Ahad Ha-Am, The Bible, And The Bible Tradition

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Content This dissertation has been 65-9975 microfilmed exactly as received GOTTSCHALK, Alfred, 1930- AHAD HA-AM, THE BIBLE, AND THE BIBLE TRADITION. University of Southern California, Ph. D., 1965 Religion University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan COPYRIGHTED BY ALFRED GOTTSCHALK 1965 AH A D HA-AM, THE BIBLE, AND THE BIBLE TRADITION by A lfre d G o ttsc h a lk A D is s e r ta tio n P re se n te d to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e Requirem ents f o r th e Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (R e lig io n ) June 1965 UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SC H O O L UNIVERSITY PARK LO S ANGELES. CA LIFO RN IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by GOTTSCHALK under the direction of h..A§.Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y .......................... Dean Date........ DISSERTATION COMMITTEE .......... Chairman ......... TABLE OF CONTENTS C hapter Page I . STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM................................ 1 The Sources and Method o f R esearch . . . . 19 The Proposed Method o f R e s e a r c h ......... 22 I I . AHAD HA-AM: THE MAN, HIS TIME AND PLAN . . . 29 I I I . THE BIBLE AND JEWISH TRADITION: FOUNDATION STONES FOR SPIRITUAL ZIONISM . 5 8 IV. JEWISH INFLUENCES O N AHAD HA-AM'S VIEW OF THE B I B L E ....................................................................... 9 » * V. CENTRALITY OF ISRAEL IN HALEVI AND ITS INFLUENCE O N AHAD H A -A M ............................................1H6 VI. GUIDES TO THE PERPLEXED OF THEIR TIME: MAIMONIDES A ND AH A D H A -A M .......................................15U V II. THE LIGHT OF REASON AND THE LIGHT OF THE SPIRIT: SPINOZA AND AHA D HA-AM................................177 • • • 111 C hapter Page V III. "SLAVERY IN THE MIDST OF FREEDOM?" AHAD HA-AM'S VIEW OF JUDISCHE WISSENSCHAFT, A SU M M A RY AND A CRITIQUE............................................204 IX. THE SPIRIT OF JEWISH HISTORY...................................... 269 G raetz . . . . . ......................................................... 269 K ro c h m a l......................................................................... 287 X. AHAD HA-AM AS BIBLICAL C R I T I C ................................. 326 Ahad Ha-Am's M idrash on M o s e s ................................ 344 XI. CONCLUSION— THE LIFE OF THE "SPIRIT" . . . . 355 Ahad Ha-Amfs Conception o f Jew ish H i s t o r y ..................................................................... 357 A PPEN D IX ......................................................................... 376 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................ 378 CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The p h ilosophy which goes by th e name o f Ahad Ha-Amism o r " S p i r i t u a l Zionism " has had a t e l l i n g im pact on th e modem Jew ish w o rld . A sher Zvi G inzberg (G in sb u rg ), (1856-1927), w rote under th e pseudonym o f Ahad Ha-Am ("one o f th e p e o p l e " ) .1 The sh a p e r o f t h i s id e o lo g ic a l movement was a tow ering f ig u r e in Jew ish H e b ra is t and n a t i o n a l i s t c i r c l e s b o th in E a ste rn and W estern E urope. While G inzberg was a c q u a in te d w ith s e v e r a l o th e r la n g u a g e s, in which he w rote from tim e to tim e , h is m ajor c o n trib u tio n s were a l l composed in Hebrew. His many e s s a y s , memoirs ^ o l K itbe Ahad Ha-Am (A sher G inzberg) (T el Aviv: D vir C o., L td ., 19!>6), p . 4. ^Committed as he was to Hebrew as th e n a tio n a l language o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , Y iddish was spoken in h is home, p a r t i c u l a r l y by Mrs. G inzberg. Max R a is in , G reat Jews I Have Known (New York: P h ilo s o p h ic a l L ib ra ry , 1952), p . 9. From tim e t o tim e he c o n trib u te d l e t t e r s t o th e e d i t o r in th e R usso-Jew ish m agazine, Voschod, w r itin g them in R u ssian . He once " e x p la in e d to a f r ie n d t h a t he d id so because he would have re g a rd e d w r itin g fu ll-b lo w n a r t i c l e s in R ussian an u n f a ith f u ln e s s to Hebrew." Leon Simon, Ahad Ha-Am. A Biography ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f Am erica, 1960), pp. 70 f . 1 and l e t t e r s have been c o l le c te d and are e x ta n t in e d itio n s e d ite d by G inzberg d u rin g h is l i f e t i m e . While he made changes in h is e d i te d l e t t e r s and e s s a y s , th e y ta k e on, f o r th e most p a r t , th e c h a r a c te r o f d e le tio n s o f p re v io u s h a r s h ly h e ld o p in io n s about c e r t a i n in d iv id u a ls o r , as in some in s ta n c e s where he deemed th e id e a e x p re sse d v i t a l , th e d e le tio n o f th e f u l l name o f th e c o r r e s p o n d e n t.3 When G inzberg became fam ous, ( in h is own eyes he was always an o rd in a ry p e r s o n ) , he so fte n e d some of h is o p in io n s about p e o p le . He e f f e c t e d no m ajor changes, Tfowever, e i t h e r in h is id e a s o r in t h e i r e x p r e s s io n , so f a r as I have been a b le to d is c o v e r. The p e r s o n a lity and id eo lo g y o f Ahad Ha-Am has f a s c in a te d me from my f i r s t c o n fr o n ta tio n w ith h i s e s s a y s . The c l a r i t y , b o ld n e ss and p r e c is io n o f h is e x p re s sio n drew me as a magnet to f u r t h e r stu d y h is l i t e r a r y and p h ilo s o p h ic c o n tr ib u tio n s to modern Hebrew l e t t e r s and th o u g h t. G inzberg en jo y s a r e p u ta tio n in Jew ish l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s s im i l a r t o t h a t o f Emerson in t h i s c o u n try . U nlike Emerson, how ever, G in zb erg 1s e ssay s are more 3For exam ple, th e l e t t e r a d d re sse d to a Mr. A. S ., d a te d O dessa, June 21, 189 7, in which he r e j e c t s an a r t i c l e su b m itte d f o r p u b lic a tio n on th e grounds t h a t th e a r t i c l e c o n tr ib u te s n o th in g new to th e s u b je c t and t h a t b e s id e s i t s f a c t s were g a th e re d from secondary r a t h e r th an prim ary s o u rc e s . I g g e ro t Ahad Ha-Am, ed. Aryeh Simon ( re v . and e n la rg e d e d ., T el Aviv: D vir C o., L td ., 1956), I , 227. co n v o lu ted and a re deeply ste e p e d in th e c l a s s i c a l r e lig i o u s and p h ilo s o p h ic a l l i t e r a t u r e o f h is h e r i t a g e , Judaism . What i s so com pelling about G in zb e rg 1s l i f e and work i s n o t only th e b r i l l i a n t l y evolved Judaism c a lle d " S p i r i t u a l " o r " C u ltu r a l Zionism " b u t th e p e r s o n a lity o f th e m an.1 * G inzberg was r u t h l e s s l y lo g i c a l in th o u g h t, c o n tin u a lly th e g a d fly and m o ra liz e r who re fu s e d to p u t up w ith sham o r c a n t, and who, to h is own h u r t , h e ld f a s t to p o s itio n s he b e lie v e d to be c o r r e c t . 5 G in z b e rg 's p h ilo so p h y has had a p e rv a s iv e in flu e n c e on modem Judaism . The R e c o n s tru c tio n is t p o s itio n in Jew ish r e lig i o u s th o u g h t, b a r r in g i t s Americanism, i s Ahad Ha-Amism. The fo u n d er o f th e R e c o n s tr u c tio n is t move m ent, Rabbi M ordecai Kaplan (1881— ) , n o te s t h a t i t was Matthew A rnold who " s u p p lie d me w ith a co n cep tio n o f God and o f th e B ib le which reawakened my f a i t h in th e l a t e n t ^Ahad Ha-Am was s c ru p u lo u s ly h o n e st in a l l h is t r a n s a c t i o n s . During a p a r t i c u l a r p e rio d in h is l i f e , when he was in f in a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s , he was dismayed more about h is i n a b i l i t y t o pay h is d eb ts th a n about h i s own in so lv e n c y . Rawnitsky r e c a l l s se e in g Ahad Ha-Am a f t e r he had met h is f i n a n c i a l o b lig a tio n s . Ahad Ha-Am g re e te d him w ith g r e a t e l a t i o n . Rawnitsky o b se rv e d , "And now he was as c le a n o f d eb ts as he was o f h i s p o s s e s s io n s ." Y. H. R aw nitsky, Dor W e-sofrav (T e l Aviv: D vir C o., L td ., 19 37), I I , 16. ^Note Joseph K la u s n e r's moving eulogy in H a sh ilo a h , XLVI ( F a ll, 1927), 505-507. See a ls o A. R. Malachi"; "Milhemet H a-yishuv H a-yashan Be-Ahad Ha-Am," H adoar, XXXVI (August 31, 1956), 718-720. p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e Jew ish p e o p le ." 6 For sig n s o f Jew ish awakening I had to tu r n to th e Z io n is t movement, . . . t o Ahad Ha-Am w ith h i s v e rsio n o f S p i r i t u a l Zionism . Through th e im pact o f both Zionism and Ahad Ha-Am's w r i tin g s , I became f u l l y aware o f th e e s s e n t i a l c h a ra c te r o f th e Jew ish u n i v e rse o f d is c o u rs e , o f w hich, d e s p ite my having moved and having had my b ein g in i t , I was e i t h e r unaware o r had th e wrong id e a . That im pact e f f e c t e d in me n o th in g le s s th a n a C opernican r e v o lu tio n . I d isc o v e re d t h a t th ro u g h o u t Ju d a ism 's u n iv e rse o f d is c o u rs e , th e people o f I s r a e l was th e c e n tr a l r e a l i t y , and t h a t th e meaning o f God and o f Torah can be p ro p e rly u n d ersto o d only in r e l a t i o n to t h a t c e n t r a l r e a l i t y . ? K ap la n 's co n cep tio n o f Judaism u n d e rsc o re s th e c i v i l i - z a tio n a l a s p e c t o f th e Jew ish r e l i g i o n which i s dynamic. " I t d is c a rd s o ld fu n c tio n s and c r e a te s new o n e s ." 8 K aplan, as Ahad Ha-Am, b e lie v e d t h a t th e Jew ish r e lig i o n Q i s a means f o r Jew ish n a tio n a l s u r v iv a l . He goes beyond Ahad Ha-Am, how ever, in c o n sc io u sly u rg in g a r e lig i o u s o r i e n t a t i o n to l i f e , a ffirm in g th e h o lin e s s o f l i f e and i t s supreme w o rth . g M ordecai K aplan, "The Way I Have Come," M ordecai K aplan: An E v a lu a tio n , e d s . I r a E is e n s te in and Eugene Kohn (New York: Jew ish R e c o n s tru c tio n is t F oundation, 1952), p , 298. 7I b i d . 8H arold C. W eisberg,"M ordecai H. K ap lan 's Theory o f R e lig io n ," I b i d . , p . 188. g M ordecai K aplan, The Meaning o f God in Modern Jew ish R e lig io n (New York: The Jew ish R e c o n s tru c tio n is t P r e s s , 1947), pp. 330-332. 10I b i d . , p . 353. The C onservative movement in i t s em phasis on th e f o s te r in g o f Hebrew c u ltu r e and e th n ic ism i s a ls o deeply in d e b te d to Ahad Ha-Am. Solomon S c h e c h te r <1847-1915), forem ost exponent o f C on serv ativ e Judaism in America and form er p r e s id e n t o f th e Jew ish T h e o lo g ic a l Sem inary, had much in common w ith Ahad Ha-Am. Both men were r e a re d in th e E a st European g h e tto and were o f h a s id ic background. They had a love f o r th e Hebrew language and Both c h e ris h e d th e c o n v ic tio n t h a t s through a s p i r i t u a l c e n tr e in th e la n d o f I s r a e l , which sh o u ld b rin g a r e v iv a l o f Jew ish co n scio u sn ess in o th e r c o u n tr ie s , th e Jew ish people w i l l f in d s a lv a tio n and become ag ain a liv i n g s p i r i t u a l f o r c e . 11 Norman Bentwich p o in ts o u t t h a t "Ahad Ha-Am, th e younger man, ta u g h t Zionism to th e o ld er-?-th ro ugh h is w ritin g s c o lle c te d in : ’At th e C ro s s r o a d s .1" 12 The correspondence between Ahad Ha-Am and Dr. S ch ec h ter r e f l e c t s m utual re s p e c t and Dr. S c h e c h te r, w h ile n o t always f u l l y ag reein g w ith th e s e c u l a r i s t ten d en cies o f Ahad Ha-Am’s th o u g h t, was 13 n e v e rth e le s s deeply a f f e c te d by i t . S c h e c h te r's views Norman Bentw ich, "Solomon S ch ec h ter and Ahad Ha'Am," Essays P re se n te d to Leo Baeck (London: E a s t and West L ib ra ry , 1954), p . 13. 12 I b i d . , p . 17. B entw ich, in r e c a l l i n g Dr. S c h e c h te r's v i s i t to London in 1910, re c o u n ts S c h e c h te r1s v i s i t w ith Ahad Ha-Am. He summarizes h is im p ressio n s o f them as "tw in so u ls 'e x c e p t in o p in io n n o t d i s a g r e e i n g .'" Norman deM. B entw ich, Ahad Ha-Am and His P hilosophy (Jeru salem : Keren Hayesod, 1927), p . 7. 13I g g e r o t, IV, 373-374. s e t th e to n e f o r a g e n e ra tio n o f American C onservative Jew s, and through him , th e Seminary and P ro fe s s o r K aplan, Ahad Ha-Am's philosophy found an abiding p la c e o f honor. The Reform movement, by and la r g e , w aited u n t i l i t adopted the Columbus P latfo rm o f 19 37 to in c o rp o ra te some of Ahad Ha-Am's more s i g n i f i c a n t id e a s . The Columbus P latfo rm s e t f o r th a s e t o f g uiding p r in c ip le s f o r Reform Judaism which r e c a s t an e a r l i e r s e t of p r in c ip le s a r riv e d a t in 1885. The re v is e d p r in c ip le s speak o f Judaism as being in harmony w ith th e "new d is c o v e rie s o f science."^** I t s t a t e s t h a t "Judaism i s th e so u l of which I s r a e l i s th e b o d y ."15’ P a le s tin e i s r e f e r r e d to as th e . . . land hallow ed by memories and h o p e s, . . . th e prom ise o f renewed l i f e f o r many o f our b re th r e n . W e a ffirm th e o b lig a tio n o f a l l Jewry to a id in i t s u p b u ild in g as a Jew ish homeland by endeavoring to make i t n o t only a haven o f refu g e f o r th e oppressed b u t a ls o a c e n te r o f Jew ish c u ltu re and s p i r i t u a l l i f e . 16 These p a r t i c u l a r segments o f th e guiding p r in c ip le s o f Reform Judaism re p re s e n t an a d a p ta tio n o f Ahad Ha-Am's program and th e o ry , th e f i r s t f r u i t s o f which are slow ly coming to f r u i t i o n . ■^C e n tra l Conference o f American Rabbis Yearbook, XLVII (P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o ciety of America, 19 37), 97. 15I b i d . , p. 9 8. 16I b id . Modern Orthodox Judaism adopted Ahad Ha-Am's e t h n i e i s t emphases w hile r e j e c t i n g h is p o s itiv is m and in sct£ in s ta n c e s h is n a t io n a l is m .1? Some Jew ish s e c u l a r i s t movements, such as th e Jew ish S o c i a l i s t s , took from h is no program what b e s t s u ite d them. The g r e a t e s t im pact o f Ahad Ha-Am's th o u g h t i s , o f c o u rs e , to be found in modem day I s r a e l . I s r a e l i th in k e r s and s ta te s m e n , now t h a t a Jew ish s t a t e has been in f a c t e s ta b li s h e d , a re i n t e r e s t i n g them selves in i t s purpose and m is sio n . Ben-Gurion speaks of I s r a e l as a redem ptive fo rc e f o r mankind: Anyone who does n o t r e a l i z e t h a t th e M essian ic v is io n o f redem ption i s c e n t r a l to th e uniqueness 17 The M izrachi O rg a n iz a tio n , f o r exam ple, founded in V iln a in 1902 by Rabbi I s a a c Jacob R eines (1839-1915), id e o lo g ic a lly had an a f f i n i t y f o r Ahad Ha-Am's " S p i r i t u a l Z ionism ." I t s very name a llu d e s to merkaz ru h an i ( " s p i r i t u a l c e n te r " ) . "The a u t h o r i t a t i v e spokesmen o f th e M iz ra c h i—I s a a c Jacob R e in es, Zeev Wolf J a v i t z and Nehemiah A. Nobel— em phasize th e prom inent r o le o f the s p i r i t u a l f a c t o r in our n a tio n a l h i s t o r y . Like Ahad Ha-Am, th ey see in th e Jew ish P a le s tin e o f th e f u tu r e th e f o c a l p o in t o f a s p i r i t u a l re g e n e ra tio n o f w orld Jew ry ." Joseph H e ll e r , The Z io n is t Id e a (New York: Schocken Books, 1949), p. 115. ^®"Ahad Ha-Amism a ls o fu rn is h e d th e p lan k s and p la tfo rm o f th e ’Hapoel H a t z a i r 1 ("The Young Workman") and, though in l a t e r y e a rs a tte m p ts were made to v e e r away from th e o r i g i n a l program , Ahad Ha-Amism rem ained a d e c is iv e f a c t o r w ith t h a t p a r ty as long as i t e x i s t e d ." Abraham G oldberg, P io n e e rs and B u ild e rs (New York: A. Goldberg P u b lish in g C o., 1943), p. 51. o f o u r people,, does n o t r e a l i z e th e b a s ic t r u t h o f Jew ish h i s t o r y "and t ~h' e' c o rn e rsto n e o f th e Jew ish f a i t h . ig Ben-Gurion f u r t h e r n o te s : "In th e M essian ic v is io n o f redem ption an o rg a n ic bond was woven between Jew ish n a t io n a l redem ption and g e n e ra l human re d e m p tio n .”20 The in te rc o n n e c tio n and in te rd e p en d e n ce o f modern s t a t e s makes th e redem ption o f I s r a e l as a s t a t e im p o ssib le w ith o u t "th e redem ption o f th e w orld as a w h o le ." 2^ The p ro p h ets and te a c h e rs o f a n c ie n t I s r a e l d id n o t prom ise redem ption f o r th e Hebrews a lo n e . They i n s i s t e d t h a t " t h e i r people be a chosen people" w ith a g r e a t m is sio n , say in g in th e name o f God: " I , th e Lord, have c a lle d th ee in r ig h te o u s n e s s , and le d th ee by th e hand, and made th ee a covenant f o r th e p e o p le s ." 22 As long as r e l i g i o n was th e p e rv a s iv e fo rc e o f Jew ish communal l i f e , "th e v is io n o f redem ption" and th e n o tio n o f "th e chosen p e o p le ," as w e ll as th e "attach m en t t o th e Land," were viewed in r e lig i o u s te rm s. Ben-Gurion n o te s , however: "The h is t o r y 19 David Ben-G urion, "V ision and Redem ption," Forum f o r th e Problems o f Zionism , Jewry and th e S ta te o f I s r a e l , P roceedings o f th e J e ru s a le m " Id e o lo g ic a l C onference, IV (Je ru sa le m : S p rin g , 1959), 113. 20I b id . 21I b id . 22I b i d . , pp. 113-11H; ( c f . , I s a . *+2:6). o f o u r days has shown t h a t n e i t h e r th e redem ption n o r th e attac h m en t to th e Land and th e Hebrew language are con- 23 d i t i o n a l on attachm ent to t r a d i t i o n and r e lig i o u s law ." In th e se se n tim e n ts Ben-Gurion v o ic es Ahad Ha-Am's view s. These id e a s form th e c o rn e rsto n e o f Ahad Ha-Am's n a t i o n a l i s t o r i e n t a t i o n . They a re th e b ric k s o f th e new e d i f ic e o f Judaism he hoped to c r e a te in E re tz Y i s r a e l . W hile Ahad Ha-Am in te g r a te d th e thought o f s e v e r a l p h ilo s o p h ic system s and th in k e r s in to h is own, th e b a s ic sou rces f o r h is p h ilo so p h y rem ained th e B ib le , th e m a trix o f Jew ish t r a d i t i o n , and i t s r e lig i o u s th o u g h t. Although he p u b lish e d no s c h o la r ly a r t i c l e s on b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m , i n th e way we now u n d erstan d modern c r i t i c i s m , much o f h is system i s p r e d ic a te d on h is summary a n a ly s is o f th e B ib le and a n c ie n t Judaism . He developed " C u ltu ra l Zionism" o u t o f h is u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e Tanak and attem p ted to r e a c t i v a te a p r i s t i n e H e b ra is t s o c ie ty . As e x e g e te , Ahad Ha-Am p e rio d iz e d b i b l i c a l h is t o r y and p h ilo so p h iz e d on m oral v alu es o f th e B ib le and th e n a tio n a l s p i r i t o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . He an aly zed th e r o le o f g r e a t men such as Moses as i n i t i a t o r s o f " p o s itiv e " sy stem s, and d e a lt w ith such q u e s tio n s as th e im pact o f p ro p h e tic Judaism on H ebraism , th e n a tu re and fu n c tio n o f th e "superm an," and th e r e l a t i v e r o le s o f p a r tic u la r is m and u n iv e rs a lis m in s o c ie ty . He 23I b i d . , p . 11H. 10 proposed a s o lu tio n b oth f o r th e p l i g h t o f Jews and o f Judaism and in th e p ro c e ss bro u g h t under s c r u tin y th e fo rc e s t h a t shaped Jew ish h is t o r y in th e p a s t and p r e s e n t. Most o f w hat we c a l l b i b l i c a l th e o lo g y was d e a lt w ith by Ahad Ha-Am, a lth o u g h he would disown th e t i t l e o f th e o lo g ia n . Ahad Ha-Am's c r i t i c i s m o f th e B ible and Jew ish t r a d i t i o n f a l l s in t o th e p a t te r n o f m idrash o r in th e s t y l e o f Ibn E z r a 's I n tro d u c tio n s to p a r ts o f th e Tanak. I t i s a ls o in d e b te d to re le v a n t p a r ts o f M aim onides' and S p in o z a 's th o u g h t which d e a l w ith th e B ib le . What we now c a l l c r i t i c i s m , th e Jew ish s c h o la rs c a lle d perush ( " e x p la n a tio n " ) o r hid u sh ( " n o v e lla e " ) . Ahad Ha-Am p a r t i c u l a r l y e x c e lle d in th e l a t t e r . He was a ls o ad e p t a t p u ttin g ta lm u d ic le a rn in g to ready u s e , and h is e ssa y s s p a rk le w ith q u o ta tio n s from r a b b in ic l i t e r a tu r e . His b i t i n g c r i t i q u e o f th e German sch o o l o f Jew ish s c h o la rs h ip known as Die W issen sch aft des Judentum s^^ is tw o fo ld . The p r a c t i c a l c o n s id e ra tio n was t h a t he b e lie v e d t h a t t h i s method o f s c h o la rs h ip would le a d t o a s s im ila ti o n . His t h e o r e t i c a l o b je c tio n was th a t i t had f a i l e d to a d e q u ate ly comprehend th e n a tio n a l elem ent as i t i s 2^ O rig in a tin g w ith Leopold Zunz (1794-1886), th e sch o o l sought to p u t Jew ish s c h o la rs h ip on a s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s . W e s h a l l t r e a t o f t h i s e x te n s iv e ly in a l a t e r c h a p te r. 11 r e f le c te d in th e B ible and in th e e a rly p erio d s o f Jewish h is t o r y . F u rth e r, th e W issenschaft sc h o o l, as w e ll as the exponents o f the Jew ish E nlightenm ent (H askalah) , w hether o f th e R ussian, G a lic ia n o r German stam p, had n e g le c te d to s t r e s s ad eq u ately th e genius of Hebrew c u l tu r a l forms in t h e i r attem p ts to modernize Judaism . No adequate p h ilo s ophy had been evolved s tr e s s in g th e la n d (E re tz Y is r a e l) , th e language (Hebrew), o r the people ( I s r a e l ) , which r e la te d th e s e elem ents to one an o th er o r g a n ic a lly . Con com itant w ith t h i s d e fe c t was th e f a i l u r e to reform Judaism in accordance w ith i t s h i s t o r i c s p i r i t and th e p o s i t i v i s t i c philosophy o f Ahad Ha-Am's age to which he su b sc rib e d . Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e d in "th e h eresy o f Darwin," by which he meant t h a t he was a n o n -b e lie v e r in both t r a d i t i o n a l Judaism and in the Judaism th a t th e Reform movement had evolved out o f i t s read in g o f th e p a s t. While he borrowed some o f th e key concepts of th e founders o f the Reform movement, such as "the M ission o f I s r a e l , " he reshaped th e s e n o tio n s to f i t th e program and philosophy o f " C u ltu ra l Zionism" o r , as i t was sometimes c a lle d , " S p i r i t u a l Z ionism ." A c a re fu l stu d e n t o f the l i t e r a t u r e o f h is day, p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e a re a o f b i b l i c a l and i Ju d a ic s tu d i e s , Ahad Ha-Am would e c l e c t i c a l l y jo in id e as from d is p a ra te s o u r c e s , grouping them about th e core 12 b e l i e f s o f h is own system . He wove to g e th e r a f a b r i c o f id e o lo g y i n which seem ingly c o n tra d ic to r y th re a d s were blended and h e ld to g e th e r by a n a t i o n a l i s t o r i e n ta tio n in which re v e re n c e f o r th e p a s t was made com patible w ith th e most r a d ic a l i n s i g h ts o f th e p r e s e n t. The s p i r i t o f Judaism , which Ahad Ha-Am h e ld to be n a tio n a l in c h a r a c te r , was s t i l l in a s t a t e o f e v o lu tio n . Modem th o u g h t was in h e re n t w ith in i t s a n c ie n t forms and need only be given a n a t u r a l environm ent f o r i t s e v o lu tio n . The s p i r i t o f th e people had a tro p h ie d in th e D iaspora and i t s la c k o f dynamism had c re a te d a s p i r i t u a l c r i s i s which must f i r s t be re s o lv e d b e fo re th e f u tu r e o f Judaism could be se cu red in th e modem w orld. U nlike th o se who co n sid e re d them selves " p r a c tic a l Z io n is ts " and sought a s o lu tio n f i r s t f o r th e u n fo rtu n a te p o s itio n o f th e Jew in th e modem w o rld , Ahad Ha-Am con c e n tr a te d on th e id e o lo g y o f renew al. U nlike H erzl and h is f o llo w e r s , Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e d c e r t a in p r e - c o n d itio n s were n e c e ss a ry f o r th e renew al o f Jew ish peoplehood in a p o l i t i c a l se n s e . As M artin Buber s t a t e d th e c a s e , 'Z io n 1 means what i s in te n d e d by t h i s lan d and what i t i s to become. Whoever lo v e s Z ion, lo v e s a p o t e n t i a l p e r f e c tio n and i s bound to h e lp make t h i s p o t e n t i a l i t y a r e a l i t y . . . For p o l i t i c a l Zionism th e s t a t e i s th e g o al and Zion a 'm yth' which m erely f i r e s th e m asses; f o r th e lo v e r o f Zion l ik e Ahad Ha-Am th e s t a t e i s m erely th e way to th e g o a l c a lle d Z io n .25 25M artin Buber, I s r a e l and P a l e s t i n e , The H isto ry of an Id e a (London: E a st and West L ib ra ry , 1952), p . 14**. 13 Ahad Ha-Am's te a c h in g s were a lre a d y deeply e tc h e d in th e f i r s t essay he w ro te , "Lo Zeh H a-derek" ("The Wrong Way"), p u b lis h e d in th e jo u r n a l H am elitz in 1889. The e ssa y im m ediately c re a te d a s t i r among th e Jew ish i n t e l l i g e n t s ia . The a r t i c l e , w r i tte n a t th e i n v i t a t i o n o f A lexander Zederbaum (1816-189 3 ), e d i t o r o f H a m e litz , 26 p o in te d o u t th e g la r in g f a i l u r e s o f th e H ibbat Zion move m ent2 2to r e a l i z e i t s espoused g o als in th e s e ttle m e n t o f P a le s tin e . In th e cou rse o f th e a r t i c l e , Ahad Ha-Am showed t h a t th e crux o f th e problem p la g u in g th e movement was th e rampant in d iv id u a lis m and s e lf - s e e k in g ways o f th e c o lo n is ts which b e tra y e d th e la c k o f f e e lin g o f a n a t io n a l and c o l l e c t i v e se n tim e n t. T his breakdown o f th e community, tr a c e d back to th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e F i r s t Temple, had f a r - r e a c h in g h i s t o r i c consequences le a d in g to th e r i s e o f in d iv id u a lis m which encroached upon th e n a tio n a l id e a l o f c o rp o ra te r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . U n til th e n a tio n i s re g e n e ra te d and th e n a tio n a l id e a l r e v i v i f i e d , a l l c o lo n iz a tio n a tte m p ts a re prem ature and doomed to 26 Leon Simon, Ahad Ha-Am, A B iography, p . 46. 2 7 H ibbat Zion ("The Love of Zion") was a movement which g ain ed momentum a f t e r th e a n ti-J e w is h pogroms in R u ssia. I t s purpose was to c o lo n iz e th e Holy Land in o rd e r t o r e a l i z e "th e c h e ris h e d hope o f making Jews once more owners o f la n d in P a l e s t i n e ." Nahum Sokolow, H isto ry o f Zionism , 160Q-1918 (London: Longmans, Green and C o., 1919), I , 216. t f . , I s r a e l Cohen, p ie Z io n is t Movement (New York: Z io n is t O rg a n iz a tio n o f Am erica, 1 ^ 4 6 ), pp. 65-69. 14 2 8 f u r t h e r f a i l u r e . In th e e s s a y , Ahad Ha-Am speaks o f th e need f o r a r e b i r t h o f th e s p i r i t and o f th e n a tio n a l c o n sc io u sn e ss. For th e h e a r t o f th e p e o p le , t h a t i s th e fo u n d a tio n upon which th e land s h a l l be r e g e n e ra te d , and th e people i s t o m and fra g m e n te d .29 T his c la r io n c a l l f o r a change o f h e a r t r a t h e r th a n a change o f s t r a t e g y won f o r th e shy and r e t i r i n g young a u th o r a fo llo w in g o f young i d e a l i s t s , some o f whom were l a t e r to become th e m ajor a r c h i t e c t s in th e founding o f th e new Jew ish S t a t e , and o f o th e rs who became th e forem ost i n t e l l e c t u a l le a d e rs o f tw e n tie th ce n tu ry Jew ry. The young G in zb erg , who had no in te n tio n o f becoming an e s s a y i s t , and who co n sid e re d h im s e lf even in h is m ature and accom plished y e a rs as "a g u e s t in th e tem ple o f l i t e r a t u r e , 1 1 30— a sometime v i s i t o r who e n te r s f o r s t a t e d o cc asio n s and le a v e s when he c o n sid e rs h is duty done—had in r e a l i t y a p erv ad in g and s u s ta in in g in f lu e n c e . He e n te re d th e l i s t o f w r i te r s not as one who a s p ire d to l i t e r a r y preem inence b u t as "one o f th e people" (Ahad Ha-Am), who would w rite when he f e l t th e need to d e l i v e r h im s e lf o f a b u rd en , to c l a r i f y an id e a in which he b e lie v e d and which he f e l t to be o f v i t a l im portance 28Kol K itb e , pp. 11-13. 29I b i d . , p . 14. 30I b i d . , p . 3. 15 f o r th e fu tu re o f I s r a e l . Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952), th e f i r s t p r e s id e n t o f th e S ta te o f I s r a e l , a forem ost s c i e n t i s t as w e ll as a t h e o r e t i c i a n o f Jew ish n a tio n a lis m , has t h i s to say o f Asher G inzberg: . . . Achad Ha-am— One o f th e P eople—was th e f o r e most th in k e r and Hebrew s t y l i s t o f h is g e n e ra tio n . I was a. boy of s e v e n te e n , a h ig h school s tu d e n t in P in sk , when he f i r s t sprang i n t o prom inence. . . He was a keen and m e rc ile s s c r i t i c from th e b e g in n in g , a man o f unshakable i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e g r i t y ; b u t h is c r iti c is m s sp ran g from a s tr o n g ly a f f irm a tiv e o u t lo o k . For him Zionism was th e Jew ish re n a is s a n c e in a s p i r i t u a l - n a t i o n a l se n se . . . It. i s not easy to convey to t h i s g e n e ra tio n o f Jewry i n th e West th e e f f e c t which Achad Ha-am produced on u s . . . The appearance o f one o f Achad Ha-am 's a r t i c l e s was always an ev en t o f prim e im p o rtan ce. W e re a d him , and re a d him a g a in , and d is c u s s e d him e n d le s s ly . He was, I m ight sa y , what Ghandi has been t o many Indians., what M azzini was to Young I t a l y a ce n tu ry ago. One of th e forem ost s c h o la rs o f th e Talmud and r a b b in ic l i t e r a t u r e o f th e tw e n tie th ce n tu ry was th e l a t e P ro fe s s o r Chaim T chem ow itz (1871-1949). He w rote o f Ahad Ha-Am: When Achad Ha'am ’s f i r s t a r t i c l e s appeared in H am elitz t h e i r e f f e c t was such t h a t leg en d s were a t once woven about t h e i r a u th o r. The g e n e ra l f e e l in g was t h a t a new s t a r had appeared on th e Jew ish h o riz o n , a second M aimonides. . . Everyone had h i s own image o f Achad Ha-am. Some o f th e s e so ex trem e, in f a c t , t h a t i t was s a id by some t h a t Achad Ha-am was about t o found a new f a i t h , as Saul and Anan, founders o f th e K a ra ite s e c t , d id elev en c e n tu r ie s e a r l i e r . 32 31 ‘ ' A Chaim Weizmann, T r i a l and E rr o r (New York: H arper and B ro s ., 1949), pp. 36-37. ^ Q u o te d by Gershon Swet, "Achad Ha-Am," I s r a e l L ife and L e tte r s ( S e p t ., 1952), p . 8. 16 In a charm ing e s s a y , M My F i r s t M eeting w ith Ahad Ha-Am," Tchernow itz makes some a s tu te o b s e rv a tio n s in which he n o te s t h a t Ahad Ha-Am was one o f th e few w r i te r s and sa v a n ts t h a t he had met in h is l i f e in which th e fu s io n between man and w r i t e r was so com plete. Ahad Ha-Am’s e t h i c a l sen se was t o t a l l y p e rv a s iv e in a l l f a c e ts o f h is l i f e . "As a man he was a w r i t e r and as a w r i t e r he was a m an."33 Encomiums f o r Ahad Ha-Am a re e a s ily found among th e d is c ip le s o f " S p i r i t u a l Z ionism ." W e s h a l l c i t e a t le n g th some o b s e rv a tio n s o f Chaim Nachman B ia lik , f o r in h is e s tim a te o f Ahad Ha-Am, th e e v a lu a tio n s o f o th e rs a re so w e ll summ arized. Chaim Nachman B ia lik (1873-193U) was u n q u estio n ab ly th e g r e a t e s t Hebrew p o e t s in c e th e tim e o f th e "Golden Age" o f Jew ish c u ltu r e in S p ain , which l e f t a r ic h h a r v e s t o f Hebrew l e t t e r s in th e p o e try o f Solomon Ibn G ab iro l (c a . 1021-69), Yehudah H alev i ,<ca. 1070), and Moses Ibn E zra o f Granada (c a . 1070). In a poem o f t r i b u t e to Ahad Ha-Am, B ia lik w rite s t h a t in th e hour o f u t t e r chaos in th e l i f e o f th e Jewish p e o p le , in th e lim bo between b eg in n in g and en d , d e s tr u c tio n and r e b u ild in g , a tr u e p ro p h et was prayed f o r who would touch th e channels o f 3^Rav Z a ir (T c h e rn o w itz ), "M asseket Z ik ro n o t: (Hokme Odessa) P e g is h a ti H a-rishonah '.im Ahad Ha-Am," B itz a r o n , I , No. 6 (M arch, 19*f0), H75. 1 7 th e h e a r t and would k in d le h is s t a r from above. His s p i r i t would become a fo u n ta in f o r su p p ressed th o u g h ts obscured in many h e a r ts as u n c le a r d ream s.34 B ia lik sees Ahad Ha-Am as th e s t a r whose s p a rk le b eck o n s, c a lli n g and le a d in g th e people o u t o f d a rk n e ss. "And under yo u r s t a r 35 alone a l l o f us r a l l i e d . " B i a li k , speaking on th e o ccasio n o f Ahad Ha-Am's s e v e n tie th b ir th d a y , h a i l s him as "th e most im p o rta n t p erso n in my l i f e . " 36 His r e a c tio n s to Ahad Ha-Am's e s s a y s , w h ile a youth a t th e y esh ib ah o f V olozhin, a re very s im i l a r to th o se ex p re sse d by Chaim Weizmann p re v io u s ly q u o ted . B ia lik f u r t h e r o b se rv e s: W e were im pressed n o t only by th e new s t y l e , th e b r i l l i a n c e , th e pow erful t h i n k i n g ; i t was th e p e r s o n a lity in th e words which s tr u c k us m ost, re v e a lin g as i t d id a le a d e r o f e x tra o rd in a ry s t a t u r e . . . In our h e a r t we knew t h i s man was c h a rtin g a new r o a d .37 B i a li k , f u l l y c o g n izan t o f th e r o le o f le a r n in g in Jew ish t r a d i t i o n and o f th e l i f e o f th e mind, sen sed as did o th e rs th e f u l l im port o f Ahad Ha-Am's th o u g h t. The f in e ly c h is e le d e ssay s had r ic h a l lu s io n s to th e by-ways as w e ll as th e mai .stream o f Jew ish th o u g h t and bore c lo s e s c r u tin y 3**Kol K itb e Ch. N. B ia lik (T e l Aviv: D vir C o., L td ., 19517, PP. 35-34" 35I b i d . , p . 34. 36Chaim Nachman B i a li k , "On Ahad Ha-Am," Jew ish F r o n tie r (November, 1964), p . 15. 37I b id . 18 by th o se sch o o led in th e co m p le x itie s o f r a b b in ic l i t e r a t u r e . And because stu d y i s th e c r a f t o f th e y e sh iv a s tu d e n ts — i t i s t h e i r only way o f ta k in g r o o t —we t i r e l e s s l y expounded every 'v e r s e ' o f Ahad Ha-Am w ith every method o f e x e g e sis known to u s . W e sp e n t many an evening on h is words in th e same k in d o f th o ro u g h , m inute a n a ly s is we used to g iv e , day and n i g h t , to Torah t e x t s . Ever sin c e th o se days he has h e ld me c a p t i v e .38 The b a s ic te n o r o f Ahad Ha-Am's th o u g h t which c a p tiv a te d B ia lik was t h a t , u n lik e o th e r t h e o r i s t s who put th e problem o f th e Jew b e fo re th e problem o f th e s u r v iv a l o f Judaism , Ahad Ha-Am . . . p u t redem ption in th e c e n te r o f th e n a t i o n 's th o u g h t, n o t because o f e x te r n a l p e r s e c u tio n s , d iv in e v i s i t a t i o n s , o r e v i l d ecrees b u t sim ply because he could n o t conceive o f an h o n o rab le e x is te n c e f o r th e image o f God in e x i l e , . . . You m ight c a l l i t th e tr a n s m ig ra tio n o f th e id e a o f 'th e Shekinah in e x i l e , ' th e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t th e r e i s no power o f r e s i s t a n c e w ith o u t th e r e v iv a l o f th e S hekinah, th e s p i r i t , th e s o u l - - c a l l i t what you w i l l — and t h a t th e r e i s n o th in g more im p o rtan t th a n b u ild in g t h i s power o f r e s is ta n c e in o u r s e lv e s . 38 On th e a n n iv e rs a ry o f Ahad Ha-Am's d e a th , B ia lik r e c a l l e d t h a t Ahad Ha-Am . . . was i n t e r e s t e d in a l l Jew ish problem s o f th e s p i r i t . He saw E re tz I s r a e l as th e embodiment o f th e p ro p h e tic v is io n , b u t only i n th e se n se t h a t i t was t o se rv e as a s p i r i t u a l center . 1 *8 38I b id . 39I b i d . , p. 16. **°I b i d . , p. 17. 19 There had b ee n , in B i a l i k 's e s tim a tio n , g r e a t e r men th an Ahad Ha-Am on th e Jew ish h o riz o n : Nahman Krochmal was g r e a t e r in th o u g h t, Samuel David L uzzatto e x c e lle d him in f e e l in g and P erez Sm olenskin was s tr o n g e r in tem peram ent. Yet none o f th e s e lu m in a rie s " b id us change our way of l i f e , n o r d id th e y s e iz e I s r a e l by th e s c r u f f o f th e neck and tu r n i t in a n o th e r d ir e c t i o n . They had e v e ry th in g . . . b u t th ey e f f e c t e d no change in th e program o f th e n a t i o n . " 4^ THE SOURCES AND M ETHOD OF RESEARCH Ahad Ha-Am's view point g e n e ra te d much ferm ent in th e Jew ish i n t e l l e c t u a l w orld o f h is tim e . His fo llo w e rs and opponents c r e a te d , in f a c t , a body o f l i t e r a t u r e on q u e s tio n s v i t a l to Jew ish s u r v iv a l d e se rv in g independent s tu d ie s o f scope and d e p th . A survey o f p u b lish e d m a te r ia l on Ahad Ha-Am g iv e s evidence t h a t h is mine of th o u g h t has s t i l l many r ic h and unexplored v e i n s . There i s , f o r exam ple, no com plete tre a tm e n t o f h is th o u g h t in th e E n g lish la n g u ag e. There i s one such work in Hebrew. S ir Leon Simon and Dr. J . E. H e lle r p u b lish e d Ahad Ha-Am, H a -is h , P o 'a lo W e-to rato ( Ahad Ha-Am, The Man, His Work, and H is T each in g ) (Je ru sa le m : Hebrew U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1956). P r io r to t h a t w ork, a Hebrew monograph by Mosheh 41I b i d . , p. 18. G lickson appeared a t th e b eg in n in g o f 19 27 and a: Bio g r a p h ic a l S to r y , a ls o in Hebrew, by Johanan T v ersk i was p u b lis h e d in New York in 1941. Ahad Ha-Am by Nahman Drosdov appeared in Y iddish i n 1940. While K lry a t S e fe r (a b ib li o g r a p h ic a l index) shows t h a t sc o re s o f a r t i c l e s have been p u b lis h e d on Ahad Ha-Am in Hebrew and .f .d d ish , my checking them r e v e a ls no f u l l and s y s te m a tic tre a tm e n t o f Ahad Ha-Am's approach to and u t i l i z a t i o n o f th e B ib le and th e so u rces o f Jew ish r e l i g i o u s th o u g h t. B io g ra p h ic a l sk e tc h e s in Hebrew and Y id d ish , some w ith a very profound u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e man, a re n o t la c k in g . I have a ls o s tu d ie d th e p e r io d ic a l l i t e r a t u r e a v a ila b le in E n g lis h . There i s e x ta n t an e x c e lle n t b ip graphy in th e work o f S i r Leon Simon, whose s e c tio n in th e S im on-H eller work in Hebrew has been t r a n s l a t e d . B io g ra p h ic a l o u tli n e s and sm all in tr o d u c tio n s are a ls o to be found in Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c te d E s s a y s , t r a n s l a t e d by Leon Simon ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty of Am erica, 1912); Ahad Ha-Am E ssa y s, L e t t e r s , M emoirs, t r a n s l a t e d by Leon Simon (O xford: E ast and West L ib ra r y , 1946); Achad Ha-Am, Ten E ssays on Zionism and Ju d aism , t r a n s l a t e d by Leon Simon (London: George R outledge S Sons, 1922); and Ahad H a1 Am, N a tio n a lism and th e Jew ish E t h i c , e d ite d and w ith an in tr o d u c tio n by Hans Kohn (New York: Schocken Books, 1962). There i s some m a te r ia l a v a ila b le 21 i n German i n v ario u s Z io n is t and Jew ish A rchives s im ila r to th e b io g r a p h ic a l s k e tc h e s above w ith b r i e f i n t r o d u c tio n s t o h is th o u g h t. Why no d e f i n i t i v e work o f m ajo r p ro p o rtio n has been done on Ahad Ha-Am may be a t t r i b u t e d t o s e v e r a l f a c t o r s . The most obvious c o n s id e r a tio n i s t h a t we a re s t i l l too c lo s e to h i s time t o have a f u l l p e r s p e c tiv e on h is c o n tr ib u tio n s to Je w ish th o u g h t. G ra d u a lly , however, as th e S ta te o f I s r a e l i s em erging in to i t s second and s o l i d i f y i n g phase o f developm ent, i n t e r e s t in Ahad Ha-Am in i n t e l l e c t u a l c i r c l e s in I s r a e l i s on th e ascendancy. P a r t i c u l a r l y i s t h i s th e case w ith th o se Jew ish le a d e r s i n I s r a e l and the D iasp o ra who are a tte m p tin g to f ix a purpose t o th e Jew ish S ta te above n e c e ss a ry day to day s tr u g g le f o r p o l i t i c a l s u r v iv a l. A f a r more co m p ellin g re a s o n , how ever, f o r th e lacu n ae i n Ahad Ha-Am s t u d i e s , i s t h a t even i f such s c h o la r s h ip had been a tte m p te d , th e u n s e ttle d w orld con d iti o n s from th e l a t e n in e te e n tw e n tie s to th e end o f th e Second W orld War would have made s u s ta in e d work im p o s sib le . W ith th e r i s e of N a tio n a l S o c ia lism in Germany, d e v a s ta tin g p e r s e c u tio n of Jew ish s c h o la rs a b o rte d e f f o r t s a t re s e a rc h i n th e c r a d le where modern Jew ish s c h o la r s h ip was b o rn . The su b seq u en t d ecim atio n o f Jew ish l i f e w ith th e sp read o f th e German arm ies t o th e o u t s k i r t s o f Moscow and in t h e i r wake th e v i r t u a l a n n i h ila tio n o f E a s te rn European Jew ry, i t s c e n te rs o f le a rn in g and g r e a t l i b r a r i e s , l e f t th e w orld s o r e ly b e r e f t o f a whole g e n e ra tio n o f le a rn e d men who were th e r e p o s i t o r i e s o f Jew ish know ledge. In Ahad Ha-Am's c a s e , th e Arab r i o t s in P a le s tin e in th e n in e te e n tw e n tie s and t h i r t i e s , and t h e r e a f t e r th e s tr u g g le f o r s u r v iv a l by th e Jew ish c o lo n ie s , made s c h o la r s h ip a lu x u ry in d u lg e d in by only a h ard y and r e s o lu t e few. In contem porary I s r a e l , and now a ls o in A m erica, th e r e i s a re n a is s a n c e o f Jew ish le a r n in g , and i n t e r e s t in Ahad Ha-Am, among o th e r m olders o f modern Jew ish th o u g h t, i s budding. Out o f t h i s new e f f o r t , s u b s t a n t i a l achievem ents may be wrought and o u r u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e f e r t i l e th in k in g o f Ahad Ha-Am e n la rg e d . THE PROPOSED M ETHOD OF RESEARCH The b u lk o f Ahad Ha-Am*s th o u g h t i s c o n ta in e d in a c o l le c tio n o f works e n t i t l e d Kol K itbe Ahad Ha-Am. The t i t l e , A ll th e W ritin g s o f Ahad Ha-Am, i s a misnomer in t h a t th e c o l l e c t i o n , w hile com prehensive, ex clu d es th e s ix volumes o f th e Ig g e ro t ( L e t t e r s ) . One hundred and t h i r t y e s s a y s , n in e te e n s e le c te d p ie c e s o f m is c e lla n ia , e . g . , addenda and random th o u g h ts , supplem ented by th e P irk e Z ik ro n o t ("R e m in isc e n c e s"), a re b ro u g h t to g e th e r in th e c o lle c te d w orks. Also in c lu d e d a re th e in tr o d u c tio n s to th e f i r s t , second, and "new" e d i tio n s by Ahad Ha-Am, 23 d a tin g r e s p e c tiv e ly from O dessa, 1895, O dessa, 1902, and London, 19 21. Brought to g e th e r under th e t i t l e , * A1 P a ra sh a t Derakim (At th e C ro s s ro a d s ), each in tr o d u c tio n m irro rs th e h i s t o r i c s i t u a t i o n o f th e p a r t i c u l a r e d i t i o n , th e l a s t h av in g s p e c i f i c r e fe r e n c e to th e im p lic a tio n s o f th e B a lfo u r D e c la ra tio n . This c o l le c tio n o f m a te r ia l com prises th e so u rces out o f which th e d i s s e r t a t i o n i s to be b u i l t . P e r tin e n t secondary m a t e r i a l , d e s c r ip tiv e o f th e th o u g h t-w o rld and c o n te x t o f Ahad Ha-Am's p h ilo s o p h y , w i l l a ls o be u t i l i z e d . P a r t i c u l a r em phasis w i l l be b ro u g h t to b e a r on Ahad Ha-Am's u t i l i z a t i o n o f th e Jvidische W issen sch aft researches o f Abraham G eig e r, Zvi H irsch G ra e tz , Z ac h arias F ra n k e l, and th e fo u n d er o f th e movement, Leopold Zunz (1794-1886). G eiger and F rankel e d ite d s c i e n t i f i c j o u r n a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e h isto ry -m a k in g M o n a ts s c h rift f u r G esch ich te und W issen sch aft des Judentum s, begun in 1851 and ex ten d in g to th e beg in n in g o f th e Second World War. Through th e se re s e a rc h e s Ahad Ha-Am had come t o c o n c lu d e , as th e p re fa c e to th e f i r s t e d i tio n i n d i c a t e s , t h a t th e s c h o la rs h ip t h a t gave r i s e t o Hokmas Y is ro e l o r Ju d isc h e W issen sch aft was e s s e n t i a l l y non-Jew ish in o r i g i n . P a r t i c u l a r l y was t h i s th e case w ith b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m . The a s p i r a t i o n o f a Zunz, who hoped t h a t c i v i l em an cipation o f Jews would ema n a te from th e "S cience o f Ju d a ism ," was h a rd ly borne out in f a c t , as f a r as Ahad Ha-Am was concerned. Ahad Ha-Am f u r t h e r fe a re d t h a t th e i n c l i n a t i o n t o i m i t a t i o n , which he th o u g h t so much a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e Jew ish tem peram ent, was a ls o a liv e i n Jew ish s c h o la rs h ip and would le a d to w id esp read a s s im ila tio n and e th n ic e x t i n c t i o n . Ahad Ha-Am1s a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e s c i e n t i f i c r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e Jew ish p a s t a re shaped by th is b a s ic p re c o n c e p tio n . He f e l t t h a t o n e 's r e l i g i o n o r , as he would have p u t i t , o n e 's n a tio n a l commitment o r th e la c k o f i t d e f i n i t e l y a f f e c t e d th e c o n c lu sio n s and v a l i d i t y o f s c h o la r ly r e s e a r c h . For Ahad Ha-Am th e v a l i d i t y o f re s e a rc h was n o t an a b s tr a c t v a lu e . R esearch f o r i t s own sake had become a luxury and, co n seq u en tly , a l l s c i e n t i f i c work r e l a t i n g to th e Jew ish p a s t was m easured by him as t o w hether o r not i t was in consonance w ith th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t ." While Ahad Ha-Am, as has a lre a d y been n o te d , was n o t p rim a r ily a b i b l i c a l c r i t i c , b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m and an u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e p a s t was a v i t a l and n e c e ss a ry s u b s tr u c tu r e t o th e id e o lo g ic a l e d i f i c e he was b u ild in g . He had t o ta k e th e raw f a c t s o f b i b l i c a l re s e a rc h in to a c c o u n t. As a p o s i t i v i s t he could n o t deny th e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod, alth o u g h he took ex c e p tio n to some o f th e con c lu s io n s o f th o se who had p io n e ered in ap p ly in g t h a t method to th e Jew ish h i s t o r i c a l p a s t . W e s h a l l see him 25 u sin g th e s c i e n t i f i c method e c l e c t i c a l l y to s u b s t a n t i a t e h is own c o n c lu sio n s le a d in g to " S p i r i t u a l Z ionism ," as Zunz had used i t to s u b s t a n t i a t e what he th o u g h t was v i t a l , nam ely, G le ic h s te llu n g (" e m a n c ip a tio n " ). W e s h a l l a tte m p t to determ ine by a com parison o f m ethodology what th e f a th e r s o f "the s c i e n t i f i c m ethod," as i t a p p lie d to Jew ish r e s e a r c h , meant by W issen sch aft and by " c r i t i c i s m ." F u rth e r, i t i s n e c e ss a ry to know to what e x te n t Ahad Ha-Am was c o r r e c t in h i s c h a rg e , no m a tte r how th e p re v io u s q u e s tio n i s answ ered, t h a t Ju d is c h e W issen sch aft i s im i ta t iv e b oth m e th o d o lo g ic a lly and w ith re g a rd to th e c o n c lu sio n s a r r iv e d a t by non-Jew ish s c h o la r s h ip . I f i t i s g u i l t y , we s h a l l see t h a t he c e r t a i n l y i s no l e s s g u i l t y . W e m ust f u r t h e r tr a c e th e a l l e g a t i o n made by Ahad Ha-Am t h a t Ju d is c h e W issen sch aft i s a form o f " i n t e l l e c t u a l s la v e r y ," s in c e i t a r r iv e d a t a consensus t h a t Judaism was s o le ly a r e l i g i o n and d en ied th e e x is te n c e o f th e Jews as a p e o p le .42 I f Ahad Ha-Am i s c o r r e c t in t h i s r e g a r d , does th e accu racy o f h i s con te n tio n flow from h i s own r e s e a rc h in to th e p a s t o r does i t stem from h is c o n v ic tio n t h a t r e l i g i o n in i t s t h e o r e t i c a l sen se has grown w eaker of r e c e n t y e a r s , and i s becoming more so ev ery day? " S c i e n t i f i c developm ent has shaken th e 42K o lK itb e , p . 66. 26 fo u n d a tio n s o f f a i t h g e n e r a lly , and th e f a i t h o f I s r a e l h as n o t escap ed . . . ,flf3 To answer th e c h a lle n g e s p re s e n te d by th e above m e th o d o lo g ic a l q u e s tio n s , i t w i l l be n e c e ss a ry to s i f t o u t o f th e essay s r e f e r e n c e s t o a n c ie n t Jew ish h i s t o r y , b i b l i c a l h i s t o r y , b i b l i c a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s , r e lig i o u s and e t h i c a l norms as found in th e B ib le , th e o lo g ic a l id e a s and co n cep ts r e l a t i n g to th e e v o lu tio n and developm ent o f r e l i g i o n i n g en e ra l as w ell as to Judaism in p a r t i c u l a r . Ahad Ha-Am h im s e lf d id n o t s y s te m a tic a lly s tr u c t u r e h i s th o u g h t so th a t i t s r e la tio n s h i p and dependence on th e B ib le becomes a t once e v id e n t o r c l e a r . M a te ria l r e le v a n t to o u r t h e s i s th a t th e B ible was o f prim ary im portance to h is p h ilo so p h y o f " S p i r i t u a l Zionism" i s s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t h is e s sa y s and l e t t e r s w hich, as so many p ie c e s o f a p u z z le , m ust be put to g e th e r so th a t th e whole p ic tu r e comes c l e a r l y in to f o c u s . This i s th e f i r s t tim e , t o my know ledge, th a t Ahad Ha-Am's p h ilo so p h y in r e l a t i o n to h is u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e B ible and th e com m entaries and t r a d i t i o n s which em anate from th e b i b l i c a l t e x t has been s y s te m a tic a lly and c r i t i c a l l y e x p lo re d . While s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s o f Ahad Ha-Am's works have to u ch ed upon one o r a n o th e r o f th e problem s o f which we s h a l l t r e a t in th e body o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , th e y have n o t shown how th e * * 3I b i d . 27 e n t i r e f a b r i c o f h is th o u g h t i s grounded in h is u n d er s ta n d in g o f th e b i b l i c a l t e x t to which he g iv e s prim acy above a l l th e so u rce s o f Jew ish r e l i g i o u s th o u g h t. There a re a ls o s e v e r a l b r i l l i a n t e ssa y s d e a lin g •if w ith Judaism and C h r i s t i a n i t y o ccasio n ed by M o n te fio re 's p u b lic a tio n o f h is commentary on th e S y n o p tic G ospels. In th e s e e ssa y s Ahad Ha-Am examines th e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d if f e r e n c e s between th e two f a i t h s . His method as w e ll as h is c o n c lu sio n s in d e a lin g w ith th e q u e s tio n d eserv es s c r u tin y and comment. The ta s k o f checking Ahad Ha-Am's s o u r c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o se works and th in k e r s t o whom he was p a r t i a l , rem ains to be done. R eferences in h is n o te s range from th e Gemara, M idrash, R a sh i, Kimhi, th e Shulhan A ruk, H a le v i, Maimonides and Krochmal to S pinoza. S pen cer, Darwin, N ie tz s c h e , W ellhausen, Renan and o th e rs a re a ls o r e f e r r e d t o . O ften Ahad Ha-Am w i l l quote a th in k e r b u t make no e x a c t re f e r e n c e t o a work o r page, presum ably on th e assum ption t h a t th e re a d e r i s f u l l y co n v e rsan t w ith th e so u rc e . T his i s th e ca se p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith th o se such as K ant, -Comte, T a rd e , P aulhan, S pencer, Darwin, H erd er, and o th e rs w ith whom he was so f a m il ia r and upon whom he drew h e a v ily and c o n s is te n tly f o r some o f h i s b a s ic t h e o r i e s . Our ta s k w i l l be t o s i f t and an aly ze th e m ajor in f lu e n c e s upon Ahad Ha-Am's th o u g h t from w ith o u t, so t h a t h i s own c o n tr ib u tio n s may be made to sta n d i n s ta r k r e l i e f a g a in s t th e backdrop o f th o se molding f o r c e s —l i t e r a r y and o th e r s —which le d him t o develop h i s p h ilo so p h y o f " S p i r i t u a l Z ionism ." CHAPTER I I A H A D HA-AM: THE M AN, HIS TIME AND PLAN Asher G inzberg was bora on th e e ig h te e n th o f A ugust, 1856, in th e sm all town o f S k v ira , in the Ukraine (South R ussia) a y ea r a f t e r th e new T s a r, A lexander I I , o ascended the th ro n e . Though R u ssia had l o s t th e Crimean q War, th e ascen sio n o f A lexander "was h a i le d as th e b eginning of a new e r a . " 1 * The T s a r, w hile he could not b rin g p o l i t i c a l peace in R u ssia, d id attem p t f a r-re a c h in g 5 s o c ia l and a d m in is tra tiv e re fo rm s. For th e Jews i t • hcol K itb e Ahad Ha-Am (T el Aviv: D vir Co., L td ., 1956), p . v. 2 George Vernadsky, H isto ry o f R ussia (3rd ed . r e v .j New Haven: Yale U n iv e rsity P re s s , 1951), pp. 155-156. q The T re a ty of P a r i s , which was concluded in the b eg in n in g of 1856, deprived R ussia o f th e r i g h t t o main t a i n i t s f l e e t in th e Black Sea, and imposed o th e r h u m ilia tio n s upon i t , such as th e severance from i t s m ainland o f so u th e rn B e ssa ra b ia and removing from i t s hegemony "the Orthodox p eoples o f Turkey." I b i d . , p . 156. h Abraham Leon S ach ar, A H isto ry o f th e Jews (4 th ed. r e v . ; New York: A lfre d A. Knopf, l9jJ5), p .' SlS. 5A le x a n d e r's , and th e n o b i l i t y ’s , m otives f o r the reform s are summarized in a sen ten ce of one of h is noted sp e e c h e s: " B e tte r th a t th e reform should come from above th a n w a it u n t i l serfdom i s a b o lish e d from below ." V ernadsky, H is to ry of R u s s ia , p. 158. 29 30 meant a b re a th o f r e l i e f a f t e r the. h o rro rs o f T sar N icholas and h is regim e. The dreaded p o lic y o f ju v e n ile c o n s c rip tio n came to an end a f t e r t h i r t y o p p re ssiv e y e a r s . Schools and u n i v e r s i t i e s were ag a in open to Jews and C R ussian c i t i e s to " c e r ta in favored c la s s e s among Jew s." The re a s o n behind t h i s p o lic y was t o quicken th e a s s im i- n l a t i v e p ro c e ss o f Jews i n t o R ussian s o c ie ty . The o v e r - a l l e f f e c t , however, was a sh arp en in g o f i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e in which th e Jewish community b e n e f i tte d . Hebrew and Y id d ish p e r io d ic a l l i t e r a t u r e once again f lo u r is h e d and hopes f o r « ft a p rom ising new age f lic k e r e d on th e h o riz o n . However, the l i b e r a l ad v en tu re was s h o r t - l i v e d . D issen sio n w ith in ^S ach ar, A H isto ry o f th e Je w s, p. 316. Among those so favored were m erchants o f th e f i r s t g u ild , u n iv e r s ity g ra d u a te s and c e r t a in s k i l l e d a r t i s a n s and m echanics. The v a s t mass o f R ussian Jewry rem ained con signed t o th e p ro v in c e s o f th e p a le o f s e ttle m e n t. 7I b i d . Q I b i d . The Jew ish e d u c a to r Max L i l i e n t h a l , w r itin g to Rabbi Is a a c Loewi o f F u rth , d e s c rib e d on th e one hand th e "backw ardness" o f R ussian Jewry c u l t u r a l l y , and on th e o th e r, th e g re a t hopes, f o r th e f u tu r e em ancipation o f th e Russian Jew under th e new e d u c a tio n a l p o lic y o f th e T s a r. L i l i e n t h a l t r a v e l l e d th e w estern R ussian p ro v in c e s to inform th e Jew ish communal le a d e rs o f t h e i r g r e a t f u tu re in th e new em pire. He was g re e te d by them w ith su s p ic io n sin ce " th e y r i g h t l y su sp e c te d t h a t th e government was p u rsu in g a c o n v e r s io n is t, r a t h e r th a n e n lig h te n e d , program ( th is was indeed th e te n o r o f th e s e c r e t correspondence between Uvarov and th e T sa r) and viewed th e whole under ta k in g as a n o th e r a tta c k on t h e i r accustom ed way o f l i f e . " C ited i n Salo B aron, The R ussian Jew (New York: The M acmillan Co., 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 41-42. 31 R ussia m anifested i t s e l f i n re v o lu tio n a ry u p r is in g s and a s s a s s in a tio n s . Committees o f in v e s tig a tio n w ere once again s e t into m o tio n and r e s t r i c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n fo llo w ed . As p a r t o f a l a r g e r p a tte r n o f r e s t r i c t i o n s a g a in s t th e re v o lu tio n a ry e le m e n ts, A le x a n d e r's po licy was bound to have se rio u s r e p e r c u s s io n s . A lexander became th e o b je c t o f a man-hunt by th e r e v o lu tio n a r ie s who f i n a l l y caught and a s s a s s in a te d him in th e sp rin g o f 1881.9 During t h e s e tw e n ty -fiv e y ears th e c h a r a c te r of young Ginzberg was in the p ro c e ss o f developm ent. Ahad Ha-Am was bom i n t o a noted h a s id ic f a m il y ^ which wa' both a f f lu e n t and d is tin g u is h e d fo r i t s s c h o la r s h ip ." ^ His f a t h e r , I s a i a h , e x e rc is e d h is p a t r i a r c h a l p re ro g a ti v e s to the h i l t . W e have a p ic tu r e o f Asher r is in g e a r l y , w hile i t was s t i l l d a rk , to s tu d y the Talmud and Codes, and then pro ceed in g on to sc h o o l where he f u r th e r 9Vernadsky, H istory o f R u ssia, pp. 168-171; c f . , S achar, A H is to r y of th e Jews, p . 317. F o r a d e t a il e d h is to ry o f th is p e r io d as i t r e l a t e s t o Jewish l i f e , see S. M . Dubnow, H is to ry of th e Jews o f R ussia and P o lan d , t r . S . F rie d la e n d e r ( r e p r i n t ; P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty of A m erica, 1 9 4 6 ), I I , 154-242. 10Kol K itb e , pp. 467, 479. ■^Leon Simon, Ahad Ha-Am, A Biography ( P h i l a d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty of A m erica, 1980), pp. 7, 10-14; Kol K itb e , p p . 493-495. 32 12 g a rn e re d knowledge. By th e tim e he was s ix te e n he had a r e p u ta tio n as an o u ts ta n d in g ta lm u d is t and e x p e rt in r i t u a l law. He had a l s o , by t h i s tim e , m astered Hebrew 13 grammar and s tu d ie d some o f th e S p an ish -Jew ish w r i tin g s . In a d d itio n to h i s i n t e r e s t in Jew ish la w , he had a p a ssio n fo r s e c u la r l i t e r a t u r e which he re a d c la n d e s - 14 t m e l y . Ginzberg re c o rd s i n h is Memoirs an in c id e n t which l e f t an i n d e l i b l e im p ressio n upon him. H is g ra n d fa th e r s u r p r is e d him e a r l y one morning as he was p o rin g o v e r a book on a lg e b ra and geom etry which a w andering book p e d d le r had s o ld to him . The book, which was w r i tte n in Hebrew, was p a r t of a new genre o f l i t e r a t u r e p re p a re d by th e m askilim (fo llo w e rs o f the A u fk laru n g ) to p re p a re Jews to e n t e r the modern w o rld . Not w ish in g t o leav e evidence o f what was b e lie v e d to be a h e r e t i c a l s c ie n c e , young G inzberg tr a c e d th e m ath em atical form ulae on th e doors and th e windows. H is g r a n d f a th e r, a p io u s h a s id , th o u g h t th e y o u n g ste r was p r a c t ic in g w itc h c r a f t and, th e re and th e n , ex a c te d a vow from A sher n ev er t o stu d y such books ag ain Such a vow had t o become m eaningless in tim e , sin c e 12Kol K itb e , p. 482. 13I b i d . , p . 466. ^ I b i d . , p . 46 7, n o te 1. 15I b i d . , p . 481. j 33 A sh er’s p a s sio n f o r knowledge co n tin u ed u n ab ated . So a g ile and keen was h is mind, and so hungry was h is so u l f o r know ledge, t h a t he m astered the R ussian a lp h a b e t by re a d in g th e s t r e e t sig n s and th e m arkers o v er v ario u s 16 s t o r e s . From th e s e p r im itiv e b eg in n in g s he s t a r t e d h i s re a d in g s in R ussian l i t e r a t u r e . H is i n t e r e s t in p h ilo s o p h y , so c io lo g y and th e g e n e ra l t r a d i t i o n s o f W estern 17 i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e K~'-'='me a consummate p a s sio n f o r him. Although he made - : • ^ ap ts a t a tte n d in g some o f th e German and R ussian u n i v e r s i t i e s , Ahad Ha-Am always rem ained an a u t o - d i d a c t . 18 The town o f S k v ira , in which he sp e n t th e fo rm ativ e y e a rs o f h i s e a r ly y o u th , was d e sc rib e d by G inzberg in 16 I b i d . , p . 467. 1 7 x Simon, Ahad Ha-Am, A B iography, p. 26. 18 I b i d . , p . 29. Ahad Ha-Am made s e v e r a l s t a r t s to o b ta in a u n iv e r s i ty e d u c a tio n , a l l of which ended in f a i l u r e . His la c k o f co n fid en ce in h im s e lf and h is f e e lin g s o f inadequacy no doubt played a prim ary r o l e . There w ere, o f c o u rse , o th e r f a c t o r s . P a re n ta l p re s s u re and h is y o u th fu l m a rria g e , which "not in th e o rd in a ry sen se a f a i l u r e , d id n o t b rin g him g r e a t h ap p in ess" (p . 2 3 ), p re v e n te d him from r e a l i z i n g h i s vaunted o b je c t i v e . Ahad Ha-Am n e v e r c o n sid e re d h is w ife , t o whom he was m a rrie d in h is te e n s th ro u g h a p re -a rra n g e d p a r e n ta l m atch, h is i n t e l l e c t u a l companion. He d e s c rib e s h e r as " n e ith e r b lin d n o r deform ed, b u t . . . a sim ple Jew ish g i r l , who had had a good r e l i g i o u s u p b rin g in g ." I b i d . , p . 22. C f. , Kol K itb e , pp. 466-467; Leon Simon, "Ahad Ha-Am," The American Jew ish Yearbook, 56 89, X X X ( P h ila d e lp h ia :~The~-iT e w riirT iS lJ c a n m n ^ o c re ty o f Am erica, S e p t. 15, 1928 to O ctober 5, 1929), 88. 34 h is Rem iniscences as "one o f th e most b e n ig h te d sp o ts in 19 th e h a s i d i c s e c to r o f R u s s ia ." B elonging to the H asidim o f S adagura, one o f th e many h a s id ic s e c ts which developed in th e m iddle o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , young G inzberg re c e iv e d a most t r a d i t i o n a l Jew ish e d u c a tio n . As one o f fiv e c h ild r e n , he was s e n t to h e d e r ( u s u a lly a room in th e home o f a te a c h e r o f c h ild re n ) a t th e age of t h r e e , 20 to be ta u g h t Hebrew and humash (P e n ta te u c h ). A sh e r's f a t h e r , w hile w e ll to do, had h is own id e a s about toughening h is o f f s p r in g t o meet th e rugged c h a lle n g e s o f l i f e . In l a t e r l i f e , G inzberg com plained th a t even in th e b i t t e r co ld o f th e R ussian w in te r he had been e s c o r te d to sch o o l w ith o u t b r e a k f a s t. L a te r in th e morning soup o r t e a would be se n t from home; o fte n i t a r r iv e d 21 co ld . Asher le a r n e d w e ll, how ever, and by th e tim e he was tw elv e h is f a t h e r took him o u t o f h e d e r and p ro v id ed 22 a t u t o r f o r him. By th e tim e he was f i f t e e n , he had m astered s u f f i c i e n t ta lm u d ic and Responsa m a te r ia l to 2 3 study on h i s own. His accom plishm ents were so b r i l l i a n t t h a t he was c a lle d an < i l u i C'a p ro d ig y o f ta lm u d ic 19Kol K itb e , p . 466. o n I b i d . , p . 482. 21I b i d . , pp. 482-483. 22I b i d . , p . 483. 2 3I b id . nil le a rn in g '1 ). Such was h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l b ra sh n e ss t h a t young Ginzberg undertook correspondence w ith one o f th e g r e a t T alm udists o f h is day, Rabbi Joseph S aul Nathanson o f Lemberg. One o f th e m ost co m p licated le g a l problems o f th e Talmud d e a ls w ith th e 'agunah (* fa d e s e rte d wife"). Using a p r e te x t f o r th e co rrespondence a h y p o th e tic a l case o f h is own making w ith a l l o f th e co m p le x itie s he could co n ju re up, he re n d e re d a d e c is io n and asked th e r a b b i o f Lemberg to co n cu r. To h is d e l ig h t, young Asher re c e iv e d a responsum o f concu rren ce o f o p in io n to h is b r i e f , w r itte n in th e v e in o f "one a u th o r ity t o an o th er N a tu r a lly , t h i s enhanced A sh e r's r e p u ta tio n w ith th e s c h o la rs o f h is community. When, a t se v e n te e n , he had com pleted th e form al stu d y o f th e Talmud, he was f e te d by th e fa m ily . By t h i s tim e he was a lre a d y b e tro th e d to an orphaned, dow erless g i r l , who was th e d a u g h te r o f a famed h a s id ic r a b b i. As was th e custom , he had n ev er seen O g h e r p r i o r to th e b e t r o t h a l . By t h i s tim e th e fam ily had moved to a l a r g e r v i l l a g e c a lle d G o p its h its a , n e a r B e rd itc h e v , where A sh e r's 24 Simon, Ahad Ha-Am, A B io g rap h y , p. 20. 25I b i d . , pp. 20-21. 2 6 Kol K itb e , p. 466. Ahad Ha-Am says o f h is mar r ia g e as f o llo w s : "On th e 18th o f Sivan 5633 (June 13, 1873) I m a rrie d ( o r more c o r r e c t ly my p a re n ts m a rried me o f f ) when I was s ix te e n y e a rs and te n months o l d . " 2 7 f a t h e r , in 1866, a c te d as a ta x farm er. A sher, s u r rounded by R ussian a r i s t o c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n s , co n tin u ed 2 8 h i s s tu d ie s as w ell as h is re a d in g o f h e r e t i c a l b o o k s. A sh e r's a n t i - h a s id ic b en t became more confirm ed d u rin g t h e G o p its h itz a p e r io d , p a r t i c u l a r l y in 186 8 a f t e r h is v i s i t to th e co u rt o f R. Abraham Jacob o f.S a d a g u ra , head o f th e h a s i d i c group to which h is f a t h e r b elonged. A sher makes i t c l e a r th a t h i s f a t h e r hoped to change th e b o y 's h e r e t i c a l te n d e n c ie s by m eeting th e g r e a t Tsaddik ( " s a i n t " ) . While young G inzberg was im pressed w ith th e T sa d d ik , he was d i s t r e s s e d by h a s id ic r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e s . H is tem peram ent, which was b e r e f t o f m u sical n u an ces, was in c l o s e r tune w ith t h a t o f th e m itnaggedim , who were t h e opponents of th e h a s id im . Upon r e tu r n home from th e v i s i t , A sher r e a c te d by a p p ly in g h im s e lf w ith even g r e a t e r f e r v o r to th e B ible and m edieval l i t e r a t u r e , 29 p a r t i c u l a r l y to th e works o f M aimonides. ■ G in zb erg 1 s c l a s s i c e s s a y on M aimonides, e n t i t l e d The Supremacy o f Reason (1 9 0 4 ), c o r r e c t ly r e f l e c t e d h i s own p r e d ile c ti o n s and i n t e l l e c t u a l v a lu e s . As Leon Simon p u ts i t , 27J . K lau sn er, "G inzberg, A sh er," The Jew ish E n c y c lo p e d ia , V (new e d i tio n ; New York: Funk and W agnalls Company, 19 2 5 ), 6 70. 29Aryeh Simon and Joseph H e ll e r , Ahad Ha-Am, H a -is h , P o 'a lo W e-torato (Je ru sa le m : Magnes P r e s s , 1955), p p . 7-8. 29Simon, Ahad Ha-Am. A B iography, pp. 16-17 37 . . . and from a mere m itnagged he became a m a s k il, f o r whom h asid im and m itnaggedim a lik e were r e a c t i o n a r i e s , and th e d if f e r e n c e s between them sh ran k in to in s i g n if i c a n c e b e s id e th e g u lf t h a t s e p a ra te d th e c h ild re n o f th e E nlightenm ent from th e c h ild re n o f d a r k n e s s .30 U n fo r tu n a te ly , how ever, th e E nlightenm ent came to a g rie v o u s h a l t w ith th e pogroms o f 1882. The May Laws, i n i t i a t e d by Count I g n a t i e v , 3^ e p ito m iz ed a n ti-J e w is h l e g i s l a t i o n in T s a r i s t R u s s ia .32 The im plem entation o f th e s e la w s, and th e pogrom s, fo rc e d th e G inzbergs to f l e e to O d essa.33 With th e ascendancy to power o f A lexander I I I in 1881, an a n t i - l i b e r a l and p a n - s la v ic program was i n i t i a t e d . P obedonostsev, form er t u t o r to th e T sar and a t r i e d r e a c tio n a r y , d e s p ise d l i b e r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and w anted to c r e a te an a u to c ra c y under th e a e g is o f th e O rthodox Church. As p ro c u ra to r o f th e Holy Synod, he commenced a war on a l l m in o rity groups and Jews were p lag u ed w ith a s e r i e s o f r i o t s and pogroms which were 30I b i d . , p . 18. 3l l g n a t i e v had been a n e ig h b o r o f th e G inzbergs in G o p its h itz a w ith whom th e G inzbergs in e a r l i e r y e a rs had been "on term s o f f r ie n d s h ip ." I b i d . , p . 12. 3^S ach a r, A H is to ry o f th e Jews , pp. 318-319. A f u l l and d e t a i l e d stu d y o f pogroms a g a in s t Jews in R u ssia o f t h i s p e rio d i s documented in " Z io n is tis c h e n H ilfs fo n d s in London von d e r zu r E rforschung Der Pogrome E in g e s e tz te n Kommission," Die Judenpogrome in R u ssla n d , I (K oln: J u d is c h e r V erlag G.M.B.ti. , I 9 i 0 ) . 33Simon, Ahad Ha-Am, A B iography, p . 31. n o t checked u n t i l 1882. In May o f t h a t- y e a r s tr in g e n t laws were made, which narrowed th e p a le o f s e ttle m e n t and p r a c t i c a l l y p r o h ib ite d Jews from le a v in g t h e i r 34 v i l l a g e s . The im petus o f th e s e a c ts shook th e Jewish w o rld . A m ighty blow had been s tru c k to H askalah and a s s im il a ti o n . Thousands o f Jews m illin g a t th e b o rd ers in t h e i r atte m p t t o f l e e from R u ssia d u rin g th e days and n ig h ts o f t e r r o r d ram atized th e f a c t t h a t Jews had no lan d of t h e i r own where th e y co u ld seek re fu g e . In resp o n se to th e s i t u a t i o n , s o c i e t i e s o f Hobebe Zion ("L overs o f Zion") sprung up, which attem p ted to d i r e c t 35 Jews to P a l e s t i n e . Men such as Leo P in sk e r (1821-1891), who had h e ld o u t hope f o r em an cip atio n , became, as i t w ere, Jew ish n a t i o n a l i s t s o v e rn ig h t. As a r e s u l t o f th e pogroms, P in s k e r p u b lis h e d h is A uto-Em ancipation (1882), which became th e new r a l l y i n g p o in t f o r th e "Lovers of Z io n ." In th e tr a c t* P i n s k e r argued t h a t Jews could no lo n g e r hope f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e l i f e o f th e c o u n trie s i n which th ey liv e d . They could n o t even be re g a rd e d as a l i e n s , f o r th e y had no n a t io n a l homeland. 36 They were a "g h o st" n a tio n . 31*Sachar, A H is to ry o f th e Jew s, p . 318. 35 Nahum Sokolow, H isto ry o f Zionism , 1600-1918 (London: Longmans, Green and C o., 1919), I , 213-216. 36I b i d . , pp. 224-225. Ahad Ha-Am t r a n s l a t e d th e work in to Hebrew from th e German, in which P in s k e r had 39 In th e s e same y e a rs in W estern E urope, a n o th e r g r e a t disenchantm ent took p la c e . The hopes o f th e p re v io u s ce n tu ry of a w orld u n ite d in reaso n and b r o th e r hood exploded in the fa c e s o f th e l i b e r a l elem ents o f th e Jew ish community in p a r t i c u l a r . The dominant note sounded in th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry was t h a t o f n a tio n a lis m and p a r tic u la r is m . The n a tio n had su p p la n te d God as the r e c i p i e n t o f lo y a lty and a lle g ie n c e . Whereas in th e m edieval p e rio d th e fram e o f re fe re n c e f o r d e a lin g w ith problem s was o f a r e l i g i o u s n a tu re and framed in r e lig io u s and th e o lo g ic a l te n n in o lo g y , th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry spoke in s e c u la r and n a tio n a l te rm s . While in th e age o f reason t h a t which was common to a l l men re c e iv e d em p h asis, the n in e te e n th c e n tu ry g lo r ie d in t h a t which s e t men and n a tio n s a p a r t , p i t t i n g one a g a in s t th e o th e r in a war of o n c u ltu r e s and n a tio n a l ^orm s. I t was in e v ita b le t h a t Jews should be caught up in t h i s s t r u g g l e , sin c e t h e i r problem was i n t r i c a t e l y in te r tw in e d w ith th a t o f t h e i r o r i g i n a l l y composed i t u nder th e pseudonym, "von einem ru s s is c h e n Ju d e n ." Kol K itb e , pp. 505-516. ^ P e r h a p s i t would be b e t t e r to speak of n a tio n a lism in i t s v a rio u s i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c m a n if e s ta tio n s , i t s u n ify in g and d is r u p tiv e e le m e n ts. I t s so u rces a re v a rie d and i t s p a r t i c u l a r m a n if e s ta tio n depended upon i t s h i s t o r i c a l and g eo g rap h ic c o n te n t. C a rlto n J . H. H ayes, H i s t o r i c a l Development o f N a tio n a lism , 19 33, ed. Louis L. Snyder (New York: !). Van N ostrand Co. , I n c . , 1964), pp. 36-43. C f. , Hans Kohn, The Idea: o f N a tio n a lism (New York: The M acmillan C o ., 1 9 4 8 ) , pp. 3-24. uo environm ent. The problem s o f th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry were more complex because o f th e m u lt i- c la s s n a tu re o f s o c ie ty , each segment o f which viewed th e dominant m o tif o f O O n a tio n a lis m in term s o f i t s own" i n t e r e s t and g o a ls . There were s t i r r i n g s from o th e r q u a r te r s as w e ll. In h is a tta c k upon c a p ita lis m , K arl Marx* f o r exam ple, made th e Jews an economic symbol by claim in g them as th e p ro g e n ito rs o f c a p ita lis m , h eaping upon them a l l th e opprobrium o f which he was ca p a b le . In a lig n in g Judaism w ith c a p ita lis m , he lin k e d Jews to th e w orst a s p e c ts o f an e x p lo itiv e system o f which th e y were a p ro d u ct and n o t th e o r i g i n a t o r s . Through t h i s d e v ic e , th e enm ity o f th e working c la s s was siphoned o f f and d ir e c te d a g a in s t th e Jew s, s e t t i n g in m otion one o f th e m ighty fo rc e s o f th e modern w o rld , p r o l e t a r i a n a n t i - Sem itism . 39 38 "Modem Jew ish n a tio n a lis m a r o s e , l i k e o th e r n a tio n a l movements, a f t e r th e t r a d i t i o n a l and r i g i d te x tu r e o f m edieval l i f e gave way b e fo re two new f o r c e s : a r e l i g i o u s r e v iv a l th ro u g h p ie tis m and m y sticism w ith t h e i r app eal to in d iv id u a l em o tio n s, and a r e a s s e r t i o n of th e in d iv id u a l in th e s e c u la r r a tio n a lis m o f E n lig h ten m e n t." Hans Kohn, "Ahad Ha'am: N a ti o n a li s t With a D iffe re n c e ," Commentary, Vol. 11, No. 6 (Ju n e , 1951), 558. 39 K arl M arx's essay on "The Jew ish Q uestion" was re p u b lis h e d as K arl Marx, A World W ithout Jew s, ed. Dagobert Runes (New York: The Wisdom L ib ra ry , 1959), pp. 35-i*5. 41 But th e re a re two horns to every dilemma. Out o f Germany th e angry v o ic e s o f th e a n ti- S e m itic a g i t a t o r s , M arr and S to c k e r, were to be h e a rd . P andering to th e u pper c l a s s e s , th e y p u lle d a t th e o th e r h o rn , a t t r i b u t i n g th e r e v o l t o f th e m asses and th e upsurgence o f p r o le - ta ria n is m to th o se obvious Jew s, Marx and L a s s a lle . S to c k e r w ro te , "The Jews a re a t one and th e same tim e th e p a c e s e tte r s o f c a p ita lis m and o f r e v o lu tio n a r y s o c ia lis m , thus w orking from two s id e s t o d e s tro y th e p re s e n t p o l i t i c a l and s o c ia l o r d e r . " 1 4 0 The tr a p o f th e n in e te e n th and tw e n tie th c e n tu r ie s was s e t . To c a p tu re Jew s, i t could snap in e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n . In tim e , th e h a tr e d o f th e Jew was fo rm u late d along th o se lin e s which came t o be consummate w ith th e ex pansion o f Germany’ s em pire. A c u lt o f r a c e , ta k in g as i t s c re e d th e framework o f p s e u d o -s c ie n c e , o f sp u rio u s a n th ro p o lo g y , propounded th e th e o ry o f ra c ism . Count Joseph de Gobineau p u b lis h e d , between 1853 and 1855, a work e n t i t l e d E s s a i s u r l 'l n e g a l i t e ^ des ra c e s hum aines. T h is work became th e handbook and a p o lo g ia f o r l a t e r German im p e ria lism under Bism arck and f o r Nazism under H i t l e r . G obineau's stu d y became th e p r e t e x t f o r 40 Quoted in M arvin Low enthal, The Jews o f Germany ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1938), p . 305. *2 i n e q u a l i t i e s . 1 *1 The f a c t th a t h is work was s o p h is tic a te d and " s c i e n t i f i c " gave i t an au ra which made i t a l l th e 42 more dangerous. The ed u c ate d c la s s e s began to " b e lie v e " i t , washing away th e p r i o r n o tio n s o f " l i b e r t y , e q u a lity and f r a t e r n i t y ." I t i s a g a in s t t h i s background th a t we must under s ta n d th e emergence o f p o l i t i c a l Zionism and i t s c o r r e c t i v e , " C u ltu ra l Z ionism ." I t was th e o p in io n o f Dr. Leo P in sk e r t h a t th e Jews faced th e s e a n ti-S e m itic a tta c k s because th e y were a g h o st n a tio n , an a p p a r itio n , a people w ith o u t a l a n d , w ith o u t a la n g u a g e , w ith o u t h Q n a t io n a l r o o ts . For t h i s reaso n th e y proposed th e n e c e s s ity o f re g a in in g a n a tio n a l s t a t e , where th e masses o f Jews could f in d re fu g e and c r e a te f o r th em selves a t r u e n a t io n a l e x is te n c e which would make o f th e Jew ish people a norm al, in te g r a te d fo lk whose p ro to ty p e was to be th e n a t i o n - s t a t e o f th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry and 41 The t h e s i s o f G obineau1s work i s summarized in a o n e-se n ten c e q u o ta tio n by Low enthal. "E verything g r e a t , n o b le , and f r u i t f u l in th e works o f man comes from a s in g le s t a r t i n g - p o i n t ; i t belongs to one fa m ily , th e d i f f e r e n t b ranches o f which have re ig n e d in a l l c i v i l i z e d c o u n trie s o f th e g lo b e ." Low enthal, The Jews o f Germany, p . 301. 42 Low enthal, The Jews o f Germany, p . 301. What Gobineau had re fe r e n c e to was, o f c o u rs e , th e Aryans and in p a r t i c u l a r th e Germanic p e o p le. 4 3 "A utoem anzipationI" von einem ru s s is c h e n Juden (Leo P in sk e r) ( B e r lin : J u d is c h e r V erlag , 1920), pp. 9-15. 43 h j l tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . I t i s easy f o r us to u n d ersta n d how, because o f th e a g i t a t i o n and ferm ent o f E a s te rn and o f C e n tra l E urope, th e p o l i t i c a l Z io n is ts sought th e a l l e v i a t i o n o f th e Jew ish problem in term s o f so lv in g th e problem s o f in d iv id u a l J e w s .1 *5 I f th e Jews were to be removed from th e economic and p o l i t i c a l c o n te x t o f Europe, th e n , i t was b e lie v e d , a n ti-S e m itism would d i s ap p ear. The p o l i t i c a l Z io n is ts h e ld t h a t a n ti-S e m itis m was caused by economic and s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s i n t o which Jews were fo rc e d by v i r t u e o f t h e i r s t a t e l e s s n e s s . This s i t u a t i o n was to be re s o lv e d by th e removal o f Jews in to to and tr a n s p la n tin g them in P a le s tin e o r some o th e r p la c e , such as A rg e n tin a , where Jews could r e - c r e a t e a hg p o l i t i c a l s t a t e o f t h e i r own. ^ I b i d . , e t p a ssim . P r i o r to Dr. P in s k e r , Moses Hess (1812-1875) fo rm u late d a program f o r th e re g e n e ra tio n o f a Jew ish s t a t e in th e O rie n t. He b e lie v e d " . . . France w i l l h e lp th e Jews to found c o lo n ie s which may extend from Suez t o Je ru sa le m , and from th e banks o f th e Jordan t o th e c o a s t o f th e M ed iterran ean ?" Moses H ess, Rome and Je ru sa le m , t r a n s . Meyer Waxman (New York: Bloch P u b lish in g t o . , 1945), p . 132. A f in e c o m p ila tio n o f H ess’ o th e r th o u g h ts in l e t t e r s and essay s may be found in Moses H ess, Ju d isc h e S c h r i f t e n , ed . Theodor Z l o c i s t i ( B e r lin : V erlag von Louis Lamm, 1905). C f. , a ls o S ir I s a ia h B e r lin , The L ife and O pinions o f Moses Hess (Cambridge: W . H e fie r and Sons, L t d . , 1 9 5 9 ) . * * 5Leon Simon, S tu d ie s i n Jew ish N a tio n a lism (New York: Longmans, Green and C o., 1920), pp. 43-50. us Theodor H erzl (1 8 6 0 -1 9 0 4 ), forem ost o f th e p ro ponents o f p o l i t i c a l Zionism , was convinced a f t e r th e D reyfus A f f a i r , in w hich? as Emile Z ola su b se q u e n tly proved, th e Jew ish c a p ta in on duty w ith th e French 1+4 When Ahad Ha-Am p u b lis h e d Lo' Yeh H a-derek (The Wrong Way) in 1889, he s e t i n motion a m ajor c r i t i q u e upon whose v ario u s themes he expanded i n subsequent y e a rs . C o lo n iz a tio n p r o je c ts were p u tti n g th e c a r t b efo re th e h o rse . The peo p le needed a new o r ie n ta tio n , t o Judaism , an o r i e n t a t i o n in which th e p lig h t o f Jews was to have a p la c e b u t was n o t th e dominant concern.**7 g e n e ra l s t a f f was u n ju s tly t r i e d f o r tr e a s o n , t h a t th e re was only one s o lu tio n f o r th e Jew ish q u e s tio n . In 189 5 H erzl penned a pam phlet, "A ddress to th e R o th s c h ild s ," in which he p r o je c te d a "Jew ish S t a t e ." This pam phlet serv ed as th e o u tli n e f o r h i s book, Der J u d e n s ta a t, which appeared in 1896. In 1897 he convokedV t'ogether w ith o t h e r s , th e f i r s t Z io n is t Congress a tte n d e d by two hundred d e l e g a t e s , who v o te d upon a program se ek in g th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of a " p u b lic ly re c o g n iz e d le g a lly se cu red home in P a l e s t i n e ." A rth u r H e rtz b e rg , The Z io n is t Id e a (New York: Doubleday and C o ., 19 5 9 ), p . Y03. "Der Zion- ismus e r s t r e b t f u r das ju d ie e h e Volk d ie Schaffung e in e r o f f e n t l i c h - r e c h t l i c h - g e s i c h e r t e n H e im sta tte in P a l a s t i n a ." C ited in : Achad Ha-Am, Ten Essays on Zionism and Judaism (London: R outledge S Sons L td ., 1 ^2 2 ), p . 133, n o te 1. C F ., S te n o g rap h isch es P ro to k o ll d er Verhandlungen des I . Z io n iste n -Q o n g re sse s (Wien: V erlag des V ereines "E retz Israel,* * 1898), PP- 7 -9 . T ra n s p la n tin g th e Jew ish people can be accom plished o n ly by an id e a . "The S ta te id e a s u r e ly has t h a t power. . . .We s h a l l not le a v e o ur o ld home u n t i l th e new one i s a v a ila b le . . . th o se who a re now d e s p e ra te w i l l go f i r s t , a f t e r them th e p o o r, n ex t th e w e ll to do, and l a s t o f a l l th e w e a lth y ." Quoted i n H e rtz b e rg , The Z io n is t I d e a , p. 213. Two reg io n s f o r such a t r a n s p l a n ti n g came t o mind, A rg e n tin a and P a l e s t i n e —th e one a f e r t i l e la n d , th e o th e r th e h i s t o r i c homeland o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . I b i d . , p. 222. H erzl concludes h i s work in th e now o f t- q u o te d p h r a s e , "The Jews who w i l l i t s h a l l ach iev e t h e i r S t a t e ." I b i d . , p . 225. 47 Kol K itb e , pp. 1 1 -1 2 , 14-16. 4-5 H e r z l's w illin g n e s s to c o n s id e r A rg en tin a as a p o s s ib le haven o f re fu g e o u tra g e d Ahad Ha-Am, as w e ll as many o th e r E ast Europeah and R ussian Jew ish l e a d e r s . There was only one p lace t h a t could se rv e as th e hub f o r a U O Jew ish S ta te and t h a t was P a l e s t i n e . The v a g a rie s o f a s s im ila te d W estern Jewry had to be c o r r e c te d . This Ahad Ha-Am began to do by sh ap in g a p h ilo so p h y which was, i n a s e n s e , p ro fo u n d ly Jew ish and y e t s t a r t l i n g l y m odem . The b le n d in g o f th e two stream s o f th o u g h t was o fte n u n co m fo rtab le because t h e i r p re c o n c e p tio n s were so b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t . L o g ic a lly , Uganda o r A rg e n tin a m ight have so lv ed th e o b je c tiv e problem s o f Jewry more e f f i c i e n t l y and q u ic k ly th a n P a le s tin e . Y e t, P a l e s t i n e , by v ir tu e o f th e h i s t o r i c a l and s p i r i t u a l m ystique t h a t i t e x e rte d on Jew ish th o u g h t, was f o r him th e only p la c e t h a t could be c a lle d homeland. I t i s th e r e t h a t a n a tio n a l c e n te r was t o be c r e a te d , n o t f o r th e masses o f llQ Jew s, b u t f o r a d e d ic a te d and e n lig h te n e d frag m en t. 4 8 I b i d . , p. 253. Ahad Ha-Am i r o n i c a l l y argued t h a t to fo cu s th e q u e s tio n on th e g e o g ra p h ic a l lo c a tio n o f th e Jew ish s t a t e , North America sh o u ld a ls o be con s id e re d as a p o s s i b i l i t y . Nothing would be p h y s ic a lly la c k in g th e r e save th e " h i s t o r i c a l b a s is " f o r a Jew ish n a tio n a l home." I b i d . , p. 338. A rg e n tin a , Am erica, as w e ll as ^Uganda, which was proposed as a s i t e by th e S ix th Z io n is t C ongress, a re r e j e c t e d by Ahad Ha-Am summarily f o r th e re i s no s p i r i t u a l n o r n a t io n a l t i e t h a t Jews have f o r th e s e c o u n tr ie s . I b i d . , p . 339. 49I b i d , , pp. 23, 380. 46 Ahad Ha-Am's c r i t i q u e of th e c o lo n iz a tio n e f f o r t and o f i t s le a d e rs h ip made q u ite an im pact on th e Hobebe Zion movement. Asked to p u t h is id e a s in to a c tio n , Ahad Ha-Am ag ree d to assume th e le a d e r s h ip o f th e newly formed s e c r e t s o c i e t y , th e Bene M oshe,in 1 8 8 9 .50 H ost so u rces on th e o r i g i n o f th e group g iv e Ahad Ha-Am as i t s fou n d er and s p i r i t u a l le a d e r . Whereas he adm its to b ein g th e l a t t e r , h is Memoirs deny th e fo rm er. The s e c r e t o rd e r was in r e a l i t y founded in P a le s tin e by B a r s i l a i 51 ( E i s e n s t a d t ) . The s o c ie ty s e t as i t s ta s k th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f la n d in P a le s tin e and th e p ro p e r s e ttle m e n t of 5 2 th e la n d . When B a r s i l a i v i s i t e d Odessa to develop 50 Moshe G lic k so n , Ahad Ha-Am, Hayyav U - f o 'a lo (Je ru sa le m : H a - a re tz , 1927), p . 36. S1Kol K itb e , p . 488. C f. , Joseph K lau sn er, "G inzberg, A sh er," J E , V, 671; Nahman Drozdov, Ahad Ha-Am (C hicago: V erlag GloFus, 1940), p . 26; I s r a e l Cohen, 'Hie Z io n is t Movement (New York: Z io n is t O rg a n iz a tio n o f A m erica, 1946), p. 68; Shmarya L evin, The A rena, t r a n s . M aurice Samuel (New York: H a rc o u rt, Brace and C o ., 19 3 2 ), p . 22. 52 Shmarya L ev in , a prom inent Jew ish le a d e r , was a member o f th e Bene Moshe. He observ es t h a t th e i n flu e n c e o f th e group i n th e s tim u la tio n o f q u a l i t y in n a t i o n a l i s t e f f o r t s was o f prim ary concern. The group, n e v e r numbering more th a n one h u n d red , had e x a c tin g r u le s o f p e rs o n a l co n d u ct. Among th e members were "th e most d is tin g u is h e d o f th e f i g h t e r s o f th e C hibath Z ion, th e t r i e d v e t e r a n s ." L evin, The A rena, p . 26. Levin p o in ts o u t t h a t w h ile Ahad Ha-Am was a g r e a t te a c h e r , he was no p o l i t i c a l le a d e r o r o rg a n iz e r . He c o n c lu d e s, "A m o ra l p e r s o n a lity alo n e does n o t s u f f i c e i n p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n ." I b id . 47 th e r e and elsew h ere o r g a n iz a tio n a l c e l l s , Ahad Ha-Am was in v it e d to th e m eeting and emerged as th e e le c te d le a d e r 5 3 o f th e group. The p r o to c o ls o f th e group e s ta b lis h e d i t s members as an e l i t e body and Ahad Ha-Am urged upon th e members th e s ta n d a rd s o f " d e d ic a te d p r i e s t s . Ahad Ha-Am was n ev er a b le t o le a d th e group and w ith th e advent o f th e F i r s t Z io n is t Congress (1 8 9 7 ), th e m a jo rity o f i t s members were swept i n t o H e r z l's camp. By 1905 Ahad Ha-Am was v i r t u a l l y a l o n e ^ and i t was o n ly much l a t e r , and th e n under th e in flu e n c e o f Chaim Weizmann, t h a t Ahad Ha-Am's th o u g h t was combined w ith t h a t o f C C H erzl in to a s y n th e tic form o f Jew ish n a tio n a lis m . Ahad Ha-Am's Odessa y e a rs were v ery f r u i t f u l . From 1830 onward, many fo llo w e rs of H askalah made i t t h e i r home. I t was th e c i t y o f Sm olenskin and P in sk e r and f o r Ahad Ha-Am i t s i g n i f i e d th e b eg in n in g o f a new 53Kol K itb e , p . 488; th e r e i s a c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is and e s tim a tio n o f t h e Bene Moshe by Ben A vigdor, "Ahad Ha-Am U-bene Moshe," N e tib o t, I (Warsaw: H ebrat A h is e fe r, 1913), 238-290. 54 Drozdov, Ahad Ha-Am, p . 26. Ahad Ha-Am au th o red th e b y -la w s, which were known as Derek Ha-hayyim , ed. Abraham Lubarsky and E liy a h u Zeeb H ale v i L ew in-E pstein (New York: M aslansky P u b lis h e r s , 1905), o f th e group c a lle d Bene Moshe. ^ L e t t e r to Mr. A. Sochovolsky, Hamburg, from Odessa (A p ril 28, 1905), Ahad Ha-Am, I g g e r o t, I I I (T el Aviv: D vir C o ., L td ., 1 9 5 6 ), 348. Chaim Weizmann, T r i a l and E rr o r (New York: H arper S B r o s ., 1949), p . io 7 . l i f e . In th e Black Sea p o r t , th e Hob'eb'e Z io n , under Dr. P in s k e r 's le a d e r s h ip , gave him a c o n v iv ia l band o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s w ith whom he co u ld sh a re h is budding th o u g h ts .57 During th e y e a rs 1886-189 5 G inzberg s u s ta in e d h im s e lf through v a rio u s e n t e r p r i s e s , among them an o i l p l a n t , d i s t i l l e r y and a wheat b u s in e s s . But th e s e b u s i- 5 8 n e s se s slow ly f a i l e d . He l e f t Odessa f o r Warsaw w here, in 1896, he became a D ire c to r o f A h ia s a f, a p u b lis h in g house f o r Hebrew b o o k s .59 He h e ld t h i s p o s itio n u n t i l he s t a r t e d th e Hebrew p e r i o d i c a l , H a sh ilo a h , which he e d ite d in B e rlin f o r s ix y e a r s . When, in 1903, he re s ig n e d from H a s h ilo a h , he ac ce p ted a p o s itio n w ith th e W issotsky t e a firm which s ta tio n e d him , among o th e r p la c e s , in E ngland, from 1907 t o 1921.89 There he s tu d ie d E n g lish Jewry a t c lo s e range and concluded t h a t i t was a "cem etery w ith ornam ental to m b sto n es. " 5 • * - While most o f h is s i g n i f i c a n t essa y s were produced d u ring th e s e y e a r s , M oses, The Supremacy o f R eason, Judaism and A s c e tic is m , e t c . , he grew more and more despondent and l o n e l y .5^ 57Simon, Ahad Ha-Am, A B iography, pp. 40-41. 58I b i d . , p. 43. 59j JE, V, 671. 60Simon, "Ahad Ha-Am," AJYB, XXX, 96, 99. C 1 Ahad Ha-Am, E ssa y s, L e t t e r s ? M emoirs, t r . L. Simon (O xford: E a st and West L ib ra ry , 1 9 4 6 ;, p. 311. 6 2 Simon, Ahad Ha-Am, A B iography, pp. 222 f f . 49 During the O dessa-W arsaw -B erlin and London y e a r s , Ahad Ha-Am w atched w ith i n t e r e s t and concern th e growth o f p o l i t i c a l Zionism . A fte r th e f i r s t Z io n is t Congress i n August o f 189 7 in B a se l, H e r z l's supremacy o f th e movement was secu red and much o f G in z b e rg 's in flu e n c e waned. In d e s c rib in g th e C ongress, he rem arked t h a t he f e l t h im s e lf to be "a mourner a t th e wedding."®^ The f e a s t o f Jew ish n a tio n a lis m was p u ttin g th e wrong co u rses f i r s t , acco rd in g to G inzberg. As f a r as he was concerned, th e main co u rse was m is sin g , nam ely, th e r e ju v e n a tio n o f th e Jew ish people through a new and v i t a l l y charged Judaism . I t i s o f i n t e r e s t to n o te t h a t Ahad Ha-Am was perhaps among th e f i r s t to ta k e cognizance o f what i s now a f a c t , t h a t th e c r e a tio n o f a Jew ish S ta te would n e v e r p ro v id e a haven f o r th e m a jo rity o f Jews l i v i n g in th e w o rld . He was s k e p tic a l as to w hether b u t more th an a f r a c t i o n o f th e e n t i r e Jew ish w orld p o p u la tio n would e v e r f in d P a le s tin e as i t s perm anent p la c e of re s id e n c e . For t h i s reaso n he n ev er n eg a ted th e v a l i d i t y o f th e e x is te n c e o f a w idespread D iaspora o f Jews who would have t o rem ain n o u rish e d on a philo so p h y o f Judaism which would be in consonance w ith th e modern s p i r i t . I t was n o t t h a t Ahad Ha-Am was c a llo u s e d t o th e needs o f in d iv id u a l Jews b u t , c q °°Q uoted by Chaim Weizmann, T r i a l and E r r o r , p . 107. 50 r e a l i s t i c a l l y , he fa c e d th e f a c t t h a t P a le s tin e could p ro v id e th e s o lu tio n f o r b u t a sm a ll p e rc e n ta g e o f th e b e le a g u e re d Jews o f h is tim e . F ar more s e r io u s , he th o u g h t, was th e need to g iv e b i r t h t o a modern, meaning f u l e x p re s sio n o f Judaism which would re v iv e th e lo y a lty o f th e a s s im ila te d elem ents as w e ll as p ro v id e a refu g e f o r th o se escap in g from th e c o n fin e s o f orth o d o x y . To t h i s he b e n t h is g r e a t energy and evolved a p h ilo so p h y which comes t o b e a r th e name o f " S p i r i t u a l Zionism " o r " C u ltu ra l Z ionism ." The p o l i t i c a l Z io n is t a d v e n tu re , Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in e d , was born n o t because Judaism was in s t r a i t s b u t b ecause Jews a re in s t r a i t s , and, c o n s e q u e n tly , what W estern Z io n is ts wanted to do was t o c r e a te a Je w s1 S ta te so t h a t they who now s u f f e r e d d i s a b i l i t i e s because o f a n fi-S e m itism m ight f in d a p la c e o f r e fu g e . Ahad Ha-Am ta k e s s tro n g o b je c tio n to having a S ta te b u i l t on nega t i v e g ro u n d s, nam ely, to se rv e s o le ly as a haven o f re fu g e f o r th e p e rs e c u te d . Commenting on H e r z l’s P er B a s le r Congress (1 8 9 7 ), he s t a t e s t h a t "A nti-S em itism gave b i r t h to H e rz l, H erzl gave b i r t h to ’The Jew ish S t a t e , ’ The Jew ish S t a t e — to ’Z io n is m ,1 and Zionism — t o th e Congress]1 ® * W estern Jew s, who had t h e i r eyes opened t o t h e i r 64 Kol K itb e , p. 276; C f. , S i r Leon Simon, "H erzl and Ahad Ha-Am," H erzl Y earbook, I I I (New York: H erzl P re s s , 1960), 145-151. 51 Jew ishness th rough a n ti-S e m itis m , d id n o t c re a te Zionism f o r i t s own sa k e , b u t r a t h e r to a l l e v i a t e th e i l l e f f e c t s o f a n ti-S e m itis m . His s h a rp e s t barb i s th e o b s e rv a tio n t h a t i f a n ti-S e m itism should suddenly d i s ap p e a r, H e r z l's Zionism would soon follow in i t s wake. He q u o tes H e rz l as s a y in g , "The n a tio n i s a c o l l e c t i v e o f peo p le whose r e l a t i o n s h i p i s reco g n ized and whose u n ity i s m a in ta in e d by v i r t u e o f an enemy common to a l l C C o f them ." I f th e common enemy should d is a p p e a r, th en i t i s c l e a r t h a t th e n a tio n would d i s i n t e g r a t e . H erzl was n o t aw are, ac co rd in g t o Ahad Ha-Am, t h a t h i s t o r i c Judaism d e riv e s i t s s tr e n g th through th e n a tio n a l c u ltu r e which shapes i t s sons in i t s image and u n ite s them by means o f an overwhelming s p i r i t , whose e x is te n c e i s n o t 6 6 dependent on any e x te r n a l fo e . W e m ight ta k e as p r o p h e tic , Ahad Ha-Am's s t a t e ment o f 189 7, i n th e essay The F i r s t Z io n is t C o n g ress, t h a t One may even doubt w hether th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a 'Je w ish S t a t e ' a t th e p r e s e n t tim e , even in th e most com plete form t h a t we can im a g in e , having re g a rd to th e g e n e ra l i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n , would g iv e us th e r i g h t to say t h a t o u r problem had been co m p letely s o lv e d , and o u r n a t io n a l i d e a l a t ta i n e d . 'Reward i s p r o p o rtio n a te to s u f f e r i n g . '67 A f te r 65Kol K itb e , p. 277. 66I b i d . 67M. Abot 5, 23. 52 two thousand y e a rs o f u n to ld m isery and s u f f e r in g , th e Jew ish people cannot p o s s ib ly be c o n te n t w ith a t ta i n in g a t l a s t to th e p o s itio n o f a sm all and i n s i g n i f i c a n t n a tio n , w ith a S ta te to s s e d about lik e a b a l l between i t s pow erful n e ig h b o u rs, and m a in ta in in g i t s e x is te n c e only by d ip lo m a tic s h i f t s and c o n tin u a l tr u c k lin g to th e favoured o f f o rtu n e . An a n c ie n t p e o p le, which was once a beacon to th e w o rld , cannot p o s s ib ly a c c e p t, as a s a t i s f a c t o r y rew ard f o r a l l t h a t i t h as endured, a th in g so t r i f l i n g , which many o th e r p e o p le s, unrenowned and u n c u ltu re d , have won in a s h o r t tim e , w ith o u t going through a hundredth p a r t o f th e s u f f e r in g . I t was not f o r n o th in g t h a t I s r a e l had P ro p h e ts , whose v is io n saw R ighteousness r u lin g th e w orld a t th e end o f days. I t was t h e i r n a tio n a lis m , t h e i r love f o r t h e i r people and t h e i r la n d , t h a t gave th e P rophets t h a t v is i o n . For in t h e i r day th e Jew ish S ta te was always between two f i r e s —A ssy ria o r Babylon on one s id e , and Egypt on th e o th e r —and i t n ev e r had any chance o f a p e a c e fu l l i f e and n a tu r a l developm ent. So 'Z ionism ' in th e minds o f th e P rophets expanded, and produced t h a t g r e a t v is io n o f the end o f d a y s , when th e w olf should l i e down w ith th e lamb, and n a tio n should no lo n g e r l i f t up th e sword a g a in s t n a tio n — and th e n I s r a e l too sh o u ld dw ell s e c u re ly in h is la n d . And so t h i s id e a l f o r hum anity has always been and w i l l always be in e v ita b ly an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f th e n a tio n a l id e a l o f th e Jew ish p e o p le j and a 'Jew ish S t a t e ' w ill be able to give th e people r e s t only when u n iv e rs a l R ighteousness i s en th ro n ed and h o ld s sway over n a tio n s and S t a t e s . 68 I t i s in t h i s co nnection th a t Ahad Ha-Am proposed a new k in d o f c e n te r which was n o t n e c e s s a r ily to be a p o l i t i c a l c e n te r f o r Jews n o r a haven f o r th e o p p ressed . The c e n te r t h a t was to be e s ta b lis h e d in P a le s tin e should be one t h a t embodied p ro p h e tic Judaism . C onsequently, th e merkaz ru h an i ( " th e s p i r i t u a l c e n te r" ) which was C Q °°Achad Ha-Am, Ten Essays on Zionism and Judaism , pp. 26-27. 53 p r o je c te d was one in which th e c h o ic e s t of I s r a e l 's 6 9 i n t e l l i g e n t s i a was to f in d i t s ro o ta g e . T h e re , acco rd ing to Ahad Ha-Am, the Bene Moshe, th e s p i r i t u a l h e irs of Moses could r e b u ild th e c u l t u r a l fo u n d atio n s o f Hebraism and c o r r e c t some o f th e a b e r r a tio n s o f what had come to be c a lle d Judaism . Ahad Ha-Am looked t o the few and n o t to th e many f o r th e r e b i r t h o f the genuine Jew ish S t a t e . 70 Ahad Ha-Am, we s h a l l s e e , conceived o f th e r e s t o r a tio n o f the homeland as a means f o r th e c r e a tio n of th e "moral superm an." In e s sa y s a g a in s t th e N ietzschean school o f Hebrew w r ite r s le d by B erdyczew ski, Ahad Ha-Am ap p eals to b i b l i c a l v alu es as ep ito m iz ed in th e p ro p h e tic movement to c o u n te ra c t th e ap p eal o f th e Aryan superman. The "m oral superman" b e a rs a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to h is fello w 71 man. He is o b se ssed w ith th e "ought" in human a c tio n . Ahad Ha-Am's in f lu e n c e perm eates th e p h ilo so p h y o f th e o ld e r g e n e ra tio n o f I s r a e l i s ta te s m e n . He was t h e i r te a c h e r even when they f e l t h is le s s o n to be u n r e a l i s t i c and im p r a c tic a l. Now i s th e tim e f o r an a p p r a is a l of h is p hilo so p h y and i t s im p lem en tatio n . What I s r a e l i le a d e rs f e a r i s the growth of L evantinism and th e n o rm a liz a tio n 6 9 Meyer Waxman, B is h v ile H a -s a fru t We-ha-mah- shabah H a - ib r it (T el Aviv: Yavneh P u b ., 1556), pp. 75-83. 70Kol K itb e , p. 380. 71Ib id . , pp. 154-158. o f Jew ish l i f e . J u s t an o th e r n a tio n a lis m i s i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r th e f u lf i llm e n t o f a Jewish n a tio n a l e x is te n c e . What must be r e a l i z e d , how ever, i s t h a t Ahad Ha-Am was n o t m erely a n a t i o n a l i s t . He was th e proponent o f a system o f Judaism in which n a tio n a lis m had a predom inant r o le to p la y . I t was n o t to be th e o n ly r o l e . F u rth erm o re, we have seen th a t Ahad Ha-Am r e a l i z e d t h a t th e D iaspora would rem ain an h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y , c o - e x is tin g s id e by s id e w ith th e Jewish S ta te . D iasp o ra Judaism was t h e r e f o re v i t a l l y im p o rtan t as w e ll. In Ahad Ha-Am*s mind P a le s tin e was th e hub o f th e w h eel. The spokes o f th e D iasp o ra were always p r e s e n t and r e le v a n t fa c to rs in h is co n c ep tio n o f Jew ish d e s tin y . C o nsequently, much o f h i s p h ilo so p h y i s D ia s p o ra -d ir e c te d . I s r a e l , th e modern c o u n te rp a r t t o Ahad Ha-Am*s " P a le s tin e ," w i l l , because of n a t u r a l c irc u m s ta n c e s , become th e c r e a t o r o f th e new H eb raic p a t t e r n s of th o u g h t and c u l t u r e . Ahad Ha-Am conceived o f th e g a l u t ( " e x il e " ) as having a tw o -fo ld n a tu r e . There i s th e a c tu a l p h y s ic a l g a l u t which Zionism cannot show us how to e scap e , s in c e th e m a jo rity o f Jews w i l l n e v e r im m igrate to E re tz Y i s r a e l ; th e r e is a ls o th e s p i r i t u a l g a lu t which Ahad Ha-Am claim ed could be escaped. The l a t t e r cramps th e p eo p le in i t s s p i r i t u a l l i f e by ta k in g from i t th e p o s s i b i l i t y of sa fe g u a rd in g i t s i n d i v i d u a l i t y acco rd in g t o 55 i t s own s p i r i t . He w r ite s , T his s p i r i t u a l cramping which our a n c e s to rs used to c a l l . . . ’th e e x i le o f th e D ivine P re se n c e ' . . . has become e s p e c ia lly p a in f u l in our own tim e , s in c e th e overthrow o f th e a r t i f i c i a l w a ll behind which th e s p i r i t o f o u r people en tre n ch ed i t s e l f in p a s t g e n e ra tio n s , in o rd e r t o be a b le to liv e i t s own l i f e , and now we and o u r n a tio n a l l i f e a re en slav ed to th e s p i r i t o f the p eoples around u s , and we can no lo n g e r save o ur n a tio n a l i n d i v i d u a l i t y from being undermined as a consequence o f th e n e c e s s ity of a s s im ila tin g o u rse lv e s to th e s p i r i t o f th e a lie n l i f e , which i s to o stro n g f o r u s . Now i t i s t h i s problem of s p i r i t u a l g a lu th which r e a l l y fin d s i t s s o lu tio n in th e e sta b lish m e n t o f a n a tio n a l 'r e f u g e ' in P a le s tin e ; a refu g e n o t f o r a l l Jews who need peace and b re a d , but f o r th e s p i r i t o f th e p e o p le , fo r t h a t d i s t i n c t i v e c u l t u r a l form , th e r e s u l t o f a h i s t o r i c a l development of thousands o f y e a rs , which i s s t i l l stro n g enough t o l i v e and to develop n a t u r a lly in th e f u t u r e , i f only th e f e t t e r s o f g a lu th are removed. Though th e refu g e c o n ta in only a te n th p a r t o f th e p e o p le , t h i s te n th p a r t w i l l be s a c re d to the whole people which w i l l see in i t a p ic tu r e of i t s n a tio n a l i n d i v i d u a l i t y , o f what i t i s l i k e when i t liv e s i t s own l i f e , w ith o u t e x te r n a l r e s t r a i n t . 72 Ahad Ha-Am concluded t h a t th e e n t i r e s p i r i t u a l l i f e 73 o f Judaism i s to emanate from E re tz Y is r a e l and assig n e d a " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " as the fo rc e which g e n e ra te s Jew ish r e lig io u s values and as th e s ta y in g power o f th e Jew ish p e o p le .74 Ahad Ha-Am was g r e a t ly im pressed w ith H erb ert S p en ce r's th e o ry in which n a tio n s were made analogous to b io lo g ic a l organism s in t h e i r e v o lu tio n , grow th, and 72Achad Ha-Am, Ten Essays on Zionism and Judaism , p . 97. 73Kol K itbe, p. 428. 74I b i d . , p. 385. 56 75 decay. R e lig io n was p a r t of th e ch ild h o o d o f I s r a e l and in th e n a t u r a l e v o lu tio n of th e people t h i s would have d im in ish ed . However, sin c e I s r a e l was p re v e n te d from l iv i n g out i t s n a t u r a l e x is te n c e , r e l i g i o n , which i s th e p r o te c tiv e c o lo ra tio n of th e Jew ish c o l l e c t i v e g ro u p , has no valu e above t h i s s u r v iv a l fu n c tio n . I f th e r e was to be any th o u g h t o f s p i r i t u a l r e g e n e r a tio n , i t was n o t to be found in th e a r c h a ic t r a c t s o f r e l i g i o n b u t r a t h e r in th e p o s i t i v i s t and n a t i o n a l i s t o r i e n t a t i o n which Ahad Ha-Am viewed as th e c r e s t o f th e e v o lu tio n a ry p ro c e ss o f h is day. W e have d isc o v e re d t h a t God and r e l i g i o n a re f a r from b ein g dead— th a t th e r e lig i o u s bones a re f a r from d r ie d up, and t h a t i t s c e n tr a l fu n c tio n w ith in th e l i f e blo o d o f Judaism i s f a r from e x tin g u is h e d . I t i s f o r th e s e reaso n s t h a t opponents o f Ahad Ha-Am co u n terp o se w ith h is s e c u l a r - c u l t u r a l c e n te r in I s r a e l , a r e l i g i o - c u l t u r a l c e n te r o f th e D iaspora. These two c e n te rs o f Jew ish l i f e j o i n t l y can c r e a te th e i n t e l l e c t u a l and s p i r i t u a l a p p a ra tu s which w i l l p e rm it th e Jew ish peo p le to su rv iv e in t h i s c r u c i a l age, p ro v id in g an o v e r a l l framework f o r th e t o t a l i t y o f th e p e o p le . Jews have n e v e r, s in c e th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e F i r s t Temple, in v e s te d P a le s tin e w ith a l l o f th e r e lig i o u s and c u l t u r a l 75I b i d . , p. 374. 57 a u t h o r it y . The g r e a t c e n te r s o f D iaspora Jewry in B ab y lo n ia, A le x a n d ria , Cordova, P o lan d , R u ssia , and America t e s t i f y to th e f a c t t h a t a v ib r a n t Jew ish l i f e was p o s s ib le where th e r e was a co n scio u sn e ss o f th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e Jewish s p i r i t and an aw areness o f th e d e s tin y o f Judaism . The p h ilo so p h y o f Ahad Ha-Am had as i t s purpose s o lv in g th e " p lig h t o f Judaism " n o t m erely o f Jews. Hence, A rth u r H e rtz b e rg re p e a ts an a p t d e s c r ip tio n o f Ahad Ha-Am when he d e s ig n a te s him as "The A g n o stic R a b b i." 76 In 19 21, a f t e r w orking f o r y e a rs by th e sid e o f Chaim Weizmann, Ahad Ha-Am, broken i n h e a lth and s p i r i t , moved to P a l e s t i n e . In th e se l a s t y e a rs o f a c r e a tiv e and tu r b u le n t l i f e he arra n g e d h is l e t t e r s f o r p u b lic a t i o n . These a re g a th e re d in s ix volumes which have r e c e n tly been r e p r i n t e d . In th e l a s t months b e fo re h is death he d i c t a t e d h is M emoirs, which were p u b lis h e d p o s t humously. On January 2 , 19 2 7 he was g a th e re d to h is f a t h e r s , w id ely mourned by th e peo p le o f whom, to th e very l a s t , he c o n s id e re d h im s e lf a common and i n e x t r i c a b l e l i n k . 76 H e rtz b e rg , The Z io n is t I d e a , p. 2*f7. CHAPTER I I I THE BIBLE AND JEWISH TRADITION: FOUNDATION STONES FOR SPIRITUAL ZIONISM Ahad Ha-Am had a g r e a t re v e re n c e fo r th e B ib le , s in c e he c o n sid e re d i t th e bedrock o u t o f which Judaism was b u i l t . F u lly sc h o o led in i t s c o n te n ts and in the com m entaries and m a ster com m entaries which com prised t r a d i t i o n a l Jew ish b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip , he was a t ease in i t s complex thought-m olds and i t s e x e g e s is . His v e n e ra tio n f o r th e Holy S c r i p t u r e s , upon which he drew so h e a v ily in th e developm ent o f h is own p h ilo so p h y of " S p i r i t u a l Z io n ism ," d id n o t p re c lu d e a c r i t i c a l approach to b i b l i c a l m a t e r i a l s , how ever, as w e ll as t o th e h ig h ly s e l e c t i v e use o f th e re s e a rc h e s o f th e b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip o f h is day. When i t i s ta k e n in t o account t h a t Ahad Ha-Am was a confirm ed a g n o s tic , i t becom es. c l e a r th a t h i s a t t i t u d e to w ard th e B ib le and i t s e x e g e sis flow s from o th e r than t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s c o n s id e r a ti o n s . He re g a rd e d re v e re n c e f o r th e p a s t and i t s r e l i g i o u s h e r ita g e a v i t a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l a t t i t u d e , even when i t s v a st body o f b e l i e f 58 59 i s no lo n g e r deemed te n a b le in th e modern w orld. C r i t i cism o f th e B ible m eant, f o r Ahad Ha-Am, th e c o n s tr u c tiv e use of th o se a s p e c ts o f b i b l i c a l th o u g h t which would en ab le modem Judaism to su rv iv e i t s s p i r i t u a l c r i s i s and which would a s su re i t o f i t s h i s t o r i c c o n tin u ity . The a t t i t u d e s o f re v e re n c e f o r t r a d i t i o n and of c r i t i c i s m o f t r a d i t i o n ab id e in te n s io n in Ahad Ha-Am*s th o u g h t and are h e ld to g e th e r by th e m o rtar o f " S p i r i t u a l Z ionism ." The founder o f th e p h ilo so p h y o f " S p i r i t u a l Zionism" e n t e r ta in e d th e b e l i e f t h a t th e l i t e r a r y c re a tio n s o f th e Jew ish people were th e p ro d u ct o f th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t , " b ro u g h t in to b ein g to a s su re th e n a tio n a l s u r v iv a l o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . With t h i s n o tio n as a prem ise f o r th e in v e s tig a tio n o f th e Jew ish p a s t , th e B ib le and t r a d i t i o n must be viewed b oth as in e v ita b le consequences o f th e c r e a t i v i t y o f th e " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " and as i t s o b je c ts o f re v e re n c e . I t w ould be a m istak e t o e x p la in Ahad Ha-Am* s d e f e r e n t i a l a t t i t u d e tow ard th e k le kodesh (" s a n c ta " ) o f Jew ish l i f e on th e b a s is o f h is h a s id ie u p b rin g in g a lo n e . The id eas developed in h is m ature y e a rs were undoubtedly a f f e c te d by e a rly ch ild h o o d a t t i t u d e s and th e le a rn in g o f h is fo rm a tiv e p e rio d . W e must probe and u n d e rsta n d th e s e and o th e r in f lu e n c e s and r e l a t e theai tc th e system o f th o u g h t t h a t he l a t e r ev o lv ed . The f i n a l p ro d u ct o f h i s 60 l i f e ’s c o g i t a t i o n , th e program o f c u l t u r a l , s p i r i t u a l , s e c u l a r i s t Judaism , i s a com posite so complex t h a t i t b e tra y s s e lf - c o n s c io u s n e s s in i t s c o n s tr u c tio n . Ahad Ha-Am1s p h ilo so p h y i s as much a program o f a c tio n as a system o f th o u g h t. As su c h , i t has a p rag m a tic m o ti v a tio n w ith o u t which " S p i r i t u a l Zionism " cannot be u n d ersto o d . In h is R em in iscen ces, Ahad Ha-Am re v e a ls t h a t he had s u c c e s s f u lly m a ste re d th e B ib le to th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f h i s te a c h e rs by th e age o f e le v e n . His f a t h e r th e n removed him from p rim ary sc h o o l (h e d e r ) and p ro v id e d him w ith a p r iv a te t u t o r w ith whom he s tu d ie d Talmud and the Responsa l i t e r a t u r e . A fte r th e age o f f i f t e e n , he p u rsu ed h is s tu d ie s w ith o u t b e n e f i t o f a t u t o r , concen t r a t i n g on th e B ib le w ith th e Jew ish com m entaries, e s p e c i a lly th e P ro p h e ts and th e H agiographa. He became an acknowledged a u t h o r it y on th e most complex le g a l l i t e r a t u r e , th e R ab b in ic C odes.^ Like so many o th e r ta lm u d is ts , Ahad Ha-Am must have c o n s ta n tly re d is c o v e re d th e B ib le , p a r t i c u l a r l y as i t was u n d ersto o d in th e Talmud, s in c e ta lm u d ic law b a se s i t s e l f upon s c r i p t u r a l t e x t s . Ahad Ha-Am's use o f th e B ib le as th e b a s is f o r h is id e o lo g ic a l s t r u c t u r e cannot be red u ced to s u b je c ti v e •4Col K itbe Ahad Ha-Am (T e l A viv: D vir C o., L td ., 1 9 5 6 ) ,pp. 466, H86, U92 f f . m o tiv a tio n s a lo n e . He h e ld i t to be a b a s ic c h a ra c t e r i s t i c o f Judaism to v alu e a b s tr a c t id e a s fre e of s u b je c tiv e r e fe re n c e .^ To him , a p p r e c ia tio n o f th e B ible must flow from o b je c tiv e aw areness; id e a s r e l a t i v e t o the B ible must be j u s t i f i e d by t h e i r conforming t o a b s tr a c t and o b je c tiv e p r in c i p l e s . The attem p t a t o b je c ti v ity by Ahad Ha-Am, th e development o f an a u th e n tic Hokmas Y isro e l o r i t s German e q u iv a le n t Jiidische W isse n sc h a ft, can n ev e r be s e p a ra te d , how ever, from th e ongoing flow o f Jew ish l i f e and e x is te n c e . Ahad Ha-Am a s s e r ts th a t th e B ible i s a p roduct o f Hebrew o b je c tiv e c u ltu r e . I t i s observed t h a t th e degree o f c u ltu re t h a t a n a tio n has achieved can be viewed from two a s p e c ts . One a sp e c t would d e a l w ith what th e c u ltu re has produced and th e o th e r w ith th e s t a t e o f c u l t u r a l l i f e a t any given moment. The form er a s p e c t i s an o b je c tiv e m easuring rod o f a n a t i o n 's c u l tu r e , w hile th e l a t t e r i s dependent upon s u b je c tiv e e v a lu a tio n . O b je c tiv e ly , . . . a n a t i o n 's c u ltu re i s som ething which has a r e a l i t y o f i t s own: i t is th e c o n c re te e x p re ssio n o f th e b e s t minds o f th e n a tio n in every p e rio d o f i t s e x is te n c e . The n a tio n e x p re sse s i t s e l f in c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e form s, which remain f o r a l l tim e , and a re no lo n g e r dependent on th o se who c re a te d 2 P a r t i c u l a r l y was t h i s th e case w ith th e id e a of j u s t i c e which was viewed in an e n t i r e l y o b je c tiv e se n se. Aryeh Simon and Joseph H e lle r , Ahad Ha-Am, H a - is h , P o 'a lo We-t o r a to (Jeru salem : Magnes P re s s , 1955J, pp. 192-195. 62 them , any more th a n a f a lle n .a p p le i s dependent on th e t r e e from which i t f e l l . O b je c tiv e and s u b je c tiv e a s p e c ts o f c u ltu r e do n o t n e c e s s a r ily a t t a i n th e same degree of developm ent a t th e same tim e . In th e h is t o r y o f a n a tio n th e re may be p e rio d s in which "a few e x c e p tio n a lly g i f t e d m inds1 1 r e p r e s e n t th e r e s e r v o i r of i t s s p i r i t u a l s tr e n g t h . I t i s th e s e minds which produce "an o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e ," dependent upon " th e s t a t e o f c u ltu re " a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r moment, which may n o t be f u l l y com prehensible to th e masses of p e o p le . The England o f th e se v e n te e n th and e ig h te e n th c e n tu r ie s which produced men such as S h ak esp eare, Bacon, Locke, Hume, as w e ll as o th e r b r i l l i a n t w r i t e r s , e x e m p lifie s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p o in t. These g i f t e d minds c re a te d new i n t e l l e c t u a l avenues in l i t e r a t u r e and p h ilo so p h y which a re r e le v a n t even t o i i th e p r e s e n t day. T urning to Hebrew c u l t u r e , Ahad Ha-Am h o ld s th a t "so long as th e B ib le i s e x t a n t , th e c r e a tiv e power o f th e Jew ish mind w i l l remain u n d e n ia b le ." 5 The Hebrew q Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c te d E s s a y s , t r . L. Simon ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o ciety o f Am erica, 1912), p . 259. ^I b i d . , p. 260. 5I b i d . , p. 261. For a f u l l d is c u s s io n o f Ahad Ha-Am's co n cep tio n o f c u l tu r e , n o te Aryeh R u b in ste in , " T e f is a t H a -'k u ltu ra * Be-m ishnat Ahad Ha-Am," M e lila h , I I I - I V (M anchester: U n iv e rs ity o f M anchester, 1950), 289-310. S c r ip tu r e s , th e n , r e p r e s e n t f o r Ahad Ha-Am p ro o f p o s itiv e t h a t , a t l e a s t in t h a t p e r io d of c r e a t i v i t y , o b je c tiv e c u ltu r e e x is te d . F urtherm ore, Ahad Ha-Am d is a g re e s w ith id e a s c u r r e n t d uring h is tim e th a t th e r e was no a u th e n tic Hebrew c u ltu r e o u ts id e o f th e S c r ip tu r e s and t h a t th e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t had been produced i n th e D iaspora was not e x p re s siv e o f tr u e Hebrew g e n iu s. To th e c o n tra ry , Ahad Ha-Am a s s e r t s t h a t th e Jew ish s p i r i t has undergone no change in i t s e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . 6 He f in d s no b a s is f o r th e fa s h io n a b le tendency among non-Jew ish s c h o la rs and most Jew ish s c h o la rs to u n derscore th e fundam ental d if fe re n c e between p r o p h e tic te a c h in g s and th e r i t u a l l y - o r i e n t e d Judaism which evolved d u ring th e p e rio d o f th e Second Temple and re c e iv e d i t s f i n a l form a f t e r th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e Temple. The p ro p h e tic te a c h in g s are h e ld by th e s e s c h o la rs to be e x c lu s iv e ly m o ral, d ir e c te d tow ard a l o f t y s p i r i t u a l l e v e l , w hereas th e Judaism concerning i t s e l f w ith e x t e r n a l r e g u la tio n , which came l a t e r , im poverished i t s s tr e n g t h by th e c r e a tio n o f "innum erable t r i v i a l o rd in a n c e s" which were la c k in g in m oral v a lu e . Upon c lo s e in s p e c tio n , Ah^d Ha-Am n o te s , th e s e two a s p e c ts o f Judaism , w hile th e y d i f f e r c o n s id e ra b ly in c o n te n t, a re n e v e rth e le s s th e g Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c te d E s s a y s , p. 26 3. 64 e x te n s io n and th e p ro d u ct o f one s p i r i t o f which both are 7 a tr u e e x p re s s io n . S ince th e B ible i s th e p ro to ty p e o f Hebrew o b je c t i v e c u l t u r e , i t occupies a prim ary p la c e in Jew ish l i t e r a t u r e . I t fo llo w s , in Ahad Ha-Am's m ind, th a t Hebrew h as been th e language of th e Jew ish people e v e r s in c e i t came in t o e x is te n c e . Ahad Ha-Am does n e t c o n s id e r th e p r e - h is to r y o f th e Jew ish people ( t h a t i s , accounts o f i t s p o s s ib le e x is te n c e o u ts id e th e c h ro n ic le d h is t o r y o f the B ib le) as having any re le v a n c e w hatsoever. C onsequently, h i s c o n c lu sio n t h a t Hebrew alone "was, i s and w i l l be o ur n a tio n a l language always,"® fo llo w s as a n a t u r a l sequence. Hebrew l i t e r a t u r e f o r Ahad Ha-Am in c lu d e s th e Aramaic p o r tio n s o f th e B ib le , th e Targumim, M idrashim , as w e ll as th e P a le s tin i a n and B abylonian Talmudim, because f o r a tim e Aramaic was th e language o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . The B abylonian Talmud was n o t c re a te d on Jew ish s o i l and would, by s t r i c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , have t o be excluded from th e " tr u e n a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e . " However, sin c e i t f a l l s under th e broad canopy o f th e c r e a tio n o f th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t , " Ahad Ha-Am se es f i t to in c lu d e i t b u t w ith o u t re s o lv in g th e c o n f l i c t w ith h is r e s t r i c t e d d e f i n i t i o n o f Hebrew l i t e r a t u r e . 7I b i d . ® Kol K itb e , p. 180. 65 What Jews w rote i n o th e r la n g u a g e s, w hether o r n o t i t was lin k e d to th e m a trix o f Jew ish r e l i g i o u s th o u g h t, was c o n sid ered by Ahad Ha-Am as p a r t o f th e n a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e o f th e h o s t people o r h o s t n a tio n w ith whom q th e Jews liv e d . While a t t r i b u t i n g p o s it iv e elem ents to th e modem H askalah movement, th e n e g a tiv e f a c to r s and a b e rr a tio n s which r e s u l t e d from i t a r e tr a c e d by Ahad Ha-Am to Moses M endelssohn's German t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e B i b l e . ^ That th e Jews were c a lle d " th e peo p le o f th e book" from th e tim e o f Mohammed i s common knowledge. The book, o f c o u rse , r e f e r s to S c r ip tu r e , and c o jo in in g th e people to th e book was accom plished by o b s e rv e rs o f th e r e l i g i o u s and c u l t u r a l l i f e o f th e Jew and h i s in tim a te r e l a t i o n sh ip to th e B ib le . Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in s t h a t th e r e l a t i o n between a peo p le and i t s l i t e r a t u r e i s one o f p a r a l l e l development and m utual i n t e r a c t i o n when th e people i s a normal o n e .11 L i t e r a t u r e h as as i t s fu n c tio n 9I b i d . , p. 179. S ta te d p o s i t i v e l y , "k i h a-'am ' azmo roeh s i f r u t o h a -le u m it rak ba-meh sh e-k atu b b ilsh o n e n u . . ("F o r th e people i t s e l f re c o g n iz e s as i t s n a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e o nly t h a t which i s w r itte n in Hebrew"). W rite rs such as Lev Levanda, alth o u g h s u p e r io r t o P erez Sm olenskin, have a l l been f o r g o tte n , f o r th e form er w rote in R ussian and th e l a t t e r in Hebrew. 10I b i d . , p. 77. 11I b i d . , pp. 51 f . The a r t i c l e i s e n t i t l e d , "Torah S h e - b a - l e b ( " T h e Torah w ith in " ) . Ahad Ha-Am c o n t r a s ts 'am s i f r u t i , "a l i t e r a r y p e o p le ," w ith 'am h a - s e f e r , 66 th e p ro p a g a tio n o f new i d e a s , and th e l i f e o f th e people a tte n d s to th e r e s t . A new id e a th u s p ro p ag ated becomes an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f co n scio u sn ess and an independent dynamic fo rc e em ancipated from i t s l i t e r a r y o r i g i n . Such, u n d o u b ted ly , was th e atm osphere in which th e B ible was c r e a te d . However, i f a "people o f th e book" has become a " s la v e t o th e book," and i f th e book has become a c r u tc h , th e fre s h n e s s t h a t comes w ith s p o n ta n e ity of a c tio n and em otion e v a p o ra te s . This le a d s t o a p e t r i f i c a tio n o f b oth people and book. L i t t l e changes in such p e r io d s ; th e peo p le w ith e rs and th e book s ta g n a te s because th e re i s no lo n g e r any l iv i n g c o n fro n ta tio n 1 9 between th e two. Ahad Ha-Am concludes t h a t Jews have been a "people o f th e book" f o r two th ousand y e a rs b u t were n o t always so. The Hebrews were n o t a "people o f th e book" in th e age o f th e p ro p h e ts o r even in th e p e rio d o f th e Second Temple. The s p o n ta n e ity n e c e ss a ry f o r a f re s h and s e l f - r e l i a n t r e a c tio n to l i f e was n o t a b s e n t as w itn e ss th e famous te a c h in g o f H i l l e l : "What i s h a t e f u l t o you, do n o t to your n e ig h b o r, t h a t i s th e whole la w ." 13 "people o f th e book," d en o tin g th e co n g ealin g o f th e spontaneous Torah o f th e h e a r t . 12I b i d . , pp. 52 f . 13I b i d . , p . 52. H i l l e l th e E ld e r (c a . 70 BCE), born i n B abylon, went to stu d y a t th e academ ies in 67 As an example o f t h i s f l u i d i t y , Ahad Ha-Am a ls o p o in ts o u t t h a t th e b i b l i c a l law o f le x t a l i o n i s , "an eye f o r an e y e ," ^ ^ was co n sid e re d too savage f o r a c i v i l i z e d n a tio n and th e r a b b in ic t r a d i t i o n ( i . e . th e O ral Law) u n d ersto o d th e meaning o f S c rip tu re i n t h i s passage t o mean "th e v alu e o f an eye f o r an e y e , com p e n s a tio n in money and n o t r e t a l i a t i o n in k i n d . " ^ Side by s id e w ith th e w r i tte n law , th e n , th e re was an o r a l law which Ahad Ha-Am in t e r p r e t e d to be th e " in n e r law , th e law o f th e m oral se n se" which a c te d as a c o r r e c tiv e upon th e w r i tte n law , o fte n fundam entally changing i t s i n t e n t . However, when t h i s was reduced to w r i t i n g , i t a ls o became congealed and, acco rd in g to Ahad Ha-Am, t h i s m oral sense was l e f t w ith only one c l e a r and firm c o n v ic tio n — th a t i t was sp e n t and t h a t i t was to be 1 6 s u b s e rv ie n t to th e w r i tte n word f o re v e r . The book, r a t h e r th a n o n e ’s c o n sc ie n c e , became th e a r b i t e r in s i t u a t i o n s o f c o n f l i c t . R e fle c tin g t o a g r e a t Je ru sa lem and became a fo rem o st sage around whom a sc h o o l came to group i t s e l f . His te a c h in g appears in Shab. 31a. . l u Ex. 21:2*t. ■^Kol K itb e , p. 52. Cf. , b . Baba Kama 83b. 16Kol K itb e , p . 52. "The v o ice o f God in th e h e a r t o f man" no lo n g e r had any a u th o r ity on i t s own. Whenever problem s o f l i f e re q u ir in g s o lu tio n s o c c u rre d , th ey were t o be found in a book. The slogan f o r t h i s approach came to be c h a r a c te r iz e d as n e te s e f e r w e-neheze ( " L e t’s g e t a book and s e e " ) . I b i d . , p . 52. e x te n t th e orthodox c lim a te in which he was r e a r e d and a g a in s t which he r e v o lte d , Ahad Ha-Am o bserved t h a t "th e h e a r t had no lo n g e r th e r i g h t even to approve o f what th e 17 w r itte n word o rd a in e d ." The r i g h t to q u e s tio n th e te n e ts o f th e w r i tte n word was a b ro g a te d and a u th o r ity had to be b lin d ly a c c e p te d . To make h i s p o in t, Ahad Ha-Am c i t e s th e commentators on H i l l e l 's s ta te m e n t, who throw th e ca v ea t a t H ille l* s m oral i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e law by e x p la in in g away th e s a y in g , which i s th e crown jew el o f th e Talmud, t h a t what i s meant by "your n eig h b o r" i s r e a l l y God. T h is , claim th e com m entators, was c l e a r ly H i l l e l 's i n t e n t i o n — u n d ersc o rin g t h a t you are n o t t o go a g a in s t God's w i l l because you would n o t lik e y o u r n eig h b o r to go a g a in s t yo u r w i l l . S im ila r ly , i f , in s te a d o f th e B ib le , th e B abylonian Talmud had l a i d down th e p r in c ip l e o f "an eye f o r an e y e ," and th e ta lm u d ic com m e n ta to rs , r a t h e r th a n th e e a rly sa g e s , had been given th e r i g h t to i n t e r p r e t i t , th e y would have i n s i s t e d upon i t s l i t e r a l meaning.'*'® Ahad Ha-Am's d e p re c a tio n o f th e 17 I b i d . As P ro fe s s o r Shaoul H a r e li p o in te d out in "Ahad Ha-Am and Jew ish D estiny" (u n p u b lish e d l e c t u r e , Hebrew Union C o lle g e , 1956), p . 11, Ahad Ha-Am d i s t i n g u ish ed between a "people o f th e book" and 'am h a - s i f r u t (" a l i t e r a r y p e o p le " ). The l a t t e r im p lie s c r e a t i v i t y and th e r e j e c t i o n o f o u td a te d form s; " i t means to grow s p i r i t u a l l y . " 18Kol K itb e , p. 52. 69 ta lm u d ic commentators sta n d s r e a l l y in sh arp c o n tr a s t to th e a c tu a l n a tu re o f th e ta lm u d ic com m entaries, s in c e one could h a rd ly draw a g e n e r a liz a tio n about them spanning s e v e r a l c e n tu r ie s and co v e rin g th e m u ltif a r io u s sc h o o ls which th e y r e p r e s e n t. However, to make h is p o in t, Ahad Ha-Am c a te g o r ic a ll y i n s i s t s upon t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , e x t o llin g th e re b y th e n a tu re o f th e b i b l i c a l t e x t and o f th e e a r l y commentators and sages who were th e o r ig in a t o r s o f th e O ral Law.19 While th e word "Torah” t e c h n ic a ll y i s eq u ated w ith th e P e n ta te u c h , i t has a c q u ire d a g r e a tly expanded meaning in Jew ish t r a d i t i o n and i s used w ith re fe re n c e to th e t o t a l i t y o f Jew ish r e lig i o u s te a c h in g . As su ch , i t embraces th e e t h i c a l , th e ce re m o n ia l, s o c i a l m ores, le g a l m a t e r i a l s , as w e ll as th e o lo g ic a l c o n c e p ts. Conse q u e n tly , Ahad Ha-Am's a t t i t u d e tow ard th e B ib le , in term s o f h is g e n e ra l c r i t i q u e and ap p ro ach , i s a p p lic a b le t o th e s e o th e r a re a s as w e ll. While Ahad Ha-Am conceived o f a l l o f th e s e f a c e ts o f Torah as em anating from th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t , " o r th e la c k o f i t , he was w ith in th e b a s ic prem ises o f h is s u p p o s itio n s when he re n d e re d a 19 Ahad Ha-Am th e n develops th e p o s itio n t h a t th e e x a lta tio n o f th e w r itte n word came t o be a c c e p te d in Judaism w ith ra b b is and people unable to r e v o lt a g a in s t i t s a u t h o r it y . Only H ibbat Z io n , th e f r e e and spon tan eo u s "love o f Zion'* i s an a n tid o te f o r t h i s p e t r i f i c a t i o n o f th e s p i r i t . Kol K itb e , pp. 52 f f . c r i t i q u e o f th e a d o rin g , u neducated, g u l l i b l e r e l i g i o n i s t s who s t i l l clung to s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s , o u tla n d is h laws and p r a c t ic e s which were bequeathed by p re v io u s g e n e r a t io n s . In modern tim e s , such credulous r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s have been f e r o c io u s ly a tta c k e d through l o g i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n . D esp ite t h i s , many r e l i g i o n i s t s , in c lu d in g ed u cated p e o p le , adhere to i n h e r i t e d b e l i e f s w ith o u t g iv in g them a second th o u g h t. I c o n o c l a s ti c a tta c k on such b e l i e f s r e s u l t e d only in a red o u b led de fe n se and se n tim e n t o f re v e re n c e f o r th e p a s t , ak in to what had a t one tim e m a n ife s te d i t s e l f i n w orship o f th e dead. The concept o f e v o lu tio n , which r e v o lu tio n iz e d p re v io u s m ethodologies and can now be a p p lie d to re s e a rc h e s in to th e developm ent o f human id e a s and i n s t i t u t i o n s , i s too fo rm id ab le f o r th e p a t answers o f the p a s t . The h i s t o r i a n i s p r im a r ily i n t e r e s t e d in t r e a t i n g th e h is t o r y o f c i v i l i z a t i o n as a n a tu r a l phenomenon, ap p ly in g c a te g o r ie s o f in v e s tig a tio n such as th o se we f in d in b io lo g y and u sin g such d e s c r ip tiv e term s as b i r t h and p ro cess o f grow th, w ith th e prim ary o b lig a tio n to u n d e rsta n d how th in g s d ev elo p , what c o n d itio n s a re r e q u i s i t e f o r t h e i r e x is te n c e and developm ent, and how change ta k e s p la c e . The h i s t o r i a n , t h e r e f o r e , i s not i n t e r e s t e d in condemning o r p r a is in g one o r a n o th e r 71 system . H is prim ary concern i s u n d ersta n d in g by pene t r a t i n g th e workings o f th e human s p i r i t . "The human s p i r i t a b id es by e t e r n a l la w s, and i t s f r u i t s a t any g iv en tim e a re dependent upon i t s s ta g e o f developm ent and th e n a tu re o f i t s environm ent a t t h a t tim e ." 20 The h i s t o r i a n a p p r e c ia te s t h a t we apprehend r e a l i t y d i f f e r e n t l y from o ur a n c e s to rs because o ur w orld i s d i s s i m i l a r t o t h e i r s and o u r ap p reh en sio n o f r e a l i t y i s s tr u c t u r e d d i f f e r e n t l y from t h e i r s . Thus, what was a hallow ed t r u t h in one g e n e ra tio n m ight be co n sid e re d 21 as an a b s u rd ity in a subseq u en t g e n e ra tio n . Ahad Ha-Am lam ents t h a t , w h ile th e h i s t o r i c a l method had an im pact upon and has developed new a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e p a s t in th e w orld g e n e r a lly , no com parable development has ta k e n p la c e in Jew ish th o u g h t. This i s accounted f o r , in p a r t , by th e i n a b i l i t y o f some Jew s, because of orthodox o r n a t i o n a l i s t p r e s u p p o s itio n s , to p ass a n e g a tiv e judgment on a p a r t i c u l a r p r a c t i c e . In W estern c o u n trie s th e p ic tu r e i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t , i n t h a t Jew ish th in k e r s re g a rd e d Judaism s o le ly as a r e l i g i o n and th e more l i b e r a l o f them attem p ted to reform r e l i g i o n and r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e through lo g ic a l 20Kol K itb e , p . 271. 21I b i d . , p. 272. c r i t i c i s m , which Ahad Ha-Am c o n sid e rs a d ated method. A ccording to Ahad Ha-Am, th e f a lla c y o f l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m l i e s i n i t s ap p ly in g th e sta n d a rd s o f r e a s o n a b i l i t y , p re v a le n t in o u r own a g e , to a n c ie n t id e a s and custom s, in p re fe re n c e t o stu d y in g in an o b je c tiv e way th e circum s ta n c e s o f t h e i r e v o lu tio n and developm ent w ith in th e 9 2 c o n te x t from which th ey em anate. The e s s e n t i a l t a s k , th e n , i s one o f v e r s te h e n , n o t o f ju d g in g n o r o f c u l lin g from th e t r a d i t i o n , by l o g i c a l c r i t e r i a a lo n e , th o se elem ents which seem r e le v a n t and have contemporaneous s ig n i f ic a n c e . Ahad Ha-Am f e l t , " B a s ic a lly , r e l i g i o n i s a m a tte r o f f e e l i n g , and n o t o f b e l i e f s . B e lie fs may change d r a s t i c a l l y , b u t f e e lin g re m a in s ." 25 Ahad Ha-Am c l a r i f i e s t h i s p o in t in t h i s d is c u s s io n o f Rabbi E. L o l l i 's a t ta c k on th e Shulhan Aruk2* * (pub lis h e d in H a sh ilo a h ) demanding th e a b o l itio n of th o s e laws w ith in i t which a re no lo n g e r r e le v a n t and ask in g t h a t i t be concluded " t h i s i s n o t o u r T o rah ." Ahad Ha-Am n o te s , "There i s no doubt t h a t b a s i c a l l y he i s r i g h t . " 25 22I b id . 25L e t t e r o f Ahad Ha-Am to M. K. (Moses K a lis c h e r ? ), A p ril 12, 1899, in Ahad Ha-Am, Ig g e ro t (T e l Aviv: D vir C o., L td ., 1 9 5 6 ), I I , 275. Note a ls o th e d is c u s s io n by Moshe D ubshani, M ishnat Ahad Ha-Am (T e l Aviv: D vir Pub. C o ., n . d . ) , pp. 71-80. O i l A compendium o f laws e d ite d by Joseph Karo (1^88-1575). 25Kol K itbe, p. 272. 73 Ahad Ha-Am ag rees w ith Rabbi L o lli t h a t no modern Jew w ith e d u c a tio n can s u b s c rib e to t h a t which th e ra b b i w ished to expunge from h av in g a u th o r ity f o r contem porary Jew ry. However, Ahad Ha-Am ta k e s s e rio u s is s u e w ith L o l l i 's co n c lu sio n t h a t to say " t h i s i s n o t our Torah" would be wrong. I t i s "our Torah" in th e g u is e t h a t i t developed a t an e a r l i e r tim e . The same i s tr u e o f th e Talmud and th e B ib le . These th r e e to g e th e r ( B ib le , Talmud, Shulhan Aruk) a re sim ply th r e e d i f f e r e n t s te p s in th e p ro cess o f th e developm ent o f one e s s e n c e — th e Jew ish n a tio n a l s p i r i t — in accordance w ith th e circu m stan ces and th e re q u ire m e n ts o f d i f f e r e n t epochs in h i s t o r y . 26 Rabbi L o l l i , q u o tin g Samuel David L u zzatto (1800-1865), a d e fe n d e r o f t r a d i t i o n , th o u g h t t h a t th e Mishnah and th e Talmud were n o t o r i g i n a l l y d esig n ed as codes. The l a t t e r , n e v e r th e le s s , came to be re g a rd e d as su ch , and th e d e c is io n s a r r iv e d a t became b in d in g upon o b se rv a n t Jew ry. The su bsequent code o f M aimonides, th e Mishneh T o ra h , made no a tte m p t to d i s t in g u is h r e l i g i o u s laws on th e b a s is o f t h e i r i n t r i n s i c v alu e o r contem porary re le v a n c e . The t r a d i t i o n was r e v e a le d by God and one was n o t f r e e to tam per w ith i t . D esp ite many o f th e r e lig i o u s la w s , customs and t r a d i t i o n s o f th e B ib le and th e e n t i r e t y o f what i s c a lle d T orah, one must n o t, as Reform Jew ish s c h o la r s d id , s e l e c t one o v e r a n o th e r on th e b a s is o f 26Ib id . i t s lo g ic a l c o m p a tib ility w ith o u r th o u g h t, b u t m ust show re v eren c e f o r th e p a s t and summon adequate se n tim e n t to a p p r e c ia te th e p o s itio n o f th e s e r e s e r v o ir s o f th e Jew ish 9 7 s p i r i t w ith in t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t. The d if f e r e n c e between L o lli and Ahad Ha-Am seem s, how ever, more p o in te d ly to be t h a t L o l l i s t i l l b e lie v e d in th e d iv in e a u th o r ity o f th e Shulhan Aruk as such and w ished to s e l e c t from i t th a t which co n tin u ed to rem ain r e l i g i o u s l y r e l e v a n t , in o rd e r to keep th e a u th o r ity and b in d in g n a tu r e of th e Shulhan A ruk. Ahad Ha-Am, who b e lie v e d n o t a w hit in th e b in d in g n a tu re o f th e p re c e p ts o f th e B ib le and th e codes as su ch , looked upon t h i s v a s t body o f l i t e r a t u r e as having i t s mooring in a p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f tim e and th e r e f o r e r e le v a n t only to i t . He was c a p a b l e ,i n t e l l e c t u a l l y and e m o tio n a lly , o f re v e rin g th e t o t a l i t y o f i t , even th o se a s p e c ts which rem ained 9 ft repugnant to him. ° The h i s t o r i a n o f Jew ish r e l i g i o u s th o u g h t, Dr. Yehezkel Kaufmann, re c o g n iz e d t h a t Ahad Ha-Am's views 27I b i d . , pp. 272 f . 2 8 In correspondence w ith Rabbi L o l l i , Ahad Ha-Am p re s s e s h is p o in t . . . " th a t r e l i g i o n alo n e does n o t account f o r o u r s u r v i v a l , and t h a t th e w estern Je w s, who a s s e r t t h a t i t d o e s, t i e them selves up in a h o p e le ss ta n g le o f paradoxes and s o p h i s t r i e s , th e re b y p ro v in g t h a t th ey may lo s e t h e i r c i v i l r i g h t s i f th e y adm it t h a t th e Jews are a s e p a ra te n a tio n . . ." Quoted in Ahad Ha-Am, E ssa y s, L e t t e r s ? and M em oirs, p . 261. The f u l l l e t t e r i s t o be found in I g g e r o t , I I , 62-63. 75 on th e e v a lu a tio n o f th e Jew ish people and i t s l i t e r a r y p r o d u c tiv ity r e p r e s e n t a " p sy c h o lo g ic a l and h i s t o r i c a l e n t i t y . " 2® Ahad Ha-Am p r o je c te d a " n a tio n a l ego on th e analogy o f th e in d iv id u a l s e l f " in which p a s t , f u t u r e , m em ories, im p re s s io n s , h o p es,an d d e s ir e s are a l l i n t e r tw ined as th e common h e r ita g e o f th e n a tio n .® 0 Every n a t io n a l e n t e r p r i s e , and Ahad Ha-Am would c o n s id e r b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip such an e n t e r p r i s e , can be e v a lu a te d by th e manner in which i t f u l l y g ra sp s t h i s b a s ic t r u t h . The Jew ish people p o sse sse s a V o lk sg e ist which perm eates a l l o f i t s e x is te n c e . S u ffu sin g ev ery a s p e c t o f l i f e , t h i s s p i r i t r e p r e s e n ts th e c r e a tiv e f o rc e o f th e people 31 and i s a m a n ife s ta tio n o f i t s w i l l t o l i v e . The n a t io n a l organism , which in S pencerian term s i s made analogous to any o th e r p h y s ic a l org an ism , i s governed by a n a t u r a l b a s ic d riv e which Ahad Ha-Am c a l l s Ha-kium 3? H a-leu m i. T his - " i n s t i n c t o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n " works 29Y ehezkel Kaufmann, "*Ekare D e 'o ta v s h e l Ahad Ha-Am," H a-T ekufah, XXIV ( B e r lin : 1 9 2 8 ), 424. O ft Kol K itb e , p. 81. Ahad Ha-Am h e re acknowledges h i s in d e b te d n e ss to John S tu a r t M ill and Renan, who s t r e s s e d th a t th e n a t io n a l s e l f o r ego i s in i t s essence th e commingling o f p a s t and p r e s e n t. q I O J-Ahad Ha-Am d e fin e s t h i s by th e e x p r e s s io n , h e fe z ha-kium w e -h a -o s h e r, " d e s ir e f o r l i f e and h a p p i n ess ." Kol K itb e , p. 61. E lsew here, hush h a-k iu m , " i n s t i n c t f o r s u r v i v a l ." Kol K itb e , p . 4 2 l. 32 "The n a t io n a l i n s t i n c t f o r s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n ." Kol K itb e , p. 421. on th e subconscious l e v e l . 33 I t illu m in a te s th e e v o lu tio n o f th e Jew ish r e l i g i o n and, in th e case o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , i t e x p la in s i t s b e l i e f in monotheism and th e purpose o f th e r e l i g i o u s commandments and i n s t i t u t i o n s as p r o te c tiv e c o lo r a tio n a g a in s t th e animus o f th e h o s t i l e s o c i e t i e s in which Jews have been condemned t o liv e s in c e t h e i r d is p e r s io n . The " i n s t i n c t o f s e lf - p r e s e r v a tio n " o f th e Jewish people c r e a te d t h i s o rg a n ic Jew ish c u ltu r e as a means to t h i s end, and t h e i r p re s e n t day e x is te n c e i s q n a te stim o n y to i t s s ta y in g power. As s e v e re ly c r i t i c a l as he was o f Jew ish s c h o la r s h ip , which denied i t s in h e re n t lin k a g e to th e Jew ish n a tio n a l p a s t , and as c o n s is te n t as he was in denouncing t h i s approach as b ein g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e "scien ce o f Judaism ," Ahad Ha-Am was e q u a lly i n c i s i v e when i t came to th e a n a ly s is of th e developm ent of th e r e l i g i o u s emphases o f Judaism . His own l o g i c a l d e d u c tio n s r e l a t i n g t o th e o r ig in s o f Judaism were no l e s s a d e p a rtu re from th e orthodox t r a d i t i o n upon which Ahad Ha-Am was weaned th a n t h a t o f West European Je w ry 's "re fo rm e rs" and r e s e a rc h e r s in t o th e Jew ish p a s t . Ahad Ha-Am broke r a d i c a l l y w ith th e Jew ish t r a d i t i o n , and w ith th e Jew ish commentators upon whose th in k in g he drew l i b e r a l l y , in h is d e n ia l o f 33I b i d . 3^ I b i d . , pp. 78-80. th e e x is te n c e o f a tra n sc e n d e n t and s u p e rn a tu ra l God, and in h is s u b s t itu ti n g th e " n a tio n a l w i l l to l i v e ” and th e i n s p i r a t i o n a l p r o p e n s itie s o f th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t . " Jew ish e t h i c s , c le a r ly r e f l e c t e d in th e B ib le , as demands made upon man by God, a re t r a n s l a te d i n to the n a t i o n 's in n a te p e rc e p tio n o f th e moral sense which comes to tak e th e p lace o f d iv in e i n s p i r a t i o n . 36 "He t h a t keepeth I s r a e l s h a l l n e i th e r slum ber nor sle e p " (P s. 1 2 1 :4 ), was equated w ith th e " n a tio n a l w i l l to l i v e . " In h is appendix to th e P ro to c o l Derek Ha-hayyim, which was w r itte n to serve as a s e t o f bylaws f o r th e Bene Moshe (th e s o c ie ty which spearheaded th e Hobebe Zion movement and serv ed as a f r a t e r n a l o r d e r ) , Ahad Ha-Am enum erates e a rly in h is c a re e r as a p o le m ic is t th o se in d is p e n s ib le f a c to r s which com prise "the n a tio n a l pos s e s s io n s " o f th e Jewish p eo p le. These a r e : P a le s tin e and i t s s e ttle m e n t; T orat Y i s r a e l , i t s language and wisdom th e memory o f o u r f o r e f a th e r s and t h e i r h i s t o r y ; th e customs o f our a n c e s to rs and t h e i r way o f l i f e from g e n e ra tio n to g e n e ra tio n . By th e se th e people were to be welded to g e th e r in a s tr o n g , s p i r i t u a l bond, awakening th e " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " in th e h e a rts o f a l l th e l i v i n g . 36 35I b i d . , p . 162. 3fi Derek Ha-hayyim, ed . Abraham Lubarsky and E liy ah u Zeeb H alevi L ew in-Epstein (New York: Maslansky P u b lis h e r s , 1905), p. 12. 78 These i d e a s , which were p re s e n t a t the o u t s e t of Ahad Ha-Am's l i t e r a r y and s c h o la r ly c a r e e r , perm eated h i s p h ilo so p h y th ro u g h o u t, t o the v e ry l a s t e s s a y th a t he O '? was to w r i t e —Summa Summarua. I t was n e c e ssa ry f o r th e n a t i o n a l i s t Jew t o have a p o s it iv e a t t i t u d e toward th e n a tio n a l t r a i t s o f Judaism . T h is does n o t , however, impose b e l i e f i n th e id e a s of r e lig i o u s Judaism b u t m erely a d e f e r e n t i a l a t t i t u d e tow ard them. Once h av in g s t a t e d t h i s , Ahad Ha-Am could v e ry w ell sa y : " I , a t l e a s t , can sppak o u t concerning th e b e l i e f s and o p in io n s ray a n c e s to rs have bequeathed me w ith o u t my fe a rin g to snap th e bond t h a t u n ite s me to my p e o p le ." 33 As i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h i s sta te m e n t o f s p i r i t u a l freedom , showing how Ahad Ha-Am f e l t about th e B ib le and Jew ish p r a c t i c e , ev id en ce may be brought from a number o f i n t e r n a l id e o lo g ic a l c o n f l i c t s w ith in th e Z io n is t movement. In 1911, Hapoel H a z a ir ( The Young Workman) p r in te d an a r t i c l e by th e S o c i a l i s t 's spokesman, Hayyim B renner (1881-19 2 1 ), which u n eq u iv o cally s t a t e d t h a t Hebrew n a tio n a lis m was n o t t i e d t o t r a d i t i o n a l Judaism , and t h a t young Jews were in no way o b lig a te d to show rev e re n c e f o r th e b e l i e f o f t h e i r a n c e s to rs o r to 37"Sak H a-kol" was w r i tte n in 1910 and the e s sa y appeared in H ashiloah in l a t e S p rin g o f 1912. Leon Simon, Ahad Ha-Am, A B iography, p . 242. 38Kol K itb e. pp. 68 f . 79 h u m ilia te them selves b e fo re "some s o r t o f h eavenly f a t h e r ." F u rth e r, th e y were f r e e o f th e "hypnos" o f S c r ip tu r e s in t h a t they had a c l o s e r a f f i n i t y to many s e c u la r books. What, th e n , Ahad Ha-Am a s k s , i s l e f t of t h e i r n a t io n a l h e r ita g e from th e p a s t? To which he e x c la im s, "N othing, 39 n e i t h e r o b lig a tio n n o r even n e g a tio n ! ” Ahad Ha-Am f u r t h e r p o in ts out t h a t th o se who want to f r e e them selves from th e yoke o f Judaism by r e j e c t i n g th e te a c h in g o f i t s p a s t can be compared to one who w ishes to " l i b e r a t e " a t r e e by c u ttin g o f f i t s r o o t s . Jew ish n a tio n a l r o o ts go deep i n t o th e ground o f th e p a s t , and from t h i s t r e e modern n a tio n a lis m draws i t s n u r tu r e . C onsequently, Ahad Ha-Am concludes t h a t . . . a n a t i o n a l i s t Jew even though he be a t o t a l u n b e lie v e r cannot sa y : I have no p o r tio n in th e God o f I s r a e l , in t h a t h i s t o r i c fo rc e which has k e p t our people a liv e and has abun d an tly e n ric h e d i t s s p i r i t and way o f l i f e in th e co u rse o f thousands of y e a rs . He who in tr u t h has no p o r tio n in th e God of I s r a e l , who does not f e e l w ith in him any r e l a t i o n sh ip to th a t 'e x a l t e d w o rld 1 in which o u r f o r e f a th e r s ste e p e d t h e i r minds and t h e i r h e a r t s th ro u g h a l l g e n e ra tio n s and from which th e y drew t h e i r m oral s tr e n g t h —he may be a p ro p e r man b u t he i s not a n a t i o n a l i s t Jew, even though he liv e s i n th e la n d o f I s r a e l and speaks th e h o ly t o n g u e . ^ Ahad Ha-Am u n d ersc o re s h is b e l i e f t h a t a n a t i o n a l i s t Jew, though he be a com plete a t h e i s t , i s t o be ac ce p ted as a Jew i n th e same manner as an u l t r a t r a d i t i o n a l i s t Jew, 39I b i d . , p. i+07. 40I b i d . , p . 408. 80 th e d if f e r e n c e b ein g t h a t th e one sa y s T I I b e lie v e " and th e o th e r says " I f e e l . " However, when one i s n o t t i e d to th e n a t io n a l p a s t e i t h e r through f a i t h o r th ro u g h f e e l i n g , what rem ains f o r him t h a t he sh o u ld be p e rm itte d to c a l l h im s e lf a Jew ish n a t i o n a l i s t ? The Hebrew language? "Remove a ls o i t from th e 'h y p n o s' o f th e p a s t , what do we have in common w ith i t ? . . .Why sh o u ld we th e n n o t tu r n o u r backs on i t a ls o i f we can f in d , and in d e ed we can f in d , a n o th e r more b e a u t i f u l th a n i t ? " * * ■ * ■ God, th e B ib le , Hebrew w ith o u t th e "hypnos" o f th e p a s t , would have no unique p la c e in th e th in k in g o f th e p r e s e n t. Ahad Ha-Am, who was known t o belong t o th e non r e l i g i o u s wing o f th e Hobebe Z io n , was s u b je c t to a tta c k s by th e o rth o d o x f o r b ein g a h e r e t i c and an enemy o f r e l i g i o n . In th e m id st o f a c o n tro v e rsy which was th r e a te n in g to s p l i t th e Hobebe Z io n , he re c e iv e d a l e t t e r from Rabbi Jo n ath an E lia s b e r g , son o f Rabbi M ordecai ^ I b i d . The term "hypnos" came in to vogue in Ahad Ha-Am's day. I t was b e lie v e d t h a t id e a s o f th e p a s t could be b ro u g h t th ro u g h h y p n o sis in to th e p r e s e n t. Dr. S c h i l l e r o b serv es t h a t f o r Ahad Ha-Am, "Die G e s e ll- s c h a f t ? d ie L e h re r, d ie ganze Umgebung s in d d ie H y p n o tise u re , d ie uns ih r e Gedanken ein im p fen . Und n ic h t n u r Z e itg e n o sse n ! Es g i b t H y p n o tiseu re in d e r f e r n s te n V erg a n g e n h e it, und i h r e Id een w irken noch immer a u f uns s u g g e rie re n d —w ir g lau b en s e l b s t zu denken, und w ir denken d ie Gedanken j e n e r . " Salomon S c h i l l e r , "Achad-Haam," Heim kehr, E ssays J u e d is c h e r Denker (B e r lin : V erlag Louis Lamm, 1 ^1 2 ), p . 8 2 . E lia s b e rg , a famous orthodox s c h o la r , who ex p ressed concern over th e seeming advocacy o f r e lig i o u s reform co n tain e d in Ahad Ha-Am’s e s s a y , Torah S h eb aleb . This i s th e essay in which Ahad Ha-Am a tta c k e d th e n o tio n o f th e ’'people of th e book" and o f th e congealed s t a t e o f th e O ral Law, ren d erin g an in s ta n ta n e o u s resp o n se to l i f e im p o ssib le . Ahad Ha-Am r e p lie d in H a m e litz , under th e t i t l e "D ibre Shalom" ("Words o f P e a c e " ), s e t t i n g f o r th again h is o b je c tio n s to reform in r e l i g i o n , and r e i n fo rc in g h is view o f th e Jew ish p a s t in term s o f e v o lu tio n a r y p r i n c i p l e s . Since attem p ts a t reform o f th e Jew ish p a s t are i l l - f a t e d , he has no i n c l i n a t i o n to mix in to m a tte rs o f r e l i g i o n o r i t s reform s as such. In a d d itio n , he has no i n c l i n a t i o n to confuse th e problems o f r e lig i o n w ith th o se o f H ibbat Zion ("The Love o f U 9 Z io n "). * Reforming Judaism i s lik e tr y in g to fre e z e f i r e . I t ta k e s p la c e only when men f in d i t im p o ssib le to b e lie v e any more in th e e x is te n c e o f God. R e lig io n i s r e l i g i o n only as long as i t s b e lie v e r s b e lie v e in th e e x is te n c e o f ^ Kol K itb e , p. 57. Leon Simon p o in ts out t h a t Ahad Ha-Am's s k i l l f u l re p ly to Rabbi E lia s b e rg was c a r e f u lly couched so as n o t to r i s k th e s p l i t t i n g o f f o f th o se who were r e lig i o u s from th e H ibbat Zion movement. Hence, th e t i t l e o f th e a r t i c l e , "Words o f P eace." He d id n o t, however, compromise h i s view t h a t H ibbat Zion could " l i b e r a t e th e Jew ish h e a r t from su b se rv ie n c e to th e p e t r i f i e d code and ended w ith a p le a f o r m utual to le r a n c e ." Leon Simon, Ahad Ha-Am, A B iography, p. 114. 82 God. When t h i s b e l i e f i s underm ined, reform s a re advo c a te d .^ ^ Baruch K urzw eil se e s "som ething o f t h a t q u ie t demonism" in Ahad Ha-Am1s a tte m p ts h e re a t " d ip lo m a tic b lu r r i n g o f th e d if fe re n c e s which e x i s t between th e two w o rld s—between th e w orld o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h and o f ath e ism . . ." Even w h ile r e i t e r a t i n g h i s b e l i e f t h a t th e id e a l o f H ibbat Zion co u ld l i b e r a t e Judaism both from i t s su b se rv ie n c e t o a code which no lo n g e r had re le v a n c e and from re lx g io u s p r a c t ic e s which were no lo n g e r m e an in g fu l, Ahad Ha-Am seems to smooth th e r u f f l e d f e a th e r s o f Rabbi E lia s b e rg by u s in g , in th e co u rse o f h is e s s a y , such ex p re ssio n s as " u n t i l th e Lord w i l l be m e rc ifu l and c l a r i f y m a t t e r s . H e c lo s e s on a c o n c ili a to r y n o te s i n c e , in l i n e w ith h i s v ie w s, he f e l t i t n e c e ss a ry to show p ro p e r d efe re n c e to Rabbi E lia s b e rg w h ile th o ro u g h ly d i s ag re e in g w ith h i s r e l i g i o u s c o n v ic tio n s . K urzw eil i s undoubtedly c o r r e c t , a lth o u g h somewhat h a r s h , in s t a t i n g t h a t "on th e b a s ic p r i n c i p l e s o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h , even th e Reformers a re c l o s e r to t r a d i t i o n a l Judaism th a n th e a u th o r o f "Words o f P eace. ^ Kol K itb e , p . 58. "Kol ha-om er le ta k e n e t h a - d a t h a re hu be-feynai k k ilu omer l '- k a r e r e t h a -e s h . . .H a-d at hee d a t k o l zeman she-ba-*aleha ma-aminim bim korah h a-elo h i." ^ I b i d . , p. 60. 45 Baruch K urzw eil, "Judaism —th e Group 83 In lin e w ith th e argum ents l a i d down in Torah M i-Z ion, Ahad Ha-Am opposed a prom inent French Jew, Salomon R einach, who ad vocated th e r e l i g i o u s em ancipation o f E a st European Jewry from orthodoxy and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , from th e cerem o n ial law r e l a t i n g to th e observance o f th e Sabbath and th e d ie ta r y r e g u l a t i o n s , 1 + 6 both o f which are c l e a r l y and unm istakably p ro claim ed i n th e Hebrew S c rip - I* 7 t u r e s . In th e s e a r t i c l e s , Salomon Reinach arg u e s th a t th e d ie ta r y laws make meat d e a r and p re v e n t Jews from having h e a lth y and cheap form s of fo o d , such as sw in e 's W ill-to -S u rv iv e ? A C ritiq u e o f Achad Ha-Amism," Ju d aism , IV (Summer, 1955), 210. M ordecai K aplan ta k e s s tro n g E xception to K u rz w e il's c r i t i q u e , making such sta te m e n ts a s , . . Ahad Ha-Am n ev er denied th e e x is te n c e o f God. On th e c o n tr a r y , he e x p re sse d h im s e lf i n term s t h a t d e f i n i t e l y im p lie d a b e l i e f in God." M ordecai K aplan, "A nti- Maimunism i n Modem D re ss," Judaism , IV ( F a l l , 1 9 5 5 ), 305. K a p la n 's s la s h in g a tta c k a g a in s t K urzw eil f a l l s s h o r t o f p ro v in g K urzw eil i n e r r o r , and in p a r t s of th e a r t i c l e a c tu a l ly r e in f o r c e s th e v i t a l p o in ts o f K u rz w e il's t h e s i s . ^ * * 6Reinach expounded h i s views i n an a r t i c l e , f,L 'em an cip atio n i n t d r i e u r e du juda'ism e," (L'U ni v e rs I s r a e l i t e , NN, 6 , 8 , 1 2 ), fo o tn o te d i n Kol K itb e , p . 301. if7The p ro cla m atio n o f th e S abbath i s found in Gen. 2 :1 - 3 ; Ex. 31:13-17. Laws r e l a t i n g to Sabbath observance a re d e lin e a te d i n Ex. 2 0 :8 -1 1 ; Ex. 3 1 :1 4 , 15; Ex. 3 5 :2 -3 ; Lev. 2 3 :3 ; Lev. 24:8; Nu. 1 5:32-36; D eut. 5: 12-15. The d ie ta r y laws a r e e n jo in e d in Gen. 9:4; Lev. 1 1 :1 -4 7 ; Lev. 17:11; D eut. 1 4 :3 -2 0 . The law p ro h i b i t i n g th e s e e th in g of a k id in i t s m o th e r's m ilk , Ex. 2 3 :1 9 ; Ex. 3 4 :2 6 ; D eut. 14:21, i s e x p la in e d by th e ra b b is "as r e f e r r i n g to t h r e e d i s t i n c t p r o h ib itio n s : cooking meat and m ilk to g e th e r ; e a tin g such m ix tu re ; d e riv in g any b e n e f i t from such a m ix tu re . (H ul. 115b)." Kaufman K o h ler, "The D ie ta ry Laws," J E , IV (New York: Funk and W agnalls Company, 1903), 5 9 ^ 6 0 0 . 84 f l e s h , a v a ila b le to them. The Sabbath in v o lv e s f in a n c i a l lo s s to businessm en and i s a d isa d v an ta g e f o r th e poor who cannot o b ta in work in f a c t o r i e s i f they a re Sabbath o b s e rv e rs . Reinach proceeded to p o in t out t h a t d u rin g th e Hasmonean p e rio d M a tta th ia s p e rm itte d th e d e s e c r a tio n o f th e Sabbath f o r th e purpose o f s e lf - d e f e n s e . E rgo, Reinach re a s o n s , s in c e s u r v iv a l i s a t s ta k e f o r th e Jew ish community, v i o la tio n o f th e Sabbath i s p e r m itte d .1 *8 Ahad Ha-Am, in a b i t i n g c r i t i c i s m , c o u n te rs th e s e id e a s by p o in tin g out t h a t what M a tta th ia s d id was to make i t p o s s ib le f o r Judaism to s u rv iv e . For t h i s re a s o n , he allow ed h is men t o d e s e c ra te th e Sabbath by d efen d in g them selves a g a in s t th e enemy. The S abbath, Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in s , "has been s a n c t i f i e d by th e b lo o d o f o u r peo p le and has s h ie ld e d i t f o r th o u san d s o f y e a rs from s p i r i t u a l d e g e n e ra tio n . . . I|l*9 He i s w e ll aw are, tf8Kol K itb e , pp. 301-302 . li q I b i d . , p. 302. Ahad Ha-Am's rev e re n c e f o r th e Sabbath was profound d e s p ite h is u n b e lie f in i t s d iv in e o r d in a tio n . He f e l t i t s p re s e n c e . He could w r i te : "Even now when Sabbath i s o v e r, from th e tim e o f th e s e t t i n g o f th e sun u n t i l th e candle i s l i t , I love t o s i t in my c o m e r and sin k i n to th e very depth o f my f e e l i n g s . I f e e l th e n , as i f my so u l was u p l i f t e d t o th e very h e ig h ts . . . and v a rio u s memories o f my youth would come to c o n s c io u sn e ss, memories s t i r r i n g up la u g h te r , p le a s a n t, p le a s a n t to me in d e e d . . . Sometimes my l i p s would alm o st a u to m a tic a lly b reak i n t o a f a m il ia r Aramaic c h a n t, th e f a m il ia r melody to o would d i s t i n c t l y s l i p o u t o f my mouth in a s t i l l , sm a ll v o ic e , and te a r s would w e ll up and stream from my e y e s ; I d o n 't know why w ith o u t R e in a c h 's i n s t r u c t i o n , t h a t th e Sabbath and o th e r r e l i g i o u s observances evolved o u t o f crude b e l i e f s and th e em otions o f p r im itiv e man and did n o t come in to b e in g f u l l grown in t h e i r p r e s e n t form. N e v e rth e le s s , modern p eo p le can s t i l l f in d th e Sabbath a d e lig h t and o b serv e th e d ie ta r y laws in t h e i r homes f o r th e sim ple re a so n t h a t they do n o t seek th e opprobrium o f o th e r Jew ish p eo p le who would o th e rw ise c o n s id e r t h e i r ta b le t ft ( p ro fa n e . In a f i n a l r e jo in d e r to R einach, he q u o tes M a tta t h ia s : "Our h o ly t h i n g s , o u r p r id e and o u r g lo ry have been l a i d w a ste ; why th e n sh o u ld we l i v e ? "5^ S im ila r ly when Max N ordau,52 co-w orker o f Theodor o r how." Quoted in th e Hebrew by Joseph H e ll e r , "Ledmuto H a -n a f s h it W e-haruhanit dhel Ahad Ha-Am,” M e lila h , V (M anchester: U n iv e rs ity o f M an ch ester, 1955), 257. ^ Kol K itb e , p . 302. The S abbath, d ie ta r y laws and o th e r custom s, cerem onies and o b se rv a n c e s, Ahad Ha-Am c o n s id e re d as h i s t o r i c a l in s tru m e n ts , "L 'kadshe Ha-um ah,” f o r th e s a n c t i f i c a t i o n o f th e n a t io n , and were to be re g a rd e d as sa c re d even i f one could no lo n g e r b e lie v e in them. Ahad Ha-Am th e " r a t i o n a l i s t " and " a t h e i s t " ( " h a - k o f e r ” ) was always to be found a t th e s id e o f th e d efen d e rs o f th e t r a d i t i o n w henever i t was in p e r i l . Aryeh Simon and Joseph H e ll e r , Ahad Ha-Am H a -is h , F o 'a lo W e-to rato (Je ru sa le m : The Hebrew U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1955), p . 89. ^ Kol K itb e , p. 302. 5 9 Max Nordau was a rem arkable and v e r s a t i l e man. W hile p r a c t i c i n g m edicine and p s y c h ia tr y , he was a ls o a ra n k in g newspaperman, p o e t, d r a m a tis t, and f i c t i o n w r i t e r . A llie d w ith H e rz l, he developed a " th r e e - d im en sio n al Z io n ism ." The f i r s t dim ension i s p e r s o n a l, communal o r n a t i o n a l ; th e seco n d , i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g lo b a l th e t h i r d , tr a n s - g l o b a l o r "cosm ic Z ionism ." Nordau ) 86 H e rz l, in th e f o r e f r o n t o f p o l i t i c a l Zionism m ain tain ed th a t he saw no n a tio n a l v alu es in th e observance o f the S abbath, Ahad Ha-Am w rote a b r i l l i a n t defense o f th e S abbath, e n t i t l e d ShabbatW e-Zionut ( Sabbath and Zionism ) , in which he defended th e Sabbath as a fundam ental and h i s t o r i c i n s t i t u t i o n o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . He w ro te , Whomsoever f e e l s in h is h e a r t a tr u e bond w ith th e l i f e o f th e n a tio n th ro u g h o u t th e g e n e ra tio n s , even though he d en ies th e 'w o rld t o come' o r a Jew ish s t a t e cannot v is u a liz e th e e x is te n c e o f th e Jew ish people w ith o u t 'Queen S abbath' . . . More than th e Jew has k e p t th e S abbath, th e Sabbath has p r e se rv e d th e Jew .53 I t i s c l e a r t h a t Ahad Ha-Am's is s u e w ith Reinach and conceived o f Zionism in b oth Jew ish and u n iv e rs a l te rm s. I t was a philosophy which f o r him "was n o t a r e t r e a t from th e a n c ie n t Jew ish i d e a l o f human b ro th e rh o o d ; i t m erely sought to en su re Jew ish s u r v iv a l in th e in te rim between n a tio n a lism and b ro th e rh o o d ." M eir Ben-H orin, "R econsidering Max N ordau," H erzl Year Book, I I , ed. Raphael P a ta i (New York: H erzl P re s s , 1959), 169. Nordau had b ro u g h t to Zionism a u n iv e rs a l dim ension whereby Zionism would be th e in stru m e n t le a d in g mankind to th e goal o f b ro th erh o o d and lo v e . M eir B en-H orin, H erzl Year Book, I I , 170. Kol K itb e , p. 2 86. The p h ra s e , "Ki y o te r m i- s h e - y is r a e l shomru e t h a-S h a b b a t, shomrah ha-S habbat otam ," ("F o r, more th a n I s r a e l observed th e S abbath, th e Sabbath p re se rv e d them") has become so w e ll known th a t i t has been in c lu d e d , among o th e r l i t u r g i e s , in th a t o f th e Reform movement's Union P ra y e r Book I (New York: CCAR, 1957), p. 31. Qf i n t e r e s t on t h i s s u b je c t i s Leon Sim on's e s s a y , "Ahad Ha-Am and T ra d i t i o n a l Judaism ," The B randeis Avukah A nnual, ed. Joseph S. Shubow (B oston: 'l?he S tr a tf o r d C o., 1932), pp. 128-134. 87 54 Nordau i s r e a l l y n o t i n t e l l e c t u a l b u t e m o tio n a l. Ahad Ha-Am i s no le s s a re fo rm e r in p r i n c i p l e than e i t h e r o f th e s e men ap p ears to b e. Y e t, when i t came to p ra c t i c a l a s p e c ts and im p lic a tio n s o f refo rm , he c a s t th e s e to th e wind s in c e th e y would su n d er th e O rganic u n ity o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . He condemns as vehem ently as any re fo rm e r th e p e t r i f i c a t i o n which Judaism has undergone. What i s a t s ta k e i s n o t th e o lo g ic a l s p e c u la tio n b u t t e h i a t H a -ru a h , "th e r e v i v i f i c a t i o n o f th e s p i r i t . " There are b o ld a s s e r tio n s in th e w r itin g s o f Ahad Ha-Am in which he n e g a te s t h a t c r i t i c i s m w hich, based on th e Jew ish p a s t , j u s t i f i e d th e a s s i m i l a t i o n i s t te n d e n c ie s o f European Jew ry. Ahad Ha-Am was g r e a t ly i n t o l e r a n t o f 54 Simon n o te s th a t f o r Ahad Ha-Am "The th e o lo g ic a l b a s is i s gone, b u t th e s u p e r s tr u c tu r e re m a in s." Conse q u e n tly , Ahad Ha-Am could s a y , "The Sabbath i s a c h a ra c t e r i s t i c m a n if e s ta tio n o f th e n a tio n a l s p i r i t o f I s r a e l , th e r e f o r e i t i s h o ly ." Simon, The B randeis Avukah A nnual, p. 131. H e lle r u n d ersc o re s t h a t in m a tte rs o f r e l i g i o n , Ahad Ha-Am would s a y , "an i m argish" ( " I f e e l " ) , where th e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t would s a y , "a n i ma-amin" ( " I b e l ie v e " ) . He c o n s id e re d someone as b ein g a " b a 'a l d a t a m iti," (" a t r u l y r e l i g i o n s p erso n ") even though he was n o t a " b a 'a l emunah" ( " a man o f f a i t h " ) , on th e view t h a t th e form er was a " b a 'a l reg esh d a t i " (" a p erso n o f r e l i g i o u s f e e l i n g " ) . Ahad Ha-Am n o te s t h a t in h is tim e th e r e were among many p eo p les in d iv id u a ls in t h i s c a te g o ry who s u s ta in e d r e l i g i o n . Joseph H e l l e r , "Ahad Ha-Am We-ha- m aso rah ," Mezudah (London: A arat P u b lish in g S o c ie ty , 1943), p p . 148 f . A d e t a il e d d is c u s s io n o f Ahad Ha-Am's a n a ly s is o f th e q u e s tio n o f th e s u r v iv a l o f Judaism and i t s p r a c t ic e i s found in Y ehezkel Kaufmann, Golah W e-nekar (T e l Aviv: D vir P u b lish in g C o ., 19 3 2 ), I I , 4TTTFT7 and M. Z. Lewinson-Levy, "Yesod H a-regesh B e-m asseket Ahad Ha-Am," H adoar (March 26 , 1937),ppu326 f . i th o se whom he accused o f using b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m to f u r t h e r and a c c e le r a te a program o f a c c lim a tiz in g Jews to W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n and o f j u s t i f y i n g t h e i r b id f o r c i v i l em ancipation and c i v i l l i b e r t i e s . He p ic tu r e d as th e end r e s u l t o f t h i s p ro c e ss th e t o t a l a b s o rp tio n o f Jewry in to C h r is tia n c i v i l i z a t i o n . ^ He had seen evidence o f t h i s in Germany, F ran ce, and p a r t i c u l a r l y E ngland, where Oswald John Simon, a sc io n o f one of th e prom inent A nglo-Jew ish f a m il ie s , had proposed a new Jew ish church whose moorings were to be t o a l l y c u t loose from the n a tio n a l elem ents o f Jew ish t r a d i t i o n and which was to confine i t s e l f to th e e s ta b li s h e d v e r i t i e s o f Judaism c c which were u n iv e r s a lly a c c e p ta b le . ° A c e r t a i n Z io n is t who p u b lis h e d an a r t i c l e in th e O e s te rre ic h is c h W o c h en sc h rift, in which in te rm a rria g e i s 5 7 condoned, i s s e v e re ly ta k e n to ta s k by Ahad Ha-Am. Ahad Ha»Am, whose own d au g h ter had in te r m a r r ie d , ta k es t h i s o p p o rtu n ity to oppose in te rm a rria g e in u nequivocal te rm s. He r e a c ts s i m ila r ly in h i s e s s a y , The N a tio n a l E t h i c , in which he d is c u s s e s Max N ordau's Dr. Kohn. 55Kol K itb e , pp. I f . ^ I b i d . , p. 262; a ls o in Simon, Ahad Ha-Am, A B iography, p. 239. ^ Kol K itb e , pp. 290 f . In h i s e s s a y , "Dibbur U -s h e tik a ," ( ’'Speech and S ile n c e " ) Ahad Ha-Am r e f e r s to th e in c id e n t re c o rd e d i n th e new spaper where a w e ll known Jew ish w r i t e r i n Vienna m a rried a n o n -Jew ess, adopted C h r is tia n ity b u t s t i l l c o n sid e re d h im s e lf a Z io n is t. Nordau s t a t e s in t h i s work t h a t th e re i s w ith in th e Z io n is t p o s itio n no lo g ic a l cause f o r o p p o sitio n t o in te rm a rria g e . Ahad Ha-Am f e e ls t h a t sin c e in te rm a rria g e i s a danger to th e p re s e rv a tio n of th e p e o p le , i t i s th e n , a m oral duty f o r th e n a t i o n a l i s t Jew to s a c r i f i c e h is in d iv id u a l h appiness f o r th e sake o f th e p r e s e rv a tio n of 5 8 h is p e o p le . Ahad Ha-Am, in h is o p p o sitio n to i n t e r m a rria g e , c le a r ly echoes E z ra ’s alarm when th e l a t t e r , in su rv ey in g th e r e lig io u s l i f e o f P a le s tin e upon h is r e tu r n to i t from e x i le in P e r s ia , i n t e r d i c t e d in te rm a r r ia g e and i n s i s t e d t h a t in te rm a rrie d couples s e v e r t h e i r m a trim o n ial t i e s f o r th e sake o f th e p u r ity of the I s r a e l i t e c u ltu s . "Now th e re fo r e g iv e n o t your daughters unto t h e i r s o n s , n e i t h e r ta k e t h e i r daughters unto your 59 so n s ." He c o n tin u e s , W e have broken f a i t h w ith our God, and have m arried fo re ig n women o f th e peoples o f th e la n d ; y e t th e re i s hope f o r I s r a e l concerning t h i s th in g . Now l e t us make a covenant w ith our God to p u t away a l l th e w iv es, and such as are b o m o f them, acco rd in g to th e counsel o f th e L o rd .60 Ahad Ha-Am, as E z ra , fe a re d t h a t th e p h y s ic a l lo s s o f an I s r a e l i t e c o n trib u te d to th e weakening o f th e s o l i d a r i t y 58Kol K itb e , pp. 162 f . 59E zra 9:12. 60E zra 1 0 :2 -3 . 90 o f th e Jew ish people and th e e n try w ith in i t o f fo re ig n elem ents would m itig a te a g a in s t th e f u l l flo w e rin g of th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t . " His b i o lo g i c a l approach i s to be c o n tr a s te d w ith th e g r e a t t h e o r e t i c leeway he i s w illi n g t o g iv e to anyone who, though a f r e e t h i n k e r , n e v e r th e le s s c o n sid e rs h im s e lf a Jew. In resp o n se to th e a r t i c l e , "Speech and S ile n c e ," a member o f th e Hobebe Zion a d d re s s e d a l e t t e r to Ahad Ha-Am which r a i s e s th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n : How would Ahad Ha-Am c l a s s i f y a Jew who lo v e s h is p e o p le , i t s l i t e r a t u r e , i t s s p i r i t u a l p o s s e s s io n s , who wants th e r e v iv a l o f th e people in th e la n d o f i t s f a t h e r s , longs f o r i t s l i b e r a t i o n , b u t , a t th e same tim e i s a f r e e t h i n k e r , w ith e v e ry th in g th a t t h i s im p lie s —who b e lie v e s in n a tu re and n a t u r e 's law b u t does n o t re c o g n iz e th e C re a to r, p ro v id e n c e , and c e r t a i n l y n o t d iv in e r e v e l a tio n w ith a l l o f i t s su b seq u en t r a m if ic a tio n s ? I s such a Jew o u rs , o r does he belong t o o u r enem ies? Can we s e p a ra te him from th e people and say to him: "Leave th e fi 1 camp I " x Ahad Ha-Am responds to t h i s q u e s tio n , t h a t t h i s Jew belo n g s to " u s ." He i s a son f a i t h f u l to h i s people and to i t s s p i r i t , as much as a re th e m asses o f b e lie v e r s and, in a c e r t a in s e n s e , even more so . S1K0l K itb e , pp. 291 f . 91 Ahad Ha-Am develops the view point t h a t p a n t h e is t ic n a tio n a lis m i s a p o s itio n w ith which he is in f u l l accord as compared w ith m o n o th eists who see n a tu re only as a G 2 fu n c tio n and m a n ife s ta tio n of th e d e ity . Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e d in the fu n c tio n in g o f th e n a tu r a l law w hich, to him , is a h ig h e r e x p re s sio n o f l o g ic a l t r u t h th an is monotheism. Monotheism, however, in b i b l i c a l tim e s, re p re s e n te d th e h ig h e s t e x p re ssio n of th e Jew ish s p i r i t ; i t a t t r i b u t e d to th e d e ity e th ic s which Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e s to be th e su b stratu m o f r e lig i o n and from which r e l i g i o n draws i t s g r e a t e s t s tr e n g th . In a l e t t e r to Dr. Solomon S c h e c h te r, Ahad Ha-Am s t a t e s : . . . I do n o t agree w ith you as re g a rd s the su b o rd in a tio n o f e th ic s to r e l i g i o n in Judaism : on th e G 9 I b i d . , p. 292. In whose view i s n a tu re more e x a lte d , Ahad Ha-Am a s k s — in t h a t o f th e m on o th eist o r th e p a n th e is t? He co n clu d es, in th e p a n t h e i s t , f o r in monotheism n a tu re i s a c r e a tio n o f God and a d iffe re n c e e x i s t s between "El" and "'olam " ("God" and "the w o rld "). In pantheism a l l i s subsumed in n a tu re and t h i s d i f fe re n c e does n o t e x i s t . "And th e ' s p i r i t o f God' which i s d is c e r n ib le to him (th e p a n th e is t) in th e depth o f th e fo u n d a tio n o f e x is te n c e , i s not in h is view som ething above n a tu r e , b u t both a re i d e n t i c a l . " Kol K itb e , p. 29 2. The " n a t i o n a l i s t p a n th e is t" sees th e s tr e n g th o f th e c r e a tio n o f th e s p i r i t o f th e people from w ith in as opposed to th e m o n o th eist who b e lie v e s i t to be w ith o u t, t h a t i s , in God. The " n a tio n a l p a n th e is t" by c o n tra s t re c o g n iz e s th a t th e " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " proceeds o f i t s own in n e r fo rc e . Both th e n a t i o n a l i s t who r e t a i n s a b e l i e f in th e s u p e rn a tu ra l and th e p a n t h e i s t i c n a t i o n a l i s t f e e l honor and love f o r " le kinyane h a-'am ha-ruhaniyyim " (" th e s p i r i t u a l tr e a s u r e s o f th e peo p le") and d e s ir e th e e x is te n ce of the n a tio n a l on th e b a s is of th e h i s t o r i c nexus between "kudsha b e ric h h u , w e-orayyta w e - y is ra e l" ("God, Torah and I s r a e l " ) . Kol K itb e , p . 292. 92 c o n tra ry as I have su g g e sted in v ario u s e s s a y s , I th in k , t h a t r e lig i o u s development has follow ed m oral developm ent. . . 63 For Ahad Ha-Am, th e apex o f Jew ish c r e a t i v i t y and th e exem plars o f e th ic s were th e Hebrew p ro p h e ts. Although Ahad Ha-Am d eals in d e t a i l only w ith Moses, who i s the f a t h e r o f th e p r o p h e ts ,64 he a p p lie s h is deductions and g e n e r a liz a tio n s concerning Moses to th e r e s t of th e 6 G p ro p h e tic movement. With a s t r i k i n g lack o f c r i t i c a l i n s i g h t , he d is tin g u is h e s n e i t h e r between th e p r e - e x i l i c and p o s t - e x i l i c prophets n o r between th e u n i v e r s a l i s t and p a r t i c u l a r i s t p o s itio n s w ith in th e p ro p h e tic w ritin g s as s u c h .66 T h is, we s h a ll s e e , c o n s titu t e s th e m ajor weak n ess in Ahad Ha-Am1s b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m . Here a g a in , in accordance w ith h is n a t i o n a l i s t p re s u p p o s itio n s , he adopts a r e v e re n t a t t i t u d e and i n t e r p r e t s p ro p h e tic te a c h in g in term s o f th e m oral philosophy o f h is day, 6 3 L e tt e r to Dr. S. S ch ec h ter (F lo re n c e ), London, March 29, 1911. Quoted i n Ahad Ha-Am, E ssa y s, L e t t e r s , Memoirs, p. 270. 64Moses as "Ab ha-nebiim " (" F a th e r o f th e Proph e t s " ) , p o sse sse d o f e x tra o rd in a ry pow ers, i s w idely a t t e s t e d to in th e ra b b in ic t r a d i t i o n ; e . g . , M e g illa 13a speaks o f him as 1 1 ab b a - to r a h , ab be-hokmah, ab h a - n e b iiu t" ( " f a t h e r o f th e law, wisdom and p ro p h ecy "). O f., Sotah 12a and Exodus Rabbah 1 :2 0 . For a f u l l d is c u s s io n o f th e p la c e o f Moses in th e r a b b in ic l i t e r a t u r e , c o n s u lt J . D. E is e n s te in , Ozar I s r a e l , VI (New York: J . D. E is e n s te in , 1911) , 299-302 . 65Kol K itb e , pp. 90-92. 66I b i d . , pp. 138 f f . , 156 f . , 275 f f . 93 p a r t i c u l a r l y in the use of such term s as th e " c a te g o ric a l 6 7 im p e ra tiv e " and " a b s o l u t i s t i c e t h i c s . " Ahad Ha-Am's view of th e B ible and Jewish t r a d i t i o n , th e n , re p r e s e n ts an adm ixture o f n a tio n a lis m , sk e p tic ism , and what Dr. Jospeh H e lle r c a l l s h is h a s id ie i n c lin a - 6 8 t i o n s . A ccording to t h i s w r i t e r , th e l a t t e r were always p re s e n t in Ahad Ha-Am and le d him to enthrone f e e l i n g , r a t h e r than re a s o n , as th e prim ary p r e r e q u is i te f o r an em p ath e tic view point tow ards r e lig io u s b e l ie f s and th e l i t e r a t u r e in which th e s e b e l ie f s are embedded. 67I b i d . , pp. 281 f f . , 343 f f . ^°Simon and H e ll e r , Ahad Ha-Am, H a - is h , P o 'a lo W e -to rato , p . 130. CHAPTER IV JEWISH INFLUENCES O N AHA D HA-AM1S VIEW OF THE BIBLE Ahad Ha-Am ad m itted to being a s tu d e n t o f th e T a l mud and th e Posekim^ as a young man, p o rin g over th e s e te x ts day and n ig h t. In h i s Rem iniscences he w rite s a lso of having read th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l works o f th e S panish- Jewish w r i te r s . Through Rabbi S h e f te l H urw itz of B e rd it- chev, a s p i r i t u a l le a d e r o f th e Sadagura h asid im , t o which h is f a th e r b elonged, he h e a rd quoted o fte n and w ith en thusiasm th e anecdotes and say in g s o f th e a n c ie n t ra b b is from th e r ic h tro v e of e t h i c a l and h a s id ic l i t e r a t u r e . Ahad Ha-Am s t a t e s th a t he was extrem ely know ledgeable in th e works of Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (M airaonides), ^Kol K itbe (T el Aviv: D vir Co., L td ., 1956), p . *166. Posekim""are the a u th o rs o f re sp o n sa and books d e a lin g w ith Jew ish law. The term i s d e riv e d from th e word ffosek w hich, in r a b b in ic a l l i t e r a t u r e , denotes a c o d ifx e r who s t a t e s th e law , n o t n e c e s s a r ily p ro v id in g th e le g a l argument which le d to th e d e c is io n . Moses Maimonides (1135-1204) was undoubtedly th e g r e a t e s t o f th e m edieval Jew ish p h ilo s o p h e rs who w rote i n t e r a l i a , t r e a t i s e s , com m entaries, and books on m edicine (he was a ls o a p h y s ic ia n ) , law , b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m and r e lig i o u s p h ilo so p h y . 94 95 q U Abraham Ib n E zra0 and th e o th e r Jewish p h ilo s o p h e rs . He r e c a l l s t h a t in th e th r e e y e a rs t h a t he s tu d ie d a t h e d e r , he le a rn e d humash and R a s h i.5 W e would le a r n th e p o rtio n o f th e week com pletely w ith o u t commentaries and only one o r two p o rtio n s o f i t we would le a r n w ith R a sh i’s com m entaries. When we would stu d y th e commentary, i t would become th e main source o f d is c u ssio n and S c r ip tu r e would be c o n sid e re d secondary to i t . 7 From about th e age o f te n , he s tu d ie d Gemara and Bora in Cordova (1092-1167), he was o u tsta n d in g among th e Jew ish B ib le commentators fo r h i s p re c is e n e s s o f method i n b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m and f o r h i s broad grasp o f p h ilo so p h y , l o g ic , p h ilo lo g y , and m ath em atics, which he in c o rp o ra te d in to h is method o f e x e g e s is . An e x c e l l e n t tre a tm e n t o f Ibn E z r a 's th o u g h t may be found in M. F rie d la e n d e r 's work, Essays on th e W ritin g s o f Abraham Ib n E zra (London: The S o cie ty o f Hebrew L ite r a tu r e , : nrrrn----------- 4Kol K itb e , p . 466. ^(R abbi Solomon ben I s a a c (1040-1105) o f T ro y e s). R a s h i's commentary to th e B ible and Talmud i s th e most d e f i n i t i v e o f a l l m edieval com m entaries. His commentary to th e P en ta teu c h (humash) in p a r t i c u l a r i s to t h i s day th e in d is p e n sa b le guide f o r th e t r a d i t i o n a l Jew ish under sta n d in g o f th e b i b l i c a l t e x t . M orris L ib e r, "R a sh i," JE , X (new e d i t i o n ; New York: Funk and W agnalls Company, H 2 5 ) , 324-328. G Kol K itb e , p . 492. Ahad Ha-Am g iv e s us a f u r th e r glim pse i n t o th e s e h ed e r y e a rs in a r a r e re fe re n c e to h is m a tern al gran d m o th er, who re a d alo u d th e p o rtio n o f weekly S c r ip tu r e i n T e its c h humash, i . e . , Y id d ish , so t h a t he to o m ight le a rn i t in y e t t h i s o th e r way. I b i d . , p . 491. “ 7 The d i a l e c t i c a l d is c u s s io n on th e Mishnah by th e Amoraim, th e l a t e r r a b b in ic a u t h o r i t i e s , ca . 200-500 C.E. 96 Q p a r t s o f th e Hoshen H a-m ish p at, w ith a p r i v a t e t u t o r . g He engaged in th e stu d y o f th e T ur and a fte rw a rd s the Shulhan Aruk^ w ith i t s com m entators on every s e c t i o n . 1^- Talmud stu d y s e s s io n s were concluded by r e t i r i n g to th e p ray erh o u se o f th e h asid im o f S ad ag u ra, which was not f a r from th e r a b b i 's h o u se . At th e c o n c lu sio n o f th e p r a y e r s , i t was a custom o f th e ra b b i to r e a d from th e e t h i c a l l i t e r a t u r e such as Hobot H a le b a b o t.^ 2 On th e Sabbath d ay , O A s e c tio n o f Jacob ben A s h e r's (c a . 1269-1340) S e f e r Ha-Turim ( The Book o f Rows) , o r A rba'ah Turim . ^An a b b re v ia te d t i t l e f o r th e above work in i t s e n t i r e t y c o n ta in s (1) "Orah Hayyim" ("The Way o f L if e " ) , on laws o f th e synagogue, p r a y e r s , S ab b ath s, f e a s t s , and f a s t s ; (2) "Yoreh De’ah" ("T eac h er o f K now ledge"), on th e d ie ta r y la w s, c h a r i t y , r e s p e c t t o p a r e n t s , mourning; (3) "Eben Ha-fizer" ("The Stone o f H e lp " ), on laws o f m a rria g e and d iv o rc e , t r e a t e d i n t h e i r c i v i l and r e l i g io u s a s p e c t; (4) 'Hoshen H a-m ishpat" ("The B r e a s tp la te o f Jud g m en t"), on le g a l p ro ced u re and c i v i l and c rim in a l law . Max S e lig s o h n , "Jacob ben A sh e r," JE , V II , 27-28. ^■°The Shulhan Aruk ( S et T a b le ) , which f i r s t ap p e a re d i n Venice in 1565, i s th e m assive compendium of law p r im a r ily ac co rd in g t o th e S p an ish Jew ish a u t h o r i t i e s . Compiled by Joseph Caro (1 4 8 8 -1 5 7 5 ), i t fo llo w s th e th r e e s ta n d a r d a u t h o r i t i e s , Rabbi I s a a c ben Jacob A lf a s i (1013- 1 103), Maimonides and A sher. C a ro 's code e x c lu d e d , by and l a r g e , th e Franco-German a u t h o r i t i e s and th e French T o s a f is ts (Posekim ) . Louis G in zb erg , "Caro, Joseph b. E phraim ," JE , i l l , 583-588. 1:iKol K itb e , p . 482. • ^ D u ties o f th e H e a r t, w r i t t e n by Bachya ben J o s e f ib n Pakuda o f S a ra g o ssa (p ro b a b ly th e end o f e le v e n th c e n tu r y ) , t r . Moses Hyamson (New York: Bloch P u b lis h in g Company, 1941), was th e f i r s t s y s te m a tic p r e s e n ta tio n o f Jew ish e t h i c s . 97 Ahad Ha-Am would re a d th e p o r tio n o f th e week i n th e book, 'Akedat Y izh ak , which had th e a p p ro v a l o f th e r a b b i o f Sadagura. Ahad Ha-Am n o te s th a t through th e 'Akedat Y izh ak ,^-3 which he re c o u n ts knowing v i r t u a l l y by h e a r t , he e n te r e d in to " th e tem ple o f our p h ilo s o p h y ." The s t y l e o f t h i s book had a perm eating in f lu e n c e on him , and f o r a tim e he c o p ie d i t s mode o f e x p re s s io n . His Talmud s tu d ie s began w ith an anthology c a l l e d Lekach Tov, and in th e more advanced c la s s some o f th e b e t t e r s tu d e n ts would a ls o re a d p a r t i c u l a r p o r tio n s o f th e Posekim. As a m ature man, he s t i l l had in h is a rc h iv e s n o te s t h a t he had ta k en on h i s s t u d i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e Talmud and Posekim . The Shulhan Aruk, and a t tim es a ls o r e l a t e d s e c tio n s from th e Tur w hich were r e le v a n t t o a s u b je c t under d is c u s s io n , would a ls o be c o n s u l t e d . B y th e age o f e ig h te e n , he had gone through th e Hebrew l i t e r a t u r e o f th e M iddle Ages in v i r t u a l l y a l l o f i t s a s p e c t s , and he was c o n s id e re d a re c o g n iz e d e x p e rt on th e Responsa l i t e r a t u r e . ^ 5 13Kol K itb e , p. 483. "'A kedath Y itzhak" ("The B inding o f Is a a c " ) , a u th o re d by Rabbi Yizhak Arama (1440- 1505), c i te d in Meyer Waxman, A H is to ry o f Jew ish L i t e r a tu r e (New York: Bloch P u b lish in g Co. , 1943) , 1 1 , 305-306, c o n ta in s n o t o n ly D rish ah , " d is c o u r s in g ," b u t P ris h a h , "com m entating," on to p ic s r e l a t i n g t o r e l i g i o n and e t h i c s in g e n e ra l and Judaism in p a r t i c u l a r . Arama b ased th e s t y l e o f h is work upon t h a t o f th e C h r is tia n p re a c h e rs he e n c o u n tered in Zamora, S p ain . ^ Kol K itb e , p . 492. 15Ibid.-, p . 466. 98 Of th e , l i t e r a t u r e on Jew ish e t h i c s , Hobot H alebabot and M e s illa t Yesharim made a p a r t i c u l a r im pact upon him w ith t h e i r t h e s i s th a t th e e t h i c a l i s th e main p r in c ip l e 16 in th e p r e s e rv a tio n o f r e l i g i o n . He n o te s th a t th e more he read i n th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l l i t e r a t u r e , th e more h is te a c h e r t r i e d to s e p a r a te him from t h i s k in d o f book, p a r t i c u l a r l y s in c e i t d e a l t w ith th e q u e s tio n o f th e e x is te n c e o f God. There was a t r a d i t i o n among th e Sadagura h asid im t h a t one would n o t read th o se p o r tio n s o f th e Guide o f th e P erp lex ed by Maimonides which t r e a t o f doubt w ith re g a rd to th e e x is te n c e o f God, f o r th e re a d e r m ight sto p b e fo re re a c h in g th e answers t o th e doubts e x p re sse d an d , t h e r e f o r e , go th ro u g h l i f e w ith o u t f a i t h and b e l i e f in God. T his r e s t r i c t i o n , how ever, sp u rre d Ahad Ha-Am to d e lv e even f u r t h e r i n t o th e r e l i g i o u s p h ilo so p h y o f th e M iddle Ages and le d him to th in k e v e r more deeply on q u e s tio n s r e l a t i n g t o f a i t h . Ahad Ha-Am a lso n o te s t h a t d u rin g h i s H askalah p e rio d he w rote poems and e s s a y s , as was custom ary in th o se d ay s, b u t th e l a t t e r he burned and had long f o r g o tte n 16The P ath o f th e U p rig h t, w r itte n by Moses Hayyim L u zz atto (1 707-17^7), c h a r t s th e p a th to th e a tta in m e n t o f s a i n t l i n e s s . The work grew out o f L u z z a tto 's g r e a t i n t e r e s t i n Cabala and undoubtedly ap p ealed to th e h a s id in Ahad Ha-Am. An e x c e ll e n t c r i t i c a l e d i tio n o f t h i s work now e x i s t s . Moses Hayyim L u z z a tto , M e s s illa t Y esharim , t r . and ed. M ordecai M. Kaplan ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 19*t8) i Kol K itb e , p . 19H. 99 17 t h e i r c o n te n t. When, as a m ature man, he had occasio n to o rd e r h is s tu d ie s acco rd in g to h is own d e s i r e s , he p a r t i c u l a r l y chose Tanak, w ith th e com mentaries o f R a sh i, Ibn 18 • 19 E z ra , and Nahmanides as h is g u id e s . During weekdays he was occupied w ith o th e r com m entaries, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t o f Rabbi David Kimhi to whom he was drawn because o f h is on s im p lic ity o f s t y l e and c l a r i t y o f th o u g h t. In th e m idst o f th e s e s t u d i e s , Gemara was n o t f o r g o tte n . He tr a c e s th e o r ig in o f h is co n tin u in g Gemara s tu d ie s to h is boyhood, when he was o b lig a te d to summarize a t r a c t a t e o f th e Talmud b e fo re P asso v er in o r d e r to be f r e e o f th e f a s t o f th e 17Kol K itb e , pp. 466-483. 1 fl Moses Nahmanides (119 5-12 70) was th e g r e a t e s t ta lm u d ic a u th o r ity o f h is tim e , who a ls o was a C a b a lis t, te a c h in g t h a t m ysticism lay a t th e h e a r t o f Judaism . Known th rough h is commentary on th e Torah as th e Ramban, he produced a form o f c r i t i c i s m which assumed th e re was chronology and o rd e r th ro u g h o u t S c r ip tu r e . C f ., B ernard M. C asper, An I n tro d u c tio n to Jew ish B ib le Commentary (New York: Thomas Y o s e lo ff, 1960), pp. 81-89. 19Kol K itb e , p. 486. 2 ° Ib id . Rabbi David Kimhi (1160-12 3 5 )i o f Nar- bonne, was a member o f a d is tin g u is h e d s c h o la r ly fa m ily . D av id 's f a t h e r , Joseph (1105-1170) was a contem porary o f Abraham Ibn E zra and a n o ted t r a n s l a t o r in t o Hebrew o f Judeo-A r^bic w orks. D av id 's g en iu s la y in th e f i e l d o f Hebrew grammar, in which he d id p io n e e rin g m e th o d o lo g ic al s t u d i e s , e . g . , h is S e fe r H a-shorashim ( The Book o f R oots). As a B ible com m entator, David Kimhi "ranks second perhaps only to R ashi." C asper, An I n tr o d u c tio n t o Jew ish B ible Commentary, p . 75. He i s r e f e r r e d t o , as was custom ary o f famous com m entators, by h is i n i t i a l s as RaDaK. Kol K itb e , p. 486. xoo f i r s t b o r n . He would b e g in a t Purim tim e , s e le c tin g a s m a ll t r a c t a t e , and stu d y ev ery n ig h t a f t e r h e d e r was o v e r . He o rd e re d h is s tu d ie s so t h a t he was a b le t o p r e s e n t th e sivyum ("summary") o f th e t r a c t a t e on P asso v er e v e . He c a r r ie d t h i s h a b i t in t o manhood, stu d y in g th e Talmud w ith v a rio u s com m entators, e s p e c i a lly th e Sefardim such as Rabbi Yom-Tob ben Abraham I s h b i l l i o f S e v i l l e . 21 He a ls o co n tin u ed t o re a d in th e Posekim , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e books r e l a t i n g to th e Responsa l i t e r a t u r e in which he f e l t h im s e lf to be a " g re a t e x p e r t. In h is re a d in g o f g e n e ra l Hebrew l i t e r a t u r e , he was drawn to th e S efardim 23 and ste e p e d h im s e lf in t h e i r l i t e r a r y h e r i t a g e . The book o f Hebrew grammar which he O h knew b e s t was K im hi's M ik lo l. E a r l i e r grammarians were n o t known to him , s in c e he la c k e d books p e r ta in in g to them . In th e a re a o f r e l i g i o u s p h ilo so p h y , H aim onides' Guide o f th e P erp lex e d le d th e l i s t . I n th e f i e l d o f 21Kol K itb e , p . 486. Known as th e H a - r itb a ( d . 1360). Yom-Tob's works a re volum inous, " in c lu d in g v a lu a b le n o v e lla e on many of th e Talm udic t r e a t i s e s . " Meyer K a y se rlin g , "Yom-Tob Ben Abraham I s h b i l l i , " JE, X II (1 9 0 9 ), 618. 22Kol K itb e , p . 486. 23The Ju d eo -S p an ish sc h o o l. 2!*The M ik lo l, a work i n two p a r t s by David Kimhi, c o n ta in s i n th e f i r s t "a com prehensive exam ination o f Hebrew grammar; th e seco n d , a d ic tio n a r y o f th e B ib le ." P a r t two i s a ls o known as th e S e fe r H a-sh o rash im . C aspar L e v ia s, "David K im hi," JE , V ll (1 9 0 9 ), 494-495. 101 g e n e ra l Jew ish p h ilo s o p h y , he re a d an y th in g th a t came in to h is h an d s. G ra d u ally he s tu d ie d o th e r languages and o th e r l i t e r a t u r e s , and as t h i s p a t t e r n o f le a r n in g d eveloped, h is Hebrew s tu d ie s became more and more c u r t a i l e d . 2® A nother phase o f Ahad Ha-Am's stu d y d e a ls w ith h is s p e c u la tiv e s tu d ie s in k a b b a la h . A book c a lle d Emunat Ha- kamim, w r i tte n by one o f th e I t a l i a n s a g e s , Rabbi Abi Ad Sar-Shalom B e z ila h , was devoted t o th e m y stic lo r e of Judaism . I t a ls o c o n ta in e d c h a p te rs a g a in s t th e Jew ish p h ilo s o p h e rs , p a r t i c u l a r l y a g a in s t Abraham Ibn E z ra , w ith whom he d e a lt h a rs h ly a t tim e s , alth o u g h Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e d much o f th e a tta c k a g a in s t Ibn E zra t o be j u s t . From Emunat Hakamia he le a rn e d som ething f o r which he was g r a t e f u l a l l h i s l i f e : he who r e a l l y has som ething to say w i l l say i t i n sim ple la n g u ag e, u n d e rsta n d a b le to th e g e n e ra l body o f r e a d e r s . F u rtherm ore, he who m u lt ip lie s v e rb ia g e in o b liq u e language g iv e s evidence th a t he d o e s n 't have v ery much to say and th e r e f o r e chooses an o b liq u e s t y l e . The seem ingly g r e a t p ro fu n d ity in th e work draws th e r e a d e r 's a t t e n t i o n . Ahad Ha-Am rem arks t h a t th e re a re many books p u b lis h e d which a re tr e a s u r e d above t h e i r valu e o nly because o f t h e i r d i f f i c u l t s t y l e , which fo rc e s re a d e rs in to i n t r i c a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , as w ith th e 25Kol K itb e , pp. 486 -487. 102 works o f Ibn E z r a .26 H is to r ic a l works such as S e fe r Y uhasin, 22 Shebet 2 8 99 Yehudah, and Seder H a-dorot were a lso perused by Ahad Ha-Am.60 H isto ry in g e n e ra l and Jew ish h is t o r y in p a r t i c u l a r rem ained o f consummate i n t e r e s t f o r him , supplying him th e f a c tu a l bases and overview out o f which he was l a t e r to b u ild h is own philosophy o f Jew ish h i s t o r y . Ahad Ha-Am n o ted th a t in h i s youth he belonged to a group whose p a r t i c u l a r purpose f o r e x is te n c e was to 26I b i d . , p. 487. Only Ibn E z ra ’s p h ilo s o p h ic works are in q u e stio n h e re . His in tr o d u c tio n s and com m e n ta rie s to books o f th e B ible a re examples o f g re a t c l a r i t y in e x p re s sio n . 2 7 The Book o f G en e alo g ie s, com piled by th e a s tro n o mer Abraham Zacuto (d . 1520). Z acuto, u n s a t i s f i e d w ith h is t o r io g r a p h i c a l sc h e m a tiz a tio n b e fo re h i s tim e , reworks th e h i s t o r i c a l f a c ts found in th e t r a d i t i o n in to a de t a i l e d h is to r y o f I s r a e l . P a r t i c u l a r value l i e s in h is tre a tm e n t o f th e R abbinic p e rio d , q u o tin g e x te n s iv e ly from t h i s l i t e r a t u r e . Meyer Waxman, H isto ry o f Jew ish L ite r a tu r e (New York: Bloch P u b lish in g C o., 1943), I I , 466 f f . 2 8 The Scourge o f Judah i s a com posite work p a r t i c i p a te d in by th r e e au th o rs o f th r e e g e n e ra tio n s . The b a s ic core o f th e book i s developed from th e n o te s o f th e h i s t o r i a n , Judah Ibn Verga o f S e v ill e ( c a . 1480). B a sic a l l y , t h i s i s n o t a h is t o r y b u t a "num eration o f th e v ario u s p e r s e c u tio n s ." Waxman, H isto ry o f Jew ish L ite r a tu re , I I , 470 f . 99 *JThe O rder o f G enerations was w r itte n by Rabbi Y ehiel H aip erin (1660-1749) o f M insk, Poland. The g r e a t value o f t h i s work, l i k e t h a t o f Z acu to ’s , l i e s in H a ip e rin 1s tre a tm e n t o f th e R abbinic p e rio d . The work r e f l e c t s e x te n siv e and d e t a il e d knowledge o f th e Talmud. I t a ls o has v a lu a b le b ib lio g r a p h ic a l n o te s . Waxman, H isto ry o f Jew ish L i t e r a t u r e , I I , 482-483. p. 493. 10 3 winnow o u t o f Jew ish l i t e r a t u r e , from th e M iddle Ages to th e H ask a lah , m a te r ia l which co n tin u ed to rem ain r e le v a n t and worth remembering through th e g e n e r a tio n s . The im pact o f t h i s e x p e rie n c e le d Ahad Ha-Am l a t e r t o propose th e fouxiding o f a group t h a t would s y s te m a tic a lly go th ro u g h th e l i t e r a t u r e of th e Middle Ages and e x t r a c t from i t m a te r ia l f i t t i n g t o p re se rv e and th e n p u b lis h i t in 31 s u i t a b l e a n th o lo g ie s . The im p re ssiv e re a d in g sch ed u le t h a t Ahad Ha-Am h ad com pleted r e p r e s e n ts v i r t u a l l y an e n c y clo p e d ic ap- 32 p ro ach to th e m astery o f t r a d i t i o n a l Jew ish so u rc e s. 31 I b i d . , p. ^87. In h is Odessa p e r io d he belo n g ed to a d is tin g u is h e d l i t e r a r y c i r c l e , a le a d in g f ig u r e o f w hich was th e famed w r i t e r , Mendele Moker S efarim (Shalom Yaakob Abramowitz) and which in c lu d e d men o f l e t t e r s , w r itin g in R u ssian , Y iddish and Hebrew, such as Shimon Dubnow, th e h i s t o r i a n and Ben Ami (M. R ab in o w itz), a s h o r t s t o r y w r i t e r . Cf. , Kol K itb e , p. 503. 3^While we have l i s t e d h e re only th o s e works which a r e c l a s s i c s and which r e p r e s e n t m ajor works in th e h i s t o r y o f Jew ish r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e , th e re i s no doubt t h a t Ahad Ha-Am had p eru se d most o f th e m inor c l a s s i c s as w e l l , p a r t i c u l a r l y Jew ish le g a l s t u d i e s . In an in te rv ie w w ith Mr. Shlorao G in o ssa r (1889— ) , Ahad Ha-Am's son (J e ru s a le m , J u ly 196 3 ) , I ex p lo re d w ith him th e q u e s tio n o f th e fo rm a tiv e l i t e r a r y in flu e n c e s on h i s f a t h e r 's th o u g h t. Mr. G in o s s a r, a form er diplom at and a r e g e n t o f th e Hebrew U n iv e r s ity , which h is f a t h e r h e lp e d to fo u n d , r e f e r r e d me to th e c a ta lo g u e o f h i s f a t h e r 's l i b r a r y , h e ld by th e T el Aviv m u n ic ip a lity . U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e B et Ahad Ha-Am, where th e l i b r a r y was housed, had been t o m down and th e books s to r e d in a w arehouse. The c a t a lo g u e was n o t a v a ila b le so t h a t Mr. G in o s s a r's su g g e stio n c o u ld n o t be c a r r ie d o u t. He d id , how ever, t e l l me t h a t h i s f a t h e r ’ s "knowledge o f th e s a c re d l i t e r a t u r e o f Judaism was e x h a u stiv e " and th a t he co n tin u e d h is s tu d i e s o f i t u n t i l th e l a s t y e a rs o f h is l i f e . T h is view i s 104 W e s h a ll examine in d e t a i l h i s use o f one o f th e m ajor s o u rc e s , th e M ishnah, which com prises th e f i r s t p a r t o f th e Talmud, upon which th e Gemara (th e second p a r t o f th e Talmud) th e n comments. The Mishnah h i s t o r i c a l l y r e p r e s e n ts th e n e x t m ajor c o d i f ic a ti o n o f Jew ish law s in c e th e c a n o n iz a tio n o f the B ib le . The Mishnah r e f l e c t s fo u r c e n tu r ie s o f r e lig i o u s and c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y in P a l e s t i n e , in a l l p r o b a b ili ty b eg in n in g d u rin g th e e a r l i e r h a l f o f th e t h i r d c e n tu ry B.C.E. and ending w ith th e c lo s e o f th e second ce n tu ry C .E ., and i s a v a s t s to re h o u s e o f t r a d i t i o n c r e a te d by th e Soferim ( " s c r ib e s " ) and Tannaim ( " te a c h e rs o f th e O ral L a w " ) .^ P ro f e s s o r Danby s t a t e s : The o b je c t o f t h i s a c t i v i t y was th e p r e s e r v a tio n , c u l t i v a t i o n and a p p l ic a tio n t o l i f e o f 't h e Law' (T o ra h ), in th e form in which many g e n e ra tio n s o f lik e -m in d ed Jew ish r e l i g i o u s le a d e rs had le a rn e d to u n d e rsta n d t h i s 'L a w .'34 The Tannaim, exponents o f P h a r is a i c Ju d aism , were members o f one o f s e v e r a l s e c ts d u rin g th e p e r io d o f l a t e Judaism . c e r t a i n l y confirm ed by Ahad Ha-Am's w r i t i n g s , by e s tim a te s o f o th e rs c f h is work and i n a r a r e moment o f immodesty, when he s a i d in h i s mem oirs, " . . . s h e - h a y y iti k eb a r ta lm id hakam g a d o l, w e-neheshab k im 'a t le -g a o n b is b ib o t makom m e g u ri." ( " . . . For I a lre a d y was a g r e a t s c h o la r and th o u g h t o f as a gaon (" g e n iu s " ) in th e p la c e where I l iv e d and i t s su rro u n d in g a r e a s ." ) Kol K itb e , p . 494. q q H e rb e rt Danby, The Mishnah (London: Oxford U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1950), p . x i i i . A fte r th e y e a r 70 C.E. when th e Second Temple was de s tro y e d , th ey ro se to ascendency in Jew ish l i f e and t h e i r system o f Judaism became th e accep ted t r a d i t i o n o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , which rem ained in e x is te n c e both in s id e P a le s tin e and in th e D iaspora. Second only to th e Hebrew S c r ip tu re s in a u th o r ity and grounded in th e b i b l i c a l word, th e Mishnah bound to g e th e r th e s c a tte r e d rem nants o f th e Jew ish people through a code o f law which serv ed as th e b a s is f o r both th e B abylonian and P a le s tin ia n Talmudim. The prim ary purpose o f th e Mishnah was to develop new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e law o u t o f th e Torah. The Mishnah in c lu d e s th e W ritte n Law, as reco rd ed in th e Five Books o f Moses, th e O ral Law, and a d d itio n a l p r a c t i c e s , customs and b e l i e f s which "have been g r a f te d on to o r 35 developed out o f th e W ritten Law." In a d d itio n , th e re i s in h e re n t w ith in " i t a s p i r i t o f development whereby W ritten Law and O ral Law, in s p i t e o f seeming d if f e r e n c e s , a re b ro u g h t in to u n ity and i n te r p r e t e d and r e in t e r p r e t e d to meet th e needs of changed c o n d i tio n s ." 3® The Mishnah was c o d ifie d by Judah th e P rin c e (135-217 C .E .) , c a lle d "R abbi," te a c h e r p a r e x c e lle n c e , in th e y e a r c a . 200 C.E. The Mishnah was a fo rm ativ e in flu e n c e on Ahad Ha-Am and, acco rd in g to Leon Simon and o th e r s , h is Hebrew s t y l e was 3® IbjLd. , p . x iv . 36I b id . 106 based on t h a t o f th e Mishnah. D espite o th e r in f lu e n c e s , he r e t a i n s th e c lean c l a s s i c a l lin e s o f th e M ishnah, i f n o t i t s la c o n ic se n ten c e s t r u c t u r e . In th e a r t i c l e "A ncestor Worship" p re v io u s ly a llu d e d t o , Ahad Ha-Am d isc u sse s th e reaso n why Jew ish codes o f law developed. He m a in ta in s t h a t , in a given p e rio d o f Jew ish h i s t o r y , what was needed was " th e s tro n g hand o f a r i g i d r e lig i o u s code, w ith i t s f ix e d and u n a l t e r a b le laws and p r e c e p ts , to re g u la te every d e t a i l o f 3 8 t h e i r l i v e s . " Making re fe re n c e to th e o p in io n of Samuel David L u zzato , t h a t th e Mishnah and th e Talmud were n o t o r i g i n a l l y designed to be a code o f laws and p r e c e p ts , b u t r a t h e r a spontaneous resp o n se o f t h e ’N a tio n a l s p i r i t " o f th e Jew ish people to a given environm ent, Ahad Ha-Am s t a t e s t h a t th e form o f th e Mishnah we now have re p re s e n ts th e a r r e s t i n g o f th e c re a tiv e s p i r i t of th e Jew ish p eo p le. T his was n e c e s s ita t e d by o p p re ssio n from w ith o u t, p a r t i c u l a r l y th e H a d ria n ic p e rs e c u tio n s which had decim ated 37 "His s o lu tio n . . .was to ta k e f o r h is model th e Hebrew o f th e M ishnah, which r e t a i n s much o f th e d ig n ity o f B i b lic a l Hebrew w ith o u t i t s p o e tic c o lo u rin g , and i s a more p ith y and p r e c is e medium f o r th e n a r r a tio n o f f a c t s and th e e x p re s sio n o f id e a s ." Ahad Ha-Am, E ssa y s, L e tte r s , Memoirs, p . 49. He worked out a s ty l e o f h i s own which he c a r e f u l ly and la b o rio u s ly developed from h is model. Yaacob Fichman, "Ahad Ha-Am, Ka-aman H a-sig n o n ," B itzaro n , XVI (A ugust-Septem ber, 1947), 2 29-232. 3 8 Ahad Ha-Am, E ssa y s, L e t t e r s , M emoirs, p. 69. 10 7 P a le s tin i a n Jewry and had th re a te n e d i t s r e lig i o u s l i f e th rough r e s t r i c t i o n s on th e study o f Torah and th e demo l i t i o n o f i t s c e n te rs o f le a r n in g . When a new S anhedrin was formed a t Usha, u n d er th e le a d e r s h ip o f Rabbi Simeon ben G am aliel (whom A ntoninus P ius re c o g n iz e d as th e p a t r i arch ) , i t re v iv e d and re o rg a n iz e d r e l i g i o u s l i f e . Simeon ben G a m a lie l's son Ju d a h , re c o g n iz in g th e p re c a rio u s p o s itio n o f Judaism in term s o f s u r v i v a l , c r e a te d a le g a l in stru m e n t to re p la c e th e a u th o r ity fo rm e rly v e s te d in th e c e n tr a l academy. T his in stru m e n t was a b in d in g law which came to be known as th e M ishnah. Ahad Ha-Am a s c r ib e d to M aim onides' commentary on th e Mishnah a s im i l a r p u rp o se: to p ro v id e f o r h is con te m p o ra rie s c l e a r d o c tr in e and p l a i n r u le s o f p r a c t i c e . M e th o d o lo g ic a lly , w herever th e Mishnah le a v e s a p o in t in d o u b t, Maimonides p ro v id e s th e d e c is io n a r r iv e d a t in th e Gemara. Whenever th e Mishnah g iv e s o n ly a clu e to some t h e o r e t i c a l o p in io n , Maimonides e x p la in s "th e tr u e o p in - 39 i o n s ." Through in tr o d u c tio n s t o v a rio u s s e c tio n s o f th e M ishnah, p a r t i c u l a r l y to Z e ra 'im , H elek and Abot, ta k e s o c c a sio n t o p re s e n t f u l l d is c o u rs e s on th e n a tu re o f f a i t h and b e l i e f . Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in s t h a t M aimonides' com m entary to th e Mishnah r e p r e s e n ts , t o t h i s very day, th e very b e s t o f com m entaries, b u t t h a t he d id n o t achieve 39g o l K it b e , p. 365. 10 8 h i s main o b je c tiv e o f g iv in g t o r e l i g i o n th e re le v a n c e t h a t he had hoped t h i s commentary would e x h i b i t . 1 * ® H i l l e l , one o f th e forem ost m olders o f Jew ish t r a d i t i o n , i s quoted in th e e s s a y , The P eople o f th e Book, when he becomes th e spokesman f o r th e p e rio d when th e Jews were n o t "a people o f th e book" and had n o t l o s t t h e i r sp o n ta n e ity o f a c tio n and t h e i r r e s i l i e n c y . H i l l e l c o u ld th e re fo r e speak o f th e law as b e in g in th e h e a r t . Human conduct was th e y a r d s tic k o f o n e 's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e law. C onsequently, H i l l e l could pronounce what has now become a famous h allm ark o f h is te a c h in g : "That which i s d is p le a s in g to you, do n o t unto yo u r n e ig h b o r; t h a t i s th e whole la w ." 1 *^ A s to r y i s t o l d ab o u t H i l l e l o f a h e a th e n who comes t o him , w ishing to be co n v e rted to Judaism i f H i l l e l would te a c h him th e whole Torah w hile he sto o d on one f o o t. H i l l e l g iv e s th e above r e p ly to th e heathen and we a re le d to surm ise t h a t t h i s b ro u g h t about h is acceptance o f th e Jew ish f a i t h . Though in one essay H i l l e l appears to Ahad Ha-Am v e ry much as a sage fu n c tio n in g in a p e r io d when Judaism was s t i l l v ib r a n t and a l i v e , Ahad Ha-Am ta k e s o c c a s io n , s ix t e e n y e a rs l a t e r in h is p o le m ic al a t ta c k on Claude G. ^ S h a b b a t 31a. M o n te fio re 's commentary on th e G ospels, to d i f f e r w ith H i l l e l on th e e s s e n t i a l te a c h in g o f Judaism . I f th e heathen had come to Ahad Ha-Am and asked th e same ques t i o n , th e l a t t e r would have r e p lie d t h a t th e whole o f the Torah c o n s is te d o f th e s ta te m e n t, "Thou s h a l t n o t make unto th e e any graven image o r any lik e n e s s — th a t i s th e 42 whole Torah and th e r e s t i s commentary." Behind Ahad Ha-Am's seeming c o n tra d ic tio n h ere i s th e v a s t s t r e t c h o f Jew ish h is t o r y which l i e s between H i l l e l and him. In a c o n te x t in which th e Jew ish people liv e d in i t s own land and spoke i t s own to n g u e, i t was p o s s ib le f o r H i l l e l to speak in co n c re te r e a t h e r th an in t h e o r e t i c a l term s. That i s , H i l l e l was making a u n i v e r s a l i s t i c sta te m e n t w ith in a p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c c o n te x t. Ahad Ha-Am's s ta te m e n t, which a tta c k s th e program o f L ib e ra l Judaism in England, ad d re sse s i t s e l f to M ontefiore who rem arked t h a t , " I f Judaism does n o t, as i t w ere, come to term s w ith th e Gos p e l s , i t must always b e , I am in c lin e d to th in k , a creed in a c o rn e r, o f l i t t l e in flu e n c e and w ith no expansive U 3 pow ers." What Ahad Ha-Am fe a re d in M o n te fio re 's essay was i t s a p o lo g e tic ap p eal t o Jews who were ready to re c e iv e C h r is t ia n i ty b u t needed j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r i t . To 42Kol K itb e , p . 371. * * 3Quoted in Ahad Ha-Am, E ssa y s, L e tt e r s , Memoirs, p. 127. 110 th o se ready to ac ce p t a C h r is t ia n i ty w ith o u t Je su s 9 Ahad Ha-Am p o in te d o u t th a t t h i s was a c o n tra d ic tio n in terms* I t was p r e c i s e ly a C h r is t ia n i ty which had h e ra ld e d Jesus as M essiah t h a t was u n a c c e p ta b le to Judaism , and brought about th e cleavage t h a t r e s u l t e d in s e p a r a te f a i t h s . The P h a rise e s w ere, f o r Ahad Ha-Am, t h a t group w ith in th e Jew ish camp whose id eo lo g y was h e i r to the p ro p h e tic t r a d i t i o n . In th e c lo s in g days o f th e Second Commonwealth, when th e Roman le g io n was b a t te r in g away a t th e Je ru sa lem w a ll, Johanan ben Zakkai (who, according to Abot 2 :8 , re c e iv e d th e Law from H i l l e l and Shammai) re sc u e d th e Jew ish t r a d i t i o n from o b liv io n th rough the e s ta b lish m e n t o f an academy a t Yabneh. " . . . The P h a ri se es took th e Torah book in t h e i r hand and went to Yab n e h . What s t a r t e d o u t as a tem porary means o f p re se rv in g th e n a tio n becam e, in tim e , th e c e n te r o f Jewish s c h o la r s h ip . From Yabneh, Jew ish s c h o la rs went t o s p i r i t u a l l y n o u rish o b se rv a n t Jews in every c o rn e r o f t h e i r d is p e r s io n . Ahad Ha-Am a t t r i b u t e s su c cess to P h a r is a ic Judaism and t o th e f a c t t h a t i t tr e a s u r e d th e s t a t e only f o r th e sake o f th e " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " t h a t was in c a r n a te w ith in i t . I t was n o t th e b e l i e f o f th e P h a rise e s th a t th e end o f th e s t a t e meant th e end o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , 4t*Kol K itb e , p. 351. I l l th e Jew ish n a tio n o r , f o r a l l i n t e n t s and p u rp o se s, Jew ish l i f e . 1 *5 The P h a r is a ic s o lu tio n succeeded in c r e a tin g a framework in which th e Jew ish N a tio n a l s p i r i t has s u r v ived and e x e rc is e d i t s in flu e n c e f o r two th ousand y e a rs . This Ahad Ha-Am h e ra ld s as an achievem ent w ith o u t p a r a l l e l in human h isto ry .* * 6 P h a r is a ic Judaism was ab le to su rv iv e th e o n sla u g h t o f enemies and o f tim e because o f i t s d i s t i n c t i v e synagogal s tr u c t u r e and th e developm ent o f th e prayerbook in p la c e o f th e ap p o in ted s a c r i f i c e s . This i t accom plished by c r e a tin g an o rg a n ic ty p e o f l i f e , con sc io u s o f i t s b eg in n in g s and u n if ie d by th e hope of com plete r e s t o r a t i o n . A ccording to Ahad Ha-Am, t h i s " a r t i f i c i a l s t r u c t u r e , " which a t f i r s t was to se rv e only as a m a k e sh ift id e o lo g ic a l fram ework, i s now in advanced decay. The g h e tto , which had been an inco m p lete r e p l i c a o f th e n a tio n a l l i f e , was in p ro c e ss o f d is s o l u t i o n , g iv in g r i s e to a form o f Essene p h ilo so p h y , which e x a lte d th e s p i r i t b u t n o t th e body of Judaism . However, e q u a lly as dangerous to Ahad Ha-Am i s th e over-em phasis on th e m a te r ia l a s p e c ts o f n a t io n a l l i f e as evidenced by th e work o f th e p o l i t i c a l Z io n is t s . He se e s b oth o f th e s e ex c re sce n ce s d isa p p e a rin g and making way * * 5I b i d . * * 6I b i d . , p. 352 . 112 f o r th e only view t h a t i s h i s t o r i c a l l y grounded in Juda ism , th e same view as th a t o f th e p ro p h e ts o f th e F i r s t Commonwealth and o f th e P h a ris e e s o f th e Second Common w e a lth . Ahad Ha-Am, o f c o u rse , has r e fe re n c e to h i s own fo rm u la tio n o f " S p i r i t u a l Z ionism ." I n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y co n tin u ed in th e P a le s tin ia n sc h o o ls t h a t rem ained a f t e r th e l a s t u p r is in g in P a le s tin e in th e y e a r 135 C.E. The u ltim a te r e s u l t , among o th e r w orks, was th e c o d if ic a tio n o f th e Talmud Y erushalm i in th e m iddle o f th e fo u rth c e n tu ry C.E. C o n cu rren tly in B ab y lo n ia, th e Amoraim e la b o ra te d more e x te n s iv e ly on th e M ishnah, g iv in g r i s e t o th e m assive and a u t h o r i t a t i v e U7 Talmud B a b li, c o d if ie d xn th e f i f t h c e n tu ry C. E. 47 The Talmud Y eru sh alm i, w r i tte n in W estern Ara m aic, i s s m a lle r by tw o - th ird s than i t s B abylonian c o u n te r p a r t . Rabbi Johanan ben Nappaha (d . 2 7 9 ), a d i s c i p l e o f Judah th e P rin c e , founded th e academy a t T ib e ria s w herein th e P a l e s t i n i a n Talmud was shaped. The d if fe re n c e in q u a l i t y , as w e ll as le n g th , o f th e two Talmudim i s a c counted fo r by th e d i r e c o n d itio n s o f P a le s tin i a n Jew ry, and by Judaism b ein g d e c la re d a h e re s y a f t e r th e conver s io n o f C o n stan tin e (3 0 6 -3 3 7 ). I n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y became nigh im p o s s ib le , r e s u l t i n g in th e d isc o n n ec ted and c o rru p t n a tu re o f th e t e x t . The B abylonian Talmud, w r i tte n in E a s te rn Aram aic, d e a ls w ith Rabbi Judah*s Mishnah as i t was d is c u s s e d in th e B abylonian aca,demies. Jews i n B abylonia were in la r g e measure autonomous, having t h e i r own le a d e r , c a l l e d th e E x ila r c h . As a con sequence o f t h i s fa v o ra b le s i t u a t i o n , s c h o la r s h ip f l o u r is h e d . Abbaye (283-338) and h i s opponent, Raba (2 9 9 -3 5 2 ), s e t th e p a t te r n f o r ta lm u d ic s tu d ie s i n B abylonia. I s id o r e E p s te in , Judaism (B a ltim o re : Penguin Books, 1964), pp. 126 f . 113 Deeply schooled in th e Talmud, Ahad Ha-Am in te r s p e r s e d h is e ssay s w ith ta lm u d ic l o r e , s e le c tin g a t tim es Aggadah ("le g e n d ") and a t tim es le g a l h erm en eu tics to i l l u s t r a t e a given p o in t. S im ila r to h is use of th e B ib le , th e M idrash and th e M ishnah, i s h i s dual use o f th e Gemara, both to i l l u s t r a t e a c o n te n tio n o f h is own and t o demon s t r a t e th e genius o f th e Gemara in i t s own r i g h t . In e x p lo rin g th e re a so n s why Maimonides gave p r i o r i t y i n h is l i t e r a r y u n d e rta k in g s to a commentary on th e Mishnah and th e Talmud b e fo re he tu r n e d to h i s p h ilo s o p h ic a l work, The Guide o f th e P e rp le x e d , Ahad Ha-Am re v e a ls h i s own e s tim a tio n o f th e com plexity o f th e Talmud, as w e ll as i t s h i s t o r i c im portance f o r Jew ish p r a c t i c e . C le a rly , th e Talmud was a "sea" c o n ta in in g a v a s t amount o f d iffiis e m a te r ia l n o t r e a d i ly com prehensible t o th e average Jew. Y et, i n o rd e r to a s c e r t a i n what was p ro p e r Jew ish p r a c t i c e , i t was n e c e ss a ry to deduce th e p r a c t ic e from th e le g a l th e o ry c o n ta in e d in th e Talmud, a p ro cess which o b v io u sly r e q u ir e d a lif e t i m e o f e x p e rt s c h o la r s h ip and f i r s t - h a n d a c q u ain tan ce w ith the R abbinic d is p u ta tio n s and t h e i r co n c lu sio n s as re c o rd e d in th e Talmud. Maimonides o rg an iz ed and summarized th e c o n c lu sio n s a r r iv e d a t in th e Gemara so t h a t any ed u c ate d Jew could inform him s e l f as to th e law . In h is e s s a y s , Ahad Ha-Am c a l l s th e Gemara to w itn e ss o r to b u t t r e s s a p o in t o f h is own, i m c i t i n g th e consensus o f th e R abbis. Giving th e c o n te x t o f th e o p in io n , he s e l e c t s th e p e r tin e n t Gemara in th e way Maimonides m ight have, to ed u cate th e r e a d e r as t o what th e ta lm u d ic te a c h in g was and how, on a given sub j e c t , i t m ight be ex ten d ed . As an example o f th e use o f th e Gemara in t h i s v e in , we tu r n to Ahad Ha-Am's d efen se o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l Jew ish a t t i t u d e tow ard th e c e n t r a l i t y o f th e God id e a in Judaism . God, n o t man, i s th e id e a l of a b s o lu te p e r f e c t i o n . No man, th e n , even th e most rig h te o u s and p e r f e c t among men, i s com pletely w ith o u t s i n . The aw areness o f man’s m oral f a l l i b i l i t y i s tr u e w ith re g a rd to even th e most re v e re d o f le a d e r s in Jew ish h is to ry - -M o s e s . Moses, th e la w -g iv e r, was a m essenger charged by God to f u l f i l l t h i s f u n c tio n . H is image i s n o t bound up w ith th e e s s e n t i a l p r in c ip l e s o f th e Jew ish f a i t h . There was no h e s i ta n c y , t h e r e f o r e , n o te s Ahad Ha-Am, among th e l a t e r h q te a c h e rs o f Ju d aism , namely th o se o f th e Gemara, to h o ld t h a t "E zra was w orthy t h a t th e Torah be g iv e n to I s r a e l through him had Moses n o t p reced ed him in t i m e ." 1 *9 Using t h i s ta liiu d ic t e x t as h is s o u rc e , he compares t h i s Jew ish a t t i t u d e on Moses to t h a t o f th e New Testam ent on J e s u s . U ft In T r a c ta te Sanh. 21b. tf9Kol K it b e , p. 372. 115 Could a com parable n o tio n , Ahad Ha-Am a s k s , e n t e r a C h r is tia n mind so t h a t a sta te m e n t could be made t h a t P aul was w orthy to b e a r th e "Evangel" in h is p e rso n , had n o t Je su s p receded him in tim e? Through t h i s exam ple, Ahad Ha-Am sought to d e lin e a te th e d if f e re n c e in empha s i s between th e Old and New Testam ents on th e c e n t r a l i t y o f p e r s o n a l i t i e s . From th e Gemara he r e tu r n s to a d d i t i o n a l p ro o fs from th e B ib le by s t a t i n g t h a t we know v i r t u a l l y n o th in g o f th e g r e a t p ro p h ets o f I s r a e l . Such in fo rm a tio n , even i f i t were a v a ila b le , would be b a s i c a l l y i r r e l e v a n t , s in c e i t i s th e message and n o t th e m essenger t h a t i s o f v i t a l im portance in Judaism . This p r i n c i p l e , Ahad Ha-Am h o ld s , a p p lie s e q u a lly to th e M essiah, sin c e th e im portance o f h is coming does n o t l i e in h is perso n b u t in h is b ein g a m essenger o f God b rin g in g redem ption to I s r a e l and to th e w orld. Although th e b e l i e f in th e coming o f th e M essiah i s one o f th e c a r d in a l p r in c ip l e s o f Judaism , Ahad Ha-Am r e c a l l s t h a t th e re was a sage who d id n o t a t a l l b e lie v e in a p e rs o n a l M essiah, h o ld in g , r a t h e r , t o a b e l i e f in a redem ption to be e f f e c t e d by God H im self. A ccording to th e t r a d i t i o n , he was n o t accounted a h e r e t i c f o r ad h e rin g to h i s b e l i e f . ^ The ta lm u d ic t e x t q uoted h e re i s used p o le m ic a lly t o u n d ersco re what Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e d ® °Ibid. C f. , Sanhedrin 98b. 116 to be one o f th e e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s between Judaism and C h r is t ia n i ty on a v i t a l d o c t r in a l is s u e . On a r e l a t e d theme d e a lin g w ith M essianism and th e M essiah, Ahad Ha-Am ag ain d em o n strates h is deep knowledge o f th e Gemara and i t s mode o f th o u g h t. In t h i s in s ta n c e he b ases an e n t i r e a r t i c l e , by an a lo g y , on a so u rce in th e Gemara w ith o u t making s p e c i f i c re fe re n c e to th e sou rce o r i t s la r g e r c o n te x t. His assum ption w as, as th e le a d in g li n e s o f h is a r t i c l e i n d i c a t e , t h a t th e " a n c ie n t saying" i s "w ell-know n," and he uses a p o r tio n o f i t as th e t i t l e o f h is a r t i c l e . With t h i s th e re must be an u n d e rsta n d in g o f h is concom itant assum ption t h a t th e c o n te x t o f th e quo t a t i o n must th e n a ls o be w e ll known. Ahad Ha-Am might w e ll ta k e h i s r e a d e r 's knowledge f o r g r a n te d , f o r th e q u o ta tio n i s embodied in a famous mishnah a t th e end o f t r a c t a t e S o tah^ 1 in th e o rd e r o f Nashim ("Women"). Ahad Ha-Am e n t i t l e s h is a r t i c l e , " In th e F o o tste p s of 5 2 th e M essiah ." Im m ediately fo llo w in g th e t i t l e i s a s u p e r s c r ip tio n which c o n ta in s h a l f th e quote o f th e ta lm u d ic t e x t , "In th e f o o ts te p s o f th e M essiah ® 1 S o tah , 59b. The name o f th e t r a c t a t e i s de r iv e d from th e verb s a ta h in Nu. 5 :1 2 , " I f any m an's w ife go a s id e . . . 1 1 ( t i s t e h ) . The Sotah i s a woman, su sp e c te d by h e r husband o f a d u l t e r y , who must undergo c e r t a i n t r i a l s which e i t h e r confirm h e r g u i l t o r e s t a b l i s h h e r in n o cen ce. P r im a r ily , how ever, she must undergo th e t r i a l o f d rin k in g " b i t t e r w a te r." 52Kol K itb e , p. 391. 117 impudence w i l l abound.” The unquoted rem aining h a l f re a d s "and honor d w in d le ." 5^ I t must n o t be assumed t h a t Ahad Ha-Am n e g le c te d th e second h a l f of th e q u o te , f o r i t p la y s an im p o rta n t r o le in h is e s s a y . He was m erely fo llo w in g an a c c e p te d convention in Jewish s c h o l a r s h ip o f q u o tin g only th e b eg in n in g o f a p assag e. The c o n te x t of th e Sotah q u o ta tio n r e la te d to th e d e c lin e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l , c u l t u r a l and m oral l i f e during th e war w ith V espasian, ending in th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e Second Temple in 70 C.E. In such tim es o f upheaval and tu r m o il, upon whom could one r e l y , sin c e a l l ac ce p ted a u t h o r i t i e s had e i t h e r d ie d o r were in d e c lin e . The Mishnah r e p lie s to the q u e s tio n , "Upon whom i s i t f o r us to r e ly ? " w ith th e answ er, "Upon o u r F a th e r W ho i s in Heaven. " 5 * 1 T his passage i s im m ediately follow ed b y , "In th e fo o ts te p s o f th e M essiah in s o le n c e w i l l in c re a s e and honor d w in d le. " 55 This s o u rc e , Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in s , draws o u r a t te n t i o n to c e r t a in o b je c tiv e f a c ts o f l i f e . What i s c a lle d 5 3 As t r a n s l a t e d by I s id o r e E p s te in ( e d . ) , The B abylonian Talmud (London: Soncino P re s s , 1936), V I, 266-267. A v a r ia n t of "and honor dw indle" i s ren d ered by M. J a s tro w , A D ic tio n a ry o f th e Targumim (New York: ;Pardes P u b lis h in g taouse, I n c . , 1950), I , 79, sub-heading "Amar" I I , as " th e n o b i l i t y s h a l l be o p p re s s iv e ." In Sanh. 97a a n o th e r v a r ia n t o f "and honor dw indle" i s found. I t r e a d s , "honor w i l l be p e r v e r te d ." Sanh. 97a, p. 26 7, note 1. 5* * The Babylonian Talmud, VI, 266. 5 5 I b i d . « 266-267. 118 impudence i s n o t an in b o rn q u a lity b u t an a c q u ire d t r a i t , p ro ceed in g from an e x a g g erate d n o tio n o f o n e 's own w o rth . In norm al tim e s , when men have re g a rd f o r e x p e rie n c e and knowledge in th e conduct o f human a f f a i r s , "impudence" i s re g a rd e d as a bad th in g , as a c o n c e it. When, how ever, " th e M essiah com es," th is t r a i t o f "impudence" i s viewed d i f f e r e n t l y . When th e masses o f men f in d o r in v e n t some M essiah to whom i s a t t r i b u t e d a l l t r u t h and goodness and from whom s a lv a tio n w i l l come, th e q u a l i t i e s o f knowledge and e x p e rie n c e a re d is re g a rd e d , s in c e a l l a re as d u st compared t o th e M essiah. H arking back to th e Gemara, Ahad Ha-Am enum erates th e in v e rs io n s in s o c ie ty t h a t ensue when "honour d w in d le s." D is tin c tio n s between peo p le b ased on m e rit d is a p p e a r. The r i g h t f u l p la c e o f wisdom o v e r f o l l y , age o v e r y o u th , t r u t h o v e r fa ls e h o o d , a l l a re w iped away through th e a d u la tio n o f a M essiah. 56 Those o u ts id e th e m e ssia n ic camp are d e s p is e d , no m a tte r how w ise o r e x p e rie n c e d , and may be made a lau g h in g sto c k by any young s ta lw a r t o f th e M e ssia h 's who has th e new " t r u t h . " The le a rn e d c ry , " In s o le n c e I" b u t th e M essian- i s t s a re o b liv io u s to any m isconduct o r i n f r a c t i o n o f th e 5^Kol K itb e , p . 391. The Talmud s t a t e s , "The wisdom o f th e le a rn e d w i l l d eg e n erate . . . F e a re rs o f s i n w i l l be d e s p ise d . . . The t r u t h w i l l be la c k in g . . . y o u th s w i l l p u t o ld men to shame . . . " The B abylonian Talmud (S o n c in o ), VI, 26 7. 119 c n t r a d i t i o n a l m oral m o o rin g s. As th e M e s s ia n is ts o f h is own day, Ahad Ha-Am has in mind th e German S o c ia l Democrats and th e H e rz lia n s to whom he s p e c i f i c a l l y a llu d e s . How d i f f i c u l t l i f e i s f o r one who w i l l n o t l e t h im s e lf be swept i n t o one o r a n o th e r o f th e M essian ic t i d e s , who s t i l l looks upon sc ie n c e and reaso n as " d iv in e po w ers," sta n d in g above a l l camps and judging a l l i m p a r t i a l l y , n o t as s la v e s to some M essiah p ro c la im in g him w ith tru m p ets and b tm n e rs .8 ® I n s te a d o f th e Gemara1s "Our F a th e r Who i s in H eaven," Ahad Ha-Am s u b s t i t u t e s " sc ie n c e and reaso n " as t h a t upon which to r e l y in tim es o f tu rm o il. E xcept f o r t h i s b a s ic su b s t i t u t i o n o f w hat, f o r him , was th e so u rce of a u th o r ity and o r d e r , th e li n e s o f th e essay c lo s e ly follow th e argum ents o f th e Gemara, w ith an updated theme and a new v o cab u lary by which th e te a c h in g o f th e Gemara in q u e s tio n h e re was made r e le v a n t. The K a ra ite s had a consuming h a tr e d f o r th e Talmud b u t a b o u n d less love f o r th e B ib le . Under t h e i r le a d e r , Anan ben D avid, th e y e lim in a te d th e O ral Law and th u s a v a s t p o r tio n o f th e Jew ish t r a d i t i o n . The K a ra ite s shaped an e s s e n t i a l l y n e g a tiv e m o v e m en t,u n ab le t o advance th e 8^Kol K itb e , pp. 391 f . 5 8 I b i d . , p . 392. p r o p h e tic hopes o f th e B ib le . ^ 9 The n o tio n o f a p a rty o f n e g a tio n , such as th e K a r a ite s , le d Ahad Ha-Am's mind a ls o to "th e re fo rm e rs" o f h is tim e who, in h i s view, b e lie v e d th em selves cap ab le o f s tr i p p i n g th e s h e l l o f observance from Judaism , r e t a i n i n g only th e k e r n e l. E lim in a tin g much o f r i t u a l , th e y en th ro n e d a b ? tr a c t b e l i e f s . They b e lie v e d i n u sin g th e s e c u la r in s te a d o f th e Hebrew to n g u e, r e t a i n i n g only th e essen c e in t r a n s l a t i o n . Ahad Ha-Am makes th e p o in t t h a t i t i s n o t only th e k e r n e l t h a t i s h o ly and s a n c t i f i e s , b u t th e s h e l l as w e ll. Using Baba B a tra 16a as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f h is th o u g h t, he s t a t e s , "Laugh who w i l l a t t h i s ze alo u s re g a rd f o r th e c a sk ; th e h i s t o r y o f th o s e who have tr e a s u r e d th e wine 60 w i l l g iv e him p a u s e ." This i s an o b liq u e re fe re n c e to a ta lm u d ic leg en d in which S atan i s t o l d by God t h a t he m ight i n f l i c t what he l ik e d on J o b , save th e ta k in g o f h is l i f e . S atan r e p l i e d t o God t h a t he m ight as w e ll have been t o l d to b reak th e cask and p re s e rv e th e w in e , meaning t h a t th e ta s k was an im p o ssib le one. The cask may be empty o r f i l l e d w ith new wine as th e o ccasio n demands. Where, how ever, th e cask i s b ro k en , th e wine e v a p o ra te s and i s l o s t . 5 9 I b i d . , p . 77* °^Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c te d E s s a y s , t r . Leon Simon ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f Am erica, 1948), p . 45. 121 Ahad Ha-Am draws h e a v ily upon th e Talmud to i l l u s t r a t e v i t a l p o in ts on th e Jew ish a t t i t u d e tow ard egoism and a ltr u is m . He p o in ts out th a t i t i s as wrong f o r an in d iv id u a l to r u in h is own l i f e f o r th e sake o f a n o th e r as to r u in a n o th e r p e rs o n ’s l i f e f o r th e sake o f o n e 's 6 X own. He c i t e s a B a ra ita which p ic tu r e s two men jo u r n eying through th e d e s e r t, both parched w ith t h i r s t . A b o t t l e which one o f them i s c a rry in g c o n ta in s s u f f i c i e n t w a te r o n ly fo r one. I f b oth d rin k , b oth w i l l d ie . I f one alone d r in k s , i t i s s t a t e d , he w i l l reach h is d e s t i n a tio n . Ben P’t u r a h e ld t h a t i t would be b e t t e r i f b oth d rin k and die th a n i f one has to w itn e ss th e death o f h is comrade. Akiba ( c a . 50-137 C .E .), how ever, adduced from th e s c r i p t u r a l v e r s e , "And thy b r o th e r s h a l l l i v e w ith t h e e ," t h a t your own l i f e comes b e fo re your n e ig h b o r 's , 6 2 and th u s r e f u te d Ben P ’t u r a 's view. Ahad Ha-Am ho ld s t h a t A k ib a 's o p in io n is t h a t o f a u th e n tic Judaism . Ben P 't u r a , an a l t r u i s t , does not valu e human l i f e f o r i t s own sa k e , sin c e he would p r e f e r t h a t two men p e r is h . Ahad Ha-Am h a s te n s , however, to round out t h i s 6 3 view w ith an o th e r ta lm u d ic t e x t which d e p ic ts a man ®^Baba M ezia, 62a. A B a ra ita r e f e r s to a non- c a n o n ic a l m ishnah. 62Kol K itb e , p. 373. C f. , Lev. 25:36. 6 3pesahim , 25b. 122 fi u coming to Raba (c a . 2 80-352 C .E .), a famous Amora, a sk in g him th e p ro p e r course when a p erso n in a u th o r ity th r e a te n s t o k i l l him u n le ss he would k i l l a n o th e r man. Raba r e p l i e s , "Be k i l l e d and k i l l n o t. Who has t o l d you t h a t your blood i s re d d e r th a n h is ? Perhaps h is blood i s re d d e r! " R a sh i’s commentary (which i s th e c l a s s i c com m entary on th e e n t i r e Talmud) on t h i s ta lm u d ic t e x t s t a t e s : You have come to r a i s e t h i s q u e s tio n o nly Lecause you know t h a t no o rd in an ce ta k e s precedence o v e r th e d anger t o l i f e , and you m ight th in k t h a t t h i s law ("Thou s h a l t n o t k i l l ”) a ls o sh o u ld be suspended because o f th e t h r e a t t o yo u r own l i f e . T his t r a n s g re s s io n however i s n o t l i k e o th e rs in any e v e n t, h e r e , f o r a l i f e must be l o s t . Who w i l l say t h a t yo u r l i f e i s more p re c io u s b e fo re God th an h is ? 65 P erhaps h is l i f e i s more p re c io u s to Him them y o u rs. In t h i s in s ta n c e , where th e is s u e i s one o f k i l l o r be k i l l e d , one i s p r o h ib ite d from sav in g o n e 's own l i f e a t th e expense o f t h a t o f o n e 's fe llo w man. Ahad Ha-Am's e x e g e sis i s t h a t o f a modem t r a d i t i o n a l com mentator who, on such m a tte rs as t h i s v i t a l e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e , c i t e s th e Talmud as a u t h o r it y f o r h i s v iew p o in t. In th e same e s s a y , Ahad Ha-Am i l l u s t r a t e s h i s con t e n t i o n t h a t Judaism a n t i c i p a t e s th e developm ent o f m o ra lity so t h a t f o r good men j u s t i c e w i l l become ®**The te a c h e rs o f th e Gemara a re c a lle d Amoraim ( p i . ) , Amora ( s . ) . C f ., Hoses M ie lz in e r, "Amora,1 * J£ , I , 527-578“ " 65Kol K itb e , p. 373. 12 3 C C i n s t i n c t i v e and a p p lic a b le w ith o u t h e s ita n c y . The coming o f th e M essiah, who i s endowed w ith th e q u a l ity o f i n t u i t i v e j u s t i c e , i s lin k e d t o th e f u l f i l l m e n t of g 7 t h i s m oral a s p i r a t i o n . The Talmud speaks o f th e Mes s ia h who " w ill sm e ll and ju d g e . " 6 8 David Kimhi (1160- 1235) comments t h a t . . . b ecause th e sen se o f sm ell i s a v ery d e l i c a te s e n s e , he a p p lie s th e term 'sm ell* to t h a t which i s m ost e a s i l y ( o r d e l i c a t e l y ) p e rc e iv e d . . . t h a t i s to s a y ? th e M essiah, w ith l i t t l e s c r u ti n y , w i l l d e te c t which men a re good, and which e v il.® 5 * g g I b i d . , p . 37M -. Ahad Ha-Am makes r e fe re n c e to H e rb e rt S pencer f o r whom th e h e ig h t o f m oral developm ent in man was to be reac h ed when th e f e e lin g o f a ltru is m becomes tra n sfo rm e d in t o n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t , t o th e p o in t where a man can f in d no g r e a t e r good th a n w orking f o r th e b e n e f i t o f o th e r s . Judaism , s i m i l a r l y , a c c o rd in g to i t s own sy stem , hopes f o r such a developm ent. A ccording t o Ahad Ha-Am, th e r e i s a dayyan emet ( " a tr u e ju d g e") in every man who p e rc e iv e s 3 u s t 3.ce w ith o u t re g a rd to m i t i g a tin g c irc u m s ta n c e s . Ahad Ha-Am i d e n t i f i e s t h i s as ha-zedek h a-m u h lat (" a b s o lu te j u s t i c e " ) , and u se s as term s d e s c rib in g t h i s f a c u l t y , q u a l i t i e s which in Jew ish t r a d itio n a re a s c rib e d to God. God i s th e dayyan h a -e m e t, s h o fe t zedek we-emet ("ju d g e o f rig h te o u s n e s s and t r u t h " ) . Joseph h e r t z , A u th o rize d D aily Prayerbook (New York: Bloch P u b lis h in g C o., 19*18), p . l b 76. C F., a l s o I s a . 24:16, 33:22; Ec. 3:17; P s . 6 8 :5 , e t p a ssim . 67Kol K itb e , p . 374. 68This ta lm u d ic r e f e r e n c e i s lin k e d t o I s a . 1 1 :3 , "And s h a l l make him q u ick o f u n d e rsta n d in g (w a -h a rih o ) , in th e f e a r o f th e Lord; and he s h a l l n o t judge a f t e r th e s ig h t o f h i s e y e s ," W a-hariho i s d e riv e d from r i a h , " to s m e ll." C f ., B ro w n -D riv er-B rig g s, Hebrew and E n g lish Lexicon o f th e Old Testam ent (O xford: C larendon P r e s s , 1907), p . 926. 69Kol K itb e , p. 374. Ahad Ha-Am's f e e lin g s w ith reg ard t o th e Talmud, however, were f a r from u n c r i t i c a l . He m a in ta in s t h a t , u n lik e th e te a c h in g s o f th e p ro p h ets which were c re a te d in th e days o f "our freedom ," th e Talmud and th e Shulhan Aruk, w ith t h e i r in s is te n c e on r i t u a l , came about in th e 70 days when "we were s la v e s ." A lb e it both th e p ro p h e tic l i t e r a t u r e and th a t o f th e Talmud and th e Shulhan Aruk were th e r e s u l t o f th e same s p i r i t . The Talmud and th e Shulhan A ruk, w ith t h e i r e la b o r a te r i t u a l i s m , advocated th e only means by which Judaism could p re se rv e i t s e l f . The perform ance o f th e many mizwot came to be regarded as a means o f ea rn in g m e rit and la y in g up i n t e r e s t on m e rit in th e academy on h ig h . Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in s t h a t th e c r e a tio n o f t h i s l i t e r a t u r e was not due to th e a t r o phying o f th e c r e a t i v i t y o f th e Jew ish s p i r i t , b u t m erely i t s a d a p ta tio n to d i f f e r e n t c irc u m sta n ces. C onsequently, what was produced must be u n d ersto o d and r e l a t e d to th o se circum stances w hich, as he p u ts i t , were o f "sla v e ry and 71 d i s p e r s i o n ." D espite t h i s a s p e c t, th e Talmud f o r Ahad Ha-Am re p re s e n te d a valu ed source f o r th e u n d ersta n d in g o f th e e v o lu tio n o f Judaism . He lam ents th e f a c t t h a t Jewish s c h o la rs o f h is day o fte n s la v is h ly follow ed th e vogue o f 7 0 I b i d . , p. 176. 71 I b id . 125 non-Jew ish s c h o la r s , n o t only w ith re g a rd to method, b u t w ith re g a rd to t h e i r p r e d ile c ti o n s . No Jewish s c h o la r of whom Ahad Ha-Am was aware in h is own l if e t im e had e v e r q u e stio n e d th e accep ted m ethodological axiom o f g e n e ra l s c h o la rs h ip r e l a t i n g to Greco-Roman s o u rc e s, t h a t where such so u rces c o n f l i c t w ith th e d a ta o f th e M idrash or th e Talmud, th e Greco-Roman l i t e r a t u r e was always to be p r e f e r r e d . Dr. Adolf B iichler (1867-1939), Ahad Ha-Am h e ld , dem onstrated t h a t t h i s m ethodological presuppo- 72 s i t i o n was w ith o u t fo u n d a tio n . Ahad Ha-Am bemoans th e f a c t t h a t th e system o f ta lm u d ic lo g ic has n o t y e t been o b je c tiv e ly s tu d ie d . I t i s g ro s s ly u n ju s t to c a te g o riz e a ta lm u d ic d is p u ta tio n as one which v io la te s canons o f lo g ic and good se n s e . Dr. Adolph Schwarz (18,+6-1931) has shown t h a t th e method o f talm u d ic argument i s n o t an a r b i t r a r y one, and t h a t th e d if fe re n c e between i t and Greek lo g ic i s n o t a c c id e n ta l b u t r e l a t e d to d i f f e r e n t o u tlo o k s 73 and modes o f th o u g h t. Ahad Ha-Am views th e Gemara as th e c r e a tio n o f th e Jew ish people a t a tim e o f t h e i r s e rv itu d e and, conse q u e n tly , i n f e r i o r in a u th o r ity to th e B ib le , which was th e p roduct o f th e p e rio d o f t h e i r l i t e r a r y c r e a t i v i t y when ^2 I b i d . , p . 178. C f ., Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c te d E ssa y s, p . 2 , n o te 1. 73I b id . C f ., Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c t e d E s s a y s , p. 27H, note 2. 1 2 6 th e peo p le was in i t s own la n d ; n e v e r th e le s s , th e Gemara r e p r e s e n ts a v a l id h i s t o r i c a l so u rce f o r th e stu d y o f th e Jew ish p a s t . The M ishnah, f o r Ahad Ha-Am, r e f l e c t s t h a t p e rio d in which th e Jew ish s p i r i t was s t i l l c r e a tiv e and sp o n ta n e o u s. As l a t e as th e p e r io d o f H i l l e l and Shammai, th e l a s t o f th e p a i r s in th e chain o f t r a d i t i o n 74- in th e f i r s t c h a p te r o f A bot, th e same s p i r i t as in th e b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n would be re p re s e n te d f o r th e most p a r t . Ahad Ha-Am f a i l s t o d is t in g u is h between M ishnayot d e v e l oped and H alakot e s t a b l i s h e d b e fo re th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e Second Temple and th o s e t h a t came a f t e r . C le a r ly , th e Mishnah o f Yehudah Ha N a si, in i t s c o d if ie d form , r e p re s e n te d a co n g e alin g o f th e Jew ish s p i r i t , b u t th e w r itin g down o f th e o r a l t r a d i t i o n was i n e v ita b le i n th e l i g h t o f h i s t o r i c c irc u m s ta n c e s . One m ight have ex p e cte d a s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e in Ahad Ha-Am tow ard th e a c tu a l w r itin g down o f th e c o n te n ts o f th e b i b l i c a l books s i n c e , in w r i tte n form , th e y should r e p r e s e n t th e same phenomenon o f th e atro p h y in g o f th e Jew ish s p i r i t . However, Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e s t h a t th e ^ D a n b y , The M ishnah, p . 447. The zugot ( " p a ir s " ) were th e le a d in g s c h o la r s o f th e law in th e p e rio d p r e ce d in g t h a t o f th e Tannalm. The l i s t begins w ith Jo se b . J o e z e r and ends w ith H i l l e l and Shammai. The o r ig in of th e term zugot i s i n f e r r e d from th e t r a d i t i o n in Hagigah t h a t two s c h o la rs always were a t th e head o f th e San- h e d r in , one as n a s i ( " p r e s i d e n t " ) , th e o th e r as ab b e t d in ( " v ic e p r e s i d e n t " ) . Jacob Z. L a u te rb a c h , JE , X II, 698. 127 p e rio d i n which th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " was a t th e h e ig h t o f i t s c r e a tiv e pow ers, and from which th e p ro p h e tic l i t e r a t u r e i n p a r t i c u l a r em anated, was a unique and re v o lu tio n a ry developm ent in th e h i s t o r y o f th o u g h t. A lthough th e c r e a tiv e p ro d u ct o f t h i s p e rio d h as been s e t down, i t i s n e v e rth e le s s a l i v e . The e a r l i e s t manner o f tr a n s m itti n g th e O ral Law was by means o f M idrash, as a running commentary on th e t e x t o f S c rip tu re o r as e x p o s itio n o f th e O ral Law. M idrash was th e e x p o s itio n a l v e h ic le th rough which th e B ib le rem ained a l i v i n g docum ent. There are many tr a c e s 75 o f th e m id ra sh ic method in th e Mishnah i t s e l f . The word m id ra s h , d e riv e d from th e verb d a ra sh ( " to se a rc h o u t a s c r i p t u r a l p assag e and to expound upon i t " ) , g e n e r a l l y d enotes an e x p o s itio n o f th e S c r ip tu r e s . One who 7fi expounds S c r ip tu re i s a d a rs h a n . T here are b a s i c a l l y two ty p es o f m id rash im . The e a r l i e s t , o r T a n n a itic m id- ra s h im , a re m ainly h a la k ic i n c o n te n t and c a rry th e name m idrash h a la k a h . O thers which d e a l o n ly w ith th e non- h a la k ic elem ents b e a r th e t i t l e m idrash aggadah. 77 Ahad 7^For exam ple, M a 'a ser Sheni ("Second T i t h e " ) , 5, 1 0 - m , comments p h ra se by p h ra se on D eut. 26:13-?15; Yebamot 12, 6 , on D eut. 2 5 :7 -1 0 ; Sotah 8 , 1 -6 , on Deut. 2 0 :2 -9 , e t c . ; Danby, The M ishnah, p. x x iv . 76Hermann L. S tra c k , I n tr o d u c tio n to th e Talmud and M idrash ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1959), p . 6 . 77I b i d . , pp. 206 f . 128 Ha-Am uses m idrashim and m id rash ic s t y l e In s e v e r a l o f h is e s s a y s . He does t h i s very n a t u r a l l y . In a d d itio n to th e normal use o f m id rash —t h a t i s , f o r th e purpose o f c l a r if y i n g a s c r i p t u r a l p assag e—he sometimes uses m idrash in r e v e r s e , in t h a t he e lu c id a te s a passage o f h is thought by c i tin g a b i b l i c a l v e rs e . A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c example may be found in one o f h is e a r l i e s t l i t e r a r y w orks, J u s t ic e and Mercy. Ahad Ha-Am s t a t e s t h a t j u s t i c e re g a rd s th e c h a r a c te r o f th e deed and h o ld s th e doer a c co u n tab le on t h i s b a s is a lo n e . Mercy e v a lu a te s th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e d oer a t th e moment th a t he perform s th e deed and judges th e deed a c c o rd in g ly . For exam ple, The law says 'Thou s h a l t n o t s t e a l , ' b u t i f a man tr a n s g r e s s e s and s t e a l s 'h e s h a l l s u r e ly p a y .' So f a r a l l a g re e . Suppose, however, he i s unable to pay? To t h i s p o in t th e a t t r i b u t e o f j u s t i c e r e p l i e s , ' I f he i s unable t o repay th e n l e t him be s o ld f o r h is t h e f t . ' The a t t r i b u t e o f mercy th e n sa y s: 'A t h i e f i s n o t d e sp ise d i f he s t e a l s t o feed h im s e lf i f he i s h u n g ry .' The form er ( a t t r i b u t e o f j u s t i c e ) p e r ta in s t o t h e f t , th e l a t t e r ( a t t r i b u t e o f mercy) judges th e t h i e f . ' 8 The a t t r i b u t e o f j u s t i c e r e l e n t l e s s l y p u rsu es s i n , whereas mercy has re g a rd f o r th e s in n e r . In a n o th e r i l l u s t r a t i o n , we have th e s t e r n law , "Whosoever sheds a m an's blood (w hether in e r r o r o r through p re m e d ita tio n ) h is blood s h a l l be sh e d. " 79 The blood t h a t i s sh e d , th e deed 78Kol K itb e , p. 7»f. 79 ^R eference h ere i s to Gen. 9 :6 . 129 i t s e l f , re q u ire s an atonem ent from th e hand o f th e s la y e r and th e r e can be no recompense excep t through th e b lo o d 80 o f him who shed i t . Man su b se q u en tly came to u nderstand th a t he who s la y s an o th e r u n in te n tio n a lly i s "not d eserv ing o f th e death p e n a l t y .” Even when t h i s s ta g e was reac h ed , demands o f vengeance f o r th e blood shed co u ld n o t be checked. At t h i s s ta g e , " c i t i e s o f re fu g e " were 81 developed f o r th e u n w ittin g s l a y e r , " l e s t th e avenger o f th e blood pursue th e s l a y e r , w hile h is h e a r t i s hot." A nother p o in t of m idrash h alak ah i s Ahad Ha-Am's e x p o s itio n o f th e s ta te m e n t, "th e law e x o n e ra te s him who act 3 under com pulsion ( o r d u re s s ) . " 88 While f o r Jews t h i s i s a f i r s t p r i n c i p l e , Ahad Ha-Am n o tes t h a t th e re were tim es when t h i s p r in c ip l e r e q u ir e d p ro o fs and ex amples in o rd e r to win ac ce p tan c e. "And you s h a l l do n o th in g to th e young g i r l f o r she i s n o t d eserv in g o f d e a t h ." 8* * The p o in t o f law which Ahad Ha-Am e lu c id a te d was th e rape o f a b e tro th e d g i r l in a f i e l d . She c r ie d out b u t th e re was none to re sc u e h e r and co n seq u en tly 8QKol K itb e , p. 74. 81Nu . 35:6. 82D eu t. 19:6. 88Baba Kama 29b, "Ones rahmana p a t r e ." 8**Deut. 2 2:26. 130 th e law e x o n e ra te s h e r , f o r she a c te d under d u re s s . Follow ing th e m idrash h a la k a h , Ahad Ha-Am p o in ts o u t t h a t i t i s u n u su al f o r th e law to g iv e re a s o n s f o r i t s o rd in a n c e s in t h i s f a s h io n , b u t in t h i s in s ta n c e a p r i n c i p le was in tro d u c e d which went a g a in s t p o p u la r id e a s and hence th e f u l l reaso n s a re s t a t e d . Ahad Ha-Am uses t h i s p a r t i c u l a r m idrash to d em o n strate how j u s t i c e comes to be tem pered w ith m ercy. The adm ixture i s p a r t o f th e m o rtar which we c a l l " c o n sc ie n c e 1 1 o r " th e voice o f God moving in th e h e a r t o f m an." T his i s what Adam Smith meant when he in tim a te d t h a t co n scie n ce i s th e echo o f a man in con- 85 n e c tio n w ith th e tr a n s g r e s s io n s o f o t h e r s . Ahad Ha-Am makes th e p o in t t h a t th e Law was handed down by th e a n c e s to rs f o r th e sake o f th e f u t u r e , t h a t were i t n o t f o r th e f u t u r e , th e r e would have been no need to p re s e rv e th e Law. The f u tu r e which Ahad Ha-Am has in mind r e f e r s t o th e r e tu r n to I s r a e l , to th e la n d , and he q u o tes from th e S i f r e , **Even though I have e x i le d you from th e la n d , be o u ts ta n d in g in th e observance o f th e commandments so t h a t when you r e t u r n they s h a l l n o t be QC new to y o u ." I t was o n ly because t h i s was t h e i r com p re h e n sio n o f th e Law and i t s purpose t h a t t r e a t i s e upon 85 Kol K itb e , p . 7 H . 8 8 I b i d . , p . 82. S i f r e i s a T a n n a itic m idrasn to th e books o f Numbers and Deuteronomy"! t h i s s ta te m e n t i s a commentary to D eut. 7 :1 2 , hence S if r e "Ekeb" r e f e r r i n g 131 t r e a t i s e was com piled on th e m in u tia e o f laws o f s a c r i f i c e s , o f f e r in g s and th e c u l t u s . This was no a n tiq u a r ia n e x e r c is e but stemmed from a firm b e l i e f t h a t th e s e reg u l a t i o n s would once a g a in come i n t o f o rc e and, t h e r e f o r e , i t was incum bent upon th e in d iv id u a l t o know them t h o r o u g h ly . These t r e a t i s e s had th e d i d a c t i c v alu e o f i n c u l c a tin g in g e n e ra tio n a f t e r g e n e ra tio n th e hope f o r th e n a t i o n 's r e t u r n to th e la n d . These "commandments con t i n g e n t on th e land" w ere in s tru m e n ta l in p re s e rv in g th e Jew ish p e o p le , perhaps more so th an th o se laws which 87 a p p lie d to th e D iasp o ra. Ahad Ha-Am was p a r t i c u l a r l y ad e p t in th e use o f m idrash aggadah. His use o f t r a d i t i o n a l m idrashim to e l u c id a te p o in ts in h i s e ssa y s i s d i s c e r n i b l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th o se o f h is them es which d e a l w ith th e e v o lu tio n o f Jew ish th o u g h t. T rue to h i s c r i t i q u e o f H ask a lah , he u t i l i z e s Jew ish so u rc e s very s e l e c t i v e l y and in a prim ary way. His e s sa y s on Judaism a re peppered w ith v e rse s from th e B ib le which he u ses b o th as summary s ta te m e n ts o f a g iv en p o in t, as w e ll as p o in ts o f d e p a rtu re in th e mid- r a s h i c s ty l e f o r th e developm ent o f a them e. H is use o f B ib le te x ts f o r th e s e p u rp o ses i s n e v e r a r t i f i c i a l b u t to th e key work in th e f i r s t p h ra se o f th e v e r s e . C f ., J . T heodor, "M idrash Haggadah— S if r e t o Deuteronom y," JE , V I I I , 556. 87Kol K itb e , pp. 82 f . 132 se rv e s a genuine purpose o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e m a tic developm ent. In d e a lin g w ith th e developm ent o f p o s t- e x i l i c th e o lo g y , Ahad Ha-Am i l l u s t r a t e s th e f a i t h o f I s r a e l in i t s n a t io n a l God and His supreme power t o save His people and r e s to r e i t , as flow ing l o g i c a l l y from th e b i b l i c a l assum ption t h a t "th e e a rth i s th e L o rd ’s and th e f u l l n e s s t h e r e o f ." The j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s id e a i n th e M idrash i s b ro u g h t out by Ahad Ha-Am c i t i n g th e mid ra s h which R ashi used to e x p la in th e opening v erse o f G e n e sis, "In th e b eg in n in g God c r e a te d th e heaven and th e Q Q e a r t h . " The m idrash d e a ls w ith th e q u e s tio n , To whom does th e la n d o f Canaan r e a l l y belong? Does i t belong to th e C anaanites? Does i t belong to the t r a d i t i o n a l "seven n a tio n s o f th e w orld" who a re known h i s t o r i c a l l y to have in h a b ite d th e land? To t h i s th e r e p ly i s t h a t Canaan, as th e w o rld , belongs to God. In H is wisdom He 89 g iv e s i t to whomever He c h o o s e s. T hus, th e B abylonian v ic to r y o v er Judea i s n o t to be co n stru e d as th e suprem acy o f th e B abylonian gods o v e r th e God o f I s r a e l , b u t r a t h e r as a w i l l f u l a c t o f th e D eity who gave th e v ic to r y and th e la n d t o th e B abylonians as a means o f p u n ish in g I s r a e l f o r i t s s i n s . The God o f I s r a e l , th e n , had 8 8Gen. 1 :1 . 89R ashi to Gen. 1 :1 . Based on th e m idrash re c o rd e d in B e r e s h it R abb ah 1 :3 . M idrash Rabt>ah~~(New York: M OP P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 ), p . l a - b . 133 bestow ed upon th e k in g o f Babylon a l l o f h i s c o n q u e s ts . As He had g iv e n , He co u ld tak e away, f o r a l l th e e a r t h was H is : "He c r e a te d i t and gave i t to whomso seemed qn r i g h t in H is e y e s ." Again Ahad Ha-Am draws upon th e M idrash in h i s d is c u s s io n o f th e a t t r i b u t e s o f j u s t i c e and mercy. The M idrash to o k cognizance o f the f a c t th a t two names f o r th e D e ity , Yahweh and Elohim , were u t i l i z e d in the c r e a tio n s t o r i e s o f G en esis. In so d o in g , th e M idrash reco g n ized th e d i s t i n c t i o n o f which so much was to be made f i f t e e n hundred y e a rs l a t e r by p io n e e rs in b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip , such as Je an A stru c . Since i t was an assump t io n o f th e ra b b is t h a t th e re was no su p e rflu o u s word o r l e t t e r in th e B ib le , t h i s dual use of G od's name had to be e x p la in e d . The use o f Yahweh, i t was assumed by th e M idrash, r e p r e s e n te d th e a t t r i b u t e o f m ercy, w hile th e Q 1 name Elohim hearkened to God's a t t r i b u t e o f j u s t i c e . The b i b l i c a l t e x t c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h a t Elohim (th e j u s t one) and n o t Yahweh ( th e m e rc ifu l one) c r e a te d th e w o rld . In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c o n te x t th e t e x t s t a t e s t h a t Elohim c r e a te d th e w orld b ecau se i t was G od's o r i g i n a l in t e n t i o n to c r e a te th e w orld ac co rd in g to th e a t t r i b u t e of j u s t i c e 9 0 I b i d . , p . l b . 9 -^ Ib id ., Ex. Rabbah 6 :3 , 2 2 a-b ; Gen. Rabbah 1 2 :1 5 , 27a. 134 alo n e . When, however, th e D eity p e rc e iv e d th a t th e w orld could n o t e x i s t based on j u s t i c e a lo n e , he gave p re c e dence to th e a t t r i b u t e o f mercy and u n ite d i t w ith th e a t t r i b u t e o f j u s t i c e . Thus i t i s w r i t t e n , "In th e day t h a t th e Lord (Yahweh) God (Elohim) made heaven and e a r t h . " 9^ In t h i s m idrash, Ahad Ha-Am fin d s th e b a s is f o r h is c o n te n tio n t h a t , in th e p ro cess o f moral develop- i ment, th e a t t r i b u t e o f j u s t i c e p reced es t h a t of mercy in in d iv id u a ls as n a t io n s . Man1s i n i t i a l im p u lse , as a n a t i o n 's i n i t i a l im p u lse, to p u n ish a wrong, i s to seek immediate r e t a l i a t i o n , such as k i l l i n g th e b e a s t through which th e h u r t has come. S ubseq u en tly , th e q u a lity o f mercy seeps in to our m oral id e a s to tem per them and to 9 3 p u rify f e e lin g s and a c tio n s . To i l l u s t r a t e h is co n te n tio n t h a t th e Jewish s a g e s ' e s s e n t i a l view o f th e w orld was in term s o f moral f o rc e s o f which th e re were two a t work, one p o s itiv e and one n e g a tiv e , Ahad Ha-Am again chooses a m id ra sh . There i s a l i f e l o n g , b i t t e r b a t t l e between th e s e two c o n f lic tin g f o r c e s , each o f which seeks dominance in th e human s p i r i t . I t i s contended t h a t th e Yezer H a-rar ("the im pulse to evil*) i s a b s o lu te ly e v i l , u n re g e n e ra te d by even an i o t a o f 92 zGen. 2 :4 . 9 3Kol K itb e , p. 74. 135 goodness; th e Yezer Tob ( "th e im pulse to good") i s a lso viewed in an a b s o lu te s e n s e , w herein a l l "th e v a n i tie s of t h i s w orld" a re n eg a ted , even th o se com prising th e n eces sary su b stra tu m o f l i v i n g , such as re p ro d u c tio n and la b o r f o r th e purposes o f s u s ta in in g o n e 's body and s o u l. These two i n c l i n a t i o n s , in a b s o lu te p o l a r i t y w ith one a n o th e r, remain in a s t a t e o f te n s io n . Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in s th a t t h i s n o tio n i s akin to t h a t o f P aulhan, who conceives of th e human so u l as a r e s e r v o i r o f c o n f lic tin g and com pli m entary a s p e c ts o f th e human p e r s o n a lity , such as id e a s , im pulses and f e e l i n g s , each o f which s t r i v e s to shape th e gu human so u l in accordance w ith i t s own image. No accom m odation i s p o s s ib le ; one dominant tendency must govern. I t rem a in s, however, in te n s io n w ith th e r e s t of th e needs and d e s ire s c o n tain e d w ith in th e human so u l and t h i s r e s u l t s in th e com plexity and depth and v a rie d con- Q C to u rs o f human l i f e . Ahad Ha-Am makes th e p o in t t h a t in Judaism th e re i s no s e p a ra tio n o f body and so u l as su ch , and t h a t th e s p i r i t u a l elem ent i s to s u ffu s e th e m a te r ia l b e in g , p e r meate i t , and r e f in e i t . He a llu d e s to H i l l e l 's example about th e im portance o f m a in ta in in g body c le a n lin e s s and 91*I b i d . , p. 90. 9 5 I b id . 136 e f f ic ie n c y as a means o f coming c l o s e r to God96 and draws upon th e extrem e e x p re ssio n o f t h i s p o in t, i l l u s t r a t e d in th e m id ra sh ic o b s e rv a tio n " th a t i n th e a t i d , (th e tim e to come,) every man must give an account o f h im s e lf f o r every good th in g he saw but d id not e a t . " 97 The fram ing o f o r i g i n a l m id ra sh ic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u sab le f o r polem ics and a p o lo g e tic s was a ls o c h a r a c te r i s t i c o f Ahad Ha-Am. For exam ple, in th e b i b l i c a l passage "To whom would ye lik e n me and make me eq u al? . . . I am 9 8 God and th e re i s none e l s e , " th e e x i l i c p ro p h et ex p re s s e s a view, in accordance w ith the n a t io n a l hope of the people and t h e i r new e x p e c ta tio n , t h a t a t t e s t s to th e e x is te n c e o f a S overeign o f th e whole u n iv e rs e . T his i s a c o n c re te e x p re s sio n o f an id e a whose tim e had come. As w ith th e r e s t o f th e p r o p h e tic l i t e r a t u r e , i t took on a deep and ab id in g meaning in th e h e a r t s o f th e p e o p le , lin k e d to th e n a tio n a l a s p i r a t i o n t h a t a God whose power i s u n circu m scrib ed could r e s to r e h is people to t h e i r n a t io n a l hom eland, making a r e tu r n from th e d is p e rs io n a r e a l i t y . 99 36 V ayikra Rabba, 34 :3 , 91b. ^ 7Kol K itb e , p. 350. R eference i s made to th e Talmud Y erushalm i (V iIn a: Romm, 1922), K id d u sh in , 48b. 9 8 I s a . 4 6 :5 , 9. Kol K itb e, pp. 79 f . 137 A t e x t from E c c le s ia s te s ( 6 :2 ) re a d in g , "A man to whom God g iv e th r i c h e s , and w e a lth , and honor . . . y e t God g iv e th him n o t power t o e a t t h e r e o f , b u t a s tr a n g e r e a te t h i t , " se rv e s as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f Ahad Ha-Am*s b e l i e f th a t th e peo p le o f I s r a e l i n i t s p r e s e n t s e t t i n g has no enjoym ent o f i t s own s p i r i t u a l w e a lth , sin c e th e b e s t o f i t s sons s c a t t e r i t s tr e a s u r e s so t h a t they become th e tr e a s u r e s o f o th e r n a tio n s . Unable to con c e n tr a te i t s s p i r i t u a l tr e a s u r e s in one p l a c e , th e peo p le i s lik e n e d to th e r i c h man who has a l l b u t i s h im se lf unable to en jo y th e p le a s u re t h a t h i s w ealth should re n d e r h im . 100 Here we have a mi d ra s h ic e x p la n a tio n as c lo se t o th e lin e s o f development o f a m idrash aggadah as may be p o s s ib le to f in d in Ahad Ha-Am*s w r i tin g s . Perhaps th e most e f f e c t i v e use o f an o r i g i n a l m id ra sh ic mode o f th o u g h t may be found in th e e s sa y , The T ra n s v a lu a tio n o f V a lu e s, which i s d ir e c te d a t N ie tz s c h e 's d is c ip le s in th e Hebrew camp. 101 Ahad Ha-Am's th e s is i s 1 0 0 I b i d . , p. 176. 101Forem ost o f th e s e was Micah J o s e f Berdyczewski (1865-1921), son o f a h a s i d i c r a b b i, who adopted th e id e a s o f H ask a lah . Berdyczewski b e lie v e d in a " tr a n s v a lu a tio n o f values'* and espoused a r a d ic a l view o f Judaism and Jew ish h i s t o r y . Berdyczewski m a in ta in e d t h a t th e re was no co n tin u o u s stream o f Jew ish th o u g h t. Judaism i s n o t common to a l l g e n e r a tio n s , and Jew ish th o u g h t i s f a r from m o n o lith ic . W e cannot speak o f a continuum in th e g e n e ra tio n s o f I s r a e l . The "Jew ish man" does n o t e x i s t , s in c e ev ery age molds him in a d i f f e r e n t shape. No d e f i n i t i o n o f Judaism i s p o s s i b l e ; t h e r e f o r e , s in c e n e i t h e r id e a s 138 t h a t the Jew ish people i s preem inent because i t has a g en iu s f o r m o r a lity . In i t s h i s t o r y , when th e Jews became aware o f t h i s s u p e r io r ity and framed th e d o c trin e o f th e e l e c t io n o f I s r a e l " to make him h ig h above a l l th e n a t io n s ," n o t in any sense o f dom ination but in a sense o f m oral developm ent, th e d o c trin e of e l e c t i o n imposed upon I s r a e l th e observance o f G od's commandments and a burden o f r e lig i o u s r i t e s and cerem onies o f th e most e x a c tin g k in d . T h erein la y Ju d a ism 's s u p e r i o r i t y . T his d o c trin e n a t u r a l l y le d to th e c o n c lu sio n t h a t th e n a tio n s o f th e w orld would, in th e m illen iu m , come to im ita te I s r a e l , and a l l o f mankind would be u n ite d in b ro th e rh o o d under n o r persons proceed out o f th e same c u l t u r a l o r r e lig i o u s m a tr ix , what i s in evidence in each age i s o n ly th e e x i s te n c e o f in d iv i d u a ls . The g ro u p , t h e r e f o r e , p la y s a m inor ro le s in c e , i f th e re i s no continuum th ro u g h o u t th e ages o f id e a s o r a people c lu s te r e d about such id e a s , i t i s im p o ssib le to speak o f a h i s t o r i c g ro u p . What does e x i s t i s man as in d iv id u a l and "th e Jew ish man" qua in d iv id u a l. The group in any age which may e x i s t has as i t s purpose th e p r e s e r v a tio n o f th e in d iv id u a l and w hat he c r e a te s f o r i t . Ahad Ha-Am's p h ilo so p h y i s c o u n te r to a l l o f th e se e s s e n t i a l a s p e c ts o f B erdyczew ski's th o u g h t. I s r a e l ( K elal Y i s r a e l ) , as a c o l l e c t i v e e n t i t y , was lin k e d by a common p a s t , h i s t o r i c memory, c u l t u r e , r e l i g i o n , and lan g u ag e, th e e s s e n t i a l in g r e d ie n ts in Ahad Ha-Am's p h ilo so p h y . In d iv id u a lis m was a c u rse c r e a te d in th e D iaspora because o f th e fra g m e n ta tio n o f th e h i s t o r i c s p i r i t u a l c e n te r . " C u ltu ra l Z ionism ".had as i t s purpose overcoming th e a l i e n a t i o n and fra g m e n ta tio n in h e r e n t in Jew ish e x is te n c e . Yaacob Fichman, "Ahad Ha-Am U -B erdyczew ski," Moznayim, V, No. 1 (T e l Aviv, 19 3 6 ), 78-83. B erdyczew ski' s work has been c o l le c te d in Kol Maamre Micah J o s e f Berdyczewski (T el A viv: A m Oved Pub l i s h i n g C o., 195i. 139 th e fath erh o o d o f God w ith th e Law em anating from 102 Zion. The refo rm ers have ta k e n t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l n o tio n and have tu rn e d i t upside down, i n s i s t i n g on th e need f o r th e D iaspora to f u l f i l l I s r a e l ’s m issio n t o th e n a tio n s o f th e w orld. Ahad Ha-Am c lo s e s h is e x e g e tic a l a n a ly s is w ith th e t e l l i n g q u o ta tio n from th e P ro p h e ts , in which the g e n t ile s w i l l sa y , "Come ye and l e t us go up to th e m ountain o f th e Lord . . . and He w i l l te a c h 1 Q 3 us His ways and we w i l l walk in His p a t h s . 1 1 I t does n o t s t a t e th a t I s r a e l i s to s a y , "Come, l e t us go o u t to th e n a tio n s o f th e w orld. W e s h a l l te ach them o f th e ways 1 ou o f th e Lord and th ey s h a l l walk in His p a th s ." His adept in v e rtin g o f th e passage b rin g s h is p o in t home and i l l u s t r a t e s th e r ic h v e r s a t i l i t y o f h is mind in th e use o f m id rash ic m a te r ia l , b oth in th e h a la k ic and th e aggadic se n se. The im portance t h a t Ahad Ha-Am a t t r i b u t e d to th e c o n te n ts o f th e M idrash as a means o f te a c h in g th e id e a s o f Judaism can be d isc e rn e d from a l e t t e r t h a t he w rote to Dr. Judah Magnes (a Reform ra b b i who was th e founding p re s id e n t o f th e Hebrew U n iv e r s ity ) . Magnes w rote to Ahad Ha-Am t h a t he had founded a s o c ie ty to e s t a b l i s h sy n a gogues and houses o f stu d y (B a te i M id rash ). In h is 102Kol K itb e , pp. 155 f f . 1 0 3 I s a . 2 :3 ; Micah *t:2. 10t|Kol K itb e , pp. 156-157. 140 r e v e a lin g r e p ly , Ahad Ha-Am p o in ts o u t t h a t th e Jew ish r e l i g i o u s e x p e rie n c e in America has in d ic a te d t o him t h a t th e synagogue as a House o f P ra y e r alone i s unable to save Judaism w hich, he m a in ta in s , u n lik e o th e r r e l i g i o n s , does n o t depend upon p ra y e r. A s e p a ra te House o f S tu d y , in te n d e d p r im a r ily f o r th e e d u c a tio n of th e young, cannot se rv e th e cause o f p o p u la r i n s t r u c t i o n . What Ahad Ha-Am ad v o cates i s a r e tu r n to th e o r i g i n a l system w herein th e synagogue i s i t s e l f th e House o f Study w ith th e d i s se m in atio n o f Jew ish knowledge i t s prim ary concern. Cut th e p ra y e rs as s h o r t as you l i k e , b u t make yo u r Synagogue a haven o f Jew ish know ledge. The sermon must n o t be p h ra se s o f u n c tio u s p i e t y . Give th e co n g reg an ts i n s t r u c t i o n in T orah. The Synagogue must be th e c e n tre t o which th o se who want to le a r n about Judaism r e s o r t every day. 'R e ad in g s' on Jew ish s u b je c ts can be a rra n g e d every ev e n in g , f o r th e more and th e le s s ed u c ate d s e p a r a te ly . T hat i s what o u r a n c e s to rs d id , w ith good r e s u l t s . The s p i r i t o f th e te a c h in g must be d i f f e r e n t , t o s u i t th e a l t e r e d c o n d itio n s ; b u t th e system i t s e l f cannot be b e t t e r e d . In th e o ld days th e evening re a d in g c o n s is te d o f Ain Jacob w ith R a s h i's commentary o r th e M enorat Hamaor f o r o rd in a ry p e o p le , and o f Talmud f o r th e l e a r n e d .105 The re a d in g s o f today m ust be d i f f e r e n t t o s u i t th e en vironm ent , b u t Ahad Ha-Am would co n tin u e to advocate " le a r n in g — le a r n in g — le a r n in g ; th a t i s th e s e c r e t o f Jew ish survival."-*-®® ^Quoted in Ahad Ha-Am, E ssa y s, L e t t e r s , Memoirs, p. 269. 106I b id . m i As has a lre a d y been a llu d e d t o , Ahad Ha-Am, in a d d itio n to th e M ishnah, th e Gemara and th e M idrash, drew h e a v ily on th e com m entaries of R a sh i, Kimhi and Abraham Ibn E z ra , in which he was very w e ll v e rse d . He a ls o knew th e com m entaries o f P h ilo , to whom he makes r e f e r e n c e . In one r e fe r e n c e in p a r t i c u l a r , in which P h ilo t e s t i f i e s on th e Essene d o c trin e o f a s c e tic is m , Ahad Ha-Am shows a 107 more th a n c u rso ry acq u ain tan ce w ith P h i l o ’s th o u g h t. 10 8 R eference to works such as S a a d ia 's Emunot W e-de'ot 109 and Yehudah H a le v i's K uzari confirm th e sta te m e n t in h is R em inscences, t h a t he had a g r e a t a f f i n i t y f o r what he c a l l s Spanish t h i n k e r s . 1 1 0 This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y so w ith H a le v i who, Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in s , i s forem ost in re c o g n iz in g th e in n e r meaning o f th e e l e c t i o n o f I s r a e l , making i t th e c o rn e rs to n e o f h is sy stem . 1 1 1 W e s h a l l t r e a t Yehudah H a le v i's and Maimonides' in f lu e n c e s on Ahad Ha-Am's e x e g e sis s e p a r a t e l y , as w e ll as Ahad Ha-Am's g r e a t m idrash on Moses. The t o t a l i t y o f th e Jew ish l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n grew o u t o f th e Jew ish p e o p le 's u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e B ib le and 107K o1 K itb e , pp. 350 f . 1 0 8 I b i d . , p . 363. 1 0 9 I b id . 1 1 0 I b i d . , pp. 486-487. li:LI b i d . , p . 367. 1H2 re p re s e n te d an e lu c id a tio n o f i t i n d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c circ u m sta n ces and g eo g rap h ic s e t t i n g s . T o ra h , th e n , in i t s la r g e r s e n s e , embodies th e t o t a l i t y o f t h a t l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n which grew o u t o f th e P e n ta te u c h and ex ten d s t o th e w ritin g s o f th e P ro p h e ts , th e l a t e r books o f th e B ib le , th e r a b b in ic l i t e r a t u r e , th e codes, th e work o f th e Posekim , th e m edieval Jew ish com m entators and p h i l osophers and, through them , in to th e modern p e rio d o f Jew ish h i s t o r y which came in to b e in g , t e c h n ic a ll y sp e a k in g , a f t e r th e French R ev o lu tio n . Ahad Ha-Am s e e s t h i s l i t e r a t u r e as an o rg a n ic w hole, th e u n q u estio n ed r e p o s ito r y o f th e Jewish s p i r i t resp o n d in g t o th e stim u lu s o f h is t o r y by c r e a tin g m a te r ia ls g eared to th e p r e s e r v a tio n of th e Jew ish community, i t s v alu es and t r a d i t i o n s . Ahad Ha-Am, how ever, uses th e Jew ish l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n a t tim es w ith l i t e r a r y lic e n s e an d , by contem p o ra ry sta n d a rd s o f modem s c h o la r s h ip , u n c r i t i c a l l y . T his r e f l e c t s h is b a s ic p o s itio n as an e c l e c t i c t h i n k e r who s k i l l f u l l y weaves to g e th e r th o s e elem en ts which s u i t h i s a p r i o r i assum ptions w h ile , n e v e r t h e le s s i ad h erin g to h i s t o r i c a l g u id e lin e s . He a t t r i b u t e s to th e m a te r ia l t h a t he u ses a h i s t o r i c a l v a l i d i t y c e r t a i n l y com parable t o t h a t o f th e Greco-Roman w o rld , whose l i t e r a r y rem ains were re v iv e d c o n s ta n tly in s c h o la r ly a r t i c l e s w hile th e r a b b in ic and Jew ish p h ilo s o p h ic m a te r ia ls were r e le g a te d m 3 to r e l a t i v e l y unim portant p o s itio n s in th e s e s tu d i e s . W hile Ahad Ha-Am i s r i g h t in th e main about th e n e g le c te d s t a t e o f th e r a b b in ic and m edieval Jew ish p h ilo s o p h ic l i t e r a t u r e , he c e r t a i n l y i s n o t c o r r e c t in h i s sta te m e n t t h a t Dr. Adolph B uchler (1867-1939), a p r in c ip a l o f Je w 's C ollege in London, and Dr. Adolph Schwarz (1856-1931), r e c t o r o f th e Jew ish T h e o lo g ic a l Seminary o f V ienna, were th e f i r s t to re c o g n iz e th e h i s t o r i c a l re le v a n c e o f ra b b i n i c m a t e r i a l s . S u b s ta n tiv e s tu d ie s on th e r a b b in ic p e r io d had a lre a d y been done by S. J . L. R ap o p o rt , 1 1 2 113 l_Tll Z ach aries F ra n k e l, Samson Raphael H irsc h , M ichael G uttm an , ^ 5 and o th e r s . U n q u estio n ab ly , how ever, th e k in d o f a n a ly s is t h a t Ahad Ha-Am had in mind had n o t as y e t been done, s in c e h is p a r t i c u l a r demands upon Jew ish s c h o la r s h ip in v o lv e d n a t i o n a l i s t i c p re s u p p o s itio n s and 116 c r i t e r i a o f c r i t i c i s m . 112S e fe r Erek M illin (1 8 2 2 -5 5 ), an e n c y c lo p e d ia (u n fin is h e d ) o f Talmud, Targum and M idrash. Waxman, H is to ry o f Jew ish L i t e r a t u r e , I I I , 444, 447, 470. ^ ^ D a r k e i Ha-mishnah (1 8 5 9 ). Waxman, i b i d . , 482 f f . “ ^ ^ Yeshurun (1 8 5 9 ). Waxman,i b i d . , 401. ■^^Mafteah H a-talm ud (1 9 0 8 ). Waxman, i b i d . , IV, 6 8 8 f f . 116 T hat n a t i o n a l i s t se n tim e n t was p r e s e n t in F r a n k e l's th o u g h t i s developed by David Rudawsky, "Rabbi Z ec h ariah F ra n k e l U -b a 'a y a t H a-leum iut H a-V ehudit," Bitaaron, XLIX (O c to b er, 1963), 36-41. David Neumark, a d i s c i p l e o f Ahad Ha-Am and p r o f e s s o r a t Hebrew Union 144 In Ahad Ha-Am1s approach to the B ib le and Jewish tr a d itio n * th e re i s e v id e n t a complex i n t e r l a c i n g of rev eren ce f o r t r a d i t i o n and o f c r i t i c a l acumen. So ste e p e d was he in th e t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e which in i t s t o t a l i t y encompasses p i e t i s t i c e x e g e s is , l e g a l i s t i c re a so n in g , m y s tic a l o u tp o u rin g s, and sh arp p h ilo s o p h ic s p e c u la tio n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e m edieval Jew ish p h i l osophers , t h a t one sees in h is approach th e b len d in g of th e se in flu e n c e s and h is u t i l i z a t i o n o f one o r an o th e r o f the s t r a i n s o f Jewish th o u g h t which he co n sid ered b a s ic to th e o rg a n ic and m anifold n a t i o n a l i s t i c n a tu re o f Judaism . However, one can fin d th e in flu e n c e s of s e v e r a l prom inent Jew ish th in k e rs who ev id en ced , t o h is s a t i s f a c t i o n , t h a t Judaism in both i t s r a t i o n a l and emo ti o n a l a s p e c ts re p re s e n ts a t o t a l approach to r e a l i t y and n o t a tru n c a te d a s c e tic is m on th e one hand nor a p r a c t i c a l m a te ria lism on th e o th e r . Ahad Ha-Am n e v e r gave up h is fundam ental b e l i e f , t h a t , w ith in th e t o t a l e v o lu tio n of th e Jew ish s p i r i t , one could claim as h i s t o r i c a l l y , lo g ic a l ly o r m o rally i r r e l e v a n t any o f i t s p h ases. Of C ollege a t a tim e when Reform Judaism g e n e ra lly was con s id e re d as a n t i - n a t i o n a l i s t i c argues a g a in s t h is m entor, "I r e a l l y th in k t h a t the c o n tro v e rsy between r e lig io u s lib e r a lis m and n a tio n a lis m in Judaism i s la rg e ly a con tro v e rs y o f w ords, and n o t one o f p r in c ip le s . . . N e ith e r th e th e o ry o f reform Judaism n o r th e m a jo rity o f reform Jews i s opposed to Z ionism .” David Neumark, Essays in Jew ish P hilosophy (Vienna: A. H olzhausen's S u cce sso rs, 1 9 i9 ), p . 99. 145 c o u rs e , between th e s i g n i f i c a n t m ountain to p s o f Jew ish th o u g h t th e re are g r e a t can y o n s, but a l l o f i t had to be claim ed and none o f i t disow ned. Judaism begged f o r u n d e rsta n d in g r a t h e r than r a d i c a l c r i t i c i s m and disem - bowelment. For t h i s re a s o n , Ahad Ha-Am was n ev er a b le to face th e modern b i b l i c a l c r i t i c s w ith o b j e c t i v i t y , d is a g re e in g w ith t h e i r s u p p o s itio n s . At th e same tim e , how ever, he o f te n embraced t h e i r methods and some o f t h e i r c o n c lu s io n s . CHAPTER V THE CENTRALITY OF ISRAEL IN HALEVI AND ITS INFLUENCE O N AHAD HA-AM " I s r a e l among th e n a tio n s i s lik e th e h e a r t am idst th e o rg a n s ." Though re fe re n c e to Yehudah H alevi i s s p a rs e in th e w ritin g s o f Ahad Ha-Am, h is in d e b te d n e ss t o H alevi i s e v id e n t in many phases o f h is th o u g h t. W hile on h is second jo u rn ey to P a le s tin e in 1893, Ahad Ha-Am made h is way to th e W ailing W all on th e eve o f th e F e s ti v a l of P asso v e r. There he saw many o f h is b re th re n c ry in g o u t in anguished words o f p r a y e r . The th o u g h t came to him, g ra d u a lly f i l l i n g h is very b e in g , t h a t th e se s to n e s are w itn e sse s to th e d e s o la tio n o f th e la n d and t h a t h is g a th e re d b r e th r e n were evidence o f th e d e s tr u c tio n of th e Jew ish p e o p le . Over which o f th e s e two r u in s should one weep th e more? I f a la n d i s d e s o la te b u t th e people s t i l l has s tr e n g th and l i f e , a Z eru b b ab el, an E z ra , o r a Nehemiah may a r i s e , and th e la n d can ag ain be r e b u i l t ; b u t i f th e peo p le i s d e s tro y e d , from whence s h a l l i t s 146 147 h elp come? There came to me a t t h a t hour th e s p i r i t o f Yehudah H ale v i and I was a b le to w a il as he had on th e h u r t o f th e d au g h ter o f my p e o p le . M y lam ent from the v e ry o u ts e t was not o v e r Zion b u t over I s r a e l . 1 To H a le v i, th e God of Jew ish h i s t o r y i s a c r e a tin g and commanding God, who i s to be u n d ersto o d n o t th rough n a t u r a l p ro o fs , but by p ro p h e tic and s p i r i t u a l in s i g h ts imbedded in Jew ish th o u g h t. God has w ille d ! He i s law g iv er who i s i n d i r e c t r e l a t i o n w ith man. He is a c r e a tiv e God who can i n t e r f e r e w ith and change the n a t u r a l p ro c e s se s and perform m ir a c le s . Yet H alev i avoids th e anthropom orphism s which would e a s ily a tta c h them selves to such a view a t th e hands o f a le s s s k i l l e d th in k e r . The d if f e r e n c e between two k in d re d s p i r i t s is th a t f o r H alev i th e God o f I s r a e l is a tra n s c e n d e n t Kol K itb e Ahad Ha-Am. (T e l Aviv: D v ir C o., L td ., 1956), p. 54; Aryeh Simon and Joseph H e l l e r , Ahad Ha-Am, H a -is h , P e 'a lo W e-torato (Je ru sa le m : The Hebrew U n iv er s i t y P re s s , 1 9 5 5 ), p. IT . This passage sh o u ld be p la c e d in to th e c o n te x t o f two o f H a le v i's poems over th e deso l a t i o n o f Z ion, "L ibi Bemizrah" and "Zion Halo T i s h a l i ." S e le c te d Poems o f Yehuda H alevi ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jewish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f Am erica, 1946), pp. 2, 3-7. ^Isaak Heinemann, Jehuda H a le v i—K uzari (O xford: E ast and West L ib ra ry , 1947), p . 33 e t p a s sim , in P h ilo so p h ia J u d a ic a s e r i e s , ed . Hugo Bergmann. The ra b b i b eg in s h is p r e s e n ta tio n in th e d is p u ta tio n w ith "I b e lie v e in the God o f Abraham, I s a a c and I s r a e l , who le d th e I s r a e l i t e s o u t o f Egypt w ith sig n s and m ira c le s . . . who s e n t Moses w ith His law , and su b se q u en tly thousands o f p ro p h e ts , who confirm ed His law . . . We b e lie v e in what i s c o n ta in e d in th e Torah— a very la r g e dom ain." ms r e a l i t y th a t i s a lso immanent w ith in th e lif e s tr e a m of th e Jew ish p e o p le , w hile f o r Ahad Ha-Am th e God o f I s r a e l was a c r e a tio n o f th e Jew ish s p i r i t r a t h e r than th e Jew is h s p i r i t being th e c re a tio n o f th e God o f I s r a e l . 3 In a key r e f e r e n c e , Ahad Ha-Am ta k e s s i g n i f i c a n t note o f a passage in The K u z a ri, H a le v i's m a s te rp ie c e , which speaks o f th e d o c trin e o f th e e l e c t io n o f I s r a e l . Ahad Ha-Am i n s i s t s t h a t t h i s d o c trin e means sim ply th e perform ance o f d u tie s w ith o u t re fe re n c e s t o th e e x te r n a l w orld; a s.a n end in i t s e l f and not as th e means to th e h appiness o f th e r e s t o f th e w orld. The m is sio n , in e s se n c e , means a n a tio n a l commitment to liv e th e h ig h e s t m oral e x is te n c e and to be th e m oral " s u p e m a t io n ." Ahad Ha-Am says th a t h is n o tio n i s n o t new, f o r More th an 800 y e a rs ago th e r e was a p h ilo s o p h e r- p o e t in I s r a e l by th e name o f Rabbi Yehuda H alevi who reco gnized th e n a tu re and th e value o f th e e l e c t io n o f I s r a e l and made i t th e b a s is f o r h is th o u g h t v ery much along th e lin e s t h a t I have s t a t e d above, though in a d if f e r e n t s t y l e . ^ Yehudah H a le v i, who enjoys a unique p la c e in Jew ish th o u g h t, w rote in a p e rio d which has been c h a ra c te riz e d as th e "second p h ilo s o p h ic aw akening." The c u l t u r a l con te x t from which he emerges i s e le v e n th ce n tu ry S p ain , and he r e f l e c t s th e th o u g h t p a tte r n s o f th e p h ilo s o p h ic and ^Kol K itb e , pp. 40 7 f . lfIb id . , p . 157. 149 r e lig i o u s w orld o f h i s tim e in term s o f i t s c u ltu r e and le a r n in g . The K u z a ri, as can be d isc e rn e d from i t s opening l i n e , was w r i tte n as a defense a g a in s t a tta c k s o f p h ilo s o p h e rs and fo llo w e rs o f r e lig i o n s which d i f f e r from Judaism . H ale v i undertopk to d e lin e a te th e e s s e n t i a l n a tu r e and uniqueness o f Judaism . H alevi b e lie v e s t h a t th e Torah i s b in d in g on I s r a e l , n o t because God c r e a te d u s , b u t because He le d I s r a e l out o f Egypt and rem ained a tta c h e d to I s r a e l . For t h i s re a s o n , o nly th o se who have e x p e rie n c e d God in Jew ish h i s t o r y are p a r t o f th e * am s e g u la h , "th e e le c te d p e o p le ." Hence, I s r a e l sta n d s in a s p e c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p to God which cannot be s h a re d by o th e r n a tio n s . The u n iq u e n e ss, th e n , o f Jew ish h i s t o r i c a l e x p e rie n c e c o n s t i t u t e s th e c e n te r o f H a le v i's p h ilo s o p h ic s p e c u la tio n . 5 In h i s d efen se o f prophecy, th e exponent o f Judaism comes to th e c o n c lu sio n t h a t th e p ro p h et i s e s s e n t i a l l y a n o th e r ty p e o f b e in g , form ing a f i f t h ca te g o ry above th e in a n im a te , v e g e ta tiv e , anim al and man. 6 This f i f t h c a te gory i s co n n ected w ith th e uniqueness o f I s r a e l and b e longs to th e p ro v in c e o f d iv in e power c a lle d th e 'in y a n e l o h i , "th e d iv in e e s s e n c e ." T his 'in y a n e lo h i i s ^Heinemann, Jehuda H a le v i, p. 35. 6 I b i d . , pp. 36 f . ; H einem ann's "Commentary," in Jehuda H a le v i, p . 52. 1 5 0 u n d e riv a b le . I t cannot be e x p la in e d n a t u r a l l y . Through th e p ro p h e t, I s r a e l became aware o f G od's e x is te n c e and i t was he who gave I s r a e l an account o f th e c r e a tio n o f th e w orld and I s r a e l 's h i s t o r y . This d iv in e f a c u l t y , which had been f i r s t im p lan te d by God in Adam, t r a n s m itte d i t s e l f by means o f h e r e d i ty th ro u g h an unbroken ch ain o f d escen d an ts to J a c o b 's so n s , from whom i t p assed on to th e e n t i r e community o f I s r a e l . The 'in y a n e l o h i , w hich, in th e case o f th e p r o p h e t, was i n d iv i d u a l, was developed as a c a p a c ity o f a p e o p le . By v ir tu e o f t h i s f a c u l t y , I s r a e l was s e le c te d by God t o be th e people o f prophecy, and ev ery Jew p o s s e s s e s , a t l e a s t p o t e n t i a l l y , t h i s g i f t which i s in flu e n c e d by n u r tu r e and e n v iro n - 7 m ent. Here Yehudah H alev i develops perhaps th e e a r l i e s t p h ilo s o p h ic a l Zionism . P a le s tin e i s a c r u c i a l n e c e s s ity in t h i s fo rm u la tio n , i n t h a t I s r a e l cannot p ro p e rly p e r form i t s d u tie s o r tr u e fu n c tio n ex cep t in th e r i g h t la n d , "th e a i r o f which makes w is e ." With th e e x c e p tio n o f Mount S in a i, th e r e i s no p la c e on e a r t h eq u a l to th e la n d o f prophecy. A ll prophecy has ta k e n p la c e in P a le s - Q t i n e o r , i f n o t, has a t l e a s t made r e fe r e n c e t o i t . ^ I b i d . , p . 75. The 'in y a n e lo h i i s h e re t r a n s la t e d as "D ivine pow er." The f u l l d is c u s s io n in th e o r i g i n a l may be found in S e fe r H a -k u z a ri, ed. A. Z if r o n i (T el Aviv: Mosad H a-rab Kook, 1948), pp. 103-111. °Heinemann, Jehuda H a le v i, pp. 64— 70. 151 H ale v i h e ld th e Hebrew language to be th e em anation o f th e " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " o f th e p e o p le . While i t i s i t s e f f e c t , i t i s a t th e same tim e a ls o i t s ca u se. The language molds th e n a t i o n 's th o u g h ts and s p i r i t . While t h i s i s tr u e o f a l l la n g u a g e s, H ale v i m a in ta in e d t h a t usin g th e Hebrew language would "d isp o se th e sen se organs o f man t o be v e s s e ls f o r th e D ivine Word. " 9 The T orah, to o , can be brought to f r u i t i o n b e s t in P a l e s t i n e , s in c e i t i s th e only la n d in which a l l o f th e commandments can be p ro p e rly p erfo rm e d. 10 For H a le v i, th e summum bonurn o f man l i e s in th e love of God e x p re sse d th ro u g h w o rsh ip , s e r v ic e , l o y a l t y , and obedience to th e laws which d iv in e wisdom has o rd a in e d . Through t h i s s e r v ic e , I s r a e l becomes "th e h e a r t o f th e n a tio n s " removing i l l from th e w o rld when i t i s p e r s e c u te d , as th e h e a r t a id s th e body in re c o v e rin g from d is e a s e . The s u f f e r in g o f I s r a e l i s a c le a n s in g , p u r ify in g fo rc e which p re v e n ts i t s own s in s from c o l l e c t i n g to a dangerous d e g r e e .1" 1 ' Ahad Ha-Am's in d e b te d n e ss to Yehuda H ale v i i s p e r haps more unconscious than a decid ed drawing upon th e 9David Neumark, Jehuda H a l l e v i 's P hilosophy (C in c i n n a t i : Hebrew Union C o lle g e , 1908), p . 50. 19 Heinemann, Jehuda H a le v i, pp. 6^-70. i:LI b i d . , p p . 72-79. " I s r a e l am idst th e n a tio n s i s l i k e th e lie a rt am id st th e o rg an s: i t i s th e most s ic k and th e m ost h e a lth y o f them a l l . " I b i d . , p. IK. 152 essen ce o f th e m edieval p h ilo s o p h e r 's th o u g h t. However, th e s i m i l a r i t y i n broad o u tlin e s and g e n e ra l approach to th e d e f i n i t i o n o f an o rg a n ic community, and th e p o s tu l a t i n g o f a m issio n f o r th e people o f I s r a e l , i s h a rd ly c o in c id e n ta l. For Yehudah H a le v i, th e people o f I s r a e l were a u n ity t i e d to g e th e r thro u g h m y s tic a l b o n d s. They d e riv e d t h e i r m issio n from th e r e v e l a tio n a t S i n a i , in which th e y p a r t i c i p a t e d as a c o l l e c t i v e u n ity and where t h e i r d iv in e ly o rd a in e d m issio n was made e x p l i c i t l y c l e a r . Ahad Ha-Am s u b s t i t u t e s h e re th e " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " o f the Jew ish people i n p la c e o f r e v e l a t i o n . He p o s its a d i s t i n c t i v e genius f o r m o r a lity which r e q u i r e s , f o r i t s f u l l u n fo ld in g , th e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f la n d , people and la n - 12 guage. Only P a le s tin e was th e f i t c e n te r f o r th e reco n s t i t u t i o n o f th e Jew ish people because o f th e m ystique o f th e p a s t and by v ir tu e o f i t s b e in g th e h i s t o r i c homeland o f I s r a e l . For H a le v i, P a le s tin e was th e p la c e in which God's s p i r i t m a n ife s ts i t s e l f and r e v e la tio n ta k e s p la c e . For Ahad Ha-Am, i t was th e n e c e ss a ry atm osphere f o r th e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f th e " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " o f th e Jew ish p eople and th e Jew ish n a tio n . His p o s itio n on th e Hebrew language i s not u n lik e t h a t o f Yehudah H a le v i, c o n s id e rin g i t th e sa c re d v e s s e l in which th e s p i r i t u a l t r e a s u r e s o f 12Kol K itb e , pp. 9 3 , 162, 179. th e Jew ish people have been p r e s e r v e d .^ Ahad Ha-Am1s use o f Yehudah H a le v i's th o u g h t, o r b e t t e r , h is s p i r i t , i s in consonance w ith h is o v e r - a ll approach to th e use o f S c rip tu re and t r a d i t i o n , and rem ains c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s m ethodology. 13 I b i d . , pp. f . e t p assim . CHAPTER VI GUIDES TO THE PERPLEXED OF THEIR TIME: MAIMONIDES A N D AHAD HA-AM The m edieval Jew ish p h ilo s o p h e r, Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon (M aim onides), was h e ld in s p e c ia l re g a rd by Ahad Ha-Am, who c o n sid e re d him h is guide and t e a c h e r . 1 Among th e pious h asid im w ith whom Ahad Ha-Am was r e a r e d , s tu d y in g Maimonides was anathem a, and y e t i t was to Maimonides t h a t th e r e b e llio u s young Ahad Ha-Am was drawn and whose th o u g h t ep ito m iz ed f o r him "the supremacy o f re a s o n . " 2 I t was th e exposure to Maimonides t h a t f i n a l l y le d him ^ •Kol K itbe Ahad Ha-Am (T el Aviv: D vir C o., L t d ., 1 9 S 6 ), p~ 487. In h is d is c u s s io n o f th e in flu e n c e o f Jew ish r e l i g i o u s p h ilo so p h y upon him , Ahad Ha-Am w ro te : " N a tu ra lly , in th e a re a o f r e lig i o u s p h ilo s o p h y , th e ’Moreh Nebukim' le d th e l i s t . " F u rth e r re fe r e n c e to M aim onides' in flu e n c e on Ahad Ha-Am can be d is c e rn e d on pp. 487, 493. 2 I b i d . , p . 49 3. " S h ilto n H a-sek el" ("The Supremacy o f Reason") i s th e t i t l e o f th e stu d y Ahad Ha-Am made o f M aim onides1 p h ilo so p h y and opens th e f o u rth volume o f th e P a ra s h a t Derakim, p u b lis h e d in 1913. Kol K itb e , pp. 3iT5-36'9.---------------------- 154 15 5 3 U from th e s ta g e o f bein g a m itnagged to a m a s k il. Ahad Ha-Am p a id supreme t r i b u t e to Maimonides f o r having b ro u g h t him out o f th e deep r e l i g i o s i t y in which he had been ste e p e d from h is youth onw ard. 5 The Guide o f th e P erp lex e d awakened i n Ahad Ha-Am, i t a p p e a r s , th e g r e a t i n q u i s i t i v e s p i r i t which was a n a t u r a l g i f t o f h i s , and which gave him renown in th e in te lle c tu a l m ilie u of h is tim e . Throughout h is l i f e Ahad Ha-Am v e n e ra te d Maimonides, f o r he saw in him th e c r e a t o r o f th e d o c trin e o f th e "supremacy o f reaso n " developed to i t s m ost r a d i c a l form u l a t i o n . 5 To a tte m p t to re n d e r r e l i g i o n m eaningful th rough 3To be a m itnagged means to be an "opponent" to H asid ism . I b i d . , p . 480. ^A m a s k il i s one who b e lie v e d i n th e H a sk a la h , " th e E n lig h te n m e n t. '* " P a r t i c u l a r l y d e a r t o me was th e p h ilo - so p h ic l i t e r a t u r e from th e Rambam to Ranak (Rabbi Nahman K rochm al). I 'c o n te m p la te d i t day and n i g h t ' u n t i l thro u g h i t s im pact th e g a te s o f g e n e ra l l i t e r a t u r e were opened to me. I b i d . , p . 495. T hat h is o p p o s itio n to H asidism was a w a y -s ta tio n to s u b s c rib in g t o th e E n lig h te n - m en t, i s a t t e s t e d to by h is own w o rd s. "T ekufat h a - h itn a g g d u t s h e l i lo arkah h a rb e h . Ahare zeman k a z e r h ay- y i t i le -m a s k il" ("My p e rio d o f o p p o s itio n ( to H asidism ) d id n o t l a s t lo n g . A s h o r t w h ile t h e r e a f t e r I became a m a s k il" ) . I b i d . , p . 480. 5In a l e t t e r t o Simon Dubnow o f V iln a (Jan u a ry 13, 1905), Ahad Ha-Am speaks o f Maimonides as " th e one to whom I am in d e b te d f o r le a d in g me o u t o f th e f o r t y n in e g a te s o f 'h o l i n e s s ' in which I was immersed in th e b e g in n in g o f my y o u th ." Ahad Ha-Am, I g g e r o t (T el Aviv: D vir C o., L t d ., 1956), I I I , 334. C I t i s b ecause o f h i s f e e l in g o f in d e b te d n e ss to M aimonides, who, th ro u g h h i s e x a l t a t i o n o f re a s o n , shaped so much o f Ahad Ha-Am's th o u g h t, t h a t th e l a t t e r in m ature y e a rs f e l t o b lig e d t o w r i te a m ajo r e x p o s itio n on 1 5 6 re a s o n , as f a r as Ahad Ha-Am was co ncerned, was f r u i t l e s s e f f o r t . Ahad Ha-Am n ev e r found any s a t i s f a c t i o n in r e lig i o u s p h ilo so p h y b u i l t upon m e tap h y sical p r i n c i p l e s . R e lig io n f o r Ahad Ha-Am was n o t a q u e s tio n o f re a s o n , b u t 7 o f h e a r t , and th e r e f o r e i t seems anomalous t h a t i t was M aimonides, th e supreme exponent o f re a s o n , who le d Ahad Ha-Am o u t o f h is h a s id ie p ie ty and awakened h is mind to th e f r u i t s o f s p e c u la tiv e th o u g h t. I f r e l i g i o n i s a m a tte r o f f e e l i n g , as we have seen o u r a u th o r s t a t e on s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s , th e n t h a t f e e lin g would h a rd ly have been changed by Maimonides * r a t i o n a l m ethods, o r f o r t h a t m a tte r anyone1s r a t i o n a l m ethods. 8 One can see in a r e a l sense how Ahad Ha-Am, whose mind was always a liv e to new id e a s , would have tak en to Maimonides w ith such a v id n e s s . For in Maimonides one oan f in d a l l th e s u b t l e t i e s o f p h ilo s o p h ic thought as he w r e s tle s w ith th e obvious anthropom orphic and a n th ro p o - p a th ic passag es o f th e B ib le , as w e ll as h is c o n tr o v e r s ia l M aim onides1 th o u g h t. I b i d . , p . 334 and p. 335, n o te 1. n Aryeh Simon and Joseph H e lle r , Ahad Ha-Am, H a - is h , PoT a lo W e-torato (Je ru sa le m : The Hebrew U n iv e rs ity t r e s s , 1955), p . 183. 80 f c o u rs e , th e g ro ss o v e r s im p lif ic a tio n in Ahad Ha-Am*s r e le g a tio n o f r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s o le ly to a l e v e l o f f e e l i n g , as an i s l a n d unto i t s e l f , d etach ed from th o u g h t p r o c e s s e s , does n o t co rresp o n d to th e a c tu a l p sy c h o lo g ic a l fu n c tio n in g o f th e human b e in g ; "mind" and " h e a rt" a re in te r tw in e d , as "body" and "psyche" a re i n t e r r e l a t e d . 15 7 d is c u s s io n s on w hether th e u n iv e rse was c r e a te d ex h i h i l o by a crea to r-G o d o r has e x is te d from e t e r n i t y . R e lated to Yehudah H a le v i' s arguments in The K u z a ri, Maimonides appears to be p ro v id in g th e i n t e l l e c t u a l p ro v is io n s to make i t p o s s ib le f o r Jews to e n t e r t a i n th e n o tio n o f th e e t e r n i t y o f m a tte r and th e u n iv e rs e . A fte r am assing th e evidence* p a r t i c u l a r l y from A r i s t o t l e 's p h ilo s o p h y , which le a d s to th e c o n c lu sio n o f a n o n -c re a te d u n iv e r s e , Maimonides b rin g s h is reaso n in g to an ab ru p t h a l t and c a s ts doubt upon th e evidence which he had so b r i l l i a n t l y a rra ig n e d . He suddenly embraces th e p o s itio n t h a t one cannot c o n c lu s iv e ly prove A r i s t o t l e 's c o n te n tio n ,^ and Q In h is In tro d u c tio n to th e second p a r t o f th e Moreh Nebukim, Maimonides s t a t e s : "The prem ises needed f o r e s ta b li s h in g th e e x is te n c e o f d e i ty , may He be e x a lte d , and f o r th e d em o n stratio n t h a t He i s n e i t h e r a body n o r a fo rc e in a body, and t h a t He, may His name be su b lim e, i s one, a re tw e n ty -f iv e — a l l o f which a re d em onstrated w ith out th e re b e in g a doubt as to any p o in t concerning them. For A r i s t o t l e and th e P e r i p a t e t i c s a f t e r him have come forw ard w ith a d em o n stratio n f o r every one o f them. There i s one prem ise t h a t we w i l l g r a n t them, f o r through i t th e o b je c ts o f o u r q u e s t w i l l be d em o n strated , as I s h a l l make c l e a r ; t h i s prem ise i s th e e t e r n i t y o f th e w o rld ." Moses Maimonides, The Guide o f th e P e rp le x e d , t r . Shlomo P ines (C hicago: U n iv e rs ity o f Chicago P re s s , 19 6 3 ), p . 235. The tw enty-^sixth p rem ise, " th a t A r i s t o t l e c o n s ta n tly w ishes to e s t a b l i s h as t r u e , " i s opposed by every Muta- k a llim and a ffirm e d as "n e cessary " by ev ery commentator o f A r i s t o t l e . Maimonides m a in ta in e d t h a t t h i s prem ise in A r i s t o t l e 's o p in io n was "th e most f i t t i n g and p ro b a b le ." As to i t s " n e c e s s ity ," Maimonides s a y s , "To me i t seems t h a t th e prem ise in q u e s tio n i s p o s s i b le —t h a t i s , n e i t h e r n e c e ssa ry . . . n o r im p o s s ib le ." I b i d . , pp. 240-2H1. 1 5 8 sin c e Jews have a t r a d i t i o n o f c r e a t i o n , th e l a t t e r i s to be ac ce p ted as b in d in g upon th e b e l i e v e r . ^ For Ahad Ha-Am and o th e r re a d e rs o f The G uide, even more im p o rta n t th a n th e p a r t i c u l a r co n c lu sio n a t which Maimonides a r r i v e s , a re th e argum ents which he ex p re s s e s in th e Hebrew language in r e a d i ly u n d e rsta n d a b le modes o f Jew ish p h ilo s o p h ic a l e x p re s s io n . Although M aimonides1 co n c lu sio n i s a t r a d i t i o n a l o n e, h i s method f o r a r r iv in g a t th a t co n c lu sio n must be s tu d ie d on i t s own te rm s. I t i s p o s s ib le to see how, i f one u n d ersta n d s Maimonides c o r r e c t l y , m assive doubt about t r a d i t i o n a l Jew ish b e l i e f s and dogmas could be g e n e ra te d , n o tw ith s ta n d in g th e f a c t t h a t Maimonides p o s i t s th e t h i r t e e n dog m atic p r in c ip l e s o f Judaism which a re a credo o f f a i t h . Ahad Ha-Am was f u l l y c o g n iz a n t o f th e f a c t t h a t Maimonides was in tro d u c in g a new dim ension to Jew ish r e lig i o u s thought n o t indigenous to i t . This may be gleaned. ;from h is re fe re n c e to Maimonides when he s t a t e s : ^•°I b i d . , pp. 329-333. Maimonides does n o t le av e a t r e s t th e t r a d i t i o n a l Jew ish concept o f c r e a tio n . He s e ts f o r t h h i s own, "by means o f argum ents t h a t come c lo se to b ein g a d e m o n stra tio n , t h a t what e x i s t s in d ic a te s to us o f n e c e s s ity t h a t i t e x i s t s in th e v ir tu e o f th e p u r pose o f One who p u rp o se d ," I b i d . , p . 30 3. Maimonides does n o t presume to c a l l h is prem ise "a d e m o n stra tio n ." S ince i t i s co u n te rb a la n c e d by A r i s t o t l e 's p re m ise , i t i s th e t r a d i t i o n which u ltim a te ly t i p s th e s c a le in fa v o r o f c r e a tio n . C f. , Zvi D iesendruck, "The Philosophy o f M aim onides," CCAR Yearbook, XLV (1 9 3 5 ), 8-13. 159 "The people has n o t opposed th o se o f i t s sag es t h a t have f i l l e d i t s cask w ith new wine from fo re ig n v in ta g e s such as th e Rambam and h is s c h o o l, n e i t h e r have th ey w ith h e ld 11 re v e re n c e nor ho n o r from them ." The sev en th ce n ten a ry o f th e death o f Maimonides (d a ta b le to December 1204) o ccasio n ed essay s o f t r i b u t e in h i s memory from m ajor Jew ish th in k e r s th ro u g h o u t th e w orld. Ahad Ha-Am took t h i s o c c a sio n to rep ay a long f e l t d e b t to one whom he c o n s id e re d h is g u id e and who, more th a n any o t h e r Jew ish th in k e r , had le d to h is i n t e l l e c t u a l em an cip atio n . The t r i b u t e t o Maimonides was o r i g i n a l l y an a d d re ss d e liv e r e d in R ussian to th e Jew ish Club o f Odessa. Ahad Ha-Am developed th e n u cleu s o f t h i s ad d ress in to th e Hebrew e s s a y , which appeared in H ashiloah under th e t i t l e , "The Supremacy o f Re a so n .T h e a r t i c l e re a p p e a re d in th e fo u rth volume o f /A1 P a ra s h a t Derakim in 1913. The noted B r i t i s h s c h o la r , Dr. I s r a e l F r ie d la e n d e r , resp o n d ed , jo in in g is s u e w ith some o f Ahad Ha-Am!s com ments on Maimonides b u t d e a lin g w ith Ahad Ha-Am1s tre a tm e n t 13 o f th e s u b je c t as one e x p e rt to a n o th e r. 11Kol K itb e , p. 74. ^ L e o n Simon, Ahad Ha-Am, A Biography ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty " o f A m erica, 1960), p. 207. ■ L3L e tte r t o Dr. I . F rie d la e n d e r , London (June 3, 1913), I g g e r o t, V, 136-141. A so b e r e s tim a te o f Ahad Ha-Am's mode o f th o u g h t as being th o ro u g h ly Jew ish w h ile 160 "The Supremacy o f R eason," a thorough i f not com p l e t e l y b alan ce d p r e s e n ta tio n o f Maimonides' th o u g h t, c o n ta in s a p o rtio n t h a t i s germane to o u r d is c u s s io n . Ahad Ha-Am b eg in s th e e ssa y by n o tin g th e d i f f e r e n t c l i mate in th e i n t e l l e c t u a l w orld o f h is day th an t h a t which had e x i s te d p r e v io u s ly . In th e p a s t , i t would have been im p o ssib le f o r an ed u cated Jew to have a s in g le day go by w ith o u t c a lli n g Maimonides to m ind. W hichever way such a p erso n would have tu rn e d , w hether to r e lig i o u s and p h ilo s o p h ic a l s p e c u la tio n , o r to l e g a l s t u d i e s , o r problem s r e l a t i n g to e t h i c s , he would have had to c o n fro n t Maimonides and re c o g n iz e th e g r e a t a u t h o r it y , th e h igh p la c e o f honor and deep r e s p e c t in which he was h e ld , even by th o se who d i f f e r e d w ith him. Even th e n o n -s c h o la r met him d a ily when he s e a le d h is morning p ra y e rs w ith th e a n i raa* am in, th e t h i r t e e n p r in c ip l e s o f f a i t h . How was i t p o s s ib le to f o rg e t th e man who e s ta b li s h e d th e " p r in c ip le s " o f I s r a e l ' s f a ith ? Today, how ever, i f a Jew from th o se tim es were to r i s e from h is grave and we wanted to show how f a r removed from o u r f o r e f a th e r s we w ere, i t would be modern i s made by I s r a e l F rie d la e n d e r, P a s t and P re s e n t (■Cincinnati: Ark P u b lis h in g C o., 1919), p . **01. Max Gruenwald, w h ile c r i t i c a l o f Ahad Ha-Am's su n d e rin g o f th e r e l i g i o u s and th e n a tio n a l a s p e c t o f M aim onides' th o u g h t, n e v e r th e le s s co n clu d es: "T ro tz d ie s e s Einwands i s t d a s , was Achad Haam u ber das V e rh a ltn is M.s zum Volke a u s f u h r t, bedeutsam ." Max Gruenwald, "Die S te llu n g Achad Haam's zu M aim onides," MGWJ, 79 (19 3 5 ), 180. 161 s u f f i c i e n t to t e l l him t h a t now i t i s p o s s ib le f o r a man to re a d Hebrew works e x te n s iv e ly w ith o u t en c o u n te rin g a re fe re n c e to M aim onides. This i s n o t because we have s a t i s f a c t o r y answers to a l l th e s p i r i t u a l q u e s tio n s t h a t vexed o u r f a th e r s and th e r e f o r e no lo n g e r have need to tu rn to th e a n c ie n t p h ilo so p h y o f Maimonides. I t i s r a t h e r because th e q u e s tio n s them selves have been b l o t t e d o ut from o ur d a ily agenda and th o u g h ts . S p i r i t u a l m a tte rs seem to be pushed a s id e by modern c i v i l i z e d men, and e a r t h ly concerns seem to h o ld sway. I t i s as i f we are ashamed o f s p i r i t u a l i t y in a way t h a t A r i s t o t l e b e lie v e d th e sen se o f touch to be som ething o f which we ought to 1 U - be ashamed. In Ahad Ha-Amfs e s tim a tio n , Maimonides cannot be re g ard ed as th e o r i g i n a t o r o f a new system . I t i s beyond d is p u te t h a t Maimonides borrowed e x te n s iv e ly from th e p h ilo so p h y o f A r i s t o t l e , as i t was a v a ila b le to him through th e Arab p h ilo s o p h e rs . The b a s ic g u id e lin e s were o f A r i s t o t e l i a n th o u g h t w ith an adm ixture o f n e o -P la to n ic d o c tr in e , ag a in as t h i s had been absorbed and tr a n s m itte d 15 by th e Arab p h ilo s o p h e rs . What was unique i n Maimonides was th a t he b ro u g h t th e e t h i c a l consequences o f th e assump tio n s borrow ed from th e Greeks and Arabs to t h e i r lo g i c a l 1HKol K itb e , p. 355. 15I b i d . , p. 356. 162 c o n c lu sio n s . F u rth e r, he developed them in to som ething new and which had p re v io u s ly n o t been s t a t e d , though they were im p lie d i n th e fundam ental p r in c ip l e s from which he deduced th e s e co n seq u en ces. Ahad Ha-Am g iv es us a c lu e to h is own methodo lo g ic a l re c o n s tru c tio n o f M aim onides' th o u g h t by s t a t i n g th a t th e v a rio u s so u rces which he i s s e t t i n g in l o g i c a l s e q u e n tia l o rd e r are s c a tte r e d th ro u g h o u t Maimonides* The Guide o f th e P erplexed and o th e r w o rk s. T hus, Ahad Ha-Am uses p o r tio n s o f th e Mishneh Torah ( F oundations o f 1 fi th e Law) , C hapters i - i v , and a l l p a r ts o f The G uide. Ahad Ha-Am's th e s i s in t h i s p a r t i c u l a r essa y i s th a t Maimonides subsumed a l l o f th e b e l i e f s c u rr e n t in h is age u nder th e a s p e c t o f re a s o n . In th e b eg in n in g o f P a rt I I , Ahad Ha-Am u n d ersc o re s t h a t Maimonides would n o t have evaded a s s e r tin g th e p r in c ip l e o f th e e t e r n i t y o f th e u n iv e rse i f he had found c o n c lu siv e p ro o f to t h a t e f f e c t , even i f t h i s meant r e j e c t i n g th e c o n tra ry te a c h in g s o f S c r ip tu r e . One would have e x p e c te d , th e n , i f Ahad Ha-Am i s c o r r e c t about M aimonides, t h a t he p r o f f e r some re a so n IS He also, u t i l i z e s a number o f secondary s o u r c e s , such as Munk's Le Guide des E g a re s , I ; S c h e y e r's Das P sychologische System des Maimonides ( F r a n k f u r t, 1 8 4 5 )j J o e l 's Die R e lig io n s p h ilo s o p h ie des~~Mose ben Maimon (B re s la u , 1876); L az aru s, fethxk des Judentum s, 1 (1898) ; R. Shem-Tob1s Commentary on th e G uide; S. D .L u z z a t t o , in Kerem Hemed, 111; and D. R o sin , Die E th ik des Maimonides (l8~76) . Kol K itb e , pp. 356 f f . 16 3 f o r b e lie v in g in th e p r in c ip l e o f c r e a tio n o th e r th an t h a t i t h as " th e a u th o r ity o f p ro p h ecy ." I t i s in t h i s way, how ever, as Ahad Ha-Am n o te s , t h a t Maimonides l e f t room f o r b e l i e f in the e x is te n c e o f a r e v e a le d r e l i g i o n . Thus, " I f th e b e l i e f in th e c r e a tio n o f th e w orld i s p o s s i b le , every d i f f i c u l t y w ith re g a rd to t h i s q u e s tio n i s r e - 17 moved." Why God has given o f h is prophecy to one and n o t to a n o th e r, why he gave h is Torah to one n a tio n in p a r t i c u l a r and n o t to a n o th e r, and why th e n , n o t b e fo re o r a f t e r - - th e s e were s e rio u s p ro b lem s. Such troublesom e q u e s tio n s can be re s o lv e d by r e s o r tin g to th e answ er t h a t i t was 18 G od's w i l l o r wisdom which determ ined th e s e h ap p en in g s. One may, how ever, a s k , Of what re le v a n c e and use i s th e d iv in e Torah? D ivine r e l i g i o n cannot le a d t o m an's supreme g o a l w hich, as p o s ite d by M aimonides, i s th e developm ent o f h i s i n t e l l e c t from th e s ta g e o f p o t e n t i a l i t y to t h a t of a c t u a l i t y . This i s a goal a c h ie v a b le only by th e a c t i v i t y o f th e i n t e l l e c t th ro u g h a lo n g p ro cess o f co n tem p latio n and r a t i o n a l th o u g h t. D ivine r e l i g i o n cannot le a d to t h i s g o a l, n o t bein g a b le to e le v a te i t s fo llo w e rs to th e le v e l o f th e " a c tu a l" man, b u t b ein g o p e r a tiv e , r a t h e r , in h is 17Kol K itb e , p . 360. 18 I b i d . , r e f e r r i n g to p ie G uide, C hapter xxv. C f. , P in e s , The G uide, pp. 327-3iiO. 164 p o t e n t i a l s t a t e . I t m ust, th e r e f o r e , be assumed th a t r e lig i o n i s th e in te rim in stru m e n t re q u ire d to p rep are fo r th e sought a f t e r g o a l s .-''9 S o ciety i s the n e c e ssa ry environm ent f o r th e r e a l i z a tio n o f the a c tu a l from th e p o t e n t i a l s t a t e . The aim o f r e l i g i o n , th e n , i s to " re g u la te th e so u l and th e body" of s o c ie ty so t h a t i t may produce th e l a r g e s t number o f O ft " a c tu a l" men p o s s ib le . To accom plish t h i s , i t i s n eces sary f o r r e lig i o n to be p o p u la r, f o r i t s te a c h in g s and o rdinances to be d ir e c te d to n o t only th e s e le c t few who s t r i v e f o r u ltim a te p e r f e c tio n but t o a l l th e p eo p le. For s o c ie ty i t must fu rn is h b oth " tru e o pinions" in a form a c c e p ta b le to th e u n d erstan d in g o f th e m asses, and tr u e m oral te a c h in g s , p e rso n a l and communal, p ro v id in g fo r th e w e lfa re of s o c ie ty and th e w e ll-b e in g o f i t s mem b e rs . This m ust be fu rn is h e d through a code of r e lig io u s observance whose purpose i s to ed u cate th e people by rem inding them c o n s ta n tly o f th e " tru e o p in io n s" and t h e i r e t h i c a l o b lig a tio n s . Through th e development of such a s o c ie ty , r e lig i o n makes i t p o s s ib le f o r a g r e a t e r number o f men to develop to t h e i r " a c tu a l" s t a t e . 21 19Kol K itb e , p. 360. Ibxd. 2 1 I b i d . , pp. 360 f . 165 M aimonides’ p re s u p p o s itio n s re g a rd in g th e Torah o f Moses a re : (1) On i t s t h e o r e t i c a l s id e i t r e f l e c t s " tr u e o p in io n s" 22 in p o p u la r form ; and (2) From a p r a c t i c a l p o in t o f view , i t i s a m oral d o c trin e g e a re d t o th e in d iv id u a l and s o c ie ty which em anates from th e " tru e o p in io n s" p o s tu la te d and w hich, to g e th e r w ith them , edu c a te s men and s o c ie ty b o th in r i g h t o p in io n s and m oral- 2 3 i t y . I t i s because o f M aim onides1 p re s u p p o s itio n s about Torah t h a t th e Torah i t s e l f p re s e n te d him w ith f o r m idable problem s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The b e l i e f s expounded in th e Torah seem to be a t o p p o s ite p o le s from th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l p o in ts o f view c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f M aimonides1 system . He had a c l e a r choice t o make. E ith e r th e words o f th e Torah as th e y a re w r i tte n mean what th ey say and th e r e f o r e a re b in d in g , s u b o rd in a tin g th e p h ilo s o p h ic p r i n c ip le s , o r th e Torah i s t o be s u b o rd in a te d to th e p h ilo so p h ic p r in c ip l e s as e n u n c ia te d by Maimonides. Since M aimonides, in Ahad Ha-Am's v ie w p o in t, was convinced t h a t he had " tr u e o p in io n s ," n e c e s s ity com pelled him t o sub o r d in a te r e l i g i o n a b s o lu te ly to philosopher? he h ad to e x p la in th e words o f th e Torah so as to make them compat i b l e w ith h is p h ilo s o p h ic p r i n c i p l e s and have th e Torah f u l f i l l a r o le which p h ilo s o p h ic a l req u irem e n ts imposed 22" h a -d e 'o t h a - a m itio t ." 23Kol K itb e , p. 360. 166 upon i t . Maimonides was a g en iu s and used every a v a ila b le method o f e x e g e sis i n developing new m eth o d s, p a r t i c u l a r l y th e method o f homonyms. Anthropomorphisms and a n th ro p o - pathism s were reduced to r a t i o n a l p r in c ip l e s and, because o f h i s g re a t s k i l l in fin d in g su p p o rt f o r h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s from o th e r p o rtio n s o f S c r ip tu r e and th e Talmud, he succeeded i n bending r e l i g i o n to th e needs o f h i s 24 p h ilo so p h y . Ahad Ha-Am does n o t e x p la in M aim onides1 method of e x e g e s is in d e t a i l , c o n s id e rin g i t only a "m em orial" t h a t s ta n d s as a rem inder o f th e weakness o f th e w r i tte n word 2 5 in t h e face o f a l iv i n g fo rc e which co n v e rte d "y es" to "no" and "no" to Vyes." Ahad Ha-Am i d e n t i f i e s t h i s liv i n g fo rc e as a s p i r i t u a l fo rc e which le d Maimonides to tu r n th e " liv in g God" o f th e Torah o f Moses i n t o an a b s t r a c t p h ilo s o p h ic id e a , empty o f a l l c o n te n t e x c e p t th e summary 2 6 o f v a rio u s n e g a tio n s . Ahad Ha-Am t r e a t s M aimonides' view o f d iv in e re v e l a t i o n in a f o o tn o te , c a llin g t o mind P a r t I I , C hapters ^^I b i d . , p . 361. P a r t I o f The Guide i s by and la r g e devoted to t h i s e f f o r t . The Guide i s a very complex w ork, C o n stru c ted f o r th e double purpose o f p u b lic te a c h in g and to im p art s e c r e t lo r e to th e e l i t e few. Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t on th e s t r u c t u r e o f The Guide i s Leo S tr a u s s ' " In tro d u c tio n " in P in e s , Guide o f th e P e rp le x e d , pp. x i - l v i . 25"koah h a i b a -n e fe s h ." 26Kol K itb e , p. 361. 167 x x x i i - x x x x v i i i , o f The G uide, and C hapter v i i o f th e Mishneh T o ra h , d is p o s in g o f th e s e two so u rce s in a se n te n c e o r tw o. The p ro p h e t, as f a r as Maimonides i s con cern ed , i s th e most p e r f e c t ( " a c t u a l 1 ') man who re c e iv e s d iv in e r e v e l a tio n th ro u g h th e " a c tiv e i n t e l l e c t , " which i s charged w ith th e guidance o f th e w orld and w ith b r in g in g from p o t e n t i a l i t y to a c t u a l i t y a l l form s, in c lu d in g th a t o f th e s o u l. 27 I t i s Ahad Ha-Am's d ecid ed p o in t o f view t h a t Maimonides* a s s e r tio n o f th e "suprem acy o f reaso n " e f fe c te d a trem endous and fundam ental r e v o lu tio n in th e h is t o r y o f Jew ish th o u g h t. O thers b e fo re Maimonides had t r i e d to make f a i t h com patible w ith re a so n b u t , i n th e l a s t a n a l y s i s , re a so n was su b o rd in a te d to th e w r i tte n word. T h is was th e case w ith S aad ia and Yehuda H a le v i. The l a t t e r gave preem inence to r e l i g i o n , and Ahad Ha-Am c i t e s in a fo o tn o te a q u o ta tio n from H alev i which r e a d s : "Whosoever ac ce p ts th e Torah co m p letely w ith o u t i n v e s t i g a tin g i t w ith h is re a so n i s b e t t e r o f f th a n th e one who op o 9 . i n v e s t i g a t e s and re s e a rc h e s i t . " S aad ia and H alevi chose p h ilo s o p h ic a l views which confirm ed t h e i r r e lig i o u s 2 7 I b i d . , p . 360, n o te 3. 2 8 I b i d . , p . 36 3; th e r e f e r e n c e i s to th e K u z a ri, I I , c h a p te r x x v i. 29Kol K itb e, p. 363. 168 f a i t h . Not so Maimonides, to whom r e lig i o u s f a i t h was su b o rd in a te to r e a s o n . 33 Ahad Ha-Am shows t h a t M aimonides1 view point on r e l i g i o n , as w e ll as on h is system g e n e r a lly , changed very l i t t l e from t h a t o f h is e a r ly y e a rs . (One m ight say th e same o f Ahad Ha-Am, th e nucleus o f whose id e a s a re a ls o p r e s e n t in b a s ic formu la t i o n in h is e a r l i e s t e s s a y s . Susbequent view points grow out o f them in a very n a t u r a l and u nforced m anner.) Ahad Ha-Am a s c rib e s to M aimonides, as th e m otive f o r p o s tu la tin g th e "supremacy o f re a s o n ," h is c o g n itio n t h a t much in Judaism could s ta n d r e s t r u c t u r i n g . I t was n o t f u l f i l l i n g i t s r o le as a "d iv in e r e lig io n " in th e way t h a t Maimonides en v isag ed t h a t r o l e . In Maimonides* com m entary on th e M ishnah, he t r i e d to give a c l e a r sta te m e n t o f th e " tru e o p in io n s" o f th e Torah as w e ll as th e p r a c t i c a l commandments through which th e s e were to be r e a l iz e d . The commentary c l e a r ly concerned i t s e l f w ith th e l a t t e r a s p e c t, and Maimonides p ro v id e s th e answers from th e 31 Gemara whenever th e Mishnah le a v e s a p o in t in doubt. In Ahad Ha-Am*s o p in io n , Maimonides* commentary did n o t on I t was th e r o le o f r e l i g i o n , s in c e i t could not d i r e c t l y r a i s e up th e " a c tu a l" from th e " p o te n tia l" man, to p re p a re th e c o n te x t which would make t h i s p o s s ib le . R e lig io n was " to r e g u la te th e s o u l and th e body" o f s o c ie ty so as to make i t y ie ld th e l a r g e s t number o f " a c tu a l men." I b i d . , p . 360. 31I b i d . , p. 365. 169 make a g r e a t im p ressio n n o r b rin g about th e r e v o lu tio n o f p o p u la r th o u g h t f o r which he had in te n d e d i t . L a te r in l i f e , w ith g r e a t e r c l a r i t y he composed th e Mishneh Torah ( " th e second la w " ), in which he s e t f o r th b o th p r a c t i c a l laws on r e l i g i o n and m o ra lity and a l l th e " tru e o p in io n s" g e a re d t o u n d e rsta n d in g by th e m asses. I t i s a m a ste rp ie c e o f s y s te m a tic and lo g i c a l arrangem ent in which only th e d e c is io n s a re c i t e d , w ith o u t su p p o rtin g p r o o fs . T his tim e Maimonides su cceed ed , i n Ahad Ha-Amfs o p in io n , in te a c h in g p h ilo s o p h ic a l t r u t h s to th e m asses in th e g u ise o f re v e a le d t r u t h , th e l a t t e r n o t r e q u ir in g 32 d em o n stratio n o r p ro o f. Maimonides n e x t w rote The Guide o f th e P e rp le x e d . The G uide, Ahad Ha-Am n o t e s , was composed f o r th o s e chosen few f o r whom i t was n e c e ss a ry to show th ro u g h r e a s o n , th e p h ilo s o p h ic t r u t h t h a t underpinned th e r e l i g i o u s form . The few were " p e rp le x e d ," t o m betw een th e demands o f re a so n and th e d o c trin e o f th e d iv in e r e v e l a tio n o f th e T orah. The Mishneh Torah had f i l l e d t h i s need f o r th e m asses. The Guide was w r i tte n f o r th e p h ilo s o p h e r who was a ls o tr a i n e d t o b e lie v e in th e t r u t h o f th e Torah. Such a p erso n would n e c e s s a r ily always be " in a s t a t e o f p e r p l e x i t y and a n x ie ty ." I f he were s o le ly guided by re a s o n , he would have to r e j e c t th e fundam ental b e l i e f s o f th e 32I b id . 170 Torah. I f he chose, how ever, t o abandon reaso n and adhere t o th e l i t e r a l meaning o f th e T orah, he would s t i l l be in a c o n s ta n t s t a t e o f p e r p le x ity , sin c e h is abandoning o f reaso n would leav e him w ith o n ly a fu n d a m e n ta lis t!c ap proach to th e Torah r e s u l t i n g in f e a r , a n x ie ty , and even g r e a t e r p e r p l e x i t y . 33 Ahad Ha-Am summarizes th e te a c h in g o f The Guide as th e adm onition by Maimonides to h is re a d e rs to follow re a s o n , and reaso n o n ly ; and to i n t e r p r e t r e l i g i o n in conform ity w ith re a s o n . Reason i s th e purpose o f human l i f e . R e lig io n rem ains only a means t o 34 t h a t end. Ahad Ha-Am se e s a m a ste r p la n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l e n t e r p r i s e in M aim onides' l i f e , f o r he n o te s t h a t Maimonides took ca re to e s t a b l i s h h im s e lf f i r s t as the g r e a t e s t l i v i n g exponent o f Judaism . Had The Guide been p u b lis h e d b e fo re th e Mishneh T o rah , he c e r t a i n l y would have been accused o f h e re sy by h is o p p o n en ts, who, in any c a s e , d id p r e c is e ly t h a t a f t e r h is d e a th . H eresy was sub se q u e n tly found, upon c r i t i c a l exam ination o f th e Mishneh T orah, p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s f i r s t p a r t , th e S e fe r Ha-madaf ("Book o f S c ie n c e " ), and even in h is in tr o d u c tio n on th e commentary on th e M ishnah. 33 Having shown M aimonides1 3 3 I b i d . 3HI b i d . , p. 366. 3 5 I b id . 171 g re a t s p i r i t in em ancipating reason from a l l a u th o r ity , Ahad Ha-Am adds a p o s t s c r i p t in which h e, in Maimonidean s t y l e , attem p ts to p o s it th e supremacy of th e n a tio n a l se n tim e n t. In an in g en io u s way, Ahad Ha-Am attem p ts to supply an escape from th e problems t h a t co n fro n te d Maimonides. Those elem ents o f Jew ish th o u g h t and l i f e whose i n t r i n s i c value was n o t r e a d i ly d is c e m a b le and whose r a t i o n a l b ases were in q u e s tio n , were su b ju g a te d t o reason by Maimonides. These e le m e n ts, Ahad Ha-Am m ain t a i n s , could have been re sc u e d had Maimonides p a id s u f f i - 36 c ie n t a t te n t io n to n a tio n a l se n tim e n t. Maimonides could have d isc o v ered th e re b y t h a t many r e lig i o u s s ta te m e n ts , so troublesom e t o him, had no purpose o th e r th a n to s tre n g th e n the fe e lin g o f n a tio n a l u n ity . He would n o t have had to s t a t e , fo r exam ple, t h a t th e purpose o f th e F e s tiv a ls was " t h e i r use i n th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f f r i e n d sh ip which i s n ec essary among people liv in g i n p o l i t i c a l 37 s o c i e t i e s . ” In d e a lin g w ith th e f u tu re red em p tio n , he would n o t have had to say t h a t "th e w ise men and th e p ro p h ets longed f o r th e day o f th e M essiah so th a t they m ight be f re e t o study th e Torah and i t s wisdom w ith o u t 3 3 ,,h a -re g e sh h a -le u m i." 3^Kol K itb e , p. 367; w ith re f e r e n c e t o p ie G uide, I I I , C hapter x x x x i i i , P in es t r a n s l a t i o n , p . 57TT 172 p re s s u r e s so as to m e rit th e e t e r n a l l i f e o f th e w orld 3 8 t o come." S tatem ents such as th e above, as w e ll as t h e te n o r o f h is te a c h in g , in d ic a te d t o Ahad Ha-Am t h a t Maimonides d id not re c o g n iz e th e v alu e o f th e n a tio n a l a s p e c t o f Jew ish l i f e and d id n o t g iv e i t due im portance i n h is e x p o s itio n o f Judaism . D esp ite h is g e n e r a liz a ti o n , how ever, Ahad Ha-Am does fin d t h a t , p s y c h o lo g ic a lly sp e a k in g , th e r e was in Maimonides a f e e l in g o f n a tio n a l se n tim e n t which le d him to v io la te h i s own " tr u e b e l i e f s " when he fram ed th e p r i n c i p l e s o f f a i t h o f Judaism . These dogmas o f f a i t h had th e n e c e ss a ry p h ilo s o p h ic underp in n in g s which Maimonides would have re q u ire d f o r "d e m o n strativ e prem- 39 i s e s . " S ince Maimonides could n o t have made such a m is ta k e , i t i s assumed by Ahad Ha-Am t h a t he d id t h i s p u r p o s e f u lly . There was a s l i p o f th e h e a r t in M aimonides, as f a r as Ahad Ha-Am was c o n c e rn e d .1 *^ 88Kol K itb e , p . 367; re fe re n c e to th e Mishneh T o ra h , S e fe r Ha-mada^ "H ilk o t T eshubah," 9 :2 . 39 K o lK itb e , p . 367. Compare h i s keen a n a ly s is o f th e problem o f th e e t e r n i t y o f th e u n iv e rs e w hich, w h ile a p ro b ab le p re m ise , i s n o t a dem onstrable one. P in e s , The Guide o f th e P e rp le x e d , pp. 239 f . * * 8I t would have been in c o n c e iv a b le t o Maimonides t o re g a rd as r e l i g i o u s dpgma th e " n a tio n a l b e l i e f " in a f u tu r e red em p tio n . His p r o je c tio n o f t h i s yesod ( " p r i n c ip le " ) was due to M aimonides' f e e l in g o f th e n a t io n a l hope w ith o u t which th e c o n tin u ity o f th e Jew ish r e l i g i o n i s s e n s e l e s s . This n a t io n a l f e e lin g in Maimonides was 173 Ahad Ha-Am i s r e a l l y o f f e r in g an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n on th e most meagre e v id e n c e , s in c e Maimonides* em phasis on th e "supremacy o f r e a s o n ," to g e th e r w ith th e f e e lin g o f n a t io n a l s e n tim e n t, i s a m edieval paragon o f what Ahad Ha-Am th o u g h t h im s e lf to be in th e n in e te e n th and tw en t i e t h c e n tu r ie s . Ahad Ha-Am's o b je c tio n to t h i s s e l f - c o n tr a d ic tio n in Maimonides co u ld have been r e s o lv e d , as in tim a te d e a r l i e r in th e e s s a y , sim ply by r e le g a tin g th e t h i r t e e n p r in c ip l e s o f f a i t h i n t o Maimonides’ program o f p o p u la r r e l i g i o n . The Jew who r e c i t e d th e s e t h i r t e e n p r in c ip l e s in th e m orning p ra y e rs each day o f h is l i f e became a p a r ta k e r in th a t v a s t p h ilo s o p h ic system which Maimonides had r e s e rv e d f o r th e few. The t h i r t e e n p r i n c i p le s o f f a i t h a re a thum bnail summary o f th e c a r d in a l p r in c ip l e s o f Judaism w ith o u t th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l argumen t a t i o n n e c e ssa ry to l o g i c a l l y su p p o rt each and every one o f them in t h a t p a r t i c u l a r c o n te x t and in t h a t p a r t i c u l a r u i o r d e r . x an "unconscious fo rc e " which made him swerve from th e p a th o f c l e a r lo g ic i n t o c o n t r a d ic ti o n s . Kol K itb e , p . 367. ^ T h e "lo cu s c la s s ic u s " on th e q u e s tio n o f Jew ish dogma i s th e te n th ( i n some v e r s io n s , th e e le v e n th ) c h a p te r o f th e Mishnah T r a c ta te S an h ed rin , known as "Perek H e le k ." I t d e a ls w ith th e q u e s tio n o f who has a p o r tio n in th e "w o rld -to -c o m e ." I t i s in Maimonides* commentary to "Perek Helek" t h a t he s e t s f o r th th e Y eso d o t, th e b ases o r fundam ental p r i n c i p l e s . U nlike h is p re d e c e s s o rs in th e fo rm u la tio n o f dogma, JehudahH adassi, S a a d ia , H a le v i, and Abraham ben D avid, Maimonides was p r a c t i c a l Ahad Ha-Am deduced th a t th e r e i s no f u r t h e r need to look f o r th e in flu e n c e o f th e n a tio n a l se n tim e n t in one o r a n o th e r phase o f M aim onides1 work, s in c e w ith o u t i t he would not have produced h is p h ilo s o p h ic system . I f by n a tio n a l se n tim e n t he means a l l t h a t i s in v o lv e d when a n in e te e n th o r tw e n tie th ce n tu ry th in k e r uses th e word " n a tio n " and " n a tio n a l ," th en i t would appear t h a t Ahad Ha-Am i s a s c r ib in g to Maimonides th e c o n te n ts and approach o f a co n c ep tu a l system which was a l ie n to him . At tim es Ahad Ha-Am seems to imply t h a t he means th e form er; th e n he in c lu d e s item s which confuse i t w ith th e l a t t e r a t some subsequent p o in t. In summary, h is tre a tm e n t o f Maimonides i s a b r i l l i a n t e x p o s itio n w hich, both in s t r u c t u r e and c o n te n t, r e f l e c t s a g r e a t d e a l o f Ahad Ha-Am's own th o u g h t and p h ilo so p h y . The l a s t li n e s w ith which Ahad Ha-Am con clu d es "The Supremacy o f Reason" a s c r ib e to Maimonides an unconscious n a tio n a l g o a l, su p p ly in g f o r th e n a tio n a system o f thought upon which i t could r e ly d uring i t s e x i l e . I t was th e meat o f s u r v iv a l f o r th e Jews o f h is r a t h e r th a n p h ilo s o p h ic a l. "He w anted every I s r a e l i t e to know e x a c tly what were th e th in g s he was ex p e cte d t o b e l i e v e , so as to be e n t i t l e d t o ' c a l l h im s e lf a Jew, and e x p e ct o th e rs to do so . With t h i s m a t t e r - o f - f a c t m otive in h is m ind, he ta b u la te d h is views on th e Jew ish f a i t h , w rote them down in co n c ise language f re e from am b ig u ity , and c a lle d them th e t h i r t e e n fundam ental A r t i c l e s ." J . A belson, "Maimonides on th e Jew ish C reed ," JQR, XIX (Old S e r ie s ; 190 7 ), 25. 175 tim e . Ahad Ha-Am s in g le s o u t Maimonides from h is p r e d e c e sso rs by r e a ff irm in g th a t w h ile th e y p la c e d Judaism above re a s o n , he i d e n t i f i e d Judaism w ith re a s o n . ^ The thoroughgoing r a tio n a lis m which Ahad Ha-Am a t t r i b u t e s to M aimonides, and which in f a c t i s th e dom inant n o te o f Maimonides* sy stem , shapes Ahad Ha-Am*s view o f pro p h etism in th e B ible most p e r c e p tib ly .^ ^ As a young man, h is f a i t h in d iv in e r e v e la tio n was shaken, and from t h a t mo ment onward, p h ilo s o p h ic a l s p e c u la tio n and in q u iry became c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Ahad Ha-Am's own m ode.of th o u g h t and e x p re s s io n . Ahad Ha-Am ta k e s th e n o tio n o f the "suprem acy o f reaso n " from Maimonides, f i l l i n g th e v e s s e l o f 42 Kol K itb e , p. 369. ^ M a im o n id e s' use o f th e homonym (an A r i s t o t e l i a n te rm ), which " is a word h av in g more th a n one m eaning, a word which d en o tes s e v e r a l th in g s h av in g n o th in g in com mon," en ab led him to e x p la in th e b i b l i c a l te x t th rough m etaphor, a lle g o r y and e s o t e r i c c o n n o ta tio n s removed from th e l i t e r a l meaning o f th e t e x t . I s a a c H usik, A H isto ry o f M edieval Jew ish P hilosophy ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1948), p . 240. In Ahad Ha-Am's essay on "M oses," Kol K itb e , pp. 342 f f . , he i n dulges in th e modern c o u n te rp a rt o f t h i s method when he p re fa c e s th e main body o f h i s essa y w ith th e s ta te m e n t, "I do n o t c a re a t a l l . . . w hether t h i s man Moses ex i s t e d , " t h a t i s , w hether he was I s r a e l ’s d e l i v e r e r and la w g iv e r as th e t r a d i t i o n a l account r e c o r d s . These ques tio n s a re f o r a r c h e o lo g is ts to answ er; th e y in no way a f f e c t th e image o f Moses e n s h rin e d in Jew ish h e a r t s through th e g e n e ra tio n s . Ahad Ha-Am, a s w i l l be shown in a s e p a ra te s e c tio n l a t e r , c r e a te s a Moses which i s in consonance w ith th e views o f h is philosopher. While th e p a r t i c u l a r v o cab u lary d i f f e r s , much o f h i s e x e g e sis on Moses harks haick to "the method o f Maimonides as developed in th e S e fe r Ha-mada o f th e Yad H a-hazaka and th e f i r s t p a r t o f th e Moreh. re a so n w ith th e new wine o f Id e a lism and N a tio n a lism . Perhaps he saw h im s e lf in th e g u is e o f a modern Maimonides. His broad and d i v e r s i f i e d i n t e r e s t in a l l o f Judaism , h is d e s ir e to c r e a te a Jew ish e n c y c lo p e d ia , h is lo n g in g to w r ite th e book on Jew ish e t h ic s and, fo re m o st, h is attem p t to s y n th e s iz e th e t o t a l i t y o f Jew ish th o u g h t around h is own p r e s u p p o s itio n s , gave r ic h in d ic a tio n o f h is a s p ir a tio n to be th e modem Guide o f th e P e rp le x e d . CHAPTER V II THE LIGHT OF REASON AND THE LIGHT OF THE SPIRIT: SPINOZA AND AHAD HA-AM While u n q u e stio n a b ly th e m e ta p h y sic a l system which Maimonides expounded, and which had so many v i t a l p o in ts o f c o n ta c t w ith Arab m e ta p h y s ic s , has long s in c e o u tliv e d i t s re le v a n c y , i t d id le a v e as a leg acy th e em ancipation o f re a s o n , which in tu r n l e f t i t s i n d e l i b l e im p rin t on th e e v o lu tio n o f Jew ish th o u g h t from M aim onides’ tim e to our own day. Ahad Ha-Am n o te s t h a t th e im p rin t o f th e em an cipation o f reaso n can be re c o g n iz e d in th e e v o lu tio n o f th e s p i r i t o f I s r a e l from t h a t tim e u n t i l to d a y . Every Jew who l e f t th e Bet H a-m idrash o f o ld and tr a v e r s e d th e h ard and b i t t e r road from b lin d f a i t h to f re e reaso n must have e n c o u n tered Maimonides a t th e very b eg in n in g o f h is way. In th o se very f i r s t s t e p s , which are th e most d i f f i c u lt and d an g e ro u s, 1 he must have found a so u rce o f s tr e n g th and su sta in m e n t f o r h i s s p i r i t . This p ath was 1Kol K itbe Ahad Ha-Am (T e l Aviv: D vir C o., L td ., 1956) , p . 366. 177 178 tr a v e r s e d n o t o nly by M endelssohn, b u t by Spinoza; and b e fo re and a f t e r them , many i n t e l l e c t u a l s , m ost o f whom 2 ach iev ed r e c o g n itio n both w ith in and o u ts id e o f Judaism . There can be as l i t t l e q u e s tio n t h a t Ahad Ha-Am had re a d b oth th e works o f Spinoza and books p u b lis h e d about him , as Spinoza h im s e lf, in h is own c l a s s i c a l Jew ish s t u d i e s , had c a r e f u l ly s tu d ie d S a a d ia , H a le v i, Maimonides, G e rso n id e s, C rescas, and th e r e s t o f th e m edieval Jew ish Q p h ilo s o p h e rs to h is own tim e. In an essay e n t i t l e d , "Names th a t Have Lost T h e ir M eaning," Ahad Ha-Am ad d re sse s h im s e lf to th e views o f Oswald John Simon who had p ro p o sed , as p re v io u s ly men tio n e d , th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a new Jew ish Church, which was to d iv e s t i t s e l f o f i t s n a tio n a l Jew ish t r a d i t i o n and claim o n ly th e ac ce p ted u n iv e r s a l r e l i g i o u s and m oral p r i n c i p l e s . The removal o f Jew ish n a t io n a l t r a i t s , customs and cerem onies was viewed as a s te p tow ard merging Judaism 2 I b id . 3 "In th e case o f th e E th ic s o f S p in o za, th e r e i s on th e one hand an e x p l i c i t S pinoza, whom we s h a l l c a l l B e n e d ic tu s . I t i s he who speaks in d e f i n i t i o n s , axiom s, and p r o p o s itio n s . . . Then th e r e i s , on th e o th e r hand, th e i m p l i c i t S pinoza, who lu rk s b ehind th e s e d e f i n i t i o n s , axiom s, and p r o p o s itio n s . . . h is mind i s crammed w ith t r a d i t i o n a l p h ilo s o p h ic lo r e and h is th o u g h t tu rn s along th e b e a te n l o g ic a l p ath s o f m ediaeval re a s o n in g ." H arry A. W olfson, The P hilosophy o f S pinoza (New York: M eridian Books, 1958), p . v i i . R eferences to th e above m entioned and o th e r p h ilo s o p h e rs abound th ro u g h o u t th e work. A d e t a i l e d l i s t i n g would in v o lv e a good p a r t o f th e In d ex . I 179 in to hum anity, r e q u ir in g th e de f a c to o b l i t e r a t i o n o f Judaism , w hile r e ta in in g i t s name as d e s c r ip tiv e o f t h a t monotheism which had c h a r a c te r iz e d i t , to g e th e r w ith o th e r b e l i e f s now g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d . A g ain st th e m eth odology o f th e Simon group, Ahad Ha-Am c a lle d Spinoza to w itn e ss th a t i t would be b e t t e r f o r them t o a tte m p t to u n d e rsta n d , as Spinoza had s t r e s s e d , th e o r ig in s and development o f r e lig i o u s id e a s than to mock them o r b e moan them as was b ein g d o n e .1 * Spinoza i s r e f e r r e d to again i n th e e s s a y , "A New Redeem er,” where Spinoza i s c i te d as th e term in u s a quo by R einach, from whose tim e Jews have em ancipated them selves from a l l th e r e lig i o u s o bservances w h ile to th e o u ts id e w orld th e y rem ain " th e c g lo ry o f Ju d aism ." Ahad Ha-Am does n o t d is p u te th e s ta te m e n t w ith re g a rd to Spinoza b u t proceeds to apply e th e d e s c r ip tio n to Salomon Reinach and o th e r s . While Ahad Ha-Am does n o t s t a t e e x p l i c i t l y what th e w eaknesses were in S p in o z a 's system in term s o f h is own 4Kol K itb e , p . 262. 5 I b i d . , p. 301. 6The s p i r i t u a l tr e a s u r e s o f Judaism m ust be r e g ard ed w ith lo v e and honor. They a re "Kud’sh a B 'r i k Hu, W e-orayyta, W e -y isra e l" ("God, Torah and I s r a e l " ) . These are in te rc o n n e c te d by h i s t o r i c bonds and a re ev id en ces o f "th e n a t io n a l w i l l to l i v e . " One s e p a r a te s th e s e phe nomena only f o r th e purpose o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s as t o t h e i r o r i g i n s , developm ent and th e problem s o f cause and e f f e c t . A part from t h i s c o n s id e r a tio n , th ey a re re g a rd e d as an in s e p a r a b le u n ity . Kol K itb e , p. 292. 180 u n d e rsta n d in g , one may assume from th e c o n te x t of remarks about Spinoza th a t h is a t t i t u d e would be co n d itio n e d by S pinoza’s ig n o rin g th e n a tio n a l m o tif o f Judaism in h is thought and, a g a in , by h is b ein g o f th e sch o o l o f p h ilo s o phers who championed "the supremacy o f re a s o n ." For Ahad Ha-Am the e s s e n t i a l problems o f "philosophy" were n o t th o se which p e r ta in e d to th e o rie s o f c re a tio n b u t those which d e a lt w ith th e problem of Jew ish s u r v iv a l. Accord ing to Ahad Ha-Am’s h ie ra rc h y o f v a lu e s , th e love o f n a tio n i s paramount in any such th e o ry . While Spinoza did n o t f i t f u l l y in to th e category o f a " n a t i o n a l i s t p a n t h e i s t , " - - t h a t i s , one whose id eas o f God were p a n t h e i s t i c b u t whose p o in t o f d e p a rtu re in th e s p e c i f i c a re a o f Jewish thought was n a t i o n a l i s t i c , — Ahad Ha-Am found h im se lf in c lo se a f f i n i t y w ith th o se who m a in tain ed t h i s p o s itio n . He v ig o ro u sly defends t h e i r p o in t o f view and t h e i r r i g h t to th e freedom o f t h e i r b e l i e f s so long as t h i s p a n th e is t "lo v es h is p e o p le, i t s l i t e r a t u r e and a l l o f th e s p i r i t u a l p o sse ssio n s th a t belong to i t . " 7 Ahad Ha-Am makes s p e c i f i c re fe re n c e to a book on Spinoza by Dr. Manuel J o e l, one o f th e p io n e e rs in the f i e l d o f S p in o z is tic c r i t i c i s m , in which i t i s contended t h a t th e e a r l i e r p a r t o f S p in o z a 's t r e a t i s e could never 7I b id . 181 have been w r i tte n were i t not f o r th e in flu e n c e o f M aimonides' The Guide o f the P erp lex ed upon him.® Dr. Leon Roth goes so f a r as to s a y , When th e r e f o r e we propose to t r e a t Maimonides and Spinoza to g e th e r as re p r e s e n tin g in common a d i s t i n c t and d i f f e r e n t o r i e n ta tio n o f th o u g h t from t h a t o f D esc artes and th e Kalam, we a s s e r t , n o t th e i d e n t i t y o f t h e i r p h ilo s o p h ie s in d e t a i l b u t th e f a r deeper and more s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t t h a t th e one p ro v id ed th e prim ary and perm anent background o f th e o t h e r . 9 The p o in ts o f c o n ta c t and th e in f lu e n c e s , both s u b tle and o b v io u s, which Maimonides had upon Spinoza are in them s e lv e s a d i s s e r t a t i o n . Y et, i f one were to focus upon some ab id in g in flu e n c e s o f Maimonides o ver S pinoza, th e y would undoubtedly be th e sh a re d view t h a t the d o c trin e s o f r e l i g i o n had to be " c o rr e c t i d e a s ," r e f l e c t i n g th e te a c h in g s o f p h ilo so p h y sim ply ex p ressed and in language 9I b i d . , p. 366. This i s Lewis Browne's e v a lu a tio n of Manual J o e l 's S p in o z a 's T h e o lo g is c h - P o litis c h e r T ra k ta t a u f se in e n Q uellen G ep ru ft (B re s la u , 1870), pp. 9-10, r e f e r r e d to in Browne's B lessed Spinoza (New York: The M acmillan Co., 1932), p . 98. 9Leon Roth, S pinoza, D e s c a r te s , Maimonides (O xford: Clarendon P r e s s , 1924) , p . 10 5 . Roth f u r t h e r contends th a t S p in o z a 's T h e o lo g ic o - P o litic a l T r e a tis e " in i t s e s s e n t i a l c o n te n t was no new d e p a rtu re , b u t a f r e s h con s id e r a tio n o f a p o in t o f view w ith which Spinoza had been a c q u a in te d from the very beg in n in g o f h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e . . . I f we had t o sum up our view o f th e r e l a t i o n s between Spinoza and Maimonides in a few w ords, i t would be d i f f i c u l t to f in d any more a p p r o p r ia te th a n memini olim l e g i s s e ." (Roth r e f e r s to S p in o z a 's own w ords, "I remem- b e r . . . having re a d t h i s y e a rs ago— olim l e g i s s e —in a l e t t e r a g a in s t Maimonides (by Rabbi Jehuda A lp a k h a r), in c lu d e d among h is (M aim onides') R esponsa.") I b i d . , p. 104. 182 com prehensible to th e common man. Ahad Ha-Am h ig h lig h te d th e s e as th e c e n tr a l th e s is o f Maimonides' The Guide o f th e P e rp le x e d , as had Solomon Hunk b e fo re him. In a d d i t i o n , Maimonides and Spinoza sh a re d a common a t t i t u d e on a u t h o r it y and re a s o n . While f o r Maimonides i t was n e c e s s a r y to show t h a t a l l th e e s s e n t i a l p o in ts o f A r i s t o t l e 's p h ilo so p h y a r e a lso in th e Hebrew B ib le , Spinoza re p u d ia te d t h i s p o in t o f view .'*'0 Spinoza had no p a tie n c e f o r t h i s approach, which was term ed by him "th e acme o f ab s u r d i t y . " 1 1 In th e T r a c ta tu s , Spinoza l i s t s th e o p in io n o f Maimonides as d i f f e r i n g w idely from h i s own. Maimonides, S pinoza c la im s , a s s e r te d t h a t Each passage in S c r ip tu r e adm its o f v a r io u s , n ay , c o n tra ry m eanings; b u t t h a t we could n e v e r be c e r t a in o f any p a r t i c u l a r one t i l l we knew th a t th e p a s sa g e , as we i n t e r p r e t e d i t , c o n ta in e d n o th in g c o n tra ry o r rep u g n an t to re a s o n . I f th e l i t e r a l meaning c la sh e s w ith re a s o n , though the passage seems in i t s e l f p e r f e c t ly c l e a r , i t must be i n t e r p r e t e d in some m eta p h y s ic a l se n se . This d o c trin e he la y s down very p la in ly in C hapter XXV, p a r t i i , o f h is book, Moreh Nebukim, f o r he sa y s: ^"M aim onides and o th e rs do in d e ed m a in ta in t h a t th e s e and e v e ry o th e r in s ta n c e o f a n g e lic a p p a ritio n s ( e . g . to Manoah and t o Abraham o f f e r in g up Is a a c ) o c c u rre d d u rin g s le e p , f o r t h a t no one w ith h is eyes open e v e r c o u ld see an a n g e l, b u t t h i s i s mere n onsense. The s o le o b je c t of such commentators seems to be to e x t o r t from S c r ip tu r e c o n firm a tio n s o f A r i s t o t e l i a n q u ib b le s and t h e i r own in v e n tio n s . . . " The C hief Works o f B enedict de S p in o za , t r . R. H. M. Elwes (New York: Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s , i n c . , 1951), I , 17. 183 ’Know th a t we sh rin k n o t from a ffirm in g t h a t the w orld h a th e x is te d from e t e r n i t y , because o f what S c rip tu re s a ith concerning th e w o rld 's c r e a tio n . For th e te x ts which te a c h t h a t th e w orld was c re a te d a re n o t more in number them th o se which teach th a t God h ath a body; n e i t h e r a re th e approaches in t h i s m a tte r o f th e w o rld 's c r e a tio n clo sed o r even made h ard to u s: so t h a t we should n o t be ab le to e x p la in what i s w r i tte n , as we d id when we showed t h a t God h ath no body, n ay , p e ra d v e n tu re , we could e x p la in and make f a s t th e d o c trin e o f th e w o rld 's e t e r n i t y more e a s ily th an we d id away w ith th e d o c trin e s t h a t God h a th a b e a t i f i e d body. Yet two th in g s h in d e r me from doing as I have s a i d , and b e lie v in g t h a t th e w orld i s e t e r n a l . As i t h a th been c l e a r ly shown th a t God hath not a body, we must p e rfo rc e e x p la in a l l th o se p a s sages w hereof th e l i t e r a l sen se a g re e th not w ith th e d em o n stratio n , f o r su re i t i s th a t th e y can be so e x p la in e d . But th e e t e r n i t y o f th e w orld h ath not been so d em o n strated , th e r e f o r e i t i s n o t n ec essary to do v io le n c e to S c rip tu re in su p p o rt o f some common o p in io n , w hereof we m ight, a t th e b id d in g o f re a s o n , embrace th e c o n tr a r y .'-*-2 Spinoza co n tin u e s by e x p la in in g t h a t th e words of Maimonides were s u f f i c i e n t l y e v id e n t to e s t a b l i s h h is p o in t, f o r I f he had been convinced by reason t h a t th e world i s e t e r n a l , he would n o t have h e s i t a t e d to t w i s t and e x p la in away th e words o f S c r ip tu r e u n t i l he made them appear to te a c h t h i s d o c t r i n e . He would have f e l t q u ite su re th a t S c r ip tu r e , though everywhere p la in ly denying th e e t e r n i t y o f th e w o rld , r e a l l y in te n d s to te a c h i t . So t h a t , however c l e a r th e mean ing o f S c rip tu re may b e , he would n o t f e e l c e r t a in of having g rasped i t , so long as he rem ained d o u b tfu l o f th e t r u t h o f what was w r i tte n . For we are in doubt w hether a th in g i s in conform ity w ith re a s o n , o r con t r a r y t h e r e to , so long as we are u n c e rta in o f i t s t r u t h , and c o n se q u e n tly , we cannot be su re w hether th e l i t e r a l meaning o f a passage be tr u e o r f a l s e . 13 12I b i d . , p. 115. 13I b i d . , pp. 115 f . 184 Spinoza goes on to p o in t o u t th a t i f such a th e o ry as Maimonides propounded was sound, he would have t o g ra n t t h a t some f a c u lty beyond n a t u r a l reaso n i s r e q u ir e d f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g S c r ip tu r e . A f u r t h e r im p lic a tio n o f M aimonides' th e o ry would be t h a t th e masses o f people would have to re c e iv e knowledge o f S c r ip tu r e th rough th e p h ilo s o p h e r s , and i t would th e n be q u ite n a t u r a l to assume t h a t th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h a t p h ilo s o p h e rs a f f ix e d to th e S c r ip tu r e s would be i n f a l l i b l e . This would b e , f o r S pinoza, a new form o f " e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u th o r ity " and, in th e form o f new s o r ts o f p r i e s t s o r p o n t i f f s , "more l i k e l y to e x c ite m en's r i d i c u l e than t h e i r v e n e r a tio n . Commenting f u th e r on th e method o f M aimonides, Spinoza p o in ts o u t th a t in th e fo rm e r's th o u g h t, i t i s supposed t h a t th e p ro p h e ts wei n agreem ent w ith one a n o th e r and t h a t th e y were g r e a t th e o lo g ia n s and p h ilo s o p h e rs , b a sin g t h e i r c o n c lu sio n s on th e " a b s o lu te t r u t h . " W e s h a l l see t h i s p a r t i c u l a r theme r e c u r r in g in Ahad Ha-Am's tre a tm e n t o f th e p r o p h e tic movement. I t would appear t h a t in h i s tre a tm e n t o f prophecy, Ahad Ha-Am le an ed more h e a v ily tow ard M aimonides' p h ilo s o p h ic approach th a n tow ard S p in o z a 's h i s t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m . G e n e ra lly , how ever, in term s o f h is unorthodox approach to th e B ib le , Ahad Ha-Am i s u n q u e stio n a b ly in flu e n c e d by S pinoza. lt|I b i d . , p. 116. 185 Spinoza r e f e r s to Maimonides f o r v a lu a b le b a s ic c o n c e p ts , such as t h a t o f " a b s o lu te t r u t h . " The p ro p h et s p e c i f i c a l l y i s r e f e r r e d t o as b ein g th e embodiment o f th e p r in c ip le o f " t r u t h . " 15 Spinoza d is a g re e s w ith M aimonides1 method in a n o th e r im p o rta n t se n s e . Maimonides h e ld t h a t th e meaning o f S c r ip tu r e can n o t be d e riv e d from S c r ip tu r e i t s e l f in i t s p e s h a t— th a t i s , in i t s p l a i n m eaning— f o r The t r u t h o f th in g s i s n o t made p la in th e r e in ( i n t h a t i t does n o t prove a n y th in g , n or te a c h th e m a tte rs o f which i t speaks through t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s and f i r s t c a u s e s ), t h e r e f o r e , ac co rd in g to M aimonides, th e tr u e sen se o f S c r ip tu r e cannot be made p la in from i t s e l f , and must n o t be th e r e s o u g h t. 16 S pinoza s t a t e s t h a t M aim onides1 th e o ry supposes th a t words o f S c r ip tu r e can be e x p la in e d ac co rd in g to p reco n ceiv ed o p in io n s " tw is tin g them a b o u t, and re v e r s in g o r com pletely changing th e l i t e r a l se n se however p la in i t may b e ." Spinoza draws th e c o n c lu sio n t h a t M aim onides1 method i s "h a rm fu l, u s e le s s and a b s u rd . " ^ 7 S p in o z a ^ con clu d in g p arag rap h on th e i n t e r p r e - 1 8 t a t i o n o f S c r ip tu r e in t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c h a p te r - 1 -0 fin d s in Ahad Ha-Am a ready l i s t e n e r , in t h a t Spinoza m a in ta in s 15Kol K itb e , p . 343. "H a-nabi hu is h h a -e m e t." 16 E lw es, The C h ief Works o f B enedict de S pinoza, Is 117. ' 1 7 I b i d . , pp. 117-118. 18Chapter v i i . 186 t h a t th e supreme r i g h t o f f r e e th in k in g even about r e l i g io n , as w ith e v e ry th in g e l s e , i s in every p e r s o n 's power and th e r e f o r e w ield s th e "supreme r i g h t and a u th o r ity o f f r e e judgment . . . to e x p la in and i n t e r p r e t r e l i g i o n f o r 19 h im s e lf ." The n a t u r a l " l i g h t o f r e a s o n ," common to a l l men, v e s ts in th e in d iv id u a l th e power to u n d ersta n d and i n t e r p r e t S c r ip tu r e . I t i s n o t n e c e ssa ry to invade any e x te r n a l o r s u p e rn a tu r a l a u th o r ity f o r t h i s p u rp o se, s in c e th e method i s a d a p ta b le even to th e average m ental 20 c a p a b i l i t i e s r e f l e c t e d in th e t o t a l i t y o f mankind. While Ahad Ha-Am would n o t c a v i l w ith Spinoza on t h i s p r i n c i p l e , he would n e v e rth e le s s r e a s s e r t h is p o s itio n t h a t b e l i e f in r e l i g i o n i s a m a tte r o f th e h e a r t , and b e l i e f in what S c rip tu r e te a c h e s i s dependent upon th e "hypnos" t h a t th e p a s t e x e rts upon us and th e c o m p a ta b ility o f th e c o n te n ts o f S c r ip tu r e w ith th e needs o f th e p r e s e n t. The B ib le , S pinoza m a in ta in s , te a c h e s e x p l i c i t l y and in many p la c e s what everyone ought to do in o rd e r to obey God, and t h i s i s c a p su le d in th e commandment o f L e v itic u s — "love to o n e 's n e ig h b o u r. " 2 1 In a p r a c t i c a l se n s e , f a i t h in th e knowledge o f God w ith o u t obedience to Him would be impos s i b l e and th e enactm ent o f good deeds i s r e q u ir e d , f o r 1 9 I b i d . , p . 119. 2 0 I b i d . 21I b i d . , p. 183. 187 " f a it h i s not s a lu to r y in i t s e l f , but only in re s p e c t to the obedience i t im p lie s ," o r as James p u ts i t , ". . .F a ith 2 2 w ithout works i s d ea d ." Spinoza h ere has re fe re n c e to both th e New and th e Old T estam ents. Ahad Ha-Am would d isp u te th e p r o p rie ty o f jo in in g th e se two works to g e th e r w ith re g a rd to a s in g le m essage. He c l e a r ly showed in h is e s s a y , w ritte n on th e o ccasio n o f th e p u b lis h in g o f The Commentary on th e S ynoptic Gospels by M o n tefio re, th a t he would ta k e is s u e w ith S p in o za’s s p e c i f i c i l l u s t r a t i o n , i f n o t w ith h is o v e r - a ll approach, t h a t r e lig i o n is to be judged n o t by o b je c tiv e p h ilo s o p h ic p r in c ip le s but by s p e c if ic " d u tie s o f th e h e a r t ." In S pinoza’s d is c u s s io n as to w hether th eo lo g y i s or i s n o t s u b s e rv ie n t to re a s o n , he makes the p o in t t h a t n e i th e r i s theology s u b s e rv ie n t to reaso n nor reaso n to th e o lo g y , "but each has h e r own domain. " ^ 3 In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p o rtio n o f th e T r a c ta tu s , S pinoza, w ith one s tro k e of th e pen, w rite s o f f th e e n t i r e e f f o r t o f m edieval Jewish philosophy a t r e c o n c ilia tio n between re v e a le d f a i t h and re a s o n . Spinoza a llu d e s to a p o in t p re v io u s ly made, th a t th e o lo g y can only be judged from w ith in i t s own s e t o f p re s u p p o s itio n s — th a t i s , in i t s c r e a tio n s o f a 2 ^I b i d . , p. 184; c f . , James 2:1 7 . 2 3 I b i d . , p. 19 4; "The sph ere o f reason i s , as we have s a i d , tr u t h and wisdom; th e sphere o f th e o lo g y i s p ie ty and o b ed ien ce ." 188 scheme and manner o f obedience to dogmas o f p ie ty and f a i t h th a t a th e o lo g ia n b e lie v e s c o r r e c t . Judgment cannot be e x e rc is e d by any o th e r means such as t h a t attem p ted by R. Yehudah A lpakhar who m a in ta in e d , as a u n iv e r s a l p r i n c ip le o f b i b l i c a l e x e g e s is , ' . . . th a t w hatsoever S c r ip tu r e te a c h e s dogm ati c a l l y , and a ffirm s e x p r e s s ly , m ust, on i t s own a u t h o r it y , be a d m itte d as a b s o lu te ly tr u e : t h a t th e r e i s no d o c trin e in th e B ib le which d i r e c t l y c o n tra d ic ts th e g e n e ra l te n o u r o f th e w hole. . .24 Spinoza draws th e a b s o lu te co n clu sio n t h a t "th e B ib le must 2 5 n o t be accommodated to re a s o n , n o r reason to th e B ib le ." The fu n c tio n o f reaso n i s to s o r t out t r u t h so t h a t a t l e a s t in th e a re a o f m oral c e r t a i n t y we can g ra sp what i s re v e a le d . In t h i s r e s p e c t, Spinoza r e v e r ts to a p re v io u s p r in c ip le o f h is t h a t , in th e a re a o f m oral c e r t a in ty w ith r e fe re n c e to th e obedience o f what i s r i g h t and wrong, i t i s im p o ssib le to a t t a i n a g r e a t e r c e r t a i n t y th a n th e p ro p h e ts en jo y ed . He n o te s , how ever, t h a t t h e i r 2 6 c e r t a in ty was only m oral and n o t r a t i o n a l . Ahad Ha-Am would n o t d is p u te th e th r e e c h a r a c te r i s t i c s o f prophecy: ( 1 ) a d i s t i n c t and v iv id im a g in a tio n , (2) a p p e rc e p tio n o f a s ig n , and (3) a mind tu rn e d to what 21| I b i d . , p . 191. 2 5 I b i d . , p . 195. 2 6 T r a c t a t u s , C hapter i i . 189 2 7 i s j u s t and good. Spinoza has c r e a te d a ta u to lo g y , in a s e n s e , in t h a t he d e fin e s th e p ro p h e ts f u n c tio n a lly by what th ey say about them selves and what i s s a id about them i n S c r ip tu r e ; and would p r im a r ily have them be th e moral ta s k fo rc e and th e h ig h e s t e x p re s sio n o f m oral worth t h a t th e B ib le was capable o f p ro d u cin g . In t h i s d o c tr in e , Ahad Ha-Am c e r t a i n l y had much upon which to draw, and he h ig h lig h te d i t i n h is e x p o s itio n o f b i b l i c a l m o r a lity . ^ 8 Concerning a n o th e r v i t a l p o in t which looms la rg e in h is th o u g h t, Ahad Ha-Am ag reed w ith S p in o z a 's con te n tio n th a t th e cerem onial law a tte m p te d to p re se rv e th e Hebrew kingdom and t h a t i t was th e P h a ris e e s who p re se rv e d O Q i t su b seq u en t to t h i s p e rio d . For S pinoza, th e c e r e m onial law i s r e le v a n t only in a p o l i t i c a l se n se ; w hile f o r Ahad Ha-Am, i t r e p r e s e n ts th e w orking out o f th e s p i r i t o f Judaism in i t s a tte m p t to s u s ta in th e Jew ish p eople in an environm ent d if f e r i n g from i t s n a tu r a l h a b i t a t . 30 Spinoza makes c l e a r what i s to be b e lie v e d in such a re a s as th e cerem onial law and S c r i p t u r a l n a r r a tiv e s 2 ^Elwes, The C hief Works o f B enedict de S p in o za, I , 196. ^ 8Kol K itb e , "Kohen We-nabi" ( " P r ie s t and P ro p h e t" ), pp. 90-92. 2 9 I b i d . , p. 351. 3QI b i d . , p. 80. 190 and what th e o v e r - a l l purpose i s o f b e l i e f in th e S c rip t u r e s . In t h i s r e s p e c t he i s no d i f f e r e n t in h i s con c lu s io n s from e i t h e r Maimonides o r Ahad Ha-Am, when he s t a t e s t h a t b e l i e f in S c rip tu re s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n e c e ssa ry f o r th e m asses o f people whose i n t e l l e c t i s in c a p a b le o f p e rc e iv in g th in g s c l e a r l y and d i s t i n c t l y . 3^ S pinoza th en an a ly ze s th r e e c a te g o r ie s o f a t t i t u d e s o f people tow ard th e B ib le and g iv e s h is v e r d ic t concerning each group. He who d e n ie s them ( th e te a c h in g s o f th e B ib le) because he does n o t b e lie v e t h a t God e x i s t s o r ta k e s th o u g h t f o r men and th e w o rld , may be accounted im p io u s • , b u t a man who i s ig n o ra n t o f them and n e v e rth e le s s knows by n a t u r a l reaso n th a t God e x i s t s , as we have s a i d , and has a tr u e p la n o f l i f e , i s a lto g e t h e r b le s s e d —y e s , more b le s s e d th a n th e common h e rd of b e lie v e r s b ecause b e sid e s tr u e o p in io n s he p o sse sse s a ls o a tr u e and d i s t i n c t c o n c e p tio n . 32 The l a s t c a te g o ry Spinoza re s e rv e s f o r th e in d iv id u a l who i s ig n o ra n t o f S c r ip tu r e and i s a ls o o b liv io u s t o th e l i g h t o f re a s o n . Such a p e rso n , "though he may n o t be im pious o r r e b e l l i o u s , i s y e t le s s th an human and alm ost o q b r u t a l , having none o f God’s g i f t s . " But f o r th e changing o f th e w ords, " n a tu r a l re a s o n ," f o r th e " s p i r i t o f Ju d aism ," Ahad Ha-Am and S pinoza have th e same g e n e ra l overview o f th e B ible w ith r e g a rd to i t s c r e d i b i l i t y , i t s d o c tr in e , i t s a p p e a l to th e i n t e l l e c t , 31 E lw es, The C hief Works o f B enedict de S pinoza, I , 78. 3 2 I b id . 33I b id . 191 and th e te n o r of i t s m oral te a c h in g s , epitom ized by the p ro p h ets in p a r t i c u l a r . They would d isa g re e on s e v e ra l v i t a l p o in ts r e l a t i n g t o th e p h ilso p h y o f each and would c a l l f o r d i f f e r e n t s o lu tio n s to c e r ta in problems r a is e d in th e th in k in g o f Spinoza because o f d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s as w e ll as p r e d ile c ti o n s . A key example in t h i s re s p e c t would be S p in o za 's tre a tm e n t of th e " e le c tio n o f I s r a e l . " Spinoza concludes a long argument w ith th e sta tem en t t h a t "At th e p re se n t tim e , th e r e f o r e , ..there i s a b s o lu te ly n o th in g which the Jews can a rro g a te Oh to them selves beyond o th e r p e o p le ." Spinoza d isc o u n ts summarily th e moral m is sio n , e i t h e r in term s of th e con c e n tr a tio n o f th e .J e w is h s p i r i t in P a le s tin e or th e d i s p e rs io n o f I s r a e l in th e D iasp o ra, and hence th e n o tio n 3 5 o f th e m issio n o f I s r a e l to th e g e n t i l e s . The only a re a in which th e Hebrew n a tio n su rp assed o th e r n a tio n s was in i t s s u c c e s s fu l conduct o f m a tte rs r e l a t i n g to government and in i t s surm ounting o f g r e a t danger. O ther w ise , i t was on a p a r w ith o th e r n a tio n s , and God was 3 > tI b i d . , p. 55. 3 5 I b i d . "As to t h e i r continuance so long a f t e r d is p e rs io n and th e lo s s o f em p ire, th e re i s n o th in g mar velous in i t , f o r th ey so s e p a ra te d them selves from every o th e r n a tio n as to draw upon them selves u n iv e rs a l h a te , n o t only by t h e i r outw ard r i t e s , r i t e s c o n f lic tin g w ith th o se o f o th e r n a tio n s , b u t a ls o by the sig n of circum c is io n which they most sc ru p u lo u sly o b se rv e ." 19 2 e q u a lly g ra c io u s to a l l . I n t e l l e c t u a l l y , th e I s r a e l i t e s h e ld very o rd in a ry id e a s about God and n a t u r e , and could n o t have been God's chosen people in t h i s r e s p e c t. Spinoza examines some key b i b l i c a l p assag es in which th e id e a o f e t e r n a l e l e c t io n i s s t a t e d and concludes t h a t , in e s se n c e , th e r e was to be no s p e c ia l e l e c t i o n o f Jew o v er 3fi g e n t i l e beyond th e s p e c i f i c a re a s he d e lin e a te d . Ahad Ha-Am w ould, o f c o u rse , ta k e is s u e w ith t h i s p o in t o f view , c o n c e n tra tin g upon th e e t e r n a l e l e c t io n o f th e Jew ish people to se rv e a m oral end, which he develops in h i s own concept o f prophecy. Spinoza makes th e a s tu te o b se rv a tio n t h a t th e Hebrews have been p re s e rv e d , in g r e a t m easure, by th e h a tr e d o f th e g e n t i l e s ev idenced tow ard them and by th e r i t e o f c irc u m c isio n w hich, he i s persuaded to c o n c lu d e , would alo n e p re s e rv e th e Jew ish n a tio n f o r e v e r , s in c e i t would p s y c h o lo g ic a lly s e t them a p a r t from a l l th e o th e r n a tio n s o f th e w o r l d . S p i n o z a , n o t u s u a lly g iv en to prophecy, s t a t e s in h is concluding argument on th e v o ca tio n o f th e Hebrews: Nay, I would go so f a r as to b e lie v e t h a t i f th e fo u n d a tio n s o f t h e i r r e l i g i o n have n o t em ascu lated t h e i r minds th e y may ev en , i f o c c a sio n o f f e r s , so changeable a re human a f f a i r s , r a i s e up t h e i r em pire ^ I b i d . , pp. 4 3 -5 6 j T r a c t a t u s , c h a p te r i i i . 37 I b i d . , pp. 55 f . 193 a f r e s h , and t h a t God may a second tim e e l e c t them . 38 Even i f such a second e l e c t io n were to ta k e p la c e , however, Spinoza would conclude t h a t , w ith re g a rd to i n t e l l e c t u a l and m oral v i r t u e , every n a tio n i s on a p a r w ith every o th e r n a tio n , and God does and has n o t, in th e s e r e s p e c t s , chosen one people over and above a n o th e r. S p in o z a 's thought c h a ra c te riz e d f o r Ahad Ha-Am th e end o f th e m edieval p e rio d and th e b eg in n in g o f th e modern w orld. In an i n t e l l e c t u a l se n s e , i t was r e l a t e d to th e b i r t h o f th e c r i t i c a l m ind, ready to p e rc e iv e t r u t h , to c h a rt th e h i s t o r i c a l e v o lu tio n and th e d ev e lo p ment o f th o u g h t, p a r t i c u l a r l y as t h i s r e l a t e d t o th e Hebrew S c r ip tu r e s . Those who i n i t i a t e d m ajor c u r r e n ts o f p h ilo s o p h ic s p e c u la tio n , w hether th e y w rote in "dead languages" (L a tin and c l a s s i c a l Hebrew) o r n o t, deeply in flu e n c e d th e e ssen c e o f W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n . C op ern icu s, K e p le r, G a lile o , Bacon, and S pinoza, among o t h e r s , are numbered by Ahad Ha-Am as f a l l i n g in to t h i s qq c a te g o ry . 3 In S p in o z a 's T ra c ta tu s (1 6 7 0 ), h is r a d i c a l in n o v a tio n s r e l a t i n g to th e p r in c ip l e s o f h i s t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m as th ey a p p lie d to th e S c r ip tu r e s , were fo rm u la te d . These p r in c ip l e s were to have f a r - r e a c h in g subsequent e f f e c t s 38I b i d . , p. 56. 38Kol K it b e , p. 9*t. 194 on b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip . 110 F o r t h r i g h t l y , he a s s a il e d th e t r a d i t i o n a l view t h a t th e S c r ip tu r e s c o n ta in a tim e le s s r e v e l a t i o n , and r e l e n t l e s s l y exposed th e i n t e r n a l c o n tra d ic tio n s o f S c r ip tu r e by what he c a lle d " th e l i g h t o f r e a s o n . 1 1 1 *1 R. H. P f e i f f e r in d ic a t e s t h a t Hobbes, in h is L eviathan (3 :3 3 ; 1651), o u tlin e d a c r i t i c a l approach to b i b l i c a l s t u d i e s which le d him to doubt th e M osaic a u th o r sh ip o f Deuteronomy. He a ls o o bserved t h a t much o f th e Old Testam ent was composed in p o s t - e x i l i c tim e s. P f e i f f e r , how ever, s in g le s o u t Spinoza (d . 1677) and R ichard Simon (d . 1712) as th e "two founders o f modern B i b lic a l .c r iti c is m ." R. H. P f e i f f e r , I n tr o d u c tio n to th e Old Testam ent (New York: H arp er and B ro th e rs , 1 9 m ) , p . 46. Hans Joachim Kraus w r i t e s , "Die g e l e h r t e , k r i t i s c h e E rfo rsch u n g des A lte n wTestam ents e r l e b t im 17. Ja h rh u n d e rt e in e n bedeutsam en Hohepunkt durch d ie B e itra g e des ju d is c h e n P hilosophen B enedict de S p in o za." F u rth e r, " A u sse ro rd e n tlic h w e r tv o ll s in d neben den l i t e r - a r k r i t i s c h e n und l i t e r a r h i s t o r i s c h e n U ntersuchungen d ie h erm eneutischen R egeln, d ie S pinoza u n te r dem Thema 'De in t e r p r e t a t i o n e S c r ip tu r a e ' im V II. K a p ite l des 'T ra c ta tu s t h e o l o g i c o - p o l i t i c u s * a u f s t e l l t . " G esch ich te d e r h i s - t o r i s c h - k r i t i s c h e n E rforschung des A lten Testam ents ( D u isb u rg : V erlag . I . MoersT 1956), pp. 55, 56. S im ila r o p in io n s on S p in o z a 's p la c e in th e f o r e f r o n t o f th e d e v e l opment o f modern b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m may be found in Aage B entzen, In tr o d u c tio n to th e Old T estam ent (2nd e d .; Copenhagen: G. E. C. Gaad, 1959), I , 1 0 -1 1 , O tto E i s s f e l d t , E in le itu n g in das A lte Testam ent (2nd e d . ; Tuebingen: J . C. B. Mohr V e rla g , 1956)j pp. 187-188; Emil G. K ra e lin g , The Old T estam ent S ince th e R eform ation (New York: H arper and B r o th e r s ., 1955), pp. 45-46; Geddes MacGregor, The B ib le in th e Making ( P h ila d e lp h ia : J . B. L ip p in c o tt, 1959), p . 261; k a r l S a s s , " S p in o z a 's B i b e l k r i t i k und G o t t e s b e g r i f f ," Spinoza D re ih u n d e rt J a h re E w ig k e it, ed. S ie g f r ie d H essing (Den Haag: M artinus N ijh o ffT 1962), pp. 165-170. HI E lw es, The C hief Works o f B en ed ict de S p in o za, I , 8 f . 19 5 I f we would s e p a r a te o u rs e lv e s from th e crowd and escape from th e o lo g ic a l p r e ju d ic e s , in s te a d o f r a s h ly a c c e p tin g human com m entaries f o r D ivine docum ents, we must c o n s id e r th e tr u e method o f i n t e r p r e t i n g S c r ip tu r e . . .42 In summary, t h i s method "does n o t w idely d i f f e r from th e method o f i n t e r p r e t i n g n a tu r e — in f a c t , i t i s alm ost th e sam e. " 43 As n a tu re i s i n t e r p r e t e d by exam ining i t s h i s t o r y , deducing from h i s t o r y . . . d e f i n i t i o n s o f n a t u r a l phenomena on c e r t a i n f ix e d axiom s, so S c r i p t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n proceeds by th e ex am ination o f S c r ip tu r e , and i n f e r r i n g th e i n te n tio n o f i t s a u th o rs as a le g itim a te co n c lu sio n from i t s fundam ental p r i n c ip l e s .*+4 This p a th o f in v e s tig a tio n i s open to anyone and e r r o r can be avoided . . . i f th ey adm it no p r in c ip l e s f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g S c r ip tu r e , and d is c u s s in g i t s c o n te n ts save such as th e y f in d in S c r ip tu r e i t s e l f — and w i l l be a b le w ith e q u a l s e c u r ity to d isc u ss what su rp a ss e s o u r u n d er s ta n d in g , and what i s known by th e n a t u r a l l i g h t o f r e a s o n.45 Spinoza o u tlin e s h is method and d e fin e s what th e h i s t o r y o f a S c r i p t u r a l sta te m e n t encom passes. F i r s t , one must in v e s tig a te "th e n a tu re and p r o p e r tie s " o f th e Hebrew language f o r b oth th e Old and New T estam e n ts. Second, each book must be an aly zed i n term s o f th e lf2 I b i d . , p. 99. H3 I b i d . ^ I b id . * * 3I b id . , pp. 99 f . 196 arrangem ent o f i t s c o n te n ts under h ead in g s so t h a t d i v e rse te x t s d e a lin g w ith a s p e c i f i c s u b je c t can be b rought t o g e th e r . L a s t, a l l ambiguous, obscure o r seem ingly m u tu a lly c o n tr a d ic to r y te x ts must be n o te d . In h is d is c u s s io n o f M aimonides, Ahad Ha-Am un d oubtedly had much l i t e r a t u r e a v a ila b le t o him , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e Hebrew lan g u ag e, so th a t th e b ib li o g r a p h ic a l item s which he s e l e c t s as secondary so u rce s must be ac counted as being o f s ig n i f ic a n c e . His s p e c i f i c re fe re n c e u n to Dr. J o e l 's work i s o f im p o rtan ce, f o r i t h as as one o f i t s m ajo r th e s e s S p in o z a 's in d e b te d n e ss to M aimonides, a v iew p o in t w e ll s u b s ta n tia te d to d a y . Spinoza r e a d ily r e f l e c t s , as we have shown, an in tim a te aw areness of M aim onides' method o f b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m as developed in th e Moreh, which c r i t i c i s m he r e j e c t s . Y et, common to b o th Maimonides and S pinoza i s th e need t o e x p la in the B ib le r a t i o n a l l y . Had Ahad Ha-Am w r i tte n a m ajo r t r e a t i s e on S pinoza, no b e t t e r t i t l e could have been found than th e one f ix e d to th e essa y on th e Rambam, "The Supremacy o f R eason." M aimonides, because o f h is Z e i t g e i s t , found s o lu tio n s to problem s o f th e b i b l i c a l t e x t on s e v e r a l 4 6 I b i d . , p . 1 0 1 . ^ 7Ko l K itb e , p . 366. J o e l , S p in o z a 's T h e o lo g isc h - P o l i t i s c h e r T ra k ta t a u f se in e Q uellen g e p rttft (B re s la u , 1870). 19 7 l e v e ls . He t e l l s us i n th e in tr o d u c tio n to th e Moreh n o t to ask to o much from him w ith re g a rd to th e c r u c i a l problems o f b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m . You sh o u ld not ask o f me h e re an y th in g beyond th e c h a p te r headings . . . For my purpose i s t h a t th e t r u t h s be glim psed and th en a g a in be c o n c e a le d , . so as n o t to oppose t h a t d iv in e purpose which one cannot p o s s ib ly oppose and which has co n cealed from th e v u lg a r among th e people th o se t r u t h s e s p e c ia lly r e q u i s i t e f o r His a p p re h e n s io n .1 * ® C le a r ly , Spinoza in h is tim e h e ld th e t h e s i s t h a t "th e n a t u r a l l i g h t o f reaso n " a c c e s s ib le t o a l l men must fu n c t i o n untrammeled and o p en ly . What Maimonides sought to co n ceal by way o f p a ra b le and m etaphor, Spinoza faces w ith o u t f lin c h in g . The p ric e lie p a id was excommunica- With b u t one e x c e p tio n , no one d e lv in g in to Jewish th o u g h t to th e time o f M aimonides, had engaged in any k in d o f h i s t o r i c a l o r l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m o f th e P en tateu ch . The e x c e p tio n i s Abraham Ibn E zra (1092-1167), who, as ll Q P in e s , The Guide of th e P e rp le x e d , pp. 6 f . ^9"At th e age o f tw e n ty -fo u r . . . he was f i n a l l y excommunicated w ith a l l th e so lem n ity and v io le n c e o f language which i s a p p ro p ria te to such o c c a s io n s . He was an o u tc a s t from th e o n ly community to which he n a t u r a l l y b e lo n g e d ." S tu a r t H am pshire, S pinoza (London: Faber and F ab er, 1956), p . 172. I t i s o f i n t e r e s t t h a t form er Prime M in is te r o f I s r a e l , David ben G urion, h im s e lf an a g n o s tic , has t r i e d to re c la im Spinoza f o r Judaism and sought to have th e ban a g a in s t Spinoza and h is works removed. David ben G urion, "L asset uns gutmachen das U n re ch t," S pinoza, D re ih u n d ert Ja h re E w ig k e it, ed. S ie g f r ie d H essing (Den Haag: M artinus N i] h o ff, 1962) p p . 1-9. 19 8 w i l l be r e c a l l e d , Ahad Ha-Am had s tu d ie d c lo s e ly during h i s youth and whose com m entaries to th e Tanak50 were as s ta n d a rd as were M aimonides' com m entaries to th e Mishnah and th e Talmud. Dr. Husik rem ark s, "But t h i s very i n s ta n c e shows how r a r e such c r i t i c i s m was and how danger ous i t was to speak o f i t p l a i n l y . " 5 1 S pinoza a s tu te l y caught th e o v erto n e s o f Ibn E z r a 's com m entaries, c a llin g him A man o f e n lig h te n e d i n t e l l i g e n c e , and no sm all le a r n in g , who was th e f i r s t , so f a r as I know, to t r e a t o f t h i s o p in io n , d ared n o t to e x p re ss h is meaning o p en ly , b u t c o n fin e d h im s e lf to dark h in ts which I s h a l l n o t s c ru p le to e l u c i d a t e , th u s throw ing f u l l l i g h t on th e s u b j e c t . 52 Spinoza an a ly ze s Ibn E z r a 's commentary to Deuteronomy 1:5 which re a d s : "On t h i s s id e o f th e Jordan in th e lan d o f Moab, began Moses to d e c la re t h i s law, s a y in g , . . . " Ibn E zra f a s te n s on th e w ords, Beyond Jo rd a n , . . . I f so be t h a t th o u under- s ta n d e s t th e m ystery o f th e tw elve . . . m oreover Moses w rote th e law . . . The C anaanite was th e n in th e la n d . . . i t s h a l l be re v e a le d on th e mount o f God . . . then a ls o b eh o ld h i s b ed , h i s ir o n b ed , th en s h a l t th o u know th e t r u t h . 53 50A b b re v iatio n f o r "T o rah ," "N ebiim ," "Ketubim ." 51I s a a c H u sik , P h ilo s o p h ic a l Essays (O xford: B a s il B lack w e ll, 1952), p . lfF I C O E lw es, The C hief Works o f B enedict de Spinoza, I , 1 2 1 . 199 Spinoza deduces from t h i s th a t Ibn E zra meant to show t h a t Moses d id n o t w r ite th e e n t i r e P e n ta te u c h . Ibn E zra h e ld t h a t Moses could n o t have w r itte n th e p re fa c e to Deuteronomy because he n e v e r c ro sse d th e Jo rd an . F u rth e r , th e whole book o f Moses was w r itte n . . . a t f u l l le n g th on th e circu m feren ce o f a s in g le a l t a r (D eu t. x x v ii. and Jo sh . v i i i . 37), which a l t a r , acco rd in g to th e ra b b is c o n s is te d of tw elve s t o n e s : th e r e f o r e th e book o f Moses must have been o f f a r le s s e x te n t th a n th e P e n ta te u c h .54 Spinoza examines Ibn E z r a 's c r y p tic rem arks f u r t h e r and n o te s t h a t th e e x p re s sio n in Deut. 3 1 :9 , "and Moses w rote th e Law," i s c l e a r ly n o t a s s ig n a b le to him and must be th e words o f a n a r r a t o r . The passage in Gen. 1 2 :6 , s t a t i n g "and th e C anaanite was th e n i n th e la n d ," i s p o st f a c to and must have been w r i tte n a f t e r th e d ea th o f Moses. Gen. 22:14 r e f e r s to Mount Moriah as th e m ountain o f God, a name which was n o t a s s o c ia te d w ith i t u n t i l a f t e r th e Temple was b u i l t , hence i t co u ld n o t have been so named by Moses. F in a lly , D eut. 3 speaks o f th e b e d ste a d o f Og, k ing o f Bashan, in such a p a r e n t h e t i c a l way t h a t th e p a r e n th e s is c o n ta in in g a d e t a il e d d e s c r ip tio n o f th e bed could only have been drawn by someone who liv e d long a f t e r M o s e s .^ Using Ibn E zra as a p o in t o f d e p a rtu re , Spinoza 5 4 I b i d . 5 5 I b i d . , p p . 1 2 1 - 1 2 3 . 200 launches h i s own a tta c k on th e long c h e rish e d b e l i e f and canon o f f a i t h o f th e Mosaic a u th o rsh ip o f th e P e n ta te u c h . Spinoza found a k in d re d s p i r i t in Ibn E zra b u t c a s t o f f th e t r a d i t i o n a l sh a c k le s and spoke h i s mind. In so doing, he h e lp ed to la y th e fo u n d a tio n s o f modem b i b l i c a l c r i t i cism . Spinoza h e ld t h a t " . . . i t i s th u s c l e a r e r th a n th e sun a t noonday t h a t th e P en tateu ch was n o t w r itte n 56 by M oses." Spinoza a ls o in f e r r e d , " . . . t h a t a l l th e 5 7 books we have c o n sid e re d a re c o m p ila tio n s. . ." r e - C O f l e e t i n g one e d i t o r i a l hand, namely t h a t o f E zra. His method s e t , Spinoza examines th e books o f th e Old and New T estam en ts, th e l a t t e r more b r i e f l y f o r , "I do not m yself p o sse ss a knowledge o f Greek s u f f i c i e n t l y e x a c t f o r th e t a s k . " 99 Hebrew s t y l e and i t s v a r ia tio n s in th e p ro p h e tic l i t e r a t u r e b e tra y m u ltip le a u th o rsh ip and a f t e r due c o n s id e r a tio n o f th e problem , Spinoza concluded t h a t "God has no p a r t i c u l a r s t y l e , " th e l a t t e r being dependent n o t on th e D eity b u t on th e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , o r th e la c k 60 o f i t , in th e p ro p h e t. For h e r e s ie s as th e above, 5 6 I b i d . , p. 1 2 H. 5 7 I b i d . , p . 128. 5 8 I b i d . , p . 130. 5 9 I b i d . , p . 156. 6 0 I b i d . , p . 3 1 . 201 Spinoza was cu t o f f from th e people o f I s r a e l i n 1656, spending th e rem aining y e a rs o f h is l i f e in lo n e lin e s s . While Ahad Ha-Am a t t r i b u t e s h is em ancipation from th e narrow orthodoxy o f h is youth to M aimonides, he was no doubt a ls o in flu e n c e d by S pinoza, whose p r in c ip l e s o f b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m h ad , in Ahad Ha-Am's own tim e , been absorbed in th e b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip as w e ll as through 61 th e l i t e r a t u r e o f th e H ask a lah . The in te rc o n n e c te d v ein s o f th o u g h t among Ibn E z ra , Maimonides and Spinoza stemmed from th e common t r a d i t i o n o f r a b b in ic Judaism which they sh a re d and which to a g r e a t e x te n t had a lre a d y 6 2 shaped th e problems r e l a t e d to s c r i p t u r a l e x e g e s is . The s p e c i f i c c o n trib u tio n o f each o f th e s e th in k e r s l i e s in th e unique way th ey g ra p p le d w ith th e s e p ro b lem s. Ibn E z r a 's commentary, as f a r as we know, k e p t h is doubts on th e Mosaic a u th o rsh ip o f th e P en tateu ch shrouded u n t i l Spinoza p e n e tr a te d h is o b liq u e h i n t s and l a i d b a re what fi O Ibn E zra r e a l l y th o u g h t. When M aimonides' Moreh w ith i t s c h a lle n g in g in n o v a tio n s was p u b lis h e d , he was a lre a d y S^Works such as Nahum Sokolow 's Baruch Spinoza U-zemano were undoubtedly known to him . Cf., M. Waxman, H is to ry o f Jew ish L ite r a tu r e (New York: Bloch P u b lish in g C o., I W 3 ) , lV , 36M -. 6 2 Ham pshire, S p in o za, p . 2 3, W olfson, The P h ilo s ophy o f S p in o za, pp. 8-60, e t p a ssim . e 3 H u s i k , P h i l o s o p h i c a l E s s a y s , p p . 150 f . 202 c o n sid e re d th e o u ts ta n d in g r a b b in ic a l a u th o r ity o f h is tim e .®*1 T h e re fo re , i t was n o t u n t i l a f t e r h is d eath t h a t th e g r e a t an ti-M aim u n ist c o n tro v e rs ie s ra g e d . In th e t h i r d decade o f th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry , th e ra b b is o f France is s u e d bans o f excommunication a g a in s t th o se who s tu d ie d th e Moreh and th e S e fe r Ha-mada^(th e f i r s t book o f th e Mishneh T orah) . 6 6 In 1215 th e P apal le g a te , R obert de Courcon, renewed th e p r o s c r ip tio n a g a in s t th e e n t i r e A r i s t o t e l i a n th e o ry . As a r e s u l t , th e works o f Maimonides, which had been i d e n t i f i e d by Jew ish a n t i - M aim unists as c o n ta in in g the e n t i r e A r i s t o t e l i a n th e o ry , "were consigned to fla m e s. 1 ' 66 Ahad Ha-Am, th e a g n o s tic , was sp a re d b o th excommunication and book b u rn in g , although, as we have seen and s h a l l co n tin u e to p o in t o u t, th e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s who u n d ersto o d him a l l to o w e ll s id e d firm ly 6 7 ~ a g a in s t him. Dr. H e lle r h o ld s th e t h e s i s t h a t Ahad Ha-Am v a rie d S p in o z a 's e x p re s s io n o f "th e l i g h t o f n a t u r a l reaso n " to th e "m oral l i g h t " t h a t em anates o u t o f Judaism i t s e l f and 6 4 Solomon Z e i t l i n , M aimonides, A Biography (2nd; e d . ; New York: Bloch P u b lish in g Co., 1 9 5 5 ) , pp. 190 ff. 6 5I b i d . , p. 197. 6 6 I b i d . 67Aryeh Simon and Joseph H e ll e r , Ahad Ha-Am, H a - is h , P o 'a lo W e-Torato (Je ru sa le m : The Hebrew U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1955), p . 188 g Q i s imbedded in th e Torah and th e P ro p h e ts. In the e s s a y , "Tehiyah U -b e riy a h ," Ahad Ha-Am speaks o f a " n a tio n a l pantheism " in which m o ra lity i s reco g n ized as som ething t h a t em anates from w ith in th e m a trix o f Judaism and i s n o t superim posed upon i t by some s u p e rn a tu ra l power. "The m oral l i g h t , " "the m oral id e a l" are h eld by Ahad Ha-Am to be e t e r n a l a b s o lu te s i d e n t i f i a b l e w ith th e 69 " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " o f th e Jewish p e o p le . Ahad Ha-Am, no le s s than Ibn E zra, Maimonides and Spinoza b e fo re him, sought to re n d e r Judaism com patible w ith the t r u t h as he p e rc e iv e d i t . His system was f a r le s s fre e o f in n e r c o n tra d ic tio n s th an was t h e i r s , f o r he sought to appeal to v i r t u a l l y a l l segments o f Jew ish l i f e in h is attem p t to re k in d le "th e m oral l i g h t " which could re-awaken th e n a tio n a l f e e lin g (which) he p o s ite d as e x is tin g in every Jew worthy o f th e name. 68Kol K itb e , pp. 291-293. 6 9 I b id . CHAPTER V III "SLAVERY IN THE MIDST OF FREEDOM"? AHAD HA-AM' S VIEW OF JUDISCHE WISSENSCHAFT: A SURVEY A ND A CRITIQUE While th e term Ju d isc h e W issen sch aft can te c h n i c a l l y be used only from th e tim e o f Leopold Zunz (1794- 1886), Ahad Ha-Am c o r r e c t ly lin k s th e development o f the movement as such to th e p e r io d o f Moses M endelssohn (1728-1786), who epito m ized th e modern H askalah movement of Germany. ^ The Hebrew e q u iv a le n t o f Ju d is c h e W issen s c h a f t i s Hokmas Y is r o e l, a term w hich, w h ile l e s s p r e c i s e , was more l o f t y , n o t g iv in g an in d ic a tio n as t o the m ethod, as does th e German, b u t acco rd in g a value judgment to th e body o f m a te r ia l to be re s e a rc h e d . Ahad Ha-Am's g e n e ra l a t t i t u d e tow ard Ju d isc h e W issen sch aft was nega t i v e , b ecause he b e lie v e d t h a t i t s tr u e purpose was to a id th e p ro c e ss o f em ancipation o f modem Jew ry, a goal •^ Kol K itbe Ahad Ha-Am (A sher G inzberg) (T el Aviv: D vir Co., L td ., 1956), pp. 77-78. 204 205 which Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e d w ould u ltim a te ly le a d to th e a b s o rp tio n o f Ju d aism i n t o W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n and th e lo s s o f i t s i d e n t i t y as a d i s t i n c t c i v i l i z a t i o n . In h is in tr o d u c tio n to th e f i r s t e d i ti o n o f 'A1 P a ra s h a t D erakim , he q u o te s Zunz t o th e e f f e c t t h a t Jew ish e m a n c ip a tio n would em erge o u t o f th e ach iev em en ts o f th e "S cie n ce o f Ju d a ism . " 2 I t was b ecau se o f h is agreem ent w ith Z u n z's e s tim a te o f th e u ltim a te r e s u l t o f J u d is c h e W isse n s c h a ft t h a t he was m i s t r u s t f u l o f th e e n t i r e v e n tu r e . 3 I n th e in tr o d u c tio n a llu d e d t o ab o v e, Ahad Ha-Am f u r t h e r m en tio n s t h a t th e m ost im p o rta n t and p ro m in en t works p u b lis h e d , r e l a t i n g to th e c r e a tio n o f th e Jew ish s p i r i t a s i t m a n ife s te d i t s e l f in th e e a r l i e s t s ta g e s o f i t s l i t e r a t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e books o f th e B ib le "D ie G le ic h s te llu n g d e r Ju d en in S i t t e und Leben w ird aus d e r G le ic h s te llu n g d e r W is s e n s c h a ft des Ju d e n - thums h e rv o rg e h e n ." L eopold Zunz, Zur G e sc h ic h te und L i t e r a t u r ( E r s te r Band; B e r lin : V erlag von V e it and Co. , 1 8 4 5 ), p . 21, q u o te d in Hebrew, Kol K itb e , p . 1. L eopold Zunz was i n t e r e s t e d and d e e p ly xnvo1ved in th e s tr u g g le f o r dem ocracy in g e n e ra l and f o r Je w ish c i v i l r i g h t s i n p a r t i c u l a r . He h e ld t h a t th e id e a s o f th e F rench R e v o lu tio n h ad p e n e tr a te d Europe and th e r e s t o f th e w o rld — i t le d t o th e id e a s o f r e s t o r a t i o n o f th e human p e rs o n (m e n sch lich e n S e in s ) and o f e q u a l r i g h t s . "He a d v o c a te d th e r i g h t o f th e p e o p le fto have an e t h i c a l w i l l 1 and to e x p re s s and t o e x e r c is e i t i n freedom " Nahum N. G la tz e r , "L eopold Zunz and th e R e v o lu tio n o f 1848," Leo Baeck I n s t i t u t e Y earbook, V (London: E a s t and West L ib r a r y , 19S0 ) , p . 1 2 2 . 3 Kol K itb e, p. 178. 206 and th e h i s t o r y o f e a r l y I s r a e l , was th e work o f non- Je w s. * * He to o k c o n s is te n t e x c e p tio n to th e f a c t t h a t th e Ju d is c h e W isse n s c h a ft sc h o o l seem ed to be im ita tin g n o t o n ly th e m ethodology o f n o n -Je w ish r e s e a r c h e r s , b u t t h e i r c o n c lu s io n s as w e ll . U n q u e stio n a b ly , Ahad Ha-Am*s m i s t r u s t a ls o grew o u t o f th e p re s u p p o s itio n s o f th o s e who founded th e s c h o o l. Ahad Ha-Am h im s e lf , how ever, n e v e r h e s i t a t e d to u se th e m ethodolpgy o f modern b i b l i c a l c r i t i c s o r p h i l o so p h e rs w here th e s e c o u ld j u s t i f y h i s own c o n c lu s io n s . H is a p p ro b a tio n o f D r. Adolph B u c h le r and D r. Adolph Schwarz** fo llo w s from th e f a c t t h a t Ahad Ha-Am a g re e d w ith t h e i r c o n c lu s io n s . They h ig h lig h te d th e w o rth o f Jew ish so u rc e m a te r ia l w h ich , i t m ust be a d m itte d , was u n d o u b ted ly u n d e rv a lu e d and u n ju s tly ig n o re d by o th e r s who a tte m p te d to r e c o n s tr u c t th e p a s t. I t was to th e c r e d i t o f th e s e s c h o la r s , Ahad Ha-Am n o te d , t h a t th e y showed t h a t th e Talmud i s n o t a cobweb o f o b sc u re la w s, f a i r y t a l e s 4"The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t books t h a t have been w r itte n i n o u r own tim e on Je w ish h i s t o r y and th e developm ent o f i t s s p i r i t in a n c ie n t tim e s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e books w r i t t e n on th e B ib le and a re a s r e l a t e d to i t , w ere n o t w r i t t e n by Je w s." Kol K itb e , p . 1 . 5 A lthough n o t r e f e r r e d to by name in th e t e x t , se e Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c te d E s s a y s , e d . Leon Simon ( P h il a d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1 9 1 2 ), p . 274, f o o tn o te s 1 and 2. 207 and le g e n d s b u t i s in many ways a codex o f la w , r i c h in h i s t o r i c a l in fo rm a tio n , a s r e l i a b l e as any o f th e o th e r l i t e r a t u r e contem porary w ith i t . D r. S chw arz, f o r e x am ple, d e m o n stra te d t h a t th e d if f e r e n c e betw een ta lm u d ic and Greek lo g ic i s n o t a c c id e n ta l . The r a b b i s ' r e f u s a l to use G reek l o g i c , i n t h e i r d is p u ta tio n s was n o t due to t h e i r ig n o ra n c e o f i t b u t r a t h e r to t h e i r c o n sc io u s non u se o f i t , s in c e i t r e f l e c t e d a d i f f e r e n t ap p ro ach and w o rld view from t h e i r own. 6 Ahad Ha-Am's a t t i t u d e to w ard th e s c i e n t i f i c r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e Je w ish p a s t i s sh ap ed by th e r e s u l t s o f th e a s sid u o u s i n v e s t i g a ti o n s o f r e s e a r c h e r s . F or Ahad Ha-Am, r e s e a r c h f o r i t s own sak e h ad become a lu x u ry ; c o n s e q u e n tly , a l l s c i e n t i f i c work r e l a t i n g to th e Jew ish p a s t was m easured by w h eth e r o r n o t i t was i n consonance w ith " th e Jew ish n a t io n a l s p i r i t , " le a d in g to i t s r e v iv a l and im p re g n a tio n i n to th e h e a r t o f n h i s g e n e r a tio n . Ahad Ha-Am h ad l a i d down th e d ictu m t h a t th e n a t io n a l l i t e r a t u r e o f th e Je w ish p e o p le i s w r i t t e n s o le ly i n Hebrew.® Any c r e a tiv e o r s c h o la r ly l i t e r a t u r e n o t w r i t t e n i n th e Hebrew lan g u ag e would th e r e f o r e f a l l o u t s id e Ahad Ha-Am's c r i t e r i a f o r in c lu s io n in th e tr e a s u r y 6Kol K itb e , p. 178. 7I b i d . 8I b i d . , p. 179. o f th e n a t io n a l l i t e r a r y c r e a t i v i t y o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . S u rv ey in g w hat was in h i s tim e th e s t a t u s o f contem porary Hebrew l e t t e r s , he n o te d t h a t th e n a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e was a t a v e ry low e b b . T here was a n a t io n a l l i t e r a t u r e o f a t r u l y o r i g i n a l c h a r a c te r , though p e r f o r a te d w ith weak" n e s s e s h e re and t h e r e , p r i o r to th e p e r io d o f H a sk a la h . The l i t e r a t u r e o f th e h a sid im was u n d e n ia b ly J e w is h ; a t r u e e x p re s s io n o f th e Jew ish h e a r t and i n t e l l e c t . I t i s o f i n t e r e s t t o n o te t h a t Ahad Ha-Am, who h e ld such g e n e r a lly d e ro g a to ry a t t i t u d e s tow ard h a s id is m in th e way i t h ad m a n ife s te d i t s e l f in h i s d ay , n e v e r th e le s s saw a b id in g v a lu e i n h a s i d i c l i t e r a t u r e , w ith i t s r ic h empha s i s on l i f e and d e n ia l o f th e a s c e tic is m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e K a b b a lis ts , e s p e c i a l ly th o s e o f P a l e s t i n e . 9 What Ahad Ha-Am d e p lo re d in th e H askalah l i t e r a t u r e was t h a t i t h ad become th e haven f o r d u lla rd s and m e d io c r itie s who s l a v i s h l y im ita te d and t r a n s l a t e d in c o n s e q u e n tia l m a te r ia l. T ra n s la tio n s a r e n o t f a i t h f u l enough t o th e o r i g i n a l s , and th e i m i t a t iv e w orks a re v i r t u a l l y a ca rb o n copy o f th e o r i g i n a l s . Common to a l l o f them , Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in e d , was t h a t th e y w ere im p o rte d and were n o t o r i g i n a l t o th e Jew ish g e n iu s . T h is l i t e r a t u r e was a p u rv e y o r o f fo re ig n id e a s , b a d ly p r e s e n te d w ith re g a r d to s t y l e and form , and in c a p a b le o f a p p e a lin g as som ething t h a t i s i n t r i n s i c and 9I b i d . , p . 180 209 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Je w ish l i f e . Ahad Ha-Am's h a rs h n e s s w as, o f c o u r s e , due to h is own v ery exem plary s ta n d a rd s o f l i t e r a r y s t y l e , th e u se o f lan g u ag e and o f c o n te n t. H is condem nation o f H a s k a la h , w ith one n o ta b le e x c e p tio n , w h e th e r o f th e E a s t, N orth o r C e n tra l E uropean v a r i e t y , had as i t s so u rc e b o th th e q u a l i ty and c h a r a c te r o f th e l i t e r a t u r e . 10 Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in e d th e r e w ere a few a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e H ask alah p e r io d who d ev elo p ed a p o s itiv e c r e e d , c h a r a c te r iz e d by th e n eed f o r c i t i z e n s h i p r i g h t s a t t a i n a b l e by becom ing p a r t and p a r c e l o f E uropean c u l t u r e . Yet o t h e r s , h i s t o r i c a l l y b e g in n in g w ith Moses M e n d elsso h n 's t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e B ib le i n t o German, who had a t f i r s t b elo n g ed t o th e " S o c ie ty o f S eek ers A fte r Goodness and Wisdom, " 1 1 tu r n e d to n e g a tiv e p u r s u i t s . The p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e f o rc e s in v o lv e d in th e German H a sk a la h , a c c o rd in g t o Ahad Ha-Am, began t o o v erth ro w th e s tro n g h o ld s o f th e n a t i o n , u p ro o tin g n o t o n ly th e p rim i t i v e b e l i e f s and outw orn custom s o f Ju d a ism , b u t th e v ery h e a r t o f w hat had been Je w ish n a t i o n a l l i f e and u n ity . The r e a c tio n to t h i s p ro c e s s o f t e a r i n g down c r e a te d a g r e a t v o id w hich was f i l l e d on th e p a r t o f some by th e 1 0 I b i d . , pp. 179 f . n I b i d . , p . 77. T his was th e name th e d i s c i p l e s o f M endelssohn gave to th e m s e lv e s . 210 b u ild in g o f g r e a t synagogues and th e p re a c h in g o f vacuous serm o n s, w h ile o t h e r s , th e " b ig g e r m en," tu r n e d to J u d is c h e W isse n s c h a ft in a more l o f t y a tte m p t to f i l l th e gap c r e a te d by H a sk a la h . Ahad Ha-Am c h a r a c te r iz e s th e l i t e r a t u r e as an alo g o u s t o any p ie c e o f w r itin g in w hich th e p r e f a c e i s f u l l o f p r a is e and re v e re n c e f o r I s r a e l and i t s n a tio n a l t r a d i t i o n s and h e r i t a g e , w h ile th e body o f th e w o rk , th e s c i e n t i f i c a s p e c t o f i t , d e lv e s i n t o th e w orks o f com m entators and p u n c tu a to r s , c o n ta in in g l i f e l e s s l i t u r g i c a l c o m p o sitio n s and such o th e r a r i d m a te r ia ls w ith o u t w hich th e w o rld w ould have been no w h it p o o r e r . Ahad Ha-Am condemns th e fo llo w e rs o f th e W is s e n s c h a ft sc h o o l f o r h av in g been c o n te n t w ith "to m b sto n es and sy n a gogue c h a n ts . " 12 T hat Ahad Ha-Am was u n f a i r in h is c r i t i c i s m o f M endelssohn (1 7 2 9 -1 7 8 6 ), as w e ll as o f anyone who a t te m p te d , by th e fo rm u lae o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t, to make r e l i g i o n r e le v a n t and v ia b le in th e m odem w o rld , i s e v i d e n t in many o f h i s e s s a y s . Ahad Ha-Amfs b ia s d ev elo p s from th e f a c t t h a t M endelssohn, who was r e a l l y th e f i r s t m odem Jew ish p h ilo s o p h e r , a tte m p te d to d e m o n stra te th e t r u t h o f r e l i g i o n , in d e p e n d e n t o f any c o n n e c tio n w ith a p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o n , and to expound th e r e l i g i o u s w o rld 12 , I b x d . , p. 78. 211 view w ith o u t r e f e r e n c e to th e p a r t i c u l a r q u a l i t i e s o f e x i s tin g r e l i g i o n s . In a g e n e ra l w ay, Moses M endelssohn cham pioned th e autonomy o f re a s o n in th e realm o f r e lig i o n and r e j e c t e d dogma, a u t h o r it y and t r a d i t i o n , w hich h e ld sway on th e b a s is o f h i s t o r i c a l grounds a lo n e . M endelssohn c o u ld s t a t e : " I acknow ledge no im m utable t r u t h s , b u t such as n o t o n ly may be made c o n c e iv a b le to th e human u n d e rs ta n d in g , b u t a ls o ad m it o f b e in g demon s t r a t e d and w a rra n te d by human f a c u l t i e s . It3-lf Ju d aism , . . . a c c o rd in g to th e f o u n d e r 's d e s ig n , was to c o n s is t o f (1 ) R e lig io u s dogmas and p r o p o s itio n s o f im m utable t r u t h s o f God, o f h i s governm ent and p r o v i- d e n c e , w ith o u t w hich man can n e i t h e r be e n lig h te n e d n o r h ap p y . 1 5 . . . (2 ) H i s t o r i c a l t r u t h s , . . . (w hich) c a n n o t, a c c o rd in g to t h e i r n a t u r e , b e r e c e iv e d o th e rw is e th a n on t r u s t . . . (3 ) Laws, ju d g m en ts, commandments . . . r e v e a le d , t h a t i s , th e y w ere made known by th e Lord by w ords and in w r itin g . . , 16 Those t r u t h s w hich M endelssohn, as L e ib n iz , con s id e r e d im m utable w ere th e e x is te n c e o f God and d iv in e 17 P ro v id e n c e . Added to th e s e a ls o i s th e im m o rta lity o f 13I s id o r e E p s te in , Ju d aism (B a ltim o re : Penguin Books, 1 9 5 9 ), p . 287. llfMoses M endelssohn, J e ru s a le m , t r . M. Sam uels (London: Longman, Onne, B rc m and Longmans, 1 8 3 8 ), I I , 89. The book was o r i g i n a l l y p u b lis h e d in 1783. 1 5 I b i d . , p . 150. 1 6 I b i d . , p p . 151-15 3. 17 "D ie je n ig e n W a h rh e ite n , w elche M endelssohn, Wie L e ib n iz , ew ige W ah rh eiten n e n n t, d ie B e g riff e von 212 18 th e s o u l. S peaking o f th e f i r s t c a te g o ry o f im m utable 19 tr u th s * M endelssohn lik e n s them t o th e n e c e s s a ry " p ro - 9 0 p o s itio n s o f p u re m ath em atics and l o g i c ." They a l s o , t h e r e f o r e , c o n s t i t u t e th e b a s ic t r u t h s o f a l l r e l i g i o n s . U n lik e o th e r r e l i g i o n s , how ever, w hich have su p erim p o sed upon them system s o f c re e d s and dogmas r e q u i s i t e to th e s a lv a tio n o f th e in d i v i d u a l , a c c o rd in g to M endelssohn, Ju d aism h as no such " re v e a le d r e l i g i o n " b u t i s e s s e n t i a l l y o i a " re v e a le d l e g i s l a t i o n . " M endelssohn u n d o u b ted ly had in m ind, in th e r e d u c tio n o f th e b a s ic t r u t h s o f Judaism to th r e e c a r d in a l p r i n c i p l e s , th e work o f th e m ed iev al G o tt, s e i n e r R egierung und V orsehung, o h n e w e lc h e d ie M enschen ih r e Bestimmung n i c h t e r r e ic h e n konnen . . . d ie s e w a h rh e ite n h a t das a l le r h o c h s t e Wesen a l i e n v e m u n s tig e n G eschopfen durch d ie N a tu r s e l b s t und ih r e in n e r lic h e n V e r h a ltn is s e , d ie A lle n l e s e r l i c h und v e r - s ta n d lic h s in d , g e l e h r t . . . " D r. M. K a y s e rlin g , Moses M endelssohn, S ein Leben und S ein e Werke (L e ip z ig : H. M endelssohn, 1 8 6 2 ), p . 366. l® E p ste in , Ju d a ism , p . 287. "We c a l l such t r u t h s im m utable o r e t e r n a l as a r e n o t s u b je c t to tim e , b u t c o n tin u e th e same t o a l l e t e r n i t y . " These t r u t h s s ta n d in c o n t r a s t to th o s e in c a te g o ry tw o, w hich a re te m p o ra l o r h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h s . M endelssohn, J e ru s a le m , I I , 9 0 , 91. o n M endelssohn, J e ru s a le m , p . 91. 2 l"T o e x p re s s i t in one w ord, I b e lie v e t h a t Judaism knows n o th in g o f a r e v e a le d r e l i g i o n , in th e se n se in w hich i t i s ta k e n by C h r is t ia n s . The I s r a e l i t e s have a d iv in e l e g i s l a t i o n . . . " I b i d . , p . 89. Je w ish p h ilo s o p h e r , Joseph A lbo (1 3 8 0 -1 4 4 4 ), w ith whose work h e was c e r t a i n l y a c q u a in te d b u t w ith whom, in p a r t , he d is a g re e d . Albo d is tin g u is h e d betw een 1ik k a rim ( " b a s ic dogm as") and sh o rash im ( " r o o t s " ) . A lb o 's 1ik k arim c o n s i s t o f th r e e fu n d am en tal p r i n c i p l e s , a s s e r t i n g : ( 1 ) God’s e x i s te n c e , (2 ) H is R e v e la tio n , and (3 ) H is R e tr ib u tio n . T h e se , f o r A lb o , a re n o t p e c u lia r to Judaism b u t a re th e b a s is o f a l l r e v e a le d r e l i g i o n s . Growing o u t o f th e s e ro o t p r i n c i p l e s , s u b s id ia r y b e l i e f s , /anafim ( " b r a n c h e s " ) , a re w hat g iv e th e d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r t o Ju d a ism . 22 M endelssohn s e e s a congruence o f Judaism and r e a s o n , w hich p ro v id e s i t s m ost p ro fo u n d v a l i d a t i o n . 2 ^ M endelssohn, in h is work J e ru s a le m , n o te s t h a t th e s p e c i f i c a l l y Jew ish a s p e c t o f re v e a le d law i s found o n ly i n th e o b se rv a n ce o f th e commandments and th e b e l i e f t h a t th e s e commandments were d iv in e r e v e l a t i o n . T his t h i r d a s p e c t , when added to th e "im m utable" and " h is - 2 h t o r i c a l t r u t h s , " co m p letes " th e f o u n d e r 's d e s ig n ." By M en d elsso h n 's s e p a r a tio n o f th e " t r u t h s o f re a s o n " from th e " re v e a le d l e g i s l a t i o n , " he rem oves a l l c o n f l i c t b e tw een re a s o n and Ju d a ism , w h ile th e l a t t e r o n ly p r e s c r ib e s 2 2 E p s te in , Ju d a ism , p p . 220-221. 2 3 J u l i u s G uttm ann, P h ilo s o p h ie s o f Ju d a ism , t r . David W. S ilv erm an (New Y ork: H o lt, k in e h a rd and W in sto n , 1 9 6 4 ), p . 303. 2 ^M endelssohn, J e ru s a le m . I I , 150, 152-17 2. 21*1 th e deeds o f man. J u liu s Guttm ann s t a t e s t h a t Ju d a ism , as law o n ly , h ad a lre a d y been arg u ed by S p in o za i n h is T r a c ta tu s , w hich " in many ways s e rv e d as a m odel f o r 2 5 J e ru s a le m ." Guttmann c o n tin u e s : S p in o z a , to o , d i f f e r e n t i a t e s th e g e n e ra l r e l i g i o u s c o n te n t o f S c r ip tu r e from th e s p e c i f i t i e s o f Jew ish law , j u s t as M endelssohn d iv o rc e s th e t r u t h s o f th e r e l i g i o n o f re a so n from Je w ish o b s e rv a n c e . B ecause i t was in te n d e d o n ly f o r Jew s, th e T ra c ta tu s a l l o t s th e Jew ish law o n ly a p o l i t i c a l g o a l and f u n c tio n . 26 For M endelssohn to o , th e n , th e law o f th e T orah i s a p p lic a b le o n ly to th e tim e when a Je w ish s t a t e e x i s te d . U n lik e S p in o z a , how ever, M endelssohn a s c r ib e d a u n iq u e n e ss to th e b i b l i c a l l e g i s l a t i o n in t h a t he re c o g n iz e d p o l i t i c a l law as one a s p e c t o f r e l i g i o n w hich may f a l l i n t o d e s u e tu d e . R e lig io u s law i s n o t th e t o t a l i t y o f r e l i g i o n f o r M endelssohn, b u t a su p p lem en t to th e r e l i g i o n o f re a s o n . The d i s t i n c t i o n drawn by S p in o za betw een th e r e l i g i o - p o l i t i c a l law o f th e Je w ish s t a t e , on th e one h an d , and f a i t h , on th e o t h e r , i s h e re r e p la c e d by th e dichotom y betw een th e p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o u s law and th e u n iv e r s a l t r u t h o f r e l i g i o n . 2 ' M endelssohn saw in Ju d a ism , and i t s em phasis on th e p e r form ance o f p r a c t i c a l commandments, a s a fe g u a rd t o th e v is io n o f a u n iv e r s a l r e l i g i o n o f r e a s o n . B ecause Ju d a ism , 2 ®Guttmann, P h ilo s o p h ie s o f J u d a ism , p . 299. 2 6 I b i d . 27I b i d . , p. 300. 215 i n te rm s o f i t s r o o t p r i n c i p l e s , i s co n g ru en t w ith r e a s o n , i t rem ains a v a l i d f a i t h . The g r e a t o b je c tio n t h a t has b een r a i s e d to e q u a tin g Judaism w ith re a s o n i s t h a t i t h a s e m a sc u la te d th e n o tio n o f h i s t o r i c a l r e v e l a t i o n and th e v a lu e o f an h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n as w e ll as i t s co n c o m ita n t n o tio n o f a " re v e a le d r e l i g i o n . " The sa g e o f D essau in h i s p e rs o n a l l i f e rem ain ed a t r a d i t i o n a l Jew . In th e words o f Leo Baeck: So M endelssohn h im s e lf l i v e d , t h i s p h ilo s o p h e r o f th e E n lig h ten m e n t y e t e n t i r e l y a Jew in h is o b se rv a n c e o f th e o ld Law. T hus, he h o p e d , w ould h i s p e o p le be and re m a in . T hat i s th e p r i n c i p l e g o v e rn in g th e p la c e and th e ta s k w hich was e n tr u s te d t o them in h i s t o r y . 28 Ahad Ha-Am w ould ta k e umbrage w ith M en d elsso h n 's id e a s on r e l i g i o n no l e s s th a n w ith th e p u rp o se s o f German E n lig h te n m e n t, w hich he c o n tin u a lly i d e n t i f i e d as b e in g an id e o lo g ic a l fram ew ork w hich made th e e m a n c ip a tio n o f W estern Jew ry p o s s i b le . W ith h i n d s i g h t , i t a p p e a re d to him t h a t th e e m a n c ip a tio n was r e a l l y a form o f s p i r i t u a l s la v e r y i n th e m id s t o f a p p a re n t freedom . He c o u ld w e ll c r y : " I , though I have no c i v i l r i g h t s , h av e a t l e a s t n o t s o ld my s o u l f o r th em . ? 29 The n a t io n a l i z a ti o n o f Ju d a ism , b o th in th e o lo g y and in p r a c t i c a l l i f e , th e 28Leo B aeck, "Types o f Je w ish U n d erstan d in g from Moses M endelssohn to F ranz R osenzw eig," Ju d a ism , IX (W in te r, 1 9 6 0 ), p . 10. 29Kol K itb e , p. 68. 2 1 6 l i t u r g i c a l reform s s tr ip p in g a l l re fe re n c e t o Z io n , th e en th ro n em en t o f Judaism as s o le ly a r e lig i o u s f a i t h r a t h e r th a n a complex n a tio n a l o rg a n ic c u l tu r e , would le a d , Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in e d , to f u l l s c a le a s s im il a ti o n , o f w hich he had seen s u f f i c i e n t ev id en ce in h is own day. Y e t, what a l t e r n a t i v e was open to th e Jews o f W estern Europe where e m a n c ip a tio n , a f t e r lo n g and h a rd s t r u g g le s , was f i n a l l y made p o s s ib le ? F ive y e a rs a f t e r M en d elsso h n 's d e a th , in 1791, th e French N a tio n a l A ssem bly, on th e h e e ls o f th e French R e v o lu tio n , p ro m u lg ated th e p r in c ip le o f r e lig i o u s t o l e r a t i o n and g ra n te d th e r i g h t s o f c i tiz e n s h ip to Jew ish subjects.^ T his newly-won s t a t u s , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e N ap o leo n ic e r a , pervaded F rance and W estern Germany, as w e ll as ev ery o th e r la n d in w hich N ap o leo n ic co n q u ests h ad ta k e n p la c e . Jew ish d i s a b i l i t i e s f e l l away in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . Jew ish em an cip atio n in m ost o f th e c o u n trie s o f W estern Europe was co m p lete. T his was a d e c id e d improvem ent o v e r th e h a rsh p e rio d in 1743 when Moses M endelssohn fo llo w ed h i s te a c h e r , F ra n k e l, to B e r lin , w here he was c a lle d to s e rv e as ra b b i to th e Jew ish com munity. T here M endelssohn found p r iv ile g e d Jews on th e one hand e n jo y in g lim ite d freedom , w h ile th e g r e a t m asses o f Jews w ere bowed u n d er 30 Howard S a c h a r, The C ourse o f Modern Jew ish H is to ry (C le v e la n d : W orld P u b lis h in g C o ., 1 9 5 8 ), p . 56. 217 m ed iev al l i m i t a t i o n s and r e s t r i c t i o n s . High w ere th e w a lls o f th e g h e tto , p e r m ittin g th e advanced th o u g h t o f th e w o rld w ith o u t t o b u t slo w ly t r i c k l e in and make i t s im p act f e l t . Very few Jews c o u ld e sc a p e th e g h e tto , f o r th e freedom o f movement was s e v e re ly r e s t r i c t e d . In many l o c a l i t i e s Jews w ere p r o h ib ite d from th e r i g h t s o f domi c i l e . C hafing u n d er th e n arro w n ess o f th o u g h t w hich th e g h e tto e n fo rc e d and th e h a rs h r e s t r i c t i o n s o f th e w o rld w ith o u t, young Jew ish i n t e l l e c t u a l s , such as M endelssohn, seem ed condemned to th e s ta t u s quo. K an t’s c h a lle n g e , S apere aude (" d a te to use y o u r r e a s o n " ) , loomed as a g r e a t d e sid e ra tu m f o r th e s e young i n t e l l e c t u a l s , f o r whom th e id e o lo g ic a l framework o f th e Judaism o f th e g h e tto was no lo n g e r a d e q u a te . M endelssohn, r is k in g e x p u ls io n from B e rlin s in c e he la c k e d th e r i g h t o f d o m ic ile , liv e d in g r e a t p o v e rty in th e g a r r e t o f a Jew ish m erch an t f o r whom he p erfo rm ed v a rio u s bookkeeping t a s k s . T eaching h im s e lf German, he re a d v o ra c io u s ly in th e l i t e r a t u r e , a lth o u g h he knew t h i s was a b re a k w ith t r a d i t i o n , and became aw are o f th e g r e a t i n t e l l e c t u a l tu rm o il and advance in th o u g h t t h a t was ta k in g p la c e in th e w o rld o f g e n e ra l c u l t u r e . D eeply im p ressed by L o ck e 's e s s a y , "C oncerning Human U n d erstan d in g ," w hich he re a d i n L a tin , he began to re a d e x te n s iv e ly in th e l i t e r a t u r e o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t. 3 1 ^ A l f r e d J o s p e , "Moses M endelssohn," G re a t Jew ish 218 I t was th e f o r tu n a te an d f r ie n d ly c o n ta c t w ith th e German d r a m a t i s t - c r i t i c , G o tth o ld E phraim L e s s in g , whom he m et by chance a t a ch ess game a t th e home o f a m u tu al f r ie n d one a fte rn o o n i n 1754, w hich began t o change h i s l i f e . L e ss in g adm ired M endelssohn and found in him a Jew who em bodied th e v i r t u e s o f one o f th e h e ro e s i n h i s p la y Die J u d e n , i n w hich h e had a tta c k e d t h e b ig o tr y and ig n o r ance r e l a t i n g to Jews p r e v a le n t th e n in s o c i e t y . L e ss in g d e s c rib e d M endelssohn as "a seco n d S p in o z a la c k in g o n ly 32 h is e r r o r s t o be h is e q u a l." M endelssohn warmly r e c i p r o c a te d L e s s in g 's f r i e n d s h i p , and N athan th e W ise, one o f L e s s in g 's s i g n i f i c a n t p la y s on th e need f o r r e l i g i o u s to l e r a n c e , was in s p i r e d by M e n d e lsso h n 's p e r s o n a lity and c h a r a c t e r . 33 Y et th e i n d i g n i t i e s a g a in s t Jews c o n tin u e d , and M endelssohn e n te r e d in to th e l i s t s o f th o s e who b a t t l e d f o r Jew ish r i g h t s . M endelssohn c o u ld w r i te : P eo p le c o n tin u e to keep us away from a l l c o n ta c ts w ith th e a r t s and s c ie n c e s o r w ith tr a d e s and o ccu p a tio n s w hich a re u s e f u l and have d ig n it y . They b a r a l l ro ad s le a d in g t o in c re a s e d u s e fu ln e s s and th e n u se o u r la c k o f c u l t u r e t o j u s t i f y o u r c o n tin u e d o p p r e s s io n . They t i e o u r hands and th e n re p ro a c h us t h a t we do n o t u se t h e m . 34 P e r s o n a l i t i e s in Modern T im es, ed . Simon Noveck ( C lin to n : C o lo n ia l P r e s s , 1 9 6 0 ), p p . 1 3 -1 7 . 3 2 I b i d . , p . 1 8 . 3 3 I b i d . 3t*I b i d . , p. 24. 219 M endelssohn u rg ed a tw o -p ro n g ed a t ta c k a g a in s t n arro w n ess and b i g o tr y , w ith in and w ith o u t th e g h e tto . L ib e r a tio n o f th e Jew from th e c i v i l r e s t r i c t i o n s and i n c a p a c i ti e s o f g h e tto l i f e was a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o t h e i r e n te r in g th e m odern w o rld on an e q u a l f o o tin g w ith o th e r p e o p le . M oreover, th e Jews to o h ad a t a s k , and t h a t was to change t h e i r a t t i t u d e s to w ard th e w o rld . The Jews o f Germany i n t e l l e c t u a l l y w ere s t i l l in th e M iddle A ges. W ith a m assiv e a tta c k upon t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s and l e v e l o f ach iev em en t w ith r e g a r d to s e c u la r c u l t u r e , M endelssohn b e lie v e d t h a t t h e i r c a p a c ity to cope w ith th e modem w o rld c o u ld be amply d e v e lo p e d . F or t h i s re a s o n he u n d erto o k to te a c h them German by t r a n s l a t i n g th e B ib le in to German, accom panied by a com m entary c a l l e d B iu r . He rem ain ed s e n s i t i v e t o th e f e e l i n g s o f t r a d i t i o n a l Jew ry and p u rp o s e ly e l e c t e d to t r a n s l i t e r a t e th e German in to Hebrew l e t t e r s . 35 When th e work was co m p leted in 1783, i t was th e 36 ca u se o f a " c u l t u r a l r e v o lu tio n " among German Jew s. Most im p o r ta n t, Jew ish e d u c a tio n a l p ro c e d u re s and g o a ls w ere changed. M endelssohn e s t a b l i s h e d a s c h o o l f o r Jew ish c h ild r e n in B e r l in , o u t o f w hich o th e r s s u b s e q u e n tly grew and d e v e lo p ed . German r e p la c e d Y id d ish as th e lan g u ag e o f 35f b i d . , p. 26. 36I b i d . , p. 27. 220 i n s t r u c t i o n , and s e c u la r s u b je c ts rounded o u t th e program o f t r a d i t i o n a l Jew ish le a r n in g . C le a r ly , in M e n d elsso h n 's m ind, th e o b je c t was n o t to wean Jews away from t r a d i t i o n o r t o p re p a re a program f o r m assiv e a s s i m i l a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r to make th e Ju d aism t h a t would so o n e r o r l a t e r have to e n t e r in to th e modern w o rld , one in w hich i t was p o s s ib le to b e lie v e and w hich w ould c o n tin u e to have r e l e vance when fo rc e d to j u s t i f y i t s e l f id e o l o g i c a l l y by th e canons o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t. The "im m utable t r u t h s " o f re a s o n and th e God o f I s r a e l w ere w edded. Freedom o f con s c ie n c e was t o h o ld sw ay, w h ile th e p erfo rm an ce o f th e m izw o t, which w ere d iv in e ly r e v e a le d , w ere to p erm eate th e d a ily co n d u ct o f Je w s; f o r M endelssohn h e ld t h a t th e commandments o f Moses do n o t b e a r th e c h a rg e , "Thou s h a l t b e l i e v e ," b u t , "Thou s h a l t d o ." The a l t e r n a t i v e t o J u d is c h e W isse n s c h a ft w hich em anated from th e M en d elsso h n ian e r a , w ith i t s em phasis on s p e c u la tiv e th o u g h t, was to rem ain in th e b e n ig h te d c o n d itio n s in w hich th e Jews o f R u ssia found th e m se lv e s as l a t e as a t th e tu r n o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y . Had N apoleon been s u c c e s s f u l in h i s c o n q u e st o f R u s s ia , th e s to r y o f R u ssian Jew ry m ig h t e a s i l y have p a r a l l e l e d t h a t o f German Jew ry ; and h ad Ahad Ha-Am found th e o c c a s io n to w r ite a t a l l , h e m ig h t have w r i t te n in a s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t v e in . 221 B ecause R u ssian Jew ry rem ain ed u n e m an cip ate d , Jew ish n a tio n a lis m c o u ld d e v e lo p . B ecause o f th e e a r l y s u c c e s s o f M endelssohn and h is s c h o o l o f H a-m eassefim , Jew ish n a tio n a lis m o r Z ionism made no headway in Germany u n t i l th e f r u i t s o f th e e m a n c ip a tio n w ere l o s t i n th e Germany o f B ism a rc k 's d ay . Ahad Ha-Am and th e R u ssia n Jew ish i n t e l l e g e n t s i a , when th e y e n te r e d th e m odern w o rld , w ere d e p riv e d o f t h a t v i t a l p e r io d o f a d ju s tm e n t e lse w h e re made p o s s ib le by th e f o r c e s o f E n lig h te n m e n t. For t h i s re a s o n , when D arw inism made i t s im p act upon i n t e l l e c t u a l s su ch as Ahad Ha-Am, th e y welcomed i t s in n o v a tio n s w ith th e same e n th u sia sm as th e group aro u n d M endelssohn h ad welcomed th e o p p o r tu n ity t o p a r t i c i p a t e in th e A u fk la ru n g . Ahad Ha-Am and su b se q u e n t fo llo w e rs o f Darwin d e p ic te d th e Je w ish n a tio n as an o rg an ism in e v o lu tio n , w hich i n i t i a t e d c o n c e p ts in i t s c h ild h o o d t h a t we c a l l r e l i g i o n , b u t whose v a lu e and s ig n i f ic a n c e has been o u t s t r i p p e d . W hile th e r e a r e s t i l l tr a c e s o f th e im p act o f E n lig h te n m e n t th o u g h t on Ahad Ha-Am, by and la r g e h e e n te r e d i n t o th e a re n a o f Jew ish th e o l o g i c a l p o lem ics a t a tim e when th e id e a s o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t w ere on th e wane and when a few c h o ic e " s u r v iv a ls " s t i l l 37 These w ere th e w r i t e r s who c o n tr ib u te d t o M en d elsso h n 's Hebrew j o u r n a l , H a-m eassef ( The G a th e re r ) , w hich p u b lis h e d a r t i c l e s on g e n e ra l and r e l i g i o u s p ro b lem s . 222 seem ed to move o n e 's re a s o n to a s s e n t to them . I t i s b o th u n f a i r and u n f o rtu n a te t h a t Ahad Ha-Am s tig m a tiz e s th e fu n d am e n tal p u rp o se o f th e Jew ish En lig h te n m e n t as b e in g g e a re d to a s s i m i l a t i o n . He seems to have f o r g o tte n h i s own o b s e rv a tio n s in an e s sa y e n t i t l e d , " I m ita tio n and A s s im ila tio n ," w here he h e ld t h a t Jews n o t o n ly have a te n d e n cy to i m i ta t io n b u t a c t u a l l y a g e n iu s f o r i t . In co n seq u en c e, t h a t w hich i s im i ta t e d i s ab s o rb e d and u t i l i z e d ; i t i s m olded to th e Je w ish s p i r i t . A s s im ila tio n f o r s e lf - e f f a c e m e n t c e a s e s , and th ro u g h th e p ro c e s s o f i m i t a t i o n , a s s im il a tio n i s tu rn e d i n t o a com p e t i t i v e f o r c e w hich s tr e n g th e n s th e s e lf - c o n s c io u s n e s s o f 38 th e Hebrew p e o p le . C e r ta in ly i t i s c o r r e c t to sa y w ith r e g a r d to th e H a sk a la h , as Ahad Ha-Am o b s e r v e s , t h a t th e E n lig h te n m e n t was ab so rb e d by Ju d aism by th e s u c c e s s f u l i m i t a t i o n o f th e m ain id e a s o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t and p ro v id e d Ju d aism w ith new form s o f e x p r e s s io n . The e v id e n c e o f h i s t o r y w ould in d i c a t e t h a t Ahad Ha-Am was wrong in n o t a t t r i b u t i n g to th e s p i r i t u a l fo rc e o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t, and th e id e a s o f f r e e and c r i t i c a l in q u ir y t h a t i t en g en d ered in th e re a lm o f Jew ish r e l i g i o u s th o u g h t, t h a t im p o rta n t p la c e w hich i t now h as in a t h r i v in g l i b e r a l r e l i g i o u s com m unity, w hich h as a b so rb e d th e canons o f m odern th o u g h t and b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip and s t i l l 38Kol K itb e , p. 88. 223 rem ain s r e l i g i o u s l y com m itted. The Reform Movement in Germany and A m erica, w hich grew d i r e c t l y o u t o f th e M endelssohnian h y p o th e s is ; th e C o n se rv ativ e Jew ish Move m ent in A m erica, w hich d eveloped as a r e a c tio n to th e Reform Movement; th e R e c o n s tr u c tio n is t Movement, w hich em erged as a stre a m o f th o u g h t r e a c tin g in p a r t to th e neo-O rthodox te n d e n c ie s o f C o n serv atism and th e e x c e ss e s o f Reform— a l l b e a r w itn e s s to d ay t h a t Ahad Ha-Am was in d e e d c o r r e c t in r e i t e r a t i n g t h a t th e r e i s a Jew ish g e n iu s f o r i m i t a t i o n , a g e n iu s w hich * in a g r e a t e r s e n s e , had been re s p o n s ib le f o r i t s s u r v iv a l b e f o r e , and w hich has k e p t Judaism re s p o n s iv e to th e needs o f any ag e. The W isse n s c h a ft des Judentum s came i n t o b ein g to s to p in d is c r im in a te a s s im ila tio n w h ich , w h ile n o t in th e m ainstream o f M endelssohnian t r a d i t i o n , came to b e , w ith o u t q u e s tio n , c h a r a c te r iz e d as one o f i t s e x c e s s e s . The p io n e e rs o f Reform Judaism w ere laym en e s s e n t i a l l y , and businessm en such as I s r a e l Jaco b so n (1 7 6 8 -1 8 2 8 ), who founded th e f i r s t Jew ish Reform Temple in 1810 in S e s s e n , W e stp h a lia . He i n s t i t u t e d a r e l i g i o u s s e r v ic e w hich con s t i t u t e d a m a jo r re fo rm in Jew ish l i t u r g y , w ith a s e r v ic e r i t u a l in w hich hymns and p ra y e rs in German w ere added to th e t r a d i t i o n a l Hebrew and w ith an o rg an w hich accom panied th e s in g in g o f th e c h o i r , s e t t i n g th e s ty l e f o r su b se q u en t 224 39 Reform te m p le s . I t i s r a t h e r anom alous t h a t th e word "tem p le" sh o u ld have a tta c h e d i t s e l f to th e Reform house o f w o rs h ip , e x c e p t i f one assum es t h a t th e house o f w or s h ip was to r e p la c e th e Temple in J e ru s a le m . I t i s s e r - m onic to c o n te n d , as E p s te in d o e s , t h a t th e w ord "tem p le" h i t h e r t o re s e rv e d o n ly f o r th e Temple in J e ru s a le m , and ad o p ted by Reform Ju d aism " to d en o te t h e i r p la c e s o f w o rship b e tra y e d t h e i r a t t i t u d e to th e hope o f th e r e s t o r a t i o n o f I s r a e l 's a n c ie n t n a t io n a l s h r i n e . " 1 *0 The em phasis o f th e Reform Movement on th e n eed f o r a new k in d o f Jew ish e d u c a tio n can b e s t be demon s t r a t e d th ro u g h th e work o f D avid F rie d la e n d e r (1756- 1 8 3 4 ), who was a d i s c i p l e o f Moses M endelssohn. F rie d la e n d e r founded th e Jew ish F ree School o f B e rlin in 1778 w hich ta u g h t s e c u l a r s u b j e c t s . 1 * ^ - As a c o lla b o r a t o r o f Jaco b so n in th e developm ent o f th e Reform Temple in B e r lin , th e y a ls o w orked to g e th e r in com posing a t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e p ra y e rb o o k . Sermons w ere w r i tte n in German and w ere g e a re d to in fo rm in g Jews o f t h e i r h e r ita g e in contem porary te rm s . The p u rp o se o f th e s c h o o ls and 39 D avid P h ilip s o n , The Reform Movement in Judaism (New York: The M acm illan C o ., 19 3 1 ), p p . 15 f . C iFI Ism ar E lb p g en , A C entury o f Jew ish L ife ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1 9 5 3 ), p p . x x v -x x v i. **°E pstein, Ju d a ism , p . 292 . 41 P h ilip s o n , The Reform Movement in Ju d a ism , p . 9. 225 Tem ple, as F rie d la e n d e r e x p la in e d , was to s to p th e d r i f t from Judaism among th o s e who no lo n g e r were a b le to b e lie v e i n i t s p re -e m a n c ip a tio n g u ise and to re n d e r r e l i g i o n a m ean in g fu l e x p e rie n c e . In th e c a rr y in g o u t o f t h i s p ro gram , he u rg ed th e a b o l i t i o n o f p ra y e rs w hich r e f e r r e d to th e Je w ish n a t io n a l p a s t and th e hopes f o r th e r e b u ild in g o f th e Jew ish n a tio n in P a l e s t i n e , and s u b s t i t u t e d b ro a d a p p e a ls to th e e t e r n a l v e r i t i e s o f Ju d a ism . Because o f t h i s a tte m p t a t u p - d a tin g , f e a t u r in g German serm o n s, c h o ra le s and p r a y e r s , th e use o f th e o rg an and th e i n s t i t u t i o n o f C o n firm atio n o f boys in p la c e o f B ar M itzv ah , th e Temple was c lo s e d in 1817 by th e P ru s s ia n governm ent i n re sp o n se to th e d e n u n c ia to ry ap p e a ls o f th e O rthodox gro u p . The same was tr u e o f a n o th e r synagogue founded in B e rlin by Jacob H erz B eer ( f a t h e r o f th e m u s ic ia n , Meyer B eer) w hich e x p e rie n c e d a s i m i l a r U3 f a t e . The same them e was e n a c te d in Hamburg, w here i t was n e c e s s a ry f o r th e re fo rm e rs to d e fe n d th e r i g h t to Reform Judaism b e fo re th e S e n a te o f th e c i t y . The The p ra y erb o o k w as, o f c o u r s e , a tta c k e d and F rie d la e n d e r r e p l i e d w ith a r e j o i n d e r t i t l e d , " E p is t le to th e German J e w s ," w hich p le a d e d f o r th e m o d e rn iz a tio n o f th e Je w ish c u rric u lu m , in w hich w ould b e ta u g h t "pu re m o r a lity , lo v e f o r hum anity . . . d u tie s as s u b j e c t s , as w e ll a s w r i t i n g , re c k o n in g , la n g u a g e , g e p g rap h y , h i s t o r y and n a t u r a l s c ie n c e , i n o r d e r t h a t th e r i s i n g g e n e ra tio n may b e e d u c a te d and become u s e f u l c i t i z e n s o f th e S t a t e ." I b i d . , p . 12. ^ I b i d . , pp . 2 3 f . 226 in f lu e n c e o f th e Hamburg T em ple, how ever, was such t h a t s i m il a r te m p le s d ev e lo p ed in o th e r c i t i e s o f Germany and i n o th e r la n d s . In 182*1, in C h a rle s to n , S outh C a ro lin a , a group o f members p e t i t i o n e d t h e i r c o n g re g a tio n to have th e Hebrew l i t u r g y r e r e a d in E n g lis h , so t h a t i t w ould be r e a d i ly c o m p re h e n s ib le . Upon th e r e j e c t i o n o f th e p e t i t i o n o f t h e l i b e r a l members o f th e c o n g re g a tio n , a new c o n g re g a tio n was fo u n d ed , and Reform Ju d aism was e s t a b lis h e d i n th e b u rg e o n in g c i t y o f C h a rle s to n . 44 Reform Ju d a ism , th e n , b eg a n , n o t alo n g t h e o r e t i c a l lin e s b u t as th e w ork o f p r a c t i c a l refo rm by Jew ish l a y men who d id n o t abandon Ju d a ism , as i s so o f te n c h a rg e d , b u t w an ted to c o n tin u e t o k eep Judaism as th e r e l i g i o n o f t h e i r f a t h e r s b u t read y in form and c o n te n t to e n t e r in t o th e m odem w o rld . I t was n o t u n t i l th e 1 8 3 0 's t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l a s s is ta n c e came from r a b b in ic a l q u a r t e r s . When th e r a b b is b eg an to p a r t i c i p a t e in Reform Ju d aism , th e movement to o k on a new d i r e c t i o n , and t h e o r e t i c a l b a s e s w ere d ev e lo p ed f o r i t alo n g th e o lo g ic a l l i n e s , and •p m — j th e p h ilo s o p h y was hammered o u t. In th e seco n d p h ase o f th e e v o lu tio n o f Reform Ju d a ism , an a tte m p t was made to ground re fo rm p r a c t i c e in Jew ish t r a d i t i o n , and i t i s r e a l l y t h i s g r e a t t a s k t h a t th e fo u n d ers o f thte J u d is c h e W is s e n s c h a ft assum ed and a tte m p te d to d e v e lo p . uu I b i d . , pp. 329 f . 227 In 1822, th e tw e n ty -e ig h t- y e a r - o ld L eopold Zunz gave e x p re s s io n to th e need to stu d y Judaism s c i e n t i f i c a l l y . By t h i s was m eant th e need to co m p letely re s tu d y th e Jew ish p a s t by modem s c i e n t i f i c and c r i t i c a l m etho d o lo g ie s and norm s, in o rd e r to remove from th e p a s t th e p i e t i s t i c c o lo r a tio n s w hich th e t r a d i t i o n had f o i s t e d upon i t and to form an o b je c tiv e p ic tu r e o f th e d e v e lo p ment o f Ju d aism . Zunz, who was a p re a c h e r in th e B eer Reform Temple in B e r lin , to g e th e r w ith some a s s o c i a te s , form ed a " S o c ie ty f o r Jew ish C u ltu re and S cie n ce" w hich produced a volume u n d er h is e d ito r s h ip e n t i t l e d , Z e it - s c h r i f t f u r d ie W isse n sc h a ft des Judenthum s ( J o u rn a l f o r th e S cie n c e o f Ju d aism ) . ^ One o f th e le a d in g a r t i c l e s o f th e Z e i t s c h r i f t w as, "On th e Concept o f a S cien ce o f Ju d a ism ," penned by Immanuel W olf. The aims and p u rp o ses o f th e jo u r n a l, as w e ll as th e i n t e l l e c t u a l movement which was to em anate from t h i s en d e a v o r, h ad f o r some tim e been *5W . G unther P la u t, The R ise o f Reform Judaism (New Y ork: W orld Union f o r P ro g re s s iv e Ju d a ism , 1 9 6 3 ), p . 16; G ustav K a rp e le s , "L eopold Z unz," Jew ish L ite r a tu r e and O th er E ssays ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1 8 9 5 ), p p . 32 3-325. Only th r e e numbers o f t h i s jo u r n a l ap p eared and th e " S c i e n t i f i c I n s t i t u t e " d i s i n te g r a t e d . Zunz, in a l e t t e r to Immanuel W o h lw ill, e x p re s se d h is g r e a t dism ay a t th e f a i l u r e o f th e Reform Movement to s u p p o rt h is e n d e a v o rs. Y et th e r e was some con s o l a t i o n : "Thfe o n ly im p e ris h a b le p o s s e s s io n re s c u e d from t h i s d elu g e i s th e s c ie n c e o f Ju d aism . I t l i v e s even though n o t a f in g e r h as been r a i s e d i n i t s s e r v ic e s in c e h u ndreds o f y e a r s . I c o n fe ss t h a t , b a r r in g su b m issio n to th e judgm ent o f God, I f in d s o la c e o n ly in th e c u l t i v a t i o n o f th e s c ie n c e o f Ju d a ism ." K a rp e le s , i b i d . , p . 326. 228 r e f l e c t e d in th e norm al s ta n d a rd s o f c r i t i c a l r e s e a r c h in g e n e ra l s c i e n t i f i c en d eav o r b u t w ere a r t i c u l a t e d h e re f o r Jew ish s c h o la r s h ip f o r th e f i r s t tim e . W olf h e ld t h a t The c o n te n t o f th e s p e c i a l s c ie n c e i s th e s y s t e m a tic u n fo ld in g and r e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f i t s o b je c t in i t s whole sw eep, f o r i t s own s a k e , and n o t f o r any u l t e r i o r p u rp o s e . I f we a p p ly t h i s to th e s c ie n c e o f Judaism th e n , th e fo llo w in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s em erge: (1 ) The s c ie n c e o f Ju d aism com prehends Judaism i n i t s f u l l e s t s c o p e ; (2 ) I t u n fo ld s Ju d aism in a c co rd an c e w ith i t s e s s e n c e and d e s c r ib e s i t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , alw ays r e l a t i n g in d iv id u a l f e a t u r e s b ack t o th e fu n d am en tal p r i n c i p l e o f th e w h o le; (3 ) I t t r e a t s th e o b je c t o f stu d y in and f o r i t s e l f , f o r i t s own s a k e , and n o t f o r any s p e c i a l p u rp o se o r d e f i n i t e i n t e n t i o n . I t b e g in s w ith o u t any p re c o n c e iv e d o p in io n . I t i s n o t co n cern ed w ith th e f i n a l r e s u l t . I t s aim i s n e i t h e r t o p u t i t s o b je c t in a f a v o u r a b le , n o r in an u n fa v o u ra b le l i g h t , in r e l a t i o n t o p r e v a i lin g v ie w s, b u t to show i t as i t i s . S c ie n c e i s s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , i s in i t s e l f an e s s e n t i a l n eed o f th e human s p i r i t . I t th e r e f o r e n eed s to s e rv e no o th e r p u rp o se th a n i t s own. B ut i t i s f o r t h a t re a s o n no l e s s tr u e t h a t each s c ie n c e n o t o n ly e x e r c is e s i t s m ost im p o rta n t in f lu e n c e on o th e r s c ie n c e s b u t a ls o on l i f e . T his can e a s i l y be shown t o be t r u e o f th e s c ie n c e o f J u d a is m .^6 Wolf f u r t h e r d e l in e a te s th e problem by n o tin g t h a t e v e ry s c ie n c e f a l l s i n t o s e v e r a l p a r t s . W ith re g a rd to Ju d a ism , t h i s im p lie s th e s tu d y o f Judaism in i t s h i s t o r i c a l and l i t e r a r y w r i t i n g , as w e ll as a s t a t i s t i c a l stu d y o f Judaism in r e l a t i o n to th e p r e s e n t day Je w ish communi t i e s s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t th e w o rld . W olf h e ld t h a t th e H6 Immanuel W olf, "On th e C oncept o f th e S c ie n c e o f Ju d aism (1 8 2 2 )," Leo Baeck Y earb o o k , I I , e d . R o b ert W eltsch (London: E a s t and West L ib r a r y , 1 9 5 7 ), p . 201. 229 i n i t i a l aim w i l l be to d e p ic t Judaism and i t s developm ent from a h i s t o r i c a l v ie w p o in t. N ext i t i s to be t r e a t e d p h ilo s o p h ic a lly , a c c o rd in g to th e in n e r e sse n c e and id e a f o r w hich t e x t u a l know ledge o f th e l i t e r a t u r e o f Judaism i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e . C o n seq u en tly , t h i s m ust be f i r s t on th e ag en d a, th e h is t o r y o f Judaism n e x t and th e p h ilo so p h y o f Judaism t h i r d . W ith re g a r d to th e t e x tu a l stu d y o f Ju d aism , v a ry in g m ethods a re to be em ployed, re c o g n iz in g t h a t Jew ish l i t e r a t u r e i s a v a ila b le in d i f f e r e n t languages; r a i s e s d i f f e r e n t them es and r e p r e s e n ts d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x ts . The h is to r y o f Judaism can be a s y s te m a tic d e s c r ip tio n o f i t , r e f l e c t i n g th e form s t h a t i t h as a s sumed in any g iv e n moment in tim e and in a l l o f i t s v a r i - 4 7 e g a te d a s p e c ts . Wolf c e n te r s upon th r e e in te rd e p e n d e n t a re a s o f s tu d y — th e r e l i g i o u s , th e p o l i t i c a l and th e l i t e r a r y te n d e n c ie s — as d e s e rv in g a t t e n t i o n . When view ed as a w hole, th e y w i l l y i e l d th e g e n e ra l h i s t o r y o f th e Jew ish p e o p le ; when d e p ic te d i n d iv i d u a ll y , th e y w i ll y i e l d th e h i s t o r y o f r e l i g i o n , o f p o l i t i c s and o f l i t e r a t u r e . T h is approach a ls o c a l l s f o r p e r io d iz a tio n in a c co rd an ce w ith th e many d i f f e r e n t a s p e c ts in w hich th e " s p i r i t u a l p r i n c i p l e o f Judaism has m a n ife s te d i t s e l f in th e fo rc e o f tim e ." I t w i l l r e q u ir e , f o r exam ple, th e 47I b i d . , p. 202. 230 need t o lo c a te " th e fo rm a tiv e s p i r i t o f th e w h o le ." "The p h ilo s o p h y o f Ju d aism h as as i t s o b je c t th e con c e p tio n o f Judaism as su c h . T h is i t m ust u n fo ld and r e v e a l, in a l l i t s t r u t h s in a c co rd an c e w ith i t s in n e r r a t i o n a l i t y . " I t m ust te a c h th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e id e a o f God as i t h a s been r e v e a le d to Ju d aism and p o in t to th e c o n n e c tio n betw een e x t e r n a l h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts and th e developm ent o f th e id e a from w ith in . I t w i l l be th e ta s k o f p h ilo s o p h y t o move beyond h i s t o r y and to s t a t e U ft th e id e a o f Juda_ism in i t s p r e s e n t c o n te x t. W olf c lo s e s h is e s sa y by s t a t i n g t h a t Jew ish l i f e i s an in n e r fe rm e n t " s t r i v i n g to assume a shape in h a r mony w ith th e tim e s ." T h is , W olf m a in ta in s , can o n ly ta k e p la c e th ro u g h th e medium o f s c ie n c e , s in c e t h a t i s th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c W eltanschauung o f th e t im e s . T h is a t t i t u d e m ust b a n is h th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s tr a n g e n e s s in w hich Jews and Ju d aism have h i t h e r t o s to o d in r e l a t i o n to th e o u ts id e w o rld . And i f one day a bond i s to jo in th e w hole o f h u m a n ity , th e n i t i s th e bond o f s c ie n c e , th e bond o f p u re re a s o n , th e bond o f t r u t h . ^9 In th e p r e f a c e o f th e f i r s t volum e o f th e Z e i t s c h r i f t , Zunz h im s e lf n o te s t h a t th e s c ie n c e w i l l welcome e v e ry e f f o r t d e d ic a te d to s c i e n t i f i c p u r s u i t no m a tte r from w hat q u a r t e r , and w i l l c o n s id e r e v e ry s u i t a b l e H8I b i d . * * 9I b i d . , p. 20<4. 2 31 c o n t r i b u t i o n .5* ^ Zunz and Wolf h a rd ly c a lle d f o r an i n v e s t i g a t i o n , as Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in e d , o f "tom bstones and synagogue c h a n ts ." The s c ie n c e so u g h t a th o ro u g h g o in g and com plete u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e Jew ish p a s t and s tr o v e f o r t h a t consummate o b j e c t i v i t y w hich i s so tr y in g to th e p a r ti s a n b e l i e v e r b u t i s th e m eat o f n o u rish m en t to men who t r u l y w ish to u n d e rsta n d th e human s p i r i t . L eopold Zunz (1794-1886) was a f i t t i n g p r o g e n ito r o f such a l o f t y movement, f o r th e r e was no one in a w hole group o f d is tin g u is h e d and o u ts ta n d in g s c h o la r s in w e ste rn Europe who com pared w ith him e i t h e r in th e o r i g i n a l i t y o f h is ap p ro a c h , th e b re a d th and d ep th o f h is u n d e rs ta n d in g , o r h is p ro d ig io u s scholarship . i t i s h a rd to d ism iss 50 P la u t, The R ise o f Reform Ju d a ism , p . 16. 53-Z unz's m ajo r l i t e r a r y and s c i e n t i f i c c o n tr ib u t i o n s w ere: Die g o tte s d ie n s tli c h e n V o rtrag e d e r Juden ( B e r lin : A. AsherT 1 8 3 2 ), w hich tr a c e d th e developm ent o f ag g a d ic l i t e r a t u r e , th e h i s t o r y o f th e M idrash as th e p rim ary s o u rc e o f th e developm ent o f th e serm on. The work com prises a th o ro u g h stu d y o f so u rc e s and i t s m ethod o f a n a ly s is made i t one o f th e m ost im p o rta n t Jew ish works p u b lis h e d in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . T hat th e sermon was alw ays a h i s t o r i c f e a tu r e o f w o rsh ip i s one o f h is p r in c ip a l c o n te n tio n s . Zunz, Die g o tte s d ie n s tlic h e n V o rtrag e (sec o n d e d i t i o n , 1 8 9 2 ), p7 x . Zur 6 e s c h ic h te und L i t e r a t u r ( B e r lin : V erlag von V e il and C o ., 1845) com- p r is e d a th o ro u g h a n a ly s is o f th e h i s t o r y o f th e l i t e r a tu r e o f th e Jews o f Germany and F rance d u rin g th e M iddle A ges. The work t r e a t s o f g l o s s a t o r , e x e g e te s , gram m arians, e t h i c a l th in k e r s a n d /o r th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e l i t e r a t u r e . I b i d . , p p . 29-1 5 7 . B ib lio g r a p h ic a l s t u d i e s , p ro b lem s in th e d a tin g o f s o u r c e s , e d i tio n s and Hebrew ty p o g rap h y a re a ls o t r e a t e d . I b i d . , p p . 214-268. An a n n o ta te d b ib lio g ra p h y and e la b o r a te in d e x c lo s e th e w ork. I b i d . , pp. 570-575. Zunz a ls o s y s te m a tiz e d th e com plex s tu d ie s in 232 Zunz, as Ahad Ha-Am d o e s, as . . . one o f th e fo u n d ers o f th e movement, (d ie W isse n sc h a ft des Judentum s) who saw in i t o n ly th e o p p o rtu n ity o f c o n v e rtin g th e n a tio n s to a more f r ie n d ly a t t i t u d e tow ards Jews and t o e s t a b l i s h th e g r e a t i d e a l o f th o s e day s— e q u a l r i g h t s . 52 I t i s e q u a lly wrong t o m is in te r p r e t th e o b je c tiv e s o f an Immanuel W olf, who c l e a r l y s p e lle d o u t th e scope o f th e W isse n sc h a ft s c h o o l, w ith a g e n e ra l s ta te m e n t t h a t th e m o tiv a tio n o f Jew ish s c h o la rs who tu rn e d t o th e h is t o r y o f th e Jew ish p a s t d id so b ecau se th e y w ere im p e lle d by a Jew ish n a t io n a l s p i r i t . They w ere n o t lo o k in g " to f in d th e s p i r i t u a l th r e a d t h a t b in d s to g e th e r a l l o f th e g en e r a tio n s o f o u r n a tio n a l l i f e in o rd e r to s tr e n g th e n t h i s bond by means o f a c l e a r h i s t o r i c c o n s c io u s n e s s ." ^ I t i s an e q u a lly lim ite d view f o r Ahad Ha-Am to ch arg e t h a t th e fo u n d ers o f th e W isse n s c h a ft sc h o o l tu rn e d t h e i r back s on Hebrew l i t e r a t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n l i g h t o f th e work t h a t Zunz h im s e lf had done, and to sum m arize th e whole movement w ith th e ca n ard t h a t i t s p u rp o se was to t e l l th o s e who w anted to know som ething ab o u t Jew ish h is t o r y sy n a g o g al p o e try in h is S ynagogale P o e sie des M i t t e l a l t e r s ( F r a n k f u rt: J . K auffm ann, 1920). A com panion volume ap - p e a re d s e v e r a l y e a rs l a t e r , e n t i t l e d Die R itu s des Syna- f og a le n G o tte s d ie n s te s ( B e r lin : V erlag von J u l i u s S p rin g e r, 8 5 9 ). I t i s o f i n t e r e s t to n o te t h a t Zunz e x te n s iv e ly u sed th e re s e a rc h e s o f Solomon J . R ap o p o rt, one o f th e fo u n d ers o f th e G a lic ia n H a sk a la h . 52Kol K itb e , p. 178. 233 and l i t e r a t u r e "go and stu d y o th e r la n g u a g e s ." 51* The W isse n sc h a ft l i t e r a t u r e , Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in s , has r a i s e d n e i t h e r g ia n ts n o r g e n iu se s whose id e o lo g y would make a l a s t i n g im p r in t on l i f e . T here i s an i n d i c a t io n , h o w ev e r.s l i g h t , t h a t d e s p i t e Ahad Ha-Am!s condem nation o f th e W isse n sc h a ft s c h o o l, h e had r e s p e c t f o r some o f i t s s c i e n t i f i c a c h ie v e m ent . N e a tly tu c k e d away in h is v a s t c o rre s p o n d e n c e , th e r e i s a l e t t e r w r itte n by Ahad Ha-Am i n re p ly t o an in q u ir y about g e n e ra l l i t e r a t u r e on th e h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l t h a t Ahad Ha-Am c o u ld w e ll recom m end.55 He p o in ts o u t in h i s r e p ly t h a t i t i s v ery d i f f i c u l t to be engaged in con tem p o rary Jew ish r e s e a r c h w ith o u t knowing German. In Hebrew and R u ssian th e re was l i t t l e a v a ila b le on Jew ish h i s t o r y , and th o s e who do n o t know German w ould have to u n e a rth e v e ry th in g from th e o r i g i n a l so u rc e m a te r ia ls o f th e B ib le , th e Talm ud, and th e l i t e r a t u r e o f b o th th e M iddle Ages and th e modern p e r io d . Not every o n e i s p r e p a re d o r cap ab le o f doing t h i s . Of th e Jew ish l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n in German, which p r e s e n ts a fo rm id a b le u n d e rta k in g and h as had a g r e a t im p a c t, he recommends th e w orks o f G ra e tz , Zunz and G e ig e r o f th e Je w ish w r i t e r s , and S c h u re r, W ellh au sen and Renan o f th e C h r is tia n w r i t e r s . He 5HI b id . , p . 96. 55L e tte r t o Dr. Y. B rau n stein -C o h en o f K is h in e v , O d essa, Jan u ary 2 4 , 189 8. I g g e r o t. I I , 17 r . 23^ co n clu d es th e s e recom m endations w ith th e fo llo w in g se n te n c e : "W hosoever has re a d th e s e does n o t have to r e ly on th e te a c h in g s o f o t h e r s ." ^ 6 One can f in d a c e r t a i n am b iv ale n t a t t i t u d e and la c k o f f o r th r ig h tn e s s in Ahad Ha-Am en co u rag in g a r e s e a r c h e r to u t i l i z e th e s c h o la r ly fin d in g s o f th r e e w r i te r s o f th e W isse n sc h a ft s c h o o l, c o n s id e rin g h is b ro a d s id e a tta c k s a g a in s t i t , a lle g in g t h a t i t was narrow in scope and th e co n cern only o f a sm a ll number o f m en .57 I f in d e e d th e c i r c l e o f th o s e who w ere in f lu e n c e d by th e Ju d is c h e W isse n sc h a ft was sm a ll and th e c i r c l e o f i n t e r e s t e d r e s e a r c h e r s n arro w , Ahad Ha-Am was p a r t o f t h a t c i r c l e . T hat Ahad Ha-Am was a c lo s e s tu d e n t o f th e W isse n sc h a ft sc h o o l i s a t t e s t e d to by h is knowing r e f e r e n c e s t o s c h o la r ly w orks w hich i t y ie ld e d and to s p e c i f i c re f e r e n c e o f th e M o n a ts s c h r if t, w hich became th e m ost fo rm id a b le and im p o rta n t m onthly 5 8 advancing th e cause o f th e new s c h o o l .• 56I b i d . ^ 7Kol K itb e , p p . 110 f . ; I g g e r o t, I I I , 329. 5®The M o n a ts s c h rift f u r d ie G e sc h ic h te und W issen s c h a f t des Judenthum s was founded in 1851 by Z a c h a ria s f r a n k e l, r e p la c in g h is su p p re ss e d Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie R e lig iS se n I n te r e s s e n des Ju d en th u m s. F ra n k e l co n clu d ed t h a t th e r e v o lu tio n o f 18 ** 8 had e s ta b li s h e d th e r i g h t s o f Jews as c i t i z e n s so t h a t th e tim e was r i p e f o r th e s c ie n t i f i c stu d y o f t h e i r h i s t o r y and l i t e r a t u r e . F ra n k e l was su cceed ed by H e in ric h G ra e tz , fo rem o st n in e te e n th c e n tu ry h i s t o r i a n o f Ju d aism , as e d i t o r o f th e M o n a ts s c h rift and th e l a t t e r , in tim e , by M. B rann^and D avid Kaufmann. P e te r W ie rn ic k , " M o n a ts s c h rift F u r d ie G e sc h ic h te und 235 On th e b a s i s o f an a r t i c l e w r i tte n by Z ac h arias F ra n k e l, which Ahad Ha-Am c i t e s from memory as having been p u b lish e d i n th e e i g h t e e n - s i x t i e s , he summarizes F ra n k e l's c o n te n tio n t h a t th e n a t io n a l l i f e o f th e Jews o f P r u s s ia had come to an end w ith th e rem oval o f t h e i r c i v i l d i s a b i l i t i e s . They now owed t h e i r a lle g ia n c e to th e n a tio n in whose m id st th ey r e s id e d , and must devote t h e i r f u l l s tr e n g th to i t and become absorbed in i t s l i f e . F rankel f u r t h e r co n ten d ed , acco rd in g to Ahad Ha-Am, th a t th e r e i s no s e p a ra te h is t o r y f o r Jews. H en c efo rth , h i s t o r i c a l in v e s tig a tio n o f t h e i r p a s t w i l l have no con n e c tio n w ith t h e i r l i f e i n th e p r e s e n t and th e f u tu r e , b u t w i l l be p u re ly a t h e o r e t i c a l s c ie n c e . I f Z ac h arias F ra n k e l, who was c lo s e r th a n th e r e s t o f th e d is c ip le s o f th e W issen sch aft school t o c o n se rv a tism , could come to such a c o n c lu s io n , i t was c l e a r t o Ahad Ha-Am t h a t Ju d isc h e W issen sch aft o r Hokmas Y is r o e l a ls o had become a m em orial t a b l e t to " s p i r i t u a l en sla v e m e n t. " 99 Ahad Ha-Am was n o t adverse to u sin g s p e c i f i c r e s u l t s o f th e s c i e n t i f i c re s e a rc h e s o f Abraham G e ig e r, f o r exam ple, when, in i s o l a t i o n , th e y co u ld se rv e to b u t t r e s s one o f h i s argum ents. Ahad Ha-Am q u o tes in a W issen sch aft des Judenthum s," Jew ish E n c y c lo p e d ia , V III (new e d i tio n ; New York: Funk and W agnalls Company, 1925), 655. 59Kol K it b e , p. 178. 2 36 fo o tn o te from G e ig e r's N achgelassene S c h r i f t e n , where G eiger observed th a t s c h o la r ly works o f Jew ish l i t e r a t u r e are tr e a s u r e d more by th e p e o p le , r e ta in in g t h e i r re s p e c t and a t t e n t i o n , i f th e s e works a re w r itte n in Hebrew r a t h e r th an o th e r lan g u ag es. He fin d s i t n e c e s s a r y , how ever, to e d i t o r i a l i z e G e ig e r's co n c lu sio n by n o tin g th a t Even G eig er, f a r removed though he w as, in h is g e n e ra l view from re c o g n iz in g th e value o f th e Hebrew language to d ay as th e n a tio n a l language n e v e rth e le s s had t o a r r iv e a t th e above c o n c lu sio n . In th e r a b b in ic a l co n feren ces spanning th e y e a rs 1844 to 1866, d is c u s s io n s a ro se as to whether* use o f th e Hebrew language was p r e r e q u is i te f o r p ra y e r. G eiger had cham pioned th e p o s itio n t h a t "the q u e s tio n w hether Hebrew i s o b je c tiv e ly n e c e ssa ry in p ra y e r must be u n d ersto o d as ®^The re fe re n c e i s to Abraham G e ig e r's Nachge la s s e n e S c h r i f t e n , I I , 286-288, in Kol K itb e , p. 179, n o te 1, G eig er was o f th e o p in io n , as Ahad Ha-Am n o te s else w h e re , t h a t a contem porary Hebrew a u th o r i s en sn ared by th e th o u g h t-w o rld o f th e a n c ie n ts in h is use o f th e c l a s s i c a l to n g u e. I t s mode o f e x p re ssio n was formed to ex p ress th e concepts o f th e Talmud as conceived by th e r a b b is . Ahad Ha-Am concurs w ith G eig er, t h a t t h i s i s tr u e o f m ost of th e w estern Jew ish s c h o la rs b u t not th o se o f n o rth e rn Europe o r P a le s tin e . In th e case of th e w est European w r i t e r s , th e above phenomenon i s to be accounted f o r because th e r e has been an a lie n a tio n from t h e i r a n c e s t r a l language. T h e ir inm ost b ein g cannot respond t o i t because th e s p i r i t u a l h i s t o r i c a l lin k s have been broken. The o th e r group o f w r i t e r s , by c o n t r a s t , w r ite in a spontaneous and fre e -flo w in g Hebrew. I t i s a c a te g o ry , no doubt, in which he p la c e d h im s e lf. Kol K itb e , p. 89. 237 meaning w h eth er i t i s l e g a l l y n e c e s s a r y . 116^ S ince th e r e i s no g e n e ra l p r o h ib itio n a g a in s t th e use o f o th e r la n - 6 o guages f o r p ra y e r t o be found in th e le g a l l i t e r a t u r e , 0 * and sin c e a l l a u t h o r i t i e s say t h a t p ra y e r may be spoken c q in any la n g u a g e , th e use o f th e v e rn a c u la r in a r e l i g io u s s e r v ic e in o rd e r to make i t com prehensible w as, f o r him , a c l e a r demand o f th e age. G e ig e r’s d e s ir e to make a r e l i g i o u s s e r v ic e com p r e h e n s ib le to th e modern Jew could n o t have been o f l e s s i n t e r e s t to Ahad Ha-Am,6^ s in c e he was undoubtedly con- l - v in c ed t h a t r e l i g i o u s s e r v ic e s as such had no v a lu e in them selves and se rv e d only to keep th e Jew ish 'h a tio n a l s p i r i t " a l i v e u n t i l a more f o r tu n a te and modern e x p re s s io n co u ld be found f o r i t . 6^ The c o n tin u e d use o f th e Hebrew 6 ^ P h ilip s o n , The Reform Movement in Ju d a ism , p . 166. 62 M. S o tah , 7:1 p ro v id e s a l i s t o f p ra y e rs and o a th s t h a t may be r e c i t e d i n any la n g u a g e . O ther p o r tio n s o f S c r i p t u r e , d e c la r a tio n s and, e . g . , th e b e n e d ic tio n o f th e High P r i e s t , m ust be spoken i n Hebrew. M. S o ta h , 7 :2 . ^ T h e Shema, D eut. 6 :4 - 9 ; th e "E ig h teen B enedic ti o n s 1 1 may be spoken in any la n g u a g e . M. S o ta h , 7 :1 . The Shulhan A ruk, Orah Hayyim, " H ilk o t T e f i l l a h , " 1 0 1 :4 , s t a t e s , y ak o l l e h i t p a l l e l b e k o l la sh a n a s h e r y ir z e h ( "One can pray i n any language one w a n ts1 *). c h "Cut th e p ra y e rs as s h o r t as you l i k e b u t make y o u r Synagogue a haven o f Jew ish know ledge." L e t t e r t o Dr. Judah Magnes (New Y ork), Baden-Baden, S e p t. 18, 1910, q u o ted in Ahad Ha-Am, E s s a y s , L e t t e r s , M emoirs, p . 269. 6 5 " . . . You must te a c h r e l i g i o n on th e b a s is o f n a tio n a lis m . . . But when you t a l k o f p ro p a g a tin g 'r e l i g i o u s n a t i o n a l i s m ,' I do n o t know w hat you mean . . . language, even though i t n o t be com prehensible t o modern man, i s to be p r e f e r r e d because o f th e m ystique a tta c h e d to Hebrew, as w e ll as th e need to keep th e n a t io n a l tongue a l iv e . Ahad Ha-Am took g r e a t umbrage a t G e ig e r's c o n fessio n t h a t a German p ra y e r aro u sed in him deep de v o tio n because f o r him i t was th e language o f th e h e a r t . Although Hebrew was G e ig e r's second to n g u e , o r t r u e r y e t , h is mother to n g u e , s in c e i t was th e f i r s t language he had le a rn e d , he was n e v e rth e le s s c o n s tra in e d to conclude t h a t Hebrew no lo n g e r li v e s among th e p e o p le , and t h a t even th e read in g o f the Law w earies and t r i e s th e p a tie n c e o f th e g r e a te r p o rtio n o f th e c o n g re g a tio n .®6 There were th o se (such as Z acharias F rankel) who argued t h a t th e "Hebrew language i s interw oven w ith th e very l i f e o f Judaism . " 67 I t was n ev er th e in te n tio n o f th e a n c ie n t fi ft ra b b is to e lim in a te Hebrew from th e s e r v ic e . G eiger co n sid ered t h i s tantam ount to stam ping Judaism a n a tio n a l r e l i g i o n , s in c e i t would th e re b y be h e ld t h a t a s p e c i f i c In my view o u r r e lig i o n i s n a t io n a l— th a t i s to sa y , i t i s th e product o f o u r n a tio n a l s p i r i t —b u t th e re v e rs e i s n o t t r u e . I f i t i s im p o ssib le to be a Jew in th e r e l i g io u s sense w ith o u t acknowledging o u r n a t i o n a l i t y , i t is p o s s ib le to be a Jew in th e n a t io n a l sense w ith o u t ac c e p tin g many th in g s in which r e l i g i o n re q u ir e s b e l i e f . . . I b i d . eg P h ilip s o n , The Reform Movement in Judaism , p. 169 67I b i d . , p. 165. 68I b i d . , p. 169. 239 language i s t o be made r e q u i s i t e f o r d e v o tio n . In h is view , Judaism was n o t a n a tio n a l b u t a u n iv e rs a l r e l i g i o n and hence f r e e o f th e claim t h a t i t i s dependent upon a s e p a r a te n a t io n a l la n g u a g e. 69 I f th e q u e s tio n o f th e c e n t r a l i t y o f Hebrew in d iv in e w orship were to be made th e t e s t o f th e a t t i t u d e s o f th e d is c ip le s o f th e W issen sch aft s c h o o l, we would h a rd ly fin d u n an im ity . The argum ents i n fa v o r o f th e usage o f Hebrew o r f o r i t s com plete o r p a r t i a l d e le tio n ra n th e f u l l spectrum o f o p in io n . Ahad Ha-Am i s n o t con ce rn e d w ith th e o b je c tiv e need t o f in d a f a i r b a la n c e o f th e v iew p o in ts p re s e n te d on th e q u e s tio n . His p o s itio n was d o c t r i n a i r e : th e abandonment o f Hebrew, f o r w hatever p u rp o se , could only le a d to a s s im il a ti o n and th e weakening o f th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t . " He fo u g h t w ith eq u al v ig o r th e a tte m p ts o f some t o e s t a b l i s h Y id d ish , a d i a l e c t o f m edieval German, as th e n a t io n a l language o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . This to n g u e , w idely spoken as th e p o p u la r la n guage o f E ast European Jew ry, was d e p re c a te d by Ahad Ha-Am and th e H e b ra is ts as " ja r g o n .” A n a t io n a l la n g u a g e , he 70 arg u e d , i s n o t n e c e s s a r ily th e tongue o f th e m asses. 6 9 I b i d . , pp. 168 f . n a In th e e ssa y Reeb L eshonot (" R iv a l Tongues"), Ahad Ha-Am develops th e argument t h a t s u c c e s s iv e g e n e ra tio n s o f Jews have been h e ld to g e th e r by th e t r i p l e n a t io n a l bond o f r e l i g i o n , l i t e r a t u r e and la n g u ag e. O rig in a lly " ro o te d in th e la n d ," t h i s bond s u rv iv e d o u ts id e o f i t , 240 For Ahad Ha-Am, th e e s s e n t i a l p r e r e q u is i te f o r a n a t io n a l language i s not t h a t i t be a "m other to n g u e” b u t r a t h e r t h a t v e h ic le th ro u g h which th e n a t io n , in s u c c e s siv e gen- 71 e r a t i o n s , e x p re sse s i t s e l f . Hebrew alone f u l f i l l s t h i s re q u ire m e n t and i t alone q u a l i f i e s as th e " n a tio n a l l a n guage" o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . 72 Ahad Ha-Am i s a t p h ilo s o p h ic a l v a ria n c e w ith G e ig e r, n o t on th e valu e o f th e co n tin u ed use o f th e Hebrew la n g u a g e , f o r G eiger a ls o w rote many s c h o la r ly a r t i c l e s i n Hebrew, b u t on th e purpose and contem porary use o f th e tongue. G eiger w rote in Hebrew f o r th e same reaso n t h a t s c h o la r s o f h i s day co n tin u ed to w rite in L a tin . As L atin was th e lin g u a f ra n c a o f th e non-Jew ish w o rld , so c l a s s i c a l Hebrew rem ained th e t r a d i t i o n a l tongue in th e w o rld o f Jew ish s c h o la r s h ip . For Ahad Ha-Am, how e v e r, Hebrew was th e n a tio n a l language o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , n o t only i n an h i s t o r i c a l sense b u t in th e con tem porary w orld as w e ll. The use o f Hebrew was n o t t o be b u t a t a p r i c e . One o f th e d e trim e n ts o f D iaspora e x i s te n c e was t h a t Hebrew ceased being a n a t u r a l l y spoken to n g u e. Kol K itb e , p. 179. Any t r u e n a t io n a l e d u c a tio n a l e n t e r p r i s e must have th e te a c h in g o f Hebrew a t i t s co re so t h a t even in th e D iaspora a m assive e f f o r t to r e g a in th e s o v e re ig n ty o f Hebrew as a l i v i n g tongue must be a t tem pted. Ahad Ha-Am, Simon Dubnow and Y. L. K a tz n e lso n , H a-lash o n W e-ha-hinuk (Cracow: Joseph F is h e r P u b ., 1 9 0 7 ), p . 6 . 71Kol K itb e , pp. 175-180. 7^ I b i d . , p. 404. 2*fl lim ite d to s c h o la r ly jo u rn a ls b u t had once ag ain to come a l iv e as th e v i t a l , c r e a tiv e voice through which th e " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " co u ld ex p ress i t s e l f . Ahad Ha-Am, w e ll aware t h a t e f f o r t s to r e s u s c i t a t e th e language so as to make i t a liv i n g tongue had begun s e v e r a l g e n e ra tio n s b e fo re h i s tim e , ta k e s o ccasio n to c r i t i c i z e th e outcome o f th e s e a ttem p ts as w e ll. He p o in ts out th e g la r in g s t y l i s t i c e r r o r s in th e Hebrew o f w r i te r s who, he claim ed , w rote in th e langauge because of a com pulsion and n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n to do s o . As th e e d i t o r o f th e l i t e r a r y jo u r n a l, H a sh ilo a h , he had o ccasio n to r e j e c t reams o f m an u scrip t m a te r ia l b ec au se , in h is 7 ^ o p in io n , i t was s t y l i s t i c a l l y in a d e q u a te . As a c a r e f u l s tu d e n t o f languages in g e n e ra l, and o f Hebrew in p a r t i c u l a r , Ahad Ha-Am u n d ersco red th e t h e s i s t h a t , as new id eas are born and th o u g h t- p a tte m s d ev elo p , language must be made f l e x i b l e to encompass them. He p o in ts t o examples from th e Jew ish l i t e r a t u r e o f th e m edieval p e rio d to 73 The e d i t o r i a l p o lic y o f H ashiloah can, in i t s e x tre m ity , be c h a ra c te riz e d by Ahad Ha-Am*s l e t t e r t o one, M. Z. (Ahad Ha-Am e d ite d out th e name) o f Novograd, dated O dessa, June 1 3 , 1897, in which he b lu n tly s t a t e s : "That which i s not a c c e p ta b le , i s n o t f i t to p r i n t and no e x p la n a tio n i s c a lle d f o r ." I g g e r o t , I , 225. Cf. Jacob Fichman, "Ahad Ha-Am, Ka-am an H a-sig n o n ," E itz a ro n , XVI (A ugust-Septem ber, 19*t7), pp. 229-232. He was a ls o a very firm e d i t o r as i s in d ic a te d by much o th e r correspondence from b e l lic o s e au th o rs whose work Ahad Ha-Am had e d ite d ; e . g . , L e tte r to P. P ines o f R azinoi, d a te d Odessa, June 25, 1897. I g g e r o t, I , 230, e t p a ssim . 242 i l l u s t r a t e h is c o n te n tio n t h a t th o se who e x e rte d th e e f f o r t to w rite in Hebrew had to keep rem olding th e la n guage. I t became n e c e ss a ry to have com m entaries and ex p la n a tio n s o f new vocab u lary appended to p h ilo s o p h ic and 74 l i t e r a r y w orks. Ahad Ha-Am ta u g h t t h a t to keep a l a n guage a l iv e such e f f o r t s , however a r t i f i c a l , a re n e c e ssa ry . G eiger had in tim a te d t h a t , because o f th e a r t i f i c i a l i t y in v o lv e d in th e e f f o r t , Hebrew was outmoded as a spoken tongue. Furtherm ore, s in c e Jews had t o use th e language o f t h e i r re s p e c tiv e homelands as t h e i r n a t io n a l lan g u ag e, Hebrew as a liv in g tongue had become an anachronism . G eig er was f u l l y p re p a re d to co n tin u e i t s use in a l i t e r ary s e t t i n g , f o r t h i s was a s c h o la r ly co n v e n tio n . I t i s s p e c i f i c a l l y a t th e s e p o in ts t h a t Ahad Ha-Am le v e ls h is c r i t i q u e . He a g re e s w ith G eig e r t h a t th e r e i s a c e r t a i n a r t i f i c i a l i t y both in c o n tin u in g th e use o f Hebrew and in th e conscious c r e a tio n o f new forms f o r i t . Languages u s u a lly develop norm ally th ro u g h usage an d ,* as th e need f o r new forms a r i s e s , a d a p ta tio n s a re made. Since Hebrew as a language had been u sed out o f v e rb a l c o n te x t, so t o sp eak , f o r many c e n t u r i e s , i t s d ecad en t forms had been r e ta in e d . Ahad Ha-Am, u n lik e G e ig e r, 7 U Kol K itb e , p . 93. S p e c if ic re f e r e n c e i s made to th e Tibbon f a m ily a n d t o th e gram m arians o f P ro v e n ce, who developed th e gram m atical g u id e s and fo rm u la te d th e r u le s f o r th e u n d ersta n d in g o f th e Hebrew la n g u ag e. 243 e n v isio n e d th e f u tu r e u t i l i t y o f th e language in a n a t u r a l environm ent in P a l e s t i n e . For t h i s re a s o n , he p le ad ed f o r a m ajor language reform whereby modem concepts are n o t m erely t r a n s l a t e d in to an idiom in consonance w ith th e ' demands o f an a r c h a ic la n g u a g e , b u t are v ia b le because th e grammar and v o cab u lary are in easy harmony w ith th e new co n cep ts and ways o f th in k in g t h a t a re to be ad a p ted . The l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s o f b i b l i c a l Hebrew and i t s grammar have r e s te d to o long in an a tro p h ie d s t a t e , and t h e i r i n f l e x i b i l i t y h as p re v e n te d th e ready a b s o rp tio n o f 75 th e new c o n c e p ts. There i s no p a u c ity in th e c o n c e p tu a l a r e a o f a v a ila b le id e a s th a t need to be ab so rb ed . What i s la c k in g , how ever, i s th e n a t u r a l environm ent i n which such l i n g u i s t i c developm ents u s u a lly ta k e p la c e . Hence, th e r e i s no o th e r re c o u rs e th an co n scio u s l i n g u i s t i c re fo rm , however a r t i f i c i a l t h a t may be f o r th e tim e b e in g , to b r in g Hebrew in to c u r r e n t c o in a g e . 76 Ahad Ha-Am proceeded along a n o th e r l i n e o f c r i t i cism as w e ll. While th e w r i te r s o f th e W issen sch aft s c h o o l, when th ey w rote in Hebrew, w rote s t i l t e d l y and p e d a n t i c a l l y , th e H askalah w r i te r s seemed to have a e s t h e t i c c o n s id e r a tio n s as t h e i r prim ary o b je c ti v e . The use o f a 75I b i d . , p. 97. 76I b i d . , pp. 9 8 f f . 244 p o e t i c a l and o rn a te s t y l e , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e books o f th e B ib le , was t h e i r m e tie r . In p u rsu in g t h i s c o u rse , th ey c r e a te d p le a s a n t sounding b e l l e s - l e t t r e s , devoid o f th e s tim u la tin g i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n te n t t h a t was th e p rid e o f th e m edieval l i t e r a t u r e , b u t o f th e wrong g enre as w e ll as q u a l i t y . 77 In h i s e s s a y s , Ahad Ha-Am succeeded in i n c o rp o ra tin g th e h ig h l i t e r a r y and i n t e l l e c t u a l q u a l i t i e s whose absence he bemoaned in th e Hebrew l i t e r a t u r e o f h i s tim e . He c o n s c io u sly s e t h im s e lf th e ta s k o f w ritin g c l e a r l y , l o g i c a l l y and p e r s u a s iv e l y . 78 That he could move h i s re a d e rs to resp o n se i s a t t e s t e d t o in th e numerous addenda to th e e s sa y s and by h is voluminous correspondence which t r e a t o f m a tte rs about which he w rote and about which c o n tro v e rsy c e n te re d . T hat Ahad Ha-Am was i n t e l l e c t u a l l y p re p a re d to p r o pose and o u tlin e new c u l t u r a l p r o je c ts r e f l e c t i n g h is p a r t i c u l a r p o in t o f view , may be dem onstrated by an im agina t i v e p ro p o s a l, r i c h in m e rit b u t doomed to f a i l u r e because o f h i s own c h ro n ic i n a b i l i t y to o rg a n iz e th e means fo r a c h ie v in g h is g o a l s . He proposed th e c r e a tio n o f a T hesaurus o f Judaism which would o f f s e t th e w r itin g s o f 7 7 I b i d . 78 Shalom S p ie g e l, Hebrew Reborn (New York: The M acm illan C o., 19 3 0 ), p. 274, comments, "There was h a rd ly a n o th e r Hebrew w r i t e r o f th e tim e a b le to e x p re ss h is th o u g h ts so c l e a r l y and p r e c i s e l y ." 245 th e W issen sch aft sch o o l on th e one hand and H askalah l i t e r a t u r e on th e o th e r . There i s no q u e s tio n t h a t Ahad Ha-Am had fo llo w ed c lo s e ly th e re s e a rc h e s o f th e German s a v a n ts . He adm ired t h e i r a tte m p t a t u n d e rsta n d in g th e Jew ish p a s t b u t c o n te s te d t h e i r claim o f o b j e c t i v i t y , as w e ll as t h e i r c o n c lu s io n s , i f th e y were a t v a ria n c e w ith h i s own p o in t o f view . Whether o r n o t Ahad Ha-Am had p eru se d th e f u l l c o n te n t and scope o f th e W issen sch aft 79 sc h o o l i s p ro b le m a tic a l. He d o es, how ever, make ample enough re fe re n c e t o s p e c if ic s o f th e th o u g h t o f some o f i t s l e a d e r s . That Ahad Ha-Am was a c lo se fo llo w e r o f th e on M o n a ts s c h rift i s n o te d in an e s s a y . Ahad Ha-Am was s u f f i c i e n t l y im p ressed , p a r t i c u l a r l y by th e su c cess o f th e M o n a ts s c h r if t, to want to put th e new Jew ish knowledge to use in h is own way. A pparently f e e lin g th a t enough was known about th e Jew ish p a s t to p u t a s e r i e s o f monographs, t r e a t i n g b ro ad a re a s o f Jew ish know ledge, in to an O zar, a form of e n c y c lo p e d ia , he proceeded to o u tli n e th e need ✓ 81 f o r such a p r o je c t i n H am elitz in th e summer o f 1894. Ahad Ha-Am1s th e s i s was t h a t th e low i n t e l l e c t u a l waterm ark o f th e Judaism o f h is day was in g r e a t measure 79Aryeh Simon and Joseph H e ll e r , Ahad Ha-Am, H a -is h , P o 'a lo W e-torato (Je ru sa le m : The Hebrew U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1 9 5 5 ), p . 57. 80Kol K itb e , p . 178. 81I b i d . , p. 104. due to th e o b scu ran tism o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s and th e apathy and ig n o ran ce o f th o se whp had become em ancipated from Judaism . The f u tu r e o f h is own program c l e a r ly was dependent upon n o t o nly th o se who were a lre a d y members o f th e Hobebe Zion g ro u p , b u t a ls o th e v a s t number o f Jews who had d e c la re d them selves f r e e o f th e r e l i g i o u s o b l i g a tio n s o f Judaism . For t h i s segm ent, as w e ll as a l l who s t i l l c a re d som ething f o r t r a d i t i o n , he w anted a handy re fe r e n c e volume, convinced t h a t knowledge about Judaism , s tr u c t u r e d and w r i tte n in a n a t i o n a l i s t v e in , would b rin g many to th e b anners o f th e Hobebe Z io n . Ahad Ha-Am con te n d e d t h a t knowledge o f Judaism and an em o tio n al t i e to i t s h i s t o r i c r o o ts h a d , in th e p a s t , saved Judaism from e x t i n c t i o n . He c i t e s th e example o f Rabbi Yohanan ben Z akkai, th e g r e a t s a g e , who, upon th e r u in o f a d e s tro y e d Jew ish s t a t e , b u i l t an academy o f le a r n in g . E s ta b lis h e d a t Yavneh, th e academy s e n t Jew ish s c h o la rs t o th e f a r - flu n g Jew ish com m unities o f th e D iasp o ra. The p a r t i c u l a r k in d o f P h a r is a ic Judaism t h a t th e se ra b b is ta u g h t en a b led th e Jew ish r e l i g i o n to su rv iv e th e f a l l o f th e Jew ish S t a t e . 82 Ahad Ha-Am d e riv e s a n o th e r example o f t h i s s o r t from th e M ishnaic p e r io d . In M aimonides' I n tr o d u c tio n to th e Mishneh T o rah , i t i s s t a t e d t h a t Rabbi Ju d a h , th e P rin c e (135-217 C .E .) , wanted to p la c e an a u t h o r i t a t i v e 82I b i d . , pp. 10M - f . 247 code o f law in th e hands o f th e s c h o la rs and th e people so t h a t th e law would n o t be l o s t and t r a d i t i o n become * 83 e x t i n c t . Maimonides h im s e lf , Ahad Ha-Am n o te s , when he saw th e ram pant co n fu sio n t h a t p r e v a ile d among th e Jews o f h i s tim e as to what was b in d in g t r a d i t i o n , w rote a com pendium o f th e O ral Law. In c l e a r , p r e c is e language and in l o g ic a l form , he w rote th e k in d o f re fe re n c e work which made i t easy to a s c e r ta in what were th e a c c e p te d le g a l o p in io n s . Maimonides c re a te d th e k in d o f thorough work w hich, in h is own w ords, "made i t u n n ecessary t o c o n s u lt any o th e r book." O ther works o f s i m i l a r i n t e n t em anated Oh from o th e r tim es o f i n t e l l e c t u a l o r r e lig i o u s c r i s e s . Joseph K a ro 's Shulhan Aruk became th e n e c e ss a ry r e lig i o u s g u id e p o st f o r th e rem nants o f S ep h ard ic Jewry a f t e r th e Spanish I n q u i s i t i o n o f 1492 had ru p tu re d th e peace and to p p le d th e crowning achievem ents o f c e n tu r ie s o f Jew ish Q C l i t e r a r y and r e l i g i o u s c r e a t i v i t y in S pain. 8 3 I b i d . , p. 105. • w Q C I b i d . E p s te in w r ite s o f t h i s p e rio d : "One o f the e f f e c t s o f t h i s new d is p e rs io n was to in tro d u c e much con fu s io n in th e whole range o f Jew ish r i t u a l and l e g a l p ra c t i c e . . . The tim es c r ie d out f o r some a u t h o r i t a t i v e word which would be a c c e p te d by a l l I s r a e l . . . I t was c o n s id e r a tio n s such as th e s e which le d t o th e a tte m p t made by Jacob Berab (1474-1546), an e x i le d S panish s c h o la r , to e s t a b l i s h i n P a l e s t i n e , where h e , to g e th e r w ith many o th e r Spanish e x i l e s had ta k e n r e f u g e , a Sanhedrin,w hich like i t s 248 Ahad Ha-Am p la c e s th e needs f o r an Ozar Hayahadut in th e l i n e o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n . The c r i s i s o f h i s own tim e he diagnosed as one o f s p i r i t u a l m a la ise and ig n o ran ce o f th e p a s t . The la c k o f c a p a c ity on th e p a r t o f Jews to re c a p tu re th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " had c r e a te d th e c r i s i s . In tim es such as th e s e , th e " s c h o la rs h ip f o r i t s own sake" approach on th e p a r t o f th e W isse n sc h a ft sch o o l was a luxury th e n a tio n co u ld i l l a f f o r d . What th e n was to be th e u ltim a te purpose o f th e O zar? What were t o be i t s c o n te n ts? The form o f th e Ozar was to be m odem , a s e r i e s o f monographs co v erin g a wide range o f in fo rm a tio n . Ahad Ha-Am o u tli n e s in some d e t a i l what i s to be in c lu d e d . I n summary, i t was to be ex h a u s tiv e , s c h o la r ly w ith o u t b ein g p e d a n tic , f u l l o f con tem porary s c h o la r s h ip y e t e m o tio n a lly moving and con v in c in g ; i t was t o av o id m in u tia e which would b o re th e p ro to ty p e i n form er tim e s , was to w ie ld supreme a u t h o r it y o v e r a l l d is p e rs e d Je w rie s in v a rio u s w ays. For some reasons th e a tte m p t f a i l e d , b u t n o t b e fo re Berab had 'o r d a in e d 1 as members o f h i s p roposed Sanhedrin f o u r s c h o la rs , among whom was Joseph Karo (1488-1575), a n o th e r Spanish re fu g e e , who was one o f th e fo rem o st l e g i s t s o f h i s g e n e r a t i o n . The o r d in a tio n o f Karo was to prove o f in c a lc u la b l e s ig n if ic a n c e f o r th e f u tu r e o f Judaism . . . he was c a lle d upon to produce t h a t in stru m e n t o f u n i f i c a t i o n which B e ra b 's p r o je c te d i n s t i t u t i o n had f a i l e d t o a c h ie v e . T his in stru m e n t was to become none o th e r th a n th e Shulchan Arujgi( S et T a b le ) . Taking A l f a s i , Maimonides and A sher as h i s th r e e s ta n d a rd a u t h o r i t i e s , Karo d ec id ed t o a c c e p t as a u t h o r i t a t i v e th e ag reed o p in io n o f any two o f th e t h r e e , ex c ep t in c a ses where th e m ost a n c ie n t a u t h o r i t i e s were a g a in s t them , and p roceeded to f i x th e law a c c o rd in g ly ." E p s te in , Judaism , pp. 260-261. 249 r e a d e r and in s te a d t r e a t s u b je c ts in a b ro ad sweep, r e - 86 s u i t i n g i n a p o p u la r r e n d itio n o f ev en ts and movements. C le a r ly , t h i s endeavor was f a r removed from th e "knowl edge f o r i t s own sake" approach o f th e W issen sch aft s c h o o l. Ahad Ha-Am, in a n o te to h i s f i r s t essay (1894) on th e s u b j e c t , bemoaned th e f a c t t h a t , s ix y e a rs a f t e r th e e s s a y 's p u b lic a t io n , th e id e a o f an Ozar had n o t y e t m a t e r i a l i z e d . 87 Because he re f u s e d to ac ce p t th e p o s i t i o n o f e d i t o r , and mounting o p p o s itio n to th e p r o je c t d ev elo p ed , th e id e a fo u n d ered . Ahad Ha-Am was deeply d is tu r b e d when th e American Jew ish E n c y c lo p e d ia , under th e e d i to r s h ip o f Dr. Isa d o re S in g e r, appeared in th e y e a rs 1901-1906. M odelled on th e p a t te r n and re s e a rc h e s o f th e W issen sch aft sc h o o l, u sin g th e s c h o la r ly fin d in g s o f b o th Jew ish and non-Jew ish s c h o la r s , th e en c y clo p e d ia r e p r e s e n te d th e c u lm in a tio n o f th e type o f e f f o r t he con tin u e d to d ec ry . I t was s c h o la rs h ip w ith o u t a n a tio n a l b i a s . He c o n s id e re d i t a l a s t i n g reproabh and a n a tio n a l d is g ra c e t h a t th e f i r s t com prehensive Jew ish e n c y clo p e d ia app eared in E n g lis h . 88 86Kol K itb e , pp. 106-10 8 . 87 I b i d . , p . 104, n o te * (1 ). 88 I b id . O ther i n t e l l e c t u a l v e n tu re s o f Ahad Ha-Am a ls o went by th e w ay sid e, among them ( 1 ) a d e f i n i t i v e work on Jew ish e t h i c s to c o u n te ra c t th e com pletely 250 I t i s c l e a r t h a t on th e is s u e s o f r e l i g i o n , c u l tu r e and lan g u ag e, Abraham G eiger and Ahad Ha-Am o p e ra te d from d i f f e r e n t y e t r e l a t e d p re m is e s . G eig er and h is sc h o o l w anted to w re st th e im petus to reform Judaism from th e hands o f d e d ic a te d y e t r e l a t i v e l y u n le a rn e d laymen and p la c e th e r e in s c o n t r o ll in g r e lig i o u s reform in to th e hands o f th e r a b b in a te . The a s s im ila to r y ex c esses t o which Ahad Ha-Am c o n s ta n tly r e f e r s were n o t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Zunz, F ran k el and G e ig e r, who fought d i l i g e n t l y a g a in s t Reform Judaism becoming a K a r a it ic s e c t . The s e rio u s n e s s o f th e need f o r r e lig i o u s refo rm , so as to p erm it th e e n try o f th e Jew in to th e modern w orld and t o stem th e e a r l y waves o f apostasy,®® i s m entioned n o t a t a l l by Ahad Ha-Am. The c o n s e rv a tio n o f th e Jew ish peo p le and i t s s p i r i t u a l re so u rc e s in a w orld in which th e r e was o b je c tiv e approach to th e problem in M oritz L a z a ru s, Die E th ik des Judenthum s( F r a n k f u r t: J . Kauffmann, 1898); and ( 2 ) th e o p p o rtu n ity to shape th e academ ic d e s tin y o f D ropsie C o lleg e o f P h ila d e lp h ia , Ahad Ha-Am, l e t t e r s t o L u b a rsk i, New York, from O dessa, A p ril 29 and 30, 1906, I g g e r o t , IV, 26-32. The Hebrew U n iv e rs ity p r o j e c t , how e v e r , d id re c e iv e Ahad Ha-Am's s u p p o rt, and i t d id sue* ceed. The id e a s which h e lp e d to mold i t in i t s fo rm ativ e y e a rs were h i s . I t was n o t to be j u s t a n o th e r u n iv e r s ity o f th e European stamp b u t one t h a t would le a d to th e r e v iv a l o f th e Hebrew s p i r i t . Leon Simon, "The U n iv e rs ity and Achad Ha-amism," The New P a l e s t i n e , V I I I , ed . Meyer W . W eisgal (March 27, 1925), pp. 3l3 f . 89 W e make re fe r e n c e a g a in to David F rie d la e n d e r (1756-1834), who was p a r t i c u l a r l y concerned w ith stemming th e t i d e o f a p o s ta s y . P la u t, The R ise o f Reform Ju d aism , p. 10. 251 p o l i t i c a l em ancipation cannot a c tu a l ly be e q u a te d o r e v a lu a te d in term s o f th e needs o f th e unem ancipated Jews of E a s te rn Europe and R u ssia . Those who worked on r e l i g ious refo rm d id so o u t o f th e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t Judaism in th e modem w orld could n o t f l o u r i s h i f i t rem ained p r i m a rily n a t i o n a l i s t in to n e and s e p a r a t i s t i n i n c l i n a t i o n . I f Jews were t o be p a r t o f th e modem w o rld , th e a re a o f d is t in c t iv e n e s s could only be along r e l i g i o u s lin e s in which th e u n iv e r s a l a s p e c ts o f Judaism were to be u nder sc o re d . While d i f f e r i n g w ith th e re fo rm e rs , Ahad Ha-Am re c o g n iz e d , in t h i s r e s p e c t o f th e Reform Movement, ’’de c is iv e p ro o f" t h a t t h e i r Hebrew i n d i v i d u a l i t y s t i l l liv e d . G eiger made i t c l e a r t h a t th e purpose o f h i s reform was n o t to encourage what Ahad Ha-Am d read ed , th e fragm en t a t i o n o f th e Jew ish p e o p le ,91' b u t r a t h e r t h a t every Jew ish community must be c o n s id e rs a b ranch o f th e t o t a l i t y o f Judaism . In t u r n , every Jew ish community must r e f l e c t th e t o t a l i t y o f Judaism , f o r every phase o f Jew ish h is t o r y i s a p a r t o f i t s h i s t o r y . I t i s as im p o ssib le f o r th e contem porary p e rio d to t e a r i t s e l f co m p letely lo o se from th e p a s t as i t i s f o r th e in d iv id u a l member t o s e v e r i t s e l f from th e t o t a l corpus o f Judaism w ith o u t harm t o itself.92 "" § ~ ~ 9 0 Kq1 K itb e , p . 89. 9 ^ -I b i d . 9^?. . . d ie Gegenwart kann s ic h eben so weneg 252 A ll th e in d iv id u a l p a r ts o f Judaism c o n s t i t u t e d , f o r G eig e r, member organism s o f one g r e a t w hole, in which no in d iv id u a l segment may be ig n o re d o r one f a c e t to r n out o f i t s h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t and unduly em phasized. I t i s th e s c h o l a r 's duty to an a ly ze in d iv id u a l f a c e ts and th e n 9 3 r e l a t e them to th e w hole. This e f f o r t m ust, how ever, be u n d ertak en w ith re s p e c t to th e canons o f c r i t i c a l in q u ir y . G e ig e r's n o tio n o f th e " sc ie n c e o f Judaism " de manded a c r i t i c a l stu d y o f th e Jew ish p a s t , unhampered by dogm atic assu m p tio n s. Judaism , he h e l d , had no cause to f e a r an u n b iased c r i t i c a l exam ination.® 1 * He threw him s e l f in t o s c i e n t i f i c work w ith g r e a t z e a l and became re c o g n iz e d as B ib le c r i t i c , h i s t o r i a n , p h i l o l o g i s t , and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , a tte m p tin g to e x e m p lify , in h is own r e s e a r c h , th e canons o f in q u iry he c h e ris h e d and th e von d e r V ergangenheit g a n z lic h lo s r e i s s e n wie das e in z e ln e G lie d von dem ganzen ju d is c h e n K orper, ohne Schaden an s ic h s e l b s t zu l e i d e n ." Abraham G e ig e r, N achgelassene S c h r if t e n , I , ed . Ludwig G eig er ( B e r lin : Louis 6 e r s c h e l V erlags-B uchhandlung, 1 8 7 5 ), 205. 9 3 I b i d . , I I , 39 f . 9 U I b i d . , I I , 62. G e ig e r's view on th e new le a r n in g can be d is c e rn e d from a l e t t e r w r i t t e n to Leopold Zunz on th e o c c a sio n o f th e l a t t e r ' s s e v e n tie th b ir th d a y (A ugust 10, 1864). The l e t t e r ta k e s on th e g u is e o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l awakening to Zunz and h i s exposure to th e l a t t e r ' s Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie W issen sch aft des Judenthum s. I b i d . , I , 236-308'.---------------------------------------------------------------------- -------- 253 c a t h o l i c i t y o f i n t e r e s t which he claim ed were demanded o f th e s c h o l a r . ^ For G eig e r, I s r a e l i s th e people o f th e r e v e l a t i o n , endowed w ith a g en iu s f o r r e l i g i o n , making i t th e f i t in stru m e n t f o r b rin g in g th e human in to c o n ta c t w ith th e d iv in e . R e lig io n i s n o t a system o f b e l i e f s , p r o h ib itio n s and group p r a c t i c e s , b u t an a t t i t u d e o f th e s p i r i t . R e lig io n i s th e a s p i r a t i o n a f t e r th e Most High whom we . . . conceive as th e s o l e , f u l l t r u t h ; th e s o a rin g up t o th e A ll- e n c ir c lin g U nity which man, th ro u g h th e whole n a tu re o f h is s p i r i t , p resupposes as a w hole, as th e fo u n d a tio n o f a l l th a t e x i s t s and s h a l l b e , as th e source o f a l l e a r t h l y and s p i r i t u a l l i f e , o f which he b e a rs w ith in him th e v iv id c o n v ic tio n , though he be unable to com pletely know i t . 96 C le a rly , G eiger h a s d iv e s te d h im s e lf o f a l l c o n d itio n a l n a t io n a l elem ents in h is approach to r e l i g i o n , c o n s ta n tly a p p e a lin g to th e u n iv e r s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Judaism as 9 5 A le s s th a n c h a r i ta b le e s tim a te o f G e ig e r's o b j e c t i v i t y in h i s tre a tm e n t o f b i b l i c a l and r a b b in ic m a t e r i a l s , as w e ll as h is views on Jew ish n a tio n a lis m , i s g iv en by Solomon S c h e c h te r, S tu d ie s in Judaism (T h ird S e r ie s ; P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n ' S o c ie ty o f Am erica, 1924), pp. 4 7-83; and a g a in in Seminary A ddresses (New York: Burning Bush P re s s , 1959), pp. 173-19 3. A more b alan ce d a n a ly s is and e s tim a te o f G e ig e r's l i f e and work i s to be found in Max W iener, Abraham G eig er and L ib e r a l Judaism , t r . E rn s t J . S chlochhauer ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n Socisfcy o f Am erica, 1962). Q C Abraham G e ig e r, Judaism and i t s H is to r y , t r . C harles Newburgh ( In two p a r t s ; New Y ork: The Bloch P u b lish in g C o., 1911), p . 22. 25U . th e y were conceived by him. G eiger denies any develop ment o f th e God concept in Judaism , h o ld in g i t t o have been th e l o f t i e s t from th e o u t s e t , e x p re ssin g th e One, Who i s " S e l f - e x i s t e n t , e t e r n a l , a lm ig h ty , g ra c io u s and m e r c ifu l, lo n g - s u f f e r in g and abundant in goodness and 9 7 in t r u t h . " T his fundam ental id e a i s th e p ro d u c tio n o f th e g en iu s o f th e n a tio n , a s p e c ia l g i f t bestow ed by God upon th e people o f I s r a e l . T his co n cep tio n o f God has i t s g e n e s is " in th e s e c r e t depth o f th e Jew ish s p i r i t and i t i s p r e s e n t as soon as i t f in d s i t s e x p re s s io n , i t 9 8 i s u n d isp u te d in i t s e n t i r e l i t e r a t u r e . . ." This i s what G eiger h o ld s to be r e v e la tio n and re p r e s e n ts as th e Q Q c a p a c ity o f th e whole o f th e people o f I s r a e l . S ince th e w orld has n o t y e t reach ed p e r f e c t io n , alth o u g h C h r i s t i a n i t y and Islam have in c o rp o ra te d mucn o f Judaism , th e need f o r p ro p h e tic I s r a e l s t i l l rem ain s. I t i s I s r a e l 's ta s k to c o n tin u e to preach th e pure d o c trin e o f e t h i c a l monotheism because i t s o r i g i n a l g en iu s has n o t d im in ish e d . I t i s n e c e ssa ry to do t h i s as a community o f b e l ie v e r s and n o t as a p o l i t i c a l n a t i o n . 100 This m issio n can c l e a r l y be accom plished only th ro u g h d is p e rs io n and 9 7 I b i d . , p . 34. 9 8 I b i d . , p . HO2 . " i b i d . , p. ^6 . 100I b i d . , pp. H7, 87. 255 n o t by any id eo lo g y em anating from P a l e s t i n e . G e i g e r , re f u s in g to a c c e p t Jew ish n a t i o n a l i s t s e n tim e n t, s u p p lie d h is own d e f i n i t i o n o f th e r o le and d e s tin y o f th e Jew ish p eople w hich, w hile ro o te d in r a b b in ic lo r e and m edieval Jew ish p h ilo so p h y , i s n e v e rth e le s s o b je c tio n a b le from a h i s t o r i c a l as w e ll as a t r a d i t i o n a l Jew ish v ie w p o in t. G e ig e r, aware o f t h i s o b je c tio n , c a lle d upon th e a r b i t e r o f f r e e th o u g h t to c l a r i f y th e n a tu re o f r e v e l a tio n and th e m issio n o f I s r a e l , and determ ine w hat, in th e l a s t 10 9 a n a ly s is , was r e l i g i o u s l y r e le v a n t. * Reason a d ju d i cated. what was d iv in e ly in s p ir e d in th e B ib le and Talmud, and common human u n d e rsta n d in g determ ined th e t r u t h o f a • * ~ 0 1 I b i d . , pp. 218 f . IQ^i b i d . , p. 382. "The in te g r a t i o n o f Judaism i n t o th e fram e o f modern c u ltu r e was th e ab so rb in g con cern o f l i b e r a l th e o lo g y in n in e te e n th - c e n tu r y German Jew ry. 'W isse n sc h a ft des Judentum s' as a h i s t o r i c a l sc ie n c e was conceived as th e to o l f o r th e accom plishm ent o f t h i s end. I t was hoped t h a t once one had g rasp ed th e developm ent o f th e Jew ish 'i d e a ' as a h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s , i t s essen ce would emerge in i t s u n a d u lte r a te d p u r i t y , f r e e d from th e encumbrances o f t r a d i t i o n , and one had no doubt t h a t th e 'r e f i n e d ' (g e l a u t e r t ) type o f Judaism th u s a r r iv e d a t would s p le n d id ly f i t in to th e w orld o f modern Europe. One f a i l e d t o see t h a t f a r from tr a c in g th e h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y o f Judaism , one was g uided by a p r e conceived id e a o f what Judaism ought to be i n o rd e r to conform to th e s ta n d a rd s o f n in e te e n th - c e n tu r y r e l i g i o u s th o u g h t, and i n th e w ell-know n H eg elian fa s h io n th e h i s t o r i c a l p ro c e ss was made to cu lm in ate and re a c h i t s con summation in Abraham G e ig e r's concept o f Reform ." A lexander Altm ann, "Theolpgy i n T w en tieth -C en tu ry German Je w ry ,” Leo Baeck I n s t i t u t e Yearbook I , ed . R obert W eltsch (London: E a st and West L ib ra ry , 1956), p. 19 3. . 256 10 3 r e lig i o u s p r in c ip l e . • # In G e ig e r’s o u tsta n d in g work, U r s c h r if t und Uber- setzu n g en d e r B ib el (B re s la u , 1857) , he dem onstrated t h a t th e c o n f l i c t s w ith in th e Jew ish id e o lo g ic a l w orld o f th e Second Commonwealth a re ap p a re n t in th e b i b l i c a l t e x t .-*-04 His s tu d ie s o f th e b i b l i c a l t e x t , i t s o r ig in and developm ent, r e f l e c t th e canons o f modem c r i t i c i s m . His own p re s u p p o s itio n s , r e l a t i n g to th e uniqueness o f th e Jew ish g enius f o r r e l i g i o n , perm eate h is s c h o la r ly w r i t in g s as w e ll as th e th e o lo g ic a l t r e a t i s e s t h a t he would w r ite from tim e to t i m e . ^ ^ G e ig e r's appeal to th e d i c t a t e s o f re a s o n , in s o r tin g out o f th e t r a d i t i o n s a l i e n t and m eaningful a s p e c ts o f Judaism , was viewed by Ahad Ha-Am as o n e -s id e d . He p re fa c e s h is essay d e a lin g w ith t h i s s u b je c t ("Many In v e n tio n s " ) w ith two q u o ta tio n s from E c c le s i a s te s : "Lo, t h i s only have I found, t h a t God h a th made man u p r ig h t; b u t th ey have sought out many in v e n tio n s ." "Be n o t 10 3 Speaking o f r e v e l a t i o n , he n o te s : "We do not want to l i m i t and d e fin e th e word in any dogm atic manner; i t may be understo o d in d i f f e r e n t ways, b u t as to i t s e ssen c e i t rem ains th e same: th e p o in t o f c o n ta c t o f human reaso n w ith th e Fundamental Source o f a l l th in g s ." G e ig e r, Judaism and i t s H is to r y , p . 47. ■^^G eiger, N achgelassene S c h r i f t e n , IV, 18-47. Ludwig G eig er, who com piled h is f a t h e r 's work, was a l i t e r a r y c r i t i c not h ig h ly re g a rd e d by Ahad Ha-Am. K o lK itb e , p. 183, n o te 1. 257 rig h te o u s overmuch; n e i t h e r make t h y s e l f o v e r w is e . 1 ' 106 The e n d le ss t h e o r e t i c a l d is p u ta tio n s in th e a re n a o f human th o u g h t, and th e changes in what has been con s id e re d t r u e in human c i v i l i z a t i o n , ought t o g iv e pause to anyone who h o ld s th e human mind to be governed by "re a so n 1 ' a lo n e . There w as, Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e d , a n o th e r more p o te n t fo rc e u n co n scio u sly a t work which h a rn e s s e d th e mind t o i t s own u se s. This f o r c e , which ta k e s on w hatever g u is e s a r e r e q u ir e d f o r i t s n e e d s, i s "th e w i l l to l i v e and w e ll- b e in g ." N ature im p lan ts t h i s d riv e w ith in man, le a d in g him to pursue p le a s u re and shun p a in . A ll c r e a tu r e s are governed by t h i s .b a sic im p u lse , and, in th e case o f human b e in g s , i t in flu e n c e s t h e i r b e l i e f s and o p in io n s e i t h e r consci& usly o r u n c o n sc io u sly . When th e d e s ir e f o r l i f e i s th w a rte d , o r p a in i s i n f l i c t e d upon a human b e in g , th e " w ill to l i v e " im pels th e d is q u ie tin g e x p e rie n c e to be tra n sfo rm e d i n to th o u g h t and r a t i o n a l i z e d in some way, u n t i l a s t a t e o f harmony can once a g a in be r e s to r e d . In th e e a r ly c a r e e r o f th e human r a c e , b e fo re men were given to r e f l e c t i v e th o u g h t in th e way we now u n d e rsta n d such th o u g h t, " th e w i l l to liv e " c o o rd in a te d two p r o p e n s itie s o f man, "Reason" and 10 7 " Im a g in a tio n ." "Reason" d isc o v e re d th e c a u s a l nexus 1 0 6 E c c l. 7:29, 7 :1 6 . Kol K itb e , p. 61. 107Kol K itb e , p . 61. 258 in th in g s and ta u g h t man how to r e a l i z e h i s d e s ire s and remove e x t e r n a l o b s ta c le s . "Im ag in atio n " guarded m an's in n e r l i f e , b rin g in g com fort i n tim e s o f tu rm o il and s tr e n g th e n in g him w ith hope so as to keep him from f a l te r in g and d e s p a irin g o f l i f e . 1 0 8 "Im ag in atio n " was th e p a s to r and p r i e s t o f man’s in n e r l i f e . Whenever "Reason" f a i l e d t o a t t a i n i t s m a stery and c o n tr o l o f th e e x te r n a l w o rld , "Im ag in atio n " would le a d th e way to in n e r q u ie tu d e and r e s t . I t would re sh a p e th e ch a in o f cause and e f f e c t , shedding a new and c h e e r f u l l i g h t on what had t r a n s p i r e d , w hether i t was f o r good o r i l l . I t i s to th e power o f "Im a g in a tio n " t h a t Ahad Ha-Am r e le g a te d th e o r i g i n s o f r e l i g i o n . 1 0 9 When, f o r exam ple, th e th u n d er c la p and l ig h t n in g b o l t d riv e s mam w ith quaking f e a r from th e f i e l d and causes him to seek s h e l t e r i n some dark cave to e scap e th e a n g e r o f a hidden god, "Im ag in atio n " r i s e s to a id him , showing him J u p i t e r s i t t i n g on Olympus, h u r lin g b o l t s o f l ig h t n in g and th u n d e r p e a ls a g a in s t th e enem ies who have sin n e d a g a in s t him . Then man c a l l s upon h is god and appeases him w ith an o f f e r i n g from h i s flo c k o r h e rd o r th e f r u i t of h is f i e l d and w ith a h e a r t t r a n q u i l and t r u s t i n g , r e tu r n s t o h is work and th e s tr u g g le f o r h is e x is te n c e a g a in s t e x te r n a l enem ies u nder th e guidance o f Rea s o n .1^ 108I b id . 109I b id . 259 When man faces d e a th , "the w i l l to liv e " s t i l l rem ains stro n g w ith him. Refusing to succumb to d e s p a ir and h a tre d o f l i f e , "Im agination" opens th e p o r ta ls o f Sheol f o r him and shows him l i f e and w e ll-b e in g a lso under th e e a r th . This l i f e i s not q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t from l i f e on e a r th . I t i s n o t some stra n g e s p i r i t u a l e x is te n c e in v o lv in g a r e c t i f i c a t i o n o f e a r th ly s t a t u s , b u t a con tinuum o f i t in an o th e r sphere o f e x i s t e n c e " R e a s o n " and "Im ag in atio n " th e n , in th e l i f e o f n a tu r a l man, mutu a l l y a s s i s t one an o th e r in c a rry in g o u t th e mandate of "th e w i l l to l i v e , " atte m p tin g to a s su re man o f h is con tin u e d s u r v i v a l .-*-^-2 As s o c ie ty develops and becomes more complex, th o se who su rv iv e i t s p e r i l s produce two new views on th e n a tu re and fu n c tio n o f l i f e . Like t h a t of n a t u r a l man, th e s e views are a ls o ro o te d in th e d e s ir e fo r l i f e and w e ll-b e in g . Ahad Ha-Am n o te s th a t one view has a s t e r n e r and ab n eg atin g view o f w e ll-b e in g , c h a ra c te riz e d by the v e r d ic t on l i f e o f E c c le s ia s te s : "V anity o f v a n i t i e s , a l l i s v a n ity I" T his view s t a t e s t h a t l i f e in t h i s w orld i s a "v a le o f t e a r s " and a p re p a ra tio n f o r th e l i f e be yond. Leaving "Reason" and n a tu re b eh in d , t h i s view ^ •^ I b i d . , p. 62. 1 1 2 I b id . 1 1 3 E cc l. 1 :2 . 260 endeavors to s a t i s f y th o se who seek th e good beyond th e c o n fin e s o f t h i s w o r ld .111* The o t h e r view em anating from th e development o f s o c ie ty i s th e com pletely r a t i o n a l o n e , a r r iv in g a t th e same c o n c lu sio n th a t l i f e i s v a n ity b u t founded on h a rd -re a s o n e d p h ilo s o p h ic a l argum ents. W hile th e f i r s t view d en ies th e r e a l i t y of d e a th , t h i s view i s one t h a t does n o t b e lie v e i n l i f e .-1 --*-5 Man i s "pure R eason," i t c o n te n d s, whose h appiness c o n s is ts o f lo n e ly c o n te m p la tio n . Every d is q u ie tin g f e e l i n g and d e s i r e i s to be quenched, f o r in n e r peace is u n a t ta i n a b le th ro u g h th e l i f e o f th e s e n s e s . As lo n g as th e s e two views p r e v a ile d , th e a t t e n t i o n o f man was tu rn e d from n a t u r a l l i f e and i t s s p o n ta n e ity o f resp o n se t o th e w o rld . 1 1 5 Ahad Ha-Am contends th a t th e f o r e s t s and d e s e r ts were f i l l e d w ith those a n c h o r ite s and h e rm its f o r whom h a tr e d o f l i f e was r ig h te o u s n e s s . Those who reg ard ed h a tr e d o f l i f e as wisdom " f i l l e d th e c i t i e s o f Greece and Rome w ith p h ilo s o p h iz in g m endicants . . . who viewed t h e i r su rro u n d in g s w ith haughty contem pt, h a tin g a l l and b ein g h a te d by a l l . " 1 1 7 Of t h e group f o r whom h a tr e d o f l i f e was r ig h te o u s n e s s , the s t o r y is t o l d lltfKol K itb e , p . 62. 1 1 5 I b id . 1 1 6 I b id . 1 1 7 I b id . 261 o f a s a i n t who had rebuked the man who brought him news o f h is f a t h e r 's death by say in g : "S ile n ce blasphem er! Man i s im m ortal!" Ahad Ha-Am c o n tr a s ts t h i s w ith th e s to ry o f th e Greek p h ilo s o p h e r who calm ly re c e iv e d th e news o f h is s o n 's death by rem arking, "Even when he was a liv e I knew t h a t th e one whom I brought in to th e world was n o t im m o rtal. " H 8 Ahad Ha-Am th en proceeds to make th e t r a n s i t i o n from g e n e ra l to Jew ish th o u g h t. In th e p erio d o f a n c ie n t I s r a e l , when I s r a e l 's s tr e n g th was s t i l l fu ll-b lo w n and m alevolent ex p e rien ce s were a lie n to i t , th e n a tio n a l " w ill to liv e " was h e a lth y and norm al. The people r e sponded to th e s p i r i t ' s b id d in g openly w ith o u t too much s p e c u la tio n .^--*-9 Although Ahad Ha-Am a ssig n s no d a te s f o r t h i s p e rio d , i t may be presumed as having a term inus ad quem w ith th e d e s tru c tio n o f th e kingdom o f Judah in 5 86 B.C.E. In t h i s p e rio d , whose o r ig in must be th e e sta b lish m e n t o f th e monarchy under S a u l, th e people s k i l l f u l l y fought t h e i r e x te r n a l enem ies, w hile th e p rophets a t home encouraged and in s p ir e d t h e i r endeavors by p a in tin g in b r i g h t , c o lo r f u l hues th e n a tio n a l hap p in ess which was to be th e g o a l o f th e n a t i o n 's s t r i v i n g . This g o al was n o t t o be found in heaven o r o u ts id e th e bounds of n a tu r e , b u t 118I b i d . 119I b i d . , p. 63. 262 c lo se to each h e a r t . The h ap p in ess o f th e n a tio n was to be secu re in th e p r e s e n t. I t had t o be fought f o r d a ily . I t f e l l to I s r a e l 's l o t to enjoy t h i s p e rio d f o r an a l l too b r i e f span o f tim e. P a le s tin e was th e s te p p in g -s to n e o f g r e a t em pires on t h e i r way to c o n q u e sts, and i t f e l l to th e l o t o f i t s in h a b ita n ts to be re p e a te d ly tro d d e n under and su b ju g a te d . D esp ite e f f o r t s o f r e s i s ta n c e , th e people a t l a s t gave up th e e x te r n a l s tru g g le and tu rn e d t o th e inw ard co n tem p latio n o f i t s n a tio n a l p u rp o se. This en ab led them to co n so le them selves and h e a l t h e i r wounds. The p ro cess o f i n t e r n a l i z i n g f u r t h e r le d to th e e t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e c o n c re te e x te r n a l goals 19 0 o f an e a r l i e r p e rio d f i r s t p r o je c te d by th e p ro p h e ts. Ahad Ha-Am contends t h a t th e p ro p h e tic hopes changed t h e i r form , becoming a s p ir a tio n s above tim e and n a tu r e . From th e s e hopes, "th e w i l l to liv e " b u i l t a c a s t l e "so a rin g on wings o f th e s p i r i t " i t s to p to u c h in g th e very h e ig h ts o f 1 91 heaven. In v e rs e ly to th e low e s t a t e o f th e people i s th e heavenward so a rin g o f th e s p i r i t . Sundering them s e lv e s from th e th ro e s o f everyday l i f e , o f w ill and a c tio n in th e p r e s e n t, th e people took re c o u rse to "Im agi n a t io n ." The f u tu re loomed boundless b e fo re them, and th e y in v e s te d i t w ith v is io n a ry dream s. The n a tio n , Ahad 1 2 0 I b i d . 121Ib id . 263 Ha-Am co n ten d s, became a sla v e to t h i s " s p i r i t u a l d is - 12 2 e a s e ." There was a danger in lo o k in g from heaven e a rth w a rd , e x a ltin g l i f e and freedom . The v a s t sweep o f tim e th a t was dom inated by "Im ag in atio n " p ro b ab ly has as i t s term in u s a quo t h a t p e rio d fo llo w in g th e d e s tr u c tio n o f Judah by Babylon in 586 B.C.E. and ex ten d in g to th e tim e o f Moses M endelssohn. With th e advent o f M endelssohn, th e f o r t r e s s o f "Im agi n a tio n " was l a i d w aste. "R eason," once more e n th ro n e d , showed n a t u r a l and p r a c t i c a l co u rses f o r th e s u r v iv a l o f 12 3 Judaism . Amid th e Jew ish camp, a r e a c tio n s e t in a l most a t once to t h i s new developm ent. The Jew ish group, Ahad Ha-Am h e ld , chose to accommodate i t s e l f s la v is h ly to th e s p i r i t o f th e age. By t h i s accommodation, th e y s u r ren d ered t h a t b e l i e f in which p rev io u s g e n e ra tio n s had found, a t th e l e a s t , c o n s o la tio n f o r t h e i r woes. Ahad Ha-Am contends t h a t th o se who made t h i s compromise (un q u e s tio n a b ly he r e f e r s h e re t o th e Reform Movement) sought t o prove " t h a t lo v in g o n e 's n a tio n means to h a te m ankind." The refo rm ers f u r t h e r contended th a t n a tio n a l u n ity i s a n o tio n o f a n a t i o n 's ch ild h o o d , and w ith p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r ence to th e Jew ish p e o p le , adherence to t h i s id e a should 122t , . , I b i d . 123Ib id . 264 124- be c o n s id e re d an o u t r i g h t d is g ra c e . The c e n t r a l id e a o f G eiger o f th e in n a te g en iu s f o r r e l i g i o n o f th e Jew ish people and o f i t s consequent m issio n t o th e w orld as a chosen in stru m e n t o f God, Ahad 125 Ha-Am c o n s id e rs a "so u r g ra p e s ” re s p o n s e . What th e E nlightenm ent r e a l l y demanded, in term s o f th e r e b u ild in g o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , was som ething q u ite d i f f e r e n t from th e approach o f Reform Judaism . A s p i r i t u a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l m is sio n , c h a r a c te r iz e d by th e le a d e r s h ip o f ra b b is and p r e a c h e r s , demanding no p r a c t i c a l program o f a n a t io n a l c h a r a c te r , Ahad Ha-Am c o n sid e re d a c o n tin u a tio n o f th e 1 2 B " s p i r i t u a l d i s e a s e . ” Both o r i e n t a t i o n s , th e one se ek in g " l i f e in d eath " and th e o t h e r , "d e ath in l i f e , " i n t e r f e r e w ith th e n a t u r a l course o f human developm ent in th e w o rld . W hether c lo th e d in th e g arb o f r e l i g i o n o r p h ilo s o p h y , Ahad Ha-Am h e l d , th ey d i s t o r t th e spontaneous resp o n se o f man to th e w o rld . Ahad Ha-Am used y e t a n o th e r s e t o f dual concepts to show th e i n te r p l a y o f fo rc e s in th e w orld as a r e s u l t o f th e " w ill t o l i v e . " There i s a p o l a r i t y o f " p o s itiv e " and " n e g a tiv e " te n d e n c ie s t h a t m a n ife s ts i t s e l f in th e s tr u g g le f o r s u r v iv a l , as w e ll as i n th e p ro c e sse s t h a t 1 2 H I b i d . 1 2 5 I b id . 126Ib id . 265 12 7 induce change. The te n s io n o f o p p o site s may be w holly p o s it iv e o r n e g a tiv e , o r only so in p a r t . Every new s y s tem t h a t i s e s s e n t i a l l y and o r i g i n a l l y w holly p o s i t i v e , c o n ta in s a l s o , a l b e i t u n c o n s c io u sly , an elem ent o f i t s 12 8 own n e g a tio n . When re fo rm e rs i n i t i a t e a new system , th e y aro u se o p p o s itio n from th e a d h e re n ts o f th e o ld system s w ith which th e y have locked in c o n f l i c t . T o ta lly absorbed by t h e i r own new c o n t r ib u t io n , th e p ro g e n ito rs o f th e new p o s i t i v e system a re unaw are, f o r a tim e , o f th e fo rc e s o f n e g a tio n t h a t oppose i t , o nly to be soon con fro n te d w ith a f u l l - s c a l e c o n f l i c t w ith th e en tre n ch ed d efen d e rs o f th e o ld system . U su a lly , how ever, th e new system fin d s i t s locus and s t r i k e s r o o ts . T h e r e a f te r , b oth th e o ld and th e new seek accommodation w ith one a n o th e r , and a common g round, r e l a t i v e to t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e s tr e n g th in term s o f em p h asis, d ev e lo p s. Through t h i s p r o c e s s , hum anity i s e n ric h e d and a new p o s it iv e system i s added t o th e c u l t u r a l h e r ita g e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n .-1,29 Having s e t f o r th t h i s p re m ise , Ahad Ha-Am i l l u s t r a t e s i t s o p e ra tio n in Jew ish r e l i g i o u s th o u g h t. Medieval Jew ish p h ilo so p h y came in t o b e in g , ac co rd in g to Ahad Ha-Am, when a new p o s i t i v e system developed in th e minds o f a few 12 7I b i d . , p. 75. 1 2 8I b i d . , pp. 75 f . 129I b i d . , p. 76. 266 who b e lie v e d t h a t th ey could e n la rg e t h e i r u n d e rsta n d in g o f n a t u r a l phenomena through th e study o f A rabic p h ilo s o - 1 3 0 phy. New th o u g h t was in n o v a ted and d if f u s e d , fo llo w ed by th e o p p o s itio n o f th e r a b b in ic a u t h o r i t i e s who saw in i t a t h r e a t to th e o ld e r p o s it iv e system o f th e Law and th e commandments. The r e s u l t o f th e c la s h o f system s le d to th e compromise between th e Law and p h ilo s o p h y , in th e accommodation o f f a i t h to reaso n and o f p h ilo so p h y to 1 3 1 r e l i g i o n . The same p ro c e ss m a n ife ste d i t s e l f in th e c la s h between th e Hasidim and th e M itnaggedim . The form er p roposed a system o f f a i t h which had as i t s core th e wor sh ip and s e r v ic e o f God through j o y . The a u s te re and "bookish" ta lm u d is ts co u n tered i t s in n o v a tio n s w ith z e a l. An accommodation was f i n a l l y worked o u t so t h a t now H asidim stu d y th e Talmud and th e ta lm u d is ts ac ce p t h a s i - / iad Ha-Am n o te s t h a t th e re are h i s t o r i c a l circum s ta n c e s where a s y n th e s is between th e o ld and th e new s y s tems do n o t r e a d i ly ta k e p la c e . This o ccu rs when no com mon ground o f accommodation can be developed and an i r r e p a ra b le schism ta k e s p la c e w ith one p a r ty ta k in g i t s e l f o u t o f th e a re n a o f c o n f l i c t and s e p a r a tin g i t s e l f from 1 3 0 I b i d . 1 3 l l b i d . 1 3 2 I b id . th e new system e n t i r e l y . The c o n f l i c t between th e Kara i t e s and th e ra b b is o f th e Talmud i s an example o f such a c o n f l i c t . W hile Karaism d ie d , th e a u th o rity o f th e i qq Talmud and th e O ral Law which i t opposed f lo u r is h e d . P a r t i e s o f com plete n e g a tio n , how ever, a re r a r e . More common are th o se which a c c e p t a p o s it iv e new p r in c ip l e f o r a n e g a tiv e reaso n o r r e t a i n a n e g a tiv e component f o r p o s it iv e re a s o n s . When t h i s o c c u rs , s o c ie ty i s n o t moved a p p re c ia b ly forw ard n o r do th e fo rc e s o f n eg a tio n succeed in f u l l y r e s to r in g th e s t a t u s quo o f th e p rev io u s p o s it iv e system now outmoded. This deadlock i s broken by a t h i r d system which w i l l m ediate between th e tw o, u p ro o tin g from th e new i t s more r a d ic a l a sp e c ts and r e s to r in g to th e o ld what has b een , in ig n o ran ce and z e a l , r e l e n t l e s s l y plucked from i t . Ahad Ha-Am u ses th e H askalah movement as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f th e l a t t e r com bination o f p o s itiv e and nega t i v e f o r c e s . L o o k to R u ssia , he a d v is e s , where circum s ta n c e s have b ro u g h t ab o u t t h a t "m iddle system" f o r th e s u c c e s s f u l m e d iatio n o f o ld and new which eluded th e German s c h o la r s . This system which, n a t u r a l l y and i n t e l l i g i b l y to a l l , c lo th e s b o th th e o ld and th e new i n a s in g le form, i s n o t n e c e ss a ry to name. Is i t n o t s u f f i c i e n t m erely t o p o in t ea stw ard to th e "lan d o f o ur 133I b i d . , p. 77. ■ * - 3l*Ibid. f a th e r s ? 'r^35 Ahad Ha-Am s e ts up the Hobebe Zion movement, and h is own emphases w ith in i t , as th e a n tid o te to th e " p lig h t o f Judaism " in th e modern w o rld . He seeks t h a t s y n th e s is o f modem and a n c ie n t Judaism which can be n a t u r a lly ac q u ire d and which can be l i v e d , ex c lu d in g what he would c a l l th e a r t i f i c i a l acco u trem en ts o f Judaism g a rn ered in th e D iaspora and in P a le s tin e as th e r e s u l t o f th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e f i r s t Jew ish Commonwealth. •*~^I b i d . , p . 78. CHAPTER IX THE SPIRIT OF JEWISH HISTORY A. H ein ric h G raetz Ahad Ha-Am’s second essa y on th e Ozar H ayahadut,^ 2 as w e ll as a l e t t e r to M. W olfson, makes r e fe re n c e to th e s c i e n t i f i c work o f th e p io n e e r Jew ish h i s t o r i a n , H e in ric h G raetz (1817-1891). These two r e f e r e n c e s , t o g e th e r w ith Ahad Ha-Am1s l e t t e r to Dr. B ernstein-C ohen p re v io u s ly c i t e d , r e f l e c t Ahad Ha-Am's o p in io n o f G raetz*s s c i e n t i f i c work. Ahad Ha-Am1s h ig h recommendation o f G ra e tz ’s H is to r y , in th e two l e t t e r s in which re fe re n c e t o G raetz i s made, sta n d s in c o n t r a s t t o th e e v a lu a tio n o f him in th e above essay as a member o f th e W issen sch aft sc h o o l. While Ahad Ha-Am s in g le s o u t f o r p r a is e th e sweeping v is io n o f r e s e a r c h e r s such as G eiger and G ra e tz , he n e v e rth e le s s in c lu d e s them in h is c r i t i c i s m o f th e ■^Kol K itb e Ahad Ha-Am (T el Aviv: D vir C o., L td ., 1956), p. i l l . o Ig g e r o t Ahad Ha-Am (T el Aviv: D vir C o., L td ., 1956), IT T ," ^ 5 . W issen sch aft sc h o o l. The l a t t e r , Ahad Ha-Am com plained, c a rry on in v e s tig a tio n s which a re so h ig h ly s p e c ia liz e d t h a t in d iv id u a l s c h o la rs seem to have no aw areness o f Q what i s b ein g done even in f i e l d s r e l a t e d t o t h e i r own. A s t i l l more damaging a c c u s a tio n i s le v e le d by Ahad Ha-Am in h i s a s s e r tio n t h a t th e W issen sch aft sc h o o l u t i l i z e s th e c o n c lu sio n s o f s c h o la rs who do n o t them selves command t r a d i t i o n a l Jew ish s o u r c e s . There a re s p e c i a l i s t s in B ib le and m edieval Jew ish p h ilo so p h y who do n o t know much Talmud. This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e , Ahad Ha-Am h e ld , of th e C h ris tia n s c h o la rs working in th e f i e l d o f b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m and Jew ish h is t o r y whose work i s th e n accepted u n c r i t i c a l l y by Jew ish s c h o l a r s . There appear t o be ex c e p tio n s among some C h r is tia n s c h o la r s , such as Renan, in whose work one can f in d ta lm u d ic source m a te r ia l e x a c t as to page and s p e c i f i c c i t a t i o n . However, Ahad Ha-Am a l le g e s th a t "w ith o u t doubt" th e s e r e fe re n c e s came from o th e r th an d i r e c t ta lm u d ic s o u rc e s , nam ely, undocumented secondary m a t e r i a l . 4 W hether o r n o t Renan d id as Ahad Ha-Am su rm ise d , i t was incum bent upon th e l a t t e r , having made th e a l l e g a t i o n , to prove th e c o rre c tn e s s o f h is ch a rg e . Accusing Renan o f h aving l i t t l e knowledge o f Talmud i s n o t th e same as a s s e r tin g t h a t R enan's use of 3Kol K itb e , p. 111. 4I b id . 271 th e ta lm u d ic l i t e r a t u r e was b ased on secondary s o u rc e s. Ahad Ha-Am does n o t b rin g c o n c lu siv e p r o o f , how ever, o f h is a l le g a tio n concerning Renan who, to g e th e r w ith G raetz and S c h u re r, he h e ld to be th e forem ost h i s t o r i a n s o f C Jew ish a n t i q u i t y . The a c c u s a tio n t h a t G raetz used th e re s e a r c h o f o t h e r s , and by o th e r s Ahad Ha-Am norm ally means non-Jew ish s c h o la r s , i s undoubtedly c o r r e c t . What s c h o la r , u n le ss he i s i n i t i a t i n g a com pletely new f i e l d o f i n q u ir y , i s n o t in d e b te d to th o se who have ex p lo re d an a re a b e fo re him? G ra e tz 's g e n iu s , how ever, la y n o t in h i s use o f th e s c h o l a rs h ip o f o th e rs b u t in h is b o ld , new "Die C o n stru c tio n d er ju d is c h e n G e s c h ic h te . 1,6 G raetz was th e f i r s t Jew ish s c h o la r o f th e modern w orld t o w rite a com prehensive, s c i e n t i f i c account o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , u t i l i z i n g th e sources r e l a t i n g to Jew ish t r a d i t i o n , l i t e r a t u r e and r e l i g i o n , as w ell as s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . I t i s only n a t u r a l t h a t in such a v a s t u n d e rta k in g th e work o f o th e rs be c o n s u lte d and u t i l i z e d . In th e domain o f Jew ish 5 I g g e r o t , I I , 18. 6T his i s th e t i t l e o f G r a e tz 's f i r s t m ajor essa y in which he develops h i s b a s ic m ethodology f o r th e s c i e n t i f i c study o f Jew ish h i s t o r y . The essay was p u b lis h e d in Z ach arias F ra n k e l's Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie r e l i g i o s e n I n t e r - essen des Judenthums (L e ip z ig : V erlag von &. G. Teubner, 1816), pp. 121-132; 361-381. A measure o f G r a e tz 's i n f l u ence on Jew ish h is to r io g r a p h y can be g a th e re d from th e c o n trib u tio n s to J u b e l s c h r i f t zum S ie b z ig s te n G e b u rtsta g des P ro f. Dr. H. G ra etz (B re sla u : V erlag S. S c h o ttla e n d e r, 1887). h i s t o r y as su ch , where G raetz was u n q u estio n ab ly e x p e r t, h i s c o n c lu sio n s a re in v a ria b ly developed from th e use o f prim ary source m a te r ia l . To t h i s day h is elev en volume w ork, G esch ich te d er Juden von den a l t e s t e n Z eiten b i s a u f d ie G egenw art, w r i tte n in th e p e rio d from 1853-1875,7 has i t s g r e a t value because o f th e copious n o ta tio n s to sources from w hich G raetz worked. The a re a in which Ahad Ha-Am's c r i t i c i s m has some v a l i d i t y i s one in which G raetz was r e a l l y n o t e x p e rt d e s p ite h is v a s t e r u d iti o n . In th e realm o f b i b l i c a l s tu d ie s h is c o n tr ib u tio n s are of l e s s e r im p o rta n ce. G raetz began h is e x e g e tic a l s tu d ie s in 1871, in a u g u ra tin g a n o th e r phase o f h is l i t e r a r y and s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t y . G ra e tz , who had a lre a d y p u b lis h e d hundreds o f essay s i n such p e r io d ic a ls as th e M o n a ts s c h rif t, o f which he became e d i t o r in 1869 a f t e r Z ac h arias Frankel r e l i n q u ish e d th e e d i t o r i a l c h a i r , v e n tu re d in to th e aren a o f b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m w ith com m entaries on E c c le s ia s te s and Song o f Songs (1 8 7 1 ), Psalms (1882-3) and Proverbs (1884). He a ls o w rote com m entaries on th e p r o p h e tic l i t e r a t u r e and on th e P e n ta te u c h , 9 Two m ajor prem ises seemed t o guide n J o s e f M e is l, "G ra e tz , H e in ric h ," The U n iv ersa l Jew ish E n c y c lo p e d ia , ed. I s a a c Landman, V (New York: The U n iv e rsa l Jew ish E n cy clo p ed ia, I n c . , 1941), 80. ®S. Baron, "G raetzens G e s c h ic h ts s c h re ib u n g ,” MGWJ, Neue F o lg e , S echsundzw anzigster Ja h rg a n g , XXVI-XXVII (B re sla u : K oebner'sche V erlagsbuchhandlung, 1918), 4. 9 J o s e f M e is l, U n iv e rsa l Jew ish E n cy clo p ed ia, V, 8 0 - 8 1 . 273 h is m ethodology. One h e ld t h a t in every book o f th e B ib le a d is c e r n ib le h i s t o r i c a l background i s e v id e n t; and th e o th e r , t h a t "even g e n e r a liz a tio n s and r e f l e c t i o n s cannot co n ceal t h e i r co n n ectio n w ith s p e c i a l f a c t s , which must be deduced and d e te rm in e d ." C o n tra d ic tio n s and ob s c u r i t i e s i n a b i b l i c a l p assag e cannot be r e c o n c ile d by a " tw is tin g o f words and p h ra se s o r by f a r - f e t c h e d an a lo - 10 g ie s in rem ote though r e l a t e d id io m s." When a t e x t was m u tila te d , th e o r i g i n a l could o f te n only be surm ised from c o n je c tu re o r deduced from a ta lm u d ic p a r a l l e l o r some o ld e r t r a n s l a t i o n . For t h i s re a so n G raetz f e l t f r e e to make em endations la v is h ly where th e t e x t seemed t o w arra n t a r a d i c a l change. Dr. P h i l l i p B loch, a u th o r o f a very com prehensive and o b je c tiv e Memoir on G ra e tz , says o f G r a e tz 's proneness to r a d i c a l b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m t h a t : He grew more and more u n r e s tr a in e d in h i s e f f o r t s to r e s t o r e ap p ro x im ately th e o r i g i n a l t e x t o f th e B ib le by means o f audacious c o n je c tu r e s , which h is sy m p a th etic mind was n e v e r weary o f d e v is in g . In o th e r f i e l d s he was always c a r e f u l t© keep i n con n e c tio n and i n touch w ith t r a d i t i o n ; d e s tr u c tiv e te n d e n c ie s were n o t a t a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f him. But i n h i s te x t u a l c r i t i c i s m he p e rm itte d h i s z e a l to run away w ith him , u n t i l he l o s t th e s o l i d ground o f th e B ib le t e x t and o f r e a l i t y from under h i s f e e t . H e in ric h G ra e tz , H is to ry o f th e Jews., c o n ta in in g a Memoir o f th e a u th o r by Dr. P h i l l i p Bloch ( P h ila d e lp h ia : Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1 9 4 9 ), VI, 73-74. 274 His acumen d isp la y e d and d is s ip a te d i t s e l f c h ie f ly in th e b lin d in g p y ro te c h n ic s o f r o c k e t - li k e emen d a t io n s . 1 1 D esp ite th e ad m itted ex trav ag an ces in G ra e tz fs b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m , n e v e rth e le s s th e r e remains a v alu ab le su b stratu m of h i s t o r i c a l method which had v i r t u a l l y been a b se n t from Jew ish b i b l i c a l s c h o la rs h ip of G ra e tz ’s p erio d . In th e a re a o f modem Jew ish h is to rio g ra p h y G raetz h o ld s a unique p la c e • He was th e f i r s t t o d e fin e and e la b o ra te th e p o in t o f view from which th e h i s t o r i c a l development o f 19 Judaism must be judged. He was th e f i r s t to frame th e sweeping m ethodological g e n e r a liz a tio n t h a t , Jew ish h is t o r y o f seventeen c e n tu rie s p re s e n ts th e w orld in m in ia tu re ; th e Jew ish people i s a u n i v e r s a l p e o p le, being everywhere a t home because i t has nowhere a home; Jewish l i t e r a t u r e , because o f i t s many c o n ta c ts , i s a w orld l i t e r a t u r e in i t s e l f . 1 3 H ein ric h G raetz had b u t a s in g le p re d e c e ss o r in th e f i e l d o f modem Jew ish h is to rio g ra p h y —Marcus J o s t , whose U n iv e rsa l H isto ry o f th e I s r a e l i t e P e o p le , p u b lish e d b e tween 1820-1850, has been c h a ra c te riz e d as a "manual" in which th e c h a o tic d a ta o f Jewish h is t o r y has been s o r te d o u t . ’ * ’'4 Compared to G ra e tz 1 s work, J o s t 's h is t o r y i s a 1 1 I b i d . , p. 75. 1 2 I b i d . , p. 58. 13 Quoted by Nahum G la tz e r in h is e s s a y , "Modem Jew ish S tu d ie s ," ed. A lexander Altmann, S tu d ies in N ine te e n th -C e n tu ry Jew ish I n t e l l e c t u a l H is to r y , I I (Cam bridge: H arvard U n iv e rsity P re s s , 1964), 43. ^ G r a e t z , H isto ry o f th e Jew s, VI, 5 8-59 . 275 dry c a ta lo g u e o f w e ll o rg an ized d a ta o b je c tiv e ly w r i t t e n . G ra e tz , perhaps le s s o b je c tiv e , w rote w ith z e a l and v e rv e . That such a h i s t o r y as G ra e tz 's would be in n o v a tin g and c o n t r o v e r s i a l, causing d is p le a s u re among th e " s p e c ia l i s t s , " was u n a v o id a b le . The em inent Jew ish h i s t o r i a n , G o tth a rd Deutsch (1859-1921), w r itin g o f G ra e tz 's H is to r y , n o t e s : "Perhaps no o th e r work i n modern Jew ish l i t e r a t u r e has been so s e v e re ly c r i t i c i z e d as was G ra e tz 's H is to r y ." ^ The orthodox took G raetz to ta s k f o r h is " l i b e r a l t e n d e n c ie s" w hile th e l i b e r a l s accused him o f b ein g a " f a n a t- 16 i c . " The organ o f c u ltu re d German orthodox Jew ry, P er I s r a e l i t , c o n sid ered G raetz an i n f i d e l . I t f u r t h e r claim ed t h a t as an h i s t o r i a n and an e x e g e te , G r a e tz 's 17 work had no s c i e n t i f i c v a l i d i t y . P ro f e s s o r Deutsch doc uments th e a b s u rd ity o f th e se c h a rg e s, ta k in g in to f u l l c o n s id e ra tio n th e f a c t u a l e r r o r s o f th e H is to r y . G raetz was an outspoken opponent o f Reform Judaism and a d i s c i p l e o f S a c h a ria s F ra n k e l, th e exponent o f " p o s itiv e h i s t o r i c a l ■^G otthard D eutsch, "H ein rich G ra e tz —a C e n ten a ry ," CCAR Y earbook, XXVII (C in c in n a ti: C. J . K re h b ie l C o., 1917)', "338. ^ I b i d . , p . 339. G raetz t r e a t e d th e e v o lu tio n o f r a b b in ic a l law in term s o f i t s " S itz im Leben" and n o t as "Torah from S i n a i ." I t was, how ever, G r a e tz 's p e r s i s t e n t use o f b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m t h a t a lie n a te d him from orthodox s c h o la r s . I b i d . , p . 347. •^ I b i d . , p. 346. 276 18 Ju d aism ." In th e s tr u g g le between th e re fo rm e r, Rabbi Abraham G e ig e r, and th e o rth o d o x Rabbi T ik ti n , G ra etz took h i s p o s it io n w ith th e c o n s e r v a tiv e s . ^ 9 G raetz was b o th e m o tio n a lly and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y c o n d itio n e d t o avoid r e l i g i o u s r a d ic a lis m , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t o f Abraham G e i g e r , b e c a u s e o f h i s own t r a d i t i o n a l r e lig i o u s t e n d en cies which were n u r tu re d e a r l y in l i f e by h is o rth o d o x u p b rin g in g , Y eshivah t r a i n i n g , and a p p re n tic e s h ip to th e o u ts ta n d in g n eo -o rth o d o x th e o lo g ia n , Rabbi Samson Raphael 21 H irsc h . The n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e tow ard Reform Judaism •^D eutsch p o in ts o u t t h a t " G ra e tz 's b ia s a g a in s t reform went so f a r as to make him d e l i b e r a t e l y su p p re ss in c o n v e n ie n t f a c t s . " I b i d . , p . 349. 1 9 G ra e tz , H is to ry o f th e Je w s, VI, 25-30. 20 G ra e tz , who had fre q u e n te d th e le c tu r e s o f b o th T ik tin and G eig e r, found h im s e lf a t odds w ith G e ig e r's v ie w s. A sample o f h i s e s tim a te o f G eig er can be g a r n e re d from a d ia ry e n t r y , "And to d ay G eig er d e liv e r e d h is f i r s t le c t u r e on th e M ishna. The M ishna i s a c o l l e c t i o n o f r e l i g i o u s n o t i o n s , as th e y were formed and developed from th e E x ile to jfe. Jehuda H a n a s s i. What in sa n e l o g i c ! " G ra e tz , H is to ry o f th e Jew s, VI, 27. G raetz f e l t o b lig e d to r e f u t e G e ig e r's th e o r ie s on th e fo rm a tio n o f th e M ish- nah developed i n G e ig e r's w ork, L ehr- und Lesebuch z u r S prache d e r Mischnah (B re s la u : F. E . C. L e u c k a rt, 1845), I t was h is polem ic a g a in s t G eig e r, p u b lis h e d in F u r s t ’s O r ie n t, t h a t b ro u g h t G ra etz to th e a t t e n t i o n o f th e s c h o l a r ly w o rld . In two s e r i e s o f c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s he arg u ed t h a t th e language o f th e Mishnah and i t s th o u g h t-w o rld was n e i t h e r o s s i f i e d n o r a r t i f i c i a l b u t a n a t u r a l develop ment resp o n d in g t o th e needs o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . I . Abrams, "H. G ra e tz , The Jew ish H is to r ia n ," J5R (O ld S e r i e s ) , IV (J a n u a ry , 1 8 9 2 ), 167. 2 -^In a p e rio d o f em o tio n a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l up h e a v a l d u rin g h is s tu d e n t y e a r s , G raetz was on th e verge 277 which G raetz e v in c e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e l a s t volume o f th e H is to r y , which app eared i n 1869, was o f such a n a tu re as to c r e a te a r u p tu re between him and th e l i b e r a l e l e ments . 22 In G ra e tz , Ahad Ha-Am could f in d a lik e -m in d ed s p i r i t in th e condem nation o f Reform Judaism as a movement 2 3 which aped ’’f o re ig n Church fo rm s." In p a r t , G ra e tz ’s o b je c tio n to Reform was o f a p r a c t i c a l n a t u r e . The s l i g h t i n g o f r a b b in ic law , th e breakdown o f r i t u a l , and th e r e v is io n o f th e prayerbook would e ra s e th e d i s t i n c tiv e n e s s o f Judaism and would h a s te n i t s a s s im ila tio n . o f abandoning orthodoxy and r e l i g i o n a l t o g e t h e r . In a d ia ry e n try in l a t e 1835 he d e p ic ts h is d e s p a ir .^ "Durch d ie s e w iedersprechenden M einungen, h e id n is c h e , ju d is c h e und c h r i s t l i c h e , k a b b a l i s t i s c h e , m aim onidische und p la to n is c h e , wurde mein Kopf so v e rd re h t und mein Glaube so wankend gem acht, das ic h . . . mich i n den t i e f e n Abgrunden d e r U n te rw e lt, n i c h t das L ic h t gesehen zu haben w unschte, n i c h t w e il ic h a l lz u s e h r den S k ep tizism u s f u r c h t e t e , so n d em w e il w ir ohne d ie U n s te r b lic h k e it . . . d ie u n s e lig s te n und u n g lu c k lic h s te n Geschopfe a u f dem E rd p lan eten s i n d ." M. B rann, "Aus H. G raetzen s L ehr- und W anderjahren," MGWJ, XXVI-XXVII, off. c i t . , 248. G raetz found new d ir e c tio n s o u t o f h i s s p i r i t u a l quandary through th e rem arkable book by Samson Raphael H irs c h , which ap- , p e a re d anonymously under th e t i t l e , I g g e r e t Z afon, Neunzehn B rie fe uber Judenthum (A lto n a: 1836). H irsch developed in i t th e n eo -o rth o d o x approach t o Judaism . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f H ir s c h 's neo-o rth o d o x y was i t s s e lf - c o n s c io u s n e s s . I t fo rm u la te d i t s m ethodolpgy p r i o r to se e k in g to launch th e "Yisroe1-M ensch" ( " I d e a l Jew”) in t o e x is te n c e . M ordecai K aplan, The G re a te r Judaism in th e Making (New York: The R e c o n s tru c tio n is t P r e s s , 1960), pp. 328 f . 2 2 D eu tsch , CCAR, XXVII, 348. 23G ra etz, H isto r y o f th e Jew s, V, 5 74. 278 The S o c ie ty f o r th e C u ltu re and S cience o f th e Jew s, which G raetz c o n sid e re d th e epitom e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f o r t in th e s e rv ic e o f reform ing Judaism , was an abysmal f a i l u r e , s in c e i t s avowed purpose o f in t e g r a t i n g Judaism i n th e modern w orld w hile rem aining tr u e t o th e Jew ish f a i t h rem ained an u n r e a liz e d e x p e c ta tio n . Of th e th r e e founders o f th e S o c ie ty —Edward Gans, Moses Moser and Leopold Zunz—Gans co n v e rted to C h r i s t i a n i t y ; Moser p ro claim ed th e i n e v i t a b i l i t y and d e s i r a b i l i t y o f the w hole s a le b ap tism o f Jew s; w h ile th e t h i r d a lo n e , Leopold Zunz, rem ained tr u e to h is vow and became th e f a t h e r o f th e ^science o f J u d a is m .” Of th e e n t i r e programme o f w e s te r n iz a tio n and e n lig h te n m e n t, o n ly th e agenda f o r th e developm ent o f th e ’’s c ie n c e o f Judaism " su rv iv e d th e demise o f th e S o c ie ty . Of t h i s , G raetz w r ite s : I f th e S o c ie ty f o r C u ltu re which s t a r t e d on i t s c a r e e r w ith h ig h a s p i r a t i o n s , and ended so la m en tab ly , succeeded in p ro ducing o n ly t h i s one r e s u l t , s t i r r i n g up lo v e f o r th e sc ie n c e o f Judaism , th e n i t s dreams and a tte m p ts have n o t been e n t i r e l y in v a in . In h i s t o r y n o t even th e s l i g h t e s t seed i s w asted; b u t no p la n t could blossom in s o i l co v ered w ith th e d u st c a s t on i t by F rie d la n d e r and Jacobson in B e rlin . As i f s m itte n w ith a c u r s e , th e s p o t where M endelssohn began th e work so f u l l o f p ro m ise, n o th in g co u ld be made t o th r iv e o r be o f s e rv ic e i n th e r e v iv a l o f Judaism . 2 * * G ra e tz , as Ahad Ha-Am, had f e a re d t h a t a p ro cess o f 2**Ibid., p. 588. 279 w e s te r n iz a tio n u n d ertak en r a d i c a l l y , w ith o u t reg ard f o r th e h i s t o r i c landm arks o f Jew ish t r a d i t i o n , would le a d to th e engulfm ent o f Judaism and i t s a n n i h i l a t i o n . 25 I f w ith in th e H is to ry o f G raetz th e r e i s one Adrianne th r e a d , i t i s th e need f o r Judaism to su rv iv e because o f i t s r e l i g i o u s m is sio n . G ra e tz , who, as Ahad Ha-Am, was devoted t o th e p h ilo so p h y o f Yehudah H a le v i, re-em p h asized th e b e l i e f t h a t I s r a e l was th e h e a r t o f th e w o rld . I s r a e l ' s e x is te n c e was p u rp o s e fu l, f o r when th e 9 fi h e a r t i s s i c k , th e body f a i l s . G raetz b e lie v e d t h a t " e th ic a l c o n scio u sn e ss" was " c a lle d in to th e w orld" by th e p ro p h ets Amos, Hosea and I s a i a h , who were "ev an g el i s t s , " so t o sp eak , e ig h t hundred y e a rs b e fo re th e r i s e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . T his " e t h i c a l co n scio u sn e ss i s th e p ro p e rty o f th e people o f I s r a e l " which has become . . . th e common p ro p e rty o f th e w orld through th e medium o f C h r i s t i a n i t y - j u s t i c e , c h a r i ty even tow ard th e s tr a n g e r , c a re f o r th e p o o r, th e s a n c t i t y o f l i f e and c o n s c io u sn e ss. But th e w orld has n o t f u l l y a p p re c ia te d th e r o o t o f t h i s r i c h developm ent, t h a t p u re monotheism which te a c h e s t h a t God i s th e f a t h e r o f th e f a t h e r l e s s and th e p r o te c to r o f th e widow, and t h a t as h o lin e s s i s th e e ssen c e o f h is n a t u r e , a l l u n h o lin e s s , u n c h a s tity and s e l f - p o l l u t i o n , 2 5 C f. , Kol K itb e , p . H03, e t p assim . 9 6 Jehuda H a le v i, K u za ri: The Book o f P ro o f and Argument (O xford: E a st and West L ib ra ry , 1947), p. 7M -. 280 a re an abom ination t o him. N e ith e r has th e w orld always ad e q u ate ly r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s l o f t y co n c ep tio n o f D eity i s th e t r u e te a c h in g o f Judaism .*" In G ra e tz ’s fo rm u la tio n o f th e p u rp o se fu ln e s s o f I s r a e l 's e x is te n c e and i t s need t o s u r v iv e , h is view i s com patible w ith t h a t o f G e ig e r . 2 8 In e s s e n c e , G ra etz had adopted th e m issio n id e a o f Reform Judaism , p lu ck ed i t o u t o f th e c o n te x t o f Reform th e o lo g y , and p la c e d i t a t th e h e a r t o f h is e x p la n a tio n o f Jew ish h i s t o r y . Speaking o f th e re s e a rc h o f I s a a c Bem ays (1792-1849), G raetz s t a t e s : But i f th e a u th o r only succeeded in awakening th e id e a t h a t Judaism h as an h i s t o r i c a l m issio n as an a p o s tle to th e n a tio n s , i t sh o u ld s u f f i c e to p ro cu re f o r him a p la c e o f honor in th e re c o rd s o f h i s t o r y . . . . I t i s th e essen c e o f th e m essages p ro claim ed by th e p ro p h e ts . I t has been v e r i f i e d by h i s t o r y t h a t European and A s ia tic n a tio n s have been de liv e r e d from t h e i r darkness by th e l i g h t t h a t came from Ju d a ism .29 For G ra e tz , Ju d a ism 's co n tin u ed e x is te n c e ". . . i n i t s e l f . a w onderful f a c t —i s an i r r e f u t a b l e p ro o f o f i t s h i s t o r i c n e c e s s ity , and what would th e Jews be w ith o u t Judaism , th e body w ith o u t th e so u l, th e L e v i t i c a l b e a re rs w ith o u t o n * H e in ric h G ra e tz , "The S ig n if ic a n c e o f Judaism f o r th e P re s e n t and th e F u tu re ," JQR (Old S e r i e s ) , ed. I . Abrahams, I I (London: D. N u tt, 1890), 259-260. 2 8 C f., Abraham G e ig e r, Judaism and i t s H is to ry (New York: The Bloch P u b lish in g C o., 1911), pp. 39-48. 9Q G raetz, H isto ry o f th e J e w s, V, 5 76. 281 an th e a rk o f th e c o v e n a n t." The gaping chasm between G ra e tz , G eig e r, th e G a li c ia n s c h o la r Nahman Krochmal, who w i l l be d is c u s s e d l a t e r , and Ahad Ha-Am was t h a t th e s e p h ilo s o p h e rs o f Judaism , d e s p ite t h e i r th e o lo g ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s , worked out o f a framework o f r e lig i o u s Judaism . God and th e commandments, w hether th e em phasis be l e g a l i s t i c , r i t u a l i s t i c o r e t h i c a l , were r e a l i t i e s o f Jew ish r e l i g i o u s e x i s t e n c e . 3 1 For Ahad Ha-Am r e lig i o u s Judaism was th e c r e a tio n o f th e Jew ish ’’n a t io n a l s p i r i t . " Ju d a ism 's e t h i c a l m issio n was con c e iv e d in s e c u la r and n a tio n a l te rm s . While Ahad Ha-Am a ls o embraced th e m issio n id e a , he gave i t a d i f f e r e n t c o n to u r. The m issio n o f I s r a e l was to be ach iev ed by th e 3 2 c o n c e n tra tio n o f th e Jew ish s p i r i t n o t by i t s d is p e rs io n . U nlike G ra e tz , Ahad Ha-Am d id n o t see i n Jew ish h i s t o r i c a l e x p e rie n c e th e r e l i g i o u s m issio n o f I s r a e l m a n ife stin g i t s e l f in th e ebb and flow o f h i s t o r i c e v e n ts . While b o th G raetz and Ahad Ha^Am m a in ta in t h a t th e m issio n of I s r a e l i s to be r e a l i z e d in th e f u t u r e , G raetz h e ld t h a t th e 3 0G ra e tz , JQR (Old S e r i e s ) , I I , 269. 31 With re fe re n c e to G raetz in p a r t i c u l a r , o b s e r vance o f customs and r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s r e p r e s e n te d , among o th e r th in g s , th re a d s o f th e s p i r i t o f Judaism which would c o n tin u e to s o l i d i f y th e Jew ish group. S. E t t i n g e r , "M ifalo H a - h is to rio g ra p h i s h e l G ra e tz ," H istorjonim :W e- a s k o lo t H i s t o r i o t (Je ru sa le m ; H a-hevrah H a - h i s t o r i t Ha- Y i s r a e l i t , 1963), p. 89. ^ Kol K it b e , pp. 46-^7, e t p a ssim . 282 m issio n as such was always in p ro c e s s . The God o f I s r a e l was om nipresent in a l l o f th e u n fo ld in g s o f Jew ish h i s t o r i c a l e x p e rie n c e . I t was f o r t h i s reaso n t h a t G raetz h e ld t h a t Jew ish h i s t o r y was w orld h is t o r y and t h a t a l l t h a t was touched by I s r a e l was tra n sfo rm e d . G ra e tz 's fundam ental t h e s i s in th e H is to r y , t h a t Judaism in a l l o f i t s r a m if ic a tio n s i s th e g r e a t id e a underpinning Jew ish h i s t o r y , now comes c l e a r l y in to fo c u s. God, th e f o c a l p o in t in Judaism , i s pure S p i r i t . Man, w h ile a f r e e b e in g , i s o f secondary im portance and has as h is duty th e obedience to God. The essen ce o f Judaism , th e n , r e s t s upon two fo u n d a tio n s : e t h i c a l p r a c t ic e and r e l i g i o n . "Judaism i s n o t a mere d o c trin e o f f a i t h . " 33 Renan was c o r r e c t when he s a id th a t Judaism " is a minimum o f r e l i g - q h io n ." H Micah c a p su le d Judaism as fo llo w s: "Thou a s k e s t what th e Lord r e q u ir e th o f th e e ? Only to do j u s t l y , and to love m ercy, and to walk humbly w ith thy G od."3 5 * H i l l e l d id s im ila r ly when a h eath en asked him what was th e q u in te s s e n c e o f Judaism : "'L ove th y n eighbour as t h y s e l f . ' T hat i s th e whole o f th e law ; a l l th e r e s t i s b u t com m entary on t h i s t e x t . " 36 33H e in ric h G ra e tz , "The S ig n ific a n c e o f Judaism f o r th e P re s e n t and th e F u tu re ," JQR (Old S e r i e s ) , I (O cto b er, 1888), 7. 3 l* I b i d . , p . 8 . 3 5 I b i d . ( C f ., Micah 6 : 8 )) 3 6 ib id . ( C f ., Shabbat 31 a.) 283 Again* when com pelled to do s o , an a u t h o r i t a t i v e c o u n c il d u rin g th e o p p re ssiv e r e ig n o f th e Emperor H adrian r e duced "th e fundam ental p r i n c i p l e s o f Judaism to th r e e : avoidance o f i d o l a t r y , avoidance o f u n c h a s tity , and, 3 7 f i n a l l y , avoidance o f a tta c k on human l i f e . " From th e above i t i s c l e a r t h a t th e r i t u a l was n o t h e ld to be th e fundam ental a sp e c t o f Judaism . R i tu a l , however, h as i t s p o s it iv e a s p e c t, To re g a rd th e h ig h e s t Being as one and u n iq u e , and as th e essence o f a l l e t h i c a l p e r f e c t i o n s , and to w orship i t as th e Godhead— in a s in g le word, Monotheism in th e w id e st a c c e p ta tio n o f th e te rm . From i t s very b e g in n in g s , Judaism has r e s t e d on th e s e two elem ents and they have rem ained h i s t o r i c a l l y c h a r a c te r i s t i c o f i t . Judaism can be u n d ersto o d in i t s v a rio u s m a n ife s ta tio n s because i t i s "th ro u g h o u t r a t i o n a l i s t i c . " 39 Through th e e t h i c a l , r e l i g i o u s and r a t i o n a l p h a s e s , i t s fundam ental t h r u s t has made i t s e l f f e l t in h i s t o r y . I t s m issio n in th e s e th r e e a re a s i s f a r from com pleted and th e w orld s o r e ly r e q u ir e s th e e x e rc is e o f Judaism on th e se f r o n ts o f human en deavor, and in m an's c o n fr o n ta tio n w ith th e d i v i n e . 1 *8 3 ? I b i d ., p. 9 . 3 8 I b id . 3 9 I b i d . , p. 1 2 . 4QI b i d . , p. 13. G r a e tz 's H is to r y , in which I s r a e l i s d e p ic te d as th e b e a r e r o f th e g r e a t id e a o f Judaism , i s as much a program f o r th e f u tu r e as i t i s a c h a rtin g o f I s r a e l 's p a s t . Ahad Ha-Am, as G ra e tz , c o n sid e re d th e whole f a b r i c o f Jew ish h i s t o r y and t r a d i t i o n as an o rg a n ic w hole, whose component segm ents need to be u n d ersto o d s y m p a th e tic a lly and from w ith in th e vantage p o in t o f t r a d i t i o n . For G ra e tz , th e Jew ish r e l i g i o n was a v i t a l elem ent in th e p e r p e tu a tio n o f Judaism because i t had i n t r i n s i c v a lu e as a system o f b e l i e f s and p r i n c i p l e s , th e most e s s e n t i a l o f which were th e e t h i c a l im p e ra tiv e s . Ahad Ha-Am ag rees w ith G raetz t h a t th e e t h i c a l te a c h in g s had param ount value o v e r r e l i g i o u s d o c trin e and r i t u a l . G ra e tz , how ever, b e lie v e d t h a t b o th th e e t h i c a l and th e r e lig i o u s em anated from Ju d a ism 's enthronem ent o f monotheism. God, as Su preme S p i r i t , c l e a r ly o ccu p ied a c e n t r a l i t y in G r a e tz 's H is to ry in r e l a t i o n to which th e s p i r i t u a l id e a s o f Ju d a ism found t h e i r m eaning. Nahum G la tz e r q u o te s G r a e tz 's fundam ental h y p o th e sis t h a t "th e t o t a l i t y o f Judaism i s d is c e r n ib le o nly in i t s h i s t o r y . " 1 *1 The c o rn e rs to n e id e a o f Judaism i s "th e id e a o f God who r e v e a ls H im se lf, f in d s i t s h i s t o r i c r e a l i z a t i o n in an 'a d e q u a te s t a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n ' so t h a t 't h e G od-idea i s a t th e same tim e an id e a HI G la tz e r , S tu d ie s in N in e te e n th -C e n tu ry Jew ish I n t e l l e c t u a l H is to r y , I I , HI. 2 85 o f a s t a t e . ” Judaism becomes f o r G raetz a S ta a ts g e s e tz whose r e a l i z a t i o n i s to be cu lm in ated in th e M essianic Age. 112 Ahad Ha-Am sh a re d much o f G ra e tz ’s view point in h is tr e a tm e n t o f Jew ish h i s t o r y , s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r th e c e n t r a l i t y o f th e God id e a , th e id e a o f th e workings o f th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t . 1 ’113 Ahad Ha-Am’s m e ssia n ic g o als were of a s e c u la r n a tu r e , which n e v e rth e le s s were in fu s e d w ith a r e l i g i o u s f e e lin g in which Jew ish t r a d i t i o n , as th e s an e t a of a n a tio n , had a c e n t r a l i t y . Ahad Ha-Am s t r e s s e d th e e t h i c a l n a tu re o f Judaism , o u t of which he b e lie v e d th e r e l i g i o u s em erged. 4 4 For him i t was th e e t h i c a l i n e t h i c a l monotheism t h a t needed to be under sc o re d . The r e l i g i o u s m a n if e s ta tio n o f th e e t h i c a l was c l e a r ly o f secondary im portance and c o n d itio n e d w ith r e g ard to tim e and p la c e . Ahad Ha-Am undoubtedly was i n debted t o G raetz f o r much o f th e h i s t o r i c a l m a te ria ls in h i s E s s a y s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith re g a rd t o G r a e tz 's tre a tm e n t o f th e modern p e rio d w ith i t s an ti-R efo rm b i a s . G raetz made good h i s prom ise to Zunz, t h a t when h is H isto ry would be w r i tte n i t would in d eed be a Jew ish h i s t o r y . 4* * I f 4 2 I b i d . , pp. 41-1*2. 43Kol K itb e , pp. 292-293. iiu I b i d . , pp. 280-281. 4 5 G ra e tz , H is to ry o f th e Je w s. VI, 60. 286 th e re were d e f ic ie n c ie s in G ra e tz 1s p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e Jew ish h i s t o r i c a l p a s t , th e y a re n o t due to G ra e tz 's aping o f s c h o la rs and h i s t o r i a n s o f h is tim e . What may be s a id o f th e d e f e c ts o f th e H is to ry i s , as G raetz r e p o r te d ly s a id o f th e work o f h is p r e d e c e s s o r, Marcus J o s t , "He began h is work w ith i n s u f f i c i e n t m a te r ia l a t h i s com mand, b u t he b la z e d f o r us a p ath in th e la b y r in th o f Jew ish h i s t o r y . "**6 46Quoted by D eutsch, CCAR Y earbook, XXVII, 357; Nathan R o te n s tr e ic h , "Nisyono s h e l G raetz B a - f ilo s o f ia h s h e l H a - h is to r ia h ," Z io n , V III (S eptem ber, 1942), 51-59; a n o th e r e x c e lle n t d is c u s s io n i s c o n ta in e d in an a r t i c l e by Ism ar E lbogen, "H ein ric h G ra e tz , H is to r ia n o f th e Jew s," American Jew ish Y earbook, 43 (1941-1942), 489-498. Elbogen S t a t e s : " In G r a e tz 's co n cep tio n Jew ish H is to ry became a u n it and assumed a h e r o ic a s p e c t. He p o rtra y e d th e W andering Jew as w andering Judaism t h a t sta n d s on a l o f t y t u r r e t and from t h i s p o s itio n surveys th e r i s i n g and f a l l i n g b illo w s of th e w o rld 's h i s t o r y . I t speaks a l l to n g u e s , f o r i t h as been in a l l l a n d s . I t escap es in a manner t h a t must be re g a rd e d as a m ir a c le , a l l dangers and t e r r o r s . I t i s th e youngest b r o th e r o f Time. I t h a s a m ighty memory o f a l l th e e v e n ts o f th e thousands o f y e a rs which have p a sse d b e fo re i t . . . I t has se en th e l o f t y forms o f a n t iq u ity r i s e and p ass away. I t h as liv e d through th e w ild chaos o f th e M iddle A ges, which p re s s e d on i t l i k e a m ountain, and i t has h e lp e d to cause t h i s chaos t o v an ish l i k e th e v is io n s o f a dream. I t h as seen th e dawn o f Modern Times a r i s e , and t h i s same p e o p le , a l most unchanged, h a s a h o ld upon th e p r e s e n t, bound i n t o a community by h o ly memories and r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s , even though w ith o u t a common la n d . . . The h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l i s a m in ia tu re h i s t o r y o f th e w orld. They b e a r th e same r e l a t i o n to one a n o th e r as th e microcosm to th e macrocosm. (G ra e tz , H i s t o r i c P a r a l l e l s in "Papers re a d a t th e A nglo-Jew ish H i s t o r i c a l E x h ib itio n , 1 1 London, 1888, p . 3 f . ) . " E lbogen, i b i d . , pp. 495-496. 287 B. Nahman Krochmal In th e a tte m p t t o show th e in f lu e n c e o f modern Jew ish s c h o la r s h ip on Ahad Ha-Am and h is use o f p e r t i n e n t m a te r ia l from i t f o r h i s p h ilo so p h y and view o f th e B ib le , we have tr a v e r s e d a p e rio d o f modern Jew ish h i s to r y which marked th e b eg in n in g o f s c i e n t i f i c Jew ish s t u d i e s . Leopold Zunz i n i t i a t e d th e p e rio d in 1818 w ith h i s p u b lic a t io n , Etwas u b er d ie ra b b in is c h e L i t e r a t u r , a work which was o f prim ary im portance in la y in g down a method f o r th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f r a b b in ic l i t e r a t u r e . In th e fo u r decades which fo llo w e d , th e re s e a rc h e s o f G e ig e r, J o s t and F ran k el made t h e i r cum ulative im pact on th e Jew is h i n t e l l e c t u a l w orld b o th in s id e and o u ts id e o f Ger many. The p u b lic a tio n o f G r a e tz 's g r e a t r e s c h ic h te d e r Ju d e n , which commenced in 1853, c lo s e d th e f i r s t t h r u s t o f Die W isse n sc h a ft des Judentum s. As Franz Rosenzweig e x p re sse d i t , Around 1860 th e movement had run i t s c o u rse j having a t t a i n e d p o l i t i c a l e m a n c ip a tio n , German Judaism sank i n t o a p o s tp r a n d ia l doze, to be awakened o n ly by a wave o f a n ti-s e m itis m and, s p i r i t u a l l y , by th e Z io n is t movement The Z io n is t movement,which em anated from W estern E urope, grew f o r th e m ost p a r t o u t o f th e need to cope w ith th e ^Nahum G la tz e r , "Modern Jew ish S tu d ie s ," S tu d ie s in N in e te e n th -C e n tu rv Jew ish I n t e l l e c t u a l H is to r y , 11, 27. 288 growing problem o f a n ti-S e m itis m f o r which i t was d e - h p sig n e d as an a n t id o te . The co n to u rs o f th e Zionism c r e a te d in W estern E urope, and p a r t i c u l a r l y Germany, were p o l i t i c a l in n a tu re and em phasized th e p r a c t i c a l a s p e c ts o f p h y s ic a l s u r v iv a l in a h o s t i l e environm ent. A lthough p o l i t i c a l Zionism had i t s t h e o r e t i c i a n s who o u tlin e d a program f o r Jew ish s u r v i v a l , t h a t program was d ev o id , i n Ahad Ha-Am's e s tim a te a t l e a s t , o f th e e la n t h a t would a ls o en ab le Judaism to s u rv iv e in th e 49 modem w orld. By c o n t r a s t , th e Z io n is t id e a s t h a t emerged from E a s te rn Europe were v a r ie d w ith re g a rd to th e p r a c t i c a l programs p ro p o sed , b u t were b u t t r e s s e d by s u b s t a n t i a l id e o lo g y which saw th e p l i g h t o f Jews and t h a t o f Judaism in te r tw in e d . I t became c l e a r in Germany a t th e f i n de s i e c l e t h a t th e g r e a t id e a l o f th e r e fo rm e rs , th e i n t e g r a tio n o f Jews in to th e modern c u l tu r e th ro u g h th e l i b e r a l th e o lo g y a r t i c u l a t e d , in p a r t i c u l a r by Abraham G e ig e r, was a t b e s t a o n e -s id e d e f f o r t . Educated Jews * * 8"The growth o f a n ti-S e m itis m in W estern Europe and th e pogroms and th e b r u t a l p e rs e c u tio n s in E a s te rn Europe made i t in c r e a s in g ly c l e a r t h a t n e i t h e r p a s s iv e f a i t h i n th e M essiah to come n o r m y s tic a l e x e r c i s e s , n e i t h e r s p i r i t u a l s e l f - i s o l a t i o n n o r c u l t u r a l a s s im i l a t i o n , would b rin g s a l v a t i o n . " Joseph H e l l e r , The Z io n is t Id e a (New York: Schocken Books, 1 9 4 9 ), p. 53. 44 Kol Kitbe, pp. 135-138, 313-320, 337-341. were p rep ared by t h i s tim e to a s s im ila te in to th e m ain stream o f German c u l t u r a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e o nly to f in d t h a t t h e i r e f f o r t s were re b u ffe d and t h e i r id e a of a p ro p h e tic m issio n in th e d is p e rs io n was no more th a n a p io u s hope. The arguments which rag ed d uring G e ig e r's tim e on th e p r i o r i t y o f Jew ish u n iv e rs a lis m o v e r p a r tic u la r is m became muted by th e end o f th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry in th e q u e s tio n o f Jew ish s u r v iv a l as su ch . G raetz had more th a n an in k lin g o f th e coming d e c lin e o f German Jewry and i t s ad v en tu re in em ancipation when he p re sa g e d , in an address d e liv e re d a t th e A nglo-Jew ish E x h ib itio n h e ld in London in 1887, t h a t th e f u tu r e o f S O Jewry on th e c o n tin e n t la y w ith th e Jewry o f E ngland. T w ilig h t had s e t i n f o r German Jewry and i t s g r e a t h o p e s. I t s l a s t i n g monument would be th e p io n e e r work done by th e founders o f th e W issen sch aft s c h o o l, whose cum ulative im pact was n o t l o s t on E a ste rn European Jew ry. On Ameri can Judaism i t was prom ulgated by I s a a c Mayer Wise (1819- 1900) in i t s l i b e r a l e x p re s s io n , and by Solomon S c h e c h te r (1830-1916) in i t s more c o n s e rv a tiv e te n d e n c ie s . Wise S0 Abrahams, J$R (Old S e r i e s ) , IV, 191-192. G r a e tz 's b a s ic s k e tc h o f Jew ish h i s t o r y , h is "Die C onstruc t i o n d e r Ju d isc h e G esch ich te" appeared in 18H6, seven y e a rs b e fo re K rochm al's book was p u b lis h e d in Lemberg (1 8 5 1 ). In flu e n c e o f Krochmal on G ra etz i s d isc o u n te d by E lbogen, AJYB, X L III, H9 3, a lth o u g h K rochm al's work was in Z unz's liands f o r te n o r elev en y e a rs a f t e r K rochm al's d e a th . C onsidering G r a e tz 's lim ite d c o n ta c t w ith Zunz, Elbogen i s undoubtedly c o r r e c t . 290 had th e l i b e r a l t h r u s t o f a G eiger and th e co n serv in g i n s t i n c t s o f a Z a c h a ria s F ra n k e l. S c h e c h te r, w h ile a d i s c i p l e o f F ra n k e l, had e x p e rie n c e d th e c lim a te o f r e lig i o u s lib e r a lis m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f E ngland, where he s p e n t many y e a r s , some o f them as a r e a d e r in R abbinics a t Cambridge U n iv e r s ity . The p h ilo s o p h ic fo u n d a tio n s o f th e Zionism th a t was t o em anate from E a s te rn Europe had i t s grounding in a W isse n sc h a ft sc h o o l w hich, w h ile i t u t i l i z e d th e s c ie n t i f i c m ethodology o f i t s German c o u n te r p a r t, n e v e r l o s t s i g h t o f th e n a t io n a l c o lo r a tio n o f Judaism in a funda m e n ta l se n se o r "th e h i s t o r i c r e a l i t y o f th e Jew ish 51 p e o p le ." This developm ent was due in p a r t to th e f a c t t h a t E ast European Jewry n ev e r ex p e rie n c e d c i v i l em anci p a tio n f o r a s iz e a b le d u r a tio n , o r f e l t a ru p tu re in th e o rg a n ic c o n tin u ity o f Jew ish l i f e which f o r c e n tu r ie s had been i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . In th e i n t e r m i t t e n t p e rio d s between o p p re s s io n , w h ile e n lig h te n e d f o rc e s worked fo r c i v i l em ancipation and encouraged a s s im il a ti o n , th e r e was no cu m u lativ e im petus which tran sfo rm ed th e l i f e o f P o lish 5 o and R ussian Jew ry, as had been th e case in Germany. 51 Shalom S p ie g e l, Hebrew Reborn (New York: Mac m illa n C o., 19 30), p . 1 0 8 . 52 Solomon G ra y z e l, A H is to ry o f th e Jews ( P h ila d e lp h ia : Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f Am erica, 19 U 7 ), pp. 605 f f . S. M. Dubnow, H is to ry o f th e Jews in R ussia and Poland ( P h ila d e lp h ia : Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1946), I I , 125 f f . 291 A nother f a c t o r r e l a t e d to th e s t a t u s o f Jew ish r e lig i o u s l i f e in P oland and R u ssia . The Judaism which e x is te d th e r e had n e v e r undergone a modern r e l i g i o u s re fo rm a tio n . The cho ice o f Jewry in th e r e l i g i o u s realm was orthodoxy o r s e c u la ris m . The Jew ish s e c u la ris m t h a t emerged r e - ta in e d c e r t a i n Jew ish n a t io n a l t r a i t s and orthodox Jewry n e v e r d iv e s te d i t s e l f o f such t r a i t s . Those elem ents w ith in orthodoxy t h a t opposed th e Z io n is t id eo lo g y d id so out o f r e l i g i o u s c o n s id e r a tio n s , sin c e a r e tu r n to th e Jew ish Homeland was lin k e d w ith th e advent o f th e M essiah and The Redem ption . 3 3 G a l i c i a , a c o u n try which came under A u stria n r u le th ro u g h th e p a r t i t i o n o f P oland in 1772, and which was th e re b y slo w ly b ro u g h t i n t o th e o r b i t o f German c u l t u r e , s e rv e d as a m eeting ground f o r th e i n t e l l e c t u a l c u rr e n ts o f W estern and E a st European Jew ry. H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h i s was a momentous ju n c tu re between th e R ussian H askalah movement which was n a t io n a l ly and H e b ra ic a lly o r ie n te d , and th e W issen sb b aft sc h o o l o f th e W est. The r e s u l t was a movement o f Hokmas Y is ro e l t h a t had f a r re a c h in g im p li c a tio n s . In 1782, Joseph I I o f A u s tr ia (1765-1790) evolved a form ula f o r th e em an cip atio n o f A u stria n Jewry w hich in 5 3 Joseph Z ah av i, E re tz I s r a e l in R abbinic Lore (Je ru sa le m : T e h il la I n s t i t u t e , 1962), pp. 1H, 103-109, 137, 165, e t p a ssim . 292 r e a l i t y , how ever, r e ta in e d many o f th e p re v io u s d i s a b i l i t i e s o f d is fra n c h is e m e n t. C o rre sp o n d in g ,to th e halfw ay m easures o f f e r e d them, was th e resp o n se o f Aus t r i a n Jew ry. "Em ancipation d id n o t c a p tiv a te Jew ish so u ls h e re a.* i t d id i n R u s s ia. " 54 In L ith u a n ia , o r th o doxy was p re se rv e d in a h ig h ly i n t e l l e c t u a l fram ework, f o s te r e d in no sm a ll m easure by E l i j a h , Gaon o f V ilna (1720-1797), "The g r e a t e s t i n t e l l e c t u a l and s p i r i t u a l 5 5 f o rc e i n R abbinic Judaism sin c e M aim onides." U nlike L ith u a n ia , G a lic ia was dom inated in many p a r ts by th e h a s id ic s e c t s , who were in t h e i r d e c lin e and among whom th e r e was much o b sc u ra n tism and r e s i s t a n c e to innovation.56 54 Max Nussbaum, "Nachman Krochmal: The P h ilo so p h e r o f I s r a e l 's E t e r n i t y ," AJYB, XLIV ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1 9 4 2 -3 ), 83. 55 I s id o r e E p s te in , Judaism (B a ltim o re , M d.: Penguin Books, 19 5 9 ), p . 2 81. C C °B ernard J . Bamberger, "The B eginnings o f Modern Jew ish S c h o la rs h ip ," CCAR Y earbook, XLII ( C in c in n a ti, 19 3 2 ), 218. E p s te in and Bamberger are a t v a ria n c e as to th e g e n e ra l l e v e l o f r a b b in ic le a r n in g p r e v a le n t in G a lic ia . E p ste in advances as th e re a so n f o r th e b rake on a s s im ila tio n th e "high sta n d a rd s o f R ab b in ic le a r n in g , (which) p re v e n te d th e H askalah from going th e way o f i t s German c o u n te r p a r t." E p s te in , Ju d a ism , p . 299. That H asidism was w id esp read in G a lic ia i s , how ever, a t t e s t e d t o by Dubnow. C f. , Simon Dubnow, H is to ry o f th e Jews in R u ssia and Poland ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f Am erica, 1920), I , 229-231. Of th e s t i f l i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l atm osphere in which th e G a lic ia n m askilim s u f f e r e d , n o te S. J . R a p o p o rt's c o m p la in t, q u o ted in Shalom S p ie g e l, Hebrew R eborn, pp. 9 7-9 8 . The te n s io n s o f t h i s e n v iro n m e n t, w ith i t s p o l a r i t i e s o f M endelssohnian en lig h te n m en t and o f h a s id ic p ie tis m , gave b i r t h to a H askalah o f i t s own, o f which Solomon Judah R apoport (1790-1867) and Nahman Krochmal (1785-1840) were th e o u ts ta n d in g exam ples. The f e a tu r e s o f th e G a lic ia n H askalah were to a g r e a t e x te n t formed by th e s e two to w erin g i n t e l l e c t s — R apoport, th e keen h i s t o r i a n o f Jew is h l i t e r a t u r e , and Krochm al, th e p h ilo s o p h e r o f Jew ish h i s t o r y . R apoport w as, in th e words o f Dr. S c h e c h te r, th e T alm id-chaber ( " d is c ip le - c o lle a g u e " ) o f Nahman Krochmal57 and th e two men were f a s t f r i e n d s , both en gaged in expanding th e h o riz o n s o f Jewish le a r n in g and o f fathom ing th e meaning o f Jew ish e x is te n c e . Rapoport and Krochmal e x e m p lifie d an i n t e l l e c t u a l movement, th e g o al o f whose l i t e r a t u r e was n o t one of a d ju s tin g Judaism to th e modern w orld. R a th e r, i t s purpose w as, "To analyze Judaism , to d is c o v e r i t s su b sta n c e and d em o n strate i t s e t e r n i t y w ith th e h e lp o f th e t o o l s forged by W estern C O c i v i l i z a t i o n and European p h ilo so p h y . . . " c 7 Solomon S c h e c h te r, S tu d ie s in Judaism ( F i r s t S e r ie s ; P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o ciety o f A m erica, 19 3 8 ), p. 52. Bam berger, CCAR Y earbook, XLII, 222-223. 58Max Nussbaum, AJYBj XLIV, 83. A l i f e of Krochmal, as w e ll as a d e t a i l e d d is c u s s io n o f the G a li c ia n H ask a lah , are t o be found i n P. Lachower, T oledot H a - s if r u t H a - 'i b r i t H a-hadashah (T e l Aviv: D v ir Pub. Co., 1 951), I I , 2 4 i f . — There appeared in th e e a rly phases o f th e G a li c ian h a sk a la h a c u rio u s p a r a l l e l , on th e s u r fa c e a t l e a s t , o f th e fo rm a tiv e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f th e German Jew is h A u fk laru n g . Krochmal, in b oth th e depth and scope o f h is w ork, may be compared t o M endelssohn b e c a u se , l ik e th e sage o f D essau, he so u g h t o u t th e u n iv e r s a l p h ilo so p h ic p r in c ip le s o f Judaism . R a p o p o rt's work in r a b b in ic l i t e r a t u r e was as fo rm ativ e an in flu e n c e as t h a t o f Z ach arias Frankel and, w h ile Rapoport n e v e r f in is h e d h is Erek M illin (P rag u e, 1852), o r ta lm u d ic e n c y c lo p e d ia , h i s method o f re se a rc h and numerous o th e r p u b lic a tio n s had 59 won f o r him a s i g n i f i c a n t s c h o la r ly fo llo w in g . There was a p a r t i c u l a r l y c lo se i n t e l l e c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tween Leopold Zunz, Solomon Rapoport and Nahman Krochmal. Zunz used Rapoport V s re s e a rc h e s and a rra n g e d f o r th e p o s t humous p u b lic a tio n o f K rochm al's magnum o p u s, Moreh Nebuke Ha-zeman ( Guide to th e P erp lex ed o f th e Time) . ^ 0 The t i t l e o f K rochm al's w ork, p ro b ab ly s e le c te d by 59 Nahum S lo u sch z , The Renascence o f Hebrew L i t e r a tu r e ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f Am erica, 1909), p p . 58-62. Max R a isin adds a n o th e r d i mension by n o tin g t h a t "Krochmal g r e a t l y prom oted th e s c i e n t i f i c study o f Jew ish T heo lo g y ." Max R a is in , "The Reform Movement as R e fe lc te d i n th e N eo-H ebraic L i t e r a t u r e , " CCAR Yearbook, XVI, 2 87. fin The work appeared i n 1851, e le v e n y e a rs a f t e r K rochm al's d eath . Krochmal, in h is w i l l , e x p re s s ly r e q u e ste d Zunz to e d i t h is w ork. S p ie g e l, Hebrew R eborn, p. 98. 295 Zunz,®^- h a rk s back to th e t i t l e o f M aimonides' p h ilo s o p h ic w ork, Moreh Nebukim ( Guide o f th e P e rp le x e d ) , an a s s o c i a tio n of theme which d id n o t escape Ahad Ha-Am, who w r ite s i n h is Memoirs t h a t he "immersed h im s e lf n ig h t and day" i n Jew ish p h ilo s o p h ic a l l i t e r a t u r e "from Maimonides to C O K rochm al." I t was Krochmal and K rochm al's system em anating from th e s y n th e s is o f German Id e a lis m , p a r t i c u - l a r l y t h a t o f H egel and Jew ish th e o lo g ic a l n o tio n s d e veloped in modern p h ilo s o p h ic s t y l e , t h a t c r e a te d th e id e o lo g ic a l framework from which Ahad Ha-Am developed some o f h i s key c o n c e p ts , which became e la b o r a te d in h i s p h ilo so p h y o f " S p i r i t u a l Z ionism ." I t i s our c o n te n tio n t h a t Ahad Ha-Am's n o tio n s o f ru ah ( " S p i r i t " ) and ru h a n iu t ( " s p i r i t u a l i t y " ) . as i t m ani f e s t s i t s e l f in such concepts as te h i y a t h a -ru a h (" th e r e v iv a l o f th e s p i r i t " ) , H a-ruah H a-leum i (" th e N a tio n a l 61B em ard Bamberger, gg&R Yearbook, XLII, 219. ^ Kol K itb e , p. * + 9 5. Ahad Ha-Am uses th e u n i v e r s a lly ac ce p ted a b b re v ia tio n s f o r b o th p h ilo s o p h e rs , "RAM BAM " (Rabbi Moses ben Maimon) and "RANAK" (Rabbi Nahman K rochm al). That Krochmal and P erez Smolenskin (1 8 42-1885), th e p rim ary p ro p o n en ts o f th e "N a tio n a l Id ea" o f th e R ussian h a sk a la h p la y e d a s u b s t a n t i a l r o le in Ahad Ha-Am’s th o u g h t, p a r t i c u l a r l y in h is fo rm ativ e y e a r s , i s a t t e s t e d to by H e lle r . Aryeh Simon and Joseph H e ll e r , Ahad Ha-Am, H a -is h , P o 'f-l? W e-torato (Je ru sa le m : The Hebrew U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1955), p. S " P T 7 " " " CO J u li u s G uttm ann, P h ilo so p h ie s o f Judaism , t r . David W . Silverm an (New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt and, W inston, 1964) , p . 324. 296 S p i r i t " ) , h a -le u m iu t h a -ru h a n it ( " s p i r i t u a l n a tio n a lis m " ) , h a-zed ek h a-m u h lat ("A bsolute J u s t i c e " ) , as w e ll as h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Jew ish h i s t o r y , a re s tro n g ly dependent on Krochm al’s th e o ry o f Jew ish r e v iv a l and h i s p h ilo so p h y c |» o f h i s t o r y . While Krochm al's use o f ruah and i t s m ani f e s t a t i o n s was th e o lo g ic a l, Ahad Ha-Am's use i s - s e c u l a r . Ahad Ha-Am b u ttr e s s e s th e id e a o f ruah and i t s d e r iv a t i v e s w ith p h ilo s o p h ic a l and n a t i o n a l i s t id eo lo g y .® 5 * Through th e i n t e l l e c t u a l framework which Krochmal p r e s e n te d , Ahad Ha-Am f ix e d th e g u id e lin e s f o r h is own th o u g h t on Ju d a ism 's e s s e n t i a l " s p i r i t u a l " q u a l i t i e s , g U H e lle r p o in ts o u t th a t Ahad Ha-Am was in flu e n c e d by German id e a lis m and rom anticism , such as t h a t o f H erd e r, and p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e g u is e t h a t i t assumed in Krochmal. Simon and H e lle r , Ahad Ha-Am, H a - is h , P o 'a lo W e -to ra to , p . 162. 65 The b a la n c e o f th e c h a p te r w i l l seek t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s . Ahad Ha-Am's r e f u s a l t o use K rochm al's b a s ic term h a -ru h a n i ha-m uhlat ("A bsolute S p i r i t " ) i s h a rd ly a c c id e n ta l . His non-use o f K rochm al's key term f o r h is own system i s undoubtedly r e la te d to h is own a g n o s tic ism . Y ehezkel Kaufmann s t a t e s i n "Hefez ha-kiyyum h a -le u m i," M ik la t, IV (New York, 1920), 175, t h a t in Ahad Ha-Am's day H th e tim e had a lre a d y passed f o r th e s u f f i c in g o f p o p u la r r e l i g i o n o r even such id e a s as t h a t o f K rochm al's 'h a -ru h a n i h a -m u h la t, ' o r th e m issio n of I s r a e l id e a o f th e sa v a n ts o f th e W est." Jacob B. Agus p u ts i t more f o r c e f u lly when he o b s e rv e s , "In c o n tr a s t to th e g e n e ra t i o n o f Krochmal, th e contem poraries o f Ahad Ha-Am no lo n g e r b e lie v e d i m p l i c i t l y in God. The e t e r n i t y o f th e Jew ish people could n o t, t h e r e f o r e , be p o s tu la te d on th e b a s is o f attac h m en t to th e A bsolute I d e a ." Jacob B. Agus, " N a t i o n a l i s t i c P h ilo so p h ie s o f Ju d aism ," Ju d a ism , V (Summer, 1956), 258. 297 which needed b o th renew al and an o p p o rtu n ity to b u r s t f o r th ag a in f r e e ly in a n a t u r a l and c o n g e n ial e n v iro n m ent, namely P a l e s t i n e , th e h i s t o r i c fo u n ta in h e a d o f th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t . " 66 In d e a lin g w ith th e t e x t o f K rochm al's work, a number o f te c h n ic a l problem s im m ediately become e v id e n t. What i s a v a ila b le to us o f K rochm al's p h ilo so p h y was pub lis h e d , as p re v io u s ly n o te d , posthum ously. Because o f s e rio u s i l l n e s s in th e y e a rs im m ediately p rece d in g h is d e a th , Krochmal was unable to f i n i s h some o f h i s im por t a n t t r e a t i s e s , o r , f o r t h a t m a tte r, t o e d i t any o f h is le c tu r e n o te s , e ssa y s o r l e t t e r s . The r e s u l t le a v e s th e re a d e r in d o u b t, a t tim e s , as to w hether he i s g e t t i n g th e com plete th o u g h t o f th e a u th o r. S c h e c h te r summarizes th e problem as fo llo w s: "Thus K rochm al's work . . . i s f u l l o f m is p rin ts and th e t e x t i s sometimes confused w ith th e n o t e s . " 5 7 Krochm al’s Guide c o n ta in s some se v e n te e n c h a p te rs o f d iv e rs e m a te r ia l—p h ilo s o p h ic a l and h i s t o r i c a l —w r i tte n f o r th e most p a r t , th e above n o ted problem s n o tw ith s ta n d in g , ac co rd in g t o th e most e x a c tin g s ta n d a rd s o f th e 66Kol K itb e , pp. **6-47, 181. 6 7 S c h e c h te r, S tu d ie s in Judaism , p . 60. For o u r p u rp o se s, how ever, we s h a l l use K itbe Rabbi Nachman Krochmal, ed . Simon Rawidowicz ( B e r lin : H ebr. V erlag "Aj 'a n o t h ," 192*0 w ith i t s e x c e ll e n t " In tr o d u c tio n " and c r i t i c a l n o t e s . 298 method which came to c h a r a c te r iz e th e W issen sch aft des Judenturns. K rochm al’s aim was to so p r e s e n t h is m a te r ia l t h a t i t would n a t u r a l l y te n d to le a d to emunah zeru fah (" a p u r i f i e d f a i t h " ) . A ccording t o a sta te m e n t a t t r i b u t e d to Zunz, Krochmal was in s p i r e d to u n d e rta k e h is p h ilo so p h ic s p e c u la tio n b ecau se o f h is stu d y o f H egel, j u s t as Maimonides had u n d e rta k e n h is Moreh as a r e s u l t o f h i s c o n fr o n ta tio n w ith A r i s t o t l e . 68 The p r e c is e in flu e n c e o f H egel on Krochm al’ s th o u g h t has been th e source o f much d is p u t a ti o n , due in no sm a ll p a r t t o Krochmal h im s e lf who, f o r exam ple, i n h is s ix te e n th c h a p te r o f th e Moreh Nebuke Ha-zeman, in d is c u s s in g H eg e l, o f te n b len d s h is own th o u g h t w ith t h a t o f H e g e l’s , making i t im p o ssib le t o CQ i s o l a t e th e in te r tw in e d th re a d s o f b o th p h ilo s o p h ie s . The e x te n t o f H e g e l's in flu e n c e o v e r K rochm al's th o u g h t has been d e b a te d . Simon Rawidowicz d en ies p e rv a siv e 70 H eg elian in flu e n c e s on Krochmal. Guttmann h o ld s , by 6 8 S c h e c h te r, S tu d ie s in Ju d a ism , p . 65. 68K itb e Rabbi Nachman K rochm al, pp. 272-283. ^°Simon Rawidowicz, "War Nachman Krochmal H egel- ia n e r ? " HUCA, V (1 9 2 8 ), 535-582. Rawidowicz p o in te d o u t t h a t th e r e were fundam ental d if f e r e n c e s between th e p h i l o so p h ic v iew p o in ts o f Krochmal and H egel; t h a t a g u lf e x i s te d betw een t h e i r id e o lo g ie s d e s p ite t h e i r use of s im i l a r o r i d e n t i c a l id e o lo g ie s . Rawidowicz, HUCA, V, 562. This v iew p o in t i s t r e a t e d in g r e a t e r d e t a i l in K itbe Rabbi Nachman K rochm al, "Mabo," pp. 160-200. Raw idow icz's v iew p o in t i s sh a re d by a number o f o th e r s c h o la r s ; e . g . , Natan R o te n s tr e ic h , "M uhlat V e -h itra h a - sh u t B e-m ishnato s h e l RANAK," K e n e s s e t, VI (19U1) , 339 ; 299 c o n t r a s t , t h a t K rochm al's " d o c trin e o f th e n a tu re and e ssen c e o f r e l i g i o n and i t s r e l a t i o n to p h ilo so p h y was " T e fis a to H a 'h i s t o r i t s h e l RANAK, " Z io n , VII ( S e p t ., 1941), 35 f f . ; Meyer Waxman, A H isto ry o f Jew ish L i t e r a tu r e (New York: Bloch P u b lish in g Co., 1 9 4 5 ), l i t , 461 f . ; S p ie g e l, Hebrew Reborn, pp. I l l f . The e s s e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t y in com pletely id e n tif y in g K rochm al's th o u g h t w ith t h a t o f H egel, p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith re g a rd to "H a-ruhani H a-m uhlat" and th e A bsolute S p i r i t as d e lin e a te d by H egel, i s summarized by Abraham I . K atsh, "Nachman Krochmal and th e German I d e a l i s t s , " Jew ish S o c ia l S tu d ie s , V III ( A p r il, 1946), pp. 87 f f . In K a ts h 's view , th e comparing o f H e g e l's and K rochm al's n o tio n s o f Abso lu te S p i r i t i s " . . .s p e c io u s , K rochm al's A bsolute S p i r i t having n o th in g in common w ith Hegel e x c e p t th e b a re name. In th e f i r s t p la c e , i t i s n o t a d i a l e c t i c a l p r o p o s itio n , is s u in g o u t o f any sch em atic t r i a d o f t h e s i s , a n t i t h e s i s and s y n th e s is . . . S econdly, th e re i s n o th in g p a n lo g ic a l about i t . For H egel, th e A bsolute S p i r i t (R e a lity ) i s th e key to th e w orld—nay th e essen ce o f i t , th e sum t o t a l o f t h i n g s , r e a l iz e d in th r e e su c c e s siv e s ta g e s o f th e 'o f i t s e l f , ' ’o u ts id e i t s e l f and 'o f and f o r i t s e l f . ' I t i s th e e s s e n t i a l r e s u l t o f i t s own a c t i v i t y ; i t s a c t i v i t y c o n s is ts o f tra n sc e n d in g immediacy, n e g a tin g i t and r e tu r n in g w ith in i t s e l f . A ll th e s e d i a l e c t i c a l and m e ta p h y sic a l elem ents a re ab se n t from K rochm al's con c e p tio n ." K atsh , Jew ish S o c ia l S tu d ie s , V II I, 91. This d i f f i c u l t y i s a ls o u n d ersto o d i n th e a r t i c l e s o f R oten- s t r e i c h , who sees f u r t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s in th e p h ilo s o p h ic b a se s f o r th e r e la tio n s h i p betw een th e A bsolute S p i r i t and th e S p i r i t o f th e Jew ish P eo p le. R o te n s tr e ic h 's p o in t i s r e f u te d by Guttmann in P h ilo so p h ie s o f Ju d a ism , p . ' 323 . Guttmann s t r e s s e s t h a t P o te n s t r e ic h 1s d i f f i c u l t y e x i s t s only i f Krochmal d id in d e ed i d e n t i f y "H a-ruhani H a-m uhlat" w ith th e A bsolute S p i r i t o f H egel. I f , how e v e r, i t can be h e ld t h a t f o r Krochmal th e s p i r i t o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , as w e ll as th e o th e r n a tio n a l s p i r i t s , a re b u t " m a n ife s ta tio n s " o f th e A bsolute S p i r i t , t h i s d i f f i cu lty ; f a l l s away. Guttmann, how ever, would r e in f o r c e t h a t w h ile f o r Krochmal th e s p i r i t s o f th e o th e r n a tio n s were b u t m a n ife s ta tio n s o f " s p e c if ic m e ta p h y sic a l pow ers," t h a t o f th e Jew ish people was d i r e c t l y o f th e A bsolute S p i r i t . Guttmann, P h ilo so p h ie s o f Ju d aism , p . 447, n o te 6 8 . 300 71 com pletely ta k e n o v er from H eg el." K rochm al's i n d ebtedness t o German Id e a lism i s g e n e ra lly a d m itte d , a l though in K rochm al's work p ro p e r only Hegel i s a llu d e d 7 2 t o . What i s unique in K rochm al's approach and h is claim to eminence in modern Jew ish l e t t e r s was h i s " u n if ic a tio n o f h i s t o r i c a l in q u iry w ith th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l i n t e r p r e - 7 3 t a t i o n o f t h a t h i s t o r i c a l p ro cess . . . " In th e f i r s t s ix c h a p te rs o f K rochm al's work he t r e a t s r e lig i o n in g e n e ra l. He d e lin e a te s th e c h a r a c te r o f th r e e ty p e s o f r e lig i o u s p e rsu a sio n s which are f a lla c io u s and which prro- duce harm ful r e a c t i o n s . These are Schwarmerei ("Phan t a s y " ) , 74 A berglaube ( " S u p e r s t itio n " ) , 75 and Werk- 76 h e i l i g k e i t ("C erem onialism "). The r e a c tio n form ation 71 Guttmann, P h ilo so p h ie s o f Ju d aism , p. 324 ; J u li u s Guttmann, "Yesodot Ha-mahshabah s h e l Rabbi Nachman Krochm al," K e n e sse t, VI (1941), 262-263. M ordecai K aplan, in The G re a te r Ju d aism , pp. 201 f f . , fo llo w s G uttm ann's view o f p e rv a s iv e H egelian in flu e n c e on Krochmal; J . K la u sn e r, H is to r ia h s h e l H a - s if r u t H a - l b r i t Ha-hadashah (Jeru salem : 19 37), l l , 2 0 1 - £ 0 8 ; Ism ar S chorsch, "The f h i i - osophy o f H isto ry o f Nahman Krochm al," Ju d aism , X (Summer, 1 961), 239-245; Jacob T aubes, "Nachman Krochmal and Modern H is to r ic is r a ," Ju d aism , XII (S p rin g , 196 3 ), 150-164. 7^Abraham I . K atsh, Jew ish S o c ia l S tu d ie s , V III, 87-102. Jacob B. Agus, Judaism , V, 256-253. 7 3 Guttmann, P h ilo so p h ie s o f Judaism , p. 321. 74 K itbe Rabbi Nachman Krochmal, p. 7. 75I b id . , p. 8. 76I b id . 301 to r e lig i o u s p h a n ta s ie s such as " a n g e ls1 1 b e g e ts cynicism which le a d s t o a d e n ia l o f a l l s p i r i t ; t h a t t o s u p e r s t i t i o n produces sk e p tic ism and th e d e n ia l o f God and r e v e l a tio n ; t h a t to cerem onialism produces disem bodied th e o ry , devoid o f a l l s i g n i f i c a n t a c t i o n . 77 Krochmal, who always t r a n s l a t e s g e n e ra l p h ilo s o p h ic th o u g h t in t o Jew ish c a t e g o r i e s , n e x t engages in an e p is te m o lo g ic a l excursus which has as i t s purpose th e s e t t i n g up o f th e t h e s i s t h a t i t i s th e very n a tu re o f th e s p i r i t o f re a so n to develop th e raw c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n s d e riv e d from sen se d a ta t o B e g riff e ( " c o n c e p ts " ) , which i n tu r n undergo y e t f u r t h e r g e n e r a liz a tio n in to Id een ( " i d e a s " ) , 78 which a re p a r t o f reaso n and hence e t e r n a l . The p ro c e ss o f c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n d e p ic te d i s p r e c i s e ly t h a t which th e ra b b is o f th e Talmud used in t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e B ib le . Through a m a n ife s ta tio n of re a s o n , th e p r in c ip l e s o f h erm en eu tics developed by them , th e ta lm u d is ts l a i d b a re th e e t e r n a l p r in c ip l e s o f th e B ib le , em ancipating them from th e o r i g i n a l environm ent and c o n te x t which developed them. By s tr ip p in g th e te a c h in g s o f th e B ib le from t h e i r en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n in g , th e ra b b is were a b le to e x te n d th e fundam ental t r u t h o f th e 77I b i d . , pp. 7 - 0 . 78l b i d . , p. 12. 302 b i b l i c a l f a i t h o f t h e i r own day. T his was tr u e n o t only f o r th e le g a l a s p e c ts c o n ta in e d w ith in th e B ib le b u t 79 even more fu n d am en tally to i t s b a s ic r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . P roceeding from t h i s p o i n t , Krochmal re a so n s t h a t i t was th e b a s ic im port o f th e B ib le , th e Talmud, and a l l r e l i g io u s b e l i e f s however e x p re s s e d , t o ad d ress th em selv es to th e S p i r i t ( Ruah) who i s God. Even id o la tr o u s f a i t h ( Avodah Z arah) was a w orship o f th e S p i r i t as i t was b e lie v e d m a n ife s t in o b je c ts . "Know, t h a t ev ery r e lig i o u s 80 b e l i e f i s grounded in S p i r i t ( B e -ru h a n i) . The A bsolute S p i r i t was th e sou rce o f a l l t r u t h , a l l c a u s e s , and th e sou rce o f a l l e x is te n c e . Krochmal uses th e I s a i a n i c te a c h in g , "I am th e f i r s t and th e l a s t and b e s id e M e 81 th e r e i s no o th e r Elohim" to se c u re t h i s p o in t. On t h i s te a c h in g , J u liu s Guttmann o b se rv e s: Only as f a i t h in th e a b s o lu te s p i r i t can r e l i g i o n e x p re ss t h a t which i s f u l l y embedded in i t s e s se n c e . The a d o ra tio n o f God co rresp o n d s to t h i s co n cep tio n o f God. Such a d o ra tio n depends on m an's re c o g n itio n t h a t only by reaso n o f h i s s p i r i t u a l essen c e can he g ra sp th e love o f God and th u s a s s u re h im s e lf o f e v e r l a s ti n g l i f e . . . T h e o r e tic a lly , r e l i g i o n was s p i r i t u a l p e r c e p tio n , and in i t s h ig h e s t re a c h i t was th e g ra sp o f th e a b s o lu te s p i r i t ; p r a c t i c a l l y , i t was th e s t r i v i n g tow ards u n i f i c a t i o n w ith t h i s s p i r i t so as to become i d e n t i c a l w ith i t . 82 7 9 I b i d . , pp. 13-15. 8 0 I b i d . , p . 29. 81 I b i d . , r e fe r e n c e to I s a . 4 6 :^ . ^ G u ttm a n n , P h ilo so p h ie s o f Ju d aism , p . 325. For Krochmal, b i b l i c a l r e l i g i o n was th e h ig h e s t form o f r e l i g i o n because o f i t s f a i t h in th e A bsolute S p i r i t . 83 While p h ilo so p h y , f o r Krochmal, a ls o ta u g h t " th a t s p i r i t was th e essence o f a l l b e in g ," th e manner in which p h ilo so p h y and r e l i g i o n p re s e n te d t h i s t r u th c o n s titu t e d t h e i r e s s e n t i a l d if fe re n c e in approach. "Philosophy co n ceiv es of s p i r i t in th e form o f a c o n c e p t, and r e l i g i o n in th e form o f a r e p r e s e n ta tio n , to which Oh Krochmal o c c a s io n a lly added th e dim ension o f f e e l i n g ." Krochmal, as H eg el, b e lie v e d th a t i t was n o t p o s s ib le to s e p a ra te t r u t h from th e p a r t i c u l a r g u is e in which i t was r e p r e s e n te d . ". . . I t was im p o s s ib le , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h i s i d e n t i t y o f r e lig io u s and p h ilo s o p h ic t r u t h should be an a b s o lu te one."®^ Krochmal argued th a t c o n c e p tu a li z a tio n o f r e l i g i o n , which in c lu d e s th e knowledge of God, 87 le a d in g to th e s p i r i t u a l becoming known to i t s e l f , was emunah z e ru fa h , o r " p u r if ie d f a i t h . " As f a r as Judaism was co ncerned, th e p roper p e rc e p tio n o f th e u n fo ld in g o f i t s s p i r i t could only be c a r r i e d on f o r th e sake o f s e l f - knowledge; and, as S piegel p u t i t , " t h a t 't h e p e r p l e x i t i e s Q Q K itbe Rabbi Nachman Krochmal, p. 30. 8**Guttmann, P h ilo so p h ie s o f Ju d aism , p . 325. 8 5 I b i d . , pp. 326-327. 86 I b i d . 8^Kitbe Rabbi Nachman Krochmal, p. 31. 30H of th e time* m ight be surm ounted, and t h a t 'we should g O make o u rse lv e s w ise f o r th e f u t u r e . '" In o rd e r to e x p la in th e phenomena o f Judaism in r e l a t i o n t o th e S p i r i t from which a l l em anates, Krochmal u n d ertak es an ex am ination o f Jew ish h i s t o r y . "For Krochmal, th e i d e a l o rd e r o f th e s p i r i t . . . n o t m erely an e t e r n i t y beyond tim e ; th e id e a l o r d e r o f th e s p i r i t i s oq an o r d e r in tim e , i s h i s t o r i c a l . " The id e a o f o r d e r presupposes th e r e c o g n itio n o f th e t e l e o l o g i c a l p r in c ip l e as o p e r a tiv e , n o t only in n a tu re b u t in th e h is t o r y o f man as w e ll. As Kaplan e x p la in s : To Krochmal, a l l organism s p o in t to an a sp e c t o f r e a l i t y , which cannot be accounted f o r m erely in term s o f m echanical n e c e s s i t y , i n s o f a r as th e y d is p la y a c e r t a i n degree o f freedom from e n v iro n m en tal f a c t o r s . Every organism h as a d eterm in in g in flu e n c e on each o f i t s p a r t s , and each p a r t on th e organism as a w hole. That c o n s t i t u t e s th e o r g a n ic ity o f l iv i n g b e in g s , which i s a m a n ife s ta t i o n o f p u rp o se . P u rp o se ,a c c o rd in g to Krochmal, fu n c tio n s on a f a r l a r g e r s c a le in th e l i f e of a p e o p le ; i t re v e a ls i t s e l f in t h a t p e o p le 's c u ltu r e o r c i v i l i z a t i o n , which i s tantam ount to i t s con sc io u sn e s s . 99 Men, being d i f f e r e n t from o th e r o rd e rs o f l i f e , have as a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a i t t h e i r s o c i a b i l i t y . The banding to g e th e r in to s o c ia l groups makes p o s s ib le th e developm ent 88 S p i e g e l, Hebrew Reborn, p. 11. 89T aubes, Judaism , X II, 159. 90 M ordecai K aplan, The G re a te r Judaism , p. 201. 305 among men o f c e r t a in h ig h e r q u a l i t i e s such as lo v e , com p a s s io n , h o n o r, "th e f e a r o f th e L o rd ," and o th e r q u a l i t i e s which r a i s e man above th e mere s u b s is te n c e l e v e l in th e s tr u g g le f o r s u r v iv a l . These t r a i t s are th en t r a n s m itte d e i t h e r by in d i v i d u a l s , such as Abraham o r Mel- c h ized e k , o r by s p e c ia lly developed g ro u p s, t o o th e r s o c ia l u n i t s . 91 The cause u n d erp in n in g th e developm ent o f th e s e q u a l i t i e s and h ig h e r t r a i t s w ith in th e h i s t o r y o f hum anity in g e n e r a l, and w ith in s p e c i f i c n a tio n s in p a r t i c u l a r , i s th e p ro g re s s iv e r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e Abso l u t e S p i r i t . 92 The Ruah ( " S p i r i t " ) o f each n a tio n i s i t s in n erm o st so u l and g enius and the d eterm in in g f a c t o r of i t s in d iv id u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Krochmal d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between th e u n iv e r s a l and p a r t i c u l a r S p i r i t which e x p re sse s i t s e l f in a l l a s p e c ts o f a n a t i o n 's l i f e and g iv es i t i t s c h a r a c te r . While a t tim es i t appears d i f f i c u l t t o s in g le o u t th e d i f f e r e n t n a t io n a l m a n ife s ta tio n s o f th e S p i r i t , i t can be done when n a t i o n s , as com plete h i s t o r i c a l e n t i t i e s , a re s e t n e x t to one a n o th e r. While th e p h y s ic a l a s p e c ts o f a n a tio n are s u b je c t by analogy to b i r t h , growth and decay, i t s S p i r i t n ev er p e r is h e s . Should a n a tio n d is a p p e a r from th e fa c e o f th e e a r t h , and t h i s was common among th e 91K itbe Rabbi Nachman K rochm al, pp. 34 f . 9 2 I b i d . , p. 35. 306 s m a lle r n a t io n s , i t s S p i r i t i s t r a n s f e r r e d to i t s su c c e s s o r o f i t s n e ig h b o r in tim e o r sp a c e . I f i t was a m ighty n a tio n w ith a fo rm id ab le N a tio n a l S p i r i t , i t s S p i r i t i s absorbed by c i v i l i z a t i o n a t la r g e , becoming 9 3 "th e in h e r ita n c e o f mankind and i t s c o l l e c t i v e s p i r i t . " In th e Torah and Former P rophets th e r e are examples o f N a tio n a l S p i r i t s which are c a lle d th e "gods o f th e n a tio n s " (E lohe Ha-uma) . These gods were s p i r i t s which u n ite d a people i n t e r n a l l y , b u t o n ly in a r e l a t i v e and « " fragm entary way p a rto o k o f th e A bsolute S p i r i t . This was n o t th e case w ith I s r a e l , w hich, in term s o f i t s b a s ic s t r i v i n g , so u g h t only th e re c o g n itio n o f th e one God. In su p p o rt o f h is t h e s i s Krochmal quotes Jerem iah . The p ro p h et s t a t e d : "The p o rtio n o f Jacob i s n o t l i k e them; f o r he i s th e form er o f a l l t h i n g s ; and I s r a e l i s th e rod o f h i s in h e r ita n c e ; The Lord o f h o s ts i s h is nam e."9* * That i s to s a y , He i s th e A bsolute S p i r i t (Ha- ru h a n i H a-m uhlat)and b e s id e him th e r e i s none e l s e , th e sou rce o f a l l s p i r i t u a l bein g . . . th e a l l - encom passing . . . th e En Sof ("who i s w ith o u t end1 * ) . 95 I s r a e l enjoys a unique r o le because i t s N a tio n a l S p i r i t u n ite s i t w ith the A b so lu te S p i r i t , which has o rd a in e d i t 9 3I b i d . , p. 37. 9 4 J e r . 10:16. 9^K itbe Rabbi Nachman Krochm al, pp. 37-38. En Sof i s a f a v o r ite K a b b a lis tic t e r n f o r 6 od. 307 to become a "kingdom o f p r i e s t s , te a c h e rs to mankind of th e g r e a t b i b l i c a l f a i t h which i s a b s o lu te . " 96 S ince th e A bsolute S p i r i t re v e a ls i t s e l f d i r e c t l y only to th e Jew is h n a tio n ( Uma) , i t s S p i r i t i s im m ortal. U nlike o th e r n a tio n s in whom th e A bsolute S p i r i t r e v e a ls i t s e l f only as a tem porary phenomenon, le a v in g i t when th e people has faded from h i s t o r y , i t rem ains f o re v e r w ith th e Jew ish peo p le th ro u g h o u t th e c r e s ts and tro u g h s o f h i s t o r y 's Q 7 f o r tu n e . Krochmal goes on to c h a rt th e course o f Jew ish h i s t o r y in which he a s s e r ts t h a t th e h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l , as h i s t o r i e s o f o th e r n a t i o n s , underwent th e p ro c e s se s o f b i r t h , o f growing i n to a n a tio n , th e p e rio d o f m a tu r ity , o f s tr e n g th and accom plishm ent, and o f i t s decay and d e a th . In K rochm al's d is c u s s io n o f th e t h i r d p h a se , he a g a in s t r e s s e s th e analogy o f th e n a tio n to a b io lo g i c a l organism , in which d eath i s an in e v ita b le consequence o f th e l i f e p r o c e s s . 96 I s r a e l , in s o f a r as i t p a rta k e s o f the n a t u r a l o r d e r , i s a ls o s u b je c t to t h i s c y c le . There i s , how ever, a fundam ental d if fe re n c e between I s r a e l and a l l th e o th e r n a tio n s , s in c e th e A bsolute S p i r i t i s i n e x t r i c a b ly imbedded w ith in i t . At th e p o in t o f n a tio n a l 96I b i d . , p. 38. 97I b i d . , p. 44. 98I b i d . , p. 40. 308 e x t i n c t i o n , th e S p i r i t p ro p e ls I s r a e l in to a new c y c le . "And when we f e l l , we ro se a g a in and were r e s t o r e d , f o r th e Lord o u r God had n o t fo rsa k e n u s . " 99 I t was I s r a e l 's d e s tin y to go through th r e e h i s t o r i c a l c y c l e s , each o f which was c h a r a c te r iz e d by th e th r e e phases d e lin e a te d : F i r s t Cycle Phase one: From Abraham to th e death o f M oses.3 -" Phase two: From th e e n tra n c e in to th e la n d o f 101 Canaan u n t i l th e demise o f Solomon. Phase th r e e : From the death o f Solomon to th e s la y in g o f G e d a lia h . 3-92 Second Cycle Phase one: From th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e f i r s t 10 3 Temple to th e conquest o f P e r s ia by G reece. Phase two: From th e conquest o f A sia by th e Greeks inn u n t i l th e f a l l o f th e Hasmonean d y n asty . " i b i d . , pp. 40-41. ( C f ., P s. 2 0 :9 .) ^ " i b i d . , pp. 41-44. • * ~ 01I b i d . , pp. 44-47. 102I b i d . , pp. 47-49. 103I b i d . , pp. 50-59. 104I b i d . , pp. 6 0 -8 2 . 309 Phase th r e e : From th e d eath o f Queen A lexandra to th e f a l l o f B etar., ca. 135 C .E .10^ Krochmal was very sk e tch y w ith re g a rd to th e t h i r d c y c le , q u ic k ly d e lin e a tin g th e phases w ith sp a rse comment: T h ird Cycle Phase one: From A ntonious ca. 13 8 C.E. and th e p e rio d o f fo rc e d co n v e rsio n s to th e Gaonic p e r io d . Phase two: From th e z e n ith o f e a rly Moslem power ca . 7*f0 to th e Golden Age of S pain. Phase th r e e : From th e d ea th o f Nahmanides u n t i l a f t e r the e x p u lsio n s o f th e f i f t e e n t h ce n tu ry n ft e and th e pogroms in th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry . Krochmal was c e r t a i n t h a t t h i s p a t t e r n o f h i s t o r i c d e v e l opment would co n tin u e and t h a t f u tu r e h i s t o r i a n s would be l e f t ample room f o r f u r t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 107 105I b i d . , p. 82. 106This p e rio d i s covered by Krochmal in t h r e e - q u a r te r s o f a page. I b i d . , p . 112. This in s ta n c e of a b b re v ia tio n cannot be to rn o u t o f i t s t o t a l c o n te x t, when i t i s r e c a l l e d t h a t w hat we have o f th e Moreh Nebuke Ha- zeman i s a compendium o f n o te s and e ssa y s on d iv e rs e sub j e c t s in v a rio u s s ta g e s o f co m p letio n . While e m p iric a l h i s t o r y i s im p o rta n t in K rochm al's r e s e a r c h , i t i s , a f t e r th e d e p ic tio n o f th e f i r s t two c y c le s o f h i s t o r y in which ample e m p iric a l m a te r ia l i s p r e s e n te d , o n ly a d d itio n a l c la y f o r th e mold t h a t has a lre a d y been s e t as a p h ilo s o p h ic a l system . 1Q7I b i d . , p. 112. Krochmal’s d e p ic tio n o f th e l a s t cy cle o f Jew ish h is t o r y i s so a b b re v ia te d t h a t q u e s tio n s may w e ll a r i s e as to how im p o rta n t he th o u g h t t h i s cy cle w as. I t i s our th o u g h t t h a t th e s k e tc h in e s s o f t h i s cy c le has no re le v a n c e to Krochmal’s e s tim a tio n o f i t s im p o rta n c e , s in c e he was i n t e r e s t e d in d e p ic tin g a method of a n a ly s is w ith in a l a r g e r framework o f a philosophy o f h i s t o r y . His la c k o f a p r o je c tio n o f a fo u rth o r f i f t h cy cle can n o t be ta k e n to mean th a t he b e lie v e d in a c e s s a tio n o f th e c y c l i c a l p ro c e s s . "The cy cles o f Jew ish h i s t o r y con ti n u e , because in each new cy cle th e A bsolute S p i r i t i s I ft ft p e rc e iv e d and comprehended in more p e n e tr a tin g te rm s ." The A bsolute S p i r i t , w hile i t ab id es te m p o ra rily in a l l p e o p le s, rem ains c o n tin u o u sly imbedded in th e Jew ish p e o p le . The S p i r i t o f th e Jew ish people i s u n iv e r s a l and e t e r n a l , as i s th e A bsolute S p i r i t i t s e l f . W i t h i n th e cy c les o f Jew ish h i s t o r y , p ro g re ss w ith in th e s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e id e a i s e v id e n t. Taubes h o ld s t h a t Krochmal, as H egel, b e lie v e d th a t in h is own tim e con sc io u sn e ss o f th e S p i r i t had become s e lf-c o n s c io u s n e s s j " . . . th a t th e S p i r i t has come in to i t s own and has b e come m a n i f e s t . " ^ 0 He b ases h is co n c lu sio n on a p h rase ^ 8S chorsch, Ju d aism , X, 2*t2. ^■°^Katsh, Jew ish S o c ia l S tu d ie s , V III, 97. i l 0 T aubes, Judaism , X II, 160. 311 in K rochm al's work in which he a llu d e s to h i s own tim e as a h a r i t ha-yamim ( " th e end o f dayd1 ) . Taubes se es t h i s as a term w ith "unm istakably e s c h a to lo g ic a l u n d erto n es" and concludes th a t Krochmal, as H egel, b e lie v e d t h a t in h is own tim e , "H isto ry has come to an end in o rd e r t h a t T _ T _ 9 p h ilo so p h y o f h is t o r y may be p o s s i b le ." I t i s very u n lik e ly , ta k in g th e t o t a l i t y o f K rochm al's th o u g h t under c o n s id e r a tio n , t h a t t h i s i s what i s meant by t h i s p h ra s e . I t i s f a r more l i k e l y t h a t Krochmal im p lie d , as Taubes h im s e lf o b se rv e s, to th e end o f an epoch, th e l a s t phase I 1 O o f a c y c le . I t was only n a t u r a l t o conclude from th e method o f e x p o s itio n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Krochmal t h a t a new cy c le was in fo rm a tio n , th e d e t a i l s o f which he could n o t p o s s ib ly know. That th e r e would be a r e v iv a l o f th e Jew ish S p i r i t which would le a d Judaism to new c r e s t s of s p i r i t u a l accom plishm ent was i m p l i c i t in th e c y c l i c a l p ro cess o f th e developm ent o f Jew ish h i s t o r y which Krochmal had so co g e n tly c o n s tru c te d . There were th o se among th e Jew ish i n t e l l e c t u a l a r is to c r a c y o f Poland and R u ssia who were sch o o led in th e li:LI b id . 112I b i d . , p . 161. 113| a h a r ha-zeman h a -g a d o l h a - n iz k a r m o'ed s h e l i s h i l i y r i d a h . ! 7* ("Then came a f t e r th e long above m entioned p e rio d th e t h i r d phase o f d e c lin e . . ." ) K itbe Rabbi Nachman Krochmal, p . 112. 312 e s o t e r i c b i b l i c a l e x e g e tic a l method o f rem ez. Remez was a h e rm e n e u tic a l device whereby one attem p ted to e x p la in a v e rse o f th e B ib le , which on th e fa c e o f i t was u n c le a r , by lo o k in g f o r a " h i n t ” which would p o in t to a n o th e r p o r t i o n o f S c r ip tu r e in which i t was b e lie v e d th e d i f f i c u l t y would be re s o lv e d and th e meaning o f th e f i r s t t e x t come i n t o f o c u s . Krochmal had more th an h in te d t h a t a fo u rth and even a f i f t h cycle o f Jew ish h i s t o r y was in th e o ffin g . I t was, how ever, l e f t to th e a r c h i t e c t s o f th e E a st Euro pean Z io n is t movement to lin k th e h i n t in Krochmal to the emergence o f th e f i r s t phase o f th e Z io n is t movement, which sought th e reaso n f o r i t s e x is te n c e as much in th e h is t o r y o f the p a s t as in th e need to a l l e v i a t e th e b u rn in g problem s o f th e p r e s e n t. Nahum Sokolow, th e h i s t o r i a n o f e a rly Zionism (H ibbath Z ion) , e v a lu a te s Krochmal in th e fo llo w in g te rm s : The g r e a t value of K rochm al’s system i s e x a c tly t h i s — t h a t i t b rin g s th e re a d e r to a dilemma in which he m ust f i n a l l y choose one o f two c o u r s e s . E ith e r he must sta n d and f a l l by th e th e o ry o f one dy cle in th e l i f e o f th e Jew ish n a tio n , and th e n he must g iv e up as h o p e le ss th e id e a o f a n a t io n a l R ev iv al; o r he must a c c e p t th e t r u t h re g a rd in g th e v i t a l i t y o f th e n a tio n , a l i v i n g n a tio n , w ith a l l i t s s p i r i t u a l i t y , and b e lie v e i n a R evival.^-3 -1 * Forem ost among th o se who b e lie v e d in th e need f o r a r e v iv a l o f th e Jew ish S p i r i t was Ahad Ha-Am.13-5 The e n t i r e l l l *Nahum Sokolow, H ibbath Zion (Jeru salem : Ludwig Mayer, 19 3 4 ), p . 49. 115Ahad Ha-Am p o s tu la te d t e h i v a t ha-ruah (" th e 313 program o f " S p i r i t u a l Zionism" was g eared to making t h i s r e v i v a l p o s s ib le and th e re b y u sh e rin g in a new e r a which would f in d , a t l e a s t in th e b e g in n in g , th e e l e c t o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , th o se w ith in whom th e " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " TIG was s tr o n g , r e c o n s t i t u t e d on i t s h i s t o r i c homeland. Through them, E re tz Y is r a e l would become a S p i r i t u a l Cen t e r , th e hub o f th e w heel o f th e w orld whose spokes would e x te n d to th e fo u r c o rn e rs o f th e D iasp o ra. Ahad Ha-Am's philosophy has p o in ts o f c o n ta c t w ith t h a t o f Krochmal, p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e l a t i o n to th e need to i n i t i a t e a r e v iv a l o f th e S p i r i t so t h a t th e m a n ife st p u r pose o f th e Jew ish people can be r e a l iz e d in h i s t o r y and r e v iv a l o f th e s p i r i t " ) as a n e c e ssa ry concom itant f o r th e p r a c t i c a l a s p e c ts o f Z io n is t work. " . . . th e whole p o in t o f th e m a te r ia l s e ttle m e n t ( o f P a le s tin e ) c o n s i s t s , t o my mind, in t h i s — and i t makes no d if f e re n c e w hether th o s e who a re engaged in work o f s e ttle m e n t r e a l i z e i t o r n o t— t h a t i t can be th e fo u n d atio n o f t h a t n a tio n a l s p i r i t u a l c e n tre which i s d e s tin e d to be c r e a te d in o ur a n c e s t r a l co u n try in resp o n se to a r e a l and i n s i s t e n t n a t io n a l demand." Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c te d E s s a y s , ed. Leon Simon (P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1912), p. 2 88. 116I b i d . , pp. 289-290. ■^^"What i s now a lre a d y v i s i b l e in E re tz Y is ra e l e n t i t l e s one t o say w ith co n fid e n c e , S u re ly , E re tz Y is r a e l i s d e s tin e d to become a N a tio n a l S p i r i t u a l C enter o f Judaism , d e a rly b elo v ed by a l l th e p e o p le , u n ify in g i t and k n i t t i n g i t to g e th e r ; a c e n te r o f Torah and w is dom; o f language and l i t e r a t u r e , o f p h y s ic a l la b o r and p u r i f i c a t i o n o f s o u l, a tr u e r e p r e s e n ta tio n in m in ia tu re o f th e Jew ish people as i t ought to b e ." Kol K itb e , p . M -27. 314 XX 8 i t s purpose f u l f i l l e d . His acknowledgement o f Krochmal as b ein g th e a u th o r o f th e only d is tin g u is h e d book in modern l e t t e r s i s f o r Ahad Ha-Am a m ost u nusual encomium t o pay. Those who have re a d th e book f e e l a t once t h a t th e re i s no nexus between th e Moreh Nebuke Ha-zeman and th e r e s t o f th e H askalah l i t e r a t u r e o f i t s p e rio d . I t s c o n te n t, s tr u c t u r e and s t y l e i s re m in isc e n t o f th e o ld e r l i t e r a t u r e , c h a ra c te riz e d by profound th o u g h t and p r e c i s e , u n em bellished language. I t i s n o t re a d in g f o r y o u n g s te rs , b u t le a r n in g f o r m ature a d u l t s . Even th o se who do n o t agree w ith th e c o n te n ts o f th e book do n o t mock i t , f o r 119 i t i s a work which does honor to th e r e a d e r . In a s tin g in g rebuke to H e rz l, who was head o f th e p o l i t i c a l Z io n is t movement, w r i tte n on th e o c c asio n o f th e T hird Z io n is t Congress h e ld a t B asel in 1899, Ahad Ha-Am re h e a rs e s what were p ro claim ed from th e ro stru m o f th e C ongress, th e g r e a t problems o f th e Jew ish w orld o f th e day. A pparently unvoiced u n t i l t h i s tim e among th e p o l i t i c a l Z io n is ts was th e aw areness, long p re s e n t w ith Ahad Ha-Am, o f th e f a l l e n s t a t e o f th e S p i r i t o f th e p e o p le. Thus we h e a r how our s p i r i t u a l i t y ( to use Kroch m a l's term ) d e c re a se s from y e a r to y e a r; how our. 1^8Simon and H e ll e r , Ahad Ha-Am, H a -is h , P o 'a lo W e -to ra to , p . 201 and n o te 57^ ^ 9Kol K itb e , p. 96. 315 young people a re becoming more and more e s tra n g e d from th e s p i r i t o f o u r p eo p le; how Torah i s f o r g o tte n and th e Jew ish h e a r t i s em ptying i t s e l f o u t . . . And y e t th e people i s n o t h e a r t s i c k o v er a l l t h i s and does n o t f e e l th e g r e a t s in t h a t i t has sin n e d a g a in s t i t s e l f and a g a in s t a l l o f man k in d by r a i s i n g up a g e n e ra tio n o f Jews such as t h i s , who do n o t them selves n o r do o th e rs know t h e i r n a t u r e , th e re a s o n f o r t h e i r e x is te n c e , o f why th e y s u f f e r . 120 C le a rly th e r e m ust now be a mandate to th e Congress and i t s le a d e rs who have a t lo n g l a s t seen what th e s t a t u s o f contem porary Jewry i s , and th u s are awakened t o th e need a ls o to work f o r th e p r e s e rv a tio n o f Ju d aism . Perhaps now th e " le a d e r o f th e Z io n is ts " w i l l make an atte m p t t o u n d ersta n d what "Hebrew c u ltu r e i s and what b e n e f i t th e r e i s in i t f o r th e Z io n is t p u rp o s e . "121 There can be no q u e s tio n t h a t Ahad Ha-Am had u n d ersto o d th e f u l l im port o f K rochm al’s d e p ic tio n o f th e t h i r d cy c le o f Jew ish h i s t o r y , which Ahad Ha-Am ex tended to in c lu d e th e e v e n ts o f h i s own day as w e ll. That Nahman Krochmal e x e r te d c o n s id e ra b le in flu e n c e on some o f Ahad Ha-Am's b a s ic co n c ep tio n s o f Jew ish h i s t o r y and th e d o c trin e o f th e r e v iv a l o f th e Jew ish s p i r i t can be documented. H e ll e r , i n h is e x p o s itio n on Ahad Ha-Am’s th o u g h t, p o in ts o u t t h a t Ahad Ha-Am was in flu e n c e d by two 1 ^°I b i d . , p . 300. H e r z l's a d d re ss and th e t r a n s a c tio n s o f the Congress a r e re c o rd e d in S te n o g ra p h isc h e s Pro toko 11 d e r V erhandlungen des I I I Zionisten^-K ongresses (Wien: V erlag des V e re in e s , Erez I s r a e l , 1899), pT 23H. 121Kol K itb e , p. 300. 316 c o n c u rre n t stream s o f th o u g h t from th e o u ts e t o f h is p h ilo so p h y : P o s itiv is m and Id e a lis m . H e lle r m a in ta in s , c o r r e c t ly I b e l i e v e , t h a t b o th in f lu e n c e s rem ained c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Ahad Ha-Am's th o u g h t th ro u g h o u t h is work.122 Opposing t h i s v iew p o in t i s Max T u r te l who h o ld s t h a t Ahad Ha-Am gave up Id e a lism in h is l a t e r w r itin g s f o r Lamarck’s n o tio n o f "V ita lism " and a m e c h a n istic 12 3 view o f th e u n iv e rs e . Y ehezkel Kaufmann's t h e s i s i s t h a t th e r e i s a lo g i c a l flaw in Ahad Ha-Am1s system because he i s in c o n s i s t e n t in u sin g a p o s i t i v i s t vocabu la r y s id e by s id e w ith such n o tio n s as " a b so lu te m o ra lity " and th e " S p i r i t o f Ju d aism ." I t i s Kaufmann’s c o n te n tio n t h a t th e b i o l o g i c a l - p o s i t i v i s t view i s e a r l i e r and th e i d e a l i s t view l a t e r . At f i r s t Ahad Ha-Am was concerned w ith b a s ic id e a s o f Jew ish s u r v iv a l and th e r e f o r e gave precedence i n h is th o u g h t to " th e w i l l to l i v e . " I t i s o n ly , Kaufmann re a s o n s , when Ahad Ha-Am r e a l i z e d t h a t h is n o tio n was devoid o f th e n e c e ss a ry i n g r e d ie n t, which a ls o argued f o r th e s u r v iv a l o f Judaism as w e ll , t h a t he r e s o r te d t o i d e a l i s t i c p h ilo s o p h y , id e n tif y in g th e ^ ■ 22Simon and H e l l e r , Ahad Ha-Am, H a -ish , Po’alo W e -to ra to , p. 162. 12 3Max T u rte 1, Besos H a-leum iut B e -k itb e Ahad Ha-Am (Je ru sa le m : Hebrew U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 19H2), pp. 33 f f . 317 p ro p h e tic a b s o lu te e t h ic w ith th e " S p ir it o f Ju d a ism ." 121* S p ic e h a n d le r, w h ile ag ree in g w ith H e lle r t h a t " th is c h ro n o lo g ic a l d i s t i n c t i o n sim ply does n o t f i t th e f a c t s , " develops a h y p o th e sis o f h i s own in which he reaso n s t h a t th e c o n tr a d ic tio n in h e re n t in th e world views c f P o s i tiv is m and Id e a lis m , as th e y m a n ife st them selves in Ahad Ha-Am, were c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f what appears in l a t e French P o s itiv is m , having i t s r o o ts in th e philosophy o f Comte. S p ic e h a n d le r o bserves th a t Comte's . . . p re o c c u p a tio n w ith 'hum anity' and h is developm ent o f th e ’r e l i g i o n o f hum anity’ ( p r i e s t hood and a l l ! ) i n d ic a t e t h a t even th e f a t h e r o f p o s itiv is m was com pelled to abandon th e e a rly u t i l i t a r i a n avoidance o f u ltim a te s . In p la c e of th e p r e s u p p o s itio n o f random ends he i s fo rc e d i n to a v o l u n t a r i s t i c view o f s o c i e t y .125 S p ic e h a n d le r concludes t h a t Ahad Ha-Am1s . . . ’d e v i a ti o n 1 m ight be e x p la in e d as e i t h e r th e development o f h i s l a t e p o s i t i v i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n o r as a r e s u l t o f h is being d i r e c t l y in flu e n c e d by th e l a t e French p o s i t i v i s t s whom he f re q u e n tly q u o tes in c lu d in g Durkheim h im s e lf .^ 26 The d i f f i c u l t i e s in Ahad Ha-Am's th o u g h t to which T u r t e l , Kaufmann and S p ic e h a n d le r, among o th e r s , make r e f eren ce can only be t r u l y re c o n c ile d when one views Ahad 12I*Yehezkel Kaufmann, "Ik a re D e'otav s h e l Ahad Ha-Am," H ate k u fa h , XXIV ( B e r lin , 1928), 421-439. Yehezkel Kaufmann, "Hefez Ha-kiyum H a - le ’um i," M ik la t, IV (New York 1 930), 175-199. 12^Ezra S p ic e h a n d le r, " R e fle c tio n s on Ahad Ha'Am," M idstream (W in ter, 1959), p . 52. 126I b id . 318 Ha-Am's th o u g h ts in th e l i g h t o f K rochm al's p h ilo so p h y and Ahad Ha-Am's dependence upon i t . While th e r e i s no q u e stio n t h a t Ahad Ha-Am was in flu e n c e d by th e p o s itiv is m o f Comte (1798-1857) and Durkheim (1857-1917), as w e ll as by th e a d a p ta tio n o f t h i s W eltanschauung by Spencer (1820- 1903) and Darwin (1 8 0 9 -1 8 8 2 ), i t i s in K rochm al's th o u g h t t h a t th e key to th e s o lu tio n o f th e above m entioned d i f f i c u l t y i s t o be so u g h t. Krochmal made th e analogy o f th e n a tio n to a b i o lo g ic a l organism t h a t undergoes b i r t h , e f f lo re s c e n c e and decay, th e n d e a th . B efore Spencer (who a ls o co nceived o f th e u n iv e rse as a su c c e s sio n o f c y c le s — " a lte r n a t e e r a s 12 7 o f e v o lu tio n and d is s o lu tio n " ) made th e e v o lu tio n o f s o c i e t i e s as s o c ia l organism s e x p la in a b le as th e r e s u l t o f th e same p ro c e ss t h a t was o p e ra tiv e in th e p h y s ic a l u n iv e r s e ,128 H erder (174-4-1803) had h e ld to a lik e -m in d e d id e a . H erd er ta u g h t t h a t "H is to ry i s n o th in g b u t th e un in te r r u p te d p ro g re ss o f n a t u r a l d ev elo p m en t."129 Drawing h i s example from n a tu re and app ly in g i t to human h i s t o r y , 127Quoted by W . R. S o rle y , A H istory' o f E n g lish P hilosophy ( Cambridge: Cambridge U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 19 2 0 ), p. 270. 12 8 °George H. Mead, Movements o f Thought in th e N in eteen th C e n tu ry » ed . M e rr it H. Moore (C hicago: U n iv er s i t y Chicago P r e s s , 1 9 3 6 ), p. 373. 12^Wilhelm W indelband, A H is to ry o f P hilosophy (New York: H arper and B r o th e rs , 1901), I I , 527. 319 H erder s t a t e s : Now N ature has g iv en th e whole E a rth to mankind, h e r c h ild r e n ; and allow ed e v e ry th in g , t h a t p la c e , tim e and power would p e rm it, to s p rin g up th e re o n . Every th in g t h a t can e x i s t , e x i s t s ; every th in g t h a t i s p o s s ib le to be produced, w i l l be produced; i f n o t today y e t tom orrow .130 So i t i s in human h i s t o r y ! H erd er e n u n c ia te s what he c a l l s th e " f i r s t grand p r i n c i p l e " : "W hatever can tak e p la c e among mankind, w ith in th e sp h ere o f given circum s ta n c e s o f tim e , p la c e and n a t io n , a c tu a l ly does ta k e 131 ’ * p l a c e . " N ations bud. "The c u l t i v a t i o n o f a people i s th e flo w e r o f i t s e x is te n c e ; i t s d is p la y is p le a s in g in d eed b u t t r a n s i t o r y ." - 1 '32 How long a s t a t e l a s t s depends n o t on "th e p o in t o f i t s h ig h e s t c u l t i v a t i o n , b u t on a w ise o r f o r tu n a te e q u ilib riu m o f i t s a c tiv e liv in g pow- 13 3 e r s . " However, e v e ry th in g in h i s t o r y , as in a l l t e r - r e s t i a l t h i n g s , i s t r a n s i e n t . The cause o f t h i s l i e s in t h e i r essen ce and environm ent and to th e " g e n e ra l laws to 134 which our n a tu re i s s u b je c t." So n a tio n s as in d iv id u a ls d ie . "N ations f l o u r i s h and decay; b u t in a faded na ti o n no new flo w e r, n o t to say a more b e a u t i f u l o n e, ev e r i in P a tr ic k G a rd in e r, T h eo ries o f H is to ry {Glencoe: The Free P r e s s , 1959), p . 37. 131I b i d . , p. 39. 132I b i d . , p . »*0. 133I b i d . , pp. 41-42. 13t*I b i d . , p. 42. 320 l 35 b lo o m s."- In h i s t o r y we bequeath a t o u r d eath a l l t h a t we have c r e a te d , f o r good o r i l l , to t h a t which succeeds u s . "The Sun s e t s , t h a t n ig h t may su c c e e d , and mankind 136 r e j o i c e a t th e beams o f a new m orn." The f i r s t endeavors o f H e rd e r’s Ideen z u r P h ilo s o - p h ie d e r G esch ich te d e r M enschheit (1784-1791), from which th e q u o ta tio n s above a re e x c e r p ts , a lre a d y had seen th e l i g h t o f day a y e a r b e fo re Krochmal was b o rn . T hat H e rd e r’s concept o f h i s t o r y in term s o f i t s c y c l i c a l con f ig u r a tio n had made an im pact upon Krochmal i s e v id e n t from th e Moreh Nebuke Ha-zeman i t s e l f , as w e ll as from s tu d e n ts o f Krochmal who have t r i e d to u n d e rsta n d h is 13 7 work in r e fe r e n c e to h is Z e i t g e i s t . Krochmal d e p a rte d from H erder in a most fundam ental sense when he re fu s e d to a c c e p t H e rd e r's v e r d ic t o f th e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f death o f th e flo w e r o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . While th e re a re o th e r s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe re n c e s between th e two t h i n k e r s , th e 135I b i d . , pp. 42-43. 136I b i d . , p. 42. 13 7 A summary o f th e s c h o la r s h ip r e f l e c t i n g H e rd e r’s in flu e n c e on Krochmal, as w e ll as t h a t o f G ia m b a ttisto Vico (1668-1744), whose w ork, The New S cience (1 7 2 5 ), a n t i c i p a t e d th e b a s ic id e a s o f H erd er, i s con- ta in e d in Rawidowicz’s in tr o d u c tio n o f K itb e Rabbi Nachman Krochm al, pp. 170 f f . C f„, M artin B uber1 s essa y T ISoyim W e-elohaw," K e n e sse t, VI (1 9 4 1 ), 287. Of a l l th e i n f l u ences working upon Krochmal, t h a t o f H erder was fo re m o st. T his can be d e te c te d from th e stu d y made by Abraham I . K atsh , Jew ish SociA l S tu d ie s , V II I, 87-102. 321 im m o rta lity which Krochmal a s c r ib e s to th e S p i r i t o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , because i t i s a t one w ith th e A bsolute S p i r i t , i s o f forem ost c o n s id e r a ti o n .^ 3® I t - i s t h i s a s p e c t o f K rochm al1s th o u g h t which p a r t i c u l a r l y ap p eals to Ahad Ha-Am, alth o u g h he g iv e s a d i f f e r e n t p h ilo s o p h ic b a s is f o r th e im m o rta lity . In s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t to Krochmal, Ahad Ha-Am s e c u la r iz e s th e S p i r i t o f th e Jew ish P eo p le , making o f i t th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " (Ha- ruah H a-leum i) . . . . For i t i s s u r e ly an e r r o r among th o se who th in k t h a t The N a tio n a l S p i r i t i s an a b s t r a c t id e a d en o tin g th e sum o f a l l th e s p i r i t u a l p r in c ip l e s th a t r e v e a l them selv es in each g e n e ra tio n in th e l i f e o f th e people and when i t s m a n ife s ta tio n ceases in th e l i f e o f th e people i t s in s ta n c e a ls o c e a s e s . The N a tio n a l S p i r i t i s r e a l l y a c o l l e c t i v e n o tio n only in th e manner in which i t came in t o b e in g , as a r e s u l t o f th e c o l l e c t i v e l i f e o f a group o f people c lo s e ly connected w ith one a n o th e r f o r g e n e ra tio n s under c e r t a i n c o n d itio n s . However, a f t e r i t has once come i n t o b ein g and has ro o te d i t s e l f in men's h e a r ts because o f a long h i s t o r y , th en i t becomes a p e rs o n a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l n o tio n , whose t r u t h i s in h e r e n t in th e in d iv id u a l h im s e lf and i s n o t a t a l l de pendent on t h a t which i s e x t e r n a l to h im .139 A lthough Ahad Ha-Am adm its to h aving re a d and enjoyed H e rd e r's works,-*-1 *0 i t was in a l l lik e lih o o d th e H erder as X3 8 Krochmal had an e th n o lo g ic a l co n c ep tio n o f h i s t o r y . The n a t io n a l was "th e m otor o f h i s t o r y . " For H erd er, th e n a t io n a l s p i r i t was s e lf - d e te r m in in g , w h ile f o r Krochmal i t was shaped by "The A bsolute S p i r i t ." I b i d . , p. 100. 139Kol K itb e , p . 383. ll+0I b i d . , p. 495. 322 tr a n s m itte d th rough K rochm al's Moreh Nebuke Ha-zeman t h a t Ahad Ha-Am c o n fro n te d in h is fo rm a tiv e y e a r s . Ahad Ha-Am, l i k e Krochmal, b e lie v e d t h a t n a tio n s were a n a lo - 141 gous to b i o lo g i c a l o rg an ism s; t h a t th e Jew ish people had d e f ie d th e t h i r d phase t h a t a l l organism s undergo, 142 namely d e a th ; t h a t th e r e were th r e e c y c le s to Jew ish 143 h i s t o r y ; and t h a t Jew ish h i s t o r y had a t e l e o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e , ( Ha-zedek H a-m uhlat) " a b so lu te j u s t i c e , " in h e r e n t w ith in it.**-44 Ahad Ha-Am's th o u g h t i s in agreem ent w ith H e rd e r's in th e same measure t h a t K rochm al's th o u g h t was. I t d i f f e r s s t r u c t u r a l l y where K rochm al's th o u g h t d i f f e r s from H erd er. Y et, Ahad Ha-Am d i f f e r s a ls o from Krochmal n o t o nly in h is s e c u la r iz a ti o n o f th e S p i r i t o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , by making o f i t a p sy c h o lo g ic a l phenomenon, b u t a ls o in h is reaso n as to why th e Jew ish n a tio n escaped th e e x t in c t io n o f a l l o th e r n a tio n a l o rg a n ism s. The con t e n t o f th e th r e e c y c le s o f Jew ish h i s t o r y i s grouped s t r i c t l y about n a t io n a l f a c e ts o f Jew ish h i s t o r i c a l ex p e rie n c e ,^ 4^ While t h i s i s a ls o th e case w ith Krochmal, l u l I b i d . , p . 350. 142I b i d . 143I b i d . 144I b i d . , p. 162. 14^ I b i d . , pp. 51-54, 78-83. W e s h a l l d e a l w ith t h i s problem i n a s e p a r a te s e c tio n to fo llo w . 323 i t i s much more a c c e n tu a te d i n Ahad Ha-Am. The t e l e o - l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e in Krochmal i s unam biguously th e Abso l u t e S p i r i t who i s th e God o f I s r a e l . With Ahad Ha-Am, th e t h r u s t o f Jew ish h is t o r y u ltim a te ly le a d s to th e f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e id e a o f " a b so lu te j u s t i c e " (Ha-zedek 14-6 H a-m uhlat) . I t i s from w ith in th e c o n te x t o f Jewish h i s t o r y and th e B ib le t h a t Ahad Ha-Am draws th e d a ta to f le s h o u t th e s t r u c t u r a l s k e le to n t h a t he absorbed from K rochm al. In th e c e n tu ry t h a t s e p a ra te d th e b i r t h o f Krochmal and Ahad Ha-Am, new p h ilo s o p h ic c u rre n ts were a s t i r in th e w o rld . Darwinism, P o s itiv is m and N atio n alism were on th e ascendency and i t was as n a t u r a l f o r Ahad Ha-Am to tu r n to th e s e new i n t e l l e c t u a l fo rc e s to seek a s o lu tio n f o r th e " p li g h t o f Judaism " as i t was f o r Kroch mal to tu r n to th e German Id e a lism in vogue in h is own day. As Ahad Ha-Am h im s e lf had n o te d , th e r e a re " s u r v iv a ls " o f th e o ld in every new system . He p re se rv e d a s p e c ts o f German Id e a lism c o n c e p tu a lly as w e ll as in h is p h ilo s o p h ic a l v o cab u lary from th e very o u ts e t o f h is w r i t i n g s . Krochmal had bequeathed an a r s e n a l of such id e a s to him , which Krochmal had a lre a d y adapted to th e tem per o f Judaism by e q u a tin g th e concepts o f German Id e a lism w ith th e t r a d i t i o n a l v o cab u lary o f Jew ish ltf6I b i d . , p. 373. th e o lo g y . Ahad Ha-Am ad a p ted K rochm al's pow erful p h i l osophy o f Jew ish s u r v iv a l t o th e needs o f h is own day. He saw, as Krochmal had se e n , t h a t th e fo rm a tiv e epoch o f th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " was m irro re d in th e B ib le and in th e h i s t o r y of t h e Hebrew p e o p le . I t i s t o t h a t p e rio d t h a t Ahad Ha-Am tu r n s again to fo rm u la te anew a d o c trin e o f Jew ish s u r v i v a l , f o r he b e lie v e d h im s e lf to b e , in Franz R osenzw eig's c h a r a c te r iz a tio n o f Yehudah H a le v i, one o f th e Zw eistrom land L eute b rin g in g to g e th e r th e o ld system (cy cle) and th e new " p o s itiv e system o f Judaism " which was h is own c r e a tio n . Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e d t h a t H ibbath Zion (a n o th e r d e s ig n a tio n f o r " S p i r i t u a l Zionism ") was n o t a p a r t o f Judaism o r an a d d itio n to i t b u t co n ta in e d th e t o t a l i t y o f Judaism w ith in i t . ' 1 ’1 *7 In h is own fo rm u la tio n o f th e e v o lu tio n o f Judaism he saw f i t to re p la c e H e r d e r's b io lp g i c a l c a te g o r ie s w ith th o se o f H e rb e rt S pencer. The A bsolute S p i r i t which a n i mated and s u s ta in e d Jew ish h i s t o r i c a l e x p e rie n c e gave way to th e D arw inian n o tio n o f th e " d riv e f o r s e l f - p r e s e r v a tio n " in in d iv id u a ls and s o c ia l u n i t s . N a tio n a lism , in i t s s e v e r a l m a n if e s ta tio n s , became i d e n t i f i e d w ith Jew ish c u ltu r e and th e r e lig i o u s h e r i t a g e , which were conceived as b y -p ro d u c ts o f the Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t . " These 147I b i d . , p. 53. 325 v a rio u s id e o lp g ie s w ere in te rm e s h e d w ith th e B ib le and Jew ish h i s t o r y , f o r i t was Ahad Ha-Am’s hope t h a t h e , as M aimonides and Krochmal b e fo re him , m ig h t s e rv e as th e m oreh nebukim , " th e g u id e to th e p e r p le x e d ," o f h is own tim e . CHAPTER X AH A D HA-AM AS BIBLICAL CRITIC I t h as been em phasized a t v a rio u s p o in ts in o u r d is c u s s io n o f Ahad Ha-Am1s p h ilo s o p h y t h a t th e B ib le p la y e d a v i t a l r o le in th e developm ent o f " S p i r i t u a l Z io n ism ." The T anak, Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in e d , e x e r c is e s a c e r t a i n "hypnos" upon u s , ty in g us to i t th ro u g h a c lo s e and u n iq u e f e e l in g w hich tra n s c e n d s th e g e n e r a tio n s . 1 Ahad Ha-Am's f e e l in g ab o u t th e B ib le was c e r t a i n l y a f a c t o r w hich p re v e n te d him from en g ag in g in t h a t rig o ro u s d i s c i p l i n e o f b i b l i c a l s tu d ie s w hich c h a r a c te r iz e s modem b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip . H is em phasis on f e e l i n g , as w e ll as h i s r e lu c ta n c e to engage in th e k in d o f c r i t i c a l i n q u iry w hich was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e W isse n s c h a ft s c h o o l, was due a ls o in p a r t to h i s r e j e c t i o n o f o b je c tiv e canons o f s c i e n t i f i c in q u ir y w hich c o n c e iv a b ly m ig h t have le d ^ • Kol K itb e Ahad Ha-Am (T e l A viv: D vir C o ., L t d ., 1 9 5 6 ), p . UO8 . Tanak i s an a b b r e v ia tio n f o r T o rah , N ebiim , K etubim ( P e n ta te u c h , P ro p h e ts and Holy W r itin g s ). 326 327 him from h i s p rim ary co n cern o f f in d in g a s o lu tio n in a somewhat d o c t r i n a ir e m anner, he u sed th e r e s u l t s o f b ib l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip s e l e c t i v e l y and w ith o u t p a r t i c u l a r con cern f o r in n e r c o n s is te n c y . Leon Roth i s u n d o u b te d ly c o r r e c t when he o b s e rv e s , Ahad Ha-Am u sed id e a s he found re a d y to h i s hand in o r d e r to e n a b le him to m a s te r and s y s te m a tiz e th e problem s o f h i s age and en v iro n m e n t. He u sed id e a s he fo u n d . He d id n o t exam ine them o v e r-m in u te ly f i r s t ; and he d id n o t w orry overm uch i f th e y w ere— u l t i m a t e ly —n o t sound and— u l t i m a t e l y — in c o m p a tib le w ith one a n o th e r. 2 I f th e B ib le , th e h i s t o r i c r e p o s it o r y o f Jew ish n a t io n a l f e e l in g and c o n s c io u sn e ss, was to have v a lu e as th e fu n d a m e n tal b u t t r e s s o f h i s sy ste m , Ahad Ha-Am m ost l i k e l y f e l t t h a t in e s s e n t i a l r e s p e c ts he had to keep th e te x tu s r e c e p tu s f r e e o f t h a t p e n e tr a tin g c r i t i c i s m w hich m ight have i n t e r f e r e d w ith h i s p h ilo s o p h ic p r e - d i s p o s i t i o n s and th e c o n c lu s io n s w hich w ere a lre a d y in h e r e n t w ith in them . In t h i s r e s p e c t he i s g u i l t y o f b e in g o rth o d o x , b u t f o r re a s o n s d i f f e r e n t from th o s e o f h i s o rth o d o x r e l i g i o u s c o n f r e r e s . A n o th er re a s o n f o r Ahad Ha-Am*s a n t i - c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e , w ith re g a rd to such problem s as t e x t u a l emenda tio n s , docum entary h y p o th e s e s , and p h i l o l o g i c a l p ro b le m s, i s t h a t h e f e l t th e s e r e s e a r c h e s t o be in c o n c lu s iv e and c o n fu s in g . A t e l l i n g s y n o p s is o f h i s view s on such 2Leon R o th , ’'Back To, Forw ard From, Ahad Haam?" C o n s e rv a tiv e Ju d a ism , X V II, Nos. 1-2 ( F a l l , 1 9 6 2 -W in ter, 1 9 6 3 ), 29. s u b je c ts o f c r i t i c i s m as m en tio n ed above may be o b ta in e d from h is o b s e rv a tio n s on th e B ib le c u rric u lu m o f f e r e d a t t h e Hebrew Gymnasium o f J a f f a . The Gymnasium w hich was founded by th e H ilf s v e r e in d e r d e u tsc h e n Ju d e n , a p h ila n t h r o p ic o r g a n iz a tio n f o r th e a s s is ta n c e o f Jews in E a s te rn E urope and th e N ear E a s t , was G erm anic i n i t s p e d a g o g ic a l O m eth o d o lo g y . W hile th e Gymnasium u ltim a te ly ad o p ted Hebrew r a t h e r th a n German as th e lan g u ag e o f i n s t r u c t i o n , an d became more Z i o n i s t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d , i t was u n d er th e H ilf s v e r e i n in f lu e n c e when Ahad Ha-Am made a to u r o f i n s p e c tio n o f i t . The r e s u l t s o f h i s v i s i t he p u b lis h e d in H a sh ilo a h i n 1912. I n h is re v ie w , Ahad Ha-Am a p o lo g iz e s f o r what w i l l be a s c a th in g c r i t i q u e o f th e s c h o o l, s in c e h e w ished no harm t o such a young and f r a g i l e i n s t i t u t i o n a s th e Gymnasium. The t r u t h , how ev er, m ust be told.** Ahad Ha-Am, among o th e r s , a tte n d e d th e l e c t u r e s o f D r. M osen- so h n who, a lo n e among h is c o lle a g u e s , p u b lic ly s e t f o r t h h i s m ethodology. A cco rd in g to Ahad Ha-Am, D r. M osensohn ta u g h t t h a t u n t i l th e p r e s e n t tim e Tanak r e s e a r c h was n o t c a r r i e d on as an in d e p e n d e n t c o u rse o f s tu d y . Jew ish b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip was th e peg upon w hich g e n e ra tio n s f a s te n e d th e c r e a t i v i t y o f t h e i r s p i r i t u n t i l f i n a l l y th e B i b l e 's o r i g i n a l n a t u r a l l u s t r e was l o s t . The tim e i s now O *Ahad Ha-Am, E s s a y s , L e t t e r s , M em oirs, t r . Leon Simon (O x fo rd : E a s t and West L ib r a r y , 1 9 4 6 ), p . 3 4 7 ,n o te 5 5 . **Kol K itb e , p . 417. 329 r i p e , claim ed D r. M osensohn, to r e tu r n to stu d y th e Tanak i t s e l f . The T anak, D r. M osensohn h e ld , was th e s o le so u rc e to w hich a p o o r, d e s p o ile d and d riv e n p e o p le , such as th e Jew s, c o u ld lo o k f o r a d i f f e r e n t l i f e — one o f f r e e dom an d h o n o r. 5 To ac co m p lish t h i s , i t was n e c e s s a ry to stu d y each p e r io d , h e ro o r sa g e in p ro p e r o r d e r and in p ro p e r c o n te x t, so t h a t a l l th e p a r t i c u l a r s and m in u tia e su rro u n d in g th e s u b je c t c o u ld be in t e g r a t e d and made to g y ie ld a com plete p i c t u r e . F or t h i s p u rp o s e , D r. Mosen- sohh h e l d , th e Tanak was to be d iv id e d i n t o f o u r d i v i sio n s f o r p u rp o se s o f s tu d y : (1 ) th e h i s t o r i c a l books o f th e B ib le , (2 ) th e books o f th e P ro p h e ts , (3 ) th e n books o f p o e try and m e ta p h o r, and (4 ) th e books o f law . A ccording to th e p r e s e n t o r d e r o f th e books o f th e T anak, th e s e d iv is io n s a re in te rm e s h e d . What i s r e q u ir e d i s to s o r t o u t th e l i t e r a t u r e o f th e same g e n re and to p r e s e n t Q i t to th e s tu d e n t in i t s s e q u e n tia l u n f o ld in g . I t i s n e c e s s a ry f i r s t to b e g in w ith th e h i s t o r i c a l m a te r i a l s , th en th e p r o p h e tic and so o n . For ex am p le, in th e P ro p h e tic books a s in th e h i s t o r i c a l , th e r e a re in te r tw in e d w ith in th e same book e a r l y and l a t e r m a te r ia ls w h ich , in 5 I b i d . , p p . 4 17-418. 6 I b i d . , p . 418. 7 I b i d . 8I b id . 330 f a c t , a r e as f a r rem oved from each o th e r as a re E a s t and Q W est. What i s r e q u ir e d , p ro cee d e d D r. M osensohn, i s th e r e s t o r a t i o n o f m a te r ia l to i t s p ro p e r s o u rc e and tim e so t h a t each p ro p h e t w i l l be f u l l y and c l e a r l y p o r tra y e d and th e in te r c o n n e c te d c h a in o f id e a s among th e p ro p h e ts f u l l y u n d e rs to o d , in r e l a t i o n to t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l cau ses and s e t t i n g s . ^ In o r d e r to a c h ie v e c l a r i t y , in th e p ro p h e t ic l i t e r a t u r e f o r exam ple, so t h a t a l l d i f f i c u l t i e s in m eaning can be r e c o n c ile d , i t may be n e c e s s a ry to c o r r e c t o r change a l e t t e r , a w ord, o r ev en a f u l l s e n - 11 te n c e . The p o e tic l i t e r a t u r e i s m e th o d o lo g ic a lly to be s tu d ie d in th e same way and a c c o rd in g to th e same p r i n c i p l e s . ^ 2 Ahad Ha-Am, se e k in g to t e s t th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f t h i s m ethod o f i n s t r u c t i o n , q u e s tio n e d s tu d e n ts in th e p r o f e s s o r 's c l a s s and found them kno w led g eab le in c e r t a i n a r e a s . When Ahad Ha-Am ask ed one o f th e more a l e r t s t u d e n ts to re a d a p a ssa g e from one o f th e P ro p h e ts , th e s tu d e n t h e s i t a t e d and o f f e r e d th e ex cu se t h a t he had s tu d ie d th e book d u rin g th e p re v io u s y e a r and had f o r g o tte n i t . Ahad Ha-Am showed h i s a s to n is h m e n t a t th e 9 I b i d . 1 0 I b i d . 1 1 I b i d . 12I b id . 3 3 1 s t u d e n t ’s l e v e l o f p erfo rm an ce o n ly to h av e th e s tu d e n t r e f l e c t , "How i s i t p o s s ib le to remember? E v e ry th in g i s so c o m p le te ly m ixed u p !" Ahad Ha-Am c o n c lu d ed t h a t w h ile th e s tu d e n ts knew ab o u t th e p r o p h e ts , th e y d id n o t know th e P ro p h e tic b o o k s .^ T h is i n c i d e n t , Ahad Ha-Am ob s e rv e s , opened h is e y e s . The m u l t i p l i c i t y o f c o r r e c t i o n s , d e le tio n s and e m e n d a tio n s, a l l u n d e rta k e n in th e hope o f a c h ie v in g c l a r i t y , le d in s te a d t o am b ig u ity and c o n fu s io n . He adds th e f u r t h e r c a u s t i c o b s e rv a tio n t h a t p a r t o f th e s t u d e n t s ' t r a i n i n g i n m ethodolpgy r e q u ir e d th e r e w r itin g o f a P ro p h e tic book in acco rd an ce w ith th e schem a l a i d down by th e p r o f e s s o r . T h is was t o in c lu d e a l l o f th e r e arran g em en t o f p a s sa g e s and th e p r o f e s s o r 's p ro p o sed emen d a tio n s . Ahad Ha-Am o b se rv e s t h a t i f th e s tu d e n t l o s t h i s n o te b o o k , a l l o f th e c o p ie s o f th e Tanak e x ta n t in th e w o rld w ere o f no a v a i l to him , w h ile a know ledge o f German and P r o f e s s o r K. M a r ti 's Commentary on th e Old T estam en t m ig h t re s c u e h im . M a r tifs work a lo n e , even w ith o u t th e a id o f an i n s t r u c t o r , w ould make i t p o s s ib le f o r th e s t u d e n t t o r e - c r e a t e h i s n o te b o o k , as though M a r ti’s work c o n s t i t u t e d th e r e v e l a ti o n a t S i n a i . A h a d Ha-Am con c lu d e d t h a t i f know ledge o f th e Tanak was to be th e b a s is •^ I b i d . C f. , K. M a rti, K u rzer Hand-Commentar zum A lte n T estam en t (T u b in g en , 1 8 9 7 -1 9 0 3 ). 332 o f a n a t i o n a l i s t e d u c a tio n , such an e d u c a tio n c o u ld n o t r e s t . . . on a c a s t l e su sp en d ed in th e a i r . . . The b a s is o f a n a t i o n a l i s t e d u c a tio n m ust be s o le ly th e Tanak as i t i s , a s i t h as been tr a n s m itte d f o r more th a n two th o u sa n d y e a rs th ro u g h th e in n e r d e p th s o f o u r n a t io n a l l i f e , s e rv in g a s i t s fo u n d a t i o n , th ro u g h a l l th e g e n e r a t i o n s .1^ I t i s c l e a r from th e above i l l u s t r a t i o n o f Ahad Ha-Am's a t t i t u d e to w ard th e s c i e n t i f i c s tu d y o f th e B ib le t h a t he b e lie v e d su ch stu d y to be in im ic a l t o h is pro g ram . What was r e q u ir e d in b i b l i c a l s tu d i e s was th e c u l t i v a t i o n o f a lo v e f o r th e B ib le and a know ledge o f i t as i t was t r a d i t i o n a l l y tr a n s m itte d . What d i f f e r e n t i a t e s Ahad Ha-Am from th e s t r i c t t r a d i t i o n a l i s t i s th e u se t o w hich t h i s k in d o f b i b l i c a l know ledge and re v e re n c e f o r th e B ib le i s to be p u t. F or th e fu n d a m e n ta lis t C h r is tia n o r Jew th e B ib le i s a h a llo w e d , im m utable docu m ent b e c au se i t i s G od's tim e le s s r e v e l a t io n to man. Ahad Ha-Am, as we have p re v io u s ly shown, was a n y th in g b u t a f u n d a m e n ta lis t. For h im , th e B ib le was th e prim e docu m ent r e f l e c t i n g th e a c t i v i t y o f th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t . " The B ib le , in a s e n s e , was th e b l u e p r i n t o f th e e v o lu tio n o f th e Jew ish n a t io n a l e x is te n c e . C r itic is m o f a r a d i c a l n a tu r e c o u ld o n ly r e v is e th e l i n e s o f t h a t b lu e p r i n t , b l u r i t s o u tli n e s and underm ine i t s a u t h o r i t y . C arv in g th e B ib le u p , as D r. M osensohn h ad done, l e d in 15K o l K i t b e , p. 419. f a c t o n ly to c o n fu s io n . S in ce c o n fu sio n i s n o t conducive to re v e r e n c e , lo v e o r awe, Ahad Ha-Am a p p a re n tly co n clu d ed t h a t th e te x tu s re c e p tu s p r e s e n te d few er problem s tow ard th e f u r th e r a n c e o f h is program th a n d id th e new s c h o la r s h ip . P a r t i c u l a r l y in l i g h t o f h i s g e n e ra l v ie w p o in t o f th e e v o lu tio n o f Ju d aism , i t . was e a s i e r to e x p la in th e p r e - l o g i c a l o r th e m ira c u lo u s e le m e n ts in th e B ib le as stemming from th e n a t i o n 's s p i r i t u a l c h ild h o o d th a n to p e rfo rm d r a s t i c su rg e ry on th e b i b l i c a l t e x t i t s e l f . The B ib le , in Ahad Ha-Am's sy ste m , was a s t a t i c document to be s p i r i t u a l l y and d y n a m ic a lly i n t e r p r e t e d . He r e q u ire d t h a t i t be r e s p e c te d b u t n o t t h a t i t s th e o lo g ic a l id e a s be b e lie v e d . He r e s e r v e d t o h im s e lf th e r i g h t o f th e l i b e r a l i n t e r p r e t e r o f th e B ib le , t o make e l e c t i v e u se o f i t s c o n te n ts . I f Ahad Ha-Am i s a c r i t i c o f th e B ib le , i t i s in t h i s s e n se t h a t h i s c r i t i c i s m m ust be u n d e rs to o d . The w o rld o f s c i e n t i f i c c r i t i c i s m a g a in s t w hich Ahad Ha-Am r e a c te d , and w hich he a c c u se d th e fo llo w e rs o f th e W is s e n s c h a ft sc h o o l o f i m i t a t i n g , was e s s e n t i a l l y th e c r e a tio n o f m id d le and l a t e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry German b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip . What c h a r a c te r iz e d t h i s s c h o la r s h ip , by and l a r g e , was i t s r e j e c t i o n o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l view th a t th e Holy S c r ip tu r e s c o n ta in e d .a .tim e le s s r e v e la tio n o f God to th e w o rld . T h is r e v e l a t i o n was view ed as im m u tab le and c a t e g o r i c a l l y b in d ir.g upon th e b e l i e v e r . 334 The modern b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m t h a t h ad been s e t in m o tio n c h a lle n g e d t h i s d o c tr in e o f r e v e l a t i o n . H oly S c r ip tu r e soon came t o be view ed as th e l i t e r a r y re c o rd o f m an's slow grow th in h i s u n d e rs ta n d in g o f m o ral im p e ra tiv e s and o f th e d iv in e . From th e m id d le o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry onw ard, th e c o n te n ts o f th e B ib le w ere view ed as r e f l e c t in g th e e v o lu tio n a r y p ro c e s s and in some in s ta n c e s as 1 fi b e in g t i e d t o th e r e c t i l i n e a r mode o f d ev elo p m en t. Such a s u p p o s itio n c a r r i e d w ith i t i m p l i c i t l y a d a t e li n e on th e c o n te n ts o f th e B i b le . The l a t t e r came t o be view ed in term s o f t h e i r p r im itiv is m o r s o p h i s t i c a t i o n as th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry c r i t i c u n d e rsto o d " p rim itiv is m " and " s o p h i s t i c a t i o n ." A prim e exam ple o f t h i s approach may b e found i n th e work o f K arl H e in ric h G ra f (1815-1869) who, in a l e t t e r to E duard Reuss (1804-1891) in O cto b er 1862, con te n d e d t h a t th e m id d le s e c tio n o f th e P e n ta te u c h in i t s 17 e n t i r e t y was p o s t - e x i l i c . In h is w ork, Die ^ ^ N o te, f o r exam ple, th e comment on K. H. G ra f, t h a t ." H is s ta n d a r d o f judgem ent was to a g r e a t e x te n t th e law o f l i n e a r e v o l u t i o n i s t d e v e lo p m e n t." Simon J . D eV ries, "The H e x ateu ch al C r itic is m o f Abraham K uenen," JBL, LXXXII, P a r t I (M arch, 1 9 6 3 ), 43. ^ •7Hans Joachim K ra u s, G e sc h ic h te d e r h i s t o r i s c h - k r i t i s c h e n E rfo rsc h u n g des A lte n T estam en ts ( D u isb u rg - R u h ro rt: V erlag d e r B uchhandlung des E rz ie h u n g s v e re in s N eu k irch en K re is M oers, 1 9 5 6 ), p . 224. Reuss a ls o had b e lie v e d t h a t "P" was th e l a t e s t so u rc e o f th e P e n ta te u c h . I b i d . , p . 227. 335 g e s c h ic h tlic h e n B ucher des A lte n T e stam en t: Zwei h i s - t o r i s c h - k r i t i s c h e U ntersuchungen ( L e ip z ig , 1 8 6 6 ),18 G raf co n c lu d ed t h a t th e P r i e s t l y Document (P.) was a p o s t- e x i l i c work t o be a s s ig n e d to and co n n e c te d w ith th e age o f E z ra in th e f i f t h p r e - C h r is tia n c e n tu r y . T h is d a tin g was a r r iv e d a t b e c a u se th e docum ent c o n ta in e d a u n iv e r s a l h i s t o r y , an e x te n s iv e le g a l co d e, co n cern ed w ith and domi n a te d by p r i e s t l y i n t e r e s t s and was fo rm a l and p r e c is e in i t s s t y l e and "g iv e n to s te r e o ty p e d e x p r e s s io n s . " 19 F ar from b e in g th e m ost a n c ie n t s o u rc e o f th e P e n ta te u c h , i t 20 was r e a l l y th e l a t e s t . T h is th e o ry t r a n s f e r r e d , so to s p e a k , M osaic law from th e b e g in n in g to th e end o f Jew ish h i s t o r y . G r a f 's t h e s i s , a p a r t i c u l a r e x p re s s io n o f th e docum entary h y p o th e s is , im p re sse d Abraham Kuenen (1 8 8 2 - 1 8 9 1 ), who h ad e a r l i e r come to a s i m i l a r c o n c lu s io n . 21 Kuenen d i f f e r e d w ith G ra f, how ever, on th e s p l i t t i n g up o f th e G ru n d s c h rift i n t o a p re -Y a h w is tic G ru n d s c h rift and w hat G raf h a d c a lle d " th e p se u d o -G r u n d s c h r if t." B o th , Kuenen re a s o n e d , h ad to be e i t h e r e a r ly o r l a t e . Kuenen 18The book was p u b lis h e d in 1865 b u t c a r r ie d 1866 as i t s p u b lic a t io n d a te . D eV ries, JBL, i b i d . 19H e rb e rt F . Hahn, O ld T estam en t in M odem R esearch ( P h ila d e lp h ia : M uhlenberg P r e s s , 195*0.» p . 5. 2 0 I b i d . 2^D eV ries, JBL, I b i d . , pp. 41-H2; H3. 336 22 b e lie v e d t h a t th e e n t i r e G ru n d s c h rift was p o s t - e x i l i c . J u l i u s W ellh au sen (1 8 4 4 -1 9 1 8 ), whom Ahad Ha-Am h a d r e f e r r e d to a s an im p o rta n t s o u rc e o f m odem b i b l i c a l 23 2U s c h o la r s h ip , e n la rg e d and d ev elo p ed G r a f 's v ie w p o in t. W e llh a u s e n 's P rolegom ena z u r G e sc h ic h te I s r a e l s 25 d e p ic ts th e r e l i g i o u s developm ent o f th e Old T estam en t w ith m as t e r f u l s tr o k e s and la y s b a re w ith im p re s s iv e c l a r i t y th e com plex l i t e r a r y and c r i t i c a l problem s o f th e Old T e s ta m e n t. ^ 6 What i s p a r t i c u l a r l y germ ane to o u r d is c u s s io n i s th e lik e n e s s o f ap p ro ach betw een Ahad Ha-Am and W ell h au sen r e g a rd in g some s a l i e n t a s p e c ts o f th e h i s t o r y o f th e r e l i g i o n o f I s r a e l . The t e r n " lik e n e s s " i s used b e c a u se W ellhausen i s n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y a llu d e d to in n o te s n o r i s he m en tio n ed in th e body o f Ahad Ha-Am's w r i t i n g s . The q u e s tio n o f dependence o f Ahad Ha-Am on W ellh au sen i s th e r e f o r e d i f f i c u l t to g u ag e. Were i t n o t f o r th e u n u su a l r e f e r e n c e in one o f h i s l e t t e r s t o W ell h a u s e n , th e a s s o c ia tio n o f th e s e two nam es, i n l i g h t o f Ahad Ha-Am’ s o u tsp o k en a n t i - c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e , w ould h a v e , 2 2 I b i d . , p p . 4 3 -4 4 . 2 3 I g g e r o t Ahad Ha-Am, e d . Aryeh Simon ( r e v . and e n la rg e d e d . ; T e l A viv: D v ir C o ., L t d ., 1 9 5 6 ), I I , 18. 21*K raus, G e s c h ic h te , p . 2 36. 26A f i r s t e d i t i o n o f th e work a p p e a re d in 1878 u n d e r th e t i t l e , G e sc h ic h te I s r a e l s . K ra u s, i b i d . , p . 236. 26I b id . 337 on th e fa c e o f i t , escap ed u s . The s i m i l a r i t y in th o u g h t betw een th e men l i e s in t h e i r s c h e m a tiz a tio n o f a n c ie n t Je w ish h i s t o r y , in t h e i r p la c in g a h ig h v a lu e on th e p ro p h e t ic movement and a low e s tim a tio n o f th e c u l t u s , and t h e i r common em phasis on an e v o lu tio n a ry developm ent o f a n c ie n t Jew ish th o u g h t. 27 In h i s Prolegom ena z u r G e sc h ic h te I s r a e l s , W ell h au sen r e c o n s tr u c te d th e h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l as b eg in n in g w ith th e E xodus, n o t th e p a t r i a r c h s . An e v o lu tio n a ry h y p o th e s is p re c lu d e d t h a t th e p a t r i a r c h s co u ld have h e ld th e l o f t y m onotheism m irro re d in th e Book o f G e n e sis. The p a t r i a r c h a l n a r r a t i v e s w ere th e c r e a t i o n , th e r e f o r e , o f l a t e Ju d a ism . 28 Only w ith th e Exodus from E gypt d id 2 Q th e h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l commence. Moses* r e l i g i o n was 2 7 K ra u s, in h i s G e s c h ic h te , p . 2HO, p o in ts to f o u r m ajo r in f lu e n c e s on W ellh au sen : ( 1 ) The so u rc e c r i t i c i s m w ith re g a rd to th e U rkundenhypothese from A s tru c t o H u p feld ; (2 ) The work o f R e u ss, G raf and Kuenen on th e h i s t o r i c a l p r i o r i t y o f th e l e g a l and p r i e s t l y m a t e r i a l s ; (3) The e f f o r t s o f DeWette and Ewald in c r e a t in g o u t o f th e so u rc e c r i t i c i s m a co m p o site p i c tu r e o f th e h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l ; (H) The H eg e lian p h ilo so p h y o f h i s t o r y re c e iv e d th ro u g h V atke. The c o n flu e n c e o f th e s e in f lu e n c e s a re to be found as F o rsch u n g sten d en zen in W ellhausen*s Prolegom ena to th e H is to ry o f I s r a e l , p . 2 H0 . I t i s o a r t i c u i a r l y w ith r e f e r e n c e to V a tk e 's e v o lu tio n a ry schem a> _zation t h a t W ellhausen and Ahad Ha-Am s h a re some common p o in ts o f view . 2 8 J . W ellh au sen , Prolegom ena z u r G e sc h ic h te I s r a e l s (3 rd e d .; B e r lin : V erlag Georg R eim er, 1 8 8 6 ), p p . 330-3H0. 29I b i d . , p. 367. 338 n o t m onotheism b u t m o n o la try . 30 The c u ltu s grew o u t o f l i f e : H ie r i s t a l l e s le b e n d ig und im F lu s s ; wie Ja h v e s e l b e r , so a r b e i t e t auch d e r Mann G o tte s im le b e n d ig e n S t o f f , p r a k t i s c h , i n k e in e r W eise th e o - r e t i s c h ; g e s c h i c h t l i c h , n ic h t l i t e r a r i s c h . 31 From th e s e b e g in n in g s I s r a e l 's r e l i g i o n became more com p le x . The p ro p h e ts p u sh ed th e r e l i g i o n to a new c r e s t o f developm ent by th e grow th o f m o n o la try in to e t h i c a l mono th e is m .3^ R ig h te o u sn e ss became th e b a s i c re q u ire m e n t o f r e l i g i o n . 33 The D euteronom ic R e fo rm a tio n , grow ing o u t o f p ro p h e tis m , c e n t r a l i z e d th e c u ltu s in J e ru sa le m w hich in . tu r n l e d to th e P r i e s t l y C o d e.3 1 * The c o d i f ic a ti o n o f th e r i t u a l law was p o s t - e x i l i c , c a r r ie d o u t d u rin g th e p e r io d o f E z ra and N ehem iah. 35 W hile th e G raf-W ellh au sen hypo t h e s i s was b ro a d ly a t ta c k e d , th e g e n e r a l o v erv iew o f th e h y p o th e s is dom in ated b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s h ip f o r h a l f a cen tu r y . T here i s much in th e h y p o th e s is t h a t com p elled a s s e n t. Y e t, rem ove from i t th e p r e s u p p o s itio n s o f q n J . W ellh au sen , I s r a e l i t i s c h e und Ju d is c h e G e sc h ic h te (3 rd e d . ; B e r l in : V erlag Georg R eim er, 1 8 9 7 ), pp. 3 0 -3 1 . 3-^W ellhausen, P ro leg o m en a, p . 362. 33W e llh a u sen , I s r a e l i t'is c h e und J u d is c h e G e s c h ic h te , p p . 110-111. 33 I b i d . , p . 1 1 1 . 3HI b i d . , pp. 132-13^ . 35 W e llh a u sen , P ro leg o m en a, p p . H27-^28. 339 e v o lu tio n a ry d ev elo p m en t, add to i t th e a r c h e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e s in c e th e t u r n o f th e c e n tu r y , fo cu s upon i t th e rem a rk a b le r e s e a r c h e s o f G u n k el, and th e h y p o th e s is b e g in s t o w eaken. The e v o lu tio n o f th e r e l i g i o u s th o u g h t o f th e B ib le , th ro u g h th e s e r e s e a r c h e s , became much more com plex and f a r le s s a r b i t r a r y th a n h e r e t o f o r e su p p o sed . Ahad Ha-Am was a t one w ith W ellh au sen i n d e s c r ib in g th e p e rio d p r i o r t o th e p ro p h e ts a s one w hich was c h a r a c te r iz e d by p o ly th e is m , i n w hich th e phenomena o f n a tu r e became gods and th e w o rld was p e o p le d w ith as many Q g d e i t i e s as th e r e w ere good and bad f o r c e s in n a tu r e . Ahad Ha-Am p r o je c ts a double p o ly th e is m —one n a t u r a l , th e o th e r n a t i o n a l — w hich co rre sp o n d e d t o th e n eed s o f l i f e in t h i s p r im itiv e p e r io d . The n a t i o n a l god was a p p e a le d to in tim e s o f tr o u b le and w a r, and was c a l l e d " th e God o f t h e i r f a t h e r s . " When th e d an g e r was p a s t , th e p eo p le r e v e r te d a g a in to th e ev ery d ay gods o f n a tu r e . 37 The p ro p h e ts , how ever, spoke o f th e one God. T h e ir m essage f e l l on d e a f e a r s u n t i l a f t e r th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e T em ple, when h i s t o r i c c irc u m sta n c e s e s ta b l i s h e d th e mono t h e i s t i c id e a firm ly i n th e h e a r t o f th e p e o p le . C oupled to i t was th e hope f o r n a t i o n a l r e s t o r a t i o n and .th e r e t u r n 36Kol K it b e , p . 79, 37I b id . 340 38 t o P a l e s t i n e . F or Ahad Ha-Am, p ro p h ecy i s th e d i s t i n g u is h in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e Hebrew " n a tio n a l s p i r i t . " Out o f Je w ish t r a d i t i o n , as w e ll as W e llh a u se n 's s c h o la r s h ip , Ahad Ha-Am knew t h a t Moses i n i t i a t e d th e m a jo r r e l i g i o u s and h i s t o r i c a l t h r u s t o f Ju d aism . In h is e s s a y , "M oses," Ahad Ha-Am r e i t e r a t e s th e t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f t h a t Moses was th e " lo r d o f th e p r o p h e ts " ; t h a t t r a d i t i o n s t a t e s , "And th e r e a ro s e n o t a g a in in I s r a e l a p ro p h e t th e l i k e s o f M oses. Ahad Ha-Am f u r t h e r a g re e s w ith W ellhausen on th e r e l i g i o u s c o lo r a tio n o f th e p re-M o saic p e r io d in re g a rd t o th e p a t r i a r c h s . Ahad Ha-Am i s v i r t u a l l y s i l e n t on th e p a t r i a r c h a l p e rio d w hich w ould s u g g e s t he c o n s id e re d i t o f l i t t l e im p o rta n c e . T h is i s s tr a n g e , s in c e th e p ro m ise o f Canaan to Abraham i s c r u c i a l in th e developm ent o f th e Z io n is t id e a . On th e q u e s tio n o f th e r o le o f th e p r i e s t in a n c ie n t Jew ish s o c i e t y , Ahad Ha-Am h a s much to s a y . W ith o u t g o in g in to any a n a l y t i c a l d is c u s s io n on th e P r i e s t l y Code and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to p r e - e x i s t i n g docum ents o f th e B ib le , Ahad Ha-Am p la c e s a n e g a tiv e v a lu e on p r i e s t c r a f t . N e v e rth e le s s , p r i e s t c r a f t h ad a p u rp o se and was o f use in 38I b i d . , pp. 79 -8 0. 39I b i d . , pp. 343-344. th e m e d ia tio n o f th e p r o p h e tic id e a s and i d e a l s . F or Ahad Ha-Am, th e p ro p h e t i s th e r a d i c a l man, th e i n i t i a t o r o f a p rim a l f o r c e . By d e f i n i t i o n , th e p ro p h e t i s an e x tr e m is t. An a b s o l u t i s t in t r u t h - t e l l i n g , he e p ito m iz e s t r u t h in a c tio n . The p ro p h e t s ta n d s f o r th e i d e a l o f a if 0 s o c ie ty b a s e d on a b s o lu te r ig h te o u s n e s s . The p r o p h e tic id e a ls r e q u ir e accom m odation and com prom ise to g e t them to work in s o c ie ty . T h is ta s k f a l l s to th e p r i e s t . The p r i e s t accom m odates th e p r o p h e t's te a c h in g ; he d e v e l ops la w s , r i t u a l s , and i n s t i t u t i o n s to make th e p r o p h e tic id e a ls f u n c tio n in th e liv e s o f m en.1 *^ In a b r i l l i a n t U3 e s s a y , e n t i t l e d " P r i e s t and P ro p h e t," ^ Ahad Ha-Am n o te s t h a t one o f th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een p ro p h e t and p r i e s t i s t h a t th e p r i e s t se e k s "n o t w hat o u g h t to b e , b u t o n ly what can b e . " 1 *1 * T h is tr e a tm e n t o f th e p r ie s th o o d as a se c o n - d ary fo rc e in s o c ie ty p re su p p o se s th e p r e - e x is te n c e o f th e p r o p h e tic com m unity, hen ce th e id e a t h a t th e p ro p h e ts p ro duced th e te a c h in g o f th e p r i e s t s . ^ ^ I b i d . , p p . 9 0 -9 1 . H1 I b i d . , p . 91. * t2 I b i d . * * 3P u b lis h e d 189 3. 4t* Kol K itb e , p . 91. 1 + 3 I b i d . , p . 92. 342 Ahad Ha-Am c l e a r l y a c c e p ts th e d a t e li n e o f th e G raf-W ellh au sen s c h o o l, as w e ll as i t s em phasis in fa v o r o f p ro p h e tism . Ahad Ha-Am a ls o s h a re s W ellh a u sen ’s d e n i g r a tio n o f th e ap p earan ce o f th e Law and i t s m arking th e UR end o f th e "law o f freedom " in r e l i g i o n and th e c u l t u s . The Law, a c r e a tio n o f th e " n a tio n a l s p i r i t , " was a n e c e s - U 7 s a ry im plem ent in th e s u r v iv a l o f p o s t - e x i l i c Ju d aism . Ahad Ha-Am a ls o a c c e p ts th e n o tio n t h a t th e r e was a b a s ic h o s t i l i t y betw een p ro p h e t and p r i e s t . "The p ro p h e ts were a c c o rd in g ly ’men o f s t r i f e ' to th e p r i e s t s more so th a n to th e g e n e ra l body o f th e p e o p le . " 48 The p r i e s t s ta n d s f o r o rd e r and s ta t u s quo. The p ro p h e t s ta n d s f o r change and u p h e a v a l. Ahad Ha-Am makes no c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n w hich p ro p h e ts , o th e r th a n M oses, he has in m ind. T his i s f u r t h e r c o m p lic ate d s in c e some p r o p h e ts , e . g . , Je rem iah and E z e k ie l, w ere a ls o p r i e s t s . Ahad Ha-Am f u r t h e r fo llo w s th e G raf-W ellh au sen sc h o o l when he a s s e r t s t h a t th e c e n tu r ie s t h a t e la p s e d betw een th e end o f th e p r o p h e tic p e rio d and th e r i s e o f th e M accabeans was e s s e n t i a l l y dom inated by th e p r i e s t l y 46I b i d . , pp. 41 -4 4 . 47I b i d . , p. 272. 48I b i d . , p. 92. tig c l a s s . Ahad Ha-Am d is tin g u is h e s betw een H ebraism w hich i s e s p e c ia lly e x e m p lifie d by M oses, th e p r o p h e ts , and Judaism w hich i s th e handiw ork o f th e P h a r is e e s .5^ In h i s c lo s e adherence to th e c r i t i c a l sc h o o l o f s c h o la r s h ip , Ahad Ha-Am i s v i r t u a l l y in t o t a l agreem ent w ith th e Jew ish " re fo rm e rs " whom he c a s tig a te s f o r t h i s v ery same p o s i t i o n . Ahad Ha-Am, how ever, d i f f e r s from them and from W ellhausen in h i s n a t i o n a l i s t em p h asis. The p ro p h e ts w ere n o t s o le ly u n i v e r s a l i s t s . They w ere a ls o Jew ish p a r t i c u l a r i s t s . 51 W hile th e p ro p h e ts em phasized I s r a e l 's m is s io n , th e y d id n o t p r e d ic a te th e s u c c e s s o f th e m issio n t o b rin g a b s o lu te m o ra lity to th e w o rld on th e b a s is o f a perm anent d is p e r s io n . I t was n o t, as th e " re fo rm e rs" m a in ta in e d , a q u e s tio n o f e i t h e r u n iv e rs a lis m o r p a r t i c u la r is m , b u t o f b o th . 52 A f u r t h e r d if f e r e n c e betw een Ahad Ha-Am and W ellhausen was t h a t Ahad Ha-Am's co n cern s w ere p r a c t i c a l w h ile W e llh a u se n 's w ere p r im a r ily h i s t o r i c a l and c r i t i c a l . T em p eram en tally , b o th th in k e r s resp o n d ed t o th e same r e l i g i o u s v a lu e s b u t t h e i r g o a ls w ere w orlds a p a r t . Ahad Ha-Am was a sta u n c h d e fe n d e r o f th e P h a ris e e s |i q ^ Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c te d E s s a y s , t r . Leon Simon ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1 9 1 2 ), Leon S im on's " I n tr o d u c tio n ," p . 19. C f. , Kol K itb e , p p . 350-352. 50flhad Ha-Am, S e le c te d E s s a y s , pp. 22-2 3 . 51Kol K it b e , p. 92. 3H4 as b e in g in th e p r o p h e tic t r a d i t i o n and r e v iv e r s o f H ebraism . When, i n th e l a s t days o f th e Second Common w e a lth , a l l seem ed l o s t and "th e p o l i t i c a l Z e a lo ts r e m ained sword in hand on th e w a lls o f Je ru sa le m w h ile th e P h a ris e e s took th e S c r o ll o f th e Law and w ent t o J a b - 53 neh . . . " As th e p r o p h e ts , th e P h a ris e e s b e lie v e d in th e u n ity o f p e o p le , la n d and id e a ls o f f le s h and s p i r i t . H ere, Ahad Ha-Am p u lls away from W ellhausen and th e " r e fo rm e rs" to c a rv e o u t h is own p o s itio n and p h ilo s o p h y . U n lik e th e h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l s c h o o l, Ahad Ha-Am used b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m to f u r t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r p r a c t i c a l p h ilo so p h y w hich he so u g h t to im plem ent. The fo u n d a tio n f o r t h i s program he found i n th e B ib le . Ahad Ha-Am*s M idrash on H oses Jacob Agus c o r r e c t ly p o in ts o u t t h a t The c e n t r a l h ero -im ag e in Je w ish r e l i g i o u s c u l t u r e i s th e p ro p h e t. Round t h i s image a re concen t r a t e d th e mem ories o f I s r a e l ’s g r e a tn e s s —Moses and th e exodus from E g y p t, th e em ergence o f th o s e r e l i g i o u s i d e a l s t h a t made p o s s ib le th e r e t u r n from B a b y lo n ia , and th e g e n e s is o f th e two d a u g h te r - f a ith s o f Ju d aism , Isla m and C h r i s t i a n i t y .^ ^ So d e e p ly d id th e p ro p h e t le a v e h is im p ress on Jew ish 53I b i d . , p. 351. 34Jacob B. Agus, "The P ro p h e t in Modem Hebrew L i t e r a t u r e ," HUCA, XXVIII (1 9 5 7 ), 289. C f. , S a a d ia Gaon, Emunot W e-deot, C h ap ter v i i i , p t. 6 . 3U5 co n sc io u sn e ss t h a t th e M essiah h im s e lf was p ic tu r e d as a p r o p h e t. 55 S a a d ia d e s c rib e s th e M e ssia n ic age as one in which "prophecy w i l l re a p p e a r in th e m id s t o f o u r p eo p le so t h a t even o u r sons and s la v e s w i l l p r o p h e s y . A h a d Ha-Am, as we have s e e n , was f a s c in a te d w ith th e p ro p h e ts o f I s r a e l who c o n s t i t u t e d th o s e s in g u la r-m in d e d men who, above a l l , were uncom prom ising in p o r tra y in g th e s in g le 5 7 id e a l o r t r u t h as th e y saw i t . M oses, p a r t i c u l a r l y , loomed in Ahad Ha-Am1s c o n s c io u sn e ss as th e prim e a r c h i t e c t o f th e s p i r i t u a l l i f e o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . When, r o in 1899, Ahad Ha-Am h e lp e d to o rg a n iz e th e Bene M oshe, th e s e c r e t f r a t e r n a l o r d e r ch arg ed w ith th e ta s k o f r e v i t a l i z i n g th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t , " i t to o k i t s name from M oses, f o r in th e c a r e e r o f Moses th e members se n se d t h e i r own purpose, and th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e liv e ra n c e from t s p i r i t u a l b o n d ag e. 59 5 5 Sanh. 93b. 56Quoted in A gus, HUCA, XXVIII, p . 2 89, n o te 1. 57Kol K itb e , p . 21. 5 8 Leon Sim on, Ahad Ha-Am, A B iography ( P h ila d e lp h ia : The Jew ish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o r A m erica, 1 9 6 0 ), p p . H 2-43. The im p o rta n ce o f Moses in th e th in k in g o f key Jew ish p h ilo s o p h e rs i s co m p reh en siv ely t r e a t e d by Samuel A tla s , "Moses in th e P h ilo so p h y o f M aim onides, S p in o z a , and Solomon Maimon," HUCA, X X V (195*0, 369-H00. 5^ C f., "Derek Ha-hayyim," in Kol K itb e, pp. M -38— 3 9. 346 Ahad Ha-Am's e x p o s itio n o f th e r o le o f Moses in Jew ish h i s t o r i c a l e x p e rie n c e i s a m id ra s h , t h a t i s , w h ile i t i s a form o f b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m , i t i s n o t a s c ie n t i f i c a n a ly s is o f s o u r c e s , o f l i n g u i s t i c d i f f i c u l t i e s o r o f t e x t u a l p ro b le m s. The u n d e rly in g q u e s tio n s o f th e e s s a y a r e —Who was Moses and w hat was h is te a c h in g ? In th e p ro c e s s o f a n a ly s is Ahad Ha-Am sum m arizes h i s view s on th e n a tu r e o f h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h and a r c h e o lo g ic a l t r u t h . He a ls o e v a lu a te s th e r o l e o f th e g r e a t man as an h i s t o r i c a l f o r c e , ta k in g i n t o f u l l a c c o u n t th e m yths t h a t d ev elo p ab o u t th e ach iev em en ts o f g r e a t men. I t was "o b v io u s" to Ahad Ha-Am t h a t th e R eal g r e a t men o f h i s t o r y , th e men, t h a t i s , who have become f o rc e s i n th e l i f e o f h u m a n ity , a re n o t a c t u a l , c o n c re te p e rso n s who e x i s te d in a c e r t a i n a g e . T here i s n o t a s in g l e g r e a t man in h i s t o r y o f whom th e p o p u la r fa n c y h a s n o t drawn a p i c t u r e e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t from th e a c tu a l man; and i t i s t h i s im a g in a ry c o n c e p tio n , c r e a te d by th e m asses to s u i t t h e i r n eed s and t h e i r i n c l i n a t i o n s , t h a t i s th e r e a l g r e a t man, e x e r tin g an in f lu e n c e w hich a b id e s in some c a se s f o r th o u sa n d s o f y e a r s — t h i s , and n o t th e c o n c re te o r i g i n a l , who li v e d a s h o r t sp a ce in th e a c tu a l w o rld , and was n e v e r se en by th e m asses in h i s t r u e l i k e n e s s . 60 Ahad Ha-Am p i t i e s th e s c h o la r s who burrow in s o u r c e s , a tte m p tin g to r e c o n s tr u c t th ro u g h t h e i r r e s e a rc h e s th e g r e a t men o f h i s t o r y as th e y r e a l l y w e re . What such s c h o la r s do n o t u n d e rs ta n d i s t h a t Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c t e d E s s a y s , p. 306. 31+7 Not ev e ry a r c h e o lo g ic a l t r u t h i s a ls o an h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h . H i s t o r i c a l t r u t h i s t h a t , and t h a t a lo n e , w hich r e v e a ls th e f o r c e s t h a t go t o mould th e s o c i a l l i f e o f m ankind. E very man who le a v e s a p e r c e p tib le mark on t h a t l i f e , though h e may be a p u re ly im a g in a ry f i g u r e , i s a r e a l h i s t o r i c a l f o r c e ; h i s e x is te n c e i s an h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h . C o n v e rs e ly , a man who h ad in c o n t r o v e r t i b l e c o n c re te e x i s te n c e b u t who l e f t no im p r in t on l i f e , w h ile h e i s a " l i t e r a l f a c t , " he made no d if f e r e n c e on th e co u rse o f e v e n ts and th e r e f o r e h i s e x is te n c e i s i r r e l e v a n t as f a r 6 2 as h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h i s c o n c ern e d . Through t h i s fo rm u la tio n o f th e n a tu r e o f h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h , Ahad Ha-Am h as in f a c t n e g a te d th e v a lu e o f o b je c tiv e d a ta o f th e p a s t . T hat body o f m a te r ia l w hich he c a l l s " a rc h e o lo g ic a l t r u t h , " he h a s s h a rp ly s e p a r a te d from " h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h . " By d e f in in g " h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h " as t h a t w hich m olds h i s t o r y , Ahad Ha-Am has r e v e a le d h i s m ethod o f d e a lin g w ith th e e v e n ts o f th e p a s t . I f b a re f a c t s do n o t c r e a te o u r s y n th e s is o f h i s t o r y and d e te rm in e w hat o u r c o n c lu s io n s a re to b e , th e n i t i s c l e a r t h a t th e f a c t s o f th e p a s t can ta k e on m eaning o n ly i f a p h ilo so p h y o f h i s t o r y i s im posed upon them . W hile no h i s t o r i a n a p p ro ach e s th e p a s t w ith o u t some a p r i o r i h y p o th e s is , t h i s i s q u ite d i f f e r e n t from f o i s t i n g an o u tlo o k on th e d a ta o f th e p a s t w hich comes w h o lly from w ith o u t and i s n o t 61I b i d . , p. 307. 62I b id . 3 M - 8 n e c e s s a r ily d e riv e d from th e f a c t s th e m s e lv e s . Ahad Ha-Am s t a t e s t h i s p o s it io n i n i t s m ost ex trem e form when he comments t h a t i t m a tte rs n o t a t a l l to him t h a t some h i s t o r i a n s p ro v e , "by th e m ost c o n v in cin g e v id e n c e ," t h a t g Q some n a t i o n a l h e ro n e v e r e x i s t e d . Only th e p i c t u r e o f th e h e ro i n th e m ind o f th e p e o p le r e a l l y m a t t e r s : . . . r e a l h i s t o r y h a s no co n cern w ith s o -a n d -s o who i s d ea d , and who was n e v e r seen i n t h a t form by th e n a tio n a t l a r g e , b u t o n ly by a n t i q u a r i a n s ; i t s co n c ern i s o n ly w ith th e l i v i n g h e r o , whose im age i s g ra v e n in th e h e a r t s o f men, who h a s become a f o rc e in human l i f e . 1 *1 * I f s c h o la r s sh o u ld c o n c lu d e , f o r exam ple, t h a t Moses n e v e r l i v e d , had no h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y , i t w ould r e a l l y b e o f no consequence.® ® The q u e s tio n s t h a t h i s to r i a n s w ould ask a r e : How and u n d er w hat c irc u m sta n c e s d id t h i s myth th e n a r is e ? Who c r e a te d i t and w hat p u r p o se d id i t s e rv e ? — and th e s e w ould be t o t a l l y i r r e l e v a n t f o r him , s in c e th e y would n o t change o u r c o n c e p tio n o f h i s t o r y i n any r e a l s e n s e . I c a re n o t w h eth e r t h i s man Moses r e a l l y e x i s t e d ; w h eth e r h is l i f e and h i s a c t i v i t y r e a l l y co rresp o n d e d to o u r t r a d i t i o n a l a c c o u n t o f him*, w h e th e r he was r e a l l y th e s a v i o r o f I s r a e l and gave h i s p eo p le th e Law i n th e form t h a t i t i s p re s e rv e d among u s ; and so f o r t h . I h av e one s h o r t and sim p le answ er f o r 6 3i b i d . , p . 30 8. 6uI b i d . 65I b i d . , p. 309. 349 a ll th e s e conundrum s. T his M oses, I s a y , t h i s man o f o ld tim e , whose e x is te n c e and c h a r a c te r you are tr y in g to e l u c i d a t e , m a tte rs to nobody b u t s c h o la rs l i k e y o u . W e have a n o th e r Moses o f o u r own, whose image h as been e n s h rin e d in th e h e a r t s o f th e Jew ish p e o p le f o r g e n e r a tio n s , and whose in f lu e n c e on o u r n a t io n a l l i f e h as n e v e r ce ase d from a n c ie n t tim es t i l l th e p r e s e n t day. The e x is te n c e o f t h i s M oses, as a h i s t o r i c a l f a c t , depends in no way on y o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . F or even i f you su cceed ed in demon s t r a t i n g c o n c lu s iv e ly t h a t th e man Moses n e v e r e x i s t e d , o r t h a t h e was n o t such a man as we sup p o se d , you w ould n o t th e re b y d e t r a c t one j o t from th e h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y o f th e i d e a l Moses—th e Moses who h as been o u r le a d e r n o t o n ly f o r f o r ty y e a rs in th e w ild e r n e s s .o f S in a i, b u t f o r th o u san d s o f y e a rs in a l l th e w ild e rn e s s e s in w hich we have w andered s in c e th e E xodus. And i t i s n o t o n ly th e e x is te n c e o f t h i s Moses t h a t i s c l e a r and in d is p u ta b le to me. H is c h a r a c te r i s e q u a lly p l a i n , and i s n o t l i a b l e t o be a l t e r e d by any a r c h e o lo g ic a l d is c o v e ry . T h is i d e a l — I re a s o n — has b een c r e a te d in th e s p i r i t o f th e Jew ish p e o p le ; and th e c r e a t o r c r e a te s in h is own im ag e.6® The c r e a to r c e r t a i n l y does c r e a te in h is own im age. P erh ap s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r m ethod o f a n a ly s is w i l l sh ed some l i g h t on Ahad Ha-Am's u n d e rsta n d in g and use o f M oses. I f o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h i s g r e a t h e ro o f th e Jew ish p a s t i s n o t bound by " a rc h e o lo g ic a l f a c t " b u t by t r a d i t i o n , le g e n d , f a b l e , and fa n c y , th e n in d e e d we can c r e a te any image o f Moses t h a t we c h o o s e . What was Ahad Ha-Am's im age o f Moses? On c lo s e in s p e c tio n we s h a l l f in d t h a t i t v a r ie s w ith b o th th e b i b l i c a l and th e t r a d i t i o n a l a c c o u n ts . Ahad Ha-Am d e n ie s t h a t Moses was a m i l i ta r y h e r o ; th o u g h he ad m its t h a t Moses was on th e b a t t l e f i e l d 66I b i d . , pp. 308-309. 350 a g a in s t Amalek, Moses was m erely an i n t e r e s t e d o b s e rv e r 6 7 who h e lp e d th e I s r a e l i t e s th ro u g h h is m o ral s t r e n g t h . Was he a sta te sm a n ? A gain th e answ er i s he was n o t . Moses was an in e p t p o l i t i c a n who had to depend on Aaron C Q f o r g u id an ce in such mundane m a tte r s . M oses, u n lik e th e common im age t h a t t r a d i t i o n h as o f him , was n o t a la w g iv e r b ec a u se a la w g iv e r, Ahad Ha-Am h o ld s , l e g i s l a t e s C Q o n ly f o r h is own tim e and n o t f o r th e f u t u r e . W hat, th e n , was Moses? For Ahad Ha-Am, Moses i s th e p ro p h e t pair e x c e ll e n c e , th e a rc h e ty p e o f Hebrew p ro - 70 p h ecy . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e p ro p h e t a re extrem ism and t r u t h - t e l l i n g . He knows no compromise w ith th e d e s ir e f o r a b s o lu te r ig h te o u s n e s s t h a t b u rn s w ith in him . But as th e p ro p h e t w i l l n o t y i e l d to th e w o rld , so th e w orld 71 w i l l n o t y i e ld t o him . x H is te a c h in g s a re made th e h e r i ta g e o f s o c ie ty by l e s s e r men, who do n o t b e lie v e in ex trem ism and a re th e m e d ia to rs betw een th e p r o p h e tic te a c h in g s and th e p e o p le . These p r i e s t s o f th e p r o p h e tic word . . . tr a n s m it h i s in f lu e n c e by d ev io u s w ays, 6 7 I b i d . , p . 310. 6 8I b i d . 6 9 I b i d . , p p . 310-311. 7 0 I b i d . , p . 311. 71I b i d . , pp. 311-312. 351 a d a p tin g t h e i r m ethods to th e n eed s o f th e p a r t i c u l a r tim e , and n o t i n s i s t i n g t h a t th e m essage s h a l l descen d on th e w orkaday w o rld in a l l i t s p r i s t i n e p u r i t y . 72 Aaron p erform ed t h i s r o le o f m e d ia to r in th e tim e o f M oses. He t r a n s l a t e d th e e t e r n a l p ro p h e tic word i n to th e h i s t o r i c fram ew ork. 73 I s r a e l , f r e e d , w anders in th e w ild e rn e s s and comes to S in a i. Ahad Ha-Am has th e p ro p h e t r e v e a l th e g ra n d e u r o f God to th e p e o p le . Ahad Ha-Am h as Moses t e l l i n g th e p eo p le ab o u t th e God o f t h e i r f a t h e r s , b u t Moses g iv e s t h a t God a new fo rm .7* * He i s a u n iv e r s a l God, th e r u l e r o f th e w hole e a r th and o v er a l l n a t i o n s . 73 Of c o u rs e , one would be h a rd p u t to f in d t h i s p a r t i c u l a r God co n c ep t e x p re s se d in th e Exodus n a r r a t i v e . Ahad Ha-Am, a f t e r th e th e o p h an y , has Moses r e p a i r to th e to p o f th e m ountain to com plete th e law in s o l i t u d e . When he descends and s e e s th e p eo p le w o rsh ip in g th e gods w hich th e p r i e s t s , th e men o f th e h o u r, have fash io n ed to appease th e p e o p le , th e t a b l e t s o f th e Law " f a l l 1 1 from * 76 h is h a n d s . The p r o p h e t, r e a l i z i n g how im p o s sib le th e ta s k i s o f m olding t h i s ra b b le i n t o a chosen p e o p le , 7 2 I b i d . , p . 314. 73 I b i d . , p . 320. 7 t* I b i d . , p . 321. 7 S lb id . 76I b i d . , pp. 322-323. 352 " . . . n o lo n g e r b e lie v e s in a sudden r e v o l u t i o n . " 77 What i s r e q u ir e d i s e d u c a tio n and tr a in in g * "slow s te p s " t o p re p a re th e p eo p le f o r i t s g r e a t m is s io n . 78 The te rm in o lo g y em ployed by Ahad Ha-Am i n t h i s l a s t q u o ta tio n i s t h a t which he o f te n u sed to r e f e r to th e m ethods and program o f " S p i r i t u a l Z io n ism ." The i n t e r e s t i n g h y p o th e s is , t h a t Ahad Ha-Am saw h im s e lf as 79 th e r e in c a r n a tio n o f M oses, i s w orth m e n tio n in g , and i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e b ecau se he rem olds so much o f th e Moses s to r y and th e p r o p h e tic m essage t o h is own needs and program . Ahad Ha-Am resum es th e n a r r a ti v e o f Moses w ith th e w andering in th e w ild e rn e s s , in which th e p ro p h e t te a c h e s and hopes t h a t h is g o a ls s h a l l be r e a l i z e d a t some p o in t on in th e f u t u r e . He t e a r s from h is h e a r t th e hope t h a t he s h a l l l i v e to see h i s p e o p le ’s m is sio n f u l f i l l e d . T h is , th e h ero ism o f th e "su p erm an ,” was th e g r e a tn e s s o f M oses. A nother man le a d s th e p eo p le t o i t s d e s tin y . T h is i s th e way i t m ust b e , f o r th e p ro p h e t co u ld n o t s ta n d to 7 7 I b i d . , p . 323. 7 8 I b i d . 78Aryeh Simon and Jo sep h H e ll e r , Ahad Ha-Am, • H a -ish P o’ a lo W e -to ra to (Je ru sa le m : Magnes P r e s s , 1 9 5 5 ), p p . 30-31. 88Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c te d E s s a y s , p . 32^. 81I b i d . , pp. 32*1-325. 353 81 se e h i s l o f t y id e a lis m com prom ised w ith r e a l i t y . H oses ". . . s h a l l s e e th e la n d b e fo re him , b u t he s h a l l n o t go go t h i t h e r . ” The g r e a tn e s s o f th e p ro p h e t was h i s v is io n o f a g lo r io u s n a t io n a l f u t u r e . T h is hope p erm eated th e p ray erb o o k and h a s k e p t th e Jew ish s o u l a l iv e in th e m id st o f h o r r i b l e o p p r e s s io n . 88 Ahad Ha-Am p ro c e e d s to make th e rem a rk a b le r e f l e c t i o n w hich te n d s to co n firm o u r c o n te n tio n t h a t t h i s e s s a y was w r i tt e n to s e rv e a p r a c t i c a l r a t h e r th a n a t h e o r e t i c a l p u rp o s e , one t h a t w ould im p la n t hope f o r th e f u tu r e and would le a d to th e s p i r i t u a l r e g e n e ra tio n o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . I s r a e l h a s n e v e r liv e d in th e p r e s e n t. The p r e s e n t , w ith i t s e v i l and i t s w ic k e d n e ss , has alw ays f i l l e d us w ith a n g u is h , in d ig n a tio n , and b i t t e r n e s s . But j u s t as c o n s ta n tly have we been in s p i r e d w ith b r i l l i a n t hopes f o r th e f u t u r e , and an in e r a d ic a b le f a i t h in th e coming triu m p h o f th e good and th e r i g h t ; and f o r th e s e hopes and t h a t f a i t h we h av e alw ays so u g h t and found s u p p o rt in th e h i s t o r y o f o u r p a s t , w hereon o u r im a g in a tio n h a s b ro o d e d , w eaving a l l m anner o f f a i r d ream s, so as to make th e p a s t a k in d o f m ir r o r o f th e f u t u r e . 84 Ahad Ha-Am ad m its t o us t h a t th e p a s t h as no o th e r p u rp o se b u t to su p p ly a s p i r a ti o n s f o r th e f u tu r e . I f t h i s i s o u r b a s ic fram e o f r e f e r e n c e , th e n f a c t s p e r se have no v a lu e e x c e p t a s th e y f u r t h e r t h i s g o a l. I f th e " a r c h e o lo g ic a l 82 I b i d . , p . 326. C f ., D eut. 3 2 :5 2 . 83Ahad Ha-Am, S e le c te d E s s a y s , p . 327. 8HI b i d . , pp. 327-328. 35*f t r u t h s ” o f h i s t o r y deny th e p r a c t i c a b i l i t y o f th e s e g o a ls , th e n th e s e " tr u th s " m ust be d e c la re d as u s e le s s . Hope, n o t t r u t h , i s th e le s s o n t h a t Ahad Ha-Am w ish es to d e riv e from Je w ish h i s t o r y f o r th e b e le a g u e re d g e n e ra tio n o f h is tim e . H a rd , c r u e l , e v e r - p r e s e n t r e a l i t y was th e c r u c ib le in w hich Ahad Ha-Am compounded h i s view s o f Jew ish h i s t o r y . CHAPTER X I CONCLUSION—THE LIFE OF THE "SPIRIT1 1 The e s s e n t i a l q u e s tio n t h a t th e Jew ish i n t e l l e c t u a l asked h im s e lf in th e l a t e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry was why he sh o u ld rem ain an ad h e re n t o f Judaism . This q u e s tio n embodied more th a n th e q u e ry , why one sh o u ld rem ain a Jew. Remaining a Jew, a member o f th e Jew ish p e o p le , was a s t a t u s c o n d itio n e d as much by e x t e r n a l f a c to r s as by v o l i t i o n . One’s Jew ishness was a s o c ia l f a c t which Euro pean s o c ie ty n ev e r p e rm itte d anyone to f o r g e t. I t was p o s s ib le to be a Jew in t h i s sen se w ith o u t any commitment to a p h ilo so p h y o f Judaism , e i t h e r in th e r e l i g i o u s o r th e s e c u la r s e n s e . Those who a f f ir m a tiv e ly i d e n t i f i e d w ith Judaism , how ever, looked f o r a v ig o ro u s fo rm u la tio n o f r e l i g i o u s , p h ilo s o p h ic o r p s y c h o lo g ic a l re a so n s to j u s t i f y t h e i r p o s it io n . The problem o f se ek in g a s o lu tio n to th e p li g h t o f Judaism was c o m p lic ate d by s e v e r a l f a c t o r s . One was 355 th e d e c lin e o f r e l i g i o n , Orthodoxy in p a r t i c u l a r , o f which Ahad Ha-Am took due n o te ; a n o th e r was th e f a i l u r e o f th e re v o lu tio n a ry approach o f th e Reform Movement, which sought to e lim in a te from Judaism a l l t h a t was n o t in consonance w ith r e a s o n . Whereas Orthodoxy co u ld no lo n g e r command o b e d ie n c e , a p a r t from i t s a s s i m i l a t i o n i s t te n d e n c ie s , i t app eared t o Ahad Ha-Am, Reform co u ld n ev er command th e u n iv e r s a l a s s e n t o f re a so n to i t s b e l i e f s . Ahad Ha-Am found th e b a s ic s o lu t io n to t h i s dilemma in th e com pelling id e a o f e v o lu tio n , which c h a r a c te r iz e d much o f th e th o u g h t o f th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . I f Judaism could somehow be viewed as b ein g in p ro c e s s , i t would then be p o s s ib le to view i t s r e lig i o u s m a n ife s ta tio n as a p a ssin g p h a se , a v e s tig e o f an e a r l i e r tim e when i t was n e c e ss a ry in i t s developm ent b u t was no lo n g e r b in d in g . This would o b v ia te th e need o f r e s u s c i t a t i n g O rthodoxy. I f e v o lu tio n i s th e k eynote o f Judaism , th en th e re v o lu tio n a r y u p ro o tin g o f Reform i s an a b o r tio n o f th e e v o lu tio n a ry p ro c e ss and must f a i l . Ahad Ha-Am con s id e r e d th e c r e s t o f th e e v o lu tio n a ry developm ent t o be h is own tim e . I t would f o llo w , th e n , f o r Ahad Ha-Am to b e lie v e t h a t th e dom inant m o tifs c u r r e n t in h is day were th e m ost a c c e p ta b le answ er to th e problem o f Judaism . N a tio n a lism , one o f th e s e m o ti f s , ap p eared to him as one o f th e most v i t a l id e a s o f th e e v o lu tio n a ry p r o c e s s , which 357 he re a d back i n t o th e h i s t o r i c a l p a s t as an in h e r e n t e l e ment in Judaism from th e e a r l i e s t dawn o f th e H e b ra ic cons c ie n c e . ^ Ahad Ha-Am’s C onception o f Jew ish H is to ry The so u rc e s upon which Ahad Ha-Am drew f o r h is co n c ep tio n o f h i s t o r y in g e n e ra l and Jew ish h i s t o r y in p a r t i c u l a r a re v a r ie d . Among th o s e in f lu e n c e s which h eld sway o v er h is th in k in g was th e w orld view o f S p en cer and Darwin. In h i s e s s a y s , Ahad Ha-Am makes e f f i c i e n t use of th e concepts o f e v o lu tio n and p ro g re s s which come t o play a s i g n i f i c a n t r o le in h is th o u g h t. Although h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e was a ls o peopled w ith th e Romantics such as Krochmal and H e rd e r, S c h i l l e r , G oethe, and th e I d e a l i s t s Kant and H egel, i t was th e E n g lish sc h o o l o f p h ilo s o p h e rs w ith whom he had th e g r e a t e s t a f f i n i t y . Ahad Ha-Am s t a t e s t h a t he could adopt t h a t " s c ie n t i f i c h e re s y which b e a rs th e name o f Darwin" w ith o u t any ^-"His u p b rin g in g . . . made Ahad Ha-Am a lm o st in e sc a p a b ly a Jew ish n a t i o n a l i s t . " T his i s Hans Kohn's o b s e rv a tio n in "Ahad Ha1Am: N a t i o n a l i s t w ith a D i f f e r e n c e ," Commentary, I I (Ju n e , 1 9 5 1 ), 560. Kohn n o te s t h a t Ahad Ha-Am's l i f e , " l i k e t h a t o f M azzin i, was en t i r e l y d e d ic a te d to h i s n a t i o n a l i s t i d e a l ; he became th e a p o s tle o f one id e a , d e v o tin g l i t t l e tim e t o b ro a d e r, o r a e s t h e t i c , c o n c e rn s ." Hans Kohn, Commentary, i b i d . , p . 558. 2Kol K itbe Ahad Ha-Am (A sher G inzberg) (T e l Aviv: D vir C o., L td ., 1956), p . H95. 358 q danger to h i s Judaism . For, i f one a c c e p ts e v o lu tio n , he a rg u e s , one cannot p ass judgment on th e p a s t . Those who use e v o lu tio n , use i t as a b a s is f o r t h e i r a n a ly s is and t r e a t a l l f r u i t s o f th e human t r e e as n a tu r a l phenomena.1 * The n a tu ra l s c i e n t i s t does n o t a tta c h v alu es to th e fa c ts he d isc e rn s in th e stre a m of e v o lu tio n . Ahad Ha-Am asks f o r th e same ty p e o f consummate o b j e c t i v i t y o f th e stu d e n t o f th e s p i r i t u a l l i f e o f mankind.® Since th e analogy of man to n a tu re has been made, Ahad Ha-Am sees w ith in such an a n ly s is th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t r u l y u n d ersta n d in g th e p a s t . I f a l l men a re s u b je c t to th e e t e r n a l laws which make fo r change and developm ent, then a l l men in a l l ages g w i l l r e f l e c t t h e i r environm ent and c o n d itio n . I t should fo llo w th e n , th a t a l l human i n s t i t u t i o n s a re b u t t r a n s i e n t s which pass th rough th e c o r r id o r o f human h i s t o r y . They are c a lle d in to b ein g by o b je c tiv e c o n d itio n s and f a l l in to desuetude when th e se c o n d itio n s no lo n g e r e x i s t . Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in s t h a t in th e stu d y o f th e gen e r a l h is to r y o f c u l tu r e , th e a t t i t u d e has been to accep t th e p a s t on i t s own term s r a t h e r th a n ju d g in g i t by con tem porary sta n d a rd s o f lo g ic . T his was n o t tr u e o f th e 3I b i d . , p . 69. ^I b i d . , p. 271. 5I b i d . 6I b id . 359 stu d y o f Jew ish c u l t u r e . In th e w orld o f Jew ish h i s t o r i c a l th o u g h t, p a r t i c u l a r l y th a t o f W estern E urope, th e a t tem pt was s t i l l bein g made to e v a lu a te h i s t o r i c a l expe rie n c e by th e c r i t e r i a o f lo g ic , which I s in c a p a b le of p e rc e iv in g th e r i s e and developm ent o f e a r l y i n s t i t u t i o n s . The use o f lo g ic in u n d e rsta n d in g th e p a s t r e s u l t s in th e im p o s itio n o f o ur v a lu e s on h i s t o r i c d a ta and does n o t n y i e l d a t r u t h f u l r e n d iti o n o f h i s t o r y . Im p lied i n Ahad Ha-Am's use o f th e e v o lu tio n a ry th e o ry i s th e n o tio n th a t th e d a ta o f h i s t o r y a re framed by p a r t i c u l a r circ u m sta n c e s. I t fo llo w s th a t b e l i e f s , i n s t i t u t i o n s , t r a d i t i o n s , and th e rem ain d er o f th e c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l ap p u rten an ces have no tr a n s c e n d e n t q u a l i t i e s which co u ld p le a d f o r a l l e - g ie n c e i n an age o th e r th a n t h e i r own.8 Y et, th e r e was a re v e re n c e f o r th e t r a d i t i o n s o f th e p a s t , on th e p a r t o f th e Jew ish group, f o r a l l th a t was c r e a te d by th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t . " The r e l i g i o u s and e t h i c a l norms o f l i f e developed by th e Jew ish group were p r e s e r v a tiv e s 7I b i d . , p . 272 . O I b i d . In t h i s essa y Ahad Ha-Am i l l u s t r a t e s h is p o in t by p o in tin g to th e Shulhan Aruk as a work which was in p re v io u s ages h e ld as a u t h o r i t a t i v e . B ut, as Rabbi L o l l i p o in ts o u t c o r r e c t l y , ac co rd in g t o Ahad Ha-Am, "There i s n o t a s in g le Jew o f modem e d u c a tio n who can b e lie v e i n them ( th e laws o f th e Shulhan A ruk) ." N ev erth e l e s s , Ahad Ha-Am claim s th e Shulhan Aruk as a work t h a t was made th e guide o f th e Jew ish p e o p l e a n d m ust th e r e f o r e be u n d ersto o d in i t s h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t and a c c o rd in g to th e p r in c ip l e s o f th e e v o lu tio n a ry developm ent o f Jew ish law . 360 which enab led the group to survive..® Ahad Ha-Am h o ld s th e above p r o te c tiv e implements to be g i f t s o f n a tu re . Analogous to th e horns o f an ox, th e wings o f a b i r d , the su re i n s t i n c t o f th e b ee , are th e s o c ia l and r e lig i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s and v alu es which Jews have developed in th e D ia s p o ra .19 These implements in th e b a t t l e f o r s u rv iv a l a re n e i th e r to t h e i r c r e d i t n o r d i s c r e d i t , f o r th ey de veloped o f th e m s e lv e s .11 These evolved as n e c e ssa ry a t t r i b u t e s flow ing from th e l i f e s i t u a t i o n . I t i s th e s tr u g g le f o r e x is te n c e 'diich develops both th e good and bad q u a l i t i e s which c h a ra c te riz e any o rg a n ism .12 The im p lic a tio n th a t Ahad Ha-Am le a v e s h e re i s t h a t such neces s a ry elem ents are n e u t r a l; th e y are t o be u n d ersto o d r a t h e r than judged. Ahad Ha-Am h e ld th e id e a t h a t th e reaso n why Jews d id n o t b reak away com pletely from Judaism was due n o t to any e x te r n a l fo r c e , b u t r a t h e r to an i n t e r n a l d riv e f o r 13 s e lf - p r e s e r v a tio n . The human mind, alth o u g h appearing to be guided by reaso n a lo n e , i s r e a l l y c o n tr o lle d by a fo rc e which works ben eath th e conscious l e v e l , d ir e c tin g 9I b i d . , pp. 20-22. 10I b i d . , p . 20. 12I b i d . 13I b i d . , pp. 61-6 3. 361 th e m in d 's movements. T his f o r c e , which i s a ll- p o w e r f u l, ta k e s on many g u is e s . The knowing eye can d is c e r n , how e v e r, t h a t th e g o a l o f t h i s d riv e i s to a t t a i n t h a t which b rin g s l i f e p le a s u re and to avoid th o se elem en ts which 14 a re p a i n f u l . I l l u s t r a t i n g th e dynamic o f t h i s p o te n t d riv e i n man, Ahad Ha-Am n o te s t h a t from e a r l i e s t tim es we can d e te c t i t s p r e s e n c e , f o r when th e w orld w ith o u t proved p a i n f u l , and reaso n i t s e l f proved im p o ten t t o cope w ith o b je c tiv e r e a l i t y , an in n e r fo rc e which he c a l l s "Im ag in atio n " gave man r e l i e f . T ransform ing r e a l i t y in t o som ething o th e r th a n i t w as, "Im ag in atio n " gave mem th e s o la c e h i s inm ost s e l f r e q u ir e d . That which gave b i r t h to "Im ag in atio n " in th e h o u r o f m an's t r i a l , and made i t p o s s ib le f o r him to go on l i v i n g , was th e d riv e f o r s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n . Ahad Ha-Am goes on to make h i s p o in t from Jew ish h i s t o r y . He d i v id e s Jew ish h i s t o r i c a l e x p e rie n c e s i n to th r e e m ajor p e r i ods . The e a r l i e s t i s th e n a t u r a l p e rio d when th e p eo p le was f u l l o f v ig o r , when i t s w i l l - t o - l i v e was h e a lth y , and when th e P ro p h ets e n v isa g e d a n a t io n a l h a p p in e ss which was n a t u r a l and a t t a i n a b l e in th e p r e s e n t. T his i d y l l i c p e rio d came to an end when th e n a tio n was h a ra s s e d by th e llfI b i d . , p . 61. 15I b id . ■ * * 6I b i d . , pp. 6 2 -6 3 . s u c c e s s iv e conquests o f the g r e a t e m p i r e s A t t h i s ju n c tu re the second p e rio d o f Jewish h is t o r y comes in to b e in g . I t was h e re t h a t "Im ag in atio n " came i n t o p la y , a t th e b id d in g o f th e w i l l - t o - l i v e . F inding th e e x te r n a l c o n d itio n s h o p e le s s , i t in te r n a liz e d and tr a n s m itte d n a tio n a l hopes in to th e s u p e rn a tu ra l a s p ir a tio n s o f r e l i g io n . Even th e P ro p h e tic v is io n s were r e i n t e r p r e t e d in new form and became e th e r e a l iz e d . T his c o n d itio n , Ahad 18 Ha-Am c a l l s a " s p i r i t u a l d is e a s e ." The t h i r d p e rio d was i n i t i a t e d when th e s p i r i t o f c r i t i c a l in q u iry l a i d w aste a l l c r e a tio n s o f "Im a g in a tio n ." Nor was th e Jew ish " c a s t l e - i n - t h e - a i r " sp a re d . T his development gave r i s e to a new g e n e ra tio n which b e lie v e d no more than t h e i r f o r e b e a rs t h a t th e n a tio n could be r e s to r e d th rough n a t u r a l means, b u t has a ls o fo rsa k e n , in conform ity to th e s p i r i t 19 o f th e age, th e power o f " Im a g in a tio n ." Yet Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in s th a t d e s p ite t h i s developm ent, the Jew ish n a tio n a l w i l l - t o - l i v e cannot be cru sh ed . I t would appear from a l l p o in ts o f lp g ic and c r i t e r i a which Ahad Ha-Am has s e t up, t h a t i f th e r e can be no n a t u r a l e x is te n c e f o r a p e o p le , and i f i t has l o s t th e 17I b i d . , p . 63. 18I b id . 19I b i d . 20Ib id . 363 power o f "Im ag in atio n " to c re a te th e u n re a l w orld o f r e lig i o u s id e a ls as a s u b s t i t u t e in c e n tiv e f o r l i f e , th e n th e w i l l - t o - l i v e i n t h a t people i s dead. Ahad Ha-Am, how ever, approaches t h i s q u e s tio n in a d o c t r in a ir e manner. H e rb e rt Spencer s t a t e d t h a t every human being p o sse sse d 21 th e power o f " s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n ." He f u r t h e r m a in ta in ed t h a t ev ery organism was engaged in a " s tru g g le f o r e x i s - 9 9 te n c e " * 4 and t h a t th e re would be a " s u r v iv a l o f th e f i t - 23 t e s t . " Ahad Ha-Am, l ik e S pencer, b e lie v e d t h a t th e re 911 was an analogy between th e in d iv id u a l and th e n a tio n . Since b io lo g y was th e re ig n in g s c ie n c e , a n a lo g ie s to i t ex ten d ed i n t o h i s t o r i c a l f i e l d s . Spencer b e lie v e d t h a t a g e n e ra l law o f e v o lu tio n could be fo rm u late d so th a t i t would apply to s o c ie ty . He reaso n ed t h a t th e p r in c ip l e s o f s o c ia l s t r u c t u r e and change must be th e same as t h a t o f th e u n iv e rs e a t l a r g e . C onsequently, th e re m ust be a s tr u g g le f o r e x is te n c e among s o c i e t i e s as th e r e i s among 9 c o rg an ism s. N a tio n s, th e n , lik e organism s must pass 21 G ertru d e Him m elfarb, Darwin and th e Darwinian R ev o lu tio n (New York: Anchor Books, 1962), p . 224. C f. , H aeck el, Thomson, Weisman, e t a l , E v o lu tio n in Modern Thought (New York: Boni an d ~ T iv e rw rig h t, n . d . ) , p. 224. 22I b i d . , p. 224. 23I b i d . , p . 225. 24K ol_K itbe, p. 81. 25 R ichard H o f s ta d te r , S o c ia l Darwinism in American Thought ( r e v . e d .; B oston: Beacon P r e s s , 1955), pp. 41-43. th ro u g h the norm al co u rse o f e v o lu tio n . L ike organism s which d ie , so i t appears t h a t n a tio n s who have run t h e i r f u l l span o f developm ent must a ls o d ie . To t h i s an a lo g y , Ahad Ha-Am ta k e s v o c ife ro u s e x c e p tio n . Suddenly th e a n a l ogy between th e in d iv id u a l organism and th e n a tio n b reak s down. The in d iv id u a l organism m ust d ie . The n a t io n , how e v e r, i s not bound by th e p h y s ic a l laws which t o l l th e death k n e ll o f th e i n d iv i d u a l. I t has a s p i r i t u a l th r e a d , Ahad Ha-Am m a in ta in s , w hich cannot be bound by tim e o r sp a c e . The n a tio n can s u rv iv e i f i t can somehow propose a program f o r th e f u t u r e , even i f th e core o f t h a t program ta k e s th e form o f a " f a n c if u l h o p e ." 26 Ahad Ha-Am w ill n o t b in d h im s e lf to S p e n c e r’s e v o lu tio n a ry h y p o th e sis where th e ex p an sio n o f th e id e a t o i t s l o g i c a l c o n c lu sio n w i l l mean th e demise o f th e Jew ish n a tio n o r o f Judaism . Ahad Ha-Am c o u ld n ev er e n t e r t a i n th e n o tio n th a t th e na t i o n a l org an ism , I s r a e l , would p e r i s h . He i s w illi n g to a tta c h h im s e lf t o th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n , i f t h i s th e o ry w i l l a s su re Judaism a w i l l - t o - l i v e and g iv e i t a f a i t h in th e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f p ro g re s s . Even i f t h i s f a i t h i s ob j e c t i v e l y g ro u n d le s s , as long as i t i s r e s id e n t in th e power o f " Im a g in a tio n ," th e r e i s hope t h a t a t some f u tu re p o in t a more liv e a b le s o lu tio n can be a t t a i n e d . 26Kol K itb e , p. 81. 365 One o f th e rem arkable a t t r i b u t e s o f th e w i l l - t o - l i v e i s t h a t i t c r e a te s h i s t o r y . 27 H is to ry i s conceived as th e v e h ic le th ro u g h which th e " i n s t i n c t f o r s e l f - p r e s e r v a tio n " e x p re s se s i t s e l f . Whether man co n sen ts to 2 8 t h i s o r n o t , h i s t o r y d riv e s to i t s g o a l. Ahad Ha-Am co n ceiv es o f th e n a tio n as a l i v i n g organism w ith a t h r i v in g " i n s t i n c t o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n " which has k e p t th e 29 n a tio n a l iv e th ro u g h o u t i t s h i s t o r y . This " i n s t i n c t " can n o t be s e p a ra te d from th e n a t i o n a l c u ltu r e n or from th e r e s t o f th e n a t i o n 's l i f e . A ll c o n d itio n in g to th e e n v ir onment in o rd e r to su rv iv e i s dom inated by t h i s b a s ic d riv e and se rv e s i t in th e b a t t l e f o r e x is te n c e . Since e v e ry th in g in man i s c o n c e n tra te d on th e s in g le d e s ir e f o r l i f e , he saw b u t two fo rc e s in n a tu r e — th o se which would d e s tro y and th o se which would a b e t l i f e . Since d e s tr u c tio n i s th e ominous e v i l to be av o id ed , man gave a l l h is th o u g h ts to methods whereby he could circum vent d e s tr u c t i o n . 30 W ith Hume, Ahad Ha-Am h o ld s t h a t what aroused prim i t i v e man to an acknowledgement o f h i s C re a to r was th e f e a r 27I b i d . , p . 421. 28I b id . 29I b id . 30I b i d . , p. 79. 366 31 o f e v i l fo rc e s in th e w o rld . Man's dread o f harm le d him to th e id e a t h a t ev ery n a t u r a l phenomenon had a d e ity w hich, through appeasem ent o f words o r g i f t , would p ro - 32 t e c t him from harm. To p r o te c t h im s e lf from o th e r men, e a r l y man conceived o f a t r i b a l d e ity to which he looked f o r p r o te c tio n from h is en em ies. When th e s e t r i b a l u n its grew in to n a t io n s , t h e i r gods became n a tio n a l and t h e i r ta s k was to p r o t e c t o r avenge th e n a tio n from th o se who 3 3 th re a te n e d i t s s u r v iv a l . Turning to Jew ish h i s t o r y , Ahad Ha-Am examines th e phenomenon o f m onotheism . He arg u es th a t in a n c ie n t I s r a e l , alth o u g h a few g i f t e d p ro p h e ts had th e concept o f th e U nity o f God, th e m asses o f men a t b e s t s t i l l had o nly a s u p e r f i c i a l knowledge o f i t , and rem ained b a s i c a l l y qu p o l y t h e i s t i c . I t was only a f t e r th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e f i r s t Temple t h a t th e s p i r i t o f th e e x ile d peo p le changed to adm it t h a t th e r e was o n ly One God. T hat which made th e p e o p le 's s p i r i t change was n o t co n scio u s a s s e n t to a new t r u t h , b u t th e w orking o f th e " i n s t i n c t f o r s e l f - 35 p r e s e rv a tio n " and a concern f o r th e n a tio n . This 32I b i d . 33I b i d . 3,1 I b id . 35 I b i d . , pp. 7 9-80. 367 i n s t i n c t u a l concern d e v ise d th e concept o f a d i f f e r e n t k in d o f God whose power extended a c ro s s n a tio n a l bound a r ie s so t h a t He could save H is p eo p le on fo re ig n s o i l . Such a God had to be a w orld God, a cosm ic fo rc e , t h a t could b id th e king o f Babylon as w e ll as a l l em perors to do His W i l l .33 The n a tio n a l i n s t i n c t to su rv iv e com p e lle d th e people to tu r n to th e monotheism of the p r o p h ets and i t i s in t h i s manner t h a t monotheism developed, 37 and p o ly th eism was b l o t t e d o u t. This i n s t i n c t , now developed on a n a tio n a l b a s i s , becomes th e framework f o r Ahad Ha-Am's a n a ly s is o f th e whole body o f Jew ish e x p e rie n c e s in c e th e d e s tr u c tio n of 38 th e i d y l l i c n a t u r a l s e t t i n g a t th e tim e o f th e p ro p h e ts . From th en on, a l l was compromise w ith th e n a tio n a l i d e a l and an u n a u th e n tic n a t io n a l e x is te n c e e m e r g e d . U n t i l th e founding o f " S p i r i t u a l Z ionism ," which attem p ted to r e c a p tu re th e o rg a n ic l i f e o f th e n a tio n some two th o u san d y e a rs a f t e r i t e x i s te d , Jews d id n o t l i v e in the s p i r i t of 36I b i d . , p. 80. Ahad Ha-Am c i t e s R ashi, t o Gen. 1:3, in su p p o rt o f h is view . God, who had g iv e n th e I s r a e l i t e s and P a le s tin e in to th e hands o f th e B abylonians, was a cosmic God. The w orld was H is. "He c r e a te d i t , and gave i t t o whom i t seemed r i g h t i n h i s e y e s ." 37Kol K itb e , p . 80. 38I b id . 39I b id . 368 Hebraism b u t in i t s w atered down r e l i g i o u s e x p r e s s io n , J u d a i s m . I s r a e l ' s p r i s t i n e p u r ity was s h a t t e r e d . A f t e r th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e f i r s t Tem ple, r e l i g i o n was to be a c ru tc h in th e su p p o rt o f th e n a t i o n a l i d e a l . In th e p e rio d o f th e second Temple, how ever, i t expanded to envelop th e whole o f th e n a t i o n 's s p i r i t u a l l i f e , r e ig n in g supreme o ver th e n a tio n a l id e a l from which i t e m e r g e d .^ From th e vantage p o in t o f h i s t o r i c a l d is ta n c e Ahad Ha-Am o b serv es th e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f n a t io n a l hopes as th e y become o v e r la id by r e l i g i o n . His tone changes when he d e a ls w ith th e need to p r e s e rv e , f o r a tim e a t l e a s t , th e r e l i g i o u s forms de v is e d in th e g h e tto and D iaspora e x i s t e n c e . T his a t t i tu d e emerges when Ahad Ha-Am a tta c k s th e H askalah movement w hich had u rged th e b reak in g down o f th e g h e tto and i t s fe n c e o f r e l i g i o u s p r o s c r i p t i o n s . The H askalah Jews d id n o t r e a l i z e t h a t th e r e lig i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s and v a lu e s which Jews have developed in D iaspora l i v i n g sa fe g u a rd e d t h e i r e x is te n c e . I t i s as f o o lis h t o denounce th e s e o u t d a te d r e lig i o u s p r a c t ic e s as i t i s t o p r a is e them . The v a lu e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s o f which Ahad Ha-Am s p e a k s , he h e ld to be n e c e ss a ry developm ents o f Ju d a ism 's h i s t o r i c 40 I b i d . , p . 63. ^ I b i d . , p. 80 . 369 s i t u a t i o n . ^ Ahad Ha-Am claim ed t h a t th e " n a tio n a l i n s t i n c t f o r s u r v iv a l" had suddenly tak en on new s tr e n g th 4 ,3 in h is own tim e . The n a tio n , which had d e v ia te d to o much from i t s n a tio n a l i d e a l , suddenly d ir e c te d a l l eyes to Zion as th e s o lu tio n f o r i t s s p i r i t u a l problem . The i n s t i n c t and h i s t o r y d ir e c te d th e work o f th e H ibbat Zion movement, w hether a l l f a c t io n s o f t h a t movement so w ille d . . . 44 x t o r n o t. Throughout our d is c u s s io n i t has become a p p a re n t t h a t t h i s 'h a tio n a l i n s t i n c t f o r s u r v iv a l" has a c o n sc io u s n ess which i s phenom enal; i t d e c id e s p ro p e r th e o lo g ie s and how Jews may conduct t h e i r liv e s in and o u ts id e o f P a le s t i n e ; i t i s beyond reaso n and no one can c h a r t i t s w a y . 5 This i n s t i n c t , to which Ahad Ha-Am a s s ig n s such tremendous im p o rta n ce, d e f ie s c l e a r d e f i n i t i o n . He c a l l s i t one o f th o se n a t u r a l fo rc e s t h a t works in d a rk n e s s . I t i s a d riv in g f o r c e , com pelling th o se a c tio n s n e c e ss a ry f o r th e hg n a tio n a l e x is te n c e o f th e Jew ish p e o p le . I t seems t h a t we are d e a lin g h e re w ith a m e ta p h y sic a l n o tio n p o sse ssin g a t t r i b u t e s which in a p r i o r age m ight have been a s c rib e d * * 2I b i d . , p. 20. 43I b i d . , p . *428. ^ I b i d . , p . *421. H5I b i d . ^6I b id . 370 to God as d i r e c t o r o f h i s t o r y . I t i s , how ever, c l o s e s t to th e n o tio n o f F a te , found i n a n c ie n t l i t e r a t u r e , which p re s s e s man forw ard to h is d e s tin y d e s p ite h i s own v o l i t i o n . Ahad Ha-Am m ight w e ll have ad m itte d t h a t th e n o tio n o f th e i n s t i n c t t h a t lu rk s b en eath th e s u r fa c e o f m an's co n sc io u sn e ss belongs to h i s ca te g o ry o f " I m a g in a tio n ,1 1 and t h a t i t s usage in e x p la in in g Jew ish h i s t o r y flow s from h is own atte m p t to p re s e rv e Judaism . For h is age and tim e , th e i n s t i n c t th e o ry p r o je c te d on a n a t io n a l b a s is b ro u g h t home to Jews th e id e a t h a t th e y could n o t succeed in t h e i r atte m p t to s tr a y from th e f o ld . That t h e i r very i n s t i n c t s would n o t p e rm it them to s u rre n d e r t h e i r Jew ish h e r ita g e was th e hope upon which Ahad Ha-Am c o n s tru c te d th e fo u n d a tio n s o f " S p i r i t u a l Z ionism ." The a p p lic a tio n o f th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n to th e Jew ish p a s t y ie ld e d th e id e a o f an ongoing p r o c e s s , from th e e a r l i e s t b i b l i c a l re c o rd s onward, o f which Judaism was an i n t e g r a l p a r t . Like a l l organism s which a re caught in th e stream o f e v o lu tio n , th e Jew ish n a t io n , which i s a s o c i a l organism , i s p o sse sse d o f "th e i n s t i n c t o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a tio n ." Though i t goes th rough th e phases o f i n fa n c y , m a tu rity and o ld a g e , l ik e any o th e r organism , th e Jew ish n a tio n need n o t d ie . By th e e x e rc is e of th e power o f i t s " i n s t i n c t f o r s u r v i v a l ," i t can w i l l i t s e l f l i f e u n t i l a more n a t u r a l e x is te n c e becomes p o s s ib le a t some 371 f u tu r e tim e . Ahad Ha-Am*s a d a p ta tio n o f a th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n was s u f f i c i e n t to in s u r e f o r i t s a d h e re n ts th e b e l i e f i n th e co n tin u ed e x is te n c e o f th e Jew ish n a tio n and o f Ju d a ism . However, t h i s e v o lu tio n a ry framework re q u ir e d mes s i a n i c z e a l and a glow ing g o al to be r e a l i z e d i n th e f u t u r e . Such a g o a l, o f c o u rs e , had to be couched in term s o f th e needs o f th e p r e s e n t to have a p p e a l, and y e t tra n s c e n d th e p r e s e n t to be m eaningful f o r th e f u tu r e . T hat Jews r e q u ir e d such a g o a l to su rv iv e th e d e s p a ir o f th e p r e s e n t and t o l i f t t h e i r s p i r i t , Ahad Ha-Am s t a t e s i n u n m istak ab le te rm s . He h o ld s t h a t a lth o u g h we may be r a t i o n a l l y convinced t h a t a c lo s e d d eterm inism h o ld s sway in th e u n iv e r s e , and t h a t th e law s o f cause and e f f e c t p u t us a t se a w ith o u t any p a r t i c u l a r d e s t i n a t i o n , our m oral sen se r e b e ls a g a in s t t h i s w orld view . Ahad Ha-Am i s convinced t h a t mankind r e q u ir e s f o r i t s s a n i t y a g o a l im p ressed in th e f u t u r e , f o r o th e rw is e human e x is te n c e would be a m ean in g less a f f a i r . W r i t i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r th e b e le a g u e re d Jews o f h i s tim e , f o r he was concerned o v e r t h e i r d e s p a ir , Ahad Ha-Am c o n s tru c te d a g o a l f o r Judaism which h ad i t s r o o ts in th e p ro p h e tic movement o f th e e ig h th p r e - C h r is tia n c e n tu ry . The g o a l t h a t Ahad Ha-Am p o s i t s " f o r th e end o f days" in th e e v o lu tio n of * *7I b i d . , p . 349 372 Judaism i s th e enthronem ent o f t r u t h and a b s o lu te ju s - h $ t i c e . This a s p i r a t i o n r e q u ir e d a whole community con t i n u a l l y d ev o ted th ro u g h o u t th e g e n e ra tio n s t o t h i s one id e a . For th e r e a l i z a t i o n , as a p ro p h e tic p e o p le embody ing th e p r o p h e tic i d e a l , I s r a e l was to sta n d as a s ta n d a rd b e a r e r o f j u s t i c e . They were n o t to be a "kingdom of p r i e s t s " b u t a n a tio n o f p ro p h e ts , f u l f i l l i n g th e hope o f Numbers 1 1 :2 9 , "Would t h a t a l l th e L o rd 's p e o p le were p r o p h e ts . ,,1+ 8 There i s a co n flu en ce betw een th e " n a tio n a l i n s t i n c t f o r s u r v iv a l" and th e Jew ish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t . " In Ahad Ha-Am's th o u g h t i t m ust be assumed t h a t the " i n s t i n c t " and th e " s p i r i t " w hile n o t i d e n t i c a l a r e i n t e r d ependent. No c l e a r d e l in e a tio n i s made betw een th e two fo rc e s and a t tim es th e y seem to be used in te rc h a n g e a b ly . What i s , o f fundam ental s i g n i f i c a n c e , however, i s th a t f o r Ahad Ha-Am th e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of th e Jewish " n a tio n a l s p i r i t " i s i t s s t r i v i n g f o r a b s o lu te j u s t i c e and th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e p r o p h e tic id e a l in a r e c o n s t i tu te d Jew ish community which i s e s s e n t i a l l y a s p i r i t u a l 50 c e n te r . The e v o lu tio n o f Judaism i s to be looked f o r in t h i s d ir e c tio n and i t s a g e -o ld b i b l i c a l i d e a l s a re t o * *8I b i d . , p. 91. 49I b i d . , p. 92. 80I b i d . , p. 181. 373 be r e a l i z e d th e r e . W hile i t i s t r u e t h a t a l l n a tio n s have a m oral s e n s e , Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e d t h a t t h i s sense was b ro u g h t to consummate p e r f e c tio n in th e Jew ish na t i o n . ^ What i s r e q u ir e d f o r f u l l blossom ing again i s I s r a e l 's a n c ie n t n a t u r a l s p i r i t u a l h a b i t a t so th a t i t s h i s t o r i c s t r i v i n g to become a m oral s u p e r-n a tio n may be r e a l i z e d . I s r a e l 's e l e c t i o n r e q u ir e s f i r s t th e c r e a tio n o f a s u p e r io r type o f m o ra lity among Jews w hich m ight a lso have i t s re p e rc u s s io n in th e g e n t i l e w o rld . I t i s in t h i s sen se t h a t th e g e n t i l e s m ight be moved to sa y , "Come y e , and l e t us go up to th e m ountain o f th e Lord. . . He s h a l l te a c h us His ways and we s h a l l walk in His C O p a th s ." T h is , to o , i s what i s m eant by th e "m ission o f I s r a e l , ' which i s to be ach iev ed forem ost among Jews, and im p lie s th e f u l f i l l i n g o f d u tie s and n o t th e o v e rt te a c h ing o f th e Torah and i t s r u le o f l i f e t o m ankind.53 Ahad Ha-Am, d e s p a irin g o f a s o lu tio n f o r th e p lig h t o f Jews and th e s t r a i t s in which th e y found them s e lv e s , attem p ted to c r e a te a p h ilo so p h y o f Judaism w hich, w hile c o n ta in in g r e l i g i o u s o v e rto n e s and v o c a b u la ry , and fo rm u lated on th e fo u n d a tio n o f S c r ip tu r e , was n e v e rth e le s s e s s e n t i a l l y s e c u la r and n a t i o n a l i s t i c i n c h a r a c te r . 51I b i d . , pp. 280-281. 52I b i d . , p. 157. Cf., I s a . 2:3; Micah 4:2. 33Kol K itb e , p . 157. His Zionism was r i c h in e t h i c a l th e o ry and c u l t u r a l en dowments , a tte m p tin g to c r e a t e an o r i e n t a t i o n f o r th e modem Jew who found h im s e lf a t th e c ro ssro a d s o f f o r tu n e , n o t knowing w h ith e r to t u r n . Like Maimonides and Krochmal b e fo re him , Ahad Ha-Am a tte m p te d to be a moreh d erek (" a g uide") t o th e nebuke ha-zem an ( " th e p e rp le x e d o f th e t im e " ) . He u t i l i z e d id e a s t h a t w ere c u r r e n t in th e i n t e l l e c t u a l w orld o f h is tim e , in b i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m and p h ilo so p h y , in o r d e r to p r e s e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y to th e E a st European Jew, th e f i r s t th o ro u g h ly modem i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Judaism . E s s e n tia l ly a r a t i o n a l i s t in h i s ap proach, w ith s tr o n g p o s i t i v i s t i c le a n in g s , he was a ls o a ro m a n tic . Rom anticism , Ahad Ha-Am b e lie v e d , made p o s s ib le th e s t r i v in g f o r some id e a l which le a d s to th e e x a l t a t i o n o f th e s p i r i t — t h a t c a l l s f o r s a c r i f i c e .® 1 * His p le a f o r th e c re a tio n o f a m oral s u p e r-n a tio n gave h is program t h a t n e c e ss a ry e la n and ro m an tic q u a l ity which won f o r i t choice a d h e re n ts among a g e n e ra tio n o f Jews who sen sed t h a t th e y had to fa sh io n a b l u e p r i n t f o r th e f u tu r e o f * t h e i r p e o p le . Ahad Ha-Amfs b lu e p r in t p r e s e n ts an o p tio n to th e Jew ish w o rld o f to d a y as w e l l . To th e Jews o f modem I s r a e l in p a r t i c u l a r , i t r e p r e s e n ts a p u rp o se fu l program o f n a t io n a l e x is te n c e . I f th e y w ish to use i t , 5* * I b i d . , p . 38t*. 375 th e y can become th e s p i r i t u a l h e a rtla n d o f w orld Jewry and an example to th e r e s t o f mankind. A P P E N D I X APPENDIX L is t o f A b b re v iatio n s AJYB: American Jew ish Yearbook CCAR: C e n tra l C onference o f American Rabbis HUCA: Hebrew Union C ollege Annual I g g e r o t : I g g e r o t Ahad Ha-Am JBL; J o u rn a l o f B i b lic a l L ite r a tu r e * J E : The Jew ish E ncyclopedia JQR: Jew ish Q u a rte rly Review Kol K itb e : Kol K itbe Ahad Ha-Am MGWJ: M o n a ts s c h rift f u r d ie G esch ich te und W issen sch aft des Judenthums B I B L I O G R A P H Y BIBLIOGRAPHY Prim ary Sources Ahad Ha-Am. I g g e ro t Ahad Ha-Am. R evised and e n la rg e d e d i t i o n . E d ite d by Aryeh Simon. T el Aviv: D vir C o ., L t d . , 19 56. _________ . Kol K itbe Ahad Ha-Am. I n tr o d u c tio n by Ch. Y. Roth. T el Aviv: D vir Co., Ltd., 1956. Books A cher, M athias. Achad ha-am . B e rlin : J iid is c h e r V e rla g , 1903. Agus, Jacob R. Modern P h ilo s o p h ie s o f Judaism . New York: Behrm an's Jew ish Book House, 1941. Bachya ben J o s e f ib n Pakuda. 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Asset Metadata

Creator Gottschalk, Alfred (author)

Core Title Ahad Ha-Am, The Bible, And The Bible Tradition

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Religion

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag oai:digitallibrary.usc.edu:usctheses,OAI-PMH Harvest,religion, general

Language English

Advisor Levey, Samson H. (committee chair), Macgregor, Geddes (committee member), Tucker, Gene M. (committee member), Werkmeister, William H. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-169339

Unique identifier UC11359247

Identifier 6509975.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-169339 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6509975.pdf

Dmrecord 169339

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Gottschalk, Alfred

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA