1 * 5 309 579 (652) 888 11*7 1,088 1,668 (612) 2,756 Natural Science 71 730 1*00 (35*) 1,130 26 353 203 151 1,1*73 1,396 $ 8 Sociology 171* 1,919 990 m 132 1,510 1,222 1 * 68 5,650 3,256 @ 6 Philosophy and Psychology 170 1,591* 1,535 (1*92) 3,129 69 611 971 * 5 8 211 2,177 2,168 $ 8 Total 882 8, 6ll* 6,339 (1 * 22) li*,953 1 * 5 3 1*,1*95 1*,951 (522) 9,1*1*6 1,669 (1*72) 17,067 15,21*6 32,316

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Asset Metadata

Creator Wilbur, Leslie Eugene (author)

Core Title An Analysis Of Selected Areas Of British Further Education, 1926-1938

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, adult and continuing,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format dissertations (aat)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Martin, David W. (committee chair), Finn, James D. (committee member), Lecky, Eleazer (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-258250

Unique identifier UC11358497

Identifier 6203753.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-258250 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6203753.pdf

Dmrecord 258250

Document Type Dissertation

Format dissertations (aat)

Rights Wilbur, Leslie Eugene

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA