University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Relationship Of Self-Concept Discrepancies To Vocational Choice, Intelligence, School Achievement, And Socioeconomic Status

(USC Thesis Other)

The Relationship Of Self-Concept Discrepancies To Vocational Choice, Intelligence, School Achievement, And Socioeconomic Status

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content THE RELATIONSHIP OF SELF CONCEPT DISCREPANCIES TO VOCATIONAL CHOICE, INTELLIGENCE, SCHOOL ACHIEVEM ENT, A N D SOCIOECONOM IC STATUS by Darrell Lee Moses A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE G RA D U A TE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a rtial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) January I960 UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES 7, CALIFORNIA This dissertation, written by .............................DAHHELL..Lfc.JM.OSES....................... under the direction of h.A&~Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Dean Date....... January... 1.9 6.Q TABLE OP CONTENTS LIST OP TABLES ......................................................................................... C h a p te r I . THE PROBLEM ............................................................................... I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e Problem S ta te m e n t o f t h e Problem H y p o th e se s D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y D e f i n i t i o n of Terms and O p e r a t i o n a l C o n s t r u c t s O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e R em aining C h a p te rs I I . REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE............................................... The R o le of t h e S e l f C oncept R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Views o f th e S e l f and th e Ego Q -T echnique and M ethodology Uses o f t h e Q - s o r t T e c h n iq u e C o n tem p o rary Views on S e l f A c c e p ta n c e and S e l f A d ju stm en t S e l f C o n c ep ts S e l e c t e d f o r S tu d y The S e l f C oncept As I t I s R e la te d to V o c a t i o n a l C hoice The S e l f C oncept As R e la te d t o C e r t a i n C a r e e r F a c t o r s Summary I I I . THE DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH.......................................... C hoice o f t h e Sample The E x p e r im e n ta l Q - s o r t O b ta in i n g I n f o r m a t i o n C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f V o c a t i o n a l C hoice S ta te m e n ts o f S tu d e n ts * V o c a t i o n a l C hoice Method o f P ro c e d u re T r e a tm e n t o f Q - s o r t D ata Summary IV. FINDINGS......................................................................................... R e l a t i o n s h i p s of S e l f C o ncept D i s c r e p a n c i e s to A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f V o c a t i o n a l C h o ices - i i i - __________________ I Page | v ! ! I 1 | i I 8 ' \ i 72 C hapter Page R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Q - s o r t V a lu es to C e r t a i n C a r e e r F a c t o r s D i s c u s s i o n o f th e F in d in g s Summary V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . 115 Summary C o n c lu s io n s Recom m endations SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................... 125 APPENDIX A ..........................................................................................................137 S e lf - C o n c e p t I n v e n t o r y Q - s o r t F o l d e r Q - s o r t Answer S h e e t T a l l y S h e e t APPENDIX B .......................................................................................................... ll{.3 Q - s o r t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n I n s t r u c t i o n s t o S tu d e n ts S tu d e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e on C a r e e r C ho ice Q u e s t i o n n a i r e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n I n s t r u c t i o n s t o S t u d e n ts APPENDIX C ..........................................................................................................150 S tu d e n t I n f o r m a t i o n S h e e t I n s t r u c t i o n s t o th e Ju d g e s Two-Way C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f O c c u p a tio n s R a tin g S h e e t APPENDIX D ..........................................................................................................155 D a ta Summary S h e e t S t u d e n t R e p o rt Form APPENDIX E ..........................................................................................................158 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n M a tr ix - i v - LIST OF TABLES T a b le Page 1. I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f th e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l , t h e S e lf - M o t h e r I d e a l , and th e S e l f I d e a l - M o t h e r I d e a l Q - s o r t C o m b in a tio n s ..................................................... 75 2 . C o r r e l a t i o n of Q - s o r t V a lu es w i t h A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e F i e l d o f V o c a t i o n a l C hoice E m ploying D e s ig n a te d Sam ples .......................................... 77 3- C o m parison o f Q - s o r t V a lu es and A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f F i e l d o f V o c a t i o n a l C hoice E m ploying Mean R a ti n g s o f t h e J u d g e s ................................................ 79 £).. P r e d i c t i o n o f A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f F i e l d of V o c a t i o n a l C hoice E m ploying a C o m b in a tio n o f P r e d i c t i v e V a r i a b l e s ............................................................... 81 5* C o r r e l a t i o n of Q - s o r t V alu es w i t h A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f L e v e l o f V o c a t i o n a l C ho ice E m ploying D e s ig n a te d Sam ples • • • • 81j, 6 . C om parison o f Q - s o r t V a lu e s and A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e A s p i r a t i o n L e v e l E m ploying Mean R a ti n g s o f th e J u d g e s ............................................................... 86 7« P r e d i c t i o n o f A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f L ev e l o f V o c a t i o n a l C ho ice E m ploying a C o m b in a tio n of P r e d i c t i v e V a r i a b l e s ............................................................... 87 8 . C o r r e l a t i o n s of Q - s o r t V alu es w i t h S t a t e d L e v e l o f V o c a t i o n a l C ho ice E m ploying C e r t a i n D e s ig n a te d Sam ples • • » • • • • * • • • • • . 89 9 . C om parison o f Q - s o r t V alu es w i t h A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f F i r s t and Second S e l e c t i o n s o f F i e l d o f V o c a t i o n a l C h o i c e .................................................... 92 10 . C om parisons of th e Q - s o r t V a lu es w i t h A ppro p r i a t e n e s s o f F i r s t an d Second S e c t i o n s o f L e v e l of V o c a t i o n a l C h o i c e ................................................ 93 1 1 . C o r r e l a t i o n s o f Q - s o r t V a lu es w i t h I n t e l l i g e n c e , E m ploying D e s ig n a te d S a m p le s........................... 95 12 . C o r r e l a t i o n s of Q - s o r t V a lu e s w i t h A c h ie v e m en t, E m ploying D e s i g n a t e d Sam ples ........................... 96 - v - T a b le 13 , C o r r e l a t i o n s o f Q - s o r t V alu es w i t h S o c i o economic L e v e ls Em ploying D e s ig n a te d S am p les. • lij.« C o r r e l a t i o n s o f Q - s o r t V alues o f S e l f - S e l f I d e a l w i t h S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l and S e l f I d e a l - M other I d e a l Q - s o r t C om b in atio n s Em ploying D e s ig n a te d Samples ................................................................... 15>* C o r r e l a t i o n o f Q -s o rt. V alu es o f th e S e l f - M other I d e a l w i t h th e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l and th e S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l Q - s o r t C om b in atio n s Em ploying D e s ig n a te d Samples .......................................... 16. C o r r e l a t i o n of Q - s o r t V alu es o f th e S e l f I d e a l-M o th e r I d e a l w ith th e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l and th e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l Q - s o r t C om bin ations Em ploying D e s ig n a te d Sam ples .......................................... CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM I n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e P roblem One of th e m a jo r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f a c i n g th e h ig h s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r i s th e e f f e c t i v e u se o f f a c t o r s w hich w i l l g u id e s t u d e n t s to make w ise v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s . U n t i l r e c e n t l y s t u d e n t s were c o u n s e le d l a r g e l y on t h e b a s i s o f m a tc h in g s p e c i f i c t r a i t s and f a c t o r s to job r e q u i r e m e n t s . C o n tem po rary s p e c i a l i s t s h av e recommended t h a t s o c i a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s be t a k e n i n t o a cc o u n t# R e c e n t l y , grow ing i n t e r e s t and r e s e a r c h have b e e n n o te d i n t h e u se of a n i n d i v i d u a l ’ s t o t a l s e l f c o n c e p t. R og ers c o n te n d e d t h a t i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l , r a t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , w ere more r e v e a l i n g o f w hat a p e r s o n f e l t , s a i d , and b e l i e v e d a b o u t h i m s e l f . He t h e r e f o r e employed Q -m ethodology and t e c h n iq u e w h ich made p o s s i b l e a s t u d y o f s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n s i n o p e r a t i o n a l terras ( 1 0 5 : 21^ ) . B o th i n t e r p e r s o n a l and i n t r a - p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s h av e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d as im p o r ta n t .to o ls f o r u s e by v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l o r s . S u p e r b e l i e v e d t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l c h o o se s a v o c a t i o n a s a means o f im p le m e n tin g h i s s e l f c o n c e p t. He s i g n a le d th e n e e d , how ever, to u n d e rs ta n d how a l l s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s a f f e c t s u c c e s s i n s e l e c t i n g a v o c a t i o n - He s t a t e d : The i d e a l s tu d y would t h e r e f o r e be one i n w hich a l l p re su m ab ly r e l e v a n t , p s y c h o l o g i c a l , s o c i a l , and economic f a c t o r s a r e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t, and i n ! w hich t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n as w e l l as t h e i r p r e d i c t i v e | v a l i d i t y a re a s c e r t a i n e d . (1 1 1 :1 6 6 -6 7 ) H o llan d em phasized th e n e c e s s i t y o f s tu d y in g th e 1 i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w ith i n f o r m a ti o n a b o u t th e s e l f c o n c e p t • The p r e s e n t s t u d y a tte m p te d to d i s c o v e r th e way i n w hich su c h im p o rta n t p s y c h o l o g i c a l - s o c i a l f a c t o r s as | i n t e l l i g e n c e , a c h ie v e m e n t, and so c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l w ere r e l a t e d to s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s . The s tu d y was made i n an e f f o r t t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e know ledge of how th e s e l f c o n c e p t was r e l a t e d t o v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . O c c u p a tio n a l c h o ic e s were c l a s s i f i e d a c c o rd in g to b o t h f i e l d and l e v e l a s recommended by such t h e o r i s t s as Roe ( 9 1 i l £ l ) and S u per (111:1^6, ij.7). S in c e no r e s e a r c h was l o c a t e d w hich a tte m p te d t o r e l a t e t h e s e l f c o n c e p t to such a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e , i t was I f e l t t h a t a n im p o rta n t c o n t r i b u t i o n c o u ld be made. i I Heywood p o i n t e d out t h a t w h ile assum ing a b ro a d p e r s p e c t i v e of th e i n d i v i d u a l i n s e l e c t i o n o f v o c a t i o n s , t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t a p p ro a c h sh o u ld c o n tin u e to encompass m ajor 3 t r a i t s and f a c t o r s ( £ 0 ) . The p r e s e n t s t u d y a tt e m p t e d t o d i s c o v e r th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s to a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e w h ile o t h e r c a r e e r f a c t o r s were i n t e r a c t i n g . S ta te m e n t o f t h e P roblem I t was t h e p u rp o s e o f t h i s s tu d y (1 ) t o d e te rm in e w h e th er s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t among th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw ee n th e S e l f , th e S e l f I d e a l and th e M other I d e a l c o n c e p ts ; (2 ) t o d i s c o v e r w h e th e r s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s betw een d i s c r e p a n c i e s o f th e s e l f c o n c e p t o f t w e l f t h g ra d e boys and t h e f i e l d and l e v e l o f t h e i r v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s ; (3) t o a s c e r t a i n w h e th er f i r s t and second f i e l d and l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y when r e l a t e d t o d i s c r e p a n c i e s betw een s e l f c o n c e p ts ; (ij.) t o d e te rm in e w h e th er s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h ip s e x i s t b etw een s e l f c o n c e p ts d i s c r e p a n c i e s and c e r t a i n v a r i a b l e s commonly u s e d i n v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lin g ( v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l , i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s , sc h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t, and so c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s ) ; and (5?) t o d i s c o v e r w h e th e r th e s e l f - c o n c e p t d is c r e p a n c y s c o r e s c o u ld be combined w ith v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e v a r i a b l e s t o form a u s e f u l m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t o r f o r th e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e f i e l d and l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . H y p o th eses ; i The f o l lo w in g h y p o th e s e s have b e en exam ined i n I i t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n : j 1 . T h e re a r e s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw ee n v a r i o u s c o n c e p ts one h a s o f h im - : 3e l f : t h e S e l f and th e S e l f I d e a l , t h e S e l f and th e M other I d e a l , and t h e S e l f I d e a l and t h e M other I d e a l : co n cep ts* 2 . T here a r e s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t c o m b in a tio n s employed i n t h i s s tu d y and t h e r a t i n g s o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e f i e l d o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . 3 . T h e re a r e s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t c o m b in a tio n s and th e r a t i n g s o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . Ij.. T h ere a r e m easured d i f f e r e n c e s i n f i r s t and second f i e l d and l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s when r e l a t e d t o d i s c r e p a n c i e s b etw een th e s e l f c o n c e p ts . 5 . T h ere a re s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t c o m b in a tio n s and I i n t e l l i g e n c e , s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t, so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , and s t a t e d l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n . 6 . D i s c r e p a n c i e s b etw een s e l f c o n c e p ts c an be employed i n c o m b in a tio n w ith c o g n i t i v e c a r e e r f a c t o r s t o form a s i g n i f i c a n t m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t o r f o r f i e l d and l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . 5 D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y The s tu d y was l i m i t e d t o t w e l f t h g ra d e m ale s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n S e n io r Problem s c l a s s e s . S tu d e n ts w ere s e l e c t e d from t h r e e Los A n g e les m e t r o p o l i t a n h i g h s c h o o l s . 1 The s c h o o ls ra n g e d i n a v e ra g e d a i l y a tt e n d a n c e fro m 1 ,5 0 0 t o 2,lj.00 s t u d e n t s . S u b j e c t s , whose h i g h e s t r e c o r d e d I.Q . I was below s e v e n t y - f i v e , w ere e x c lu d e d from th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Those s t u d e n t s who w ere a b s e n t d u r in g t h e e x p e r i m e n ta l p e r i o d s were n o t i n c l u d e d . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n was l i m i t e d t o s e l e c t e d s e l f c o n c e p ts and t o s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s commonly u s e d i n v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g . C hoice o f t h e v a r i a b l e s was made on a b a s i s o f recom m endations o f s p e c i a l i s t s re v ie w e d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e . D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms and O p e r a t i o n a l C o n s t r u c ts The f o l lo w in g term s a re d e f i n e d i n a c c o rd a n c e w i t h th e p u rp o s e o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n : 1. S e l f c o n c e p t: th e s e l f th e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e i v e s , i n c l u d i n g h i s own a t t r i b u t e s , f e e l i n g s , and b e h a v io r a s o b se rv e d s u b j e c t i v e l y and a d m i t te d t o a w a re n e s s ( 9 3 : 5 5 ) . 2. S e l f I d e a l c o n c e p t: t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s p i c t u r e o f th e s e l f as he c o n s c i o u s ly w ish e s t o b e . 6 ! i I 3 . M other I d e a l c o n c e p t: t h e I n d i v i d u a l ’ s p i c t u r e j i ! o f t h e s e l f a s he p e r c e i v e s h i s m other c o n s c i o u s l y w is h in g ; him t o b e . The f o l lo w in g o p e r a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t s w ere employed i n t h i s s tu d y : 1 . F i e l d o f V o c a tio n a l C h o ice : one o f t h e e i g h t c a t e g o r i e s i n t o w hich o c c u p a tio n s were c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g , i t o ( a ) t h e p rim a ry fo c u s o f t h e m ajo r f u n c t i o n s p e rfo rm e d , (b ) th e p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s in v o lv e d , and (c ) t h e form o f knowledge r e l e v a n t t o t h e o c c u p a tio n ( 9 0 : 1 2 4.^ — I4 .7 ) - 2. L ev e l o f V o c a tio n a l C h o ic e : one o f t h e s i x c a t e g o r i e s i n t o w h ich an o c c u p a tio n was c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d in g t o d e g re e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , s k i l l , and c a p a c i t y r e q u i r e d ( 912 lij-9) - 3 . I n t e l l i g e n c e : th e h i g h e s t I .Q . s c o r e r e p o r t e d a f t e r th e t h i r d g ra d e o f s c h o o l and r e c o r d e d on th e s t u d e n t ' s c u m u la tiv e r e c o r d f o l d e r . L|.. A chievem ent: th e m ost r e c e n t h i g h s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t b a t t e r y t e s t s c o r e r e p o r t e d a c c o rd in g t o g ra d e - p la c e m e n t and r e c o r d e d on th e s t u d e n t ’ s c u m u la tiv e r e c o r d f o l d e r . 5 . S o c io -eco n o m ic S t a t u s : one o f th e s e v e n s o c i a l s t a t u s c l a s s e s b a s e d on t h e o c c u p a tio n o f th e f a t h e r , and r a t e d a c c o r d in g t o W arner, M eeker, and E e l l s ( 1 2 2 ) . 7 Organlz a t i o n of t h e Rem aining C h a p te rs C h a p te r I I o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s a r e p o r t o f th e re v ie w of l i t e r a t u r e and r e s e a r c h p e r t a i n i n g t o ( 1 ) th e r o l e o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p t; ( 2 ) r e p r e s e n t a t i v e view s of t h e ego o r s e l f ; ( 3 ) Q -m ethodology and t e c h n i q u e ; and {l\.) th e s e l f c o n ce p t as i t r e l a t e s t o v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e and f a c t o r s commonly used by v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l o r s . C h a p te r I I I d e s c r i b e s th e b a s i c d e s i g n o f th e study# I t I n c lu d e s a r e p o r t on th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e sam ple- th e in s t r u m e n t s u sed i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e method o f p r o c e d u r e s , and th e m anner i n w hich t h e d a ta were t r e a t e d # C h a p te r IV c o n ta in s th e f i n d i n g s o f th e i n v e s t i g a tio n # The r e s u l t s o f th e v a r i o u s s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s a re r e p o r t e d , f o llo w e d by a d i s c u s s i o n of th e r e s u l t s . C h a p te r V p r e s e n t s a summary o f t h e f i n d i n g s of th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The d a ta a re a n a ly z e d i n terras of th e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s as s t a t e d e a r l i e r i n t h e r e p o r t # Recommendations and c o n c lu s io n s make up th e re m a in d e r of t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r . CHAPTER I I REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE The R ole o f th e S e l f C oncept I n c r e a s e d a t t e n t i o n h a s b e en aw arded t h e s e l f con- i c e p t I n c u r r e n t p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . A l l p o r t ( 2 , 3) and R ogers (9 2 , 93) have b e en c o n s id e r e d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a : g r e a t d e a l o f t h e p r e s e n t I n t e r e s t and r e s e a r c h . H a l l and L ln d z ey rem ark ed : One o f t h e s t r i k i n g phenomena o f t h e p a s t s i x t y y e a r s i n p sy c h o lo g y h a s b e en t h e dem ise and su b s e q u e n t r e b i r t h o f s e l f and ego c o n c e p ts . P e rh ap s no o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i s t h a s h ad so i n f l u e n t i a l a r o l e i n r e s t o r i n g and p u r i f y i n g th e ego c o n c e p t a s A l l p o r t , (1^.6:289) R ogers and h i s c o ll e a g u e s who have s t u d i e d t h e s e l f c o n c e p t have e s t a b l i s h e d a c la im t o l e a d e r s h i p I n t h e c o u n s e lin g f i e l d on th e b a s i s o f p u b l is h e d r e s e a r c h and p r o g r e s s to w a rd t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n . M oustakas p o i n t e d o u t t h a t r e c e n t w r i t i n g s from : s o u rc e s r e p r e s e n t i n g many p e o p le i n e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s em phasize "know ing, e x p l o r i n g , and a c t u a l i z i n g th e s e l f " ( 7 7 : 1 1 1 ) . A f t e r a re v ie w o f w r i t i n g s c o n c e r n in g t h e I s e l f , he s t a t e d : The f a c t t h a t so many p e o p le i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s a r e a r r i v i n g in d e p e n d e n tly a t t h e same t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c lu s io n s p ro v e s t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e more e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n any argum ent c o u ld . I n t h e s e p a p e r s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d many d i s c i p l i n e s , a r t s , and s c h o o ls o f p s y c h i a t r i c , p s y c h o l o g i c a l , and p h i l o s o p h i c th o u g h t w hich 3eem t o be c o n v e rg in g (an d a l l a t one p o i n t i n tim e ) upon a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s e l f w h ic h i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same i n a l l c a s e s . The a p p ro a c h e s a n d v o c a b u l a r i e s a r e d i f f e r e n t , y e t a c l e a r and f r e s h k e r n e l o f common a w a re n e s s and p o s i t i v e i n s i g h t i n t o th e s e l f i s coming j t o c h a r a c t e r i z e c u r r e n t know ledge o f th e i n d i v i d u a l . j The s e l f c o n c e p t h a s b e e n c e n t r a l i n t h e t h e o r i e s ! o f many s p e c i a l i s t s who h a v e c o n c e rn e d th e m s e lv e s w i t h • p e r s o n a l i t y and human b e h a v i o r . H a l l and L in d z e y s t a t e d t h a t f o r some t h e o r i s t s s e l f p e r c e p t i o n i s h o t f e l t t o : h av e g r e a t i m p o r t. F or many, ho w ev er, The m a jo r human a t t r i b u t e i s th e v iew o r p e r c e p t i o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a s o f h i m s e l f , and t h i s v ie w in g p r o c e s s i s o f t e n s e e n a s th e key t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m u l t i t u d e o f p u z z l ii ’ ’ i v i o r a l e v e n t s d i s p l a y e d They a l s o o b s e r v e d th e f o l l o w i n g : We h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l s e n s e s i n w h ich t h e s e l f c o n c e p t i s em ployed by p e r s o n a l i t y t h e o r i s t s . E i t h e r t h e s e l f i s s e e n a s a d e t e r m i n a n t o f b e h a v i o r o r e l s e i t i s c o n c e iv e d a s a c l u s t e r o f a t t i t u d e s and f e e l i n g s t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a s a b o u t h i m s e l f i n one form o r a n o t h e r , h ow ev er, th e s e l f o c c u p ie s t h e p ro m in e n t r o l e i n m ost c u r r e n t p e r s o n a l i t y f o r m u l a t i o n . I t was n o t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s p a p e r t o t r a c e t h e h i s t o r y o r d evelop m en t o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p t. R a t h e r , a n a t t e m p t was made t o f u r n i s h b a c k g ro u n d i n f o r m a t i o n w hich l e d t o th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n and w h ich w i l l f a c i l i t a t e ■ u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s t u d y . E x c e l l e n t sum m aries o f h i s t o r y ! and develo p m en t o f s e l f t h e o r y a r e a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e ( 2 : p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t was J u n g , who p i c t u r e d th e s e l f a 3 by any s i n g l e p e r s o n . 1^51-78; 58; Ii -6:^67-75; 82:31-8). One o f t h e f i r s t i n d i v i d u a l s t o U3e t h e s e l f a s a > i 10 th e m id - p o in t o f p e r s o n a l i t y b e tw ee n th e c o n s c io u s and u n c o n s c io u s . He term ed i t th e c e n t e r o f th e t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y , and t h a t w hich a f f o r d e d i t " e q u i l i b r i u m " and "a s o l i d f o u n d a tio n " (6 2 :2 1 9 )* Some r e c e n t w r i t e r s have c o n s id e r e d t h e s e l f c o n cep t more as a n e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t . A l l p o r t s a i d , "The e x i s t e n c e o f o n e 's own s e l f i s t h e one f a c t of w hich e v e ry m o r ta l p e r s o n — e v e ry p s y c h o l o g i s t i n c l u d e d - - i s p e r f e c t l y c o n v in c e d " (2 :ij.5 l-^ 8 )• Thompson f e l t t h a t modern p s y c h o l o g i s t s and p s y c h i a t r i s t s a g re e t h a t a c h i l d , g i v e n a b i o l o g i c a l s u b s t r a t e , i s the p r o d u c t of i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o t h e r human b e in g s and " t h a t i t i s out o f th e p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l f o r c e s o p e r a t i n g upon him from t h e day o f h i s b i r t h t h a t th e s e l f em erges" (llij.:211)* The s e l f as a u n i f y i n g c o n c e p t of p e r s o n a l i t y * A lth o u g h th e r o l e to w hich t h e s e l f c o n c e p t i s a s s i g n e d v a r i e s w i t h each t h e o r i s t t o some e x t e n t , t h e r e seems to be g e n e r a l agreem ent t h a t one o f i t s prim e f u n c t i o n s i s t h a t o f u n i f y i n g th e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y . Combs and Snygg, i n t h e i r 195>9 r e v i s i o n o f I n d i v i d u a l B e h a v io r , a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e s e l f c o n c e p t i s an i n d i v i d u a l ' s " a tte m p t t o re d u c e h i s s e l f o r g a n i z a t i o n to ! i j i t s e sse n c e so t h a t he may be a b l e t o p e r c e i v e and m an ip u - j j i l a t e i t e f f e c t i v e l y " (2 3:1 27)* They q u o te Raimy a s s a y in g t h a t th e s e l f c o n c e p t i s th e map w hich eac h p e rs o n c o n s u l t s i n o r d e r t o u n d e rs ta n d h i m s e l f , e s p e c i a l l y d u rin g momenta o f c r i s i s o r c h o i c e . They s t a t e d t h a t t h e s e l f c o n c e p t i n c lu d e d o n ly t h o s e p e r c e p t i o n s a b o u t s e l f w h ich seem m o st v i t a l o r i m p o r t a n t to th e i n d i v i d u a l h i m s e l f . T hey c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e s e l f c o n c e p t was made up o f su c h fu n d a m e n ta l a s p e c t s o f a p e r s o n 's phenom enal s e l f t h a t ’’t h e y seem t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o be ' h e 1 a t a l l tim e s and a t a l l p l a c e s . T h is i s th e v e r y e s s e n c e o f 'm e' whose l o s s i s r e g a r d e d as p e r s o n a l d e s t r u c t i o n . " R o g e r s , who drew from i d e a s o f J u n g , Mead, Snygg and Combs, L ecky, and a number o f o t h e r s , te rm e d h i s t h e o r y o f p e r s o n a l i t y a n d b e h a v i o r a s b a s i c a l l y p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l i n c h a r a c t e r and r e l y i n g " h e a v i l y upon t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e s e l f as a n e x p l a n a t o r y c o n s t r u c t " ( 9 2 : ^ 3 2 ) . He p i c t u r e d t h e e n d - p o in t o f p e r s o n a l i t y d ev elo p m e n t a s b e in g t h e b a s i c c o n g ru e n c e b e tw e e n t h e phenom enal f i e l d o f e x p e r i e n c e and t h e c o n c e p t u a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s e l f . I n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t f o r th e u n i t y , o r g a n i z a t i o n , and s t a b i l i t y o f p e r s o n a l i t y , C a t t e l l fo u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o p o s t u l a t e a c o n c e p t o f s e l f and s e l f s e n t im e n t ( 1 9 : 6 5 ^ - 65>7)* D rawing from p s y c h o a n a l y t i c c o n c e p ts o f ego and s u p e r e g o , a s w e l l a s M c D o u g a ll's view s on s e l f r e g a r d and j s e n t i m e n t , C a t t e l l te rm e d t h e s e l f o r ego s e n tim e n t as th e | | i c o n t r o l l i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e o t h e r dynamic t r a i t s i n h i s s t r u c t u r e o f p e r s o n a l i t y . The n e a r u n i v e r s a l a c c o rd among t h e d i f f e r e n t methods 12 o f e v a l u a t i n g th e s e l f was sum m arized b y B ro w n fa in when d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e l f c o n c e p t as a d im e n s io n o f p e r s o n a l i t y : When an i n d i v i d u a l i s a s s i g n e d t h e t a s k o f e v a l u a t in g h i m s e l f , w h a te v e r th e method o f e v a l u a t i o n , he i n e v i t a b l y makes r e f e r e n c e t o a sy stem o f c e n t r a l m ean in g s a b o u t h i m s e l f and h i s r e l a t i o n s t o t h e w o rld w h ic h we c a l l th e s e l f - c o n c e p t . E v e ry e v a l u a t i v e s t a te m e n t w h ich a p e r s o n makes a b o u t h i m s e l f may be th o u g h t of as a sam ple o f h i s s e l f - c o n c e p t . ( 1 6 :5 9 7- 0 6 ) S t a b i l i t y o f th e s e l f c o n c e p t . The s e l f c o n c e p t, j i t h a s b e e n p o in te d o u t , s u p p l i e s u n i t y , e q u i l i b r i u m and o r g a n i z a t i o n t o th e t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y ( 6 2 : 2 1 9 ; 19 657) • The c o n s i s t e n c y o f th e s e l f a p p e a re d so e s s e n t i a l t o L ecky, t h a t he claim ed th e one b a s i c need o f t h e o r g a n ism was s e l f c o n s i s t e n c y ( 6 5 ) . He h y p o t h e s iz e d t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l a c t s c o n s i s t e n t l y w i t h a " s u b s t i t u t e w o rld " w hich he i s f o r c e d t o c r e a t e s i n c e he i s immersed w ith an e n v iro n m en t w hich he does n o t and c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d . He draws h i s v a lu e s from t h i s s u b s t i t u t e w o rld and a l t e r s i t jo n ly when c o n v in c e d by e x p e r ie n c e t h a t i t has f a i l e d to prom ote t h e g o a l o f u n i t y . I S in c e t h i s s e l f made scheme o f l i f e i s h i s o n ly : g u a r a n t e e o f s e c u r i t y , i t s p r e s e r v a t i o n so o n becomes a g o a l i n i t s e l f . He se e k s th e ty p e s of e x p e r i e n c e s w h ich c o n firm and s u p p o r t t h e u n i f i e d a t t i t u d e . For L ecky, s e l f c o n s i s t e n c y i s t h e g o a l w hich th e i n d i v i d u a l s t r i v e s to m a i n t a i n by a u n i f i e d o r g a n i z a t i o n . Combs and Snygg s t a t e d t h a t th e s e l f i s " a n e x tr e m e ly i s t a b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n w hich p r o v id e s t h e c o re o f human p e r s o n a l i t y " (2 3 :1 3 0 -3 1 )* They c o n c lu d e d : 13 The phenom enal s e l f w i t h th e s e l f c o n c e p t a s i t s c o re r e p r e s e n t s our fu n d a m e n ta l fram e o f r e f e r e n c e , our a n c h o r t o r e a l i t y ; and even an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s e l f o r g a n i z a t i o n i s l i k e l y t o prove h i g h l y s t a b l e and r e s i s t a n t to c h an g e . T h is s t a b i l i t y h as b e e n r e p e a t e d l y d e m o n s tra te d by m odern r e s e a r c h . S m ith , r e v ie w in g r e s e a r c h on t h e s t a b i l i t y o f s e l f - c o n c e p t m e a s u re s , s t a t e d t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n s e l f - c o n c e p t m easu res and o t h e r i n d i c e s o f a d ju s tm e n t a r e r e p o r t e d and i n t e r p r e t e d as i n d i c a t i n g s e n s i b l e and p r e d i c t a b le c o n n e c tio n s b e tw ee n t h e s e l f c o n c e p t and o t h e r p s y c h o m e tric t e s t s and m easu res o f a d ju s tm e n t ( 1 0 3 : 1 0 1- 1 2 ). E n g e l s t u d i e d th e s t a b i l i t y o f th e s e l f c o n c e p t i n a d o l e s c e n c e . She found a .^3 c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n Q - s o r t s u sed t o m easure th e s e l f c o n c e p ts o f e i g h t h g r a d e r s when r e p e a t e d two y e a r s l a t e r (29)« She n o te d t h a t p o s i t i v e ty p e s t a te m e n ts were more s t a b l e t h a n n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s o f th e s e l f c o n c e p t. " D ro p -o u ts" were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s e l f c o n c e p t t h a t was l e s s p o s i t i v e t h a n s t u d e n t s who rem ain ed i n s c h o o l . McGehee d e v e lo p e d two m ea su re s o f s t a b i l i t y o f th e s e l f c o n c e p t w hich he c la im e d were f r e e from t h e c o n ta m in a tio n of s e l f - e s t e e m (7S)» A f t e r com par in g t h e S e l f and S e l f I d e a l d is c r e p a n c y as employed by j R ogers and h i s c o l l e a g u e s , McGeh.ee f e l t t h a t su c h d l s - | c re p a n c y seemed " s e r i o u s l y c o n ta m in a te d by s e l f - e s t e e m . " T here a p p e a re d t o be a need f o r c o n s i d e r a b l y more r e s e a r c h c o n c e rn in g th e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p t. A lth o u g h t h e r e seemed t o be g e n e r a l agreem ent among s p e c i a l i s t s t h a t th e s e l f c o n c e p t was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s t a b i l i t y , i t was a l s o e v i d e n t t h a t t h e y view ed th e s e l f 1 c o n c e p t as c a p a b le o f c h an g e . S in c e t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s n o t d i r e c t l y c o n c e rn e d w i t h s e l f c o n c e p t c h a n g e , o n l y a few r e f e r e n c e s w i l l be c i t e d . F o r a c o m p re h en siv e re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e , a s w e l l as a n e x c e l l e n t b i b l i o g r a p h y , c o n c e rn in g th e change an d r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e " s e l f " i n a d o le s c e n c e one may r e f e r t o th e w r i t i n g s o f S h e r i f and C a n t r i l (1 0 1 :1 9 9 -2 7 7 )• Combs and Snygg a l s o have some i l l u m i n a t i n g s e c t i o n s on change i n t h e s e l f c o n c e p t ( 2 3 : l£7-61j., 3J 4 .9- 6I 4 .). They p o i n t e d o u t t h a t d e s p i t e th e r e s i s t a n c e t o change i n th e s e l f c o n c e p t, " t h e r e i s alw ays 3ome room t o m a n e u v e r." Lecky s t a t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e s e l f I s a c o n t i n u o u s l y c h a n g in g phenomenon, i t i s p a r a d o x i c a l l y g e a r e d to p r e v e n t g ro w th and c h an ge ( 6 8 : 1 7 6 ) . R ogers c o n c lu d e d t h a t : As e x p e r i e n c e s o c c u r i n t h e l i f e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , th e y a r e e i t h e r (a) s y m b o l ic a l , p e r c e i v e d , and o r g a n i z e d I n t o some r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e s e l f , (b) i g n o r e d b e c a u s e t h e r e i s no p e r c e i v e d r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e s e l f s t r u c t u r e , (c) d e n ie d s y m b o l iz a t i o n o r g i v e n a d i s t o r t e d s y m b o l i z a t i o n b e c a u s e th e e x p e r i e n c e i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s e l f . ( 9 2 :f>0 3 ) R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Views o f th e S e l f and t h e Ego Many volumes have b e e n w r i t t e n c o n c e r n in g t h e s e l f c o n c e p t s . T h is p a p e r h a s l i m i t e d d i s c u s s i o n t o some r e p r e s e n t a t i v e view s o f t h e s e l f t o s e r v e as a b a ck g ro u n d f o r an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y . 1 $ P l u r a l i t y o f s e l f c o n c e p t s . One o f t h e e a r l y w r i t e r s t o d i s c u s s t h e s e l f c o n c e p t was G eorge Mead | ; ( 7 6 : 1 7 1 ) . He b e l i e v e d t h a t e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l d e v e lo p s many | i s e l v e s . One may, f o r exam ple, d e v e lo p a f a m i ly s e l f r e p r e - ! s e n t i n g a t t i t u d e s and v a lu e s e x p r e s s e d by t h e v a r i o u s mem- | i I b e r s o f h i s f a m i l y ; one may d e v e lo p a s c h o o l s e l f a s a 1 ! i ! ! : r e s u l t o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h s t u d e n t s and t e a c h e r s ; one mayj j ! j d e v e lo p a c h u rc h s e l f and many o t h e r s . Mead f e l t t h a t a n j i n d i v i d u a l "becomes a s e l f i n so f a r a s h e c an t a k e t h e I a t t i t u d e o f a n o t h e r and a c t to w a rd h i m s e l f a s o t h e r s a c t . " S a r b l n te rm e d t h e s e l f a s a c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e : w h ic h c o n s i s t s o f a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s i d e a s a b o u t a number o f a s p e c t s o f h i s p e r s o n ( 9 6 : 1 1 - 2 2 ) . One may h a v e c o n c e p tio n s o f h i s body ( t h e so m a tic s e l f ) , o f h i s s e n s e o rg a n s and m a s c u l a t u r e ( t h e r e c e p t o r - e f f e c t o r s e l f ) , and o f h i s s o c i a l b e h a v i o r ( t h e s o c i a l s e l f ) . S a r b i n v iew ed t h e s e s e l v e s I : a s s u b s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e t o t a l c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e , and h e j ; | f e l t t h a t t h e y w ere a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e . | A lth o u g h many s p e c i a l i s t s h a v e p o s t u l a t e d a p l u r a l - ; i t y o f s e l v e s f o r any g i v e n i n d i v i d u a l , p e r h a p s t h e r e a l i . 1 i ! s e l f and s e l f i d e a l h av e b e e n d i s c u s s e d m ost o f t e n . F o r exam ple, Murphy s t a t e d : T h e re a r e alw ay s a t l e a s t two s e l v e s : a s e l f o b s e rv e d w i t h w h a te v e r d e g re e o f r e a l i s m h e c a n m u s t e r , and a s e l f c l e a r l y o r d im ly g lim p s e d a s so m e th in g t o be r e a l i z e d . (8 0 :5 3 9 ) A number o f w r i t e r s have p o s i t e d s u b j e c t i v e and o b j e c t i v e 16 d i s t i n c t i o n s b e tw ee n s e l v e s . Lundholra te rm e d th e s u b j e c t i v e s e l f as "w hat I t h i n k o f m y s e lf " and t h e o b j e c t i v e s e l f as "w hat o t h e r s t h i n k o f me" ( 7 3 : 1 1 0- 1 2 7 )• The s e l f and ego s e p a r a t e l y i d e n t i f i e d . The term s " s e l f " and "ego " h av e b e e n u se d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y by a number o f p s y c h o l o g i s t s who f e l t t h a t a d i s t i n c t i o n was u n n e c e s s a r y . O th e rs have v i g o r o u s l y o b j e c t e d t o t h e n e g l e c t o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e tw e e n t h e t e r m s . Some o f t h e s e view s a r e b r i e f l y re v ie w e d belo w : N o ta b le among p e r s o n a l i t y t h e o r i s t s was F re u d (3 5 : 3 2 -3 5 )• He b e l i e v e d t h a t th e p e r s o n a l i t y was composed o f t h r e e m ajo r s y s te m s , t h e i d , t h e ego, and t h e s u p e r e g o . A lth o u g h e a c h had s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o n s , i t was d i f f i c u l t to d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n them c o n c e r n in g t h e i r e f f e c t s and c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o human b e h a v i o r . The i d was s a i d t o in c lu d e a l l t h a t man i n h e r i t e d , and i t was te rm e d t h e s o u r c e o f e n e rg y f o r t h e p e r s o n a l i t y . The ego was c o n s i d e r e d t o b e th e o r g a n i z e d p o r t i o n o f th e i d w h ich s e r v e d i t s a im s . The ego was s a i d t o m e d ia te b e tw e e n i n h e r i t e d o r i n s t i n c t u a l r e q u i r e m e n ts o f t h e o rg a n ism and t h e demands o f th e ; e n v iro n m e n t. The s u p e re g o h a s b e e n c a l l e d a c e n s o r and a i \ d e t e r m i n e r o f w hat was r i g h t and wrong i n a g i v e n s o c i e t y I j o r c ir c u m s ta n c e . The p e r s o n a l i t y was b e l i e v e d to f u n c t i o n ! as a w hole r a t h e r t h a n as t h r e e s e p a r a t e p a r t s . The " c o n c e p t o f th e s e l f " was l i k e l y J u n g 's m a jo r 17 c o n t r i b u t i o n to p sy c h o lo g y and was t h e c a p s to n e t o h is d e d i c a t e d stu d y o f a r c h e t y p e s . He b e l i e v e d t h a t th e s e l f was t h e m id -p o in t o f p e r s o n a l i t y b e tw e e n th e c o n s c io u s and th e u n c o n s c io u s . The ego was view ed as t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c o n s c io u s m ind. Jung s t a t e d : I f we p i c t u r e t h e c o n s c io u s mind w i t h t h e ego as i t s c e n t r e , a s b e in g opposed t o th e u n c o n s c io u s , and i f we now add t o our m e n ta l p i c t u r e th e p r o c e s s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n as a k in d o f a p p ro x im a tio n o f c o n s c io u s and u n c o n s c io u s , where th e c e n t r e o f p e r s o n a l i t y no lo n g e r c o in c id e s w i t h th e ego, b u t w i t h a m id - p o in t b e tw ee n th e c o n s c io u s and u n c o n s c io u s . T h is would be th e p o i n t of new e q u i l i b r i u m , a new c e n t e r i n g o f th e t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y , a v i r t u a l c e n t r e w hich . • • e n s u r e s f o r th e p e r s o n a l i t y a new and more s o l i d f o u n d a t i o n . (62 :2 1 9 ) A d le r used t h e terra s e l f to mean so m eth in g m ark e d ly d i f f e r e n t from F r e u d 's ego, w h ich s e r v e d t h e i n s t i n c t u a l demands o f th e i d , o r Ju n g ’ s s e l f , w hich was t o a g r e a t e x t e n t c o n t r o l l e d by in b o r n a r c h e t y p e s ( 6 ) . F or A d l e r , t h e s e l f was a p e r s o n a l i z e d , s u b j e c t i v e sy ste m w h ic h made e x p e r ie n c e s of a g iv e n i n d i v i d u a l m e a n in g f u l. I t s e r v e d t h e p e rs o n by i n t e r p r e t i n g o r e v e n c r e a t i n g e x p e r ie n c e s t o enhance h i s " s t y l e o f l i f e . " A d l e r 's view o f th e s e l f , as b e in g c r e a t i v e and s o c i a l l y o r i e n t e d , p r o f o u n d ly I n f l u e n c e d many s e l f t h e o r i s t s w h ic h f o llo w e d him. As a r e s u l t o f th e i n f l u e n c e o f F reu d and h i s d i s c i p l e s , a r a t h e r c o n s i s t e n t view o f t h e s e l f and ego d e v e lo p e d . C h a in ’s id e a of t h e s e l f and th e ego seemed t o be i n a c c o rd w i t h th e p r e v a l e n t one C2 2 : 301^— 1) 4 .) • He saw th e s e l f as t h a t w hich one i s aware o f . The ego was th o u g h t t o be a g ro u p o f p r o c e s s e s . C h ein , how ever, b e l i e v e d t h a t p r o c e s s e s o t h e r t h a n th o s e i n c lu d e d i n ego a ls o e x i s t e d and i n f l u e n c e d b e h a v i o r . Symonds d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b e tw ee n t h e s e l f and th e ego i n much th e same manner (1 1 2 ) . The ego was a group o f su c h p r o c e s s e s as t h i n k i n g , rem em bering, and p e r c e i v i n g w hich were c a r r i e d o u t to o f f e r s a t i s f a c t i o n i n r e s p o n s e to d r i v e s from w i t h i n . The s e l f was th o u g h t t o be t h e manner i n w hich an i n d i v i d u a l s e e s h i m s e l f , t h i n k s o f h i m s e l f , r e a c t s to h i m s e l f , v a lu e s and d e fe n d s h i m s e l f . Symonds, l i k e P re u d and o t h e r s , b e l i e v e d t h a t th e p e r s o n a l i t y c o n s t r u c t s i n t e r a c t e d . I f th e ego p r o c e s s e s f u n c t i o n e d w e ll, th e i n d i v i d u a l would l i k e l y f e e l s e l f - e s t e e m and c o n f i d e n c e . B e r to c c i d i f f e r e d from h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s (1 0 :9 1 -9 9 ) He r e v e r s e d th e c u sto m a ry i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f s e l f and eg o. He v iew ed th e s e l f as a u n i t a r y y e t complex o f a c t i v i t i e s , su c h as t h i n k i n g , rem em bering, f e e l i n g , w a n tin g , and p e r c e i v i n g . Such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may rem ind one o f F r e u d 's ego, as w e ll a s th e ego o f C h ein and Symonds. F or B e r to c c i th e ego was term ed a c l u s t e r o f v a lu e s w ith w h ich th e s e l f i d e n t i f i e s i t s s u c c e s s e s . A nother d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e of B e r t o c c i was h i s d is a g re e m e n t w i t h c o n te m p o ra ry s e l f t h e o r i s t s as t o th e r o l e th e c u l t u r e p la y s I n t h e f o r m a t io n o f th e ego and p e r s o n a l i t y : The s e l f c h a l l e n g e s th e c u l t u r e i n w hich i t i s h o r n e v en a s i t r e s p o n d s t o i t s m o ld in g norms* Thus th e ego and th e p e r s o n a l i t y a r e n e v e r m e r e ly th e s u b j e c t i v e s i d e o f th e c u l t u r e . They a re a lw ay s i n v a r y in g d e g re e t h e means a s e l f h as t a k e n i n d e v e lo p in g i t s e l f among th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s s u g g e s t e d to i t by t h e s u r r o u n d in g w orld* A u su b el p ro p o se d a g e n e t i c c o n c e p t o f t h e s e l f and ego (7:12-5>2). He d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b e tw e e n th e b o d y , t h e s e l f , t h e ego, and t h e p e r s o n a l i t y . He c o n s i d e r e d them a s a n a s c e n d i n g h i e r a r c h y , b u t d i d n o t h o ld t h a t one was a d e r i v a t i v e p r o d u c t o f t h e p r e c e d i n g one* S h e r i f and C a n t r i l p r e f e r r e d t o a v o id b o t h t h e te r m s e l f and th e te rm ego s i n c e th e c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e te rm s w ere so i n d e f i n i t e (lOlslj., 9 2 ) . They p r e f e r r e d to employ e g o -in v o lv e m e n ts o r e g o - a t t i t u d e s . They s t a t e d t h a t th e ego was a c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e s c o n s i s t i n g o f uw hat I t h i n k of m y s e l f , what I v a l u e , w hat i s m in e , and what I i d e n t i f y w i t h . ,r They c o n c lu d e d t h a t a p a r t fro m t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f e g o - a t t i t u d e s , t h e r e i s no su c h e n t i t y as t h e ego. The s e l f and t h e ego em ployed i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y . A l l p o r t , who r e v ie w e d th e l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e l f and th e eg o, c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e c o n c e p ti o n s f e l l i n t o e i g h t p r i n c i p a l c a t e g o r i e s : th e s e l f o r ego w ere term ed | as ( 1 ) k now er, ( 2 ) o b j e c t o f kn o w led g e; ( 3 ) p r i m o r d i a l i s e l f i s h n e s s , (If.) d o m in a to r, (J?) p a s s i v e o r g a n i z e r and r a t i o n a l i z e r , ( 6 ) f i g h t e r f o r e n d s, ( 7 ) one s e g r e g a t e d b e h a v i o r a l system among o t h e r s , and ( 8 ) s u b j e c t i v e p a t t e r n in g o f c u l t u r a l v a lu e s (2:lj.^l-i|.78). A l l p o r t p ro p o se d t h a t a l l th e s e l f or t h e ego f u n c t i o n s t h a t have b e e n d e s c r i b e d i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e be term ed " p r o p r i a t e f u n c t i o n s " o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y (3)« He co n te n d ed t h a t t h e r e was no s e l f o r ego w h ic h a c t e d as a n e n t i t y d i s t i n c t from th e re m a in d e r o f p e r s o n a l i t y , and he w ished t o a v o id th e u se of e i t h e r te rm as s u b s t a n t i v e , J e r s i l d a l s o re v ie w e d t h e m eanings w hich modern w r i t e r s h e ld c o n c e rn in g th e s e l f c o n c e p t ( 5 9 : 9 ) . H is own d e f i n i t i o n was as f o l l o w s : When we speak o f th e s e l f we mean, among o t h e r t h i n g s , a sy ste m of i d e a s , a t t i t u d e s , a p p r a i s a l s and commitments to o n e ’ s own p e r s o n . The p e r s o n e x p e r i e n ces t h e s e as d i s t i n c t l y b e lo n g in g to him and a l l o f them t o g e t h e r c o n s t i t u t e th e p e r s o n ’ s a w aren ess o f h i s i n d i v i d u a l e x is te n c e and h i s c o n c e p ti o n o f who and w hat he i s . ('58:122-126) W illia m James i n c lu d e d a c h a p t e r on th e s e l f i n h i s book on P sy ch o lo g y i n 1890 (57)* His view s on th e s o c i a l and f a m ily i n f l u e n c e s upon th e s e l f do n o t g r e a t l y d i f f e r from c o n te m p o ra ry w r i t e r s . He s t a t e d : I n th e w id e s t p o s s i b l e s e n s e , how ever, a m an’ s S e l f i s th e s u m - t o t a l of a l l he can c a l l h i s , n o t o n ly h i s bod y, and h i s p s y c h ic pow ers, b u t h i s c l o t h e s and h i s h o u se , h i s w ife and h i s c h i l d r e n , h i s a n c e s t o r s and f r i e n d s , h i s la n d and h o r s e s and y a c h t and bank a c c o u n t. (5 7 :2 9 1 -9 2 ) M ead's s o c i a l l y o r i e n t e d p h ilo s o p h y has had a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e upon th e t h i n k i n g o f c o n te m p o ra ry w r i t e r s . He s t a t e d : 21 The s e l f i s so m e th in g w hich h a s a d e v e lo p m e n t; i t i t n o t i n i t i a l l y t h e r e a t b i r t h , b u t a r i s e s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l e x p e r ie n c e and a c t i v i t y , t h a t i s , i t d e v e lo p s i n a g iv e n i n d i v i d u a l a s a r e s u l t o f h i s r e l a t i o n s t o t h a t p r o c e s s as a w hole and t o o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h a t p ro c e s s * ( 7 6 : 3 5 )* H orney s t r e s s e d t h e s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s upon t h e s e l f * She a s s e r t e d , "My c o n v i c t i o n , e x p r e s s e d i n a n u t s h e l l , i s t h a t p s y c h o a n a l y s i s s h o u ld outgrow t h e l i m i t a t i o n s s e t by i t s b e in g a n i n s t i n c t i v i s t i c and a g e n e t i c p s y c h o lo g y " (51|.:8)* She c la im e d t h a t eac h o f th e f o l l o w i n g n e e d s r e p r e s e n t s a b a s i c o r i e n t a t i o n t o o t h e r s and to s e l f : ( 1 ) moving to w a rd p e o p le , f o r exam ple, a n e ed f o r l o v e ; ( 2 ) moving away from p e o p le , as c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a n eed f o r in d e p e n d e n c e ; and ( 3 ) m oving a g a i n s t p e o p le , f o r i n s t a n c e , a need f o r pow er. S u l l i v a n s t a t e d t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y was b u t a h y p o t h e t i c a l e n t i t y w h ic h c a n o n ly b e o b s e rv e d fro m i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( 1 0 9 : 1 6 9 )* He c a l l e d i t t h e dynamic c e n t e r o f p r o c e s s e s w hich o c c u r i n a s e r i e s o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l f i e l d s . The p r i n c i p a l p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e d i n th e p e r s o n a l i t y a r e dynam ism s. The s e l f - s y s t e m i s term ed a dynamism b y S u l l i v a n . I t s c h i e f f u n c t i o n i s t o prom ote s e c u r i t y m ea su re s a g a i n s t a n x i e t y . S in c e th e s e l f - s y s t e m g u a rd s t h e p e r s o n from a n x i e t y , i t i s h e ld i n h ig h e stee m and t e n d s t o become i s o l a t e d from t h e r e s t o f p e r s o n a l i t y . A lth o u g h S u l l i v a n f e l t t h a t t h e d ev elo p m en t o f a s e l f - s y s t e m was a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y he c a l l e d th e s e l f , a s i t i s known to d a y , " t h e p r i n c i p a l 22 s tu m b lin g b l o c k to f a v o r a b l e c h an g e s i n p e r s o n a l i t y . " S u l l i v a n 1s l a t e r c o n c e p t o f t h e s e l f i n c l u d e d " t h e me" and th e " n o t m e." E ven th o u g h " th e me" c o n c e p t may b e d i s t r e s s i n g or h u m i l i a t i n g , th e s e l f m ust h o l d t o e v e r y t h i n g t h a t r e i n f o r c e s i t and c a l l " n o t me" a n y t h i n g t h a t does n o t f i t i n t o a c o n s i s t e n t p i c t u r e o f th e s e l f . L e c k y ’ s s e l f t h e o r y (1 2 1 :2 ) r e s e m b le s S u l l i v a n ’ s em p h asis on g u a r d in g t h e i n d i v i d u a l from a n x i e t y . L ecky h e l d t h a t t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f o n e 's p e r c e p t i o n o f s e l f i n t a c t was t h e p rim e m o tiv e o f b e h a v i o r . D rawing from su c h a u th o r s as James, Mead, L ecky, and Raimy, Combs and Snygg d i s c u s s e d t h e s e l f i n te rm s o f t h e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l f i e l d ( 2 3 ^ 5 ) . T hey s t a t e d , " I n s h o r t , th e phenom enal s e l f i n c l u d e s n o t o n ly a p e r s o n ’ s p h y s i c a l s e l f b u t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t he e x p e r i e n c e s as ’m e’ a t t h a t i n s t a n t . " T hey c a u t i o n e d t h a t i t was n o t a p h y s i c a l e n t i t y , t h a t i s , i t does n o t e x i s t some p l a c e i n t h e b o d y , b u t to t h e i n d i v i d u a l i t i s n o t o n l y r e a l , i t i s h i m s e l f . T hey te rm e d th e phenom enal s e l f t h e G e s t a l t o f th e c o n c e p ts o f s e l f * An o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e m ost v i t a l p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s e l f was c a l l e d th e s e l f c o n c e p t. I t i s t h e e x t r a c t i o n fro m t h e phenom enal f i e l d t h o s e c o n c e p ts o f s e l f w hich a r e so fu n d a m e n ta l " t h a t t h e y seem t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l to be 'h e ' i n a l l tim e s and i n a l l p l a c e s " ( 2 3 : 1 2 6 - 2 7 ) . 23 To R ogers c o n s t r u c t i o n of a t h e o r y o f p e r s o n a l i t y and b e h a v io r " r e v o lv e d a b o u t th e c o n s t r u c t o f t h e s e l f " (92:15>). He s t a t e d : The s e l f - c o n c e p t , or s e l f - s t r u c t u r e , may be th o u g h t o f as a n o r g a n iz e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n s o f th e s e l f which a r e a d m i s s ib l e to a w a re n e s s . I t i s composed o f such e le m e n ts as th e p e r c e p t i o n s o f o n e ’ s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and a b i l i t i e s ; th e p e r c e p t s and con c e p ts o f the s e l f i n r e l a t i o n - to o t h e r s and to th e e n v iro n m e n t; th e v a lu e q u a l i t i e s w hich a r e p e r c e iv e d as a s s o c i a t e d w ith e x p e r ie n c e s and o b j e c t s ; and g o a ls and i d e a l s w hich a r e p e r c e iv e d as h a v in g p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e v a la n c e . ( 9 2 : 1 3 6 ) Rogers view ed t h e " s e l f " as b e in g more r e s t r i c t i v e th a n " o rg a n is m ," a lth o u g h some w r i t e r s employ t h e txfo term s i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y . He term ed th e s e l f as " a w a re n e ss o f b e i n g , of f u n c t i o n i n g . " R ogers c a l l e d i t " a n o r g a n iz e d f l u i d , b u t c o n s i s t e n t p e r c e p t u a l p a t t e r n o f p e r c e p t i o n s of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e 'I * o r th e ’me' t o g e t h e r w ith v a lu e s a t t a c h e d to th e c o n c e p t s ’ -' (92:ij-98). The s e l f was form ed, a c c o r d in g t o R ogers by i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h e n v i r o n ment and e v a l u a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o t h e r s . Q -T echnique and M ethodology The s e l f c o n ce p t h as b e e n c o n s i d e r e d t h e c e n t r a l c o n s t r u c t o f p e r s o n a l i t y by t h e m a j o r i t y of m a jo r th e o ris ts . Only r e c e n t l y have s e r i o u s a tte m p ts b e e n made t o e x p l o i t th e s e l f c o n c e p t. B lak e and Mouton, i n th e 195>9 A nnual Review o f P sy ch o lo g y ( 1 2 :2 1 9 ) , r e p o r t e d t h a t th e v e i l o f anonym ity was f i n a l l y s t r i p p e d from t h e s e l f c o n c e p t a 2k r! decade o r so ago u n d e r tlie p r e s s o f R o g e ria n n o n d i r e c t i v e j c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d i n t e r e s t and H i l g a r d 1 s p r e s i d e n t i a l a d d r e s s ; b e f o r e th e A m erican P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n . Today t h e s e l f i s exposed f o r a l l t o examine and t r y t o change. R e s u l t s em ploying t h e c o n s t r u c t o f t h e s e l f w ere r e p o r t e d t o be e n c o u r a g in g . Many a tt e m p t s a r e now b e in g made t o m easure th e s e l f c o n c e p t. P e p in s k i l i s t e d t h e f o l lo w in g : (1 ) a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w ; ( 2 ) p e r s o n a l i t y t e s t s ; ( 3 ) p h y s i o l o g i c a l m ea su re s g a t h e r e d b e f o r e , d u r i n g , and a f t e r c o u n s e l i n g ; (ij.) f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f i n t e r v i e w p r o t o c o l s ; ( 5 ) s o c i o m e tr i c t e s t s ; ( 6 ) a t t i t u d e s c a l e s ; ( 7 ) p e r c e p t u a l t e s t s ; and ( 8 ) Q - s o r ts o f s e l f r e f e r e n c e s ( 8 2 : 3 6 ) . The l i s t was n o t in te n d e d t o be e x h a u s t i v e . Rogers h a s g e n e r a l l y b e en c o n s i d e r e d a l e a d e r I n s e e k in g a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p t. He b e l i e v e d t h a t i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l r a t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s were more r e v e a l i n g o f what a p e rs o n b e l i e v e d and f e l t a b o u t h i m s e l f . T h e r e f o r e , he so u g h t a m easure w hich would b e s t s u i t h i s t h e o r y and s e l e c t e d Q,-methodology as d e v e l - | oped by W illia m S te p h e n s o n i n o r d e r t o s tu d y s e l f - | p e r c e p t i o n s i n o p e r a t i o n a l term s ( 10£:lj.; 9 2 :li^0 ). T h ere a p p e a re d to be c o n f u s io n a s t o what i s m eant by Q -m ethodology, Q - te c h n iq u e , and Q - s o r t t e c h n iq u e . F or a t r e a t m e n t o f th e c o n f l i c t s betw een s p e c i a l i s t s i n th e u s e o f t h e s e te r m s , t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o K uhn's 25 a r tic le on 'Q-technique and the Science of Personality" (67:107-113)• Stephenson, one of the men who developed the techniques, stated that Q-methodology was to derive hypotheses from theory while Q-technique was used to te s t the hypotheses. An Outgrowth of F a c to r Analysis Thomsom appeared to he the one who "coined" the term Q-technique. He wrote: The f i r s t e x p lic it references to correlation between persons in connection with factor technique seem to have been made independently and almost simultaneously by Thomson (1935* July) and Stephenson (1935* August), the former being p essim istic, the la tte r o p tim istic. But such correlations had actu ally been used much ea rlier by Burt and Thomson, and almost certa in ly by others* (115 :199 ) In conclusion to an a r tic le concerning the in tro duction and uses of the Q-technique, Stephenson remarked: In the above pages I have introduced a factor tech nique which is an inversion of a l l previous factor work. Following Professor Thomson, I have used the term Q for correlations between persons just as r is used for correlations between t e s t s . . . . I have concluded that Q-technique serves general and type psychology, just as r technique i s for work on in d i vidual d ifferen ces, and th is dichotomy would seem to be a fundamental one. ( 10l|.:36- 6l) A number of excellen t reviews have been w ritten concerning Q-technique. Mowrer devotes several chapters to i t in his book Psychotherapy: Theory and Research (78). He pointed out that early factor an alysis, as i t was developed by Spearman, called for correlations of the 26 ; I r e s u l t s f o r e a c h t e s t w i t h r e s u l t s f o r e v e ry o t h e r t e s t . The r e s u l t i n g c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere a r r a n g e d i n a c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x and a n a l y s e s w ere made. T h u s, f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n v e n t io n a l ty p e was c a r r i e d o u t . Mowrer r e p o r t e d t h a t i t was p o s s i b l e t o a n a l y z e p e r s o n s (ro w s) on su c h a m a t r i x j u s t a s e a s i l y a s t e s t s (c o lu m n s) ( 7 8 : 3 2 6 ) . A f i g u r e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e " a g re e m e n t o r c o n s i s t e n c y i n te rm s ; o f a v e r a g e c o r r e l a t i o n v a lu e f o r e a c h p e r s o n " c o u ld t h e n be o b t a i n e d . I n d e s c r i b i n g t h e Q -te c h n iq u e i n much t h e same way as r e p o r t e d above by Mowrer, W olfe n o t e d t h a t t h e f a c t o r s a c q u i r e d from a m a t r i x o f c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n p e r s o n s a r e n o t p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s , b u t r a t h e r t h e y r e p r e s e n t ty p e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . He s t a t e d t h a t i t was p o s s i b l e t o g iv e e a c h i n d i v i d u a l a s c o r e w h ich i n d i c a t e s h i s d e g re e o f a p p r o x im a tio n t o , o r h i s c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h , t h e m ost t y p i c a l p e r s o n {1 :3 7 ). Slow a c c e p t a n c e t o r e c o g n i z e th e a p t n e s s o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f p e r s o n s , a c c o r d i n g t o C ro n b ach , r e s u l t e d from t h e m ethod b e in g i n t r o d u c e d i n te rm s o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s ( 2 lf :3 7 6 -7 8 ). C ronbach s a i d t h a t now l i t t l e em phasis i s p l a c e d on f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , b u t t h e Q -te c h n iq u e i s b e in g j em ployed t o t r a n s l a t e I n t o o p e r a t i o n many o f t h e c u r r e n t c o n c e p ts o f p e r s o n a l i t y , s o c i a l p s y c h o lo g y , and phenom e n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . He p o i n t e d t o t h e g r e a t n eed i n t h e s e a r e a s f o r su ch a n o p e r a t i o n a l a p p ro a c h . D e s c r i p t i o n of t h e Q - s o r t R ogers r e f e r r e d t o th e Q - s o r t as a n a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e Q -te c h n iq u e ( 9 2 : 114- 0 ) . A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s o f Q - s o r t i n g i s g iv e n below : A c o l l e c t i o n i s made o f a l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n o f s e l f - r e f e r e n t s t a t e m e n t s . Prom t h i s p o p u l a t i o n , a s e l e c t i o n (random , s t r a t i f i e d , e t c . ) of f i f t y , one h u n d re d , o r more s t a te m e n t s i s o b t a i n e d . The s t a t e m e n t s i n c l u d e a wide v a r i e t y o f ways o f p e r c e i v i n g th e s e l f . The s u b j e c t i s a sk ed to s o r t t h e c a r d s upon w h ich th e s e l f - r e f e r e n t s ta te m e n ts a re w r i t t e n i n t o a g iv e n number o f p i l e s , u s u a l l y se v e n , n i n e , or e le v e n . The s ta te m e n t s l e a s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s u b j e c t a r e t o b e p la c e d i n th e p i l e a t one end o f t h e co ntinu um and t h o s e m ost c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t th e o t h e r end. He i s o f t e n i n s t r u c t ed t o p l a c e i n e a c h p i l e a g i v e n number o f c a r d s , f o r example 2 , 6 , 9 * 1 6 , 9 , 6 , 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y , so t h a t th e outcome a p p ro x im a te s a f o r c e d norm al c u r v e . H aving com p l e t e d th e s o r t i n g , w hich g iv e s a r a t h e r d e t a i l e d p i c t u r e o f th e p e r c e iv e d s e l f , th e s u b j e c t i s a sk e d t o s o r t th e c a rd a g a i n i n such a way t h a t t h e y d e s c r i b e th e p e r s o n he would l i k e t o b e . S in c e w ith each s o r t t h e ite m s have been: p la c e d r e l a t i v e to each o t h e r on t h e same c o n tin u u m , t h e j r e s u l t s of one s o r t i n g c an be c o r r e l a t e d w ith t h e r e s u l t s o f a n o th e r s o r t i n g . The s i z e o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e s i m i l a r i t y o r d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw ee n any two s e l f con c e p ts (24:378-79; 92:140; io £ ). I te m s e l e c t i o n * The s e l e c t i o n of ite m s f o r Q - s o r t - in g h as b e e n c a r r i e d o u t i n a number o f ways. R ogers and B u t l e r and H aig h c h o se p o p u l a t i o n s o f s e l f - r e f e r e n t s t a t e m ents t a k e n from ta p e r e c o r d i n g s o f c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s (9 2 :1 4 0 ; 9 3 ) . A random s e l e c t i o n of 1^0 s ta te m e n t s was th e n made. Jo h n J . B u t l e r s e l e c t e d a p o p u l a t i o n o f m e n ta l h e a l t h o r a d ju s tm e n t s ta te m e n ts by s c a n n in g s t a n d a r d i z e d group i n v e n t o r i e s commonly u se d i n th e p u b l ic s c h o o ls and p s y c h o l o g i c a l c l i n i c s ( 1 7 : 6 6 - 7 0 ) . He th e n r e p h r a s e d them " i n term s o f th e s e l f . " A grou p of s p e c i a l i s t s re d u c e d th e p o p u l a t i o n of s t a te m e n ts w h ile r e t a i n i n g a n e q u a l number of p o s i t i v e and n e g a t iv e i te m s . They w ere th e n s e n t t o tw e n ty r e p u t a b l e p s y c h o l o g i s t s who ra n k e d t h e s t a te m e n t s a lo n g a co n tin u u m of " p o o r n e s s - g o o d n e s s ." As a f i n a l s t e p f i f t y item s were s e l e c t e d w hich were e q u a l l y sp a ce d a lo n g th e co n tin u u m . The c r i t e r i a f o r ite m s s e l e c t e d a r e , o f c o u r s e , r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e outcome o f any i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T r a v e r s i n an a r t i c l e on v a l i d i t y and r a t i o n a l e of th e Q - s o r t , c a u tio n e d t h a t c a r e l e s s ite m w r i t i n g w i l l c o n f r o n t th e s u b j e c t w i t h l o g i c a l m e a n in g le ss c h o ic e s ( 1 1 8: 6 2- 7 0 ) . j i f Mowrer, i n sum m arizing a d i s c u s s i o n on th e s o r t i n g o f s e l f r e f e r e n t s t a t e m e n t s , warned th e r e a d e r t h a t w h ile i t may 29 : j l o o k a s i f we a r e s t u d y i n g t h e t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y , "we a c t u a l l y a r e n o t , s i n c e we do n o t have a random sam ple o f ite m s draw n from a l l p o s s i b l e ite m s r e l e v a n t t o any g i v e n ; i n d i v i d u a l " ( 7 8 : 3 6 l ) . He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t o n ly a sam ple o f ite m s i s drawn fro m a r e s t r i c t e d u n i v e r s e o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s w h ich a r e " th o u g h t t o h av e s p e c i a l co gency w i t h r e s p e c t t o o u r im m ed iate p u r p o s e s . " C r i t e r i a f o r ite m s e l e c t i o n h av e b e e n f o r m u la te d l w hich may s e r v e a s a b a s i s f o r o vercom ing " c a r e l e s s ite m w r i t i n g . " One o f t h e e a r l y s e t s o f c r i t e r i a was s u g g e s t e d by T h u r s to n e and Chave ( 1 1 7 : 2 2 - 2 3 ) . They s u g g e s t e d t h a t s t a t e m e n t s ( 1 ) s h o u ld be b r i e f ; ( 2 ) s h o u l d be e a s i l y r e a d and u n d e r s t o o d ; ( 3 ) s h o u ld i n d i c a t e t h e g o o d n e ss o r p o o r n e s s o f t h e s u b j e c t 1 s s e l f c o n c e p t; (If) s h o u ld n o t be am biguous o r d o u b l e - b a r r e l l e d ; and ( 5>) s h o u ld n o t show i r r e l e v a n c e , t h r e a t , o r d u p l i c a t i o n . I t was c l e a r t o C ronbach t h a t i t e m - s e l e c t i o n f o r Q - s o r t s h a d n o t y e t b e e n c l a r i f i e d (2 lf:3 8 0 ). He s u g g e s te d t h a t u n t i l t h e p ro b lem c o u ld be f u r t h e r p e n e t r a t e d , t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a c o u ld be u s e d : ( 1 ) s t a t e m e n t s s h o u ld r e p r e s e n t a l a r g e number o f , c o n t i n u e ; ( 2 ) s t a t e m e n t s b e in g com pared s h o u ld h a v e a b o u t t h e same d e g re e o f d e s i r a b i l i t y so t h a t a l l s o r t s w i l l n o t t u r n o u t t o be t h e same; and ( 3 ) s t a t e m e n t s s h o u l d have s u b s t a n t i a l v a r i a n c e , i n t h a t d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s p l a c e them I I n t o d i f f e r e n t p i l e s . I n a r e c e n t a r t i c l e c o n c e r n in g 30 j p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r Q - s o r t ite m s e l e c t i o n G oo d lin g and G u th r ie s u g g e s te d t h a t ite m s sh o u ld have minimum i n t r a s u b j e c t v a r i a b i l i t y , maximum i n t e r s u b j e c t v a r i a b i l i t y , and n e i t h e r s tr o n g p o s i t i v e n o r n e g a t iv e v a lu e s - CI(ij.:70- 7 2 ) . The f o r c e d and u n f o rc e d Q - s o r t t e c h n i q u e * As m igh t be e x p e c te d , t h e r e was c o n f l i c t i n g t h e o r y and r e s e a r c h c o n c e rn in g th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e f o r c e d and u n f o r c e d Q~ s o r t t e c h n i q u e . F or exam ple, T r a v e rs f e l t t h a t f o r c e d - c h o ic e ite m s were somewhat r e s e n t e d b e c a u s e t h e s u b j e c t i s r e q u i r e d t o condemn h i m s e l f . M oreover, he c o n c lu d e d t h a t e q u a l i z a t i o n o f s c a t t e r v a s t l y i n c r e a s e d th e e r r o r o f m easurem ent i n Q - c o r r e l a t i o n f o r i n d i v i d u a l s who have l i t t l e t r u e v a r i a b i l i t y , or i n o t h e r words, f l a t p r o f i l e s (1 1 8 : 6 2- 7 0 ) . C a t t e l l b e l i e v e d t h a t r e s p o n s e s i n th e c e n t e r o f t h e f o r c e d - n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e l i k e l y t o be b e t t e r i n d i c a t o r s of p e r s o n a l i t y t h a n th e r e s p o n s e s a t th e ex tre m e s o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n ( 1 9 ) . Yet th e extrem e v a r i a b l e s a r e g iv e n t h e most, w e ig h t, ev en th o u g h t h e y may r e p r e s e n t b u t i d i o s y n c r a s i e s o f th e s u b j e c t . Jo n e s r e p o r t e d r e s e a r c h t e s t i n g some m ajo r a ssu m p tio n s o f Q - s o r t te c h n iq u e ( 6 0 : 9 0 - 9^)« T h re e groups of s u b j e c t s , n e u r o t i c , p s y c h o t ic and c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , were g iv e n th e t a s k o f s o r t i n g s t a t e m e n t s em ploying th e " u n s p e c i f i e d f r e e d i s t r i b u t i o n " (u n fo r c e d ) and a g a i n em ploying th e " q u a s i-n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n " i ( f o r c e d ) . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t e a c h o f th e s u b j e c t s 31 1 f r e e - s o r t d i s t r i b u t i o n v a r i e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y fro m h i s approxi m ate norm al d i s t r i b u t i o n . W ith in each o f t h e t h r e e g r o u p s , s h a p e s o f t h e s u b j e c t s ' d i s t r i b u t i o n s v a r i e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from e a c h o t h e r . Jo n e s c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e f o r c e d - c h o i c e l e a d s t o s i g n i f i c a n t l o s s i n i n f o r m a t i o n . On th e o t h e r hand a number o f s p e c i a l i s t s and r e s e a r c h e r s have f e l t t h a t t h e f o r c e d - c h o i c e Q - s o r t has i m p o r t a n t a d v a n ta g e s o v e r th e u n f o r c e d s o r t s . I n c o n t r a s t t o C a t t e l l , C ro n b ach a s s e r t e d t h a t f o r c e d - c h o i c e p r o c e d u r e s have many p s y c h o m e tric a d v a n ta g e s ( 2A 4 .: 3 7 8 ) • He f e l t t h a t s i n c e more s t a t e m e n t s were p la c e d i n t h e m id d le p i l e s , t h e s u b j e c t i s f r e e d from many d i f f i c u l t and r a t h e r u n im p o r ta n t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s . "The f a c t t h a t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n n e a r th e c e n t e r of t h e s c a l e i s d i f f i c u l t i s r e d u c e d i n im p o r ta n c e b y th e f a c t t h a t i n th e p r o d u c t moment c o r r e l a t i o n s t h e end c e l l s r e c e i v e th e g r e a t e s t w e i g h t . " R ogers s t a t e d t h a t t h e f o r c e d - c h o i c e Q - s o r t o f f e r e d r i c h n e s s i n s t a t i s t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n and much p ro m ise a s a r e s e a r c h t o o l ( 9 2 :lij.O). B lock r e p o r t e d a r e s e a r c h com paring th e f o r c e d and th e u n f o r c e d Q - s o r t i n g p r o c e d u r e s (1 3 :i|.8 l-8 5 ) • E m ploying s e v e n t y - s i x ite m s s o r t e d b y e le v e n p e r s o n s , he fo u n d t h a t I4 .O o u t o f 55 c o m p a riso n s showed more d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w i t h th e f o r c e d - c h o i c e t e c h n i q u e . The " r e s p o n s e s e t s " o f th e r a t e r s w ere a ls o re d u c e d em ploying th e f o r c e d - c h o i c e s o r t . B lock s t a t e d t h a t s i n c e a l l s u b j e c t s m ust make t h e same ,number o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s , th e c o m p a riso n s b e tw ee n o r d e r i n g s a r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , r a p id , and w ith o u t a m b ig u ity . He d id j p o i n t o u t t h a t when u s i n g t h e f o r c e d - c h o i c e t e c h n i q u e , s u b j e c t s may h a v e t o make d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s beyond t h e i r a b i l i t y t o e v a l u a t e , and t h a t s u b j e c t s c a n n o t i n d i c a t e d i f f e r e n c e s o r d i s t a n c e b e tw e e n t h e i n t e r v a l s . But B lo ck c o n c lu d e d t h a t i t was p o s s i b l e t o w r i t e a Q -ite m whose p o s i t i o n i n a f o r c e d s o r t w ould c o nv ey th e m eaning o f th e v a r i a b l e and t h u s e l i m i n a t e t h e n e e d f o r a m e t r i c i n d e x . "A t h o u g h t f u l l y c o m p ile d Q - s e t (100 ite m s ) w i t h a wide ra n g e w i l l be. e f f e c t i v e . " R e l i a b i l i t y . A lth o u g h m e a su re s o f p e r s o n a l i t y h av e n o t h a d t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f h a v in g h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y , t h e Q- s o r t t e c h n i q u e does show p r o m is e . L iv s o n g av e e le v e n s o r t e r s th e t a s k o f Q - s o r t i n g 76 ite m s t o d e s c r i b e t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f f i v e w e ll-k n o w n p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e s ( 7 1 : 1 5 9 - 6 5 ) . R e l i a b i l i t i e s w ere com puted f o r b o t h f o r c e d an d u n f o r c e d s o r t s . The number o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s p r e s e n t i n ! e a c h u n f o r c e d s o r t was d e te r m in e d , and i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t s o r t e r s c h o se no p a r t i c u l a r form o f d i s t r i b u t i o n . He recom mended, t h e n , t h a t t h e f o r c e d - c h o i c e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ! . ^ Q - s o r t be em ployed. He c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e g r e a t e r number o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s on t h e f o r c e d - c h o i c e s o r t r e s u l t e d i n i n c r e a s e d t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t i e s . A t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y o f . 7I4 - was fo u n d b y B u t l e r when em p lo y in g s i x t y n i n t h g r a d e s t u d e n t s a s h i s sam ple 33 ( 1 7 : 7 3 )* He b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e " r a t h e r m odest c o e f f i c i e n t r e f l e c t e d b o th e r r o r v a r i a n c e and e f f e c t s o f a d o l e s c e n t m a t u r a t i o n and i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s . E q u iv a le n t form s w ere used by S hantz to o b t a i n r e l i a b i l i t y f i g u r e s ( 9 9 :2 2 3 - 2 6 ) . He d i v i d e d s i x t y Q - s o r t item s i n t o two t h i r t y - i t e m e q u i v a l e n t fo rm s . He found r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f .8 0 and .8 2 . P ra n k fo u n d h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s r a n g i n g from .9 3 bo .9 7 when t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y was computed f o r p e r s o n a l i t y d a t a u s in g Q - s o r t s by t e n s u b j e c t s (3 lj.:l8 2 ). He c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e te c h n iq u e y i e l d e d r e l i a b l e m e a su re s. V a l i d i t y . As w ith m ost o t h e r m easu res o f p e r s o n a l i t y , few v a l i d i t y s t u d i e s have b e e n do n e. Combs and Snygg s t a t e d : How a c c u r a t e a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e phenom enal s e l f th e s e l f r e p o r t i s l i k e l y t o be i s d e p e n d e n t a t l e a s t upon th e f o llo w in g f a c t o r s : ( 1 ) th e c l a r i t y o f th e s u b j e c t s a w aren ess . . . ; ( 2 ) th e l a c k o f a d e q u a te sym bols of e x p r e s s i o n . . . ; ( 3 ) th e s o c i a l e x p e c ta n c y . . ; (ij.) c o o p e r a t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t • • • ; (£) f r e e dom from t h r e a t . . • ; and ( 6 ) change i n f i e l d o rg a n i z a t i o n . ( 2 3 :l|lj.0 -lj.2 ) R ogers and Dymond e x p re s s e d th e f e e l i n g t h a t th e Q -te c h n iq u e was a v a l i d and p ro m is in g a p p ro a c h ( 9 3 :2 8 7 ) . I t a p p e a re d t h a t th e Q - s o r t te c h n iq u e was c o n s id e r e d t o be somewhat la c k i n g i n r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y , b u t u n t i l d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g and more r e f i n e d i n s t r u m e n t s a re a v a i l a b l e i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y f i e l d , t h e y a r e q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y . Uses o f th e Q - s o r t T ec h n iq u e | i ! I n d i v i d u a l s can t h i n k and t a l k a b o u t th e m s e lv e s just; as th e y t h i n k and t a l k a b o u t o t h e r t h i n g s . T hese s e l f ; r e f l e c t i o n s a r e a s much a p a r t of them a s a n y th i n g e l s e t h e y do ( 1 0 5 ) . S te p h e n s o n s t a t e d t h a t t h e Q - te c h n iq u e i s e r v e s g e n e r a l and ty p e p sy c h o lo g y j u s t as th e " r " t e c h n iq u e i s f o r work on i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e ( 10lj.:3 6 0 - 6l ) • He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t was e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l i n ( a ) s t u d y i n g s i n g l e c a s e s , (b ) s tu d y in g t h e t o t a l p e r s o n - i n a c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n s e p a r a t e a s p e c t s o f b e h a v i o r , and (c ) o b j e c t i v e l y s tu d y i n g su c h s u b j e c t i v e b e h a v io r as t h i n k i n g ( 1 0 5 : 1 - 1 7 ) . R ogers a l s o t o o k th e p o s i t i o n t h a t s e l f r e p o r t s a r e u s e f u l as d i r e c t s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t p e r s o n s and t h a t th e s e l f a s c o n s c i o u s l y e x p e r ie n c e d can be d i r e c t l y com m unicated t o th e i n v e s t i g a t o r ( 9 3 ) . He m a in ta in e d t h a t i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l r a t h e r t h a n i n t e r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s w ere more r e v e a l i n g o f w hat a p e r s o n s a i d , f e l t , o r b e l i e v e d . When d i s c u s s i n g th e Q - s o r t t e c h - I n iq u e he c o n c lu d e d : One o f th e a d v a n ta g e s o f t h i s t e c h n iq u e i s t h a t i t e n a b le s one t o u t i l i z e r a t h e r e l a b o r a t e s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s on l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n s o f ite m s w hich may come from one o r a 3«iall number o f c a s e s . T h ere i s th u s much l e s s l o s s o f th e c l i n i c a l r i c h n e s s i n th e s t a t i s t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . ( 9 2 :lij.O) B u t l e r and H aigh r e i t e r a t e d many o f t h e above a d v a n ta g e s when r e p o r t i n g t h e i r Q-3o r t s t u d y ( 1 8 : 5 5 - 7 6 ) . They added t h a t s u b j e c t i v e b e h a v io r w hich h a s h i t h e r t o b e e n r e g a r d e d 35 a s i n a c c e s s i b l e , a r b i t r a r y , and u n s c i e n t i f i c i n i t s m ethod may, by t h e Q -3o r t , b e s t u d i e d w i t h f u l l s c i e n t i f i c s a n c t i o n , s a t i s f y i n g m ost o f t h e r u l e s and p r o c e d u r e s o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod . ! The Q -te c h n iq u e i s much more p e n e t r a t i n g t h a n t h e I common q u e s t i o n n a i r e upon w h ich a p e r s o n can sa y " y e s " t o i a l l th e f a v o r a b l e symptoms and "no" t o a l l u n f a v o r a b l e : o n e s , a c c o r d i n g t o C ronbach ( 2i).:377) - The m ethod i s f r e e fro m t h o s e i d i o s y n c r a s i e s o f r e s p o n s e w h ich c a u s e some p e r s o n s t o r e s p o n d 1 1 c a n n o t s a y ” tw ic e a s o f t e n a s o t h e r s , and so make t h e i r s c o r e s n o n c o m p a ra b le . He s t a t e d : The Q-3o r t i n v e n t e d by S te p h e n s o n p r o v i d e s a f l e x i b l e m ethod f o r o b t a i n i n g a q u a l i t a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n ( o r s e l f d e s c r i p t i o n ) o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n a form f o r r i g o r o u s m a n i p u l a t i o n . The Q - p r o f i l e i s h a lf w a y b e tw e e n t h e i d i o s y n c r a t i c , h i g h l y p e r s o n a l i z e d s k e t c h a c l i n i c i a n m ig h t w r i t e and t h e fo rm a l d i a g n o s t i c p r o f i l e fro m th e W e c h sle r o r some o t h e r t e s t w hich " m e a su re s" th e p e r s o n on a l i m i t e d number o f s c a l e s . C ro nbach a l s o e x p la in e d t h a t th e Q - s o r t p e r m i t s c o m p a riso n s ! o f many d i f f e r e n t " p e r s o n a s " w h ic h a r e i n r e a l i t y f e a t u r e s ■ o f t h e same i n d i v i d u a l . A p e r s o n 's s e l f - d e s c r i p t i o n c a n be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f a number o f o t h e r r o l e s o r s e l f c o n c e p t s . Mowrer q u o te d B u rt a s s a y in g t h a t t h e Q -te c h n iq u e a p p e a re d e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d f o r num erous i n c i d e n t a l p ro b le m s i n e d u c a t i o n and v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e ( 7 8 : 3 2 9 ) . I n t h e 1959 A nnual Review o f P s y c h o lo g y , t h e e f f e c t i v e u s e o f t h e Q-3o r t t o m easure t h e s e l f c o n c e p t was o u t l i n e d f o r th e 36 i y e a r s t o come. F o r exam ple B lak e and Mouton c o n c lu d e d t h a t s e l f e v a l u a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s and t h e o r y h av e a l r e a d y r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n i n t h e p a s t d e c a d e ( 1 2 : 2 2 0 ) . The ! c e n t r a l q u a l i t y o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p t, t h e e a s e and e f f i c i e n c y o f m easurem ent made p o s s i b l e by t h e Q,-3ort and th e l i k e , and th e a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f ch an g e s o f s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t u n d e r l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s and d u r i n g c o u n s e l i n g o r t r e a t m e n t i n s u r e c o n tin u e d c o n c e rn w i t h th e s e l f i n th e y e a r s a h e a d . | L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Q - s o r t . A v a r i e t y o f p r e c a u t i o n s a r e made c o n c e rn in g t h e u s e o f th e Q-3o r t . I n r e f e r e n c e t o s u c h t e c h n iq u e s a s Q - s o r t i n g , M oustakas c o n te n d e d t h a t m ost r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s on t h e s e l f h a v e b e en h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d and i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e d so t h a t a n i n c r e a s i n g l y n a rro w d e f i n i t i o n i s e m e rg in g . A c c o rd in g t o h im , t a b u l a t e d s t a t e m e n t s made by a n i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r p r e t e d a s e x p r e s s i o n s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s s e l f l i m i t s t h e s e l f t o v e r b a l s t a t e m e n t s and c a t e g o r i e s su c h a s s e l f c o n c e p t, n e g a t i v e s e l f , and i d e a l s e l f . Such c o n c e p ti o n s a r e conveyed b u t " t h e n a t u r a l , s p o n ta n e o u s Imminence o f s e l f i s somehow l o s t " ( 7 7 : 1 1 ) . I A number o f s p e c i a l i s t s su c h a s Symonds ( 1 1 2 ) , H u n tle y ( £ 6 ) , and W o lff (123) h a v e s a i d t h a t c o n s c io u s s e l f e v a l u a t i o n s , w hich a r e m ea su re d by t h e Q - s o r t s , may n o t r e f l e c t a n i n d i v i d u a l ’ s r e a l f e e l i n g s o r u n c o n s c io u s s e l f e v a l u a t i o n s . A n g y a l, f o l l o w i n g much t h e same l i n e o f 37 i r e a s o n i n g , d i s c u s s e d t h e s e l f c o n c e p t, w h ich he c a l l e d | sym b olic s e l f , as t h e s u m - t o t a l o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t i o n s j (I}.:121). He warned t h a t what a p e r s o n t h i n k s a b o u t h im s e lf; i r a r e l y y i e l d s a t r u e p i c t u r e o f r e a l i t y . B ecause th e ; sym bo lic s e l f may f a l s i f y and d i s t o r t r e a l i t y , th e " r e l a - i t i v e s e g r e g a t i o n o f th e sym b olic s e l f w i t h i n t h e o rg a n ism ; I i s p e rh a p s th e m ost v u l n e r a b l e p o i n t o f t h e human p e r s o n - t a l i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n . " ; A s tu d y by McGehee l e d him t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t d i s c r e p a n c y betw een " s e l f 1 * and " s e l f i d e a l " c o n c e p ts as a m easure o f s t a b i l i t y seemed t o be s e r i o u s l y c o n ta m in a te d by th e s e l f - e s t e e m f a c t o r ( 7 5 ) . Edwards m easu red t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f Q-3o r t i n g t o s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y . He found a c o r r e l a t i o n o f , 8lj. f o r men and .8 7 f o r women b e tw ee n s e l f r e f e r e n t s ta te m e n t s t h a t l i k e s e l f and t h o s e t h a t were s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e ( 2 8 :1 j.6 2 ). S t u d i e s e m p lo y in g t h e Q - s o r t . The Q - 3 o r t h a s b e e n ; em p lo y ed i n a w id e v a r i e t y o f s t u d i e s . O nly a fe w t y p i c a l s t u d i e s w ere s e l e c t e d f o r i n c l u s i o n i n t h i s c h a p t e r t o i l l u s t r a t e some o f t h e more common u s e s o f t h e Q - s o r t . 1 I j S p e a k in g o f t h e Q -te c h n iq u e i n g e n e r a l , D a v ie s , i n h e r 1939 r e v ie w , s t a t e d : The e a r l i e s t u s e o f th e m ethod a p p e a r s t o be t h a t o f B u rt and D avies i n 1912 f o r a s tu d y o f im agery among s c h o o l c h i l d r e n . . . . I n 1926 Thompson and B a i l e s pub l i s h e d t h r e e t a b l e s o f c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t e a c h e r ' s m arks; Though t h e y do n o t a c t u a l l y work o u t s a t u r a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s by t h e sum m ation m ethod. ( 2 5 : ^ 1 0 ) A h o s t o f s t u d i e s have c e n te r e d around th e m easu re- 1 i m ent o f ch a n g e i n t h e s e l f c o n c e p t . One o f t h e e a r l i e s t j j was c o n d u c te d by H a r t l e y (Ij.7:3 1 8 -1 9 ) • She gave a woman whoj was a b o u t t o u n d e rg o t h e r a p y t h e t a s k o f s o r t i n g l £0 s t a t e - ; ! m ents f o u r tim e s i n o r d e r t o r e p r e s e n t a p i c t u r e o f t h e ; s e l f , t h e i d e a l s e l f , t h e unhappy s e l f , and t h e o r d i n a r y - j o t h e r s e l f . She fo u n d a c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n t h e s e l f and ■ i d e a l s o r t s o f .1 8 b e f o r e t h e r a p y and .8 1 a f t e r w a r d s . A l a r g e s c a l e r e s e a r c h p ro g ram was c o n d u c te d b e tw ee n t h e y e a r s 193>0-195i|. a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y C o u n s e lin g C e n te r , U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago t o d e te rm in e outcom es and p r o c e s s e s o f t h e R o g e ria n ty p e c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h t o t h e r a p y (9 3 )• N o ta b le among t h e s e s t u d i e s was one c a r r i e d o u t by B u t l e r and H aigh ( l 3 :5 j? - 7 o ) . They w ish e d t o d e te rm in e w h e th e r a c l i e n t who h a d r e c e i v e d c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d coun s e l i n g h ad fe w e r s e l f - i d e a l c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s a f t e r c o u n s e lin g t h a n b e f o r e . They r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e i r h y p o th e s i s was c o n firm e d . Women made s i g n i f i c a n t l y more g a in s t h a n men, b u t age and d e g re e o f d i s t u r b a n c e b o r e no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o g a in s d u r in g t h e r a p y , i j Bower employed a s e v e n t y - s i x ite m Q - s o r t {l £ : 200-0f?)j A s e l f and a n i d e a l c o n c e p t s o r t w ere made by s e v e n t y - f i v e s u b j e c t s s t a r t i n g a m e n ta l h e a l t h w orkshop, t w e n t y - e i g h t s u b j e c t s s t a r t i n g a g u id a n c e w orkshop , and t h i r t y - f o u r su b j e c t s s t a r t i n g a m ethods c l a s s . The s o r t s w ere r e p e a t e d 39 two weeks l a t e r . R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s e l f c o n c e p ts became more c o n g ru e n t f o r b o t h th e w orkshop g r o u p s , w i t h t h e m e n ta l h e a l t h w orkshop g ro u p show ing t h e g r e a t e s t c h an g e . J . J . B u t l e r em ployed t h e Q - s o r t t o c o r r e l a t e s e l f c o n c e p ts w i t h a c h ie v e m e n t ( 1 7 : 2 2 3 ) . He c o n c lu d e d t h a t ,fo v e r a c h i e v i n g boys h a d a more a d e q u a te c o n c e p t o f p r e s e n t s e l f , a h i g h e r l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n , g r e a t e r s e l f - a c c e p t a n c e and free d o m from s t r e s s , and a s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r g e n e r a l a d ju s tm e n t t h a n u n d e r a c h i e v i n g boys.'* The Q -te c h n iq u e was s e l e c t e d t o i d e n t i f y t r a i t s ju d g e d t o be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f i d e a l c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s by G a in es (3 9 ) - He a d m i n i s t e r e d a n i n e t y - i t e m Q - s o r t t o e i g h t e e n f a c u l t y an d s i x b u s in e s s m e n . A f t e r f a c t o r a n a l y z in g r e s u l t s h e c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e Q - te c h n iq u e o f f e r e d ( 1 ) a means t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e tw e e n g ro u p s o f p e o p l e ; ( 2 ) t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t o d e v is e s t a t e m e n t s w h ich d e f i n e a c o n c e p t; ( 3 ) p r o c e d u r e s t o make d i f f e r e n c e s e x p l i c i t ; and (Ij.) a means t o q u a n t i f y q u a l i t a t i v e c o n c e p t s . I n c o m p a riso n t o Edward* s f i n d i n g s c i t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , i t was i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e a r e s e a r c h by Kenny, w h ic h i n d i c a t e d t h a t Q - s o r t s w ere l e s s a f f e c t e d by s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y t h a n w ere p e r s o n a l i t y q u e s t i o n n a i r e s o r r a t i n g s c a l e s ( 6ij.:3 1 5 - 1 8 ). \o C o n tem p o ra ry V ie w s on S e l f A c c e p t a n c e an d S e l f A d ju s t m e n t One o f t h e m a jo r p u r p o s e s f o r u s e o f t h e Q - s o r t i s t o m e a s u r e p r o c e s s e s d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e s e l f a c c e p t a n c e and s e l f a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e end t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l may i a d j u s t b e t t e r t o h i s e n v ir o n m e n t . A c c o r d in g t o A l l p o r t , P e r s o n a l i t y i s t h e dynam ic o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h i n | t h e i n d i v i d u a l o f t h o s e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s t h a t ! d e t e r m in e h i s u n iq u e a d j u s t m e n t t o h i s e n v ir o n m e n t . (1 :lj-8) Wrenn s t a t e d t h a t some v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t u s e s f o r th e s e l f c o n c e p t i n c o u n s e l i n g p r a c t i c e a s w e l l a s i n c o u n s e l i n g e v a l u a t i o n h av e b e e n d e m o n s tr a te d ( 1 2 5 ) . He s a i d t h a t t h e r e a p p e a rs t o be " s u b s t a n t i a l p r o o f " t h a t ch an ge i n s e l f a c c e p t a n c e i s accom p an ied by im provem ent i n a d ju s tm e n t o r p e r s o n a l i t y i n t e g r a t i o n . R o g e r s d e c l a r e d : When th e s e l f - s t r u c t u r e c a n a c c e p t and t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e o r g a n ic e x p e r i e n c e s , when th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l sy ste m i s e x p a n s iv e enough t o c o n t a i n them , t h e n c l e a r i n t e g r a t i o n and a s e n s e o f d i r e c t i o n a r e a c h i e v e d , and th e i n d i v i d u a l f e e l s t h a t h i s s t r e n g t h c an b e and i s d i r e c t e d to w a rd t h e c l e a r p u rp o s e o f a c t u a l i z a t i o n and enhancem ent o f a u n i f i e d o rg a n is m . ( 9 2 : 5ll|.) i He b e l i e v e d S h e e r e r 1 s s t u d y was t h e m a jo r s t u d y h a v i n g t o do w i t h a p e r s o n ’ s f e e l i n g s and a t t i t u d e s to w a r d h i m s e l f . R o g e r s su m m arized t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y a s s h o w in g t h a t " t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e ’ a c c e p t a n c e o f s e l f , ' o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d , t o i n c r e a s e d u r i n g t h e r a p y " ( 9 2 : 1 3 8 ) . Raym aker, as a r e s u l t o f h i s d o c t o r a t e s t u d y , c o n c lu d e d t h a t d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e s e l f and i d e a l s e l f c o n c e p ts w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to m a la d ju s tm e n t a s m e a su re d by e i g h t "MMPI s c a l e s 1 ' (85). I t was n o t fo u n d t o be r e l a t e d to m a la d ju s tm e n t as m easured by th e R orschach* As a r e s u l t o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h , B i l l s , V ance, and McLean d e f i n e d p e r s o n a l m a la d ju s tm e n t as any d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw ee n t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e s e l f and th e c o n c e p t o f th e i d e a l s e l f ( 1 1 : 1 3 5 - 3 8 ) . Q -3o r t s a s m ea su re s o f s e l f a c c e p t a n c e . S u b j e c t s and t h e r a p i s t s w ere eac h g i v e n f o u r t e e n Q - s o r ts from v a rio u s s u b j e c t i v e and o b j e c t i v e v ie w p o in ts i n F r i s c h and C r a n s t o n ’s s tu d y ( 3 8 : 1 7 8 - 8 2 ) . The s o r t s were i n t e r r e l a t e d and f a c t o r a n a l y z e d . T h re e f a c t o r s were e x t r a c t e d : (a) s o c i a l a c c e p t a n c e , (b) s t r u g g l e to w a rd p e r s o n a l a c c e p t a n c e , and (c) h o s t i l i t y . They c o n c lu d e d t h a t p a t i e n t s changed from (a) t o (b) d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e r a p y . Q - s o r t s a s m ea su re s o f s e l f a d j u s t m e n t . E m ploying Q - s o r t s , t h e T h em atic A p p e r c e p tio n T e s t , and t h e R o rs c h a c h , C h a d o rk o ff fo u n d t h a t as a d eq u a cy o f a d ju s tm e n t i n c r e a s e d , c o rr e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n th e p e r c e i v e d and i d e a l s e l f a l s o i n c r e a s e d u n t i l a p o i n t was r e a c h e d w here s e l f and i d e a l c o n c e p t co n g ru e n ce d e c r e a s e d ( 2 0 : 2 6 6 - 6 8 ) . He c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e r e was n ot a s t r i c t l y l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a d ju s tm e n t and th e t h r e e i n s t r u m e n t s em ployed. S i x m easures 1 4 - 2 . J o f s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c y w ere i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d by S m ith j I ( 1 0 3 : 1 0 1 - 1 2 ) . He r e p o r t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n s e l f c o n - j c e p t m e a su re s and o t h e r i n d i c e s o f a d j u s t m e n t . He i n t e r - j p r e t e d h i s f i n d i n g s a s i n d i c a t i n g ’’s e n s i b l e p r e d i c t a b l e , c o n n e c ti o n s b etw een t h e s e l f c o n c e p t and o t h e r p s y c h o m e tric ; t e s t m ea su re s o f a d j u s t m e n t . ” S e l f C o n c ep ts S e l e c t e d f o r S tu d y i The m a j o r i t y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e a n d r e s e a r c h on t h e c o n c e p ts o f th e s e l f , a s m ea su re d by t h e Q - s o r t , was con c e rn e d w i t h t h e s e l f ( r e a l o r p e r c e i v e d ) and t h e s e l f i d e a l c o n c e p t s . D e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e s e term s w ere g i v e n i n C h a p te r I , b u t f o r a more d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t Mowrer (7 8 :3 1 6 -7 5 ) i s recommended. Such w r i t e r s a s C a t t e l l (19 : 65i{.-57) , Murphy ( 8 0 : 5 3 9 ) i and R o gers ( 9 2 , 9 3 ) e a c h h a s g i v e n a r a t i o n a l e t o j u s t i f y th e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e s e l f and t h e s e l f i d e a l c o n c e p ts a s c o n s t r u c t s . T h ere h a s a l s o b e e n a f a i r l y l a r g e amount o f empha s i s , b o t h i n t h e o r y and r e s e a r c h , c o n c e r n i n g f a m i l y i n f l u e n ce s on th e s e l f c o n c e p t. Jung c la im e d t h a t th e p r im o rd ia l image o f th e m o th e r d e te r m in e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l 1 s r e l a t i o n s h ip t o woman, s o c i e t y , and t o th e w o r ld o f f e e l i n g and f a c t ( 8 0 : 1 5 2 ) . The a r c h e t y p e o f t h e f a t h e r d e te r m in e s o u r I | r e l a t i o n s h i p t o man, s p i r i t , la w , s t a t e and t h e ’’dy nam ics" o f n a t u r e . S u l l i v a n s t r e s s e d th e i n f l u e n c e o f f a m i ly f a c t o r s on th e s e l f c o n c e p t ( 1 0 8 : 1 0 ) . He h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t 1 4 - 3 i t h e s e l f i s made up o f r e f l e c t e d a p p r a i s a l s and t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e c h i l d to t h e p a r e n t l i m i t e d t h e c h i l d ' s s e l f a w a re n e ss t o th e c o n c e p ts about h i m s e l f w hich were c o m p a tib le w i t h p a r e n t a l e v a l u a t i o n - Murphy s a i d , "The te n d e n c y t o v a lu e r a t h e r t h a n d i s v a l u e th e s e l f i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h p a r e n t a l a p p r o v a l" (80:5>22) • A s i m i l a r s t a t e m ent was made by J o u r a r d and Remy: " . . . s e l f - a p p r a i s a l s c o - v a r y w i t h a p e r s o n 's p e r c e p t i o n o r b e l i e f c o n c e rn in g h i s p a r e n t s ' a p p r a i s a l o f him" ( 6l : 361+-6 6 ) • Among th e r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s t h a t c o n c e rn th e r e l a t i o n s h ip o f f a m i ly i n f l u e n c e s t o th e s e l f c o n c e p t, th e fo llo w in g were s e l e c t e d f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n . P o r t e r and S ta c e y gav e 21^ g e n e r a l p sy c h o lo g y s t u d e n t s t h e t a s k o f r a t i n g them s e l v e s and a p a r e n t o f t h e i r c h o ic e on t h e G u i l f o r d Zimmerman Temperament S urvey ( 81j.:2ij.3"^8) • They r e p o r t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e m anner i n w hich t h e s t u d e n t s saw th e m se lv e s and t h e i r p a r e n t s . Tatum found t h a t w i t h a h ig h d e g re e o f p a r e n t a c c e p ta n c e t h e r e was a h ig h s e l f a c c e p ta n c e r a t i n g and a h ig h a c c e p ta n c e r a t i n g by p e e r s (113)» H e lp e r c o n c lu d e d , on th e b a s i s o f h i s s t u d y , t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s i d e a l s e l f c o n c e p ts were s i m i l a r t o i d e a l - c h i l d c o n c e p ts b y t h e i r own p a r e n t s as w e l l as p a r e n t s a t l a r g e (ij.9) • I t was n o te d on th e b a s i s o f H e l p e r 's s t u d y t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s and p a r e n t s ' i d e a l s w ere I r e l a t e d . A lth o u g h Combs and Snygg s t a t e d t h a t i t i s fro m yj-i th e f a m i l y t h a t th e c h i l d f i r s t d i f f e r e n t i a t e s g o a l s , b e h a v i o r , t e c h n i q u e s , and v a lu e s , y e t th e y made th e p o i n t t h a t p a r e n t a l g o a ls do not n e c e s s a r i l y d e te rm in e t h o s e o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n : O r d i n a r i l y th e s e l f c o n c e p ts d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b y t h e c h i l d a re a c q u i r e d q u i t e w ith o u t r e g a r d t o p a r e n t a l m o ti v e s • I t som etim es h a p p e n s, f o r exam ple, t h a t p a r e n t s w i t h th e b e s t o f i n t e n t i o n s s e t su c h h ig h g o a ls f o r c h i l d r e n as to g iv e th e c h i l d a f e e l i n g o f i n c a p a c i t y and u n a c c e p t a b i l i t y b e c a u s e , t r y as he may, he c an n e v e r seem to a c h ie v e th e g o a ls h i s p a r e n t s s e t f o r him. I f to o lo n g c o n tin u e d , t h e c h i l d may e v e n t u a l l y r e j e c t h i s f a m i ly and t h e i r v a lu e s c o m p le te l y . (2 3 :1 3 7 -1 ^ 0 ) The S e l f C o n c e p t As I t I s R e l a t e d t o V o c a t i o n a l C h o ic e The s e l f c o n c e p t h as b e e n term ed t h e c o n t r o l l i n g I n f l u e n c e o f a l l o t h e r dynamic t r a i t s ( 1 9 :6 £ ^ - £ 7 )• The a f f e c t o f t h e s e t r a i t s upon v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e h a s b e e n s t u d i e d b y many s p e c i a l i s t s s u c h a s Roe (89# 9 0 , 9 1 ) , F o r e r (3 3 :1 6 1 - 6 6 ) , S e g a l (9 8 ), and H o lla n d ( 5 2 : 3 5 - ^ 5 ) . Sm all d e s ig n e d a s tu d y w hich r e l a t e d p e r s o n a l a d j u s t ment t o r e a l i s m o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e ( 1 0 2 ) . He compared f i f t y w e l l - a d j u s t e d and f i f t y d i s t u r b e d boys b e tw e e n th e ages o f f i f t e e n and n i n e t e e n y e a r s . He m atched t h e s u b j e c t s on a g e , r a c e , r e l i g i o n , and so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . He m easured th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e a l i s m o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e . The b e t t e r a d j u s t e d boys were found t o be more r e a l i s t i c | i n t h e i r c h o i c e s . F in d in g s a ls o i n d i c a t e d d i f f e r e n t ty p e s 1 ™ .......................... o f c h o ic e f a n t a s i e s f o r t h e two g ro u p s . F a n t a s y c h o ic e s o f t h e w e l l - a d j u s t e d h oy s h a d t o do w i t h i n t e r a c t i o n and p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i t h o t h e r s . F a n t a s y c h o i c e s f o r d i s t u r b e d boys were c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a w ith d r a w a l from, t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t. S m all f e l t t h a t d i f f e r e n t ego s t r e n g t h s d e te r m in e d t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , r e a l i t y and f a n t a s y r o l e s i n v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e . S m a ll c o n c lu d e d t h a t a t h e o r y o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e m ust t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t ego s t r e n g t h . He f e l t t h a t b y h o l d i n g ego s t r e n g t h c o n s t a n t , i t would be p o s s i b l e to d e te rm in e th e r e l a t i v e v a lu e o f o t h e r s u c h f a c t o r s a s i n t e r e s t s , a p t i t u d e s and f a m i ly i n f l u e n c e s w i t h more v a l i d i t y . S m a ll f a i l e d t o m a tc h h i s two g ro u p s on two i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s , i n t e l l i g e n c e and e d u c a ti o n . The f i n d i n g s a t t r i b u t e d t o e m o tio n a l d i s t u r b a n c e may have b e e n c a u se d by t h e t e n p o i n t s o f d i f f e r e n c e i n m ea su re d i n t e l l i g e n c e b e tw e e n t h e two g r o u p s . R e is n e r p e rfo rm e d a s t u d y r e c e n t l y t o l e a r n w hat r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d b e tw e e n p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s and a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f c h o i c e . He foun d a low , p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n e m o tio n a l s t a b i l i t y and a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e ( 8 7 ) . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . A f t e r re v ie w in g l i t e r a t u r e on v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e , Heywood s t a t e d t h a t an em erging i n t e r e s t i n o c c u p a t i o n a l jc h o ic e h a s b e e n th e s e l f c o n c e p t t h e o r y ( £ 0 : 9 5 ) . He empha- ; s i z e s t h a t t h e s t u d e n t,fs c o n c e p t o f h i s own p e r s o n i s t h e p r im a r y f a c t o r i n th e c h o ic e o f a jo b . S uper a d v o c a te d t h e g a t h e r i n g of o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n and c o n s c i o u s l y c o n s i d e r i n g i t i n th e l i g h t o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s e l f (111 288)* Roe, a lo n g t h e same l i n e , s t a t e d t h a t s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g and s e l f - a c c e p t a n c e a r e i n f a c t r a t h e r i m p o r t a n t . W ith t h e s e i t i s a r e l a t i v e l y sim p le m a t t e r t o o b t a i n v o c a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n ; w i t h o u t them a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e w o rld i s a n i n a d e q u a t e g u i d e . ( 9 1 : 2 6 7 ) Hoppock i n d i c a t e d t h a t s e l f c o n c e p ts a f f e c t v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s b e c a u s e th e s e l f c o n c e p t i s a sy s te m o f n e e d s . He d e s c r i b e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p ts t o v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e as f o l l o w s : The h e a l t h y w e l l a d j u s t e d c l i e n t who h a s a r e a l i s t i c c o n c e p t o f h i s own a b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s may s e e k a n o c c u p a ti o n a p p r o p r i a t e to them . The p e r s o n w ith a g r a n d i o s e c o n c e p t o f h i m s e l f may choose a n o b j e c t i v e f a r beyond h i s a b i l i t y to o b t a i n . . . . The p e r s o n who f e e l s s e c u r e o n ly when he h as someone e l s e t o t e l l him what to do may l i k e t o t h i n k o f h i m s e l f a s t h e l o y a l , o b e d i e n t , an d t r u s t e d a s s i s t a n t t o someone e l s e whose s t r e n g t h and c o u ra g e and co m petence he a d m ir e s . (5 3 :8 0 ) F a c t o r s o f s e l f e v a l u a t i o n and i n t e l l i g e n c e d e t e r m ine t h e l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e a c c o r d in g to H o lla n d ( 5 2 :3 5 - ^ 5 ) • Among th e s e l f e v a l u a t i o n v a r i a b l e s , he i n c l u d e d t h e s e l f c o n c e p t, s o c io -e c o n o m ic o r i g i n , and t h e n eed f o r s t a t u s and e d u c a t i o n . He f e l t t h a t s e l f know led ge e i t h e r i n c r e a s e d or d e c r e a s e d t h e a c c u ra c y w i t h w hich an i n d i v i d u a l made a v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e . S e l f e v a l u a t i o n e i t h e r f a c i l i t a t e d o r i n h i b i t e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s a b i l i t y t o u se i n f o r m a t i o n . He recommended t h e u s e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , ^7 s o c i a l s t a t u s , and s e l f c o n c e p t m ea su re s as d i s c r i m i n a t o r s of th e l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e . E m p h a sizin g t h e im p o rta n c e o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p t as i t was r e l a t e d t o p e r c e p t i o n i n v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s i t u a t i o n s , R usalem s t a t e d : The s e l f c o n c e p t i s t h e way t h e p e r s o n lo o k s upon h i m s e l f and d e te r m in e s i n p a r t t h e way i n w h ich he lo o k s upon th e w o r ld . . . . I t w i l l no l o n g e r s u f f i c e t o r e f e r a s t u d e n t t o a n o c c u p a t i o n a l l i b r a r y . I t w i l l now b e n e c e s s a r y t o i n c o r p o r a t e o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o t h e c o u n s e l i n g o f t h e w hole p e r s o n . ( 9 ^ :8 5 - 8 6 ) R usalem e m p h asized th e p o i n t t h a t c l i e n t s p e r c e i v e d t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s i n ways c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e i r "fram e o f r e f e r e n c e ," and he s t r e s s e d t h a t such was t r u e when c l i e n t s make v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s . N a h in s k i s t u d i e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e s e l f and t h e s e l f i d e a l c o n c e p ts t o t h e a c c e p ta n c e o r r e j e c t i o n o f v o c a t i o n s (8l:360-61j.) • The s e l f s o r t s o f o f f i c e r s l e a v i n g t h e navy w ere com pared t o t h o s e o f f i c e r s who e l e c t e d to make t h e navy a c a r e e r . N a h in s k i employed t h e s e l f c o n c e p t, t h e i d e a l o f f i c e r c o n c e p t and th e t y p i c a l o f f i c e r c o n c e p t. He c o n c lu d e d t h a t (1) o f f i c e r s l e a v i n g t h e navy p i c t u r e •;hem selves as l e s s l i k e th e i d e a l o r t y p i c a l o f f i c e r t h a n o f f i c e r s r e m a in in g ; ( 2 ) f e e l i n g s o f s e l f a c c e p ta n c e a s r e f l e c t e d i n th e s e l f c o n c e p ts may b e a m ost i m p o r t a n t m easu re o f a d ju s tm e n t . The c h a n g in g s e l f o f t h e a d o l e s c e n t i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y re fle c te d in parental a ttitu d es according to Segal (98:33“ 3$) • Super termed s e l f concepts as learned responses which are the product of so c ia liz a tio n as the individual has learned to in teract with the important forces of h is l i f e . He asserted that the process of vocational choice is one of implementing s e l f concepts which are formulated to a great extent through home influences (110i2ij.9-^3) • Friend and Haggart followed c lie n ts over a period of years at the Family Society of Greater Boston (37)• Eighty r e l i e f cases were rated by three psychologists and vocational counselors on items rela tin g to early l i f e , early jobs, p erson ality patterns, reaction to sp e c ific working condi tio n s, general work c a p a c itie s, and adjustment# They found that low job-adjustment was related to antagonism for the mother. Individuals who had d if f ic u lt y in making decisions had poor adjustment in the home. The S e lf Concept as Related to Certain Career Factors Since the s e l f concept has been termed the central construct in personality theory, as discussed in previous section s of th is chapter, i t seemed advisable to review the lite r a tu r e and research concerning the rela tio n sh ip of s e l f concept to factors important to th is study. S e lf concept and in te llig e n c e . The amount of research dealing d ir e c tly with the relatio n sh ip o f s e lf " " !*9 c o n c e p t t o i n t e l l i g e n c e a p p e a re d r e s t r i c t e d . S p e c i a l i s t s t e n d e d , h ow ev er, t o make i n f e r e n c e s on t h e b a s i s o f r e l a t e d s t u d i e s . I n R o g e r’ s b o o k , C l i e n t - C e n t e r e d T herapy, i t I s p o i n t e d out on t h e b a s i s o f s t u d i e s em ploying p l a y t h e r a p y t h a t " c h i l d r e n have f a r more a b i l i t y t o d e a l w ith th e m s e lv e s and w i t h t h e i r i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a n i s u s u a l l y c r e d i t e d them " f 92:2l|ip*76) • A r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h ic h a c h i l d ’ s s e l f c o n c e p t i n c l u d e s t h e p i c t u r e o f b e in g g e n u i n e l y a c c e p t e d and r e s p e c t e d , " d e s p i t e h i s f a u l t s , seems t o h e lp h i s l a t e n t c a p a c i t y t o become m a n i f e s t . " Combs and Snygg a r e n o t c o n v in c e d t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e i s sim p ly l a t e n t . They r e p o r t e d t h a t " p s y c h o l o g i s t s o f t h i r t y y e a r s ago w ere a lm o s t unanim ous i n d e s c r i b i n g human c a p a c i t i e s a s t h e d i r e c t p r o d u c t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s h e r e d i t y and p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e " ( 2 3 : 2 1 0 - 2 ^ ) . C h i l d r e n w ere th o u g h t t o be b o r n w ith s p e c i f i c p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . " I n m ore r e c e n t y e a r s many p s y c h o l o g i s t s have come t o h ave g ra v e d o u b ts a b o u t t h i s f a t a l i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f human a b i l i t i e s . " They r e p o r t e d t h e i n t e l l i gence h a s b e e n fo u n d t o change p o s i t i v e l y f o l l o w i n g p l a y t h e r a p y and n e g a t i v e l y w i t h lo n g p e r i o d s o f r e s t r i c t e d e n v iro n m e n t. A c c o rd in g to Combs and Snygg, " i n t e l l i g e n c e r e f e r s to t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f an i n d i v i d u a l ’ s b e h a v i o r . " W hether o r n o t b e h a v i o r , w h ich e f f e c t i v e l y s a t i s f i e s t h e need o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i e t y , c a n o c c u r d e pend s upon t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s he can make I n h i s p e r c e p t u a l 5o f i e l d # P e r c e p t u a l f i e l d was d e f i n e d a s “ t h e u n i v e r s e o f e x p e r i e n c e o p en t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l a t th e moment o f b e h a v i o r . " To i l l u s t r a t e t h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p t and o t h e r f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h e y c o n c l u d e d : G iv e n a h e a l t h y p h y s i c a l o r g a n is m t o p r o v i d e t h e v e h i c l e f o r p e r c e p t i o n , enough t i m e , a s t i m u l a t i n g e n v ir o n m e n t , c h a l l e n g i n g and f r u i t f u l p r o b le m s , and a n o n - r e s t r i c t i v e s e l f c o n c e p t , t h e r e seem s no end t o t h e p e r c e p t i o n s p o s s i b l e t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l # S e l f c o n c e p t and a c h i e v e m e n t . S c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t h a s r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n by a g r e a t many r e s e a r c h e r s . I t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e s e l f c o n c e p t h a s o f t e n b e e n d i s c u s s e d and s t u d i e d . L eck y s t a t e d t h a t l e a r n i n g i s a p r o c e s s o f r e j e c t i o n or a c c e p t a n c e o f i d e a s c o n s i s t e n t or i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e s e l f c o n c e p t . He f e l t t h a t when a n I n d i v i d u a l d i d n o t a c h i e v e , i t was s i m p l y b e c a u s e i t w ould be i n c o n s i s t e n t f o r him to a c h i e v e . A c c o r d in g t o L e c k y , a c h i l d who s e e s h i m s e l f a s a p o o r l e a r n e r , a s a r e s u l t o f p a r e n t i n f l u e n c e , and h o ld s t h i s c o n c e p t when he g o e s t o s c h o o l , h e I s r e s t r a i n e d b y t h e p i c t u r e h e h a s o f h i m s e l f a s a n o n l e a r n e r . He m ust b e f a i t h f u l t o t h i s p i c t u r e o f h i m s e l f o r b e f a c e d w i t h t h e l o s s o f s e l f h o o d ( 6 8 :1 7 5 - 2 8 6 ) . R o g ers c i t e d a number o f i n c i d e n t s t o I n d i c a t e t h a t w i t h more a d e q u a te s e l f c o n c e p t s , b r o u g h t a b o u t b y s u c c e s s f u l t h e r a p y t h e r e was "im proved s c h o o lw o r k , ch a n g e i n p r e v i o u s d ia g n o sis o f m e n t a l d e f e c t , r e d u c t i o n o f r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t y , " and o t h e r b e h a v i o r a l im provem ents (9 2 :2 3 6 -7 6 )# Combs and Snygg c o n c lu d e d , " C l i n i c a l e x p e r ie n c e h as d e m o n s tra te d f r e q u e n t l y how a changed p e r c e p t i o n o f s e l f as a more a d e q u a te p e r s o n a l i t y c a n f r e e c h i l d r e n f o r im proved s c h o o l p e rfo rm a n c e " ( 2 3 : 22f>)# Q - s o r t s have b e e n employed t o l e a r n w hat r e l a t i o n s h ip s e x i s t b e tw ee n th e s e l f c o n ce p t and s c h o o l a c h i e v e ment# For exam ple, S e a rs d i s c o v e r e d t h a t a low d is c re p a n c y b e tw e e n s e l f and s e l f i d e a l c o n c e p ts was r e l a t e d t o c o n f i d e n c e , good b e h a v i o r , and h ig h a ch iev e m e n t ( 9 7 : 3 H “ 3 6 )# B u t l e r co n clu d ed on t h e b a s i s of h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t "among b oy s, the d e c r e a s in g g r a d i e n t o f ach iev em en t seemed t o be r e l a t e d to a d e c r e a s i n g g r a d i e n t o f s e l f c o n c e p t and a d ju s tm e n t" (17:22lj.). C h ic k e r in g a l s o a d m i n i s t e r e d Q-sorfcs t o o b t a i n d is c r e p a n c y s c o r e s b etw een th e s e l f and t h e ideaL co n ce p ts# He c o r r e l a t e d th e d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e s w i t h ach iev em en t s c o r e s . He fou nd t h a t a low s e l f - i d e a l d i s c re p a n c y was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o academ ic a ch iev em en t (21). S e l f c o n ce p t and so c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l . A number o f s t u d i e s have b een c i t e d w hich h av e i n d i c a t e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f th e f a m ily on th e s e l f - c o n c e p t . (ij.9:l 8l}.-9 4 J 8 0 :f>2 2 ; 1 0 8 : 1 0 ) . Mead s t a t e d t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l form s a s e l f con c e p t "from s o c i a l com m unications from s o c i a l g r o u p s " ( 7 6 : 171)# S t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d a h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n betw een t h e 52; a c t u a l s e l f c o n c e p t and th e s o c i a l s e l f , an example was M a t i r e ’ s r e s e a r c h ( 7ips 288— 91) * Levy had s u b j e c t s do Q ,-sorts t o r e p r e s e n t a c t u a l s e l f and i d e a l s e l f c o n c e p ts . He employed s e l f - r e f e r e n t ite m s and home-town r e f e r e n t ite m s . He r e p o r t e d a c o r r e l a t i o n o f .7 0 b e tw ee n t h e tw o s e t s o f ite m s ( 7 0 :3 9 6 - 9 8 ). I t may be c o n c lu d e d t h a t s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s o t h e r t h a n f a m i ly i n f l u e n c e s a f f e c t t h e s e l f c o n c e p t. Hawk s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t o f s o c i a l c l a s s on t h e s e l f c o n c e p t (ip8 ) • He u se d Q - s o r ts to o b t a i n s e l f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f 123 a d o l e s c e n t boys and g i r l s . They were c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e s o c i a l c l a s s e s , u p p e r, m id d le , and lo w e r. He c o n c lu d e d t h a t (1) s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e l f c o n c e p ts e x i s t e d b e tw ee n s o c i a l c l a s s g r o u p s ; ( 2 ) e x p e r ie n c e s as a boy or g i r l and i n p e e r a f f i l i a t i o n m o dify s e l f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ; and ( 3 ) s e l f c o n c e p ts depend on t h e s o c i a l c l a s s to w hich an i n d i v i d u a l b e lo n g s . Summary The re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e was c o n d u c te d i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e p u rp o se o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w hich was b a s e d on th e h y p o th e s is t h a t s e l f c o n c e p t m easu res c a n be u s e f u l i n v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e . The c a r d i n a l im p o rta n c e of th e s e l f as a u n if y in g c o n c e p t o f p e r s o n a l i t y was e s t a b l i s h e d and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e views o f t h e s e l f were r e c o r d e d w ith o u t c r i t i c a l comment. The m e r i t s o f th e Q -te c h n iq u e a s an a p p r o p r i a t e means w i t h w hich t o m easure s e l f c o n c e p t was s u b s t a n t i a t e d by th e o r y and r e s e a r c h * Both th e s t r e n g t h s and th e w e ak n e sses o f th e t e c h n iq u e were d i s c u s s e d . S e l e c t e d t h e o r i e s and r e s e a r c h e s d e p i c t i n g th e u se s t o w h ic h s e l f c o n ce p t m easu res may be p u t w ere exam ined. C ontem porary view s c o n c e rn in g th e e x c e ll e n c e o f th e Q - s o r t as an in s tr u m e n t w i t h w hich to m easure s e l f a d ju s tm e n t w ere g iv e n and s u p p o r te d by p e r t i n e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . J u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e s e l f c o n c e p ts employed i n th e p r e s e n t stu d y was f o r m u la te d and docum ented w i t h c u r r e n t t h i n k i n g and i n v e s t i g a t i o n by s p e c i a l i s t s . I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e o r e t i c a l view s and r e s e a r c h were c i t e d s t r e s s i n g i n t e r e s t and c o n c e rn w ith th e r e l a t i o n s h i p of a d ju s tm e n t as m easured by s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s to an i n d i v i d u a l ' s (a) a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p r i a t e c h o ic e s , (b) i n t e l l i g e n c e , (c) sc h o o l a c h i e v e m ent, and (d) so c io -ec o n o m ic s t a t u s . CHAPTER I I I THE DESIGN OP THE RESEARCH A p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e l i t e r a t u r e an d r e s e a r c h on s e l f c o n c e p t wa3 made i n C h a p te r I I t o s e r v e a s a b a c k g ro u n d f o r a d e q u a te u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e s e a r c h d e s i g n . P r o c e d u r e and m eth o d o lo g y a r e r e p o r t e d I n t h i s c h a p t e r I n t h e f o l l o w i n g o r d e r : ( 1 ) c h o ic e o f t h e sa m p le ; ( 2 ) th e e x p e r i m e n t a l Q - s o r t ; (3 ) s e l e c t i n g s e l f c o n c e p ts f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; (I4 .) o b t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n ; ( 5>) c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e ; ( 6 ) s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e s t u d e n t s 1 v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s ; ( 7 ) d e v elo p m e n t o f a r a t i n g s c a l e ; ( 8 ) m ethod o f p r o c e d u r e ; ( 9 ) t r e a t m e n t o f t h e d a t a ; and {1 0 ) summary. C h o ic e o f th e Sample S e l e c t i o n o f s c h o o l s . E i g h t e e n ran d o m ly s e l e c t e d :Los A n g e le s C ounty s c h o o ls h a d b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e mean so c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l o f t h e s t u d e n t s . W arn er, M eeker, and E e l l s (122) c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o f a t h e r ^ o c c u p a ti o n was em ployed. The t h r e e s c h o o l s w ere s e l e c t e d w hich r e p r e s e n t e d th e h i g h e s t , th e l o w e s t , and th e c l o s e s t s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l to t h e m ed ian . I n a s much a s a b i l i t y and a c h ie v e m e n t a r e r e l a t e d t o s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , i t was f e l t t h a t a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f s c h o o l s a c c o r d i n g t o so c io - e c o n o m ic l e v e l w ould g iv e an a d e q u a te r a n g e o f c o n - j ! t i n u o u s d a t a on t h e t h r e e v a r i a b l e s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e s t u d y .: S e l e c t i o n o f c l a s s e s . A l l boys e n r o l l e d i n t h e s e n i o r p ro b le m s c l a s s e s w here v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e was o f f e r e d i n th e t h r e e s c h o o ls w ere o r i g i n a l l y i n c l u d e d i n t h e sa m p le . Those boys who w ere a b s e n t when t h e Q - s o r t s w ere a d m i n i s t e r e d w ere d ro p p e d from t h e sa m p le . S t u d e n t s j w ere a l s o e l i m i n a t e d i f i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e i r c u m u la tiv e r e c o r d f o l d e r was in a d e q u a t e to s e r v e as a b a s i s f o r ju d g e s ' r a t i n g s . I n a s much a s i t i s t h e g e n e r a l p o l i c y i n Los A n g e le s C ounty s c h o o ls t o p l a c e s t u d e n t s w i t h I .Q . s c o r e s below 75 i n s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n c l a s s e s f o r th e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d , s t u d e n t s w i t h no I . Q . s c o r e s r e c o r d e d above 75 w ere n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e f i n d i n g s . S e l e c t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t s . H ig h s c h o o l s e n i o r s w ere ; c h o se n a s s u b j e c t s f o r th e s tu d y f o r a number o f r e a s o n s . | The t w e l f t h g r a d e i s th e g r a d e i n w h ich th e g r e a t e s t number; o f s t u d e n t s a r e f a c e d w i t h o c c u p a t i o n a l c a r e e r s e l e c t i o n . ; T h e re i s g e n e r a l ag re em e n t i n th e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s a r e more s t a b l e a t t h e t w e l f t h g r a d e t h a n a t a n y j g r a d e p r e c e d i n g i t . The c h o ic e s a r e a l s o more d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to f u t u r e em ploym ent. C a t t e l l e x p l a i n e d t h a t w i t h th e p a s s a g e o f tim e and w i t h n o rm al d e v e lo p m e n t, t h e r e a l and i d e a l s e l v e s become more i n t e g r a t e d and s t a b l e ( I 9 : 6j?6 - 57). 56 The r e s e a r c h was l i m i t e d t o m a le s . S t u d i e s on i n v e n t o r i e d i n t e r e s t s have r e v e a l e d su c h b ro ad s e x d i f f e r e n ce s t h a t b o th male and fe m a le norms a re i n c l u d e d . S t u d i e s a l s o i n d i c a t e s i g n i f i c a n t se x d i f f e r e n c e s i n v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s (6 9 )• The f i n a l sam ple c o n s i s t e d o f 195 b o y s . P i f t y - o n e : were fro m th e u p p e r so c io -e c o n o m ic g ro u p , s e v e n t y - s i x were fro m th e m iddle g ro u p , and s i x t y - e i g h t were fro m th e lo w e r ; g r o u p . The E x p e r im e n ta l Q - s o r t G uidance, u s i n g su c h t r a i t s and f a c t o r s as a b i l i t y , i n t e r e s t , so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , an d so f o r t h , h as p ro v e d l i m i t e d i n i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s . I n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t a n d e x p e r im e n ta tio n a t t e m p t i n g t o in v o lv e t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f c o n c e p ts i n th e c o u n s e lin g program have been a p p a r e n t i n r e c e n t y e a r s . By l e a r n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f v a r io u s t r a i t s and f a c t o r s ( a l r e a d y i n u s e i n s c h o o l g u id a n c e c e n t e r s ) t o th e t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y a s m easured by th e s e l f c o n c e p t, g u id a n c e p e r s o n n e l may b e t t e r be a b le t o p r e d i c t s t u d e n t s ' b e h a v io r an d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s t u d e n t d e c i - 1 3i o n s . | i j The m ajor c o n cern of th e p r e s e n t s tu d y was to employ a m easure w ith enough o b j e c t i v i t y t o a s c e r t a i n s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een s e l f c o n c e p ts and b o t h 57 ' c a r e e r c h o ic e s and t r a i t s and f a c t o r s u se d i n v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lin g * The u s e o f Q - s o r t h a s b e e n foun d t o be e s p e c i a l l y a d a p t a b l e t o a s tu d y of th e s e l f c o n c e p t by su c h s p e c i a l i s t s as C ronbach (2ij.:377)» S te p h e n s o n ( 1 0 5 : 2 1 4.2- 7 2 ) , R ogers (9 3 * 5 5 -1 0 8 ), and Kenny (61j.:3l6). T e c h n iq u e o f Q - s o r t i n g . The Q - s o r t i s p e rfo rm e d by a n i n d i v i d u a l s o r t i n g s t a t e m e n t s i n t o a f o r c e d n orm al d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s e v e r a l p i l e s , u s u a l l y s e v e n , n i n e , o r e l e v e n . The s t a t e m e n t s w hich t h e i n d i v i d u a l f e e l s a r e m ost r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a g i v e n s e l f c o n c e p t a r e p l a c e d i n t h e p i l e s a t one end o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h o s e l e a s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a t th e o t h e r end. Those s t a t e m e n t s w h ic h a r e l e s s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a r e p la c e d i n t h e m id d le p i l e s . C ronbach e v a l u a t e d th e p ro c e d u re as b e in g b o t h p r a c t i c a l and f r e q u e n t l y a p p r o p r i a t e ( 2l}.:3 7 8 ) . The c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e Q - s o r t . The Q - s o r t em ployed i n t h i s s tu d y was c o n s t r u c t e d b y Jo h n B u t l e r and was d e s c r i b e d i n h i s d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n ( 1 7 : 6 6 - 7 0 ) . A p o p u l a t i o n o f ljIfOO m e n ta l h e a l t h o r a d ju s tm e n t s t a t e m e n t s , h a l f o f w hich w ere " f a v o r a b l e " and h a l f " u n f a v o r a b l e , " were a c c u m u la te d fro m s t a n d a r d i z e d g ro u p i n v e n t o r i e s com monly u se d i n p u b l i c s c h o o l s . A h ig h s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r - p s y c h o l o g i s t , a d i s t r i c t p s y c h o m e t r i s t , and a d i s t r i c t p s y c h o l o g i s t exam ined t h e s t a t e m e n t s f o r m e n ta l h e a l t h c o n t e n t and re d u c e d t h e number t o 1 ,2 0 0 s t a t e m e n t s . The se c o n d s t e p of c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f random ly s e l e c t i n g e v e ry t h i r d s t a t e m e n t . The two s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s t h e n made i a p r e l i m i n a r y s o r t o f t h e s e s t a te m e n t s i n t o e le v e n p i l e s a lo n g a co ntin uum fro m th o s e w hich e x p r e s s e d th e " b e s t c o n c e p t o f s e l f " t o t h e " p o o r e s t c o n c e p t o f s e l f . " The c r i t e r i a f o r ite m s e l e c t i o n w ere recommended by T h u rs to n e i a nd Chaves (1 1 7 :2 2 -3 0 ) and A n a s t a s i ( 5 : 1 2 2 - 2 8 ) . B u t l e r u s e s th e f o l lo w in g : 1 . S ta te m e n ts s h o u ld be as b r i e f as p o s s i b l e so a s n o t t o f a t i g u e t h e s u b j e c t s who h av e t o r e a d them . 2 . S ta te m e n ts s h o u ld be e a s i l y r e a d a b l e and u n d e r s t a n d a b l e so t h a t th e s u b j e c t s have l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y i n r e s p o n d in g t o them . 3 . S ta te m e n ts s h o u ld be such t h a t th e d e g re e o f a c c e p ta n c e o r r e j e c t i o n o f them i n d i c a t e s so m eth in g d e f i n i t e a b o u t th e s u b j e c t 1 s o p in io n o f t h e good ness o r p o o rn e s s o f h i s s e l f - c o n c e p t . I}.. D o u b l e - b a r r e l l e d s t a te m e n ts s h o u ld be e l i m i n a t e d s i n c e t h e y te n d t o have a h i g h a m b ig u ity . 5 . S ta te m e n ts show ing b i a s , i r r e l e v a n c e , t h r e a t , or d u p l i c a t i o n s h o u ld be e x c lu d e d . ( 1 7 : 6 8- 9 ) Prom an in f o r m a l p i l o t s tu d y made by th e w r i t e r b e f o r e th e Q - s o r t was s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s s t u d y , i t was foun d t h a t th e s ta te m e n t s conform ed to .C ro n b a c h * s c r i t e r i a f o r ite m s e l e c t i o n t o be u s e d i n Q - s o r t s . C ronbach s u g g e s te d t h a t u n t i l t h e p ro b lem o f ite m s e l e c t i o n c an be f u r t h e r p e n e t r a t e d , t h e f o l lo w in g c r i t e r i a c o u ld be u se d : ( a ) s t a te m e n t s s h o u ld r e p r e s e n t a l a r g e number o f c o n tin u a w h ile l o g i c a l l y b e a r i n g on th e same dom ain; (b ) s t a te m e n t s b e in g compared s h o u ld have a b o u t th e same d e g re e o f d e s i r a b i l i t y ; and (c) e a c h s t a te m e n t s h o u ld have enough v a r i ance so t h a t d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s p u t i t i n d i f f e r e n t p i l e s ( 2i | : 380) . F u r t h e r s c r e e n i n g re d u c e d th e number t o 1^0 s t a t e m ents w hich were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e t o t a l ra n g e of s t a t e m e n t s . Twenty r e p u t a b l e p s y c h o l o g i s t s were engaged i n t h e f i n a l r a t i n g o f th e s t a t e m e n t s . Each s ta te m e n t was ; g iv e n a s c a l e v a lu e by th e ju d g e s a lo n g a co n tin u u m r a n g in g fro m " b e s t c o n ce p t of s e l f " t o " p o o r e s t c o n c e p t o f s e l f , " Item s w ith to o g r e a t a v a r i a b i l i t y o f r a t i n g were e x c lu d e d . The e q u a l - a p p e a r i n g e l e v e n - i n t e r v a l s c a l e was th e n c o n v e r t ed t o an e q u a l - a p p e a r i n g s e v e n - i n t e r v a l s c a l e by th e sim ple p r o c e s s of d i v i d i n g th e fo rm er by th e l a t t e r . The sev en p o i n t co ntinuu m p ro c e e d e d fro m th e most d e s i r a b l e t o th e l e a s t d e s i r a b l e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p t i n th e f o l lo w in g -fixed m anner; Number of S ta te m e n ts ; 2 6 9 16 9 6 2 S c a le Value ; 1 2 3 I4 . 5 & 7 Continuum ; Most d e s i r a b l e - L e a s t desirable F i f t y s ta te m e n t s w hich were e q u a l l y sp a c e d by th e j ju d g es a lo n g t h e co n tin u u m were s e l e c t e d f o r u s e . T hese i s ta te m e n t s a re i n c l u d e d i n A ppendix A, R e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f t h e Q - s o r t . — The Q - s o r t was a d m in is te r e d t o a gro u p o f s i x t y s t u d e n t s and re a d m in i s t e r e d a month l a t e r . The Q - c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e l i a b i l i t y , 6o w h ich was b a s e d on th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw ee n th e p la c e m e n t o f th e s t a t e m e n t s on t h e f i r s t and se co n d s o r t i n g o f th e S e l f s o r t , was . 7 1 4-. The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n was 2.0lj.. A lth o u g h t h e r e l i a b i l i t y a p p e a re d t o be r a t h e r m o d est, i t was b e l i e v e d t o r e f l e c t b o t h e r r o r v a r i a n c e and th e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s t h a t o c c u r i n c o n n e c ti o n w ith i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s e l f . The r e l i a b i l i t y was co m p arab le to th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e one h u n d re d s t a te m e n t Q - s o r t r e p o r t e d by B u t l e r and H a ig h (18) and was h i g h e r t h a n w e l l known p e r s o n a l i t y i n v e n t o r i e s su c h a s th e M in n eso ta M u lt ip h a s i c P e r s o n a l i t y I n v e n t o r y as r e p o r t e d by G i l l i l a n d and C o lg in . They fo u n d a mean r e l i a b i l i t y on th e v a r i o u s s u b - t e s t s o f .6 1 (lj.2 :i|3 £ - 3 8 ) . L i t t l e has b e e n 3a i d a b o u t v a l i d i t y of Q - s o r t s . Combs and Snygg, how ever, d i s c u s s th e f a c t o r s t h a t a r e im p o r ta n t t o v a l i d i t y { 23 :1{1|.0-I|.2). R ogers and Dymond h av e term ed th e Q -te c h n iq u e a s a n I n t r i c a t e web o f I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s w hich o f f e r a v a l i d and p r o m is in g a p p ro a c h ( 9 3 :2 8 7 ) . O b ta in in g I n f o r m a t io n The o b j e c t i v e o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y was t o l e a r n th e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t e x i s t s b etw een a s t u d e n t ’ s s e l f c o n c e p ts 6 i and h i s v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s . T h is p a p e r was c o n c e rn e d w i t h r e p o r t i n g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s e l f c o n c e p ts and c e r t a i n v a r i a b l e s em ployed by s c h o o l g u id a n c e p e r s o n n e l i n v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lin g * T h ese v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e i n t e l l i g e n c e , so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , and s c h o o l a c h iev e m e n t* D ata on t h e above m en tio n ed v a r i a b l e s w ere o b t a i n e d by e x am in in g t h e s t u d e n t s ’ c u m u la tiv e r e c o r d f o l d e r s and r e c o r d i n g p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n on a S tu d e n t I n f o r m a t i o n S h e e t , a copy of w hich i s fo u n d i n A ppendix C. A S tu d e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e On C a r e e r C h o ice was a d m i n i s t e r e d t o e a c h s t u d e n t p a r t i c i p a n t , and a sam ple copy i s l o c a t e d i n A ppendix B. P r i o r t o th e c o l l e c t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n , p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s w ere h e ld w i t h th e v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g s p e - j c i a l i s t s who s e r v e d as ju d g e s f o r r a t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e . The ty p e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a g r e e d upon as n e c e s s a r y to s e r v e as a b a s i s f o r m aking a d e q u a te ju d g m ents w ere i n c l u d e d on t h e S tu d e n t I n f o r m a t i o n S h e e t o r t h e S tu d e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e On C a re e r C h o ic e . I n t e l l i g e n c e . I n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s were p r o c u r e d f o r eac h s t u d e n t fro m h i s c u m u la tiv e r e c o r d f o l d e r . The h i g h e s t i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e r e c o r d e d a f t e r th e t h i r d g ra d e was employed i n t h e e x p e rim e n t. I n f i f t e e n c a s e s w here I . Q . s c o r e s were n o t r e c o r d e d , t h e ju d g e s used a p t i t u d e t e s t s t o d e te rm in e th e s t u d e n t s ' a b i l i t y l e v e l s . When 62 i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s were r e l a t e d t o o t h e r d a t a employed i n th e s tu d y , th e f i f t e e n c a s e s were e x c lu d e d . The I .Q , s c o r e s o f a l l th e s t u d e n t s were ra n k e d t o p r o v id e c o n t i n u ous d a ta f o r p u rp o s e s o f r e l a t i n g them w ith o t h e r v a r i a b l e s by means o f t h e t e t r a c h o r l c c o r r e l a t i o n . T e s t s f o r s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e were made by c o n f u t i n g t h e C h i-s q u a re and s u b s t i t u t i n g i t i n t o G u i l f o r d 's t a b l e of C h i-s q u a re (Lj.£:£l|.0 ) . S ch o o l a c h ie v e m e n t. The l a t e s t t o t a l h i g h s c h o o l a ch iev e m e n t t e s t b a t t e r y s c o r e f o r e a c h s t u d e n t was em p lo y e d in t h e s t u d y . S c o re s w ere r e c o r d e d a c c o r d in g t o th e y e a r s and months o v e r o r u n d e r g r a d e - l e v e l a ch iev e m e n t norm s. I n f i f t e e n c a s e s , where a ch iev e m e n t s c o r e s were n o t r e c o r d e d , th e ju d g e s employed s c h o o l g ra d e s and o t h e r i n f o r m a ti o n fo u n d i n th e s t u d e n t s ' f o l d e r s t o d e te rm in e a ch iev em en t l e v e l . W ien ach iev em en t s c o r e s were r e l a t e d t o o t h e r d a ta u se d i n th e s tu d y , th e f i f t e e n c a se s were e x c lu d e d . School ach iev e m e n t s c o r e s f o r a l l s t u d e n t s were ra n k e d f o r c o n v en ien ce o f s t a t i s t i c a l c o m p u ta tio n . j i S ocioeconom ic s t a t u s . E ach s t u d e n t was a sk e d t o ’ ' ” * 1 s t a t e h i s f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n i n v e r y s p e c i f i c te r m s . j i They w ere t o l i s t exam ples of common d a i l y t a s k s upon th e j S tu d e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e on C a re e r C h o ice . Em ploying W arner, Meeker, and E e l l 's (122) s c a l e f o r r a t i n g so c io ec o n o m ic s t a t u s o f t h e f a m i ly a c c o r d in g t o t h e f a t h e r ’ s o c c u p a t i o n , th e so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s o f eac h s t u d e n t was r a t e d from l e v e l s one to seven* I n s e v e n c a s e s s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l was n o t r a t e d * When s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s w ere r e l a t e d t o o t h e r d a ta employed i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e s e v e n c a s e s w ere e x c lu d e d from th e sample* R a tin g s w ere th e n r a n k e d a lo n g a se v e n p o in t continuu m r a n g in g fro m h ig h t o low c l a s s i f i c a t i ons* C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f V o c a t i o n a l C h o ice One of th e m a jo r c o n c e rn s o f t h i s s tu d y was t o o b ta in a r a t i n g o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e w hich c o u ld be r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o th e s e l f c o n c e p t as m e a su re d by t h e Q - s o r t . A number o f s t u d i e s c o n c e rn in g r e a l i s m o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e h av e b e e n weakened by u se o f s c a l e s w h ich c o u ld n o t be e a s i l y employed f o r r a t i n g p u r p o s e s . Rem stad and R o th n ey have d e m o n s tr a te d t h a t r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n o c c u p a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h depended on t h e m ethod u se d i n c l a s s i f y i n g o c c u p a t i o n s (88:ij.65-72) • S u p er s t a t e d t h a t su c h a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as fo u n d i n t h e D i c t i o n a r y o f O c c u p a tio n s T i t l e s i s in a d e q u a t e f o r r e s e a r c h p u rp o s e s s i n c e " d i f f e r e n c e s i n code numbers a r e som etim es p r i m a r i l y d i f f e r e n c e s i n f i e l d and s e c o n d a r i l y d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e v e l , and som etim es t h e y a r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n ty p e s o f e n t e r p r i s e *1 1 He a l s o p o i n t e d o u t t h a t " R o e 's f i e l d and l e v e l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n seems t h e m ost l o g i c a l and p r a c t i c a l l y u s e f u l tw o -d im e n s io n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a v a ila b le '* (111:1^.6, Ij.7)* A lth o u g h Super c l a s s i f i e d o c c u p a tio n s u s in g f i e l d and l e v e l and added a t h i r d d im e n s io n , e n t e r p r i s e , i t was f e l t t h a t s t u d e n t s a t th e h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l would n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e beyond f i e l d and l e v e l o f t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n a l choice# R o e 's two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f o c c u p a tio n s was th u s s e l e c t e d f o r u se i n t h i s s tu d y ( 9 1 : l 5 l ) » A copy i s found i n Appendix C. S ta te m e n ts o f S tu d e n ts* V o c a tio n a l C hoice S p e c i a l i s t s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e fo rm of th e q u e s t i o n i n f l u e n c e s th e d e g re e of r e a l i s m e x p re s s e d i n th e s t u d e n t s ’ v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s . The d e g re e o f r e a l i s m was found t o depend upon w h e th er th e s t u d e n t c o n s i d e r e d th e v o c a t i o n s e l e c t e d to be ( 1 ) p r o b a b l e , ( 2 ) p o s s i b l e , o r (3) m e re ly a f a v o r i t e f a n t a s y , a c c o rd in g to Trow’ s s tu d y (1 1 9 :8 9 -9 3 )# The p r e s e n t s tu d y a tte m p te d to a s c e r t a i n th e s t u d e n t s p r o b a b le c h o ic e r a t h e r t h a n a p o s s i b l e o r a f a n t a s y c h o ic e . The s t u d e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e was d e s ig n e d w ith th e p r o b a b le c h o ic e as th e o b j e c t i v e , and o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n g iv e n t o th e s t u d e n t s em phasized t h e p o i n t . The q u e s t i o n n a i r e and th e o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n s to th e s t u d e n t may be fo u n d i n A ppendix B. Developm ent o f a R a tin g S c a le The u se o f a r a t i n g s c a l e t o i n d i c a t e th e d e g r e e o f . a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e seemed t o b e j u s t i f i e d 6 5 i i ! f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . F i r s t , tlie m a j o r i t y o f r e c e n t s t u d i e s i on v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s have employed su c h 1 a d e v ic e . S e c o n d ly , t h e c l i n i c a l judgm ent ty p e o f a p p ro a c h a p p e a re d to be j u s t i f i e d on th e b a s i s o f th e ‘ c o m p le x ity o f v a r i a b l e s and t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f o b j e c t i v e l y ] w e ig h tin g them i n a g iv e n c a s e . F i n a l l y , r a t i n g s a r e I f u n c t i o n a l l y sound. I n th e s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n a p p r o p r i a t e - , i ; n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e i s u s u a l l y d e te r m in e d by s u b j e c t i v e judgm ent. The u s e o f a f i v e p o i n t r a t i n g s c a l e a f f o r d e d con tin u o u s ty p e d a ta w ith w hich t o r e l a t e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . A f i v e - i n t e r v a l s c a l e a p p e a re d t o be a b a la n c e betw een th e s c a l e s u s e d by c o n te m p o ra ry r e s e a r c h e r s . I t seemed t o o f f e r th e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o t r e a t th e d a t a and, a t th e same tim e , i t was n o t c o n s t r u c t e d so as to " t e a s e o u t" d i f f e r e n c e s n o t r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t i n v o c a t i o n a l a p p ro p r i a t e n e s s . Lockwood I n h i s 1958 s tu d y employed a t e n - p o i n t i n t e r v a l s c a l e b u t re d u c e d i t t o f i v e i n t e r v a l s b e c a u se th e botto m f i v e , c a t e g o r i z i n g u n r e a l i s t i c c h o ic e s , c o n ta in e d su c h a few number o f c a s e s ( ? 2 : 9 8 - 10ij.). A c co rd in g t o th e r a t i o n a l e f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f I o c c u p a tio n s w hich was p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d and a d o p te d f o r u se i n t h i s s t u d y , f i e l d and l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e were r a t e d s e p a r a t e l y by f i v e v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g s p e c i a l i s t s . 66 • Method o f P ro c e d u re A team o f c r e d e n t i a l e d p e r s o n n e l t r a i n e d i n t h e p r o c e d u r a l t e c h n i q u e s o f t h e Q - s o r t a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e Q-sorbs i n e a c h o f t h r e e s e l e c t e d Los A ngeles C ounty h i g h s c h o o ls * T he team a l s o a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e S t u d e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e on C a r e e r C h o ice and g a t h e r e d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e s t u d e n t s ' c u m u la tiv e r e c o r d f o l d e r s . S t a n d a r d i z e d o r a l d i r e c t i o n s w ere g iv e n f o r e a c h o f th e t h r e e Q - s o r t s , a s w e l l as f o r t h e S t u d e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e on C a r e e r Choice* A copy o f a l l i n s t r u c t i o n s i s i n c l u d e d i n A ppendix B* I n c lu d e d i n t h e o r a l I n s t r u c t i o n w ere e x p l a n a t i o n s of t h e p u rp o se o f th e s tu d y and m o t i v a t i o n a l i n c e n t i v e s * A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e Q - s o r t s * E ach s t u d e n t was g i v e n a l a r g e m a n ila f o l d e r . On t h e f o l d e r was th e f o r c e d n o rm al c u rv e d ia g ra m . F i f t y p a p e r c l i p s w ere a t t a c h e d u n d e r w hich c a r d s c o n t a i n i n g t h e s t a t e m e n t s were t o be p l a c e d . The b u n d le o f f i f t y c a r d s i n random o r d e r was s u p p l i e d t o eac h s t u d e n t* A p i c t u r e o f t h e f o l d e r and a copy o f t h e f i f t y s t a t e m e n t s a r e l o c a t e d I n A ppen dix A* E ach s t u d e n t was a sk e d t o a r r a n g e t h e c a r d s a lo n g a c o n tin u u m from t h o s e s t a te m e n t s w hich were m ost d e s c r i p t i v e o f h i s S e l f to th o se s t a t e m e n t s w h ic h w ere l e a s t d e s c r i p t i v e o f h i m s e l f . The S e l f I d e a l and t h e M other I d e a l s o r t s were a d m i n i s t e r e d i n t h e same f a s h i o n . B e fo re each s o r t i n g , t h e c a rd s were s h u f f l e d to i n s u r e a random o r d e r . To e n co u rag e th e s t u d e n t s to e x p re s s t h e i r f e e l in g s h o n e s t l y , a d i s c u s s i o n of th e c o n f i d e n t i a l manner i n w hich t h e d a ta was t o be h a n d le d was g iv e n them. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . F o llo w in g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e Q - s o r t s , t h e s t u d e n t s were r e q u e s t e d to c o m p lete th e S tu d e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e on C a r e e r C h o ic e . S ta n d a r d i z e d o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n s accom panied c e r t a i n o f th e q u e s t i o n s . A copy may be view ed i n A ppendix B. S tu d e n ts were e n co u rag e d t o pose q u e s t io n s to th e r e s e a r c h team f r e e l y . O r i e n t a t i o n o f th e .-judges. The jud ges w ere s u p p l i e d w i t h p r i n t e d i n s t r u c t i o n s t o d i r e c t them i n th e p r o c e d u r e f o r r a t i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e s t u d e n t s ' v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s . A copy of t h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s i s fo und i n A ppendix C. The judges were g i v e n (1) th e S tu d e n t In fo rm a t i o n s h e e t upon w hich was r e c o r d e d p e r t i n e n t d a ta from th e s t u d e n t s ' c u m u la tiv e r e c o r d f o l d e r s ; (2) th e S tu d e n t Q ues t i o n n a i r e on C a re e r C h o ic e ; ( 3 ) R o e 's Two-Way C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of O c c u p a tio n a l C h o ice ; and (ij.) th e R a tin g S h e e t upon w hich to r e c o r d t h e i r ju d g m e n ts, a c c o rd in g to R o e 's tw o- way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of f i e l d and l e v e l . A sam ple o f th e R a tin g S h e e t i s in c l u d e d i n A ppendix C. 68 T re a tm e n t o f Q - s o r t D ata S t a n d a r d i z e d d i r e c t i o n s were g iv e n w i t h th e adm in i s t r a t i o n of e a c h o f t h e Q - s o r t s . Each tim e th e s t u d e n t s w ere r e q u e s t e d t o s o r t th e c a rd s i n su c h a way as t o p o r t r a y a p a r t i c u l a r s e l f c o n c e p t. By com paring th e d i s c r e p a n c y of placem ent o f each s ta te m e n t on any com bina t i o n o f two Q s o r t s , a d is c r e p a n c y f i g u r e was o b t a i n e d . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n numbers w ere a s s i g n e d t o e a c h s t a t e ment p r i o r t o the r e s e a r c h . The numbers w ere p r i n t e d on t h e back of th e o a rd s so t h a t s t u d e n t s would n o t a s s o c i a t e them w ith d e s i r a b i l i t y of th e s t a t e m e n t . O ra l em phasis as t o the random s e l e c t i o n of numbers was a l s o g iv e n . A f t e r each s o r t , th e c a rd s w ere t u r n e d o v e r so t h a t t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n number was up. The numbers w ere t r a n s f e r r e d to a c o rr e s p o n d in g f o r c e d norm al c u rv e on th e Answer S h e e t a f t e r each s o r t . A copy o f th e Answer S h e e t may be foun d i n A ppendix A. L a t e r , a second t r a n s f e r was made o f th e numbers onto a T a l l y S h e e t f o r t h e p u rp o se o f com puting s q u a re d d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e p la c e m e n t o f t h e s t a te m e n ts (s e e A ppendix A). Q - s o r t c o r r e l a t i o n f i g u r e s f o r each c o m b in a tio n o f two s o r t s w ere com puted. Mowrer (7 8 :3 8 1 ) s t a t e d t h a t a lth o u g h c o r r e l a t i o n s c o u ld be o b t a i n e d by any p r o d u c t moment f o r m u la , th e most e f f i c i e n t fo rm u la f o r c a s e s i n I w hich p r o f i l e s have th e same v a r i a t i o n and mean, a s i n 69 t h e f o r c e d s o r t , i s : d 2 Q “ 1 2nVx I n t h i s f o r m u la , d i s th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een t h e s c o r e s on a g iv e n s ta te m e n t f o r th e same i n d i v i d u a l i n r e l a t i o n t o any two s o r t s ; n i s the number o f s t a te m e n ts i n t h e Q - s o r t ; and Vx i s th e o v e r a l l v a r i a n c e f o r any one p e r s o n . The Q - c o r r e l a t i o n f i g u r e was tr a n s f o r m e d t o F i s h e r Z v a lu e s so t h a t th e d a ta c o u ld be t r e a t e d on an e q u a l i n t e r v a l b a s i s . R a tin g s t u d e n t s 1 v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s . Each o f th e f i v e ju dges r a t e d th e i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t on a f i v e - p o i n t i n t e r v a l s c a l e ra n g in g from z e ro t o f o u r . The l e v e l s of a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s w ere d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s : 0 - - A m ost a p p r o p r i a t e c h o ic e 1 — A p p r o p r i a t e , b u t n o t a most a p p r o p r i a t e c h o ic e 2 — Q u e s tio n a b le a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s 3 — I n a p p r o p r i a t e , b u t n o t a m ost i n a p p r o p r i a t e c h o ic e Ij. — A m ost i n a p p r o p r i a t e c h o ic e The r a t i n g s were made on f i e l d and l e v e l o f c h o ic e s e p a r a t e l y . The r a t i n g s o f t h e f i v e judg es f o r a p p r o p r i a te n e s s o f f i e l d w ere summed and d i v i d e d by f i v e to d e te r m in e t h e mean a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s r a t i n g f o r f i e l d o f v o c a t i o n a l j c h o ic e . The same p r o c e s s was r e p e a t e d em ploying l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l ch o ice* B oth f i e l d and l e v e l o f th e second c h o ic e o f a v o c a t i o n were a l s o r a t e d and a t o t a l o r mean a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s s c o r e was found by a v e r a g in g t h e f i v e j u d g e s ’ r a t i n g s . R e tu rn s to t h e s c h o o l s * The r e s e a r c h team r e p o r t e d th e f i n d i n g s o f th e s tu d y t o each c l a s s o f s t u d e n t s . The Q - c o r r e l a t i o n s t o g e t h e r w ith r a t i n g s o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e were g iv e n each s t u d e n t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e judges l i s t e d a few v o c a t i o n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n l i n e w ith th e i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p lie d to them. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e f i n d i n g s was g i v e n to each c l a s s t o g e t h e r w ith c a u t io n s a b o u t th e u se o f t h e f i n d i n g s . A copy of t h e R e p o rt Form i s l o c a t e d i n A ppendix D. A f o llo w - u p stu d y was d is c u s s e d w ith t h e s t u d e n t s , and t h e y a g re e d to p a r t i c i p a t e f r e e l y . Summary The p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p t e r was to r e p o r t th e s o u rc e s and t h e t r e a tm e n t o f d a ta employed i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T w e lf th g ra d e boys from t h r e e h ig h s c h o o ls were g i v e n th e t a s k of s o r t i n g s e l f r e f e r r e n t s ta te m e n t s t h r e e t im e s . The s o r t i n g s , w hich were term ed Q - s o r t s , w ere to r e p r e s e n t a s p e c t s of th e s e l f c o n c e p t ( S e l f , S e l f I d e a l , and Mother I d e a l ) . D is c re p a n c y s c o r e s f o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e placem en t o f s t a te m e n ts f o r eac h c o m b in a tio n of Q - s o r ts were o b ta in e d * The s c o r e s were c o n v e r te d t o F i s h e r Z v a lu e s * T hey were t h e n c o r r e l a t e d w ith r a t i n g s o b t a i n e d from v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lin g s p e c i a l i s t s as t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f th e f i e l d and l e v e l o f th e s t u d e n t s ' o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ic e s* The Q - s o r t v a lu e s were a l s o c o r r e l a t e d w ith i n t e l l i g e n c e , a c h ie v e m e n t, and s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l , w hich were c o n s id e r e d t o be among th e f a c t o r s m ost commonly u se d i n v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lin g * I CHAPTER IV FINDINGS R e l a t i o n s h i p s o f S e l f C oncept D is c r e p a n c i e s to A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f V o c a tio n a l C h o ice s The need to e v a l u a t e v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s a c c o rd in g to th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f f i e l d and l e v e l h as b e e n s i g n a l e d by s p e c i a l i s t s (91 and 1 1 1 ). L i t t l e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c a r r i e d on w hich r e l a t e d a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e t o th e two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of f i e l d and l e v e l . The p r e s e n t s tu d y was an a tte m p t t o c o n t r i b u t e t o an u n d e r s ta n d in g i n t h i s a r e a . Kinnane has i n d i c a t e d t h a t s e l f - c o n c e p t m easures a re more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to r e a l i s m i n v o c a t i o n a l p l a n n in g t h a n a r e p e r s o n a l i t y i n v e n t o r i e d m easu res or m easures s e c u re d from p r o j e c t i v e te c h n iq u e s ( 6£ ) . The u se o f th e Q - s o r t t e c h n iq u e was found by Kenny to be a more a c c u r a t e m easure o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw ee n th e s e l f c o n c e p ts t h a n p e r s o n a l i t y q u e s t i o n n a i r e s o r r a t i n g s c a l e s s i n c e th e Q - s o r t was l e s s a f f e c t e d by s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y ( 6[ p 3l £ - 3l 8 ) • On t h e b a s i s o f su c h r e s e a r c h , th e p r e s e n t s tu d y employed Q - s o r ts t o m easure t h r e e c o n c e p ts o f th e s e l f : (1) th e S e lf, (2) th e S e l f I d e a l , and (3) th e Mother I d e a l . T hese c o n c e p t s were r e l a t e d t o v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s o f h i g h s c h o o l s e n i o r s on R o e 's two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f o c c u p a tio n s a c c o r d in g to f i e l d and l e v e l o f c h o ic e (9 1 :1 ^ 1 ) • S t u d i e s have b e e n f a i r l y l i m i t e d t o a c o n c e rn f o r i i n d i v i d u a l t r a i t s and f a c t o r s as t h e y r e l a t e to a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . Recom mendation by su c h s p e c i a l i s t s as H o lla n d (£2:35>-4£) an^ Lockwood (72:98-10.£) I n d i c a t e a b e l i e f t h a t s t u d i e s sh o u ld be c a r r i e d o u t |d e a l i n g w i t h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f v a r i a b l e s as th e y r e l a t e ■to a p p r o p r i a t e c a r e e r c h o i c e s . F in d in g s i n t h i s p a p e r r e p o r t th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of th e t h r e e s e l f c o n c e p ts s e l e c t e d f o r u se as w e ll a s r e p o r t i n g t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w ith o t h e r v a r i a b l e s commonly used by g u id a n c e w o rk ers as ; a id s i n v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g . I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f th e Q - s o r t D is c r e p a n c ie s B efo re d i s c u s s i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e Q - s o r t v a lu e s w ith a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e , i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f th e t h r e e Q - s o r ts a r e c o n s i d e r e d . C o r r e l a t i o n s betw een t h e Q - s o r ts were o b t a i n e d by com puting th e d i s c r e p a n c y o f th e p lacem en t o f s ta te m e n t s a b o u t o n e s e l f t h a t eac h s t u d e n t made on any c o m b in a tio n o f two Q - s o r t s . The c o r r e l a t i o n , o r l a c k o f d i s c r e p a n c y , b e tw ee n two s o r t s were i n t e r r e l a t e d w ith o t h e r c o m b in a tio n s o f s o r t s and a l s o r e l a t e d t p e x p e r im e n ta l v a r i a b l e s . The Q - c o r r e l a t i o n s o f th e t h r e e p o s s i b l e c o m b in a tio n s o f Q - s o r ts were c o n v e r t e d to F i s h e r Z v a lu e s f o r each s t u d e n t . The Z s c o r e s were ra n k e d on c o n tin u a f o r each Q - s o r t . The r a n k in g s w ere 71,-j s p l i t a t th e m edian and r e l a t e d t o t h e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . The t e t r a c h o r i c c o r r e l a t i o n was u s e d , as d a t a on b o t h X and Y v a r i a b l e s w ere c o n ti n u o u s , and t h e d a t a a p p e a re d to m eet th e a s su m p tio n s u n d e r l y i n g th e t e t r a c h o r i c r as o u t l i n e d by G u i l f o r d ( 1 ^ : 3 0 5 ) . Some o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere ch ec k ed by em ploying t h e P e a rs o n r and w ere fo u n d t o be s u b s t a n t i a l l y th e sam e. C h i - s q u a r e s w ere th e n com p u te d to a s c e r t a i n th e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h ich were d i s c o v e r e d , as was r e p o r t e d i n T ab le 1. When r e l a t i n g th e d is c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e S e l f and th e S e l f I d e a l Q-3o r t s to th e d i s c r e p a n c y b etw een th e S e l f and th e Mother I d e a l Q - s o r t s , a s u b s t a n t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n o f .82 was fo u n d . I t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h r e s e a r c h p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d t o s u g g e s t t h a t i n c r e a s e d s e l f - a d j u s t m e n t i s m easured by i n c r e a s e d c o r r e l a t i o n , o r d e c r e a s e d d i s c re p a n c y , b e tw ee n th e S e l f and S e l f I d e a l c o n c e p ts . On th e b a s i s o f th e h i g h .8 2 c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s o f S e l f - S e l f I d e a l and S e lf- M o th e r I d e a l Q - s o r ts , i t a p p e a re d t h a t t h e r e was a s u b s t a n t i a l o v e r la p i n m easure- ; m e n t. When t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s b etw een t h e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l and th e S e lf- M o th e r I d e a l w ere r e l a t e d to t h e S e l f I d e a l - i M other I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s , much lo w er c o r r e l a t i o n s were fo u n d . A l l t h r e e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n f i g u r e s , how ev er, were I s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . 1 T A B L E 1 IN T E R C O R R E L A T IO N S O F T H E SELF-SELF IDEAL, T H E S E L F -M O T H E R IDEAL, A N D T H E SEL F ID E A L -M O T H E R IDEAL Q -SO R T C O M B IN A T IO N S Q-sort Combinations Self-Mother Ideal Q-sort Values S e lf Ideal-Mother Ideal Q-sort Values S e lf-S e lf Ideal Q-sort values 195 82+ 37+ Self-Mother Ideal Q-sort values 195 31+ N O TEi Q-sort values were computed by the us9 of F isher’s Z. +S ign ifican t at the .01 le v e l of confidence. 0 1 76 R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e Q - s o r t V a lu es to A p p r o p r i a t e " n e s s o f F i e l d o f V o c a tio n a l C hoice I n an a tt e m p t t o f i n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s , a s m easured by th e Q - s o r t s , to t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f c h o ic e o f v o c a t i o n a l f i e l d , th e f i n d in g s were em ployed i n t h r e e w ays. A m edian s p l i t o f t h e d a t a on b o t h th e c r i t e r i o n and th e p r e d i c t i v e v a r i a b l e s was made. T hen a t h r e e - w a y d i v i s i o n o f t h e m ean r a t i n g o f t h e ju d g e s c o n c e r n in g a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f f i e l d was e f f e c t e d . F i n a l l y , t h e p r e d i c t i v e v a r i a b l e s w ere u s e d i n c o m b in a tio n t o d i s c o v e r t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s as a m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t o r . The m edian s p l i t . The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e d i s c re p a n c y o f t h e t h r e e Q - s o r t c o m b in a tio n s t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of f i e l d of v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e , as r e p o r t e d i n T a b le 2, was no g r e a t e r th a n c o u ld be e x p e c te d by c h a n c e . C o r r e l a t i o n s b etw een t h e Q - s o r t v a lu e s a n d a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f f i e l d , u s i n g th e d e s i g n a t e d sa m p le s, a r e r e p o r t e d i n T ab le 2 . E m ploying s t u d e n t s w i t h below m edian i n t e l l i g e n c e , below m edian a c h ie v e m e n t, a n d w i t h low s o c io -j econom ic l e v e l s w ith one e x c e p t i o n , e a c h c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h i th e Q - s o r t c o m b in a tio n s was low a n d n e g a t i v e . O n ly when th e low i n t e l l i g e n c e g ro up was em ployed was t h e r e a p o s i - . t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n , .0 7 , w i t h S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l Q - s o r t . The c o r r e l a t i o n was to o low t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . T A B L E 2 CO RRELA TIO N C F Q-30RT V A LU ES W ITH APPROPRIATENESS OF T H E FIELD OF V O C A TIO N A L CHOICE E M PLOYING DESIGNATED SA M PLES F ie ld A ppropriateness Employing Designated Samples Number S e lf-S e lf Id e a l Q -sort Values Self-M other Id e a l Q -sort Values S e lf - Ideal-M other Id e a l Q -sort Values Below median i n t e l l i gence 92 -.0 ^ .07 -.0 5 Below median achieve ment 9 1 -.1 1 -.21* -.1 1 Socio-economic le v e ls 1 *3 $ , 6, and 7 H iS CO o . t -.1 0 -.01* T otal Sample 1 9 $ -.1 2 -.1 2 -.0 6 NOTE: None o f the above c o rre la tio n s was s ig n ific a n t as te s te d by th e Chi square. Q -sort values were computed by th e use o f F is h e r’s Z. -a I t a p p e a re d on t h e b a s i s o f th e d a t a d i s c u s s e d t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f f i e l d c h o ic e s was n o t m e a s u r a b le by e m p lo y in g Q - s o r t d i s c r e p a n c i e s when th e d e s i g n a t e d sam ples were u s e d . T h ree-w ay s p l i t . A c o m p a riso n o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n s b etw een e a c h o f the t h r e e Q - s o r t c o m b in a tio n s and t h e means o f th e ju d g e s ' r a t i n g s f o r f i e l d a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s was made u s i n g a th r e e - w a y s p l i t o f th e r a t i n g s . The c o m p a riso n i s p r e s e n t e d i n T able 3 . S tu d e n t f i e l d c h o ic e s h a v in g a mean a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s r a t i n g no more t h a n one c a t e g o r y away fro m a m ost a p p r o p r i a t e r a t i n g on a f i v e p o i n t r a t i n g s c a l e w ere c l a s s i f i e d a s "m ost a p p r o p r i a t e . " C h o ices h a v in g m ean a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s r a t i n g s b e tw e e n one and two c a t e g o r i e s away fro m a most a p p r o p r i a t e r a t i n g w ere te rm e d " a p p r o p r i a t e b u t n o t most a p p r o p r i a t e . " Those c h o ic e s w hich w ere a s s i g n e d m ean r a t i n g s o f two o r more c a t e g o r i e s away fro m a m ost a p p r o p r i a t e r a t i n g were te rm e d " q u e s t i o n a b l e and i n a p p r o p r i a t e . " The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f f i e l d a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s w ere com pared t o t h e t h r e e Q - s o r t d i s c r e p a n c i e s by s p l i t t i n g t h e ra n k e d Q - c o r r e l a t i o n s , w h ich had b e e n c o n v e r t e d t o P i s h e r Z v a l u e s , a t th e m ed ian . The C h i- s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c was t h e n em ployed. C o n s i s t e n t w i t h f i n d i n g s p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ere d i s c o v e r e d b etw een a n y o f | th e s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s and f i e l d a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s ; r a t i n g s a s s i g n e d by th e j u d g e s . T hus, t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s I was n o t r e f u t e d . ! T A B L E 3 CO M PA RISO N OF Q-SORT VALUES A N D APPROPRIATENESS OF FIELD O F V O CA TIO N A L CHOICE EM PLO Y IN G M E A N RATINGS OF THE JUDGES Ratings of F ield Appropriateness S elf-S elf Id ea l Q-sort Values Self-Mother Ideal Q-sort Values S elf Ideal-Mother Id ea l Q-sort Values Below Median Above Median Below Median Above Median Below Median Above Median Most appropriate 56 $1 58 h9 57 50 Appropriate but not most appro p ria te 2h 23 21 26 2k 23 Questionable and inappropriate 18 23 19 22 1 7 2k df 2 2 2 > 87 1.51 2.89 NOTE: None of the above values was s ig n ific a n t, Q-sort values were computed by the use of F ish er’s Z* 80 M u l t i p l e p r e d i c t i o n * V o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l o r s w ould l i k e l y welcom e a means w h ereb y t h e y c o u ld d i s c o v e r t h e ty p e o f i n d i v i d u a l s who w ould make w is e c a r e e r c h o ic e s * C o lle g e g u id a n c e p e r s o n n e l so m etim es u s e a b a t t e r y o f t e s t s t o p r e d i c t a n in co m in g s t u d e n t s c h a n c e s o f g e t t i n g t h r o u g h t h e i r c o lle g e * The p r e s e n t s t u d y em ployed a num ber o f v a r i a b l e s i n much th e same m anner* An a tte m p t was made t o s e e i f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s i n c o m b in a tio n would r e l a t e s u b s t a n t i a l l y b e t t e r t o a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f f i e l d and l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e t h a n w ould an y one v a r i a b l e . The W h e r r y - D o o l i t t l e m ethod o f o b t a i n i n g a m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t i o n f i g u r e was s e l e c t e d f o r use* G u i l f o r d s t a t e d t h a t t h e ’'m ethod was d e s ig n e d t o m eet th e r e q u i r e m e n t o f a s s e m b lin g a b a t t e r y o f t e s t s t o s e l e c t p e r s o n n e l f o r some p a r t i c u l a r a s s ig n m e n t." He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t when a l a r g e num ber o f v a r i a b l e s c a n be u se d f o r p r e d i c t i o n , o n ly f o u r o r f i v e i n c o m b in a tio n a r e u s e f u l , s i n c e a d d in g beyon d t h i s num ber m e re ly c o n t r i b u t e s e r r o r v a r i a n c e t o t h e c o m p o s ite (l^tli-ll). I n p r e d i c t i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e c h o ic e o f v o c a t i o n a l f i e l d , o n ly t h r e e v a r i a b l e s a d d ed s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n . T a b le Ij. r e p o r t s t h e f i n d i n g s . I n t e l l i g e n ce was fo u n d to h a v e t h e g r e a t e s t p r e d i c t i v e p o w e r, f o llo w e d b y s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s and th e S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l Q - s o r t v a l u e s . By s e l e c t i n g t h e b e s t c o m b in a tio n o f 81 TABLE it PREDICTION OF APPROPRIATENESS OF FIELD OF VOCATIONAL CHOICE EM PLOYING A COM BINATION OF PREDICTIVE VARIABLES 1 ! P re d ictiv e Beta M ultiple V ariables Weights C o rrelatio n | ! In te llig e n c e .31 •19 Socio-economic 1 • H •21. S elf Ideal-M other Id ea l Q-sort values 0 H * 1 o2£ NOTE: The Wherry— D o o little method of se le c tin g v a ria b le s fo r m u ltip le p re d ic tio n vzas employed. v a r i a b l e s , o n ly a m o d est m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n o f • 2 $ was fo u n d w ith a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f f i e l d c h o i c e . S in c e t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n added o n ly 3 •2 p e r c e n t to t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f p r e d i c t i o n t h a t m ig h t b e e x p e c te d b y c h a n c e , i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t i o n o f f i e l d o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e em p lo y in g t h e v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s t u d y , was n o t p r a c t i c a l . R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Q - s o r t V a lu e s to A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f L e v e l o f V o c a tio n a l C h o ic e The l e v e l of t h e v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e made b y an i n d i v i d u a l was s t u d i e d s e p a r a t e l y from h i s f i e l d c h o ic e s i n c e r e s e a r c h p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d c o m p a rin g e a c h v a r i a b l e i n t h e tw o-w ay c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t o o t h e r m e a su re s had p o i n t e d to d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e s u l t s . L e v e l o f c h o ic e was com p ared t o t h e s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s , a s m easu red by th e Q - s o r t , i n t h r e e w a y s. F i r s t , th e d a ta o f th e c r i t e r i o n and p r e d i c t i v e v a r i a b l e s w ere s p l i t a t th e m e d ia n . A c o r r e l a t i o n was made and s i g n i f i c a n c e t e s t e d b y em ploying t h e C h i- s q u a re s t a t i s t i c . I n o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r how a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l r e l a t e d to t h e s e l f c o n c e p ts d i s c r e p a n c i e s , r a t i n g s o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e w ere c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e a s p i r a t i o n g r o u p s , o v e r - a s p i r a t i o n , a p p r o p r i a t e a s p i r a t i o n , and u n d e r a s p i r a t i o n . T h ey w ere t h e n com pared by em p lo y in g th e C h i - s q u a r e . F i n a l l y , p r e d i c t i v e v a r i a b l e s w ere com bined i n an a t t e m p t t o d i s c o v e r a u s e f u l m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t o r f o r l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e • The m ed ian s p l i t . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f th e Q - s o r t d i s c r e p a n c i e s t o a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 5* The c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l a n d th e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l Q - s o r t com bina t i o n s w ere n o t r e l a t e d t o l e v e l a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s i n a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t way* The S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l Q - s o r t v a l u e s , h o w e v e r, w ere s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 ^ l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e , when r e l a t e d t o l e v e l a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s u s i n g t h e t o t a l s a m p le . T h ere was a l s o r e l a t i o n s h i p when th e below m edian a c h ie v e m e n t g ro u p an d s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l s f o u r , f i v e , s i x , a n d s e v e n w ere em p lo y ed , b u t th e l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e d id n o t r e a c h .0 £ . I t may be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t by em p lo y in g a s m a l l e r num ber o f c a s e s I n t h e b elo w m edian and th e low s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l g r o u p s , a h i g h e r c o r r e l a t i o n m ust be o b t a i n e d i n o r d e r t o r e a c h s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . The th r e e - w a y s p l i t . A c o m p a ris o n o f th e Q - s o r t d i s c r e p a n c i e s an d t h e mean r a t i n g s on a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f j l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e was made t o d i s c o v e r i f a s p i r a - i t i o n l e v e l was r e l a t e d t o t h e s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s , j C h o ic e s were c a t e g o r i z e d as ’’a p p r o p r i a t e a s p i r a t i o n ” when th e m eans o f t h e j u d g e s 1 r a t i n g s w ere no more t h a n o n e - h a l f l e v e l above o r b elo w t h a t w h ic h t h e ju d g e s te rm e d T A B L E $ CORRELATION OF Q-SORT VALUES T fJIT H APPROPRIATENESS OF LEVEL O F VOCATIONAL CHOICE EM PLO Y IN G DESIGNATED SAM PLES Level Appropriateness Employing Designated Samples Number Self-Self Id ea l Q-sort Values Self-Mother Ideal Q-sort Values Self Ideal-Mother Id eal Q-sort Values Below median i n t e l l i gence 92 -.20 CM i - i • 1 . m Belov/ median achieve ment 9 1 -oil .21 .21* Socio-economic le v e ls k 3 $3 6, 7 -.oU -.06 CM CM • Total Sample IS* CO 0 * 1 -.0 8 •27** NOTE: Q-sort values were computed by the use o f F ish er’s Z. "^Significant a t the £>£ lev el of confidence* CO 4=" a p p r o p r i a t e on t h e i r f i v e p o i n t s c a l e . A s t u d e n t ' s c h o ic e was c l a s s i f i e d a s " o v e r - a s p i r a t i o n ” when i t was more t h a n o n e - h a l f a l e v e l a b o v e t h a t l e v e l w h ich t h e ju d g e s te rm e d a p p r o p r i a t e . A c h o ic e was te rm e d " u n d e r a s p i r a t i o n " when i t was more th a n o n e - h a l f l e v e l b elo w t h a t l e v e l w h ic h was te rm e d a p p r o p r i a t e b y t h e j u d g e s . The c o r r e l a t i o n r a n k i n g s , w h ic h h a d b e e n c o n v e r t e d ■ t o F i s h e r Z v a l u e s , f o r e a c h o f t h e Q - s o r t c o m b in a tio n s w ere s p l i t a t t h e m edian and r e l a t e d t o t h e t h r e e l e v e l s o f c h o ic e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s by e m p lo y in g th e C h i- s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c . T a b le 6 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s . The Q - s o r t c o r r e l a t i o n s em p lo y ed i n t h i s s t u d y d i d n o t r e l a t e i n a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t way t o a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l o f t w e l f t h g ra d e b o y s , m aking th e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t e n a b l e . The S e l f I d e a l - M b ther I d e a l Q - s o r t c o r r e l a t i o n h o ld s p r o m is e , h o w e v e r, i n t h a t i t a p p ro a c h e d s i g n i f i c a n c e . S in c e t h e m ed ian s p l i t on b o t h X and Y a x i s d i d p ro d u c e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a s r e p o r t e d i n T a b le f u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t o f th e d a t a may p ro d u c e s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s . M u ltip le p r e d i c t i o n . An a tte m p t was made t o p r e d i c t th e t y p e o f s t u d e n t who w ould make a p p ro p ria te l e v e l c h o ic e s! when s e l e c t i n g h i s v o c a t i o n . The b e s t c o m b in a tio n o f t h o s e v a r i a b l e s em ployed i n t h i s s t u d y was s o u g h t. The W h erry - D o o l i t t l e m ethod was u s e d t o s e l e c t th e p r e d i c t o r s . T a b le 7 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s . I n t e l l i g e n c e c o n t r i b u t e d a lm o s t T A B L E 6 CO M PARISO NS OF Q-SORT V ALUES A N D APPROPRIATENESS OF THE ASPIRATION LEVEL EM PLO YIN G M E A N RATINGS OF THE JUDGES Appropriateness o f A spiration Ratings S elf-3e lf Id eal Q-sort Values Self-Mother Id eal Q-sort Values S elf Ideal-Mother Id eal Q-sort Values Below Above Median Median Below Above Median Median Below Median Above Median Over a sp iratio n llH 50 h2 52 51 h3 Appropriate a sp iratio n b k 39 U U 39 3 k b 7 Under a sp iratio n 10 10 12 8 23 7 df 2 2 2 •98 3*149 lu57 2 NOTE: None of the above "X. values was sig n ific a n t. Q-sort values were computed by th e use of Fisher*s Z. co o 87 T A B L E 7 PREDICTION OF APPROPRIATENESS OF LEVEL OF VOCATIONAL CHOICE EM PLOYING A COM BINATION OF PREDICTIVE VARIABLES P re d ic tiv e Beta M ultiple V ariables Weights C orrelation In te llig e n c e .31 .33 S e lf Ideal-Mother Id eal Q -sort values .18 .37 Achievement H a 1 .3? Socio-economic sta tu s • lit .Uo j NOTE: The WherryHDoolittle method of se lec tin g v a ria b le s fo r | m ultip le p re d ic tio n was employed. I 88 d o u b le t h e p r e d i c t i v e p o w e r, a s i n d i c a t e d b y i t s B e ta W e ig h t, o f any o f t h e o t h e r t h r e e p r e d i c t o r s . I t may b e r e c a l l e d t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e was a l s o t h e b e s t p r e d i c t o r o f f i e l d o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e a s r e p o r t e d on T a b le i|.. The S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l Q - s o r t V a lu e s a n d t h e s o c i o econom ic s t a t u s w ere a g a i n s e l e c t e d . When p r e d i c t i n g l e v e l a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s , a c h ie v e m e n t was a l s o s e l e c t e d a s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t o r . By s e l e c t i n g t h e b e s t c o m b in a tio n o f v a r i a b l e s , a m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n o f . t]_0 was o b t a i n e d w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e l e v e l o f a s t u d e n t ’ s v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e . On th e b a s i s o f t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n , an i n d i v i d u a l m ig h t im prove h i s p r e d i c t i o n o f l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e 8 J 4. p e r c e n t o v e r c h a n c e . S u ch a n im provem ent l e a v e s much t o be d e s i r e d , y e t i t d o e s p o i n t w i t h p r o m is e to t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e v e lo p in g a c t u a r i a l m eth o d s t o s e r v e a s a n a i d to v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l o r s ’ c l i n i c a l ju d g m e n ts . R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e Q - s o r t V a lu e s t o S t a t e d L e v e l o f V o c a t i o n a l C h o ic e C o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n th e Q - s o r t d i s c r e p a n c i e s a n d th e s t a t e d l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e a r e r e p o r t e d i n T a b le 8 . When t h e t o t a l sam p le was e m p lo y ed , a l l t h r e e Q - s o r t c o m b in a tio n s w e re c o r r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h s t a t e d l e v e l o f c h o i c e . I t may be n o te d t h a t t h e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l v a lu e s w ere a t th e .0 $ l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e T A B L E 8 CORRELATIONS OF Q-SORT VALUES W ITH STATED LEVEL OF V OCA TIO N AL CHOICE EM PLOYING CERTAIN DESIGNATED SAM PLES Stated Level Employing Designated Samples Number S elf-S elf Id ea l Q-sort Values Self-Mother Ideal Q-sort Values Self Ideal-Mother Id ea l Q-sort Values Below median i n t e l l i gence 91 ,26 ,2U .17 Below median achieve ment 89 .15 .37* .23 Socio-economic lev els Uj 6, 7 1U3 .25 .36+ .32* Total Sample 193 .23* •33+ .1*0+ NOTE: Q-sort values -were computed ty the use of F ish e r's Z. ^Significant a t the .05 le v e l of confidence. S ig n if ic a n t a t the .01 lev e l of confidence. co vO 90 I w h ile th e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l and t h e S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l Q - s o r t c o m b in a tio n s w ere a t t h e *01 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . When th e d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e Q - s o r ts was lo w , t h e n , t h e s t u d e n t s te n d e d to c h o o se h i g h v o c a t i o n a l l e v e l s . When u s in g th e below m ed ian i n t e l l i g e n c e , below m ed ian a c h i e v e r , and t h e low s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l g r o u p s , t h e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y was n o t r e l a t e d i n a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t m anner t o s t a t e d l e v e l . The S e l f - M other I d e a l Q - s o r t c o m b in a tio n was r e l a t e d , h o w e v e r, to s t a t e d l e v e l o f c h o ic e em p lo y in g b o t h th e below m ed ian a c h i e v e r and t h e low s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l g r o u p s . A d i s c u s s i o n c a n be fo u n d i n a l a t e r s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r h a v in g to do w i t h th e i m p l i c a t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e d i f f e r ence i n th e f i n d i n g s b e tw e e n th e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l and t h e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l as th e y r e l a t e d t o s t a t e d l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . The S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y c o r r e l a t e d a t th e .0 ^ l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e w ith s t a t e d l e v e l em p lo y in g t h e g ro u p o f s t u d e n t s i n t h e low s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s , b u t n o t when below m ed ian i n t e l l i g e n c e an d a c h i e v e m ent g ro u p s w ere em ployed . W hereas none o f th e Q - s o r t d i s c r e p a n c i e s c o r r e l a t e d w ith s t a t e d c h o ic e w i t h i n t e l l i g e n ce h e l d lo w , a l l o f them e i t h e r r e a c h e d o r a p p ro a c h e d s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e when e m p lo y in g s t u d e n t s i n low s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s (T a b le £ ) . 91 : C o m p ariso n o f F i r s t and Second S e l e c t i o n s o f F i e l d and L e v e l o f V o c a t i o n a l C h o ic e s R e s e a r c h b y S m a ll i n d i c a t e d t h a t se c o n d c h o ic e s o f v o c a t io n s w ere m ore r e a l i s t i c f o r p o o r l y a d j u s t e d i n d i v i d u a l s t h a n t h e i r f i r s t c h o i c e s . C o n v e r s e ly , f i r s t c h o ic e s w ere more r e a l i s t i c f o r w e l l a d j u s t e d i n d i v i d u a l s ( 1 0 2 ) . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , a d ju s tm e n t a s m e a su re d by th e d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n th e s e l f c o n c e p t s , showed no su c h r e l a t i o n s h i p when c o r r e l a t e d to a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f f i r s t and se c o n d c h o ic e s o f a v o c a t i o n . T a b le s 9 and 10 r e p o r t f i n d i n g s w h ich i n d i c a t e d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n c o r r e l a t i o n s o f Q - s o r t d i s c r e p a n c i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f f i r s t and se c o n d f i e l d o r l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s . The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s , t h e n , was t e n a b l e i n e a c h i n s t a n c e . R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Q - s o r t V alu es t o C e r t a i n C a r e e r F a c t o r s The s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s a s m e a su re d b y t h e Q - s o r t v a lu e s w ere r e l a t e d to i n t e l l i g e n c e , a c h ie v e m e n t, an d so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . T h e se t h r e e f a c t o r s w ere c o n s i d e r e d b y t h e v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g s p e c i a l i s t s a s among t h o s e c a r e e r f a c t o r s m ost commonly u se d b y g u id a n c e w o rk e rs i n v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g . A s t u d y o f t h e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f th e Q - s o r t v a lu e s was m ade. The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f , t h e s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s when t h e s e l e c t e d c a r e e r j f a c t o r s w ere c o n t r o l l e d was a l s o d e te r m in e d . T A B L E 9 CO M PA RISO N OF Q-SORT VALUES TO TH APPROPRIATENESS OF FERST A N D SEC O N D SELECTIONS OF FIELD OF VOCATIONAL CHOICE S e ll-S elf Id eal Self-Mothor Ideal Self Ideal-Mother Id eal Appropriateness of Second Choice Q-sort Values Q-sort Values Q-sort Values_____ o f Vocational F ie ld Below Above Median Median Below Above Median Median Below Median Above Median More than f i r s t choice 17 26 17 26 16 27 Same as f i r s t choice 20 22 21 a 17 25 Less than f i r s t choice 39 l a ll2 38 U5 35 df 2 2 2 V 1,01 1.9U 5.11 NOTE: None o f the above X 2 values was significant, » Q-sort values -were computed by the use of Fisher*s Z , T A B L E 10 COM PARISONS OF THE Q-SORT VALUES T O E T H APPROPRIATENESS OF FIRST A N D SEC O N D SECTIONS OF LEVEL OF VOCATIONAL CHOICE Appropriateness of Second Choice S elf-S elf Id eal Q-sort Values Self-Mother Ideal Q-sort Values Self Ideal-Mother Ideal Q-sort Values of Vocational Level Below Above Median Median Below A'bove Median Median Below Median Above Median More than f i r s t choice lU 29 16 27 19 2 1+ Same as f i r s t choice 29 31 33 27 28 32 Less than f i r s t choice 33 29 31 31 31 31 df 2 2 2 3.27 1 .35 NOTE: None of the above values was significant; • Q-sort values were computed Uy the use of Fisher*s Z* NO The Q - s o r t V a lu e s a n d I n t e l l i g e n c e Of th e t h r e e c o m b in a tio n s o f Q - s o r t s , o n ly t h e S e l f I d e a l - M o t h e r I d e a l Q - s o r t v a l u e s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o i n t e l l i g e n c e when t h e t o t a l sa m p le was em ployed ( T a b le 1 1 ) . When th e Q - s o r t v a l u e s w e re r e l a t e d t o i n t e l l i g e n c e u s in g o n ly th e b elo w m e d ia n a c h i e v e r s , t h e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l s o r t was t h e o n ly c o m b in a tio n t h a t r e a c h e d s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t c o r r e l a t e d • w ith i n t e l l i g e n c e an d was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e , w h ile t h e o t h e r tw o Q - s o r t c o m b in a tio n s o n ly a p p ro a c h e d s i g n i f i c a n c e (P . 1 0 ) . Among t h e s t u d e n t s who w ere below m ed ian a c h i e v e r s , t h e n , t h e r e was a m ark e d t e n d e n c y f o r t h e m ore i n t e l l i g e n t s t u d e n t s t o r e p o r t l e s s d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e ty p e o f p e r s o n s t h e y f e e l t h e y a r e an d t h e ty p e o f p e r s o n t h e y b e l i e v e t h e i r m o th e rs w o u ld l i k e them t o b e . E m p lo y in g s t u d e n t s w i t h s o c io - e c o n o m ic l e v e l s f o u r , f i v e , s i x , and s e v e n , no s u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t e d . The Q - s o r t V a lu e s and A c h ie v e m e n t T he c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e Q - s o r t v a l u e s f o r e a c h o f t h e t h r e e Q - s o r t c o m b in a tio n s w i t h a c h ie v e m e n t a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 1 2 . The S e l f I d e a l - M o t h e r I d e a l Q - s o r t v a l u e s w e re th e o n ly o n es t o r e a c h t h e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . I t may b e n o t e d t h a t w hen s t u d e n t s w i t h b elo w m e d ia n i n t e l l i g e n c e w ere em p loy ed a s th e s a m p le , a c h i e v e - T A B L E 11 C O R R E L A T I O N S O F Q -S O R T V A L U E S W E T H IN T E L L IG E N C E , E M P L O X I N G D E S I G N A T E D S A M P L E S In tellig en ce Scores Employing Designated Samples Number S elf-S elf Id eal Q-sort Values Sell’-Mother Ideal Q-sort Values Self Ideal-Mother Id eal Q-sort Values Below median achieve ment 86 •33 .H8+ •3U Socio-economic lev els k , 5 , 6, 7 13U .06 .16 C O H . I i i Total Sample 180 .05 •as •31* NOTE: Q-sort values were computed by the use of F ish er1 s Z. S ig n ific a n t S ig n ific a n t vO vn a t the *01 le v e l o f confidence, a t the .05 le v e l of confidence. T A B L E 12 C O R R E L A T I O N S O F Q -S C R T V A L U E S W I T H A C H I E V E M E N T , E M P L O Y I N G D E S I G N A T E D S A M P L E S Achievement Scores Employing Designated Samples Number Self-Self Ideal Q-sort Values Self-Mother Id eal Q-sort Values Self Ideal-Mother Id eal Q-sort Values Below median in te llig en c e 86 •39* .29 .27 Socio-economic le v e ls Uj $9 6, 7 13 k .18 .13 . 2k Total Sample 180 .12 .08 .28* NOTE: Q-sort values -were computed by the use of Fisher*s Z. ^S ignificant a t the .05 lev e l o f confidence. vD cr- m ent was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o S e l f - S e l f I d e a l c o n g ru e n c y . The u s e o f s t u d e n t s w i t h low s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s a g a i n d i d n o t p ro d u c e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n th e Q - s o r t v a lu e s and a c h ie v e m e n t. The Q - s o r t V a lu e s and S o c io -E c o n o m ic L e v e ls The c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e Q - s o r t v a lu e s w i t h s o c i o econom ic l e v e l s a r e p r e s e n t e d I n T a b le 13* As was t r u e w hen th e Q - s o r t v a lu e s w ere c o r r e l a t e d w ith i n t e l l i g e n c e and a c h ie v e m e n t ( T a b le s 11 and 1 2 ) , th e S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l Q - s o r t v a lu e s w ere t h e o n ly o n es r e l a t e d t o s o c i o econom ic l e v e l s i n a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t m a n n e r. By em ploying th e below m e d ia n I n t e l l i g e n c e a n d t h e below m e d ia n a c h ie v e m e n t g r o u p s , no c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s o f th e Q - s o r t s a n d s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s w ere fo u n d w h ich r e a c h e d t h e . 0£ l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e Q - s o r t V a lu e s E m ploying D e s ig n a te d S am ples I n o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r t h e e f f e c t t h a t c o n t r o l l i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e , a c h ie v e m e n t, and s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s w ould h a v e on t h e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p ts , below m e d ia n g ro u p s w ere em ployed . The below m e d ia n g ro u p s w ere s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e i t was b e l i e v e d t h a t s t u d e n t s i n t h i s g ro u p f r e q u e n t c o u n s e l o r s m ore o f t e n th a n do s t u d e n t s i n t h e above m edian g r o u p s . A ls o , as was d i s c u s s e d i n t h e c h a p t e r on re v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e , g r e a t e r m a la d ju s tm e n t T A B L E 13 C O R R E L A T I O N S O F Q -S O R T V A L U E S T I L T H S O C I O -E C O N O M I C L E V E L S E M P L O Y I N G D E S I G N A T E D S A M P L E S Socio-Economic Levels Employing Designated Samples Number S elf-S elf Ideal Q-sort Values Self-Mother Ideal Q-sort Values Self Ideal-Mother Id ea l Q-sort Values Below median in te llig en c e 90 *06 -.0 8 .18 Below median achievement 89 .18 .28 .38 Total Sample 188 .00 - . 0$ .32* NOTE: Q-sort values were computed by the use of F ish e r's Z. ■^Significant a t the .Of? lev e l o f confidence* 9 9 i e x i s t s among p o o r a c h i e v e r s . I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r e a c h c o m b in a tio n o f Q - s o r t v a l u e s w i t h t h e o t h e r two c o m b in a tio n s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e s lip , 1 $ , a n d 1 6 . The below m e d ia n g ro u p s i n i n t e l l i g e n c e , a c h ie v e m e n t, and s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s f o u r , f i v e , s i x , and s e v e n w e re e m p lo y ed . None o f t h e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s a s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 was i n c r e a s e d b y u s i n g b elo w m e d ia n g ro u p s on c a r e e r f a c t o r s . Use o f s m a l l e r sa m p le s a c c o u n t s , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , f o r t h e s m a l l e r i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n f i g u r e s . D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e F in d in g s T h is s e c t i o n was w r i t t e n f o r th e p u r p o s e o f b r i n g in g t h e i m p o r ta n t f i n d i n g s and t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s i n t o f o c u s . V iew s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e t h o s e o f t h e w r i t e r b a s e d upon t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n an d upon i n f o r m a t i o n d i s c o v e r e d i n a r e v ie w o f r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e an d r e s e a r c h . B e fo re t h e f i n d i n g s r e l a t i v e t o t h e s e l f c o n c e p ts a r e d i s c u s s e d , t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s w i l l b e r e v ie w e d b r i e f l y . T h e r e i s a c o n s e n s u s t h a t t h e S e l f i s a c o m b in a tio n o f a t t r i b u t e s , b e h a v i o r , and f e e l i n g s t h a t a n i n d i v i d u a l p o s s e s s e s and o f w h ic h he i s a w a re . A lth o u g h t h e r e a r e d i f f e r i n g o p i n i o n s among s p e c i a l i s t s a s t o t h e m ea n in g o f t h e s e l f i d e a l c o n c e p t , t h e m ean in g a c c e p t e d f o r u s e i n t h i s s t u d y was t h e c o n c e p t a n i n d i v i d u a l h a s o f t h e s e l f 100 j i TABLE I k | i i CORRELATIONS OF Q-SORT VALUES OF SELF-SELF IDEAL WITH SELF- | M O TH ER IDEAL A N D SELF I DEAL-M OTHER IDEAL Q-SORT COM BINATIONS EM PLOYING DESIGNATED SAM PLES 1 S e lf“S elf Id e a l S e lf- Self Id e a l- Employing Mother Id e a l Mother Id e a l Designated Samples Number Q -sort Values Q -sort Values ! 1 Below median in te llig e n c e 9 2 • 71+ .16 Below median j achievement I 91 .72* .30 Socio-economic le v e ls U, E > j 6, j and 7 1JtS • -j 03 + •31* NOTE: Q-sort values were computed "by the use of Fisher*s Z. +S ig n ifican t a t the .01 le v e l o f confidence, * ^ S ig n ifican t a t the #05 le v e l o f confidence. 101 ; T A B L E 1 $ | CORRELATION OF Q-SORT VALUES OF THE SELF-MOTHER IDEAL W ITH THE SELF SELF IDEAL A N D THE SELF IDEAL-MOTHER IDEAL Q-SORT COM BINATIONS EM PLOYING DESIGNATED SAM PLES Self-Mother Id ea l S e lf- S elf Id e a l- Employing Self Id e a l Mother Id ea l Designated Samples Number Q-sort Values Q-sort Values Below median in te llig e n c e 9 2 *71+ .10 Below median achievement 91 .72+ .17 Socio-economic lev e ls I;, $ . 6, and 7 1 b $ .78+ •2U NOTE: Q-sort values ■were confuted by the use of F is h e r's Z. +S ig n ifican t a t the .01 le v e l of confidence. T A B L E 16 CORRELATION OF Q-SORT VALUES OF TH E SELF IDEAL-MOTHER IDEAL WITH THE SELF-SELF IDEAL A N D TH E SELF-M OTHER IDEAL Q-SORT COM BINATIONS EM PLOYING DESIGNATED SAM PLES S elf Ideal-Mother Ideal Employing Designated Sanqples Number S e lf- Self Id e a l Q -sort Values S e lf- Mother Id e a l Q -sort Values Below median in te llig e n c e 92 .16 . H O Below median acliievement 9 1 .30 .27 Socio-economic le v e ls h t 6, and 7 1 .3 1 * •2it NOTEi Q-sort values were computed, try th e use of F is h e r’s Z. ^ S ignificant a t th e ,0 $ le v e l of confidence. 103 a s h e w is h e s t o b e . The M other I d e a l c o n c e p t was n o t fo u n d i n r e v ie w in g r e s e a r c h , a l t h o u g h t h e M other c o n c e p t h a d b e e n : I u s e d i n a num ber o f s t u d i e s . The M other I d e a l c o n c e p t was | em ployed i n t h i s s t u d y a s t h e s e l f w h ic h t h e i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e s h i s m o th e r w is h e s him t o b e . S e v e r a l s t u d i e s w ere p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d w h ic h c o n - ; e lu d e d t h a t a c o r r e l a t i o n r e s u l t i n g fro m t h e t a b u l a t i n g o f : d i f f e r e n c e s i n p la c e m e n t o f s e l f r e f e r e n t s t a t e m e n t s f o r ! th e S e l f and t h e S e l f I d e a l c o n c e p ts was r e l a t e d t o s e l f a c c e p ta n c e o r a d j u s t m e n t . S u ch c o n c l u s i o n s seem t o h a v e some m e r i t s i n c e a s m a ll d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h a t w h ic h a p e r s o n t h i n k s h e I s an d t h a t w h ic h h e w is h e s h e w ere c o u ld be a n I n d i c a t i o n o f s e l f a c c e p ta n c e o r a d j u s t m e n t . B i l l s , V an ce, an d McLean d e f i n e d p e r s o n a l m a la d ju s tm e n t a s a n y d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n th e c o n c e p t o f t h e s e l f a n d th e c o n c e p t o f t h e i d e a l s e l f ( 1 1 : 1 3 5 - 3 8 ) . The d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e s f o r th e S e l f an d t h e M other I d e a l c o n c e p ts w ere n o t c o v e re d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . The m o th e r o r t h e p a r e n t s e l f was em ployed i n s u c h s t u d i e s a s Ew ing (3 0 :2 3 2 - 3 9 )* B u t l e r ( 1 7 ) , a n d P o r t e r an d S ta c e y ( 8I4 .: 2lj.3-lj.8). They d id n o t , a p p a r e n t l y , a t t e m p t t o d i s c o v e r w h at t h e s t u d e n t th o u g h t h i s p a r e n t d e s i r e d o r w is h e d him t o b e . The m o th e r i d e a l r a t h e r th a n t h e f a t h e r i d e a l was em ployed on t h e b a s i s o f t h e w r i t i n g s o f s p e c i a l i s t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c g r o u p . T hey seem ed t o f e e l t h a t t h e lolf m o th e r p la y e d th e m ore im p o r ta n t r o l e i n d e v e lo p in g v a lu e s and g o a ls i n c h i l d r e n (79)* M o th e rs hav e b e e n s a i d t o i n f l u e n c e , t h r o u g h t h e i r v a lu e s y s te m , t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s o - c a l l e d ’’c o n s c i e n c e ” i n a young c h i l d . The m o th e r i s t h o u g h t to b e t h e m a jo r i n f l u e n c e upon t h e c h i l d r e n as th e y m a tu re s i n c e sh e i s w i t h them m ore th a n th e f a t h e r . jM u llah y , i n t e r p r e t i n g J u n g , s t a t e d t h a t th e m o th e r d e t e r m in e s " o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o woman, s o c i e t y and t o t h e w o rld o f f e e l i n g and f a c t " ( 7 9 :1 5 2 ) . The S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e was f e l t t o b e I m p o r ta n t s i n c e a m easu re was d e s i r e d w h ich c o n t r a s t e d | s e l f v a lu e s to t h e v a lu e s a s t u d e n t f e e l s t h a t h i s f a m i ly |o r m o th e r h a s f o r him . J u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ;of th e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c y was am ply fo u n d . When below m ed ian a c h i e v e r s and s t u d e n t s w i t h low so c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s w ere u s e d , s t a t e d l e v e l ( a s p i r a t i o n ) was s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to th e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c y b u t n o t w i t h t h e S e l f - I d e a l c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c y ;(T a b le 8 ) . S uch f i n d i n g s m ig h t i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e low a c h i e v e r s and s t u d e n t s i n t h e low s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s f e e l |th e p r e s s u r e and p e rh a p s r e s p o n d t o f a m i ly v a lu e s b y |s e l e c t i n g h ig h l e v e l s o f c h o i c e . F a i r w e a t h e r fo u n d t h a t j |low a c h i e v e r s o v e r a s p i r e d i n a " v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t m anner" j |( 3 2 ) . He a l s o found t h a t s t u d e n t s i n low s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s made s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore i n a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l c h o ic e s i th a n t h o s e i n h i g h e r l e v e l s . B u t l e r c o n c lu d e d t h a t u n d e r a c h i e v e r s d i f f e r e d from o v e r a c h i e v e r s a t t h e .0 1 l e v e l i o f c o n f id e n c e on t h e In d e x o f S t r e s s f o r th e P a r e n t S e l f | Q -3o r t ( 1 7 :2 1 9 , 2 2 0 ) . D y n e s, C l a r k e , a n d D i n i t z fo u n d t h a t s t u d e n t s w i t h v e r y h i g h a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l s e x p e r ie n c e d f e e l i n g s o f r e j e c t i o n an d f e e l i n g s o f n o t b e in g w a n ted by m o th e rs a n d f a t h e r s . S tu d e n ts a l s o f e l t t h a t th e y w e re v i c t i m s o f f a v o r i t i s m { 2 7 J212— lip ) . As a f i n a l exam ple t o j i n d i c a t e t h e ty p e o f m ea su re i n v o lv e d i n th e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e s , i t may b e n o te d i n T a b le 11 t h a t when low a c h i e v e r s a r e u s e d , i n t e l l i g e n c e i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l v a lu e s b u t n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o S e l f - S e l f I d e a l v a l u e s . O nly ch a n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ere fo u n d when th e t o t a l sam p le was em p lo y ed . I t m ig h t be c o n c lu d e d t h a t s t u d e n t s who a r e p o o r a c h i e v e r s an d who h a v e th e a d d ed h a n d ic a p o f low i n t e l l i g e n ce f e e l th e f a m i ly p r e s s u r e s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s a s n o te d b y a h i g h S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y . I t h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a lt h o u g h th e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l an d t h e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s c o r r e l a t e .8 2 , s t i l l t h e y m e a su re d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s . The S e l f I d e a l - | M o ther I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y seem ed t o be made up o f s t i l l a n o th e r c o m p o n en t, a s i t r e l a t e d t o t h e o t h e r two co m b in a t i o n s .3 7 a n d .3 1 . S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y seem ed t o be g e t t i n g a t th e i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e tw e e n a s t u d e n t 1s s e l f g o a l an d h i s f a m i ly g o a l s a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y th e m o th e r. T h is d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e p ro d u c e d m o st o f t h e | s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s when com pared t o t h e e x p e r i - j m e n ta l v a r i a b l e s em ployed i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The ty p e o f a d ju s tm e n t m e a su re d b y d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e s e l f c o n c e p ts d o es n o t a p p e a r t o b e t h e same a s t h e m ore d e e p - s e a t e d e m o tio n a l p ro b le m s m e a su re d b y t h e I R o rs c h a c h a n d t h e T .A .T . a s c i t e d i n t h e re v ie w o f th e j l i t e r a t u r e . A new a r e a o f a d ju s tm e n t s t u d i e s , t h e n , i s o p e n ed up an d may p r o v e v e r y h e l p f u l f o r u s e i n p u b l i c s c h o o l w i t h r e l a t i v e l y n o rm a l p e r s o n s . T h is s tu d y a p p e a rs t o p i o n e e r t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw e e n a s t u d e n t ’ s own v a lu e s an d i d e a l s a n d t h o s e o f h i s m o th e r. I n v iew o f t h e i n c r e a s e d num ber o f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s , a s com pared t o t h e o f t s t u d i e d s e l f an d s e l f i d e a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s , a p r o m is in g f i e l d o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n seem s t o h a v e b e e n d i s c o v e r e d . The S e l f - S e l f I d e a l and th e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s d id n o t r e l a t e t o a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f f i e l d o r l e v e l o f c h o i c e . A lth o u g h s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d w h ic h fo u n d r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s e l f a c c e p t a n c e a n d a p p r o p r i a t e - ’ n e s s o f c h o i c e , t h e c r i t e r i a f o r m ea su re m e n t were q u i t e d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h o s e em ployed i n t h i s r e s e a r c h . G -. W. F a i r w e a t h e r c o n c lu d e d a f t e r a n e x t e n s i v e s t u d y t h a t when p a p e r a n d p e n c i l ty p e t e s t s a r e u s e d a s c r i t e r i a 107 a g a i n s t w hich t o m easure b e h a v i o r w hich was a l s o o b t a i n e d by t e s t s and i n v e n t o r i e s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s a re l i k e l y t o be f o u n d ( 3 1 ) . Such a s t u d y was made by K in n a n e , S e l f a c c e p ta n c e was r e p o r t e d l y r e l a t e d t o a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f c h o i c e . S e l f a c c e p ta n c e was m easured by B i l l s In d e x o f A d ju s tm e n t and V a lu e s, and a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s was b a s e d on a b i l i t y a n d i n t e r e s t t e s t s ( 6 5 )* The p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n a tt e m p t e d t o a v o id s p u r io u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s by e m p lo y in g t h e j Q - te c h n iq u e t o m easure s e l f a d ju s tm e n t , w h ic h , as Kenny r e p o r t e d , was l e s s I n f l u e n c e d by s o c i a l f a c t o r s t h a n w ere p e r s o n a l i t y m ea su re s and r a t i n g s c a l e s (61|)0 As c r i t e r i a o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e , c l i n i c a l judgm ents o f v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g s p e c i a l i s t s were em p loyed. More o v e r, t h e r a t i n g s were made on b o t h f i e l d and l e v e l of c h o ic e as recommended by s p e c i a l i s t s . T h u s, r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y c o u ld be e x p e c te d t o v a r y fro m r e s u l t s o f p r e v i ous s t u d i e s ; One o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y was t h e ty p e o f c h o ic e e l i c i t e d fro m t h e s t u d e n t . S ta n d a r d p r o c e d u r e s su p p le m e n te d by o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n s w ere em ployed I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n p r o b a b l e and r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s j i o f v o c a t i o n s . S t u d i e s by Trow ( 1 1 9 : 8 9- 9 3 ) and D resd en I | ( 2 6 : 10l|.-6 ) have p o i n t e d t o th e n e e d to u se s u c h an a p p ro a c h . j | Thus f a r r e s e a r c h h a s n o t b e e n l o c a t e d w h i c h h a s u t i l i z e d s u c h r e c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r o b t a i n i n g a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s . I t i s f e l t , t h e n , t h a t t h e p r e s e n t 108 s t u d y u s e s m ea su re s and c r i t e r i a w h ich would be p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l t o t h e h ig h s c h o o l v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lo r* C ongruency b e tw e e n t h e S e l f I d e a l and t h e M other I d e a l c o n c e p ts r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e . T h is f i n d i n g i s f e l t t o b e c o n s i s t e n t w ith o t h e r s t u d i e s w hich p o i n t o u t t h e i n f l u ence o f f a m i l y p r e s s u r e s on an i n d i v i d u a l . The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t when th e d i s c r e p a n c y i s g r e a t b e tw e e n a s t u d e n t ' s i d e a l s and th e i d e a l s he p e r c e i v e s h i s .m o th e r t o have f o r him, he te n d s t o s e l e c t a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e v o c a t i o n a l l e v e l * I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h g o a ls t h e m other i s f e l t t o have was n o t r e l a t e d t o f i e l d c h o ic e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s * I n f a c t , no m easu res em ployed i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f f i e l d c h o ic e s * On t h e b a s i s of t h e s e f i n d i n g s , s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r s h av e no b a s i s f o r g u id in g a s t u d e n t i n t o any g iv e n f i e l d o f work e x c e p t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n t e r e s t i n v e n t o r y . Roe r e p o r t e d t h a t f i e l d c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f o c c u p a ti o n s was " r e l a t e d t o m ost f a c t o r i z a t i o n s o f i n t e r e s t s , b u t n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h a n y o f them " (91:11^5>)* B e r d ie (9 J51J.-56) sum m arized n i n e t y s t u d i e s s i n c e 195>0 show ing e v id e n c e t h a t th e S tr o n g V o c a t i o n a l I n t e r e s t B lank was r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y to c h o ic e o f p r o f e s s i o n , o c c u p a ti o n e n t e r e d , s t a t u s , and was a s u b s t a n t i a l i p r e d i c t o r o f f u t u r e employment* ; 109! C o n s i s t e n t w i t h f i n d i n g s a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d , th e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l and t h e S e l f I d e a l - M o t h e r I d e a l d i s c r e p ancy was more s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o s t a t e d l e v e l o f c h o ic e ( a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l ) , as r e p o r t e d i n T a b le 8 , t h a n was t h e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t f a m i l y v a l u e s , a s p e r c e i v e d by th e i n d i v i d u a l , e n t e r e d i n t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . S t u d e n ts who i d e n t i f i e d c l o s e l y w i t h t h e f a m i ly g o a l s , as t h e y saw th em , te n d e d t o ch o o se h ig h l e v e l v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s . I n harm ony w i t h t h i s f i n d i n g , i t may b e n o te d b y r e f e r r i n g to T a b le 6 t h a t s t u d e n t s w i t h l a r g e d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e s b e tw e e n t h e S e l f I d e a l and M other I d e a l s o r t s made more u n d e r - a s p i r a t i o n c h o ic e s t h a n d i d t h o s e s t u d e n t s w i t h low d i s c r e p a n c y v a l u e s . The Chi s q u a re d i d not r e a c h s i g n i f i c a n c e , however* U sing below m edian a c h i e v e r s and s t u d e n t s w i t h low s o c io - e c o n o m ic l e v e l s , w here p r e s s u r e s o f t h e f a m i l y m ig h t b e e x p e c te d t o be g r e a t e r , s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere a g a i n fo u n d b e tw e e n t h e a s p i r e d l e v e l o f t h e v o c a t i o n s s e l e c t e d and s e l f c o n c e p t c o m b in a tio n s em ploying t h e M other I d e a l s o r t * None of th e c o m b in a tio n s o f s e l f c o n c e p ts c o r r e l a t e d t o s t a t e d l e v e l when i n t e l l i g e n c e was h e ld low* I t i s possibda t h a t f a m i l y e x p e c t a t i o n s , a s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e Mother I d e a l Q - s o r t , may n o t be as g r e a t f o r c h i l d r e n w i t h low i n t e l l i g e n c e when c a r e e r c h o ic e i s i n v o l v e d . I t may b e I c o n c lu d e d on t h e b a s i s o f th e f i n d i n g s d i s c u s s e d above t h a t 110 t h e r e a r e m easured d i f f e r e n c e s i n a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l among t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f s e l f c o n c e p t c o m b in a tio n s . i A v e ry i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g was p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 1L When i n t e l l i g e n c e was r e l a t e d to th e S e lf- M o th e r I d e a l c o n c e p t c o r r e l a t i o n , a chance r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d . When th e c o r r e l a t i o n was made em ploying low a c h i e v e r s , a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was n o te d . T hus, recom m endations by H o lla n d (52:35-ij.£) and Super (111) w ere s u p p o r te d s i n c e i n t e r a c t i o n of v a r i a b l e s produ ced s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s w h ile t h e use o f s i n g l e f a c t o r s d id n o t . The same ty p e o f f i n d i n g I s a l s o r e p o r t e d i n T a b le 12. When below m edian I n t e l l i g e n c e was em ployed, a ch iev e m e n t r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y to th e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l c o r r e l a t i o n . Employ ing ach iev e m e n t o n ly , as was done u s i n g th e t o t a l sam p le, no s i g n i f i c a n c e was f o u n d . I t may be remembered t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n o f s t a t e d l e v e l and so c io -ec o n o m ic l e v e l a l s o p r o duced d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een th e c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s . Such f i n d i n g s s h o u ld be o f s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t to h ig h sc h o o l c o u n s e lo r s who make a p r a c t i c e o f u s in g a complex o f f a c t o r s as a b a s i s f o r g u i d in g s tu d e n ts * F u tu re r e s e a r c h may p ro v e more f r u i t f u l by d i s c o v e r i n g th e r e s u l t s o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of v a r i a b l e s . One of th e m ost e x c i t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s w i t h w hich t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n has b e e n c o n c e rn e d was i n u s in g c o g n i- I t i v e and n o n - c o g n i t iv e f a c t o r s as a n a c t u a r i a l .aid t o - t h e I l l c l i n i c i a n . The u s e of t h e s e l f c o n c e p t by means of t h e Q - s o r t h a s b e en recommended as a way t o make n o n - c o g n i t i v e f a c t o r s a v a i l a b l e f o r s t a t i s t i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n . I t was f o u n d t h a t th e c o r r e l a t i o n o f #27 w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e u s e d i n c o m b in a tio n w ith c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een f i e l d a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s and s u c h c o g n i t i v e f a c t o r s a s i n t e l l i g e n c e , s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t, and s o c i o econom ic l e v e l , p ro d u c e d a m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n o f . 1 | 0 . ; A lth o u g h t h i s may be te rm e d a m odest p r e d i c t o r o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e , i t r e p r e s e n t s a s t e p c l o s e r t o t h a t w hich h a s b e e n s o u g h t by s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e f i e l d - . C o u n s e lo rs armed w i t h t h i s much i n f o r m a t i o n , e m p iric a lly b a s e d , a r e l i k e l y t o im prove t h e ju d g m en ts d e r i v e d fro m t h e i n t e r v i e w i n c o u n s e l i n g a s t u d e n t . When t h e b e s t c o m b in a tio n o f v a r i a b l e s was em p loy ed , th e m u ltip le p r e d i c t o r o f f e r e d 8 .Ip p e r c e n t im provem ent o v e r c h a n c e . The v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d f a c t o r s commonly u s e d by v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l o r s . I t becomes a p p a r e n t , t h e n , t h a t p e r s o n a l c o u n s e l i n g i s e s s e n t i a l so t h a t a s i t u a t i o n can be p r o v i d e d w hereby many f a c t o r s , b o t h c o g n i t i v e and n o n - c o g n i t i v e , can| be b r o u g h t i n t o f o c u s . : i I n r e v i e w : (1 ) t h e u s e o f t h e M other I d e a l s o r t j I ' h a s b e e n s u b s t a n t i a l l y v i n d i c a t e d by t h e num erous s t a t i s - I t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s w h ich were fo u n d when i t was | em ployed I n c o m b in a tio n w i t h o t h e r s o r t s an d t h e n r e l a t e d t o o th e r v a r i a b l e s ; ( 2 ) v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l o r s were found to have a b a s i s f o r c o u n s e lin g s t u d e n t s on a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e b u t not f i e l d ; ( 3 ) r e s u l t s need t o be b a s e d on f a c t o r s and c r i t e r i a b o t h o f w hich a re n o t b a se d upon p a p e r and p e n c i l ty p e t e s t s and i n v e n t o r i e s o n ly ; (ip) i n t e r a c t i o n o f v a r i a b l e s have p ro d u ce d s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s n o t o th e r w is e fo u n d ; ($ ) a c o m b in a tio n o f c o g n i t i v e and n o n - c o g n i t i v e f a c t o r s can be combined and h a n d le d s t a t i s t i c a l l y as a n a id t o c l i n i c a l judgm ent; and ( 6 ) m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t i o n b a se d on s e l f c o n c e p ts as w e l l as o t h e r f a c t o r s commonly employed i n v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lin g h o ld s p ro m ise f o r th e h ig h s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r s . Summary The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s b etw een th e s e l f co n c e p t c o m b in a tio n s ( S e l f - S e l f I d e a l , S e lf -M o th e r I d e a l , and S e l f Id e a l- M o th e r I d e a l ) were r e l a t e d to a p p r o p r i a t e n e ss o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s and to c e r t a i n c a r e e r f a c t o r s * The t e t r a c h o r l c c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t and th e Chi sq u a re s t a t i s t i c were em ployed. The m ajor r e s u l t s a r e sum m arized b e lo w : I* The c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw ee n eac h o f th e s e l f c o n c e p t c o m b in a tio n s , S e l f - S e l f I d e a l , S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l and S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t e r r e l a t e d . When an I n d i v i d u a l o b ta in e d a low d i s c r e p a n c y s c o re on th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e p lac em en t o f s e l f r e f e r e n t s ta te m e n t s 113* f o r an y c o m b in a tio n of s e l f c o n c e p ts , he te n d e d t o show l i t t l e d i s c r e p a n c y i n th e p lac em en t of s t a t e m e n t s f o r th e o t h e r c o m b in a tio n s . 2. The r a t i n g s of a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e s t u d e n t s ' c h o ic e o f v o c a t i o n a l f i e l d were fo u n d t o be u n r e l a t e d to c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n th e s e l f c o n c e p ts * S e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c y i n c o m b in a tio n w i t h o t h e r f a c t o r s commonly employed by v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l o r s was n o t fo u n d to be u s e f u l a s a m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t o r w i t h w hich t o i d e n t i f y t h o s e s t u d e n t s *jho w ould make a p p r o p r i a t e f i e l d c h o i c e s . 3. S t u d e n ts w i t h a h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e i r S e l f I d e a l and t h e i r M other I d e a l c o n c e p ts te n d e d t o make a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l c h o ic e s when s e l e c t i n g a v o c a t i o n . No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s were f o u n d , h o w e v er, when t h e S e l f - S e l f I d e a l or the S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere com pared to a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f c h o ic e . The c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n th e S e l f I d e a l and t h e M other I d e a l c o n c e p ts u sed I n c o m b in a tio n w i t h i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s , s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t s c o r e s , and s o c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s show d e f i n i t e p ro m ise as a m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t o r w ith w hich to i d e n t i f y s t u d e n t s who make a p p r o p r i a t e n s s l e v e l c h o ic e s when s e l e c t i n g a v o c a t i o n . S t u d e n ts who had h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n e a c h o f th e s e l f c o n c e p ts em ployed i n t h i s s t u d y s e l e c t e d m ark e d ly h i g h e r l e v e l s when c h o o s in g a v o c a t i o n . lllj. 5 . C ongruency o f t h e s t u d e n t s ’ s e l f c o n c e p ts was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f f i r s t and second f i e l d or l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . 6 . The c o n g ru e n c y of th e S e l f I d e a l - M o t h e r I d e a l c o n c e p ts was s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o th e i n t e l l i g e n c e , th e s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t and th e so c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l g ro u p s (2 3 :2 5 )* T hus, s t u d e n t s who were i n t e l l i g e n t , o r w ere good a c h i e v e r s i n s c h o o l, or w ere i n a n u p p e r so c io ec o n o m ic l e v e l te n d e d to have a h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e i r S e l f I d e a l and t h e i r M other I d e a l c o n c e p ts . The same was n o t t r u e when r e l a t i n g t h e s e g ro u p s to t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n S e l f - S e l f I d e a l o r S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l c o n c e p t c o m b in a tio n s . C H A P T E R V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The p u r p o s e o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was t o d e t e r m in e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w h ic h e x i s t e d b e t w e e n s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s and a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f f i e l d an d l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e , a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l , i n t e l l i g e n c e , s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t , and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c l e v e l . The s t u d y was u n d e r t a k e n t o d i s c o v e r t h e u s e f u l n e s s t h a t s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s w o u ld h a v e a s a n a i d t o v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l o r s . S i n c e b o t h i n t e r p e r s o n a l and i n t r a - p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d a s im p o r t a n t f o r u s e by g u id a n c e w o r k e r s , t h e s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s w e re r e l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y and i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s t o a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e . V o c a t i o n a l s e l e c t i o n was c l a s s i f i e d i n t o f i e l d and l e v e l o f c h o i c e . I t w as b e l i e v e d t h a t i s u c h a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w o u ld c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e f f e c t i v e - i n e s s o f t h e v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l o r i n c o p i n g w i t h s a t i s f a c t i o n an d s u c c e s s a s p e c t s o f c a r e e r c h o i c e . | Summary i One h u n d red n i n e t y - f i v e t w e l f t h g r a d e b o y s from t h r e e m e t r o p o l i t a n L os A n g e l e s h i g h s c h o o l s w ere g i v e n t h e t a s k o f s o r t i n g f i f t y s e l f - r e f e r e n t s t a t e m e n t s t h r e e t i m e s . The s t a t e m e n t s w e re t o b e s o r t e d i n t o a f o r c e d n o rm a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . The s t u d e n t was i n s t r u c t e d t o a r r a n g e t h e j ! s t a t e m e n t s so t h a t t h e y w o u ld r e p r e s e n t h i s S e l f , h i s S e l f i I d e a l , and h i s M other I d e a l c o n c e p t s . S t a t e m e n t s o f v o c a - j t i o n a l c h o i c e w ere t h e n e l i c i t e d from t h e s t u d e n t s th r o u g h t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a q u e s t i o n n a i r e . F u r t h e r in f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d from t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e and from e a c h s t u d e n t ' s c u m u l a t i v e r e c o r d f o l d e r . The s t u d e n t s ' v o c a - ' t i o n a l c h o i c e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n s e c u r e d , was p r o v i d e d t o f i v e v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g s p e c i a l i s t s . T hey r a t e d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e s t u d e n t s ' v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e tw o-w ay c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f f i e l d and l e v e l . D i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e s f o r e a c h c o m b in a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e s e l f c o n c e p t s w ere c o n v e r t e d t o F i s h e r ' s Z v a l u e s f o r c o m p u t a t io n a l p u r p o s e s . T h e s e v a l u e s w e re t h e n r e l a t e d t o t h e means o f t h e ju d g e s' r a t i n g s f o r a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e f i e l d and t h e l e v e l o f t h e s t u d e n t s ' v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s . The s e l f c o n c e p t v a l u e s w ere a l s o j c o r r e l a t e d w i t h i n t e l l i g e n c e , s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t and s o c i o eco n o m ic l e v e l , w h ic h w ere c o n s i d e r e d t o b e among th e f a c t o r s m o st commonly em p loyed i n v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g . j i The t e t r a c h o r i c c o r r e l a t i o n s and t h e C h i- s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c I w ere e m p lo y e d . A number o f h y p o t h e s e s w ere f o r m u l a t e d f o r u s e i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g r e p r e s e n t a f o r m a l s t a t e m e n t o f e a c h h y p o t h e s i s : 117 1 * T h e re a re s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw e e n th e S e l f and t h e S e l f I d e a l , t h e S e l f and th e M other I d e a l , and th e S e l f I d e a l and th e M other I d e a l c o n c e p ts . 2. T h ere a re s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw ee n d i s c r e p a n c i e s o f th e s e l f c-oncept c o m b in a tio n s employed i n t h i s s tu d y and r a t i n g s o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f th e f i e l d o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . 3 . T h e re a r e s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw ee n d i s c r e p a n c i e s of th e s e l f c o n c e p t c o m b in a tio n s and r a t i n g s of a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f th e l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e . Ij.. T h ere a r e m easured d i f f e r e n c e s i n f i r s t and second f i e l d and l e v e l of v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s w herV 'related"' t o d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw ee n t h e s e l f c o n c e p ts . T here a r e s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s o f th e s e l f c o n cep t c o m b in a tio n s a n d , i n t e l l i g e n c e , s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t, so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , and s t a t e d l e v e l of v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n . 6 . D i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw e e n s e l f c o n c e p ts c a n be employed i n c o m b in a tio n w ith c o g n i t i v e c a r e e r f a c t o r s t o c r e a t e a u s e f u l m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t o r f o r f i e l d and l e v e l of v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . The im p o r ta n t f i n d i n g s o b t a i n e d as a r e s u l t o f t e s t in g th e above h y p o th e s e s a r e sum m arized below : 1 . The d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw ee n th e s e l f c o n c e p ts were v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t e r r e l a t e d . The S e l f - S e l f I d e a l 118 i d i s c r e p a n c y was c o r r e l a t e d *82 w ith th e S e lf - M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y and »37 w ith t h e S e l f I d e a l - M o t h e r I d e a l d is c r e p a n c y . The S e lf-M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y was c o r r e l a t e d .31 w ith th e S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y . 2. The d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e s f o r eac h o f t h e t h r e e c o m b in a tio n s o f s e l f c o n c e p ts w ere n ot fo u n d to be r e l a t e d to th e r a t i n g s o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e f i e l d o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . 3* Of t h e t h r e e c o m b in a tio n s o f s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s , o n ly th e S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d (.Of? l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e ) to r a t i n g s o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were fo u n d o n f i r s t and s e c o n d c h o i c e s o f f i e l d or l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e when r e l a t e d t o d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e t w e e n t h e s e l f c o n c e p t s . 5* Of th e t h r e e c o m b in a tio n s o f s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s , o n ly t h e S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d ( .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e ) to i n t e l l i g e n c e , sc h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t, and so c io -e c o n o m io l e v e l . D i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw ee n a l l t h r e e c o m b in a tio n s o f s e l f c o n c e p ts were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o a s p i r e d l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . 6. A f te r a s e l e c t i o n was made o f th e b e s t com bina t i o n o f f a c t o r s employed i n t h i s s tu d y f o r use a s a m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t o r o f a p p r o p r o a te n e s s o f f i e l d o f v o c a - I t i o n a l c h o ic e , a .2 5 m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n was fo u n d . The 119 ! v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s , so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , and t h e SelT I d e a l - M o t h e r I d e a l d i s c r e p a n c y . When i n t e l l i g e n c e s o c r e s , d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw e e n t h e S e l f I d e a l - M other I d e a l s e l f c o n c e p ts , s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t s c o r e s , and s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s were com bined f o r u se as a m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t o r o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e , a .lj.0 c o r r e l a t i o n was fo u n d . C o n c lu s io n s The c o n c l u s i o n s a re b a s e d on t h e f i n d i n g s c i t e d i n th e p r e v io u s s e c t i o n : 1 . When i n d i v i d u a l s o b t a i n low d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e s f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n p la c e m e n t o f s e l f r e f e r e n t s t a t e m ents on a n y c o m b in a tio n of s e l f c o n c e p ts , t h e y t e n d to show l i t t l e d i s c r e p a n c y I n t h e p la c e m e n t o f s t a t e m e n t s on th e o t h e r c o m b in a tio n s . The S e l f I d e a l - M o t h e r I d e a l c o n c e p t s p ro v e t o be t h e m ost u s e f u l c o m b in a tio n o f s e l f c o n c e p t s s i n c e i t p ro d u c e s m ost o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h ip s when com pared t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s em ployed i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 2. The a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f s t u d e n t s ' c h o i c e s when t h e y s e l e c t a v o c a t i o n a l f i e l d i s n o t r e l a t e d t o d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw e e n t h e i r s e l f c o n c e p ts . 3 * S tu d e n ts who make a p p r o p r i a t e c h o ic e s when t h e y s e l e c t a v o c a t i o n a l l e v e l t e n d t o h a v e l e s s d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e i r S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l c o n c e p ts t h a n do 120 : I o t h e r s t u d e n t s . i | Ij.. S t u d e n ts h a v in g p o o r s e l f .a c c e p t a n c e , s e l f a d j u s t m e n t , and a c c e p t a n c e o f f a m i l y g o a l s , a s m ea su re d i by s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s , do n o t make more a p p r o p r i a t e o r l e s s a p p r o p r i a t e f i r s t c h o ic e s th a n t h e y do se c o n d c h o i c e s , when s e l e c t i n g v o c a t i o n a l f i e l d o r v o c a t i o n a l l e v e l . 5 . The s t u d e n t s whose S e l f I d e a l- M o th e r I d e a l c o n - j c e p t s a r e c o n g ru e n t t e n d to h av e h i g h I .Q . s c o r e s , h i g h s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t s c o r e s , and h i g h s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . S tu d e n ts who s e l e c t h i g h l e v e l s when c h o o s in g a v o c a t i o n t e n d t o h av e l i t t l e d i s c r e p a n c y on a l l t h r e e c o m b in a tio n s o f s e l f c o n c e p t s . 6 . The b e s t c o m b in a tio n s o f v a r i a b l e s em ployed i n t h i s s tu d y w ere s e l e c t e d f o r u s e as m u l t i p l e p r e d i c t o r s o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f th e c h o ic e o f v o c a t i o n a l f i e l d and l e v e l . The m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o be u s e f u l a s i a p r e d i c t o r w i t h w h ich to i d e n t i f y th o s e s t u d e n t s who would! make a p p r o p r i a t e c h o ic e s when s e l e c t i n g a v o c a t i o n a l f i e l d , b u t i t shows p ro m is e a s a n a i d i n s e l e c t i n g a v o c a t i o n a l l e v e l . The c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n th e S e l f I d e a l and t h e M other I d e a l c o n c e p ts was u s e d I n c o m b in a tio n w i t h I n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s , s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t s c o r e s , and s o c i o econom ic s t a t u s . The m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e l a r g e enough t o s u g g e s t t h a t i n t e r p e r s o n a l and i n t r a - p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s may be e f f e c t i v e l y com bined, h a n d le d s t a t i s t i c a l l y , 121; I and s e r v e a s an a i d to c l i n i c a l judgm ent i n t h e h an d s o f ; t h e v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l o r . ; R ecom m en dation s The s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r i s e x p e c t e d t o p l a y t h e d u a l r o l e o f p r a c t i t i o n e r and s c i e n t i s t ( llj.: 1 7 5 - 8 1 ; 8 2 : 7 - 1 5 ) . T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s l e d t o t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f f a c t o r s w h ic h may b e o f v a l u e t o t h e c o u n s e l o r i n b o t h o f h i s r o l e s . E d u c a t i o n a l r e c o m m e n d a tio n s . I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n an i n d i v i d u a l 1 s s e l f c o n c e p t s s h o u ld b e g i v e n t o th e h i g h s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r f o r u s e i n t h e g u i d a n c e program . S t u d e n t s w hose d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e s b e tw e e n h i s s e l f c o n c e p t s , w h ic h i n d i c a t e p o o r s e l f a c c e p t a n c e and p o o r s e l f a d j u s t m e n t , s h o u ld b e s c r e e n e d on t h e b a s i s o f n e e d f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p e r s o n a l c o u n s e l i n g , s m a l l g ro u p c o u n s e l i n g , o r s t u d e n t - p a r e n t c o u n s e l i n g . S t u d e n t s who a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l - a d j u s t e d s h o u ld p a r t i c i p a t e i n p r o j e c t s : d e s i g n e d t o make s p e c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s . The d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e S e l f I d e a l - M o t h e r I d e a l ; c o n c e p t s w ere r e l a t e d t o I n t e l l i g e n c e , s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t , and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s . T h e r e f o r e , s p e c i a l c l a s s e s , i n d i v i d u a l and grou p c o u n s e l i n g , and p a r e n t - s t u d e n t g r o u p s s h o u ld be a r r a n g e d i n a n a t t e m p t t o m eet t h e n e e d s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t . F a c t o r s a l r e a d y em p loyed In t h e s c h o o l c o u n s e l i n g 122 program sh o u ld be c o n tin u e d , and in s t r u m e n t s d e s i g n e d to m easure i n t r a - p e r s o n a l and n o n - c o g n i t i v e f a c t o r s s h o u ld be added. S tu d e n ts who were fo u n d to make i n a p p r o p r i a t e c h o ic e s when s e l e c t i n g a v o c a t i o n s h o u ld be p r o v id e d w i t h s p e c i a l v o c a t i o n a l c o u r s e s , i n d i v i d u a l and g ro u p c o u n s e lin g ( m u l t i p l e c o u n s e l i n g ) , and work e x p e r ie n c e o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Inasm uch as d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw ee n s t u d e n t s ' i d e a l s f o r th e m s e lv e s and th o s e t h e y p e r c e i v e t h e i r m o th e rs t o have f o r them i s r e l a t e d t o t h e i r a b i l i t y to s e l e c t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l s when c h o o s in g a v o c a t i o n , i t i s recommended t h a t p a r e n t - 3 tu d e n t v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lin g s e s s i o n s be a rr a n g e d b y th e s c h o o l. Such a program would a id th e p a r e n t s and s t u d e n t s a d j u s t t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n to l e v e l s more a c c e p t a b l e to each. S e l e c t e d g ro u p s of p a r e n t s s h o u ld a l s o m eet i n g ro u p s t o d i s c u s s v ie w p o in ts a b o u t v o c a t i o n s . On th e b a s i s o f f a c t o r s employed i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lo r s s h o u ld n o t g u id e s t u d e n t s i n t o any g iv e n v o c a t i o n a l f i e l d ; u n l e s s i t i s done on t h e b a s i s o f th e s t u d e n t s ' i n t e r e s t s . R e se a rc h rec o m m en d atio n s. The e f f e c t i v e n e s s w ith w h ich h i g h s c h o o l g u id a n c e w o rk e rs c a n m o d ify s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s sh o u ld be i n v e s t i g a t e d . An e x p e r im e n ta l and a c o n t r o l g ro u p c o u ld be s e l e c t e d . T e s t i n g by t h e same ! in s tr u m e n t co u ld be c a r r i e d o u t b e f o r e and a f t e r th e 123 e x p e r im e n t . A s t u d y d e s i g n e d to i d e n t i f y s t u d e n t s who fo r m l a r g e d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e t w e e n t h e i r s e l f c o n c e p t s s h o u ld b e p e r fo r m e d i n th e e a r l y g r a d e s o f s c h o o l . C o n t r o l l e d e x p e r im e n t s t o r e d u c e th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s s h o u ld t h e n be c o n d u c t e d . A s t u d y o f s e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s s h o u l d be r e p e a t e d a t s e v e r a l g r a d e l e v e l s i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s t a b i l i t y o f s e l f c o n c e p t s among s t u d e n t s i n t h e " n o rm a l1 1 s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n . S u ch s t u d y c o u l d a l s o e l u c i d a t e d e v e l o p m e n ta l t r e n d s o f s e l f a d j u s tm e n t and o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h p e r c e i v e d f a m i l y v a l u e s . S e l f c o n c e p t d i s c r e p a n c i e s s h o u ld be em p loyed a s a m ethod t o i n v e s t i g a t e c h a n g e s i n s e l f c o n c e p t d u r in g a h i g h s c h o o l v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n c l a s s . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h s h o u ld b e c a r r i e d o u t t o r e f i n e t h e Q - s o r t t e c h n i q u e f o r u s e i n t h e h i g h s c h o o l w i t h n o n - t h e r a p e u t i c p r o j e c t s s u c h a s v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g . S e l f , S e l f I d e a l , M o th er, F a t h e r , M other I d e a l , and F a t h e r I d e a l c o n c e p t s may a l l p r o v e u s e f u l i n t h e d i s c o v e r y o f r o l e and v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e s t u d e n t s . A d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h s h o u ld b e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g i n t r a - p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s , a s d e r i v e d b y t h e Q - s o r t t e c h n i q u e , i n c o m b in a t io n w i t h i n t e r p e r s o n a l d a t a a l r e a d y commonly em ployed b y g u id a n c e w o r k e r s . Su ch r e s e a r c h b a s e d on 121}. | a c t u a r i a l methods sh o u ld be u se d by h i g h s c h o o l v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lo r s as an a id t o c o r r o b o r a t e c l i n i c a l l y b a se d ju d g m e n ts, A fo llo w up stu d y on t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n should be made f o r s e v e r a l p u r p o s e s : ( 1 ) to g a in i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t th e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p t s ; ( 2 ) to compare th e r a t i n g s o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e , made by t h e v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lin g s p e c i a l i s t s , to a c t u a l job e n t r y , job s u c c e s s , and job s a t i s f a c t i o n ; and ( 3 ) to d i s c o v er i f th e s t a t e d v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s made by t h e t w e l f t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s were r e l a t e d t o th e v o c a t io n s th e y a c t u a l l y s e l e c t e d . SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY S E L E C T E D B IB L IO G R A P H Y 1 . 2 . 3 . !(.. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9 . 10. 11. 12. A l l p o r t , Gordon W. P e r s o n a l i t y : A P s y c h o l o g i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Hew Y ork: H o l t , 1 9 3 7 . 5 8 o p p . __________ . "The Ego i n C ontem porary P s y c h o lo g y ," P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e v ie w , 50:L|.5l-78, 19U-3 - __________ . Becoming: B a sic C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r a P sy ch o lo g y of P e r s o n a l i t y . Hew Haven: Y ale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1955. 106 p p . A n g y al, A, F o u n d a tio n s f o r a S c ie n c e o f P e r s o n a l i t y . Hew York! Commonwealth Fund, l§l|.l. 398 p p . A n a s t a s i , Anne. P s y c h o l o g i c a l T e s t i n g . Hew Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 195i{-. 582 p p . A n sb a c h e r, H. L . , and Rowena R. A n s b a c h e r. The I n d i v id u a l- P s y c h o lo g y o f A l f r e d A d l e r . Hew York: B a sic Books! 1935. 9®(Tpp! A u s u b e l, D avid P. Ego D evelopm ent and P e r s o n a l i t y D i s o r d e r s : A D e v elo p m en tal A pproach t o P sy ch o t h e r a p y . Hew York: Grune and S t r a t t o n , 1952. 5 l6 p p . A u te n , Jam es. "How S tu d e n ts S e l e c t V o c a t i o n s ," C le a r in g H o u se, 2 6 :1 7 5 -7 8 , Hovember, 1951. B e r d ie , R alp h F. " V a l i d i t y o f t h e S tr o n g V o c a tio n I n t e r e s t B la n k ," P ro c e e d in g s o f t h e C o n fe re n ce on I n t e r e s t M e a s u re m e n t^ Universi~by o f M in n e so ta , 1955V 5^--56, i n J . G. D a r le y and Theda H agenah, V o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t M easurem ent. M i n n e a p o l is : U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n eso ta P r e s s , 1955. 279 pp. B e r t o c c i , P e t e r A. " P s y c h o l o g i c a l S e l f , Ego, and P e r s o n a l i t y , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R eview , 5 2 :9 1 - 9 9 . 19lf5. B i l l s , R. E . , E. L. Vance, and D. S. McLean, "An In d ex o f A d ju stm en t and V a lu e s ," J o u r n a l o f Con- s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y , 1 5 :1 3 5 -3 8 , 1 9 5 l! B la k e , R o b e rt R ., and Jan e Mouton. " P e r s o n a l i t y , " A nnual Review o f P s y c h o lo g y . 1 0 :2 1 9 -2 0 , 1959. 127 1 3 . Ik* 15. 1 6 . 17. 1 8. 19. 20. 2 1. 22. 23* B lo ck , J a c k . "A Com parison o f F o rced and U n fo rced Q -S o rtin g P r o c e d u r e s ," E d u c a ti o n a l and P sycho l o g i c a l M easurem ent, l6 :ij.til-9 3 , 1956. B o rd in , E. S . , and F. P. R o b in so n , e t a l . "Recom mended S ta n d a rd s f o r T r a i n i n g C o u n s e lin g P sy c h o l o g i s t s a t th e D o c to r a te L e v e l," A m erican P s y c h o l o g i s t , 7 :1 7 5 - 8 1 , 1952. Bower, E l i M ., and P e t e r J . L a s h o v ia n . "Q-Methodology: An A p p l i c a t i o n i n I n v e s t i g a t i n g Changes i n S e l f and I d e a l S e l f i n a M ental H e a l t h W orkshop," C a l i f o r n i a J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a rc h , 6 :2 0 0 - 205, 1955* B ro w n fain , J . J . " S t a b i l i t y o f t h e S e l f C oncept as a D im ension o f P e r s o n a l i t y , " J o u r n a l o f Abnormal P s y c h o lo g y , 1+7 r597— 606, 1952. B u t l e r , Jo h n J . " D i f f e r e n t i a l F a c to r s i n th e S e l f - C oncepts of O v e ra c h ie v in g , U n d e r a c h ie v in g , and E x p e c te d -A c h ie v in g A d o l e s c e n t s ." U n p u b lish e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, C a l i f o r n i a , 19if8. 235 PP. B u t l e r , Jo h n , and G e ra ld H aigh. "Changes i n t h e R e l a t i o n Betw een S e l f C oncepts and I d e a l C oncepts C onsequent on C l i e n t C e n te re d C o u n s e lin g ," pp. 5 5 “ 76, i n R o g e rs, C a r l , and R o s a lin d Dymond ( e d s . ) . P s y c h o th e ra p y and P e r s o n a l i t y Change. C h ica g o : U n i v e r s i t y of C hicago P r e s s , 195^. i|i}-6 pp. C a t t e l l , Raymond B. P e r s o n a l i t y : A S y s t e m a t i c , T h e o r e t i c a l , and F a c t o r a l S tu d y . Hew York: McGraw H i l l Book Company, 1950. 689 p p . C h a d o rk o ff, B e rn a rd . "A d justm ent and th e D is c r e p a n c y Between th e P e r c e iv e d and th e I d e a l S e l f , " J o u r n a l of C l i n i c a l P s y c h o lo g y , 1 0 :2 6 6 -6 8 , 1954* C h ic k e r in g , A. W. " S e lf - C o n c e p t, I d e a l S e l f C on cept and A c h iev e m e n t." U n p u b lish e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , New Y ork, 1958. 88 pp. C h e in , I . "The A w areness of th e S e l f and th e S tr u c tu r e of th e E g o," P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review, 5l:30ij-“l ^ , 19lilp. Combs, A rth u r W ., and D onald Snygg. I n d i v i d u a l B e h a v io r: A P e r c e p t u a l A pproach to B e h a v io r . New Y o rk : H arper and B r o t h e r s , 1959. 522 pp. 128 p)| r C ronbach, Lee J. " C o r r e l a t i o n s Between P e rso n s a s a R e s e a r c h T o o l," p p . 3 7 6 -8 8 , i n 0 . H. Mowrer, P s y c h o th e r a p y , T heory and R e s e a r c h . New Y ork: The Ronald Press Company, 1953. 700 p p . 25>. D a v ie s , M. "The G e n e ra l F a c t o r i n C o r r e l a t i o n s Between Persons," B ritish Journal of Psychology* 2 9 :I[.0!+-2 1 , 1939. 26. D re sd e n , K. W. " V o c a tio n a l C h oice o f S e c o n d ary P u p i l s , " O c c u p a tio n s , 27:10lj.-06, 19^8. 27. Dynes, R, R ., A. C. C l a r k , and S. D i n i t z . " L e v e ls o f O c c u p a tio n a l A s p i r a t i o n : Some A s p e c ts o f F a m ily E x p e rie n c e a s a V a r i a b l e , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , 2 1 :2 1 2 -li^ , 19 56. 28. Edw ards, A lle n L. " S o c i a l D e s i r a b i l i t y and Q - s o r t s , " Journal of Consulting Psychology, 19:1^.62, 1955. 2 9 . E n g e l, Mary. "The S t a b i l i t y o f S e lf - C o n c e p t i n A d o le s c e n c e ." U n p u b lish e d D o c to r ’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , George Peabody C o lle g e f o r T e a c h e r s , 1956. 169 pp. 3 0 . Ewing, T. N. "Changes i n A t t i t u d e D u rin g C o u n s e lin g ," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1:232-39* 195fi-. 3 1 . F a i r w e a t h e r , G. V/., e t a l . "A M u l t i p l e - C r i t e r i a Com p a r i s o n o f t h e R e l a t i v e E f f i c i e n c y o f Four Psycho t h e r a p e u t i c Program s f o r T h re e D i f f e r e n t P a t i e n t G ro u p s," P s y c h o l o g i c a l Monographs ( i n p r e s s ) . 7l| P P . 3 2 . F a i r w e a t h e r , P a u l D. "The A p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f F i e l d and L ev el o f V o c a tio n a l C hoice a s R e la te d t o S e l f - C o n c e p ts, I n t e l l i g e n c e , S ch o o l A ch ievem ent, and S ocioeconom ic S t a t u s . " D o c to r’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n i n p r o g r e s s a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s , C a l i f o r n i a . 3 3 . F o r e r , B e rtra m . " P e r s o n a l i t y F a c t o r s i n O c c u p a tio n a l C h o ic e ," E d u c a tio n a l and P s y c h o l o g i c a l M easure m e n t, 1 3 : l 6l - b b , 1 9 5 3 . 3k» F ra n k , G. H. "Note on R e l i a b i l i t y o f Q-3o r t D a ta ," P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 2 :1 8 2 , 1956. 3 5 . F re u d , Sigmund. " P s y c h o a n a l y t ic T h e o ry ," p p . 3 2 -3 5 , i n H a l l , C a lv in , and G ardner L in d z e y , T h e o r ie s o f P e r s o n a l i t y . New Y ork: John W iley and S o ns, 1957. 572 p p . 129 3 6 . F re y d , Max. ’’The P e r s o n a l i t i e s o f th e S o c i a l l y and t h e M e c h a n ic a lly I n c l i n e d , ” P s y c h o l o g i c a l Mono g r a p h s , V ol. 3 3 , No. l 5 l , 1951+. 101 pp“. 3 7 . F r i e n d , J e a n n e t t e G ., and E. A. H aggard. "Work A d j u s t ment i n R e l a t i o n t o F am ily B ackground: A C onceptual B a s is f o r C o u n s e lin g ," A p p lie d P s y c h o l o g i c a l M onographs, A m erican A s s o c i a t i o n for' A p p lie d P sy c h o lo g y , No. 16, 191+8. 150 p p # 3 8 . F r i s c h , P a u l, and R o b e rt C r a n s to n . " Q -te c h n iq u e A p p lie d t o a P a t i e n t and T h e r a p i s t i n a C h ild G uidance S e t t i n g , " J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l P s y c h o lo g y , 1 2 :1 7 8 -8 2 , 1956. 39• G a in e s , G rant R. "A Q -T echnique S tu d y o f C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f H y p o t h e ti c a l ‘I d e a l 1 C o lle g e G r a d u a t e s ." U n p u b lish e d D o c t o r ’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of U tah , S a l t Lake C i t y , 1957* 103 PP- 1+0. G e ig e r, G. A . , J r . " D e c l a r a t i o n o f V o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t s , " O c c u p a tio n s , 2 0 :2 7 6 -7 9 , 191+2. 1+1. G h i s e l l i , Edwin E . " O c c u p a tio n a l L evel M easured T hrough S e l f P e r c e p t i o n , " P e r s o n n e l P s y c h o lo g y , 9 :1 6 9 -1 7 6 , 1956. 1+2. G i l l i l a n d , A. R . , and R. C olgin* "Norms, R e l i a b i l i t y , and Forms o f t h e M .M .P .I .," J o u r n a l o f C o n s u ltin g P s y c h o lo g y , 15 = ^+35-38, 1951. 1+3. G o l i g h tl y , C. L. "Mind: Body C a u s a tio n and C o r r e l a t i o n , " P h ilo s o p h y o f S c i e n c e , 1 9 :2 2 5 -2 7 , 1952. lfl+. G o o d lin g , R ic h a r d , and George M. G u th r ie . "Some P r a c t i c a l C o n s i d e r a t io n s i n Q -S o rt Ite m S e l e c t i o n , " J o u r n a l of C o u n se lin g P s y c h o lo g y , 3 :7 0 - 7 2 , 1956. 1+5* G u i l f o r d , J . P. Fundam ental S t a t i s t i c s i n P sy ch o lo g y and E d u c a tio n . New York: M cGraw-Hill Book C o ., 1956. 565 PP* i+ 6 . H a l l , C. S . , and G a rd n er L in d z e y . T h e o r i e s o f P e r s o n a l i t y . New York: Jo hn W iley and S o n s, 1957* 572 pp. 1+7. H a r t l e y , M a r g a re t. " Q - te c h n iq u e , I t s Method and A p p l i c a t i o n . " U n p u b lish e d p a p e r , 1950, pp . 3 1 8 -1 9 , i i n H o b a rt 0 . Mowrer, P s y c h o th e ra p y : T heory and R e s e a r c h . New York: R onald P r e s s C o ., 1953* L ............ 700 pp. 130 1+8. Hawk, Loon* "C oncept of S e l f a s a V a r i a b l e i n A d o le s c e n t B e h a v io r ." U n p u b lish e d D o c t o r 1s d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s , A u s tin , 1958. 135 PP* 1+ 9* Helper, Malcolm M . "Learning Theory and S e lf Concept," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 5l:l81+-9l+» 5 0 . Heywood, H arold S. "A C om p arative S tu d y o f t h e E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f V a rio u s O r g a n i z a t i o n a l P a t t e r n s o f R u r a l S cho ol G uidance Programs as Ju dged by V o c a tio n a l C h oices of S e n i o r s . " U n p u b lish e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, 195>7* 3°& PP* 5l* Hilgard, E. R. "Human Motives and the Concept of the S elf," American P sychologist, l+:37l+-82, 19i+9* 5 2 . H o lla n d , Jo hn. "A T h eo ry o f V o c a tio n a l C h o ic e ," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 6:35-1+5* 1959. 53* Hoppock, Robert. Occupation Information: Where to Get I t and How to Use I t i n C o u n se lin g and 'T each i n g . Hew York: M cGraw-Hill Book Company, 1957* 5 5 5 PP* 51+. H orney, K aren. N e u ro sis and Human Grow th. New York: W. W. N o rto n 'a n d Company, I n c . , 1950. 391 pp. 55* _ • Our Inner C o n flicts. New York: Norton, 191+5. 250 pp. 56 . H u n tle y , C. W. "Judgm ents o f S e l f Based Upon R ecords o f E x p re sse d B e h a v io r ," J o u r n a l o f Abnormal S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y > 35:398-1+27* 191+0 * ' 57* Jam es, W illia m . P r i n c i p l e s o f P s y c h o lo g y . New York: Henry H o lt and Company (2 V o l . ) , V ol. I , 1896. 689 pp. 58 . J e r s i l d , A. T . " S e l f U n d e rs ta n d in g i n C h ildh ood and A d o le s c e n c e ," The Am erican P s y c h o l o g i s t , 6 :1 2 2 - 2 6 , 1951* — 59- . I n S e a rc h o f S e l f . New York: T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , 1952. ll+l pp. 60. J o n e s , A u s tin . " D i s t r i b u t i o n o f T r a i t s i n C u r re n t Q - s o r t M eth o d o lo g y ," J o u r n a l o f Abnormal S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , 5 3:9 0 -9 5 * 1958. 131 6 1 . 62. 6 3 . 6lj.» 65* 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71- 72. J o u r a r d , Sidney, and R ic h a r d M. Remey. " P e r c e i v e d P a r e n t a l A t t i t u d e s , th e S e l f and S e c u r i t y , " J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 :3 6 ^ - 6 6 , 1955* Ju n g , C a r l G. C o l l e c t e d W orks. E d i t o r i a l C om m ittee: R ead, H e r b e r t , e t a l . P a n th e o n P r e s s , V o l. 7* Two E s s a y s on A n a ly tic P s y c h o lo g y , 1953* £13 PP* K aywin, L o u is . "N ote on C on cept o f S e l f - R e p r e s e n t a t i o n , " J o u r n a l o f A m erican P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , £ :2 9 3 - 3 6 1 , 1957- Kenny, D ouglas T . "The I n f l u e n c e o f S o c i a l D e s i r a b i l i t y on D is c r e p a n c y M easures B etw een S e l f and I d e a l S e l f , " J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y , 2 0 :3 1 5 - 1 8 , 1956. K in n a n e, Jo h n T . "The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P e r s o n a l A d j u s t ment t o R e a lis m o f E x p r e s s e d V o c a tio n a l P r e fe r e n c e ." U n p u b lish e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , Colum bia U n i v e r s i t y , New Y ork, 1958. I l l pp. K o rn e r, A n n e lie s e F. " O r i g i n s o f I m p r a c t i c a l o r U n re a l i s t i c V o c a t i o n a l G o a l s ," J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y , 1 0 :3 2 7 - 3 ^ , November, 19I 4 .6 . Kuhn, J. D. "Q-technique and the Science of Person a lity ," Indian Journal of Psychology, 2 9 :1 0 7 -1 3 , 1954. L ecky, P r e s c o t t . S e l f C o n s i s te n c y : A T h e o ry o f P ersonality. New York: Island Press, 19^.5 • 275 PP- Lehman, H. C., and P. A. Witty. "Sex D ifferences in Vocational A ttitude," Journal of Applied Psychol ogy, 2 0 :^ 7 6 - 8 5 , 1936. Levy, Leon H. "The Meaning o f G e n e r a l i t y o f P e r c e i v e d A c t u a l - I d e a l D i s c r e p a n c i e s , " J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y , 2 0 : 3 9 6- 9 8 , 1956. L iv s o n , Norman H ., and Thomas F. N i c h o l s . " D i s c r im i n a t i o n and R e l i a b i l i t y i n Q - s o r t P e r s o n a l i t y D e s c r i p t i o n s , " J o u r n a l o f Abnorm al S o c i a l P s y c h o l ogy, 5 2 :1 5 9 - 6 5 ,' 1956. Lockwood, W illia m V. " R e a lis m o f V o c a t i o n a l P r e f e r e n c e ," The P e r s o n n e l and G uidance J o u r n a l , 3 7 :9 8 - 10 5, O c to b e r , 1950. 132 73* Lundholm, H e lg e. " R e f l e c t i o n Upon th e N a tu re o f t h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l S e l f , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R eview , 4 7 :1 1 0 - 127, 19^0. 74* M a t ir e , J . G ., and R. H. H o rn b e rg e r. " S e l f C ongruency, b y Sex and Betw een th e Sexes i n a Normal P o p u la t i o n , 1 1 J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l P sy c h o lo g y , 1 3 :2 8 8 - 9 1 , 1957. 75* McGehee, Thomas P. "The S t a b i l i t y o f t h e S e l f C oncept and S e l f E ste e m ." U n p u b lish e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Ann A rb o r, 1956. 116 pp. 7 6. Mead, George H. Mind, S e l f , and S o c i e t y . C h icag o : U n i v e r s i t y of C hicago P r e s s , 1934* 4.OO pp . 77* M o u stakas, C la rk E. The S e l f E x p l o r a t i o n s i n P e r s o n a l G row th. New York! H arp er and B r o t h e r s , 1956. 2 6 4 pp. 7 8 . Mowrer, H ob art 0 . P s y c h o th e ra p y T h eo ry and R e s e a r c h . New Y ork: Ronald P re s s C o ., 1953* 700 pp. 79* M ullah y , P a t r i c k . O edipus Myth and Complex: A Review of P s y c h o a n a ly tic T h e o ry . New York: H e rm itag e H ouse, 19^3- 5 3 5 ^ 7 ... 80* Murphy, G ard ner. P e r s o n a l i t y : A B i o s o c i a l A pproach t o O r ig in s and S t r u c t u r e . New York: H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s , 1947* 999 pp. 81. N a h in s k i, I r w i n D. "The R e l a t i o n s h i p Betw een t h e S e l f C oncept and th e I d e a l S e l f C oncept as a M easure o f A d ju s tm e n t," J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l P s y c h o lo g y , lip: 3 6 0- 6 4 , O c to b e r, 1958! 82. P e p i n s k i , H a ro ld B . , and P a u lin e N. P e p i n s k i . C o u n se l i n g T h eo ry and P r a c t i c e . New Y ork: The R onald P re s s Company/ 195^» 307 PP* 83* P in n e y , M artha. "The I n f l u e n c e o f Home and S c h o o l i n th e C hoice o f a V o c a t i o n ," J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 2 5 :2 8 6 -9 0 , A p r i l , 1932. 8ip. P o r t e r , L o u is , and C h a lin e r s L. S t a c e y . " S tu d y of R e l a t i o n s h i p Betw een S e l f R a tin g s f o r a Group o f C o lle g e S t u d e n t s , " J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l P s y c h o lo g y , 1 2 : 2 4 3- 1 * 8 , 1956. 307 pp. 133 85. 86. 87. 88. 89 . 90. 91 . 92 . 93- 94- 95. 96. 97. Raymaker, Henry J. ’ ’Relationship Between the S elf Ideal and Maladjustment.” Unpublished Doctor’ s d isse r ta tio n , Vanderbilt U niversity, N ash ville, 1956. 114 PP* Redl, F r itz , and David Wineman. Children W ho Hate. Glencoe, I llin o is : The Free Press, 195l« 2l£ 5 " pp. Reisner, Martin. "A Comparative In v estig a tio n of Per so n a lity Factors Associated with Appropriate and Inappropriate Levels of Vocational A sp iration .” Unpublished Doctor1s d isse r ta tio n , New York U n iversity, 1956. 127 PP* Rerastad, R ., and J. W . Rothney, "Occupational C la ssi fic a tio n and Research R esults," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 36:465-72, 195HZ Roe, Anne. "The P ersonality of A rtists," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 6 :401-06 , 1946. _________• "A Psychological Study of Eminent Physical S c ie n tis ts ," Genetic Psychological Monographs, 4 3 :1 2 1 - 2 3 9 , 19 ________ . The P s y c h o l o g y o f O c c u p a t i o n s . New Y o rk : Jo h n W iley and S o n s, I n c . , 1956. 3§ 0 PP* Rogers, Carl R. C lient Centered Therapy. New York: Houghton M ifflin Company, 1951* 5o0 pp. ___________ , and R o s a l i n d F . Dymond ( e d s . ) . P s y c h o th e r a p y and Personality Change. Chicago: The U niversity of Chicago Press, 1954- 446 pp. Rusalem, Herbert. "New Insights on the Role of Occu pational Information in Counseling," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1:84-88, 1954* Ryan, John F. "A Study of Certain Factors A ffectin g R e a listic and U n realistic Choice of an Occupa tion ." Unpublished Doctor’ s d isse r ta tio n , New York U niversity, 1953* 193 PP* Sarbin, T. R. "A Preface to a Psychological Analysis of the S elf," Psychological Review, 5 9 : 1 1 - 2 2 , 1952. S e a r s , P. S . " L e v e l o f A s p i r a t i o n i n R e l a t i o n t o Some V a r i a b l e s o f P e r s o n a l i t y : C l i n i c a l S t u d i e s , " J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1 4 :3 1 1 - 3 6 , 1941. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. lOlj.. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 13k ' S e g a l, S. J . ’’The R ole of P e r s o n a l i t y F a c t o r s i n V o c a tio n a l C h o ice : A Study o f A c c o u n ta n ts and C r e a t i v e W r i t e r s . " U n p u b lish e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f M ic h ig a n , Ann A rb o r, 195^4-. 156 pp. S h a n tz , F. C. " Q - s o r t E v a l u a t i o n C o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s as a B a s is f o r C l i n i c a l Ju d g m e n ts ," J o u r n a l o f Con s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y , 2 0 : 2 2 3- 2 6 , 1956. S h a r t l e , C a ro l L. O c c u p a tio n a l I n f o r m a t i o n . New Y ork: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1952. Ii2"5"~PP* S h e r i f , M uzafer, and H adley C a n t r i l . The P s y c h o lo g y o f Ego In v o lv e m e n ts . New York: Jo hn W iley and S o n s, 191+7* 525 pp. S m a ll, L. " P e r s o n a l i t y D e te rm in a n ts o f V o c a tio n a l C h o ic e ," P s y c h o l o g i c a l M onographs, 6 7, No. 1, 1953- 351 PP. S m ith , G. M. "S ix M easures o f S e lf - C o n c e p t D i s c re p a n c y and I n s t a b i l i t y * T h e i r I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n ^ and R e l a t i o n s t o O th er P e r s o n a l i t y M e a s u re s ," J o u r n a l o f C o n s u ltin g P s y c h o lo g y , 2 2 :1 0 1 -1 2 , 1958. S te p h e n s o n , W illia m . "The I n v e r t e d F a c t o r T e c h n iq u e ," B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f P sy ch o lo g y (Sen. S e c . ) , 2 6 : 3U J4 -— 6 1 , 1936. __________• The S tu d y o f B e h a v io r: Q -T echnique and I t s M ethodology. C h icag o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1953. 376 pp. S te v e n s , P e t e r . " I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f R e l a t i o n s h i p Be tw een C e r t a i n A sp e c ts o f S e l f C o n c ep t, B e h a v io r, and Academic A c h iev e m e n t." U n p u b lish e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , New York U n i v e r s i t y , 1956. llj.6 pp. S tr o n g , E . K . , J r . "Perm anence o f I n t e r e s t S c o re s Over Twenty-two Y e a r s ," J o u r n a l o f A p p lie d P sy c h o lo g y , 3 3 :8 9 -9 1 , 1951. S u l l i v a n , H a rry S. C o n c e p tio n s o f Modern P s y c h i a t r y . W ash in g to n , D .C .: W illia m A lan so n W hite Founda- t i o n , 1914.7. llf.7 PP* __________• The I n t e r p e r s o n a l T h eo ry o f P s y c h i a t r y . New Y o r k ! W. W - N o r t o n , 1953. 393 pp. 110. 111. 112. 1 1 3 - lllf .. 1 1 ^ . 116. 1 1 7 . 118. 1 1 9 . 120. 121. 122. 135 S u p e r , D o n a ld E . " V o c a t i o n a l D e v e lo p m e n t: T he P r o c e s s o f C om prom ise o f S y n t h e s i s , " J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e lin g P s y c h o lo g y , 3 : 2J 4 .9 — ^ 3 ^ 1 9 £ 6 . __________ • T h e P s y c h o lo g y o f C a r e e r s . New Y o rk : H a rp e r an d B r o t h e r s ! 1957* 3 ^ 2 p p . S ym onds, P . M. T he Ego an d t h e S e l f . New Y o rk : A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 195j1 . 229 PP* T a tu m , C a r l D. "T he I n f l u e n c e o f P a r e n t a l A c c e p ta n c e o f S e l e c t e d S e l f F a c t o r s i n C h i l d r e n . " U npub l i s h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f M a ry la n d , C o lle g e P a r , 1 9 ^ 6 . 103 p p . T h o m p so n , C l a r a . P s y c h o a n a l y s i s : E v o l u t i o n a n d D e v e lo p m e n t. New “ Y o rk : H e r m ita g e H o u s e , 1 9 ^ 0 . 2^0 p p . T h o m so n , G o d fre y H. T h e F a c t o r a l A n a l y s i s o f Human A b i l i t y . B o s to n : H o u g h to n M i f f l i n C om pany, 1 9 3> 0 . 3 7 6 p p . T h o r p e , L o u is P . T he P s y c h o lo g y o f M e n ta l H e a l t h . New Y o rk : The R o n a ld P r e s s , 195^* 74-7 PP* T h u r s t o n e , L. L . , a n d E . J . C h a v e . The M e a s u re m e n t o f A t t i t u d e . C h ic a g o : T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , 1929* 96 p p . T r a v e r s , R . M. "A C r i t i c a l R ev iew o f t h e V a l i d i t y a n d R a t i o n a l e o f t h e F o r c e d C h o ic e T e c h n i q u e ," P s y c h o l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n , 4 .8 :6 2 - 7 0 , 1951* T ro w , W. C . " P h a n ta s y an d V o c a t i o n a l C h o i c e ," O c c u p a t io n s , 2 0 :8 9 -9 3 » N o v em b er, 194-1* W a lk e r , J o h n H. "T he R e l a t i o n s h i p B e tw e e n C o n s is te n c y o f A t t i t u d e s T ow ard t h e S e l f an d P e r s o n a l A d j u s t m e n t." U n p u b lis h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y , New Y o rk , 1 9 ^ 6 . I 67 p p . W a ls h , Ann M a r ie . S e l f - C o n c e p t s o f B r i g h t B oys W ith L e a r n in g D i f f i c u l t i e s . New Y o rk : B u r e a u o f P u b l i c a t i o n s , T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , 195>6. 79 p p . W a rn e r, Wm. L lo y d , M a rc h ia M e e k e r, a n d K. E e l l s . S o c i a l C l a s s i n A m e ric a . C h ic a g o : S c ie n c e R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t e s , 194-9• 274- PP* 136 1 2 3 • W o lf f , W. "T he E x p e r im e n ta l S tu d y o f F o rm s o f E x p r e s s i o n , 1 1 C h a r a c t e r a n d P e r s o n a l i t y , 2 : 1 6 8 - 7 6 , 1 9 3 3 - 1 2 Wolfle, D. " F a c t o r A n a l y s i s t o 1 9 l|.0 ," P s y c h o l o g i c a l M o n o g ra p h , N o. 3 , U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , 1 9 p « 37 P P . 1 2 £ . W renn, G u i l b e r t . "T he S e l f C o n c e p t i n C o u n s e l i n g ," J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e lin g P s y c h o lo g y , £ : £ 6 - 5 9 , 1 9 ^ 8 . APPENDIX A P age S e lf - C o n c e p t I n v e n t o r y . . . . 1 3 6 Q - s o r t P o l d e r ......................................... II4 .O Q - s o r t A nsw er S h e e t .......................... lljJL T a l l y S h e e t .............................................. lij.2 138 SELF-CONCEPT INVENTORY Random Number S tatem ent. (Each statem ent re p re se n ts a c a rd .) 1 . I ohey my p a re n ts most of the tim e 0 2 . I am a lea d er i n school a c tiv itie s * 3# I am seldom c r i t i c a l of o th e r people* I** I'm slow to fo rg iv e people I'm mad a t , h u t f i n a l ly do* £* I'm a fr a id o f making m istakes* 6 , I tak e p a r t in sp o rts or club a c t i v i t i e s a t sc h o o l. 7* Teachers d o n 't seem to lik e me* 8 * I g et along w e ll w ith my frien d s* 9* Sometimes my p a re n ts are annoyed w ith me* 10. I'm u s u a lly on tim e f o r my classes* 21. I need to develop more s e lf confidence* 12 . I'm kind of loud or n o isy a t times* 13 o I know how to stucfy* 1 1 1* I save some o f my money f a r th in g s I need or want* 1 H > * I'm considered about average in th e th in g s I do. 16* I spend too much tim e stu d y in g . 17* I'm in te r e s te d in c u rre n t ev en ts0 18* I d o n 't lik e exercise* 19, I u su a lly do what I'm to ld b u t very l i t t l e extra* 20, When som ething b ig or im portant i s about to happen, I fin d i t hard to gp to sle ep a t n ig h t r i g h t away* 21. I c a n 't keep my mind on my s tu d ie s . 22. I l i k e to go on p icn ics* 23* I 'd ra th e r p la y games th an s i t around and watch them* 2i|. I w o u ld n 't want to be younger than I am now, 2£, I'm stro n g e r and h e a lth ie r than most kids my ag e, 26* I w ish th a t I were as happy as o th e rs seem to b e . 27. I d o n 't mind school* 28. I lik e anim als* 29. I'm courteous even when people a re disagreeable* 30* I d o n 't th in k my p aren ts t r u s t me. 31. I'm r e s tle s s in c la s s . 32. I h e s ita te to speak up in class* 33* M y p aren ts l e t me decide many th in g s f o r myself* 3l|* I'm p r e tty much lik e th e r e s t of th e kids* 35* I lik e to do more than my share o f th e work. 36* I have a g re a t d e al of confidence in my a b i l i t i e s , 37• I fin d i t hard to g et acquainted w ith kids I 'd lik e to have fo r frien d s* 38* Our fam ily has always had a l o t of fu n together* 39* I'm easy to please* t|D* M y p aren ts compare me w ith o th er k id s too much. 1 1 1. I ta l k over p erso n al problems w ith my f r ie n d s . l|2 . I d o n 't gp out of my way to help others* l|3* I have good p o stu re . I need advice on what to do 'a f te r high school* I*m about average i n looks* I lik e to wear b rig h t co lo rs* I f e e l lo n g ely even when I*m w ith people* X sometimes can*t help breaking in to a conversation* I am in v ite d to p a r tie s th a t th e k id s have* I have d e f in ite ta sk s or chores to do a t home* ^ ------ . I 'd r a ttm i p la y ) games tl mi a i t around trn. watch 1 th e n . 1 c a n 't keip my nind on o tu d ie s . ^ c & r t/s A A e . 1 ta lk over perso n al Jroblems w ith r.y f fien d s. 2 < I an i r r i t t d to p a rtie s tr .tt the kids h a te . I li k e Ip Lo T f V I'm p re t lik e the the k id s y Bucb re * t o f =■*---------- IQ r p aren ts o n p a re me w ith otho" kids too muoh. -t > £ > c $ r J s I an a lo u d er in e chool k c ti v lt ie s . u < 2 L 1 lik e t i wear bright^ o >loro. 3 < k e t: 1 3 I knotf hfw to study « d to set fto q u w ith kids friondo tO h A T O T eftch o rs to lik e f f I lik e ani aals *t seen Sometimes p aren ts w ith t ea nir • T l I d o n 't >ljke exercisi . I usually] d i I'm to ld B U r l i t t l e eat* i, what wary When sometl im portant happen. I hard to g < n . n ig h t i 1 nnod ta * r r t a e l ‘ donee. levclep lo n fi- 1 d o n 't mini school. Cur fam ily always hi d o f fun toi I ! " cour»f>i“ eren when pe*>ie a re diaagrefalbe. I obey my most o f thi I parents tim e. even vh I'm easy please sy to I X int lev ii I'm in tA re e te d in e u r m n t lev in ts . I'm ebcui in looksl u .v 8 rage T “ I h e s ita th to rpoak up ftnlclass. I'm a f r m istake I take sp o rts t i v i t i S ' ; in u su ally I 1'or my c li^ s in tin e is. I d o n 't *olout o f ny wny t-» ie lp i V .Jt----------- ' 1 am aeldoA c r i t i c a l I o f o th e r p to p la . I'm can iitm rf* about a' ei age in the th ii« i I I have a g oi t deal o f coi f: donee ir. r.y a b i l t: I save son I o f my money f o r I need o * ■ mnt. ihings ly age I have d e fin ite ta sk s o rlc lo re s to do a tfh fr.e . I'm stroj healthi< moot kii I wish tl as happ^r seem to hi t bi I were o th ers I d o n 't th L nk my p aren ts jbi is t I g e t alonj my frien d s i e l l w ith j ' t ira tar ih U J 1 w ouldn't b a n t to bo younger p.han I am now. _ 'n r e s t l e s s in ’ l a s s . \ I have gcsd p o stu rn . --» » ■ I'm kind i.f loud o r n o isy <.t timet. C , c a . t ' d s 7 I need ». .vice on vhnt to ! > a f t e r high s c s u i l . --------- ' I r V r « '.i i r , ; »rr*r r;» * . ! *i * J ? 2 /* * ? $ / A /t A 0 7 » d a lot e r . ily Lfm I d o n 'tilfk o exercioi . I usually* d i I ' a to ld b u > l i t t l e eJt* i vhet ▼ e r r I'm easy p lease sy to ' I I'm aboil, in looks! iv a rage u .hi t n ite ores r.e. |r and than iy age. I wish tl as happy seem to bi I were o th ers I g e t alom: my frien d s i e l l w ith When sometl Im portant happen, I ffeife i lo tU K M e o r \ tt m M o u t t o f i t sleep t f W o y . 9 c^rds J x mt lev i ! I'm in te re s te d in e u rm n t lev into. I'm a fra i' m istakes T * I hesitath to rpcak up Ini class. id .o 1 making I lik e t<a dp more th an ay r ih lr e - o r ■the vork. I tak e p alp sp o rts o r tiv iti.e s i i in il«b a c - . sch o o l. M n ts Le n a iy lt s e l l . I Ky p aren ts L et me decido maayl th in g s f o r m yself I ' a a lo w to people l i e b u t fin a lly I spend tim e eti mad a t . I d o n 't tl p a re n ts jtx •h Ink ay i is t a e . u 9 c - a r d s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 HOST LIKE IEJ\ST LIKE II 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 HOST LIKE LEJIST LIKE Na2ie t " iim T T iT rsin w rT T ^ T S c h o o l:_________________________ C l a s s : H our: S I ITL SII 1 2 “ 3 h 5 6 7 HOST LIKE LEJiST LIKE TALLY SHEET I I I I I I DIFFERENCES CARD CATEG O RY CARD CATEG O RY CARD CATEG O R Y CARD I - I I I I - I I I I* 1* I* 1* I - I I I APPENDIX B P ag e Q - s o r t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n I n s t r u c t i o n s t o S t u d e n t s — S e l f S o r t * # ■ • • * ■ • • • • • • ■ ■ • ■ . . 1 S e l f I d e a l S o r t .................................................................... lljZ M o th e r I d e a l S o r t .............................................................................. 1^ 7 S tu d e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e o n C a r e e r C h o i c e .................................. llj .8 Q u e s t i o n n a i r e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n I n s t r u c t i o n s t o S t u d e n t s ..............................................................................................lij.9 lUt Q-SORT ADMINISTRATION INSTRUCTIONS TO STUD MTS—SELF SORT M y name i s Mr, Moses and th is i s Mr, F airw eath er, W e a re from th e U niversity of Southern C a lifo rn ia , The U n iv e rsity and your schoolj a re cooperating in a re se a rc h p r o je c t. As se n io rs o f t h is high school you have been se le c te d to take p a rt in t h is p ro je c t. W e hope to d is cover by use of the new instrum ent which we have placed in your hands a d iffe re n t kind of inform ation about how stu d e n ts see them selves. I t ; w ill help ex p lain why stu d en ts make c e r ta in types of c a re e r c h o ices, Ti^is inform ation i s to help you and fu tu re high school stu d e n ts to make : se n sib le v o c atio n a l d e c isio n s. You have been handed a fo ld e r and a bundle o f 5 > 0 c a rd s. The f> 0 cards c o n tain statem ents which may or may not d escrib e you depending on how you see y o u rs e lf. During th e next few hours you w ill be asked to arrange th e £0 statem ents about y o u rse lf th re e tim es according to d if fe re n t s e ts o f d ir e c tio n s . F i r s t you w ill arrange th e item s on the fo ld e r so th a t th ey d e scrib e you as you see y o u rse lf now, not as you would lik e to b e . Open th e pack and look a t some o f th e item s. The numbers on th e back a re fo r use in s t a t i s t i c s and have a b so lu te ly nothing to do w ith th e arrangem ent of the sta te m e n ts. As you look a t th e statem ents you may f e e l somewhat h e s ita n t to say th a t a c e rta in item d escrib es you o r does n o t d e scrib e you. I t is n a tu ra l th a t you might f e e l h e s ita n t to express your tru e opinions i f you th in k th a t o th e rs w ill fin d o u t about them. You m gith w ish to Ionov; th a t th is need n o t concern you now. A ll statem ents you arrange w ill be turned in to numbers and th e p lace you p u t any sin g le statem en t w ill never be known. The statem ents as arranged by you must be a c c u ra te , h o n est, and accord ing to d ire c tio n s given because th is i s a s c ie n tif ic p r o je c t. Your f i r s t choice o r im pression is u su a lly th e b e s t and tr u e s t answer. D o not spend a l o t of tim e pu zzlin g over each statem ent as you a re p erm itted to rearrange item s as o fte n as you w ish . I t probably w ill n o t take longer than 30 m inutes fo r th e s o r t . You can f e e l fre e to ask questions a t any tim e. You have as much tim e as you need. On each card you have th e re i s a statem ent which you are to consider as a statem ent about y o u rs e lf. I t is e ith e r l ik e you o r i t is not lik e you. The id ea is to arran g e th e item s on t h is fo ld e r so they d escrib e you. You place th e cards under the c lip s lik e t h i s . (D em onstrate.) You place the two statem ents which a re most lik e you in th is top blo ck . (D em onstrate.) The s ix statem ents you are to place in th e next block a re to be n ext most lik e you. These nine statem ents a re to be next most lik e you and so f o r th on down to th e two jstatem ents which a re th e l e a s t lik e you a t th e bottom . The s ix te e n statem ents in the m iddle are not as much lik e you as th ese a t the top nor as le a s t lik e you as th ese down h e re . The arrangem ent of the cards w ith in the blocks i s n o t a t a l l im p o rtan t. The im portant th in g is to be sure th a t the cards in block number th re e , f o r example, a re a l l more lik e you than ary o f th e cards in b lo ck number fo u r. Remember, t h i s i s n ot a t e s t . There are no g r a d e s. You can move th e card s from one b lo c k to another as you go a lo n g i f you th in k th e change i s n e c e s s a r y , "W hen you have f in is h e d th e w hole arrangem ent sh o u ld d e sc r ib e you a s you r e a l l y a r e , Are th e r e any q u estio n s? Q-SORT ADMINISTRATION INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS— S e lf Id e a l S o rt Today we are going to arrange the cards on the fold er according to a d ifferen t set of in stru ction than those we gave you for the la s t so rt. Every person has some kind of idea about how he would most lik e to be i f he overcame a l l h is p ersonality weaknesses. This time we would lik e you to arrange the statements so that they describe an ideal person. The statements w ill be sorted so that the two statements which best describe how you would most lik e to be w ill be placed in th is top box. The six statements which are next most lik e your id eal for your s e lf w ill be placed in th is second box. In each su ccessive box the statements w ill be le s s lik e the person you would id e a lly lik e to be as you work down toward the bottom box. I t w ill contain the two sta te ments most unlike how you would lik e to be. Remember, the order in which you place the statements w ithin a box i s not important. I t is important that a l l of the statements in the upper box are more lik e the id eal you than any of the statements in the boxes below i t . You may s h ift the statements from one block to another as often as you wish u n til you pioture you rself as you would lik e most to be. Are there any questions? litf Q-SORT ADMINISTRATION INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS—M other Id e a l S o rt ThiB time we w ill sort the cards on the fold ers according to a d iffe re n t se t of d irection s than la s t week. Today we want to get the picture of what your mother would lik e you to be. You w ill arrange the statements so that they describe you as your mother would lik e you most to be, her id ea l for you. The statements are to be arranged so that the two statements which best describe how your mother would lik e you to be w ill be placed in th is top box. The two which are most unlike how your mother would lik e you to be w ill be plaaed in the bottom box. The s ix sta te ments next most lik e the mother id ea l for you w ill be placed here in th is box and so forth on down. The order you put the cards w ithin a box i s not important. I t is only important that you rank each box with statements that are more unlike what your mother would lik e you to be as you work down toward the bottom. You may s h ift the items as often as you lik e u n til you get the pioture ju s t as you think your mother would lik e you most to be. Are there any questions? STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE O N CAREER CHOICE 1. Name:____________________ Age _:_School:___________________ Print Last Name F ir st 2. Address* 3. Living with* (check one) Father:____ Mother:____ Both:____ STOP AND W AIT FOR INSTRUCTIONS 4 . F ather's Occupation:____________________ Kind o f work: 5 . Mother's Occupation: Kind of work: STOP AND W AIT FOR INSTRUCTIONS 6 . What kind of work do you expect to do during your adult lif e ? 7. What w ill be the major d u ties of such a job? 80 Reasons fo r your choice are: 9. H ow much education w ill you need? 10. What other ob stacles w ill you have to overcome to get in to th is kind of work? 11. Are finances availab le fo r you to obtain the kind of education you need? 12. What is the second choice for your l i f e ' s work? 13. What is your high school major?_________Previous major i f changed?____________ 14. What subjects have you lik ed most in high school? F ir st choice:__________________ Second choice: _________________ 15. What subjects have you lik ed le a s t in high school? 16. L ist school a c t iv it ie s you p a rticip a te in . 17. L ist your out of school a c t iv it ie s and hobbies: 18. What kind of jobs have you had? (part tim e, vacation , e t c .) 19. Do you prefer working by y ou rself or w ith others? 20. W hen you have fin ish ed your work and can do whatever you want, what do you do? j 21. I want th is inform ation to be given to m y school counselor to help m e in my ohoice of a l i f e ' s work. Yes No____ 149 QUESTIONNAIRE ADMINISTRATION INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS This questionnaire is to he f i l l e d out to help a group of voca tio n a l counselors estim ate the appropriateness of your choice of career. I f you want the information on th is form made availab le to your school counselor so he can help you in choosing your career check "yes” on item, no, 21, I f you cheok "no" the questionnaire w ill be destroyed a fter i t s use by the vocational counselors studying your choice. Are there any questions? You w ill n otice that your questionnaire t e l l s you to stop a fter f i ll i n g out the f i r s t three questions and to w ait for further instruc tio n s, Start now and f i l l out the f ir s t three questions. Be certain to print your name putting your la s t name f i r s t . Are there any ques tion s? Question no. 4 on your fa th er's occupation must be answered very , ca re fu lly . State h is p osition as s p e c ific a lly as you can. For instan ce, i f your father is an engineer t e l l what h is duties are, not what company he works fo r. Be careful to describe the kind of work he a ctu a lly does. I f your father i s not liv in g with you, please give the occupation of the head of your household. Are there any questions? I f n o t , c o m p l e t e q u e s t i o n s 4 a n d 5 a n d B t o p a n d w a i t f o r i n s t r u c t i o n s b e f o r e a n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n n o . 6 . Question no. 6 about the kind of work you plan to do in your adult l i f e is the most important question on the sh eet. State the kind of work you b elieve you w ill a ctu a lly be doing in adult l i f e . I f you plan on entering m ilita ry service or co lleg e sta te the kind of work you w ill do a fte r th is tim e. I f you plan to make m ilita ry service a career please sta te the branch and answer the other questions in the same way you would i f you were going to take a c iv ilia n job. Be oareful to sta te what you w ill be doing as you understand i t now, not what you would lik e to do i f circumstances were d ifferen t for you. Are there any questions? Complete the remainder of the questionnaire. APPENDIX C P ag e S t u d e n t I n f o r m a t i o n S h e e t .................................................... l £ l I n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e J u d g e s ............................................... 1 $ 2 Two-Way C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f O c c u p a t i o n s ............................1^3 R a t i n g S h e e t ....................................................................................1 l£ l I S T U D E N T IN F O R M A T IO N S H E E T 1. N am e Sex_____ School_ _ Last F irst 2• Race__________________Language spoken, in the hom e_ 3. Grade average______________________________________ Highest subject _____________________ Lowest________________ (v isu a l inspection) 4* I.Q , Test_____________________________________________ Grade Test________ Lang._____ Non Lang._______ Ave.________ Grade Test________ Lang._____ Non Lang._______ Ave.________ Grade_ 5. Achievement te s t_____________ Result_________________ Grade_ Test________ Results Grade_ Test________ Results_________________________________ Grade_ 6. Aptitude t e s t _________________ Result_________________ Grade 7. In terest t e s t_________________ Results________________ Grade_ 8. Other t e s ts ___________________________________________ Grade_ 9. Additional informations 10. Teacher commentst 152 INSTRUCTIONS T O T H E JU D G ES You are asked to rate the appropriateness of the student’ s vocational choices on two continuums: ( l ) f ie ld of choice and (2) le v e l of ch oice. Roe’s "Two-Way C la ssific a tio n of Occupations" has been provided you to serve as a b a sis upon which you w ill rate the appropriateness of ohoices. You have been given the "Student Ques tionnaire" which includes h is stated vocational choice, reasons for i t , what he expects the d a ily work to c o n sist o f, and other career data. In completing the questionnaire, students were in stru cted as follow s in sta tin g th e ir vocational choice: "State the kind of work you b e lie v e you w ill a c tu a lly be doing in adult l i f e . I f you plan on entering the m ilita ry service as a career, please sta te the branch and answer the other questions in the same way you would i f you were going to take a c iv ilia n job . Be carefu l to sta te what you w ill be doing as you understand i t now, not what you would lik e to do i f circumstances were d iffe re n t." Rate the appropriateness of the stu d en t’s choices in terms of f ie ld and le v e l by checking the appropriate squares on the sc a les pro vided. C riteria which w ill be cen tral in the rating process w ill be: ( l ) the degree of opportunity the student seems to have to a ctu a lly enter the vocation se lec ted in terms of the educational background, socio-econom ic sta tu s, and fa th e r 's occupation, (2) a b ility and aptitude to perform the type of task s required in t h is work, (3) achievement to date in school and in actual working situ a tio n s, (4) inventoried and stated in te r e s ts , (5) student understanding of and Information about the work which he has chosen, and (6) p erso n a lity fa c to r s. You are to choose other c r ite r ia when app licable to in d ivid ual cases. In rating the appropriateness of ch oice, a "1" rating i s given when no fie ld s seem more appropriate than the one chosen and when a l l or nearly a l l other f ie ld s are le s s appropriate. A "2" rating i s given when some f ie ld s seem more appropriate, but most f ie ld s seem le s s appropriate. A "3" rating i s given when the judge can not determine whether or not a greater number of appropriate f ie ld s are above or below the choice of the student. A ’ ’4" rating i s given when most other fie ld s seem more appropriate than the stu d en t's choice, but some seem le s s appropriate. A "5" rating i s given when a l l or nearly a l l fie ld s seem more appropriate and none seem le s s appropriate than the stu d en t's ch oice. The same c r ite r ia as stated above fo r f ie ld of ohoioe w ill a lso be applicable for le v e l of choice. T a b l e 1 1 .3 . T w o - W a y C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f O c c u p a t i o n s Group Levr! I, Service II. Business Contact II I, Organisation IV. Technology V. Outdoor V II. Science V II. General Cultural V III. A rts and 1 P e rM u l therapist* Social work super visors Counselor* Prom oters United States Presi dent and Cabinet officers Industrial tycoons International banker* Inventive geniuses Consu 1 1ing or chief engineers Ships* com manders Consulting specialists Research scientists University, college faculties Medical specialists M useum curators Suprem e Court Justices U niversity, college faculties Prophets Scholars Creative artists Performers, great Teachers, univer sity equivalent M useum car*tor* Social workers Occupational tber- aputs Probation, tru an t officer* (with training) Promoters Public relations counselors Certified public accountants Business and govern ment executives Union officials Brokers, average Applied scientists Factory managers Ships* officers Engineers Applied scientists Landowners and operator*, large Landscape archi tects Scientists, serai- independent Nurse* Pharm acists Veterinarians Editors Teachers, high schdol and ele m entary Athletes A rt critic* Designer* M usic arranger* 3 YM CA officials D etectives, police sergeants Welfare workers C ity inspectors Salesmen: auto, bond, insurance, etc. Dealers, retail and wholesale Confidence men A ccountants, aver- age Em ploym ent man- agrrs Owners, catering, dry-cleaning, etc. Aviators Contractors Foremen (D O T I) Radio operators C ounty agents Farm owners Forest ranger* Fish, game wardens Technicians, medi cal. X -ray, m useum W eather obeerrer* Chiropractor* Justice* of the Peace Radio announcer* Reporters Librarian* Ad writer* Designers Intenor decorator* Showmen 4 Barbers Chefs Practical nurse* Police mea Auctioneers Buyers (D O T I) House canvassers Interviewers, poll Cashiers Clerks, credit, ex press, etc. Foremen, ware house ' S a W le rk s Blacksmiths Electricians Foremen (D O T II) M echanics, aver- •r Laboratory testers, dairy products, etc. Miners Oil well drillers Technical assist ants Law clerks Advertising artists Decorators, window, etc. Photographers Racing car d riv en 5 Taxi drivers General home workers W aiters C ity firemen Peddler* Clerks, file, stock, etc. Votaries Runner* Typists Bulldozer opera tors Deliverymen Sm elter workers T ruck drivers Gardeners Farm tenants Team sters, cow- punchers M iner's helpers Veterinary hospital attendants n ia stra to n , greet ing cards Showcard writer* Stagehands Cham bermaids H ospital alteoda& ti Elevator operators Watchmen Messenger boys Helpers Laborer* Yardmen D airy hands Farm laborers Lum berjacks Nontechnical helpers in scientific organ ixataoa i$ k R A T IK G S H E E T Student: ________________ School_i______________________ CPrint Last Name) (F ir st) F ir st Choice Vocation:_____________________ F ield : L evel: F ield Level Total 1. A most appropriate choioe____________________________ _______ _______ 2. Appropriate, but not a most appropriate choice _____ _______ _______ 3. Questionable appropriateness_________________________ _____ _____ 4. Inappropriate, but not a most inappropriate choioe _____ _______ _______ 5. A most inappropriate choice _ _____ More appropriate fie ld s : ( l ) ___________________ (2)____________________ More appropriate le v e ls : ( l ) ___________________ (2)___________________ Second Choice Vocation:_____________________ F ield :_____ Level:____ F ield Level Total 1. A most appropriate choice____________________________ _______ _______ 2. Appropriate, but not a most appropriate choice _ _______ 3. Questionable appropriateness _ _____ _____ 4. Inappropriate, but not a most inappropriate choice ___________ 5. A most inappropriate choice__________________________ _______ _______ More appropriate fie ld s :____( l ) _________________ (2) More appropriate le v e ls : ( l ) (2)____________________ Vocational p o s s ib ilit ie s : ___( l ) _________________ (2)___________________ J udge: APPENDIX D a ta Sum m ary S h e e t S t u d e n t R e p o r t Form D A T A S U M M A R Y SH E E T 156 Nam e __________ ______________________ School__________________ F ir st Choice Appropriateness of F ield ________ Appropriateness of Level___ Second Choice Appropriateness of F ie ld Appropriateness of Level___ Stated Choice of F ield ________ Stated Level of Choice ___ I.Q .___________ (Highest in te llig e n c e t e s t a fte r the th ird grade) Achievement (L atest achievement t e s t ) Sooio-economic statu s___________ (Warner e t c .) " Q 1 1 Sort I -I I I I -I I I I -I I I_______ Z Score I - I I I I -I I I I -I I I ST U D E N T R E P O R T F O R M S T U D Y U SING T H E Q -SO RT AS A PR E D IC T O R O F T H E APPR O PR IA TEN ESS O F V O C A T IO N A L C H O IC E (Senior Students of the Inglewood High School - 1958-59) Student1 s Name:________________________________________ Pe ri od : Judges Composite Rating of appropriateness of vocational f ie ld : Judges Composite Rating of appropriateness of vocational le v e l: C orrelation R esults: The S e lf Concept as related to the Ideal S e lf Concept: The S e lf Concept as related to the Mother Ideal Concept: The Ideal S e lf Concept as related to the Mother Ideal: Vocational P o s s ib ilitie s : Not enough information was availab le to form a basis of judgment: Information was co n flictin g or otherwise inadequate for judgment: Further counseling and c la r ific a tio n appears to be called fo r: APPENDIX I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n M a t r ix . . . . INTERCORRELATION M ATRIX 1 2 3 It 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 A ppropriateness of F ie ld 1s t choice (1 ) A ppropriateness o f Level 1s t choice (2) • 3 k + A ppropriateness of F ie ld 2nd choice (3) •37+ .11 A ppropriateness o f Level .27* 2nd choice (it) -•oit .11 S ta te d Level (5) -*33+ -.U 6+ -.1 7 -.0 7 In te llig e n c e ( 6) *19 •33+ .08 .13 Achievement (7) .17 #12 .08 .00 Socio-Economic S tatus (8) - . 0 1 ; .30* .12 i . o S e lf-S e lf Id e a l Q -sort values (9 ) -.1 2 -.0 8 .06 .09 S e lf Ideal-M other Id e a l Q -sort Values i (10) - o06 .27* .0 6 .12 Self-M other Id e a l Q -sort values I (11) C N J H 0 1 -.0 8 . 0 1; .1 1 .25* 33+ 1 1 1 * •66+ o53+ .36* .23* .05 .12 .00 ,1 ;0+ .3 1 * .28* .32* .37+ »33+ .19 .08 .05 •82+ . 31+ NOTE: Q -sort values were computed by the use o f F is h e r's Z. ^ S ig n ific a n t a t th e .05 le v e l o f confidence* +S ig n ificaiit a t th e #01 le v e l of confidence.. 159 i

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The Appropriateness Of Field And Level Of Vocational Choice As Related Toself-Concepts, Intelligence, School Achievement, And Socioeconomic Status

PDF

An Instrument For The Measurement Of Cognation: The Cognition Of Social Interaction

PDF

The Relationship Of Creative Thinking Abilities To School Achievement

PDF

Parental Support Of Independent Free Schools. Determinant And Value Implications For Public School Counselors: An Exploratory Study

PDF

The Effects Of Individual Counseling On Selected Groups Of Underachievingstudents With High Ability

PDF

Positional Response Set In The Multiple Choice Examination

PDF

Attitudes Of Student Ethnic Groups On Issues Related To Education

PDF

An Investigation Of Leader And Member Helpfulness In Group Counseling

PDF

An Evaluation Of Hutt Adaptation Of The Bender-Gestalt Test

PDF

Relationships Among Self-Concepts, Ideal Self-Concepts And Stereotypes Ofprobable And Ideal Occupational Choices

PDF

The Relationship Of A Collaborative Counseling Technique To The Patterns Of Enrollment, Curricular Choice And Curricular Achievement At The Community College

PDF

A Measurement Of Attitudinal Change Following A Ten-Week Guidance Class: A Semantic Differential Study

PDF

The Relationships Of Classroom Climate To Teachers' Knowledge Of Pupils' Sociometric Status, Manifest Anxiety, Ability, Achievement, And Socioeconomic Status

PDF

A Comparative Analysis Of Three Approaches To Beginning Reading

PDF

Probation Camp Schools And Recidivism

PDF

Characteristics Of High And Low Achieving High School Seniors Of High Average Academic Aptitude

PDF

Comparison of the reasons for Adventist youth choosing an Adventist or a non-Adventist post-secondary school and the validity of the basis for their choice

PDF

The Use Of Q-Sort Technique In Investigating Changes In Self-Concept And Self-Adjustment During A General Psychology Course

PDF

Experiential Group Counseling With Intern Teachers

PDF

Correlates Of College Choice Satisfaction

Asset Metadata

Creator Moses, Darrell Lee (author)

Core Title The Relationship Of Self-Concept Discrepancies To Vocational Choice, Intelligence, School Achievement, And Socioeconomic Status

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,Education, Guidance and Counseling,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Carnes, Earl F. (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member), Brackenbury, Robert L. (committee member), Brown, Charles M. (committee member), Michael, William B. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-63026

Unique identifier UC11358049

Identifier 6002350.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-63026 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6002350.pdf

Dmrecord 63026

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Moses, Darrell Lee

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA