University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Educational Group Counseling Within A Remedial Reading Program

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Educational Group Counseling Within A Remedial Reading Program

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Content T his d isserta tio n has b een 65-1284 m icro film ed exactly as receiv ed STRICKLE R, Edwin, 1 922- EDUCATIONAL GROUP COUNSELING WITHIN A REMEDIAL READING PROGRAM. U n iversity of Southern C alifornia, P h.D ., 1964 Education, psychology University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan EDUCATIONAL GROUP COUNSELING WITHIN A REMEDIAL READING PROGRAM by Edwin S t r i c k l e r A D is s e r ta tio n P re se n te d to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f the R equirem ents f o r th e Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (E ducation) August 1964 UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, C ALIFO RNIA S 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by E d w in St r i c k i e r under the direction of h.ijBi..Dissertation C om mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean Date A ugust.. 19.6k DISSERTATION COM MITTEE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The i n v e s t ig a t o r w ishes to ex p ress h is s in c e r e a p p r e c ia tio n to a l l th o se in d iv id u a ls who have a s s i s t e d him through th e v a rio u s s ta g e s o f th e p r e p a r a tio n and e x e c u tio n o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l p ro gram and th e w r itin g o f the p re s e n t d i s s e r t a t i o n . The guidance p ro v id ed by th e members o f th e D is s e r t a ti o n Committee i s g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged a s w ell a s th e m ost h e lp f u l c o n s u lta tio n re c e iv e d from Dr. R obert Swan in th e developm ent o f the group c o u n se lin g p ro c e d u re s. S p e c ia l r e c o g n itio n goes to th e d i r e c t o r , D r. C h arles Brown, and th e te a c h in g s t a f f o f the U n iv e r s ity o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia Reading C enter a t which f a c i l i t y th e re se a rc h program was conducted. W ithout t h e i r a c ti v e su p p o rt and p a r t i c i p a t i o n , t h i s study would n o t have been p o s s ib le . The w r i t e r a ls o f e e l s in d e b te d to h is w ife , Thelma, and son, J o n a th a n , f o r t h e i r s u s ta in e d c o o p e r a tio n and encouragem ent d u rin g the p ro g re s s o f th e i n v e s t ig a t io n . ii TABLE OF CONTENTS C hapter Page I . THE PROBLEM........................................................ 1 S tatem ent o f th e problem ........................ 1 Scope of th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ...................................... 5 M ajor h y p o t h e s e s .............................................................. 7 T h e o re tic a l r a t i o n a l e .................................................... 14 Sum m ary..................................................................................... 18 I I . REVIEW O F THE LITERATURE........................................... 20 The E m otional F a c to r i n R e a d i n g ............................. 21 P e rs o n a lity F a c to rs i n R eading D i s a b i l i ty . . 26 The r e l a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y m aladjustm ent to reading d i s a b i l i t y ................................................ 26 P e r s o n a lity t r a i t s and re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y ....................................................................... 38 Sum m ary................................................................................. 51 Fam ily I n te r a c tio n F a c to r s i n Reading D i s a b i l i t y ............................................................................ 52 P a tte r n s o f g e n e ra l fa m ily and p a r e n ta l i n t e r a c t i o n and re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . . . . 54 iii Chapter Page P a r e n t- c h ild i n t e r a c ti o n and re ad in g d i s a b i l i t y ......................................................... 59 S u m m a r y ............................................................. 64 T h e ra p e u tic T reatm ent o£ Reading D i s a b i l i t y ............................................................. 65 N o n -d ire c tiv e and p s y c h o a n a ly tic a l views on the th e ra p e u tic tre a tm e n t of re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y ...................................... 68 Review o f s tu d ie s in v o lv in g only th e r a p e u tic p ro c e d u re s in th e t r e a t ment o f re a d in g d is a b ility ^ ................... 70 Review o f s tu d ie s in v o lv in g a combined program of th e ra p y and re m ed ial re a d ing i n s t r u c t i o n ........................................... 77 S u m m a r y ............................................................. 80 I I I . DESIGN OF THE STUDY.................................................... 82 S e le c tio n o f S u b je c ts f o r the Study . . . 84 In s tru m e n ts and P ro ced u res Employed in th e S t u d y ....................................................................... 91 P r i n c i p a l t e s t s .................................................... 91 S upplem entary in s tru m e n ts and procedu res 101 S um m ary............................ 116 IV. THE COUNSELING PROGRAM........................................... 118 The Group C ou n selin g Technique ................... 118 iv Chapter Page C ounselor T ra in in g and C ounseling P r o c e d u r e s ....................................................................... 133 V. FINDINGS OF THE S T U D Y ................................................ 138 P r in c ip a l F in d in g s .................................................... 139 Reading perform ance ........................................... 139 School and s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s ........................ 158 Supplem entary F in d in g s ........................................... 166 In stru m en ts and p ro c e d u re s employed to a s s e s s p re v a le n t s tu d e n t a t t i t u d e s r e l a t e d to hom e-school b e h a v io r ................... 166 In stru m en ts employed to a s c e r t a i n the e f f e c t s o f th e c o u n se lin g ex p erien ce upon s tu d e n t s e lf- u n d e rs ta n d in g and te a c h e r in s ig h t in to s tu d e n t hom e-school a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r ...................................... 175 ~ P rocedures employed to d e s c rib e and e v a lu a te the le a d e rs h ip b e h a v io r o f th e te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs in th e e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g s e s s i o n s ............................. 190 S u m m a r y ........................................................................... 194 VI. SUM M ARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 195 S u m m a r y ............................................................................ 195 C o n c l u s i o n s .................................................................. 214 Recommendations f o r F u r th e r R esearch . . . 217 v Chapter Page LIST OF REFERENCES........................................................................... 220 APPENDIX A .............................................................................................. 231 Forms and In stru m e n ts U s e d ...................................... 231 APPENDIX B ............................................................................... 269 V erbatim T r a n s c r ip tio n o f D is c u s s io n M a te ria l from One I n d iv id u a l and Two Group T ra in in g S e ssio n s f o r T ea ch er- C o u n s e l o r s ........................................................................... 269 APPENDIX C .............................................................................................. 290 V erbatim T r a n s c r ip tio n of S e le c te d E pisodes from E d u c a tio n a l Group C ounseling S e s s i o n s ............................................................ 290 LIST OF TABLES T able Page 1 D e sc rip tio n s of T reatm ents and L evels . . . . 86 2 Comparison o f th e Two Elem entary Level Groups in Regard to th e S ix C r i t e r i a U tiliz e d f o r M atching Purposes ............................................................. 87 3 Comparison o f th e Two Secondary Level Groups in Regard to th e S ix C r i t e r i a U tiliz e d f o r M atching P urposes ............................................................. 88 4 A n aly sis of V ariance o f D iffe ren c e Scores of S tu d en ts on th e Gilm ore O ral Reading T est . 141 5 A n aly sis of V ariance o f D iffe re n c e Scores o f Elem entary Group S tu d en ts on th e Gilmore O ral Reading T e s t .......................................... 143 6 A n aly sis o f V ariance o f D iffe re n c e Scores o f Secondary Group S tu d en ts on th e Gilmore O ral Reading T e s t .......................................... 143 7 A n aly sis o f V ariance o f D iffe re n c e Scores of E xperim ental and C o n tro l Group S tudents on th e Gilmore O ral Reading T e s t .............. 146 vii Table Page 8 Summary o f Gilmore O ra l Reading T e st F in d in g s 147 9 S ig n ific a n c e o f D iffe re n c e s between Mean Changes on th e G ates Reading Survey . . . . 153 10 Rho C o e f f ic ie n ts o f P o s itiv e R eactio n Scores on S entence-C om pletion T est D erived from Three R a t e r s .......................................... , . . . . 161 11 S ig n ific a n c e o f D iffe re n c e s between Mean Changes on the Sentence-C om pletion T e st . . 162 12 Summary o f Sentence-C om pletion T e st F in d in g s 163 13 Rho C o e f f ic ie n ts o f P o s itiv e R eactio n Scores on P i c t u r e - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n T e st D erived from Three R a t e r s .................................................................. 167 14 R ank-D ifference C o rre la tio n s between P o s itiv e R eactio n Scores on th e Sentence-C om pletion T e s t, XI, and P i c t u r e - I n te r p r e t a t i o n T e st . 169 15 Problems in L eam in g -S ch o o l A ttitu d e s and B ehavior o f S tu d en ts a s R eported by P a re n ts 171 16 S tudent Communication o f F e e lin g s about L eam in g -S ch o o l S itu a tio n s a s R eported by P a r e n t s ............................................................................... 172 viii T able Page 17 Mean S cores on th e F iv e R atin g S c a le s Con ta in e d in S tu d en t E v a lu a tio n o f Group D is c u ssio n P e rio d s : Elem entary and Secondary L e v e l s ................................................................................ 179 18 Scores on th e F iv e R atin g S cales C ontained in T eacher E v a lu a tio n o f Group D isc u ssio n P e r io d s , I ..................................................................... 182 19 S cores on th e F iv e R atin g S cales C ontained in T eacher E v a lu a tio n o f Group D iscu ssio n P e rio d s , I I ................................................................. 186 20 Rho C o e f f ic ie n ts o f S ix R atin g S cale Scores on Ju d g e s' Q u e stio n n a ire R e la tin g to th e E d u c a tio n a l Group C ounseling B ehavior o f th e S tu d e n ts and T each er-C o u n selo rs . . . 193 * LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS F ig u re ■ Page 1 T r e a t m e n t s ............................................................................... 85 2 Schem atic R e p re s e n ta tio n o£ Normal A chiev e ment and Underachievement i n L earning B ehavior and C o rre c tiv e P ro ced u res Sug g e ste d by Communication T h e o r y .......................... 132 3 F in d in g s on Gilmore O ral Reading T e st . . 149 4 F in d in g s on G ates Reading Survey ........................... 154 5 Elem entary C o n tro l Group v s . H y p o th e tic a l E lem entary C o n tro l Group . . .............................. 157 6 F in d in g s on Sentence-C om pletion T est . . . 164 x CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM S tatem ent o f th e problem .--A s e r io u s re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y in v o lv e s , in e f f e c t , n o t only a g e n e ra l le a rn in g d i s a b i l i t y b u t an im pairm ent in one o f th e fundam ental communicative s k i l l s in s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . The tre a tm e n t program f o r th e r e ta r d e d re a d e r would, t h e r e f o r e , seem to re q u ir e the re c o g n itio n o f an inadequacy in h i s o v e r - a l l p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l fu n c tio n in g i n sch o o l, fam ily, and s o c ie ty . I t has been fre q u e n tly observed t h a t th e c h ild w ith a s e rio u s re ad in g problem u s u a lly m a n ife s ts some sig n s o f em otional m aladjustm ent (69) . T his i s h e ld to be tr u e re g a rd le s s o f e t i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s : a s p i r a l e f f e c t i s g e n e ra te d in which th e o r i g i n a l c a u sa l elem en ts a re r e i n fo rc e d by th e re a d in g -le a rn in g prob lem s--w hich, in tu r n , a re ag g rav ated by in c r e a s in g ly n e g a tiv e r e a c tio n s to f r u s t r a t i o n and f a i l u r e . I t i s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e re ad in g c e n te r to c o n sid e r th e t o t a l p erso n and n o t j u s t th e re a d in g perform ance. I t i s th e r e s p o n s i b i l ity o f th e re a d in g s t a f f to be aware o f th e lin k ag es between re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s and p e r s o n a lity problem s. (26, p . 274) S ev eral in v e s tig a to r s (3 , 4 , 45) have concurred in th e o p in io n t h a t , in a d d itio n to th e improvement o f i n s tr u c t io n a l tech n iq u es f o r th e c o r re c tio n o f re ad in g d i s a b i l i t i e s , the th e ra p e u tic r e la tio n s h ip between th e te a c h e r and stu d e n t i s a m ajor f a c to r to be c o n sid e re d . There i s , th u s , a su g g estio n t h a t “a l l o f the re m ed ial methods may have . . . in common a p sy c h o th e ra p e u tic r e la tio n s h ip th a t a r is e s when one person a tte m p ts to h e lp an o th er" (31, p. 355). Indeed, i t has been a s s e r te d th a t where rem edial i n s tr u c tio n succeeds, i t does so because the i n s t r u c t o r has i n t u i t i v e l y met some of th e em otional needs th a t th e stu d e n t has p re se n te d (9 1 ). Follow ing World War I I , a number o f re s e a rc h e rs attem p ted to a s s e s s by ex p erim en tal methods th e c o n trib u tio n th a t m ight be made by more form al programs o f psycho th e ra p e u tic in te r v e n tio n in to th e c o r r e c tiv e re a d in g p ro cess both by studying t h e i r e f f e c t s in programs in v o lv in g only in d iv id u a l o r group th e ra p e u tic tech n iq u es and in programs combining th erapy and rem ed ial i n s t r u c t i o n . The form er type o f in v e s ti g a tio n (th e ra p y a lo n e ) , which u t i liz e d th e r a p e u tic p ro c ed u res such a s p lay th era p y and c o u n s e lin g , fa v o red th e n o n - d ir e c tiv e app roach. The l a t t e r type (th e ra p y p lu s re a d in g ) tend ed to be more v a r ie d in i t s methodology and employed a wide range o f group th era p y and in d iv id u a l psy ch o th erap y e x p e rie n c e s . None o f th e s e c o n tr o lle d ( in c o n tr a s t to c l i n i c a l ) in v e s tig a tio n s o f e i t h e r c a te g o ry a tte m p te d , however, to employ th e r a p e u tic p ro c ed u res t h a t were d ir e c te d toward b o th th e s p e c if ic re a d in g and g e n e ra l le a rn in g problem s o f th e r e ta r d e d re a d e rs which were en co u n tered in th e re m ed ial re a d in g p e rio d s and in r e g u la r sch o o l a tte n d a n c e . In o th e r w ords, th e re was no endeavor to i n t e g r a t e the re m e d ia l and th e ra p e u tic a s p e c ts o f th e tre a tm e n t program . The p re s e n t i n v e s t i g a t io n d e s c rib e s an e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g program which aimed a t such an i n t e g r a t io n , to be i n t e r p r e t e d , how ever, in th e b ro a d e s t se n se , in th a t i t s co n scio u s fo cu s on e d u c a tio n a l problem s and o b je c tiv e s d id n o t p re c lu d e a t t e n t i o n to a l l f a c to r s i n f l u encin g th e t o t a l p e r s o n a lity fu n c tio n in g o f th e s tu d e n t in sc h o o l, fa m ily , and s o c ie ty . 4 Purpose o f th e s tu d y .--T h e purpose o f th e p re s e n t i n v e s tig a tio n was to e x p lo re c e r t a i n t h e o r e t i c a l , m ethodo l o g i c a l , and o r g a n iz a tio n a l f e a t u r e s , and th e tre a tm e n t e f f e c t s , o f an e x p e rim e n ta l re a d in g and co u n se lin g program f o r th e c o r r e c tio n o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y th a t was conducted a t a u n iv e r s ity re a d in g c e n te r . The s p e c if ic o b je c tiv e s o f t h i s study were as fo llo w s : 1. to determ in e th e e f f e c t s o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l program a s re v e a le d by: (a) c r i t e r i o n t e s t s o f changes in re a d in g perform ance and sch o o l and s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s , and (b) supplem entary d ia g n o s tic and e v a lu a tiv e in stru m e n ts and p ro c ed u res t h a t were developed la rg e ly in co n n e ctio n w ith th e c o u n se lin g program ; 2. to survey th e th e r a p e u tic tech n iq u es t h a t were employed in th e e d u c a tio n a l group coun s e lin g program ; 3. to d e s c rib e a t r a i n i n g program f o r th e p re p a r a t i o n o f re a d in g c o u n s e lo rs . 5 Scope o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . - -T his study e n t a i l s an ex am in atio n o f a new tre a tm e n t approach to th e problem o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y th a t was employed a t The U n iv e rs ity o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia Reading C e n te r, which f o r a number o f y e a rs had been o f f e r in g re m e d ia l re ad in g i n s t r u c t i o n to r e ta r d e d re a d e rs a tte n d in g elem en tary and secondary sch o o ls in th e su rro u n d in g community. In th e re s e a rc h program , th e s tu d e n ts in th e c o n tr o l groups re c e iv e d th e t r a d i t i o n a l two c o n se c u tiv e hours p e r week o f re m e d ia l re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n ; th e s tu d e n ts in th e e x p e rim e n ta l groups re c e iv e d one hour o f rem ed ial re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n follow ed by one hour o f group c o u n s e lin g . The e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l group program s were conducted s im u lta n e o u s ly , on S aturday morn in g s , f o r a sem ester p e rio d o f th re e m onths. The e x p e rim e n ta l pro ced u res in v o lv ed th e m atching o f e ig h te e n a p p lic a n t s tu d e n ts a t th e re a d in g c e n te r w ith a n o th e r e ig h te e n a p p lic a n t s tu d e n ts on th e b a s is o f "m atched p a i r s " : sex , a g e , sch o o l le v e l (elem en tary o r se c o n d a ry ), re a d in g l e v e l , IQ, socio-econom ic and e th n ic background. Each member o f a p a i r was a ssig n e d to a sub group o f e i t h e r th e e x p e rim e n ta l o r c o n tr o l tre a tm e n t group w ith in h is a p p r o p r ia te sch o o l le v e l (elem entary o r second a ry ) . Each o f th e fo u r te a c h e rs in th e program was a p p o in te d to one o f th e fo u r su b -g ro u p s re c e iv in g th e e x p e ri' m en tal tre a tm e n t and to one o f th e fo u r sub-groups r e c e iv in g th e c o n tr o l tre a tm e n t, b o th o f th e s e sub-groups being on th e same sch o o l le v e l. A t r a i n i n g program in group c o u n se lin g tech n iq u es was a d m in is te re d to th e fo u r te a c h e rs which was co ntinuous from th e p re -e x p e rim e n ta l p e rio d to th e te rm in a tio n o f the e x p e rim e n t. D e lim ita tio n s o f th e s tu d y .--T h e in v e s tig a tio n was lim ite d to a p o p u la tio n o f elem entary and secondary l e v e l p u p ils a tte n d in g sc h o o ls in th e Los A ngeles County a r e a . The t o t a l sam pling o f t h i r t y - s i x s tu d e n ts w ith in th e e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l program s re p re s e n te d a " c l i n i c a l " p o p u la tio n o f r e ta r d e d re a d e rs who had been s e l f - r e f e r r e d . The te a c h e r sample was a ls o r e s t r i c t e d to a p o p u la tio n o f re a d in g te a c h e rs w ith in a c l i n i c s e t t i n g . L im ita tio n s o f th e s tu d y .--T h e s iz e o f th e i n i t i a l 7 sem ester e n ro llm e n t a t th e Reading C en ter imposed r e a l i s t i c r e s t r i c t i o n s upon th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of ch o ice in th e assig n m en t o f s u b je c ts to th e sample g ro u p s. The s e le c tio n o f the f o u r re a d in g te a c h e rs was n e c e s s a r ily lim ite d to th e a v a ila b le te a c h in g p e rso n n e l a t th e Reading C e n te r. Assum ptions o f th e s tu d y . - - I t was assumed th a t th e a t t i t u d e s o f s tu d e n ts tow ard im p o rtan t in te r p e r s o n a l f i g u r e s and sc h o o l, as w e ll a s t h e i r p e rs o n a l d riv e s and ’ a s p i r a t i o n s , a r e r e la t e d to le a rn in g and school b e h a v io r. Major h y p o th e s e s . - - I n o rd e r to f a c i l i t a t e an a n a ly s i s o f th e r e s u l t s o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l tre a tm e n t program , two m ajor h y p o th eses were fo rm u la te d . 1. R eading P erfo rm an ce: A th ree-m o n th program o f one hour p e r week o f re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n and one hour p er week o f e d u c a tio n a l group co u n se lin g (Ex p e rim e n ta l tre a tm e n t) w i l l produce g a in s in th e re a d in g perform ance o f a group of r e ta r d e d re a d e rs com parable to th o se o f 8 a m atched group o f re ta rd e d re a d e rs which has ex p erien ced a tw o-hour p er week program con s i s t i n g o f re a d in g i n s tr u c tio n alone (C on trol tr e a tm e n t) . The above h y p o th e sis may a ls o be s ta te d in th e fo llo w in g n u l l form: a . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is of p re - and p o s t program perform ance on an o r a l read in g t e s t shows no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e between th e mean sco re changes o f the two matched gro ups. b . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is of p re - and p o s t program perform ance on a s i l e n t read in g test^- shows no s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e between the mean sco re changes o f the two matched grou ps. ^•For reasons ex p lain ed in C hapter I I I , S e c tio n I I , A, 1 ., a f t e r th e i n i t i a l t e s t in g p erio d i t was decided th a t th e sc o re s on t h i s t e s t (G ates Reading Survey) were n o t a p p ro p ria te f o r s e le c tio n purposes and were to have a more lim ite d s t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t than th e sco res on th e o r a l re ad in g in stru m en t (Gilmore O ral Reading T e s t) . 9 2. School and S o c ia l A t t i t u d e s ; A th ree-m o n th program o f one hour p e r week o f re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n and one hour p e r week o f e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g (Ex p e rim e n ta l tre a tm e n t) w i l l produce a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r m easure o f improvement in th e sch o o l and s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s o f a group o f re ta rd e d re a d e rs than t h a t ach iev ed by a m atched group o f r e ta r d e d re a d e rs which has ex p e rien ced a tw o-hour p e r week p ro gram c o n s is tin g o f re ad in g i n s t r u c t i o n a lo n e (C o n tro l tr e a tm e n t) . The above h y p o th e s is may a ls o be s t a t e d in th e fo llo w in g n u l l form: S t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is o f p r e - and p o s t program perform ance on a t e s t o f school and s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s shows no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e mean sco re changes o f the two matched g ro u p s. 10 S u b-hy potheses. - - I n a d d itio n to th ese two m ajor hypotheses which r e l a t e to the main e f f e c t o f tre a tm e n ts , a number o f sub-hypotheses were te s te d which r e la te d to th e main e f f e c t o f school le v e ls (Elem entary and Secondary) and th e s e v e ra l i n t e r a c tio n e f f e c t s o f tre a tm e n ts and le v e l s (See C hapter V ). C r ite r io n t e s t s o f changes in reading perform ance and school and s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s . --The a d m in is tra tio n o f th e c r i t e r i o n t e s t s o f sem ester changes in re a d in g p e r f o r mance and school and s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s e n ta ile d s t a t i s t i c a l com parisons o f the fin d in g s fo r th e counseled (experim en t a l ) and non-counseled (c o n tro l) g roups. O ral and s i l e n t re a d in g s k i l l s were measured by the Gilmore O ral Reading T e s t (38) and th e G ates Reading Survey (37), r e s p e c tiv e ly . A Sentence-C om pletion T e st and Check L is t were d ev ised fo r th e a n a ly s is o f school and s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s . A d d itio n a l in stru m en ts and procedures employed in th e s tu d y .--A d ju n c tiv e to th e above c r i t e r i o n t e s t s were 11 s e v e r a l o r i g i n a l in stru m e n ts and p ro ced u res o f b o th an e v a lu a tiv e and d e s c r ip tiv e n a tu re which were d ev ised f o r th e stu d y . They were in c lu d e d in th e i n v e s t ig a t io n f o r th e fo llo w in g p u rp o ses: 1. to p ro v id e supplem entary in fo rm a tio n about th e le a rn in g and school a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r o f th e r e ta r d e d re a d e rs ; 2. to f u r n is h c o rro b o ra tiv e evidence f o r th e f in d in g s on the c r i t e r i o n t e s t which m easured sem ester changes and d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e sch o o l and s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l group s tu d e n ts and th o se o f th e c o n tr o l group s tu d e n ts ; 3. to compare in fo rm a tio n o b ta in e d from s e v e r a l so u rce s r e l a t i n g to th e le a rn in g and sch o o l a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r of th e r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s ; 4. to d e s c rib e and to e v a lu a te th e le a d e rs h ip b e h a v io r o f the fo u r te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs in th e e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g s e s s io n s ; 5. to p ro v id e evidence o f th e e f f e c t s o f th e c o u n se lin g ex p e rien ce upon s tu d e n t s e l f - u n d e rsta n d in g and te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo r in s i g h t in to stu d e n t hom e-school a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r. These supplem entary in stru m en ts and pro ced u res a t tem pted, in the f i r s t p la c e , to a s s e s s p re v a le n t a t t i t u d e s among th e s tu d e n ts th a t were a s s o c ia te d w ith le a rn in g and school b e h a v io r. The assessm ent was conducted on th re e le v e ls : (1) S tu d e n ts: a p ro je c tiv e - ty p e P i c t u r e - I n t e r p r e ta tio n T e st was devised f o r th e stu d y . (2) P a re n ts : in d iv id u a l in te rv ie w s were arran g ed w ith one o r both o f the p a re n ts o f a l l th e stu d e n ts involved in the stu d y . (3) Im p a rtia l Judg es: A D e sc rip tio n and E v a lu a tio n o f C e rta in A spects o f E d u catio n al Group C ounseling B ehavior o f the S tu d en ts was com pleted by th re e independent ju d g es a f t e r lis te n in g to tape reco rd in g s o f s e le c te d p o rtio n s o f the group d isc u s sio n s (from th e t o t a l o f t h i r t y - s i x co u n selin g s e s s io n s --n in e m eetings p e r g ro u p ). Secondly, stu d e n t and te a c h e r e v a lu a tio n form s, in c lu d in g r a tin g s c a le s , were a d m in iste re d a t th e co n c lu sio n o f th e study f o r th e purpose o f a s c e r ta in in g th e e f f e c ts o f th e co unseling ex p e rien ce upon s tu d e n t s e l f - u n d e rsta n d in g . An a d d itio n a l te a c h e r e v a lu a tio n form ex p lo red the e f f e c t s o f th e c o u n se lin g ex p e rie n c e upon the 13 te a c h e r s ' own u n d e rsta n d in g o£ th e a f f e c t i v e f a c t o r s t h a t had c o n trib u te d to th e home and sch o o l b e h a v io r of t h e i r s t u d e n t s . L a s tly , th e th re e ju d g es review ed th e le a d e rs h ip b e h a v io r o f th e fo u r te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs by com pleting a D e s c rip tio n and E v a lu a tio n o f C e rta in A spects o f E d u ca tio n a l Group C ounseling B eh avior o f th e T eacher-C o unselors a f t e r l i s t e n i n g to ta p e re c o rd in g s o f s e le c te d p o rtio n s o f th e group d is c u s s io n s . D e f in itio n o f te rm s . —The fo llo w in g two term s were c o n sid e re d to be o f s a l i e n t im portance in th e r e p o r tin g o f th e re s e a rc h . 1. P e r s o n a lity M alad ju stm en t: A c o n d itio n in which in a p p r o p r ia te em o tio n al r e a c tio n s i n t e r f e r e w ith harm onious in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h ip s and the adequacy o f th e i n d i v i d u a l 's re sp o n se to th e demands o f h i s environm ent. The term i s u sed in te rc h a n g e a b ly , in t h i s s tu d y , w ith th e term s " p e r s o n a lity d istu rb a n c e ," "e m o tio n a l m a la d ju stm e n t," and "em o tio n al d is tu r b a n c e ." 2. Reading D i s a b i l i t y : A handicap in re a d in g u s - 14 u a lly in v o lv in g r e ta r d a ti o n o f a t l e a s t one y e a r below g rad e a n d /o r age le v e l ex p ectan cy . T h e o r e tic a l r a t i o n a l e .--T h e group in te rv ie w i s o f r e l a t i v e l y re c e n t o r i g i n a s a sch o o l c o u n se lin g te c h n iq u e . Some sch o o l p e rso n n e l w orkers were employing th e group method in th e 1930*s when i t was n o t g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d in th e l i t e r a t u r e a s a le g itim a te c o u n se lin g p ro c e s s . I t was adopted f o r re a so n s o f expediency because o f over-heavy c o u n se lin g lo a d s , b u t i t was found, W arters r e l a t e s , t h a t " th e tech n iq u e" was " b o th p o s s ib le and u s e f u l in p r a c t i c e ." She adds t h a t i t i s only in th e p a s t s e v e r a l y e a rs t h a t " sc h o o l c o u n se lo rs" have " r e p o rte d much u se o f th e group in te rv ie w f o r c o u n se lin g purposes . . ." (98, p . 2 6 0 ). F ra n c is P. Robinson w r ite s t h a t th e re " i s much need f o r re s e a rc h on th e dynamics o f group psychotherapy w ith s tu d e n t groups" a s many o f th e s tu d ie s in "group c l i n i c a l work p robably a r e n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y r e le v a n t f o r s tu d e n ts" (67, p . 2 7 1 ). Some im p o rta n t in v e s t ig a t io n s have a lre a d y been conducted on th e s u b je c t o f group c o u n se lin g w ith s tu d e n ts (20, 33, 8 3 ). Group c o u n se lin g w ith p u p ils i s o r ie n te d toward 15 h e lp in g i n d iv id u a l boys and g i r l s w ith th e academ ic, s o c ia l, and p e rs o n a l problem s t h a t a r e ca u sin g poor sch o o l a d j u s t m ent. A lthough i t s o b je c tiv e s a re s i m il a r to th o se o f in d iv id u a l c o u n s e lin g , i . e . , self-k n o w led g e ( le a r n in g ) , s e l f - d i r e c t i o n (g ro w th ), and changed b e h a v io r, i t — lik e group th e ra p y —h as a r a t i o n a l e o f i t s own: I t i s "an i n dependent method; i t n e i t h e r com petes w ith , n o r s u b s t i t u t e s f o r in d iv id u a l th era p y " (1 , p . 124). A nother m uch-repeated theme i s t h a t group c o u n se lin g t r e a t s th e in d iv id u a l " a s a member o f a s o c i a l group" and, th e r e f o r e , " th e tre a tm e n t p ro c e ss may have more r e a l i s t i c im p lic a tio n s " (2 7 , p . 164). I t can be c o n s id e re d , a t tim e s , the p r e f e r r e d method in term s o f p ro b a b le e f f e c t i v e n e s s . Some w r ite r s s t r e s s th e v a lu e o f a combined proced ure o f in d iv id u a l and group coun s e lin g (98, 100). In re g a rd to p ro c e d u re s , th e s i t u a t io n i s s im ila r to t h a t in in d iv id u a l c o u n se lin g where " th e b a s ic o r i e n t a tio n " o f th e c o u n se lo r e x e r ts an im p o rtan t e f f e c t upon " th e p ro c e s s , which a c c o rd in g ly becomes d i r e c t i v e o r n o n -d ire c t i v e , p e r s u a s iv e , s u g g e s tiv e , p e rm is s iv e , o r what n o t" (7 , p. 2 7 1 ). The e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g p ro ced u res em- 1 6 p lo y ed in t h i s stu d y were m ainly d ir e c te d toward th e d i s c u s sio n m ethod. The fo cu s o f group d is c u s s io n was upon th e ’’common problem ” o f r e a d in g - le a m in e d i f f i c u l t y . O ther a c t i v i t i e s o f a s u p p o rtiv e and complementary n a tu r e , such a s r o le - p la y in g , w ere, however, in tro d u c e d whenever they seemed a p p r o p r ia te . I t was in te n d e d t h a t th e m ethodolog i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo r would g r a v i t a t e betw een th e le v e ls o f group guidance (w ith i t s em phasis on th e im p a rtin g o f f a c t s ) and group th erap y (w ith i t s empha s i s on em o tio n al i n s i g h t s ) . C e rta in im p lic a tio n s f o r c o u n se lin g tech n iq u e which were d e riv e d from com m unication th eo ry were developed in to g u id e p o in ts f o r th e d i r e c ti o n o f th e te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r s . A lthough t h i s a s p e c t of th e c o u n se lin g program i s t r e a te d in C h ap ter IV, i t may be b r i e f l y s t a t e d h e re t h a t th e th e r a p e u tic p ro c e s s , ac c o rd in g to th e com m unications model, i s seen a s an in t e r p e r s o n a l exchange o f m essages between t h e r a p i s t and c l i e n t . A c l i e n t shows p ro g re ss when he can communicate f r e e ly and when h i s in fo rm a tio n (em o tio n al as w e ll a s i n t e l l e c t u a l ) p e r ta in s to o b je c tiv e r e a l i t y . Cor r e c t in fo rm a tio n --th ro u g h com m unication—can lead to im proved p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l f u n c tio n in g . 17 I f a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een the le a rn in g b eh a v io r o f s tu d e n ts and t h e i r p e r s o n a l - s o c ia l a d ju stm en t i s p o s tu la te d , th e im p lic a tio n o f t h i s com m unication approach f o r educa t i o n a l group c o u n se lin g would ap p e ar to be t h a t b e t t e r re a d in g perform ance can be e f f e c te d by improved i n t e r p e r so n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and t h a t t h i s im provem ent, in tu r n , i s dependent upon th e q u a l i t y o f th e communication among th e group members. C ontinued e x p e rim e n ta tio n in th e te c h n iq u e s of group c o u n se lin g w ith elem en tary and secondary sch o o l s t u d e n ts would seem to be w a rra n te d by th e need f o r th e a d a p ts tio n o f th e c o u n se lin g in te rv ie w to th e s p e c ia liz e d c o n d i tio n s and p u rp o ses o f i t s e d u c a tio n a l m ilie u . In a d d itio n , adeq u ate t r a i n i n g o f a l l in d iv id u a ls engaged in sch o o l c o u n se lin g a s w e ll a s d is s e m in a tio n o f in fo rm a tio n about the p rocedure among a l l sch o o l p e rso n n e l w orkers would p r o v id e the c o n d itio n s f o r i t s most e f f e c t i v e u s e . I t i s hoped th a t th e p re s e n t i n v e s t ig a tio n o f new co u n se lin g tech n iq u es in th e tre a tm e n t o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y w i l l se rv e th e se ends. 18 SU M M A R Y T his c h a p te r has review ed th e tw o -fo ld n a tu re o f th e problem t h a t i s posed by th e s tu d e n t who has a re ad in g d i s a b i l i t y : On th e one hand, th e re i s a need f o r a t t e n t i o n to th e re a d in g problem , p e r s e , and, on th e o th e r hand, h i s re a d in g perform ance cann ot be o rg a n ic a lly s e p a ra te d from th e c o n te x t o f h i s g e n e ra l le a rn in g b e h a v io r and a t t i t u d e s o r from th e even w ider d im en sio n al a re a o f p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l fu n c tio n in g in sc h o o l, fa m ily , and s o c ie ty . An e f f e c t i v e tre a tm e n t program would, th e r e f o r e , seem to c a l l f o r b o th c o r r e c tiv e re a d in g e x p e rie n c e s and some form o f a p p r o p ria te th e r a p e u tic in te r v e n tio n by a tr a in e d p r o f e s s io n a l p e rso n . The main o r g a n iz a tio n a l f e a tu r e s and t h e o r e t i c a l r a t i o n a l e o f a new tre a tm e n t approach to t h i s problem , based upon th e i n t e g r a t i o n o f e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g p ro ced u res and re m e d ia l re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n , have been d e s c rib e d in t h e i r a p p lic a tio n to an ex p e rim e n ta l program fo r. poor re a d e rs on th e elem en tary and secondary le v e ls which was conducted a t a u n iv e r s it y re a d in g c e n te r . H ypotheses were s t a t e d in term s o f e x p e cted fin d in g s and in n u l l form . The v a rio u s in s tru m e n ts and p ro ced u res t h a t were employed 19 in th e stu d y were re p o rte d and th e purpose o f each o f them was su rv ey ed . CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f th e c o u n se lin g approach to th e tre a tm e n t o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y would seem to depend upon th e n a tu r e o f th e r e la ti o n s h i p betw een in d iv id u a l and so cial p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s and re a d in g perform ance. V arying p h ilo s o p h ic a l and t h e o r e t i c a l p o s itio n s on t h i s q u e s tio n o f f e r d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e dynamics in v o lv e d . S im i l a r l y , d iv e rg e n t sch o o ls o f p e r s o n a lity have produced a p l u r a l i t y of th e r a p e u tic p ro c e d u re s in th e tre a tm e n t o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . T his c h a p te r review s th e l i t e r a t u r e which p e r ta in s to th e s e a re a s o f c o n tro v e rsy i n i t s fo u r s e c tio n s : The Em otional F a c to r in Reading P e r s o n a lity F a c to rs in R eading D i s a b i l i ty Family I n t e r a c t i o n F a c to rs in R eading D i s a b i l i ty T h erap eu tic T reatm ent o f R eading D i s a b i l i t y 20 21 I . THE EMOTIONAL FACTOR IN READING Changing view s on th e r o l e o f e m o tio n a lity in le a rn in g and r e a d in g .--A review o f th e modem s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e on th e r o le o f th e em o tio n al f a c t o r in th e le a rn in g p ro c e ss r e v e a ls t h a t th e concep t o f " e m o tio n s lity " h as undergone a fundam ental r e v is io n in th e p a s t tw enty- f i v e y e a r s . From i t s r a t h e r narrow and lim ite d a p p lic a tio n to th e l e a r n e r 's " a f f e c ti v e " r e a c tio n s to th e rew ards and punishm ents a s s o c ia te d w ith s p e c i f ic le a rn in g re sp o n s e s , th e term has been broadened to connote h i s t o t a l p a t te r n o f p e r s o n a lity f u n c tio n in g , in c lu d in g such elem ents as m atu r i t y l e v e l , " p s y c h o lo g ic a l s e t , " m o tiv a tio n , i n t e r e s t s , and m ost p a r t i c u l a r l y , p e r s o n a l - s o c i a l a d ju stm e n t. With th e p u b lic a tio n o f G a te s' c l a s s i c a l review (36) on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p e r s o n a lity m aladjustm ent and re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y in 1941, a p e rio d o f g r e a tly a c c e l e r a te d re s e a rc h a c t i v i t y i n to th e r o le o f em otional f a c to r s i n le a r n in g and re a d in g b e h a v io r was i n i t i a t e d . The ch o ice o f th e term " p e r s o n a lity " in th e G ates p ap er and th e n a tu re o f i t s u se as in te rc h a n g e a b le w ith th e word "em o tio n al" in su b seq u en t t h e o r e t i c a l p r e s e n ta tio n s and re s e a rc h r e p o r ts 22 by o th e r w r it e r s r e f l e c t e d th e new em phasis on t o t a l p e r s o n a lity fu n c tio n in g and a d ju s tm e n t. ^ In h is review o f the p rev io u s e ig h t y ears (1945-1953) o f re se a rc h in re a d in g , T ra x le r o b serv es th a t th e re were so many s tu d ie s o f th e r e la tio n s h ip between re ad in g and ad justm ent t h a t he decided to d is c u s s them in a s e p a ra te s e c tio n headed, "Reading and P erso n al and S o c ia l A djustm ent" (94, p . 6 9 ). The a s p e c ts o f e m o tio n a lity th a t were now re c e iv in g a tt e n t i o n resem bled s t a b l e p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s o r tem pera m ental a t t r i b u t e s r a t h e r than th e s p e c if ic a f f e c t i v e r e a c tio n s o f th e p le a s u re -p a in ty p e t h a t a re induced by stim u lu s resp o n se s i t u a t i o n s . B e tts , f o r example, d e s c rib e s such n e g a tiv e te n d e n c ie s as h o s t i l i t y , d e fe a tism , f e a r f u l n e s s , and w ithdraw al a s being common c o n trib u tin g f a c to r s in re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y (1 1 ). On th e p o s itiv e s id e , H a rris l i s t s th re e a s p e c ts o f em otional m a tu rity as s i g n i f i c a n t in producing re a d in g re a d in e ss and p ro fic ie n c y : em otional ^Although th e term " p e r s o n a lity " i s te c h n ic a lly un d e rsto o d to s ig n ify th e more s t a b le , p e r s i s t e n t , b e h a v io ra l t r a i t s , and g r e a tly to o v e rla p t r a n s i t o r y "em otional" phe nomena, th e l i t e r a t u r e in th e f i e l d has been re p o rte d under b o th o f th e s e r u b r ic s , and h a s , except in s i tu a t io n s where i t m ight lead to m i s in te r p r e ta tio n , ign ored th e d i s t i n c t i o n between th e se term s. The p re s e n t study has follow ed t h i s p r a c t ic e . 23 s t a b i l i t y , s e l f - r e l i a n c e , th e a b i l i t y to p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y and c o o p e ra tiv e ly in group a c t i v i t i e s (4 1 ). The h e ig h te n e d i n t e r e s t in th e p e r s o n a lity c o r r e l a t e s o f re a d in g perform ance s in c e th e G ates a r t i c l e i s evidenced i n th e w r itin g s o f some o f th e le a d in g a u t h o r i t i e s in th e f i e l d o f re a d in g r e s e a r c h . In 1946 B e tts de c l a r e s t h a t , "E m otional r e a d in e s s f o r re a d in g i s a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r in s u c c e s s f u l achievem ent a t a l l age o r g rad e le v e ls " (11 , p. 2 2 8 ). F iv e y e a rs l a t e r , Monroe a s s e r t s h e r view t h a t em o tio n al b a la n c e p la y s a d eterm in in g r o le in a c h i l d 's re a d in g developm ent (5 5 ). Bond and T in k e r, in 1957, u n re se rv e d ly s t a t e th a t i t i s only when a p u p il has a c h ie v ed, in a d d itio n to o th e r p r e r e q u i s i t e s , a s a t i s f a c to r y p e r so n a l a d ju stm e n t t h a t he may be c o n sid e re d to be p re p ared f o r h i s s p e c i f i c re a d in g ta s k s (1 6 ). R eco g n itio n o f th e m u ltip le f a c t o r s in v o lv ed in re a d in g re a d in e s s and ac h ie v em en t.--T h e in c re a s in g a t t e n tio n t h a t was b e in g acco rd ed in th e l i t e r a t u r e to th e r o le o f p e r s o n a lity a d ju stm e n t in re a d in g re p re s e n te d , in effect^ a tendency tow ard a more " h o l i s t i c " approach to the u n d e r s ta n d in g o f in d iv id u a l le a r n in g b e h a v io r. I t i s th e r e f o r e n o t s u r p r is in g t h a t e x p lo ra tio n s o f o th e r f a c to r s t h a t were 24 th o u g h t to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to re a d in g re a d in e s s and achievem ent were b ein g conducted a t th e same tim e . The m u ltip le f a c t o r s t h a t a r e in v o lv ed in th e p ro d u c tio n o f re a d in g competence in th e in d iv id u a l le a r n e r a r e a l l dynam i c a l l y i n t e r r e l a t e d and a r e , in v ary in g m easure, c o l l e c t i v e l y re s p o n s ib le f o r h i s u nique le a rn in g " s t y l e . " R u s s e ll acknow ledges t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l fo rm u la tio n when he p o in ts o u t, in re fe re n c e to re a d in g r e a d in e s s , th a t th e "modem concept o f r e a d in e s s , which has grown ou t o f th e c h ild study movement, se e s i t a s a complex o f v a rio u s f a c t o r s ." He c o n s id e rs th e f a c t o r s in v o lv ed a s " th o s e o f grow th p lu s achievem ent p lu s o r i e n t a t i o n toward th e s p e c i f i c ta s k such a s re a d in g " (75, p . 2 0 ). B e tts recommends t h a t form al re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n n o t b eg in u n t i l th e p u p il i s i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , p h y s ic a lly , and e m o tio n a lly p re p ared to re a d w ith an ad eq u ate deg ree o f com fort (1 0 ). H a rriso n s t r e s s e s th e same th r e e q u a l i f i c a tio n s f o r re a d in g s u c c e s s : (1) i n t e l l e c t u a l developm ent, in c lu d in g m ental ag e , a b i l i t y to remember word form s, a b i l i t y to do a b s t r a c t th in k in g ; (2) p h y s ic a l developm ent, i n c lu d in g g e n e ra l h e a lt h , v is io n , h e a rin g ; (3) p e rs o n a l developm ent, in c lu d in g em o tio n al s t a b i l i t y and th e d e s i r - 25 a b le a t t i t u d e s and h a b its needed f o r a d ju stm en t to th e school s i t u a t io n (4 2 ). Monroe d e c la re s th a t "Reading has i t s ro o ts deeply embedded in the c h ild * s t o t a l growth p ro c ess" (55, p . 7 ). Smith has emphasized t h a t i t i s th e com bination and b alance o f item s such a s m ental m a tu rity , b io lo g ic a l f a c t o r s , p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s , home and e x p e r ie n tia l background, and s e v e ra l o th e r s , th a t produce th e sta g e o f growth a p p ro p ri a t e fo r beginning re ad in g i n s t r u c t io n (8 6 ). The view th a t p ro g re ss in re ad in g i s very la rg e ly in flu e n c e d by th e t o t a l growth p a tte r n o f th e le a r n e r has a ls o been championed by O lson. He and h is c o lle a g u e s have c o lle c te d o b se rv a tio n s and measurem ents in re s p e c t to fo u r a s p e c ts o f c h ild growth and developm ent; p h y s ic a l, i n t e l l e c t u a l , s o c ia l , and em o tio n al. They have e s ta b lis h e d age norms f o r each o f th e se growth c a te g o r ie s , and th e average o f a l l th e age v a lu e s a tta in e d by a c h ild a t a given time i s d esig n ated a s h is "organism ic a g e ." Olson claim s t h a t a com parison o f in d iv id u a l growth curves in re ad in g w ith those o f organism ic age show th a t b o th s e ts o f curves fo llo w c lo s e ly th e same tre n d , and t h a t a c h i l d 's t o t a l p a tte r n o f growth e x e rts a g r e a te r in flu e n c e upon p ro g re ss in re ad in g th an grow th in any one a s p e c t o f developm ent (59) 26 I I . PERSONALITY FACTORS IN READING DISABILITY A. The R e la tio n o f P e r s o n a lity M aladjustm ent to R eading D i s a b i l i t y I n tr o d u c tio n . —The problem t h a t i s review ed in t h i s s e c tio n may be s t a t e d a s a q u e s tio n : What i s th e n a tu r e o f th e r e la ti o n s h ip between p e r s o n a lity m aladjustm en t and re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y ? In 1941, G ates r e p l i e d , in re g a rd to t h i s q u e s tio n , M 0n s c a rc e ly no im p o rta n t p r o f e s s io n a l is s u e in re a d in g i s th e r e more d isag reem en t in th eo ry and p r a c t i c e . No is s u e i s o f much g r e a t e r p r a c t i c a l consequence" (36, p . 7 7 ). At th e tim e t h a t th e s e words were w r itte n a l most a l l o f th e re s e a rc h s tu d ie s on th e s u b je c t o f re a d in g and p e r s o n a lity were o f th e c l i n i c a l ty p e , i . e . , c a se s t u d ie s and c l i n i c a l re c o rd s . Towards th e c lo s e o f th e Second World War, s t a t i s t i c a l s tu d ie s and b e t t e r - c o n t r o l l e d c l i n i c a l i n v e s t ig a t io n s d e a lin g w ith th e whole gamut o f r e l a tio n s betw een re a d in g and p e rs o n a l and s o c i a l a d ju stm e n t began to be p u b lish e d in in c r e a s in g number and th e momentum o f t h i s a c t i v i t y i s s t i l l on th e in c r e a s e . A lthough i n v e s t i g a t o r s d i f f e r on th e p e rc e n ta g e o f 27 re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y c a se s in which th e r e i s c l e a r evidence o f p e r s o n a lity d i f f i c u l t i e s , m ost e s tim a te s exceed the f i f t y p er c e n t f i g u r e , and i n d i c a t e t h a t " th e in c id e n c e o f emo t i o n a l d is tu rb a n c e s in r e ta r d e d re a d e rs i s a la rm in g ly high" (87, p . 8 ). There i s , t h e r e f o r e , a g e n e ra l consensus on th e im portance o f ta k in g p e r s o n a l ity f a c t o r s i n t o c o n s id e ra tio n in th e p re p a ra tio n o f tre a tm e n t program s f o r re ta rd e d r e a d e r s . T his i s t r u e r e g a r d le s s o f what the o r i g i n a l c a u s a l elem ents in a re a d in g problem may have been in an in d iv id u a l c a se . In o th e r w ords, a lth o u g h d isag reem en t p e r s i s t s in re g a rd to th e n a tu r e o f th e r e la t i o n s h i p between p e rs o n a lity and re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s , th e r e i s v e ry w idesp read agreement on th e common o c c u rre n c e o f em o tio n al problem s in re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y an d , c o n se q u e n tly , o f th e need f o r a p p r o p ria te tre a tm e n t e f f o r t s . C arey, f o r exam ple, a f f ir m s t h a t i n no case a n a ly z ed a t th e R eading C lin ic o f th e P h ila d e lp h ia P u b lic Schools had i t been found t h a t p e r s o n a lity adjustm ent could be r e a l i s t i c a l l y ig n o re d in th e re m e d ia l p ro ced u res (21). E l l i s ta k e s a r e p r e s e n t a t iv e p o s itio n on th e q u e s tio n when he con cludes t h a t th e problem o f re a d in g d i s a b i l 28 i t y i s o rg an ism ic in n a tu r e and t h a t i t s tre a tm e n t r e q u ir e s a t t e n t i o n to th e t o t a l p e r s o n a lity o f th e c h ild r a t h e r than to in d iv id u a l sensory o r i n t e l l e c t u a l fu n c tio n s (2 5 ). Zolkos h as com plained t h a t te a c h e rs have too o fte n p u t too much em phasis on new i n s t r u c t i o n a l d ev ice s and te c h n iq u e s and g iv e n l i t t l e th o u g h t to th e f a c t t h a t re a d ing problem s a r e c l e a r l y r e l a t e d to p e rs o n a l and s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t. She b e lie v e s t h a t p ro g re ss w i l l be a c h ie v ed when te a c h e rs le a rn how to study and become f a m ilia r w ith th e t o t a l developm ent o f th e c h i l d . C lo sely r e l a t e d to th e p u p i l 's le a r n in g b e h a v io r and p ro g re s s a r e such f a c to r s as i n t e l l e c t u a l , e m o tio n a l, s o c i a l , and p h y s ic a l growth and developm ent (1 0 1 ). 1. L i t e r a t u r e co n cern in g th e prim ary r o l e o f p e r s o n a lity d is tu rb a n c e in re a d in g f a i l u r e .--O ne view on the r e la ti o n s h i p between p e r s o n a lity m aladjustm ent and re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y p la c e s em phasis on th e prim ary r o le o f th e f o r mer c o n d itio n , i . e . , p e r s o n a lity m aladjustm ent p reced es th e re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y and c o n s t i t u t e s " th e " o r "a" d e t e r mining o r c a u s a l f a c t o r . Monroe and Backus have re p o rte d s e v e r a l u n fa v o ra b le 29 em otional f a c to r s in th e home a s causes o f read in g d i f f i c u lty , i . e . , i n s t a b i l i t y o f m a r ita l r e la tio n s h ip s and paren t a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s , in c o n s is te n t d i s c i p l i n e , s ib lin g r iv a lr y , e t c . (5 4 ). E l l i s , in a study o f one hundred re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y c a se s which were tr e a te d by a m ental hygiene c l i n i c p ro c ed u re, has concluded th a t em o tio n al, as w e ll as educa t i o n a l , f a c to r s seem to be o f v i t a l im portance in th e e t i ology o f re a d in g problem s, and t h a t th e s e v e r ity o f the em otional d is tu rb a n c e i s s i g n if i c a n t ly r e la te d to im prove ment in read in g p erfo rm an ce.(2 5 ) . R aines and T a i t , in a review o f n in e re s e a rc h s t u d i e s , have summarized th e fin d in g s in th e statem en t t h a t , in many c a s e s , re ad in g r e ta r d a tio n i s a symptom o f emo t i o n a l d is tu rb a n c e in th e in d iv id u a l (6 5 ). Mowrer o f f e r s a c u l t u r a l e x p la n a tio n in h is o b s e r v a tio n , "The v e r it a b l e b a rra g e o f p r o h ib itio n s and in ju n c tio n s c o n s t i tu tin g th e s o c i a l i z a t io n o f th e growing c h ild in our c u ltu r e i s in e v ita b ly f r u s t r a t i n g " and th a t the " s o - c a lle d re a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s and o th e r problems commonly p re se n te d by modern c h ild re n can be f u l l y understood" only when seen in t h i s p e rs p e c tiv e (56, p. 400). 30 The p s y c h o a n a ly tic a l sch o o l firm ly su p p o rts th e p o s i t io n t h a t em o tio n al f a c to r s can, in c e r t a i n circum s ta n c e s , be o f prim ary im p o rtan ce. B lanchard l i s t s such f a c t o r s as r e s i s t a n c e to a u t h o r it y , fam ily r e la tio n s h ip pro b lem s, and e x c e s siv e g u i l t and a n x ie ty o ver a g g r e s s iv e , h o s t i l e im pulses (1 4 ); S y lv e s te r and K unst s t r e s s d i s t u r b ances o f th e " e x p lo r a to ry fu n c tio n " e n t a i l i n g i n h i b it i o n o f th e c h i l d 's norm al c u r i o s i t y (9 1 ). P earson a s s e r t s t h a t th e le a r n in g p ro c e s s , i t s e l f , can become inv o lv ed in a n e u r o t i c c o n f l i c t in which th e re a r e " d is tu rb a n c e s in th e a b i l i t y to d i g e s t and a s s im ila te le a rn e d m a t e r ia l ." The c h ild may n o t have le a rn e d to re p la c e " th e p le a s u r e -p a in p r i n c i p l e by th e r e a l i t y p r in c i p le and so has n e v e r been com pelled by r e a l i t y to t o l e r a t e a n x ie ty " (62, p . 323). V e l t f o r t has conducted an experim ent to t e s t th e h y p o th e s is , d e riv e d from p s y c h o a n a ly tic a l th e o ry , th a t th e re i s a g r e a t e r amount o f h o s t i l e fa n ta s y in c h ild re n who d em o n strate re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y th an in c h ild r e n w ith o u t t h i s d i s a b i l i t y . Her sample c o n s is te d o f f i f t y f i f t h g rad e r e ta r d e d re a d e r s who were matched w ith f i f t y norm al re a d e rs. The F in n e y 's P alo A lto A g g ressiv e C ontent S cale was taken as th e m easure o f h o s t i l e f a n ta s y . T h is s c a le c a te g o r iz e s 31 any Rorschach response according Co its aggressive content, and a total Hostile Ideation score is thus obtained for each individual. Three judges were also asked to make glo bal rating of hostility based on the Rorschach records. The f in d in g s in d ic a te d no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in h o s t i l e id e a tio n betw een th e r e ta r d e d and norm al r e a d e r s . The f o r mer group were found, how ever, to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y more n e u r o tic than th e l a t t e r group (9 5 ). 2. L i t e r a t u r e co n cern in g th e prim ary r o l e o f re a d in g f a i l u r e in p e r s o n a lity d is tu r b a n c e .--A second view on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r s o n a lity and re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s c o n s id e rs th e l a t t e r f a c t o r s to be th e prim ary ones and th e em o tio n al f a c t o r s to be secondary in n a tu r e : p e r s o n a lity d is tu rb a n c e s o c c u r a s a r e s u l t o f the re a d in g prcb- lem and a r e n o t p re s e n t b e fo re th e re a d in g problem . Sherman re c o g n iz e s th e developm ent o f d e fe n siv e o r a g g re s s iv e re sp o n se s to f a i l u r e and a n x ie ty . He has ob serv e d t h a t "no o th e r inadequacy c r e a te s a s g r e a t a sense o f f r u s t r a t i o n and f a i l u r e a s a re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y " (64, p . 130). Reading i s re g a rd e d , in ou r s o c ie ty , a s a m ajor c r i t e r i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y , and a s th e poor re a d e r 32 proceeds through th e grades he i s le s s su c c e s sfu l in r a ti o n a liz i n g h is problem o r o th erw ise coping w ith i t . T h is, Sherman a s s e r t s , produces a mounting degree o f em otional tu rm o il and co n fu sio n and f u r t h e r w ithdraw al and antagonism in re g a rd to re ad in g and school b eh a v io r. Basing h e r co n clu sio n s on the r e s u l t s o f a c l i n i c a l study o f one hundred re ta rd e d re a d e rs , P resto n has s ta te d t h a t re ad in g f a i l u r e can be re sp o n s ib le fo r em otional d i s tu rb a n c e s. Such f a i l u r e "c au ses n o t only a b lig h tin g i n s e c u r ity in th e school w orld which g iv e s r i s e to s e rio u s m aladjustm ent in the p e r s o n a litie s " o f normal c h ild re n , b u t " a ls o an em b arrassin g , b e l i t t l i n g in s e c u r ity in the s o c ia l l i f e o f th e s e c h ild re n a t school and sometimes in the home . . . " (64, p . 252). F e m a ld has a s s e r te d t h a t the "b lo ck in g of voluntaiy a c tio n has long been reco g n ized as one o f th e c o n d itio n s th a t r e s u l t in em otion," and t h a t the person who " f a i l s c o n s ta n tly in th o se u n d e rta k in g s which seem to him o f g re a t im portance and who i s conscious o f f a i l u r e i s in a chronic s t a t e of em otional u p set" (29, p . 70). She made a study o f se v e n ty -e ig h t ca se s o f extrem e read in g d i s a b i l i t y who were t r e a te d a t h er c l i n i c . With only fo u r e x c e p tio n s, th e 33 c h ild re n had no h is to r y o f em otional d i f f i c u l t y b e fo re they a tte n d e d sc h o o l. The te a c h e rs and p a re n ts re p o rte d th a t em otional u p se t o cc u rred only as th e c h i l d 's d e s ire to read and w rite was f r u s t r a t e d by h is i n a b i l i t y to le a rn as ra p id ly a s o th e r c h ild re n (2 9 ). 3. L ite r a tu r e concerning th e c o e x is te n t r e l a t i o n sh ip o f p e r s o n a lity and read in g problem s. - - I n h is fre q u e n t ly c ite d review o f c l i n i c a l r e p o r ts on th e r o le o f p e rso n a l i t y d is tu rb a n c e in re ad in g d i f f i c u l t i e s , G ates ob serves th a t th e form er i s fre q u e n tly found to c o e x is t w ith the l a t t e r . The more s e rio u s th e re ad in g problem , th e g r e a te r i s th e p r o b a b ility th a t th e re i s a ls o m aladjustm ent. His e stim a te was t h a t among th e most re ta rd e d ca ses about s e v e n ty -fiv e p e r cen t would show p e r s o n a lity m aladjustm ent. Of th e s e , though, the em otional c o n d itio n would be th e cause o f th e read in g d e f e c t in only a q u a r te r o f the ca ses and a concom itant f a c t o r o r e f f e c t in th r e e - q u a r te r s (3 6 ). G a te s' most im p o rtan t fo rm u la tio n , however, in term s o f i t s im pact on th e o ry , was co n tain ed in the fo llo w ing two se n te n c e s: A ll o f th e se symptoms o r forms o f n erv o u sn e ss, w ith d raw al, a g g re s s io n , d e fe a tism , ch ro n ic worry app ear among ca ses in which m aladjustm ent i s th e ca u se, th e 34 r e s u l t , o r th e com com itant o f re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y . I t i s th e r e f o r e n o t p o s s ib le to t e l l w hether they were ca u ses o r e f f e c t s o r an accompaniment o f tr o u b le w ith re a d in g . (36, p . 83) V ario u s s tu d ie s t h a t have been conducted subsequent to t h i s a n a ly s is have re v e a le d th e f a c t t h a t a lth o u g h in many c a se s re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s and p e rso n a l m aladjustm ent seem to be i n t e r r e l a t e d , no c l e a r - c u t evidence has been produced a s to which f a c to r i s cause and which i s e f f e c t (7 6 ). They do, a t l e a s t , a g re e on th e m inim al c o n c lu sio n o f Z olkos, who w r ite s t h a t , in many s i t u a t i o n , they seem to i n t e r a c t , each a g g ra v a tin g th e o th e r c o n d itio n (101). B ouise r e p o r t s , f o r exam ple, t h a t h e r in v e s tig a tio n i n to th e em o tio n al s t a t u s o f tw e n ty -e ig h t " s u p e rio r" re a d e r s and t h i r t y " re ta rd e d " re a d e rs in a New O rleans p u b lic sc h o o l, in which th e D e tr o it A djustm ent In v en to ry and o th e r m easures were employed, re v e a le d t h a t th e m a jo rity o f c h i l dren w ith re a d in g problem s had e i t h e r sev ere home problem s o r b e h a v io r problem s, o r b o th . She d e c id e s , however, th a t d e s p ite th e app earance of a d e f i n i t e r e la ti o n s h i p between re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y and em otional m aladjustm en t, i t i s n o t c l e a r which c o n d itio n could be c o n sid e re d as c a u s a l (1 7 ). S ch u b ert has a d m in iste re d s e l f - r a t i n g q u e s tio n n a ir e s to f i f t y r e ta r d e d re a d e rs and a matched group o f 35 " u n s e le c te d " re a d e rs on th e c o lle g e le v e l In o rd e r to a s c e r t a i n w hether o r n o t r e ta rd e d re a d e rs on th e c o lle g e le v e l a r e c h a r a c te r iz e d by c e r t a in study h a b i t s , a t t i t u d e s , and p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s in im ic a l to t h e i r re a d in g p ro g re s s . S ig n if ic a n t d if f e r e n c e s were found between th e two groups on item s which were c o n tin g e n t on em o tio n al f a c t o r s , i . e . , r e ta rd e d re a d e rs ex p erien ced more o f te n such r e a c tio n s a s " e x c ite d n e s s ," "n e rv o u s n e s s," and "u p se t" d u rin g c la s s d is c u s s io n s and ex a m in atio n s. S chubert o f f e r s obvious sup p o r t to G a te s' fo rm u la tio n , quoted above, by con cluding t h a t a number o f study h a b i t s , a t t i t u d e s , and p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s a r e co n co m itan ts o f re a d in g r e ta r d a t i o n a t th e c o l leg e l e v e l , and t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s ib le to s t a t e t h a t they a r e e i t h e r c a u s a l f a c t o r s o r e f f e c t s o f th e re a d in g c o n d i t io n (7 9 ). 4. L i t e r a t u r e concerning th e m u ltip le c a u s a tio n th eo ry o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y .--P e rh a p s th e most p o p u la r c u r r e n t view o f th e e t i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s in re a d in g r e t a r d a t io n i s t h a t t h i s c o n d itio n i s e x p la in a b le only in term s o f m u ltip le c a u s a tio n . As S chubert d e c la r e s , "No s in g le cause i s s u f f i c i e n t l y p o te n t to exem plify i t s e l f m arkedly when mean tre n d s a re s tu d ie d " (7 8 , p . 2 5 2 ). In re g a rd to th e 36 p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r , f o r exam ple, R u s s e ll, a f t e r sum m arizing two hundred s tu d ie s , concludes t h a t "em o tio n al d i f f i c u l t i e s u s u a lly a p p e ar a s p a r t o f a c o n s t e ll a t i o n o f d i f f i c u l t i e s ca u sin g re a d in g r e ta r d a tio n " (76, p . 180). The most com prehensive and d e f i n i t i v e a n a ly s i s , to d a te , o f th e cau ses o f se v e re forms o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y i s t h a t o f Robinson a t th e U n iv e rsity o f Chicago Reading C lin ic in th e 1940*s (6 8 ). In t h i s f iv e - y e a r c l i n i c a l stu d y , t h i r t y s e v e re ly r e ta r d e d re a d e rs w ith B in e t i n t e l lig e n c e q u o tie n ts between 85 and 137 were i n i t i a l l y examined by a s o c i a l w orker, p sy c h i a t r i s t , n e u r o lo g is t, th re e o p h th a lm o lo g is ts , speech s p e c i a l i s t , o to la r y n g o lo g is t, e n d o c rin o lo g is t, re a d in g sp e c i a l i s t , and th e i n v e s t i g a t o r , h e r s e l f . Follow ing th e i n d iv id u a l ex a m in atio n s, th e s p e c i a l i s t s met and atte m p te d to i d e n t i f y p o s s ib le causes o f re a d in g r e ta r d a t io n in each c a s e . An in te n s iv e tre a tm e n t program f o r tw enty-tw o o f th e t h i r t y p u p ils was u n d ertak en to o b ta in evidence o f th e potency o f each o f th e s e i d e n t i f i e d an o m alies. The s e v e r a l c o r r e c tiv e m easures were a d m in iste re d in c o n tr o lle d sequence in o rd e r to determ ine th e e f f e c t o f each , e . g . , i f th e r e 37 were a p h y s ic a l problem , s te p s were taken to e lim in a te i t b e fo re in tro d u c in g rem edial re a d in g . The ex p erim en tal d ata were s tu d ie d in r e l a t i o n to the number and percen tag e of ca ses e x h ib itin g v a rio u s anom a l i e s and th e p a tte r n s o f such d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t were p r e se n t in each in d iv id u a l ca se. Gray has summarized, in th e p re fa c e o f the f i n a l r e p o r t, the co n clu sio n s o f th e in v e s tig a tio n as fo llo w s: (1) P u p ils who a re s e rio u s ly re ta rd e d in re ad in g m a n ife st many ano m alies, (2) in g e n e ra l, th e g r e a te r th e number of anom alies, th e more s e rio u s th e re a d in g problem , (3) many o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s have l i t t l e o r no r e l a t i o n to th e re a d ing d i s a b i l i t i e s , (4) c e r t a i n ty p es o f anom alies ap p ear a s causes more fre q u e n tly than o th e r s : most fre q u e n t c a u s a l f a c to r s a re s o c ia l , v i s u a l , and em otional d i f f i c u l t i e s ; i n a p p ro p ria te school m ethods, n e u r o lo g ic a l, speech, o r fu n c t i o n a l a u d ito ry d i f f i c u l t i e s o p e ra te le s s fre q u e n tly ; l e a s t im p o rtan t f a c to r s a re endocrine d is tu rb a n c e s , g e n e ra l phys i c a l problem s, and i n s u f f i c i e n t a u d ito ry a c u ity . A lthough em otional problems w ere, in th e r e l a t i v e sen se, c l a s s i f i e d as among th e most im p o rtan t c o n trib u tin g f a c to r s to re ad in g d i s a b i l i t y , they were found to be " s i g - 38 n if l e a n t " in only fo rty -o n e p e r c e n t o f th e ca ses and to be "causes o f reading f a il u r e " in b u t th irty -tw o p e r c e n t o f th e se c a s e s . In com parison w ith p re v io u s and subsequent in v e s tig a tio n s in to t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , th e se f ig u re s appear to be very low (8 7 ). In su pport o f R o b in so n 's g e n e ra l f in d in g s , W itty has p re se n te d evidence from th e case re c o rd s o f one hundred re ta rd e d re a d e rs who a tte n d e d th e P sy cho-E ducational C lin ic a t N orthw estern U n iv e rs ity . He a s s e r t s t h a t em otional d i f f i c u l t y a f f e c tin g p e r s o n a lity ad ju stm en t can n o t be con s id e re d to be the so le re s p o n s ib le f a c to r in re ad in g d i s a b i l i t y in any in d iv id u a l ca se (9 9 ). B. P e rs o n a lity T r a it s and Reading D is a b ility I n tr o d u c tio n . —One o f the m ajor t h e o r e t i c a l is s u e s in reg ard to th e r e la tio n s h ip o f p e r s o n a lity m aladjustm ent to read in g d i s a b i l i t y concerns the q u e s tio n o f w hether o r n o t re ta rd e d re a d e rs tend to p o ssess c e r t a i n common, and i d e n t i f i a b l e , p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T his q u e stio n can be f u r t h e r c l a r i f i e d by red u cin g i t to i t s two component p a r ts : 1. I s th e re a s in g le p e r s o n a lity p a t t e r n , o r a s e t 39 o f p e r s o n a lity p a t t e r n s , t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f re a d in g f a il u r e ? 2. I s th e re a o n e -to -o n e r e la ti o n s h i p between any s p e c if ic b e h a v io ra l o r a t t i t u d i n a l t r a i t and re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y ? The re a so n s f o r c o n tro v e rsy in t h i s a re a r e l a t e , in th e f i r s t p la c e , to th e d i f f e r e n t emphases p la c e d by th e s e v e ra l th e o r ie s o f le a rn in g on th e r o le o f em o tio n al a d ju stm e n t in le a r n in g , and, in th e second p la c e , to th e f a c t t h a t d iv e rg e n t th e o r ie s o f p e r s o n a lity d e s c rib e d i f f e r e n t dim ensions o f p e r s o n a lity fu n c tio n in g . As Robinson ex p l a i n s , " I n v e s tig a to r s have i m p li c i tl y o r e x p l i c i t l y chosen one o r s e v e r a l p o in ts o f d e p a rtu re in exam ining p e rs o n a l ad ju stm en t" and t h a t , co n se q u e n tly , " th e fin d in g s o b ta in e d and th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f them may be expected to be con t r o v e r s i a l and in c o n c lu siv e " (70, p. 9 8 ). As e a r ly a s 1936, G a te s, in an in v e s ti g a tio n o f one hundred random c a se s o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y , n o te s t h a t only e ig h t in d iv id u a ls had developed c o n s tr u c tiv e forms o f "com p e n s a tio n ." The r e s t e x h ib ite d : (1) nervous te n s io n and h a b i t s , (2) d efen se r e a c t io n s , such as brag g in g and d e f i a n c e , (3) r e t r e a t r e a c tio n s in c lu d in g tru a n c y , (4) c o u n te r a t t a c k ra n g in g from p r a c t i c a l jo k e s to d e s tr u c tiv e n e s s and 40 c r u e l t y , (5) w ith d raw al r e a c tio n s such a s daydream ing, (6) s e lf- c o n s c io u s n e s s , and (7) a su bm issive a d ju stm en t "accom p anied by In d if f e r e n c e and a p p a re n t la z in e s s " (35, p . 2 0 5 ). A decade l a t e r , Gann, u sin g a c o n tr o l group, fin d s t h a t poor re a d e rs a r e n o t a s em o tio n ally o r s o c i a l l y se c u re a s norm al r e a d e r s , t h a t th e form er tend to be f e a r f u l In re sp o n se to problem s i t u a t i o n s and ad ap t w ith d i f f i c u l t y to group re q u ire m e n ts. She claim s t h a t th e perform ance o f th e r e ta r d e d re a d e rs on s e v e ra l p e r s o n a lity m easures had r e v e a le d a g r e a t e r number o f n e g a tiv e I n d ic a tio n s than th a t o f th e average re a d e rs In a re a s r e la t e d to th e em otio nal a s p e c t o f p e r s o n a lity (3 4 ). More r e c e n t ly , Robinson has d e s c rib e d c e r t a i n m ani f e s t a t i o n s o f em otional m aladjustm ent among poor r e a d e r s . She b e lie v e s t h a t th e s e a re c l e a r l y o b s e r v a tio n a l to re a d in g s p e c i a l i s t s who h av e, m oreover, come to ex p e ct c o n s id e ra b ly more p ro g re s s among th e b e t t e r - a d j u s te d re a d e rs in re m ed ial re a d in g program s than among th e re a d e rs w ith more s e rio u s em o tional problem s. A ggression and w ith d raw al r e a c tio n s a re in evidence i f th e r e ta r d e d re a d e r can not cope w ith h is f e e lin g s o f f a i l u r e (6 9 ). 41 1. R esearch r e la t i n g to p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f re ta rd e d r e a d e r s .--E v id en ce f o r th e e x is te n c e o f d i s t i n c t i v e p e r s o n a lity p a tte r n s among poor re a d e rs has been re p o rte d by Spache. In a study in v o lv in g f i f t y r e tard e d r e a d e rs , ages s ix to fo u rte e n y e a rs , he te s te d th e h y p o th esis th a t many read in g problem ca ses a re c h a r a c te r ized by a v ery d e f i n i t e n eg a tiv ism o r r e s is ta n c e to le a r n in g . The Rosenzweig P ic tu r e - F r u s tr a tio n Study was ad m in is te re d to th e p u p ils and a new method o f sc o rin g was d ev ised which d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s i tu a t io n s in v o lv in g " c h il d - c h il d 1 1 c o n f lic t and " c h ild - a d u lt" c o n f l i c t . A Rosenzweig norma tiv e group was a ls o employed in th e in v e s tig a tio n in o rd e r to enhance th e v a l i d i t y o f the e v a lu a tiv e p ro c ed u res. The s ig n ific a n c e of mean d iffe re n c e s and c r i t i c a l r a t i o s were computed. Spache concludes, in h is review o f th e t e s t f i n d in g s , th a t th e average re ta rd e d re a d e r in comparison w ith the average su c c e s s fu l re a d e r has made a r e l a t i v e l y poor s o c ia l adjustm ent to both a d u lts and o th e r c h ild re n . The re ta rd e d r e a d e r 's r e la ti o n s w ith a d u lts te n d , he s t a t e s , to involv e attem p ts to avoid obviously a g g re ssiv e c o n f l i c t and 42 to s u b s t i tu t e p a ssiv e r e s is ta n c e to a d u lt e x p e c ta tio n s . His r e la ti o n s w ith p e e rs , however, a re more ty p if ie d by o v erly a g g re ssiv e b eh a v io r e n ta ilin g a r e f u s a l to seek p e a c e fu l s o lu tio n s o f d iffe re n c e s (8 6 ). A second stu d y , in v o lv in g a la r g e r group of one hundred and tw e n ty -fiv e p u p ils , produced fin d in g s in l i n e w ith th e o r ig in a l in v e s tig a tio n (8 9 ). Vorhaus su p p o rts S p ach e's th e s is o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p e rs o n a lity p a tte r n s among re ta rd e d re a d e rs in h e r summary o f th e r e s u l t s o f h e r d o c to ra l study conducted under th e guidance o f Dr. Ruth S tran g . The Rorschach had been admin i s t e r e d to th re e hundred c h ild re n w ith sev ere re ad in g d i s a b i l i t y . Vorhaus m a in tain s t h a t fo u r R orschach p a tte r n s were found, a l l o f them, however, p o sse ssin g one common p e rs o n a lity tendency: they were a l l withdrawn in t h e i r a f f e c t as a r e s u l t o f a sense o f s o c i e t a l p re s s u re which they in te r p r e te d as r e j e c t i o n . W ithin t h i s g e n e ra l framework th e re were d i f f e r ences in b e h a v io ra l dynamics. W ithdraw al fo r Group I meant "c o n fo rm ity ," f o r Group I I i t produced " n a r c i s s i s t i c s e l f - p re o ccu p atio n ," f o r Group I I I i t s ig n if ie d " s i l e n t r e b e l lio n ," and f o r Group IV i t r e s u lte d in an " i n f e r i o r i t y complex" (96 , p. 105). S e v e ra l o th e r i n v e s t i g a to r s have examined th e r e l a tio n s h ip between re a d in g and p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s and have announced t h a t t h e i r fin d in g s do n o t su p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n o f d i s c r e t e p e r s o n a lity p a t te r n s among r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s . S ie g e l has t e s t e d two h y p o th e se s: 1. No s in g le p e r s o n a lity p a t t e r n i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f re a d in g f a i l u r e . 2. The range o f p e r s o n a lity s t r u c t u r e s w ith in a p o p u la tio n o f em o tio n ally d is tu r b e d c h ild re n w ith re a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f o th e r c h ild r e n w ith em otional problem s who do n o t have re a d in g problem s. The study was conducted a t th e Brooklyn C ollege Community C ounseling C en ter w ith two groups o f boys, f o r t y - two in each group, between th e ages o f e ig h t and fo u rte e n y e a rs : a "R eading Group" o f r e ta r d e d re a d e rs w ith em otion a l d i f f i c u l t i e s and a " C l in ic a l Group" o f em o tio n ally m al a d ju s te d c h ild r e n . T here was no a tte m p t to match p a i r s a s th e purpose o f th e p r o j e c t was to a s c e r t a i n i f th e re were any s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s between th e groups in term s o f g e n e ra l sch o o l background and adjustm ent, c u l t u r a l and em otional f a c t o r s in th e home environm ent, and o th e r v a r i a b l e s . The e v a lu a tiv e m easures in c lu d e d c a se h i s t o r i e s , the Revised Stanford-Binet. the Cornell-Coxe Performance Ability Scale, the Stanford Achievement Test* and the Rorschach. Five clinical judges made individual analyses of the children's responses on the last named instrument. Statistical tests of significance, with the minimum of five per cent level of confidence, were applied to the test re sults wherever feasible. S ie g e l con cludes t h a t b o th m ajor n u l l hypo th eses were proved te n a b le , i . e . , 1. There i s no " ty p i c a l" p e r s o n a lity p a tt e r n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f re a d in g f a i l u r e . 2. The v a r i a b i l i t y o f p e r s o n a lity s t r u c tu r e s among em o tio n ally d is tu rb e d r e ta r d e d re a d e rs i s c o n s is te n t w ith th e range o f p e r s o n a lity p a tte r n s t h a t m ight be found in any group o f em o tio n ally tro u b le d c h ild re n (8 5 ). Norman and Daley have compared the personality ad justment of "superior" and "inferior" readers with the California Test of Personality in an attempt to discover "discriminating psychometric patterns." They hypothesized that the adjustment of the superior readers would not sig nificantly differ from that of the inferior readers. Forty-two superior readers and forty-one inferior readers were selected from the sixth grade classes of four 45 te e n p u b lic sch o o ls in A lbuquerque, New M exico. The p e r form ance o f th e two groups on th e C a lif o r n ia T e s t o f P e r sona l i t y was s u b je c te d to com parison through th e employment o f th e a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e s t a t i s t i c a l te c h n iq u e . The i n v e s t ig a t o r s have re p o rte d t h a t th e s u p e rio r re a d e rs ach iev ed s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r a d ju stm en t sc o re s on a l l s e c tio n s o f th e t e s t than th e i n f e r i o r r e a d e r s , b u t t h a t no d if f e r e n c e was re v e a le d in re g a rd to th e k in d s (pat te r n s ) o f a d ju stm en t t h a t were made by th e two g ro u p s. In o th e r w ords, a lth o u g h i n f e r i o r re a d e rs a r e n o t a s w e ll- a d ju s te d a s s u p e rio r r e a d e r s , they m a n ife s t no uniqu e p e r s o n a lity p a t t e r n s (5 8 ). Most r e c e n t l y , Goldman has conducted a stu d y w ith s i x t y - e i g h t poor re a d e rs from th r e e c o lle g e re a d in g c l i n i c s and sev en ty -o n e s u c c e s s fu l re a d e rs from fo u r Los A ngeles p u b lic s c h o o ls . The s u b je c ts were a l l boys and between th e ag es o f e ig h t and t h i r t e e n y e a r s . I t was p o s tu la te d t h a t c h ild r e n w ith re a d in g p ro b lems " p o s s e ss a p a t t e r n o f b e h a v io r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an i n f l e x i b l e , r i g i d n a tu re " t h a t in t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e o p e ra t i o n " i d e n t i f y a p e r s o n a lity syndrome t h a t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a s s o c ia te d w ith re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y " (39, p. 2 5 ). 46 P e rc e p tu a l and c o g n itiv e fu n c tio n in g were e v a lu a te d w ith th e S t r e e t G e s ta lt C om pletion T e s t and o th e r i n s t r u m ents, and th e f in d in g s were a n a ly z ed f o r s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n if ic a n c e . G oldm an.concludes from t h i s i n v e s tig a tio n t h a t no d i s t i n c t i v e p e r s o n a lity p a t t e r n in d ic a tin g an i d e n t i f i a b l e syndrome connected w ith re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y i s d em onstrated by th e e v id e n c e . The f in d in g s do, how ever, su p p o rt the t h e s i s t h a t boys w ith re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s te n d to show a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r number o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n and in to le ra n t s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s , and l e s s p e r s o n a lity ad ju stm en t than boys who a re s u c c e s s fu l re a d e rs (3 9 ). 2. R esearch r e l a t i n g to th e r o le o f s e lf- c o n c e p t in re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . - -A g r e a t d e a l o f a t t e n t i o n h as been given in th e p a s t s e v e r a l y e a rs to th e r o le o f an in d iv id u a l 's s e lf - c o n c e p t in in flu e n c in g h is p e rso n a l and s o c ia l fu n c tio n in g and a d ju stm e n t. T here i s , th u s , an a tte m p t to s e a rc h -o u t one o f th e more s u b tle a s p e c ts o f p e r s o n a lity t h a t may have an im p o rta n t b e a rin g on an i n d i v i d u a l 's mode o f a d a p ta tio n to h is en vironm ent. The q u e stio n i s r a is e d , "Are th e r e c o n s is te n t p a t t e r n s o f le a r n in g b e h a v io r th a t 47 a r e r e f l e c t i o n s o f deep-going and s ta b le p e rc e p ts th a t le a r n e r s hold o f them selves?" Bodwin h as in v e s tig a te d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between "im m ature" s e lf - c o n c e p t and c e r t a i n e d u c a tio n a l d i s a b i l i t i e s , p r i n c i p a l l y re a d in g and a r it h m e ti c . He w ished to t e s t th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic a l c o n s tr u c t t h a t s e lf - c o n c e p t was a developm ental phenomenon r e l a t e d to p sy c h o -se x u a l f a c t o r s , and t h a t any i n t e r r u p t i o n in t h i s m a tu ra tio n a l p ro c ess would i n t e r f e r e w ith le a r n in g . The t o t a l re s e a rc h group c o n s is te d o f one hundred re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y c a s e s , one hundred a r ith m e tic d i s a b i l i t y c a s e s , and one hundred s tu d e n ts w ith o u t any e d u c a tio n a l d i s a b i l i t i e s from t h i r d and s i x t h grade c la s s e s o f th re e elem en tary sc h o o ls in F l i n t , M ichigan. The Draw-A-Person T e s t , a f t e r b e in g v a lid a te d f o r s e lf - c o n c e p t w ith a p i l o t group, was a d m in iste re d to a l l th re e hundred s u b je c ts . C or r e l a t i o n s were c a lc u la te d between th e re a d in g and a r i t h m etic sc o re s and the D-A-P sc o re s as w e ll as th e s i g n i f i cance o f d if f e r e n c e s betw een c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s . The e x p e rim e n ta l f in d in g s in d ic a te d a p o s it iv e and v ery s i g n i f i c a n t r e la ti o n s h i p between b o th immature s e l f - concept and re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y and immature s e lf - c o n c e p t and a r ith m e tic d i s a b i l i t y . These r e s u l t s , a c c o rd in g to Bodwin, su p p o rt th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic a l p o s itio n on th e i n t e r r u p t i o n in th e d e v e l opm ental p ro c e ss t h a t i s in v o lv ed in immature s e lf - c o n c e p t (1 5 ). In c o n tr a s t to B odw in's em phasis on m a tu ra tio n a l f a c t o r s , Lumpkin see s s e lf - c o n c e p t a s b ein g p rim a rily r e la t e d to "ego needs" which may r e q u ir e e i t h e r hig h o r low s c h o l a s t i c achievem ent. In h i s study o f th e r e la ti o n s h i p between s e lf - c o n c e p t and achievem ent in re a d in g , he r e f e r s to such G e s ta lt co n cep ts a s " l i f e - s p a c e ," " e q u ilib riu m ," and " t o t a l f i e l d " to e x p la in h i s approach to the t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s tio n s a s s o c ia te d w ith s e lf - c o n c e p t. He b e lie v e s t h a t , in o rd e r to " m a in ta in h is e q u ilib riu m and av o id f r u s t r a t i o n , " th e " in d iv id u a l c h ild m a n ife s ts v a rio u s sympto m atic b e h a v io ra l p a t t e r n s n e c e s sa ry to h is ego i n t e g r i t y " (47, p . 2 ); v a ry in g s e l f - p e r c e p t s a re h e ld to c a l l f o r t h d i f f e r e n t b e h a v io ra l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . F i f t y s u b je c ts were s e le c te d from a much la r g e r p o p u la tio n o f f i f t h - g r a d e p u p ils in s ix sch o o l d i s t r i c t s in Monterey County, h a l f o f them above expectancy (Horn F o r mula) in re a d in g perform ance and th e o th e r h a l f below . The 49 two c a te g o r ie s o f re a d e rs were m atched on a number o f r e l e v a n t v a r ia b le s . The s e l f - r a t i n g s c a le , Thinking About Y o u rs e lf, and a sen ten c e com pletion t e s t were among th e i n stru m en ts t h a t were employed to measure s e lf - c o n c e p t. S ta t i s t i c a l t e s t s were a p p lie d to determ ine th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e f in d in g s . Lumpkin co n clu d es from t h i s experim ent t h a t s e l f - concept i s r e l a t e d to re a d in g achievem ent. The o v e r a c h ie v e rs p e rc e iv e d them selves as b ein g more adeq u ate i n d i v id u a ls th an d id th e u n d e r-a c h ie v in g s tu d e n ts and a ls o te n d e d vto show g r e a t e r p ro fic ie n c y in language, a r ith m e tic , and w ork-study s k i l l s th an th e l a t t e r group (4 7 ). A new t h e o r e t i c a l approach to th e r o le o f s e l f - con cept in le a rn in g b e h a v io r has been d e sc rib e d by Holmes in a 1961 a r t i c l e on th e p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s . He s t a t e s t h a t e x p e rim e n ta l e f f o r t s to determ ine a r e la ti o n s h i p between p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s and achievem ent in re a d in g o r s p e llin g have y ie ld e d i n c o n s is te n t r e s u l t s - - p o s i t i v e a t th e lower grade le v e l s , n e g a tiv e a t th e h ig h school and c o lle g e l e v e l s . Our g r a d ie n t s h i f t h y p o th e sis e x p la in s th e se in c o n s is te n c ie s and g a in s f u r t h e r credence i f we p i c tu re th e s e developm ental changes as a g ra d u a l p ro c e ss 50 o f I n t e r n a l iz in g In to d e e p -se a te d v a lu e system s t h a t which was i n i t i a l l y , in th e c h i l d , m erely a su p e r f i c i a l ro le-m ask o r persona g u id e f o r b e h a v io r. (4 3 , p . 120) From th e c h i l d 's n o tio n s o f h is p ro p e r s e lf-im a g e , how ever, he d evelop s h i s v a lu e -a tta c h m e n ts c a lle d " m o b ili- z e rs" which d ecid e which o f h is t o t a l m ental c a p a c i t ie s w ill be employed to so lv e a p a r t i c u l a r problem . When th e b e h a v io r, produced by th e s e m o b iliz e rs , i s re in f o r c e d by th e environm ent, th e c h ild i s a b le to u t i l i z e more and more o f h i s e n e rg ie s f o r th e p u r s u i t o f h is g o a ls , b u t when such b e h a v io r i s in c o n f l i c t w ith p a r e n ta l and o th e r a d u l t - a u th o r i ty v a lu e judgm ents, d is p e rs io n o f e n e r g ie s r e s u l t s . When c o n f l i c t s a r i s e , they te n d to be e s p e c ia lly d e le te r io u s to academ ic achievem ent d u rin g th e fo rm ativ e p e rio d when th e c h ild i s en deavoring to e s t a b l i s h h is own b a s ic v a lu e s , an a p p r o p ria te s e lf-im a g e , and a s t y l e o f b e h a v io r t h a t w i l l be most e f f e c t i v e in a c h ie v in g i t s r e a l i z a t i o n (4 3 ). Here we have a new dynamic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e r e la t i o n s h i p o f s e lf - c o n c e p t to in d iv id u a l p e r s o n a lity p a t t e r n s in le a rn in g b e h a v io r. The c o n s tru c t o f " m o b ili- 51 z e r s ," as s tro n g ly c o n d itio n e d s t a b i l i z e r s o f in d iv id u a l b e h a v io r, i s c o n tr a s te d to th e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f s o c i e t a l demands. The th eo ry a ls o in d ic a te s t h a t th e u s u a l forms o f p e r s o n a lity t e s t c o n s tr u c tio n may n o t be adequate to th e ta s k o f s e a rc h in g -o u t the complex in te r p la y o f so many v a r i a b l e s . Summary. --T h is review o f p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s in re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y h as a tte m p te d to h i g h lig h t th e many- fa c e te d n a tu r e o f th e problem and may be summarized a s fo llo w s: 1. P e r s o n a lity m aladjustm ent i s fre q u e n tly b u t n o t u n iv e r s a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith re a d in g d is o r d e r s : th e fin d in g s range from f o rty - o n e p er c e n t to n in e ty p e r c e n t o f c a se s and even h ig h e r . The g r e a t m a jo rity o f re s e a r c h e r s p la c e th e f ig u r e c o n sid e ra b ly above f i f t y p e r c e n t. 2. In c a se s where they ap p ear to g e th e r , em o tio n al d i f f i c u l t i e s may be c a u se s , concom itan ts ( c o e x is te n t f a c t o r s ) , o r r e s u l t s o f re a d in g problem s. 3. Em otional d i f f i c u l t i e s u s u a lly a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith o th e r f a c to r s which c o n tr ib u te to th e re a d in g problem : they may be socio -econom ic, c u l t u r a l , p h y s io lo g ic a l, educa- 52 t i o n a l , e t c . , in n a tu r e . Some in v e s ti g a t o r s c la im , in t h i s re g a rd , t h a t th e em otional f a c t o r i s very seldom c a u s a l, and must be c o n s id e re d only a s one o f a " c o n s te ll a t i o n " o f f a c t o r s (none o f which i s p rim ary ) w hich, c o l l e c t i v e l y , a re r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e re ad in g d i s a b i l i t y . 4 . There i s no s in g le p e r s o n a lity p a t t e r n t h a t i s t y p i c a l o f re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y : some re s e a r c h e r s do, how e v e r, su p p o rt th e e x is te n c e o f s e v e r a l ty p es o f p e r s o n a lity s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a re prom inent in re a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n . T his view i s espoused, in p a r t i c u l a r , by th o se who have in v e s t i g a t e d th e e f f e c t o f c e r t a i n dev elo p m en tal, dynam ic, f a c t o r s upon th e concept o f " s e l f . " 5. T here i s c o n s id e ra b le evid en ce fa v o rin g th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f s p e c if ic p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s and em otion a l i z e d a t t i t u d e s . I I I . FAMILY INTERACTION FACTORS IN READING DISABILITY Modem e d u c a tio n a l th eo ry and p r a c t ic e have re c o g n iz e d th e im portance o f " in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s " among le a r n e r s and o f u n d e rsta n d in g th e more s a l i e n t f a c t o r s which produce th e u n iq u e le a rn in g b e h a v io r o f each c h i l d . F o re 53 most among th e se f a c to r s a re the in flu e n c e s o f fam ily l i f e and home environm ent. I t i s g e n e ra lly agreed th a t a c h i l d 1s p e r s o n a lity i s la rg e ly shaped by th e tim e he e n te r s sch o o l. The home co n tin u e s to e x e rt i t s in flu e n c e throughout h is school c a r e e r . The n a tu re o f t h i s in flu e n c e i s c le a r ly m u lti dim ensional: in clu d ed a re em o tio n al, c u l t u r a l , and s o c io economic f a c t o r s . T his s e c tio n w i l l n o t attem p t to compare th e e v i dence in term s o f th e r e l a t i v e im portance o f each o f th ese v a r ia b le s . There i s , to d a te , too l i t t l e re se a rc h d ata on t h i s q u e stio n to make such an endeavor m eaningful. I t w ill, r a t h e r , focus i t s a t t e n t io n upon th e s p e c if ic a lly em otional component and re p o r t some o f th e more im p o rtan t re se a rc h fin d in g s , accum ulated sin ce 1950, on th e e f f e c t o f c e r ta in fam ily in t e r a c ti o n p a tte r n s on re ad in g perform ance. Robinson s t a t e s th e problem very c o n c ise ly when she n o te s th a t c h ild re n may come from "homes o f any s o c ia l or economic le v e l who a r e secure o r in s e c u re , who a re s ta b le o r u n s ta b le , who a re a b le o r u n ab le to apply t h e i r energied* to t h e i r le a rn in g ta s k s because " o f th e fam ily r e l a t i o n sh ip s and the em otional c lim a te o f th e home" (71, p . 267). 54 A. P a tte r n s o f G en eral Fam ily and P a r e n ta l I n t e r a c t i o n and R eading D i s a b i l i t y G en eral fam ily d is tu rb a n c e p a t t e r n s . —F a b ia n , work in g a t th e B rooklyn J u v e n ile Guidance C e n te r, has c i t e d c l i n i c a l e v id e n c e , which he f e e l s w a rra n ts th e a d d itio n o f a fo u r th t h e o r e t i c a l c a te g o r y - - " f a m ily - c e n te r e d " - - to th e e x i s t in g th re e main c a te g o r ie s o f th e o r ie s co n cern in g th e e tio lo g y o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y : " o r g a n -c e n te re d ," " s c h o o l- c e n te re d ," and " c h il d - c e n te r e d ." He s t a t e s t h a t "m assive ch ro n ic f a m i l i a l psycho p a th o lo g y , a s id e from i t s in flu e n c e e t i o l o g i c a l l y , has s i g n i f i c a n t p ro g n o s tic and th e r a p e u tic im p lic a tio n s in re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y '' (2 8 , p. 3 1 9 ). F ab ian concludes t h a t where t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a c u te , th e p ro g n o s is i s poor even i f p sy chotherapy i s a v a i l a b l e to supplem ent re m e d ia l i n s t r u c t i o n . Reading r e ta r d a t i o n i s th e r e f o r e c o n sid e re d to be an " i n dex" ( p a th o lo g ic a l symptom) o f th e in d iv id u a l and o f th e group (fa m ily ) (2 8 ). Liebman has co n d u c te d , a t Columbia U n iv e r s ity , an in v e s tig a tio n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c e r t a i n f a c t o r s o f p e rs o n a l and s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t, as m easured by th e Winnetka 55 S c a le f o r R atin g School B ehavior and A t t i t u d e s , th e C a li f o r n ia T e s t o f P e r s o n a l i t y , th e R ogers T e st o f P e rso n a l A d ju stm en t, and the in d iv id u a lly a d m in is te re d R o rsch ach , to t h a t o f academ ic achievem ent. The re s e a rc h groups were com prised o f c h ild r e n who were in th e f i f t h g rad e in one elem en tary sch o o l in Queens, New York. He o b s e rv e s , in h i s c o n c lu s io n s , t h a t th e "Fam ily M aladjustm ent" sco re on th e Rogers T e s t was th e only item t h a t in d ic a te d a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tween a d ju stm e n t and achievem ent f o r a l l g ro u p s, r e g a rd le s s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e range (4 6 ). B eals has s tu d ie d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c o o p e ra tiv e and d e m o c ra tic , in c o n t r a s t to a u t h o r i t a r i a n , fam ily p a t te r n s to th e p e rs o n a l a d ju stm e n t o f c h ild r e n . He s e le c te d one hundred j u n i o r h ig h sch o o l p u p ils and d iv id e d them in to two groups on th e b a s is o f t h e i r s c o re s on th e C a l if o m ia T e st o f P e r s o n a l i t y . The ab o v e-av erag e group c o n s is te d o f p u p ils who sco re d above th e f i f t i e t h p e r c e n t i l e on th e t o t a l p e r s o n a lity a d ju stm e n t s c a le ; th e below -average group com prised th o se who sco re d below th e f i f t i e t h p e r c e n t i l e . A check l i s t o f a c t i v i t i e s engaged in by f a m ilie s was u se d , a s w e ll a s c e r t a i n q u e s tio n s on an in fo rm a tio n 56 su rv ey . B eals found t h a t in th e w e ll-a d ju s te d group o f p u p ils on ly fo u rte e n p e r c e n t o f th e fam ily p a tte r n s were " n o n -c o o p e ra tiv e ." On th e o th e r hand, in the p o o rly - a d ju s te d group seventy-tw o p er c e n t o f th e p u p ils came from "n o n -c o o p e ra tiv e " homes where th e re were undem ocratic fam i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s . He concludes th a t t h i s fin d in g o f f e r s stro n g evidence o f the im portance o f a c o o p e ra tiv e and d em ocratic atm osphere in th e home to p e r s o n a lity a d j u s t ment ( 9 ) . P a r e n ta l dom inance-subm ission p a t t e r n s . —As e a rly as 1937, Baruch had announced, a s the r e s u l t o f a study i n v o lv in g t h i r t y - t h r e e p re sc h o o l s c h ild re n and t h e i r p a r e n ts , t h a t she had found a v a r ie ty o f s p e c if ic types o f c h ild ad ju stm e n t problem s which appeared to be c o e x is te n t w ith p a r t i c u l a r types o f in t e r p a r e n ta 1 te n s io n s . One o f th e se i n t e r p a r e n t a l problem a re a s was a c o n f l i c t ov er "ascen d an ce su b m issio n ," i . e . , r i v a l r y between th e spouses over t h e i r r e l a t i v e p re ro g a tiv e s re g a rd in g th e decision-m aking fu n c tio n in th e fam ily (6 ) . In the p a s t te n to f i f t e e n y e a r s , a growing number o f re s e a rc h fin d in g s have p o in te d to th e e x is te n c e o f a d e f i n i t e dom ineering-m other, s u b ra is siv e -fa th e r p a tte r n 57 among th e fa m ilie s o f c h ild re n w ith sev ere re a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s . Coleman, B o m sto n , and Fox, f o r example, have r e p o rte d t h i s fin d in g fo llo w in g t h e i r in v e s tig a tio n in to c e r t a i n p e r s o n a lity a t t r i b u t e s o f p a re n ts o f both norm al and poor re a d e rs (2 3 ). They matched tw enty p a ir s o f p a re n ts o f r e ta rd e d re a d e rs from th e C l in ic a l School o f the U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia a t Los A ngeles w ith th e same number o f p a i r s o f p a re n ts o f s u c c e s s fu l re a d e rs from a nearby p u b lic e l e m entary sch o o l. The m atching v a r ia b le s in c lu d e d p a r e n ta l a g e s, o ccu p atio n o f f a t h e r , number and sex o f c h ild re n in th e fa m ily , and r e li g i o u s p re fe re n c e . The tw enty C lin ic a l School c h ild re n and th e twenty p u b lic school c h ild re n were matched on th e b a s is o f IQ, ag e , sex , and freedom from s e rio u s p h y s ic a l o r em otional d e f e c ts . The U n iv e rsity o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia P a re n t- A ttitu d e Survey was a d m in iste re d to th e two groups o f p a r e n ts ; i t c o n ta in s "D om ineering," " P o s s e s s iv e ," and "Ig n o rin g " S c a le s . D iffe re n c e s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 le v e l o f confidence were found on th e Domineering S cale between the p u b lic sch o o l m others and th e C lin ic m others w ith th e l a t t e r group sc o rin g h ig h e r on t h i s t r a i t . S ig n i- 58 fic a n c e a t th e same le v e l was a ls o e s ta b lis h e d f o r th e d i f fe re n c e s between th e C lin ic m others and C lin ic f a th e r s on the "extrem e judgments" Index, th e m others making the g r e a te r number o f extreme judgm ents, I . e . , " s tro n g ly agree" and " s tro n g ly d is a g re e ." The I n v e s tig a to r s In fe rre d from th e se fin d in g s th a t: (1) th e com bination of th e tendency on th e p a r t of th e C lin ic m others toward dom ineering a t t i t u d e s and, even more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , toward a g r e a te r degree o f c e r ta in ty In emo t i o n a l re a c tio n s than t h e i r husbands, "p ro b ab ly c r e a te s an atm osphere o f fem inine s u p e r io r ity " In th e home, (2) th e f a th e r s a re "weak" and " In d e c is iv e " p a re n t f ig u r e s , (3) the male c h ild p o s s ib ly eq u ates m atern al " s tr e n g th " w ith h i s m o th e r's demands f o r e d u c a tio n a l accom plishm ent, and t h e r e by fa c e s an unconscious c o n f l i c t in re g a rd to s a t is f y i n g h is need f o r a m asculine i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith h i s p a s siv e f a th e r and, a t th e same tim e, d em o n stratin g an "a g g re ssiv e " a t t i t u d e toward h is school ta s k s (23, p . 5 1 ). S im ila r fin d in g s were o b ta in e d by Boyd in h is study o f th e im pact of c e r ta in p s y c h o a n a ly tic a lly -d e fin e d p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s p o ssessed by p u p ils and t h e i r p a re n ts upon th e c h i l d r e n 's read in g perform ance. The p a re n ts of tw enty- 59 th re e male fo u rth and f i f t h g rad e r e ta r d e d re a d e rs and th e p a re n ts o f a matched group o f norm al re a d e rs were a d m in is te r e d th e GuiIford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey and a ls o in te rv ie w e d . A lthough the fin d in g s t h a t were re p o rte d f o r th e c h ild re n on a n o th e r p e r s o n a lity in s tru m e n t, th e Blacky T est, were n o t c l e a r - c u t , th e Temperament Survey re v e a le d t h a t th e re were some p a r e n ta l p e r s o n a lity v a r ia b le s th a t seemed to be r e la t e d to re a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n . The m others o f th e poor re a d e rs were found, in se v e r a l b e h a v io ra l a r e a s , to be more fre q u e n tly " r e l a t i v e l y m asculine" th an th e m others o f th e s u c c e s s f u l re a d e rs w h ile th e husbands o f th e 'fo rm e r group were more fre q u e n tly " r e l a t i v e l y fem inine" th an th e husbands o f th e l a t t e r group o f m o th ers. The im p lic a tio n , h e r e , was th at--am ong male p u p ils - - a c o n f l i c t in making a m a sc u lin e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was conducive to re ad in g d i f f i c u l t y (1 9 ). B. P a re n t-C h ild I n t e r a c t i o n and Reading D i s a b i l i ty The re se a rc h s tu d ie s o f th e p a s t two decades seem to be in g e n e ra l agreem ent t h a t th e r e a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in th e "co n scio u s" c h i l d - r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s , 60 e . g . , d i s c ip l in a r y p r a c t i c e s , p a r e n ta l v a lu e s and e x p e c ta t i o n s , o f p a r e n ts o f p u p ils who re a d w e ll in c o n tr a s t to th e p a re n ts o f p u p ils who re a d p o o rly (1 8 ). A dherents o f th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic a l sch o o l have e n gaged in an e x te n s iv e t h e o r e t i c a l exam ination o f th e "u n co n scio u s" p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s t h a t , ac co rd in g to t h e i r view , v i t a l l y a f f e c t p a r e n t - c h i l d r e la t i o n s h i p s in ways t h a t may, sy m p to m a tica lly , r e s u l t in le a rn in g d is o r d e r s . The p ro c e ss o f a c q u irin g k n o w le d g e --le a rn in g -- i s , psycho- dynam ically sp ea k in g , re g a rd e d a s an " o r a l" a c t i v i t y , and may become in v o lv ed in c o n f l i c t s t h a t a r i s e in th e " o r a l sta g e " o f p sy ch o -se x u al developm ent. The in ta k e o f food by th e young c h ild i s , u n c o n s c io u s ly , equ ated w ith th e r e c e iv in g o f love from th e m other. I f th e r e a r e u n re so lv e d f e a r s and f r u s t r a t i o n s rem aining from t h i s i n f a n t i l e period, they may be tr a n s m itte d to le a rn in g s i t u a t i o n s w hich, i n s te a d o f fo o d , e n t a i l th e " in ta k e " o f knowledge (6 2 ). An e a rly stu dy by M isse ld in e on th e em o tio n al b ack ground o f t h i r t y r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s , a s re v e a le d by c l i n i c a l case h i s t o r i e s , tended to s tim u la te re s e a rc h a c t i v i t y in to th e r e la ti o n s h ip o f c e r t a i n o f th e more s u b tle and dynamic a s p e c ts o f th e p a r e n t - c h i ld com m unicative p ro c e ss to re a d 61 in g d i s a b i l i t y . He had d e s c rib e d th e m others o f tw o -th ird s o f th e poor re a d e rs as b ein g " c r i t i c a l , h o s t i l e , r e j e c t in g p erso n s" a s w e ll a s " te n s e , c o e rc iv e ," and " p e r f e c t i o n i s - t i c " (53, p. 272 ). P a r e n ta l warmth and s e n s i t i v i t y .--M iln e r has in v e s t i g a t e d th e r e la ti o n s h i p between re a d in g re a d in e s s and p a t t e r n s o f p a r e n t- c h ild i n t e r a c t i o n . She te s te d a l l th e c h ild r e n in one Grade 1 c la s s in each o f th re e elem en tary s c h o o ls. She o b serv e s t h a t , in th e p a re n t in te rv ie w s , th e m others and f a th e r s o f th e h ig h s c o re rs on th e H aggerty Reading Exam ination and th e "Language F a c to rs " s u b te s ts o f th e C a lif o r n ia T e st o f M ental M a tu rity were a b le to e x p re ss on a c o n s is te n t b a s i s - - a s opposed to the p a re n ts o f th e low s c o r e r s - - t h e i r a f f e c t i o n f o r t h e i r c h ild re n in some o v e r t manner (5 2 ). S im ila r f in d in g s have been d e sc rib e d by Schw artz in a study o f f i f t e e n m a la d ju ste d elem entary sch ool c h ild r e n and a n o th e r f i f t e e n a d ju s te d c h ild r e n , and t h e i r resp ectiv e^ m o th ers. The p u p ils were m atched f o r ag e , sex, g ra d e , and IQ. The R orschach and Them atic A pperception T e st were a d m in is te r e d to th e m others and r a te d by th re e ju d g es in o rd e r to d eterm in e th e a b i l i t y o f th e p a re n ts to e x p re ss 62 em otional warmth. The i n v e s t ig a t o r r e p o r ts t h a t one o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t f in d in g s was t h a t th e m others of th e n o n -a d ju s te d c h ild re n had m a n ife ste d l e s s em otional warmth tow ard t h e i r o f f s p r in g s th an had th e m others o f th e a d ju s te d c h ild r e n (8 0 ). McKinley has conducted a stu d y o f th e r e la ti o n s h i p o f m a te rn a l p e r s o n a lity to c h i l d r e n 's re a d in g p erfo rm an ces. N inety c h ild r e n , ages s ix to t h i r t e e n , were s e le c te d and p la c e d e i t h e r in a group o f s u c c e s s fu l re a d e rs o r in a group t h a t was d e sig n a te d a s r e ta r d e d in re a d in g . T h e ir m others were a ls o grouped and g iv en th e same ( c h i l d 's ) form o f th e Rosenzweig P i c t u r e - F r u s t r a t i o n Study a s was a d m in is te r e d to t h e i r c h ild r e n . The purpose o f t h i s j o i n t admin i s t r a t i o n o f th e Study was to m easure th e m o th ers' s e n s i t i v i t y to t h e i r c h i l d r e n 's em o tio n s: they were asked to p r e d ic t th e l a t t e r ' s re sp o n s e s . McKinley s t a t e s th a t s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s were found between a m o th e r's s e n s i t i v i t y to h e r c h i l d 's f e e l in gs and h is su ccess in re a d in g (5 0 ). P a r e n ta l " p r o te c t iv e n e s s . " —In th e stu d y by Schw artz review ed above, the i n v e s t i g a t o r had employed th e U niversity o f Southern C a lif o r n ia P a re n t A ttitu d e Survey in o rd e r to 63 e l i c i t th e m o th ers' a t t i t u d e s toward the c o n tr o l ( " p r o te c tiv e n e s s " ) o f t h e i r c h ild r e n . The "P o sse ssiv e " S c a le o f t h i s in stru m e n t produced th e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t fin d in g t h a t th e a t t i t u d e s o f th e m others o f th e m aladjusted p u p ils r e f l e c t e d a l e s s e r need to be em o tio n ally p r o te c ti v e o f t h e i r c h ild re n than d id th e m others o f th e norm ally a d ju s t e d p u p ils toward t h e i r c h ild re n (8 0 ). C o n tra d ic to ry fin d in g s on t h i s q u e stio n o f " p r o te c tiv e n e s s " have been p re se n te d by S tew art who r e p o r ts a co n t r o l l e d study on th e r e la ti o n s h i p o f p e r s o n a lity m a la d ju s t ment to re a d in g achievem ent (9 0 ). He had matched f i f t e e n " s u p e rio r" re a d e rs w ith f i f t e e n " i n f e r i o r " re a d e rs on th e b a s is o f socio-econom ic background, i n t e l l i g e n c e , ch rono lo g ic a l age and grade p lacem ent, sex , and school f a c t o r s . The p u p ils ranged in age from e ig h t and o n e -h a lf y e a rs to tw elve and o n e -h a lf y e a rs and a l l had dem on strated a sch o o l h i s t o r y o f p e r s o n a lity m alad ju stm en t. The R ogers' T e s t o f P e rs o n a lity A d ju stm en t, a S to ry Com pletion T e s t , th e Them atic A pperception T e s t. And th e R orschach , were a d m in iste re d to b o th groups o f re a d e rs and in d iv id u a l in te rv ie w s were h e ld w ith th e p a r e n ts , te a c h e r s , and th e c h ild r e n . 64 S tew art concludes from the s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s o f th e experim ent t h a t , In a l l c a s e s , p a re n ts o f I n f e r i o r re a d e rs were "more In d u lg e n t, o v e r - p r o te c tiv e , a n d /o r cap ri c io u s" th an they were " r e j e c t i n g . " He su g g e sts t h a t , unlike th e s u p e rio r re a d e r, th e I n f e r i o r re a d e r " e v id e n tly can a f f o r d n o t to f e a r th e consequences" o f h is poor re a d in g (9 0 ), p . 4 1 7 ). Summary.--T h e s tu d ie s th a t have been re p o rte d In t h i s s e c tio n e x p lo re d some o f th e I n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s t h a t a r i s e i n th e fam ily and t h e i r p o s s ib le in flu e n c e upon th e r e a d in g -le a rn in g b e h a v io r o f c h ild r e n . F ab ian and Liebman ag re e t h a t s e r io u s ly d is tu rb e d c o n d itio n s in th e home can be d e trim e n ta l to school achievem ent, w hile B eale s t r e s s e s th e i l l e f f e c t s o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n p a r e n t- c h ild r e la tio n s h ip s . The in v e s tig a tio n s in to a re a s o f i n t e r p a r e n t a l te n s io n s ten d to h i g h lig h t a dom inant-m other and s u b m is s iv e -fa th e r p a t t e r n w ith in th e fa m ilie s of r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s . The re s e a rc h fin d in g s o f Schw artz, M cKinley, and M ilner a r e in agreem ent on the im portance o f such em o tio n al f a c to r s in th e home as p a r e n ta l warmth and s e n s i t i v i t y . The p a re n ts o f c h ild re n w ith re a d in g and o th e r le a r n in g problems 65 a r e d e sc rib e d as being le s s a b le to d is p la y th e degree of a f f e c tio n and in s ig h t in to the f e e lin g s o f t h e i r c h ild re n than th e p a re n ts o f norm al a c h ie v e rs . Schwartz p re s e n ts evidence to the e f f e c t th a t th e m others o f m alad ju sted p u p ils a r e le s s em o tio n ally p r o te c tiv e o f t h e i r o f f s p r in g s th an m others o f norm ally a d ju s te d p u p ils . The v ery oppo s i t e co n clu sio n s a re reach ed , however, by S tew art in a study o f poorly a d ju s te d su c c e s s fu l and u n s u c c e ss fu l re a d e r s . IV. THERAPEUTIC TREATMENT OF READING DISABILITY In G ate s' h i s t o r i c t h e o r e t i c a l t r e a t i s e , in 1941, on th e r o le o f p e r s o n a lity m aladjustm ent in re a d in g d i s o r d e r s , he d e c la re d th a t f o r th e more sev ere c a se s o f re a d ing d i s a b i l i t y "a s k i l l f u l c l i n i c a l study o f th e p u p i l 's ad ju stm en t i s a d v is a b le and in some o f them g e n e ra l th erapy a s w e ll as rem edial i n s t r u c t io n w i l l be needed" (36, p . 83). E ig h t y e a rs l a t e r , Sherman appeared to be simply r e s t a t i n g t h i s p o in t o f view when he w rote th a t th e " n a tu re o f th e therapy f o r a read in g d e fe c t must be determ ined only a f t e r th e p e r s o n a lity o f th e s tu d e n t i s c a r e f u lly e v a l u a te d ." Whenever em otional d i f f i c u l t i e s were p r e s e n t, the " tre a tm e n t must be d ir e c te d , a t l e a s t in p a r t , toward the 66 c u re o f th e em otional d is o rd e r" (84, p. 131). Sherman, however, went beyond th e mere r e p e t i t i o n o f th e G ates f o r mula when he e la b o r a te d upon i t s im p lic a tio n s f o r rem ed ial th e r a p y . The prim ary em phasis in a re m e d ia l program f o r emo t i o n a l l y d is tu rb e d r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s , he m a in ta in e d , should be on th e " r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e em otional tu rm o il o f th e p u p il" and a t t e n t i o n should be d ir e c te d "o n ly se c o n d a rily to th e te c h n iq u e s o f re ad in g " (84, p . 131). T h is p o s itio n on th e p r i o r i t y o f p sy c h o lo g ic a l tre a tm e n t p ro c ed u res over i n s t r u c t i o n a l methodology has b een , p e rh a p s, c a r r i e d to i t s most extrem e t h e o r e t i c a l ex p r e s s io n in th e p s y c h o lo g ic a lly - o r ie n te d type o f program in which th e re a d in g problem i s conceived a s a symptom o f a g r e a t e r p e r s o n a lity d is o r d e r . A ccording to t h i s view , th e poor re a d in g i s re g ard ed " a s sim ply a n o th e r a s p e c t o f th e t o t a l b eh a v io r" o f th e p a r t i c u l a r p u p il " f o r which th e c l i n i c a l method w i l l be th e method o f ch o ice" (49, p . 9 0 ). One o f th e le a d in g p re s e n t-d a y a u t h o r i t i e s in th e f i e l d o f re a d in g re s e a r c h , Spache, has u n e q u iv o c a lly s ta t e d t h a t when a r e ta r d e d re a d e r d em o n strates c e r t a i n ty p e s o f m a la d ju ste d em o tio n al b e h a v io r t h a t a re "common" in re ad in g 67 d i s a b i l i t y t h a t he i s more s u it e d f o r psychotherapy than f o r th e u s u a l methods o f re m e d ia l h elp (8 8 ). McDonald, Z o lik , and Byrne have v o iced stro n g ex c e p tio n to t h i s "extrem e view" a s n o t being p re s e n tly w ar ra n te d on s e v e r a l grounds. In th e f i r s t in s ta n c e , they p o in t o u t, such a c l i n i c a l approach would r e q u ir e th e t r a i n i n g o f a v ery la rg e number o f p s y c h o -e d u c a tio n a l c l i n i c i a n s w ith in a v a s t l y e x tended system o f in te n s iv e p r o f e s s io n a l s e rv ic e s thro ughout th e c o u n try . S econdly, t h i s approach assum es t h a t th e re has been a consensus on th e most e f f e c t i v e ty p es o f re a d in g th erap y when, in f a c t , th e re i s —to d a t e - - no body o f c o n c lu siv e evidence su p p o rtin g th e s u p e r i o r it y o f one th e ra p e u tic method o v er a n o th e r. Only th e n o n - d ir e c tiv e tech n iq u e and p la y th era p y have been s u b je c te d to any a p p re c ia b le number o f e x p e rim e n ta l t e s t s . I n th e t h i r d p la c e , s c i e n t i f i c in v e s tig a tio n has been v ery la r g e ly lim ite d to th e th e r a p e u tic tre a tm e n t o f c a se s o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y a t th e elem entary l e v e l, w ith v ery l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n g iv en to c a se s a t th e h ig h e r educa t i o n a l l e v e l s . 68 L a s tly , some program s in v o lv in g th e com bination of rem edial i n s tr u c ti o n and th erap y may p la u s ib ly be expected to provide th e most r e a l i s t i c s o lu tio n s in term s o f c l i e n t - need and p r o f e s s io n a l re so u rc e s (4 9 ). A. N o n-D irective and P sy c h o a n a ly tic a l Views on th e T h erap eu tic T reatm ent o f Reading D is a b ility The g r e a t m a jo rity o f th e s tu d ie s t h a t have been re p o rte d in th e p r o fe s s io n a l l i t e r a t u r e on th e th e ra p e u tic tre a tm e n t o f re ad in g d i f f i c u l t i e s have r e f l e c t e d th e th e o r e t i c a l v iew p o in ts o f the N o n -D irectiv e (o r C lient-Centexed) and P s y c h o a n a ly tic a l S ch o o ls. N o n -d ire c tiv e t h e r a p is t s b e lie v e t h a t th e b a s ic cau ses o f psychogenic re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y a re f e e lin g s o f te n sio n and in n e r c o n f l i c t ( f e a r s , a n x i e t i e s , f r u s tr a tio n s ) t h a t a re engendered when th e i n d i v id u a l's more prim ary feel in g s o f p e rs o n a l adequacy and s e c u rity a re a tta c k e d . A xline has d e sc rib e d th e n o n -d ire c tiv e approach to poor re ad in g a s stemming from th e "assum ption th a t th e c l i e n t has w ith in h im se lf s tro n g , c u r a tiv e fo rc e s" (5 , p . 141). T his "grow th p r in c ip le " im p lie s th a t re a d in g th erap y m ust, above a l l , emphasize re s p e c t f o r the i n d i v id u a l le a r n e r . Her own recommendations f o r an e f f e c tiv e 69 th e ra p e u tic approach would in c lu d e p re v e n tiv e program s, aimed a t b u ild in g re a d in g r e a d in e s s , e n t a i l i n g c r e a t i v e - type a c t i v i t i e s fa v o rin g s e lf - e x p r e s s io n . A xline would a ls o p r e s c r ib e group th era p y f o r th e p a re n ts and te a c h e rs o f th e poor re a d e rs and p lay th e ra p y f o r th e c h ild r e n ( 5 ) . P s y c h o a n a ly tic a lly - o r ie n te d th era p y t r e a t s re a d in g f a i l u r e , when th e re i s no d i s c e r n ib l e n o n -p sy c h o lo g ic a l ex p la n a tio n , a s a " p r o te c t iv e symptom." A ccording to K unst, i t i s n o t "a p a s s iv e i n a b i l i t y to le a r n ," b u t r a t h e r "an a c t i v e , though u s u a lly u n c o n sc io u s, p r o te c tio n a g a in s t le a rn in g to read" (4 5 , p . 133). She e x p la in s t h a t t h i s b e h a v io r i s caused by deep-going n e u r o tic c o n f l i c t s t h a t r e q u ire th e r e p r e s s io n o f norm al i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r io s i t y and- r e s u l t in a g e n e ra l i n h i b i t i o n o f le a rn in g f u n c tio n s . Some c h i l d r e n , Kunst m a in ta in s , have come to a s s o c i a t e c u r io s i t y w ith danger e i t h e r because o f a s in g le p a in f u l e x p e rien ce o r th e g e n e ra lly unhappy n a tu re o f t h e i r p a s t in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . These c h ild r e n " a r e a l ready i n h i b it i n g th e im pulse to look" ( f e a r o f lo o k in g b e in g a s p e c if ic e x p re s s io n o f f e a r o f knowing) when th ey e n te r sc h o o l, and th ey " r e a c t to th e p r in te d word as th e symbol o f th e unknown" because " re a d in g i s an im p o rta n t 70 avenue f o r s a tis f y in g c u r io s i t y . . . " (45, p . 134). P sy ch o an a ly tic tre a tm e n t methods w ith re ta rd e d read e r s employ a v a r ie ty o f th e ra p e u tic arrangem ents in v o lv in g b o th c h ild re n and p a r e n ts , b u t they uniform ly a re d ir e c te d toward th e "uncovering" o f unconscious m a te r ia l t h a t has been in h ib itin g th e f r e e r u se o f i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r io s it y . B. Review o f S tu d ie s In v o lv in g Only T h erap eu tic P rocedures in th e T reatm ent Of Reading D is a b ility The n o n - d ir e c tiv e school has conducted th e la r g e s t number o f in v e s tig a tio n s in to th e e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f t h e r a p e u tic p ro ced u res in overcoming psychogenic re ad in g d i s a b i l i t y . These programs have inv olved p lay therapy o r in d i v id u a l and group co u n se lin g te c h n iq u e s. A x lin e 's study in 1947 was the p io n e e r e f f o r t in n o n - d ir e c tiv e th e r a p e u tic re se a rc h w ith poor r e a d e rs . Work in g a t the C ounseling C e n te r, U n iv e rsity o f C hicago, she observed th a t rem ed ial re a d in g methods h elp ed many c h ild re n to le a rn to re a d , b u t th a t they seemed u s e le s s w ith o th e r s . P o s itiv e change seemed to r e q u ir e the a c tiv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f th e stu d e n t and a stro n g d e s ir e to succeed. She i n i t i a t e d a study in v o lv in g th ir ty - s e v e n second 71 g ra d e rs who were poor o r n o n -re a d e rs . A s p e c ia l " re a d in g " c l a s s was formed com prising fo u r g ro u p s. P a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e s e groups was v o lu n ta ry , however, and no rem ed ial re a d ing i n s t r u c t i o n was g iv e n . The te a c h e r conducted non d i r e c ti v e in te rv ie w th era p y w ith th e c h ild re n d u rin g th e classro om a c t i v i t i e s . In a d d itio n , th e c l a s s e x p e rie n c e was c e n te re d around as many th e r a p e u tic p ro ced u res a s p o s s i b l e : a r t i s t i c , c r e a t i v e , and d ra m a tic . No s t a t i s t i c a l measures to t e s t th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f g a in s were employed, b u t, based on th e r e s u l t s o f p r e - and p o s t - t e s t i n g on th e G ates Reading T e s t , she r e p o rte d s i g n i f i c a n t g a in s above norm al le v e ls o f e x p e c ta tio n . In h e r c o n c lu s io n s , A xline s t a t e s t h a t th e study su p p o rted th e t h e s i s o f th e e f f ic a c y o f the n o n - d ir e c tiv e approach in s o lv in g c e r t a i n re a d in g problem s. She su g g ests f u r t h e r r e se a rc h on th e method in b u ild in g a re a d in e s s to r e a d , as w e ll a s b e t t e r p e rso n a l ad ju stm en t (4 ) . B i l l s 1 two s tu d ie s a t T eachers C o lle g e , Columbia U n iv e r s ity , were a resp o n se to t h i s c a l l f o r more re s e a r c h . He employed p lay th era p y as th e th e r a p e u tic method; the s u b je c ts in b o th s tu d ie s were e ig h t r e ta r d e d re a d e rs in th e t h i r d g ra d e . The d e sig n s o f th e two in v e s tig a tio n s were 72 i d e n t i c a l except th a t in th e f i r s t (12) th e c h ild re n were em o tio n ally m a la d ju ste d , and in th e second (13) they were w e ll- a d ju s te d . The programs e n ta ile d th re e p e rio d s o f t h i r t y school days each. The F i r s t P erio d was a c o n tro l p e rio d to measure th e g a in s o f th e s tu d e n ts during a time when no therapy ex p e rie n c e was p ro v id ed . The Second P erio d was the tre a tm e n t p e rio d when th e c h ild re n were given p lay therapy of a non d i r e c ti v e c h a r a c te r . The T h ird P erio d was designed to a s s e s s th e g a in s which follow ed im m ediately a f t e r treatm en t. A lthough no c o n tro l group and no c r i t e r i a f o r selec tio n were employed, d iffe re n c e s in mean g ain s on th e G ates Reading T e st were computed and le v e ls o f confidence were e s ta b lis h e d . Ju d g es' r a tin g s were used to measure th e changes in em otional ad ju stm en t. S ig n if ic a n t improvement in th e a re a s o f re ad in g a b i l i t y and p e rso n a l adjustm ent were re p o rte d f o r th e m al a d ju s te d group. The read in g g ain s were much more lim ite d in th e w e ll-a d ju s te d group, however, and t h i s led B i l l s to conclude t h a t improvement in read in g perform ance i s " d i r e c t l y p ro p o rtio n a l" to the degree o f em otional m a la d ju s t ment p re s e n t in each c h ild . In o th e r words, th e g r e a te r 73 th e m alad ju stm en t, the more th e c h ild i s l ik e ly to g ain in re ad in g p ro fic ie n c y from th e r a p e u tic tre a tm e n t. These e x p e rim e n ta l fin d in g s a r e in c o n tr a d ic tio n to th e r e s u l t s t h a t E l l i s h as r e p o rte d in h is review o f one hundred c a se h i s t o r i e s o f r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s , ages seven to fo u rte e n y e a r s , a t the New J e rs e y M ental Hygiene C lin ic . (2 5 ). The c h ild re n had re c e iv e d re m e d ia l tu to r in g f o r one y e a r a t th e C l in i c , and E l l i s n o te s t h a t th e 1 1 s e v e r ity o f th e p s y c h ia tr ic d ia g n o s is" was in v e rs e ly r e l a te d to re ad in g g a in s (25, p. 6 1 ). U n lik e B i l l s ' e x p e rie n c e , th e r e f o r e , th e more em o tio n ally tro u b le d c h ild r e n showed le s s im prove ment in re a d in g th an th e o th e r s . Redmount has d e s c rib e d a la b o ra to ry program f o r poor re a d e rs a t th e School o f E d u catio n , P ennsylvania S ta te C o lleg e (6 6 ). The Reading C lin ic s t a f f , a s s i s t e d by the P sy c h o lo g ic a l C l in i c , p lan n ed and a d m in iste re d a s ix week summer r e s i d e n t i a l program f o r tw e n ty -fo u r c h ild r e n , ages e ig h t to e ig h te e n . A m atched group o f r e ta r d e d re a d e rs rem ained home d u rin g th e v a c a tio n p e rio d . Each c h i l d had a perm anent teacher-com panion who p a r ti c i p a t e d w ith him in a v a r ie ty o f a c t i v i t i e s r e la te d to th e s t u d e n t 's i n t e r e s t s . Reading was in clu d ed in t h i s p ro - 74 gram only in an a d ju n c tiv e manner and was encouraged b u t v o lu n ta ry . H alf-h o u r p e rio d s o f play therapy o r (above f i f t e e n y e a rs ) in d iv id u a l co u n selin g by g ra d u ate stu d e n ts in psychology were held every day. No s t a t i s t i c a l p ro ced u res were employed, but Redmount claim s t h a t s i g n if i c a n t tre n d s and r e la tio n s h ip s were dem onstrated. Perhaps h i s most notew orthy co n clu sio n i s th a t th e "method may be su b o rd in a te in im portance to the q u a li f i c a t i o n s o f the p a r ti c i p a ti n g p erso n n el" (66, p . 358). The s tu d e n ts who had been assig n e d to te a c h e rs w ith p e r so n al adjustm en t problems u s u a lly f a i l e d to show im prove ment in p e r s o n a lity fu n c tio n in g , as measured by the Rorschach t e s t , and in t h e i r sco re s on the G ates Reading T e s t s . Some o f th e se c h ild re n a c tu a lly secured r e s u l t s in an u n fa v o rab le d ir e c tio n on th e se in stru m e n ts. This s i t u a tio n was n o t tr u e f o r most o f the c h ild re n who had been assig n ed to the te a c h e rs who were b e tt e r - a d ju s te d . Red mount f e e l s th a t th e se fin d in g s r e f l e c t im p o rtan t " c o n s id e r a tio n s which w arran t study in the c o n s tru c tio n o f a c o r r e c tiv e program" f o r re ta rd e d re a d e rs (66, p. 358). Seeman and Edwards have conducted a c o n tr o lle d study to determ ine the v alu e o f o n e -h a lf hour play th erapy 75 s e s s io n s , d a i l y , in r e l a t i o n to problem s o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . The s u b je c ts were f i f t h and s i x t h g ra d e rs who ranked low in b o th re a d in g achievem ent and p e r s o n a lity a d ju s tm e n t. A fte r fo u r months i t was found t h a t the mean g a in f o r th e e x p e rim e n ta l group on a r e t e s t on th e G ates Reading Survey was s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r th an th e g ain o f th e con t r o l g rou p. P ost-program t e s t fin d in g s on th e Tuddenham Form o f th e R e p u ta tio n T e s t and th e Rogers T est o f P e r s o n a lity A djustm ent d id n o t in d ic a te s i g n i f i c a n t g a in s o v er i n i t i a l t e s t perform ances in re g a rd to th e p e rso n a l a d j u s t ment o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l group s tu d e n ts (8 1 ). Osburn and Iv a n c ic have b o th d e sc rib e d program s o f n o n - d ir e c tiv e in te rv ie w th erap y w ith s tu d e n ts having re a d in g and le a rn in g problem s. The form er i n v e s t i g a t o r reviewed th e d ata from th e re c o rd s o f th e Summer E d u c a tio n a l C lin ic o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f W ashington f o r th e y e a rs 1943 to 1948, in c lu s iv e (6 0 ). The te c h n iq u e s used a t th e c l i n i c in v o lv ed d is re g a rd in g re a d in g f o r a tim e and te a c h in g th e s tu d e n t som ething t h a t he could do s u c c e s s f u lly , l e t t i n g th e c h i l dren and t h e i r p a re n ts " t a l k o u t" t h e i r tr o u b le s , and u sin g psycho-dram a. He co ncludes t h a t " n o n - d ir e c tiv e th era p y has 76 proved . . . u s e fu l" in h e lp in g many s tu d e n ts to overcome re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s (60, P. 3 0 ). I v a n c i c 's study concerned fo u rte e n acad em ically r e ta rd e d d e lin q u e n t g i r l s . S t a t i s t i c a l m easures and a con t r o l group com prising h a l f o f th e s tu d e n ts were employed to a s c e r t a i n th e e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f co u n se lin g in e a sin g emo t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s in le a r n in g . The g i r l s in th e e x p e r i m ental group were g iv en one in d iv id u a l in te rv ie w a week f o r te n weeks in a sy m p ath etic and a c c e p tin g atm osphere w ith a minimum o f th e ra p e u tic d i r e c t i o n . The p r e - and p o s t - t e s t i n g programs in clu d ed th e P ro g re s s iv e Achievement T e s t s , th e C a lif o r n ia T e st o f P e r s o n a l i t y . th e H. H. Remmers A ttitu d e S c a le s , the P ressev I n t e r e s t - A t t i t u d e T e s t s , and th e Haggertv-Olson-W ickman B ehavior R atin g S c a le s . The " t - t e s t s " t h a t were a p p lie d to each o f th e se in stru m e n ts and i t s im p o rta n t d iv is io n s re v e a le d in c o n c lu s iv e r e s u l t s . The co u n seled s tu d e n ts showed g r e a t e r im provem ent, though n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , th an th e n o n -co u n seled group in academ ic g ra d es and a t t i t u d e s toward them selves and t h e i r te a c h e rs (4 4 ). 77 C . Review o f S tu d ie s In v o lv in g a Combined Program o f Therapy and Remedial R eading I n s t r u c ti o n Two d o c to r a l s tu d ie s a t New York U n iv e rs ity a t tem pted to e v a lu a te th e e f f e c t o f th erap y and re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n on re a d in g a b i l i t y and p e rso n a l a d ju stm e n t. The e a r l i e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , by F is h e r (3 0 ), in v o lv ed group p sy ch o th erap y w ith d e lin q u e n t b o y s, ages te n to f o u rte e n , and th e l a t e r one, by T iern ey (9 3 ), employed in d iv id u a l psycho th era p y w ith e ig h t- y e a r - o ld m a la d ju ste d boys. Both p ro grams u t i l i z e d s t a t i s t i c a l c o n tr o ls and t e s t s o f s i g n i f i cance . The e x p e rim e n ta l d e sig n s were very s im ila r in th e two s t u d i e s . In b o th in s ta n c e s , th e s e v e ra l tre a tm e n t groups c o n ta in e d m atched sam ples o f te n s u b je c ts ea ch , and were g iv en e i t h e r th e ra p y , re m ed ial re a d in g , o r th erap y and re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n . T ie rn e y , however, added a f o u r th , c o n tr o l, group which re c e iv e d no tre a tm e n t. A ll th e s u b je c ts in th e two in v e s tig a tio n s were e v a lu a te d ac co rd in g to th e m agnitude o f improvement in re a d in g s k i l l and p e rs o n a l a d ju stm e n t a f t e r a seven month p e rio d . 78 The fin d in g s o f the re s e a rc h e rs were c o n tra d ic to r y . F is h e r s t a t e s t h a t he found t h a t th e g r e a t e s t p o s itiv e p e r s o n a lity changes and improvement in read in g took p lace when th e r e was no rem ed ial i n s t r u c t i o n . On th e o th e r hand, T iern ey d e c la re s th a t th e r e s u l t s o f h is experim ent i n d i c a te d t h a t the combined use o f therapy and re ad in g i n s t r u c t i o n was more e f f e c t i v e in th e read in g sphere than e i t h e r form of tre a tm e n t a lo n e . In an a r t i c l e , p u b lish ed in 1961, Roman p re s e n ts a d e s c r ip tio n o f a re a d in g program f o r em otionally d is tu rb e d a d o le s c e n ts th a t e n t a i l s the com plete in te g r a tio n o f reme d i a l and p sy c h o th e ra p e u tic te c h n iq u e s: " T u to ria l Group T herapy." One o f th e " c o re tech n iq u es" i s th e spontaneous i n v e n tio n by th e re a d in g group o f a s to ry . Although the to p i c i s decided upon by th e e n t i r e group, the in d iv id u a l mem b e r s tak e tu rn s a t supplying a " f r e e a s s o c ia tiv e sentence" u n t i l th e s tu d e n ts f e e l the s to ry has been com pleted. The group n a r r a t i v e th e re fo re c o n ta in s m a te ria l th a t in c o r p o ra te s th e f a n ta s ie s o f i t s a u th o rs ; i t i s typed and used a s a t e x t f o r re ad in g and group d is c u s s io n . The dual aspect of the "Tutorial Group Therapy" 79 p ro c e d u re , com bining re a d in g in s t r u c t i o n and d is c u s s io n o f p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l problem s " p ro v id e s the t h e r a p i s t w ith a u n iq u e o p p o rtu n ity s in c e i t p e rm its easy movement from one a c t i v i t y to a n o th e r ." In t h i s way, i t " te n d s to h ig h lig h t r e a c tio n s to s t r e s s and p a tt e r n s o f r e s is ta n c e " (73, p . 2 9 ). Kunst has p re s e n te d th e c l a s s i c a l p s y c h o a n a ly tic a l approach to re a d in g problem s in a r e p o r t o f c l i n i c a l methods i l l u s t r a t e d by e x c e rp ts from ca se h i s t o r i e s (4 3 ). Convinced t h a t re a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s a r e fre q u e n tly caused by d is tu rb a n c e s in th e " e x p lo ra to ry fu n c tio n " and r e p r e s e n t n e u r o tic symptom d e fe n s e s , she developed a p la n o f " re a d in g th era p y " f o r c h ild r e n "around a c e n tr a l co re o f encouraging them to lo o k and f in d out" (43 , p . 133). The c a se i l l u s t r a t i o n s dem onstrated h e r use o f e x p e rim e n ta l le a r n in g e x p e rie n c e s in v o lv in g m icro sco p es, te le s c o p e s , p e r is c o p e s , e t c . A lthough no s t a t i s t i c a l evidence was o f f e r e d , she has claim ed "v e ry dram atic" changes a s " th e c h i l d 's e x p lo ra to ry te n d e n c ie s emerge, d ev elo p , and expand to in c lu d e w id er and w ider i n t e r e s t s " (4 3 , p. 139). Case h i s t o r i e s have a ls o been u t i l i z e d by Mehus to exem plify fo u r th e r a p e u tic approaches to re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y problem s. These methods were used in a c l i n i c s e t t i n g over 80 a p e rio d o f s e v e r a l y e a r s , b o th a t th e Milwaukee County Guidance C lin ic and Roanoke (V irg in ia ) Guidance C en ter (51). The fo u r th e r a p e u tic p ro ced u res were as fo llo w s : (1) p lay th era p y e x c lu s iv e ly - - to h e lp th e c h ild "grow up so t h a t he w i l l be w i llin g to a c c e p t a work s i t u a t i o n ," (2) p lay th e ra p y and h e lp in re a d in g o r i e n t a t i o n by th e t h e r a p i s t , (3) p lay th era p y and re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n c a r r i e d on sim u ltan e o u sly by th e t h e r a p i s t , (4) su p p o rtiv e th era p y in th e re a d in g p e r io d . L earning to re a d was, th u s , "alw ays in a th e r a p e u tic r e la tio n s h ip " (5 1, p . 421 ). Summary.--T h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s review o f t r e a t ment p ro ced u res in re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y d e a lt w ith s tu d ie s o f program s which u t i l i z e d only th e r a p e u tic te c h n iq u e s such as p lay th erap y and c o u n se lin g . A ll o f th e s e in v e s tig a tio n s re p re s e n te d th e n o n - d ir e c tiv e ap p ro ach . The g r e a t e r a c t i v i t y o f th e a d h e re n ts o f t h i s sch o o l in th e a re a o f t h e r a p e u tic tre a tm e n t o f re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s i s u n d e rsta n d a b le in th e l i g h t o f t h e i r em phasis on h e lp in g in d iv id u a ls to develop em o tio n al in s i g h ts le a d in g to in c re a s e d s e l f - d i r e c ti o n . M o tiv a tio n , in s h o r t, must come from w ith in th e s tu d e n t r a t h e r th an from th e te a c h e r . The in v e s t ig a to r s 81 were in unanimous agreem ent a s to th e p o s i t iv e r o l e o f th e ra p e u tic p ro c ed u res in overcoming em o tio n al b lo c k s to re a d in g . The s tu d ie s t h a t in v o lv ed a combined program of th e ra p y and re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n d id n o t produce such com p l e t e ac c o rd . F is h e r re p o rte d t h a t th e g r e a t e s t im prove ment in re a d in g o cc u rred when only th era p y was o f f e r e d , and th e re was no rem e d ia l re a d in g . T ie rn e y , however, found t h a t th e b e s t r e s u l t s were o b ta in e d from th e combined p ro gram. Roman, K unst, and Mehus fa v o red an i n t e g r a t e d ap proach o f th era p y and r e a d in g -le a rn in g e x p e rie n c e s . CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The purpose o f t h i s study has been d e sc rib e d as t h a t o f ex p lo rin g c e r ta in t h e o r e t i c a l , m eth o d o lo g ical, and o rg a n iz a tio n a l f e a tu r e s , and the tre a tm e n t e f f e c t s , o f a combined e d u c a tio n a l group co u n selin g and rem edial read in g program f o r the c o r re c tio n o f re ad in g d i s a b i l i t y . The above tre a tm e n t approach to read in g problems was employed d u rin g the s p rin g , 1963, sem ester a t th e U ni v e r s i t y o f Southern C a lifo rn ia Reading C enter which had f o r many y e a rs been o f f e r in g rem ed ial read in g in s tr u c tio n to poor re a d e rs from elem entary and secondary schools in th e Los A ngeles County a r e a . The Reading C enter i s ad m in is te re d by th e School o f E d u catio n , one o f whose f a c u lty mem b e rs serv e s as d i r e c t o r . In a d d itio n to rem ed ial and devel opm ental re ad in g i n s t r u c t i o n , th e C enter o f f e r s programs of p ro fe s s io n a l tr a in in g in th e d ia g n o sis and rem ed iatio n o f re ad in g problem s to g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts and elem entary and secondary school te a c h e rs . 82 83 A lthough r e f e r r a l s to th e C en ter f o r rem edial i n s tr u c ti o n a re made through a v a r ie ty o f so u rc e s, such as sch o o ls and s e rv ic e c lu b s , th e m a jo rity o f re q u e s ts a re i n i t i a t e d by th e p a re n ts o f s tu d e n ts w ith read in g d i f f i c u l t i e s . The rem ed ial program i s o rg an ized on a sem ester b a s i s , and durin g the r e g u la r f a l l and sp rin g sem esters most o f th e s tu d e n ts a re scheduled f o r two c o n se cu tiv e hours a week o f sm all group i n s t r u c t i o n . A comprehensive d e s c rip tio n o f th e Reading C enter program has been w ritte n by P ie rc e (63) as p a r t o f a m a s te r 's p r o je c t conducted a t th e U n iv e rsity o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia . In the experim ent under review , the s tu d e n ts in the c o n tr o l groups re c e iv e d the t r a d i t i o n a l two co n secu tiv e hours p e r week o f rem ed ial re ad in g i n s tr u c tio n whereas the s tu d e n ts in th e ex p e rim e n ta l program re c e iv e d one hour of i n s t r u c t i o n in rem ed ial re ad in g follow ed by one hour o f group c o u n se lin g . Both programs were conducted s im u lta n e o u sly , on Saturday m ornings, f o r a p e rio d o f th re e months. The s e le c tio n p ro c e ss , which i s review ed in S ectio n I o f t h i s c h a p te r, e n ta ile d th e m atching o f e ig h te e n a p p l i c a n t p u p ils a t th e C enter w ith a n o th e r e ig h te e n a p p lic a n t p u p ils on th e b a s is o f "matched p a i r s " : school le v e l ( e l e 84 mentary o r se c o n d a ry ), sex, ag e, re ad in g le v e l, IQ, s o c io economic f a c t o r s , and e th n ic background. By methods to be re p o rte d in th e f i r s t s e c tio n , each member o f a p a i r was a ssig n e d to a sub-group o f e i t h e r the ex p erim en tal o r c o n tro l tre a tm e n t group w ith in h i s ap p ro p r i a t e school le v e l; each o f the fo u r te a c h e rs p a rtic ip a tin g in th e study was ap p o in ted to one o f th e sub-groups r e c e iv ing th e ex p erim en tal tre a tm e n t and to one o f th e sub-groups re c e iv in g the c o n tr o l tre a tm e n t, th e s e sub-groups being on the same sch ool le v e l. The te a c h e rs were involved in a co ntin uous tr a in in g program in group co u n selin g techniques (d e sc rib e d in C hapter IV ). F ig u re 1 and T able 1 summarize th e e s s e n t i a l f e a tu r e s o f t h i s re s e a rc h model. S ectio n I I o f t h i s c h a p te r review s th e d ia g n o s tic and e v a lu a tiv e i n stru m en ts and procedures t h a t were employed in th e i n v e s t i g a tio n . I . SELECTION OF SUBJECTS FOR THE STUDY About twenty elem entary le v e l and twenty secondary le v e l (age tw elve and above) s tu d e n ts had been e n ro lle d in the rem edial program o f th e U n iv e rsity o f Southern C a lif o r n ia Reading C enter in February o f 1963. D esp ite the lim i t a t i o n s imposed by th e sm all number o f e n r o lle e s , i t was FIGURE I TREATM ENTS AI A2 School Bl L evels B2 n * 5 1 n “ 4 MA1B1 (Sub-group I : | (Sub-group I I : Teacher A) Teacher B) n * 4 1 n * 5 MA2B1 (Sub-group I : i (Sub-group I I : Teacher A) Teacher B) n = * 4 | n = 5 MA1B2 (Sub-group I : j (Sub-group I I : Teacher C) Teacher D) n = 5 | n « 4 MA2B2 (Sub-group I : . (Sub-group I I : Teacher C) ■ Teacher D) MB1 M B2 MAI M A 2 Al = T reatm ent: C ontrol (Remedial Reading Only) A2 = T reatm ent: Experim ental (Remedial Reading and Counseling) Bl = School L evel: Elementary B2 - School L evel: Secondary M - Mean Scores MA1B1, MA2B1, MA1B2, MA2B2 = Treatm ent-Com binations ( c e lls ) o o w i 86 TABLE 1 D e s c rip tio n s o f T reatm en ts and L ev els I School L ev els (B l, B2) A. E lem entary: G rades 3 thro u g h 6 B. S econdary: G rades 7 and above I I T reatm ent Groups (A l, A2)—A Comparison of Programs 1. P e rio d s o f t o t a l (sim ultaneous) prog ram s: 2. Schedule o f h o u r s : 3. Number o f groups and p u p i l s : 4 . Number o f t e a c h e r s : 5. 6. Rem edial Reading Program : E d u c a tio n a l C o u n se lin g : CONTROL 1 sem ester (3 months) 2 c o n se c u tiv e hours p e r week (S atu rd ay A.M.) 4 g ro u p s- - 4 o r 5 p u p ils p e r group 4 te a c h e r s - - 1 te a c h e r p e r group 2 h o u rs (p e r week) o f re m e d ia l re a d in g in v o lv in g th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l te c h n iq u e s & p r i n c i p l e s o f te a c h e r - p u p il " r a p p o r t” tra d itL o n r a l to th e R eading C en ter none EXPERIMENTAL 1 sem ester (3 months) 2 c o n se c u tiv e hours p e r week (S atu rd ay A.M.) 4 g ro u p s- - 4 o r 5 p u p ils p e r group 4 t e a c h e r s - -1 te a c h e r p e r group 1 hour (p e r week) of re m ed ial re a d in g i n v o lv in g th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l te c h n iq u e s 6 c p r i n c i p l e s o f teach - e r - p u p i l " ra p p o rt" t r a d i t i o n a l to th e R eading C en ter 1 hour (p e r week) o f group e d u c a tio n a l c o u n se lin g conducted by g ro u p 's re m ed ial re a d in g te a c h e r 87 TABLE 2 Comparison o f th e Two E lem entary L evel Groups in R egard to th e S ix C r i t e r i a U t il iz e d f o r M atching P urposes C r ite r io n o f com parison Group 1* Group 2* 1. Sex (T o ta ls ) a . male 8 6 b . fema le 1 3 2. C h ro n o lo g ic a l Age (Mean) 10.0 y e a rs 10.2 y e a rs (Range) (9 .2 to (8 .7 to 11.3 y e a rs ) 11.8 y e a rs ) 3. Reading Grade L ev el (Mean) 2.9 2.5 Reading R e ta rd a tio n Score in Grade E q u iv a le n t (Mean) -2 .1 -2 .5 4. I n t e l l i g e n c e Q u o tie n t (Mean) 9 9.2 96.0 (Range) (82 to 123) (71 to 124) 5. Socio-Economic S ta tu s R atin g (Mean) 3 .4 3.7 6. E th n ic Background (T o ta ls ) a . Anglo-American 5 6 b . Mexican American 1 1 c . Negro American 3 2 *Group 1 was l a t e r d e sig n a te d as th e e x p e rim e n ta l group and Group 2 as th e c o n tr o l g roup. 88 TABLE 3 Comparison o f th e Two Secondary L evel Groups in Regard to th e S ix C r i t e r i a U t i l i z e d f o r M atching Purposes C r it e r i o n o f com parison Group 1* Group 2* 1. Sex (T o ta ls ) a . male 8 8 b . fem ale 1 1 2 . C h ro n o lo g ical Age (Mean) 16.3 y e a rs 15.3 y e a rs (Range) (1 2 .9 to (1 2 .8 to 21.3 y e a rs ) 20.6 y e a rs ) 3. Reading Grade L evel (Mean) 5 .3 3 .4 Reading R e ta rd a tio n Score in Grade E q u iv a le n t (Mean) -6 .2 -7 .1 4 . I n t e ll i g e n c e Q u o tie n t (Mean) 9 4 .4 94.3 (Range) (81 to 118) (83 to 112) 3. Socio-Econom ic S ta tu s R atin g (Mean) 3 .6 3 .6 6 . E th n ic Background (T o ta ls ) a . Anglo-American 6 4 b . Mexican American 0 1 c . Negro American 3 4 *Group 1 was l a t e r d e s ig n a te d as th e c o n tr o l group and *Group 2 a s th e e x p e rim e n ta l group. 89 found t h a t n in e p a i r s o f p u p ils a t each school le v e l could be matched on most o f th e fo llo w in g v a r ia b le s : sex , chrono lo g ic a l a g e , re a d in g l e v e l , i n t e l li g e n c e q u o tie n t, s o c io economic s t a t u s , and e th n ic background. The p e r ti n e n t in fo rm a tio n c o lle c te d on each a p p l i c a n t was o b ta in e d p r i n c i p a l l y from the Reading C e n te r 's R e g is tr a tio n Data Form (Appendix A) f o r a p p lic a n t p u p ils and t h e i r p a r e n ts , th e i n i t i a l b a tte r y o f d ia g n o s tic in s tr u m ents, and p a re n t and c h il d in te rv ie w s . The d a ta r e la te d to th e above s ix m atching v a r ia b le s f o r th e two groups ( l a t e r to be d e sig n a te d a s E xperim ental o r C o n tro l) w ith in each o f th e two sch o o l le v e ls a r e p re se n te d in summary form in T ables 2 and 3. The W arner. M eeker, E els R evised S cale f o r R ating O ccupation (9 7 ), which i s based upon b o th th e degree o f s k i l l and th e amount o f s o c i a l p r e s t i g e connected w ith a s p e c if ic o c c u p a tio n , was employed as th e m easure o f s o c io economic s t a t u s . T h is seven p o in t r a ti n g s c a le c u ts a c ro s s seven g e n e ra l v o c a tio n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , each o f which c o n ta in s s u b c a te g o rie s t h a t a re a s s ig n e d v ary in g w eights on th e s c a le . F or exam ple, the v o c a tio n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n " P ro f e s s io n a ls " re c e iv e s th e h ig h e s t r a ti n g s o f 1, 2 , and 90 3, a s fo llo w s: 1. Law yers, d o c to r s , d e n t i s t s , h ig h -sc h o o l s u p e rin te n d e n ts , a r c h i t e c t s , e t c . 2. H ig h -sch o o l te a c h e r s , t r a in e d n u r s e s , news p a p e r e d i t o r s , g ra d u a te l i b r a r i a n s , e t c . 3. G ra d e-sch o o l te a c h e r s , s o c i a l w o rk ers, o p to m e tr is ts , n o n -g ra d u a te l i b r a r i a n s , e t c . Whenever p o s s ib le , th e o c c u p a tio n a l s t a t u s o f th e s t u d e n t 's f a t h e r was th e c r i t e r i o n ; in s e v e r a l c a s e s , th e m o th e r's o c c u p a tio n was the d eterm in in g f a c t o r . S e le c tio n o f elem en tary and secondary groups and te a c h e rs f o r th e e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l program s. - -A fte r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e two eq u ated elem en tary le v e l groups and th e two eq u a te d seco ndary le v e l g ro u p s, an independent p a rty randomly d ec id e d t h a t group 1 on th e elem entary le v e l and group 2 on th e secondary le v e l would be th e experim en t a l (re a d in g and c o u n s e lin g ) groups and t h a t groups 2 and 1 on th e elem en tary and secondary l e v e l s , r e s p e c tiv e ly , would be th e c o n tr o l (re a d in g o n ly ) g ro u p s. L a s tly , each o f th e se fo u r groups was su b d iv id e d in to two subgroups con s i s t i n g o f e i t h e r fo u r o r f i v e s tu d e n ts . As two o f th e fo u r te a c h e rs had, p re v io u s to th e 91 stu d y , been I d e n t i f i e d as elem entary le v e l i n s t r u c t o r s , and th e o th e r two te a c h e rs a s on th e secondary le v e l ( a l l o f whom had p r i o r p u b lic school e x p e rie n c e ), th e two te a c h e rs on each le v e l were randomly a ssig n e d to b o th an experim ental and a c o n tro l sub-group, on t h e i r a p p ro p ria te scho ol le v e l, by th e same independent p a rty m entioned above. 11. INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES EM PLOYED IN THE STUDY A. P r in c ip a l T e sts The c h ie f c r i t e r i o n t e s t s o f sem ester changes in read in g perform ance and a t t i t u d e s r e la te d to le a rn in g and school b eh a v io r w ere, r e s p e c tiv e ly , th e Gilmore O ral Read ing T est (Accuracy sco re ) and a Sentence-C om pletion T est d ev ised f o r the stu d y . The G ates Reading S urvey, f o r r e a sons to be ex p lain ed below , d id n o t re c e iv e th e comprehen siv e s t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t accorded th e Gilmore and was, th e r e f o r e , c o n sid e re d a s th e s u b s id ia ry read in g t e s t . Most o f th e s tu d e n t t e s t i n g was a d m in iste re d by th e Reading C e n te r 's d ia g n o s tic ia n s , w ith th e a s s is ta n c e , when ev e r i t seemed p r a c tic a b le and a p p r o p r ia te , o f th e fo u r te a c h e rs and th e in v e s t i g a to r . 92 1. Gilm ore O ra l Reading T e st (Forms A and B ) . The G ilm o re, an in stru m e n t f o r m easuring o r a l re a d in g a b i l i t y , had been f o r some y e a rs in c lu d e d in th e Reading C e n te r 's p r e - and p o st-p ro g ram t e s t b a t t e r y . I t had been developed f o r th e purpo ses o f a n a ly z in g th e o r a l re a d in g , re a d in g com prehension, and r a t e s o f re a d in g o f s tu d e n ts in g ra d es one thro ugh e ig h t (3 8 ). Each o f the two forms c o n s is ts o f te n o r a l re a d in g p arag rap h s r e l a t i n g , in c o n te n t, to a c o n tin u o u s s to ry about a fam ily who a r e in tro d u c e d by p i c t o r i a l i l l u s t r a t i o n . An in d iv id u a l Record B lank en a b le s th e exam iner to r e p o r t th e ty p e s and numbers o f e r r o r s made by a s tu d e n t in h i s o r a l re a d in g o f each p a ra g ra p h , h is accu racy o f re sp o n se to th e f iv e com prehension q u e s tio n s fo llo w in g th e p a ra g ra p h , and th e tim e re q u ire d f o r i t s re a d in g . Grade e q u iv a le n ts a r e p ro v id ed f o r Accuracy and Com prehension; a t o t a l R ate o f Reading sc o re can a ls o be o b ta in e d a t th e c o n c lu sio n o f th e t e s t i n g . The Gilm ore t e s t s c o re s , r a t h e r than th o s e on th e companion s i l e n t re a d in g t e s t , th e G ates Reading S u rv ey , and, in p a r t i c u l a r , th e G ilm ore A ccuracy g rad e e q u iv a le n ts , were th e only re a d in g sc o re s t h a t were u t i l i z e d f o r m atch 93 in g purpo ses and f o r com prehensive s t a t i s t i c a l com parison o f p r e - and p o st-p ro g ram t e s t f in d in g s f o r s e v e ra l re a s o n s . The d e c is io n to acco rd th e fin d in g s on th e Gilm ore O ral Reading T est p re fe re n c e o v er th o se on th e G ates Read in g Survey f o r th e purposes o f s e l e c ti o n and e x te n s iv e s t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t was due to two main c o n s id e r a tio n s . The t e s t " f lo o r " on th e form er in stru m e n t i s grade one w hereas t h a t on th e l a t t e r in stru m e n t i s th e second h a l f o f grade th r e e . T h is f a c t o r meant t h a t any p r e c is io n in grade le v e l d is c rim in a tio n among s e v e r a l elem en tary le v e l s tu d e n ts , as w e ll a s a s m a lle r number o f s tu d e n ts on the secondary le v e l, who were re a d in g below th e t h i r d g ra d e norm a t th e tim e o f t e s t i n g was n o t p o s s ib le . Secondly, th e "g u e ssin g " a s p e c t o f t e s t perform ance on a s i l e n t re a d in g t e s t has been re c o g n iz e d , d e s p ite th e p ro v is io n o f c o r r e c tio n fo rm u las, a s one th a t p r e s e n ts an e s p e c ia lly s e rio u s problem f o r th e r e l i a b l e assessm en t o f th e re a d in g s t a t u s o f poor r e a d e r s . Cohn and F i t e , f o r e x am ple, have r e f l e c t e d th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e elev e n Reading C lin ic s o f th e New York C ity Board o f E ducation in t h e i r o b s e rv a tio n t h a t " th e g e n e ra l tendency o f r e ta r d e d re a d e rs seems to be to mark item s a t random a f t e r th e l i m i t o f 94 re a d in g power has been re a c h e d ." These e d u c a to rs p ro p o se, in f a c t , t h a t such " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c in d is c rim in a te marking" be "re c o g n iz e d as problem b e h a v io r which needs to be u n d e r s to o d ." (22, p . 97) In re g a rd to th e G ilm ore, i t s e l f , th e Comprehension sc o re s were n o t s u b je c te d to s t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t because o f th e v ery wide c h ro n o lo g ic a l age range in th e t o t a l group in v o lv e d in th e stu d y : 8 y e a r s , 8 months to 21 y e a r s , 4 m onths. I t was b e lie v e d t h a t th e m a tu rity f a c t o r r e p r e se n te d an independent v a r ia b le t h a t so s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c te d com prehension s k i l l s a s to p re c lu d e m eaningful com p a r is o n s between th e elem en tary and secondary g ro u p s. 2. G ates Reading Survey (Forms 1, 2, and 3 ) . The Survey was, a s in form er y e a r s , employed a s th e p r e - and p o s t-s e m e s te r m easure o f s i l e n t re a d in g a b i l i t y f o r s t u d e n ts on b o th th e elem entary and secondary l e v e l s . The t e s t was designed (37) f o r th e grade range o f u p p e r - th ir d th ro u g h te n th and c o n s is ts o f th re e s u b te s ts p r in te d in an e ig h t-p a g e b o o k le t. The Speed and Accuracy T e st c o n ta in s t h i r t y - s i x p arag rap h s o f a s im ila r d egree o f d i f f i c u l t y . At th e end o f each p arag rap h th e r e i s a m u ltip le -c h o ic e com prehension 95 check in v o lv in g th e u n d e r lin in g o f one o f fo u r words which \ b e s t answ ers a q u e s tio n o r com pletes th e f i n a l p aragraph s e n te n c e . The tim e a llo tm e n t f o r g rad es 3, 4 , and 5 i s s ix m in u te s, w ith fo u r m in u tes b ein g th e l i m i t f o r g ra d es 6 and above. T h is s u b te s t y i e ld s a r a t e o f com prehension grade sc o re and an age sc o re a s w e ll a s an accuracy o f re a d in g r a t i n g . The V ocabulary T e s t c o n s is ts o f s i x t y - f i v e key w ords, each o f which i s fo llo w ed by f iv e o th e r words from which a ch o ice i s made a s to th e one t h a t i s n e a r e s t in meaning to th e key word. The item s a r e g ra d u ated in o rd e r o f d i f f i c u l t y and m easure word re c o g n itio n and word mean in g a b i l i t y . No tim e l i m i t i s re q u ire d f o r com pletion o f t h i s s u b te s t . A c o r r e c tio n form ula (R - Jp ) i s used in th e com putation o f th e raw sc o re which i s th en co n v erted to grade and age s c o re s . The L evel o f Comprehension T est c o n ta in s tw enty-one p a ra g ra p h s w hich, in term s o f v o cab u lary and su b ject-co n ten t, p ro g re s s in degree o f d i f f i c u l t y . There i s no d e f i n i t e tim e l i m i t , th e purpose o f t h i s s u b te s t being t h a t o f a s c e r ta in in g th e le v e l o f com plexity o f th e re ad in g m a te r ia l t h a t can be comprehended by th e s tu d e n t. The l a t t e r i s r e q u ir e d to u n d e r lin e one o f f iv e words (p re s e n te d a f t e r 96 th e p assag e) t h a t i s th e most s e n s ib le c o n te x tu a l ch o ice f o r an o m itte d word in th e p a ra g ra p h . The raw sco re i s o b ta in e d by th e same c o r r e c tio n form ula a s t h a t a p p lie d in th e V ocabulary T e st and i s a ls o co n v e rted to grade and age s c o r e s . Average re a d in g g rad e and age sc o re s can be d e riv e d by com puting th e a r ith m e tic mean of- th e th re e s u b te s t grade and age s c o re s . 3. Sentence-C om pletion T e s t . —Two sen ten ce-co m p le- t i o n l i s t s , A and B, had been among the b a tte r y o f d ia g n o s t i c in stru m e n ts r e g u la r ly a d m in is te re d to e n te r in g s t u d e n ts a t th e Reading C e n te r. L i s t A c o n s is te d o f tw enty- f iv e sen ten ce stem s and l i s t B o f s ix ty - f o u r such stim u lu s ite m s . A f te r th e s e stem s w ere an a ly z ed and c a te g o riz e d in th e manner to be d e s c rib e d below , a Check L i s t p ro v id in g f o r s e m i-o b je c tiv e sc o rin g o f tw e n ty -th re e s e le c te d item s was d e v ise d . The se n te n c e b eg in n in g s w ere, w ith few excep t i o n s , re a d to th e s tu d e n ts and f i l l e d in by th e exam iners in o rd e r to circum vent th e problem o f l i t e r a c y in v o lv ed in t e s t i n g ac ad em ically r e ta r d e d p u p ils . R e - te s tin g a t th e sem ester c lo s e was conducted in th e same fa s h io n . The i n s t r u c t i o n s to th e s tu d e n ts were sim ply: "Complete th e se 97 se n te n c e s a s r a p id ly a s you ca n ." The se n te n c e -c o m p le tio n method was employed in t h i s stud y f o r th e purpose o f o b ta in in g q u a n tif ia b le eviden ce o f changes in th e d i r e c ti o n o f more p o s i t iv e home and scho ol a t t i t u d e s , b e lie v e d to be r e l a t e d to le a rn in g and scho ol b e h a v io r, among th e s tu d e n ts in th e co u n seled groups com p ared w ith s tu d e n ts in th e n o n -co u n seled g ro u p s. The a t t i - tu d in a l a re a s tap p ed in v o lv ed th e s tu d e n ts ' r e a c tio n s to im p o rtan t in te r p e r s o n a l f ig u r e s and schoo l and t h e i r p e r so n a l d riv e s and a s p i r a t i o n s . O r ig in a lly d ev ised by Ebbinghaus in Germany f o r th e study o f th e h ig h e r m ental p ro c e s s e s (3 2 ), th e s e n te n c e - com pletion tech n iq u e was l a t e r ad a p te d f o r u se a s a p e rso n a l i t y m easuring in stru m e n t and has taken a v a r ie ty o f form s in d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s . Sacks and Levy a re o f th e o p in io n t h a t th e " s e n te n c e s may be s e le c te d to e x p lo re s i g n i f i c a n t a re a s o f an i n d i v i d u a l 's a d ju s tm e n t, o r in s p e c ia l s i t u a tio n s t e s t s may be used f o r th e purpose o f in v e s tig a tin g some s p e c if ic c l u s t e r o f a t t i t u d e s " (47, p . 4 5 8 ). Rohde h as produced a v a r i a t i o n o f P a y n e 's t e s t (6 1 ); th e newer in stru m e n t has been used w ith sch o o l c h ild r e n and in c lu d e s a check l i s t and sy s te m a tic sc o rin g method (7 2 ). T his 98 a tte m p t to p ro v id e an o b je c tiv e b a s i s f o r sc o rin g and i n t e r p r e t a t io n i s in c o n tr a s t to most c l i n i c a l p r a c tic e which has la rg e ly depended upon s u b je c tiv e , im p r e s s io n is tic m eth o d s. S u b je c tiv e p ro c ed u res may a ls o in v o lv e g lo b a l-ty p e e v a lu a tio n s r a t h e r th an s in g le - ite m a n a ly s i s . F o r e r , who has h im s e lf developed what he term s a " s tr u c tu r e d " sen ten c e-co m p letio n t e s t (3 2 ), has p o in te d o u t t h a t th e " o p e ra tio n o f e v a lu a tin g o r sc o rin g in d iv id u a l re sp o n se s by some p re a rra n g e d p lan" a f f o r d s a s ta n d a rd iz e d method f o r d e riv in g l a t e r in fe re n c e s and f o r comparing " in d iv id u a l p a t i e n t s o r th e same p a t i e n t a t v a rio u s s ta g e s o f th e ra p y . I t allo w s f o r a c o n s is te n t approach to th e t e s t m a te ria l" (32, p . 1 6 ). F o re r a ls o s t r e s s e s th e im por tan ce o f a m inim al degree o f s tr u c tu r in g o f th e in com plete sen ten ce in o rd e r to p ro v id e s u f f i c i e n t in fo rm a tio n to th e i n t e r p r e t e r abo ut th e stim u lu s s i t u a t i o n f o r a c c u ra te r e s ponse i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The t e s t employed in th e p re s e n t stud y c o n ta in s item s which a r e , in th e m ain, m oderately to h ig h ly s t r u c tu re d f o r th e purpose o f c o n fin in g s tu d e n t resp o n ses to c e r t a i n a t t i t u d i n a l a r e a s . S p e c i f i c a ll y , th re e c a te g o r ie s o f s t i m u l i : ( I ) I n te r p e r s o n a l F i g u r e s . (2) W ishes, (3 )Learn- 99 in g -S ch o o l A s s o c ia tio n s were s e t up In advance o f th e t e s t c o n s tru c tio n a s b ein g p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r ti n e n t to th e g e n e ra l o b je c tiv e o f m easuring changes in hom e-school a t t i t u d e s r e la te d to le a rn in g and school b e h a v io r. I n te r p e r s o n a l F ig u re s r e l a t e s to s tim u li b e a rin g on a t t i t u d e s tow ard fa m ily and n o n -fam ily r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Wishes su rv ey s p e rs o n a l id e a ls and s o c i a l s t r i v i n g s . L e a rn in g -S chool A s s o c ia tio n s ta p s r e a c tio n s to academ ic s i t u a t i o n s . Form 1, Appendix A, p re s e n ts th e f i n a l s e le c tio n o f item s in term s o f th e s e c a te g o r ie s and s u b - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , a lth o u g h removed from th e a c tu a l c o n te x t o f th e two (A and B) l i s t s a s p re s e n te d to th e s tu d e n ts a t th e tim e o f t e s t in g . (See Appendix A f o r a re p ro d u c tio n o f th e s e o r i g i n a l l i s t s . ) Check L i s t . —A Check L i s t form was d ev ised f o r th e purpose o f o rg a n iz in g th e raw d a ta on th e sen ten ce-co m p le tio n s h e e ts f o r th e s c o rin g o f ite m s . The c a te g o r ie s l i s t e d a t th e l e f t m argin o f t h i s form d e fin e th e s e v e r a l a t t i t u d e a re a s m entioned above. The numbers o f th e i n d i v id u a l stim u lu s item s r e l a t i n g to each o f th e s e h e a d in g s , and t h e i r su b -h e a d in g s, a re l i s t e d on s e p a ra te l in e s u n d er th e s e h e a d in g s. The item re sp o n se i s in d ic a te d by a check 100 mark in th e column t h a t b e s t d e s c rib e s th e resp o n se a t a n a iv e l e v e l , i . e . , re q u ir in g th e minimum i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by th e s c o r e r . At th e top o f th e check s h e e ts a r e l i s t e d th e th r e e main c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f re sp o n se : P o s itiv e R e a c tio n s . N e u tra l R e a c tio n s , and N egative R e a c tio n s . S e v e ra l sub c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a re in c lu d e d w ith in each o f th e se h ead in g s in o rd e r to a s s i s t in the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (s c o rin g ) o f th e re sp o n s e s , e . g . , P o s itiv e R e a c tio n s : A cceptance-Com pliance, P le a s u re , G en ero sity -L o v e, A ch ie v em en t-S ecu rity , R e striv in g . Form 2 , Appendix A, rep ro d u ces t h i s Check L i s t which serv ed a ls o f o r th e o rg a n iz a tio n and q u a n t if i c a t i o n o f re sp o n se s on th e P i c t u r e - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n T e s t . The G en eral S coring Guide (Form 3, Appendix A) p ro v id e d s e m i-o b je c tiv e c r i t e r i a f o r ju d g in g th e p o s i t i v e , n e u t r a l , o r n e g a tiv e c h a r a c te r o f th e in d iv id u a l t e s t item s. A lthough a n a ly s is o f in d iv id u a l and group re sp o n se s o f f e r e d the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a v a r ie ty o f sc o rin g sy stem s, th e p re s e n t in v e s ti g a t io n co n fin e d i t s s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t ment to a com parison o f th e r e l a t i v e w eig h ts o f th e c l e a r l y p o s i t iv e r e a c tio n re sp o n se s t h a t were e l i c i t e d by th e s e v e r a l e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l (co u n seled and n o n -co u n seled ) 101 groups a t th e b eg in n in g and te rm in a tio n o f th e re m e d ia l program s. A p ro ced u re was developed f o r a s s e s s in g th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e s c o re s by i n t e r c o r r e l a t i n g th e r a t i n g s o f th r e e ind ep en d en t s c o r e r s on a random sam pling o f th e check s h e e ts . B. Supplem entary In stru m e n ts and P ro cedures In a d d itio n to th e c r i t e r i o n m easures o f p r e - and p o s t-s e m e s te r changes in re a d in g perform ance and a t t i t u d e s r e l a t e d to le a rn in g and sch o o l b e h a v io r which have been r e view ed above, s e v e r a l o r i g i n a l in s tru m e n ts and p ro ced u res o f b o th an e v a lu a tiv e and d e s c r ip tiv e c h a r a c te r were em ployed in th e i n v e s t i g a t io n . These a d ju n c tiv e te c h n iq u e s p ro v id e d bo th complementary evidence and new d a ta by: (1) a s s e s s in g p re v a le n t a t t i t u d e s among th e r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s u n d e rly in g t h e i r in te r p e r s o n a l r e la ti o n s h i p s a t sch o o l and a t home and t h e i r le a rn in g and sch o o l b e h a v io r; (2) a s c e r ta in in g th e e f f e c t s o f th e c o u n se lin g e x p e rie n c e upon s tu d e n t s e lf- u n d e rs ta n d in g and te a c h e r i n s ig h t in to s t u d en t hom e-school a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r; (3) d e s c rib in g and e v a lu a tin g th e le a d e rs h ip b e h a v io r o f th e fo u r te a c h e r - c o u n se lo rs d u rin g th e co u n se lin g s e s s io n s . 102 1. In stru m e n ts and p ro c ed u res employed to a s s e s s p re v a le n t s tu d e n t a t t i t u d e s r e l a t e d to hom e-school b eh a v io r.. a . P i c t u r e - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n T e s t . --A p r o je c tiv e - ty p e p ic tu r e t e s t , d e v ise d d u rin g th e i n v e s t ig a t io n , was in te n d ed to p ro v id e c o r ro b o ra tiv e d a ta f o r th e f in d in g s o b ta in e d on th e S entence-C om pletion T e st (a lth o u g h i t a ls o p e rm itte d q u a l i t a t i v e - t y p e d ia g n o s is ) con cern in g th e r e a c tio n s o f r e ta rd e d re a d e rs to s tim u li a s s o c ia te d w ith p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l ad ju stm en t a t home and a t sc h o o l. F or t h i s p u rp o se, a s t a t i s t i c a l com parison o f th e sc o re s re c e iv e d by in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts on th e two in stru m e n ts was conducted a t th e f i n a l t e s t i n g p e r io d . The in stru m e n t in c lu d e d e ig h t c a rd s w ith p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f in d iv id u a l o r s o c ia l s i t u a tio n s in v o lv in g sch o o l-a g e y o u n g ste rs and a d u l t s . •Seven o f th e p ic tu r e c a rd s ( in b o th male and fem ale t e s t form s) were s e le c te d from the M ichigan P ic tu r e T e st ( 2 ) , and one ca rd was o b ta in e d from th e Svmonds P i c t u r e - S to rv T e s t (9 2 ). The p ic tu r e s from the form er t e s t a re p h o to g rap h ic in c h a r a c te r w h ile th o se from th e l a t t e r t e s t resem ble c a rto o n s . Whereas th e youths p o rtra y e d on th e M ichigan p ic t u r e c a rd s ap p ear to be m ainly on th e upper elem en tary and lower secondary grade l e v e l s , th e n o n -a d u lt 103 f ig u r e in th e Svmonds c a rd i s c l e a r l y an a d o le s c e n t. S e p a ra te forms o f th e P i c t u r e - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n T e st f o r male and fem ale s u b je c ts were developed in o rd e r to i n c re a s e th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n by th e s tu d e n ts b ein g t e s t e d w ith th e y o u th s in th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s . As s t a t e d in th e Manual o f th e Them atic A p p erception T e s t . "E x p erien ce has shown t h a t in th e long run" re sp o n se s " a r e more re v e a lin g and th e v a l i d i t y o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i s in c re a s e d i f most o f th e p ic tu r e s in c lu d e a p erso n who i s o f th e same sex a s th e s u b je c t" (57, p . 2 ) . The P i c t u r e - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n T e s t c o n ta in s two p ic tu r e s in th e male t e s t form and two p ic tu r e s in th e fem ale form t h a t r e q u ir e iden t i f i c a t i o n w ith an in d iv id u a l o f th e o p p o s ite se x . In o rd e r to compare th e re sp o n se s on th e P i c t u r e - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n T e s t w ith th e re sp o n se s on th e S en ten ce- C om pletion T e s t , th e e ig h t c a rd s were s e le c te d on th e b a s is o f th e correspondence o f t h e i r p i c t o r i a l c o n te n t to th e s e v e ra l a t t i t u d i n a l a r e a s t h a t were ex p lo re d by th e l a t t e r t e s t . In f a c t , th e same Check L i s t form was employed f o r th e two in s tru m e n ts (Form 2, Appendix A ). The t e s t was o r a ll y a d m in is te re d to th e s tu d e n ts by th e R eading C e n te r 's d ia g n o s tic ia n s a t the c o n c lu sio n o f 104 th e re m e d ia l program s. B efore showing th e c a r d s , th e sub j e c t s were to ld th e fo llo w in g : " I am going to show you some p i c t u r e s . . . .I' d l i k e you to t e l l me a s b r i e f l y a s p o s s ib le what i s happen in g in each p ic t u r e and what th e p eople a r e f e e lin g and th in k in g ." G en tle u rg in g may be a d v is a b le through th e f i r s t s e v e r a l p i c t u r e s . I f th e r e i s h e s i t a t i o n , say , " J u s t t e l l me what you see in th e p i c t u r e . . . and how does th e _____ ______________f e e l r i g h t now?" Each c a rd was in tro d u c e d by a b r i e f sta te m e n t which i d e n t i f i e d th e p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c te r o r c h a r a c te r s in th e p i c t u r e ; th e s tu d e n t was then asked to r e a c t to th e p i c t u r e by answ ering one o r more q u e s tio n s . The form f o r th e male s u b je c ts c o n ta in e d th e item s reprod uced in Form 4, Appendix A. S e v e ra l a l t e r n a t e q u e s tio n s and p ic tu r e s were em p loyed f o r item s 2, 3, and 4 in th e form a d m in is te re d to th e fem ale s u b je c ts (Form 5 , Appendix A ).^ The p i c t o r i a l c o n te n t o f th e in d iv id u a l c a rd s shown to th e m ale and fem ale s u b je c ts can be a s c e r ta in e d by r e f e r r i n g to th e two forms in Appendix A. 105 A G eneral S co rin g Guide (Form 6 , Appendix A) sim i l a r to t h a t developed f o r th e S entence-C om pletion T e s t , p ro v id ed se m i-o b je c tiv e c r i t e r i a f o r a s s ig n in g (by check mark) th e in d iv id u a l item re sp o n se s to th e c a te g o r ie s of P o s it i v e , N e u tr a l, o r N egative R e a c tio n s on th e Check L i s t . Such judgment ag a in r e l i e d upon minimum i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of resp o n se c o n te n t. S t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t was a g a in co n fin ed to an a n a ly s is o f th e r e l a t i v e w eight o f th e c l e a r l y p o s i tiv e r e a c tio n re sp o n se s. With th e e x c e p tio n o f th e "Wished1 item , th e sc o rin g was keyed to th e f e e lin g r e a c tio n s e l i c i t e d by the q u e s tio n , "How does th e f e e l a t th i s moment?" In case o f in d e c is io n , th e t o t a l resp o n se c o n te n t re co rd ed f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t e s t item served as th e b a s is f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The same i n t e r s c o r e r r e l i a b i l i t y procedure employed f o r the Sentence-C om pletion T e st was a p p lie d to th e r a ti n g s on t h i s t e s t . b . P a re n t I n te r v ie w s . - -A number o f p a re n t c o n fe r ences in v o lv in g in d iv id u a l in te rv ie w s w ith th e p a r e n ts of every p u p il in th e C o n tro l and E xperim ental groups were scheduled a t th e b e g in n in g , d u rin g , and a t th e te rm in a tio n o f th e sem ester p e rio d o f i n v e s ti g a t io n . These in te rv ie w s were conducted by the C en ter d i r e c t o r , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r , and th e te a c h e rs f o r th e fo llo w in g p u rp o ses: 1. to e x p la in to th e p a re n ts th e o r g a n iz a tio n , p ro c e d u re s, and o b je c tiv e s o f th e re m e d ia l p r o grams ; 2. to o b ta in as com plete in fo rm a tio n as p o s s ib le ab o u t each p u p i l 's sch o o l h i s t o r y , w ith p a r t i c u la r a t t e n t i o n to re a d in g - le a r n in g a t t i t u d e s and stu d y h a b i t s , as w e ll a s h is o v e r a l l p h y s i o l o g i c a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l , s o c i a l , and p e r s o n a lity developm ent; 3. to g a in an u n d e rsta n d in g o f p a r e n t - c h il d , s i b li n g , e t c . , r e l a t i o n s h i p f a c t o r s in th e home t h a t may have had p e rtin e n c e to th e p u p i l 's sch o o l and le a rn in g problem s; 4. to le a r n ab o u t c o l l a t e r a l so u rces o f f u r t h e r d ia g n o s tic d a ta , i . e . , m e d ic a l, sc h o o l, psycho l o g i c a l , community, e t c . ; 5. to inform p a r e n ts , fo llo w in g th e i n i t i a l d ia g n o s tic p e r io d , of r e s u l t s on th e p u p il e n tra n c e t e s t b a t t e r i e s and to p re s e n t to them a t e n t a t iv e e v a lu a tio n o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n 's re a d in g - le a rn in g problem s based upon a v a il a b l e evidence 6. to e n l i s t the c o o p e ratio n and suppo rt o f the p a re n ts in re g a rd to th e ex ecu tio n o f the Cen t e r ' s a d m in is tr a tiv e and c u r r ic u l a r p o lic ie s and p ro ced u res; 7. to keep th e p a re n ts inform ed, p e r io d ic a lly , o f th e p ro g re ss o f t h e i r c h ild re n in th e rem edial program s, answer t h e i r q u e s tio n s , and s o l i c i t , in r e tu r n , t h e i r candid re a c tio n s in re s p e c t to th e e f fic a c y o f the rem edial e f f o r t s ; 8. to d isc u ss any problems th a t e x is te d in the home o r elsew here th a t may have been i n t e r f e r in g w ith p u p il p ro g re ss in th e rem edial program s; 9. to sh are w ith and i n t e r p r e t to the p a re n ts th e com parative fin d in g s a f t e r th e a d m in is tra tio n o f the f i n a l program te s t i n g ; 10. to p re s e n t a f i n a l e v a lu a tio n o f each p u p i l 's re a d in g -le a rn in g s t a t u s based upon th e semes t e r ' s ex p erien ce a t the Reading C enter and make a p p ro p ria te recommendations f o r th e p o s t program p e rio d . The in v e s tig a to r conducted one s e r ie s o f p a re n t in - 108 terv iew s d u rin g th e course o f the sem ester and attem p ted to a s c e r ta in p a r e n ta l views concerning t h e i r o f f s p r in g s 1 p a s t and c u r re n t a t t i t u d e s toward re a d in g and o th e r school tasks. These in te rv ie w s inv olved th e p a r ti c i p a t io n o f a t l e a s t one o f the p a re n ts o f every s tu d e n t e n ro lle d in the experim en t a l and c o n tro l program s. The major q u e stio n t h a t was put to the p a re n ts was i n te n tio n a lly broad in scope: "How do you f e e l about your c h i l d 's p a s t and p re se n t a t t i t u d e s and e f f o r t s in re g a rd to read in g and o th e r school s u b je c ts ? " Two main c a te g o rie s o f f in d in g s , in respo nse to this q u estio n were o b ta in e d upon a review o f th e d a ta : (1) i n form ation re g a rd in g p a r e n ta l views o f th e problem s in v o lv ed in t h e i r c h i l d r e n 's le a rn in g and school b e h a v io r, and (2) in fo rm atio n p e r ta in in g to th e c h a ra c te r o f p a r e n t- c h ild communication about le a rn in g and school s i t u a t i o n s - - t h e degree to which th e c h ild shared " f e e lin g " r e a c tio n s w ith h is p a re n ts about such e x p e rie n c e s. These fin d in g s a r e r e p o rte d and analyzed in C hapter V. c . Ju d g es' D e sc rip tio n and E v alu atio n o f C e rta in A spects o f E d u catio n al Group C ounseling B ehavior o f S tu d en ts . --As a l l o f th e t h i r t y - s i x group c o u n se lin g s e s s io n s 109 were re c o rd e d on ta p e , i t was p o s s ib le to o b ta in au dio and ty p e w ritte n t r a n s c r i p ti o n s o f th o se ep iso d es from th e t o t a l c o u n se lin g e x p e rie n c e which d e a lt w ith p a r t i c u l a r th em atic m a t e r i a l . In th e l i g h t o f th e m ounting c l i n i c a l and e x p e r i m ental evid en ce o f the, im p o rtan t r o l e p lay ed by b e h a v io ra l t r a i t s and e m o tio n a liz e d a t t i t u d e s in le a rn in g b e h a v io r, and, more s p e c i f i c a l l y , o f th e re le v a n c e o f a d u l t - c h i l d i n t e r a c t i o n f a c t o r s to th e a re a o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y (see C hapter I I ) , i t was d ecid ed to examine th e data p ro v id ed by th e re c o rd in g s o f th e group p ro c eed in g s f o r i d e n t i f i a b l e p a t t e r n s o f p u p i1 - a u th o r ity r e l a t i o n s h i p s , b o th a t home and a t sc h o o l. I t was p o s tu la te d t h a t te a c h e rs a r e , in th e psy c h o lo g ic a l se n s e , p a r e n t- s u r r o g a te s , and, as su ch, re p re s e n t p a re n t a u th o r ity in th e sch o o l s e t t i n g . Three independent ju d g e s , who by p r o f e s s io n a l t r a i n in g and e x p e rie n c e q u a l i f i e d as e x p e rts i n group co u n se lin g te c h n iq u e s , were asked to co m p lete, i n d i v id u a ll y , a q u e s tio n n a ir e (rep ro d u ced in Form 7, Appendix A) e n t i t l e d , Des c r i p t i o n and E v a lu a tio n o f C e rta in A sp ects o f E d u c a tio n a l Group C ounseling B ehavior o f S tu d e n ts and T eacher-C ounselors. F a r t 1 o f t h i s q u e s tio n n a ire p e r ta in e d to s tu d e n t c o u n s e l- 110 ing b e h a v io r and a tte m p te d to e x p lo re th e area o f s tu d e n t r e la ti o n s h i p s w ith a d u lt a u th o r ity f ig u r e s . A "m a ste r ta p e ," w ith accompanying ty p e w ritte n t e x t (se e Appendix C ), c o n ta in e d v i r t u a l l y com plete e x c e rp ts o f th e d is c u s s io n m a te r ia l from each o f th e n in e c o u n se lin g s e s s io n s which r e l a te d to t h i s theme. The to p ic o f in q u iry was, however, narrow ed to th e dim ension o f the s p e c i f i c a l l y n e g a tiv e -ty p e a t t i t u d i n a l r e a c tio n s m an ifested by th e r e ta rd e d re a d e rs tow ard home and sch o o l a u th o r ity : p a re n ts and te a c h e r s . P a r t I was e n t i t l e d S tu d en t A ffe c tiv e and B ehavioral R eac tio n s o f a N egative C h a ra c te r tow ard Home and School A u th o rity and i t s f i r s t s e c tio n in v o lv ed a d e s c r ip tiv e and com parative a n a ly s is o f th e p r e v a le n t kinds o f n e g a tiv e f e e lin g s and b e h a v io ra l r e a c tio n s t h a t c h a r a c te r iz e d th e s tu d e n ts ' r e la ti o n s h ip s w ith t h e i r p a re n ts and t h e i r te a c h e r s . The second s e c tio n e n t a il e d a tw o -p a rt r a t i n g s c a le which m easured th e degree o f em o tio n al in te n s i ty most com monly d isp la y e d by the s tu d e n ts , in th e c o u n se lin g s e s s io n s , in t h e i r e x p re ss io n of n e g a tiv e f e e lin g s tow ard home and sch ool a u th o r ity f i g u r e s . The c a te g o rie s on t h i s f i v e - p o in t s c a le ranged from "Not E vident" to "Very H igh," and Ill the d ir e c tio n s f o r sc o rin g w ere: "P le a se p la c e a check mark a t th e number o f m id -p o in t between th e two numbers th a t you f e e l most c lo s e ly ex p ress your o p in io n ." In a d d i tio n , space was p ro v id ed th e judges f o r th e re c o rd in g of q u a l it a t i v e - t y p e o b se rv a tio n s about th e s tu d e n ts ' c o u n se l ing b e h a v io r. 2. In stru m e n ts employed to a s c e r ta i n th e e f f e c t s o f th e co u n se lin g e x p e rie n c e upon s tu d e n t s e lf- u n d e rs ta n d ing and te a c h e r in s ig h t in to s tu d e n t hom e-school a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r. A ll s tu d e n ts who had re c e iv e d e d u c a tio n a l group co u n selin g were in d iv id u a lly in te rv ie w e d , a t th e c lo s e o f the sem ester, by a d ia g n o s tic ia n and o r a lly a d m in iste re d a q u e s tio n n a ire -ty p e e v a lu a tio n form e n t i t l e d S tudent E valua tio n o f Group D iscu ssio n P erio d s (Form 8 , Appendix A ). The f i r s t f iv e o f th e item s on t h i s in stru m en t co n tain ed i n t e r v a l r a t i n g s c a le s w h ile the rem aining fo u r item s in v ite d resp o n ses o f a more d e s c r ip tiv e o r q u a l i t a t i v e c h a ra c te r . The d ir e c tio n s f o r th e r a ti n g s c a le s were as fo llo w s : W e would l i k e to have your fra n k o p in io n s about the group d is c u s s io n s e s s io n s in o rd e r to make p la n s f o r th e f u tu r e . P le a se p la c e a check mark a t the number th a t you th in k most c lo s e ly t e l l s how you f e e l . 112 The q u e s tio n s t h a t accom panied each s c a le were s t r u c t u r a l l y v ery s i m il a r . Item one ask e d , "Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f your f e e lin g s about school?" Item s two, t h r e e , f o u r , and f i v e m erely s u b s t i tu te d f o r th e word, " s c h o o l," th e words, " r e a d in g ," "y o u r sch o o l te a c h e r s ," "y o u r c la s s m a te s ," and, "y o u r p a r e n ts ," r e s p e c tiv e ly . The s c a le i n t e r v a l s re p re s e n te d p o in ts on a con tinuum from one ("None") to f i v e ("Very Much"). A fte r i n d ic a tin g th e s c a le m agnitude t h a t he w ished to be checked, th e s tu d e n t was re q u e s te d ( in th e ev en t t h a t h is r a ti n g was a t p o in ts 3, 4 , o r 5) to " p le a s e e x p la in what you have le a rn e d about your f e e l i n g s . . . . Do you now do th in g s d i f f e r e n t ly ? . . . How?" The l a s t fo u r item s on th e S tu d en t E v a lu a tio n r e q u e ste d the fo llo w in g in fo rm a tio n : Item 6. What p a r t i c u l a r th in g s do you f e e l were most h e lp f u l to you ab o u t th e group d i s c u ssio n s? Item 7. What p a r t i c u l a r th in g s do you f e e l were l e a s t h e lp f u l to you abo ut th e group d i s c u ssio n s? 113 Item 8 . Would you recommend s im ila r group d i s c u ssio n s f o r o th e r s tu d e n ts w ith re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s ? Yes________ No ________ Item 9. P le a s e s t a t e h e re any th o u g h ts o r f e e lin g s ab o u t your e x p e rie n c e in th e d is c u s s io n group t h a t you have n o t had an o p p o rtu n ity to e x p re s s : Two q u e s tio n n a ir e s were com pleted by th e fo u r te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs a t th e c o n c lu sio n o f th e c o u n se lin g p r o gram: T eacher E v a lu a tio n o f Group D isc u ssio n P e rio d s 1 ^ and I I (Forms 9 and 10, Appendix A ). T eacher E v a lu a tio n I was la r g e ly a f a c s im ile o f th e s tu d e n t e v a lu a tio n in stru m e n t and a ls o d e a lt w ith th e e f f e c t s o f th e c o u n se lin g experience upon s tu d e n t s e lf - u n d e r s ta n d in g s . The only d e v ia tio n s from th e l a t t e r form c o n s is te d o f : (1) th e s u b s t i t u t i o n , in th e r a tin g s c a le s , o f th e w ords, " th e s tu d e n ts ," and " t h e i r , " f o r th e words "y o u ," and, "you*}" r e s p e c tiv e ly , (2) th e r e q u e st to th e te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r s , fo llo w in g each o f th e f i v e s c a le ite m s , to " p le a s e e x p la in how th e s tu d e n ts have i n d i c a te d t h e i r g r e a t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e se f e e l i n g s ," ( in 114 c a se s where I n t e r v a l p o in ts 3, 4 , o r 5 had been ch eck ed ), (3) th e a d d itio n o f th e w ords, " to th e s tu d e n ts ," a f t e r th e word, " h e lp f u l," In Item s s i x and sev en , (4) th e om ission o f Item n in e . T eacher E v a lu a tio n XI endeavored to ex p lo re th e c o n tr ib u tio n o f th e c o u n se lin g s e s s io n s to th e developm ent o f te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo r I n s ig h t I n to t h e i r s tu d e n ts ' a f f e c t i v e and b e h a v io ra l r e a c tio n s to c e r t a i n home and school f a c to r s b e a rin g upon t h e i r le a rn in g b e h a v io r. T his a d d itio n a l te a c h e r q u e s tio n n a ir e a ls o c lo s e ly p a r a l l e l e d th e s t r u c t u r e and c o n te n t o f th e s tu d e n t e v a lu a tio n form . The only s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s o c c u rrin g in th e te a c h e r form were th e s e : (1) In th e r a t i n g s c a le ite m s , th e word, "students," was in c lu d e d betw een th e w ords, "y o u r," and " f e e l i n g s ," and th e word, " t h e i r , " was employed in item s th re e to f iv e in s te a d o f , " y o u r," a f t e r th e word, " a b o u t," (2) The sup p lem entary q u e s tio n fo llo w in g each o f th e s c a le item s was, " I f you checked 3, 4 o r 5 above, p le a s e e x p la in what you have le a rn e d ab o u t t h e i r f e e lin g s . . . Do th e s e f e e lin g s seem r e l a t e d to t h e i r beh av io r? . . . How?," (3) Item e ig h t was o m itte d . 115 3. P rocedures employed to d e s c rib e and e v a lu a te th e le a d e rs h ip b e h a v io r o f th e te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs in th e e d u c a tio n a l group co u n selin g s e s s i o n s . P a r t I o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e , D e s c rip tio n and Eva lu a tio n o f C e rta in A spects o f E d u c a tio n a l Group C ounseling B ehavior o f S tu d e n ts and T eacher-C ounselors (Form 7, Ap - pendix A ), which r e la t e d to s tu d e n t b e h a v io r, h a s been d e s c r ib e d in a p re v io u s s e c tio n a s w e ll a s the p ro ced u res i n v o lv ed in o b ta in in g re le v a n t th em atic m a te ria l from the re c o rd e d p ro c eed in g s o f the t h i r t y - s i x co u n se lin g s e s s io n s f o r th e purpose o f review by th e th re e ind epend en t ju d g e s . P a r t 11 o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire d e a lt w ith te a c h e r- c o u n se lo r le a d e rs h ip b eh a v io r 5.n the d is c u s s io n groups and a ls o c o n ta in e d a d e s c r ip tiv e a n a ly s is and a r a t i n g s c a le . The d e s c r ip tiv e a n a ly s is e x p lo re d the in d iv id u a l and com p a r a tiv e le a d e rs h ip c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e fo u r te a c h e r- c o u n s e lo rs , and th e r a tin g s c a le a p p lie d s e v e ra l w id ely - a c c e p te d c r i t e r i a to th e measurement o f the c o l l e c t i v e le a d e rs h ip b e h a v io r of th e te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs . These c r i t e r i a e n t a i le d th e degree of su cc ess achieved by th e l a t t e r in : (1) encouraging f r e e v e r b a l e x p re ss io n , (2 ) a v o id in g v a lu e judgm ents, (3) d em o n stratin g s e n s i t i v i t y to s tu d e n t 116 e x p re ss io n s o f f e e l i n g s , and (4) s tim u la tin g s tu d e n t e x p re s s io n s o f f e e l in g s . The o p p o rtu n ity was a ls o made a v a il a b le to th e ju d g es to develop a d d itio n a l c r i t e r i a f o r r a t in g . The f o u r - p a r t s c a le was i d e n t i c a l in form to th e s tu d e n t s c a le , and the d ir e c tio n s f o r sc o rin g were th e same. Space fo r re c o rd in g comments was p ro v id ed th e ju d g es f o r each o f the s c a le ite m s. A p ro ced u re was developed f o r e s tim a tin g s c o rin g r e l i a b i l i t y on th e s tu d e n t and te a c h e r s c a le s by i n t e r c o r - r e l a t i n g th e r a ti n g s o f th e th r e e ju d g e s. Summary T h is c h a p te r has d e s c rib e d th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l framework o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l program . Two eq u ated groups o f r e ta r d e d re a d e rs were e s ta b lis h e d by in d iv id u a lly m atch in g e ig h te e n r e ta r d e d re a d e rs w ith a n o th e r e ig h te e n r e t a r d ed re a d e rs on most o f th e fo llo w in g v a r ia b le s : sch o o l le v e l (elem en tary o r se c o n d ary ), se x , ag e, re a d in g l e v e l , IQ, socio-econom ic s t a t u s , and e th n ic background. One o f th e s e rem ed ial groups re c e iv e d th e e x p e rim e n ta l tre a tm e n t c o n s is t in g o f one hour o f i n s t r u c t i o n in re m ed ial re a d in g fo llo w ed 117 by one hour o f e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g ; th e o th e r group was th e c o n tr o l and i t re c e iv e d th e t r a d i t i o n a l Read ing C en ter program o f two c o n se c u tiv e hours o f re m ed ial re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n . B oth tre a tm e n ts were conducted sim u l ta n e o u s ly , on S aturday m ornings, f o r a sem ester p e rio d o f th re e m onths. Each o f th e fo u r te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs p a r t i c i p a te d in b o th th e e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l program s and was in v o lv ed in a c o n tin u o u s co u rse o f t r a in in g in e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g te c h n iq u e s ( to be review ed in C hapter IV ). A number o f d ia g n o s tic and e v a lu a tiv e in stru m e n ts and p ro c e d u re s were employed f o r th e p u rp o ses o f m easuring tre a tm e n t e f f e c t s , o b ta in in g a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n about th e le a rn in g and school a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r o f s tu d e n ts w ith re a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s , and an a ly z in g c e r t a in a s p e c ts o f th e c o u n se lin g program . S t a t i s t i c a l p ro c ed u res em ploying a n a ly s is o f v a r i an c e, th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e s between means and mean changes, and ra n k - d if f e r e n c e c o r r e la ti o n s were u t i l i z e d . C onfidence l i m i t s were e s ta b lis h e d through such s t a t i s t i c a l to o ls as c r i t i c a l r a t i o n s , F - r a t i o s , and t - t e s t s . At o th e r tim e s , i t app eared a p p r o p ria te to r e p o r t only averag e sc o re s o r p e rc e n ta g e s . CHAPTER IV THE COUNSELING PROGRAM I . THE GROUP COUNSELING TECHNIQUE: ITS DEVELOPMENT AS A SPECIALIZED THERAPEUTIC APPROACH TO THE TREATM ENT OF SCHOOL PROBLEMS In th e s e c tio n in C hapter I I on th e th e ra p e u tic tre a tm e n t o f read in g d i s a b i l i t y , a number o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l ly - o r ie n te d tre a tm e n t programs were d e s c rib e d , o f both an in d iv id u a l and a group c h a r a c te r , which f o r th e most p a r t resem bled what one m ight expect to fin d in g e n e ric c l i n i c a l p r a c tic e today f o r a l l ty p es o f p e rso n a l m aladjustm ent c a s e s . There has been th e g ra d u a l development among educa t o r s , in th e p a s t s e v e ra l decades, o f a q u e stio n in g a t t i tude toward th e re le v a n c e o f some o f th e se tech n iq u es f o r th e tre a tm e n t o f sch o o l-co n n ected problem s (6 7 ). At th e same tim e , th e re has been a growing acceptance among th e se p r o f e s s io n a ls o f th e s c h o o l's r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f o r p ro v id in g i t s own th e ra p e u tic s e rv ic e s as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f i t s p u p il p e rso n n e l program . 118 119 A d d itio n a lly , a s i t has been p o in te d o u t in th e same s e c tio n r e f e r r e d to above, re s e a rc h s tu d ie s w ith p ro b lem re a d e rs have been m ainly c o n fin e d to s tu d e n ts on th e elem en tary l e v e l . T h is s i t u a t i o n h a s , p e rh a p s, given a s p e c ia l em phasis to th e q u e s t f o r s c h o o l-o rie n te d th e ra p e u t i c methods t h a t a re a p p r o p ria te f o r th e tre a tm e n t o f s e c ondary and h ig h e r le v e l s tu d e n ts who e x p e rien ce academic d i f f i c u l t i e s , re a d in g o r o th e rw is e , th a t a re a s s o c ia te d with p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l problem s. With th e more w idespread assum ption o f th e ra p e u tic tre a tm e n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s by th e sc h o o l, i t s e l f , i t was only n a t u r a l t h a t th e much more h ig h ly developed, a l b e i t h a r d -p re s s e d , guidance f a c i l i t i e s o f th e h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a l (h ig h school and c o lle g e ) i n s t i t u t i o n s would be b e t t e r equipped than th o s e on th e elem entary le v e l to pursue th e e x p lo ra tio n o f new c o u n se lin g te c h n iq u e s. The s i t u a t i o n w as, th e r e f o r e , (in com parison to th e re s e a rc h d e a lin g w ith re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y ) re v e rs e d in term s o f th e r e l a t i v e num b e r o f e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d ie s o f th e r a p e u tic p ro ced u res i n v o lv in g elem entary le v e l s tu d e n ts a s c o n tra s te d to s tu d e n ts a t th e h ig h e r school le v e l s . The i n i t i a l f a c t o r t h a t le d to th e in tr o d u c tio n of th e group c o u n se lin g tech n iq u e was the p ro s p e c t th a t i t 120 o f f e r e d a "break th rough" in re g ard to a p e r e n n ia lly c r i t i c a l problem o f c o u n s e lo r-lo a d in th e secondary s c h o o ls . As M ahler and C aldw ell have s t a t e d , w ith " c o u n se lin g lo ad s o f th r e e hundred to f i v e hundred o r more s tu d e n ts , th e tim e f o r in d iv id u a l c o n s u lta tio n " was " o f te n reduced to th e min imum o f co u rse s c h e d u lin g , and a 'o n c e o v er l i g h t l y ' type o f tre a tm e n t" (48, p . V). Beyond t h i s f a c t o r o f the more e x p e d itio u s u se o f c o u n se lo r tim e, how ever, th e s e w r i t e r s b e lie v e t h a t group c o u n se lin g r e p r e s e n ts a "new dim ension" f o r in c r e a s in g th e e f f ic ie n c y o f th e guidance and c o u n se lin g s e r v ic e s in ou r secondary sc h o o ls, "whereby sm all c l u s t e r s o f s tu d e n ts u n d er th e e x p e rt guidance o f a c o u n se lo r can d is c u s s and e v a lu a te m utual c o n c e rn s ." The tech n iq u e e n t a i l s a r e - e v a lu a tio n o f th e "c o n c e p t t h a t c o u n se lin g em braces o n ly a o n e -to -o n e r e la tio n s h ip " to " in c lu d e a m u ltip le r e l a t i o n s h ip as w ell" (48, p . V). In C hapter I , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f group c o u n se lin g to in d iv id u a l c o u n se lin g p ro ced u res and o b je c tiv e s was d i s c u sse d , and i t was in d ic a te d t h a t , a lth o u g h group c o u n se l in g was "an independent m ethod," th e r e were some b a s ic , u n d e rly in g , s i m i l a r i t i e s in te c h n iq u e and purpose between 121 them. I t was suggested th a t they were complementary pro cedures in which, a t tim es, the group method may have more r e a l i s t i c im p lic a tio n s fo r the under-achieving o r poorly- a d ju ste d stu d en t who fu n ctio n s w ith in a s o c ia l learn in g s itu a tio n . The in flu e n c e o f the peer group i s , perhaps, no more evident as a powerful fo rc e than i t i s among the ado le sc e n t age group. The s ty le of c lo th e s he w ears, h is choice o f r e c re a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s , h is vocabulary, h is fe e lin g s about the f u tu r e , h is a t t i t u d e toward school, h is d a ily concerns about c u rre n t happenings--indeed, h is whole outlook on l i f e - - a r e h ig h ly colored by what he sees o f and hears from h is schoolm ates.(48, p. 11) Group coun selin g, by recognizing and u t i l i z i n g t h i s p o ten t peer group in flu e n c e , provides a r e a l i s t i c and mean in g fu l s e ttin g fo r the ad o lescen t to d iscu ss h is problem s, compare fe e lin g s and id e a s, and, in g e n e ra l, to in te r a c t d ir e c tly w ith those in d iv id u a ls who form ulate the s o c ia l standards to which he must le a rn to a d ju s t. In th is s i t u a tio n , the guidance o f an experienced counselor can enable the group to a t t a i n h ig her le v e ls of in d iv id u a l, as w ell as s o c ia l, accomplishment. Mahler and Caldw ell d esc rib e group counseling as a s o c ia l process th a t deals w ith the developmental 122 problem s and a t t i t u d e s o f youth in a se c u re s e t t i n g . The c o u n se lin g c o n te n t co v ers th e common needs and i n t e r e s t s o f a g r e a t m a jo rity o f th e s tu d e n ts . Exam p le s a r e such to p ic s a s stu d y h a b i t s , a b i l i t i e s , need f o r c o lle g e , b o y - g ir l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , o r how to g e t along w ith p a re n ts (4 8 , p . 2 4 ). There i s a g e n e ra l la c k o f agreem ent in th e l i t e r a t u r e abo ut th e d i s t i n c t i o n s to be made between th e term s "group g u id a n c e ," "group c o u n s e lin g ," and "group th e ra p y ." T h is i n v e s t i g a t o r c o n s id e rs th e s e th re e su b -p ro c e sse s o f th e group in te rv ie w as re p re s e n tin g a continuum in term s o f s e v e ra l m ajo r, o v e rla p p in g , c r i t e r i a . A lthough a l l th re e approaches aim a t in c re a s e d s e lf- knowledge and improved p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l fu n c tio n in g , th e re a re th e s e d i f f e r e n t emphases a t b o th extrem es: 1. Group guidance te n d s to be o r ie n te d toward the c la s s ro o m -s iz e and c la ssro o m -ty p e o f o rg a n iz ed d is c u s s io n a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a re in te n d e d to se rv e group, as w e ll as in d iv id u a l, p u rp o se s; th e group le a d e r may fu n c tio n in an e v a lu a tiv e and judgm ental r o l e and th e s e s s io n s a r e u s u a lly le a d e r - c e n te r e d and le a d e r-d o m in a te d ; the d is c u s s io n i s most o fte n i n t e l l e c t u a l in n a tu r e w ith s t r e s s on th e im p a r tin g o f f a c t s r a t h e r th an on th e communication o f f e e l in g s . 2. Group th erap y alw ays in v o lv e s sm all groups o f 123 no more th an abou t e ig h t in d iv id u a ls and th e s e s s io n s have an e x p l i c i t l y c o n f id e n tia l c h a r a c te r ; d is c u s s io n i s alm o st com pletely u n s tr u c tu r e d and dependent upon th e v o lu n ta ry p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f i t s in d iv id u a l members; th e in d iv id u a l, and h i s s e lf - u n d e r s ta n d in g , r a t h e r th an th e group , i s th e fo cu s o f co n cern ; th e group le a d e r i s more o f te n a l i s t e n e r than a p a r t i c i p a n t and i s non-judgm ental in h i s manner; th e atm osphere i s p e rm issiv e and encourages th e e x p re s sio n o f n e g a tiv e , a s v e i l a s p o s i t i v e , f e e l in g s ; th e d is c u s s io n i s u s u a lly o f an em otional and c a t h a r t i c n a tu re con cerning p e rs o n a l problem s in v h ic h th e members g iv e m utual su p p o rt and c l a r i f i c a t i o n . Group c o u n se lin g te n d s to m ed iate b etv een th e s e two p o le s . The la r g e r groups (te n to twenty members) lean in th e d ir e c tio n o f group g u id an ce , w ith the s m a lle r groups (two to te n members) le a n in g s tro n g ly toward th e group th e r apy approach . I t sh o u ld , p e rh a p s, be r e s t a t e d t h a t th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e two extrem e p o s itio n s o f th e group in te rv ie w p ro c e ss t h a t have been o u tlin e d above r e f e r , in r e a l i t y , only to em phases, and o v e rla p p in g betw een any two o f th e th r e e p ro ced u res i s more o f te n th e r u le than the e x c e p tio n . 124 R e p re s e n ta tiv e s tu d ie s o f e x p e rim e n ta l group coun s e lin g program s in sch o o l s e t t i n g s .--A review o f th r e e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s tu d ie s , p u b lish e d s in c e 1957, r e l a t i n g to e x p e rim e n ta l group c o u n se lin g program s in sch o o l s e t t i n g s w i l l be p re s e n te d . Caplan has t r i e d to determ ine th e e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f group c o u n se lin g in changing th e s e lf - c o n c e p ts and im prov in g th e schoo l achievem ent o f a group o f ju n i o r h ig h school "problem " boys in A lbuquerque, New Mexico. He d e s c rib e s th e group co u n se lin g s e s s io n s a s f o l lows : The c o u n se lo rs a tte m p te d to h e lp th e boys r e le a s e and to d e a l w ith t h e i r h o s t i l e f e e lin g s about sc h o o l. They a tte m p te d to u s e th e advantages o f group d i s a p p ro v a l a s a m ajor to o l. I t was f e l t t h a t th e s tro n g r e la ti o n s h i p b u i l t up betw een th e boys and th e c o u n se lo rs acco u n ted f o r many o f th e changes t h a t o c c u rre d (20 , p . 124). S ig n if ic a n t d if f e r e n c e s in " s e l f " v e rsu s " i d e a l - s e l f " c o r r e l a ti o n s betw een th e e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l groups were found a t th e c o n c lu sio n o f th e p r o je c t t h a t were in fa v o r o f th e s tu d e n ts who had ex p erien ced group c o u n se lin g . Improvement was a ls o s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r among th e l a t t e r group in c i t i z e n s h i p , b u t th e re was no c l e a r - c u t d if f e r e n c e in re g a rd to academ ic work (2 0 ). 125 F ro e h lic h r e p o r ts a re s e a rc h study In v o lv in g a pop u l a t i o n o f s e n io r hig h sch o o l s tu d e n ts in a la r g e C a l i f o r n ia p u b lic sc h o o l. The w r i t e r had in v e n te d th e term "m ul t i p l e co u n selin g " to " d e s ig n a te a p ro c ed u re in which a c o u n se lo r works sim u lta n e o u sly w ith s e v e r a l co u n se le e s man i f e s t i n g symptoms o f a t l e a s t one problem in common" (33, p . 681). The e x p e rim e n ta l program e n t a i l e d a com parison betw een an in d iv id u a lly c o u n se le d group and a m u ltip le co u n seled group o f s tu d e n ts . The c r i t e r i o n v a r ia b le was accu racy o f se lf-k n o w le d g e . The "problem in common" t h a t was sh are d by th e s t u d e n ts in bo th c o u n se lin g program s was an in d ic a te d d e s ir e f o r more in fo rm a tio n ab o u t them selves in o rd e r to make post- h ig h sch o o l p la n s . Presum ably, i f a s tu d e n t sh o u ld le a rn more ab o u t h im se lf d uring c o u n s e lin g , h i s s e l f - r a t i n g s should be in c l o s e r agreem ent w ith h is t e s t e d a b i l i t i e s (a s m easured by th e D i f f e r e n t i a l A p titu d e T e st B a tte ry ) a f t e r c o u n se lin g than b e fo re such tre a tm e n t. F ro e h lic h d e c la re s t h a t , a lth o u g h no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s were o b ta in e d betw een th e two g ro u p s, th e d a ta ap p eared to fa v o r m u ltip le c o u n se lin g as b ein g somewhat more e f f e c t i v e th an in d iv id u a l c o u n se lin g i n term s o f th e 126 e x p e rim e n ta l v a r i a b l e . H is main c o n c lu sio n i s t h a t " th e fin d in g s do n o t su p p o rt th e claim t h a t c o u n se lin g m ust be in d iv id u a l" (33, p . 6 8 9 ). An in v e s t i g a t io n o f group c o u n se lin g w ith u n d e r a c h ie v in g n in th g rad e s tu d e n ts and t h e i r p a re n ts has been conducted by Shaw and M ahler (8 3 ). I t in v o lv ed an unusu ally la rg e sample p o p u la tio n f o r a co u n se lin g stu d y , and was sponsored by th e C ontra C ounty, C a l i f o r n i a , sch ool system and th e C a lif o r n ia S ta te D epartm ent o f E d u catio n u nder a N a tio n a l D efense E d ucatio n A ct g r a n t. I t was p o in te d o u t t h a t a v a r i e t y o f tre a tm e n t methods have been a p p lie d to the problem o f "academ ic u n d e r achievem ent" b u t " th e one which seems to have re c e iv e d th e g r e a t e s t em phasis i s some form of group co u n selin g " (82, p . 1 ). The in v e s t i g a t o r s l i s t e d th e p e r s o n a lity c h a ra c t e r i s t i c s o f u n d e ra c h ie v in g s tu d e n ts which were d e s c rib e d in th e re s e a rc h l i t e r a t u r e , and a c o u n se lin g program r e sem bling A d le ria n fa m ily c o u n se lin g was evolved from an a n a ly s is of th e s e t r a i t s . F o u rteen e x p e rim e n ta l c o u n se lin g g ro u p s, f iv e s t u d e n ts to th e group, and in c lu d in g t h e i r p a r e n ts , were e s ta b li s h e d , and met f o r e ig h t weekly s e s s io n s i n th e evening. 127 Two ty p es o f c o n tr o l groups were a ls o employed: one t h a t c o n s is te d o f groups t h a t re c e iv e d daytim e group co u n se lin g w ith o u t t h e i r p a r e n ts ; th e o th e r in v o lv ed a group o f u n d e r a c h ie v in g s tu d e n ts who re c e iv e d alm ost no c o u n se lin g h e lp o f any k in d . Half-way through each e x p e rim e n ta l s e s s io n , children and p a re n ts a l t e r n a te d as d is c u s s io n p a r t i c i p a n t s and as o b s e rv e rs . I t was only a f t e r th e t h i r d s e s s io n , however, t h a t th e c h ild r e n were jo in e d by t h e i r own p a r e n ts . F o u rteen ex p erien ced te a c h e rs and c o u n se lo rs r e c e iv e d s ix pre-program tr a in in g s e s s io n s o f two hours each, and an a d d itio n a l two s e s s io n s were h e ld d u rin g th e e x p e r i m ent. They were a s s i s t e d by a tr a i n i n g guide which co n ta in e d s p e c if ic su g g e stio n s f o r each o f th e e ig h t m eetin g s. The e v a lu a tiv e c r i t e r i a in c lu d e d p re - and p o s t- program grade p o in t a v e ra g e s, s e lf - c o n c e p t changes a s mea su red by th e B i l l s Index o f A djustm ent and V alu e s, changes in te a c h e r a t t i t u d e s toward th e s tu d e n t p a r ti c i p a n t s a s r e v e a le d on a r a ti n g form , and a po st-p ro g ram e v a lu a tio n form f o r th e co u n seled s tu d e n ts and p a re n ts t h a t r e l a t e d to t h e i r f e e lin g s about th e c o u n se lin g e x p e rie n c e . Shaw and M ahler s t a t e t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r - 128 ences between th e ex p erim en tal and the two c o n tro l programs were found, in re fe re n c e to th e se fo u r m ajor c r i t e r i a , in th e a n a ly s is o f th e ex p erim en tal r e s u l t s . Perhaps th e most im p o rtan t co n clu sio n th a t was o f fe re d on the b a s is o f th e above, n e g a tiv e , fin d in g s was th a t We should n o t, a t t h i s p o in t, abandon a co u n selin g approach, b u t changes from p a s t procedures a re n e c e ssa ry i f r e a l changes in th e s e l f - a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r o f u n d e ra c h ie v e rs a r e to o cc u r. Most im por t a n t o f a l l , we should c a r e f u lly s c r u t i n i z e our co u n selo r e d u c atio n programs to determ ine t h e i r e f f e c tiv e n e s s in p ro v id in g th e b a s ic p sy c h o lo g ic a l u n d e r sta n d in g s o f human b eh a v io r which a r e p r e r e q u is ite to e f f e c t i v e co u n selin g o f any v a r ie ty (82, p. 3 ). .. The group c o u n se lin g technique and th e p re s e n t i n v e s ti g a t io n . --The p re s e n t study o f th e e f f e c t o f educa t io n a l group co u n selin g w ith in a rem edial read in g program in v o lv ed both elem entary and secondary le v e l s tu d e n ts . The group in t e r a c ti o n was c e n te re d upon the e x p lo ra tio n o f a common e d u c a tio n a l problem w ith which a l l the s tu d e n ts could i d e n t i f y . T his "common problem" approach in group co u n selin g w ith s tu d e n ts has been d e sc rib e d by W right as one t h a t may e n t a i l "a s i t u a t i o n a l problem" r a th e r than "a p sy c h o lo g ic a l dynamic" (100, p . 5 5 2 ), i . e . , academ ic d i f f i c u l t i e s , need f o r an o c c u p a tio n a l c h o ic e , problem s in s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h ip s a t sc h o o l, e t c . The common problem t h a t re c e iv e d th e m ajor a t t e n tio n in th e c o u n se lin g groups t h a t p a r ti c i p a t e d in t h i s study was re a d in g -le a m in e , d i f f i c u l t y . In C hapter I , th e group c o u n se lin g p ro c ed u res were d e s c rib e d a s b ein g p r in c i p a l ly d ir e c te d tow ard th e d is c u s sio n method w ith o c c a s io n a l complementary a c t i v i t i e s such a s r o le - p la y in g . The group te c h n iq u e s were g e n e ra lly o r ie n te d to th e le v e l o f sm all group c o u n se lin g (se e above in tro d u c to ry s e c tio n o f t h i s c h a p te r) w hich, a lth o u g h s h a r ing a t tim es some o f th e f e a tu r e s o f group g u id an ce, w ith i t s t o p i c a l , i n s t r u c t i o n a l , em phasis, g r a v ita te d a t o th e r tim es toward th e le v e l o f group th e ra p y , w ith i t s s t r e s s on f e e lin g s and em o tio n al i n s i g h t . I t was a ls o in te n d e d * t h a t th e s e v e ra l te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs m ediate between th e extrem es o f th e d i r e c t i v e and n o n - d ir e c tiv e p o s itio n s in th e perform ance o f t h e i r le a d e rs h ip r o l e s . Form 11, Appendix A, summarizes th e main f e a tu r e s o f the e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g approach th a t were em ployed in th e p re s e n t i n v e s t i g a t io n : i t i s a re p ro d u c tio n 130 o f one o f th e tr a i n i n g g u id es f o r th e te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs a t th e R eading C e n te r. I t w i l l be seen t h a t th e re was an a tte m p t to in t e g r a t e th e re m e d ia l and th e r a p e u tic a s p e c ts o f th e tre a tm e n t program a t th e C e n te r. A number o f r e le v a n t co n cep ts from communication th eo ry b e a rin g upon th e r a p e u tic p ro c e s se s were h e lp f u l in g iv in g t h e o r e t i c a l d ir e c tio n to some o f th e p ro ced u res i n v o lv ed in th e c o u n se lin g program . Ruesch d e s c rib e s th e com m unication model a s fo llo w s : The elem ents which compose a com munication system , . . em brace: a source o f a m essage, u s u a lly a human mind; a tr a n s m i t te r , u s u a lly a human v o ic e and g e s t u r e s ; a c h a n n el, u s u a lly space . . . ; a r e c e i v e r , the sen se o rg a n s; a d e s t i n a t i o n , a n o th e r human mind in which the message i s i n t e r p r e t e d and e v a lu a te d . (74, p . 690) The communication approach em phasizes th e extrem e com plexity o f th e human com m unicative p ro c e s s . A ccording to B ateso n , Ja c k so n , H aley, and Weakland, m essages betw een even two p erso n s a r e alw ays c h a r a c te r iz e d by a p l u r a l i t y o f p o s s ib le m eanings and a re conveyed by a v a r ie ty o f channels: v o ic e , to n a l q u a l i t y , movement, c o n te x t, e t c . ( 8 ) . The " u n it o f c o n s id e ra tio n " in a communication s y s tem i s a s o c ia l s i t u a t i o n in which th e re i s an exchange o f m essages. Human a c t i v i t y i s c o n tr o lle d by in fo rm a tio n , a 131 concept in c lu d in g e l l m ental p ro c e s s e s —conscious and un co n sc io u s. As communication c o r r e c ts in fo rm a tio n , through "feed b ac k ," th e exchange o f messages between people i n d i r e c t ly a f f e c t s t h e i r b e h a v io r. In d iv id u a ls who a re n o t a b le to communicate a r e n o t a b le to c o r re c t t h e i r inform a tio n . Therapy i s viewed by Ruesch as a c o r re c tiv e p ro cess which a s s i s t s the c l i e n t to in te g r a te h is th o u g h t, speech, and f e e lin g s w ith b eh av io r by ex p ressin g h is re a c tio n s to d a ily e v e n ts . The th e ra p e u tic e x p e rie n c e , th e r e f o r e , i s seen as an exchange o f messages between t h e r a p is t and c l i e n t, and the l a t t e r shows p ro g re ss when he can communicate f r e e ly and th e sum o f h is in fo rm a tio n r e l a t e s to o b je c tiv e r e a l i t y . C o rre ct in fo rm a tio n —through communication—le a d s to b e t t e r p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l ad justm ent (7 4 ). I f i t i s assumed t h a t th e le a rn in g b eh av io r o f s t u d en ts i s r e l a t e d to t h e i r p e rso n a l and s o c ia l ad ju stm en t, th en th e im p lic a tio n fo r e d u c a tio n a l group co u n selin g would seem to be th a t improved in te r p e r s o n a l r e la ti o n s h ip s — through improved communication among group members—can e f f e c t more s u c c e s s fu l academic and, in p a r t i c u l a r , re ad in g perform ance. F ig u re 2 o f f e r s a g rap h ic re p re s e n ta tio n o f FIGURE 2 Schematic R ep resen tatio n o f Normal Achievement and Underachievement in Learning Behavior and C o rre ctiv e Procedures Suggested by Comminication Theory S ta te o f Need (Learning) S tre s s (te n sio n ) d riv e in h ib itin g emotion - j Goal (Learning) > P h y sio lo g ica l re a c tio n s : p h y sical sig n s P sychological re a c tio n s : b e h a v io ra l sig n s v blocked communication in c o rr e c t inform ation ^ (a d u lts —p a te n ts poor in te rp e rso n a 1 ( te a c h e rs re la tio n s h ip s (p e e rs—s ib lin g s 1 ( classm ates I Non-Learning I 1 ■■ ' i th e ra p e u tic ^experience improved communication c o r re c t in form atio n improved in te rp e rs o n a l re la tio n s h ip s t h i s p ro c e ss. P ro ce d u ral a p p lic a tio n o f th e se communication p r i n c ip le s to th e d is c u s s io n c o n te n t o f th e co u n selin g s e ss io n s r e s u lte d in an endeavor, on th e p a r t o f th e te a c h e r- c o u n se lo rs , to fo cu s a t t e n t i o n upon: (1) c o n c re te , s p e c i f i c , re a d in g -le a rn in g s i t u a t io n s e n ta i l i n g s t r e s s , (2) s p e c if ic d e s c rip tio n s ( la b e lin g ) o f f e e lin g s evoked by such s i t u a t i o n s , and (3) in fo rm atio n as to how th ese f e e lin g s were made m a n ife st (b e h a v io ra l r e a c t i o n s ) . I I . COUNSELOR TRAINING A N D COUNSELING PROCEDURES The C ounselor T ra in in g Program A ll fo u r te a c h e rs who p a r ti c ip a t e d in th e study had p re v io u sly had p r o f e s s io n a l teac h in g e x p e rie n c e , b u t none had engaged in group co u n selin g programs w ith s tu d e n ts . P r io r to th e i n i t i a t i o n o f th e co u n selin g s e s s io n s a t the Reading C e n te r, two tr a in in g co n feren ces were h e ld w ith the te a c h e rs in o rd e r to ach iev e a common u n d ersta n d in g o f the o b je c tiv e s , th e o r e t i c a l framework, and b a s ic p ro cedu res t h a t were inv o lv ed in th e ex p erim en tal program in educa t i o n a l group c o u n se lin g . The p re s e n t in v e s t i g a t o r served 134 as th e c h ie f c o n s u lta n t and re so u rc e p erso n a t th e s e m eet in g s as w e ll as a t th e sub sequen t in d iv id u a l and group t r a i n i n g s e s s io n s . He was a s s i s t e d th ro u g h o u t th e program by th e d i r e c to r o f the R eading C en ter and a member o f th e f a c u lty o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f S outhern C a l i f o r n i a 's School o f E d ucation who le c tu r e d and su p e rv ise d g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts in c o u n se lin g and guidance te c h n iq u e s . M ajor f e a tu r e s o f c o u n se lo r t r a i n i n g program . - -The th re e b a s ic p ro ced u res t h a t w ere employed in th e tr a i n i n g o f th e fo u r te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs were a s fo llo w s: 1. In d iv id u a l c o n fe re n c e s , h e ld w eekly, between each o f th e te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs and th e i n v e s t i g a t o r which e n t a i l e d a review o f th e tap ed p ro c eed in g s o f th e l a t e s t c o u n se lin g s e s s io n . 2. Group c o n fe re n c e s , h e ld m onthly, which in c lu d e d th e e n t i r e Reading C en ter S ta f f and in v o lv ed th e s h a rin g o f e x p e rie n c e s , v iew s, and f e e lin g s on th e p a r t o f th e p a r t i c ip a n ts re g a rd in g th e c o u n se lin g program a t th e p a r t i c u l a r s ta g e o f developm ent. 3. D em onstration s e s s io n s in e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g p ro ced u res i n which th e in v e s ti g a t o r p e r io d ic a lly 135 assumed th e r o le o f co u n se lo r w ith in each o f th e fo u r d i s c u ssio n groups f o r p a r t o f th e c o u n se lin g h o u r. I l l u s t r a t i v e m a te r ia l from In d iv id u a l and group tr a i n i n g c o n f e re n c e s . - - I n o rd e r to p ro v id e a s v iv id an a c count as p o s s ib le o f th e in d iv id u a l and group co n feren ce p ro c e e d in g s, a v e rb a tim t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f th e re c o rd e d m ate r i a l from s e v e r a l o f th e s e tr a i n i n g s e s s io n s i s in c lu d e d in Appendix B. The C ounseling P ro ced u res As p re v io u s ly re p o rte d in th e f i r s t s e c tio n o f t h i s c h a p te r, th e group i n t e r a c ti o n w ith in each o f th e fo u r c o u n se lin g groups (two on th e elem entary le v e l and two on th e secondary le v e l) c e n te re d around the "common problem" o f r e a d in g - le a r n in g d i f f i c u l t y . The c o u n se lin g program i n v o lv e d , in g e n e r a l, th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f group th e r a p e u tic te c h n iq u e s f o r th e tre a tm e n t o f th e a t t i t u d i n a l problem s o f th e re ta rd e d re a d e rs which were im peding le a rn in g -s c h o o l perform ance. These te c h n iq u e s were based upon a number o f "g u id in g p r in c ip le s " o f e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n s e lin g , sum m arized in Form 11, Appendix A, and f u r t h e r r e f in e d th ro u g i 136 th e a p p lic a tio n o f c e r t a i n r e le v a n t co n cep ts from communi c a tio n th e o ry to th e e x p lo ra tio n o f the "common problem" w hich e n t a i l e d : (1) fo c u sin g a t t e n t i o n upon r e a d in g - le a r n - in g s i t u a t i o n s e n t a i l i n g s t r e s s , (2) s tim u la tin g s tu d e n t e x p re s s io n s o f em o tio n al re sp o n se to such s i t u a t i o n s , and (3) e l i c i t i n g d e s c r ip tio n s from th e s tu d e n ts o f t h e i r i n d iv id u a l b e h a v io ra l r e a c tio n s to th e s e e v e n ts . D isc u ssio n o f th e "common problem" was fre q u e n tly i n i t i a t e d , w ith in th e c o u n se lin g g ro u p s, by such d ev ice s as th e t o p i c a l q u e s tio n , r e a c tio n s t o r i e s , and open-ended problem s t o r i e s (fo llo w e d , when th e s i t u a t io n was ap p ro p r i a t e , by r o le - p la y in g ) . I l l u s t r a t i v e m a te r ia l from th e e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g s e s s i o n s .--A v erb atim t r a n s c r i p ti o n o f p o rtio n s o f th e re c o rd e d m a te r ia l from the t h i r t y - s i x group coun s e lin g s e s s io n s (n in e m eetings f o r each o f th e fo u r groups) i s p ro v id ed in Appendix C a s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f th e co u n selin g p ro c ed u res employed in th e program . The e x t r a c t s t h a t were s e le c te d r e l a t e s p e c i f i c a l l y to th o se ep iso d es from th e t o t a l c o u n se lin g e x p e rie n c e in which the c o n te n t o f th e d is c u s s io n c e n te re d upon th e e x p lo ra tio n o f th e s tu d e n ts ' a f f e c t i v e and b e h a v io ra l r e a c tio n s to a d u l t a u th o r ity f i g - 137 u r e s , both a t home and a t sc h o o l. These e x c e rp ts a ls o rep ro d u ce th e d is c u s s io n m ate r i a l which serv e d a s th e eviden ce f o r th e th re e e x p e rts in co u n se lin g te c h n iq u e s in t h e i r review o f th e c o u n se lin g program . CHAPTER V FINDINGS O F TH E ST U D Y The re s e a rc h design o f the p re s e n t study has been review ed in C hapter I I I , to g e th e r w ith a d e s c rip tio n o f the d ia g n o s tic and e v a lu a tiv e in stru m e n ts and procedures which were employed f o r th e purposes o f m easuring th e treatm en t e f f e c t s o f th e E xperim ental and C o n tro l program s, secu rin g a d d itio n a l in fo rm atio n about th e school and s o c ia l a t t i tudes o f th e s tu d e n ts , and an a ly z in g c e r t a in a s p e c ts o f the co u n selin g program . T his c h a p te r r e p o rts th e fin d in g s on th e c r i t e r i o n t e s t s o f sem ester changes in re a d in g perform ance and school and s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s (S ec tio n I ) . I t a ls o p re s e n ts the supplem entary fin d in g s r e la ti n g to school and s o c ia l a d ju st ment and the c o u n se lin g program (S e c tio n I I ) . 138 139 I . PRINCIPAL FINDINGS A. Reading Perform ance 1. The Gilm ore O ral Reading T e s t (GORT).--The GORT was a d m in iste re d to a l l s tu d e n ts a t th e in c e p tio n o f th e study and a g a in a t th e tim e o f te rm in a tio n o f th e r e m edial program s. The d if f e r e n c e s between th e p r e - and p o st-p ro g ram f in d in g s (Accuracy s c o re s ) were th e m easures o f i n t e r e s t in t h i s a s p e c t o f th e d a ta a n a ly s is . A ll re a d in g t e s t sc o re s were co n v e rted in to standard X - M sc o re s (e 3 ____ ) which r e p r e s e n te d , in e f f e c t , in d ic e s of < r th e r e l a t i v e degree o f re a d in g r e ta r d a t i o n of each o f th e s tu d e n ts . The mean and sta n d a rd d e v ia tio n v a lu e s used in th e form ula were based upon c h ro n o lo g ic a l age grade e q u iv a le n t s (C.A. - 5 .0 ) and th e n o rm ativ e d a ta and sta n d a rd sc o re co n v e rsio n p ro c ed u res c o n ta in e d in th e Manuals (3 8 ). The employment o f s ta n d a rd sc o re s made i t p o s s ib le to com p are th e perform ances o f th e E lem entary and th e Secondary le v e l s tu d e n ts . The o b ta in e d d if f e r e n c e sc o re s were e v a lu a te d by means o f th r e e two-way f a c t o r i a l d e sig n s (employing T r e a t m ents, L e v e ls, and T eachers a s f a c t o r s ) . The u se o f f a c - 140 t o r l a l designs perm itted an evaluation not only o£ main e f fe c ts but of in te ra c tio n e f fe c ts as w ell. A sin g le three-way f a c to r ia l design could not be ap p ro p riately used in th is case because c e rta in fa c to rs in the experim ental design precluded the computation of a s u ita b le e rro r term fo r the a n a ly sis of v ariance s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t . This point i s fu rth e r am plified below. A comparison of the main e f fe c ts in d icated th a t th ere was no s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e between Elementary and Secondary le v e l students o r between the group which received one hour of rem edial reading in s tru c tio n plus one hour of counseling (Experimental group) and the group which received two hours of rem edial reading in s tru c tio n and no counseling (Control group). The in te ra c tio n e f fe c t between treatm ents and le v e ls was also judged to be n o n -sig n ific a n t although i t reached the .10 le v e l of confidence as did the compari son between the Experimental and the C ontrol groups. In the l a t t e r case, the C ontrol g roup's mean score was supe r io r to th a t of the Experimental group. Table 4 summarizes these fin d in g s. In order to make a more p re c ise a p p ra isa l of the d ata, separate two-way f a c to r ia l designs were applied to 141 TABLE 4 Analysis of Variance of D ifference Scores of Students on the Gilmore Oral Reading Test Source____________ df*_______ M S F p Elementary vs. Secondary 1 72.09 1.20 N.S. Experimental v s. Control 1 238.63 3.99 .101 Elementary/Secon dary X Experimental/Con t r o l 1 225.15 3.76 .10 E rror 36 59.87 * In order to achieve equal c e ll N's fo r purposes of s ta t i s t i c a l ca lc u la tio n s, the to ta l N was increased from 36 to 40. 4 n favor of Control group. 142 th e Elem entary and Secondary l e v e l s , u sin g T eachers a s a f a c t o r . In t h i s re g a rd , i t may be s t a t e d t h a t a s in g le three-w ay f a c t o r i a l a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e was n o t c a lc u la te d because o f th e f a c t t h a t d i f f e r e n t te a c h e rs hand led th e two sch o o l l e v e l s ; a three-w ay i n t e r a c t i o n term could n o t, t h e r e f o r e , be a p p r o p r ia te ly computed by u s in g a c c e p te d a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e p ro c e d u re s (2 4 ). As th e three-w ay i n t e r a c t i o n , in th e u s u a l c a s e , i s used in com puting th e E rro r term , th e f o rm e r's absence in t h i s s i t u a t i o n made i t im p o ssib le to c a lc u la te the a p p r o p ria te E rro r sum o f sq u a re s . An ad eq u ate E rro r term could be developed only by red u cin g th e d esig n to th re e s e p a ra te two-way d e sig n s which a ls o p e rm itte d an assessm en t o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n and th e main e f f e c t s produced by th e T reatm ent and T eacher f a c t o r s . F or th e E lem entary l e v e l , th e d if f e r e n c e between th e E xperim ental and th e C o n tro l groups was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 le v e l in fa v o r o f th e C o n tro l group. There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een th e te a c h e rs n o r was th e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t (T able 5 ) . On th e Secondary l e v e l , the d if f e r e n c e between th e E xperim ental and th e C o n tro l groups was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , n o r was th e d if f e r e n c e betw een th e te a c h e rs s i g n i f i c a n t . 143 TABLE 5 A n a ly sis o f V ariance o f D iffe re n c e S cores o f E lem entary Group S tu d en ts on th e Gilm ore O ra l R eading T est Source df* M S F P E x p erim en tal v s . 1 463.69 8.99 .011 C o n tro 1 T eachers 1 53.47 1.04 N .S. E xp erim ental/C on t r o l X T eachers 1 .72 .014 N .S. E rro r 16 5 1 .6 0 * In o rd e r to ac h ie v e e q u a l c e l l N 's f o r purposes o f s t a t i s t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s , th e t o t a l N was in c re a s e d from 18 to 20. ^In fa v o r o f C o n tro l group. 144 The i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t was a ls o n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . T able 6 summarizes th e fin d in g s f o r th e Secondary group. F ollow ing th e above co m p u tatio n s, the d if f e r e n c e s c o re s between th e E lem entary and Secondary le v e ls o f th e E x perim ental group, on th e one hand, and between th e two sch o o l le v e ls o f th e C o n tro l group, on th e o th e r hand, were an a ly z ed s e p a r a te ly (T able 7 ) . T here was a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e (.0 5 le v e l) in fa v o r o f th e Secondary le v e l in th e E xperim ental g roup . The d if f e r e n c e between le v e l s was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t f o r th e C o n tro l group. The r e s u l t s o f th e a n a ly s is o f th e GORT d iffe re n c e sc o re s a re summarized in T able 8 and g r a p h ic a lly r e p r e se n te d in F ig u re 3 ,and they may be b r i e f l y s t a t e d as f o l lows : There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in re ad in g grow th between th e two combined (Elem entary and Secondary le v e l s ) tre a tm e n t g ro u p s, one o f which re c e iv e d one hour o f re m ed ial re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n p lu s one hour o f c o u n se l in g (E xperim ental group) and th e o th e r o f which re c e iv e d two ho urs o f re m e d ia l re a d in g and no c o u n se lin g (C o n tro l g ro u p ). In a d d itio n , th e main e f f e c t o f sch o o l le v e l was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , and t h i s f a c t o r d id n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y in - 145 TABLE 6 A n a ly sis o f V ariance o f D iffe re n c e Scores o f Secondary Group S tu d e n ts on th e Gilm ore O ra l R eading T e st Source df* M S E x perim ental v s . 1 C o n tro l T eachers 1 E xp erim ental/C on t r o l X T eachers 1 .11 7.95 .002 N .S. .12 213.84 3.24 N .S. N .S. E rro r 16 65.86 * ln o rd e r to a c h ie v e eq u a l c e l l N 's f o r purposes o f s t a t i s t i c a l c a lc u l a ti o n s , th e t o t a l N was in c re a s e d from 18 to 20. 146 TABLE 7 A n a ly sis o f V arian ce o f D iffe re n c e Scores o f E x p erim en tal and C o n tro l Group S tu d e n ts on th e Gilm ore O ral Reading T est Source EXPERIMENTAL GROUP df* M S F P Elem entary v s . Secondary 1 276.03 5.05 .05 E rro r 18 54.7 CONTROL GROUP Source df* M S F P Elem entary v s . Secondary 1 21.22 ,33 N .S. E rro r 18 65.1 * In o rd e r to a c h ie v e eq u a l c e l l N 's f o r purposes o f s t a t i s t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s , th e t o t a l N was in c re a s e d from 18 to 20. ^In fa v o r o f Secondary group 147 TABLE 8 Summary o f Cilm ore O ral Reading T est F in d in g s T reatm ents x L ev els (AxB) Reading only Al Elem entary Bl Secondary O p e ra tio n si 1. T e st AxB I n te r a c tio n (tre a tm e n t x le v e ls ) 2. T e st Main E ffe c t o f T reatm ents 3. T e st Main E ffe c t o f L evels 4 . T e st Simple E ffe c ts o f T reatm ents Reading and C ounseling A* ( a - b ) - ( c - d ) A1-A2 B 1-B2 a . Elem entary L ev e l: a -b b . Secondary L ev el: c-d 5. T e st Simple E ffe c ts o f L evels a . E xperim ental: b-d N u ll H ypotheses: te n a b le a t .05 le v e l ( r e je c te d a t .10 le v e l) te n a b le a t .05 level ( r e je c te d a t .10 le v e l in fa v o r o f Reading only group) te n a b le a t .05 lev el r e je c te d a t .01 lev e l ( in fa v o r o f Reading only group) te n a b le a t .05 level r e je c te d a t .05 lev e l ( in fa v o r o f Secondary group) b . C o n tro l: a -c te n a b le a t .05 level 148 TABLE 8 (continued) T reatm ents x T eachers (AxT) ELEM ENTARY LEVEL X l t 2 Reading only Reading and C ounseling O p e ra tio n s ; A* A2 a b c d N u ll H ypotheses: 1. T est AxT I n te r a c tio n ( a - b ) - ( c - d ) te n a b le a t .05 level (tre a tm e n t x te a c h e rs ) 2. T est Main E ffe c t o f Teachers T 1-T 2 SECONDARY LEVEL X3 te n a b le a t .05 level Reading only Al Reading dnd A^ C ounseling O p e ra tio n s : 1. T est AxT I n te r a c tio n ( a - b ) - ( c - d ) (tre a tm e n t x te a c h e rs ) 2. T e st Main E ffe c t o f T eachers T3-T4 N u ll H ypotheses: te n a b le a t .05 le v e l te n a b le a t .05 le v e l Mean S cores (Z) A , A Mean Scores (Z) B B FIGURE 3 F in d in g s on Gilm ore O ral Reading T e st Main E ff e c t o f T reatm ents (Mean Changes) 21 T e st T est 1 2 - Reading only = Reading and C ounseling Main E f f e c t o f L evels (Mean Changes) 20 T e st T e st 1 2 * Elem entary le v e l 5 3 Secondary le v e l FIGURE 3 (c o n tin u ed ) F in d in g s on G ilm ore O ral Reading T est Elem entary L ev e l: E f f e c t o f T reatm ents (Mean Changes) Mean (Z) 21 T e s t T e st a ■ Reading only b ■ Reading and C ounseling Secondary L ev e l: E f f e c t o f T reatm ents (Mean Changes) 26 24 Mean 22 20 S cores 18 16 (z) 14 12 10 8 T e s t 1 Reading only T e st 2 d = R eading and C ounseling FIGURE 3 (c o n tin u ed ) F in d in g s on G ilm ore O ra l Reading T est E xp erim en tal Group: E f f e c t o f L evels (Mean Changes) Mean 26 S cores 18 (Z) 8 T e s t 1 T e st 2 b ■ Reading and C ounseling (Elem entary) d = Reading and C ounseling (Secondary) Mean Scores (Z) C o n tro l: E f f e c t o f L evels (Mean Changes) T e st T e s t a ■ Reading on ly (E lem entary) c ■ Reading on ly (Secondary) 152 flu e n c e the e f fe c tiv e n e s s o f th e tre a tm e n ts when th e o v e r a l l i n t e r a c tio n e f f e c t was m easured. An in tr a - s c h o o l le v e l a n a ly s is , however, in d ic a te d t h a t th e Elem entary C o n tro l group improved s i g n i f i c a n t ly more than d id th e Elem entary E xperim ental group on th e GORT. I t was a ls o determ ined t h a t th e E xperim ental Secondary group improved s i g n i f i c a n t ly more than d id i t s c o u n te r p a rt, th e E xperim ental Elemen ta ry group. 2. G ates Reading Survey (GRSl--For reason s d is - cussed in C hapter I I I , S e c tio n I I , the GRS did n o t re c e iv e the com prehensive s t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t th a t was accorded th e Gilmore O ral Reading T e s t. The a n a ly s is e n ta ile d th e t e s t i n g o f th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e d iffe re n c e s between th e Di-Do mean changes f o r th e Elem entary E xperim ental ° d i - d 2 group and the Elem entary C ontro l group, on th e one hand, and f o r the Secondary E xperim ental group and the Secondary C o n tro l group, on th e o th e r hand, by procedures recommended by G u ilfo rd (40, pp. 198-200). As on the G ilm ore, th e fin d in g s on t h i s s i l e n t re a d in g t e s t in d ic a te d th a t th e Elem entary C o n tro l group dem onstrated a g r e a t e r degree o f re ad in g improvement than 153 th e Elem entary E x perim ental g roup , b u t on the GRS t h i s d i f fe re n c e d id n o t s a t i s f y th e s t a t i s t i c a l req u irem en t f o r s ig n if ic a n c e (,0 5 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e ). On the Secondary l e v e l , th e re was ag a in no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e mean change sc o re s o f th e E xp erim en tal and C o n tro l gro u p s. T able 9 g iv e s th e c r i t i c a l r a t i o s and F ig u re 4 p re s e n ts th e s e r e s u l t s in g ra p h ic form . A lthough i n t e r sch o o l le v e l com parisons were n o t made, i t was e v id e n t that^ in agreem ent w ith th e G ilm ore fin d in g s , th e Secondary Ex p e rim e n ta l group b e n e f ite d more from th e re m e d ia l t r e a t ment than d id th e E lem entary E xperim ental group. TABLE 9 S ig n ific a n c e o f D iffe re n c e s betw een Mean Changes on th e G ates Reading Survey Source P Elem entary E xperim ental v s . Elem entary C o n tro l 1.21 N.S. Secondary E xperim ental v s . Secondary C o n tro l .54 N.S. Mean S co re s: FIGURE 4 F ind ing s on G ates Reading Survey Elem entary Level: E ffe c t o f Treatm ents (Mean Changes) 3.3 3.1 2.9 Grade Placements 2.7 2.5 T est 1 a = Reading only b = Reading and Counseling T est 2 Secondary Level: E ffe c t o f Treatm ents (Mean Changes) 6.5 6.0 5.5 Grade Placem ents 5.0 Mean Scores: 4.5 4.0 T est T est c d Reading only Reading and Counseling 155 3. H y p o th e tic a l C o n tro l Group.- - I n o rd e r to p ro v id e e x te r n a l c r i t e r i o n m easures f o r comparing the re ad in g g a in s made by th e two rem edial tre a tm e n ts , a s t a t i s t i c a l p rocedure was employed th a t in v o lv ed the matching o f a " h y p o th e tic a l c o n tr o l group" w ith th e stu d e n ts in clu d ed in th e study on one v a r i a b l e : r a t e o f annual reading growth (R .A .R .G .). The r a t e o f th e annual re ad in g growth o f each o f th e t h i r t y - s i x s tu d e n ts from the tim e o f re g u la r scho ol e n tra n c e to th e i n i t i a t i o n o f th e Reading C enter program was computed by d iv id in g th e i n d i v id u a l's pre-program grade placem ent sco re on the Gilmore (Accuracy sco re) by h is c h ro n o lo g ic a l age grade e q u iv a le n t (C .A .G .E .). The l a t t e r index was o b ta in e d from th e form ula, C.A.G.E. = * C.A. - 5 .0 . F or example, a p u p il whose c h ro n o lo g ic a l age (C.A .) i s 8 .0 would have a C.A.G.E. o f 3 .0 . The c a lc u la tio n o f th e R.A.R.G. (Gilmore I/C .A .G .E.) o f a l l t h i r t y - s i x o f th e s tu d e n ts enabled th e in v e s tig a to r to d e r iv e , by s t a t i s t i c a l p r o je c tio n from p a s t perform ance, e s tim a te s o f th e in d iv id u a l and group (mean) g a in s th a t might be reaso n ab ly exp ected to r e s u l t a f t e r a sem ester (sem i-an nual) p e rio d . 156 These h y p o th e siz e d g a in s were then compared w ith th e a c tu a l mean change sc o re s o b ta in e d by th e s tu d e n ts on th e Gilm ore (Accuracy sc o re ) from th e pre-program to th e p o st-p rogram t e s t i n g p e r io d s . The s ig n if ic a n c e of th e d i f fe re n c e s between th e E xp erim ental (one-hour re ad in g ) and C o n tro l (tw o-hour re a d in g ) group mean changes and th e Hypo t h e t i c a l C o n tro l group mean changes was te s te d by s t a t i s t i c a l p ro c ed u res recommended by G u ilfo rd (40, pp. 198-200). The fin d in g s t h a t were d e riv e d from t h i s a n a ly s is were in co n fo rm ity w ith th e p a tte r n s re v e a le d in th e r e view s o f the Gilm ore and G ates t e s t r e s u l t s . The only s t a t i s t i c a l l y notew orthy d if f e r e n c e s t h a t were o b ta in e d between th e mean changes o f th e h y p o th e tic a l c o n tr o l groups and th o se o f th e groups i n th e two re m ed ial tre a tm e n ts w ere in r e l a t i o n to th e Elem entary C o n tro l (tw o-hour re ad in g ) group and th e Secondary E x p erim en tal (one-hour re ad in g ) group (F ig u re 5 ) . The mean g a in sc o re f o r th e E lem entary C o n tro l group was s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r (.0 5 le v e l) th an th a t o f th e H y p o th e tic a l E lem entary C o n tro l group. The mean change d if f e r e n c e between th e Secondary E xperim ental group and the H y p o th e tic a l Secondary C o n tro l group, alth o u g h n o t judged 157 FIGURE 5 E lem entary C o n tro l Group v s . H y p o th e tic a l E lem entary C o n tro l Group (Mean Changes) Mean S co re s: Grade Placem ents 3 .3 3 .1 2 .5 T e st T e s t a - H ypoth esized Mean Changes b = > A c tu a l Mean Changes on G ilm ore (Accuracy Score) Secondary E x p erim en tal Group v s . H y p o th e tic a l Secondary C o n tro l Group (Mean Changes) 4 .1 3 .9 Mean S c o re s : 3.5 Grade Placem ents T e s t T est c ■ H ypothesized Mean Changes d • A ctu a l Mean Changes on Gilm ore (Accuracy S core) 158 as s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , reach ed th e .10 le v e l o f con fid e n c e ; t h i s r e s u l t tended to u n d ersc o re th e fin d in g s on th e G ilm ore and G ates t h a t p o in te d to th e s u p e r io r p e r f o r mance o f th e Secondary E xperim ental group o v er t h a t o f th e E lem entary E xp erim en tal group. B. School and S o c ia l A ttitu d e s The S entence-C om pletion T e s t (SC T ).--T he SCT, which was c o n s tru c te d f o r t h i s stu d y , was a d m in is te re d a t th e i n i t i a t i o n and te rm in a tio n o f th e rem ed ial program s. A s c o rin g g u id e (Form 3, Appendix A) p ro v id ed se m i-o b je c tiv e c r i t e r i a by means o f which item re sp o n se s co u ld be r a te d w ith re g a rd to t h e i r p o s i t i v e , n e u t r a l , o r n e g a tiv e c h a r a c t e r . The d ata o f i n t e r e s t in th e s t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t r e l a t e d to th e r e l a t i v e w eight o f th e c l e a r l y p o s i tiv e r e a c tio n re sp o n se s and th e d if f e r e n c e o r change sc o re s from p r e - to p o s t - t e s t . The o b ta in e d d if f e r e n c e sc o re s on th e SCT w ith in each o f th e fo u r tre a tm e n t com binations (F ig u re 1) t h a t were o rg a n iz e d on th e b a s is o f th e two f a c t o r s o f sch o o l le v e l (E lem entary and Secondary) and tre a tm e n t (Ex p e rim e n ta l and C o n tro l) were s u b je c te d to s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s o f th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f mean changes and th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f 159 d iffe re n c e s between mean changes (in v o lv in g c r i t i c a l r a t i o s ) as recommended by G u ilfo rd (40, pp. 198-200). The .05 and .01 le v e ls o f confidence served as the c r i t e r i a Dl - D 2 i f o r s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n ific a n c e in te s tin g — -j— . The r e l i a b i l i t y o f the r a tin g s o f th e p o s itiv e - type responses was assesse d by comparing the sco res of th re e r a t e r s on a random sampling of th e p re - and p o s t program t e s t sh e e ts and u sin g Spearm an's rho formula fo r e v a lu a tin g the degree o f c o r r e la tio n between r a n k - d if f e r - ences (40, p. 288). The o b tain ed c o e f f ic ie n ts ranged from .51 to .64 (Table 10). A ll o f th e se c o e f f ic ie n ts were s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .05 le v e l and provided some evidence of in te r s c o r e r r e l i a b i l i t y . The r e s u l t s of th e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is (Table 11) dem onstrated th a t the Experim ental g ro u p 's mean change to ward more p o s itiv e a t t i t u d e s , a s expressed on the SCT, was s ig n if ic a n tly g r e a te r (.0 1 le v e l) than th a t o f the C ontrol group. Although th e tre a tm e n ts by le v e ls in te r a c tio n was n o t s ig n if ic a n t- - n o r were th e re any s ig n if ic a n t e f f e c ts of ^•Computing the s ig n ific a n c e o f d iffe re n c e s between mean changes by t h i s formula i s analogous to th e a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e of group changes conducted w ith the Gilmore t e s t fin d in g s . 160 le v e ls --m o s t o f th e e f f e c t o f th e E x perim ental tre a tm e n t appeared to d e riv e from th e E lem entary l e v e l . An a n a ly s is o f the change sc o re s o f th e C o n tro l and th e E xperim ental groups a t th e E lem entary le v e l showed a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ence, In fa v o r o f th e E xp erim ental g ro u p , a t th e .01 l e v e l . The d if f e r e n c e between th e mean changes o f th e two treatm ent groups on th e Secondary le v e l was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . S ta te d more c o n c is e ly , th e SCT r e s u l t s , which a r e review ed In T able 12 (w ith g ra p h ic I l l u s t r a t i o n o f key fin d in g s p re s e n te d In F ig u re 6 ) , re v e a l t h a t th e co u n seled group dem on strated very s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r Improvement In sch o o l and s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s than d id th e n o n -co u n seled g ro up. Most o f th e e f f e c t , however, seemed to d e riv e from th e E lem entary le v e l group even though th e I n te r a c tio n e f f e c t was n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . 161 TABLE 10 Kho C o e f f ic ie n ts o f P o s itiv e R eactio n Scores on Sentence-C om pletlon T e st D erived froiu Three R a te rs rho P R aters I and 2 . 64 .03 Katei'S L a a c l 3 .36 .05 Ka te r s 2 a ad 3 .31 .05 162 TABLE 11 S ig n if ic a n c e o f D iffe re n c e s between Mean Changes on th e S entence-C om pletion T e st Source CR £ * b2) dl “d2 P E lem entary v s . Secondary 1.52 N .S. E x perim ental v s . C o n tro l 2.64 .0 1 1 Elemen t a r y / Secondary X E x p e rim e n ta l/C o n tro l 1.34 N .S. Elem entary E x p erim en tal v s . E lem entary C o n tro l 2.80 .012 Secondary E x p erim en tal v s . Secondary C o n tro l .84 N.S. Elem entary E x p erim en tal v s . Secondary E x p erim en tal .30 N.S. Elem entary C o n tro l v s . Secondary C o n tro l 1.80 .103 *Tn fa v o r o f E xperim ental group ^In fa v o r o f E x p erim en tal group 3 ln fa v o r o f Secondary group 163 TABLE 12 Summary o f S en ten ce -C o m p letio n T e s t F in d in g s T re a tm e n ts x L e v e ls (AxB) R eading o n ly A l E lem en tary Bl S econdary B^ O p e r a tio n s : 1. T e s t AxB I n t e r a c t i o n (tre a tm e n t x le v e ls ) 2 . T e s t Main E f f e c t o f T re atm e n ts 3 . T e s t Main E f f e c t o f L e v e ls 4 . T e s t Sim ple E f f e c ts o f T re atm e n ts a . E lem en tary L evel: b . S econdary L e v e l: 5 . T e s t Sim ple E f f e c ts o f L e v e ls a . E x p e rim e n ta l: b . C o n tro l: R eading and C o u n selin g A2 N u ll H y p o th e se s: ( a - b ) - ( c - d ) te n a b le a t .05 le v e l A1-A2 B1-B2 r e j e c t e d a t .01 le v e l ( i n fa v o r o f R eading and Coun s e lin g group) te n a b le a t .0 5 le y e l a -b c -d b -d a - c r e j e c t e d a t .01 le v e l ( i n fa v o r o f Read in g and C o u n selin g G roup) te n a b le a t .05 le v e l te n a b le a t .05 le v e l te n a b le a t .05 le v e l ( r e j e c t e d a t .10 l e v e l , i n fa v o r o f Secondary g ro u p ; FIGURE 6 F in d in g s on S en ten ce -C o m p letio n T e s t 8 Mean 7 S co re s 6 5 A1 = R eading only A2 « ■ R eading and C o u n se lin g E lem en tary L e v e l; E f f e c t o f T re atm e n ts (Mean C hanges) ( P o s it iv e R e a c tio n S c o re s ) Main E f f e c t o f T re atm e n ts (Mean C hanges) T e s t 1 T e s t 2 Mean S co re s T e s t T e s t a = R eading o nly b = R eading and C o u n se lin g FIGURE 6 (continued) Mean S cores c F in d in g s on S en ten ce-C o m p letio n T e st ( P o s itiv e R e a c tio n S c o re s) Secondary L e v e l: E f f e c t o f T reatm en ts (Mean Changes) 8 7 6 5 T e s t T e st 1 2 ■ R eading o nly d ■ R eading and C ounseling 166 II. SUPPLEMENTARY FINDINGS A. In s tru m e n ts and P ro c e d u re s Employed to A ssess P re v a le n t S tu d e n t A ttitu d e s R e la te d to Home-School B e h a v io r 1. The P i c t u r e - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n T e s t ( P I T ) .- - The PIT was d e v ise d d u rin g th e i n v e s t ig a t io n m ainly to p ro v id e c o r r o b o r a tiv e e v id e n c e f o r th e f in d in g s o b ta in e d on th e S en ten ce -C o m p letio n T e s t p e r ta in in g to th e sc h o o l and home a d ju s tm e n t o f th e r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s . F o r t h i s p u rp o se , a s t a t i s t i c a l com parison was made betw een th e p o s i t iv e r e a c tio n s c o re s in p a r a l l e l a t t i t u d i n a l a r e a s on th e two in s tru m e n ts a t th e p o st-p ro g ra m t e s t i n g p e r io d . A s c o rin g g u id e (Form 6 f A ppendix A) a s s i s t e d in th e a ssig n m e n t o f th e in d iv id u a l re s p o n s e s to one o f th e th r e e c a te g o r ie s o f r e a c t i o n : P o s i t i v e , N e u tr a l, and N ega t i v e . The s t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t r e l a t e d to th e p o s i t i v e - ty p e re s p o n s e s , and th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e r a t i n g s w ith in t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was a s s e s s e d by th e same m ethod t h a t has b een d e s c rib e d f o r th e S en ten ce -C o m p letio n T e s t . The o b ta in e d rho c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e re p o r te d in T a b le 13. Two 167 TABLE 13 Rho C o e f f ic ie n ts o f P o s it i v e R e a c tio n S co re s on P i c t u r e - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n T e st D eriv ed from T hree R a te rs rho R a te rs 1 and 2 R a te rs 1 and 3 R a te rs 2 and 3 .50 .17 .50 .05 N .S . .05 168 o f th e th r e e I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . The p o s i t iv e r e a c t io n s c o re s on th e FIT w ere com p a re d w ith th e p o s i t i v e r e a c tio n s c o re s re c e iv e d by th e same s tu d e n ts on th e r e - t e s t o f th e SCT a t th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d y . The Spearman r a n k - d if f e r e n c e c o r r e l a t i o n m ethod (4 0 , p . 288) was a p p lie d to t h i s d a ta , and s i g n i f i c a n t rho c o e f f i c i e n t s (.0 5 le v e l) w ere o b ta in e d f o r th e t o t a l t e s t group ( t h i r t y - s i x s tu d e n ts ) and th e Secondary l e v e l group ( e ig h te e n s t u d e n t s ) . The r e l a t i o n s h ip betw een th e s c o re s o f th e E lem entary le v e l group on th e two t e s t s was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . T ab le 14 sum m arizes th e s e f in d in g s . 2 . P a re n t I n te r v ie w s . --A s r e p o r te d in C h ap ter I I I , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r co n d u cted a s e r i e s o f in d iv id u a l i n t e r view s d u rin g th e e a r ly p a r t o f th e se m e ste r w ith a t l e a s t one o f th e paren ts^- o f e v e ry s tu d e n t p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l p ro g ram s. In c a s e s w here i t was n o t p o s s ib le to a rra n g e f o r c o n fe re n c e s a t th e R eading ^ P a re n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n was a s fo llo w s : tw e n ty -s ix s tu d e n ts - - o n ly m o th ers in v o lv e d , s i x s tu d e n ts - - o n ly f a th e r s in v o lv e d , f o u r s tu d e n ts - - b o th p a r e n ts in v o lv e d . 169 TABLE 14 R a n k -D iffere n ce C o r r e la tio n s betw een P o s itiv e R e a c tio n S co res on th e S entence-C om pletion T e s t. I I . and P i c t u r e - I n te r p r e t a t i o n T e st rho P E lem entary L ev el Secondary L ev el Combined L ev els .20 .41 .32 N .S . .05 .05 170 C e n te r ap p o in tm en ts"w ere made, in advan ce, w ith th e p a re n ts f o r te le p h o n e in te r v ie w s . I t was e x p la in e d to th e p a re n ts th a t th e pu rp o se o f th e in te rv ie w was to o b ta in a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n t h a t would h e lp th e R eading C e n te r s t a f f to m eet more e f f e c t i v e ly t h e i r c h i l d r e n 's n e e d s. The main q u e s tio n th a t was p u t to them was i n t e n t io n a l l y b ro a d in i t s sco p e: "How do you f e e l ab o u t your c h i l d 's p a s t and p re s e n t a t t i t u d e s and e f f o r t s in re g a rd to re a d in g and o th e r sch o o l s u b je c ts ? " Two m ajor c a te g o r ie s o f fin d in g s w ere i d e n t i f i e d upon ex am in atio n o f th e re sp o n se m a te r ia l e l i c i t e d by t h i s q u e s tio n . The f i r s t c a te g o ry r e l a t e d to in fo rm a tio n r e g a rd in g p a r e n ta l view s o f th e problem s in v o lv e d in t h e i r c h i l d r e n 's le a m in g - s c h o o l b e h a v io r. T ab le 15 sum m arizes th e in te rv ie w d a ta in t h i s a r e a . The second c a te g o ry p e r ta in e d to th e com m unicative f a c t o r in p a r e n t- c h ild r e l a - t i o n s h ip s - - t h e d eg ree to w hich th e c h ild sh a re d " f e e lin g " r e a c tio n s w ith h is p a r e n ts a b o u t le a m in g -s c h o o l e x p e rie n c e s . T h is a s p e c t o f th e in te rv ie w fin d in g s i s re c o rd e d in T ab le 16. I t w i l l be seen from th e two ta b le s t h a t two a t t i - tu d in a l- b e h a v io r a l f a c t o r s a r e co n sp icu o u s in term s o f th e freq u en cy o f p a r e n ta l r e p o r t. A m a jo rity o f 56 p e r c e n t 171 ZABLE 15 P roblem s in L e a m in g -S c h o o l A ttitu d e s and B eh av io r o f S tu d e n ts as R e p o rte d bv P a re n ts F a c to r Number* P e r C ent Lack o f s u f f i c i e n t e f f o r t 20 56 Lack o f c o n c e n tr a tiv e and o r g a n iz a tio n a l s k i l l s 7 19 Lack o f s e lf - c o n f id e n c e 6 17 U n c o o p e ra tiv e c la ssro o m b e h a v io r 7 19 ” Shyness" 2 6 * P a re n t c o u p le s a r e g iv e n a v a lu e o f one 172 TABLE 16 t o S tu d e n t C om m unication o f F e e lin g s ab o u t L e a m in g -S c h o o l S itu a tio n s R ep o rted by P a re n ts F a c to r Number* P e r C ent G e n e ra lly com m unicates f e e l in g s 7 19 G e n e ra lly n o n -c o m m itta l ab o u t f e e lin g s 29 81 ( T o ta ls ) 36 100 * P a re n t c o u p le s a re g iv e n a v a lu e o f one. 173 o f th e p a r e n ts (o r p a r e n t c o u p le s) view ed la c k o f e f f o r t ( f,n o t tr y in g " ) a s h a v in g b een c o n tr ib u to r y to t h e i r c h i l d r e n 's le a r n in g d i f f i c u l t i e s . As h ig h a f ig u r e a s 81 p e r c e n t d e s c rib e d a com m unicative b a r r i e r I n re g a rd to th e d e g re e to w hich t h e i r c h ild r e n d is c u s s e d f e e lin g s ab o u t le a m in g - s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n s . 3 . S tu d e n t A f f e c tiv e and B e h a v io ra l R e a c tio n s o f a N e g a tiv e C h a ra c te r tow ard Home and School A u th o r ity . - - P a r t I o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire * D e s c r ip tio n and E v a lu a tio n o f C e r ta in A sp e c ts o f E d u c a tio n a l Group C o u n selin g B eh av io r o f S tu d e n t8 and T e a c h e r-C o u n se lo rs (Form 7> A ppendix A )» d e a lt w ith s tu d e n t c o u n s e lin g b e h a v io r and endeav o red to e x p lo re th e a r e a o f s tu d e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith a d u lt au t h o r i t y f i g u r e s . The th r e e ju d g e s (s e e C h ap ter I I I ) w ere p ro v id e d w ith a ta p e re c o rd in g and ty p e w r itte n t r a n s c r i p t i o n (A ppendix C) o f th e e x c e r p ts from th e c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s I n w hich th e r e was d is c u s s io n m a te r ia l t h a t p e r t a in e d to s tu d e n t- a u t h o r i t y r e l a t i o n s . The to p ic o f I n q u iry was* however* d ir e c te d tow ard th e s p e c i f i c a l l y n eg a t i v e - t y p e a t t i t u d l n a l r e a c ti o n s d is p la y e d by th e c o u n se le e s In t h e i r I n t e r a c t i o n w ith home and sc h o o l a u th o r ity : p a r e n ts and te a c h e r s . The f i r s t s e c tio n o f P a r t I (S tu d e n ts ) c o n ta in e d two c a te g o r ie s o f q u e s tio n s r e q u e s tin g a d e s c r i p ti v e and a c o m p a ra tiv e a n a ly s is o f th e p re v a le n t ty p e s o f n e g a tiv e 174 feelings and behavior Chat appeared Co characterize Che students' relationships with their teachers and parents. The f in d in g s may be sum m arized a s fo llo w s : 1. The th r e e ju d g e s w ere In unanim ous a c c o rd In re g a rd to th e I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s e v e r a l ty p e s o f a f f e c t i v e and b e h a v io r a l r e a c tio n s o f a n e g a tiv e c h a r a c te r w hich w ere commonly m a n ife s te d by th e e o u n se le e s tow ard a d u lt a u t h o r i ty . They w ere: (1) h o s t i le - t y p e f e e lin g s tow ard p a r e n ts and te a c h e rs * (2) p a s s iv e n o n -c o m p lian t b e h a v io r tow ard p a r e n ts i and (3) g e n e r a lly p a s s iv e non -co m p lian t* b u t o c c a s io n a lly o v e r tly -a g g re s s iv e * b e h a v io r tow ard te a c h e r s . 2. I n com paring th e e v id e n c e p ro v id e d by th e ta p e r e c o r d in g s , r e l a t i n g to th e n e g a tiv e r e a c tio n s d is p la y e d by th e e o u n s e le e s tow ard te a c h e r s , on th e one h an d , and tow ard p a re n ts* on th e o th e r hand* th e ju d g e s w ere In g e n e ra l agreem ent t h a t - d e s p ite th e s im ila r p a tte r n s l i s t e d above - th e r e w ere th e s e d if f e r e n c e s In em phasis: (1) th e s tu d e n ts w ere more f e a r f u l o f t h e i r p a r e n ts th a n o f t h e i r te a c h e r s , (2) th e s tu d e n ts w ere more d e e p ly r e s e n t f u l o f (n o t " t r u s t e d by" o r " u n d e rsto o d by") t h e i r p a r e n ts th a n o f t h e i r te a c h e r s , and (3) th e s tu d e n ts w ere more o v e r tly d e f ia n t and h o s t i l e I n t h e i r b e h a v io r w ith t h e i r te a c h e rs th a n w ith t h e i r p a r e n ts . The second section of Part I (Students) consisted 175 o f a tw o -p a rt r a t i n g s c a le w hich m easured th e d eg ree o f em o tio n a l I n t e n s i t y t h a t was m ost commonly d is p la y e d by th e s tu d e n ts , i n th e c o u n se lin g p erio d s* i n t h e i r e x p re s s io n o f n e g a tiv e f e e lin g s tow ard home and sch o o l a u th o r ity f ig u r e s (p a r e n ts and t e a c h e r s ) . The s te p s on t h i s f i v e - p o in t s c a le w ere d e s ig n a te d a s : (1) Not E vident* (2) Low, (3) M od erate, (4) High* (5) Very H igh. The ju d g e s w ere a b le to p la c e a check mark a t th e m id -p o in ts betw een num bers a s w e ll a s a t each o f th e numbered in te r v a ls * e . g . , th e m id p o in t betw een Low and M oderate was g iv en a v a lu e o f 2 .5 . O p p o rtu n ity f o r q u a l i t a t i v e - t y p e o b s e rv a tio n s was a ls o p ro v id e d . The ratings on the part of the scale that related to parents ranged from 2 .0 (Low) to 4 .0 (High) for an average value of 3 .0 (Moderate); in regard to teachers, the ratings ranged from 2 .5 (between Low and Moderate) to 3 .5 (between Moderate and High) for an average value of 3.0 (Moderate). One of the judges noted that he was "inferring" the levels of intensity: the feelings were not always directly expressed, "but nevertheless communi cated." B. Instruments Employed to Ascertain the Effects of the Counseling Experience upon Student Self-Understanding and Teacher Insight into Student Home-School Attitudes and Behavior 1. S tu d e n t E v a lu a tio n o f Group D is c u s s io n P e r io d s . The e ig h te e n s tu d e n ts Who had re c e iv e d e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n s e lin g w ere in d i v id u a lly in te r v ie w e d , fo llo w in g th e s e m e ste r program , by a d ia g n o s tic ia n and o r a l l y a d m in is te r ed th e S tu d e n t E v a lu a tio n o f Group D is c u s s io n P e rio d s (Form 8 , A ppendix A ). The f i r s t f i v e o f th e n in e ite m s on t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e c o n ta in e d i n t e r v a l r a t i n g s c a le s ; th e re m a in in g f o u r ite m s r e q u ir e d m ore q u a l i t a t i v e - t y p e r e sp o n se s. The five steps in each of the scales were labeled in accordance with the relative degrees of magnitude which they represented: number onewas "None," number two was "Very Little," number three was "Some," number four was "Considerably," and number five was "Very Much." A f te r th e s tu d e n t in d ic a te d th e p a r t i c u l a r s c a le v a lu e t h a t h e w ish ed to hav e checked by th e d i a g n o s tic ia n , th e fo rm er was a sk e d ( i f h i s r a t i n g was a t p o in ts 3 , 4 , o r 5) t o " p le a s e e x p la in w hat you have le a r n e d a b o u t y o u r f e e l in g s . . . . Do you now do th in g s d i f f e r e n t l y ? . . . How?*' The f in d in g s t h a t r e l a t e d to th e f i v e s c a le q u e s t io n s w ere a s fo llo w s : 1. Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f y o u r f e e lin g s a b o u t sc h o o l? The r a t i n g s w ith in th e E lem en tary group ra n g e d from 1 t o 5 f o r an a v e ra g e o f 4 .0 (C o n s id e ra b ly ); on th e Second 177 a ry le v e l th e ra n g e was from 3 to 5 f o r an a v e ra g e o f A .2 (C o n sid e ra b ly p l u s ) . 2 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you t o a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f y o u r f e e lin g s a b o u t re a d in g ? The r a t i n g s w ith in th e E lem en tary group ran g ed from 1 to 5 f o r an a v e ra g e o f 3 .3 (Some p l u s ) ; on th e S econdary l e v e l th e ra n g e was from 3 t o 5 f o r an a v e ra g e o f 4 .1 (C o n sid e ra b ly p l u s ) . 3 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f y o u r f e e lin g s a b o u t y o u r sc h o o l te a c h e r s ? The r a t i n g s w ith in th e E lem en tary group ran g ed from 1 t o 5 f o r an a v e ra g e o f 2 .7 (Some m in u s); on th e S econdary le v e l th e ra n g e was from 1 to 5 f o r an a v e ra g e o f 3 .0 (Som e). 4 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f y o u r f e e l in g s a b o u t y o u r c la s s m a te s ? The r a t i n g s w ith in th e E lem en tary group ra n g ed from 1 to 4 f o r an a v e ra g e o f 2 .2 (V ery L i t t l e p l u s ) ; on th e S econdary le v e l th e ra n g e was from 1 to 5 f o r an a v e ra g e o f 2 .9 (Some m in u s). 5 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f y o u r f e e lin g s a b o u t y o u r p a r e n ts ? The r a t i n g s w ith in th e E lem en tary group ra n g ed from 1 to 5 f o r an a v e ra g e o f 2 .1 (V ery L i t t l e p l u s ) ; on th e S econdary l e v e l th e ra n g e was from 2 to 5 f o r an a v e ra g e o f 3 .0 (Som e). 178 T hese f in d in g s a r e sum m arized In T ab le 17. The s c a le t h a t was a s s ig n e d th e h ig h e s t r a t i n g s I s num ber one ( r e : s c h o o l) ; number tw o, r e l a t i n g to r e a d in g , was a c lo s e second In th e s c o r in g . A sam p lin g o f th e re sp o n s e s to th e q u e s tio n s w hich accom panied each o f th e f i v e s e a le Item s - s o l i c i t e d when th e r a t i n g s w ere a t p o in t 3 o r h ig h e r - w i l l b e p r e s e n te d below : 1 . S ch o o l: "1 s e e why I g o t so mad ab o u t sc h o o l w ork. . . . " 11. • • n o t to g e t d i s co u rag ed . . . I t h e lp e d m e." " . • . u n d e rs ta n d how o th e r k id s f e e l — I d i d n 't u n d e rs ta n d . . . when 1 g o t mad I j u s t la s h e d o u t ." " . . . t h a t 1 was n o t th e o n ly one w ith p ro b le m s ." " . . . o th e r s f e e l a lm o st th e sam e." 2. R ead in g : ". .. tr y i n g h a rd e r t o re a d — d o n 't g iv e up so s o o n ." ". . . le a r n e d n o t t o b e a f r a i d o r asham ed when 1 make a m is ta k e ." ". .. f e l t i n group a s i f I w e r e n 't o n ly one w ith re a d in g p ro b lem s . . . w ant t o re a d more, . . . • • . th e d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d me— th e o th e r s had same problem s w ith re a d in g . . . te n d to g e t i n same s i t u a t i o n s . " 3 . T e a c h e rs : " I le a rn e d why th e y do th in g s th e y do - g e t a lo n g b e t t e r w ith them s in c e I can re a d b e t t e r . . . . " " . . . my f e e lin g s . . . I t a l k to them more - I t e l l them my problem s and th e y h e lp me o u t." 179 TABLE 17 Mean S co res on th e F iv e R a tin g S c a le s C o n tain ed in S tu d e n t E v a lu a tio n o f Group D isc u ssio n P e r io d s : E lem entary and Secondary L ev els R a tin g S c a le s Mean S core C ategory* 1. ( " B e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g " : sc h o o l) E lem entary group 4 .0 C S econdary group 4 .2 C+ 2 . ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : re a d in g ) E lem entary group 3 .3 S+ Secondary group 4 .1 C+ 3 . ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : te a c h e r s ) E lem entary group 2 .7 S- Secondary group 3 .0 S 4 . ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : c la s s m a te s ) E lem entary group 2 .2 VL+ S econdary group 2 .9 S- 5 . ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : p a r e n ts ) E lem entary group 2 .1 VL+ Secondary group 3 .0 S (N ■ 9 f o r each L ev e l) ^ C a te g o rie s (fo llo w e d , w here a p p r o p r ia te , by p lu s o r m inus s i g n s ) : Very L ittle - - V L ■ 2 .0 Some— S * 3 .0 C o n sid e ra b ly --C * 4 .0 180 4. Classmates; "1 get along better . . . they let me ao more things with them. •. • " "I used to be ashamed when they teased me. Now they don't tease me so much • . . they like me better. ..." "... before 1 would be a 'goof-off' and 1 would be rude. Now 1 understand them and I don't be rude. . . ." "1 do things differently - try not to get them mad." 5. Parents: "I try to figure why they do things. ..." "1 really help them at the house. ..." I learned how to ask them for help." The e o u n s e le e s f e l t t h a t th e group d is c u s s io n s w ere m ost h e lp f u l (Ite m s ix ) i n re g a rd to p ro v id in g an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r th e s h a rin g o f id e a s and f e e l in g s ab o u t m u tu al p ro b le m s. T h is e x p e rie n c e was r e a s s u r in g to them b e c a u se i t made them more k e e n ly aw are o f th e f a c t t h a t th e s e w ere d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t w ere common to o t h e r s . The s tu d e n ts c o n s id e re d th e l e a s t h e lp f u l a s p e c ts o f th e c o u n s e lin g program (Ite m sev en ) to be th e la c k o f co m p lete p a r ti c i p a ti o n * a t tim es* o f some group m em bers. I n th e E lem en tary g ro u p s t h e em phasis was upon th e a tte n tio n fa c to r * w h ile i n t h e S econdary g ro u p s t h e r e was some r e lu c ta n c e to t a l k a b o u t p e r s o n a l e x p e rie n c e s ; ". . . ta lk in g ab o u t o th e r k id s --w h a t o th e r k id s done i n th e c la s s ro o m s -- n o t r e a l l y t a l k i n g ab o u t th e m s e lv e s ." A ll o f th e e o u n s e le e s in d ic a te d (Ite m e ig h t) t h a t 181 th e y w ould recommend s i m il a r group d is c u s s io n s f o r o th e r s tu d e n ts w ith re a d in g p ro b le m s. I n r e p ly to th e r e q u e s t (Ite m n in e ) f o r a d d i ti o n a l comments a b o u t t h e i r c o u n s e lin g e x p e rie n c e * g e n e ra l a p p ro v a l was a ls o r e g i s t e r e d . 2. T ea ch er E v a lu a tio n o f Group D is c u s s io n P e rio d s I and The fo u r te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r s com p leted th e s e two q u e s tio n n a ir e s (Forms 9 and 10* A ppendix A) a f t e r th e f i n a l c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n . As e x p la in e d i n th e s e c tio n o f C h a p te r I I I on e x p e rim e n ta l p ro c e d u re s , T each er E v a lu a tio n ,! was alm o st a f a c s im ile o f th e s tu d e n t q u e s t io n n a i r e and a l s o r e l a t e d to th e e f f e c t s o f th e c o u n s e lin g e x p e rie n c e upon s tu d e n t s e lf - u n d e r s ta n d in g s . The d i f f e r en ces betw een th e two in s tru m e n ts c o n s is te d in th e sub s t i t u t i o n o f c e r t a i n r e f e r e n c e w ords ( p e r ta in in g to th e e o u n s e le e s ) , th e r e q u e s t to th e te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r s , a f t e r each o f th e f i v e s c a le q u e s tio n s , to " p le a s e e x p la in how th e s tu d e n ts h av e in d ic a te d t h e i r g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e s e f e e lin g s " (w here i n t e r v a l p o in ts 3 , 4 , o r 5 had b een c h e c k e d ), and th e o m issio n o f ite m n in e . I n re g a rd to th e f i v e r a t i n g s c a le q u e s tio n s th e r e s u l t s « re p re s e n te d i n T ab le 18. I t w i l l b e se e n t h a t th e s c a le r e c e iv in g th e h ig h e s t - an d m ost c o n s is t e n t - s e t o f r a t i n g s (4 , 4 , 4 , 3) was number one: "Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d th e s tu d e n ts to a b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e i r f e e lin g s ab o u t s c h o o l? " The a v e ra g e 182 TABLE 18 S c o re s on th e F iv e R a tin g S c a le s C o n tain ed in T e a c h e r E v a lu a tio n o f Group D is c u s sio n P e r io d s . I R a tin g S c a le s S co re C ateg o ry 1. ( " B e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g " : s c h o o l) T ea ch er A 4 C T e a c h e r B 4 . C T ea ch er C 4 C T e a c h e r D 3 S 2 . ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : re a d in g ) T ea ch er A 2 VL T e a c h e r B 4 C T ea ch er C 3 S T e a c h e r D 3 S 3 . ( " B e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g " : te a c h e r s ) T ea ch er A 4 C T ea ch er B 2 VL T e a c h e r C 2 VL T ea ch er D 3 S 4 . ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : c la s s m a te s ) T e a c h e r A 4 C T e a c h e r B 3 S T e a c h e r C 4 C T ea ch er D 2 VL (c o n tin u e d ) 183 TABLE 18 (continued) 5 . ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : p a r e n ts ) ^ C a te g o r ie s : Very L ittle - - V L Some--S C o n sid e ra b ly --C E lem en tary L e v e l: T each ers A and B S econdary L e v e l: T ea ch ers C and D T ea ch er A T each er B T ea ch er C T ea ch er D 4 3 3 4 u w w o 184 o£ a l l th e r a t i n g s was 3 .3 . I n t h e i r w r it te n comments fo llo w in g each o f th e r a t i n g s c a le s (when i n t e r v a l p o in ts 3» 4 , o r 5 had b een checked) th e c o u n s e lo rs i n d i c a t e d , on T each er E v a lu a tio n I . how th e e o u n s e le e s h ad m a n ife s te d in th e group d is c u s s io n p e r io d s t h e i r im proved s e lf - u n d e r s ta n d in g . The commen t a r i e s r e v e a le d t h a t th e r e was g e n e ra l agreem ent i n re g a rd to th e e v id e n c e f o r such change i n s e v e r a l a r e a s o f s tu d e n t c o u n s e lin g b e h a v io r: 1 . The s tu d e n ts engaged i n in c r e a s in g ly m ore c a n d id and f l u e n t d is c u s s io n s o f t h e i r f e e l in g s a b o u t sc h o o l p ro b lem s. They w ere a b le to g iv e v e r b a l e x p r e s s io n t o th e f e e l in g s o f em barrassm ent and f r u s t r a t i o n w hich th e y had e x p e rie n c e d i n t h e i r re a d in g t a s k s . 2. The e o u n se le e s f r e q u e n tly rem arked upon t h e i r n e w ly -a c q u ire d aw aren ess o f th e common n a tu r e o f t h e i r e m o tio n a l r e a c ti o n s to problem s i t u a t i o n s . 3 . The group members w ere a b l e , a s th e program p ro g re s s e d , t o a r t i c u l a t e m ore c l e a r l y t h e i r f e e lin g s o f re se n tm e n t tow ard p a r e n t and te a c h e r a u t h o r i ty - and to exam ine t h e i r te n d e n c ie s to r e s o r t to r e t a l i a t o r y o r av o id a n c e m aneuvers. The te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r s c o n s id e re d th e group d i s c u s s io n s to have been m ost h e lp f u l t o th e s tu d e n ts i n th e a r e a s o f p ro v id in g a p e rm is s iv e atm o sp h ere w here th e y 185 c o u ld e x p re s s th e m se lv e s £ re e ly and In e n a b lin g them to f e e l an I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith o th e r s among t h e i r p e e rs who had e x p e rie n c e d s im ila r r e a c t i o n s to sc h o o l and home d i f f i c u l t i e s . The shortcomings of the counseling program were viewed as reflections of their own professional inadequacies in providing leadership to the groups. They unanimously recommended similar group discussions for other students with reading problems. T e a c h e r_ E v a lu a tio n I I e x p lo re d th e c o n tr ib u tio n o f th e c o u n s e lin g e x p e rie n c e t o th e developm ent o f te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r i n s ig h t i n t o th e a f f e c t i v e and b e h a v io r a l r e a c tio n s o f t h e i r s tu d e n ts t o c e r t a i n home and sc h o o l f a c t o r s . T h is second te a c h e r q u e s tio n n a ir e a ls o c lo s e ly re se m b le d th e form and c o n te n t o f th e s tu d e n t q u e s tio n n a i r e . The d e v ia tio n s from th e l a t t e r form in v o lv e d some a p p r o p r ia te s u b s t i t u t i o n s o f r e f e r e n c e w ords (c o n c e rn in g th e e o u n s e le e s v i s - a - v i s th e te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r s ) , th e w ording o f th e su p p lem en tary q u e stio n * fo llo w in g each o f th e s c a le s : " I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 abo v e, p le a s e e x p la in what you have le a r n e d ab o u t t h e i r f e e l i n g s . . . . Do th e s e f e e l in g s seem r e l a t e d to t h e i r b e h a v io r? • • . How?", and th e o m issio n o f ite m e ig h t . The f in d in g s i n r e s p e c t to th e s e f iv e r a t i n g s c a le s a r e p re s e n te d i n T a b le 1 9 . As on th e S tu d e n t E v a lu a tio n 186 TABLE 19 S co re s on th e F iv e R a tin g S c a le s C o n tain ed In T e a c h e r E v a lu a tio n o f Group D is c u s sio n P e r io d s . I I R a tin g S c a le s S c o re s C ateg o ry 1. ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : s c h o o l) T each er A 5 V M T ea ch er B 4 C T e a c h e r C 3 S T ea ch er D 4 C 2 . ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : re a d in g ) T e a c h e r A 3 S T ea ch er B 3 S T e a c h e r C 3 S T ea ch er D 3 S 3 . ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : te a c h e r s ) T ea ch er A 4 C T ea ch er B 2 VL T ea ch er C 2 VL T ea ch er D 4 C 4 . ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : c la s s m a te s ) T each er A 3 S T ea ch er B 2 VL T ea ch er C 3 S T ea ch er D 2 VL (c o n tin u e d ) 187 TABLE 19 (continued) 5 . ( " B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g " : p a r e n ts ) * C a te g o r ie s : Very L i t t l e —VL Some--S C o n sid e ra b ly --C V ery Much--VM E lem en tary L e v e l: T ea ch ers A and B S econdary L e v e l: T ea ch ers C and D T e a c h e r A T ea ch er B T e a c h e r C T e a c h e r D 4 2 4 4 C VL 188 and T eacher E v a lu a tio n _I» s c a le number one I s shown to have re c e iv e d th e h ig h e s t r a t i n g v a lu e s (5 , 4 , 3 , 4 ) ; th e q u e s tio n was: "Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f y o u r stu d e n ts* f e e lin g s ab o u t sc h o o l? " The a v e rag e o f a l l th e r a ti n g s was 3 .2 . The commentary r e a c tio n s to th e su pplem entary q u e s tio n s In each o f th e s c a le Item s (when r a t i n g s w ere a t p o in t 3 o r above) o ff e r e d e v id e n c e o f w hat th e te a c h e r - c o u n se lo rs had le a rn e d about th e eo u n selees* f e e lin g s and b e h a v io r In r e l a t i o n to th e s e v e r a l home and sc h o o l f a c t o r s t h a t w ere b e in g su rv ey e d . T here was co n sensus i n r e s p e c t t o th e fo llo w in g p o in ts : 1. The group d is c u s s io n s re v e a le d th e d e p th o f th e s tu d e n ts ' f e e lin g s o f f r u s t r a t i o n i n th e re a d in g and l e a r n in g a re a s and th e m a n ifo ld e f f e c t s o f t h i s r e a c tio n upon sc h o o l b e h a v io r. 2. The s tro n g p a r e n ta l p r e s s u r e s f o r im proved re a d in g p erform ance seemed t o b e r e f l e c t e d in a n x ie ty and av o id an ce b e h a v io r i n classro o m re a d in g s i t u a t i o n s . 3 . The c o u n se lin g s e s s io n s c l e a r l y in d ic a te d th e p ro fo u n d n a tu r e o f th e a n ta g o n is tic f e e lin g s h e ld by th e s tu d e n ts tow ard c e r t a i n te a c h e r s whom th e y view ed as b e in g " u n f a ir " i n t h e i r classro o m p r a c t ic e s . 4 . Some o f th e s tu d e n ts adopted* a t tim es* a b e l l i g e r e n t a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e i r c la ssm a te s t h a t ap p eared 189 to stem from f e e lin g s o f academ ic i n f e r i o r i t y . 5. The s tu d e n ts seemed to r e q u ir e more th a n r e m ed ial re a d in g a s s is ta n c e in re g a rd to overcom ing t h e i r re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s — a s w itn e sse d by t h e i r e x p re sse d d e s ir e f o r su p p o rt and u n d e rsta n d in g from t h e i r p a r e n ts . The te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs f e l t t h a t th e program was p a r t i c u l a r l y h e lp f u l to them a s a t r a i n i n g e x p e rie n c e in th e employment o f group c o u n se lin g te c h n iq u e s and i n con t r i b u t i n g to t h e i r u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e em o tio n al c o n f l i c t s t h a t e x i s t w ith in many c h ild r e n w ith le a r n in g d i s a b i l i t i e s . Those a s p e c ts o f th e c o u n s e lin g program w hich p re s e n te d problem s to th e c o u n s e lo rs w ere m ain ly o f an o r g a n iz a tio n a l n a tu r e . The need was e x p re sse d fo r some f l e x i b i l i t y in r e l a t i o n to th e le n g th o f th e c o u n se lin g s e s s io n s : to p ro v id e f o r th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e i t h e r ex te n d in g o r s h o rte n in g a s e s s io n --o n e h our had been a l l o t te d in th e e x p e rim e n ta l p ro g ra m --a s th e c o u n se lo r deemed t o be a p p r o p ria te in th e s i t u a t i o n . M isc e lla n e o u s comments in c lu d e d th e o b s e rv a tio n t h a t e f f e c t i v e c o u n se lo r le a d e rs h ip r e q u ir e s a h ig h le v e l o f t h e o r e t i c a l p r e p a r a tio n and p r o f e s s io n a l t r a i n i n g in e d u c a tio n a l group c o u n se lin g m ethods. 190 C. P ro c e d u re s Employed to D e s c rib e and E v a lu a te th e L e a d e rsh ip B eh av io r o f th e T e a c h e r-C o u n se lo rs i n th e E d u c a tio n a l Group C o u n selin g S e s s io n s T e a c h e r-C o u n se lo r L e a d e rsh ip B e h a v io r. P a r t I I o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire * D e s c r ip tio n and E v a lu a tio n o f C e r ta in A sp e c ts o f E d u c a tio n a l Group C o u n se lin g B eh av io r o f S tu d e n ts and T e a c h e r-C o u n se lo rs (Form 7, A ppendix A )* p e r ta in e d to te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r le a d e r s h ip b e h a v io r i n th e d is c u s s io n g ro u p s and c o n ta in e d a d e s c r i p ti v e a n a ly s is and a r a t i n g s c a le . The th r e e ju d g e s who com pleted P a r t I o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e r e l a t i n g to th e c o u n se lin g , b e h a v io r o f th e s tu d e n ts u t i l i z e d th e same re c o rd e d d is c u s s io n ma t e r i a l i n c o m p le tin g P a r t I I . The d e s c r i p ti v e a n a ly s is r e q u ir e d o b s e rv a tio n s a b o u t th e in d iv id u a l and c o m p a ra tiv e le a d e r s h ip c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e fo u r te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r s . I n o rd e r to sum m arize th e s e a n a l y t i c a l co m m en tarie s, th e m ost com m only-used a d je c tiv e s - c o n n o tin g e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a tiv e l e a d e r s h ip te n d e n c ie s - t h a t w ere a s s ig n e d to te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r b e h a v io r a r e l i s t e d below : 1 . P o s iti v e a d j e c t i v a l r e f e r e n c e s : a . " p e rm is s iv e " b . "a c c e p tin g * 1 c . "warm" 191 2. N e g a tiv e a d j e c t i v a l r e f e r e n c e s : a . 1 1 o v e r ly - d ir e c t iv e " b . '1 o v e r ly - a c tiv e 1 1 c . " o v e r l y - i n t e l l e c t u a l " I n a s s e s s in g in d iv id u a l te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r p e r fo rm an ce, t h e r e was co n se n su s o n ly in re g a rd to T e a c h e r- C o u n selo r D. The t h r e e ju d g e s d e s c rib e d h i s le a d e r s h ip b e h a v io r a s b e in g m ore s u c c e s s f u l th a n t h a t o f th e o th e r s : d e g re e o f s e n s i t i v i t y , s tim u la tio n o f s tu d e n t e x p r e s s io n o f f e e l i n g s , and a v o id a n c e o f an e x c e s s iv e d e g re e o f group d i r e c t i o n . The f o u r - p a r t r a t i n g s c a le w hich fo llo w e d th e d e s c r i p ti v e a n a ly s is was i d e n t i c a l i n s t r u c t u r e to th e s tu d e n t s c a le and e n t a i l e d th e same s c o rin g m ethod. I t a p p lie d f o u r w id e ly -re c o g n iz e d c r i t e r i a to th e m easurem ent o f th e c o l l e c t i v e le a d e r s h ip b e h a v io r o f th e te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r s . T hese c r i t e r i a p e r ta in e d to th e d e g re e o f s u c c e s s a t t a i n e d by th e l a t t e r i n : (1) e n c o u ra g in g f r e e v e r b a l e x p r e s s io n , (2) a v o id in g v a lu e ju d g m e n ts, (3) d e m o n s tra tin g s e n s i t i v i t y t o s tu d e n t e x p re s s io n s o f f e e l in g s , and (4) s tim u la tin g s tu d e n t e x p re s s io n s o f f e e l i n g s . The r a t i n g s f o r th e f o u r s c a le q u e s tio n s (w hich w ere p r e s e n te d i n th e o r d e r l i s t e d above) ra n g ed from 2 .0 (Low) to 4 .0 (H ig h ). The a v e ra g e r a t i n g s , in te rm s o f c a te g o r ie s , w ere: Q u e stio n 1 - low M o d erate, Q u e stio n 2 - M o d erate, Q u e stio n 3 - Low, Q u e stio n 4 - low M o d erate. 192 The observations that were occasionally re corded In the spaces following the scale questions Indi cated certain tendencies of the counselors to be too verbally active, particularly In regard to asking questions, to "hear" rather than to "listen" at times, and to subtly Inject their own value judgments Into the discussion by the wording of questions or in the daboration of counselees' remarks. The interscorer reliability of the four ratings plus the two on the student scale was assessed by convert ing the numerical values to ranks and employing Spearman's rho formula for determining the degree of correlation be tween rank-differences (40, p. 288). The obtained rho coefficients ranged from .14 to .82 (Table 20). Only one of the three coefficients achieved significance at the .05 level. 193 TABLE 20 Rho Coefficients of Six Rating Scale Scores on Judges1 Questionnaire Relating to the Educational Group Counseling Behavior of the Students and Teacher- Counselors rho £ Judges 1 and 2 .14 N.S. Judges 1 and 3 .21 N.S. Judges 2 and 3 .82 .05 194 Summary This chapter has presented the comparative test findings on the several criterion measures o£ semester changes In reading performance and school and social attitudes for the student groups participating in the experimental and control programs. A number of supple mentary Instruments and procedures provided additional diagnostic and evaluative data, quantitative and quali tative in nature, regarding the school and social atti tudes of the retarded readers, the effects of the counsel ing program, and the counseling behavior of the students and their teacher-counselors. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS I. SUMMARY Purpo8e_of the study*--The present Investigation aimed at the exploration of the theoretical, methodological, and organizational features, and the treatment effects, of an experimental program for the correction of reading disability which combined specialized instructional methods with therapeutic procedures specifically directed toward the learning and school attitudes of the retarded readers. The therapeutic aspect of this treatment approach entailed a program of educational group counseling which was design ed primarily to serve educational objectives but did not preclude attention to other factors influencing the total personality functioning of the students. The counseling program has been described in relation to: (1) the development of the group counseling technique as an appropriate therapeutic tool for the treatment of school problems, (2) the training program for the preparation and guidance of the reading counselors, and (3) the educational group counseling methods and procedures. The experimental treatment effects have been sur- 195 196 veyed In reporting the findings on the criterion measures of semester changes In reading performance and school and social attitudes. Additional data of a quantitative and qualitative nature were provided by the several diagnostic and evaluative Instruments and procedures that were develop ed largely in connection with the counseling program. Procedures.— The research program was conducted during the spring semester of 1963 at the University of Southern California Reading Center. The total number of students participating in the investigation was thirty-six, with an equal division of elementary level and secondary level subjects. One-half of the students on each of the two school levels were included in the experimental group; the other half comprised the control group. The latter group received the traditional two consecutive hours per week of remedial reading instruction while the experimental group students were given one hour of remedial reading instruction and one hour of group counseling. Both pro grams were carried on simultaneously, on Saturday mornings, for a period of three months. The s e l e c ti o n p ro c e s s in v o lv e d th e m atching o f e ig h te e n a p p lic a n t s tu d e n ts w ith a n o th e r e ig h te e n a p p lic a n t s tu d e n ts on th e b a s is o f "m atched p a i r s " : sc h o o l l e v e l (e le m e n ta ry o r s e c o n d a ry ), s e x , a g e , re a d in g l e v e l , IQ, so cio -eco n o m ic s t a t u s , and e th n ic background. Each member 197 of a matched pair was appointed to a sub-group of one of two equated elementary level or secondary level groups. An Independent party later randomly assigned each of the equated groups to either the experimental or control program. The resulting number of elementary level groups was four: two experimental sub-groups and two control sub-groups* with four or five students in each sub-group. This arrangement was duplicated on the secondary level. Each of the four remedial teachers was randomly assigned by the same independent party to one of the sub groups receiving the experimental treatment and to one of the sub-groups receiving the control treatment on the school level that was appropriate to his or her profession al background. The individual and group training sessions in educational group counseling principles and techniques were continuous from the pre-experimental period to the termination of the program. Principal findings.— The major hypotheses that were tested in this study related to the two main factors of reading performance and school and social attitudes. The criterion measures of semester changes in reading ability were the Gilmore Oral Reading Test (Accuracy score) and the Gates Reading Survey, For reasons that have been dis cussed in Section II, A,l. of Chapter III, the Gates test scores did not receive the comprehensive statistical treat- 198 ment that was accorded the scores on the Gilmore. A purely statistical procedure was also employed to provide external criterion measures for comparing the performances of the students in the experimental and control programs. This involved the matching of a "hypothetical control group" with the total research group on one variable: rate of annual reading growth. The analysis of semester changes in school and social attitudes was tested by a Sentence- Completion instrument which was provided with a special scoring method for quantifying the responses. The two major hypotheses will be restated in the positive (rather than null) form in which they were first presented in Chapter I. A review of the evidence relevant to these hypotheses, as well as to the several related sub hypotheses, will follow. 1. Reading Performance: Major hypothesis. A three-month program of one hour per week of reading instruction and one hour per week of educational group counseling (Experimental treatment) will produce gains in the reading performance of a group of retarded readers comparable to those of a matched group of retarded readers which has experienced a two- hour per week program consisting of reading instruction alone (Control treatment). 199 In a d d itio n to th e above h y p o th e s is w hich p e r ta in e d to th e c h ie f a r e a o f i n t e r e s t * th e m ain e f f e c t o f t r e a t m e n ts, i . e . , th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e betw een th e mean changes f o r th e two tre a tm e n t program s (E x p e ri m e n ta l and C o n tr o l) » a number o f r e l a t e d su b -h y p o th e se s w hich p e r ta in e d t o th e m ain e f f e c t o f th e c o n tr o l v a r i a b le — sc h o o l l e v e l —and th e s e v e r a l i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s o f tr e a tm e n ts and l e v e l s w ere t e s t e d . T hese su b -h y p o th e se s w ere co n cern ed w ith th e fo llo w in g o p e r a tio n s : a . th e m ain e f f e c t o f sc h o o l l e v e l s , i . e . , th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e betw een th e mean changes f o r th e two sch o o l l e v e ls (E lem en tary and S e c o n d a ry ). b . th e i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t o f tre a tm e n ts and l e v e l s , i . e . , th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e betw een th e E x p e rim e n ta l and C o n tro l mean change d i f f e r e n c e a t th e E lem en tary l e v e l and th e E x p e rim e n ta l and C o n tro l mean change d i f f e r e n c e a t th e S econdary l e v e l . c . th e sim p le e f f e c t s o f tr e a tm e n ts , i . e . , the significance of the difference between the mean changes for the two treatment programs at: (1) the Elementary level, and (2) the Secondary level. d . th e sim p le e f f e c t s o f l e v e l s , l , e . » th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e betw een th e mean changes f o r th e two sc h o o l l e v e l s o f: (1) the Experimental group, and (2) the Control group. 200 Summary o f f i n d in g s . —T h ere was no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een th e mean s c o re changes f o r th e two tre a tm e n t g ro u p s (G ilm o re )* I t may be s t a t e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e r e s u l t s s u s ta in e d th e m ajo r h y p o th e s is t h a t th e r e w ould be com parable g a in s in re a d in g p erfo rm an ce f o r th e m atched groups r e c e iv in g th e two tre a tm e n t pro g ram s. The findings were also negative in regard to the comparison between school levels and the analysis of the over-all interaction effect of treatments and levels (Gilmore). A significant difference (at the .01 level) was obtained, however, between the mean changes for the two treatment programs at the Elementary level--in favor of the Control group (Gilmore). The findings on the Gates Reading Survey and the statistical analyses based upon a Hypothetical Control group also indicated that the Ele mentary Control group was more successful in improving its reading status than was the Elementary Experimental group. On the other hand, there was no evidence pointing to a differential performance on the part of the two Se condary level treatment groups. The examination of the mean changes for the two school levels within the Experimental treatment revealed a statistically significant difference (.05 level) in favor of the Secondary group (Gilmore). The Gates findings 201 and an analysis of the data provided by the Hypothetical Control group also pointed to the superior performance of the Secondary Experimental group when a comparison was made with the changes registered by the Elementary Experi mental group. The same statistical operation was conducted for the two school levels within the Control treatment which, however, produced no significant finding. An analysis of the influence of the teacher factor (Treatments x Teachers) was made for each of the school levels, but in both Instances there were no significant main or interaction effects. 2* School and Social Attitudes: Major hypothesis. A three-month program of one hour per week of reading instruction and one hour per week of educational group counsel ing (Experimental treatment) will produce a significantly greater measure of improvement in the school and social attitudes of a group of retarded readers than that achieved by a matched group of retarded readers which has experienced a two-hour per week program con sisting of reading instruction alone (Control treatment)• The above hypothesis referred to the main effect.of 202 tre a tm e n ts » i . e . , th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw een th e mean changes f o r th e two tre a tm e n t program s (E x p e rim e n ta l and C o n tr o l) . A s e r i e s o f r e l a t e d sub h y p o th e se s , p a r a l l e l to th o s e l i s t e d above f o r th e m easu re m ent o f re a d in g p e rfo rm a n c e , w ere t e s t e d . T hese su b h y p o th e se s r e f e r r e d to th e fo llo w in g o p e r a tio n s : (1) th e m ain e f f e c t o f sc h o o l l e v e l s (E lem entary and S e c o n d a ry )» (2) the interaction effect of treatments and levels, (3) the simple effects of treatments, and (4) the simple effects of levels* Summary o f f i n d i n g s . - -The r e s u l t a on th e S e n te n c e - C om pletion T e s t d e m o n stra te d a v e ry s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e (.0 1 l e v e l ) betw een th e mean changes f o r th e two tre a tm e n ts i n re g a rd to th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f more p o s i t i v e sc h o o l and s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s — i n fa v o r o f th e E x p e rim e n ta l gro u p . The m ajo r h y p o th e s is , w hich had p r e d ic te d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r m easure o f im provem ent in th e s e a t t i t u d i n a l a r e a s f o r th e c o u n se le d g ro u p , h a s , th e r e f o r e , been c l e a r l y s u p p o rte d by th e f in d in g s . The t e s t i n g o f th e tre a tm e n ts by l e v e l s i n t e r a c t i o n and th e s e v e r a l e f f e c t s o f le v e l s p roduced n o n - s ig n if ic a n t c r i t i c a l r a t i o s a lth o u g h m ost o f th e e f f e c t o f th e E x p e ri m e n ta l tre a tm e n t a p p e a re d to d e r iv e from th e E lem en tary l e v e l . An a n a ly s is o f th e mean change s c o re s o f th e E x p e rim e n ta l and C o n tro l groups a t th e E lem en tary l e v e l 203 re v e a le d a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e . In fa v o r o f th e form er g ro u p , a t th e .01 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . The d if f e r e n c e b e tw een th e mean changes f o r th e two tre a tm e n t program s on th e Secondary l e v e l p roved to be n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . Discussion*— The findings on the comparison measures of reading performance indicate that while Elementary level students tend to show greater improvement in reading when they have been in a two-hour per week remedial reading pro gram than when they have been In a two-hour per week com bined program of remedial reading and counseling, that Secondary level students tend to show an equivalent degree of improvement in reading from a two-hour per week com bined program as from a two-hour per week remedial reading program. A factor that may be significantly related to these differential findings for the two school levels is that Elementary level students with reading disabilities are not, as a group, as relatively retarded in reading skills as Secondary level students with such disabilities. In this Investigation, for example, the mean reading retar dation score of the total Secondary group was more than one standard deviation higher than that of the total Ele mentary group, and the mean rate of annual reading growth was about one semester higher for the latter school level than for the former school level. 204 I t i s su g g ested * th e re fo re * t h a t th e co m p arativ e r a t e s o f re a d in g g a in s m ig h t re a s o n a b ly be e x p e c te d to be more u n ifo rm f o r th e more r e ta r d e d tre a tm e n t groups on th e Secondary l e v e l- - c o n s id e r in g t h e i r p r e v io u s ly d e m o n strated slo w er r a t e s o f re a d in g g a in s - - th a n f o r th e two tre a tm e n t g roups on th e E lem en tary l e v e l . E lem en tary r e ta r d e d re a d e rs may a ls o have l e s s s tr o n g ly c o n d itio n e d r e s i s t a n c e p a t t e r n s to re a d in g th a n S econdary r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s b ec au se o f t h e i r s h o r te r p e r io d o f ex p o su re to sc h o o l problem s and th e a tte n d a n t f e e lin g s o f f r u s t r a t i o n and f a i l u r e . They may, c o n s e q u e n tly , be b e t t e r p re p a re d on th e em o tio n a l le v e l to b e n e f it from an a d d it io n a l h o u r o f re a d in g i n s t r u c t i o n . I f one w ere to a c c e p t such a th e o ry o f " c o n d itio n e d r e s i s t a n c e p a t t e r n s ," th e r e s u l t s on th e S en ten ce -C o m p letio n T e s t , w hich e n t a i l e d a r e v e r s a l o f th e ra n k s ta n d in g s o f th e two E lem entary g ro u p s and th e same n o n - s ig n if ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e two Secondary g ro u p s, would a p p e a r t o conform to l o g i c a l e x p e c ta tio n . As E lem entary l e v e l s tu d e n ts w ith re a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s h av e n o t (a s a group) e x p e rie n c e d a s p r o tr a c te d a p e rio d o f academ ic r e t a r d a t i o n a s hav e Secondary l e v e l s tu d e n ts (a s a group) w ith re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s , i t w ould fo llo w from t h i s view t h a t th e f o r mer group would n o t have s u f f e r e d th e d e le te r io u s e f f e c t s upon p e rs o n a l and s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s and a d ju stm e n t 205 to the extent that would have been the case with the latter group. In other words» the younger students would not yet have constructed as strong emotional barriers to changes In the direction of more positive school and social atti tudes as had the older students. The Elementary level re tarded readers were again able to demonstrate a greater capacity to profit from remedial treatment) whether of a specialized reading or of a counseling nature, than the Secondary level group. The f in d in g t h a t th e E lem en tary n o n -c o u n se le d g roups shoved s i g n i f i c a n t im provem ent I n re a d in g p erfo rm an ce (.0 5 le v e l) b u t n o t i n sc h o o l and s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s d o es n o t r e p r e s e n t a p arad o x In th e l i g h t o f th e commonly ob se rv e d f a c t t h a t re a d in g im provem ent a lo n e h a s been no g u a ra n te e o f p ro g re s s I n o v e r - a l l le a r n in g a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r. The differential findings for the Elementary coun seled groups - in the opposite direction - would also seem to Indicate that there is no one-to-one relationship be tween improvement in reading skills and improvement in school and social attitudes. Within the limits of the present data, this implies that a corrective program for the improvement of both reading performance and personal- social adjustment would require the combined use of appropriate instructional and therapeutic methods rather 206 than the employment of one form of treatment alone* Such a theoretical formulation favors the reading plus therapy approach advocated by Tierney (93) and others (see Chapter II, Section IV,C). Supplementary findings*— Adjunctive to the above comparison measures of pre- and post-program test perfor mance, a number of Instruments and procedures of both an evaluative and descriptive character were devised for the study. They provided three main categories of findings in terms of purpose and areas of exploration. The findings within each of these categories will be presented in the form of summary statements. C ateg o ry I . In s tru m e n ts and P ro c e d u re s Employed t o A ssess P re v a le n t S tu d e n t A ttitu d e s R e la te d to Home-School B eh av io r A. P i c t u r e - I n t e r p r e t a t i o n T e s t 1. The PIT provided corroborative evidence for the findings on the Sentence-Completion Test in parallel attl- tudinal areas associated with personal-social functioning at home and at school. 2. A significant coefficient of correlation (.05 level) was obtained between the positive reaction scores on the PIT and SCT»II for the total research group. 3. An intra-school level analysis revealed the 207 same degree of relationship between the positive reaction scores on the two tests for the Secondary level group but not for the Elementary level group. B. Parent Interviews 1. In fifty-six per cent of the interviews, the parents reported a deficiency in the motivational area as being a contributory factor in their children1s scholastic difficulties. 2. In eighty-one per cent of the conferences, the children were described as being generally uncommunicative in regard to sharing their feelings about learning and school experiences with their parents. C. Student Affective and Behavioral Reactions of a Negative Character toward Home and School Authority This instrument was Part I of the questionnaire that was submitted to the three independent judges. The find ings were based upon the evidence provided by the excerpts from the tape recordings of the group discussions (from a total of thirty-six counseling sessions-nine meetings per group. 1. In identifying several types of affective and behavioral reactions of a negative character which were 208 commonly displayed by the students toward adult authority, the judges reported the following tendencies: (a) primarily hostile-type feelings toward parents and teachers, (b) pas sive non-compliant behavior, e.g., "avoidance/' "withdraw al," "deceit," toward parents, and (c) generally passive m m -compliant, but occasionally overtly-aggresslve behavior toward teachers. 2. Certain differences in degree were described by the judges in regard to the negative reactions that were manifested in the relationships of the counselees with parents, on the one hand, and with teachers, on the other: (a) the students tended to be more fearful of their parents than of their teachers, (b) they were more deeply resentful of their parents than of their teachers, and (c) the stu dents were more openly defiant, e.g., "baiting," "tormen ting," in their behavior with teachers than with their parents. Category II. Instruments Employed to Ascertain the Effects of the Counseling Experience upon Student Self- Understanding and Teacher Insight Into Student Home-School Attitudes and Behavior A. Student Evaluations of Group Discussions 209 The findings on the post-program student evaluation £orms may be summarized as follows: 1. The counselees rated (on five-point scales) those aspects of the group discussions that related to feelings about school and reading behavior as contributing most to their self-understanding. 2. Other positive-type appraisals of the counseling program that were reported by the counselees* which were included in the response material on other sections of the instrument* referred to: a. new insights into their emotional reactions to school difficulties; b. a deeper realization of* and reassurance from* the fact that other students ex perienced similar feelings about their reading and school problems; c. a greater willingness to share feelings with their school teachers about these problems; d. friendlier relations with classmates as a result of diminished feelings of resentment toward their more highly-achieving peers; e. more effective methods of communicating their needs for parental help when in difficulty. 210 3. The group discussions were described as being most help£ul In regard to providing an opportunity £or the sharing o£ Ideas and feelings about mutual problems. 4. The negative-type observations that were re corded were chiefly related to the lack of complete par ticipation » at times» of some of the group members: either by inattention (elementary level groups) or by a reluctance on the part of individual members to talk about their own experiences (secondary level groups). 5. All of the counselees Indicated their recommen dations for similar group discussions for other students with reading difficulties. B. Teacher Evaluations of Group Discussions« I and II The first of the two post-program questionnaires that were completed by the four teacher-counselors requested an evaluation of the effects of the counseling experience upon student self-understandings. The second instrument entailed an assessment of the effects of the program upon their own professional understandings of the affective factors involved in the school and home behavior of their students. The results may be most concisely stated as follows: 1. The rating scale findings on the two teacher forms were in agreement with the results on the scales 211 contained In the student evaluation £orm in assigning the highest ratings to that aspect of the group discussions which pertained to school situations. 2. The teacher-counselors viewed the counseling experience as having been most helpful to the students in providing a permissive atmosphere which encouraged free expression of feelings and in enabling them to achieve an identification with other students who had shared their reactions to school and home difficulties. 3. The group discussions revealed to the teacher- counselors the extremity of the students' feelings of frustration in the reading and learning areas and the manifold effects of this reaction upon school behavior. 4. The teacher-counselors felt that the program had value for them as a training experience in the employ ment of group counseling methods. 5. The shortcomings of the program were regarded by some of the teacher-counselors as emanating primarily from their own professional inadequacies in providing leadership to the groups. The suggestion was made for a more flexible approach to the matter of the time periods allotted for the counseling sessions. 6. The teacher-counselors unanimously recommended similar group discussions for other students with reading problems. 212 Category III. Procedures Employed to Describe and Evaluate the Leadership Behavior of the Teacher-Counselors in the Educational Group Counseling Sessions Teacher-Counselor Leadership Behavior This instrument was Part II of the questionnaire that was completed by the three independent judges who had monitored the tape recordings of the counseling sessions. In reviewing the leadership behavior of the four teacher-counselors in the discussion groups* the judges indicated the following: 1. The positive aspects of teacher-counselor be havior were evidenced mainly by the general counseling atmosphere within the groups* e.g.* "warm*" "permissive*" "accepting." 2. The negative aspects of their behavior related* for the most part* to procedural factors as exemplified by tendencies toward excessive counselor direction* verba lization* and intellectuallzation. Discussion.— The Picture-Interpretatlon Test findings suggest the feasibility of the combined use (with both individuals and groups) of several projective-type 213 Instruments for the diagnosis of particular attitudlnal factors that may be considered to be related to learning and school behavior. An undertaking of this nature would entail* of course* the development of a test battery that Included measures that were highly Intercorrelated. The view that certain negative attitudlnal factors are frequently concomitants of reading disability re ceived strong support from the data provided by the parent interviews. In a majority of the cases, the parents re ported that the^r children had not been "trying" to do better In their reading and other school tasks. The second finding, which pertained to the inhibitory character of the communicative behavior of the students, would seem to be consistent with the teacher observations of underachieving male readers that have been reported by Lumpkin. He states that these students were most frequently described (follow ing teacher dndeavors to engage them in discussions of a personal nature) as "volunteering nothing, must be pumped"; overachieving male readers were seen, on the other hand, as generally cooperative (47,p. 214). The questionnaire that related to student counseling behavior which was completed by the three independent judges provided evidence that appeared to be in accord with the research findings reported by Spache (88). His investigation of fifty poor readers (reviewed in Chapter 2X4 I I o f t h i s stu d y ) le d him to th e c o n c lu sio n th a t th e av erag e re ta rd e d r e a d e r 's r e la ti o n s w ith a d u lt a u th o r ity tended to e n t a i l a tte m p ts to av o id o v e r tly a g re s s iv e con f l i c t and to s u b s ti tu te p a s s iv e -ty p e r e s is ta n c e to a d u lt e x p e c ta tio n s . The s tu d e n t and te a c h e r e v a lu a tio n s o f th e c o u n se l in g program re v e a le d th a t th e r e was a consensus in re g a rd to what th e co u n se lo rs and c o u n se le es co n sid e re d to be th e most h e lp f u l a s p e c ts o f th e group d is c u s s io n s e s s io n s . Both groups o f p a r tic ip a n ts s tr e s s e d th e o p p o rtu n itie s fo r f r e e e x p re ssio n o f f e e lin g s and fo r a c h ie v in g a d eep er aw areness among th e s tu d e n ts t h a t th ey sh ared many reactions to school and o th e r problem s. I I . CONCLUSIONS W ithin th e lim ita tio n s o f th e d a ta p ro v id ed by t h i s one stu d y , th e fin d in g s su g g est c e r ta in c o n c lu sio n s in re g a rd to some o f th e a re a s t h a t were under in v e s tig a tio n . C onclusions based upon th e h y p o th eses employed in th e stu d y . 1. E lem entary and Secondary le v e l re ta rd e d re a d e r s , when c o n sid ered as an u n d if f e r e n tia te d sch o o l group, ten d to show an e q u iv a le n t degree o f improvement in re a d in g from a tw o-hour p e r week re a d in g p lu s co u n se lin g program as from a tw o-hour p e r week re a d in g program a lo n e . 215 2. E lem entary and Secondary le v e l r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s , when c o n sid e re d a s an u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d sch o o l g ro u p , te n d to show g r e a te r im provem ent in sc h o o l and s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s from a tw o-hour p e r week re a d in g p lu s c o u n se lin g program th a n from a tw o-hou r p e r week re a d in g program a lo n e . 3 . E lem entary le v e l r e ta r d e d re a d e rs a p p e a r to p o sse ss a g r e a te r a b i l i t y to b e n e f it from re m e d ia l t r e a t m ent, w h eth er o f a s p e c ia liz e d re a d in g o r o f a c o u n s e lin g n a tu r e , th a n do Secondary le v e l r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s . The im p lic a tio n , in t h i s re g a rd , i s t h a t younger s tu d e n ts may be more p s y c h o lo g ic a lly r e c e p tiv e (m o tiv a tio n , " s e t , " p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l a d ju s tm e n t, e t c . ) to c o r r e c tiv e - ty p e program s th a n a r e o ld e r , a d o le s c e n t-a g e , s tu d e n ts . 4. T here i s no o n e -to -o n e r e la tio n s h i p betw een im provem ent in re a d in g p erform ance and im provem ent in sch o o l and s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s . The im p lic a tio n i s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a c o r r e c tiv e program t h a t i s aim ed a t th e im provem ent o f b o th re a d in g s k i l l s and p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l fu n c tio n in g c a l l s f o r th e com b in e d u se o f a p p r o p ria te m ethods o f re m e d ia l i n s t r u c t i o n and th e r a p e u tic a s s is ta n c e r a t h e r th a n one form o f t r e a t ment a lo n e . C o n clu sio n s n o t d i r e c t l y r e la t e d to th e h y p o th e se s employed in th e s tu d y . 1. The ev id en c e p ro v id e d by th e p re s e n t stu d y 216 supports the feasibility of a projective test battery con sisting of several highly-intercorrelated instruments for the diagnosis and evaluation of attltudinal factors asso ciated with learning and school behavior. 2. Parents tend to view a low level of academic effort as a preeminent factor in their children's reading and learning difficulties. 3. Retarded readers tend to avoid discussion of their feelings about learning and school experiences with their parents. 4. Students with reading disability manifest their negative reactions to adult authority by resorting, most typically* to passive non-compliant behavior with parents and teachers; they also display* however* occasional tendencies toward aggressive-defiant behavior in their relations with teachers. 5. Educational group counseling procedures can, by providing a social atmosphere conducive to the free expression of feelings* facilitate emotional catharsis and promote - through the process of identification - mutual support among the group members in relation to their common school and social problems. 217 III. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 1. The attempt to adapt group counseling procedures to the specialized conditions and purposes of an education al setting andv more particularly, to those of a program for the treatment of reading disability has been a rela tively recent undertaking. The extreme complexity of the factors involved in this venture would seem to require con tinued scientific research along many lines of exploration. 2. One of the key features in any therapeutic treatment program concerns the quality of its professional leadership. The counselor education departments of many of our schools of higher learning are in a most advan tageous position to assist in the training of reading counselors In collaboration with the remedial reading services at these Institutions and by utilizing their own field work programs in the public schools. Such activity would also ensure the dissemination of information about new treatment methods with retarded readers among all pupil personnel workers in the schools. 3. The present study has indicated the contribution that group counseling can make to the purely diagnostic aspect of the problem of reading disability. An inquiry into a program entailing a limited number of group counsel- 218 lng sessions for purposes of group diagnosis of academic failure might prove the procedure to be of value in certain school situations Where longer-term treatment programs would not be practicable. 4. Additional data on the relationship of the group counseling approach to individual counseling methods could produce greater clarity in regard to the Indications for the most complementary use of the two procedures in specific cases. 5. The present investigation has suggested the need for a differential approach to the treatment require ments of elementary and secondary level retarded readers. The greater severity of the educational and personal- social problems of the adolescent group calls for special attention from reading research workers in relation to the examination of more effective treatment methods with these students than have heretofore been employed. 6. A largely neglected aspect of past research activity in the field of reading disability has been the development of refined test Instruments for the diagnosis and evaluation of attitudinal problems related to poor learning and school performance. Such measures could make a very significant contribution to the scientific appraisal of personality difficulties in the reading- learning process 219 7. The experience of the present study has exempli fied the preeminent role played by parent-child Interaction factors In reading disability. Much experimentation Is needed in regard to the Identification of the most appro priate techniques for Involving parents In remedial treat ments. It would appear that special therapeutic programs entailing the participation of parents* and possibly sib lings* as in family counseling may be required to deal more directly with problems of poor parent-child communi cation. 8. One of the chief problem areas In the school and social behavior of many of the retarded readers who participated In the present Investigation pertained to their reactions to teacher authority. 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Seeman, J. and Edwards, B. A therapeutic approach to reading difficulties. J. Consulting Psy chology, 1954, 18, 451-4537 Shaw, M. C. Group counseling experiment falls to aid underachievers. Research Brief, Bureau of Pupil Personnel Services, California State Department of Education, 1962, 4, 1-3. Shaw, M. C. and Mahler, C. A. A Study of Group Counseling with Parents and^Underachieving students. Bureau ot Pupil Personnel Servlces, Calltornia State Department of Education, 1962. Sherman* M* Psychiatric insights into reading problems. Clinical Studies in Reading I. 1949* 68* 130-132:------------------------ Siegel, I. M. The Personality Structure of Children with ReadinflTPrsabiiitv as Compared Children Presenting OtKer ciinicaT"Problems. Unpublished Doctor*8 Dissertation* New York University* 1951. Smith* N. B. Reading; A Tool for Learning. Washington, D. C.: Association tor Childhood Education* 1938. Smith* N. B. Research on reading and the emotions. School and Society, 1955* 81* 8-10. 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Some Personality Correlates of Reading Disability, unpublished Doctor's Dissertation* Stanford University* 1956. (96) (97) (98) (99) (100) (101) 229 Vorhaus, P. G. Personality patterns seen In child ren with reading problems and In adults with cor responding problems. National Association Women Deans and Counselors J., 1961, 24, 104-105. Warner, W. L., Meeker, M., and Eells, K. Social Class In America; A Manual of Procedure tor the Measurement of ’ Social""status. Chicago: Science kesearch Associates,- 1949. Warters, J. High School Personnel Work Today. New York: nctiraw-Hili, jlvdo. Witty, P. Reading success and emotional adjustment. Elementary English» 1950, 27, 281-296. Wright, E. W. Multiple counseling: why? when? how? Personnel and Guidance J.. 1959• 37• 551-5571---------------------- Zolkos, H. A. What research says about emotional factors In retardation In reading. Elementary School J.. 1951, 51, 512-518. A P P E N D I C E S APPENDIX A FORMS AND INSTRUMENTS USED 232 FORM 1 SENTENCE STEMS SELECTED FOR INCLUSION IN THE SENTENCE - COMPLETION TEST A N D LISTED UNDER THEIR RESPECTIVE ATTITUD- INAL AREAS A. Interpersonal Figures 1. Family a . G en eral 4 . Our fa m ily 58. At home * ( 5 .) When my p a re n ts a rg u e d b . M other 13. M y m other (1 3 .) When I th in k o f my m other c . F a th e r 38. M y f a th e r 2 . Non-Family a . S chool A u th o rity 56. M y t e a c h e r s ______ b . P e e rs 12. F r i e n d s _________________ 22. Boys _ _ _ 48. G i r l s * Item num bers in p a re n th e s e s r e p r e s e n t stem s s e le c te d from L i s t A w h ile th e r e s t o f th e stem s were o b ta in e d from L is tB 233 Page 2 - Form 1 (continued) B. W ishes 2 . The f u tu r e 9 . I f I 19. M v g r e a t e s t lo n g in g 24. I f p e o p le w ould o n ly 29. I s e c r e t l y 39. I envv 50. M v g r e a t e s t a m b itio n 53. I t r v to g e t ( 6 .) I n eed to (1 0 .) I f o n ly mv m o th er would C. L e a rn in g - S ch o o l A s s o c ia tio n s 1. M v sc h o o l work 64. M v e d u c a tio n (1 7 .) I l i k e sc h o o l i f 234 SENTENCE-COMPLETION and PICTURE-INTERPRETATION CHECK LISTS F ora 2 1 , Nana; _2j Croup i 3. D ata; P o s itiv e R aacclona N e u tra l R e a c tio n a N egative R eactlo n a I Of C J u u c c n t; Uh + 4 a <u V ) o > c o o JO e _ > » 4 u > * H 9 £ U U O \ A 0 O 1 R O 7 2 O U • c #■ * It c o o > J < i e >,o ^ (ft r-» 0 } H M Q u u W Q l O d L ac< I *H * 9 90 •-« U • p i i n c e l«*r*4 A. In te rp a ra o n a I F ie u re s 1. Fam ily a . G eneral P i c tu r e - I n te r p r e t a t io n 58 (5) b . Mother P l c tu r e - I n te r p r a t a t lo n "IT TH 7 B5 c . F a th e r P ic tu r e - I n te r p r e ta tio n -M- X G 2 . Non-Family a* School A u th o rity 58 P ic tu r e - I n te r p r e ta tio n X B b . P e e rs 12 22 48 P l c tu r e - I n te r p r e t a t lo n VI Column T o ta ls ; Grand T o ta la : T 235 SENTENCE-COMPLETIC and PICTUKE- INTERPRETATI CHECK LISTS Form 2 (contin > N P o sitiv e Neutral Negative Kcactions Reactions Reactions O N tued) Acccptancc- Compliance Pleasure Lovc- Generosity Achievemcnt- Security u c > U 4 J V ) 4 ) j Unclear I - H n u •H U 1 c o a Denial- Avoidance ► » U V X c < H o scility - Agpression F a ilu re - In secu rity Despondency B. Wishes 2 9 19 24 29 39 SO 53 ! P ic tu r e - ln te r p r e ta tio n UW 1 tf.V 1 t Column T o ta ls: Grand T o ta ls: j C. LeamlnR- School A ssociations ! • -------- 1 64 < 1 7 )1 ----- 1 P ic tu r e -ln te r p re ta tio n 1 1 111 Column T o ta ls : XI (g) Grand T o ta ls: — - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. --------- - FORM 3 SENTENCE-COMPLETION TEST G e n e ra l S c o rin g G uide 236 Hyphenated categories, i.e., Achievement-Securitv. Acceptance-Compliance. etc., to be regarded as and/or categories. Blanks and "don*t know" responses— scored as Denial- Avoidance. Non-"feeling" responses— scored as Non-Committal. Content or classification of a "feeling" or general message not clear scored as Unclear. Specific Responses; Unclear: "O .K ." . . . "all right" . . . "funny" . . . (hedging responses generally) "sometimes" . . . "some" . . . "almost" "can be" . . . "pretty good (nice)," etc. Restriving: "try (wish) to do better" Acceptance-Compliance: "try to get along with" . . . "do my schoolwork" Achievement-Securitv: mention of educational or voca tional goals, i.e., Wishes sec tion: "could read" . . . "could be a nurse" . . . "to be an engineer," etc. #1 My school work "is hard"--scored as Unclear. ........................ "is hard for me"— scored as Failure-Insecuritv. ........................ "important" . ! . "average" . . . "normal" . . . "fair," etc.— scored as Unclear. ........................ "is good"--scored as Achieve ment Security. Page 2 - Form 3 (continued) 237 6 . #2 The f u tu r e ___________" i s g o o d " --s c o re d a s A ch ie v e ment-Securitv . 7 . # (6 ) I n eed to " stu d y (m o re )" --s c o re d a s Un c l e a r . ...................................................... "im prove r e a d in g " - - s c o r e d a s F a i l u r e - I n s e c u r i t y . 8 . # 1 2 , 13, 38, 56 Friends My mother My father . My teachers . "good" . . . " n ic e " . . . — sc o re d a s P le a s u r e . 9 . # (1 7 ) I l ik e sc h o o l i f I f d e s ir e i s u n r e a l i s tic re: school requirements— scored as Hostility-Aggression. .................... If inadequacy is expressed— scored as Failure-Insecurity. 10. #39 I envy _______"my f a t h e r , " e t c . — sc o re d a s U n c le a r. 11. #64 M y e d u c a tio n " i s im p o rta n t ( to me) . . . " a l l r i g h t " . . . " a v e ra g e " . . . "O .K ." . . . " f a i r " - - s c o r e d a s U n c le a r. .................................................." i s good"— sc o re d a s A chievem ents S e c u r ity 238 FO R M 4 PICTURE-INTERPRETATION TEST Form I (Male S tudents) 1. Card I : This p ic tu re shows a fam ily . What i s happen ing now? How does the boy f e e l a t th is moment? . . . How does th e g i r l fe e l? 2. Card A7: T his p ic tu re shows a mother and son. What i s happening now? How does th e boy f e e l a t th is moment? 3. Card IV ( b ) : T his p ic tu re shows a fa th e r and son. What i s happening now? How does th e boy f e e l a t th is moment? 4 . Card X ( b ) : This p ic tu re shows a te a c h e r and stu d e n t. What is happening now? How does th e s tu - . den t f e e l a t t h i s moment? 5. Card VI: T his p ic tu re shows a boy and a g i r l playing a checkers game. How does th e b o y -p lay er feel a t th i s moment? 6 . Card V III(b ): T his p ic tu re shows a boy who i s w ishing fo r som ething--w hat i s it ? Page 2 - FORM 4 (continued) 239 7. Card III: This picture shows a class with the teacher and a student standing. What is happening now? How does the student feel at this moment? 8. Card XI (g): This picture shows a student sitting in a classroom with a book. What is happen ing now? How does the student feel at this moment? 240 FORM 5 PICTURE-INTERPRETATION TEST Form I I (Fem ale S tu d e n ts ) 1. C ard I: T h is p ic t u r e shows a fa m ily . What i s happen in g now? How does th e g i r l f e e l a t t h i s moment? . . . How does th e boy f e e l? 2 . C ard B5: T h is p i c tu r e shows a m o th er and d a u g h te r. What i s h ap p en in g now? How does th e g i r l f e e l a t t h i s moment? 3 . C ard X (g ): T h is p i c tu r e shows a f a t h e r and d a u g h te r. What i s h ap p en in g now? How does th e g i r l f e e l a t t h i s moment? 4 . C ard X ( b ) : T h is p ic tu r e shows a te a c h e r and s tu d e n t. What i s hap p en in g now? How does th e s t u d e n t f e e l a t t h i s moment? 5 . C ard V I: T h is p i c tu r e shows a boy and a g i r l p la y in g a c h e c k e rs gam e. How does th e g i r l - p l a y e r f e e l a t t h i s moment? 6 . C ard V III ( g ) : T h is p i c t u r e shows a g i r l who i s w ish in g f o r so m eth in g --w h at i s i t ? Page 2 - FORM 5 (c o n tin u e d ) 241 7 . C ard I I I : T h is p i c t u r e shows a c l a s s w ith th e te a c h e r and a s tu d e n t s ta n d in g . What i s h ap p en in g now? How does th e s tu d e n t f e e l a t t h i s moment? 8 . C ard XI ( g ) : T h is p i c t u r e shows a s tu d e n t s i t t i n g in a c la ssro o m w ith a book. What i s happen in g now? How d o es th e s tu d e n t f e e l a t t h i s moment? 242 FORM 6 PICTURE-INTERPRETATION TEST G e n e ra l S c o rin g Guide 1 . Use d e s c r ip tiv e p a r t o f a re sp o n s e f o r c lu e s i f " f e e l in g " r e a c tio n i s n o t c l e a r . 2 . A pply, in g e n e r a l, same c r i t e r i a in s c o rin g as f o r th e S en ten ce -C o m p letio n T e s t . S p e c if ic R e sp o n se s: 1. P le a s u r e : "happy" . . . " l i k e s " 2 . A c h ie v e m e n t-S e c u ritv : " th in k s ( f e e l s ) h e /s h e w i l l w in" . . . "w ish e s f o r good g ra d e s" 3 . N on-C om m ittali n o n - " f e e lin g " re sp o n s e (o r w ish ) n o t c o n n e c te d w ith an e d u c a tio n a l o r v o c a t i o n a l g o a l. 4 . A n x ie ty : " w o rrie d " . . . " s c a re d " 5 . H o s tility - A g g r e s s io n : " d o e s n 't lik e " . . . "an g ry " 6 . F a i l u r e - I n s e c u r i t y : "w ish e s h e /s h e c o u ld be sm art" . . . em b a rra sse d . . . "asham ed" . . " f e e l s he w i l l lo s e " 7 . D espondencyi "bad" . . . " p r e t t y bad" . . . "sa d " , . . "unhappy" . . . " lo n e ly " . . . " s o r ry " 243 FORM 7 DESCRIPTION AND EVALUATION OF CERTAIN ASPECTS OF EDUCATIONAL GROUP COUNSELING BEHAVIOR OF STUDENTS AND TEACHER-COUNSELORS ■ r Through th e Medium o f Tape R eco rd in g s o f Group D is c u s s io n s 1 . S tu d e n t A f f e c tiv e and B e h a v io ra l R e a c tio n s o f a N egative C h a ra c te r tow ard Home and S chool A u th o rity A. D e s c rip tiv e A n a ly s is : 1. Q u e stio n I a . What a r e th e p r e v a le n t k in d s o f n e g a tiv e f e e l in g s t h a t th e s tu d e n ts e x p re ss, in th e c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s , tow ard a d u lt a u th o r ity f i g u r e s , i . e . , h o s t i l i t y , g u i l t , f e a r , e t c . 1) P a r e n ts : 2) T e a c h e rs: b . How a r e th e s e n e g a tiv e f e e lin g s e x p re s s e d b e h a v io r a lly to th e s e f i g u r e s , i . e . , o v e r t h o s t i l i t y ( a g g r e s s io n ) , p a s s iv e -n o n -c o m p li- ance (a v o id a n c e ), i n t r a p u n i t i v e ( s e l f - p u n is h in g ) b e h a v io r, e t c . 1) P a r e n t s : 2) T e a c h e rs : 2 . Q u estio n I I What s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d /o r d if f e r e n c e s a r e in e v id e n c e in re g a rd to th e a f f e c t i v e and b eh a v i o r a l r e a c tio n s o f a n e g a tiv e c h a r a c t e r , on th e p a r t o f th e s tu d e n ts , tow ard home v e r s u s sc h o o l a u th o r i t y f ig u r e s ? 244 Page 2 - FORM 7 (continued) B. R a tin g S c a le ; P le a s e p la c e a check mark a t th e number o f mid p o in t betw een th e two num bers t h a t you f e e l m ost c lo s e ly e x p re ss your o p in io n . 1. What d eg ree o f e m o tio n a l i n t e n s i t y was most commonly d is p la y e d by th e s tu d e n ts i n th e e x p re s s io n o f n e g a tiv e f e e lin g tow ard home a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e s : p a re n ts ? 1 2 3 4 _ . 5 * * * * * Not E v id e n t Low M oderate High Very High Comment: 2 . What d eg ree o f e m o tio n a l i n t e n s i t y was m ost commonly d is p la y e d by th e s tu d e n ts in th e e x p re s s io n o f n e g a tiv e f e e lin g s tow ard sch o o l a u th o r ity f i g u r e s : te a c h e rs ? 1 2 3 4 5 * i t it i t it Not E v id e n t Low M oderate High Very High Comment: I I . T ea ch er-C o u n se lo r L e a d e rsh ip B ehavior A. D e s c rip tiv e A n a ly s is : 1. Q u estio n I What o b s e rv a tio n can you make a b o u t th e i n d i v id u a l b e h a v io r o f th e fo u r te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs ? Page 3 - FORM 7 (continued) 245 T each er A; T each er B: T each er C: T each er D: 2 . Q u estio n I I What s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d /o r d if f e r e n c e s a r e in e v i dence in re g a rd to th e b e h a v io r o f th e fo u r te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs ( c o ll e c t i v e ly and w ith r e f e r ence to in d iv id u a l te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r s ) ? , i . e . , a c c e p tin g /d e m a n d in g , d i s t a n t / p r o t e c t i n g , d o m in an t/ w ith d raw in g , a c ti v e / p a s s i v e , i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e / e m o tio n a liz e , c la r ity /a m b ig u ity , e t c . B. R atin g S c a le : P le a s e p la c e a check m ark a t th e number o r m id -p o in t betw een th e two num bers t h a t you f e e l m ost c lo s e ly e x p re ss y our o p in io n . 1. What d eg ree o f su c c e ss was a c h ie v e d by th e te a c h e r-c o u n s e lo rs ( c o l l e c ti v e l y ) in en co u rag in g f r e e v e r b a l e x p re ss io n ? 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * * NoT e v id e n t Low M oderate High Very High Comment: Page 4 - FORM 7 (continued) 246 2 . What d e g re e o f su c c e s s was a c h ie v e d by th e te a c h e r- c o u n s e lo rs ( c o l l e c t i v e l y ) in a v o id in g v a lu e ju d g m ents? 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * * Not evident Low Moderate High Very High Comment: 3 . What d e g re e o f s u c c e s s was a c h ie v e d by th e te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo rs ( c o l l e c t i v e l y ) i n d e m o n s tra tin g s e n s i t i v i t y to s tu d e n t e x p re s s io n s o f f e e lin g s ? 1 2 3 4 5 * * ie ie ★ N ot evT dent "" Low M oderate H igh V ery H igh Comment: 4 . What d e g re e o f s u c c e s s was a c h ie v e d by th e te a c h e r- c o u n s e lo rs ( c o l l e c t i v e l y ) in s tim u la tin g s tu d e n t e x p r e s s io n s o f f e e lin g s ? 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * _ _ * Not evident Low Moderate High Very High Comment: Page 5 - FORM 7 (continued) 247 M isc e lla n e o u s S c a le s : I f th e above 6 s c a le s do n o t co v er what you b e lie v e to be (an ) im p o rta n t d im e n sio n (s) o f s tu d e n t a n d /o r te a c h e r - c o u n s e lo r c o u n se lin g b e h a v io r, p le a s e com plete th e q u e s t i o n ^ ) below and r a t e th e i t e m ( s ) . 1. What d eg ree o f 1 2 3 4 5 * * * ie * Not e v id e n t Low M oderate High Very High Comment: 2 . What d eg ree o f 1 2 3 ... 4 5 * * * * ie Not e v id e n t Low M oderate High Very High Comment: 3 . What d eg ree o f 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * ie Mot e v id e n t Low M oderate High Very High Comment: 248 Page 6 - FORM 7 (continued) 4 . What d eg ree o f 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * * _ Not e v id e n t Low M oderate High Very High Comment; 5 . What d eg ree o f 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * * No¥ e v id e n t ~ ~ Low M oderate High ~ ~ Very High Comment: 249 FORM 8 STUDENT EVALUATION OF GROUP DISCUSSION PERIODS W e w ould l i k e to have y our fra n k o p in io n s a b o u t th e group d is c u s s io n s e s s io n s in o rd e r to make p la n s f o r th e f u t u r e . P le a s e p la c e a check m ark a t th e number t h a t you th in k m ost c lo s e ly t e l l s how you f e e l . 1. Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r under s ta n d in g o f y o u r f e e lin g s ab o u t sch o o l? 1 2 3 4 5 •k k * * it None Very L i t t l e Some C o n sid e ra b ly Very Much l a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 above, p le a s e e x p la in w hat you have le a rn e d a b o u t your f e e l in g s . . . . Do you now do th in g s d i f f e r e n t l y ? . . . How? 2 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f y o u r f e e lin g s a b o u t re a d in g ? 1 2 3 4 5 * * * _ * _ None V e ry ~ L ittie Some C o n sid e ra b ly Very Much 2 a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 ab o v e, p le a s e e x p la in w hat you have le a rn e d ab o u t y our f e e l in g s . Do you now do th in g s d if f e r e n tl y ? . . . How? 3 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f your f e e lin g s ab o u t your sch o o l te a c h e rs ? 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * " k None Very L i t t l e Some C o n sid erab ly Very Much 3 a. I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 above, p le a s e e x p la in w hat you have le a rn e d a b o u t yo u r f e e l i n g s . . . Do you now do th in g s d i f f e r e n t l y ? . . . How? 250 Page 2 - FORM 8 (continued) 4 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f y o u r f e e lin g s a b o u t y o u r c la s s m a te s ? 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * * None Very L i t t l e Some C o n sid e ra b ly Very Much 4 a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 ab o v e, p le a s e e x p la in w hat you have le a rn e d ab o u t y o u r f e e l i n g s . . . . Do you now do th in g s d i f f e r e n t l y ? . . . How? 5 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f y o u r f e e l in g s a b o u t y o u r p a re n ts ? 1 2 3 4 5 i t i t * * * None "" Very L i t t l e Some C o n sid e ra b ly Very H igh 5 a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 ab o v e, p le a s e e x p la in w hat you have le a r n e d ab o u t y o u r f e e l in g s . . . . Do you now do th in g s d i f f e r e n t l y ? . . . How? 6 . What p a r t i c u l a r th in g s do you f e e l w ere m ost h e lp f u l a b o u t th e group d is c u s s io n s ? 7 . What p a r t i c u l a r th in g s do you f e e l w ere l e a s t h e lp f u l a b o u t th e group d is c u s s io n s ? 8 . Would you recommend s i m il a r group d is c u s s io n s f o r o th e r s tu d e n ts w ith re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s ? Yes_______ No________ 9 . P le a s e s t a t e h e re any th o u g h ts o r f e e lin g s a b o u t y o u r e x p e rie n c e in th e d is c u s s io n group t h a t you have n o t had an o p p o rtu n ity to e x p r e s s : 251 FORM 9 I TEACHER EVALUATION OF GROUP DISCUSSION PERIODS P le a s e p la c e a check mark a t th e number t h a t you f e e l m ost e x p re s s e s your o p in io n . 1. Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d th e s tu d e n ts to a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f t h e i r f e e lin g s a b o u t sch o o l? 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * * None Very L i t t l e Some C o n sid e ra b ly Very Much l a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 above, p le a s e e x p la in how th e s tu d e n ts have in d ic a te d t h e i r g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e s e f e e l in g s . 2 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d th e s tu d e n ts to a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f t h e i r f e e lin g s ab o u t re a d in g ? 1 2 3 4 5 i t i t i t i t i t None Very L i t t l e ~ "Some C o n sid e ra b ly V ery Much 2 a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 above, p le a s e e x p la in how th e s tu d e n ts have in d ic a te d t h e i r g r e a t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e s e f e e l in g s . 3 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d th e s tu d e n ts to a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f t h e i r f e e lin g s a b o u t t h e i r sc h o o l te a c h e rs ? 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * i t None V ery*"L ittle Some C o n sid erab ly Very Much 3 a. I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 above, p le a s e e x p la in how th e s tu d e n ts have in d ic a te d t h e i r g r e a te r u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e s e f e e l in g s . Page 2 - FORM 9 (continued) 252 4 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d th e s tu d e n ts to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e i r f e e l in g s a b o u t t h e i r c la s s m a te s ? 1 2 3 4 5 ie ie * * * None V ery L i t t l e Some C o n sid e ra b ly Very Much 4 a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 ab o v e, p le a s e e x p la in how th e s tu d e n ts have in d ic a te d t h e i r g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e s e f e e l i n g s . 5 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d th e s tu d e n ts to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e i r f e e l in g s a b o u t t h e i r p a r e n ts ? 1 2 3 4 5 ie ie ie ie ie None Very” L i t t l e Some C o n sid e ra b ly Very Much 5 a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 ab o v e, p le a s e e x p la in how th e s tu d e n ts have in d ic a te d t h e i r g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e s e f e e l i n g s . 6 . What s p e c if ic a s p e c ts do you f e e l w ere m ost h e lp f u l to th e s tu d e n ts a b o u t th e group d is c u s s io n s ? 7 . What s p e c if i c a s p e c ts do you f e e l w ere l e a s t h e lp f u l to th e s tu d e n ts a b o u t th e group d is c u s s io n s ? 8 . Would you recommend s i m il a r group d is c u s s io n s f o r o th e r s tu d e n ts w ith re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s ? Yes No 233 FORM 10 I I TEACHER EVALUATION OF GROUP DISCUSSION PERIODS P le a s e p la c e a ch eck m ark a t th e num ber t h a t you f e e l m ost c lo s e ly e x p re s s e s y o u r o p in io n . 1 . Have th e g ro u p d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f y o u r s tu d e n ts ' f e e l in g s a b o u t sch o o l? 1 2 3 4 5 it it it it it None Very L i t t l e ~ ~ ~Sora¥ C o n sid e ra b ly Very Much l a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 ab o v e, p le a s e e x p la in w hat you have le a r n e d a b o u t t h e i r f e e l i n g s . . . . Do th e s e f e e l i n g s seem r e l a t e d to t h e i r b e h a v io r? . . . How? 2 . Have th e g ro u p d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f y o u r s tu d e n ts ' f e e l in g s a b o u t re a d in g ? 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * it None Very L i t t l e Some C o n sid e ra b ly Very Mich 2 a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 ab o v e, p le a s e e x p la in w hat you have le a r n e d a b o u t t h e i r f e e l i n g s . . . . Do th e s e f e e l i n g s seem r e l a t e d to t h e i r b e h a v io r? . . . How? 3 . Have th e g ro u p d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f y o u r s tu d e n ts ' f e e l in g s a b o u t t h e i r sc h o o l te a c h e rs ? 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * * None*" ~ ~ ~ Very” L i t t l e Some ™ C o n sid e ra b ly Very- Much 3 a . I f you have checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 ab o v e., p le a s e e x p la in w hat you have le a rn e d a b o u t t h e i r Page 2 - FORM 10 (continued) 254 f e e l i n g s . . . . Do th e s e f e e lin g s seem r e la t e d to t h e i r b e h a v io r? 4 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f y our s tu d e n ts ' f e e lin g s ab o u t t h e i r c la s sm a te s? 1 2 3 4 5 ie ie ie ie ie None Very- L i t t l e Some ” C o n sid erab ly - Very- Much 4 a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 above, p le a s e e x p la in w hat you have le a rn e d a b o u t t h e i r f e e l in g s . . . . Do th e s e f e e lin g s seem r e l a t e d to t h e i r b e h a v io r? . . . How? 1 5 . Have th e group d is c u s s io n s h e lp e d you to a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f y o u r s tu d e n ts ' f e e lin g s ab o u t t h e i r p a re n ts ? 1 2 3 4 5 * * * * * None Very- L i t t l e — Some C o n sid e ra b ly Very Much 5 a . I f you checked 3 , 4 , o r 5 above, p le a s e e x p la in w hat you have le a rn e d a b o u t t h e i r f e e lin g s . . . . Do th e s e f e e lin g s seem r e l a t e d to t h e i r b e h a v io r? . . . How? 6 . What s p e c if i c a s p e c ts do you f e e l w ere m ost h e lp f u l to you ab o u t th e group d is c u s s io n s ? 7. What s p e c if ic a s p e c ts do you f e e l were l e a s t h e lp f u l to you ab o u t th e group d is c u s s io n s ? 8 . P le a s e s t a t e h e re any th o u g h ts o r f e e lin g s ab o u t your e x p e rie n c e in th e d is c u s s io n group t h a t you have n o t had an o p p o rtu n ity to e x p re s s : 255 FORM 11 SOME GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL GROUP COUNSELING 1. T here I s f l e x i b i l i t y in re g a rd to th e q u e s tio n o f " p e r m is siv e n e ss” v s . " a u th o r ity " - - a m inim al number o f p ro h ib itio n s b ased upon: A. " R a tio n a l" lim ita tio n s o f s tu d e n ts 1 b eh a v io r B. O b je c tiv e s o f co u n se lin g program . 2 . The s tu d e n ts a re encouraged to e x p re ss t h e i r f e e lin g s ab o u t th e rem ed ial re a d in g program , n e g a tiv e and p o s i tiv e : A. O rg a n iz a tio n o f program B. F e e lin g s tow ard th e te a c h e r and o th e r s tu d e n ts in th e group C. R e a c tio n s to re a d in g e x p e rie n c e s—p a r t i c u la r ly th o se in v o lv in g d i f f i c u l t y and f r u s t r a t i o n . 3. T here i s an absence o f " v a lu e judgm ents" on th e p a r t o f th e te a c h e r, in re g a rd to e x p re s sio n s o f f e e lin g s and a t t i t u d e s by th e s tu d e n ts . 4 . The te a c h e r i s a l e r t to a l l e x p re ss io n s o f f e e lin g : v e rb a l and b e h a v io ra l. 5 . The te a c h e r encourages th e s tu d e n ts to ta l k about t h e i r sch o o l b e h a v io r, problem s, s u c c e s s e s , l i k e s , d i s l i k e s . 6. The te a c h e r encourages th e s tu d e n ts to ta l k about home c o n d itio n s th a t may r e l a t e to le a rn in g -s c h o o l a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r: A. R e la tio n s w ith p a re n ts B. R e la tio n s w ith s ib lin g s . 7. A lthough to be secondary in em phasis to th e "Common Problem " o f re a d in g -le a rn in g d i f f i c u l t y , th e te a c h e r encou rag es th e s tu d e n ts to t a l k about t h e i r s o c ia l and r e c r e a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s and a c t i v i t i e s . Page 2 - FORM 11 (continued) 8 . The te a c h e r engages in c o n tin u o u s s e lf - e v a lu a t io n in o rd e r to m a in ta in an o b je c tiv e , n o n -e m o tio n a l, r e l a tio n s h ip w ith in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts . The Reading C enter School of Education U n iv ersity o f Southern C a lifo rn ia SENTENCE COMPLETION * FORM A Name Da t e Age_______ COMPLETE THESE SENTENCES AS RAPIDLY AS Y O U CAN: 1. I w anted M other to 2 . I a lm o st l o s t hope when 3 . When I am p u n ish e d , I u s u a lly 4 . I don*t lik e to 5 . When my p a r e n ts a rg u e d 6 . I need to 7. When I l o s t my tem p er, I 8. M y f a t h e r annoyed me when 9 . I alw ays w o rrie d a b o u t 10. I f o n ly my m other w ould 11. I w ould g e t b e t t e r i f 12. I am sc a re d when 13. When I th in k o f my m other 14. M y f a t h e r sh o u ld have 15. When som ething w o rrie s me, I 16. When I am g iv e n o rd e rs 17. I lik e sc h o o l i f ___________________________________________ Page 2 - SENTENCE COMPLETION * FORM A (continued) 1 8 . M y m other annoyed me when 19. I was u n d e c id e d so 2 0 . I w anted my f a t h e r to 2 1 . I f I f a i l ________________________________________ 22. I was c r i t i c i z e d when I 23. My m other sh o u ld have 24. When u p s e t, I 2 5. I w ant my d o c to r to The Reading Center School of Education University of Southern California SENTENCE COMPLETION FORM B Name I ns tr u e t o r ________________ D ate COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES AS RAPIDLY AS Y O U CAN. BE SURE TO COMPLETE EVERY SENTENCE. 1. M y schoolw ork 2 . The f u tu r e 3. I want to know 4 . Our fa m ily 5 . I f e e l 6 . I li k e to be t r e a te d 7 . Much o f th e tim e 8 . Money 9 . I f I 10. Work 11. I s u f f e r 12. F rie n d s 13. M y m other 14. T here a r e tim es 15. E a tin g 16. The t r a i n i n g 17. M y mind_____ Page 2 - SENTENCE COMPLETION FORM B (c o n tin u e d ) 18. I s le e p 2*0 19. M v c r e a t e s t lo n g in g 20. God i s 21. M y im a g in a tio n 22. Bovs 23. M v c lo th e s 24. I f p eo p le w ould o n lv 25. I f e a r 26. M v g r e a t e s t tro u b le 27. E arn in g mv liv in g 28. M v dream s 29. I s e c r e tlv 30. M v stom ach 31. I can n o t u n d e rsta n d w hat makes me 32. O th er p eo p le 33. R e lig io n 34. M v w o rst 35. I am v erv 36. M v c h ild h o o d 37. P eople who do th in g s f o r o th e r s 38. M v f a th e r 261 Page 3 - SENTENCE COMPLETION FORM B (continued) 39. I envv 4 0 . M y ev es a r e bad 4 1 . P eo p le who w atch me 4 2 . Mv lo o k s 4 3 . The d a rk 4 4 . M v c h ie f w orry 4 5 . When I 4 6 . M v h e a lth 4 7 . 1 f e e l th e m ost p ro u d o f 4 8 . G i r l s 49. D eath 5 0 . M y g r e a t e s t a m b itio n 51. 1 l i k e b e s t 5 2 . M v h a b it s 5 3 . I t r y to g e t 5 4 . Love 5 5 . 1 g e t p le a s u r e from 56. Mv te a c h e r s 5 7 . I am s o rry 5 8 . A t home 5 9 . I f e e l h u r t 60. Compared w ith o th e r 1 262 Page 4 - SENTENCE COMPLETION FORM B (continued) 61. I become em b arrassed __________________ ______________ 62. M y h ead 6 3. I am ashamed 6 4 . M y e d u c a tio n W rite below a n y th in g t h a t seems im p o rta n t to you. 263 Reading Center S chool o f E d u catio n University of Southern California R e g is tr a tio n D ata Name A ddress Phone Name o f P a re n t o r G uardian, C h ild 's D ate o f B i r t h S chool R e fe rre d by:. R eason f o r R e f e r r a l F am ily P hysician^ A d d re ss___ C ity Zone P la c e _Age Grade P o s itio n Telephone,, Name, a d d r e s s , and s p e c ia li z a t io n o f o th e r m ed ical a d v is o rs Has p u p il a tte n d e d o th e r re a d in g c l i n i c s o r re c e iv e d s p e c i a l tu to r in g ? _________________________________________________ I f so , w here and when? How d id he respond? Have p a r e n ts t r i e d te a c h in g p u p il a t h o m e ? _______ P a r e n t's r e a c t i o n C h ild 's r e a c t i o n _________________________________ 26.4 M edical Summary D ate o f B ir th _________________ P la c e o f B ir th __________________ (Home - H o s p ita l) L ength o f G e s ta tio n W e ig h t a t B i r t h l b s . o z . L ength o f Labor Tvne o f D e liv e ry Marks on head S ig n s o f s e d a tio n Oxygen needed A b ility to su c k le F eed in g problem s Age o f w alking Age o f ta lk in g Age o f f i r s t d e n t i tio n D i f f i c u l t i e s in b la d d e r o r From s e p a r a te c h e c k - l i s t , c a tio n s , tim e a b s e n t, e t c . Age o f b la d d e r c o n tr o l bowel c o n tro l bowel c o n tr o l ite m iz e d is e a s e s , d a te s , co m p li- • A c c id e n ts S u rg ery M edical tre a tm e n t Im m unization Eves exam ined D ate Need G la sse s Wear g la s s e s __________ H earin g te s te d ? Speech____________ A p p e tite ________R e g u la rity o f m eals_______Bowel re g . N ervous h a b its such a s n a i l b i t i n g , n ose p ic k in g , e n e u re s is , 265 Page 2 - M ed ical Summary (c o n tin u e d ) tem per ta n tru m s , thumb s u c k in g , t i c s o r tw itc h e s , d ay d ream in g , n ig h tm a re s , f e a r s , e t c . 266 P e rs o n a l- S o c ia l In fo rm a tio n C h ild l i v e s w ith E x p la n a tio n ( i f needed) Name o f f a th e r _______________________________________Age________ D ate o f b i r t h Pla c e o f b i r t h O ccu p atio n Na t i o n a l i tv E d u c a tio n Ed u c a tio n a l D i f f i c u l t i e s A ttitu d e tow ard c h i l d 's re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y A ttitu d e tow ard school A ttitu d e tow ard m other R e c re a tio n a l re a d in g a c t i v i t i e s Name o f m other Ag e D ate o f b i r t h Pla c e o f b i r t h Oc cupa t io n ___________________ Na t i o n a l i tv E d u c a tio n Ed u c a tio n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s A ttitu d e tow ard c h i l d 's re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y A ttitu d e tow ard school R e c re a tio n a l re a d in g a c t i v i t i e s Are p a re n ts o f same o r d i f f e r e n t r e li g i o u s b e l i e f o r a f f i l ia tio n ? Name, a g e , sex o f a l l c h ild r e n in home in b i r t h o rd e r ( C ir c le name o f p u p il) S u ccess o f s ib l in g in sc h o o l Page 2 - Personal-Social Information (continued) S im ila r d i f f i c u l t i e s o f s i b l i n g s R e la tio n s h ip w ith s i b l in g s R e la tio n s h ip p a r e n ts R eading m a tte r in th e home D e s c r ip tio n o f n eig h b o rh o o d ( e .g . f a c to r y d i s t r i c t , r e s i d e n t i a l , a l l a p t s . e t c . ) Number o f f r i e n d s in n eig h b o rh o o d Same a g e , o ld e r o r younger A b ility to g e t a lo n g w ith o th e r s ____________________________ L ead er o r fo llo w e r A cceptance by p e e rs_____ Amusements, i n t e r e s t s , r e c r e a ti o n s E x te n t o f TV v ie w in g A ttitu d e tow ard sch o o l H is to ry o f S chool A tten d an c e L i s t sc h o o ls and g ra d e le v e ls in o rd e r o f m ost r e c e n t a tte n d a n c e : 1. ____________________________________ 4 . -________________ 2 ._____________________________________5 . ______________________ 3 . _______ ___________________ 6 . _______________________________ From th e P u p il: F a v o r ite TV program 268 Page 3 - Personal-Social Information (continued) F a v o r ite s u b je c ts L e a s t lik e d s u b je c ts A ttitu d e tow ard sch o o l " I s re a d in g a problem f o r you?" "How long h av e you had d i f f i c u l t y w ith re a d in g ? " "Why do you th in k you a r e h a v in g t h i s tro u b le ? " "What w ould you l i k e to be when you grow up?" APPENDIX B VERBATIM TRANSCRIPTION OF DISCUSSION MATERIAL FROM ONE INDIVIDUAL AND T W O GROUP TRAINING SESSIONS FOR TEACHER-COUNSELORS 270 VERBATIM TRANSCRIPTION OF DISCUSSION MATERIAL FROM A N INDIVIDUAL TRAINING SESSION (Com plete In te rv ie w ) P a r t i c i p a n t s : T each er A and th e I n v e s tig a to r (fo llo w in g a c o u n se lin g p e rio d a t w hich th e l a t t e r was p r e s e n t) INVESTIGATOR - C ould you g iv e me y our r e a c tio n s to th e group d is c u s s io n s ? TEACHER A - I was q u ite i n t e r e s t e d in th e group and I le a rn e d a l o t a b o u t them to d a y , e s p e c ia lly th e f a c t t h a t th ey have so much in common in t h e i r f e e lin g s ab o u t d i f f e r e n t s u b je c ts , such a s two o f th e b o y s, A rth u r and A lfred*-. They f e e l t h e i r m o th e rs, e s p e c i a l ly , do n o t u n d e rsta n d them and do n o t b e lie v e f u l l y e v e ry th in g th ey say and ta k e th e s id e o f th e o th e r c h ild o r th e te a c h e r , r a th e r th an t h e i r s id e . Ann and A rnold seem to f e e l t h a t t h e i r p a r e n ts w ere v e ry f a i r w ith them and u n d e rsto o d t h e i r p ro b lem s. *The same pseudonyms a r e u sed h e re a s in th e t r a n s c r ip t i o n o f th e S tu d e n t C o u n selin g S e s s io n s . 1 INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - How d id th ey r e a c t when th ey w ere angry? T hat was v ery i n t e r e s t i n g . Y es. B oth A rth u r and A lfre d g e n e r a lly r e a c te d to a n g e r by n o t doing th e c h o re s th a t th e y had a t home. Or e ls e th ey d id n o t do them w e ll a s th ey would h a v e , had th ey n o t been a n g ry . P a s s iv e r e s i s t a n c e , w hich p erh ap s has ra m i f i c a t i o n s f o r re a d in g problem s? Y es. A rnold and Ann j u s t k e p t e v e ry th in g p e n t-u p in s id e o f them . Would you say t h a t was r e a l l y th e case? Or t h a t 's what th e y . . . No, I d o n 't know w h eth er th ey b e lie v e d t h i s o r w h eth er t h e y 'r e tr y in g to p u t on an a c t f o r u s . You su sp e c t p erh ap s th ey a r e p a s s iv e r e s i s t o r s , b u t t h e y 'r e n o t aw are o f t h e i r own r e s is ta n c e ? Y es. T h e y 're e i t h e r n o t aw are o r th ey d o n 't w ant to say a n y th in g . INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR 272 I t ' s a h a rd problem f o r them to co n ten d w ith , r e a l l y . B ecause i t ' s n o t o u t in th e o p en . I t ' s w ith in them . Did you n o tic e th ey w ere more r e l u c t a n t to t a l k th a n th e o th e rs ? Y es, and a ls o Ann g o t r e s t l e s s d u rin g th e h o u r, v e ry , v e ry r e s t l e s s . A rn o ld j u s t s a t and e i t h e r he was in deep th o u g h t o r he seemed n o t to be w ith u s . I th i n k he was w ith u s th o u g h . I have a f e e l i n g t h a t Ann, a t l e a s t , was v e ry much w ith u s ev ery moment, b u t she was som ewhat, p e rh a p s , e m b arrassed . I t was h ard f o r h e r to a d j u s t to t h i s kind o f f r e e d i s c u s s io n o f f e e l i n g s , b ecau se sh e h e r s e l f m ust lo c k in many f e e l i n g s . T h a t was my ira- p r e s s i o n - - t h a t i t w ould be t y p i c a l f o r h e r to r e a c t t h a t way. Y es. B ecause o f h e r own su p p re s s io n o f h e r t r u e f e e l i n g s . I t w i l l p ro b a b ly come fo rw a rd in f u tu r e w eeks. TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR 273 I c o u ld n 't h e lp b u t la u g h . I was s o rry I d id l a t e r , a b o u t th e bathroom i n c i d e n t . I n o tic e d t h a t she r e a c te d by g i g g lin g . I th in k she was s h o w in g --it was my im p ressio n t h a t sh e was show ing h e r h o s t i l e f e e l in g s in t h i s way by la u g h in g a t someone e l s e who was i n an e m b a rra ssin g p re d ic a m e n t. In o th e r w o rd s, i t seems to me t h a t she can ta k e o u t some o f h e r own h o s t i l i t y by t h i s k in d o f la u g h te r . T h is k in d o f p r a c t i c a l jo k e i s a h o s t i l e th in g . . . p r a c t i c a l jo k e s a re h o s t i l e . Y es. And i t ' s tr u e t h a t m ost o f u s te n d to lau g h a t them b ec au se t h e y 'r e n o t d i r e c te d a g a in s t o u r s e lv e s , b u t th e r e a c tio n i s b e lie v e d to b e o f te n b a se d on some in n e r , h o s t i l e f e e l in g b e c a u se someone i s th e g o a t in th e s e p r a c t i c a l jo k e s . I t seems to me th ey w ould p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p e a l to someone who i s r e a l l y su p p re sse d in term s o f e x p re s s in g h i s o r h e r own f e e l in g s o f h o s t i l i t y d i r e c t l y . T h is 4 TEACHER A INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A 274 w ould be th e p e rso n who w ould ta k e m ost d e l i g h t in someone e l s e f s p re d ic a m e n t. How a b o u t A lfre d ? Now he r e a c te d a s f e e l in g v e r y , v e ry s o r r y . P erh a p s he h a s b een on th e re c e iv in g end o f t h i s k in d o f th in g a t some tim e . . . P o s s ib ly , I s u s p e c t t h a t he i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e v ic tim b e c a u se I n o tic e d h i s e x p re s s io n and i t was q u it e s in c e r e . I th in k t h a t he had a s tro n g e m o tio n a l r e a c tio n to t h i s . . . t h a t th e r e was an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n th e r e w ith t h i s b o y , b e in g th e b u t t o f a jo k e . Maybe h i s b r o th e r s o r s i s t e r s o r somebody . . . o r c h ild r e n in sc h o o l have b een m aking him th e b u t t o f p r a c t i c a l jo k e s . W e 'll w atch f o r t h i s in th e f u t u r e . How d id you f e e l a b o u t . . . now, I know A rth u r go es to a C a th o lic S chool and I b e lie v e h is m other i s a te a c h e r to o i f I'm n o t m is ta k e n . How d id you f e e l a b o u t h i s r e a c tio n s to t h i s te a c h e r . . . a s he c a l l s h e r , " la y p e rs o n ," and th e f a c t t h a t sh e r i d i c u l e d th e 5 INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A INVESTIGATOR c h ild r e n by c a l l i n g them nam es. He has a v e ry s tro n g f e e l in g th e r e tow ard h e r . I w ould s u s p e c t t h a t t h i s i s c a r r i e d o v e r to o th e r a d u l t s . You f e e l t h a t . I th in k t h a t he p ro b a b ly g o t some r e a l c a t h a r s i s o f f e e l in g in e x p re s s in g h im s e lf to u s and in a s e n se he w i l l b e g in to d i f f e r e n t i a t e u s from th e te a c h e r s and o th e r a d u lt s who a r e so ju d g m e n ta l. W e l i s t e n e d , we a c c e p te d . I th in k he n e e d s t h i s t e r r i b l y . . . They a l l d o . He i s j u s t more o p en ly a s k in g f o r h e lp . I f e l t i t was good, and I g o t a d e e p e r i n s ig h t n o t o n ly i n t o th e s e c h ild r e n b u t in to c h ild r e n a s a g ro u p , a b o u t how th ey f e e l when th ey a r e c o r r e c te d o r c r i t i c i z e d in f r o n t o f a group and th e id e a o f b e in g r i d i c u le d in f r o n t o f a g ro u p . A ll fo u r o f them f e l t t h a t i t was n o t th e th in g to be d o n e, th e y f e l t t h a t th e a d u lt was w ronging them . Y es. W e have to s to p n o w - - l e t 's t a l k more a b o u t th e s e f e e l in g s n e x t w eek. 276 VERBATIM TRANSCRIPTION OF DISCUSSION MATERIAL FROM T W O GROUP TRAINING SESSIONS (E x tra n eo u s M a te ria l O m itted) S e ssio n I P a r t i c i p a n t s : R eading C e n te r S ta f f TEACHER C - I n o tic e d som ething v e ry i n t e r e s t i n g t h i s morn- in g , t h a t came o u t w ith th e y o u n g ste rs w h ile you*- w ere w orking w ith them . Each one o f them seems to have a p a tt e r n o f backing-aw ay from a n y th in g th a t i s d i s t a s t e f u l to them . I th o u g h t i t was r e a l i n t e r e s t i n g a s f a r a s w hat w ent on t h i s m orning. INVESTIGATOR-Is t h i s a k in d o f p a s s i v e - r e s i s t a n t b e h a v io r t h a t you d e s c rib e ? TEACHER C - W ell, p a s s iv e r e s i s t a n c e som etim es b u t o th e r ty p e s o f r e s is t a n c e do come in to i t , b u t i t was s t i l l alw ays in term s o f backing-aw ay from som ething w h eth er i t was p a s s iv e ly o r n o t. Such a s th e boy, who, when he was to ld to rak e th e l e a v e s - - i f he was mad --h e would j u s t sp re a d them around a l i t t l e more . . . t h i s ^R eference i s to I n v e s tig a to r who conducted a demon s t r a t i o n s e s s io n . 1 ty p e o f th in g . TEACHER A - T h is a r o s e in my c l a s s , to o , w ith two o f my c h il d r e n . They s a i d t h a t when th ey w ere a n g ry --b e c a u s e th e y w ere re p rim a n d e d --th e n th e y d i d n 't do th in g s a s w e ll a s th ey w ould hav e done them had th ey n o t been a n g ry . INVESTIGATOR - What was y o u r e x p e rie n c e w ith t h i s , (T each er TEACHER B - One o f th e boys t h i s m orning s a id t h a t he d i d n 't e a t when h e was mad a t h i s p a r e n t s , and a n o th e r boy s a i d , "W e ll, you a r e j u s t p u n is h in g y o u r s e l f ." The second boy showed a l o t o f in s ig h t i n t o t h a t . . . and in to h i s own r e a c tio n s . . . how he j u s t w alks away from h is p a r e n t s . He d o e s n 't an sw e r, b e c a u se i f he does answ er them , th e n he would b e in v o lv e d in some more problem s so he j u s t w alk s away from th e s i t u a t i o n . And t h i s w tu rn e d o u t to be a p a t t e m - - t h a t th e w hole group w alk s away from th in g s th ey d o n 't lik e . 2 Name d e le te d . 2 278 INVESTIGATOR - Now, (T each er D) i s n ' t h e re b u t I s a t in and t h i s a g a in was a p a t te r n w ith th e boys in h is g ro u p . The p a tt e r n i s t h a t th e y w alked away - - th e y u sed t h i s term th e m se lv e s, "w alked aw ay." Do we have som ething h e r e , p erh ap s o f some d ia g n o s tic s ig n if ic a n c e ? In a l l fo u r g ro u p s, elem en tary and se c o n d a ry , th e boys w alk away from t h e i r a n g e r and re se n tm e n ts . TEACHER C - W e ll, I'm j u s t w ondering a b o u t com m unication. T h is seems to perm eate th e w hole th in g fo r me, anyhow, t h a t th e s e y o u n g s te rs p o s s ib ly have n e v e r le a rn e d how to r e a l l y comm unicate w ith o th e r p e o p le . And I th in k a t tim e s even in t h e i r own age group . . . t h i s a g a in h as come o u t in a l l th e s e s s io n s , t h i s i n a b i l i t y to com m unicate. INVESTIGATOR - You seem to be s u g g e s tin g t h a t th e communica t io n problem h as som ething to do w ith t h e i r g e n e ra l f e e lin g s and r e la tio n s h ip s w ith o th e rs ? TEACHER C - C onveying f e e l i n g s . T h e ir a b i l i t y to convey f e e l i n g s —I wonder som etim es i f some young- 3 279 s t e r s f o r some re a s o n j u s t need some e x tr a * h e lp alo n g th e l i n e w ith t h i s a s th ey grow u p . I d o n 't know, i t ' s som ething to th in k a b o u t. But in v a r ia b ly th e s e boys have n o t been a b le to f u l l y com municate w ith p a r e n ts , u s u a lly more w ith one th an th e o th e r —and w ith o th e r s tu d e n ts , te a c h e rs . . . i t seems to be q u ite a problem w ith them . . . a block th e r e , i t ' s som ething th ey j u s t c a n 't g e t a ro u n d . INVESTIGATOR - I wonder i f we can look f o r th e s e common p a tt e r n s in a l l fo u r g ro u p s, and maybe we c a n , a t l e a s t , u s e them a s h y p o th eses t h a t can p erh ap s le n d th em selv es to f u r t h e r r e se a rc h and t e s t i n g . B ut 1 c e r t a i n ly g o t a f e e lin g today i n a l l fo u r rooms th a t th e re was much in common—th e k in d s o f r e s is ta n c e s t h a t w ere shown, th e way th ey were shown, and so o n ; th ey w ere so s im ila r . . . I f e l t i t would be good i f we c o u ld t a l k ab o u t i t to g e th e r , so t h a t you can s e p a ra te them from each o t h e r . And p erh ap s we can in th e fu tu re 4 280 INVESTIGATOR - h e a r a t l e a s t p a r t o f th e ta p e s from each (c o n tin u e d ) s e s s io n so you know w h a t's g o in g on In o th e r g ro u p s, and how th e o th e r p e rso n h a n d le s what h ap p en s. W e can a ls o d is c u s s such q u e s tio n s a s , "What problem s a re th e m ain problem s th a t a r i s e In th e g ro u p s?" "What g iv e s you th e m ost a n x ie ty ? " INVESTIGATOR - (C e n te r D ir e c to r ) , Could you g iv e u s your im p re ssio n b e fo re you le a v e ab o u t what youVe h e a rd h e re today? CENTER DIRECTOR - I have been th in k in g o f th e in s ig h ts t h a t th e s e k id s w i l l g e t a s a r e s u l t o f b ein g able to t a l k i t th ro u g h . F i r s t , in s ig h ts a s to th e m se lv e s; I d o n 't th in k t h a t th ey know, th e m se lv e s, t h a t th e y 'v e r e a l l y had th e s e p ro b lem s. B eing a b le to v e r b a liz e them w i l l h e lp them to see them b e t t e r . I th in k t h a t b ein g a b le to see t h a t o th e r y o u n g ste rs have th e same k in d o f problem , t h a t h e re i t ' s a sy m p a th e tic s i t u a t i o n w here th e problem can be ta lk e d - o v e r sh o u ld g iv e them new h o p e -- w hich I hope and t r u s t w i l l r e s u l t in b e t t e r re a d in g s k i l l s . ^ INVESTIGATOR INVESTIGATOR TEACHER B - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER C 281 Session II Participants; Reading Center Staff (P la y -b a c k o f fo u r c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n ta p e s p re c e d e d d is c u s s io n ) Has th e p la y b a c k o f th e ta p e s r e in f o r c e d some o p in io n y o u 'v e h a d , s tre n g th e n e d i t in some way, o r p e rh a p s made you th in k o f some th in g you h a d n 't th o u g h t o f b e fo re ? D id you le a r n a n y th in g by h e a rin g one a n o t h e r 's tapes h e re to d ay ? (P au se) Who w ould l i k e to b e g in . . . ? We a r e le a r n in g a new te c h n iq u e --y o u j u s t d o n 't ta lk '. (L a u g h te r) We a r e le a r n in g from th e k id s'. (T each er C ). w hat d id you f e e l t h a t you p ic k e d up from h e a rin g th e o th e r ta p e s t h a t you d i d n 't know b e fo re ? I d i d n 't f e e l t h a t I p ic k e d up a n y th in g t h a t m ig h t w ork w ith my y o u n g s te rs . The s u b je c ts w hich w ere ta lk e d a b o u t on th e o th e r th r e e ta p e s have been ta lk e d a b o u t w ith in my group a s f a r a s th e s u b je c t- m a tte r i s c o n c e rn e d . TEACHER C - (c o n tin u e d ) INVESTIGATOR TEACHER C - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER C - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER C - TEACHER D - Much o f w hat we h e a rd h e r e , to o , was s tu d e n t re sp o n se r a t h e r th an c o u n s e lo r p ro d d in g . Did you sen se any c o u n se lo r p ro d d in g , any s tr u c tu r in g ? W ell, o c c a s io n a lly , b u t v ery l i t t l e . Did you f e e l t h a t th e re was any d if f e r e n c e , though, in w hat you h e a rd , in th e p ro c e ss u sed by th e o th e r th re e ? Did you g e t any f e e lin g th e re was a d if f e r e n c e o f ap p roach o r a d if f e r e n c e in em phasis? No. I don't th in k so . A nything t h a t in d ic a te d t h e i r own p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n a l it i e s in term s o f t h e i r h a n d lin g th e se s s io n ? Not t h a t I p ic k e d -u p . P erhaps th e ta p e e p i sodes w ere to o s h o r t. In g e ttin g th e o th e rs to e x p re ss f e e l in g s , I n o tic e d t h a t (T each er C) s a id to o n e, "Would you t e l l th e o th e r s how you f e e l a b o u t th is ? " T h is i s tr y in g to g e t more i n t e r a c t i o n , ! know, b ecau se I have one member who i s n o t sp ea k in g v e ry much and you can g e t one o f th e s t u d e n ts to a sk th e o th e r s w hat they " f e e l ab o u t TEACHER D - (c o n tin u e d ) INVESTIGATOR TEACHER D - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER D - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - 283 t h i s . ” You mean g e t t i n g one o f th e s tu d e n ts to a sk th e q u e s tio n s ? Y es. Did you piclc up a n y th in g e ls e ? I n o tic e d (T e ach er A 's ) t a p e - - t h e r e 's a l o t o f f e e l i n g e x p re s s e d t h e r e . m (T ea ch er A 's ) g ro u p , I th in k , i s a v e ry i n t e r e s t i n g o n e . When i t s t a r t e d o u t , i t w a s n 't a group and now i t ' s v e ry much th e g ro u p --a n d w ith a trem endous r a p p o r t. I th in k A rth u r was th e f o c a l p o in t o f th e g ro u p , to s t a r t - o u t w ith . I mean he was th e v o ic e o f th e g ro u p , and now th ey have a l l begun to i n t e r a c t w ith one a n o th e r and Ann h as come o u t o f h e r s h e l l . She was th e one t h a t rem em bered we w ere g o in g to s h a re things t h a t we lik e d b e s t —due to th e f a c t t h a t l a s t week A rth u r had b ro u g h t a badge t h a t he had g o tte n from th e F i r e D ep artm en t. He was q u i te proud o f i t , so th e r e s t d e c id e d t h a t th e y w ould b r in g i n th e th in g t h a t th e y l i k e 8 TEACHER A - (c o n tin u e d ) INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER A - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER D - INVESTIGATOR 284 b e s t , and ev ery o n e f o r g o t e x c e p t Ann, and she b ro u g h t h e r l i t t l e d o l l , M imi, and she was r e a l p le a s e d w ith i t . How do you a c c o u n t f o r th e i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t h as come a b o u t in y o u r g ro u p ? I r e a l l y d o n 't know. They seem to be l i s t e n i n g to each o th e r . . . Y es. N ot j u s t to n a r r a t i o n s , b u t a ls o to f e e lin g s t h a t a r e b e in g e x p re s s e d . They seem to i d e n t i f y w ith each o th e r . I s n 't t h a t i t ? Y es, th ey can a l l f e e l t h a t th ey a l l have th e same f e e lin g s tow ard some th in g s . You s e e , (T ea ch er C) . t h i s i s w h a t's m is sin g from your g ro u p , t h i s f e e l in g o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . And I s u g g e st t h a t you t r y r o l e - p l a y in g n e x t w eek. Maybe th ey can b e g in to i d e n t i f y w ith each o th e r . M y o ld e r b o y , Don--now l a s t s e s s io n , remem b e r I to ld you he v o lu n te e re d to a c t a s a k in d o f a m o d e ra to r . . . C o -th e r a p is t'. (L a u g h te r) 9 TEACHER D - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER C - 285 He h as a l o t o f in s ig h t . . . (T each er C ), i f you ta k e a problem s i t u a t i o n P n e x t week w hich we know i s common to a l l o f y our s tu d e n ts , l e t ' s say some re a d in g a s s ig n m ent in v o lv in g some unhappy e x p e rie n c e w ith a te a c h e r o r a p a re n t--p e rh a p s i f t h i s co u ld be r e - e n a c te d , maybe th e s tu d e n ts w i l l b e g in to i d e n t i f y , in th e r o le - p la y in g s i t u a t i o n , w ith w hat th e f e e lin g s were th a t were b ein g m a n ife ste d and f e l t . . . th ey would b eg in to show some re s p o n s e , b ecau se today none o f them showed any re sp o n se to each o t h e r 's d e m o n s tra tio n s o f f e e l in g s , a s i f th ey c o u ld n 't c a re l e s s . Y es. C ary, when we f i r s t s t a r t e d on th e s e group d is c u s s io n s , was q u ite v o c a l and I th o u g h t he was going to s t a r t th e th in g , and r e a l l y f o r one s e s s io n he d id , b u t I th in k he g o t th e id e a t h a t maybe h e 'd b e t t e r s h u t- u p , b ecau se th e o th e r s w e r e n 't a s w illin g to s t a t e t h e i r f e e l in g s ; th ey d i d n 't have th e same ty p e o f l i f e t h a t he has had . . . INVESTIGATOR TEACHER C - INVESTIGATOR TEACHER B 286 W e ll, th e y d i d n 't re sp o n d to h i s f e e l i n g s - - he had a b la n k -w a ll re s p o n s e . I w ondered i f th ey r e a l l y knew w hat he was ta l k i n g a b o u t . . . I th in k i t ' s w o rth t r y i n g - - r o le - p l a y i n g . I th in k i t ' s r e a l l y a f a s c in a t in g g ro u p . S uc c e s s h e re w ould r e a l l y mean a v ic to r y o f m ajo r p ro p o rtio n s '. Have any o f you f e l t t h a t y o u r group h a s - - i n term s o f t h e i r re a d in g , in term s o f t h e i r a t t i t u d e tow ard com in g h e re f o r re a d in g --c h a n g e d in any way s in c e th e f i r s t group d is c u s s io n s ? I ta lk e d to my boys today a b o u t t h i s - - a b o u t w h a t's h appening in s c h o o l, and each o f them s a i d , " I 'm d o in g b e t t e r in r e a d in g ." B i l l h a s been prom oted one re a d in g g ro u p . Bob sa y s t h a t h e 's b e g in n in g to g e t a l i t t l e b i t i n t e r e s t e d in i t , w hich i s an accom plishm ent f o r him . Bob i s b o re d to d e a th a s f a r a s sc h o o l i s co n cern ed and m o th er w ants to g e t him r e t a i n e d . B u rt say s t h a t h i s te a c h e r sa y s t h a t he sh o u ld be prom oted to a h ig h e r 11 287 TEACHER B - g ro u p . I d o n 't r e a l l y f e e l t h a t B u rt i s d o - (c o n tln u e d ) in g much a s f a r a s a c tu a l r e a d in g , b u t ap p a r e n t l y I t m ust be q u ite an Im provem ent f o r him In th e sc h o o l s i t u a t i o n . INVESTIGATOR - Do you f e e l th e e f f e c t o f a l l t h i s on y o u r group ( T ea ch er D) ? TEACHER D - D ia n e 's sc h o o l a tte n d a n c e h as Im proved by com ing h e re and I th in k t h e r e 's a good f e e l in g w ith in o u r group o f s h a rin g i d e a s , sug g e s t i o n s , problem s . . . and Danny to d a y , when we w ere s e t t i n g - u p , he came in a f t e r th e k id s had had a b re a k and he h e lp e d me s e t up th e eq u ip m en t, so 1 f e l t i t was some th in g , coming from him , t h a t he w a s n 't th r e a te n e d a s much a s he was in th e p re v io u s s e s s io n s . INVESTIGATOR - W e ll, i n (T ea ch er A 's ) group and i n y o u r g ro u p , I th in k th e c h ild r e n a r e a b le to e x p r e s s f e e l in g s more and s h a re f e e l i n g s . Then t h e y 'r e i n t e r e s t e d . When th ey can e x p re s s f e e l i n g s and f e e l th e o th e r s i d e n t i f y w ith them , you s e e , and th ey can sh a re f e e l i n g s . 12 INVESTIGATOR (c o n tin u e d ) CENTER DIRECTOR 288 I th in k w here t h e r e 's n o t s h a rin g o f f e e l in g s , b u t sim ply s h a rin g o f f a c t u a l in fo rm a t i o n a b o u t th e m s e lv e s , I th in k i t w i l l te n d to become d u l l . How long can one l i s t e n to w hat someone e l s e n a r r a te s ? And so th e i n t e n s i t y o f l i s t e n i n g in c r e a s e s when th ey f e e l th e m se lv e s in v o lv e d in w h ate v er someone e l s e i s s a y in g . So I th in k t h a t t h i s i s r e a l l y a m easure o f th e su c c e ss o f y o u r group --how much a r e th e y i d e n t i f i e d - w ith w h a t's g o in g on? I n o tic e d one th in g in term s o f e l i c i t i n g re sp o n s e s from th e y o u n g s te rs and t h i s i s a m a tte r o f c l a r i f y i n g w hat w e 'r e tr y in g to get a t . We som etim es c a n 't f in d th e w ords to p u t o v e r o u r p o in t. W e w ant to draw some th in g from them and t r y to e x p re s s i t in some way t h a t th e y u n d e rs ta n d and c a n 't q u ite do i t . T h is i s a v e ry d i f f i c u l t th in g f o r me. 1 know th e r e a r e some tim es t h a t you w ant them to d e a l w ith a s p e c i f i c i s s u e , b u t when y o u 'r e w r e s tlin g w ith t h i s s p e c i f ic is s u e 13 289 CENTER DIRECTOR - and tr y in g to e l i c i t more r e s p o n s e s - - I won- (c o n tin u e d ) d e r i f a g e n e ra l q u e s tio n w o u ld n 't y ie ld more s p e c if ic r e a c tio n s th an a s p e c if ic q u e s tio n . F or exam ple, "How do you f e e l a b o u t th is ? " 14 APPENDIX C VERBATIM TRANSCRIPTION OF SELECTED EPISODES FROM EDUCATIONAL GROUP COUNSELING SESSIONS The seq uences Co fo llo w w i l l be in tro d u c e d by th e d e s ig n a tio n o f s e s s io n num ber, group le v e l ( e l e m entary o r s e c o n d a ry ), and te a c h e r code-nam e: T each ers A and B f o r th e E lem entary g ro u p s, and T ea ch ers C and D f o r th e Secondary g ro u p s. 291 S e ss io n I Secondary L e v e l - T each er C CHUCK1 - A t o u r sc h o o l t h e y 'r e c u t ti n g o u r lu n ch p e r io d s s h o r t now b e c a u se t h e r e 'r e to o many In o u r sc h o o l and we d o n 't have enough g ro u n d s. Most o f th e boys w ant to p la y b a s e b a ll . . . W e g e t o u t th e r e . . . L ik e one f l y h i t s In th e o u t f i e l d and y o u 'r e s ta n d in g th e r e and t h e r e 's te n guys In th e m id d le o f I t . 'C au se I f t h e r e 's one f l y t h e r e 's te n guys w h o 're tr y in g to c a tc h th e b a l l . So one o f my f r i e n d s , he b le a c h e d h i s h a i r and combs i t way down h e re l ik e a s u rf e r . W ell he goes s u r f in g , you know, and he was t a lk in g to one o f th e s e g r e a s e r s , you know, and one o f th e s e l i t t l e s h o r t guys comes up and s t a r t s h i t t i n g him —and th e n th e te a c h e r comes o u t b re a k s i t u p . So m ost o f th e guys a r e tying t h e i r shoes and one o f two guys a r e g e t t i n g dowi th e r e l ik e t h i s , ty in g t h e i r sh o e s. Some o f th e guys a r e ru n n in g aro u n d and th ey sa y , " H it him k )n ly pseudonyms a r e u s e d . CHUCK - (c o n tin u e d ) TEACHER - CHUCK - CA RY - CH U CK - TEACHER - 292 i n th e mug, h i t him in th e m ug!," you know, and th en a l l th e te a c h e rs ru n o v er th e r e lik e th e r e was a f i g h t o r som ething. J u s t to te a s e th e te a c h e rs ? Yeah. Sometimes th ey w i l l have i t good. L ik e i f some body g e ts o v er h e re and h e ' l l g e t ta lk in g and m aking a w hole bunch o f n o is e , " H it him , h i t h im !," you know, p u llin g a fa k e f i g h t and a l l th e te a c h e rs ru n o v er to t h a t end o f th e y a rd and g e t a b ig crowd around 'em and th e n th e te a c h e rs a r e a l l on t h i s s id e o f th e y ard and t h e y 'r e f i g h ti n g o v er on th e o th e r s id e and everybody y e l l s , you know, " H it him , h i t him ," y a know, and one g u y 's s ta n d in g in th e m iddle l i k e a c h e e r le a d e r . . . Now w henever t h e y 'r e y e ll in g a t t h i s end o f th e y a rd , a l l th e teachers a r e o v er th e o th e r en d . Now when everybody i s y e ll in g on t h i s end t h a t t h e r e 's go in g to be a r e a l f i g h t down a t t h i s en d , t h e y 'r e go in g to ru n o v er to t h a t end. Do you, m ost o f you, f e l l a s d i s l i k e m ost o f th e te a c h e rs ? CHUCK - CARY - TEACHER - CARY - TEACHER - CARY - TEACHER - CARY - I l i k e them . I t depends on d i i c h te a c h e r s th ey a r e and how th e y a r e . A re th e r e any p r e t t y good ones? Aw, t h e r e 's one te a c h e r I f e l t l i k e d o in g w ith o u t - Mr. P . (name d e l e t e d ) . H e 's a s o c ia l s tu d ie s te a c h e r . What does he do? P ro b ab ly g iv e s bad g ra d e s? He s t i l l th in k s h e 's in th e Army. What does he do? March you o r w hat? You g o t t a s ta n d up a t a t t e n t i o n and th e n you g o t t a do a b o u t f a c e s , lo o k tow ards th e w a ll, s e t y o u r books down, s i t down, tu r n i n , c h in u p , and stom ach i n , and e v e ry th in g e l s e . Ac t u a l l y I th in k he s t i l l th in k s h e 's in th e Army. He does t h i s ev ery s in g le day. And th e n one day everybody p u l l s a s t r i k e on him and th ey w e r e n 't g o in g to do n o th in e x c e p t to h o lle r and c a r r y on and e v e ry th in g e l s e . Everybody s to o d , th e y w o u ld n 't s ta n d a t a t t e n t i o n . But everybody sto o d t h e r e , th e y w o u ld n 't s i t down o r do n o th in g . You know when we d o n 't l i k e CA RY - (c o n tin u e d ) TEACHER - CA RY - CARL - CA RY - CARL - CA RY - TEACHER D A N N Y - TEACHER D O N - 294 som ething th e re we p u ll a good s t r i k e —and gym, i t ' s c o ld , we d o n 't w ant to s t r i p , up goes the s t r i k e sig n and nobody s t r i p s . W hat's th e s t r i k e sign? Oh, we have a b ig red sig n th a t says s t r i k e on i t . We go to th e lo c k e r and p u l l i t o u t and put i t u p . W e t r i e d th a t a t our sc h o o l a few tim es and th e te a c h e rs j u s t gave u s F -s fo r th e day . . . W hat's F f o r th e day? Most o f th e guys had l o t s o f them , though, and when you g e t i t t h a t 's i t fo r th e se m e ste r. You know when i t ' s c o ld w e 're d re sse d in our gym s h o r ts and te n n is shoes and t - s h i r t s . . . and th e te a c h e r i s d re ss e d in h i s long p a n ts and a c o a t on. S essio n I (C ontinued) Secondary L evel - T eacher D Are th e te a c h e rs f a i r l y p a tie n t? Not m ine. Not y o u rs. H e 'l l go alo n g w ith you so f a r . . . H e 's th e D O N - (c o n tin u e d ) TEACHER - D O N - TEACHER - D O N - TEACHER - D O N - DIANE TEACHER DIANE - 295 ty p e i f y o u*re n ic e to him h e 's n ic e to you. J u s t d o n 't c r o s s him , huh? H e 'l l em b arrass you. H e 'l l em b arrass you? How does h e em b arrass you? And t h a t 's a n o th e r to p ic p e rh a p s , te a c h e rs ? He t r i e s to be fu n n y , som etim es. I s he th e one t h a t e m b a rra sse s you? Embar r a s s e s p eo p le? H e 's touchy . . . You can jo k e around w ith him when h e 's jo k in g a ro u n d . When i t ' s n o t tim e to jo k e aro u n d and g e t down to b u s in e s s he r e a l l y chops a t yo u . L ik e any o th e r te a c h e r . S e ssio n I I S econdary L ev el - T each er D I had a te a c h e r , Mr. (name d e l e t e d ) , f o r S o c ia l S tu d ie s . And he j u s t , he j u s t c o u l d n 't s ta n d me. 1 re a d and I c o u l d n 't r e a d , and he d i d n 't c a r e , so he j u s t t o l d me to s t o p - - t o r e a d . How d id you f e e l when he t o l d you to sto p ? I re a d a tin y l i t t l e p a ra g ra p h and he l e t th e o th e r p e rso n re a d a lo n g w ith him . He j u s t DIANE - (c o n tin u e d ) D O N - DICK - D O N - TEACHER - D O N - TEACHER - D O N - TEACHER - D O N - TEACHER - D A N N Y - 296 d i d n 't c a re how I re a d . He n e v e r even h e lp e d me. T h e r e 's a l o t o f te a c h e rs l i k e t h a t . And i f y o u 'r e j u s t tr y in g to hand him som ething h e ' l l say t h a t y o u 'r e ta lk in g and i f he j u s t s e e s y o u r mouth m oving, h e 'd say y o u 'r e chew in g gum. And some te a c h e r s . . . s o m e th in 's wrong w i t h ... S o m e th in g 's wrong w ith th em selv es? Y eah, th e y have an i n f e r i o r i t y com plex o r some t h i n . And t h a t 's why th ey a c t t h a t way. I s e e , th e y f e e l l i k e they a r e i n f e r io r ? Y eah. You f e e l t h a t h a s r e f l e c t i o n in th e work t h a t he does w ith th e r e s t o f th e c l a s s . Oh, y a . D id you e v e r have te a c h e rs l i k e th a t? Danny? Yeah . . . Our re a d in g lan g u ag e te a c h e r . You do i t r i g h t s h e 's r e a l happy, b u t you do i t w rong, she w ants to know why you do i t w rong. Y o u 're supposed to go b ack and do i t a g a in . Do i t r i g h t . TEACHER - D A N N Y - TEACHER - D A N N Y - TEACHER - DICK - TEACHER - DIANE - DICK - Why do you suppose she w ants you to do i t o v er ag ain ? W ell, so y o u 'l l g e t i t r i g h t and know w hat you d id w rong. How do you f e e l when she t e l l s you y o u 'r e wrong? How do you f e e l when th e p e rso n , th e te a c h e r , t e l l s you t h a t you a re n o t doing r i g h t, y o u 'r e n o t re a d in g c o r r e c tly ? S i t down'. How do you f e e l ab o u t th a t? I mean in f r o n t o f th e w hole c la s s ? I f e e l s h e 's p ic k in g on me. S h e 's p ic k in g on you. And how do you f e e l when you th in k a te a c h e r i s p ic k in g on you, D ick? I f e e l l i k e doing bad th in g s . You f e e l l i k e d o in g bad th in g s , huh? M y te a c h e r , Mr. P . (name d e le te d ) , I u se d to do th in g s bad and he u sed to send me down to th e p r i n c i p a l 's o f f i c e v ery day. H e'd sa y , u h , I c a n 't e x p la in i t , b u t th e te a c h e rs th e y 'd t e l l , you i f y o u 'r e gonna, ya know j u s t l i k e th ey d id to th e boy . . . th e te a c h e r to ld him t h a t he was going to g iv e him DICK - (c o n tin u e d ) TEACHER - DICK D O N - DICK - D O N - DIANE - a f a i l u r e n o tic e so he j u s t k e p t on a c tin g w o rse . And, D ian e , when th e te a c h e r - - o r maybe some o f you can h e lp D ick and D iane e x p re s s some o f th is --h o w you f e e l when th e te a c h e r t e l l s you y o u 'r e wrong o r th e te a c h e r seems to be p ic k in g on y ou. I t was b ro u g h t o u t t h a t a l o t o f tim e s you w ant to do som ething b a d . D ick . . . how do you f e e l a b o u t t h i s ? Maybe you can h e lp them e x p re s s t h i s . L e t 's t a l k a b o u t t h i s . . . T h is f e e l in g . . . I know how you f e e l . The way I f e l t a b o u t my homeroom te a c h e r , n o t so good b ecau se you know e v e ry th in g we do . . . L ik e th e te a c h e r gave you a r e p o r t , you know. L ik e i f you came ta rd y to homeroom, he g iv e s you two sw a ts. He h as a p ad d le shaped l i k e a V ik in g sw ord. A w hat? A p a d d le shaped lik e a V iking sw ord. L ik e a T ro ja n . M y te a c h e r , she sends a n o te down to th e p r i n r c i p a l and l i e d on i t , he p u t a l l k in d s o f th in g s DIANE - (c o n tin u e d ) DICK - TEACHER DICK on i t . He s a id I ta lk e d b ack to o much. I had a s u c k e r, I w ent in c l a s s , he t o l d me to throw i t away. I s a id , I w o n 't, I w i l l wrap i t u p . * He s e n t a n o te down th e r e and he s a id t h a t I s a id t h a t nobody t e l l s me w hat to do and I d i d n 't say t h a t . And th e n i t g o es on my re c o rd . T h is i s w hat happened o n c e . 1 came in ta rd y to c l a s s and he s a i d , he ask e d me why I was ta r d y . I t o l d him I had a h a rd tim e op en in g my lo c k e r . And he t o l d me t h a t I was t e l l i n g a s t o r y . I s a i d , no I w a s n 't. He s a i d , anyway you w ere tr y in g to sn eak in c l a s s , he s a i d . I s a id , I w a s n 't , so he w ro te a r e f e r r a l down to th e p rin c i p a l and th e p r i n c i p a l re a d i t to me and he s a id t h a t I*w as b en d in g o v e r , tr y in g to c ra w l i n t o th e c l a s s , you know, tr y in g to sn eak i n . He s a id t h a t I s a id som ething a b o u t . . . ta rd y and . . . You f e e l th e n , t h a t a l o t o f tim e s th e y d o n 't say th e r i g h t th in g . D o n 't you? They be txying to g e t you in more tr o u b le because th e y th in k th e p r i n c i p a l , h e 's n o t g o in g to b e l ie v e n o th in g . DICK - TEACHER - DIANE 3 DO --Tim e L apse- - W ell, ya s e e , he n e v e r, th ey w ere ta lk in g o r som ething and you know t h a t th e p eo p le he s a id i s h is p e t o r so m eth in . He w ould t e l l them to be q u ie t and n o t do i t a g a in , b u t f o r someone e ls e he would j u s t w rite o u t a c a rd . J u s t lik e one o f h is p e ts . . . was chewing gum. And he s a id , "A re you chewing gum in my c la s s ? " He s a id , "Y eah." So he s a i d , "O .K ., I b e t t e r n o t see you chewing gum a g a in ," so he l e t him go. To t h i s o th e r boy he s a id , "A re you chewing gum in my c la s s ? " He s a id , "Y eah." And he s a id , "S ig n one o f my c a r d s ." --T im e L apse— D ian e, i f y our m other p u n ish e s you, what k in d o f punishm ent does she i n f l i c t on you? She say s you c a n 't go anyw here . . . L ike i f I w ant to go to th e show Sunday she s a y s , "You c a n 't go anyw here b ecau se you g o t a "U" n o tic e ." B ut th en she s a y s , "You have to s ta y in th e h o u se ," b u t she s t i l l ta k e s me o u t w ith h e r b u t I c a n 't go w ith my f r i e n d s . DICK - TEACHER - DICK - TEACHER - DICK - TEACHER - DIANE - DICK - TEACHER - DICK - 3PI M y m other p u n ish e s me by t e l l i n g me I c a n 't do n o th in g . C a n 't w atch t e l e v i s i o n . No t e l e v i s i o n . Som etim es sh e does i t th e ea sy way. W hat' s th e ea sy way? L e a th e r. L e a th e r. M y m other d o e s n 't w hip me any more . . . The way she p u n ish e d me, she u se d to l e t me look a t t e l e v i s i o n . B ecause som etim es I w ould r a t h e r g e t p u n ish ed th a n fu s s e d a t b ec au se y o u 'l l n e v e r h e a r th e end o f i t . What do you m ean, " f u s s e d a t? " L ike you do so m eth in g . R eal l i t t l e , you know. And she k eep s on b rin g in g i t u p , you know. J u s t l i k e you know I'm g o in g on 14 my m other say s . . . when she w ants me to do som ething now she s a y s , " Y o u 're 14 y e a rs o ld and you . . . can . . . do so and so and so and s o ," and when I do som ething wrong she s a y s , " Y o u 're o n ly 13 y e a rs o l d ." - - Time Lapse — TEACHER D A N N Y - TEACHER - D A N N Y - DICK - TEACHER - DIANE - DICK - Now, Danny, you w ere d e p riv e d o f t e l e v i s i o n and ra d io and a l l th o se th in g s . How do you f e e l when y our m other ta k e s a l l th e s e th in g s away from you? R eal mad. Mad. Do you show i t in any way when y o u 'r e mad w ith y o u r m other when she d e p riv e s you o f th e s e th in g s ? No. I c a tc h i t when she say I g iv e h e r some l i p o r so m eth in . Do you e v e r g e t mad a t y o u r m other? Y eah. . . She fu s s e d a t me . . . 1 su ck my t e e t h and she s a y s , " D o n 't suck y o u r t e e t h a t me . . . n So she h i t s me. What I h a te m o st, a f t e r she t e l l s me som ething she tu r n s h e r head and she b e lo o k in g a t th e c o m e r o f h e r eye a t me and I 'd p ro b a b ly do so m e th in g --sh e g iv e s me a b ack h an d . I th in k i t ' s p r e t t y sn eak y . - - Time L apse - - DIANE - TEACHER - DIANE - TEACHER - DIANE - TEACHER - DIANE - DICK - 303 Then you £ e e l l i k e you w ant to ru n away some tim e s . You f e e l l i k e you w ant to ru n away? One n ig h t I was g e t ti n g re a d y to ru n away. Oh, you w ere? T e l l u s a b o u t t h a t , D ian e . VThat b ro u g h t t h i s ab o u t? I t was t h a t "U" n o tic e t h a t I had g o tte n . And she fu s s e d a t me and she s a id I c o u l d n 't do a n y th in g b e c a u se I w anted to go to th e show. And she s a y , "You c a n 't g o ," so I was g o in g to g e t up t h a t n ig h t when she g o t in bed and leav e. One o f my g i r l f r i e n d s , th e y l e f t f o r two weeks and d i d n 't come home. T h a t's b e c a u se y o u r m other fu s s e d a t you. Y es. Then when you g e t b ack home she b e a ts you so h a rd and I w a s n 't p re p a re d f o r a w hipping when I g o t home. I s o r ta ra n away from home. I g o t mad. You know I r e a l l y f e l t l i k e d o in g i t th e n and I was gone a day o r so . . . I f e l t l ik e coming b ack , b u t I knew w hat w ould happen i f I cam b ack so I w ent to my g ra n d m o th e r's h o u se . And so she DICK - (c o n tin u e d ) TEACHER - DICK - TEACHER - DICK - TEACHER - DICK - TEACHER - DIANE - TEACHER - DIANE - DICK - TEACHER - DICK - DIANE - TEACHER 304 to o k me back to my m o th e r's h o u se. Did you e v e r f e e l l ik e ru n n in g away, Danny? A fte r w hat happened to me. What happened a t yo u r g ra n d m o th e r's house? N o th in g , b u t when I g o t horae-- Do y our m others u s u a lly u n d e rsta n d why you w ant to ru n away? No, she d i d n 't g iv e me a chance to t a l k . Would y o u r m other u n d e rs ta n d , D iane? Uh, u h , s h e 'd s t a r t b e a tin g on me. S t a r t b e a tin g on you. Yeah. Y es, I j u s t f e e l som etim es th a t nobody l i s t e n s to me a n y th in g — to what I have to sa y . Do you f e e l t h a t way? Yeah. I f th e y 'd j u s t u n d e rsta n d w hat I f e e l . L a s t F r id a y , my gym te a c h e r c a lle d me a s p o ile d b r a t and I g o t mad and to ld my m other and she lau g h ed , t h a t 's a l l . She d i d n 't h e lp me to g e t u n s p o ile d o r a n y th in g . M y daddy s p o ile d me. You f e e l th a t y o u r daddy i s th e one th a t s p o ile d you? DIANE - TEACHER - DIANE - TEACHER - TEACHER - D O N - DICK - TEACHER - DICK - 305 T h a t's w hat she s a i d . And my te a c h e r c a ll e d me a s p o ile d b r a t . You t o l d y o u r m o th er a b o u t i t . She j u s t c ra c k e d u p . She j u s t c ra c k e d u p . L aughed, huh? - - Time L apse — Don and Danny, d id you e v e r f e e l l i k e ru n n in g away? From home. D id you e v e r f e e l t h a t way? T h at you w anted to g e t away from i t a l l ? Some tim e s? Oh, som etim es. You g e t r e a l w orked u p , y o u 'r e r e a l l y worked up and say e v e ry b o d y 's p ic k in on y o u . You f e e l l i k e e v e ry b o d y 's a g a in s t you. You j u s t sa y , " I ' l l f i x them ." " I ' l l ru n aw ay." And t h e y 'l l f e e l s o rry f o r me and w ant me to come b a c k . J u s t w a it and se e now. Do you th in k t h a t th e y do f e e l s o rry f o r you t h a t y o u 'r e gone? I d o n 't know. S e s s io n I I (c o n tin u e d ) E lem en tary L e v e l - T ea ch er A TEACHER - You say you c a n 't w atch T .V . som etim es when TEACHER - (c o n tin u e d ) ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR TEACHER - A N N - TEACHER - ANN- y o u 'r e p u n ish e d . Then you have to go in a n o th e r p a r t o f th e house? X have to s ta y in my room som etim es. And w hat do you do w h ile y o u 'r e i n y o u r room? S om etim es, som etim es, lo o k o u t th e window. Som etim es j u s t I re a d a book. Som etim es I tu r n on th e t r a n s i s t o r ra d io and l i s t e n to i t . How do you f e e l when you a r e j u s t lo o k in g o u t th e window in y o u r room? A re you an g ry w ith M other i f she p u ts you in th e re ? Or a r e you mad? . . . How do you f e e l tow ards h e r a t t h i s tim e? L ik e som etim es she o u g h ta b e lie v e me and n o t th e o th e r c h il d r e n . S e s s io n I I I E lem en tary Group - T ea ch er A How do you f e e l a b o u t y o u r D in re a d in g ? I d i d n 't f e e l v e ry good a b o u t i t . Cause I c o u l d n 't re a d good. How d id y o u r m other and daddy f e e l a b o u t your C* s and D 's? They d i d n 't f e e l v e ry good a b o u t i t e i t h e r , A N N - (c o n tin u e d ) TEACHER - A N N - TEACHER - ALLEN- TEACHER - ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR - TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - 307 th ey f e l t I co u ld do b e t t e r . T h a t's w hat th ey s a id . Did th ey have any s u g g e s tio n s on how you c o u ld do b e tte r ? Y es. What w ere th ey ? Do you remember? L is te n to th e te a c h e r . D o n 't t a l k . A rth u r, w hat ab o u t you? What k in d o f s tu d e n t would you l i k e to be? Not t a l k . Be q u i e t . Do e v e ry th in g th e te a c h e r s a y s . You d o n 't f e e l you do e v e ry th in g th e te a c h e r a sk s you to do now. Sometimes I d o n 't hear w hat she s a y s . S e s sio n IV Secondary L ev el - T eacher C What were we ta lk in g ab o u t? We w ere ta lk in g ab o u t when you g e t in tr o u b le , how do you a c t , o r when y o u 'r e mad. And how d id some o f you f e l l a s say t h a t you a c te d , C h ris? W e s a id t h a t we acte d --w h e n we g o t mad we u su al- 308 CHRIS - ly w ent in o u r bedroom s and d i d n 't do v e ry (c o n tin u e d ) much, j u s t s a t a ro u n d . TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CARY - Do you w ant to a s k somebody e l s e h e re i f th ey a g re e w ith t h i s ? C alv in ? CALVIN - W e ll, u h , w hat I h e a rd o f th e n —w hat 1 s a i d , I show i t , b u t I f o r g o t w hat th e o th e r s s a id . B ut I th in k th ey s a id m ost o f them show i t to o . What was i t th e y d id , you p e o p le d id when you showed an g e r? . . . C ary, w hat a b o u t you? W e ll, we a l l g o t o rn e ry and we w o u ld n 't do n o th in . Got su lk y and mad and we w o u ld n 't do n o th in g and j u s t s i t up th e r e o r e l s e go some p la c e e l s e o r do som ething we w anted to do . . . you know, j u s t g o t su lk y . . . and j u s t w o u ld n 't do a n y th in g . What do you mean by " o rn e ry " ? I t ' s l i k e i f someone s a y s , "Go p ic k up th e p ap e r" and you s a y , " J u s t go p ic k i t up y o u r s e lf ," and you w alk on o f f . You d o n 't do no th in g I You d o n 't a sk f o r a n y th in g , g e t o rn e ry , mean. TEACHER - Why d o n 't we go around th e t a b l e h e re and l e t TEACHER CARY - TEACHER - (c o n tin u e d ) CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER CALVIN - TEACHER CALVIN - TEACHER CALVIN - 309 everybody t e l l w hat th ey th in k o rn e ry m eans. I th in k o rn e ry means when you*re mean and you w o n 't do a n y th in g anybody a sk s you. Can you g iv e u s an exam ple, C h ris? I t ' s l i k e when somebody a s k s , "Would you hand me a p e n c il ," o r som ething and you s a y , "G et i t y o u r s e lf ." L ike he s a y s . - - Time Lapse - - C a lv in , how a b o u t you? W ell, y ea h . Y o u 're o rn e ry when you d o n 't do w hat anybody e ls e s a y s . You do w hat you f e e l you w ant to d o . Have you e v e r f e l t lik e a c tin g t h i s way? Yeah. W ill you t e l l us a b o u t som etime t h a t you d id th is ? W ell t h i s week we had a f i r e d r i l l . I th in k i t was Monday, and so a l l o f u s w ent o u ts id e and when i t was o v e r w ith th e te a c h e r he w h is tle d a t u s and to l d u s to come o n . And everybody j u s t sto o d th e r e . And he s a id , come o n , you CALVIN - (c o n tin u e d ) TEACHER CALVIN TEACHER - CHUCK - TEACHER - 310 know. And so he s a id th e l a s t one in th e room g e ts f iv e d e te n tio n s and he w ent on. And so we w ent to c l a s s and he to ld us why he w h is tle d a t * u s . B ut I d o n 't th in k any te a c h e r h as th e r i g h t to w h is tle a t you anyway. How d id you f e e l when he w h is tle d ? W ell when he w h is tle d he w h is tle d l i k e you w h is tle a t a dog o r so m eth in g , an a n im a l. Not a human b e in g . And a l l th e k id s you know a f t e r c l a s s th ey ask ed some o f th e o th e r s what th ey th in k ab o u t i t and th ey s a id th e same th in g . B ut he s a id t h a t h i s f a t h e r w h is tle d a t him and h e w h is tle d a t h is so n , so he h a s th e r i g h t to w h is tle a t u s , lik e t h a t . Chuck, w hat does o rn e ry mean to you? You g e t a l l mad and d o n 't do w hat you a re su p posed to do. L ike when you do som ething bad and y o u r m other s t a r t s p u n ish in g you, you d o n 't t r y to do w hat she s a y s . - - Time Lapse What does y o u r dad do when he g e ts mad? Does he h o l l e r o r sh o u t o r w hat? When he g e ts mad d u rin g th e week everybody stays o u t o f h i s way. A t o u r h o u se , d u rin g th e week, my b r o th e r s and s i s t e r s th ey g e t cau g h t a t th e house and everybody does som ething ev ery o th e r day o r so . Then when we g e t mad on any o f o u r days when i t s o u r day to c le a n house we end up w ashing w a lls , th e w a lls can be s p o t l e s s , p u l l in g w eeds, ta k in g o u t th e tr a s h . . . and doing s t u f f e x t r a , you know, t h a t 's a c tu a lly o u t o f th e way and d o e s n 't need to be done. Then d u r in g th e weekend . . . i f i t ' s my day to c le a n up th e h o u se , t h a t n ig h t I c le a n up th e house and th en most o f them goes o u t and g e ts th e g r o c e r ie s and I g e t up and go w ith them and 1 j u s t g e t up . . . and I t e l l my mom I'm going som eplace and I s ta y e d on u n t i l s h e 's f in is h e d g e ttin g h e r g r o c e r ie s and I come back home . . . and he d o e s n 't h o l l e r to o much when s h e 's a t home b ecau se she h o l l e r s r i g h t back a t h im --an d he h o l l e r s and we g e t h i t and he g e ts mad. Most o f th e tim e I j u s t s ta y away from him . I s ta y o u t o f h i s way. - - Time L apse - - TEACHER CALVIN - TEACHER CALVIN - TEACHER CHUCK - TEACHER - D O N - How do you a c t when you w ant to b o y c o tt, n o t b o y c o tt, b u t how do you a c t when you d i s l i k e re a d in g ? What a r e some o f th e th in g s you do a b o u t i t ? How do you show i t ? W e ll, you show le s s i n t e r e s t in what y o u 'r e re a d in g a t th e tim e , and i f you r e a l l y d o n 't w ant to re a d i t . . . you see a word you r e a l l y know and say you d o n 't know i t and w a ste a l o t o f tim e j u s t lo o k in g and d o n 't do i t . You mean you a c tu a ll y know th e word b u t th e n you j u s t . . . You d o n 't w ant to re a d and i f you say you d o n 't know i t , w e ll th e y m ight . . . say you d o n 't have to re a d i t . How do you do i t , Chuck? . . . J u s t s t a r t o u t by lo o k in g around th e room, tu r n th e o th e r pages and lo o k aro u n d . S e s s io n IV (c o n tin u e d ) S econdary L e v e l - T e a c h e r D In o th e r w ords when you g e t mad you show i t by s to p w o rk in g , i s n ' t t h a t r i g h t D ick? And Don? Y eah, t h a t 's a b o u t th e th in g . I th in k th e r e D O N - (co n tin u ed ) TEACHER - DIANE - TEACHER - DIANE - TEACHER - DIANE - TEACHER - DIANE - a re o th e r ways, you j u s t keep working and f o r g e t about i t , you know. In th e long ru n i t comes o u t a l l r i g h t . Diane and Danny, how do you show your an g er when you f e e l an g ry . How do you show your anger? W ell, lik e y e s te rd a y , in S panish c la s s , I l e f t my p u rse in my c o u s in 's lo c k e r and I d i d n 't know th e com bination, so I asked the te a c h e r could I go and ask th e lady to have th e combi n a tio n o f i t . He s a id , "N o." W ell, I s a id , " I need i t . I w o n 't see h e r t i l l Monday." So he s a id , " T h a t's your problem ." And I g o t mad and g o t to c la s s and I j u s t pouted. Uh, huh. So when you f e e l angry you j u s t p o u t. When he says th in g s , I d o n 't c a re about i t . You j u s t d o n 't c a re . And I g e t mad. I s t a r t . . . th e k id s , we j u s t p lay around, t h a t 's a l l . Throw th in g s o u t th e window. You throw th in g s o u t the window. Even i f th e te a c h e r th in k s th a t y o u 're sm art. TEACHER - D A N N Y - TEACHER - DICK - TEACHER - TEACHER - BILL - TEACHER - 314 Do you f e e l t h a t way to o , Danny? How do you f e e l when y o u 'r e angry? How do you show i t ? D o n 't do my w ork. Goof aro u n d in c l a s s . You d o n 't do y o u r w ork. Goof around in c l a s s . — Time L apse - - W e ll, I th in k i f th e te a c h e r s d i d n 't make th e s tu d e n ts mad, w e l l, th e y 'd b e doing b e t t e r work. J u s t l i k e me and Don, when we g e t mad we sto p w o rk in g . L ike h e r , when she g e ts mad sh e does som ething to annoy th e te a c h e r s . In o th e r w o rd s, you do som ething t h a t w i l l g e t b a c k . G et b ack a t th e p e rso n t h a t y o u 'r e mad w ith . S e s s io n V E lem en tary L e v e l - T ea ch er B What happens i f some o th e r c h ild r e n - fe llo w s - i n y o u r c l a s s , f o r exam ple, . . . does th e te a c h e r keep h e r p ro m ises? . . . o r does s h e . .? I t ' s n o t a p ro m ise and th ey hope i t ' s n o t a p ro m ise , to o . W e ll, how do you f e e l ab o u t i t ? Do you th in k t h a t te a c h e r s sh o u ld do t h i s o r s h o u ld n 't do it? BILL - TEACHER - BILL - TEACHER - BILL BOB BILL - TEACHER 315 I d o n 't se e no re a s o n in i t . P eo p le g e t d e te n ti o n f o r j u s t chew ing gum. I d o n 't see any u se in t h a t . P eo p le g e t " a tte n t io n " f o r chew ing gum? I s t h a t w hat you s a id ? Y eah. I s t h a t one o f th e re a s o n s they chew gum? So t h a t th e te a c h e r w i l l t e l l them to ta k e i t o u t o f t h e i r m ouths. What do you th in k ? What do you mean? E x p la in i t to me, B i l l . . . w hat you mean by g e t t i n g a t t e n t i o n f o r chew ing gum? W e ll, urn, I d o n 't know, o u r p r i n c i p a l w i l l j u s t make a n o te o f i t . I f a c h ild in o u r c l a s s gets ca u g h t chew ing gum he h as to be d e ta in e d a f t e r sc h o o l . . . I d o n 't know. You know w hat we do i f w e 'r e c a u g h t chew ing gum. I t a l l depends on how lo n g y o u 'v e been chew ing i t . I f th e y have been chew ing i t a long tim e in s c h o o l, th e te a c h e r j u s t s t i c k s i t on t h e i r n o se and makes them w ear i t a l l day lo n g . She m ust know o u r te a c h e r . How do you f e e l a b o u t t h i s ? Do you th in k i t TEACHER - BOB - BILL - TEACHER - BILL - BOB - BOB - TEACHER - BOB - 316 makes you s to p chew ing gum o r do you th in k i t draw s a t t e n t i o n to you by h av in g i t on th e end o f y o u r n o se? Uh, u h , you d o n 't f e e l so h o t. I d o n 't know w hat i t f e e l s l i k e . I n e v e r chewed gum a t s c h o o l. Have you e v e r had t h i s happen to y o u , B i ll ? T h e r e 's a r u l e t h a t s t a r t e d l a s t week . . . You know w hat I d o . I d o n 't chew gum. . I ta k e some . . . and p u t i t u n d e r some h o t w a te r and ta k e a b i t e o u t o f i t and s t a r t chew ing i t , i t 's j u s t l i k e gum e x c e p t t h a t i t d o e s n 't have any f l a v o r in i t . - - Time L apse - - She n e v e r s m ile s o r a n y th in g and . . . W e ll, do you l e a r n more from h e r th a n you do th e o th e rs ? What do you mean? No, s h e 's a m eany. L ike you go up and a s k h e r i f you have to s ta y a f t e r s c h o o l. L ik e we have p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and th e k id s a r e b e in g b a d , th e y have to s ta y a f t e r s c h o o l. And you go up to h e r and a sk h e r , "D id you p u t my name down BOB - (c o n tin u e d ) TEACHER - BOB - BILL - TEACHER - ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR - 317 on th e t a b l e t to s ta y a f t e r sc h o o l? " She s a y s , "N o, b u t now you do f o r a s k in g m e." And a f t e r sh e p u n ish e s you she s o r t a s m ile s , I th in k she g e ts a jo y o u t o f p u n ish in g k id s . You th in k she g e ts . . . She does i t on p u rp o se . S h e 's a r e a l o n e . S e s s io n VI E lem en tary L e v e l - T each er A A rth u r? No, I h a v e n 't h e a rd o f anybody. Ann, do you know o f anyone? . . . W ell, l e t ' s p u t i t t h i s way. Have any o f you e v e r ru n away from home o r a t l e a s t p la n n e d o r f e l t l i k e ru n n in g away? . . . A rth u r? No. W e ll, su p p o se --w h a t w ould make you w ant to ru n away from home? What c o u ld y o u r p a r e n ts do t h a t w ould r e a l l y make you f e e l a s though you w anted to ru n away from home? A ccuse you o f so m eth in g . TEACHER - ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR - ARNOLD - TEACHER - 318 W e ll, w hat w ould th ey have to ac cu se you o f t h a t you w ould f e e l l i k e ru n n in g away from home? You w ere supposed to do homework and she s a id t h a t you d i d n 't do th e homework, and you d id . And th e n i t makes you m ad --accu se s you o f some th in g you d o n 't even do. Have y o u r p a r e n ts e v e r done th is ? Y es. And you f e l t l i k e ru n n in g away from home? 1 j u s t d o n 't rem em ber. What d id you do when you w ere mad? 1 j u s t g o tta go home. Ann, w hat c o u ld y o u r . . . Oh, I'm s o r r y , A r th u r . B ecause i t c o u ld happen to yo u , when they a c c u se somebody o f do in g som ething and th e y d i d n 't do i t . M y f a t h e r som etim es te a s e s me and he g e ts me mad. And t h i s w ould make you f e e l l ik e ru n n in g away from home? ARNOLD - TEACHER • ALFRED - TEACHER - ALFRED - TEACHER ALLEN - 319 W ell, n o t too road. I g e t mad when he te a s e s roe. - - Time Lapse — A lfre d ? W ell, I ' d f e e l to o a f r a i d to ru n away from home and I d o n 't th in k I 'd e v e r w ant to t r y i t , b u t som etim es my f r ie n d s th ey come o v er to my house and th ey accu se roe o f som eth in g . And th en my mom blam es i t on me and a f t e r she blam es i t on roe she f in d s o u t th e r e a l t r u t h , I f e e l l ik e s a y in g , "Now you know!" I f e e l l ik e j u s t ru n n in g away and n e v e r coming b ack . - - Time L apse — r ARNOLD, w hat a b o u t you? Excuse me, A lfre d , w hat a b o u t you a t sch o o l? Do you j u s t go alo n g even though you a re d i s s a t i s f i e d and do e v e ry th in g t h a t th e te a c h e r a sk s you to do o r who e v e r i s in charge? W ell, m ost o f th e tim e . W ell, A lle n , w hat ab o u t you? You h a v e n 't s a id a n y th in g . W ell, i f th e te a c h e r a sk s me to do som eth in g , I do i t . TEACHER - ALLEN - TEACHER - TEACHER - ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR -• TEACHER - ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR - 320 Even though y o u 'r e n o t s a t i s f i e d w ith w hat she a s k s you to d o , even though you d o n 't lik e w hat she a sk s you to do. She a s k s me so m eth in g , 1 do i t ab o u t f i v e m in u t e s a f t e r she a s k s . And t h i s i s how you show y our d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n ? R ig h t? - - Time L apse — How do you remember show ing t h a t you w ere n o t s a t i s f i e d w ith th in g s a t home o r how do you show t h a t you a re n o t s a t i s f i e d w ith th in g s a t home? H a lf do i t . What do you d o , A rth u r? When y o u r m other t e l l s you to do so m eth in g , you h a l f do i t , you d o n 't do i t l i k e she w ants y ou. You j u s t h a l f do th in g s t h a t you a r e t o l d to do when you a r e n o t s a t i s f i e d w ith them . I p re te n d t h a t 1 d o n 't h e a r . W e ll, how do you th in k she f e e l s a b o u t t h is ? I d o n 't know. DICK TEACHER - D A N N Y - TEACHER - D A N N Y - TEACHER - D A N N Y - TEACHER - 321 S ession VI (continued) S econdary L ev e l - T ea ch er D . . . You know, when th e te a c h e r s bug me, you know w hat makes me mad, r e a l i y makes me mad, so I f e e l l i k e g o in g home, g o in g away . . . You know, l i k e I g o t bad g ra d e s one se m e ste r and my f a t h e r he j u s t k eep s on t a lk i n g to me ab o u t i t and th e n my g ran d m o th er she t a l k s to me a b o u t i t to s a y , "Do b e t t e r , " and I s a y , "O kay." She keep s o n , you know, k eep s o n , I j u s t g e t mad, you know and i f I t a l k back I'm g o in g to be . . . - - Time L apse « Danny, a r e you som etim es d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith home t h a t w ould cau se you to ru n away? How do you f e e l a b o u t th a t? W e ll, som etim es. What h appens t h a t c o u ld c a u se th is ? M y dad and o th e r p e o p le . T e l l me to do th in g s . And th e n . . . They keep a f t e r me to keep d o in g th in g s , w o n 't le a v e me a lo n e . In o th e r w o rd s, th e y o r d e r you to do th in g s , th ey keep a f t e r you. D A N N Y TEACHER ARTHUR - TEACHER ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR - Uh, huh. S e ssio n V II E lem entary L ev el - T eacher A W ell, how do you f e e l t h a t your m other o r fa th e r o r b o th co u ld h a n d le t h i s i f i t had been you who had re c e iv e d th e bad g ra d e s and had b ro u g h t home a n o te t h a t s a id th a t . . . S h e 'd work me h ard . . . A rth u r? . . . keep me d o in g th e w ork, and . . . I have to keep on doing a r ith m e tic . And many days she j u s t l e t s me go o u t and p la y f iv e o r te n minutes^ have to come back i n , th e n I o n ly have a m inute b re a k . How would y our f a t h e r o r m other a c t tow ard you when th ey found o u t ab o u t th is ? . . . Would th ey a c t lik e Mr. M cLaughlin d id tow ard K enneth?^ How would th ey a c t? L ike Mr. M cLaughlin d id to K enneth. Then a f t e r a w h ile a f t e r th ey s t a r t doing i t they cooldow n. ^ C h a ra c te rs in a R e a c tio n S to ry TEACHER - ARNOLD - TEACHER - ARNOLD - TEACHER - ARNOLD - TEACHER - ARNOLD - TEACHER - ARNOLD - TEACHER - ARNOLD - TEACHER - 323 A rn o ld , how do you th in k y our p a r e n ts w ould f e e l i f you b ro u g h t home t h i s ty p e o f g ra d e on y o u r r e p o r t card ? T h e y 'd p ro b a b ly t e l l me I 'd have to go to my bedroom and s tu d y . How do you th in k y our f a t h e r and m other w ould a c t when th ey fo u n d o u t t h a t you had g o tte n t h i s ty p e o f g rad e? Bad. How w ould th ey show t h e i r m adness o r an g er? T h e y 'd baw l me o u t. How do you f e e l when th ey baw l you o u t? I d o n 't know. How do you f e e l tow ards th e te a c h e r f o r g iv in g th o s e g ra d e s t h a t r e s u l t e d in y o u r g e t t i n g baw led ou t? N ot so w e ll. What w ould you do to h e r? Would you ta k e o u t y o u r a n g e r on h er? No. Who w ould you ta k e o u t y o u r a n g e r on i f you d i d n 't f e e l so w e ll and you were an g ry a b o u t i t ? ARNOLD - ALLEN - TEACHER - A N N - TEACHER - A N N - TEACHER - A N N - TEACHER - AN N - TEACHER - ANN- TEACHER A N N - Me*. T e l l i t on y o u r b r o th e r . . . I d o n 't know. Ann, how do you th in k y o u r f o lk s would f e e l i f you g o t th e k in d o f g ra d e s K enneth in th e s to ry g o t? T h ey 'd baw l me o u t and p ro b a b ly spank me. And how would you f e e l i f th ey spanked you? I 'd f e e l li k e ru n n in g away. How would you f e e l tow ards th e te a c h e r t h a t gave you th e s e g ra d es? I 'd be so mad a t h e r . . . And w hat would you do to her? I 'd b e a t h e r u p . X had one te a c h e r li k e t h a t . You d id ? W e d i d n 't n e v e r have h is to r y o r geography. She gave me a D when we n e v e r had i t and th e r e s t o f th e k id s g o t A 's , B 's and C 's in i t . But we n e v e r had i t . What d id you do to th e te a c h e r? I to ld my m other and my m other came down th e re and she s a id t h a t we had to b rin g s t u f f to s h a re and I b ro u g h t more s t u f f th en any c h ild re n . X b ro u g h t ro c k s , flo w e rs , s h e l l s . . . TEACHER - ANN- TEACHER - A N N - TEACHER - ALLEN - TEACHER - ALLEN - TEACHER - ALLEN - TEACHER - CARY - TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - 325 So, d id she change y o u r g rad e? - No. Did you do a n y th in g to h e r to g e t back a t h e r f o r g iv in g you t h i s D? « No. A lle n , how do you th in k y o u r p a r e n ts w ould f e e l i f you b ro u g h t t h i s ty p e o f g ra d e home? T h ey 'd say I c o u ld do b e t t e r . I 'd p ro b a b ly have to come home from sc h o o l and s tu d y . How w ould you f e e l tow ard th e te a c h e r? I 'd f e e l mad a t h e r to o . How w ould you ta k e o u t y o u r m adness? I d o n 't know. S e ssio n V II (c o n tin u e d ) S econdary L ev el - T each er C Do you fe llo w s e v e r b u ild w a lls aro u n d y o u r s e lv e s ? . . . Cary? Every now and th e n . How a b o u t y o u , C h ris? Y eah. How do you do t h i s ? When my mom y e l l s a t me. TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHUCK - TEACHER - CHUCK - TEACHER - CHUCK - TEACHER - CHUCK - TEACHER - CARL TEACHER - CALVIN - What do you do? I j u s t d o n 't t a l k to h e r . How a b o u t you, Chuck? Som etim es. How do you do I t ? I d o n 't know, I f somebody y e l l s a t me, I j u s t go ab o u t my b u s in e s s . . . 1 w atch t e l e v i s i o n . What does t h i s accom plish? N o th in g . Why do you th in k you do i t , then? I'm mad a t h e r . How ab o u t you, C arl? Have you e v e r done th is ? I j u s t g e t mad and . . . j u s t d o n 't w ant to t a l k to them . I s ta y o u t o f t h e i r way. B u ild in g t h i s w a ll around y o u r s e lf , w hat does i t accom plish? What i s i t t h a t you a r e tr y in g to do? . . . C alv in ? W e ll, I d o n 't know i f I e v e r b u i l t a w a ll around m y se lf, b u t i t seems lik e w hat t h e y 'r e s a y in g , t h e y 'r e tr y in g to g e t a t t e n t i o n . I g u ess to g e t a t t e n t i o n t h a t 's w hat th e p a r e n ts w ant them to do, th ey d o n 't w ant to do t h a t CALVIN - (c o n tin u e d ) TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - th in g and t h a t i f th e y d o n 't w ant to do i t t h e y 'r e n o t g o in g to do i t . Som ething lik e t h a t . Do you a g re e w ith t h i s C h ris? Y eah. I s t h i s w hat happens to you when you b u ild t h i s s o - c a lle d w a ll? What i s i t you a r e r e a l l y t r y in g to do when you do som ething lik e th is ? Try to be b ig g e r th a n them . How do you mean b ig g e r? What does th a t mean to you? W e ll, l i k e when one o f th e guys b ack in g down on you. Say t h a t a g a in . L ik e in th e s to ry when h i s dad backed down on him he f e l t b ig g e r th a n h i s d ad .^ Do you th in k t h a t b u ild in g a w a ll around y o u r s e l f h e lp s you become a b ig g e r p e rso n th an someone e ls e ? I s t h i s w hat y o u 'r e saying? You j u s t th in k i t when y o u 'r e doing i t . ^ C h a ra c te rs in a Problem S to ry . TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHUCK - TEACHER - CHUCK - 328 And w hat do you th in k a b o u t a fte rw a rd s ? You d o n 't f e e l so good a b o u t i t . And how do you f e e l a b o u t i t ? 1 f e e l t h a t I 'v e been p r e t t y s tu p id . > - - Time L apse - - Do you f e l l a s f e e l t h a t i f you r e a l l y w ant to t h a t you can le a r n to be good re a d e rs ? . . . What do you th in k may be s ta n d in g in y o u r way? The b r ic k w a ll. Can you d e s c r ib e t h i s b r i c k w a ll, w hat i t means to you? You a r e d o in g som ething and y o u r mom o r dad comes in and th ey s a y , " D o n 't do t h a t , re a d a book o r so m e th in g ." And th e n you j u s t , and e v e ry tim e th ey say t h a t you g e t m adder and you d o n 't w ant t o . So th e n w hat do you do? So you d o n 't re a d . You do w hat you w ere d o in g . C huck, w hat do a b o u t you? Has anyone e v e r t o l d you to re a d a book? Y es. What have you done ab o u t i t ? Som etim es I go w atch T .V . o r som etim es I w atch CHUCK - (c o n tin u e d ) TEACHER - CHUCK - TEACHER - CHUCK - TEACHER - CHUCK - CARY - TEACHER - CHRIS - TEACHER - CHRIS - 329 a b o o k -re a d a book. You mean w atch a book o r re a d one? Read o n e . Ya? Have you e v e r w atched a book? Ya. I n sch o o l? Have you e v e r w atched a book in sch o o l? You know w hat I mean when I say w atch a book? J u s t lo o k a t i t . Y eah. S im p le. T ea ch er g o t a book on h e r d e s k , you lo o k a t th e te a c h e r , you lo o k a t th e book. - - Time L apse - - W e ll, I th in k t h i s i s r e a l i n t e r e s t i n g . Any o f you fe llo w s se e a p a t t e r n h e re ? . . . Do you see o n e , C h ris? Y eah. What? W e ll, a l l o f u s w henever someone t e l l s u s to do som ething and we d o n 't w ant to do, we d o n 't do i t , and we g e t mad and th ey g e t mad and th e m adder we g e t th e h ig h e r - - th e b r ic k w a ll goes h ig h e r . TEACHER CHRIS - TEACHER CHRIS - TEACHER BOB AND TEACHER BILL - TEACHER 330 - What i s i t t h a t m ost o f you, I ' d say a l l o f you have done in re g a rd s to le a r n in g to read? Got mad a b o u t i t and d i d n 't w ant t o . - Do you th in k t h a t t h i s m ight be a p r e t t y w e ll- in g ra in e d h a b it? Y es. S e s s io n V III E lem en tary L ev el - T each er B - Do you f e e l t h a t , f o r exam ple, when you have r u l e s l i k e a t sc h o o l t h a t th e te a c h e r s make them j u s t to g iv e you a bad tim e o r do you th in k th ey have a r e a l p u rp o se? BILL - Some o f them . - L e t 's t a l k a b o u t i t . Two o f you s a id , "Some o f 'e m ." What do you mean by t h i s , B ill? W ill you e x p la in i t ? Some te a c h e r s - t h e y 'r e w orking on o u r sc h o o l r i g h t now. C o n s tru c tio n . T h e y 're la y in g p ip e . . . a t a fte rn o o n r e c e s s t h e y 'l l l e t u s c r o s s , b u t th e n th e y w o n 't l e t u s go b ac k a c ro s s a g a in to o u r room s. - Bob, you su g g e ste d so m eth in g . BOB - TEACHER - BOB - TEACHER - BOB - TEACHER - BILL - TEACHER I 331 W ell, I d o n 't know. Some r u l e s a r e j u s t , lik e . . . you c a n 't . . . , you w alk up and you a c c i d e n t a ll y h i t th e te a c h e r s , o r a b a l l comes up and h i t s th e te a c h e r on th e le g o r any p la c e on him . I t j u s t r o l l s up to h e r and h i t s h e r and s h e 'l l s a y , "You know t h a t c o u ld have h u r t me, t h a t c o u ld have h u r t me b ad , you go to th e w a ll f o r t h a t . " You s ta n d a t th e w a ll f o r th e n e x t r e c e s s . Sometimes y o u 'r e n o t even th e one who h i t th e b a l l . You f e e l th e te a c h e rs a re u n f a ir som etim es t h i s way? 1 f e e l t h e y 'r e alw ays u n f a ir . You th in k t h e y 'r e alw ays u n f a i r . Not alw a y s, b u t m ost o f th e tim e . How do you f e e l , B i ll ? About t h i s , a b o u t th e f a ir n e s s o f y o u r te a c h e rs ? Not v e ry o f te n . S e ssio n X X E lem entary L ev el - T each er A Do you f e e l t h a t you can t a l k to y o u r p a r e n ts ab o u t th in g s t h a t you would r e a l l y l ik e to t a l k TEACHER - (c o n tin u e d ) ARTHUR - TEACHER - ARTHUR - 332 to them ab o u t o r t h a t r e a l l y b o th e r you? No. No? Not you. Why d o n 't you f e e l you can t a l k to them , A rth u r? . . . Som etim e, you know, I say som ething th a t's n o t r i g h t t h a t I d i d n 't mean to say and th e n she s t a r t s fu s s in g . . . she d o e s n 't g iv e me a chance i f 1 w ant to say som ething. And when I w ant to say som ething when 1 be t e l l i n g th e t r u t h she w o n 't l e t me t e l l th e t r u t h b ecau se i t seems th a t th ey d o n 't w ant to h e a r th e tr u t h . They j u s t w ant to blam e me o r so m ething. They j u s t whip you.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Strickler, Edwin (author)

Core Title Educational Group Counseling Within A Remedial Reading Program

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Meyers, Charles Edward (committee chair), Brown, Charles M. (committee member), Metfessel, Newton S. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-357025

Unique identifier UC11359191

Identifier 6501284.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-357025 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6501284.pdf

Dmrecord 357025

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Strickler, Edwin

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA