University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

United States Policy On Manifestations Of Anti-Colonialism In The United Nations

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United States Policy On Manifestations Of Anti-Colonialism In The United Nations

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Content U NITED ST A T E S PO L IC Y ON M A N IFE ST A T IO N S
OF A NT I-CO LO N IA LISM IN THE U N IT E D NATIONS
by
M ohinder Singh B edi
A D is s e r ta tio n P r e s e n te d to the
F A C U L T Y OF THE G R A D U A TE SCHOOL
UNIV ERSITY OF SO U TH ERN C A LIFO RN IA
In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t of the
R e q u ir e m e n ts for the D e g r e e
DOCTOR OF PH ILO SO PH Y
(P o litic a l S c ie n c e )
Jan u ary 1961
UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES 7, CALIFORNIA
This dissertation, written by
under the direction of his .Dissertation C om
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by . ’ . Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
M ohinde r. .S ingh. -Redi
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
Date.......... J.anuax y.,.. .1 . .9.61....
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
P age
I N T R O D U C T I O N ................................................................................................... iv
Chapte r
I. THE RECORD
I. IN D E PE N D E N C E FOR COLONIAL P E O P L E S .............. 2
Indonesia
M o ro c co
T u n isia
A lg e r ia
S u m m ary
II. RACIAL AND ECONOMIC E Q U A L I T Y ................................ 54
R a cia l D isc r im in a tio n
T rea tm e n t of Indians in South A fr ic a
A partheid
E c o n o m ic E quality
F inan cin g E co n o m ic D evelop m en t
S u m m ary
III. THE G E N E R A L D E B A T E ON HUMAN RIGHTS .... 89
S e lf-D e te r m in a tio n and the C olonial C lause
F re ed o m of Inform ation
S u m m ary
IV. THE ROLE AND CONTRO L OF THE UNITED
N A T I O N S ............................................................................................... 113
The R ole of the U nited N ations
C ontrol of the U nited N ation s
S u m m ary
II. ANALYSIS
V. THE P O S T U R E ............................................................................. 156
M oral P r in c ip le s and the P r o b le m of P o w er and
S ecu rity
ii
Ill
Chapter
V igorou s N eg a tiv ism
P a s s iv e R e sista n c e
T otal Neutrality-
A ctiv e Support of the A n ti-C o lo n ia l P o w e r s
VI. THE S T R A T E G Y ...............................................................
The Conduct of the C olon ial D ebate
G e n e ra liz a tio n of P a r tic u la r Subjects
M oral V e r su s L eg a l P r e o c c u p a tio n s
M oral V e r s u s P r o c e d u r a l P r e o c c u p a tio n s
India and A m eric a : P a r a lle l and C on trast in
United N ation s S trategy
VII. COM M ENT AND CONCLUSION ....................................
P a g e
190
2 30
BIBLIOGRAPHY 256
INTRODUCTION
The Topic
It is the p u rp o se of th is w o rk to study the v a r io u s a s p e c ts of
the a n ti-c o lo n ia l ch a llen g e in the U nited N ation s w ith a p a r tic u la r v ie w
tow ard d elin ea tin g the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n se to that c h a llen g e. T his study
is not intended as a m e r e ca ta lo g u e of the is s u e s that have b een p art of
the a n ti-c o lo n ia l ch a llen g e, nor is it sim p ly a r e c ita tio n of the A m e r i
can v o te s and r e s o lu tio n s on the su b ject of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m , fo r it is
hoped that the te n sio n b etw een the m o r a l and id e o lo g ic a l p r in c ip le s u n
d erly in g the A m e r ic a n p o stu r e in in tern a tio n a l r e la tio n s and the h a rsh
dem an d s of the s e c u r ity p ro b lem p o sed by S oviet am b itio n s w ill be e v i
dent in the d e c is io n s of the A m e r ic a n d e le g a tio n stud ied in the fo llo w in g
p a g e s . It is a ls o the p u rp o se of th is study to s e a r c h for the a r e a s in
w h ich the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s and the U nited S tates have b a s ic d iffe r
e n c e s that h ave little to do w ith the S oviet p ro b lem as w e ll a s the a r e a s
in w h ich the U nited S tates and the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s can join f o r c e s
tow ard the m ak in g of a b etter w orld .
Im portance of the Study
E v e r s in c e the end of the s e c o n d W orld W ar, th ere has b een a
grow in g m o v e m e n t in s o m e h ith erto d orm an t p a rts of the w o rld , w h ich
has tr ie d m a n fu lly to sh ou ld er its w a y into the sp otligh t in the in te r n a
tio n a l a r e n a and cla im the au d ien ce h y p n o tica lly a ttra cted to the G reat
iv
P o w er r iv a lr y b etw een the U nited S tates and the S oviet Union. N ew ly
independent A rab , A sia n and A frica n n a tio n s, w ho had for y e a r s b een
eith e r app en d ages to E u rop ean p o litic s or the p r iz e fo r the v ic tim s in
th o se q u a r r e ls, h ave b een c la m o r in g fo r m u ted debate b etw een the
G reat P o w e r s in o rd er that th e ir v o ic e s m ig h t be h ea rd m o r e c le a r ly .
Yet the G reat P o w e r r iv a lr y is so in ten se and o v erw h elm in g that the
p reo cc u p a tio n s of the e x -c o lo n ia l and u n d erd ev elo p ed co u n tries have
b een so m ew h a t n e g le c te d in both the w r itin g s of sc h o la r ly a u th o ritie s
as w e ll as oth er c o m m e n ta to r s. So o v erp o w erin g h as b een the p r e o c c u
pation w ith the USSR in the W estern w o rld that w e have taken to ca llin g
the n o n -c o m m u n ist c o u n tr ie s "the fr e e w orld ," as if fr e e d o m had so m e
in co n testa b le co n n ectio n w ith being ou tsid e the S oviet orbit. It is a
co m m o n a ssu m p tio n that o u rs is a b ip olar w orld , and this a ssu m p tio n
in v a ria b ly has r e fe r e n c e to the d iv is io n b etw een the U nited S tates and
its fr ie n d s and th o se who have c o lle c te d around the USSR. T h ere has
e x is te d a n eed fo r a c lo s e ex a m in a tio n of y et another b ip o la rity in our
w orld, one w h ich c o n c e d e s nothing to any other in te r m s of the ten a city
w ith w h ich the n ation s in v o lv ed clin g to th eir c h o se n p o le s. It is the
te n sio n g en era te d by the d iv isio n of the w o r ld into have and h a v e-n o t,
M etrop olitan v e r s u s a n ti-c o lo n ia l and W e ste r n v e r s u s the n ew ly in d e
pendent A r a b -A s ia n -A fr ic a n n ation s that is the fr a m e for this study,
and the A m e r ic a n p o s itio n in th is b ip o la r ity is g iv en a m u ch n eed ed d i s
p lay and a n a ly s is .
Scope of the Study
This study w ill e n c o m p a s s the m a n y d iv e r s e r a m ific a tio n s of
the a n ti-c o lo n ia l a s sa u lt on the sta tu s quo and the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n se
vi
to the v a r ie ty of a n ti-c o lo n ia l in itia tiv e s w ill be h ighlighted. The p erio d
c o v e r e d in th is study w ill in clud e the e a r ly d eb a te s on the C h arter of
the U nited N ation s and the su b seq u en t th ir te e n s e s s i o n s of the G en eral
A s s e m b ly until the y e a r 1959. R ecen t d e v e lo p m e n ts in I960, such as
the Congo c r i s i s and the v io le n c e in South A fr ic a , sh a ll a ls o be studied
in the co n tex t of the e a r lie r d eb a tes r e la te d to th e se d e v e lo p m e n ts.
D efin itio n s of T e r m s
The " m a n ifesta tio n s of a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m " as studied in this
w ork in clude the four m a jo r fr a m e s under w h ich the a n ti-c o lo n ia l a t
ta ck has b een lau n ch ed in the U nited N a tio n s. A n ti-c o lo n ia lis m is a
co n c e r te d e ffo r t by its p a r tis a n s to fr e e t h e m s e lv e s from e v ils that
th ey attrib u te to M etr o p o lita n p o w er p o litic s , and the f ir s t fr a m e is
th e r e fo r e the d r iv e for the d is p la c e m e n t of W e ste r n p ow er fro m a ll d e
pendent t e r r it o r ie s . The a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s s e e k eq u ality of statu s,
and they a re th e r e fo r e d ed ica ted in th eir a ttem p ts to gain co n tro l of the
U nited N a tio n s in m a tte r s c o v e r e d by C h ap ters XI and XII of the U nited
N ation s C h a rter. T h ird, the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s a re p oor, and k een ly
aw are of th eir p o v erty , th ey dem an d a m o r e eq u itab le d istrib u tio n of the
w o r ld 's w e a lth through an ex p a n sio n of the te c h n ic a l and in v e stm e n t
cap ital f a c ilit ie s of the U nited N a tio n s. L a st, the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e rs
a re d om in ated by d is c r im in a tio n s su ffe r e d in the p a s t and s o m e p e r
c e iv e d in the p r e s e n t, and th ey a r e th e r e fo r e stron g a d v o ca tes of the
u n iv e r s a l a p p lica tio n of hum an rig h ts and the adoption of C ovenants to
gain c o n tra ctu a l o b lig a tio n s fo r the p r o te c tio n and a d v a n cem en t of th o se
rig h ts. T h e s e fou r d r iv e s a re the m a in th e m e s c o v e r e d by the te r m
" m a n ifesta tio n s of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m ."
vii
The te r m U nited N ation s, a s u se d in the title of th is study, w ill
be tak en to include the o rg a n iz a tio n c r e a te d by the San F r a n c is c o C har
te r , and p a r tic u la r ly the U nited N ation s G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly and its C om
m it t e e s . A lthough the w ork of su ch su b sid ia r y b od ies as the T r u s te e
ship C oun cil and the E co n o m ic and S o cia l C ouncil h as b een included
w h e r e v e r n e c e s s a r y , the m a in r e lia n c e h as b een on the r e c o r d s of the
deb ates in the A s s e m b ly and its C o m m itte e s . The ch o ice is not c a p r i
c io u s, for it is in the nature of the O rganization that m o s t is s u e s at one
sta g e or another a re brought b efo re the A ss e m b ly , and it is th ere that
th ey a re a llo w ed to m a tu re into fin a l r e so lu tio n s .
L im ita tio n s of the Study
Som e exp lan ation is p erh a p s n e c e s s a r y for the lim ita tio n of
th is w ork to the U nited N ation s. One m ig h t p erh ap s b egin w ith the p lea
that s in c e the U nited N ation s is the p r im e in tern a tio n a l in stru m en t
a v a ila b le to a ll c o u n tr ie s fo r the fu rth era n ce of th eir in te r e s ts , U nited
S tates p o lic y on the u se or abuse of that in str u m e n t is a su b ject w orth
so m e study. It is of so m e c o n seq u en ce, for in sta n ce, to d isp la y the
A m e r ic a n v ie w of w hat c o n stitu te s a p ro p er r o le fo r the U nited N ation s
in su ch m a tte r s a s hum an rig h ts, dependent te r r it o r ie s and e co n o m ic
aid, for ev en tb» G reat P o w e r r iv a lr y m a y soon be in volved in th ese
a r e a s m o r e th.*n it has b een b e fo r e . Second, the a n ti-c o lo n ia l n ation s
m a y have g r e a t a m b itio n s and la r g e f e a r s , but th ey have little pow er in
the con ven tion al s e n s e to advance th eir in te r e s ts or to p r o te c t th eir
v u ln e r a b ilitie s . It is a happy fa c t fo r th em that the W estern w o rld is
s e n sitiv e to public c h a s tis e m e n t on id e o lo g ic a l or m o r a l grounds.
A r m e d w ith th is kn ow led ge, they have c h o se n the U nited N ations as the
V l l l
grea t forum for the a irin g of th e ir g r ie v a n c e s . The U nited N ation s is
th eir m a jo r le v e r for p ryin g the dependent t e r r it o r ie s out of the g ra sp
of the M etro p o lita n p o w ers; the U nited N ation s is the a m p lifie r through
w hich th eir g riev in g , cajolin g and s o m e tim e s b ullying v o ic e s m a y be
h eard m o r e c le a r ly than through m o r e con ven tion al ch an n els of d ip lo
m a c y . T h ey have c h o se n the sta g e and it is th e r e that the en cou n ter
betw een the U nited S tates and the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls is of the g r e a te s t s ig
n ifican ce.
S o u r c e s and M ethod
The p r im a r y so u r c e of in fo rm a tio n fo r a study of U nited N a
tion s a ffa ir s is , p red ic ta b ly enough, the d o cu m en ts and p u b lica tio n s of
the U nited N ation s. The d ocu m en ts m o s t c o m m o n ly u se d a re the O ffi
c ia l R eco rd s of the G e n e ra l A ss e m b ly and its C o m m itte e s, the O fficial
R eco rd s of the S ecu rity C o u n cil, the O fficial R e c o r d s of the T r u s t e e
ship C ouncil and the O fficia l R e c o r d s of the E c o n o m ic and S o cia l C oun
c i l . V erb atim r e c o r d s have b een co n su lted in o rd er to le t the d e le g a
tion s sp ea k for th e m s e lv e s as far as p o s s ib le in the f ir s t s e c tio n of
th is w ork. The " ’e c r e ta r ia t p u b lica tio n s, w h ich g iv e depth and p e r s p e c
tive to a w ork su ch as th is, have in clu d ed the annual is s u e s of the Y e a r
book of the U nited N a tio n s, as w e ll a s su ch s p e c ia l a r e a p u b lica tio n s as
the Y earb ook on H um an R ig h ts.
A m ong the se c o n d a r y s o u r c e s that h ave p ro v ed m o s t v a lu a b le
are the C arn egie E ndow m ent s e r ie s of In tern ation al C o n c ilia tio n for
both the exten d ed stu d ies of im p ortan t su b je c ts as w e ll a s the s u m
m a r ie s of the I s s u e s b efo r e the G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly . The p u b lica tio n s or
jo u rn a ls of su ch le a r n e d s o c ie t ie s a s the A m e r ic a n A ca d em y of P o litic a l
ix
and S o cia l S c ie n c e and the C ouncil on F o r e ig n R ela tio n s have b een m o s t
u sefu l in studying the A m e r ic a n p o stu r e in the debate on a n ti-c o lo n ia l
ism .
A lthough th ere have not b een too m a n y b ooks s p e c if ic a lly ad
d r e s s e d to the p ro b lem studied on the fo llo w in g p a g e s, su ch B rook in gs
Institution books as The U nited N ation s and D ependent T e r r ito r ie s and
M ajor P r o b le m s of A m e r ic a n F o r e ig n P o lic y , 1 9 5 2 -1 9 5 3 h ave p roved
e x tr e m e ly va lu a b le. Other books on the g e n e r a l p r o b le m s fa c e d by the
U nited S tates in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l debate w h ich have b een help fu l include
su ch w o rk s as B o w les' A fr ic a 's C hallenge to A m e r ic a and R e is c h a u e r 's
Wanted: An A sia n P o lic y .
F req u en t r e fe r e n c e has b een m ad e in th is study to o ffic ia l
U nited S tates g o v ern m en t p u b lica tio n s. P a r tic u la r r e lia n c e h a s b een
p la ce d on the U nited S tates State D ep a rtm en t B u lle tin , and U. S. P a r
ticip a tio n in the U nited N a tio n s.
O rgan ization
This study is d ivided into tw o m a jo r s e c tio n s . The f ir s t is a
stra ig h t d isp la y of the r e c o r d of th o se is s u e s w h ich a r e at the h e a r t of
the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a s e and the U nited S ta tes b eh a v io r in the debate and
votin g on th o se is s u e s . In th is se c tio n , c o m m e n t is h eld to a m in im u m
and it is the v ie w s of the a n ti-c o lo n ia l and A m e r ic a n d e le g a te s w hich
are high ligh ted. The four ch a p ters in th is s e c tio n a re d ivid ed into the
four fr a m e s of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m : p o litic a l m a tte r s , or the in d ep en d en ce
of co lo n ia l t e r r ito r ie s ; r a c ia l and e c o n o m ic equality; hum an rig h ts a s a
co n tra ctu a l arran gem en t; and fin a lly the r o le and co n tro l of the U nited
N ation s.
X
The seco n d se c tio n of th is study is an a ttem p t to draw to g eth er
the r e c o r d d isp la y ed in the p r e c e d in g p a g e s under the one fo c u s of the
A m e r ic a n r e s p o n se . The e m p h a sis in the se co n d se c tio n is on o r g a n iz
ing and exp lain in g the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n se by ex tr ic a tin g its sta te m e n ts
and voting as p r e s e n te d in the r e c o r d and adding the c o m m e n ts and c o n
c lu sio n s draw n fro m a u th o ritie s to fill in the p ic tu r e . T his a n a ly s is is
divided into two m a jo r ch a p ters, the f ir s t of w hich d e v e lo p s the fr a m e s
of the A m e r ic a n p o stu re and the seco n d a ttem p ts to show the s tr a te g y
invoked to support that p o stu r e . To put it another w ay, the f ir s t ch ap
te r attem p ts to show w hat the A m e r ic a n d e le g a tio n s have tr ie d to do in
the co lo n ia l debate and w hy they have w anted to do it. The se co n d ch ap
ter d isp la y s how the A m e r ic a n d e le g a tio n s have gone about th eir cho&en
ta sk s. F o r the p u r p o se s of c o m p a r iso n and c o n tra st, a p a r a lle l w ith
Indian b eh avior on is s u e s lo d g ed in the G reat P o w er r iv a lr y has been
included in th is ch ap ter. The la s t chap ter in the seco n d s e c tio n d raw s
to g eth er the c o m m en ts of a u th o ritie s on both the nature of a n ti-c o lo n i
a lism and the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n se to it. Som e c o n c lu sio n s on both th e se
m a tte r s are o ffered as w e ll as so m e co m m e n t on the p o s s ib ilit ie s of
change in the A m e r ic a n v iew of so m e a n ti-c o lo n ia l p r o b le m s .
THE RECO RD
CHAPTER I
IN D E P E N D E N C E FO R COLONIAL P E O P L E S
One m a n ife sta tio n of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m that h as s e e m e d to c a p
tu re the A r a b -A s ia n n ation s fro m the v e r y in cep tion of the U nited N a
tio n s is the p ro b lem of fr e e d o m fo r the dependent p e o p le s h ith erto un
d er the co n tro l of E u rop ean M etro p o lita n P o w e r s . The F a r E a ste r n
p eo p le of Indonesia, the N orth A fr ic a n sta te s of T u n isia and M o ro c co ,
and the A lg e r ia n r e b e ls have a ll found th eir ch am p ion s am ong the A rab-
A sia n b lo c. M e m b e r s of that c o n s te lla tio n have con tin u ally p r e s s e d the
M etr o p o lita n P o w e r d ir e c tly in v o lv ed to grant " se lf-d e te r m in a tio n " or
in d ep en d en ce, and the W e ste r n P o w e r s g e n e r a lly to sp eak up for, w hat
is to th em , a fun dam en tal and u ndeniable right of the dependent p e o p le s .
The is s u e s to be stu d ied in th is chap ter have m o s tly b een r e
so lv e d , w ith the e x c e p tio n of the q u estio n of A lg e r ia , w hich is s till a
m a tte r of con ten tiou s debate in the U nited N ation s. A ll the is s u e s , r e
so lv e d or not, have one e s s e n t ia l fea tu re in com m on . The p a r tie s d i
r e c tly in v o lv e d in them have b een a M etro p o lita n E urop ean pow er on the
one hand, and an a n ta g o n istic p eop le in a dependent te r r ito r y , in siste n t
upon a fu ll c o n tr o l of th eir d e stin y on the other. T his s e e m in g ly o b v i
ous sta te m e n t is o ffe r e d as an ex p lan ation fo r the fa ct that two is s u e s
a r e e x c e p te d from th is ch a p ter w h ich m ig h t o th e r w ise have fitted the
title of " independence fo r c o lo n ia l p e o p le s." The is s u e s a re th o se of
C yprus and W est Irian. I h ave c h o se n to o m it both of th e s e p r o b le m s
fo r tw o reasons:'' (1) U nlike th o se that I have included, the q u a r r e l ov er
th e se is s u e s in v o lv e s co n flictin g c la im s b etw een tw o s o v e r e ig n and in
dependent s ta te s o v er the t e r r it o r ie s in q u e s tio n --T u r k e y and G r e e c e
in the fo r m e r in sta n c e , and N eth erla n d s and In d on esia in the la tter; and
(2) the U nited States has fo llo w e d a p o lic y of the s t r ic t e s t n e u tr a lity --a
fa ct w hich w ould be sig n ifica n t, if a g r e a t num ber of o th e r w ise a n ti
co lo n ia l n ations had not a ls o b een able to d ecid e the m e r it s of the c o n
flic tin g c la im s , amd su b sid ed into abstentions.'*' The d eb a tes on Indo
n e s ia in the S e c u r ity C ouncil and the N orth A fr ic a n t e r r it o r ie s in the
G en eral A s s e m b ly h ave b een en cu m b ered by no su ch co n fu sio n s, h o w
ev e r , and c o llis io n b etw een d ed ica ted a p o s tle s of s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n
and eq u a lly d ed ica ted d efen d ers of " d o m e stic ju r isd ic tio n " and " s o v e r
eign ty," has a lm o s t fo r c e d a ll m e m b e r s of the A s s e m b ly to take a p o s i
tion on so m e sid e of the argu m en t. It is in th is con text that the r e c o r d
of the U nited S tates g o v ern m en t is stud ied ifi the fo llo w in g p a g e s .
In don esia
The f ir s t " colonial" p ro b lem in v o lv in g the in d ep en d en ce of a
h ith erto M etro p o lita n p o s s e s s io n to en gage the atten tion of the U nited
N ations w as the q u estio n of Indonesia. A few days a fter J a p a n ese c a
p itu lation in 1945, the n a tio n a lists in In d on esia d e c la r e d th eir in d e
p en d en ce fro m Dutch ru le, and the s ix w e e k s that e la p s e d b efo r e B r it
ish and Indian tr o o p s, r e p r e se n tin g the a llie s , a r r iv e d in Indonesia, the
R epub lican g o v ern m en t had b een fo r m e d and e x e r c is e d in flu en ce in
*See below , pp. 1 7 7 -1 8 2 .
m o s t of Ja v a and S u m a tr a . The R e p u b lic a n s f e a r e d that B r it is h f o r c e s
w e r e the a d v a n ce g u a rd fo r the r e tu r n of the D utch p o w e r and t h e s e
f e a r s le d to fr e q u e n t c l a s h e s b e tw e e n B r i t is h and R e p u b lic a n tr o o p s .
The U k ran ian d e le g a te to th e U n ited N a tio n s b ro u g h t th is m a t t e r to the
a tten tio n of the S e c u r ity C o u n c il in e a r l y 1946, c itin g the " q u e stio n of
In d on esia" a s a th r e a t to th e p e a c e u n d e r A r t ic le 34 of the U n ited N a -
2
tio n s C h a r te r .
D eb a te on In d o n e sia c o m m e n c e d on F e b r u a r y 8, 1946, the S o
v ie t b lo c c h a r g in g th at B r it is h tr o o p s w e r e e n g a g e d in " su p p r e s s in g "
the n a tio n a list m o v e m e n t, and a s k in g fo r th e e s t a b lis h m e n t of a C o m
m i s s i o n of In quiry. The s u g g e s t io n did not a p p e a l to the o th e r p o w e r s
on the C ou n cil, w h ic h d e n ie d the U k r a n ia n p r o p o s a l th e n e c e s s a r y s e v e n
v o te s fo r a p p r o v a l. A n E g y p tia n p r o p o s a l r e c o m m e n d in g that B r it is h
tr o o p s sh o u ld in no e v e n t be u s e d a g a in s t the In d o n e sia n n a tio n a lis t
3
m o v e m e n t w a s a ls o r e j e c t e d b y th e C o u n c il.
N e th e r la n d s f o r c e s a r r iv e d in In d o n e sia in due c o u r s e , and a
jo in t A n g lo -D u tc h -I n d o n e s ia n T r u c e C o m m is s io n w a s o r g a n iz e d fo r the
p r e s e r v a t io n of p e a c e . T he L lin g a d ja ti A g r e e m e n t w a s s ig n e d b y the
R ep u b lic and the N e th e r la n d s , but m u tu a l d is t r u s t b e tw e e n th em le d to
in c r e a s in g f r ic tio n and in July, 1947, the N e th e r la n d s la u n c h e d a m i l i
ta r y o ffe n s iv e a g a in s t R e p u b lic a n t r o o p s . J o in t e f f o r t s by A u s tr a lia ,
India and the U n ited S ta te s f a ile d to r e s t o r e p e a c e , and o n J u ly 30, 1947,
^O R 's, S e c u r ity C o u n c il, 1 s t y e a r , 1 st s e r i e s . S u p p lem en t N o.
1, p. 76. OR r e f e r s to O ffic ia l R e c o r d s of the U n ited N a tio n s. T h is and
oth er s im il a r a b b r e v ia tio n s w ill be u s e d th ro u g h o u t th is stud y.
F o r a m o r e d e ta ile d d e s c r ip t io n of the E g y p tia n p r o p o s a l, s e e
ib id ., p. 251.
A u s tr a lia and India r e q u e s te d that the m a t t e r be p la c e d on the a g en d a of
the S e c u r ity C o u n cil. The N e th e r la n d s d e le g a te c la im e d s o v e r e ig n t y
o v e r In d o n esia and a r g u e d that A r t ic le 2, p a r a g r a p h 7 of the C h a r ter
b a r r e d the C o u n cil fr o m d eb ate and a c tio n in the m a tte r , fo r In d o n esia
w a s w ith in the " d o m e stic ju r is d ic tio n " of the N e th e r la n d s. T h is a r g u
m e n t a p p e a le d to F r a n c e , the U n ited K ingdom and B e lg iu m , but U n ited
S ta tes d e le g a te J o h n so n w a s n o n c o m m itta l on the q u e s tio n of the C oun
c i l ' s c o m p e te n c e . M r. J o h n so n f e lt that in s te a d of c o m m ittin g the
4
C o u n cil to any fir m p o s itio n on the p r o b le m of c o m p e te n c e , the A u s
tr a lia n d ra ft b e fo r e the C o u n cil sh o u ld be a m e n d e d to d e le te a ll r e f e r
e n c e s to the C h a r ter, and h e p r o p o s e d the fo llo w in g text: th e S e c u r ity
C oun cil
N otin g w ith c o n c e r n the h o s t i lit i e s in p r o g r e s s b e tw e e n the a r m e d
f o r c e s of the N e th e r la n d s and the R ep u b lic of
In d o n esia ,
C a lls upon the p a r tie s :
a. to c e a s e h o s t i lit i e s fo r th w ith
b. to s e ttle th e ir d isp u te by a r b itr a tio n or o th er p e a c e fu l
m e a n s and k e e p the S e c u r ity C o u n cil in fo r m e d about the
p r o g r e s s of the s e t t le m e n t .- ’
T h is c e a s e - f i r e p r o p o s a l w a s a d o p ted b y the C o u n cil, but a p
p a r e n tly it did not p r o v e to o w o r k a b le , fo r the R e p u b lic a n G o v e r n m e n t
tw ic e c h a r g e d v io la tio n s of its p r o v is io n s by the N e th e r la n d s and a p
p e a le d to the C o u n cil to appoint a c o m m it t e e to s u p e r v is e the c e a s e -
^T he A m e r ic a n v ie w th at the q u e s tio n of j u r is d ic t io n be le ft
op en m a y be found in M r. J o h n so n 's r e m a r k s in P R 's , S e c u r ity C o u n c il,
2nd y e a r , S u p p lem en t N o. 68, pp. 1 6 5 7 -5 8 , 1688.
^U nited N a tio n s D o cu m en t, S /4 5 9 , A u g u st 1, 1947.
6
f i r e . 8 The is s u e of c o m p e te n c e w a s in e x tr ic a b ly tied to the p ro b lem of
a s u p e r v is o r y c o m m itte e . F o r th o se c o m m itte d to the ap p lica tio n of
the " d o m e stic ju r isd ic tio n " c la u s e , the c r e a tio n of a c o m m itte e by the
S e c u r ity C ouncil w ould c le a r ly v io la te that c la u s e . The N eth erlan d s
d e le g a te fa v o r e d the c r e a tio n of a c o m m itte e draw n fro m the c a r e e r
c o n su ls in B atavia. He a ls o p r o p o se d that h is g o v ern m en t should a p
point one sta te, the R ep ub lic could c h o o se the other, and th e se to g eth er
could s e le c t a th ird c o m p le te ly im p a r tia l sta te, w hich "would then send
a n um ber of its n ation als . . . to s u p e r v is e the im p le m en ta tio n of the
c e a s e - f i r e o rd er, and to s e e w hat con d ition s obtained th ere." The
d ele g a te fro m the R epublic in s is te d ihat any c o m m itte e c r e a te d should
be d ir e c tly co n n ected w ith the S e c u r ity C ouncil, for it w ould s im p ly be
a con tin u ation of the o rd er fo r c e a s e - f i r e is s u e d by the C ouncil. In
th is v ie w , he had the support of the A u stra lia n , USSR, and P o lis h d e le
g a tes.
One fea tu re of the debate at th is sta g e p ro v ed both con ten tiou s
and con fu sin g. Dutch tro o p s had s u c c e s s f u lly p en etra ted into R epub lican
te r r ito r y , and the USSR p r o p o se d an am en d m en t to the joint A u str a lia n -
C h in ese d raft b efo r e the C ouncil, w h ich am en d m en t w ould e x p lic itly
o rd er the N eth erla n d s to w ith d raw its tro o p s to the lin e s e sta b lish e d by
Q
the e a r lie r T ru ce C o m m issio n . U nited S tates d e le g a te Joh nson w a s at
th is point s e iz e d w ith doubts r eg a r d in g the c o m p e te n c e of the S e c u rity
^U nited N a tio n s D ocu m en t, S/475, A ugu st 7, 1947. F o r voting
r e fe r r e d to ab ove, s e e P R 's , S e c u r ity C o u n cil, No. 83, p. 2199.
7
P R 's , S e c u r ity C ouncil, 2nd y e a r, No. 77, pp. 2 0 1 2 -2 3 .
8Ibid., No. 68, p. 1665.
7
C oun cil to in te r v e n e so fo r c e fu lly in this m a tte r . He a ls o m a in ta in ed
that he w a s not su r e that ch a o s could be a void ed if N eth erlan d s troop s
Q
w e r e w ithdraw n. Indian d e le g a te Sen argu ed that h is go v ern m en t had
a lw a y s w anted to p r e s s for the w ith d raw al of tro o p s, and if he had not
done so e a r lie r , it w a s b e c a u s e conten tion on the m a tte r m ig h t have d e
la y e d the c e s s a t io n of h o s tilit ie s . But he sta ted that:
If at th is sta g e, w h ile ask in g for a c e s s a tio n of h o s tilit ie s , we
do not a sk th em [N eth erla n d s tr o o p s] to w ithdraw to th eir o rig in a l
p o sitio n , then I'm a fra id w e give th em an undue advantage w hen the
tim e c o m e s fo r n eg o tia tio n s.
The U nited S tates r e p r e s e n ta tiv e sa id that if th is w e r e done it
w ould le a d to ch aos; I w ou ld Bay in rep ly , that if th is w e r e not done,
it w ould le a v e a s o r e w h ich w ould f e s t e r .
The Indian ap p eal did not find fa v o r w ith the U nited S tates d ele g a te , who
along w ith eigh t other m e m b e r s , a b sta in ed on the Soviet am en d m en t and
it w a s th e r e fo r e r e je c te d . The C ouncil p r o c e e d e d w ith d is c u s s io n of
the A u s tr a lia n -C h in e s e d raft d ea lin g w ith the appointm ent of a s u p e r
v is o r y c o m m is s io n to im p le m e n t the c e a s e - f i r e , a c o m m is s io n to be
co m p o s e d of the " c a r e e r c o n su la r r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s" in B atavia, w hich
w ould p r e p a r e "joint r e p o r ts" for the S e c u r ity C ouncil. Indian d ele g a te
P illa i d e liv e r e d a stro n g co n d em n a to ry sp e e c h charging the N e th e r
lan d s w ith a ll the e v ils a s s o c ia t e d w ith c o lo n ia lis m , and dem anded su p
p ort fo r the c r e a tio n of a S e c u r ity C oun cil c o m m itte e w hich w ould in
v e s tig a te the v io la tio n of the c e a s e - f i r e and e x p o s e the gu ilty p a r ty .^
The U nited S ta tes d e le g a te w a s fu rth er s e iz e d by doubts reg a rd in g the
C o u n cil's ju r is d ic tio n in the d isp u te, and d e le g a te Joh n son s u g g e ste d
9Ibid., p. 1704. 10Ib id ., p. 1210.
11 Ib id ., N o. 82, pp. 2 1 5 3 -5 7 .
that the International C ourt of J u stic e be co n su lted for an opinion on
the m a tte r . Since d e le g a te Joh n son w a s u n su re of the C o u n cil's j u r i s
d iction, he fa v o red the c o m p r o m is e draft, w hich w ould avoid co m m ittin g
1 * 2
the C ouncil d ir e c tly in the Indonesian q u estion . In donesian d e le g a te
S jahrir a p p ealed to the C ouncil fo r a fir m sta tem en t condem ning the
a g g r e s s io n by the N eth erla n d s, and once again a sk ed fo r an o rd er to the
N eth erla n d s to w ithdraw its tro o p s, for "to c a ll on the R epublic of In
d o n e sia to n eg o tia te w ith the N eth erla n d s, and at the sa m e tim e to ig
n ore th is fun dam en tal p r e r e q u is ite is not con son an t w ith the b a sic d ic
ta te s of ju stic e ." M r. S jah rir w as su sp ic io u s of the p r o p o sa l fo r the
e sta b lish m e n t of a C onsu lar C o m m issio n , and he again in s is te d that the
14
S ec u r ity C ouncil should be the in v e stig a tin g and s u p e r v is o r y body.
The U SSR 's M r. M alik sh a red th is view , and he p oin ted out that the
C on su lar C o m m is s io n w ould be c o m p o se d of " c a r e e r c o n su ls in B a
tav ia ," a c a te g o r y w hich in clu d ed only fiv e s ta te s . He in tro d u ced an
am en d m en t p rovid in g fo r the e sta b lis h m e n t of a S ecu rity C ouncil C o m
m is s io n . T h is am en d m en t w on the a ffir m a tiv e v o te s of s e v e n m e m b e r s ,
including the U nited S ta tes, but s in c e one of the n eg a tiv e v o te s w as
15
c a s t by F r a n c e , the am en d m en t w a s veto ed . The un am ended c o m
p r o m is e draft w a s then adopted by a vote of 7 -0 w ith 4 a b sten tio n s.
1 2
H e r e in a fte r r e fe r r e d to as ICJ.
^ O R 's, S e c u r ity C ouncil, 2nd y e a r , No. 82, p. 2178. The
U nited S tates d e le g a te freq u en tly a sk ed fo r r e fe r r a l of the " ju r is d ic
tion" q u estio n to the ICJ. F o r s im ila r c o m m e n ts, s e e ib id ., No. 83, p.
2178 and p. 2203. A draft r e so lu tio n su b m itted by B elgiu m to r e fe r the
m a tte r to the ICJ w on U nited S ta tes support but w a s r e je c te d by a vote
of 4 in fa v o r and 6 ab sten tion s; ibid., p. 2224.
One o th e r a s p e c t o f th e d e b a t e s h o u ld b e m e n t io n e d . A P o l i s h
p r o p o s a l r e i t e r a t i n g th e c a l l f o r c e a s e - f i r e fo u n d m o s t m e m b e r s in th e
C o u n c il r a t h e r e x p l i c i t in c h a r g i n g th e N e t h e r l a n d s w it h v i o l a t i o n o f th e
p r e v i o u s o r d e r . T h e U n ite d S t a t e s d e l e g a t e , J o h n s o n , w a s d i s t u r b e d a t
t h is t u r n in th e d e b a t e a n d w a s m o v e d t o th e c o m m e n t th a t h e f a v o r e d
th e c e a s e - f i r e r e s o l u t i o n , but,
I d o n o t th in k , h o w e v e r , it i s f a i r to a s s u m e th a t e v e r y t h i n g th e
N e t h e r la n d s d o e s h a s e v i l m o t i v e s , a n d th a t p e o p l e w h o s u f f e r b e
c a u s e of th e i n c o m p e t e n c e o f th e I n d o n e s ia n g o v e r n m e n t d o n o t
m a t t e r . . . . It i s n o t f a i r , a n d I a m m a k in g t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s m e r e
l y a s a p r o t e s t a g a in s t th e u n f a i r n e s s o f th e d e b a t e .
It i s n o t r e c o r d e d w h a t th e I n d o n e s ia n d e l e g a t e , w h o h a d b e e n d e n ie d
b o th a C o u n c il c e n s u r e of o p e n v i o l a t i o n o f th e c e a s e - f i r e b y N e t h e r
la n d s t r o o p s a n d a n e x p l i c i t r e c o g n i t i o n of it b y th e U n ite d S t a t e s d e l e
g a t e , f e l t r e g a r d i n g M r . J o h n s o n ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n o n th e s i d e o f f a i r n e s s .
Y et a n o t h e r P o l i s h s u g g e s t i o n w a s th a t th e C o u n c il s h o u ld a c t
a s a " m e d ia t o r a n d a r b i t r a t o r b e t w e e n th e N e t h e r l a n d s a n d th e G o v e r n
m e n t of th e R e p u b lic ." A lth o u g h th e A u s t r a l i a n d e l e g a t e f a v o r e d t h is
p r o p o s a l , h e s u g g e s t e d th a t e a c h p a r t y to th e d is p u t e s e l e c t o n e a r b i
t r a t o r a n d th e tw o s e l e c t e d c o u ld t h e n a p p o in t th e t h ir d , a p o in t o f v i e w
th a t a t t e m p t e d to m e e t , in a l i m i t e d w a y , th e N e t h e r l a n d s p o s i t i o n in th e
e a r l i e r p a r t o f th e d e b a te . T h e U S S R s u p p o r t e d th e o r i g i n a l P o l i s h p r o
p o s a l g r a n t in g th e S e c u r i t y C o u n c il th e r ig h t to a p p o in t th e a r b i t r a t o r s ,
f o r it w a s th e C o u n c i l's d u ty to e n f o r c e th e p e a c e . M r . J o h n s o n s t a t e d
th a t, in th e A m e r i c a n v i e w , th e C o u n c il s h o u ld n o t " i m p o s e a n y p a r
t i c u l a r m e t h o d o f P a c i f i c S e t t l e m e n t ," a n d h e p r e s e n t e d a n A m e r i c a n
p r o p o s a l f o r a C o m m it t e e o f G o o d O f f i c e s , to b e c h o s e n in th e m a n n e r
16Ibid., p. 2232.
10
su g g este d by the A u stra lia n d ele g a te . The A m e r ic a n su g g e stio n w as
s u c c e s s fu l and the P o lis h p r o p o sa l and A u stra lia n m o d ific a tio n s to it
fa iled to r e c e iv e the support of eith e r the U nited S tates o r the r eq u isite
17
m a jo r ity of the C ouncil.
The C onsular C o m m issio n and Good O ffices C om m ittee au
th o rized by the C ouncil w e r e able to help the disputants to a ccep t the
R en ville A g reem en t, w hich included p r o v is io n s for a c e a s e - f i r e and a c
cep tan ce of d e m ilita r iz e d z o n e s. In the m on ths follow ing the R en v ille
A g reem en t, h ow ever, the continuing fr ic tio n b etw een the R epublic and
the N eth erlan d s c re a ted s e r io u s p r o b le m s fo r the C om m ittee. Indeed,
the C om m ittee its e lf w as h o p e le s s ly divided, for B elgium and A u str a lia
w ere unable to a g ree in th eir a s s e s s m e n t of conditions and each a c
cu sed the other of p a rtia lity . T hey both turned to the A m e r ic a n m e m
ber, M r. C ochran, to take the in itia tiv e in bringing the disputants
18
c lo s e r to the co n fere n c e tab le. M r. C och ran 's effo rts m e t w ith only
p a rtia l s u c c e s s , and the C om m ittee rep o rte d to the S ecu rity C ouncil
that the m ain ten an ce of the c e a s e - f i r e s e e m e d in g rea t jeop ard y. On
D e cem b er 19, 1948, the C o m m itte e 's f e a r s w e r e re a liz e d , and it r e
p orted that N eth erlan d s troop s had b een o rd ere d into m ilita r y o p era -
19
tion s in a u n ila tera l ab rogation of the R en v ille A g reem en t. The
^ M r . Joh n son 's r e m a r k s m a y be found in ib id ., No. 82, p.
2177. The Good O ffices p ro p o sa l is con tain ed in U nited N ations D ocu
m en t S/525, A ugust 26, 1947.
1 8
F or a d eta iled p r e se n ta tio n of the ev en ts r e fe r r e d to above,
s e e G eorge M. Kahin, N a tio n a lism and R evolution in Indonesia (New
York: C orn ell U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1952), pp. 332-3 5 0 .
^ T h e C o m m itte e 's rep o rt on the sudden attack is found in
U nited N ations D ocum ent S/1144, D e c e m b e r 23, 1948.
11
P r e s id e n t of the R ep u b lic and o th er m a jo r p o litic a l fig u r e s , as w e ll as
the N eg o tia tin g te a m fr o m the R ep u b lic w e r e ca p tu red and im p r is o n e d
by the N e th e r la n d s, and d eep p e n e tr a tio n s a c r o s s the d e m ilita r iz e d
z o n e s w e r e m a d e by N e th e r la n d s tr o o p s.
The e m e r g e n c y m e e tin g of the S e c u r ity C ou n cil to c o n s id e r
the n e w e r d e v e lo p m e n ts in In d o n esia w a s c a lle d b y A m e r ic a n r e p r e
se n ta tiv e P h illip C. J e s s u p . On D e c e m b e r 22, 1948, M r. Van R o ijem
opened the deb ate fo r the N e th e r la n d s in a le n g th y sta te m e n t, the sum
of w h ich w a s that the N e th e r la n d s had b e e n c o m p e lle d to r e s o r t to "po
lic e a ctio n . . . to p u rg e J a v a and S u m a tra of ir r e s p o n s ib le and e x
t r e m i s t e l e m e n t s . M r . J e s s u p sp oke fo r the U nited S ta tes, and the
C oun cil w a s tr e a te d to a c o m p r e h e n s iv e h is t o r y of the In d on esian q u e s
tion, a d e ta ile d and s o p h is tic a te d stud y of the le g a l a s p e c ts of the q u e s
tion and a m ild d isa p p o in tm e n t in the fa c t that the Good O ffices C om -
21
m itte e had not r e c e iv e d fu ll c o -o p e r a tio n in In d on esia. A u str a lia n
d e le g a te H od gson w a s l e s s c o n c e r n e d w ith a total h is to r y of the Indo
n e s ia n q u e stio n and m o r e o u tra g ed by the h is to r y of S e c u r ity C oun cil
r e s o lu tio n s v io la te d by the N e th e r la n d s g o v e r n m e n t. Quoting A r tic le 25
of the U nited N a tio n s C h a r ter, w h ich s ta te s that " m e m b e r s of the
U nited N a tio n s a g r e e to a c c e p t and c a r r y out d e c is io n s of the S e c u r ity
C oun cil in accord an ce; w ith the p r e s e n t C h a r ter," M r. H o d g so n b lu ntly
co n clu d ed that "We h a v e thus the f i r s t c l e a r - c u t and d e lib e r a te v io la tio n
of the C h a r ter by a m e m b e r . . . and the c o n s e q u e n c e s m u s t b e - - i f the
C oun cil f a c e s up to it - - e x p u ls io n fr o m the U nited N a tio n s." If M r.
^Oq R 's , S e c u r ity C ou n cil, 3rd y e a r , No. 132, p. 3.
21 Ib id ., pp. 4 3 -4 9 .
12
H o d g s o n w a s a n g e r e d b y N e th e r la n d s b e h a v io r , he w a s f a ir l y b e w il
d e r e d b y d e le g a t e J e s s u p ' s s p e e c h an d th e U n ite d S ta te s jo in t d ra ft
r e s o lu t i o n b e f o r e th e C o u n c il. H e r e c a l l e d th at b o th th e U n ited S ta te s
an d A u s t r a l ia h ad b e e n m e m b e r s of th e G ood O ffic e s C o m m itte e , agd
t h e r e f o r e c l o s e l y in fo r m e d a s to the s itu a tio n in In d o n e sia . H e sta te d :
I n o t ic e d y e s t e r d a y th a t th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of th e U n ited S ta te s
of A m e r i c a r e f e r r e d to . . . la c k o f c o o p e r a tio n , but h e d id n ot a t
t e m p t to a p p o r tio n b la m e . B ut h is g o v e r n m e n t k n o w s th e r e a s o n
and th e f u ll f a c t s , j u s t a s m y g o v e r n m e n t d o e s . . .22
A s to th e r e s o l u t i o n c o - a u t h o r e d b y the U n ited S ta te s , w h ic h c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c a l l y u r g e d "both p a r t ie s " to w ith d r a w t h e ir t r o o p s , M r. H o d g so n
r e m a r k e d th a t "It w o u ld s e e m s tr a n g e th at a s th e N e th e r la n d s r e s u m e d
h o s t i l i t i e s . . . b o th p a r t ie s sh o u ld be c a l le d upon to c e a s e h o s t i l i t i e s
and to w ith d r a w . W hy is not th e N e th e r la n d s a lo n e c a lle d up on to do
s o ? " 23
A fte r s tr o n g s p e e c h e s of c o n d e m n a tio n b y In d ia 's M r. D e s a i
and E g y p t 's M r . E l K h o u ri and t h e ir d e m a n d s fo r the r e l e a s e of R e
p u b lic a n o f f i c i a l s im p r is o n e d b y th e N e th e r la n d s , the U S S R 's M r.
M a lik in tr o d u c e d a d r a ft r e s o lu t i o n c o n d e m n in g the N e th e r la n d s fo r th e
a b r o g a tio n of th e R e n v ille A g r e e m e n t , o r d e r in g it to w ith d r a w its
tr o o p s and r e l e a s e a ll p r i s o n e r s . In th e v o tin g on th e jo in t U n ited
S t a t e s - S y r ia n - C o l o m b i a n d r a ft, th e p a r a g r a p h o r d e r in g "both p a r t ie s "
to w ith d r a w t h e ir tr o o p s w a s not a d o p ted , the U SSR e x p la in in g its a b
s te n tio n in th e s a m e v e in a s M r. H o d g s o n 's r e m a r k s on the p a r a g r a p h
e a r l i e r in th e d e b a te . (T h e v o te w a s 5 in f a v o r and 6 a b s te n t io n s .) T h e
p a r a g r a p h o r d e r in g the " r e l e a s e of a ll p r is o n e r s a r r e s t e d s in c e 18
22Ibid., No. 133, p. 7. 23Ibid., p. 13.
D e c em b er" w a s adopted, as w a s the am en d ed draft by a 7 -0 vote w ith 4
a b ste n tio n s. The USSR, U kraine, B elgiu m and F ra n ce ab stain ed . The
USSR draft r e so lu tio n w a s r e je c te d in a s e r ia tim v o te, the U nited
24
S tates ab sta in in g throughout.
F iv e days la te r , on D e cem b er 29th, the C ouncil m e t a g a in and
M r. Van R oijem d efen d ed the N eth erla n d s a ctio n s as n e c e s s a r y , and
sta ted that as soon as fe a s ib le the m ilita r y o p era tio n s w ould be c u r
t a ile d - - h is g o v ern m en t, h o w e v er, r e s e r v e d the right to take action
a g a in st " d iso r d e r ly e le m e n ts." A s to the p o litic a l p r is o n e r s , they
w ould be r e le a s e d "on the un derstan d in g that the p e r s o n s co n c e r n e d
25
w ill r e fr a in fro m a c tiv itie s en d an gerin g p u blic sa fety ." If M r.
H od gson had ven ted A u str a lia n d is illu sio n m e n t w ith the N eth erla n d s
g o v ern m en t in so m e blunt lan gu age at the p r e v io u s m e e tin g of the S e-
\
cu rity C ouncil, the s p e e c h e s fo llo w in g th is e v a s iv e an n ouncem en t by the
N eth erla n d s d e le g a te w e r e e v e n h a r s h e r . M r. P a la r of In don esia, M r.
D e s a i (India), M r. E I-K h o u ri (Egypt) a ll denounced the a r r o g a n c e of the
N eth erla n d s g o v ern m en t in refu sin g to ob ey the C ouncil, and th ey ch a l-
2 6
le n g e d the C ouncil to take d e c is iv e action . M r. J e s su p sta ted that he
w as a little d isap p oin ted in the sta tem en t m a d e by the N eth erla n d s d e le
gate, but it w a s not a ll bad, fo r it did h ave " so m e en cou raging p a r ts."
A s to w hat c o u r se the C ouncil should now fo llo w , M r. J e ssu p w a s a ll
2^Ibid., No. 134, pp. 3 2 -4 2 . The U nited S tates ab sta in ed on the
"troop w ithdraw al" c la u se in the USSR draft, ju st as the USSR had ab
sta in ed on a s im ila r c la u se in the US draft. Ih su bseq u en t d eb a tes both
n ation s w e r e to a c c u s e e a c h oth er of h aving e n g in e e r e d the r e je c tio n of
any p r o v is io n fo r troop w ith d raw al. The guilt, if any, s e e m s fa ir ly
e v e n ly d istrib u ted .
25Ibid., No. 137, p. 26. 26Ibid., pp. 28-33.
14
ca u tio n .
I b e li e v e th at th e g o v e r n m e n t of e v e r y p e r m a n e n t m e m b e r of
the S e c u r ity C o u n c il . . . m u s t h a v e a c o n tin u in g s e n s e of r e s p o n s i
b ilit y in e v e r y c a s e of a r e s o r t to f o r c e , but the ty p e o f a c tio n
w h ic h i s to b e ta k e n w i s e l y in a n y p a r t ic u la r m o m e n t in r e g a r d to
any p a r t ic u la r c a s e is a m a t t e r of ju d g m e n t and a p p r o v a l at th e
t i m e . 2 ?
M r . J e s s u p a n s w e r e d th e c a l l s to a c tio n b y th e m o r e in d ig n a n t m e m
b e r s of th e C o u n c il w ith th e eq u a tio n : "It i s n o t a lw a y s f e a s i b l e to p a s s
a r e s o lu tio n ; it i s n o t a lw a y s a d v a n ta g e o u s to p a e s a n o th e r r e s o lu t i o n
. " 28
It w a s M r . H o d g so n of A u s t r a l ia w h o o n c e a g a in m e t th e
A m e r ic a n a r g u m e n t w ith h is c u s t o m a r y f o r c e . T he A m e r ic a n p o s it io n ,
in M r . H o d g s o n 's v ie w , w a s s im p ly one th at a s k e d th e C o u n c il to do
n oth in g. S e v e n v io la t io n s of S e c u r ity C o u n c il r e s o lu t i o n s had b e e n
c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d , an d th e S e c u r ity C o u n c il w a s u n a b le to do a n y
th in g d e c i s i v e . "T he S e c u r ity C o u n c il h a s f a il e d in th is p a r t ic u la r
c a s e ," h e f e lt , and a lth o u g h h e c o n c e d e d th a t t h e r e w e r e c o m p le x i t ie s
to the In d o n e sia n c a s e , a s th e A m e r ic a n d e le g a t e had d e m o n s t r a t e d ,
M r. H o d g so n in d ic a te d th a t th e in e r t ia of th e C o u n c il w a s due to d i f f e r
en t c a u s e s . H e c o n c lu d e d w ith th e h o p e th at " b e fo r e th e ro t g o e s to o
f a r , w h e n th is c a s e c o m e s b e fo r e u s a g a i n - - a n d in fu tu r e c a s e s - - w e
s h a ll fin d a lit t le m o r e d e c is io n , a li t t le m o r e g o o d s e n s e , and a li t t le
po
m o r e m o r a l c o u r a g e ." 7
T h e i s s u e d id c o m e b e f o r e the C o u n c il a g a in , th is t im e in a
r e p o r t by th e G ood O ffic e s C o m m it t e e (S /1 1 8 7 , J a n u a r y 7, 1 949), in d i
c a tin g th at h o s t i l i t i e s h ad n ot c e a s e d , a n d th e P r e s i d e n t of th e R e p u b lic
27Ibid., pp. 40-41. 28Ibid. 29Ibid., p. 44.
I
15
and o th er R ep u b lica n o ff ic ia ls w e r e s t ill in c a r c e r a te d . In sh o rt, the
C o u n cil's r e s o lu tio n of D e c e m b e r 24, 1948 had not b een im p le m en te d .
The d eb ate fo llo w in g th is r e p o r t is n o ta b le fo r so m e n ew er in g r e d ie n ts.
M r. R om u lo of the P h ilip p in e s c h a r a c te r iz e d th e C o u n cil's r o le in the
In d on esian q u e stio n a s "a s e r ie s of v a c illa tio n s , c o n tr a d ic tio n s and ir -
r e le v a n c ie s ." It w a s the C o u n cil's " in d ecisio n " that had le d to the
w o r se n in g o f th e situ a tio n . In a w id e ran gin g a tta ck , M r. Rdnulo d e
nou n ced th e " a b sten tio n d ip lo m a cy " of th e C ou n cil m e m b e r s , and in d i
ca ted th at d e v e lo p m e n ts o u tsid e th e C o u n cil w ou ld p erh a p s m ak e up fo r
O A
the se e m in g p a r a ly s is th at had ta k en h old of it. The n ew er in g r e d i
ent, w h ich is m o s t n o tew o rth y , is th e ch an ge in the c h a r a c te r of the
A m e r ic a n d e le g a te 's sp e e c h on th is o c c a s io n . It m u st have g iv e n no
s m a ll s a tis fa c tio n to d e le g a te H od gson and th o se w ho had sh a r e d h is
v ie w to h ea r M r. J e ss u p sta te th at in th e U nited S ta tes v ie w , the N e th e r
la n d s d e le g a te "has fa ile d to r e lie v e h is g o v e rn m e n t fro m the s e r io u s
ch a rg e that it h a s v io la te d th e C h a rter of the U n ited N a tio n s." M r.
J e s s u p 's u se of su ch p h r a s e s as " ille g a l fo r c e " and "the fr u its of a g
g r e s s io n " in d e s c r ib in g w hat the N eth erla n d s had done, and w hat it had
gain ed by its a c tio n s , a r e c le a r in d ic a tio n s of a r e v o lu tio n a r y ch an ge in
the A m e r ic a n p o s itio n in the C o u n cil. F in a lly , the U n ited S ta tes d e le
gate d is p e lle d a ll doubts a s to the o b je c tiv e s of h is g o v ern m en t in the
a n n ou n cem en t th at the U n ited S ta tes w a s f ir m ly c o m m itted to the
30
"The d e v e lo p m e n ts o u tsid e" w e r e the d e c is io n of th e U n ited
S ta tes to w ith h o ld M a r sh a ll P la n aid to the N eth e rla n d s u n til so m e
s a tis fa c to r y r e s u lt s w e r e a c h ie v e d in th e In d o n esia n q u estio n , and"the
Indian g o v e r n m e n t's d e c is io n to c a ll a C o n feren ce on In d o n esia in N ew
D elh i. F o r R o m u lo 's c o m m e n ts, s e e O R 's, S e c u r ity C ou n cil, 4th y e a r ,
No. 1, pp. 18 -1 9 -
16
e s ta b lis h m e n t of "the U nited S ta tes of In don esia as one of the fu lly
31
so v e r e ig n and independent p e o p le s of the w orld ."
The r e m a in d e r of the debate on In d on esia is so m ew h a t of an
a n ti-c lim a x . The C ouncil adopted a c o m p r e h e n s iv e draft r e so lu tio n
authored by the U nited S ta tes, Cuba, China and N orw ay w hich noted
that p r e v io u s C ouncil r e so lu tio n s had not b een fu lfilled , and in its
o p era tiv e p art (1) c a lle d upon the N eth erla n d s to e n su r e d isco n tin u a n ce
of m ilita r y o p era tio n s, (2) ca lle d upon the N eth erla n d s to r e le a s e all
p o litic a l p r is o n e r s a r r e s te d s in c e D e c e m b e r 17th, and p e r m it th eir
retu rn to Jakarta, (3) r e c o m m e n d e d n eg o tia tio n s b etw een the p a r tie s
for the p u rp o se of the tr a n s fe r of s o v e r e ig n ty to the R epublic no la te r
than July, 1950, and (4) r e - e s t a b lis h e d the C o m m ittee of Good O ffices
as the U nited N ation s C o m m is sio n fo r Indonesia, to act as the r e p r e
sen ta tiv e of the S e c u r ity C ouncil to h elp in the n eg o tia tio n s and r e p o r t
32
to the C ouncil if any of its r e c o m m e n d a tio n s w e r e not c o m p lied with.
The tide had c le a r ly sh ifted aw ay fro m the N eth erla n d s, and
the C o u n cil's d e c is iv e attitude as w e ll as the p r e s s u r e s e ls e w h e r e le d
to its offer to m e e t w ith the R epublic of In d o n esia ’s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in
a Round Table C o n feren ce at the H ague to im p le m e n t the S ecu rity
C o u n cil's r e so lu tio n of Jan uary 28th. W ith so m e a d ju stm en ts of the
N eth erlan d s o ffer to su it R ep u b lican d em a n d s, the C ouncil ap p roved it
33
in a r e so lu tio n on M arch 23, 1949. The Round T, ’e C o n fe r e n c e 's
^ O R 's, S e c u r ity C oun cil, 4th y e a r , No. 2, pp i-lO .
o p
F o r fu ll text, s e e U nited N ation s D ocum ent, S/1234, Jan uary
28, 1949-
33
The vote w a s 8 -0 w ith 3 a b ste n tio n s. P R 's, S e c u r ity C oun
c il, 4th y e a r , N o. 24, p. 5.
17
r e s u lts w e r e w e lc o m e d by both the S e c u rity C ouncil and the G en eral
A s s e m b ly in la te 1949, the only d isc o r d a n t note in both organ s being
the c h a r g e s of the USSR bloc that the a g r e e m e n ts r e a c h e d w e r e a
c o v e r t e x te n s io n of c o lo n ia lis m . The S o v ie t Union v eto ed the r e s o lu
tion o ffe r e d in the C ouncil, but the G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly w a s not v u ln e r
able to any su ch d e r a ilm e n t and co m m en d ed the p a r tie s for the a g r e e
m e n ts r e a c h e d and announced its g e n e r a l sa tisfa c tio n w ith the out
co m e . ^
M o r o c c o
The c o llis io n b etw een F r e n c h a d m in istr a tio n and co n tro l of
N orth A fr ic a n t e r r it o r ie s and A rab n a tio n a lism led to so m e p r e lim i
n a ry s k ir m is h in g at the six th s e s s i o n of the G en era l A s s e m b ly w hen the
a n ti-c o lo n ia lis t p o w e r s a sk e d fo r the in c lu sio n of a " com p lain t of v io
la tio n of the p r in c ip le s of the C h a rter and the D e c la r a tio n of Hum an
R ights by F r a n c e in M o ro cco " on the six th A s s e m b ly 's agenda. In the
G en era l C o m m ittee debate on w h eth er or not the item should be in
cluded in the agenda, the U nited S ta tes d e le g a te gran ted that M o ro c co
w a s a n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g te r r ito r y under ch ap ter XI of the C harter,
and that th e r e fo r e the U nited N ation s w a s com p eten t to d is c u s s m a tte r s
r e la te d to it. He w e n t on to p r a is e F r e n c h " e a g e r n e ss to c a r r y out the
s a c r e d tr u st on b eh a lf of the p e o p le s of M o r o c c o ," and rem in d ed the
a n ti-c o lo n ia ls sp o n so r in g the co m p la in t that the in te r e s ts of the p eop le
of M o r o c c o w e r e p aram ou n t, and that th o se in te r e s ts w ould not be
"^G eneral A s s e m b ly R eso lu tio n 301 (IV); a ls o U nited N ation s
D ocu m en t A /1251.
18
* 2 C
se r v e d by a d eta iled d is c u s s io n of the question . Canada offered a
draft r e so lu tio n p ro p o sin g that " co n sid era tio n of the q u estion of p la c
ing p r o v isio n a l item 62 on the agenda be p ostponed for the tim e being,"
36
and this w as approved by a vote of 6 - 4 - 4 .
The debate in the A s s e m b ly fo llo w ed the p attern of the r e -
37
m a r k s in the C o m m ittee w ith one sig n ifica n t addition. In the c o u rse
of his appeal to the A s s e m b ly to a ccep t the p ostp on em en t of debate on
M o ro c co , the U nited S tates d ele g a te , E r n e s t G r o ss, m ade so m e length y
r e m a r k s on F re n c h sta te sm a n sh ip and United S tates frien d sh ip fo r the
peop le of M o ro cco . Citing the a n ti-c o lo n ia l background of the U nited
S tates, d elegate G r o ss su g g e ste d that the United S tates fe lt that d is c u s
sio n on M o ro c co should be avoided for th ree r e a so n s and sin c e th ese
r e a so n s a re c h a r a c te r is tic of the United S tates r e sp o n se on N orth
A frica n is s u e s in the co lo n ia l debate, th ey b ear so m e elaboration .
F ir s t, that the debate in the U nited N ations "w ill only lea d to rancor"
and w ould not b en efit the p e o p le s of M o ro cco . Second, F r e n c h s t a t e s
m an sh ip and intention should obviate any n eed for the A s s e m b ly to take
up debate on the m a tter, for "the d istin g u ish ed P r im e M in iste r of
F r a n c e r e fe r r e d . . . to co n v e r sa tio n s under w ay w hich are d esig n ed to
^ OR 's, 6th S e ssio n , G en eral C o m m itte e , pp. 4 -5 .
■^See A /B u r /'27 fo r co m p lete text of the draft. The vote on
the r e so lu tio n w a s taken w ithout a r o ll- c a ll, but it m a y s a fe ly be a s
su m ed from the debate that the U.S. voted for the Canadian draft. See
ib id ., pp. 1-7.
'1 -7
The rec o m m e n d a tio n s of the G eneral C om m ittee on the
agenda fo r the A ss e m b ly m u s t be approved by the A s s e m b ly its e lf, and
th is p r o v id es the nations in the A s s e m b ly w ith a chance to o rg a n ize
th eir support in the A s s e m b ly to include ite m s even after th ey have
been r e je c te d in the C o m m ittee.
19
h a ste n d e m o c r a tic r e fo r m s p r o p o se d by F r a n c e in M o ro c co ." G iven
th e s e tw o p r e m is e s , M r. G r o ss con clud ed that a debate on M o r o c c o
w ould b en efit only the S o v iet Union, or, as he e u p h e m is tic a lly put it,
"that s m a ll m in o r ity w h o se v ie w s a re b a se d on d ogm a and r e fle c t au to
c r a tic d e c r e e . . .
The d isa p p o in tm en t fe lt by the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s in the
fr u str a tio n of th eir a ttem p t to get a h ea rin g on th is is s u e w a s f a ir ly
g e n e r a l and is r e fle c te d in the debate in the A s s e m b ly , but it r e m a in e d
fo r P a k is ta n 's d e le g a te Z a fru lla h Khan to m e e t the A m e r ic a n a r g u
m en t. In asm u ch as d e le g a te Z a fru lla h 's a n a ly s is of the A m e r ic a n c a s e
con tain s im p ortan t a s p e c ts of the d iffe r e n c e in the U nited S tates a p
p ro a ch and that of the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s, and as it p r o v id e s an e x
c e lle n t fr a m e fo r the d eb a tes on th is is s u e in su b seq u en t s e s s i o n s , it
d e s e r v e s e x te n s iv e quotation. N oting the A m e r ic a n d e le g a te 's in tr o
d u ctory c o m m e n ts about the sy m p ath y that the A m e r ic a n p eo p le f e e l
fo r the p eo p le of M o ro c co , Z afru llah ch a llen g ed M r. G r o s s 's im p lic a
tio n s of a C o m m u n ist tain t to the co m p la in t a g a in st F r a n c e .
Is a q u estio n to be p ron ou n ced upon and its d e te r m in a tio n to
be a r r iv e d at through an a n a ly s is of w h ich group su p p orts it and
w hich group d oes not; or is a q u estio n to be d e te r m in e d on its
m e r it s ? In asm u ch as he [G r o ss ] m a d e r e fe r e n c e to th is a s p e c t of
the q u estio n le t m e sta te that it h a s b een our e x p e r ie n c e in th is o r
g an ization that w e h e a r a g r e a t d ea l about fr e e d o m , d e m o c r a c y and
the s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n of p e o p le s fro m the group w h ich m ig h t be
c a lle d the W e ste r n States; but w h e n e v e r w e have had to d ea l w ith
the fr e e d o m , lib e r ty , in d ep en d en ce and the s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n of a
p a r tic u la r p e o p le , that r o le is , by and la r g e , w ith r a r e and noble
e x c e p tio n s, abandoned by the W e ste r n S ta tes . .
T urning to the a rg u m en t that an a ir in g of g r ie v a n c e s w ould
3 8 Q R 'b , G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly , 6th S e s s io n , p. 258.
•^ Ib id ., pp. 2 6 5 -6 6 .
20
only lea d to "rancor" w hich w ould not b en efit the p eo p le of M o ro cco ,
M r. Z afrullah continued:
H itherfore w e u se d to be told: le t us d is c u s s a q u estion b e
ca u se ten sio n is m ounting. T oday w e a re told w e should not d i s
c u s s a q u estion b e c a u se te n sio n w ill m ount. It is v e r y stran ge
that on m o s t o c c a sio n s the argu m en t should be one w ay and that
the sa m e argu m en t should be r e v e r s e d w hen . . . it is not c o n s id
e r e d con ven ient to d is c u s s a question .
The in c o n s is te n c y in the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n se to S o v ie t-A m e r i-
can ten sio n s and co lo n ia l v e r s u s a n ti-c o lo n ia l r iv a lr ie s had y et another
a sp e c t for the d elegate from P ak istan , and he ex p lo r ed it in attacking
the third point in the A m e r ic a n c a s e .
Then the lea rn ed and d istin g u ish ed r e p r e se n ta tiv e of the United
States w ent on to say, "but F ra n ce has announced its policy; what
m o r e is needed?" . . .
Has the great country, today the g r e a te st country, w h ich the
d istin g u ish ed r e p r e se n ta tiv e has the honor to r e p r e se n t h e r e , a l
w a y s b een s a tis fie d w hen the P r im e M in iste r or the F o r e ig n M in
is te r of a country has announced its p o licy ? If that is enough, w e
sh all be w illin g to be guided by that sta tem en t and in s is t that such
sta tem en ts be a cce p te d and not fu rth er probed.
W hatever the m e r it s of M r. Z afru llah 's argum ent, it w as the
view of the United States and other M etrop olitan P o w e r s that p r e v a ile d
and the G eneral A ss e m b ly voted to uphold the G eneral C o m m itte e 's
reco m m en d a tio n to p ostpone d eb a te on the M oroccan it e m .4 ^
The A r a b -A sia n s lo s t the f ir s t round in gaining a ccep ta n ce of
debate on this item in the sixth s e s s io n , but they w e r e to be rew a rd ed
for th eir effo rts in the seven th s e s s io n . Yet, they w e r e to su ffer other
and p erh ap s k een er d isap p oin tm en ts. The M oroccan item w a s p laced
40Ibid. 4 1 Ibid.
4 ^The vote w as 2 8 -2 3 w ith 7 a b sten tio n s. The m etro p o lita n
p o w ers had the support of the L a tin -A m e r ic a n d eleg a tio n s w h ile the
A r a b -A sia n s found favor with the S oviet b loc. Ibid., p. 269.
21
on the agenda of the sev en th s e s s io n and a ll su b seq u en t s e s s i o n s until
1955. D ebate in the sev en th s e s s i o n c e n te r e d on tw o draft r e s o lu tio n s,
one o ffe r e d by the A r a b -A s ia n p o w e r s and the other by the L atin -
A m e r ic a n n a tio n s. The r iv a l draft r e s o lu tio n s in th is s e s s i o n a re r e p
r e s e n ta tiv e of the tw o a p p ro a ch es to the q u estio n in su b seq u en t s e s
sio n s as w e ll, and b ear so m e ela b o ra tio n . The A r a b -A s ia n draft w as
r e la tiv e ly m ild c o m p a red to the one that th e s e p o w e r s fa ile d to u rg e on
the q u estio n of T u n isia in the sa m e s e s s io n , and w a s p erh ap s m ild e r
b ec a u se of that fa ilu r e . It s u g g e ste d that the A sse m b ly :
R e c a llin g the ICJ opinion reg a rd in g "the s o v e r e ig n ty , in te g r ity of
the Sultan and e c o n o m ic lib e r ty w ithout inequality";
M indful that M o r o c c o e n te r e d into s o le m n covenants in the e x e r
c i s e of its s o v e r e ig n righ ts
C o n scio u s that the R epublic of F r a n c e r e s p e c t s so le m n coven an ts
C o n sid e rin g that the p r e s e n t situ a tio n in M o r o c c o c a u s e s deep co n
c e r n and a d v e r s e ly a ffe c ts F r a n c o -M o r o c c a n r e la tio n s
and p e a c e fu l con d ition s in the w orld;
R eq u e sts the g o v ern m en t of F r a n c e and . . . the Sultan . . . to e n
te r into n eg o tia tio n s to re a c h an e a r ly s e ttle m e n t in a c
co rd w ith the S o v ereig n ty of M o ro c co , the a sp ir a tio n s of
its p eo p le and the C harter of the U nited N a tio n s.^3
In sp ite of the en gaging co n c ilia tio n r e fle c te d in the draft as to
the s e r io u s n e s s w ith w hich F r a n c e took its ob lig a tio n s to s o le m n c o v e
nants, the M etro p o lita n P o w e r s c o n s id e r e d the draft too stron g and f a
v o r e d the cou n terd raft w h ich d e c la r e d that the G en eral A s s e m b ly
E x p r e s s e s the co n fid en ce that in p u rsu a n ce of its p r o c la im e d p o li
c ie s , the g o v ern m en t of F r a n c e w ill en d eavou r to fu rth er
the e ffe c tiv e d ev elo p m en t of fr e e in stitu tion s . . .
^ A / C . l / L . 1 2 as found in P R 's, G e n e ra l A ss e m b ly , 7th S e s
s io n , A n n ex e s, Vol. II, A gen da Item 65, pp. 1 1 -1 2 .
22
E x p r e s s e s the hope that the p a r tie s w ill continue n eg o tia tio n s on an
u rg en t b a s is
A ppeals to the p a r tie s co n cer n e d to conduct th eir rela tio n s and s e t
tle th eir d isp u tes in a cco r d a n ce w ith the sp irit of the
C harter.
U. S. d ele g a te J e ssu p u rg ed the m o d e r a tio n con tained in the
Latin draft as the m o d e l fo r debate in the C o m m ittee. The A r a b -A s ia n
draft had the support of the S oviet bloc, and the M etropolitan P o w e r s
indicated that ev en the Latin draft w a s a dan gerou s e x ten sio n of the
le g itim a te ro le that the U nited N ation s could p lay in m a tte r s w h ich
w e r e e s s e n t ia lly w ithin the d o m e stic ju r is d ic tio n of F ra n ce . One r e
v ealin g rem a r k by the Indonesian d ele g a te P a la r d e s e r v e s m en tio n , for
it is r e p r e se n ta tiv e of a n ti-c o lo n ia l m is g iv in g s . Since the A r a b -A s ia n s
had m e t d efeat on the T u n isian q u estio n in the sa m e s e s s io n , M r.
P a la r fe a r e d the sa m e fate on the M o ro c ca n item , and fo r the sa m e
r e a so n s. A s the Indonesian d eleg a te saw it, th ere w e r e
two c o n tr o v e r s ie s at p r e s e n t d isru p tin g the w orld: the "cold w ar"
and the co lo n ia l con flict. In the c ir c u m s ta n c e s the fact that F ren ch
in te r e sts in the T un isian q u estio n had b een sa feg u a rd ed b e c a u se
F ra n ce w a s a m e m b e r of the w e s te r n group w as a blow to the
fo r c e s striv in g for p ea ce.
If th e r e w e r e in d eed tw o c o n tr o v e r s ie s , the vote on the A rab -
A sia n draft quite c le a r ly show ed w hich one d om in ated the b eh avior of
the U nited S tates and the W estern P o w e r s , along w ith the Latin A m e r i
can group. The draft w as d efeated by a 2 5 -2 0 vote in the C o m m ittee,
and the A r a b -A sia n s m ad e a la s t effo rt to add an am en d m en t to the
su rvivin g Latin draft. P a k ista n p r o p o se d the addition of a sen te n c e to
the "E x p r e s s e s the h o p e " c la u se in that draft, so that it w ould read:
44
PR's, 7th Session, Committee I, p. 283.
23
E x p r e s s e s the hope that the p a r tie s w ill continue n egotiation s on an
u rgen t b a s is w ith a v iew to bringing about s e lf - g o v e r n
m en t fo r M o ro c ca n s in the lig h t of relev a n t p r o v is io n s of
the C h a r te r .45
The vote on this am en d m en t w a s 2 8 -2 3 w ith 4 a b sten tio n s, the
United S tates voting a g a in st the am en d m en t along w ith the M etropolitan
P o w e r s. The am en ded v e r s io n of the draft r e so lu tio n w as then adopted
by a vote of 4 0 -5 , w ith 6 a b s t e n t io n s .^
The m o d e s t v is to r y w on by the A r a b -A s ia n p o w e r s had a short
life, h ow ever, fo r w hen c o n sid e r a tio n of th is draft r e so lu tio n began in
the A sse m b ly , the k ey L a tin -A m e r ic a n v o te s w hich had h elp ed w in a c
cep tance of the P a k ista n am en d m en t began to shift aw ay from the A rab -
A sia n p osition , and the L a tin -A m e r ic a n s a sk ed for the d eletio n of that
am endm ent. The d isap poin tm ent fe lt by the A r a b -A sia n b loc once
again found its b e st e x p r e s s io n through P a k ista n ’s d elegate Z afru llah
Khan, who rem in d ed the d e le g a te s that the p oet Iqbal had once d e
sc r ib e d the L eagu e of N ations as a c o lle c tio n of "a few shroud s te a le r s
who have fo r m e d an a s s o c ia tio n a m o n g st th e m s e lv e s fo r the p u rp o se of
allocatin g c e m e te r ie s ." M r. Z afru llah Khan in d icated that s im ila r
c r it ic is m s of the U nited N ation s w ould be in ev ita b le in h is part of the
w orld if even the m o d e s t dem and s of the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls w e r e denied.
P erh a p s w ith an ey e on the e ffe c tiv e lobbying that ca u sed the change of
m ind am ong the L a tin -A m e r ic a n s _who had len t th eir support to the
co n tested am en d m en t in the C o m m ittee, d ele g a te Z afru llah w ent on to
say:
45A /C .1 /L ,1 4 .
4^OR's, 7th S e ssio n , C o m m ittee I, p. 318.
24
But w hen one g o e s h om e fro m th is s e s s i o n of the G e n e r a l A s
s e m b ly one w ill be told this: ’’The U nited N ation s had a r e so lu tio n
b efo re it - - m o d e s t enough in a ll c o n s c ie n c e - - f o r t y m e m b e r s v o ted
fo r that r eso lu tio n . T hen tw o days la te r , a good m a n y of th o se
s ta te s w ent b ack on th eir support. Do you s t ill u rg e that w e should
continue to p la c e our faith in the U nited N ation s?" What I should
lik e to know is this: What a n sw e r am I going to g iv e to that c r i t i
c is m ? 47
The A s s e m b ly gave d e le g a te Z afru llah n eith er the a n sw e r to
h is q u estio n nor the support he w ish e d and the am en d m en t w a s d efea ted
by a 29~8 v ote w ith 22 a b ste n tio n s, in clud ing a la r g e n um ber of A ra b -
A sia n s w ho s e e m e d to c a r e nothing for the draft sin c e th eir own had
b een d efea ted in C o m m ittee I. The o r ig in a l L atin draft w a s then
adopted by a 4 5 -3 vote w ith 11 a b ste n tio n s. The U nited S tates voted to
d ele te the P a k ista n am en d m en t, a p o s itio n c o n s is te n t w ith its vote in
48
the C o m m ittee.
Two sig n ific a n t d ev elo p m en ts took p la c e in the p erio d b etw een
the S eventh and E ighth S e s s io n s of the G en era l A s s e m b ly and the c o n
tinuation of the debate on the M o ro c ca n ite m . F ir s t, the situ ation in
M o ro c co d e te r io r a te d to a point w h e re F r a n c e fe lt c o m p e lle d to d ep o se
the Sultan of M o ro c co and outlaw the n a tio n a list Istiq la l P a rty , and then
r e fu s e d to p a rticip a te in any fu rth er debate on the item at the U nited
N ation s. Second, sm a rtin g fr o m what th ey c o n s id e r e d unjust d en ia ls at
the Seventh S e ssio n , the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s s e e m e d to have d ecid ed
that it w as U nited S tates in flu en ce in the U nited N ations w h ich had
turned the s c a le s a g a in st th em . The c h a r a c te r of the debate at the
Eighth S e s s io n s u g g e s ts a h a r s h e r tone on the p a rt of the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls
4 7 P R 's, G en era l A s s e m b ly , 7th S e s s io n , pp. 4 2 4 -4 2 5 .
4 ®See ib id ., p. 426.
25
and g r e a te r e x p lic itn e s s in b lam in g the U nited S tates. U. S. d ele g a te
L odge had arg u ed in C o m m ittee I that M o r o c c o w as not a m a tte r w hich
could be c o n s id e r e d a th rea t to in tern a tio n a l p e a c e and se c u r ity , and
doubted that the G en eral A s s e m b ly cou ld a ct lik e a cou rt to adjudicate
the v a r io u s c la im s on M o r o c c o . In the v ie w of the U nited S tates as M r.
L odge expounded it, the U nited N ation s should s te e r c le a r of any a ctio n
that m ig h t p ro m o te d is o r d e r in M o r o c c o and ought to attem pt to b rin g
about an " a tm o sp h ere in w hich F r a n c e and M o ro c co w ould m o v e co n -
49
tin u ally c lo s e r ." 7 It should be m en tio n ed that in the g e n e r a l debate in
the G en eral A s s e m b ly , the U nited S ta tes w a s r e p r e se n te d by S e c r e ta r y
of State D u lles w ho c o v e r e d a w id e range of is s u e s on w hich the U nited
S ta tes hoped to gain a ctio n by the U nited N ations w ith an o m is s io n s i g
n ifica n t to the a n t i- c o lo n ia ls - - t h e o m is s io n b ein g of c o u r s e , N orth
A frica n m a t t e r s . It did not e s c a p e the attention of S y ria 's d ele g a te
Z en n eid in e, w ho r e m a r k e d that "the U nited S ta tes d elegation , w h ich w as
eloqu en t and e x p lic it on m a n y q u e stio n s, has p r e fe r r e d to lim it its e lf
on th is p a r tic u la r q u estio n of M o r o c c o ." M r. Z enn eid ine p aid fa ir
tribute to U nited S ta tes e ffo r ts to in flu en ce F r a n c e through d ip lom atic
ch a n n els, ju st as A rab p o w e r s had tr ie d to in flu en ce F r e n c h p o lic y , but
he su g g e ste d that it w a s the fa ilu r e of th e s e e ffo r ts that had brought the
50
is s u e b efo re the U nited N a tio n s.
A s to the A m e r ic a n argu m en t that M o r o c c o did not co n stitu te a
th r e a t to the p e a c e , d e le g a te H anifah of In don esia m ir r o r e d the fe e lin g s
of the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls , and p a r tic u la r ly th e ir in c r e a s in g a w a r e n e s s that
“ ^ O R 's, G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly , 8th S e ssio n , C o m m ittee I, p. 48.
^ S e e ib id ., p. 62.
26
the W estern p o w e r s s e e m e d to su sta in a double standard in th eir p o li
c ie s at the U nited N ation s. A s he put it:
The d e le g a tio n of Indonesia could not r e fr a in fro m pointing out
that if the sta te w h ich w a s occupying M o r o c c o had b een a c e r ta in
g r e a t p ow er, m a n y d e le g a tio n s w ould im m e d ia te ly s e e in the situ a
tion a th rea t to in tern a tio n a l p e a c e and s e c u r ity . W as it to be sa id
that in the a b se n c e of a c o m m u n ist th rea t or the r is k of b lood shed,
the G en eral A s s e m b ly r e fu se d to m e e t its r e s p o n sib ility ?
To put it quite bluntly, the fa ct should be r e c o g n iz e d that c e r
tain p o w e r s w e r e rea d y to s a c r if ic e hum an righ ts to s tr a te g ic in
t e r e s t s and to the unity of w e s te r n f o r c e s .
With the lin e s of battle c le a r ly draw n, the C o m m ittee p r o
c e e d e d to c o n sid e r tw o draft re s o lu t io n s - - a s in the sev en th s e s s i o n - -
one o ffe r e d by the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls and the oth er m ild e r draft on ce again
authored by the L a tin -A m e r ic a n p o w e r s and sp o n so r e d by B o liv ia .
P r e d ic ta b ly enough, the A r a b -A s ia n draft w a s d efeated , and th e y then
a ttem p ted to am en d the B o liv ia n draft. Som e m e a s u r e of the in c r e a sin g
h o s tility of the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls is r e fle c te d in the blunter language in
v o lv e d in the th r e e -p o w e r am en d m en t o ffered by India. The th r e e -
p ow er am en d m en t w ould h ave r e v is e d p a ra g ra p h s 3 and 4 to add s t a t e
m e n ts reg a r d in g the d ev elo p m en t of "free p o litic a l in stitu tio n s in M o
ro cc o " and pointing out that "the fa ct that th is item is in clud ed on the
agend a of the eigh th s e s s io n " w ould in d icate that "the o b je c tiv e s of the
r e s o lu tio n p a s s e d by the Seventh A s s e m b ly had not b een fu lfilled ."
A fter this subtle barb tow ard F r a n c e , the th r e e p o w e r s w ish e d to add
an add ition al p ara g ra p h to the p r e a m b le of the B o liv ia n draft w hich
w ould read:
R eco g n izin g the right of the p eo p le of M o r o c c o to c o m p le te s e lf -
d ete r m in a tio n in co n fo r m ity w ith the C harter.
51 Ibid., p. 53.
27
The d ir e c t r e fe r e n c e to s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n w as ap parently not
to the liking of the United S tates and the M etropolitan P o w e r s who op
p o sed the adoption of the paragraph, and w hen it and the other two
ch an ges in the tex t of the B o liv ia n draft w e r e approved by the C o m m it
tee, they p r o c e e d e d to vote a gain st the am ended draft w hich w as n e v e r -
52
th e le s s adopted.
The a n ti-c o lo n ia l v ic to r y w as again s h o r t-liv e d , and the e x
p e r ie n c e of the la s t s e s s io n w hen the fr u its of v ic to r y w e r e snatched
away in the A s s e m b ly m u st have m ade the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls se n sitiv e as
the draft n ea red a vote in the A ss e m b ly . If th ere w ere any doubts as to
the outcom e on the co n tested ch an ges in the tex t of the B olivian draft,
they w e r e d is p e lle d w hen it b eca m e apparent that the M etropolitan p o w
e r s w ould invoke the p r o v isio n s r e la te d to the am en d m en ts being "an
im portant question" and th e r e fo r e req u irin g a tw o -th ird s m a jo r ity to
gain adoption at the A ss e m b ly . P a k ista n 's d ele g a te Z afru llah attem pted
to m o v e the U nited States aw ay from its ch o sen ro le in a sp eech
h ea v ily fla v o r e d by quotations from the D ecla r a tio n of Independence.
He r e c a lle d that
The S e c r e ta r y of State, M r. D u lles, a ffirm ed from th is r o s
trum on S ep tem b er 17 the a x io m s laid down in the D e c la r a tio n of
Independence . . . he w ent on to a s s u r e us that: "No p e a c e can be
enduring w h ich rep u d iates the co n cep t that g overn m en t should r e s t
on fr e e co n sen t or w hich d en ies to oth ers the opportunity to e m
b ra ce that concept.
5^The vote on.the co n tested ch an ges w as (a) 3 3 -1 5 -1 0 ; (b) 30-
18-9; and (c) 3 6 -1 3 -9 - The r o l l- c a ll on the additional p aragrap h s
show ed the U.S. voting again st, as it did again on the am ended draft
w hich w as adopted by a 3 1 -1 8 -9 v o te. Ibid., p. 78.
C O
See PR's, General Assembly, 8th Session, pp. 262-263.
28
D eleg a te Z afru llah w ent on to d evelop the gap b etw een the
p r in cip le p r o fe s s e d by S e c r e ta r y of State D u lles and the v o te s c a s t by
the U nited S tates on the " se lf-d e te r m in a tio n " p aragrap h, and sta ted
that ev en though he w a s k een ly d isap poin ted in the platitudinou s tex t of
54
the B o liv ia n draft as am ended, he w ould vote fo r it. In a p a ra g ra p h -
b y-paragraph vote the c o n te ste d ch an ges could not m u s te r the tw o -
th ird s m a jo rity , and the sa m e fate w as m e te d to the only o p e r a tiv e
paragrap h , w h ich stated that the G eneral A s s e m b ly
R enew s its appeal for the red u ction of ten sio n in M o r o c c o and
u r g e s that the right of the p e o p le s of M o r o c c o to fr e e
d e m o c r a tic p o litic a l in stitu tion s be en su red .
The U nited S tates voted a g a in st the o p era tiv e p aragrap h , and s in c e it
had b een r e je c te d , d ele g a te Z afru llah s u g g e ste d that no vote be taken
on the draft a s a w hole. This w a s one su g g e stio n that w en t u n co n teste d
for in fa c t th ere w a s nothing le ft to vote on ex c e p t so m e m e a n in g le s s
55
p rea m b u la r p la titu d es. It w as at th is point that the P r e s id e n t of the
A s s e m b ly , M rs. P andit, who happened to be an Indian, m o m e n ta r ily
lo s t h er b e a r in g s and spoke the language of h er co u n try 's d ele g a tio n
and the a n ti-c o lo n ia l w orld . G ranting d e le g a te Z a fru lla h 1 s r e q u e s t that
the A s s e m b ly m o v e on to the n ext item and take no vote on the now
d e c im a te d draft on M o ro c co , M r s. Pandit rem a rk ed : "I don't know
w h eth er I ought to s a y th is, but I fe e l v e r y stro n g ly about it - - t h e A s
s e m b ly m a k e s it s e lf rath er rid icu lo u s if it g o e s b ack on the v e r y things
56
fo r w hich the C harter stands and to w hich w e are a ll p led ged ."
The d ev elo p m en ts in the p e r io d b etw een the E ighth and Ninth
S e s s io n s w e r e hap pier than in the past, fo r the M e n d e s -F r a n c e
54Ibid. 55See ibid., pp. 266-267. 56Ibid., p. 267.
g o v ern m en t a s s u m e d p o w er in F r a n c e and P r e m ie r M e n d e s -F r a n c e
h im s e lf a d d r e s s e d the A s s e m b ly on N o v em b er 22, 1954. In th is a t m o s
p h ere the c la sh b e tw e e n the c o lo n ia l p o w e r s and th e ir c r it ic s w a s so m e '
w hat m o r e m u te d than in p r e v io u s s e s s i o n s , ev en though the d eb a tes
w e r e not w ithout th e ir sh arp d is a g r e e m e n ts . The A r a b -A s ia n p o w e r s
o ffe r e d a r e v is e d draft r e s o lu tio n w h ic h sta ted that "m any d e le g a tio n s
d ecla red " that F r a n c o -M o r o c c a n N e g o tia tio n s w ould be in itiated , and
r e s o lv e d that the G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly " d e cid es to p o stp o n e fo r the tim e
b eing the c o n s id e r a tio n of the item ." B o liv ia sought to in c o r p o r a te a
s ta te m e n t e x p r e s s in g co n fid en ce "in the r e c e n tly c o n fir m e d in ten tion s
of the F r e n c h go v ern m en t" but in the C o m m ittee the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls r e
s is t e d any su ch am en d m en t, and it w a s r e je c te d by a 19“26 v o te w ith 11
a b ste n tio n s. The U nited S ta tes voted a g a in st the d raft in the C o m m itte e
in d icatin g that if the " con fidence" c la u s e had b een a c c e p te d it w ould
c 7
h ave v o ted w ith the m a jo r ity . C o n c ilia tio n p r e v a ile d in the A s s e m b ly
w h e r e the B o liv ia n s u g g e stio n w as adopted w ithout o p p o sitio n and the
58
a m en d ed d raft then p r e v a ile d a s the w ill of the A ss e m b ly .
The fin a l c o n s id e r a tio n of th is item took p la c e in the Tenth
S e s s io n of the G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly in a c o m p a r a tiv e ly c o r d ia l a t m o s
p h e r e . The Sultan had b een r e in sta te d and the F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t had
op en ed n e g o tia tio n s fo r the u ltim a te so lu tio n to the M o r o c c a n p r o b le m .
In th is a tm o sp h e r e the T enth A s s e m b ly adopted a 31-p o w e r draft e x
p r e s s in g the hope that the n e g o tia tio n s w ould be s u c c e s s f u l. The v ote
^ Ibid., 9th S e s s io n , C o m m ittee I, pp. 5 3 4 -5 4 1 .
^^The vote on the a m en d m en t w a s 5 7 -0 -1 and on the d /r as
am ended, 5 5 - 0 - 4 . S ee P R 's, G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly , 9th S e s s i o n , pp. 5 3 6 -
537. F o r tex t of the r e so lu tio n , s e e R e so lu tio n 812 (IX).
30
59
on th is r e s o lu tio n w a s 49"0 w ith 5 a b ste n tio n s. In M a rch , 1956 both
T u n is ia and M o r o c c o a tta in ed th e ir in d ep en d en ce, thus ending both the
F r e n c h P r o t e c t o r a t e o v e r M o r o c c o and th e c o n te n tio u s d e b a te s on the
M o r o c c a n ite m in the U nited N a tio n s.
T u n isia
T u n isia had b e e n a F r e n c h P r o t e c t o r a t e and a n o n - s e lf - g o v e r r r
ing t e r r it o r y c o v e r e d by a r t ic le 7 3 (e) of the U nited N a tio n s C h a r ter.
D u rin g 1950 the g o v e r n m e n ts of F r a n c e and T u n is ia had e n te r e d into
n e g o tia tio n s fo r the p u r p o se of r e f o r m s w h ic h w ou ld le a d T u n isia to
s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t. The n e g o tia tio n s w e r e not s a t is f a c t o r y to the T u n i
s ia n g o v e r n m e n t h ea d ed by P r im e M in is te r C henik and in January,
1952 the n a tio n a list le a d e r s a tte m p te d to b rin g th e ir d iffe r e n c e s w ith
F r a n c e to the a tten tio n of the S e c u r ity C o u n cil. F r a n c e d e p o s e d
C h e n ik 1 s g o v e r n m e n t and s e r io u s d is o r d e r s fo llo w e d in T u n isia . A new
ca b in et m o r e a c c e p ta b le to F r a n c e w a s b rou gh t into n e g o tia tio n s but in
A p r il, 1952, 11 A r a b -A s ia n s a s k e d fo r S e c u r ity C ou n cil c o n s id e r a tio n
of the m a tte r . F r a n c e a s s e r t e d that its d iffe r e n c e s w ith the T u n isia n s
w e r e not an in te r n a tio n a l " d ispute" w ith in the m e a n in g of th e C h a r ter,
and m o r e o v e r d is c u s s io n of the item w a s in v io la tio n of the d o m e s tic
j u r is d ic tio n c la u s e of the U n ited N a tio n s C h a r te r . The v o te in the S e
c u r ity C o u n cil s u sta in e d F r a n c e and d e n ie d the T u n isia n ite m a p la c e
on the agenda, the U n ited S ta te s d en yin g its su p p o rt to the A r a b -A s ia n
r e q u e s t . ^ The A r a b - A s ia n s th en m a d e an u n s u c c e s s f u l a ttem p t to c a ll
^ Q R 's, G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 10th S e s s io n , C o m m itte e I, p. 210.
^ " D e n y i n g its su p p o rt to the A r a b - A s ia n r e q u e st" s e e m s
about the only fa ir w a y to d e s c r ib e the U .S. p o s itio n . The U .S.
31
a s p e c ia l s e s s i o n of the G en era l A s s e m b ly , and fin a lly on June 30th,
1952, th ey p r o p o se d the T u n isia n item fo r the p r o v isio n a l agenda of the
Seventh S e s s io n of the G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly . On O ctober 16th, 1952, the
A s s e m b ly d ecid ed to in clu d e the T u n isian ite m in its agenda. The
U nited S ta tes supp orted the d e c is io n to have the p ro b lem d is c u s s e d
"holding that the situ a tio n fe ll w ith in the sp h e r e of the G en era l A s s e m
b ly's c o m p e te n c e , quite ap art fr o m the q u estio n of w hat s o r t of A s s e m
b ly's a ctio n w ould be h elp fu l and c o n str u c tiv e . . .
D is c u s s io n of th is item b egan in D e c e m b e r , 1952 w ithout the
p r e s e n c e of the F r e n c h d e le g a tio n w h ich ch o se to b oycott a ll d is c u s s io n
of m a tte r s it c o n s id e r e d e x c lu s iv e ly w ith in the d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n of
F r a n e e .
The p o sitio n of the M etro p o lita n p o w e r s in debate on th is item
did not d iffer fro m th e ir g e n e r a l ap p roach to the debate on N o n -S e lf-
G overn ing T e r r it o r ie s , the m a jo r a rg u m en ts being r e la te d to the p r o
v is io n s of a r tic le 2, p a ra g ra p h 7, of the C harter, w h ich p ro h ib its any
in te r fe r e n c e by the U nited N ation s in in tern a l a ffa ir s . The debate once
again c e n te r e d on two co m p etin g d ra fts, one A r a b -A s ia n and the oth er
o ffered by the L a tin -A m e r ic a n p o w e r s . The u r g e n c y fe lt by the A ra b -
A sia n s w a s r e fle c te d in th eir draft r e so lu tio n , w hich a sk e d that the
a b sta in ed on the C oun cil along w ith th ree other p o w e r s, the v o te being
5 -2 w ith 4 a b ste n tio n s. A c c o r d in g to T h om as J. H am ilton, c o n sid e r a b le
s o u l-s e a r c h in g p r e c e d e d the a b ste n tio n s and the U.S. d ele g a tio n w as
openly c r it ic a l of State D ep a rtm en t in str u c tio n s on the m a tte r . S ee
R obert E. S u m m e r s , The U nited S ta tes and Intern ation al O rgan ization s
(New York: H. W. W ilson , [n.d.J), p. 74.
^ US P a r tic ip a tio n in the UN, rep o r t by the P r e s id e n t to the
C o n g r e ss fo r the y e a r 1952, In tern ation al O rgan ization and C o n fe ren ce
S e r ie s III, 90, D ep a rtm en t of State P u b lic a tio n 50 34, A ugust, 1953.
32
G eneral A ss e m b ly :
C o n sid e rs con tinuance of the p r e s e n t situ a tio n in T u n isia . . .
d e tr im e n ta l to th o se [s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n ] rig h ts and a ls o
a dan ger to in tern a tio n a l p e a c e and se c u r ity .
R e c a llin g fu rth er that a ll m e m b e r s sh a ll r e fr a in in th eir in te r n a
tio n a l r e la tio n s fro m the th rea t or u se of fo r c e .
U rg es F r a n c e to e s ta b lis h n o r m a l con d ition s and n o rm a l c iv il
lib e r t ie s in T u n isia.
R eco m m en d s n eg o tia tio n s be r e s u m e d by F r a n c e and the tru e r e p
r e s e n ta tiv e s of the T u n isian p e o p le s fo r the p u rp o se of
im p le m en tin g the right of se lf-d e te r m in a tio n .
D e c id e s to appoint a c o m m is s io n of good o ffic e s to a s s i s t n e g o ti
ation s .
R eq u e sts the C o m m is s io n of Good O ffices to rep o rt to the G e n e ra l
A s s e m b ly on p r o g r e s s m a d e.
W ish es all p a r tie s c o n c e r n e d to giv e the C o m m is sio n th eir fu ll c o
op eration .
R eq u e sts the S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l to p ro v id e the C o m m is s io n w ith
the n e c e s s a r y staff and f a c ilit ie s .
D e c id e s to in clude th is item on the p r o v is io n a l agenda of the eighth
s e s s io n .
The L a tin -A m e r ic a n join t draft r e s o lu tio n p r e s e n te d by 11 n a
tion s on the oth er hand announced that the G en era l A sse m b ly :
E x p r e s s e s the co n fid en ce that, in p u r su a n c e of its p r o c la im e d p o li
c i e s , the G o v ern m en t of F r a n c e w ill en d eavou r to fu rth er
the e ffe c tiv e d e v e lo p m e n t of fr e e in stitu tio n s of the T u n i
sia n p eop le . . .
E x p r e s s e s the hope that the p a r tie s w ill continue n eg o tia tio n s on an
u rg en t b a s is . . .
A p p eals to the p a r tie s c o n c e r n e d to condu ct th eir r e la tio n s and
s e ttle th eir d isp u te s in a c c o r d a n c e w ith the sp ir it of the
^ F o r fu ll text of the 13 p o w er A r a b -A s ia n draft, s e e P R 's ,
G en eral A s s e m b ly , 7th S e s sio n , A n n ex e s V ol. II, A genda Item 60, pp.
4 -5 .
33
C h a rter. ^
The d eb ate on th e s e r iv a l d rafts did not d iffer m a t e r ia lly fro m
the co n ten tio n r e fle c te d in the M o r o c c a n c a s e , and the U nited S ta tes r e
p ea ted its c o n v ic tio n that the A s s e m b ly should lim it it s e lf to the c r e a
tio n of a c lim a te of n eg o tia tio n and do nothing to e x a c e r b a te te n s io n s in
T u n isia . In a r e m a r k a b ly w e ll- b r ie f e d s p e e c h , d e le g a te J e s s u p of the
U nited S ta tes le d the A s s e m b ly th rou gh the h is to r y of F r e n c h -T u n is ia n
a ffa ir s , the le g a l a s p e c ts of the d isp ute and the lon g r e c o r d of U nited
S ta tes fr ie n d sh ip fo r a ll s id e s to the is s u e . F o r the r e s tiv e A ra b -
A s ia n s the c r it ic a l p a rt of h is sp e e c h m u s t have b een the a n n ou n cem en t
that the U nited S tates w ould fa v o r the L a tin -A m e r ic a n draft and d en y
64
its su p p ort to t h e ir s . A reb u tta l w a s not lon g in com in g and M r s.
P a n d it of India p r o v id e d it. She a rg u ed that the L atin draft w a s no
m o r e than an " e x p r e s s io n of p io u s in ten tion s" and that
It m a d e no r e fe r e n c e to c iv il lib e r t ie s or to the r e s to r a tio n of
n o r m a l c o n d itio n s --a lth o u g h that w a s an a s p e c t to w h ich the U nited
N ation s co u ld s c a r c e ly r e m a in in d iffe r e n t--b u t m e r e ly e x p r e s s e d
the v a in hope that the p a r tie s w ould con tinu e n eg o tia tio n s. Y et it
w a s not the T u n isia n s w ho had b ro k en off n eg o tia tio n s . . . it w ould
s e e m to be a c r u e l and d a n g ero u s ir o n y in su c h a grave p r o b le m to
p la c e the onus eq u a lly on the ruling and the ru led.
It w a s at th is point that a te s t of votin g stren g th on the is s u e
w a s p r o v id e d by the P a k is ta n s u g g e s tio n that a r e p r e se n ta tiv e of the
B ey of T unis be in v ited to s it in on the d is c u s s io n s . The s u g g e stio n
^ F o r the fu ll tex t of th is draft, s e e ib id ., A /C .I ./L .8.
k^F or d e le g a te J e s s u p 's sp e e c h , s e e P R 's, G en era l A s s e m b ly ,
7th S e s s io n , C o m m itte e I, pp. 2 0 6 -2 0 8 .
65Ibid., p. 214.
I
34
w a s r e j e c t e d b y a 2 6 - 2 4 v o te w ith 7 a b s t e n t i o n s . ^ F e a r in g that th e ir
d ra ft w o u ld s u ffe r the s a m e fa te , the A r a b - A s ia n s t r ie d to a m en d the
L a tin d raft. India s u g g e s t e d that the c la u s e "E x p r e s s in g C o n fid e n c e 1 1
in F r e n c h p r o c la m a t io n s be d e le te d and a s k e d fo r the a d d ition of a
c la u s e r e q u e s tin g the S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l to k e e p n e g o tia tio n s u n d er o b -
Ln
s e r v a t io n and to g iv e h elp to th e p a r t ie s at h is d is c r e t io n . '
T he v o tin g on the p r o p o s a ls in C o m m itte e found the U nited
S ta te s le n d in g its su p p o r t to the d is m e m b e r m e n t of the A r a b - A s ia n
d raft, and v o tin g a g a in s t it e v e n in its d e c im a te d sta te . The U n ited
S ta tes a ls o h e lp e d d e fe a t th e Indian a m e n d m e n t and c a s t an a ffir m a tiv e
z o
v o te fo r the o r ig in a l L a tin d ra ft w h ic h w a s ad op ted . The A r a b -
A s ia n s a p p a r e n tly d e c id e d to tak e h a lf th e lo a f w h ic h the m o d e r a te L atin
d ra ft o ffe r e d in th e A s s e m b ly , and it b e c a m e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly R e s o
lu tio n 611 (VII).
T he E ig h th S e s s i o n d eb a te on T u n is ia found the A r a b - A s ia n s
a lle g in g F r e n c h d e r e lic t io n s in c a r r y in g out o b lig a tio n s in T u n isia , and
o ffe r in g a 13 p o w e r d ra ft w h ic h w a s c o n s id e r a b ly h a r s h e r than the one
th at had f a ile d to w in U n ited N a tio n s a p p r o v a l in the p r e v io u s y e a r .
T he A r a b - A s ia n d r a ft a s k e d fo r the t e r m in a tio n of m a r t ia l la w in T u n i
s ia and f r e e e le c t io n s fo r th e p u r p o se of fin d in g the " free r e p r e s e n t a
t iv e s " of th e T u n is ia n p e o p le s o that n e g o tia tio n s co u ld p r o c e e d in an
^ Ib id . , p. 2 3 6 . T he U n ited S ta te s v o te d a g a in s t the s u g g e s
tio n , and d e le g a te J e s s u p a r g u e d that th e C o m m itte e w a s not a " cou rt
c o lle c t in g e v id e n c e ." F o r M r. J e s s u p ' s r e m a r k s , s e e ib id ., p. 233.
^ I n d i a n A m e n d m e n t A /C .I ./ L .8.
DOIn a s e r ia t im v o te on the A r a b - A s ia n p r o p o s a l, the U nited
S ta te s c o n s is t e n t ly v o te d a g a in s t p a r a g r a p h s 7 th rou gh 12. F o r r o ll
c a ll v o t e s , s e e P R 's , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , C o m m itte e I, p. 270. F o r v o te
35
effe c tiv e m a n n er. Both th e s e su g g e stio n s w e r e r e je c te d in the C o m
m itte e , although a su b sta n tia l p art of the draft p ro v ed in v u ln era b le to
69
d is m e m b e r m e n t by the U nited S tates and the M etro p o lita n p o w e r s .
A s it e m e r g e d fro m the C o m m ittee, the draft a sk ed that the A s s e m b ly ,
noting that F r a n c e had not fu lfille d the r e q u ir e m e n ts of G e n e ra l A s
s e m b ly R e so lu tio n 611 (VII), d e c la r e that:
D e s ir o u s of cre a tin g n e c e s s a r y con d ition s in T u n isia for the r e s
to ra tio n of n o r m a l r e la tio n s . . .
C onvin ced that fu ll e ffe c t should be g iv e n to the s o v e r e ig n ty of the
p e o p le s of T u n isia . . . of th eir le g itim a te righ ts to s e lf -
d e term in a tio n in c o n fo r m ity w ith the C h arter.
1. R eco m m e n d s that a ll n e c e s s a r y ste p s be tak en to e n
su re the r e a liz a tio n by the p eo p le of T u n isia of th eir
right to fu ll s o v e r e ig n ty and in d ep en d en ce.
2. R eq u e sts the S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l to tr a n s m it th is r e s o
lution, to g eth er w ith a r e c o r d of the p r o c e e d in g s to the
F r e n c h G overn m ent and r e p o r t to the G en era l A s s e m
bly at its Ninth Session.^ ®
The vote in the C o m m ittee on th is draft had b een v e r y c lo s e ,
and w ith the p r e c e d e n t of d efea t on the M o ro c ca n item in the A s s e m b ly
s t ill f r e s h in th e ir m in d s, the A r a b -A s ia n s ap p aren tly d ecid ed that
so m e c o m p r o m is e w ould be n e c e s s a r y . D eleg a te Bakr of Iraq a sk ed
fo r an ad jou rn m ent of the A s s e m b ly for the c o n s id e r a tio n of a m en d
m e n ts , but not b efore d e le g a te Hanifah of In don esia had bluntly a c c u s e d
the W e ste r n p o w e r s of ab u sing the tw o -th ir d s ru le, and a r tic le 2, p a r a
graph 7, to fr u s tr a te the le g itim a te a s p ir a tio n s of the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls .
on L atin draft, s e e ib id ., p. 271.
^ F o r s e r ia tim vote s e e P R 's, G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly , 8th S e s
sio n , C o m m itte e I, pp. 1 1 1 -1 1 2 .
^ F o r fu ll text, s e e P R 's, G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly , 8th S e s s i o n , A n
n e x e s , A genda Item 56, p. 5.
36
A s to the U nited S tates r o le in the debate, M r. H anifah ch a rg ed that
p erh ap s m o s t d e tr im e n ta l to th is w o rld body is the em p lo y m en t by
c e r ta in p o w e r s of th e ir tr e m e n d o u s in flu en ce to c a s t v o te s in the
full know ledge that th ey w ill p a r a ly z e or p re v e n t th is a s s e m b ly
from reach in g any d e c is io n s on the p r e s s in g p r o b le m s b e se ttin g
the A sia n and A fr ic a n c o n t in e n t s .^
The c o m p r o m is e e ffe c te d during the adjournm ent d e le te d any
chiding of F r a n c e and the s e c o n d o p e r a tiv e p a ra g ra p h w hich r e q u e ste d
the S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l to tr a n s m it r e s o lu tio n s and rep o r t to the A s -
72
se m b ly at the n ext s e s s io n . S om e m e a s u r e of the r e lu cta n c e w ith
w hich the A r a b -A s ia n s a g r e e d to the c o m p r o m is e m a y be fe lt by r e a d
ing th eir r e m a r k s in the su b seq u en t m e e tin g . It m a y have b een n e c e s
sa r y to c o m p r o m is e but it w ould appear that the ou tcom e w as only
b a r e ly p a la ta b le, and d ele g a te Bakr of Iraq r em a r k e d that it w as " e x
tr e m e ly d isc o u r a g in g and d ish e a r te n in g to s e e that th is o r g a n iz a tio n is
r eg a rd ed as a tool fo r fu rth erin g the in t e r e s t s of c e r ta in p o w e r s." He
ch arged that only p r o b le m s c o n s id e r e d im p ortan t by them w e r e a llo w ed
to be handled e ffe c tiv e ly . M r. Bakr found the h e a r t of the c o n tr o v e r s y
to be that
B a s ic and fundam ental p r in c ip le s cannot be tw iste d around e v e r y
day w ithout doing la s tin g and in c a lc u la b le d am age . . .
The p r e s e n t situ ation m a y s a tis fy F r a n c e . . . . It m a y ev en
s e r v e the s h o r t-te r m in t e r e s t s of a llia n c e s and in tern a tio n a l
groups. But behind th e s e a llia n c e s and th e se grou p s, w e a re told,
e x is t a m o r a l and id e o lo g ic a l con cep t. T h e se id e a ls and co n cep ts
cannot be defen d ed in is o la tio n fr o m oth er p r o b le m s of a s im ila r
c h a r a c te r throughout the w o rld . ' J
H ow ever d ifficu lt the c o m p r o m is e m a y h ave been for the A ra b -
A sia n s and h o w e v er fa r -r e a c h in g th ey m a y have c o n s id e r e d th eir
71
PR's, General Assembly, 8th Session, Committee I, p. 271.
73See ibid., p. 289. 73Ibid., p. 290.
37
c o n c e s s io n s , th eir appeals to the M etrop olitan p o w e rs w on no co n v e r ts.
The c o m p r o m ise draft reso lu tio n fa ile d to obtain the n e c e s s a r y tw o-
thirds m a jo rity , the U nited States h elp in g to d efeat the p r o p o sa l by its
74
n egative vote.
Ninth S e ssio n co n sid era tio n of the T u n isian item w as c o n s id
era b ly m o r e co rd ia l than in p r e v io u s y e a r s . In July, 1954, P r e m ie r
M e n d e s-F r a n c e had announced h is inten tion to grant T u n isia fu ll in te r
nal autonom y. A new and p red o m in a n tly n a tio n a list g overn m en t had
been fo rm ed in T unisia, and n eg o tia tio n s b etw een this govern m en t and
F ra n ce had been approved by the F r e n c h A sse m b ly . T h ese n egotiation s
w ere in p r o g r e s s w hen the G eneral A ss e m b ly m e t to debate the T uni
sian item , and gen eral confidence in a happy outcom e to th e se talks
s e e m e d to p r e v a il in C om m ittee I. On D e cem b er 16th, the C om m ittee
approved a draft r eso lu tio n postponing fu rth er c o n sid era tio n of the
item "for the tim e being," and on the next day the draft w as adopted in
7 ^
the A ss e m b ly by a 5 6-0 vote w ith 3 ab sten tio n s.
^ A s it e m e r g e d after the c o m p r o m is e the draft w ould have
read as follow s: The G eneral A sse m b ly :
"H aving co n sid e r e d the q u estion of T u nisia, as p ro p o sed by 15 m e m
b er sta te s in docum ent A /2405.
R eca llin g its reso lu tio n 611 {VII) of S ep tem b er 17, 1952.
D esiro u s of cre a tin g the n e c e s s a r y conditions for the r e sto r a tio n
b etw een F ra n ce and T u n isia of n o rm a l r e la tio n s b a sed on
the p rin cip le of eq u ality of righ ts of nations la r g e and
sm a l l .
C onvinced that fu ll e ffe c t should be given to the s o v e r e ig n ty of the
peop le of T unisia, by the e x e r c is e , as e a r ly as p o s sib le ,
of th eir le g itim a te rig h ts to s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n in co n
fo r m ity w ith the C harter.
R ecom m en d s that n egotiation s b etw een F r a n c e and T u n isia be un
dertaken to en su r e the r e a liz a tio n by the p eop le of T uni
s ia of th eir right to se lf-d e te r m in a tio n ."
^ R e s o lu t io n 813 (DC) w a s adopted on D ecem b er 17. OR1 s ,
G eneral A ss e m b ly , 9th S e s s io n , p. 538. F o r co m m en ts by the A m e r ic a n
38
The p r o g r e s s r e g is t e r e d by n eg o tia tio n s b etw een F r a n c e and
T u n isia r e s u lte d in the F r a n c o -T u n is ia n C onventions of June 3, 1955,
and the item w a s not p r o p o se d fo r d is c u s s io n in the Tenth S e s sio n . On
M arch 20, 1956, F r a n c e r e c o g n iz e d the in d ependence of T u n isia ending
the F r e n c h P r o te c to r a te o v er that country.
A lg e r ia
If by 1955 the F r e n c h d ele g a tio n to the U nited N ations w as
finding m o r e sy m p ath y and u n d erstan d in g in its tr a v a ils in T u n isia and
M o ro c co , the r e s p ite fro m bein g a p r im e ta rg et fo r the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls
w as ra th er sh o rt. The T enth S e s s io n of the G en eral A s s e m b ly w it
n e s s e d a s u c c e s s f u l e ffo rt by the A r a b -A sia n s to p la ce the q u estio n of
A lg e r ia on the A s s e m b ly 's agenda ov er the b itter p r o te s ts of the F r e n c h
d eleg a tio n . The G en era l C o m m ittee had upheld the F r e n c h p o sitio n
that A lg e r ia w a s an in te g r a l p art of F r a n c e and th e r e fo r e not w ithin the
A s s e m b ly 's ju r is d ic tio n , and r e c o m m e n d e d that it be den ied a p la c e on
the agenda, but the A s s e m b ly in a c lo s e vote r e v e r s e d the C o m m itte e 's
7 A
rec o m m e n d a tio n . The F r e n c h d ele g a tio n ch a rg ed v io la tio n of a r tic le
2, p a ra g ra p h 7, and all its m e m b e r s th ereupon w alk ed out of the A s
sem b ly . A p p aren tly the exod u s of the F r e n c h d eleg a tio n had a so b erin g
e ffe c t upon a ll m e m b e r s , includ ing the A r a b -A s ia n s , and on the in itia
tiv e of India's d e le g a te M enon, the A s s e m b ly u n a n im o u sly r e s o lv e d
"not to c o n s id e r fu rth er the item en titled 'the q u estio n of A lg eria ' and
is th e r e fo r e no lo n g e r s e iz e d of the item on the agenda of its tenth
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e , s e e ib id ., C o m m ittee I, pp. 571, 577.
7 6
The vote w as 2 8 -2 7 w ith 5 a b ste n tio n s.
39
s e s s io n .
The follo w in g y e a r w a s to change the p o sitio n of the an ti
co lo n ia ls fr o m one of m a g n a n im ity to d is t r e s s and co n cer n , fo r 13
A r a b -A s ia n s ap p roach ed the S e c u r ity C ouncil to take ju r isd ic tio n on the
A lg e r ia n q u estio n in lig h t of F r a n c e 's in c r e a s e d m ilita r y a ctio n s in that
country. The U nited S tates w a s am ong the m a jo r ity on the C ouncil that
d en ied th is r e q u e st on the grounds that debate on the m a tte r w ould not
7 8
help r e s o lv e the co n flict.
At the E le v en th S e s s io n the A r a b -A s ia n s fin a lly m a n a g ed to
fo r c e a debate on A lg e r ia , a v ic to r y m ad e e a s ie r by the a c q u ie s c e n c e
of the F r e n c h d ele g a tio n w h ich announced its e a g e r n e s s to refu te
c h a r g e s m ad e a g a in st its g o v ern m en t fo r w h ich r e a s o n it did not op p ose
debate on the m a tte r . The settin g fo r the d eb a tes d iffere d so m ew h a t
fro m th o se on T u n isia and M o r o c c o fo r F r a n c e 's d ele g a te P in ea u
p la c e d h eavy e m p h a sis on the a rg u m en t that A lg e r ia w a s a p a rt of
M etro p o lita n F r a n c e and that no e x te r n a l in flu en ce w ould be to le r a te d
by his g o v ern m en t. The a rg u m en t ap p ealed to U nited S tates d ele g a te
L odge w ho announced that the U nited S ta tes " opposed p r o p o s a ls w hich
the U nited S tates d ele g a tio n b e lie v e d co n stitu ted in terv e n tio n in m a tte r s
e s s e n t ia lly w ithin the d o m e stic ju r is d ic tio n of F r a n c e . Such p r o p o s a ls,
if ap p lied in d is c r im in a te ly in the o rg a n iz a tio n , could d e s tr o y it . . ."
A m b a ssa d o r Lodge p r e d ic ta b ly " w elco m ed F r a n c e 's w illin g n e s s to
^ G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly R e so lu tio n 909 (X).
^®The vote in the C ouncil w a s 7 -2 w ith 2 a b ste n tio n s. Iran and
the USSR voted " y es." C hina and Y u g o sla v ia ab stain ed . F r a n c e
ch a rg ed E gypt w ith in te r fe r e n c e in A lg e r ia and aiding r e b e ls and the
S e c u r ity C ouncil did s e e fit to take ju r is d ic tio n on this m a tte r , although
it w as not debated.
40
con clud e a c e a s e - f i r e ," and argu ed that "there m u st be no e x te r n a l in
flu e n c e in A lg e r ia n a ffa ir s fr o m any q u a rter, for su ch a ctio n w ould be
79
bound to le a d to an in c r e a s e of v io le n c e th e r e ." The F r e n c h p o sitio n
found its su p p o r te r s am ong the L a tin -A m e r ic a n n ation s, and Cuba d e
v e lo p e d the th em e of C o m m u n ist d an ger in A lg e r ia , e m p h a siz in g the
e x is te n c e of C o m m u n ist-in flu e n c e d " te r r o r ists " and w arn in g of the new
c o lo n ia lis m w h ich m ig h t r e s u lt if F r a n c e w ith d rew fro m A lg e r ia . The
F r e n c h -A m e r ic a n -L a tin v ie w e s s e n t ia lly p o s ite d th r e e a rg u m en ts: (a)
A lg e r ia w a s a "national!1 not an in tern a tio n a l m a tter; (b) th e r e should
be no " ex tern a l in flu e n c e ” in A lg eria ; and (c) the dan ger of C o m m u n ist
ex p a n sio n if F r e n c h p o w er w e r e ev a cu a ted fro m A lg e r ia . The A ra b -
A sia n rebuttal m e t a ll th r e e a rg u m en ts in one of the c le a r e s t d eb a tes in
the A s s e m b ly . D eleg a te Z en n eid ine of S y ria rem in d ed the d e le g a te s
that co n q u est and not co n sen t ex p la in e d the F r e n c h p r e s e n c e in A lg e r ia ,
and that
the in tern a tio n a liza tio n of the A lg e r ia n q u estio n w as the r e s u lt of a
g e n e r a l r e v o lu tio n in in tern a tio n a l a ffa ir s. . . . C olon ial p o w e r s
s till continued to think of A sia and A fr ic a in te r m s of g e o g ra p h ic a l
r e g io n s and s tr a te g ic a r e a s ra th er than as p e o p le s w ith a sp ir a tio n s
and a w ill to su r v iv e and grow.®®
W e ste r n support of F r e n c h c la im s to d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n s e e m e d o n
ly lo g ic a l to the S y ria n d e le g a te , for ". . . F r e n c h statu s in A lg e r ia w as
su pported by fo r c e , not only on the p a rt of F r e n c e , but on the p a rt of
81
v a r io u s in tern a tio n a l q u a r te r s as w e ll."
A s to the p le a m a d e by U nited S tates d e le g a te Lodge that th ere
^ O R 's, G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly , 11th S e s s io n , C o m m ittee I, pp.
135-136.
8QIbid., pp. 108-109. 81Ibid.
41
should be no ex ter n a l in flu en ce in A lg e r ia , the d e le g a te fro m C eylon
stated that
the sta te m e n t of the U nited S tates r e p r e se n ta tiv e had b een s o m e
what s u r p r isin g . It w as u n derstan d ab le that he should sp ea k a s the
a p o stle of W e ste r n so lid a r ity , but that w a s not enough. P io u s h op es
that, if ex te r n a l in terv en tio n did not o c c u r , a s e ttle m e n t m ig h t be
rea c h e d in a c o n flic t w h ich in volved the in d ep en d en ce of a p eo p le,
sounded so m ew h a t stra n g e w hen co m in g fro m the r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of
a cou n try w h ich had b een the f ir s t to str u g g le for its fr e e d o m and
w hich, on that o c c a s io n had a sk ed fo r and r e c e iv e d the h elp of the
F r e n c h nation itself.® ^
The w a rn in g s by F r a n c e and Cuba r eg a r d in g the danger of
C om m u n ism in A lg e r ia le ft Indonesian d ele g a te Hanifah quite u nm oved,
and he su g g e ste d
that the a lle g e d a c tiv itie s and grow ing stren g th of that p a r ty could
only be attrib u ted to the continual d en ial of the nation al a sp ir a tio n s
of the A lg e r ia n p e o p le . N oting that in F r a n c e th ere w a s a la r g e
and stron g C om m u n ist party, he d e c la r e d that F r e n c h a lle g a tio n s
w ith r e g a r d to the a c tiv itie s of the C o m m u n ist p arty in A lg e r ia
w ould im p ly that that p a r ty w as d an gerou s in the c o lo n ie s , but not
dan gerou s in independent co u n tr ie s. If that th e s is w a s a ccep ted ,
the b e s t a n sw er w ould be to give A lg e r ia its in d e p e n d e n c e .83
The m e m o r y of d e c is iv e a ctio n taken by the G en era l A s s e m b ly
on the H ungarian is s u e w a s fr e s h in the m in d s of the a n ti-c o lo n ia l d e le
gation s, and so too w e r e the blunt w o rd s of con d em n ation u s e d a g a in st
the S oviet U nion by the W estern P o w e r s and the Latin n a tio n s. In the
a n ti-c o lo n ia l s e c tio n of the A s s e m b ly the u s e of cau tiou s langu age w hen
speaking of F r a n c e s e e m e d both u n c h a r a c te r istic and u n w ise fo r th o se
who had b een so fo rth rig h t in other m a tte r s . D eleg a te A l- J a m a li of
Iraq in trod u ced h is catalogu e of F r e n c h r e p r e s s io n in A lg e r ia w ith the
p roverb : "He who k e ep s s ile n t defending right is a dumb d ev il," and
in s is te d that " sin ce the G en eral A s s e m b ly had con d em n ed the a tr o c itie s
82Ibid., p. 158. 83Ibid., p. 147.
42
in H ungary, he could not c o n c e iv e how F r e n c h a tr o c itie s in A lg e r ia
84
could be condoned." It r e m a in e d for d e le g a te G unaw ardene of C eylon
to co n tr a st the change in U nited S ta tes attitude w hen the ta r g e ts d if
fe r e d . A d d r e ss in g h im s e lf to the A m e r ic a n d e le g a te 's e v a s io n of the
su b stan tive is s u e and p r e d e lic tio n fo r its le g a l a s p e c ts , M r. G unaw ar
dene r e m a r k e d that "The U nited S tates could rep ea t that A lg e r ia w as a
p art of F r a n c e , but that did not change the r e a l p o sitio n , fo r a te c h n ic a l
q n
argu m en t could not be op p osed to a popular m o v em en t." M r. Guna
w a rd en e w as d is t r e s s e d by the la ck of ch a rity show n to th o se w hom the
a n ti-c o lo n ia ls c o n s id e r e d on the sid e of fr e e d o m in the A lg e r ia n d i s
pute and r e g is t e r e d h is d isap poin tm ent in the com m ent:
w hen p eop le in H ungary fought for th eir fr e e d o m th ey w e r e c a lle d
h e r o e s , w h e r e a s in A lg e r ia they w e r e d e s c r ib e d as in c e n d ia r ie s
and t e r r o r is t s . When the H ungarians ex ec u te d th eir o p p r e s s o r s ,
th ey w e r e a c c la im e d , but w hen A lg e r ia n s did the sa m e th ey w e r e
branded a s c r im in a ls .86
T h ree draft r e s o lu tio n s w e r e o ffered in C o m m ittee I. The 18-
p ow er A r a b -A s ia n draft w a s p r e d ic ta b ly the str o n g e st, dem anding
r e c o g n itio n of the right of s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n of the p eop le of A lg e r ia
and ca llin g on F r a n c e to " resp on d to the d e s ir e of the A lg e r ia n p eo p le
to th eir fu n dam ental right of s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n ." It a ls o a sk ed the
S e c r e ta r y G en era l to h elp the n eg o tia tio n s b etw een F r a n c e and the A l-
87
g eria n p eop le and to rep o rt to the T w elfth S e s sio n . A m ild e r th r e e -
p o w er draft (Japan, P h ilip p in es and Thailand) w ould have the A s s e m b ly
note the " u n sa tisfa c to r y situation" and "human su fferin g" in A lg e r ia
and s u g g e st that an end to th e s e con d ition s depended upon the "joint
84Ibid., p. 153.
87A /C .1 /L .1 6 5 .
85Ibid., p. 158.
43
88
effo rts of F r a n c e and the A lg e r ia n p eo p le." The th ird draft, authored
by the L atin p o w e r s, w ould sim p ly state that the A s s e m b ly "having
h eard the sta te m e n t of F r e n c h and other d ele g a tio n s" and having " d is
c u s s e d the q u estio n of A lg eria : exp r e s s e s the hope that a p e a c e fu l and
89
d e m o c r a tic so lu tio n w ill be found."
The fate of the A r a b -A s ia n draft w a s no d ifferen t fro m th o se
o ffered on the T u n isian and M o ro cca n is s u e s in the p r e v io u s s e s s i o n s ,
and the U nited S tates op p osed p rea m b u la r r e fe r e n c e s to s e l f - d e t e r m i
nation as w e ll as the o p era tiv e p a ra g ra p h s. The A r a b -A s ia n s then
m ade an u n s u c c e s s fu l effo rt to add a r e fe r e n c e to s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n in
the p r e a m b le of the L a tin -A m e r ic a n draft. The unam ended Latin draft
w as adopted by a 4 1 -3 3 vote w ith 3 a b ste n tio n s, a ll the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls
ca stin g a n egative vote. At this point the M etrop olitan p o w ers m ad e an
u n su c c e s s fu l effo rt to avoid a vote on the th r e e -p o w e r draft w hich w as
adopted by a 37-27 vote w ith 13 a b ste n tio n s. The U nited States d e le g a -
90
tion w as am ong th o se opposing ev en the m ild e r A sia n draft.
Sin ce none of the d rafts adopted in C o m m ittee I s e e m e d to
have the req u ir ed tw o -th ir d s vote to s e c u r e adoption in the A ss e m b ly ,
the s p o n so r s of both s u c c e s s f u l d rafts c o n fe r r e d and p r e s e n te d the f o l
low ing " c o m p ro m ise" n in e -p o w e r draft to the A s s e m b ly , w hich adopted
it w ithout an opposing v o te. The G en eral A sse m b ly :
88A /C . 1 /L . 166. 89A /C .1 /L .1 6 7 .
9 9 The vote on the 1 8 -p o w er draft d e le te d the f ir s t two o p e r a
tive p a ragrap h s by a vote of 3 4 -3 3 and 10 a b ste n tio n s. The p r o p o sa l to
avoid a vote on the 3 -p o w e r draft w as 4 3 -2 4 and 10 a b ste n tio n s, the
U nited S tates votin g along w ith the M etro p o lita n p o w e r s to abandon the
draft. O R 's, G en era l A s s e m b ly , 11th S e s s io n , C o m m ittee I, pp. 2 0 8 -
2 1 2 .
44
H aving h e a r d the s ta te m e n ts m a d e by v a r io u s d e le g a tio n s and d i s
c u s s e d the q u e s tio n of A lg e r ia ;
H aving r e g a r d to th e s itu a tio n in A lg e r ia w h ic h is c a u sin g m u c h
s u ffe r in g and l o s s of h u m a n liv e s ;
E x p r e s s e s th e h op e that, in a s p ir it of c o o p e r a tio n , a p e a c e fu l,
d e m o c r a tic and ju s t s o lu tio n w ill be found, th rou gh a p
p r o p r ia te m e a n s , in c o n fo r m ity w ith the P r in c ip le s of the
C h a r ter of the U n ited N a t io n s .91
The T w elfth S e s s i o n d eb a te on A lg e r ia d is p la y e d tw o n ew c o n
sid e r a tio n s : (a) the lo i - c a d r e e n v is a g e d fo r A lg e r ia by the F r e n c h g o v
e r n m e n t, w h ich , F r e n c h d e le g a te P in e a u p le a d e d , sh ou ld c l e a r l y in d i
ca te to the U n ited N a tio n s the w illin g n e s s and a b ility of the F r e n c h g o v
e r n m e n t to b r in g the A lg e r ia n d isp u te to a ju st and h o n o r a b le c o n c lu
sion , and (b) a n t i- c o lo n ia l o u tr a g e a t the F r e n c h p o lic y of " p a c ific a
tion," w h ich , the A r a b - A s ia n s c h a r g e d , w a s a e u p h e m is tic w a y of d e
sc r ib in g m ilit a r y r e p r i s a l and u n ju stifie d to r tu r e and d e c im a tio n of the
A lg e r ia n p e o p le . A dd ed fu e l to the a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o s itio n w a s p r o v id e d
by the F r e n c h in s is t e n c e on the " rig h t of p u r su it," w h ic h T u n isia n d e l e
gate S lim c r i t ic i z e d a s a v io la tio n of h is c o u n tr y 's t e r r it o r ia l s o v e r -
• - 92
eig n ty .
The a n ti- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w e r e u n im p r e s s e d by the p la n n ed
l o i - c a d r e , fo r in th e ir v ie w , u n ila te r a l p la n s b y the F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t
w e r e no s o lu tio n to the d isp u te , and th e y a r g u e d that " n e g o tia tio n s" b e
tw e e n the F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t and the p e o p le of A lg e r ia w e r e the o n ly
ju s t a n s w e r to the p r o b le m . The U n ited S ta te s d e le g a te did not s h a r e
9-*-General A s s e m b ly R e s o lu tio n 1012 (XI). T h is w a s ad op ted
by a 7 5 -0 v o te w ith 1 a b ste n tio n . P R 's , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 11th S e s
sio n , C o m m i t t e e -1, p. 1105.
^ F o r a fu lle r d e v e lo p m e n t of the F r e n c h and T u n isia n v ie w s ,
s e e P R 's , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , lZ th S e s s io n , C o m m itte e I, pp. 2 5 3 -2 5 8 .
45
th is v ie w , and M r. L odge a rg u ed that the lo i - c a d r e w e r e "a fo r w a r d
step ," and he w a s "glad to h ear" of the F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t’s in ten tio n s
in the A lg e r ia n p r o b le m . The U nited N a tio n s, in the A m e r ic a n v ie w ,
w a rd en e in s is t e d that no m a tte r how happy the W e ste r n p o w e r s m ig h t
be w ith F r e n c h a n n o u n cem en ts of new la w s , p la n s fo r c e a s e - f i r e s and
e le c tio n s , none of th e s e m e a s u r e s w ou ld p r o v e u s e fu l u n le s s the right
to s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n w a s r e c o g n iz e d . M r. G u naw ardene w a r n e d that
It w ou ld be fa ta l to in te r n a tio n a l u n d ersta n d in g if W e s te r n s o l
id a r ity should stand in the w a y of an eq u ita b le s o lu tio n to the p r o b
le m . He th e r e fo r e a p p ea led to the a ll ie s of F r a n c e to u s e th e ir
good o ffic e s in the c a u s e of p e a c e , and to a ll m e m b e r s to c o n s id e r
A ’ e r ia n q u estio n in is o la tio n fro m the w o r ld c o n flic t in id e o lo -
h o w e v er, to be in e x tr ic a b ly tie d to the A lg e r ia n p r o b le m , and one a s
p e c t of it en g a g ed the atten tion of the d e le g a te fr o m Iraq. D e le g a te A l-
J a m a li quoted fig u r e s fr o m The N ew Y ork T im e s and o ffic ia l F r e n c h
s o u r c e s sh ow in g the e x p e n d itu r e s in c u r r e d by F r a n c e due to the w ar in
A lg e r ia , and co n clu d ed that N A T O w a s p a r tly payin g fo r the F r e n c h
m ilita r y a ctio n in that cou n try. He th en sta ted that
H is d e le g a tio n w ould lik e to know w h e th e r the oth er m e m b e r s of
N ATO , w h ich a c c o r d in g to the s p o n s o r s had b een c r e a te d to d efend
lib e r ty , d e m o c r a c y and j u s tic e in the w o r ld , w e r e a llo w in g the
f o r c e s and funds of N A T O to be u s e d fo r the sup e s s io n of a p e o
p le figh tin g fo r fr e e d o m and s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n .
If M r. G unaw ardene had hoped that the q u e stio n of A lg e r ia
w ould be f r e e of any en ta n g le m e n t w ith the w o r ld c o n flic t in id e o lo g ie s ,
should do nothing to h a m p e r p r o g r e s s . 9 ^ C e y lo n e s e d e le g a te G una-
W e ste r n so lid a r ity and the w o r ld c o n flic t in id e o lo g ie s s e e m e d ,
9^OR's, General Assembly, 12th Session, Committee I, p. 295.
94Ibid., p. 277. 95Ibid.., p. 283.
46
d e le g a te A h m ed of P a k is ta n a p p a r e n tly f e lt th at a s u c c e s s f u l a p p ea l to
th e U n ited S ta te s co u ld b e s t be m a d e by r e la tin g A lg e r ia to the U n ited
S t a t e s - S o v ie t r iv a lr y . M r. A h m ed w a r n e d th at if the A s s e m b ly a b d i
c a te d on its r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s , "the A fr ic a n and A sia n p e o p le s w ou ld b e
c o n fir m e d in th e ir id e n tific a tio n of th e w e s t w ith a ll the e v ils of c o lo n i
a lis m . Such an id e n tific a tio n w ou ld b e d e p lo r a b le at a m o m e n t in h is t o
r y w h en the s tr u g g le fo r c o m p e titiv e c o - e x is t e n c e had e n te r e d its m o s t
96
c r it ic a l s ta g e ." T he a n t i- c o lo n ia ls u r g e d th e ad op tion of th e ir d ra ft
r e s o lu tio n b y the C o m m itte e , a d o cu m en t a u th o red by 17 p o w e r s fr o m
the A r a b -A s ia n r a n k s. In its o r ig in a l fo r m the d ra ft n o ted th at th e p r e
v io u s y e a r 's r e s o lu tio n had not b e e n fu lfille d , a ffir m e d th e r ig h t of the
A lg e r ia n p e o p le to s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n and c a lle d fo r n e g o tia tio n s and
the u s e of th e good o f f ic e s o ffe r m a d e b y th e P r e s id e n t o f T u n isia and
th e K ing of M o r o c c o .^ C anada, Ir e la n d and N o rw a y w e r e s u c c e s s f u l in
th e ir a tte m p t to a m en d th e r e f e r e n c e to s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n w h ich in its
a m en d ed fo r m rea d , "the A lg e r ia n p e o p le a r e e n title d to w o rk out th e ir
fu tu r e in th e ir ow n w ay"; th e y w e r e a ls o s u c c e s s f u l in a m en d in g th e
o p e r a tiv e p a r a g r a p h fr o m one u r g in g " n e g o tia tio n s" b a s e d on th e p r in
c ip le o f s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n , to one th a t s im p ly p r o p o se d " e ffe c tiv e d i s
c u s s io n s fo r th e p u r p o se of r e s o lv in g the p r e s e n t tr o u b le d situ a tio n
. . ." T he U n ited S ta te s su p p o r te d b oth a m e n d m e n ts and v o ted fo r th e
a m en d ed d ra ft w h ic h w a s d e fe a te d b y th e tie d v o te of 3 7 -3 7 w ith 6 a b -
98
s te n tio n s . T he r e je c tio n of th is d r a ft le d to a situ a tio n w h e r e th e
96Ibid., p. 301. 97A/C.1/L.196.
9 ®The v o te on th e 3 -p o w e r a m e n d m e n ts w a s 3 7 -3 6 w ith 7 a b
s te n tio n s , th e v o tin g d is tr ib u tio n sh o w in g A r a b -A s ia n s s o lid ly in th e
n e g a tiv e c o lu m n and th e M e tr o p o lita n p o w e r s a lo n g w ith sy m p a th e tic
47
C o m m itte e had n oth in g to r e c o m m e n d to th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly e x c e p t
p e r h a p s to r e p o r t on the d is c o r d th at p r e v a ile d in th e d eb a te. The A s
s e m b ly , h o w e v e r , in an u n p r e c e d e n te d and u n orth o d o x m o m e n t ad op ted
a c o m p r o m is e r e s o lu tio n su b m itte d by 15 p o w e r s w h ic h w a s r e a d alou d
by th e P r e s id e n t and im m e d ia te ly v o te d upon w ith o u t d eb a te o r e x p la n a -
99
tio n of v o te .
T he T h ir te e n th S e s s io n d eb a te on A lg e r ia w a s so m e w h a t o n e
sid e d , fo r F r a n c e r e fu s e d to p a r tic ip a te in any fu r th e r d is c u s s io n of the
q u e stio n . The p o u r p a r le r s r e q u e s te d b y th e A s s e m b ly had n ot m a t e r i
a liz e d and the s itu a tio n had d e te r io r a te d . D e le g a te M on gi S lim of T u n i
s ia o p en ed th e d eb a te c h a r g in g th at any h o p e s g e n e r a te d by G e n e r a l de
G a u lle 's a s c e n t to p o w e r had b e e n b u r ie d in th e r u in s of th e b om b ed
T u n isia n v illa g e of S a k ie t - S id i- Y o u s s e f . T h is u n ten a b le e x e r c is e of the
L a tin -A m e r ic a n s am on g th o s e v o tin g in th e a ffir m a tiv e . S ee P R 's ,
G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 12th S e s s io n , C o m m itte e I, p. 342.
^ T h e c o m p r o m is e r e s o lu tio n r e a d a s fo llo w s: T he G e n e r a l
A s s e m b ly
"H avin g d is c u s s e d the q u e s tio n of A lg e r ia
R e c a llin g its r e s o lu tio n 1012 (XI) of F e b r u a r y 15, 1957
1. E x p r e s s e s a g a in its c o n c e r n o v e r the s itu a tio n in A lg e r ia
2. T a k es n o te of th e o ffe r of go o d o ffic e s m a d e b y H is M a je sty
th e K ing of M o r o c c o and H is E x c e lle n c y th e P r e s id e n t of
th e T u n isia n R ep u b lic
3. E x p r e s s e s th e w is h th at, in a s p ir it of e ffe c tiv e c o o p e r a
tio n , p o u r p a r le r s w ill be e n te r e d in to and o th er a p p r o p r ia te
m e a n s u t iliz e d w ith a v ie w to a s o lu tio n in c o n fo r m ity w ith
the P u r p o s e s and P r in c ip le s o f th e C h a r ter of the U n ited
N a tio n s."
This resolution was adopted by an 80-0 vote. PR's, General A ssem b ly,
12th S essio n , p. 568.
" rig h t of p u r su it" and th e F r e n c h A s s e m b ly 's r e v is io n of th e a lr e a d y
u n a c c e p ta b le lo i - c a d r e s e e m e d to d e le g a te S lim to d is q u a lity F r a n c e
fr o m an y c la im s o f w o rk in g th e p r o b le m out fo r it s e lf . M r. S lim r e
p o r te d th a t th e go o d o f f ic e s o ffe r m a d e by h is g o v e r n m e n t and th a t of
M o r o c c o had b e e n r e je c te d , and h e a ttr ib u te d th e d e te r io r a tio n of th e
situ a tio n in A lg e r ia to th e la c k of a d e c is iv e s ta te m e n t in th e r e s o lu
tio n s p a s s e d b y th e A s s e m b ly . He w a s u n im p r e s s e d by th e r e fe r e n d u m
and e le c t io n s h e ld in A lg e r ia b y F r a n c e , fo r F r e n c h b a y o n e ts and n ot
A lg e r ia n d e s ir e s h ad b e e n the k ey n o te o f b oth e n d e a v o r s . T he T h ir
te e n th G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly m u s t be s p e c if ic in its r e c o m m e n d a tio n s , fo r:
The U n ited N a tio n s c o u ld not r e s t co n ten t w ith a g e n e r a l and
v a g u e r e c o m m e n d a tio n , w h ic h w o u ld be op en to a ll k in d s o f in t e r
p r e ta tio n s , e v e n th at o f co n tin u in g th e s o - c a ll e d w a r of p a c if ic a
tion; its duty w a s to c o u n s e l n e g o tia tio n and to in d ic a te a so lu tio n
c o m p a tib le w ith th e n a tu ra l r ig h t of p e o p le s to fr e e d o m and in d e
p e n d e n c e .
N e g o tia tio n w a s th e k ey n o te of a ll th e a n ti-c o lo n ia l s ta te m e n ts
in th e C o m m itte e , and th e y p o in te d out th a t the r e b e ls in A lg e r ia h ad , in
th e p r e v io u s y e a r , o r g a n iz e d a P r o v is io n a l G o v e r n m e n t o f th e A lg e r ia n
R ep u b lic , w h ic h b od y w a s tr u ly e n title d to sp e a k fo r th e A lg e r ia n s id e
to th e w a r . T he e le c t io n s h e ld by F r a n c e s e e m e d to the a n t i- c o lo n ia ls
a fu tile a tte m p t to c r e a te a g o v e r n m e n t m o r e p lia b le to F r e n c h in flu
e n c e and a s In d ia 's d e le g a te M en on put it, "to c h o o s e o n e 's n e g o tia tin g
p a r tn e r s w a s r a th e r lik e ta lk in g to o n e s e lf." T he A r a b -A s ia n s a sk e d
fo r a p p r o v a l of th e ir jo in t 1 7 -p o w e r d ra ft, w h ic h n oted th e r ig h t of s e lf -
d e te r m in a tio n and the fo r m a tio n o f th e P G A R , c o n s id e r e d th e A lg e r ia n
p r o b le m a d a n g er to p e a c e and in te r n a tio n a l s e c u r it y and u r g e d
^ ^O R 's, General A ssem bly, 13th Session, Committee I, pp.
338-340.
49
n e g o tia tio n s b etw een the p a r tie s c o n c e r n e d .^ ''
The A r a b -A s ia n s s u c c e s s f u lly r e s is t e d H a iti's a tte m p ts to
so fte n the d raft, and it w a s a p p ro v ed in its o r ig in a l fo r m by a 3 2 -1 8
v o te w ith 30 a b ste n tio n s. T he U n ited S ta te s d id not sp e a k in th e d eb a te,
v o ted fo r the u n s u c c e s s fu l a m en d m en ts and a b sta in e d on the v o te on the
d ra ft a s a w h o le.
W hen the a p p ro v ed d ra ft c a m e b e fo r e the A s s e m b ly , M a la y a n
d e le g a te Ism a il a p p ea led to its s p o n s o r s to d e le te th e r e fe r e n c e to the
PG A R , fo r h e a rg u ed th at m a n y n a tio n s fe a r e d that su p p o rt of the r e s o
lu tio n m ig h t c o n stitu te " r eco g n itio n " of th e PG A R . H e h op ed th at the
d e le tio n of that r e fe r e n c e w ou ld en a b le m o r e d e le g a tio n s to c a s t an a f-
10 3
fir m a tiv e v o te . A lth ou gh th e A r a b -A s ia n s c o n s id e r e d su ch fe a r s u n
founded, th e y p r o v e d a m en a b le and the c la u s e n am in g the PG A R w a s d e
le te d by a 3 8 -0 v o te w ith 43 a b s te n tio n s. The U n ited S ta te s v o ted fo r
the d e le tio n and th e a n ti-c o lo n ia ls a b sta in e d . The M e tr o p o lita n p o w e r s
and sy m p a th e tic L a tin -A m e r ic a n d e le g a tio n s th en a tte m p te d to g e t a
se p a r a te v o te on a ll p a r a g r a p h s, but th e a n ti-c o lo n ia ls s u c c e s s f u lly r e
s is t e d th is p r o p o sa l. T he v o te on the a m en d ed d ra ft r e s o lu tio n a s a
w h ole w a s 3 5 -1 8 w ith 28 a b s te n tio n s. It la c k e d one a ffir m a tiv e v o te to
m e e t the tw o -th ir d s m a jo r ity and w a s th e r e fo r e r e je c te d . The U n ited
104
S ta te s a b sta in ed .
l ^ F o r a c o m p r e h e n s iv e d e fe n s e of e v e r y c la u s e in th is d ra ft
r e so lu tio n , A /C .1 /L .2 3 2 , s e e the s ta te m e n t m a d e b y C e y lo n 's S ir C laude
C o rea , O R 's, G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 13th S e s s io n , C o m m itte e I, pp. 3 7 1 -
372.
^O^Ib id ., p. 383. T he H a itia n a m e n d m e n ts w e r e r e je c te d by a
4 8 -1 3 v o te w ith 19 a b ste n tio n s.
103Ibid., p. 622. 1Q4Ibid., p. 627.
50
T he d eb a te on A lg e r ia is n ot o v e r at the d ate of th is w r itin g ,
fo r the ite m w a s in c lu d e d on the a g en d a o f th e F o u r te e n th S e s s io n . T he
b a s ic is s u e b e tw e e n th e a n t i- c o lo n ia ls and th o se o p p o se d to t h e ir p o lic y
on th e q u e stio n iB w h e th e r F r a n c e sh o u ld be a llo w e d to w o r k out th e
p r o b le m in its ow n w a y o r w h e th e r th e U n ited N a tio n s sh o u ld tak e an
a c tiv e r o le in nu dgin g th e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t to n e g o tia te w ith th e
r e b e ls in th e lig h t of th e p r in c ip le o f s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n . T he M e tr o
p o lita n p o w e r s h a v e c o n s is t e n t ly fa v o r e d th e f ir s t of th e s e a lt e r n a t iv e s
and the a n t i- c o lo n ia ls a s c o n s is t e n t ly h a v e a s s e r t e d th e s e c o n d . F r e n c h
in te n tio n s and c la im s to d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n a r e n ot en o u g h fo r the
a n t i- c o lo n ia ls , and, in th e ir v ie w , th e p o s itio n th a t th e r e m u s t b e a
c e a s e - f i r e b e fo r e an y c o n s tr u c tiv e a c tio n s c a n b e ta k en in A lg e r ia , o n ly
r e in fo r c e s th e a r g u m e n ts in fa v o r o f n e g o tia tio n . T he w a r w ill not sto p
b e c a u s e th e F r e n c h w an t it to and th e U n ited S ta te s h o p e s it w ill, fo r
the gu n s can o n ly be s ile n c e d b y n e g o tia tio n , and "Y ou ca n n o t n e g o tia te
a c e a s e - f i r e e x c e p t w ith th e p e o p le w ho a r e fir in g .
S u m m a r y
In th e is s u e s stu d ie d a b o v e, th e A m e r ic a n p o s itio n h a s sh o w e d
s o m e f le x ib ilit y on one is s u e and an u n sh a k a b le c o m m itm e n t on th r e e
o th e r s . In the In d o n esia n d e b a te s , th e U n ited S ta te s w a s in it ia lly an a l
m o s t e n t ir e ly n e u tr a l p o w e r , w h o se a r g u m e n ts w e r e a s o fte n a d d r e s s e d
to the p r o c e d u r a l a s p e c ts of d eb a te a s th e y w e r e to th e su b s ta n tiv e
c h a r g e s of a g g r e s s io n a g a in s t th e N e th e r la n d s . T he U n ited S ta te s
105
T he r e m a r k w a s m a d e by In d ia 's d e le g a te M en on in th e
g e n e r a l d eb a te at th e 14th S e s s io n . U n ited N a tio n s R e v ie w , N o v e m b e r ,
1959, p. 87.
51
fa v o r e d a c a u tio u s r o le fo r th e S e c u r ity C o u n cil, fo r it w a s u n su r e of
th e le g a l r ig h ts of th e C o u n cil in a m a tte r th at m ig h t w e ll be w ith in the
p r o te c tio n of th e d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n c la u s e . It th e r e fo r e fr e q u e n tly
fa v o r e d g e ttin g s o m e c la r if ic a t io n s fr o m th e ICJ on th is m a tte r , and
r e s is t e d any a tte m p ts w h ic h m ig h t s e e m to " im p o s e ’1 a d e c is io n on the
N e th e r la n d s. T he U n ited S ta te s w a s unhappy w ith n a m e -c a llin g w h en it
w a s d ir e c te d at th e N e th e r la n d s , and o p p o se d an y e x p lic it m e n tio n of
th at c o u n tr y 's n a m e in r e s o lu tio n s w h ic h m ig h t s e e m to put an y b la m e
on that c o u n tr y 's g o v e r n m e n t. T he se c o n d D u tch m ilit a r y a c tio n , h o w
e v e r , p r o v e d to o ta x in g fo r A m e r ic a n p a tie n c e , and th e U n ited S ta te s
d e le g a te th en m o v e d to le a d th e C o u n c il in c h a r tin g th e c o u r s e fo r Indo
n e s ia n in d e p e n d e n c e . The U n ited S ta te s s ta r te d out a s a n e u tr a l p o w e r
in th e s e d e b a te s and ch a n g ed to an o p p o sitio n p o w e r to th e N e th e r la n d s
in th e fin a l s ta g e s of the In d o n esia n d e b a te .
On th e th r e e N o rth A fr ic a n i s s u e s of T u n isia , M o r o c c o , and
A lg e r ia , th e r e h a v e b e e n s o m e c o m m o n th r e a d s in A m e r ic a n a r g u m e n
ta tio n . T he U n ited S ta te s c o n s is t e n t ly a r g u e d th at a lth o u g h the A s s e m
b ly had a r ig h t to d is c u s s t h e s e m a t t e r s , it w a s c le a r ly u n w ise fo r it to
do so . T he U n ited S ta te s a r g u e d th at a ll th r e e m a tte r s w e r e e ith e r
c o m p le te ly w ith in th e d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n of F r a n c e , or p e r ilo u s ly
c lo s e to b ein g c o v e r e d b y th a t c la u s e , and that the A s s e m b ly w o u ld do
F r a n c e and i t s e l f a g r a v e d is s e r v ic e if it in s is t e d on d eb a tin g th e s e
it e m s . It w a s th e U n ited S ta te s v ie w th a t su c h d e b a te s w o u ld o n ly e x
a c e r b a te te n s io n s , and m ig h t in d e e d c r e a t e m o r e v io le n c e and unhappy
c o n d itio n s if th e y w e r e to b e c o m e e x c u s e s fo r e m o tio n a l h a r a n g u e s . No
m a tte r w h a t th e c h a r g e s b rou g h t a g a in s t F r e n c h p o lic y in th e s e th r e e
52
t e r r it o r ie s , th e U n ited S ta te s w a s c o n v in c e d of th e good in te n tio n s of
th e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t and r e lie d upon it to fin d th e p r o p e r s o lu tio n s .
T he U n ited S ta te s w a s an a c tiv e p a r tic ip a n t in th e s e d e b a te s, in the
s e n s e th a t it e x e r c is e d it s in flu e n c e in the A s s e m b ly to a m en d a n ti
c o lo n ia l d r a ft r e s o lu tio n s to s tr ik e out r e f e r e n c e s to e ith e r su c h m a t
t e r s a s th e r ig h t o f T u n is ia n s , M o r o c c a n s or A lg e r ia n s to s e l f - d e t e r
m in a tio n , or F r e n c h p o lic ie s w h ic h in the a n t i- c o lo n ia l v ie w w e r e c o n
tr a r y to th e o b lig a tio n s im p o s e d b y the C h a r te r . If A m e r ic a n e ffo r ts at
a m e n d m e n t p r o v e d u n s u c c e s s f u l, th e U n ited S ta te s in flu e n c e d the L a tin -
A m e r ic a n s to v o te a g a in s t the r e s o lu tio n s and th u s e n g in e e r e d th e ir r e
je c tio n . T he a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w e r e e x t r e m e ly c o n s c io u s of th e
A m e r ic a n r o le in th e s e d e b a te s , and w h e r e th e y m a y h a v e c a s tig a te d
F r a n c e fo r it s p o lic ie s , th e y fr e q u e n tly sh o w ed th e ir k n o w led g e th at it
w a s A m e r ic a n in flu e n c e w h ic h le d to th e ir fr u s tr a tio n s in th e A s s e m b ly .
T h ey a n a ly z e d th e r e a s o n s fo r A m e r ic a n n e g a tiv is m , t r ie d to p r o v e
th at th o se r e a s o n s w e r e u n sou n d , and a p p e a le d to the U n ited S ta te s fo r
its su p p o rt. T h ey n e v e r did r e c e iv e it.
T he U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n s ad d ed no c o m m e n t to so m e
r a th e r h e a v y c h a r g e s o f r e p r e s s io n and v io la tio n of h u m an r ig h ts in
A lg e r ia . A m e r ic a n d e le g a te s fa ith fu lly r e c o r d e d th e ir h op e th at c o n d i
tio n s w ou ld im p r o v e if o n ly th e F r e n c h w e r e le t a lo n e to im p r o v e th em .
A lg e r ia is , in th e U n ited S ta te s v ie w , a p a r t of M e tr o p o lita n F r a n c e ,
and th e A s s e m b ly c h a r ts a d a n g e r o u s c o u r s e in m e d d lin g in F r a n c e 's
d o m e s tic a ffa ir s w h e n it in s i s t s on d eb a tin g th e A lg e r ia n m a tte r and is
c le a r ly v io la tin g a r t ic le 2, p a r a g r a p h 7, w h en it a r r o g a te s to it s e l f the
fu n c tio n o f t e llin g F r a n c e th e m a n n e r in w h ich it sh o u ld co n d u ct i t s e l f
C iv iliz e d d eb a te, a w a r e n e s s of the d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n of
F r a n c e , a p p r e c ia tio n fo r F r e n c h in te n tio n s and e ffo r ts to s o lv e th e s e
d is p u te s and e x p r e s s io n of th e h op e th a t th o s e e ffo r ts w o u ld p r o v e su e
c e s s f u l w e r e th e co n tin u in g r e fr a in in th e A m e r ic a n s ta te m e n ts in the
d eb a te on N o rth A fr ic a n m a t t e r s .
CHAPTER II
R AC IAL A N D ECONOM IC E Q U A L IT Y
A m ong th e p r e o c c u p a tio n s that h a v e p la y e d a con tin u o u s p a r t
in th e p o lic ie s of th e a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , q u e stio n s r e la te d to r a c ia l
d is c r im in a tio n or e c o n o m ic in e q u a lity h ave p ro v o k ed the m o s t e m o tio n
a l u tte r a n c e s . The d e s p a ir th at the h a v e -n o ts f e e l w h en fa c e d w ith the
o v e r w h e lm in g p o v e r ty and o th er e c o n o m ic h a n d ica p s in th e ir ow n co u n
t r ie s , fr e q u e n tly le a d s them to tu rn to th e U nited N a tio n s, and p a r tic u
la r ly its d e v e lo p e d W e ste r n m e m b e r s , fo r h elp in m a k in g th e ir s a b e t
te r w o rld . The to n e of th e ir s p e e c h e s ch a n g e s fro m a p le a d in g to a d e
m an d in g on e, and th e y often in d ic a te th e ir c o n v ic tio n that c e n tu r ie s of
e x p lo ita tio n by the c o lo n ia l p o w e r s is both an e x p la n a tio n of th e ir p r e
d ica m en t and a r e a s o n fo r th o se r e s p o n s ib le fo r su c h e x p lo ita tio n to
h elp c o r r e c t th e e v ils th at h ave fo llo w e d . W hen th e is s u e is one o f r a
c ia l d is c r im in a tio n , th e r e is a r ig h te o u s rin g to the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
s p e e c h e s , and th ey do not h e s ita te to c h a r g e th o se a s s o c ia t e d w ith it,
or th e ir fr ie n d s , to liv e up to th e ir p r o fe s s e d id e a ls and to the c o m m it
m e n t m a d e in th e U n ited N a tio n s C h a r ter.
The tw o is s u e s th at h ave c le a r ly in v o lv e d r a c ia l d is c r im in a
tio n a r e the tr e a tm e n t of Indians in South A fr ic a , and the q u e s tio n of
a p a r th e id , a ls o in v o lv in g the p o lic ie s fo llo w e d in South A fr ic a . The
fo llo w in g p a g e s d isp la y the d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e s e i s s u e s a s a U n ited
54
55
N a tio n s r e s p o n s ib ility and the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n s e to the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
c a s e .
R a c ia l D is c r im in a tio n
T r e a tm e n t of Indians in South A fr ic a
The d isp u te b e tw e e n the g o v e r n m e n t of India and th at of th e
U nion of South A fr ic a in v o lv e d th e d is c r im in a to r y tr e a tm e n t g iv e n to
r e s id e n ts in South A fr ic a w ho w e r e of Indian o r ig in . The n o r m a l ch a n
n e ls of d ip lo m a c y w e r e no h elp in so lv in g the p r o b le m , and th e e s t a b
lis h m e n t of the U nited N a tio n s o ffe r e d the Indian g o v e r n m e n t n ew hope
fo r r e d r e s s , and it p la c e d its c o m p la in t a g a in st the U nion of South A f r i
ca on the agen d a of th e F ir s t S e s s io n of the G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly . F ie ld
M a r s h a ll S m u ts p r e s e n te d the South A fr ic a n c a s e , the m a jo r a r g u m e n t
b ein g th at the q u e stio n w a s one that in v o lv e d h is c o u n tr y 's d o m e s tic
ju r is d ic tio n , and a ls o that th e r e w a s s e r io u s doubt a s to w h e th e r South
A fr ic a had any in te r n a tio n a l o b lig a tio n s to e ith e r India or th e U nited
N a tio n s in th is m a tte r . In F ie ld M a r sh a ll S m u ts' ju d g m en t, th e w h o le
q u e stio n w ould r e q u ir e an a d v is o r y op in io n fr o m the In te rn a tio n a l C ourt
of J u s tic e . T h is c o u r s e of a c tio n a p p ea led to U n ited S ta te s d e le g a te
F a h y w ho w o n d ered , alo n g w ith F ie ld M a r s h a ll S m u ts, w h e th e r a r t ic le
2, p a ra g ra p h 7, had an y a p p lic a tio n . The ICJ s e e m e d to d e le g a te F a h y
a p r o p e r body to a n sw e r th e q u estion .^ The fa c t th at a n u m b er of d e le
g a te s had m a d e str o n g s ta te m e n ts on the su b sta n tiv e m a tte r of an a l
le g e d v io la tio n of h u m an r ig h ts , and the A m e r ic a n d e le g a te had jo in e d
the South A fr ic a n d e le g a te in r e f le c t iv e c o m m e n ts on the le g a l a s p e c ts
^OR's, General Assem bly, 1st S ession , Vol. II, p. 1010.
56
in v o lv e d , s e e m e d e v a s iv e to P h ilip p in e d e le g a te R o m u lo , w ho a sk e d ,
" Shall w e w a sh our h an d s lik e P ila t e , and lik e P ila te a sk th e q u e stio n :
'W hat is T r u th ? 1"2 M r. R o m u lo w a s fo llo w e d b y d e le g a te S h a w c r o s s ,
w ho e la b o r a te d th e B r itis h v ie w th at a c tio n b y th e A s s e m b ly w a s fu tile
and he a sk ed : "can an yb ody h e r e r e a lly th in k . . . th at a d e c is io n
p a s s e d by th is a s s e m b ly , b y a m e r e m a jo r ity . . . co u ld do a n yth in g but
e x a c e r b a te the p r e s e n t unhappy p o s itio n in South A fr ic a ? "
The W e s te r n p o w e r s g e n e r a lly fa v o r e d th e s u b m is s io n of th e
q u e stio n to the IC J, and did n ot su p p o rt th e d r a ft r e s o lu tio n , w h ic h d e
c la r e d South A f r ic a 's tr e a tm e n t of A s ia n s to be in c o n tr a v e n tio n of th e
U n ited N a tio n s C h a r te r and r e q u e s te d th e g o v e r n m e n t of South A fr ic a
to b rin g its p o lic ie s r e g a r d in g A s ia n s in to c o n fo r m ity w ith th e C h a r
te r .^ S in c e th is d r a ft had b e e n ad op ted in th e C o m m itte e by th e c lo s e
v o te of 2 4 -1 9 w ith 6 a b s te n tio n s, th e W e s te r n p o w e r s a tte m p te d to
b lo c k its a d o p tio n in the A s s e m b ly b y in v o k in g the p r o v is io n s of a r t ic le
18, p a r a g r a p h 2, of th e U n ited N a tio n s C h a r te r , w h ic h w o u ld d e c la r e
the d ra ft an " im p o rta n t q u e stio n ," and th e r e fo r e r e q u ir in g a tw o -th ir d s
m a jo r ity fo r ad op tio n . In th is s tr a te g y th e y w e r e su p p o r te d b y the
U n ited S ta te s and m o s t L a tin -A m e r ic a n p o w e r s , and th e v o te su sta in e d
5
th e W e ste r n p o w e r s .
The A r a b -A s ia n p o w e r s m u s t h a v e f e lt th at th e Indian d ra ft
w o u ld n ot m u s te r the r e q u ir e d tw o -th ir d s v o te in th e A s s e m b ly , fo r
2 Ib id ., p. 1030. 2Ib id ., p. 1034.
^ F o r fu ll te x t of d ra ft, s e e A /C .l and 6 /3 .
^ F or th e d eb a te on w h e th e r or not a r t ic le 18, p a r a g r a p h 2,
sh o u ld b e in v o k ed in th is q u e s tio n , s e e ib id ., pp. 1 0 4 2 -1 0 6 0 .
57
th e y g a v e th e ir su p p o rt to th e m ild e r F r e n c h -M e x ic a n c o m p r o m is e
d r a ft r e s o lu tio n , w h ic h o m itte d any r e f e r e n c e to C h a r te r v io la tio n b y
South A fr ic a and m e r e ly r e q u e s te d th at th e " tr e a tm e n t of In d ian s in th e
U nion sh o u ld be in c o n fo r m ity w ith th e in te r n a tio n a l o b lig a tio n s u n d er
the a g r e e m e n ts c o n c lu d e d b e tw e e n th e tw o g o v e r n m e n ts , and th e r e l e
van t p r o v is io n s of th e C h a r te r ." ^ It w a s th is c o m p r o m is e w h ic h w on
the su p p o r t of tw o -th ir d s o f th e A s s e m b ly . T he A m e r ic a n d e le g a te w a s
7
u n ab le to su p p o rt e v e n th is c o m p r o m is e d r a ft and v o te d a g a in s t it.
T he B r it is h d e le g a te 's p r o p h e c y p r o v e d p a r tly v a lid , fo r w h en
the S eco n d S e s s io n o p e n e d in 1947 n o ch a n g e h ad ta k en p la c e in th e
s ta tu s a c c o r d e d th e In d ian s in South A fr ic a , and th e Indian c o m p la in t
w a s o n ce a g a in on th e a g en d a of th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly . S tro n g su p p o rt
fo r th e Indian c a u s e w a s g iv e n by th e S o v ie t b lo c and th e A r a b -A s ia n s
in th e f i r s t c o m m itte e d eb a te on th is ite m , and th e id e a l o f e q u a lity fo r
a ll r a c e s w a s h e a v ily e m p h a s iz e d by th e s e d e le g a tio n s . T he d e n ia l of
th is r ig h t to In d ian s b y th e South A fr ic a n g o v e r n m e n t w a s ro u n d ly c r i t i
c iz e d b e fo r e th e A m e r ic a n d e le g a te to o k th e flo o r . D e le g a te F a h y 's
s p e e c h e m p h a s iz e d th e U n ited S ta te s c o n v ic tio n th a t the ICJ w a s p r o p e r
ly eq u ip p ed to u n r a v e l th e p r o c e d u r a l p r o b le m s in v o lv e d in the q u e s tio n .
The U n ited S ta te s w a s , h o w e v e r , w illin g to d is c u s s o th e r w a y s o f s o lv
in g th e d isp u te , and it fa v o r e d a R ound T a b le C o n fe r e n c e a s th e b e s t a l
te r n a tiv e to an a d v is o r y o p in io n fr o m th e C o u rt. T he d is tin g u is h in g
e le m e n t o f M r. F a h y 's s p e e c h fo r th e Indian d e le g a te w a s th e r e fu s a l by
^ F o r fu ll text-, s e e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , R e s o lu tio n 4 4 (I).
^ O R 's, G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 1 st S e s s io n , V ol. II, p. 1061. T he
v o te w a s 3 2 -1 5 w ith 7 a b s te n tio n s .
58
th e U n ited S ta te s to su p p o r t th e Indian d ra ft r e s o lu tio n b e fo r e th e F ir s t
C o m m itte e . It m u s t a ls o h a v e b e e n so m e w h a t d isa p p o in tin g to th e In d i
an d e le g a tio n , a lo n g w ith it s A r a b -A s ia n s u p p o r te r s , to h e a r d e le g a te
F a h y m in im iz e th e su b s ta n tiv e c h a r g e s a g a in s t th e South A fr ic a n g o v
e r n m e n t w ith th e c o m m e n t th at "It w a s c e r ta in th a t none of th e m e m b e r
s ta te s w a s p e r fe c t, and not a ll th e p r in c ip le s of th e C h a r ter w e r e u n i-
g
v e r s a ll y a p p lie d in th e ir in te g r ity ."
In s p ite of M r. F a h y 's o b je c tio n s , th e Indian d ra ft w a s ad op ted
by th e C o m m itte e b y a 2 9 -1 5 v o te w ith f iv e d e le g a tio n s a b sta in in g .
T h ere co u ld be no u n a d u lte r a te d f e e lin g of v ic to r y fo r India and its
su p p o r te r , h o w e v e r , fo r th e A s s e m b ly ’s a d o p tio n o f th is d ra ft had y e t
to c le a r the " tw o -th ir d s" m a jo r ity h u r d le , and w h en d e le g a te F a h y
a g a in a n n o u n ced h is o p p o sitio n to th e d r a ft in th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly ,
M r s . P a n d it o f India d e c id e d to m a k e a d ir e c t a p p e a l to th e U n ited
S ta te s d e le g a te fo r h is v o te and in flu e n c e . M r s . P a n d it p a id tr ib u te to
U n ited S ta te s g e n e r o s it y in " ex ten d in g a h e lp in g hand to E u rop e" and
w en t on to p lea d :
M an d o e s n o t liv e b y b r e a d a lo n e; th e s p ir it to o m u st b e fed .
T h e r e a r e m illio n s of p e o p le in th e w o r ld w h o se s p ir it h a s b e e n
s ta r v e d by th e d e n ia l of e le m e n ta r y h u m a n r ig h ts , w h o se h u n g er
fo r fo o d and m a t e r ia l n e e d s , g r e a t a s it i s , is n ot g r e a te r th an
th e ir y e a r n in g fo r a p la c e o f h on ou r an d e q u a lity in th e w o r ld . To
th em a ls o , th e U n ited S ta te s o w e s an o b lig a tio n .’
In a n o th e r v e in , Y u g o sla v d e le g a te B e b le r c h a r g e d th a t the
U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n and its " sh o c k tr o o p s" w e r e a b u sin g th e tw o -
th ir d s m a jo r ity r u le to c o v e r th e ir in a b ility to s p e a k ou t a g a in s t r a c ia l
Q
Ib id ., 2nd S e s s io n , 1 s t C o m m itte e , p . 4 4 8 .
^Ibid., 2nd S essio n , p . 1139.
59
d is c r im in a tio n , and s ta te d th at if the Indian r e s o lu tio n w a s r e je c te d ,
"we s h a ll know w ho w a s r e s p o n s ib le ." ^ T he Indian r e s o lu tio n w a s r e
j e c te d s in c e it fa ile d to g e t th e n e c e s s a r y tw o -th ir d s m a jo r ity . T he
U n ited S ta te s and the L a tin p o w e r s o p p o se d th e Indian d ra ft, and c h o s e
to su p p o rt a B r a z ilia n d r a ft r e s o lu tio n a sk in g fo r an ICJ o p in io n on th e
le g a l a s p e c t s o f th e d is p u te . T h is tim e it w a s th e A r a b -A s ia n s th a t r e
fu s e d th e ir su p p o rt and th is r e s o lu tio n too w a s d e fe a te d . T he A s s e m b ly
w a s th e r e b y le ft w ith n oth in g to r e c o m m e n d a s a so lu tio n to the d i s
p u te .^ A c o m p r o m is e d r a ft w a s th en a c c e p te d by th e A s s e m b ly , a sk in g
fo r a R ound T a b le C o n fe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e d isp u ta n ts (G e n e r a l A s s e m
b ly , R e s o lu tio n 2 65 [II]).
T w o su b se q u e n t s e s s i o n s of the G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly added lit t le
of s ig n ific a n c e to the r e c o r d on th is is s u e , but at th e F ifth S e s s io n of
the A s s e m b ly , a d is tu r b e d Indian d e le g a tio n r e p o r te d an a d d itio n a l
p r o v o c a tio n p r o v id e d by th e p a s s a g e of th e "group a r e a s " le g is la t io n in
South A fr ic a , w h ic h le g is la t io n w a s, in In d ia 's ju d g m en t, d e s ig n e d to
su b o r d in a te p e r m a n e n tly A sia n r ig h ts in South A fr ic a . T he Indian
1QIb id ., p. 1 162.
^ T h e v o te on th e Indian d r a ft w a s 3 1 -1 9 w ith 6 a b s te n tio n s ,
and th at on th e B r a z ilia n d r a ft w a s 2 9 ”24 w ith 3 a b ste n tio n s; ib id ., p.
1169* A c u r io u s a fte r m a th to th e d e fe a t o f b oth d ra ft r e s o lu tio n s w a s
In d ia 's a tte m p t to g e t p e r m is s io n to su b m it y e t a n o th er d r a ft a t th e
n e x t m e e tin g . USSR d e le g a te G rom yk o, te m p o r a r ily in th e P r e s id e n t 's
c h a ir , w a s s y m p a th e tic , but th e M e tr o p o lita n p o w e r s o b je c te d , a rg u in g
th a t th e q u e s tio n w a s " d isp o se d o f." D e le g a te F a h y in s is t e d th at in th e
U n ited S ta te s v ie w th e n ew Indian p r o p o s a l sh o u ld go th ro u g h th e G en
e r a l C o m m itte e . D e le g a te G ro m y k o p r o v e d ob d u rate and no d e c is io n
w a s m a d e at th e 1 2 1 st m e e tin g . T he d is c o u r a g e d Indian d e le g a tio n su b
se q u e n tly d e c id e d to le a v e m a tte r s in th e ir c o n fu se d s ta te and w ith d r e w
it s n ew d r a ft on N o v e m b e r 2 1 , 1947.
d e le g a tio n a n n ou n ced its d e c is io n to w ith h o ld its c o m m itm e n t to p a r t ic i
p a te in the R ound T a b le C o n fe r e n c e r e c o m m e n d e d by the A s s e m b ly in
e a r lie r r e s o lu tio n s u n til th e o ffe n s iv e a s p e c t s of th e G roup A r e a s A c t
had b e e n ab an don ed . To th is p u r p o se India, a lo n g w ith B u rm a , o ffe r e d
a d ra ft r e s o lu tio n , w h ich , r e c a llin g e a r lie r r e s o lu tio n s by the A ss e m b ly ,
op in ed th at th e G roup A r e a s A c t c o n tr a v e n e d th e U n iv e r s a l D e c la r a tio n
of H um an R ig h ts; n o ted w ith r e g r e t th at su ch le g is la t io n p r e ju d ic e d the
p r o p o s e d R ound T a b le C o n fe r e n c e and r e c o m m e n d e d th at South A fr ic a
tak e a ll s te p s n e c e s s a r y to c o r r e c t the situ a tio n , b e a r in g in m in d the
U n iv e r s a l D e c la r a tio n of H um an R ig h ts, and "the v ita l im p o r ta n c e of
th e s e p r in c ip le s to th e s e c u r in g of in te r n a tio n a l p e a c e a s w e ll a s the
12
str e n g th e n in g of d e m o c r a tic f o r c e s th ro u g h o u t the w o r ld ." D en m a rk
a ls o o ffe r e d a d ra ft w h ic h a sk e d India, P a k is ta n and South A fr ic a to
p r o c e e d w ith th e R ound T a b le C o n fe r e n c e , and in th e e v e n t of fa ilu r e ,
to s e l e c t m u tu a lly a p a r ty to h elp n e g o tia tio n s . T he D a n ish d ra ft a ls o
c a lle d upon a ll th r e e g o v e r n m e n ts to " r e fr a in fr o m ta k in g an y s te p s
13
w h ic h w o u ld p r e ju d ic e the n e g o tia tio n s ."
The U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n , w h ich had n ot p a r tic ip a te d in th e
g e n e r a l d eb a te on th is is s u e , in d ic a te d th at it w a s m o r e c o n c e r n e d w ith
the " sp ir itu a l r a th e r than the le g a l a s p e c t of th e q u e stio n ," and fu r th e r
g la d d en ed th e a n ti-c o lo n ia ls w ith th e s ta te m e n t th a t " d is c r im in a tio n
14
w a s c le a r ly c o n tr a r y to th e s p ir it of th e C h a r te r ."
^ I n d ia - B u r m a d ra ft A .A C .3 8 /L .33, a s found in P R 's , G e n e r a l
A s s e m b ly , 5th S e s s io n , A n n e x e s, A g en d a Item 57, pp. 2 -3 .
^^See ib id ., p. 3.
r •
^ O R 's , A d H oc P o lit ic a l C o m m itte e , 5th S e s s io n , p. 2 7 7 . The
fa c t th at th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n had sp e a r h e a d e d th e d eb a te on
61
K th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n had m o v e d c lo s e r to the a n ti
c o lo n ia l p o s itio n in b e littlin g th e le g a l lim ita tio n s of a r t ic le 2, p a r a
g ra p h 7, in th is q u e stio n , it s t i l l to o k it s c h a r a c t e r is t ic sta n c e on the
r o le th a t th e A s s e m b ly sh o u ld p la y in th e d isp u te . D e le g a te R o s s a r
gu ed fo r the D a n ish d r a ft and s ta te d th a t th e U n ited S ta te s c o u ld n ot
su p p o rt th e B u r m a -in d ia d ra ft, p a r tic u la r ly th e c la u s e m e n tio n in g th e
G roup A r e a s A c t. C o n c ilia tio n sh o u ld be the k ey n o te of th e U n ited N a
tio n s r o le , and d e le g a te R o s s th ou ght th a t th e B u r m a -in d ia d r a ft w a s
15
n ot p r a c t ic a l in p r o m o tin g th a t r o le .
M r s . P a n d it d is a g r e e d w ith th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a te , and in
s is t e d th at in th e Indian d e le g a tio n 's v ie w , "the tim e had c o m e fo r the
G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly to m a k e an e x p lic it s ta te m e n t th at an y p o lic y o f r a
c ia l s e g r e g a t io n c o n s titu te d a s e r io u s th r e a t to w o r ld p e a c e and in t e r
n a tio n a l s e c u r ity ." She r e fu s e d h e r su p p o rt to an y d ra ft r e s o lu tio n
w h ic h d id n o t m e n tio n th e G roup A r e a s A ct, a r g u in g th at if it s p r o v i
s io n s w e r e put in to f o r c e , "the R ound T a b le C o n fe r e n c e w o u ld h a v e no
r a is o n d 'e t r e .
U ru g u a y o ffe r e d an a m e n d m e n t to th e D a n ish d r a ft, ad d in g to
th e p a r a g r a p h " c a llin g on a ll th r e e g o v e r n m e n ts to r e fr a in fr o m ta k in g
an y s te p s w h ic h w o u ld p r e ju d ic e n e g o tia tio n s ," th e p h r a s e "in p a r tic u la r
th e e n fo r c e m e n t o f the G roup A r e a s A c t." U ru g u a y a ls o a s k e d f o r the
a d d itio n of a s e n te n c e th at the A s s e m b ly " d e c id e s to in c lu d e th is ite m
h u m an r ig h ts in E a s t E u ro p e in th e s a m e s e s s i o n and h ad ta k en a
s tr o n g sta n d a g a in s t th e in v o c a tio n o f th e " d o m e stic ju r is d ic tio n
c la u s e " in h u m an r ig h ts c a s e s p e r h a p s e x p la in s th e s ta te m e n t b y A m
b a s s a d o r L o d g e . F o r fu r th e r d e v e lo p m e n t of th is a s p e c t of th e U n ited
S ta te s p o s itio n , s e e b e lo w , pp. 1 9 9 -2 0 2 .
15Ibid., p. 288. l6 Ibid., p. 296.
62
17
on the a g en d a of th e n ex t r e g u la r s e s s i o n of the G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly ."
In th e v o tin g , th e U ru g u a y a n a m e n d m e n t and th e D a n ish d ra ft
w e r e g iv e n p r e f e r e n c e o v e r th e Indian d r a ft. T he U n ited S ta te s v o ted
a g a in s t th e s e n te n c e s in g lin g out th e G roup A r e a s A c t in th e U ru gu ayan
a m en d m en t, w h ic h w a s n e v e r t h e le s s a d o p ted b y a 2 4 - 1 4 v o te w ith 18
a b s te n tio n s . T he p r o v is io n fo r in c lu d in g th e ite m on the n e x t s e s s i o n 's
a gen d a w a s ad o p ted w ith U n ited S ta te s su p p o rt, th e v o te b e in g 3 1 -3 w ith
22 a b s te n tio n s . T he a m e n d e d D a n ish d r a ft w a s th en a d o p ted b y a 2 6 -6
18
v o te w ith the a b s te n tio n s in c lu d in g th e U n ited S ta te s .
T he In dian d e le g a tio n w ith d r e w it s d r a ft and w h en th e a m en d ed
D a n ish d r a ft w a s p r e s e n te d to the A s s e m b ly , th e U n ited S ta te s r e p e a te d
its v o te s on th e U ru g u a y a n a m e n d m e n ts, but w h en th ey w e r e a d op ted ,
th e U n ited S ta te s ch a n g ed it s v o te fr o m an a b ste n tio n to an a ffir m a tiv e ,
and th e a m e n d e d D a n ish d r a ft w a s a d o p ted by a 3 3 -6 v o te w ith 21 a b
s te n tio n s
T he U n ited S ta te s c o m m e n t and v o tin g in th e F ifth S e s s io n is
th e m o d e l fo r a ll su b se q u e n t d e b a te s on th is is s u e in th e U n ited N a tio n s ,
and th e r e h a s b e e n a lm o s t no ch a n g e in it s b e h a v io r on th e q u e stio n ,
e v e n though th e c o n tin u a l r e fu s a l by th e South A fr ic a n g o v e r n m e n t to
c o -o p e r a te w ith th e A s s e m b ly h a s o c c a s io n e d c o n s id e r a b le h a r s h n e s s
in the s p e e c h e s d e liv e r e d b y th e a n t i- c o l o n i a ls . In th e fo llo w in g e ig h t
s e s s i o n s of th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly th a t d eb a ted th is is s u e , th e a n ti-
1 7
' P R 's , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 5th S e s s io n , A n n e x e s, A g en d a Item
57, p. 4.
18Q R 's , A H P C , 5th S e s s io n , pp. 2 9 8 -2 9 9 .
^ OR's, General A ssem bly, 5th S ession , Vol. I, pp. 533-534.
63
c o lo n ia ls c o n s is t e n t ly d e m a n d ed s o m e r e m e d ia l a c tio n on th e d o m e s tic
le g is la t io n in South A fr ic a . T he U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n m a d e a h e r o ic
e ffo r t to le a n a s fa r a s p o s s ib le to w a r d tw o c o n te n tio u s p o s itio n s : it
in v a r ia b ly q u e s tio n e d th e w is d o m o f c e n s u r in g le g is la t io n w ith in a s o v
e r e ig n s ta te , o p p o se d a n y d ir e c t r e f e r e n c e to su c h le g is la t io n o r a u to
m a tic in c lu s io n o f th e ite m on th e a g e n d a of su b se q u e n t s e s s io n s ; it
c o n s ta n tly a r g u e d th a t it w a s up to th e p a r t ie s to s o lv e th e d isp u te , and
th e U n ited N a tio n s co u ld o n ly h e lp c r e a t e an a tm o s p h e r e a m e n a b le to
n eg o tia tio n ; but in th e v o tin g , w h e n p r o v is io n s it o p p o se d w e r e a d op ted ,
th e U n ited S ta te s to o k a sta n d a g a in s t r a c ia l d is c r im in a tio n b y v o tin g
fo r the r e s o lu t io n s , e v e n th ou gh th e y c o n ta in e d s o m e p r o v is io n s it c o n
s id e r e d m is g u id e d . ^
A fte r fo u r te e n y e a r s , th e p r o b le m is s t i l l tr o u b le s o m e , and
s e e m s no n e a r e r s o lu tio n th an th e tim e it w a s f i r s t p r e s e n te d to th e
A s s e m b ly . It r e m a in s on th e a g en d a o f th e I9 6 0 s e s s i o n , w h en a p e r
s e v e r in g Indian d e le g a tio n w ill p e r h a p s a g a in a p p ea l to th e South A f r i
c a n g o v e r n m e n t to r e d r e s s it s g r ie v a n c e s , and th e U n ited N a tio n s to
e x e r c is e its in flu e n c e in o b ta in in g su c h r e m e d ia l a c tio n .
A p a r th e id
The S ev en th S e s s io n of th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly in 1952 w a s on e
2 0 p o r c o m m e n ts and v o te s r e f e r r e d to fo r th e s u b se q u e n t s e s
s io n s of the G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , s e e P R 's , A H P C , 6th S e s s io n , pp. 1 7 2 -
173; 7th S e s s io n , pp. 4 8 -4 9 ; 8th S e s s i o n , pp. 9 1 -9 3 ; 9th S e s s io n , p . 39-
S ee a ls o P R 's , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 6th S e s s io n , p . 330; 7th S e s s io n , p.
330; 8th S e s s io n , p . 288; 9th S e s s io n , p . 2 8 1 . F o r a d d itio n a l s t a t e
m e n ts in the s a m e v e in , s e e US P a r tic ip a tio n in th e U N, r e p o r t by th e
P r e s id e n t to th e C o n g r e s s , D e p a r tm e n t o f S ta te P u b lic a tio n 6318: 1955,
p. 76; fo r 1 9 5 6 , N o. o 5 7 7 , p. 118; fo r 1 9 5 7 , N o . 6 6 5 4 , pp. 9 4 -9 5 ; fo r
1958, N o. 6 8 5 2 , p p . 9 1 -9 2 .
64
la r g e ly c o n c e r n e d w ith c o lo n ia l i s s u e s , and it w a s at th is s e s s i o n th at
the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a m p a ig n a g a in s t r a c ia l d is c r im in a tio n w a s b r o a d en ed
to a tta c k South A f r ic a 's r a c ia l p o lic ie s on a w id e r fr o n t. T he ta r g e t
w a s th e p r o g r a m of a p a r th e id , and th ir te e n A r a b -A s ia n s ta te s c h a r g e d
that it im p lie d th e p e r m a n e n t s u p e r io r ity of w h ite s o v e r the n o n -w h ite s
and th a t th e d e ta ils of the le g is la t io n know n a s th e G roup A r e a s A ct
c le a r ly sh o w ed a p la n n ed p o lic y of to ta l s e g r e g a tio n -in p u b lic f a c il it ie s .
The a n t i- c o lo n ia ls a c c u s e d th e g o v e r n m e n t of the U nion of a b u sin g th e
S u p p r e ss io n of C o m m u n ism A c t to d e s tr o y d e m o c r a tic m o v e m e n ts , and
fu r th e r a lle g e d th a t th e U nion w a s r e s t r ic t in g th e m o v e m e n t of n o n
w h ite s , e x c lu d in g th em fr o m s k ille d jo b s and fo r c in g th em to liv e in de~
21
p lo r a b le c o n d itio n s .
A s th e d eb a te d e v e lo p e d , th e c o n te n tio n r e v o lv e d arou n d tw o
b a s ic q u e stio n s: W ere th e m a n ife s ta tio n s of th e a p a r th e id p o lic y of
su ch a n a tu re a s to c a u s e a la r m at an u n r e a so n a b le and u n ten a b le v io
la tio n of h u m an r ig h ts ? F u r th e r , d id th e s e m a n ife s ta tio n s h a v e a d i s
c e r n ib le im p a c t upon th e in te r n a tio n a l s c e n e w h ich w ou ld j u s tify U n ited
N a tio n s d eb a te? S eco n d , if the U n ited N a tio n s w a s c o m p e lle d to c o n
s id e r the ite m , w h a t w a s th e r o le th a t it ought to p la y ? In th e e ig h t
y e a r s th a t th e ite m w a s c o n s id e r e d by th e U n ited N a tio n s, th e South
A fr ic a n g o v e r n m e n t s t e a d f a s t ly r e fu s e d to a d m it th e f i r s t p r e m is e s fo r
U n ited N a tio n s in v o lv e m e n t, and in th is it had the su p p o rt of th e C o m
m o n w e a lth c o u n tr ie s : th e U n ited K ingd om , N ew Z ea la n d , A u s tr a lia and
C anada. T he U n ited S ta te s s ta r te d b y g ra n tin g th e p r e m is e th a t c o n d i
tio n s ju s tifie d d is c u s s io n o f th e ite m , and m in im iz e d th e e x te n t of the
^ S e e United Nations Document A/2183, Seventh Session.
v io la tio n s a s c h a r g e d by th e a n t i- c o lo n ia ls , or at l e a s t f e lt th at th e y
w e r e n ot u n iq u e. B y 1958, the r is in g r e s e n tm e n t in th e a n ti-c o lo n ia l
ca m p and th e d e fia n c e of th e South A fr ic a n g o v e r n m e n t s ta r te d th e s h ift
in th e U n ited S ta te s p o s tu r e , and in I9 6 0 , the sh o o tin g o f u n a rm ed n a
tiv e s at S h a r p e v ille m o v e d th e U n ited S ta te s o v e r to the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
s id e .
A s is c u s to m a r y in m o s t c o lo n ia l v e r s u s a n ti-c o lo n ia l d e b a te s ,
the f i r s t c la s h c o n c e r n e d th e q u e stio n of " d o m e stic ju r is d ic tio n ." South
A fr ic a p r e d ic ta b ly r e fu s e d to c o u n ten a n ce an y d is c u s s io n of its n a tio n a l
p o lic ie s in th e A s s e m b ly , m u ch l e s s tak e any o r d e r s fr o m it. The
b ro a d a p p lic a tio n of a r t ic le 2, p a r a g r a p h 7, by the c o lo n ia l p o w e r s p r o
v o k ed P a k is ta n 's d e le g a te B o k h a ri to the c o m m e n t that
T he d isp u te on th e is s u e of c o m p e te n c e r e s p e c tin g the South A f r i
c a n situ a tio n w a s p a rt of a w id e s p r e a d s tr u g g le . T h ere w a s a
s tr u g g le goin g on in a lm o s t a ll o r g a n s of th e U n ited N a tio n s w h ic h
w a s d ir e c te d at fo r c in g th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r s to r e la x th e ir g r ip on
v a s t su b je c t p e o p le s .
M r. B o k h a ri w en t on to e x p la in th at e v e n though South A fr ic a w a s n ot a
c o lo n y , " in a sm u ch a s it w a s a co u n try w h e r e p e o p le of one r a c e in th e ir
ow n n a tiv e cou n try" w e r e b ein g e x p lo ite d and " r e le g a te d to a lo w e r
s ta g e of c iv iliz a tio n " by a m in o r ity r e p r e s e n tin g "the e a r ly c o n q u e r o r s
of the c o u n try ," South A fr ic a w a s th e r e fo r e " p r a c tic in g a fo rm of c o
lo n ia lis m ." In th is c o n te x t, d e le g a te B o k h a ri c h a r g e d th at "the E u r o
p ea n p o w e r s and th e ir fr ie n d s w e r e c le a r ly a r r a y e d a g a in s t th e s m a lle r
2 3
n a tio n s, e s p e c ia lly th o s e of A s ia and A fr ic a ." U n ited S ta te s d e le g a te
S p ragu e su p p o rted d is c u s s io n of the ite m , d en ied th e South A fr ic a n a r
gu m en t th at a r t ic le 2, p a r a g r a p h 7, p r o h ib ite d d eb a te, and w en t on to
22QR'b, AHPC, 7th S ession , pp. 76-77. 23Ibid.
66
s a y th a t th o u g h th e r a c i a l s itu a tio n in S ou th A f r ic a w a s c o m p le x , th e
U n ite d S ta te s " q u e s tio n e d th e w is d o m " o f th e a p a r th e id p o lic y "at a
tim e w h e n th e tr e n d in o th e r s o c i e t i e s w a s to w a r d p r o g r e s s i v e l y w id e r
and m o r e e q u a l p a r t ic ip a t io n o f a ll g r o u p s in th e p o lit i c a l and e c o n o m ic
2 4
lif e of th e c o m m u n ity ."
T w o d r a ft r e s o lu t io n s w e r e p r e s e n t e d to th e C o m m itte e , on e
by th e A r a b - A s ia n s an d th e o th e r b y th e S c a n d in a v ia n n a tio n s . T he
A r a b - A s ia n d r a ft m a d e th e p r e a m b u la r c o m m e n t th a t a p a r th e id w a s
n e c e s s a r i l y b a s e d on th e d o c tr in e o f r a c i a l d is c r im in a t io n , and in th e
o p e r a tiv e p a r a g r a p h s it s ta te d th a t th e A s s e m b ly :
1. E s t a b lis h e s a c o m m is s io n . . . to stu d y th e r a c ia l s itu a tio n in
th e U n io n o f S o u th A f r ic a . . . and to r e p o r t it s c o n c lu s io n s to
th e e ig h th s e s s i o n ;
2. I n v ite s th e U n ion o f S ou th A f r ic a to e x te n d it s f u ll c o o p e r a tio n
to th e c o m m is s io n ;
3. R e q u e s t s th e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l to p r o v id e th e c o m m is s io n w ith
n e c e s s a r y s t a f f an d f a c i l i t i e s ;
4 - D e c id e s to r e t a in th e q u e s tio n on th e a g e n d a o f th e e ig h th s e s
s io n o f th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly .
T he t h r e e - p o w e r S c a n d in a v ia n d r a ft b e c a m e th e m o d e l of c o m
p r o m is e d r a fts o f f e r e d in s u b s e q u e n t d e b a te s on th is q u e s tio n , and o n e
p a r t ic u la r a s p e c t o f it w a s to b e a c o n s ta n t r e f r a in in A m e r ic a n c o m
m e n ts ; to w it, it c o n ta in e d no d ir e c t r e f e r e n c e e ith e r to a p a r th e id o r to
th e U n io n o f S o u th A f r ic a . It s im p ly r e c a lle d R e s o lu tio n 103 (I) on p u t
tin g an en d to r e l ig io u s d is c r im in a t io n an d " s o - c a l l e d r a c i a l d i s c r i m i
n a tio n ," an d r e c o g n iz in g th a t "the m e th o d s of d is c h a r g in g the
Z4I b id ., p . 9 0 .
Z 5
P R 's, G eneral A ssem b ly , 7th S e ssio n , A nnexes, Vol. II,
Item 66, pp. 3-4.
67
r e s p o n s ib ilit y . . . m a y v a r y w ith c ir c u m s t a n c e s ," it an n ou n ced th a t th e
A ss e m b ly :
1. D e c la r e s th at in a m u lt i- r a c ia l s o c ie t y . . . le g is la t io n sh o u ld
be d ir e c te d to w a r d e n s u r in g e q u a lity b e fo r e law ;
2 . A ffir m s th at g o v e r n m e n ta l p o lic ie s o f m e m b e r s t a t e s w h ich a r e
not d ir e c te d to w a rd th e s e g o a ls . . . a r e in c o n s is te n t w ith the
p le d g e s of m e m b e r s u n d er A r t ic le 56 o f th e C h a r te r .
3. S o le m n ly c a lls upon a ll m e m b e r s ta te s to b r in g th e ir p o lic ie s
in to c o n fo r m ity w ith th e ir o b lig a tio n u n d er th e C h a r ter to p r o
m o te th e o b s e r v a n c e of h um an r ig h ts and fu n d a m e n ta l f r e e
dom s . 2 °
T he U n ited S ta te s d e le g a te e x h o r te d th e C o m m itte e to adopt th e
S ca n d in a v ia n d ra ft and d e n ie d h is su p p o rt to the A r a b -A s ia n d ra ft,
w h ich s e e m e d d ic ta to r ia l to h im . D e le g a te S p ra g u e a r g u e d th at the
U n ited N a tio n s w a s not a s u p e r -g o v e r n m e n t and "it had no p o w e r to
im p o s e sta n d a r d s, but o n ly p r o c la im th e m ." It fu r th e r a p p e a le d to
d e le g a te S p ra g u e th a t th e S c a n d in a v ia n d r a ft did n ot c a ll fo r an y C o m
m is s io n , and th at it c a lle d on a ll m e m b e r s to o b s e r v e h u m an r ig h ts
27
and did n ot s in g le out an y one ta r g e t fo r c r it ic is m .
In th e v o tin g in b oth th e C o m m itte e and th e A s s e m b ly , both
d ra ft r e s o lu tio n s w e r e ad op ted , th e U n ited S ta te s a b sta in in g on the
28
A r a b -A s ia n r e s o lu tio n .
T he d eb ate in th e E ig h th S e s s io n o p en ed w ith d e le g a te Santa
C ruz o f C h ile p r e s e n tin g the r e p o r t o f th e C o m m is s io n on th e R a c ia l
2 6 Ib id ., pp. 4 - 5 . 2 7 P R 's , A H P C , 7th S e s s io n , p. 91.
2 ®The v o te in th e C o m m itte e on th e A r a b -A s ia n d r a ft w a s 3 5 -2
w ith 22 a b ste n tio n s; th at on th e S c a n d in a v ia n p r o p o s a l, 2 0 -7 w ith 32 a b
s te n tio n s , in clu d in g m o s t of th e A r a b -A s ia n s ; ib id ., pp. 1 2 3 -1 2 4 . In th e
A s s e m b ly th e v o te s w e r e 3 5 -1 w ith 23 a b s te n tio n s on th e A r a b -A s ia n
d ra ft, and th e S ca n d in a v ia n d r a ft w a s a d o p ted b y a 2 4 -1 v o te w ith 34 a b
s te n tio n s; P R 's , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 7th S e s s io n , p. 334.
situ a tio n in South A fr ic a . M r. S an ta C ruz li s t e d th e v in d ic a tio n s th a t
th e C o m m is s io n had found on th e c h a r g e s of s e g r e g a tio n and d i s c r i m i
n a tio n in th e U nion, and r e p o r te d th a t th e G o v e r n m e n t of th e U nion had
b e e n r a th e r tin e o -o p e r a tiv e . D e le g a te J o o s te c o u n te r e d w ith a str o n g ,
if not ru d e, r e b u tta l fo r th e U nion of South A fr ic a , c h a r g in g th e C o m
m is s io n w ith p a r tia lity and la c k of in fo r m a tio n . T he s p e e c h e s fo llo w in g
th e South A fr ic a n d e le g a te 's c o m m e n ts w e r e fu ll of a n g u ish and o u t
r a g e , and the d eb ate w a s s tr id e n t c o m p a r e d to th e p r e v io u s y e a r . In
th is h e a te d a tm o s p h e r e , M r s. B o lto n r e p r e s e n t e d th e c a lm e r v ie w of
th e U n ited S ta te s . She r e it e r a t e d th at d is c u s s io n of th e ite m did n ot
c o n stitu te " in te r v e n tio n ," and a r t ic le 2, p a r a g r a p h 7, c o u ld not t h e r e
fo r e be in v o k ed to p r o h ib it d is c u s s io n on th e ite m . On th e o th e r hand,
sh e s u g g e s te d to th e C o m m itte e th a t e v e n th o u g h it d id not p r o h ib it d e
b a te, th e p r o v is io n s of th e " d o m e stic j u r is d ic t io n c la u s e " sh o u ld c o n
s ta n tly be kept in m in d . F u r th e r m o r e , th e U n ited N a tio n s sh o u ld not
s in g le out any one m e m b e r fo r c r i t ic i s m , but " sh o u ld s ta te g e n e r a l
c o n c lu s io n s " r e la te d to th e o b je c tiv e s w h ic h a ll m e m b e r s t a t e s sh o u ld
29
p u r su e "in th e f ie ld of h u m an r ig h ts ." T he o n ly s u b s ta n tiv e d ra ft b e
fo r e th e C o m m itte e w a s th e A r a b -A s ia n p r o p o s a l, w h ic h in e s s e n c e
a sk e d fo r c o n tin u a tio n of th e C o m m is s io n and s p e c if ie d fu r th e r ta s k s
fo r its stu d y , p a r tic u la r ly an y C h a r te r v io la tio n s e n ta ile d in th e p o lic y
of a p a r th e id , and r e q u e s te d s u g g e s tio n s a s to " m e a s u r e s w h ic h w ou ld
30
h e lp to a lle v ia te th e s itu a tio n and p r o m o te p e a c e fu l s e ttle m e n t." In
th e v o tin g on th is d ra ft in C o m m itte e la , th e U n ited S ta te s o p p o se d
^ O R 's, A H P C , 8th S e s s i o n , pp. 1 9 1 -1 9 2 .
" ^U nited N a tio n s D o cu m en t A /2 6 1 0 .
69
a d o p tio n of th e p a r a g r a p h c a llin g fo r c o n tin u a tio n of the C o m m is sio n ,
31
and w h en it w a s ad op ted , a b sta in e d on th e d ra ft a s a w h o le .
South A fr ic a , d e n ie d su p p o rt o f its c o n te n tio n th a t d is c u s s io n
of a p a r th e id w a s in c o n tr a v e n tio n of th e d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n c la u s e ,
now p r e s e n te d a p r o c e d u r a l d r a ft in th e P le n a r y m e e tin g of the A s s e m
b ly , c la im in g th at th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly ,
H avin g r e g a r d to A r t ic le 2, p a r a g r a p h 7, of th e C h a r te r ,
D e c id e s th at it h a s no c o m p e te n c e to adopt th e d ra ft r e s o lu tio n
c o n ta in e d in d o cu m en t A /2 6 1 0 .
T h is p r o p o s a l d id not w in th e su p p o rt of th e A s s e m b ly , but it
did fin d fa v o r w ith the U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n w h ic h jo in e d th e o th er
M e tr o p o lita n p o w e r s in su p p o rtin g th e South A fr ic a n d e le g a te . T he
su b sta n tiv e A r a b -A s ia n d r a ft w a s th en ad op ted b y a 4 0 -1 0 v o te w ith the
32
U n ited S ta te s am on g th e 10 d e le g a te s a b s ta in in g .
T he r e s p o n s e of th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n in fo u r s u b s e
q u en t s e s s i o n s fo llo w e d th e p a tte r n in d ic a te d a b o v e . T he U n ited S ta te s
d e le g a te su p p o r te d d is c u s s io n of the ite m , r e m a in e d d e ta c h e d fr o m any
a c c u s a to r y or h a r s h c o m m e n ts a g a in s t South A fr ic a , p le a d e d fo r g e n e r
a l s ta te m e n ts of p r in c ip le s in s te a d of s p e c if ic c h a r g e s a g a in s t South
A fr ic a , and a b sta in e d on th e d r a ft r e s o lu tio n s p r e s e n te d and p a s s e d by
33
an in c r e a s in g ly ir r ita te d m a jo r ity in th e A s s e m b ly .
31
T he d r a ft w a s ad op ted b y a 3 7 -1 4 v o te w ith 5 a b s te n tio n s.
P R 's , A H P C , 8th S e s s io n , pp. 2 2 9 “2 3 0 .
32
T he v o te on th e p r o c e d u r a l m o tio n by South A fr ic a w a s 4 2 - 8
w ith 10 a b s te n tio n s; P R 's , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 8th S e s s io n , p. 4 3 6 . The
v o te on A r a b -A s ia n d r a ft is fou n d in ib id ., p. 4 3 7 .
■^See P R 's , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 9th S e s s io n , pp. 4 8 8 -4 9 1 ; 10th
S e s s io n , pp. 4 0 4 -4 0 5 ; 1 1th S e s s io n , V ol. II, p. 1030; 12th S e s s io n , p.
70
T h e r e is , h o w e v e r , one in c id e n t in th e N in th S e s s io n d eb a te
w h ic h d e s e r v e s s p e c ia l n o tic e . T he U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n 's c o m
m e n ts in th e d e b a te s on a p a r th e id a s w e ll a s on the tr e a tm e n t of In d i
a n s in South A fr ic a w e r e th e v e r y m o d e l of r e a s o n a b le d ip lo m a c y . The
c a lm n e s s w ith w h ic h th e situ a tio n in South A fr ic a w a s v ie w e d , and the
s o p h is tic a te d a r g u m e n ts r e g a r d in g th e c o n c ilia to r y fu n c tio n of the
U n ited N a tio n s w e r e at l e a s t a so b e r in te r v e n tio n in an in c r e a s in g ly
e m o tio n a l d e b a te . T h e r e is a ls o m u c h to be s a id fo r the U n ited S ta te s
a r g u m e n t th at p o in tin g f in g e r s at a lle g e d ly g u ilty p a r tie s s e r v e s no
o th er p u r p o se e x c e p t to m a k e th e a c c u s e d n a tio n m o r e o b d u ra te. B ut,
w h en th e C o m m is s io n on South A fr ic a r e p o r te d to th e N inth S e s s io n ,
th e r e w a s a r e f e r e n c e in th e " r e m e d ia l m e a s u r e s " s e c tio n of it s r e p o r t
to th e S o v ie t U nion a s an e x a m p le w h ic h South A fr ic a m ig h t e m u la te in
s o lv in g its r a c ia l p r o b le m s . T he U n ited S ta te s d e le g a te c h o se to d e
s c e n d fr o m h is O ly m p ia n p e r c h at th is p o in t and la u n ch ed a h a r sh a t
ta c k on th e p o lic ie s of th e S o v ie t U nion , c itin g e x te n s iv e e v id e n c e of
r a c ia l d is c r im in a tio n in th e U S S R .^ A p p a r e n tly th e m e th o d s of d ip lo
m a c y a r e g o v e r n e d l e s s by su b je c t m a tte r than by the n a tu re of the
ta r g e t s in v o lv e d .
The T h ir te e n th S e s s io n d eb a te on a p a r th e id p r o v id e d a n o ta b le
d e p a r tu r e in th e U n ited S ta te s p o s itio n , and d e le g a te H a r r is o n e x p lic it
ly c o m m itte d th e U n ited S ta te s to th e p o s itio n th at th e p o lic y of
535. A ls o , O R 's, A H P C , 9th S e s s io n , pp. 2 1 2 -2 1 3 ; 10th S e s s io n , p. 15;
11th S e s s io n , p. 6 l; 12th S e s s io n , p T 70.
•^ T h e r e f e r e n c e to th e S o v ie t U nion is found in D o cu m en t
A /2 7 1 9 . The U n ited S ta te s d e le g a te 's c o m m e n ts a r e fou n d in P R 's ,
A H P C , 9th S e s s io n , pp. 2 1 2 -2 1 3 .
71
a p a r th e id w a s c o n tr a r y to th e o b lig a tio n s im p o s e d by the U n ited N a tio n s
C h a r te r . A lth o u g h M r. H a r r is o n th ou ght th e p r o b le m c o u ld b e s t b e a p
p r o a c h e d in a s p ir it o f c o -o p e r a tio n , r a th e r than in co n d em n a tio n , h e
in d ic a te d th a t th e U n ited S ta te s d id r e ly on th e " fo r c e of p u b lic opinion."
T o th is en d M r. H a r r is o n a n n o u n ced h is su p p o r t of the 3 3 -p o w e r d ra ft
r e s o lu tio n b e fo r e th e C o m m itte e w h ic h , a fte r an n ou n cin g g e n e r a l p r in
c ip le s , s ta te d th a t d is c r im in a tio n w a s c o n tr a r y to a r tic le 56 of th e
C h a r te r and e x p r e s s e d r e g r e t and c o n c e r n th at th e g o v e r n m e n t of the
U nion had n o t r e sp o n d e d to the A s s e m b ly 's a p p ea l to r e c o n s id e r its
p o lic ie s . T he r e s o lu tio n w a s a d o p ted in th e C o m m itte e by a 6 8 -5 v o te
w ith 4 a b s te n tio n s , and a p p ro v ed b y th e A s s e m b ly by a 7 0 -5 m a r g in ,
w ith 4 a b s te n tio n s . T he U n ited S ta te s v o te d w ith th e m a jo r ity on both
35
o c c a s io n s .
The s p ir it o f c o -o p e r a tio n u r g e d by M r. H a r r is o n w a s to m e e t
a m o r e s e v e r e t e s t on th e p a r t of an u n m o v ed South A fr ic a n g o v e r n
m e n t, h o w e v e r , fo r on M a rc h 21, I9 6 0 , p e o p le of A fr ic a n o r ig in in
South A fr ic a c la s h e d w ith th e p o lic e in a s e n s e l e s s and in e v ita b le t r a g e
dy at S h a r p e v ilie . On M a r c h 30th, s o m e tw e n ty -n in e A fr ic a n and A sia n
d e le g a tio n s u r g e d th e S e c u r ity C o u n cil to c o n s id e r the " situ a tio n a r i s
in g out of l a r g e - s c a l e k illin g s o f u n a r m e d and p e a c e fu l d e m o n s tr a to r s
a g a in s t r a c ia l d is c r im in a tio n and s e g r e g a tio n in South A fr ic a ." T he
U n ited S ta te s r e s p o n s e in th e S e c u r ity C o u n cil in d ic a te s a to ta l ch a n g e
35
F o r d e le g a te H a r r is o n 's c o m m e n ts , s e e P R 's , S p e c ia l P o
lit ic a l C o m m itte e , 13th S e s s io n , pp. 2 4 - 2 5 . F o r te x t of 3 3 -p o w e r d ra ft,
s e e A /S P C /L .2 5 . T he p le n a r y v o te is fou n d in O R 'a, G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly ,
13th S e s s io n , pp. 4 1 2 -4 1 4 .
^ U n it e d N a tio n s D o c u m e n t S /4 2 7 9 and A ddendum 1.
72
fr o m th e e a r ly d e b a te s on th is ite m , fo r w h e r e the U n ited S ta te s had,
s in c e 1958, v o te d w ith th e m a jo r ity in s te a d of a b sta in in g , and it s c o m
m e n ts h ad b een m e a s u r e d and sy m p a th e tic to th e U nion , on th is o c c a
s io n A m b a s s a d o r L o d ge sp o k e th e la n g u a g e o f the a n ti-c o lo n ia l s .
In m a n y c o u n tr ie s u n sa n c tio n e d v io la tio n s o f h um an r ig h ts c o n
tin u e to o c c u r . B ut w e th in k th e r e is an im p o r ta n t d is tin c tio n b e
tw e e n s itu a tio n s w h e r e g o v e r n m e n ts a r e a c t iv e ly p r o m o tin g h u m an
r ig h ts . . . and s itu a tio n s w h e r e g o v e r n m e n ta l p o lic y ru n s c o u n te r
to th is . . . . It is c le a r th at th e s o u r c e o f th e c o n flic t . . . is th e
p o lic y of a p a r th e id fo llo w e d b y th e g o v e r n m e n t of th e U nion o f
S outh A fr ic a . . . . In th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s c o n fro n tin g u s to d a y w e a p
p e a l o n ce a g a in to th e g o v e r n m e n t of th e U nion of South A fr ic a . . .
th at it r e c o n s id e r p o lic ie s w h ic h p r e v e n t p e o p le o f c e r ta in r a c e s in
th e U nion fr o m e n jo y in g th e ir G o d -g iv e n r ig h ts and fr e e d o m s . In
f o r m e r y e a r s w e h a v e m a d e th at a p p e a l in th e n a m e of j u s t ic e .
T o d ay w e m a k e it a ls o in th e n a m e of p e a c e . T r u ly , a s w e s e e it
h e r e now , th e tw o a r e in th e lo n g ru n in se p a r a b le .-* '
M r. L o d g e a n n o u n ced th at th e U n ited S ta te s w o u ld su p p o rt th e E cu a d o r
d ra ft r e s o lu tio n b e fo r e the C o u n cil w h ich , n o tin g th e c o m p la in t b y the
tw e n ty -n in e m e m b e r s t a t e s , and the " co n tin u ed d is r e g a r d " b y th e South
A fr ic a n g o v e r n m e n t of e a r lie r A s s e m b ly r e s o lu t io n s , s ta te d th at th e
C oun cil:
1. R e c o g n iz e s th a t th e s itu a tio n in th e U nion of South A fr ic a is one
th a t h a s le d to in te r n a tio n a l f r ic tio n . . . .
2. D e p lo r e s th a t the r e c e n t d is tu r b a n c e s in th e U nion o f South
A fr ic a sh o u ld h a v e le d to the l o s s of lif e of so m a n y A fr ic a n s
D e p lo r e s th e p o lic ie s and a c tio n s of th e g o v e r n m e n t of the
U nion o f South A fr ic a w h ic h h a v e g iv e n r i s e to th e p r e s e n t s it u
ation;
4. C a lls U pon th e g o v e r n m e n t o f th e U nion of South A fr ic a to in it i
a te m e a s u r e s a im e d a t b r in g in g ab ou t r a c ia l h a r m o n y b a s e d on
e q u a lity in o r d e r th a t the p r e s e n t situ a tio n d o e s not co n tin u e or
r e c u r and to abandon it s p o lic ie s of a p a r th e id and r a c ia l d i s
c r im in a tio n ;
'F o r fu ll te x t o f s p e e c h e s b y A m b a s s a d o r L o d g e, s e e D e p a r t
m e n t of S ta te B u lle tin , V o l. X L II, N o. 1087, A p r il 25, I960, pp. 6 6 7 -6 6 9 -
73
5- R e q u e sts th e S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l, in c o n su lta tio n w ith th e g o v
e r n m e n t of th e U nion of South A fr ic a , to m a k e s u c h a r r a n g e
m e n ts a s w ou ld a d eq u a tely h elp in u p h old in g th e p u r p o s e s and
p r in c ip le s of the C h a r ter and to r e p o r t to the S e c u r ity C o u n cil
w h e n e v e r n e c e s s a r y and a p p r o p r ia te .3®
The U n ited S ta te s v o te d alo n g w ith e ig h t o th er m e m b e r s to
adopt th is " c e n su r e " r e s o lu tio n and F r a n c e and B r ita in a b s ta in e d .^ 9
E c o n o m ic E q u a lity
A r tic le 55 of the U n ited N a tio n s C h a r te r s ta te s th a t th e
" U nited N a tio n s s h a ll p r o m o te . . . h ig h e r sta n d a r d s of liv in g . . . and
co n d itio n s of e c o n o m ic and s o c ia l p r o g r e s s and d e v e lo p m e n t." No
U n ited N a tio n s a c tiv ity h a s s tir r e d the im a g in a tio n and h o p e s o f th e u n
d e r d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s a s m u ch a s th e w o r k th a t h a s b e e n done to fu l
f ill the p r o v is io n s of th is p a r t of the U n ited N a tio n s C h a r te r . E c o n o m
ic d e v e lo p m e n t is fo r the m o s t p a r t a su b je c t on w h ich d eep p o lit ic a l
d iv is io n s a r e fo r g o tte n and s u r p r is in g u n a n im ity is o fte n r e g is t e r e d by
the m e m b e r n a tio n s of th e U n ited N a tio n s.
T h e r e a r e th r e e m a jo r a s p e c t s to th e p r o g r a m s fo r e c o n o m ic
d e v e lo p m e n t and th e r e c o r d on tw o of th e s e is one of h a rm o n y . T he
su r v e y of c o n d itio n s fo r e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t, in clu d in g m in e r a l r e
s o u r c e s , in s titu tio n a l b o ttle n e c k s to a d v a n c e m e n t and th e p o lit ic a l c l i
m a te fo r in v e stm e n t, is one fu n ctio n of th e U n ited N a tio n s E c o n o m ic
and S o c ia l C o u n cil and it s s u b s id ia r ie s . T he d e v e lo p m e n t of s p e c ia l
s k ills , r e m o v a l of d e b ilita tin g d is e a s e s , p r e p a r a tio n of p ilo t p r o je c ts
and e d u c a tio n th ro u g h a d v ic e , tr a in in g and d e m o n str a tio n a r e so m e of
th e fa c to r s w h ic h c o m e u n der th e te c h n ic a l a s s is t a n c e p r o g r a m . In
3 ® Ibid., p. 669. 3 9 Ibid.
74
th e s e tw o a r e a s , th e u n d e r d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s h a v e g r a te fu lly a c c e p te d
th e h e lp and a d v ic e of th e m o r e d e v e lo p e d W e s te r n p o w e r s , and th e
U n ited N a tio n s h a s b e e n b o th an in s tr u m e n t fo r th e a d v a n c e m e n t of
40
b a ck w a r d n a tio n s and a fo r u m fo r th e ir a p p r e c ia tiv e c o m m e n ts .
40
T he te c h n ic a l a s s is t a n c e p r o g r a m la u n c h e d b y G e n e r a l A s
s e m b ly R e s o lu tio n 200 (III) w a s g iv e n w id e r fu n c tio n s in 1949 th ro u g h
th e r e c o m m e n d a tio n s of E C O SO C , R e s o lu tio n 222 (IX ). T h e E x p a n d ed
P r o g r a m of T e c h n ic a l A s s is t a n c e (E P T A ), u n d er th e T e c h n ic a l A s s i s t
a n ce B o a rd , c o - o r d in a t e s th e w o r k of fiv e s p e c ia liz e d a g e n c ie s , and had
th e in it ia l su p p o r t of 54 c o u n tr ie s w ho p le d g e d $ 2 0 ,0 1 2 ,5 0 0 fo r it s w o rk .
F o r fu lle r d is c u s s io n o f th e a c t iv it ie s u n d er E P T A , s e e " T e c h n ic a l A s
s is t a n c e fo r E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t: P r o g r a m of th e U n ited N a tio n s and
th e S p e c ia liz e d A g e n c ie s ," In te r n a tio n a l C o n c ilia tio n , N o. 4 5 7 , J a n u a ry ,
1950. S o m e id e a of th e e x tr a o r d in a r y ra n g e of th e E P T A m a y b e had
fr o m th e l i s t of a c t iv it ie s a ttr ib u te d to its e x p e r ts . B y 1 9 5 9 , 85 g o v e r n
m e n ts had jo in e d in s u p p o r t o f a p r o g r a m ra n g in g fr o m im p r o v in g a ir
tr a n s p o r t to e r a d ic a tio n of m a la r ia in u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s ; s e e
P R 's , EC O SO C , 2 8 th S e s s io n , 1959, S u p p lem en t 5. T he S u r v e y fu n c tio n
is c a r r ie d out u n d er t it l e s ra n g in g fr o m T he In te r n a tio n a l F lo w o f P r i
v a te C a p ita l to In te r n a tio n a l C o m m o d ity P r o b le m s . T he w o r k of th e
e x p e r ts u n d er th e C o m m is s io n on In te r n a tio n a l C o m m o d ity T ra d e
(C IC T ) r e - e s t a b lis h e d in 1958 b y EC O SO C (R e s o lu tio n 6 9 1 A [X X V I],
J u ly 31, 1958) r e p o r ts on th e p r o b le m s of the u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n
t r ie s in raw m a t e r ia ls tra d in g ; s e e P R 's , EC O SO C , 28th S e s s io n , Sup
p le m e n t 6 . L o n g -r u n s u r v e y s on tr a d e a r e co n d u cted u n d e r th e G e n e r
a l A g r e e m e n t on T a r iffs and T ra d e (G A T T ).
In th e e c o n o m ic in v e s tm e n t a r e a , th e th r e e a g e n c ie s p r io r to
th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e " s p e c ia l fund" w e r e th e In te r n a tio n a l M o n e
ta r y F und, T he In te r n a tio n a l B ank fo r R e c o n s tr u c tio n and D e v e lo p m e n t,
and T he In te r n a tio n a l F in a n c e C o r p o r a tio n . T he IM F and IB R D a r e
c o n c e r n e d w ith p r o j e c t s in v o lv in g th e g o v e r n m e n ts of th e m e m b e r n a
tio n s , w h ile th e IF C w a s e s t a b lis h e d to p r o m o te p r iv a te e n t e r p r is e
w ith o u t r e q u ir in g an y g o v e r n m e n t g u a r a n te e s fo r it s p a r tic ip a tio n . In
1951, EC O SO C a s k e d th e IB R D to stu d y th e p o te n tia l o f an a g e n c y to
h e lp p r iv a te e n t e r p r is e , and th e B ank su b m itte d th r e e r e p o r ts (E /2 2 1 5 ,
2441 and 2 6 1 6 ) on th e f e a s ib ilit y of th e p r o je c t. T he u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d
c o u n tr ie s g a v e th e p r o je c t th e ir w h o le -h e a r te d su p p o rt, and th e U n ited
K ingdom and th e U n ited S ta te s w e r e r e lu c ta n t, but th e U n ited S ta te s r e
v e r s e d it s p o s itio n in 1 9 5 4 and g a v e th e p r o je c t its su p p o rt. (F o r a
d is c u s s io n o f th e r e a s o n s fo r th e U n ited S ta te s tu r n -a b o u t, s e e A n n u al
R e v ie w of U n ited N a tio n s A ffa ir s [N ew Y ork: N ew Y o rk U n iv e r s ity
P r e s s , 19 5 4 ], p 5 9 .) T h e p r o je c t w a s la u n c h e d a s IF C in 1956.
One m ig h t w o n d e r w h y th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s f e e l n e g
le c t e d w h en th e r e a r e s o m a n y a g e n c ie s c o n c e r n e d w ith th e e c o n o m ic
fa c to r in in te r n a tio n a l a f f a ir s . T he r e a s o n w o u ld s e e m to b e th a t th e y
a r e in n o p o s itio n to m e e t th e c u r r e n c y and r e p a y m e n t r e q u ir e m e n ts of
75
It is g e n e r a lly a r g u e d , h o w e v e r , th at th e s e tw o a s p e c t s a r e , by
t h e m s e lv e s , o n ly c a t a ly s t s fo r e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t, and th e e s s e n t ia l
in g r e d ie n t fo r co n tin u o u s e c o n o m ic g r o w th r e q u ir e s in c r e a s in g c a p ita l.
T he le v e l of s a v in g s fr o m c u r r e n t in c o m e w h ic h is n e c e s s a r y fo r d o
m e s t ic c a p ita l fo r m a tio n b e in g b ey o n d th e r e a c h of th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d
n a tio n s , th is a s p e c t o f e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t, to o , h a s b e e n b ro u g h t to
th e a tte n tio n of th e U n ited N a tio n s. It i s in th is a r e a of U n ited N a tio n s
d eb a te and p o lic y th a t h a r m o n y h a s g iv e n w a y to d iv is io n , and th at d i
v is io n h a s o n ce a g a in ta k e n on th e to n e s of a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m by th e u n
d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s . O b s e s s e d b y th e stu b b o rn p e r s is t e n c e of
p o v e r ty in th e ir c o u n tr ie s , th e d e le g a te s fr o m th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d n a
tio n s in e a r ly 1947 o b ta in ed th e su p p o r t of th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly to the
Indian d e le g a te R a o 's p r o p o s a ls fo r a U n ited N a tio n s E c o n o m ic D e v e l
o p m en t A d m in is tr a tio n . A lth o u g h th e n a m e of th e o r g a n iz a tio n e n v is
a g ed in th o se p r o p o s a ls h a s ch a n g ed and th e p r o p o s a ls t h e m s e lv e s h a v e
th e e x is tin g a g e n c ie s fo r in v e s tm e n t in th e ir p r o g r a m s , and th e n e w ly
e s t a b lis h e d IF C w ith it s m o d e s t c a p ita l of $100 m illio n is n ot e v e n c o n
c e r n e d w ith g o v e r n m e n ta l p r o j e c t s , w h ic h th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n
t r ie s f e e l m u s t b e g iv e n p r io r it y a t th is s ta g e in th e ir d e v e lo p m e n t.
T he S p e c ia l U n ited N a tio n s F u n d fo r th e E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t o f U n
d e r -D e v e lo p e d N a tio n s (S U N F E D ) s e e m s t a ilo r e d to th e n e e d fo r lo n g
te r m lo a n s fo r " lo w -y ie ld , s lo w - y ie ld " p r o j e c t s . A s e n v is a g e d in th e
S c h e y v e n r e p o r t to E C O S O C 's 2 0 th s e s s i o n , and th e 10th S e s s io n o f th e
G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , S U N F E D w o u ld b e o r g a n iz e d a lo n g th e fo llo w in g
lin e s :
1. T he fund w o u ld m a k e g r a n ts and lo a n s . If lo a n s a r e g iv e n , th e y
sh o u ld be r e p a y a b le in lo c a l c u r r e n c y .
2. T he fund sh o u ld b e e s t a b lis h e d f o r a f iv e - y e a r p e r io d , r e n e w
a b le at th e en d o f th a t p e r io d .
3. G o v e r n m e n ts c o n tr ib u tin g to th e fund sh o u ld m a k e lo n g -te r m
p le d g e s to f a c ilit a t e p r o p e r p la n n in g .
4. T he fund sh o u ld u s e e x is t in g f a c i l i t i e s o f th e U n ited N a tio n s to
cu t b u r e a u c r a tic c o s t s .
S e e US P a r tic ip a tio n in th e UN, r e p o r t b y th e P r e s id e n t fo r the y e a r
1 9 5 5 , pp. 125 f f ., fo r th e U n ited S ta te s r e s p o n s e to th e s e r e c o m m e n d a
tio n s .
76
b e e n r e fin e d , it is on th e p r in c ip le o f th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of a U n ited N a
tio n s fund fo r in v e s tm e n t in b a c k w a r d c o u n tr ie s th a t c o n te n tio n h a s c o n
tin u e d to b e th e k e y n o te o f d e b a te . It is in th e c o n te x t of g e n e r a l a g r e e
m e n t on th e n e c e s s it y fo r e c o n o m ic a d v a n c e m e n t fo r u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d
c o u n tr ie s th a t th is c o n te n tio n is c a ta lo g u e d b e lo w .
F in a n c in g E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t
G e n e r a lly , fin a n c in g e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t h a s b e e n r e g a r d e d
u n d er tw o b r o a d a r e a s : (1) S tu d ie s of th e flo w of p r iv a te c a p ita l and th e
e x is t e n c e of d o m e s tic c a p ita l r e s o u r c e s w ith a v ie w to in c r e a s in g b oth
to m e e t th e n e e d s of u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s . (2) T he c r e a tio n of
n ew in s titu tio n s fo r le n d in g o r g ra n tin g c a p ita l to m e e t th e r e q u ir e
m e n ts o f e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t in b a c k w a r d a r e a s . On th e f i r s t of
th e s e a r e a s g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t h a s p r e v a ile d on th e n e c e s s it y fo r a d e
q u ate r e s e a r c h and s u r v e y s on th e flo w of in te r n a tio n a l p r iv a te c a p ita l
and m e th o d s of c r e a tin g a b e tte r a tm o s p h e r e fo r in c r e a s in g it, and b e t
te r u tiliz in g th e d o m e s tic r e s o u r c e s w h ic h m a y b e a v a ila b le . T he
p r o b le m th at d o e s not s e e m to b e p a r t of th is a r e a is th at of "the e c o
n o m ic and s o c ia l in f r a - s t r u c t u r e ," a te r m w h ic h h a s b e e n u s e d s in c e
1948 to d e s c r ib e b a s ic f a c i l i t i e s on w h ic h e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t d e -
p e n d s - - s u c h a s r o a d s , p o w e r s ta tio n s , s c h o o ls , h o s p ita ls , h o u sin g , e tc .
N on e of t h e s e p r o j e c t s a r e " p r o fita b le " and th e y th e r e fo r e r e q u ir e p u b -
41
l i e fin a n c in g . It is in th is c o n te x t th a t d e le g a te V. K. R. V . R ao,
^ T h e s e p r o je c ts a r e n o t " bankable" w ith th e In te r n a tio n a l
B ank fo r R e c o n s tr u c tio n and D e v e lo p m e n t, o r th e W orld B ank, fo r the
u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s a r e n ot in a p o s itio n to m e e t th e p a y m e n ts
e n ta ile d in lo a n s fr o m th is s o u r c e . E u g en e B la c k , P r e s id e n t o f the
IB R D , in 1951 a d v is e d th e EC O SO C to e n c o u r a g e g r a n ts fo r " b a sic in
v e s tm e n ts " b e c a u s e th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s w e r e n ot in a
77
c h a ir m a n o f th e S u b -C o m m is s io n on E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t , p r o p o s e d
in 1 9 4 9 th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f a n in t e r n a t io n a l a g e n c y e n t it le d th e U n ite d
N a tio n s E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t A d m i n is t r a t io n .- ^
A t th e T h ir t e e n th S e s s i o n o f th e E C O S O C (1 9 5 1 ), th e p r e m i s e s
f o r th e p la n s f o r a s p e c i a l fu n d f o r e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t w e r e a n
n o u n c e d ,^ ^ a n d th e i s s u e o f th e s p e c i a l fu n d w a s b r o u g h t b e f o r e th e
G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a t i t s S ix th S e s s i o n in 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 5 2 . A s th e d e b a te
o p e n e d in th e S e c o n d C o m m it t e e , th e d e le g a t e s f r o m th e u n d e r - d e v e l
o p e d c o u n t r ie s c a t a lo g u e d th e p r o b le m s th a t w e r e t h e ir lo t , a n d C h ile a n
d e le g a t e S a n ta C r u z e m p h a s i z e d th e in a b ilit y o f th e u n d e r - d e v e lo p e d
c o u n t r ie s to m e e t t h e s e p r o b le m s b y m o b ili z a t io n o f t h e ir d o m e s t i c r e
s o u r c e s . T h e g e n e r a l s e t t in g f o r th e s e n s i t i v i t y o f th e u n d e r - d e v e lo p e d
c o u n t r ie s w a s c o n t a in e d in d e le g a t e S a n ta C r u z 's c o m m e n t th a t
T h e w o r ld w a s c u r r e n t l y d e v o tin g to th e s o lu t io n o f th e c o l o s s a l
p r o b le m o f e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t , a l i t t l e m o r e th a n $ 1 ,0 0 0 m i l
l i o n a y e a r , a s u m m u c h l e s s th a n th e a n n u a l in c o m e r e c e i v e d b y
th e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r ie s f r o m t h e ir in v e s t m e n t s in th e u n d e r
d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s a n d s c a r c e l y o n e p e r c e n t o f w h a t th e n a tio n s
o f N A T O w e r e s p e n d in g f o r t h e ir d e f e n c e p r o g r a m m e s .
T o t h is s t a t e m e n t d e le g a t e N a r ie l w a l a a d d e d th e In d ia n d e l e g a
t io n 's v ie w th a t h is c o u n tr y n o lo n g e r w is h e d to b e a m o n g th e " C in d e r
e l l a ' s " in th e f a m i l y o f n a t io n s , a lw a y s b e in g ig n o r e d b y th e p r i o r i t i e s
p o s it io n to m e e t I B R D 's r e q u ir e m e n t s . S e e P R ' s , G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y ,
6 th S e s s i o n , S u p p le m e n t 3, p . 6 0 .
^ O R 's , E C O S O C , 9 th S e s s i o n , S u p p le m e n t 1 1 B , p p , 2 2 - 2 4 .
“ ^ S e e M e a s u r e s f o r th e E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t o f U n d e r - D e
v e lo p e d C o u n t r i e s - - R e p o r t b y a G r o u p o f E x p e r t s A p p o in te d b y th e S e c
r e t a r y - G e n e r a l o f th e U n ite d N a t io n s , U n ite d N a t io n s P u b lic a t io n ,
1 9 5 1 .1 1 .B .2 , R e c o m m e n d a t io n 1 4 .
4 4
P R 's, 6th S e ssio n , 2nd C om m ittee, p. 10.
I
78
given , to E u r o p e a n r e c o v e r y an d w a r m a t e r i a l. M r. N a r ie lw a la in d i
c a te d th a t th e s t r e s s la id b y th e d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s on im p r o v in g th e
e x t r a c t iv e in d u s t r ie s an d d e n y in g f in a n c ia l s u p p o r t s o th a t th e u n d e r
d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s c o u ld in d u s t r ia liz e j u s t if ie d th e f e a r " th at th e o n ly
o b je c tiv e of th e d e v e lo p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s w a s to en d o w th e u n d e r - d e
v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s w ith th e m e a n s o f p r o d u c in g th e r a w m a t e r i a l s to
4 5
fe e d th e in d u s t r ie s o f th e a d v a n c e d c o u n t r ie s . . . "
In th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s ' a p p e a ls f o r s u p p o r t o f th e
fu n d , t h e r e w a s a c o n s ta n t r e f r a in f o r th e e s t a b lis h m e n t of a g r e a t e r
e q u ilib r iu m in th e c o m p a r a tiv e s ta n d a r d s o f liv in g b e tw e e n th e u n d e r
d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s an d th e in d u s t r ia liz e d n a tio n s , an d a f la t i n s i s t e n c e
th a t s u c h a p r o c e s s c o u ld o n ly b e g e n e r a te d b y th e in t e r v e n t io n of e x
t e r n a l a id . T h e U n ite d S ta te s r e s p o n s e w a s g iv e n b y d e le g a t e M a n s
f ie ld , w h o in fo r m e d th e C o m m itte e th a t th e U n ite d S ta te s C o n g r e s s
w o u ld n o t be p r e p a r e d to m a k e a c o n tr ib u tio n to th e fu n d a t th a t t im e ,
o r in th e n e a r fu tu r e , an d o p p o se d th e jo in t d r a ft r e s o lu t io n on th e s u b -
. . 46
j e c t .
O th er u n d e r - d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s , c o n s c io u s th a t th e o u tb r e a k
of th e K o r e a n W ar in 1950 m ig h t ta k e a tte n tio n a w a y fr o m t h e ir
^ I b id ., p . 34. T h e r e m a r k s o f th e In d ia n d e le g a t e to o k o n a
tin g e o f b it t e r n e s s o n o c c a s io n . T h e f a c t th a t th e U .S . h a d s h o w e d s u c h
g e n e r o s it y a s to o f f e r E u r o p e $ 1 3 ,5 0 0 m il lio n in th e fo u r y e a r s fr o m
1 9 4 8 -1 9 5 2 (90 p e r c e n t o f it in g if t s an d 10 p e r c e n t in lo a n s a t 2 .5 to 4
p e r c e n t in t e r e s t ) , an d th e in h ib itio n s sh o w n to w a r d th e p r o p o s e d fu n d
le d d e le g a te N a r ie lw a la to th e c o m m e n t th a t " a fte r th e w a r , p r io r it y
h a d b e e n g iv e n to E u r o p e a n c o u n t r ie s an d th e u n d e r - d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s
h ad b e e n n e g le c t e d , p r e s u m a b ly on th e g r o u n d th a t s in c e th e y w e r e a c
c u s to m e d to p o v e r ty , th e y c o u ld w a it" ; ib id ., p. 34.
^ OR's, 6th Session, 2nd C om m ittee, p. 123.
79
p r o b le m s , s t r e s s e d t h e ir c o lo n ia l h e r it a g e a n d th e o b lig a t io n o w e d to
th e m b y t h o s e w h o h a d b e n e f it e d fr o m t h e ir p a s t p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m ic
b o n d a g e . U n ite d K in g d o m d e le g a t e W a k e h u r s t w a s d i s t r e s s e d b y t h is
s e e m in g r i g i d n e s s o f h a v e v e r s u s h a v e - n o t p o s it io n s d e v e lo p in g in th e
d e b a te , a n d p o in te d o u t th a t " it w a s a m is t a k e to r e g a r d th e w o r ld a s
d iv id e d in to tw o c a m p s , c o m p o s e d r e s p e c t i v e l y o f th e d e v e lo p e d a n d th e
u n d e r - d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s . . . . M o r e o v e r , th e u n d e r - d e v e lo p e d c o u n
t r i e s s h o u ld b e li e v e th a t th e d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s w e r e f a v o r a b ly d i s
p o s e d to w a r d t h e m . " 47 H o w e v e r f a v o r a b ly d is p o s e d th e d e v e lo p e d
c o u n t r ie s m a y h a v e b e e n to w a r d t h e ir l e s s fo r tu n a te c o l l e a g u e s , th e d e
b a te o n th e o n ly d r a ft r e s o lu t i o n o n th e s u b j e c t o f th e p r o p o s e d fu n d
s h o w e d a c l e a r b i - p o l a r i t y b e tw e e n th e d e v e lo p e d an d u n d e r - d e v e lo p e d
c o u n t r ie s . T h e d r a ft r e s o lu t i o n a s k e d th e E C O S O C to p r e p a r e , f o r th e
S e v e n th S e s s i o n o f th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , a s e r i e s o f r e c o m m e n d a t io n s
f o r a " s p e c ia l fu n d to b e c r e a t e d fo r g r a n t s - i n - a i d a n d l o w - i n t e r e s t ,
lo n g - t e r m lo a n s to h e lp u n d e r - d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s ." D e s p it e th e u n
d e r - d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r ie s ' d e t a ile d d e f e n s e o f th e d r a ft an d p a r t i c u l a r l y
th e e x p lo r a t o r y n a tu r e o f it s m o d e s t o p e r a t iv e c l a u s e , th e W e s t e r n
d e le g a t i o n s , a n d p a r t ic u l a r ly th e U n ite d S t a t e s , r e i t e r a t e d t h e ir o p p o s i
t io n to it, an d d e le g a t e S a n ta C r u z o f CJtiile d ir e c t e d o n e m o r e a p p e a l
f o r s u p p o r t fr o m th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
T h e p e s s i m i s m s h o w n b y th e U n ite d S t a t e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
w h e n h e s t a t e d th a t th e U n ite d S t a t e s . . . w a s n o t p r e p a r e d to c o m
m it i t s e l f to a s p e c i a l fu n d e it h e r a t th e p r e s e n t t im e o r in th e
f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e , c o n t r a s t e d w it h th e t r a d it io n a l o p t im is m o f th e
U n ite d S t a t e s a n d w ith e v e n t s in r e c e n t y e a r s , w h e n th e U n ite d
S t a t e s h a d c o n s t a n t ly b e e n in th e v a n g u a r d o f a c t io n in th e i n t e r e s t
o f in t e r n a t io n a l s o lid a r i t y , a s sh o w n b y th e M a r s h a ll P la n . . . °
4 7 Ibid., p. 47. 4 8 Ibid., p. 129.
80
In a n o th er v e in , In d ia 's d e le g a te N a r ie lw a la w e lc o m e d the
U nited S ta te s se n tim e n ts to w a rd th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s and its
a n n o u n cem en t th at in s p ite of th e d r a in s on r e s o u r c e s due to r e a r m a
m e n t, th e U n ited S ta te s w ou ld do it s b e s t to a s s i s t th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d
c o u n tr ie s , and w en t on to the d ry c o m m e n t, "but the U n ited S ta te s r e p
r e s e n ta tiv e did not s e e m s o e n th u s ia s tic w h en it c a m e to im p le m e n tin g
49
th at la u d a b le o b je c tiv e ." T h e s e a p p e a ls to th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a
tio n w e r e f r u it le s s , h o w e v e r , fo r both in th e C o m m itte e a s w e ll a s in
the A s s e m b ly th e U n ited S ta te s and its W e ste r n fr ie n d s v o te d a g a in s t
th e d ra ft. T he v o tin g at th is s e s s i o n c le a r ly in d ic a te d th e b i- p o la r it y
b etw e e n th e h ave and h a v e -n o t p o w e r s , the la tte r b ein g s u c c e s s f u l in
g a in in g a d o p tio n of the p r o p o s a l fo r fu r th e r stu d y and r e c o m m e n d a tio n s
50
fo r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e s p e c ia l fund.
ECOSOC r e p o r te d to th e S ev en th S e s s io n on " F in a n cin g of
E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t of U n d e r -d e v e lo p e d C o u n tr ie s" a s r e q u e s te d by
th e S ixth G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly and fo r th e n e x t th r e e s e s s i o n s the b e s t
th at th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s co u ld do w a s to k eep th e id e a o f the
s p e c ia l fund a liv e by a sk in g fo r fu r th e r stu d y . One d e v e lo p m e n t w o rth
n otin g in th is p e r io d w a s th e a n n o u n ce m en t b y th e P r e s id e n t o f the
U n ited S ta te s th at the U n ited S ta te s w ou ld b e happy to jo in in an e ffo r t
to fin a n c e th e d e v e lo p m e n t of the u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s a s so o n a s
su b sta n tia l s a v in g s had b e e n m a d e a v a ila b le by d is a r m a m e n t .^ T h is
49 Ibid.
^9 T he v o te in th e C o m m itte e w a s 2 8 -2 0 w ith 9 a b ste n tio n s;
ib id ., p. 139.
^ E is e n h o w e r s p e e c h r e fe r e n c e : A p r il 16, 1953; T he N ew Y ork
T im e s , A p r il 17, 1953, p. 1, c o l. 8 .
81
b eca m e the o ffic ia l p o s itio n of the U nited S ta tes d e le g a tio n on a ll su b
seq u en t d eb a tes on SU N F E D . The E ighth S e s s io n of the G en eral A s
se m b ly had a sk ed M r. R aym ond S ch eyven , P r e s id e n t of the ECOSOC, to
ca n v a ss the g o v e rn m e n ts on th e ir v ie w s on the e sta b lish m e n t of the
52
fund and to r e p o r t to the N inth S e s s io n on h is fin d in g s. M r. S ch ey -
v e n 's r e p o r t is e v id e n c e of one c u r io u s c ir c u m sta n c e in th is p a r tic u la r
a sp e c t of the a n ti-c o lo n ia l d eb ate. W here in m o s t c la s h e s b etw een the
a n ti-c o lo n ia ls and th e ir a d v e r s a r ie s the U nited S ta tes a ssu m e d the p o s
tu re of an o b je c tiv e c o n c ilia to r , on the q u estio n of SU N F E D it w a s su d
d en ly c a s t in the r o le of a p r in c ip a l in the d is a g r e e m e n t and the m a jo r
o b sta c le in the w a y of a n ti-c o lo n ia l a m b itio n s. "C olonial" p o w e r s su ch
a s F r a n c e , N eth erla n d s and B elg iu m , w ho had had th e ir m o m en ts of
d is c o m fo r t a s ta r g e ts fo r a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m in oth er d eb a tes, now in d i
ca ted th e ir su p p ort fo r the e sta b lish m e n t of the fund. The on ly c o n d i
tio n co m m o n to th e ir r e s e r v a tio n s w as the su p p ort of the U nited S ta te s.
The U n ited S ta te s, h o w ev e r, "did not think the tim e w as p ro p itio u s" and
5 3
once a gain tied the fund to s u c c e s s fu l d isa r m a m e n t a s a p reco n d itio n .
The debate in the Ninth S e s s io n on the S ch eyven r ep o rt did not
d iffe r fro m the c o m m e n ts su b m itted in that r ep o rt, the U nited S tates
con tin u in g in its o p p o sitio n to the fund and the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls p r e s s in g
fo r, and gain in g adop tion of, a r e so lu tio n a sk in g for the e sta b lish m e n t
^ R e s o lu t io n 724B (VIII).
5 3
F o r the r e p lie s of th e se and oth er g o v e rn m e n ts, s e e OR*s,
G en eral A s s e m b ly , 9th S e s s io n , S u p p lem en t 19 (A /2728), C hapter III.
The e n tir e su p p lem en t is d ev o ted to SU N F E D and is a c o n c is e stu dy of
the g e n e s is of the id e a fo r the fund and its o b je c tiv e s.
82
54
o fth e fu n d " as so o n a s p o s s ib le ." A t th e T en th S e s s io n , a fte r a lm o s t
a ll d e le g a tio n s had a g r e e d in p r in c ip le on the n eed fo r S U N F E D , o ld d i
v is io n s a s to it s tim in g r e a p p e a r e d . D e le g a te H ays r e ite r a te d th a t the
U n ited S ta te s c o u ld n ot a ffo r d to m e e t b oth it s d e fe n s e n e e d s a s w e ll a s
c o n tr ib u te to th e fund and w e n t on to th e r a th e r fa n c ifu l c o m m e n t th at
" pu b lic op in ion " in A m e r ic a did not fa v o r the e s ta b lis h m e n t of su c h a
55
fund a t th e m o m e n t. T he un dau n ted a n t i- c o lo n ia ls p r e s s e d fo r th e
fund and k ep t th e p r o p o s a l a liv e by c o m p r o m is e s in d ra ft r e s o lu tio n s ,
w h ich w h ile o ffen d in g no o n e, s a t is f ie d o n ly th e stu d e n ts o f su c h m a t
t e r s a s the s u b tle tie s w h ic h m a k e u n a n im o u s r e s o lu tio n s p o s s ib le in in -
56
te r n a tio n a l o r g a n iz a tio n s .
It w a s at th e T w e lfth S e s s io n of th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly th a t th e
d eb a te tu rn ed to s p e c if ic m a tte r s r a th e r th an e x p r e s s io n s of g e n e r a l
s e n tim e n t and d ila to r y p r o p o s a ls fo r fu r th e r stu d y . T he N e th e r la n d s
had h e lp e d th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s g a in a d o p tio n of a d ra ft in
EC O SO C u rg in g th e im m e d ia te a d o p tio n of S U N F E D and s e ttin g up a
p r e p a r a to r y c o m m itte e to w o r k out p r a c t ic a l d e ta ils . S in c e th e U n ited
S ta tes v o te d a g a in s t th is d r a ft, th e A r g e n tin e d e le g a te m a d e r e fe r e n c e
54
P R 's , 9th S e s s io n , A n n e x e s, A g en d a Item 25, p. 1 2 .
^ T h e s o u r c e s fo r d e le g a te H a y s' r e a d in g of th e A m e r ic a n
te m p e r at th e tim e a r e so m e w h a t o b s c u r e . It h a s b e e n p o in te d out th at
75 n a tio n a l o r g a n iz a tio n s e n d o r s e d th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e fund. S ee
A nnual R e v ie w of U n ited N a tio n s A f f a ir s , 1 9 5 5 -5 6 , p. 56.
^ T h e 10th A s s e m b ly a s k e d fo r a fin a l r e p o r t in 1957 fr o m an
ad h o c c o m m itte e s e t up to c a n v a s s g o v e r n m e n ts a g a in . T he U nited
S ta te s o b je c te d to an y s e n te n c e w h ic h m ig h t im p ly a p p r o v a l o f th e fund,
and s o an in n o cu o u s te x t r e fe r r in g to " in c r e a s e d su p p o rt fo r th e p r o
p o s e d e s ta b lis h m e n t . . . in c o n d itio n s m o r e fa v o r a b le . . . in th e n e a r
fu tu re . . . a d d itio n a l m e a n s fo r fin a n c in g . . . fr o m s a v in g s in d is a r m a
m en t" w a s u n a n im o u s ly ad o p ted . S e e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , R e s o lu tio n
923 (X ).
83
to a m o r e m o d e s t b e g in n in g fo r th e fund, w h ic h m ig h t w o r k c l o s e l y w ith
"the T e c h n ic a l A s s is t a n c e B o a rd , th e IB R D and th e U n ited N a tio n s
C h ild r e n 's F und," fo r fu r th e r a n c e of s u r v e y c e n te r s and te c h n ic a l in s t i-
57
tu te s . A lth o u g h th is p r o p o s a l w a s n ot d e v e lo p e d fu r th e r in EC O SO C ,
it tu rn ed out to be th e n u c le u s of the A m e r ic a n p o s itio n at th e T w e lfth
S e s s io n of th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly . T he U n ited S ta te s o ffe r e d a d ra ft
r e s o lu tio n p r o p o s in g an in c r e a s e of E P T A 's r e s o u r c e s fr o m $ 3 0 ,0 0 0 ,
000 to $ 100 , 000,000 and a sk in g th at " th ere sh o u ld be e s t a b lis h e d w ith in
the p r o g r a m s a S p e c ia l P r o j e c t s F und w h ic h w ou ld be u s e d to e n la r g e
58
the sc o p e of the P r o g r a m 's A c t iv it ie s . .
To th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s , th is p r o p o s a l s e e m e d to
ch an ge the in te n tio n o f S U N F E D , w h ic h had b een e n v is a g e d a s an a g e n c y
to p r o v id e in v e s tm e n t c a p ita l r a th e r than te c h n ic a l a s s is t a n c e . T h ey
a c c o r d in g ly o ffe r e d an 11 -p o w e r d ra ft, r e a s s e r t in g th at
th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f [a U n ited N a tio n s E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t
F u n d ] is e c o n o m ic a lly d e s ir a b le and p o s s ib le , w ill s tr e n g th e n th e
U n ited N a tio n s , w ill h elp th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s in th e ir
e ffo r ts to w a rd e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t and s o c ia l a d v a n c e m e n t and
w ill th u s c o n tr ib u te to th e s ta b ility and p e a c e o f the w o r ld .
T he d e a d lo c k w a s y e t u n b rok en and the U n ited S ta te s d r a ft
p la c e d th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s in a c r u e l d ile m m a . R e je c tio n of
th e A m e r ic a n p r o p o s a l w o u ld m e a n th e l o s s of an a d d itio n a l $ 7 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
fo r te c h n ic a l a s s is t a n c e in th e ir c o u n tr ie s , and a c c e p ta n c e of th e d r a ft
w o u ld m e a n a to ta l c a p itu la tio n in the S U N F E D d e b a te . T he u n d e r -
^ O R 's , EC O SO C , 2 4 th S e s s io n , 990 th M e e tin g , p a r a g r a p h s
57, 59.
58 A /C .2 /L .3 5 4 , N o v e m b e r 18, 1957.
59A/C.2/L.331, October 16, 1957.
84
d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s a tte m p te d to b r id g e the c h a sm b e tw e e n w h at th e y
w a n ted and w h at h ad now b e e n o ffe r e d to th em in a c a r e fu lly w o r d e d
c o m p r o m is e d ra ft; w h ic h s ta te d th at
th e r e s h a ll be e s t a b lis h e d a s a p a r t of th e te c h n ic a l a s s is t a n c e and
d e v e lo p m e n t p r o g r a m s of the U n ited N a tio n s and th e S p e c ia liz e d
a g e n c ie s a s e p a r a te s p e c ia l fund. . . . T he o p e r a tio n s o f th e F und
s h a ll m o r e im m e d ia te ly be u s e d to e n la r g e th e s c o p e of th e U n ited
N a tio n s p r o g r a m s of te c h n ic a l a s s is t a n c e .
The U n ited S ta te s w a s n ot s a t is f ie d w ith th e te x t and in s is t e d
th a t th e d ra ft sh o u ld r e a d " p r o g r a m s o f te c h n ic a l a s s is t a n c e and d e v e l-
61
o p m e n t," in s te a d of " te c h n ic a l a s s is t a n c e and d e v e lo p m e n t p r o g r a m s "
T h is , in tu rn , w a s n ot a c c e p ta b le to th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d n a tio n s, w ho
did n ot w is h th e w o rd " te c h n ic a l" to m o d ify the w o rd d e v e lo p m e n t and
t h e r e fo r e c le a r ly p la c e th e Fund in th e E P T A . It w a s th e c o n te n tio n
o v e r th is U n ited S ta te s a m en d m en t th at le d th e F r e n c h d e le g a tio n to the
im p a tie n t c o m m e n t th a t " h agglin g" o v e r on e w o rd m ig h t w e ll c o s t the
u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s a g r e a t d e a l of m o n e y . T he r e s p o n s e w a s
n ot lo n g in c o m in g , and an in s u lte d Indian d e le g a te
f e lt c o m p e lle d to p o in t out th a t the u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s d id
n o t s e e t h e m s e lv e s a s b e g g a r s h o ld in g out th e ir b o w ls. . . . T h ey
w e r e n ot p r e p a r e d to ta k e w h a te v e r w a s o ffe r e d s im p ly b e c a u s e it
w a s o ffe r e d . T he m a n n e r o f the g iv in g w a s a s im p o r ta n t to th em
a s th e g ift . . . a q u e s tio n of p r in c ip le w a s in v o lv e d and th o s e c o m
m itte d to th e p r in c ip le of S U N F E D co u ld n ot t o le r a te th e c lo s in g of
th e d o o r to p o s s ib le e v o lu tio n of th e p r o p o s e d fund in to a c a p ita l
d e v e lo p m e n t fund.
It is in th e n a tu re of su c h m a tte r s in the U n ited N a tio n s th at
s e e m in g ly ir r e c o n c ila b le p o s itio n s w e r e r e c o n c ile d in a R e s o lu tio n
w h ic h a llo w e d e v e r y fa c tio n to c la im v ic to r y . The U n ited S ta te s w a s
60Ibid., Rev. 1. 61 A /C .2/L .360.
k^OR's, 12th Session, Committee II, p. 293.
85
hap py th at S U N F E D w a s d is p o s e d of, and the a n t i- c o lo n ia ls in s is t e d
th a t S U N F E D co u ld w e ll g ro w out o f the R e s o lu tio n th e y had a c c e p te d .
T h e r e is lit t le doubt th at th e fin a l v ic to r y , if it can b e c a lle d
th at, w a s w on b y th e U n ited S ta te s and th e U n ited K ingd om , fo r w h a t
e v e r th e w o rd in g of th e r e s o lu tio n , S U N F E D w a s n ot, and is n ot, an e s
ta b lis h e d a g e n c y fo r th e p r o v is io n of g r a n t s - in - a id or lo w - in t e r e s t ,
lo n g -te r m lo a n s w h ic h a lm o s t e v e r y o n e c o n c e d e s a r e n e c e s s a r y fo r th e
e c o n o m ic a d v a n c e m e n t of th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d n a tio n s. In deed , th e
U n ited S ta te s v ie w p r e v a ile d n ot b e c a u s e of it s w in n in g a r g u m e n ts , but
b e c a u s e it d e n ie d th e fin a n c ia l su p p o rt n e c e s s a r y fo r th e fund to b e c o m e
a r e a lity . W h a tev er th e r e a l r e a s o n fo r th is w ith h o ld in g of its fin a n c ia l
su p p o rt m a y b e, th e one c ite d in the d e b a te s h a s n ot b e e n c o n v in c in g to
th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d n a tio n s. T h ey h a v e o ften p o in te d out th at th e
U n ited S ta te s is g e n e r o u s ly g iv in g aid u n d er b i- la t e r a l a g r e e m e n ts , and
S U N F E D r e q u ir e s not s o m u ch a d d itio n a l o u tla y s by th e U n ited S ta te s
g o v e r n m e n t a s th e d iv e r s io n of fu n d s fr o m c u r r e n t p r a c tic e and c o m
m itm e n ts . W ithout p a s s in g ju d g m e n t on e ith e r s id e of th is a r g u m e n t,
one can r e c a ll th at the n e e d fo r an a g e n c y su c h a s S U N F E D h a s r a r e ly
b e e n d isp u te d , e v e n by th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n , and c o n c lu d e in th e
h op e th at it w ill b e m e t in th e n e a r fu tu r e .
S u m m a r y
The d e b a te s on th e tw o it e m s in v o lv in g r a c ia l d is c r im in a tio n
p r o v e d to be so m e of the m o s t ta x in g to the A m e r ic a n d e le g a tio n . It
a p p e a r s , on fin a l a n a ly s is , th at th e U n ited S ta te s h a s lit t le sy m p a th y
fo r su ch p o lic ie s a s a p a r th e id , a lth o u g h fo r a c o n s id e r a b le p e r io d it
a r tic u la te d a g en u in e sy m p a th y fo r th e g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h w a s c h a r g e d
86
w ith im p o s in g th e s e p o lic ie s . T he U n ited S ta te s f e lt th at th e U nion o f
South A fr ic a w a s fa c e d w ith g r e a t d if f ic u lt ie s in s o lv in g its r a c ia l p r o b -
le m a , and c o n s id e r e d it u n fa ir fo r th e U n ited N a tio n s to is o la t e it fo r
c h a s tis e m e n t w h e n d is c r im in a tio n w a s n ot ju s t lim it e d to th e U n io n 's
t e r r it o r ie s . T he U n ited S ta te s a r g u e d th a t the c h a r g e s a g a in s t th e
U nion w e r e b e tte r p la c e d in th e c o n te x t of th e w o r ld -w id e p r o b le m of
d is c r im in a tio n s s u ffe r e d by o th er m in o r it ie s , and a lth o u g h it d is a v o w e d
the U n io n 's p o lic ie s , it c o u ld n ot le n d its su p p o r t to p r o p o s a ls w h ic h
im p lie d th a t th o s e p o lic ie s w e r e u n iq u e ly bad and w a r r a n te d s p e c ia l
tr e a tm e n t.
T he U n ited S ta te s d iffe r e d w ith th e m a jo r ity on th e p r o p e r
r o le of th e U n ited N a tio n s in th e a p a r th e id d e b a te s , fo r a lth o u g h g r i e v
a n c e s m a y be a ir e d , th e y c o u ld not le a d to the fo r m u la tio n of U n ited N a
tio n s d em a n d s fo r a ch a n g e in th e U n io n 's d o m e s tic p o lic ie s . T he d o
m e s t ic ju r is d ic tio n c la u s e c o u ld not in h ib it d eb a te on a m a tte r in v o lv in g
the v io la tio n of h u m a n r ig h ts , but it d id p r o te c t th e U n ion fr o m th e A s
s e m b ly 's in t e r f e r e n c e th ro u g h p r o p o s a ls r e q u e s tin g the a b a n d o n m en t of
p r o g r a m s w h ic h w e r e d o m e s tic and th e r e fo r e e x c lu s iv e ly w ith in th e
s o v e r e ig n ty o f the U nion g o v e r n m e n t. T he U n ited S ta te s t h e r e fo r e s u p
p o r te d r e s o lu tio n s e x p r e s s in g th e h o p e th at a u n iv e r s a l b e tte r m e n t of
c o n d itio n s w o u ld ta k e p la c e , and r e s i s t e d p r o p o s a ls w h ic h lo o k e d to th e
b e tte r m e n t o f c o n d itio n s th ro u g h th e A s s e m b ly 's in itia tiv e in th e p a r
tic u la r t e r r it o r ie s u n d er th e U n io n 's c o n tr o l. T h is p o s itio n w a s h e ld
u n til 1958, w h e n th e A m e r ic a n d e le g a tio n b eg a n to s p e c ify it s d is t a s te
fo r the p o lic ie s fo llo w e d by th e U nion , and a fte r th e in c id e n ts a t S h a r p e -
_ v il le , the U n ited S ta te s so m e w h a t a b r u p tly m o v e d to the h e a d o f th e
87
a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o s itio n . T he A m e r ic a n d e le g a te th en s t r e s s e d th a t a l
th ou gh r a c ia l p r o b le m s w e r e d iffic u lt, th e U nion had in te n s ifie d th em
w ith its im m o r a l p u r s u it o f s e g r e g a t io n is t p o lic ie s su c h a s a p a r th e id .
A p a r th e id w a s a v io la tio n of th e C h a r te r , a th r e a t to th e p e a c e and th e
U nion of South A fr ic a w a s to be d e p lo r e d fo r h a v in g fo llo w e d a p o lic y
w h ic h h ad le d to th e s e v e r e te n s io n s at h o m e and a b ro a d .
T he T r e a tm e n t o f In d ian s w a s a s u b je c t th a t w a s not, and is
not, s u s c e p tib le to im p r o v e m e n t by U n ited N a tio n s in itia tiv e a s fa r a s
th e U n ited S ta te s is c o n c e r n e d . In th e f i r s t p la c e , the m a tte r is e s s e n
t ia lly w ith in th e U n io n 's d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n , and s e c o n d , any s o lu tio n
to it is o n ly p o s s ib le th ro u g h n e g o tia tio n s b e tw e e n India, P a k is ta n and
th e U nion of South A fr ic a . R e c u r r e n t d eb a te on th is ite m in th e A s s e m
b ly m a y be le g a l, but it is not w is e in the U n ited S ta te s v ie w . Such d e
b a te s e x a c e r b a te te n s io n s b e tw e e n th e d isp u ta n ts, and th e U n ited N a
tio n s w o u ld be w e ll- a d v is e d to s t e e r aw ay fr o m a c o u r s e w h ic h w o u ld
le a d to m o r e tu r b u le n c e and h o s tilit y . In g e n e r a l, the U n ited S ta te s
h o p e s th a t th e T r e a tm e n t of In d ia n s and o th e r m in o r it ie s w ill b e in c o n
so n a n c e w ith p r in c ip le s a c c e p te d b y a ll n a tio n s , and the U n ited N a tio n s
w o u ld p r o v e m o s t h e lp fu l if it e x p r e s s e d th is h o p e and le f t th e d isp u tin g
p a r t ie s to fin d the w a y to r e a liz e it.
In th e d e b a te s c o n c e r n e d w ith th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l d r iv e to w a rd
e c o n o m ic e q u a lity , th e U n ited S ta te s h a s o fte n in d ic a te d its sy m p a th y
fo r th e c o n d itio n s w h ic h le n d u r g e n c y to th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l a p p e a ls fo r
h e lp . T he U n ited S ta te s h a s a p p r o v e d of, and su p p o r te d a n u m b er of
p r o p o s a ls lo o k in g to w a r d th e b e tte r m e n t o f e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s in u n
d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s , and h a s c o n tr ib u te d g e n e r o u s ly to su ch
88
p r o g r a m s a s te c h n ic a l a id and IFC . The co n ten tio n b etw e e n th e a n ti
c o lo n ia ls and the U n ited S ta te s h a s r e s te d la r g e ly on th e ir d iffe r e n c e s
o v e r the e s ta b lis h m e n t of SU N F E D . The U nited S ta te s h a s a rg u ed that
its d e fe n se e x p e n d itu r e s and o th er c o m m itm e n ts do not a llo w it to
p le d g e any funds to a n ew in v e s tm e n t fund su ch a s SU N F E D . T he U nited
S ta te s h a s n ot a lw a y s a g r e e d th at S U N F E D is th e p r o p e r w a y to m e e t
the p r o b le m s of th e u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s and h as found the m o n e y
to e n la r g e th e te c h n ic a l aid a s p e c ts of the U n ited N a tio n s p r o g r a m s fo r
th o se c o u n tr ie s . T he a n ti-c o lo n ia ls in s is t th at th e r e a l p r o b le m is the
sh o r ta g e of in v e s tm e n t c a p ita l fo r the d e v e lo p m e n t of th e e c o n o m ic
in f r a -s tr u c tu r e , and w h ile r e c o r d in g th e ir g ra titu d e fo r th e a s s is t a n c e
th ey h a v e r e c e iv e d fro m th e U n ited S ta te s in the p a st, th e y h a v e a p
p e a le d fo r p r o g r a m s w h ich w ould a p p r o x im a te th e in t e r e s t and m a g n i
tude of th e M a r s h a ll P la n . A m e r ic a 's c o n tin e n ta l a ll ie s , su c h as
F r a n c e and B e lg iu m , h a v e jo in e d the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls in th e ir d em an d s
fo r an a g e n c y su ch a s S U N F E D , and h ave b een w illin g to c o m m it funds
to the a g e n c y p r o v id e d the U nited S ta te s g iv e s its b le s s in g s (and m o n ey )
to the p r o p o se d a g e n c y . T he U n ited S ta te s a r g u e s that it can n ot a ffo rd
su c h a c o m m itm e n t and th a t S U N F E D i s n ot th e o n ly w a y in w h ic h to
im p r o v e th e lo t o f the u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d n a tio n s.
CHAPTER IH
T H E G E N E R A L D E B A T E ON H U M A N RIG HTS
The d eb a te on h u m an r ig h ts h a s b e e n c o n c e r n e d w ith th r e e
b ro a d m e th o d s fo r th e p r o te c tio n and a d v a n c e m e n t of h u m an r ig h ts .
T he f i r s t m a y b e d e s c r ib e d a s th e " in sp ir a tio n a l a p p ro a ch ," o r th e a n
n o u n c e m e n t of lo fty p r in c ip le s by w h ich a ll s t a t e s sh o u ld be g u id ed in
th e ir p o lic ie s ; th e s e c o n d is th e " c o n tr a c tu a l" a p p ro a ch , or th e d r a ftin g
of a g r e e m e n ts by w h ic h s ig n a to r y s ta te s m a y b e le g a lly bound to c a r r y
out th e ir o b lig a tio n s in th e a r e a of h u m an r ig h ts; and th ir d , th e " im p le -
m e n ta tio n a l a p p ro a ch ," o r the c r e a t io n of U n ited N a tio n s m a c h in e r y to
s u r v e y c o n d itio n s in th e w o r ld and r e p o r t v io la tio n s o r p r o b le m s in th e
a r e a of h u m an r ig h ts fo r c o r r e c t iv e a c tio n b y th e U n ited N a tio n s.
T he in s p ir a tio n a l a p p ro a ch s e e m s to h a v e b e e n th e l e a s t d if f i
cu lt of th e m e th o d s to be u s e d fo r th e a d v a n c e m e n t of h u m an r ig h ts , and
a p a rt fr o m s o m e r e s e r v a tio n s by th e M o s le m c o u n tr ie s o f th e M id d le
E a s t and d o c tr in a l d if f ic u lt ie s o b s e s s in g th e C o m m u n ist s t a t e s , th e U n i
v e r s a l D e c la r a tio n of H um an R ig h ts had sm o o th s a ilin g in th e G e n e r a l
A s s e m b ly , and w a s a d o p ted in D e c e m b e r , 1948.^ T he c o n tr a c tu a l and
im p le m e n ta tio n a l fu n c tio n s of the U n ited N a tio n s h a v e no s u c h h a r m o
n io u s and e x p e d itio u s h is to r y , h o w e v e r , fo r th e p r e o c c u p a tio n s of th e
^ F or a s h o r t s u m m a r y o f th e d eb a te on th e D e c la r a tio n and its
c o n te n ts, s e e M a r ia n N e a l, "T he U n ited N a tio n s and H um an R ig h ts,"
In te r n a tio n a l C o n c ilia tio n , N o. 489> M a rc h , 1953, pp. 1 1 9 -1 2 1 .
89
m e m b e r n a tio n s h a v e le d th em to in je c t th e ir f e a r s and a m b itio n s in to
th e d e b a te s on th e p r o p o s e d C o ven an t on H um an R ig h ts. G e n e r a lly , the
co n te n tio n h a s o n ce a g a in b e e n e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m ,
and the a n t i- c o lo n ia l o ffe n s iv e h a s b e e n la u n c h e d u n d er tw o p r in c ip a l
s t r a t e g ie s : (1 ) in s is t upon th e in s e r tio n of an a r t ic le on s e l f - d e t e r m i
n a tio n in the C o v en a n t or C o v e n a n ts, and (2) in s is t upon a u n iv e r s a l a p
p lic a tio n of th e p r o v is io n s o f th e C o v en a n ts w ith o u t r e s e r v a t io n s , su ch
a s th e " c o lo n ia l c la u s e ." In th e d eb a te on th e s e tw o a r e a s , th e a lig n
m e n ts in th e U n ited N a tio n s h a v e r e m a in e d both c o n sta n t and c o n s is te n t.
T he A r a b -A s ia n s , d o m in a ted by m e m o r ie s of r e c e n t p o lit ic a l b o n d a g e,
h a v e e m p h a s iz e d th e p o lit ic a l a s p e c ts of s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n , w ith v a r y
in g su p p o rt fr o m th e L a tin -A m e r ic a n p o w e r s . T he L a t in - A m e r ic a n s ,
w ith m e m o r ie s of e c o n o m ic d e p e n d e n c e , h a v e p r e s s e d fo r th e e c o n o m ic
fa c to r in s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n , w ith th e sy m p a th e tic su p p o rt of th e A r a b -
A s ia n s . B oth g ro u p s and th e ir p o lic ie s h a v e had th e g le e fu l su p p o rt of
th e S o v ie t b lo c , a lw a y s r e a d y to sto k e a n y f i r e s th at can c h a r th e r e p u
ta tio n and p o w e r of th e ir W e s te r n a d v e r s a r y . T he c o lo n ia l p o w e r s h a v e
u n d er th is o v e r w h e lm in g c o m b in a tio n of v o tin g p o w e r r e s o r t e d to s o
p h is tic a te d a r g u m e n ts on d e fin itio n s , le g a lit i e s and lik e c o n s id e r a tio n s ,
and stu b b o rn but d o o m ed o p p o sitio n to th e r e s o lu tio n s p r e s s e d upon the
A s s e m b ly . It is in th is s e ttin g th at the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n s e to th e c o n
te n tio u s a s p e c t s of th e h um an r ig h ts d eb a te i s stu d ie d b e lo w .
S e lf-D e te r m in a tio n and th e C o lo n ia l C la u se
T he C o m m is s io n on H um an R ig h ts b eg a n w o rk on th e d ra ftin g
of a C oven an t w ith th e o p tim is tic hope th at th is d r a ft w o u ld b e w o r k e d
out and a d o p ted by th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly in 1950. A s it tu rn ed out, it
91
w a s n ot e v e n p o s s ib le fo r th e C o m m is s io n to d e c id e w h e th e r th e r e
sh o u ld b e a s e p a r a te c o v e n a n t on e c o n o m ic , s o c ia l and c u ltu r a l r ig h ts
and on e on p o lit ic a l and c iv il r ig h ts , or w h e th e r b oth sh o u ld be in c lu d e d
in one c o v e n a n t. T he G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly d e c id e d on a s in g le c o v e n a n t in
1950, and th en r e v e r s e d i t s e l f in 1951 and a s k e d th e C o m m is s io n to
2
su b m it tw o c o v e n a n ts fo r c o n s id e r a tio n b y it s S ev en th S e s s io n in 1952.
The in it ia l s p a r r in g b e tw e e n th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r s and th e ir
c r i t ic s to o k p la c e in th e 1950 s e s s i o n of the G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly . The
in itia l d r a ft p r e p a r e d by th e C o m m is s io n on H um an R ig h ts c o n ta in e d a
c la u s e p e r m ittin g th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r s to d e c id e w h e th e r th e C o ven an t
co u ld be a p p lie d in th e ir t e r r it o r ie s . A s o n e c o lo n ia l a d v o c a te of th is
c la u s e put it, th e " c o lo n ia l c la u s e " w a s e s p e c ia lly ju s tifie d "in s o m e
t e r r it o r ie s w h e r e a p p lic a tio n of th e p r o p o s e d c o v e n a n ts on p e o p le s u n
r e a d y fo r su c h m e a s u r e s ," fo r su c h a c tio n w o u ld " r is k d e s tr o y in g th e
v e r y b a s is o f th e ir s o c ie t y . . . . It w o u ld le a d th em a b ru p tly to the
p o in t w h ic h th e c iv iliz e d n a tio n s o f to d a y had o n ly r e a c h e d a fte r a
3
le n g th y p e r io d of d e v e lo p m e n t." N oth in g c o u ld h a v e b e e n b e tte r c a lc u
la te d to d raw th e f ir e of th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , w ho c h a r g e d th at
su c h a c la u s e w a s a p a te n t a tte m p t to m a in ta in a lo o p -h o le fo r c o lo n ia l
s t a t e s , w ho c o u ld th en " deny h u m an r ig h ts to" c o lo n ia l p e o p le s and
" im p o se th e ir w ill" on d ep en d en t p e o p le s . A s Indian d e le g a te L a k sh m i
M e non sa w it, th e a r g u m e n t ab ou t d iffe r e n t s t a g e s of d e v e lo p m e n t w a s
^On th e s in g le v e r s u s d o u b le c o v e n a n t q u e s tio n , India and
s o m e A r a b -A s ia n s jo in e d th e U n ited S ta te s and th e W e st on th e p r o p o
s itio n th at th e r e sh o u ld be tw o c o v e n a n ts . T h e L a tin -A m e r ic a n s w e r e
the p r in c ip a l s u p p o r te r s of a s in g le c o v e n a n t. S ee P R 's , 5th S e s s io n ,
3rd C o m m itte e , pp. 1 0 7 -2 1 5 .
^OR's, 5th Session, 3rd C om m ittee, p . 133.
92
" outw orn ," and
India, sp e a k in g fo r a ll th o se c o u n tr ie s in A s ia w h ich had so often
b e e n to ld th at th e y w e r e not r ip e fo r in d ep en d en ce . . . w is h e d to
sta te th a t at th e m o m e n t, a ll p e o p le s , w h a te v e r th e sta g e of d e v e l
o p m en t th e y had r e a c h e d , had a r ig h t to g o v e r n th e m s e lv e s .
M r s . M enon ad d ed th a t th e c o lo n ia l c la u s e d e fe a te d th e m a in p u r p o se of
the C oven an t, " b e c a u se it w a s p r e c i s e ly in th e n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r
r it o r ie s that th e co v en a n t sh o u ld be s p e c ia lly a p p lied , s in c e it w a s
th e r e th at v io la tio n s of h u m an r ig h ts w e r e u n fo rtu n a tely m o s t f r e
quent." ^
The v io le n c e w ith w h ic h the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls r e sp o n d e d to the
c o lo n ia l c la u s e le d the B e lg ia n d e le g a te to a ttrib u te th e ir c o m m e n ts to
a " r e se n tm e n t c o m p le x f e lt b y c o u n tr ie s . . . w h ich had s u ffe r e d in the
p a st fro m fo r e ig n d o m in a tio n ." T he S y r ia n d e le g a te r e sp o n d e d w ith a
m ix tu r e o f c h a r ity and d e d ic a te d o p p o sitio n to the c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w ith
the a n n o u n ce m en t th a t " S y ria had lo n g s in c e fo r g iv e n the c o lo n ia l p o w
e r s fo r a ll th e h a rm th ey had done to it. It w a s, h o w e v e r , d e te r m in e d
not to a llo w c o lo n ia lis m to co n tin u e.
A m id st th is a c r im o n io u s d eb a te th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n
w a s p r e o c c u p ie d w ith r e s e r v a tio n s of its ow n. M r s. R o o s e v e lt fe a r e d
th at r a tific a tio n of th e co v en a n t m ig h t s e r io u s ly je o p a r d iz e the d iv is io n
of p o w e r s b e tw e e n th e f e d e r a l and sta te g o v e r n m e n ts in the U nited
S ta te s , and sh e w a s d is p o s e d to w a rd fin d in g so m e fo r m u la fo r a " fe d e r
a l c la u s e " by w h ic h h e r g o v e r n m e n t co u ld e s c a p e th is d ile m m a . It w a s
at th is p o in t th a t In d ia 's z e a lo u s M r s. M enon le c tu r e d th e U n ited S ta tes
4 Ib id ., p. 151. 5Ib id .
^The B e lg ia n d e le g a te 's r e m a r k s a r e found in ib id . , p. 161.
The S y r ia n r e s p o n s e is found in ib id ., p. 189.
93
d e le g a te on the s u b tle tie s of U n ited S ta te s c o n s titu tio n a l la w , h e r in te n
tio n b ein g to sh o w M r s . R o o s e v e lt th a t h e r f e a r s w e r e q u ite u n ju s tifie d
and th a t no r e s e r v a tio n s w e r e n e e d e d . M r s . R o o s e v e lt w a s q u ite u n im
p r e s s e d . In deed , th is r e s e r v a tio n w a s c o u p le d w ith th e w id e s p r e a d
f e e lin g in s o m e q u a r te r s of th e U n ited S ta te s th at t r e a t ie s w e r e n o t e f
f e c t iv e in p r o m o tin g s u c h m a t t e r s a s h u m an r ig h ts . A s it f in a lly j e lle d ,
the U n ited S ta te s p o s itio n c u lm in a te d in th e s ta te m e n t th a t
S o m eth in g fa r m o r e b a s ic th an th e w r itin g of le g a l la n g u a g e m u s t
ta k e p la c e b e fo r e w e c a n go fo r w a r d p r o fita b ly w ith the d r a ftin g of
t r e a t i e s . T h e r e m u s t b e a d ra w in g to g e th e r of m in d s - - o f the
m in d s th a t now a r e w id e ly d iv e r g e n t in t h e ir th in k in g .
In 1953, th e U n ited S ta te s a n n o u n ced th at it d id not in ten d to
s ig n o r r a tify th e p r o p o s e d c o v e n a n ts upon th e ir c o m p le tio n .
T o r e tu r n to th e 1950 d e b a te , th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w e r e
s u c c e s s f u l in e lim in a tin g th e c o lo n ia l c la u s e and s c o r e d y e t a n o th er
v ic to r y in g a in in g a d o p tio n of an A fgh an r e s o lu tio n a sk in g EC O SO C to
p r e p a r e r e c o m m e n d a tio n s on w a y s and m e a n s fo r e n su r in g th e r ig h t of
Q
s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n of p e o p le s and n a tio n s.
T he C o m m is s io n on H um an R ig h ts to o k no a c tio n on th e s e l f -
d e te r m in a tio n stu d y and r e c o m m e n d a tio n s , and the im p a tie n t a n t i- c o l o
n ia l p o w e r s to o k n o te of it s and E C O SO C1 s la x ity in th is m a tte r , and
d e c id e d to d r a ft an a r t ic le on s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n in the A s s e m b ly it s e l f .
T he b a ttle h ad b egu n . T he a n t i- c o lo n ia ls j u s t if ie d th e ir p o s itio n on
g ro u n d s th at it w a s o n ly b y th e in c lu s io n of su c h an a r t ic le in the
7
U n ited S ta te s M is s io n to th e U n ited N a tio n s, P r e s s R e le a s e
N o. 1562, O cto b er 23, 1952, p. 4 . F o r fu r th e r d is c u s s io n of th e d e v e l
opin g o p p o sitio n to U .S . sig n in g and r a tific a tio n of th e p r o p o s e d c o v e
n a n ts, s e e N e a l, op. c i t . , pp. 1 4 1 -1 4 7 .
Q
General A ssem bly, Resolution 421 (V).
94
co v en a n t th at h um an rig h ts c o u ld b e e n s u r e d w h e r e th e y w e r e v io la te d
the m o s t, n a m e ly , in the d ep en d en t t e r r it o r ie s . The c o lo n ia l p o w e r s
r e sp o n d e d w ith a r g u m e n ts on m eth o d and le g a lit y , and U n ited S ta te s
d e le g a te R o o s e v e lt a llo w e d th at w h ile s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n sh o u ld b e a f
fir m e d in th e co v en a n t, the d ra ftin g o f th is a ffir m a tio n sh o u ld be le f t to
th e C o m m is sio n on H um an Rights.*^ T he c o m b in e d A r a b -A s ia n -L a tin
b lo c , alo n g w ith the S o v ie t U nion and it s s u p p o r te r s, w e r e in no m o o d
fo r su ch d is p la y s of p a tie n c e , and g a in ed a d o p tio n of a r e s o lu tio n w h ich
o r d e r e d th at th e co v e n a n ts sh o u ld in c lu d e a s ta te m e n t to the e ffe c t th at
" all p e o p le s s h a ll h ave the r ig h t to s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n ," and in a p e
c u lia r r e v e r s a l of th e " c o lo n ia l c la u s e " d em a n d ed by the M e tr o p o lita n
p o w e r s , d ir e c te d th e C o m m is sio n on H um an R ig h ts to in c lu d e a s tip u la
tio n th at
A ll s ta te s , in clu d in g th o se h a v in g r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r th e A d m in is
tr a tio n of n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s , sh o u ld p r o m o te th e r e a li
z a tio n o f th at r ig h t . . . and th a t s ta te s h a v in g r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r the
a d m in istr a tio n of n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s sh o u ld p r o m o te
th e r e a liz a tio n o f th at r ig h t in r e la tio n to the p e o p le s of su c h t e r r i
t o r ie s .
A long w ith th e s e p r o v is io n s , th e C o m m is sio n on H um an R ig h ts
w a s a sk e d to su b m it itB r e c o m m e n d a tio n s to the S ev en th S e s s io n o f th e
G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly . T he v o te on th is r e s o lu tio n w a s 3 6 -1 1 w ith 12 a b
s te n tio n s, th e th in n e g a tiv e ran k s in c lu d in g the U n ited S ta te s and th e
M e tr o p o lita n p o w e r s .^ T h is tim e th e C o m m is s io n on H um an R ig h ts
^O R 's, 6 th S e s s io n , 3 rd C o m m itte e , p. 105.
^ G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , R e s o lu tio n 545 (V I). The v o tin g b r e a k
dow n on th is r e s o lu tio n is found in P R 's , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 6 th S e s
s io n , p. 519-
11 Ibid.
did m o r e th an m e e t th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l r e q u e s t, fo r it su b m itte d a te x t on
s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n w h ic h w a s e v e n m o r e s tr o n g ly w o r d e d th an th a t d e
c id e d by th e A s s e m b ly . A s su b m itte d fo r th e S ev en th G e n e r a l A ss e m b ly ,
th e s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n a r t ic le to be in c lu d e d in b oth c o v e n a n ts r e a d a s
fo llo w s :
1. A ll p e o p le s and a ll n a tio n s s h a ll h a v e th e r ig h t of s e l f - d e t e r m i
n a tio n , n a m e ly , the r ig h t f r e e ly to d e te r m in e t h e ir p o lit ic a l,
e c o n o m ic , s o c ia l and c u ltu r a l s ta tu s .
2. A ll s t a t e s , in c lu d in g th o s e h a v in g r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r th e a d m in
is tr a tio n of n o n - s e lf - g o v e r n in g and t r u s t t e r r it o r ie s and th o s e
c o n tr o llin g in w h a ts o e v e r m a n n e r th e e x e r c i s e of th a t r ig h t b y
a n o th er p e o p le , s h a ll p r o m o te th e r e a liz a t io n of th a t r ig h t in a ll
th e ir t e r r it o r ie s . . .
3. The r ig h t of p e o p le s to s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n s h a ll a ls o in c lu d e
p e r m a n e n t s o v e r e ig n ty o v e r th e ir n a tio n a l w e a lth and r e s o u r c e s .
In no c a s e m a y a p e o p le be d e p r iv e d of its ow n m e a n s of s u b
s is t e n c e on th e g ro u n d s of an y r ig h ts th at m a y be c la im e d by
o th er s t a t e s .
T he r e f e r e n c e to p e r m a n e n t s o v e r e ig n t y o v e r w e a lth w a s a
L a tin -A m e r ic a n v ic to r y in in s e r tin g th e e c o n o m ic fa c to r in to th e s e lf -
d e te r m in a tio n a r t ic le , and ju s t s o th e o p p o sitio n w o u ld be c le a r a s to
w h a t th e y had in m in d , one of th e ir grou p e x p la in e d th at
the r e a liz a t io n of the r ig h t of p e o p le s to s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n . . .
sh o u ld e n a b le an y s ta te to a c q u ir e c o m p le te c o n tr o l of it s n a tio n a l
r e s o u r c e s and sh o u ld p la c e th a t s ta te in a p o s itio n to a p p ly it s n a
tio n a l le g is la t io n to an y p r iv a te in d u str y , e v e n if th e le g is la t io n
sa n c tio n e d th e e x p r o p r ia tio n or n a tio n a liz a tio n o f c e r ta in u n d e r
ta k in g s on fa ir c o n d itio n s.
If th e U n ited S ta te s h ad o r ig in a lly su p p o r te d " a ffir m a tio n " of
s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n in th e c o v e n a n ts, but h ad b e c o m e c a u tio u s b e c a u s e
of the v ir u le n t d eb a te on th e m a tte r a t th e S ix th S e s s io n , th e in s e r t io n
12O R ' b , EC O SO C , 16th S e s s io n , S u p p lem en t 8, A n n ex I, p. 39-
1 ^
Ibid., 14th S ession , Supplement 4, p. 6.
96
of th e e c o n o m ic c la u s e in th e p r o p o s e d a r t ic le and r e f e r e n c e s to " e x
p r o p r ia tio n " and " n a tio n a liz a tio n " p r o p e lle d th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a
tio n in to th e r o le of a c h ie f p a r tis a n on the M e tr o p o lita n s id e o f th e a r
g u m en t. M r s . R o o s e v e lt now to o k up th e e n tir e c o n c e p tio n of th e a r t i
c le and th e w a y it had m a tu r e d and d e ta ile d h e r o b je c tio n s . " S e lf-
d e te r m in a tio n w a s a p r o c e s s w h ic h in v o lv e d r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s a s w e ll a s
r ig h ts . . . . A lth ou gh it w a s a v ita l p r in c ip le , lik e a ll p r in c ip le s it
co u ld not b e a p p lie d a b s o lu te ly or r ig id ly ," sh e a rg u ed , and w e n t on to
a tta c k the c o r e of the a n t i- c o lo n ia l c a s e .
It w a s n ot c o n so n a n t w ith r e a l it ie s to s u g g e s t th a t th e r e w e r e
o n ly tw o a lt e r n a t iv e s - - in d e p e n d e n c e o r s la v e r y , s in c e ju s t a s th e
c o n c e p t of in d iv id u a l lib e r t y c a r r ie d to its lo g ic a l e x tr e m e w o u ld
m e a n a n a r c h y , so th e p r in c ip le o f s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n g iv e n u n r e
s t r ic t e d a p p lic a tio n c o u ld o n ly r e s u lt in c h a o s .
M r s . R o o s e v e lt fou n d r e a d y su p p o rt fr o m th e is o la t e d M e tr o
p o lita n p o w e r s , w ho a d d ed su c h r e f le c t io n s a s w h e th e r s e lf - d e t e r m in a
tio n w a s a " p r in c ip le " o r a " rig h t," o r w h e th e r it w a s s im p ly a "guide."
B r ita in 's M r s . E m m e t w a s n ot e v e n s u r e th at sh e u n d e r sto o d w h a t th e
w o rd " p e o p le s" m e a n t in th e c o n te x t of the a n t i- c o lo n ia l d ra ft. A ll th is
w a s to no a v a il, h o w e v e r , fo r th e a n t i- c o lo n ia ls w e r e l e s s c o n c e r n e d
w ith h a ir - s p lit t in g than th e e n u n c ia tio n of the p r in c ip le of s e l f - d e t e r
m in a tio n , and th is th e y did b y g a in in g a d o p tio n o f th e ir d r a fts both in
th e C o m m itte e a s w e ll a s in th e A s s e m b ly . M r s . R o o s e v e lt m a d e a
g a lla n t but u n s u c c e s s f u l e ffo r t to a m en d th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l d ra ft (A) on
tw o k e y p o in ts . F ir s t , sh e w is h e d to m a k e it c le a r th a t th e r e s o lu tio n
w a s c o n c e r n e d w ith t e r r it o r ie s w h ic h had l o s t th e ir in d e p e n d e n c e or
w e r e in d a n g er o f lo s in g it, and n ot j u s t d ep en d en t t e r r it o r ie s th a t w e r e
^ O R 's, 7th Session, 3rd C om m ittee, pp. 174-176.
97
to be c h a r a c t e r iz e d a s c o lo n ia l. S eco n d , sh e th ou ght th a t th e m e a n s of
a s c e r ta in in g p e o p le ’s w is h e s to im p le m e n t th e r ig h t of s e lf - d e t e r m in a
tio n n e e d n ot be p la c e d u n d er th e a u s p ic e s of th e U n ited N a tio n s. If
th e r e e x is t e d an y doubt a s to w h ic h p e o p le m ig h t be in d a n g er of lo s in g
th e ir in d e p e n d e n c e o r had r e c e n t ly lo s t it and th e r e fo r e n e e d e d p r o t e c
tiv e c o v e r a g e in th e r e s o lu tio n b e fo r e th e A s s e m b ly , the fo llo w in g e x
c e r p t c le a r ly e x p o s e s th e ta r g e t c o n c e r n e d .
th is s e c t io n of th e r e s o lu tio n co n tin u ed to c o n c e n tr a te on c o lo n ia l
p e o p le s and f a ile d to m a k e it c le a r th a t th e im p le m e n ta tio n of th e
r e s o lu tio n a ls o c o v e r e d p e o p le s w h o se r ig h t to g o v e r n t h e m s e lv e s
h a s b e e n ta k e n a w a y fr o m th em by S o v ie t C o m m u n ism .
A c c o r d in g to th e U n ited S ta te s g o v e r n m e n t, it s a c t iv it ie s in th e
d eb a te w e r e an a tte m p t to " u n iv e r s a liz e " the r e s o lu tio n s on s e l f - d e t e r
m in a tio n . S o m e o th e r s m a y , h o w e v e r , be fo r g iv e n a m ild d e m u r r e r ,
and th e u n sp o r tin g c o m m e n t th a t a ll the p r o c e d u r a l p r o b le m s w h ich
m a d e th e U n ited S ta te s h e s ita n t in su p p o r tin g th e u n a m en d ed a n t i- c o lo
n ia l d r a ft w o u ld a p p a r e n tly v a n is h if th is p a r tic u la r k in d of u n iv e r s a li
z a tio n h ad b e e n a c c e p te d . A p p a r e n tly s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n is a p r in c ip le ,
a r ig h t, a r e s p o n s ib ilit y and e v e r y th in g e a s y to im p le m e n t, if th e a r e a
u n d er d is c u s s io n f a ll s w ith in th e S o v ie t o r b it. O th e r w ise , "it w a s not
c o n so n a n t w ith r e a lit y to s u g g e s t th a t th e r e w e r e o n ly tw o a lte r n a tiv e s
--in d e p e n d e n c e o r s la v e r y . . . s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n g iv e n u n r e s tr ic te d
a p p lic a tio n co u ld o n ly r e s u lt in c h a o s .
It w a s in th e sa m e s e s s i o n (S ev en th ) in a n o th er C o m m itte e th at
*^US P a r tic ip a tio n in th e U N, r e p o r t b y the P r e s id e n t to the
C o n g r e s s fo r the y e a r 1 9 5 2 , D e p a r tm e n t o f S ta te P u b lic a tio n 5034,
p. 158.
^ OR'S) 7th Session, 3rd C om m ittee, pp. 174-176.
th e e c o n o m ic fa c to r in s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n d iv id e d th e U n ited S ta te s and
th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s . T he is s u e w a s a d ra ft r e s o lu tio n em b o d y in g
th e R igh t of a ll P e o p le to E x p lo it F r e e ly th e ir N a tu r a l W ea lth and R e
s o u r c e s . A s th e a n t i- c o lo n ia ls w o u ld h a v e it, th e A s s e m b ly w a s a s k e d
to r e c o m m e n d th a t a ll m e m b e r s ta te s
in th e e x e r c is e of th e ir r ig h t f r e e ly to u s e and e x p lo it th e ir n a tu r a l
w e a lth and r e s o u r c e s . . . h a v e due r e g a r d , c o n s is t e n t ly w ith th e ir
s o v e r e ig n ty , to th e n e e d fo r th e m a in te n a n c e of m u tu a l c o n fid e n c e
and e c o n o m ic c o o p e r a tio n a m o n g n a tio n s . . . a ll m e m b e r s ta te s
. . . r e fr a in fr o m a c t s , d ir e c t or in d ir e c t, d e s ig n e d to im p e d e th e
e x e r c is e o f th e s o v e r e ig n ty of an y s ta te o v e r its n a tu r a l r e
s o u r c e s .^
T he U n ited S ta te s w a r n e d th e m e m b e r s in C o m m itte e II th a t su ch r a s h
p r o p o s a ls w o u ld u n d e r m in e th e c o n fid e n c e of the m o r e in d u str ia l n a
tio n s , and o ffe r e d a s e r i e s of a m e n d m e n ts to a ll o p e r a tiv e p a r a g r a p h s,
the m a jo r th e m e of th e a m e n d m e n ts b ein g the in s e r tio n of r e f e r e n c e s
to "due r e g a r d fo r in te r n a tio n a l la w and p r a c tic e " and " p r o v is io n s of
18
in te r n a tio n a l a g r e e m e n ts ." R e lia n c e upon la w is not a d is tin g u is h in g
fe a tu r e o f a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o lic y and In d ia 's d e le g a te Jung a n s w e r e d fo r
the a n t i- c o lo n ia ls .
In th e c o n te x t of a w o r ld a w a k en in g and p o lit ic a l r e c o v e r y in
m a n y of the p a r ts fr o m a sta te of tu te la g e o r e c o n o m ic d e p e n d e n c e ,
w e c o u ld n ot h a v e su p p o r te d any a m en d m en t r e s u ltin g . . . in l i m i t
in g th e u ltim a te s o v e r e ig n ty o f a s ta te in th e m a tte r of th e e x p lo ita
tio n of it s ow n w e a lth and n a tu r a l r e s o u r c e s b e c a u s e of c o n c e s s io n
a l a g r e e m e n ts e n te r e d in to d u rin g a p e r io d of tu te la g e o r e c o n o m ic
d e p e n d en ce . . . th e d a y s of su c h e x p lo ita tio n a r e o v e r .^
17
ThiB te x t w a s an Indian p r o p o s a l d e s ig n e d to so fte n h a r s h e r
a n t i- c o lo n ia l t e x t s o ffe r e d b y th e L a tin -A m e r ic a n p o w e r s . T he L a tin
p r o p o s a ls w e r e c o n ta in e d in th e o r ig in a l d r a ft r e s o lu tio n VI, and A /C .
2 /L .1 6 5 . T he Indian te x t q u oted a b o v e is in A /C .2 /L . 189.
18
S ee A m e r ic a n A m en d m e n t A /C .2 /L /1 8 8 .
19
PR's, General A ssem bly, 7th S ession , p. 488.
99
T he Indian a p p r o a c h m e t w ith th e m a j o r it y 's fa v o r , but n ot th a t of the
U n ited S ta te s and th e M e tr o p o lita n p o w e r s .
T he v ic t o r ie s w on by th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w e r e n ot d e c i
s iv e , h o w e v e r , fo r th e y m u s t h a v e r e a liz e d th a t th e c o v e n a n ts h ad to be
s ig n e d and r a tifie d if th e y w e r e to h a v e su b s ta n tiv e m e a n in g . T he stu b
b o rn o p p o sitio n of th e M e tr o p o lita n p o w e r s and th e e q u a lly m ilita n t
p o s tu r e o f th e a n t i- c o lo n ia ls on th e q u e s tio n of s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n c o n
tin u ed to r e f le c t d is c o r d in both th e A s s e m b ly a s w e ll a s in EC O SO C
and th e C o m m is s io n on H um an R ig h ts. One e le m e n t of n o te in th e p e r i
od 1 9 5 2 -1 9 5 4 w a s th e a p p a ren t r e lu c ta n c e o f EC O SO C to a p p r o v e a c
tio n s ta k en by th e A s s e m b ly and the C o m m is s io n on H um an R ig h ts. T he
in c id e n t m o s t d istu r b in g to th e a n t i- c o lo n ia ls w a s th e a fte r m a th o f a
1952 A s s e m b ly r e c o m m e n d a tio n to th e C o m m is s io n on H um an R ig h ts to
stu d y a d d itio n a l w a y s of e n s u r in g r e s p e c t fo r h u m an r ig h ts . T he C o m
m is s io n , on a n ti-c o lo n ia l in itia tiv e , p r o c e e d e d to ad op t tw o r e s o lu t io n s ,
th e f i r s t s u g g e s tin g th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a s u r v e y c o m m is s io n to stu d y
th e a p p lic a tio n o f s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n " in clu d in g p e r m a n e n t s o v e r e ig n t y
o v e r w e a lth and r e s o u r c e s ," and the s e c o n d p r o p o s in g a n o th er c o m m is
s io n to (1 ) e x a m in e an y d e n ia ls o f h u m a n r ig h ts , (2 ) p r o v id e g o o d o f
f i c e s fo r p e a c e fu l s e ttle m e n t of an y s itu a tio n s in w h ic h v io la tio n s had
ta k en p la c e , and (3) r e p o r t to th e A s s e m b ly if th e d isp u te h ad n ot b e e n
s e tt le d in s ix m o n th s. W hen th e s e d r a fts r e a c h e d E C O SO C , th e y m e t
w ith a p e c u lia r fa te . ECO SO C r e fu s e d to p a s s th e m , and r e tu r n e d th em
to th e C o m m is s io n w ith th e s u g g e s tio n th at th e C o m m is s io n g iv e th em
so m e a d d itio n a l t h o u g h t .^
^ T h e a r t ic le w h ich m e t w ith d e te r m in e d o p p o sitio n in
100
In th e N inth S e s s io n of th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , E C O SO C 's r e
fu s a l to a p p ro v e th e C o m m is s io n 's r e c o m m e n d a tio n le d to a n u m b e r of
c r i t ic a l c o m m e n ts fr o m th e d is e n c h a n te d a n ti-c o lo n ia l n a tio n s. In d ia 's
d e le g a te M atth ew , fo r o n e, fou n d E C O S O C 's d ila to r y a c tio n s u n ju s tifi
a b le , and he w a r n e d th a t th e n e e d fo r s o m e a c tio n m ig h t f o r c e th e A s
s e m b ly to go a h ea d w ith th e c o v e n a n ts " w ithou t w a itin g fo r the c o m -
21
m e n ts of its s p e c ia liz e d a g e n c ie s ." T he b a la n c e o f the d eb a te in th e
N inth S e s s io n w a s e s s e n t ia lly a r e p e titio n of e a r l ie r c la s h e s , w ith th e
U n ited S ta te s u n s u c c e s s f u lly p le a d in g fo r a tte n tio n and r e f e r e n c e to
" in te r n a tio n a l law " in th e te x ts b e fo r e th e A s s e m b ly . T he c o n te s te d
a r t ic le on s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n w a s d eb a te d a t le n g th , but not b ro u g h t to
a fin a l v o te in 1954.
T he T en th S e s s io n of th e A s s e m b ly in 1955 fin a lly m a n a g e d to
d is p o s e o f th is tr o u b le s o m e a r t ic le on s e lf - d e t e r m in a tio n , but n ot b e
fo r e c o n s id e r a b le s o u l- s e a r c h in g and h a r d b a r g a in in g a m o n g th e m a jo r
p r o ta g o n is ts . A t is s u e w a s th e fin a l d r a ft o f th e a r t ic le a s it w o u ld a p
p e a r in both th e C o v en a n ts on H um an R ig h ts. T ro u b le w a s a n tic ip a te d ,
and th e S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l, on th e v e r y f i r s t d ay of th e T h ird C o m m it
t e e ' s m e e t in g s , s u g g e s te d th e a p p o in tm en t o f a s u b - c o m m is s io n to
EC O SO C r e a d a s fo llo w s : " S u b ject to th e p r o v is io n s o f A r tic le 12, th e
G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly m a y r e c o m m e n d m e a s u r e s fo r the p e a c e fu l s e t t l e
m e n t o f any s itu a tio n , r e g a r d le s s o f o r ig in , w h ic h it d e e m s lik e ly to
im p a ir th e g e n e r a l w e lfa r e ..." F o r a s h o r t su m m a r y of th e e v e n ts
r e f e r r e d to ab o v e and in te r p r e tiv e c o m m e n t, s e e B en ja m in R iv lin ,
" S e lf-D e te r m in a tio n and D ep en d en t P e o p le s ," In te r n a tio n a l C o n c ilia
tio n , N o. 501, J a n u a ry , 1955, pp. 2 1 4 -2 1 5 .
^ O R 's, 9th S e s s io n , C o m m itte e III, p. 2 5 0 . F o r fu r th e r d e
v e lo p m e n t of th e in c r e a s in g d is a ffe c tio n o f th e a n t i- c o lo n ia ls w ith s p e
c ia liz e d a g e n c ie s and e q u a lly d e d ic a te d su p p o r t of th e ir fu n c tio n b y th e
U n ited S ta te s and th e M e tr o p o lita n p o w e r s , s e e b e lo w , pp. 1 4 7 -1 5 0 .
101
stu d y w a y s ou t o f th e " p o litic a l im p a s s e " in w h ic h th e a r t ic le h ad
flo u n d e r e d f o r th e p a s t fe w y e a r s . T h e r e s p o n s e in th e C o m m itte e is
in d ic a tiv e o f th e f i s s u r e s c a u s e d b y th e c o l o n i a l- a n t i- c o l o n i a l r iv a lr y ,
fo r th e s e e m in g ly p r o c e d u r a l s u g g e s t io n b e c a m e a h o tly c o n t e s t e d m a t
te r in w h ic h th e b i- p o la r i t ie s o f e a r l i e r d e b a te s r e a s s e r t e d t h e m s e lv e s .
T h e M e tr o p o lita n p o w e r s , h o p in g fo r d e la y an d s e c o n d th o u g h t, s u p
p o r te d th e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l1 s r e c o m m e n d a tio n and th e a n t i- c o lo n ia ls ,
im p a tie n t w ith th e d e la y s a lr e a d y e n c o u n te r e d on th e s u b je c t, in s is t e d
u p on im m e d ia te d e b a te and a d o p tio n o f th e a r t ic le . T h e a n t i- c o lo n ia l
v ie w p r e v a ile d b y a 3 6 - 1 8 v o te w ith 3 a b s t e n t i o n s . ^
T h e a r t ic le , a s it w a s o r ig in a lly p r e s e n t e d to th e C o m m itte e ,
r e a d a s fo llo w s :
1. A ll p e o p le s an d a ll n a tio n s s h a ll h a v e th e r ig h t o f s e l f - d e t e r m i
n a tio n , n a m e ly , th e r ig h t f r e e l y to d e t e r m in e t h e ir p o lit ic a l,
e c o n o m ic , s o c ia l an d c u ltu r a l s t a t u s .
2. A ll s t a t e s , in c lu d in g t h o s e h a v in g r e s p o n s ib ilit y f o r th e a d m in
is t r a t io n o f n o n - s e lf - g o v e r n in g t e r r i t o r i e s and t h o s e c o n tr o llin g
in w h a t s o e v e r m a n n e r th e e x e r c i s e o f th a t r ig h t b y a n o th e r p e o
p le , s h a ll p r o m o te th e r e a liz a t io n o f th a t r ig h t in a ll t h e ir t e r
r i t o r ie s . . .
3. T h e r ig h t o f p e o p le s to s e lf - d e t e r m i n a t i o n s h a ll a ls o in c lu d e
p e r m a n e n t s o v e r e ig n t y o v e r t h e ir n a tu r a l w e a lt h and r e s o u r c e s .
In n o c a s e m a y a p e o p le b e d e p r iv e d o f i t s ow n m e a n s o f s u b
s is t e n c e on th e g r o u n d s o f a n y r ig h ts th a t m a y b e c la im e d b y
o th e r s t a t e s .
S u ch m ilit a n t p h r a s in g , h o w e v e r m u c h it m a y h a v e p le a s e d it s
s p o n s o r s , w a s n o t d e s tin e d f o r e a r l y a p p r o v a l in th e C o m m itte e , and
th e s u b s e q u e n t d e b a te to o k up a lm o s t t w o - t h ir d s o f a ll th e m e e t in g s o f
th e C o m m itte e . N u m e r o u s a m e n d m e n ts , p r o p o s a ls fo r c o o lin g - o f f
27
F o r a s u m m a r y o f t h is and th e fo llo w in g d e b a te on th e a r t i
c le on s e lf - d e t e r m in a t io n , s e e A n n u a l R e v ie w of U n ite d N a tio n s A f
f a i r s , 1 9 5 5 -5 6 , p p . 9 0 -9 1 -
102
p e r i o d s , s p e c i a l W o r k in g P a r t i e s to w o r k ou t c o m p r o m i s e s w e r e the
r e s u l t of th e c l a s h o v e r a l m o s t e v e r y w o r d in th e p r o p o s e d a r t i c l e .
F o r th e s a k e of c l a r i t y , n o t to m e n t io n e c o n o m y , o n e m ig h t n o te th e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o m m e n t s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d e le g a t i o n s a n d th e fin a l
t e x t a s it w a s a p p r o v e d . T h e U n ite d K in g d o m 's d e le g a t e H o a r e w o r r ie d
o v e r th e w o r d " p e o p le s ," f o r it m ig h t l e a d to a ll m a n n e r of s e c e s s i o n
i s t m o v e m e n t s . T h e r e f e r e n c e to e c o n o m ic s o v e r e i g n t y w a s d a n g e r o u s
l y c l o s e to in c itin g p o l i c i e s of e x p r o p r ia t io n an d th e r e p u d ia tio n of
t r e a t i e s . A s H o a r e c o n c lu d e d , s u c h r a s h p h r a s in g w o u ld s i m p l y f o r c e
s o m e d e le g a t i o n s to w ith d r a w t h e ir s u p p o r t f r o m th e c o v e n a n t s , an d h e
d o u b te d " if it w o u ld h e lp th e c a u s e of h u m a n r ig h t s if th e s h ip w e r e to
23
fo u n d e r w it h th e f la g of s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n s t i l l f ly in g ." F o r th e antir
c o l o n i a l s , I n d ia 's d e le g a t e D 'S o u z a e x a m in e d M r . H o a r e 's an d th e g e n
e r a l M e t r o p o lit a n a r g u m e n t s , an d c a m e to th e e n t i r e l y p r e d ic t a b le c o n
c l u s i o n th a t t h e ir f e a r s w e r e m i s g u i d e d an d g r o u n d le s s . A s to t h o s e
w h o m ig h t w ith d r a w s u p p o r t f r o m th e c o v e n a n t s an d c a u s e th e " sh ip " of
h u m a n r ig h t s to f o u n d e r , M r . D 'S o u z a th o u g h t th e c o v e n a n t w o u ld h a v e
24
c l e a r an d s m o o t h s a ili n g if th e c o l o n i a l p o w e r s w o u ld c o - o p e r a t e .
M r s . L o r d v o i c e d U n ite d S t a t e s o b j e c t io n s to th e in s e r t i o n o f th e e c o
n o m ic s o v e r e i g n t y c l a u s e , w h ic h s e e m e d q u ite o u t o f p la c e in an a r t i c l e
o n s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , a n d w i s h e d to r e m o v e it e n t ir e ly . S h e s t r o n g ly
o b j e c t e d to th e " s in g lin g o u t o f a d m in is t e r i n g p o w e r s o f n o n - s e l f - g o v
e r n in g t e r r i t o r i e s , " f o r t h is i m p li e d th a t t h e y w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y g u ilty
25
o f s u p p r e s s i o n of h u m a n r i g h t s . M r . D 'S o u z a c o u n t e r e d t h is
^ OR's, 10th S ession , 3rd C o m m ittee, pp. 90-91.
24 Ibid., p. 351. 25Ibid., p. 231.
103
argu m en t w ith the fla t sta te m e n t that " p o litica l s o v e r e ig n ty w ithout
m a s t e r y o v er e c o n o m ic r e s o u r c e s w a s not in d ep en d en ce . . . d e m o c r a
cy b e c a m e a m o c k e r y w hen a p eo p le liv e d in e c o n o m ic bondage." He
d is m is s e d M r s . L o rd 's s e n s itiv ity o v er the " singling" out of a d m in is
terin g p o w e r s w ith the bland sta te m e n t that the r e fe r e n c e should be r e
tained, not to poin t any fin g e r s or im p ly any guilt, but to in d icate that
T ru st and N o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g T e r r it o r ie s w e r e p art of the " p r e ssin g
co lo n ia l p ro b lem .
C o m p r o m is e s w e r e , h o w e v er, e ffe c te d in the W orking P a rty ,
w hich, a fter c o n s id e r a b le effo rt, su b m itted a draft w hich , w ith m in o r
m o d ific a tio n , e m e r g e d a s the d efin itiv e A r tic le I to both co v en a n ts. It
sta ted that,
1. A ll p e o p le s have the rig h t to s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n . B y v ir tu e of
th is right th ey f r e e ly d e te r m in e th eir p o litic a l sta tu s and f r e e ly
p u r su e th e ir e c o n o m ic , s o c ia l and cu ltu ra l d evelop m en t.
2. The p e o p le s m a y fo r th e ir ow n ends f r e e ly d is p o se of th e ir
n atural w ea lth and r e s o u r c e s w ithout p reju d ice to any o b lig a
tio n s a r is in g out of in tern a tio n a l e c o n o m ic co o p era tio n , b a s e d
on the p r in c ip le of m u tu al b en efit and in tern ation al la w . In no
c a s e m a y a p eo p le be d e p r iv e d of its own m e a n s of s u b s is te n c e .
3. A ll s ta te s , p a r tie s to the coven an t, including th o se having r e
s p o n s ib ilitie s fo r the a d m in istr a tio n of n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g and
tr u s t t e r r it o r ie s , sh a ll p r o m o te the r e a liz a tio n of that right in
co n fo r m ity w ith the U nited N ations C h arter.
A s can be s e e n by a c o m p a r is o n w ith the o r ig in a l p ro p o sa l b e
fo r e the C o m m itte e , the W orking P a r ty 's ch an ges and su b seq u en t
a m en d m en ts c le a r ly r e fle c t the in flu en ce of the W e ste r n p o w e r s, not to
m e n tio n so m e c o n c e s s io n s by the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls . But at th is p a r tic u la r
v e r s io n of the text, the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls s e e m e d to have re a c h e d the end
Z6Ibid., p. 235.
104
of th e ir c o -o p e r a tiv e sp irit, fo r th ey b eat b a ck a s e r ie s of a m e n d m e n ts,
m o s tly o ffered through A m e r ic a n in itia tiv e , and the a r tic le w a s adopted
after a s e r ia tim v ote on p r a c tic a lly e v e r y se n te n c e of a ll th r e e p a r a
g r a p h s .^ T his a r tic le is p r e su m a b ly the f ir s t a r tic le in both c o v e
nants on hum an r ig h ts, and the to rtu red road by w h ich it r e a c h e d its
d estin a tio n h as so m e c le a r p a ttern s to offer. F ir s t, it s e e m s u n a v o id
able that hum an rig h ts w ill a lw a y s c la im so m e attention fro m the a n ti
co lo n ia l p o w e r s for the ad van cem en t of th eir c h o s e n c a u se . Second,
le g a l a r g u m e n ts, h o w e v er sound, are v ie w e d by th e s e p o w e r s a s d e v i
ous w a y s of fr u str a tin g a ju st and h o n o ra b le e x te n sio n of eq u a lity to d e
pendent p e o p le s . Third, in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l cam p, th ere a r e s o m e d if
f e r e n c e s of e m p h a sis on p o litic a l v e r s u s e c o n o m ic r ig h ts, and ev en
so m e d iffe r e n c e s as to how fa r th ey sh ould go in p r e s s in g the c o lo n ia l
a d v e r s a r y . F ourth, the U nited S tates h a s attem p ted to m a in ta in an a c a
d e m ic and n eu tra l p o sitio n , but the e c o n o m ic fa c to r in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
d riv e le a v e s it little a lte r n a tiv e but that of taking a stro n g p o s itio n in
d e fe n se of the law . F ifth, in su ch is s u e s as can a ttra ct the supp ort of
both the A r a b -A s ia n s , as w e ll a s the L a tin -A m e r ic a n s , the co m fo r ta b le
m a jo r itie s that a re the fortunate p o s s e s s io n of the U nited S ta tes and its
W e ste r n A llie s a re lo s t, and no m a n e u v e r in g can f o r e s t a ll d is ta s te fu l
a ctio n s by com m an d in g m a jo r itie s on the op p osite sid e of the argu m en t.
L e a d e r sh ip in th e s e m a tte r s is not a c h a r a c te r is tic of U nited S ta tes
p o lic y .
^ Ibid., pp. 245 ff.
F r e e d o m of Inform ation
In sp ite of the s e lf-e v id e n t v ir tu e of all that is im p lie d in the
title F r e e d o m of Inform ation, a con v en tio n on th is a s p e c t of hum an
righ ts h a s p ro v ed to be one of the m o s t con ten tiou s and fr u s tr a tin g su b
je c ts fo r the U nited N ation s. A s o r ig in a lly co n c e iv e d , F r e e d o m of In
fo r m a tio n w a s c o n s id e r e d a p r im a r y duty fo r the U nited N ation s, and
th r e e draft co n v en tio n s w e r e e n v is a g e d to e s ta b lis h le g a l o b lig a tio n s on
the p art of sig n a to r y sta te s to r e s p e c t F r e e d o m of Inform ation . The
con ven tion s on the International R ight of C o r r e c tio n and on the In te r
nation al T r a n s m is s io n of N ew s w e r e both ap p roved by 1949, but the
g e n e r a l con ven tion on F r e e d o m of In form ation has b e c o m e so c o n tr o
v e r s ia l that it has b a r e ly m a n a g ed "a slo w and stu m b lin g p ilg r im a g e
2 ft
through the v a r io u s o rg a n s of the U nited N a tio n s." Once again , the
d iv isio n in the U nited N ations is p r in c ip a lly b etw een the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
p o w e r s and so m e W estern nation s le d by the U nited S ta tes.
The b a sic d is a g r e e m e n t b etw een the U nited S ta tes and its su p
p o r te r s and the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s r e v o lv e s around the q u estio n of
r e s tr ic tio n s that m a y be p la ce d upon the p r e s s . The U nited S ta tes h as
argu ed that a fr e e p r e s s is e s s e n t ia l to the fr e e flow of in fo rm a tio n ,
and in lin e w ith its g e n e r a l d is ta s te fo r any c e n s o r s h ip of the p r e s s , it
h a s s t r e s s e d the rig h ts of the p r e s s to tr a n s m it and p rin t w hat it d e e m s
n ew sw orth y. The u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s have a rg u ed that th e y have
lon g b een the v ic tim s of an unfair and ir r e s p o n s ib le W e ste r n p r e s s , and
th ey h ave taken a liv e ly in te r e s t in d eta ilin g the "duties" of the p r e s s
28
The d e sc r ip tio n w a s g iv e n b y a w e a r y F r e n c h d e le g a te in
1952; P R 's, 7th S e s sio n , 3rd C o m m itte e , p. 31.
106
and listin g a num ber of r e s tr ic tio n s on its rig h ts. At the Seven th S e s
sio n of the G en eral A s s e m b ly , the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w e r e able to
have th e ir w ay and in s e r te d into the p r o p o s e d draft con vention, w hich
s e t fo rth the g e n e r a l o b lig a tio n of all sta te s to s e e that th e ir c itiz e n s
have " freed om to se e k , r e c e iv e and im p a rt in fo rm a tio n and op inions
. . an a r tic le sp e c ify in g v a r io u s lim ita tio n s that m a y p ro v e n e c e s -
29
sa r y . The v ic to r y w a s a c h ie v e d o v er the stro n g o b jectio n s of the
U nited S ta tes d eleg a tio n , w h ich m a y w e ll h ave fe a r e d that su ch co u n
tr ie s as the USSR m ig h t find th e s e lim ita tio n s a c le a r e x c u s e to p e r
petuate a c lo s e d s o c ie ty under the b le s s in g s of an in tern a tio n a l co n v e n
tion. M r. Sprague argued that the h is to r y of the su b jec t in the U nited
N ation s w a s c le a r e v id e n c e that the w ritin g of tr e a t ie s w a s not the w ay
to p ro m o te fr e e d o m of in form ation . A c c o r d in g to h im , it w ould be b e t
ter to h ave no con ven tion at a ll than one that "would p ro v id e fr e e d o m
30
fro m in stea d of fr e e d o m of in form ation ." India's d e le g a te M ani
w ould h ave none of M r. S p ra g u e's a rg u m en ta tio n and a fter la m en tin g
the w aning in te r e s t in the su b ject s in c e its a u sp ic io u s in trod u ction as
an agenda item in 1949, he sta ted that "it w as a m a tte r fo r s u r p r is e
that w h ile e v e r y o n e r e c o g n iz e d the v a lu e of fr e e d o m of in fo r m a tio n no
one s e e m e d e a g e r to d e v is e m e a s u r e s fo r the sa feg u a rd in g of that f r e e
dom in the fa v o r of a coven an t." A s fa r a s India w a s co n cer n e d , the
con ven tion w a s an " absolu te n e c e s s it y ," fo r " freed om of in fo rm a tio n
w as a q u estio n of the h ig h e st p r io r ity and one on w h ich p e a c e or w ar
^ S e e a r tic le 2 of p r o p o se d draft con v en tio n as found in P R 's ,
G en eral A s s e m b ly , 7th S e s s io n , A n n ex es, Vol. I, A genda Item 29, p- 25.
PR's, 7th Session, 3rd Committee, p. 19.
107
depended. It w a s as im p o rta n t as the co n tro l of a to m ic w eap ons or the
31
red u ctio n of the a r m e d fo r c e s . . . " W hatever the m e r it s of M r.
M an i's c a s e or the f e a r s r e f le c t e d in M r. S p ra g u e's a r g u m e n ts, the
draft r e s o lu tio n s p a s s e d in the A s s e m b ly w e r e on ly e p h e m e r a l v ic t o
r ie s , for in ECOSOC th e r e h a s b e e n little e n th u sia sm fo r any d e c is iv e
a ctio n to im p le m e n t the d ra fts e n g in e e r e d by th e a n ti-c o lo n ia ls .
ECOSOC had b een a sk ed to c a ll a c o n fe r e n c e to m a k e the draft final,
32
but by the E igh th S e s s io n it had r e v e a le d little in te r e s t in doing so.
The r e s u lt of U nited S ta tes and W e ste r n o p p o sitio n to the adop
tion of su ch a co n v en tio n has b e e n that the attem p t to get su ch a c o n
v en tio n c a m e to an a lm o s t to ta l sta n d s till fo r s e v e r a l y e a r s . The a n ti
co lo n ia l p o w e r s , c o n s c io u s of the deep d iffe r e n c e s w h ich s e e m e d to d i
vid e th em fro m th e ir a d v e r s a r ie s on th is su b ject, h ave m a d e little a t
tem p t to b ring the con v en tio n su ch a s it is to a fin a l vote in the A s s e m
bly, and until 1958, th e r e w a s a te n d e n c y fo r the d isp utin g p a r tie s to
r e s ta te e a r lie r p o s itio n s ra th er than d is c u s s the su b sta n tiv e a r t ic le s
in the co n v en tio n its e lf. By the T h ir te e n th S e s s io n , h o w e v e r , the a n ti
c o lo n ia ls a p p a ren tly found that th e ir p a tie n c e w a s w e a r in g a little thin,
and th ey r a llie d to the d em an d that the A s s e m b ly v o te to p r o c e e d w ith a
d is c u s s io n of the draft text. The P h ilip p in e d e le g a te , r e p r e s e n tin g the
m a jo r ity , in s is t e d that "the b e st m e a n s of sa feg u a rd in g and p ro m o tin g
fr e e d o m of in fo rm a tio n w a s to adopt a con ven tion ." The U nited
3 1Ibid., p. 21.
3^ F or a d is c u s s io n of ECO SO C a c tiv ity in th is fie ld , s e e In te r
n ational C o n c ilia tio n , N o. 493, S e p te m b e r , 1953, pp. 8 4 -8 5 .
33OR's, 13th Session, 3rd Committee, p. 335.
108
S tates could not a g r e e w ith the m a jo r ity 's v ie w , fo r its d e le g a tio n w a s
co n v in ced that the adoption of su ch a con ven tion w ould h in d er fr e e d o m
of in fo rm a tio n m o r e than it w ould a d van ce that noble c a u se . A s the
U nited S ta tes r e p r e s e n ta tiv e had sta ted in the p r e v io u s y e a r 's debate on
th is su b ject, "in a tru ly d e m o c r a tic country, w h e r e in fo rm a tio n w a s
fr e e , the truth w ould a lw a y s fin a lly c o m e to the fo r e ." T his b e lie f w as
p r e m is e d on the M ill- lik e faith of the U nited S tates that "am ong the in
n u m era b le fa c ts p r e s e n te d to him . . . e v e r y c itiz e n cou ld d istin g u ish
b etw een the tru e and the f a ls e and c o m e to a v a lid co n clu sio n . In
ligh t of th is b e lie f, the U nited S ta tes voted a g a in st the c o n s id e r a tio n of
the draft tex t on the g e n e r a l con ven tion , but it in itia ted tw o p r o p o sa ls
look in g to w a rd the r e m o v a l of b a r r ie r s to the f r e e flow of in fo rm a tio n .
Both p r o p o s a ls a r e in ten d ed to e m p h a siz e p r a c tic a l m e a s u r e s to a c
c e le r a te the flow of in fo r m a tio n on an in tern a tio n a l b a s is . The f ir s t
a sk s ECOSOC to fo r m u la te a p r o g r a m of " co n c r e te a ctio n and m e a s
u r e s . • • fo r the d ev elo p m en t of in fo rm a tio n e n te r p r is e s in u n d e r -d e -
35
v elo p e d c o u n tr ie s," and the se c o n d r e c o m m e n d s that m e m b e r s ta te s
en co u ra g e g r e a te r fr e e d o m of co m m u n ic a tio n by h elp in g the fr e e flow
3 ft
of a c c u r a te in fo r m a tio n through a ll m e d ia .
T h ere is as y e t no r e a l a g r e e m e n t b etw een the p ro p o n en ts of
the con ven tion , who a r e c le a r ly d om in a ted by ex p lo ita tio n s su ffe r e d in
the p a st, and opponents of the coven an t, su ch a s the U nited S ta tes, who
^ O R 's, 12th S e s s io n , 3rd C o m m itte e , p. 346.
^ G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , R e so lu tio n 1313A (XIII), D e c e m b e r 12,
1958.
■ ^ G e n e r a l Assembly, Resolution 1313B (XIII), December 12,
1958.
fe a r that so m e p o w e r s m igh t u s e the coven an t for a g r e a te r and w o r s e
ex p lo ita tio n in the future. The d eb a tes on the fr e e d o m of in fo rm a tio n
a re a c l a s s i c e x a m p le of the in tr u sio n of a n ti-c o lo n ia l and A m e r ic a n
o b s e s s io n s in w hat sta r te d out to be an innocuous and g e n e r a lly a p p e a l
ing ite m . The U nited S tates r e m a in s co n v in ce d that the con ven tion w ill
be ab u sed and w ill h arm the future flow of in fo rm a tio n "on the ground
that the p r o p o s e d tex t m ig h t in c r e a s e rath er-th an d e c r e a s e c e n s o r s h ip
p r a c tic e s , and e x p e r ie n c e in the A s s e m b ly has show n the im p o s s ib ility
37
of rea c h in g a su b sta n tia l a g r e e m e n t." The U nited S tates has t h e r e
fo r e a s s i s t e d in fr a m in g p r o p o s a ls w h ich w ould knock down b a r r ie r s
and im p ro v e c o m m u n ic a tio n s, but it cannot sh a re a n ti-c o lo n ia l fe a r s of
continued ex p lo ita tio n by the W e ste r n p r e s s , nor could it support the
p r o p o se d lim ita tio n s on the fr e e d o m of in fo rm a tio n ev en if th o se f e a r s
p ro v ed v a lid . Once again, as in the s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n d eb a tes, the
U nited S ta tes is in a v e r y s m a ll m in o r ity in th e s e d eb a tes, but the m a
jo r ity s e e m s anxiou s to obtain its a g r e e m e n t and has little d e s ir e to
ram through the con ven tion o v e r A m e r ic a n op p osition . A s the Saudi
d e le g a te put it, th o se in fa v o r of the con ven tion could count on m an y
v o te s , "but th ey did not w ish to im p o s e th eir v ie w . . . b e c a u se su ch an
im p ortan t in str u m e n t should be ap p roved by as la r g e a m a jo r ity as
possible.""*®
S u m m a ry
In the d eb a tes in v o lv in g the p r o p o s e d covenant on hum an
®^US P a r tic ip a tio n in the UN, r e p o r t by the P r e s id e n t to the
C o n g r e ss fo r the y e a r 1958, p. 184.
" *® O R 's, 12th S e s s io n , 3rd C o m m itte e , p. 327.
r ig h ts, the U nited States began w ith a c e r ta in b en evolen t e n co u ra g em e n t
to the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s in th eir attem p ts to gain s o m e co n tra ctu a l
ob ligation fo r the p r o te c tio n of su ch righ ts on a u n iv e r s a l b a s is . Two
im p ortan t c o n sid e r a tio n s soon p r o p e lle d the U nited S tates into the
ranks of th o se who o p p osed the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a s e on the p r o p o se d c o v e
nants. F ir s t, the U nited S ta tes s e e m e d to h ave d ecid ed that the w ritin g
and sig n in g of co v en a n ts on su ch m a tte r s w as a fu tile e x e r c is e in s e
cu rin g su ch th in gs as hu m an r ig h ts. P e r h a p s w ith an ey e on the p e c u
lia r and p e r v e r s e in te r p r e ta tio n s of t r e a tie s and d e c la r a tio n s by so m e
p o w e r s in the p a st and p r e s e n t in tern a tio n a l sc e n e , the U nited S tates
d e le g a tio n a rg u ed that the U nited S tates w ould not join in sign in g the
co v en a n ts and the U nited N ation s w ould do b etter not to p la c e too g r e a t
a r e lia n c e on the u n iform a p p lica tio n of the coven an ts p ro p o sed . S e c
ond, the a n ti-c o lo n ia l s t r e s s on s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n , p a r tic u la r ly the
e c o n o m ic a s p e c t of that right, th rea ten ed w hat the U nited S ta tes c o n
sid e r e d a fa ir tr e a tm e n t of fo r e ig n in v e s to r s and an o r d e r ly e c o n o m ic
d ev elo p m en t of the u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s. The U nited S tates took
the le a d in attem p tin g to s tr ik e out r e f e r e n c e s to s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n in
the co v en a n ts, and w a s p a r tic u la r ly h o s tile to e c o n o m ic s e l f - d e t e r m i
nation as a right in volvin g p erm a n en t s o v e r e ig n ty o v e r w ea lth and r e
s o u r c e s . So fa r as the U nited S tates w a s co n cer n e d , the in s is te n c e of
the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls on in se r tin g an a r tic le to th is e ffe c t in the p r o p o s e d
co v en a n ts w a s p h ilo so p h ic a lly in c o r r e c t - - f o r s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n w a s
m o r e a p r in c ip le than a r ig h t--a n d e c o n o m ic a lly u n w ise, fo r it w ould
hinder fo r e ig n in v e stm e n t and th e r e fo r e the d ev elo p m en t of the h a v e -
not c o u n tr ie s.
Ill
A s with, the d eb a tes on r a c ia l d isc r im in a tio n , the U nited S tates
w a s not o p p o sed to the id e o lo g y in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a s e as m u ch as it
fe a r e d the s tr a te g y w h ich the a n ti-c o lo n ia l had adopted in the p u r su it of
hum an rig h ts. U nlike the d eb a tes on r a c ia l d isc r im in a tio n , h o w e v er,
the f e a r s that the U nited S ta tes had on this su b ject w e r e la r g e enough
to m a k e it the s tr o n g e s t o p p o sitio n p o w er to the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls . The
U nited S ta tes w a s at the c e n te r of the c o n tr o v e r s ie s , e x p r e s s e d it s e lf
often and v o ted n e g a tiv e ly on m o s t a n ti-c o lo n ia l in itia tiv e s in the d e
b a tes on the p r o p o se d a r tic le on s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n . Its op p o sitio n in
th e s e d eb a tes w a s as fu tile as it w a s e ffe c tiv e in the T rea tm e n t of Indi
ans and S U N F E D d eb a tes, for the L atin p o w e r s did not p ro v e tr a c ta b le
to U nited S ta tes in flu en ce and th rew th eir w eig h t on the A fr o -A s ia n sid e
of the q u a rrel.
The d eb a tes on the coven an t on hum an righ ts as w e ll a s th o se
on the con ven tion on the F r e e d o m of In form ation r e v e a le d the U nited
S tates' p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith the C o m m u n ist m e n a c e . The U nited S tates
argu ed that the coven an t on hum an rig h ts should not be p h r a se d in such
a w ay a s to im p ly that th e s e rig h ts w e r e th re a te n e d only in r e fe r e n c e to
tra d itio n a l c o lo n ia lis m , and a ttem p ted to p h r a s e th e s e rig h ts in a m a n
ner that w ould illu m in a te the e x is te n c e of a n ew er im p e r ia lis m w hich
w a s a g r e a te r d an ger to the u n iv e r s a l a p p lica tio n of hum an rig h ts.
S im ila r ly , the U nited S tates w a s co n v in ced that a n ti-c o lo n ia l in s is t e n c e
on adding r e s t r ic t iv e c la u s e s in the con ven tion on the F r e e d o m of In
fo rm a tio n w ould p ro v id e u n d e m o c r a tic s ta te s w ith a rea d y e x c u s e for
the c u r ta ilm e n t of the right to a f r e e p r e s s . The a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s
s t r e s s e d the ex p lo ita tio n th ey had su ffe r e d at the hands of an unfair
112
W estern p r e s s in the p a st, and the U nited S ta tes s t r e s s e d that the
r e m e d ie s p ro p o se d by the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w ould le a d to w o r s e e x
p loitation in the future. The U nited S tates le d the W estern p o w e r s in
su g g estin g a v a r ie ty of w a y s in w hich the fr e e flow of in fo rm a tio n could
be a s su r e d , and r e fu sed to support any p r o p o sa ls looking tow ard the
r e s tr ic tio n of this flow of in fo rm a tio n no m a tte r w hat r e a s o n s m igh t be
cited fo r it. In the United S tates view , good id ea s m u st d riv e out the
bad o n es, and c itiz e n s of the v a r io u s c o u n tries w ould c e r ta in ly be able
to d istin g u ish b etw een truth and fa lse h o o d if both w e r e a llow ed to flow
fr e e ly in the m a r k e t p la ce of in form ation .
CHAPTER IV
THE R O LE A N D C O N TR O L O F THE
U N IT E D NATIONS
The d is a g r e e m e n ts am ong the p ro p o n en ts of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m
and the M etr o p o lita n p o w e r s h ave in clu d ed m o r e than s p e c ific q u e stio n s
su ch as th o se c o n s id e r e d ab ove, and a w id e a r r a y of is s u e s can be d i
vid ed into tw o b road th e m e s . F ir s t , in d ea lin g w ith d ep en den t t e r r i
to r ie s , w hat a r e the lim ita tio n s im p o s e d upon the U nited N ation s by the
C h arter? Second, w ho sh a ll co n tro l the U nited N a tio n s in its w o rk w ith
r e g a r d to depen den t t e r r it o r ie s ? The f i r s t q u e stio n has le d to m a n y
c la s h e s on the in te r p r e ta tio n of C hapter X I of the C h a rter, and the a n ti
co lo n ia l p o w e r s h ave p e r s is t e d in c la im in g that its p r o v is io n s a re ob
lig a to r y on a d m in is te r in g s ta te s , and the M etr o p o lita n p o w e r s h ave as
stub b orn ly in s is te d that th e ir re la tio n sh ip to the U nited N ations is
b a sed on the p r in c ip le of v o lu n ta r ism . The se c o n d q u e stio n h as in
v o lv e d su ch m a tte r s as w ho sh a ll r e p r e s e n t dependent t e r r it o r ie s in
the w o rk of the U nited N ation s and w ho s h a ll sp ea k fo r them in the
U nited N a tio n s, and, m o r e im p o rta n t, w h e th e r s p e c ia liz e d a g e n c ie s
su ch a s The T r u s te e s h ip C ou n cil and ECOSOC should be g iv e n p r io r ity
in c e r ta in fie ld s or w h e th e r the G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly and its C o m m itte e s
m a y e x e r c is e its w ill in sp ite of c o n tr a r y r e c o m m e n d a tio n s fro m th o se
s p e c ia liz e d a g e n c ie s .
114
W hatever the d iffe r e n c e s m a y be in C h arter in te r p r e ta tio n s,
on one m a tte r th e r e s e e m s to be a g r e e m e n t. C hapter XII is m o r e bin d
ing on a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s than C hapter XI, and th is fa c t h a s le d the
a n ti-c o lo n ia ls to a d o u b le -e d g e d stra teg y : expand the p r o v is io n s of
C hapter X I on n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s to m a k e its a p p lica tio n
m a tc h C hapter XII, w h ich d e a ls w ith tr u s te e s h ip m a tte r s ; sta r t w hat
h as b een d e s c r ib e d a s a " staging a rea " p r o c e s s , m o v in g depen dent t e r
r ito r ie s fro m ou tsid e the o rb it of the U nited N ation s into C hapter XI,
then XII, and fro m XII to freedom.'*' In th is str a te g y , the o p p o sitio n
from the M etr o p o lita n p o w e r s h a s b een fir m and a r tic u la te , and it is in
the co n tex t of the con ten tiou s d eb a tes su rrou n d in g th e s e m a tte r s that
the r e c o r d of the U nited S ta tes d e le g a tio n is p r e s e n te d b elow .
The R ole of the U nited N ation s
The p r o v is io n s of C hapter X I of the U nited N ation s C h arter
have not b een in te r p r e te d a lik e b y m e m b e r s ta te s of the U nited N ation s.
A lthough m o s t a u th o r itie s a re a g r e e d that the p r in c ip le of s e l f - d e t e r
m in a tio n is im p lic it in both C h ap ters XI and XII, the m a n n er in w hich
th is p r in c ip le is to be g iv e n e x p r e s s io n has o c c a s io n e d so m e h ea ted
a rg u m en ts in the U nited N a tio n s. T r u s te e s h ip is m o r e d em anding an
o b lig a tio n than that in ten d ed by C hapter XI as fa r as the c o lo n ia l p o w
e r s a r e co n cer n e d , and the U nited K ingdom , as e a r ly a s 1945, argu ed
that th e r e w as
a d istin c tio n b etw een the p r in c ip le of tr u s te e s h ip w h ich should
guide C olon ial P o w e r s in the a d m in istr a tio n of th e ir dependent
t e r r it o r ie s (and sh ould th e r e fo r e be of u n iv e r s a l ap p lication ) and
^R oss N. B e r k e s , The D ip lo m a c y of India (Stanford: Stanford
U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1958), p. 176.
115
the c r e a tio n of a s p e c ia l s y s te m of in tern a tio n a l m a c h in e r y , to a p
p ly to c e r ta in s p e c ifie d t e r r it o r ie s .
The U nited K in gd om 's d istin c tio n b etw een the p r in c ip le of
tr u s te e s h ip as e n v is io n e d in C hapter X I and the m a c h in e r y c r e a te d in
C hapter XII w a s not u n iv e r s a lly a p p recia te d , h o w e v er, fo r F ie ld M a r
s h a ll Sm uts v o ic e d the fe a r that C hapter XI w a s a s c h e m e w h ich
d iv e r ts in sc o p e v e r y la r g e ly fr o m that of the old coven an t s c h e m e .
The p r in c ip le of tr u s te e s h ip is now a p p lied g e n e r a lly . It a p p lie s to
a ll dependent p e o p le s in a ll dependent t e r r it o r ie s . It c o v e r s a ll of
th em , and th e r e fo r e an e x te n sio n has b een g iv e n to the p r in c ip le of
a v e r y fa r -r e a c h in g and im p ortan t c h a r a c te r .
The e x te n sio n of the p r in c ip le of tr u s te e s h ip , h o w e v er fa r -
rea c h in g it m ig h t be, h as not b e e n enough fo r the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s ,
fo r it is not the p r in c ip le of tr u s te e s h ip but the p r in c ip le of a cco u n ta
b ility of the c o lo n ia l p o w e r s that th ey have w is h e d to extend, and th is is
the p oint at w h ich the fr ic tio n b etw een them and th e ir co lo n ia l a d v e r
s a r ie s h as b een u n avoid ab le. The s tr a te g y of the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls h as
c h o se n the in str u m e n t of A r tic le 7 3e of C hapter XI to advance th eir
c a u se and c r e a te so m e m a c h in e r y in o rd er to c a s t the U nited N ation s
in the r o le of s u p e r v is o r of dependent t e r r it o r ie s .
The point of d ep artu re fo r a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o lic y h as b een the
p r o v is io n in A r tic le 73e of the C h a rter, w h ich s ta te s in p a rt that the
a d m in iste r in g a u th o r itie s s h a ll
tr a n s m it r e g u la r ly to the S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l fo r in fo rm a tio n p u r
p o s e s , su b jec t to su c h lim ita tio n a s s e c u r ity and co n stitu tio n a l
c o n s id e r a tio n s m a y r e q u ir e , s t a t is t ic a l and oth er in fo rm a tio n of a
te c h n ic a l natu re r e la tin g to e c o n o m ic , s o c ia l and ed u ca tio n a l c o n
d ition s in the t e r r it o r ie s for w h ich th ey a re r e s p e c tiv e ly
^U nited N ation s C o n fe ren ce on Intern ation al O rgan ization
(N ew York: U nited N ation s, 1945), VIII, 1 2 6 -1 2 7 .
3Ibid., p. 611.
116
r e s p o n s ib le .
A t th e S eco n d S e s s io n of th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , the a n t i- c o lo
n ia l p o w e r s o ffe r e d a d r a ft r e s o lu t io n in ten d e d to exp an d th e s c o p e of
in fo r m a tio n su b m itte d by th e a d m in is te r in g p o w e r s . A s w o r d e d by its
s p o n s o r s , th e d r a ft a s k e d fo r in fo r m a tio n "on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s e lf -
g o v e r n in g in s titu tio n s ," and a n n o u n ced th at th e A s s e m b ly
C o n s id e r s th at th e v o lu n ta r y t r a n s m is s io n of su c h in fo r m a tio n and
it s s u m m a r iz in g b y th e S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l a r e e n t ir e ly in
c o n fo r m ity w ith th e s p ir it of A r tic le 7 3 e of th e C h a r te r ,
and sh o u ld th e r e fo r e b e d u ly n o ted and e n c o u r a g e d .
A s it tu rn ed out, th e h e a te d o b je c tio n s b y th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r s
to th is w o r d in g le d th e s p o n s o r s of th e d r a ft to fa v o r e v e n s tr o n g e r
la n g u a g e , w h ic h w a s p r o v id e d by th e USSR d e le g a tio n 's a m en d m en t,
add ing th e w o r d s , " r e c o m m e n d s th o se s ta te s r e s p o n s ib le fo r n o n - s e lf -
g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s to tr a n s m it su c h in fo r m a tio n ." A s th e Indian
d e le g a te put it, he w a s e n t ir e ly s a t is f ie d w ith th e o r ig in a l d ra ft, but the
s p e e c h e s of th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r s m a d e it im p e r a tiv e th at an e x p lic it d e
ft
m an d be m a d e fo r " p o litic a l" in fo r m a tio n . T he U n ited S ta te s d e le g a te
w a s at th is p o in t c o m p e lle d to p o in t out th a t su c h w o r d s w o u ld ten d to
c r e a te "a m o r a l o b lig a tio n " to su b m it p o lit ic a l in fo r m a tio n , w h ic h in
h is ju d g m en t w a s an u n w a rr a n te d e x te n s io n of th e p r o v is io n s of A r tic le
7 3 e . M r. S a y r e a c c o r d in g ly c a s t th e U n ited S ta te s v o te a g a in s t th e
a m en d m en t, w h ic h w a s a d o p ted by a c lo s e 20-19 v o te .^ T he C o m m itte e
th en tu rn ed to c o n s id e r a t io n of a d r a ft e s t a b lis h in g an A d H oc
^ O R 's, 2nd S e s s io n , 4 th C o m m itte e , p . 2 1 3 .
^ Ib id ., p. 2 1 7 . T he USSR a m e n d m e n t is co n ta in ed in A /C .4 /1 1 1 .
6 Ib id ., p. 76.
117
C om m ittee on Inform ation w h ich once again le d to con ten tion on the
sco p e of the C o m m itte e 's w ork. A s India w ould have it, the C o m m ittee
on Inform ation should have b een granted the pow er to "analyze" the in
fo rm a tio n su b m itted , a sk fo r fu rth er in fo rm a tio n and m a k e r e c o m m e n -
dations on in fo rm a tio n su b m itted . Strong o b jectio n s to th is c o u r s e of
action w e r e v o ic e d by the M etro p o lita n p o w e r s, and it w a s M r. S ayre of
the U nited S tates w ho spoke for a ll of them w hen he ch a rg ed that the
Indian am en d m en t v itia ted the " con stitutional" p r o v isio n s of the C h ar
ter, and w a s an attem p t to " coordinate C hapter XI w ith C hapters XII
Q
and X U I." The argu m en t w a s in e ffe c tiv e w ith the m a jo r ity of a n ti
c o lo n ia ls, w ho supported the am en d m en t, w hich w as adopted by a 2 3 -1 9
9
vote.
When th e se am en d ed d rafts w e r e p r e s e n te d to the A s s e m b ly ,
the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w e r e fa ced w ith the blunt w arn in g fro m the
U nited S tates d e le g a te that his support fo r a ll the d rafts w ould be w ith
draw n if the a m en d m en ts w e r e not r e je c te d in the A ss e m b ly . M r.
Sayre arg u ed that the "balance" of the C h a r ter's p r o v is io n s had been
s e r io u s ly c o m p r o m is e d , and gave a rtic u la te support to the co lo n ia l a r
gum ent cla im in g v io la tio n of d o m e stic j u r is d ic t io n .^ A sig n ifica n t
fa cto r in the debate in the A s s e m b ly w as the p ro m in en t r o le of the
U nited S ta tes d ele g a tio n on the c o lo n ia l sid e of the argu m en t, and the
r e la tiv e s ile n c e of the L atin d e le g a tio n s, w h o se s e n s itiv itie s to co lo n ia l
7
Indian am en d m en t A /C .4/108.
^O R 'e, 2nd S e s sio n , 4th C o m m itte e , p. 77.
9Ibid., p. 78.
^ OR's, General Assembly, 2nd Session, Vol. I, p. 669.
118
p r o b le m s w e r e w e ll under control. The U nited S ta tes d e le g a te s t r e s s e d
the p r in c ip le of v o lu n ta r ism , and M r. S ayre e v e n r e je c te d any " m oral
obligation" on the p art of the a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s to su b m it p o litic a l
in fo r m a tio n .^ The in flu en ce of the U nited S tates d e le g a te w a s c r it ic a l
in the r e je c tio n of the USSR am en d m en t adopted in the C o m m ittee and
su bseq u en t adoption of the orig in a l, m ild e r tex t on the t r a n s m is s io n of
12
in form ation .
C o n sid era tio n of the draft on the C o m m ittee on In form ation
once again brought M r. S ayre into p r o m in e n c e , and sin c e the Indian
am en d m en t, broad ening the p o w e rs of the p r o p o se d c o m m itte e , w a s not
a cce p ta b le e ith e r to the U nited States or its M etro p o lita n a llie s , M r.
S ayre ch o se the s tr a te g y of d e c la r in g the am en d ed draft an "im portant
q u estion ." The s ile n c e of the Latin d e le g a te s m u st h ave b e e n in te r
p r e te d by the A r a b -A s ia n s as ta cit a cc e p ta n c e of the U nited S tates a r g u
m e n ts , fo r M r. Singh of India d eta iled r u le s and p r o c e d u r e to deny that
the draft in volved an " im portant q u estio n ." The U nited S ta tes v ie w p r e
v a iled , and th is m o v ed M r. Singh to so m e d e sp a ir in g c o m m e n ts on the
change in L atin v o te s . He then stated: "We had good fortu n e in the 4th
C o m m ittee. We do not s e e m to be e x p e r ie n c in g the sa m e good fortu n e
in the G en eral A s s e m b ly . It d oes not m a tte r . V ic to r ie s of th is kind
13
are e p h e m e r a l." The voting on the Indian am en d m en t w a s 2 5 -1 6 w ith
15 a b ste n tio n s, and it w a s d e c la r e d r e je c te d , having fa ile d to a cq u ire a
tw o -th ir d s m a jo r ity . The e s ta b lis h m e n t of a C o m m ittee on In form ation
w a s then ap p roved as e n v isa g e d by the U nited S tates by a 49~0 vote w ith
11Ibid., p. 721. 12Ibid., pp. 721-725. 13Ibid., p. 742.
119
14
4 a b sten tio n s.
The contention on th e se two p r o b le m s continued in the Third
S e ssio n , w hen the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e rs attem p ted to gain adoption of an
Indian draft r e so lu tio n w h ich w a s y e t another attem pt to p lace the A s
se m b ly sq u a r e ly in a s u p e r v is o r y ro le ov er dependent t e r r ito r ie s . This
c a r e fu lly w ord ed draft began w ith the c o n c e s s io n that tr a n s m is s io n of
in form ation w a s "su bject to su ch lim ita tio n as s e c u r ity and c o n stitu
tion al co n sid e r a tio n s m a y req u ir e," and w ent on to announce that the
A s s e m b ly
C o n sid e r s that having reg a rd to the p r o v isio n s of Chapter XI of the
C harter, it is e s s e n tia l that the U nited N ations be in form ed of any
change in the co n stitu tio n a l p o sitio n and status of any su ch t e r r i
to ry as a r e s u lt of w hich the r e sp o n sib le govern m en t con cern ed
thinks it u n n e c e s s a r y to tr a n sm it in form ation.
The lin e s of the d eveloping a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a se a re apparent in
this draft, for the im p lic it p r e m is e w hich w a s to find e x p lic it r e s t a t e
m en t in su bseq u en t d eb ates is con tained in the sen ten ce "it is e s s e n tia l
that the U nited N ations be in form ed ..." Indeed it w as in the sa m e
s e s s io n that th is p r e m is e ca u sed a m a jo r c la sh b etw een the colon ial
p o w ers and the a n ti-c o lo n ia l n ation s. The su bject in that c a s e w as A d
m in is tr a tiv e U nions, and the a n ti-c o lo n ia l nations p r e se n te d a draft r e
quiring a d m in iste r in g p o w e rs to su bm it to " con sultations p rior" to any
p ro p o sed a d m in istr a tiv e unions in th eir dependent t e r r i t o r i e s .^ The
^ T h e lim ite d fr a m e w o r k of the C om m ittee is found in U.S.
draft r e so lu tio n A /438. The voting r e fe r r e d to above is found in P R 's ,
G en eral A ss e m b ly , 2nd S e s s io n , Vol. I, pp. 7 4 2 -7 4 3 .
^ O R 's, 3rd S e ssio n , 4th C o m m itte e , P a r t I, A n n ex es, pp. 2 -3 .
^ D r a f t reso lu tio n , A /C .4/151, as found in P R 's, 3rd S e s s io n ,
4th C o m m itte e , P a r t I, A n n ex es, pp. 3 6 2 -3 6 5 .
120
a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s d isp la y ed th eir f e a r s that u n le s s th is p r o v is io n
w e r e a cce p te d , a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s could p r o c e e d w ith a d m in istr a tiv e
unions at w ill, and then r e fu s e to su bm it in fo rm a tio n on co n stitu tio n a l
groun ds. W hether th e s e fe a r s w e r e ju stifie d or not, the r e s p o n se of the
U nited S tates d e le g a te is illu m in a tin g , for the student of p r e s s u r e p o li
tic s in the U nited N ation s. S ayre sta ted that the U nited S ta tes b e lie v e d
that p r io r co n su lta tio n w a s d e s ir a b le , but it w a s not m a n d a to ry , and in
subm ittin g a su b stitu te draft d evoid of any r e fe r e n c e to p r io r c o n s u lta
tion, ela b o r a te d the m o s t w inning a rg u m en t in h is p o s itio n --th e d rafts
adopted in the c o m m itte e m u s t s e c u r e a tw o -th ir d s m a jo r ity in the A s~
17
sem b ly . It took no g rea t s o p h istic a tio n fo r the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls to know
ju st w h o se support and in flu en ce o v e r the L atin p o w e r s co n stitu ted
th eir m a in hurdle in se c u r in g the r e q u is ite m a jo r ity in the A s s e m b ly ,
and India's d e le g a te Jha ch a rg ed that
M uch has b een sa id during th is s e s s i o n about m a jo r itie s and m i
n o r itie s , and in oth er C o m m itte e s the r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s of the a d
m in is te r in g p o w e r s had argu ed that the w ill of the m a jo r ity should
p r e v a il. W hen c o lo n ia l and tr u s te e s h ip p r o b le m s w e r e in volved ,
h o w e v er, th ey a p p ea red to take a d iffere n t view .^8
The U nited S tates d e le g a tio n d ev o ted it s e lf to am ending the
draft to d ele te the "prior con su ltation " c la u se but the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls
c lo s e d ranks, beat b ack a ll U nited S tates a m en d m en ts and adopted the
19
unam ended draft by a 2 5 -1 2 vote w ith 10 a b ste n tio n s. The r o le of the
^ T h e U.S. draft is con tain ed in A /C .4 /153, R ev. 1. The r e
m in d er on the tw o -th ir d s m a jo r ity r e q u ir e m e n t is found in P R 's, 3rd
S e s sio n , 6th C o m m itte e , P a r t I, p. 239-
18Ibid., p. 252.
^ T h e U nited S ta tes v o ted a g a in st the unam ended draft along
w ith the M etro p o lita n p o w ers; P R 's, 3rd S e s s io n , 4th C o m m itte e , P a r t
I, pp. 2 5 2 -2 5 3 . A s u su a l, U nited S tates o b jectio n s w e r e r e s o lv e d w hen
121
U nited S tates d ele g a tio n in th is s e s s i o n on a ll the d rafts b efo r e the
F ourth C o m m ittee co n cer n e d w ith n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s m a y
b e s t be d e s c r ib e d as that of an o b jectiv e a m en d er, a r m e d w ith k n o w l
edge of p a r lia m e n ta r y r u le s, p a r tic u la r ly th o se r e la te d to r e q u ir e m e n ts
of a tw o -th ir d s m a jo r ity on im p ortan t q u e s tio n s. M r. S ayre often r e
m in d ed the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls of th is r e q u ir e m e n t w hen ask in g fo r support
20
of h is m an y am en d m en ts. H ow ever s u c c e s s f u l th is s tr a te g y m a y
have b een in the Third S e ssio n , the r isin g r e se n tm e n t of the a n t i- c o lo
n ia ls and th eir fir m co m m itm e n t tow ard en la r g in g the ro le of the U nited
N ations w ith re g a r d to n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s w as a g a in e v i
d en ced at the F ou rth S e s sio n . The su b jec t w a s once again A d m in is tr a
tiv e U nions, and this tim e the debate w a s on two p r o p o s a ls fo r su ch
unions offered by B ritain and F r a n c e , r e s p e c tiv e ly . The U nited S tates
join ed the M etro p o lita n p o w e rs in op p osing d em an d s fo r "prior c o n s u l
ta tio n s," and supported s u c c e s s fu l a m en d m en ts to so ften the langu age
in the d rafts b efo re the C o m m ittee and the d ele tio n of r e f e r e n c e s to
p r io r c o n s u lta tio n s .^
A long w ith expanding the C o m m itte e 's sco p e of w ork, the a n ti
co lo n ia l p o w e r s had trouble enough k eep in g it a liv e. A s o r ig in a lly e s
ta b lish ed , the "Ad Hoc C o m m ittee on In form ation T r a n sm itte d under
A r tic le 7 3(e) of the C harter" w as g iv e n on ly a o n e -y e a r term of o ffic e .
p a ragrap h s o ffen siv e to the U.S. w e r e r e je c te d in the A s s e m b ly b e c a u se
th ey fa ile d to obtain a tw o -th ir d s m a jo rity ; P R 's, G en era l A s s e m b ly ,
3rd S e s s io n , P a r t I, pp. 4 8 9 -4 9 2 .
^®See O R 's, 3rd S e s sio n , 4th C o m m itte e , P a r t I, pp. 216, 238,
239.
21
See PR’s, 4th Session, 4th Committee, p. 108. See also
ibid., Annexes, p. 6.
122
T he fo llo w in g y e a r , d eb a te b e g a n on r e n e w a l of the C o m m itte e w ith
s o m e d is e n c h a n te d c o m m e n t s fr o m th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , w ho f e l t that
it s w o r k w a s b e g in n in g to ta k e on m a t t e r s th at w e r e c l e a r l y w ith in
th e ir d o m e s t ic j u r is d ic t io n . T h e y w e r e t h e r e f o r e q u ite lu k e w a r m t o
w a r d a n y p r o p o s a ls fo r r e n e w a l, but a c c e p t e d its e s t a b lis h m e n t u n d er
th e t it le " S p e c ia l C o m m itte e on In fo r m a tio n . . . " fo r a n o th e r t h r e e -
y e a r p e r io d . In 1952, th e a ttitu d e of th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r s had h a r d e n e d
u n d er co n tin u e d a s s a u l t s fr o m th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , and th e d eb a te
on r e n e w a l of the C o m m itte e to o k on s o m e m ilit a n t t o n e s . A s th e a n ti
c o lo n ia ls w o u ld h a v e it, th e A s s e m b l y w a s a s k e d to e s t a b l i s h th e " C o m
m it t e e on In fo r m a tio n fr o m N o n - S e lf - G o v e r n in g T e r r i t o r i e s ," "on the
s a m e b a s is a s lo n g a s t h e r e e x i s t t e r r i t o r i e s w h o s e p e o p le h a v e not y e t
22
a tta in e d a fu ll m e a s u r e of s e lf - g o v e r n m e n t ." T he ch a n g e in th e t it le
of the C o m m itte e is not w ith o u t s ig n if ic a n c e in it s e l f , fo r b oth th e w o r d
" sp e c ia l" and the lim it a t io n c o n ta in e d in th e p h r a s e " tr a n s m itte d u n d er
A r t ic l e 7 3(e) of th e C h a r te r " h ad n o w b e e n d rop p ed . T he a n t i- c o l o n i a l
p o w e r s now in s i s t e d that th e C o m m itte e be p e r m a n e n t and th at it be a l
lo w e d to e x a m in e m o r e than ju s t the t e c h n ic a l in fo r m a tio n s u g g e s t e d in
A r t ic l e 7 3(e). T he c o lo n ia l p o w e r s c h a r g e d th at su c h t a m p e r in g w ith
the C h a r te r w o u ld c a u s e d ir e u p h e a v a ls and th e y r e f u s e d to su p p o r t th e
d ra ft b e fo r e th e C o m m itte e . In th is d e a d lo c k , the U n ited S ta te s sp o k e
fo r r e c o n c ilia t io n and M r. J e s s u p p r e s e n t e d an A m e r ic a n p r o p o s a l
lo o k in g to w a r d r e n e w a l of th e C o m m itte e " for a fu r th e r t h r e e - y e a r p e
r io d , and at th e en d of that p e r io d , u n le s s o t h e r w is e d e c id e d b y th e
^ T w e n ty -th r e e power draft, A/C.4/L.212; PR's, General A s
sembly, 7th Session, Annexes, Agenda Item 33, p. 4.
123
G en era l A s s e m b ly , to continue the C o m m itte e a u to m a tic a lly fo r a d d i-
2 3
tio n a l t h r e e - y e a r p e r io d s ." The a n ti-c o lo n ia ls w e r e beyond p e r s u a
sio n in the C o m m itte e and voted dow n the U nited S ta tes a m en d m en t and
24
p r o c e e d e d to adopt th e ir own d raft by a 4 0 -1 2 v o te w ith 2 a b ste n tio n s.
M r. G e rig had a lr e a d y co n d em n ed the d raft as " e x tr e m is t" and had
w a rn ed that its adoption "m ight d istu rb that c o o p e r a tio n b etw een the a d
m in is te r in g and n o n -a d m in is te r in g p o w e r s , w h ich w a s n e c e s s a r y fo r the
Z 5
s u c c e s s of that C o m m itte e 's w ork ." T h is a rg u m en t s e e m s to have
b een e ffe c tiv e enough, fo r in the A s s e m b ly the t h r e e - y e a r lim ita tio n
w a s r e s to r e d w ithout o p p o sitio n fr o m the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s . ^
The b a ttle o v e r the r e n e w a l of the C o m m itte e m a y have b e e n
r e s o lv e d in th is and oth er s u c h c o m p r o m is e s , but the d is a g r e e m e n t on
w hat su ch a r en ew ed C o m m itte e cou ld le g it im a t e ly c a ll its c o n c e r n had
no su ch e a s y r e s o lu tio n . B y 1953, B elg iu m w a s ir r ita te d enough to a n
nounce its r e fu s a l to p a r tic ip a te in the C o m m itte e 's w ork , w h ich it
ch a rg ed w a s in frin g in g on B e lg ia n s o v e r e ig n ty and e lim in a tin g the d is -
27
tin c tio n s b etw e e n C h ap ters XI and XII of the C h a rter. The r e a l th orn
in the c o lo n ia l a ttem p ts at c o -o p e r a tio n w a s the a n ti-c o lo n ia l in s is t e n c e
on s u p e r v is in g p o litic a l m a tte r s , and one is s u e w h ich w a s m o s t s y m
b o lic of th is p r o b le m and h a s y et to be r e s o lv e d w a s that of " c e s s a tio n
^ O R 'b, G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly , 7th S e s s i o n , A n n e x e s, A gen da
Item 33, p. 4.
^ T h e U nited S ta tes v o ted a g a in st the d raft, a s did a ll the M e t
ro p o lita n p o w e r s; P R 's, 7th S e s s io n , 4th C o m m itte e , p. 127.
^^Ib id . , p . 126.
Z fi
P R 's , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 7th S e s s i o n , p. 354.
^U nited Nations Document A/AC.35/L. 142, August 18, 1953.
124
of in form ation ." Put another w ay, who is to d ecid e w h eth er a n o n - s e lf -
govern in g te r r ito r y h as attained s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t? A t the F ou rth S e s
sio n the th e o r e tic a l sta te m e n ts on th is q u estio n le d the E gyp tian d e le
gate to o ffer a s p e c ia l d raft w h ich announced that the A s s e m b ly
h as a r e s p o n sib ility to e x p r e s s its opinion . . . on the p r in c ip le s
w h ich have . . . or m a y in fu ture guide m e m b e r s c o n c e r n e d in
e n u m era tin g the t e r r it o r ie s fo r w hich the o b lig a tio n e x is t s to
tr a n sm it in fo rm a tio n under A r tic le 7 3(e) . . .
Invites any s p e c ia l c o m m itte e w h ich the G en era l A s s e m b ly sh a ll
appoint . . . to e x a m in e the fa c to r s w h ich should be tak en
into accou n t in d ecid in g w h e th e r any t e r r it o r y is or is not
a te r r ito r y w h o se p eop le have attain ed s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t. °
Strong ob jectio n to th is r e s o lu tio n w a s v o ic e d by the U nited
K ingd om 's d ele g a te , who den ied that the U nited N ation s cou ld p lay any
role in en u m era tin g t e r r it o r ie s w hich m ig h t be in clu d ed in the d efin ition
of n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s , m u ch l e s s p la y any p a rt in d ecid in g
w heth er e r s tw h ile n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s w e r e now s e l f - g o v
ern ing. T h e se m a tte r s w e r e , in the U nited K in gd om 's ju d gm en t, s o le ly
the co n cern of the a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s. At th is s e s s i o n at le a s t , the
U nited S tates had nothing to sa y on the su b jec t and a b sta in ed in the v o t-
29
ing w hich su sta in e d the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s . W hat little d e lic a c y
th ere w as in the debate in this s e s s io n w a s abandoned in the Sixth S e s
sion. The a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s, sm a r tin g fr o m r e v e r s e s su ffe r e d in
gaining d is c u s s io n on M o ro c co , fr eq u en tly r e f e r r e d to p o litic a l c o n d i
tions in that te r r ito r y w hen c o n s id e r in g the C o m m itte e on In fo r m a tio n 's
^®Draft R eso lu tio n A /C .4 /L /3 7 , R ev. 2, as found in P R 's, G en
e r a l A s s e m b ly , 4th S e s s io n , A n n ex e s, p. 116.
^ O R 's, G en era l A s s e m b ly , 4th S e s s i o n , p. 461. The a n t i- c o
lo n ia l p o w e r s w on th eir point through the happy c ir c u m s ta n c e of the
L a tin -A m e r ic a n s join ing the a b ste n tio n s along w ith the U nited S tates.
The vote w a s 3 0 -1 2 w ith 10 a b ste n tio n s.
125
rep o rt. The s c e n e w a s the F ou rth C o m m ittee, and F r a n c e r e p e a te d ly
in terru p ted A rab s p e a k e r s w ith p oin ts of o r d e r , ch argin g v io la tio n of
p ro c e d u r e in su ch gratu itou s c r it ic is m of F r e n c h p o lic y in M o ro c co .
The im p lic it te n s io n and r e a l q u estio n w as ill- a d v is e d ly brought to the
su r fa c e by U nited Kingdom d e le g a te B urns, w ho sta ted that "the F ou rth
C o m m ittee ^ . . w a s a te c h n ic a l c o m m itte e , and a s su ch not e n titled to
d is c u s s p o litic a l m a tte r s ." Iraq 's d e le g a te K halidy im m e d ia te ly r e
sponded w ith an o ra l draft p r o p o s a l to the e ffe c t that the C o m m ittee
w a s co m p eten t to d is c u s s p o litic a l m a tte r s . It w a s at th is point that
d is c r e tio n le d the M etro p o lita n p o w e r s to fight fo r a d ela y in votin g on
th is p r o p o sa l, fo r w ith te m p e r s running high, th ere w as little doubt as
to the ou tcom e on any v o te. The d ela y s e r v e d to cool off the h ea ted
a n ti-c o lo n ia ls and the m a tte r w a s d is p o se d of w ithout any fo r m a l
30
vote. But the e s s e n t ia l poin t at is s u e r e m a in e d u n r e so lv e d , for at
the next s e s s io n , a c la s h d ev elo p e d o v e r the sa m e p ro b lem in y e t an
oth er agenda ite m . The q u estio n this tim e w a s w hat " factors" should
be taken into accou n t in d ecid in g w h eth er a n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r r i
to ry had a c h ie v e d s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t. The a r g u m e n ts o ffered by the Indi
an d ele g a te and the A m e r ic a n r e p r e se n ta tiv e p ro v id e a c l a s s i c r e p r e
sen ta tio n on this q u estio n a s w e ll as the la r g e r d isp ute of the r o le of
the U nited N ations w ith r e s p e c t to n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s , and
d e s e r v e e x te n s iv e quotation. A s the Indian d e le g a te Rao saw it,
T h ere w e r e on ly tw o w a y s in w h ich a n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r
rito r y cou ld be r e m o v e d fr o m the list: one w as a fu ll m e a s u r e of
s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t as in the c a s e of the e r s tw h ile n o n -se lf-g o v e r n in g
30
For events referred to above, see PR's, 6th Session, 4th
Committee, pp. 50-55.
126
te r r ito r y of In donesia, now a m e m b e r of the U nited N ations; and the
se co n d w a s by the tr a n s fe r of the n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g te r r ito r y to
the T r u ste e sh ip S y ste m . The G en era l A s s e m b ly at no sta g e lo s t
sig h t of a n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g te r r ito r y ; it reta in e d a c tiv e in te r e s t
in it under e ith e r C hapter XI or C hapter XII and XHL or through
a d m is s io n to fu ll m e m b e r s h ip in the U nited N ation s.
H ere in d eed w as the a n ti-c o lo n ia l str a te g y s p e lle d out in un
m ista k a b le t e r m s , and su ch a d isp la y c a lle d for so m e as c lo s e ly r e a
soned reb u ttals fro m the M etr o p o lita n cam p . It w a s M r. G erig of the
U nited S tates w ho s e r v e d th is function. He ch a llen g ed the two th e o r ie s
m o tiv a tin g the a n ti-c o lo n ia l argu m en t.
The f ir s t w a s that au ton om y w a s in d iv isib le and that the ad
m in is te r in g p o w er w ould th e r e fo r e be req u ir ed to tr a n s m it in fo r
m a tio n under A r tic le 7 3(e) until a te r r ito r y w a s s e lf-g o v e r n in g not
on ly in e c o n o m ic , s o c ia l and ed u cation al, but a ls o in p o litic a l m a t
te r s . The se c o n d w a s that au th ority and r e s p o n sib ility for d e c id
ing w hen a t e r r it o r y had b e c o m e s e lf-g o v e r n in g . . . r e s te d not
w ith the a d m in iste r in g p o w er alon e, but jo in tly with_the G en eral
A s s e m b ly and the a d m in iste r in g p o w er co n cern ed .
M r. G erig then w ent on to s u g g e st w hat the "proper" ro le of
the U nited N ation s w a s in th e s e m a tte r s . It could w e ll " e x p r e s s op in
ions" and indulge in su ch p a s tim e s as "trying to d ete r m in e the p ro p er
in terp re ta tio n s of such e x p r e s s io n s as n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g te r r ito r y
. . . and te r r ito r y w h o se p e o p le s have not y et attain ed a fu ll m e a s u r e of
s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t ..." The r o le of the U nited N ations w a s that of an ad
v is e r at m o s t, for he m a d e it c le a r that the d e c isio n -m a k in g p ow er
33
r e s te d s o le ly w ith the a d m in iste r in g nation.
The t e s t of th e s e d ifferin g in te r p r e ta tio n s of the U nited N ations
ro le w a s the votin g on a 6 -p o w e r draft w h ich had the A s s e m b ly d e c la r e
that for a te r r ito r y to be d e e m e d s e lf-g o v e r n in g , "it w a s e s s e n t ia l that
3 ^O R 'b, 7th S e ssio n , 4th C o m m itte e , p. 162.
32Ibid. 33Ibid.
127
its peop le w ould have attain ed a fu ll m e a s u r e of s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t as r e
fe r r e d to in C hapter XI of the C h arter," and a ls o that " each co n c r e te
c a s e should be c o n s id e r e d and d ecid ed in the ligh t of the p a rticu la r
A i
c ir c u m sta n c e s of that c a s e ." The c o n te ste d p a ra g ra p h s w e r e adopted
ov er the n egative v o te s of a ll the M etr o p o lita n p o w e r s, and ju st b efo r e
the voting on the draft as a w h ole, the U nited S tates d ele g a te m ad e an
e n tir e ly ir r e le v a n t req u est, m o s t lik e ly intend ed to gain so m e lobbying
tim e . M r. G erig a sk ed that the vote be p ostp on ed so that "the S e c r e
ta r y -G e n e r a l should be a sk ed for an e s tim a te of the exp en d itu re in
volved" in im p le m en tin g the r e so lu tio n . The C hairm an d is m is s e d th is
r e q u e st and the draft w as adopted by the C o m m ittee by a 32-12 vote
3 5
w ith 8 a b ste n tio n s. The vote in the A s s e m b ly show ed no sig n ific a n t
seco n d thoughts and the draft w a s adopted by a 3 6 -1 5 v ote w ith 7 a b
sten tio n s . ^
T h ese g e n e r a l and th e o r e tic a l d is a g r e e m e n ts m o v e d to s p e c if
ic p r o b le m s in 1951 and su b seq u en t y e a r s . The N eth erla n d s in 1951,
the U nited S tates in 1953 and D en m a rk in 1954, a ll in fo rm ed the U nited
N ation s that t e r r it o r ie s fo r m e r ly c o n s id e r e d n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g had
un dergone " constitutional" ch an ges and had th e r e fo r e attain ed s e lf -
g o v ern m en t. D en m a rk 's rep o rt on G reen lan d m e t w ith g r e a te r a c c e p t
ance in the A s s e m b ly than did the U nited S tates rep o rt on P u erto R ico
and the N eth erlan d s rep o rt on Surinam and A n tille s. What w a s c o m m o n
^ I b i d ., A n n ex e s, A genda Item 33, p. 7.
^ O R 's, 7th S e s sio n , 4th C o m m itte e , pp. 1 9 6 -1 9 9 .
~^O R 's, G en eral A s s e m b ly , 7th S e s s io n , p. 355. S im ila r
r e so lu tio n s on " factors" and the A s s e m b ly 's r o le as d is c u s s e d above
a re G eneral A s s e m b ly , R eso lu tio n 567 (VI), 648 (VII), 742 (VIII).
128
to a ll th ree c a s e s , h o w e v e r , w a s the ir r e c o n c ila b le d is a g r e e m e n t b e
tw een the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s and the A d m in iste r in g S tates as to the
lo c u s of the d e c is io n on w h eth er th e se t e r r it o r ie s had in fa ct attained
se lf-g o v e r n m e n t. E v en in th o se c a s e s w h e re the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s
w e r e w illin g to a c c e p t the fa c t that the t e r r ito r y w as now s e lf - g o v e r n
ing, they in se r te d a p rea m b u la r s ta te m e n t a s s e r tin g the A s s e m b ly 's
au th ority to grant su ch a sta tu s. The follow in g e x c e r p ts from d ifferen t
s e s s io n s illu s tr a te the d is a g r e e m e n t as w e ll as the U nited S tates p o s i
tion.
In a cce p tin g the sta tu s of P u e r to R ico as a te r r ito r y w hich had
a ch ie v ed s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t, the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s in s e r te d the fo llo w
ing cla u se:
B earin g in m in d the c o m p e te n c e of the G en era l A s s e m b ly to d ecid e
w h eth er a n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g te r r ito r y h as or h a s not a t
tain ed a fu ll m e a s u r e of s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t as r e fe r r e d to
in C hapter XI of the C harter . . . ^
The U nited S tates d e le g a te bluntly refu ted su ch an a s s e r tio n
w ith the c o m m en t that
The ro le of the G en era l A s s e m b ly is lim ite d by the C harter p r o v i
sio n s to d is c u s s io n , e x p r e s s io n of v ie w s and r e c o m m e n d a tio n s.
The d e c is io n as to w h eth er a t e r r it o r y h a s c e a s e d to be n o n - s e lf -
go v ern in g is one w h ich in the la s t a n a ly s is can only be m ad e by the
a d m in iste r in g p ow er.
It w a s the a n ti-c o lo n ia l v ie w that p r e v a ile d and the c la u s e w as
in se r te d into the r e s o lu tio n on P u e r to R ico. The a d m in iste r in g p o w e rs
r e m a in e d u n con vin ced of the A s s e m b ly 's c o m p eten ce in this m a tte r ,
for on the D en m a rk re p o r t on the new sta tu s of G reenland the B ea rin g
■^General Assembly, Resolution 748 (VIII).
IQ
PR's, General Assembly, 8th Session, p. 320.
129
in m in d c la u se c a u s e d ren ew ed h o s tility fr o m the A m e r ic a n r e p r e s e n
tative and other a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s. Indian r e p r e s e n ta tiv e T rik u m -
das th ereu p on m a d e one m o r e attem p t to p e r s u a d e the a d m in iste r in g
p o w e r s that the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o sitio n w a s m o r e r e p r e se n ta tiv e of the
intent of A r tic le 7 3.
It cou ld not p o s s ib ly be argu ed that as so o n as an a d m in is te r
ing p ow er had sta ted that one of its t e r r it o r ie s had b e c o m e s e lf -
govern in g, the A s s e m b ly w a s bound to a c c e p t that sta tem en t,
w h eth er it w a s tru e or not. The o b lig a tio n under A r tic le 7 3 can
only c e a s e if the G en eral A s s e m b ly is s a tis fie d that, in fa ct, the
te r r ito r y w h ich is a lle g e d to h ave r e a c h e d that sta tu s has r ea c h e d
that sta tu s. ^
The a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s w e r e outvoted but not con vin ced,
and w h ere th ey had lo s t in the q u estio n c o n c e r n e d w ith c e s s a t io n of in
fo rm a tio n , th ey w e r e able to a s s e r t th eir p o sitio n on a r e la te d q u estio n .
The addition of Spain and P o rtu g a l to the l i s t s of U nited N ation s m e m
b ersh ip ren ew ed the c o n te st about the r o le of the U nited N a tio n s. The
is s u e at the E le v e n th S e s s io n w a s P o r tu g a l's r e s p o n se to a r e q u e s t that
it li s t any n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s w h ich w e r e under its a d m in
istra tio n . P o r tu g a l r e p lie d that it w a s a "unitary" state and that it did
not a d m in iste r any t e r r it o r ie s w h ich w ou ld be c o v e r e d by the p r o v is io n s
of A r tic le 7 3. The P o r tu g u e s e a s s e r t io n that su ch t e r r it o r ie s as M o
zam b iq u e, G uinea, Goa and M acao w e r e p a rt of the "unitary" sta te of
P o rtu g a l stru ck the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls as a fla g ra n t and obvious r u se to
c o v e r co lo n ia l p r a c tic e , and in C o m m itte e IV, th ey lau n ch ed a b itter r e
buttal to the P o r tu g u e se arg u m en t. The debate is sig n ific a n t in that the
c h a r g e s a g a in st P o r tu g u e se a d m in is tr a tio n of o v e r s e a s t e r r it o r ie s c o n
tain ed c o n sid e r a b le a c r im o n y and su ch v io la tio n s of hum an rig h ts as
^^OR's, General Assembly, 9th Session, p. 302.
130
" slave labor" and r a c ia l and r e lig io u s p e r s e c u tio n w e r e abundant. The
a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s fought fo r the e s ta b lis h m e n t of an ad h oc c o m m it
tee to ex a m in e the r e s p o n s e s of a ll new m e m b e r s hoping that by g e n e r
a lizin g the m an date of the ad hoc c o m m itte e th ey could e s c a p e the
ch arge of sin g lin g out P o r tu g a l fo r s p e c ia l tre a tm e n t. The vote on the
e s ta b lis h m e n t of this ad h oc c o m m itte e w a s a c lo s e 3 5 -3 3 w ith 4 a b
sten tio n s. The U nited S ta tes m a d e no sta te m e n t on the su b stan tive
c h a r g e s of v io la tio n of hum an rig h ts in P o r tu g a l's o v e r s e a s t e r r it o r ie s ,
and voted a g a in st the e s ta b lis h m e n t of the c o m m itte e . The n arrow m a
jo r ity a v a ila b le to the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls in C o m m ittee IY brought the now
fa m ilia r str a te g y fro m the co lo n ia l p o w e r s - -t h e e s ta b lish m e n t of such
an ad hoc c o m m itte e w a s an "im portant q u estion " and th e r e fo r e the A s
se m b ly cou ld only e s ta b lis h su ch a c o m m itte e by a tw o -th ir d s m a jo r ity
vote. India's d e le g a te Jaip al refu ted th is a s s e r t io n in a w e ll-r e a s o n e d
argu m en t d esig n e d to show that the q u estio n w a s one of p r o c e d u r e and
cited am p le p r e c e d e n t to show that s im ila r q u e stio n s had a lw a y s b een
40
d ecid ed by a s im p le m a jo r ity . A good a rg u m en t is not a lw a y s a w in
ning one, h o w e v er, and the A s s e m b ly d e cid e d by a 3 8 -3 4 vote w ith 6 ab
sten tio n s that the q u estio n w a s an "im portant" one. The U nited S tates
r o le in th is debate w a s c le a r ly on the P o r tu g u e s e sid e, and its subtle
e x e r c is e of its in flu en ce did not e s c a p e M r. J a ip a l's attention. Ju st b e
fo re the votin g on the now d oom ed a n ti-c o lo n ia l draft, M r. Jaip al ven ted
India's g r ie v a n c e on the turn of e v e n ts and the U nited S tates r o le in in
flu en cin g th eir c o u r se .
We have s e e n so m e stra n g e h ap pen in gs h e r e today.
^ O R 'g , General A ssem bly, 11th Session, Vol. II, p. 1,160.
131
D e le g a tio n s se e m to h ave changed th eir v o te s if not th eir m in d s.
When one c o n s id e r s the d is c u s s io n s today and g e ts to the bottom of
the m a tte r , one finds that w hat w a s in q u estio n w a s the future o p e r
ation of C hapter XI. A v e r y g ra v e blow h as b e e n d ealt C hapter XJ,
thanks to the stir r in g appeal fo r fle x ib ility put fo rw a rd by the r e p
r e s e n ta tiv e of the U nited S tates of A m e r ic a . It s e e m s that f le x i
b ility b e c o m e s a p r i c e l e s s v ir tu e w hen co lo n ia l in te r e s ts a r e in
vo lv ed . In the nam e of the s o v e r e ig n eq u a lity of m e m b e r s , in the
n am e of d o m e stic ju r isd ic tio n , in the n am e of u n itary s ta te s and
other su ch im p o sin g p r in c ip le s , a sa c r e d tr u st h as b een tr e a te d in
a m a n n er w h ich is e n tir e ly unw orthy of the C h arter. The future of
m illio n s of A frica n s has suddenly b eco m e im p ortan t enough to in
voke the tw o -th ir d s m a jo r ity rule in o r d e r to d e c id e that th eir fu
tu re is not the co n c e r n of the U nited N ation s.
The vote on the draft w as 3 5 -3 5 w ith 5 a b sten tio n s, and a l
though d efea ted at the E le v en th S e s s io n in th eir attem pt to a s s e r t so m e
co n tro l of P o r tu g u e se o v e r s e a s t e r r it o r ie s , the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s
m a y be e x p e c te d to continue th eir e ffo r ts to a ch ie v e th eir en d s.
On another le v e l, the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s h ave p e r c e iv e d the
U nited N ation s in the r o le of a v e h ic le for p u b licity (with so m e cou rage
one m ig h t e v e n c a ll it " exp osu re" ) of con d ition s p r e v a ilin g in dependent
t e r r it o r ie s . T hey have not b een s a tis fie d w ith the p r o v is io n s in C hap
ter XII d ea lin g w ith the h ea rin g of p e titio n e r s by the T r u ste e sh ip C oun
cil, and have c o n s is te n tly cham p ion ed the right of the F ou rth C om m ittee
to in vite p e titio n e r s from T ru st T e r r ito r ie s to sp eak on th eir p r o b le m s .
The a r e a m o s t often in volved in th e s e c la s h e s h as b een the te r r ito r y of
S o u th -W est A fr ic a , the statu s of w hich h as not b een g e n e r a lly a g ree d
^ Ibid., p. 1,178. The r e v e r s e s su ffe r e d by the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls
under the str a te g y of the tw o -th ir d s ru le h ave le d them to attem pt to
find s o m e w a y of avoiding its in v o ca tio n in m a tte r s r e la te d to A r tic le
73. F o r a b r ie f su m m a r y of the m a n n er in w h ich the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls
have a ttem p ted to g et a ruling fro m the 6th C o m m ittee on th is q u estion ,
s e e Intern ation al C o n c ilia tio n , No. 519, S ep tem b er, 1958, p. 86, and for
a s im ila r attem p t to get a ru ling from the ICJ, s e e P R 's, G en eral A s
se m b ly , 13th S e s s io n , A n n ex es, A gen da Item 36.
132
upon. At the Sixth S e s sio n , the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s in s is te d that p e t i
tio n e r s fro m S o u th -W est A fr ic a be a llo w ed to appear b efo re the F ourth
C o m m ittee. In th is th ey w e r e s u c c e s s f u l in sp ite of c o lo n ia l p ow er op
p o sitio n . The U nited S tates m ad e little c o m m en t e x c e p t to announce
42
that it w ould ab stain . The R ev eren d M ich a el Scott, w ho w a s to b e
co m e so m eth in g of a fix tu re in the U nited N ation s in su b seq u en t s e s
sio n s , then p r e s e n te d a m o v in g sta tem en t on the plight of the tr ib e s in
S ou th -W est A fr ic a , attrib u tab le to the in s e n s itiv e a d m in istr a tio n of
that te r r ito r y by the Union of South A fr ic a and an e m o tio n a lly ch a rg ed
a n ti-c o lo n ia l r e s p o n s e fo llo w ed . It is sig n ific a n t that a r e s o lu tio n e x
p r e s s in g " ad m iration and gratitude" to M ich a el Scott w on 40 a ffir m a
tiv e v o te s , w h ich did not in clude that of the U nited S tates w h o se d e le -
43
gate joined 9 M etropolitan ab stain ers.
In su b seq u en t s e s s i o n s the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s again a s s e r t e d
the c o m p e te n c e , in d eed the d e s ir a b ility , of the G en eral A s s e m b ly 's
C o m m ittee IV to h ea r o r a l p e titio n s, and in the E ighth S e s s io n , the
U nited S tates op en ly op p osed the granting of such p o w e r s to the F ourth
C o m m ittee. M r s. B olton in d ica ted that it w a s the T r u ste e sh ip C ouncil
that should d ea l w ith p e titio n e r s and not the F ou rth C o m m ittee, for "al
though it b e lie v e d the p e titio n e r s should have an opportunity to exp lain
th eir v ie w s , the h e a r in g could m o s t e ffe c tiv e ly be h eld at the 13th S e s
sio n of the T r u s te e sh ip C ouncil . . ."44 T h is p o sitio n h as b een a c o n
s is te n t one fo r the U nited S ta tes d ele g a tio n in su bseq u en t s e s s io n s , and
4 2 q r ' s , 6th S essio n , 4th C om m ittee, p. 19.
4 ^Ibid., pp. 291-292.
44
PR 's, 8th Session, 4th C om m ittee, p. 15.
133
the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls have as c o n s is te n tly dem anded the opportunity to hear
p e titio n e rs in the Fourth C om m ittee rath er than have them appear b e
fo re the T r u ste e sh ip C o u n c il.^
No catalogue of the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a s e for g rea te r United N a
tions in v o lv em en t in m a tte r s co n cer n e d w ith dependent te r r ito r ie s
w ould be c o m p lete w ithout sin gu lar co n sid era tio n of the qu estion of
South-W est A frica . Nor w ould a r ep re se n ta tio n of the United S tates r e
sp on se to the m a n ife sta tio n s of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m be p o ssib le w ithout a
d isp lay of its h esita n t and ginger handling of th is is s u e at the United
N ation s. The Union of South A frica is no favorite w ith the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
p o w ers, for they have had g r ie v a n c e s g alore on the qu estion of a p a r
theid w ithin the U nion's own te r r ito r y . When the Union govern m en t a n
nounced that w ith the d e m is e of the L eague of N ations its r e sp o n sib ility
to an intern ational organ ization fo r the ad m in istra tio n of the te r r ito r y
of South-W est A frica had ended, the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w ers p rom p tly
m ade this q u estion a p r im e co n sid era tio n in the Fourth C om m ittee. At
the Second S e ssio n , India's M aharaja Singh had in s is te d that South
A frica m u st su bm it to " international su p e rv isio n ," and should im m e d i-
46
ately subm it to a T r u ste e sh ip a g r e e m e n t for that te r r ito r y . In this
he found a rticu la te support in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l cam p. The United
States r e s p o n se w as a cautious and c o n c ilia to r y one, in w hich such ab
stra ct q u estio n s as to w hether South A fr ic a had a "legal" or a "m oral"
45
F o r fu rth er d ev elo p m en t of a n ti-c o lo n ia l attem pts to b y p a ss
the T ru steesh ip C ouncil in th e se and other m a tte r s , s e e below , pp. 147-
150.
PR's, General A ssem bly, 2nd Session, Vol. I, p. 598.
134
47
o b ligation p layed a p ro m in en t part. By the T hird S e s sio n , the a n ti
c o lo n ia ls had m o v ed fro m the s im p le dem and that South A frica do what
w a s le g a lly right to stro n g c h a r g e s about its doing what w as m o r a lly
w rong in the T e r r ito r y of S o u th -W est A fr ic a . C h arges of fo r c e d lab or,
r a c ia l d isc r im in a tio n , unfair e c o n o m ic d is c r im in a tio n w e r e p art of the
a n ti-c o lo n ia l a r s e n a l now, and to th e se the U nited S tates added n eith er
its outrage nor so m e sta te m e n t denying that such condition did in fa ct
e x ist. M r. Sayre m ad e only tw o in terv e n tio n s in the T hird S e s s io n d e
bate on this q u estion , and con ced ing the ju stic e of the U nited N ations
c a s e in dem anding a tr u ste e s h ip , he a d v ise d the C om m ittee that it "had
to ch o o se b etw een the e m o tio n a l g ra tifica tio n of u sin g strong, e v e n
p ro v o c a tiv e langu age, w h ich w ould p rod u ce no r e s u lts and m o r e m e a s
u red te r m s ..." M r. S ayre w ield e d h is in flu en ce to change su ch
" provocative" p h r a s e s as "is g r a v e ly con cern ed " to "take note," and to
r e m o v e su ch c la u s e s as " e x p r e s s e s reg ret" e n tir e ly fro m the draft
r e so lu tio n , ask in g South A fr ic a to subm it a tr u ste e sh ip a g r e e m e n t for
S ou th -W est A fr ic a .4 ®
By the F ou rth S e s s io n debate on this su bject open ed w ith a
ra th er scath in g in d ictm en t of Union p o lic ie s in S ou th -W est A fr ic a by
the R ev eren d M ic h a e l Scott, and the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e rs added th eir
sta te m e n ts of sym p ath y for the inhabitants of that te r r ito r y . An Indian-
D anish d raft b efo re the C o m m ittee look ed to an a d v iso r y opinion from
the ICJ on four b a s ic q u e stio n s.
4 7 Ibid., p. 579.
48
For United States statements and voting, see PR's, 3rd
Session, 4th C om m ittee, Part I, pp. 363-376.
135
a. D o es South A fr ic a h ave in tern a tio n a l o b lig a tio n s? If so, w hat is
the nature of th o se o b lig a tio n s?
b. D o es South A fr ic a have the s p e c ific ob ligation to su bm it a
T r u s te e s h ip A g r e e m e n t?
c. If not, is South A fr ic a a n o n -s e lf-g o v e r n in g te r r ito r y w ith in the
m e a n in g of C hapter XI?
d. D o es South A fr ic a h ave c o m p e te n c e to m o d ify the status of
S o u th -W est A f r ic a ^ qIf not, w h e r e d oes the c o m p eten ce lie fo r
su ch m o d ifica tio n ?
T his c o m p r o m is e d raft r e ta in e d so m e p rea m b u la r p a s s a g e s in
50
w hich e a r lie r R e so lu tio n s w e r e r e c a lle d , and it w a s th is p a r tic u la r
point w h ich d istu rb ed the A m e r ic a n d e le g a te . A s M r. F ahy put it,
th ere w as not m u ch u se in r e c a llin g e a r lie r r e so lu tio n s w h ich had a l
read y m e t w ith r e je c tio n by South A fr ic a . Should the p r e a m b le in q u e s
tion be reta in ed , M r. F ah y announced that he w ould be o b lig ed to vote
51
a g a in st the draft. M r. F ah y then p r o c e e d e d to vote a g a in st p a r a
graphs o ffe n s iv e to him , and w hen th e s e w e r e retain ed , he voted a g a in st
the draft as a w h o le, w h ich w a s n e v e r t h e le s s adopted by a 3 3 -9 vote
52
w ith 10 a b ste n tio n s.
On July 11, 1950, the ICJ d e cid e d that South A fr ic a did have in
tern a tio n a l o b lig a tio n s, that it m u s t a c c e p t the ju r is d ic tio n of the Court,
and that it cou ld not u n ila te r a lly m o d ify the sta tu s of S o u th -W est A f r i
ca and m u s t a c c e p t the s u p e r v is io n of the U nited N ations along the lin e s
^ S e e P R 's, G en era l A s s e m b ly , 4th S e s s io n , A n n ex e s, p. 108.
•^ T he e a r lie r r e s o lu tio n s on S ou th -W est A fr ic a w e r e G eneral
A s s e m b ly , R e so lu tio n s 65 (I), 141 (II) and 227 (III).
^ O R 's, G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly , 4th S e s s io n , p. 534. F or a v e r y
d ifferen t attitude taken by the U nited S tates on " r e c a llin g ” e a r lie r
d rafts on the su b jec ts of K o rea and H ungary, s e e below , p. 209.
5ZIbid., p. 536.
136
63
of the m an d ate a g r e e m e n t w ith the L eagu e of N ation s. H aving found
le g a l ju stific a tio n fo r a c a s e a lr ea d y c o n sid e r e d m o r a lly ju stifie d , the
a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s p r e s e n te d a str o n g ly -w o r d e d draft to the F ou rth
C o m m ittee at the F ifth S e s sio n . The In d ia -In d o n esia -P h ilip p in e draft
c a lle d on South A fr ic a to fu lfill its o b lig a tio n s, en d o r se d the ICJ op in
ion, a sk e d for a ctio n fro m the C o m m is s io n on S ou th-W est A ction ,
c a lle d on South A fr ic a to d esig n a te a r e p r e se n ta tiv e to the C o m m is s io n
and to c o -o p e r a te w ith the C o m m issio n and dem anded a rep o r t fro m the
54
C o m m is sio n fo r the n ex t s e s s i o n of the G en eral A ss e m b ly . The
U nited S ta tes p r e s e n te d its own draft, w h ich is so m ew h a t c h a r a c te r is tic
of its attitu d es on th is q u estion . The 8 -p o w e r draft c o -s p o n s o r e d by
the U nited S tates w ould h ave the A ss e m b ly en d o rse the ICJ opinion,
u rg e South A fr ic a to im p le m en t the C ourt's d e c isio n , and e s t a b lis h a
C o m m ittee to "confer" w ith South A fr ic a on ju st how the C ou rt's d e c i-
E C
sio n should be im p le m en te d . If one n o tes that South A fr ic a had a l
rea d y r e je c te d the C ou rt's d e c isio n , the debate follow ing the p r e s e n t a
tion of th e se d rafts ta k es on an air of u n rea lity . The a n ti-c o lo n ia ls
p r e s s e d fo r th eir draft to w h ich South A fr ic a had fla tly r e fu se d to e x
tend any c o -o p e r a tiv e r e s p o n se , and the U nited S tates d ele g a te thought
that in lig h t of South A fr ic a 's h o s tility to it, the a n ti-c o lo n ia l d raft w as
" a ca d em ic, a fo r e n s ic e x e r c is e and p erh a p s a vain thing." M r. C ooper
C *2
F o r sta te m e n ts m ad e b efo re the Court, s e e Intern ation al
C ourt of J u s tic e , In ternation al Status of S ou th -W est A fr ic a (L eyden: A.
W. S ijth off's, n.d.), S a le s N o. 46. F o r the o p era tiv e p a rt of the A d v is o
r y Opinion, s e e In tern ation al C ourt of J u s tic e , R ep o rts of J u d g e m e n ts,
A d v is o r y O pinions and O rd ers, O ctober 1950, pp. 1 2 8 -1 4 5 .
^ T h r ee -p o w er draft A/C.4/L. 129.
55A /C.4/L.124, Rev. 1.
137
u rged adoption of the U nited States draft, w hich w as a "p olitical m e th
od," for " su b scrip tion to la rg e p u rp o ses, though n e c e s s a r y , w as not
su fficien t in the c a se ." What is not too c le a r is ju st how the U nited
States draft w as any m o r e " rea listic" than the a n ti-co lo n ia l approach,
for if the South A frica n govern m ent r efu sed to a ccep t the C ourt's d e c i
sion, th ere w as little to "confer" about. W hatever the c o m p le x itie s m a y
have b een in this c a se , the United States r e g is te r e d its opp osition to
anything r e se m b lin g an attem pt to "im pose" the A ss e m b ly 's w ill on the
South A frica n govern m en t, and its n egative v o te s in the C om m ittee and
in flu en ce in the A s s e m b ly w as d e c isiv e in softenin g drafts adopted on
57
the subject.
In subsequent s e s s io n s , the United States rem a in ed c o rd ia l to
c o m p r o m ise d rafts, ab stain ed on th o se w hich lean ed tow ard im p o sitio n
of the A s s e m b ly 's w ill and voted again st anything r ese m b lin g co n d em
nation of the Union of South A frica .
A fin al note to this deadlocked is su e at the United N ations is
the esta b lish m e n t of a Good O ffices C om m ittee co m p o sed of B ra zil, the
United Kingdom and the United States at the A ss e m b ly 's T w elfth S e s
sion, em p o w ered to d is c u s s with the Union govern m ent, a "basis for an
a g r ee m e n t w hich w ould continue to a cco rd to the te r r ito r y an in tern a -
CQ
tion al statu s." The a n ti-c o lo n ia ls had b een a rticu late on fe a r s that
the Good O ffices C om m ittee m igh t go too far in m aking c o n c e s s io n s to
^ OR'b, 5th S e ssio n , 4th C o m m itte e , p. 324.
^ S e e ib id ., pp. 366-379. and P R 's, G eneral A sse m b ly , 5th
S e ssio n , pp. 628 -6 3 1 .
^ G e n e r a l A ssem b ly, R esolution 1143 (XII), October 25, 1957.
138
the U nion u nder su ch a w id e and vagu e gran t of p o w e r . A s it tu rn ed
out, the U nion r e ite r a te d its lo n g -h e ld c o n v ic tio n that it w ould n e v e r
a c c e p t the U nited N a tio n s as the s e c o n d p a r ty to any a g r e e m e n t on the
t e r r it o r y of S o u th -W e st A fr ic a , a p o s itio n it fla tly announced "w as not
open to r e c o n s id e r a t io n ." ^ The Good O ffices C o m m itte e p r o v e d m o r e
fle x ib le , in d eed too f le x ib le , fo r it r e p o r te d that
In r e s p o n s e to an in q u iry fro m the U nion g o v e r n m e n t a s to w hat
oth er p o s s ib le a p p r o a c h e s had b een c o n s id e r e d b y the C o m m itte e ,
the la tte r in fo r m e d it that it had c o n s id e r e d the w h o le ra n g e of a l
te r n a tiv e s , in clu d in g . . . the p a rtitio n in g of the te r r ito r y .
South A fr ic a found the s u g g e s tio n of " partitioning" the t e r r i
to r y " in te r e s tin g ," and thought the attitude of the G ood O ffices C o m m it
te e " v ery c o n c ilia t o r y ." ^ The a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s in the F o u rth
C o m m itte e took a v e r y d iffe r e n t attitu d e, h o w e v e r , fo r to them the
C o m m itte e 's p r o p o s a l s e e m e d to h ave gone b eyon d its te r m s of r e f e r
e n c e , and the id e a of p a r titio n in g the t e r r it o r y s e e m e d m o r e lik e c a p it
u la tio n than c o n c ilia tio n . The a n ti-c o lo n ia ls r e je c te d any a g r e e m e n t
w h ich w ould a llo w South A fr ic a to an n ex any p art of S o u th -W e st A fr ic a
and thus ev a d e its in tern a tio n a l o b lig a tio n s, and it s e e m s that th e ir
e a r l ie r f e a r s about an y " n eg o tia tio n s" w ith South A fr ic a w e r e m o r e
L T
than ju stifie d . T h ey th en p r e s s e d fo r and ad op ted a r e s o lu tio n w h ic h
s p e c if ic a lly r e je c te d the p r o p o s a l fo r p a r titio n in g the t e r r it o r y a s s u g
g e s te d by the Good O ffic e s C o m m itte e , and w h ile r e n e w in g it fo r an
^ U n i t e d N ation s D o cu m en t A /3 9 0 0 , A u g u st 27, 1958.
k^Ib id . , p a r a g r a p h s 4 7 -5 0 .
k^O R 's, 13th S e s s io n , 4th C o m m itte e , (748th m e e tin g ), p. 27.
^ F o r reaction to GOC report, see ibid., pp. 31-75.
139
additional y e a r , th ey su g g e ste d that the Good O ffices C o m m ittee keep
in m in d "the d is c u s s io n s h eld at the 13th S e s s io n of the G en eral A s s e m
b ly ." 63
In the long, fr u str a tin g and y e t u n so lv ed p ro b lem of South-
W est A fr ic a , the c a s e a g a in st the U nion h a s b een c le a r , ev en if the antir
c o lo n ia ls have freq u en tly s e e m e d to u s e it to e x p r e s s h o s tilitie s ra th er
than a ch ie v e so lu tio n s. The U nited S tates h as gran ted that the U nited
N ations is being d ep riv ed of its ju st r o le in th is c a s e , but its d e le g a
tions have c o n s is te n tly d ep a rted fro m the ranks of th o se fo rm in g the
m a in a s sa u lt te a m s a g a in st the Union. T h ey h ave r e m a in e d s ile n t on
c h a r g e s of d is g r a c e fu l p o lic ie s p u rsu e d in S ou th -W est A fr ic a by the
Union, r e fu se d to counten an ce im p lic it con d em n ation of a c le a r flouting
of the U nited N ations r e s o lu tio n s by the Union, and g e n e r a lly adopted
the m a n tle of an in te r e s te d but d eta ch ed c o n c ilia to r . The r o le of the
U nited N ations in the A m e r ic a n v ie w h as s e e m e d to e n v is a g e g en tle a s
se r tio n s of p r o p r ie ty and sotto v o c e d ip lo m a cy . A fter a ll, " d e c isio n s
and rec o m m e n d a tio n s of the G en eral A s s e m b ly w e r e not alw a y s
obeyed ," and the U nited N ation s should th e r e fo r e s t e e r c le a r of a ctio n s
64
w hich m ig h t turn out to be "a fo r e n s ic e x e r c is e ."
C ontrol of the U nited N ation s
In r iv a lr y b etw een the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s and th eir a d v e r
s a r ie s in v o lv e s s o m e c r itic a l q u e stio n s c o n cer n in g both the stru ctu re
^ G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , R eso lu tio n 1243 (XIII).
k^O R 's, 5th S e s s io n , 4th C o m m itte e , pp. 3 2 3 -3 2 4 . F o r a
v a ry in g con cep tion of the U nited N ation s ro le in lik e m a tte r s , s e e b e
low , pp. 2 1 3 -2 1 5 .
140
of the U nited N ations as w e ll a s the p r o b le m of r e p r e se n ta tio n in its
w ork. The u n d erlyin g a ssu m p tio n m o tiv a tin g the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls in this
d riv e to change the nature of r e p r e se n ta tio n of dependent t e r r it o r ie s in
the U nited N ation s is that not e v e n the m o s t b en ev o len t c o lo n ia l pow er
can o v e r c o m e the sin s of c o lo n ia l p o litic s and in te r p r e t the w is h e s of
the dependent p e o p le s. A s to the str u c tu r a l p ro b lem , the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
p o w e r s c o n sc io u s of th eir grow in g voting p o w er in the A s s e m b ly , have
begun to take a liv e ly in te r e s t in the d e v e lo p m e n t of a w id e r a p p lica tio n
of the A s s e m b ly 's ro le in the o rg a n iza tio n . The fa ct that the T r u s t e e
ship C ouncil and other su ch org a n s do not have the n u m e r ic a l voting
stren g th that is a v a ila b le to them in the A s s e m b ly and its C o m m itte e s
h as added z e s t to th eir d riv e to b ro a d en the p o w e r s of the A s s e m b ly .
In the e a r ly y e a r s of the U nited N a tio n s, a c la s h b etw een the
M etro p o lita n p o w e r s and th eir c r it ic s w a s f o s t e r e d by a S o v iet p r o p o s a l
w hich w ould allow dependent p e o p le s to lo d g e a p p lica tio n s d ir e c tly to
the E c o n o m ic C o m m is sio n for A s ia and the F a r E a s t (E C A F E ). T his
p r o p o sa l a ls o e n v isa g e d the p a r tic ip a tio n of dependent p e o p le s in
E C A F E as " a sso c ia te m e m b e r s " w ithout votin g rig h ts. The a n t i- c o lo
n ial r e s p o n s e to th is p r o p o sa l is b e s t c h a r a c te r iz e d in the r e m a r k s of
Indian d e le g a te P an n ik ar, who q u e stio n e d the ca p a c ity of a d m in iste r in g
p o w e r s to s u p e r se d e th eir own v e s te d in t e r e s t s w ith th eir o b lig a tio n to
r e p r e s e n t tru e w is h e s of dependent p e o p le s . M r. P an n ik ar fla tly a s
s e r te d that, "I do not think it can be m a in ta in e d fo r a m in u te that in
th is w ork , the M etr o p o lita n P o w e r s a re in a p o sitio n to r e p r e s e n t the
65
co lo n ia l p e o p le s." The U nited S ta tes w a s f ir m ly op p osed to the
Z C
PR 's, General A ssem bly, 2nd Session, Vol. I, p. 542.
141
S oviet p r o p o s a ls on a num ber of grounds, none of w hich w e r e thought to
be the r e a l r e a s o n by P a k is ta n 's d e le g a te P ir z a d a , w ho m a in ta in ed that
the o p p osition ste m m e d fro m the fa c t that
the c o lo n ia l p o w e r s do not w ant to lo o s e n th eir hold in any w ay,
p rob ab ly fo r fe a r of c r e a tin g p r e c e d e n ts and lo s in g the p ow er they
p o s s e s s under A r tic le 73 of the C h arter . . . it is a p p reh en sio n of
the fu ture, I b e lie v e , w h ic h is ca u sin g them sto u tly to op p ose ev en
th is slig h t co n cessio n ." ®
W hatever the r e a l r e a so n , the M etr o p o lita n p o w e r s c lo s e d ranks and
w ith the help of sy m p a th etic L a tin -A m e r ic a n n a tio n s, they s u c c e s s f u lly
r e s is t e d th is en c r o a c h m e n t on th e ir right to r e p r e s e n t th eir t e r r ito -
L n
r i e s . It should be noted that the U nited S tates d ele g a tio n h as not a l
w a y s b een co n v in ce d that any p r o p o s a ls to have in digen ou s p eop le fro m
dependent t e r r it o r ie s " particip ate" in the w o rk of the U nited N ation s
a r e v io la tio n s of the C harter. A t the Sixth S e s sio n , the U nited S tates
d ep arted fro m the ranks of the M etr o p o lita n p o w e r s to support a p r o
p o s a l w h ich w ould allow " a s s o c ia te s" fro m dependent te r r it o r ie s , c o m
p o s e d of "indigenous inhabitants" to s it in on the T r u ste e s h ip C ouncil
and contrib u te to its w ork. The k ey point, then, s e e m s to have b een the
s e le c tio n of su ch p a rticip a n ts, w h ich in the U nited S tates v iew should
6 8
have in clud ed the judgm ent of the a d m in iste r in g authority. The a n ti
co lo n ia l p o w e r s, h o w e v er, w e r e not s a tis fie d w ith a c o n c e s s io n lim ite d
to the T r u s te e s h ip C ouncil, fo r at the S eventh S e s s io n th ey p r e s s e d for
the adoption of a p r o p o sa l w h ich w ould allo w in d igen ou s inhabitants to
6 6 Ibid., p. 559.
^ T h e v o te w a s 2 3 -1 3 w ith 17 a b ste n tio n s ’ , ib id ., p. 562.
^®See OR's, 6th Session, 4th Committee, pp. 240-242, and Cu
ban draft resolution, A/C.4/L. 175.
142
be a s s o c ia t e d w ith the w o r k of the C o m m ittee on Inform ation. The d e
te r m in e d o p p o sitio n fro m the co lo n ia l p o w e r s at th is point in clu d ed the
support of the U nited S tates d ele g a tio n , w h ich m a d e an u n s u c c e s s fu l at
tem p t to d e le te a p a s s a g e to the e ffe c t that the A s s e m b ly
C o n sid e r s it d e s ir a b le that th e r e be a s s o c ia t e d in the w ork by the
C o m m ittee on In form ation F ro m N o n -S e lf-G o v e r n in g T e r
r ito r ie s ind igen ou s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s fro m n o n - s e lf - g o v e r n
ing t e r r it o r ie s , and in v ite s the a d m in iste r in g a u th o r itie s
to m a k e su ch p a r tic ip a tio n p o s s ib le . '
At the sa m e s e s s i o n and on the s a m e su bject, the p r e s s u r e
fr o m the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s to get g r e a te r co n tro l of the T r u ste e s h ip
C ouncil by the p a r tic ip a tio n of in d igen ou s inhabitants led at le a s t one of
the W estern p o w e r s to u s e so m e ra th e r u n d ip lom atic lan gu age. The i s
su e w a s an 11-p o w e r draft (all the s p o n s o r s w e r e n o n -c o m m u n ist, e x
cep t for Y u g o sla v ia ) w h ich e n v is a g e d "the p a rticip a tio n of in d igen ou s
inhabitants of tr u st t e r r it o r ie s in the g o v ern m en t of th o se tr u st t e r r i
t o r ie s and in the w o rk of the T r u s te e s h ip C oun cil." A s the title of the
item in d ic a te s, the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w ish e d to nudge the a d m in is
te r in g a u th o ritie s to sh a r e th eir p o w e r s w ith in d igenous inhabitants
both in dependent t e r r it o r ie s as w e ll a s in the T r u ste e s h ip C ouncil.
A u s tr a lia n d e le g a te F o r sy th e thought that the p r o p o sa l w a s "absurd,
p resu m p tu o u s and u n co n stitu tio n a l," and attack ed the sp o n so r s of the
r e s o lu tio n in a blunt, if not rude, sta te m e n t. He d e s c r ib e d th e s e s ta te s
as a m o tle y c o lle c tio n of th o se w ho had n e v e r had
a g e n e r a l e le c tio n , a cou n try g o v ern ed by a d icta to rsh ip , or a
^^P R 's, G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly , 7th S e s s io n , A n n ex e s, A genda Item
33, p. 6. The p r o p o sa l w a s adopted by a 4 0 -1 0 vote w ith 4 a b ste n tio n s.
The U nited S tates voted a g a in st the draft alon g w ith the M etro p o lita n
p o w ers; P R 's , 7th S e s s io n , 4th C o m m itte e , p. 148.
143
cou n try in w h ich the C o m m u n ist fa ith en joyed a w id e m e a s u r e of
support. M o re than one of them r e p r e se n te d a cou n try w h ich had
ju st r e c e iv e d in d ep en d en ce. D id su ch c o u n tr ie s r e a lly think they
could in s tr u c t F r a n c e , B elg iu m and the U nited S ta tes in r e g a r d to
hum an r ig h ts, p a r lia m e n ta r y p r a c tic e s , lib e r a lis m or m e th o d s of
r ea c h in g self-g o v er n m en t.^ ®
What str u c k M r. F o r s y th e as ab su rd and p r esu m p tu o u s w a s the o p e r a
tiv e p a ra g ra p h of the 11-p o w e r d raft w h ich had the A s s e m b ly e x p r e s s
the opinion
that the o b jects of R eso lu tio n 554 (VI) w ould be b etter a c h ie v e d
through the a c tiv e p a rticip a tio n of m e m b e r s of ind igen ou s p op ula
tion of tr u s t t e r r it o r ie s in the g o v e r n m e n t of th o se t e r r it o r ie s and
the w o rk of the T r u ste e s h ip C ouncil.
The U nited S ta tes had su p p orted a s im ila r sta te m e n t in the
Sixth S e s s io n , but it now attem p ted to d e le te th is p r o v is io n to p la ca te
the m ilita n t A u s tr a lia n d e le g a te and h is c o lo n ia l c o lle a g u e s . The p a r a
graph w a s adopted and the U nited S ta tes then r e v e r te d to its e a r lie r p o-
72
sitio n and voted fo r the draft as a w h o le. T h e se a r e the v ic to r ie s
w h ich h ave p r o v e d e p h e m e r a l fo r the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , and th ey
h a v e, on m a n y o c c a s io n s , a ttem p ted to p e r su a d e the a d m in iste r in g au
th o r itie s to m e e t th e ir d em an d s. R e so lu tio n s a r e not a lw a y s so lu tio n s,
h o w e v er, and th e r e is so m e doubt as to w h eth er the str a te g y of r e
p ea ted r e s o lu tio n s in v a ry in g lan gu age w ill attain a m o r e sy m p a th etic
h ea rin g from a d m in iste r in g a u th o r itie s, w ho in te r p r e t su ch d em an d s as
a g ra v e ch a llen g e to th eir so v e r e ig n ty .
If the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s have not m e t w ith su b sta n tiv e
^®O R 'b, 7th S e s s io n , 4th C o m m itte e , pp. 3 3 1 -3 3 3 .
71
O R 's, G en era l A s s e m b ly , 7th S e s s io n , A n n ex e s, A genda Item
1 2, p. 21.
7 7
S ee sta te m e n t of A m e r ic a n d e le g a te Sprague in OR1 s, 7th
S e s sio n , 4th C o m m itte e , p. 354.
144
s u c c e s s in th eir attem p ts to v itia te the ro le of a d m in iste r in g a u th o ri
tie s as sp o k e sm e n fo r the dependent t e r r it o r ie s , the r e c o r d on th eir e f
fo r ts to expand the ro le of the A s s e m b ly m u s t give them a little m o r e
sa tisfa c tio n . The b a sic p ro b lem p e r c e iv e d by them is the d iv isio n of
the T r u ste e sh ip C ouncil into equal r e p r e se n ta tio n of a d m in iste r in g and
7 3
n o n -a d m in iste r in g m e m b e r s . The a d m in iste r in g m e m b e r s tend to
vote to g e th e r on m o s t c o n tr o v e r sia l is s u e s , and if the in flu en ce of one
of them (the U nited S tates in m o s t c a s e s ) can w in one n o n -a d m in is te r
ing m e m b e r ov er to th eir sid e , the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a s e is c e r ta in to m e e t
w ith r e je c tio n in the C ouncil. T his fa c t is not unknown to the a d m in is
terin g p o w e r s, w ho z e a lo u s ly p r o te c t the p ow er of the C ouncil and
stoutly op p ose any d u plication of its fu n ction s in the A s s e m b l y . ^
An e a r ly in d ication of a n ti-c o lo n ia l su sp ic io n s of the T r u s t e e
ship C o u n cil’s ro le in the U nited N ations a ffa ir s w a s tr ig g e r e d by a
ra th er tr iv ia l m a tte r . The A s s e m b ly , at its F ourth S e s s io n , had p a s s e d
a r e so lu tio n req u estin g the a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s to fly the flag of the
U nited N ation s in T ru st T e r r ito r ie s in stea d of th eir own n ational
stan d ard s. The T r u ste e sh ip C ouncil c h o se to r e je c t th is s u g g e stio n ,
and w hen its rep o rt w as p r e s e n te d to the F ifth S e ssio n , im p lic it m i s
g iv in g s in a n ti-c o lo n ia l q u a rters b e c a m e e x p lic it c h a r g e s of m a jo r
^ T h e r e are eig h t a d m in iste r in g m e m b e r s and eig h t n o n -a d
m in is te r in g m e m b e r s in the T r u s te e s h ip C oun cil.
^ W ith o u t w ish in g to indulge in any guilt by a s s o c ia tio n , one
m ig h t m en tio n that th is p o lic y r e s e m b le s so m ew h a t the S o v iet U nion's
in s is te n c e upon the p r e r o g a tiv e s and im p o rta n ce of the S e c u r ity C oun
cil, and its h o s tility to su ch A m e r ic a n in ven tion s as the U niting fo r
P e a c e P r o p o s a ls w h ich allow g r e a te r p ow er for the A s s e m b ly than
o r ig in a lly e n v isa g e d in the U nited N ation s C harter.
so r ts. The a n ti-c o lo n ia l n ations a r tic u la te d th eir th e o r ie s on the
stru ctu ra l p r im a c y of the G en eral A s s e m b ly , and the not unim p ortan t
m a tte r of the w ay in w h ich m e m b e r s h ip in the T r u ste e s h ip C oun cil
tended to fa v o r the voting stren g th of the a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s . The
m a jo r a rg u m en t w a s that the A s s e m b ly 's r e c o m m e n d a tio n s w e r e the
e x p r e s s io n of the w ill of the total m e m b e r s h ip of the U nited N a tio n s,
and as su ch the T r u ste e sh ip C ouncil had e r r e d in r efu sin g to im p le m e n t
the w is h e s of the A s s e m b ly . To this point, the U nited States d e le g a te
C ooper a d d r e s s e d h im s e lf in the follo w in g m anner: "the T r u s te e s h ip
C ouncil had not b een e s ta b lis h e d m e r e ly to b e c o m e a 'rubber stam p'
75
body to approve r e s o lu tio n s of the G en eral A ss e m b ly ." Nothing
daunted, the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s fo r c e d the adoption of a draft r e s o lu
tion a sk in g the S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l to p r e p a r e a s o r t of b a la n ce sh e e t of
how the C ouncil w a s im p le m en tin g the r e so lu tio n s of the G en era l A s
sem b ly . ^ W hatever the r e la tiv e m e r it s of the U nited S ta tes p o s itio n
or the one taken by the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s, the con ten tion on this
p ro b lem has not changed the m in d s of e ith er faction , fo r a w ide a r r a y
of is s u e s not d ir e c tly c o n c e r n e d w ith th is th e o r e tic a l d is a g r e e m e n t h as
found rep e a te d r e ite r a tio n s of the sa m e p oin ts by both s id e s . P e r h a p s
the m o s t v io len t c la sh o c c u r r e d in the Seventh S e s s io n debate c e n te r in g
on h ea rin g s granted to the M eru c itiz e n s fro m one of the U nited K ing
d o m 's tr u st t e r r it o r ie s . The sta te m e n ts of M r. Japhet and M r. S eaton
^^OR’s, 5th S e s s io n , 4th C o m m itte e , p . 51.
7 6
The U nited S tates join ed the M etro p o lita n p o w e r s in o p p o s
ing th is draft, w h ich w a s adopted by a 31-11 vote w ith 5 a b sten tio n s;
ibid., p. 47. The draft w a s a C u b a n -M ex ica n p r o p o sa l con tain ed in A /C .
4717.79, Rev. 2.
146
of the W a-M eru trib e ch a rg ed that the a d m in iste r in g au th ority had f o r
cib ly r e m o v e d 3,000 m e m b e r s of the W a -M eru trib e fro m f e r t ile land,
w hich had then b een turned o v er to th ir te e n w h ite s e t t le r s . The r e a c
tion of the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w a s im m e d ia te and fo r c e fu l, and ap art
from th eir co n v ic tio n that th is incident once again p ro v ed the r a c ia l
b ias of the U nited Kingdom and its n ig g a rd ly tre a tm e n t of ind igen ou s
inhabitants, they s e v e r e ly c r it ic iz e d the T r u ste e s h ip C ouncil fo r having
approved the U nited K ingd om 's a ctio n s and for havin g se ttle d m e r e ly
77
for a co m p e n sa tio n plan fo r the trib e. The U nited K ingdom defen d ed
its a ctio n s on grounds of n e c e s s it y , arguing that the a r e a w a s to be d e
voted to ca ttle ranchin g w h ich req u ir ed s k ills beyond the r ea c h of the
W a-M eru, and announced that its d e c is io n w a s ir r e v o c a b le , p a r tic u la r
ly s in c e the C ouncil had ap p roved its a c tio n s. In th is c la sh the U nited
S tates added no c o m m e n ts, but the e ig h t-p o w e r draft b efo r e the C o m
m itte e le ft it little a lte r n a tiv e but to p a r tic ip a te in the debate. The
a n ti-c o lo n ia l p r o p o sa l b egan w ith e x p r e s s io n s of " disapproval" of both
the U nited Kingdom as w e ll as the T r u s te e s h ip C ouncil, d em an ded r e
turn of the land to the W a -M eru trib e, r e c o m m e n d e d that the a d m in is
te r in g auth ority tra in the W a -M eru in ca ttle ran ch in g s k ills and that it
rep o r t on the im p le m en ta tio n of the r e s o lu tio n to the S u m m er 1953
7 8
S e s s io n of the T r u s te e sh ip C ouncil. Such a d ir e c t rebuke of the
C ouncil, not to m en tio n an a d m in iste r in g auth ority, and the c le a r im
p lic a tio n that the A s s e m b ly had the p ow er to r e v e r s e d e c is io n s taken
77
The T r u s te e sh ip C o u n cil’s d e c isio n is con tain ed in R e s o lu
tion (XI).
"^Eight-power draft resolution A /C .4/L.242.
147
by the C oun cil brought the U nited S ta tes d e le g a te to the c e n ter of the
co n flict. M r. M u ccio fe lt c o m p e lle d to grant that the "m anner" in
w h ich the W a -M eru had b een r e m o v e d fro m th eir lan d s w a s "not e n t ir e
ly fr e e fro m f a u lt ," but h e in s is te d that the su p p o sed sin in volved had
b een ad eq u ately han dled in the C o u n cil's re c o m m e n d a tio n that the trib e
be paid so m e c o m p en sa tio n . He then m o v e d to m o r e su b sta n tia l m a t
te r s , and in s is te d that the C ouncil should be giv en the "full c o o p e r a
tion" of the A s s e m b ly , and not reb u k es " e x p r e s s or im p lied ." The
w hole ten or of M r. M u c c io 1 s r e m a r k s s u g g e s ts h is c o n c e r n for the
p r e s e r v a tio n of the p r im a c y of the C oun cil in su ch c a s e s , and im p lie s
that the A s s e m b ly ought to be guided by the C oun cil and not v ic e
7 9
v e r s a . It w a s M r. M u c c io 's v ie w that the C o m m itte e adopt a r e s o lu
tion a sk in g fo r join t e ffo r ts of the U nited K ingdom and W a -M eru to
so lv e the p r o b le m , and that the T r u s te e sh ip C ou n cil should study the
q u estio n fu rth er, but the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls , a fter m in o r am en d m en ts, m a n -
80
aged to adopt th eir d raft by a 32-17 v ote w ith 3 a b ste n tio n s. The
U nited S ta tes o p p o sitio n to th is p r o p o sa l and its in flu en ce in the A s s e m
bly fa ced the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls w ith the tra d itio n a l o b sta c le of the tw o-
th ird s m a jo r ity , an o b s ta c le they w e r e unable to o v e r c o m e due to the
changed v o te s of a num ber of' L a tin -A m e r ic an d e le g a te s . If the an ti
c o lo n ia ls w e r e unable to p r e s s th eir own p r o p o s a l on the A ss e m b ly ,
th ey w e r e at le a s t s u c c e s s f u l in turning back the U nited S tates fa v o r e d
81
draft w hich w ould v a lid a te the C o u n cil's a c tio n s.
^ S e e PR 's, 7th Session, 4th C om m ittee, p. 295.
80Ibid., pp. 301-304.
81
For voting on both drafts, see PR ’s, General A ssem bly, 7th
148
The d efea t s u ffe r e d at the S even th S e s s io n w a s c o m p en sa ted
so m ew h a t at the E igh th S e s s io n fo r the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s. If th ey
had b een unable to r e v e r s e the d e c is io n of the C ouncil at that tim e , they
w e r e now and in future s e s s i o n s ab le to indulge in a c tiv itie s w hich w e r e
h ith erto su p p o sed to be the p r o v in c e of the C ouncil. The q u estio n w as
one of " hearin gs" of p e titio n e r s , a p o w er and fu n ction of the C ouncil,
but fro m the E ighth S e s s io n onw ard, the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s h ave m a n
aged to b rin g p e titio n e r s d ir e c tly b efo r e the F ou rth C o m m ittee. T h is
m o v e h as c a u se d d e sp a ir am ong the a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s who v ie w it
as an e r o s io n of the C o u n cil's p o w er and function, an a rgu m en t w hich,
in ligh t of e a r lie r d e b a tes, w ould s e e m to be an added r e a s o n fo r the
a n ti-c o lo n ia ls to p u rsu e th eir p o lic ie s w ith additional z e a l. The U nited
S tates has tra d itio n a lly b een sy m p a th e tic to the gran tin g of h e a r in g s to
p e titio n e r s, but su ch a c le a r d u p lication of the C o u n cil's fu nction has
c r e a te d an aw kw ard d ile m m a fo r its d e le g a tio n s. M r s. Bolton, on b e
half of the U nited S ta tes, a ttem p ted to r e s o lv e th is d ile m m a at the
Eighth S e s s io n w hen she a rg u ed that th ere w e r e
p r a c tic a l p r o b le m s in v o lv ed in granting n u m ero u s o ra l h e a r in g s in
a la r g e c o m m itte e of s ix ty s ta te s . . . p e titio n e r s fro m tr u st t e r r i
t o r ie s should n o r m a lly be h e a r d in the T r u ste e sh ip C ouncil. . . .
She f e lt that the G en era l A s s e m b ly w ould not w is h to u n d erm in e the
p e titio n s w o rk of the T r u s te e s h ip C ouncil.
M r s. B olton in s is te d that the C o m m ittee should support the
C ouncil in its w o rk and sh ould not c r e a te the im p r e s s io n that it la c k e d
8 3
co n fid en ce in its a c tiv itie s w ith r e g a r d to tr u s t t e r r it o r ie s . F o r all
p r a c tic a l p u r p o s e s, h o w e v er, the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls had by th is tim e s te e le d
S e s sio n , pp. 4 7 1 -4 7 2 .
82
PR 's, 8th Session, 4th Com m ittee, pp. 12-15.
149
th e m s e lv e s a g a in st any a rg u m en ts on th is subject, for in the n ext s e s
sion they again p r e s s e d fo r the gran t of an o r a l h ea rin g to p e titio n e r s
fro m tr u st t e r r it o r ie s under F r e n c h a d m in istra tio n . F r a n c e , B ritain
and the U nited S tates once again p lea d ed for a retu rn to the happier
days w hen the T r u s te e s h ip C ouncil w a s a llo w ed to p erfo rm its function
of s c r e e n in g p e titio n e r s , but the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s o v e r w h e lm e d the
M etrop olitan p o w e r s by a 4 1 -1 1 vote w ith one d ele g a tio n abstain in g.
The Tenth S e s s io n saw little rep en ta n ce, for on th is o c c a s io n the a n ti
c o lo n ia ls h e a r tily w e lc o m e d R e v e r e n d M ich a el Scott to m a k e an o ra l
sta tem en t b efo re the C o m m ittee, and the c o m p r o m is e s u g g e ste d by the
U nited S tates on th is o c c a s io n is so m eth in g of a c l a s s ic . The U nited
S tates d ele g a te su g g e ste d that M r. Scott be a sk ed to m ak e h is sta tem en t
in w ritin g rath er than o r a lly , and one w o n d er s w h ere su ch a p ro ced u re
w ould have in any w a y m e t the b a sic p o litic a l is s u e b etw een the riv a l
groups in the C o m m itte e . M r. Scott w a s p r e d ic ta b ly a llo w ed to m ake
84
h is sta tem en t, and o r a lly at that.
The s tr a te g y of gaining a g r e a te r v o ic e for the A s s e m b ly in
a n ti-c o lo n ia l o ccu p a tio n s has on o c c a s io n in volved the ECOSOC. T h ree
b a sic planks in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p la tfo rm have m e t w ith m o r e d e lib e r a
tion and study in ECOSOC than fir m and im m e d ia te action, and the a n ti
co lo n ia l p o w e r s h ave in te r p r e te d th is a s an u n w arranted d ila to r y m a
n eu ver to fr u s tr a te th eir a m b itio n s. The cau tion w ith w hich ECOSOC
p r o c e e d e d to study the p r o p o se d coven an ts h as a lr ea d y b een catalogu ed
above, as have the freq u en tly d isen ch a n ted c o m m e n ts fro m im p atient
84
See P R 's, 10th S e s sio n , 4th C o m m itte e , pp. 2 1 1 -2 1 2 , for
A m e r ic a n sta te m e n t and voting.
150
a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s. The d riv e for e c o n o m ic eq u ality h as r e c e iv e d
l e s s e n c o u r a g e m e n t in the e s ta b lish m e n t of S U N F E D than the a n ti-c o lo
nial p o w e r s w ould h ave w ish ed , and th ey have freq u en tly th reaten ed ,
and s o m e tim e s a cted in the A s s e m b ly in a m a n n er co n tra ry to the s u g
g e stio n s of that s p e c ia liz e d a g en cy . In both th e s e m a tte r s , the U nited
States h a s p lea d ed fo r r e c o g n itio n of the p ro p er ro le of the s p e c ia liz e d
a g e n c ie s . The la s t item on w hich ECOSOC h a s b een thought to have
fa ile d to m e e t the dem an d s of the A s s e m b ly h as b een the lo n g -a w a ite d
con ven tion on the F r e e d o m of Inform ation. On th is su bject, too, the
a n ti-c o lo n ia ls have often ven ted th eir fe e lin g s on the slo w d e lib e r a
tion s in ECOSOC, and s o m e tim e s fla tly a s s e r t e d that the A ss e m b ly is
em p o w ered to take a ctio n if its s p e c ia liz e d a g e n c ie s do not resp on d to
its sta ted d e s ir e s . In su ch c a s e s , the U nited S tates r e s p o n s e has co n
s is te n tly ch am p ion ed the s p e c ia liz e d a g e n c ie s and th eir fu n ction s, and
it h as b e c o m e f a ir ly stand ard for its d e le g a tio n s to rem in d the a n ti
c o lo n ia ls of the C h arter p r o v is io n s w hich giv e th e se a g e n c ie s th eir
fu n ction s and th eir b etter q u a lifica tio n s to handle m a tte r s that the an ti-
85
c o lo n ia ls w ould p r e s s upon the A ss e m b ly .
S u m m a ry
Of a ll the d eb a tes in volvin g the m a n ife sta tio n s of a n ti-c o lo n ia l
is m , th o se c o n c e r n e d w ith the ro le and co n tro l of the U nited N ations
have b een the m o s t c o m p le x in te r m s of the d elin ea tio n of the U nited
S tates r e s p o n s e . A s an o v e r - a ll su m m a r y , it is p o s s ib le to group
A m e r ic a n sta te m e n ts and votin g under two g e n e r a l f r a m e s - - t h e U nited
O C
S ee C hapter III fo r a m o r e d e ta ile d su r v e y of a n ti-c o lo n ia l
sta te m e n ts and the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n se .
151
S tates h as b een sy m p a th etic to a la r g e p art of the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a s e on
the r o le of the U nited N ation s in dependent t e r r it o r ie s , but h as s o m e
tim e s b een a la r m e d at an u n w arranted e x p a n sio n of that role; the U nited
S tates h a s b een a la r m e d at the u n w arran ted a n ti-c o lo n ia l a ttem p ts at
gainin g co n tro l of the U nited N a tio n s, although it h as s o m e tim e s b een
sy m p a th etic to the r e a s o n s that the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls have c ite d in m aking
th e s e a ttem p ts.
A s fa r as the U nited S ta tes w a s co n cer n e d , the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls
w e r e righ t in w ish in g fo r the t r a n s m is s io n of in form ation from d ep en d
ent t e r r it o r ie s to the U nited N a tio n s, for it w a s a p ro p er r o le for the
U nited N ation s to be a c e n te r for the c o lle c tio n of su ch in form ation .
The U nited S ta tes w a s co n v in ced , h o w e v e r , that w h e r e a s such in fo r m a
tion ought to be su b m itted and c o lle c te d , the U nited N ations could not be
c a s t in the r o le of a s u p e r -a g e n c y e m p o w e r e d to dem and all kinds of
in form ation . The a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s m a y be m o r a lly ob liged to
tr a n s m it in fo rm a tio n , but th ey w e r e not le g a lly bound to do so under
t e r m s im p o s e d by the G en eral A s s e m b ly . So it w a s w ith the su b ject of
the C e s sa tio n of In form ation that the U nited S tates a g r e e d that the
U nited N a tio n s could d is c u s s and take note of the a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s
d e c is io n to c e a s e tr a n sm ittin g in fo rm a tio n w h en it had in fo rm ed the
A s s e m b ly that a h ith erto d ependent te r r ito r y w as now a s e lf-g o v e r n in g
one, but the U nited N ation s could not in s is t on ca stin g it s e lf in the role
of a judge on the fa c ts su b m itted by the a d m in is te r in g p o w er. The
U nited N ation s w a s an a s s e m b ly of s o v e r e ig n m e m b e r s , and a d m in is
te r in g p o w e r s w e r e s o v e r e ig n o v er th eir dependent t e r r it o r ie s . This
did not m e a n that the U nited N ation s w a s to ta lly b a r r e d from
152
p articip atin g in the w ork undertaken in dependent t e r r it o r ie s , fo r the
U nited S tates supported the e sta b lish m e n t and ex ten sio n of the life of
the C om m ittee on Inform ation. It w as p ro p er for the U nited N ation s to
have in form ation from dependent te r r it o r ie s , and to an a ly ze that in fo r
m ation, and to m ake reco m m en d a tio n s b a sed on that a n a ly sis w a s a d e
sir a b le featu re of the U nited N ations w ork. In this p o sitio n , the U nited
States w as m o r e in sym pathy w ith the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e rs than it w as
w ith other M etropolitan p o w e r s, w h o se e x p e r ie n c e w ith the C om m ittee
and the a n ti-c o lo n ia l m e m b e r s in the U nited N ations had le d them to a
rapid d isen ch an tm en t w ith both. S im ila r ly , the U nited S tates d is a g r e e d
w ith the M etropolitan p o w ers in th eir a rg u m en ts that th ey n eed not su b
m it to "prior con su ltation s" w ith the U nited N ation s w hen en gaged in
bringing about A d m in istra tiv e U nions, but it supported them in th eir
op position to the a n ti-c o lo n ia l argu m en t that th ey could be co m p e lle d
to subm it to su ch co n su lta tio n s. The c l a s s ic d em o n str a tio n of United
S tates sym pathy w ith the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s and its d ete r m in e d oppo
sitio n to th eir p ro p o sa ls o c c u r r e d in the incident con cern in g P o r tu g a l's
o v e r s e a s te r r it o r ie s . The United S tates had alw a y s a g r e e d on the g e n
e r a l p ro p o sitio n that su ch te r r ito r ie s should be lis te d and rep o rte d on,
but w as the m a jo r influence in defeatin g a n ti-c o lo n ia l in itia tiv e s w hich
attem pted to co m p el P ortu g a l to do ju st th e s e th in gs.
The United States w a s g e n e r a lly s e n s itiv e to the fe e lin g s of the
M etropolitan p o w ers in p ro p o sa ls w hich w ould expand the ro le of the
U nited N ations in its w ork on dependent t e r r it o r ie s . On the su b ject of
h ea rin g s, the U nited States indicated that the U nited N ation s n eed ed to
c o lle c t the fa cts on dependent t e r r ito r ie s by liste n in g to the r ep o rts
153
fro m p e titio n e r s fro m th e s e t e r r it o r ie s , but the U nited S ta tes cou ld not
support the a n ti-c o lo n ia l dem an d s that p e titio n e r s be gran ted o ra l h e a r
in gs b efo r e the F ou rth C o m m ittee. Such h e a r in g s w e r e an u n n e c e s s a r y
ex p a n sio n of the C o m m itte e 's ro le and lik e ly to en g en d er the h o s tility
of a d m in iste r in g p o w e r s who o p p osed the in d is c r im in a te grant of a
p latform to any p e titio n e r who could find h is w a y to the U nited N ation s.
On the su b ject of S ou th -W est A fr ic a , the U nited S tates w a s
again a r tic u la te ly sy m p a th etic to the a n ti-c o lo n ia l a rgu m en t that the
Union of South A fr ic a should su b m it a tr u s te e s h ip a g r e e m e n t fo r that
te r r ito r y , but the U nited S tates cou ld not su pp ort any p r o p o sa ls w h ich
c a st the U nited N ations in the ro le of a co u rt or an o rg a n iz a tio n w h ich
could im p o s e its w ill on the Union. The c a u s e w a s ju st, but the U nited
S tates fe a r e d the g r e a te r in ju stice w h ic h m ig h t r e s u lt fro m h a s ty and
a r b itr a r y a ctio n s by the U nited N a tio n s. L e g a lis m and ca u tio u s d ip lo
m a c y w e r e e s s e n t ia l to the A m e r ic a n ap p ro a ch on this debate.
The a n ti-c o lo n ia l attem pt to e le v a te the A s s e m b ly o v er the
S p e c ia liz e d A g e n c ie s or the T r u ste e s h ip C ouncil h a s not m e t w ith the
a p p roval of the U nited S ta tes. The U nited S tates has argu ed that
ECOSOC and the T r u s te e sh ip C ouncil a r e not sim p ly the condu its
through w h ich the A s s e m b ly m a y chan n el its d e c is io n s . The U nited
S tates h a s r e s is t e d e ith e r the d u p lication of the fu n ctio n s of th o se o r
gan a in the A s s e m b ly or the th e o r y about the A s s e m b ly 's p r im a c y in
the U nited N ations stru ctu re w h ich the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls have u r g e d on the
W e ste r n p o w e r s . In sp ite of th e s e d iffe r e n c e s b etw een the U nited
S tates and the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , A m e r ic a n d e le g a te s h ave often a l
lo w ed that th e r e is m e r it to the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p le a for g r e a te r
154
r e p r e se n ta tio n of in d igenous inhabitants of dependent t e r r it o r ie s in the
w ork of the U nited N ation s. The U nited S tates h as supp orted p r o p o sa ls
w hich w ould e n la r g e su ch r e p r e se n ta tio n , but it h a s su g g e ste d that the
s e le c tio n of th e s e in d igenou s inhabitants should r e ly on the ju dgm ent of
the a d m in iste r in g p o w e rs of the t e r r it o r ie s fro m w hich th e se in h ab it
ants m a y be r e c ru ited .
To rec a p itu la te the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n s e , it m ig h t be noted that
the U nited S tates has sh a red m a n y fe e lin g s in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l cam p
w ith r eg a r d to dependent te r r it o r ie s . The U nited S tates h as join ed
th e s e p o w e r s in hoping that the U nited N ation s w ill be a c tiv e ly c o n
cer n e d w ith the d ev elo p m en t of th e s e t e r r it o r ie s and that it should be
given a p ro p er ro le in p rom otin g the ad van ce of th o se t e r r it o r ie s to
w ard s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t. The p rop er r o le, h o w e v er, is not that of im p o s
ing and dem anding s u p e r -g o v e r n m e n t, but that of a p r o p e r ly in fo rm ed
a d v iso r , c o n sc io u s of the le g a l p r o c e s s by w hich its a d v ice m a y be o f
fe r e d to s o v e r e ig n a d m in iste r in g a u th o ritie s.
ANA LY SIS
CHAPTER V
THE PO STU R E
M o ra l P r in c ip le s and the P ro b lem
of P o w e r and S ecu rity
It m a y w e ll be argu ed that m o s t nations a re con vin ced that
th eir p o lic ie s d eriv e from the lo ftie s t m o r a l p r in c ip le s, and that a lm o s t
a ll of th em , on c h o se n o c c a s io n s , a re lik e ly to pronounce th e m s e lv e s
the d ed icated d efen d ers of lib e rty , eq u ality and other such fin e co n c e p
tions. C onceding that su ch r h eto ric is in the language of e v e r y nation 's
d ip lom acy, one m u st s t ill sin g le out the U nited States as one of the m o s t
a rticu la te sp o k e sm e n for su ch p r in c ip le s , and in s is t that the r e c o r d of
A m e r ic a n p a rticip a tio n in in tern ation al a ffa ir s c h a r a c te r iz e s it as an
id e a lis tic power.^ It w as in the id e a lis tic trad ition of W ashington, J e f
fe r so n , W ilson and R o o se v e lt that U n d e r se c r e ta r y W elles in fo rm ed a
M e m o r ia l Day gath erin g in 1942 of the p u rp ose of the A m e r ic a n repub
lic in the stru g g le a g a in st the A x is p o w e r s.
If this w ar is in fa ct a w ar for the lib e r a tio n of p e o p le s, it
m u st a s s u r e the s o v e r e ig n equ ality of a ll p eo p les throughout the
w o rld . . . . Our v ic to r y m u st bring in its tra in the lib e r a tio n of a ll
p e o p le s . D is c r im in a tio n b etw een the p e o p les b e c a u se of th eir
r a c e , co lo r, c r e e d , m u st be a b o lish ed . The age of im p e r ia lis m is
ended. The right of a p eo p le to th eir freed o m m u st be r e c o g n ise d .
. . . The p r in c ip le s of the A tlantic C harter m u st be gu aran teed to
F o r a d is c u s s io n of A m e r ic a n id e a lis m in in tern ational a f
fa ir s , s e e D ex ter P e r k in s, The A m e r ic a n A pproach to F o r e ig n P o lic y
{C am bridge: H arvard U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1952), Chap. IV.
156
157
2
the w o r ld as a w h o l e - “in a ll o c e a n s and in all con tin en ts.
The n a tio n a lists of A sia and A fr ic a could s c a r c e ly im p ro v e
upon the ca d en ce and intent of su ch a sp e e c h , although th ey have b een
m o r e fortu n ate in b ein g ab le to tr a n s la te it into s p e c ific a ctio n s w ith
g r e a te r fr e e d o m . F o r ev en in the tw ilig h t of the w a r, the p r o fe s s io n of
p r in c ip le s w a s being s e r io u s ly ch a llen g ed by the r e s p o n s ib ilitie s to
p ow er, and the U nited S ta tes w a s under p r e s s u r e fro m w ea k en ed a llie s
to ch a rt a c o u r s e so m ew h a t d iffere n t to the v is io n en d o rsed by M r.
W e lle s . In an e a r ly c o n te s t b etw een co lo n ia l a llie s w ho w e r e an xiou s to
p r o te c t th eir s o v e r e ig n rig h ts in dependent t e r r it o r ie s , and a n t i- c o lo
n ia ls w ho d em an d ed that a ll dependent t e r r it o r ie s be p la ce d under in
tern a tio n a l s u p e r v is io n and co n tro l, S e c r e ta r y of State Hull c h o se to
su sta in the c o lo n ia l p o w e r s and o ffer only s o m e m in o r p la ca tio n s to
3
th eir c r it ic s . S e c r e ta r y H ull c o m m itte d the U nited S tates to the p r o
m o tio n of s o c ia l and e c o n o m ic ad v a n cem en t of a ll dependent p eo p le, but
th eir lib e r a tio n b e c a m e an u ltim a te o b jectiv e and not an im m e d ia te p r i
o rity in A m e r ic a n p o lic y . In a sta tem en t that s e e m s to be a d ir e c t r e
buttal to the o v e r ly e n th u sia stic p o s itio n adopted by M r. W e lle s , S e c r e
ta r y H ull o ffered th is te m p e r e d v iew of the A m e r ic a n p u rp ose: "to u s e
the fu ll m e a s u r e of our in flu en ce to supp ort the attain m en t of fr e e d o m
by a ll p e o p le s w ho by th eir a c ts sh ow t h e m s e lv e s w orth y of it and rea d y
^ D ep artm en t of State B u lle tin , M ay 30, 1942, p. 488.
3
F o r a d e s c r ip tio n of the e v e n ts su rrou n din g the c o n te st o v er
C hapters XI and XII of the U nited N ation s C harter r e fe r r e d to above,
s e e Ruth B. R u s s e ll, A H isto r y of the U nited N ation s C h a r te r , the ro le
of the U nited S ta tes (W ashington, D. C.: The B rook in gs Institution,
1958), p. 86.
158
f o r i t . " 4
T h e a d d it io n o f s u c h a q u a lif y i n g s e n t e n c e a s " w h o b y t h e i r
a c t s s h o w t h e m s e l v e s w o r t h y o f i t a n d r e a d y f o r it" i s th e la n g u a g e o f
p o l i t i c i a n s , n o t p r e a c h e r s , a n d s u g g e s t s t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f r e a l i s m in
t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n p o l i c y . If S e c r e t a r y H u ll w a s c a u t io u s
in 1 9 4 2 , t h e c h a l l e n g e o f S o v i e t i m p e r i a l i s m in l a t e r y e a r s w a s to i m
p in g e f u r t h e r u p o n U n it e d S t a t e s i d e a l i s m a n d f o r c e f u r t h e r c o m p r o
m i s e s in o r d e r t o f o r g e a p o w e r f u l a l l i a n c e t o m e e t a m e n a c i n g a d v e r
s a r y w it h t h e r e q u i s i t e p o w e r .
T h e t h r e a t o f C o m m u n is t d o m in a t io n in W e s t e r n E u r o p e d u r
in g t h e i m m e d i a t e p o s t - w a r y e a r s p r o v o k e d a n o t h e r a d j u s t m e n t .
. . . T h e U n it e d S t a t e s w a s t r y i n g t o b u ild a d e f e n s i v e a l l i a n c e .
T h is i n v o l v e d s t r e n g t h e n i n g th e c o l o n i a l p o w e r s e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d
m i l i t a r i l y a n d m a i n t a i n i n g m u t u a l c o n f id e n c e a m o n g th e p e o p l e s
c o n c e r n e d . A s t r o n g a n t i - c o l o n i a l p o s i t i o n b y t h e U nited^. S t a t e s
w o u ld , i t w a s f e l t , h a v e i m p a i r e d t h e s e b a s i c o b j e c t i v e s .
T h e a d j u s t m e n t p r o v o k e d b y th e S o v ie t m e n a c e w a s c e r t a i n l y
r e f l e c t e d in th e h e s i t a n c e o f th e U n it e d S t a t e s d e l e g a t i o n in m e e t i n g th e
p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s , s u c h a s I n d o n e s ia n in d e p e n d e n c e , a n d l a t e r in th e
d e b a t e s o n T u n i s i a , M o r o c c o a n d A l g e r i a . It i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t e s t i
m o n y t o t h e d e e p l y h e l d i d e a l s o f A m e r i c a n s , th a t th e U n it e d S t a t e s
d e l e g a t i o n s , c o m p e l l e d b y c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o p o l i c i e s o f e q u iv o c a t i o n ,
h a v e b e e n u n a b le t o h e w t o th e d e m a n d s o f r e a l p o l i t i k in th e s p e e c h e s
t h e y h a v e m a d e in t h e U n it e d N a t i o n s . N o W e s t e r n p o w e r h a s b e e n a s
a r t i c u l a t e o n s u c h m a t t e r s a s h u m a n r i g h t s a n d l i b e r t y a s t h e U n ite d
S t a t e s , a n d o n a t l e a s t o n e o c c a s i o n , th e A m e r i c a n d e l e g a t i o n w a s
^ I b id . , p . 8 3 .
5
E m i l J . S a d y , T h e U n it e d N a t io n s a n d D e p e n d e n t P e o p l e s
( W a s h in g t o n , D . C .: T h e B r o o k in g s I n s t i t u t i o n , 1 9 5 6 ) , p . 7 4 .
159
o p e n ly c r i t i c a l o f it s ow n S ta te D e p a r tm e n t fo r th e c o m p r o m is e s it w a s
f o r c e d to m a k e in th e n a m e of r e a l i s m H o w e v e r a n g u ish e d th e
A m e r ic a n d e le g a tio n s m a y h a v e b e e n in th e c h o ic e s fo r c e d u p on th e m ,
the r e c o r d sh o w s th a t th e d em a n d s of p o w e r and s e c u r it y h a v e b e e n th e
d o m in a n t in flu e n c e in th e c o u r s e o f a c tio n s e le c t e d b y th e U n ited S ta te s .
A c le a r in d ic a tio n of th e p o s tu r e w h ic h w a s to b e c o m e c h a r a c t e r is t ic of
th e U n ited S ta te s in su b se q u e n t y e a r s w a s s u g g e s te d in th e d eb a te on
th e D is p o s a l o f F o r m e r Ita lia n C o lo n ie s . T h e c h o ic e s w e r e in d e p e n d
e n c e , t r u s t e e s h ip o r th e r e tu r n of Ita lia n p o w e r , and th e U n ited S ta te s
fa v o r e d th e r e tu r n of th e r e c e n t A x is a d v e r s a r y . T he y e a r w a s 1949,
and th e n e e d fo r m ilit a r y b a s e s in N o rth A fr ic a w a s b e c o m in g a p r io r it y
in A m e r ic a n p o lic y , and Ita ly w a s no doubt m o r e a m e n a b le to A m e r ic a n
n
d e s ir e s . T he m ilit a r y fa c to r and th e a s c e n d a n c y of s e c u r it y c o n s id e r
a tio n s o v e r u n iv e r s a l m o r a l p r in c ip le w a s r e f le c t e d in s o m e o th e r e a r
ly d e c is io n s o f th e U n ited S ta te s g o v e r n m e n t. T he d e fe a t of Jap an le f t
th e J a p a n e s e m a n d a te d is la n d s in th e P a c if ic in th e s a m e p o s itio n a s
so m e Ita lia n an d G e r m a n m a n d a te d t e r r i t o r i e s , an d th e ir fa te m ig h t
h a v e b e e n u n ifo r m ly d e c id e d w e r e it n o t fo r c o n s id e r a tio n s of A m e r ic a n
s e c u r it y . T h e U n ited S ta te s w a s d is p o s e d to w a r d e x e r c is in g s o v e r e ig n
ty o v e r t h e s e is la n d s , w h ic h w e r e ad ju d g ed v ita l to its s e c u r it y in t e r
e s t s , and in th e fin a l s o lu tio n o f m a k in g th em " s tr a te g ic t r u s t e e s h ip s "
^T he o c c a s io n w a s th e d eb a te on T u n isia n in d e p e n d e n c e , and
w h e n in s tr u c te d to su p p o r t th e F r e n c h p o s itio n , th e U n ited S ta te s d e le
g a tio n v e n te d i t s a n g u is h p u b lic ly . S ee T h o m a s J . H a m ilto n , "T he
U n ited S ta te s an d th e C o lo n ia l P o w e r s ," T h e N ew Y o rk T im e s , A p r il
20, 1952, p. E 5 .
7
F o r a s o m e w h a t o v e r s ta te d , but n o n e th e le s s v a lid c r it ic is m
and d e s c r ip t io n of th is p o in t, s e e John M c L a u r in , T h e U n ited N a tio n s
and P o w e r P o l it ic s (N ew Y ork: H a r p e r and B r o s ., 1951), pp. 5 4 -8 9 .
160
th e U n ited S ta te s s e e m s to h a v e s e r v e d th o s e in t e r e s t s a b o v e a n y o th e r .
P e r h a p s th e m ilit a r y fa c to r h a s n o w h er e b e e n a s c le a r an in
flu e n c e a s it h a s in th e d e b a te s on N o rth A fr ic a . Such n o b le c o n s id e r a
tio n s a s th e in d ep en d en ce of d ep en d en t p e o p le s and th e p r o te c tio n of
h um an r ig h ts h a v e b e e n o u tw e ig h ed in th e s e d e b a te s b y th e n e e d fo r
m ilit a r y b a s e s in N orth A fr ic a . A s one o b s e r v e r h a s c o m m e n te d , p o li
c ie s of " J e ffe r s o n ia n s im p lic ity " h a v e had to g iv e w a y to th e h a r s h
r e a lit ie s of S o v ie t m ig h t. " T h is is e s p e c ia lly tr u e in th e c a s e of s u c h
a r e a s a s N o rth A fr ic a , w h ic h a r e of s u c h s t r a t e g ic im p o r ta n c e th a t it is
v ita l fo r th e U n ited S ta te s to h a v e th e r ig h t to m a in ta in b a s e s in th em
g
a g a in s t th e S o v ie t th r e a t."
It is in th e c o n te x t of th e n e e d fo r th e s e b a s e s th a t A m e r ic a n
p o lic y on the N o rth A fr ic a n is s u e s of T u n isia , M o r o c c o and A lg e r ia can
be u n d e r sto o d , and p e r h a p s e v e n a p p r e c ia te d . Y et, on e d o e s n ot a lw a y s
g e t an a c c u r a te d e s c r ip tio n of the A m e r ic a n p o s itio n on th e s e m a t t e r s
fr o m e v e n the h ig h e s t s o u r c e s . A n o te w o r th y e x c h a n g e in v o lv in g th e
P r e s id e n t of th e U n ited S ta te s a s one of the p a r t ie s to o k p la c e in 1958
and n e e d s to be m e n tio n e d . S en a to r K en n ed y h ad m a d e a s tr o n g s p e e c h
on A lg e r ia , d em a n d in g th a t th e U n ited S ta te s p u r s u e a m o r a l c o u r s e and
th ro w it s w e ig h t on the r e b e l s id e to c o m p e l it s F r e n c h a lly to g ra n t in
d e p en d en ce to A lg e r ia . P r e s id e n t E is e n h o w e r r e sp o n d e d w ith a c a r e fu l
r e b u tta l, s u g g e s tin g th at th e r e a r e s o m e c a s e s in in te r n a tio n a l a ffa ir s
w h e r e the U n ited S ta te s g o v e r n m e n t ca n h e lp m o s t by r e m a in in g d e
ta c h e d fr o m an a c tiv e p a r tis a n r o le , and le n d in g its o b je c tiv e v ie w
g
Hamilton, op. c it., p. E5.
161
Q
to w a rd b r in g in g th e d isp u tin g p a r t ie s c l o s e r to g e th e r . T he E is e n h o w e r
r e s p o n s e is a d e s c r ip tio n o f n e u tr a lity and d o e s n ot in fa c t a c c u r a te ly
d e s c r ib e the r o le p la y e d b y th e U n ited S ta te s in th e A lg e r ia n d e b a t e - -
o r the d eb a te on o th e r F r e n c h t e r r it o r ie s in N o rth A fr ic a . F o r to be
p r o p e r ly n e u tr a l, th e n a tio n c h o o s in g su c h a r o le m u s t be f r e e of im
p e r a tiv e in t e r e s t s in th e i s s u e s in v o lv e d , and th e U n ited S ta te s h ad lo n g
a g o c o n c lu d e d " b ila te r a l a g r e e m e n ts fo r th e e x p a n sio n and u s e of m i l i
ta r y f a c il it ie s th ro u g h o u t th e r e g io n " w ith F r a n c e .^ T h is fa c to r ,
co u p led w ith N A T O o b lig a tio n s, h a s m a d e the U n ited S ta te s le a n c le a r ly
in the d ir e c tio n of it s F r e n c h a lly , and th e id e o lo g y of in d e p e n d e n c e and
h u m an r ig h ts in th e c a s e s in v o lv in g N o rth A fr ic a h a s b e e n o v e r
w h e lm e d by th e d em a n d s of s e c u r it y and p o w e r.
A se c o n d g e n e r a l a r e a w h e r e th e p u r s u it of m o r a l p r in c ip le is
in h ib ite d b y th e r e q u ir e m e n ts of p o w e r is the d e b a te s on v io la tio n of
h u m an r ig h ts in South A fr ic a and at th e h an ds o f it s so m e w h a t d e r a n g e d
g o v e r n m e n t. In an a ge w h e r e su ch p h r a s e s a s "the b a ttle fo r m e n 's
m in d s" a r e f a ir ly c o m m o n p la c e , the d e fin itio n s o f p o w e r m u s t be e n
la r g e d to in c lu d e th e c r it e r io n of in flu e n c e . P ro p a g a n d a is a p r im e
c o n s id e r a tio n o f e v e r y g r e a t p o w e r 's d a ily d e c is io n s , and s tr a n g e ly
en ou gh th is c o n s id e r a tio n h a s ad d ed y e t a n o th e r r e s t r ic t io n upon the
u n tr a m m e le d p u r s u it of p r in c ip le by th e U n ited S ta te s . Sady s u g g e s t s
th at "the co ld w a r h a s b rou g h t a r e a liz a t io n th at th e c o n tin u ed
q
7F o r a so m e w h a t m o r e c o m m itte d s ta te m e n t by A m b a s s a d o r
L o d g e, s e e " U n ited S ta te s V ie w s on the A lg e r ia n Q u e stio n ," D e p a r tm e n t
of S ta te B u lle tin , D e c e m b e r 30, 1957, p. 1046.
^ M a jo r P r o b le m s of U n ited S ta te s F o r e ig n P o l ic y , 1 9 5 1 -1 9 5 2
(M en a sh a , W isc o n sin : T he B r o o k in g s In stitu tio n , 1951), p. 271.
o r ie n ta tio n of d ep en d en t p e o p le s to w a rd W e s te r n d e m o c r a c y is e s s e n
tia l to the f r e e w o r ld . T h e r e is no d ir e c t m ilit a r y fa c to r to b e p r o
te c te d in South A fr ic a and so it is to th is e x p la n a tio n th at one m u s t
tu rn if one is to u n d e r sta n d the c u r io u s e q u iv o c a tio n of U n ited S ta te s
d e le g a tio n s in th e d e b a te s on a p a r th e id , th e tr e a tm e n t of In d ian s in
South A fr ic a and v io la tio n o f h u m an r ig h ts in S o u th -W e st A fr ic a . In th e
s tr u g g le fo r in flu e n c e , an y d e n ig r a tio n of any W e ste r n a lly h a s a p p a r
e n tly b e e n ad ju d ged d a m a g in g to th e W e ste r n im a g e and th e r e fo r e r e
s is t e d b y the U n ited S ta te s . One m a y be f o r g iv e n a m ild d e m u r r e r a s
to the w isd o m o f su c h a p o lic y . It i s d iffic u lt to s e e how the r e f u s a l of
a g r e a t and g r e a tly r e s p e c te d p o w e r to sp e a k up on su c h g r a v e c h a r g e s
e x te n d s it s in flu e n c e or th at of it s a ll ie s . W hat is m o s t c o n fu sin g is th e
r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n the su p p o se d m o tiv a tio n and th e c h o s e n p o lic y .
F o r if th e " co n tin u ed o r ie n ta tio n " o f d ep en d en t p e o p le , or n e w ly in d e
p en d en t n a tio n s to w a rd W e s te r n d e m o c r a c ie s is at sta k e in th e s e i s
s u e s , it ca n h a r d ly be s e r v e d by th e W e s te r n d e m o c r a c ie s th r o w in g a
s o lid fe n c e arou n d on e of th e ir e r r a n t m e m b e r s . Such a p o lic y m a y
le a d to th e co n tin u ed o r ie n ta tio n of one e r r a n t and e m b a ttle d W e ste r n
d e m o c r a c y to w a r d o th e r W e s te r n d e m o c r a c i e s - - i t is n ot lik e ly to d raw
the d ep en d en t p e o p le s any c lo s e r to w a rd th e U n ited S ta te s and it s a l l i e s .
A th ir d a r e a of in h ib itio n upon u n iv e r s a l a p p lic a tio n o f m o r a l
p r in c ip le s h a s b een found in the d e b a te s on fr e e d o m fo r d ep en d en t t e r
r it o r ie s o th er th an th o se c o n s id e r e d a b o v e. S e c r e ta r y H u ll’s a n n o u n c e
m e n t th at th e U n ited S ta te s w o u ld a s s i s t in g a in in g in d e p e n d e n c e " for
th o se w o rth y o f it and r e a d y fo r it" is a t th e h e a r t of th e s e d e b a te s .
* *Sady, op. cit., p . 13.
163
The U n ited StateB s e e m s to h a v e d e c id e d th a t a lth o u g h a ll p e o p le s a r e
w o rth y of in d e p e n d e n c e , n ot a ll of th em a r e r e a d y fo r it. T he c r it e r ia
of r e a d in e s s b e c o m e e v e n m o r e im p o r ta n t w h en one n o te s th a t the
U n ited S ta te s h a s o ften v e n te d it s f e a r s th at p e o p le w ho a r e p r e m a tu r e
ly g r a n te d in d e p e n d e n c e b e c o m e h ig h ly v u ln e r a b le to C o m m u n ist in f il
tr a tio n and d o m in a tio n . T h e s e f e a r s m a k e th e U n ited S ta te s m o r e s y m
p a th e tic to th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , and th is sy m p a th y is r e in fo r c e d fu r th e r
by th e fa c t
T hat A m e r ic a n o f f ic ia ls and s c h o la r s a r e fa r b e tte r in fo r m e d
about p r o b le m s and p r o g r a m s in d ep en d en t t e r r it o r ie s th an in th e
p a s t, and th is , c o u p le d w ith th e p o s itio n of th e U n ited S ta te s a s a
le a d e r in w o r ld a f f a ir s , h a s had a m o d e r a tin g e f f e c t on th e r e a c tio n
of th e n a tio n to s p e c if ic c o lo n ia l i s s u e s .
The U n ited S ta te s d e c id e d th a t fr e e d o m w a s in d e e d a u n iv e r s a l
r ig h t, but it w a s n ot en o u g h to g ra n t it to a ll p e o p le s , fo r it m u s t a ls o
be p r o te c te d o n ce it h ad b e e n g ra n ted .
th is r e q u ir e d n ot o n ly f u lfillin g th e a s p ir a tio n s o f su c h p e o p le fo r
s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t, b u t a ls o c r e a tin g c o n d itio n s to e n s u r e th a t th e ir
new g o v e r n m e n ts w o u ld r e m a in d e m o c r a tic a fte r th is g o a l w a s
a c h ie v e d .
S u ch c o n s id e r a tio n s of th e d a n g e r of d e fa u lt to C o m m u n ist m a
c h in a tio n h a v e m a d e th e U n ited S ta te s m o r e c a u tio u s in th e p o s t-w a r
y e a r s , and th e h e a d y o p tim is m of su c h a n t i- c o lo n ia l s p o k e s m e n a s M r.
M enon, w ho fla tly a s s e r t th at "good g o v e r n m e n t is no s u b s titu te fo r
s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t," and "w e do n ot r e c o g n iz e p r im itiv e o r n o n -p r im itiv e
14
p e o p le , p e o p le w ho a r e c o m p e te n t o r n ot c o m p e te n t," w h en a s s e s s i n g
th e r e a d in e s s of a ll d ep en d en t p e o p le s fo r im m e d ia te fr e e d o m s e e m s to
^ S a d y , lo c . c it. ^ ^Ib id .
^ O R 's , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , 9th S e s s io n , p. 2 27.
164
m a k e c la im s th at a r e a t r if le e x a g g e r a te d . T h is is p a r tic u la r ly tr u e
w h en one n o te s the c h a o s a tten d in g the g ra n t of in d e p e n d e n c e to th e
B e lg ia n C ongo in I9 6 0 , and th is b a la n c e d s ta te m e n t by E ic h e lb e r g e r
ta k e s on g r e a te r a u th o r ity .
The p a s s in g of c o lo n ia lis m m u s t ta k e p la c e in an o r d e r ly f a s h
io n so th at v a c u u m s w ill n ot be c r e a te d , s o th a t n e w ly lib e r a te d
p e o p le s w ill n ot s u ffe r . . . . P e o p le th r u s t in to sta te h o o d u n der
str e n u o u s c o n d itio n s of m o d e r n li f e , w ith o u t e x p e r ie n c e in s e l f -
g o v e r n m e n t and w e ll- e s t a b lis h e d e c o n o m ic in s titu tio n s m a y fin d
t h e m s e lv e s in a d iffic u lt situ a tio n .
If th e c h o ic e w e r e s im p ly th at o f an im m e d ia te g ra n t o f in d e
p e n d e n c e to in e x p e r ie n c e d d ep en d en t p e o p le s u n r e a d y fo r sta te h o o d and
the c o n tin u a tio n of c o lo n ia l tu te la g e so th at th e y m a y b e tr a in e d fo r th e
e v e n tu a l a s s u m p tio n of s e lf - g o v e r n m e n t , U n ited S ta te s p o lic y w o u ld
s e e m r e s p o n s ib le and e v e n p r in c ip le d . Y et th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s
h a v e m a tu r e d in th e ir a p p ro a ch , and at the E ig h th S e s s io n th e y fa c e d
th e U n ited S ta te s and its fr ie n d s w ith a m o r e r e a s o n a b le c h o ic e , and
one th at c o u ld not e a s il y be d is m is s e d a s ir r e s p o n s ib le a n t i- c o lo n ia l
is m . M r s. B o lto n s e t th e U n ited S ta te s p o s itio n fo r w a r d u n d er th e in
s is t e n t d em an d th a t th e w ith d r a w a l of th e c o lo n ia l a u th o r ity c o u ld o n ly
tak e p la c e in c o n d itio n s of o r d e r . She th en s ta te d that
T ru e lib e r ty fo r d ep en d en t o r o th e r n e w ly - lib e r a t e d p e o p le s c o u ld
n e v e r be a tta in e d o r m a d e s e c u r e u n le s s th e f r e e w o r ld w a s a b le
and r e a d y to p r o te c t i t s e l f a g a in s t th e g ro w th and s p r e a d o f a n ew
fo r m o f im p e r ia lis m im m e a s u r a b ly m o r e d e s tr u c tiv e o f h um an
lib e r t y th an an y fo r m of a lie n c o n tr o l in m o d e r n h is to r y .
A u s tr a lia 's M r. C opland m a d e th e a r g u m e n t m o r e e x p lic it,
15
C la r k E ic h e lb e r g e r , " T en Y e a r s o f th e U n ited N a tio n s," A n
n u al R e v ie w of the U n ited N a tio n s A ffa ir s (N ew Y ork: N ew Y ork U n iv e r
s it y P r e s s , 19 5 7 ), p. 20 2 .
^OR's, 8th Session, 4th C om m ittee, p. 126.
165
and c h a r g in g th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w ith b ein g ir r e s p o n s ib le and n e g
a tiv e , he s ta te d th at a ll th e y c o u ld o ffe r w a s a h o s tilit y to c o lo n ia l ru le
and r e p e a te d d em a n d s th at th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r s be d is lo d g e d fr o m c o lo
n ia l t e r r it o r ie s . He th en p o s e d th e a ll-im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n , "W hat w a s
the s y s te m w h ic h th o se w ho co n d em n ed s o - c a ll e d c o lo n ia lis m p r o p o s e d
17
to su b s titu te fo r it?" In ste a d o f the s u p p o s e d ly ir r e s p o n s ib le r e
jo in d e r th at a ll p e o p le s b e g r a n te d im m e d ia te in d e p e n d e n c e , th e M e x i
can d e le g a te r e sp o n d e d th at
T h e A u s tr a lia n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e h ad s e e n f it to p o in t out th at th e in
h a b ita n ts of n o n - s e lf - g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s n e e d e d s o m e p r e p a r a
tio n b e fo r e th e y co u ld e n jo y c o m p le te in d e p e n d e n c e . The a n sw e r
w a s s im p le . In p la c e o f th e c o lo n ia l s y s t e m , the M e x ic a n c le le g a -
tio n w o u ld p r o p o s e the U n ited N a tio n s T r u s te e s h ip s y s t e m .
T h is a n s w e r , s im p le to th e M e x ic a n d e le g a tio n , is in fin ite ly
c o m p lic a te d fo r th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n . F o r th is c h a lle n g e m a k e s
the a p p e a ls to r e s p o n s ib le a c tio n u n d er th e g e n e r a l th e o r y th at not a ll
p e o p le a r e r e a d y fo r in d e p e n d e n c e q u ite ir r e le v a n t. R e is c h a u e r is one
A m e r ic a n a u th o r ity w ho h a s b e e n w on o v e r to th e " sta g in g a r e a " p r o c
e s s e n v is io n e d in th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l c a s e , and a s h e p u ts it,
T he c o lo n ia l p r o b le m ca n n o t s a fe ly b e ig n o r e d . . . w e m u s t adopt a
m u c h m o r e fo r th r ig h t sta n d on c o lo n ia lis m e v e r y w h e r e . In the
r e a lly b a ck w a r d a r e a s , su c h a s B o r n e o , N ew G u in ea, and p a r ts of
A fr ic a , th is m ig h t m e a n s tr o n g A m e r ic a n su p p o rt fo r th e t r u s t e e
sh ip c o n c e p t. . . . S u ch a sta n d w o u ld a ls o e n ta il su p p o rt fo r the
e x te n s io n of th e tr u s te e s h ip p r in c ip le to a ll c o lo n ia l la n d s . . .
It is n o t th e d ep en d en t p e o p le w ho a r e n o t " read y" fo r tr u s t e e s h ip , but
th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w ho a r e u n w illin g to p a r t w ith th e ir s o v e r e ig n r ig h ts
o v e r th e d ep en d en t p e o p le s . It i s , in fa c t, th e U n ited S ta te s w h ic h is not
1 7 Ib id ., p. 113. 18Ib id ., p. 116.
1 9 .
E d w in O. R e is c h a u e r , W anted: An A sia n P o lic y (N ew Y ork:
A lfr e d A . K nopf, 1955), pp. 2 5 8 -2 5 9 -
166
r e a d y to p r e s s its c o lo n ia l a ll ie s in a d ir e c tio n w h ic h th e y m a y r e s e n t,
and it is the U n ited S ta te s w h ic h is n ot r e a d y to r is k th e l o s s of th e ir
fr ie n d s h ip , p o w e r and in flu e n c e .
T he in h ib itio n s r e s u ltin g fr o m th e s e c u r it y in t e r e s t in A m e r i
ca n p o lic y h a v e n o t sp a w n ed a u n ifo r m p o s tu r e in a ll a n t i- c o lo n ia l d e
b a te s . The ra n g e of th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l a s s a u lt is v a r ie d and w id e , and
the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n s e h a s b e e n fle x ib le en o u g h to m e e t th e i s s u e s in
fo u r d iffe r e n t w a y s: (1) v ig o r o u s n e g a tiv is m to w a rd th e a n ti-c o lo n ia l
p o w e r s , (2) p a s s iv e r e s is t a n c e to su p p o se d e x c e s s e s in th e a n t i- c o lo n i
a l c a s e , (3) n e u tr a lity , and (4) a c tiv e su p p o rt o f th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w
e r s . A ll th e s e p o s tu r e s h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d in the f ir s t h a lf of th is
w o rk , but it is of s o m e v a lu e to r e c o n s id e r th e A m e r ic a n r e s p o n s e u n
d er th e s e fo u r th e m e s a lo n g w ith c o m m e n t fr o m a u th o r ita tiv e s o u r c e s .
V ig o r o u s N e g a tiv is m
T he f i r s t b a tch of is s u e s w h ic h h a v e c o m p e lle d th e U n ited
S ta te s to c o m m it it s p o w e r and in flu e n c e f ir m ly a g a in s t th e a n t i- c o lo
n ia l p o w e r s h a s b e e n th o s e c o n c e r n e d w ith th e in d e p e n d e n c e of T u n isia ,
M o r o c c o and A lg e r ia . In th e s e c a s e s , th e U n ited S ta te s h a s o n ly
g r u d g in g ly a c c e p te d e v e n th e p r o p o s a ls th at th e y be d e b a te d , and w h en
d eb a te b e g in s , it s d e le g a tio n s a r e c o n s ta n tly d en y in g th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l
a r g u m e n ts and fo r c in g c o m p r o m is e s w h ic h a r e fa v o r a b le to F r a n c e .
A s the r e c o r d s h o w s , th e U n ited S ta te s m ilit a r y in t e r e s t h a s n ot e s
ca p ed th e a tte n tio n of th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , and th ey h a v e fr e q u e n t
ly a p p e a le d d ir e c t ly to th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n n ot to s a c r if ic e
th e ir ju s t c a u s e to it s m ilit a r y a llia n c e s . A s one M id d le -E a s te r n
S c h o la r s e e s it, th e p o lic y of th e U n ited S ta te s a m o u n ts to an
167
e x h o r ta tio n to r e s i s t S o v ie t im p e r ia lis m , w h ile at th e s a m e tim e a sk in g
fo r an a c c e p ta n c e of E u ro p ea n im p e r ia lis m . M r. F a te m i c o m m e n ts
th at su c h a p o lic y " look s lik e s c h iz o p h r e n ia " and lik e n s it to th e d e lib
e r a tio n s of the le g e n d a r y I r is h M u n ic ip a l C o u n cil w h ic h v o te d th r e e
r e s o lu tio n s sim u lta n e o u sly :
T h ey w e r e (1) B e c a u s e th e old j a il is in a d eq u a te and c o lla p s in g , the
j a il sh o u ld be to r n dow n and r e b u ilt; (2) F o r th e p u r p o se of e c o n o
m y , th e old m a t e r ia ls in th e j a il sh o u ld b e u s e d fo r reb u ild in g ; (3)
T he p r is o n e r s sh o u ld be h o u se d in the o ld j a il t ill th e n ew one is
c o n s tr u c te d . T h is is an e x a c t d e s c r ip tio n of w hat is h a p p en in g in
th e M id d le -E a s t.
The r e f u s a l of the U n ited S ta te s to su p p o rt a n t i- c o lo n ia l d e
m a n d s fo r the r e m o v a l of E u ro p ea n p o w e r fr o m the M id d le -E a s t h a s on
o c c a s io n b e e n co u c h e d in d a rk p r e d ic tio n s of the p o lit ic a l va cu u m w h ich
w ou ld r e s u lt , and the U n ited S ta te s and its a ll ie s h a v e h in te d th a t C o m
m u n is t in filtr a tio n w o u ld th en b e c o m e a s tr o n g p o s s ib ilit y . M r. N a s s e r
h a s r e fu te d th is v ie w w ith th e c o m m e n t th at it is both u n fa ir and u n w ise
to u s e a r g u m e n ts w h ic h ta g " s in c e r e p a tr io ts " w ith d eg r a d in g la b e ls .
M r. N a s s e r is c o n v in c e d th a t A m e r ic a n s
b a lk at su p p o rtin g th e s e n a tio n a lis ts fo r fe a r of a n n o y in g so m e c o
lo n ia l p o w e r th at h a s r e fu s e d to m o v e w ith th e t im e s . . . . T h ere
w o u ld b e no C o m m u n ist in filtr a tio n in any p a r t of th e M id d le -E a s t
and A fr ic a if th e U n ited S ta te s w o u ld d e v e lo p a c o u r a g e o u s p o l i c y - -
and the o n ly m o r a lly c o r r e c t o n e - - o f su p p o rtin g th o se w ho a r e
a n x io u s to g e t r id o f fo r e ig n d o m in a tio n and e x p lo ita tio n .
W h a tev er th e v a lid ity of th e s e a r g u m e n ts , th e U n ited S ta te s
g o v e r n m e n t h a s in s is t e d th a t s u c h p r o b le m s a s A lg e r ia can n ot
N . S aifp u r F a te m i, "The U n ited S ta te s and th e C hanging
M id d le -E a s t," T he A n n a ls o f th e A m e r ic a n A c a d e m y of P o lit ic a l and
S o c ia l S c ie n c e , J u ly , 1954, p. 155.
21
Gaxnal A . N a s s e r , "T he E g y p tia n R e v o lu tio n ," F o r e ig n A f
f a ir s , J a n u a ry , 1 955, p. 211.
168
l e g i t i m a t e l y b e s o lv e d b y th e U n ite d N a t io n s , w h ic h in s t it u t io n m a y o n ly
v o ic e i t s h o p e s th a t th e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t w i l l s e t t l e th e p r o b le m in
a n a m ic a b le w a y . S in c e th e a n t i - c o l o n i a l s r e m a in u n c o n v in c e d o f
F r e n c h in t e n t io n s o f g r a n tin g s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n to A lg e r i a , a n d in
c e n s e d a t s u c h p o l i c i e s a s " p a c if ic a t io n ," w h ic h s e e m b r u ta l a n d u n c o n
s c io n a b le to th e m , t h e ir a r g u m e n t s a n d r e s o lu t i o n s o n A l g e r i a m e e t
w ith s t r o n g o p p o s it io n fr o m U n ite d S t a t e s d e le g a t i o n s . A p a r t fr o m
S e n a to r K e n n e d y , w h o v o ic e d h is d is a g r e e m e n t w ith th e p o l i c i e s o f th e
U n ite d S t a t e s in t h is m a t t e r , C h e s t e r B o w le s h a s a l s o a d d r e s s e d h i m
s e l f to th e s p l i t b e t w e e n th e a n t i - c o l o n i a l p o w e r s a n d th e U n ite d S t a t e s
o v e r N o r th A f r ic a n m a t t e r s . B o w le s s u m s u p U n ite d S t a t e s p o lic y an d
h is m i s g i v i n g s w it h th e s t a t e m e n t th a t
o u r p r e s e n t p o lic y o f n e g a t iv i s m i s d is s ip a t in g a n y c a p a c it y w e
m a y h a v e . . . . B e c a u s e A f r ic a i s l a r g e l y d o m in a te d b y o u r E u r o
p e a n a l l i e s , it i s s a id th a t o p p o s it io n to A f r ic a n c o l o n i a l i s m h a s
b e c o m e a lu x u r y A m e r i c a c a n n o lo n g e r a ffo r d . . . . T h is a r g u
m e n t r e f l e c t s a c o n v ic t io n th a t th e s u r v iv a l o f W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n
h a s c o m e to d e p e n d n o t on th e p r i n c i p l e s w h ic h g iv e it m e a n in g a n d
d ir e c t io n b u t on th e a b ili t y . . . to c o u n t e r th e i n t e r r e l a t e d p o l i t i
c a l, e c o n o m ic , m i l i t a r y a n d i d e o l o g i c a l c h a lle n g e w h ic h it^g.ow
f a c e s , b y a p r e d o m in a n t ly m i l i t a r y p o l i c y o f c o n ta in m e n t.
A s e c o n d s e t o f i s s u e s in w h ic h n e g a t iv i s m h a s k e y n o te d th e
A m e r ic a n r e s p o n s e to th e a n t i - c o l o n i a l c a s e a t th e U n ite d N a tio n s i s th e
e f f o r t th a t th e a n t i - c o l o n i a l s h a v e m a d e to e x p a n d th e r o l e o f th e U n ite d
N a t io n s a n d to w r e s t c o n t r o l o f it f r o m th e M e t r o p o lit a n p o w e r s . A
n u m b e r o f i t e m s , in v o lv in g in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f C h a p te r s X I a n d X II o f th e
C h a r t e r , fin d th e U n ite d S t a t e s r e s i s t i n g A r a b - A s ia n a t t e m p t s to u s e
th e U n ite d N a tio n s a s th e in s t r u m e n t to a d v a n c e th e c a u s e o f f r e e d o m
22
C h e s t e r B o w le s , A f r i c a ' s C h a lle n g e to A m e r i c a ( B e r k e le y :
U n i v e r s it y o f C a lif o r n ia P r e s s , 1 9 5 6 ), p p . 9 5 - 9 6 .
169
and e q u a lity . S u ch m a t t e r s a s th e in te r p r e ta tio n of A r t ic le 7 3e on the
c e s s a t io n of in fo r m a tio n , in v o lv e a b a s ic q u e s t io n - - w h e r e d o e s th e
u ltim a te s o v e r e ig n t y o v e r n o n - s e lf - g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s lie ? A s
A dam h a s c o m m e n te d , th e d e b a te on su c h m a t t e r s a s A r t ic le 7 3e
a p p e a r s l e g a l i s t i c and p r o c e d u r a l on th e s u r f a c e . It c o n c e a ls , h o w
e v e r , an im p o r ta n t w o r ld q u e s tio n a b ou t th e fa te of th e r e m a in in g
c o lo n ia l a r e a s h e ld b y th e W e s te r n p o w e r s . T he v o tin g m a jo r ity in
th e 4 th C o m m itte e , and u s u a lly in th e p le n a r y G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly ,
a r e n ib b lin g a w a y a t th e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n t r u s t t e r r i t o r i e s , h e ld
u n d er th e s t r ic t o b lig a tio n s o f C h a p ter X II, and n o n - s e lf - g o v e r n in g
t e r r it o r ie s w h ic h c o n s titu te th e b u lk o f W e s te r n c o lo n ie s . The
v a g u e o b lig a tio n s o f C h a p ter X I a r e b e in g p r o g r e s s iv e l y t r a n s
fo r m e d in to a n a tta c k on th e fu ll s o v e r e ig n t y of a d m in is te r in g n a
tio n s . ^
A d a m 's d e s c r ip t io n of th e d e b a te c o n ta in s a c lu e a s to U n ited
S ta te s p o lic y a s w e ll. F o r th e r e c o r d sh o w s th a t th e a n t i- c o lo n ia ls a r e
c o n s is t e n t ly s u c c e s s f u l in th e F o u r th C o m m itte e and o n ly " u su a lly "
s u c c e s s f u l in th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly in c o m m a n d in g r e q u is it e v o tin g
m a j o r it ie s . T h e ir d e fe a ts in th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly h a v e u s u a lly b e e n
24
e n g in e e r e d b y th e U n ited S ta te s .
A th ir d a r e a o f c o n te n tio n w h e r e U n ited S ta te s p o lic y h a s v i g
o r o u s ly o p p o se d a n t i- c o lo n ia l d e s ig n s h a s b e e n the g e n e r a l d e b a te on
s e lf - d e t e r m in a t io n , and p a r t ic u la r ly th e C o v en a n t on H u m an R ig h ts and
th e p r o p o s e d a r t ic le on e c o n o m ic s e lf - d e t e r m in a t io n . T he e n t ir e c o n
c e p tio n o f s e lf - d e t e r m in a t io n h a s b e e n ex p o u n d ed b y th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l
p o w e r s and i s now u s e d in te r c h a n g e a b ly w ith s u c h t e r m s a s s e l f - g o v
e r n m e n t and p o lit ic a l in d e p e n d e n c e , and th is a p p r o a c h h a s n ot m e t w ith
2 3
T h o m a s R. A d a m , " T r u s te e s h ip and N o n -S e lf-G o v e r n in g
T e r r it o r ie s ," A n n u a l R e v ie w o f U n ite d N a tio n s A f f a ir s , 1 954, p . 119.
^ S e e Chapter IV.
170
25
the a p p ro v a l of the U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n s . T he m o r e r e p r e h e n s i
b le ite m in U n ited S ta te s e y e s is the p h r a s in g of e c o n o m ic s e l f - d e t e r
m in a tio n in su c h a w a y a s to im p ly a p p r o v a l of ille g a l s e iz u r e s of f o r
e ig n ow ned p r o p e r ty . T he U n ited S ta te s h a s tr a d itio n a lly g r a n te d the
b a s ic r ig h t of " s o v e r e ig n ty o v e r w ea lth " if it m e a n s n a tio n a liz a tio n and
e x p r o p r ia tio n w ith a c tu a l, ju s t and p r o m p t c o m p e n sa tio n . B ut the a n ti
c o lo n ia l a p p ro a ch s e e m s to th e U n ited S ta te s to im p ly a p p r o v a l of n ot
ju st e x p r o p r ia tio n , but o u tr ig h t " c o n fis c a tio n ." Such a m b itio n s ca n
h a r d ly be e n c o u r a g e d by th e U n ited S ta te s , w h ic h is the r ic h e s t p o w e r
in th e w o r ld , and on e w ith a g r e a t d e a l to p r o te c t in o v e r s e a s h o ld in g s .
In th is c a s e , it is n ot ju s t the in t e r e s t of it s f r ie n d s , but th e v u ln e r
a b ility of its ow n n a tio n a ls th at h a s le d th e U n ited S ta te s to o p p o se u n -
2 ^
p a id c o n fis c a tio n s by th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s .
In th e e c o n o m ic fie ld , th e r e is y e t a n o th er is s u e on w h ich th e
U n ited S ta te s h a s p r o v e d a fo r m id a b le a d v e r s a r y to a n ti-c o lo n ia l p r o
p o s a ls , and h e r e to o it i s not th e in t e r e s t o f its a ll ie s but p r e s u m a b ly
it s ow n in t e r e s t w h ic h m u s t be in v o k ed to e x p la in it s n e g a tiv is m . The
is s u e is S U N F E D , and th e d e b a te s on its e s ta b lis h m e n t h a v e r e v o lv e d
^ I t h a s ir r it a t e d at le a s t one a u th o rity ; s e e C lyd e E a g le to n ,
" E x c e s s e s of S e lf-D e te r m in a tio n ," F o r e ig n A f f a ir s , J u ly , 1953.
26
T he U n ited S ta te s p o s itio n in th e q u a r r e l o v e r M e x ic o 's e x
p r o p r ia tio n of A m e r ic a n -o w n e d p r o p e r ty i s s t i l l th e fr a m e w o r k of the
U n ited S ta te s a p p r o a c h in the d e b a te s on e c o n o m ic s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n .
S e c r e ta r y H u ll a r g u e d a g a in s t th e M e x ic a n p o s itio n , and s u g g e s te d th at
a lth ou gh M e x ic o w a s e n title d to n a tio n a liz e o r e x p r o p r ia te A m e r ic a n -
ow ned p r o p e r ty , th e r u le of c o m p e n s a tio n w a s in te g r a l to a le g a l d is p o
s itio n of th o se p r o p e r t ie s . T ak in g p r o p e r ty w ith o u t c o m p e n s a tio n w a s
n e ith e r n a tio n a liz a tio n n o r e x p r o p r ia tio n , but o u tr ig h t c o n fis c a tio n .
S ee G. H. H a ck w o rth , D ig e s t o f In te r n a tio n a l L a w , D e p a r tm e n t of S tate
P u b lic a tio n N o. 1708 (W a sh in g to n , D . C .: U. S. G o v e r n m e n t P r in tin g Of
f ic e , 1940), in, 654 ff.
171
arou n d the d e te r m in e d o p p o sitio n of th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n s . The
a n t i- c o lo n ia ls h a v e p le a d e d , c a jo le d and, on o c c a s io n , le c tu r e d the
U n ited S ta te s on its r e s p o n s ib ilit y to c o - o p e r a t e in th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of
the fund, and by c o -o p e r a tio n th e y h a v e m e a n t th at it sh o u ld p le d g e
s o m e m o n e y to it. T he U n ited S ta te s h a s f la t ly r e fu s e d an y s u c h c o
o p e r a tio n and h a s m a d e lit t le e ffo r t to e x p la in its r e a s o n s , e x c e p t fo r
the a n n o u n ce m en t th at g iv e n its e n o r m o u s e x p e n d itu r e s fo r the d e fe n s e
of th e f r e e w o r ld , it s im p ly ca n n o t a ffo r d an y fu r th e r d ra in upon its r e
s o u r c e s . One ca n s c a r c e ly a rg u e w ith su c h a s ta te m e n t w ith o u t v io
la tin g good t a s t e , fo r th o se w ho s e e k lo a n s and g r a n ts a r e c e r ta in ly n ot
in a p o s itio n to m a k e m u c h of an is s u e about th e le n d e r 's a fflu e n c e .
The r e s u lt h a s b e e n a p e c u lia r s ta n c e on th e p a r t of th e a n t i- c o lo n ia ls ,
w ho h a v e in v o k ed th e ir p o v e r ty , c h a r g e d c o lo n ia lis m w ith h a v in g a c
c e le r a t e d th e ir unhappy d e c lin e , and th en o ffe r e d r e s o lu tio n s in th e
h op e th a t the U n ited S ta te s m ig h t h a v e found it s p r e v io u s a c c o u n tin g
fa u lty , and h a s now fou n d both the w ill and the m o n e y to a c c e p t th e ir
p r o p o s a ls . T h ey h a v e b e e n d isa p p o in te d , a lth o u g h o th er c o lo n ia l p o w
e r s h a v e p r o v e d fle x ib le en ou gh . T r a g e r n o te s th e r ig id r e fu s a l of th e
U n ited S ta te s to c o - o p e r a t e in the e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e fund, and a fte r
r e m a r k in g th a t c u r r e n t a id p o lic ie s do not p r o v id e fu n ds a m o u n tin g to
"a v e r y im p r e s s iv e fig u r e ," s ta te s th a t "it is in d e e d r e g r e tta b le th at
fo r e ig n e c o n o m ic le a d e r s h ip in the U n ited S ta te s h a s fa ile d to s e e the
27
w is d o m of a p p ro v in g S U N F E D ."
^ F r a n k N. T r a g e r , " E c o n o m ic A ffa ir s ," A nnual R e v ie w of
U n ited N a tio n s A f f a ir s , 1 9 5 5 -5 6 , p. 56.
P a s s iv e R e s is ta n c e
In th e e n c o u n te r b e tw e e n th e U n ited S ta te s and the a n t i- c o lo
n ia l p o w e r s , th e r e h a v e b e e n a n u m b e r of i s s u e s w h e r e th e b a s ic d e
s i r e s of the a n t i- c o lo n ia ls h ave b e e n s h a r e d b y the U n ited S ta te s , fo r
th e r e is m u ch in th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l c a s e th at a p p e a ls to the id e o lo g y b e
h in d U n ited S ta te s fo r e ig n p o lic y . Such a n ti-c o lo n ia l o b je c tiv e s a s r a
c ia l e q u a lity a r e no s tr a n g e r s to th e A m e r ic a n hope fo r th e w o r ld , and
th e r e is a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n th e U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n s and th o se fr o m
the A r a b -A s ia n -A fr ic a n la n d s th at su c h a h op e sh o u ld be r e a liz e d
th ro u g h th e jo in t e ffo r ts of a ll th e m e m b e r s of th e U n ited N a tio n s. It is
in th e a r e a o f m e th o d s to b e u s e d fo r th e r e a liz a t io n of su c h o b je c tiv e s
th at d is a g r e e m e n t h a s d e v e lo p e d b e tw e e n the U n ited S ta te s and the a n ti
c o lo n ia l p o w e r s . T he tw o i s s u e s s y m b o lic of r a c ia l e q u a lity h a v e b e e n
th o s e o f the tr e a tm e n t of In d ian s in South A fr ic a and a p a r th e id , and th e
U n ited S ta te s h a s a g r e e d th a t p o lic ie s fo llo w e d b y the U nion of South
A fr ic a to p e r p e tu a te the su b o r d in a tio n of a grou p of p e o p le b e c a u s e of
th e ir r a c ia l o r ig in a r e n o t d e fe n s ib le . T h is a g r e e m e n t i s , h o w e v e r ,
q u ic k ly d is s ip a te d w h en a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s b e g in to m a k e s u g g e s tio n s
fo r the e r a d ic a tio n of th e i l l s th a t flo w fr o m the U n io n 's p o lic ie s . In
th e v ie w o f th e U n ited S ta te s , p r o p o s a ls w h ic h s in g le out the U nion fo r
c h a s t is e m e n t and s p e c if ic le g is la t io n in th e U nion fo r co n d e m n a tio n go
b ey o n d w h a t is p r a c t ic a l and d ip lo m a tic and v io la te w h a t is le g a l and
a llo w e d b y th e C h a r ter o f the U n ited N a tio n s. It is in th e lig h t of th is
dual a p p r o a c h to th e s e m a t t e r s that th e U n ited S ta te s r e s p o n s e to th e s e
i s s u e s ca n be b e tte r u n d e r sto o d and d e s c r ib e d . T he U n ited S ta te s e n
c o u r a g e s d eb a te on t h e s e m a t t e r s , and th en a p p e a ls fo r m o d e r a tio n in
173
la n g u a g e an d p r o p o s a ls fr o m th e a n t i- c o l o n i a l p o w e r s . It o f f e r s a m e n d
m e n t s to a n t i- c o l o n i a l r e s o lu t i o n s d e s ig n e d to e lim in a t e s e c t i o n s w h ic h
a p p e a r to g o b e y o n d th e C h a r t e r 's p r o v i s i o n s , and a t t e m p t s to s o fte n
r e f e r e n c e s w h ic h a r e h a r s h an d l i k e l y to r e s u l t in a w o r s e n in g o f th e
t e n s io n s in S o u th A f r ic a a n d b e tw e e n th e U n io n an d it s c r i t i c s . A r e p
r e s e n t a t iv e e x a m p le o f s u c h a c t iv i t y is in th e S e v e n th S e s s i o n d e b a te on
th e t r e a t m e n t o f In d ia n s an d a p a r t h e id . T h e U n ite d S t a t e s , s t a t e d M r .
S p r a g u e , w a s d is tu r b e d b y th e U n io n 's p o l i c i e s , f o r a p a r th e id w a s b o th
u n w is e an d q u e s tio n a b le in lig h t o f th e U n io n 's a c c e p t a n c e o f p r in c i p l e s
e n s h r in e d in th e U n ite d N a tio n s C h a r te r . S u ch a p o lic y im p lie d " s e g r e
g a tio n . . . d e s ig n e d to e n s u r e p e r m a n e n t e c o n o m ic an d p o l i t i c a l s u -
2 8
p r e m a c y fo r th e m i n o r i t y .” Y et if o n e s t u d ie s th e in t e r v e n t io n s of
th e U n ite d S ta te s d e le g a t e a f t e r t h is s t a t e m e n t , a c l e a r p a tte r n of in
h ib itio n s s e e m s to p e r v a d e h is b e h a v io r . T h e p r o b le m s e e m s to h a v e
b e e n th e r e s i s t a n c e o f th e U n ite d S ta te s d e le g a t e to e x p li c it c a s t ig a t io n
of j u s t t h o s e p o l i c i e s w h ic h h e h ad a llo w e d w e r e q u e s tio n a b le and u n
w i s e , fo r w h a t e v e r th e w r o n g s a ttr ib u ta b le to th e U n io n g o v e r n m e n t,
th e y w o u ld o n ly b e c o m p o u n d e d b y h a s t y an d i l l - c o n s i d e r e d r e s o lu t io n s
p a s s e d b y th e A s s e m b ly . It o u g h t to b e e m p h a s iz e d th a t t h e s e in h ib i
t io n s d id n o t le a d th e U n ite d S ta te s d e le g a t io n to f o r g e a v o tin g b lo c
w h ic h w o u ld d e f e a t th e a n t i- c o l o n i a l p o w e r s in t h e ir e n t e r p r i s e , an d th e
te n o r o f U n ite d S t a t e s s t a t e m e n t s a n d th e c h a r a c t e r o f it s in t e r v e n t io n s
m a y h a v e d e n ie d th e a n t i - c o l o n i a l s U n ite d S t a t e s s u p p o r t in s p e c i f i c
d r a fts b u t it d id n o t, a s in N o r th A f r ic a n m a t t e r s , o v e r w h e lm th e m w ith
^ ^U S P a r t ic ip a t io n in th e U N , r e p o r t b y th e P r e s i d e n t to th e
C o n g r e s s f o r th e y e a r 1 9 5 2 , p p . 81 ff.
174
it s o p p o s i t i o n .^ In d e ed , th e b a s ic a g r e e m e n t on th e i s s u e th a t p r e
v a ile d b e tw e e n th e U n ite d S ta te s an d th e a n t i- c o l o n i a ls le d th e U n ited
S ta te s to o f f e r a m o r e p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e to s w e e p in g s t a t e m e n t s b y
th e a n t i- c o l o n i a ls an d n o t th e v ig o r o u s n e g a t iv is m w h ic h c h a r a c t e r iz e d
i t s r e s p o n s e in s u c h m a t t e r s a s A lg e r ia . A s R ig g s h a s d e s c r ib e d th e
U n ite d S ta te s r e s p o n s e , " the U n ite d S ta te s d e le g a tio n d e m u r r e d at th e
h a r s h w o r d s . . . b u t ou t of c o n c e r n fo r th e f la g r a n t d is r e g a r d of h u m a n
30
r ig h t s , it a b s ta in e d on th e fin a l v o tin g on e a c h r e s o lu t io n ."
T he a ttitu d e o f th e U n ite d S ta te s d e le g a tio n s on th e i s s u e of
S o u th -W e s t A f r ic a h a s b e e n s im il a r to th a t p r e v a ilin g in th e d e b a te s on
th e tw o it e m s d e s c r ib e d a b o v e . A s e a r l y a s th e S e c o n d S e s s io n , M r.
S a y r e a llo w e d th a t th e U n io n s h o u ld s u b m it to s o m e s o r t o f in t e r n a t io n
a l s u p e r v is io n in it s c o n d u c t o f th e a f f a ir s of S o u th -W e s t A f r ic a . M r.
S a y r e c a u tio n e d th e a n t i- c o l o n i a ls to t r e a d lig h t ly , h o w e v e r , fo r h e w a s
n o t s u r e w h e th e r th e U n io n h ad a " m o r a l" o r a " le g a l" o b lig a tio n , and
h e w a s n o t to o s u r e ju s t w h a t th e o b lig a tio n w a s . It w a s a t t h is p o in t
th a t h e p a r te d c o m p a n y w ith th e a n t i- c o l o n i a ls , w ho w e r e p la g u e d w ith
no s u c h d o u b ts, an d e x h o r te d S o u th A f r ic a to s u b m it a t r u s t e e s h ip
31
a g r e e m e n t f o r th e t e r r i t o r y im m e d ia t e ly . It is to t h e s e e x h o r ta tio n s
th a t th e U n ite d S ta te s h a s b e e n u n a b le to le n d it s su p p o r t, f o r it h a s n ot
b e e n c o n v in c e d th a t r e p e a te d r e q u e s t s fr o m an o b d u r a te A s s e m b ly to an
^ S e e a b o v e , p p . 6 3 - 7 3 .
'an
R o b e r t E . R ig g s , P o l i t i c s in th e U n ite d N a t io n s , a stu d y of
U n ite d S ta te s in f lu e n c e in th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly (U rb a n a , I llin o is : U n i
v e r s i t y o f I llin o is P r e s s , 1 9 5 8 ), p . 1 29.
JASee OR's, General A ssem b ly , 2nd S ession , Vol. I, pp. 529-
535.
175
e q u a lly stu b b o rn U nion a r e u s e fu l, and it h a s o ften f e lt that the w o rd in g
of th e s e a p p e a ls is lik e ly to w o r s e n r e la tio n s b etw een the A s s e m b ly and
the U nion and fu r th e r je o p a r d iz e a so lu tio n to the p r o b le m . O nce ag a in ,
the U n ited S ta te s r o le h a s b e e n that of a r e s tr a in e d o p p o sitio n to e x
c e s s iv e d em a n d s by th e A s s e m b ly , and its d e le g a tio n s h a v e in te r v e n e d
to am en d s e c tio n s of a n ti-c o lo n ia l d r a fts to m a k e th em m o r e c o n c ilia
to r y . A ffir m a tiv e v o te s and a b ste n tio n s h ave b een m o r e fr eq u en t in
32
th is is s u e than n e g a tiv e o n e s.
The p o stu r e of p a s s iv e r e s is t a n c e h as b een adop ted by the
U n ited S ta te s on so m e o th e r i s s u e s , in w h ich it h as lo o k ed w ith b e n e v o
le n c e upon the w is h e s of the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls but d iffe r e d w ith them in the
te c h n iq u e s b y w h ic h th ey m a y b e a tta in ed . The U n ited S ta te s h a s f a
v o r e d a c o n s tr u c tiv e a p p lic a tio n of C h a p ters X I and XII of the C h a r ter
to a llo w th e A s s e m b ly its r ig h tfu l r o le in a ffa ir s c o n c e r n e d w ith n o n
s e lf-g o v e r n in g t e r r it o r ie s . One can sa y w ith so m e c o n fid e n c e th at the
U n ited S ta te s s h a r e s th e m o tiv e s g o v e r n in g the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o lic ie s on
th e s e m a t t e r s , fo r both th e U n ited S ta te s and the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s
w ou ld w is h an im p r o v e m e n t of th e co n d itio n s p r e v a ilin g in d ep en d en t
t e r r it o r ie s , and w ith few e x c e p tio n s , the a d v a n c e m e n t of th e s e t e r r i
t o r ie s to w a rd s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t a s so o n as p o s s ib le . It is in th e a r e a of
p r a c tic a l c o n s id e r a tio n s th at so m e d is a g r e e m e n ts h ave d e v e lo p e d , and
the U n ited S ta te s h a s p a r te d co m p a n y w ith the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s .
One su ch in s ta n c e h a s b een the r e c u r r e n t d eb ate on the R en ew a l of the
C o m m itte e on In fo r m a tio n fr o m N o n -S e lf-G o v e r n in g T e r r it o r ie s . The
F o r a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e e x a m p le of U nited S ta te s b e h a v io r on
th is is s u e , s e e U n ited S ta te s a tte m p ts at a m en d m en t and v o tin g in OR1 s
G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly , 4th S e s s io n , pp. 5 3 5 -5 3 7 .
176
U n ited S ta te s h a s sh a r e d in th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l w is h to k eep th e C o m m it
te e a liv e , but it h a s n o t b e e n a b le to a g r e e on the s c o p e of th e C o m m it
t e e 's a c t iv it ie s , or upon the p r o p o s itio n th at it sh o u ld be m a d e p e r m a
n en t. T he c o lo n ia l p o w e r s h a v e b e e n s o m e w h a t d ise n c h a n te d w ith the
C o m m itte e , and B e lg iu m , fo r o n e, h a s r e fu s e d to p a r tic ip a te in its
w o rk . T he B r itis h d e le g a te , w ith c h a r a c t e r is t ic E n g lis h u n d e r s ta te
m e n t, h a s in d ic a te d th at the d is a p p e a r a n c e o f th e C o m m itte e " w ou ld not
33
c a u s e a la r m and d e sp o n d e n c y to h is g o v e r n m e n t." In th is d iv is io n
b e tw e e n th o s e w ho lik e the C o m m itte e and th o se w ho c o u ld w e ll b e a r
its d is a p p e a r a n c e , th e U n ited S ta te s h a s r e s is t e d p r o p o s a ls to m a k e it a
p e r m a n e n t fix tu r e and th en h e lp e d to r e n e w it fo r g iv e n p e r io d s . Its
o p p o sitio n to th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p r o p o s a ls h a s b een p a s s iv e and its a tti-
34
tu d es and a c tio n s c o n c ilia to r y .
On th e su b je c t of th e in d e p e n d e n c e of T r u st T e r r it o r ie s , the
U n ited S ta te s h a s o fte n le n t its a s s is t a n c e to the a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s
in fo r m u la tin g p r o c e d u r e s to h e lp th e T r u s te e s h ip C o u n c il and a d m in
is t e r in g p o w e r s c o -o p e r a te in a tta in in g th is o b je c tiv e . It is in th e a r e a
of d e te r m in in g the sp e e d w ith w h ic h th e s e t e r r it o r ie s m a y be m o v e d
to w a rd in d e p e n d e n c e , and ju st how fa r the a d m in is te r in g a u th o r itie s
m a y b e p u sh e d in r e lin q u is h in g th e ir c o n tr o l th at th e U n ited S ta te s h a s
r e s is t e d a n ti-c o lo n ia l in it ia t iv e s . T he a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s h a v e b e e n
d is s a t is f ie d w ith p r o g r e s s in T r u st T e r r it o r ie s , and h a v e , on o c c a s io n ,
d em a n d ed e s t im a t e s and t im e - t a b le s on the p la n s fo r in d e p e n d e n c e fr o m
3 3 O R 's , 10th S e s s io n , C o m m itte e IV , p. 109.
34
T he U n ited S ta te s v ie w is w e ll s u m m a r iz e d in US P a r t ic ip a -
tio n in th e U N, r e p o r t by th e P r e s id e n t to th e C o n g r e s s fo r the y e a r
1 9 5 5 , pp. 1 8 8 -1 9 0 .
177
a d m in is te r in g a u th o r itie s . T he U n ited S ta te s h a s d e m u r r e d on th e s e
o c c a s io n s , a rg u in g th at in d e p e n d e n c e is not s u s c e p tib le to the p r o d u c
tio n of b lu e p r in ts , but th e s e d e m u r r e r s h a v e n ot le d to a v ig o r o u s
c o u n te r -o ffe n s iv e a g a in s t th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p r o p o s a ls . In deed , the
U n ited S ta te s h a s f e lt th at th e s e p r o p o s a ls , c a s tig a te d a s e x tr e m e and
p r o v o c a tiv e by th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , a r e p ro b a b ly in ten d ed a s " p r e s s u r e
to p r e v e n t r e la x a tio n of e ffo r t . . . and th e r e fo r e of v a lu e ," but a s M r s .
B o lto n o n ce e x p la in e d th e U n ited S ta te s v ie w ,
th e p o s itio n o f the a d m in is te r in g a u th o r itie s w a s m u c h lik e th at o f
th e d r iv e r of an a u to m o b ile on a m o d e r n h ig h w a y . It w a s r is k y to
e ith e r be to o ca and to go to o s lo w ly or to be too im p a tie n t
and go to o f a s t .
T he U n ited S ta te s h a s a c c o r d in g ly h e lp e d a c c e le r a t e th e p r o c
e s s if it s e e m e d to o slo w , and r e s is t e d a n ti-c o lo n ia l p r o p o s a ls w h ic h in
its ju d g m e n t "w ould d a m a g e th e m a c h in e r y in an a tte m p t to d r iv e it b e -
th e a tte n tio n of a n t i- c o lo n ia l n a tio n s , th e r e h a v e b een th r e e c a s e s w h e r e
th e U n ited S ta te s h a s , fo r v a r ie d r e a s o n s , ad op ted a p o lic y of to ta l n e u
tr a lity . T he e a r l i e s t of th e s e i s s u e s w a s th e d isp u te o v e r th e in d e p e n d
e n c e of In d o n e sia , and in th e e a r ly s ta g e s of th e d eb a te, and u n til the
s e c o n d D utch m ilit a r y o ffe n s iv e , th e U n ited S ta te s g a v e lit t le in d ic a tio n
of th e s id e it su p p o r te d , a lth o u g h it w a s a c tiv e en ou gh w ith in th e s t r i c
tu r e s of n e u tr a lity in the a tte m p ts to c o n c ilia te the d isp u tin g p a r t ie s .
T he s e c o n d is s u e is r e la te d to th e In d o n esia n s tr u g g le fo r in d e p e n d e n c e
3 A
yon d it s c a p a c itie s ."
T o ta l N e u tr a lity
In th e v a r ie t y of i s s u e s w h ich in v o lv e m a tte r s th at h a v e ca u g h t
•^OR's, 8th Session, 4th C om m ittee, p. 126.
36
Ibid.
178
and in v o lv e s th e c o n flic tin g c la im s o f In d o n e sia and the N e th e r la n d s
o v e r th e t e r r it o r y of W est Iria n . L a s t, th e r e is th e q u e stio n o f C y p r u s,
in w h ic h th e c o m p le x itie s r e s u ltin g fr o m a ll d isp u tin g p a r t ie s b e in g a l
l i e s of th e U n ited S ta te s h a s in h ib ite d a fo r th r ig h t sta n d b y th e U n ited
S tate s .
In th e e a r ly d e b a te s on In d o n e sia , the U n ited S ta te s w a s to r n
b e tw e e n its sy m p a th ie s fo r n a tio n a lis t m o v e m e n ts in g e n e r a l, and its
p a r tic u la r o b lig a tio n s to w a r d th e N e th e r la n d s a s a E u ro p ea n a lly . In
th o s e d e b a te s, A u s tr a lia , India and th e P h ilip p in e s w e r e f ir m ly c o m
m itte d to th e c a u s e of In d o n esia n in d e p e n d e n c e , and the c o lo n ia l p o w e r s
s to u tly d efen d ed th e N e th e r la n d s ' p o s itio n th at the p r o b le m f e l l w ith in
th e d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n . The U n ited S ta te s o c c u p ie d a p o s itio n s o m e
w h e r e in the g r a y a r e a s b e tw e e n th e s e tw o and " a d v ise d c o m p r o m is e
fo r it fe a r e d th at to p u sh th e N e th e r la n d s to o fa r m ig h t w e a k e n th a t
37
s ta te and w ith it th e A m e r ic a n s id e in th e c o ld w a r ." Y et, a lth o u g h
th e U n ited S ta te s m a y h a v e h e s ita te d in p u sh in g th e N e th e r la n d s to o
fa r , it did n ot le n d its su p p o r t to th at c o u n tr y in it s c la im s o f d o m e s tic
ju r is d ic tio n e ith e r . T he d iffic u ltie s of b ein g a n e u tr a l p o w e r in a s tr u g
g le w h ic h in v o lv e s in te n s e n a tio n a l p r id e on b o th s id e s w e r e a lm o s t
o v e r w h e lm in g , and B u ss p o in ts out th at in a tte m p tin g n e u tr a lity and
m a k in g d e ta c h e d e ffo r ts to " h a r m o n ize th e c o n flic tin g in t e r e s t s of
D utch and In d o n e sia n s . . . it [the U n ited S ta te s ] a lie n a te d th e sy m p a -
38
th ie s o f both ." In fa c t, n e u tr a lity is d iffic u lt en o u g h fo r a m in o r
37
K en n eth S. L a to u r e tte , T he A m e r ic a n R e c o r d in th e F a r
E a s t , 1 9 4 5 -5 1 (N ew Y ork: M a c m illa n , 19 5 2 ), p. 72.
■^C laude A . B u s s , T he F a r E a s t (N ew York: M a c m illa n , 1955),
p. 715.
179
p o w e r , and is n e a r ly im p o s s ib le fo r a g r e a t p o w e r w ith g r e a t in flu e n c e .
A s R e is c h a u e r s u g g e s t s ,
A c tu a lly w e can n ot h e lp e x e r tin g g r e a t in flu e n c e w h e th e r w e
in ten d to o r n ot. W hen th e In d o n e sia n s w e r e s tr u g g lin g w ith th e
D utch fo r th e ir in d e p e n d e n c e , w e a t t im e s so u g h t to e x e r t no in flu
e n c e on the o u tc o m e , th e r e b y c e r t a in ly n ot a id in g th e D u tch in th e ir
d iffic u lt a d ju stm e n t to the p o stw a r situ a tio n , and p o s it iv e ly h a r m
in g th e In d o n esia n s w ho w e r e in s o m e n e e d of o u r e n c o u r a g e m e n t
and aid . °
If one n o te s th at in a s tr u g g le o f th is s o r t, a p o lic y of n e u tr a li
ty is lik e ly to h u rt th e p o w e r fu l s id e to th e d isp u te l e s s th an it d o e s
th o se w ho a r e w e a k and n eed th e h e lp of o th e r p o w e r s , one ca n b e tte r
u n d e r sta n d th e p a s s io n a te a p p e a ls m a d e b y th e R e p u b lic g o v e r n m e n t
and its a n ti-c o lo n ia l fr ie n d s fo r U n ited S ta te s and U n ited N a tio n s s u p
p o rt, and th e s to lid in s is t e n c e of th e N e th e r la n d s g o v e r n m e n t th at it
w a s p e r f e c tly happy to d is p o s e of a p r o b le m w ith in it s d o m e s tic j u r i s
d ic tio n w ith o u t an y in te r fe r e n c e fr o m o u tsid e s o u r c e s . T h is , c o m b in e d
w ith the fa c t th at th e N e th e r la n d s tr o o p s o fte n u s e d U n ited S ta te s m i l i
ta r y eq u ip m en t in th e ir In d o n esia n s o r t ie s , h a s le ft an u n fo rtu n a te im
p r e s s io n on In d o n esia n s about A m e r ic a 's n e u tr a lity in th e S e c u r ity
C o u n cil.
V ir tu a lly a ll In d o n e sia n s ta k e it fo r g r a n te d th a t th e U n ited
S ta te s w a s n e v e r th e ir a lly , but h a s a c tu a lly s id e d w ith th e D utch.
T hus th e y a r e c o n v in c e d th at it w a s n o t A m e r ic a n sy m p a th y , a r m s
and in flu e n c e w h ic h a s s i s t e d In d o n e sia in g a in in g fr e e d o m , but
R u s s ia 's fir m sta n d a g a in s t W e s te r n im p e r ia lis m .
It is so m e w h a t e x a g g e r a te d a c la im on b e h a lf of th e U SSR to
s a y th at it w a s in any w a y a p r im a r y p a r ty in b r in g in g in d e p e n d e n c e to
■^Reischauer, op. c it., p. 210.
40
W a lter H. M a llo r y , "M aking a F r ie n d o f In d o n e sia ," F o r e ig n
A f f a ir s , J a n u a ry , 1954, p. 28 3 .
180
In d o n e sia , but th e h e s ita n t p o lic ie s o f n e u tr a lity fo llo w e d by the U n ited
S ta te s in th e In d o n esia n d e b a te s u n til 1949 c e r ta in ly ju s tify it s b ein g
r e m o v e d fr o m the ra n k s of both th e c o lo n ia l s id e to th e d isp u te and the
41
c a u s e of in d e p e n d e n c e .
The s e c o n d is s u e , r e la te d to In d o n e sia , on w h ic h the U n ited
S ta te s h a s m a in ta in e d a p o s itio n of n e u tr a lity is the d isp u te o v e r W e st
Iria n . T he R e p u b lic of In d o n e sia c la im s that W e st Iria n w a s an in te g r a l
p a r t of In d o n e sia , and th at the N e th e r la n d s had, in r e c o g n iz in g th e in
d ep e n d e n c e of th e In d o n esia n s ta te , im p lic itly a g r e e d to e v e n tu a lly
g ra n t s o v e r e ig n ty o v e r W e st Iria n to th e R ep u b lic of In d o n esia . T he
R ep u b lic, w ith the su p p o rt of A sia n a n t i- c o lo n ia ls , h a s d em a n d ed th at
th e N e th e r la n d s a g r e e to n e g o tia tio n s e n v is io n in g the g e n e r a tio n o f a
p r o c e s s w h e r e b y In d o n e sia n in d e p en d en ce w ill be c o m p le te d . In a c u r i
ou s d e fe n s e fo r a c o lo n ia l p o w e r , th e N e th e r la n d s a r g u e s th at th e p e o
p le of W e st Ir ia n a r e a s a c r e d tr u s t of the N e th e r la n d s g o v e r n m e n t, and
th at g o v e r n m e n t is not p r e p a r e d to n e g o tia te aw ay the in a lie n a b le r ig h t
of W est Iria n s to " s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n ." The N e th e r la n d s g o v e r n m e n t
m a in ta in s th at it w ill a llo w the p e o p le of W est Ir ia n to e x p r e s s th e ir d e
s i r e s a s so o n a s th e y a r e a b le to do so . O u traged In d o n e sia n s c h a r g e
th at th is is a s p e c io u s b it of h y p o c r is y , fo r w hat th e N e th e r la n d s i s d o
in g ca n b e tte r be d e s c r ib e d a s " am pu tation " of In d o n e sia u n der c o v e r of
lo fty p r in c ip le s w h ich a r e n ot b e lie v e d b y the N e th e r la n d s . T he U n ited
S ta te s r e s p o n s e to th is d isp u te h a s b e e n c o n s is t e n t ly d e ta c h e d , and in
1957 th e P r e s id e n t r e p o r te d to th e C o n g r e s s th at "A s in p r e v io u s y e a r s
^ ^ F o r an e x c e lle n t s u r v e y o f th e In d o n esia n d e b a te , and th e
U n ited S ta te s r o le , s e e J. F o s t e r C o llin s , "The U n ited N a tio n s and Indo
n e s ia , " I n te in a t in n n lC o n c il^ t io n , M a rc h , 1950.
181
the U n ited S ta te s m a in ta in e d a p o lic y o f n e u tr a lity th ro u g h o u t th e A s
s e m b ly 's c o n s id e r a tio n of th e d isp u te . It a b sta in e d on a ll v o te s and did
n ot p a r tic ip a te in th e d e b a te ." 4 ^ T he r e p o r t g o e s on to q u ote S e c r e t a r y
D u lle s a s s a y in g th a t "T he a r g u m e n ts p r o and co n a r e c l o s e l y b a la n c e d .
We do n ot s e e a c le a r c a s e to be m a d e fo r e ith e r s id e s u ffic ie n t, w e
43
think, to e n a b le u s to ta k e a p o s it iv e p o s itio n on o n e s id e or a n o th e r ."
T he A s s e m b ly i t s e l f h a s b e e n u n a b le to s e e en o u g h j u s t ic e in
the In d o n esia n c a s e to tak e an y p o s it iv e a c tio n , and h a s b e e n u n ab le to
a p p ro v e a su b sta n tiv e d ra ft fo r n e g o tia tio n s , in s p ite of s o m e d a rk
th r e a ts b y In d o n esia n d e le g a te s th at s in c e c o n c ilia tio n h a s b e e n r e je c te d
by th e A s s e m b ly , th e y m a y h a v e to r e s o r t to l e s s p a la ta b le m e a s u r e s .
One a u th o r ity s e e m s to f e e l that it is U n ited S ta te s n e u tr a lity w h ic h is
r e s p o n s ib le fo r th e s e e m in g p a r a ly s is in th e A s s e m b ly .
B y a b sta in in g fr o m ta k in g p a r t in e ith e r th e d eb a te or th e v o t
ing on th is q u e s tio n , th e U n ited S ta te s r a is e d s o m e d iffic u lt p r o b
le m s fo r th e fu tu r e . V a r io u s lo o s e g r o u p in g s in th e U n ited N a tio n s
a r is e in th e d is c u s s io n of an y m a jo r c o lo n ia l i s s u e . . . . T h e s e
sh iftin g te m p o r a r y a llia n c e s ca n n o t s t r ik e a c le a r b a la n c e of p o w e r
u n til th e U n ited S ta te s h a s m a d e it s p o s itio n c le a r .
The C yp ru s d isp u te h a s in v o lv e d th e c o n flic tin g c la im s of
G r e e c e and T u rk ey , both m e m b e r s o f th e N A T O gro u p , to the is la n d ,
e a c h one c la im in g th at its p o s s e s s i o n b y th e o th er w o u ld v io la te im p o r
tan t in t e r e s t s of th e G r e e k and T u r k ish p e o p le r e s p e c t iv e ly . T he is s u e
h a s n e v e r m e t w ith m u c h fe r v e n t in t e r e s t on th e p a r t of tr a d itio n a lly
a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , w ho h a v e m o s t ly a r g u e d th at any d is p o s it io n of
A
US P a r tic ip a tio n in th e U N , r e p o r t by th e P r e s id e n t to the
C o n g r e s s fo r the y e a r 1 9 5 7 , pp. 9 9 -1 0 0 .
4 3 Ib id .
44Annual Review of United Nations A ffairs, 1954, p. 148.
182
the C yp ru s d isp u te sh o u ld k eep th e in t e r e s t s of th e C y p r io t p e o p le
f ir m ly in m in d , but a p a r t fr o m su c h g e n e r a l a n n o u n c e m e n ts no g r e a t
a n ti-c o lo n ia l in itia tiv e h a s d e v e lo p e d on C y p r io t s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n .
The U n ited S ta te s h a s c o n s is t e n t ly a r g u e d th at " th o se d ir e c t ly c o n
c e r n e d m u s t w o r k out th e e v e n tu a l s e ttle m e n t," and m a in ta in in g a
s t r ic t n e u tr a lity on th e w o r th of th e c o n flic tin g c la im s , it h a s e m p h a -
45
s iz e d the n e e d fo r " q u iet d ip lo m a c y ."
A c tiv e S u p p ort of th e A n ti-C o lo n ia l P o w e r s
T h e r e h a v e b e e n th r e e m a jo r in s ta n c e s in w h ic h th e U n ited
S ta te s h a s a llie d i t s e l f w ith th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s and e x e r c is e d an
im p o r ta n t and d e c is iv e in flu e n c e in th e d ir e c tio n th e y h a v e ta k en . T he
In d o n esia n d isp u te sa w th e U n ited S ta te s d ro p p in g th e r o b e s of n e u t r a li
ty and f ir m ly e s ta b lis h in g th e U n ited S ta te s a s an o p p o sitio n p o w e r to
the N e th e r la n d s g o v e r n m e n t in J a n u a ry , 1949. T he se c o n d D utch o ffe n
s iv e and th e a r r o g a n t r e f u s a l of th e N e th e r la n d s g o v e r n m e n t to r e l e a s e
the h ig h ly -p la c e d m e m b e r s of th e R e p u b lic g o v e r n m e n t th at it had a r
r e s t e d c a u s e d w id e s p r e a d c r it ic is m in the U n ited S ta te s . T he U n ited
S ta te s d e le g a te a n n o u n ced th a t th e U n ited S ta te s w a s f ir m ly c o m m itte d
to the e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e " U n ited S ta te s o f In d o n e sia a s one of th e f u l
ly s o v e r e ig n in d ep en d en t p e o p le s of the w o r ld ." L a to u r e tte r e c o r d s the
v ig o r o u s c r it ic is m o f th e D utch in th e U n ited S ta te s S en a te, and c o m
m e n ts th at
the U n ited S ta te s w a s c l e a r ly out o f p a tie n c e w ith th e D utch and
p r o b a b ly f e a r e d th at if it s e e m e d to s id e w ith th e p e r p e tu a tio n of
E u ro p ea n im p e r ia lis m a s a g a in s t th e d e s ir e of p e o p le s of A s ia fo r
in d e p e n d e n c e , it w o u ld be a id in g th e s p r e a d of C o m m u n ism w ith its
^ US Participation in the UN, 1957, pp. 44-45.
183
e x c o r ia t io n o f c o l o n i a l i s m . ^
A fte r J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 9 , th e U n ite d S t a t e s d e le g a t io n to o k th e i n i
t ia t iv e in p r e s e n t in g r e s o lu t i o n s d e s ig n e d to o b ta in th e r e l e a s e o f th e
p r i s o n e r s , an d g e n e r a t in g n e g o t ia t io n s e n v is io n in g th e u lt im a t e in d e
p e n d e n c e o f th e R e p u b lic o f I n d o n e s ia . O u ts id e th e U n ite d N a t io n s , it
u s e d e c o n o m ic p r e s s u r e on th e N e t h e r la n d s g o v e r n m e n t to y i e l d to th e
d e m a n d s f o r n e g o t ia t io n s , an d o n e c a n s c a r c e l y d e n y it s in f lu e n c e in
b r in g in g a b o u t c o n d it io n s in w h ic h th e H a g u e c o n f e r e n c e f in a ll y to o k
p la c e in 19 4 9 - T h e U n ite d S t a t e s r o le in th e la t e s t a g e s o f th e I n d o n e
s ia n d is p u te w a s c e r t a in ly a n a c t iv e o n e , a n d o n e th a t m a y b e d e s c r ib e d
a s s u p p o r tin g th e a n t i - c o l o n i a l s id e to th e d is p u t e . ^ In d e e d , th e f in a l
s o lu t io n a c h ie v e d th r o u g h A m e r ic a n in f lu e n c e w a s a p p r o v e d in th e S e
c u r it y C o u n c il, an d th e n g r e e t e d w ith e n t h u s ia s m b y th e a n t i- c o l o n i a l
n a tio n s in th e A s s e m b l y . T h e o n ly b lo c w h ic h w a s h o s t i l e to th e r e
s u lt s o f th e H a g u e a g r e e m e n t s w a s th a t o f th e C o m m u n is t s t a t e s , a n d it
s h o u ld h a v e b e e n c l e a r to th e a n t i - c o l o n i a l s th a t t h e ir o b j e c t iv e , n a m e
ly , th a t o f g a in in g th e in d e p e n d e n c e o f I n d o n e s ia , w a s n o t a ll th a t h a d
i n t e r e s t e d th e S o v ie t s in p r e v io u s d e b a t e s . It w a s a t t h is m e m o r a b le
p o in t th a t th e S o v ie t U n io n , d e n ie d th e f r u i t s o f c o n tin u o u s e x p lo it a t io n
o f a v io le n t c l a s h b e t w e e n th e f o r c e s o f c o l o n i a l i s m an d a n t i - c o l o n i a l
i s m , w a s e n r a g e d b y th e s e e m in g u n ity o f i n t e r e s t th a t p r e v a i le d b e
t w e e n th e U n ite d S t a t e s a n d th e a n t i - c o l o n i a l p o w e r s . T h e S o v ie t d e l e
g a te h e a p e d a b u s e on e v e r y o n e w h o a c c e p t e d th e r e s u l t s o f th e H a g u e
^ L a t o u r e t t e , o p . c i t . , p . 7 3.
47
S e e a b o v e , C h a p te r I, f o r U n ite d S t a t e s in it ia t iv e in th e S e
c u r it y C o u n c il; s e e a l s o B u s s , o p . c i t . , p p . 5 9 8 - 6 0 4 , f o r a d e s c r ip t io n
o f U n ite d S t a t e s p r e s s u r e o n th e N e t h e r la n d s g o v e r n m e n t .
184
s e t t le m e n t , an d s in g le d o u t a n t i- c o l o n i a l In d ia a s p a r t ic u l a r ly t r e a c h e r
o u s fo r h a v in g d e f e r r e d th e c o n d e m n a tio n o f H o lla n d 's p o l i c i e s , and
48
c h a r g e d th a t In d ia n p o lic y w a s " ta in te d w it h h y p o c r is y ." It s h o u ld
t h e r e f o r e b e e q u a lly c l e a r to t h o s e fo n d o f a ttr ib u tin g to a n t i - c o l o n i a l
is m s o m e m y s t i c a l C o m m u n is t in f lu e n c e , th a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e in c o m m o n
b e tw e e n th e a n t i - c o l o n i a l s an d th e S o v ie t U n io n a s fa r a s u lt im a t e o b
j e c t i v e s a r e c o n c e r n e d , an d a n y p r o m in e n c e o r in f lu e n c e th a t th e S o v ie t
b lo c m a y h a v e e x i s t s o n ly a s lo n g a s th e a n t i - c o l o n i a l s a r e d e n ie d g o a ls
d e e m e d c r i t i c a l b y th e m .
T h e s e c o n d in s t a n c e o f jo in t a c t io n b y th e U n ite d S t a t e s a n d th e
a n t i- c o l o n i a l p o w e r s i s th e S u e z c r i s i s in 1 9 5 6 . T h e m i l i t a r y a c tio n u n
d e r ta k e n b y th e f o r c e s o f I s r a e l , B r it a in an d F r a n c e s h o c k e d an d e n
r a g e d th e a n t i- c o l o n i a l p o w e r s , an d s in c e it w a s a c r i s i s o f m a j o r p r o
p o r t io n s a n d in v o lv e d tw o o f th e c l o s e s t a l l i e s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , th e
a n t i- c o l o n i a l p o w e r s h a d l i t t l e r e a s o n to e x p e c t a n y s u p p o r t fr o m th e
U n ite d S t a t e s d e le g a t io n . In d ia s e e m s to h a v e a s s u m e d th a t no e f f e c t i v e
a c t io n w o u ld b e u n d e r ta k e n in th e S e c u r it y C o u n c il, an d p o lle d 7 6 d e l e
g a tio n s to g a in s u p p o r t f o r a r e q u e s t th a t th e i s s u e b e b r o u g h t b e fo r e a
49
s p e c i a l s e s s i o n o f th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly . A s it tu r n e d o u t, th e
U n ite d S t a t e s s u p p o r te d th e Y u g o s la v p r o p o s a l in th e C o u n c il th a t th e
d is p u te b e s u b m itte d to th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly , an d no s p e c i a l r e q u e s t
w a s n e c e s s a r y . In d e e d , P r e s i d e n t E is e n h o w e r 's f ir m s p e e c h a g a in s t
th e m i l i t a r y a c t io n d u r in g th a t p e r io d an d h is c l e a r in d ic a t io n th a t th e
U n ite d S t a t e s h a d n o in te n tio n o f le n d in g i t s s u p p o r t to a n y s u c h v e n tu r e
^ Q R ’ s , 3 r d S e s s i o n , C o m m itte e l a , P a r t II, p p . 3 6 7 - 3 6 8 .
^ T h e N ew Y o r k T im e s , N o v e m b e r 1, 1 9 5 6 , c o l. 8 , p . 16.
185
sh o u ld h a v e c a lm e d th e a p p r e h e n s iv e a n t i- c o lo n ia ls a s to th e U n ited
S ta te s p o s tu r e in th is c r i s i s , and th e y s u r e ly sh o u ld h a v e r e jo ic e d in the
lo fty E is e n h o w e r c r e d o th a t the U n ited S ta te s w ou ld b e u n tru e to i t s e l f
50
if it su p p o r te d "one co d e fo r our e n e m ie s and a n o th er fo r our fr ie n d s.
In lin e w ith th is lo fty p r in c ip le , the U n ited S ta te s d e le g a tio n p r e s e n te d a
d ra ft to th e A s s e m b ly c a llin g fo r an im m e d ia te c e a s e - f i r e , and th is
r e s o lu tio n m e t w ith th e o v e r w h e lm in g a p p r o v a l of the A s s e m b ly . The
a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s w e r e fu ll of p r a is e fo r the U n ited S ta te s d r a ft, and
one r e p o r t h a s it th at th e U S S R 's S o b o le v , in the h ap py a n tic ip a tio n o f a
d e a d lo c k b e tw e e n th e o u tr a g e d a n t i- c o lo n ia ls and a stu b b o rn W e ste r n
c o a litio n , h ad p r e p a r e d a s tr o n g ly w o r d e d d r a ft of h is ow n, w h ic h he did
not p r e s e n t to th e A s s e m b ly due to th e a g r e e m e n t p r e v a ilin g b e tw e e n
51
the a n t i- c o lo n ia ls and th e U n ited S ta te s . In su b se q u e n t d e b a te s and
a c tio n s in th e A s s e m b ly , the U n ited S ta te s r a r e ly d e p a r te d fr o m the
ra n k s of th e a n t i- c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , and it su p p o r te d th e r e ite r a tio n fo r a
c e a s e - f i r e and th e p r o p o s a l fo r th e e s t a b lis h m e n t of th e U n ited N a tio n s
E x p e d itio n a r y F o r c e , and jo in e d the a n t i- c o lo n ia ls in th e ir d em a n d s fo r
the w ith d r a w a l of a ll in v a d in g tr o o p s fr o m E g y p t. If one n o te s th at both
B r ita in and F r a n c e e lo q u e n tly d e fe n d e d th e ir a c tio n s , and r e fu s e d fo r a
w h ile to o b e y th e o r d e r s fo r a c e a s e - f i r e and r e s is t e d th e A s s e m b ly 's
d em a n d s th a t th e y w ith d ra w th e ir tr o o p s , th e p o lic y of th e U n ited S ta te s
is s in g u la r ly im p r e s s iv e . In d eed , d u rin g th is p e r io d , th e U n ited S ta te s ,
in s te a d of b a r r in g the w a y to a n t i- c o lo n ia l in it ia t iv e s , a c tu a lly jo in e d in
s p o n s o r in g th e ir p r o p o s a ls , c o n fe r r e d w ith s u c h p r o m in e n t a n ti-
5QIbid., col. 8, p. 1.
^ Ibid., November 2, 1956, p. 7.
186
co lo n ia ls as India w ith a v ie w to fo rm u la tin g the m o s t e ffe c tiv e r e s o lu -
52
tions to a ch ie v e a n ti-c o lo n ia l o b je c tiv e s. The U nited S tates m a y w e ll
have in flu en ced the language of the r e s o lu tio n s p a s s e d in th is m a tte r ,
to m ak e them m o r e c o n c ilia to r y than w ould have p le a s e d so m e a n t i- c o
lo n ia ls, but the Suez c r i s i s w a s s till one of the r a r e o c c a s io n s w hen the
U nited S tates w a s n eith er op p osed to the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls , nor n eu tra l to
th eir d e s ir e s , but a c tiv e ly su pp orted the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a u se .
A th ird ex a m p le of the U nited S tates joining the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
cam p and fir m ly statin g its v ie w s in a m a n n ee w hich w ould s e e m to be
fra m ed in w o rd s u se d by the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls th e m s e lv e s is to be found in
the ap arth eid debate in the S ec u r ity C ouncil in M arch, I960. U nited
S tates d ele g a te H a r r is o n had in the T h irteen th S e s sio n giv en so m e in d i
cation that the U nited S tates w a s beginning to lo s e p a tie n c e w ith the
g overn m en t of the Union of South A fr ic a , for at that s e s s i o n h is c o m
m e n ts and voting w e r e c le a r ly a shift from the U nited S tates p o sitio n on
the ap arth eid d eb a tes in a ll the p r e v io u s s e s s i o n s . W here the U nited
States had w o n d ered and w o r r ie d about the rela tio n sh ip b etw een the
C harter, a p arth eid and the p r o v is io n s of the d o m e stic ju r isd ic tio n
c la u s e in p r e v io u s s e s s i o n s , M r. H a r r is o n now d e c la r e d that ap arth eid
p o lic ie s w e r e co n tra ry to the p r in c ip le s of the U nited N ation s C h arter
and voted a ffir m a tiv e ly on the r e s o lu tio n s p r e s e n te d by the a n ti-c o lo -
53
n ial p o w e r s. The rapid d e te r io r a tio n of ra c e r e la tio n s in South A f r i
ca w as w e ll p u b licized in the U nited S ta tes, and by the tim e that South
A frica n p o lic e found it n e c e s s a r y to open fir e on an u n a rm ed group of
5^Ibid., N ovem ber 1, 1956, p. 1. ^ S e e above, pp. 70-73.
187
d e m o n str a to r s in S h a r p e v ille , th ere had d ev elo p e d in the U nited States
a c o n s id e r a b le sy m p ath y fo r the c o lo r e d p e o p le s in South A frica .
P r im e M in iste r M a c m illa n had in fo rm ed the U nion P a r lia m e n t of G reat
B r ita in 's m is g iv in g s on p o lic ie s su ch as a p a rth eid , and a ttem p ted to
open the w in d ow s to "the w in d s of change" in h is F eb ru a ry sp e e c h , and
in the U nited S ta tes, B r ita in 's open d isa v o w a l of South A frica n p o lic y
r e m o v e d the la s t b a r r ie r to a fo rth rig h t p o s itio n by the U nited S tates
g o v ern m en t. C o n g r e s s m e n 's o ffic e s w e r e flood ed w ith m a il dem anding
54
so m e e x p r e s s io n of ou trage for the sh ootin g at S h a rp ev ille, and at the
S e c u r ity C ouncil, A m b a s sa d o r L odge p r o c e e d e d to p r e s e n t the U nited
S tates c a s e in the s tr o n g e s t te r m s e v e r u se d by the U nited S tates
a g a in st anoth er W e ste r n p o w er. A s the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls had ch a rg ed in
e a r lie r s e s s i o n s , A m b a s sa d o r L odge p la ce d the b la m e fo r the te n sio n s
in South A fr ic a sq u a r e ly on the Union g o v ern m en t, and ap p ealed to that
g o v ern m en t to r e c o n s id e r its p o lic ie s in the nam e of ju stic e and p e a c e .
What is m o s t r e m a r k a b le as a change in the U nited S tates p o stu re is
that M r. Lodge su p p orted the a n ti-c o lo n ia l r e s o lu tio n b efo re the C oun
c il w h ich e x p lic itly e x c o r ia te d the U nion g o v ern m en t for its " d isr eg a rd
55
of p r e v io u s r e s o lu tio n s ," and " deplored its p o lic ie s ."
In the th r e e in s ta n c e s of U nited S ta tes support for a n t i- c o lo
n ial p o w e r s , th ere is one r e m a r k a b le fe a tu r e that is co m m o n to all.
The D utch m ilit a r y action , the v io le n t a ctio n in the Suez and the d e t e r i
o ra tio n of the r a c ia l situ a tio n in South A fr ic a to a p oint w h e r e guns
54
F o r an e x c e lle n t s u m m a r y of a ll th e s e p r e s s u r e s , s e e "C en
su re of South A fr ic a ," The New R e p u b lic , A p ril 4, I960, pp. 4 -6 .
55
See above, pp. 72-7 3, for resolution and United States vote.
188
b e g a n to f i r e , a r e a ll " c r i s i s " s it u a t io n s , in w h ic h th e e v o lu t io n a r y a p
p r o a c h g a v e w a y to v i o l e n c e an d b lo o d s h e d . In tw o o f t h e s e in s t a n c e s ,
the U n ite d S ta te s e q u iv o c a t e d f o r s o m e t im e , a tte m p tin g to a v o id a n
o p e n b r e a k w ith t h o s e it c o n s i d e r e d it s a l l i e s , an d e x e r t e d e i t h e r n o in
f lu e n c e o n th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e d e b a te and s itu a tio n , o r p a s s i v e l y r e
s i s t e d p r o p o s a l s w h ic h , a lth o u g h g e a r e d to r e s o l v i n g th e d is p u te , w e r e
a d ju d g e d p r e j u d ic i a l to th e i n t e r e s t of th e W e s t. T h e d e b a te s on In d o
n e s i a n in d e p e n d e n c e fo u n d th e U n ite d S ta te s a tte m p tin g an a w k w a r d , in
d e e d i m p o s s i b l e , n e u t r a lit y u n til th e s e c o n d D u tch m i l i t a r y o f f e n s iv e ,
an d th e r e c o r d of the a p a r t h e id d e b a t e s f r o m 1952 th r o u g h 1957 i s a l s o
one o f n e g a t iv e o r n e u t r a l p o l i c y b y th e U n ite d S t a t e s . It is o n ly w h e n
th e a c t io n s o f its s u p p o s e d a l l i e s r e s u l t in a s h o c k in g d is p la y of f o r c e
and v io l e n c e th a t th e U n ite d S t a t e s h a s b e e n m o v e d to e x e r t a d e c i s i v e
in f lu e n c e in th e d e li b e r a t io n of th e U n ite d N a t io n s . T o p a r a p h r a s e a d e
s c r i p t i o n o n c e o f f e r e d fo r C h u r c h ill's p la c e in h i s t o r y - - " W h e n t i m e s
a r e b ad , th e U n ite d S t a t e s i s g o o d . . . " It w o u ld be a d i s t r e s s i n g th in g
if th e fu tu r e c o u r s e of U n ite d S ta te s p o l i c y w e r e to j u s t i f y th e a p p r e
h e n s io n s of I n d o n e s ia n d e le g a t e H a n ifa h in th e E ig h th S e s s i o n d e b a te on
M o r o c c o . N o tin g th e A m e r i c a n a r g u m e n t th a t th e A s s e m b l y sh o u ld
s t e e r c l e a r of a n y a c t iv e in v o lv e m e n t in th e M o r o c c a n a ffa ir , b e c a u s e it
w a s n o t a t h r e a t to th e p e a c e , a p o s it io n w h ic h r a th e r a c c u r a t e l y d e
s c r i b e d A m e r i c a n p o l i c y at th a t p o in t, M r . H a n ifa h p o s e d th is q u e s tio n :
" W as it to b e s a id th a t in th e a b s e n c e of a C o m m u n is t t h r e a t o r th e r i s k
of b lo o d s h e d , th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y r e f u s e d to m e e t it s r e s p o n s i b i l i -
^ S e e above, p. 26.
189
U n til th e y e a r I 9 6 0 , it h a s b e e n c l e a r that, a p a r t fr o m d e c i d
in g on the G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y ' s r o le , the U n ited S ta te s h a s b e e n u n s u r e
of its ow n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in th e a b s e n c e of b lo o d s h e d o r a C o m m u n is t
th r e a t.
CHAPTER VI
THE STR A TEG Y
The Conduct of the C olon ial D ebate
Q£ the four v a ria n ts in the A m e r ic a n p o stu re d is c u s s e d above,
th ree in v o lv e a n eg a tiv e or p a s s iv e r o le in the debate on co lo n ia l m a t
t e r s . A g r e a t p ow er, p r o fe s s in g and b e lie v in g in g rea t p r in c ip le s , can
s c a r c e ly adopt th e se p o sitio n s w ithout r e c o u r s e to s o m e co m p ellin g a r
gu m en ts to ex p la in its own d ep artu re fro m the a ctiv e , p o sitiv e ran ks of
th ose w ho cla im to be the d efen d ers of lib e r ty and p u rv ey o rs of e q u a li
ty. N or can it hope to s ta ll the o ffe n siv e lau n ch ed under th e s e p r in c i
p les u n le s s its c h o se n a rg u m en t can in flu en ce o th ers to the c o u n s e ls of
p a tien ce and w atch ful w aitin g. The so lu tio n c h o s e n by the U nited S tates
d ele g a tio n to m e e t th is p ro b lem can be d e s c r ib e d as the p o lic ie s of
c o m p r o m is e and c o n cilia tio n , and in s e a r c h of th e se m o d e r a te g o a ls,
two m a jo r tech n iq u es have b een invoked by A m e r ic a n d ele g a tio n s to d e
fend th eir p o stu r e . The f ir s t is the s tr a te g y of the g e n e r a liz a tio n of
p a r tic u la r su b je c ts, and the seco n d is the e m p h a sis on p ro ced u re and
le g a lis m at the e x p e n se of su b sta n tiv e c o n sid e r a tio n s and the m o r a l
fa cto r.
G e n e r a liz a tio n of P a r tic u la r Subjects
A r e v ie w of the A m e r ic a n p e r fo r m a n c e in the th ree is s u e s in
v o lv in g the U nion of South A fr ic a , n a m ely , the tre a tm e n t of Indians,
190
191
ap arth eid and the q u estio n of S ou th -W est A fr ic a , until the y e a r I960,
y ie ld s one co m m o n th read to the fa b ric of the A m e r ic a n c a s e . F ro m
the e a r lie s t d eb a tes, the U nited S tates u rged on the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls a
m o r e m a tu r e s e n s itiv ity to w o rld con d ition s, and a d v ise d them to
broaden th eir p e r c e p tio n s and take note of the fact that r e p r e s s io n and
the d en ial of hum an rig h ts w a s a w id e sp r e a d p ro b lem involvin g t e r r i
to r ie s and p eo p le other than th o se under the co n tro l of the U nion of
South A fr ic a . A c h a r a c te r is tic ex a m p le of su ch a p p ea ls by A m e r ic a n
s p o k e sm e n is to be found in the E ighth S e s s io n debate on a p a rth eid .
The settin g for the d is c u s s io n w a s the outrage of the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls at
the open v io la tio n of hum an rig h ts by the g o v ern m en t of South A frica ,
and the in tra n sig en t r e fu s a l of the South A fr ic a n d ele g a te to ad m it
e ith e r that th e r e w a s a m o r a l q u estio n in v o lv ed in h is g o v e r n m e n t's o f
fic ia l p o lic ie s of r a c ia l d is c r im in a tio n or the right of the A s s e m b ly to
e x p r e s s its fe e lin g s in the m a tte r . In th is settin g, M r s . B olton 's c o m
m en ts ela b o ra tin g the A m e r ic a n th em e have a fa in tly e th e r e a l touch,
for she a d v ise d that
When the U nited N ation s c o n s id e r e d hum an rig h ts p r o b le m s w ithin
a p a r tic u la r country, it should k eep in m in d d ev elo p m en ts th ro u g h
out the w o r ld in the fie ld of hum an rig h ts and should state g e n e r a l
c o n c lu sio n s rela tin g to the o b je c tiv e s w h ich a ll m e m b e r s should
p u rsu e in that fie ld .!
E v en if one gran ts the w o rth of an appeal fo r ch a rity in d ea lin g
w ith any n a tio n 's d iffic u ltie s in so lv in g su c h c o m p le x p r o b le m s r e la te d
to m in o r ity g rou p s, M rs. B o lto n 's re a so n in g s e e m s str a n g e ly u n rela ted
to the d isp ute at hand. What w a s and is at stake in the ap arth eid d e
b a tes is not s im p ly the p ro b lem of r a c ia l te n s io n s or the
*OR's, Ad Hoc Political Committee, 8th Session, pp. 191-192.
d ise n fr a n c h ise m e n t of m in o r itie s fro m the ranks of th o se enjoying the
benefits of hum an rig h ts, but the d elib e ra te intention of p erp etu atin g the
subordinate statu s of the "blacks and " co lo red s" in South A fr ic a by a
govern m en t w h o se o ffic ia l p o lic ie s w e r e a c a s e study in h a r sh and d e
grading p r a c tic e to fu lfill such a p u rp o se. In a c a s e of this so rt, U nited
S tates appeals for a w id er fra m e to the d is c u s s io n s , and the sta tem en t
of " gen eral co n clu sio n s" a re quite ir r e le v a n t, for it w ould be d ifficu lt
to find another state to fit the ch a r g e s r e la te d to the U nion's p o lic ie s .
It w a s after a ll an A m e r ic a n d ele g a te , A m b a ssa d o r Lodge, w ho s u c
cin c tly although b ela ted ly m ad e this point in I960, w hen he argu ed that
th ere w as a d istin ctio n b etw een u n san ctioned v io la tio n of hum an rig h ts
and the d elib e ra te application of r e p r e s s iv e m e a s u r e s as a g o v ern
m en ta l p olicy. The f ir s t m a y w e ll be w ithin the range of A m e r ic a n ap
p e a ls for " gen eral c o n clu sio n s" but the seco n d m o s t c e r ta in ly dem ands
p a rticu la r trea tm en t. The d ela y in a ccep tin g what w as alw a y s apparent
and the appeals for g e n e r a liz e d trea tm en t of the r a c e is s u e for a lm o s t
eight y e a r s of debate in the U nited N ations w ould lea d to the rea so n a b le
c o n clu sio n that the U nited S tates u se d th is argu m en t as a p ro ced u ra l
str a te g y to avoid en tan glem en t in the su b stan tive a s p e c ts of the debate.
A s im ila r ex a m p le of the ten d en cy tow ard g e n e r a liz a tio n of
p a rticu la r su b jects w hich th reaten to rupture r e la tio n s b etw een the
a n ti-c o lo n ia ls and M etrop olitan p o w e rs is to be found in the d eb ates on
hum an rig h ts. D riv en by m e m o r ie s of co lo n ia l dom ination, the a n ti
co lo n ia ls have u rg ed r e so lu tio n s upon the A s s e m b ly w hich w ould have
the U nited N ations keep a stea d y eye on th e se te r r it o r ie s , and dog the
fo o tste p s of the co lo n ia l authority to keep it m ovin g in the d ir e c tio n of
193
relin q u ish in g its p ow er and granting s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n to dependent
p eop le. W hen th e se p r o p o s a ls a r e d ir e c te d at an ex p o su r e of la m e n t
able con d ition s in dependent t e r r it o r ie s , the U nited S tates has m e t them
w ith a con stan t effo rt to blunt the edge of sharp c r it ic is m by b lu rrin g
the im a g e of the a d v e r sa r y . It is to this goal that the U nited S tates a t
tuned its a m en d m en ts and c o m m e n ts in the s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n debate.
To the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a ll for the U nited N ation s to take the r e s p o n s ib ili
ty of advancing the fr e e d o m of "dependent p eo p le," the U nited S tates
added a r id e r that it a ls o be r e s p o n sib le for the p r o te c tio n of "those
who are in danger of lo s in g it." The U nited S tates d e le g a tio n s have le ft
little am b igu ity as to w hom th ey c o n sid e r a p re d a to r y p ow er, stalk in g
the c u r r e n tly fr e e p e o p le s of the w o rld . Thus has it in s e r te d the C o m
m u n ist is s u e into what sta r te d out to be a co lo n ia l d eb ate, and the
P r e s id e n t has d e s c r ib e d the U nited S tates p o lic y as taking the lea d
in fu rth er attem pting to " u n iv e r sa liz e " the . . . r e so lu tio n s on s e lf -
d eterm in a tio n . . . by o fferin g a m en d m en ts to m a k e c le a r that the
r e so lu tio n s w e r e c o n c e r n e d w ith t e r r it o r ie s who had lo s t th e ir in
d ep endence or w e r e in d anger of lo s in g it, a s w e ll as dependent
te r r it o r ie s
In th is happy in sta n ce, it w ould s e e m that the lu r e s of g e n e r a l
iz a tio n w h ich rule U nited S tates b eh avior in c o lo n ia l is s u e s h ave fo r tu
n a tely s e r v e d to advance its propaganda in te r e s ts w ith r e g a r d to the
C om m u n ist w o rld as w e ll. H ere the U nited S tates w a s able to d is p e r s e
the a n ti-c o lo n ia l a s s a u lt by sc a tte r in g its fo c u s, th e r e b y p r o te c tin g its
fr ie n d s and e m b a r r a s s in g its e n e m ie s in the n am e of " u n iv ersa liz in g "
the U nited N ation s w ork.
2
US Participation in the UN, report by the President to the
Congress for the year 1952, p. 158.
194
T he e f f e c t i v e n e s s or e v e n th e w o r th of su c h a p o lic y a s d e
s c r ib e d a b o v e n e e d s s o m e c o m m e n t. T he d e m a n d s of g e n e r a liz a t io n
a r e s t r ic t en o u g h to h a v e c o m p e lle d the U nited S ta te s to ta k e the in it ia
tiv e in a tta c h in g g r e a t im p o r ta n c e to th e m a n n e r in w h ic h th e A s s e m b ly
h a n d le s c o lo n ia l p r o b le m s . In u r g in g a n t i- c o l o n i a ls to d e le te any r e f e r
e n c e s to the g o v e r n m e n t w ith w h ic h th e y a r e d is e n c h a n te d if n ot o u t
r a g e d the U n ited S ta te s r a r e ly s p e c i f i e s its ow n r e s p o n s e to the s u b
s ta n tiv e c h a r g e s w h ic h c h a r a c t e r iz e the c o lo n ia l d eb a te. S uch m a t t e r s
as f o r c e d la b o r , e c o n o m ic and r a c ia l e x p lo ita tio n and d is c r im in a t io n ,
and th e s u p p r e s s io n of c iv il li b e r t i e s a r e a ll m o r a l i s s u e s , and a p a rt
fr o m w h a t M r. Z a fr u lla h Khan o n c e c a lle d " r a r e and n o b le e x c e p tio n s ,"
the U n ited S ta te s h a s r e f u s e d to lin k t h e s e c h a r g e s w ith a M e tr o p o lita n
g o v e r n m e n t. It h a s r a r e ly b la m e d a W e s te r n g o v e r n m e n t fo r th e s y s
te m a tic a p p lic a tio n of su ch p o l i c i e s , and h a s c h o s e n to adopt a d e ta c h e d
r o le in d e b a te s r e la te d to t h e s e p r o b le m s . G e n e r a l p r o c la m a tio n s of the
sta n d a r d s w h ic h ought to g u id e a ll g o v e r n m e n ts a r e c o m m o n en ou gh ,
and one m ig h t a llo w that th e r e is s o m e th in g to be sa id in fa v o r of a c o o l
and d ip lo m a tic a n n o u n c e m e n t of t h e s e s ta n d a r d s in the h op e that r e c a l
c itr a n t p o w e r s w ill be m o v e d to ad op t th e m . C e r ta in ly , su c h an a p p r o a c h
at t im e s s e e m s m o r e fr u itfu l th an h e a te d d e n u n c ia tio n s in th e A s s e m b l y
w h ic h m ig h t w e ll e x a c e r b a te t e n s io n s and le a d to in c r e a s i n g ly r ig id r e
s p o n s e s fr o m the g o v e r n m e n t u n d er a tta ck . Y et if th is a p p r o a c h h a s
any g e n e r a l v a lid ity , it h a s e s c a p e d the U n ited S ta te s g o v e r n m e n t it s e lf .
F o r w h e n one tu rn s to th e d e b a te s in v o lv in g the G r e a t P o w e r r iv a lr y , it
is th e U n ited S ta te s w h ic h le a d s the a tta c k on p a r tic u la r p o l i c i e s and
a d v e r t is e s its o u tr a g e at p a r tic u la r s t a t e s and i n s i s t s th at th e y be
con d em n ed . It a d v is e s that the tr e a tm e n t of the Bantu in South A fr ic a
m a y be im p ro v ed by g e n e r a l a n n o u n cem en ts of hum an r ig h ts, but in
s is t s that the tr e a tm e n t of the S o v iet w iv e s of f o r e ig n e r s d em an d s e x
p lic it e x c o r ia tio n of the S o v iet Union; c r i t ic i s m of the Group A r e a s A ct
is op p osed, w h ile a U nited S ta tes r e s o lu tio n is p r e s s e d on the A s s e m b ly
w h ich dem an d s that the S o v iet U nion "w ithdraw the m e a s u r e s " w h ich
co n c e r n the rig h ts of S o v ie t w o m en . A n e x p lic it debate on co n d itio n s of
fo r c e d la b o r in S ou th -W est A fr ic a lo o k s lik e an e x e r c is e in u s e l e s s
" em otion al g ra tifica tio n " to the U nited S ta tes, and should an a n t i- c o l o
n ial d ir e c t h is c o m m e n ts tow ard the U nion of South A fr ic a fo r d e g r a d
ing the status of the " b la ck s," the U nited S ta tes w a rn s h im not to u se
" provocative lan g u a g e." But w h en a g e n e r a liz e d , p erh a p s one should
c a ll it " u n iv e r sa liz e d ," r e s o lu tio n on fo r c e d la b o r is adopted by the A s
se m b ly , the U nited S ta tes f e e l s c o m p e lle d to sta te that "this e v il s y s
tem sp r e a d s w h e n e v e r a co u n try c o m e s u n der C o m m u n ist d om in ation ."
Not s a tis fie d w ith a g e n e r a l d en u n ciation of a ll C o m m u n ist s ta te s , the
U nited S ta tes d e le g a te th en s p e c if ic a lly co n d em n s A lb an ia and C o m
m u n ist China, fo r he e m p h a s iz e s that th e y p r a c tic e fo r c e d la b o r on a
3
la r g e s c a le . A s fo r draft r e s o lu tio n s w h ich a r e adjudged e x c e s s i v e ,
em o tio n a l, and u s e l e s s in a n ti-c o lo n ia l d e b a te s, and th o se au th ored by
the U nited S tates w hen d ea lin g w ith the C o m m u n ists, a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e
d isp la y of both is p a r tic u la r ly in s tr u c tiv e a s a l e s s o n in in c o n s is te n c y .
The a n ti-c o lo n ia l draft on a p a r th e id , w h ic h is a m o d e l fo r the m ild e r
p r o p o sa ls o ffered in the d eb a tes on th is su b jec t, and w h ich in c u r r e d the
See US P a r tic ip a tio n in the UN, 19 5 4 , pp. 1 3 5 -1 3 6 , fo r an e x
c e lle n t ex a m p le of U nited S ta te s p r e d ile c tio n s fo r p ointing fin g e r s at
C o m m u n ist sta te s .
196
d isp le a su r e of the U nited S tates d e le g a te and p ro m p ted him to le c tu r e
the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls on the art of d ip lo m a cy , sta ted that ap arth eid "was
n e c e s s a r ily b a se d on the d o c tr in e s of r a c ia l d isc r im in a tio n ," and e s
ta b lish ed a C o m m is s io n to study the r a c ia l situ a tio n in South A fr ic a and
invited the Union of South A fr ic a "to ex ten d its f u lle s t co o p era tio n to the
4
C o m m issio n ." When the su b ject in v o lv e s the v io la tio n of hum an rig h ts
in E a s te r n E u rop e, the G en eral A s s e m b ly is u rg ed by the U nited S tates
to e x p r e s s
Its opinion that the r e fu s a l by B u lgaria, H ungary, and R um ania to
co o p era te in its e ffo r ts to ex a m in e the g ra v e c h a r g e s w ith r e g a r d
to the o b se r v a n c e of hum an rig h ts and fu n dam ental fr e e d o m s j u s t i
fie s the c o n cer n of the A ss e m b ly .
B u lgaria, R um ania and H ungary a r e s p e c ifie d and con n ected
w ith "grave c h a r g e s," but the U nion of South A fr ic a should not be
nam ed, and its r e fu s a l to c o -o p e r a te w ith the A s s e m b ly should not be
m en tion ed , fo r the A s s e m b ly should only p r o c la im its g e n e r a l h op es
and not r e c o r d its p a rticu la r d is t r e s s . Such e x a m p le s of in c o n s is te n c y
are d ish e a r te n in g ly n u m ero u s, and p erh a p s e v e n ir r e le v a n t, fo r the
le c tu r e s on the art of d ip lo m a cy and the a p p ea ls fo r g e n e r a liz e d p u r
su its a re p erh ap s only s tr a te g e m s and do not flow fro m any r e a l c o n
v ic tio n s. But w hen one r e c a lls that it w as a U nited S ta tes S e c r e ta r y of
State w ho announced to the A s s e m b ly that " sy s te m a tic and d e lib e r a te
d en ial of hum an rig h ts la y at the root of m o s t of the w o r ld 's tr o u b le s,
and th rea ten ed the w o rk of the U nited N ation s," ^ the A m e r ic a n s tr a te g y
^O R 's, G en eral A s s e m b ly , 7th S e s s io n , A n n ex e s, A genda Item
6 6 , pp. 3-4.
^O R 's, 3rd S e s sio n , A H PC , pp. 90-91-
^Ibid., 9A, Part I, p. 37.
197
s e e m s fa ir ly in s e n s itiv e . But then, S e c r e ta r y M a r sh a ll p rob ab ly m ea n t
to id en tify hum an rig h ts in E u rop e, and the v io la to r of th e se rig h ts is
m o r e im p ortan t than the violation .
M oral V e r su s L e g a l P r e o c c u p a tio n s
Inasm uch as a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m is d ed ica ted to the change of the
e s ta b lis h e d o r d e r on a ll le v e ls , it is p r e d ic ta b ly the argu m en t of law
w h ich is m o s t often invoked by the M etr o p o lita n p o w e r s to bar the
fo r c e s of change. Law is by its v e r y natu re a c o n s e r v a tiv e fo r c e , and
the co lo n ia l p o w e r s have co n sta n tly in voked t r e a tie s and th o se p r o v i
sio n s of the C h arter w hich p r o te c t th eir p o sitio n . A cen tr a l le g a l w e a
pon in the M etr o p o lita n a r s e n a l h as b een the " d o m e stic ju r is d ic tio n
cla u se" of the U nited N ation s C h arter, and the U nited S tates r e s p o n se
to the in v o ca tio n s of this c la u s e and the g e n e r a l a rg u m en ts on the r e
q u irem en t of le g a l c o n sid e r a tio n s in the c o lo n ia l d ebate is w orth so m e
elab oration .
The f ir s t q u estio n w h ich is a lm o s t in v a ria b ly r a is e d by the
co lo n ia l p o w e r s w hen c h a r g e s a g a in st th e ir a d m in istr a tio n of dependent
p e o p le s a re brought to the U nited N a tio n s is that e v e n a d is c u s s io n of
con d ition s in th eir t e r r it o r ie s is a v io la tio n of the p r o v is io n s of the d o
m e s t ic ju r is d ic tio n c la u s e . Such a p o sitio n is str o n g ly d efen ded w hen
the is s u e s in v o lv e a r e a s w h ic h a r e under the s o v e r e ig n ty of the M e tr o
p olitan p o w e r s , and the co lo n ia l p o stu r e on d is c u s s io n of a p a rth eid and
the q u estio n of A lg e r ia p r o v id e s a r e p r e se n ta tiv e e x a m p le of this a tti
tude. The U nited S tates h a s tra d itio n a lly taken the p o s itio n that a d i s
c u s sio n of th e s e m a tte r s d o es not co n stitu te a v io la tio n of the d o m e stic
ju r isd ic tio n c la u s e , y et once the d is c u s s io n b eg in s in the A s s e m b ly , the
U nited S ta tes s e e m s to be s e iz e d by doubts. The c l a s s i c d em o n str a tio n
of th is attitude is found on a ll d eb a tes c o n cer n in g the U nion of South
A fr ic a , n a m e ly , the tr e a tm e n t of Indians, ap arth eid or the v io la tio n of
hum an r ig h ts in S o u th -W est A fr ic a . On ea ch o c c a s io n that the A s s e m
bly a p p roach ed d is c u s s io n of th e s e p r o b le m s , South A fr ic a c h a rg ed that
its s o v e r e ig n ty w a s b ein g c h a llen g ed and that the A s s e m b ly had gone
beyond its p ro p e r ju r isd ic tio n . The U nited S tates d e le g a te s c o n s is te n tly
op p osed the South A fr ic a n a rg u m en t at th is point, and no doubt th eir in
flu e n c e w a s a c o n sid e r a b le h elp in obtaining a p latform fo r the a n t i- c o
lo n ia ls to a ir th eir g r ie v a n c e s . Yet w hen the debate began, the U nited
States a d v ise d that the d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n c la u s e be co n sta n tly kept
in m ind , and a ir e d its m is g iv in g s at the c o u r s e of the d eb a tes and the
r e m e d ia l a c tio n s p r o p o se d by the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s. Such a m b iv a
le n c e is a little odd, for it is f a ir ly c le a r that su ch e m o tio n a lly ch a rg ed
ite m s as r a c ia l d is c r im in a tio n a re bound to in cu r stro n g and r e s e n tfu l
c o m m e n ts fr o m the c o lo r e d and a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s. To su pp ort th eir
right to a ir th e ir g r ie v a n c e s and then c o m p la in w hen they do so is m o r e
than a little con fu sin g. What is e v e n m o r e s u r p r isin g is that the v e r y
grounds w h ic h have b een r e je c te d , n a m e ly , the le g a l lim ita tio n s of the
d o m e stic ju r is d ic tio n c la u s e , should be r e s u s c ita te d to cu rb the debate.
W hen it c o m e s to r e m e d ia l p r o p o s a ls , the doubts of the U nited S tates
d e le g a tio n s b e c o m e o b s e s s io n s , and U nited S ta tes d e le g a te s a r e lik e ly
to c o m m e n t w ith g r e a t d e s p a ir on the u n c e r ta in road s the A s s e m b ly is
being a sk ed to trea d , and m o r e often than not they a b sta in in the votin g
and exp lain that the U nited S tates is w o r r ie d about a p o s s ib le v io la tio n
of the C h arter. The s e c tio n s of a n ti-c o lo n ia l p r o p o sa ls w h ich have
199
o c c a s io n e d t h e s e c o m m e n t s h a v e u s u a lly b e e n (a) e x p lic it m e n t io n of
th e S tate in v o lv e d , and (b) e x p li c it m e n t io n of th e l e g i s l a t i o n u n d er
w h ic h th e d is c r im in a t io n is c a r r i e d out. O nce a g a in , it i s odd to a llo w
d eb a te on the v io la t io n s of h u m a n r ig h t s in the o f f ic ia l p o l i c i e s of a
S ta te, and th en e x p e c t n o m e n t io n of e ith e r th e S ta te o r the p o l i c i e s in
th e A s s e m b l y ' s r e s o lu t i o n s . T h e U n ite d S ta te s h a s , h o w e v e r , m a d e an
e ffo r t to le a n a s fa r a s p o s s i b l e in the tw o d ir e c t io n s of o p p o sin g s u c h
s t r ic t in t e r p r e t a t io n s of the C h a r te r a s w o u ld fo r b id d eb a te , a s w e l l a s
p r o t e c t in g th e U n ion of S outh A f r ic a b y in v o k in g th e le g a l p r o v is io n s of
7
the C h a r te r to c o n tr o l th e d e b a te and th e r e s o lu t i o n s ad op ted .
It is p o s s i b l e th at th e U n ite d S ta te s , w h ic h le a d s th e a n ti-
C o m m u n is t c o a lit io n in r e p e a t e d e x p o s u r e s of th e d e g r a d e d p r a c t i c e s
in the f ie ld of h u m a n r ig h ts in C o m m u n is t S ta te s , c a n s c a r c e l y a ffo r d
to s u p p o r t a p o s it io n w h ic h w o u ld p r o h ib it d eb a te on t h e s e m a t t e r s in
the A s s e m b ly . B ut i f th e U n ited S ta te s a v o id s th e p r o b le m of in c o n
s i s t e n c y at th is p o in t it is l e s s s u c c e s s f u l in the s e c o n d h a lf of its p o s i
tio n in th e a n t i- c o l o n i a l d e b a te . A r t ic l e 2, p a r a g r a p h 7, is r a r e l y m e n
tio n e d in A m e r ic a n v ie w s on C o m m u n is t v io la t io n s of h u m a n r ig h ts , and
in t h e s e d e b a te s U n ited S ta te s d e le g a t e s a r e li k e ly to in vok e o th e r p r o
v i s i o n s of the C h a r te r , if not m o r a l la w s , to v in d ic a te th e ir o u tr a g e d
c o m m e n t s and s tr o n g r e s o lu t i o n s . F o r in s t a n c e , w h e n d i s c u s s i n g h u
m a n r ig h ts in E a s t e r n E u r o p e , A m e r ic a n d e le g a t e C o h en th r e w c a u tio n
to the w in d s and d i s m i s s e d th e a r g u m e n t of d o m e s t ic j u r is d ic t io n w ith
th e f la t s ta te m e n t th at "the s o v e r e i g n t y of th e S ta te d id not m e a n th e
ty r a n n y of the S ta te ," and, w a r m in g up to h is s u b je c t, c ite d a r t i c l e s 55
•7
R iggs, P o litic s in the United N a tio n s, p. 128.
200
and 56 of the U nited N a tio n s C h a r ter w h ic h s u sta in e d h is c o m m e n ts and
h is p r o p o s a l that B u lg a ria , H un gary and R um an ia c o - o p e r a t e in c o r -
r e c tin g co n d itio n s d e e m e d od iou s by h im . It w a s in the sa m e s e s s i o n
that M r. C ohen in fo r m e d the a n t i- c o lo n ia ls that the p r o p o s a ls on South
A fr ic a 's b eh a v io r to w a rd Indians in South A fr ic a r e q u ir e d s o m e m o r e
h o m e w o r k by h im . He w ou ld h a v e to "study" the d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n
c la u s e , fo r the p r o b le m w a s a " v ery d e lic a te one" and p erh a p s a ll oth er
d e le g a tio n s m ig h t k eep the c la u s e in m in d in th e ir c o m m e n ts and p r o -
, 9
p o s a l s .
W hen it c o m e s to the A lg e r ia n q u estio n , U n ited S ta tes d e le
g a te s h ave no doubts at all, and f ir m ly a s s e r t that A lg e r ia is a p a r t of
M e tr o p o lita n F r a n c e and that the A s s e m b ly m u s t at a ll t im e s b ea r in
m in d that its r o le is s t r ic t ly lim ite d by the d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n c la u s e .
No r e s o lu tio n s w h ich a re u n a c c e p ta b le to the F r e n c h d e le g a tio n have
w on U nited S ta tes support, and e v e n m e n tio n of F r e n c h p o lic ie s of "pa
cific a tio n " and a ll that r e s u lt s fr o m th em is c o n s id e r e d a v io la tio n of
the law of d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n . One m ig h t lo o k w ith sy m p a th y at the
U nited S ta tes p o s itio n on th is m a tte r , if one w e r e su r e that the U nited
S ta tes w a s d is p o s e d to p r o te c t th is la w a g a in st c a p r ic io u s a b u se , fo r no
m a tte r how im p o rta n t the a n ti-c o lo n ia l g r ie v a n c e s , bending the C h a rter
too m u c h m ig h t w e ll le a d to g r e a te r d iffic u ltie s fo r a ll m e m b e r s ta te s
of the U nited N a tio n s. It is u n fortu n ate, h o w e v e r , that the U nited S ta tes
is it s e l f c a p r ic io u s in its tr e a tm e n t of th is la w and on o c c a s io n h as
su p p o rted p r o p o s a ls the lik e of w h ic h h ave r a r e ly b e e n p r e s e n te d in the
a n ti-c o lo n ia l d eb ate. The d eb ate on the H u n garian q u estio n , fo r
^OR's, 3rd S ession, AHPC, p. 90. 9Ibid., p. 294.
201
in sta n ce, con tain s the ap p rovin g c o m m e n ts and a ffirm a tiv e v o te s of the
U nited S tates d e le g a te fo r a draft w hich sta ted in p art that
The G en eral A s s e m b ly
con vin ced that the r e c e n t e v en ts in H ungary m a n ife s t c le a r ly
the d e s ir e of the H ungarian p eo p le to e x e r c is e and fu lly enjoy
th eir fu n dam en tal rig h ts, fr e e d o m , and independence . . .
C o n sid e rs that fr e e e le c tio n s should be h eld in H ungary under
U nited N ation s a u s p ic e s . . . to enable the p eop le of H ungary to
d e te r m in e fo r th e m s e lv e s the fo rm of g o v ern m en t they w is h to
e s ta b lis h in th eir country.
The so v e r e ig n ty of H ungary is ap p a ren tly l e s s im p ortan t than
the co n v ic tio n about H ungarian d e s ir e s e x p r e s s e d in th is reso lu tio n ,
and the U nited S tates had little h e sita tio n in approving a dem and for
" free e le c tio n s " under "U nited N ation s a u sp ic e s" in sp ite of the p r o v i
sio n s of the d o m e s tic ju r isd ic tio n c la u s e . One can im a g in e that the v io
le n c e and r e p r e s s io n in H ungary c a lle d fo r stron g r e so lu tio n s , and
th e r e fo r e a v e r t h is e y e s fro m su ch an ex a m p le of g la rin g in c o n siste n c y .
Yet A lg e r ia , too, h as b een in the grip of v io le n c e and r e p r e s s io n for
m a n y y e a r s , and a g r e a t part of the A s s e m b ly is eq u a lly "convinced"
about the d e s ir e s of the A lg e r ia n people; and it is hard to defend
A m e r ic a n le g a lis t ic o p p osition to r e s o lu tio n s on A lg e r ia , w hich a re far
m ild e r than the one on H ungary quoted above. E ven a c a ll for n e g o tia
tion b etw een F r a n c e and PG A R is c o n s id e r e d a v io la tio n of F r a n c e 's
so v e r e ig n ty and the m e n tio n of in d ep en d en ce, se lf-d e te r m in a tio n and
lik e g o a ls, a d an gerou s and im m a tu re s o r t of e m o tio n a lism , and a c le a r
v io la tio n of the d o m e s tic ju r is d ic tio n of F r a n c e . A part fro m th is one
s e c tio n of the C harter, the U nited S ta tes h as b een g e n e r a lly s e n s itiv e to
^ G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly R eso lu tio n , adopted on N o v em b er 9, 1956,
by a 4 8 -1 1 vote w ith 16 a b ste n tio n s.
202
the le g a l im p lic a tio n s in volved in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l a s sa u lt on the M e tr o
p olitan p o w e r s . The U nited S tates p o s itio n on the in terp re ta tio n of
C hapters X I and XII h as b een on the c o n s e r v a tiv e s id e , and the a p p ea ls
for change have b een in v a ria b ly c ir c u m s c r ib e d by the a rg u m en ts of law
and o rd er. Such d eb a tes as the c e s s a t io n of in form ation , in d ep en d en ce
of T ru st T e r r it o r ie s , and s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n have found the U nited
States rem in d in g the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls that although it is sy m p a th etic to
th eir b e lie fs and g o a ls, it m u st in s is t that the U nited N ation s m o v e in a
le g a l and o r d e r ly fa sh io n tow ard a b etter w o rld fo r all. T h ere is m u ch
to be sa id fo r th is p o sitio n as w e ll, and one cannot in any w ay doubt the
s in c e r ity of the A m e r ic a n p u rp o se . The law cannot be a llo w ed su ch e x
tr e m e fle x ib ility as to m a k e the U nited N ation s an in stru m en t fo r ad
vancing a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a u s e s at the e x p e n se of co n tro llin g le g a l p r in c i
p le s , and no d ele g a tio n should ex p e c t the U nited S tates to allow the
U nited N ation s to b e c o m e a cu d gel w ith w h ich it can b eat its ch o se n
ta r g e ts into s u b m iss io n . Yet one q u estio n r e m a in s u n a n sw ered . The
law can be ab u sed not only by the f o r c e s of change, but a ls o by the
fo r c e s of the sta tu s q u o . If the C h arter b e c o m e s a fe n c e behind w h ich
v e ste d in te r e s ts m a y p u rsu e any and e v e r y p o lic y that ap p eals to them ,
it is c le a r that a la r g e p art of the in tern a tio n a l co m m u n ity w ill se e
g r e a te r v ir tu e in v io la tin g the C h arter than in upholding it. Such a
p ro b lem is c e r ta in ly in volved in the q u a r r e l o v er P o r tu g a l's an n oun ce
m en t that it had no o v e r s e a s t e r r it o r ie s to l i s t under the p r o v is io n s of
Chapter XI of the C h a rter. T h ere is little doubt that a cco r d in g to the
le tte r of the law the U nited N ation s m u s t abide by a v o lu n ta ry and u n i
la te r a l an n oun cem en t by its m e m b e r s ta te s on th is m a tte r . T h ere is
203
a ls o little q u e stio n that a n u m ber of t e r r it o r ie s under P o r tu g u e se a d
m in is tr a tio n a re u n ita ry under d efin itio n s w h ich can only appeal to the
P o r tu g u e se g o v ern m en t and its fr ie n d s . To the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s,
P o r tu g a l's p o s itio n is a c y n ic a l p r e te n s e and a g r o s s v io la tio n of the
sp ir it of the C h a rter. The U nited S tates r e s p o n s e on this q u estio n has
b een s t r ic t ly le g a l and th e r e fo r e to P o r tu g a l's advantage, and a stu b
born in s is te n c e that the law is the law , and that the U nited S tates cannot
len d its a s s is t a n c e to any a ttem p ts to c ir c u m v e n t it, a void s the m o r a l
and p o litic a l fa c to r a lm o s t c o m p le te ly . F o r a d ele g a tio n w h ich had the
im a g in a tio n to p r e s e n t the U niting fo r P e a c e P r o p o s a l in ord er to o v e r
co m e S o v iet a b u se of the le tte r of the C h arter, the la c k of in itia tiv e in
th is c a s e is a little su r p r is in g . What is m o r e d is t r e s s in g is the fa ct
that it is U nited S ta tes in flu en ce w h ich has in its u n c o m p r o m isin g d e d i
c a tio n to the le tte r of the law b een d e c is iv e in turning back a v a r ie ty of
, . 11
a n ti-c o lo n ia l in itia tiv e s m th is c a s e .
In the d is p u te s d is c u s s e d above, the U nited S tates has not b een
a p r im a r y p arty, and its r e s p o n s e h a s ten d ed to lea n tow ard the c o n
s e r v a tiv e sid e b e c a u s e its a llie s a r e p o w e r s of the statu s q u o . T h ere
a re so m e is s u e s in w h ich the U nited S ta tes in t e r e s t is m o r e d ir e c tly
in vo lv ed , and it too is a p o w er of the sta tu s q u o . It fo llo w s that in th o se
i s s u e s in w h ich the U nited S ta tes is a c h ie f p a r tisa n , its r e lia n c e on the
le g a l a rg u m en t w ould be fu rth er r e in fo r c e d , and its a ttem p ts to e x e r t a
d e c is iv e in flu en ce on the sid e of the law w ould take on a g r e a te r im
p o rta n ce and u r g e n c y . The U nited S tates is an a d m in iste r in g pow er and
is d ed ic a te d to the p r e s e r v a tio n of the auth ority of the T r u s te e sh ip
^ S e e above, pp. 128-132.
204
C ouncil and r e s i s t s broad in te r p r e ta tio n s of the C harter w h ich w ould
le t the A s s e m b ly h ave a sh a r e of that authority. The U nited S tates has
the m o s t to p r o te c t in the e c o n o m ic statu s quo, and th e r e fo r e r e s i s t s
p r o p o sa ls on e c o n o m ic s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n w hich m ig h t lead to the v io
lation of su ch a g r e e m e n ts as p r o te c t the h old in gs of its n a tio n a ls. In
p u rsu in g th e s e en d s, the U nited S tates has a rtic u la ted its p o sitio n w ith
so m e fo r c e , and y et it is a cu r io u s p h en om en a in the U nited N ations
that it has b een m o r e s u c c e s s f u l in b lock in g a n ti-c o lo n ia l in itia tiv e s in
those m a tte r s w h ich c o n c e r n the in te r e s t of its fr ie n d s than in th e se
two a r e a s w h ich a re fu n dam en tal to its own in te r e st. H ere its ap p eals
have gone u n heed ed and its a rg u m en ts invoking e x istin g la w s h ave b een
su p e r c e d e d by the c h a lle n g e s offered in the n am e of h igh er m o r a l la w s.
The k ey to its s u c c e s s in one se t of is s u e s and its r e la tiv e fa ilu r e s in
another is the votin g b eh a v io r of the L a tin -A m e r ic a n d ele g a tio n s They
have p ro v ed am en ab le to U nited S tates in flu en ce on su ch m a tte r s as Tu
n isia , A lg e r ia and the c a s e of P o r tu g a l's o v e r s e a s t e r r it o r ie s , but they
turn th eir b ack s w hen the " c o lo ss u s of the North" a ttem p ts to get th eir
support in e ith e r the d eb a tes on e c o n o m ic s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n or the
lim ita tio n of the A s s e m b ly 's fu n ction s w ith r e s p e c t to n o n - s e lf - g o v e r n
ing and T ru st T e r r it o r ie s .
S om e oth er e x a m p le s of the A m e r ic a n p r e d ile c tio n fo r the l e
gal a s p e c ts of the d isp u te s b etw een the co lo n ia l and a n ti-c o lo n ia l p ow
e r s m a y be noted in c o n clu sio n . The f ir s t is the A m e r ic a n habit of
p r e fa c in g r e m a r k s on su ch m a tte r s as T u n isia , M o r o c c o and A lg e r ia
w ith exten d ed h is t o r ic a l r e fe r e n c e s to the t r e a tie s w h ich a re at the co re
of the M etr o p o lita n c a s e . The su b sta n tiv e q u a rrel m a y c o n c e r n su ch
205
m a tte r s as fr e e d o m or the v io la tio n of hum an rig h ts, but the A m e r ic a n
d ele g a tio n 's c o m m e n ts a r e unhelpful in illu m in a tin g the A m e r ic a n r e
a ction to th ese p r o b le m s , although th ey a r e am p ly rew a rd in g to stu
dents of h isto r y . The s e c o n d illu str a tio n c o n c e r n s the A m e r ic a n p r e
d isp o sitio n tow ard r e ly in g on the In ternational C ourt of J u stic e to c l a r i
fy su ch d e lic a te p r o b le m s a s the statu s of S ou th -W est A fr ic a . O thers
m a y r e m a r k on the con d ition s p r e v a ilin g in that te r r ito r y ; the U nited
States le a n s tow ard gettin g a le g a l opinion on the status of that t e r r i
tory. S im ila r ly , w hen India w a s e x e r c is e d about A fr ic a 's tr e a tm e n t of
peop le of Indian o rig in , and cited the a ctio n s of the Union g o v ern m en t
w hich w e r e m o r a lly o ffe n siv e , the U nited States resp o n d ed w ith the s u g
g e stio n that the ICJ be c o n su lted on ju st how the Indian com p laint could
12
be handled. Such cau tion is c h a r a c te r is tic in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l d e
b ates in the U nited N a tio n s, but as has b een shown above, it is not u su a l
w hen the d isp u tes r e f le c t the G reat P o w e r r iv a lr y . In th o se is s u e s , it
is the m o r a l fa c to r w h ich is c e n tr a l to the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n se , and it is
in the n am e of m o r a l c o n sid e r a tio n s that the U nited S tates in tro d u ces
its c o m m e n ts and p r o p o sa ls.
M o ra l V e r s u s P r o c e d u r a l P r e o c c u p a tio n s
If the a rg u m en t of law d o es not w in the sy m p a th ies of the a n ti
co lo n ia l p o w e r s and its r e s tr a in ts a re not a p p recia te d by th em , the
U nited S tates h as s c a r c e ly giv en up the figh t to keep so m e co n tro l on
the c o u r s e of the d e b a te s. P r o c e d u r e is a la r g e w ord and e n c o m p a s s e s
m an y s tr a te g ie s w h ich m a y be invoked to ste m the tid es of a n ti
12
PR 's, 2nd Session, 1st Com m ittee, p. 448.
c o lo n ia lis m , if not to g iv e them a m a tu r e r c o u r s e to fo llo w . On m a n y
o c c a s io n s , the U nited S ta tes d e le g a tio n s have m a n a g ed to avoid a total
rupture b etw een the a n ti-c o lo n ia l and M etro p o lita n p o w e r s by ex e r tin g
a san e and m o d e r a te in flu en ce on both p a r tie s and w ork in g out c o m
p r o m is e s b etw een th em . One su ch in sta n ce is the r e c u r r e n t debate on
the R en ew a l of the C o m m ittee on In form ation fro m N o n -S e lf-G o v e r n in g
T e r r it o r ie s . The C o m m ittee o w es its life as m u ch to the p la ca tin g in
flu en ce of the U nited S ta tes as it d o es to the z e a l of the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
p o w e r s , fo r it has b een U nited S tates in itia tiv e w hich has m an ip u lated
te x ts to find the b a s is on w hich the continued c o -o p e r a tio n of the M e tr o
p olitan p o w e r s could be a s su r e d . Such p r o c e d u r a l d e x te r ity can, h o w
e v e r , take on an e n tir e ly d iffere n t m e a n in g w hen the U nited S tates is
l e s s d eta ch ed about the d isp u te s and m o r e co n c e r n e d w ith p ro tectin g
the in te r e s ts of the W e ste r n p o w e r s. T hen p ro c e d u r a l a rg u m en ts are
u tiliz e d to b lo ck or d e fle c t a n ti-c o lo n ia l a s s a u lts and they a ls o m ak e it
p o s s ib le fo r the U nited S tates to avoid any co m m en t on the su b stan tive
a s p e c ts of the debate.
The f ir s t plank in the p r o c e d u r a l p latform d e v is e d by the
U nited S ta tes d e le g a tio n s c o n c e r n s the m a n n er in w h ich d eb ates should
be conducted, and the s e c o n d c o n c e r n s the langu age u sed in the r e s o lu
tion s w h ich m a y be adopted. The U nited S tates n e v e r fa ils to m en tio n
that the d eb a tes on a n ti-c o lo n ia l m a tte r s should do nothing w h ich w ould
e x a c e r b a te te n sio n s and p r e s s e s the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s to d ir e c t th eir
c o m m e n ts tow ard c r e a tin g "an a tm o sp h e r e fa v o ra b le to n eg o tia tio n s."
It h as m a tte r e d little if the debate c o n c e r n s r a c ia l d is c r im in a tio n , e c o
n om ic exp lo ita tio n , fo r c e d la b o r or other m a lp r a c tic e s ; the U nited
207
States is d om in ated by the c o n sid e r a tio n s of m eth od and r a r e ly e x
p r e s s e s its v ie w s on the su b sta n tiv e m a tte r s in volved. A few in sta n c e s
of such a sta n c e a re w orth y of so m e ela b o ra tio n , for th ey show the r e
m a rk a b le range of p r o c e d u r a l a r g u m e n ts. W hen the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w
e r s dem anded and r e c e iv e d a h e a r in g on the conditions of the H e r r e r o
tribe in S ou th -W est A fr ic a , it w a s only a fter c o n sid e r a b le a rgu m en t on
w hether th e se h e a r in g s should be conducted in the T r u s te e s h ip C ouncil
or b efo re the F ourth C o m m ittee. The U nited S tates sid ed w ith the c o
lo n ia l p o w e r s , d eta iled its a rg u m en ts as to w hy it w a s p ro p er p r o c e
dure for th e se h e a r in g s to be h eld b efo r e the T r u ste e s h ip C ouncil and
voted a g a in st a llo w in g the R ev eren d M ic h a e l Scott to appear b efo re the
C o m m ittee. When M r. Scott did appear b efo re the C o m m ittee (on nu
m e r o u s o c c a s io n s , it m a y be added) h is c o m m e n ts on the condition s
im p o se d on the H e r r e r o s by the U nion g o v ern m en t w e r e nothing l e s s
1 ^
than sh ock in g. D eep ly m o v e d a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e rs r o s e to thank M r.
Scott for h is trou ble and m a d e em o tio n a l sta te m e n ts of support fo r the
H e r r e r o s and c a s tig a te d the U nion for its p o lic ie s .
Its flu r r y of a c tiv ity on the p r o c e d u r a l a s p e c ts of th e se h e a r
ings ap p aren tly d rain ed a ll the e n e r g ie s of the U nited States d ele g a tio n
for the r e c o r d con tain s n eith er its thanks to M r. Scott n or any m en tio n
14
of the r e s p o n s e to the p ligh t of the H e r r e r o s . Such a p o stu re h as r e
m a in ed fa ir ly con stan t, and the U nited S tates d e le g a te s h ave, fro m tim e
to tim e announced th eir a n g u ish at v io la tio n s of p ro ced u re in p erm ittin g
13
McLaurin, The United Nations and Power P olitics, pp. 371-
375.
14Ibid., pp. 388-392.
208
th e s e h e a r in g s , but n e v e r th e ir p ain at so m e rath er blatant v io la tio n s of
hum an rig h ts that th e se h e a r in g s have ex p o sed .
W hen it c o m e s to the adoption of draft r e s o lu tio n s, the U nited
S tates d e le g a tio n is u s u a lly a c tiv e in the r o le of the g r e a t a m en d er.
U nited S tates d e le g a tio n s w o r r y about su ch m a tte r s as w h eth er the A s
s e m b ly sh ould " e x p r e ss its h o p es" ra th er than " recom m en d " so lu tio n s
on m a tte r s ranging fro m r a c ia l d is c r im in a tio n to the indepen d en ce of
T u n isia. If the M etr o p o lita n p o w er is obdurate and r e fu s e s to c o - o p e r
ate w ith the A s s e m b ly , the U nited S ta tes d e le g a te s u rge the A s s e m b ly
to s im p ly "take note" of th is fa ct, and in s is t that no " grave con cern " be
e x p r e s s e d . T his s o r t of p reo cc u p a tio n h a s b een the dom inant note in
the U nited S tates r e s p o n s e to su ch d isp u te s as T u n isia, M o ro c co , A l
g eria , the tr e a tm e n t of Indians and a p a r th e id . A ll th e se su g g e stio n s for
m o d e r a tio n a r e su pp orted by the a rg u m en t that str o n g e r lan gu age in the
r e s o lu tio n s w ill s im p ly le a d to in c r e a s in g r ig id ity on a ll s id e s and s o
lution s to the d isp u te s w ill b e c o m e e v e n m o r e difficult. When th e se
a m en d m en ts a r e adopted, and th ey u su a lly have b een in the co lo n ia l d e
b a tes, and the M etr o p o lita n p o w er s t ill r e f u s e s to c o -o p e r a te , the
U nited S ta tes o p p o se s any attem p t to " reca ll" p r e v io u s r e so lu tio n s
m u ch l e s s e x p r e s s any d is illu sio n m e n t w ith the p ow er who h a s r e fu se d
to abide by th eir p r o v is io n s . The p r im e ex a m p le of a p ow er w hich h as
r e p e a te d ly ig n o re d the A s s e m b ly 's r e s o lu tio n s and d is m is s e d them as
ille g a l, if not w o r s e , is the U nion of South A fr ic a . Y ear a fter y e a r the
A s s e m b ly r e q u e s ts that it c o -o p e r a te in w ork in g out s o m e a g r e e m e n t
w h ich w ould a c c o r d to the t e r r it o r y of S ou th -W est A fr ic a so m e in te r n a
tion al su p e r v isio n , and as c o n s is te n tly , the Union r e fu s e s to resp o n d in
a c o - o p e r a t i v e s p ir it . T he U n ited S ta te s s h a r e s th e a n t i- c o l o n i a l f e e l
in g th at th e U n ion of S outh A f r ic a i s o b lig e d to do w h a t i s r e q u e s t e d in
t h e s e r e s o lu t i o n s , but o p p o s e s a n y r e f e r e n c e to th e p r e v io u s r e s o l u
tio n s , fo r " nothing i s to be g a in ed " b y s u c h a r e f e r e n c e , and in lig h t of
th e f a c t th a t S outh A f r ic a h a s a lr e a d y r e j e c t e d th o s e r e s o lu t i o n s , " th e re
15
w a s a d a n g e r of c h e a p e n in g r e s o lu t io n s " b y r e p e a tin g th e m . On the
s u r f a c e , th is p o s it io n s e e m s r a th e r w in n in g , but t h e r e is a n o th e r a s p e c t
to th is p r o b le m w h ic h n e e d s to b e c o n s id e r e d . The r e s o lu t io n s p a s s e d
b y the A s s e m b l y s ta te its b e l i e f s an d g o a ls and it w o u ld s e e m odd if the
r e c a l c i t r a n c e of one n a tio n sh o u ld in h ib it it fr o m in v o k in g th em a g a in .
A ls o , in s o m e c a s e s , n e g o tia tio n fo r the s e t t le m e n t of th e d isp u te b e
tw e e n th e m a j o r it y in th e A s s e m b l y and th e o p p o sin g p o w e r c a n o n ly
ta k e p la c e w ith in th e l i m i t s s e t in t h e s e r e s o lu t i o n s . The U n ited S ta te s
is q u ite a w a r e of th is , fo r it h a s i n s i s t e d on r e c a lli n g e a r l i e r p r o p o s a ls
in th e d eb a te on K o r e a , and on th e H u n g a r ia n q u e s tio n w e n t a s fa r a s to
d e m a n d th at th e s p e c ia l s e s s i o n a p p r o v e its p r o p o s a l to in c lu d e n o t o n ly
the q u e s tio n of H u n g a ry on the a g e n d a of th e E le v e n th S e s s i o n , but a ls o
th e r e s o lu t io n s a d o p ted at th e S p e c ia l S e s s i o n . ^ T he U n ited S ta te s w o n
it s p o in t on H u n g a r y but h a s in v a r ia b ly o p p o s e d th e s a m e p o in t w h e n it
is m a d e b y th e a n t i- c o l o n i a l p o w e r s in o th e r d e b a te s .
The U n ited S ta te s h a s b e e n a b le to g e t th e a n t i- c o l o n i a ls to be
m o r e " c o n c ilia to r y " on t h is p o in t th an it i t s e l f is w illin g to be in the
^ O R 's , 6th S e s s i o n , C o m m itte e IV , p. 152.
^ I n d i a h ad s u p p o r te d th e d e c i s i o n to in c lu d e th e H u n g a r ia n
ite m on th e 11th S e s s i o n ' s a g e n d a , but a b s ta in e d w h e n a p r o v is io n w a s
a d d ed to in c lu d e th e r e s o lu t i o n s a d o p te d a s w e ll . F o r the U n ited S ta te s
v ie w , s e e US P a r t ic ip a t io n in the U N , r e p o r t by th e P r e s i d e n t to th e
C o n g r e s s fo r th e y e a r 1 9 5 6 , pp. 9 0 - 9 1 .
210
G reat P o w er riv a lry , but not a ll the m o d era tio n and co n cilia tio n can
m ove the Union of South A frica to co m p ly w ith the A s s e m b ly 's so ft-
spoken r eso lu tio n s, nor does F ra n ce show m u ch w illin g n e ss to c r e a te
the p ea cefu l conditions en v isio n ed in the platitudinous reso lu tio n s
p a s se d on A lg eria . If in the fa ce of th e se rep eated rebuffs the a n ti-c o
lo n ia ls begin to com plain, the U nited S tates u su a lly in terv en es with e lo
quent appeals for yet m o re m od eration . One w ond ers if it would not be
m o re to the point for the United S tates to appeal to its a llie s to com p ly
w ith the A ss e m b ly 's o ft-sta te d w is h e s . Yet, w ith J o b -lik e p a tien ce, the
United States is the v e r y m o d el of tact and d ip lom acy in the a n ti-c o lo
n ial debate. But for th ose who w ould p lay the role of co n cilia to rs in the
United N ations, th ere is a r e sp o n sib ility to show that they can be eq u al
ly patient and co n cilia to ry w hen it is th eir in te r e sts that are under co n
sid era tio n in the U nited N ations. T his the United States is unable to do,
and indeed its behavior in the G reat P ow er riv a lr y p ro v id es a m od el
for the m o s t ta c tle s s and h ot-h ead ed a n ti-c o lo n ia ls and m u st cau se d is
m a y to those who m igh t w ish to be co n v erted to the co u n sel of c iv iliz e d
and p r a c tic a l debate. If the C om m un ist S tates are dilatory in fu lfillin g
their obligations to the C harter and in obeying reso lu tio n s adopted in
the A ss e m b ly by m u c h -a d v e r tis e d " overw helm in g m a jo r itie s," the
United S tates sp eak s out in viru len t to n es, and p r e s e n ts draft r e s o lu
tions studded w ith blunt a ccu sa tio n s and h a r sh denunciation s. P r o c e
dure is of no im portance h e r e , and the U nited States is not above p r e
senting tex ts that m u st rank am ong the m o s t ill-c o n c e iv e d o ffered by
any pow er to the A ss e m b ly . A s one in sta n ce, in its an xiety to ex co r ia te
the P eo p les R epublic of China, the U nited States p resen ted a draft w hich
211
con d em n ed that g o v ern m en t, c a lle d upon it to w ithd raw its fo r c e s and
then e n v isio n e d the e s ta b lis h m e n t of a Good O ffices C o m m ittee to n e g o
tiate w ith the con d em n ed govern m en t! It w a s in the debate on th is ab
su rd ly c o n str u c te d tex t that India's M r. R au rem in d ed the U nited S tates
d ele g a te and th o se in flu en ced by him that to
com b in e a p r o p o sa l fo r n eg o tia tio n s through the Good O ffice of the
P r e s id e n t [of the A s s e m b ly ] w ith a p r e v io u s con d em n ation of the
g o v ern m en t w ith w h ich the n eg o tia tio n s are to be conducted, c r e
a te s the im p r e s s io n that the U nited N ation s is not s e r io u s about
e ith e r . B y th is com b in ation , the r e s o lu tio n d e p r iv e s the co n d em n a
tion of any m o r a l fo r c e , and, at the s a m e tim e , d e p r iv e s the n e g o ti
ation s of th eir b e s t ch an ce of s u c c e s s .
M r. Rau w a s right, of c o u r s e , but the U nited S tates w as no
doubt in v o lv ed w ith m o r e su b sta n tiv e m a tte r s at th is point. It has m a t
te r e d little w hat the o b je c tiv e s of draft r e so lu tio n s m a y be in the G reat
P o w er r iv a lr y , for the U nited S tates is unable to r e s i s t the tem p tation
to u s e r e so lu tio n s as a new kind of w eap on in the cold w ar. In the Hun
g a ria n d isp ute, a draft r e s o lu tio n w ith the im p ortan t and hum ane p u r
p o s e of h elp in g the H ungarian p eop le by fa c ilita tin g the d istrib u tio n of
m e d ic a l su p p lies and food to th em , con tain ed su ch in cen d ia ry p h r a se s
as
1. C a lls upon the USSR to c e a s e im m e d ia te ly action s a g a in st the
H ungarian p opulation w h ich a r e in v io la tio n of the a cce p te d
stan d ard s and p r in c ip le s of in tern a tio n a l law , ju s tic e and
m o ra lity ;
A fter th is beginning, the r e s o lu tio n s t ill u rged the USSR to
" co o p era te fully" w ith the S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l in d istrib u tin g the su p
p lie s , and then retu rn ed in the next p a ra g ra p h to the m o r e fruitful
17
F o r text of th is d raft and c o m m e n t on the Indian p o sitio n ,
se e B e r k e s, The D ip lo m a cy of India, pp. 129-130; M r. R au1 s sta tem en t
is quoted in ib id ., p. 129.
212
v is ta s of denouncing "harsh and r e p r e s s iv e a ctio n s" of the USSR. The
author of th is b lu n tly -w o rd ed tex t w a s, of c o u r s e , the U nited S ta tes and
it ste r n ly r e fu se d to elim in a te the co n d em n a to ry r e fe r e n c e s w h en India
p lea d ed that a m ild e r tex t m ig h t gain the c o -o p e r a tio n sought fro m the
S oviet Union.
To retu rn to the a n ti-c o lo n ia l debate and the U nited States ro le
th erein , if all the m a n y p r o c e d u r a l ch a n g es dem anded by the U nited
S tates are not co n ced ed by the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s , the A m e r ic a n d e le
gation r e s o r t s to the u s e - - s o m e m igh t sa y a b u s e -- o f th ose p r o v is io n s
of the C h arter w h ich can fr u s tr a te the a n ti-c o lo n ia l d r iv e s . T h ere is a
r e m a r k a b le range of is s u e s in w h ich the U nited S tates, su pported by
am en ab le L a tin -A m e r ic a n p o w e r s , d e c id e s that r e s o lu tio n s not to its
lik in g a r e "im portant q u estio n s" and th e r e fo r e m u s t h ave the supp ort of
tw o -th ir d s of the A s s e m b ly . Indeed, one is d isp o se d to co m m en t that
the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s m u s t be w e a r y of w inning te m p o r a r y v ic to r ie s
in the C o m m itte e s of the A s s e m b ly , and ev en th ere being rem in d ed by
the U nited S tates that in the A s s e m b ly things w ill be d ifferen t, u n le s s ,
of c o u r s e , p r o c e d u r a l ch an ges d em an d ed by the U nited S tates a r e ap-
19
p ro v ed by th em . 7 When the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls have not paid h eed to th e s e
r e m in d e r s, th ey have m o s t often found that th eir c a lls to action sp utter
out in the A s s e m b ly , w h e r e the U nited S ta tes, tru e to its w a rn in g s not
to m e n tio n its fr ie n d s, in vok es the r u le s of p r o c e d u r e to d e c la r e a n ti
co lo n ia l p r o p o s a ls "im portant" and then h elp s to d efeat them by gettin g
18
U nited S tates p r o p o sa l adopted on N o v em b er 9, 1956. F or
d is c u s s io n of the draft and Indian a ttem p ts at am en d m en t, s e e U nited
N ation s R eview , D e c e m b e r , 1956, p. 105.
^ S e e above, pp. 117-119.
213
the L atin s to ab stain or vote a g a in st th o se p r o p o s a l s .^ S u rely one ca n
not co m p la in if a sta te u tiliz e s e v e r y p o s s ib le m e a n s to p r o te c t its fu n
d am en tal b e lie fs , but the u se of th e s e p r o c e d u r e s to d efeat th o se fo r c e s
w ith w hom the U nited S ta tes in s is t s it s h a r e s c o m m o n g o a ls and id ea s
is a little d istu rb in g. It is stra n g e to ela b o r a te freq u en tly on the
A m e r ic a n sy m p ath y for a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m and as freq u en tly fr u str a te a
m a jo r ity in the A s s e m b ly b e c a u s e it is not la r g e enough. And w hen one
n o tes that it is the U nited S ta tes d ele g a tio n that s e e s to it that the m a
jo r ity d o es not co n stitu te .w o -th ir d s of the A s s e m b ly , such a ctio n s a p
p ea r a lm o s t p e r v e r s e . It is th is kind of p r o c e d u r a l m a n e u v e r in g w hich
ex p la in s B o w les' c o m m e n t that
in the U nited N ations G en era l A s s e m b ly . . . w h e re on m an y o c c a
sio n s the sp otligh t of w o rld atten tion h as b een fo c u s e d on c o lo n ia l
p r o b le m s , the U nited S ta tes, in the judgm ent of A sia n s and A fr i
c a n s, h as on b a la n ce show n up p o o r ly . . . . Such a c tio n s, as Senator
G eorge w a rn ed u s in J u ly 1955, "too often h ave s e e m e d to put us on
the sid e of c o lo n ia lis m ."
One h o p es that the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls , w h o se voting pow er is ste a d ily c lim b
ing w ith the addition of n ew ly -in d ep en d en t s ta te s , do not u se U nited
S tates b eh a v io r in th e s e m a tte r s as the m o d e l for th eir s tr a te g ie s in
la te r y e a r s and on r e a lly im p ortan t q u e stio n s.
L ast, th e r e is the q u estio n of r e c u r r in g debate and w h eth er it
is p ro p er p r o c e d u r e to includ e a n ti-c o lo n ia l ite m s on the A s s e m b ly 's
agenda in s e s s i o n a fter s e s s i o n w hen the M etro p o lita n p o w er in volved
in the d isp u te s has bluntly r e fu se d to cou n ten an ce the A s s e m b ly 's in
te r fe r e n c e in w hat it c o n s id e r s m a tte r s e x c lu s iv e ly under its s o v e r e ig n
^®See above, pp. 1 1 9 -1 2 1 .
21
C h e ste r B o w le s, N ew D im e n sio n s of P e a c e (New York: H a r
p er and B r o s ., 1955), p. 238.
co n tro l and d ire ctio n . A s in d icated e a r lie r , the U nited S tates h a s b een
fr ie n d ly to the a n ti-c o lo n ia l right to have th e s e m a tte r s d is c u s s e d in
the A s s e m b ly , although it h as not alw a y s b e e n su re of the w isd o m in
p u rsu in g a c o u r s e w h ich only r e s u lts in open d is a g r e e m e n ts op en ly a r
r iv e d at. The U nited S tates h as, on su ch ground s, a r tic u la te d its f e e l
ings in the d eb a tes on T u n isia , M o r o c c o and A lg e r ia . The m o r e s e n s i
tiv e and obdurate the F r e n c h d ele g a tio n b e c a m e in th e s e d eb a tes, the
m o r e the U nited S tates argu ed that fu rth er a n ti-c o lo n ia l c o m m en ts
w ould e x a c e r b a te te n s io n s . One o c c a s io n w hen the a p p ea ls of the U nited
S tates d ele g a tio n w e r e h ea rd , and r e c e iv e d a sy m p a th etic r e s p o n s e , w as
the Tenth S e s s io n debate on A lg e r ia . The F r e n c h d e le g a tio n had w alk ed
out, and ev e n the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls ap p ea led to it to retu rn and h ea r th eir
c o m m e n ts. The situ a tio n is not w ithout hum or, although its lig h te r a s
p e c ts p rob ab ly did not m a k e the F r e n c h d ele g a tio n any h ap p ier. D e
p r iv e d of the p r e s e n c e of the ta r g e t of th eir c r it ic is m , the a n t i- c o lo
n ia ls d isp la y ed so m e c h a rity tow ard th eir a d v e r s a r y and adopted a p r o
p o sa l by a n ti-c o lo n ia l India that d eb ate on A lg e r ia be abandoned fo r the
b alan ce of that s e s s io n . The U nited S tates then r e c o r d e d its gratitude
22
to the Indian d e le g a te fo r h is w isd o m . The e s s e n t ia l point fo r w hich
th is illu str a tio n is o ffe r e d is w h eth er th e r e is w isd o m in the g en era l
a ssu m p tio n that s in c e the A s s e m b ly is not a co u rt of law nor a fe d e r a l
le g is la tu r e , it should s t e e r c le a r of t ir e s o m e r e p e titio n s of " r e c o m
m en d a tio n s" w h ich h ave a lr e a d y b een r e je c te d by th o se p a r tie s w ho a re
su p p o sed to abide by th em . T h ere d o es not s e e m to be a c le a r a n sw er
to th is q u estio n in the U nited S tates d e le g a tio n 's b eh a v io r in the U nited
^ OR's, General Assembly, 10th Session, p. 376.
215
N a tio n s. F o r in sta n c e , on a n ti-c o lo n ia l m a tte r s it is w is e to stop c o n
tinued d is c u s s io n and adoption of r e s o lu tio n s w h ich ca u se a stiffen in g of
attitu d es on both s id e s of the d isp u te. But, a fter gaining the adoption of
no l e s s than e le v e n r e s o lu tio n s on H ungary at the S p ecia l S e s s io n in
1956, the U nited S ta tes ju stifie d the in c lu s io n s of the H ungarian item on
the agenda of the A s s e m b ly ’s E le v en th S e ssio n , in a m o s t con vin cing
sta te m e n t by A m b a ssa d o r L od ge. N oting that the S o v iet U nion had r e
je c te d all the e le v e n r e s o lu tio n s and the A s s e m b ly 's right to d is c u s s
the m a tte r , M r. Lodge s tir r in g ly added that
the g r e a te s t d anger w e fa c e in th is d ifficu lt and tr a g ic m a tte r is
that w e w ill give in to d e sp a ir . The m o s t n e c e s s a r y qu ality fo r us
th e r e fo r e is s te a d fa s tn e s s . We know what is right. A lthough th ere
is c o n s id e r a b le fo r c e behind the thing w h ich is w ron g, th o se w ho
w ie ld the p o w er are hum an b ein g s w ho can be brought to change
th eir m in d s.
It a p p ea rs that a ll things a re r e la te d to the d istin c tio n s draw n
by the U nited S ta tes b etw een the G reat P o w e r r iv a lr y and the m a n if e s
ta tio n s of a n ti-co lo n ia lisr: - e v e n the o ld -fa sh io n e d v ir tu e s of s te a d
f a s t n e s s .
India and A m e r ic a :
P a r a lle l and C o n tra st in U nited N ations S tra teg y
It h as b een noted that the lim ita tio n s of the p ow er and s e c u r ity
in t e r e s t in U nited S tates p o lic y have p rev e n te d an u ninhibited p u rsu it of
m o r a l p r in c ip le s by the U nited S ta tes d e le g a tio n to the U nited N a tio n s.
W ithin th e se lim ita tio n s , the U nited S tates h a s d ev elo p e d a f a ir ly cogen t
c a s e fo r p r o p r ie ty and m eth o d in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l debate, in o rd er to
23
F o r a s u m m a r y of the A m e r ic a n v ie w on th is m a tte r , s e e
US P a r tic ip a tio n in the UN, r e p o r t by the P r e s id e n t to the C o n g r e ss fo r
the y e a r 1957, pp. 4 6 -5 0 ; fo r M r. L o d g e 's r e m a r k quoted above, s e e
ib id ., pp. 4 9 -5 0 .
216
d is sip a te the fu ll fo r c e of the a n ti-c o lo n ia l a s s a u lt on W e ste r n p ow er.
It is to the o b je c tiv e s of o r d e r and c o n tr o lle d debate that the r efr a in
"do nothing that w ould e x a c e r b a te te n sio n s" is a d d r e sse d , and the U nited
S tates h a s m o r e often than not b een cap tu red by the p o lic y of crea tin g
an a tm o sp h e r e con d u cive to n egotiation , at the e x p e n se of a c le a r
sta te m e n t of its own p o sitio n in that debate. A s M r. Sprague once l e c
tu red the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls , the tr e a tm e n t of Indians in South A fr ic a could
not be im p r o v e d by an a ttem p ted co m p u lsio n of the Union of South A fr i
ca, and m e m b e r s ta te s w ould do w e ll to ch o o se the sid e of co n cilia tio n
o v e r r e c r im in a tio n so that an a tm o sp h e r e fa v o ra b le to n eg o tia tio n s
24
could be c r e a te d by the A ss e m b ly . Such sta te m e n ts by A m e r ic a n
d e le g a te s a re fa ir ly n u m ero u s, and th ey have b een part of the A m e r i
can str a te g y in the co lo n ia l debate. What is a str a te g y for the A m e r i
can d ele g a tio n has b een the b a s ic th e o r y and the m o s t dem anding p r in
c ip le in the Indian r e s p o n se to the G reat P o w e r r iv a lr y . India has b een
cap tu red by w hat h as b een d e s c r ib e d as the " clim a te of w ar" th e s is ,
and th is th e s is is not d ev elo p e d to ad vance an u n rela ted s e t of in te r e s ts
in the G reat P o w e r r iv a lr y , for it is in it s e lf the b a sic in te r e s t of the
Indian d e le g a tio n s. P e a c e is on ly p o s s ib le if the G reat P o w e r s r e m a in
p ea c e fu l, and India has con ten d ed that a ll other p o w e r s should d ed icate
t h e m s e lv e s to the red u ctio n of te n s io n s b etw een the U nited S tates and
the S oviet Union. It is fro m su ch a p r e m is e that India h as d ev elo p ed
its r e s p o n se to the G reat P o w e r c la s h in the U nited N ation s and has
c o n s is te n tly ch am p ion ed the ca u se of c o n c ilia tio n in the G reat P o w er
r iv a lr y , for
24OR's, 7th Session, AHPC, p. 62.
217
p e a c e depends upon the e sta b lish m e n t of a ''clim ate of p ea ce" and
fro m the d ed ica tio n of Indian fo r e ig n p o lic y to the p u rsu it of p e a c e
th ere h as e m e r g e d a w orking form u la: do nothing that w ill c o n
trib ute to the e n la r g e m e n t or en tren ch m en t of the c lim a te of w ar,
but do ev ery th in g p o s s ib le tow ard its sh rin k age and d is e s t a b lis h
m ent.
U nder the d icta tes of the c lim a te of w a r th e s is , w hat the Indian
d ele g a tio n s have done, or r e fu se d to do, in d eb a tes lo d g ed in the G reat
P o w er r iv a lr y b e a r s a r e m a r k a b le r e s e m b la n c e to the U nited S tates r e
sp o n se to c o lo n ia l-a n ti-c o lo n ia l c la s h e s . The f ir s t s im ila r ity b etw een
the tw o d e le g a tio n s is th eir rep e a te d d em an d for d ip lo m a tic lan gu age in
all d eb ates in volvin g th e s e two r iv a lr ie s in the U nited N ation s. If the
U nited S tates r e p r e s e n ts the v o ic e of r e a so n and r e s tr a in t in the c o lo
nial d eb a tes, and u r g e s a ll m e m b e r s to adopt its re c o m m e n d a tio n s for
c iv iliz e d conduct in th eir ap p roach to e a c h oth er, India is the m a jo r
sp o k e sm a n for the sa m e p o sitio n w hen the c la sh in v o lv e s G reat P o w er
in te r e s ts in the U nited N ation s. Indian r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s a r e the v e r y
m o d e ls of tact and o b je c tiv ity in d ealin g w ith any c h a r g e s that the S o
v ie t U nion or the U nited S tates m a y b rin g a g a in st ea ch oth er, and
w h ether the item c o n c e r n s " p rep aration s for a new w ar" or other such
t ir e s o m e and a b u siv e S oviet ite m s , or U nited S tates co m p la in ts about
the " violation of hum an rig h ts and fun dam en tal fr e e d o m s" in E a ste r n
E u rope, the Indian r e s p o n se is an un w averin g appeal fo r p ro p r ie ty . In
deed, in the debate on the la tte r item in the T hird S e s s io n of the G e n e r
al A ss e m b ly , the Indian d e le g a tio n sa id nothing at all, and m u ch lik e the
U nited S ta tes in another a r e a of con ten tion in the U nited N ation s, in te r
ven ed only once w ith a te c h n ic a l r e m a r k on the w e a k n e s s e s in the
25
Berkes, op. cit., p. 38.
218
d rafting of the tr e a tie s w hich w e r e now b ein g v io la te d by the r e g im e s in
Z fi
B u lgaria, R um ania and H ungary. A fter two y e a r s of debate on th is
subject, the U nited S tates and the W est c h a rg ed that in ste a d of obeying
the d em an d s of the A s s e m b ly , th e se th r e e g o v e r n m e n ts had r e in fo r c e d
th eir d riv e to v io la te fundam ental fr e e d o m s in E a s te r n E u ro p e, and
M r. C ohen d e ta ile d the " sy s te m a tic and c y n ic a l d is r e g a r d of hum an
righ ts" w hich, in the U nited S tates v ie w , c h a r a c te r iz e d th e s e C o m m u n ist
g o v e r n m e n ts. In d em anding that they be con d em n ed , M r. C ohen b o r
row ed fro m the v o ca b u la ry of the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls , and sta ted that
the U nited S tates w as co n v in ced that a ll g o v ern m en ts . . . m u st
a g r e e on the fu n dam ental rights of a ll p e o p le s if th ere w a s to be a
b eginning of in tern ation al u n derstan d in g. . . . In the in te r e s ts of in
tern a tio n a l p e a c e , the A s s e m b ly cou ld not ign ore the d e lib e r a te
flaunting by B u lgaria, H ungary and R um ania of th eir tr e a ty o b lig a
tion s and the p r in c ip le s of the debate.
One can im a g in e the d eligh t w ith w hich the Indian d ele g a tio n
w ould h ave g r e e te d su ch a sta te m e n t if the is s u e c o n c e r n e d the v io la
tion of th e s e rig h ts in s o m e co lo n ia l te r r ito r y , but in th is in sta n ce the
Indian d ele g a tio n ab sta in ed in the debate a s w e ll a s on the r e so lu tio n
w hich w a s p a s s e d by the m a jo r ity . B efo re le a v in g th is su b ject, one
m a tte r m ig h t be ex p lo r e d in so m e g r e a te r d eta il. India has r a r e ly
b een able to join in con d em n a to ry debate and r e s o lu tio n s , and has c o n
s is te n tly argu ed that su ch a c tiv ity only w o r s e n s te n sio n s and m a k e s s o
lu tion s m o r e d ifficu lt. E v en w hen the Indian d e le g a tio n is sy m p a th etic
to the o u trage o c c a sio n e d by c h a r g e s of a g g r e s s io n a g a in st the S oviet
Union, as it w a s in the d eb a tes fo llo w in g S o v iet in terv e n tio n in H ungary,
it s t ill p e r s is t s in p laying the r o le of a c o n c ilia to r . C ondem nation by
2^Ibid., p. 46. 27PR’s, 5th Session, AHPC, p. 11.
219
on e G r e a t P o w e r o f a n o th e r m a k e s c o n c ilia t io n d iffic u lt, if n o t i m p o s
s ib le , and Indian d e le g a tio n s w i l l b r a v e th e m a j o r it y ' s c r i t i c i s m s to o f
f e r a m e n d m e n ts lo o k in g to th e d e le tio n of c o n d e m n a to r y r e f e r e n c e s in
the d r a fts b e f o r e th e A s s e m b l y and its C o m m it t e e s . A s Indian d e le g a te
M en o n e x p la in e d h is p o s it io n in th e H u n g a r ia n d e b a te ,
We b e li e v e th at r e s o lu t i o n s that in v o lv e c o n d e m n a tio n , w h ic h ,
in th e ir l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s , w o u ld b e fo llo w e d up b y a d e c l a r a
tio n of w h o is the a g g r e s s o r and w h o i s not, and w o u ld t h e r e f o r e
s tu ltify th e U n ited N a tio n s , and a r e n o t the e l e m e n t s th at w o u ld a s
s i s t in a s o lu tio n .
M u ch lik e th e ir A m e r ic a n c o u n te r p a r ts in th e c o lo n ia l d e b a te , Indian
d e le g a t e s h a v e i n s i s t e d th at h a r a n g u e s in th e A s s e m b l y o n ly e x a c e r b a t e
G r e a t P o w e r t e n s io n s , and c o n d e m n a to r y d r a fts g iv e th o s e t e n s io n s an
a ir of fin a lity . It is th e a p p r e h e n s io n th a t India f e e l s of in c r e a s i n g t e n
s io n s th a t le a d s it s d e le g a tio n s to a v o id a n y s u b s ta n tiv e r e m a r k s on
h ig h ly c o n t e s t e d it e m s , fo r Indian d e le g a tio n s a r g u e th at w h e n the d e
b a te s a r e h e a te d and t e n s e , t h e ir p r o p e r fu n c tio n is to a s s i s t in c l e a r
ing the w a y fo r c o n c ilia tio n , and not s im p ly ad d in g to the l i s t s y e t a n
o th e r v o ic e of o u tr a g e . T he r a tio n a le b eh in d s u c h a p o s it io n is th e In d i
an th e o r y th at the U n ited N a tio n s i s
e s s e n t i a l l y a n in s t r u m e n t fo r th e a d v a n c e m e n t of h a r m o n y ; it c a n
fu n c tio n a s s u c h o n ly a s a v e h ic le fo r n e g o tia tio n , an d to b e s u c c e s s
fu l a t a ll it m u s t d e m a n d f r o m it s m e m b e r s a r e s p e c t f o r th e c u lt i
v a tio n of an e n v ir o n m e n t fa v o r a b le to th e p r o p e r n u r tu r in g and f r u
itio n of n e g o tia tio n . °
S u ch a d e s c r ip t io n of th e Indian r e s p o n s e in the G r e a t P o w e r
r i v a lr y w o u ld a c c u r a t e ly d e s c r i b e th e U n ite d S ta te s r e s p o n s e in th e c o
lo n ia l d eb a te a s w e ll. Y et th e s i m i l a r i t y h a s s o m e im p o r ta n t
^ OR's, General A ssem b ly, 11th S essio n , Yol. I, p. 596.
^ B e r k e s , pp. c it., p. 81.
220
lim ita tio n s , and one rath er im p ortan t c o n tr a st. Both India and A m e r ic a
are in c o n sis te n t in that th ey sp eak fo r c e fu lly on v io la tio n s of hum an
rig h ts w hen su ch v io la tio n s a re in the a r e a s of e m p h a sis in th eir f o r
eign p o lic ie s (co lo n ia l fo r India, C o m m u n ist fo r the U nited S ta tes), but
r e m a in to n g u e -tie d w hen s im ila r v io la tio n s take p la ce in other t e r r i
to r ie s . But the Indian d ele g a tio n h a s b een d ev elo p in g an attitude m o r e
c o n siste n t than that w h ich s t ill d o m in a tes the r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s of the
U nited S ta tes. India o p p o se s co n d em n a to ry r e s o lu tio n s , not only in the
G reat P o w er c la sh , but a ls o in the c o lo n ia l d e b a te s. In sp ite of r e
p ea ted reb uffs from the U nion of South A fr ic a on the tr e a tm e n t of Indi
ans, the Indian d eleg a tio n h as b een m o v in g tow ard m o r e m o d e r a te la n
guage ra th er than thundering d en u n ciation s of the Union. In the e a r lie r
d eb ates on th is q u estion , Indian d e le g a te s w e r e w ont to ex p o stu la te that
th ey w ould not to le r a te su ch a " g ro ss and continuing outrage" a g a in st
the m in o r itie s in South A fr ic a , but by the Tenth S e s sio n , th ey w e r e
sp eak in g the lan guage of m o d e r a te a p p ella n ts w ho "hoped that the Union
of South A fr ic a w ould u n dergo a change of h ea rt," and d e sc r ib in g th eir
p o sitio n in Gandhian t e r m s , th ey announced that "it w a s in South A fr ic a
that the sp ir it of n o n -v io le n c e w as born, and it w a s that s p ir it that India
30
intended to e x e r c is e ." Such m o d e r a tio n in the co lo n ia l debate by anti
co lo n ia l India can be fu rth er e v id e n c e d in the fa ct that India h a s r e fu se d
to countenance con d em n a to ry d rafts a g a in st the W estern p o w e r s, no
m a tte r how obdurate or a g g r e s s iv e th ey m a y h ave been. In its b itter
q u a r r e l w ith the U nion of South A fr ic a , the Indian d ele g a tio n once
on
F o r a fu lle r d is c u s s io n of the Indian tren d tow ard m o d e r a
tion in th e se and other d eb a tes, s e e ib id ., pp. 9 ff.
221
c la r ifie d its fe e lin g s and p o lic y , w h ich s t ill s e r v e s a s the to u ch sto n e of
the Indian r e s p o n s e . Introducing an Indian draft on the tr e a tm e n t of In
d ian s, the Indian d e le g a te stated:
C ould a s in g le w o rd be p oin ted out in any of the r e so lu tio n s
adopted y e a r a fter y e a r on th is su b ject to w h ich any r e a so n a b le
p e r s o n cou ld take e x ce p tio n . . . . M any of u s h e r e h ave fe lt that
con d em n ation w ould be ju stifie d , but the A s s e m b ly h a s taken the
v iew , and w e h ave r e s p e c te d that v ie w , that con d em n ation should
be a void ed in o rd er to m a k e a s e ttle m e n t e a s ie r .
Not only on this su b ject h as India show n a tren d tow ard fu l
fillin g th o se r e q u ir e m e n ts of d ip lo m a c y that it u r g e s on the G reat P o w
e r s in th eir c o llis io n s w ith ea c h other. A s one in sta n c e , it w as in the
n ew er ro le of an a n ti-c o lo n ia l w is e to the w a y s of d ip lo m a c y and the
p r a c tic a l lim ita tio n s on im p le m e n tin g b a s ic rig h ts by co n sta n t r e i t e r a
tion and e x p o stu la tio n s that India's d e le g a te M enon a d v ise d the a n t i- c o
lo n ia ls that s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n w a s not a rig h t a m en a b le to p e r s is te n t
and u n r e a lis tic r e ite r a tio n . M r. M enon s e e m e d to have tr a n sc e n d e d
em o tio n a l a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m in the fo llo w in g sta te m e n t.
I think it is p ro p er to s a y at once that s im p ly b e c a u se th ere
e x is t s a right, d o es not m e a n an attem p t should be m a d e to a s s e r t
on e v e r y o c c a s io n . . . . A s p e o p le r e s p o n sib le fo r m ak in g a c o n
trib u tion . . . in a co n stru ctiv e, w ay, w e should r e c o g n iz e that the
a p p lica tio n of th e s e p r in c ip le s is co n d itio n ed by tim e and c ir c u m
sta n c e in ea ch c a s e .32
Such a s ta te m e n t is n ow h ere a v a ila b le in the r e c o r d of U nited
S ta tes r e s p o n s e s to the S o v iet c h a lle n g e in the U nited N ation s, and p e r
haps th is c o n tr a st b etw een the grow in g Indian m o d e r a tio n to the c o lo
n ia l p ro b lem and p e r s is t e n t A m e r ic a n p u r su it of denun ciation and
propaganda in the G reat P o w e r r iv a lr y w a s b e s t e v id e n c e d in the 1956
^ OR’ b, G en era l A s s e m b ly , 6th S e s s io n , pp. 3 2 8 -3 2 9 .
^ Ibid., 9th Session, p. 227.
222
d eb ates on H ungary and Suez. The c o lo n ia l p ro b lem and the C o m m u n ist
p ro b lem on this o c c a s io n w e r e both blatant and a lm o s t sim u lta n e o u s,
and both India and the U nited S tates w e r e fa ced w ith a ch a llen g e to th eir
o ft-s ta te d th e o r ie s on the c o n c ilia to r y p u r p o se s of the U nited N ation s.
Both India and the U nited S tates ad h ered to fo rm in urgin g c o n c ilia tio n
on ea ch o th er's c a m p --th e U nited S tates ap p ealed fo r sta te sm a n sh ip
from the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls in handling B ritain , F r a n c e and Isr a e l, w h ile
India app ealed for m o d era tio n in the U nited S tates and W estern r e
sp o n se to S oviet a g g r e s s io n . In m ak in g th e s e a p p ea ls, th e se tw o co u n
tr ie s w e r e s im ila r , but in the r e s p o n s e th ey gave to e a c h o th e r 's ap
p e a ls is con tain ed a g r e a t c o n tra st. It is a m a tte r of r e c o r d that the
U nited S tates r a m m e d through n u m ero u s r e s o lu tio n s e x c o r ia tin g the
USSR and gave no c o -o p e r a tio n to Indian attem p ts at c o n c ilia tio n and
m o d era tio n . It is a ls o a m a tte r of r e c o r d , that the Indian d ele g a tio n
resp o n d ed to the ap peals for m o d e r a tio n fro m the U nited S tates in the
Suez c r i s i s , and it w a s through Indian c o -o p e r a tio n that str o n g ly w ord ed
r e so lu tio n s a g a in st B rita in and F r a n c e w e r e so ften ed to m e e t ap p eals
fo r m o d era tio n . If the W e ste r n nation s w e r e not "condem ned" and an
open rupture b etw een the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls and the W est w a s avoid ed in
th is c r i s i s , it w a s la r g e ly the p rod u ct of a n ti-c o lo n ia l India's c o - o p e r a
tion. M r. M enon tr ie d to ob ey the p r in c ip le s of c iv iliz e d conduct w hich
he u n s u c c e ss fu lly u rg ed on the U nited S tates in the H ungarian c r i s i s ,
and exp lain ed that in h is a c tiv itie s in th is p e rio d he had "pursued the
paths of m ed ia tio n , of tryin g to s o lv e a p ro b lem , and of m o d era tio n ." A
fitting c o n c lu sio n to th is point w ould be the sta te m e n t m ad e by M r. L all
on the Indian d e le g a tio n 's b eh a v io r in the S p ecial S e s s io n . Stating that
223
it w a s n e c e s s a r y to " crea te and z e a lo u s ly to m ain ta in the kind of a tm o s
p h ere that w a s con d u cive to the e m e r g e n c e of a solu tion ," M r. L all w en t
on to sa y that
it w a s for th is r e a so n that, in the n u m ero u s draft r e s o lu tio n s
w h ich the d ele g a tio n of India a s s is t e d in p rep a rin g and w hich w e r e
adopted by th is A s s e m b ly . . . w e avoid ed as a n egative ap p roach
. . . any con d em n ation . . .
It should be u n d ersto o d that w e ap p roach ed the q u estio n in this
m a n n er, not b e c a u se w e w e r e in any doubt about w hat had o c c u r r e d
. . . but b e c a u se of our fir m co n v ic tio n that to le t indignation d ic
tate the A s s e m b ly 's a p p ro a ch es w ould have b een d e tr im e n ta l to the
situ a tio n and m igh t w e ll have c a u s e d a stiffen in g of attitu d es and a
p rolon gation and ev en a w o r se n in g of that situ ation .
If M r. L a ll had b een d e sc r ib in g the Indian r e s p o n se to Hun
gary, h is d e le g a tio n 's r o le w ould se e m no d ifferen t from the United
States d e le g a tio n 's p o sitio n in the Suez c r i s i s . The fa ct that he w as a c
cu r a te ly d e sc r ib in g India's ro le in the Suez d eb a tes, h o w e v e r , p r o v id e s
a g r e a t co n tr a st w ith the U nited S tates r o le in the H ungarian c r i s i s , and
should g iv e p au se to th o se who sp ea k of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m as em o tio n a l
and im m a tu r e . If it is ind eed em o tio n a l and im m a tu re, a n ti-c o m m u n
ism is a lm o s t p r im itiv e by co m p a r iso n .
To retu rn to the s im ila r it ie s b etw een the Indian and A m e r ic a n
d e le g a tio n s in the tw o g rea t d eb a tes in the U nited N ation s, one m ig h t
note the p r e d ile c tio n of both to the p r o c e d u r a l a sp e c ts of u n com fortab le
c la s h e s b etw een the c o lo n ia l and a n ti-c o lo n ia l and C om m u n ist and anti-
C o m m u n ist p o w e r s . If the U nited S tates has u sed p ro c e d u r a l a r g u
m e n ts and avoid ed taking a stro n g stand in so m e co lo n ia l m a tte r s , India
O -3
F o r a d e sc r ip tio n of India's c o -o p e r a tio n w ith the U nited
States in toning down v ir u len t A r a b -A s ia n r e so lu tio n s in the Suez c r i
s is , s e e B e r k e s , op. c l t . , pp. 41 ff. The sta tem en t by M r. M enon is
quoted in ib id ., p. 44; the sta te m e n t by M r. L all is quoted in ib id ., p. 57.
224
too has tin k ered w ith p ro c e d u r a l m a tte r s and avoid ed su b sta n tiv e c o m
m en t in the G reat P o w er riv a lr y . A s one in sta n ce, w hen a scath in g in
d ictm en t of fo r c e d lab or in C om m u n ist China w as the h ea rt of a U nited
N ations debate, the Indian d ele g a tio n w as m o r e co n c e r n e d w ith the fa ct
that th ere w e r e all kinds of fo r c e d la b o r and that the C o m m is sio n r e
port on the type p r a c tic e d by C om m u n ist China w as th e r e fo r e so m ew h a t
in co m p lete. The fo cu s on C o m m u n ist China w a s too sharp h e r e , and
India, m u ch lik e the U nited S tates in another debate, w ould h ave p r e
fe r r e d to sp rea d the lig h t w id er and th e r e fo r e not as c le a r ly on any one
country. A s the Indian d e le g a te argu ed on that o c c a sio n , "there w e r e
34
other typ es of fo r c e d lab or w h ich should be con d em n ed ." The U nited
States m ig h t have r e c o g n iz e d su ch a sta tem en t as one ap p ro x im a tin g its
own w ord s on a p o lic y P r e s id e n t E ise n h o w e r once c a lle d " u n iv e r sa liz -
35
mg" the U nited N ation s w ork on s e lf-d e te r m in a tio n . If the U nited
States has a ten d en cy to in s e r t the C o m m u n ist is s u e into s e e m in g ly u n
re la te d is s u e s in the co lo n ia l debate, India too h as a pench ant for p a r
tic u la r iz in g g e n e r a l su b jec ts in a w ay to p u b lic iz e the co lo n ia l p ro b lem .
Two e x a m p le s w ould s e r v e to illu str a te th is s im ila r ity . It h a s b een
noted e a r lie r that the U nited S ta tes r e fu s e d to vote for a R ep ort on the
R a cia l Situation in South A fr ic a b e c a u s e the auth ors of that rep o rt
c o m m itted the sin of m ak in g a ta n g en tia l but ap proving r e fe r e n c e to the
w ay in w hich the S oviet U nion had so lv e d the p r o b le m s of a m u lti
r a c ia l s o c ie ty in the USSR. The U nited S ta tes d e le g a te s e iz e d on the
^ O R 's, 9th S e ssio n , C o m m ittee III, pp. 3 9 1 -3 9 2 .
o c
See above, pp. 9 6 -9 8 . F o r oth er e x a m p le s of Indian p r e o c
cupation w ith p r o c e d u r a l m a tte r s in the G reat P o w e r r iv a lr y , see
B e r k e s, op. c i t . , pp. 49 ff.
225
tan gen tial point to e la b o r a te h is d is ta s te fo r S oviet p o lic ie s and quite
ign ored the su b stan tive point about the U nion of South A fr ic a 's p o li-
36
c ie s . Indian d ele g a tio n s have on o c c a s io n plunged into a num ber of
d eb ates w ith eq u a lly ab su rd in terv e n tio n s, illu m in atin g little but th eir
own o b s e s s io n s w ith the co lo n ia l p ro b lem . In the d isa r m a m e n t d eb a tes,
for in sta n ce, Indian d e le g a tio n s on n u m ero u s o c c a s io n s h ave p ro v ed ut
te r ly ir r e p r e s s ib le in adding y et anoth er c o m p le x ity to an a lr ea d y
fo rm id a b le su b jec t by dem anding that d isa r m a m e n t p r o p o sa ls include
so m e proh ib ition of "the u s e a g a in st co lo n ia l p eop le of bom bs and all
typ es of w eap on s by m ilita r y f o r c e s try in g to p rev en t the a c h ie v e m e n t
37
of in d ep en d en ce." Such e x a m p le s m a y be m u ltip lie d at w ill, for In
d ia 's " m o n istic d edication" to the ending of c o lo n ia lism c o v e r s a w ide
range of su b ject m a tte r in w h ich India's p a r tic u la r iz a tio n of fo cu s
w ill a s s e r t it s e lf . . . fro m d is a r m a m e n t to free d o m of a s s o c ia tio n
in trad e u nions, fro m rig h ts and d u ties of s ta te s to fu ll em p lo y m en t
and to free d o m of information.®®
L ast, th ere is one im p ortan t s im ila r it y b etw een India and
A m e r ic a , w hich for w ant of a b etter te r m m ig h t be d e s c r ib e d as a " c r i
s is r e s p o n se ." It h as b een noted above that th e r e have b een th ree m a
jor o c c a s io n s on w hich the U nited S ta tes has sh e lv e d p o lic ie s of eq u iv o
cation or n e u tr a lity to stand fir m ly on the sid e of p r in c ip le . A ll th ree
o c c a s io n s w e r e v io len t and fit the te r m " c r is is ." On th e s e o c c a s io n s ,
the U nited S tates m in c e d no w o rd s and shunned no c o m m itm e n ts, and
sta ted that the seco n d D utch m ilita r y a ctio n a g a in st Indonesia, the Suez
38S ee above, pp. 7 0 -7 1 .
37
B e r k e s , op. c i t . , p. 142. See a ls o pp. 143 ff. for an accou n t
of India's p a r tic u la r iz a tio n of g e n e r a l s u b je c ts.
38Ibid., p. 141.
226
in v a sio n and the S h a rp ev ille sh ootin g w e r e u n co n sc io n a b le under the
p r in c ip le s of the C harter. Such fo r th r ig h tn e ss c o n tr a ste d w ith the t e m
p o riz in g and e v a s iv e n e s s of U nited S ta tes d e le g a tio n s in e a r lie r d eb ates
on at le a s t two of th ese su b je c ts and m a r k e d the point at w hich change
in p o lic y and sta te m e n ts w a s c o n s id e r e d n e c e s s a r y . S im ila r ly , the In
dian d e le g a tio n s have kept m um on s k ir m is h e s o v er the tr e a tm e n t given
C ardinal M id sz e n ty or the e x is te n c e of fo r c e d lab or in C o m m u n ist
China, B u lg a ria and R um ania, but w hen a g r o s s e r form of v io le n c e e x
ploded into situ a tio n s su ch as K orea and H ungary, the Indian r e s p o n se
too r e g is t e r e d a m a r k e d change fro m e a r lie r sta te m e n ts. W h atever the
d iffe r e n c e s b etw een the U nited S tates and India in the la te r s ta g e s of
the K orean w a r, the in itia l Indian r e s p o n s e to the in v a sio n of South
K orea could h ard ly have b een m o r e fo rth rig h t than M r. R au's e x p la n a
tion of h is g o v e r n m e n t's fe e lin g s on the m a tter: "Our p o lic y is , fir s t,
of c o u r s e , that a g g r e s s io n has taken p la c e by N orth K orea of South
K orea. That is a w ron g a ct that has to be condem ned, that has to be
30
r e s is te d ."
On th is o c c a s io n , India e v e n voted fo r the co n d em n a to ry draft
r e s o lu tio n of June 27, 1950, and le ft little doubt that it stood w ith the
m a jo r ity in opp osing N orth K o r e a 's a g g r e s s io n . In the H ungarian c r i
s is of 1956, a fter so m e ta r d in e s s , the Indian d ele g a tio n once again
r e g is te r e d its d isa p p r o v a l of S o v iet in terv e n tio n and a g g r e s s io n , a l
though th is fa ct h as b een o v e r w h e lm e d by the c r it ic a l c o m m e n ts of
W e ste r n a u th o r itie s and d e le g a tio n s on India's r e fu s a l to su b sc r ib e to
con d em n atory d ra fts. W hether one a g r e e s w ith M r. M enon or M r. L all
39
PR's, General Assembly, 5th Session, Vol. I, p. 133.
227
on the m an n er in w hich S oviet a g g r e s s io n should have b een tr e a te d on
that o c c a sio n , it is both unfair and untrue to ch arge eith e r of th e se tw o
Indian sp o k e sm e n w ith having r e fu se d to a g r e e that the m a tte r c le a r ly
in volved a g g r e s s io n and in terven tion . It w a s M r. L a ll who d e m o n
stra ted the p a r a lle l in India’s r e s p o n s e to the Suez c r i s i s and the Hun
garian affair, and w h ile he op p osed con d em n ation ju st a s he had in the
co lo n ia l p rob lem in Suez, he sta ted that
T his ap p roach d oes not in the le a s t m e a n that w e in any s e n se a p
p rove of w hat has taken p la c e in H ungary. . . . We have m a d e it
c le a r , and w e do so again h ere today, that w e a re c o m m itte d to a
p o lic y of n ational fr e e d o m , to the w ith d ra w a l of a ll fo r e ig n tro o p s,
to n o n -in terv en tio n s o as to p r e s e r v e the fu ll s o v e r e ig n ty of m e m
b e r s of the U nited N ation s and oth er s ta te s , and to the fu ll and r e
sp o n sib le e x e r c is e of hum an rig h ts. To a ll th e se the p eo p le of
H ungary are as fu lly en titled as any of u s. In our ap p roach to this
m a tte r , and on that b a s is , w e have not h e sita te d to e x p r e s s our
v ie w s ev en if they a p p ea red to be c r it ic a l of one p arty or another
or to c a r r y an e le m e n t of d isa p p ro v a l.
Indeed, if one stu d ies the U nited N ation s r e c o r d in the H ungarian c r i s i s ,
the im a g e of the eq u ivocating n eu tral India s e e m s u tte r ly u n rela ted to
any fa cts at a ll. The Indian d ele g a tio n m a y not have b een a ctiv e on the
side that the U nited S tates w ould have w ish e d for it, but Indian d e le
g a tes s e e m e d r em a r k a b ly d ifferen t fro m the p a s s iv e kind that had
b a r e ly b oth ered to ab stain on other G reat P o w e r c la s h e s in the U nited
N ation s. The " c r is is r e sp o n se " w as c le a r ly in e v id e n c e in the Hun
garian debate and M r. L a ll and M r. M enon d ep arted fr o m the "no c o m
m ent" p o sitio n s taken on oth er o c c a s io n s and fr eq u en tly d isp a r a g e d the
41
S oviet U nion's a g g r e s s io n in H ungary.
^ Ibid., 11th Session, p. 1429.
41
If on th is o c c a s io n the Indian r e s p o n se s e e m s l e s s v ig o r o u s
and c o m m itte d to the sid e of p rin c ip le than d o es the U nited S tates r e
sp o n se of Su ez, the exp lan ation l i e s l e s s in c h a r g e s of Indian
228
One m igh t r e s e r v e d is c u s s io n of the w isd o m of the c r i s i s r e
sp o n se in both U nited S tates and Indian p o lic y in the U nited N ations for
a la te r stage in th is w o rk and con clude th is se c tio n by r e c a llin g that In
dia and A m e r ic a have both b een p a r tic u la r is tic in p u rsu in g th eir c h o sen
ta rg ets; th ey h ave both im m e r s e d th e m s e lv e s in p ro c e d u r a l m a tte r s
and have avoided su b stan tive c o m m en t in G reat P o w e r and co lo n ia l d e
b a tes r e s p e c tiv e ly ; th ey have both b een the ch am p ion s of co n cilia tio n
and that th ey have both b een p r o p e lle d out of p a s s iv ity or n e g a tiv ism
w hen fa c e d w ith a c r i s i s , and have on su ch o c c a s io n s taken fo rth rig h t
stands on the sid e of p r in cip le. The co n tra st b etw een them li e s in the
fa ct that India has b een d eveloping a m o r e unified ap p roach to both the
co lo n ia l and C o m m u n ist p rob lem in the U nited N ations; if it is the
e q u iv o ca tio n and m o r e in the rea lm of U nited S tates ob stin acy. The
U nited S tates r e s p o n se on Suez m ig h t have look ed e n tir e ly d ifferen t if
h o t-h e a d e d a n ti-c o lo n ia ls had s e iz e d upon the Suez c r i s i s as an o c c a
sio n to hurl in v e c tiv e at the W estern p o w e rs and dem and ed r e so lu tio n s
fille d w ith con d em n ation and a b u se of B rita in and F r a n c e . It is lik e ly
that in su ch an ev en tu a lity the U nited States too w ould have ab stain ed or
d e c la r e d th e se r e so lu tio n s "im portant q u estio n s" and then in flu en ced
the A s s e m b ly to d efeat them . If the U nited S tates w a s on the sid e of
the m a jo r ity in the Suez c r i s i s , it w a s b e c a u se the m a jo r ity of a n t i- c o
lo n ia ls , p a r tic u la r ly India, w e r e am en ab le to U nited S tates su g g e stio n s
for a c o n c ilia to r y ap proach. If In dia’s " c r is is r e sp o n se " on H ungary,
w hich is c le a r ly p a r a lle l to the U nited S tates' " c r is is r e sp o n se " on Su
e z , le ft it in a lo n e ly and m u c h -m a lig n e d m in o r ity in the H ungarian d e
bate, it w as b e c a u se the U nited S ta te s-le d m a jo r ity w as ru led by in d ig
nation and c o n sid e r a tio n s to ta lly u n rela ted to so m e U nited S tates l e c
tu r e s on p ro p rie ty . P e r h a p s the m a jo r ity w as w is e r than India, fo r it
is e n tir e ly p o s s ib le that B ritain , F r a n c e and I sr a e l w e r e open to p e r
su a sio n and the USSR w a s not, and th e r e fo r e it w as c o r r e c t to be p e r
s u a siv e in the f ir s t debate and u se the seco n d fo r an u n r e str a in e d show
of ind ignation and at le a s t reap a h a r v e s t of prop agan da in the cold w a r.
Yet it w ould be u njust to lo s e sigh t of the fa c t that India a cted in the
H ungarian debate in a m a n n er w h ich a lm o s t e x a c tly p a r a lle ls the r e
sp o n se of the U nited S tates in the c o lo n ia l Suez c r i s i s , and that su ch a
p a r a lle l d em an d s a m o r e so b e r r e s p o n se than to d is m is s India as
eq u iv o ca l on H ungary and to h ail the U nited S tates for its stro n g and
fo rth rig h t stand on Suez.
cham pion of co n c ilia tio n in the G reat P o w e r r iv a lr y in the U nited N a
tio n s, it has for so m e y e a r s show n sig n s of b eco m in g c o n c ilia to r y in
the co lo n ia l debate as w e ll. The U nited S ta tes, on the other hand,
ch am p ion s co n c ilia tio n in the co lo n ia l d eb ate, w h ich is the point at
w hich it p a r a lle ls India's r e s p o n se to the G reat P o w e r r iv a lr y , but the
U nited States is aiso-Jthe c h ie f,p a r tisa n .and_mnat,active_memhe.r...af the
ro u g h -h o u se sch o o l of d ip lom acy, and one of the m o s t u n c o m p ro m isin g
sp o k e sm e n fo r con d em n ation and r e c r im in a tio n in the d eb ates in volvin g
the G reat P o w er riv a lr y .
CHAPTER VII
COM M ENT A N D CONCLUSION
A study su ch as this d o es not len d it s e lf to e a s y c o n c lu sio n s
for the r e a s o n that the p o lic ie s of a G reat P o w er su ch as the U nited
States on a c o m p le x and v a r ie d su b ject su ch as a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m is fu ll
of so b erin g fa c to r s w hich w ould fo r c e a s e r i e s of q u a lific a tio n s and r e
duce a lm o s t e v e r y firm c o n clu sio n to a fe e b le point. Y et su c h a study
as th is m u st attem p t to cu lm in ate in at le a s t an effo rt to r a is e so m e
im portan t q u e stio n s, ev en if the w r ite r d o es p o o rly in a n sw e r in g th em .
The w orld is full of c o m p le x itie s , and to sim p ly m ak e that r e m a r k w ith
the p ro p er a c a d e m ic caution and then r e tir e into an u n con trib u tory, but
safe p o sitio n w ould not do ju stic e to the su b ject ch o sen . Y et it is w ith
so m e h u m ility and trep id ation that one a p p ro a ch es c o n c lu siv e s t a t e
m e n ts on A m e r ic a n p o lic y . The U nited S ta tes has b een fa c e d w ith a
double ch a llen g e in the y e a r s fo llo w in g the Second W orld W ar, and in
stem m in g the tide of S oviet im p e r ia lis m it h as ea rn ed the gratitu d e of
all but the m o s t obtuse m in d s in our tim e s . If on the se c o n d ch a llen g e,
that of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m , the U nited S tates has b een l e s s s u c c e s s f u l in
capturing the im ag in a tio n and gratitude of a n u m ber of w r it e r s and n a
tio n s, it w ould be u n g ra cio u s to tr e a t e v e r y m in o r flaw w ith thundering
d en u n ciation s. It w ould be eq u ally fa ls e to the A m e r ic a n p u rp o se ,
w hich is, I b e lie v e , the p u rp o se of a ll of th o se w ho w ish a f r e e r and
231
m o r e p r o s p e r o u s w orld , if w hat have b een fla w s w e r e le ft unattended
and gratitude and sen tim en t w e r e to r e p la c e b etter y a r d s tic k s by w hich
to m e a s u r e the A m e r ic a n p e r fo r m a n c e in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l debate. A ll
this is o ffe r e d as an in d ication of the h u m ility w ith w hich the fo llo w in g
se t of c o n c lu sio n s is tr e m u lo u sly offered .
The f ir s t c o n c lu sio n and p erh a p s the e a s ie s t and s a f e s t one
w hich fo llo w s fro m the p re c e d in g p a g e s is that the "free w orld" is not
n e a r ly a un ified com m u n ity banded to g eth er to m e e t a co m m o n a d v e r
sa ry . A n ti-c o lo n ia lis m in v o lv e s n ation s of the fr e e w o rld a s p r in cip a l
p a rticip a n ts on both s id e s of the str u g g le , and the d iv isio n b etw een the
com b atan ts h as at tim e s ap p roached id e o lo g ic a l in te n s itie s w h ich w ould
m ak e it s e e m no l e s s dem anding of a fir m c o m m itm e n t and d ed ica tio n
than the G reat P o w er r iv a lr y in the U nited N ation s. It m ig h t be argu ed
that the " d iv isio n of the w o rld into h a v e s and h a v e -n o ts" is a fictio n ,
but it is an u n ch a llen g ea b le fa ct that if it is a fic tio n it ou tw eigh s fa cts
and is fir m ly b e lie v e d by a n um ber of a n ti-c o lo n ia l n ation s. A s B e r k e s
has put it,
We m a y be liv in g in one w orld , but it is a ls o a b i-p o la r w o rld .
And to add the n e c e s s a r y in g re d ien t of co n fu sio n fo r a tru e r p e r
sp e c tiv e on in tern ation al p o litic s , it a ll d epends upon w h e re one
sta n d s, w hich of the b i-p o la r w o r ld s a nation c h o o s e s to see.^
It h a s s o m e tim e s b een s u g g e ste d that no m a tte r w hat the d if
f e r e n c e s b etw een the fr e e nation s m a y be, the v e r y r e a l th rea t of a new
S oviet im p e r ia lis m is , or should be, a c em e n tin g fa cto r b etw een them .
W hatever the m e r it s of the argu m en t, m o s t a n ti-c o lo n ia l n ations have
ch o sen to e m p h a siz e the co lo n ia l a n ti-c o lo n ia l b i-p o la r ity ju st as the
^Berkes, The Diplomacy of India, p. 202.
232
W e ste r n n ations and the U nited States h ave fo r c e fu lly arg u ed that the
C o m m u n ist a n ti-C o m m u n ist p ro b lem m u s t be giv en p r io r ity . P r im e
M in iste r N ehru s e e m s to h ave sta ted th is point for m o s t a n ti-c o lo n ia ls
w hen he r e m a r k e d that
We talk about the c r i s i s of our tim e and m an y p eop le v ie w it in
d ifferen t w a y s. P ro b a b ly in the U .S .A ., the c r i s i s of our tim e is
su p p o sed to be C o m m u n ism v s. a n ti-C o m m u n is m . It m a y be so to
so m e exten t. But the c r i s i s of the tim e in A s ia is c o lo n ia lis m v s.
a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m . L et us be quite c le a r about it.
G iven su ch a fir m c o n v ic tio n about the r e a l c r i s i s of the t im e s ,
the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls have d em anded a lik e v is io n and d ed ication fro m a ll
righ t-th in k in g p o w e r s in the U nited N ation s, and in so doing have not
d iffere d m u ch from the W e ste r n p o w e r s w ho h ave b een sounding c la r io n
c a lls fo r a fir m r e s p o n s e to the C o m m u n ist th reat. It is u nfortunate,
h o w ev er, that a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m h as not b een a lw a y s a c c o r d e d a genuine
and in te g r a l p u rp o se of its own, and its m a n ife sta tio n s have s o m e tim e s
been trea ted as s im p ly tra u m a tic m e m o r ie s of a n ig h tm a re p a st or as
fr e n z ie s fo llo w in g fro m S oviet m a n ip u la tio n of th eir o b s e s s io n s and
co m p u lsio n s. If th e s e a ssu m p tio n s w e r e c o r r e c t, th ere w ould be little
s e n s e in giving a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m any r e s p o n s e oth er than a to le r a n t
sym p ath y for its co m p la in ts of e a r lie r ex p lo ita tio n and a cu rt a d m o n i
tion w hen th e se co m p la in ts r e a c h e x a g g e r a te d and C o m m u n is t-in s p ir e d
p ro p o rtio n s. The f ir s t q u estio n w u lch n e e d s to be r a is e d and a n sw e r e d
c o n c e r n s the o r ig in s and nature of c o n te m p o r a r y a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m .
If the p r e c e d in g p a g e s p ro v id e so m e in d ica tio n of the fo cu s of
a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m , it w ould s e e m r e a s o n a b le to a rgu e that although the
a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s h ave, on so m e o c c a s io n s , p r e s s e d th eir
^The Modern Review, September, 1954, p. 178.
a d v e r s a r ie s too far and too fa st, the b a s ic d r iv e of the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls is
rooted in so m e v e r y cu rren t p r o b le m s , and h as w e ll-d e fin e d o b je c tiv e s.
It is not th eir m e m o r ie s of p a st r a c ia l abuse w hich le a d them to r e
spond w ith su ch an ger at p o lic ie s lik e a p a rth eid , but the p r e s e n t p u rsu it
of that d ep lo ra b le p ro g ra m on the p art of a W e ste r n p o w er. It is not
ju st a h a n g -o v e r from p a st c o lo n ia lism that g iv e s the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
d riv e for e c o n o m ic eq u a lity su ch a frig h ten in g u rg en cy , but the p r e s e n t
squalor in the c ity of the P o o r, a c ity of w hich m o s t of them a re c o n
te m p o r a r y r e s id e n ts . It is not the m e m o r y of p a st E u rop ean c o lo n ie s
in A fr ic a and A s ia that m ad e the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls dem an d the grant of
free d o m to T u n isia and M o ro c co , A lg e r ia and Indonesia, but the p o s t
w ar fa ct that th ese a r e a s w e r e s till under E u rop ean d om ination. F i
n ally, it is not ju st the m e m o r ie s of the p a st that le a d the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
p o w e r s to be s e n sitiv e about th e ir p r e s tig e , but the sa d fa ct that ev en
in the m id -tw e n tie th cen tu ry d e c is io n s a ffectin g th eir p a r ts of the w orld ,
and s o m e tim e s th eir own te r r ito r y , a re freq u en tly m ad e in the W e ste r n
ca p ita ls of the w orld . Yet, it m a y be arg u ed that su ch a c a s e is not
r e a lly co m p le te , for a fter all, a ll th e s e co m p la in ts w hich a re at the
h ea rt of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m a r e being m e t by the W est. It m u st be a d
m itte d that the tra d itio n a l E u rop ean c o lo n ia l p o w e r s are in r e tr e a t, and
that su ch a fa ct should le a d to m o r e s o b r ie ty in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l cam p .
Yet it c o m e s w ith ill g r a c e fro m a ll the co lo n ia l p o w e r s, w ith the p o s
sib le ex ce p tio n of G reat B ritain , to le a n too h e a v ily on su ch an a r g u
m en t. The blunt truth is that if the d eath of E u ro p ea n c o lo n ia lis m has
been rapid, a g r e a t p art of the p a ce has b een s e t by a n ti-c o lo n ia l p r e s
su re in the U nited N ation s. To b o a st about the p a ce and then c r it ic iz e
234
th o se who have se t it is so m ew h a t l e s s than h o n est. A lso , if F r e n c h
c o lo n ia lis m has b een d islo d g ed fro m Indo-C hina, T u n isia and M o ro c co ,
the e x it has b een anything but v olu n tary or g ra ce fu l, and m o s t often
su ch c o lo n ia lism has died lik e a M illa y c h a r a c te r , "clutching at the
South and sc r e a m in g at the N orth."
On the e c o n o m ic fa cto r in a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m , it m u st be sa id
that the U nited S tates and B ritain , am ong o th e r s, have tr ie d to m e e t the
sta g g erin g p r o b le m s of the u n d e r -d e v e lo p e d n ations in a sp ir it of g e n
e r o s ity . Why then do the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s com p lain? The a n sw er
d oes not lie in e x c e s s iv e e m o tio n a lis m am ong the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s,
but in the d ish ea rten in g fa ct that in sp ite of the W estern g e s tu r e s in
this a rea ,
The gap in liv in g stan d ard s . . . is . . . s te a d ily w id en in g . . . our
r e s p o n s e to th is e c o n o m ic gap has n ev er eq u a lled our ob ligation to
our opportunity. The p ro b lem is n eith er r eg io n a l nor t e m p o r a r y - -
it is glob al and lo n g -r a n g e . Our r e s p o n s e has s o m e tim e s b een
w a ste fu l in exp en d itu re and gran diloquent in r h e to r ic --b u t it has
n e v e r b een global and lo n g -r a n g e .
If the a n ti-c o lo n ia l d rive for e c o n o m ic eq u ality h as, on o c c a
sion, re a c h e d fr e n z ie d p ro p o r tio n s, it w ould se e m to r e fle c t the e x i s t
en ce of s e v e r e co n te m p o r a r y p r e s s u r e s ra th er than th eir in a b ility to
shed p a st g ru d g es.
L ast, in the d riv e for p r e s tig e and p ow er, the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls
can h ard ly be d is m is s e d as s illy or unique, for th e se are fu n dam ental
d r iv e s to e v e n such m a tu r e and so p h istic a te d c o u n tries a s the U nited
S tates and F r a n c e . It is a little stra n g e to find any doubts about su ch a
p ro p o sitio n , but if h abits die h ard and a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m is a habit, so is
1
John F. K ennedy, The S tra teg y of P e a c e (New York: H arper
and B r o s ., I960), pp. 4 6 -4 7 .
235
the r em a r k a b le in s e n s itiv ity of the W e ste r n p o w e r s to the p r e s tig e f a c
tor in the e x -c o lo n ia l w orld . It is a m a tte r of r e c o r d that the U nited
States r a r e ly m a k e s a d e c is io n co n cern in g N orth A frica n s ta te s su ch as
T u n isia and M o r o c c o w ithout co n su lta tio n with, and s o m e tim e s c a p itu la
tion to, F r a n c e , but su ch a g e stu r e is r a r e ly a c c o r d e d to the T u n isian
and M o ro c ca n g o v ern m en ts on its A fr ic a n p o lic ie s . M ilita r y b a s e s and
aid p o lic ie s in N orth A fr ic a have for y e a r s b een a d e c isio n m ad e in
W ashington and c le a r e d w ith P a r is , and M o ro c co and T u n isia can h a r d
ly be gra tefu l for being ig n o red on q u e stio n s of p r im a r y im p o rta n ce to
th em . If in resp on d in g to the S oviet ch a llen g e the U nited S tates is w i l l
ing to hop, step and jum p o v er any n u m ber of e x -c o lo n ia l c o u n tr ie s and
co n stru ct M ED O and SEA TO in its m u s c le flex in g at the USSR, a n e g a
tive r e s p o n se from th o se who are ig n o red should co m e as no s u r p r is e .
One can c e r ta in ly in s is t on the right of the U nited S tates or any other
pow er to conclude a llia n c e s or a g r e e m e n ts fo r b a s e s d e e m e d e s s e n t ia l
to its s e c u r ity and y et grant that if su ch a llia n c e s or a g r e e m e n ts run
a gain st the in te r e s t of so m e oth er g o v ern m en t it has the right to c o m
plain. In B a ll's s u m m a r y of the o b je c tiv e s of A sia n a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m he
e m p h a s iz e s that it in clu d es "a d e te r m in a tio n that the d e s tin ie s of A s ia
sh all be d ecid ed by A sia n s, not by E u ro p ea n s, that the new nations of
4
the E a st w ill be ends in t h e m s e lv e s , not m e a n s to W estern en d s." It
4 W, M cM ahon B all, N a tio n a lism and C om m u n ism in E a st A s ia
(Carlton: M elb ourne U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1956), p. 1. L e s t it be a ssu m e d
that su ch s e n s it iv it ie s are an in d ication of im m a tu re a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m ,
it should be pointed out that F r a n c e w ould a ct no d iffere n tly in a s i m i
la r situ ation . F r e n c h p r e s tig e , and ev en South A frica n p r e s tig e , has
not e s c a p e d the c o n s c io u s n e s s of the U nited S ta tes. See a ls o Tibor
M ende, Nehru: C o n v e rsa tio n s on India and W orld A ffa ir s (New York:
G eorge B r a z ille r , Inc., 1956), p. 63.
236
m a y be that the W estern "ends" of s e c u r ity a g a in st the S o v iet Union a r e
in r e a lity E a s te r n ends as w e ll, but given the d iffe r e n c e s in the p r io r i
tie s e s ta b lis h e d in a n ti-c o lo n ia l fo r e ig n p o licy , the in s e n s itiv e e n f o r c e
m en t of W e ste r n p r io r itie s of s e c u r ity upon the n ew ly independent n a
tion s stren g th en s th eir co n v ic tio n that th ey are look ed upon m e r e ly as
" m eans" in the cold w ar.
In sp ite of the s e e m in g c la r ity of the w e lls p r in g s of a n t i- c o lo
n ia lism and the ration al ends that it h as c h o se n to p u rsu e, not a ll
A m e r ic a n o ffic ia ls and s c h o la r s have b een a g r e e d on eith er its nature
or its p u rp o se . An in flu en tial body of c r it ic s of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m are
con vin ced that it is m o r e em o tio n a l than r e a lis t ic . Som e m ak e no a t
tem p t to d is g u is e th eir ir r ita tio n w ith a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m , for they are
p er su a d e d that w hen it c o llid e s w ith A m e r ic a n p o lic y , a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m
is a v ic tim of C o m m u n ist m an ip u lation . A s a r e p r e se n ta tiv e ex a m p le
of th e s e p o s itio n s and a sa m p lin g of th ose w ho d iffer w ith th em , one
m igh t begin w ith none oth er than John F o s t e r D u lles who, both as an
A m e r ic a n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e to the U nited N ations as w e ll as in the p o sitio n
of S e c r e ta r y of State, e la b o r a te d h is v iew on the nature of a n ti-c o lo n ia l
is m . A s e a r ly as the Second S e s s io n of the U nited N ation s, the a n t i- c o
lo n ia ls p ro p o se d that the G en eral A s s e m b ly ch a rt the future of d ep en d
ent t e r r it o r ie s by having it r e s o lv e "that m e m b e r s of the U nited N ation s
r e sp o n sib le for the a d m in istr a tio n of su ch t e r r it o r ie s be r e q u e ste d to
su bm it tr u s te e s h ip a g r e e m e n ts for a ll or so m e of su ch t e r r it o r ie s as
5
a r e not rea d y for s e lf-g o v e r n m e n t."
^Indian draft resolution A/C.4/98. PR's, 2nd Session, 4th
Committee, p. 217.
237
A s has b een shown above, such a p ro p o sa l is a su b stan tive
part of the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a s e on dependent te r r it o r ie s . M r. D u lles,
h ow ever, p e r c e iv e d in it so m e d e c isiv e a s p e c t of old er and sh o p -w o rn
a n ta g o n ism s, and in a sta tem en t full of p atron izing p la ca tio n s for the
a n ti-c o lo n ia ls, offered the follow in g com m ent:
T h ere are sig n s that th ere is d evelopin g around the U nited
N ations what I m igh t r e fe r to as a new in tern ation al p a stim e , w hich
c o n s is ts of throw ing v erb a l d arts at the co lo n ia l p o w e rs. The
U nited States is not in a p o sitio n to take s e r io u s ob jection to that
p a stim e , b eca u se for a long tim e w e en gaged in a s im ila r p a stim e ,
w hich w as co m m o n ly r e fe r r e d to "as tw istin g the ta il of the B r itish
lio n ." 6
The seco n d in stan ce in w hich M r. D u lles in terp re ted a n t i- c o
lo n ia lism in a light other than the one that could be c o n sid e r e d p rop er
w as an o c c a sio n w h ere India happened to h ave d isa g r e e d w ith the United
States on the evolvin g T r u steesh ip S y ste m , b e c a u se it fe lt that the s y s
tem m igh t lead to a p erp etu ation of what it c o n sid e r e d a W estern m o
nopoly. India p a r tic u la r ly ob jected to the d ev ice of a " stra te g ic a r e a
tru steesh ip " b eca u se su ch a d ev ic e m ea n t som eth in g r e s e m b lin g s o v e r
eign con trol by a W estern pow er o v er dependent t e r r it o r ie s . M r. D ul
le s , h o w ev er, saw that the USSR w as opposed to the U nited S tates p o s i
tion, and so w as India, and in the m a th e m a tic s of those w ith p r e d is p o s i
tions tow ard m yth s concluded that "In India, S oviet C om m un ism e x e r -
7
c ise d a stron g influ en ce through the in terim Hindu govern m en t."
6 O R 's , G eneral A ss e m b ly , 2nd S e s sio n , Vol. I, p. 657.
7
A d d r e ss by John F o ste r D u lles b efo re the N ational P u b lish
e r 's A ss o c ia tio n , January 17, 1947; The New York T im e s , January 18,
1947. It is hard to decide w h ere M r. D u lles w as m o r e w rong: in callin g
the se c u la r Indian g overn m en t "Hindu," or a c c u sin g it of being p ro -
C om m unist. It is abundantly c le a r , h o w ev er, that M r. D u lles knew l i t
tle about the r e lig io u s a sp e c ts of that govern m en t, and l e s s about its
p o litic a l lea n in g s.
238
The ten d en cy tow ard join in g the C o m m u n ist p ro b lem w ith the
co lo n ia l d ile m m a is ap p aren tly m o r e w id e s p r e a d than m ig h t at f ir s t be
im agin ed , and B o w les h as taken S e c r e ta r y of State D u lle s to ta sk for
r e m a r k s on the rev o lu tio n a ry u n r e s t in the c o lo n ia l w o rld , and the im
p lic a tio n in the S e c r e ta r y of S ta te's s p e e c h that the S o v iet U nion w as
r e sp o n sib le for c r e a tin g that u n r e st. B o w le s attack s the w ide p r e v a
le n c e of th is "popular A m e r ic a n ra tio n a liz a tio n that a ll fo r e ig n p o lic y
p r o b le m s o rig in a te in M o sco w ," and d e sp a ir in g ly adds that "our f a s c i
nation w ith the a c tiv itie s of our a d v e r s a r y h as s e r v e d to tw ist our p e r -
g
sp e c tiv e , blind us to the r e a l nature of the fo r c e s at w ork ." B etw een
the tw o v ie w s of the nature of a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m - - t h e a ssu m p tio n that it
is given to "dart throw ing" e m o tio n a lis m and v u ln era b le to S oviet m a
chination, and the argu m en t that th ere are other " rea l fo r c e s " at w o r k - -
the r e c o r d d isp la y ed in the p r e c e d in g p a g e s m igh t s e r v e the B o w les p o
sitio n so m ew h a t b etter than the one en u n cia ted by M r. D u lle s. The
r e c o r d quite c le a r ly sh ow s that although the USSR m a y often be on the
a n ti-c o lo n ia l sid e in the U nited N a tio n s, the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls have o b je c
tiv e s and p o lic ie s of th eir own. The USSR m a y join the a n ti-c o lo n ia l
cam p in its attem p ts to e m b a r r a s s the W est, but it d oes not co n tro l or
in flu en ce the a n ti-c o lo n ia l n ation s in any sig n ific a n t w ay. On th ree m a
jor o c c a s io n s , the a n ti-c o lo n ia l n ation s h ave r e je c te d S oviet a ttem p ts
to u se a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m for "dart throw ing" and c o -o p e r a te d w ith th o se
in the W est who w e r e w illin g to help in attain ing th eir r e a l o b j e c t iv e s - -
the in d ependence of Indonesia, the d eb a tes on the Suez in v a sio n and the
g
See C h e ste r A. B o w le s, A fr ic a 's C h allen ge to A m e r ic a
(B erk eley: U n iv e r sity of C a lifo rn ia P r e s s , 1956), pp. 5 6 -5 7 .
240
prod uction, con su m p tion and in v estm en t. In view of h er su sp ic io n s
of d o lla r im p e r ia lis m , India w ould p r e fe r to se e te c h n ic a l aid c o m
ing from the S oviet Union, p ro v id ed that M o sco w could give what
India wants.-*-®
T h ere is so m e q u estio n as to the v a lid ity of th is th e s is , but it
is an im p ortan t one and r e q u ir e s ca r e fu l c o n sid e r a tio n on m an y points
w ith in its argu m en tation . In the f ir s t p la ce , the r e c o r d of the Indian
d ele g a tio n 's w ork in the U nited N ations has b een d e s c r ib e d in another
w ork as that of acting as a c o n s e r v a tiv e in flu en ce on the m o r e ra d ic a l
a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s. Since the Ninth S e s s io n India has spoken the la n
guage of r e a so n o v er em o tio n , and B e r k e s has r e c o r d e d the g rea te r
m a tu r ity of Indian d e le g a te s who have begun to play the ro le of r e c o n
c ile r s ev en in the co lo n ia l debate.'*'*' H am ilton has r e c o r d e d the fact
that the Indian d e le g a tio n 's c o n s e r v a tis m has b een adjudged as being
"too soft" on c o lo n ia lism by the m o r e in tem p era te a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w
e r s , who have la te ly b een tryin g to k eep Indians out of th eir c a u c u se s
for fe a r that they m a y in flu en ce them tow ard w ea k er and m o r e m o d e r -
12
ate p o s itio n s . It is a ls o q u estio n a b le that India's fe a r s of d ollar im
p e r ia lis m lead it to p r e fe r " tech n ical aid," and that too from the S oviet
Union. A n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s, e s p e c ia lly India, have b een plead in g for
in v e stm e n t cap ital for a n um ber of y e a r s , and the d eb ates on SU N F E D
w ould s e e m to show that they w e r e led by India in r e s is tin g any p r o
p o s a ls w h ich w ould m a k e te ch n ica l aid a su b stitu te for in v estm en t
*®Robert S tra u sz -H u p e, A lv in J. C o ttrell, and J a m e s E.
D ougherty, A m e r ic a n -A s ia n T e n sio n s (New York: F r e d e r ic k A.
P r a e g e r , 1956), pp. 1 9 3 -1 9 4 .
* * B e r k e s, op. c i t . , p. 195. A lso s e e above, pp. 2 2 1 -2 2 3 .
*^See The New York T im es, July 10, I960, sec. IY, col. 7, p. 11.
239
Congo c r i s i s s e r v e a s illu s tr a tio n s of S oviet fr u s tr a tio n at the hands of
9
the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s.
It h as, h o w e v er, b een argu ed that the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s are
g e n e r a lly M a r x ist o rien te d and that so m e le a d in g a n ti-c o lo n ia ls tend to
c a p ita liz e on th e se o r ie n ta tio n s. Such an a n a ly s is is of g r e a t c o n s e
q uence, for should it be tru e, the A m e r ic a n r e s p o n se to a n ti-c o lo n ia l
is m w ould fa ce g r e a te r d iffic u ltie s than m ig h t be open to solu tion .
S tra u sz-H u p e and a s s o c ia t e s h ave, for in sta n ce, argu ed that Indian-
A m e r ic a n te n sio n s a r e deep and ev en in so lu b le. One b o th e r so m e a s
p ect of Indian b eh a v io r is that
India . . . is ex p lo itin g the p r e d is p o s itio n of the A sia n and A fr ic a n
in te lle c tu a ls, jo u r n a lists, and p o litic ia n s to a c c e p t the L e n in ist e x
p lanation of im p e r ia lis m as the fin al sta g e of c a p ita lis m . A c c o r d
ing to L e n in ist th eo ry , the co lo n ia l m a r k e ts and s o u r c e s of raw
m a te r ia ls are e s s e n t ia l to c a p ita lis t su r v iv a l. (S w itzerland , of
c o u r s e , one of the w o r ld 's le a d in g c a p ita lis t s ta te s , h as n e v e r e n
gaged in im p e r ia lism ; and the M o n g o ls, A rab s and S p aniard s, to
m en tio n only a few of h is t o r y 's outstanding e m p ir e -b u ild e r s , n e v e r
d ev elo p e d a c a p ita list s y s te m .) India is p a rtia l to the M a r x ist
a n a ly s is , and w h e n e v e r the opportunity p r e s e n ts its e lf, h er le a d e r s
su ch a s N ehru, M enon and P an nikar q u estio n the m o tiv e s of the
W est. No m a tte r w hat the W est d o es, its m o tiv e s a re n e v e r g iv e n
the b en efit of the doubt. The p u rp o se of the e c o n o m ic aid p r o g r a m s
to the u n d erd ev elo p ed co u n tr ie s is taken to be the e c o n o m ic and p o
lit ic a l subjugation of the c o u n tr ie s r e c e iv in g it, and, s im u lta n e o u s
ly, the a lle v ia tio n of W e ste r n c a p ita lis m 's own p r o b le m s of
^It is not w ithin the orb it of th is w o rk to d elin e a te the a n t i- c o
lo n ia l r e s p o n se to S o v iet ite m s inten ded as p ro p a g a n d istic b la s ts at the
W est, but it should be m en tio n ed that the a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e r s h ave
n e v e r b een p ro m in en t in th e s e attem p ts to e m b a r r a s s the U nited S tates
and the W est. If it w e r e a m a jo r p a s tim e to th row d a rts at the co lo n ia l
p o w e r s and the USSR w a s r e a lly an in flu en tia l v o ic e in a n ti-c o lo n ia l b e
h a v io r, s u r e ly th e s e ite m s w ould have b een e x c e lle n t d e m o n str a tio n s of
both p o in ts. Yet the r e c o r d sh ow s that the USSR is join ed only by its
s a t e llit e s in th e s e a b u siv e p u r s u its. A n ti-c o lo n ia lis m 's p u r p o se s are
not s e r v e d in th e s e s t r a te g e m s , and the a n ti-c o lo n ia ls th e r e fo r e do not
lend th eir sup p ort to th em . S ee B e r k e s, op. c i t . , pp. 8 2 -8 3 , for India's
r e s p o n se to S oviet s tr a te g e m s . F o r a d isp la y of a n ti-c o lo n ia l attem p ts
to k eep the USSR out of the Congo, s e e T im e, A ugust 22, I960, pp. 19“
2 0 .
241
capital. ^
The S tra u sz-H u p e t h e s is im p lie s a p r e d is p o s itio n on the part
of other a n ti-c o lo n ia l nations tow ard M a r x ism w h ich m a k e s them v u l
n era b le to su p p o sed Indian exp lo ita tio n . H ow ever tru e th is m a y be,
other a u th o ritie s have found that th e r e is a r e fr e sh in g s e n s e of r e s p o n
sib ility in so m e p ro m in en t a n ti-c o lo n ia l n a tio n s. K ennedy fin d s that
ev en in such an e m o tio n a lly ch a rg ed debate as A lg e r ia , th e s e c o u n tr ie s
have m o v e d tow ard p o sitio n s m o r e b e n e fic ia l to W ashington than they
a re to M oscow .
The g o v ern m en ts of T u n isia and M o r o c c o . . . ea ch co n cer n e d
to continue W estern co n n ectio n s . . . p rovid e the b e st hope. . . . M.
B ourguiba again m ad e an appeal fo r an A lg e r ia n so lu tio n w ith in an
o v e r - a ll F r e n c h -o r ie n te d N orth A fr ic a n fed era tio n . E v en the Indi
an g overn m en t, often a s s u m e d to be the sp o k e sm a n of n a tio n a lism
for n a tio n a lism 's sak e, o ffered la s t su m m e r to act as a p o s s ib le
in te r m e d ia r y in a so lu tio n w h ich w ould grant p o litic a l in d ep en d
en ce to A lg e r ia but con firm s p e c ia l p r o te c tio n s fo r F r e n c h c itiz e n s
and to p la c e A lg e r ia in a s p e c ia l e c o n o m ic fe d e r a tio n w ith
F r a n c e .^
It w ould appear that M arx is l e s s an in flu en ce on th e se a n ti
co lo n ia l p o w e rs than M ill, and that the D ecla r a tio n of Independence is a
m o r e r e v e r e d docu m en t in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c o u n tr ie s than Das K a p ita l.
A s Kennedy s e e s it,
The stron g p r o -W e s te r n bent in T u n isia and M o r o c c o today, d e
sp ite b egu ilin g o ffe r s fro m the C o m m u n ist E a st, is a trib u te to the
le a d e r sh ip of su ch m en as P r im e M in iste r B ourguiba, w h o se y e a r s
in F r e n c h co n fin em en t n ev er d im m e d h is a p p recia tio n of W e ste r n
d e m o c r a tic v a lu e s . F o rtu n a tely fo r the U nited S tates and F r a n c e ,
and in sp ite of-~ n o t b e c a u se o f - - o u r p a st r e c o r d s , n eith er T u n isia
nor M o r o c c o h as a natural p r o c liv ity tow ard e ith e r M o sco w , P e
king or C a ir o .^
If one r e c a lls the four fr a m e s of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m a s th ey have
^ S e e above, pp. 83-85.
14
Kennedy, op. cit., p. 78. 1 5Ibid., p. 73.
242
b een d e v e lo p e d in the p r e c e d in g p a g e s , su ch m a t t e r s as r a c ia l equality,
e lim in a tio n of o v e r w h e lm in g p o v e r ty , the a c q u is itio n of co n tra ctu a l
g u a r a n te e s on hum an righ ts and the d rive for p r e s tig e in the U nited N a
tion s, Indian a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m a p p e a r s to be a " h isto r ic m i s s i o n , for u l
t im a te ly th ere is only one p a r tic u la r iz a tio n : the r e d r e s s of p o litic a l,
e c o n o m ic and s o c ia l in e q u a litie s of A f r o - A s ia . W here S tr a u s z -H u p e
and a s s o c i a t e s s e e a p r e d ile c tio n fo r M a r x is m - L e n in i s m , B o w le s p e r
c e iv e s a
r e v o lu tio n of r is in g e x p e c ta tio n s. T h is revolu tion , w h ic h s h a p e s
the attitu des and a s p ir a tio n s of one and a half b illio n p eop le of In
dia, A fr ic a and South A m e r ic a , has th r e e o b je ctiv es: fr e e d o m fr o m
fo r e ig n dom ination, p o litic a l and e c o n o m ic ; a full m e a s u r e of h u
m a n dignity r e g a r d le s s of r a c e, r e lig io n or color; and in c r e a s e d
e c o n o m ic op p ortu n ities, b ro a d ly sh ared .
T h ese o b je c tiv e s a r e no differen t than the m o r a l p r e m i s e s up
on w h ich the A m e r ic a n p u r p o se is c o n s tr u c te d , and it is fo r the p r e s e r
vation of th e s e v e r y id e a ls in the W e s te r n w o r ld that the United States
h as fo r g e d a p o w er fu l a llia n c e to contain S oviet p o w er . It is a le a d e r
in the a ttem p ts to defend th e s e id e a ls fr o m C o m m u n ist s u b v e r s io n or
p e r v e r s io n , but th ere is a s e r io u s q u e s tio n about its le a d e r s h ip in the
e ffo r ts to p rop agate th e s e id e a ls in a la r g e p art of the w o rld . In the
se co n d b i-p o la r ity in the c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r ld , that of a n t i- c o lo n ia lis m
and c o lo n ia lis m , have v e r s u s h a v e -n o t, has the United S tates b e e n a
le a d e r on e ith e r sid e of the r iv a lr y ? T h is b e c o m e s the s e c o n d i m p o r
tant q u estio n , for once again the r e c o r d and the i llu s o r y s ta te m e n ts
m a d e on this su b ject n eed to be c o m p a re d .
It m ig h t be w o r th w h ile to r e it e r a t e a sh o r t s u m m a r y of the
1 L ]7
° B e r k e s , op. c i t . , p. 205. B o w le s , op. c i t . , pp. 4 1 - 4 2 .
243
United States position in the debates on the m an ifestation s of a n ti-c o lo
n ialism at this point, and then com pare those with statem ents by author
ities and officials in A m eric a . F ir st, the United States has been a v ig
orous opponent of the p olitical m an ifestation s of a n ti-co lo n ia lism in
such m a tters as independence of North A frica, econ om ic s e lf - d e t e r m i
nation and the an ti-colon ial drive for pow er, p r e stig e and their efforts
to e x e r c is e control over the United Nations; the United States has been
p a ssiv e in a large area of debate on such m a tte r s as apartheid, the
treatm en t of Indians and South-W est Africa; the United States has been
totally neutral on such p ro b lem s as Cyprus and W est Irian; and finally
the United States has actively supported the a n ti-colon ial pow ers in
18
such " crisis" situations as the Suez invasion. Obviously pas sivity
and neutrality are not su sceptib le to a d escrip tion such as leadersh ip,
and so two a sp ects of the A m e r ic a n r e sp o n se m u st form the b asis upon
which the A m e r ic a n claim to le a d e rsh ip m a y be adjudged. To begin
with, perhaps one should study the " c r is is resp o n se" in A m e r ic a n p o li
cy, w here it has been v isib ly on the an ti-co lo n ia l side. It is d iS icu lt to
construct the edifice of leadersh ip on the three in stan ces which are
featured in the " c r isis resp o n se" in A m e r ic a n p o licy for the following
reason s. F irst, the conception of le a d e rsh ip m u st include ingredients
of control over the developm ent of situations before they reach ex p lo
sive proportions, for lea d ersh ip im p lies shaping events and not just b e
ing forced to respond to them. F u rth erm o r e, in the apartheid and Indo
nesian c a s e s , the problem had been debated for y e a r s before the guns
18
F or a fu ller d isc u s sio n of th ese variants in A m eric a n policy
and the is s u e s involved, se e above, pp. 165-189.
244
began to sound, and in all those y e a r s the United States w as not a
prom inent influence on either side of the debate. Yet this is not e n tir e
ly accurate, for given the enorm ous pow er w hich is in A m e r ic a n hands,
even in its p a ssiv ity the United States influenced the co u rse of events.
But it still rem a in s that "initiative" and control, w hich are central to
the conception of leadersh ip, w e r e all but n o n -ex isten t until the d e v e l
opment of a c r is is . Kennedy has d escrib ed United States p o licy on Indo-
China in a m anner which fits its resp on se to Indonesia, Suez and the
shooting at Sharpeville.
Our n eg lect of V iet-N am is the r esu lt of one of the m o s t s e r i
ous w e a k n e sse s that has h am p ered the long range e ffe c tiv e n e ss of
A m e r ic a n foreign p olicy over the p a st s e v e r a l y e a r s - - a n d that is
our o v ere m p h a sis upon our role as "volunteer fire department" for
the world. W henever and w h e rev er fire breaks o u t--in Indo-China,
in the Middle E ast . . . our fir e m e n rush in, w heeling up all their
h eavy equipment, and reso rtin g to e v e r y known m ethod of contain
ing and extinguishing the blaze. . . . The role, to be sure, is a n e c
e s s a r y one; but it is not the only role to be played, and the others
cannot be ignored. A volunteer fire departm ent halts, but ra re ly
preven ts, fir e s . '
In those instan ces in which the United States has been able to
support the an ti-colonial p ow ers in the United N ations, it would be m o r e
accurate to say that events led the United States to m ove out of a long-
held p a s s i v it y - - it responded, but it did not, in that re sp o n se , show a
steady co m m itm en t and planned purpose w hich would w arrant a claim
of leadersh ip . Yet there are is s u e s in w hich the United States has
steadily m aintained a strong position against the a n ti-colon ial nations,
and the c o n siste n c y of its posture on North A frican m a tte r s m ight w ell
su stain the argum ent that it led the W estern coalition in those m a tte r s.
It certain ly is not n e c e s s a r y for the United States to lead the anti-
19
Kennedy, op. cit., pp. 62-63.
245
colon ials if its con viction s co m p e l a co n clu sio n that their efforts are a
dangerous and unw arranted a ssa u lt upon the status quo, yet one w o n
ders if there is such a c le a r con viction in W ashington. The im age of an
A m e r ic a dedicated to the p r e s e r v a tio n of F r e n c h colonial p ow er in
North A frica is s im p ly not convincing, for it is c le a r from the re c o r d
of A m e r ic a n s p e e c h e s in the United N ations that th ere e x is ts a painful
am b ivalence in A m e r ic a n m in d s on such colon ial p r o b le m s as Tunisia,
M o ro c co and A l g e r i a . ^ The s e c u r ity in te r e st m a y lead the United
States to support the F r e n c h in th ese m a tte r s , but the support is
grudgingly offered, and m o s t E u rop ean s w ho find the United States on
their side a r e not en tir e ly convinced that th eir a rgu m en ts and p o sitio n s
are fully ap p reciated by their am bivalent A m e r ic a n a llie s This E u r o
pean a s s e s s m e n t is not e n tire ly unw arranted, for ev en though the votes
c a st by A m e r ic a n d ele g a te s in the United Nations m a y favor the F ren ch,
the id eo lo g ica l bent in A m e r ic a n s ta te m e n ts s e e m s c le a r ly on so m e
other side of the q u arrel. It is in the n am e of free d o m , equality and the
dignity of m a n that A m e r ic a in trod u ces its e lf to the w o rld stage, and it
is due to the rep eated a s s e r tio n of th ose id ea ls by A m e r ic a n d e le g a te s
that the United States is c o n s id e r e d an am bivalent, in d e c isiv e p ow er by
both the colonial and a n ti-c o lo n ia l p o w e rs. A s B o w les has com m ented:
M any le a d e r s of the colonial p o w e r s reg a r d us as blundering s e n ti
m e n ta lis ts , w hile m a n y A frican n a tio n a lists ch arge us with being
tim id h y p o crites. Instead of m ak in g frien d s in each group, w e are
antagonizing both, without winning the r e s p e c t of either.
To the a n ti-co lo n ia l cam p, the fact that the United States is
not fir m ly w edded to the colon ial p o w e rs should be as encou raging as it
is d iscou ragin g that it is not c le a r ly on their side.
21
Bowles, op. cit., p. 101.
246
Yet not everyon e a g r e e s on this a s s e s s m e n t of the A m e r ic a n
position in the a n ti-co lo n ia l debate. As late as 1955, a high A m e r ic a n
official buoyantly announced A m e r ic a 's good fortune in the follow ing
manner: "One of our prin cipal lo n g -te r m a s s e t s is the fact that w e are
not co m p elled to m ak e a choice b etw een our m o r a l id ea lism and our
22
s e lf - in t e r e s ts . We do not have to hurt others to help o u r s e lv e s."
Mr. M urphy's a n a ly sis of A m e r ic a 's advantage in international
affairs is not sh ared by so m e oth ers who have argued that the United
States has lacked just such an advantage in being faced w ith the m o s t
difficult ch o ic e s thrust on any g reat pow er in history. B loom field has
su ggested that the A m e r ic a n d ile m m a is one that should call for s o b r i
ety and sym pathy from those who w ould castigate the United States for
its failure to respond to so m e c le a r ly m o r a l is s u e s , and he rem in d s
such c r itic s that by and la r g e the United States is justified in cla im in g
that it has nothing to be ash a m e d of in its p o lic ie s over the la s t fifteen
2 3
y e a r s. Som e a n ti-colon ial p o w e rs have at le a s t rec o g n ized the
A m e r ic a n d ile m m a and as shown above they have articulated their un
derstanding of the se c u r ity in te r e st in A m e r ic a n policy, even though
they have not ex a ctly ap p reciated the abstentions or n eg a tiv ism that
have been the con seq u en ce of it.
It has been shown above that the United States has been unable
to join the m a in a ssa u lt te a m s of a n ti-c o lo n ia lis m , p a rticu la rly in those
22
U n d e r se c r e ta r y of State Murphy, quoted in D epartm ent of
State B ulletin, M ay 16, 1955, p. 801.
23 . ” *
L incoln P. B loom field , Evolution or Revolution, The United
Nations and the P ro b lem of P e a c e fu l Change (Cambridge: H arvard U ni
v e r s ity P r e s s , 1957), pp. 182 ff.
247
debates which have cen tered on independence for the North A frican t e r
rito ries of Tunisia, M orocco and A lgeria. Yet it is the public b elief of
the D epartm ent of State w hich inform ed the A m e r ic a n people in 1954
24
that the United States "is pushing for self-g o v ern m en t." Such a
statem ent apparently ste m s from the odd assum ption that if one is p ow
erful and has the right intentions, one is autom atically a lead er in all
good m o v em en ts. But leadership is neither an inheritance, nor just a
position, and A cheson has w arned that
there is a tendency on the part of som e to a s su m e the fact of
United States leadership of the free world. We did not se e k it,
they say, w e would be reliev ed if it could p a s s from us, but it
has been thrust upon us. In other w ords it c o m e s from what we
are and not from what we do. This, I think, is likely to lead us
into e r r o r . ^
It is tim e to em p h asize what the United States has done, and
not what it w ish e s it could do, for it would serv e the purpose of the free
w orld better if there w ere a cle a r e r com p reh en sion of what the rec o rd
shows, so that the proper choices could be celeb rated and the im proper
ones d iscu sse d , and perhaps com p ensated for in the future. The A m e r
ican p erform an ce in the an ti-colonial debate has been keynoted not by
the noble p rin ciples which m otivate the id eals of the past and hopes of
the future but by the p r e ssin g dem ands of a p resen t threat from a p r e d
atory power. The p o lic ie s of the United States have been d efen sive, and
not p articularly im aginative or inspiring. If the United States has been
unable to lead either side in the a n ti-colonial problem in the la st y ea rs,
only the m o s t uncom p rom isin g and m isg u id ed m inds would impute any
^ D e p a r tm e n t of State B ulletin , June 21, 1954, p. 937.
25
Dean A cheson, A D em o cra t Looks at his P a rty (New York:
Harper and B ros., 1955), p. 96.
248
deplorable m o tiv e s to its governm ent or its r ep re se n ta tiv es. One m ay
be critica l about the s e lf-r ig h te o u s n e s s and p reten tio u sn ess that has
captured som e A m e r ic a n s p o k e sm en and sch o la rs at certain tim es, but
it would be unfair and untrue to charge that what has often been stated
is not really b e lie v e d --th a t A m e r ic a n love of liberty, equality and ju s
tice for all is no longer the touchstone of the A m eric a n purpose. The
im m ediate im plem entation of such p rin cip les m a y have been shelved,
but they have not been abandoned, and m o s t A m e r ic a n s m ight agree
with L ew is that "It is the lo g ic of our tim e s / No subject for im m ortal
v e r s e / That we who lived by honest d ream s / Defend the bad against the
w o rse."
Yet it is not proper to end on such a d espairing note. There
are two m ajor changes afoot in the United Nations and outside it which
need to be m entioned, and m igh t even w arrant a cautious hope or two.
In the fir s t place, a n ti-co lo n ia lism among som e of its sp ok esm en is it
self undergoing an im portant tran sition from ra d icalism to a m o r e con
servative approach to international p ro b lem s. It has been shown above
that India has for som e tim e been developing a m o r e m ature position
on colonial affairs, and that such m e n as Mr. Bourguiba have shown a
like tendency in their p o lic ie s in and out of the United Nations. Even
som e v e r y rec en tly independent A frican nations have rev ea led little pa
tience with p yrotechnical a n t i - c o l o n i a l i s m , ^ and there is som e rea so n
to hope that m od eration and patience w ill not be alien to the general
an ti-colonial resp o n se in the near future. It m a y w e ll be that m o s t
an ti-colonials have understood that h isto ry is on their side, and that
^ S e e Tim e, August 29, I960, p. 21.
249
there m a y be g rea te r w isd om in helping it along its inevitable course
rather than acting in a m anner w hich su g g ests that its co u rse still
needs to be charted. At le a st one of the m an ifestation s of a n ti-co lo n ia l
ism has been la r g e ly r e a liz e d --th a t of the independence of colonial te r -
27
rito r ie s. The realization that they are winning the im m ediate goals
and m u st handle the im portant dem ands of the resp o n sib ilities attendant
to their v ic to r ie s m a y lead the a n ti-colon ials to a position long e n
d orsed by the United States. A s M rs. Bolton had once advised, inde
pendence would be a m e a n in g le ss g estu re if it could not be p rotected
against new er im p e r ia lism s . The reco rd of the anti-colonial resp on se
to the Congo c r i s i s would su g g est that a number of these nations are
con sciou s of their resp o n sib ility toward keeping a new im p e r ia lism out
of that currently chaotic country.
The other change which needs to be m entioned is the seem in g
d e -e m p h a sis on the m ilita r y threat posed by the Soviet Union in Europe
and the new er p o litic o -e c o n o m ic challenge of Soviet diplom acy in A sia
and A frica. The repeated ch a llen g es for "peaceful com petition" w hich
have been cock ily offered by Mr. K hruschev do not se e m to be sim p ly a
cover for so m e sudden m ilita r y adventure, for they have been a c c o m
panied by action in eco n o m ic and political penetration in A sia and A fr i
ca. As Stevenson s e e s it,
Mr. K hruschev states his purpose plainly. He sa y s, le t's throw
down our a r m s and w e w ill beat you at peaceful com petitive c o - e x
isten ce. He says that R u ssia w ill outstrip the United States in p r o
duction and that one by one the neutrals w ill fall in line. . . . This I
27
In A frica alone, six teen new nations w ill be born in a single
year, I960. See "Three Stages in A frica's M odern H is t o r y - - C olonial
is m 's P eak and the M arch toward Independence," The New York T im e s ,
August 14, I960, p. B -3 .
250
am convinced, is the route to w orld power which the Soviets now
regard as the sa fest and su rest. And in talks with Khruschev both
in his country and ours I felt that his confidence w as genuine that
h istory is working with him . .
Should the Soviet d e -e m p h a sis on the m ilita r y asp ects of its
im p eria lism prove true, and the concurrent econ om ic and political
threat be c le a r ly appreciated in the United States, it would follow that
A m e r ic a m ight be com pelled to respond vigorously in the p o litic o -e c o
nom ic sphere m uch as it did in the m ilita ry past. In such an event, the
United States would not have to tread on allied toes in Europe, for both
Britain and F ran ce have in their own developm ent in the past y e a r s felt
the need for such action by the W est. Britain has long been a sso c ia ted
with the institutionalized econ om ic p rogram s of the Colombo Plan, and
F rance has lately been one of the p rim a ry sp ok esm en for a generous
W estern program of aid for u n der-developed countries. P olitically,
too, both England and F ran ce have rapidly divested th e m s e lv e s of co lo
nial te r r ito r ie s in the im m ed iate past, and those they could not im m e d i-
29
ately set free are being prepared for their eventual freedom . Should
the United States and its a llies develop a strong initiative in these areas
to m e e t the new er Soviet challenge, there would be little objection from
the anti-colonial camp, for the a n ti-colonials have been con sisten tly
(and perhaps p rem aturely) s tr e s s in g that the real threat in their part of
the w orld w as p o litico -eco n o m ic and only secon darily a m ilita r y one.
If th ese tr e n d s --th e growing resp on sib ility of the anti-
^®Adlai E. Stevenson, Putting F ir s t Things F i r s t - - A D em o
cratic View (New York: Random House, I960), p. 7.
29
The exception to this general developm ent is the problem of
A lgeria. Even there, it would appear that the DeGaulle governm ent is
m oving toward som e settlem en t with the PGAR.
251
c o lo n ia ls and the changing nature of the Soviet t h r e a t - - a r e fir m and not
m e r e l y tr a n sito r y , it b e c o m e s im p ortan t to e x a m in e the A m e r ic a n
s c e n e in o r d e r to find both an a w a r e n e s s of th e se tre n d s and the w i l li n g
n e s s to m a k e c h a n g e s in A m e r ic a n p o lic y so that p r o p e r ad ju stm e n ts
m a y be m a d e . It is too e a r ly to m a k e a c o n c lu s iv e s ta te m e n t on the
w illin g n e s s to m a k e a r a d ic a l change in adjusting to the n e w e r Soviet
threat, but th e r e s e e m s little doubt that it has b een r e c o g n iz e d by in flu
ential A m e r ic a n s and that they have a d vocated im portant c h a n g e s.
B o w le s has s t r e s s e d the grow in g p r o p o r tio n s of the p o litic a l c h a llen g e
in Soviet e x p lo ita tio n of a n t i- c o lo n ia l d i s t r e s s , and has b een p a r t ic u la r
ly eloq uent on the n e e d for c le a r s ta te m e n ts on the d rive for r a c ia l
30
equality. John K ennedy h as s t r e s s e d , in an e x c e lle n t s p e e c h on "The
E c o n o m ic Gap," that the U nited States m u s t m o v e m o r e im a g in a tiv e ly
into the fie ld of e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t, and the opening s ta te m e n t in
that s p e e c h quite c le a r ly c o n n e c ts A m e r ic a n s e c u r it y to A s ia n - A f r ic a n
p o v e r ty and Soviet o p p ortu n ism .
M r. P r e s id e n t , the attention of the C o n g r e s s and the A m e r ic a n
p eop le in r e c e n t w e e k s h as b e e n t u r n e d -- a n d p r o p e r ly s o - - t o the
fo rth c o m in g " m is s il e gap." I w is h to sp ea k today about a gap w h ich
c o n stitu te s an eq u a lly c le a r and p r e s e n t danger to our s e c u r ity .
Unlike the m i s s i l e gap, the gap to w h ic h I r e fe r w ill not r e a c h
the point of c r it ic a l d an ger in 1961- That point has b e e n r e a c h e d
now . . .
Unlike the m i s s i l e gap, the gap to w h ic h I r e fe r g iv e s r is e to
no sp e c u la tio n as to w h e th e r the R u s s ia n s w ill ex p lo it it to their
advantage and to our d e tr im e n t. T hey a r e exp lo itin g it now.
I am talking about the e c o n o m ic g a p - - t h e gap in liv in g
30
C h e s te r A. B o w le s , The N ew D im e n s io n s of P e a c e (New
York: H a rp er and B r o s ., 1955), pp. 3 5 7 -3 6 4 .
252
31
stan d ard s and in c o m e and hope for the future . . .
L e s t it be a s s u m e d that the a w a r e n e s s of both c h an ges m e n
tioned above is a m o n o p o ly of influential D e m o c r a t s in the United
States, it should be s t r e s s e d that su c h p r o m in e n t R ep u b lican s as S e n a
tor C oop er and V i c e - P r e s i d e n t N ixon have m a d e the s a m e points on
32
m a n y in s ta n c e s . Should influential s p o k e s m e n in both p a r tie s c o n
tinue to be c o n v in c ed about the p r o p o s itio n s of change abroad and at
h om e, th e re is good r e a s o n to e x p e c t the A m e r ic a n p eop le to r e sp o n d to
their le a d e r s h ip .
F in ally, if the A m e r ic a n p o s tu r e r e f le c t s the changing c o n d i
tions in the a n ti-c o lo n ia l w o rld , it is r e le v a n t to inquire as to w h eth er
it can count on e ffe c tiv e and s e n s ib le c o - o p e r a t io n fro m the a n t i - c o l o
nial w o rld . A s the r e c o r d sh o w s, on a lm o s t all the o c c a s io n s w h e r e the
United S ta te s has taken any in itiative to m e e t the a n ti-c o lo n ia l c a s e in
any sign ifican t w ay, the a n t i- c o lo n ia ls have g iv en it th e ir c o -o p e r a tio n .
Indonesia, Suez and the Congo c r i s i s are only th r ee of m a n y e x a m p le s
of this c o - o p e r a t io n b e tw e e n the a n t i- c o lo n ia ls and the United States,
and the p a st r e c o r d of c o -o p e r a t io n w ou ld ju stify a m o d e s t hope for the
f u t u r e - - m o d e s t b e c a u s e it is u n lik e ly that all a n ti-c o lo n ia l d e m a n d s can
be m e t by the United S ta tes, or that p o l ic i e s of initiative and im a g in a
tion by A m e r ic a n s in the e c o n o m ic fie ld can le a d to su c h a gr a te fu l r e
sp o n se in the a n t i- c o lo n ia l w o r ld that all p a s t f r ic tio n s w ould van ish .
31
Kennedy, op. c i t . , pp. 4 5 - 4 6 .
32
Indeed Senator C ooper jo in e d S en ator K ennedy in u rgin g the
Senate to approve a r e s o lu t io n on exp an d ed e c o n o m ic aid and planning.
See Grant S. M c C lella n , India (New York: H. W. W ilson, I960), p. 132.
253
As has been shown above, a n ti-co lo n ia lism has m any variants, and e c o
nom ic equality and political independence are only two of its m o re im
portant goals. It is likely that there w ill be continued friction on such
m a tters as control of the United Nations and econom ic s e lf-d e te r m in a
tion. It is a foolish dream to expect all p rob lem s to be solved by
A m erican initiative, and both A m eric a n s and an ti-colonials m ight w ell
rea lize that
It is inevitable that a llies and friends, owing to their differences in
position, power, and exp erien ce, w ill have different attitudes of
mind, different im m ed iate preoccupations, d ifferences in their in
te r e sts and fea rs. The task is to build strength out of unity
through p o lic ie s and acts in which all can join because their in te r
e sts are better se r v e d with them than without them . . . because the
com m on plan offers the best chance of s u c c e s s in the solution of
m ajor com m on p rob lem s.
In conclusion, it m ight be noted that som e adjustm ents need to
be made by the anti-colonial p ow ers as w ell as the United States. The
anti-colonial pow ers w ill need to rein force their growing m aturity now
that A fro -A sia n nations are becom ing one of the la r g e st groups in the
United Nations. P arrott has noted the in cr ea se d voting power of these
nations and has com m en ted on the m aturity of their le a d e rs, for "in the
Congo c r is is , som e of the older A frican m e m b e r s certainly restrained
the younger states from going overboard in demands on the United N a
tions. It w as in anticipation of just such a developm ent that one au
thority once offered a com m en t on future Indian behavior, which takes
on added im portance for that country in light of the growing m e m b e r
ship in the United Nations.
3 3
A cheson, op. c i t ., p. 97.
^ L in d e s a y Parrott, "Now A frican States Shift UN Scales,"
The New York T i m e s , August 28, I960, p. E -5 .
254
The tim e m a y w e ll have c o m e w h en the q u alities of le a d e r s h ip
in the new United N ation s that m u s t be e x p e c te d of India are now
m o r e g e n e r a lis t. P e r h a p s the Indian le a d e r s t h e m s e lv e s have b e
gun to r e a liz e that they m u s t take m o r e f ir m ly in hand the s t r a t e
g ie s of a P o w e r w ith g e n e r a l r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s , as w e ll as th o se of a
p ow er with p a r tic u la r i n t e r e s t s . ^
A s for the United States, it m igh t w e ll be that it too n e e d s to
"take m o r e fir m ly in hand the s t r a t e g ie s of a P o w e r w ith g e n e r a l r e
s p o n s ib ilitie s." An a n ti-c o lo n ia l s p o k e s m a n once said that the u n d e r
d ev elo p ed nations did not w is h to be c a st in the role of " C in d e r e lla s ,"
and o th ers la m e n te d that E u rop e had w a r r a n te d a M a r sh a ll P la n to
m e e t its p r o b le m s , w h ile their p o v e r ty s e e m e d to be tre a te d in a r e l a
tiv e ly c o m p la c e n t and c a s u a l m a n n e r . The p a r a lle l in the e c o n o m ic
p rob lem is sy m b o lic of the a n ti-c o lo n ia l fe e lin g that the United States
has tended to treat them in a like m a n n e r in e v e n the p o litica l and r a
c ial deb ates. It m a y w e ll be that M r. H odgson had the right ad vice for
the United States and the W e ste r n w o r ld in g e n e r a l w h en he ask ed for
"a little m o r e d e c isio n , a little m o r e good s e n s e and a little m o r e m o r -
i n 36
al c o u r a g e ."
^ B e r k e s , op. c i t . , p. 207.
3 ft
The is s u e w a s Indonesia, and M r. H odgson w a s d istu rb ed by
A m e r ic a n eq u ivocation and the i n d e c is i v e n e s s of the S ecu rity Council.
See above, pp. 13-15.
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ABAJ A m erican Bar A sso cia tio n Journal
AJIL A m erican Journal of International Law
Annals Annals of the A m erica n A cadem y of P olitical and So
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International Court of Justice
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Report of the Ad Hoc C om m ittee on F o rc ed Labour, 1953. UN Doc.
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of the General A ssem b ly , P len a ry M e e tin g s, January 10 -F eb ru a ry
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c e m b e r 13, 1946^ 365 ^pp.
. Second C o m m itte e , N o v e m b e r 1 - D e c e m b e r 9, 1946. 216 pp.
. T h ird C o m m itte e , O ctober 2 4 - D e c e m b e r 12, 1946. 423 pp.
. Fourth C o m m ittee, N ovem ber 1 5 -D ecem b er 10, 1946. 284
pjn
United Nations. R esolutions Adopted by the G eneral A sse m b ly During
the Second P art of its F ir s t S ession, October 2 3 - D ecem ber 15,
1946. 201 pp.
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sem bly, P len a ry M eetings of the G eneral A s s e m b ly , Septem ber 16-
N ovem ber 29, 1947. Vol. I, 1429 pp.
__________ . N ovem ber 13-29, 1947. Vol. II, pp. 753-1637.
__________ . F ir s t C o m m ittee, Septem ber 16-N ovem b er 19, 1947. 628 pp.
__________ . Second C o m m ittee, Septem ber 16-N ovem b er 6 , 1947. 131 pp.
__________ . Third C o m m itte e , Septem ber 16-N ovem b er 11, 1947. 269 pp.
______ . Fourth C o m m itte e , Septem ber 16-N ovem ber 6 , 1947. 219 pp.
__________ . Third S essio n of G eneral A sse m b ly , P art I, P len ary M e e t
ings of the General A s s e m b ly , Septem ber 2 1 -D e c e m b e r 12, 1948.
1044 pp.
__________. P art II, . . . , A pril 5-M ay 18, 1949- 619 pp.
__________ . P art I, F ir s t C om m ittee, Septem ber 2 1 -D ecem b er 8 , 1948.
1027 pp.
P art II, F ir s t C o m m itte e , A pril 5-M ay 13, 1949. 395 pp.
_______ . P a rt I, Second C o m m itte e , Septem ber 21-N ovem b er 26, 1948.
369 pp.
. P a rt I, Ad Hoc P o litica l C om m ittee, N ovem ber 1 6 -D e c e m -
ber 9, 1947. 328 pp.
__________ . P a rt II, AHPC, A pril 6 -M ay 10, 1949. 394 pp.
__________ . P a rt I, Third C o m m itte e , Septem ber 2 1 -D e c e m b e r 8 , 1948.
901 pp.
265
United Nations. Official R ecord s of the Third S e s sio n of the G eneral
A ss e m b ly , P a rt II, Third C om m ittee, A pril 6 -M a y 12, 1949. 466
PP-
P a rt I, Fourth C om m ittee, Septem ber 2 1 -N o v e m b e r 22,
1948. 378 pp.
P a r t I, P len a ry M eetin gs of the G eneral A sse m b ly , A nnexes,
1948. 588 pp.
P a rt II, . . ., A nnexes, 1948. 106 pp.
. Fourth S e ssio n of the G eneral A s s e m b ly , P le n a r y M eetin gs
of the G eneral A sse m b ly , Septem ber 2 0 -D e c e m b e r 10, 1949- 619
pp.
Annex. 2 36 pp.
F ir s t C om m ittee, Septem ber 2 0 -D e c e m b e r 6 , 1949- 372 pp.
. Ad Hoc P o litic a l C om m ittee, S ep tem b er 2 7 -D e c e m b e r 7,
1949. 368 pp.
Second C om m ittee, S ep tem b er 2 0 -N o v e m b e r 22, 1949. 160
pp.
Third C om m ittee, Septem ber 2 0 -N o v e m b e r 28, 1949. 177 pp
. Fourth C om m ittee, S ep tem b er 2 0 -D e c e m b e r 5, 1949- 285
pp.
Fifth S e s sio n of the G eneral A sse m b ly , P len a ry M eetings,
Septem ber 1 9 -D e c e m b e r 15, 1950. Vol. I, 687 pp.
A nnexes. Vol. I.
Vol. II.
P len a ry M eetin gs, F eb ru a ry 1 -N o v em b er 5, 1951. Vol. II,
pp. 688-751.
F ir s t C om m ittee, Septem ber 2 0 -D e c e m b e r 18, 1950. 458 pp
. Ad Hoc P o litic a l C om m ittee, S ep tem ber 3 0 -D e c e m b e r 14,
1950. 534 pp.
Joint Second and Third C om m ittee, October 4 -N o v e m b e r 25,
1950. 76 pp.
Third C om m ittee, S ep tem b er 2 0 -D e c e m b e r 11, 1950. 462 pp
266
United N ations. Official R e c o r d s of the F ifth S e s s i o n of the G eneral
A s s e m b ly , Fourth C o m m itte e , S e p te m b e r 2 0 - D e c e m b e r 8 , 1950.
387 pp.
__________ . Sixth S e s sio n of the G eneral A s s e m b l y , P le n a r y M e e tin g s ,
N o v e m b e r 5 -F e b r u a r y 5, 19 5 1 -1 9 5 2 . 528 pp.
__________ . F i r s t C o m m itte e , N ov em b er 7 - F e b r u a r y 2, 1951-1952. 301
pp.
__________ . S econ d C o m m itte e , N o v e m b e r 7 - J a n u a r y 24, 1951-1952. 288
pp.
. Ad Hoc P o litic a l C o m m ittee, N o v e m b e r 19-Jan u ary 31, 1951-
1952. 328 pp.
__________ . T h ird C o m m itte e , N o v e m b e r 7 - F e b r u a r y 2, 1 9 51-1952. 449
pp.
__________ . F o u rth C o m m itte e , N o v em b er 7 - J a n u a r y 15, 1951-1952. 323
pp.
__________ . R eso lu tio n s Adopted by the G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y During its
Sixth S e s sio n , N o v em b er 6 - F e b r u a r y 5, 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 5 2 . Supplem ent no.
20 (A /2119). 91 pp.
__________ . O fficial R eco rd s of the Seventh S e s s io n , of the G eneral A s -
sem b ly , P le n a r y M e e tin g s , O ctober 1 4 - A u g u s t 28, 1952-1953. 752
pp.
__________ . F i r s t C o m m itte e , O ctober 1 4 - D e c e m b e r 21, 1952, and F e b
ru ary 2 4 -A p r il 23, 1953. 770 pp.
__________ . Secon d C o m m itte e , October 1 4 - D e c e m b e r 20, 1952. 332 pp.
__________ . Ad Hoc P o litic a l C o m m itte e , O c to b er 1 4 - D e c e m b e r 19, 1952.
320 pp.
__________ . T h ird C o m m itte e , O ctober 1 4 - D e c e m b e r 19, 1952. 397 pp.
__________ . F o u rth C o m m itte e , O ctober 1 4 - D e c e m b e r 19, 1952. 465 pp.
__________ . S eventh S e s sio n of the G eneral A s s e m b l y , A nn exes. V ols. I
and II.
__________ . E igh th S e s s io n of the G eneral A s s e m b l y , P le n a r y M eetin g s,
S e p te m b e r 1 5 -D e c e m b e r 9, 1953. 467 pp.
___________. F i r s t C o m m itte e , S ep tem b er 1 6 - D e c e m b e r 7, 1953. 305 pp.
__________ . Ad Hoc P o litic a l C o m m itte e , S e p t e m b e r 1 6 -D e c e m b e r 5,
1953. 233 p p .
267
United Nations. Official R ecords of the Eighth S essio n of the General
A ssem b ly , Second C o m m ittee, Septem ber 16-D ecem b er 4, 1953.
212 pp.
__________ . Third C om m ittee, Septem ber 1 6 -D ecem b er 3, 1953. 344 pp.
. Fourth Com m ittee, September 16-D ecem b er 7, 1953. 541
PP-
. Annexe s .
. Ninth S e ssio n of the General A ssem b ly , P lenary M ee tin g s,
Septem ber 21 -D e c e m b e r 17, 1954. 552 pp.
. F ir s t C om m ittee, Septem ber 2 2 -D ecem b er 16, 1954. 577 pp.
. Ad Hoc P olitical C om m ittee, September 2 2 -D ecem b er 15,
1954. 273 pp.
. Second C o m m ittee, Septem ber 2 2 -D ecem b er 13, 1954. 252
pp.
. Fourth C om m ittee, Septem ber 2 2 -D ecem b er 13, 1954. 470
pp.
. A nnexes. ,
. Tenth S e ssio n of the General A ss e m b ly , P len ary M eetin g s,
Septem ber 2 0 -D e c e m b e r 20, 1955. 511 pp.
. F ir s t C o m m ittee, Septem ber 2 1 -D ecem b er 12, 1955. 297 pp.
. Ad Hoc P o litica l C o m m ittee, D ecem ber 9- 2.1, 1955. 160 pp.
. Second C o m m ittee, Septem ber 2 1 -D ecem b er 5, 1955. 180 pp.
. Third C o m m ittee, Septem ber 2 1 -D ecem b er 6 , 1955. 198 pp.
. Fourth C o m m ittee, Septem ber 21-D ecem b er 13, 1955. 476
pp.
. Official R ecords of the F ir st E m erg en cy Special S essio n of
the General A ssem b ly , P len ary M eetings and Annex, N ovem ber 1-
10, 1956. 130 pp.
. Second E m erg e n c y Special S ession of the G eneral A s s e m b ly ,
P len ary M ee tin g s, N ovem ber 4-10, 1956. 88 pp.
. Eleventh S e s sio n of the General A ssem b ly , P len ary M e e t
in g s, N ovem ber 12, 1956-M arch 8 , 1957. Vol. I, 657 pp.
. Vol. II, pp. 658-1335.
268
United Nations. Official R ecords of the Eleventh S ession of the General
A ssem b ly , P len a ry M eetings, September 10-14, 1957. Vol. Ill, pp.
1335-1479.
__________ . F ir s t C om m ittee, N ovem ber 12, 1 9 5 6 -February 28, 1957.
319 pp.
. Special P o litica l Com m ittee, N ovem ber 12, 1956-F eb ru ary
27, 1957. 191 pp-
__________ . Second C o m m ittee, N ovem ber 12, 1956-F ebruary 22, 1957.
325 pp.
, . Third C om m ittee, N ovem ber 12, 1956-F ebruary 12, 1957.
413 pp.
__________ . Fourth C o m m ittee, Novem ber 12, 1956-F ebruary 22, 1957.
494 pp.
______. Twelfth S essio n of the General A ssem b ly, P lenary M eetings,
Septem ber 1 7 -D e c e m b e r 14, 1957. 634 pp.
_________ . A nnexes to the General A ssem b ly.
. F ir s t C o m m ittee, Septem ber 1 7 -D ecem b er 14, 1957. 449 pp.
. Special P o litica l C om m ittee, September 1 7 -D ecem b er 11.
1957. 189 pp.
Second C om m ittee, September 1 7 -D ecem b er 13, 1957. 302
pp.
Third Committee," September 17-D ecem b er 9, 1957. 361 pp
Fourth C om m ittee, Septem ber 1 7 -D ecem b er 12, 1957. 480
pp.
_. Thirteenth S essio n of the General A ssem b ly, P len ary M e e t
in g s, Septem ber 1 6 -D ecem b er 13, 1958 and February 20-M arch 13,
1959. 650 pp.
. F ir s t C o m m ittee, Septem ber 16-D ecem b er 13, 1958. 382 pp.
. Special P o litica l Com m ittee, September 16-D ecem b er 10,
T958. 184 pp.
. Second C o m m ittee, September 1 6 -D ecem b er 11, 1958. 320
pp.
. Third Committee, September 16-December 8, 1958. 346 pp.
269
United Nations. Official R ecords of the Thirteenth S essio n of the Gen
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1958 and F ebruary 20 -M a rch 13, 1959. 772 pp.
. C o m m issio n on the R acial Situation in South A frica. Report
on the R acial Situation in the Union of South A fr ic a , 1953. UN Doc.
A72505" and A /2 505/Add. 1. 166 pp.
S ecretariat Publications
F reed om of Information: A C om pilation . Vol. I: "Comment of G overn
m en ts." Vol. II: "Texts C om m unicated by G overn m en ts." Lake
S u ccess, 1950. UN Sales Number: 1950.XIV.1. 271 pp. and 216 pp.
The Road to E q uality. New York, 1953. UN Doc. ST/SOA/13. UN Sales
Number: 1953.IV.4. 21 pp.
Yearbook of the United Nations: 1946-1947. Lake S u ccess: United N a
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: 1947-1948. Lake S u ccess: United Nations, 1949- UN Sales
Number: 1949-1.13.
__________ : 1948-1949- Lake S u ccess: United Nations, 1950. UN Sales
Number: 1950.1.11.
: 1950. New York: Columbia U niversity P r e s s in co -o p era tio n
with the United Nations, 1951. UN Sales Number: 1951.1.24. 1068
pp.
: 1951. New York: Columbia U niversity P r e s s in co -o p era tio n
with the United Nations, 1952. UN Sales Number: 1952.1.30. 1030
pp.
: 1952. New York: Columbia U niversity P r e s s in co-op eration
with the United Nations, 1953. UN Sales Number: 1953.1.30. 980
pp.
__________ : 1953. New York: Columbia U niversity P r e s s in co -op eration
with the United Nations, 1954. UN Sales Number: 1954.1.15. 906
pp.
__________ : 1954. New York: Columbia U niversity P r e s s in co -op eration
with the United Nations, 1955. UN Sales Number: 1955.1.25. 656
pp.
__________ : 1955. New York: Columbia U niversity P r e s s in co -op eration
with the United Nations, 1956. UN Sales Number: 1956.1.20. 556
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Y earb ook of the U nited N ations: 1956. N ew York: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y
P r e s s in c o -o p e r a tio n w ith the U nited N a tio n s, 1957. UN S a le s
N um ber: 1957.1.1. 586 pp.
___________: 1957. N ew York: C olu m b ia U n iv e r s ity P r e s s in c o - o p e r a t io n
w ith the U nited N ation s, 1958. UN S a le s N um ber: 1958.1.1. 604 pp.
___________: 1958. N ew York: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity P r e s s in c o - o p e r a t io n
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138 p p .
___________. Q u estio n n a ire , A s A p p ro v e d by the T r u s te e s h ip C ou n cil at
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Asset Metadata

Creator Bedi, Mohinder Singh (author)

Core Title United States Policy On Manifestations Of Anti-Colonialism In The United Nations

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Political Science

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,political science, international law and relations

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Berkes, Rose N. (committee chair), Christol, Carl Q. (committee member), Rodee, Carlton C. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-98904

Unique identifier UC11358071

Identifier 6103791.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-98904 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6103791.pdf

Dmrecord 98904

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Bedi, Mohinder Singh

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA