University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Selection, Training And Evaluation Of School Bus Drivers In California

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The Selection, Training And Evaluation Of School Bus Drivers In California

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Content THE SELECTION, TRAINING AND EVALUATION OP SCHOOL BUS DRIVERS IN CALIFORNIA A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education by Thomas William Preece June 1961 This dissertation, written under the direction of the Chairman of the candidate’s Guidance Committee and approved by all members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education. D ate.................. June.,... 15.61....................................... G u id^ u e^ om m ittee Dean TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. THE PROBLEM AND PROCEDURE................ 1 Introduction The Problem Statement of the Problem Importance of the Problem Limitations and Scope of the Study Definitions of Terms Used Procedure Basic Assumptions Sponsorship Procedural Steps Questionnaire Returns Organization of the Remainder of the Study II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE............ 15 Historical Development of Pupil Transportation Early Development Pupil Transportation in California Pupil Transportation Measurement of Need Financing and Equalizing Transportation Costs Administration of Pupil Transportation Motor Vehicle Operation Commercial Motor Vehicle Operation Personnel Principles and Procedures in Transportation Management Criteria of Driver Selection and Training Principles of Driver Supervision iii iv Chapter III. References: Trade Papers Summary of Chapter LEGAL REQUIREMENTS........ ............ State Laws and Regulations Education Code of California Powers of the governing hoard Permitted uses of school buses Regulations Definition of a school bus Violations Overloading Classified employees Fixing of duties Duration of contract Age limits Power of governing board to fix compensation Examination for tuberculosis Employment after conviction of sex offense Termination of probation and dismissal of accusation Conviction for sex offense Record of conviction Use of personal identification cards to ascertain conviction of crime California Administrative Code Application of regulations School bus driver',s certificate re quired Eligibility for certificate Fingerprinting of applicant Revocation of school bus driver's certificate Definition of conviction Dismissal of driver First aid training Agreement form required Page 49 Condition of bus Accidents Authority of the driver Inspection; discontinuance of use of school bus Use of buses Safe and lawful operation Duty as to defects Bus inspection by the driver Stop off the highway Standees Stops Loading and unloading of pupils Distance from railroad crossing to load or discharge pupils Railroad crossing Unnecessary conversation by driver Hours of labor of the driver Cleaning of the bus Leaving the bus Sending for help Filling of the gasoline tank Interior lighting Operation in motion Smoking in the bus Intoxicating liquors Animals Weapons Visibility of the driver Making of repairs Report of violations Operation In combination with other vehicles Tire chains Number of pupils carried Vehicle Code of California Age limit for driving a school bus Drivers of private school buses Speed of school buses restricted School bus signal Railroad crossings Other laws Liability of School Districts in California Government Code Liability of officers and employees for defective and dangerous equipment or property Tort liability Education Code of California Liability for personal injury and property damage Governing board shall carry liability insurance Vehicle Code of California Public agency defined Liability of public agencies Subrogation of public agency Purchase of liability insurance Civil Code of California Court Cases Cases in States Where Specific Statute Provides for District Liability Nonliability of Districts for Injuries Under Common Law Degree of Care Required in Trans porting Students Cases Indicating a Greater Duration of Care Than That Required of Common Carriers "Negligence of One Does Not Excuse the Negligence of Another" Negligence Relative to the Age of the Child Summary by Punke Summary of Chapter vil Chapter IV. Page COMMERCIAL TRANSPORTATION ................ 109 Safety Rules and Regulations Interstate Commerce Commission Safety Regulations Qualifications of drivers Driving of motor vehicles Reporting of accidents Hours of service of drivers Inspection and maintenance Public Utilities Commission Rules Literature on the Problem as It Pertains to Commercial Operations The Driver Selection Procedure The selection interview Age Physical fitness Testing procedures Driver Evaluation and Supervision Driver Training Procedure Practices of Large Commercial Bus Systems Transcontinental Trailways Bus System: Continental American Bus Lines Western Greyhound Bus Lines Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority Summary RESULTS OF A SURVEY: SELECTION, TRAINING, AND EVALUATION OF SCHOOL BUS DRIVERS IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS ........ 162 Literature on the Problem Board and Administrative Policies Recruitment Employment Practices Used Age of the driver Driving experience Character and personality traits vili Chapter VI. Physical examination Pre-employment testing Keeping of records Induction, Training, and Testing Incentives Supervision and Evaluation Uniforms Part-time Drivers Results of a Questionnaire Survey Procedure Information about the District Numbers of pupils and buses Personnel Personnel by number of buses Board and Administrative Transporta tion Policies Recruitment Employment Practices Post-employment Testing, Induction, and Training Incentive Programs, Supervision, and Evaluation Uniforms Persons Employed to Drive Buses Part-time Drivers, and Those with Combination Jobs Chapter Summary Findings from the Literature Survey Findings Prevailing Viewpoints of Adminis trators CRITERIA FOR DESIRABLE PROCEDURES IN THE SELECTION, TRAINING, AND EVALUATION OF SCHOOL BUS DRIVERS ................ Procedure Evaluation Panel Questionnaire Jury Responses Page 245 ix Chapter Board and Administrative Policies Recruitment Employment Practices Post-employment Testing Induction Driver Training and Education in the District Incentive Programs Supervision Evaluation Uniforms Combination Jobs Summary VII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . Summary Restatement of the Problem Procedure Summary of the Findings Findings from the Review of Literature Findings Concerning Legal Re quirements Findings Concerning Commercial Transportation Findings Concerning District Regulations Criteria Conclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................... APPENDICES A. THE QUESTIONNAIRE ......................... B. THE PARTICIPATING SCHOOL DISTRICTS . . . . Page 275 299 322 324 C. THE JURY PANEL........................... 336 X Appendix Page D. SUMMARY OP RESPONSES OP 115 SCHOOL DIS TRICTS IN CALIFORNIA OPERATING 10 OR MORE SCHOOL BUSES (NUMBER OP COMBINED RESPONSES)............................... 559 E. PER CENT OF COMBINED RESPONSES OP 115 SCHOOL DISTRICTS IN CALIFORNIA OPERATING 10 OR MORE SCHOOL BUSES................ 5^6 F. SUMMARY OP RESPONSES OP 12 PANELISTS ... 552 LIST OP TABLES Table Page 1. Pupil Transportation in the United States, 1926-1955 .................. .. ♦ 19 2. Pupil Transportation in California, 1926-1959 20 5. Age of Drivers and Total Number in Accidents, 1958 40 4. Driver Training Schedule .................. 140 5. Greyhound Driver Training Schedule ........ 149 6. District Practices and Administrative Opin ion Concerning Transportation Policies . . 215 7. District Practices and Administrative Opin ion Concerning Recruitment and Pre- employment of Drivers .................. 215 8 . District Practices and Administrative Opin ion Concerning Hiring Practices ........ 218 9. District Practices and Administrative Opin ion Concerning Po3t-employment Testing, Induction, and Training ................ 220 10. District Practices and Administrative Opin ion Concerning Incentive Programs, Supervision, and Evaluation ............ 224 11. District Practices and Administrative Opin ion Concerning the Use of Uniforms .... 227 12. District Practices and Viewpoints Concerning Persons Employed as Bus Drivers ..... 228 xi xii Table Page 13. District Practices and Viewpoints Concern ing Part-time Drivers and Combination Jobs for Drivers......................... 231 14. Judgments of the Panelists Concerning Board and Administrative Transportation Poli cies ..................................... 249 15. Judgments of the Panelists Concerning Re cruitment Practices..................... 251 16. Judgments of the Panelists Concerning Employment Practices.................... 253 17. Judgments of the Panelists Concerning Post- Employment Testing, Induction, and Training................................. 256 18. Judgments of the Panelists Concerning In centive Programs, Supervision, and Evaluation............................... 261 19. Judgments of the Panelists Concerning the Wearing of Uniforms by Drivers .......... 264 20. Judgments of the Panelists Concerning Persons Employed as Drivers, and Combina tion J o b s ............................... 266 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND PROCEDURE Introduction Transportation services of school districts have developed at a rapid rate. The growth of these services in California has been greater in recent years because of the rapid Increase in school population and recent trends toward the reorganization of school districts. Improve ments in highways and vehicles have also contributed to the ability of school districts to provide more adequately for the transportation of pupils to schools. The growing urbanization of population has created hazardous areas and posed new dangers both to pupils who walk to school and to operators of school buses. The Increase in the numbers of school buses has multiplied the problems of safety, efficiency and economy. 1 The transportation factors which are probably easiest to control are the safety factors of buses and highways. The great unknown factor is the driver. To date, there exists a dearth of research in the area of the school bus driver, his selection, training, and evaluation. As yet, no com prehensive study of this problem has been completed in the state of California. Among studies conducted elsewhere, there seems to be little agreement concerning standards and measures of factors related to the ability to drive automobiles safely and efficiently. The Problem Statement of the Problem The problem of this study was a determination of acceptable procedures for the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California. The study endeavored to answer the following questions: 1. What related studies and literature are available in the areas of the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers? 5 2. What are the findings of research con cerning the safe operation of automo biles? 3. What legal requirements and responsi bilities pertain to the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California, as revealed in statutes, in the rules and regulations of local and state boards of education, and in court decisions and legal inter pretations? 4. What standards and practices do commer cial transportation organizations fol low or accept as good practice in the selection, training, and evaluation of drivers? 5. What are the current practices in the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California school districts? 6. What procedures, practices, and stand ards are considered desirable for the 4 selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California? Importance of the Problem One child in three is now being transported to and from school by means of a school bus. The number of buses will continue to increase; at the same time, the ever- increasing urbanization of the population will intensify the hazards of traffic. This is a study of a practical problem in school administration, a problem which must be met by every school district which provides transportation to and from school for its pupils. An overview of the problem suggests that (l) the school bus driver often has as close a relationship with pupils as does the teacher; (2) comparatively little care is taken in his selection, training, and evaluation; and (5) while the state has enacted a number of laws which pertain to extreme problems of school bus transportation, there would seem to be little relationship between overt violation of the law and the development of satisfactory school bus drivers. The development of an adequate program of selec tion, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers will, It is hoped, contribute markedly to the safety, efficiency and economy of school bus operation. Of even greater po tential is its contribution to the curricular and activity programs of schools, and to the development of public con fidence and pride in the school and its program. This study was designed to provide the background needed for making specific recommendations concerning the selection, training, and appraisal of bus drivers in local school districts. Limitations and Scope of the Study This study was confined to a consideration of the selection, training, and evaluation of public school bus drivers in the state of California. Concern for the national picture was limited to the reviews of related literature and research, the legal aspects of the problem, and a study of commercial transportation criteria. The study was further limited to public school dis tricts which operate ten or more school buses within the state of California, as reported in annual transportation reports to the California State Department of Education for the school year 1957-58. The assumption was made that the best examples of selection, evaluation, and training 6 practices would be found in these districts. A total of 156 school districts and three major commercial transpor tation companies were involved in the study. Definitions of Terms Used For the sake of common understanding and discus sion, definitions of some terms used in this study are given here. Tort. In legal parlance, the term tort refers to a wrong or injury, or a legal wrong committed upon the person or property independent of a contract. Negligence. As legally construed, negligence here refers to the omission of an act to do something which a reasonable person, guided by those ordinary considerations which regulate human affairs, would do. Conversely, it may refer to the doing of something which a reasonable person would not ordinarily do. School bus. As referred to here, a school bus is a motor vehicle regularly used for the transportation of pupil3 to and from the public schools; it is owned and 7 operated by the school district or by private individuals. Excepted from this definition are public carriers under the jurisdiction of the Public Utilities Commission, and motor vehicles of the pleasure-car type designed for and carrying not more than seven pupils and the driver. Defensive driving. Defensive driving refers to driving in such a manner that the driver is in control of his vehicle so that the mistakes of others do not Involve him in accidents. It implies the commission of no errors on the part of the driver. Procedure Basic Assumptions In developing the study it was necessary to make the following assumptions: 1. Districts operating ten or more school buses can be expected to demonstrate the best practices in the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers, when these practices are compared with those of dis tricts operating fewer school buses. 8 2. The practices of selected commercial transportation companies can offer data worthy of consideration hy public school authorities responsible for the transportation of school children. 3. An interview and visitation with the commercial transportation companies would reveal their best practices in the selection, training, and evaluation of bus drivers. 4. Questionnaire responses from selected California school districts would re veal the true current practices of driver selection, training, and eval uation. 5. Questionnaire responses provided by recognized leaders in the field of school bus transportation could pro duce acceptable criteria. Sponsorship The study was sponsored by the California Associa tion of Public School Business Officials. The Board of 9 Directors of this Association, meeting in Fresno, Cali fornia on May 29, 1959, granted the sponsorship of the study. Procedural Steps The operational procedure for the study was carried on in the following manner: 1. A review of the related literature of research in school bus transportation, automobile driving, and commercial transportation. 2. Development of a questionnaire concern ing actual practices in California school districts, first approved by the doctoral committee, and later validated by a jury of school administrators con cerned with pupil transportation. 5. Refinement, reproduction, and distribu tion of the questionnaire. 4. Selection of participating school dis tricts from those operating ten or more school buses, as reported by the Cali fornia State Department of Education. 10 5. Selection of a Jury of experts In the field of school transportation. 6. Distribution of the adjusted form of the questionnaire to the panel for their judgments concerning standards of school transportation. 7. Interviews with three major commercial bus transportation companies concern ing methods of selection, training, and evaluation of bus drivers. 8 . Tabulation, analysis, and interpreta tion of the data, as the basis for conclusions drawn and recommendations offered. Questionnaire Returns Of the 156 selected school districts to which questionnaires were sent, a total of 115 replies were re ceived. This 74 per cent response was considered by the doctoral committee to be adequate for the purposes of the study. Appendix A exhibits the questionnaire used in the study. Appendix B lists the districts which responded to 11 the questionnaire. Appendix C lists the panel of special ists who participated as Jurors in providing criteria for the study. Organization of the Remainder of the Study Chapter II, "Review of Related Literature," sum marizes references, studies, and research in the fields of pupil transportation, automobile driving, and commercial transportation. Chapter III, "Legal Requirements," contains a sum mation of legal requirements in the state of California which pertain to the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers; It also covers the liability of drivers and school districts for negligent operation of school buses. Court decisions made throughout the United States are cited as they pertain to school district lia bility for injuries due to negligence of the driver. Chapter IV, "Practices and Procedures of Commer cial Transportation Companies," reviews the rules and reg ulations for selection, training, and evaluation of drivers of public carriers. This chapter also reports some of the more outstanding practices reported in the 12 literature, and the results of Interviews with selected commercial transportation companies. Chapter V, "Selection, Training, and Evaluation of Public School Bus Drivers in California School Districts," reports the major findings of the study— current practices and viewpoints in the larger districts of California, interpreted in light of recommendations of the literature. Chapter VT, "Criteria for Desirable Practices and Procedures in the Selection, Training, and Evaluation of School Bus Drivers in California," reports the results of a survey of expert opinion concerning criteria of good selection, training, and evaluation practice. Chapter VII, "Summary, Conclusions, and Recommenda tions," develops a summarization of the findings, conclu sions drawn from this summary, and recommendations based on the findings and conclusions. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A broad area of literature in the field of pupil transportation and motor vehicle research was reviewed to provide background orientation to the study. To date, no comprehensive study has been reported which provides an over-all view of the problem involved in this study. Literature available in four related areas was reviewed for its pertinence to the problem: (l) his torical development of pupil transportation in the United States and California, (2) literature pertaining to pupil transportation and personnel policies, (5) literature in the general field of motor vehicle operation, and (4) lit erature concerning commercial motor vehicle operation. The review of related literature presented in this chapter covers these four broad, general areas. More de tailed review of specific areas directly related to the 13 14 study and its questionnaires is found in Chapter V. Historical Development of Pupil Transportation Early Development The industrial revolution of the mid-nineteenth century brought great numbers of people from foreign coun tries to the United States, and a mass movement of popula tion from the rural areas to the cities, especially east of the Appalachian mountains. In many rural and small town areas, problems developed in maintaining schools which no longer had sufficient enrollment to be considered adequate or financially feasible in the eyes of the local school committees. Some of this social change was felt early in the New England States. The best evidence of this was the first union school law in the United States, which was passed in 1 8 3 8. From this date through 1900 an ever-increasing wave of school consolidation developed and spread throughout the United States. Statutes concerning consolidation ranged from permission to arbitrary estab lishment of township plans in several of the New England States to the development of county unit organization in 15 several of the Southern States. State-wide organization as a single district occurred in one or two Instances. This consolidation movement provided some of the first im petus for the development of transportation systems in the public schools. Prior to i860, pupil transportation, as we have it today, did not exist in this country (154:2). Until i8 6 0, types of transportation and communication were too primi tive to allow for pupil attendance on a regular basis where transportation was required to get pupils to school. If transportation was provided, it was provided by the personal effort of the families involved. The great bulk of children attended school in what would be termed pri marily a primitive elementary school, within walking dis tance of their homes. Secondary education was confined to attendance in academies and seminaries which required living away from home and necessitated transportation only on week-ends. In 1869 (152:25)j the legislature of the state of Massachusetts passed the following act authorizing local communities to impose taxes upon themselves for the trans portation of pupils: 16 Section 1. Any town In this Commonwealth may raise by taxation or otherwise, and appropriate money to be expended by the school committee in their discretion, in providing the conveyance of pupils to and from the public schools. Section 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. (Approved April 1, 1 8 6 9). The first evidence of expenditure for the dally transportation of pupils was found in the 1874 records of the school committee of Quincy, Massachusetts (154:2). It is interesting to note that this example of public sup port for transportation came some five years after legis lation provided for public financing of school transpor tation. The incident mentioned concerns the closing of a small ten-pupil school to send the pupils to a larger, graded school for a transportation cost of $420 yearly. The committee had weighed this figure against the cost of needed building repairs of $500, plus a teacher's salary of $560. The following tabulation portrays a picture of several years of participation in school transportation at public expense during pioneer days in the state of Massachusetts (154:5). 17 1888-89 $22,118.38 1889-90 24,145.12 1890-91 30,648.68 1891-92 3 8,7 2 6 .0 7 1892-95 50,590.41 1 8 9 5 -9 4 6 3,6 1 7 .6 8 1 8 9 4 -9 5 7 6,6 0 8 .2 9 1895-96 91,136.11 Following the Civil War the demand for secondary education by a much larger number of pupils and improve ment of the roads in the eastern seaboard states brought on permissive legislation, allowing boards to provide transportation at public expense. Prior to 1909* the mode of transportation was con fined largely to horse-drawn carriages and wagons. The advent of the automobile and improved roads brought a con solidation and expansion of transportation programs in the public schools. The first motor bus used for pupil trans portation was put into action in 1909 in Morristown, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania (155:55). By 1915 all of the states had passed consolida tion laws; by 1919 all had developed legislation granting permission to the public schools to use funds for pupil transportation (2 7:5). The growth of pupil transportation paralleled the development of good roads and highways and the 1920 ad vent of the motorized school bus which has since become the standard means of pupil conveyance. A rapid growth of pupil transportation occurred after 1924 (see Table 1). Prom 1926 to 1955 there was more than a 1,000 per cent increase in the number of pupils transported. Pupil Transportation in California Since 1 8 9 1, when the first California high school laws were passed, the area of the state has been gradu ally organized into high school districts. These dis tricts vary in size from one to several thousand square miles. It is recognized in this state that if all the children are to have an equal opportunity for education a good many will need to be transported. In 1905 Cali fornia passed its first law providing for the transporta tion of pupils to and from the public school (147:447). Cox (49) reported in a recent publication that approxi mately one fourth of all the students in the state are now being transported to and from public schools (Table 2). 19 TABLE 1 PUPIL TRANSPORTATION IN THE UNITED STATES 1926-1955 Number Total Number of Cost of of miles, children trans- Year buses one way transported portation (27) 1926 52,778 (2 7) 1938 86,099 (1 0 5) 1946 8 5 ,9 0 0 (1 0 5) 1954 154,051 516,145 875, 1,224,279 5>588, 4,952, 9,509, 462 $ 25,450,195 645 66,011,592 000 150,700,000 699 329,055,047 Source: Charles K. Pullen, "Public School Transportation in Tennessee: Problems and Suggested Practices." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee, 1955, p. 5. TABLE 2 PUPIL TRANSPORTATION IN CALIFORNIA, 1926-1959 Number Total Number of Cost of Number of miles, children trans- of Year buses one way transported portation districts (67) 1926 1 ,6 0 0 9 ,6 0 0 (102) 1957 2,100 1 5 ,0 0 0 (est.) (105) 1946 2,461 15,000 (est.) (104) 1954 5,975 - (49) 1959 7,000 208,000* ♦Estimated 700*000 daily. Source: Ronald W. Cox,, "California1s School No. 11 (September, 1959), p. 11. 50,000 $ 1,500,000 500 98,980 2,805,888 820 215,954 4,757,627 1,028 5 7 0 ,0 0 0 20,595,460 1,400 Bus Drivers," California Schools, Vol. XXX, r o o 21 Division 13> Chapter 1, Article 1, Section 16801 of the Education Code gives the governing board of school districts the right to provide transportation to pupils with the written approval of the county superintendent of schools. This does not make it mandatory for the board to provide transportation services. This same section pro vides that the governing board may purchase or rent and provide for the upkeep, care, and operation of vehicles, or may contract and pay for the transportation of pupils to and from school by common carrier, or may contract and pay responsible private parties for that transportation. Such contracts may be made with the parent or guardian of pupils being transported. Section 16804, 16805, and 16806 provide for in lieu payments to parents and guar dians for the transportation of pupils. State participation in financing pupil transporta tion developed gradually after the theory of need was firmly established in the minds of the public. By 1949# all of the states but eight had adopted legislation pro viding financial assistance, which ranges from outright flat grants to proportionate parts of the total cost of pupil transportation (145:19). California enacted its 22 program of state support in 1947. At present, California ranks in the top two or three states of the nation in the number of pupils transported and in the amount spent for pupil transportation. Pupil Transportation Measurement of Need The earliest studies of pupil transportation were in the area of need. Mort (150) in 1924 researched this area and developed a method for predicting educational needs of school districts. His predictive method for de termining transportation need was based on density of the population within the district. In 1927 Bums (124) fur ther explored this premise and developed an index to measure transportation need. Johns (129) in the following year explored the same premise further and developed a predictable variable. He used as his variable the average daily attendance per square mile of area as the basis for defining density. The statiaticsil approach of both Bums and Johns was made in the interest of finding objective information for determining costs of pupil transportation for the purpose of developing equalization formulas. 23 Lambert (159) in 1935# while making perhaps the most comprehensive study of school pupil transportation, held that the methods of predicting transportation needs as developed by Mort, Bums, and Johns was open to serious question on the basis of logic and fact. His investigation presented many factors other than population density upon which a school district's need of pupil transportation should be based. The factors listed were: 1. The education program, as expressed concretely in school organization. £. The prevailing distribution over the land surface of towns, and other clusters of population. 3. The given maximum walking distance for pupils. 4. The number of pupils who live beyond a given maximum walking distance. 5. Distances that pupils must travel from their dwelling to reach proper schools under the controls of exist ing road systems, the location of communities themselves, and the 24 peculiarities of topography. 6. The mean running speeds and capacities of vehicles. In 1958 Hutchins and Holly (154) studied the prob lem of determining need for transportation in the state of Ohio, and related certain factors to the cost of transpor tation. They divided these factors into those control lable by the policy of the board of education, and those over which the board has no direct control. Uncontrol lable factors were: 1. Number of pupils transported. 2. Density of student population. 5. Conditions of the roads. The controllable factors were: 1. Pupils transported by bus. 2. Average investment per pupil. 5. Number of trips per bus. 4. Seating arrangement (per cent facing forward). 5. Per cent of bus capacity used. 6. Average number of contract bids per 25 route. 7. Per cent of buses owned by the board. Financing and Equalizing Transportation Costs Six major studies pertaining to the problem of financing and equalization of transportation costs in Cal ifornia have been made. In 1929 Evans (147:11) made the pioneer California study of factors affecting school transportation costs. The probable causes for variation in costs were listed in this study as: 1. Length of routes and distances children are transported. 2. Number of children for whom transpor tation is furnished. 5. The type of equipment used. 4. Ownership of the equipment or letting contracts for transporting children. 5. Age of the children, I.e., elementary or high school. 6. Density of school population. 7. Size of the school district. 8. Topography of the country and type of roads in use. 26 9. Type of persons used as drivers, and wages paid. 10. Methods used in purchasing and in pro viding for service. 11. The system of accounting in use. 12. The policy used in determining those entitled to transportation. Evans concluded that districts which provided transportation using their own buses could save from 8 to 10 per cent in operating costs over the costs of contract ing for transportation. In 1947, Bryan (14?) made an extensive study of the problem of equalizing transportation costs in high schools of northern California. The basis for state aid was computed as the actual cost within prescribed limita tions of twelve cost factors which would be allowable, less a three-cent tax levy against the district's assessed valuation. That same year Gllles (152) Investigated the school districts of San Diego County with the purpose of developing a feasible formula for equalizing the cost of transportation. He concluded that the unequal burden of transportation costs handicapped the general education 27 program of those districts having to provide extensive transportation programs. Gllles set up two formulas. One formula set up reimbursable expense items on the basis of average practice standards. The second formula allowed for a local prescribed tax rate to be applied against al lowable costs and the remainder of the allowable costs to be paid by state aid. In 19^-9 Knapp (157) made a comprehensive study of the financing of pupil transportation for the California Cooperative Committee on School Finance. He recommended that for equalization purposes no district should be re quired to provide more for transportation than could be raised by a two-cent tax rate per hundred dollars of assessed valuation of the district, the balance to be pro vided by the state. The next year (1950), Boswell (l4l:400-410) ex plored the area further in an attempt to establish a basis for state equalization of public school transporta tion in California. His recommendations were: 1. The state should pay the total cost of transportation. 2. A uniform accounting system should be established by the state department for accounting of allowable pupil transportation costs, 3. In case of insufficient state funds a two-cent tax per hundred dollars of assessed valuation should be levied against the district to cover trans portation costs. a. The state would assume propor tionately increasing responsi bility for the cost of transpor tation up to an eight cent tax rate, after which the state would assume the entire cost of pupil transportation. In 1951 Cox (145:139-164) studied the determina tion of state-reimbursable costs of pupil transportation, and recommended that rules and regulations be developed at the state level for the determination of state reim bursable costs to cover the following purposes: 1. To prescribe the records to be kept and the reports to be made by school 29 districts. 2. To fix the minimum distances allowable for pupil transportation in determin ing reimbursable expenses of districts providing pupil transportation. 3. To specify the nature, type, and items of expenditure that constitute "cur rent expenses" for pupil transportation. 4. To authorize the state superintendent of public instruction to determine the amount of current expenses that have been necessary to provide the needed transportation. 5. To specify the conditions under which school buses may be purchased. 6. To provide other bases for determining the expenses of a district for trans portation. Cox set up a procedure for the development of the proposed rules and regulations. He also specified in detail sug gested rules and regulations for the over-all program. His findings indicated that district-operated systems of pupil transportation operated more economically than did contracted systems. Studies made by Tisinger (170) in 1938 and by Hollon (153) in 19^2 investigated accounting methods for pupil transportation. Tisinger found that the accounting records for the schools of New York were inadequate for determining pupil transportation costs. Hollon concluded that uniform items, rather than uniform accounting forms, would best serve the needs and purposes of local school districts. Pope (l64) compared the cost and quality of school bus transportation in certain district-owned and contract systems in the central schools of New York State. Garen (150), in 1951, surveyed the actual cost of pupil transportation services and recommended a set of princi ples upon which equalization of transportation costs in the state of Arizona could be developed. In the same year, Patrick (1 6 5) formulated dual plans for financing pupil transportation in Colorado. O'Brien (l6l) investigated possible economies through centralized purchasing of se lected transportation items for the public schools of the State of Washington. He recommended using county and state contracts in the purchase of gasoline, batteries, 31 and tires. He also considered the purchasing of buses on a state-wide plan. Administration of Pupil Transportation In 1939i Reeder (29) wrote on the administration of pupil transportation. He presented principles and practices which he thought should be followed in operating an efficient pupil transportation system, stating that he was guided by practical experience and a review of many transportation studies. His major emphasis was upon transportation in the rural areas, a separate chapter be ing devoted to a consideration of the driver of the school bus. In another publication which appeared later that year, Reeder (50) issued a manual for the school bus driver, in which he established policies for the selection and training of the bus driver. This manual listed stand- .--ei ards of operational procedure for the driver In doing his job. Meadows (21) published a book on this topic In 1940, following Reeder closely in discussing the problem of safety and economy of bus transportation. Significant portions of this book were devoted to the bus driver. Noble (27) in the same year completed a nation-wide study 52 of pupil transportation, reported in book form. He placed prime importance on the bus driver as a factor in safe pupil transportation. Butterworth and Ruegseger (2) published a book in 1941 on the administration of pupil transportation. Of particular value to the present study were sections on the selection, training, and supervision of school bus drivers, and particularly a score card developed for eval uation of the pupil transportation program. Punke (28) of the University of Chicago released a report of a survey of the legal aspects of liability in the pupil transportation program. He cited many cases involving drivers and school buses, and discussed the methods used in selecting competent bus drivers. Punke maintained that the selection of competent drivers was basic to success of the pupil transportation program. Dice (146) based a study on current practices of operation in pupil transportation in several states, with particular emphasis upon southern California. Among a comprehensive series of recommendations for operational procedures and evaluation of programs, he offered some basic transportation policies, rules, and regulations for 33 state and local boards of education, a comprehensive driver's handbook, and a score card for evaluation of the transportation program. His score card was based upon the work of Ruegseger (l68), expanded to meet the changes of a ten-year span of experience. In Reeder's (31) 1951 book on the fundamentals of public school administration, It was recommended that each state establish special certificates for school bus driv ers; and that drivers be required to pass written and oral examinations as well as a behind-the-wheel driving test. Reeder thought that every district should establish in- service driver training programs, bus driver handbooks, policies and rules concerning safe driving, supervision of students, accident procedures, care of the school bus, and standards of acceptable personal habits of drivers. Tate (169) in the same year surveyed transporta tion practices in the state of New Mexico, with particular emphasis to the selection, training, and evaluation of the school bus driver. Isenberg (155), in a study conducted in 1952 at Cornell University, devised standards for evaluating the pupil transportation program. He Indicated that the purpose of his study was to determine desirable practices and to develop criteria which might be used by any school for evaluating its transportation program. The instrument he developed covered the areas of (l) administration and management, (2) the driver, (3) the vehicle, and (4) the maintenance program. These were explored on a basis of safety, efficiency, adequacy, and economy. Isenberg also developed a score card giving weights for standards of quality in the evaluation of pupil transportation pro grams. Webb (171), in 1953, studied the pupil transporta tion practices in the state of Texas and made recommenda tions for their improvement. His evaluation was based on a survey of existing practice, literature of the field, and the opinions of a jury of experts. In 1959, Bell's (139) study of inspection and maintenance of school buses in California placed primary importance to the driver. He recommended that in-service training programs be conducted for all transportation per sonnel. He pointed out that good bus maintenance and safety are promoted by careful selection, thorough train ing, and close supervision of bus drivers. He emphasized 55 the importance of the driver's daily hus inspection and report. Two important studies of the bus driver, from the personnel standpoint, were reported by Feldman (l4) and Galluzzo (151). Feldman, in developing a personnel pro gram for the Federal Civil Service, observed that better selection resulted when the following practices were used: (1) establishment of job descriptions and specifications, (2) utilization of positive recruitment methods so as to reach a wide range of applicants, to find the highest grade of eligible candidates for available positions, (5) installation of a testing program designed to determine the relative capacity of applicants, (4) application of the latest methods of analyzing personality traits, (5) installation of well-planned placement procedures designed to match the capacities, personality, and interests of employees with the type of work and environment of the working unit, and (6) development of an in-service train ing program that helps employees overcome handicaps in adjustment with the organization. In 1955# Galluzzo (151) made a study of the ad ministration of classified personnel in the California 56 schools, with emphasis on the practices of schools, indus trial management, and public administration on the policy- level . Motor Vehicle Operation Research in the area of motor vehicle operation appears scattered and inconclusive. The theory of acci dent-proneness has done much to stimulate research for the elimination or improvement of motor vehicle operation. Greenwood and Woods (64) conducted the first 3tudy of accident-proneness in 1919. They and others who have suc ceeded them have claimed that a person who has had one accident is more prone to have another accident than is a person who has not had any accidents. Wong and Hobbs (121) found that workers having frequent minor accidents have a disproportionate number of major accidents. Farmer (57)» in his research, reported that a driver having a great number of accidents in his first year of driving develops a greater tendency toward accidents in later years. The results of research on psycho-physical factors seem inconclusive in determining factors which point out the best drivers. The subject of reaction time seems to 57 be a favorite among researchers. DeSilva (52), Selling (106), Fletcher (60), Wechsler (116), and others have maintained that a correlation exists between reaction time and accident -proneness. Studies by Brakeman and Slocombe (42), Johnson and Evans (72), Laur ( 7 6), Slocombe and Brakeman ( 1 0 8), and others have Indicated that the accu racy of response is more important than speed of response. Another group of studies (55; 76; 75; 116) reported that the extremes of fast reaction and slow reaction correlate with the number of accidents. A second major area of interest in driver research is in the relationship of visual functioning and driver efficiency. The accident-prone were found to have certain visual defects more frequently than do the non-prone. The research of Laur (74) and the Eno Foundation (125) found a deficiency in eye dominance; Fletcher (6 0) and the Eno Foundation (125) found a deficiency in visual acuity; and De Silva (55), Fletcher (6 0), and the Eno Foundation (125) found deficiencies in depth perception and ocular muscle balance. Fletcher (194) found some individuals to be more susceptible to glare than others; drivers in their twen ties have the best glare resistance. In another study 38 Fletcher (193) advocated the elimination of color vision testing for drivers in states using multiple colors in signal lights, and recommended that the states give more attention to the factors of glare recovery and depth per ception . The Harvard School of Public Health (197? 4-7"50) in a study of human factors in highway safety criticized the use of psychophysical tests in research as "being too meager and conflicting to warrant placing much confidence in them. ... It would appear that some other dimen sions would be more fruitful for the understanding and prediction of accidents." It was also pointed out that "a man drives as he lives." The suggestion was made that this idea offered promising possibilities for studying the accident-repeater and for differentiating between the accident-free and accident-repeater drivers. Violations which reflect attitudes toward authority, speeding viola tions, and driver's acceptance and driving of defective equipment were said to need careful consideration before a driver is hired. The point was made that in ordinary pleasure vehicle driving, the age group under thirty years produce the most accidents. Studies of commercial drivers 39 over the age of fifty have shown that this age group has a more limited ability to carry out a series of complex re actions involving memory, judgment, and reasoning under the pressure of time. However, if aware of his weaknesses, the older driver can compensate by slower road speeds, trip planning, and defensive driving. Table 3 presents the data concerning the relationship of age to accidents for the year of 1958. Commercial Motor Vehicle Operation Personnel Principles and Procedures in Transportation Management Cooley (6), discussing the principles of personnel relations, emphasized the importance of uniformity of em ployment conditions for similar or identical work. Hours of work, vacation periods, sick leave, and salary sched ules, it was noted, should be interpreted by company pol icy statements. Cooley recommended that each job be properly analyzed, and that specifications for the job be drawn up to ascertain the type of employee desired. He also emphasized the need for great care in the interview, for checking past employment references, and for the TABLE 3 AGE OP DRIVERS AND TOTAL NUMBER IN ACCIDENTS, 1958 Age Number Per cent of total Number of accidents Per cent of total Per cent of fatal accidents Number c fatal accident Under 20 5,9 0 0 ,0 0 0 7.2 2,2 0 0 ,0 0 0 12.5 11.5 5,050 20-24 9,2 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 1 .2 2,5 5 0 ,0 0 0 14.5 1 6 .7 7.350 2 5 ”29 10,400,000 12.7 2,540,000 14.4 1 3 .6 6 ,0 0 0 30-34 1 0,3 0 0 ,0 0 0 12.5 2,0 2 1 ,0 0 0 11.5 1 1 .6 5 ,1 0 0 35-59 9,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 1 .6 1,8 3 0 ,0 0 0 10.4 9.2 4,050 40-44 8,400,000 10.3 1,6 2 0 ,0 0 0 9.2 9.0 3,950 45-49 7,590,000 9.1 1,430,000 8 .1 7.6 3,330 50-54 6,400,000 7.8 1,0 9 0 ,0 0 0 6 .2 5.7 2 ,5 0 0 55-59 5,1 0 0 ,0 0 0 6.2 840,000 4.8 4.5 2,000 60-64 3,900,000 4.7 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 3.4 3.8 1 ,7 0 0 6 5-69 2,500,000 3.1 5 3 0 ,0 0 0 3.0 3.0 1,350 70-74 1,7 0 0 ,0 0 0 2.1 190,000 1.1 2.2 950 75, over 1,200,000 1,5 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 .9 1.6 700 Totals 82,000,000 100.0 1 7,6 0 0 ,0 0 0 100.0 100.0 44,000 Source: National Safety Council, . P. 51. Accident Facts (Washington, D.C.: The Council , 1959), 41 well-planned Induction of new employees. He also recom mended a formal evaluation program for each employee. The employee should he informed of the contents of this report of his ability and attitude. Taft (55:144) stated that a good personnel program for commercial transportation vehicle operation should em brace the following features: (l) a demonstration of man agement responsibility and interest, (2) care in selection of driver personnel, (5) adequate driver training, (4) an awards and incentive plan, (5) dissemination of general safety information, (6) regular inspections, and (7) road supervision of drivers. He believed that careful selec tion of driver personnel wa3 of the greatest importance. Edwards (10:159-160), in his outline of the prin ciples of motor transportation, emphasized the importance of records and reports. He recommended that the permanent record of all drivers should include: 1. Driver's picture. 2. Application blank. 3. Verification of references. 4. Superintendent's authorization of employment. 42 5. Instructor's training report on the driver. 6. Medical examination records. 7. List of equipment issued. 8. Report of all accidents. 9. Report of all breakdowns. 10. Inspector's reports. 11. Special service (secret service) reports. 12. All criticism and complaints received. 15. All letters of commendation. 14. Record of all merits and demerits issued. 15- Family record. Criteria of Driver Selection and Training Edwards (10) recommended that drivers start as student drivers in the organization, at first using small equipment and working on short hauls. A standard form check-sheet should be used for inspection of drivers on the road; training schools should become increasingly im portant as the organization grows in size; road tests, with students accompanied by an experienced operator, should be conducted; oral and written examinations should be given; and driver meetings should be held. All these 4? activities contribute to the driver training program. The American Trucking Association has contributed much literature and information for improvement of the trucking industry. In 1959, they produced a manual for driver training ( 1 7 9:i)> to fill a gap in a neglected area. The foreword of this manual expressed concern that more objective standards for driver training had not been established. Three important elements— selection, train ing, and supervision of drivers— are basic to the commercial vehicle fleet safety program. Much has been said of all three that is of value to the fleet operator and those faced with the task of accomplishing them to obtain the maximum benefit to the safe, efficient op eration of the fleet. The second or middle element— training— has not been neglected dur ing the years. Yet standards have not been developed for it. (179:i) The manual mentioned some standards of performance, but recognized the need for variations in training programs to meet differences in the fleet composition and the condi tions of operation. The American Trucking Association, Inc. has pub lished a set of "facts for drivers" ( 1 7 7), which covers safe driving rules, first aid, fire fighting, driver test ing, and a summary of the history and requirements of the 44 trucking industry. The Interstate Commerce Commission standards for driver selection have been well publicized in publications of the Association of Casualty and Surety Companies (175)* Their March 1959 publication, Truck and Bus Drivers' Rule Book (175) is also printed in a handy pocket sized edition for drivers. This booklet summarizes the rules and regu lations of the Interstate Commerce Commission regarding the selection of drivers and the operation of vehicles under its Jurisdiction. In another publication (175:4), The Association of Casualty and Surety Companies has outlined a control pro gram for motor vehicle fleets, listing six steps as basic to any driver selection program: 1. Establish job requirements. 2. Secure data on applicants. 5. Hold a personal interview. 4. Check references. 5. (Jet medical references. 6. Test all applicants. Following driver selection, a driver training program for the elimination of driver errors and establishment of 45 proper attitudes was recommended. Principles of Driver Supervision The Association of Casualty and Surety Companies (1 7 5: 8) emphasized the following basic principles of lead ership as.being important to driver supervision: 1. Think before you act. 2. Let each worker know you have a sincere, personal interest in helping him do a good job. 5. Avoid promises— don't pass the buck. 4. Make the best use of each person's ability. 5. Let each worker know how he is getting along. 6. Tell people in advance about changes that will affect them, 7. Give credit when due for a job well done. References: Trade Papers Current articles concerning commercial vehicle freighting are published regularly in the following 46 representative trade papers: American Cartageman Commercial Car Journal Fleet Owner Motor Transportation Power Wagon Southern Motor Cargo The Petroleum Transporter Traffic World Transport Topics Many current articles on commercial passenger service and pupil transportation service may be found in the following publications: Bus Transportation Mass Transportation Passenger Transportation Summary of Chapter This chapter contains a review of the literature in the area of pupil transportation, commercial transpor tation, and general motor vehicle operation. The earliest studies of school transportation attempted to measure the need for pupil transportation. Following this type of pioneer research, studies of financing, administering, and evaluating pupil transportation programs were conducted. Research concerning the recruitment, hiring, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers was found to be very limited in scope and amount. A number of articles have appeared in periodicals relating to experiences with indi vidual school bus drivers and their problems, but these were for the most part articles of opinion rather than of fact. Textbooks in the field of administration of public school transportation by Reeder, Meadows, Noble, Butter- worth, and Ruegseger have contained suggestions for per sonnel procedures in school bus operation. A 1958 publi cation of the California State Department of Education ( 1 8 5) contains the most recent regulations affecting transportation personnel in California schools. Comprehensive research of a scientific nature cov ering various aspects of motor vehicle operation has been completed at the Harvard School of Public Health, Western Reserve University, and by such men as Gheselli, Brown, Fletcher, Forbes, and Laur, among others. Edwards, Taff, Lee, Stocker, and Cooley have con tributed books In the field of commercial transportation related to driving and drivers. The National Safety Coun cil, American Automobile Association, Eno Foundation, American Trucking Associations, Inc., state trucking asso ciations and insurance companies have all published mate rial pertaining directly to the selection, training, and evaluation of drivers. Trade and professional journals dealing with var ious aspects of trucking, school bus operation, and motor passenger transportation have contributed many articles on improvement of driver selection and training. Some of these publications are Bus Transportation, Mass Transpor tation, Fleet Owner, Traffic World, Nation's Schools, School Executive, and the American School Board Journal. CHAPTER III LEGAL REQUIREMENTS The purpose of this chapter was to examine the legal requirements affecting the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California, as shown in the statutes, miles, and regulations of the State De partment of Education and in court decisions. Here are presented the state laws and regulations relating to the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California; the state laws pertaining to the liability of school districts and drivers for negligent operation of school buses; and the laws affecting drivers in the con tinental United States, as shown by court decisions. State Laws and Regulations State laws and regulations pertaining to the se lection, training, and evaluation of public school bus 49 50 drivers in California are found in the following three publications: (1) Education Code of California (190), (2) California Administrative Code, Title 5, Education (185)> and (3) The Vehicle Code of California (220). Education Code of California General provisions for controlling and providing for public pupil transportation are found in Division 13, Chapter 1, Article 1, 1959 Education Code of California ( 190) . Powers of the governing board. The governing board has the power to establish and provide for pupil transportation. 16801. The governing board of any school dis trict may provide, with the written approval of the county superintendent of schools, for the transportation of pupils to and from school whenever in the judgment of the board such transportation is advisable and good reason exists therefor. The governing board may pur chase or rent and provide the upkeep, care, and operation of vehicles, or may contract and pay for the transportation of pupils to and from school by common carrier or may contract with and pay responsible parties for the trans portation. Such contracts may be made by the parent or guardian of the pupil being trans ported . 51 Permitted uses of school buses. Section 16857 allows the governing board of school districts to use the buses on any day of the school year, if it is in the in terest of the school, the district, or the pupils. 1 6 8 5 7. The governing board of any school dis trict may use school buses to transport pupils attending the schools of the district and teachers or other employees employed by the district to and from school athletic contests or other school activities or to and from fairs or expositions held in the State or in any adjoining state and in which the pupils participate actively or as spectators. The transportation may be provided on any day or days throughout the school year. Regulations. Section 16852 requires the State Board of Education to develop rules and regulations for public school transportation, in accordance with existing motor vehicle regulations. The Commissioner of the Cali fornia Highway Patrol will approve and enforce the state board's rulings as approved. 16852. The State Board of Education may adopt reasonable regulations relating to the con struction, design, operation, equipment, and color of school buses. No regulation relating to the construction, design, or color of school buses shall apply to buses purchased prior to September 15, 1935. Any school bus repainted after September 15, 1935 shall be painted to conform to all the regulations relating to the color of school buses. The regulations, if 52 approved by the Commissioner of the California Highway Patrol, shall be enforced by the Cali fornia Highway Patrol. The State Board of Edu cation may issue an order prohibiting the oper ation on public streets, highways, and elsewhere of any school bus which does not comply with the regulations. The order will be enforced by the California Highway Patrol. Definition of a school bus. A section of the Edu cation Code provides for the legal definition of a school bus. 1 6 8 5 1. A school bus is defined as a motor vehicle regularly used for the transportation of pupils of the public schools to and from school or to and from school activities and owned either by any school district or by any person, firm, as sociation, partnership, or corporation, except ing motor vehicles of the pleasure car type de signed for and when actually carrying not more than seven pupils and the driver, and excepting motor vehicles subject to and meeting all the requirements of the Public Utilities Commission operated by or under the jurisdiction of the Pub lic Utilities Commission, or operated by and under the exclusive jurisdiction of any municip ally owned transit system, if said transit sys tem meets all the safety requirements of the Pub lic Utilities Commission, but not used exclu sively for the transportation of public school pupils. When any vehicles, other than vehicles of the pleasure car type designed for and when actually carrying not more than seven pupils and the driver, are being used for the transporta tion of public school pupils the operators shall possess the qualifications required by the regu lations for school bus operators. 55 Violations. The violation of any order of the State Board of Education is declared to be a misdemeanor. 16855. Any officer, agent or employee of a school district, or any other person knowingly operating, or permitting or directing the oper ation of a school bus in violation of any order of the State Board of Education, and any person knowingly operating a school bus without pos sessing the qualifications required by the reg ulations of the State Board of Education for school bus operators is guilty of a misdemeanor. Overloading. Anyone overloading a school bus is guilty of a misdemeanor. 1 6 8 5 6. Any officer, agent, or employee of a school district, or any other person knowingly operating, or permitting or directing the oper ation of a school bus when it is loaded with school children in excess of the limits of its seating capacity, is guilty of a misdemeanor. General provisions of the employment of noncerti fied personnel (classified) are found in Division 10, Chapter 5* of this section of the Code. Classified employees. Section 13581 specifies the positions and conditions of employment of classified em ployees by the school board. 13581. The governing board of any school dis trict shall employ persons for positions not requiring certification qualifications. The governing board shall, except where Article 5 54 (commencing at Section 13701) of this chapter of Section 13736 applies, classify all such employees and positions. The employees and positions shall he known as the classified service. Substitute and short term employees, employed and paid for less than 75 per cent of a school year, shall not be a part of the classified service. Part-time playground positions, full-time day students em ployed part time, apprentices and professional experts employed on a temporary basis for a spe cific project, regardless of length of employment, shall not be part of the classified service. The provisions of this section shall be complied with no later than July 1, I960. Fixing of duties. Section 13582 requires the board of trustees to fix the duties of all employees. 13582. Governing boards shall fix and prescribe the duties to be performed by all persons in the classified service and other positions not re quiring certification qualifications of the school district, except those persons employed as a part of a personnel commission staff as provided in Article 5 (commencing at Section 13701) of this chapter. This section shall apply to districts that have adopted the merit system in the same manner and effect as if it were a part of Article 5 (commencing at Section 13701) of this chapter. Duration of contract. Classified employees' con tracts are limited to one year. 15583. The governing board shall provide for an annual employment contract for employees a part 55 of the classified service which shall extend to the close of the fiscal year; except that any governing hoard may make the contract renewable from year to year. The governing board may adopt a single contract which applies to all classified employees of the district, and if so adopted, shall be construed to be in compliance with this section; provided, the board Issues each affected employee a copy of the contract or a handbook containing all of the provisions thereof. In lieu of the foregoing provisions the governing board may prescribe written rules and regulations, which shall be printed and made available to employees in the classified serv ice, the public and those concerned with the administration of this section, whereby such employees are designated as permanent em ployees of the district. Any employee desig nated as a permanent employee shall be subject to dismissal for cause, only as determined by the governing board. This section shall apply only to districts which are required by law to classify as per manent employees those employees of the dis trict who are employed in a position requiring certification qualifications and who otherwise meet the requirements of law for attaining the status of a permanent employee of the district. Age limits. The Education Code sets no minimum or maximum age for employment other than retirement and the general labor laws. 15592. Notwithstanding any other provisions of Sections 997-999, inclusive, or Articles 1 to 4, inclusive, of this chapter (commencing at Section 13580), no minimum or maximum age limits shall be established for the employment or con tinuance in employment of persons a part of the classified service. Any person possessing all of the minimum qualifications for any employment shall be eli gible for appointment to that employment, and no rule, either written or unwritten, shall be adopted prohibiting the employment or continued employment, solely because of age of any such person in any school employment, who is other wise qualified therefor. This section does not authorize the employ ment of any person in particular school employ ment who has reached the retirement age for that particular employment prescribed by any retire ment system applicable thereto, whether or not the person is a member of the retirement system or entitled to a retirement salary thereunder, nor shall any person be employed in such em ployment while he is receiving a retirement al lowance under any retirement system by reason of prior school employment. This section shall apply to districts that have adopted the merit system in the same manner and effect as if it were a part of Article 5 (commencing at Section 13701) of this chapter, other than to a district or districts governed by the same governing board in which the com bined average daily attendance of all districts is in excess of 400,000. In such district or districts in which the combined average daily attendance of all districts is in excess of 400,000, no minimum age limit shall be estab lished for employment in the classified service and any maximum age limit which is established by the governing board of the district shall be not less than 65 years of age and not more than the compulsory retirement age for such employ ment as provided therein. 57 Power of governing board to fix compensation. School boards are required to fix and pay salaries of classified employees. 13601. The governing board of any school dis trict shall fix and order paid the compensation of persons a part of the classified service and other employees not requiring certification qualifications employed by the board unless otherwise prescribed by law. Examination for tuberculosis. All employees are required to file a certificate showing freedom from tuber culosis. 12915. No person shall be initially employed by a school district in a certificated or clas sified position unless the person has submitted to an examination within the past two years to determine that he is free of active tuberculo sis, by a physician and surgeon licensed under Chapter 5 (commencing at Section 2000) of Divi sion 2 of the Business and Profession Code. This examination shall consist of an X-ray of the lungs, or an approved intradermal tuberculin test, which if positive, shall be followed by an X-ray of the lungs. The X-ray film may be taken by a competent and qualified X-ray technician if the X-ray film is subsequently Interpreted by a physician and surgeon licensed under Chapter 5 of Division 2 of the Business and Professions Code. Thereafter all employees shall be required to undergo the foregoing examination at least once in each two years, or oftener if the 58 governing board so determines by rule. After such examination, each employee shall cause to be on file with the district superin tendent of schools a certificate from the exam ining physician and surgeon showing the employee was examined and found free from active tuber culosis. The county board of education may re quire, by rule, that all such certificates be filed in the office of the county superintendent of schools or shall require such files be main tained in the office of the county superintendent of schools if a majority of the governing boards of the districts within such county so petition the county board of education, except that in either case a district or districts with a com mon board having an average daily attendance of 60,000 or more may elect to maintain the files for its employees in that district. "Certifi cate" as used herein means a certificate signed by the examining physician or surgeon or a no tice from a public health agency or unit of the Tuberculosis Association which indicates free dom from active tuberculosis. The latter, re gardless of form, will constitute evidence of compliance with this section. Nothing in this section shall prevent the governing board from establishing a rule requiring a more extensive physical examination them required by this sec tion but such rule shall provide for reimburse ment on the same basis hereinafter required. This examination is a condition of initial employment and the expense incident thereto shall be borne by the applicant unless other wise provided by rules of the governing board. However, the board may, if any applicant is ac cepted for employment, reimburse such person in a like manner hereinafter prescribed for em ployees. The governing board of each district shall reimburse the employee for the cost, if any, of this examination. The board may provide for the examination required by this section or may es tablish a reasonable fee for such examination that is reimbursable to employees of the dis trict complying with the provisions of this sec tion. At the discretion of the governing board this section shall not apply to those employees not requiring certification qualifications who are employed for a period of time less than a school year whose functions do not require fre quent or prolonged contact with pupils. The governing board may, however, require such examination and may as a contract condition require the examination of persons employed for construction or repair work if the board believes the presence of such persons in and around school premises would constitute a health hazard to pupils. The provisions of this section shall not ap ply to any employee who files an affidavit stat ing that he adheres to the faith and teachings of any well recognized religious sect, denomina tion, or organization and in accordance with its creed, tenets, or principles depends for healing upon prayer in the practice of religion and that to the best of his knowledge and belief he is free from active tuberculosis. If at any time there should be probable cause to believe that such affiant is afflicted with active tuberculo sis, he may be excluded from service until the governing board of the employing district is satisfied that he is not so afflicted. Employment after conviction of sex offense. If person accused of a sex crime is cleared in a court ac tion, he may be re-employed. 60 13586. No person shall he employed or retained in employment by a school district who has been convicted of any sex offense as defined in Sec tion 12912. If, however, such conviction is re versed and the person is acquitted of the offense in a new trial or the charges against him are dismissed, this section does not prohibit his em ployment thereafter. Termination of probation and dismissal of accusa tion. The fact that a dismissed employee has satisfied the requirements of the Penal Code does not necessarily make him eligible for reinstatement as an employee. 12910. The termination of probation and dis missal of an accusation or information pursuant to Section 1203.4 of the Penal Code shall not, for the purpose of these sections, have any effect. Conviction for sex offense. Conviction for a sex offense is assumed and guilt is said to be established, even if the verdict is later set aside, insofar as employ ment is concerned, for any person who even pleads guilty to a sex offense. 12911. A plea or verdict of guilty or a finding of guilt by a court in a trial without a jury is deemed to be a conviction within the meanings of Sections 13150, 1 3 2 0 7, 13218, 13255, and 13586 of this code, irrespective of a subsequent order under the provisions of Section 1203.4 of the Penal Code allowing for the withdrawal of the 6l plea of guilty and entering of a plea of not guilty, or setting aside the verdict of guilty, or dismissing the accusations or information. The record of such conviction of a sex offense as defined in Section 12912 shall be sufficient proof of conviction of a crime involving moral turpitude for the purposes of Sections 15313, 13327 and 13328, and Sections 13403 to 13441, inclusive, of this code, relating to the dismis sal of permanent employees. Record of conviction. A record of conviction for a sex offense may be presented for revocation of creden tials. 12913. Any record of conviction of any appli cant for, or holder of a certification document, shall for the purposes of this division, be ad missible as evidence to the issuance, suspen sion, or revocation of such certification docu ment, any provision of law to the contrary not withstanding. Use of personal identification cards to ascertain conviction of crime. The governing board is required to finger print all employees to check for criminal back ground . 1 3 5 8 8. The governing board of any school dis trict shall, within 10 working days of date of employment, require each person to be employed, or employed in, a position not requiring cer tification qualifications to have two 8" x 8" fingerprint cards bearing the legible rolled and flat impressions of such person's finger prints together with a personal description of the applicant or employee, as the case may be, prepared by a local public law enforcement agency having jurisdiction in the area of the school district, which agency shall transmit such cards, together with the fee hereinafter specified, to the Bureau of Criminal Identifi cation and Investigation, State Department of Justice; except that a district, or districts with a common board, having an average daily attendance of 6 0 ,0 0 0 or more, may process the fingerprint cards in the event the district so elects. "Local public law enforcement agency" as used herein and in Section 15589 includes a school district with an average daily attend ance of 60,000 or more. Upon receiving such identification cards, the Bureau of Criminal Identification and Investigation shall ascer tain whether the applicant or employee has been arrested or convicted of any crime inso far as such fact can be ascertained from in formation available to the bureau and forward such information to the local public law en forcement agency submitting the applicant's or employee's fingerprints at the earliest possi ble date. At its discretion, the Bureau of Criminal Identification and Investigation may forward one copy of the fingerprint cards sub mitted to any other bureau of investigation it may deem necessary in order to verify any rec ord of previous arrests or convictions of the applicant of employee. The governing board of each district shall forward a request to the Bureau of Criminal Identification and Investigation indicating the number of current employees who have not completed the requirements of this section. The Bureau of Criminal Identification and In vestigation shall direct when such cards are to be forwarded to it for processing which in no event shall be later than two years from the date of enactment of this section. Districts which have previously submitted identification cards for current employees to either the Bureau of Criminal Identification and Investigation or the Federal Bureau of Investigation shall not be required to further implement the provisions of this section as it applies to those employees. A plea or verdict of guilty or a finding of guilt by a court in a trial without a jury or forfeiture of bail is deemed to be a conviction within the meaning of this section irrespective of a subsequent order under the provisions of Section 1203.4 of the Penal Code allowing the withdrawal of the plea of guilty and entering of a plea of not guilty, or setting aside the ver dict of guilty, or dismissing the accusations or information. The governing board shall provide the means whereby the identification cards may be completed and shall establish a fee of four dollars ($4), two dollars ($2 ) of which shall be payable to the local public law enforcement agency taking the fingerprints and completing the physical descrip tion and other data thereon, the two dollars ($2 ) of which shall be forwarded to the Bureau of Criminal Identification and Investigation with the two copies of applicant's or employee's fingerprint cards. If an applicant is subse quently hired by the board within 3 0 days of the application such fee may be reimbursed to the applicant. Funds not reimbursed applicants shall be credited to the general fund of the district. If the fingerprint cards forwarded to the Bureau of Criminal Identification and Investigation are those of a person already in the employ of the governing board, the district shall pay the fee required by this section, which fee shall be proper charge against the general fund of the district, and no fee shall be charged the em ployee. All money received by the Bureau of Criminal Identification and Investigation pur suant to this section is hereby appropriated for the support of the Department of Justice in 64 addition to such other funds as may he appropri ated therefor by the Legislature. Notwithstanding the foregoing, substitute and temporary employees, employed for less than a school year, may be exempted from these provi sions. The provisions of this section shall not apply to a district, or districts with a common board, which has an average daily attendance of 400,000 or greater, or to a school district wholly within a city and county, unless the gov erning board of such district or districts, by rule, provides for adherence to this section. California Administrative Code Regulations of the State Board of Education per taining to transportation are found in Title 5, Chapter 1, Subchapter 5* of the 1959 California Administrative Code (1 8 5 :2 6 8 ff). Application of regulations. Sections 1060, 1061, and 1062 make up Article 1 of this subchapter and cover the over-all application regulations. Regulations contained in Section 1060 apply to the transportation of pupils enrolled in the public elementary and secondary schools and all schools under the direction, administration, or supervision of the Director of Educa tion, Superintendent of Public Instruction, or State De partment of Education. 65 1061. The governing board of any school district may adopt and enforce such additional regulations governing the transportation of pupils of the dis trict as it may deem necessary and as are not directly or indirectly in conflict with law or these regulations. 1062. These regulations are in addition to the provisions of the California Vehicle Code. School bus driver's certificate required. It is unlawful to drive a school bus without having both a valid operator's or chauffeur's license and a school bus driver's certificate. IO7 8. No person shall be employed by, or act as a school bus driver for, any school district or any other party transporting public school pupils unless such person holds a valid and ef fective operator's or chauffeur's license and a school bus driver's certificate issued by the Department of Motor Vehicles after such examina tion as the Department of Motor Vehicles may prescribe. Such certificate shall be valid for not to exceed two school years, but may be re newed under such conditions as the Department of Motor Vehicles may prescribe. Eligibility for certificate. Section 1079 gives a detailed and specific listing of the standards of past be havior (or misbehavior) which can serve as a basis for denial of an applicant's petition for employment. (a) The Department of Motor Vehicles shall deny any application for the issuance of a school bus driver's certificate made by any applicant who: (1) Has been convicted of any sex offense as defined In Section 12912 of the Educa tion Code. (2) Has been convicted within the three years next preceding the applicant's applica tion for such certificate of any viola tion of the Vehicle Code involving hit- and-run driving (Vehicle Code Section 480), drunk driving, or reckless driv ing, or whose driving privilege is or has been suspended or revoked by the Depart ment of Motor Vehicles for a cause in volving the safe operation of a motor vehicle, or who has been placed on proba tion as a negligent operator by the De partment of Motor Vehicles. (5) Is addicted to the use of intoxicating beverages to excess. (4) Is addicted to the use of narcotics or habit-forming drugs, or (5) Has practiced or attempted to practice any material deception or fraud in his application. The Department of Motor Vehicles may deny a school bus driver's certificate to any ap plicant who: (1) Has been convicted of any crime enu merated in Section 15216 of the Educa tion Code, except where the denial is mandatory under subsection (a) of this section, (2) Has committed any act involving moral turpitude, 67 (3) Has been convicted of any felony not specified in this section, (4) Has been involved within the two years next preceding the applicant's appli cation as a driver in any accident causing death or personal injury or serious damage to property. (5) Has been involved within the two years next preceding the applicant'3 appli cation in three or more accidents within a period of 12 consecutive months. (6) Has been determined to be a reckless or incompetent driver, or (7) Has committed any act which authorized dismissal as provided in section 1080 of these regulations. Such certificate shall be issued only if the application has been reviewed and approved by a committee of three members, one ap pointed by each of the following: Superin tendent of Public Instruction, Commissioner of the California Highway Patrol, Director of the Department of Motor Vehicles. The member of the committee appointed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction shall be Chairman of the committee. Fingerprinting of applicant. Fingerprinting is a required procedure for the investigation of each applicant by the Department of Motor Vehicles. 1979.1. The Department of Motor Vehicles shall require each applicant for a school bus driver's 68 certificate to be fingerprinted in such fashion as shall be necessary to facilitate the admin istration of Section 1079. Revocation of school bus driver's certificate. Section 1079.2 contains a lengthy and detailed specifica tion of all reasons for revoking a bus driver's certifi cate . (a) Whenever the holder of a school bus driver's certificate issued by the Department of Motor Vehicles has at any time before or after issuance of the certificate been con victed of any sex offense as defined in Sec tion 12912 of the Education Code, the De partment of Motor Vehicles shall revoke the school bus driver's certificate issued to him. (b) Upon becoming final of any conviction of a holder of a school bus driver's certificate of a violation, or attempted violation, of any crime enumerated in Section 1^206 of the Education Code, the Department of Motor Vehicles shall forthwith revoke the school bus driver's certificate, if the conviction occurs after issuance of the certificate. (c) The Department of Motor Vehicles shall re voke the school bus driver's certificate of any holder who after issuance of the certif icate : (l) Is convicted of any violation of the Vehicle Code involving hit-and-run driving (Vehicle Code Section 2000), drunk driving, or reckless driving, or is found by the Department of Motor 69 Vehicles to be a negligent operator as defined under Section 12809 and 12810 of the Vehicle Code. (2) Is addicted to the use of intoxicating beverages to excess. (5) Is addicted to the use of narcotics or habit-forming drugs, (4) Has committed any act involving moral turpitude, or (5) Has practiced or attempted to practice any material deception or fraud in his application. (d) The Department of Motor Vehicles may suspend for any period of time, or revoke, the school bus driver's certificate of any holder for any cause, whether existing before or after issuance of the certificate, which would be warranted the denial of an application for a school bus driver's certificate. (e) A person receiving any notice of suspension or revocation of a school bus driver's cer tificate shall have 10 days in which to de mand, in writing, a hearing except as pro vided herein. Any such person shall not be entitled to a hearing under any of the fol lowing circumstances: (1) Whenever the action by the Department of Motor Vehicles is made mandatory by the provisions of this code, or any other applicable law or regulation, (2) When such person has previously been given an opportunity with appropriate notice as herein required for a hearing, or 70 (3) Whenever the action by the Department of Motor Vehicles was taken on grounds as certainable on examination pursuant to the provisions of this code or any other applicable law or regulation. (f) Whenever a hearing is granted as provided herein, a hearing referee shall be appointed by the Department of Motor Vehicles. Such hearing shall be conducted in a completely informal manner, as defined in Sections 14104, 14105, and 14106 of the California Vehicle Code. Upon conclusion of a hearing the referee shall make findings on the matter under con sideration and shall prepare and submit findings and recommendations through the De partment of Motor Vehicles to the committee authorized by subdivision (b) of Section 1079 of this article. After review the com mittee shall render its decision which shall be final. The Department of Motor Vehicles shall notify the person involved of the de cision. (g) Failure to demand a hearing within the 10 days after receiving the notice given under section 14103 shall be deemed the waiver of right to a hearing. A demand for a hearing shall not operate to stay any action by the Department of Motor Vehicles referred in this section. Definition of conviction. A verdict of guilty, a finding of guilt, or a forfeiture of bail is a conviction in the meaning of Article 1079.5: 1079.5. A plea or verdict of guilty or a find ing of guilt by a court in a trial without a 71 jury or a forfeiture of bail is deemed to be a conviction within the meaning of this article, irrespective of a subsequent order under the provision of Section 1205.4 of the Penal Code allowing the withdrawal of the plea of guilty and entering of a plea of not guilty, or set ting aside the verdict of guilty, or dismissing the accusations or information. Dismissal of driver. A violation of the Vehicle Code or any other applicable law or regulation is suffi cient cause for dismissal of a school bus driver. 1080. The violation of the provisions of the Vehicle Code or any other applicable law or regulation is sufficient cause for dismissal of any school bus driver. The penalties here in provided for are in addition to any other penalties prescribed by law or these regula tions. First aid training. First aid training is re quired of all bus drivers. 108l. Every school bus driver shall possess a valid first aid certificate issued by either the American Red Cross or the United States Bureau of Mines, within 60 days after the issuance to him of his school bus driver's certificate; otherwise such school bus driv er's certificate shall become void, and the certificate may be withdrawn, until the re quired first aid certificate has been obtained. The period of time herein fixed for the secur ing of the required first aid certificate may be extended by the California Highway Patrol for a period not to exceed 50 days when it 72 appears that facilities for the obtaining of such first aid certificate are not reasonably available. Agreement form required. Bus drivers are required to sign a written agreement that they will obey the state laws and the rules and regulations of the State Board of Education and the local school board. 1082. A written agreement must be entered into with each driver of a school bus employed by the governing board of a school district. A copy of such written agreement shall be filed in the office of the county superintendent of schools. Each such contract shall provide in addition to any other provisions, that the driver agrees to comply with and observe all the provisions of the Vehicle Code and all other applicable laws and rules and regulations prescribed by the State Board of Education and other state agencies, and said governing board relating to the transportation of pupils. Condition of bus. The bus driver must make regu lar weekly reports and any supplementary reports required of him concerning the condition of his bus. IO8 3. Each school bus driver must make a written report at least once each week to the school district and to his employer showing the condition of the bus and recommending any repairs deemed necessary. Supplementary writ ten reports shall be made by each school bus driver to the school district and to his em ployer immediately whenever in the judgment of the driver the condition of the vehicle 75 renders it unsafe for continued use. Accidents. When involved in an accident, the bus driver must make immediate reports to the California High way Patrol, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the employer, the governing board of the school district, and the county superintendent of schools. 1083. Each school bus driver must immediately report any accident involving such vehicle to the California Highway Patrol, his employer, and the governing board of the school district for which such bus may be operated under con tract, to the Superintendent of Public Instruc tion and to the County Superintendent of Schools. Such reports shall be on forms to be secured from the California Highway Patrol. Authority of the driver. The bus driver is re sponsible for the conduct of the pupils he transports and is given the authority to control the behavior of pupils riding his bus. IO8 5. Pupils transported in a school bus shall be under the authority of and responsible di rectly to the driver of the bus. Continued dis orderly conduct or persistent refusal to submit to the authority of the driver shall be suffi cient reason for a pupil to be denied transpor tation in accordance with regulations of the governing board of the district. The driver of any school bus shall be held responsible for the orderly conduct of the pupils transported. No bus driver shall require any pupil to leave the 74 bus before such pupil has reached his destina tion. Inspection; discontinuance of use of school bus. The California Highway Patrol may inspect drivers and/or buses; it may declare buses out of service if in their judgment the buses are not safe to be operated. 1 0 8 7. All school buses and school bus drivers shall be subject to inspection by the officers of the California Highway Patrol. Any school bus declared unsafe by an officer of the Cali fornia Highway Patrol must be immediately dis continued from use and not placed in service again until made safe and approved by a compe tent mechanic and an officer of the California Highway Patrol. Use of buses. School buses owned and operated by the school shall be used only for pupil transportation; any exceptions must obtain the special permission of the governing board or its agent. 1095. No bus owned or operated by a school district shall be used for other than trans portation of pupils to and from school except on special written permission from the person designated by the governing board of the school district to give such permission, and under his special instruction. Safe and lawful operation. Bus drivers must obey all applicable laws and drive in a safe and prudent 75 manner. 1096. Operators of school buses shall at all times operate such vehicles in a safe, prudent, and careful manner with due regard to the traf fic and the use of the highway by others. All requirements of the California Vehicle Code and other applicable laws and regulations must be strictly observed at all times. Duty as to defects. The bus driver is not allowed to drive a defective bus which is unsafe for the pupils, as prescribed in two articles. 1097. Each school bus driver shall be held responsible for immediately discontinuing from use in transporting pupils the bus of which he is the driver, whenever and wherever any acci dent shall occur to, or any defect develop in, any such vehicle which renders the continued operation of the vehicle unsafe for the pupils. When such accident occurs or defects develop while such bus is in use, the vehicle shall be immediately discontinued from service and emer gency arrangements made by the school bus driver in accordance with rules of the govern ing board of the district for the safe trans portation of the pupils to their respective destinations. 1098. In no case shall any school bus known to a school district to be unsafe, or reported to a school district in writing as unsafe by the driver or the California Highway Patrol, be continued in use for transporting pupils until examined, and if necessary, repaired and certified by a competent mechanic and an offi cer of the California Highway Patrol to be safe for use. 76 Bus inspection by the driver. The driver is re quired to make a safety inspection of his bus before daily trips; he must make any corrections of deficiencies before starting on any trips. 1099. Each school bus shall be inspected by the driver daily, before use, to ascertain that the windshield is clean, and that the lights, horn and other equipment are in good order. The driver shall also make a brake test and open and close all emergency exists before using the bus for transporting pupils. No pupil shall be transported until any defects discovered in these tests have been corrected. Stop off the highway. A bus driver is not allowed to park his bus on the highway; in emergencies, he is re quired to make sure that he has left at least one lane open to traffic. 1100. When practicable, school bus drivers must not stop, park, or leave standing any school bus, whether attended or unattended, upon the main traveled portion of the highway. In any event, an unobstructed width of the highway op posite the standing bus shall be left for the free passage of other vehicles and a clear view of such stopped bus shall be available from a distance of 400 feet in each direction upon such highway. Standees. All passengers must be seated when the bus is in motion. 77 1100.5. Standees shall not be permitted on any school bus. A school bus shall not be put in motion until all pupils are seated. If unload ing pupils, the driver shall not allow pupils to leave their seats until the bus comes to a complete stop. Stops. Students can be loaded or unloaded only at approved bus stops. 1101. No school bus operator shall stop to load or discharge pupils except at regularly designated stops, which stops shall be desig nated by the governing board of the school districts concerned. Loading and unloading of pupils. In areas where traffic controls a re lacking, the bus driver must see to it that his pupils cross in front of the bus; he must es cort across the street all elementary students and any others where safety is a factor. He cannot move his bus until all pupils are in a safe area. 1102. Whenever a school bus stops at a point where traffic is not controlled by a human flagman or a clearly visible electrical or mechanical signal to discharge or load pupils who must cross the street or highway, the pupils shall cross the street or highway in front of the bus, except that when because of laws regulating traffic, pupils to be loaded or discharged from a bus cannot cross the street or highway in front of the bus but must cross behind the bus, they may do so. The 78 driver of the bus shall not permit the pupils to be loaded or discharged from the bus to cross the street or highway until they may safely do so. The driver, at school bus stops described herein, shall escort pupils attending elementary schools across the street or highway and shall, if necessary, escort other pupils across the street or highway. Distance from railroad crossing to load or dis charge pupils. In loading or discharging pupils, the dri ver must not stop his bus closer than 200 feet from the railroad track. 1105. No bus stop for the purpose of loading or discharging pupils shall be permitted closer than 200 feet from the nearest rail or any railroad grade crossing, except at railroad stations or on highways which parallel a rail road. Railroad crossing. Section 1104 describes how a driver shall operate his bus at railroad crossings. 1104. (a) The driver of a school bus shall bring the bus to a full stop at all railroad grade crossings at least 10 feet and not more than 50 feet from the nearest rail, and must not proceed until he has fully opened and closed the entrance door of the bus and has by hearing and sight ascertained that the tracks are clear in both directions and that the bus may proceed safely except as hereinafter pro vided: (l) No stop need be made at any such crossings where an officer is on duty and directs 79 traffic to proceed, nor where a stop and go signal is in operation and indicates that traffic may proceed. (2) No stop need be made at street railway tracks within a business or residential district. (5) No stop need be made at any spur or in dustrial track within a business or res idential district, or at any such track where with the approval of the Public Utilities Commission distinctive signs are displayed indicating that no stop need be made unless a train or locomo tive is approaching upon any such spur or industrial track. (b) After making the stop provided for in sub section (a) of this section, gears shall not manually be shifted when crossing the tracks. Unnecessary conversation by driver. The driver is forbidden to carry on any unnecessary conversation while driving. 1105. No driver of a school bus shall carry on unnecessary conversation while the vehicle is in motion. Hours of labor of the driver. Section 1106 sets specific limits on the working hours of bus drivers. 1106. Except as may otherwise be provided by law, no school bus operator shall work as a school bus driver or operator for more than 80 10 hours in any 24 hour period, and no driver shall do more than 15 hours total work in any 24 hour period, including the driving of a bus and any other work. Cleaning of the bus. It is required that all buses must be kept clean, but does not specify who is to do the cleaning service. 1107. Each school bus shall be kept clean at all times and must be thoroughly cleaned after each day1s use. Leaving the bus. The driver is not allowed to leave a bus with the engine running or brakes released. 1108. No driver shall leave his bus while the engine is running or the brakes released. Sending for help. Section 1109 specifies how a driver is to send for help in case of accident or emer gency. 1109. In case of accident or emergency, no driver shall leave his bus to seek aid unless there is no pupil aboard who may safely be sent for help. Filling of the gasoline tank. Safety rules for filling the gasoline tank of the bus are set forth in Section 1110. 81 1110. No gasoline tank shall be filled while the engine is running or when there are pupils in the bus. Gasoline shall not be carried or trans ported except in the regularly provided gas tank or tanks on the bus. Interior lighting. Interior lighting must be pro vided for buses which are to be driven at night. 1111. Sufficient lighting in the interior of each bus shall be in operation whenever the head lights are on and there are passengers in the bus. Operation in motion. A school bus must be kept in gear while traveling and have its doors closed. 1112. A school bus when traveling shall not coast with the transmission in neutral or the clutch disengaged. The doors of a school bus shall be closed before the bus is put into mo tion and shall remain closed when traveling. Smoking in the bus. No smoking is allowed on the bus while pupils are aboard. 1113. Smoking in a school bus shall be pro hibited whenever pupils are aboard. Intoxicating liquors. No intoxicating liquor is allowed on the bus at any time. 1114. No intoxicating liquor shall at any time be carried in a school bus. 82 Animals. Animals may not be carried aboard a school bus. 1115. No animals shall be transported in a school bus. Weapons. Loaded firearms may not be transported on a school bus. 1116. No loaded weapons of any sort, except side arms carried by authorized officers, shall be transported on a school bus. Visibility of the driver. No person is to be seated where he obstructs the view of the driver for the safe operation of the bus. Ill8 . No person shall be allowed to occupy such a position in a school bus as will inter fere with the vision of the driver to the front, sides, or by means of the mirror, to the rear, or interfere with the operation of the bus. Making of repairs. Bus drivers are not allowed to make repairs to their vehicles. 1119. No driver of a school bus, unless he is the mechanic charged with the care and mainte nance of the bus, shall make any repairs to the bus or its equipment except such emergency repairs as may be necessary while on the road. 85 Report of violations. Bus drivers are required to report to the California Highway Patrol any individual automobile operators who endanger the safety of the pupils by violating sections of the Motor Vehicle Code which re late to pupil transportation. 1120. Each school bus operator shall report to the officers of the California Highway Patrol having supervision over the operation of the bus, the license number of any motor vehicle, and if possible the name and address of the op erator thereof, the operator of which is guilty of Section 2245*1 of the Vehicle Code or a vio lation of any of the provisions of the Vehicle Code, when such violations in any way endanger the safety of the pupils being transported. Every school bus driver may swear to a complaint in the local justice court for the arrest of any person who is guilty of violating the provisions of Section 22454, or any other section of the Vehicle Code when the violation of such section in any way endangers the safety of pupils being transported. Operation in combination with other vehicles. No trailer can be attached to a school bus while it is trans porting pupils. 1121. No school bus shall be operated or driven with any trailer or other vehicle at tached thereto. The use of a tractor or any other motor vehicle in combination with a trailer or semitrailer as a school bus is pro hibited. 84 Tire chains. Tire chains are standard equipment for buses in areas where buses are probably to need them. 1125. Every school bus likely to encounter con ditions necessitating the use of tire chains shall carry such tire chains. The tire chains shall be applied to drive wheels whenever neces sary. Number of pupils carried. No bus may carry more students than the number stipulated on the capacity card posted in the bus. 1135.(a) No school bus shall be allowed under any circumstances to carry more pupils than a number to be specified by the governing board of the district by or for whom the pupils are transported as the maximum load for each ve hicle, subject to the other provisions of this article. (b) A card shall be posted in each bus not of the pleasure car type by the manufacturer or his duly authorized agent upon which shall ap pear the capacity of the bus as specified by the governing board of the district or pur chaser and a copy of Section 1133 of these regulations and a copy of Education Code Sec tion 1 6 8 3 6. The position of said card and the size of the letters and figures appearing thereon shall be such as will permit such card to be read by each pupil entering the bus. (c) Regardless of the capacity set by the gov erning board of the district or purchaser pur suant to subdivision (a) of this section and the accepted method of estimating seating ca pacity under Section 1130, each pupil carried shall be provided with a safe seating space of 85 sufficient size to accommodate him. If necessary the number of pupils carried shall be reduced to conform with this requirement. (d) The gross weight of the vehicle when fully loaded (i.e., vehicle weight plus driver's weight plus weight of maximum pupil load) shall not ex ceed the maximum carrying capacity of the vehicle as established by the manufacturer's rating. Vehicle Code of California The Vehicle Code of California (220) contains the following specific sections which relate directly to the operation of school buses. Age limit for driving a school bus. The minimum age for driving a school bus is eighteen. 12516. It is unlawful for any person under the age of 18 years to drive a school bus trans porting pupils to and from school. Drivers of private school buses. Drivers of pub lic and private school buses must meet the same require ments in obtaining their bus driver's certificate. 12517. No person shall operate a school bus in the transportation of pupils to or from a private school unless such person holds a valid operator's or chauffeur's license and a school bus driver's certificate issued by the department under the same standards and re quirements as are applied to public school 86 bus drivers at the time of issuance of the cer tificate . Speed of school buses restricted. The top speed limit for school buses is 45 miles per hour. 22412. In no event shall the driver of a school bus operate the same in excess of 45 miles per hour when transporting any school child. School bus signal. A bus driver must turn on the flashing red signals on his bus whenever a child must cross the road during loading or unloading operations. 22112. The driver of a school bus shall oper ate the flashing red signal lamps required on such bus at all times when children are un loading from the school bus to cross a highway or when the bus is stopped for the purpose of loading children who must cross a highway to board the bus, except that such signal shall not be operated at any intersection or place where traffic is controlled by a traffic offi cer or official traffic signal. The signal shall not be operated at any other time. Railroad crossings. Buses must stop at train and electric railway crossings not less than 10 feet from the nearest rail nor more than 50 feet from it. 22452.(a). The provisions of this section shall apply to the operation of the follow ing vehicles . . . any school bus carrying any school child . . . (b) Before traversing a grade crossing of a railway or electric railway, the driver of any vehicle described in subdivision (a) shall stop such vehicle not less than 10 nor more than 50 feet from the nearest rail of the track, for any approaching train, interurban car, or other vehicle using such rails. The vehicle shall remain standing while any train is moving to ward the crossing and is close enough to con stitute a hazard. (c) No stop need be made at street railway tracks within a business or residence district. (d) Unless a train or locomotive is approaching, the driver of a motor vehicle need not stop at any industrial or spur track as defined by the Public Utilities Commission unless the Public Utilities Commission determines that such a stop should be made. (e) Distinctive signs or devices of a type au thorized by the Public Utilities Commission shall be erected at industrial or spur tracks where no stop need be made. (f) No stop need be made at any crossing where an officer is on duty and directs traffic to proceed nor where a stop and go signal is in operation and indicates that traffic may pro ceed. (g) The driver of a motor vehicle need not stop at any branch line which crosses a road or street leading to or from a public ferry and on which there is less than daily train service and with characteristics and freight service similar to industrial track operations, where with the approval of the Public Utilities Commission, distinctive signs are displayed Indicating that no stop need be made, unless a train or locomotive is approaching upon such a branch line. 88 Other laws. All other laws applicable to the gen eral highway motorist are applicable to the bus driver. The driver of a school bus in California must possess an operator's license or chauffeur's license in good stand ing before applying for a school bus driver's certificate. The driver of a school bus must thus have passed a mini mum knowledge and driving test. He is tested further with a physical examination, a knowledge test on school bus driving, and a driving test behind the wheel of a school bus. The driving record of the applicant is checked by the Department of Motor Vehicles, which must give its ap proval before the school bus driver's certificate becomes valid. Liability of School Districts in California In the United States the theory of common law con cerning torts extends to all branches of government or government agencies, except where states by specific statutes abrogated their status of nonliability. Under common law it is theorized that "The King can do no wrong." The state is a sovereign power and is therefore not liable for Its torts. The doctrine of nonliability has been extended to school districts as an arm of the state. School officers in such states are not open to suit while carrying out state responsibilities. Nonlia bility does not extend to the individual employee of a school district. Three states (New York, Washington, and California) have specifically abrogated this sovereign immunity. The Legislature of the State of California has demonstrated this abrogation in the State's Government Code (196), Education Code (190), Vehicle Code (220), and Civil Code ( 1 8 7). Government Code Title 1, General, Chapter 6 of the Government Code of California (196) specifies the liability of public officers and employees. Liability of officers and employees for defective and dangerous equipment or property. Section 1953 places the liability for damage or injury onto public officers and employees for defective and/or dangerous condition of any public property. 1953. No officer of the state or any district, 90 county, or city is liable for any damage or in jury to any person or property resulting from defective condition of any public property, un less all of the following first appear: (a) The injury sustained was the direct and proximate result of such defective and dangerous condition. (b) The officer had notice of such defective or dangerous condition or such defective or dangerous condition was directly attribut able to work done by him, or under his direction, in a negligent careless or un workmanlike manner. (c) He had authority and it was his duty to remedy such condition at the expense of the state, or of a political subdivision there of and that funds for that purpose were im mediately available to him. (d) Within a reasonable time after receiving such notice and being able to remedy such condition, he failed to so do, or failed to take reasonable steps to give adequate warning of such condition. (e) The damage or injury was sustained while such public property was being carefully used, and due care was being exercised to avoid the danger due to such condition. Tort liability. Title 5, Local Agencies, of the Government Code (196) demonstrates the tort liability of school district officers and employees, who are declared liable for injury to property or person resulting from the dangerous and defective condition of school district 91 property. It must be established that the officers or employees knew of the condition and had had time to remedy the condition. 53050. As used in this article: (a) "Person" or "public" includes a pupil attend ing the public schools or any school or high school district. (b) "Public property" means public street, high way, building, park, grounds, works, or property. (c) "Local agency" means city, county or school district. 53051. A local agency is liable for injuries to persons and property resulting from the danger ous or defective condition of public property if the legislative body, board, or person authorized to remedy the condition: (a) Had knowledge or notice of the defective and dangerous condition. (b) For a reasonable time after acquiring knowl edge or receiving notice failed to remedy the condition or to take action reasonably necessary to protect the public against the condition. Education Code of California Division 4, Chapter 1 of the Education Code (190) of the state of California describes the liability of school districts, their officers and employees. This code 92 allows school districts to carry liability insurance to protect themselves from torts. Liability for personal in.lury and property damage. 905. The governing board of any school district is liable as such in the name of the district for any Judgment against the district on account of injury to person or property arising because of negligence of the district, or its officers, or employees. Governing board shall carry liability insurance. 1044. The governing board of any school dis trict shall insure against the liability (other than a liability which may be insured against under the provisions of Divisions 4 and 5 of the Labor Code) of the district and against the personal liability of the members of the board and of the officers and employees of the dis trict, for damages to property or damage by reason of the death of, or injury to, any per son or persons, as the result of any negligent act by the district, or by a member of the board, or any officer or employee acting within the scope of his office or employment. The in surance may be written in any insurance company authorized to transact the business of insurance in the state, or in a nonadmitted insurer to the extent and subject to the conditions prescribed in Section 1764 of the Insurance Code. Vehicle Code of California Division 9, Chapter 1 of the Vehicle Code (220) pertains to civil liability and financial responsibility 93 of owners and operators of vehicles. Article 1 defines the liability of public agencies. Public agency defined. 17000. As used in this chapter, "public agency" means the state, and county, municipal corpora tion, district and political subdivision of the state, or the State Compensation Insurance Fund. Liability of public agencies. 17001. Any public agency owning any motor ve hicle is responsible to every person who sus tains any damage by reason of death, or injury to person or property as the result of negligent operation of the motor vehicle by an officer, agent, or employee when acting in the scope of his office, agency, or employment. The injured person may sue the public agency in any court of competent Jurisdiction in this state in the man ner directed by law. Subrogation of public agency. The injured person is granted a right of subrogation against a public agency, where recovery is granted. 17002. If there is recovery under this chapter against a public agency, it shall be subrogated to all the rights of the person injured against the officer, agent, or employee and may recover from the officer, agent, or employee the total amount of any judgment and costs recovered against the public agency, together with costs therein. 94 Purchase of liability insurance. 17005. Any public agency may insure against liability under this chapter in any insurance company authorized to transact the business of such insurance in the state of California, and the premium for the insurance shall be a proper charge against the general fund of the public agency. Civil Code of California The Civil Code ( 1 8 7) defines the liability in volved in the case of injury to a person, in Sections 1708 and 1714. Both of these sections were originally con tained in the Code as adopted in 1 8 7 2. 1708. Every person is bound, without contract, to abstain from injuring the person and prop erty of another, or infringing upon his rights. 1714. Everyone is responsible, not only for the result of his wilful act, but also for an injury occasioned to another by his want of or dinary care or skill in management of his prop erty or person, except so far as the latter has, wilfully or by want of ordinary care, brought the injury upon himself. The extent of liabil ity in such cases defined by the title on com pensatory relief. Court Cases Court cases involving the liability of school dis tricts and their officers and employees were reviewed. 95 For the sake of brevity, a selection was made restricted to typical cases which involved the negligent operation of school buses by drivers employed by school districts. The common acceptance of the sovereign right of the state and of state agencies appears to have placed a strict limit upon the number and type of cases which have come before the courts. In a number of "common law" states, permis sion is now granted to school districts to carry liability insurance; in these states, suits may be brought against the insurance carriers but not against the state or its agent. The states accept no responsibility, even though they do allow districts to provide liability protection through insurance. The cases selected for review here were reviewed in American Jurisprudence (l), California Digest (4), California Jurisprudence (5), Corpus Juris (7), Corpus Juris Secundum (8), Federal Digest (15), New California Digest (26), Ruling Case Law (53)* and the United States Court Reports Digest (5 6). The cases listed in Pupil1s Day in Court ( 1 5 6) and in School Teacher's Day in Court (157) were also studied. Books by Edwards (11), Garber (15)* Hamilton and Mort (17), Punke (2 8), and Remmlein (52) 96 contributed information valuable to analysis and evalua tion of cases. Cases in States Where Specific Statute Provides for District Liability Three states— i.e., New York, California, and Washington— have for the most part abrogated their right of immunity for nonliability by passing specific statutes. In these states, many cases of liability have been tried against the state or its agencies. The state of Washing ton has not allowed suits to be filed against school dis tricts for injuries sustained on playgrounds, in field- houses, or in the use of athletic apparatus, appliances, or manual training equipment. Yet the schools and the states have been declared liable in other types of suits. A typical case tried under these laws occurred in Redfleld v. School District (1907), 48 Wash. 85; 92 Pac. 770. This was a transportation case in the state of Wash ington, involving the death of a student through negli gence of the bus driver; the district pleaded nonliability because they were carrying out a governmental responsibil ity. The court pointed out the status of abrogation in the state of Washington and charged the district with 97 liability. Similar action has occurred in other states which have abrogated their immunity to nonliability. Typical of these were the following: Williams v. Board of Trustees of District No. 1, Town of"Eaton (1925V, 204 App. Div. 566; 198 N.Y.S. 4 7 6; 210 App. Div. 161; 205 N.Y.S. 742. Shannon v. Central-Gaither Union School District (1955), 155 Cal. App. 124; 25 Pac.(2d) 950. Nonliability of Districts for In.lurles Under Common Law It has been ruled that in cases under common law, "The weight of authority in such cases holds the district not liable unless a statute specifically provides for liability" (28:256). A typical case is one concerning an injury which caused death to a student riding a North Carolina school bus (Benton v. Board of Education of Cumberland County [1951], 201 N.C. 655; 166 S.E. 9 6). A child fell from a bus through a defective door. The district was charged with negligence. The court indi cated that the district was carrying out a statutory re sponsibility and was therefore not responsible, due to 98 the Immunity given governmental agencies in the performance of their duties. Even under the common law of nonliability for gov ernmental agencies, school bus drivers can be held indi vidually liable for negligence. Where school districts are liable at common law for the negligence of employees, while the latter are performing governmental functions which have been assigned to such districts, there is no reason to suppose that an individ ual employee would himself be free from liabil ity for his own negligence. Although districts may be free from such liability, the weight of judicial authority holds bus drivers as em ployees liable for their own negligence, if such negligence is proximate cause of injury. (28:243) An illustrative case, also in North Carolina, In volved a school bus driver who killed a motorist in a head-on collision after dark (Hansley v. Tilton [1951]* 65 S.E.(2d) 300). The driver had clear straight vision on both sides of a narrow bridge. The clearance lights of the bus were not connected, so that he could not signal for the right-of-way. As the driver saw the car approach ing, he speeded up to beat him across the bridge. Fur thermore, the driver did not keep as far to the right as he could have. The motorist, in trying to avoid the ac cident, scraped the bridge railing on his right side. 99 The court found the driver negligent under the circum stances and held that governmental immunity that clothes the county hoard of education as a public employer did not extend to its employees. Degree of Care Required in Transporting Students The weight of authority holds drivers responsible for exercising extreme care, a requirement expected of all common carriers of passengers. Two cases involving the issue of the degree of expected care are clearcut in this respect. In the first case (Sheffield v. Lovering [re hearing denied, 1935]> 51 Ga. App. 555; 180 S.E. 525)» a thirteen year old child was injured in a transportation accident. The driver used as his defense that anyone transporting school children was not a "carrier of pas sengers" as within the meaning of the statutes, which re quire such carriers to exercise extraordinary diligence. The court refuted this plea and ruled: The operator for hire of a school bus who operates along a certain route every day in taking all school children alike to and from a certain school is a carrier of passengers in so far as such school children are concerned, and is required to exercise extraordinary care 100 and diligence for the safety of any one of such school children in his bus. In the second case (Phillips v. Hardgrove [1931]> l6l Wash. 121, 296 P. 559)» a bus headed west pulled to the right of the road to unload pupils. The driver, who controlled the rear exit door from his seat, opened the door to a six year old child who alighted and started across the road at the rear of the bus. A car coming from the east hit the child as she came from behind the bus. The child died of her injuries. The court held the driver negligent in that he had not warned the child of the ap proaching car from the east. The court, in holding the driver negligent, pointed out that such carriers are "held to exercise the highest degree of care consistent with practical operation of the means of conveyance used." The court also quoted an earlier case involving a rail road: Public policy and safety require that they be held to the greatest care and diligence in order that the personal safety of passengers be not left to chance or the negligence of careless agents. It further stated that liability extends "so far as human care and foresight can go; carriers must observe the ut most caution characteristic of careful, prudent men, and 101 they should be liable for injuries which might have been avoided or guarded against by the exercise of extraordi nary vigilance." Cases Indicating a Greater Duration of Care Than That Required of Common Carriers The courts have held that bus drivers are respon sible for seeing that children cross the roads safely to and from the school bus and that the child, upon alighting from a school bus, is deposited in a safe place. The greatest amount of litigation concerning transportation falls within this area. In practically every case of non performance of these responsibilities, the bus driver was judged to be negligent, and was found liable. In a typical case in the state of Florida (Burnett v. Allen [rehearing denied, 1934], 114 Fla. 489, 154 So. 515, followed in 1934, 114 Fla. 499, 154 So. 519), the court ruled that driver liability extended beyond the im mediate time and place of a child's alighting. The court stated: Bus drivers must use every reasonable pre caution and care for the safety of children in approaching the bus, or while riding in the bus or when alighting from and leaving the 102 immediate proximity of the bus at the completion of their journey, or at any time during the Journey. "Negligence of One Does Not Excuse the Negligence of Another" The courts have held that the negligence of one does not excuse the negligence of a second party. A case of this type arose in the state of Oklahoma (Earl Baker and Co. v. Lagaly, 144 F.(2d) 544, Okla. Circuit Court of Appeals, 1944). A child was fatally injured by a truck as it passed a school bus unloading children. Okla homa law requires that a vehicle approaching a school bus which is unloading children come to a full stop. The driver of the truck was declared negligent because he did not stop. Nevertheless, the driver of the bus was also declared negligent because he did not warn the children of the truck before he opened the door. Negligence Relative to the Age of the Child A Tennessee court, in reporting its decision con cerning a small child who was injured after alighting from a bus, made this statement: "The age of the child and his consequent ability or lack of ability to look 103 after his own safety after alighting from the bus is the dominant factor." The driver was held negligent on this basis (Cartwright v. Graves, 184 S.W.[2d] 373* Sup. Ct., 1944). Summary by Punke Punke (28:255“256), in summarizing his study of care, injury, and tort liability in public school pupil transportation, came to the following conclusions: 1. Courts vary in regard to the degree of care which they expect school bus driv ers to exercise for the pupils whom they transport, but the weight of au thority expects such drivers to exercise the same degree of care as that expected from "common carriers" of passengers. Some courts hold that the liability of a school bus driver is greater than that of a common carrier of passengers, in that the bus driver is liable beyond the mere point of safe alighting of the pas senger from the conveyance. In other jurisdictions less than common-carrier degree of care has been required of drivers of school buses. 2. Some courts refuse to hold the driver of a school bus negligent unless the evi dence indicates that he knew of the danger and peril of the child immediately before the accident. 3. Where a child is Injured by a passing car after negligently being permitted to 104 alight from a school bus on the highway, courts commonly hold that there may be more than one proximate cause of a given injury and that the negligence of the driver of the private car in no way ex cused the liability of the bus driver for negligence. 4. Bus drivers often contend that pupils who are injured in connection with transportation to and from school are guilty of contributory negligence and that the driver, accordingly, should not be held liable for the injuries sus tained. The courts, however, are slow to hold school children guilty of con tributory negligence. 5. In most jurisdictions school districts at common law are not liable in tort for in jury sustained by children in consequence of their being transported by the dis trict to and from school. A different situation appears, however, if school of ficials show malice or corruptions in re gard to the kinds of person who are em ployed to transport children or in regard to other aspects of the transportation enterprise. Moreover, in the state of New York school districts are liable at common law for such injuries, even though no such malice or corruption is shown. Furthermore, statutes in some states have been enacted which specifically abrogate the usual common-law exemptions of dis tricts for tort liability. 6. Although school districts as corporate en tities may be exempted from liability for injuries to children which result from negligence in connection with transporta tion to and from school, the bus driver is usually held to be individually liable for 105 the results of his own negligence, even though he is an employee of the district. Where the driver is an independent con tractor, as contrasted with being a dis trict employee, he is similarly liable. 7. Where a surety bond has been taken by a school district to insure the safe and satisfactory performance of a transporta tion contract and to indemnify persons who might be injured in consequence of the transportation contract and to indem nify persons who might be injured in con sequences of the transportation program, it has been held in some jurisdictions that the district thereby abrogate its exemption from tort liability. In such jurisdictions the courts may hold that the amount that can be recovered from the district shall be limited to the amount which the district can recover on the bond. Summary of Chapter The major purpose of this chapter was to bring together in one place the legal requirements pertaining to the selection, training, and evaluation of public school bus drivers in the state of California. A secondary pur pose was to analyze typical court cases throughout the United States that have pertained to the drivers of school buses. A sampling of representative cases was selected for presentation here on the basis of cases which 106 demonstrated general principles and trends in interpreta tion by the courts. Division 15, Chapter 1 of the Education Code of California presents the general regulations affecting pub lic school transportation in California. This chapter covers the powers of the governing board and how buses may be used, defines school buses legally, and reviews provi sions made for the State Department of Education to set up a code of rules and regulations to be enforced by the Cal ifornia Highway Patrol (violations of which become misde meanors). Division 10, Chapter 5 contains the general provisions for the employment of classified personnel, the duration of contracts, the fixing of duties, age limits of employees, fixing of salaries, proof of health, investiga tion of applicant's background, and use of fingerprinting. It also contains restrictions concerned with nonemployment of sexual psychopaths. Regulations of the State Board of Education per taining to transportation are found in Title 5, Chapter 1, Subchapter 5 of the California Administrative Code. These regulations are enforced by the California Highway Patrol. The Code contains the specifics concerning the selection, 107 licensing, dismissal, training, and most aspects of the operation of school bus drivers. The only operating reg ulation specifically covered in the Education Code is that which declares overloading of a school bus a misdemeanor. The only laws found in the Vehicle Code of Cali fornia specifically relating to school bus drivers are those pertaining to speeding, loading and unloading of pupils, and the legal age for school bus drivers. The Code otherwise provides regulations concerning acquiring operator's or chauffeur's licenses, refusal of applicants, and examinations and traffic laws which are generally ap plicable to the use of the public streets and highways. These are all of importance to a school bus driver in California, for he must hold an operator's license or a chauffeur's license in good standing before he can acquire a school bus driver's certificate. The State Legislature has seen fit to abrogate the "common-law" immunity for torts committed by representa tives of the agencies of the state. It has done so by means of specific statutes in the Government Code of Cal ifornia, the Education Code of California, the Vehicle Code of California, and the Civil Code of California. 108 The state, in providing protection to its agencies, has made mandatory the acquisition of liability insurance. The court cases give a picture of the degree of care expected of bus drivers in carrying out their duties; they also outline broadly the potential liability of dis tricts and bus drivers when suits for negligence are filed. Other material researched in this area indicated a growing acceptance of the concept of protecting both drivers and children by means of liability insurance. Washington, California, and New York have developed spe cific statutes abrogating their immunity or nonliability. Other states have developed "save harmless" laws and sim ilar legislation to allow for purchase of liability in surance. In addition, in a 1959 case which came before the Illinois Supreme Court, it was ruled that the state must indeed absolve its immunity of nonliability. CHAPTER IV COMMERCIAL TRANSPORTATION This chapter is devoted to a study of selection, training, and evaluation of drivers of commercial trans portation vehicles. In this phase of the study an attempt was made to answer the following questions: 1. What safety rules and regulations govern the selection, training, and evaluation of drivers of public carriers? 2. What procedures and techniques for se lecting, training, and evaluating driv ers of public carriers are found in the literature? 5. What procedures and techniques of se lecting, training, and evaluating driv ers of public carriers are found in current practice in selected commercial 109 110 transportation companies operating in the Los Angeles area? This chapter is divided into three major sections, each devoted to the answers found to one of the above questions. Safety Rules and Regulations In 1 8 8 7, the Interstate Commerce Commission was given the responsibility of regulating interstate carriers in rail and water competition. In 1935j with passage of the Motor Carrier Act, Congress made it possible to con trol the operation of interstate commercial motor carriers. Most of the states had preceded federal action by setting up regulatory standards for commercial motor carriers, under Public Utilities Commissions, or similar organiza tions. The Motor Carrier Act of 1935 was later incorpor ated as Part II of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1940. It provided for the safety and economic regulation of interstate motor carriers engaged In the transportation of persons or property in Interstate or foreign commerce; this included also those motor carriers engaged in the Ill handling of interstate shipments but operating wholly within the confines of a state. The Interstate Commerce Commission was delegated the responsibility for adminis tering the Act (35)• Interstate Commerce Commission Safety Regulations The administrative organization of the Interstate Commerce Commission Is divided into five divisions, the fifth of which Is the Bureau of Motor Carriers. Through its safety section, this Bureau is given the major re sponsibility for administering the rules and regulations of the Commission regarding driver qualifications and safety of operation of all interstate motor carriers. A complete revision of the Motor Carrier Safety Regulations became effective July 1, 1952. This revision contained important changes in regulations relating to minimum qualifications of drivers, the standards of equip ment and accessories necessary for safe operation, and in requirements relating to inspection and maintenance of vehicles (35). Safety regulations are presented under the following headings: \ 112 Part 190. General (definitions). Part 191. Qualifications of Drivers. Part 192. Driving of Motor Vehicles. Part 195. Parts and Accessories Necessary for Safe Operation. Part 194. Reporting of Accidents. Part 195. Hours of Service of Drivers. Part 196. Inspection and Maintenance. Part 197. Explosives and Dangerous Articles. Qualifications of drivers. Part 191 of the safety regulations of the Interstate Commerce Commission (199) sets up the specific qualifications for truck and bus drivers operating under the Commission's regulations. Section 191.1 indicates that compliance with these regulations is required of all who participate In motor carrier, interstate commerce. Section 191.2 establishes the minimum requirements for drivers to be: 1. Mental and physical condition a. Must be in good mental and physical condition; with no mental, nervous or other disease, or any other physical disability likely to interfere with 115 safe driving. Must not have a loss of foot, leg, arm, or impairment of their use that is likely to interfere with safe driving. The loss of fingers is considered dangerous to the extent of interference with safe driving. 2. Eyesight a. Visual acuity of at least 20/40 (Snel len) in each eye either without glasses or by correction with glasses; form field of vision in the horizontal merid ian shall not be less than a total of 140 degrees; ability to distinguish colors red, green, and yellow; drivers requiring correction by glasses shall wear properly-prescribed glasses at all times when driving. 5. Hearing a. Hearing shall not be less than 10/20 in the better ear, for conversational tones, without a hearing aid. 4. Liquor, narcotics, and drugs a. Shall not be addicted to the use of narcotics or habit-forming drugs, or the excessive use of alcoholic bever ages or liquors. Section 191.5 provides that every driver shall have had experience in driving some type of motor vehicle (including a private automobile) for not less than one year, including experience throughout the four seasons. 114 Section 191.4 provides that every driver shall be competent by reason of experience or training to operate safely the type of motor vehicle or motor vehicles which he drives. Section 191.5 provides that the driver shall be familiar with the rules and regulations established by the Commission pertaining to the driving of motor vehicles. Section 191.6 sets the minimum age for drivers of vehicles under these regulations as being at least twenty- one. Drivers of farm trucks may be eighteen years of age, providing the gross weight of the vehicle is under 1 0 ,0 0 0 pounds. Section 191.7 provides that every driver shall be able to read and speak the English language. Section 191.8 states that no person shall drive nor shall any motor carrier permit any person to drive any motor vehicle until he has had a physical examination and is certified by a doctor that he meets the physical stand ards set by the Interstate Commerce Commission. Farm op eration is exempted. Section 191.9 requires re-examination of physical requirements every 56 months and certification by a 115 licensed doctor. Farm operation Is exempted. Section 191.10 requires that a copy of the results of the physical examination certificated by a licensed doctor be given to the employer for filing and that the driver have one in his possession at all times when he is driving. Section 191.11 specifies the exact contents to be included in the form used for physical examinations of drivers. Section 191.12 provides that employers may require additional qualifications of drivers before employing them. Section 191.13 requires the employer to have a complete record of accident and law violations of each driver, and that they be periodically examined and used as an aid in determining the driver's fitness as a safe and competent operator. Driving of motor vehicles. Part 192 of the safety regulations of the Interstate Commerce Commission (199) sets up the specific regulations for driver operation of the motor vehicle. Sub-part A covers the general rules requiring compliance to all Commission regulations, 116 additional carrier rules for drivers in the interest of greater safety, obeying local traffic rules and laws, not driving when ill or fatigued, no drinking on the job, obeying speed limits, making a safety inspection before using the motor vehicle, checking safety equipment, and inspecting the load for safe loading. Sub-part B covers safe vehicle operation at rail road crossings, draw bridges, and in using extreme caution during hazardous conditions due to weather, dust, or smoke that might affect visibility or traction. Sub-part C sets the regulations for parking a motor vehicle and the use of signals. Sub-part D stipu lates the use of motor vehicle lights during all phases of operations. Sub-part E indicates the duties of the driver in case of accidents. The driver must stop immediately, take precautions to prevent further accidents, give name and address of his employer and himself, license number of vehicle, show operator's license or other pertinent mate rials upon request, report the accident to the employer as soon as possible. If an unattended vehicle is hit and the owner cannot be located, place your name and address 117 and that of the employer In a conspicuous place on the vehicle. Sub-part P relates to the precautions of fueling equipment. Particular mention is given not to refuel in enclosed buildings with passengers aboard or transport fuel in other than the fuel tank which is part of the ve hicle. Sub-part G stipulates prohibited practices: 1. Never carry unauthorized persons. 2. Prohibit driving by unauthorized persons. 3. Avoid distracting conversation and other activities while driving. 4. A bus should never be towed or pushed or used to tow or push another vehicle except in case of emergency where danger to pas sengers would be increased. 5. Never permit any person to ride within the closed body of a vehicle unless a ready means of obtaining exit is available on the inside. 6. Never transfer from or to a sleeper berth while the vehicle is moving. 7. Never drive or permit to be driven a ve hicle that is known to provide exposure to dangers of carbon monoxide. 8 . Never permit the operation of any open flame heater while the vehicle is in mo tion . 118 9. Never disengage the source of motive power from the driving wheels except where neces sary to stop or shift gears. Reporting of accidents. Part 194 of the Commis sion's safety regulations ( 1 9 9) provides the regulations for reporting of accidents. It is the driver's duty to report to his employer as soon as possible details of every motor vehicle accident in which he is involved, in cluding the other driver's name, address, operator's li cense number, vehicle registration number, and the names and addresses of witnesses. Careful examination and notes should be taken of damage to other persons. The employer must, in turn, report to the Commission all accidents in volving injury, death, or property damage in excess of $250. A copy of this report must be kept in the employ er's files. Hours of service of drivers. Part 195 of the safety regulations (199) states that a driver cannot re main on duty more than 60 hours in any one week nor more than 70 hours in an eight-day period if the carrier oper ates every day of the week. When a driver has driven ten hours, he must go off duty for at least eight hours before 119 driving again. Every driver must keep a daily log, giving the original to the employer for his files. In bad weath er a driver may drive up to twelve hours in a 24-hour period before an eight-hour rest period. In cases of emergency conditions, the driver may complete his run, even If it means operating beyond his time limit, if under normal conditions the run could have been completed within his authorized driving or on-duty time. Regulations of time do not apply when carrying passengers or property in doing relief work during emergencies, floods, droughts, or other disasters. Inspection and maintenance. Under Part 196 of the Commission's regulations (199), drivers are not permitted to drive unsafe vehicles and are required to make a daily vehicle defect report at the end of their tour of duty, listing any observed or reported defect in the vehicle that would be likely to cause an accident or vehicle breakdown. Public Utilities Commission Rule3 Common carriers in California are regulated by the Public Utilities Commission of the state of California. 120 This Commission under its "General Order No. 98" ( 1 8 3) has established the safety rules and other regulations govern ing the operations of passenger stage corporations and street railroad corporations for the state of California. Part 12 presents the general rules for the selection and evaluation of drivers* as follows: 12.01. General physical and mental require ments of drivers. Drivers shall not have any loss of hand* arm* foot or leg; any defect* am putation or impairment of fingers, hand, foot, leg or any other member or part of the body likely to interfere with safe driving; or any mental, nervous* organic or functional disease or disorder likely to interfere with safe driv ing. 12.02. Eyesight. Drivers shall have visual acuity (either without glasses or by correction with glasses) of at least 20/40 (Snellen) in one eye, and 20/100 (Snellen) in the other eye; form field of not less than 45 degrees in all merid ians from point of fixation; and ability readily to distinguish red* green and yellow. 12.03. Glasses. If glasses are required to meet the requirements of Section 12.02* they shall be worn while driving. 12.04. Hearing. Driver shall have adequate hearing, which shall be not less than 1 0 /2 0 in each ear for conversational tones* with hearing aid. 12.05. Minimum requirements before driving. No one shall drive under these regulations un less they possess the minimum requirements set forth in Sections 12.01 to 12.04, inclusive. 12.06. Physician examination-certificate required. Every passenger stage corporation shall have in their files a certificate of physical examination signed toy a duly licensed physician and surgeon for every driver in its employ, certifying that said physician and surgeon has examined such driver and found him to meet satisfactorily the qualifications set forth in Section 12.01 to 12.04, inclusive. 12.07. Physical examination certificate— for new drivers. A physical examination cer tificate shall toe filed with the carrier with in 10 days of the new driver's entering said carrier's employ. 12.09. Periodic re-examination required. Drivers shall be re-examined every two years to ascertain if they still meet the minimum requirements for employment. 12.11. Use of liquors, narcotics, or drugs. Any person addicted to the use of nar cotics or habit-forming drugs, or the exces sive use of alcoholic beverages or liquors, shall not be hired, nor remain employed as a driver. 12.21. Driving skill. Every driver shall have competency toy reason of experience or training, or tooth to safely drive the type of vehicle he is employed to and does drive. 12.22. Knowledge of rules and regula tions. Every driver shall have a thorough working knowledge of the Vehicle Code of the State of California and of the rules and regu lations issued toy this Commission pertaining to the operation and driving of vehicles. 122 12.25. Age of drivers. A driver of a pas senger stage or trolley coach shall be not less than 21 years of age. 12.24. Knowledge of English. Every driver shall be able to speak, read and write the English language. 12.25. Carriers shall instruct drivers. Carriers are required to instruct drivers in the rules and regulations of the Commission and the Vehicle Code. 12.26. Driver training programs recommended. The Commission recommends that carriers estab lish comprehensive driver training schools and programs. 12.51. While vehicle is in motion. Driv ers shall not conduct any transaction while the vehicle being driven is in motion if such trans action should require the removal of both hands from the steering wheel or interfere with the proper observation of traffic or safe operation of the vehicle. 12.52. Unnecessary conversation. Drivers shall not carry on unnecessary conversation with anyone while the vehicle is in motion. 12.55. Smoking by drivers. Drivers shall not smoke or use tobacco in any manner or form during the time they are operating the pas senger service. 12.54. Doors to be closed while vehicle is in motion. Drivers shall not start the vehicle until the doors have been closed and shall not open the doors until the vehicle has stopped. 12.55. Alcoholic beverages— use by drivers forbidden. Drivers shall not go on duty and passenger stage corporations and street railroad corporations shall not knowingly permit drivers to go on duty, if such drivers have been drink ing or are under the influence of an alcoholic beverage or liquor of any kind. Drivers shall not drink any such beverage or liquor while on duty. 12.56. Drivers' duty to drive safely. Drivers at all times shall drive or operate ve hicles in a safe, prudent, and careful manner, with due regard to traffic condition on the highway or road as well as to the surface and width thereof, and in no event in such a manner as to endanger the safety of persons or prop erty. 12.57. Drivers' duty to observe rules and regulations. Drivers shall at all times ob serve all applicable provisions of the Vehicle Code and these rules and regulations. 12.58. Duty of drivers to determine if equipment is in good working order. A driver shall not drive any vehicle unless he has first satisfied himself that the following required parts and accessories are in good working order: Lighting devices and reflectors Brakes, both service and auxiliary (by making standard tests of each) Brake gauge Horn Windshield Wipers Rear vision mirrors Tires Steering mechanism 12.59. When driver finds equipment in bad order. In the event a driver cannot satisfy himself that the equipment and accessories of a vehicle are in good working order, then a properly qualified responsible company 124 representative shall make certain that said equipment and accessories are in good working order before the vehicle is allowed to be driven in service. 12.59. Driving while ill or fatigued for bidden. A vehicle shall not be driven by any driver while his ability or alertness is so impaired through fatigue, illness or any other cause, such as would make it unsafe for him to drive or continue to drive a vehicle. Part 15 of "General Order No. 98" (184) is given over to the hours of service of drivers and the keeping of driver logs. Under these regulations a driver must not work more than 60 hours in any week or 70 hours in a period of eight days. A driver may not operate a vehicle for more than ten hours in one period, nor more then ten hours over a period of sixteen consecutive hours. A driver must have eight consecutive hours off duty between two ten-hour shifts. In the event of bad weather, a driv er may operate for twelve hours in a sixteen-hour period before the required eight-hour rest period. In the event of an emergency, a driver may exceed the prescribed limits if under normal operations he could have completed his run without violation. In the event of a disaster, service regulations of hours do not apply. Each passenger stage corporation and street railroad corporation is required to 125 make a monthly report to the Commission of hours in excess of those prescribed by the Commission. Drivers are re quired to keep a log in duplicate of hours of work, desti nation of trip, time of coming on duty and going off duty, and any other desirable information. Literature on the Problem as It Pertains to Commercial Operations The problem of safe operation of vehicles in com mercial transportation has been described as consisting largely of matters pertaining to the drivers. Hudson de clared: In accepting employment, truck drivers as sume responsibility for safe driving and pre venting of accidents. It is the responsibility of management to exercise care in driver selec tion and to maintain a thorough driver training program, which will create in the driver an alertness to the underlying conditions that produce accidents and provide him with the knowledge of how to avoid them. (1 8: 3 8 9) The National Safety Council in 1949 ( 1 8) drew up five basic fundamentals for a balanced fleet safety pro gram, as follows: 1. A definite safety policy, originated and emphatically enforced by top 126 management. 2. A safety director. 3. A driver safety program including (a) a driver selection procedure, (b) a driver training procedure, and (c) interest-sustaining activ ities which Include continuous ed ucation in safety, incentives and corrective discipline. 4. An efficient system for accident reporting, investigation, analysis, and follow-up. 5. A vehicle safety program that would include preventive maintenance pro cedures and proper selection of ve hicles. This study is interested primarily in the third point of this safety program— driver selection, driver training, and continuous programs of safety, incentive, and corrective education. 127 The Driver Selection Procedure The selection of commercial drivers follows in general a six-step program: (l) establishment of job re quirements, (2) recruitment of applicants, (3) personal interviews, (4) check of references, (5) medical examina tions, and (6) testing. The Harvard School of Public Health (197) stressed the importance of making an accurate and critical analysis of the components of work in the driving operation, in order to determine the way in which human errors may oc cur, for it was recognized that such errors become more critical under adverse conditions or under excessive fa tigue. They further stated that analysis of near accidents provided opportunity to make corrective action as well as to indicate the critical features of the task. The selection interview. The Interstate Commerce Commission and Public Utilities Commission have set the minimum standards considered to be necessary for success ful operation of motor carriers. The capability of the driver, beyond these minimum requirements, still must be ascertained by management. Cooley (6) emphasized the im portance of past performance of the employee, insisting 128 that a complete check of references was essential. Taff (3 5) suggested that a comprehensive telephone check of all references be made before conducting an Interview. The American Trucking Associations, Inc. (178:12), in discussing the planned interview, stated: The planned interview is designed to bring out in detail information to assure the em ployer that the applicant has the qualities and characteristics desired. The planned interview is exactly what the name implies— it is mapped out so that questions will be asked and answer ed to develop information on all points— it is planned ahead of time to insure that the entire field of information is covered and nothing left to chance. Answers to each question should be noted in writing. The interviewer should not rely on his memory alone to make a decision on the applicant. According to this Association (178:15-20), the interview should cover (l) previous driving experience, (2) educational background and general knowledge, (3) knowledge of driving, (4) knowledge of safety rules and regulations, (5) specific knowledge of types and makes of equipment used by the employing company, (6) knowledge of that territory served by the employing company, ( 7) will ingness to learn and cooperate, ( 8) knowledge of what to do in case of accident, (9) knowledge of how to take care of his own personal safety and health, (10) Americanism 129 belief and activities, (1 1) home life and obligations, and (1 2) court record. It was suggested in the same publication that, if the applicant shows the qualities desired in a driver, a request for written references should be made, even if telephone references have been made before the interview. The importance of references from former employers, state police, highway license bureaus, and records concerning accidents was emphasized. Age. The greatest variation in absolute standards from those set by the commissions controlling commercial carrier drivers is found in the matter of the ages of drivers. The great bulk of carriers follow the principle of hiring drivers who are from 25 to 55 years of age for their first employment. This is the range in which acci dent records show the lowest accident incidence for drivers. Edwards (10:158-159) stated that "the extreme upper limits at which new drivers will be accepted is uni versally established at forty-five years by all large op erators." 130 Physical fitness. The standards of physical fit ness as established by the state and federal commissions are still adhered to as being basic for most driving oper ations. The greatest variance from these standards is in the area of vision. Fletcher (194)» in a study of night- driving conditions, reported that the ability to see under night-driving conditions decreases with increasing age. The best age for resistance to glare is from twenty to thirty years of age. Elderly persons are found to be quite often seriously affected by glare in night driving. Syphers (113), writing on the principles of qualifications for good drivers, insisted that drivers should have normal color vision and normal sight vision of 2 0 /2 0 with or without glasses. Fletcher (195) required a standard of 20/50 (Snellen); the Interstate Commerce Commission (199) suggests 20/40; while the Public Utilities Commission (l84) states that visual acuity should be at least 20/40 in one eye and 2 0 /1 0 0 with corrective glasses. Little has been written on standards for hearing; state and federal commissions agree that hearing in the better ear should not be less than 20/20 in the better ear for conversational tones. The state commission insists on the same standard for both ears. Most studies have held that a complete physical examination is a necessity in driver selection and that drivers must not be addicted to the use of drugs or alco holic beverages. Testing procedures. The testing procedures in excess of the regulations established by the Interstate Commerce Commission (199) and the Public Utilities Commis sion (l84) show wide variation. Ghiselli and Brown (1 6 3), studying the increase in proficiency from use of selective devices in employment practices, indicated that under op timal conditions an approximate 25 per cent increase in productivity may result. Some companies are of the opin ion that the use of a selective device eliminates the ap plication of incompetents. They have found that incompe tents do not apply when such a device is used. Mossman suggested that the following testing areas be given atten tion in the testing program: 1. Mental ability— to measure the ability to learn and acquire knowledge. 2. Motor ability— to test eye-foot coor dination and mechanical aptitude. 152 5. Visual skills— visual acuity, depth perception, and color perception. 4. Personality characteristics— tempera ment, attitudes, and emotional sta bility. As yet no writings in the literature have claimed conclusiveness in discovering accident-prone drivers by means of psychophysical testing or by means of identifying patterns of physical, mental, emotional, and social char acteristics (54). There is, however, a growing body of knowledge that "a driver will operate as he lives." The Harvard School of Public Health (197:38) made a positive approach to the problem by examining successful drivers. The championship drivers of the National Truck Roadeo were studied for a period of four years. The fol lowing traits were evident among the champions: (l) their intelligence ranged from average to verging on superior intelligence; ( 2) they demonstrated quiet, restrained per sonalities; and ( 5) they exhibited undifferentiated inter ests of mediocre strength. During the testing period, the general characteristics exhibited and other observations indicated that these drivers were (l) alert and physically 155 ready to work when they went on the road; ( 2) knew the operational characteristics of the vehicles they drove and how to relate them to the demands on the road; (5) had or ganized their work so as not to lose time and have to rush from one point to another; (4) could spot bad situations as they developed on the road in time to slow down and avoid involvement in them; and (5) had a philosophy of driving that was built around safety. Commercial tests used by carriers for selection are issued by the American Transit Association, Science Research Associates, Consulting Psychologists Press, and by several independent testing specialists. The Harvard School of Public Health (197:19), in a report of a study of the frequency of errors committed by commercial drivers, reported the six most outstanding factors to be, in rank order of prevalence: (l) miscel laneous inattention, ( 2) errors at intersections, (5) at tention not on the road, (4) in wrong lane of traffic for conditions, (5) unnecessary talking, and (6) improper passing. Among these factors, the error of inattention was declared to be most difficult to correct. It is pos sible to reduce certain types of inattention error, but 134 it is probable that no amount of training or discipline can completely reduce inattention. The element of boredom will always enter into the problem. Driver Evaluation and Supervision The California Trucking Associations, in a fore word to a safety manual issued to management (l86:i), made the following comments concerning supervision: The supervisory staff must be informed and instructed in its duties and responsibilities of interpreting the safety program to those working under its supervision— the supervisor should be charged with the obligation of carrying out man agement' s program. The management must follow through to see that the program is fully and ef fectively carried out. More safety programs fail, or become unproductive, because the super visory staff fails to assume its responsibility. When any supervisor knowingly allows any worker under his supervision to violate rules, and such violation leads to an accident, then that super visor is far more responsible for the accident than the worker himself. The Association of Casualty and Insurance Compan ies (1 7 5) stated that attitudes of drivers were probably the most important factors in getting any job done. Atti tudes are constantly being influenced, developed, or changed by everyday experiences. The job of the super visor is to see that driver attitudes are developed in the proper way, and that undesirable influences are somehow 135 recognized and counteracted. Ecker (9:70“72) cited the principle that the foreman or supervisor, responsible for setting the stage, really determines the "atmosphere" of the working unit. Ecker indicated that morale is the most important single factor influencing job satisfaction and output. He made the following suggestions for action in creating good morale in an organization: 1. Provide each worker with as much rank and status as his aptitudes permit. 2. Provide good physical conditions for work. 3. Reduce work frustration on the job to a minimum by means of a good plant layout, smooth work flow, efficient and individu ally satisfying work methods. 4. Provide wages and wage payment plans that are clearly understood and directly re lated to the workers' output and value to the company. 5. Have an annual review of each worker's job, salary, and promotional possibilities. 6. Treat every workman as an individual human being. 7. Maintain good communications systems, con tributing to good morale by: a. Providing the workers with an oppor tunity to participate. b. Allowing an outlet for creativity and spontaneity. 156 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 15. c. Providing an opportunity for men to air grievances and "blow-off steam." d. Keeping wild rumors to a minimum by providing adequate and reliable sources of information. e. Contributing to the worker*3 feelings of security. f. Facilitating plant operations and main taining a smooth work-flow. g. Encouraging suggestions and seeing that due credit is given for them. h. Keeping his men as fully informed as possible. Encourage team work. Allow the workmen as much spontaneity and initiative as possible. Use positive, rather than negative, sugges tions, orders, and incentives. Make the workers jobs as meaningful as pos sible by: a. Giving reasons for orders and requests. b. Making sure that the workmen know the entire work process. c. Providing a realization that one's work is worth while. Know each man and have a genuine interest in his welfare. Understand himself and his relationship to his workmen and to management. 157 14. Delegate as much authority and responsibil ity as his own nature, the aptitudes of his workers, and the company will permit. 15. Use positive rather than negative incentives. In his handbook for supervisors (9:1^5)> Ecker stressed the value of an objective evaluation device, and recommended the use of such other objective factors as work records, absentee records, production records, and others which may be examined to support and amplify the results of evaluative tests. Since it is important that every employee know how he is doing his job, the results of the employee evaluation should be presented to each employee, in an interview. In this per formance interview, the supervisor should care fully point out the strengths and weaknesses of the individual. The main objective of the in terview is to help the man to see for himself that improvement is needed in weak areas and to work out with him a self development program for overcoming these weaknesses. Too often the performance interview is merely a "praise" ses sion or a "bawl-out," in which the man is told about his weaknesses, but no suggestions are offered for Improvement. The American Trucking Association (179) made a strong case for the use of (l) behind-the-wheel driving tests of skill, (2) road tests in traffic, and (3) "stu dent trips" with experienced drivers. The great bulk of testing should be done for the purpose of locating areas 138 of needed training, although minimum competence levels should be determined for all areas of testing. Driver Training Procedure Driver training must supplement the selection pro gram since men who are completely satisfactory cannot al ways be recruited. Most commercial organizations recom mend the appointment of a driver trainer for each fleet. They feel that the use of a driver trainer makes the in struction more uniform and consistent and also makes pos sible a continuous evaluation and training effort. The American Casualty and Insurance Companies (175:7) summa rized the value of driver training in the following state ment: Proper training is the key to many driver mistakes. Men must be trained to understand the "why" of their job. Proper instruction stresses the "key" points regarding the job and the safe performance of that job. Training de velops proper attitudes. Errors or delays con stitute a public relations problem. Accidents frequently occur because drivers are not expe rienced in the type of equipment being driven or the conditions of the traffic problem. Poor driving habits can result in excessive wear on clutches, brakes, and transmission gears. Driving at excessive speeds over bumps can cause damage to the springs, front end, and tires, and hard emergency stops over-heat and damage all parts of the braking system. Many 159 maintenance problems and excessive maintenance costs can be traced to lack of proper driver training. Studies made by the National Safety Council indi cated that driver training practices varied greatly be tween fleets, but that practically all training programs Included the following subjects: 1. Mechanical operation of the vehicle (classroom instruction combined with actual driving practice). 2. Preventive maintenance procedures (stressing the driver's part in dis covering and reporting mechanical de fects In his vehicle). 5. Traffic rules and regulations. 4. Habits of safe and courteous driving (principles of defensive driving). 5. What to do when involved in an acci dent. The Council also recommended annual refresher courses, from two to eight hours in length, even though a certain amount of training and retraining Is supplied by driver supervisors in day-to-day contacts with the 140 drivers. The American Trucking Associations (179:4) has developed a schedule for its driver training program, as shown in Table 4. TABLE 4 DRIVER TRAINING SCHEDULE Subject Class room Time (Hrs.) Outside instruction on vehicle Experi- Inexperi- enced enced Trainee s Trainee s (Hrs.) (Hrs.) Orientation 4 Introduction to vehicle 1 2 2 Inspection of equipment 1 2 2 Basic operating techniques 4 4 8 Training exercises 1 - - a. Skill tests - 2 8 b. Road tests in traffic - 1 1 c. Student trips - 8-24 8-24 Safe driving rules and ICC regulations 8 - - Accident procedure 2 - - Fire fighting 1 1 1-2 First aid 1-2 - - 141 The carrier industry has based its evaluative cri teria upon a rating of the driver's log, the use of mechan ical recorders on vehicles, careful accident reports and records, motor vehicle violations, the use of inspectors following the vehicles in another car, the use of inde pendent companies for secret observation of drivers in ac tion, and the reports of the public. A great deal of supervision is done in a positive manner by providing training, safety meetings, educational materials, driver review boards, suggestion systems, and incentive programs. Whichever technique is used, the principle of constant inspection is assumed as necessary to maintain enforcement of a company's operating rules. Edwards, on this subject, recommended a daily report sheet to be used by inspectors, this report ultimately becoming part of the driver's per sonnel record file. The industry's magazine, Fleet Owner (59), re ported the results of a study made on 725 fleets which used speed-and-stop recording instruments. The findings indicated that some 25 per cent of the fleets studied used recording instruments, and that of this group, about two thirds were equipped with them. The companies preferred 142 to use the miles-per-hour records rather than the motor- revolutions-per-minute records. They found them to be over 95 per* cent accurate. The companies which used the recorders thought them to be valuable in reducing mainte nance costs., reducing accidents, allowing better schedul ing, evaluating drivers, and in dealing with legal matters. Fewer than 3 per cent removed the recorders because of driver complaints. The best drivers accepted and appre ciated the use of the recording instruments. The study also revealed that 50 per cent of the petroleum fleets used recorder instruments on their vehicles. Practices of Large Commercial Bus Systems Interviews were held with executives of three large commercial transportation firms which operate buses in the Los Angeles area, in an effort to ascertain their criteria of recruitment, selection, training, and evalua tion for drivers of commercial buses. Results of these interviews, as summarized, are presented herewith. 145 Transcontinental Trallways Bus System: Continental American Bus Lines The Transcontinental Trallways Is an affiliation of forty-three bus companies which serve areas throughout the United States. The Continental American Bus Lines is the only affiliate which crosses the entire country and services the various areas assigned to other affiliated companies of this corporation. The Continental American Bus Lines employs some 5*000 bus drivers. Drivers are recruited from other companies which provide bus service, or from large trucking operations. A driver for Continental American Bus Lines must have five years experience as a bus or truck driver, without acci dents due to any cause; without a perfect driving record, he cannot be considered for employment. The new applicant must be between the ages of 25 and 55 years, must provide proof of high school graduation, and must provide five character references. The references are checked by tel ephone and by a mailed questionnaire. The Regional Man ager interviews the candidate following a structured for mat and records the driver's responses as the interview is carried on. The driver-applicant is required to sign a form allowing the company to check with the police on his record as a driver, as well as for other law viola tions. The applicant must be clean and neat in appear ance, and well balanced morally and socially. Behavior unbecoming to a gentleman on or off the job is grounds for dismissal. Any falsification of reports or application forms is cause for immediate dismissal. When the driver is actually employed he is given a Bus Operator's Manual which covers more than 600 rules and regulations affecting his operation as a bus driver. This manual covers seven major sections: (l) general rules, (2) courtesy rules, (3) safety regulations, (4) reporting accidents and dis turbances, (5) equipment maintenance, (6) accounting for traffic handled, and (7) baggage rules. The physical examination of a driver meets the standards of the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Public Utilities Commission and is extended to cover indi vidual problems of each applicant. If the man Is ac cepted for employment, he is placed on a sixty-day trial under a senior bus driver. Each day the senior bus driver files a report on the new candidate. If at the conclusion 145 of the sixty-day period he has achieved a standard judged to he 86 per cent, he is then given a thirty-day probation period as a driver. The formal induction of drivers is usually started under supervision of the dispatcher or the regional man ager who introduces the new man to the over-all bus oper ation of the company. He meets the employees and is in formed of the lines of authority and responsibility, em ployee benefits, award and recognition programs, public relations, and the equipment used by the bus system. He is then turned over to the senior driver for briefing and direction in the daily operation of the bus system. The training period with the senior driver is done in the actual daily operation of a bus on a regular run. The new driver also spends some time in the garage with the foreman or assistant foreman, studying the mechanical phases of his bus. He is given special instruction in such things as checking radiator hoses for defects, frayed fan belts, changing tires, putting on chains, changing windshield wiper blades, operation of the braking system, peculiarities of the transmission, and other parts of the bus. 146 All drivers are given a formal evaluation every ninety days. The evaluation is based on a supporting evi dence folder made up of supervisors' reports, tachometer charts, mechanics' reports, accident reports, and letters and notes of commendation. This folder is accumulative in nature and remains as an active record during the en tire experience of the driver with the company. Every bus in the fleet is equipped with a recording Sangamo tachom eter which records motor speeds. The greatest amount of importance is placed upon near-accidents and accidents. If a driver has two near accidents, he is sent to the Driver Safety Center for a complete physical examination and psychophysical testing. If he has four near misses within a period of ten years, the employee is dismissed. Three major accidents involving death, injury, or property damage of more than $5 0 .0 0 within a fifteen-year period is cause for dismissal. Drivers are given safe driving pins at the con clusion of each year of driving without accident. These awards are publicized in the company paper which is cir cularized to all employees. The company has very few em ployees over the age of sixty, but gives much publicity 147 to those who remain accident-free beyond this age. The take-home pay of the drivers in this company now ranges from $491 to $620 per month. The drivers are required to buy and have on hand two complete uniforms, which they purchase from the company. The union has cooperated well with the company in the cases involving dismissal of incompetent drivers and those who violate company rules. Western Greyhound Bus Lines The Western Greyhound Bus Lines provides public transportation in the western third of the nation. This company employs some 5,000 drivers operating on regular schedules between the cities of the west. A driver, to qualify, must have an accident-free history, be between twenty-five and thirty-five years of age, and have three or more years experience in driving heavy duty equipment. The driver's vision must be cor rectable to 20/20 in a Snellen test. The applicant must score satisfactorily on the Minnesota Multiphasic Person ality Inventory, the Otis Employment test, and the Johnson Temperament Analysis. The applicant must meet all bus- driving requirements of the Interstate Commerce Commission 148 and Public Utilities Commission. He must provide refer ences from three former employers and one character refer ence . The company feels that the greatest responsibility in the selection of bus drivers depends upon the inter viewer's analysis of the foregoing data and his ability to draw from the applicant Information which is pertinent to his selection. From every 100 applicants accepted for training, five to eight "wash out" in training. If the applicant is accepted for training, he is paid $10.00 per day during the training period. The training period lasts for thirty-two days, followed by a ninety-day probation period. The outline for the first fourteen days of classroom instruction is shown in Table 5. Following the fourteen days of classroom instruction, applicants become "student drivers" and are assigned to experienced senior drivers who are making regular bus runs. The student driver operates a part of each run while the senior driver evaluates his driving and reports it on a structured questionnaire. The student driver is assigned to several senior drivers during his training period. 149 TABLE 5 GREYHOUND DRIVER TRAINING SCHEDULE ____________Activity_________________________________Hours First day _ 9 1. Welcome and introduction to Greyhound his tory and present organization 1 2. Talk on purpose of school, school rules, training programs, and requirements for graduation 1 3. Explanation of company benefits 1 4. Duties of dispatcher 1 5. Explanation of extra board-run sheets, etc. 1 6. Explanation of union contract and senior ity rules 2 7. Introductory talk on safety and safety film 2 Second day 9 1. Driver's manual 3 2. Interstate Commerce Commission safety regu lations 2 3. Discussion on safety rules and regulations 3 4. Safety film and discussion 1 150 Hours Third day 9 1. Preliminary driving instructions 2. Type buses and differences 5. Body, transmission, brakes, length, width, turning radius, and overhang information 4. Driving— slow speed, gear work, clutch operation, brakes, detonator tests Fourth day 9 1. Instructions on time slips, trip reports 1 2. Recognizing valid transportation 1 5. How to identify and process tickets 1 4. Interstate Commerce Commission rules on tickets 1 5. Importance of correct ticket handling, review of ticket instruction in driver's manual 1 6. Explanation of time schedules, including role of Greyhound Commission Agent 1 7. Procedures for accepting and checking baggage 1 8. How to avoid damaging baggage 1 Table 5--Continued Activity 151 Table 5--Continued Activity Hours 9. Tariffs and computing cash fares 1 10. Express waybills, handling of, etc. 1 Fifth day 9 1. Function of maintenance department 1 2. Slide talk on Diesel engine 5 5. Slide talk on running gear 2 4. Slide talk on air conditioning system 2 5. Conference discussion on driver's role in maintenance 1 Sixth day 9 1. How to use M-7 1 2. How to correct bus failures 1 5. Garage inspection 2 4. Demonstration of tire changing 2 5. Demonstration of fire fighting 3 6. Discussion (conference style) of main- , tenance 2 Table 5— Continued 152 _______________Activity______________________________ Hours Seventh day 7 1. Talk by claim department representative 2 2. Rules for handling and reporting accidents 2 3. Review and discussion of all phases of training with emphasis on driver manual 2 Eighth, Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, Twelfth, and Thirteenth day (9 hrs. each) 5^ Driving bus on road with Instructor 9 Fourteenth day 1. Passenger relations--courtesy conference 4 2. Examination 2 3. Assignments 2 155 For supervision on the road, the company depends upon various officers of management and nine men in cars which tour the routes taken by the buses. The cars are plainly marked. Western Greyhound Bus Lines equips its buses with governors and only on test cases do they use tachometers. Drivers are notified of their errors on com pany forms, which are also filed with the union and with company files. Four or five violations of company rules can mean dismissal. A careful check is made of accidents and near-accidents on a card record form. The driver is interviewed concerning each, and a record is made which the driver may read and must sign. A second near-miss or accident is cause for complete physical re-examination. Safety meetings are held at least once every two months. The safety record of a driver before a major accident is considered to be most important in deciding his future with the company. In the area of incentives for better performance the company gives pins, watches, rings, and the like for different distances and years of accident-free driving. This company is well liked by its employees, as is demon strated by the number of drivers with twenty to twenty- five years of driving experience. Salaries range from $508 to $967 a month, the yearly average being $7*5 0 0. At age sixty-five, a driver may retire on a company pen sion equal to 50 per cent of his regular salary, if he has completed thirty years of service with the company. The employee contributes 4 per cent of his monthly salary to this pension fund. The company states that it attracts the bulk of its drivers from other bus and transit lines. They attribute this to the good salaries, the pension plan, and to employee status. The annual turnover of em ployees is less than 8 per cent for all causes. Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority The Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority provides public transportation to the urban areas of Orange and Los Angeles counties and to some portions of Riverside and San Bernardino counties in the state of Cal ifornia. Approximately 2,700 drivers operate public transportation vehicles for this company. The company hires approximately 950 new drivers each year. To fill these vacancies a continuous program of hiring is carried on. The company has not found it necessary to use extreme programs of recruitment to fill the need. They do, 155 however, give listings of needs to public employment agencies. An applicant for a position must file a formal application and sign releases for investigation regarding his driving record with the Motor Vehicle Department of the state and with other departments of law enforcement. If the applicant shows evidence of stability, responsibil ity, and motivation for the job, he is called in for an interview. One man works full time interviewing and in vestigating candidates. The applicant must demonstrate to the interviewer that he can and will accept responsi bility and supervision, and that he is safety conscious, self reliant, and able to work with people. An applicant must be between twenty-three and thirty-nine years of age, have a twelfth-grade education or its equivalent, an honorable discharge if he has been in the service, a valid draft card if of draft age, and a record of no felonies. He must demonstrate 20/20 vision with glasses or 20/25 without glasses. After age 45 all drivers must undergo complete physical examinations an nually; after age fifty-five, this must be done semi annually. The only test given in pre-employment is a simple arithmetic test which demonstrates the applicant's 156 ability to handle fundamentals of basic arithmetic. Driv ing experience with heavy duty vehicles is not a require ment. Employment is offered to acceptable candidates on condition that they can qualify for proper licenses. When hired, the new employee is given a student rating for the first thirty days at a rate of $1.50 per hour. The first five days are devoted to classroom instruction, at the conclusion of which the student driver is assigned to one of thirteen divisions operating ninety-four lines which serve the area. There are three to four instructors for each division. They act as instructors as well as super visors, and report regularly on the development of each driver in their division. The instructor assigns the new student driver to a senior driver, who instructs and supervises him. When he demonstrates success, he is as signed to another line and another senior driver. This continues until the student driver has operated on every line in the division to which he has been assigned. If the student is successful, he is placed on probation for ninety days and is assigned to the extra-board. He is placed on the extra-board in order of seniority of 157 application and may draw a run on any line at any time of the day or night. On a basis of seniority, he eventually earns a regular run and regular hours of work. Approxi mately 15 to 20 per cent of student drivers "wash out" during the training period. The company expects a final permanency for 50 per cent of those who are hired. During permanency, the driver is required to attend safety meet ings and is paid for his attendance. The superintendent reviews the records of each driver annually and interviews him after each review. The personnel director expressed a lack of confi dence in the results of predictive types of tests for use in making pre-employment estimates of the ability of can didates to become successful bus drivers. He stated also that the company no longer hires women as drivers due to the problem of personal relations that developed with female customers, and also because of a record of frequent absenteeism. The director of driver training indicated that the women had demonstrated a greater ability to deal with mechanisms needing a sense of touch and also had shown superiority in speed of learning routines required in the operation. 158 Following the training period, the driver's pay is increased to $2.55 per hour. After eighteen months of employment the driver's salary reaches the maximum of $2.49 per hour. Summary The practices and procedures used in selecting, training, and evaluating commercial vehicle drivers were studied in this chapter. The rules and regulations gov erning drivers of public carriers and the practices and procedures recommended by the literature were examined and compared. The practices of three of the major bus transportation corporations were examined by visitation and personal interview. The rules and regulations established by the Interstate Commerce Commission serve as the basis for driver regulations of commercial vehicles. States may make more stringent requirements for vehicles operating within their jurisdiction by special rules and regulations. In California, the Public Utilities Commission has this responsibility. The regulations of both of these agencies prescribe minimum requirements of applicants, maximum 159 working hours, requirement for accident reports, periodic examination of the equipment by the driver, and prohib ited practices by the driver. A driver must be at least twenty-one years old, must have 20/40 vision with or with out glasses, must have no loss or impairment of limbs, must have hearing of not less than 10/20 in the better ear, must not be addicted to narcotics or excessive use of alcoholic beverages, and must be able to read and write English. He must also have a form field of vision of 140 degrees. It is the driver's duty not to drive an unsafe vehicle. The literature indicates a preference for drivers within the twenty-five to thirty-five age bracket, the extreme upper limit being forty-five for new drivers. The driver's intelligence should range from normal to border ing on superior intelligence. His personality should be demonstrated as quiet and restrained. The selection of drivers should follow a six-step procedure: (l) establish job requirements, (2) recruit applicants, (3) hold per sonal interviews, (4) check references, (5) refer for med ical examinations, and (6) testing. Employment is based on a period of training and sixty to ninety days probation 160 before being considered as a regular employee. An inves tigation of past driving records is of primary importance. Many companies are now using standardized tests of intel ligence, personality, and aptitude for pre-employment evaluation. The National Safety Council recommends a def inite safety policy established and enforced by top man agement, employment of a safety director, an adequate pro gram of continuous education in safety, incentives, and corrective discipline. They also recommend an efficient system for accident reporting, investigation, analysis, and follow-up. The three major companies interviewed indicated a preference for the driver in the twenty-five to thirty- five year age bracket, of normal intelligence, and having responsibilities. They were much interested in his safety record and had requested permission to check with the Motor Vehicle Department on his driving experience. Two of the companies were interested only in experienced driv ers of heavy duty equipment. All had established their own definite set of company rules, over and beyond the legal requirements of the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Public Utilities Commission. All carried on driver training programs, insisted upon detailed reports of accidents and near-accidents, and favored the use of incentive programs of awards, publicity, and recognition of good work. The consensus in the commercial field demonstrated the need for a well organized and well planned program for the selection, training, and evaluation of drivers. CHAPTER V RESULTS OP A SURVEY: SELECTION, TRAINING, AND EVALUATION OP SCHOOL BUS DRIVERS IN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL DISTRICTS This chapter is devoted to a report of a survey of the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in school districts of California, interpreted in terms of standards reported in the literature. The purposes of this chapter were threefold, and may be stated in the following three questions: 1. What are the procedures and policies recommended for the selection, train ing, and evaluation of school bus drivers as reported in the literature? 2. What are the procedures in the selec tion, training, and evaluation of 162 165 school bus drivers found in current practice in the school districts of California operating ten or more school buses? 3. What importance do the school bus administrators place upon these practices in relation to the suc cessful operation of a school bus transportation program? This chapter is presented in three parts, a sep arate section being given to answering each question. A preliminary section contains a r£sum£ of the literature which pertains specifically to the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers. Literature on the Problem Much of a general nature has been written concern ing the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers. Specific areas of this problem, however, have been neglected. The findings from a review of the liter ature fell naturally under the following headings: 164 1. Board and administrative policies. 2. Recruitment. 5. Employment practices used. 4. Post-employment. 5. Induction training testing. 6. Incentive program. 7. Supervision and evaluation. 8. Uniforms. 9. Part-time drivers. Board and Administrative Policies Morphat, Johns and Reller, writing on public school administration (25:472) remarked: The operation of the school transportation program involves numerous executive decisions. There is no area of school administration that requires a more definite and detailed state ment of the board's policies than school trans portation. If policies are not available to serve as a guide to executive decision making, too much of the administrator's time will be spent on transportation problems; the program is likely to be damaged. The basic objectives of the board's transportation service should be to provide safe, economical and adequate trans portation service to the pupils who need the service. Dice (146) recommended that the local board of education adopt a comprehensive set of rules, regulations, 165 and policies for transportation, and that the board issue a comprehensive handbook of operational procedures for bus drivers. Each driver should be provided with information on the following topics: 1. Knowledge of rules of the board, state regulations, and vehicle code. 2. Drivers* licenses required. 5. Address and telephone record of drivers. 4. Suggestions for improvement of service. 5. Personal appearance of drivers. 6. Driver conduct. 7. Driver relations with the public. 8 . Bus routes and schedules of runs. 9. Individual school regulations. 10. Sick leave for drivers. 11. Driver's time piece. 12. Eligibility of pupils for transporta tion. 13. Uniforms. 14. Special operating rules, i.e., clean ing the bus, inspection of the bus, warming motors, care of tires, reporting 166 breakdowns. 15. Safety rules, I.e., regulations about pupils remaining seated, persons al lowed to operate buses, use of signal flares, pedestrians in street, backing of buses, mail trucks, fire hose, clearances, railroad crossings, speed, fire on the bus, fire extinguishers, garage safety, hand signals, passenger stops, and escorting pupils across the street. 16. Accident prevention: first things to do in case of an accident, whom to notify, give information to persons in authority, witnesses, and reports. 17. Information from other driver in acci dents. 18. Accidents due to mechanical failures. 19. Accidents due to unattended vehicles. 20. Discipline of pupils. 21. Reports. 167 Dice's study of Southern California school districts showed that few districts had adopted comprehensive poli cies related to pupil transportation. The California State Department of Education in a 1958 publication (185:17) stated: In planning the operation of a pupil trans portation system, school officials must con sider each detail involved in the operation, e.g., routing buses, making schedules for trips, adopting rules and regulations for the loading and unloading of pupils, handling special re quests for transportation, providing effective means of intercommunication in the district and determining policies that relate to the control of pupils on the buses. It was suggested that rules equivalent to the following state regulations be adopted by governing boards for con trol of pupils (185:28-29). 1. Pupils transported in a school bus shall be under the authority of and directly responsible to the driver of the bus. 2. Continued disorderly conduct or persist ent refusal to submit to the authority of the driver shall be sufficient reason for a pupil to be denied transportation on a school bus. 3. The driver of any school bus shall be held responsible for the orderly conduct of the pupils transported. 4. No bus driver shall require any pupil to leave the bus before such pupil has 168 reached his destination. 5. Standees shall not be permitted in a school bus. 6. A school bus shall not be put in motion un til all pupils are seated. 7. No school bus shall stop to load or dis charge pupils except at stops regularly- designated by the governing board. 8. No pupil shall engage in unnecessary con versation with the driver while the bus is in motion. 9. Smoking in a school bus shall be prohibited whenever pupils are aboard. 10. No intoxicating liquor shall be transported at any time in a school bus. 11. No animals shall be transported in a school bus. 12. No loaded weapons of any sort, except side arras carried by authorized police officers, shall be transported on a school bus. 15. No person shall be allowed to occupy such a position in a school bus as will interfere with the vision of the driver to the front, to either side of him, or through the mir ror to the rear, or will interfere with the operation of the bus. It was further suggested that a number of supple mentary regulations also be adopted ( 1 8 5: 2 8-2 9): 1. All pupils must remain seated while the bus is in motion. 169 2. Nothing can be thrown within the bus or out the windows. 3. Pupils who are to leave the bus last must use seats in the rear of the bus. Galluzzo conducted a study of classified personnel in the public schools of California (151:323-325) and recommended: 1. Districts should establish policies and rules governing the administration of classified personnel. 2. Policies and rules should be based on ideals of democracy and merit. 3. These policies should be concerned with establishing (a) a central personnel agency, (b) a merit system, (c) a clas sification plan, and (d) a compensation plan. 4. Districts should establish specific policy statements for (a) recruitment, (b) application procedure, (c) examina tion procedure, (d) selection, (e) pro bation, (f) transfer, (g) promotion, (h) demotion, (i) training, (j) induction, 170 (k) employee benefits, (l) discipline, (m) separations, (n) grievance policy and appeals procedure. 5. Districts should establish administra tive manuals and employee handbooks. Recruitment Butterworth and Ruegsegger, in writing a book on the administration of pupil transportation ( 2:3*0 state that . . . excellent vehicles and careful planning of routes will not insure high quality of service unless highly competent drivers are employed. No driver should be employed with out the recommendation of the local adminis trator of the educational system. It is scarcely less important that local politics or any consideration other than ability to do the Job be kept from influencing the selection of bus drivers than that teacher selection be en tirely on the basis of merit. They further recommend that drivers should not be employed on a basis of bid3. Galluzzo (151:326) concluded, "A vigorous recruit ment program will insure qualified talent." He declared that success or failure of the entire personnel program depended upon recruitment and that school districts should 171 establish positive recruitment policies and procedures to attract candidates with capacity and good character to present themselves for examination. Galluzzo (151:327-28) stated that districts which meet high standards in employing classified personnel usually: 1. Make a thorough analysis of the actual qualifications of each job. 2. Place emphasis upon the specific nature of human aptitude to do the job. 3. Give complete and frank information to job applicants. 4. Evaluate the traits of personality as well as mental capacities. Winder (120:56, 37) also attempted to answer the problem of how to recruit qualified personnel. He recom mended that the qualities desired in a driver be formu lated, and that a training program be established to help drivers to meet these qualifications. The literature indicates that drivers are usually recruited through newspaper ads, recommendations of pres ent drivers, staff bulletins, employment agencies, and 172 the unions. Employment Practices Used This analysis of employment practices reported in the literature encompasses the following categories: (l) minimum and maximum age for employment, (2) driving expe rience required, (3) character and personality required, (4) minimum physical requirements, (5) pre-employment test ing program, and (6) records. Age of the driver. The maximum and minimum ages for school bus drivers is a subject of great divergences of opinion. To drive a school bus In California, a driver must be eighteen years of age. Reeder (30:1-14) reported that In 1939 there were twelve states which required a minimum age of twenty-one; twelve required eighteen; one required seventeen; and six states required that the min imum age for bus drivers be sixteen. Reeder indicated that in 1939 the National Safety Council was advocating twenty-one years as a minimum age limit. Reeder (30:1-14) also recommended a maximum age of from fifty to seventy years of age. 175 Noble (27) recommended that drivers be between twenty-one and seventy years of age; Meadows (21) that the ages be between twenty-one and fifty-five; Butterworth and Ruegsegger (2) that school bus drivers be between twenty- one and sixty-five; Reece (100), writing for the State of New Mexico, recommended a minimum age of twenty-one. The Kentucky Board of Education (75) recommended the inclusive ages of from twenty-one to sixty. North and South Caro lina both recommended a minimum age of sixteen, to be ac companied by a rigorous training program. Using the valuation instruments of Dice (151) and Ruegsegger (2), the highest scores were earned by drivers between thirty-one and fifty-five years of age; second highest scores by drivers of ages twenty-one to thirty; and scores of equal weight and third in value for ages eighteen to twenty and fifty-six to sixty-five. No score was given to drivers under the ages of eighteen or over the age of sixty-five. Isenberg (128), who made the most recent attempt to develop an evaluation instrument for school bus transportation, recommended that consideration be given to the maturity and character of every individual employed as a school bus driver. 174 Norris (93), reporting on a national conference of school transportation officials, indicated that sixteen years of age was the minimum acceptable age for school bus drivers. Table 3 (cf. supra, Chapter II) reveals that driv ers under twenty make up 7*2 per cent of the total driving force and have 12.5 per cent of the accidents. It is not until the age of thirty that the percentage of drivers exceeds the percentage of incidence of accidents. It is not until the age of sixty-five that the percentage of ac cidents again exceeds the percentage of the total number of drivers in the age group. Driving experience. Adequate and successful driver experience is one of the most basic qualifications for a bus driver. Butterworth and Ruegsegger (2:28) stated that "previous successful experience as a chauffeur or as a bus or truck driver should be a point in favor of the applicant." Mitchell (8 6) indicated that driver ex perience is an essential requisite. Butterworth and Ruegsegger recommended that the driver's experience should be investigated. Noble ( 2 7:3 7) stated that the applicant should present evidence of at least two years or 1 0 ,0 0 0 miles of driving experience without personal blame for a major accident. The driver should have had experience in operating motor vehicles larger than an ordinary passenger automobile ( 1 3 8). About one third of the state laws and regulations specify that school bus drivers must be expe rienced. In states having some regulation of this kind, the usual requirement is either one or two years of expe rience; sometimes, only the general provision that the driver be "experienced" is required. Dice (146) and Rueg segger (2) gave considerable weight to experience in driv ing commercial vehicles as a requirement for employment as a bus driver. Both considered two or more years of such employment as of great importance in the evaluation of the school transportation program. Isenberg (128) stated that when drivers are employed, previous driving experience should be investigated to assure that it has been safe and satisfactory. To enhance the probability of finding safe bus drivers, the California Administrative Code, Title 5, Edu cation (183) requires the Department of Motor Vehicles to investigate each applicant for a school bus driver's cer tificate. The Department, under Section 1079* part (a), 176 subpart (2) Is given authority to deny a school bus driv er's certificate to any one who has been convicted within three years next preceding the applicant's application for such certificate of any violation of the Vehicle Code in volving hit-and-run driving, drunk driving, or reckless driving, or whose driving privilege Is or has been sus pended or revoked by the Department of Motor Vehicles for a cause involving the safe operation of a motor vehicle, or who has been placed on probation as a negligent oper ator by the Department of Motor Vehicles. Under subpart (4, 5* and 6) of this section, a bus driver's certificate may be denied if the applicant has: 1. Been involved within the two years next preceding the applicant's application as a driver in any accident causing death or personal injury or serious damage to property. 2. Been involved within the year preceding the applicant's application in three or more accidents within a period of twelve consecutive months. 177 3. Been determined to be a reckless or in competent driver. Section 1079.2 of the Administrative Code (1 8 5) provides for the fingerprinting of all bus driver appli cants to allow law enforcement agencies to investigate possible criminal and driving records. Character and personality traits. The driver's character and personality are considered important by most authorities in the field of school bus transportation ( 9 6; 115; 75; 8 5; 95; 115; 40; 3 0; 9 7; 94; 2 1 0; 215; 214; 2 1 1; 21; 1 3 8; 146; 2; 1 6 8; and 2 7), all of whom have stressed the importance of the character and personality of the driver to his success on the job. Dice (l46) and Rueg segger (2) were in close agreement concerning the basic personal characteristics which they considered desirable in a bus driver. They stressed the following qualities as being of greatest importance when evaluating a school transportation program: 1. Promptness 2. Personal grooming and attire 3. Clean speech 178 4. Sobriety 5. Courtesy and friendliness 6. Ability to maintain discipline 7. Genuine interest in children 8. General moral uprightness 9. Loyalty 10. Even, patient disposition. The State Department of Education of the State of New Mexico (210:19-21), in a handbook for administrators of school bus transportation, indicated that the driver must present a character certificate signed by at least three people who know of his character or personal habits. The employer is required to investigate the references. Elements recommended for consideration are: 1. Reliability and dependability 2. Initiative, self-reliance and leader ship 5. Ability to get along with others 4. Freedom from use of undesirable language 5. Personal habits of cleanliness 6. Moral conduct above reproach 179 7. Honesty 8. Freedom from addiction to narcotics or habit forming drugs 9. Freedom from use of alcoholic bever ages or liquors. The department also stresses the importance of emotional stability, recommending that consideration be given to the applicant's patience, consideration, even temperament, and calmness under stress. A handbook of the California State Department of Education on pupil transportation ( 1 8 5:33) contains the stipulation: In addition to meeting the legal require ments, a school bus driver must possess a good moral character. He is expected to be neat in appearance, courteous toward others, willing and competent in the performance of his duties, and adept in the supervision and control of the children entrusted to his care. Physical examination. Thirty-two states now re quire a pre-employment physical examination of all school bus driver applicants (106). Others require that drivers be free from physical defects that would tend to lessen their ability to operate a vehicle safely under the condi tions incident to a bus route. The great bulk of the 180 states requiring physical examinations stress sound physi cal and mental health, freedom from communicable disease, good vision and hearing, enough physical strength to handle a bus, and full possession and normal use of both hands, both arms, both feet, and both legs (115; 95; 40; 5 0; 215; 2 1 0; 27; 214; 8 7). California requires a physical examination every two years, evidence of freedom from the effect of heart trouble, pneumonia, fainting spells, venereal diseases, diabetes, and tuberculosis. The standard visual acuity is 20/40 with both eyes and at least 2 0 /5 0 in the poorest eye, with or without correction. Good depth perception is required of a school bus driver. Color blindness, of it self, will not disqualify a person from driving a school bus. The muscular balance of the pupils of the eyes must not vary to any great degree and reaction must be normal. In the form fields of vision test, less than 70 per cent on either side will disqualify an applicant. If there is more than 15 per cent loss in both ears or a 50 per cent loss in either ear individually, the physician must give a complete report on this fact. The same type of report is required when an applicant has any gross abnormalities, l8l or a blood pressure test showing a systolic reading above 175 and/or a diastolic reading over 100. The physician must make a finding, on each report, that the applicant is or is not, in his opinion, physically able to operate a school bus, based on the examination given. The Division of Drivers Licenses makes the final determination as to the applicant's fitness to operate the bus. The Califor nia physical examination standards were the most rigorous and demanding of applicants among all those reviewed in this study. Kingsley (156), in a study of Nevada's pupil transportation program, recommended annual physical exam inations for bus drivers and semi-annual examinations for those over the age of fifty-five. Most states which do require a physical examination require that it be repeated annually. Isenberg (128) and Ruesegger (2) attached strong weightings to a driver's annual physical examina tion in their suggested evaluation forms for rating school transportation programs. Pre-employment testing. Pre-employment testing programs on a competitive basis are basic in personnel selection. Examinations may be written, written and oral, 182 or In the form of a practical demonstration of skill and ability, or any combination of these (151). Lauer (75) stated that a scientific examination of the driver is necessary to assist the driver in the proper selection of the type of driving he is to do, and to help him avoid accidents through a knowledge of his weakness. Feather- ston (191) reported on the Southern States Work-Confer ence, and stated that driving tests should include an ac tual demonstration of ability to drive skillfully and safely over the bus route which is to be assigned. Pullen ( 1 6 5:58)* in a report at the National Conference on School Bus Standards, gave the following three recommendations for driver's examinations: 1. A written test covering laws and reg ulations of the state as pertains to vehicle driving and special pupil transportation regulations. 2. An oral test covering local factors which could apply to driving the school bus in a particular locality. 5. A road test using the same type of equipment the applicant would be 185 expected to operate on the school bus route. Morphet (25:476-477) was of the opinion that before a driver be permitted to drive a bus he should be given thorough driver training and tested for his competency to drive a bus. Grleder (l6) and others, reporting on driver selection in South Carolina, advocated that drivers be tested for knowledge and driving skill after instruction by the highway patrol, and that they be required to earn a score of 70 out of 100 points to qualify for a license. The practice of using a written test covering laws and regulations of the state, together with behind-the - wheel driving tests, has become general practice in the more populated states. California has followed this prac tice for some time. The California Highway patrol uses a check sheet to evaluate applicants for bus drivers' cer tificates which covers a pre-driving bus inspection for safety, the driving of the bus, pupil loading, pupil road crossing, and the school bus crossing a railroad track. The City Bus Lines of Los Angeles, a private bus line offering services to school districts, indicated that they have had success in selecting bus drivers by use of 184 the McGuire Safe-Driving Inventory. This is basically a personality and attitude inventory. Galluzzo (151) recommended that preliminary vali dation with job success should be made for tests used at the district level. He further indicated the importance of using intelligence tests and the oral interview as part of the testing program. He suggested a cooperative test ing program for small school districts. Keeping of records. Melbo's study of the Antelope Valley Joint Union High School District (22:275) contained the following statement: It is impossible to carry on a sound pro gram of recruitment, selection, assignment, in duction, in-service training, salary adjustment, promotion, and other personnel procedures with out an adequate system of records which furnish factual data. No administration can afford to depend upon memory, when the welfare of the em ployed personnel is at stake. Most studies in the selection of classified personnel have indicated the need for a standardized job description, an application form, employer reference form, character ref erence form, and an interview check sheet. Melbo's report of the Survey of Phoenix Union High Schools and Phoenix College System in 1954 (25:118) 185 suggested that the following principles be employed in the selection of classified personnel. 1. All applicants should be required to file a written application form provided by the district. 2. References given should be checked. In quiries should also be made with previous employers. 5. Applicants should be required to certify they will support the Constitution of the United States. 4. Each applicant should submit to a health examination by a district approved physi cian before he is employed. The cost of this examination should be paid by the dis trict. 5. All recommendations to the board for em ployment should be made by the superintend ent. 6. It should be written policy that no board member will receive any applications for employment, but that all persons interested in a position at the school will be referred to the administrative offices to make appli cation In accordance with the procedures prescribed above. 7. Preference should be given to applicants in the younger age range. 8. Selection should not be made on the basis of "need for the position" or local residence. No semblance of patronage should be prac ticed. Money provided by all the taxpayers of the district should be spent in obtaining the most efficient help available. Induction, Training, and Testing Galluzzo (151:555-356) recommended that districts develop and use a planned program of induction, believing that the main objective of this program should be the es tablishment of a feeling of belonging on the part of the new employee. He gave as specifics the following as areas that should be covered: 1. The individual1s daily routine. 2. The employee's benefits and service programs. 5. The district's policies and proce dures. 4. The main objectives of the department, of the section, and of the total or ganization. 5. The main objectives of his Job and how he fits into the total organiza tional scheme. (Techniques used could be employee handbooks, bulletins, in terviews, tours of the plant and main areas of the district, and group meet ings.) 187 Dice (146) and Isenberg (128) strongly emphasized the importance of good induction, training, and testing procedures for bus drivers. Dice (146) believed that the following was most important: 1. That a driver's handbook be provided and maintained currently up to date. 2. That an indoctrination course be pro vided for new drivers. This should be a two-week program involving special study under the supervision of the transportation superintendent and ex perienced drivers. 3. That an annual pre-school re-orienta tion program be required for all driv ing personnel. 4. That once a month, regularly scheduled conferences of drivers and the trans portation superintendent be held, using outside experts when practical. Isenberg (128) asked the following questions on driver training in his evaluation of school bus transpor tation: 188 1. Is there a definite program for training of bus drivers? 2. Does the training program include: a. Explanation of the driver's responsi bilities for the bus? b. Explanation of the responsibility of a bus driver's job and the liability of drivers? c. Responsibilities of drivers for admin istrative routines and reports? d. Driving skills and practice? e. Correct procedures for loading and un loading children at bus stops? f. Correct procedure of handling disci plinary problems? g. Psychophysical tests (breadth of vision; judging distance; reaction time) so that each driver is made aware of any limitations? Noble (2 7:3 6 0-5 6 1) stated that, even though an applicant has already had previous experience in driving a motor vehicle, he should be required to have special training and indoctrination on the problems of driving a school bus. He indicated that a training program should include the following areas of instruction ( 2 7:3 6 0-3 6 1): 1. Minor repairs and maintenance items neces sary to the normal operation of the school bus. 189 2. Thorough training in all safety precautions and driving regulations. This training should cover all state laws and regulations, as well as local laws and regulations. 3. Instruction as to the driver's relationships with pupils, parents, and other school per sonnel. 4. Instruction in the making of reports and the necessity for accurate and prompt reports. 5. First aid instruction. 6. Instruction as to the driver's responsibil ity toward pupils on extra-curricular trips, if the school system uses regular school buses and drivers for extra-curricular trips. Dice (146) recommended that any district using three or more school buses should hire a qualified and trained transportation director who would be responsible for driver training. Wahlquist (38) suggested that, even when good bus drivers are secured, in-service training is desirable. Stapley (127) thought that in-service training of bus drivers was of value in increasing their driving effi ciency, their knowledge of rules and regulations, their knowledge of the machines they operate, and their under standing of the responsibilities of supervising children. Cocanougher (144) recommended that driver training 190 programs should be required of all districts which provide pupil transportation, and suggested that special insti tutes provided by the Highway Patrol could be implemented by local training meetings. Linn (20) stated that a school that has a regularly scheduled training program for new and old drivers usually gives sufficient attention to the importance of school bus driver training. Morphet (2 5) stated that, before a driver is per mitted to drive a bus, he should be given thorough driver training and should be tested for his competence to drive a bus. The supervisor of transportation should organize the program. Wickstrom (117) recommended use of workshops dealing with problems of the bus driver. He suggested that study should center on the vehicle code; driver rela tions with children, parents, and school personnel; psychophysical testing, and the like. Yarbrough (122) be lieved that one-day institutes for bus drivers were of value. Institute programs should center around first aid, information on laws, rules, and regulations governing traffic, care, and preventive maintenance of the school bus, transporting and unloading children, and the driver’s responsibility for the health and safety of the child. 191 Neyhart (92), Martin (82), Edgren (56), Winder (120), Hereford (66), and others have stressed the Impor tance of adequate induction procedures, training, and testing of drivers. Tate (168) reported that the organization of school bus driver training programs on a state-wide basis is a relatively recent development. The first one was estab lished in North Carolina in 1957* Minnesota, Illinois, and New Mexico began holding bus driver training programs in 1959. By 1946, thirty-two states had organized some form of state-wide training of bus drivers. New Mexico holds one-week institutes in the summer at New Mexico State College. Two courses are given. The basic course of twenty-five clock hours covers the following (100; 210; 8 2; 209): 1. Need for driver training. 2. Qualifications of a school bus driver. 5. Sound driving practices. 4. School bus standards. 5. Responsibilities of the school bus driver. 6. Keeping a sanitary bus. 192 7. Maintenance of equipment. 8. Rules and regulations governing school bus operation. The advanced course covers 36 clock hours and centers around attitudes and accident prevention. Ninety per cent of all drivers in the state have completed the basic course. This institute is followed by meetings of ten clock hours, consisting of County Association safety meet ings, District Association safety meetings, and State As sociation safety meetings. Iowa and Wisconsin follow the plan of one-day clinics for bus drivers during the months of August and September in various parts of the state. Attendance is required. In North Carolina (87; 6 9), 90 per cent of the drivers are high school students. Students are carefully selected and nominated for school bus driver training by the principals of the schools which need bus drivers. The state department of highways gives the instruction in a three-day training course. Two drivers are trained for each run. Full attendance of each applicant is required. The first day of instruction is given in the classroom 195 and covers traffic laws, safe driving procedure, sound driving practices, and other phases of safe transportation of pupils. Applicants must earn a score of 80 per cent on the final examination. The second day is given over to driving practice behind the wheel of a bus over a simu lated bus route. Step-by-step procedure in safe bus driver operation is taught. The third day is given over to additional driving practice and a special examination of driving ability. The driver's maneuvers and performance during the road test are closely evaluated and scored. Each applicant starts with 100 points, and mistakes are deducted on a weighted scale. The applicant fails if he scores below JO, Alabama (50) started a state-wide training of school bus drivers in 19^0. In 19^5 they instituted a program of furnishing the services of a full-time instruc tor, without cost to the local boards, for the training of school bus drivers. The course provided included twelve hours of classroom instruction and four hours of driving. The course was based on a handbook for school bus drivers and covered the following points: 1. The need for trained school bus drivers. 2. Qualifications of the skillful school bus driver. 5. Personal relationships and responsi bilities of the school bus driver. 4. Protecting the bus from abuse. 5. Understanding and maintaining the school bus mechanism. 6. School bus driving technics. 7. Characteristics of the skillful driver. 8. Recommendations for loading, unloading, and controlling children. 9. Don'ts for school bus drivers. 10. Tests for school bus drivers. Psychophysical tests are given to aid the driver in estimating his own ability to judge distances accu rately, react quickly, see objects to the right or left of his path ahead, and see at night when faced with glaring headlights. Some counties in Alabama require a one-week course of twenty hours instruction annually for all driv ers. The state of Michigan offers a program similar to that of Alabama, using much the same course content and 195 psychophysical testing program. The instructor is pro vided from the staff at a state college to county insti tutes for drivers in groups of twenty-five. A tuition of $10.00 per driver is charged. The driver receives a cer tificate upon completion of the driving course. A summer program is also offered each year to supervisors of school transportation from large school systems. The State De partment of Public Instruction views school bus driver in struction as essential to the total school transportation program. South Carolina (112) operates its programs of school bus driver training in cooperation with the Highway Patrol. Special trained officers direct three-day insti tutes and testing programs for all new drivers. Instruc tion includes classroom lessons and behind-the-wheel ex perience, with tests of skill and knowledge required at the conclusion in order to qualify for driving certifi cates. Texas (171:5* 6) suggests that two-day institutes be required of all drivers, or a series of Saturday meet ings for shorter periods of time, both arrangements cover ing the following items: 196 1. Authority and responsibility. 2. Qualifications of a school bus operator. 3. Driving procedures for bus operators. 4. First aid for school bus operators. 5. Procedures in case of accident. 6. Care and maintenance of the school bus. The state of New York (211:3) developed a manual for the training of school bus drivers. The course is divided into ten two-hour sessions, limited to classes of thirty-five drivers and covering the following units of study: 1. Responsibilities of the school bus driver. 2. The school bus driver's relationship to parents and pupils. 3. The school bus driver's relationship to school officials. 4. Administrative procedures of the school transportation program. 5. Driver qualifications— physical and psychophysical testing. 197 6. Driving skill. 7. Accidents, first aid, and school bus health and sanitation. 8. The care of the bus and a simple main tenance program. 9. Traffic laws, signs, and signals. 10. Driving skills in closed areas. The California State Department of Education (185:3^) recommended an in-service training program that allows for on-the-road practice in an empty bus; instruc tion concerning bus routes, bus stops, time schedules, and other phases of route service; study of local policies and regulations, including those involving pupils, parents and the general public; and training in the supervision of children. The program may be carried out in group con ferences, individual conferences, bulletins, visual aids and supervision on the bus route, but it must be contin uous. Importance is given to maintaining friendly rela tionships with all persons the drivers contact. Section 1081 of the California Administrative Code (1 8 5) requires every school bus driver to possess a valid first aid cer tificate within sixty days after.issuance of his bus 198 driver's certificate. Incentives Incentives planned for improvement of the school bus driver's performance have received only limited atten tion in the literature. Roper (101) offered recommenda tions for safe operation of school buses which stressed the importance of providing bus drivers the opportunity of winning a National Safety Council Driver Award. Certifi cates are often given upon satisfactory completion of training institutes (6 5). Roadeo-type field competition is recommended to contribute to highway safety, boost driver morale, and improve internal relations. Cassel (45), writing on problems of school bus operation, developed a nine-point program for assuring success. One of his major points of emphasis was the im portance of incentives and award3 for drivers. Recogni tion of safety achievement, he declared, provides incen tive for following good driving practice. Supervision and Evaluation Supervision and evaluation following adequate se lection and training of drivers will do much to insure the 199 safe, efficient, and economical transportation of pupils (16). The task of supervising the school bus program be comes much easier when rules and regulations governing school transportation are known to both students and driv ers ( 1 2 7). Galluzzo ( 1 5 1 writing on performance evalua tions of classified personnel, made the following recom mendation: 1. The following conditions are essential to the successful performance evaluation sys tem: (a) the purpose, procedure and the results of the performance evaluation must be understood by employees at all levels; (b) top management must actively support the plan; (c) the rating form must be sim ple and must be well planned; (d) specific instructions should be used on all rating forms; (e) raters should be trained so that as far as possible, each rater uses like measures in rating; (f) don't borrow someone else's form; (g) rate only those things which can be rated; (h) analyze each job to be rated to determine the im portant factors of the Job; then rate on the basis of those factors; (i) develop forms to meet your own needs; (j) do not include too many factors to be rated; ten items are sufficient; and (k) the ratings given each employee should be interpreted in light of such factors as age, education, health, etc. 2. Performance evaluation should be related to specific classes of work rather than to 200 personal habits. 5. Standards of performance should be estab lished as the criteria by which an indi vidual's performance be judged. Melbo's survey of the Phoenix Union High School and Phoenix College System (23:133-13^) recommended an objective, impersonal, and scientific method of rating, as opposed to the personal preferences and subjective errors that arise when employees are rated, oftentimes by the personal prejudices of the immediate superior. Since rat ing has value both for the individual and the school dis trict, it was recommended that the following procedures be used: 1. A rating form should be developed by the combined efforts of the noncer tificated employees and the adminis tration . 2. The rating form should not be the same as that used for certificated personnel. 3. Each employee should be rated annually by his immediate superior. 201 4. The employee should see the rating given him, and preferably should be present and participate in the rat ing . 5. The employee should sign the rating sheet. 6. The employee should be permitted to write any comments that he cares to make on the rating sheet after the rating is made. 7. The rating form should be filed in the employee's personnel folder. 8. From time to time the rating forms should be revised by representatives from the noncertificated staff and the administration. 9. Supervision and in-service training should be available, and prescribed, to correct weaknesses recorded in the rating form for any employee. Many studies and programs of driver training have pointed to the need for effective techniques of driver 202 supervision. The State Department of Public Instruction in Iowa pointed out that the successful administration of pupil transportation is dependent upon day-to-day super vision of the program (212). Uniforms Uniforms for bus drivers are being recommended in a great many school districts. Authorities (75; 50; 21), discussing the requirements for bus drivers, have indi cated that they should be neat and clean in appearance. Kingsley (156) recommended that each school dis trict develop standards and rules for school bus drivers' dress. Melbo, in a survey of the Antelope Valley Union High School district (22:505)» stated that bus drivers should wear uniforms. The district should provide caps equipped with bus drivers' badges. The use of uniforms increases the dignity and authority of the bus driver in dealing both with pupils and with the general public. The uniform also gives a semblance of authority to bus drivers when buses are unloading and motorists should stop. The uniforms may be inexpensive and should resemble an offi cer's uniform rather than that of a private chauffeur. 205 Dice (146:5), in developing a scoring card for evaluating school "bus transportation programs, assigned a weight of ten out of a possible 1200 points for drivers wearing uniforms. In his handbook on appearance of driv ers, he made the following statement: When reporting for duty, a driver must be dressed in the full uniform provided by the Board of Education, which must be clean and well pressed. His shoes must be shined and his person well kept. Special attention should be paid to trimmed hair and clean shaven face. New Mexico (210:20) gave instructions to school administrators concerning bus driver’s appearance, as fol lows: Each driver must be neat and clean in his appearance. It is recommended that each school bus driver wear a uniform of the fol lowing description: Color— forest green, con sisting of cap, shirt, trousers and tie, if worn, shall be black bow or four-in-hand. A felt emblem is recommended for each driver. Part-time Drivers School districts which do not have need for full time drivers have a difficult policy decision in hiring part-time drivers or in offering combination jobs for drivers. Linn (20:501-502) in a discussion of the problem analyzed the nature of the bus driver's job as follows: 204 Driving a school bus is a part-time job which usually requires three and one-half to four hours per day during the school year. The skills and competencies essential can be acquired in a relatively short period of training and experience if the driver has the proper attitude toward his work and the in nate ability to profit from training and ex perience. It must be recognized, therefore, that school bus driving is essentially a part-time job, and policy with regard to the employment and use of drivers should be shaped accordingly. A policy of employing drivers on a full time basis for this part-time work means high salary costs for the time and competency re quired . Morphet (25)> discussing the problem of securing an adequate supply of drivers, recognized that bus driving could be established as a part-time Job, particularly since the number of suitable adult men available to take the part-time job of driving a school bus is limited. Melbo's report of the survey of the Victor Valley Union High School Districts recognized the concept of es tablishing bus driving as a part-time job. The staff questioned seriously the efficiency and effectiveness of assigning bus drivers to odd-time help at custodial tasks and the like. They reported that many districts had had successful experience in employing men and women on a 205 part-time basis. Dice (146), in his survey of seventeen Southern California school districts, found that the school bus driver population for the districts consisted of 9.7 per cent teachers, 4.8 per cent students, 49.6 per cent part- time employees, and 55.8 per cent full-time employees. Findings of this study should not, however, be considered as a report of standard practice in California. Linn (20:505) suggested the hiring of women as drivers on a part-time employment basis, and indicated that women have been highly satisfactory in this service. He stated that women's records are somewhat better than those of male drivers in safety, handling the bus, pupil relations, and working with school authorities. He point ed out that, with adequate training and supervision, they may become one of the major resources for recruiting com petent part-time drivers. South Carolina (ll8) reported that 800 high school girls were driving buses daily, and that no child has ever been injured while in their custody. Girls have been driving in this state for twenty-five years. 206 Morphet (25) also reported that the safety record of women as drivers is better than that of men, and rec ommended their consideration as bus drivers. Ruegsegger (2) found that janitors were not favored as bus drivers, and that teachers were considered to be more valuable in the school rooms before and after school than they were as drivers of vehicles, according to the verbally-expressed opinions of most of the school men interviewed. Reeder summed up the points in favor of the teach er as driver: 1. It is more economical to the school district. 2. It increases the income of the teach ers, hence helps to secure a better teaching personnel. 5. It results in better supervision, and better discipline among the pupils. 4. It extends the teacher's opportunity to further the education of the pupils. Reeder also enumerated the disadvantages of having teachers as drivers: 207 1. An excellent teacher may be a poor driver. 2. It takes time and energy from the teacher which should be devoted to teaching duties. 3. It requires the teacher to arrive at school late and to leave immediately after school, thus preventing him from attending faculty meetings and performing other school work. Melbo (23) recommended the use of classified em ployees rather than teachers as bus drivers. The use of students as bus drivers continues to be a controversial question. Linn (20) reported that the most widespread use of students as drivers has occurred in the states of North Carolina, Virginia, and Alabama. In North Carolina, 80 per cent of the school buses are driven by high school students, whose accident rate has been lower than the adult drivers hired for the same work. They credit their success to careful selection of appli cants, rigid training, and close supervision. Insurance companies, however, regard the student driver as a poor 208 risk. A research report of the National Education Asso ciation (138) indicated that in some cases student drivers may prove quite satisfactory, but recommend that their em ployment should probably be the exception rather than the rule. This Association reported that it is generally con ceded that students tend to be less level-headed in emer gencies, that they are less able to maintain proper dis cipline on the bus, and that they are inclined to drive recklessly. It is interesting to note that in 1947 Belknap (40) opposed the use of student drivers; but, after close observation of the North Carolina program, wrote in 1949 (41) in favor of the use of high school pupils as bus drivers. Stone (ill) studied high school students' atti tudes toward student drivers in the state of Illinois and found that high school students favored student drivers if their selection was based on training, testing, and personal recommendations. Dice (l46) and Ruegsegger (2) both depreciated the value of student drivers in their score cards of evalua tion. Ruegsegger assigned points for each driver on the 209 following occupational basis: mechanics, 20; other, 15; janitor, 10; teacher, 10; and a student, 5. Dice assigned weights 20 for male drivers and 5 for females. Neither gave any credit for drivers under eighteen years of age; but they assigned 10 points to those eighteen to twenty; 20 to those twenty-one to thirty; 25 to those thirty-one to fifty-five; 10 to those fifty-six to sixty-five; and no score to those over sixty-five. Results of a Questionnaire Survey A field study was conducted in an attempt to ans wer the question: "What practices are being followed in the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California schools?" At the time of the ini tiation of this study no comprehensive research had been made in California to determine the procedures and prac tices of California schools in the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers. One study was under way in another state pertaining to that state only, but as yet has not been reported. Procedure The procedures followed In planning the question naire survey of California school districts which operate ten or more school buses, the development of the instru ment, the selection of the sample, the administration of the questionnaire, and the treatment of the data were described in Chapter I. The data were obtained from 115 replies received. Information About the District Numbers of pupils and buses. The first page of the questionnaire (see Appendix A) had to do with the num bers of pupils transported, buses operated, types of driv ers, and the use of recording devices. Responses are shown in Appendices D and E. It will be noted that the districts reported that 277*575 pupils were transported by 2,110 district-owned school buses; while 26,509 addi tional pupils were transported by 46l privately-owned school buses which also served the school districts. Of the district-owned school buses, 258 made use of recorder- type tachographs. 211 Personnel. Of the personnel who drove the buses In the school districts studied, 525 were classified as being full-time drivers, l,04l as part-time, 202 as sub stitutes, and 526 were described as doing other work in addition to driving the bus for the district. The percentage distribution gives approximately 25 per cent as full-time drivers, 50 per cent as part-time drivers, and 25 per cent as employed in combination jobs. Personnel by number of buses. Eight districts, each of which operated thirty or more buses, used approx imately 7 per cent of their drivers in combination jobs, 53 per cent in part-time employment, and 40 per cent as full-time drivers. Eighteen districts in the twenty-to- thirty-bus category used 15 per cent of their drivers in combination Jobs, 55 per cent in part-time employment and 30 per cent in full-time employment. Of the eighty-nine districts, each of which operated fewer than twenty buses, 32 per cent employed drivers in combination jobs, 46 per cent employed them as part-time drivers, and 22 per cent employed them as full-time drivers. Of the 386 contract drivers for private companies, only 47 were found in districts which operated fewer than 212 twenty buses, while 559 drivers were found in districts which operated thirty or more buses. Board and Administrative Transportation Policies In Table 6 are summarized certain accepted board and administrative transportation policies. In practice, 85 per cent of the districts reported that general poli cies had been adopted to cover transportation programs as part of their board policies; the same percentage had drawn up driver salary schedules. Nevertheless, 75 per cent reported the belief that the board should adopt more specific transportation policies. Eighty-three per cent of the districts reported that rules and regulations for drivers had been developed. Only one fourth (26 per cent) indicated that their policies covered a "new driver" In doctrination program. Only a small percentage indicated that they considered the policy of employing only "profes sional" drivers to be important, as may be seen in the five right-hand columns of Table 6, and in the full data exhibited in Appendices D and E. The administrators' evaluations of the importance of other listed practices indicated that from 55 to 85 per cent rated most of the H 0 H 8 A 8 H b < 0 z H WO 0 0 ) 0 f i A Z 0 « Oi I 0 1 ) H rl 0 A > 0 0 3 j H 0 0 w > H V 4 1 3 Hr) r l 3 A> 3 OH > b 4) 4 1 3 o II H 0 < H A 041 b 0 II rl A f l rl 0 H rl 0 4 1 A 0 rl db 041 HO 41H 00 4 1 bA 0 0 A 0 V O V Q O I C O H O I O I O in m m w i t oi in 4 O V 0 0 l 4 r l t O O o i 4 m o i o i m t n m oi4Hincovo\oN r i o i m m 4 o im i n o H A H 0 41 A 0 D A 0 H f l 0 bH OH 0 0 H 4 4 in m m o m s H 0 ■ 0 0 1 m in H o t - co m 21} 10 0 1 0 1 H H H ov m in io 0 0 H 0 O’ H C O H H m 0 H 01 0 1 0 0 H H H 10 N sn^j - n - O M O o j h h 4 m 4 co h c o ' o m o i o - ' o m co to h 4 0 - 4 0 H 01 H 1 B t b 0 b to 0 b B B • A 0 0 $ d • d 1 1) d 0 B 0 > 0 AH • U b H H > 0 b H b n H b 0 d 0 I A rl ' H H 0 3 0 b bH d 1 d 0 > 44 41 H 0 b P > b > b 0 P Ab 0 b 01 „ H H b 0 A d 0 IS H H 0 0 : 0H 0 4 B b 0 0 H H 0 b ■0 b > 0 H ' - ’ P d 1 ) fl A 0 B H A H 0 0 0 H b >1 0 B d 0 H d d a 0 A A b d P H B A 0 0 H 3 1 ) 0 H 0 rl H < S 0 b 0 H B d b 3 B A 4 1 b A A O B H H 0 H 0 0 0 3 P 0 4 1 to b B B A IS 0 0 A 0 B 0 > 0 A 4 1 to d 1 1 1 ) H H 3 0 • > 0 B H 0 b b d b > b 0 b o' 41 0 0 B A H A b b b 0 0 H 0 > H P 0 d 0 P 0 0 0 b 0 H A 41A H u • b H b 0 3 0 A H H & H B 0 1 4 0 g D H 0 0 t i t ) B H B • H b 0 ,0 0 d C b B U 0 > A b > 0 0 0 P H d 0 0 a a a 0 0 11 d S b H 3 P H A A 0 H 0 3 P 0 R p B B • b A O tl • 1 ) to b A H b B 0 rl A H t f p p B b 41 • O H b A d 0 0 ill 0 0 B P 3 0 P 0 P B 0 B 0 rl 41 1 ) 0 b d A 0 to P A 0 g 0 : H A • 0 W 0 0 0 0 0 n n a B H B B H 0 B H 0 rl H 1 b B d b 1 4 ^ rl H b b b b 0 b b b 0 b b 0 ll 0 B 0 1 0 3 0 (I 1 1 n 3 n 11 11 d 1 ) B 0 0 b 0 P 0 rl 0 d 0 4 tfl A fl > d > to d g . > 0 > 1 ) > > 0 H B B B B 0 a 0 b b B 0 o 0 it O H O H O H 0 0 0 0 h d 0 0 0 b rl H 3 d 0 d 0 0 tfl 0 1 4 041 O P O P 0 0 fl B Q 0 K 0 0 0 A B A 0 H 0 A O J m t 4 in V O 214 suggested policies as being "valuable" or "vital" to pupil transportation. On the other hand, only 50 per cent of the administrators thought it valuable or vital to consid er school bus driving as a part-time job. The policy of employing "professional" drivers was given the lowest rat ing by administrators of any listed policy, 15 to 25 per cent of them voting this aspect of pupil transportation to be valuable or vital. Recruitment Table 7 presents the responses concerning prac tices and viewpoints in the area of recruitment and pre- employment testing and training. It will be seen that 49 per cent of districts had developed some type of planned recruitment of school bus drivers, and that 6l per cent thought that an adequate supply of applicants was avail able. Eighty-four per cent of the districts indicated that they carried on pre-employment training of some sort. Eighty-six per cent provided for distribution of materials on school bus laws; 78 per cent provided for driver skill training and practice; 66 per cent provided for safety inspections of school buses; 22 per cent of the districts gave pre-employment training based on the needs of the in w ov 4 4 0 0 01 it is h c o in w h vo co oo H H 01 H H (M m 4 m 4 01 K\ K C O 0 01 n (\| 01 m 4 S n W lA 4 K 1 N 00 IA H H (II H IA 4 W WOIOIN 01 w IA A 01 0) 10 01 0 0 01 4 IA 10 V04HV0 H in 4 C O 4 H 4 10 vo vo 1 0 4 m in m ^ i o m in 4 0 1 0 1 0 1 4 4 01 10 S 1 0 4 0 1 4 0 1 4 0 0 H 0 h in h m 4 0 O O O C O t n 01 010IHH H 0 0 0 0 0 rl rl 01 * 0 n s h i a o i i a s 4 h 01 h v o o o i 4 to vo 10 co m 04 o i o n m 4 o i m 4 4 i A H H 4 v o vo m h o i vo co m co 0 s in o i o i h h 01 1 • 1 a 04 „ _ I I . U 8 P ft S « 0 0 0 S ktO U 0 0 A I 1 ) 4 1 £ 1 B 8 I ® ® ® H I h p s ® 0 0 0 u ® h a n 0 0 h h u ft S ft a ® h s ® 9 a 0 j 3 • p (h h o s ® u 0 l o i x m u fl U S " „ « fiii t f p • OX BH 8fl 3 E -U g n) h -H rl rl 0 i3 5 # o h ®® a ®p 3X p r i m s a ® > ® !» « • C o h 0 0 ® U® Wh fl 0 b ® 0 3® O i fttfl h U H H a n o m ®® P 3® E 8 > 8P k O Og E "0 ® ® S H m ® H H ft > H P P H 3 H H® 0 P bO 0 H rl " O S 5 0 0 P H rl P 0 ® m ® ® H S P 0 0 3 P ' 0 ® H s 8 0 ® E ®8 H 2 0 H *0 d » P bO 60 p ® H 0 0 0 O S n S po ®® op 0 • ® 0 S 31 r l ® 3H® H P j • > £ C 8 , H H H r l ® H ® P 8 E 0 OOOOHBBBXHUIftO 0 > £ f t S 3ao h t o E h f t p na®p® osx!sphjo®®s P" £0P 0 00 ® Mp d 8 fta 0 s 01) E 0 P P d d d M a s o p o 0 & 8 03 ' S O X X 3 P P S O P E S P 0 - S 8 O r l H S P O O P P O - O f t S rl 13 0 0 8 B H H P 8 0 BE SO S d O f i f t f i H X E f t E O H ® 0 Eft ' ® 4 £ ® 0 0 0 0 h fi h 8 ® r> i a ® ft ®®® P r i o o a a ^ s H ft 0 E 8 • a 0 a ■ JJ S -S 0 “* S t i 2 g SI i 0 0 E 0 OfcO IXI > Ej H P 3 a P H • P 0 S O a ft 3 S H U 5 3 5 L « f t X P i > H M S E P ® & ~ H o s u a d f l g H 0 0 8 H & 8 0 3 0 ® « 8 3 8 >> a d S H a 8 H 0 8 8 H ft 0 M H H E f i f t g f t , ! S 0 X H P 0 H 3 0 £ £ 8 U 1 H g o 8 ftSftO P H 3ft HO > MH HB P 8 0 0 H ® 0 8 H P f t O H 3 0 £ P E ® P ft P s H BOf t H H 10 • &ft ft (0 H H 8 8 ftp B OU H 8 0 0 P E ®f t U £ 0 H® H • • H 8 0 * H 8 ft P • HU 8 8 E •• 0 H S H E S H p E a P P U O H E O O j S f t g ® 0 4 8 P S 3 8 a m 3 0 S 8 S P S 8 S H8 U 8 S B U H 0 0 8 ® 0 3 U 8 S H £ P 0 8 8 0 0 B 8 £ 4 H I S S o h h 8 8 d S P a ® ft® o£ ® p T o p o b h r o ^ p o oh ® > o o h > oh e T o m o o o b t)S a o > o a > a s ® h s ® P 0 £ ® h m a f t o 3 E o a ® p h a h ®h ® B H n H S Z < 8 8 P 8 8 8 S S S S OH J H S® 0 S 8 3 S 8 8 ft H S S 0 0 0 0 0 m> Hfl O S 8 > H H H H 0 8 <H ft ftH H ft ft fl ft ft N t o o i o H t s m 4 in H H H H H H 216 individual; in 44 per cent of cases, pre-employment train ing consisted of less than ten hours of instruction. In 17 per cent of the districts, competitive examinations were given; in 3 per cent, hiring halls were used to lo cate drivers; newspapers were used as a recruiting medium by 4l per cent of the districts. From 4-5 to 75 per cent of the administrators indi cated approval of listed practices as being either valu able or vital to pupil transportation for all items other than (l) the use of competitive examination for selection of drivers, (2) the use of intelligence tests, and (3) personality and aptitude tests. One question elicited a wide diversity of response— that question pertained to planning for recruitment. In this matter, 46 per cent of administrators indicated the belief that it was desirable to plan for recruitment, while 19 per cent thought it valuable or vital to plan for recruitment on an annual basis, and 27 per cent that it should be planned only when a vacancy occurs. On the other hand, there were nearly equivalent numbers who thought that these practices were of little or no value. Employment Practices Table 8 indicates that the great majority of dis tricts desired to follow the legal requirements as the guide line with respect to age limits in hiring new driv ers. Experience in driving a truck or bus usually is not required. Interest in the education of the applicant ex tended largely to his ability to read and write well enough to do the job. Employment references and character references were checked in more than two thirds of the districts. One half the districts checked on the last three-to-five years of employment. References were check ed most frequently by telephone or letter. Three fourths of the districts used standard forms for the employment process. Most districts used standardized application forms. More than four fifths of the districts used an informal interview as a basis for employment. Administrators1 responses gave ratings of vital or valuable by from 45 to 74 per cent of respondents for most of the listed items (see also data presented in Appendices D and E). The largest percentages of negative responses were given to the following policies: (l) setting a max imum or minimum age for first employment, (2) requiring J ^ c , ^ g - e e q .n q .- E Q - s q .n e s t b sa aA T ^ Q • gg 1 0 V I tO H M O > P iC O 10 V jJ ctp 3 ppj o ct mg t t w pb H P 0 H I H . . 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P ft ft H H P P P P O ® HP O P O P P H < 0 ft P f t f t P 0 ftO • ct 0 P P \t 0 3 o^oco p 1 0 0 1 p 0 \ 1 0 0 3 Pi (N pop t p p p ftp H ft ft ct 0 p 0 ct P H ct 0 H 3 § HlOfc 0 3 S S -ft C O £ t t V 1 0 VIVI1 0 H 0 a 0 \ W £ 0 to I P P o v o v 3 ® ct p 0 B P # 3 0 0 P 0 0 PIN ft P ct O P ct OPP-3 H ft P H 0 ft P 0 V ^ < 4 H P 0 0 P < < < ! P 0 f t H 3 ® P P B P P P X PW 0 0 0 P P H H 0 P P 0 0 0® » s H ct P ct p p 0 K H 1 0 H f . p \ 0 S P 1 0 s T J C t H 3 3 0 P p X Ct H • 3 1 0 V V V IO P V £ 1 0 0 3 H 0 1 I lOMIOC 0 to V F O B 3 0 » PJ Ct 0 H P O O P 0 4 0 p t t H P B C t p % HO <!W 0 H H ct » H ct 0 < to HH 0 0 DISTRICT PRACTICES AND ADMINISTRATIVE OPINIONS CONCERNING HIRING PRACTICES 219 pre-employment driving experience with a truck or bus, and (3) starting new drivers as substitutes. Post-employment Testing, Induction, and Training Table 9 shows percentages of responses concerning post-employment practices. It will be seen that physical examinations are more thorough than is legally required in about one third of the districts, and that these exam inations are required annually of all drivers. Additional requirements pertaining to the age of the driver were added to legal minimums in only a few districts. All dis tricts reported that psychophysical examinations were given, but fewer than 20 per cent of the districts made special provisions for this type of testing. Two thirds of the districts conducted planned programs of induction. Three fourths issued manuals, bulletins, and handbooks to new drivers. There was a general practice of working with the driver and discussing with him all phases of his job and his relationship to the school, but only one fourth of the districts attached any importance to an award or recognition program for the driver. Eighty-five per cent of induction programs were completed in less than ten a 1 1D u o II 3 10 0 1 ) ft 3 B. H O h 0 f t 0 4 3 f i 1 ) I I V 0 H b03 ID id f l f t I 3 H I H rl pfl > 1 0 (D 3 o i d w > r l 1 ) P 3 P H rl (0 S 0 H Z (0 > B P 43 f i 0 0) rl Oft 3 OP 3 10 0 rl C M 0 220 s 0 0 A ^ A rl K\ rl rl 0 Orf s M W W H H H 4 H A W 4 0 in 4 S CO COS A H H I D 4 m aw m oim 4 W4 A 014 cvi o\ w o i i n n h a oi o h a a oi 01 01 A 01 H A AW WAA 4 A CO O CO S A S 10 0 0 A A A 0 0 4 A A 4 A 4 4 4 A 4 4 4 4 A A O W A S O A AIH COAOI S C O W W A W A 4 W W W W W W H H H H 0 rl4 W 0 WO AHO 0 0 0 0 0 HHO 0 OH 0 0 0 0 0 W 00 0- HCO W4 A A CO H A 0 A 0 A H 0- 4 CO H W A S S 0 3 p 0 B e , 9 ! i M 0 H 3 o 3 H B H a , o id B B H M w o P 0 1 H id h P P M B o o B H B 0 3 H £ id f t O B 3 b B H X P • f t f l (d 0 B 0 3 O P •i E h H > B B M l( rl 0 0 f i o n g O H H B 0 H P n o 3 P 0 fc P H 0 0 id $ B X 3 ft 0 A 3 ( 3 S W 0 0 B * 1 1 0 fi 3 •> B B H B S id H B 3 0 fi 0 id H 0 H 0 H b O O H O 0 0 H 4 id o ft H id H P 0 H H 0 P B id P 0 fi 0 >i 0 fi 1 0 P B > 1 3 id id id 0 B ft H 3 0 P H 3 0 fi O P E P P 0 ft B H 0 H 3 B 0 0 B 0 > C 0 0 Id *3 B 6 rl B 0 ft H H H H P 3 H 3 o o 0 0 id H 3 B fi ! > > B X il H B g 3 0 B 0 0 fi H id o id * 0 > 3 B B B B Id H B 3 f i ~ 0 0 4 t 3 S 3 id 3 1 id 0 A O HP) 0 • 3 3 B 0 b O 4 0 0 B O H B 3 id A A B (d'-'H 0 H ft OP 0 B fi B ft • B E 3 f i 0 B P 3 0 0 3 H H B >jH 0 0 fi B 0 0 0 H H O A 0 0 ft id o 0 B 0 ido 0 > id 0 M M b O B • > ? fi id i 3 P 3 'n 3 H B id id id >1 B i 3 id 0 B 0 fi 0 0 1 H O 3 0 3 45 B O f t P 3 0 0 o i l B H B x id o o o o o 3 3 3 ft > 0 B B O P H s E o id 3 ■ 0 3 3 > 3 0 0 0 O H 0 id £ 0 0 B fi fi 0 id 3 P 3 H H H H H P P P B bOO £ 3 fi H 3 H id OB 0 B 0 3 H 3 3 3 3 3 ft 0 H f i ) >>0 f i 3 B H H 3 0 0 > ID fi tf Id A O A <<< >)0 0 0 H ft 3 P 0 ft S 5 3 OH B O O 0 0 B 3H 3 fi H P B 0 P B 3 0 > « K (S ft id ft n 0 ft < < HB W P 0 00 A I 0 rl w W A A I OH 43 B EH f i 3ft o 14 0 ft 3 MB B 0 0 (D 1 1 rl 3 3 3 ft f t H i ( 1 1 T J 0 BOB 3 OM 0 HO 0 P H H ftp >i fi E H P bio 1 4 0 0 0 f t 0 003 0 B 0 BP B H 3 3 3 P 0 3-0 0 l B 0 H P 0 rl 0 3 o o» 3 A P , B 3 0 0 3 44 0 H OH ■ 0 f t f i B 3 B HO fc 0 ftp A P BH 3 » 0 0 B P H 0 fiB 44 0 id 0 ft3 OP 0 H P P 0 OH B P 3 0 3 H P O id OP > id fi 3 H ft P CJH Id O E O fl 0 3fi 0 , 0 fi Oft i 3 f i f t 0 O 3 3 3 3 B O P H 3 3 A 0 id H 3 bOO 3 ftbO 3 > >>0 3 BH O O H P H BO OH H 3 3 0 H 3 H B H H ft 3 H l d B B B B f t B B B ^ H O t ] id S B H 3 3 3 3 B 3 f l < H B f f l f t f f l 2 0 f t o 3 SB A A 4 4 W AAOI A 10-4 AH(0 A C O 03 COWS CO S S SACO 00 A W C O l i f t id 0 • 0 3 B 0 # 0 > B B IQ H H OH 3 P 3 A O 0 0 id i i t o h f t i 3 B o o o OH B B > 3 OH H 0 H 0 3 > B U B 0 3 3 B P 0 0 0 B O A „ - PH P 0 3 P PB 0 0 OB > Id >H 0 H 3 id idB Oft WSP w A A A i n w V O rl in o v N N H rl 0 in rl 4 O J 0 v o h in in 4 o i o - m in rl 0 1 rl m w s m c o m 4 v o 4 n n v o 0 1 4 rl N 0 N in 4 W 4 0 1 0 1 0 1 H 0 1 oi o n n o H ov nmri N in 01 00 S 0 N I 0 N 4 S C O rl H 0 m o i v o n r l r l VO H H nominal n i n n h h d « .• ID f l o so .fiO rl P H fl « - ood d d $ o o f l H P P H (J f i ah H t) i a d a d a M I c H •• a 0 d d tfl d fifii fi I D tj d p fl fi fi p H d A H fl > to fi H P 0 P f in fl fi fi a P to d % d fl • d H H tfl d fl d d 0 f lf l fl d fi ft fi A H £ d d H d 0 H H H £ d fi > P f lf tH d id a P 3 • fl rl H 0 fi O P t f d H d fl fl S 0 3 d d a (D fi 1 1 p d A fi ft S o fl a 1 3 A H £ 0 A £ • £ • H f l f l P A C d f tf i 3 d s to fl 3 H fl fl 0 3 H 0 f lfl d d d fl £ d fl d tfl H P 0 d (DM® d P tOH Afl fl d fi ID d d 0 0 ID OP H d d H ftd fl P 0 a Afl fl d d P d 0 d p d 0 a boo fiftfi a H A d 0 fi a < 0 fl A d A > a a m d B 0 fl d 3 d £ d d fi 0 Aft fi H a a A d a A fi d fl fl d P H ft a S •• S S s fi 0 0 tfl a a a fi fi fi > a d o o 3 P O M > d • fid fi H fl H S a 1 d d d d 3 0 0 3 d o d d d OH fi H fi £ H 0 P d H S d (S H to d a fl S a a fi fi o d d d tfl o d p H d H d f t f i 0 fi flfl fi A rl d H fi fi Afl fi ft a H o o d p d o o d fl fl fl d d fl fl d H d d P d fi fl| H H d H fl d d d n o d 0 4 0 0 d P d H d M ft d H fi P d 0 fi |I) P 3 > a p p o .. W H i n d A t o U a * « d ID H # 0 a d d H tOd C (DH Ci 3 A tfl H P to fi £ to 4 C0H 1 1 A H n 0 0 0 H 0 d H ID d 0 fi 1 0 d d o fi s 2 + > ® fl d fi C rl S H fl I T 1 C M in 0 b H n o i 4 S O O P 4 P ft 4 O i 0 0 03 fi 2 0 & 4 0 2 d P OH £l H H 4 t D ' H H g in V O S C O 0V 0 H 01 in in in n m in 4 4 4 4 rl A d d H P ID 0 A i t P f t d f t 1 1 a d dp o 3 f t o p s§ 4 4 hours. Ninety-eight per cent reportedly gave the driver a chance to practice maneuvering his bus; and in more than four fifths of districts the driver was instructed on the care, maintenance, and inspection of the bus. At the same time, only about one third of the districts had what could be described as a planned and scheduled program of driver training and education. These districts required drivers to take part in driver training programs. Two thirds of the districts carried on training meetings during the reg ular work day. One sixth of the districts that carried on driver training programs provided more than twelve hours of training a year for their drivers. Drivers were usually not paid for attending meetings outside the regu lar working day, slightly more than 10 per cent of the districts paying them for attendance on their own time. The administrators1 lowest ratings in this area were given to the two items: (l) more extensive physical examination, and (2) planned driver training programs. They placed the greatest emphasis on the induction pro gram, rating it as valuable or vital in from 68 to per cent of districts. Least value (40 per cent of responses) was attached to a program of awards and recognition. 2 2 3 Incentive Programs, Supervision, and Evaluation Table 10 presents the responses of administrators concerning incentive programs, supervision, and evalua tion. Slightly more than one third of the districts have a planned incentive program and these consisted largely of participation in the "bus roadeo," annual safety awards and publicity in local papers. Three fourths of the dis tricts indicated that they used a supervisor at times to ride the buses. More than two thirds of the districts used this method when problems arose; in more than 40 per cent of districts supervisors ride when drivers least ex pect this kind of supervision. More than half of the dis tricts used a supervisory technique of following the buses in another car to observe performance. About one fourth of the districts made use of a formal check-sheet in eval uating the driver during these periods of observation. Some 40 per cent of the districts carried on formal eval uation of the driver, and in all cases the driver is aware of how he is being evaluated. In most districts the rat ing is discussed with the driver by the rater. The rating is generally regular and routine. In more than half of H a 01 S f l A A A 30 01 p H 0 1 H H > < “ 011 1 00 fl H I C ffl H H A s s a a A A A \k W 4 H A A A A 30 flS on ftiH l A \ S 8 3 01 A ASCII A A 30 H S H A A A A A 30 A H 0 fl HO n 3 0 P flfl 0 00 H 0 flo p 3 to P H 0 A 0 A A A A H f l f l H f l H 0 0 D j * > H H W 0 3 0 H H 0 40 0 0 1 30 W 0 Z f l 3 P 43 f l 0 H I rl 0 < t H f l . 0 4 3 f l a H I rl IA -0 «,§ Mrl 043 fl fl IA 3 rl > > H H 43 f l f l H I fl 0 f l H f l 0 h r ! 0 ffl rl 10 3 H I f l A 43 3 001 IA 4 30 A H C O H 01 S C O S H S H 400 0IA S A W A H H Old HH 4 0 01 4 4 4 01A 0 0 - A A 4 4 01H S O O S A 01 H 010101H 01 A H 01 H 01 HOI HOI 01 H 0 A O l f l S A r l A 0110 4(000 SCO S H 01H A S S A 4 A S S A SACOACO A A A A SCO 01 A 01 O O H 4 4 0 O I H H H A 0 01 A O O A O H O O O O H O 0 H H H 0 4 O H H A H 4 224 A H A 0 4 A 4 01A S 4 0 4 4 S A S 0 1 A 4 4 A A H A 4 A 01 S A A A A AW H A S H A 4 A 01 4 A H A A A A H W 4 H A H 01 A A W 01 01H C > i f l 0 43 0 H H I fl 43 (fl 0 f l AM f t f f l : rl 0 H H rl 43 f l 0 I fl H I . Aft I 3 3 0 0 rl c •H k 43 H 0 rl H I) a > rl 43 f l 1 f l 1 IT) H I fl H I H I 3 H I fl 0 H ) f l f l f l f l f l 0 flfl 3 0 3 3 C 3 ft H E H 3 H H fl H fl fl O ft 0 0 A 0 ft flH 3 flfl 3 < ft H H H H A 4 1 1 ft f f l a 0 H fl 0 0 * 0 3 a fl 3 fl ft 0 3 ffl 0 0 0 H rl ft ffl P f f l A ! A fl 3 0 3 f f l 0 fl £ ft 0 ffl 0 fl 3 0 3 H 0 ft fl flH ffl fl 3 a X ffl 0 fl H 0 ft H 0 P tfl 3 0 fl 0 fl fl 0 3 f f l A A ft 0 H 0 0 0 f f l AS ffl fl H ft ffl £ fl ffl 0 0 0 P H 0 0 3 H ffl 3 fl fl ft H H H H • 3 H 3 • Oft 0 fl fl H fl fl fl 0 ffl fl H fl flft fl 0 0 fl flH 0 0 0 3 3 ffl fl ft ffl >) ffl fl 0 H H H 0 HA fl H 0 fl 3 ftflfl 3 0 3 H H ft fl fl 3,3 fl 0 fl 3 3 O O P 0 £ ft 0 0 flH 0 a f l fl 0 3 3 P 3 3 0 0 fl 01 o S S W fl fl WH ft 0 A S C O 01 30 30 4 30 l l f l 3 H ) fl ft 3 0 t f 0 f t f f l ^ 0 0 0 P £ M f l fl i 43 3 0 Oil ft ffl fl ft ffl 0 3 0 OH fl S fl ffl ft 0 OH H 0 0 f t 0 f f l n f l 4 3 3i 0 H I Ss ' H 0 fl f i f t '- ' f l f l H H • (3 4 3 3 kflrl 0 fl 0 C fl 43 H H 3 0 43 0 b O 43 tf ffl fl f l «H f f l H fl 1 C H 0 43 • >>0 H flfl 43 43 H 3! 43 0 0 H H 43 0 3 ft® fl 43 fl 0 fl ft 3 fl ft 3 H 0 ( 0 43 0 3! 0 H 43 C 0 H fl J3 0 43 43 fl A 43 ffl fl fl 0 H fl 43 0 0 | 0 0 fl ft A S H ft 0 0 0 0 3 0 ft fl fl 0 f l 0 fl fl fl flH 0 0 0 0 0 > f t p n 4 3 H fl H 0 ffl A 43 0 > £ fl f t f f l f t f l 0 0 3 H 0ft43 H £ 0 ft 0 43 H 0 3 fl 0 < cwtift flfl 0 0 0 c OH 0 4 3 f f l f f l f t 1 1 1 ft fl 0 43 ffl ffl 0 OH ft “ ft ft ft fl £ H fl f t 0 £ Oft fl 0 flfl ft 0 f f l rj 43 fl S o 3 S ft 0 MH S 3 k O fl 0 0 £ 3>0fl 3 flH flHH fl 4 43 0 0 ftffl 3 fl H 3 £ H fl ffl 3 H 0 I AHW43 M H 0 fl 3 flft 3 S 3 >H fl flH 0 H 0ft 0 flP W f l f l fl 0 D C D C I 43 H f l S f l H H U (043 f l f l f l t t H H 0 fl , P P S H H ' ' P m f f l f l f l 0 f l f f l f t M 3)0 « 3 f l 0 3) rl H f l I so afl p n flft 0 a H H fl g ft fl H 3>H fl 3ift 0 fl bO 0 H flfl > fl fl > MH M C 0 flrl 0 3>HH fl fl 3 fl 3 0 fl 3 fl fl H 0 H f l H P ' O H S ‘ ‘ T l 225 the districts, violation tickets and accident reports are considered important parts of the driver's evaluation. In only 1 8 per cent of districts was the rating confined to a verbal evaluation. Districts which formalize their ratings preferred an annual rating system. The administrators, although they did not strongly support an incentive program, nevertheless did not give it a negative rating. With respect to the listed techniques of supervision, most were rated as being valuable or vital by from 57 per cent to 64 per cent of the administrators. The lowest ratings were given to (l) allowing for a plan ned schedule of riding on the bus by the supervisor, (2) following the bus in another car, and (5) riding the bus when least expected. Fifty-five per cent of the adminis trators felt that formal evaluation of the bus driver was valuable or vital, only one giving such evaluation a neg ative vote. Among techniques of evaluation, the lowest ratings were given to the methods of evaluating bi-annually and rating verbally. Only 10 per cent of the administra tors thought verbal rating to be valuable or vital. Uniforms Table 11 exhibits the administrators' responses concerning the wearing of uniforms by bus drivers. Fewer than half (42 per cent) of districts requested or required their drivers to wear some sort of uniform. The adminis trators in approximately the same percentage felt that the wearing of uniforms was valuable or vital to the pupil transportation program. Approximately one fourth of the uniforms were provided by the district, the other three fourths being provided by the drivers. In evaluating the practice of wearing the uniform, the administrators rated listed practices valuable or vital in from 5 6 to 55 per cent of the responses. Only 5 per cent of the administra tors thought that there was little relationship between the uniform and its influence on the behavior of the pupils; 8 per cent believed that the uniform was of little value for this purpose. Persons Employed to Drive Buses Table 12 indicates that many categories of persons are employed as bus drivers in the respondent school dis tricts. Approximately half of the districts reported that women drivers were employed, and only one in five reported I T A B L E X X D I S T R I C T P R A C T I C E A N D A D M I N I S T R A T I V E O P I N I O N O P T H E U S E O P U N I F O R M S Practices and Viewpoints Concerning Uniforms for Drivers Per cent of districts Degree of Importance (Per cent of Responses) N o value Little value Some value Valu able Vital 50. Drivers are required or re quested to wear a uniform. 42 48 56 Uniforms are provided by the district. Provided by the driver. Specifications set "by the district. 12 53 14 Specifications agreed upon among drivers. District provides bus driver identification patches and/or emblems. 31 24 51• Uniforms are an influence in controlling pupils. 45 39 7 52. Uniforms aid drivers in critical moments of acci dents in dealing with the public. 59 30 53. Uniforms add a business-like air to the bus operation. 43 47 ro ro U s U l f f u u u £ fltj 0 9 >s 0 ct d > M MM > s 0 3 0 > M 0 B 0 0 > > M > £ 0 3 0 3 0 H 3 H 3 0 P P 3 2 3 ft H 0 H 3 0 3 0 H 3 H H 3 3 P 3 0 H 3 H o p o p o o 3 f t o h m 0 3 £ 4 4 ID P ID B P 3 3 ® 3 f t B 0 B fl B 0 3 4 0 0 fl 3 P B HB AB HOfl s 3 ct 0 ct O H O O O O X fl ct 0 3 0 3 0 0 X 3 3 ft 3 AO 3 0 fl S X B 3 0 3 3 3 3 H 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 H 3 3 3 3 (P ft 3 3 H 3 0 3 H 3 3 0 3 3f l 3 3 3 H 3 H H P £ 4 H U H 3 ® S ‘ P P 3 P £ 4 H 0 H 3 3 3 P £ 4 H 3 H 0 3 0 P HP H £ ftH U H 3 3 3 3 0 It |D n g 3 0 0 0 0 0 o a 3 3 ■ 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 P H • 3 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 p f t 3 f l 3 HO 3 0 0 0 a h 4 ct 3 ct o • ftO 0 ft H 3 3 B 3 0 0 ft H 3 3 B 3 H 0 B P 0 S f t B H H 3 3 3 3 C t (t ID H H « H P 3 3 0 HID HO 0 H B 3 H ® < 4 3 0 0 • H 4 1 ctp 0 3 3 • 3 0 0 <4 3 3 3 • 3 0 8 4 8 3 • 3 fl 0 B £ • 3 3 3 0 3 0 » 3 HO ct H 0 3 3 • 0 0 H 0 fl 3 3 0 3 H 0 o 3 3 3 H 0 3 H 3 ® 3 P O ct ct • ct 3 0 fl 3 3 3 3 0 Ofl a f t 3 3 0 3 fl 0 4 3 • 3 3 B 0 fl 0 9 H 3 0 H H 3 0 3 H HH 3 0 H HO 3 i 0 H 3 3 H® p 0 3 0 ID u A P 0 3 0 B O B p 0 3 3 0 0 B B u B 0 0 * to 0 P 3 0 § ■ *4 0 0 3 0 3«< 3 0 3 0 5 3 <4 3 • 0 3 0 i *4 3 3 0 ID P 3 H 3 0 3 B P • 0 3 0 H B 3 P 3 3 0 B • ct p H 0 ct 3 H 0 3 3 H H 0 3 3 B P 0 3 3 S L * 1 ct 3 ft C t fl 3 1 3 3 ft o 3 fl P 3 3 ft U HO 3 3 3 ft £ 0 0 3 3 0 to 0 3 0 3 3 0 B 0 3 H 3 0 B U C 3 3 0 3 0 B 0 0 0 0 H p 0 H 0 H u 3 0 0 H 0 3 0 0 H 3 0 0 3 3 H ct 0 3 fl 3 3 H 3 0 3 0 3 H 3 3 H P 3 fl 3 H 3 0 A 3 A B H 3 3 H HO ID H 3 3<~> H 0 B H 3 • 0 fl H H B H 3 3 A ® 3 0 0 0 H 3 0 • 0 0 3 3 0 3 fl 0 H 3 0 0 fl 3 OP) 3 3 3 H U OP) 3 3 3 fl OP) 3 H 3 H 0 PI 3 fl 0 3 0 3 I D 0 3 3 H 3 0 H • 3 0 c tp • fl P 0 3 fl P 0 H fl P 0 0 0 3 HO 0 to A 0 • 0 c I D 3 0 0 p B H 8 p 4 ct fl 0 3 P A 3 (Q fl H 3 3 0 H H 3 0 H 3 B 0 H 0 3 3 o H 3 H H 3 H H Pi B 0 0 B * B B 3 0 fl I D 1 • 5 fl B 1 • 0 1 s 0 S H B WH s HM H £ £ I 03 I 00 S 0 ff C O £ 0 0 S UU ff U f f N U O £ f f S 1 0 U S N £ W £ W H 10 U Uto r o HH W £ N £ H £ 030 I £ S S U £ U S U H H H 10 ID U ff H U O W S S p U H £ £10 U £ H W U U 1010 10 H £ WU £ UW H 101010 £ 10 H U 10 £ 0 £ f f £ ff SOff U S 00U 03 U H S £ U C O U U U O S ff H £ £10 £ 0003 0 00 10 [OH 0 £0 £ff 0 H U H £ U H 03 S N U H S 03 S H £ 10 H O W S H O f f S U U W U U H £ U £ H H H 10 £ 0 0 ffW U H £ H H ff £ H ffSSU u w s u H 10 H H S COW £ ff ff W U MO 0 3 0 1 o U * 1. Hfl 4H It 0 IS f t 1 0 H 0 o l ] ct 0 3 40 H 0 0 3 ct ft b o o 3 0 HO HB < 4 t* 0 3 " S < t f l S ! ( q t t i s b « z a a ) 229 that they had found them to be harder on equipment than other employees. Sixty per cent of the districts using women drivers recommended them for such a job, either "fre quently" or "always." Seventy-eight per cent of the same districts indicated that women "frequently" or "always" worked well in controlling pupils. Housewives made up the great majority of the women drivers who do part-time driv ing. About one third of the district had experienced dif ficulty in hiring women for this job, while 60 per cent indicated little difficulty. Some 28 per cent of districts reported that junior college or college students were employed as drivers. About half of the districts recommended them as drivers frequently or always. One fourth of the administrators indicated that student drivers frequently were harder on equipment than were other drivers. Absenteeism and con flicts with personal and school schedules proved to be a problem with this group more than any other category of driver-employees. About one fourth of the districts (22 per cent) have at times used teachers as drivers. About one half of the administrators in districts which followed this 230 practice indicated that driving the school bus frequently or always conflicted with the teacher's duties. In only one fourth of the districts which used teachers as drivers would they frequently or always recommend the use of teachers as school bus drivers. In fact, 20 per cent of the administrators felt it was always a poor practice to use teachers to drive buses. Part-time Drivers, and Those with Combination Jobs It was desired to determine the full-time versus part-time status of the driver's job and, in making maxi mum utilization of the driver's time, whether he was hired on a part-time basis or on a combination-job basis. Ad ministrators' responses are given in Table 13. About two fifths (43 per cent) hired bus drivers on a part-time basis, 54 per cent declaring that part-time drivers were never hired. Reasons given were rather inconclusive. More than two thirds of the districts reported that bus drivers were hired on a "combination-job" basis, bus drivers also filling other jobs at the same time. Of the total group more than two fifths (42 per cent) always followed the practice of providing combination jobs at a 231 a H f l 0 rl >i BH fl H 0 1 1 0 o P P f i 0 II rl 0 V i f l OP fl B 0 ) rl H i d u 4 ) 0 OH S3 H BOB P g f l eon) HO > 0 H f l f l H f l DH P B • A PO Bflb 1 ) f l Oh ! S fl H f l f t A 4 ft N 01 H 30 03 0 0 1 0 1 a 4 co i n B fl f t • i i f l o h« f l OP rl B DH f l 4 rl 0 A H H a a in 4 4 co 4 m w in 4 o- io w 4 rl rl 4 rl m 0 fi fl 0 r) s B ,!< 2 ! P a g f l 0 H B * ii P 0 P 1 H B f l P rl H f l f l f t f l f l 0 B IftP 0 H ft B r) H 0 ft C l h h fl 0 ft OP 0 g B rl 0 H H I c 1 I P P h M3 bg i 0 f lg B Mr! a P E p flH f l 0 h H 3 0 0 0 O H h B f i flH rl B 4 1 S BH B * > B B P B B B f l h !»flH f l flH fl B f t in o j H 4 A 0 H H 0 3 1 0 H in o A 0 A 03 0 1 t - 0 A rl A 0 1 4 A H rl A A 01 A A 01 A 03 b O J S O J A 0 1 0 A S 0 1 A 03 H H A A O J 01 C O 0 1 S CO 01 A A A 03 A A H H H 03 CO A H P fl fl 1 1 1 S P B 1 B 3 h 3 ft H 3 B M fl !»0 0 0 3 fl fl fl C P P !» fl B 1 1 0 H H B fl H'-' 1) fl rl P fl > H h H P 0 ) p B P a 0 fl B rl 0 C B AM h * a b O 0 0 a fl P Bfl !»fl 0 fl h fl 0 a 0 fl fl 3 0 P H 1 1 0 B 0 fl n o 1 1 0 "rj > S > 0 p 0 B B H H fl H P H fl a 4 ) B flP O flfl 1 1 fl H fl 0 B S 1 fl 1) B H C P flfl fl fl H P 0 0 H 1 1 fl 0 h fl 0 P 0 fl p 0 > fi P H h fl O h fl i) fl) fl B 0 0 i O h B >i 0 Afl ftO rl fl fl B H P fl 1 1 3 P 3 n rl B fl 1 1 B BH 0 4 P B B B fl B 1 1 fl B H rl H fl fl > > fl 1 ) B H P fl P B B | fl H fl h 111) fl Ofl H 0 P H B P 0 1) fl B flfl fl E H • fl 0 (I C O rl S A P 0 0 P 0 fl B B 0 p fl'"' f l f l ^ B P fl M P P A H h fl B h P B P P 1 1 f l 1 ) 0 0 B B 0 0 f> > 0 4! fl Bfl fl o f l fl E flfl B B !» H n h > > B fl 1 1 flP 1) H BO 0 P 3 fl B fl fl flfl B 0 I 1 1 | H 0 H rj 0 C B B 1 1 b fi s El > * 8 h B fl ft fl P > B 1 1 0 rl H BA H fl fl H fl fl CH 0 ft 0 0 BH H flH B B B 0 f l O h 3 fl 0 3 0 flH 3 fl > 3 fl fl t i P to to fl n H P O n O S ’! 0 B fl B 0 0 S f l Ei 03 A 232 driver's salary. Sixty per cent of the administrators be lieved this system to be an efficient employment practice, either "frequently" or "always." At the same time, how ever, only 40 per cent recommended this as a good practice for acquiring drivers. In more than half of the districts it was found that one job takes preference over the other; and one third of the administrators indicated their belief that the drivers frequently or always disliked the other job. One in ten administrators indicated that conflicts of authority frequently arose between the driver's supe rior and the superior in charge of the supplementary job. Chapter Summary This chapter reported the results of a two-fold investigation of the procedures in the selection, train ing, and evaluation of school bus drivers: (l) as re ported in the literature, and (2) as ascertained from a questionnaire survey of current practices and viewpoints in selected school districts of California. 233 Findings from the Literature The literature placed great emphasis on the need for definitive and detailed board policies for the opera tion of the pupil transportation program. Generally rec ommended was the adoption of a comprehensive set of rules, regulations, and policies applicable to students, classi fied employees, administrators, and the school district in their relationships and interrelationships to the transportation program. It is a generally-accepted principle that schools should carry on a vigorous program of recruitment to at tract candidates with ability and good character. The final selection of drivers, it is thought,.should be solely on a basis of merit. The best drivers were found to be between the ages of thirty and sixty-five. The lit erature recommended a lower limit of twenty-one. Most writers recommended that a driver be "experienced," and preference should be shown to those who have driven com mercial vehicles. The driver's character and personality are consid ered important to his potential success on the job; for this reason, many authorities in the field of school bus 234 transportation stress the need for thorough investigation and pre-employment testing of applicants. The pre-employment physical examination is receiv ing an increasing amount of consideration. Of the thirty- two states which require a physical examination, most re quire it on an annual basis. Some states now require or advocate semi-annual physical examinations for drivers over age fifty-five. A majority of authorities recommended a pre- employment examination, both written and/or oral, covering traffic laws and regulations of the state as they pertain to pupil transportation; local conditions of travel; and a road test using the same type of equipment the applicant would operate on his bus route. Some studies have re ported success in using a personality and attitude inven tory as part of the selection procedure. The use of a basic intelligence test and an oral interview has become rather universally accepted. Most studies stressed the importance of an ade quate system of personnel records, and the necessity for a standardized job description, application form, employee reference form, character reference form, and an interview 235 check sheet. A planned program of induction for the driver is considered essential; it should cover the daily routine, employee benefits and service programs, district policies and procedures, and the main objectives of the driver's job. Some of the more carefully planned programs of induction were reported to cover a two-weeks' interval. Authorities attached importance to training and testing after employment. Thirty-two states now have state-directed training programs to supplement local ef forts. The National Safety Council and other organiza tions have recommended an incentive program for improving driving. Incentives should consist primarily in recogni tion of the bus driver for his performance, rather than in awards of monetary value. The importance of supervision and evaluation fol lowing adequate selection and training were stressed throughout the literature. Objective, impersonal, scien tific methods of rating on a periodic basis were recom mended, as well as day-to-day supervision of pupil trans portation. 236 Uniforms for the driver were advocated as a means of lending dignity and authority to his position. Most authorities recognized that school bus driv ing must be established as a part-time job in most in stances. Some authorities, however, questioned the wisdom of assigning bus drivers to other odd jobs when they are not driving. With adequate programs for the recruitment, selection, and training of drivers, it has been demon strated that drivers as young as age sixteen, junior col lege students, housewives, retired men, and others have the ability to perform satisfactorily as school bus driv ers. Few researchers exhibited more than limited confi dence in the high school student as a bus driver. Nearly all authorities opposed the use of teachers or custodians as bus drivers, because of the conflict with other more primary duties. Survey Findings The second part of this chapter reported survey findings concerning procedures used in the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in selected California school districts. A questionnaire was mailed to the school districts in California operating ten or 257 more school buses during the school year 1957-58. Basic questions pertained to the selection, training, and eval uation of school bus drivers. The following trends were revealed in the questionnaire responses of administrators: 1. Three of four school districts have de veloped board and administrative poli cies concerning transportation in gen eral, driver responsibilities for dis cipline, a driver job description, rules and regulations for drivers, and a driver salary schedule. 2. The methods of recruitment provided an adequate supply of competent drivers in slightly more than half of the dis tricts. 5. Four of five districts conducted pre- employment training of applicants and more than half provided pre-employment testing beyond legal requirements. 4. Nine of ten districts set a minimum education requirement. Half of these districts set the requirement as the 258 ability to read and write. 5. Character references and references from former employers were required in two thirds of the districts. 6. Slightly more than one third of the districts used a formal interview in screening applicants, but four in five districts utilized only an in formal interview. 7. A standardized application form was used by more than three fourths of the districts. Other standardized forms were used in fewer than half of the districts. 8. Approximately one third of the dis tricts required drivers to take a physical examination annually, while fewer than one in ten required addi tional physical examinations for older drivers. 9. Fewer than one district in five planned or provided for psychophysical 239 examinations. 10. Two in three districts had adopted a planned induction program for new drivers. Most of these programs were scheduled over a period of from one to ten hours. 11. Slightly more than a third of the dis tricts operated a planned and sched uled driver training program. A ma jority called meetings as current problems arose, most meetings being held during the regular working day. 12. Slightly more than one third of the districts had initiated a planned in centive program; most of the districts which made use of this plan partici pated in "bus roadeos." 13. The bulk of driving supervision was carried on by having the supervisor ride the bus. In more than half of the districts the supervisor, followed the bus in another car. 240 14. One third of the districts made a formal evaluation of each driver, using a trait-rating method. In most cases the driver was permitted to read the rating. 15. Two thirds of the districts used acci dent and violation reports as part of the evaluation procedure. 16. In two fifths of the districts, the drivers know the basis on which they are evaluated. 17. One of six districts use only verbal ratings of drivers. 18. In two fifths of the districts drivers were requested or required to wear uniforms. 19. Nearly half of the districts employed women as bus drivers. 20. Slightly fewer than a third of the districts employed junior college stu dents as drivers. 21. One fifth of the districts employed teachers as drivers. 241 22. Slightly more than two fifths of the respondents believed that in employing part-time personnel for driving, pupil transportation programs were being handicapped. They were of the opinion that more full-time drivers were needed. 2J>. Two thirds of the districts offered combination jobs in acquiring bus drivers. Prevailing Viewpoints of Administrators The following beliefs were revealed by administra tors in their questionnaire responses. 1. The administrators1 evaluations of practices paralleled existing prac tices in most cases. 2. The administrators expressed the highest degree of approval of well established board and administrative policies as being of greater impor tance to the successful operation of 242 pupil transportation. Three of four administrators thought such policies to be valuable or vital to the program. 3. Fewer than one in six attached any im portance to the use of competitive examinations for job applicants; yet almost half thought it important to establish an eligibility list. 4. Almost half thought it valuable or vi tal for an applicant to have had truck or bus driving experience. 5. Ratings of "valuable" or "vital" were given to the following items: (a) psychophysical examinations, so rated by half of the administrators; (b) physical examinations given annually, rated by one third; (c) an adequate induction program, rated by three fourths; (d) a planned and scheduled driver training program, with attend ance required, rated by one half; (e) problem meetings called as needed, rated by two thirds; (f) an incentive program, rated by almost one third; (g) the supervisory practice of follow ing the bus in another car (even though in practice three out of five do so), rated by one third as important; (h) formal evaluation of each driver, rated by one half of administrators; and (i) required wearing of uniforms, rated by two fifths of respondents as "valuable" or "vital." Nearly one fifth of the administrators recommended employing women as bus drivers as a regular practice; but few (one in ten) made the same recommenda tion concerning the use of college stu dents as drivers. Practically no sup port was given to the use of teachers as school bus drivers; yet one fifth of the districts followed the practice. More than two thirds of the districts use a combination job system to attract drivers and believe that it works out efficiently. Yet no more than one third recommended the practice. CHAPTER VI CRITERIA FOR DESIRABLE PROCEDURES IN THE SELECTION, TRAINING, AND EVALUATION OF SCHOOL BUS DRIVERS Three previous chapters of this study (l) estab lished the legal requirements for the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California, (2) analyzed the accepted procedures for the selection, train ing, and evaluation of commercial transportation vehicle operators, and (5) presented data concerning practices being followed in 115 school districts that operate ten or more school buses. This chapter is concerned with the establishment of criteria for the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California. 245 246 Procedure Evaluation Panel For the development of criteria of desirable prac tices in the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California, it was decided that a jury be selected to serve as an evaluation panel. In order to obtain authoritative opinion in this important phase of the study, the cooperation of twelve noted authorities, outstanding practicing specialists in the field, repre sentatives of law enforcement agencies, and college pro fessors and school board members was sought. All twelve agreed to participate as jurors. The panel consisted of a representative of the California Trucking Association, the Director of the Division of Rural Services of the National Education Association, member of a large city school board, a county superintendent of schools, a per sonnel director in a large city school system, a represen tative of the California Highway Patrol, a professor of school administration, a representative of a bus manufac turer, a research specialist in classified school person nel, a school business official serving as Chairman of 247 the Transportation Committee in the California Association of Public School Business Officials, Chief of the Bureau of Administrative Services of the State Department of Pub lic Instruction for the State of California, and a well known author of textbooks on school administration. Questionnaire The questionnaire that had been used for the sur vey of existing practice and opinion in 115 California school districts was modified for use in obtaining the opinions of the jury of twelve authorities (see Chapter V and Appendix P). Replies received from the jurors were tabulated. Summaries of their responses are found in Tables 14 through 20, and a complete tabulation in Appen dix F. It was assumed that a two thirds consensus in the judgments of panelists could be interpreted as acceptance or endorsement of a statement, or as substantial agreement concerning the value and importance of a practice. 248 Jury Responses Board and Administrative Policies Table 14 presents the judgments of panelists con cerning district policies. It may be seen that the eval uation jury considered the establishment of board and ad ministrative policies for governing the operation of the pupil transportation to be of utmost importance to the program. Ten or more panelists felt that policies should be developed that covered transportation in general, spe cific policies, rules and regulations for drivers, the driver indoctrination program, the driver's responsibility for pupil discipline, extra trips, driver job description, and the qualities desired in a driver. Lowest ratings were given by the panelists to (l) school bus driving as a part-time job, and (2) the employment of a professional type of bus driver. There was substantial agreement among panelists that it was valuable or vital to the pupil transportation program that general and specific policies be developed as guide lines for operation; that these policies should TABUS 14 J U D G M E N T S O F T H E P A N E L C O N C E R N I N G B O A R D A N D A D M I N I S T R A T I V E T R A N S P O R T A T I O N P O L I C I E S R e c o m - R a t i n K S t e p s m e n d e d " — t o y j u r y N o L i t t l e S o m e V a l u — P o l i c i e s ( N = 1 2 ) v a l u e v a l u e v a l u e a b l e V i t a l 1 . B o a r d h a s a d o p t e d s p e c i f i c p o l i c i e s . C o v e r s t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n g e n e r a l C o v e r s o p e r a t i n g r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s l o r t h e d r i v e r C o n s i d e r s d r i v i n g a p a r t - t i m e j o b C o v e r s n e w d r i v e r I n d o c t r i n a t i o n p r o g r a m C o v e r s d r i v e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s l o r p u p i l d i s c i p l i n e C o v e r s e x t r a t r i p s o l d r i v e r s C o v e r s d r i v e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s 2 . H a s a d o p t e d a d r i v e r s a l a r y s c h e d u l e 3. D i s t r i c t h a s d e v e l o p e d r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s l o r d r i v e r s . 4. H a s e s t a b l i s h e d a d r i v e r j o b d e s c r i p t i o n . 5. H a s s p e c i f i e d d e s i r e d q u a l i t i e s in a d r i v e r . 6 . E m p l o y s o n l y " p r o l e s s i o n a l " t y p e d r i v e r s ( d r i v i n g b u s e s I s t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n ) . On 42—passenger buses or larger On buses smaller than 42-passenger 12 - - - 2 lO 10 - - 2 1 9 11 2 2 8 4 - 7 1 4 lO 2 6 4 12 - 1 11 10 1 6 5 11 - - 1 3 8 12 1 3 3 5 12 - - - l 11 lO 1 - 1 4 6 lO - - l 5 6 5 - - 8 - 4 5 - 1 5 3 3 4 - 1 7 3 1 250 cover rules and regulations for the driver; i.e., that policies define the new driver indoctrination program, driver responsibilities for pupil discipline, extra trips, driver qualifications, driver salary schedule, and a job description of the driver's responsibilities and duties. Recruitment In Table 15 are presented the specialists' views regarding recruitment procedures. Two thirds or more of the panelists judged it to be important that recruitment be planned in advance; that it not be confined to the time when a vacancy occurs; and that vacancies be adver tised, particularly in staff bulletins. The panelists were almost unanimous in advocating the avoidance of union hiring halls. Two thirds approved of competitive exami nations and the setting up of an eligibility list; pre- employment examinations which go beyond legal requirements and include tests of personality and attitude, vehicle performance and knowledge of bus driving. Only a minority (one third) of the experts would have the applicant also take an intelligence test. The panelists strongly endorsed provision by the district of pre-employment training in the safety ® (V I H H m A 41 (V J 4 014 in (\l A 10 S i n 4 4 s h in i d s m vo 4 i vo h in a a oi a in w a co vo a c v i a 4 o cm in in \o a A 4 in H 1 1 H I II I I I I I h I I I I I I 1 1 H I I I I I I I I I | t i l l 1 0 C O H C O V O H C O 01 0 01 C O Q \ fflvoooi C O V O 01 00 C O 10 H 4 S n H H r l g> o i j o P 0 v g. i c M U M V 3 (J J) 0) 0 H h 0) O A H I O H p p 0 « 3 > £ -t o, p 0 rl nl pi 0 G P H P a 0 0 0 ft 0 C ft 0 MP > S (3 OH 0 0 (3 P H rl l « « w 9 ^ (j i f t ft*k v cfl -U a. rs rt u ^ ^ * 5 2 0 * 0 ® rt <P® w i H . * * Z * r W * 'M^V^U’ UWi g 3 - ? S |^ ..0'H®0O33flr O f \ 7. 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P p ^ ■ 8 1 Jj j ® j 41 P P tf M P ® H d O H M ft f t O H f t O f t H H p 2 n 2 £ 5 5 2 0 8 2 2 8 3 P P ® P (S d d 3 In cd c tf C C ffi £ ( 5 ! ^ ’j H H 0) ft 0) P (3 P f t P O O l K P O O O P H G f t f t f t 0 ; S § h a n p h o 3 p o o h s h u h p p H O £ (d M P ( j 8 f t p H 5 a> -o i < 3 ’O S (fl cS MH f4 0 I h p « « m f f l S j j i ft ft 3 > ii ft 2 4 3 2 5 £ p f t P P H H p O f t o p i f l p ffl ffl s ^ 1015 f l M S «s0 p « n o i j f t f t h o (43 d d >> 0 c h * £ S 3 £ m * 8® °^wV 8 ^ 4 3 t i o o x p H f t f t H O J o o p § 3 c ^ a n a £ 2 !j 8 ° , S f c * | , 0 P O O f t p p o j O H ft E U ft S S R * 21 E ^ ^ 3 H & f t l j P O ) &ft O S 0 1 0 1 O P E O H oil) & 5 513 h h 2 a p f t o S 5 3 , ° g ? f t * ] 01 ° ® * d f l B i l p p o o o o j ) a 0 u J tl 3 t l H C > MH H P P 01 5 H 0 ) 0 ) O P 0 ) P H P P l 3 j i ^ f t O H H O O ) ft'-' O P « 0) 01 0 O P H ft 0) 0 0 3 d m f i P P m !l J i S 6 **» ii i S ’I S P 43 H U O H P ^ S f t O g O O O ) j j ? S r S r E 8 h* S O ) 1 3 H O O I I £ 0 I 5 H P P 0 ) O E O 0 ) H 4 5 h h ft ra d 3 n o) ft o) 510 1 p o o h i p p c j i p i x j o ^ h o h i i T JJ a n 2 r r r r S - ® O P P ^ J O I P t t H P C O O f f l ( S O H H O P O ) i n O f f l H H E S fi j H f* ft 2 fi.M f<« fl ft ft f t o P H < H H K > H H H H 0 < 3, ^ M ffl H Pr j> ft 0 H ft ft fl ft ft 2 5 2 inspection of the school bus, driver skill training, and practice driving. They would also have the district pro vide materials for study on school bus laws. No consensus was evident concerning the amount of time that should be given to pre-employment training, the majority indicating that it should depend upon individual district need and should extend from ten to forty hours. With respect to the relative importance of various recruitment practices and procedures, the jury ratings paralleled their recommendations, judging as highly impor tant the following items: advance planning of the re cruitment program, the establishment of an eligibility list, pre-employment tests of personality and attitude, use of competitive examinations, the development of an adequate supply of competent applicants, and pre-employ ment training in school bus laws and safety Inspection. Of least importance in the judgments of panelists were the use of intelligence tests, and recruiting through union hiring halls and employment agencies. Employment Practices Table l6 presents the judgments of jurors concern ing practices followed in screening applicants for 0 VO H I 3 I I H H JS 01 > 0 3! ft rl rl A ! 0 > .3 2 H I > I ^ Lrt | ® P 0 1 OSJ^H OS I 5S&1 5 K E f t - ' 255 I A H H V O 4 4 H 0 1 rl f t s 1 1 p s I o S rl Jl f t f a § 1 f a H rl fa 0 to f a 0 ) 0 rl 6 • u « f t ? & MS P 0 0 . rl h 5 3 j r s o to s*s 0 DOHA 0 rl f t e f a rl f a f a 0 u . S 3 1 1 1) MS i f l n rl § r l S3 rl P 0 1 h I A S 10 01 I rl rl 0 HOIVO A C O V O H H rl _ ____ . n o ao < r i s o i oi oi <<h a a a A 4 A rl rl I I I rl rl I rl I r| I I I vo 401 H ArtCO 0 4 C O rl rl oi co 4 oo oi moo a rl rl 0 C O rl a OIOVOIVO C O V O rl rl S ) . 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It will be noted that two thirds or more of the panelists recommended that a minimum age for first employment should be established, but there was no definite consensus concerning the exact age which should be specified. A bare two thirds consensus recom mended that a maximum age should also be established, but again there was not solid agreement as to the most appro priate age to be specified. There was endorsement by the jury of the following policies: a minimum education re quirement of high school graduation; a requirement of three character references to be furnished by each appli cant; the contacting of all references by means of tele phone and/or a structured questionnaire; requirement of employer references covering the last one or two years of employment, all references to be checked; a preliminary informal interview, followed by an interview structured to evaluate the applicant; and the development of standard forms for applications, character references, and employer references to be supplemented by any standard forms avail able from the highway patrol. Post —employment Testing Table 17 presents the judgments of the jury con cerning post-employment testing, induction, and training of new drivers. The panelists agreed unanimously that physical examinations should not be limited by the legal requirements of California statute. There was substantial agreement that two major items of importance in such test ing were chest x-rays and venereal disease tests. The panel also unanimously endorsed annual physical examina tions for all drivers, denying that the physical examina tion should be required on a basis of age. The panelists unanimously approved the use of psychophysical examina tions, and believed that such examinations should be planned and provided by the district. Induction The greatest uniformity of opinion in any area of the questionnaire was expressed in this section. The panelists were unanimous in their approval of all except two of the listed items: (l) determining the amount of time that should be devoted to the over-all post-employ ment induction program, and (2) the initiation of an award and recognition program. With respect to the latter, one VI s VI O l o>dU P H in II P 1 P <t 0 0 3 H>» C t a 041 P 4 3 g I* St* • § 0 4 C t 3 0 0 3 4 t*3 3 P 35 ^ 5 1 1C o a i IC H 1 0 its. 0 0 * ? 3 0 5* t r 0 £ g o £ f i til’ a 0 1 P C l £ H V VI V I V vi £ V I 1 1 0 0 H 3 3 U 3 0 p 3 3 D P P 1 p 3 3 B P 4 P 4 0 P I 3 0 0 0 0 0 t 3 3 to <4 0 P O 3 P 3 p 0 p 3 3 3 0 3 4 0 0 3PIC 0 0 0 B O' 3 3 * 2 3 ? 3 P 3 30 0 P 0 3 3 3 0 0 3 $ 0 a m p S j» 0 D 0 P 0 0 3 4 4 3 3 * i p 0 P 0 3 i P O 1 4 3 0 0 3 P O 0 00 1 B 0 3 4 3 p i P « P to P p p < 0 B P 0 3 4 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 4 3 D P O 4 • P B B 3 P B 0 B B B 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 0 D 0 0 0 P B 0 1 H 1 4 I P 0 0 3 0 P 4 P • 0 s 3* 3 0 0 p P P M P M V I H H 0 3 1 3 ) ^ ttt tT * H > D U 4 C O 4 3 P D D P t* P < to 0 Pet ( BOH' f f c t Cl t f Ot f POl PC* 3 4 D P t ) H H - 0 H H ( 0 C 1 H • t * f t o m a s c t h * a h to4 ov; o q 1 0 < 3 ct 4 0 4 H - g ct 3 0 g H - C t 0 3 g 4 3 4 ® 0 3 3 4 4Vj HO 3 0 - - - ■ - -- ( D & C 00 VI 10 0 t o JJJSUH H P l c t H 0 H 4 P ct 0 M 0 0 P g 4 P 3 3 P 1 U 4 ct a 3 3 * 3 P P O ® 4 3 P P 3 0 0 ® P O 1 0 0 P 0 h 0 0 0 3 000 c t 3 IC 4 0 W 4 B 4 1 P B 3 P 3 3 0 3 3 P 0 0 1 4) 0 4 ct 3 1 ® 0 H ct P P ct P 0 3 01 3 P 0 . ctO P ^ H ct ® OP 0 PV| 0 P 3 ic 3 o a m o 1 3 4 ® 0 0 . a 3 t o 3 0 » 4 0 HP 0 3 P 3 4 0 3 0 P B t o I 4 H P H P H H P H H H H io io io io h io to ro p io M 10 0 3 4 09 M P P B B < V J POO 0 3 3 3 0 n 3 3 o m PPB B X P 3 0 0 0 00 0 00 to B 1 B 0 0 P P P 10 OM O 10 10 s p p P < | 0 B O ® ® 0 (C 3 P 3 iQiQ 0 0 3 « < S p p 4 P 5 0 0 B P P P P 4 3 P n < 4 IC 3 0 OOPM 3P 0 0 4 O H I P H B 1 3 Op BOP 0 3 g ®P<4 HM 3 B 0 pic to 3 P P B P P 3 0 B *4 3 P E 3 B 4 P 0 0 HB 0 4 H 3 H <4 « P p P 4 W P 0 P P HS 3 ? P n is s o 3 4 P H P I 10 H V O 10 10 I I | I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 0 I H I I I I I | I I H P | | P 10 i I | | P I P P I I 953 OD 00 I P I I PIO I | I | P VIP 1 0 I P p 0 3 M 0 3 O t l . | Ol Oi £ M Ol£0l OiVHJi 0 3 £ £ £ t 1 1 C O P OlH H 01 -4 O i VI C O 0 V J l O W J i UltO-4 1 0 V H 0 1 C O 0 1 VI I £ P £01 V I P P H 3 3 3 0 H 3 P H H 0 < < 4 A 4 01 H t* ffl A C O A H H in 0 1 S I I I I r l II II 01 01 S 4 lACll H H 00 A U A A 4 ^0 r l r l r l ft 0 0 ft ft H i dj ® I t ® ft to s A s S r l d 0 3 r l M 0 ) A ^ ® 0 3 S 0 V 2 « S * H f l f t a® a #fl o 0 • H ® A ft tO ft ID 0 AS OS b 3 f t r l 3 A® > ) d ® d H r l ® 4 ^ f t 0 g S d ) d Ia 8S li BO ftrl tOri 1 0 3 ( 0 ® ® > > I d ♦ I 5 0 s d J t o p.fl t o c r l s 1 0 f t f t 0 t O r l r l A SJO d t o 3 r l f t 3 0 f t 3 S ' 3 d t o ® S S f t C ® f t 3 ® r l Sft ® d f t f t d l > f t 3 f t f t r l r l 33 d ) u S f t d ! 0 ® d d ) > ® 0 1 f t H h d> f t 0 f t 3 ® ( 0 r l 3 f t s S d J d v AS S a a f t ® t o 3 ® ® d f t s ® f t > a I t 0 1 ® ( 0 r l f t f t i 3 3 f t 3 3 >>>> J O d o 0 t o a a 3 f t H > i a f t os f t f t 0 3 ! > > f t d H too a o ® a f t 3 s o f t H o H s t ftd5 ft ] | 3 0 0 3 0 S3 ® d 3 ® r l A sso f t P f t 0 3 4 4 f t > I Q 3 3 ® A ^ £ S Brl S ® d r l 4 4 d a i t d SG^C ® r l f t f t r l > > 3 3 f t s s flo M r l 4 r l oto * 0} o H 0 1 A 4 A 4 4 4 4 4 258 panelist believed that a good salary was incentive enough to keep a good driver interested in his job. With the above exception, the panelists recommended the following items concerning induction of bus drivers: 1. A planned program. 2. Issuance of manuals, bulletins, and handbooks to new drivers. 5. Detailed study and discussion of the various phases of the bus driver's job, such as daily routine, award and recognition program, insurance and employee benefits, lines of authority and responsibility, bus driver safety program, public relations, bus trans portation's relationship to the total program, making out reports, child behavior, proper relationships be tween the driver and the children. 4. Opportunity for the new driver to practice maneuvering his bus. 5. First hand instruction by a mechanic of the care, maintenance, and inspection 259 of the bus. 6. Introduction of the new driver to fel low employees and his immediate supe rior. One half of the panelists thought that the induc tion program could be adequately covered in from twenty to forty hours, while a third of the panelists believed that the job could be done in from five to ten hours. Driver Training and Education in the District The panelists (see Table 17) were unanimous in recommending a planned and scheduled driver training pro gram for all drivers. A similar uniformity of judgment occurred with respect to the need for special problem meetings as needed to supplement the special planned meet ings; the requirement that all drivers participate in the training program; and that a special program be planned for each meeting. Eleven of the twelve panelists thought that meetings should be held during the driver's regular work day. Panelists also thought that, if meetings were held outside the work day, the driver should be paid. 260 There was considerable disparity of Judgment as to the most appropriate frequency of regularly-scheduled meet ings, one third of the panelists recommending monthly meet ings and slightly less than half recommending quarterly meetings. A similar divergence in judgments occurred with respect to the total amount of time to be given to driver training, two thirds of the panelists recommending from one to eight hours, and one third from fifteen to thirty hours. Incentive Programs The judgments of panelists concerning incentive programs are shown in Table 18. Unanimous endorsement was given to the instituting of a planned incentive program which provides annual safety awards, and which is publi cized in local papers. Jurors considered this practice to be a valuable aspect of pupil transportation. While there was not substantial agreement on the matter, slightly more than half of the panelists recommended participation in bus "roadeos" and honors banquets. Supervision Also shown in Table 18 are judgments of jurors in K\ r l f t W r l 4 * I I Cl U t f O I r l I t*- Cl 4 1 I I V O f t Ol C M • I 0 CO I f t * ft s ft 00 CO* f t * ^ O f t ^ O f t ft'ft f t f t I * * ' f t f t f t r l H H H c o v o * ft H ft ft ftVO H O I * t f f t O J f t Cl ft O>00 Cl f t f t f t r l S f t l c i H I I rl H i I I I I rl I I I I I Cl I I HCI I H I I I I I I I I II I I I I I I I I C l I C l I I I I I ft Cl SCI N CI Cl CVI0D S- 00 rl rl rl rl C l rl c i rl f t f t O rl Cl CJ 0 f t CJ Cl rl rl rl rl rl 00 C J M O ft I CIOCIOCICI rl rl rl rl rl rl ■ 0 1 1 d 0 3 0 3 a rl P. d rl o rl d 0 S rl 3 4 3 0 d w f t 0 rl o u 4 3 0 1 ) P i o o'a 0 § h d d d S O t f = 0 O rl >>u 43 O d ,11 d r l P i O gldS ‘ 43 rl 0 O rl rl O Pi rl d d H 43 0 3 2 H rl Pi: < 4 Q ft 43 0 d n t i i i n 0 id -O ill O ID O X J d X J XI X J C 0O000 H rl 0 rl rl rl 0:000 d d d c d < H H H H • d d (0 0 • 0 0 fl H P Pi d 3 4 3 d 0 P d 0 4 3 P 0 Pi to 0 P 0 0 0 ft 0 d fl X J o d 0 0 0 4 3 X J d 4 3 0 0 a d 0 0 0 d 0 . g 0 0 0 a d 0 d ( 0HOP, 0 d d 0 0 0 0 0 X OH H X ) X J H 0 43 rl 4 3 H 0 P 0 d d d P A d 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 ft 0 OH H P 0 g d 0 A 0 d 4 3 0 0 0 d 0 > d 0 0 H H H b O 0 0 0 H 0 fl d H > d 0 0 PH PP d P 3 PH 0 s 0 0 > 3 p< 0 0 0 > 0 ft H 0 H H H H • 0 A d d > H rl U 0 P 0 P xj d 0 d fl f l 0 Pi 0 g > 0 0 0 ft ftp H H g 0 h COd 0 0 C O Pi 0 P ft X I • Pi *0 0 >.43 43 1) B rl 1) 43 i d d d 43 n j 0 0 0 H X J ft43 — nS i) P d X) 0 43 1) Pi 1 1 1 OPl 0 0 0 0 X) 0 0 i rl 0 43 ID to * 43 0 P rl 0 43 Pi 1 ) d 0 0 rl 0) 43 0 (4 d o rl 43 d * 0 0 d r l 4 3 p > . 0 0 0 „ „ „ M . O O H O X J H lD O O O O d O g * d 0 H > 0 f t p 0 0 43 d ' 6 rl 0 g | 4 ) Xl > f t d i) o 3 o p o d d o o 0 Pi XI rl rl 1 ) 43 43 0 ID (4 0 rl 0 P to ra 10 05 p, 43 4 3 4 3 d d I« P P 0 f l 0 rl . 0 0 i 0 d 0 ft ft g 0 rl 1 ) d rl 43 0 0 P ■ 0 d (4 p (4 rl 0 P 1 ) > rl P ■ 0 A 4 3 rl s h rl rl d 0 rl ■ 0 0 rl P d > 43 1) s 1 4 bOH b O P i d O O P P P P P P i * 0(4 0 0 rl 0 0 0 0 0 0 g >. p 0 rl 43 b O > ft 43 0 ) 43 fl 0,0 f l 43|»ffl42Crl0dT40OS0 0 0 fl d 4 3 r l 0 H p p 0 > 6 P H >. 0 H < 4 H PH H H.43 X J X J 0 0 0 0 H O I d H P O H O d 43 0 400 >1 MH 0 43 d i ! 0 O H d 0 f t 0 43 0 fl > 0 fl E f l H 0 O d f t H O 0 d O > H H H H O C - . r j j f t 0 4 3 ft< <C0E4 J H 43 4 3 P ,4 3 C 0 « < M 4 3 H S p P P 0 d 0 P d d fl P El 0 C O Q p d 0 4 K fi X) 0 >) 604043 43 H d d d M d H HH 0 f l 0 d 43 43 B H H J 3 d d 0 43 d P a P P 0 d > 0 P P P 0 > d to t3 S ) 0 0 d d 0 0 0 M 0 0 c h d c o P H M 0 00 x jh g<d S 0 > O p 43 a d x) 0 0 X J P P iH d 0 P > M M 0 P 0 S H d d > 0 > d P H H H >>XJ P f t * s * 00 * f t * 262 the area of supervision. The panelists agreed unanimously that the supervisor should ride on bus runs, and that he should use a check sheet for driver evaluation. The jury was of the strong conviction that the supervisor in riding on the buses should not follow a regular schedule, but should ride when he is not expected or when problems arise. Jurors also endorsed the supervisory practice of inspect ing bus operation by following the bus in another car. Evaluation The jury agreed unanimously that there should be a regular, routine formal evaluation of each driver, but panelists were divided as to the general methodology to be used in performing this evaluation. Two thirds or more recommended the use of the trait-rating method, check-list analysis of the duties of the job and the driver's performance of these duties, and the use of supporting evidence reports. As supporting evidence, unanimous endorsement was given to the consider ation of driver violation tickets, accident reports, and letters of commendation; while substantial endorsement was given to the consideration of tachometer reports and supervisors1 reports. All jurors believed that the driver 2 6 5 should know the basis of his evaluation. Two thirds of the panelists advocated the develop ment of rating instruments jointly by the administration and the employees. All jurors thought that ratings should be made regularly and routinely, but there was no clearcut agreement as to whether ratings should be on a semi-annual or an annual basis. The jury was unanimous in its belief that the supervisor's rating should be discussed with the driver; that he should be allowed to read it and add in writing any disagreement he desired; and that the driver should sign the rating. The jury recommended unanimously that the rating instrument be evaluated periodically. The jurors strongly rejected the use of verbal ratings. Uniforms Table 19 summarizes the judgments of the evalua tion panelists concerning the wearing of uniforms by driv ers. The jury, by a ballot of eleven-to-one, recommended that drivers be requested or required to wear a uniform. There was no endorsement of the idea of having the dis trict provide the uniform. However, where drivers did provide their own uniforms, jurors advocated having the TABLE 19 JUDGMENTS OP PANELISTS CONCERNING THE WEARING OF UNIFORMS BY DRIVERS Wearing of Uniforms Recom mended by Jury (N=12) Rating Steps No value Little value Some value Valu able Vital 50. Drivers are required or requested to wear a uniform. 11 - - 3 8 Uniforms provided by the district 6 Provided by the driver 6 Specifications set by district 7 Specifications agreed upon among drivers 5 District provides bus driver identificatlon patches and/or emblems 9 51. Uniforms are an influence in con trolling pupils. - - - 5 7 52. Uniforms aid drivers in critical moments of accidents in dealing with the public. — - — 9 3 53. Uniforms add a business-like air to the bus operation. - - - 5 7 r o C T - i - E = - 2 6 5 district establish the specifications and provide the iden tification patches or emblems. A majority of jurors thought that uniforms were valuable in adding a business like air to the bus operation, in controlling pupils, and In helping to handle critical moments of accidents. Combination Jobs From responses presented In Table 20, it will be seen that eleven of the twelve panelists recommended the employment of women as part-time bus drivers. No clear endorsement was given by the panelists to the use of junior college students as drivers. Panelists strongly rejected the Idea that teachers be used as drivers. The use of the combination job for bus drivers was recommended by eight panelists. Seven of the eight jurors who made this recommendation thought that the district should pay the same salary as for driving when the driver worked on the supplementary job. Six of the eight thought this basis of employment to be efficient in terms of quality and quantity of work done on both jobs. Four in dicated that the bus driving job should have priority over the supplementary job. I H H h s o' I c l 0 H S B H B rl 0 B 0 0 I d 3r\ go3w O d n H Od I K gd'-' b 0 o o H d p 0 ob B 3 S f t 0 •H 'OP S3 •4 -01 V 0 rt b O as d o o a o o 3 0 0 f t 266ii I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I H rl rl rl • rl H I I t - t t r l l l M H N N H H A H O Q O l C O l H d H l l H H l H H A A A rl A H H A A4 it rl I 4 N 4 4 A 0 it it rl A it 4 CtlA A N A A A O i l I I I C O H 4 N A A A AW rl rl rl rl I N it I N it I I rl 4 I rl I I I (0 A I Atfl N I I H I I I I I I w 4 rl WW I M i l VO I I I II H I I II I I I rl I I II rl I 4 i i i i i i i i i ii i i 0 l a o C i n 0 >H 0 B H rl C l rl C l H ID d d o d P ti P B P 0 fi b s . „ o o d u g o 0 rl rl g rl H ID f t rl rl f t C l f t 1 1 1 0 0 3 S P ft rl A BP A 0 A B n B B 0 A !»0H t i d t i P 3 B S > 0 0 P H P O d H gP g 3 S d S o 0 0 rl 0 0 P 1 1 0 rl P S S H B d g O d B O H 1 1 0 ) H fi f t 6 P 3 1) 3 S g J rl B rl B OPO o g a d 3 P d s h H O il 3 O l l B lift ft O3ftl)0>O0BCi S O 0 h B Odd 0 5 2 < H K ««Q 4 A to 1 l l 1 1 H H A B 1 1 1 B 1 1 l l H 1 1 1 I 1 co to fi H H p B 0 H « H 1 s p d ft p d ft 1 C i 3 0 0 0 3 3 0 3 0 0 0 13 rl B ft d 0 n ft b d 3 to S H 0 b s 0 io s 0 3 0 0 • P C i to 0 C l g P C i too n H g ffl 3 bOO 3 f t d B B 0 S S 0 1 ) S H 0 H 0 S 0 P 0 d £ > H B 0 H C > H ffl : 0 H H d > H ffl C i 3 P 0 0 H rl C i 0 d 3 H rl fl 1 Eft d p H H 3 3 0 B n to C l H 0 0 d C l H 0 H 0 3 H 0 0 0 3 0 0 d o d H C i p d o d P 0 3 3 d o d p f t o d S H fl p B ft C i P 1 p ft 0 3 P S f t p 0 rl ffl p 0 H fi fflP 0 H C i ffl p 0 H B E H 0 B S 0 B 0 B S H d B B S Bft P 0 0 s 0 g d 0 s 3 0 ffl 0 S ffl B d 0 0 g 0 B B 0 B p g o B C h ‘n S ffl 3 g 0 B OH S C i < 0 d H H 0 o d B H 00 d H P ffl H O d d S p d d '•'A d sp 3 3 d d d sp P P H ffl d H 0 P H p s o g 0 P H P O O g 0 P H P 3 H 0 g S n f id to fl ffl C n 3 S d d K ffl B 3 S d B S 0 3 d H 0 1) ftH 0 d H 0 O P P C i H 0 d H 0 0 p B 0 0 n o SH ffld g 1) 0 g B C H d g 0 0 0 0 P s H d g w 3 > H 0 OH C i ftH B 0 H 0 0 C i ft C S S d 0 0 0 3 f t Sd 1H 0 >>d g SH BH 3 P fed g 3 BH ■B B OP fe E s B H H P OP d OP ftd 3 d 0 s OP g d 3 0 3 C 0 S d 3 d o o H H Oil 3 CO fi 0 H oil d o o d n o H Oil O10 H H 0 > ftfi 0 3 ftO Od B B ftd 0 3 0 0 > > P P B ft 0 3 0 1 ) 3 0 P C i 0 S 0 0 0 C l 0 d g o 0 0 3 B B Od g 0 0 3 0 0 3 Wft 012 < M < t 0 Ci 03 2 4 WK BSC H 1 3 2 4 ft A C O N 0 0 A A A A II II I I I I d f l £ II g C l ffl A fi 0 I B 0 II S tO ft tO d n P H J 0 S Cl 3 rl B P d o n fl # jj'ft i H B rl rl d fcfj d I 3 o rl P B ft C l Cl 3 ft 0 B B n f t I IP h B 0 rl S'-' B fl 0 ^ h fi C l C iP P 1) 0 1) S r i > B 0 . P a B C i g p 1) 15 t O I I 1 O l S r l S B d ® fl rl C l P i l l ) ! P rl Cl 0 ] O P u f l n . * . j P d p o 8 d d w >>p b d P 3 h o * 1 1 3 3 S II rl B K n B 1 ) ft B 1 ) .. _______ rl l ) 3 d ! t d B B r l d d P C l >>0 H 3 f t S B O O P H 3 g p pg pp b 3o p no do g ...................... HO 0 d " ‘ ......... B _ 0 CiP > 0 .............................................SfctOO H P h h b b b o ~ P B m > # C i b fi B ® H 0 B O B P H S to >» ffl fl HhP. 0 H H OH 015 ' 8 ft MM El C i 0 0 o 0 1) B d 0 013 b ' • • J O 3 C < H 0 P P 3 0 B C i g OH B d H fi fi -fi I 0 g E i 267 Summary A reaction panel was selected to evaluate practices in the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers. A twelve-member panel was established as a jury of experts. The questionnaire, after modifications were made (see Appendix F), was presented to the panel. Their judg ments were tabulated, analyzed, and reported. A two- thirds majority, it was assumed, was indicative of endorse ment of, or substantial agreement with, a policy or prac tice. The judgments of evaluative panelists gave en dorsement to the following practices for the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in Califor nia: 1. The school board should adopt specific policies for pupil transportation. 2. Board policies should cover transpor tation in general. 3. Policies should cover operating rules and regulations. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 • 15. 268 Policies should cover an indoctrination program for new drivers. Policies should cover the driver's re sponsibilities for pupil discipline. Policies should cover extra trips of drivers. Policies should cover driver qualifi cations. Policies should cover driver job description. Desired qualities in a driver should be a matter of district record. Recruitment should be planned in ad vance . Recruitment should be planned on a calendar basis. Job openings should be advertised. Staff bulletins should be used in advertising driver vacancies. Competitive examinations should be given to job applicants. An eligibility list should be established. 269 16. Pre-employment tests should go beyond legal requirements. 17. A pre-employment test of knowledge of bus driving should be given. 1 8. Tests of personality and attitude should be administered. 19. A pre-employment vehicle-performance test should be given. 20. Pre-employment training of applicants should be given. 21. The district should provide materials for study on school bus laws. 22. During pre-employment training appli cants should be given practice in making safety inspections of the bus, and in driving skills. 23. A minimum and a maximum age for first employment should be established. 24. The minimum education requirement should be high school graduation. 25. Three character references should be required, to be contacted by telephone 270 and/or structured questionnaire. 26. References of former employers for the past two years should be re quired . 27. An initial informal interview should be followed by a formally structured evaluative interview. 28. Standard forms should be used for applications, character references, and employer references. 29. The physical examination should be more extensive than the legal minimum and should be repeated annually; it should include chest x-ray and vene real disease tests. 50. Psychophysical examinations should be provided by the district. 51. Manuals, bulletins, and handbooks should be Issued to new drivers. 52. Adequate induction training should cover the daily routine, the award and recognition program, insurance 271 and employee benefits, lines of authority and responsibility, the bus driver safety education program, public relations, the relationship of bus transportation to the total program, making out reports, child behavior, and good driver-pupil re lationships . 33. The new driver should be given ample practice in maneuvering a school bus. 34. A mechanic should discuss with the new driver the care, maintenance, and inspection of the bus. 35. The new driver should be introduced to fellow employees and immediate superior. 3 6. The district should plan and schedule carefully its program of driver edu cation, and all drivers should be re quired to participate. 37* Current-problem meetings should be called as needed. 272 5 8. Meetings should be held during the reg ular working day. 59. If meetings must be held outside the work day, the driver should be paid for attendance. 40. The district should initiate an incen tive program in which annual safety awards are made and publicized in the local papers. 41. The supervisor should ride on bus runs periodically, and at times when prob lems have arisen. 42. The supervisor should also make it a practice to follow the buses in an other vehicle. 45. The supervisor should use a check sheet form for driver evaluation. 44. Regular and routine formal evaluations should be made of each driver. 45. The trait-rating method, a check list analysis of performance of duties, and supporting evidence reports should 2 7 5 be used in evaluating the driver. (Supporting evidence consists of vio lation tickets, accident reports, supervisor reports, tachometer re ports, and letters of commendation.) 46. The rating form used should be de vised cooperatively by the adminis tration and the employees. 47. The driver should know the basis of his evaluation. 48. The rater should discuss the rating with the driver, allow him to read it, and permit him to add disagree ments in writing. 49. The driver should sign the rating form. 50. The rating form shall be re-evaluated periodically. 51. The driver should be required or re quested to wear a uniform. If the driver provides the uniform, the dis trict should provide identification 2 7 4 patches or emblems. 52. Women are satisfactory as bus drivers and should be hired as part-time drivers. 53. The use of the combination-job is ac ceptable but not recommended. CHAPTER VII SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter contains a summary of the investiga tion and its findings, together with the conclusions and recommendations based on the findings. Summary Restatement of the Problem The problem of this study was a determination of acceptable procedures for the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California. The study endeavored to answer the following questions: 1. What related studies and literature are available in the areas of selec tion, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers? 275 276 2. What are the findings of research con cerning the safe and effective opera tion of automobiles? 5. What legal requirements and responsi bilities pertain to the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California, as revealed in statutes, In the rules and regula tions of local and state boards of education, and in court decisions and legal Interpretations? 4. What standards and practices do com mercial transportation organizations follow or accept as good practice in the selection, training, and evalua tion of drivers? 5. What are the current practices in the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers In California school districts? 6. What procedures, practices, and stand ards are considered desirable for the 277 selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California? Procedure Approval of the problem and method of study having been obtained from the doctoral committee at the University of Southern California, sponsorship of the study was granted by the California Association of Public School Business Official-s. A preliminary draft of the questionnaire was pre sented to sixteen school districts for purposes of valida tion. The questionnaire was revised, approved by the doc toral committee, printed, and distributed to the 156 Cali fornia school districts which operated ten or more school buses during the 1957“58 school year. A total of 115 re plies were received, a 7^ per cent response, which was considered adequate for the purposes of the study. To establish criteria for the study, a reaction panel of twelve qualified leaders in the fields of public school administration, personnel management, commercial transportation, bus manufacture, law enforcement, school business management, research in classified personnel, school board operation, and pupil transportation was 278 polled by means of a modified form of the questionnaire. The data were tabulated and analyzed, and acceptable cri teria listed. Summary of the Findings The findings are here' summarized under five main headings: literature, legal, commercial practices, dis trict practices and viewpoint, and criteria. Findings from the Review of Literature 1. A driver who has had an accident is more likely to have another accident than is one who has not had an acci dent . 2. Psychophysical tests are inconclusive as reliable determinants of good driving. They are of value in making the driver aware of possible inade quacies for which he might compensate. j5. The accident-prone driver is found to have certain visual defects more fre quently than is the non-accident-prone driver. 279 4. Drivers aged twenty to thirty have the best resistance to glare. 5. Depth perception is of vital importance in school bus driving. 6. A man drives as he lives. 7. Drivers under thirty years of age have the most accidents. 8 . Drivers over fifty show limited ability in carrying out complex reactions in volving memory. 9. Evaluation of the driver's personal and family life is important. 10. Proper selection procedures, training, road tests, written and oral examina tions, and driver meetings all contrib ute to safe driving. 11. The seven major steps in selection in clude the establishment of driver re quirements, securing data on the appli cant, personal interview, check of ap plicant's driving record, check of references, medical examination, and testing. 12. Daily supervision is important. Findings Concerning Legal Requirements 1. Most of the serious injuries to pupils occur during loading and unloading of buses. 2. The operation of an unsafe school bus or employment of an unqualified driver are responsibilities which affect the liability of the school district and driver. 5. The minimum age for driving a school bus in California is eighteen. 4. Before a driver may legally operate a school bus, he must have an ef fective operator's or chauffeur's license and a school bus driver's certificate. 5. A physical examination is required on a biennial basis for drivers. 2 8 1 a. Minimum acceptable acuity for a school bus driver is 20/40 for both eyes and at least 2 0 /5 0 in the poorest eye, with or without correction. b. Good depth perception is required. c. With respect to the equality of eyes, pupils of eyes must not vary to any great degree, and re action must be normal. d. A special physician's report is required when there is more than a 15 per cent loss of hearing in both ears, or 50 per cent loss in either ear individually. e. A field of vision of less than 70 per cent on either side disquali fies an applicant. f. The physician must report any gross physical abnormalities. g. If the systolic (blood pressure) reading is over 175 and/or the diastolic is over 100 a complete physician's report is required. 6 . The State Education Code eliminates sex offenders, those having tubercu losis, and drivers with poor driving records. Findings Concerning Commercial Transportation 1. Every driver must speak, read, and write the English language. 2. The driver of a passenger stage or trolley bus must be at least twenty- one years of age. 3. Carriers are required to instruct drivers in rules and regulations and in the Vehicle Code regulations. 4. Driver training programs are recom mended . 5. It is the duty of the driver to de termine whether the equipment is in safe working order. 2 8 3 6. Driving while ill or fatigued is for bidden. 7. Drivers aged twenty-five to thirty- five are preferred for first employ ment, with an upper limit of forty- five . 8 . The best drivers are average or above- average in mental ability, show me chanical aptitude, demonstrate a re strained personality, and have physi cal skills and eyesight in the normal range. They have a philosophy of driving built around safety. 9. Many commercial fleets use mechanical recording devices on their equipment for driver evaluation. 10. The driver must have 20 AO vision, with or without correction, no loss or impairment of limbs, hearing not less than 1 0 /2 0 in the better ear, and no addiction to narcotics or ex cessive use of alcoholic beverages. He should have a form field of vision of not less than 140 degrees. 11. Daily supervision and periodic evalu ation are required of all drivers. 12. Most all large organizations have established rules and regulations for operation which extend beyond those required by the commissions. Findings Concerning District Regulations 1. Districts, in general, have developed board or administrative policies con cerning transportation, driver re sponsibilities for discipline, a driver job description, rules and regulations for drivers, and a driver salary schedule. 2. More than half of the districts main tained that existing methods of re cruitment were adequate. 3. Nearly all districts provided some pre-employment training of drivers. 2 8 5 4. More than half of the districts pro vided pre-employment testing beyond the legal requirements. 5. Most districts had a minimum educa tion requirement. The majority re quired that the driver be able to read and write. 6. Two-thirds of the districts required character and former employer refer ences. 7. Most districts held informal inter views with applicants. 8 . One third of the districts held formal interviews as part of the evaluation of applicants. 9. Three fourths of districts used a standardized application form. Two fifths used other standardized forms. 10. Annual physical examinations were required in one third of districts. Relatively few (one in ten) required additional examinations for older 2 8 6 drivers. 11. A district-provided psychophysical examination was not a general prac tice, fewer than one fifth of the districts providing this service. 12. Two thirds of the districts had or ganized planned induction programs for new drivers. 13. The majority of school districts called meetings on current problems during the regular working day, but only one third had regularly planned and scheduled driver-training pro grams. 14. Slightly more than one third had in augurated a planned incentive pro gram. 15. The most prevalent supervisory tech niques consisted of (l) the super visor rides on the bus (majority of districts); ( 2) the supervisor fol lows the bus in another car (fewer 287 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 25. than half of districts). In two fifths of the districts, driv ers were informed of the basis on which they were evaluated. Two thirds of districts used accident and violation reports in evaluating drivers. Relatively fewer districts (one in five) rated their drivers verbally. Drivers were required or requested to wear uniforms in two fifths of districts. Nearly half of the districts have employed women as drivers. Almost one third of the districts employed junior college students as drivers. About one district in five employed teachers as drivers. Two thirds of districts followed the practice of offering combination jobs as a means of acquiring competent 288 drivers. Criteria On the basis of at least a two-thirds agreement among evaluating jurors, the following practices and poli cies affecting the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers in California were recommended: 1. The school board should adopt specific policies for pupil transportation. 2. Board policies should cover transpor tation in general. 5. Policies should cover operating rules and regulations for drivers. 4. Policies should cover an indoctrina tion program for new drivers. 5. Policies should cover the driver's responsibilities for pupil discipline. 6. Policies should cover extra trips of drivers. 7. Policies should cover driver qualifi cations. 8 . Policies should cover driver job description. 289 9. Desired qualities in a driver should be a matter of district record. 10. Recruitment should be planned in ad vance . 11. Recruitment should be planned on a calendar basis. 12. Job openings should be advertised. 15. Staff bulletins should be used in advertising driver vacancies. 14. Competitive examinations should be given to job applicants. 15. An eligibility list should be estab lished. 16. Pre-employment tests should go be yond legal requirements. 17. A pre-employment test of knowledge of bus driving should be given. 18. Tests of personality and attitude should be administered. 19. A pre-employment vehicle-performance test should be given. 20. Pre-employment training of applicants 2 9 0 should be given. 21. The district should provide materials for study on school bus laws. 22. During pre-employment training appli cants should be given practice in making safety inspections of the bus, and in driving skills. 25. A minimum and a maximum age for first employment should be established. 24. The minimum education requirement should be high school graduation. 25. Three character references should be required, to be contacted by tele phone and/or structured questionnaire. 26. References of former employers for the past two years should be re quired . 27. An initial informal interview should be followed by a formally structured evaluative interview. 2 8. Standard forms should be used for applications, character references, 291 and employer references. 29. The physical examination should be more extensive than the legal mini mum and should be repeated annually; it should include chest x-ray and venereal disease tests. 30. Psychophysical examinations should be provided by the district. 31. Manuals, bulletins, and handbooks should be issued to new drivers. 32. Adequate induction training should cover the daily routine, the award and recognition program, insurance and employee benefits, lines of authority and responsibility, the bus driver safety education program, public relations, the relationship of bus transportation to the total program, making out reports, child behavior, and good driver-pupil re lationships. 33. The new driver should be given ample 2 9 2 practice in maneuvering a school bus. 34. A mechanic should discuss with the new driver the care, maintenance, and inspection of the bus. 35. The new driver should be introduced to fellow employees and immediate superior. 3 6. The district should plan and schedule carefully its program of driver edu cation, and all drivers should be re quired to participate. 37. Current-problem meetings should be called as needed. 3 8. Meetings should be held during the regular working day. 39. If meetings must be held outside the work day, the driver should be paid for attendance. 40. The district should initiate an in centive program in which annual safety awards are made and publi cized in the local papers. 295 41. The supervisor should ride on bus runs periodically, and at times when prob lems have arisen. 42. The supervisor should also make it a practice to follow the buses in an other vehicle. 43. The supervisor should use a check sheet form for driver evaluation. 44. Regular and routine formal evalua tions should be made of each driver. 45. The trait-rating method, a check list analysis of performance of duties, and supporting evidence reports should be used in evaluating the driver. (Supporting evidence con sists of violation tickets, accident reports, supervisor reports, tach ometer reports, and letters of com mendation. ) 46. The rating form used should be de vised cooperatively by the adminis tration and the employees. 294 47. The driver should know the basis of his evaluation. 48. The rater should discuss the rating with the driver, allow him to read it, and permit him to add disagree ments in writing. 49. The driver should sign the rating form. 50. The rating form shall be re-evaluated periodically. 51. The driver should be required or re quested to wear a uniform. If the driver provides the uniform, the dis trict should provide identification patches or emblems. 52. Women are satisfactory as bus drivers and should be hired as part-time drivers. 55. The use of the combination-job is ac ceptable but not recommended. 295 Conclusions The following conclusions were drawn from the findings of this study: 1. The data presented in this study reveal that there is need for more adequate delineation of procedures and practices in the selection, training, and evalua tion of school bus drivers in the state of California. 2. The safe and economical operation of school bus fleets depends largely upon adequate methods and procedures for the selection, training, and evaluation of school bus drivers. 3. Definite standards and recommendations presented in this study are worthy of careful consideration by school dis tricts operating school bus fleets. 2 9 6 Re c ommenda t i on s 1. A state educational agency or organi zation should establish a set of standards to assist school districts in training, supervising, and evalu ating their school bus drivers. 2. The State Legislature should provide legislation that would clarify the legality of pre-employment training of school bus drivers. 5. The State Board of Education should adopt a standard uniform for school bus drivers and require all drivers to wear it. 4. The California State Administrative Code should be changed to require an annual physical examination of all drivers of school buses. School districts concerned with the employment of school bus drivers should give careful consideration to the cri teria established for this study and listed among the findings summarized in this chapter. c B IB LIO GRA PHY BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 . 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Books American Jurisprudence. San Francisco: Bancroft- Whitney Company. Butterworth, Julian E., and Ruegsegger, Virgil. Ad ministering Pupil Transportation. Minneapolis: Education Publishers, Inc., 1941. 197 PP. California and Pacific Digest. Saint Paul: West Pub lishing Company, 1941. California Digest. West's. 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Unpublished Doctoral disserta tion, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 1952. 188 pp. Kingsley, Joseph Michael. "The State's Role in Pupil Transportation in Nevada." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1959. 342 pp. Knapp, Roy. "Financing Pupil Transportation in the California Public School Districts." Unpublished report of the Cooperative Committee on School Finance, State Department of Education, and the California Teachers Association, January, 1949. Kuklenski, Joe E. "A Study of Public School Trans portation in Arkansas." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Arkansas, Fayette ville, Arkansas, 1957. Lambert, D. C. "A Study of Some Factors that Effect the Need for the Transportation of Pupils to and from School at Public Expense with Special Ref erence to Certain Alleged Effects of the Density of Population Upon this Need." Unpublished Doc toral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, California, 1935. Volumes I and II. 514 160. 1 6 1. 1 6 2. 1 6 5. 164. 1 6 5. 1 6 6. 167. Lindsey, Morton C. "A Study of Bus Transportation in Consolidated Schools with Specific Recommenda tions for the Established School at Monsey, New York." Research study of the School of Education, New York University, 1929. 127 PP* O'Brien, Ralph Kenneth. "A Study of Possible Econo mies Through Centralized Purchasing of Selected Transportation Items for the Public Schools of the State of Washington." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 1955. Miller, Carmen. "A Comparison of Personality Charac teristics of High Accident and Low Accident Bus and Street Car Operators." Unpublished Doctoral dissertations. Western Reserve University, Cleve land, Ohio, 1952. Patrick, Ralph V. "Financing Pupil Transportation In the State of Colorado." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 1952. Pope, Farrham G. "The Cost and the Quality of School Bus Transportation In Certain District-owned and Contract Systems in the Central Schools of New York State." Doctoral dissertation, Cornell Uni versity, Ithaca, New York, 1949. 114 pp. Pullen, Charles K. "Public School Transportation in Tennessee: Problems and Suggested Practices." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee, 1955. Riley, George A. "Transportation of School Children in Missouri." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 1946. 2 7 6 pp. Ronls, Leonard. "A Study of Characteristics Differ entiating Bus Drivers Who Have Accidents from Those Who Do Not Have Accidents." Unpublished 515 Master's thesis, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, 1950. 1 6 8. Ruegsegger, Vlrtil R. "Measuring the Quality and Effectiveness of Pupil Transportation Service." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Cornell Uni versity, Ithaca, New York, 1958. 105 PP. 1 6 9. Tate, Norvell G. "The Administration of Pupil Trans portation in the Public Schools of Arizona." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1951. 225 PP. 170. Tisinger, Richard Martin. "A Uniform System of Cost Accounting of School Transportation." Unpub lished Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 1958. 201 pp. 171. Webb, Holmes Andrew. "A Study of Transportation Policies and Practices of Local School Districts in Texas." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1955. 555 PP. Bulletins 172. Alabama State Department of Education. Committee Reports of the Ninth Annual Conference and Work shop for School Bus Transportation Personnel. Bulletin. Montgomery, Alabama, 1950. 165 pp. 175. Association of Casualty and Surety Companies. Truck and Bus Drivers Rule Book. New York, New York, 1959. 41 pp. 174. Association of Casualty and Surety Companies. Guide Book for Commercial Vehicle Drivers. Bulletin. New York, New York, 1957. 44 pp. 175. Association of Casualty and Surety Companies. A 316 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 1 8 2. 183. 184. Control Program for Motor Vehicle Fleets. Bulle- tin. New York, New York, 1937. 25 pp. American Mutual Insurance Alliance, Association of Casualty and Surety Companies, National Associa tion of Independent Insurers. A Program for Responsibility on Our Highways. Bulletin. Cali fornia Trucking Associations, Inc., Los Angeles, California, 1959. 25 pp. American Trucking Associations, Inc. Pacts for Driv ers. Bulletin. Washington, D. C., 1959. 127 PP. American Trucking Associations, Inc. Minimum Stand ards for Selection and Training of Personnel. Bulletin. Washington, D. C., 1956. 42 pp. American Trucking Association, Inc. Truck Driver Training. Bulletin. Washington, D. C., 1959. 104 pp. American Trucking Associations, Inc. The Driver- Tralner. His Role in the Fleet Safety Program. Bulletin. Washington, D. C., 1955. 16 pp. Arkansas State Department of Education. Handbook for School Bus Drivers. Bulletin. Little Rock, Arkansas. 38 pp. Brady, L. Personal Factors in Safe Operation of Motor Vehicles. Bulletin. New York: Center for Safety Education, New York University Bulletin, 1941. 96 pp. California Administrative Code. Title 5. Education. Sacramento, California: Bureau of Printing (Doc uments Division), 1957. 238 pp. California Public Utilities Commission. General Order No. 98. Safety Rules and Other Rules and Regulations Governing the Operations of Passen ger Stage Corporations and Street Railroad 317 185. 1 8 6. 187. 1 8 8. 189. 190. 191. 192. Corporations. San Francisco, California: Cali fornia State Printing Office, 1959. 79 pp. California State Department of Education. Adminis tration of Public School Transportation. Bulle tin. School Business Administration, Publication No. 6. California State Printing Office, Sacra mento, 1956. 159 PP. California Trucking Associations, Inc. Safety Manual for Management. Bulletin. Los Angeles, Cali fornia, 1959. 25 pp. Civil Code of California. Bender-Moss Co., San Fran cisco. The Council of State Governments. Highway Safety— A Report of the Governor's Conference on Highway Safety and Motor Truck Operation. Bulletin. Chicago, Illinois, 1950. 184 pp. Damon, Albert, and McFarland, Ross A. The Physique of Bus and Truck Drivers: With a Review of Occu pational Anthropology. Bulletin.(Reprint from the American Journal of Anthropology, from Vol. 15 » No. 4, December, 1955. PP. 711-742.) Education Code of California. Sacramento, Califor nia: Supervisor of Documents, 1959. 2 ,0 5 6 pp. Feathersone, E. Glenn. Pupil Transportation Respon sibilities and Services of State Departments of Education. United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Office of Education, United States Government Printing Office, Wash ington, D. C., 1956. 59 pp. Featherstone, E. Glenn. 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Montgomery, Alabama, 1957. 6 pp. Interstate Conmerce Commission. Revised Safety Reg ulations . Bulletin, American Trucking Associa tions, Inc. Washington 6, D.C., 1959. l8l pp. Isenberg, Rober M. Guide for Analyzing a Pupil Transportation Program. Washington, D.C.: De partment of Rural Education, National Education Association, 1955. 18 pp. Joint Council of Teaster No. 42. The Driver Safety Center. Bulletin. Los Angeles, California, 1957. 11 PP. McFarland, Ross A. Human Factors in Highway Trans port Safety. Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, 1955. 20 pp. McFarland, Ross A. The Role of Preventive Medicine in Highway Safety. Reprint from the American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 47, No. 5* March 1957. PP. 288-296. 519 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 215. 214. McFarland, Ross A., and Moore, Roland C. Human Fac tors In Highway Safety. Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, 1957* 21 pp. National Association of Motor Bus Operators. Bus Facts. Bulletin, January, 1955. National Safety Council. Accident Facts. Bulletin. Chicago, Illinois, 1959. 97 PP. National Safety Council. School Bus Supervisor's Guide. Bulletin. Chicago, Illinois, 1959. 12 pp. National Safety Council. Driver Training. Fleet Safety Manual, Part III, Bulletin. Washington, D. C., 1950. 7 PP. National Safety Council. A Professional Code for Defensive Driving. Bulletin. Washington, D.C., 1959. 17 PP. New Mexico State Department of Education. Handbook for Administrators on School Bus Transportation. Bulletin. Santa Fe, New Mexico. 52 pp. New York State Education Department. Manual for the Instruction of School Bus Drivers. Bulletin. Albany, New York, 1955. 84 pp. Iowa State Department of Public Instruction. Driver Training Series. Mimeographed bulletins. Des Moines, Iowa, 1959. 44 pp. New York State Education Department. Regulations of the Commissioner of Education of the State of New York Relating to School Bus Rules, Standards. and Specifications. 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APPENDIX A THE QUESTIONNAIRE QUESTIONNAIRE Selection, Training and Evaluation of School Bus Drivers (PERSONNEL AND DISTRICTS WILL NOT BE IDENTIFIED IN THE REPORT OF THIS STUDY) PART I Name of district or districts ......................................................................................................................................... Address of district office............................................................................................................................................ - Telephone ........................... Respondent's nam e...................................................................................................... Respondent's position..................................................................................................................................................... Total number of students transported daily in district-owned buses: (include those you carry on contract basis for other districts) Your district (s) Other district (s) a. Elementary .............................................................. a. .Elementary........................................................ b. High School.............................................................. b. High School......................................................... c. Junior College (day only)....................................... c. Junior College (day only).................................... Number of buses owned and operated by the district daily .................................................................................. Number of standby and activity buses (not included in line ab ove).................................................................. Total number of students transported daily in privately-owned contract buses .............................................. Number of privately-owned contract buses used daily ................................ ........................................................ Number of district-owned buses using recorder type tachographs ...................................................................... Is the district a "legal merit" school district as set forth in Code section 13701 to 13756 of the 1959 educa tion C ode........................... District Drivers Contract Drivers Number of Regular Full T Time Regular Part Time Combination Subititutei lobe Men J. C. Students Women Teachers State College Students H. S. Students Others (specify) Number who drive as an extra part-time assignment in addition to regular 40 hour week job performed for the district .................................................................. PART n (This questionnaire is scaled to be completed in 20 to 30 minutes) Directions: Please fill in the appropriate blanks and report your district's current practices and your evaluation of their importance in the selection, training and evaluation of school bus drivers. If the questionnaire is given to an assistant, please reserve the section on IMPORTANCE for your individual attention. In the section relating to PRACTICE: Check the space provided in the YES and N O columns to indicate whether or not your district fol lows the practices listed. Statements not checked will be weighted as NO. In the section relating to IMPORTANCE OF THE PRACTICE: Check the column which indicates your evaluation of the practice. Please answer this section, even though your district does not use the practice. A weight of "some" will be given to ques tions which are omitted. Thank you for your cooperation in this study. Tom W. Preece, Director of the Study Importance To PupU Transportation • District Practice BOARD PUPIL TRANSPORTATION POLICIES y.« n o 1. Board has adopted Specific policies □ □ a. Oovers transportation in general □ □ b. Govers operating rules and regulations for the driver □ □ c. Considers driving a part time job □ □ e. Covers new driver indoctrination program □ □ f. Covers driver responsibilities in pupil discipline □ □ g. Oovers extra trips of drivers □ □ h. Covers driver qualifications □ □ 2. Has adopted a driver salary schedule □ □ 3. Other policies relating to driving (Describe) □ □ □ □ ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES 4. District has developed rules and regulations for drivers Q □ 5. Has established a driver job description □ □ 6. Desired qualities in a driver are a matter of district record □ □ 7. Employ only "professional" type drivers (driving buses,etc., □ Q is their occupation) □ □ a. On 42 passenger buses or la rg e r □ □ b. On buses smaller than 42 passenger ............................... Q □ 8. O th er □ □ □ □ RECRUITMENT 9. It is planned in advance □ □ 10. It is planned on a calendar basis.................................................. □ □ 11. Recruit only when a vacancy o ccu rs........................................... □ □ 12. Vacancies are advertised................................................................ □ □ a. In newspapers.......................................................................... □ □ b. In union hiring halls................................................................ □ □ c. In staff bulletins........................................................................ □ □ d. In employment agencies........................................................ □ □ 13. Competitive examinations are given............................................ □ □ 14. An eligibility list is established...................................................... Q □ 15. An adequate supply of competent applicants is available □ □ 16. Pre-employment tests are used which go beyond legal re quirements........................................................................................ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ a. Bus driver knowledge test □ □ D D D D □ b. Intelligence test........................................................................ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ c. Personality and attitude test □ □ □ □ □ □ □ d. Vehicle performance test □ □ □ □ □ □ C D 17. Pre-employment training of applicants (before actual hiring).... □ □ □ □ C D □ □ a. Instruction in school bus laws found in the Motor Vehicle Q □ □ □ □ □ □ Code and in the Rules and Regulations of the State De- □ □ □ □ □ □ □ partment of Education........................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ b. Provide materials for study on school bus laws □ □ □ □ □ □ □ c. Practice making safety inspection of the school bus □ □ □ □ □ □ □ d. Driver skill training and practice □ □ □ □ □ □ □ e. Follow the procedure of making a complete run- from □ Q □ C D □ Q D safety inspection to final parking........................................ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ f. Pre-employment training is given in: (1) 1-4 hours.............................................................................. □ □ (2) 5-10 hours............................................................................ □ □ (3) 10-40 hours.......................................................................... □ □ (4) More than 40 hours.......................................................... □ □ (5) No time is provided ............................................. □ □ (6) As needed by the individual.......................................... □ □ ■ 3 § i 1 • 3 1 ts a n ► > □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ n □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ n □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ D-D □ 0.0 . . Impoxtaao* To Pupil T ram portaM o a DUtrlct • ______ Fraction EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES USED 18. Set a minimum age for first employment..... ............. . Q □ a. Use only the legal requirement....................................... . n f“1 • b- 2 0 .............................. ......... □ □ c ' ? ! - - - - — □ □ - a. 25 or over................................................... „...._ ........... . 0 0 19. Set a maximum age for first employment ............ .......... p □ 0 0 0 0 0 a- « ......... : ...: . . .. .....□ □ fa- 50 ................................ ,.................................................. □ □ c. 5 5 .......................................:............................................ . □ □ d. 60 ................................ :........ ^ ..... Q n 20. Driving experience with truck or bus is required. .... . 0 0 a. 1 year.............................. .......................... .............................. □ □ b. 2 years....................... : , 0 0 c. 3-5 years...............:............................................................ ..... . 0 0 d. 5 or more years...................................................................... □ □ 21. Have set minimum education requirement,........................ ....... □ □ . a. Can read and write.......... ..............................................,. □ 0 b. Eighth grade graduation........................................................ □ □ c. High school graduation............................ ........ ................ . □ ...0 22. Character references are required. ’.......... .......................... □ □ a. One ..................................................... .— „........ ............... . Q 0 b. Two ............................................. ............................................ □ □ c. Three .............................................. ........ ............................ □ □ 23. Character references are contacted ............... ....... ......... ..... □ □ 0 0 0 D 0 a. By telephone............................................................................ □ 0 . ; b. By letter............................................... ,.................... □ 0 c. By a structured questionnaire ........................................ P 0 . 24. Employer references are required............................................... P P 0 □ 0 0 0 a. Last job..................................... ............ .......... .... ................... □ □ b. Last 1-2 years employment.............................................. . 0 0 c. Last 3-5 years employment....................................... ............ 0 0 25. Have an interview formally structured to evaluate candidate., 0 . • P P P P P P 26. Have an informal interview......................................................... P P ::D E3 P 0 □ 27. Standard forms are used in selection (printed or duplicated).. P P , , P P P P P a. Application form.... - □ □ . b. Character reference questionnrire .... ; P P c. Employment reference questionnaire........................4—...— 0 0 d. Interview check list form ....................................... 0 0 e. Standard forms of Calif. Highway Patrol .......... . 0 0 28. Drivers start as substitutes............... — — — -..... — , — 0 0 □ O □ 0 0 29. Other employment practices used................................................ 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 0 0 ....................................................... - ........ ............. ............. 0 0 O 0 0 0 O POST EMPLOYMENT TESTING—BEYOND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS 30. Physical examination is more extensive ....................... 0 0 O O 0 0 O a. Chest x-ray — ...... —1 ...... ........ ...............................0 0 0 0 0 0 0 b. Venereal disease tests.— .... ....... ...................... . 0 0 O 0 O O 0 c. Required semi-annually for all drivers .......... 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 0 O O d. Required annually, for all drivers........................................ 0 0 P ^ D .. 0 0 e. Required on a basis of qge .................................. . 0 0 0 0 0 0 O (1) After age 50...... - .......... .................................................... 0 0 (2) After age 55 L......................... — 0 0 (3) After age 60..................................... — — .......... ................. 0 0 31. Psychophysical examinations are given (brake reaction, field of vision, distance judgment, etc.) ................................... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a. Only as required on medical form................. ::..... ........... 0 0 b. Planned and provided by district...................................... 0 0 c. At bus roadeos, safety clinics, etc......................................... 0 0 Importance To Pupil Trrnuportafion D U trici 8 I I l I P roctlco k 3 A > p y# B Ifo 32. Other (specify) ................................................................................. □ □ - □ □ □ □ □ □ ’□ »DUCTION □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 33. A planned program is followed.................................................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 34. Issue manuals, bulletins, and handbook to new driver. □ □ □ 35. Study and discuss in detail the various phases of the bus □ □ driver's Job- □ □ □ □ □ □ ' □ a. Daily routine........................................................................... □ Q □ □ □ □ □ b. Award and recognition program........................................ □ □ □ □ O □ □ c. Insurance and employee benefits ............................. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ d. Lines of authority and responsibility................................ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ e. Bus driver safety education program................................ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ f. Public relations □ □ □ □ □ □ □ g. Bus transportation's relationship to total program n □ □ D □ D □ h. Making out reports. ........................................................ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ L Child behavior □ □ □ □ □ □ □ I. Proper relationships for the driver and the children □ □ □ □ □ □ □ k. Other (specify) □ □ □ □ □ □ □ „ - □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 36. Give the new driver a chance to practice maneuvering his bus □ □ □ Q □ □ □ 37. Have the mechanic discuss care, maintenance and inspec tion of the bus with the new driver. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 38. Introduce the new driver to fellow employees and immediate superior □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 39. Time given to induction is a 1-4 hours................................................................................... □ □ b. 5-10 hours................................................................................. □ □ c. 20-40 hours............................................................................... □ □ d. 40-80 hours............................................................................... □ □ e. More than 80 h o u rs ,....................................... □ □ DRIVER TRAINING IN THE DISTRICT 40. District has a planned and scheduled program of driver train tag and education □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 41. All drivers are required to take part in the training program.. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 42. A special program is planned for each meeting □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 43. Current problem meetings are called as needed □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 44. Regularly scheduled meetings are held: □ □ □ □ □ □ □ a. Monthly ...... □ □ b. Q uarterly................................................................................. □ □ c. Twice a year........................................................................... □ □ d. Annually ................................................................................. □ □ e. Other (specify)......................................................................... □ □ □ □ 45. Meetings are held during the regular working day □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 46. Drivers are paid for meetings outside of the regular working day .......................................................................... ;......................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ a. Flat fee..................................................................................... □ □ b. By the hour............................................................................. □ □ 47. Time is given to driver training: a. 1-4 hours................................................................................... □ □ b. 4-8 hours................................................................................... □ □ c. 8-12 hours........................................................:........................ □ □ d. 12-15 hours..................................................................... :........ □ □ e. 15-30 hours............................................................................... □ H U f. More than 30 hours............................................................... □ □ 48. District uses free training program of bus m anufacturers □ □ □ □ □ D □ Important)* To PnpU Tnm iportation DUMcl Practice INCENTIVE PROGRAM h. 49. An incentive program is planned .............................................. □ □ a. Includes participation in bus roadeo □ □ b. Includes annual safety awards □ □ c. Includes annual "Honors" banquet Q □ d. Includes publicity in local papers...................................... □ □ e. Other (specify)......................................................................... □ □ □ □ SUPERVISION 50. The supervisor rides on bus runs.................................................. □ □ a. On a planned schedule □ □ b. When a problem arises........................................................ □ □ c. When he is least expected.................................................... □ □ 51. Supervisor inspects bus operation by following bus in another car ....................................................................................................... □ □ 52. Supervisor uses a check sheet form for driver evaluation □ □ 53. Other techniques of supervision used................................. □ □ - □ □ EVALUATION 54. Formal evaluation is made of each driver.................................. □ □ a. Trait rating method used (quantity, quality of work, co operation, etc.)......................................................................... □ □ b. Check list analysis of the duties of the lob is used □ □ c. Supporting evidence reports used........................................ □ □ (1) All driver violation tickets must be reported............... □ □ (2) Accident reports............................................................... □ □ (3) Supervisor reports □ □ (4) Tachometer reports □ □ (5) Letters of commendation □ □ d. Drivers know the bases for evaluation □ □ e. Rating form w as composed cooperatively by administra- □ □ tion and employees □ □ f. Rating is regular and routine □ □ (1) Sem i-annual □ Q (2) Annual □ □ (3) Every two years □ □ g. Rater discusses rating with driver...................................... □ □ h. Driver may read rating.......................................................... □ Q (1) May add disagreement in writing □ □ (2) Driver signs rating □ □ i. Rating form is evaluated periodically □ □ 1 . Rating is done verbally.......................................................... □ □ k. O ther......................................................................................... □ □ ............................................................. n n UNIFORMS 55. Drivers are required or requested to wear a uinform................. □ Q a. Uniforms provided by the district □ □ b. Provided by the driver.......................................................... □ □ (1) Specifications set by district □ □ (2) Specifications agreed upon among drivers □ □ (3) District provides bus driver identification patches and-or emblems............................................................... □ □ 56. Uniforms are an influence in controlling pupils............................................. 57. Uniforms aid drivers in critical moments of accidents in deal-.................... ing with the public............................................................................................... 58. Uniforms add a business-like air to the bus operation................................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ r n □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ n □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ p a r t in Directions: Please answer only those questions which relate to your district's practices. Evaluate your district's experiences by checking the appropriate spaces: Never, Seldom, Occasionally, Frequently, always. Fraquaicr , .1 .8 . Ji t I I I i PART TIME DRIVERS (those hired for a lew hours a day, to do praSS^ 5 £ o £ 3 driving only) Y »* N o 5 9 . District employs women for this job.......................................... .... □ □ n n □ □ □ a. District recommends them as drivers.............................. □ n n n □ b. Work well in controlling pupils....................................... n n □ □ □ c. Are harder than others on equipment........................... n n □ □ □ d . Have another job to fill out the day............................. □ n n n n e. Are housewives ................................................................ n n □ n □ f. Absenteeism is a problem................................................ n n n n □ g. Difficult to obtain applicants............................................ □ n □ □ □ h. Other related factors or problems................................. □ □ □ □ □ □ n □ □ □ 60. District employs junior college students for this job.............. .... □ □ □ n □ □ □ a. District recommends them as drivers............................. n n n n □ b. Work well in controlling pupils....................................... n n n n D c. Are harder than others on equipment........................... n n □ □ □ d. Schedule and social conflicts are a problem................ □ n n n □ e. Absenteeism is a problem............................................... □ □ □ □ □ f. Other related factors or problems................................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 61. District employs men (other than teachers) for this job........ .... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ a. District recommends them as drivers.............................. □ □ □ □ U b. Work well in controlling pupils....................................... □ □ □ □ □ c. Are harder than others on equipment........................... □ n □ □ u d. Have anoher full time job............................................... □ n □ □ □ e. Have another job to fill out the work day...................... D n □ □ □ f. Retired ............................ ................................................... □ □ □ □ □ g. Absenteeism is a problem............................................... □ □ □ □ □ h. Other related factors or problems................................. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 6 2 . District employs teachers for this job............................................ n □ □ □ □ □ □ a. District recommends them as drivers..................................... □ □ □ □ □ b. Work well in controlling pupils............................................... □ □ □ □ □ c. Are harder than others on equipment................................... □ □ □ □ □ d. Teaching duties interfere........................................................ □ □ □ □ □ e. Feel that it is a poor practice, as it hampers the effective ■ . . . □ □ □ □ □ ness of the teacher.................................................................. □ □ □ □ □ f. Other related factors or problems.......................................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ n □ n 63. Use of part time drivers is limited................................................ n □ □ □ □ □ □ a. By a need for full time drivers................................................. □ □ □ □ □ b. By a lack of applicants............................................................ □ □ □ □ □ c. By a shortage of part time jobs in the community............. □ □ □ D □ d. By a shortage of applicants who are willing to do this... □ □ □ □ u work plus a full time job........................................................ □ □ □ □ □ e. Other related problems........................................................... □ □ □ □ □ □ n n n n F r e q u e n c y * B 1 I COMBINATION JOBS * < * (work part time as a driver and part time as a custodian, etc.) y» i N o 64. The district provides combination jobs......................................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ a. Salary is the same as driving □ □ □ □ □ b. Salary for the other job is based on classification of that lob □ □ □ □ □ c. This system is efficient in terms of quality and quantity of work done on both jobs (your judgment) □ □ □ □ □ d. Drivers dislike other types of work than that of driving (your judgment) □ □ □ □ □ e. Conflicts of authority often arise between the driver's superior and the superior of the supplementary job D O D D O f. One job generally takes priority over the other □ □ □ □ □ g. Must use this system to get bus drivers................................................. O □ □ D □ h. This system is recommended................................................................... D D D O O i. Other related problems or factors (describe)......................................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ PART IV YOUR COMMENTS, SUGGESTIONS, OR CRITICISMS APPENDIX B THE PARTICIPATING SCHOOL DISTRICTS COOPERATING SCHOOL DISTRICTS Acalanes Union High School District and Lafayette, Orlnda, Moraga Elementary 1212 Pleasant Hill Road Lafayette, California Alhambra City and Alhambra City High School Districts 601 North Garfield Avenue Alhambra, California Anaheim City School District 412 East Broadway Anaheim, California Anaheim Union High School 125 N. Citron Street Anaheim, California Analy Union High School 154 Analy Avenue Seabastopol, California Antelope Valley Joint Union High School District 44900 No. Division Street Lancaster, California Arcadia Unified School District 111 W. Duart Road Arcadia, California Areata Union High School 1720 M. Street Areata, California Arden Carmichael School District P.O. Box 477 Carmichael, California 524 Bakersfield City School District 1300 Baker Street Bakersfield, California Baldwin Park Unified School District 3699 N. Holly Baldwin Park, California Barstow Union High School District 425 East Main Street Barstow, California Bellflower Unified School District 16703 South Clark Avenue Bellflower, California Cajon Valley School District 189 Roanoke Avenue El Cajon, California Calaveras Unified School District P. 0. Box 788 San Andreas, California Campbell Union School District 155 North Third Street Campbell, California Central Union High School District 1001 Brighton Avenue El Centro, California Chaffey Union High School District 1245 No. Euclid Avenue Ontario, California Chico City School P. 0. Box 505 Chico, California Chino Unified School District 13196 First Street Chino, California 526 Chula Vista City School District P. 0. Box 907 Chula Vista, California Coalinga Union High School District and Junior College 750 Van Ness Avenue Coalinga, California College of The Sequoias Mooney Boulevard Visalia, California Compton Union High School District 417 W. Alondra Boulevard Compton, California Costa Mesa Union School District 1857 Placentia Avenue Costa Mesa, California Covina School District 19009 E. Badillo Covina, California Covina Union High School District P. 0. Box 251 Covina, California Delano Joint Union High School District 1551 Cecil Avenue Delano, California Eastside Union High School District 6742 East Avenue H Lancaster, California East Whittier City School District 14535 East Whittier Boulevard Whittier, California El Dorado Union High School 222 Canal Street Placerville, California El Monte Union High School District 127 Eastmont Avenue El Monte, California Escondido Union School District Fifth and Maple Streets Escondido, California Eureka City Schools 1915 "J" Street Eureka, California Excelsior Union High School District 17925 So. Pioneer Boulevard Artesia, California Fall River Joint Unified School District Fall River Mills California Folsom Unified School District 101 Dean Way Folsom, California Fontana Unified School District 9680 Citrus Fontana, California Fortuna Union High School District Eleventh and "I" Streets Fortuna, California Fowler High, Fowler Elementary, Malaga Elementary P. 0. Box 667 Fowler, California Fullerton Elementary 5^0 E. Wilshire Avenue Fullerton, California Fullerton Union High School District 201 East Chapman Avenue Fullerton, California Garden Grove Elementary Schools 11562 E. Stanford Garden Grove, California Grossmont Union High School District P. 0. Box 45 Grossmont, California Hayward Union High School District 505 Elmhurst Street Hayward, California Hemet Valley Union School District and Hemet Union High School District 851 E. Devonshire Hemet, California Hudson School District 15959 E. Gale Avenue La Puente, California Huntington Beach Union High School District 1902 Seventeenth Street Huntington Beach, California Jefferson Union High School District 575 South Mayfair Avenue, Room 214 Daly City, California Jefferson Union School District 1201 Lawrence Station Road Santa Clara, California Keppel Union High School District 8244 Pearblossom Highway Littlerock, California Kern County Joint Union High School and College District 2000 Twenty-fourth Street Bakersfield, California La Mesa High School Spring Val ley- 4750 Date Avenue La Mesa, California Lemoore Union High School District Box 517 Lemoore, California Lodi Union High School 815 W. Lockeford Street Lodi, California Long Beach Unified School District 715 Locust Avenue Long Beach, California Los Altos School District P. 0. Box 188 Los Altos, California Los Angeles City School Districts 450 N. Grand Avenue Los Angeles, California Madera Union High School 200 South "L" Street Madera, California Mariposa County Unified School District P. 0. Box "H" Mariposa, California Marysville Union High School 18th and "B" Streets Marysville, California Merced City School District 555 W. 22nd Street Merced, California Modesto City Schools 426 Locust Street Modesto, California Montebello Unified School District 123 So. Montebello Boulevard Montebello, California Mountain Empire Unified School District P. 0. Box 98 Campo, California Mountain View Elementary 729 Fairmont Avenue Mountain View, California Mt. Diablo Unified School District 1936 Carlotta Drive Concord, California Muroc Unified School District Edwards California Napa Union High School District 1750 First Street Napa, California Newport Beach Elementary School District 2000 Cliff Drive Newport Beach, California Newport Harbor Union High School District 1200 Fifteenth Street Newport Beach, California North Monterey County Union School District P. 0. Box 4l-A Moss Landing, California Norwalk-La Mirada City School District 12820 South Pioneer Boulevard Norwalk, California Oakdale Joint Union High School P. 0. Box 68 Oakdale, California Oceanside Union School District Oceanside-Carlsbad Union High School District 150 South Home Street Oceanside, California Ontario School District 950 West l f D" Street Ontario, California Orange Unified School District 570 No. Glassell Street Orange, California Oroville Union High School District 1555 Bridge Street Oroville, California Oxnard Union High School District 509 South K Street Oxnard, California Palmdale High School 58 26 0 Tenth Street Palmdale, California Palm Springs Unified School District 558 No. Palm Canyon Drive Palm Springs, California Palo Verde Unified School District 187 North Seventh Avenue Blythe, California Paramount Unified School District 15110 So. California Avenue Paramount, California Paso Robles Joint Union High School District 1917 Oak Street P. 0. Box 607 Paso Robles, California 332 Placer Joint Union High School District 275 Orange Street Auburn* California Porterville Union High School and College District 735 West Olive Street Porterville, California Red Bluff Union High School District 1525 Douglas Street Red Bluff, California Redlands Joint Union High School District and Redlands School District P. 0. Box 279 Redlands, California Redwood City School District 400 Duane Street Redwood City, California Reedley Joint Union High School District and Reedley College P. 0. Box 552 Reedley, California Reef-Sunset Union Elementary School District 500 South First Avenue Avenal, California Rialto High School 101 South Riverside Rialto, California Richland Elementary Shafter California Sacramento City Unified School District 1619 "N” Street Sacramento 10, California Salinas Union High School District 431 W. Alisal Street Salinas, California San Diego Unified School District 4100 Normal Street San Diego 3.» California San Dieguito Union High School 540 N. Highway 101 Encinitas, California San Jose Unified School District 408 Almaden Avenue San Jose, California San Juan Union High School District 3738 Walnut Avenue Carmichael, California Santa Marla Joint Union High School District 901 So. Broadway Santa Maria, California Selma Union High School 3125 Wright Street Selma, California Sequoia Union High School District 480 James Street Redwood City, California Sierra Joint Union High School Tollhouse California Stockton Unified School District 701 No. Madison Street Stockton, California Taft City School District 810 No. Sixth Street Taft, California Taft Union High School Seventh and San Emidio Streets Taft, California Tahoe-Truckee Unified School District P. 0. Box 1328 Truckee, California Tehachapi Unified School District 208 So. Green Street Tehachapi, California Torrance Unified School District 2335 Plaza del Amo Torrance, California Turlock Joint Union High School District 1574 Canal Drive Turlock, California Ventura Union High School District 295 South Arcade Drive Ventura, California Vista Unified School District 200 Michigan Avenue Vista, California Wasco Union High School District Box 428 Wasco, California Westside Union High School District 46809 North 70th Street West Lancaster, California Whittier Union High School District 902 W. Washington Boulevard Whittier, California APPENDIX C THE JURY PANEL JURY PANEL Mr. Howard A. Dawson Director, Division of Rural Services National Education Association Wa shingt on, D.C. Dr. Robert Fisher Personnel Director Los Angeles City School Districts P. 0. Box 5507 Los Angeles 54, California Dr. A. Neil Galluzzo Ass11 Superintendent, Business Service Inglewood Unified School District 111 No. Grevillea Avenue Inglewood, California Mr. Robert F. Hansen Manager of the Driver Safety Center Division California Trucking Association 5701 South Santa Fe Avenue Vernon, California Mrs. Georgiana Hardy Member, Los Angeles City Board of Education 450 North Grand Avenue Los Angeles, California Mr. Ray Hartman Vice-President, Engineering Crown Body and Coach Corporation 2500 East Twelfth Street Los Angeles 21, California Dr. H. Thomas James Associate Professor of Education Stanford University Stanford, California 556 Dr. Roy Johnson County School Superintendent San Bernardino County San Bernardino, California Dr. H. H. Linn Professor of Education Teachers College, Columbia University New York City, New York Capt. G. R. RainJohn Special Services Officer California Highway Patrol P. 0. Box 898 Sacramento 4, California Mr. Marion B. Sloss, Chief Bureau of Administrative Services Division of School Administration State Department of Education 721 Capital Avenue Sacramento, California Mr. John P. Weil, Chairman Transportation Committee California Association of Public School Business Officials 1725 Deodora Street Simi, California APPENDIX D SUMMARY OF RESPONSES OF 115 SCHOOL DISTRICTS IN CALIFORNIA OPERATING 10 OR MORE SCHOOL BUSES oo so UW WH MSO Mi) 0sW „ NO> »oo ocjoooa qooooit H-H H 9 . . j > act toa S'S’ao S o r t “ f t M K S m o f # 0 1 I t A an I I 5T J HH H H I* itTJ r t ^ ^ e0 < » i t < ei h r A A PR f t . .... pB^HOft j HHl SRPAPH HA. H 0 A A Hi PAR Cfft H i*o* ftH H* f t f t Mi B O AO*!* HH O o o < HRftHRP ?! tlhtt R » A r t A H A H »H HH f t OU< | 0 I * HP 0 0 HA E > 0* M » e H A 3 ? PR 0*H H «u i s t o o wwnsor MlfiOW ONNSR M MH UR H HNsOH WHH NO*RU U O'W I s ) N) WWHO WHRNIs) UUUW NNO'O'Is) SORRR RWHRR O' WN£ NHWO>R R^QlR A>QmOo^ p o? H -1*6 A §• I f t j ? 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S' f l 4 0 HH 4 0 3 HH4 M H M S H i l 448U0H UBUO 4UH43 44 43 OBO J5H 030 H 0 3 HB44'naaooS44ae4fl44 , 0 4 A 4H 0 4 A HjB 4 A Hrt flu H > 0 , 3 343 U3 BU UH 4HfiUHHH 3 B OHH f l H3 4 4 0 H 4 Sv H 43H4U4HUH3H4 H flH4 i t w i w h i y . i h i 'Pi’isr riis'f" o u H 4 f l 4 an o oil 43 a o 8 H 4 ^ ^ 1 8 S p 5 S 8 H jSli PART TIME DRIVERS (Continued) Have another full time job Have another job to fill out tbe work day Retired Absenteeism is a problem Employ teachers for this job Recommend them as drivers Work, well in controlling pupils Are harder than others on equipment Teaching duties interfere Feel that it is poor practice; hampers effectiveness of teacher Provide combination jobs Salary same as driving Salary for other job based on classification of job This system efficient in terms of quality and quantity of work done on both jobs (your j udgment) Drivers dislike other types of work than that of driving (your judgment) Conflicts of authority often arise between driver's superior and superior of supplementary job One job generally takes priority over other Must use this system to get bus drivers This system recommended _____________Frequency Recom— Occa- mended Sel- sion— Fre- Yes No Never dom ally quently Always 11 5 6 2 7 5 5 5 I O 1 6 1 1 1 e l 2 5 1 5 6 5 1 1 1 4- 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 1 3 3 t * W n a* H H

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Preece, Thomas William (author)

Core Title The Selection, Training And Evaluation Of School Bus Drivers In California

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, administration,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Nelson, D. Lloyd (committee chair), Muelder, Wallace R. (committee member), Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-240997

Unique identifier UC11358059

Identifier 6103805.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-240997 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6103805.pdf

Dmrecord 240997

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Preece, Thomas William

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA