University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Economy Of Learning At Beginning Levels Of Gross Motor Performance

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Economy Of Learning At Beginning Levels Of Gross Motor Performance

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Content ECONOMY OF LEARNING AT BEGINNING LEVELS OF GROSS MOTOR PERFORMANCE by Paul Thomas A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Physical Education) UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA GRADUATE S CHO O L UNIVERSITY PARK LCS A NG EL ES 7. CALIFORN IA This dissertation, written by ... Paul Thomas....... ......... under the direction of h.%.$...Dissertation C o m mittee, a n d a p p r o v e d by all its m em bers, has been presented to and accepted by the D ean of the G raduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the deqree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y TABLE OP CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION .............................. 1 The Problem....................... 5 Statement of the problem ............. 5 Purposes of the s t u d y ............... 7 Importance of the s t u d y ............. 7 Delimitations and basic assumptions. . 8 Method of procedure 9 Definition of Terms ........... 10 Economy of learning.......... 10 Pine motor skills ............... 10 Gross motor skills............ 11 Motor learning ..... ........... 11 Verbalization .. 11 Organization of the Remainder of the Dissertation ...... . . . . . . . 11 II. RELATED LITERATURE....................... 13 Whole Versus Part Learning ..«•••. 14 Learning of fine motor skills .... 15 Learning of gross motor skills .... 19 Verbalization and Demonstration .... 24 Learning and verbalization ...... 25 11 CHAPTER PAGE Learning and demonstration • ... 26 Kinesthesia and Kotor Learning • • . • . 31 Thinking and Motor Performance ........ 36 Miscellaneous Studies in Motor Learning. 43 Summary................................. 49 III. PROCEDURE................................. 51 Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Experimental Design .... ........... 5^ Criteria for Selection of Skills .... 60 Description of the Experimental Skills . 61 Football . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Football instruction . . . . . . . . 61 Football practice . . . . . . . . . 62 Football t e s t ............... 63 Soccer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Soccer Instruction . . . . . . . . . 64 Soccer practice 64 Soccer test . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Badminton ........... 68 Badminton instruction ..... .. 68 Badminton practice . . . . . . . . . 69 Badminton test . 70 Handball............... 73 Handball instruction ......... 73 ill CHAPTER PAGE Handball practice ......... •••• 74 Handball t e s t ................. . . 74 Basketball................. 77 Basketball Instruction ............. 77 Basketball practice .. ........... 78 Basketball t e s t ................... 79 Volleyball •••••••••••••• 81 Volleyball Instruction ....... 81 Volleyball practice ...t . . . . 82 Volleyball test 83 Statistical Treatment • 86 The Film . . . . . . . . .«.«»«. 87 IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION................. 89 The Experimental Skills.............. 90 Football ....... . . o o o .o . 90 Find ings ®.®® o ® o o ® q ®®.® 90 Discussion 90 Soccer . 9 4 Findings ®®..®©®®®.®®©® 94 DlSCUSSlOn A. sa .ss .e . vs e 94 Badminton............................ 97 Findings • ••*••••«...«. 97 Discussion •©..... ........... 97 Handball .o®*®..®®©®®®.® 101 Iv CHAPTER PAGE Findings............................ 101 Discussion •••••••• ......... 103 Basketball....................... 105 Findings . ........................ 105 Discussion ................. 107 Volleyball ....................... 107 Findings.....................•*•• 107 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Results of Analysis of Filin............ 110 Experimental Design ..... ........... Ill General Discussion . . . . . . . . . . 113 Implications for Teaching ....... 114 Summary................................ 113 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.................... 119 Summary .. ............... ...... 119 Summary of procedure . . . . . . . . . 120 Summary of results . . . o . . . . . . 123 Summary of implications for teaching • 123 Conclusion .............. 124 Suggestions for Further Study ..... 124 BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................... 127 v LIST OP TABLES TABLE PAGE I. Experimental design ...................... 56 II. Findings of the football Item ......... 91 III. Findings of the soccer Item.............. 95 IV. Findings of the badminton Item ......... 98 V. Findings of the handball item............. 102 VI. Findings of the basketball Item........... 106 VII. Findings of the volleyball item •••••• 108 vi LIST OP FIGURES FIGURE PAGE * 1• Arrangement of chairs for soccer dribble test .................................. 67 2. Arrangement of chairs for basketball dribble test.................................. 80 vil CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Economy in learning has always concerned educators and psychologists. Many studies have been conducted In an effort to discover techniques that can reduce the amount of time and energy expended by the learner, but there Is still much to be discovered about how learning takes place. Although fine motor skills have been Intensely investigated, the learning of gross motor skills has been relatively unexplored. Procedures developed and used to facilitate the learning of other subjects often have been adapted by physical educators, because It has been pre sumed that these procedures would apply to the acquisition of gross motor skills. As a result, there is limited evidence concerning the conditions under which gross motor skills are best learned. An Important aspect of the problem of learning a gross motor skill is Involved in the Introduction of the skill. The method by which the new skill is presented Is possibly one of the most Important factors In determining the extent to which the beginner will develop Interest and satisfaction as well as ability to perform the skill 2 with proficiency. It has been observed that some physical educators, to gain the above advantages, attempt to get the learner to perform correctly from the start, and they spend a great amount of time trying to get the learner to perfect each movement before permitting him to go on to the next. Other physical educators seem to be less concerned with the correctness of the initial performance, and to be more concerned with getting the subject to perform as soon as possible even though the degree of efficiency might be low. Ragsdale expressed his views of this problem In this manner: Emphasis has traditionally been placed upon getting a correct start. We have pointed out that it is Impossible to get a really correct start} that even a skilled performer is not doing the skilled acts in the correct, that is, the best possible way. This problem should be restated in different terms. We should ask, rather, what means can be used for getting the best possible start, so that the learner will have a shorter distance to go in gaining a de gree of skill which is Judged to be good enough. As a means for getting the best possible start, many devices have been adopted— the use of demonstrations, veroal instructions, mechanical and manual guidance, et cetera. All these devices can be grouped together as contributing toward the solution of the general problem of teaching. From the standpoint of economy in learning this problem can be stated in the form of the question, "What can a teacher do to aid learning?" (20:65) In addition to the examples Ragsdale mentioned, there are other hastening devices used by experienced physical educators when introducing a new skill. One of these Is to build upon past experiences of the subjects. 3 Some teachers of dance teach the polka, for example, as a development from the gallop or skip. If the polka were taught by having the student go through the procedure mechanically step by step, It would probably take some time to attain a reasonable degree of good performance. Another hastening device Is that of using lead-up games prior to Introducing a sport. Some physical educa tors use a game like dodge-ball for practicing the skills of catching and throwing a basketball, and for the experience of throwing quickly and accurately. In such a game, the player learns to judge a moving target, to use his teammates by passing to one who has a better chance of scoring a hit, and to recognize scoring possibilities. It is assumed that the performer will be able to transfer the ability to perform these general skills to the subse quent performance of basketball, and thus shorten the amount of time needed to develop basketball skills. Still other examples are found In swimming and fighting. There are many cases of persons who were taught to swim simply by being thrown Into deep water. This can be classed as a hastening device, though admittedly a crude one. Fighting provides a similar example. It Is common for boys to fight. Though they may never have been taught how to fight, they, of necessity, usually learn some method of fighting very quickly. The educator often uses the technique Involved k in the examples above; that Is, he puts the student In a situation In which he has to learn to perform well, and In which he often finds that he can perform with reason able success after a short learning session. All of these devices have one element in common. In each of these cases the learner Is put into a situation in which his thoughts are occupied with something other than the details of the specific motor skills which are requisite to performance. In dancing, for example, the learner may be thinking about when to change the leading foot in the gallop on a signal from the instructor rather than about how to do a polka per se; indeed, he probably does not know at this point that the polka is the objec tive. Glassow calls this, "... utilizing subconscious motor patterns . . (90:19) In the dodge-ball example, the beginner may be thinking of the goal, which Is to hit one of the opponents x^lth the ball. He probably does not think about the acts of catching or throwing the ball. In the swimming example, the learner’s attention is surely not on the specific actions of swimming. He probably Is not thinking about performing a flutter kick, or about lifting his elbows high on the recovery. All he is concerned with Is saving himself, and so he fights his way out by trial and error, and determination. Some methods, as exemplified above, that the teacher might use in refocussing the attention are: 5 (l) set up another goal for the learner; (2) put the learner in a situation where he is compelled to perform satisfactorily if he is to function at all; and (3) guide the learner by building on skills he already possesses. In other words the teacher may "trick*' the learner into learning, or assist him to "learn without awareness." It is possible, then, to form, from an examination of these procedures, a suggested hypothesis of motor learning, as follows: if in learning a motor skill, a beginner's attention can be directed away from a conscious awareness of the specific details of his immediate body actions, he may learn a skill more quickly than if he were to learn the skill by perfecting each part of the movement step by step. This study was concerned with testing this suggested hypothesis of motor learning. THE PROBLEM This study was undertaken in an attempt to secure some information about how motor skills are learned, especially at the beginning levels of performance. abatement. &£ BESthlsa. The problem In this study was to test the hypothesis that a person learns some motor skills more quickly If he focusses his attention during performance on factors other than the 6 details of specific body movements. This problem was approached by: 1. Selecting skills which could be used to test this hypothesis. 2. Establishing, for each skill, two groups selected from the same population, one of which was taught to practice the skill in such a manner that the attention was focussed on factors other than specific body movements; and the other was taught in such a manner that the attention was directed toward specific body movements which are required for successful performance. A third group, which took the tests but did not practice, was Included as a control group. 3. Comparing, statistically, for each skill, the performance of the three groups. Comparing, by means of a moving picture analysis, the mean performance of the two experimental groups o 5. Determining from the comparisons whether the hypothesis should be accepted or rejected. As a preliminary investigation, a pilot study was conducted using as subjects male students who volunteered from the physical education service program at the University of Southern California. From the results of this study refinements were made In the procedure and these were incorporated into the final study. 7 Purposes the study. The purposes of the study were (1) to broaden understandings of how gross motor skills are best learned, and (2) to Improve methods of teaching gross motor skills. Importance &£ the study. Motor learning is not only the essence of physical education and physical activity, It is Important in every aspect of life. In industry, for example, proper motor learning is vitally important for workers must use complicated machines and equipment. In professions like dentistry and medicine, adept performance of fine motor skills Is required. Virtually every occupation, as well as recreation, demands motor skills. As Kingsley said: An individual^ ability to meet the demands made upon him by his environment depends upon the acquisi tion of a great many motor skills, the skills that involve bodily movement. To possess such skills means to be able to act with dexterity and profic iency. Every normal individual acquires a large number of motor skills, some quite Incidentally as various acts are performed again and again, others by dint of much effort and time spent In practice to achieve high levels of expertness for their monetary or social values. Since the action skills play so significant a role in the lives of every one of us and because the school undertakes to teach a number of them, their acquisition deserves careful study. (14:209) Any studies which give direction toward the improvement of learning methods are Important. The hypothesis tested in this study was developed..with the intent of finding out more about how motor skills are 8 learned; such Information could be used to improve the teaching of motor skills. DsIlmltfl.tlQos apA Eagle ase.uiBP.tlgaa ° The sample used in this study was drawn from the population of boys in Grade A-8 in several of the junior high schools of Los Angeles. These boys were between twelve and fourteen years of age. Since these subjects were all volunteers, it is possible that the sample was slightly biased be cause it is likely that the more skilled and more active boys would be attracted to participate. It was recognized that some of the subjects were beyond the beginning levels of skill In some of the activities, but it was assumed that with large samples, and with random sampling within the restricted population, the groups would be equated. Furthermore, It was assumed that the experimental design used would Insure that any problems arising from possible differences within the groups would not affect the results of the study. This design is described In Chapter III. The skills selected for use in this study were the football punt, the soccer dribble, the badminton high clear, the handball volley, the basketball dribble, and the volleyball spike. The criteria for the selection of these skills are discussed in Chapter III. The principles and methods used for teaching the skills were chosen from publications dealing with the performance of skills, from discussions with experienced teachers of these skills, and from the investigator's experience. It was assumed that these methods were typical of those used by physical educators in general. The teaching procedure was verbal in nature and was accompanied by demonstrations. These delimitations and basic assumptions must be taken into account when drawing any interpretations and conclusions from this study. JlathQ-d procedure. One hundred and fifty boys were divided into three groups as followss Group A, composed of sixty boys, Group B, composed of sixty boys, and Group C, composed of thirty boys. Six skills were used in the study; namely, the football punt, the soccer dribble, the badminton high clear, the handball volley, the basketball dribble, and the volleyball spike. Group A acted as the control group in the foot ball, badminton, and basketball items, and as the experimental group in the soccer, handball, and volley ball Items. Group B opposed Group A In that it acted as the experimental group In the football, badminton, and basketball items, and as the control group in the soccer, handball, and volleyball items. Group C acted as a pure control group and merely performed the tests without 10 experiencing either of the teaching or practicing methods. For clarification, a diagram of the experimental design can he found in Table I on page 56. Groups A and B were given the same instructions regarding how to perform each skill, but practiced them by a different method. After a ten minute practice session in a skill, the members of the group were tested in that skill. This procedure was repeated for all six skills. Comparisons were made, finally, between the scores of all groups. DEFINITION OF TERMS For the sake of clarity, certain terms that are used frequently herein are defined as follows; Economy of learning. Economy of learning meant, in this study, economy In terms of time and energy taken to learn a skill, or to develop the ability to perform the skill with some degree of proficiency. Economy of learning was limited to the learning of gross motor skills. Fine motor skills. Seashore defined this term as, "those neuromuscular coordinations which involve smaller segments of the body, or minimum contractions of widespread musculatures." (73:259) In this study such 11 skills as maze tracing, piano playing, and typewriting were considered fine motor skills. Gross motor skills. This term was defined by Seashore as, "those neuromuscular coordinations which Involve vigorous contractions of large muscles and usually movement of the whole body." (73*259) In this study the common sports involving movement of the total body were included in this category. Motor learning. In this study, the term motor learning referred to the learning of gross motor skills. Verbalization. Verbalization means to express by means of words. In this study, the term verbalization referred to the giving of instructions or directions orally. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE DISSERTATION The remainder of this study is organized Into five chapters. Chapter II presents a review and discus sion of the literature relating to the problem in this study. Chapter III consists of a detailed account of the method of procedure which was followed In conducting the Investigation. The findings are discussed In Chapter IV. In the final section, Chapter V3 the study Is summarized 12 and a general conclusion Is drawn. CHAPTER II RELATED LITERATURE In this study, which was concerned with economy of learning gross motor skills, the following hypothesis was explored: if, in learning some gross motor skills, conscious attention can be directed away from the learner’s bodily performance, he will develop th© ability to perform the skill more quickly. There seems to be little in the literature relating directly to this hypothesis; however, several studies were found which are concerned with economy of learning in general. Many of the findings, generaliza tions, theories, and opinions resulting from these studies do relate indirectly to the present study. One of the topics that appears frequently in the literature concerning economy of learning is that dealing with comparisons between whole and part methods of learning. Gopalaswami mentioned this fact in an article on economy of motor learning. In the investigation of the most economical methods of learning, two problems have been dominant. The first Is to compare the advantages of learning by wholes and by parts. In the whole method, the material is learnt by going through it completely time after time; In the part method, the material is divided into portions and each of these is learnt before transition Is made to the following one. 13 Ik The second great problem concerns the best way of arranging repetitions. A comparison was made between the plan of massing these all at one sitting and that of distributing them over several sittings separated by more or less lengthy intervals. Here, the ad vantage was found to be with the distributive method. Moreover, this advantage was much greater in amount and much more unanimously confirmed by other lnvesti- ? ators than in the case of learning by wholes. 50:226-7) Other general areas of the literature that were believed to be related include information on verbaliza tion and demonstration in teaching a motor skill, and that which gave advice on what to think about while performing a motor skill. Information regarding the above areas is reviewed in this chapter, and the material is divided into the following sections: Whole Versus Part Learning, Verbalization and Demonstration, Klnesthesls and Motor Learning, Thinking and Motor Performance, and Miscel laneous Studies in Motor Learning. WHOLE VERSUS PART LEARNING As pointed out above, one of the many approaches to the problem of economy of motor learning, that has received much attention, is that of whole versus part learning. Many studies have been done in this area on both fine and gross motor skills, and in this review of the literature these studies have been grouped under these two headings: Learning of fine motor skills, and, 15 Learning of gross motor skills. Learning oil motor. skills. Gopalaswarai (50), in the article mentioned above, reported on a study in which he used maze running as the skill to be learned, and he had different groups of subjects learn to traverse the maze in different ways. One group learned to negotiate the whole maze at once, and the other groups learned by practicing parts of the maze first, and then the parts were put together. It was found that the group that learned by the whole method did worse than any of the other groups. Several other investigators also used maze learning to study economy of learning, but they arrived at varied conclusions. Pechstein (67) (68) and Hanawalt (51) (52) (87) found that the whole method was the best method for learning mazes. Cook and his associates (37) (38) (39) concluded from their studies that in some respects the part method was superior, although the whole method exceeded the part method in other respects. Barton's research (28) Indicated that the whole method was the worst and that the pure part method was far superior. These apparent contradictions seem strange, especially when all of the studies mentioned dealt with maze learning. The values of whole and part methods of learning other fine motor skills have been studied by several investigators. In 1921, Barton (27) compared the whole and the part methods in learning to typewrite. A group of fifteen subjects learned to typewrite by the part method, which consisted of learning the letters separately. Another group of twelve subjects learned by the whole method, in which the subjects were given ex planations on typing and then were told to write letters. Both groups practiced for forty minutes per day, five days per week for a year. The part group started a month earlier than the whole group and after three months, both groups were put together for the practice periods. Barton's results indicated that the whole method was superior in speed, economy of time for learning, and in terms of fewest errors. In his description of the study, Barton made no mention of the tests used, nor did he describe the subjects, or indicate whether the groups were equated or not. In 1923 Koch (59), studying the effects of the part method as opposed to the whole method in learning typewriting, found that the part method was generally superior. Koch used a design In which the subjects were required to press typewriter keys in certain sequences according to time by a metronome. The group of forty- five subjects that learned by the part method practiced alternately with one hand and then with the other, while 17 another group of forty-five subjects practiced using both hands together. Her conclusions were that the part method was superior in terms of the number of trials needed and the total time taken to learn, while the whole method resulted in more accuracy. It is difficult to comment on the value of Koch's results since she did not describe her subjects, equate the groups, nor mention the data gathering devices used. The apparent contradiction of results between Barton's study and Koch's study is hard to explain. It might have been that the material in Barton’s study was more meaning ful and thus easier to learn as a whole rather than by parts. On the other hand, Barton's study ran the course of an entire year. In that length of time it is conceivable that the effects of the initial approach would have worn off and the techniques of later practice would have taken over. The fact that in neither study were the groups equated (at least there was no mention of this) makes any comparison Impossible. If the groups were not equal, a year of practice could have quite an influence on the results. Using an experiment involving piano playing, Brown (32), in 1929* found the whole method superior to both the part method and to a combination of the part and whole methods. The part method was found to be the least effective in his study. Brown had the whole method group 18 practice by playing a piece from the beginning to the end, with no stop being permitted to correct errors. The part method group divided the musical score Into units and practiced each unit until it was learned. The combination method required the subjects to practice the score from the beginning to the end with no stops, but the partici pants were required to repeat all measures in which they made errors. The total amount of practice time was the same for all groups. Brown suggested, as a reason for the success of the whole method in his study, that the subjects probably found the whole method more pleasant to practice, and this possibly caused them to work harder at their practice. He pointed out that there were no distractions caused by having to concentrate on the errors, nor were there any forced pauses to affect the satisfaction of playing the complete score. This point made by Brown has perhaps some relationship with the learning of gross motor skills. Quicker learning might occur if the practice situation is such that the subject practices by means of the whole method. It might be more satisfying to the subject to practice shooting in basketball in a competitive situation than to Just practice shooting, and this satisfaction might contribute to quicker learning. For that reason some of the techniques used in this study might have 19 value In the learning of gross motor skills. In 1929 and 1930» Crafts (M) (4-2) did two studies in which he found the whole method to be superior to any of the part methods. In one study he used 1^3 students in a card sorting experiment. The group learning by the whole method sorted the entire deck at one time. Three other groups learned by using different types of part methods. In another study, Crafts used 281 undergraduate students in an experiment involving the matching of letters and numbers. He divided the subjects into three groups; one group learned by the whole method, the second by a progressive part method, and the third by a combina tion part method. In this study, too, he found that the group learning by the whole method did better. In examining the studies mentioned up to this point, the results seem to indicate that the whole method is best, at least in so far as the learning of meaningful material is concerned. All of these studies were con cerned with the learning of fine motor skills. Learning q L gross mgjLOXL Skills.. There have been a few studies done in the area of economy of learning in gross motor skills, or in skills involving the whole body. A representative sample of them is reported here. A discussion of a study by Seashore (73) can serve as a preface. In 19^23 Seashore examined some 20 relationships between fine and gross motor abilities. He selected two samples of subjects who differed signifi cantly In known ways In gross motor abilities, and then measured these subjects for differences in fine motor abilities. His conclusions were that there is no inter relatedness between fine and gross motor abilities. This conclusion Indicating the lack of relatedness between fine and gross motor abilities is extremely important for It casts doubt upon the validity of assuming that the process and progress of learning may be Inferred from knowledge gained from experiments involving only fine or gross motor skills. It is entirely possible that the learning of these seemingly different kinds of skills may proceed in completely different ways. This brings up the problem of the distinction between fine and gross motor skills. Seashore pointed out that some activities, which seem to be large muscle activities, really do involve finer motor coordinations also. He indicated that fine muscle coordinations are involved in nearly all of the gross muscle activities. If this is true, then it seems strange that there is no interrelatedness between fine and gross motor abilities. In 193^» Shay (75) took thirty-two inexperienced college freshmen and divided them into two equated groups. Using the kip or upstart on the horizontal bar, he had one group learn by the whole movement. For the other 21 group he divided the action into four parts: the swing, the arch of the body, the flexion of the thighs, and the extension of the thighs. This group learned the swing first, then added the arch of the body, and so on until the completed movement was learned. Each person was allowed five trials during each class period. The move ment was considered to be learned when the subject per formed three consecutive successful kips. In this study it was found that the whole method was better than the part method in terms of time taken to learn. Kimball (91) did a study, in 193^ also, on whole and part learning using basketball as the activity. He divided seventy-eight boys, fourteen to seventeen years of age., into two groups. The group that was taught by the part method had each fundamental skill separately introduced, described, and demonstrated in minute detail. Then these fundamentals were practiced. Later the fundamentals were practiced in the form of drills. At the fifth week the group was divided into teams and from then on the subjects practiced the drills for half of the period, and scrimmaged for half of the period. The other group was divided Into teams on the first day. The varsity team was used to demonstrate the fundamentals while the group observed. Then the subjects practiced by scrimmaging for twenty minutes a day, four days per week, for eight weeks. Kimball found that the group that learned by the part method was superior to the other group. However, one might question whether Kimball's part method was really a part method, or whether it was a series of wholes. Furthermore, since both groups were tested on the parts, and Kimball's conclusions were based on this test, it was most likely that the part method would prove better. In 1937> Cross (43) compared the whole method, the minor game method, and the whole-part method of teaching basketball to ninth grade boys. In the whole method the boys were told to play basketball. Dodge-ball, volleyball, and other such games were used in the minor game method. The group that learned by the whole-part method were taught the fundamental skills of the game. Cross found from this study that: 1. The simpler unitary skills (visual and hand coordination of catching ball, muscle coordination of passing ball, and changing from catch to throw) are best taught by the whole method. 2. The most complex skills and those that are intellectually complex as well as complex from a motor point of view (muscular coordination of handling ball, stopping and grasping ball, skill in shooting, visual and hand coordination of dribble, muscular coordination of feet, and ability to start and stop) are best taught by the whole-part method. 3. Skills of intermediate degree of complexity and ones which are easily carried over from simpler games in identical form (such as pivoting, change from catch to throw, ability to start and stop, and ability to jump) are best taught by the minor game method. (43:54) 23 In interpreting Cross's results, there are some points that should be kept In mind. Cross did not equate the groups. He did not describe the subjects other than to point out that they were in the ninth grade. No mention of their abilities or experience was made. To ascertain the level of achievement, Cross examined the subjects on parts, though some of the subjects had only practiced wholes. It would seem logical, therefore, that the part method would appear best. In one of the shoot ing items the minor games group made the best score, even though this skill was not practiced In any of Its minor games. In a more recent study, Lewellen (82) compared two methods of teaching beginning swimming. He used a progressive-part method for one group, and devised a whole-part method for the other group. The stroke taught was the human stroke or dog paddle. Lewellen found that his whole-part method proved significantly superior to the progressive-part method in distance attained and in form displayed. Still more recently, Nlemeyer (97)» in 1^58, studied part and whole methods of learning swimming, badminton, and volleyball. He used 336 male college students, and taught half of them by the whole method, and the other half by the part method. For the whole method, Nlemeyer put the subjects Into game situations, 21+ and in the part method individual skills were taught. His findings were that individual-type activities are probably best taught by the whole method; dual-type activities can be taught by either the part or the whole method with similar results; and the team game skills are probably best taught by the part method. It seems evident that, in general, the whole method is the most economical method of learning gross motor skills. Even in those Instances where one of the various types of part methods proved best, it is questionable whether or not the method was really a part method. One of the most difficult things about the whole area of whole-part learning is that of definition. What one person has called a whole, another has called a part. The terms are not always well defined. For example, some investigators might call the set shot in basketball a part of the basketball skill, whereas others might designate the basketball set shot a whole skill in itself. Consequently it is difficult to draw conclusions or make comparisons. In view of this, it is possible that the evidence is even stronger in support of the whole method. VERBALIZATION AND DEMONSTRATION The hypothesis under examination in this study was that the time required for learning gross motor skills 25 can be lessened by putting the learner Into a situation In which his thoughts are on something other than his immediate bodily actions. Implied in this hypothesis is the necessity of getting the learner into action quickly. One possible way to accomplish this is to minimize the amount of verbalization and demonstration that customarily accompany teaching. Learning a&sL verbalization. The desirability of minimizing verbalization at the introductory stage of learning is supported by some writers. Ragsdale, for example, emphasized this point in some of his writings. He pointed out that, 11. . . Verbal Instructions have been found to have little value in the early stages of learn ing an activity . . .” (83s 68) In another part of the same article he pointed out that verbal directions are of no value to beginners except for purposes of directing observation (83 ' 82). Lawther and Cooper went a step further when they pointed out that verbal Instructions, at the beginning levels of learning an activity, might not only be of little value, but might even be a hindrance. They said, . His (the beginner's) beginning activity is of a general mass character and detailed explanations are out of place. In fact, detailed verbal explanation may even be a handicap to rapid learning at this stage." (81:72) There Is some evidence that this might be true at levels of learning other than beginning. Preeland had a college girl, who had had three years of basketball experience, practice free-throw shooting for six weeks. Then he gave her some instruction in free-throw shooting. Among other things, he found that, "... For the first three days Instruction caused temporary retardation . . ." (4-5:206) It Is likely that the instruction altered the type of free-throw that the girl used, and so it might be argued that the girl was a beginner at this different kind of free-throw. These three references, mentioned above, do seem to give support to the idea of minimizing verbalization when introducing a new skill. Learning and demonstration. Minimizing demonstra tion in introducing; a new motor skill is both supported and opposed by writers of this subject. Ragsdale said, in the article mentioned above, that since the needs of the learner is to develop goals, then undue concern about perfection of demonstration is unnecessary (83-75>83). Glassow expressed a similar thought when she pointed out that: Among the suggestions for procedures to be followed in the teaching of a skill, the "setting 27 of a model" is rarely omitted. Often this statement is Interpreted as calling for the development of a visual concept. This is achieved through a demon stration with a verbal accompaniment which stresses the details to be observed. Would it not be better to omit this concept as a goal to be achieved? . . . The viewing of expert performance might well come when the learner has already established a fair degree of skill— for then he can evaluate what he sees. The denizens of democracy should nojfc frs drilled In Imitation; tkez should. frs. gnldM toward, understandings which will dfiYelpT? ihS. afr.lU.ty t£. choose Intelligently. (90:20) This seems to point to the importance of keeping the verbal instructions and the demonstrations at a minimum at the initial stages of learning, and getting the learner Into action as soon as possible. As Ragsdale went on to say in the article mentioned above: The learner begins with a concept, however crude it may be, of the nature of the activity and of the goal to be attained by it. He gains this concept primarily through observation and reflection upon what he has observed . . . Prom his initial observa tions he can gain a crude concept of the general pattern of the activity, but details escape his notice. A limited amount of reflection, discussion, and explanation may direct his observation to essential features of the activity. Detailed explanations are out of place. The Initial phase of the motor-learning process is evidently one of thinking through the activity on the basis of data obtained from observation and explanation. This first step should culminate very quickly in an initial trial. As successive trials occur they are guided constantly by reflective thinking, stimulated by further observation, discussion, and explanation. It is, however, essential that the teacher bear in mind that understanding develops only slowly, that detailed or involved demonstrations and explanations, especially at the outset, are worse than useless, that pupil trials are the chief source of data for pupil thinking, that the teacher's function is that of directing attention to the essential features of the activity, introducing detail sparingly as progress Is made. (83 s83“8^) 28 When writing about the means of communication to be used between the teacher and the learner, Ragsdale concluded: Whatever the form of communication used by the teacher, the pupil learns only if he actively per ceives,' thinks , and plans during the Instruction. The objective is to prepare him for action as rapidly as possible. Usually the procedure for initiating a new motor activity should be, first, general acquaintance with the equipment, materials, and surroundings; second, one or two simple demon strations of the activity with extremely little verbal direction; third, beginning trials by the learner. Let the first trial occur within a few minutes after starting instruction. (83 58^) Some writers In the field of motor learning dis agree with this viewpoint. They Indicate that it is very Important to have a clear idea of the movement in mind and to have an understanding of what Is involved. In other words, before the learner starts to act, he should have as much orientation as possible, and then he should start slowly and gradually increase speed. Davis and Lawther apparently belong with this group, for they said; One must have the gross pattern of movement as clearly in mind as possible. Observation of skilled performance by others, of demonstrations by a well- trained teacher, of movies of the skill performance, plus verbal guides, illustrations, and the like, all help in this general orientation. With this "directional set," one proceeds with a slow, con tinuous action in conformity with the mental construct of the movement pattern. This unit of action should be as large as can be carried through as a continuity. The early attempts will of necessity be slowly per formed. This slow rate gives time for the attention to be diffused over the total design of the movement pattern and for the general framework consciously to be visualized .... (5 s3^3-^) 29 These and other writers seem to believe that time must be taken to Insure that the learner makes a correct start, and that everything must be done as correctly as possible from the beginning. On the other hand there are those who point out that this time is wasted because there can never be a correct start at the beginning stages of learning a motor skill, nor can there be move ments much more than faintly resembling the correct movement. Even at the very highest levels of skills there is no one correct response, so how can a beginner be expected to do anything resembling a correct response? Ragsdale was one who concurred with this: . . . it has been axiomatic in teaching that we must try to give the learner a correct start. This idea has been based upon the view that learning con sists in fixing a correct mode of response and eliminating errors. It has been assumed that, if the learner is permitted to start with an Incorrect mode of response, he will form bad habits which must later be broken. Anything the teacher can do at the beginning of learning to prevent incorrect action has been considered to be highly desirable. When we consider the beginning stage of learning, we are forced to recognize that it is utterly impossible to make a correct response in the beginning, and that even the highly skilled performer has not yet reached the stage in which he is making any correct responses at all. Even he has not yet reached the stage in which he is performing the activity in the best way. (20: 25) Glassow seems to agree with this point of view and she answers Davis and Lawther directly when she states, in talking about utilizing subconscious motor patterns: 30 . . . If each step in adjustment is based on familiar skills, need learning proceed as described by Davis and Lawther (Smc. gggf.ul TflflfiMag I n Physical Education, p. 3^2)? (90:19) The idea of reducing the amount of verbal instruction to a minimum, not calling attention to the fine details of demonstration, eliminating many orienta tion devices, having students perform as soon as possible, seems to point toxcard the following approach in initial teaching. It seems to Indicate that the best method of introducing a new gross motor skill is to describe briefly what is to be done, demonstrate It without calling attention to details, and then let the learners practice it in a situation that the teacher has set up. The teacher’s role, then, is to organize the situation In such a manner that the learner will discover quickly the best way for him to function. The learner probably learns, In this method, by trial and error, and the teacher can reduce the number ax' trials and errors by making the situation such that quick learning will take place, and by making corrections in the performance. This calls for a great deal of knowledge on the part of the teacher, and also a high degree of ability to analyze performance and to correct poor performance easily and quickly. The overall viewpoint of the references reviewed in this section, on the use of verbalization and demonstration in introducing a gross motor skill, seems to be that there is some doubt regarding the value of detailed verbalizations and demonstrations. The implication is that the time taken, for extensive verbalization and for many detailed demonstrations, might be better spent by having the learner perform, so that he learns by doing; and that extensive verbalization and detailed dmonstrations might have more value if given after the learner has achieved some degree of skill. KINESTHESIS AND MOTOR. LEARNING The hypothesis that was under investigation in this study had to do with directing the attention of a subject, learning a motor skill, away from a conscious awareness of his body movements. Many experts (10) (69) (71) (7°) in the area of motor learning, however, have indicated that the direct opposite should be the hypothesis held. They have pointed out that the mind should be kept on the "muscle feel", and that motor learning occurs best through kinesthetic perception. They have suggested that the learner has to experience an awareness of the kinesthetic sensation involved in the motor skill, or an awareness of the ’ 'feel" of the muscular effort and body position before he can progress. Once the learner has experienced the feeling of the correct response, they have gone on to say, then he is 32 able to practice by trying to recapture the feeling. Griffith described a study he did on himself in which he was performing a tennis serve; his description might serve to typify the idea presented above. A record was kept of successful and unsuccessful serves when attention was concentrated on the ball and the opposite court. A similar record was kept while attention was given primarily to the muscular feel of the total performance and especially to the whole set of the body just as the ball was struck. In the second group of trials visual perceptions were used only as guides to performance just as the piano player looks at the score ahead of him but glances momentarily at the keyboard every now and then to aid his muscles in making proper coordina tions, or just as the juggler uses visual perceptions to serve as guldes--to bolster up, so to speak— the sequence of muscular and tactual processes which keep the clubs go.ing. It was discovered that under the second condition the writer not only made better serves but entered almost immediately upon a course of improvement which took him beyond all of his previous performances. (10:66) In Griffith's experiment, the author used only himself as a subject, and so whether or not his findings would hold true for everyone is a questionable point. As far as the relationships between the results of Griffith's study and the hypothesis of this dissertation are concerned, It should be pointed out that Griffith would not have been considered a beginner when he made this study. He was quite skilled In tennis, and the hypothesis of this study was concerned with beginning levels of learning gross motor skills. There Is reason to believe, however, that kinesthetic perception does play an important part in 33 motor performance. The golf professional talks about the Importance of the consistently grooved swing, and the basketball player about being able to tell, as soon as the ball leaves his hand, if the shot is properly executed. Bernath Phillips (69) reported a low but positive relationship between certain phases of kinesthesls and performance during the early stages of acquiring motor skills. In his study Phillips used a battery of four kinesthetic tests and related the results of this battery to the scores made on putting and driving in golf . Roloff (?1) developed a battery of tests for measuring kinesthesls, and she studied the relationships between the scores made on the battery of tests and the learning rate of college women in certain motor skills. Tennis, bowling, and fundamental movements were the skills used® Roloff found a low positive relationship, although not statistically significant. In 195^, Phillips and Summers found a positive relationship between motor learning and kinesthesls. To measure kinesthetic perception, a battery of twelve positional measures was used; and as a motor skill, bowling was used. The authors said: There is some evidence to support the hypothesis that kinesthesls is more related to learning in the 3^ early stages of acquiring a motor skill than it is in the later stages. . • . (70:468) A quotation from M. Gladys Scott might serve to sum up the views expressed on this subject. One of the greatest effects on the Individual of motor activity Is the establishment of kinesthetic patterns and impressions. Kinesthesls is the basis for learning motor acts so that they may be performed repeatedly with a minimum of conscious thought, for retaining complex co-ordinations over a long period of time, for most of the activities of the blind, for empathetic understanding and appreciation of the performance of others, and for successful balancing activities .... (21:352) In contrast to these views, Stetson and McDill pointed out that, "Kinesthetic perception Is not of single Importance In motor learning; reflective thinking is the key to learning in the motor area as in all other areas of learning." (89*27) Further in contrast, Morehouse said* In teaching a sports skill, if the attention is focused upon the muscle action, a failure to perform may be expected. There is a story of a centipede who was walking merrily along the highway until a wise grasshopper asked him which leg came after which. The centipede became so confused he ended up wriggling in the ditch. Imagine what will happen to your golf swing if someone calls your attention to the action of a particular muscle or small part. Some anatomy and kinesiology students use their new found knowledge in attempting an anatomical analysis of a sports skill along with their teaching. The pupils are soon in the state of the centipede. (66:61) In a recent study in which Espenschade (44) examined the place of "feels", or muscle awareness, in the acquisition of a simple eye-hand coordination, she concluded that understanding of the performance of the task is more important than any awareness of "feels." In her study, Espenschade brought blindfolded college students into a room, had them sit on a stool, and try to hit, using a one-half pound sandbag, a target painted on the floor. The subjects were not able to see their attempts but were told the result of each toss. The subjects were also told to attempt to get the feel of the proper action, or to try to find the kinesthetic cues that differentiated between good and bad tosses. Afterwards most of the subjects said that they had visualized the target. Espenschade suggested that the results of the experiment agreed with the thought expressed in the literature that the mind orders a move ment but the execution of it is left to the lower levels which make no appeal to the consciousness. In summary, it seems there is value in both points of view, and certainly examples can be given to support both positions. A possible conclusion might be that although a kinesthetic pattern Is developed with the performance and the learning of the motor skill, this pattern should be kept in the subconscious, and conscious awareness should not be deliberately emphasized because of the possible resultant Interference with the per formance of the skill. In other words, the pattern is there, and the subject acts in accordance with the 36 pattern, yet he is not completely and consciously aware of It. If the subject does permit the execution of the pattern to enter into his consciousness, Interference of varying degrees may result. This might be particularly true at the top levels of performance. THINKING AND MOTOR PERFORMANCE If kinesthetic awareness is not emphasized, and if the subject is given little in the way of verbal direction or demonstration, the problem of what to think about while performing, arises. The hypothesis of this dissertation suggests that the learner concentrate on something other than his immediate body actions, in order that he be able to act with less inhibition. Walters expressed this thought in a different way when she wrote: . . . the body responding In toto to the instruction in trying to hit the target in the bull's eye may offer the best facilitating barrage of proprioceptive stimulation necessary for the coordination of the movement. The detailed explana tion of how to stand and how to throw the arm in trying to hit the target may result in an attempt to differentiate and to try to produce isolated muscle action, and thus a suppression of facilltatory Impulses would be present and would result in less neural grooving that is essential for the skilled act. (78:1) In this example, the learner, in concentrating entirely on trying to hit the bull’s eye, would be concentrating on something other than his immediate I 37 body actions. A related example was given by Morehouse in which he described the start of a sprinting race. . . . The starting gun-fire is the all-important signal at the beginning of a race. Here again, if the attention of the runner is focused upon his muscles instead of on the gunfire, his reaction time will be lengthened and his start a slow one .... (66: 61) More recently, Henry (54) carried on research which resulted in a similar conclusion. He used 40 men and 40 women as subjects, and had them respond to the flashing of a light by releasing their grip on a plastic strip and striking a tennis ball. He found that those subjects who concentrated on the light stimulus reacted faster than those who thought about their body movements. Furthermore, he found that those subjects who con centrated on the body movements at first were able to improve their reaction time when they were trained to concentrate on the stimulus? and those who concentrated on the stimulus at first showed a loss of speed after training to concentrate on the body. Henry’s conclusion was that runners would do better if they concentrated on the stimulus of the starter’s gun instead of on their body movements. In 1916, Batson (86) found that if a subject, in learning to juggle balls, concentrated on just one factor, he would learn to juggle in a shorter period of time. The factor he used for concentration was the throw or pitch of the ball* If the subject could develop the ability to throw the ball properly, which meant at a consistent height and in suoh a way thAt it would stay clear of the other ball which would be coming down, he would learn more quickly* This idea seems to be related to the hypothesis under examination in this study since the subject was advised to concentrate on something other than his body actions; which, in this case, was the toss of the ball. Goodenough and Brian (^9) conducted a study, in 1929, in which they had three groups of children attempt to toss rings over a peg* The first group was given no instruction in performing the stunt; the second group was given brief preliminary instructions and subsequent verbal criticism regarding the general types of errors made, but was not required to adhere to a constant procedure in grasping and throwing the rings; and the third group was given the brief preliminary instruction, the subsequent verbal criticism, and, in addition, these subjects were taught to follow a certain definite procedure in throwing, and were not allowed to experi ment with any other methods* The results of this study showed that the first group Improved the least of the three groups; the second group showed only a slightly higher Improvement; while the third group improved very 39 much more. Goodenough and Brian mentioned that several children in the third group wanted to change the pro cedure, but were not permitted to do this. They mentioned, also, that in many cases the subjects in the third group did much poorer in the beginning stages of learning the skill, but soon overtook and passed the subjects in the other groups. While the above study could be cited as evidence contrary to the hypothesis under investigation in the present study, it is also possible that there could be a close relationship between the two. It is possible that the procedure that the third group had to follow was so definite and so narrow that the subjects had to concen trate fully to do it, thus causing them to get away from a conscious awareness of their Immediate body actions. This is one of the techniques that can be used to arrive at indirect learning. Many athletic coaches use this technique in coaching their teams. They often use very complicated drills which require full concentration by the performers; but at the same time, the things the coach really wants the players to learn are learned incidentally during the process of performing the drill. The successful performance of the drill is not the coach’s goal in this case. He may be more Interested in other things learned by the players in trying to 40 successfully perform the drill. The players, on the other hand, are concentrating on the successful performance of the drill, or the end result, and are not even aware of the Incidental learning. An example of this technique has been described, in a private conversation, by one of the most successful football coaches In the country. He attempts to make his punters concentrate on taking each step, In the preliminary movement in the punt, along a straight line. This little technique has lead to an average Increase, in the length of the punts * of twelve yards; and has caused many of the fair punters to develop into outstanding ones. In this example the coach Is not concerned about whether or not the punters take their steps in the same straight line. He is primarily concerned with making his punters concentrate on something other than their kicking action so that the body can act In an uninhibited manner. A similar device is used by many high level per*forraers. According to Cooper of the University of Southern California, these performers, when they perform, have a "high concentration level". This means that they concentrate on jU3t one thing when they perform. The thing on which they concentrate may vary with each performance, and may be on such things as: keeping the eyes on the ball, relaxing, follow-through, the starter's gun, the front rim of the basket, and so on. It has been 41 theorized that by such concentration there Is less chance of . .an attempt to differentiate and to try to pro duce isolated muscle action, and thus a suppression of facilitatory Impulses viould be present and would result in less neural grooving that is essential for the skilled act." (78Jl) This technique, that of extreme concentra tion, appears to be another method of avoiding a conscious awareness of what the body is doing. Though this Is used at high levels of motor performance, it could well have a relationship with the hypothesis being tested in this study, which Involved the initial learning of motor skills. As Davis and Lawther pointed out, "... the focal point of attention even in the beginning stages is directed toward perception of cues for action rather than toward body movements." (5 044) Hoke (55) conducted an investigation which involved the acquisition of accuracy in ball tossing at a target. He was interested in the mental factors involved in learning a motor skill, and he used several different methods of attempting to control the mental acts of the subjects. For example, in one phase of the study he used simple positive instruction; in another he tried to make the subjects think about the idea of success; punishment - was used in some aspects of the study; he had the subjects perform while reciting the alphabet; and he had them k2 perform while concentrating only on the center of the target. He found that the modes of directing attention that yielded the best results were, in the following order: attention to the painful consequence of errors; attention to the net results of the act; and attention to the idea of success. Lawther emphasized the fact that a subject should avoid conscious awareness of what his body is doing when he pointed out that, "The facilitating value of practicing skills while blindfolded . . . may be due to the impossi bility of the blindfolded person paying as close attention to his motor movements . . . ." (17:119) In 1901» Bair investigated the development of voluntary control by observing methods by which subjects learned to use the retrahens muscle. He chose this muscle because it is more or less isolated, It has a poor nerve supply. It involves a movement which few people can do, and it Is a virtually useless movement in modern living. The movement involved Is wiggling the ears. In hypothesizing on what he observed, Bair had this to say: We have no reason to believe that the physio logical processes involved in the learning of the ear movement are not exactly the same as those in the acquirement of any other movement, as, e.g., that of the hand. As we have already so strongly emphasized, the learning of the movement is largely a matter of attention, and, In general, it is just in proportion as the learning of a movement is a vital thing that the bodily energies are concentrated upon it. A child, i.e. brings together all its force and directs 44 things other than his bodily movements. Some articles have been written which relate directly to these methods. One method which has been suggested is to guide the learner by building on skills he already possesses. Glassow pointed out: A . . . way in which the physical educator might apply understanding of the nervous mechanism is in utilizing subconscious motor patterns. Every teacher has observed such subconscious movements. When the arms are raised forward to shoulder height, the forward shift of arm mass is usually balanced by a shift of the upper trunk in the opposite direction. This trunk movement is made without conscious direction; a girl who lacks trunk strength will rotate the right femur as she holds a bowling ball, thereby turning the right foot outward to increase the size of the standing base in the direction of the additional weight. A recent observation of a beginning bowler provided an excellent illustration of another subconscious adjustment. The girl had started with a free arm swing, a familiar pattern. The weight of the ball added another element which was taken on without much interference to the swing. After swinging the ball the girl was asked, without further instruction, to send the ball down the alley. She achieved a fairly smooth delivery by bringing the trunk forward and downward (hip flexion achieved by trunk movement). When the instructor pointed out the weaknesses of that method of lowering the ball, the beginner, without suggestion, lowered the ball by flexion of the hips and knees with an erect trunk. This was done as an over-all pattern, not by giving attention to specific joints. More important, it was an adjustment pattern already established. There was no conscious analysis on the part of the student— only a signal from the cortex— leaving the details to the cerebellum and other subcortical structures. The learner had, in using the arm swing and this method of lowering the ball, used skills which were familiar and which were subconscious in detail of execution .... (90*19) The principle of building on skills already possessed is used frequently in teaching. 43 all Its attention to learning a movement which Is essential to its freedom. All who have observed children (and this Is a fact emphasized by all genetic psychologists) have noticed how persistent they are in learning a movement. In learning to walk a child Is usually so much absorbed In the attainment of the end that the incidental bumps and falls, however severe or painful, are hardly noticed. When once a successful movement is made, the attention Is so engrossed on a repetition that everything else Is, for the time, forgotten. (23:505-6) Of course it is impossible to know what a child just learning to walk is thinking, but it is doubtful that his thoughts are on his Immediate body actions. It would seem that he must have a goal in mind, or is attracted to something, or is trying to please his proud parents. Perhaps, however, he is not thinking of any thing. It seems that there is some support in the literature for the idea of directing conscious awareness away from immediate body actions when performing a motor skill. While the bulk of this material concerns the performance of skills already well developed, there are some investigators who have indicated that this technique can be used at beginning levels of learning a motor skill as well. MISCELLANEOUS STUDIES IN MOTOR LEARNING In Chapter I of this study is mentioned some methods which might be used to refocus the attention of the motor learner so that he may be consciously aware of if-5 Another method suggested setting another goal for the learner other than the skill Itself. Llba (9*0 used a technique related to this when she set up what she called specific kinesthetic goals. These goals were inter mediate, or goals that were achieved during the action, as opposed to the ultimate goal of the movement. This technique, which has been developed at the University of Wisconsin, is based on the concept that "kinesthetic memory and perception are fundamental to motor perform ance." (9^:22) In general, the proponents of this theory apparently believed that if the subject can learn the force necessary to perform the skill, the proper direction for this force, and the timing of the movement pattern, and if he could learn it well enough to commit it to his kinesthetic memory, then all that would be needed for a successful performance of the skill would be a reproduction of the kinesthetic perceptions that have been memorized by the body. For example, in the basket ball free throw, the subject needs to learn the feel of the point of release of the ball, the feel of the proper force required, the feel of the direction, and he needs to learn these well enough so that he can achieve these proper feelings every time he performs. The subject does not concentrate on putting the ball In the basket. He concentrates on achieving these kinesthetic feelings. It would seem that this is a method of setting up goals that are outside of the subject's conscious awareness of his body actions. Though the subject is working toward developing the proper feeling of force and direction, this might well be different from trying to consciously move the body in a certain pattern or manner. The difference is perhaps theoretical. The subject, theoretically, does not think about how to move his arms or how to extend his legs to give the desired push, or other such movements; rather, he concentrates on the goals of release, force, and direction, and the body follows along in pattern without consciously thinking about its movements. This has proven to be an economical method of learning motor skill, according to Glassow and her associates (90) (9^). There have been some studies in other phases of motor learning that perhaps do not relate directly to the hypothesis of this dissertation, but do relate directly to the broader concept of economy in learning. Some of these are reported here. In 1929» Sidney Sanderson (72) investigated the effect of Intent or mental attitude on the acquisition of two types of problems requiring some degree of motor ability. These problems involved the use of a stylus maze and a number sheet, the patterns of which were Identical. The particular Intention desired was In stilled in the subject by specific instructions. The author found that those with an attitude of Intent to learn did much better, and he concluded that the attitude to learn Is an essential factor In learning. Teachers of motor skills would probably concur. Percival M. Symonds wrote, In 19^8, that in learning an association, the unfamiliar elements should be presented first. For an example he used the following One may have difficulty in teaching a child to spread his napkin in his lap by reminding him of it after the meal has begun. Success in teaching the habit will be gained much easier by reminding him to spread the napkin before the meal or Just as he is sitting down at the table, so that the act may be come associated with sitting down, (77:^07) This concept is used extensively in teaching and coaching. The passer in football is taught to fake be fore passing on certain plays. This is drilled into him so much that it becomes an automatic association. Some studies have been made on the use of direct practice, or practicing a skill by the same method that it will later be used. Kingsley believed that, "one should practice under conditions similar to those which will attend the use of the skill, and the procedures practiced would be those in which skill is desired.” (15:315) He presented an example from the teaching of typewriting. Older methods of drill for students of type writing called for a great amount of drill on nonsense syllables. Various combinations of letters were used for the purpose of having students acquire dexterity in tapping out these combinations. It was * < • 8 thought that since these movements were used ex tensively in actual typewriting, the dexterity acquired in them would be readily transferred to the writing situation in which they would be used. No doubt some transfer does take place in such cases, but there is not full transfer of the results of practice in one situation to another type of situa tion. There is, therefore, a certain amount of wasted effort in such kinds of practice. Modem methods call for the student to start practicing on sentences Just as soon as the keyboard is learned. It is claimed that better results are obtained by this newer form of practice. This is to be expected, since in working on sentences, the student is practicing in accord with his goal, which is to be able to type sentences. (15015-6) Buegel subscribed to this when he pointed out that: It would seem that the performance of a patterned motor performance can be repeated most efficiently when learned without the use of ideational contexts, that is, in the manner in which it will eventually be performed. (33*123) Kingsley reported further on some studies in which children were learning to write. These studies showed that direct practice in writing was more effective in developing ability to write than is practice in tracing letters or following grooves (15 016). Investigations on direct practice relate quite directly to the hypothesis which was examined in this study. It can be pointed out that the subjects, in using direct practice, could well be thinking about the final goal, or the final form of the performance, or some such thing, thus having their thoughts taken away from their Immediate body actions or their immediate performance. 49 It should be pointed out that several of the findings that were brought out here pertain only to the beginning levels of learning. After a skill has been learned well enough that the learner can function with some degree of control, some of these things no longer apply. For example, Ragsdale pointed out that, "In general, fineness of analysis and practice on detail should come late In the learning process; early learning should be concerned with complete meaningful units. . . ." (83:86) SUMMARY It was apparent, from a review of literature deemed related to the subject of this study, that there are many conflicting findings and generalizations re garding the most economical methods of learning a motor skill. However, there are some ideas that were found to appear quite frequently In the literature. Some of these are: 1. When Introducing a new skill, instruction should be brief, and the demonstrations well performed, but the fine details of the movement need not be stressed nor discussed until later. 2. When a new skill is introduced, the learner should be given an opportunity to practice or perform it as soon as possible. 50 3« Much of the learning of a new skill is of the trial and error type. The teacher’s role is to put the learner into a situation in which the number of trials and errors can be diminished. 4. In teaching a new skill, it is important to use all the available motivational techniques, whenever possible. While there have been virtually no studies in which the hypothesis set up in this study was examined, there have appeared, at various places in the literature, statements, observations, and theories that do relate quite directly. It was the purpose of this chapter to describe this related material and to summarize the finding's. CHAPTER III PROCEDURE This study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that gross motor skills may be learned quicker, than by conventional methods, if the learner, during practice, concentrates his attention on factors other than specific body movements. Prior to conducting the final experiment, a pilot study was performed in order: (1) to test the design of the method; (2) to give the persons who assisted in the teaching of the skills and the gathering of the data an opportunity to practice their duties; and (3) to enable the Investigator to solve unforeseen problems. In the pilot study two groups of twenty freshmen from the required physical education program at the University of Southern California were used as subjects In the experi ment described later in this chapter. The results of this pilot study did not show that the hypothesis was tenable, but in three of the six skills used the experimental group scored higher. Both groups made the same scores in the other three skills. The significant part of these findings was that the three skills in which the improvement, In the direction of the 51 52 experimental variable, was shown were the skills in which the groups were more inexperienced, namely: soccer dribble, handball volley, and badminton high clear. In other words, in the skills in which the subjects were closer to being beginners, there was an indication that the hypothesis might have some significance. This led to the conclusion that before rejecting the hypothesis as untenable, It should be tested on subjects that were at the beginning levels of skill in all of the activities. A few minor changes were made, as a result of the preliminary study, in order to refine the procedure and to increase efficiency of administration. Scoring, testing, and teaching procedures were observed, inspected, and discussed, in order to try to achieve consistency by all the assistants. The main study was then carried on in 1957. In this chapter the procedure that was followed in testing this hypothesis is described in detail under the following headings: (1) Subjects, (2) Experimental Design, (3) Criteria for Selection of Skills, (4-) Descrip tion of the Experimental Skills, (5) Statistical Treat ment, and (6) The Film. SUBJECTS The subjects were drawn at random from boys in the twelve to thirteen year old age group in the 53 metropolitan Loe Angeles area. These boys were all volunteers who indicated a desire to participate in the study after hearing a brief description of what was involved. Permission for the boys to take part in the program was secured from their parents. An explanatory letter, presenting briefly what was involved, was sent to the parents who were asked to grant their permission by signing and returning the letter. Because all of the boys were told before-hand what was Involved, only the healthy, interested, and active ones volunteered 5 consequently there were no problems of having to eliminate handicapped students. Also, since each boy was required to take part only once, there was no problem of having subjects drop out or fall to complete the test. There were no pre-tests or other means of classification of the subjects. They were randomly divided into three groups, two of which were experimental- control groups, and the third was a pure-control group. One-hundred and fifty boys were used, sixty in each of the experimental-Control groups, and thirty in the pure- control group. The population of one-hundred and fifty boys included some boys from all races. A few of the boys were fairly well skilled for their ages in one or two of the activities, but most of the boys were beginners in 5^ all of the activities. The fact that a few of the sub jects were more highly skilled In one or two of the activities was taken care of, It was assumed, by the experimental design. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Three groups of boys, twelve and thirteen years of age, were Involved In this study. These groups were specified as Group A, Group B, and Group C. Six sports skills were used, namely: the punt in football, the dribble In soccer, the high clear in badminton, the volley in handball, the dribble In basketball, and the spike in volleyball. Group A was one of the experimental-control groups, so named because It acted as the experimental^ group In the soccer, handball, and volleyball skills, and as the control group In the football, badminton, and basketball skills® Group B, the other experimental-control group, acted as the control group in the soccer, handball, and volleyball skills, and as the experimental group in the football, badminton, and basketball skills. Group C was the pure-control group; its members took only the skills tests, but did not participate In the teaching and practicing phases of the study® 55 For Illustration, a diagram of the experimental design can be found on Table I. In the experimental part of each skill the sub jects were given a brief Introduction, instruction, and demonstration. Then they were asked to practice the skill in a certain manner. This manner, which is described for each skill later in this chapter, was such that the subjects would practice, it was hoped, with their attention focussed on something other than Immediate body actions. Following this practice, they were given a test in each skill. This test is also described later in the chapter. In the control part of each skill, the subjects were given the same introduction, instruction, and demonstration as the experimental group, but they were asked to practice the skill In a different manner. This manner, which is described later, was such that the subjects would practice with their attention, it was hoped, on their own immediate actions. After the practice, they were given the same test that was given to the experimental group. In the pure-control part of each skill, the subjects took the same test that was given to the other two groups. These subjects did not receive any instruction In the skill, nor did they have an opportunity to practice the skill. TAELE I EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FOOTBALL SOCCER BADMINTON HANDBALL BASKETBALL VOLLEYBALL GROUP A CONTROL EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL EXPERIMENTAL GROUP B EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL GROUP C PURE CONTROL PURE CONTROL PURE CONTROL PURE CONTROL PURE CONTROL PURE CONTROL This table should be read as follows: Group A took the control phase of the study for the football item, the experimental phase of the study for the soccer item, the control phase of the study for the badminton item, and so on. Group B took the experimental phase of the study for the football item, the control phase of the study for the soccer Item, the experimental phase of the study for the badminton item, and so on. Group C took the pure control part of the study for each of the items. Vn CN 57 Several members from one group were taken at a time and went through all the skills, Including Instruc tions, practice, and test in each skill, in one continuous pattern. The number tested at each occasion was twelve or less. The whole program took place in the Physical Education Building and on the playing fields at the University of Southern California. When subjects from either Group A or Group B were conducted through the experiment, they reported at a designated time to the locker room where they changed into their gymnasium clothes. They were given a score card, which they kept with them throughout the program, and were told the procedure they were to follow. Prom the locker room the subjects went to the football practice field where they were given a brief lesson on the football punt. This was followed by a short practice period in which they practiced the punt in a prescribed manner. The subjects then were tested on their football punting ability, and their scores were put on their scorecards. Following this the subjects remained on the field for instruction in the soccer dribble. Afterwards they practiced the soccer dribble, and were tested on it. This score was added to their scorecards. Next, the subjects reported to the women8s 58 gymnasium for Instruction and practice on the badminton high clear. They were subsequently tested on the bad minton high clear In the handball courts where a suitable wall for administering the test was available. The subjects remained In the handball courts for the Instruction, practice, and test of the handball volley. For the Instruction and practice on the basket ball dribble, the subjects returned to the men's gymnasium, after which they reported to the women's gymnasium where they were tested on their basketball dribbling ability. The last part of the experiment was conducted in the men's gymnasium. Here the subjects were given Instruction on how to execute the volleyball spike, were allowed to practice it briefly, and then were tested on their spiking ability. The scores were recorded on the scorecards after the administration of each of the tests In the six phases of the experiment. These scorecards were kept by the subjects throughout the procedure, and then were col lected at the completion of the experiment. Each subject went through the experiment only once. Subjects of Group C followed the same pattern as the other two groups, except that they took only the tests. No instruction or practice was given. This 59 meant that they reported to the football practice field for the football punting test; they remained there for the soccer dribbling test; they proceeded to the handball courts for the badminton high clear test; they remained In the handball courts for the handball volley test; they went to the women's gymnasium for the basketball dribbling test; and finally they reported to the men's gymnasium for the volleyball spiking test. They carried their scorecards with them, and the scores made on each of the tests were recorded on the scorecards* Only subjects from one group went through the experiment in any one session. In other words, the subjects from one group were never able to observe subjects from either of the other two groups. The scores made by the three groups of subjects were compared and analyzed for possible significant differences that might have resulted from the different methods of practice. The results of this comparison and analysis are discussed In the next chapter. Each part of the study was conducted with the help of an expert assistant who helped with demonstra tions, with setting up the tests, and in administering the testing. The same assistant was used throughout the study. CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF SKILLS 60 Though the principle tested seemed applicable to a wide range of activities, and though it appeared to have been used by teachers with some apparent degree of success in many different situations, only certain examples were selected for use in this study. The skills chosen were considered to be common physical education class activities. It was believed that a variety of skills should be used, none of which should present a special danger or be hazardous to the performer. Representative skills were sought which Involved handling balls of various sizes with the hands, controlling a ball with the feet, using a sports imple ment, using force as the main factor, and using control for efficient performance. It was necessary for the skills to be ones in which performance could be graded easily and quickly® It was deemed advisable, when possible, to use standard tests; in other cases simple tests had to be devised. Furthermore it was necessary to select skills for which goals could be set up for the learner that were outside his Immediate body actions, and in which it was reasonably obvious that the learner was trying to attain these goals. The skills which met these criteria and which 61 were selected for use In the study are described in the ensuing pages. DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS Ep.ttfrbalJL The Instruction, demonstration, practice, and test of football punting were all performed on the football practice field. Football Instruction. Subjects from both A and B groups were given the following instructions: The first skill we are going to work on is punting. In performing the punt, the right footed punter holds the ball in two hands with the left hand on the side and toward the front of the ball, and the right hand on the side and toward the rear of the ball. The punter then takes a step with his right foot, another with his left foot, and then kicks with his right foot. The ball is not dropped to meet the foot, but the foot is brought up to the ball. In other words, try to kick the ball out of your hands. To get power into the punt, the right leg is brought forward with the knee well bent, and then the lower leg is snapped forward into the kick. It is this snap that gives the power. The eyes are kept on the ball, and the toes are pointed. The kicking leg follows through high in the air and the body follows through so that the kicker raises on his left toes, or even leaves the ground. (Instructor's note— demonstrate each of the above points as you describe them, and then give a demon stration of the whole action at the end). The foregoing instructions were typed on a card, as were all of the instructions for each of the skills, so that every subject from groups A and B received the 62 same Instructions. Football practice. The subjects participating In the experimental phase of the punting item were given the following instructions for practicing the skill: To practice punting, pair off, and play a game that Is sometimes called "kickback." In this game the idea is to drive your opponents behind the goal line they are defending by kicking the football over their heads. One pair of you take up your position at one end of the field and the other pair at the other end, so that there is one pair opposing another pair. Members of each pair alternate on the kicks so that each member kicks every other time. The game starts by one member of one team attempting to kick the ball over the heads of the other team. The other team kicks the ball back from where they stop it. If one of the team members catches the kicked ball in the air, he takes three steps forward, and the next kick is made from there. The ball must be kicked over the goal line in the air in order to score. If the defending team catches a ball in the air that has been kicked over the goal line, it brings the ball out to the goal line before making the next kick. Every time the ball is kicked over the goal line In the air, and it is not caught, the team that kicked it is credited with one point. The ball is then brought out to mid-field by the losing team and the game Is started over again. Keep track of your scores. Okay, practice like this for the next ten minutes. The subjects participating in the control phase of this item were given these instructions: To practice the punt, pair off into two men teams. Get into position so that one team kicks to another team. One man on each team aots as a retriever and he runs after the other team’s kick and tosses the ball back to his partner. The kicker stays in one spot and practices kicking. 63 After five kicks the retriever and kicker change duties for the next five kicks. Two balls are kept in play so that each kicker is punting at the same time. Practice like this for the next ten minutes. Football test. After ten minutes of practice, the subjects were tested for their punting ability. The test of football punting ability used in this study was simply a test of punting for distance. Each subject made ten punts and the lengths of each, to the nearest yard, was recorded. The score for the test was the total yardage made on the ten punts. The reliability of this test was determined by the split-halves method, using the Spearman-Brown formula for correction (12:492-3). The scores made on the odd- numbered punts were correlated with the scores made on the even-numbered punts. The reliability, after modifica tion by the Spearman-Brown formula, was found to be .91» a statistic deemed sufficiently high for further analysis and comparison (16:4-35). To test several subjects at once, the subjects were paired off. One man in each pair was tested while the other retrieved the ball. All the subjects being tested kicked from behind the goal line, and all the retrievers stood down the field in a position to help mark the spot where the ball landed each time, and to retrieve the ball® As the ball, for one punter, was 6k being retrieved, the next subject kicked, then the next, and so on. By the time the last subject made his punt, the first one was ready for another punt. In this way the tester could test as many as four subjects at once. He recorded the length of each kick to the nearest yard. Upon completion of the football punting test, the subjects remained on the football field for the soccer practice and test. SQfi&er. The soccer skill used In this study was the dribble; and the Instruction, demonstration, practice, and test took place on the football practice field. Soccer instruction. Subjects from both A and B groups were given the following instructions! The second skill we will take is the dribble in soccer. Soccer dribbling refers to the act of controlling the ball with the feet by a series of short easy kicks, usually done with the sides of the foot. (Instructor's note— give a brief demonstration at this point). Notice that either foot is used, that the ball is kept close to the feet, and that it is "sort of caressed" rather than kicked. Notice also how the foot is used to stop the ball and to cause it to change direction. The best dribbler is the one who can keep the ball close to his feet and still travel fast. Practice. For the experimental group, several soccer "goals" were set up by putting two chairs five yards apart; these served as goal posts. The 65 subjects taking the experimental portion of the soccer dribbling Item were given the following Instructions for dribbling practice: Now, we will practice the dribble. Divide into groups of four, and, when I finish giving you the instructions, each group of four go to one of the soccer goals. Practice the dribble by playing a game in which one player tries to dribble and score in the goal, while two of the other players try to prevent him from doing so. The fourth member of the group rests* After the dribbler either scores or loses the ball, he goes out for a rest; one of the players, who was on defense, now becomes the dribbler; and the player who was resting, Joins the other defensive man and tries to prevent the new dribbler from scoring. This rotation procedure is followed for the next ten minutes. It is important that the two men on defense not only try to prevent the score, but also try to steal the ball. Keep track of the goals you score. The game looks something like this. (Instructor’s note— give a brief demonstration of the game here). Okay, go to the goals and play this game for the next ten minutes. The subjects participating in the control phase of the soccer item received the following Instructions: Now, to practice the dribble, divide into groups of three. After I finish giving the instructions, two members of each group remain at this end of the field, and the third member go down field about twenty-five yards. One member of the pair left at this end of the field dribbles down and passes the ball to the member of his group at the other end. That member dribbles the ball back to this end and gives it to the third man, who, in turn, dribbles back down and passes It, and so on. While dribbling down the field, practice the points just mentioned about dribbling technique. Dribble in all manners, such as: fast, slow, zig-zag, backwards, and so on. This is not a race but a chance to practice your dribbling. 66 (Instructor’s note— demonstrate one trip down the field using various types of dribbles). Okay, do this for the next ten minutes. Soccer test. After ten minutes of practice the subjects were tested on their soccer dribbling ability. The test of the ability to dribble a soccer ball used in this study was an adaptation of the test used for the basketball dribbling item which Is described in the basketball section of this chapter. In this test, eight chairs were set up as shown in Figure 1. The subject was required to dribble down a zig-zag path around the chairs, as shown by the arrows. When the last chair on the return trip was reached, the eighth chair passed, the subject then dribbled around chair number one again, and continued In the same course for thirty seconds. Chair number one now became the ninth chair passed, chair number two became the tenth chair, and so on. A chair was considered passed when the subject passed a point equi-distant from the front and back legs of the chair. The number of chairs passed In thirty seconds was counted. The subject was given two trials and his score was the total number of chairs passed in the two trials. The reliability of this test was determined by a type of split-halves method In which the first score was correlated with the second, the fourth with the third, 67 ARRANGEMENT ^ or 12 6 or l h 2 or 10 8 or 16 FIGURE 1 OF CHAIRS FOR THE SOCCER DRIBBLE TEST r (X \ 10 (X \ V 5 or 13 3 or 11 CHAIR \ (X \ X) 7 or 15 >< / \ VO ^—j (X X) 1 or 9 7 Z1 / VA j L START 68 the fifth with the sixth, the eighth with the seventh, and so on. This figure was then stepped-up for the whole test by the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula (12:492-3). The reliability was calculated to be .75; this coefficient of reliability was considered high enough to accept the scores made in this test for further group analysis and comparison (16:431). Following this phase of the study, the subjects reported to the women's gymnasium for badminton. The instruction and practice parts of the bad minton item were conducted in the women's gymnasium, and the test of badminton ability was given in the handball courts. Ba&BlafeQE. Instruction. Upon reporting to the men's gymnasium, the subjects from both A and B groups were given the following instructions: The third skill we are going to work on is the high clear in badminton. The high clear is a valuable shot and one that every badminton player must be able to perform if he is to become proficient at the game. It is used to force your opponent to hit from deep in his back court, for three reasons: (1) it will be difficult for him to take over the offensive from this position, (2) it will be extremely diffi cult for him to score a point from that deep position, and (3) there is a chance that he might make a weak return which will give you either a point or at least an opportunity to take over the offensive. 69 To do this, the shot must be hit, either under hand or overhand, high and deep. The best high clear is the one that Is hit so high and so deep that it comes down almost vertically and lands on the back line. The shot looks something like this. (Instructor’s note--have a demonstration here in which one demon strator sets up a few for the other demonstrator to hit. Have the hitting demonstrator hit high clears by both the overhand and underhand methods* Do not permit the setting demonstrator to return the high clear, but have him allow the bird to fall, pick It up, and set it up again). Notice how he positions himself so that the bird comes down directly at his head; how he turns his body slightly sideways so that he can get extra force by rearing back and stepping forward as the hit is made; and how he brings the racquet from well behind his head into the shot. This is how your shot should look. Badminton practice. The subjects in the experimental group were given the following instructions for practicing the high clear. Now, to practice this shot, pair off and each pair go to a court, after I finish giving the instructions. Practice by playing a game of outslugging your opponent. The idea is to rally, back and forth, trying to drive your opponent back out of his court. You do not try to out-fake him by hitting to either side or in front of him, but you try to hit it over his head so that he has to retreat to return it. Try to drive him so far back that he cannot reach the net with his return. If you do this, it means that you won the point. Then start again. Keep track of your points. The game looks something like this. (Instructor’s note— give a brief demonstration of the game here). Okay, go to the courts and play this game for ten minutes. The subjects in the control group for the bad minton phase of the study were given the following 70 Instructions for practicing the high clear. Now, to practice this shot, pair off and each pair go to a court, after I finish giving the instructions. Practice by having one member of the pair set up the shuttlecock so that the second member can hit the high clear. The person setting the bird up does not try to return the high clear, but he lets it land, and then he picks it up and sets it up again. He does this five times, and then the partners change so that the second partner does the setting up while the first one practices the high clear for five attempts. Follow this procedure for the next ten minutes. Badminton test. After ten minutes of practice, the subjects took the test of badminton playing ability. The test, which required a large area of unobstructed wall space, was given In the handball courts where such areas were available. The test of the ability to use a high clear in badminton was a modification of the test of badminton playing ability designed by Miller (65). In this test there was placed a one-inch horizontal net line, on a smooth wall, seven feet six Inches above the floor. The net line was ten feet long. The subject stood facing the wall with a badminton racquet and a shuttlecock in his hands. On the starting signal the subject served the shuttlecock against the wall above the net line, and hit it on the rebound so that the shuttlecock hit the wall again, on or above the net line. He repeated this as many times as possible in 71 thirty seconds* Three trials were allowed and one point was counted each time the shuttlecock hit the wall on or above the net line, and within the ten foot width of the net line. The score was the total number of points made In the three trials. The subjects were allowed a fifteen second practice period prior to participation in the first trial only. If a subject missed the shuttlecock, he had to pick It up and put it in play again. However, his score did not have to start over again when he missed the shuttlecock. His score continued with the next proper hit. Furthermore it made no difference if the shuttle cock hit the wall after a serve or after a volley. If the shuttlecock hit the wall on or above the net line, and within the ten foot width, a point was counted. There were no penalties for wood shots, and there were no limitations on the types of shots that could be used. If the shuttlecock hit the wall below the net line, no point was recorded, but the subject was permitted to keep the shuttlecock in play. He was not required to stop and then begin again. The subjects were arranged in pairs so that one could count while the other performed the test, and then they changed positions® The score was recorded for each thirty second trial, and the final score was totalled after the three trials were completed. There were two differences between the Miller test and this modification. One difference was that in the Miller test the subject was allowed a one-minute practice period before commencing the first trial. In this modification the practice period was reduced from one minute to fifteen seconds. The reason for this change was that since the learning period was so short, too much familiarity with the test could possibly overshadow the effects of the learning period. The other difference was that in this modifica tion of the Miller test the restraining line was eliminated. During the pilot study it was noted that when the beginning subjects performed the test smoothly and efficiently, they stayed between seven and ten feet away from the wall. Their performance was affected adversely, in most cases, when they moved over the restraining line. The restraining line seemed to have little value with these beginners, and its removal made for easier scoring and in judging the performance. The reported reliability for the Miller test was •9^« The reliability for this modification of the Miller test was established by the test-retest method, using one hundred college freshmen from a beginning badminton class® The reliability was found to be .88. This reliability coefficient was considered adequate. It was 73 recognized, however, that the reliability for younger boys would probably be lower, but It Is not likely that it would be materially so since, in each case, the test was administered to beginning players. After taking the badminton tests, the subjects remained In the handball courts for the handball phase of the study. Handball The handball instruction, demonstration, practice, and test all took place In the handball courts. HflBflkaH Instruction. The subjects were taken In groups of three, and subjects from both the A and B groups vjere given the following instructions: The fourth skill to be practiced is the handball volley, which includes the underhand, overhand, and sldearm shots. No matter which of these shots is used, the action is the same as the corresponding throwing action. In other words the overhand shot Is like the overhand throw; the sldearm shot is like the sidearm throw; and so on. (Instructor’s note— demonstrate these as you describe them). On right hand shots the body pivots to the right, and then back to the left and forward as a step is taken, in the direction of the shot, with the left foot; again, as in the throwing action. The cupped hand meets the ball at the base of the Index and middle fingers, about the place where you would hold the ball If you were going to throw It. The shot looks something like this. (Instructor’s note— demonstrate the shot a couple of times by throwing the ball against the front wall and hitting the rebound). Notice how I position myself to be able to stride Into the ball, and still get a full arm swing; how my 74 body is in a flexed, ready position; and how I keep my eyes on the ball. Handball practice. The subjects in the experi mental group were given the following Instructions: Now, to practice this shot, I want you to play a little game of trying to outslug your opponents. One person stand behind the service line, throw the ball to the front wall so that the rebound bounces on the floor once before coming back to you. Then hit this return back to the front wall and try to make it rebound as far back in the court as you can. Mark this spot, while your two opponents repeat the same procedure as you followed, and attempt to outdrive you. The person that makes the ball land the farthest back in the court wins the point. Repeat this and keep track of your points for ten minutes. The subjects participating in the control phase of this item were given these Instructions: Now, to practice this shot, simple throw the ball against the front wall so that the rebound bounces on the floor once before coming back to you. Then hit this return against the front wall using the proper action. Catch the second rebound. Repeat this procedure for ten minutes. Practice all three types of strokes; underhand, overhand, and sldearm. Handball test. After ten minutes of practice the subjects were tested for their handball volleying ability. The test of the ability to use the volley in hand ball was a modification of one of several items contained in a test of handball ability designed by Cornish (40). In this modified test, three subjects participated at one time. One person acted as the feeder. The feeder 75 was gj.ven three balls and he stood In the service box ready to feed a ball to the subject being tested, as needed. If the subject being tested was right-handed, the feeder stood in the right service box. He stood in the left service box for a left-handed subject. The feeder was told never to take his eyes off the player being tested. He had to be ready, at all times, to toss a ball to the player, as needed. Another subject was called the chaser. He chased the balls that the subject, being tested, missed and ran over and handed them to the feeder. He did not toss them to the feeder because the feeder had to keep his eyes on the subject. The third subject was tested on this handball skill. He stood behind the service line and put the ball in play as in regular handball. This meant that he drop ped the ball to the floor and hit it after it rebounded from the floor. He hit the ball toward the front wall, and tried to play it, on the return, back to the front wall as many times as he could in thirty seconds. Every hit was made from behind the service line. However, it was permissible for the subject to move in front of the line to make a hit, as long as he returned behind the line before making a subsequent hit. The score was determined by counting the number of times the ball hit the front wall in thirty seconds. 76 This meant that it did not matter how the ball got to the front wall as long as It touched the front wall. The ball could hit the wall without bouncing off the floor, it could hit the front wall after one or several bounces, and it could even roll up to the front wall and still count as a score. If the subject missed the ball, or if he flubbed the shot and it rolled away from him, he turned immediately to the feeder and received another ball from him. He had to put this, and every ball he used, in play by the regular handball serving method. After thirty seconds were past, the subject’s score was recorded on his scorecard. This person then became the chaser, the chaser became the feeder, and the feeder took the test. This sequence was carried on until each of the three subjects had performed the test three times. The final score for each subject was the total number of times he caused the ball to hit the front wall in his three trials. The difference between the Cornish test and this modification is that in the Cornish test the subjects had one trial, whereas in this modification three trials were given. Cornish reported a reliability of .53 for his test. However, the reliability for three repetitions, as calculated by the Spearman-Brown formula for correction (16^4- 36-7)9 raised the reliability to .??. This was 77 considered high enough to be useful for group analysis and comparison (16:^35-6). Upon completion of the handball phase of the study, the subjects reported to the men’s gymnasium for the basketball test. Basketball The basketball dribble Instruction, demonstration, and practice were carried on in the men’s gymnasium, while the testing of the basketball dribbling ability was done In the women’s gymnasium. Basketball Instruction. Subjects from both A and B groups were given the following instructions: This next item Is the basketball dribble. The dribble consists, as you know, of a series of bounces against the floor. Notice that in performing the dribble, the ball is pushed, rather than slapped, toward the floor. (Instructor’s note— demonstrate these points as you are talking about them). Also notice that the dribble Is done mainly xvlth the wrists and fingers, with only a slight action of the forearm. A third point to notice is that in good dribbling technique, the dribbler allows the ball to pause momentarily in the hand at the top of the dribble before pushing it toi^ard the floor again. It is this pause that enables the dribbler to control the dribble. Finally, notice that the eyes are not looking directly at the ball, but are looking at a spot on the floor about fifteen feet ahead of the dribbler. In this way the dribbler can see the ball without actually looking at it, he can see the basket without actually looking at it, and he can see the players around him without actually looking at them. (Instructor’s note--brlefly demonstrate the dribble and re-emphasize these four points as you do it) . 78 Basketball practice* The subjects taking the experimental phase of the basketball item were given the following instructions for practicing the dribble: Now, to practice the dribble, divide into groups of four, and when I finish giving the instructions, each group of four go to a basket. Practice the dribble by playing a game in which one player tries to dribble in and score a lay-up or close in shot against two opponents, who try to steal the ball from him, without fouling him. The fourth member of the group rests. After the first player has had his attempt and either scores, misses, or has the ball stolen from him, he goes out for a rest; one of the players who was on defense now becomes the dribbler; and the player who was resting, Joins the other defensive man and they try to steal the ball from the new dribbler. This rotation procedure is followed for the next ten minutes. It is Important that the two men on defense not only try to prevent the score, but also try to steal the ball, without fouling. Keep track of the baskets scored. The game looks something like this. (Instructor's note--give a brief demonstration of the game here). Okay, go to the baskets and play this game for the next ten minutes. The subjects participating in the control phase of this portion of the study were given the following instruc tions : Now, to practice the dribble, divide into groups of three. After I finish the instructions, two members of each group remain at this end of the basketball floor, and the other member go to the other end. One member of the pairs left at this end of the floor dribbles down and passes the ball to the member at the other end. That person dribbles back and gives the ball to the third man, and so on in the same pattern. While dribbling down the floor, practice the points just mentioned, and dribble in all ways, such as, fast, slow, high, low, stop, zig-zag, and so on. 79 This Is not a race, but a chance to practice your dribbling* Dribble at your own speed in your own time, and try to perfect your dribbling ability. (Instructor's note— demonstrate one trip down the floor using the various types of dribbles). Okay, practice like this for the next ten minutes. Basketball test. After ten minutes of practice, the subjects were taken to the women's gymnasium for the basketball test. The test of the ability to dribble a basketball was one of the items of a basketball classifi cation test designed by Koski (93)» In this test, twelve chairs were used and were set up as shown In Figure 2* The subject was required to dribble in a zig-zag path around the chairs, as shown by the arrows. If the dribbler passed the twelve chairs before the thirty seconds elapsed, he continued around chair number one again, which now became chair number thirteen, or the thirteenth chair passed. Chair number txvo became the fourteenth passed, and so on. A chair was considered passed when a subject passed a chalk mark on the floor right beside the front leg of the chair. The chairs were numbered so that the score could be determined at a glance. Each subject was given two trials and his score was the total number of chairs passed in the two trials, each trial being of thirty seconds duration. Several courses were set up so that several FIGURE 2 ARRANGEMENT OF CHAIRS FOR BASKETBALL DRIBBLE TEST 6 or 18 (X 7 or 19 \ / Z \ 8 or 21 (X \ Z \ 4 or 16 (x X) ' \ y CHAIR X) 5 or 17 9 or 21 10 or 22 (X X) 3 or 15 2 or 14 \ /" (x x) \ / o \ / / 11 or 23 CO 12 or 24 (X X) 1 o r 13 \o J START 81 subjects could be tested at once. If a subject lost a dribble so that the ball rolled well away, he was given an extra trial, but was only allowed one extra trial. If the fumble was only a small one, the subject had to re cover the ball and continue. Koski reported a reliability of .86, and this was considered high enough to accept the scores made in this test as sufficiently reliable for analysis and comparison (16:435-6). Following this phase of the study the subjects were required to report to the men's gymnasium for the volleyball phase of the study. VQlls.YkfljJ The instruction, demonstration, practice and test In the spike in volleyball were all performed in the men’s gymnasium. 3ftallfix32aH Instruction. Subjects from both A and B groups were given the following instructions: This last Item is the volleyball spike. The spike is a shot that Is smashed so that the ball goes sharply down to the floor, on the other side of the net, with great force. It is performed by a player who jumps high into the air close to the net; times himself so that he hits the ball when he is at the top of his Jump; and drives the ball down like an overhead smash in tennis or badminton. It looks something like this. (Instructor’s note— give a demonstration of the spike at this point). 82 Notice that the spiker stands back so that he can run forward and thus jump high* Notice, too, that a two-foot take off is used. This Is very important for It enables the spiker to control his forward momentum so that he doesn*t go into the net* The ball Is hit with a slightly cupped hand and is hit extremely hard. The spiker tries to make the ball hit the floor on the other side of the net and as close to the net as possible. Volleyball n_raQ.tl.ee.* The subjects participating In the experimental phase of the volleyball Item were given the following instructions: To practice the spike, divide into groups of three. One member of the group of three goes on the other side of the net and acts as a target and a retriever. He stands in the center of the court. The second member of the group stations himself near the net in the middle of the court and acts as the set up man* The third member of the group acts as the spiker and he stands a few feet back from the net ready to run forward to make his spike. When the set-up man sets the ball up, the spiker runs forward, jumps, and tries to hit the retriever with the ball. The retriever may duck or protect himself, but he can not run away from the center of the court* It is the point of the game to smash the retriever with the ball. Keep track of your successful hits, which are the ones that hit the retriever. After five attempts, change positions so that the set-up man becomes the spiker, the retriever becomes the set-up man, and the spiker becomes the retriever. This rotation plan is followed after every five attempts for the next ten minutes. It looks something like this. (Instructor's note— demonstrate a couple of times, making sure you smash the retriever). Okay, go to the courts and practice this for the next ten minutes. 83 The subjects participating in the control phase of this item were given these instructions: To practice the spike, divide into groups of three. One member of the group of three goes on one side of the net and acts as a retriever. He stands back near the wall, out of the court. The second member of the group stations himself near the net in the middle of the court and acts as the set-up man. The third member of the group acts as the spiker and stands a few feet back from the net, ready to run forward to make his spike. When the set-up man sets the ball up, the spiker runs forward, Jumps, and spikes the ball. The retriever gets the ball and tosses it back to the set-up man so that the act can be repeated. After five spikes, the group rotates so that the set-up man becomes the spiker, the retriever becomes the set-up man, and the spiker becomes the retriever. This rotation plan is followed after every five spikes for the next ten minutes. It looks something like this. (Instructor’s note— demonstrate a couple of spikes). Okay, go to the courts and practice this for the next ten minutes. It should be pointed out that the net was not horizontal with the floor, but was put up at an angle to accommodate subjects of all heights. Each subject was required to spike the ball over the top of the net at a point that was as high off the floor as the subject could reach while standing. This meant that the taller boys would be hitting the ball over a higher net than the shorter boys. test. After ten minutes of practice, the subjects were tested on their spiking ability. The test of volleyball spiking ability consisted 8k of a subjective judgment made by an experienced volleyball teacher. Periodically one or more other experienced volleyball teachers also subjectively rated the perform ances, but these ratings were used only to check the consistency of the original judge. Each subject performed the spike ten times. Each spike was rated on a scale from one to ten, with ten being the highest rating. The scores and their meaning follow: 0 - missed completely 1 - 2 - unsatisfactory 3 - ^ - poor 5 - 6 - satisfactory 7 - 8 - good 9-10 - very good The score for each subject was the total of the marks made on the ten spikes. An experienced volleyball player acted as the set-up man for each of the subjects. The same person acted in this capacity for the whole study. The subjects were told that they could refuse any set-up that they did not like, and it would not count against them. In other words, they were only to attempt to spike those set-ups they believed that they could spike well. The subjects were given two practice spikes so that the set-up man and each subject could become accustomed to each other. This was followed by the spiker attempting ten spikes. The set-up man called out the number of each spike so that there would be no 85 confusion on the part of the scorers. As much time as was desired was given between spikes so that the subject was not rushed. As in the practice period, the subject was re quired to hit the ball over that part of the net that was as high off the floor as he could reach while standing. As the test was administered, there were always two retrievers who stood on the opposite side of the net, and a feeder who stood behind the set-up man. Three balls were used. The retrievers recovered the balls, after they were spiked, and rolled them back to the feeder, who, in turn, handed them to the set-up man. The same set-up man was used for all of the subjects. The reliability of the Judgment of the expert used in this study was determined by the spllt-halves method, in which the odd scores were correlated with the even scores. This was then stepped up with the Spearman- Brown correction formula (12:492-3). The reliability was found to be .89, a figure deemed sufficiently re liable for group analysis and comparison (16:435-6). Upon completion of the volleyball test, the subjects returned their scorecards, and left, after their scorecards were checked for possible omissions or obvious errors. In general, it took about three hours for a group of twelve or less to go through the whole testing 86 program. STATISTICAL TREATMENT Each of the six skills was analyzed separately, using the same statistical procedure in each case. Comparisons of the three groups were made of each skill as described below. The first step was to see how the scores for each group differed in magnitude and direction. This was done by finding the mean score and standard deviation for each group. The next step was to determine whether the mean score deviations were statistically significant. To do this, a null hypothesis was formulated as follows: the groups being compared were drawn from the same population and the obtained mean score deviations represented random sampling fluctuations. This null hypothesis was tested, In each case, by Fisher's • • t", calculated directly from the mean score deviations, using procedures and formulae for uncorrelated data, as suggested by Guilford (12:213- 6) . The level of confidence was found for each "t" score. If the level of confidence was .05 or less, the null hypothesis was rejected as untenable, and the mean score differences were assumed to be greater than those which might have occurred by chance In a random sample. 87 Such statistically significant deviations indicated that the method of teaching used on the experimental group was more efficient from a time standpoint than the method used on the control group. If the level of confidence was greater than .05? the null hypothesis was accepted as tenable, and the two groups were assumed to come from the same population. This meant that the method of teaching used on the experimental group was not more efficient than that used on the control group. THE FILM In addition to the measurements made by means of the tests described in this chapter, a moving picture film was taken of some of the subjects in action to see if any differences in performance could be discerned by observation. Three subjects from each of groups A and B were photographed as they performed the various items of the study. This moving picture film was taken with a sixteen millimeter camera at a speed of 128 feet per second. This caused the action to be slowed down considerably, thus making possible better analysis. The film was studied by three experienced teachers of motor skills. Two of these judges were college instructors and the third was a high school 88 teacher. Each of these teachers viewed the film alone and made notes as he did so. He was asked to see if he could discern differences in quality of performance. He did not know which subjects were in the experimental group, or which were in the control group. Each viewer was allowed to see the film as many times as he wished. The notes were examined and compared. Later the three teachers viewed the film together, in the presence of the investigator, and discussed the filmed skills as they were shown. All remarks were noted. Finally the teachers were told which subjects were in each group, and again the teachers viewed the film, and discussed it as it was being shown. This discussion was also recorded. These notes were then analyzed and compared to see if there were any indications of qualitative differences in performances of the selected subjects in the two different groups. The results of this analysis are presented in the following chapter. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION This study Involved testing the hypothesis that If, at the beginning levels of learning a motor skill, the beginner’s attention could be directed from an awareness of his immediate and specific body actions, he would learn to perform the skill more quickly than if he were taught in a more conventional manner. Six skills were used and one hundred and fifty boys of junior high school age were involved in a learning experiment. The boys were divided into three groups as follows: Group A, which learned by the experimental method in three of the skills, and by the control method in the other three skills; Group B, which opposed Group A in that its members learned by the control method in the three skills in which Group A learned by the experimental method, and by the experimental method in the three skills In which Group A was taught by the control method (these two groups thus served as controls for each other); and Group C, which was given no learning period but took the tests only. Groups A and B were tested at the conclusion of their learning periods. All results were analyzed statistically by determining the significance of 90 differences between means. This chapter presents the findings of the study, and some interpretations drawn from these findings. In the last part of the chapter the experimental design is discussed, and then an examination is made of the study in its entirety. Finally, some implications for teaching are suggested as a result of the findings of this Investigation. THE EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS Football Findings. As indicated in Table II, the experimental group scored slightly higher than the control group, but the difference between means was not statistically significant. Both the control and the experimental groups, Groups A and B, scored significantly higher than the pure control group on the test with a confidence level of more than .01 in each case. Discussion. A statistically significant difference between the experimental group and the control group was not found on the football experiment; it was the only one of the six items used In this study In which this was the case. There are some points that may be brought out in retrospect which may partially explain this result. These were not anticipated prior to setting TABLE II 91 FINDINGS OF THE FOOTBALL ITEM STATISTICS GROUP A (CONTROL) GROUP B (EXPERIMENTAL) GROUP C (PURE CONTROL) N 60 60 30 M 238 240 208 <r '+7-95 45.95 38.77 % 6.19 5.93 7.09 COMPARISONS B to A B to C A to C °djV[ 3 °57 9.24 9 .40 dm 2 32 30 .23 3.46 3*19 The upper part of the table should be read as follows: Group A, the control group, contained 60 subjects; the mean score of the group was 238; the standard deviation of the group was 47.95; and the standard error of the mean was 6.19. The lower part of the table should be read as follows: In comparing groups B and A, the standard error of the difference between the means was 8.57; the difference between the means was 2; and the "t" ratio for the difference between the means was .23. (A "t" value of I.96 indicates significance at the .05 level of confidence.) (A "t" value of 2.58 indicates significance at the .01 level of confidence.) 92 up the study. It was learned that this activity was more familiar to the boys than any other on the test. They seemed to be more skilled In this Item than In the others. This might lead to the conclusion that there was less room for Improvement than In the other Items, and that there was less likelihood that a ten minute practice period In which any one method was employed would have greater results than any other method. The finding of significant differences between the pure control group and each of the other two groups might be explained by the fact that the punt Is a more precise skill than others tested in this study. To obtain maximum force, the ball had to be met with the foot at precisely the right Instant. In none of the other tests was maximum force the main factor. Since this study was conducted when football was not in season, the two groups that had the short practice period probably benefited greatly from it. In a ten minuted practice period, these performers, who already had some degree of skill in this item, might well have started to get back into their previously learned pattern, thus causing them to perform significantly better than the group that had no practice at all. As mentioned above, this was the only test in the study where maximum force was a factor. The 93 distances of the football punts were fairly large, the average punt being approximately twenty-four yards. This meant that a few very poor kicks had a significant effect on the total score. This test was held at the time of year when football was not In season, and poor kicks were made frequently. This factor might well have affected the results of this test, and might partially explain the lack of significant difference between the control and experimental groups. Another possible reason for a lack of significant difference In this phase of the study is that performance of this skill was affected, more than any of the others, by the environment, particularly the wind. Even a gentle wind had an effect, and there were some days when a gentle ’ ■find did prevail. All of the other Items were conducted indoors, with the exception of the soccer dribble, and on none of the testing days was the wind strong enough to affect the result of the soccer dribble. Since this test was conducted in the off-season, as far as football was concerned, some of the boys hurt their knees or feet when punting the football. This generally caused them to ease up or change their kicking technique. This, of course, affected the results. This problem did not occur in any of the other items. Finally, this test seemed to favor the control group. The practice method used by the control group was 94 virtually the same as the test, whereas the practice method used by the experimental group was slightly different from the test* In spite of this, the experimental group did score slightly higher than the control group. Soccer Findings. As Indicated in Table III, the experi mental group scored significantly higher than either the control group or the pure control group, with a confidence level greater than .01 in each case. The difference between the control group and the pure control group was also statistically significant, being beyond the .05 level of confidence. Discussion. The experimental group seemed to enjoy the soccer practice period more than did the control group, even though the experimental group's practice method was much more strenuous. This enjoyment seemed to lead to more intense practice. The method used by the experimental group was one used by some soccer coaches In an effort to help their players develop dribbling ability. It is designed to teach the players to remain relaxed while dribbling in a situation where there is danger of having the ball taken from them. One of the common faults in Inexperienced players Is that they become tense and kick the ball too TABLE III 95 FINDINGS OF THE SOCCER ITEM STATISTIC GROUP A (EXPERIMENTAL) GROUP B (CONTROL) GROUP C (PURE CONTROL) N 60 60 30 M 18 17 16 <T 2.80 2 .41 2.12 M .36 .31 .39 COMPARISONS A to B B to C A to C .48 .50 .53 dm 1 1 2 "t" 2.08 2.0 3-77 The upper part of the table should be read as follows: Group A, the experimental group, contained 60 subjects; the mean score of the group was 18; the standard deviation of the group was 2*80; and the standard error of the mean was .36. The lower part of the table should be read as follows: In comparing groups A and B, the standard error of the difference between the means was .48; the dif ference between the means was 1; and the "t" ratio for the difference between the means was 2.08. (A "t" value of I.96 indicates significance at the .05 level of confidence.) (A MtM value of 2.58 indicates significance at the .01 level of confidence.) 96 hard, when they are In danger of being checked. It Is possible that the test of soccer dribbling ability caused similar tenseness and the subjects in the experimental group, having practiced under a more tense situation, were able to remain more relaxed than those of the control group. The experimental method used in the soccer item was an example of refocussing the learner’s attention away from himself and on another goal by putting him in a situation in which he was compelled to perform satis factorily if he was to function at all. In this case the learner had to dribble well if he was to score, or to keep the ball for any length of time. It was possible to observe the subjects as they developed a relaxed method of dribbling in a short period of time using the experi mental method. They quickly learned to control the ball with gentle, soft kicks rather than by moving the ball with hard, jerky movements. It is possible that the control group developed the same relaxation, but It did not seem as readily apparent. Another observation was that the subjects in the experimental group seemed to develop confidence in them selves very rapidly. Once they found that they were able to keep on dribbling for a little xvhlle, even though being checked by two men, they quickly developed considerable control, and It became very difficult to 97 take the ball away from them. There is an additional point that might be made in regard to the soccer item. Since this phase of the study was conducted outdoors, the weather did have an effect, particularly the heat. Because of this there were some occasions when some of the subjects were not able to extend their maximum effort for the full length of the practice period. In view of the fact that the practice method used by the experimental group was much more strenuous In nature than that used by the control group, it is, perhaps, surprising that there was a significant difference in favor of the experimental group. Findings. As indicated in Table IV, the experimental group scored slgnlficantly better than the control group with a confidence level of .05. Both the experimental group and the control group scored better than the pure control group which was the group that took the test without benefit of the teaching or practice period. The difference was statistically significant with a confidence level of .01 in each case. Discussion. In the badminton phase of this study, the members of the experimental group were arranged in pairs, and each pair was assigned to a badminton court. TABLE IV 98 FINDINGS OF THE BADMINTON ITEM STATISTIC GROUP A (CONTROL) GROUP B (EXPERIMENTAL) GROUP C (PURE CONTROL) N 60 60 30 M 69 75 4? a 14.20 16.04 15.56 °M 1.83 2.0 7 2.84 COMPARISONS B to A B to C A to C % 2.76 3.52 3.38 dm 6 28 22 •»t" 2.17 7.96 6.51 The upper part of the table should be read as follows: Group A, the control group, contained 60 subjects; the mean score of the group was 69; the standard deviation of the group was 14.20; and the standard error of the mean was 1.33* The lower part of the table should be read as follows: In comparing groups A and B, the standard error of the difference between the means was 2.76; the difference between the means was 6; and the "t" ratio for the difference between the means was 2.17• (A "t" value of 1.96 indicates significance at the .05 level of confidence.) (A "t" value of 2.58 indicates significance at the .01 level of confidence.) 99 The members of each pair opposed each other In a competi tion of hitting for distance. They rallied the shuttle cock back and forth across the net, and each time they tried to hit the shuttlecock farther than their opponent could. The motive here was to have the subjects concen trate on the competition of trying to outdrive each other, rather than think about all the aspects of making a proper high clear. The subjects were put, In this case, in a situation where they had to perform correctly if they were to func tion at all. It took a properly executed high clear to drive the opponent back, or to return the opponent's shot far enough to keep from losing the contest. The subjects were forced to learn how to hit a good high clear shot quickly. The results of the badminton phase of this study showed that the group taught by the experimental method scored significantly higher on the test of badminton playing ability than did the group taught by the control method. The difference in the means of the two groups was six, which meant that the subjects in the experimental group averaged two more strokes per person per trial on the modified Miller badminton test than did the subjects in the control group. It is difficult to explain the fact that there was a significant difference between the control and 100 experimental groups in this item since the test, in this skill, seemed less like what was taught and practiced than in any of the other items. The subjects were taught the high clear, but were tested on their ability to volley the bird continuously against the wall. The stroke used by the subjects making the highest scores on the test did not resemble the high clear stroke; rather, a short punching or tapping type of action was used, and the bird traveled more at a horizontal projectory from the racquet to the wall and back to the racquet, instead of in a high forward flight characteristic of the high clear shot. On the other hand, Miller used her test as a measurement of all-around badminton playing ability, and found the validity to be .83 i .0^7 (65*212). Since the high clear is used more, possibly, than any other shot in badminton, then a test of all-around badminton playing ability might well Include high clear ability. So it is conceivable that the subjects making the highest scores on the test were the ones that developed the best high clear ability in the learning and practice period. In learning badminton, one of the big problems that the beginner must adjust to is that of handling the racquet. This involves such things as: learning to wield the implement; learning to Judge the distance the racquet head is from the hand so that the racquet head can meet the shuttlecock; learning the proper swing that will 101 give the force desired; and learning the timing so that the racquet head will meet the bird at precisely the right Instant for best results. These things were also problems encountered In the test of this item. Therefore, the test of the ability to volley the shuttlecock against the wall might well be acceptable as a test of all-around badminton ability. The reason that the experimental group scored significantly higher was not readily apparent. One possible explanation might be found by examining the practice methods used by the two groups. The competitive type of practice used by the experimental group seemed to stimulate the subjects to perform In a more exuberant manner. They appeared to swing at the shuttlecock with reckless abandon and to hit with much less restraint. The members of the control group appeared to act in a more inhibited fashion, possibly because they were concentrating on their body movements. Hfifl&kaLL Findings. As indicated in Table V, the experi mental group scored significantly higher than the control group, with a confidence level well beyond the .01 mark. The difference between the experimental group and the pure control group was even greater; but the difference between the control group and the pure control group was not TABLE V 102 FINDINGS OF THE HANDBALL ITEM STATISTIC GROUP A (EXPERIMENTAL) GROUP B (CONTROL) GROUP C (PURE CONTROL) N 60 60 30 M 35 30 23 < r 6.35 5.75 4.11 .82 • 74 .75 COMPARISONS A to B B to C A to C 1.1 1.05 1.11 DW 5 2 7 "t" 4.55 1.95 6.31 The upper part of the table should be read as follows: Group A, the experimental group, contained 60 subjects; the mean score of the group was 35? the standard deviation of the group was 6.35? and the standard error of the mean was .82. The lower part of the table should be read as follows: In comparing groups A and B, the standard error of the difference between the means was 1.1; the difference between the means was 5? and the "t" ratio for the difference between the means was 4.55* (A "t" value of 1.96 indicates significance at the .05 level of confidence.) (A "t" value of 2.58 Indicates significance at the .01 level of confidence.) 103 statistically significant. Discussion. The handball item was similar to the badminton item in that performance in terras of the maximum force or distance attainable was the technique used to try to get the beginner away from a conscious awareness of his immediate body actions. The subjects, again arranged in pairs, tried to hit the handball as hard as possible so that they could make the ball rebound from the front wall and land on the floor farther from the front wall than could their opponents. In this item, as in the badminton item, the skill tested was not exactly the same as the skill taught and practiced, but the difference was not nearly so great as in the badminton phase of the study. Furthermore, the difference between the skill taught and the skill tested was far greater with the experimental group than with the control group. In the test, the ball was not hit too hard, but was hit in a controlled manner so that the ball would rebound in the proper place so it could be hit again. The control group, during their practice, hit the ball in such a way that they could catch the return. Thus the control group practiced a shot that was very similar to the one most used on the test. There were, however, some differences. The control group threw the ball against the wall and hit it when it rebounded from the 104 wall, while on the test the hit was made as the ball re bounded from the floor. In addition, the control group practiced one shot primarily, whereas the subjects in the other groups, when performing In the test, used many different shots, Including some that they had to do while Jumping in order to reach the ball. However, generally, the shot used on the test was similar to the one practiced by the control group. The shot used by the experimental group was not as similar as that used on the test since the subjects were not too concerned with control, but rather with hitting the ball as hard as possible. One might conclude from this that the control method was more conducive to developing control on the volley, which is a major factor in handball playing ability. In spite of this, the experimental group scored significantly higher than did the control group. Another point, perhaps worthy of mention, was observed during the learning of this skill. The subjects, having had little or no experience or training in this type of handball, often hurt their hands. This discomfort seemed to bother the subjects in the experimental group far less, even though the blows were generally harder. It seemed as if the competition and the desire to beat the opponent permitted them to disregard or tolerate the pain. It should be pointed out that the subjects used in this study had had more experience in handball than in all of the other items except football. It was learned, through discussions with the boys, that one of their most popular games was a type of handball which was played by batting a volleyball against a wall with hand or fist, utilizing rules similar to handball. Possibly there was some transfer to regular handball, and this might explain the lack of significant difference between the control group and the pure control group. The implication is that since there might have been prior learning, there was less room for Improvement. Consequently, the short learning period Involved in this study would have less effect than if it was a completely new skill that was being learned. However, this does not explain the highly significant difference found between the experimental group and the other two groups. Basketball Findings. As Indicated in Table VI, the experi mental group scored signlficantly higher than either the control group or the pure control group, with a confidence level greater than .01 In each case. The difference between the control group and the pure control group was also statistically significant, also being beyond the .01 level of confidence. 106 TABLE VI FINDINGS OF THE BASKETBALL ITEM STATISTIC GROUP A (CONTROL) GROUP B (EXPERIMENTAL) GROUP C (PURE CONTROL) N 60 60 30 M 31 3 4 29 c r 3.13 2.85 2.52 °M .^0 .37 A 6 COMPARISONS B to A B to C A to C °dW •55 •59 .61 dm 3 5 2 ••t" 5.^5 8.47 3.28 The upper part of the table should be read as follows: Group A, the control group, contained 60 subjects; the mean score of the group was 31; the standard deviation of the group was 3«13» and the standard error of the mean was .^-0. The lower part of the table should be read as follows: In comparing groups B and A, the standard error of the difference between the means was .55? the difference between the means was 3; and the "t" ratio for the difference between the means was 5»^5» (A wtM value of 1.96 indicates significance at the .05 level of confidence.) (A "t" value of 2.58 Indicates significance at the .01 level of confidence.) 107 Discussion. The methods used in the basketball and soccer Items were basically the same, and the same comments hold true for each one. The development of relaxation in the movement was even more noticeable in the basketball skill than in the soccer item. The development of control was equally apparent and, after a few attempts, some of the subjects were able to keep possession of the ball for an indefinite length of time, even though being checked by two opponents. There was evidence of prior learning in this skill, although not to a high degree. As in the soccer item, the experimental group seemed to enjoy its learning period more than did the control group, even though the experimental group used a much more strenuous type of practice. The competitive nature of the practice perhaps caused most of the subjects in this group to work harder than the members of the control group. Findings. As indicated in Table VII, the experimental group scored signlficantly higher than both the control group and the pure control group, with confidence levels of greater than .05 and .01 respectively. The difference between the control group and the pure control group was also statistically significant, being 108 TABLE VII FINDINGS OF THE VOLLEYBALL ITEM STATISTIC GROUP A (EXPERIMENTAL) GROUP B (CONTROL) GROUP C (PURE CONTROL) N 60 60 30 M 40 35 24 a 9-38 7.88 5.06 1.21 I.02 .92 COMPARISONS A to B B to C A to C 1.58 1.37 1.52 Dm 5 11 16 ••t" 3.16 8.03 10.53 The upper part of the table should be read as follows: Group A, the experimental group, contained 60 subjects; the mean score of the group was 40; the standard deviation of the group was 9*38; and the standard error of the mean was 1.21. The lower part of the table should be read as follows: In comparing groups A and B, the standard error of the difference between the means was 1.58; the difference between the means was 5? and the "t" ratio for the difference between the means was 3.16. (A "t" value of I.96 indicates significance at the *05 level of confidence.) (A **t" value of 2.58 indicates significance at the .01 level of confidence.) beyond the .01 level of confidence. 109 Discussion. In this item, as in the football and basketball items, the subjects had had some previous experience. However, as evidenced by their performance, the players had not had much experience in playing volley ball. This was the only item in this study where subjective rating was used. In order to make the grading as consistent as possible, the same expert was used to Judge all of the performances by all of the subjects. To further standardize the test, the same skilled per former acted as the set-up man for every subject who was tested. To make the test admlnistration even more consistent, the subjects werp allowed to reject any of the set-ups that were not precisely the way they wanted them, without suffering any penalty. They were allowed to choose the set-ups that they thought they could spike well, In this item, the practice method used by the experimental group and the control group was the same in all respects except for the goal or the objective. The members of the control group were supposed to merely practice the movement, whereas the members of the experimental group were supposed to be striving to hit the boy acting as a target on the other side of the net. 110 It is possible that the practice method used by the control group better prepared its members for the test of spiking ability used in this study, thus favoring the control group. In spite of this, the experimental group did score significantly better than did the control group. The experimental group seemed to have a more en joyable time during the practice period than did the control group. They seemed to be stimulated by the yel ling and razzing of the boy on the other side of the net who was the target. They seemed to study their movements less, and to perform more freely than did the control group. This might account, at least in part, for the higher test scores attained. RESULTS OP ANALYSIS OF FILM None of the Judges who examined the film were able to distinguish between the performances of the subjects of the experimental or the control groups. After being told which subjects were from each group, the panel of experts was unable to observe anything in the performances that would indicate that the subjects from one group were better or worse than those from the other group. In addition to the three Judges, several other high school physical education teachers viewed the film informally, and with the same results. They too, were unable to distinguish between the two groups. Ill In view of these findings, it was decided not to pursue this phase of the study any further. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN The experimental design used in this study was one in which Groups A and B could act as their own controls. (Group C, the pure control group, is omitted from this discussion for the moment). Group A performed the experimental portions of the study in the soccer, handball, and volleyball items; and the control aspects of the study in the football, badminton, and basketball items. The pattern followed by Group B was just the opposite. The subjects were divided, arbitrarily, into the two groups. There was no attempt made to equalize the groups In skill or ability. In other words, there was no pre-testing done to set up the groups. The tests and skills were so simple that, having performed the test once, the subject could possibly improve so much on the test Itself that the gain from such a short practice session would then be small in comparison. It was desired that familiarity with the test be prevented. Also It was desired that familiarity with the skill be kept at a minimum until the Instructional, demonstratlonal, and practice periods took place. This study was designed in order to study some aspects of beginning levels of 112 learning a motor skill and it was hoped to secure subjects as close to beginning levels as possible. The purpose of Group C, the pure control group, was to determine if the brief practice period resulted in an improvement by both groups. Since the practice period was so short, it was possible that one or both groups might not show any gain at all. Group C took the tests only. Its members did not have any teaching or practice other than that needed to perform the tests. The results showed that even a ten minute practice session, at the beginning levels of learning, had considerable effect on the results. It might be questionable whether or not a ten minute period is long enough to produce significant changes in skill. In so far as this study is concerned, the results show that the practice period was sufficiently long to have effect. When considering economy of learning, in relation to comparatively simple motor skills, the economy should be accomplished in terms of minutes, not hours or even half-hours. Turning to the example of teaching the polka, experienced teachers of dance have pointed out, in private conversation, that it usually takes twenty to thirty minutes to teach the basic polka step to a group by teaching the details of the step Itself; whereas, by using the relationship to the gallop, they can teach the 113 basic polka step in a matter of from two to five minutes. Similarly, In teaching the side stroke In swimming, teachers of swimming have Indicated, again in informal conversation, that they can teach the side stroke in a very few minutes to a beginning swimmer who can only use the dog-paddle or human stroke, by having him simply dog- paddle on his side in the water and gradually learn to pause and glide between strokes. This takes only a few minutes for the skill to be learned, as opposed to a longer length of time to learn the side stroke, as such, in a more conventional manner. GENERAL DISCUSSION The findings of this investigation Indicate that, in so far as this study is concerned, the hypothesis under examination had merit in that it appeared to produce quicker learning results than did the other methods used. In actual practice it is likely that the difference between the results of teaching by the technique suggested in this hypothesis, and the results of teaching by a more conventional method, would be even more pronounced than that found in this study. For the sake of consistency and uniformity, both groups in this study were given the same instruction; and the difference between the two groups was only in the type of practice they experienced. In an actual teaching situation, It Is unlikely that the 114 - instruction would be the same. In fact, In teaching some activities, no instruction would be given, other than the directions on how to practice. For example, in teaching the side stroke in swimming, as mentioned above, there would be no need to describe or demonstrate the side stroke at all at the outset. The students might not even have to be told that they were going to learn the side stroke. Similarly, in teaching the badminton high clear, as done in this study, there would be no need to describe or demonstrate the high clear at first. Possibly the demonstration, plus some needed description, would be given after the subject had developed enough ability to function with some degree of skill. In other words, in an actual teaching situation, it might be possible to economize even further. This could be done by reducing the amount of demonstration and verbalization at the beginning of the instruction phase, and, in some in stances, virtually eliminating them altogether. IMPLICATIONS FOB TEACHING Some Implications for teaching can be drawn from the results of this study. However, because of the limitations of this study in terms of sample and measuring devices, the implications are merely points raised for consideration. The findings of the study indicate that the 115 hypothesis under examination has some value. Physical educators should experiment more with the technique of getting the beginner to think about something other than immediate body actions when learning a motor skill. There are different methods which may be used for accomplishing this, and the Instructor might well collect and develop as many of these techniques as possible for each activity. In order to carry out this suggestion, a great deal of knowledge about the activity is required, and ability to analyze individual needs is necessary before it is possible to devise appropriate techniques to meet these needs. From the findings of this study it may be inferred that in learning a motor skill, the student should start performing as soon as possible. Long, detailed explana tions are not needed before performance starts, and, in some instances, explanations may not be needed at all. The learner should be put Into the situation in which he is to perform. In many cases, as shown by this study, he may learn to perform properly in a shorter period of time than would be required if he received detailed instructions before practicing the skill. The teacher's role, in this case, becomes one of a corrector, and the bulk of his time is spent making suggestions for subtle changes in perforrnance which may hasten the development of the skill. 116 If the technique of having the learner perform as soon as possible Is employed, the reasons for and the number of demonstrations may be different from those required by conventional methods of learning. It would seem that one or two demonstrations are all that are needed during the Initial learning of skills such as those used In this study. The purpose of these demonstrations would not be for teaching the movement, but merely for the purpose of giving the learner a broad general Idea of the skill. For example, a badminton serve might be demon strated solely for the purpose of showing the beginner that it is made with an underhand swing, rather than with an overhand swing as is done in tennis. More detailed and more numerous demonstrations could then be used at a later stage of development to show what good form is; from there the learner may make fine adjustments in his performance after he has learned to perform in a general way. It Is quite possible that demonstrations at this time would be more meaningful, for the learner might better know what to look for at this later period. This conclusion seems to coincide with Mott's observations (95)• She suggested that several demon strations are needed before the details of a movement can be learned from demonstrations alone (95:1°8). Since the movements she used were very simple in terms of 117 timing, force, and speed, It Is probable that In learning a more complicated skill, such as the volleyball spike, many demonstrations would be needed before the beginner could perform the skill correctly. Possibly so many demonstrations would be needed that a great deal of time would be consumed, time that might be more profitably spent in physically trying the skill. It should not be Inferred from this, however, that Mott in any way sug gested that initial learning should be based on demonstration alone. At any rate, the possible value and nature of later demonstrations, as compared with earlier demonstrations, should be investigated. There Is a final implication suggested by this study. While It was merely an observation, the subjects in the experimental groups of each skill seemed to enjoy themselves more and seemed to throw themselves more exuberantly into the practice period than did the members of the control group. This point might well be of great Importance for physical educators, for motivation is assumed to influence the initial learning of motor skills. If the use of the techniques suggested in this study lead to greater enjoyment on the part of the learner, then they are valuable. Greater enjoyment probably leads to greater readiness to learn, and possibly to greater learning. SUMMARY 118 The findings of this study showed that in every skill the experimental group scored higher than the control group. In five of the six skills the differences were statistically significant, with a confidence level beyond .05* The experimental group scored significantly higher than the pure control group, with a confidence level beyond .01 in each case. The control group scored higher than the pure control group in each skill. The difference was statistically significant with a confidence level beyond .05 in all skills except handball. In the football, badminton, basketball, and volleyball skills, the confidence level was beyond .01. The results of the examination of the film showed no observable differences between the skill levels of the members of the two groups used on the film. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION This chapter contains a brief review of the procedure and findings of the study; and a presentation of the conclusion which the findings seem to Justify, Suggestions for further study are also Included, SUMMARY An experimental investigation of economy of learning new motor skills was conducted* Specifically, it was the purpose of the study to test the hypothesis that some motor skills can be learned more quickly if the learner’s attention, during performance, can be concen trated on faotors other than the details of specific body movements. The problem was approached bys 1, Selecting skills which could be used to test this hypothesis. 2. Establishing, for each skill, two groups of subjects randomly selected from the same population, one of which was taught to practice the skill in such a manner that attention was concentrated on factors other than specific body movements, and the other in such a manner that attention was directed toward the specific 119 120 body movements which are required for successful perform ance. A third group, which took the tests but did not practice, was Included as a pure control group. 3* Comparing, for each skill, the mean perform ances of the three groups. 4. Comparing, for each skill, the performance of selected Individuals from the two experimental groups, by the movements recorded In a moving picture film. The method used to try to get the subject to concentrate on things other than his Immediate body actions was competition. The hastening devices used Included* putting the subject In a situation In which he had to learn correctly if he was to have any success, such as In the basketball and soccer items; giving the subject a goal, such as In the handball and volleyball items; or giving him opposition, such as In the badminton and football Items. As a preliminary investigation, a pilot study was conducted using, as subjects, men who volunteered from the physical education service program at the University of Southern California. From the results of this pilot study, refinements were made In the procedure and were incorporated Into the final study. Summary oL prscsflurs* In order to carry out the purpose cited above, six skills were selected for study. 121 One hundred and fifty boys of Junior high school age were used as subjects. These boys were divided at random Into three groups: Group A, made up of sixty boys} Group B, also comprised of sixty boys; and Group C, which Involved thirty boys. Two methods of practice were used. In one method the boys practiced the skill in such a way that they could concentrate on trying to perfect the perform ance of the activity. This was the control method. In the other approach, the experimental method, the boys practiced the skill In such a way that they had to concentrate, it was assumed, on something other than the actual performance of the skill. The skills selected for this study were: the football punt, the socoer dribble, the badminton high clear, the handball volley, the basketball dribble, and the volleyball spike. The boys practiced a skill by the prescribed method for ten minutes, and then took a test in that skill. Next they practiced another skill for ten minutes, after which they were tested In that skill. This procedure was followed for the six skills. There was no attempt made to equate Groups A and B initially, other than in numbers. There was no pre test. In order to overcome the problem of unequated groups, the experimental design was such that the groups acted as controls for each other. To accomplish this, Group A was used as a control group for the skills of 122 football* badminton, and basketball; Group B participated in the experimental phase of these three skills. Group A then practiced the other three skills, namely soccer, handball, and volleyball, by the experimental method, and Group B was used as a control group for these three skills. Group C acted as a pure oontrol group and only took the tests; this group practiced by neither method. The mean scores, made by the three groups of subjects in each of the six skills, were compared and analyzed. A null hypothesis was formulated as follows: the groups being compared were drawn from the same population, and the obtained mean score deviations represented random sampling fluctuations. This null hypothesis was tested, in each case, by Fisher’s "t", calculated directly from the mean soore deviations, using procedures and formulae for uncorrelated data, as sug gested by Guilford (12:213-16). The level of confidence was found for each Mtc t score. If the level of confidence was .0 5 or less, the null hypothesis was rejected as untenable, and the mean score differences were assumed to be greater than those which might have occurred by chance in a random sample. The statistically significant deviations, which were obtained, indicated that the method of teaching which was used on the experimental group was more efficient from a time standpoint than the method used on the control group. 123 summary g£ results. The results of the study showed that In every skill the experimental group scored higher than the control group; and In five of the six skills the differences were statistically significant* with a confidence level beyond *0 5* The experimental group scored significantly higher than the pure control group In each of the skills, with a confidence level beyond .01 In each case. The control group scored higher than the pure control group in each skill. The difference was statistically significant, with a confidence level beyond .05, in all skills except handball. In the foot ball, badminton, basketball, and volleyball skills, the confidence level was beyond .0 1. Smraarv f ii implications £££ teaohlflg* The findings of this study seem to show that new motor skills can b© learned faster when the beginner is directed away from a conscious awareness of immediate body actions. Implied in the methods suggested In this investigation are the minimizing of verbalization and demonstration at the Initial stages of learning a motor skill. Instead, the teacher teaches by correction. It was suggested that verbalization and demonstra tion might have a mome valuable part to play after the initial stages of learning are completed. 12k It was noted that the experimental group appeared to enjoy participation more than the control group. Prom this observation it was suggested that this enjoyment may have contributed to the higher degree of skill attained by the experimental group when oompared with the control group. CONCLUSION Within the limitations of the experimental design and prooedure used in this study, the results seem to lead to the following general conclusions new motor skills are learned more quickly if the learner, during practice, concentrates his attention on factors other than specific body movements. 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"A Demonstration of the Trial and Error Method of Learning," Psychological Bulletin, 7*20-3, January, 1910. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81 * 82. 83. 84. 134 Symonds, Percival M. "Laws of Learning," Journal of Educational Psychology, 18:405-13, September, 1927. Walters, C. Etta. "The Application of the Orerlohd Principle to the Learning of Motor Skills," Amerloan Journal of Occupational Therapy, 10: 1-6, January-February, 1956. Willoughby, R. R. "Incidental Learning," Journal of Educational Psychology, 20*671-82, December, 1929. . "Incidental Learning," Journal of Educa tional Psychology, 21:12-23# January, 1930* C. PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED ORGANIZATIONS Lawther, John D., and John M. Cooper. "Methods and Principles of Teaching Physical Education," Fifty-Eighth Annual Proceedings of the College Physical Education Association. 1955# PP* 25-29. Lewellen, John 0. "A Comparative Study of Two Methods of Teaching Beginning Swimming," Fifty-Fifth Annual Proceedings of the College Physical Eduoatlon Association. 1952, pp. 71-3* Ragsdale, Clarence Edwin. "How Children Learn the Motor Types of Activities," Forty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part I, Chapter III, 1950# PP. 69-91. Research Council of the Research Section of the American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation. Measurement and Evaluation Materials in Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. Washington* The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1949* 135 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. D. PAHTS OF A SERIES Abel, L. B. "The Effects of Shift In Motivation Upon the Learning of a Sensori-Motor Task," Archives of Psychology, Volume 29, Number 205, June, 193^7 57 PP* Batson, William Howard. "Acquisition of Skill," Psychological Monographs. Volume 21, Number 3» Whole Number 91» July, 1916, 98 pp. Hanawalt, Ella May. "Whole and Part Methods in Trial and Error Learning," Comparative Psychology Monographs. Volume 7» May, 1931» 65 PP. Pechstein, L. A. "Whole Versus Part Methods in Motor Learning," Psychological Review Monograph Supplement« Volume 22, Number 2, 1918, 80 pp. Stetson, R. H., and J. A. McDlll. "Mechanism of the Different Types of Movement," Psychological Monographs, Volume 32, Number 3» 1923, pp. l8-4>0. E. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS Glassow, Ruth B. "Implication For The Teaching of Skill." This Is from mimeographed material entitled, "Selected Materials From A Symposium on the Development of Neuromuscular Control," Department of Physical Education for Women, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, February 18-19* 194-9» PP« 15-21. Kimball, Edwin R. "A Comparative Study of the Whole and Part Methods of Teaching Basketball." Unpublished Master's thesis, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1934’ . Knight, Patriola. "The Relationship of Kinesthesia to the Learning of a Motor Skill." Unpublished Master's project, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1954-• 136 93* Koski, W. A. "A Basketball Classification Test." Unpublished Master's thesis, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1950* 9^. Llba, Marie* "Setting Klnesthetio Goals for Projectile Skills." This is from mimeographed material entitled, "Selected Materials From a Symposium on the Development of Neuromuscular Control," Department of Physical Education for Women, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, February 18-19, 19^9, pp. 22-25* 95* Mott, Jane Adele. "Eye Movements During Initial Learning of Motor Skills Through Visual Demonstration." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 195**« 96. Nelson, Dale. "Studies of Transfer of Learning In Gross Motor Skills." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern California, Lob Angeles, 1957. 97« Nlemeyer, Hoy Kurt. "Part Versus Whole Methods and Massed Versus Distributed Practice in the Learning of Selected Large Muscle Activities." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern Califprnia, Los Angeles, 1958. 98. Phillips, Gordon E. "A Survey and Evaluation of Certain Literature on Whole and Part Methods of Motor Learning." Unpublished Master's thesis, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 19^8.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Thomas, Paul (author)

Core Title Economy Of Learning At Beginning Levels Of Gross Motor Performance

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Physical Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Physical,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Cooper, John M. (committee chair), Lockhart, Aileene (committee chair), Metheny, Eleanor (committee member), Michael, William B. (committee member), Morris, Royce (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-241335

Unique identifier UC11358056

Identifier 6103808.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-241335 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6103808.pdf

Dmrecord 241335

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Thomas, Paul

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA