Close
About
FAQ
Home
Collections
Login
USC Login
Register
0
Selected
Invert selection
Deselect all
Deselect all
Click here to refresh results
Click here to refresh results
USC
/
Digital Library
/
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
/
Fulk Of Neuilly
(USC Thesis Other)
Fulk Of Neuilly
PDF
Download
Share
Open document
Flip pages
Contact Us
Contact Us
Copy asset link
Request this asset
Transcript (if available)
Content
C o pyright by
JOHN MICHAEL O'BRIEN
1965
FULK OF NEUILLY
by,\
' * ? V * '
John Mi O 'Brien
A D is s e r ta tio n P resented to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t of th e
Requirements f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(H isto ry )
August 1964
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CAUFORNIA
THE GRADUATE 8CHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 8 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
..................................
under the direction of hl&...Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
.
Date AugUJB.t...25#...19M............
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
TABLE OP CONTENTS
Chapter Pages
In tro d u c tio n — - - - - - - - - — i _ 5
S ources- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 - 2 4
Early C a re e r— - - - - - - - - — _ _ _ _ 25 _ 38
Reforming Themes- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 39 - 62
The Dynamics of P reaching- - - - - - - - - 6 3 - 7 3
Peter a n d B ernard- - - - - - - — ____ 7 4 - 8 9
Fulk an d the F o u rth Crusade- - - - - - - - 90 - 1 1 5
Bibliography- - - 116 -120
-1-
INTRODUCTION
Although competent works e x is t on Bernard of
Clairvaux and Peter the Hermit, by and large, other
crusade preachers have been ignored. One of the le ss
w ell known crusade preachers, Fulk of N euilly, is the
subject of th is study. Although S t. Bernard and Peter
the Hermit are much more fam iliar to contemporary
historians than is Fulk of N euilly, the la t t e r was,
nevertheless, one of the most celebrated figures of h is
e r a .
A study of Fulk of Neuilly should prove to be of
value for several reasons. Above a l l , i t offers a
description of the preparation and background of one of
the m ost'successful crusade preachers. Secondly, i t
provides the opportunity to explore the moral questions
which were meaningful to an evangelical preacher at the
end of the twelfth century. F in ally, i t enables the
historian to lend form to the image of a man who has
been treated in an incidental fashion in most h isto r ic a l
accounts.
Fulk of Neuilly was i n i t i a l l y a parish priest and
- 2 -
ultim ately an itinerant preacher of the crusade. His
variegated career led him f i r s t from H euilly, a suburb
of Paris, to the University of Paris. At the U niversity,
Fulk, inspired by the instruction of several prominent
professors and fortunate in h is association with them,
began to acquire a considerable reputation fo r his
preaching a b ilit y . His i n i t i a l success seems to have
stemmed from a peculiarly unacademic.deportment and h is
extraordinary enthusiasm which became the hallmark of
his preaching. His reputation spread with sta r tlin g
rapidity, and his a c t iv it ie s were soon extended beyond
Paris and i t s environs. After several years of travel
and preaching throughout France, Fulk/s prestige had
risen to the point where he was selected by Pope
Innocent III (1198-1216) to preach the fourth crusade.
Subsequently, Fulk embarked on his now famous recruiting
campaign in northern France, Flanders, and Champagne.
Since Fulk is one of the few popular preachers of
the crusade about whom we have any background material
whatever, a fu ll-le n g th biography would indeed be
welcome. Unfortunately, the nature of the documents
available precludes a study of th is magnitude. To be
- 3 -
su re , docum entation abounds, b u t I t I s lam entably
r e p e t i t i o u s In c h a ra c te r; s u b s t a n tia lly novel m a te r ia l
i s ex ceed in g ly s p a rs e . The c h ro n ic le s supply minimal
in fo rm a tio n . Almost u n iv e r s a lly , F ulk is b r i e f l y
commended f o r h is reform preaching o r summarily noted
as th e s u c c e s s fu l p re a c h e r of th e fo u rth cru sa d e.
This p a u c ity of s ig n i f ic a n t docum entation makes tr y in g
demands upon th e h i s t o r i a n f o r whom one of two
approaches i s a v a ila b le . He may e i t h e r atte m p t a
len g th y volume employing Fulk o b liq u e ly as a r e f l e c t i o n
of th e l a t t e r p a r t of th e tw e lf th c e n tu ry , o r he may
p re se n t a monograph designed to f e r r e t out what is
known and may be in f e r r e d from the e x ta n t so u rc e s.
The l a t t e r approach has been adopted in the fo llo w in g
pages. The J u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s i s th a t l i t t l e i s
known s p e c i f i c a l l y of F u lk 's developm ent, and th a t
which has been w r itte n i s s u b je c t to c o n sid e ra b le
r e v is io n .
- 4 -
SOURCES
Primary Sources
The q u a n tity of prim ary so u rces re le v a n t to Fulk
of N e u illy has a lre a d y been m entioned. The p re se n t
a u th o r has c o lle c te d re fe re n c e s to a t l e a s t s ix ty
prim ary so u rces of v ary in g le n g th and q u a lity ,
a l l of which b e a r d i r e c t l y on one phase o r a n o th e r of
F u lk 's c a r e e r . To com plicate the problem of s e le c tio n ,
th e g re a t m a jo rity of sources were w r itte n e i t h e r
du rin g the p r e a c h e r 's lif e tim e o r s h o r tly a f t e r h is
d e a th . Furtherm ore, when we examine th e course of
F u lk 's w anderings, and compare t h i s w ith th e lo c a tio n s
in which th e sources were f i r s t w r itte n , i t becomes
c l e a r th a t s e v e ra l of the w r ite r s on whom we depend
were w ell acq u ain ted w ith our s u b je c t. This a n a ly s is
of source m a te ria l w ill focus p rim a rily on th o se au th o rs
who f u rn is h us w ith in fo rm atio n of s p e c ia l im portance
and reaso n ab le le n g th . As a r e s u l t the sources l i s t e d
below in no way f u rn is h an e x h a u stiv e catalo g u e of those
to be used throughout th is stu d y . The b ib lio g ra p h y
o f f e r s a complementary l i s t of the so u rces which b e a r
any rele v an ce t o the s u b je c t.
The lo n g e st and perhaps th e most v a lu a b le account
o f F u lk 's l i f e i s found in Iacobus de V itr ia c o ,
H is to rla (Duaci, 1597). This h as been t r a n s l a te d
I n to F rench In M. G uizot, e d ., C o lle c tio n des memolres
r e l a t l f s a l 'h l s t o l r e de France (P a ris , 1825), v. 22,
I I , pp. 29^-302. G uizot, however, t r a n s l a t e s only
elev en o f the t h i r t y - e i g h t c h a p te rs of Book I I (the
p e r tin e n t volum e), but th e se in clu d e th e b ulk of Ja cq u es'
m a te ria l concerning F u lk . Jacques of V itry i s the
only contem porary a u th o r to t r e a t F u lk 's c a re e r
from i t s in c e p tio n up to h is d eath in 1202. Here we
have one of the few accounts of F u lk 's a c tio n s p r io r
t o 1195 when he earned a w idespread r e p u ta tio n , and
h is preaching was subsequently taken up by a h o st
of contemporary c h r o n ic le r s . Almost a l l of th e
secondary l i t e r a t u r e d e s c rib in g Fulk b efo re 1195 Is
based on Ja c q u e s' ac co u n t. Moreover, Jacques o ffe rs
th e only e x te n siv e use in the c h ro n ic le s of what he
p u rp o rts to have been F u lk 's own words. In c o n tra s t
th e o th e r sources confine t h e i r acco u n ts to a
d e s c r ip tio n of how the masses who heard the p reach er
re a c te d to h is w ords. Jacques of V itr y t r e a t s alm ost
a l l phases of Fulk^s c a re e r: h is p reach in g , th e
m ira c le s he perform ed, h is p ro p h e c ie s, h is f o s te r in g
of preach in g d i s c i p l e s , and even h is o cc asio n al
o u tb u rs ts of tem per. For t h i s reason h is account
d eserv es a f u r t h e r n o te .
I t i s e s s e n t i a l to observe th a t th e H ls to rla
O c c ld e n ta lls which forms th e second book of Jacques
of V i t r y 's h is to r y i s a p r o te s t a g a in s t the v ic e and
c o rru p tio n which th e a u th o r p erceiv ed in every f a b r ic
of th e s o c ie ty of h is day. I t i s i n to th i s s e t t i n g
th a t Jacques i n s e r t s F ulk, whom acco rd in g to th e
a u th o r, the Lord chose " lik e a s t a r In a dark n ig h t."
Fulk i s th e only in d iv id u a l in the H ls to r la
O c c ld e n ta lls who re c e iv e s a q u a s i-b io g ra p h ic a l
tre a tm e n t. He looms as the h e ro ic r e s t o r e r of p u b lic
m o ra lity , a d iv in e ly in s p ire d c re a tu re se n t to
a m e lio ra te a s o c ie ty plagued w ith u su ry , a v a ric e ,
and p r o s t i t u t i o n . Jacques of V itry does, however, re v e a l
some c r i t i c a l a b i l i t y in h is tre a tm e n t. The i n i t i a l
Ignorance of the p re a c h e r, and the n e c e s s ity f o r
sp o n so rsh ip by a renowned p ro fe s s o r a re u n eq u iv o cally
- 7 -
stated. Jacques even mentions that Fulk's reforms
lacked permanence. Jacques of Vitry lived from about
1165 to 12*10, spent at le a st some of his time in Paris
while Fulk was preaching there, and most lik e ly heard
Fulk preach in person on several occasions.
In Radulphus de Coggeshall, Chronlcon anglicanum
(Rolls Series, no. 66), pp. 80-82, 93, 130, 133, we
find an in terestin g supplementary source to Jacques.
Ralph became Abbot of Coggeshall in 1207, and i t is
then, we assume, that he turned to the writing of
his Chronlcon, o rig in a lly supposed to have been a
history of the Cistercian Order but la te r broadened
to become a general history of the times. The
work extends from 1065-1223 and contains accretions
from several authors, but i t is believed that the
period in which Fulk i s involved is the work of Ralph
him self. In h is description of Fulk's early career
we have the only source of any value besides the
Hlstorla O ccld en talls. Moreover, in Ralph's work we
have a complete description of the way in which
Fulk’s miracles were performed, and a l i s t of instances
to illu s t r a t e the e f fe c t of Fulk's thaumaturgy. Further
-8-
more, Ralph elaborates Fulk's role In preaching the
fourth crusade, and he is responsible fo r th e ' statement
that the preacher personally affixed the cross to some
200,000 would-be crusaders. The author also records
Fulk's dealings, unsuccessful at f i r s t , with the
chapter general meeting of the Cistercian Order at
Gateaux. In 1198 Fulk had requested assistan ce to
preach the crusade but was turned down by the
C istercian s.
Robertus A utissiodorensis, Chronlcon, in Monumenta
Germanlae H lsto r lca ; Scrlptores Pertz, e d ., XXVI,
p. 2 5 8, offers a universal chronicle which ends in
1211. Robert was the prior of S t. Mary's Abbey in
France u n til 1211, and as such must have had
opportunities to hear and see Fulk speak. One of
the problems concerned with Robert is the connection
often made because cf him between Fulk and the
extirpation of heresy. In the f i r s t lin es of his
text in the Monumenta Robert describes Fulk's
wanderings and the waT - in which his words cured those
a f flic t e d with various types of v ic e s . Then with no
tran sition or mention of Fulk, Robert t e l l s of the
spread of popular heresy and supplies examples of
h eretics who were caught and surrendered to the
secular arm. Fulk is then picked up some fiv e or
s ix lin e s la te r in the narrative. Several scholars
have assumed from this that Fulk was intim ately
connected with extirpating heresy, but the abruptness
with which the episode intrudes suggests a possible
in terpolation in the manuscript. Robert also relates
Fulk's dealing with the Jews, and fla tly states that
Fulk detested them in ever;, way, although this
information is generally ignored in the secondary■
litera tu re concerning the preacher. F inally, Robert
notes that the e ffe c t of Fulk's preaching gradually
diminished, and m an;, who had zealously proclaimed a
change for the b etter were seen slipping back into th eir
old ways.
Otto de S. 31asio, Chronicon, in Monumenta
Germanise H isto rica : Scriptores Pertz, ed., XX, 329-
331, is important for several reasons. Otto, who died
in 1223, was an Abbot of St. B la ise, and wrote a
general history covering the period from 11^-1209.
Otto describes Fulk’s preaching with such minute
-10-
precision that it is possible that we have here
another e:,e-witness for a source. Otto was particularly
interested in Folk’s dealing with usurers, and he
describes the several methods: threats, f la tte r y ,
scorn e t c ., that Fulk employed to ensure his success.
Otto speaks exten sively of Fulk's miracles ancl from
time to time assures us of th e ir v a lid ity by c itin g ,
as his authority, a person who had been present when
they occurred. It should be added that Otto is one
of the few chroniclers to claim that Fulk received
his charge from the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Turning again to the English sources we have
Roger de Eoveden, Chronic on IV, 7*5, (Rolls Series
no. 51), pp. 7'''-77. While s t i l l a clerk for King
*
Kenry I I , Roger began writing his Annals in 11.39, and
when finished , they consisted of a chronicle of Europe
(and la te r the Holy Land) extending from 732 to 1201.
His history is particularly f u ll a fte r 1192, and the
period from 1155 to 1201 is treated by Roger in some
800 pages. Roger is particularly noted for fosterin g
the sto rie s which portray Fulk as a conversant with
the kings of France and England. It is Roger who
- l i
re la ted the dubious conversation between Fulk and
Richard of England. Roger a lso t e l l s of the preacher's
imprisonment in Lisieux and Caen, and explains that
the jallkeepers thought that th is action would meet
with the approval of Richard the Lion-Hearted. Roger's
position as clerk may give some basis fo r th is la t te r
claim, but i t should be noted that he was in no way
pleased with the kings who succeeded Henry I I , and
he was not above seizin g an opportunity to present them
in a bad lig h t.
Matthew of Paris, in h is Chronica Majora II, p. 440,
(Rolls Series no. 57)# offers a universal chronicle
which ends with Matthew’s death in 1259. The section of
the work concerning Fulk was compiled by Matthew's
predecessor (d. 1236) but the particular notes on Fulk
were apparently part of Matthew's interpolations and
were consequently written sometime a fte r 1236. Matthew
might have had Ralph of Coggeshall close at hand when he
added the notes under the year 1190 to Wendover's
account, fo r many of the statements are sim ilar. However,
there are some in teresting innovations in Matthew's
version. In the Chronica Majora, i t is stated that
-12-
Fulk extended his campaign against usurers across the
Alps and Into I ta ly . This Is mentioned in two separate
places, and yet no other chronicles are aware of i t .
Since Matthew relied heavily on previous accounts
for th is period, he might have had a source that is
no longer extant at his disposal. Matthew does not
mention Fulk's presence in England but does note
that he sent one of h is d is c ip le s , the Abbot of Flay,
to preach there.
Returning to the French sources we have Rigordus,
Gesta Philippi II Augustl Regis Francorum, in Recue11
des h lstorlen s des Gaules et de la France ed ., Bouquet,
XVII, pp. 42-43, vrtiich covers the period from 1179-
1208. Rigordus, a monk of St'. Denis, began his
work in 1193 and made h is la st notation in 1 2 0 8, the
year of h is death. There are only eight pages, however,
dealing with the period a fte r 1200. The major portion
of the work concerns our period and was written while
Fulk was preaching. Rigordus offers the e a r lie s t date,
1195, fo r the beginning of Fulk's career as a preacher.
When he reaches 1198, Rigordus carefully reminds r us
that Fulk has already been preaching for three years.
-13-
Rigordus I s thoroughly credulous re g a rd in g F u lk ’s
m ira c le s ; he reco u n ts s e v e ra l and then sto p s h im self
from going on f o r f e a r th a t h is audience w ill be too
s k e p tic a l to b e lie v e him. Rigordus a ls o d e s c rib e s in
d e t a i l F u lk 's d e a lin g s w ith p r o s t i t u t e s . He r e l a t e s
th a t Fulk encouraged many to marry and was in stru m e n ta l
i n founding th e nunnery of S t. Anthony f o r th o se who
d id not choose to m arry. C onsidering the proxim ity of
S t . Denis to the reg io n in which Fulk was b e s t known,
and the f a c t th a t Rigordus w rote w hile F u lk 's r e p u ta tio n
was sp read in g throughout Europe, Rigordus o ffe rs us a
source which cannot be n e g le c te d .
Somewhat la te r than Rigordus, Albericus Trlum
Fontium wrote h is Chronlcon, which appears in the
Monumenta Germaniae H isto rlca ; Scriptores Pertz, e d .,
XXIII, pp. 876- 877. Albericus was a C istercian who
probably died in the year 1252. He was the author of
a universal chronicle extending to 1241. The work of
Albericus i s mainly a compilation of previous e f f o r t s ,
but he seems to have used works which are no longer
availab le and in th is way is an in te re stin g check on
the extant sources. Albericus o ffers more evidence
-14-
co n cem ln g F u lk 's preaching a g a in s t usury and a ls o
confirm s th e sto ry of the founding of the convent of
St. Anthony. He also su p p lie s f u r t h e r in fo rm atio n
on F u lk 's preaching against c l e r i c a l marriage and
concubinage. Ke o ffe rs, in addition, information to
show that even in the mi -st o f hie preaching of the
cr:vri e, F'T f . 1.. . : time to con enn the vices
whole'. ha- • from the beginning of hie career been of great
concern to him.
There are innumerable other chronicles which treat
one phase or another of Folk's campaign against v ic e .
An I n te r e s t in g note on t h i s i s th a t th e v a st m a jo rity
of contem porary documents concern them selves f o r the
most p a rt w ith F u lk 's e f f o r t s in th is d ir e c tio n , and
m ention h is co nnection w ith th e crusade only in p a ssin g .
One, of c o u rse , th a t does not do t h i s i s V ille h a rd o u in ,
La conquSte de C o n sta n tin o p le , E. F a r a l, e d ., (2 v o l s . ,
P a r is , 1938), 1, 2, 12, 18. V ille h a rd o u in , whose
c h ro n ic le ends in 1 2 0 7, seems to have known th e reg io n
from which Fulk came, and c e r ta in ly was f a m il ia r w ith
F u lk 's preaching of th e fo u rth cru sa d e , in which
V ille h a rd o u in played such a prom inent r o le . He r e l a t e s
-15-
t h a t Innocent I I I had heard of F u lk ’s growing
r e p u ta tio n , and a s a r e s u l t e n tru s te d him w ith preaching
th e cru sa d e . I t i s from a m is tr a n s la tio n of
V ille h a rd o u in th a t the f a lla c io u s sto ry of Fulk
c o n v e rtin g the n o b les a t fecry i s ta k e n . 1 V ille h a rd o u in
h im self made no such c o n te n tio n . He does, however,
r e l a t e th e sadness which overcame both th e barons and
th e common people among th e cru sa d ers when the news of
F u lk 's d ea th reached the h o s t. This would seem to
in d ic a te th a t Fulk's in flu e n c e was not lim ite d a s some
have m aintained to the p o o rest segment of the p o p u la tio n .
T his account i s re a ffirm e d in Robert of C la r i, The
Conquest of C o n stan tin o p le (trans., McNeill, New York,
1936).
Robert, a n o th e r ey e-w itn ess of the fo u rth cru sad e,
speaks about Fulk w ith an enthusiasm eq u al to th a t of
V ille h a rd o u in . He re a ffirm s the i n t e r e s t of the
k n ig h ts in the p reac h er and n o te s t h e i r em otional
1. See below, p. 63.
response to his death.
Scattered portions of the le tte r s of Innocent III
have a bearing on Fulk. These le t t e r s , are printed in
Migne's Patrologia Latina, and summarized in Potthast,
Bibllotheca h isto rlc a medll aevi (2 v o ls ., B erlin, 1906),
Vol. I.
Secondary Sources
The amount of secondary source material fo r Fulk
of N euilly i s r e la tiv e ly small. That which e x is ts is
fo r the most part scattered among volumes offering a
comprehensive survey of such larger problems as the
crusades. In these works, Fulk has been a llo te a a
paragraph or two which recount the enthusiasm with
which his preaching was received and include at' lea st
one anecdote, usually of dubious origin, that illu s t r a t e s
the remarkable reputation he enjoyed among his
contemporaries. Although the overall treatment of Fulk
is sparse and often u n c ritica l the picture is not
wholly dim. Brief studies replete with source
references by Milton R. Gutsch and Paul Alphandery are
-17-
welcome guides to anyone d e a lin g w ith th e s u b je c t.
They w ill be d isc u sse d below.
Only one f u l l - l e n g t h biography of Fulk e x i s t s .
This i s L'Abbe A. C harasson, Un cure p le b e ia n au
douzieme s i£ c le ( P a ris , 1905). C harasson e x p la in s th a t
h is volume was w r itte n p rim a rily " . . . p o u r nous e d i f i e r ,
en e ssa y a n t de co lq u er n o tre i l l u s t r e m o d e ls." I t i s
h is c o n te n tio n throughout th a t h i s t o r i c a l f ig u re s lik e
Fulk " ...p e u v e n t souvent pour ne pas d ir e to u jo u rs ,
s e r v i r d'exem ple aux f a i b l e s e t aux f o r t s . " The work
on Fulk was a p p a re n tly undertaken because Charasson was
" . . . u n des su c c e sse u rs a la cure de N eu illy -su r-M am e
e t nous avons voulu repondre a c e tte g lo ir e e t a c e t
h o n n e u r."
His docum entation i s meagre, and h is method of
c i t i n g sources in c o n s is te n t. The most d is t r e s s in g
a sp e c t of th e work i s C h arasso n 's f a i l u r e to document
c r u c ia l p o in ts . In these" in c id e n ts he r e s o r ts to
c i tin g an e n t i r e volume (e.g . R e c u e il, XVIII),
w ithout id e n tif y in g the p a r t i c u l a r c h ro n ic le s o r page
numbers. F urtherm ore, he s e iz e s any o p p o rtu n ity to
e x a lt h is s u b je c t, and u n c r i t i c a l l y draws from the
■
- 18-
sources a l l the material he can find to accomplish
th is . Charasson outlines Fulk's attempt to convert
h eretics, although there i s no clear evidence fo r
h is a ssertio n s. Furthermore, he readily accepts
the humorous dialogue between Fulk and Richard of
England as fa c t, even though th is type of incident
with d ifferen t particulars appears repeatedly in
medieval ch ron icles. In b r ie f, the only work of
considerable length concerning Fulk reveals several
serious fla w s.
The bulk of m aterial available treats Fulk
so le ly as a sid e lig h t of the fourth crusade and w ill
be examined at length below, but i t is e s se n tia l to
note several works which focus on the crusade. In
Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of the
Middle Ages (3 v o l s . , New York, 1953), X, pp. 245-246,
Fulk is viewed as a blunt and e ffe c tiv e c r i t i c of the
e v i ls surrounding him. Lea f e e ls that Fulk would have
done a great deal to correct these e v ils i f "...Innocent
III who thought more of the recovery of the Holy Land
than of the s p ir itu a l awakening of s o u ls ..." had not
called him to preach the crusade.
y *
- 19-
Lea m entions F u lk 's connection w ith stam ping
out h eresy and re p e a ts w ith r e l i s h the s to ry of Fulk
and R ichard. From th i s i t i s n o t improbable to guess
th a t Lea fu rn is h e s a source f o r some of C h arasso n 's
m isco n cep tio n s. Lea in c lu d e s a l i s t of some seventeen
c h ro n ic le s but f a i l s to in d ic a te which he r e l i e d
on f o r any of h is rem arks. More r e l i a b l e is th e
judgment found in A c h ille L uchaire, Innocent i l l
(6 v o l s ., P a ris , 1908), who d ep rec ate s b u t n e v e rth e le s s
in c lu d e s the s to r y of Fulk a t E ery. The in te r e s t i n g
t h e s is o ffe re d by L uchaire i s th a t a t f i r s t Fulk
preached th e crusade w ith o u t e c c l e s i a s t i c a l sa n c tio n
and th a t t h i s d is tu rb e d Innocent who demanded f u l l
charge of h is p e t p r o je c t. Fulk was commissioned,
L uchaire m a in ta in s, in o rd e r to keep him w ith in the
r e g u la r channels of c o n tro l: an a t t r a c t i v e h y p o th e sis,
b u t u n fo rtu n a te ly L uchaire does n o t atte m p t to su b
s t a n t i a t e i t .
In a t l e a s t one a re a we a re f o r tu n a te . Two
old but e x c e lle n t s tu d ie s of preaching i n France during
th e tw e lfth and t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu rie s e x i s t . The
e a r l i e r p erio d i s covered in L'Abbe B ourgain, La c h a lre
- 20 -
fr a n c a ls e au XIIe s le c le ( P a ris , 1879). This volume
lik e I t s p re d e c e sso r (d iscu ssed below) I s d iv id ed
In to th re e s e c tio n s : p re a c h e rs, sermons and the
s o c ie ty as r e f le c te d In th e sermons. The f i r s t g ives
b r i e f b io g ra p h ic a l p r o f il e s of most of the prominent
p reac h ers of the c e n tu ry , In c lu d in g a b r i e f s e c tio n
on Fulk h im s e lf. The second an aly zes the language,
s u b je c ts and v a r ie ty of sermons w hile tr a c in g t h e i r
dependence on Holy S c r ip tu r e , the F a th e rs and lay
a u th o rs . E xtant sermons a re reproduced to i l l u s t r a t e
th e m ajor p o in ts . In the f i n a l book, B ourgain tr a c e s
th e lo s s of o r i g i n a l i t y and in s p i r a tio n in the
preaching of th e l a t e tw e lf th cen tu ry and concludes
th a t the p ro fe s s io n had begun what was to be a long
period of d e c lin e . D esp ite O ccasional la p se s in to
unreserved a d m ira tio n f o r th e church, B ourgain i s no
p a n e g y rist and h is book i s a sc h o la rly c o n trib u tio n
to the problem.
A companion volume to t h i s i s A. Lecoy de la
Marche, La c h a lre fra n c a ls e au moyen tg e (P a ris ,
1886). T his la r g e r work e x h ib its the same form as
th a t of B ourgain. I t is concerned mainly w ith the
- 21 -
t h i r t e e n t h cen tu ry and c i t e s over 400 m anuscripts
in th e s e c tio n examining th e s tr u c t u r e , com position
and co n ten t of t h i r t e e n t h ce n tu ry serm ons. Both of
th ese volumes a re In d isp e n sa b le f o r u n d erstan d in g the
te c h n ic a l a s p e c ts of m edieval p reach in g , th e s h i f t i n g
s t a t u s of th e p re a c h e r and th e change in th e n a tu re
and type of preaching d u ring the tw e lfth and t h i r t e e n t h
c e n tu r ie s . Both Bourgain and Lecoy de la Marche
remind u s, however, th a t Fulk of N eu illy p ro v id es the
ex c ep tio n to the form al ru le of r h e to r ic su g g ested .
The p o p u lar harangues of F ulk of N e u illy do not seem
to have follow ed any a c c e p ta b le p a tte r n of developm ent.
Lecoy de la Marche a ls o p o in ts out th e absence of
m anuscript m a te ria l r e le v a n t to F u lk .
While a l l of th e above sou rces touch on a t l e a s t
one im p o rtan t phase of F u lk 's c a re e r none e v a lu a te s i t
in i t s e n t i r e t y in l i g h t of th e many sou rces a v a ila b le .
This was f i r s t attem p ted in M ilton R. Gutsch "A
Tw elfth Century P reacher - Fulk of N e u illy ," The
Crusades and o th e r H is to r ic a l Essays p rese n ted to -
Dana C. Munro (New York, 1928), pp. 183-206. Here i s
an e x c e lle n t study which tr a c e s F u lk 's c a r e e r from
- 22-
l t s e a rly y e a rs up to h is d eath in 1 2 0 2. S carcely
a sta te m e n t ap p ears in th e tw enty pages t h a t I s n o t
soundly and thoroughly documented. Some tw e n ty -th re e
c h ro n ic le s b u ttr e s s th e a u t h o r 's a n a ly s is of F u lk 's
c a r e e r . Here a re alm ost a l l of th e Im portant e x ta n t
so u rces f o r F u lk 's l i f e . These provide th e ammunition
f o r an e f f e c t iv e a s s a u lt on w idely h eld th e o rie s
concerning F u lk . That P e te r C antor could n o t have
o b tained a commission to preach from Innocent I I I , Gutsch
disco v ered through a study of chronology, th ereb y
d e stro y in g a view th a t had passed unquestioned through
g e n e ra tio n s of s c h o la r s . His success stems from
re fu s in g th e p re d ig e ste d v e rsio n s found In Lea,
Charasson and o th e rs and plunging f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n
in to th e so u rces them selves. This he did w ith
rem arkable f a c i l i t y . S t i l l th e re are s e v e ra l loose
ends even h e re . Gutsch c o n je c tu re s th a t Fulk had
been w a itin g to preach the crusade f o r q u ite a w h ile,
b u t he s u p p lie s no evidence f o r t h i s . In one paragraph
Gutsch r e l a t e s th a t Maurice of S u lly , th e B ishop of
P a ris , p re sc rib e d d a ily preaching in h is d io c e se ,
and th a t Fulk who a d m in istered th e p a ris h of N eu illy
o b e d ie n tly a s s e n te d . A few li n e s l a t e r he r e l a t e s
th a t F u lk , e a g e r f o r an e d u c a tio n , spent h is weekdays
In school and preached only on Sundays and f e a s t days.
No r e c o n c ilia tio n between the two sta te m e n ts Is
made, and I t may be added th a t th e re a re o th e r cases
of s im ila r n e g le c t In th e a r t i c l e . Moreover, I t
may be s a id th a t Gutsch i s o v erly concerned w ith
th e th a u m atu rg lc al s id e of F u lk 's c a re e r . No re p o rte d
m ira c le escap es h is e y e , and he Is e a g e r to re v e a l
a l l of them to the r e a d e r. But t h i s I s m erely p ick in g
p ie c e s from one of th e few r e l i a b l e s tu d ie s of any
le n g th w ritte n about o ur s u b je c t. B rie f a s I t may b e,
I t l i s t s and o fte n c r i t i c i z e s a l l of the m ajor
documents to be co n sid ered In a l i f e of F u lk .
The only secondary work of comparable value I s
Paul Alphandery and Alphonse D upront, La c h r e tle n te
e t l 'l d e e de c ro isa d e (2 v o l s . , P a r is , 1959),
pp. 45-64. The work was a c tu a lly w r itte n by Dupront
from A lp h an d ery 's n o te s .
Much of th e m a te r ia l in t h e i r s e c tio n on Fulk
I s based on Gutsch»s stu d y . They supplem ent th a t
t
stu d y , however, w ith f r e s h re fe re n c e s and q u o ta tio n s
from th e so u rces th em selv es. H ere, a s In G utsch, the
sources a r e p i t t e d a g a in s t one a n o th e r and ev a lu ated
In th e p ro c e s s. Moreover, t h i s most r e c e n t study
a tte m p ts to u nderstand F u lk 's success In term s of
th e changing s o c ie ty In which he was in v o lv e d . Fulk
th e plebanus I s seen as th e e x p re ssio n of a change
In th e meaning of the cru sa d e . Through him, say th e
a u th o rs , th e preaching of the crusade Involved a plea
f o r moral reform . This th e s i s I s based more on
c o n je c tu re than docum entation, b u t th e few pages
concerning Fulk a r e g e n e ra lly w ell documented w ith
prim ary and secondary so u rc e s. Along w ith Gutsch*s
stu d y , t h i s work re p re s e n ts the most dependable
re s e a rc h done on Fulk to d a te .
The bulk of secondary sources a re concerned w ith
F u lk 's p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e fo u rth cru sad e. There a re
s e v e ra l c r u c ia l h is to r io g r a p h ic a l problems r e s u lt in g
from t h i s c o n c e n tra tio n . The p re se n t a u th o r has
e le c te d to c o n s id e r th e se a t le n g th in th e d is c u s s io n
of Fulk and the cru sad e.
EA RLY CAR EER
In th e H ls to r la O c c id e n ta lis m th e In d isp e n sa b le
source f o r th e e a r ly c a re e r of F u lk , Jacques of V itry
p re fa c e s h is remarks on th e ’’champion of C h ris t" by
c h a r a c te r iz in g the m oral s t a t e of a f f a i r s i n Europe
b e fo re the p r e a c h e r 18 a p p e a ra n c e .1 The tone of th e
H ls to r la O c c ld e n ta lls c le a r ly in d ic a te s t h a t Jacques
of V itry a ls o in ten d ed th e image p rese n ted t o serv e
p
as an e s tim a tio n of s o c ie ty in h is own day.
I t i s abysm ally dim. U n iv ersa l d e s p a ir and a n x ie ty ,
he o f f e r s , a r e m erely symptomatic o f the profound i l l s
which perm eate the s o c ie ty . A varice, the "source of
a l l e v i l s , " has In fe c te d th e h ig h e s t and low est s o c ia l
le v e ls and plunged them in t o a chasm of corruption.^
1. Iacobus de V itr ia c o , H is to ria (Duaci, 1597)* II*
p. 282.
2 . P h ilip Funk, Jakob von V itry (L eipzig and B e rlin ,
1909), p. 1W .
3. Jacques o f V i t r y 's su g g e stio n t h a t a v a ric e i s th e
common denom inator f o r th e e v i l s plag u in g the West
i s p r e c is e ly th e ta c k ta k e n by F u lk d u rin g h is
reform ing campaigns.
-2 6 -
S e c u la r o f f i c i a l s e x to r t money from t h e i r s u b je c ts ,
th e m o n a ste rie s, churches and even p ilg rim s . D octors
and law yers p e rp le x th e poor w ith t h e i r e r u d itio n , and
u t i l i z e t h e i r p e r p le x ity to f u r t h e r im poverish them.
The analogous v ic e s of Jews, p r o s t i t u t e s , m urd erers, and
th ie v e s form in s e p a ra b le lin k s in th e ch ain of m oral
d e g ra d a tio n . The c le rg y , Jacques claim s, i s not only
s u s c e p tib le to th e w idespread d is s o lu tio n of m o ra lity ,
b u t i t s ig n o ran ce, a v a r ic e , and concupiscence i s the
it
most lam entable a s p e c t of th e u n iv e rs a l m a le d ic tio n .
These i n f i r m i t i e s , Jacques c o n tin u e s, m a n ife st
them selves w ith in and w ith o u t Europe. E x te rn a lly ,
th e in e sca p ab le f a c t i s the f a l l of Jerusalem in 1187.
I n t e r n a l l y , m oral tu r p itu d e has r e s u lte d in heterodoxy
and d iv is io n . The Moors in S pain, the h e r e t ic s in
Provence and Lombardy, and th e sch ism a tic Greeks a re
r e f l e c t i o n s of th e d is u n ity of Christendom . P a ris ,
th e base of F u lk 's o p e ra tio n s , i s to Jacques the p re -
b, Jacques of V itry , o£. c l t . , p. 286.
-2 7 -
em lnent example of th e a f f l i c t i o n . 5
In P a r is , Jacques lam ents, p r o s t i t u t e s openly
seduce th e c le rg y and accuse them of sodomy and
hom osexuality when r e je c te d . S tu d en ts lodge them selves
above th e q u a r te r s of h a r lo ts and a tte n d th e u n iv e r s ity
n o t to le a r n b u t to give vent to t h e i r p e c u lia r v ic e s .^
S tu d e n ts from a l l over Europe c o n trib u te t h e i r l l l i c t
n a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to P a ris ia n s o c ie ty .
"A ngllcos p o ta to re s e t caudatos a f f lr m a n te s l. . .
F ran cig en as superb o s, m olles e t m u lle b r lte r com posites
a s s e r e t e s . . .T heutonicos surlbundos e t in c o n n u lv lls
s u ls obscenos d lc e b a n t. . . . Moreover, th e p ro fe s s o rs
of r h e to r ic engage In p o in tle s s d is c u s s io n s , w hile
th e d o c to rs of theology a re co n v ersan t in sc ie n c e b u t
devoid of C h ris tia n c h a r i ty . The m a jo rity of s tu d e n ts ,
Jacques of V itry ob serv es, work f o r lu c r a tiv e prebends
5. Jacques of V itry , o£. c l t . , p. 277.
6 . I b i d . , p. 278.
7. I b i d . , p. 279.
-2 8 -
t
and p o s itio n s of p r e s tig e w ith in th e Church, w hile few
dem onstrate th e i n t e g r i t y to in s u la te them selves from
th e c o rru p tio n surrounding them. When a man of v ir tu e
such as th e in tr e p i d p re a c h e r Fulk of N e u llly appeared,
th e e f f e c t was " . . . tanquam ste lla m in medio n e b u la e . . . "®
No d e t a i l s a re known concerning th e o rig in s
and e a r ly l i f e of Fulk of N e u illy . I t has been
p o s ite d th a t he was b o m sometime in th e l l 6 0 's ,
b u t t h i s assum ption i s based on c o n je c tu re r a t h e r
q
th a n ev id en ce . In a l l lik e lih o o d , F u lk came from
poor p a re n ts . The f a c t th a t the c h ro n ic le rs f a i l
to re n d e r an account of h is parentage s u b s ta n tia te s
th e view th a t h is lin e a g e was b e t t e r l e f t unsung, and
a c o n sid e ra b le number of c h ro n ic le rs s p e c i f i c a l l y
r e f e r to Fulk a s p le b a n u s.
D isre g a rd in g p la u s ib le s p e c u la tio n , the e a r l i e s t
re fe re n c e th a t we p o ssess re le v a n t to Fulk of N eu illy
8 . I b i d . , p. 2 7 6 .
9. L'Abbe A. C harasson. Un cure p le b e le n au douzleme
s l e c l e ( P a ris , 1905), p. lV.
reach es back only as f a r a s 1195. By th a t tim e Fulk
had become th e cure o r p a ris h p r i e s t a t N e u illy .10
N eu illy -su r-M am e i s lo c a te d In the deanery of C h elle,
approxim ately seven-and-one h a l f m iles from P a r is .
The e x ta n t s tr u c tu r e of th e Church of S t. Baudele
of Nimes, in which F ulk preached, d a te s from the
end of th e tw e lfth cen tu ry and, u n t i l the e ig h te e n th
cen tu ry co n tain ed a se p u lch re b e a rin g a r e l i e f of
th e p reac h er which probably was c o n stru c te d s h o r tly
a f t e r h is d ea th in 1 2 0 2 .11
The q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of a r u r a l p a ris h p r i e s t a t
f
th e end of th e tw e lfth cen tu ry v a rie d in term s of
lo c a l needs, b u t the req u irem en ts ap p ear to have
been m inim al. The p r i e s t was supposed to be tw enty-
f iv e years of age and presumed ab le to conduct a
10. R igordus, Oesta P h ilip p i I I A ugustl r e g ls
francorum , in Recue11 aes h ls t o r le n s des 'Oaules
e t de la France (e d ., M. B ouquet), XVII, p. M2,
in d ic a te s t h a t Fulk was th e p a ris h p r i e s t a t
N eu illy w e ll b efo re 1195.
11. L'Abbe le Beuf, H is to ire de la v i l l e e t to u t le
diocese de P a ris T P arfs, TB53)T IIY pp. 475-476.
-3 0 -
mass, read th e S c r ip tu r e s , and d e l iv e r sermons.
The ignorance of th e c le rg y , however, had become a
problem of in c re a s in g concern in th e second h a l f of
th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry , and form al requirem ents were
d isre g a rd e d in c o u n tle s s In s ta n c e s . The D e c r e tls ts
recommended t h a t uninform ed clergymen should be
g ran te d a le av e of absence in o rd e r to c o r re c t t h e i r
d e f i c i e n c i e s . 12 Pope A lexander I I I (1159-1181)
promoted t h i s p r o je c t, and d u rin g h is p o n tif ic a te
absence f o r study became a r e g u la r p r a c tic e . Canon 18
of th e T hird L ateran Council (1179) enhanced the
p r o je c t by r e q u ir in g t h a t each c a th e d ra l school
provide a te a c h e r who would i n s t r u c t th e c lerg y w ithout
r e q u ir in g a f e e . 1^
f
F u lk 's p o s itio n a t N eu illy was s c a rc e ly an
em inent one, and, d e s p ite th e w idespread d e a rth of
12. P e te r R e illy , Residence of P a s to rs : An H is to r ic a l
Synopsis and Commentary (W ashington, D. c . , 1^ 3 5 ).
13. P h ilip Huges, The Church in C r is i s : A H isto ry
of the G eneral C ouncils 3^5-l87o (New York, i y 6 l) ,
p. 209.
p a ris h p r i e s t s , h is e a fly e f f o r t s re c e iv e d l i t t l e
r e c o g n itio n .1^ He preached fre q u e n tly to the l a i t y
of N e u illy and th e surrounding v i l l a g e s , only to
d isc o v e r th a t th e i n i t i a l apathy was soon tr a n s la te d
in to b i t t e r o p p o sitio n . His n o ta b le la c k of success
may be a s c rib e d to a d is s o lu te l i f e , th e crude
language he employed and the e r r a t i c , u n c o n tro lle d
z e a l w ith which he offended h is l i s t e n e r s . 1^ Ralph
of C oggeshall ca talo g u es F u lk 's e a r ly d i f f i c u l t i e s
and n o te s h is u n s k i l l f u l o ra to ry . Fulk was h u m ilia te d
because of th e b la ta n t c o n tra d ic tio n s in h is sermons,
th e p u e r ile n a tu re of h is exam ples, and th e h i s t r i o n i c
fa s h io n in which he attem p ted to im press h is p o i n t s .1^
Above a l l , the p r e a c h e r 's d i f f i c u l t i e s stemmed from
h is ignorance of the S c r ip tu r e s . F ru s tr a te d in
14. Jacques of V itry , o£. c l t , , p. 276.
15. I b i d . , Jacques of V itry in d ic a te s th a t Fulk
experienced a sudden conversion which made him a
"novus homo1 1 .
16. Radulphus de C oggeshall, Chronicon Angllcanum
faolls S e r ie s , no. 6 6 ) , p. h i .
-3 2 -
h is attem p t to enjoy even a modicum of su c c e ss, Fulk
was v i r t u a l l y ignored in h is e f f o r t s to renovate th e
church a t N e u i l l y . H i s p le a s f o r d o n atio n s r e s u lte d
in charges o f i l l i t e r a c y and Incom petence. A pparently
as a r e s u l t of th e se f a i l u r e s , Fulk re so lv e d to devote
h im se lf to th e study of theology a t th e U n iv e rsity of
P a r i s .
The U n iv e rsity of P a ris was s t i l l a d e c e n tra liz e d
ag g lo m eratio n of s tu d e n ts and te a c h e rs a t th e end
of th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry . I t i s th e re fo re d i f f i c u l t
to determ ine the s t a t u s of F ulk a t th e U n iv e rs ity .
The Chronicon S. Medardl S u e s s lo n e n s ls , th e Chronicon
L e o d le n sl, and Robert of C la ri speak of Fulk as
18
m a g ls te r . The term s m a ster, d o c to r, and p ro fe s s o r
were used in te rc h a n g e a b ly to d e sc rib e th e h ig h e s t
17. Jacques of V itry , o£. c l t . , p. 276.
18. Chronicon S. Medardl S u esslo n en sls (Bouquet, X V III),
p. 7^6; Chronicon Leodens1 In Monuments Oermanlae
h i s t o r i c a l s c r l p t o r e s , e d . , P e rtz , x v r, p. 0^4 ;
Robert of C l a n , The Conqu e s t of C o n stan tin o p le
(T ra n s., M cNeill, New York, iy 3 6 ), p. 3 i.
-3 3 -
degree a v a ila b le w ith in th e grad u ate f a c u l t i e s . In
o rd e r to earn th e degree Fulk would have to have gone
IQ
through a minimum of e ig h t y ears of p re p a ra tio n .
During th e f i r s t s i x y ea rs the th e o lo g ic a l stu d e n t
was c l a s s i f i e d a s an a u d i to r . In t h i s c a p a c ity F u lk
would be re q u ire d to a tte n d fo u r y e a rs of le c tu r e s
on the B ib le , and two y ea rs on th e Sentences of
P e te r Lombard. The b a c h e lo r 's degree would come
as 'a r e s u l t of an exam ination by fo u r u n iv e rs ity
p ro fe s s o rs a t th e end of s i x y e a rs . The degrees
were of th re e v a r i e t i e s , b u t Fulk would lik e ly have
Of)
tak en th e b a c c a la r lu s fo rm a tu s. T his u su a lly involved
preaching a sermon b efo re th e assem bled d ig n it a r ie s
of th e u n iv e r s ity . During th e f i n a l two y e a rs , th e
19* F o r th e school of theology a t P a ris see H astings
R a sh d all, The U n iv e r s itie s of Europe In the Middle
Ages (Revised by F. N. Powicke and A. B. Qnden,
Oxford, 1936), pp. 471-96; H ein ric h D e n ifle , Die
E ntstehung de r Unlve r s l t a t e n des M it te l a lte r s b i s
l46o (B e rlin , 1 8 8 5)* pp. b7-64; Stephen d 'l r s a y .
H ls to lr e des u n iv e rsitie s f r a n c a ls e s e t fetrang£res
des o rig m e s a * nos jo u rs ( p a r ls , 1933), 1 , PP. 53r66.
20. H astings R ash d all, op. c l t . , p. 477-478.
ca n d id ate was re q u ire d to le c tu r e on a t l e a s t two
books of the B ib le . At the end of t h i s len g th y p erio d
of stu d y , th e ca n d id ate would probably re c e iv e the
21
m a s te r 's d eg ree.
A uthors of secondary m a te r ia l have g e n e ra lly
presumed t h a t the m a s te r 's degree was earned by Fulk in
pp
th e school of theology a t th e U n iv e rsity of P a r is .
However, no s p e c if ic re fe re n c e o th e r th an th e in fe re n c e
from th e c h ro n ic le s e x i s t s . There i s a d i s t i n c t
p o s s i b i l i t y th a t Fulk f a i l e d to meet the n ecessary
req u ire m e n ts. W e have no reco rd of th e r e q u is i te
le c tu r e s on th e B ib le and i t i s p e c u lia r th a t Jacques of
V itry and Ralph of C oggeshall, the two key so u rces f o r
F u lk 's e a rly c a re e r , would ig n o re th e se s ig n i f ic a n t
m ile sto n e s and n e g le c t to m ention th e a c q u is itio n of a
form al d eg ree . I t i s th e re fo r e e q u a lly p la u s ib le th a t
21. I b i d . , p. 480.
22. E s p e c ia lly M ilton R. G utsch, "A T w elfth Century
P reach er Fulk of N euilly,*' in Louis J . Paetow,
e d ., The Crusades and o th e r H is to r ic a l Essays
(New YorE,” T9287, p. 1857 ----------------------------
F u lk 's a s s o c ia tio n w ith th e school of theo lo g y a t P a ris
prompted l a t e r c h r o n ic le r s to assume th e form al degree
as a r e s u l t of h is s tu d ie s .
During F u lk 's re sid e n c e a t th e U n iv e rs ity of
P a r is , th e re were a lre a d y a number of notew orthy
p ro fe s s o rs who enjoyed a c o n sid e ra b le fo llo w in g . Among
th e s e , were such prom inent men as P e te r Comestor and
P e te r C o rb e ll. However, i t was a n o th e r p ro fe s s o r,
P e te r C antor, who was th e most form idable in flu e n c e
in F u lk 's e a r ly c a re e r . C antor was a p r o fe s s o r of
theology a t th e c a th e d ra l s c h o o l.2^ Legend has i t
th a t he was o ffe re d th e b is h o p ric of P a ris on th e
d eath of Maurice of S u lly (1196), b u t r e f u s e d .2* *
N e v e rth e le s s, P e te r C antor enjoyed a c o n sid e ra b le
re p u ta tio n , which can be a t t e s t e d to by the f a c t th a t
23. The only r e l i a b l e study i s F. S. G u tja h r, P etru s
C antor P a r l s l e n s l s l s s e in Lleben und s e ln s c h r l f t e n
(Grax, 1899). U n fo rtu n a te ly G u tja h r's volume i s
r a t h e r t h i n , alth o u g h r e p le te w ith q u o ta tio n s from
P e t e r 's w r itin g s .
2k. We have no o f f i c i a l docum entation to su p p o rt th is
g e n e ra lly accep ted t r a d i t i o n .
he became a Judge in th e case in v o lv in g P h ilip I I
(1180-1223) and Ingeborg. Moreover, he numbered
Stephen Langton and Robert Curzon, as w e ll a s Fulk of
N e u illy , among h is s tu d e n ts .
F ulk was p a r t i c u l a r l y im pressed by the r h e to r ic
and s u b je c t m a tte r of P e te r C a n to r's p reac h in g .
Jacques of V itry r e l a t e s th a t " . . . de cu iu s fo n te
lim p ld lsslm o p ra e d lc tu s Fulco sacerdos p o ta re
d e s ld e m a s , cum ta b u lls e t s ty l o seu g ra p h ic 0
sc h o la s e lu s h u m llite r e s t ln g re s s u s , quaedam verbum
m o ralla e t v u lg a ria , que secundum ca p ac ltatem 1g e n ii
re c 1pere e t c o l llg e r e ex ore m a g ls trl s u l p o t u l t ,
f re q u e n te r rumlnando, e t f l r m l t e r memoriae
commendando.1 1 ^ These words were solem nly in s c rib e d on
t a b l e t s d u rin g th e week, and on f e a s t days and Sunday
Fulk would r e tu r n to N e u illy and p a r ro t the words of h is
2 5 . Jacques of V itr y , 0£. c i t . , p. 281.
-3 7 -
j
f
esteem ed m a s te r.2^ He p a r t i c u l i a r l y noted th e m o r a lis tic
passages and c o r r e la tiv e S c r ip tu r a l re fe re n c e s which
could prove u s e fu l in h is own serm ons. The e s s e n t i a l
d iffe re n c e was in term s of method; P ulk re ta in e d h is
p rim itiv e vocabulary and b e a rin g w hile tra n s m ittin g
the themes suggested by P e te r C antor.
In P a r is , Pulk was co n fro n ted w ith th e 1 1 . . . v a r l l s
ln v o lu ta crlm ln lb u s e t so rd lb u s lnnum erls d e tu rp a ta
v e lu t p a ra d lsu s v o lu p ta tls e t h o rtu s d e lltla r u m .
Pulk responded by preach in g spontaneously around the
u n iv e r s ity and a t t r a c t i n g the a t t e n t i o n of th e
p ro fe s s o rs in the school of th e o lo g y . P e te r C antor
was so im pressed w ith th e s i n c e r i t y and z e a l of
Pulk t h a t he arran g ed f o r the p re a c h e r to ad d ress
26. Maurice of S u lly re q u ire d th a t the p a s to rs in th e
d io c ese of P a ris preach d a lly . See A. Lecoy de
la Marche, La c h a lre fra n c a ls e au moyen-age,
sp ^clalem en t au tre iz le m e s ie c le ( f a r l s , lo 6 8 ),
p. 23. However, the exem ptions made a t th e Third
L ateran C ouncil would e x p la in F u lk 's absence d u rin g
th e week.
27. Jacques of V itry , o£. c l t . , p. 277.
nO
a m eeting of the im portant o f f i c i a l s of th e u n iv e r s ity .
With te m e rity , Fulk f i n a l l y agreed to preach a sermon
b efo re th e assem bled s c h o la rs a t th e Church of S t.
S ev erin in P a r is . The im pression made by Fulk a t
t h i s m eeting proved to be th e tu rn in g p o in t in h is
c a re e r .
His su ccess was overwhelming. The assem bled
m asters proclaim ed th a t th e Holy Ghost spoke through
29
t h i s r u s tic p re a c h e r. ”V enlte (remarks Jacques of
V itry ) e t a u d lte Fulconem presbyterm tanquam alteru m
Paulum. ”^ As a r e s u l t , Fulk wandered from one p a ris h
to a n o th e r a s a h ig h ly rev ered g u est sp e ak er, and h is
sermons, in tu rn , were copied and rep ea ted by o th e r
c u re s . He had embarked on th e f i r s t phase of a
rem arkably s u c c e s s fu l campaign f o r reform .
28. There i s a p o s s i b i l i t y th a t t h i s was a p a rt of the
requirem ent f o r th e B a c c a la riu s fo rm a tu s.
29. Jacques of V itry , 0£. c l t . , p. 282.
30. I b id .
-3 9 -
REFORMING THEMES
Reformers of the tw e lfth cen tu ry viewed th e
growing com plexity of th e s o c ie ty around them w ith
mixed em otions. To many, th e m u ltip lic a tio n of
p o p u la tio n , c i t i e s , c a th e d r a ls , and commerce seemed to
b rin g w ith I t a co n c u rren t In crease In those s in s
which were a p t to undermine th e e n t i r e C h r is tia n s o c ie ty .
C itie s were expanding w ith s t a r t l i n g r a p i d i t y , and
w ith in th e se c i t i e s lic e n tio u s n e s s and In d iffe re n c e
t o the message of the S c rip tu r e s were c o n trib u tin g to
an e v e r w idening sea of c o rru p tio n . Although th e
ranks of bishops and c le rg y had sw ollen to
accommodate the growth of p o p u la tio n , simony, ab sen tee
b e n e fic e s and c l e r i c a l concubinage became w idespread
and overshadowed th e e f f o r t s of s in c e re clergym en.
F urtherm ore, th e expansion of commerce had c re a te d a
c la s s In which a v a ric e was the c h ie f p reo ccu p atio n ,
and usury an a c c e p ta b le means of Im plem entation.
The growing p ro s p e rity had a ls o spawned a group
of reform ers who saw s p i r i t u a l bankruptcy as th e p ric e
o f the new s o c ie ty . As e a rly a s th e m id -tw e lfth
-4 0 -
c e n tu ry , c l u s t e r s of th e s e reform ers had begun to
a s s o c ia te and c o l le c tiv e ly c r i t i c i z e th e e v i l s which
surrounded them. T h e ir c r itic is m s g e n e ra lly had a
common tone and d ir e c tio n .
The prim ary o b je c t of a tta c k was th e c le rg y .
In th e f i r s t h a l f of th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry , the
P e tro b ru sia n s and the H en rician s in so u th e rn Prance
encouraged th e r ic h to sh are t h e i r goods and condemned
th e c le rg y f o r s in f u l p r a c tic e s and th e p o sse ssio n of
wordly goods. Arnold of B re s c ia , who wandered
throughout I t a l y , Prance and Germany b e fo re b ein g
burned a t th e hands of F re d e ric k B a rb aro ssa, demanded
th a t th e Church d isp o s se ss i t s e l f of wordly goods and
embrace a r i g i d l y a p o s to lic p o v erty . In d ictm en ts of
th e c le rg y f o r wanton p r a c tic e s and d is re g a rd f o r
s p i r i t u a l fu n c tio n s echoed throughout Europe d u rin g
th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry .
The concept th a t clergymen could not be p ro p er
m in is te rs of God when encumbered w ith m a te ria l goods
soon found a c o r o lla ry in the n o tio n th a t every
C h r is tia n should assume a l i f e of poverty in o rd e r
to in su re s a lv a tio n . The W aldensians, o r Poor Men
-4 1 -
of Lyons, congregated I n to wandering groups of men
and women who roamed In I m ita tio n of th e a p o s tle s ,
p reach in g to o th e r laymen. The W aldenslans I n i t i a l l y
re c e iv e d papal p erm issio n to p reach . However, when
th e s e c t began to d iffu s e and become In c re a s in g ly
d i f f i c u l t to c o n tr o l, Pope Lucius I I I found i t n ecessary
to anathem atize them a t th e Council of Verona in 1184.
During the l a t e r p a r t of th e t h i r t e e n t h cen tu ry
and th e e a rly p a r t of th e fo u rte e n th c e n tu ry , th e se
groups in c re a se d and became more d iv e rse In t h e i r
program s. N e v e rth e le ss, I t i s e s s e n t i a l to note th a t ,
d e s p ite th e d iv e r s i ty , c e r t a in common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a re p e r c e p tib le . The c le rg y a re condemned f o r un-
C h r is tia n p r a c t ic e s . A v aricio u sn ess i s r e je c te d in
fa v o r of C h r i s t - l i k e p o v erty , and, w ith ra re e x c e p tio n s,
in c o n tin e n ce i s sco rn ed . Moreover, w hile no in e v ita b le
ch a in of development lin k s th ese groups, i t i s c l e a r
t h a t a s im ila r th re a d of s o c ia l p r o te s t runs through
t h e i r th in k in g . Each i s a tte m p tin g to purge s o c ie ty
of th e se e v i l s in o rd er to r e tu r n to the p r i s t i n e
s t a t e of e a rly C h r is t ia n i ty where such e v i l s presumably
did not e x i s t .
-4 2 -
The m i l i t a n t z e a l and c a u s tic condemnations of
th e se " r e s to r e r s " o fte n th re a te n e d p r a c tic e s and
p r in c ip le s which th e Church co n sid ered e s s e n t i a l to
p re s e rv e . C onsequently, s e v e ra l of th e groups were
d e c la re d to be h e r e t i c a l and were u ltim a te ly
p e rse c u te d . At th e same tim e, th e e n e rg ie s of o th e r
groups were channeled In sid e th e Church I t s e l f and
proved to be of enormous b e n e f it in e f f e c t in g a reform
of th e Church from w ith in . The c l a s s i c example i s th a t
of th e m endicant o rd e rs, and th e p ith y remark th a t
P e te r Waldo and F ra n c is of A s s is i were k indred so u ls
c o n ta in s more th an a k e rn e l of t r u t h . Orthodox
reform ers enjoyed th e s e c u r ity of o f f i c i a l s a n c tio n and,
o c c a s io n a lly , even o f f i c i a l encouragement from Rome.
This was e s p e c ia lly tr u e when an e n e r g e tic , reform ing
pope such a s Innocent I I I occupied th e papal se e .
Innocent I I I was a c u te ly in te r e s te d in the
problems of u su ry , p r o s t i t u t i o n , and c l e r i c a l c e lib a c y .
He se n t a l e t t e r to th e p r e la te s in which he denounced
" . . . pem lclo su m s i t v itlu m usurarum. . . . 111 Innocent
l.-M ig n e , P a tro lo g la L a tin a , CCCXIX, E p ls to la , I , p. 399.
seems to have f e l t t h a t th e continuance of u su rio u s
p r a c tic e s would have a d e le te r io u s e f f e c t on the
2
c ru sa d e s. A p parently, he was convinced th a t th e
retrenchm ent of Jews a s w e ll a s C h ris tia n s was n ec essary
In t h i s r e s p e c t. He encouraged lo c a l e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
and tem poral o f f i c i a l s In Prance to :
" ...q u a t l n u s Judeos sub tu o domino
c o n s tltu to s in d u c as, regiaque
p o te s ta te com pellas, u t d e b lto rlb u s
s u ls In hu ju s modi Del obsequlum
p r o f e c tu r ls omnlno re la x e n t u su ra s,
e t term lnos ad exsolvendum sortem
p re fix o s , s i f i e r i p o te s t, prorogent
com petenter, u t , p r e te r subventlones
a l i a s quas E c c le sle In tarn san cto
n eg o tlo m ln is tr a v e r ls , ex hoc quoque
merces t i b l t e te m e r e t r i b u t l o n i s
a c c r e s c a t. ”3
While Innocent I I I I n s is te d th a t th e Jews remain un-
2 . Benjamin N. N elson, The Idea of Usury: Prom T rib a l
B rotherhood to U n iv ersa l otherhood ( r r m c e to n , 1 9 W .
p. 7 . See a ls o i d l t h d. B ram hail, "The O rig in of
th e Temporal Power of th e C rusades," American
Jo u rn a l of Theology, V (1901), 279-2 9 2 ~ .
3. Solomon O rayzel, The Church and the Jews In th e
X lllt h Century ( P h ila d e lp h ia , 1 9 3 2), p . 1 3 2 . ^
-44-
harmed, th e frequency of correspondence r e l a t i n g to
them in d ic a te s a determ ined e f f o r t on th e p a r t of the
pope to se g re g a te the Jews from C h ris tia n s o c i e t y .1 *
Innocent made s e v e ra l re q u e s ts to lo c a l o f f i c i a l s
u rg in g t h a t they en fo rce a- sta n d ard d re ss f o r the
Jew ish p o p u la tio n . At the F o u rth L ateran Council
( 1 2 1 5 ), t h i s ru le was ad opted, alth o u g h th e type of
badge to be worn was l e f t to lo c a l o f f i c i a l s .
Innocent I I I a ls o lam ented the in c re a se in
p r o s titu tio n .5 His i n t e r e s t in e lim in a tin g c l e r i c a l
n ic o la itin is m i s re v e a le d in th e p o p e's p r o l i f i c
correspondence. C. E. Smith has dem onstrated In n o c e n t's
concern w ith th e problem by c i t i n g sc o re s of re fe re n c e s
to i t in In n o c e n t's l e t t e r s . ^
The themes r e f le c te d in th e th in k in g of the
reform ing groups and the e f f o r t s of Innocent I I I
4. I b i d . , pp. 132-142.
5. P. L ., C H I, c o l. 102. M . . . ab e r r o ri s s u l semi t a
rev oca re a p ra e s e rtlm mu l i e re s v o iu p tu o seT . .
6 . See C harles Edward Smith, Innocent I I I : Church
D efender (Baton Rouge, 195TK
-M5-
were a ls o the concern of in d iv id u a ls , around whom
no c l e a r ly d e fin a b le s e c t a ro s e . One of the most
p r o l i f i c In the exam ination of th e s e s u b je c ts was the
above m entioned P e te r C an to r. F o rtu n a te ly , a len g th y
and w ell developed t r e a t i s e by P e te r C antor on th e
to p ic of moral tu r p itu d e has su rv iv e d . His Verbum
Abbrevlatum , composed sometime a f t e r 1187, i s addressed
t o the r e g u la r and s e c u la r c lerg y and provides a
c a talo g u e of moral abuses of the a g e .^ Each i s d i s
cussed in l i g h t of S c r ip tu r a l re fe re n c e and the
s p e c if ic harm wrought by th e s in upon the in d iv id u a l.
The Verbum Abbrevlatum o f f e r s an in s t r u c t i v e c o n tr a s t
to the c h ro n ic le s where a l l too s u c c in c t comments
m erely r e l a t e th a t Eustache of F la y , P e te r R ossi, o r
F u lk of N eu illy preached a g a in s t u s u re rs in a c e r ta in
re g io n .
The Verbum Abbrevlatum i s a mine of preaching
to p ic s w ith a p p ro p ria te S c r ip tu r a l re fe re n c e s to
i l l u s t r a t e the p a r t i c u l a r s i n . The i n i t i a l emphasis
7. P. L ., CCV
-4 6 -
is on the n e c e s s ity f o r th e s a n c i t i t y of th e p re a c h e r.
I f h i s l i f e i s n o t exem plary, th e n h is words w i l l be
l o s t . For " . . .fundatem e a t s a n c tit a s v i t a e e t
c o n v e rs a tio n is b o nae. 1 1 ^ With th e se q u a l i t i e s , th e
p reac h er should proceed to in v eig h a g a in s t the themes
enum erated by P e te r C an to r. A c a re fu l read in g of
the Verbum Abbreviaturn re v e a ls a number of the
p r in c ip le m o tifs which a re a ls o e v id e n t in F u lk ’s
reform ing a c t i v i t i e s .
Envy, s l o t h , p r id e , and s la n d e r a re among th e
s in s examined by P e te r C antor. The pervading theme
is c u p id ity , and the te x t quoted in te r m itte n tly by
P e te r i s "Radix omnium malorum e s t c u p l d lta s ." The
argument suggested i s to avoid ric h e s and, th e re b y ,
to avoid the te m p ta tio n s of c u p id ity . "Quls s i t
d lv ltia ru m m odls, q u a e rls ? Primus habbere quod necesse
e s t . U s u r y emerges as a c o r o lla ry v ic e of th e r ic h ,
and P e te r C antor pro v id es th e S c r ip tu r a l re fe re n c e s
8. P. L ., CCV, c o l. 56.
9. I b i d . , c o l. 65.
f o r i t s condem nation. I n te r e s t in g ly enough, th e re a re
no e x c e p tio n s o r q u a l if i c a t io n s provided by P e te r
C antor; In s te a d , th e re i s a b la n k e t d e p re c a tio n of th e
p r a c t i c e . 1® He goes on to condemn sodomy and
f o r n ic a ti o n , d e s c rib in g th e l a t t e r as 1 1 . . . crimen
maxlme detestandum . " 11 There a re a ls o re fe re n c e s to
in c o n tin e n t p r i e s t s , and a llu s io n s to th e underm ining
a c t i v i t i e s of th e Jews who engage f r e e ly in u su rio u s
p r a c t i c e s . 12
F ulk of N e u il ly 's r e l a t i o n to P e te r C antor has
a lre a d y been su g g e sted . F ulk came to th e c a th e d ra l
sch o o l a t N otre Dame because of th e ln e f f lc a c y of
h is p reach in g and th e charges by h is p a rish o n e rs
t h a t he was ig n o ra n t of the S c r ip tu r e s . Jacques of
V itry n o te s th a t a t th e u n iv e r s ity Fulk id e n t i f i e d
10. I b i d . , c o l. 14H-1H7.
11. I b i d ., c o l. 332.
12. I b i d . , c o l. 1 5 8. P e te r C antor p o in ts out th a t the
C h ris tia n s would masquerade a s Jews in o rd e r to
escape the p r o h ib itio n s .
-48-
h im se lf w ith P e te r C antor, tr a n s c rib e d th e p r o f e s s o r 's
words, and re p e a te d them alm ost v erb atim to h is
p a r i s h o n e r s . 1 ^ i t wa8 p e te r C antor, to o , who was
re s p o n s ib le f o r F u lk 's f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t su ccess
a t th e Church of S t. S e v e rln . The In tim a te a s s o c ia tio n
between th e two a p p a re n tly la s te d u n t i l th e d ea th of
P e te r C antor in 1197. T h e ir r e la tio n s h ip was s t i l l
w idely recognized more th a n seventy y ea rs a f t e r the
p r e a c h e r's d ea th when John of P le x c o u rt assumed th a t
Fulk of N eu illy re c e iv e d a u th o rity to preach th e
crusade through P e te r C antor.
The r e la tio n s h ip between Fulk of N eu illy and
P e te r C antor I s of c o n sid e ra b le Im portance because
I t en a b les us to see th e main source f o r th e p re a c h e r 's
reform ing them es. The Verbum Abbrevlaturn, which
pro v id es a compendium of P e te r C a n to r's r e f l e c t i o n s
on m oral a b u ses, sim u ltan eo u sly p rovides a d isc u ssio n
of a l l of th e p r in c ip a l themes a s s o c ia te d w ith Fulk
13. lacobus de V ltr ia c o , H is to r ia O c c id e n ta lis , (Duaci,
1597), P. 281.
of N e u illy . The sou rces n o t only re v e a l t h a t Fulk
focused h is reform ing campaign on c u p id ity , the
s a l i e n t theme e n u n c iated by P e te r C antor, b u t a ls o
th a t F ulk n ev er tra n g re s s e d the c a te g o r ie s suggested
by h is em inent p ro fe s s o r. The unquestioned re s p e c t
f o r P e te r C antor by h is d is c ip le and the r e i t e r a t i o n
of th e p r in c ip a l themes of th e Verbum Abbreviaturn
in th e reform p reach in g of Fulk of N eu illy su g g ests
an Indebtedness which w i l l become more e x p l i c i t as
F u lk 's a c t i v i t i e s a r e examined on a more d e ta ile d
b a s i s .
I f we a re to Judge from the q u a n tity of prim ary
source re fe re n c e s , th e forem ost o b je c t of F u lk 's reform
p reach in g was th e e x t ir p a tio n of u su rio u s p r a c t ic e s .
Matthew of P a ris inform s us th a t F ulk b e lie v e d t h a t t h i s
n e fa rio u s custom had o rig in a te d in Lombardy and tr a v e lle d
a c ro s s the Alps and I n fe c te d the French r e a l m . ^
14. M atthaei P a r is ie n s is , Chronica Majora (R olls S e rie s
no. 57)» p . 44: “ . . . quae alco u su ra in Franclam
ab I t a l i a tr a n s le n s nlm ls p u llu la v e r a t, e t n o b lle
regnum Francorum jam m aculaveraT7n
Probably borrow ing from th e In v e c tiv e of P e te r C antor,
F ulk e n te re d P a ris and began to preach a g a in s t the
. <
p r a c tic e around 1 1 9 5 .^ Contemporary acco u n ts
In d ic a te th a t he co n tin u ed to preach a g a in s t usury
a s l a t e a s 1 2 0 0 . We have no in fo rm a tio n as to the
method employed by Fulk t o u p ro o t u su ry , b u t we may
su sp e c t t h a t th e v io le n c e of h is tone and the
q u o ta tio n s from P e te r C antor proved e f f e c t i v e . The
u ltim a te o b je c tiv e seems to have been r e s t i t u t i o n of
money and goods l o s t as a r e s u lt of the p r a c t ic e , and
t o i n s t i l l a d is d a in f o r i t among those who m ight
become s u s c e p tib le to i t . Roger of Hoveden reco rd s
t h a t Fulk " . . . l e d u s u r e r s , by in v it in g them to th a t
heavenly tr e a s u r e , which n e i th e r r u s t n o r moth
c o rru p e th , n o r th ie v e s s t e a l , t o d i s t r i b u t e f o r the
use of th e poor a l l th a t substance w ith t h e i r usury
15. R igordus, Qesta P h ilip p i I I A ugustl r e e l s francorum ,
in R ecu ell des h is t o r le n s des Gaules e t de la
France "fed: H." B ouquet), X7II. p. 42.--------------
♦
16. Chronicon L e o d le n sl, in Monuments Germanise
h i s t o r i c a l s c r l p t o r e s ed. P e rtz , M v i, p. 6 5 5 .
-51-
and e x a c tio n s had d e v o u re d ."1? in t h i s , Fulk of
N e u illy was a g a in r e f l e c t i n g the sen tim en ts of P e te r
C antor and Pope Innocent I I I .
C a n o n ica lly , th e concept of usury passed through
a complex s e r i e s of s ta g e s . O rig in a lly , th e D e c re tls ts
m aintained t h a t only C h r is tia n s were s u b je c t to th e
p r o h ib itio n on u s u r y .1® The J u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r Jew ish
exem ption was t h a t th e p r a c tic e was p ro sc rib e d only
when i t in v o lv ed e x tr a c tin g usury from o n e 's " b ro th e r” .
By th e end of the tw e lfth c e n tu ry , however, the n o tio n
was growing t h a t usury was t h e f t re g a r d le s s of th e
circum stances and th e re fo r e p ro h ib ite d by Mosaic Law.1^
P e te r C antor and h is d is c ip le s supported t h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and, w ith in a few decades a f t e r P e te r 's
17. Roger de Hoveden, Annals ( tr a n s . H. T. R iley,
London, 1 8 5 3 ), p. .
18. John W . Baldwin, The Medieval T heories of th e J u s t
P ric e (P h ila d e lp h ia , 1959), in T ra n sa c tio n s of the
American P h ilo so p h ic a l S o c ie ty , V. 4 ^ ., p a r t A.
p . 38.
19. Benjamin N. N elson, og. c l t pp. 10-18.
d e a th , th e Idea evolved th a t th e Jews were only
te m p o ra rily p erm itted to ex a c t usury from " fo re ig n e rs "
in th e a n c ie n t p erio d In o rd e r to avoid th e g r e a t e r
po
s in of p r a c tic in g I t among th em selv es. T his lin e of
th in k in g c r y s t a l l i z e d in th e Summa Theologlca of S t.
Thomas A q u in as.21
A lthough b o th C h ris tia n s and Jews were t h e o r e t i c
a l l y s u b je c t to th e ban on u su ry , in p r a c tic e th e Jews
were o fte n exempted because of th e p r o te c tio n t h a t was
o ffe re d by kings and lo c a l p rin c e s . T his p ro te c tio n
was bought f o r a s u b s t a n tia l sum b u t could be w ith
drawn In summary fa s h io n . The h o s t i l i t y of the masses
a g a in s t th e Jews d id n o t depend upon such a ste ad y
economic r e la tio n s h i p . The p re c a rio u s p o s itio n of
th e Jews stemmed p a r tly from t h e i r fo re ig n s t a t u s ,
b u t more from t h e i r economic fu n c tio n in th e s o c ie ty .
By th e l a t e tw e lf th c e n tu ry , the Jews had a lre a d y
2 °. I b i d . , p. 12.
21. Summa T h eo lo g lca, 2a 2a e .
-53-
become m oneylenders and pawnbrokers In most of E urope.22
At tim es of in te n s e economic c r i s i s or a s a by-product
of th e c ru sa d e s, pogroms were a f a m il ia r a s p e c t of
Jew ish l i f e in the Middle A g es.2 ^ P erio d ic ex p u lsio n s
and spontaneous s la u g h te r s were th e earm arks of th e
tenuous p o s itio n "enjoyed" by th e Jews.
To compound th e i n j u r i e s , p o p u lar p reach ers
would r a r e ly omit m ention of th e Jews, a s fu lm in a tio n
a g a in s t them in v a ria b ly rece iv ed e n th u s ia s tic support
oh
from th e crowd.
The Abbe B ourgain n o te s th a t th e re were few
p re a c h e rs who did n o t m align th e Jews. Popular
p re a c h e rs such as P e te r th e V enerable would accuse
22. See Salo W . Baron, A S o c ia l and R e lig io u s H isto ry
of the Jews (New YorTc, 1957), IV, pp7 i9 t-2 o 7 .
23. Norman Cohn, The P u rs u it of th e M illenium (New York,
1 9 6 1), p. 63, m a in ta in s to the c o n tra ry th a t the
co nnection between the Jewish ro le as m oney-lender
and the p e rse c u tio n s was i n s i g n i f i c a n t .
24. L'Abbe B ourgain, La C haire fra n c a is e au XIIe s ie c le
( P a ris , 1879), p .~ 3 0 T .
them of h arb o rin g d e s tr u c tiv e charms and f o r c ib ly
circ u m c isin g C h r is tia n c h ild re n . Fulk was no
e x c e p tio n . He was u n re se rv e d ly h o s t i l e toward a l l
u s u re rs and, d e s p ite papal d ecrees to th e c o n tra ry ,
OK
seems to have encouraged h o s t i l i t y a g a in s t the Jews.
Robert of Auxerre d e s c rib e s one In sta n c e where, as
a r e s u l t of F u lk 's p reach in g , d eb ts to th e Jews were
reduced to o n e -h a lf, and th e rem aining sum was to be
26
paid a t s p e c if ie d i n t e r v a l s . C itin g th e same t e x t ,
M ilton R. Gutsch would have us b e lie v e t h a t , n o n e th e le ss,
27
Fulk n ev er e x c ite d th e people a g a in s t them. ' However,
Fulk e x e rc is e d c o n sid e ra b le power through h is preaching
and i f he were re s p o n s ib le f o r a s u b s t a n tia l re d u c tio n
in d e b ts, we can su sp e c t w ith good reason th a t t h i s
was th e r e s u l t of vig o ro u s d en u n c ia tio n on h is p a r t.
2 5 . I b i d . , p . 307.
26. Robertus A u tis s io d o re n s is , M.G.H., S .S ., XXVI, p. 2 5 8 .
2 7 . M ilton R. G utsch, "A T w elfth Century P reacher -
F ulk of N e u illy ," The Crusades and o th e r H is to r ic a l
Essays p re se n te d to Dana C. Munro (New Vork, l 9 2 8 ),
p. iyC.
-55-
As Robert of Auxerre concludes: 1 1 . . . Iudeos d e te s ta b a tu r
omnl modo, qua p lerosque nostrorum l n f l n l t u s e t
g rav lb u s a tte n u a a s e n t u s u r l s .
F ulk of N e u illy was a ls o deeply concerned w ith
th e lo n g -sta n d in g problem of p r o s t i t u t i o n . The
q u e s tio n of the q u a n tity and ty p e s of p r o s t i t u t e s In
France a t th e end of th e tw e lfth cen tu ry provides
s e v e ra l d i f f i c u l t i e s . There was no co n c re te l e g i s l a t i o n
concerning the s u b je c t b efo re th e e d ic t o f the a s c e t i c -
minded Louis IX in 1 2 5 4 . The E d ict o f 1254 provided
th a t p r o s t i t u t e s and a l l those engaged i n one way or
a n o th e r in th e i l l i c i t tra d e were^iio be e x p e lle d from
F ran ce. This somewhat echoes a s im ila r b u t a b o rtiv e
atte m p t of Louis V III; however, th e e d ic t of h is son
was a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y successful. a c o n sid e ra b le
28. Robert of A uxerre, o p . c l t . , p. 2 5 8 .
29. Paul La C roix, H isto ry of P r o s t i t u t i o n (New York,
1931), I , p . 72W.
30. I b id .
-56-
number of p r o s t i t u t e s were Im prisoned a s a r e s u l t of
S t . L o u is' e f f o r t s . The su c c e s s, however, was only
tem porary. Overt v io la tio n s were succeeded by a
s e c r e t network of d e f ia n t m a lv e rsa n ts. P ro te s ts to
th e king mounted, and S t. Louis was fo rc e d to re c o n s id e r.
The sev ere decree was m odified so t h a t p r o s t i t u t e s
could continue t h e i r tra d e under c e r t a in c o n d itio n s .
They were confined to s p e c if ic a re a s of th e c i t y and
31
fo rc e d to adopt d i s t i n c t i v e a p p a re l.
The d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered by Louis IX d i s
c lo se th e entrenchm ent of th e i n s t i t u t i o n by th e mid-
t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry . I t was c le a r ly recognized and
enjoyed a q u a s i-le g a l s t a t u s p r io r to th e Decree of
1254. La C roix inform s us th a t p r o s t i t u t e s formed a
se m i-c o rp o ra tiv e a s s o c ia tio n w ith in P a ris by th e end
of the tw e lfth c e n t u r y . ^ In so u th e rn Prance th e re
a r e even in s ta n c e s of p u b lic houses, th e p r o f i t s of
31. I b i d .
32. Ib id .
-57-
which were shared by th e c i t y g o v e rn m e n t.^
F u rth e r in d ic a tio n of the w idespread n a tu re
of th e i n s t i t u t i o n i s th e e x is te n c e of a m a g is tra te
who e x e rc is e d e x c lu siv e J u r is d ic tio n o ver p r o s t i t u t e s .
The o f f i c i a l , known a s th e rex rlb ald o ru m , seems to
have e x is te d a s e a rly a s th e r e ig n of P h ilip A u g u s tu s .^
The ’’king of r i b a l d r i e s , " who was f i r s t a c a p ta in a t
arms, k ep t c lo se s u rv e illa n c e on the p r o s t i t u t e s and
was a b le to a r r e s t those who v io la te d th e custom s.
A lthough numerous com plaints were lodged a g a in s t th o se
who enjoyed th e p o s itio n , the o f fic e i t s e l f was not
e lim in a te d u n t i l the end of th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry . 35
Louis IX a p p a re n tly r e g r e tte d t h i s r e v e r s a l in
h is l a t e r l i f e . Death bed in s tr u c tio n s to h is son,
P h ilip , in s tr u c te d the king to rev iv e th e Decree of
33. W illiam W . Sanger, The H isto ry of P r o s t itu ti o n
(New York, 1897), 1>7~W.--------- -----------------------
34. La C roix, jjg. c l t . , p. 750.
35. Sanger, o£. c l t . , p. 96.
1251 * in a l l i t s s e v e r ity . P h ilip com plied w ith th e
in s t r u c tio n s and In au g u rated a severe campaign a g a in s t
th e p r o s t i t u t e s of th e kingdom. P h i l i p 's d ec re e, how
e v e r, seems never to have been e f f e c t i v e l y en fo rced .
I t was u ltim a te ly w ithdraw n, and th e p r o s t i t u t e s who
c o n s titu te d a "trad e-b o d y " w ith r e g u la r q u a rte rs were
m erely re q u ire d to acq u iesce in w earing a d i s t i n c t i v e
d r e s s . ^
Pulk was deeply concerned w ith the problem of
p r o s t i t u t i o n from th e beginning of h is c a r e e r . He
p u b lic ly r id ic u le d o ffe n d e rs , and continued h is m e rc il
e s s condemnations u n t i l they abandoned t h e i r wanton
l i v e s . Once they had a to n ed , however, F ulk d isco n tin u ed
h is chid in g and a p p lie d h im se lf to the complex problem
of in te g r a tin g them back in to s o c ie ty . In t h i s , Fulk
re v e a ls a s tr ik in g l y humane a t t i t u d e . The r e h a b i lita te d
37
p r o s t i t u t e s were encouraged to tak e r e lig io u s vows.
36. I b i d .
37. Chronicon L eo d le n sl, M.G.H., S .S ., XVI, p. 65^ .
-59-
There were s e v e ra l p rece d en ts f o r t h i s , n o ta b ly the
p r a c tic e of a s s ig n in g th e se women to "Magdalen H o u s e s . "3®
In o rd e r to In su re th e su ccess of h is own program Fulk
d ir e c te d the r e s to r a t io n of th e convent of S t. Anthony
in P a r i s . ^ This i n s t i t u t i o n was to be used e x c lu s iv e ly
to accomodate redeemed p r o s t i t u t e s . Those who seemed
unable to b e a r t h i s r a d ic a l r e v e r s a l were provided
w ith husbands, and even a dowry. The sc h o la rs and
townsmen of P a ris donated a c o lle c tiv e t o t a l of
1 ,2 5 0 s i l v e r l i v r e s to provide the p r o s t i t u t e s w ith
iin
s u ita b le dow ries.
F ulk was a ls o a v io le n t c r i t i c of any form of
c l e r i c a l concubinage. The Annales A qulcenti and Roger
of Hoveden provide len g th y accounts of th e d i f f i c u l t i e s
experienced by Fulk in h is attem p t to e lim in a te th is
38. Sanger, o£. c l t . , p. 95*
39. O tto de S. B la s io , Chronlcon, M.G.H., S .S .,
XX, 330.
40. I b id .
-6 0 -
p r a c t lc e . At L isie u x , Roger of Hoveden r e l a t e s , Fulk
was ca p tu red and im prisoned a s a r e s u l t of th e prompt-
4 l
ing of th e c le r g y . His condemnations of th e c le rg y
were a p p a re n tly v i t r i o l i c enough to w arran t tem porary
imprisonment on s e v e ra l o c c a sio n s. He was im prisoned
a t Caen s h o r tly a f t e r th e en c o u n ter a t L isie u x ,
_
probably on s im ila r grounds.
I t would seem th a t F u lk 's im plem entation of h is
reform program would n o t overlook th e h e r e t i c a l
movements which were becoming so prom inent in France
by th e end of th e tw e lf th c e n tu ry . Indeed, i t has
been proposed by Henry C harles Lea t h a t Fulk was
In stru m e n ta l in the conversion of masses of C a th arl
lip
to orthodoxy. The h i s t o r i a n of th e in q u is itio n
a ls o m a in ta in s th a t F ulk was involved in th e d iscovery
and subsequent b u rning of T e r r ic , an h e r e s ia rc h of
Corblgny. However, th e re i s no evidence to su p p o rt
41. Roger of Hoveden, o£. c l t . , p. 447.
42. Henry C harles Lea, A Hi s t ory of th e I n q u is itio n
of th e Middle Ages (New York, 1956), i , p. 245.
- 6 1 -
L e a 's c o n te n tio n concerning th e C a th a rl. Moreover,
I t was through a m isreading of th e te x t of R obert of
r
Auxerre th a t Lea a s s o c ia te d Fulk w ith T e r r lc . Under the
y e a r 1198 Robert of Auxerre re c o rd s th e a c t i v i t i e s of
F u lk . Im m ediately a f t e r t h i s d e s c r ip tio n th e re fo llo w s
an account of th e im m olation o f th e h e r e s ia r c h . No
t r a n s i t i o n lin k s the tw o, and we may presume t h a t
Mr. L e a 's assum ption I s unfounded. The Abbe C harasson
a p p a re n tly su b sc rib e s t o L ea's m isconception and has
p e rp e tu a te d th e e r r o r .
F u lk 's reform ing a c t i v i t i e s were c l e a r ly in
harmony w ith th o se being expressed w ith in and w ith o u t
th e Church a t th e end of the tw e lf th c e n tu ry . His
overwhelming success a t t e s t s to th e f a c t th a t h i s
condemnation of uxurlous p r i e s t s , r e h a b i l i t a t i o n
programs f o r f a l l e n p r o s t i t u t e s , and a tte m p ts to
undermine th e a c t i v i t i e s of C h r is tia n and Jewish
u s u re rs a l ik e re c e iv e d w idespread popular su p p o rt.
F ulk was f o r tu n a te , to o , to reac h the peak of h is
c a r e e r a t a time when a vigorous champion of m oral
reform ascended the papal th ro n e . The s p i r i t u a l
tu te la g e of P e te r C antor and th e fo rtu n a te su p p o rt
f
-62-
of a n o th e r P a r is ia n d o c to r, Innocent I I I , enabled
the in tr e p i d p re a c h e r to b u ild an e n v iab le r e p u ta tio n
as a s in c e re and ze alo u s refo rm er.
THE DYNAMICS OP PREACHING
Prom 1195 u n t i l h is d eath i n May, 1202, Fulk
1
of N eu illy wandered through a v a r ie ty of c i t i e s and
v i l l a g e s , preaching in th e town squares a s w e ll as a t
s u it a b le p la ces along th e ro ad . S c a tte re d re fe re n c e s
in d ic a te th a t h i s course le d him through Normandy,
P icard y , F la n d e rs, and Burgundy as w ell a s th e reg io n s
of th e l i e de F ran ce. In a few lo c a tio n s Fulk met
w ith s e rio u s o p p o sitio n , b u t f o r the most p a rt h is
p reaching was g re e te d w ith u n p a ra lle le d enthusiasm .
The a u th o r of th e Chronicon anonym! L audunensls, Jacques
of V itr y , and Ralph of C oggeshall a re among the numerous
c h r o n ic le r s who a t t e s t to F u lk 's alm ost u n iv e rs a l
s u c c e s s . 1
, r
F i r s t of a l l , i t i s e s s e n t i a l to note th a t Fulk
1. Chronlcon anonyml Laudunensls in R ecueil des
h i s t o r i a ns des Games e t de la France Bouquet, e d .,
p. ? l l ; lacobus de V ltr la c o , H ls to r la
O ccidents 11s (Duaci, 1597)* p. 282; Radulphus de
C oggeshall, Chronlcon Angllcanum (R olls S e r ie s , no.
6 6 ), p. 8 0 .
-6 4 -
could communicate r e a d ily w ith th e crowdB he a d d ressed .
H is to ria n s of m edieval preaching have s tu d ie d te x ts
a t g r e a t le n g th to determ ine th e language used by
p re a c h e rs d uring th e tw e lfth and t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s .
Most would agree t h a t the b a s ic approach adopted was
t h a t th e c le rg y would be ad d ressed In L a tin , w hile
the l a i t y would be ad d ressed In th e v u lg a r tongue.
M oreover, th e Abbe B ourgain has p o in ted out t h a t ,
lik e w is e , the crusade p reach ers and p o p u lar I t i n e r a n t
refo rm ers would in v a ria b ly ad d re ss t h e i r audience in
2
the v u lg a r tongue. U n fo rtu n a te ly , the e x ta n t sermons
we p o ssess from the tw e lfth ce n tu ry a re v i r t u a l l y
a l l ad d ressed to th e c le rg y . Furtherm ore, we la ck
any reco rd of the q u asi-sp o n tan eo u s sermons th a t Fulk
and o th e r wandering p reac h ers d e liv e re d . N ev e rth e le ss,
i t i s s a fe to assume w ith th e h is t o r ia n s of m edieval
p reach in g th a t the people could s c a rc e ly have u n d er
stood harangues In L a tin , even had Fulk been capable
2. L'Abb^s Bourgain, La c h a ire f ra n c a is e au XIIe s ie c le
( P a ris , 1879), p p T 'T b 'S -m " ---------------------------
-65-
of d e liv e r in g them in t h a t tongue.^
One of th e keys to F u lk 's su ccess would seem
to be th e unadorned s im p lic ity of th e language he
u se d . Jacques of V itry n o te s t h i s as e a rly a s F u lk 's
appearance a t S t. S e v e rin . Then the s c h o la r s , them
s e lv e s , were most Im pressed by F u lk 's d ir e c t approach
and h is avoidance of p ed a n tic language. A p p aren tly ,
th e tw e lfth -c e n tu ry refin em en t of preaching te ch n iq u e s -
com plete w ith a r i g i d d iv is io n of sermons in to s ix
s e c tio n s - had eluded F u lk . In s te a d , he seems to
have follow ed th e p re c e p ts of Maurice of S u lly , the
b ish o p of P a ris and F u lk 's s u p e rio r f o r some y e a r s .5
M aurice, about whom we would lik e to know a g r e a t d ea l
3. W e may assume a reaso n ab le knowledge of L a tin on
th e p a r t of F ulk sin c e th e le c tu r e s given by
p ro fe s s o rs a t th e U n iv e rsity of P a ris were in L a tin .
However, th e re i s no reaso n to assume th a t Fulk was
capable of speaking th e language.
4. Jacques of V itry , o£. c l t . , p. 282.
5. A. Le Coy de la Marche, La c h a lre fra n c a ls e au moyen
Sge (P a ris , 1886), p. 11.
- 6 6 -
more, ad v ised t h a t p r i e s t s should m erely le a d a h o ly
l i f e , be co n v ersan t concerning th e sacram ents, and
preach sim ply b u t in c e s s a n tly .
F u lk 's b e a rin g , to o , seems t o have made a
c o n sid e ra b le im pression on h is l i s t e n e r s . In the
stamp of th e sim ple wandering p reach ers who preceded
him, Fulk e x h ib ite d l i t t l e concern f o r appearance.
His p rim itiv e demeanor and crude humor seem to have
been a source of u n q u estio n ab le d e lig h t to h is
l i s t e n e r s . C ountless re fe re n c e s in the sou rces
in d ic a te th e a l e r t r e a c tio n of the p reac h er to
spontaneous occurrences in th e crowd. Jacques of
V itry reco rd s an in c id e n t where F ulk was m olested by
an o v erly e n t h u s ia s tic crowd attem p tin g to procure
p ie c e s of c lo th from h is garment a s r e l i c s . B arely
escap in g th e onrush, Fulk q u ie tly proclaim ed h is
c lo th in g to be v a lu e le s s , b u t in s te a d he s a t i s f i e d the
crowd by b le s s in g th e c lo th e s of a sta n d e r-b y who was
im m ediately s e t upon and d iv e s te d of h is g arm en ts.^
6. Jacques of V itry, o£. c l t ., p. 2 8 5.
-67-
Crude t a l e s such a s t h i s a re recorded by a v a r ie ty of
c h r o n ic le r s . The im portance l i e s n o t In th e in d iv id u a l
v a l i d i t y of any t a l e , b u t In th e in d is p u ta b le f a c t
th a t t h i s I s th e way F u lk 's p e r s o n a lity Im pressed
I t s e l f on th e c h r o n ic le r s . His unusual b e a rin g was
an u n d ersta n d ab le in c e n tiv e to th e huge crowds and
helped draw them to him.
F u lk 's p o p u la rity can a ls o be a s c rib e d to h is
f l e x i b i l i t y b e fo re audiences of d if f e r e n t com plexions.
«
He was re p o rte d to be ab le to ad ap t h is technique to
s u i t the t a s t e s of h is l i s t e n e r s . This enabled him
to ad d ress noblemen, a r t i s a n s , p r o s t i t u t e s , and
u s u re rs in a v a r ie ty of to n e s . He could f l a t t e r ,
sc o ld , rebuke, and c a jo le as the s i t u a t i o n demanded.
Again, Jacques of V itry g ives us some in d ic a tio n
of th e sev ere manner in which F ulk d e a lt w ith b reach es
of c h a s tity on the p a r t of th e c le rg y .? He reco rd s
t h a t Fulk hounded th e se uxurious p r i e s t s in h is
sermons and even in c ite d th e mob a g a in s t them. In
7. I b id ., p. 286.
- 6 8 -
one v i l l a g e , an adamant p r i e s t re fu se d to abandon h is
m is tr e s s , and Fulk had the woman brought b e fo re him
and p e rs o n a lly a p p lie d a c l e r i c a l to n su re to h e r.
However, I t seems n o t unusual f o r Fulk to b e ra te
o ffe n d ers by u sin g th e co arse cu rse s common to the
Q
people In e x p la in in g th e enorm ity of t h e i r s in s .
On the o th e r hand, I t should be p o in te d out th a t
Fulk could be extrem ely c h a r ita b le and humane a t tim e s.
The founding of th e convent of S t. Anthony In P a ris
has a lre a d y been m entioned a s an example of t h i s .
8. A ccording to Roger of Hoveden, Fulk was no more
tim orous In d ir e c tin g h is c r i t i c i s m a g a in s t k in g s,
th an a g a in s t p r o s t i t u t e s . Hoveden reco rd s the
s to r y t h a t F ulk co n fro n ted King R ichard and demanded
t h a t th e king abandon h is th re e d a u g h te rs: p rid e ,
a v a ric e , and s e n s u a lity . Richard re p o rte d ly
answered by o f fe rin g th e f i r s t to th e Templars
th e second to th e C is te r c ia n s , and th e l a s t to the
p r e la te s of th e Church. T his dubious s to ry of
F u lk 's c o n fro n ta tio n w ith Richard has emerged as
th e c l a s s i c example of th e p r e a c h e r 's f e a r le s s n e s s
d e s p ite th e f a c t th a t th e form ab su g g e sts a t r a d i t i o n a l
s to r y r e to ld to Include F u lk . N e v e rth e le ss, I t has
found i t s way in to th e works of Henry C harles Lea
and, more r e c e n tly , in to th e b r i e f study on the
m edieval church by Roland B ainton.
F urtherm ore, Roger of Hoveden n o tes t h a t Fulk re fu se d
to keep th e goods he a c q u ire d , but In s te a d d is t r ib u t e d
them to th e p o o r.9 Moreover, he did n o t oppress the
crowds w ith a m i l i t a n t a s c e tic is m . He rode on
horseback r a t h e r than w alk and, as Ralph of C oggeshall
n o te s , consumed a l l of th e food o ffe re d to him by h is
h o s t.* 0
D espite F u lk ’s a g i le w it and f l e x i b i l i t y b efo re
th e crowd, th e se were n o t the prim ary reaso n s th a t
" . . .ad eum audlendum lnnumera m u ltltu d o q u o tld ie
c o n f lu e r e t. " 1* C le a rly , F u lk ’s re p u ta tio n as a m iracle
w orker wab th e c h ie f inducement f o r th e e x tro a o rd in a ry
number of people who came to h e a r him preach. The
crowds came because, as R obert of Auxerre e x p la in s ,
"Sane v e rb is e lu s a t t e s t a b a n t u r m lra c u la , u t p e r eum
9. Roger of Hoveden, Annals ( tr a n s . H. T. R iley ,
London, 1853), p. TOT
10. Ralph of C oggeshall, 0£. c l t ., p. 82.
11. Chronlcon anonyml L audunensls, op. c l t ., p. 7 1 1 .
- y o -
cooperare Domino non modo anlmabus s e t e t co rp o rlb u s
l n f l u e r e t m ed icin a. " 15 O tto of S t. B la is e con tin u es
th a t through F ulk God worked many m ira c le s about which
no doubt e x i s t s , ^3 and the Chronlcon Leodensi adds
i li
sim ply th a t F ulk was a b le to work numerous m ira c le s .
The m ira c le s them selves a r e recorded a t le n g th
in s e v e ra l so u rc e s. F o r the most p a r t, they d ea l w ith
th e r e s t o r a t i o n to h e a lth of people a f f l i c t e d w ith
some in f ir m ity , a lth o u g h Fulk was a ls o re p o rte d to
have th e power to ex p el demons. The ty p e s of m ira c le s
recorded a r e : the r e s to r a t io n of s ig h t to th e b lin d ,
movement to th e p a ra ly z e d , h e a rin g to th e d e a f, and
speech to th e dumb. The method employed was th e
la y in g on of th e hand, along w ith the r e p e t i t i o n of a
p ra y e r.
12. Robertus A u tis s io d o re n s is , Chronlcon in Monumenta
Germaniae h i s t o r i c a l S c r ip to r e s , e d ., P e rtz ,
XXVl, p. 253.
13. O tto de S. B la s io , Chronlcon, i b i d . , XX, p. 330.
14. Chronlcon L eo d le n si, i b i d . , XVI, p. 654.
-7 1 -
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , F ulk d id n o t alw ays choose to
work h is s a lu ta r y powers on those who a p p lie d . He
had a p e c u lia r and perhaps co n venient a b i l i t y to
d is c rim in a te between those who were d eserv in g and
th o se who were unworthy of h is s a lu ta r y powers. Some,
Ralph of C oggeshall t e l l s u s, were tu rn ed away because
F ulk f e l t th a t t h e i r tim es had not y e t come.*5
On o ccasio n , he would r e s o r t to more s t a r t l i n g
methods of e f f e c t in g a m iraculous reco v e ry . O tto of
S t . B la is e re c o rd s a case of Fulk b ein g confronted
by a p a r a ly tic boy on h o rseb ack . The p reac h er
coaxed th e boy to dism ount, and when i t was ev id en t
t h a t he could n o t, Fulk approached th e boy a t rap id
speed in a menacing fa s h io n , whereupon, the t e r r i f i e d
boy f e l l to the ground and im m ediately recovered the
use of h is lim b s . ^
15. Ralph of C oggeshall, 0£. c l t . , p. 82.
16. O tto of S t. B la is e , 0£. c l t ., p. 330.
-7 2 -
Fulk a l s o perform ed " In c re d ib le " m ira c le s as w e ll,
b u t h is re p u ta tio n was s u s ta in e d by th e w idespread
b e l i e f th a t h is touch o r a fragm ent of h is garment
would s a n c tif y the r e c e i v e r . ^ As a r e s u l t , h is
ro u te was lin e d w ith th o se who were i l l and who hoped
to p r o f i t from h is th a u m a tu rg lc a l powers. Because of
th e ste ad y stream of s u p p lia n ts , Fulk was always
a s su re d of a c o n sid e ra b le audience w herever he
tr a v e l l e d , and they provided him an ample o p p o rtu n ity
to make h is campaign a g a in s t v ic e and c o rru p tio n a
s in g u la r ly e f f e c t iv e one.
The p revalence of contemporary re fe re n c e s to
Fulk as a m irac le-w o rk e r e x p la in s , to a la rg e degree,
h is success a s a reform p re a c h e r. The m ira c le s he
i s c r e d ite d w ith were r a r e ly of the in c re d ib le v a r ie ty
and n o t d is s im il a r to those t h a t a re o fte n re p o rte d
as b ein g perform ed d u rin g th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry .
T his a b i l i t y and h is e x tra o rd in a ry q u a l i t i e s a s a
p o p u la r p reac h er account to a la rg e degree f o r h is
17. Jacques of V itry , 0£ . c l t . , p. 284.
-7 3 -
8UCC6S8.
Although Jacques of V itry claim ed th a t F u lk 's
reform program was n o t a permanent su c c e ss, th e re Is
no In d ic a tio n th a t h is cures were e v e r doubted or
re p u d ia te d . The masses who came to h e a r Fulk preach
took th e se m ira c le s as a sig n of h is d iv in e e le c t io n .
His su ccess was e s s e n t i a l l y a r e s u l t of th e huge crowds
who came to w itn e ss an e x tra o rd in a ry thaum aturge
perform h is m ira c le s .
PETER A ND BERNARD
Modem s c h o la rs have co n c e n tra te d t h e i r
a t t e n t i o n c h ie f ly on Fulk of N e u illy 's involvem ent In
th e f o u r th c ru sa d e . And, a lth o u g h th ey have noted
th a t F u lk , In o rd e r to preach th e c ru sa d e, f i r s t had
to o b ta in a commission from th e pope, Innocent I I I ,
th e re a s been no attem p t to u n d erstan d h is ro le of
crusade p re a c h e r a s an y th in g more than an in c id e n ta l
phenomenon only vaguely re le v a n t to the p re p a ra to ry
s ta g e s of th e cru sa d e . A c tu a lly , when F ulk accepted
th e commission to preach th e f o u r th cru sa d e , he was
d e d ic a tin g h im se lf to an occupation whose ro o ts
reached back as f a r a s th e y e a rs b efo re th e f i r s t
c ru sa d e . In o rd e r to a p p re c ia te f u l l y th e ro le Fulk
was assum ing under Innocent I I I , i t i s n e c e ssa ry to
u n d ersta n d som ething of th e backgrounds, th e tech n iq u e s
and th e alms of those crusade p reach ers in whose wake
he fo llo w ed . The development of th e o f f ic e , th e
q u a l i t i e s a s s o c ia te d w ith " le s s a ln c te s homines" who
preached, and th e problem of th e e x te n t of t h e i r
a u t h o r it y , as w e ll as t h e i r e f f e c t s upon the m asses,
-7 5 -
a re a l l q u e stio n s of s ig n ific a n c e f o r th e s o c io lo g is t
as w ell a s the m e d ie v a lis t. F or th e s o c io lo g is t
th e q u e stio n s posed touch on th e background and
e f f e c tiv e n e s s of I t i n e r a n t p re a c h e rs , w h ile , f o r the
m e d ie v a lis t, th e se q u e rie s r e l a t e to th e e v o lu tio n
of an Im portant o f f ic e and i t s relev an ce to th e
s h i f t i n g p o s itio n of the papacy.
U n fo rtu n a te ly , the m a te r ia l r e q u is i te f o r such
a study has never been ad e q u ate ly s o rte d o r analy zed .
There a r e , however, two d is tin q u is h e d p red ec esso rs of
F u lk , P e te r the Hermit and B ernard of C lairv au x , who
provide s a t i s f a c t o r y bases f o r com parison.
Sources f o r b o th a re ample, and the h a l f century
lacunae which se p a ra te P e te r from S t. B ernard, and in
tu r n , S t. Bernard from F u lk , provide adequate in te r v a ls
f o r observing th e changing q u a l i t i e s of th e o f f ic e ,
and th e circu m stan ces surro u n d in g t h e i r p a r tic ip a t io n
in the cru sad es su g g est p a r a l l e l s and d i s p a r i t i e s
which re v e a l the anomalous n a tu re of th e o f f ic e i t s e l f .
P e te r th e Hermit
The legends concerning the p reach in g of P e te r
th e Hermit have le d to a m istaken b u t w idely accep ted
n o tio n th a t P e te r was th e I n i t i a t o r and a c tu a l le a d e r
of the f i r s t c ru sa d e .* According to A lb e rt of Aachen,
P e te r was an e re m e tlc a l p r i e s t who was b o m In Amiens.
P e t e r 's e a r ly c a re e r rem ains a s obscure a s th a t of
F u lk , re c o g n itio n only coming as a r e s u l t of h is
2
involvem ent in th e cru sad in g e n t e r p r is e . P e te r
began p reaching in th e reg io n of B erry, and A lb ert
Inform s u s th a t he e n l is te d b ish o p s, a b b o ts, c l e r i c s ,
monks and a l l ranks of laymen f o r the p r o je c t.^
Like F u lk , P e te r r e h a b i l i t a t e d th e s i n f u l : a d u l te r e r s ,
th ie v e s , and m u rd erers, and accep ted t h e i r commitments
1. See H. Hagenmeyer, P e te r d er Erem ite (L eip zig , 1 8 7 9).
Hagenmeyer d isp ro v e s th e legend th a t P e te r th e
Hermit had made a t r i p to th e Holy Sepulchre and
su bsequently convinced Pope Urban to in a u g u ra te
the cru sa d e . The legend was enhanced by the
t r a d i t i o n th a t P e te r c a rr ie d a l e t t e r from heaven
which proclaim ed th e a n n ih ila tio n of th e i n f i d e l s
a s a r e s u l t of th e imminent cru sad e.
2 . See F. D uncalf, "The P e a s a n ts' C rusade," AHA,
XXVI (1921), pp. 440-453.
3. See A lb e rt of Aix and th e L ib e r M iraculorum.
-7 7 -
to the c ru s a d e .1 *
P e te r Is d e s c rib e d a s b ein g sm all in s ta tu r e
and somewhat o ffe n siv e i n appearance. He had a gray
unkempt b ea rd , and he t r a v e lle d w earing a co arse woolen
ro b e, c a rry in g a c r u c i f i x in h i s hand. P e te r preached
in the open c o u n try sid e , f o r t i f i e d c e n te r s , v i l l a g e s ,
and c i t i e s . To encourage su p p o rt, he would
v io le n tly condemn C h ris tia n s f o r n e g le c tin g th e Holy
Land, weep, and f r a n t i c a l l y im plore t h e i r su p p o rt f o r
th e d e liv e ra n c e of Jerusalem . As a consequence of
P e t e r 's p reach in g in P icardy, F la n d e rs, and Burgundy
a m assive p o p u la r army drawn from a l l s o c ia l c la s s e s
accum ulated around him, determ ined to push on to
Jeru salem .
4. See Yves Le F ebvre, P ie rre l 'e r m l t e e t la c ro isa d e
(Amiens, 1946), pp. 113-124.
5. I b id .
6 . In A p ril of 1096, P e te r a r r iv e d a t Cologne w ith
an e stim a te d army of 15,000 men. His preaching a t
Cologne and subsequent work i n the Rhine V alley
r e s u lte d in a t o t a l a g g re g a tio n of some 30,000
men, follow ed by a c o n s id e ra b le number of women and
c h ild re n . P e te r th e Hermit l e f t Cologne a t th e end
of A p ril, and moved (w ith th e perm ission of King
In F ulk of N e u illy we f in d s e v e ra l a n a lo g ie s
to h is p re d e c e sso r of th e f i r s t c ru sa d e . P e te r the
Hermit and F ulk b o th e n l i s t e d crusade su p p o rt,
p erso n a l o r f i n a n c i a l , from a l l le v e ls of s o c ie ty ,
w hile drawing th e most n o ta b le responses from the
6. (continued) Coloman through Hungary. The army
re ta in e d some semblance of o rd e r u n t i l they were
Joined by the rem ains of a p r io r band of c ru sa d e rs
o u tsid e Sem lin. T here, th e two groups merged,
la id se ig e to the c i t y and cap tu red i t . They l e f t
Sem lin and, though h arassed on r o u te , by August 1,
1096, th ey a r r iv e d In C o n sta n tin o p le . The emperor
A lexius co u n se lle d P e te r to aw ait th e a r r i v a l of
th e barons b e fo re c o n tin u in g . However, a s t h e i r
p illa g in g and c rim in a l a c ts soon became I n s u f f e r a b le ,
th e em peror h u r rie d ly acq u lesed to P e te r ’s re q u e s t
to move on.
In Asia Minor P e t e r 's fo llo w e rs d iv id e d . The
Lombards and Germans, re fu s in g to co o p erate any
lo n g e r w ith th e F rench, e le c te d t h e i r own le a d e r,
Renaud. T his tro o p p illa g e d the a re a around N icea,
c a p tu red th e B yzantine c a s tle of X erlgordon, and
was su b seq u en tly m assacred by th e T urks. P e te r th e
H erm it, encamped w ith th e rem ainder of th e band a t
C i v ito t, d e p a rte d f o r C o n stan tin o p le im m ediately
a f t e r re c e iv in g th e news. While P e te r attem p ted to
procure a s s is ta n c e , th e im prudent "c ru sa d e rs de
p a rte d from C iv ito t and were s h o r tly sla u g h te re d
n e a r th e v ill a g e of Dracon. P e te r the H e rm it's
band, and the hope of le a d in g I t v ic to r io u s ly to
Jeru salem , d isap p eared a t Dracon. From t h i s p o in t
on, h is fo rtu n e s would be lin k ed w ith th e crusade
of the Barons who were then a r r iv in g a t
C o n s ta n tin o p le .
-7 9 -
low er c l a s s e s . Both were accustomed to run th e
gamut of p o p u lar preaching tech n iq u es In o rd e r to
a s su re s u c c e s s. Moreover, both a p p a re n tly con sid ered
th a t th e crusade provided an o p p o rtu n ity to salvage
h o p eless s in n e rs . T his has g e n e ra lly been Ignored,
o r m isunderstood. Paul A lphandery, f o r example,
m a in ta in s th a t I t Is Fulk who achieved a s ig n i f ic a n t
tra n s fo rm a tio n In th e Idea of the crusade by making
I t sim u ltan eo u sly an a tte m p t to b rin g s in n e rs to
rep en tan ce and In au g u rate a g e n e ra l reform of s o c ie ty .
Although In c o n c lu siv e , th e docum entation concerning
P e te r th e Hermit Im plies th a t he was a c tiv e ly engaged
in a r e h a b i l i t a t i o n program as a p a rt of h is crusade
a c t i v i t i e s . His su c c e sso r, Bernard of C lalrv au x ,
would make th e Im plem entation of t h i s program the
prim ary o b je c tiv e of h is crusade p reach in g .
S t. B ernard of C lalrv au x
S t. B ernard of C lalrv au x re p re s e n ts a s i g n i f i c a n t
- 80-
v a r ia tio n on the ro le of crusade p re a c h e r.^ U nlike
P e te r th e H erm it, B ernard p a r tic ip a t e d In mapping out
th e m inute d e t a i l s of th e o rg a n iz a tio n of th e cru sa d e .
While P e te r th e Hermit lo o se ly d ir e c te d a hoard of
p o p u la r c ru s a d e rs , th e more a s tu te B ernard d ir e c te d
h is a t t e n t i o n toward th e more prom inent le a d e rs of
th e c ru sa d e . In f a c t , th e se le a d e rs were a s one
h i s t o r i a n has noted "th e s p i r i t u a l c h ild re n of S t.
Q
B e rn a rd ." 0 He was th e u n o f f ic ia l i n i t i a t o r and
le a d e r of th e second cru sa d e.
Louis V II, from whom th e o r ig in a l in c e n tiv e f o r
th e crusade came, f i r s t rev ea led h is i n t e r e s t in the
p r o je c t a t th e assem bly of Bourges in 1145.^ He
rece iv ed p e rfu n c to ry su p p o rt, and, probably on the
7. See e s p e c ia lly Paul Alphandery, La c h r e tle n te e t
l 1 Idee de c ro lsa d e ( P a ris , 1954), I , pp. Ib6-i8e>.
8. W alter W illiam s, S a in t B ernard of C lalrv au x
(M anchester, 1935)# P» 2 6 5 .
9. Odo of D e u il, De p ro fe c tlo n e Ludovici V II in
orlentem ( tr a n s . V. ti. B erry , New York, 195&),
p. 7.
- 81-
advice of B ernard of C lalrv au x , appealed to Pope
Eugenius I I I . The pope r e p lie d e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y ,
g ra n tin g the custom ary In d u lg en ces, and made s e v e ra l
su g g e stio n s a s to the o rg a n iz a tio n of th e p r o je c t.
Eugenius I I I ex p ressed h is d e s ire to d i r e c t the
crusade p e rs o n a lly , b u t lam ented the f a c t th a t
an a rc h ic c o n d itio n s in Rome p ro h ib ite d him from doing
so. Because of h is "im prisonm ent" in Rome, Pope
Eugenius d e le g a te d the le a d e rs h ip of th e crusade to
the Abbot of C la lrv a u x .10
S t. Bernard Immersed h im self in th e ta s k . He
organized the assem bly a t Vezelay in 1146, and th e re ,
from th e hands of B ernard of C lalrv au x , Louis VII
accep ted the c ro ss which had been se n t from Rome.
The accounts of Odo of D euil and O tto of F re is in g
in d ic a te th a t B ernard occupied th e commanding p o s itio n
a t th e assem b ly .11 He f i r s t read the b u l l of Eugenius
10. I b i d . , p. 9.
11. I b i d . , and O tto of F re is in g , Gesta F r l d e r l c l , I ,
x x x i i i , 51 (32).
- 8 2 -
I I I r e l a t i n g to th e c ru sa d e . He th e n preached to th e
assem bled nobles and a f f ix e d th e c ro s s to Theodore of
F la n d e rs, Henry of Champagne, G eoffrey de la Roche
(the b ish o p of L an g res), and E leanor of A q u ita in e .12
S h o rtly a f t e r the assem bly a t V ezelay a rash
of p reach ers a ro se to s tim u la te p o p u lar I n t e r e s t In
th e c ru sa d e . I t Is d o u b tfu l th a t many of th ese
In d iv id u a ls re c e iv e d o f f i c i a l sa n c tio n o r a crusade
commission. R egardless of t h i s th ey enjoyed enormous
success through t h e i r ap p e als to th e em otions of
th e crowd. The most famous among th e se was Raoul,
who began preaching around th e c i t i e s of Cologne,
Mainz, and S tra sb u rg in th e F a ll o f 1146.1^ In th e se
re g io n s, Raoul I n c ite d th e masses a g a in s t th e Je w s,1* *
s tim u la tin g such anim osity a g a in s t them th a t lo c a l
p r e la te s and s e c u la r o f f i c i a l s found them selves unable
12. I b i d . , xxxvi, sq.
13. I b i d .
14. W illiam s, o£. c l t ., pp. 266-270, d isc u sse s th e
r e la tio n s h i p between B ernard and Raoul a t some
le n g th .
to o f f e r adequate s a fe g u a rd s. R a o u l's im aginative
preaching prompted renewed rumors of a c e l e s t i a l l e t t e r ,
and th e n o tio n of an a p o c a ly p tic crusade of th e poor
was a g a in re v iv e d .
R eaction a g a in s t t h i s ap p eal to the masses
began to mount. The arch b ish o p of Mainz, se v e re ly
d is t r e s s e d by th e s i t u a t i o n , appealed to B ernard of
C la lrv a u x . The immediate s te p s tak en by Bernard
rem ain u n c e r ta in . O tto of F re is in g r e l a t e s th a t
IS
B ernard convinced Raoul to r e tu r n to h is m onastery. J
Although t h i s i s u n lik e ly , i t i s c e r t a in th a t Bernard
responded to the arch b ish o p of Mainz by condemning
th e Jew ish m assacres as h o m icid e.1^ Bernard follow ed
1 5 . I t i s probable th a t Raoul was a C is te r c ia n , how
e v e r, we ag a in have no s p e c if ic docum entation to
su p p o rt t h i s .
16. S t. B ernard of C lalrv au x , L e tte r s ( tr a n s . B. S.
James, London, 1953), p. 4b5: "The fe llo w you
m ention in your l e t t e r has rece iv ed no a u th o r ity
from men o r through men, n o r has he been se n t by
God. I f he makes h im se lf out to be a monk o r a
h e rm it, and on th a t score claim s l i b e r t y to preach
and th e duty of doing so , he can and should know
th a t th e duty of a monk i s not to preach but to
p ray . He ought to be a man f o r whom towns a re a
p ris o n and the w ild e rn e ss a p a ra d is e , b u t in s te a d
-8 4 -
up t h i s l e t t e r w ith -S s im ila r condemnation and app eal
f o r r e s tr a i n in g a c tio n to th e arch b ish o p s of Cologne
and S p ire s . With r e p le te b i b l i c a l re fe r e n c e s , he
condemned th e murder of Jews and ad v ised th e a rc h
b ish o p s to heed p ap al pronouncements condemning
in ju ry to th e Jew s.1^
1 6 . (co n tin u ed ) of th a t he f in d s towns a p a ra d ise and
th e w ild e rn e ss a p ris o n . A fe llo w w ith o u t sense
and void of a l l modesty! A fe llo w whose f o o l i s h
n ess has been s e t up on a c a n d le s tic k f o r a l l th e
world to see! I fin d th re e th in g s most re p re h e n s ib le
in him: u n au th o rized p reach in g , contempt f o r
e p isc o p a l a u th o r ity , and i n c l t a t l o n to m urder. A
new power fo rs o o th !"
17. I b i d . , p. 466: " Is i t n o t a f a r b e t t e r trium ph
f o r th e Church to convince and co n v ert th e Jews
th an to put them a l l to th e sword? Has th a t p ra y e r
which th e Church o f fe rs f o r th e Jews, from the
r i s i n g up of th e sun to th e going down th e re o f,
t h a t th e v e i l may be tak en from t h e i r h e a rts so
t h a t th ey may be le d from the darkness of e r r o r
in to th e l i g h t of t r u t h , been i n s t i t u t e d in vain?
I f she d id n o t hope th a t they would b e lie v e and be
co n v e rted , i t would seem u s e le s s and v a in f o r h e r
to pray f o r them. But w ith th e eye of mercy she
c o n sid e rs how th e Lord reg ard s w ith fa v o u r him who
ren d ers good f o r e v i l and love f o r h a tre d ."
-8 5 -
W ithin P ran ce, th e re were sc a th in g v e rb a l
a tta c k s on th e Jews, probably because the l a t t e r had
to be re s o r te d to in o rd e r to borrow money f o r the
p re p a ra tio n of th e cru sa d e . Even th e bish o p of
Langres was fo rc e d to r e s o r t to Jew ish pawnbrokers
to r a is e th e re q u ire d sums. Because of t h i s and th e
r e s id u a l h a tre d of th e Jews which lin g e re d J u s t
b en eath th e su rfa c e of m edieval s o c ie ty , th e re was
c o n sid e ra b le su p p o rt f o r th e opinion th a t th e Jews
should be fo rc e d to make ’’v o lu n ta ry " d o n a tio n s. P e te r
the V enerable, a c lo se a s s o c ia te of Louis V II, con
demned the Jews a s blasphemous and v i r t u a l l y demanded
18
- th a t they supply c o n s id e ra b le sums. LouiB V II, most
li k e l y in flu e n c e d by th e u rg in g s of S t. B ernard,
r e je c te d th e in s is te n c e of P e te r and continued
the t r a d i t i o n a l exem ption of th e Jews from crusade
d o n a tio n s.
A fte r V ezelay, S t. B ernard ad d ressed l e t t e r s
to th e p r e la te s of Prance and began h is preaching
1 8 . W illiam s, 0£. c l t . , p. 267.
- 8 6 -
campaign in F la n d e rs . O tto of F re is in g and th e L ib e r
M iraculorum tr a c e B e rn a rd ’s ro u te from F lan d ers a c ro s s
Belgium and i n to th e R hin elan d. ^ In th e R hineland,
B e rn a rd 's o b je c tiv e s were t o disco u rag e th e pogroms,
and to convince th e H ohenstaufen Emperor, Conrad I I I ,
to commit h im se lf to the lib e r a t i o n of th e Holy Land.20
The two p r o je c ts were by no means d isc o n n ec ted . S t.
B ernard a p p a re n tly hoped to convince Conrad I I I to
a c c e p t the c r o s s , and then u t i l i z e C onrad's in flu e n c e
to stamp out the more f a n a t i c a l o u tb u rsts r e la te d to
the cru sa d e. At the in te rv ie w in F ra n k fo rt, Conrad
I I I proved adam ant. However, a t S p ire s , on the 28th
of December 1146, Bernard p re v a ile d upon th e emperor
as w e ll as numerous p rin c e s to ac c e p t th e c ro s s .
The rem ainder of B e rn a rd ’s involvem ent in th e
crusade c o n s is te d of a s s i s t i n g in th e d e t a i l s of th e
19. The L ib er M iraculorum i s a d ia ry recorded by th e
a s s i s t a n t s of B ernard of C lalrv au x who accompanied
him on h is preaching to u r .
20. F or the d e t a i l s see W illiam , o£. c l t . , p. 275*
e x p e d itio n and preach in g i n t e r m i t t e n t l y , in France
and the R hineland. B e rn a rd 's preaching to the
m asses seems to have been r e l a t i v e l y s e d a te . I t
has been suggested th a t t h i s was co n scio u sly Intended
so th a t B ernard would n o t aro u se th e crowds to th e
u n c o n tro lle d fu ry which r e s u lte d in the Independent
21
army of P e te r the H erm it. Indeed, i t seems t h a t
B ernard had th e image of th e f i r s t crusade p reac h er
in mind as he tr a v e lle d through th e Rhine re g io n .
When a d d re ssin g th e m asses, he avoided ex c essiv e
re fe re n c e t o the c ru sa d e, and in s te a d , c o n c en trated
on d is p la y in g h is m iraculous powers. In t h i s he
hoped to work f o r th e e x p ia tio n of s in s and th e moral
tra n s fo rm a tio n of th e crowds he ad d re sse d . T h e ir
enthusiasm , in tu r n , was used to stim u la te the I n t e r e s t
o f th e p rin c e s who proved somewhat r e lu c ta n t to jo in in
th e ad v e n tu re .
His le a d e rs h ip of th e crusade i s no more e v id e n t
th a n in th e re a c tio n to i t s f a i l u r e . A fte r th e sie g e
21. Ib id .
- 8 8 -
of Damascus was abandoned In th e summer of 1148,
S t. B ernard was deluged w ith l e t t e r s of com plaint
and disappointm ent concerning th e p r o je c t. His re p ly
was ex p ressed in the form of a l e t t e r to Pope
22
Eugenius I I I . In th e famous De C o n sid eratio n s
S t. B ernard la id the blame f o r f a i l u r e a t th e f e e t
of th e c ru s a d e rs . T h e ir m orale, he claim ed, and
t h e i r la c k of co o p e ra tio n had se a le d th e f a te of h is
fo n d e st p r o je c t.
S t. B ernard of C la lrv a u x 's r e p u ta tio n a s the
"conscience" of th e tw e lfth cen tu ry and h is
f a m i l i a r i t y w ith the le a d e rs of th e second crusade
enabled him to su p e rv ise th e han d lin g and d ir e c t the
e n e rg ie s of th a t p r o je c t. Above a l l , S t. B ernard was
i n te r e s te d in r e c r u iti n g an e f f e c tiv e f ig h tin g fo rc e
which could achieve th e n ecessary v i c t o r i e s . A fte r
t h i s was accom plished, S t. Bernard d ire c te d h is
a t t e n t i o n to th e p o p u lar preaching of th e cru sad e.
Like P e te r th e Hermit b e fo re , and Fulk of N eu illy
22. S t. B ernard, o£. c l t . , pp. 471-472.
a fte rw a rd s , S t. B ernard was I n te r e s te d in usin g the
crusade to I n s t i t u t e moral refo rm s. Unlike P e te r,
b u t much in th e same v ein a s F ulk, S t. Bernard had no
i n t e r e s t in sp o n so rin g an independent crusade of the
poor. In s te a d he seems to have avoided re fe re n c e s to
th e crusade p r o je c t which were li k e l y to s t i r the
p o p u la r im ag in atio n and evoke overly em otional
re sp o n se s. In t h i s way S t. Bernard could more
e f f e c t i v e l y c a rry out h is I n te n tio n to u t i l i z e the
e x is tin g enthusiasm by ach iev in g a moral refo rm atio n
a t home.
N e ith e r P e te r th e Hermit nor Bernard of C lalrv au x
p ro v id es a p ro to ty p e f o r Fulk of N e u illy . The p re a c h e r
of th e f o u rth crusade would have no o p p o rtu n ity to
org an ize a p o p u lar band, n o r did he enjoy a s u f f i c i e n t
measure of re s p e c t and p r e s tig e to p a r tic ip a t e in the
d e t a i l s of th e o rg a n iz a tio n of the cru sa d e. F ulk would,
however, fo llo w a p a tte r n which i s a lre a d y e v id e n t in
P e te r th e H erm it’s preaching of th e f i r s t cru sad e. The
crusade would be used f o r th e ren o v atio n of the s in f u l
elem ents in s o c ie ty .
-9 0 -
PULK AN D THE FOURTH CRUSADE
F ulk of N e u illy rem ains one of the few h e ra ld s
of the crusade f o r whom we have abundant source
j '
re fe r e n c e s . These re fe re n c e s acknowledge h is
r e p u ta tio n throughout F ra n ce, England, I t a l y , and
Germany, b u t o fte n give no f u r t h e r d e t a i l than a
th re a d b a re account of F u lk 's su c c e s s fu l crusade
p reac h in g . Modem h is t o r ia n s of the crusade have
responded In k in d , m erely Id e n tify in g Fulk a s th e
h a rb in g e r of th e c ru sa d e . 1 A h andful of le n g th ie r
1. Paul A lphandery, La c h r e tle n te e t l 1id ee de cro lsa d e
(2 v o l s ., P a r is , 1959), p p . 45-b4; L o j I s B re h ie r,
Les c ro is a d e s ( P a ris , 192o), pp. 144-152; M ilton R.
Gutsch, "a Tw elfth Century P reacher - Fulk of N e u illy ”
in Louis J . Paetow, e d ., The Crusades and o th e r
H is to r ic a l Essays (New York, 192W), pp. 183-206;
Edgar H. McNeal and R obert L. W olff, "The F ourth
C ru sa d e,” in Kenneth M. S e tto n , e d .. The Crusades
(P h ila d e lp h ia , 1962), I , pp. 1 5 7- 158; Paul R ousset,
H ls to lre des c ro is a d e s ( P a ris , 1957), p . 204j Steven
Runciman, A H isto ry of th e CrusadeB (3 v o l s .,
Cambridge, ,,195^), I I I , p. 107; Adolf Waas, G eschichte
d e r Kreuzzuge (2 v o l s ., F re ib u rg , 1956), I . p. 2^2.
-9 1 -
accounts e x i s t , b u t th e se re v e a l co n fu sio n and
disagreem ent over b a s ic I s s u e s . The commissioning
of th e p re a c h e r rem ains u n c le a r, a reaso n ab le I ti n e r a r y
of h is a c t i v i t i e s I s y et to be su g g ested , and the
c r u c ia l q u e s tio n of w hether o r not Fulk preached th e
k n ig h t's cru sa d e , an Independent crusade of the poor,
o r b oth rem ains u n s e ttle d . These b a s ic d isagreem ents
can be p a r tly understood In lig h t of the p a u c ity of
o
m eaningful commentary In th e s o u rc e s . M isreadings
of s e v e ra l c r u c ia l te x ts have f u r t h e r obscured F u lk 's
c a re e r , and the use of t h i s a t t r a c t i v e p reac h er to
su p p o rt s p e c ia l arguments on the crusades has only
added to th e co n fu sio n . As a r e s u l t no c l e a r image
of F u lk 's ro le In th e crusade e x i s t s . F u tu re
I n v e s tig a tio n should focus on the source problems
r e la te d to lin e s of thought su g g ested above.
The circum stances surrounding th e commissioning
2 . Paul Alphandery, op. c l t . , I I , p . 4 5 ., s u c c in tly
s t a t e s th e ca se: Personnage mal £ tu d ie mals s u r
le q u e l le s documents abondent, du moins sous forme
de nombreuses m entions."
of F ulk a re I l l u s t r a t i v e of th e g e n e ra l problem. No
o f f i c i a l commission i s e x ta n t. The only re le v a n t
docum entation from Rome i s Innocent I l l ' s l e t t e r of
November, 1198, ad d ressed to " F r a te r F usconi” :
"S a lu tife ru m tu ae d o c trin a e Jampridem
a u d le n te s exemplum, plurlmum g a v ls l
sumus in Domino e ju s m lserlco rd lam
lm p lo ran tes u t bonum in te c o rro b o re t
quod in c o e p lt. Ut autem secundum
Apostolum, opus e v a n g e lis ta e fa c ie n s
p r a e d ic a tio n is o fflc iu m fru c tu o s lu s
ex seq u an is, p ra e s e rtlm in succursu
H lerosolym itanae p ro v ln c ia e , ad quam
t o t l s v ir lb u s aspiram us, e t talentum
t i b l commlssum a Domino in popull su l
e r u d itlo n e d is t r ib u e n s , ipsum m u l t i p l i
ca turn v a le a s r e p o r ta r e : nos l l l l u s
u te n te s exemple qul d e d lt quosdam
quldem a p o s to lo s , quosdam p ro p h etas
a l i o s vero e v a h g e lis ta s , u t in omnem
terram e x l r e t sonus corum e t in f in e s
o rb is te r r a e verba corum, plenam t i b i
a u c t o r l t a t e a p o s to llc a concedimus
fa c u lta te m , u t eum c o n s lllo e t assensu
d l l e c t l f l l l l P. Sanctae Mariae in Via
Lata d la c . c a r d i n a l l s , a p o s to llc a e
s e d ls l e g a t l , quern ad hoc offlcium
exsequendum s p e c i a l l t e r d estln av lm u s,
tarn de monachls n l g r i s quam a l b i s slv e
ca n o n lc ls re g u la rlb u s a l iq u o t, quos
ad praedlcandum lduneus e s s e d e c re v e rls ,
n u lli u s c o n tra d io tio n e v e l a p p e la tlo n e
o b sta n te l ib e r e t i b i p o s s is co a d ju to re s
adjungere qui tecum, ju x ta verbum
-9 3 -
propheticum , sem inent su p e r aq u a sl -
ne frumentum in p o p u lis ab sco n d atu r."-3
S a lu tife ru m , a s t h i s document i s c a lle d , lack s the
form of those commissions we do possess and m entions
the Holy Land only in an in c id e n ta l m anner.* The
o b je c t of the l e t t e r i s not to provide Fulk w ith an
o f f i c i a l commission, o r to recognize one a lre a d y
e x i s tin g , i t i s m erely an a u th o r iz a tio n to a tta c h
w hite monks, b la c k monks, and r e g u la r canons to him
as c o a d ju to r s .5 The concluding sentence of
S a lu tife ru m s p e c if ie s th a t a p o s to lic a u th o r ity i s
forthcom ing so th a t F u lk 's s a lu ta r y d o c trin e s would
not be l o s t .
3. See P a tro lo g la L a tin a , CCXIV, E p ls to la , I , 398.
4. Cf. I b i d . , I , 302, where a d e ta ile d d e s c r ip tio n on
the c o n d itio n s of th e Holy Land and th e e x p l i c i t
need f o r a c tio n i s fu rn is h e d to th e abbot of
Sambuclno.
5. For the debate over t h i s see Gutsch, o£. c l t . ,
pp. 200-203; Alphandery. oj>. c l t ., I I , p .“ 4H;
McNeal, oj>. c l t . , p. 138. Gutsch argues th a t
S a lu tife ru m i s a supplem ent to the crusade
commission; Alphandery i s in d e c is iv e ; McNeal
argues th a t i t i s an a b b re v ia tio n .
O tto of S t. B la is e and Ralph of C oggeshall
both s t a t e s p e c i f i c a l l y th a t Fulk preached w ith
a p o s to lic a u t h o r it y .^ What has been overlooked 1b
th a t preaching w ith a p o s to lic a u th o r ity does not
n e c e s s a r ily mean p reaching th e cru sad e. F u lk 's
reform ing a c t i v i t i e s , e s p e c ia lly th o se concerned
w ith c l e r i c a l concubinage, p r o s t i t u t e s , and usury
were of s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t of Innocent I I I .
S a lu tife ru m m entions tu ae d o c trin a e in a manner th a t
unm istakeably r e f e r s to reform ing a c t i v i t i e s .
Consequently c h r o n ic le r s who f a i l to m ention the
crusade sp e c ify th a t Fulk preached w ith a u th o rity
from Rome. In view of t h i s ev id en ce, i t i s c le a r
th a t t h i s i s no commission to preach th e cru sad e.
In s te a d , S a lu tife ru m g ra n ts s p e c if ic a s s is ta n c e to
Fulk in o rd e r th a t the p re a c h e r might s u c c e s s fu lly
continue h is reform ing campaign.
While S a lu tife ru m must be r e je c te d as evidence
6. O tto de S. B la s io , Monuments Germanise H l s to r lc a :
S c r ip to r e s , XX, p. 3:£0j Ralph of C o g g esh all. R olls
S erlesT 'T V , p. 80; M.G.H., S .S ., VI, p. 434.
f o r F u lk 's a u th o riz a tio n t o preach th e cru sa d e, i t i s
most probable th a t he did re c e iv e an o f f i c i a l
commission. The only s p e c if ic in fo rm a tio n th a t we
have r e s t s upon the evidence in V ille h a rd o u in . The
l a t t e r , who was in a p o s itio n to know, s t a t e s
u n eq u iv o cally th a t F ulk 1 1 . . . p re e c h a st des c ro lz p a r
S 1 [ i'A p o s to llle de Rome I n n o c e n S a u to r lte .
V ille h a rd o u in 's c o n v ic tio n and th e im p ro b a b ility
th a t Innocent I I I would have l e f t u n d ire c te d the
fo rc e s s e t in motion f o r h is f a v o r ite p r o je c t in d ic a te
th a t F u lk did re c e iv e a crusade commission. The
document I t s e l f , however, has not been uncovered.
S e v e ra l sc h o la rs have m aintained th a t the
s e le c tio n of Fulk to preach the crusade stemmed not
, only from h is re p u ta tio n as an e v a n g e lic a l reform er,
b u t a ls o from h is a s s o c ia tio n w ith P e te r C antor.
According to th e Canon of Laon and John of F le x c o u rt,
P e te r C antor was o r ig in a lly chosen to undertake the
7. E. F a r a l, e d ., V ille h a rd o u in , La conquete de
C o n stan tin o p le (2 v o l s ., P a r is , 193*0, I t P*
ta s k , b u t, because of extrem e I l l n e s s , he passed th e
o
commission on to h is d i s c i p l e , F ulk. U n fo rtu n a te ly ,
th e se c h r o n ic le rs have only served to confuse the
I s s u e , f o r I t I s h ig h ly Improbable th a t P e te r C antor
was Involved a t a l l w ith th e c r u s a d e .9 C a n to r's
d eath In 1197 preceded th a t of C e le s tln e I I I , and
C e le s tln e n ev er d is c lo s e d plans f o r a c ru sa d e. The
commission would have had to come from Innocent I I I ,
who had n o t y e t become p o p e.10 I f P e te r C antor
re c e iv e d a s p e c ia l a p o s to lic commission to preach In
1197 and passed t h i s on to F u lk , in a l l lik e lih o o d
th e commission was to be used in F u lk 's reform ing
campaign. Moreover, P e te r C antor was v o lu n ta r ily
confined in a m onastery a t th e tim e when the problem -
8. The only r e l i a b l e study i s by F. S. G u tja h r, P etrus
C antor P a r ls ie n s is s e in Lieben und s e in S c h rlfte n
Cffrazf T899J'.---------------------------------------------------------------
9. For th e d is c u s s io n of P e te r C a n to r's r e la tio n to
the crusade see G utsch, o£. c l t . , pp. 200-201.
10. Innocent I I I ascended th e papal th ro n e on January
8, 1198.
-9 7 -
a t l c a l l e t t e r s a r r iv e d from Rome. W e have no way
of deducing th e n a tu re of th e se l e t t e r s . There i s
a p o s s i b i l i t y th a t P e te r C antor could have tr a n s f e r r e d
a p o s to lic a u th o r ity t o h is s u c c e s s o r. The c h ie f
source f o r th e " t r a n s f e r r a l " i s John of F le x c o u rt,
who w rote sev en ty y e a rs a f t e r th e e v e n t . H e
appears to have been aware of th e a s s o c ia tio n
between Fulk and P e te r C antor, and added h is own
im ag in atio n to in c re a se the e x is tin g co n fu sio n . F u rth e r
m isu n d erstan d in g may have r e s u lte d from th e s i m ila r it y
in names between P e te r C antor and P e te r Capuano,
In n o cen t 111*8 le g a te in charge of o rg an iz in g the
c r u s a d e . ^ F ulk probably rece iv ed in s t r u c tio n s from
P e te r Capuano concerning th e d ir e c tio n and method of
preaching the c ru sa d e, and John of F le x c o u rt could
have r e a d ily tra n sp o se d the wrong P e te r. As i t s ta n d s ,
11. See A. P o tth a s t, B lb llo th e c a h l s t o r i c a m edll a e v l
(B e rlin , 1896), I , p. 404.
12. See the D e v a sta tio C o n s ta n tin o p o lita n a , M.G.H.
S . S ' . , X V T ,-" p . 1 C . ---------------
the com missioning of Fulk rem ains enigm atic on
s p e c if ic p o in ts , but I t I s c l e a r th a t he did re c e iv e
a commission to preach th e cru sa d e , and th a t t h i s
had no d i r e c t co n n ectio n w ith P e te r C antor.
W hatever th e n a tu re of th e a p o s to lic a u th o r ity
allow ed F ulk, th e re can be no q u e stio n b u t t h a t I t
f a c i l i t a t e d h is crusade p reach in g . F u lk 's forem ost
problem was to secure some e f f e c t iv e a s s is ta n c e In
h is p reac h in g . He a p p a re n tly was most I n te r e s te d In
re c e iv in g a s s is ta n c e from th e C is te r c ia n s . In 1198,
Fulk appeared a t th e g e n e ra l c h a p te r m eeting a t
C^teaux1^ and soon r e a liz e d th e n e c e s s ity f o r s p e c if ic
c r e d e n tia ls . There, h e , along w ith th e Bishop of
L angres, assumed th e c ro ss and req u ested a s s is ta n c e
from th e C is te r c ia n s . D espite F u lk 's e n t r e a t i e s , th e
p re a c h e r proved unable to persuade the C is te r c ia n s to
o f f e r s e v e ra l w hite monks in h is s e r v ic e . Unshaken,
Fulk emerged from th e m eeting and s u c c e s s fu lly preached
13. Ralph of C oggeshall, op. c l t . , pp. 80-81, and th e
Annales Elnonenses MaTores“Tn M.G.H., S .S ., V,
p ; "i6.----------------------------------- ^ ~ —
-9 9 -
to the crowd surrounding th e a b b e y .llj He had learn ed
th a t a s s is ta n c e was n o t so r e a d ily a v a ila b le . I t
would be th re e y e a rs b e fo re Fulk would ap p ear a t
C^teaux a g a in ; t h i s tim e, acco rd in g to Ralph- of
C oggeshall, complete " . . . cum l l t e r l s domlnl Papae. . . w1'*
The a p o s to lic l e t t e r s convinced th e C is te r c ia n s th a t
th e re q u e s t could no lo n g e r be Ig n o red , and the
Abbot of Columba, th e Abbot of V aux-de-Cem ay, and
th e Abbot of P erseigne were assig n ed to support
F u lk 's o p e r a tio n s .1^
The p re c is e d ate on which Fulk began to preach
th e crusade Is u n c e rta in . C harasson, Alphanddry,
1^. I b i d . , p. 81: "E gressus lta q u e de c a p ltu lo
abba'tum multaque secum fe re n s sa n cta e c ru c fs
s lg n a c u la . a d ju n c tis s l b l fra tru m c a t e r v l s ,
sermonem f e c i t ex h o rtato rlu m e x tra portanTad
populum qul c o n v e n e ra t. . . d l v l t e s e t p au p eres,
n o b iie s p a r l t e r e t ig n o b iie s , senes cum
Ju n lo rlb u s prom lscui sexus lnnumera m u ltltu d ln o ,
signumque c ru c ls ab eo a l a c r l t e r s u s c i p l u n t ."
15. I b i d . , p. 93.
16. F or Adam of P erseigne see Jacques of V itry ,
H is to r ia O c c id e n ta lis (e d .. F. Moschus, D uacl,
1 5 9 7 ) , I I , C hapter V I I I .
-1 0 0 -
G utsch, and McNeal agree th a t I t was sometime In
1198.^ The probable date I s th a t of h is f i r s t
u n su c c e ssfu l c o n fro n ta tio n w ith th e C is te r c ia n s . I t
waB here th a t F ulk ” . . . slgnaculum c r u c l s . . .
s u m g s it..." 1 8 u n lik e ly th a t F ulk would have begun
p reach in g the crusade on an extended b a s is b e fo re he
h im se lf assumed th e c ro s s .
F u lk 's cru sa d in g a c t i v i t i e s between the m eeting
a t c fte a u x in 1198 and h is d ea th in 1202 a re
d i f f i c u l t to c o n s tru c t from th e fragm entary evidence
a v a i l a b l e . Edgar H. McNeal, in the re c e n t
c o o p e ra tiv e volume on the cru sa d e s, m a in ta in s th a t
F ulk devoted h im se lf e x c lu s iv e ly to th e crusade
1 Q
d u rin g t h i s p e rio d . ^ However, contem porary evidence
in d ic a te s th a t F ulk sim u ltan eo u sly co ntinued h is
t
17. Ralph of C oggeshall, op. c l t . , p. 8 2 . , p la c e s i t
in Septem ber, 1198, and F u lk ' s crusade preaching
i s l i s t e d in sc o re s of c h ro n ic le s under th e y e a r
1198.
18. I b i d . , p. 81.
19. McNeal, o£. c l t ., p. 1 5 8.
-1 0 1 -
reform p reac h in g , a l b e i t on a m inor s c a le . S ev eral
so u rces a llu d e to reform preaching a f t e r 1198, and
th e Annales S anctae Columbae Sennunls reco rd t h a t
many " . . .m e re trlc e s co n v e rsl a v ia sua mala p er
pred lcatlo n em p r e s b y te rl F u lc o n ls . . . " in the y e a r
1200.20 F u lk 's founding of th e convent of S t.
Anthony f o r r e h a b i l i t a t e d p r o s t i t u t e s i s recorded by
21
A lb eric of T ro is-F o n ta in e s under th e y e a r 1199.
R egardless of t h i s , the crusade was the f o c a l p o in t
of F u lk 's a t t e n t i o n a s e a rly as 1198. His f i r s t
p r o je c t was to e n l i s t th e su p p o rt of th e Bishop of
L angres. Fulk then s e t out f o r Champagne in o rd e r to
in c re a s e th e scope of h is a c t i v i t i e s . F u lk 's a c tio n s
in Champagne a re u n c le a r, b u t enough evidence h as
20. Annales Sanctae Columbae Senunsis in M.O.H.,
S .S ., p. 108. See a ls o R elnerus in M.Q.ri., S .S .,
XVI, p. 6 5 5 .
21. A lb eric of T ro is -F o n ta in e s , M.G.H., S .S ., XXIII,
p. 877.--------------------------------------------------------
22. Ralph of C oggeshall, 0£. c l t . , XVIII, p. 8 l .
-1 0 2 -
su rv iv ed to perm it sev ere d i s t o r t i o n . This d i s t o r t i o n
concerns th e supposed appearance of F ulk a t th e
tournam ent of Eery. This d e l ig h tf u l s to r y reco u n ts
th e epiphany of Fulk a t the tournam ent and th e
m iraculous commitment of the nobles t o th e c ru sa d e.
Edgar H. McNeal, in h is b r i e f h is to r io g r a p h ic a l
r e v is io n in Speculum, has attem pted to d e stro y th is
n o t i o n . M c N e a l tr a c e s the g en e sis of th is
f a b r ic a tio n from a m isread in g in V llle h a rd o u ln
through th e school of Romantic h is t o r ia n s whose
em bellishm ent of th e s to ry was expanded and g e n e ra lly
a c c e p te d . Although McNeal’s a r t i c l e appeared in 1953,
the "appearance" of F ulk a t Eery has been m aintained by
Oil
s e v e ra l n o ta b le h i s t o r i a n s .
23. Edgar H. McNeal, "Fulk of N eu illy and the
Tournament of E ery ," Speculum, XXVXI, (1953),
pp. 371-375.
24. Steven Runciman's C rusades, I I I , p . 107 probably
went to p re ss b efo re the appearance of McNeal's
a r t i c l e . Paul R o u s se t's C ro lsa d e s, p. 204, which
appeared in 1957, and Regine P em o u d 's C r o ls l s ,
(1959), p. 198, b o th remark on th e appearance of
F ulk a t E ery.
-1 0 3 -
Indeed th e re I s evidence to c a s t some doubt on
M e N e a l's c o n c lu sio n s. The Oesta Eplscoporum
H alberstadenslum reco rd s th a t among th o se converted by
Fulk were " . . . v i r i n o b ile s de F ra n c ia : domnus
Nivelungus S u e ssio n e sis e t domnus H enricus T re ce n sis
e p ls c o p l, comes quoque Theobaldus de Campania e t comes
Lodewicus cum f r a t r e suo, B le se n se s, comes etiam
Baldwlnus e t H enricus f r a t e r e iu s Sancto Paulo, e t
comes de P e rc is , c e te riq u e n o b ile s m u lti e t populus
i n f i n i t u s
m 1
C V J
9
25. Gesta Eplscoporum H alberstadenslum In M.G.H., S .S .,
3tXlIl, is. 117. McNeal n o te s th a t t h i s c h ro n ic le
acknowledges t h a t Fulk a f f ix e d the c ro ss to Theobald
of Champagne, b u t d ism isse s th e evidence because th e
Anonymous of H a lb e rs ta d t does not m ention th e
tournam ent. N e v e rth e le ss, the c h ro n ic le s p e c i f i c a l l y
s t a t e s th a t Theobald re c e iv e d the c ro ss from Fulk,
and we know from V ille h a rd o u in th a t Theobald
re c e iv e d i t a t E ery. F urtherm ore, i t Is unusual
th a t no crusade p re a c h e r i s m entioned a t IScry where
o
-104-
The I n t e r d i c t in France seems to have s e rio u s ly
Im paired F u lk 's p r o g re s s .2^ Probably a s a consequence
of t h i s , Fulk s e t out f o r the Low Lands and the Rhine
V a lle y . By the end of 1200, he had tr a v e lle d down
th e Rhine, and found th e Germans much l e s s re c e p tiv e
to h is p e n i t e n t i a l and crusade p reaching.2? He
a r r iv e d back in Champagne in tim e to p a r tic ip a t e in
th e pooling of re so u rc e s by the c ru sa d e rs b e fo re the
d e p a rtu re of th e h o s t. S h o rtly a f t e r t h i s , a t Notre
2 5 . (continued) so many Im portant nobles assumed th e
c ro s s . When V llle h a rd o u ln speaks of nobles assuming
th e c ro s s under o th e r circ u m sta n ces, he In v a ria b ly
c i t e s th e p re a c h e r In v o lv ed . Although McNeal has
made a good case to deny F u lk 's appearance a t Eery,
i t ap p ears to be f a r from c o n c lu siv e .
26. Only L'Abbe A. C harasson, Un cur6 p le b e le n au
douzi&me sl& cle (P a ris , 19(){ j )* p. oY, d isc u sse s
t h i s problem.
27. I b id .
-105-
Dame of S o lsso n s, In co o p eratio n w ith th e Bishop of
S o lsso n s, Fulk enjoyed th e honor of a f f ix in g the
c ro ss to B oniface of M o n tfe rra t, th e nominal le a d e r
of th e c r u s a d e .2® In September o f 1201, he re tu rn e d
to C lteaux to p a r t i c i p a t e In the g e n e ra l c h a p te r
m eeting r e f e r r e d to Above. His a r r i v a l In the same
y e a r I n d ic a te s th e resum ption of crusade preaching In
h is n a tiv e t e r r i t o r y . He was occupied w ith t h i s ta s k
u n t i l h is d eath a t N e u illy in May, 1202.2 ^
One key q u e s tio n rem ains unsolved. Did Fulk
d is c rim in a te between th e r ic h and th e poor In the
preaching of th e cru'sade? The q u e s tio n i s Indeed
28. Theobald died suddenly in May, 1201. F or B oniface
see V ille h a rd o u in , op. c l t ., I , p. 45: " E n s i f i s t
11 m archis l o r p ro le re eTT"recut la s e lg n e u n e de
l* o s t. M aintenant l i evesques de Solsons e t
m is s ire Folques 11 bons hornet dul bian c abe aue
11 a v o lt amenS de son p a ls l ’enm alnent a l 'y g l l s e
N ostre Dame e t 11 atau ch e n t la c ro lz a I 'e s p a u l e . ”
29. Robert of A uxerre, M.Q.H., S . S . , XXVI, p. 261.
- 106-
complex. Fulk was n o to rio u s ly su sp ic io u s of
p ro p e rtie d c la s s e s , and th e theme of w ealth and
c o rru p tio n as n ec essary companions I s v i r t u a l l y a
m o tif In h i s p reach in g . Moreover, crusades of th e
poor had been a f a m il ia r b y -product of th e k n ig h t's
cru sad es sin c e th e days of P e te r th e Hermit and W alter
th e P e n n ile s s . The argument of Norman Cohn I s t h a t
F u lk , lik e the King of T a fu r, d ir e c te d h is a t t e n t i o n s
e x c lu s iv e ly to th e masses and sponsored an independent
crusade of th e p o o r.3° The so le shred of evidence
o ffe re d by Cohn i s the r e c i t a t i o n of R einerus In the
Annales S. Jaco b i L e o d le n ls ls , and R einerus does In
f a c t o f f e r a b r i e f sta tem en t to su p p o rt Cohn's
a s s u m p tio n .H o w e v e r, no docum entation i s o ffe re d
30. Norman Cohn, The P u rs u it of th e M illenium (New York,
1961), p. 76.
31. R ein eru s, M.G.H., S .S ., XVI, p. 654: "Ip se
turbam pauperum Innumerabllem ad vlndlcandam
in iu ria m c ru c T fix i I n o r i e n t a l : e c c ie s ia
f
ra e d lc a tlo n e sua a c c e n d lt, e t e l s signum c ru c is
m posult; d l v i t e s vero Indlgnos esse t a l i b e n e flc lo
fu d l'c a b l t . 1 1 --------------------------------------------- ------------------------
o
-1 0 7 -
to su p p o rt Cohn's c o r o lla ry n o tio n th a t th e crowds
s tim u la te d by Fulk p e rish e d o ff th e c o a st of Spain.
Some docum entation does, in f a c t , e x i s t to support
Cohn's v ie w ,^ 2 b u t th e evidence to th e c o n tra ry Is
overwhelming. F i r s t of a l l , I t i s h ig h ly u n lik e ly
th a t Innocent I I I would l i m i t F u lk 's a c t i v i t i e s by
ch an n elin g h is preaching e x c lu s iv e ly to th e lower
c l a s s e s . Secondly, a main fu n c tio n of Fulk was to
accum ulate money in o rd e r to h e lp a l l e v i a t e th e
expenses in c u rre d f o r tr a n s p o r ta tio n and s u p p lie s .
A. G ottlob has p o in te d to th e f a c t t h a t F u lk 's work
would have been p o in tle s s i f he ad d ressed h im se lf only
32. There i s a vague re fe re n c e , however, which Cohn
may have been aware of in Robert of A uxerre,
M.G.H., S .S ., XXVI, p. 261: "De F la n d r lis
slquidem 6 0 ~ rates medle q u a n tljb a tis, quas 1111
nacas v o ca n t, n e c e s s a r ils omnibus prem unlte
mare ln g re s s e s u n t, e t to to e s tlv o tempore
aurarum , In tem p erle p e r freturn quod H lspanlas
A ffrlcam que d ls te rm ln a t circ u m ac tae , posT
longos tamen c l r c u i t u s , e x c e p tls p a u c ls ,
M a s s liie n s i p o rtu l~ a p p u le r u n t, p ro g re al
u i t e r i u s non v a le n te sT 1 '
- 108-
to th e poor. "Welchen Wert ha1te n d le s e H underttausende
g eh ab te, wenn s le k eln Geld g eb rach t h a tte n , wenn es
s * OO
l a u t e r arme Leute gewesen w aren.'1 ,3 ,3 The co n clu siv e
proof r e s t s w ith th e prim ary sou rces where P ulk Is
d esc rib e d Innum erable tim es as having been re s p o n s ib le
f o r v a rio u s n o b les assuming th e c r o s s . 3^ Johannes
I p e r i i In th e Chronico S y th le n s l Sancta B e r tIn i
s p e c i f i c a l l y p o in ts out th a t 1 1 . . .n o b ile s quam p o te n te s
e t p l e b l l c r u c e -s lg n a n tu r e t ad Terram Sanctam
p r o fI s c u n tu r .35 F u rth e r evidence to d e stro y th e
th e s is of Cohn Is r e a d ily a v a ila b le in the source
m a te r ia ls which he e v id e n tly overlooked.
The f i n a l q u e s tio n r e l a t i n g to F u lk 's preaching
of th e fo u rth crusade has caused some embarrassment
33. A. G o ttlo b , K reuzablass und Almosenablass ( S t u t t g a r t ,
1906), p. 18< T S "Sle " b r a c h te n a b e r Gelar~denn die
Gegenden, wo Fulco p re d lg te waren d ie m arketgegenden
Buropas, d ie dhampagne, F landern u .s .w .'1
3^. See fo o tn o te 16.
35. Johannes I p e r i i , op. c l t ., X91II, p. 601, who a ls o
enum erates the n obles who rece iv ed the c ro ss from
F u lk .
-1 0 9 -
among h i s t o r i a n s o f t h i s I n tre p id f ig u r e . There was
a d e e p -seated c o n v ic tio n on the p a r t of some of
F u lk 's contem poraries th a t a l l of the money c o lle c te d
by him f o r th e Holy War d id not reach th e p ro p er
a u t h o r i t i e s T h e Anonymous Laudenensls echoes t h i s
fre q u e n t in f e r e n c e : "Tandem sub obtenu T errae
S anctae p r a e d lc a tlo n l quaestuose l n s l s t e n s , pecunlam
co n g reg av lt ln f ln ita m , non s lc u t c re d e b a tu r T errae
S anctae p ro fu tu ram ."37 Perhaps more credence was
le n t to t h i s s e rio u s charge of p e c u la tio n because
one of F u lk 's c h ie f d i s c i p l e s , P e te r R o ssi, was
g u ilty of t h i s o f f e n s e .3® U n fo rtu n a te ly , we a re
36. See Jacques of V itry , I I , p. 288, and Robert of
A uxerre, M.G.H., S .S ., XXVI, p. 261.
37. Anonymous L audunensis, R e c u e ll, XVIII, p. 711.
38. According to Jacques of V itry , oj>. c l t . , p. 288,
P e te r a s s i s t e d Fulk in h is reform a n d c ru s a d e
p r o je c ts , b u t was g u ilt y of d ish o n e sty In th e
a d m in is tra tio n of th e revenue a t h is d is p o s a l.
The charges launched a g a in s t Fulk could p o ssib ly
have stemmed from th e In d ictm en t of P e te r Rossi
f o r p e c u la tio n .
-1 1 0 -
unable to e i t h e r i n d i c t o r ex c u lp ate Fulk on
th e b a s is of th e evidence a v a ila b le . The D e v a sta tlo
C o n sta n tln o p o llta n a r e l a t e s th a t Odo of C ham plitte
and th e C a s te lla n of Coucy a p p ro p ria te d the funds
which Fulk c o lle c te d through the a u th o r ity of
39
P h ilip I I . One p o rtio n , i t c o n tin u e s, was donated
to C iteaux; a n o th e r was used to r e p a i r th e w a lls of
Tyre; w hile th e rem ainder was d i s t r i b u t e d among the
poor k n ig h ts o r used to d e fra y a p a r t of the
s u b s t a n tia l debt owed to th e V en e tian s. I f we a re
to b e lie v e th e account provided in th e D e v a s ta tlo ,
i t appears lik e ly th a t th e bulk of money c o lle c te d
was u ltim a te ly used f o r th e crusade o r r e la te d
p r o je c ts .
Robert of C la ri reco rd s the sadness and dismay
which spread throughout th e c r u s a d e r1s camp in
40
Venice when th e news of F u lk 's d ea th a r r iv e d .
39. D e v a sta tlo C o n s ta n tln o p o llta n a , M.Q.H., S .S .,
XVI, p. lo.
40. Robert of C la r i, E. H. McNeal, e d ., The Conquest of
C o n stan tin o p le (New York, 1936), p. y T .
-1 1 1 -
V ille h a rd o u in s u c c ln tly n o te s t h a t ” . . . 11 s a in s horn
. . .f in a e t m o r l.”^ 1
41. V ille h a rd o u ln , 0£ . c l t . , I , p. 74.
-1 1 2 -
CONCLUSION
I f Fulk of N e u illy had n o t experienced th e
sudden co n v ersio n which made of him a novus homo he
would have liv e d th e r e s t of h is l i f e In th e o b sc u rity
of a r u r a l p a r is h . The conversion d id occur, however,
and th e enthusiasm g en e ra ted from I t Im pelled the
b a r e ly l i t e r a t e cure to prepare h im se lf f o r an
arduous l i f e devoted to reform p reach in g .
Fulk was f o r tu n a te In s e v e ra l r e s p e c ts . F i r s t
of a l l , the o p p o rtu n ity to r e t a i n h is p a ris h and
c o n c u rre n tly a c q u ire an ed u c atio n probably would not
have been a v a ila b le In a p r i o r e r a . Fulk was a ls o
f o rtu n a te in h is a s s o c ia tio n w ith P e te r C antor.
Because of t h i s a s s o c ia tio n he was a b le to draw from
the id e as of one of th e most p r o l i f i c and I n f l u e n t i a l
refo rm ers of th e tw e lf th c e n tu ry . The r e l a t i o n between
Fulk and P e te r, the e x ta n t w ritin g s of the P a ris
th e o lo g ia n , and the m a te r ia ls r e la te d to th e p re a c h e r
In d ic a te the enormous debt owed by F ulk to h is
p ro fe s s o r. H is reform ing them es, were in f a c t ,
c l e a r l y drawn from th e su g g e stio n s o ffe re d by P e te r
-113-
C antor.
Fulk could s c a rc e ly have chosen a more s u ita b le
m entor. The p le a s f o r reform a r t i c u l a t e d by P e te r
C antor were p r e c is e ly th o se which were being voiced
throughout Europe In th e l a t t e r p a rt of th e tw e lfth
c e n tu ry . When Fulk ad d ressed h is m assive a u d ien ce s,
an a tta c k on In c o n tin e n t p r i e s t s , p r o s t i t u t e s , u s u r e r s ,
o r Jews would alm ost c e r t a in ly e l i c i t an e n th u s ia s tic
resp o n se. To h is s u b je c t Fulk added h is f i e r y
o ra to ry and p r o l i f i c S c r ip tu r a l I l l u s t r a t i o n s .
F urtherm ore, F u lk 's r e p u ta tio n a s a thaum aturge ensured
huge crowds and, f o r th e most p a r t , a f r ie n d ly r e c e p tio n .
Fulk was f o r tu n a te , to o , I n m aturing as a p o p u lar
p re a c h e r d u rin g the r e ig n of Innocent I I I . When
In n o cen t became aware of F u lk 's attem p ts to e x tir p a te
u su ry , c l e r i c a l concubinage, and p r o s t i t u t i o n , th e pope
p e rso n a lly encouraged th e p re a c h e r 's a c t i v i t i e s . I t was
undoubtedly a s a r e s u l t of t h i s a s s o c ia tio n th a t Fulk was
u ltim a te ly s e le c te d to preach th e cru sa d e.
There -Is much in common, and ag ain th e re a re many
b a s ic d if fe re n c e s between Fulk and the crusade p reac h ers
who preceded him. F ulk I s c e r t a in ly more c lo s e ly ak in
to P e te r th e Hermit th an S t. B ernard of C lairv au x . F u lk ,
l i k e P e te r, gained h is re p u ta tio n from h is ap p eal to the
p oor. As a p re a c h e r of th e fo u rth cru sa d e, however, he
would have encountered s e rio u s d i f f i c u l t i e s in any
a tte m p t to d i r e c t a p easan t army toward the Holy Land.
F ulk was dependent upon th e pope f o r h is commission to
p reach , and i t was h is agreem ent w ith th e p o lic ie s of
Innocent I I I r a t h e r th an th e p o p u lar su p p o rt he enjoyed
t h a t le d to h i s s e le c tio n as a crusade p re a c h e r.
F urtherm ore, i n c o n tr a s t to S t. B ernard of C la irv a u x ,
F u lk i s seen a s s t r i c t l y co n fin ed to crusade preaching
and th e c o lle c tio n of money f o r th e p r o je c t. The o f fic e
o f crusade p re a c h e r d u rin g th e re ig n of Innocent I I I
was n e i th e r an amorphous b y -p ro d u ct of the crusade as
w ith Urban I I , nor an i n v i t a t i o n to d i r e c t th e p r o je c t
as w ith Eugenius I I I . This is n o t to su g g est th a t th e re
was a stead y development which culm inated in a w ell
d e fin e d p o s itio n f o r th e crusade p re a c h e r. The r o le of
th e crusade p re a c h e r r e f le c te d th e o rg a n iz a tio n and
d is c ip li n e o ffe re d by the papacy, and t h i s was developed
to a h ig h p o in t of e f f ic ie n c y under Innocent I I I .
F u lk ’s p e r s o n a lity rem ains somewhat e n ig m atic. He
-1 1 5 -
could be I r a s c ib l e and dom ineering a t tim e s, b u t the
condemnations he spewed f o r th were r a r e ly a r b i t r a r y .
Almost In v a ria b ly th e o b je c ts of h is a tta c k were people
who were com m itting th e o ffe n se s th a t Fulk was determ ined
to e r a d i c a t e . He threw h im self w h oleheartedly In to h is
reform campaign, and l a t e r preached th e crusade w ith
eq u al z e a l. Although h is success was ephem eral, I t was
enough to e a rn f o r him th e d i s t i n c t i o n of being th e most
famous p re a c h e r of h is tim e.
o
- 116-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Lecoy de la Marche, La c h a lre fra n c a la e au moyen
$ge ( P a r is , 1886).
A lb erich u s Trium Fontium , Chronicon In Monuments
Germaniae H is to r ic a : S c r ip to r e s , P e rtz , (e d . ) ,
m u . " ------------------------ — ------------
Alphandgry, P aul, La Chrd'tlentS e t l 1 Idee de la
c ro lsa d e 2 v o l s . , ( P a ris , i y ^ ) , I .
Annales Elnonenses M alores, in Monumenta Germaniae
H is to r ic a l S c r ip to r e s , P e rtz ‘ , ( e d .) , V.
Annales Sanctae Columbae S en u n sls, in Monumenta
Germaniae H i s t o r i c a ; S c r ip to r e s , P e rtz , ( e d .) , XV.
Anonymous L audunensls, in R ecuell des h is t o r ia n s des
Games e t de ia~~France, Bouquet, (ed . ) , x \ f i n .
A u tis s io d e re n s ls , R obertus, Chronicon in Monumenta
Germaniae H is to r ic a : S c r ip to r e s , P e rtz , ( e d .) ,
Baron, S alo W., A S o c ia l and R e lig io u s H isto ry of the
Jews (New YorTc,“ I 9 5 7 m V :----- --------------- -------------
B rahm hall, E d ith C ., "The O rigin of the Temporal Power
of th e C rusades," American Jo u rn a l of Theology
1901, V.
B re h ie r, L ouis, Les c ro lsa d e s ( P a ris , 1928).
Caplan, H arry, Mediaeval A rts P raed ican d i (New York,
3.934). ---------------------------------------------
Chronicon Leodensi, in Monumenta Germaniae H is to r ic a :
S c r ip to r e s , P e rtz , ( e d .) , XVI.
Chronicon S. Medardi S u e s s lo n e n s is , in R ecuell des
h l s t o r i e n s ^es Gaules e t de la F rance, Bouquet,
-1 1 7 -
( e d .) , XVIII.
Cohn, Norman, The P u rs u it of th e M illenium (New York,
l 9 6 l ^
D eanesly, M., A H isto ry of the Medieval Church 590-1500
(London, l^ S I T ------------------ ------------------- -------------
D e n ifle , H e in ric h , Die En tste h u n g d e r U n iv e r s is ta te n
des M l t t e l a l t e r s b i s lHoC (B e rlin , 1 0 0 5 ).
D e v a sta tlo C o n s ta n tln o p o llta n a , i n Monumenta Germaniae
H is to ric a l S c r ip to r e s , H ertz, ( e d .) , x v l.
D uncalf, F re d e ric k C ., "The P easants C rusade," in
American H is to r ic a l Review 1921, XXVI.
, "The F i r s t Crusade: Clermont to
C o n s ta n tin o p le ," in Kenneth M. S e tto n , e t . a l . ,
(P h ila d e lp h ia , 1955), I . ------------------------------------
Erdmann, C a rl, Die Entstehung des Krpuzzugsgedankens
( S tu t tg a r t, iy 3 5 ).
F lic k , A lexander C laren ce , The R ise of th e Medieval
Church (New York and London, 1909)•
Foucher de C h a rtre s, C hronicle of the F i r s t Crusade
(P h ila d e lp h ia , 19^1).
Funk, P h ilip , Jakob von V itry (L eipzig and B e rlin , 1909).
G esta Eplscoporum H alberstadensium , in Monumenta
Germaniae H is to r ic a : S c r ip to r e s , P e r tz , (ed.),
T O C T T T .------------------ ----- --------
G rayzel, Solomon, The Church and th e Jews In th e X H Ith
Century (P h ila d e lp h ia , iy3«?).
G u tja h r, F . S ., P e tru s C antor P a r ls ie n s is : s e ln L leben
und s e ln S c h rlfte n (Graz, 1099).
G utsch, M ilton R ., "A Tw elfth Century P reach er - F ulk of
-1 1 8 -
N e u llly ," i n Louis J . Paetow, ( e d .) , The Crusades
and o th e r H is to r ic a l Essays (New York, 1928).
Hagenmeyer, H ., P ete r d e r Erem ite (L eip zig , 1 8 7 9).
H a g sp ie l, Gereon H., Die F u h re rp e rs o n llc h k e lt lm
Kreuzzug (Zurich,
Hughes, P h ilip , The Church in C r is i s : A H isto ry of the
G eneral C ouncils 35-ib70 (flew York, l 9 b l ) .
Iacobus de V ltr ia c o , H ls to r la (Duaci, 1597).
I p e r i i , Johannes, in R ecuell des h is t o r ie n s des Gaules
e t de la P rance, Bouquet, ( e d .) , Ix v lii.
J a f f e , P h ilip p u s , Regesta P ontificum Romanorum (Graz,
1956). -------------------------------------------
L'Abbe le B euf, H is to lre de la v l l l e e t de to u t le
dlocdse de P aris (P a ris , lbdjj), V. 2 .
L'Abbe B ourgain, La c h a ire fr a n c a is e au XIIe s ie c le
( P a ris , 1879), I , " I T . --------------------------------------
L'Abbe A. Charasson, Un cure p le b e ie n au douzieme s ie c le
( P a ris , 1905).
Lea, Henry C h a rles, A H isto ry of th e I n q u is iti o n of th e
Middle Ages 3 v o l s . , (New York, I 9 5 0 ), 1.
Le F ebvre, Yves, P ie rre l'E rm ite e t la C roisade (Amiens,
19^6). ----------------------------------------------------
L u ch aire, A c h ille , Innocent I I I (P a ris , 1908), V.
, S o cia l France a t the tim e of P h ilip
Augustus (London and New York. i 9 m ) ,
Matthew P a r is , Chronica Majora (R olls S e rie s no. 5 7 ).
McNeil, Edgar H ., "Fulk of N e u illy and the Tournament
of E ery ," i n Speculum 1953, XX7II.
-1 1 9 -
__________________ , "The F o u rth C rusade," in Kenneth M.
s e tto n , e t . a l ., (P h ila d e lp h ia , 1962), I I .
N elson, Benjamin N ., The Idea of Usury; From T rib a l
B rotherhood to U n iv e rsa l otherhooa (P rin c e to n , 19^9).
Nigg, W alter, The H e re tic s (New York, 1962).
Odo of D eu il, De p ro fe c tlo n e Ludovlcl V II in Orlentem
( tr a n s . V. 6 . B erry , New 'tf'ork, l9 5 » ).
O tto de S. B la s io , i n Monumenta Germaniae H i s t o r i c a :
S c r ip to r e s , P e rtz , ( e d .) , xX.
Owst, G. R ., Preaching in Medieval England (Cambridge,
3.926). -------------- ---------------------- -------
Paul La C roix, H isto ry of P r o s t itu ti o n (New York, 1931),
I .
P o tth a s t. A ., B lb lio th e c a h is t o r i c a m edll a e v l (B e rlin ,
Raduluphus de C oggeshall, Chronicon Angllcanum (R olls
S e rie s no. 6 6 ).
R a sh d all, H a stin g s, The U n iv e r s itie s of Europe in the
Middle Ages (Oxford, 193b).
R e illy , P e te r, Residence of P a sto rs: An H is to r ic a l
Synopsis and Commentary (Washington, D. 0 . , iy.35).
R ein eru s, in Monumenta Germaniae H is to r ic a : S c r ip to r e s ,
P e rtz , (ecT.'T,' TUT.----------------------------------- -----------------
R igordus, Gesta P h ilip p i I I A ugustl Regis Francorum in
R ecuell des h is t o r i e n s des Gaules e t de la F ra n c e .
ffouqueT, (ea7 )T X V II.-------------------------------------------------
Robert of A uxerre, in Monumenta Germaniae H i s t o r i c a :
S c r ip to r e s , P e rtz , (ed.), x £ v i .
-1 2 0 -
Robe r t of C l a r i, The Conquest of C o n stan tin o p le ( tr a n s .
M cNeill, New York, 193b).
Roger de Hovenden, Chronicon (R olls S e rie s no. 5 1 ).
R ousset, P aul, H ls to lre des c ro lsa d e s (P a ris , 1957).
Runclraan, S teven, A H isto ry of th e Crusades (Cambridge,
195^)i III.
Sanger, W illiam W., The H isto ry of P r o s t itu ti o n (New
York, 1897).
Sm ith, Edward, Innocent I I I : Church D efender (Baton
Rouge, 195 1 7 :
S t. Bernard of C lairv au x , L e tte r s ( tr a n s . B. S. James,
London, 1953).
S tephen^d’I r s a y , H ls to lr e des u n lv e r s l te s fra n c h is e s
e t etrang& res des o rig in e s a nos jo u rs ( p a n s ,
1933); 1:----------- —
V ille h a rd o u in , La conqu£te de C o n stan tin o p le (P a ris ,
1938), I .
Waas, A dolf, G eschlchte d e r Kreuzzuge (F reib u rg , 1956).
W illiam s, W alter, S a in t Bernard of C lairv au x (M anchester,
1935).
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
Conceptually similar
PDF
Attitudes Of Academic Librarians In The Pacific Coast States Toward Library Technicians
PDF
A History Of The Canadian Radio League: 1930-1936
PDF
Alfred Of Sareshel'S Commentary On The 'Metheora' Of Aristotle. (Latin Text)
PDF
Existentialism In The Theater Of Alfonso Sastre
PDF
Chronological Age And Grammatical Development As Determinants Of The Proportions Of Disfluencies On Lexical And Function Words In Preschool Children
PDF
The Twelfth-Century School Of St. Victor
PDF
The Patriot In Exile: A Study Of Heinrich Mann'S Political Journalistic Activity 1933-1950
PDF
Servius' Knowledge Of Juvenal: An Analysis Of The Juvenalian Quotations In Servius' Commentary On Vergil
PDF
Cynewulf: The Ascension Of Christ
PDF
Boniface Of Savoy, Archbishop Of Canterbury, 1245-1270: His Role In English Politics
PDF
Agrippa D'Aubigne'S Les 'Tragiques': The Conquest Of Profaned Time
PDF
Albert Camus And The Kingdom Of Nature
PDF
Main Trends In The Contemporary Colombian Novel, 1953-1967
PDF
Narrative And Lyric Originality In The Old French Versions Of "La Vie De Saint Eustache"
PDF
Rhetoric And Fancy As A Basis For Narrative In The Novels Of Jean Giraudoux
PDF
Carlos Solorzano En El Teatro Mexicano (Spanish Text)
PDF
Minnedienst Und Ehe In Wolfram Von Eschenbachs Parzival; Aufgezeigt An Folgenden Paaren: Gahmuret - Herzeloyde (Belakane); Orilus - Jeschute; Parzival - Kondwiramurs (Kunneware, Liasse); Gawan -...
PDF
The Origins And Development Of The Catalan Consulados Ultramarinos From The Thirteenth To The Fifteenth Centuries
PDF
The Preparation Of Teachers Of French And Spanish In Southern California Secondary Schools
PDF
Frank Wedekind And The Search For Morality
Asset Metadata
Creator
O'Brien, John Michael
(author)
Core Title
Fulk Of Neuilly
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
History
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
History, Medieval,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Advisor
Queller, Donald E. (
committee chair
), Africa, Thomas W. (
committee member
), Berkey, Max Leslie, Jr. (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-369171
Unique identifier
UC11359200
Identifier
6506913.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-369171 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
6506913.pdf
Dmrecord
369171
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
O'Brien, John Michael
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
History, Medieval