The Novels Of Joyce Cary In Relation To His Critical Writings

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Content T his d isserta tio n has been 61— 6307
m icro film ed ex a ctly as receiv ed
SALZ, Paulina June, 1927-
THE NOVELS OF JOYCE CARY IN RELATION
TO HIS CRITICAL WRITINGS.
U n iversity of Southern C alifornia
P h.D ., 1961
Language and L iteratu re, m odern
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
TH E N O V ELS OF JO Y C E CARY
IN R E L A T IO N TO HIS C R IT IC A L W RITINGS
by
P a u lin a June S alz
A D is s e r ta tio n P r e s e n t e d to th e
F A C U L T Y OF TH E G R A D U A TE SCHOOL
U N IV ER SITY OF SO U T H E R N C A LIFO R N IA
In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t of th e
R e q u ir e m e n ts fo r the D e g r e e
DO CTO R O F PH ILO SO PH Y
(E n g lish )
June 1961
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N C A LIFO R N IA
GRADUATE SCHOOL.
UN IV ER SITY PA RK
L O S A N G E LE S 7 , C A L IFO R N IA
This dissertation, written by
...................Pa.ulixia.J.ua.e..5alz..........................
under the direction of h& .¥,—.Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Dean of
the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of
requirements for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
Date. J u n e ,...1.9.61....................................
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
.......
Q . CMurman
C O N T EN T S
P a g e
IN T R O D U C T IO N ................................................................................................ iii
C hapter
I. JO YCE C A R Y 'S PH IL O SO P H IC A L A N D C R ITIC A L
P O S IT IO N ...................................................................................... 1
II. THE NO V ELS OF A F R IC A ......................................................... 38
III. THE N O V ELS O F C H ILD H O O D .............................................. 63
IV. THE F IR ST T R IL O G Y ..................................................................... 83
V. A F E A R F U L JOY A N D TH E M O O N L IG H T ..................... 146
VI. THE SEC O N D T R IL O G Y ............................................................ 178
VII. CONCLUSION . ............................................................... 259
B IB L IO G R A P H Y ................................................ 286
ii
INTRO DUCTIO N
J o y c e C a r y 's w o r k in t e r e s t e d m e a s a su b jec t fo r a d o c to r a l d is
s e r ta tio n b e c a u s e I found in h im a m a tu re and th ou gh tfu l w r ite r , one
w ith a w o rth y p u r p o se . C ary b e lie v e d th at th e n o v el sh o u ld en a b le th e
w o r ld "to c o n te m p la te and u n d ersta n d it s e lf ." He c o n s id e r e d h im s e lf a
p h ilo s o p h ic a l n o v e lis t and s e t out to e x p r e s s a c o m p r e h e n siv e p h ilo
so p h ic a l a ttitu d e to w a rd th e w o r ld - - h is b e lie f in a p e r s o n a l God and a
p e r s o n a l u n iv e r s e in w h ich m an is both fr e e and is o la te d . H is b ook s
a r e fa r -r a n g in g m a p s o f th e tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y s c e n e , r e v e a lin g h is
id e a s about m e ta p h y s ic s , e th ic s , s o c io lo g y , te c h n o lo g y , a r t, p o lit ic s ,
and th e r e la tio n s h ip s , both p e r m a n e n t and ch an gin g, b e tw e en m e n and
w o m en . He w a s c o n c e r n e d w ith th e e s s e n t ia l p r o b le m s of hum an l i f e - -
p h ilo s o p h ic a l, m o r a l, and e c o n o m ic - - in th is m o s t d iffic u lt and c h a o tic
of e r a s , th e m o d e r n p e r io d in w h ich tr a d itio n a l c o d e s of life h a v e b ro k en
dow n and new c o d e s m u s t be c r e a te d e a c h d ay. Of eq u a l im p o rta n c e
w ith h is id e a s w a s h is a b ility to p r e s e n t th em in m o v in g and d r a m a tic
fo rm : "As it is a p h ilo s o p h e r 's job to m a k e s e n s e of lif e to the m in d
. . . s o it is a n o v e lis t 's job to m ak e s e n s e of it to the fe e lin g s ." He
w a s a w r ite r w h o c h o se "the w id e s t p o s s ib le sta g e " fo r h is a c tio n s , and
on th is sta g e he p la c e d c h a r a c te r s w ho h ave th e g rip p in g v ita lity and
c o n tr a d ic to r y c o m p le x ity of r e a l hum an b e in g s - - c h a r a c t e r s in w hom
one b e lie v e s and w ith w h om one b e c o m e s in v o lv ed . He w a s c o n c e r n e d
n o t w ith c r in g in g s c h iz o p h r e n ic s , n o r w h in in g h o m o s e x u a ls , n or d o p e-
rid d en w e a k lin g s w h o a r e lit t le m o r e th an p u p p ets and b la m e th e u n i
v e r s e fo r th e ir ow n w e a k n e s s e s , but w ith r e s p o n s ib le , if s o m e tim e s odd
and e r r a t ic , h u m an b e in g s f r e e ly m a k in g m o r a l c h o ic e s in a w o r ld
w h ic h C a ry v ie w e d a s " d oom ed to b e f r e e ." W hat I fin d m o s t s a tis fy in g ,
and m o s t u n u su a l in c o n te m p o r a r y fic tio n , is h is b e lie f th at m a n is not
c r u sh e d b y a m a lig n a n t fa te but is e q u a l to an y a d v e r s it y . C ary, c o n s id
e r in g th e p o s s ib ilit y of th e o b lite r a tio n of c iv iliz a t io n , b e lie v e d th a t if
lif e a s w e now know it w e r e w ip e d out, it w o u ld s ta r t a ll o v e r a g a in and
w o u ld r e c r e a t e new fo r m s and n ew c iv iliz a t io n s - - f o r m w o u ld ch a n g e
but not e s s e n c e . B e lie v in g th u s in th e in d e s tr u c tib ility of lif e in g e n e r
a l and of th e fa m ily in p a r tic u la r , he knew th a t th ou gh th is is a g r im ,
d a n g e r o u s, and tr a g ic w o r ld , lif e is w o r th liv in g . T h is d o e s n ot m e a n
th a t he w a s a hap p y o p t im is t - - f a r fr o m it. He sa w lif e a s " b itte r ly u n
ju st" ; he r e c o g n iz e d th e u n a lte r a b le p o w e r of e v il; h e kn ew th at b e c a u s e
m a n is f r e e he is d o o m ed to lo n e lin e s s , and th a t b e c a u s e th e w o r ld is in
c o n sta n t c r e a tio n it is c o n s ta n tly d e s tr o y in g w h a t m a n h a s b u ilt. But h e
b e lie v e d th a t th e e s s e n c e of liv in g is c r e a tio n and th at m e n and w o m e n
s e e k n ot h a p p in e ss in lif e but f u lf illm e n t - - t h e o p p o rtu n ity to c r e a te .
And th is im p u ls e to c r e a te is w h at d r iv e s th em on in th e fa c e of d e
s tr u c tio n and tr a g e d y . O b v io u sly , h e w a s a m a tu r e w r it e r tr e a tin g
s itu a tio n s th a t r e q u ir e m a tu r ity .
C a ry d e v e lo p e d h is te c h n ic a l f a c ilit ie s u n til in h is tw o g r e a t
t r ilo g ie s h is te c h n iq u e w a s eq u a l to an y d em a n d m a d e upon it and he
c o u ld r e n d e r e v e r y th in g th a t h e d e s ir e d . H is c h a r a c t e r s , th ou gh o ften
s y m b o lic , a r e not m o u th p ie c e s but b e lie v a b le h u m an b e in g s . T h ey do
n o t s p e a k n a m e le s s ly fr o m v o id s or m o v e a c r o s s fa n ta s t ic , lu n a r - lik e
la n d s c a p e s , a s in th e w o r k s o f s o m e c o n te m p o r a r y n o v e lis t s , but fig h t
th e ir b a ttle s on th e m o s t d iffic u lt of f ie ld s - - c o n t e m p o r a r y E n g la n d or
e a r ly tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y A fr ic a . C ary w a s ab ove a ll a m a s t e r s t o r y t e l
le r w h o c a r e f u lly c r e a te d th e m o s t c o m p lic a te d p lo t s tr u c tu r e s and
m a d e th em a p p ea r to b e im p r o v is a tio n s . He w a s a sp le n d id s t y lis t w ith
a g r e a t v a r ie t y of m o d e s of e x p r e s s io n a t h is c o m m a n d --o n e w ho e x
ten d ed th e e x p e r im e n ta l te c h n iq u e s of J o y c e and o th e r s to n ew r e a c h e s
- - b u t one w ho w is e ly k ep t h is s t y le fr o m b e c o m in g o b tr u s iv e , s o th at
h is n o v e ls n e v e r b e c a m e m e r e e x e r c i s e s or to u r s d e f o r c e . In o th er
w o r d s, h e w a s a w r ite r w ho w a s m a s te r o f h is fo r m .
T he tr e m e n d o u s ra n g e of the m a n 's w o r k a ls o m a d e h im w o r th y
of an e x te n d e d stu d y. He w a s n o t on ly a p h ilo s o p h e r and c r e a t iv e n o v e l
i s t but a p o lit ic a l s c ie n t is t and lit e r a r y c r it ic a s w e ll. H is n o n fic tio n
in c lu d e s fo u r w o r k s on th e p r o b le m s of p o w e r , fr e e d o m , and g o v e r n
m en t: T he P r o c e s s of R e a l F r e e d o m , T he C a se fo r A fr ic a n F r e e d o m ,
P o w e r in M en , and B r ita in and W est A f r ic a ; and m a n y e s s a y s on l i t e r
a r y c r it ic i s m . B e c a u s e C a ry w a s a lit e r a r y c r it ic — w ith d e fin ite s ta n d
a r d s fo r th e n o v e l--a s w e ll a s a p h ilo s o p h e r , I p r o p o s e to d ed u ce h is
p r in c ip le s fo r th e n o v e l fr o m h is c r it ic a l w r itin g s , sh ow h ow h is id e a s
abou t p h ilo so p h y , h is to r y , te c h n o lo g y , a r t, p o lit ic s , and lo v e d o m in a ted
h is n o v e ls , ju d ge the n o v e ls by h is ow n sta n d a r d s, and, fin a lly , a ttem p t
to a s s e s s th e v a lu e of h is c o n tr ib u tio n to c o n te m p o r a r y fic tio n . I p r o
p o s e to e x a m in e th e n o v e ls in th e ir c o n s e c u tiv e a p p e a r a n c e fr o m th e
e a r li e s t , A is s a S a v e d , to th e S e c o n d T r ilo g y , but e x c lu d in g th e p o s th u
m o u s n o v e l, T he C a p tiv e and th e F r e e , s o le l y on th e g ro u n d s th at it w a s
u n fin ish ed ; s in c e C a ry w a s a w r ite r w ho r e v is e d and cu t h is w o rk e x
t e n s iv e ly e v en in th e la s t d ra ft, I th in k it u n fa ir to a p p ly the sta n d a rd s
of ju d g m en t to an u n fin ish e d w o rk .
W hen th is stu d y w a s b egun in th e e a r ly su m m e r of 1959 I w a s
s u r p r is e d at the s m a ll am ou n t of c r it ic a l a tten tio n th a t had b een g iv e n
to C ary d u rin g th e c o u r se of h is c a r e e r and th e w id e ly v a r y in g , e v en
c o n tr a d ic to r y , o p in io n s about h is w o r k in m u ch of w h at had b e e n w r itte n .
I w a s a ls o s u r p r is e d th at th e A m e r ic a n c r it ic s had in g e n e r a l b e e n m o r e
un der stan d in g of h is w o r k th an the B r itis h c r it ic s . In th e p a st tw o
y e a r s th e r e h a s b e e n a sh ift to w a rd a p p r e c ia tiv e r e c o g n itio n of C a r y 's
w o rk a s is in d ic a te d by A n d rew W rig h t's e x c e lle n t and p e r c e p tiv e little
book, J o y c e C ary: A P r e fa c e to H is N o v e ls , and e x c e lle n t e s s a y s by
H a za rd A d am s and o th er lit e r a r y s c h o la r s .
N o tew o rth y am on g th e e a r ly c r it ic is m of C ary a r e the a r t ic le s
in th e D e c e m b e r 1950 is s u e of th e A dam In tern a tio n a l R e v ie w , w h ich
w a s d ev o ted e x c lu s iv e ly to C ary, and e s s a y s by the B r itis h c r it ic s ,
P a m e la H a n sfo r d -J o h n so n and B a rb a ra H ardy. The d iffe r e n c e s of
o p in io n about C a r y 's w o rk w e r e e v id e n t in th e A dam In tern a tio n a l R e
v ie w . D onald B a rr c o n s id e r e d C ary "a c a r e fu l and p rofou n d th in k er"
and n o ted th at C a r y 's m a in in t e r e s t w a s hu m an p e r so n a lity , th at c h a r
a c te r c a m e b e fo r e p lo t. B a r r a ls o p o in te d out the tw o m a in th e m e s
w h ich he c o n s id e r e d " ca rd in a l" in C a r y 's w ork: " P r o te s ta n tism and
th e s tr u g g le b e tw e en F r e e d o m and Authority."'*'
In th e sa m e is s u e B. E v a n -O w en , w r itin g about th e c o n s is t e n tly
D onald B a r r , "A C a refu l and P ro fo u n d T h in k er," A dam In te r
n a tio n a l R ev iew , 1 8 :3 0 -3 1 , N o v e m b e r -D e c e m b e r 1950.
vii
h ig h q u a lity o f C a r y 's w o r k an d its la c k o f r e c o g n itio n , p o in te d out "the
s u p r e m a c y of th e in d iv id u a l" in th e n o v e ls , and r e m a r k e d th a t C a ry a f
fir m e d "the s u p r e m e d u ty of th e n o v e lis t . . . to a d v a n ce th e u n d e r -
2
sta n d in g of th e h u m a n p e r s o n a lit y in r e la t io n to s o c ie t y ." B ut E v a n -
O w en a s s e r t e d th a t " C a ry h a s s o fa r sh o w n h im s e lf in c a p a b le of e x te n d
in g th e t h e m e s o f h is n o v e ls in to th e c ir c u m s t a n c e s of our p o s t - w a r
w o r ld ." One o f C a r y 's n o v e ls , A F e a r fu l J o y , s p e c if ic a l ly t r e a t s p o s t
w a r c ir c u m s t a n c e s , b u t E v a n -O w e n w a s a p p a r e n tly u n a w a re of it.
A ls o in th e s a m e is s u e , in d ic a tin g th e c o n flic t in o p in io n s ab ou t
th e im p o r ta n c e o f C a r y 's w o r k , th e A m e r ic a n c r i t i c , M a rk S c h o r e r ,
r e le g a t e d C a r y to w h a t h e c o n s id e r e d th e l e s s im p o r ta n t " s o c ia lly e x
te n s iv e " tr a d itio n of th e E n g lis h n o v e l, th e tr a d itio n of s o c ia l g r e g a r i-
3
o u s n e s s .
Tw o e s s a y s w h ic h ty p ify m a n y B r it is h c r i t i c s ' a ttitu d e s to w a r d
C a r y 's w o r k a r e " T h r e e N o v e lis t s and th e D ra w in g of C h a r a c te r " by
P a m e la H a n s fo r d -J o h n s o n and " F o rm in J o y c e C a r y 's N o v e ls " by B a r
b a r a H a rd y . M is s H a n s fo r d -J o h n s o n c o m p a r e d C a r y w ith C. P . Snow
and Ivy C o m p to n -B u r n e tt.
D e s p ite h is g r e a t h is t r io n ic s e n s e {that i s , h e p la y s th e c h a r a c
t e r s a s h e s e t s th e m dow n) J o y c e C a r y d ep en d s m o s t s t r o n g ly u p on
e x te r n a l v is io n , h e lp in g u s l e s s th a n e it h e r M r. Snow or M is s
C o m p to n -B u r n e tt to know o u r s e lv e s , and to r e c o g n iz e th e m o t iv e s of
our ow n h e a r t s . . . . H is c h a r a c t e r s a r e p e r f e c t ly s e e n , and th o u g h t
in to ; but th e y a r e n e v e r p r o fo u n d ly th o u g h t a b o u t. The r e v e a lin g
q u a lity th a t M r. Sn ow a c h ie v e s by e m p a th y and in tu itio n , M is s
C o m p to n -B u r n e tt b y m ic r o s c o p ic o b s e r v a tio n , M r. C a r y o c c a s io n a lly
2
B . E v a n -O w e n , "T he S u p r e m a c y o f th e In d iv id u a l in th e N o v e ls
o f J o y c e C a r y ," A d am I n te r n a tio n a l R e v ie w , 1 8 :2 5 -2 9 , N o v e m b e r -
D e c e m b e r 195 0 .
3
M a rk S c h o r e r , "T he 'S o c ia lly E x te n s iv e ' N o v e l," A d a m
viii
to u c h e s b y s h e e r a c c id e n t - - h is ra n g e of s ig h t is s o g r e a t th at on e is
s u r p r is e d a t h im m is s in g a n y th in g a t a ll: but th e fa c t r e m a in s th at
h is n o v e ls h a v e n ot th e p o w e r to c h a r g e u s , e x c e p t th ro u g h th e e n
r ic h m e n t of our ow n v is u a l c a p a c ity .
I b e lie v e it sh o u ld be n o ted th at M is s H a n sfo r d -J o h n so n is m a r r ie d to
C. P . Snow .
B a r b a r a H ard y t r a n s f e r r e d h e r d is lik e of a fo r m , "the p s e u d o
sa g a , the c h r o n ic le s e r i a l of fa m ily lif e ," to C ary fo r u s in g it. A c c o r d
in g to h e r , "the s e r ia l of fa m ily lif e t r ie s to s u b stitu te a c c u m u la tio n fo r
s y m b o lis m and th e g a m e is h a r d ly w o r th th e can d le" ; th e " slo w ly u n
r o lle d " sa g a "has no fo r m and th e r e fo r e no s ig n ific a n c e ." ^ She a rg u ed
th a t C a r y 's F i r s t T r ilo g y f a ile d in fo r m b e c a u s e "w hen a m a jo r c h a r a c
t e r in one a c tio n b e c o m e s a m in o r c h a r a c te r in a n o th er h e b e c o m e s an
e n t ir e ly d iffe r e n t c h a r a c te r ." She c o n s id e r e d su c h a s h ift w o r k a b le
"only w ith in one n o v e l," b u t if th e ch a n g e ta k e s p la c e b e tw e e n b o o k s it
is m o r e d iffic u lt fo r th e r e a d e r to r e ta in th e r e la tio n s h ip " {p. 184).
W hen C a ry w a s a s k e d w h a t h e th ou gh t of M is s H a r d y 's c r i t i
c is m , h e r e p lie d th a t he th ou gh t it " qu ite good" but th a t he w a s n ot t r y
ing to fo llo w th e " fa m ily c h r o n ic le " tr a d itio n of G a lsw o r th y and W alp ole.
He s a id th a t he w a s not in t e r e s t e d in fa m ily lif e a s su c h but in th e f a
m ily a s th e " m ic r o c o s m of a w o rld " b e c a u s e it co n ta in s e v e r y th in g :
" b irth , lif e , d ea th , lo v e and je a lo u s y , c o n flic t of w ills , of a u th o r ity and
In te r n a tio n a l R e v ie w , 1 8 :3 1 -3 2 , N o v e m b e r -D e c e m b e r 1950.
4
P a m e la H a n sfo r d -J o h n so n , " T h ree N o v e lis t s and th e D ra w in g
of C h a r a c te r : C. P . Snow , J o y c e C a ry , and Ivy C om p ton - B u r n e tt," E s -
Isays and S tu d ie s C o lle c te d fo r th e E n g lis h A s s o c ia tio n , III (L ondon,
1 9 5 0 ), 82.
5
B a r b a r a H ard y, " F o rm in J o y c e C a r y 's N o v e ls ," E s s a y s in
C r it ic is m , 4 :1 8 0 -1 9 0 , A p r il 1954.
ix
fr e e d o m , th e n ew and th e old" and th at he a lw a y s c h o s e "the b ig g e s t
s ta g e p o s s ib le " fo r h is th e m e s .^
S o m e n o ta b le B r it is h c r it ic s to o k C a r y v e r y s e r io u s ly . F o r e x
a m p le , V. S. P r itc h e tt la b e le d C a ry th e " c h a m e le o n a m o n g c o n te m p o r a r y
n o v e lis t s " b e c a u s e of h is a b ility to r e n d e r w ith eq u a l v iv id n e s s an I r is h
co o k , an A fr ic a n d e lin q u en t, and an e v a n g e lic a l E n g lis h la w y e r . Of th e
la w y e r , W ilc h e r , P r itc h e tt w r o te th a t "an o ld m a n of th is m o r a l in t e r
e s t , h a s not, I th in k , a p p e a r e d in th e E n g lis h n o v e l b e fo r e and c e r ta in ly
n o t in th e n o v e l of c h a r a c te r ," and h e p o in te d out th at id e o lo g ic a lly C ary
w a s "the P r o te s ta n t r e p ly to G rah am G r e e n e ," th at in p la c e of C a th o lic
7
m y s t ic is m C a ry p r e s e n t e d th e P r o te s ta n t c o n v ic tio n .
W a lter A lle n 's m o n o g ra p h , th e o n ly le n g th y stu d y of C a ry u n til
W r ig h t's b o o k a p p e a r e d in 1958, c h a r a c t e r iz e d C a ry a s "the one P r o te u s
of th e E n g lis h n o v e l tod ay" and a s c r ib e d C a r y 's d iffe r e n c e to h is b a c k
g ro u n d in a d m in is tr a tio n a m o n g p r im it iv e p e o p le s and to h is h a v in g
c r e a te d a c o h e r e n t p h ilo s o p h y "on w h ic h to fou n d a n ew lif e and a new
m in d ." He s a id th a t n o v e lis t - p h ilo s o p h e r s lik e C ary a r e r a r e , fo r "a
m a n m a y h a v e the p r o fo u n d e st, m o s t c o m p r e h e n s iv e and w is e s t v ie w s
on th e n a tu re of th in g s and s t ill, w h en h e a tte m p ts fic tio n , be a v e r y
p o o r n o v e lis t." ^
A lle n p o in te d out th a t C a ry w o r k e d n e ith e r lik e th e e ig h te e n th -
J o y c e C a ry ," in te r v ie w e d b y John B u rro w s and A le x H a m ilto n ,
W r ite r s a t W ork: The P a r is R e v ie w I n te r v ie w s , ed . M a lc o lm C o w ley
(N ew Y ork, 19 5 8 ), p. 55.
7
V. S. P r itc h e tt, " B ook s in G e n e r a l," N ew S ta te sm a n , O cto b er
27, 195 1 , pp . 4 6 4 -4 6 5 .
g
W a lter A lle n , J o y c e C a ry (L ond on, 1953), p. 8.
X
c e n tu r y n o v e lis t s n o r th e V ic to r ia n s , th o u g h h is m e th o d of d r a w in g e c
c e n tr ic s r e c a lle d D ic k e n s, th e fu r io u s p a c e of h is c o m e d y sh o w ed a k in
sh ip w ith S m o lle tt, and th e u s e of th e f ir s t - p e r s o n n a r r a tio n h a r k e d
b a c k to M o ll F la n d e r s . In stea d , one of C a r y 's " m o st c o n s id e r a b le "
a c h ie v e m e n ts w a s
h is s u c c e s s in g r a ftin g on to th e tru n k of our tr a d itio n a l fic tio n , w ith
its s t r e s s on s to r y , a c tio n , and b r o a d ly c o n c e iv e d c h a r a c te r , t e c h n i
c a l d e v ic e s f i r s t u s e d in th e e x p e r im e n ta l n o v e ls of th is c e n tu r y , (p.
13)
A lle n v a lu e d th e c o m p r e h e n s iv e n e s s of C a r y 's v is io n , "w hich
h a s e n a b le d h im to b r in g in to h is fic tio n a la r g e r a r e a of E n g lis h lif e
th an an y o th er liv in g w r ite r " (p. 29), but h e th ou gh t th e n a tu r e of C a r y 's
v is io n s t i l l m o r e im p o rta n t. O th er c r it ic s had a tte m p te d to la b e l C a ry
" E x is te n tia l," but A lle n a s s e r t e d th at C a ry " is th e E n g lis h r e t o r t to the
E x is t e n t ia lis t w r it e r s , w h e th e r C h r is tia n or a th e is t." A lle n f e lt th at
" E nglan d and th e E n g lis h ca n n o t be u n d e r sto o d e x c e p t by r e f e r e n c e to
the w o r k in g of th e P r o te s ta n t, N o n c o n fo r m ist s p ir it," and th a t C a r y 's
g r e a t v a lu e w a s th e r e in te r p r e ta tio n of th is e n d u rin g tr a d itio n in m o d
e r n t e r m s .
C o m p a r a tiv e ly lit t le h a s b e e n w r itte n ab ou t C a ry in E n g la n d
s in c e h is d ea th in 1957, but on e e x c e lle n t e s s a y in d ic a te s th e g e n e r a l
ch an g e in c r it ic a l a ttitu d e s to w a r d h is w o rk . John H o llo w a y , d is c u s s in g
C a r y 's " m o d er n ity and s u s ta in in g p o w e r ," a s s e r t e d th at C a r y 's s e n s e
of " in ex p u g n a b le h u m a n v ita lity , a d ap tin g i t s e lf a lw a y s to th e c o n d itio n s
of lif e . . . s o a s to m a in ta in th e e s s e n t ia l h u m a n v a lu e s " w a s "the
g r e a t c e n tr a l in s ig h t of h is m o s t r e m a r k a b le fic tio n ." H e a ls o o b
s e r v e d th e im p o rta n t e le m e n t of m a tu r ity in C a r y 's w ork:
C a ry , in fa c t, h a s a m a tu r e m a n 's o u tlo o k at e x a c t ly th e p o in t w h e r e
xi
L a w r e n c e . . . in c lin e s to w a r d th e lo v e r s ' p r iv a te ly s u s ta in e d p a r a -
d is e of th e you n g. C a r y s e e s th a t h u m a n v ita lity , in v in c ib le in d ee d ,
is s o b e c a u s e it m a k e s its c e n tr a l a s s e r t io n th ro u g h th e c r e a tio n of
th e h o m e , th e co n tin u in g of a lin e a g e , th e c a r in g fo r c h ild r e n , and
a b o v e a ll p e r h a p s th ro u g h a h a r v e s tin g of r ic h e s of th e e a r th in l a
b ou r w h ic h m e n do a s th e ir fa th e r s d id , and h a v e to do t o g e t h e r .'
H o llo w a y c o n c lu d e d th a t C a ry sa w a ll t h e s e th in g s s u s ta in e d th ro u g h
"the v ic is s it u d e s of m o d e r n ity ," and th e r e fo r e " J o y ce C ary h a s s o m e
th in g of u n iq u e v a lu e to o ffe r to our tim e " (p. x v ).
A s I w r o te e a r lie r , C a ry fa r e d b e tte r w ith A m e r ic a n th an w ith
B r it is h c r it ic s . T he A m e r ic a n s h a v e , in g e n e r a l, b e e n m o r e p e r c e p tiv e
abou t h is p u r p o se , h is id e a s , and h is m e th o d s. In 1952, in an in t e r e s t
ing c o m p a r is o n of C ary and C o z z e n s , O r v ille P r e s c o t t d e s c r ib e d C a ry
a s "a m o d e r n m a s te r " :
H is in s ig h t in to th e in m o st d ep th s of h u m an b e in g s is p ro fo u n d . H is
u n d e rsta n d in g of th e s o c ia l c h a n g e s w h ic h h a v e tr a n s fo r m e d the
w o r ld in th e la s t h a lf c e n tu r y is im p r e s s iv e . A n o v e lis t w h o n e v e r
f a il s to t e ll a r o u s in g s to r y , h e w r it e s w ith a g u s to and s e n s e of th e
e x c ite m e n t and d r a m a of lif e w h ic h a r e r a r e in d eed in th is a g e of
m in c in g ta le n ts and lit e r a r y p r e te n s io n s
P r e s c o t t o b s e r v e d C a r y 's d eep c o n c e r n w ith m o r a l p r o b le m s : " J o y ce
C ary is not c h a r m e d by th e s e l f - i n t e r e s t and s e lf -in d u lg e n c e o f m o d e r n
s o c ie t y , by th e r e f u s a l of m a n y p e o p le to r e c o g n iz e m o r a l o b lig a tio n s"
(p. 199)- He a ls o a d m ir e d C ary fo r r e m a in in g out of h is w o r k s , fo r
le a v in g th em " r ic h w ith u n sta te d im p lic a tio n s ," and fo r not m a k in g
m o r a l ju d g m e n ts fo r th e r e a d e r .
C a ry w a s a m a s t e r of b o th c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n and s t y le , a s I s h a ll
q
Joh n H o llo w a y , " J o y ce C a r y 's F ic tio n : M o d ern ity and S u s ta in
ing P o w e r ," T im e s L it e r a r y S u p p le m e n t, A u g u st 7, 1959, pp. x iv - x v .
^ O r v i l l e P r e s c o t t , In M y O p in ion (N ew Y ork , 1952), p. 192.
xii
e n d e a v o r to sh o w in s u c c e e d in g c h a p te r s in r e la t io n to h is o th er
a c h ie v e m e n ts , but s o m e c r i t i c s h a v e c o n c e n tr a te d s o le ly on a s in g le
a s p e c t of C a r y 's w o rk . F o r e x a m p le , G eo rg e W oo d co ck d is c u s s e d on ly
C a r y 's m e th o d s of c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n and g r e a t ly e x a g g e r a te d th e m a g n i
tu d e of C a r y 's c h a r a c te r s :
th e y do in fa c t s e e m to a s s u m e m o r e th an h u m an p r o p o r tio n s , and
a p p ea r l e s s a s in d iv id u a l p e r s o n s th an a s p a s s io n a te s y m b o ls of h u
m a n a s p ir a tio n s th a t a r e at e v e r la s t in g v a r ia n c e w ith a ll th e la w s of
God and m a n . H is h e r o e s a r e th e a m o r a l p r o je c tio n s of lib e r a te d
f o r c e s fr o m th e in n er d ep th s of th e s p ir it w h ic h s e e k a fu lfillm e n t in
h u m an te r m s s o v a s t th a t it ta k e s on th e p r o p o r tio n s of a n ti-d iv in ity ,
th e p r id e of S a ta n ism .
W o o d co ck te r m s h is v e r s io n of C a r y 's h u m a n is tic in d iv id u a lism
th e u ltim a te flo w e r in g of th e c o n c e p t of m a n a s an a u to n o m o u s fo r c e
w h ic h w a s la u n ch ed in th e R e n a is s a n c e , c r o w n e d b y n in e te e n th c e n
tu r y th in k e r s lik e F e u e r b a c h and N ie tz s c h e and P ro u d h o n , c e le b r a te d
b y p o e ts lik e S w in b u rn e and W h itm an in th e h ig h p e r io d of h u m a n istic
a r r o g a n c e , and fin a lly g iv e n th is b e la te d e x p r e s s io n , (p. 239)
W o o d co ck 's d e d u ctio n is th a t C ary sta n d s at th e o p p o site end o f th e
s p e c tr u m fr o m K afk a, th a t "K afka's h e r o e s a r e a lw a y s d e fe a te d b y th e
m y s t e r io u s f o r c e s of th e d iv in e w ill," w h ile " C a r y 's p r o ta g o n is ts h a v e
an e v e r la s t in g te n d e n c y to b lu n d er th e ir w a y th ro u g h e a c h d e fe a t, p h y s i
c a l or s p ir itu a l, and to en d up triu m p h a n t in th e ir ow n tr a g e d y ."
G lenn H a tfie ld 's t h e s is on C a r y 's s t y le , b a se d o n ly on th e F ir s t
T r ilo g y , s t r e s s e s C a r y 's u s e of "the n a r r a tio n its e lf" a s p a r t of th e
s u b je c tiv e s c e n e . H a tfie ld p o in te d ou t th at J a m e s J o y c e in F in n e g a n 's
W ake a tte m p te d to r e n d e r "the p u r ity of th e m e n ta l p r o c e s s " and e x
p e lle d the n a r r a to r a lto g e th e r , co n fr o n tin g th e r e a d e r w ith th e m e n ta l
p r o c e s s d ir e c t ly , but th a t a ll d is tin c t io n b e tw e e n " o b je c tiv e stim u lu s "
^ G e o r g e W o o d cock , " C itiz e n s of B ab el: A Study o f J o y c e C ary,"
Q u een s Q u a r te r ly , 7 3 :2 3 6 -2 4 6 , 1956.
xiii
and " s u b je c tiv e r e s p o n s e " h ad b e e n lo s t . H a tfie ld 's t h e s is is th a t Cary-
had s o lv e d th e p r o b le m :
F o r th e c h a r a c t e r w h ic h C a ry la y s b a r e in e a c h o f th e s e q u e n c e n o v
e ls is a lw a y s a c o n s c io u s n a r r a to r ; c o n s c io u s , th a t is to s a y , of th e
f a c t th a t h e is t e llin g a s to r y , th o u g h n ot a lw a y s c o n s c io u s th a t it is
u n iq u e ly h is s t o r y th a t h e is t e llin g , and n e v e r c o n s c io u s th a t h e is
r e v e a lin g in th e t e llin g a s m u c h a b ou t h im s e lf a s h e d o e s . In C a ry
th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e n a r r a to r b e c o m e s i t s e l f th e b a s ic in fo r m in g
I n O
p r in c ip le o f th e n o v e l.
T w o e s s a y s b y o th e r s c h o la r s a p p e a r e d in 1 9 5 8 , r e f le c t in g th e
in c r e a s e d a p p r e c ia tio n o f C a r y 's w o r k . T h e y a r e a ls o fo c u s e d on s o m e
s in g le a s p e c t o f C a r y 's n o v e ls . H se L in d s ta te d th a t th e F i r s t T r ilo g y
o ff e r e d "the r e a d e r w e a r y of f e b r ile s y m b o lis m and e x to r tio n a te s e l f -
p ity th e o p p o rtu n ity to e x p e r ie n c e th e im p a c t of a m a s t e r w o r k ," but sh e
e m p h a s iz e d th e im p o r ta n c e of h u m o r in th e F i r s t T r ilo g y :
H u m o r, it h a s b e e n r e m a r k e d , is th e l a s t a c h ie v e m e n t o f a m in d
s t r iv in g to in te g r a te i t s e l f on a l e v e l of s u p r e m e ly m a tu r e a w a r e
n e s s . T he t r ilo g y is h u m o r in th is fu n d a m e n ta l s e n s e ; it is m e t a
p h y s ic a l c o m e d y o r d e r in g th e d is p a r a te tr u th s o f th e m o ctern w o r ld
in th e w a y D on Q u ix o te o r d e r e d th e m in th e R e n a is s a n c e .
M a r jo r ie R yan , tr y in g to c la r if y th e c o m p a r is o n o fte n m a d e o f
C a ry w ith e ig h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y n o v e lis t s , r e la t e d T he H o r s e 's M outh d i-
r e c t ly to J o s e p h A n d r e w s and D on Q u ix o te :
T he h e r o e s of a ll th r e e b o o k s a r e m e n a t odd s w ith th e w o r ld th e y
liv e in , and a ll th r e e a u th o r s fin d in th is s itu a t io n a n ir o n y th a t e n
c o m p a s s e s b o th th e h e r o and th e w o r ld . Y et th e v ie w of th e w o r ld
u n d e r ly in g J im s o n 's ir o n ic a ttitu d e is q u ite d iffe r e n t fr o m th a t u n
d e r ly in g C e r v a n te s ' a n d F ie ld in g 's , and th e to n e of th e b o o k is a c
c o r d in g ly d iffe r e n t. . . . F ie ld in g 's ir o n y , lik e C e r v a n te s ', r e s t s u p
on h is and th e r e a d e r 's a c c e p ta n c e o f a b s o lu te and t i m e l e s s
12
G len n W . H a tfie ld , " F o r m and C h a r a c te r in th e S e q u e n c e N o v
e ls of J o y c e C a r y ," unpub. m a s t e r ' s t h e s is (O hio S ta te U n iv e r s it y ,
19 5 6 ), p. 5.
^ I L s e D . L in d , " D o o m ed to B e F r e e ," N a tio n , 1 8 6 :2 8 0 -2 8 1 ,
M a rc h 2 9 , 1958.
xiv
r e lig io u s , m o r a l, and e th ic a l sta n d a r d s. J im s o n 's e te r n a l v e r it ie s ,
h o w e v e r , a r e , on th e one han d, th e r e s t r a in t s p la c e d on m a n b y h is
p h y s ic a l lim ita tio n s and b y o r g a n iz e d s o c ie t y , and on the o th e r , an
in te n s e ly s u b je c tiv e in d iv id u a l v is io n th at m u st be e x p r e s s e d , d e
sp ite th e d a n g e r s of s u c h e x p r e s s io n , if he is to liv e a t a l l . ^
A n d rew W rig h t's stu d y , J o y c e C ary: A P r e f a c e to H is N o v e ls , is
th e on ly fu ll le n g th b o o k ab ou t C a ry . T hough e x c e lle n t, it is s t i l l to o
b r ie f and s c h e m a tic to be c o n s id e r e d r e a lly th orou gh ; a s th e tit le in d i
c a t e s , it is a p r e fa c e . W right n o te s C a r y 's m o d e r n ity in h is " a ttem p t
to c o m e to te r m s w ith th e t e r m s of e x is t e n c e it s e lf " and in h is " p e r c e p
tio n of e te r n a l o r d e r , of c h a r a c te r , b e h in d th e tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y a s p e c t
of c o n fu sio n and d i s o r d e r . C a r y ' s id e a of fr e e d o m a s "a p o s it iv e
io r c e " is a ls o e m p h a siz e d : " n o w h ere in h is w o r k is th e r e th e p r e s e n t a
tio n of m a n v ic t im iz e d by a m e c h a n ic a l and in d iffe r e n t fa te" (p. 36).
P o lit ic a lly , th is m e a n t "a lib e r a l c r e e d w h ic h h a s b e e n r e fo r m e d by the
c r u e l fa c ts of the tw e n tie th c e n tu r y ," a lib e r a l c r e e d w h ic h " ta k es to o
m u ch a c co u n t of h is to r y i t s e l f to e m b r a c e an y id e a of m a n 's p e r f e c t i
b ility " (p. 39).
W rig h t e v a lu a te s th e n o v e ls of A fr ic a and th e n o v e ls of c h ild
h o o d a s a " n o v e lis tic jo u rn ey " C a ry h ad to m a k e
b e fo r e he co u ld d e a l s a t is f a c t o r ily w ith th e th e m e s of h is su b se q u e n t
w o r k s; b e fo r e , I sh o u ld s a y , h e h ad th e n o v e lis t ic e x p e r ie n c e th a t e n
a b le d h im to e m b a r k on th e g r e a t t r ilo g ie s , (p. 65)
F u r th e r m o r e , W righ t c o n s id e r s a ll th r e e c h r o n ic le n o v e ls , C a stle C o r
n e r , A F e a r fu l Joy and T he M o o n lig h t, f a ilu r e s , b e c a u s e
14
M a r jo r ie R yan, "An In te r p r e ta tio n of J o y c e C a r y 's T he
H o r s e 's M ou th ," C r itiq u e , 2 :2 9 “ 38, S p r in g -S u m m e r 1958.
^ A n d r e w W righ t, J o y c e C ary: A P r e f a c e to H is N o v e ls (N ew
Y ork, 1958), p. 31.
X V
it is n o t C a r y 1 s s t y le o f th in k in g ab ou t th e w o rld : b e h in d and b e n e a th
tim e is c h a r a c t e r , and it is th e w o r ld a s c h a r a c t e r th a t h e c a n so
b r illia n t ly d ra w in th e tw o t r ilo g ie s w h ic h a r e h is m a s t e r w o r k s . (p.
70)
W rig h t i n s is t s th a t C a r y " p o r tr a y s a g a in and a g a in th e s a m e
th r e e p e o p le b e c a u s e fo r h im it is th e c o m m o n n e s s o f th e h u m a n d ile m -
m a W hich is c o m p e llin g " (p. 7 2 ). T h e r e fo r e , "the m a n w h o m u s t c r e a t e ,
th e m a n w h o w o u ld p r e s e r v e , and th e w o m a n w h o a s f e m a le r e s e m b le s
b o th th e one an d th e o th e r but a ls o d if f e r s fr o m e ith e r " a r e th e th r e e
ty p e s w h o c o n s titu te C a r y 's w o r ld , b e c a u s e th e y a r e th e " d efin in g l i m
its of h u m a n p o s s ib ilit y " (p. 7 3). H o w e v e r , W rig h t s a y s th a t h e w a s not
s u g g e s tin g "by w a y of d e r o g a tio n th a t h e is a lim it e d w r it e r ." W rig h t
i n s i s t s th a t " C a ry d if f e r s , as a ll a r t is t s d iffe r , fr o m o th er p e o p le in
c o m in g to h a v e a s e n s e of th e s c o p e of h is lim ita tio n " (p. 1 0 6 ).
W rig h t e m p h a s iz e s th r e e p o in ts in h is d is c u s s io n of th e F i r s t
T r i lo g y - - C a r y 's s t y le , th e r e la t io n s h ip o f m e n an d w o m e n (b a se d on
■Blake's T he M e n ta l T r a v e l l e r ), and th e u n d e r ly in g m o t ifs o f in j u s tic e
an d im p r is o n m e n t. H is d is c u s s io n o f th e S e c o n d T r ilo g y f o c u s e s on
C a r y 's in t e r e s t in P r o t e s t a n t is m , in th e " p ow er of th e w o r d fo r good or
e v il," and in th e u n r e c o n c ila b le c o n f lic t b e tw e e n th e c o m p r o m is in g and
th e a u th o r ita r ia n a ttitu d e s to w a r d h u m a n a f f a ir s . W rig h t c o n c lu d e s th a t
C a r y "knew th e w o r ld and d e s p is e d it, b u t h e k n ew lif e and r e li s h e d it."
T h e r e fo r e , th e tw o t r i l o g i e s a r e a p r e s e n t a t io n "of l i f e ' s m a g n ific e n c e ,
w h ic h le a d s n ot o n ly to d is a s t e r , but a ls o , b e c a u s e of m a n 's fr e e d o m , to
g lo r y " (p. 1 55).
H a z a r d A d a m s' " B la k e and G u lle y J im son : E n g lis h S y m b o lis ts "
is a c a r e f u lly d e ta ile d stu d y d e s ig n e d to p r o v e th a t C a r y c r e a te d in
G u lle y J im s o n .th e fig u r e of th e tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y s y m b o lis t a r t is t .
xvi
A d a m s d ra w s p a r a lle ls b e tw e e n th e c a r e e r s , a r t s , and a e s t h e tic th e o
r ie s o f B la k e and J im so n : b oth a r t is t s w e r e f a ilu r e s , w e r e f r e e o f c o n
v e n tio n a lity , and tu r n e d fr o m th e ly r ic to the p r o p h e tic f o r m .^ A d a m s 1
e s s a y is s tim u la tin g , but I th in k it d is r e g a r d s o p p o sin g e v id e n c e .
A d a m s a ls o w r o te an e x c e lle n t e s s a y d is c u s s in g C a r y 's a d
v a n c e m e n t of th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y te c h n iq u e s of r e n d e r in g e x p e r ie n c e .
He a c k n o w le d g e d th e a r g u m e n t th at c o n s c io u s n a r r a tio n can n ot p r e s e n t
th e r e a l c h a r a c te r , but h e o b s e r v e d th a t
C a r y 's m e th o d in th e lo n g ru n r e a lly d o e s w ith la n g u a g e w h at th e
s y m b o lis t s c o n s ta n tly c la im e d to do, th at is , to e x p r e s s lin g u is t ic a lly
b y s u g g e s tio n d ep th s w h ic h ca n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d by d ir e c t r e p r e s e n
ta tio n . It m ig h t b e a r g u e d , fu r th e r m o r e , th a t J o y c e 's and W o o lf's S o
lilo q u ie s w e r e by c o m p a r is o n na'iVe a tte m p ts to r e p r e s e n t d ir e c t ly in
la n g u a g e s o m e th in g th at c a n o n ly b e a p p r o a c h e d --th e u n sp o k en a r e a s
of m in d w h e r e lin g u is t ic s tr u c tu r e d is s o lv e s in to so m e th in g e x p r e s
s ib le o n ly in d ir e c tly . C a r y 's a lte r n a tiv e is to u se la n g u a g e in a tru e
im ita tio n of p e r c e iv a b le a c tio n and y e t p o in t th ro u g h it to a d ep th of
m e a n in g . ^
E d w a rd C a se c a lls C a ry "one o f th e g r e a t e s t c r e a t o r s in th e
h is t o r y of th e n o v el" and "one of th e m a jo r n o v e lis t s of th e tw e n tie th
c e n tu r y ." C a se o b s e r v e s th a t C a r y 's w o r k ru n s c o u n ter to "the s p ir it
of th e m o d e r n n o v e l and , in d ee d , of m o d e r n s o c ie t y and p h ilo s o p h y th em
s e lv e s ," c o u n te r to id e a s w h ic h " p r o c la im to th e n o v e lis t th at th e in d i
v id u a l . . . m u st be d e s c r ib e d in te r m s of h is s o c ia l d e r iv a tio n ," id e a s
18
w h ic h s t r e s s th e s o c ia l o r d e r r a th e r th a n th e in d iv id u a l m a n . C a se
a ls o d is c u s s e d C a r y 's d iffe r e n c e fr o m n o v e lis t s lik e S te in and
^C r itiq u e , 3 :3 -1 3 , S p r in g - F a ll 1959-
17
" J o y ce C a r y 's T h r e e S p e a k e r s ," M o d ern F ic tio n S tu d ie s , 5:
1 0 8 -1 2 0 , S u m m e r 1959-
18
"T he F r e e W orld of J o y c e C a r y ," M o d ern A g e, 3 :1 1 5 -1 2 4 ,
S p rin g 1959.
xvii
H em in g w a y , w h o se in t e r e s t w a s in te c h n iq u e - - " lin g u is t ic in n o v a tio n s
and fr o m o th e r s lik e J o y c e and W oolf w h o s e p r o b le m "w as e s s e n t ia lly
an e p is t e m o lo g ic a l on e, a q u e s tio n of in h e r e n t s tr u c tu r e and lim ita tio n s
r e s id e n t in th e w r it e r h im s e lf ." C a r y 's in t e r e s t in s te a d w a s th e m e ta
p h y s ic a l p r o b le m , "not th e p r o b le m of w h e th e r r e a lit y c a n be know n, but
how it is c o n s titu te d , an d how it m a y b e r e - c r e a t e d " (p. 120). C a se b e
lie v e d th a t C a ry w ill
in th e lo n g ru n , p r o v e to be a m a jo r in flu e n c e on th e sh a p e and s u b
s ta n c e of n o v e ls to c o m e . F o r C a r y 's p h ilo so p h y of fr e e d o m su b
s ta n tia te s and f o r t if ie s th a t in s tin c t fo r in d iv id u a l c h a r a c te r w h ic h is
th e b o tto m la n d of th e n o v e l, (p. 120)
S e v e r a l c r it ic s w h o h a v e r e c o g n iz e d C a r y 's tr a g ic in s ig h t h a v e
tr ie d to ap p ly th e " E x is te n tia l" la b e l to h im . But a p e r c e p t iv e e s s a y by
the C an ad ian s c h o la r , K en n eth H a m ilto n , e x a m in e d th e d iffe r e n c e b e
tw e e n C a r y 's th o u g h t and S a m u e l B e c k e tt 's , a w r ite r w h o c e r ta in ly e x
p r e s s e s E x is t e n t ia lis t p h ilo so p h y .
H a m ilto n c o m p a r e d th e s im ila r it ie s o f C a r y 's G u lley J im s o n
and B e c k e tt's M o llo y :
th e ir in d iffe r e n c e to s e lf - in t e r e s t ; th e ir c o n te m p t fo r p r u d e n c e ,
m o d e r a tio n and " co m m o n s e n s e ," th e ir s e lf-k n o w le d g e ; and th e ir
ca n d id o b je c tiv e s c r u tin y o f th e w o r ld a b ou t th em . . . . The o th er
sid e of th is in d ep en d e n c e is th e ir d is r e g a r d fo r s o c ie t y and th e e t h i
c a l n o r m s by w h ic h s o c ie t y m a in ta in s i t s e l f . . . . Y et, if th e y a r e s o
c ia l a n a r c h is ts , th e y a r e n ot s o m e r e ly b y w a y of r e v o lt but on p r in -
c i p l e - - e v e n if th e p r in c ip le be an a s s e r t io n th at th e r e a r e no p r in c i
p le s . . . . T h ey liv e c o n s is t e n t ly w ith th e ir c o n v ic tio n th at th e u n i
v e r s e d o e s not,, of it s e lf , m a k e s e n s e . T h ev rep u d ia te a lik e th e God
of r e lig io n an d th e A b so lu te of p h ilo so p h y .1”
H a m ilto n th e n p o in te d out th e e s s e n t ia l d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n the
w o r ld s of G u lley J im s o n and of M o llo y - - t h e la t t e r "has no jo y in it. . . .
19
"B oon o r T h orn ? J o y c e C a ry and S a m u e l B e c k e tt on H um an
L ife ," D a lh o u sie R e v ie w , 3 8 :4 4 1 , W in te r 1 9 5 9 .
xviii
th e in h a b ita n ts of th e j o y l e s s , l o v e l e s s c o s m o s th a t B e c k e tt d e p ic ts a r e
th o r o u g h ly c a llo u s in th e ir d e fia n c e o f lif e ." He c o n c lu d e d th a t th e r e is
a " s a lu ta r y c h a lle n g e in th e p e s s i m i s t i c v ie w of lif e " b e c a u s e it c le a r s
a w a y s e n t im e n t a lit y an d d e s t r u c t iv e illu s io n s . Y et "m an ca n n o t liv e by
d is in fe c ta n ts a lo n e , and B e c k e tt 's t r ilo g y sh o w s h o w an e x tr e m e p e s s i
m is m en d s b y h a v in g n o th in g le f t to c le a n s e , h a v in g d e s tr o y e d a ll lif e in
th e m e a n w h ile " (p. 4 4 2 ). In c o n tr a s t, C a r y 's t r ilo g y , in s p ite of th e
tr a g ic e n d in g , a ff ir m s fa ith in l i f e and m a n .
O b v io u sly , th e c r i t i c s h a v e , w ith th e e x c e p t io n s o f A lle n ,
W rig h t, and C a s e , c o n c e n tr a te d on s o m e one a s p e c t of C a r y 's w o r k - -
h is p h ilo s o p h y of fr e e d o m , h is b e lie f - in m a n 's c r e a t iv it y , h is m e th o d of
c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n , h is s t y le , e tc . U n fo r tu n a te ly , m a n y of th e m h a v e t r ie d
to d ra w c o n c lu s io n s a b ou t th e w h o le of h is w o r k fr o m on e a s p e c t of it,
or th e y h a v e p r o c e e d e d on th e a s s u m p tio n th a t one or tw o o f h is f if t e e n
n o v e ls a d e q u a te ly r e p r e s e n t h is w o r k .
I s h a ll t r e a t a ll h is c r i t i c a l w r it in g s and n o v e ls , e x c e p t fo r T he
C a p tiv e and T he F r e e , in an a tte m p t to sh o w th a t h is n o v e ls a r e a v a lid
and im p o r ta n t e x p r e s s io n of m a n 's p r e d ic a m e n t in th e m o d e r n w o r ld . I
s h a ll tu rn f i r s t to h is c r it ic a l w r it in g s to d is c u s s th e p r o b le m s of l if e ,
of m a n 's p la c e in th e w o r ld , a n d o f c o n te m p o r a r y s o c ie t y th a t c o n
c e r n e d h im , an d w h a t h e th o u g h t ab ou t G od, th e w o r ld an d m a n , r e lig io n ,
g o v e r n m e n t, a r t, and th e r e la t io n s h ip s b e tw e e n m e n an d w o m e n . B r i e f
ly , C a r y b e lie v e d th a t G od and th e u n iv e r s e a r e p e r s o n a l, n ot m e c h a
n is tic ; th a t lif e is b it t e r ly u n ju st and th a t e v il is an u n a lte r a b le p o w e r ;
th a t m a n is f r e e and is o la t e d b y h is fr e e d o m ; th a t m a n is c o n tin u a lly
c r e a tiv e ; th a t c r e a t io n and d e s tr u c tio n a r e in d is s o lu b ly lin k ed ; th a t
xix
r e lig io n and p o lit ic s a r e tw o w a y s in w h ic h m a n o r d e r s h is life ; th a t
w o m e n a s w e ll a s m e n a r e f r e e , c r e a t iv e , and c o n s tr u c tiv e ; and th a t a r t
is m a n 's o n ly m e th o d of c o m m u n ic a tio n , of g iv in g o r d e r and m e a n in g to
th e c h a o tic e x p e r ie n c e of lif e .
I s h a ll th e n c o n s id e r h is id e a s ab ou t the n o v e l and h is sta n d a rd s
fo r it. B r ie fly , h e b e lie v e d th at th e p u r p o se of th e n o v e l is to m a k e th e
w o r ld u n d e rsta n d it s e lf . It sh o u ld g iv e an o r d e r e d m e a n in g to lif e 's
co n fu sio n , and it sh o u ld do s o by p r e s e n t in g an e m o tio n a l e x p e r ie n c e
r a th e r th an by s ta tin g a c o n c e p t. T he m e a n in g sh o u ld be im m e d ia te ly
u n d e r sta n d a b le and y e t n o t f a ls e to th e c o m p lic a tio n s of a c tu a l lif e . T he
n o v e l sh o u ld h a v e a s in g le th e m e , and e v e r y th in g in th e n o v e l sh o u ld be
r e la t e d to it. T he s c h e m e sh o u ld n ot b e o v e r -m a n ip u la te d , and the
r e a d e r sh o u ld n o t be a w a r e of th e a u th o r. T he u n ity of th e b ook sh o u ld
b e a c h ie v e d b y e m o tio n a l c o n tin u ity .
I s h a ll th en d is c u s s th e in d iv id u a l n o v e ls in tu rn to sh ow th a t
th e y a r e th e e x p r e s s io n of C a r y 's b a s ic p h ilo s o p h ic a l id e a s and th at h is
p o in t of v ie w w a s c o h e r e n t and e s t a b lis h e d fr o m th e b e g in n in g of h is
n o v e lis t ic c a r e e r . H is m e th o d s of e x p r e s s io n ch a n g ed , but h is p o in t of
v ie w did not. I s h a ll a ls o a p p ly h is ow n c r it e r ia to a ll th e n o v e ls to
ju d g e w h e th e r o r not h e s u c c e e d e d in m e e tin g h is ow n s ta n d a r d s. F i
n a lly , I s h a ll a ttem p t to e v a lu a te C a r y 's im p o r ta n c e a s a n o v e lis t.
CHAPTER I
JO Y C E C A R Y 'S P H IL O S O P H IC A L A N D
C R IT IC A L P O SIT IO N
F a r fr o m b e in g s h a llo w and lig h t ly h u m o r o u s, a s a c a s u a l r e a d
e r m ig h t be in c lin e d to th in k , C a r y w a s a w r it e r w ith a p r o fo u n d and
t r a g ic v ie w of l if e . H is n o v e ls , a lm o s t w ith o u t e x c e p tio n , en d t r a g ic a l
ly , e ith e r in d ea th o r s e p a r a tio n . T he e a r ly A fr ic a n n o v e ls a r e f ille d
w ith v io le n c e and d ea th . A i s s a d ie s on an a n th ea p . T he b la c k h e r o d ie s
and th e w h ite h e r o in e l o s e s h e r fia n c £ in T he A fr ic a n W itc h . T he h e r o
in T he A m e r ic a n V is it o r is m u r d e r e d , and M is t e r J o h n so n is sh o t. In
th e s e m i- a u t o b io g r a p h ic a l C a s t le C o r n e r th e h e r o and h e r o in e a r e s e p
a r a te d , and one of th e s e c o n d a r y c h a r a c t e r s c o m m its s u ic id e . C h a r le y
and L iz z ie in C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g a r e s e p a r a t e d and s e n t to s c h o o ls
fo r d e lin q u e n t c h ild r e n . T he F i r s t T r ilo g y en d s w ith th e d e a th s of a ll
th r e e m a in c h a r a c t e r s , W ilch e.r in T o B e A P i l g r i m , S a r a and G u lle y in
T h e H o r s e 's M o u th . S a r a , in H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d , th e m o s t lig h t - h e a r t e d
o f th e th r e e n o v e ls , s u p p o s e d ly w r it e s th e b o o k a s h e r m e m o ir s w h ile in
p r is o n . T he tw o e x p e r im e n t a l n o v e ls , T he M o o n lig h t and A F e a r fu l J o y ,
b oth en d u n h a p p ily , if n ot t r a g ic a lly . T h e tw o o ld e r w o m e n in T he
M o o n lig h t d ie , and th e y o u n g e r w o m a n is le f t a lo n e , d e s e r t e d b y h e r
lo v e r and p r e g n a n t. A F e a r f u l J o y e n d s w ith th e h e r o in e 's d ea th , p r e
c e d e d b y th e d ea th o f h e r s o n and h u sb a n d . In th e S e c o n d T r ilo g y the
1
f i r s t tw o b o o k s, P r is o n e r of G ra ce and E x c e p t th e L o r d , en d in d a rk
to n e s , and th e th ir d n o v e l k ills off th e m a in c h a r a c t e r s - - N im m o d ea d in
a W .C ., N in a sh o t by h e r lo v e r , and J im s e n te n c e d to d eath by h a n g in g .
The u n fin ish e d n o v e l, T he C a p tiv e and th e F r e e , en d s l e s s tr a g ic a lly ,
th e c h a r a c t e r s s t i l l s tr u g g lin g w ith th e ir p r o b le m s , but p e r h a p s C a ry ,
d yin g h im s e lf , p r e f e r r e d to le t h is c h a r a c t e r s liv e .
O b v io u sly , s ix t e e n su c h n o v e ls a r e a g lo o m y to ta l fo r a w r ite r
s o o ften la b e le d a s m e r e ly a m u sin g . T he tr u th is th a t C ary w a s a
w r it e r w ith a t r a g ic v ie w o f lif e , a v ie w th a t lif e is b it te r ly unjust.*-
L o rd D a v id C e c il, th e m o s t s e n s it iv e and p e r c e p t iv e of C a r y 's c r it ic s ,
r e m a r k e d th a t C a r y 's b o o k s a ll s e e m to r e la t e to a " broad, g e n e r a l,
p h ilo s o p h e r 's v ie w of h u m a n life " (p. 18). C a ry a g r ee d ; h e c a lle d h im
s e lf a " m e ta p h y sic a l" n o v e lis t in th e s e n s e of h a v in g a " c le a r and c o m -
2
p r e h e n s iv e v ie w of lif e ." H e s a id fr a n k ly th a t fo r te n y e a r s he had
b e e n u n a b le to w r it e , th a t i s , to c o m p le te a w o r k . Q u e stio n s a r o s e in
th e n o v e ls th a t h e co u ld n ot a n s w e r , and he c o u ld n ot fin is h th e b o o k s.
A t t w e n t y - s ix he th ou gh t h e knew a ll th e a n s w e r s ; at fo r ty he r e a liz e d
th a t h e d id n ot (p. 6 3 ). In b e tw e e n w a s a lo n g h a rd tim e of th in k in g and
s e a r c h in g , m u ch of it sp e n t w ith th e p h ilo s o p h e r s at O xford.
H e fin a lly a r r iv e d a t a " m e ta p h y sic a l" v ie w of lif e , and th en
fou n d th a t h is p r o b le m a s a w r ite r w a s to e x p r e s s th is v ie w , th a t th e r e
is a b ig d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n k n ow in g th e a n s w e r s and tr y in g to e x p r e s s
*"T he N o v e lis t A t W ork ," A d am In te r n a tio n a l R e v ie w , 18:15,
N o v e m b e r -D e c e m b e r 1950.
^ " J o y ce C a ry ," in te r v ie w e d by John B u r ro w s and A le x H a m ilto n ,
W r ite r s A t W ork: T he P a r is R e v ie w I n te r v ie w s , ed . M a lc o lm C o w ley
(N ew Y ork , 1958), p . 55.
3
th em . T h e r e fo r e , in o rd er to fu n ctio n as a n o v e lis t, C ary had to o r g a n
iz e h is im p r e s s io n of the w o rld . H is p h ilo so p h ic a l id e a s fa ll into fo u r
d iv isio n s:
1. H is v iew of the w o rld .
2. H is v iew of lif e and m e n 's and w o m e n 's fu n ctio n s in it.
3. H is v iew of a rt in g e n e r a l.
4. H is v ie w of the a r t of the n o v e l.
H is p h ilo so p h ic a l v ie w of life w a s th at lif e is a m e a n in g le ss
ch a o s, and h is m a jo r p r e o cc u p a tio n w a s th e p r o b le m of e v il. Why e v il?
Why e v il fr o m good? "I had r e a liz e d th e fu n d am en tal in ju stic e of the
w o r ld . O nce a fa c t of th at s iz e 'c o m e s h o m e' it n e v e r g o e s aw ay
3
a g a in ." In sp ite of th is r e a liz a tio n , h e d e s ir e d to b e lie v e in God, in a
u n iv e r s e w ith m ea n in g . In a c o n v e r s a tio n w ith L o rd C e c il in 1950, he
sa id , "I co u ld n 't c o n c e iv e a w o r ld w ith out G o d --s im p ly fr o m o n e's in
tu itio n of o rd in a ry lo v e w h ich ca n 't e x is t w ith out God" {" N o v elist At
W ork," p. 24). He d ev elo p ed th is id ea fu rth er in the sta tem en t:
The F r e n c h s e e m to tak e m e fo r an e x is t e n tia lis t in S a r tr e 's
s e n s e of th e w ord . But I'm not. I am in flu en ced by the so litu d e of
m e n 's m in d s, but e q u a lly b y the u n ity of th eir fu n d am en tal c h a r a c te r
and f e e lin g s , th e ir sy m p a th ie s w h ich b rin g th em to g e th e r . I b e lie v e
th at th ere is su ch a thing a s u n s e lfis h lo v e and b eau ty. I am o b lig ed
to b e lie v e in God as a p e r so n . I don 't su p p o se any ch u rch w ou ld a c
cep t m e, but I b e lie v e in God and H is g r a c e w ith an a b so lu te c o n fi
d e n ce. It is by H is g r a ce th at w e know b eau ty and lo v e , that w e h ave
a ll that m a k es life w o rth liv in g in a tough, d a n g ero u s, and un ju st
w o rld . W ithout th at b e lie f I co u ld n ot m ak e s e n s e of th e w o rld and I
cou ld not w r ite . Of c o u r se , if you sa y I am an e x is t e n t ia lis t in the
sc h o o l of K ierk eg a a rd , that is m o r e r e a so n a b le . But e x is te n tia lis m
w ith ou t a god is n o n s e n s e - - it a to m iz e s a w o r ld w h ich is p la in ly a
un ity. It p r o d u ce s m e r e ly a fr u s tr a tio n and d efea t. How can anyon e
ex p la in th e e x is te n c e of p e r s o n a l fe e lin g s , lo v e and b eau ty, in n a tu re,
u n le s s a p e r so n , God, is th e r e ? H e's th e r e as m u ch as h y d ro g en gas.
3
P r e fa c e to A is s a S a v ed , C a rfa x e d itio n (London, 1952), p. 9-
4
H e is a fa c t of e x p e r ie n c e . A nd one m u s t n ot ru n a w a y fr o m e x p e r i
e n c e . I d o n 't b e lie v e in m ir a c le s . I'm n o t ta lk in g h e r e of fa ith
c u r e s - - b u t so m e b r e a c h in th e fu n d a m en ta l c o n s is t e n c y of th e w o r ld
c h a r a c te r w h ic h is a b s o lu te ly im p o s s ib le . I m e a n a b s o lu te ly . God is
a c h a r a c te r , a r e a l and c o n s is t e n t b e in g , o r He is n o th in g . If God did
a m ir a c le H e w o u ld d en y H is ow n n a tu r e and th e u n iv e r s e w o u ld s im
p ly b lo w up, v a n is h , b e c o m e n o th in g . A nd w e c a n 't e v e n c o n c e iv e
n o th in g n e s s . T he w o r ld is a d e fin ite c h a r a c t e r . It is^ and th e r e fo r e
it is s o m e th in g . A nd it c a n 't be an y o th er th in g . (W r ite r s A t W ork,
p. 57) ■
H is tw o m a in id e a s ab ou t lif e w e r e d e v e lo p e d fr o m th is a ttitu d e
to w a rd th e u n iv e r s e . T he f i r s t is th a t m a n 's c o n d itio n in th is p e r s o n a l
u n iv e r s e is one of b oth fr e e d o m and is o la tio n . H e is f r e e b e c a u s e h e is
n ot a tta ch ed to h is e n v ir o n m e n t lik e a v e g e t a b le , and h e is is o la t e d by
th a t d e ta c h m e n t. E n v ir o n m e n t d o es n o t d e te r m in e h is in s tin c t and th us
g o v e r n h is lif e . T he s e c o n d id e a is th a t m a n k n ow s lif e p r im a r ily
th ro u g h e x p e r ie n c e , th ro u g h f e e lin g s , and th a t p e o p le liv e by th e ir f e e l
in g s . C a ry s a id th at e a c h in d iv id u a l's f e e lin g s a r is e out of u n iv e r s a l
n a tu re; e a c h p e r s o n is a b it of u n iv e r s a l n a tu r e . B ut e a c h in d iv id u a l
t r ie s to s a t is f y h is ow n f e e lin g s by c r e a tin g a w o r ld s a t is f a c t o r y to
h im s e lf .
C a ry ex p a n d ed th e id e a of m a n 's p la c e in th e u n iv e r s e in a d i s
c u s s io n ab ou t d e te r m in is m :
I b e lie v e , w ith K ant, th a t th e m in d is s e lf - d e t e r m in e d . T hat is ,
I b e lie v e in t e n s e ly in th e c r e a t iv e fr e e d o m of th e m in d . T hat is in
d e e d a b s o lu te ly e s s e n t ia l to m a n 's s e c u r it y in a c h a o tic w o r ld of
ch a n g e . He is fa c e d a ll th e tim e w ith u n iq u e c o m p le x p r o b le m s . To
su m th em up fo r a c tio n is an a c t of c r e a t iv e im a g in a tio n . H e f it s th e
d iffe r e n t e le m e n ts to g e th e r in a c o h e r e n t w h o le and in v e n ts a r a tio n
a l a c t to d e a l w ith it. H e r e q u ir e s to b e f r e e , h e r e q u ir e s h is in d e
p e n d e n c e and s o litu d e of m in d , h e r e q u ir e s h is fr e e d o m of m in d and
im a g in a tio n . F r e e w ill is a n o th e r m a t t e r - - i t is a te r m , or r a th e r a
c o n tr a d ic tio n in t e r m s , w h ic h le a d s to c o n tin u a l tr o u b le . T he w ill is
n e v e r f r e e - - i t is a lw a y s a tta ch ed to an o b je c t, a p u r p o se . It is s i m
p ly th e e n g in e in th e c a r - - i t c a n 't s t e e r . It is th e m in d , th e r e a s o n ,
th e im a g in a tio n th a t s t e e r s .
Of c o u r s e , a n yon e ca n d en y th e fr e e d o m of the m in d . H e ca n
5
a r g u e th at our id e a s a r e c o n d itio n e d . B ut an yon e w ho a r g u e s so
m u st not sto p th e r e . He m u st d en y a ll fr e e d o m and sa y th a t th e
w o r ld is s im p ly an e la b o r a te k in d of c lo c k . He m u s t be a b e h a v io r -
is t . T h e r e is no a lte r n a tiv e , in lo g ic , b e tw e e n b e h a v io r is m , m e c h a
n is m , and th e p e r s o n a l G od w ho is th e s o u l of b ea u ty , lo v e , and tru th .
And if y o u b e lie v e in b e h a v io r is m , none of th e s e th in g s h a s an y r e a l
e x is t e n c e . T h ey a r e c o g w h e e ls in th e c lo c k and y o u y o u r s e lf do n ot
e x is t a s a p e r s o n . Y ou a r e a d e lu s io n . So ta k e y o u r c h o ic e . E ith e r
it is p e r s o n a l or it is a d e lu s io n - - a d e lu s io n r a th e r d iffic u lt to e x
p la in . (W r ite r s A t W ork , p . 62)
B e c a u s e h e c h o s e a p e r s o n a l w o r ld , h is w h o le c o n c e p t of lif e w a s
one of f r e e m e n c r e a tin g a w o r ld to s a t is f y th e ir n e e d s and d e s ir e s . He
b e lie v e d th a t r e lig io n and p o lit ic s a r e th e tw o m e a n s m e n u s e to c r e a te
and o r d e r th e ir w o rld : " R e lig io n is o r g a n iz e d to s a t is f y and gu id e th e
s o u l- - p o lit i c s d o e s the s a m e th in g fo r the body" (W r ite r s A t W ork , p.
56).
F o r C ary, r e lig io n a r is e s fr o m th e c r e a t iv e im a g in a tio n of m e n
tr y in g to s a t is f y th e ir f e e lin g s , d e s ir in g so m e th in g w h ic h th e " m e r e
fa c ts of o r d in a r y lif e in s o c ie ty " d o n 't g iv e . Im a g in a tiv e d o c tr in e s
s a t is f y th is n e e d , and th u s m e n r e a c t to d o c tr in e s " w h ich fe e d th e so u l."
E v e r y c h u r c h h a s to be r e n e w e d , h a s to be r e - c r e a t e d , b e c a u s e
it li v e s in im a g in a tio n ; and th e im a g in a tio n c a n 't go on: it g e ts b o red ,
it d ie s . . . th e th in g h a s to be r e n e w e d ag a in ; and in E n g la n d , W e s
le y . . . a b s o lu te ly r e n e w e d th e c h u r c h . T h e R o m a n C h u rch , of
c o u r s e , d o e s it b y in v e n tin g s o m e n ew s o d a lit y - - b u t its th e s a m e n e
c e s s it y ; I th in k th e la s t one th e y in v e n te d w a s th e S a c r e d H e a r t, but
th e S a c r e d H e a rt . . . w a s r e v iv in g in p e o p le 's m in d s the m ir a c le of
L o v e , th e in tu itio n of L o v e w h ic h is the r o o t of a ll th e C h r is tia n r e
lig io n . . . . It h a s to b e r e v iv e d s o th at it c o m e s r ig h t h o m e to th em ,
and f e e d s th e ir im a g in a tio n (" N o v e lis t A t W ork," p . 20)
T he p e r p e tu a l c r e a t iv it y of r e lig io n , p a r tic u la r ly th e c r e a t iv it y of the
E v a n g e lic a l P r o te s ta n t c h u r c h , fa s c in a te d h im in its p r o c e s s , "Y ou s e e
th e m a n d o in g it. H e's w in d in g it out of h is c lu tc h a s y ou w a tc h h im "
(" N o v e lis t A t W ork ," p. 2 2 ).
H e sa w th e c r e a t iv it y of th e E n g lis h E v a n g e lic a l c h u rch a s th e
b a s is and b a c k g r o u n d of th e lib e r a l p o lit ic a l p a r ty in E n g la n d , and a
s u c c e s s io n of c h a r a c t e r s in h is n o v e ls p o r tr a y s th e r e lig io u s p o lit ic ia n
or p o lit ic a l c le r g y m a n : P o r f it in C a s tle C o r n e r , N im m o in th e S e c o n d
T r ilo g y , P r e e d y in T he C a p tiv e and th e F r e e . T he b a s is o f th e w h o le
S e c o n d T r ilo g y is th is p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith c r e a t iv it y in p o li t ic s , and
w ith th e c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e m a n f o r e v e r c r e a tin g n ew w a y s to d e a l
w ith s itu a t io n s , d ep en d in g on in s p ir a tio n , and th e c o n s e r v a t iv e m a n w h o
d ep en d s on r u le , tr a d itio n , an d p r e c e d e n t . T h is c o n s ta n t c o n flic t r e
f l e c t s C a r y 's b e lie f th a t on e o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l t r a g e d ie s o f th e w o r ld
is th e c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e n ew c r e a tio n d em a n d in g r e c o g n itio n and th e
e s t a b lis h e d fo r m w h ic h w ill be c h a n g e d and d e s tr o y e d b y th e n e w - - b e
tw e e n th e c r e a t iv e m a n and th e c o n s e r v a t iv e m a n . T he c o n f lic t b e tw e e n
th e n e w ly c r e a t e d and th e e s t a b lis h e d fo r m is a ls o th e c o n f lic t b e tw e e n
th e L ib e r a l fa ith in th e p e r f e c t ib ilit y of m a n and th e C o n s e r v a tiv e b e lie f
in th e n e c e s s i t y to c o n tr o l m a n .
H is in t e r e s t in p o lit ic s a c c o u n ts fo r a la r g e p o r tio n o f h is w o r k
and g r e w , in la r g e p a r t, out of h is p e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e a s a d is t r ic t o f
f ic e r in N ig e r ia . N ot o n ly is p o lit ic s a c o n s is t e n t th e m e in h is n o v e ls ,
but C a ry w r o te fo u r p o lit ic a l t r e a t is e s : P o w e r in M en , T he C a se fo r
A fr ic a n F r e e d o m , T he P r o c e s s of R e a l F r e e d o m , and B r ita in and W e st
A f r ic a . C o n tr a r y to m a n y c o n te m p o r a r y s e e r s w h o v ie w th e w o r ld o f
th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y a s on e o f in c r e a s in g h o p e le s s n e s s and o p p r e s s io n ,
le a d in g a t b e s t to a 1 9 8 4 , C a r y sa w a tid e m o v in g s lo w ly to w a r d s t a b i l i
ty and a b e tte r lif e , s ta r te d b y th e in d u s tr ia liz a tio n o f th e m o d e r n w o r ld
- - t h e s a m e in d u s tr ia liz a tio n b la m e d b y m a n y fo r th e o p p r e s s io n in m o d
e r n l if e . D is c u s s in g th is in "T he Id ea o f P r o g r e s s ," h e a p p r o a c h e d th e
s u b je c t h is t o r ic a lly , s ta tin g th a t th e M id d le A g e s n e v e r d r e a m e d o f
p r o g r e s s , n e v e r e x p e c t e d a b e tt e r w o r ld . T he n o tio n of an a d v a n c in g
c iv iliz a t io n c a m e in w ith m a c h in e s an d e d u c a tio n , and th e n e w ly in d u s
t r ia liz e d n a tio n s m a d e s o m u c h m o n e y th a t th e y c o u ld a ffo r d th e s e r v
i c e s n e e d e d to im p r o v e m illio n s of l i v e s . T he n ew p r o s p e r it y w a s th e
s o u r c e of th e V ic to r ia n id e a o f p r o g r e s s ; c o m p e titio n s e e m e d th e n a tu
r a l s o u r c e o f p r o g r e s s , and a n y in t e r f e r e n c e w ith c o m p e titio n w a s c o n
s id e r e d an in t e r f e r e n c e w ith n a tu r e . T h e w a r of 1 9 1 4 s h a tte r e d th is i l
lu s io n , and th e w h o le id e a o f a u to m a tic p r o g r e s s w a s q u e s tio n e d . T he
C o m m u n ist a n s w e r , a c c o r d in g to C a ry , w a s a ls o V ic to r ia n ; it e n v i
s io n e d an a u to m a tic p r o g r e s s b a s e d on c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n c a p ita l and
la b o r r a th e r th a n b e tw e e n in d u s tr ia l e n t e r p r is e s . T h e se C o m m u n ist
id e a s w e r e ta k e n fr o m S p e n c e r , w h o c h a m p io n e d th e v a lu e o f e v o lu tio n
a r y p r o g r e s s . N ow th e w o r ld is d is illu s io n e d by C o m m u n ism a ls o , and
4
is b u rd en ed b y n ew o p p r e s s io n and n ew in s e c u r it y , w o r s e th a n b e fo r e .
C a r y 's m a in p o in t w a s th a t th e I n d u str ia l A g e b ro u g h t in n o t o n
ly th e id e a o f p r o g r e s s b u t th e in s t a b ilit y o f p e r p e tu a l r e v o lu tio n , and
w e n o t o n ly a c c e p t th is c o n flic t and r e v o lu tio n b u t p u sh it fo r w a r d .
E v e r y g o v e r n m e n t s u b s id iz e s r e s e a r c h , r e s e a r c h m e a n s n ew in v e n
tio n , n ew s h if t s of p o w e r , n ew in s t a b ilit y , c h a n g e and c o n fu sio n . T he
s p e e d o f d is c o v e r y an d t h e r e f o r e of o b s o le s c e n c e in c r e a s e s a ll th e
t im e . {"Idea of P r o g r e s s ," p . 333)
B e c a u s e of th is c o n s ta n t r e v o lu tio n , th e w o r ld is " lik e a c it y sh a k e n b y
ie a rth q u a k e s" (p. 3 3 4 ). B ut, a s C a r y w i s e l y o b s e r v e d , th e s itu a t io n is
n e ith e r s o b a d a s it lo o k s n o r s o n ew . T h e w o r ld h a s a lw a y s s u ffe r e d
fr o m e a r th q u a k e s, s o c ia l and p o lit ic a l. H e r e f e r r e d to th e c r a s h of th e
^ " T h e Id ea of P r o g r e s s ," C o r n h ill, S u m m e r 1 9 5 4 , p. 332.
Roman, e m p ir e . But th e d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e m o d e r n w o r ld and th e
R om an w o r ld is th a t th e R o m a n e m p ir e r e s t e d on a p r o le ta r ia n m a s s
w ith n e ith e r th e s k ill n o r the w ill to c o - o p e r a t e in r e c o n s tr u c tio n ,
w h e r e a s to d a y th e p r o le ta r ia n m a s s is d is a p p e a r in g , e d u c a te d p e r f o r c e
by g o v e r n m e n ts w h o m u s t h a v e s k ille d w o r k e r s to ru n th e c o m p le x n ew
m a c h in e s . T he e d u c a te d w o r k e r d em a n d s h ig h e r sta n d a r d s of liv in g and
th is p r o v id e s th e new d ir e c t io n in th e w o r ld . C a ry b e lie v e d th a t th o s e
w ho know a r ic h e r sta n d a rd of liv in g w ill n e v e r b e s a t is f ie d to r e tu r n to
a n a r r o w e r e x is t e n c e , th a t p e o p le e v e r y w h e r e to d a y d em an d a r e a s o n
a b le sta n d a rd of liv in g and s e c u r it y . T h ey fe a r and h a te w a r , and th e y
h a v e m a d e it im p o s s ib le fo r th e g r e a t d e m o c r a c ie s to s ta r t an o ffe n s iv e
w a r . T h e s p e e d of in v e n tio n h a s d e v e lo p e d th e m o d e r n w ea p o n w h ic h
e v e n " sw a sh b u ck lin g " g o v e r n m e n ts fe a r to u s e b e c a u s e of the u n c e r ta in
r e s u lt s of to ta l w a r .
T he e d u c a te d w o r k e r and th e n ew in v e n tio n s c o n v e r g e to w a r d the
s a m e g o a l - - s e c u r i t y and p e a c e . F e a r of w a r h a s p r o d u c e d th e g r e a t in
te r n a tio n a l o r g a n iz a tio n s fo r p e a c e , th e L e a g u e and th e U n ited N a tio n s.
C a ry c o n c lu d e d th at th e w o r ld is m o v in g to w a r d s e c u r it y and p e a c e , but
" T h is d o e s n ot a b o lis h th e p r iv a te and p e r s o n a l in s e c u r ity of lif e , th e
tr a g ic d ile m m a s of fr e e s o u ls in th e s a m e w o r ld of c r e a tio n . It m e r e ly
a b o lis h e s w ar" ("Idea of P r o g r e s s ," p. 337).
D is c u s s in g th e e n o r m o u s c h a n g e s b ro u g h t in to th e w o r ld b y m e
c h a n ic a l in v e n tio n s, p a r tic u la r ly m o to r tr a n s p o r t and w i r e l e s s , he
s ta te d in one of h is la s t w r itin g s th a t th e r e s u lt in g h ig h e r sta n d a r d s of
liv in g and e d u c a tio n in c r e a s e r a th e r th an d e c r e a s e p o lit ic a l tu r m o il:
N a tio n a lis m is th e id e a th a t now d o m in a te s a ll p o lit ic a l th in k in g
and m o s t p ro p a g a n d a . A nd it is te a r in g c iv iliz a t io n to p ie c e s . It is ,
9
a s I s a y , m e r e ly an id e a , but it is b a s e d on fe e lin g s d eep in h u m a n
n a tu r e, of p e r s o n a l p r id e , a m b itio n , and d is t r u s t of th e s t r a n g e r - -
f e e lin g s v e r y e a s il y w o r k e d up b y a d e m a g o g u e in to a r r o g a n c e and
h a tr e d , fe a r and r e v e n g e . . . . N a tio n a lism h a s no b a s is in an y r e a l
d iffe r e n c e . A ll N orth E u r o p e , fr o m Shannon to D a n zig , is th e s a m e
r a c ia l m ix tu r e . A fr ic a h a s m u ch m o r e v a r ie t y of r a c e and c o lo u r ,
so h a s In d ia. B ut N o rth E u ro p e is a d o z e n n a tio n a l u n its; A fr ic a n s
and In d ian s ta lk and th in k o f th e ir c o n tin e n t a s on e. It is th e n a m e
th a t m a t t e r s , th e s y m b o l, th e e m b o d ie d id e a . M en li v e b y su c h s y m
b o ls , su c h id e a s,^ w h eth e r p o lit ic a l or r e lig io u s , and d ie jo y fu lly fo r
a w o r d or a fla g .
In C a r y 's fin a l v ie w , th e m o d e r n w o r ld is m o r e m a tu r e th a n th e
V ic to r ia n w o r ld b e c a u s e it h a s s u ffe r e d m o r e and h a s r e a liz e d th e
e n o r m o u s p o w e r of e v il c o n s ta n tly at w o r k to d e s tr o y h a p p in e ss and
p e a c e . "M any p e o p le ta k e a c tu a l p le a s u r e in e v il, in sp r e a d in g l i e s , and
b u ild in g h a tr e d , and . . . th e y a r e in c u r a b le " {" L a st L o o k ," p. 1 5 3 ).
L ie s a r e m o r e e ffe c t iv e th a n tru th " b e c a u se th e y a r e s im p le r and
e a s ie r to r e m e m b e r ." But b e c a u s e of its e x p e r ie n c e s , th e m o d e r n
;world d is t r u s t s th e s lo g a n e e r and k n ow s th a t th e r e " w ill n e v e r be a
g o ld e n ag e; e v e r y th in g h a s to be p a id fo r " (p. 153).
C o r o lla r y to h is id e a o f m a n 's p la c e in th e w o r ld is h is id e a of
w o m a n 's r o le in l if e . In T h e H o r s e ’s M outh fo r a r t is t ic r e a s o n s h e m a y
h a v e u s e d B la k e 's a ttitu d e to w a r d w o m e n a s m a t e r ia l fo r m a n 's s p ir it u
a l f lig h t s , but th at w a s n ot h is ow n a ttitu d e . In stea d , h e sa w w o m e n a s
" g r ea t a d v e n tu r e r s in th e ir ow n liv e s ."
A you n g w o m a n . . . h a v in g g o t h e r m a n , w ill c h e e r fu lly s e t out to
the o th er en d of th e w o r ld in o r d e r to do h e r job , w h ic h is n ot b y any
m e a n s in in su b o r d in a tio n . It is c o n s tr u c tiv e , c r e a t iv e . She b u ild s
a s o c ie t y , a r e la tio n s h ip , a s p ir itu a l w o r ld . And fo r th a t sh e m u st
c o n tr iv e s o m e k in d of w o r k in g p a r tn e r s h ip w ith th e m a n . H e is at
on ce h e r n e c e s s a r y p a r tn e r and h e r f i r s t p r o b le m . H er s u c c e s s ,
5
" J o y ce C a r y 's L a st L o o k A t H is W o r ld s," V ogu e, A u g u st 15,
1957, p. 152.
1 0
lik e a ll s u c c e s s , is f o r e v e r b a la n c e d on th e ed g e of d is a s t e r . ^
In d is c u s s in g th e tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y r e v o lu tio n of w o m en , " p ro b
a b ly th e g r e a t e s t s o c ia l r e v o lu tio n , in th e tr u e s e n s e , th at th e w o r ld h a s
7
s e e n ," h e ex p a n d ed th is id e a of th e c r e a t iv e and c o n s tr u c tiv e , n ot su b
o r d in a te , r o le o f w o m e n . H is id e a w a s b oth a h is t o r ic a l v ie w and one
in flu e n c e d by m o d e r n a n th r o p o lo g y . He sa w th at th e m o d e r n g ir l c o n
s id e r s m a r r ia g e , a fa m ily , and a c a r e e r a s " n a tu ra l." T he V ic to r ia n s
c o n s id e r e d m a r r ia g e and te n c h ild r e n r a is e d by n u r s e s a s " n a tu ra l."
H is b e lie f w a s th a t th e u n it of fa th e r , m o th e r , and c h ild r e n is th e "natu
r a l and p r im itiv e u n it," th e p r im a l s o c ie t y fr o m w h ic h a ll s o c ie t y
g r o w s. S u p e r im p o s e d on th is p r im a l lif e is th e lif e of th e tw e n tie th -
c e n tu r y w e s t e r n w o m a n . M en h a v e a lw a y s b e e n a b le to c h o o s e b e tw e e n
fa m ily and c a r e e r , th ou gh C a ry d e fin ite ly f e lt th a t th e fa m ily w ae-tK e
tr u e c e n te r of m e n 's liv e s , "the h e a r t of th e ir a c h ie v e m e n t, e v e n in th e
w o rld " (" R ev o lu tio n of W om en ," p. 1 4 9 ). Now w o m e n a r e in th e s a m e
p la c e a s m en .
T h ey h a v e a c h ie v e d th e p o w e r of in d ep en d en t c h o ic e . . . . S in ce w o
m a n c a n c h o o s e , sh e m u st c h o o s e . S in ce sh e h a s a lte r n a tiv e s to
m a r r ia g e , if sh e m a r r ie s , sh e c h o o s e s m a r r ia g e a s sh e m ig h t c h o o s e
a p r o fe s s io n ; sh e is d e lib e r a t e ly u n d erta k in g to m a k e a h o m e. If sh e
w a n ts c h ild r e n , sh e c h o o s e s to h a v e th e m , and b y th a t fa c t, a c c e p ts a
q u ite d iffe r e n t r e s p o n s ib ilit y fr o m th a t of m o th e r s in th e p a s t, to
w h o m m o th e rh o o d w a s so m e th in g th a t h a p p en ed of c o u r s e . H er lif e ,
in s h o r t, h a s b e c o m e in fin ite ly m o r e c o m p le x th a n an y liv e d b y w o
m e n in th e p a s t. . . . F r e e d o m is a b u rd en and r e s p o n s ib ilit y and any
d o c to r ca n t e ll yo u w h at th a t m e a n s in n e r v o u s p r e s s u r e . But w e
d on 't fin d an y w o m a n w h o w o u ld ch a n g e p la c e s w ith h e r g r a n d m o th e r .
F o r th e fa c t s e e m s to b e th a t p e o p le do n ot s e e k p e a c e or h a p p in e ss
in l if e , but fu lfillm e n t, and to g e t fu lfillm e n t th e y a r e r e a d y fo r an y
L
"T he W ay A N o v e l G ets W ritten ," H a r p e r s ,. F e b r u a r y 1950,
p. 91-
^"T he R e v o lu tio n of W om en ," V o g u e , M a rch 15, 1951, p. 100.
■ ■ 11
k in d o f h a r d sh ip , (p. 149)
T h is id e a o f th e c h a n g in g r o le o f w o m e n in m o d e r n s o c ie t y s u
p e r im p o s e d on th e ir u n ch a n g in g r o le a s m o t h e r s is th e b a s is fo r h is
n o v e l T he M o o n lig h t, w h ic h is c o n s id e r e d b y s o m e c r it ic s to b e h is
g r e a t e s t fa ilu r e and b y o th e r s h is g r e a t e s t s u c c e s s , o r a t l e a s t h is m o s t
im p o r ta n t w o r k .
S u m m a r iz in g th en , th e m a in p o in ts o f C a r y 's v ie w of th e w o r ld
and l i f e a r e a b e lie f in a p e r s o n a l G od and a p e r s o n a l u n iv e r s e . M a n 's
p la c e in th is p e r s o n a l u n iv e r s e is on e o f b oth fr e e d o m and is o la tio n , d e
ta c h e d fr o m h is e n v ir o n m e n t and is o la t e d b y th a t d e ta c h m e n t. M an
k n o w s th e w o r ld o n ly th r o u g h h is f e e lin g s , and h e t r i e s to c r e a te th e
w o r ld a ro u n d h im to s a t is f y th o s e f e e lin g s . T he tw o b a s ic m e th o d s h e
u s e s a r e r e lig io n and p o li t ic s . S in c e m a n is c o n tin u a lly fa c in g n ew s it u
a tio n s and n ew c h o ic e s , h e m u s t c o n s ta n tly c r e a t e , m u s t d e a l w ith n ew
s itu a tio n s in n ew w a y s . R e lig io n and p o lit ic s b oth r e f le c t th is c r e a t iv i
ty , but an in e v ita b le r e s u lt is a tr a g ic c o n f lic t b e tw e e n th e n e w ly c r e
a te d and th e e s t a b lis h e d . C a r y v ie w e d p o lit ic s h is t o r ic a lly and w a s
h o p e fu l o f th e m o d e r n w o r ld . T he id e a o f p r o g r e s s is a m o d e r n o n e, d e
v e lo p e d s in c e th e In d u str ia l R e v o lu tio n . T he g r e a t m a s s of p e o p le to d a y
a r e b e in g e d u c a te d p e r f o r c e b y g o v e r n m e n ts w h o n e e d th em to ru n m o d
e r n m a c h in e r y . T he e d u c a te d w o r k e r d e m a n d s a h ig h e r sta n d a r d of l i v
in g and s e c u r it y . T h is d em a n d fo r s e c u r it y c o u p le d w ith th e n ew w e a p
on s h a s le d to in te r n a tio n a l o r g a n iz a tio n s fo r p e a c e . C a ry th o u g h t th is
d e s ir e fo r p e a c e and s e c u r it y w o u ld e v e n tu a lly p r e v a il in s p ite of th e
r i s e of n a tio n a lis m w h ic h c r e a t e s n ew c o n f lic t s . He c o n s id e r e d the.
m o d e r n w o r ld to be m a tu r e d th ro u g h s u ffe r in g and a w a r e of th e
1 2
e v e r la s t in g b a ttle b e tw e e n the p o w e r s of good and e v il.
C a ry sa w w o m e n a s eq u a l p a r tn e r s of m e n in lif e . T h e ir r o le is
not su b o r d in a te but c r e a t iv e and c o n s tr u c tiv e . T h ey b u ild s o c ie t y . And
C ary b e lie v e d th e h o m e to be the c e n te r of m e n 's a s w e ll a s of w o m e n 's
liv e s . H e th ou gh t th e tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y e m a n c ip a tio n of w o m e n "the
g r e a t e s t s o c ia l r e v o lu tio n th e w o r ld h a s e v e r know n."
D e r iv e d fr o m th is p h ilo so p h y of lif e is C a r y 's v ie w of a r t. B e
c a u s e th e w o r ld is m e a n in g le s s c h a o s, th e o n ly m e a n s of g iv in g th e
s e m b la n c e of o r d e r and m e a n in g to lif e is a r t. T he b eg in n in g of a r t is
th e a r t is t s e e k in g an a n s w e r to m a n 's b a s ic q u estio n : "W hat is r e a l,
w h at is tr u e , w h at is th e m e a n in g of lif e ? " The a r t is t , tr y in g to g iv e h is
fe e lin g ab ou t the n a tu re of lif e , c r e a t e s a fa b r ic in w h ich th e w h o le of
r e a lity , a s h e f e e ls it, "is h a r m o n iz e d fo r th e c o m p r e h e n s io n of th e
s o u l - - a c o m p r e h e n s iv e e x p e r ie n c e of m in d and f e e lin g in w h ic h both a r e
s a tis fie d .
B ut r e la te d to C a r y 's b e lie f in a p e r s o n a l u n iv e r s e is h is c o n
v ic tio n th a t a r t m u st not o n ly g iv e o r d e r and m e a n in g to lif e , but a ls o
m u st g iv e m a n th e c o n v ic tio n th at e x is t e n c e is w o r th w h ile . "What a r t
c r e a te s and r e c r e a t e s in e v e r y g e n e r a tio n is lif e . . . lif e a s a jo y fu l
and s ig n ific a n t e x p e r ie n c e " {p. 44). C a r y d rew th is p h ilo s o p h ic a l c o n
c lu s io n fr o m a p s y c h o lo g ic a l fa c t. O b v io u sly , a n ew b o rn c h ild h a s a
tr e m e n d o u s w ill to liv e , an in n ate f e e lin g th a t lif e is w o r th liv in g . C ary
th en w a s fa c e d w ith th e q u e stio n , "Why d o e s a r t n e e d to r e c r e a t e fo r
m an k in d so m e th in g th a t b e lo n g s to h im fr o m th e b eg in n in g ? " He
g
"W hat D o es A r t C r e a te ? " L ite r a tu r e and L ife (L ond on, 1951),
p. 43.
13
r e a s o n e d th a t it is p a r tly th e n a tu r e of m a n k in d and p a r tly th e n a tu re of
our e d u c a tio n th a t tr a in s u s to th in k in c o n c e p ts r a th e r th an by in d iv id u
a l d e t a ils . He g a v e a s an e x a m p le th e c h ild w h o s e e s an in d iv id u a l b ir d
w ith its u n iq u e d e t a ils , w h ile an a d u lt s e e s it a s a m e m b e r of a s p e c ie s ,
la b e le d " sw a llo w " or " th ru sh ." He f e lt th at a d u lts liv e a lm o s t e n t ir e ly
in a w o r ld of c o n c e p ts , w a lle d in b y la b e ls . T h e se c o n c e p ts and la b e ls
b e c o m e d ea d fo r m s ; th e y c o n v e y no t h r ill of fe e lin g . L ife b e c o m e s fla t
and d ead and m e n c e a s e to liv e : th e y m e r e ly e x is t . A c c o r d in g to h im ,
o n ly a r t c a n b r e a k th ro u g h th e c r u s t of c o n c e p ts to th e m an w ith in .
A ls o d e r iv e d fr o m h is p h ilo so p h y is h is v ie w th at m a n is i s o
la te d and th a t a r t is h is o n ly m e a n s of c o m m u n ic a tio n . C a ry w a s th in k
in g of a r t in its w id e s t s e n s e a s " a ll c o m m u n ic a tio n w h ic h not o n ly g iv e s
9
th e fa c t, but . . . p u ts v a lu a tio n on th e fa c t." B e c a u s e m e n a r e n ot a t
ta c h e d to th e e a r th lik e v e g e ta b le lif e , th e y a r e f r e e , but th e y a r e i s o
la te d b y th at v e r y fr e e d o m .
It is , of co x irse, p r e c is e ly th is s e p a r a tio n fr o m h is ow n e x p e r i
e n c e w h ic h m a k e s m e n - - o b lig e s m e n - - t o b e f r e e , th a t i s , in th e o n ly
tr u e s e n s e of fr e e d o m , to be c r e a t iv e . A p la n t o r an in s e c t , g o v
e r n e d to ta lly b y r e a c t io n s , by in s tin c t, w h ic h is p a r t of a p r o c e s s
w h ic h a r r a n g e s e v e r y m o m e n t of its lif e , is s im p ly a liv in g atom of
e x p e r ie n c e , a n e r v e en d . It is a b it of its e n v ir o n m e n t. It ca n n o t
m a k e m is t a k e s . It is u t te r ly s e c u r e fr o m fa ilu r e , fo lly , d e s p a ir ,
e v e r y k in d of m is fo r tu n e , s o lo n g a s its e n v ir o n m e n t d o e s not c h a n g e .
B ut a n im a ls , and e s p e c ia lly m a n , fo r s o m e r e a s o n a r e d e ta c h e d
fr o m th e ir s u r r o u n d in g s, th e ir e x p e r ie n c e . T h ey a r e not p a r t of an
e n v ir o n m e n t. T h e y a r e o b lig e d to stu d y it a s so m e th in g a lie n and e x
t e r io r to t h e m s e lv e s , if o n ly to m a n a g e th e ir ow n r e la tio n s w ith it.
T h ey can , in c o n s e q u e n c e , b oth c o n tr o l, to a c e r ta in e x te n t, th o s e r e
la tio n s and e v e n th e e n v ir o n m e n t it s e lf , and th e y c a n a ls o m a k e
e n o r m o u s and d is a s tr o u s m is t a k e s ab ou t it and ab ou t t h e m s e lv e s .
("W hat D o e s A r t C r ea te ? " p. 38)
^A r t and R e a lity (N ew Y ork , 195 8 ), p. 9-
14
B e c a u s e w e know th e w o r ld th r o u g h e x p e r ie n c e ( f e e lin g s ) , C a ry
s a y s , c o m m u n ic a tio n (a r t) is ab ou t an d th ro u g h f e e lin g s . F e e lin g s ta k e
p la c e o n ly in a p e r s o n , s o th a t th e fu n d a m e n ta l c h a r a c t e r of th e liv in g
u n iv e r s e is p e r s o n a l. M en c r e a t e th e ir w o r ld to s a t is f y th e ir f e e lin g s ;
in th is c r e a t io n th e y s e e k e x p e r ie n c e , and th is a m b itio n fo r n ew and
r ic h e x p e r ie n c e (n o v e lty ) is n e v e r s a t is f ie d . "It is p r e c i s e l y th is a m b i
tio n fo r n ew and r ic h e x p e r ie n c e w h ic h g iv e s a d ir e c t io n to a r t and h i s
to r y ."
T h is , th en , is th e s o u r c e o f d ir e c t io n , of w h a t is c a lle d p r o c e s s .
It is n o t in a n y m a t e r ia l d e v e lo p m e n t, in a n y a u to m a tic d ia le c t ic o f
m y s t e r io u s f o r c e s . It is in h u m a n n a tu r e , in th e in d iv id u a l. It is n o t
th e e n v ir o n m e n t w h ic h r u le s th e m a n , b u t h u m a n ity w h ic h c r e a t e s e n
v ir o n m e n t. ("W hat D o e s A r t C r e a te ? " p. 41)
W ith th is c o n s ta n t d e s ir e fo r n ew e x p e r ie n c e and f e e lin g s g o e s
th e d e s ir e to c o m m u n ic a te ab ou t t h e s e f e e lin g s . But a r t, th e o n ly
m e a n s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n , w o r k s o n ly b y a p r o c e s s o f r e c r e a t io n in a n
o th e r p e r s o n 's m in d . "Y ou c a n n o t h an d a f e e lin g to a n o th e r lik e a b ook .
Y ou c a n o n ly t r a n s la t e y o u r f e e lin g s in to w o r d s , s o u n d s, c o lo u r s - -in to
s y m b o ls " (p. 36). T h e r e f o r e , th e a r t is t m u s t e x a m in e h is e x p e r ie n c e
and f e e lin g s and th e n m a k e a d e lib e r a te c o n s tr u c tio n of s y m b o ls to c o m
m u n ic a te h is e x p e r ie n c e .
B e c a u s e it is th e in d iv id u a l w h o c r e a t e s a w o r k of a r t, C a ry o p
p o s e d th e c o n te m p o r a r y v ie w th a t a r t e x p r e s s e s a g ro u p or w o r ld e x p e
r ie n c e .
T h e a r t is t is n ot o n ly a c r e a t o r , b u t he is o b lig e d to c r e a t e . F o r a r t
is n o t th e flo w e r o f a w o r ld e x p e r ie n c e . It is a c r e a t e d v e h ic le of in
d iv id u a l e x p e r ie n c e , in te n d e d to c o m m u n ic a te th a t in d iv id u a l e x p e r i
e n c e to s o m e o th e r p e r s o n . If C o le r id g e c o m p o s e d in a d r e a m , he
w a s s t i l l C o le r id g e , (p. 38)
T h e l a s t of C a r y 's m a in p o in ts ab ou t a r t in g e n e r a l is th a t it
15
n e e d s c e a s e l e s s r e c r e a t io n "or it w ill d ie lik e a ll c r e a t e d th in g s" (p.
4 4 ). A r t c o n s is t s o f s y m b o ls , an d s y m b o ls a r e fr a g ile ; th e y lo s e th e ir
m e a n in g . T h is id e a g r o w s out of C a r y 's id e a th a t s in c e m e n a r e both
f r e e and is o la t e d th e y m u s t c r e a t e - - t h e w h o le o f lif e is c r e a t io n and
w ith o u t c o n tin u a l n ew e ffo r t th e liv in g c r e a t io n d ie s and b e c o m e s a d ea d
fo r m . B ut th is a ls o in v o lv e s on e of C a r y 's o th e r im p o r ta n t id e a s - - t h e
c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e n e w ly c r e a t e d an d th e e s t a b lis h e d .
It is p r e c i s e l y th is c o n tin u o u s e ffo r t o f n ew c r e a tio n , of n ew
id e a s , w h ic h k e e p s th e w o r ld in a t u r m o il an d th r e a te n s a lw a y s to
sh a k e c iv iliz a t io n to p i e c e s . A r t, in fa c t, a s th e c r e a t iv e a c t iv it y
th a t k e e p s th e s p ir it a liv e , th a t f o r e v e r fig h ts a g a in s t e v e r y th in g th a t
s t u lt if ie s an d k ills th e s p ir it . . . is by its v e r y n a tu r e s u b v e r s iv e .
. . . It is th e n a tu r a l e n e m y o f a ll d o g m a tic a s s e r t io n , a ll S ta te m a
c h in e s . A ll e s t a b lis h e d p o w e r s , a ll G o v e r n m e n ts , a c a d e m ie s ,
C h u r c h e s, h a te it and f e a r it. It sta n d s fo r lib e r t y . It th r e a te n s
th e ir p o w e r . ("W hat D o e s A r t C r e a te ? " p . 44)
B e c a u s e a r t is b y its n a tu r e s u b v e r s iv e , in c o u n tr ie s w h e r e in
d iv id u a l c r e a t io n is d e n ie d b y p o lic y , d ic ta t o r s m a k e e v e r y e ffo r t to
c o n tr o l th e in d iv id u a l a r t is t b e c a u s e th e y r e c o g n iz e th e c r e a t iv e p o w e r
of a r t, its a b ilit y to c r e a t e s o m e th in g v e r y d if fic u lt to c o n t r o l - - a f e e l
in g , a fa ith . D ic t a t o r s , a c c o r d in g to C a r y , know th a t m a n li v e s by fa ith ,
n ot b y m a t e r ia l th in g s , and c a n n o t be s a t is f ie d b y a n y a m o u n t of fo o d or
p lu m b in g or c a r s .
S in c e a r t is th e w o r k of th e in d iv id u a l c r e a t o r , C a r y w a s g r e a t ly
c o n c e r n e d w ith th e a r t i s t ' s p r o b le m s in c o m m u n ic a tin g . H e th o u g h t th e
gap b e tw e e n in tu itio n an d e x p r e s s io n , th e to r tu r e of e v e r y w o r k in g a r t
is t , w a s ig n o r e d b y C r o c e and m o s t o th e r p h ilo s o p h e r s o f a r t. He
a g r e e d w ith C r o c e 's s ta te m e n t th a t m e n know th e w o r ld b y m e a n s o f in
tu itio n an d th e n s e t to w o r k to a c t u p on th a t k n o w le d g e . B ut h e b e lie v e d
th a t in th e e f f o r t to a c t th e y a r e c o m p e lle d to u s e s y m b o ls fo r th e
16
c o m m u n ic a tio n o f th e ir id e a s and a r e f r u s t r a t e d by th e in a d eq u a c y and
v a g u e n e s s o f w o r d - s y m b o ls .
C r o c e 's th e o r y h e ld th a t a ll in tu itio n is e x p r e s s io n , a ll e x p r e s
s io n a r t. C a ry s a w tw o fla w s in th is t h e o r y - - t h e f a ilu r e to d is tin g u is h
b e tw e e n in tu itio n and e x p r e s s io n , an d th e o m is s io n of th e a r t is t 's o b j e c
tiv e c o n s id e r a t io n o f h is e x p r e s s io n . C a r y 's a r g u m e n t is th a t th e gap
b e tw e e n in tu itio n and e x p r e s s io n is s im p ly a n o th e r r e p r e s e n t a t io n of th e
m in d -b o d y gap in m a n , a gap o f w h ic h w e a r e d e fin ite ly a w a r e and w h ic h
o c c u r s w ith in th e in s e p a r a b le u n ity of b od y an d m in d . W ith out th e gap
b e tw e e n b od y and m in d th e in d iv id u a l w o u ld n o t e x is t , fo r h is b e h a v io r
w o u ld b e c o m p le t e ly in s tin c t iv e and u n ifo r m ; th e in d iv id u a lity o f m a n
r e s i d e s in h is in d ep en d e n t v o litio n , h is r e a s o n . T h e r e fo r e , th e b a s ic
gap is n o t o u tsid e m a n , b e tw e e n h im and th e o u ter w o r ld , but in s id e
m a n , b e tw e e n h is m in d s e e k in g to know tr u th , and th e e f f e c t s o f h u m a n
an d m a t e r ia l n a tu r e r e c o r d e d b y h is p h y s ic a l s e n s ib ilit y . C a ry , in flu
e n c e d b y m o d e r n a n th r o p o lo g y , c o n s id e r e d th e r e c o r d in g s e n s ib ilit y of a
g ro w n , e d u c a te d m a n to b e p r im it iv e in e s s e n c e , s o th a t b a s ic a lly a ll
m e n r e a c t a lik e ; th e r e is a c o m m o n bond.
H is p r im it iv e e m o tio n s h a v e b e e n g iv e n id e a l fo r m b y h is e x p e r ie n c e
and e d u c a tio n . B ut th e y a r e s t i l l p r im it iv e in e s s e n c e . . . . T h e e d u
c a te d m a n is s t i l l , in h is p r im it iv e e m o tio n a l m a k eu p , p a r t of th e
u n iv e r s a l r e a l. (A r t and R e a lit y , p. 28)
T he a r t is t , a s a g ro w n , e d u c a te d m a n , s ta r t s w ith an e m o tio n a l
r e a c t io n s im ila r to th o s e o f o th e r m e n , s h a p e s th a t r e a c t io n in to h is
ow n in tu itio n , and th e n m u s t c a r r y th a t in tu itio n th ro u g h a d if fic u lt
p r o c e s s fr o m in tu itio n to r e f le c t io n , fr o m k n o w led g e to e x p r e s s io n . "It
is . . . a kin d of t r a n s la t io n . . . fr o m th e r e c e p t iv e in to th e c r e a t iv e ,
fr o m th e p u r e ly s e n s u o u s im p r e s s io n in to th e p u r e ly r e f le c t iv e and
c r it ic a l a c t 1 1 (A r t and R e a lity , p. 27). T he a r t is t is tr y in g to c o n v e y an
e m o tio n a l fe e lin g by an in te lle c tu a l e f f o r t - - " a c o ld thought h a s to d ea l
w ith a w a rm fe e lin g " (p. 30).
T he gap b e tw e e n the w r ite r and h is m a te r ia l r e m a in s a s h e
w o r k s. A s he e x p lo r e s h is in tu itio n , he c o n s tr u c ts a fo r m w h ic h im -
i
m e d ia te ly b e c o m e s so m e th in g o b je c tiv e , to be c o n s id e r e d and e x p lo r e d .
F o r th e w r ite r h a s a m ea n in g to c o m m u n ic a te , th at m e a n in g is
the o r d e r , th e fo r m of h is w o rk , and u n le s s it is co m m u n ic a te d , he
d o es not know th a t it is th e r e . B ut s in c e it is h is own m e a n in g , it is
no good fo r h im to a sk any o th er p e r s o n if he h a s c o m m u n ic a te d it.
He h a s to b e h is ow n c r it ic . T he w r it e r 's t e s t of s u c c e s s in c r e a tin g
an o r d e r e d fo r m is , " D oes it m e a n to m e w hat I w ant it to m ean ?"
He c o m m u n ic a te s w ith h im s e lf b e c a u s e he c a n 't at th at s ta g e c o m
m u n ic a te w ith an yon e e l s e . T o do th is he c r e a te s the w o r k a g a in a s
e x te r n a l to h im s e lf , as o b je c tiv e , as fa c t fr o m d ir e c t e x p e r ie n c e .
(A r t and R e a lity , p. 92)
T h u s, in co m p a r in g h is e x p r e s s io n w ith h is in tu itio n , the w r ite r
fin d s h im s e lf fa c e d w ith a m a s s of w o r d s, w ith a c o n str u c tio n of c h a r a c
t e r s and a g e n e r a l th e m e . But he h a s to a s k h im s e lf w hat is th e m e a n
in g of th e m a s s , w hat h ap p en ed to the o r ig in a l r e v e la tio n ? The constant;
p r o b le m o f the a r t is t is to p r e s e r v e h is r e v e la tio n th rou gh th e lo n g
p r o c e s s of te c h n ic a l co n c ep tu a l c o n s tr u c tio n in w h ich it b e c o m e s d ilu ted
and d is to r te d a s h e t r ie s to fin d s y m b o lic e x p r e s s io n .
A s g r e a t a p r o b le m fo r th e a r t is t as th e gap b e tw e en in tu itio n
and e x p r e s s io n is th e te c h n ic a l gap b e tw e e n fo r m and co n ten t. The
p r o b le m is w ith la n g u a g e, w ith s y m b o ls . The w r ite r h a s a m e a n in g to
be c o n v e y e d and h is o n ly to o l of c o m m u n ic a tio n is la n g u a g e, w o r d - s y m
b o ls . But th e sy m b o l it s e lf is a com p ou n d of a c o n c ep t and e m o tio n a l
a s s o c ia tio n s ; it is , th e r e fo r e , by its n a tu re, v agu e and im p r e c is e . So
th e w o rd a lr e a d y c h a r g e d w ith m ea n in g m u st be u s e d to c o n v e y the
la r g e r m e a n in g of th e w h o le book (A rt and R e a lity , p. 95).
18
A t th e s a m e tim e , b e c a u s e th e s y m b o l a lr e a d y c a r r ie s a s s o c i a
tio n s , it m u s t h a v e its a s s o c ia t io n s c o n tin u a lly ren ew ed ; it te n d s to lo s e
th em and to s in k in to a m e r e la b e l, an a u to m a tic sig n . Such e m p ty
la b e l- w o r d s do n ot s u ffic e fo r th e a r t is t 's p u r p o se , and th e c r e a to r c o n
sta n tly s t r iv e s fo r n ew s y m b o ls , to e x p r e s s h is ow n m e a n in g b e tte r and
to b r e a k th ro u g h th e " c o n c ep tu a l c r u st" of d ea d s y m b o ls , to c o n v e y th e
n ew m e a n in g w ith n ew s y m b o ls . B e c a u s e th e n ew sy m b o l is u n fa m ilia r ,
it f o r c e s th e e y e or th e m in d to o b s e r v e th e a c tu a l o b je c t or id e a . T h is
is tru e w h e th e r th e s y m b o l is a n ew c a r , a n ew b u ild in g , or a n ew s ty le
of b ook lik e U ly s s e s or F in n e g a n 's W ak e. N ew e x p r e s s io n n e e d s new
sy m b o ls. (A r t and R e a lity , p. 63).
C a ry u s e d th e lif e of John S tu a rt M ill a s an e x a m p le of a r t
b r e a k in g th ro u g h th e c r u s t of d ead c o n c e p ts . M ill w a s s o th o ro u g h ly e n
m e s h e d b y c o n v e n tio n a l c o n c e p ts of lif e th a t in h is tw e n tie s h e h ad c o m
p le t e ly lo s t h is d e s ir e to liv e ; lif e w a s s t a le and fla t. T hen W o r d s
w o r th 's p o e tr y w ith its n ew e x p r e s s io n b r o k e th ro u g h th e c r u s t and g a v e
h im a n ew v is io n of lif e , g a v e h im n ew e m o tio n a l v ita lity , d oin g th is by
th e e m o tio n a l f r e s h n e s s and p o w e r of n ew s y m b o ls ("W hat D o e s A rt
C rea te? " p. 4 3 ).
B ut th e w r it e r e n d e a v o r in g to e x p r e s s h is in tu itio n in w o r d s , o f
te n fin d s h e can n ot g iv e h is co n te n t fo r m in w o r d s; th e y do n ot e x is t .
H e is o b lig e d to s a c r if ic e f o r c e and im m e d ia c y ; "a s tr o n g and in te n se
e x p e r ie n c e r e q u ir e s so m a n y w o r d s fo r its e x p r e s s io n th at it b e c o m e s
d ilu te" (A r t and R e a lity , p. 9 9 ). T he w r ite r m u st th e r e fo r e a ttem p t to
c o n v e y h is in tu itio n b y in v e n tin g a situ a tio n , a s c e n e w ith c h a r a c t e r s ,
w h ic h w ill c o n v e y to the r e a d e r th e im p a c t of h is in tu itio n . T h en he
19
m u s t c o m p a r e th e tw o c o n t e n t s - - t h e w o r d s on th e p a g e and th e c o n te n t
in h is im a g in a tio n .
T h e s y m b o ls on th e p a g e h a v e a d o u b le a s p e c t: th e ir e f f e c t a s
s y m b o ls , s e n te n c e b y s e n te n c e an d p a g e b y p a g e , and th e ir to ta l e ff e c t .
B e c a u s e of th is th e s e p a r a t e p a g e s and c h a p te r s of a b o o k lik e th e m o v e
m e n ts of a sy m p h o n y "do n o t h a v e a c o m p le te s ig n if ic a n c e u n til th e
w h o le w o r k is kn ow n ." C a r y c o n s id e r e d th em a s " p a r tly in s u s p e n s io n ,
u n til th e end o f th e l a s t m o v e m e n t, th e l a s t c h a p te r , th e y su d d e n ly f a ll
in to th e ir p la c e ." In th is r e s p e c t , C a ry c a lle d a b o o k "a to ta l sy m b o l"
b e c a u s e it is "both r ic h e r th a n its p a r ts and a c tu a lly d iffe r e n t fr o m
th em " (A r t and R e a lit y , p. 103).
C a ry d if fe r e d fr o m m o s t c o n te m p o r a r y th in k e r s in h is v ie w th a t
a r t is m o r a l in its n a tu r e . He b e lie v e d th a t th e m o r a l ju d g m e n t in m a n
is a s e c o n d a r y in tu itio n w h ic h b e c o m e s p a r t of th e in tu itiv e c h a r a c t e r ,
th a t it is d e v e lo p e d in m a n b y th e s a m e p r o c e s s a s h is c r it ic a l ju d g
m e n t, fr o m th e f i r s t in tu itio n of m o r a l f e e lin g s in a c h ild th ro u g h th e
e d u c a tio n by h is t o r y , e x p e r ie n c e , r e lig io u s in s tr u c tio n , e t c ., in to a
s o m e w h a t s y s t e m a t ic ju d g m e n t, a t o n c e r a tio n a l and e m o tio n a l (p. 134).
O b v io u sly , it w o u ld be im p o s s ib le to s p lit th e p e r s o n a lit y o f a
m a n in to m o r a l and a e s t h e t ic s e g m e n t s . T h e w h o le m a n r e a c t s to th e
w o r ld and to th e w o r ld o f c o h e r e n t v a lu e g iv e n b y a r t. A c c o r d in g to
.C ary, th e r e a d e r g e ts m o r e m e a n in g a b o u t lif e fr o m a b o o k th a n fr o m
a c tu a l e x p e r ie n c e b e c a u s e e v e n ts in a b o o k a r e r e la t e d to e a c h o th er
a c c o r d in g to th e ir im p o r ta n c e . T o g iv e th is c o h e r e n t m e a n in g a s a s e t
o f o r d e r e d v a lu e s , th e w r it e r s e l e c t s f a c t s and a r r a n g e s th em to s u it
h is ow n c o n c e p tio n o f v a lu e s (A r t an d R e a lit y , p. 137).
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C a ry b e lie v e d th a t th e m o r a l ju d g m en t is a ls o an in g r e d ie n t in
e v e r y a e s t h e t ic ju d g m en t of th e a r t s , and th a t w h e n e v e r
w e r e c o g n iz e b e a u ty in an y o r d e r e d fo r m of a r t, w e a r e a c tu a lly d is -
c o v e r in g n ew fo r m a l r e la t io n s in a r e a lit y w h ic h is p e r m a n e n t and
o b je c tiv e to o u r s e lv e s . . . . w e a r e r e c o g n is in g a e s t h e tic m e a n in g in
th e c h a r a c te r of th e u n iv e r s e , and th is a e s t h e t ic o r d e r of m e a n in g
g iv e s u s th e s a m e s e n s e of b e lo n g in g to a r a tio n a l s p ir itu a l w h o le of
c h a r a c te r a s d o e s th e m o r a l tru th of a D ante or T o lsto y . (A r t and
R e a lity , p. 1 38)
T h e r e fo r e , th e c o h e r e n c e g iv e n to th e w o r ld , w h e th e r by a e s t h e t ic tru th
or b y m o r a l tru th , is th e im p o r ta n t a c h ie v e m e n t.
C a ry b e lie v e d th a t th e a r ts d iffe r in th e ir m o r a l e ffe c t .
P a in t e r s , s c u lp to r s , a r c h it e c t s and c o m p o s e r s do not in tu it a m o r a l
r e a l, or a tte m p t to e x p r e s s it. T h ey a r e d e a lin g e n t ir e ly w ith s e n s u
ou s r e a lit y in c o lo u r , so u n d and fo r m , and th e ir w o r k s a r e a im e d in
th e f i r s t p la c e o n ly a t a s e n s u o u s r e a c tio n . T h is d o e s n o t e x c lu d e a
m o r a l e ffe c t. T h e re is c e r ta in ly a c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n p u r e ly s e n s u
o u s r e a lit y and e m o tio n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . . . . E co n o m y of m e a n s ,
c la r it y of s ta te m e n t, c o n c e n tr a tio n of fu n c tio n , and su b tle ty of d e ta il .
a ll im p ly m o r a l a s w e ll a s a e s t h e t ic in tu itio n . (A rt and R e a lity , p.
143)
But w h ile th e v is u a l a r ts and m u s ic do not d e a l w ith m o r a l a c tio n as
th e ir s u b je c t m a tte r , "the w r itte n a r t s , e x c e p t th e p u r e ly fa c tu a l, do
n oth in g e ls e " (p. 144).
W hen w e s p e a k of th e n o v e lis t ’s and p o e t's r e v e la tio n of tr u th w e
m e a n th at it is e s s e n t ia ll y m o r a l, th a t it a s s e r t s a m o r a l m e a n in g in
th e r e a l . . . . w e ju d g e th e tr u th of h is w o r k b y its r e v e la tio n of a
m o r a l r e a l. (p. 145)
A c c o r d in g to C a ry , w e d o n 't a d m it th e id e a of lu c k in our s e n s e of r ig h t
and w r o n g . "We know it in th e a c tu a l w o r ld , but w e do n ot l e t it a ffe c t
bur m o r a l ju d g m en t. W e d o n 't s a y th a t a m a n is g o o d b e c a u s e h e is
lu ck y " (p. 146).
S in ce th e w r itte n and sp o k e n a r ts d e a l w ith h u m an a c tio n , w hat
m e n th in k and do is a s im p o r ta n t to a w r it e r a s w h at th e y a r e . T he
w r ite r is c o n c e r n e d w ith a c tio n and e v e n ts ; h e c r e a t e s a w o r ld of a c tio n ,
21
and th e r e f o r e h e h a s to d e a l w ith m o tiv e , w ith m o r a lity .
T he n o v e lis t a d d r e s s e s h is m e a n in g f in a lly to th e m o r a l ju d g m e n t.
H is w h o le a p p a ra tu s of c h a r a c t e r s , p lo t, and d e s c r ip t io n is d e s tin e d
to g iv e k n o w led g e of a w o r ld , h is w o r ld , in w h ic h m e n , a s h e u n d e r
sta n d s th e m , w o r k ou t t h e ir d e s tin y a s m o r a l b e in g s . (A r t and R e a li
ty , p. 150)
C a r y e m p h a s iz e d th a t th e w r it e r sh o u ld p r e s e n t h is m o r a l m e a n in g to
th e r e a d e r b y c r e a tin g a w o r ld o f a c tio n b e c a u s e , "We do n ot d is c o v e r
th e m e a n in g o f th is w o r ld a s a c o n c e p t, but a s a fo r m o f m o r a l e x p e r i
e n c e " (p. 1 5 2 ). T h u s, th e v it a l q u a lity of a w r it e r 's a r t is g iv in g th e e x
p e r ie n c e , n ot th e c o n c e p t.
S in c e th e e x p e r ie n c e is th e im p o r ta n t th in g , th e fa c tu a l b a c k
g ro u n d o f a b o o k is c o m p a r a tiv e ly u n im p o r ta n t. F o r th a t r e a s o n b o o k s
o f d iffe r e n t p e r io d s and c u ltu r e s s t r ik e u s a s e q u a lly tr u e . C a r y 's e x
a m p le s a r e th e s t o r ie s o f A b r a h a m , H a g a r, and S arah ; H o m e r , L a d y
M u r a sa k i o f te n t h -c e n tu r y Jap an , T o ls to y , and D ic k e n s . T he d iffe r e n t
a s p e c t s o f h u m a n n a tu r e g iv e u s n ew e x p e r ie n c e o f " m o r a l b e in g s in a c
tio n ."
We r e c o g n is e fu n d a m e n ta l h u m a n n a tu r e a t w o r k in th is n ew s e ttin g .
W e a r e c o n tin u a lly le d b e y o n d w h a t w e kn ow a lr e a d y o f th a t n a tu r e in
o th e r s e t tin g s to s e e h ow it w o u ld a c t in t h is . W e p a s s b e y o n d th e
c o n c e p t o f w h a t p e o p le a r e lik e and how th e y c a n a c t in to a n ew r e a l
is a t io n of th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e ir n a tu r e and th e ir a c tio n . (A r t and
R e a lity , p . 152)
In p r e s e n t in g a m o r a l m e a n in g th e a u th o r ru n s th e c o n s ta n t d a n
g e r o f u s in g a lle g o r y . C a r y c a lle d a lle g o r y a " sta n d in g te m p ta tio n " b e
c a u s e it is c o n tr iv e d , a p u p p et sh o w . A s t o r y g iv e s a m e a n in g , a m o r a l
ity , but a M o r a lity f a i l s to c o n v e y a n y th in g of v a lu e .
No r e a l p r o b le m is p r o p o s e d o r a n s w e r e d . T he w h o le m a t te r c o u ld
b e e q u a lly w e ll e x p r e s s e d in a c o p y b o o k m a x im . A nd w e do n o t b e
lie v e . . . c o p y b o o k m a x im s . K w e did th e y w o u ld s im p ly p r o d u c e
c o n fu s io n in ou r m in d s and c o n d u c t. (A rt and R e a lity , p . 155)
22
W hen p e o p le do b e lie v e in su c h m a x im s or c o n c e p ts and co n d u ct th e ir
liv e s b y th e m , th e y lo s e a ll c o n ta c t w ith r e a lit y and liv e in a fa n ta s t ic
w o r ld . W hen th e y ru n " h e a d fir st" in to r e a lit y , it b r e a k s th e m .
A lle g o r y d o e s n o t g iv e th e r e a l m e a n in g of lif e b e c a u s e it t r e a t s
th e w o r ld , w h ic h C a ry sa w a s e s s e n t i a l l y " fr e e and p e r s o n a l," a s a m a
ch in e w ith a m a c h in e 's c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f r e p e titio n . It d e n ie s th at " e v
e r y e v e n t, lik e e v e r y in d iv id u a l, is u n iq u e, th a t th e p e r s is t e n c e of n a tu r e
a s a w h o le , is n o t th at of a m e c h a n is m , b u t o f a liv in g c h a r a c t e r , w h o s e
r e a l e x is t e n c e is th e o n ly lim it a t io n up on it s fr e e d o m " (p. 156).
C a re r a r e ly b e c a m e a s e m p h a tic a s in h is r e m a r k s on a lle g o r y .
N ot o n ly w a s no r e a l p r o b le m a n s w e r e d , b ut w o r s e s t i l l , " c h a r a c te r s
b e c o m e m e r e c o n c e p ts in v e n te d to illu s t r a t e a th e m e , and th e th e m e it
s e l f is a p r e c e p t out of a c o p y b o o k ." T he d r y p r e c e p t a p p e a ls to th e
c o n c e p tu a l ju d g m e n t, n o t th e e m o tio n s , an d th e f a ls it y of th e p r e c e p t is
d e te c te d by th e e m o tio n s or " so u l." C a r y 's c o n c lu s io n w a s th a t th e
w r it e r m u s t p r e s e n t h is m e a n in g b y c r e a tin g c h a r a c t e r s w h o h a v e th e
q u a lity of a c tu a l p e r s o n s "in a w o r ld th a t c o u ld be a c tu a l bu t d is p la y s a
m o r a l o r d e r th a t d o e s n o t p r e s e n t i t s e l f in life " (p. 163).
C a r y 's fin a l p o in t ab ou t a r t in a g e n e r a l s e n s e w a s th e in flu e n c e
of a r t on c o n d u ct. He b e lie v e d th a t a r t h a s an " im m e n se p o w e r fo r g o o d
and e v il b e c a u s e it d e a ls a lw a y s w ith fu n d a m e n ta l p a s s io n s and r e a c
tio n s c o m m o n to a ll h u m a n ity " (A r t and R e a lit y , p . 146). T h is id e a , to o ,
s te m s fr o m C a r y 's b e lie f th a t m e n c r e a t e th e w o r ld to s a t is f y th e ir
d r e a m s , th a t n o m a n e v e r r e a lly p u r s u e s m a t e r ia l g a in fo r its ow n sa k e :
e v e n th e m is e r v a lu e s h is m o n e y o n ly a s an a c h ie v e m e n t of p o w e r or
d ig n ity o r a s a d e fe n s e o f h is d r e a m . C a r y b e lie v e d th a t m e n liv e in
23
th e ir d r e a m s , and th e ir e ffo r ts to a c h ie v e th o s e d r e a m s a r e th e r e a l
m e a n in g of th e ir l i v e s .
In a r t, m a n m o v e s in to an o r d e r e d w o r ld and b e c o m e s m a s t e r of
it a s , fo r e x a m p le , d o e s th e fa c t o r y g ir l a t th e m o v ie s b e c o m e a b e a u ty
in h e r d r e a m . S in c e a r t c r e a t e s m e a n in g fo r th e s e n s e s , th e e n jo y e r ,
o b s e r v e r , o r r e a d e r is tr a n s p o r te d " fro m th e m e c h a n ic a l and b lin d e x
is t e n c e of m a t e r ia l c a u s a tio n in to th e w o r ld of p e r s o n a l v a lu e , of p e r
s o n a l a c h ie v e m e n t, o f m e a n in g fo r a c tio n " (A r t an d R e a lity , p . 148).
T h e e ffo r t b y g r o u p s and n a tio n s to c o n tr o l th e co n d u ct in c ite d b y
a r t r e s u lt s in c e n s o r s h ip . C a ry o p p o se d a n y c e n s o r s h ip and w a s a
fig h tin g L ib e r a l in h is e ffo r ts to a w a k en th e E n g lis h p u b lic to th e d a n g er
to fr e e d o m in v o lv e d in an y e f f o r t s a t c e n s o r s h ip , e v e n if s in c e r e ly or
s u p p o s e d ly fo r a g o o d c a u s e . T h e m o v e m e n t fo r p r o te c tio n o f c h ild r e n
b y s u p p r e s s in g h o r r o r c o m ic s w a s a c a s e in p o in t. C a ry a d m itte d th a t
h o r r o r c o m ic s m ig h t be a fa c to r in ju v e n ile d e lin q u e n c y and c r im e , but
g r e a t e r in flu e n c e s on a c h ild th an h o r r o r c o m ic s a r e h is fa m ily , e n
v ir o n m e n t, and e x p e r ie n c e . C a r y o b s e r v e d th a t c h ild c r im e is a s o ld a s
h u m a n ity an d th at b a b ie s and p u p p ie s a r e d e s t r u c t iv e b y n a tu r e , but
W e do n o t se n d fo r th e p o lic e , w e do n o t c r y out th at m o r a l d e g e n e r a
c y a m o n g p u p p ie s and b a b ie s th r e a te n s to d e s t r o y c iv iliz a t io n . We
r e a l i s e th a t c iv ilis a t io n h a s s u r v iv e d w o r s e p u p p ie s and m o r e a b a n
d o n ed b a b ie s - - p u p p ie s and b a b ie s w h ic h did , in fa c t, g r o w up to be
v ic io u s .
C a ry p o in te d out th a t th e s o lu tio n to ju v e n ile d e lin q u e n c y is n ot
c e n s o r s h ip bu t p r e p a r a tio n b y p a r e n ts of th e ir c h ild r e n fo r a lif e w h ic h
in c lu d e s c r u e lt y and v ic e . "T o d em a n d c e n s o r s h ip in any fo r m is a
1 0
" H o rro r C o m ic s ," S p e c ta t o r , F e b r u a r y 18, 1955, p . 177.
24
c o n f e s s io n fr o m p a r e n ts and te a c h e r s th a t th e y can n ot fa c e th e ir job"
(" C o m ic s," p. 177). M o r e o v e r , if c e n s o r s h ip is e n tr u s te d to o t h e r s - - a
c o m m itte e , the p o lic e - - w h y sh o u ld p a r e n ts b e lie v e th at an y p o lic e a u
th o r ity is w is e r th a n th e y in d e c id in g w h at is good fo r th e ir c h ild r e n ?
T he c r y fo r c e n s o r s h ip is to p r o te c t c h ild r e n , but w is e p a r e n ts and
te a c h e r s know th at c e n s o r s h ip d o e s not d e v e lo p s e lf - r e lia n c e but ig n o
r a n c e , and fr o m ig n o r a n c e c o m e b lin d fe a r and th e v io le n c e th a t d e
v e lo p s fr o m fe a r and p r e ju d ic e . So th e c h ild k ep t ig n o ra n t d o e s n ot r e
m a in in n o cen t but im m a tu r e and e x p o se d .
C a ry sa w th e d r iv e fo r c e n s o r s h ip a s a m o v e in th e f a s c i s t - c o m
m u n is t d ir e c t io n b y a d m ir e r s in E n glan d of th e p o lic e s ta te . H is sta n d
w a s th at "the a n sw e r to e v il o f an y kind is n ot c o n c e a lm e n t, e v a s io n ,
11
but k n o w led g e and e d u c a tio n ." He k n ew , a s a p r a c tic a l p o lit ic a l a d
m in is t r a t o r , th at th e m a jo r ity of p e o p le e v e r y w h e r e do not c a r e about
lib e r t y of o p in io n or p u b lica tio n ; o n ly th e s m a ll e d u c a te d c la s s w o r r ie s
abou t lib e r ty . A nd r u lin g c liq u e s , L e ft a s w e ll a s R igh t, " d e te st lib e r ty
. . . [and a r e ] e a g e r fo r th e s t r ic t e s t c o n tr o l of th e p r e s s " (" P lo t," p.
2 7 5 ). T he is s u e h e p ic k e d h e r e w a s c o n fu sin g to th e p u b lic b e c a u s e it
d e a lt w ith th e p r o te c tio n of c h ild r e n . C a ry b e lie v e d th a t a v ic to r y fo r
c e n s o r s h ip on one is s u e w o u ld p r e p a r e th e w a y fo r m o r e and m o r e c e n
s o r s h ip and l e s s and l e s s lib e r ty .
T o r e c a p itu la te : C a r y 's v ie w s on a r t and th e a r t is t a r e th at a rt
g iv e s o r d e r to lif e , and th a t it g iv e s m e n th e r e n e w e d c o n v ic tio n th a t
lif e is w o r th liv in g , is a s ig n ific a n t e x p e r ie n c e . A rt is v ita lly
^ " T h e C e n so r s h ip P lo t," S p e c ta to r , M a rch 11, 1955, p. 275.
25
im p o rta n t to m a n b e c a u s e h e is d e ta c h e d fr o m h is e n v ir o n m e n t and is
o b lig e d to c r e a te in o r d e r to c o m m u n ic a te h is f e e lin g s to o th e r s . A rt is
th e o n ly m e a n s of " e x p r e s s in g o u r s e lv e s in fo r m s of m e a n in g " and c o m
m u n ic a tin g th o s e m e a n in g s to o th e r s . C ary b e lie v e d th a t a r t is th e e x
p r e s s io n of an in d iv id u a l, n ot a grou p , b e c a u s e c o m m u n ic a tio n is by an
in d iv id u a l a r t is t of h is ow n e x p e r ie n c e w h ic h h a s b e e n f e lt , th en c o n
te m p la te d , th en c o m m u n ic a te d . T he f i r s t p r o b le m of th e a r t is t in c o m
m u n ic a tin g is to b r id g e th e gap b e tw e e n in tu itio n and e x p r e s s io n . T he
a r t is t m u st w o r k fr o m in tu itio n to r e f le c tio n , and th en fr o m r e f le c t io n
to e x p r e s s io n ; th e d iffic u lty is to p r e s e r v e h is o r ig in a l in tu itio n th ro u g h
th e lo n g p r o c e s s of te c h n ic a l c o n s tr u c tio n . T he m a jo r p r o b le m in c o m
m u n ic a tio n is th e s y m b o l, th e o n ly m e a n s of c o m m u n ic a tio n . T he s y m
b o l i t s e l f is a co m p o u n d of m e a n in g and e m o tio n and m u s t be u s e d to
c o n v e y a la r g e r m e a n in g . S y m b o ls a r e c o n s ta n tly lo s in g th e ir e f f e c t iv e
n e s s , and th e a r t is t m u st c o n tin u a lly s e e k n ew s y m b o ls to c a r r y n ew e x
p r e s s io n s of m e a n in g . T he w r itte n a r ts p r e s e n t a m o r a l v ie w in c o n
t r a s t to th e v is u a l a r ts or m u s ic . T he w r ite r d e a ls w ith m o tiv e and
m o r a lity . In p r e s e n tin g a m o r a l v ie w th e a r t is t is te m p te d to u s e a l l e
g o r y , w h ic h C a ry a b h o rr e d . He b e lie v e d in a f r e e w o r ld w h e r e p e o p le
d e c id e d th e ir ow n a c tio n s , w h e r e a s a lle g o r y t r e a t s th e w o r ld a s a
m e c h a n is m . C a r y 's la s t p o in t about a r t w a s it s in flu e n c e on m e n 's c o n
duct^ B e c a u s e it d e a ls w ith th e fu n d a m en ta l p a s s io n s of h u m a n ity it h a s
im m e n s e p o w er fo r good and e v il. A r t c r e a t e s m e a n in g s fo r th e s e n s e s ,
and b e c a u s e m e n r e a liz e t h e m s e lv e s in th e ir d r e a m s , a r t a ffe c ts th e ir
co n d u ct. D ic ta to r s and a u th o r ita r ia n g ro u p s fo r w hom it is im p o rta n t
to c o n tr o l id e a s and co n d u ct t r y to c o n tr o l th is e ffe c t of a r t on m e n b y
2 6
c e n s o r s h ip . C a r y w a s p r o fo u n d ly o p p o se d to c e n s o r s h ip b e c a u s e of th e
e v i l s th a t d e v e lo p fr o m ig n o r a n c e an d p r e j u d ic e . C e n s o r s h ip c a n m a k e
m e n in to b e a s t s in s t e a d o f f r e e m o r a l b e in g s .
B a s e d on h is g e n e r a l p h ilo s o p h y of l i f e and a r t a r e C a r y 's s ta n d
a r d s fo r th e n o v e l. H e s t a r t e d w ith th e p r o p o s it io n th a t th e n o v e l h a s an
im p o r ta n t f u n c t i o n - - nto m a k e th e w o r ld c o n te m p la te an d u n d e r s ta n d i t
s e l f , n o t o n ly a s a r a tio n a l b e in g b u t a s an e x p e r ie n c e of v a lu e , a s a
12
c o m p le te th in g ." T h e r e f o r e , b e c a u s e lif e is a m e a n in g le s s c h a o s ,
T h e n o v e lis t 's jo b is to m a k e s e n s e of it to th e f e e l i n g s . H e m u s t
h a v e a c o n s is t e n t p o in t of v ie w . It is o n ly fr o m o n e p o in t o f v ie w th a t
e x p e r ie n c e , lik e la n d s c a p e , c a n b e r a n g e d in a n y k in d o f o r d e r .
(" F u n c tio n ," p . 1)
A nd, "a g r e a t w r it e r . . . is on e w h o s e w o r ld o f o r g a n iz e d e x p e r ie n c e
h a r m o n iz e s in to on e c o h e r e n t im p r e s s io n th e la r g e s t a r e a o f a c tu a l c o n
fu s io n " (p. 1).
T h at h e d e m a n d e d th a t th e n o v e l g iv e m e a n in g an d o r d e r to c h a
o s d id n o t m e a n th a t h e lim it e d h is c o n c e p t o f w h a t a n o v e l sh o u ld be
t e c h n ic a lly . H e r e f u s e d to b e r u le d b y d e fin itio n s o r la b e ls , f o r , "It is
p r e c i s e l y in th e n e u t r a l g r o u n d b e tw e e n d e fin itio n s th a t o r ig in a l m a s t e r
p i e c e s a r e b o r n . A w r it e r w h o h a s s o m e th in g n ew to e x p r e s s is a lw a y s
13
lik e ly to s e e k a n e w fo r m o f e x p r e s s io n ." E r e w h o n , U l y s s e s , F in n e
gan* s W a k e , e v e n H e r s e y 's T h e W a ll a r e e x a m p le s o f e x p r e s s io n s th a t
d id n ot f it th e c o n v e n tio n a l l a b e l s . C a r y r e a li z e d th a t a n a ly tic m in d s ,
^ " O n th e F u n c tio n of th e N o v e lis t ," N ew Y o r k T im e s B o o k R e
v ie w , O c to b e r 30, 1 9 4 9 , p . 1.
^ " A N o v e l Is A N o v e l Is A N o v e l," N ew Y o rk T im e s B o o k R e
v ie w , A p r il 30, 1 9 5 0 , p . 1.
27
e s p e c ia lly fa v o r e d in th is a g e o f s c ie n c e , a r e a lw a y s te m p te d to c l a s s i f y
a r t u n d er s t r i c t h e a d s , s y s t e m a t ic a l ly a llo tte d .
T h e n o tio n of a w o r k of a r t p o s s e s s i n g , d e v e lo p in g , and im p o sin g its
ow n la w s , o f its b e in g , in fa c t, n o t an id e a l c o n s tr u c tio n , but a r e a l
c r e a tu r e , w o u ld a p p e a r to th e s o b e r a m a te u r m e r e ly fa n ta s t ic .
(" N o v e l Is A N o v e l," p . 1)
T h ou gh th e w o r k of a r t im p o s e s it s ow n la w s , and th o u g h th e m a t e r ia l
th e a r t is t w o r k s w it h - - t h e g iv e n fo r m s of c h a r a c t e r , f e e lin g s and "a
g iv e n fu n d a m e n ta l o r d e r of r e la t io n s in f e e lin g is a lr e a d y sh a p ed b y the
c u lt u r e " - - t h e a r t is t is a c r e a t o r (" N o v e l Is A N o v e l," p . 1).
A lth o u g h m e n lik e H o r a c e and B o ile a u , t h e m s e lv e s a r t is t s , a t
te m p te d to fo r m u la te w o r k a b le r u le s fo r a r t, th e y k n ew th a t a w o r k of
a r t p o s s e s s e s its ow n in te r n a l s e t of r u le s w h ic h a r e n o t a s e t of
" m a d e-u p d is t in c t io n s ." T h ey a lr e a d y k n ew b y p r a c t ic e th e r u le s of
c o n s tr u c tio n and te c h n iq u e " w h ich e x i s t a p p a r e n tly in th e n a tu r e o f a r t
it s e lf , and w h ic h o b lig e th e a r t is t to r e s p e c t th em " (" N o v e l Is A N o v e l,"
p . 3 4 ). A c c o r d in g to C a r y , b oth m e n k n ew th e ir b u s in e s s a s c r i t i c s ,
w h ic h w a s n o t to m a k e la w s b ut to d is c o v e r th e m , "to e x p lo r e th e
s tr u c tu r e of e a c h w o r k b y i t s e l f an d sh o w , if p o s s ib le , w h e r e it s u c
c e e d e d , and w h y and w h e r e it fa ile d ; n o t to d e fin e fr o m o u tsid e b u t to
c la r if y fr o m w ith in " (" N o v e l Is A N o v e l," p. 34). C a r y 's s o lu tio n to th e
p r o b le m o f d e fin in g th e n o v e l w a s to a c c e p t th e s im p le s t d e fin itio n p o s
s ib le and th e n p a y no s e r io u s a tte n tio n to it.
H is id e a w a s th a t th e n o v e l sh o u ld c o n v e y a f o r m a l c o n c e p tio n
th a t is im m e d ia te ly a p p r e h e n s ib le and y e t n ot f a ls e to th e c o m p le x ity of
a c tu a l lif e . To c o n v e y th is fo r m a l c o n c e p tio n it is n e c e s s a r y to d e s ig n
a b o o k in w h ic h " a ll th e c h a r a c t e r s and in c id e n ts fo r m p a r ts of on e c o
h e r e n t e x p e r ie n c e fo r th e ju d g m e n t, and a t th e s a m e tim e . . . g iv e it
28
th e v ita lity of a n a r r a tiv e fr o m a c tu a l life " ("W ay A N o v e l G ets W r it
ten*" p. 9 0 ). S in c e th e s im p le s t c h a r a c te r h a s r e la tio n s of w id e e x te n t
and the m o s t e le m e n ta r y s to r y h a s c o m p lic a tio n s , th e p r o b le m is to
p la c e lim it s , to d e c id e w h at is to be e x p r e s s e d . If a b ook is to be abou t
a " sin g le r e a lity ," e v e r y p o in t m u s t r e la t e to e v e r y o th er p o in t.
O nce th e m e a n in g to b e e x p r e s s e d h a s b e e n c la r ifie d , th e p r o b
le m of c o n s tr u c tio n is how to g iv e it e x p r e s s io n . C a ry s ta te d th a t a
n o v e l h a s to be a p a r tia l v ie w of th in g s , th a t it m u s t h a v e an a n g le in
o r d e r to h a v e fo r m and m e a n in g , and th is a n g le is n a r r o w e r th an th e
w r it e r 's ow n a n g le to w a r d lif e b e c a u s e of th e p h y s ic a l lim ita tio n s of a
b ook . T he m o r e c o m p r e h e n s iv e a n o v e l is in s c o p e , in b r e a d th of s c e n e ,
th e m o r e it lo s e s in p o w e r and s ig n ific a n c e . T h e r e fo r e , th e n o v e lis t
ca n g iv e o n ly a v e r y p a r tia l tru th in an y one book , and th at tru th fr o m a
r e s t r ic t e d a n g le . It is e a s y to s e e h ow th e tr ilo g y fo r m g r ew out of
th is id ea: th ou gh one b o o k g iv e s o n ly a p a r tia l tru th , th r e e b o o k s g iv e a
c o m p o s ite tru th .
T he b a s ic p r o b le m in w r itin g a n o v e l is p o in t of v ie w . C a ry e x
p e r im e n te d w ith f i r s t and th ir d p e r s o n p r e s e n t a tio n s and kn ew th e d if fi
c u ltie s in h e r e n t in e a c h . T he f i r s t p e r s o n h a s g r e a t n a r r a tiv e f o r c e but
is e x c e e d in g ly lim ite d in s c o p e . F u r th e r d isa d v a n ta g e s a r e th a t the
f i r s t p e r s o n im p o s e s lim ita tio n s of c h a r a c te r , p la c e , tim e , and e v en t.
E v e r y th in g th at d o e s n o t h ap p en to th e n a r r a to r m u st be r e la t e d to him ;
th u s th e s t o r y is m o r e r e m o te fr o m a c tu a lity th an a s t o r y to ld in th e
th ir d p e r s o n . C a ry c o n s id e r e d th e f i r s t p e r s o n te c h n iq u e s u ita b le o n ly
fo r n a r r a tiv e s in w h ic h th e h e r o 's a d v e n tu r e s m a k e up th e ta le ("W ay A
N o v e l G ets W ritten ," p. 92).
29
T h e d iffic u lty w ith th e t h ir d - p e r s o n m e th o d is th a t it h a s n o l i m
ita t io n s . In c id e n ts an d p e o p le a r e s o e a s y to in v e n t th a t s e le c t io n b e
c o m e s a b ig p r o b le m . T he r e m a in in g m e th o d is a c o m b in a tio n of both,
s u c h a s C on rad u s e d w ith M a r lo w . T h e s t o r y is to ld in th e f i r s t p e r s o n
b y a f ic t it io u s c h a r a c t e r . C a r y th o u g h t th is m e th o d h ad a ll the fa u lts
an d n on e of th e m e r i t s of th e o th er tw o , and o n ly one a d v a n ta g e: th a t of
e n a b lin g th e w r it e r to d e s c r ib e th e n a r r a to r (p. 92).
C a r y s a id th a t h is g r e a t e s t p r o b le m w a s a lw a y s fo r m . B y
" fo r m ," h o w e v e r , h e m e a n t th e w h o le p r e s e n t a tio n , in c lu d in g p o in t of
v ie w , s t y le , and th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e n a r r a to r . H e sa id :
T h e r e is n o su c h th in g a s a n Id ea l F o r m : w h e n p e o p le s a y fo r m is
w h a t e x p r e s s e s th e p a r tic u la r m a tte r b e s t , th is m e a n s a ll b o o k s th a t
a r e fo r m a lly g o o d h a v e c e r t a in o b v io u s q u a litie s lik e u n ity , and r e l e
v a n c e , but th a t m a y a p p ea r in m a n y d iffe r e n t w a y s a c c o r d in g to th e
p a r tic u la r m a t te r . In d eed , fo r m is w r o n g ly c o n c e iv e d of a s th e
c lo th e s of th e b o o k - - i t ' s th e e m b o d im e n t. (" N o v e lis t A t W ork ," p.
25)
A s e m b o d im e n t, fo r m is id e n t ic a l w ith e v e r y th in g in th e b ook , and th e
" c r u c ia l m o m en t" fo r th e a u th o r is w h e n h e s e e s th e w h o le fo r m o f th e
w o rk ; "it c o m e s o v e r to y o u in th a t f o r m - - c o m e s o v e r to y o u an d m o v e s
you " (p. 2 5 ).
C a r y r e m a r k e d th a t th e u s u a l c r i t i c i s m of T he H o r s e ’s M outh
w a s th a t it h ad no f o r m , a c h a r g e a g a in s t a b o o k r e w r itte n s e v e r a l
t im e s to h id e o b v io u s p lo ttin g . C a ry w a s r a th e r p le a s e d by th e c h a r g e .
I'd r a th e r be c h a r g e d w ith n ot h a v in g an y fo r m , and a ft e r a ll, if fo r m
d o e s a p p e a r v e r y m u ch , th a t is th e a u th o r . Y ou s e e th e au th o r at
w o r k , and I d o n 't th in k th a t ou gh t to happen; s o I'm m u c h m o r e
p le a s e d to be a c c u s e d of h a v in g no fo r m th a n o f h a v in g to o m u c h
fo r m . (" N o v e lis t A t W ork ," p . 25)
C a r y w a s v e r y m u ch c o n c e r n e d w ith a tta in in g b a la n c e and p r o
p o r tio n , an d h is r u le w a s th a t e v e r y th in g in th e n o v e l m u s t b e r e la t e d to
the th e m e . In o r d e r n ot to c o n fu se th e r e a d e r , he t r ie d to a v o id in t r o
d u cin g an y id e a s w h ic h w e r e not d ir e c t ly c o n n e c te d w ith th e th e m e . In
h is f i r s t n o v e l he had in v e n ted n ew o c c a s io n s and c h a r a c t e r s to d is c u s s
th e th e m e of th e b o o k --th e p r o b le m of e v il and o f e v il a r is in g fr o m good
- - a n d a s a r e s u lt , th e b ook g o t out of b a la n c e . C a ry s ta te d th at h e cu t
out th e p h ilo s o p h iz in g and r e w r o te th e b o o k s e v e r a l t im e s "in fo r m s of
in c r e a s in g s im p lic ity " (P r e fa c e to A i s s a , p. 11). O b v io u sly , h is p r o b
le m w a s a lw a y s one of cu ttin g and sh a p in g , not of ex p a n d in g . He s a id
m a n y tim e s th at he cu t h is n o v e ls , e v e n in th e fin a l d ra ft, s tr u g g lin g
w ith the p r o b le m of w h a t to b r in g in and w h at to le a v e out, a lw a y s tr y in g
to a v o id c o n fu sio n .
C o n tr a r y to c r it ic s w ho e m p h a s iz e lo g ic a l u n ity in a n o v e l, C a ry
b e lie v e d th a t th e u n ity o f a b ook is in th e m a in te n a n c e of "the e m o tio n a l
c o n tin u ity of a w ork " in its e f f e c t on th e r ea d er . He a d m ir e d Jane
A u ste n e n o r m o u s ly in th is r e s p e c t , s a y in g th a t h e r in tu itio n of th e c h a r
a c te r of the r e a d e r w a s c o m p le te ly sou n d .
She u n d e r sto o d that th e w r ite r is d e a lin g in th e r e a d e r w ith a s u b
c o n s c io u s p r o c e s s in w h ic h th e lo g ic is th at of e m o tio n a l a s s o c ia t io n .
Sh e u n d e r sto o d th a t th e e m o tio n a l c o n tin u ity of a b ook w a s a ll- im p o r
ta n t. (A rt and R e a lity , p . 121)
A b ook b u ild s in th e r e a d e r 's m e m o r y and is n o t c o m p le te u n til th e
w h o le h a s b e e n r e a d . T h en it b e c o m e s a " total m e a n in g ."
C a ry did n ot b e lie v e th at r e a d in g is a p a s s iv e e x p e r ie n c e b ut an
a c tiv e one in w h ic h c r it ic a l r e f le c t io n o c c u r s , e v e n if s u b c o n s c io u s ly .
T h is a c tiv ity b e c o m e s e v id e n t w h en a r e a d e r , n o tic in g s o m e in c o n s is t
e n c y , sto p s and r e r e a d s a p a s s a g e "in a c o n s c io u s c r it ic a l s p ir it, in
o r d e r to fin d out e x a c t ly w h at h a s b r o k e n th e s p e ll" (A rt and R e a lity , p.
1 22). A p p a re n tly , C a ry w a s th in k in g of a le r t , a b le r e a d e r s and th e ir
31
s e n s it iv it y to j o lt s and b r e a k s . He c o n s id e r e d th e r e a d e r to be a c tiv e
on th r e e or fo u r d iffe r e n t l e v e l s .
H is s u b c o n s c io u s is c r e a tin g . . . fr o m th e sy m b o ls b e fo r e h im th e
w h o le e m o tio n a l co n te n t of th e w ork; h is r e f le c t iv e ju d g m en t is . . .
r e c o r d in g fla w s of e x p r e s s io n , f a ilu r e s o f e m p h a s is , lo o s e jo in ts and
w e a k tr a n s itio n s ; so m e p a r t o f th a t ju d g m en t is . . . r ea d y at o n ce to
n o tic e an e r r o r of fa c t, e v e n w h en th e e r r o r d o e s not d e s tr o y th e c o n
tin u ity of e m o tio n a l e x p e r ie n c e . (A r t and R e a lity , p. 124)
T he d a n g er in h e r e n t in th e e ffo r t to a c h ie v e u n ity in a n o v e l is
th e o v e r e m p h a s is of s c h e m e . To m a k e th e fu n d a m en ta l id e a p la in is
a b s o lu te ly n e c e s s a r y , but if th e au th or u s e s to o m u ch s c h e m e , "the
fr a m e w o r k sh o w s, th e b o o k d ie s ." If th e au th or h id e s the s c h e m e too
m u ch , "the b ook h a s no m e a n in g and th e r e fo r e no fo rm " (W r ite r s A t
W ork, p. 55). A s C ary s a id , "a r e p e titio n at o n ce b r in g s b e fo r e th e
r e a d e r 's m in d an a n x io u s au th o r tr y in g to m a k e a p o in t, and a u th o rs
ought not to be p r e s e n t in th e r e a d e r 's m in d " (A r t and R e a lity , p. 117).
C a ry m a d e h is b e s t know n r e m a r k s abou t th e p r o b le m of fo r m
and th e a v o id a n c e of to o -o b v io u s s c h e m in g in d is c u s s in g h is p r o b le m s
in w r itin g H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d . T he c e n te r of th e p la n w a s c h a r a c te r , the
th r e e c h a r a c t e r s of the t r ilo g y s e e in g t h e m s e lv e s and b ein g s e e n by
e a c h o th er to g iv e a t h r e e - d im e n s io n a l d epth of c h a r a c te r . B ut b e c a u s e
th is s c h e m e m a d e an e a r th y , s im p le c h a r a c te r , S a ra M onday, d is c u s s
h is t o r ic a l m o v e m e n ts and a r t c r it ic i s m , it s e e m e d in a p p r o p r ia te in th e
book , th ou gh not im p o s s ib le in lif e .
B o o k s a r e n ot lif e , th e y a r e lim it e d b y th e c h a r a c te r of th e m e d iu m ,
th e fo r m of th e ir e x p r e s s io n . A nd in su c h a d ile m m a , w h e th e r to
s tic k to m y s c h e m e , or to s t ic k to c h a r a c t e r . . . . I stu c k to m y r u le ,
w h ic h w a s c h a r a c te r f ir s t .
P r e f a c e to H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d , C a rfa x e d itio n (L ond on, 195 1 ),
P- ? •.
32
T he p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e s c h e m e of th e b o o k h a s to b e a s fin e ly b a la n ce d
a s a j e w e le r 's s c a le . A b oo k is n o t lif e , it h a s so m e of th e s im p lic it y of
a fa b le , b u t it c a n n o t be a lle g o r y . T he p u r p o se m u st not b e o b v io u s, or
th e r e a d e r w ill b e a w a re of th e au th or and h is e ffo r ts a t m a n ip u la tio n .
C a r y 's o b je c tio n s to m a n ip u la tio n w e r e e v id e n t in h is r e m a r k s
abou t o th er w r it e r s . He b e lie v e d in m o r a liz in g but not m o r a liz in g
f a ls e ly . He g r a n te d th at Z o la had e v e r y r ig h t to c o m p o s e N ana in b r a s s
if h e w a n ted to "but n ot, a fte r h e had stu n n ed h is a u d ie n c e in to a tten tio n ,
to o ffe r th em a p la titu d e or a fra u d ." C a ry c o n s id e r e d the e ffo r t to s u g
g e s t th e p a r a lle l b e tw e e n th e d is s o lu tio n of a h a r lo t and th e c r i s i s of an
e m p ir e a ch ea p d e v ic e w h ic h r e v e a le d "a m in d fe d on p a r ty p o litic s "
(" F u n ctio n of N o v e lis t ," p. 5 4 3 ). He o b je c te d on s im ila r grou n d s to The
R e s u r r e c tio n b y T o lsto y , a w r it e r he o b v io u sly a d m ir e d a b ove a ll
o th e r s and about w h o m he w r o te a g r e a t d e a l. He th ou gh t th at th e r e a d
e r b e c o m e s a w a r e of T o ls to y tr y in g to in s tr u c t h im , and r e g a r d s the
b ook a s a m a r io n e tte sh ow , and is n o t c o n v in c e d . A r e a d e r is th en
lik e ly to c o m e to th e c o n c lu s io n th at an au th or sh o u ld n ot h a v e a m e s
s a g e but sh o u ld s im p ly t e ll a s to r y and le a v e in s tr u c tio n to p r o f e s s o r s .
But C a ry b e lie v e d s tr o n g ly th a t a r t h a s a m e s s a g e and "can and m u s t be
u s e d fo r an y kind of c o m m u n ic a tio n , in c lu d in g in str u c tio n " ("W ay A
N o v e l G ets W ritten ," p. 9 0 ). T he fa ilu r e of a book , th en , is n ot due to
its m e s s a g e but to its bad a r t. It f a il s to g iv e an e x p e r ie n c e .
C a ry a ls o o b je c te d to F la u b e r t's M ad am e B o v a r y , w h o se fo r m
h a s b e e n c o n s id e r e d a m o d e l b y g e n e r a tio n s of w r it e r s and c r it ic s . He
th ou gh t it h ig h ly a r t if ic ia l and f e lt th at th e a r t if ic e s w e r e not c o n c e a le d ;
fo r e x a m p le , R od olp h e m a k in g lo v e to M ad am e B o v a ry d u rin g th e
33
p r iz e - g iv in g at the a g r ic u ltu r a l sh o w , or th e d eath s c e n e in w h ic h the
p r ie s t s p r in k le s h o ly w a te r a rou n d th e b ed and th e a th e is t c h e m is t f o l
lo w s , sp r in k lin g a c h e m ic a l s o lu tio n . C a ry o b je c te d to th e o b v io u s m a
n ip u la tio n s but a d m itte d th a t th e b ook o v e r c a m e th em .
W hat s a v e s M ad am e B o v a r y is n o t th e a r t if ic e , but so m e th in g th at
a p p a r e n tly F la u b e r t d id n ot m e a n to put in to th e b o o k at a ll, h is r o
m a n tic sy m p a th y fo r the h e r o in e . T h is c o lo r s and u n ifie s th e w h o le
w o r k . . . it j u s t if ie s a ll th e t r ic k s b e c a u s e th e y a r e n e c e s s a r y to
th a t u n ity of im p r e s s io n . ("W ay A N o v e l G ets W ritten ," p. 91)
C a ry a d m ir e d D r e is e r 's A n A m e r ic a n T r a g e d y b e c a u s e "it
a v o id s s o c a r e fu lly th e l e a s t a p p e a r a n c e of a r t if ic e th a t it s e e m s to be
th ro w n to g e th e r by an e a rth q u a k e ." He c o n s id e r e d th is h ig h a r t b e c a u s e
it s u c c e e d s and c o n v in c e s . "It g iv e s th e b ook so m e th in g of the im p r e s
s iv e d ig n ity of n a tu r e. If M a d a m e B o v a r y is lik e a m o n u m en t, A n
A m e r ic a n T r a g e d y is lik e a m o u n ta in ." C a ry sa id fr a n k ly th at h e w a s
" m u ch m o r e a fr a id of p r o d u cin g th e s to n y m a s s [m o n u m en t] th an the
h illy w ild e r n e s s [m o u n ta in ]." He f e lt c o m p lim e n te d b y th e c r it ic is m
th a t T he H o r s e 's M outh w a s im p r o v is e d w h e r e a s it had b e e n s ix y e a r s
in g e s t a tio n and r e w r itte n s e v e r a l tim e s ("W ay A N o v e l G ets W ritten ,"
P- 91).
T he d e s ir e to a v o id o b v io u s p lo ttin g and s c h e m in g did n ot put
C a ry on th e s id e of th e s o - c a l l e d " s lic e of life " w r it e r s . He w a s a g a in s t
f o r m le s s n e s s and b e lie v e d th a t su c h a th in g a s a " s lic e o f life " n o v e l
d id not r e a lly e x is t . T he id e a of th e " s lic e o f life " a s tr u e , u n a ffe c te d
and s in c e r e , a cu t fr o m r ic h and fr u ity lif e , r a n co u n ter to h is a ttitu d e
to w a rd lif e a s a "heap o f n o n s e n s e ." H is w h o le p h ilo so p h y w a s th a t a ll
m e n u s e th e im a g in a tio n to c o n s tr u c t a r a tio n a l id ea of lif e . T he w r ite r ,
to c o n v e y h is id e a of lif e , h a s to o r g a n iz e a s c h e m e of th in g s to m a k e
34
th e r e a d e r f e e l l i f e a s h e w a n ts h im to f e e l it. T h e r e fo r e , C a ry in -
15
s is t e d , th e w r it e r is c o n c e r n e d " fro m th e b e g in n in g s w ith f o r m a l art."
C a r y b e lie v e d th a t th e o n ly k in d s of a r t a r e th o s e th a t add up and
th o s e th a t d o n 't. S in c e a r t is th e e x p r e s s io n of m e a n in g s , th e o n ly v a lid
c r it ic i s m is th a t th e fo r m is o b s c u r e an d c o n tr a d ic to r y , and th e o n ly
f a ir d em a n d of a w r it e r is "W hat do y o u m e a n by th is? " C a r y 's o p in io n
w a s th at th e w r it e r 's o n ly a n s w e r is th a t h e m u st u s e th e fo r m n e c e s
s a r y , h o w e v e r c o m p le x , to e m b o d y th e w h o le c o m p le x e x p e r ie n c e th a t
is h is m e a n in g . T h e r e fo r e , b o o k s lik e U ly s s e s o r F in n e g a n 's W ake a r e
p e r f e c t ly j u s t if ie d in fo r m ; th e y a r e a s c l o s e l y o r g a n iz e d a s a B e e th o v e n
sy m p h o n y . C a ry h e s it a t e d to c o m p a r e th em to a B a ch fu g u e . S im ila r ly ,
w r it e r s lik e T h o m a s W olfe or D o s P a s s o s , w h o h a v e b e e n c a lle d " s lic e
o f lif e " w r it e r s , a c tu a lly u s e d h ig h ly in d iv id u a l fo r m s to m a tc h th e ir
s tr o n g e m o tio n a l r e a c t io n s , and C a r y c o n s id e r e d th e p r o o f of th e ir o r
g a n iz in g a b ility th e fa c t th a t " e v e r y s e n te n c e in th e ir b o o k s r e v e a ls th is
fo r m a l c h a r a c t e r . Y ou ca n n o t fit th e ir s e n t e n c e s in to a b o o k b y a n y o n e
e ls e " (" S p ea k in g of B o o k s," p . 2 ).
E q u a lly a s im p o r ta n t a s h is c o n c e r n w ith fo r m w a s h is c o n c e r n
w ith c h a r a c t e r , but C a r y d id c o m p a r a t iv e ly lit t le c r it ic a l w r itin g ab ou t
it. W hen h e d is c u s s e d c h a r a c t e r , he d is c u s s e d in d iv id u a ls in h is ow n or
o th e r s ' n o v e ls ; h e r a r e ly d is c u s s e d C h a r a c te r a s s u c h . H is c o n c e p tio n
o f c h a r a c t e r d e v e lo p e d fr o m h is v ie w th a t th e n o v e l is n ot th e s a m e
th in g a s l i f e . B y im p o sin g o r d e r on c h a o s , it s im p lif ie s th e c o m p le x ity
of t h in g s - - " a ll g r e a t l it e r a r y a r t p a r ta k e s o f th e fa b le ." He v ie w e d
15
" S p eak in g of B o o k s," N ew Y o rk T im e s B o o k R e v ie w , Ju n e 2 6 ,
1 955, p. 2.
35
c h a r a c te r in th e s a m e w ay:
R ea l p e o p le a r e to o c o m p le x an d to o d is o r g a n iz e d fo r b o o k s. T h ey
a r e n 't s im p le en o u g h . L ook a t a ll th e g r e a t h e r o e s and h e r o in e s .
T om J o n e s , M a d a m e B o v a ry , A nna K a ren in a , B a ro n C h a r lu s, C a th
e r in e L inton: th e y a r e e s s e n t ia ll y c h a r a c t e r s fr o m fa b le , and s o th e y
m u st be to ta k e th e ir p la c e in a fo r m a l c o n s tr u c tio n w h ic h is to h a v e
a m e a n in g . (W r ite r s A t W ork , p. 57)
H is c r it e r io n w a s th a t " C h a r a c te r s h a v e to b e r e a l in a w r it e r 's s e n s e - -
c o n s is t e n t. C o n s is te n t c h a r a c t e r s m u st n o t be tw is te d to s e r v e a
s c h e m e ." ^ H is lo n g e s t d is c u s s io n of c h a r a c te r a tta c k s th e a s su m p tio n
th a t w r it e r s m u s t r e n d e r " rea l" p e o p le w ith m in u te ly o b s e r v e d b eh a v io r,
and th at ty p e s and c a r ic a t u r e s m u s t be a v o id e d . C a ry o ffe r e d th e p a r a
dox th a t " u n real" c h a r a c t e r s a r e a m o n g th e m o s t e f f e c t iv e in f ic t io n and
h a v e a v it a lit y th a t k e e p s th em e f f e c t iv e fo r g e n e r a tio n s : fo r e x a m p le ,
s u c h D ic k e n s' c h a r a c t e r s a s M ica w b er or S k im p o le w ho a r e b u n d les of
f o ib le s , V o lta ir e 's P a n g lo s s , e tc . He did n o t th in k th a t H a rd y 's T e s s
w a s m o r e " r ea l" th an D o s t o e v s k y 's S on ia, w ho w a s an a n g e l d r e s s e d a s ;
a p r o s titu te , and o b s e r v e d th at su c h c h a r a c t e r s w e r e u n r e a l in th at th e y
17
ta k e on s ta tu r e s la r g e r th an lif e .
A n o th er p a r a d o x is the e f f e c t of c h a r a c t e r s th at a r e n ot p e o p le ,
su c h a s C o n ra d 's s h ip s , th e m in e in Z o la 's G e r m in a l, and th e h o u se in
T he F a ll of th e H o u se of U s h e r . H e re a r e c h a r a c t e r s w ith e n o r m o u s
e f f e c t and y e t th e y a r e s y m b o ls , n o t h u m a n b e in g s . C ary b e lie v e d th e y
w e r e e ffe c t iv e b e c a u s e th e y w e r e " so a k ed in a m o r a l id ea ," and h e p u t
h u m a n c h a r a c t e r s into th e s a m e c la s s of m o r a l s y m b o ls : M ic a w b e r ,
16"M y F i r s t N o v e l," L is t e n e r , A p r il 16, 1953, p. 637.
17
"In clu d in g M r. M ic a w b e r ," N ew Y o rk T im e s B ook R e v ie w ,
A p r il 15, 1951, p. 21.
36
R a sk o ln ik o v , S a n ch o P a n z a , th e R ed Q u een , e tc .
T h ey a r e a ll m o r a lit ie s , co m p o u n d s of m o r a l q u a lit ie s . T h ey s ta y
w ith u s b e c a u s e th e ir d ile m m a s and r e a c tio n s h a v e r e f e r e n c e to our
ow n. . . . th e y a r e , in s o m e im p o rta n t a s p e c t, o u r s e lv e s . (" Inclu d in g
M ic a w b e r ," p. 21)
C a ry d e c id e d th at a ll c h a r a c t e r s m u s t in s o m e w a y be o u r s e lv e s or th e y
w o u ld h a v e no m e a n in g fo r u s , and b e c a u s e th e y a r e o u r s e lv e s , " T h ere
m u st b e a c o m m o n d e n o m in a to r of c h a r a c t e r . T he in d iv id u a l m u st b e a
fr a c tio n a l com p ou n d of th e u n iv e r s a l, in v a r io u s p r o p o r tio n s." A c c o r d
in g ly , a g r e a t w r it e r is one w ho c o n s tr u c ts h is c h a r a c t e r s out of "the
fu n d a m en ta l e le m e n ts of th is b a s ic n a tu r e ." T h e r e fo r e , th e o n ly d if f e r
e n c e b e tw e e n r e a l c h a r a c t e r s and c a r ic a t u r e s is in th e n a tu re of th e
m o r a l p r o b le m p r e se n te d ; th e y a r e s y m b o lic of su b tle and c o m p le x
s itu a tio n s , and th e y a r e in v e n te d b y g r e a t w r it e r s and m o r a lis t s w ho
p o s s e s s "the a r t to m a k e u s f e e l in and th ro u g h th e ir r e a lit y th e e v e r
la s tin g r e a li t ie s of th e e te r n a l w o r ld , w h ic h a r e o u r s to o . . . and o n ly
s o , c o m p r e h e n s ib le to u s" (" In clu d in g M ic a w b e r ," p. 21).
In s u m m a r y , C a r y 's id e a s ab ou t th e a r t of th e n o v e l a r e th at th e
n o v e l h a s th e im p o r ta n t fu n c tio n of m a k in g th e w o r ld c o n te m p la te and
u n d e r sta n d it s e lf . T he n o v e lis t 's jo b is to m a k e s e n s e of lif e to the
f e e lin g s . T he n o v e l sh o u ld c o n v e y a f o r m a l c o n c e p tio n , im m e d ia te ly
u n d e r sta n d a b le , b u t not f a ls e to th e c o m p lic a tio n s of a c tu a l lif e . C a ry
b e lie v e d th a t s in c e fo r m is th e e m b o d im e n t of th e w h o le m a t e r ia l of a
p a r tic u la r book, th e r e is no id e a l s c h o o l n o r id e a l fo r m . T he n o v e l
m u s t p r e s e n t a c o n s is t e n t p o in t of v ie w , and c a r e fu l a tte n tio n m u st b e
g iv e n to b a la n c e , p r o p o r tio n , and e m o tio n a l c o n tin u ity . T he n o v e lis t,
th ou gh a lw a y s c o n c e r n e d w ith g iv in g a m e a n in g , m u st a v o id o v e r
37
m a n ip u la tio n . R e a l p e o p le a r e to o c o m p le x fo r b o o k s. F o r m a l lit e r a r y
c o n s tr u c tio n r e q u ir e s c h a r a c t e r s a lm o s t a s s im p le a s th e c h a r a c t e r s in
a fa b le . C h a r a c te r s m u s t b e c o n s is t e n t and y e t n o t b e t w is t e d to s e r v e
a s c h e m e . T h e y m u s t a p p e a r to be f r e e m o r a l a g e n ts d e c id in g th e ir
ow n a c t io n s .
C H A P T E R II
TH E N O V E L S OF A F R IC A
T he p u r p o se of th e fo llo w in g c h a p te r s is to a s s e s s C a r y 's
a c h ie v e m e n ts in h is n o v e ls b y u s in g , a s sta n d a r d s fo r ju d g in g , the
sta n d a r d s fo r th e n o v e l th at h e e s t a b lis h e d in h is c r it ic a l w r itin g s . I a l
s o w is h to sh ow how m u ch c a r e fu l th ou gh t c o n c e r n in g th e p r o b le m s of
th e m o d e r n w o r ld is to b e fou n d in n o v e ls th at h ave b e e n lig h tly d i s
m is s e d a s h u m o r o u s s t o r ie s .
C a r y 's n o v e ls f a ll in to f iv e g r o u p s: th e A fr ic a n n o v e ls , A is s a
S a v e d , A n A m e r ic a n V is it o r , T he A fr ic a n W itch , and M r. J o h n so n ; th e
n o v e ls of ch ild h o o d , C a stle C o r n e r , C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g , and T he
H o u se of C h ild r e n ; th e f i r s t tr ilo g y , H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d , T o B e A P i l
g r im , and T he H o r s e 's M ou th ; th e c h r o n ic le n o v e ls , T he M o o n lig h t and
A F e a r fu l J o y ; th e s e c o n d tr ilo g y , A P r is o n e r of G r a c e , E x c e p t The
L o r d , and N ot H onou r M o r e . I s h a ll a p p ly C a r y 's ow n sta n d a rd s to
e a c h of th e s e g ro u p s of n o v e ls , u s in g one or tw o n o v e ls a s r e p r e s e n t a
t iv e of a gro u p . It is im m e d ia te ly o b v io u s th at b y C a r y 's sta n d a r d s, or
b y an y g e n e r a l c r it ic a l sta n d a r d s, M r. J o h n so n is th e b e s t of th e A f r i
c a n n o v e ls .
A is s a S a v e d is a stu d y of th e im p a c t of E u r o p e a n c u ltu re and
id e a s on p r im it iv e A fr ic a n c u ltu r e . C a ry w a s p a r tic u la r ly in t e r e s t e d in
th e odd e f f e c t s p r o d u c e d w h en C h r is tia n te a c h in g e s p e c ia lly
...........................................38. .... .........................................................
39
fu n d a m e n ta lis t C h r is tia n te a c h in g fr o m th e O ld T e s ta m e n t g o t m ix e d
up in p r im it iv e m in d s w ith ju ju a n d A n im is m .
T h e s t o r y is a b o u t a p r e t t y y o u n g n a t iv e g ir l, A is s a , a f a v o r it e o f th e
C a r r s , a y o u n g E n g lis h m is s io n a r y c o u p le . T h e th e m e o f th e c o n f lic t
b e tw e e n th e n a tiv e r e lig io n , ju ju , an d C h r is tia n it y a p p e a r s e a r ly in th e
b o o k . T h e r e h a v e b e e n lo n g d r o u g h ts and bad c r o p s a r o u n d K o lu , and
th e n a t iv e s b e lie v e th a t O ke, th e f e r t i l i t y g o d d e s s , w a n ts a s a c r i f i c e .
A i s s a , r e u n ite d w ith h e r lo v e r , G a je r e , an e x - c o n v ic t , r e f u s e s to go
b a c k to th e m i s s i o n . "I ta n k y o u J e s u s , y o u g o o d to m e , I g o o d to y o u .’1 ^
A t a f e a s t c e le b r a t in g t h e ir r e u n io n , s h e a n n o u n c e s th a t J e s u s is a n g r y
a t O k e, th a t h e w ill d r iv e h e r a w a y , an d th e n th e r a in s w i l l c o m e . T h e
ju ju p r i e s t e s s and th e p a g a n m o b c h a s e th e b la s p h e m o u s A i s s a , c a tc h
h e r , and t r y h e r a s a w itc h . T h e m o b w a n ts to b r e a k h e r b o n e s and
le a v e h e r to d ie on a n a n th e a p , but s h e s t r u g g le s s o m u c h , s u s t a in e d b y
a s tr o n g s e n s e o f in j u s t ic e in lif e (o n e of C a r y 's b a s ic t h e m e s ) , th a t on-:
ly h e r r ig h t a n k le h a s b e e n b r o k e n w h e n a m e s s e n g e r fr o m th e W a z ir i
in tr u d e s on th e k a n g e r o o c o u r t an d h a s A i s s a p u t in j a il, w h e r e h e r le g
tu r n s g a n g r e n o u s an d is a m p u ta te d b y th e j a i l e r .
A su b p lo t in th e n o v e l c o n c e r n s th e c o n f lic t in a ttitu d e s to w a r d
a u th o r ity b e tw e e n th e w h ite m a g is t r a t e , B r a d g a te , and th e C a r r s . T he
m a g is t r a t e b e lie v e s th a t m i s s i o n a r i e s a r e a lw a y s m a k in g o v e r z e a lo u s
c o n v e r t s w h o s t a r t tr o u b le in t h e ir e f f o r t s to c o n v in c e o th e r n a t iv e s of
th e p o w e r of C h r is t ia n it y . T h e m i s s i o n a r i e s th in k th e m a g is t r a t e f a
v o r s o n ly w h a t is w o r ld ly an d s e l f i s h , an d th a t h e is th e e n e m y of tr u e
^"M y F i r s t N o v e l," L i s t e n e r , 4 9 :6 3 7 , A p r il 16, 1 9 5 3 .
2
Aissa Saved, Carfax edition (London, 1952), p. 48.
b e l i e v e r s . A fte r a ll, G o d 's la w is th e o n ly im p o r ta n t la w .
A i s s a a r r iv e s b a c k a t th e m is s io n , and r e f u s e s to j o in th e o th e r
n a t iv e s on a n e x p e d itio n to b u r n K olu , th e s in fu l c it y , to c o n v in c e th e
p a g a n s of th e p o w e r o f J e s u s . She s a y s , "I no b e lo n g to J e s u s n ow . . . .
I n o lo v e h im no m o r e " (p. 1 3 5 ), and s h e tu r n s h e r f a c e to th e w a ll to
d ie . M r s . C a r r and th e o th e r s s in g h y m n s , th e m u s ic r e v iv e s A i s s a ,
an d s h e is r e c o n v e r t e d . T he C h r is tia n n a t iv e s , a p p a r e n tly u n a ffe c te d b y
th e C h r is tia n id e a l o f m e r c y , a tta c k K o lu , b u rn it, and s la u g h t e r m a n y
p a g a n s . T h e y m a r c h o n th e ju ju p r i e s t ' s h o u s e in th e ju ju g r o v e , w h e r e
th e p r i e s t c u r s e s th e m , and th e y f le e in f e a r . A i s s a , to o , t r i e s to ru n
h w a y , but th e s p ir it o f J e s u s l i t e r a l l y s t o p s h e r . S h e s ta n d s in fr o n t of
th e p r ie s t , s in g in g a h y m n , a n d a tta c k s h im w ith a m a t c h e t. A fte r w a r d ,
s h e fin d s b o th G a je r e a n d t h e ir b a b y , A b b a, w h o h a v e b e e n im p r is o n e d
b y th e ju ju p r ie s t .
In a n e a r b y v i l l a g e , th e f a r m e r s o f th e a r e a im p r is o n s o m e
C h r is t ia n s , s a y in g th e y m u s t b r in g r a in . A i s s a i s a s k e d to p r a y fo r
r a in , but s h e s a y s "I do p le n t y g o o d fo r J e s u s . . . . J e s u s , h e do p le n ty
fo r m e . G oo d b y e n o w - - a l l d o n e fin ish " (p. 1 9 9 ). T h e in fu r ia te d n a t iv e s
a tta c k h e r , an d a f r ie n d r e p r o a c h e s h e r f o r lo v in g G a je r e an d A b b a
m o r e th a n J e s u s . S h e b e g s J e s u s to le t h e r g o , tu r n s on G a je r e , h o p in g
to p la c a t e J e s u s , an d c u ts h e r s e l f w ith a k n ife . T he s p ir it in s id e h e r
t e l l s h e r th a t s h e is c h e a tin g . S h e a s k s w h a t m o r e s h e c a n g iv e , an d
th r o w s a s to n e in to th e r iv e r , h o p in g J e s u s w ill th in k it is A b b a . T h e
n a t iv e s , d e lig h te d b y th e s a c r i f i c e , s in g h y m n s , an d A is s a , o v e r
w h e lm e d b y a s e n s e o f g u ilt, c o n f e s s e s s h e d id n o t d r o w n th e c h ild .
O ne o f th e n a t iv e s p la n ts a c r o s s in fr o n t o f h e r , a n d in an e x a c t c o p y of
41
ju ju r itu a l, s la y s A b b a o v e r th e c r o s s . A m i s s i o n n a tiv e s h r ie k s th a t
th e y a r e m a k in g ju ju to G od, an d th e y w ill b e d a m n e d fo r it. T h e c r o w d
s c a t t e r s a s s o m e p a g a n p o li c e fr o m th e E m ir 's c o u n c il r id e u p . T h e y
b r e a k A i s s a ' s b o n e s and le a v e h e r to d ie on a n a n th e a p . A fte r th e f i r s t
a g o n ie s , th e a n t's b it e s s e e m lik e w a r m th ; s h e th in k s J e s u s is ta k in g
h e r to h e a v e n , and s h e d ie s la u g h in g .
T h e im p a c t o f o n e c u ltu r e on a n o th e r in th e m ix t u r e of C h r is t i
a n ity an d ju ju b y th e n a t iv e s is c le a r . T h e c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n s a r e e x c e l
le n t. B ut th e b a s ic f la w s o f th e n o v e l a r e th e b u sy p lo t and th e n e c e s s i
ty fo r th e r e a d e r to b e lie v e th a t A i s s a ' s fa it h is s u f f ic ie n t to m a k e h e r
a tta c k th e ju ju p r i e s t , to f o r s a k e lo v e r and c h ild , an d to s u s t a in h e r
th r o u g h a g o n y in to jo y fu l d e a th .
T h e A m e r ic a n V is it o r is a s t o r y of a y o u n g A m e r ic a n j o u r n a lis t ,
M a r ie H a s lu c k , w h o c o m e s to N ig e r ia w ith a h e a d f u ll of r o m a n tic id e a s
a b o u t "the n o b le s a v a g e " an d th e a n a r c h is t b e lie f th a t if g o v e r n m e n t
w e r e a b o lis h e d a ll h u m a n a f f a ir s w o u ld ru n p e a c e f u lly a c c o r d in g to th e
" r u le s of n a tu r e ." Sh e m e e t s and m a r r i e s B e w s h e r , th e B r it is h D i s
t r i c t O ffic e r w h o r u n s h is s e c t io n o f N ig e r ia lik e a m e d ie v a l p o te n ta te ,
p u r e ly b y th e f o r c e of h is p e r s o n a lit y . B e w s h e r is k ille d w h e n M a r ie ,
r e ly in g c o m p le t e ly o n h e r m y s t i c a l fa it h in G od, r e f u s e s to g iv e h im a
gu n w ith w h ic h to f a c e a m o b o f m u r d e r o u s s a v a g e s . T h e n o v e l is a
stu d y of th e c o n f lic t pf a ttitu d e s to w a r d a u th o r ity an d f r e e d o m . C a r y
th o u g h t, in th e 1 9 3 0 's , th a t A m e r ic a n s s e e m e d p a r t ic u la r ly p r o n e to r o
m a n t ic iz e A fr ic a n n a t iv e s an d to v ie w a n a r c h y a s a d e s ir a b le s t a t e o f
a f f a ir s . C a r y , a s a n e x p e r ie n c e d p o li t ic a l a d m in is t r a t o r , k n ew th e
p r o b le m s o f b oth l a w l e s s n e s s an d d e s p o t is m , an d h e th o u g h t th a t
42
A m e r ic a n s h a d n o t th e n f a c e d r e a lit y , th a t " th ey b e lie v e d th a t p e a c e
3
c o u ld c o m e b y a 'n a tu r a l' d e v e lo p m e n t, w ith o u t e n fo r c e m e n t o f la w ."
C a r y w a s a w is e m a n and d id n ot b e lie v e in e x t r e m e s :
D e m o c r a tic f r e e d o m , s e c u r it y , in th e l a s t r e s o r t , r e s t on a b a l
a n c e of p o w e r an d an a ttitu d e of m in d . T o o m u c h la w , to o m u c h s e
c u r ity , an d y o u g e t a ty r a n n y , a r ig id m a c h in e ; to o m u c h fr e e d o m and
y o u g e t a n a r c h y ; to o m u ch n a t io n a lis m and y o u r u s h in to w a r , to o
m u ch p a c if ic is m an d y o u op en th e w a y to H it le r and S ta lin , m o r e and
b ig g e r w a r s . ( P r e f a c e to T he A m e r ic a n V is it o r , p. 11)
C a r y w a s h im s e lf d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith th e h e r o in e o f T he A m e r ic a n V is ito r .
H e t r ie d to c r e a t e an A m e r ic a n w o m a n w ith A m e r ic a n id e a s and r e a c
tio n s b e fo r e h e h ad b e e n to th e U n ited S ta te s or h ad h ad m u c h c o n ta c t
Svith A m e r ic a n s .
T he th ir d A fr ic a n n o v e l, T he A fr ic a n W itch , w a s v e r y a m b itio u s
an d a tte m p te d a la r g e p a n o r a m a , bu t I th in k th a t th e W itch f a lls s h o r t of
fu ll a c h ie v e m e n t, n o t a s M r. W rig h t s u g g e s t s , b e c a u s e th e c e n tr a l f ig -
4
u r e is a w o m a n in s te a d o f a m a n , bu t b e c a u s e o f a s t r u c tu r a l w e a k n e ss;
- - t h e b o o k s h ift s it s c e n te r fr o m J u d ith and R a ck h a m , w h o f i r s t a p p ea r
to b e th e h e r o in e and h e r o , to L o u is , w h o w ill a p p a r e n tly b e th e h e r o
an d w ho a c tu a lly o c c u p ie s m o s t of th e b ook , an d to E liz a b e th , w h o d o m i
n a te s th e b o o k . T h e t it le w o u ld in d ic a te th a t E liz a b e th is th e c e n tr a l
f ig u r e , but th e s t o r y f o c u s e s up on L o u is . T h e r e fo r e , th e r e a d e r is le f t
d is s a t is f ie d a t th e e n d w h e n th e s to r y , a fte r L o u is ' d ea th , s h ift s b a c k to
E liz a b e t h . T h e b o o k c o n fo r m s to C a r y 's p r in c ip le s in th a t it p r e s e n t s
3
P r e f a c e to T he A m e r ic a n V is it o r , C a r fa x e d itio n (L on d on ,
1 9 5 2 ), p. 10.
^ A n d rew W rig h t, J o y c e C ary: A P r e f a c e to H is N o v e ls (N ew
Y ork , 1 9 5 8 ), p. 105.
■ ......................................................... 43
an o r d e r e d p ic tu r e of an im m e n s e ly c o n fu se d p a r t of l i f e - - t h e A fr ic a
e m e r g in g to d a y fr o m th e Stone A g e into th e m o d e r n w o r ld , and the
f o r c e s w ith in A fr ic a w h ic h tr y to m o v e it fo r w a r d and th o s e w h ic h t r y
to h o ld it b a ck . T he s u b je c t is th e p r e v a le n c e of A fr ic a n w itc h c r a ft and
its h o ld on th e A fr ic a n tr ib a l m in d in c o n tr a s t to th e e ffe c t o f W e ste r n
id e a s . The c o n flic t is e m b o d ie d in L o u is , th e O x fo r d -e d u c a te d A fr ic a n
p r in c e , and th e c o n tr a s t is r e p r e s e n te d b y Judith, th e O xford don, and
E liz a b e th , the A fr ic a n w itc h . E v e r y th in g in th e b o o k is r e la t e d to th is
c o n flic t, and th e e n o r m o u s ly c o m p le x th e m e r e q u ir e s a w h o le c ro w d of
c h a r a c t e r s , e a c h c h a r a c te r r e p r e s e n tin g a fa c e t o f e ith e r A fr ic a n or
E u r o p e a n lif e . T he e m o tio n a l in te n s ity is s u s ta in e d in s p ite of s h iftin g
b a ck and fo r th fr o m E n g lis h to p a g a n to M o h a m m ed a n c h a r a c t e r s . C a ry
m a d e lit t le t h ir d - p e r s o n c o m m e n t in th e b ook , l e s s in fa c t, th a t in M r.
J o h n so n , so th e au th or is l e s s p r e s e n t th a n in th e la t e r b ook . B ut, c o n
tr a r y to C a r y 's p r in c ip le abou t s c h e m e , th e p lo t is h ig h ly m a n ip u la te d .
The c h a r a c t e r s a r e c o n s is t e n t e x c e p t fo r L o u is' b lin d e m o tio n a l d r iv e
to w a rd w a r and h is r e f u s a l to m e e t th e D is t r ic t O ffic e r a fte r r e q u e stin g
a m e e tin g . T h is p r e c ip it a t e s the fin a l a c tio n and h is d eath . Y et it
s e e m s in c o n s is te n t w ith h is g e n e r a lly in t e llig e n t b e h a v io r . T he r e a d e r
ca n h a r d ly b e lie v e th a t t h is a b le and e d u c a te d you n g m a n , w h o h a s k ep t
h is h e a d in s e v e r a l s e v e r e c r i s e s , w o u ld f in a lly b e c o m e c o m p le te ly
d o m in a ted by C o k e r 's p r im it iv e , o r g ia s t ic r e lig io n . The b ook , in s p ite
of c o n fo r m in g to C a r y 's o th er p r in c ip le s , la c k s fo r m , the a tta in m e n t of
w h ic h C a ry a d m itte d w a s h is g r e a t e s t p r o b le m in w r itin g .
In M r. J o h n so n , C a r y 's id e a s and f e e lin g s ab ou t A fr ic a c r y s t a l
liz e d in to a s im p le p lo t w ith c h a r a c t e r s th a t em b o d y v a r io u s a ttitu d e s
■ ............................................. ' ' ' 44
and b e lie f s fo u n d in A f r ic a . T h e s t o r y is ab ou t J o h n so n , a s e v e n t e e n -
y e a r - o ld A fr ic a n n a tiv e w h o is a c le r k to R u d b eck , th e B r it is h R e s id e n t
O ffic e r , a t a v e r y s m a ll s ta tio n in F a d a , N ig e r ia . J o h n so n m a r r ie s a
p r e t t y b u sh g ir l, B arnu, and g e t s h im s e lf d eep in to d eb t in o r d e r to p a y
th e b r id e p r ic e fo r h e r . H e is in e p t a t h is w o r k , th ou gh e a g e r an d w i l l
in g to p le a s e . H e c o n tin u a lly g iv e s la r g e p a r t ie s and g e ts v e r y d ru n k in
o r d e r to f u lf ill h is id e a s of h is ow n im p o r ta n c e a s a g o v e r n m e n t o ff ic ia l
and h is m o n e y d if f ic u lt ie s b e c o m e s o g r e a t th a t h e a g r e e s to sp y o n s e
c r e t r e p o r ts and g iv e th e in fo r m a tio n to th e W a z ir i, w h o p a y s h is d e b ts.
R u d b eck b e lie v e s in th e im p o r ta n c e o f n ew r o a d s in d e v e lo p in g a b a c k -
iward d is t r ic t , and h e and J o h n so n ju g g le th e b o o k s in o r d e r to p a y th e
r o a d w o r k e r s . R u d b eck and h is w ife C e lia c o m e to a c r u c ia l p o in t in
th e ir m a r r ia g e , and w h e n th e y le a v e th e p o s t, T r in g , a y o u n g r e p la c e
m e n t o f f ic e r , d is c o v e r s th e fr a u d u le n t b o o k s, and J o h n so n is f ir e d .
G o llu p , th e s ta tio n s t o r e k e e p e r , h ir e s J o h n so n a s a c le r k , but f i r e s h im
on e n ig h t a fte r d is c o v e r in g a v e r y d e s t r u c t iv e s e c r e t p a r ty in th e s t o r e .
W hen th e R u d b eck s r e tu r n , J o h n so n is h ir e d a s s u p e r v is o r of th e ro a d
g a n g s , and h e r e a c h e s th e s u m m it o f h is s u c c e s s . A n u n a u th o r iz e d fe e
th a t J o h n so n h a s b e e n c h a r g in g t r a v e le r s is d is c o v e r e d a ft e r th e r o a d
is f in is h e d . H e is f ir e d , s t e a ls fr o m th e s t o r e , is ca u g h t b y G ollu p ,
k il ls h im , an d is e x e c u t e d fo r m u r d e r .
C a ry e s t a b lis h e d h is i d e a s in M r. J o h n so n w ith o u t fa llin g b a c k
on lo n g , a r t if ic ia l d is c u s s io n s lik e th o s e in T h e A m e r ic a n V is it o r ,
w h ic h m a d e th a t b o o k so m e w h a t r e s e m b le a P e a c o c k n o v e l. He a ls o
a v o id e d in s e r t in g m u ch d ir e c t a u th o r 's c o m m e n t, a d h e r in g to h is sta n d
a r d s fo r th e n o v e l. H is m a in id e a s a b ou t A f r ic a and A fr ic a n s w e r e
45
c o n c e r n e d w ith p h ilo s o p h y , p s y c h o lo g y , and e c o n o m ic s . M any of th e in
c id e n ts la t e r d is c u s s e d in T he C a s e fo r A fr ic a n F r e e d o m (1 9 4 1 ) f i r s t
a p p ea r in n a r r a tiv e fo r m in M r. J o h n so n (1 9 3 9 ). C a r y 's o p in io n w a s
th a t th e r e a r e tw o E u r o p e a n a ttitu d e s to w a r d th e A fr ic a n c o n flic t. T he
f ir s t , e m b o d ie d in B lo r e , th e R e s id e n t O ffic e r , is th a t th e n a tiv e is in
c a p a b le o f ta k in g fu ll r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r h is lif e , s o th a t e d u c a tio n and
E u r o p e a n w a y s m e r e ly tu r n h im in to a b u m p k in , a " tr o u s e r e d a p e ." T h e
s e c o n d is th a t th e A fr ic a n is h a p p y in t r ib a l lif e , and th a t th e b e s t th in g
is to le a v e h im a lo n e . T h is a ttitu d e is p a r tly s e e n in C e lia R u d b eck ,
w h o lo o k s at A f r ic a an d A fr ic a n s a s " p ic tu r e sq u e " w ith o u t o b s e r v in g th e
e f f e c t of E u r o p e a n id e a s on tr a d itio n a l w a y s of l if e . C a ry b e lie v e d thait
th e r ig h t a ttitu d e is one of f r ie n d lin e s s and h e lp f u ln e s s , and th a t e d u c a
tio n is a b s o lu t e ly n e c e s s a r y to h e lp th e A fr ic a n a d v a n c e .
In A fr ic a , e v e n in th e g o v e r n m e n t s e r v i c e , p e r s o n a l r e la t io n s co u n t
fo r m o r e th a n in E u r o p e . T he e d u c a te d A fr ic a n , it s e e m s to m e ,
d o e s n ot l o s e b y e d u c a tio n a c h a r a c t e r is t ic of h is r a c e , w h ic h , a c
c o r d in g to y o u r v ie w , is e ith e r g o o d o r bad; h e is s t i l l s tr o n g ly
m o v e d b y p e r s o n a l s y m p a th ie s . If h e k n o w s th a t y o u lik e h im and
th a t y o u a p p r e c ia te h is h e lp , h e is th e b e s t c o lle a g u e y o u c o u ld fin d ;
he e n t e r s in to th in g s w ith an e a g e r n e s s , a f r e s h n e s s of m in d , th a t
m a k e s h im a p e r p e tu a l s o u r c e of e n c o u r a g e m e n t e v e n in d u ll r o u tin e
w o rk ; but if he sh o u ld fin d h im s e lf k e p t a t a r m 's le n g th , h e sh o w s
o fte n b o r e d o m and a k in d o f r e s ig n e d in d iffe r e n c e w h ic h m a y lo o k
lik e a p a th y .
R u d b eck is a s r e a s o n a b le and p o lit e to J o h n so n a s h e w o u ld b e to a b u t
le r in E n g la n d , and J o h n so n w o r s h ip s h im . B lo r e h o ld s J o h n so n at
a r m 's le n g th , t r e a t s h im w ith c o ld c o n te m p t, and J o h n so n u n c o n s c io u s ly
b e c o m e s c lu m s y and stu p id in B lo r e ’s p r e s e n c e , u n a b le to o v e r c o m e th e
p s y c h o lo g ic a l b a r r ie r .
5
The Case for African Freedom (London, 1941), p. 40.
................................................. 46
C a r y w a s n o t na'iVe; h e w a s an e x p e r ie n c e d N ig e r ia n m a g is t r a t e
and w e ll a c q u a in te d w ith th e d if f ic u lt ie s o f d e a lin g w ith A fr ic a n tr ib a l
m in d s , s t i l l in a S to n e A g e fr a m e o f r e f e r e n c e . A c c o r d in g to C a ry , th e
A fr ic a n t r ib a l n a tiv e lo o k s up on a n y s t r a n g e r , b la c k o r w h ite , w ith s u s
p ic io n and in d iffe r e n c e . "Y ou c a n n o t s u r p r is e the ig n o r a n t and stu p id .
V illa g e r s a lw a y s kn ow b e tt e r . T he m o r e r e m o te th e v illa g e , th e g r e a t e r
it s c o n c e it" (A fr ic a n F r e e d o m , p. 8 7 ). T h is s u s p ic io n of and in d if f e r
e n c e to th e s t r a n g e r is s e e n in th e a ttitu d e of B am u an d h e r fa m ily . She
a lw a y s c o n s id e r s J o h n so n a c r a z y s tr a n g e r , ca n n o t u n d e r sta n d h is d e
s i r e s to b e lik e w h ite m e n and to m a k e h e r lik e a w h ite la d y , and sh e
d o e s n o t t r y to u n d e r sta n d h im . F o r h e r , th e tr ib a l s ta n d a r d s a r e th e
o n ly o n e s th a t co u n t. H er la c k o f in t e r e s t and h e r h o s t ilit y e x te n d to th e
p o in t o f r u d e n e s s w h en J o h n so n b r in g s M r s . R u d b eck to c a ll on B a m u .
C a r y , g e n e r a liz in g on th e b e h a v io r o f A fr ic a n w o m e n , c o n s id e r e d th em
l e s s a ff e c te d th a n th e m e n b y s o c ia l and e c o n o m ic c h a n g e .
L ik e th e g r e a t e r n u m b e r of E u r o p e a n w o m e n , th e y do n ot f e e l t h e m
s e lv e s r e s p o n s ib le fo r e v e n ts o u tsid e t h e ir ow n h o u s e h o ld s , an d do
n o t t r y to g r a s p th e m . B ut w o m e n , e v e n m o r e th a n m e n , a r e p a s
s io n a te an d r e v e n g e fu l in d e s p a ir . S in c e th e y a r e c o n s c io u s , e s p e
c ia lly in A fr ic a , o f m in d in g th e ir ow n b u s in e s s and w o r k in g v e r y
h a r d at it, th e y a r e e s p e c ia lly c r it ic a l o f th o s e w h o m th e y su p p o se
r e s p o n s ib le fo r p u b lic b u s in e s s . (A fr ic a n F r e e d o m , p. 53)
J o h n so n is an A fr ic a n in th e h a lfw a y s ta g e of d e v e lo p m e n t. O n ly
h a lf e d u c a te d b y W e s te r n s ta n d a r d s , h e b e c o m e s e a s i l y c o n fu s e d and
m a k e s e n d le s s m is t a k e s ; a s R u d b eck r e p o r te d , h e is " w illin g b u t c a r e
l e s s . " F r e e d fr o m th e tr ib a l in flu e n c e , h e h a s lo s t it s tr a d it io n a l c o d e
o f l i f e . He th in k s h im s e lf a C h r is tia n , but is e a s i l y m o v e d b y p a g a n
r itu a l. He is p e r p e tu a lly e x c it e d , p a r t ic u la r ly b y E u r o p e a n c lo t h e s , a
t r a it w h ic h r e f le c t s C a r y 's o p in io n th a t w h e n th e A fr ic a n p u ts on w h ite
47
m e n 's c lo th e s h e f e e l s h im s e lf c h a n g e d b o d ily in to a w h ite m a n . T he
c lo t h e s a r e a p o w e r fu l s y m b o l. J o h n so n is a ls o e a s il y m o v e d b y th o s e
E u r o p e a n id e a s w h ic h a p p e a l to h is s e n tim e n t s of lo v e and lo y a lty : "I
b e lo n g fo r d e K ing. . . . E n g la n d is m y c o u n try , dat k in g of E n g la n d is
m y k in g.
T a su k i, th e r o a d fo r e m a n , r e p r e s e n t s th e im m e n s e in g e n u ity of
th e A fr ic a n n a tiv e , an d a g a in th e c h a r a c t e r is d ra w n fr o m C a r y 's e x p e
r ie n c e . C a r y 's a n s w e r to th e a r g u m e n t th a t th e A fr ic a n is in c a p a b le of
r e s p o n s ib ilit y and is h a p p ie r le f t a lo n e , w a s th a t it ta k e s no s p e c ia l
g e n iu s to d r iv e a lo r r y . He g a v e th e in v e n t iv e n e s s of h is N ig e r ia n f o r e
m a n , T a su k i, a s an e x a m p le o f n a tiv e a b ility .
T a su k i h a d in v e n te d a ll b y h im s e lf and fo r th is one jo b , th e co m p o u n d
l e v e r , th e m u ltip le p u lle y an d s e v e r a l n ew d e v ic e s n e v e r s e e n b e fo r e
and p r o b a b ly n e v e r u s e d a g a in . . . . T a su k i h a d n e v e r s e e n a m u ltip le
p u lle y in h is l i f e , but h e p e r f e c t ly u n d e r s to o d w h y th e gan g h a d to
p u ll in tw e n ty f e e t o f t i e - t i e to r a is e th e lo g f iv e fo o t. H e e x p la in e d
it to m e in o r d e r to a p o lo g iz e fo r th e s lo w n e s s of th e w o r k . " F o u r
r o p e s p u ll s tr o n g e r , fo u r tim e s t r o n g e r , but, of c o u r s e , th e y h a v e to 1
go fa r th e r , fo u r t im e s fa r th e r ." (A fr ic a n F r e e d o m , p . 39)
T h e l a s t im p o r ta n t p ie c e in C a r y 's A fr ic a n m o s a ic , w h ic h fo r m s
th e b a c k g r o u n d of M r. J o h n so n , is th e W a z ir i, w h o r e p r e s e n t s th e M o
h a m m e d a n in flu e n c e in A fr ic a and a ll th e f o r c e s w h ic h h a te n ew id e a s
and w a y s . T he W a z ir i is im m e n s e ly c le v e r an d c o m p le t e ly c o r r u p t,
m o r a lly and p h y s ic a lly . H e is th e m o s t fa w n in g o f f la t t e r e r s and th e
m o s t d a n g e r o u s of a c c u s e r s . H e is th e f i r s t to c o m p la in of th e in c r e a s e
:in c r im e b ro u g h t b y th e in flu x of n ew p e o p le on th e n ew r o a d , and th e
l a s t to a d m it th e p r o s p e r it y th a t c a m e w ith th e r o a d . C a r y 's p o in t is
th a t m a n y A fr ic a n r u le r s w o u ld p r e f e r to s e e p o v e r ty and m i s e r y
^Mr. Johnson (New York, 1951), p. 30.
48
c o n tin u e , b e c a u s e it is e a s ie r f o r th em to h a n d le th e ir p e o p le u n d er f a
m ilia r c o n d itio n s th a n to m e e t th e n ew p r o b le m s th a t a r is e w ith in
c r e a s e d tr a d e and p r o s p e r it y .
R ud beck*s r o a d -b u ild in g , a ro u n d w h ic h th e m a in a c tio n of the
b ook r e v o lv e s , a g a in r e f le c t s on e of C a r y 's im p o r ta n t id e a s ab ou t
A fr ic a : th at n a tiv e r o a d s and lo d g e s in th e r e m o te d is t r ic t s a r e th e b e
g in n in g of p r o g r e s s , an d th a t th e y p a y fo r t h e m s e lv e s . C a r y r e c o u n te d
h is ow n e x p e r ie n c e in fig h tin g th e T r e a s u r y fo r m o n e y to b u ild r o a d s
and p u b lic in n s or " z u n g o s," in n s w h ic h o ffe r n o th in g but s h e lt e r , w o o d ,
w a te r , and th e s im p le s t fo o d . O b v io u sly , R u d b eck *s d iffic u lty in o b ta in
ing m o n e y fo r th e r o a d -b u ild in g r e f le c t s C a r y 's ow n e x p e r ie n c e s in N i
g e r ia .
T h e T r e a s u r y r e f u s e d th e m o n e y , l e s s th an a h u n d red p o u n d s. W e
g u a r a n te e d th a t th e z u n g o s w o u ld p a y a t l e a s t tw e n ty p e r c e n t a ft e r
d e d u c tio n s o f a ll c h a r g e s fo r c a r e t a k e r s an d m a in te n a n c e . B ut w e
h e a r d o n ly fr o m s o m e ju n io r c le r k th a t m o n e y w a s n o t a v a ila b le fo r
" te m p o r a r y " w o r k s .
It is w o r th s a y in g th at th e r e a r e " te m p o r a r y " w o r k s in N ig e r ia , ;
th a t i s , n a tiv e b u ild in g s , e ig h t h u n d red y e a r s o ld . T he p r o v in c ia l
r e s id e n t , w h o g a v e m e a ll h e lp and sy m p a th y , fin a lly s c r a p e d to g e th
e r a fe w p o u n d s fr o m th e p r o v in c ia l t r e a s u r y . I ad d ed m y ow n a llo w
a n c e s fo r p o lic e u n ifo r m s , s t a t io n e r y , m is c e lla n e o u s and s e c r e t
s e r v i c e s , an d w e b u ilt tw o s m a ll z u n g o s . T he r e s u lt w a s fa r b ey o n d
ou r g r e a t e s t h o p e s . T he flo w of t r a d e r s d o u b led in l e s s th a n a
m on th ; in a s in g le y e a r th e n e w m a r k e ts had b e c o m e to o s m a ll.
M o n e y and g o o d s b e g a n to flo w in to th e v illa g e s , w ith im m e d ia te e f
f e c t s on t h e ir lo c a l e c o n o m y . . . . p o v e r ty v is ib ly w e n t b a c k a lit t le .
(A fr ic a n F r e e d o m , p . 95)
C a ry o b s e r v e d th a t h e w a ite d f o r a q u e r y fr o m th e T r e a s u r y abou t
w h e r e th e n ew m o n e y w a s c o m in g fr o m . "B ut I h e a r d n o th in g w h a te v e r .
T h e T r e a s u r y is a lw a y s w illin g to a c c e p t m o n ey ; it is o n ly p a r tic u la r
ab ou t r e g u la tio n s w h en it h a s to p a y " (A fr ic a n F r e e d o m , p . 95).
In th e n o v e l, R u d b e ck 's e ffo r ts to p a y th e r o a d c r e w c a u s e th e
49
o p p o r tu n is tic yo u n g o f f ic e r w h o r e p la c e s h im to c h a r g e h im w ith e m
b e z z le m e n t . J o h n so n 's c h a r g e of an u n a u th o r iz e d fe e in th e z u n g o s in
o r d e r to buy b e e r an d p a y th e d r u m m e r s fo r th e r o a d gan g r e s u lt s in h is
d i s m i s s a l an d e v e n tu a l e x e c u tio n .
M r. J o h n so n is n o t a " p o litic a l" n o v e l, th o u g h p o lit ic s and e c o
n o m ic s p r o v id e th e b a c k g r o u n d an d p a r tly d e te r m in e th e ty p e s of th e
m in o r c h a r a c t e r s . C a r y w a s a lw a y s a n o v e lis t f i r s t , and a n o v e lis t 's
jo b is th e c r e a t io n of c h a r a c t e r , "of f r e e m o r a l b e in g s d e te r m in in g
t h e ir ow n a c tio n s ." J o h n so n and th e m in o r c h a r a c t e r s , e x c e p t B a m u ,
a r e d e fin ite ly liv in g c h a r a c t e r s , n o t m o u t h p ie c e s . W e a lw a y s s e e B a m u
fr o m th e o u ts id e , and th e r e a s o n s g iv e n f o r h e r a c tio n s , h e r r u d e n e s s ,
h o s t ilit y , and s u b s e r v ie n c e to h e r fa m ily s e e m im p o s e d fr o m th e o u t
s id e . A fte r liv in g w ith J o h n so n an d b e a r in g h is c h ild , sh e s t i l l lo o k s
u p on h im a s a s t r a n g e r , and is m u c h c l o s e r and m o r e lo y a l to h e r
b r o th e r , w h o m sh e f o llo w s a t a w o r d . O b v io u sly , it w o u ld b e m o r e d if
f ic u lt fo r a w h ite m a n to u n d e r s ta n d th e m in d of a b u sh g ir l th an to
p e n e tr a te th e m in d of a b u sh m a n , and I b e lie v e th a t C a r y 's p r o b le m is
r e f le c t e d in th e p o r tr a y a l of B a m u .
It is e a s y to f o r g e t th a t J o h n so n is o n ly a b o y - - s e v e n t e e n a t th e
b e g in n in g o f th e n o v e l, an d n in e te e n or tw e n ty at th e end. H is a c tio n s ,
t h e r e f o r e , a r e n o t o n ly th o s e of a h a lf -e d u c a te d A fr ic a n but a ls o th o s e
of an a d o le s c e n t liv in g b e tw e e n tw o c u lt u r e s . H is th o u g h t le s s n e s s ab ou t
m o n e y , h is s h o w in g -o ff, h is d r in k in g an d p a r t ie s , h is lo v e o f c lo th e s ,
h is th e ft of R u d b e c k 's k e y s on a d a r e , a r e a ll a d o le s c e n t r e a c tio n s to
a d u lt p r o b le m s . A w h ite a d o le s c e n t b o y in E n g la n d in C h a r le y Is M y
D a r lin g r e a c t s to h is p r o b le m s in m a n y of th e s a m e w a y s . C a r y th o u g h t
50
of b oth c h a r a c t e r s a s b e in g e s s e n t ia ll y th e s a m e , th a t th e ir s e e m in g ly
ir r e s p o n s ib le a c ts a r e a c tu a lly c r e a t iv e th ou gh im m a tu r e e ffo r ts to
s o lv e th e ir p r o b le m s and to le a r n ab ou t th e ir w o r ld . B oth a r e fo r g e r s
ah ead , " d r e a m e r s w ho w a k e to tr y to m a k e th e ir d r e a m s c o m e tru e"
(" N o v e lis t A t W ork," p . 2 1 ). J o h n so n 's d e c is io n to s t e a l th e k e y s to the
o ffic e s a fe fr o m u n d er th e s le e p in g R u d b eck 's p illo w in o r d e r to s t e a l
and co p y B lo r e 's r e p o r t an d sh o w it to th e W a z ir i, w h o w ill th en p a y h is
d e b ts, b e c o m e s a d a rin g c h a lle n g e . J o h n so n b e c o m e s a h e r o in h is ow n
e y e s and th o se of th e c le r k s a rou n d h im . T he a c t, in h is im a g in a tio n ,
b e c o m e s a g r e a t a d v e n tu r e . L a te r , w h en b e a te n up by th e W a z ir i's
m e n , h e c h a n g e s th e e x p e r ie n c e a ro u n d in h is own m in d , and c la im s h e
h a s b e a te n up th e W a z ir i. D e s c r ib in g h is a d v e n tu r e to th e to w n sp e o p le ,
he b e c o m e s th e m o s t p o p u la r of A fr ic a n p e r s o n a g e s - - t h e go o d s t o r y t e l
l e r - - a n d tu rn s th e d e fe a t into a tr iu m p h (M r. J o h n so n , p. 2 1 0 ). S im i
la r ly , th e k n ifin g of G ollu p, th e s to r e k e e p e r , is u n p r e m e d ita te d , th ou gh
s u b c o n s c io u s ly J o h n so n h a s a lw a y s know n th e p o s s ib ilit y of r e c o g n itio n
and c a p tu r e and h a s c a r r ie d a sh a r p k n ife on h is fo r a y s . C a ry p a in te d a
c h a r a c te r w ho s im p ly ju m p s fr o m one p r o b le m in to a n o th er, d ep en d in g
on im a g in a tiv e tr ic k s to g e t out of th e m , w ith o u t r e c o g n iz in g s o c ia l
c o d e s o f r ig h t and w r o n g . J o h n so n liv e s b y h is im a g in a tio n , and C ary,
th ou gh s y m p a th e tic to th e c h a r a c te r , d e s c r ib e d h im a s sp en d in g h is lif e
te llin g h im s e lf " little r o m a n c e s ab ou t h im s e lf w h ic h to o k h im out of a ll
h is tr o u b le s " (" N o v e lis t A t W ork," p . 20).
J o h n so n 's la c k o f r e s p o n s ib ilit y is b a la n c e d in the p a tte r n of th e
n o v e l b y R u d b eck 's g r e a t s e n s e o f r e s p o n s ib ilit y . R ud beck is n ot p o r
tr a y e d a s a s o u l- s e a r c h in g , c o n te m p la tiv e in t e lle c tu a l, but a s an a c tiv e
51
o u td o o r m a n w h o d e lig h t s in r o a d - b u ild in g an d d e t e s t s o f f ic e w o r k . H e
is a g o o d m a n w h o o n ly u n d e r th e u t m o s t p r e s s u r e o f th e c ir c u m s t a n c e s
o f th e b o o k b e c o m e s f u lly a w a r e o f h is r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s an d o f th e w e ig h t
o f t h e m - - o f h is m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b o th to th e g o v e r n m e n t h e a d m in
i s t e r s a n d s u p p o r t s , a n d to th e b o y w h o d e p e n d s on h im f o r k in d n e s s an d
u n d e r s ta n d in g .
R u d b e c k is a l s o a c r e a t iv e m a n in a t r a d it io n a l th o u g h n o t a
th o u g h tfu l w a y : h e is a r o a d - b u ild e r . H e fin d s it e a s i e r to c r e a t e th a n
to c o n t e m p la t e , an d C a r y d id a s p le n d id p o r t r a it o f m a n in th e f u ll f e v e r
o f a j o b - - c u t t in g c o r n e r s a n d c h a r g in g th r o u g h o b s t a c le s to g e t th e r o a d
b u ilt. H e s u d d e n ly fin d s th a t th e r o a d is f in is h e d b e f o r e h e is r e a d y to
q u it, an d th a t th e m e a n in g is g o n e ou t o f h is l i f e . In a v e r y m o v in g and
e x c it in g , th o u g h q u ie t ly w r it t e n , s c e n e , C a r y d e s c r ib e d a l o r r y c o m in g
f r o m th e m a in r o a d , p a s t th e r o a d g a n g w h o do n o t r e a l i z e t h e y h a v e
f in is h e d th e r o a d t h e y a r e b u ild in g .
T h e l o r r y d r iv e r , a t a ll Y o r u b a in b lu e d u n g a r e e s , w ith a s tu b of
c ig a r e t t e s tu c k to h is l i p s , p a y s n o a t t e n t io n to th e m . H e c la n k s a n d
r a t t le s p a s t a n d d is a p p e a r s f r o m s ig h t . H e d o e s n 't e v e n k n o w h e is
th e f i r s t m a n to d r iv e o v e r th e F a d a r o a d . . . . R u d b e c k is s e e n c a n
t e r in g to w a r d th e m on h is b r o w n p o n y . H e p u lls up an d a s k s , " D id
y o u s e e a m o to r ? "
" Y e s , m a s t e r , a m o t o r - - a b ig m o t o r ." T h e y s u r r o u n d h im
la u g h in g , s h o u tin g , w a v in g t h e ir a r m s . "It w a s a m o t o r - - f r o m th e
n o r t h - - h e w e n t th r o u g h , p o o t, p o o t."
R u d b e c k s a y s , "I s u p p o s e th a t m e a n s th a t th e l a s t b r id g e is f in
is h e d . H a v e y o u s e e n T a su k i? "
"N o, w e h a v e n 't s e e n T a s u k i, b u t it w a s a m o t o r - - a b ig m o t o r ."
R u d b e ck , w ith a p u z z le d , d is c o n c e r t e d e x p r e s s i o n r id e s a w a y to
fin d T a s u k i. H e h a s n o t r e a l i z e d p e r h a p s th a t th e r o a d w o u ld o p e n
i t s e l f . (M r . J o h n s o n , p . 18 1 )
R u d b e c k 's r e a c t io n o f c o n f u s io n a n d d is a p p o in t m e n t is c o n s i s t e n t
52
w ith h is c h a r a c te r ; it is an e m o tio n a l r e a c t io n w ith o u t c o n te m p la tio n to
u n d e r sta n d th e r e a s o n s fo r it.
H e f e e l s th a t s o m e th in g is w r o n g , b ut h e c a n 't m a k e ou t w h a t it is .
H e s u s p e c t s th a t h e h a s b e e n m is le d and e v e n th a t h e h a s m is le d
o th e r s; b u t h ow , w h e n o r w h e r e h e ca n n o t d is c o v e r . . . . The F a d a
ro a d is f in is h e d , th e g r e a t id e a is r e a liz e d , and su d d e n ly R u d b eck
f e e l s a s if li f e h o ld s n o th in g m o r e fo r h im . (M r. J o h n so n , p. 183)
R u d b eck s in k s d eep in to a m o o d of w r e tc h e d d e p r e s s io n , and h is
th o u g h ts s w in g to w ild e x t r e m e s .
C ou ld it b e th a t d ir ty old s a v a g e s lik e th e E m ir and W a z ir i w e r e
r ig h t in t h e ir d e te s ta tio n o f m o to r r o a d s; th a t r o a d s u p s e t th in g s ,
b ro u g h t c o n fu sio n , r e v o lu tio n . A nd w a s n 't th e r e c o n fu sio n en ou gh ?
W a sn 't e v e r y b o d y c o m p la in in g th a t th e w o r ld w a s g e ttin g in to su c h
c o n fu sio n th a t c iv iliz a t io n i t s e l f w o u ld d is a p p e a r ? (p. 184)
T he g o o d r e s u lt s o f th e r o a d a r e n o t c le a r ly e v id e n t, but th e
W a z ir i's c o m p la in ts and th e in c r e a s in g v o lu m e of p e tty c r im e a r e p la in
en o u g h . R u d b eck f e e l s "that h e h a s b e e n u s e d and d r iv e n lik e a b lin d
in s tr u m e n t. T h is g iv e s h im a v e r y d is a g r e e a b le s e n s a tio n " (M r. Jo h n
s o n , p. 187). In h is g lo o m and r a g e , J o h n so n 's t r ic k o f c o lle c t in g an u n
a u th o r iz e d r o a d f e e in th e z u n g o s b e c o m e s m a g n ifie d , and R u d b eck
tu r n s im p la c a b ly a g a in s t J o h n so n . "A s e n s e of f r u s t r a t io n th a t h a s
b e e n b o ilin g in s id e h im fo r tw o d a y s b lo w s up in a h o t r a g e . 'H e th in k s
h e ca n p u ll th e w o o l o v e r m y e y e s . H e did to o .'" (p. 191). R u d b eck
f i r e s J o h n so n in a fu r y .
W hen J o h n so n is b ro u g h t to h im s o m e tim e la t e r a s th e m u r d e r
e r of G ollu p , R u d b e ck 's f e e lin g s h a v e c h a n g e d . H e h a s su n k in to th e
g lo o m o f one w h o f e e l s he h a s n o th in g w o r th d o in g in lif e , th e g lo o m of
th e c r e a t iv e m a n w h o is h a m p e r e d and d e p r e s s e d b y th e d ea d w e ig h t of
th e w o r ld o f o ff ic ia ld o m . H a v in g to t r y J o h n so n is m o r e b ad lu c k .
J o h n so n 's f e e lin g s h a v e c h a n g ed , to o . H appy to be b a c k w ith R u d b eck
53
tin der an y c ir c u m s t a n c e s , h e d o e s n ot r e a liz e h is d a n g er . H is b e lie f in
R u d b eck is s o g r e a t th a t h e ca n n o t u n d e r sta n d th e p o s s ib ilit y of d ea th ,
s o h e b en d s o v e r b a c k w a r d s to p le a s e R u d b eck .
"Oh, sa h , I g u il t y - - I k ill p o o r S a r g y G ollu p ."
"N ot g u ilty ." R u d b eck s a y s in h is m e c h a n ic a l to n e. He w r it e s it
dow n. " W e'll c a ll it not g u ilty ."
"I g u ilty , sa h . I tin k I s a v e yo u tr o u b le ." (p. 234)
W hen R u d b eck t r ie s to m a k e h im u n d e r sta n d th e d iffe r e n t c h a r g e s , an
a c c id e n ta l m u r d e r b e in g d iffe r e n t fr o m a th ie f k illin g to g e t h im s e lf out
of a c o r n e r , J o h n so n r e p lie s ,
"Oh, y e s , sa h . I k ill u m - - I u n d e r sta n '," J o h n so n s a y s w ith a
c h e e r fu l a ir . H e is g r e a t ly e n jo y in g th e ch a t w ith R ud b eck . G r a ti
tu d e m a k e s h im e a g e r to p le a s e , in h is tu rn . H e is r e a d y to s a y a n y
th in g th at s e e m s lik e ly to be s a t is f a c t o r y , (p. 236)
R u d b eck r e a li z e s th at J o h n so n did not p r e m e d ita te th e k illin g and r e
q u e s ts a r e p r ie v e fr o m th e G o v e rn o r b e c a u s e of h is you th and n e r v o u s
in s ta b ility . "He did n o t p r e m e d ita te th e m u r d e r , but c a r r ie d a w e a p o n
fo r d e fe n s e and l o s t h is h e a d w h en h e fou n d h im s e lf in a c o r n e r " (p.
2 3 7 ).
W hen th e r e q u e s t fo r th e r e p r ie v e is d en ied , and th e o r d e r is
g iv e n fo r e x e c u tio n , R u d b eck s t a lls , th en fin d s h e m u st w e ig h J o h n so n
in o r d e r to ju d g e th e le n g th of rop e n e c e s s a r y fo r h a n g in g . J o h n so n is
e a g e r to h e lp , bu t a s k s a f a v o r - - t h a t R ud b eck , h is fr ie n d , e x e c u te h im
p e r s o n a lly by sh o o tin g , n ot o f f ic ia lly by h a n g in g . R u d b eck is f lu s t e r e d
b y th e r e q u e st: "But th a t w o u ld n 't be p o s s ib le , J o h n so n . . . . I h a v e to
o b ey th e la w . I s h a ll h a v e to s ig n a p a p er th at I'v e c a r r ie d it out e x
a c tly " (p. 2 4 1 ).
When the execution can be delayed no longer, Rudbeck asks
54
J o h n so n if h e w a n ts to sen d a m e s s a g e . J o h n so n d ic ta te s a le t t e r to
B u lte e l, th e D is t r ic t O ffic e r , en d in g "I b le s s y o u and Ju d ge R u d b eck fo r
m y hap py lif e in de w o r l'" (p. 249)- He a ls o d ic ta te s a lo n g le t t e r to
B am u , th an k in g h e r fo r b ein g a go o d w ife and t e llin g h e r to b r in g up
th e ir so n a s a g o o d C h r is tia n g e n tle m a n " a ll s a m e Jud ge R ud beck " (p.
2 5 0 ).
R u d b eck s it s in a c h a ir w h ile J o h n so n is s u p p o se d ly s a y in g a
l a s t p r a y e r .
H e is s t i l l d is s a t is f ie d , n ot w ith J o h n so n 's e x p la n a tio n , fo r he
kn ow s th a t J o h n so n is a c tu a lly a th ie f and a m u r d e r e r , but w ith e v
e r y th in g . He f e e l s m o r e and m o r e d is g u s te d and o p p r e s s e d , lik e a
m a n w h o fin d s h im s e lf w a lk in g dow n a n a r r o w , d a rk ch a n n el in u n
know n c o u n try w h ic h g o e s on g e ttin g d a r k e r and n a r r o w e r ; w h ile he
can n ot d e c id* w h e th e r h e is on th e r ig h t ro a d or n ot. (p. 252)
J o h n so n s e e s R u d b eck g e t out of h is c h a ir and k n ow s th at h e w ill
n o t h a v e to g e t up fr o m h is k n e e s a g a in .
He f e e l s the r e l i e f lik e a r e p r ie v e , u n e x p e c te d , and h e th an k s R ud
b e c k fo r it. H e tr iu m p h s in th e g r e a t n e s s , th e g o o d n e s s , and th e
d a r in g in v e n t iv e n e s s of R u d b eck . A ll th e f o r c e of h is s p ir it is c o n
c e n tr a te d in g r a titu d e and triu m p h a n t d ev o tio n ; h e is c a llin g a ll th e
w o r ld to a d m it th a t th e r e is no god lik e h is god . (p. 253)
T h en in a p h r a s e w h ic h is a str o n g e c h o of B illy B u d d 's b le s s in g of
C ap tain V e r e , J o h n so n c r ie s out, "Oh L aw d, I ta n k y ou fo r m y fr ie n '
M is te r R u d b e c k --d e b ig g e s ' h e a r t in de w o r l'" (p. 2 5 3 ). R ud beck a im s
th e gun at th e b a ck of th e b o y 's h e a d and f i r e s .
J o h n so n d ie d un k n ow in g and happy; it is R u d b eck w ho is le f t to
know and s u ffe r .
H e g o e s to w a r d th e o ffic e w ith h is u s u a l r o llin g g a it. He is in s is tin g
w ith th e w h o le f o r c e of h is o b stin a te n a tu re th a t he h a s done n o th in g
u n u su a l, th a t h e h a s ta k en th e o b v io u s, r e a s o n a b le c o u r s e , (p. 254)
T h e b ook en d s as R ud b eck , fu lly r e a liz in g h is r e s p o n s ib ilit y and th e
w e ig h t of h is a c tio n , ta k en in d e fia n c e of o f f ic ia l r u le s , t e l l s C e lia , "I
55
c o u ld n 't le t a n y o n e e l s e do it, c o u ld I?" (p. 2 5 5 ).
T h e w h o le p lo t o f M r. J o h n so n r e s t s on J o h n so n 's c a r e l e s s n e s s
w ith m o n ey ; h is t r ic k s th ro u g h o u t th e b o o k a r e e ffo r ts to g e t m o n e y ,
and h e f in a lly c o m m it s m u r d e r w h ile tr y in g to s t e a l m o n e y . H is p r e v i
ou s e f f o r t s had b e e n s u c c e s s f u l; t h is one w a s n o t. T he p lo t of M r.
J o h n so n is n o t a s s im p le a s it a p p e a r s ; it is a s im p lic it y a r r iv e d at b y
c u ttin g e v e r y e x tr a n e o u s d e ta il, a c c o r d in g to C a r y 's b e lie f th a t e v e r y
th in g n o t r e la t in g d ir e c t ly to th e th e m e sh o u ld b e e x c lu d e d . E a r ly in
th e b o o k w e le a r n th a t J o h n so n is in deb t; h is c r e d it o r s c o m e s c r e a m
in g to th e g o v e r n m e n t o f f ic e . J o h n so n a v o id s p a y in g b y im p ly in g th a t
R u d b eck , h is fr ie n d , w ill p a y th e b i l l s . H e th e n g e ts d eep er, in to d eb t b y
p r o m is in g to p a y f if t e e n p o u n d s fo r B a m u to h e r fa m ily . T he W a z ir i o f
f e r s to p a y J o h n so n 's d e b ts in e x c h a n g e fo r s e c r e t in fo r m a tio n . J o h n so n
a n g r ily r e f u s e s , "I b e lo n g fo r de K ing" (p. 2 9 ). B lo r e le a r n s th a t J o h n
so n h a s b e e n s h o r t-p a y in g th e s ta tio n la b o r e r s and th r e a te n s h is a r r e s t .
J o h n so n c u r ls up to d ie . A fte r B l o r e 1 s o v e r n ig h t d e p a r tu r e , R u d b eck
se n d s J o h n so n 's c r e d it o r s aw ay, and h e is s a v e d fo r th e m o m e n t. A
n o te th a t J o h n so n s ig n e d a c c e p tin g th r e e p o u n d s fr o m th e n a tiv e T r e a s
u r y , g iv e n to th e W a z ir i in r e tu r n f o r m o n e y , is b ro u g h t to lig h t, and
J o h n so n is f o r c e d to a g r e e to th e W a z ir i's d em a n d to s e e B lo r e 's r e p o r t
a b ou t h im and th e E m ir . In r e tu r n th e W a z ir i p a y s J o h n so n 's d e b ts.
T he m o n e y ta n g le a ls o in v o lv e s R u d b eck w h e n J o h n so n s u g g e s t s a l t e r
in g th e b o o k s by m a k in g o u t v o u c h e r s to n o n e x is te n t p e o p le to g e t
m o n e y to p a y th e r o a d w o r k e r s . W hen R u d b eck is r e p la c e d b y T r in g ,
th e n ew o f f ic e r d is c o v e r s th e fr a u d and J o h n so n is f ir e d . H e g e ts th e
jo b in G o llu p 's s t o r e , and le a r n s fr o m a n o th e r c le r k how to s t e a l m o n e y
56
fr o m th e c a s h b o x . W hen R u d b eck r e tu r n s to th e p o s t, J o h n so n r e a p
p e a r s in r a g s , and is g iv e n th e job a s h e a d o f th e ro a d g a n g s. A fte r th e
r o a d i s fin is h e d , J o h n so n 's " road fe e " c o m e s to lig h t, and h e is fir e d .
He th e n s t e a ls m o n e y fr o m G o llu p 's s to r e , k ills G ollu p , is t r ie d and
e x e c u te d .
The o n ly m a jo r in te r r u p tio n s of th is p a tte r n a r e th e s c e n e s d e
s c r ib in g C e lia R u d b eck and h e r r e a c tio n s to A fr ic a (th o se of a ty p ic a l
w h ite w o m a n ), and th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n h e r and
R u d beck , w h ic h is th a t of a you n g m a r r ie d c o u p le b u ild in g a lif e to g e th e r
by a d iffic u lt and p a in fu l b le n d in g of p e r s o n a lit ie s . T he d e v e lo p m e n t of
a c r i s i s in th e R u d b eck 's r e la t io n s h ip p e r m it s C a ry to sen d th em aw ay
and to b rin g T rin g on th e s c e n e , to b r in g th e fin a n c ia l s h o r ta g e to lig h t,
and to sh ow th e w is e D is t r ic t O ffic e r , B u lte e l, in o p e r a tio n . B u lte e l
lik e s R u d b eck and te a c h e s h im th at g o v e r n m e n t is ru n and good w o rk
a c h ie v e d b y an e n d le s s s e r i e s of s m a ll and c a r e fu l m a n ip u la tio n s . T he
v a r ia tio n to th e m a in p lo t p r o v id e s r e lie f , a v o id s any s e n s e of fo r c in g
th e p lo t lin e , and e n a b le s C a r y to s u g g e s t a c o m p a r is o n of m a r r ia g e
and g o v e r n m e n t a s r e la t io n s h ip s b e tw e e n h u m an b e in g s , r e la tio n s h ip s
n e e d in g c o n sta n t and c a r e fu l a tten tio n .
T he s t y le of M r. J o h n so n s e e m s p e r f e c t ly fit te d to th e m a t e r ia l,
a lth o u g h th e t h ir d - p e r s o n p o in t of v ie w and u s e of th e p r e s e n t te n s e
s e e m e d illo g ic a l to s o m e c r i t i c s . C a ry c o m m e n te d on th is in th e p r e f
a c e to th e C a r fa x e d itio n .
A s fo r th e s t y le of th e b o o k c r it ic s c o m p la in e d of th e p r e s e n t t e n s e .
A nd w h en I a n s w e r e d th a t it w a s c h o s e n b e c a u s e J o h n so n liv e s in th e
p r e s e n t , fr o m h o u r to h o u r , th ey fou n d th is r e a s o n na'fve and s u p e r
f i c i a l . It is tr u e th at a n y a n a lo g y b e tw e e n th e s ty le and th e c a s t of a
h e r o 's m in d a p p e a r s f a ls e . S ty le , it is s a id , g iv e s th e a tm o sp h e r e in
w h ic h a h e r o a c ts ; it is r e la t e d to h im o n ly a s a h o u s e , a p e r io d , is
57
r e la t e d to a liv in g p e r s o n .
B u t t h is , I th in k , is a v ie w a n s w e r in g to a c r i t i c a l a ttitu d e w h ic h
n e c e s s a r i l y o v e r lo o k s th e a c tu a l s itu a t io n of th e r e a d e r . F o r a c r i t
ic , no d ou b t, s t y le is th e a t m o s p h e r e in w h ic h th e a c t io n ta k e s p la c e .
F o r a r e a d e r (w ho m a y h a v e a s m u c h c r i t i c a l a c u m e n a s y o u p l e a s e ,
bu t is n o t r e a d in g in o r d e r to c r i t i c i z e ) , th e w h o le w o r k is a s in g le
c o n tin u o u s e x p e r ie n c e . He d o e s n o t d is t in g u is h s t y le fr o m a c t io n or
c h a r a c t e r . . . .
. B u t w ith a s t o r y in th e p r e s e n t t e n s e , w h e n h e to o is in th e p r e s
e n t, h e is c a r r ie d u n r e f le c t in g on th e s t r e a m of e v e n ts ; h is m o o d is
n o t c o n te m p la tiv e b u t a g ita te d . . . .
T h is r e s t l e s s m o v e m e n t i r r i t a t e s m a n y r e a d e r s w ith th e s a m e
f e e lin g , th a t e v e n ts a r e r u s h in g th e m a lo n g b e fo r e t h e y h a v e t im e to
e x a m in e th e m , to ju d g e th e m , a n d to fin d t h e ir ow n p la c e a m o n g
th e m . B u t a s J o h n so n d o e s n o t ju d g e , s o I d id n o t w a n t th e r e a d e r to
ju d g e . A n d a s J o h n so n s w im s g a ily on th e s u r f a c e of l i f e , s o I
w a n te d th e r e a d e r to s w im , a s a l l of u s s w im , w ith m o r e o r l e s s
c o u r a g e an d s k ill, fo r o u r l i v e s , (p. 2 6 1 )
T h e th ir d p e r s o n p r e s e n t t e n s e g iv e s th e r e a d e r th e im p r e s s io n
o f v ie w in g a n a c tio n g o in g o n a t th e m o m e n t, w h e r e a s th e p a s t t e n s e
g iv e s th e im p r e s s io n o f a c t io n a lr e a d y c o m p le te d . I m p r o v is a tio n i s th e
v e r y e s s e n c e o f J o h n so n a s a c h a r a c t e r , and th e p r e s e n t t e n s e c o n v e y s
t h is s e n s e o f a c h a r a c t e r c o n tin u a lly r e a c t in g to h is w o r ld . T h e p r e s
e n t t e n s e a l s o m a k e s J o h n s o n 's s w if t e m o tio n a l r e a c t io n s an d d e c is io n s
m o r e b e lie v a b le . S in c e th e s u p p o s e d r e n d e r in g of a n o th e r p e r s o n 's
m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s a s th e y a r e h a p p e n in g is a l i t e r a r y d e v ic e th a t w e a c
c e p t b y a " s u s p e n s io n o f d is b e lie f ," k n o w in g it to b e a p h y s ic a l i m p o s s i
b ilit y , th e c h o ic e o f a t e n s e and s t y le to s u p p o r t a l i t e r a r y d e v ic e is
p e r f e c t l y le g it im a t e .
T h e w h o le b o o k is a d e m o n s tr a tio n o f th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f th e
p r e s e n t t e n s e , but I th in k on e s c e n e p a r t ic u la r ly e p it o m iz e s C a r y 's
s u c c e s s in sh o w in g s w if t c h a n g e s o f m o o d an d th e s e n t e n c e p a t te r n s of
s p e e c h . T h e s c e n e is th e c e le b r a t io n o f J o h n s o n 's w e d d in g to B a m u .
58
He had in s is t e d on a C h r istia n , E u r o p e a n s ty le w ed d in g . Barnu, b o r e d ,
p a tie n tly en d u red th e n o n s e n s e . B ut, on a r r iv in g h o m e , J o h n so n t r ie d
to fo r c e h e r to p u t on a w h ite w o m a n 's d r e s s , and, s t i l l w o r s e , m is s io n -
s t y le d r a w e r s . T h e s e s e e m e d th e h e ig h t of in d e c e n c y to B am u , w ho
r a is e d an u p r o a r , and h e r fa m ily r u s h e d in to th e hut. A m id a g r e a t d e a l
of sh o u tin g , c a u s e d b y th e d iffe r e n c e in id e a s abou t p r o p e r m a r r ia g e b e
tw e e n th e b u sh p e o p le and J o h n so n , B am u d isa p p e a r e d . J o h n so n d e c id e d
to fo r g e t about th e c lo th e s if B am u w o u ld s ta y w ith h im . She th en r e
fu s e d to s it dow n and e a t w ith h im ; h e r id e a of th e p r o p e r b e h a v io r of a
w ife w a s to a tten d h im w h ile h e a te . He p u sh e d h e r in to a c h a ir , sh e
s c r e a m e d , th e fa m ily r u sh e d in , and a n o th e r d isp u te s ta r te d . J o h n so n ,
w o r n out w ith h is e ffo r ts to te a c h th e ig n o r a n t b u sh p e o p le , w ho r e f u s e d
to le a r n h is c r a z y w a y s , c r ie d , "W hat c a n y o u do w ith su c h sa v a g e p e o
p l e - - ! to o t i r e d - - I d ie now " (p. 39), and lay' dow n on h is b ed .
In th e c o n tin u a tio n of th e s c e n e , C a r y u s e d a m e th o d w h ic h c o m
b in ed d ia lo g u e and t h ir d - p e r s o n p r e s e n t - t e n s e d e s c r ip t io n to c o n v e y th e
s w iftly ch a n g in g r e a c tio n s of J o h n so n .
B am u b r in g s J o h n so n , s t i l l ly in g p r o s t r a t e , a c a la b a s h of b ro th
and g iv e s it to h im w ith a lo w c u r ts y , tu rn in g h e r h e a d p o lit e ly to
one s id e s o a s n o t to b r e a th e on h im .
H e w e e p s lo u d ly and c r ie s , "I am d yin g n o w --th e w ed d in g is a ll
s p o ile d ."
B am u u r g e s h im , " M a ste r , y o u m u s t e a t - - r e m e m b e r , I s h a ll e x
p e c t y o u to be s tr o n g . E v e r y o n e w ill b e lo o k in g . Y ou w o n 't m a k e m e
a sh a m e d ."
"Oh, B am u , y o u a r e a to o n ic e g i r l - - I th in k p e r h a p s I w ill te a c h
y o u to be c iv iliz e d ."
" T h is is a v e r y g o o d b r o th w ith p le n ty of p e p p e r - - g o o d fo r m a k
ing y o u lu s ty ."
" Y e s, y o u a r e s o p r e t t y - - 1 th in k I w ill te a c h y o u a fte r w a r d . B ut
59
now I am sa d , a ll th e s a m e ."
H e p u ts dow n h is le g s and a c c e p t s th e b ro th w h ic h h e e a ts w ith a
m e la n c h o ly e x p r e s s io n . "I am h u n g ry , b u t I am s a d to o . Y ou h a v e
c a u s e d m e a g r e a t g r ie f . Y ou h a v e s p o ile d m y m a r r ia g e ."
"B ut w e a r e n o t m a r r ie d y e t."
"Is th a t a ll y o u th in k of, y o u s a v a g e g i r l - - y o u a r e to o ig n o r a n t.
But I s h a ll te a c h y o u , b e c a u s e y o u a r e c le v e r to o ."
"I co o k v e r y w e l l - - y o u lik e th a t."
"It is good , fo r s a v a g e fo o d ."
" T h ere is m o r e ."
" V ery w e ll, m y d e a r , I w ill h a v e a lit t le m o r e . I am s o h u n g ry
- - b u t y o u m u stn 't th in k I am n o t sa d ."
M ea n w h ile , th e d r u m s h a v e a r r iv e d , b ro u g h t b y B a m u 's fr ie n d s .
T h ey a r e o u tsid e s k e tc h in g a f i r s t tu n e and tr y in g e a c h o th e r 's
rh y th m . H ands a r e c la p p in g and e v e r y now and th en a v o ic e sh o u ts
out th e lin e of a n u p tia l so n g or m e r e ly a p h r a s e . . . .
" Y es, it is n ic e and p e p p e r y ," J o h n so n s ig h s . "But I h a v e no
a p p e tite ."
T he d ru m s a r e s e t tlin g dow n to an e a s y lo llo p in g tu n e. . . . A
s m a ll drum th r o w s in a c o m m e n t lik e c h a tte r in g te e th or ru n n in g
f e e t and th e b a s s d ru m a n s w e r s w ith p o o m p y -p o o m .
J o h n so n 's r ig h t fo o t d a n c e s b y i t s e lf on th e flo o r ; h is h ea d
sw in g s to th e tu n e, s o th a t h e h a s to p a u se a m o m e n t w ith th e sp o o n .
"I m u s t e a t, but m y h e a r t is b r o k e n ."
T he g ir ls o u tsid e s in g to g e th e r . . . . T he d r u m s a r e p la y in g . . . .
J o h n so n is on h is fe e t, je r k in g h is k n e e s and th ig h s . . . .
J o h n so n c o m e s s lo w ly fr o m th e d o o r w a y of th e hu t, d a n cin g
s t if f ly and j e r k ily , th ro w in g up h is k n e e s lik e a sta llio n ; th e m e n u t
te r sh o u ts and r u s h to r a n g e b e s id e h im in a lin e . T h ey a d v a n ce
w ith th e s a m e s t if f m o v e m e n ts and s in g . . . .
A t m id n ig h t J o h n so n , d r e s s e d in n o th in g but th e c a lic o d r a w e r s ,
is p e r fo r m in g a b r id e g r o o m d a n ce a m o n g su c h a th u n d er of d r u m s,
y e l l s , cla p p in g , th a t h is ow n so n g ca n s c a r c e ly be h e a r d , (p. 41)
T he u n ity o f e m o tio n a l im p r e s s io n w h ic h C ary c o n s id e r e d s o
im p o rta n t is a c h ie v e d p a r t ic u la r ly b y th e s t y le . C a ry w a n te d th e
60
r e a d e r to b e c a r r ie d a lo n g , u n r e fle c tin g , and h e is . T he p lo t is one of
c a r e fu lly c r e a te d s im p lic ity ; th e r e a d e r c o u ld be a w a r e of m a n ip u la tio n
a t on ly th r e e p o in t s - - B lo r e ' s su d d en illn e s s and r e m o v a l fr o m th e p o s t,
C e lia and R u d b eck 's le a v in g th e p o s t and T r in g 's a r r iv a l, and B a m u 's
d e c e iv in g J o h n so n , w h en h e s e e k s r e fu g e w ith h e r a fte r G o llu p 's m u rd er,
s o th a t h e r b r o th e r c a n tak e h im p r is o n e r . O nly th e B lo r e s o lu tio n is
c ir c u m s t a n tia l. T he o th er s o lu tio n s a r e m o tiv a te d by the c h a r a c t e r s ,
c o n s is t e n t w ith th e ty p e s a lr e a d y e s t a b lis h e d fo r th em a s c h a r a c t e r s .
T he s u c c e s s of th e b ook l i e s in th e c o m b in a tio n of a ll its e l e
m e n ts . T he n o v e l g iv e s a m e a n in g fu l p ic tu r e of e a r ly tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y
A fr ic a , r e la t e s th e o r d e r of A fr ic a n , E u r o p e a n , and M o h a m m ed a n
g r o u p s in th a t p ic tu r e , e s t a b lis h e s th e ir a ttitu d e s and v a lu e s , and d o e s
th is by m a k in g th e r e a d e r f e e l e m o tio n a lly c o n c e r n e d about th e c h a r a c
t e r s , not b y g iv in g h im a d r y c o n c e p t. T he th e m e is th a t m a n im a g in a
t iv e ly c r e a t e s h is lif e to s u it h is d r e a m s . T he th e m e is im m e d ia te ly
u n d e r sta n d a b le , and y e t th e e x p r e s s io n of it in the s to r y of a you n g
A fr ic a n d r e a m in g of h im s e lf a s an im p o rta n t g o v e r n m e n t o ff ic ia l r e
f l e c t s th e c o m p lic a tio n s th a t e x i s t in a c tu a l l if e . T he u n ity of th e book
l i e s in th e fo c u s on c h a r a c te r and th e r e la tio n s h ip s a m o n g c h a r a c t e r s ,
in th e s ty le w h ic h c a r r ie s th e r e a d e r a lo n g in an e m o tio n a l a c c e p ta n c e
of th e c h a r a c t e r s and th e ir a c tio n s , and in th e p lo t w h ic h d e v e lo p s fr o m
th e c h a r a c t e r s ' a c tio n s but w h ic h d r iv e s d ir e c t ly to th e c o n c lu s io n . T he
fo r m and m a t e r ia l a r e p e r f e c t ly s u ite d to e a c h o th e r . T he fo r m , in
C a r y 's w o r d s , is th e " em b o d im en t" of th e m a t e r ia l.
I th in k th a t M r. J o h n so n is in d ee d th e b e s t of th e A fr ic a n n o v e ls ,
but I do not a g r e e w ith s o m e c r it ic s th a t it is th e b e s t of a ll th e n o v e ls
61
b e fo r e th e f ir s t t r ilo g y . I th in k C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g is a ls o an e x c e l
le n t n o v e l, but it is tr e a te d in a c o n s is t e n t ly s e r io u s m a n n e r and is l e s s
a p p ea lin g . A w h ite ju v e n ile d e lin q u e n t's a n tic s a r e c lo s e r to u s and
l e s s a m u sin g th a n a you n g A fr ic a n 's . I b e lie v e th a t p a r t o f M r. J o h n
s o n 's a p p ea l is th e e x o tic q u a lity of its b a ck g ro u n d and c h a r a c t e r s , as
w e ll a s it s h u m o r. J o h n so n is a la u g h a b le c h a r a c te r , and th is te n d s to
o b s c u r e th e b a s ic tr a g e d y of th e b oo k in m u ch th e s a m e w a y th a t the
fu n n y e p is o d e s of T he H o r s e 's M outh o b s c u r e th e s e r io u s n e s s of th a t
n o v e l. M r. J o h n so n en d s w ith a b so lu te fin a lity ; it is c o m p le te w ith
J o h n so n 's d ea th , and no p r o b le m s e x te n d fr o m it to w o r r y th e r e a d e r .
N o one f e e ls c o n c e r n e d abou t B am u; and, o b v io u sly , R u d b eck is c a p a b le
o f c a r r y in g h is lo a d in lif e .
C a ry w a s n e ith e r a n t i- c o lo n ia lis t n o r an A f r i c a - f i r s t e r . He
p r e s e n t e d b oth s id e s of th e A fr ic a n p r o b le m , fe e lin g th at A fr ic a n s w e r e
fu lly ca p a b le of ta k in g c a r e of t h e m s e lv e s , but th at B r ita in w a s p e r
fo r m in g a v a lu a b le s e r v ic e in a id in g p a r ts of A fr ic a m a k e th e t r a n s itio n
fr o m th e S tone A g e to m o d e r n tim e s in a fe w y e a r s - - a t r a n s itio n th a t
to o k c e n tu r ie s in E u r o p e --a n d he h ad d e fin ite id e a s about m e th o d s to
h e lp A fr ic a in th a t tr a n s itio n .
B e c a u s e C a ry f e lt th a t th e A fr ic a n b a ck g ro u n d te n d e d "to o v e r
sh ad ow " a ll h u m an c h a r a c t e r s (P r e fa c e to T he A fr ic a n W itch , p. 11), he
d ro p p ed it a fte r M r. J o h n so n , p r e f e r r in g an E n g lis h b a ck g ro u n d th a t
w a s m o r e u n d e r sta n d a b le to h is r e a d e r s . H e d e lib e r a te ly a v o id e d th e
A fr ic a n s e ttin g "w hich, ju s t b e c a u s e it is d r a m a tic , d em a n d s a c e r ta in
k in d of a s to r y , a c e r ta in v io le n c e and c o a r s e n e s s of d e ta il, a lm o s t a
fa b u lo u s tr e a tm e n t, to k e e p it in its p la c e " (P r e fa c e to T h e A fr ic a n
W itch , p. 10). He c o n c e n tr a te d th e r e a fte r on E n g lis h or I r is h c h a r a c
t e r s and s e t tin g s , and tr e a te d a w o r ld fa r m o r e c o m p le x th a n A fr ic a .
C H A P T E R III
TH E N O V E L S O F C H ILD H O O D
T w o of C a r y 's th r e e n o v e ls of c h ild h o o d a r e a u to b io g r a p h ic a l.
A H o u se o f C h ild r e n w a s a d m itte d ly an e f f o r t a t r e e n t r y in to th e w o r ld
of h is ch ild h o o d , and C a s tle C o r n e r w a s a f ic t it io u s p ic tu r e of C a r y 's
A n g lo - I r is h f a m ily c la n s . A H o u se of C h ild r e n is th e s t o r y of C a r y 's
ow n c h ild h o o d in Ir e la n d , w h e r e h e g r e w up a m o n g a la r g e g ro u p o f
a u n ts, u n c le s , and c o u s in s , a ll e m o tio n a l, im a g in a tiv e , and s tr o n g -
w ille d . C a r y r e e n t e r e d th a t w o r ld th ro u g h an in te n s e m e m o r y , a c t i
v a te d by th e s e n s e o f s ig h t, and h e d e s c r ib e d th e in n e r w o r ld o f c h il
d r e n 's im a g in a tio n s and th e g la m o r o u s a llu r e of th e a d u lt w o r ld .
In a d d itio n to h is r e m a r k a b le r e c o n s t r u c t io n of c h ild r e n 's f e e l
in g s and r e a c t io n s , C a r y p e r c e p t iv e ly p o in te d out th a t m a n y a d u lt c o n
c e r n s a r e s im p ly u n p e r c e iv e d b y c h ild r e n , or th e y ta k e p la c e w ith o u t
h a v in g m e a n in g f o r c h ild r e n . C a r y , th e m a n , lo o k in g b a ck on h is c h ild
h o o d , c o u ld s e e th e r e a s o n s fo r a d u lts ' a c tio n s th a t h ad a p p e a r e d in
c o m p r e h e n s ib le to h im a t th e t im e . He c o u ld a ls o in t e n s e ly r e e x p e r i
e n c e h is e m o tio n a l r e a c t io n s a s a c h ild . A s an a d u lt, he c o u ld r e m e m
b e r h is u n e a s in e s s a b ou t an o ld e r c o u s in 's f a ilu r e a t s c h o o l, c o u ld u n
d e r s ta n d th e r e a s o n fo r th e u n e a s in e s s , and c o u ld p la c e it in a s c a le of
v a lu e s .
T h e tr u th w a s th a t lik e m o s t s m a ll c h ild r e n I h ad g r e a t p o w e r s
of p u ttin g a w a y and ig n o r in g f e a r s or e v e n a c tu a l s u f f e r in g s .
63
64
S a v a g e s h a v e th e s a m e p o w e r . I s a w , la t e r on, in A fr ic a , d u rin g a
fa m in e and in a b ig o u tb r e a k of s m a llp o x , th e s tr a n g e r e s ig n a t io n of
th e p e o p le . I d id n o t know w h a t p a t ie n c e m e a n t u n til I s a w o ld m e n
d yin g b y th e r o a d s id e , w ith d y in g c h ild r e n in th e ir a r m s ; o r th e
s m a llp o x c a m p s w h e r e w h o le f a m ilie s s a t a ll d ay, w ith t h e ir e n o r
m o u s ly s w o lle n f a c e s , w a itin g u p on fa te w ith a s u b m is s io n s o c o m
p le te th a t I h a d to h a v e s o m e of th e m s p o o n -fe d . T h ey h ad lo s t a ll
c o n fid e n c e in r e m e d y and e v e n in fo o d . . . .
B ut I r e a li s e d th en , th a t lik e c h ild r e n , th e y h ad n o o th er a l t e r
n a tiv e . T h e y w e r e s o c o m p le te ly ig n o r a n t and u n a b le to h e lp t h e m
s e l v e s , th a t th e ir o n ly d e fe n c e a g a in s t w h a t s e e m e d to th e m the c r u e l
f a n t a s ie s o f c h a n c e and th e m y s t e r io u s in j u s tic e o f n a tu r e , w a s r e s
ig n a tio n . . . .
So s m a ll c h ild r e n , u n a b le to e s c a p e fr o m or e v e n to u n d e r sta n d
s o m e d a n g e r , p u t on a c lo a k o f in d iffe r e n c e to it, an d w h ile th e y ru n
a b ou t a s u s u a l, th e y a r e a w a r e a ll th e tim e o f its p r e s e n c e . T h ey
d o n 't s u p p r e s s t h e ir f e a r s , th e y a lla y th e m , a s fa r a s p o s s ib le , b y a
s e c r e t a c t of in d iffe r e n c e . Of c o u r s e , if th e y do th in k to s e e any
m e a n s of e s c a p e , th e y le a p a t it.^
In th e n o v e l, C a r y a c h ie v e d th e s e n s e of b e in g b o th a g r o w in g
c h ild and an o b s e r v e r w a tc h in g th a t p r o c e s s g o in g on.
It s u r p r is e d m e to kn ow th a t I w a s c h a n g in g , but I d id n ot p u r s u e
th e s u b je c t. T h ou gh I did n o t n o t ic e r e a l c h a n g e s I w a s a c c u s t o m e d
to th e id e a th a t th e w h o le w o r ld w a s c h a n g in g a ll th e t im e . I w a s
g r o w in g up and I sa w in fr o n t of m e a ro w of n ew l i v e s , p u b lic
s c h o o l, u n iv e r s it y , a c a r e e r , lik e d o o r w a y s le a d in g th ro u g h s o m e
p la c e , e a c h r o o m la r g e r and m o r e m a g n ific e n t th an th e la s t . A ll
rou n d m e m y c o u s in s o f a ll a g e s w e r e g r o w in g up, g o in g to s c h o o l,
g e ttin g m a r r ie d ; d is a p p e a r in g to th e fa r c o r n e r s of th e w o r ld o r s u d
d e n ly a p p e a r in g b e fo r e m e in u n ifo r m w ith la r g e m o u s t a c h e s and
s t o r i e s o f s o m e w a r . I liv e d in th e id e a , in th e v e r y s e n s e o f c h a n g e ,
of lif e fly in g lik e th e w a te r in th e m ill le a t and th r o w in g up its lit t le
d a n c e r s , a lw a y s n ew , a lw a y s d iffe r e n t, but n e v e r g o in g fa r out of th e
p a tte r n , (p. 156)
C a s tle C o r n e r is a p ic tu r e o f th e d e c lin in g p o w e r of C a r y 's f a
m ily c la n s; it is a lo n g , c r o w d e d , a lm o s t s h a p e le s s b o o k , m e m o r a b le
p r im a r ily fo r c e r t a in s tr ik in g c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n s - - H e le n P y n sa n t, th e
e m a n c ip a te d w o m a n ; C o ck J a r v is , th e s o ld ie r - h e r o ; P o r f it , th e p o lit ic a l
^A H o u se o f C h ild r e n , C a r fa x e d itio n (L on d on , 1 9 5 1 ), p. 136.
65
c le r g y m a n ; and S u k ey, th e old c o o k - - a ll of th em sh o w in g r e s e m b la n c e s
to la te r d e v e lo p m e n ts of th e s e ty p e s in N in a, J im L a tte r , N im m o , and
S a r a M onday. C a stle C o r n e r is a ls o C a r y 's o n ly w o r k in g of th e th e m e
of I r is h tu r b u le n c e , th e u n r e s t w h ic h c u lm in a te d in th e I r is h r e v o lu tio n .
H is fa m ily w a s r u in e d by th e r e n t s t r ik e in Ire la n d , and, e v e n a s a
c h ild , he kn ew "the tr a g e d y of s o c ia l c o n flic t in w h ic h p e r s o n a l q u a lity
co u n ts fo r n oth in g; w h e r e a m a n is r u in e d n o t b e c a u s e h e h a s don e any
2
w r o n g , but b e c a u s e h e r e p r e s e n t s a c la s s or r a c e ." B e c a u s e A H ou se
of C h ild re n and C a s tle C o r n e r a r e s o d e fin ite ly a u to b io g r a p h ic a l, I s h a ll
c o n c e n tr a te on th e m o r e p u r e ly n o v e lis t ic C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g . It is
th e b e s t of th e th r e e n o v e ls , a stu d y of c h ild r e n d e ta c h e d fr o m C a r y 's
ow n ch ild h o o d e x p e r ie n c e an d r e f le c tin g h is id e a s abou t c h ild r e n and the
w o r ld .
C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g is the s t o r y of a C o ck n ey b o y of f if t e e n
e v a c u a te d fr o m L on d on d u rin g th e w a r to a s m a ll c o u n try v illa g e . H is
h e a d is sh a v e d , and h is c lo th e s a r e d e s tr o y e d b e c a u s e of l i c e . T h is
m a k e s h im an o u tc a s t a m o n g th e o th er c h ild r e n , and he d e s p e r a t e ly a t
te m p ts to r e jo in th e ir s o c ie t y by le ttin g a b u ll out of h is s t a ll in o r d e r
to s ta g e a b u llfig h t. The fa r m e r c h a s e s th e b o y s; th ey e s c a p e , th en
tu r n on C h a r le y . He la te r b e c o m e s th e le a d e r of the c h ild r e n b y t e llin g
th em e x c it in g s t o r i e s . He s t e a ls a c a r to tak e th em to th e m o v ie s in a
to w n s o m e th ir ty m ile s aw ay, a ls o s t e a ls a p u r s e , buys th e o th e r s g ifts ,
and ta k e s th em to a r e s ta u r a n t fo r a m e a l. A fte r th is e s c a p a d e , h e
2
" Im p ortan t A u th o rs o f th e F a ll, S p eak in g fo r T h e m s e lv e s ," N ew
Y ork H e r a ld T rib u n e B ook R e v ie w , O cto b er 8, 195 0 , p. 10.
66
liv e s q u ie tly fo r a w h ile , h a p p ily h e lp in g an o ld e r w o m a n b u ild a r o c k
g a r d e n , s h a r in g a c a v e w ith th e o th e r c h ild r e n a s a r e t r e a t fr o m th e
g row n u p w o r ld , and d ra w in g p ic t u r e s . He is d is c o v e r e d to be th e c a r -
th ie f, and is s e n t to liv e in a b e tte r h o m e , s u p p o s e d ly u n d er s t r i c t s u
p e r v is io n . W hen th e o th er b o y s tu r n on h im in a v ic io u s fig h t, h e is
s a v e d b y a d e a f f o u r t e e n - y e a r - o ld g ir l, L iz z ie , w h o f e e l s a d eep c o n
c e r n fo r h im , and th e y b e g in a lo v e a ff a ir . H e d e fe a ts h is e n e m ie s in a
fig h t, and a g a in b e c o m e s le a d e r of th e gan g, w h ic h now c r a v e s e x c i t e
m e n t, n ot a m u s e m e n t. T h e y e m b a r k on a s e r i e s of r o b b e r ie s . C h a r le y
is b o r e d b y th e r o b b e r ie s , k n ow s th a t h e is b e h a v in g in s a n e ly w h e n c o m
m ittin g th e m , and th a t h e w ill be c a u g h t by th e p o lic e . In a s o r t o f f a r e
w e ll p a r ty , th e gan g w r e c k s a fin e m a n s io n . L iz z ie h id e s C h a r le y in
h e r r o o m fo r n in e d a y s w h ile th e p o lic e lo o k f o r h im . C h a r le y is c a u g h t
and s e n t to a r e m a n d h o m e . H e e s c a p e s , and h e and L iz z ie h e a d fo r
S o u th a m p to n to ta k e a sh ip to A m e r ic a . C h a r le y s e e m s c a llo u s to th e
ju v e n ile a u t h o r it ie s , p a r t ic u la r ly b e c a u s e L iz z ie is n ow p r e g n a n t. T h ey
a r e e a c h s e n te n c e d to tw o y e a r s of d e te n tio n , and th e y p a r t in a n a g o n y
o v e r th e l o s s of th e ir h a p p in e s s , and in fe a r o f th e e f f e c t s th a t tw o
y e a r s of s e p a r a t io n w ill h a v e on th e m and on t h e ir lo v e fo r e a c h o th e r .
C a r y 's id e a s ab ou t c h ild r e n , w h ic h u n d e r lie th e n o v e l, a r e th a t
c h ild r e n s e e k a g u id e to l i f e , and w h e n p a r e n ts r e f u s e to gu id e th em
th e y a r e le f t in c o n fu sio n , u n a b le to t e l l r ig h t fr o m w r o n g . He th o u g h t
c h ild c r im e a p a r t of th e p a tte r n of g r o w in g up, and w r o te th a t it is a s
o ld a s h u m a n ity , a n d th a t it is s im p ly on e of c h ild h o o d 's w a y s o f e x
p lo r in g th e w o r ld . H e b e lie v e d th a t c h ild r e n g e t in to tr o u b le b e c a u s e of
b o r e d o m and c o n fu s io n and b e c a u s e th e ir im a g in a tio n s a r e in s u f f ic ie n t ly
67
n o u rish e d ; th e r e fo r e , it is v it a l to " feed" th e ir im a g in a tio n s.
In A r t and R e a lity C a ry w r o te th a t c h ild r e n r e a c t, a s do a d u lts,
to th e w o r ld o f o b je c ts and f e e lin g s b y im m e d ia te e m o tio n a l r e s p o n s e
(p. 15). A s so o n a s th e c h ild b e g in s to a c q u ir e k n o w led g e, to r e f le c t on
it, to fo r m id e a s , it ca n fo r m m o r a l id e a s , and c a n fa c e a m o r a l s it u a
tio n and d e c id e upon its r e s p o n s e (p. 13). T he d iffic u lty fo r a c h ild in
le a r n in g th e s tr u c tu r e of th e m o r a l w o r ld , and th e r e fo r e the c o r r e c t r e
s p o n s e , is th a t h e k n ow s th e m o r a l w o r ld is p r e s e n t , but h e ca n n o t s e e
it o r to u ch it.
He is n o t eq u ip p ed w ith th e e x p e r ie n c e and ju d g m en t n e c e s s a r y
to pu t it to g e th e r fo r h im s e lf . F o r th is p u r p o se n a tu re h a s p r o v id e d
h im (and m a n y o th er s m a ll m a m m a ls w h ic h g ro w s lo w ly in u n d e r
sta n d in g ) w ith p a r e n ts . A nd if th e y r e f u s e th e duty of m a k in g the
s itu a tio n c le a r to h im h e w ill s u ffe r . I am r e a d y to b e t th a t a good
d e a l of w h a t is c a lle d n e u r o s is and fr u s tr a tio n a m o n g you n g c h ild r e n
is due to n o th in g but th e fa ilu r e of p a r e n ts and te a c h e r s (o ften the
m o s t c o n s c ie n t io u s ) to do so , th at i s , to g iv e a c le a r p ic tu r e w ith o u t
u n c e r t a in t ie s . W ithout su c h a p ic tu r e , c h ild r e n d on 't know w h e r e
th e y a r e , an d th ey do a ll k in d s of e v il (b e c a u s e it is ju st th is sp h e r e
of g o o d and e v il th a t is p u z z lin g th em ) to fin d out.^
W hen th e c h ild t r i e s to fin d a gu id e to th e w o r ld by a sk in g q u e s
tio n s , h e o ften g e ts th e w r o n g a n s w e r s or he g e ts th e a n s w e r s w ro n g ,
b e c a u s e in te r p r e ta tio n d ep en d s n o t o n ly on th e s e le c t io n of w o r d s , but
th e e m p h a s is g iv e n to w o r d s (A r t and R e a lit y , p. 1). C a r y 's e x a m p le of
th is in th e n o v e l is the s c e n e in w h ic h C h a r le y lis t e n s to a d is c u s s io n of
a r t b e tw e e n tw o m en .
He fr o w n s in th e e ffo r t of c a tc h in g out of th is g ro w n -u p e x p e r t
ta lk so m e th in g w h ic h h e w ill be a b le to u se : a c lu e to a r t is t ic g lo r y ,
tr iu m p h and fa m e . He k n ow s th at it m e a n s s o m e th in g , an d h e f e e ls
e v e r y m o m e n t th a t he u n d e r sta n d s it, but w h en h e t r ie s to g r a sp at
3
Preface to Charley Is My Darling, Carfax edition (London,
1951), p. 9.
68
h is u n d e r sta n d in g , it e s c a p e s h im . (C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g , p. 159)
W hen C h a r le y fin d s it im p o s s ib le to u n d e rsta n d th e d is c u s s io n , he r e
a c ts v io le n tly :
H e w a n ts to a b u se th e g r o w n -u p s in th e r u d e s t p o s s ib le w o r d s, to
m a k e fun of th em and a ll th e ir id e a s . W hat e l s e ca n h e do w ith th em
s in c e h e c a n 't g e t h o ld of th e ir m e a n in g ? (p. 162)
C a r y 's a ttitu d e to w a r d c h ild c r im e w a s th a t a ll c h ild r e n a r e d e
lin q u en t b y n a tu re; "the o n ly d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n u s as c h ild r e n w a s th e
e x te n t of our d e lin q u e n c y , w h e th e r w e w e r e found out in it, and how w e
w e r e p u n ish e d fo r it" (P r e f a c e , p. 5). D e s c r ib in g h im s e lf a s a c h ild
gang le a d e r , C ary e m p h a s iz e d h is o p in io n th at d e lin q u e n c y is s im p ly a
m a tte r of d e g r e e .
T he in flu e n c e s w h ic h h u r r ie d m e in to c r im e w e r e th e g lo r y of
le a d e r s h ip a m o n g a grou p of o th er s m a ll b o y s, a fa m ily tr a d itio n of
le a d e r s h ip and e n t e r p r is e , an im a g in a tio n fu ll of p ir a t e s , R o b in so n
C r u so e , J a ck th e G iant K ille r , and a la r g e r a tio n of a c tu a l v illa in y
fr o m th e t a le s of co u n try p e o p le and o th er c h ild r e n . . . .
A s a gang le a d e r I w a s r ea d y to fig h t, to s t e a l. . . . [but i]
a d o r e d m y fa th e r fo r h is c o u r a g e and s k ill a s a s p o r tsm a n , a d m ir e d
h im a s a m a n o f q u ix o tic h o n o r. I had th e s h a r p e s t s e n s e of r ig h t
and w r o n g . . . . I kn ew to o , v e r y w e ll, w h e r e the w r o n g m u st sto p , or
it w o u ld b r in g m e sh a m e in s te a d of g lo r y . (" H o rro r C o m ics," p. 177)
In th e n o v e l C h a r le y a c h ie v e s th e g lo r y of le a d e r s h ip am on g th e
o th er b o y s by a c ts o f d a r in g - - f a c in g th e b u ll, s te a lin g , c lim b in g a p ip e
to th e th ir d flo o r o f a h o u s e - - a n d by t e llin g th em fa n ta s tic c r im e -
s t o r ie s . C a r y 's ch ild h o o d im a g in a tio n w a s fe d by s t o r ie s of R o b in so n
C r u so e , J a ck th e G ian t K ille r , e tc . C h a r le y 's im a g in a tio n w a s fe d by
A m e r ic a n m o v ie s and c r im e m a g a z in e s - - w ild t a le s about g a n g s te r s and
th e ir m o lls , b ig f a s t c a r s , b ig d ia m o n d s, and lo ts o f gun p la y . B ut in
r e t e llin g and e n la r g in g t h e s e s t o r ie s , C h a r le y c r e a t e s an in te n s e w o r ld
fo r h im s e lf and th e o th er c h ild r e n , w ho a r e e n th r a lle d by h im . T he
69
d iffe r e n c e b e tw een a m is c h ie v o u s ch ild , su c h as C ary had b een , and a
d elin q u en t c h ild lik e C h a rley , is th at C h a r le y B row n had no a d o red
fa th e r , and h is ste p m o th e r d o e s n 't c a r e w h at he d o e s . He kn ow s h e is
d oin g w ro n g , but th e r e is no one to stop h im or to m a k e h im w ant to
sto p h im s e lf.
D is c u s s in g the m a jo r c r im e d e s c r ib e d in th e n o v e l- - t h e w r e c k
in g of B u r ls H o u s e --C a r y w r o te th at a c h ild s t ill c o n fu se d about r ig h t
and w ro n g w ill p a s s fr o m s m a ll c r im e s to m a jo r c r im e s . A c c o r d in g to
C ary, a s m a ll c h ild c o m m its m in o r c r im e s lik e a b u sin g c a ts "to s e e
w h at w ill hap pen b oth to h im s e lf and the v ic tim , and w hat he f e e ls lik e
in th e n ew c ir c u m s ta n c e s ." The c r im e is a " m oral" e x p e r im e n t.
But b eyon d th is e x p e r im e n ta l e ffo r t, a c h ild , b e in g s t i l l c o n fu se d
and fr u s tr a te d , s t ill u n ab le to know , o n ce and fo r a ll, w h at is r ig h t
and w ro n g , w ill c o m m it a r e a l c r im e , a sp ite fu l c r u e lty , out of ra g e
and sp ite ; he w ill c h o o se so m e v a lu e d th in g to d ir ty or to s m a s h b e
c a u se he id e n tifie s it w ith a w o r ld w h ic h o b stin a te ly c lo s e s it s e lf to
h is im a g in a tio n . F o r . . . th e im a g in a tio n is a lw a y s lo o k in g fo r s i g
n ific a n c e ; both in the p h y s ic a l and m o r a l w o r ld , th at is its job, to put
to g e th e r c o h e r e n t w h o le s . . . a p la c e w h e r e th e c h ild d o e s know, a ll
th e tim e , w h e r e he is . (P r e fa c e to C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g , p. 10)
C a ry th o u g h t that w h en s o m e o b jec t is p r e s e n te d to "people of a ll a g e s"
w h ich th e y h a v e n 't le a r n e d to u n d ersta n d , "they w an t to d e s tr o y it. . . .
it ir r it a t e s th em , it an n oys th em , and I th in k it is a s o r t of d e s p e r a te
a ttem p t to g e t h o ld of th e th in g, by d e s tr o y in g it" (" N o v e list A t W ork,"
p. 21).
C a ry thought th at the so lu tio n to c h ild c r im e w a s ed u ca tio n ,
w h ich both su p p lie s sta n d a rd s and fe e d s c h ild r e n 's im a g in a tio n s.
T h is C h a rley , y ou s e e , had an in te n se im a g in a tio n , and not
enough to w o rk at it w ith . . . it w a s n ’t fille d . T h ey ta lk about bad
h o m e s fo r c h ild r e n -:-g o o d n e ss k n ow s, lo t s of g o o d stu ff c o m e s out of
bad h o m es! . . . lo v e is a w fu lly im p o rta n t fo r c h ild r e n --b u t I do th ink
th at th e im a g in a tio n , fe e d in g th e im a g in a tio n of c h ild r e n is a lm o s t
m o r e im p o rta n t, b e c a u s e a ll c h ild r e n a r e a s o r t of fu rn a ce of fa n cy .
70
(" N o v e lis t A t W o rk ," p. 21)
C a r y m e a n t b y e d u c a tio n n o t m e r e ly s c h o o lin g b u t th e w h o le of a c h ild 's
e x p e r ie n c e . C h a r le y is h a p p y d r a w in g p ic t u r e s and b u ild in g r o c k g a r
d e n s , c o n s tr u c tiv e a c t iv it i e s o f w h ic h h e ca n s e e th e r e s u lt s . H e is
b o r e d by r o u tin e s u b je c ts lik e a r ith m e t ic and g e o g r a p h y u n le s s th e y a p
p ly to s o m e s p e c if ic p r o j e c t w h ic h in t e r e s t s h im , and h e is a ls o b o r e d
b y h is r o b b e r ie s . H e l i v e s in h is im a g in a tio n a s a h e r o and b e n e fa c to r .
W hen h e s t e a ls m o n e y h e u s e s it to bu y p r e s e n t s fo r th e o th er c h ild r e n ,
to t r e a t th em to a m e a l in a r e s ta u r a n t, and to ta k e th e m to th e m o v ie s .
C h a r le y is on e of th e m o s t fu lly r e a liz e d of C a r y 's c h a r a c t e r s .
H is th o u g h ts and m o t iv e s a r e m o r e th o r o u g h ly e x p lo r e d th a n J o h n so n 's,
and th e n o v e l f o c u s e s e v e n m o r e c o m p le te ly on h im th a n M r. J o h n so n
d id on its h e r o . B. E v a n -O w e n w a s q u ite r ig h t in s a y in g th a t C a ry
" p ro b es a s d e e p ly w ith in th e c h a p te r s o f th e n o v e l a s m a n y a p r o f e s -
4
s io n a l p s y c h o lo g is t in a w h o le s e t of t e c h n ic a l t o m e s ." C h a r le y is a
c o n s is t e n t c h a r a c t e r ; h is v e r y in c o n s is t e n c ie s , h is w a v e r in g s , a r e c o n
s is t e n t w ith th e c h a r a c t e r o f a n a d o le s c e n t b o y . W hen h e t r ie s to a s s e r t
h im s e lf b y p r o m is in g to fig h t th e b u ll, th e o th e r c h ild r e n u n d e r sta n d
p e r f e c t ly th a t h e is tr y in g to im p r e s s th e m , an d th a t he is in "a p itifu l
and d if fic u lt p o s itio n . T h ey s e e th a t h e is in a s ta te of th e h ig h e s t t e n
s io n an d th is e x c it e s th e ir ow n s e n s e s " (C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g , p. 2 4 ).
T h ey t e l l h im to g e t on w ith it.
"Y ou c a n 't a v e a p r o p e r b u llfig h t w ith o u t p ro d d in g b u lls ," C h a r
le y s a y s . "Y ou g o t to m a k e e m w ild - - b u t if y o u funk it, y o u b e tte r
4
"T he S u p r e m a c y o f th e In d iv id u a l in th e N o v e ls o f J o y c e C a r y ,"
A d am In te r n a tio n a l R e v ie w , 1 8 :2 7 , N o v e m b e r - D e c e m b e r , 1950.
71
g e t o ff."
"I a in 't fu n k in g it, e r e , y o u b e tte r sh u t u p - - I a in 't a fr a id o f an y
b u lls . ..."
" A ll r ig h t," C h a r le y s a y s w ith th e a ir of a c o n d e s c e n d in g p r in c e .
"If y o u p r o m is e to sta n d rou n d , y o u c a n s ta y e r e ."
B y th is a d r o it s e n t e n c e , C h a r le y a s s u m e s le a d e r s h ip . B ill, n o
t ic in g it, l e e r s and s a y s : "A rk to S in b a d ." {p. 25)
B ut w h e n th e b u ll g e ts ou t of th e s t a ll and th e f a r m e r c o m e s a fte r th e m ,
th e b o y s e s c a p e and tu r n on C h a r le y . "In an in s ta n t th e y s e e h im a s he
is , a fr ig h te n e d b r e a t h le s s s m a ll b o y , s m a lle r th a n a n y of th e m , w h o , in
s o m e e x tr a o r d in a r y w a y , h a s im p o s e d h im s e lf on th em " (p. 38). It is
th e n th e ir g a m e to t e a s e C h a r le y .
A ll f e l t h is d iffic u lty , th a t h e w a s c o n fu se d and p e r p le x e d , th a t he
c o u ld n o t u n d e r s ta n d e x a c t ly th e n a tu r e of h is m is fo r tu n e , o r h ow
j u s t ly h e ou gh t to be r e g a r d e d an d t r e a t e d a s an o u tc a st; b u t th e y
w e r e n e v e r t ir e d of s ta lk in g h im , ly in g in a m b u s h e s fo r h im to s e e
w h a t he w o u ld do and th e n w o n d e r in g at th e f o o lis h n e s s o f h is d e e d s ,
(p. 42)
C a ry a p p a r e n tly c o u ld n o t r e s i s t t h ir d - p e r s o n c o m m e n t in th is
n o v e l, and o ften , c o n tr a r y to h is p r in c ip le th a t th e a u th o r sh o u ld n o t be
in e v id e n c e , in s e r t e d r e m a r k s to e m p h a s iz e h is m e a n in g .
T h e r e a s o n w h y h e w a s f o o lis h w a s k n ow n to a ll o f th em b e c a u s e th e y
h a d a ll b e h a v e d in th e s a m e w a y , fo r th e s a m e r e a s o n s . E v e r y c h ild
h a s b e e n p e r p le x e d b y s o m e u n e x p e c te d s o c ia l d e v e lo p m e n t, if it is
o n ly a su d d en q u e s tio n to w h ic h h e d o e s n o t know th e a n s w e r , o r a
su d d en c h a r g e , of w h ic h he d o e s n ot k n ow th e m e a n in g . He f e e ls
th en , a t l e a s t fo r a m o m e n t, a k in d of c o n fu s io n w h ic h is lik e a s p lit
tin g up of th e b r a in in to s e n s e l e s s f r a g m e n ts , and in th a t c o n fu s io n
h e d o e s or s a y s th in g s w h ic h a s t o n is h h im and s h a m e h im fo r a lo n g
tim e a ft e r w a r d s , {p. 43)
C h a r le y a g a in b e c o m e s le a d e r of th e gro u p , m o r e b e c a u s e th e
g ro u p n e e d s a le a d e r th a n b e c a u s e h e im p o s e s h is p e r s o n a lit y on it.
B ut th e y b e c o m e f a s c in a t e d b y h is s t o r y t e llin g p o w e r s . H e r e p e a t s
c r im e - m a g a z in e f a b r ic a tio n s ab ou t a gan g g o in g in to a c a s t le and
72
s t e a lin g c a r p e t s , fu r n itu r e , an d p ic t u r e s ,
and a lo t of th e c h a ir s w a s a ll o v e r g o ld an d w ith s i l k c u s h io n s and
th e y a d a ll s o r t s of w in e s and c h a m p y n e s and f o o d - - a n d th e y ad th e ir
m o lls th e r e , t o o - - t h a t 's t h e ir d o lls , y o u k n ow . {p. 57)
F r o m th en on th e g r o u p is C h a r le y 's r e s p o n s ib ilit y . H e p r o m is e s to
ta k e th em to th e m o v ie s in a c a r , and h e m u s t f u lf ill h is p r o m is e . He
h a s to ex p a n d to f i l l th e r o le h e h a s c r e a te d , e v e n if th e t o ll on h im is
g r e a t . S te a lin g g iv e s h im a r e a c t io n w h ic h is
s o m e th in g m o r e th a n fe a r ; a kin d o f h o r r o r . He f e e l s a s if h e w e r e
s o m e o n e e ls e ; and a s if th is o th er p e r s o n w e r e f e e lin g v e r y s ic k and
a t th e s a m e tim e p e r fo r m in g u n a c c o u n ta b le f e a t s , (p. 82)
B ut th e g lo r y of le a d e r s h ip is w o r th th e s tr a in ; "He f e e l s th e aw e and
s h o c k of h is f o llo w e r s lik e s o m e th in g b ey o n d a d m ir a tio n , and h e is fu ll
o f g r a titu d e and a ff e c tio n to w a r d s th e m " (p. 8 3 ). C a ry e m p h a s iz e d th a t
C h a r le y 's a c h ie v e m e n t w a s th e c r e a t io n of a f e e lin g and an a tm o s p h e r e .
T h e c lim a x o f th e e v e n in g is th e m e a l in th e r e s ta u r a n t.
N on e of th em k n o w s h o w to e x p r e s s h is h a p p in e s s , h is s e n s e of
b e in g on top of th e s itu a tio n . T h ey w a n t to d a n ce and s in g and a ll
th e ir g e s t u r e s a n d w o r d s , H a r r y ju g g lin g w ith h is sp o o n and sh o u tin g ,
G in g er s w in g in g h is h e a d to th e rh y th m of h is so n g an d th r o w in g n ew
c h o r d s , C h a r le y c a llin g out: "and d i y a s e e th e c h a p 's fa c e w e n e
s e e s B e r t c o m e in ?" a r e a ll p e r fo r m in g a k in d of d a n c e and so n g .
C h a r le y 's so n g is a s a g a o f th e ir a d v e n tu r e s ; h is d a n c e a p la y w ith
d a n g e r , (p. 92)
C h a r le y h a s c r e a t iv e a b ility in d r a w in g w h ic h c a n s a t is f y h im in
s o lit u d e , but fa ilu r e to a c h ie v e h is a s p ir a t io n s th r o w s h im in to d eep
g lo o m .
H e is s u r e th a t h e , C h a r le y B ro w n , c o u ld n e v e r do a go o d d r a w in g .
" E r e , w o t y o u b in p la y in g a t, y o u b lo o d y f o o l- - y o u a in t a b le e d in g
k id ." H e le a v e s e v e r y th in g w h e r e it l i e s an d g o e s o ff, s lo u c h in g w ith
d is g u s t, h is h an d s d eep in h is p o c k e ts , (p. 4 9 )
C h a r le y h e lp s M r s . A llc h in b u ild a r o c k g a r d e n and g e ts th e s a m e k in d
of d e lig h t fr o m it th a t h e g e ts fr o m d r a w in g . B ut w h en th e g a r d e n is
73
fin is h e d , h e f a ll s in to d e e p b o r e d o m , r e li e v e d o n ly b y v i s i t s to th e c a v e
w h ic h is th e g a n g 's r e t r e a t fr o m th e a d u lt w o r ld . T h e r e th e b o y s c r e a te
an a tm o s p h e r e o f fr ie n d s h ip and lo y a lt y , and th e r e C h a r le y r e a li z e s
th a t L iz is th e a tt r a c tio n fo r h im , n o t th e o th e r b o y s .
C h a r le y 's w o r ld w id e n s w h e n h e g o e s to B u r ls H o u se fo r a d r a w
in g le s s o n , an d su d d e n ly th e w o r ld o f sh a p e and c o lo r o p en s up to him ;
h e " s e e s ."
H e g a z e s a t a t r e e lik e a g r e e n b o m b e x p lo s io n in a sk y on f ir e w ith
lit t le th in f la m e s and h e f e e l s a s h o c k a s if s o m e th in g h a s a c tu a lly
e x p lo d e d , s ile n t ly but v io le n t ly , s o m e w h e r e in s id e h im . H e is
s h o c k e d and a m u se d , but h e d o e s n o t know w h e th e r to la u g h or lo o k
s o le m n , (p. 155)
T he b o y s a r e a r r e s t e d fo r th e c a r r o b b e r y , and C h a r le y is s e n t to liv e
a t th e A llc h in 's , s u p p o s e d ly u n d e r s t r ic t s u p e r v is io n and c o n tr o l. In
ste a d , L in a A llc h in g iv e s C h a r le y g r e a t fr e e d o m , and h is w o r ld e x p a n d s.
H e a p p r e c ia t e s th e lu x u r y o f th e s u r r o u n d in g s , th e k in d n e s s an d f r ie n d
sh ip o f L in a , and h e sp e n d s h o u r s h a p p ily d r a w in g . B ut w h ile h e is-
a lo n e and b u sy , th e o th e r b o y s m a k e n ew fr ie n d s h ip s ; and a g a in th e y
tu r n on C h a r le y in a v ic io u s fig h t. L iz s a v e s h im , and th e y d r e a m t o
g e th e r of g e ttin g m a r r ie d , g o in g to A m e r ic a , and h a v in g a h o u s e .
C h a r le y d e fe a ts h is e n e m ie s an d fin d s h im s e lf a b ig g e r h e r o th a n b e
f o r e . B ut a g a in h e is r e s p o n s ib le fo r a gan g th a t w a n ts e x c it e m e n t
m o r e th a n a m u s e m e n t.
T h e g o o d e x a m p le s C h a r le y s e e s a r e n o t s tr o n g en o u g h to c o u n
t e r a c t h is b o r e d o m and c o n fu sio n . P e t e r D ra k e is a b o y w h o is h ig h ly
r e s p e c t e d in th e c o m m u n ity , w h o s im p ly w a n ts to g e t a jo b in a g r o c e r y ,
m a r r y L iz 's s i s t e r , h a v e a h o n e y m o o n in L on d on , and th e n s e t t le dow n
and r a is e a f a m ily .
74
C h a r le y , a s to n is h e d at th is d u ll s c h e m e of lif e , c r ie s : "And
th a t's a ll y o u w an t to do a ll y o u r lif e ."
"N oa, t is n ot w h at I w an t, h u t I r e c k o n s t is w h a t's good fo r m e - -
and fo r m o s t o th e r s , to o ." (p. 2 5 0 )
P e t e r a d m its h e w o u ld lik e to go tr a v e lin g , and C h a r le y is f ir e d b y th e
a m b itio n to b u y a sh ip . H e sp e n d s w e e k s h a p p ily p la n n in g v o y a g e s to
f a r - o f f p la c e s . B ut w h en P e t e r is b u sy and C h a r le y is d e p r iv e d of h is
c o m p a n io n sh ip , h e a g a in b e c o m e s b o r e d w ith s c h o o l and ta k e s p le a s u r e
o n ly in d ra w in g . He and a n o th er b o y b r e a k in to s e v e r a l h o u s e s to r e
lie v e th e ir b o r e d o m .
C h a r le y w a s p e r f e c t ly sa n e . He k n ew v e r y w e ll th at h e w a s n ot
b eh a v in g s e n s ib ly , th a t h e w a s ta k in g a b su r d r is k s fo r v e r y lit t le r e
tu rn . He k n ew th a t . . . h e w a s bound to en d in th e h an d s of th e p o
li c e , p r o b a b ly v e r y so o n . B ut he p a id n o a tte n tio n to c r it ic i s m or
c o m m o n s e n s e . . . . He s m ile d at good a d v ic e a s an old r h e u m a tic
m a n s m ile s at an a c r o b a t. It w a s a s th ou gh a w a ll of g la s s sto o d b e
tw e e n h im and e v e r y th in g r a tio n a l. He c o u ld lo o k a t r e a s o n , a p p r e c i
a te it, bu t h e w a s o b s tin a te ly p r e v e n te d fr o m m a k in g an y u s e of it.
(p. 255)
T he gang is n e a r ly cau gh t, and th e y d e c id e to h a v e a p a r ty in
B u r ls H o u se a s a f a r e w e ll b e fo r e b r e a k in g up. T h is is th e c lim a x of
C h a r le y 's v is io n of h im s e lf . To h im it is a p a rty ; to th e o th e r s a
c h a n c e to r o b . W hen th e y a s k h im w h y h e b ro u g h t th em th e r e , h e c a n
n o t a n sw e r c l e a r l y - - t h e r e a l r e a s o n of w a n tin g to b e a g r e a t h o s t in a
fin e h o u se is n ot c le a r to h im . H e t e lls th em :
" G en tlem en , d rin k up and e a t up. The p a r ty a s s ta r te d . I ju st
b u ilt th is o u s e , s e e , ony s o 's I co u ld g iv e th is p a r ty to m y fr ie n d s .
Y ou a ll b e e n m y fr ie n d s lo n g tim e and w e go o d fr ie n d s , a r n 't w e - -
w e good f r ie n d s ." C h a r le y is s e e k in g th e s t r o n g e s t e m p h a s is - - h e
w a n ts to c r e a te th e id e a of an e x tr a o r d in a r y d ep th of lo y a lt y and a f
fe c tio n . "We th e b e s t gan g a fr ie n d s in th e w o r ld and w e 'll a lw a y s
be fr ie n d s , s e e , in ou r g a n g - - c o s w e c a n 't h elp it." (p. 27 3 )
T h e y g e t drunk, and one of th e b o y s , in a w ild d a n ce , th ro w s a sh o e
th ro u g h a p i c t u r e - g l a s s .
75
C h a r le y , in th e m id d le of h is s p e e c h , s e e s th e p ic tu r e g la s s in
fr o n t of h im f ly in to p ie c e s ; th e .c a n v a s b eh in d b u r s t open. H e s t a r e s
w ith a m a z e m e n t. T h en h is b ro w s s m o o th e , p e r p le x ity g r a d u a lly
le a v e s h is f a c e , h e g iv e s a c r y of d e lig h t. H e s e e s w h a t ca n b e done
w ith p ic t u r e s , e x p e n s iv e p ic t u r e s , to p r o d u c e a d e fin ite and g lo r io u s
s e n s a tio n , (p. 283)
C h a r le y g e ts an e v e n s tr o n g e r s e n s a t io n out of sw in g in g on the g r e a t
d in in g r o o m c h a n d e lie r u n til it t e a r s ou t of th e c e ilin g .
C h a r le y h id e s out fr o m th e p o lic e fo r n in e d a y s w ith L iz z ie and
h e r s i s t e r in th e ir r o o m . S in c e L iz z ie is p a r tly d ea f, sh e d o e s n ot go to
- s c h o o l but s ta y s h o m e and k e e p s h o u se fo r th e r e s t of th e fa m ily . She
and C h a r le y h a v e th e h o u se to t h e m s e lv e s , and fo r a fe w d ays th e y a p
p r o a c h m a tu r ity . T h e y n ot o n ly h a v e a lo v e a ffa ir , but p la n th e ir liv e s
of th e fu tu re; C h a r le y tu rn s in to a m in ia tu r e h o u s e h o ld e r , la y in g out
r o o m s and g a r d e n s .
C h a r le y and L iz z ie , in a fe w d a y s a lo n e to g e th e r , d iv e r g e d r a p
id ly and fa r fr o m th e ir p r e v io u s c o u r s e . T he m e r e p o s s ib ilit y of
fr a n k n e s s , of s a y in g e v e r y th in g , s o th a t th e w h o le e x p e r ie n c e of e a c h
w a s th ro w n into t h e ir c o m m o n s to c k , m a d e h o u r s a s e n r ic h in g as
y e a r s , (p. 304)
W hen L iz z ie 's p a r e n ts fin d C h a r le y , th e y b e a t L iz z ie u n til sh e
fa in ts , and C h a r le y is s e n t to a r e m a n d h o m e . He is n ot p h y s ic a lly
p u n ish e d , but h e s u f f e r s a t e r r ib le o p p r e s s io n o f s p ir it a s he r e m e m
b e r s th e d ays h e sp e n t w ith L iz z ie .
C h a r le y c a n n o t b e lie v e th a t h e h a s e v e r liv e d su c h a lif e or e n
jo y e d s u c h fr e e d o m and h a p p in e s s . H e d o e s n ot th in k now of h is
lo v e -m a k in g . H is m in d n e v e r d w e lls upon th o s e q u ick p a s s in g in c i
d en ts w h o se q u a lity is s t i l l s tr a n g e to h im and a lit t le fr ig h te n in g .
H e s e e s L iz z ie at w o r k , and h e h e a r s h e r v o ic e w h ile th e y ta lk t o
g e th e r e n t h u s ia s t ic a lly ab ou t w h at th e y a r e to do, and how th e y w ill
co n d u ct th e ir l i v e s . He d o e s n ot th in k of L iz z ie a s a w ife but a s
L iz z ie , th e uniqu e b e in g w ith w h om h e h a s e n jo y e d h a p p in e s s , and
e n te r e d , a s if by a c c id e n t, in to an e x is t e n c e to g e th e r , w h e r e e v e r y -
th in g -- w o r k , p la y , th e m o s t t r iv ia l ta s k s and o b je c ts , su ch a s p o ts ,
s c r u b b in g - b r u s h e s , h a v e su d d e n ly b e c o m e b e a u tifu l and d ig n ifie d .
C h a r le y d o e s n o t know w h at d ig n ity m e a n s , but h e f e e ls th a t w ith
76
L iz h e h a s b e c o m e a m a tu r e b e in g , th a t h e h a s liv e d lik e a g r o w n -u p .
{p. 316)
B e c a u s e h e f e e l s L iz z ie is a u n iq u e and m a tu r e b e in g , h e is
a m a z e d at th e a c c u s a t io n th at h e h a s ta k en a d v a n ta g e of h e r . "He h a s
n e v e r th ou gh t of h e r as a p o o r co u n try g ir l, u n a b le to d efen d h e r s e lf"
(p. 3 2 3 ). He w a n ts to e x p la in th a t n e ith e r of th em is g u ilty of an y th in g ,
th at th e sa m e th in g h a p p en ed to th em b oth, but h e is c o n fu se d and u n ab le
to a n s w e r . H is r e a c tio n c a u s e s th e m a g is t r a t e s to th in k th a t he is co ld ,
c a llo u s , and h o p e le s s . He ru n s a w a y fr o m the r e m a n d h o m e, and he and
L iz z ie s ta r t fo r S ou th am p ton . T h ey a r e cau g h t, and in th e fin a l s c e n e
th e y a r e w o r r ie d about th e e f f e c t s th a t tw o y e a r s of d e te n tio n w ill h a v e
on th e m , and th e y w o n d er w h y th e y ca n n o t be le f t a lo n e to w o r k out
th e ir ow n l i v e s .
"We a in 't k id s n ow . W e w o u ld n 't g iv e no tr o u b le to n ob od y. I
c o u ld g et a jo b , c o u ld n 't I, and y ou c o u ld c o o k or w a sh ."
L iz g iv e s a d eep sig h . "We c o u ld to o , co u d d en w e?"
"Why c a n 't th e y le t u s? " . . .
"C os w e ’re k id s."
"But w e a in 't k id s n ow ."
" Y e s s , w e is to o ."
" W ell, w o t abou t it, if w e a r e a b it youn g?"
" T h ey g o t it in th e la w s - - t h e la d y to ld m e ." (p. 341)
T he c h ild r e n p a r t on a ly r ic a l n o te , " It's b in s o lo v e ly , I w is h I co u ld
d ie" (p. 342). T h e b ook en d s s a r d o n ic a lly , r e f le c tin g th e w o r ld 's a t t i
tude to w a r d d e lin q u e n t c h ild r e n 's a c t s . L iz z ie h a s fa in te d , and one c o n
s ta b le a s k s th e o th er if h e ca n s p a r e a sa n d w ic h . T he o th er r e p lie s
th at th e sa n d w ic h e s h a v e m u sta r d in th e m . T he c o n s ta b le , th ou gh a
77
k in d ly m a n , a n s w e r s , " T h a t's a ll r ig h t - - s h e c a n 't b e to o p a r tic u la r , ca n
sh e ? " (p. 343).
T he book f o c u s e s on C h a r le y 's c h a r a c te r and h is g ro w in g up.
T he o th er c h a r a c t e r s fu n c tio n p e r f e c t ly w ith in th e fr a m e w o r k of th e
book , but a r e lig h tly s k e tc h e d e x c e p t fo r L iz z ie . She is an in d iv id u a l,
but h er r o le in th e b oo k is im p o rta n t o n ly a s sh e c o n tr ib u te s to C h a r
le y ' s m a tu r a tio n . H er c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n is fa r m o r e fu lly d e v e lo p e d
th a n B a m u 's in M r. J o h n so n , but sh e is not a c o m p le te ly rou n d ed p e r
s o n a lity . T h is is in h e r e n t in th e c h a r a c te r iz a tio n ; sh e is d ea f and a s a
r e s u lt h a s lit t le s c h o o lin g , fe w id e a s , and lit t le e x p e r ie n c e . C a ry g a v e
h e r tw o m a in t r a it s : o b s tin a c y and a te n d e r lo v e fo r C h a r le y . L iz z ie is
m a d e s o lit a r y b y h e r d e a fn e s s , and is th u s a s o c ia l o u tc a s t. She is a ls o
a s e n s ib le co u n try g ir l w h o s e in s tin c t iv e , e a r th y lo v e fo r C h a r le y o v e r
r id e s h e r r e a s o n . H er f e e lin g fo r C h a r le y is m o s t ly m a te r n a l; sh e is
bound by an a n x ie ty fo r h im , and e x p e c t s n o th in g fr o m h im , not e v e n a f
fe c tio n . T h at h e lo v e s h e r is a n u n e x p e c te d s u r p r is e and d e lig h t.
G ra d u a lly h e r h a p p in e ss sin k s into th e n o r m a l m ix tu r e of a n x ie
ty , r e s p o n s ib ilit y , p r e o c c u p a tio n . A lr e a d y sh e c a n 't liv e w ith o u t th e
p r e o c c u p a tio n o f C h a r le y , so m e th in g to do, to th in k , to c o n tr iv e e v
e r y m in u te of th e day. (p. 296)
T he p lo t of th e n o v e l s e e m s le is u r e ly , but it p r o c e e d s d ir e c t ly
to w a rd th e c o n c lu s io n in a s e r i e s of w a v e lik e p r o g r e s s io n s , d e p ic tin g
C h a r le y 's sw in g b a c k and fo r th fr o m d e s tr u c tiv e r o b b e r ie s to c r e a t iv e
a c tiv ity , w ith th e c r e s t of e a c h w a v e b e in g a g r e a te r d e g r e e of d e s t r u c
t iv e n e s s . T he c lim a x of th e p lo t is th e d e s tr u c tio n of B u r ls H o u se , but
in s te a d of a r a p id d e n o u e m e n t, C a ry w r o te a slo w en d in g th a t sh o w s th e
gro w th of C h a r le y 's c h a r a c t e r - - h is m a tu r a tio n and lo v e fo r L iz z ie . The
c lo s e of th e n o v e l th u s h a s a d u al p a ttern ; th e o u tco m e of d e te c tio n and
78
p u n ish m e n t is in e v ita b le and o v e r s h a d o w s th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e c h il
d r e n 's h a p p in e s s , in c r e a s in g th e p o ig n a n c y o f th e d o o m e d r e la t io n s h ip .
T he m o s t in t e r e s t in g o f th e s c e n e s sh o w in g C h a r le y 's c r e a t iv e
a c t iv it y is th at of th e d r a w in g le s s o n , w h e r e th e w o r ld of sh a p e and c o l
or b u r s ts in on C h a r le y . T h is s c e n e e n a b le s C a r y to in s e r t h is id e a s
a b ou t c h ild r e n 's a b ility to s e e th in g s c le a r ly , u n h a m p e r e d b y th e la b e ls
th a t c o n s t r ic t a d u lts ' p e r c e p t io n s . T w o a d u lts, M r. W an d le and M r.
L o m m a x , an a r t is t , d is c u s s a c h ild 's d r a w in g . W and le r e m a r k s ,
"But th is is a m a z in g ly good! . . . It r e a lly h a s d ir e c t o b s e r v a
tio n ."
[L o m m a x r e p l i e s ] "N aw , n aw , I w o u ld n 't s a y t h a t - - 1 w o u ld s a y ,
in s p ir a tio n . C h ild r e n do n o t o b s e r v e - - t h e y f e e l."
"Ah, y o u th in k th is is a r o m a n tic and p o e tic a l t r a i n - - a s y m b o li
c a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n ? "
"N aw , AJi th in k ," s a y s M r. L o m m a x , w h o se r u le is n e v e r to a c
c e p t a s u g g e s tio n , "Ah th in k it is th e a r t is t 's id ea o f a t r a in - - a n d
th a t h is id e a w a s a g o o d o n e." (p. 158)
C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g is w r it t e n in th e th ir d p e r s o n , p a s t te n s e
fo r d e s c r ip t io n , an d th ir d p e r s o n , p r e s e n t t e n s e fo r n a r r a tio n .. W ith th e
c o m b in a tio n of t e n s e s C a r y c o u ld c o m m e n t o n th e c h a r a c t e r s ' m o t iv e s
fo r a c tio n , and at th e s a m e tim e , c r e a t e th e im p r e s s io n o f a c tio n g o in g
on and o f th e c h a r a c t e r s ' c o n tin u o u s r e a c t io n to th e ir w o r ld . C h a r le y 's
s w ift e m o tio n a l r e s p o n s e s , h is d e v e lo p m e n t an d m a tu r a tio n a r e m o r e
c o n v in c in g w h en p r e s e n t e d a s co n tin u in g a c tio n .
C a r y a g a in sh o w e d h is d e ft n e s s at c a p tu r in g th e so u n d o f d ia le c t
in th is n o v e l. T h e b a c k g r o u n d and c l a s s o f th e c h a r a c t e r s is m a r k e d b y
th e s p e e c h th e y u s e : u p p er c l a s s p e o p le s p e a k sta n d a r d E n g lis h , th e
L on d o n e v a c u e e s , in c lu d in g C h a r le y , s p e a k C ock n ey; an d th e c o u n tr y
fo lk s p e a k a b r o a d -v o w e le d , s in g - s o n g c o u n tr y d ia le c t. C a r y 's a b ility
79
to c a tc h th e sou n d o f th e c o u n tr y d ia le c t is sh o w n in a d ia lo g u e b e tw e e n
L iz z ie and h e r m o th e r .
"I bant s o b ad a t h e a r in g , m u m ."
M r s . G a lo r, n a tu r a lly k in d b e n e a th th e r o u g h la y e r s of w o r r y ,
lo o k s at h e r in s u r p r is e and s a y s ; "N ow d o n 't e e ta k e on n o w -
g r iz z lin g and g r u s s lin g . W h a t's w r o n g w ith e e th is m o r n in g ? I'm
b eh in d a s it is ." Sh e d a r ts a w a y to th e o il s to v e to a lte r L i z z i e ' s
s e t tin g o f th e w ic k s . " W h e r e 's th a t k e ttle ? Oh, m y la w s , n o t th a t
o n e - - t h e lit t le o n e. It's fo r y o u r f a t h e r 's te a ." (p. 213)
E v e n m o r e d if fic u lt th a n c a tc h in g th e so u n d o f one d ia le c t is
c o m b in in g tw o d iffe r e n t d ia le c t s , a s C a r y d id in th e s p e e c h e s b e tw e e n
C h a r le y and L iz z ie .
"W hat y o u w a n t is a h o t b a th fr o n t a f i r e . M um g iv e Su on e la s t
w e e k . B ut I c a n 't ta k e y o u h o m e , c a n I? I c a n 't go h o m e ."
"E g o t m e in th e d e e p en d , s e e ." C h a r le y is s t i l l p r e o c c u p ie d
w ith h is a d v e n tu r e .
" P ity y o u b an t to M r s . P a r r now . Sh e a lla y s k e e p s a g o o d f ir e ."
"W e c o u ld g e t in e r k it c h e n - - s h e c a n 't e a r - - s h e ' s d e a fe r n o r
y o u a r e ."
" H o w ev er c o u ld w e go in a n o th er p e r s o n 's h o u se lik e th a t,
C h a ri? "
"Q£f th e b a r r e ll. D on e it u n d r e d s o t im e s ."
"W e co u ld d n . Oh d e a r lo r d , how th is b o o y do s h iv e r . H e 'll g e t
num ony n e x t . 1 '
" J es a s y o u lik e , L iz . B ut it'd be w a r m a t o ld P a r r 's ."
"Oh d e a r m e , c o m e on, t h e n - - I b an t g o in g to le t no one s a y I le t
e e d ie of n u m o n y ." (p. 196)
C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g is th e f i r s t d e m o n s tr a tio n of C a r y 's a b ili
ty to p o r tr a y , b y th e u s e o f rh y th m , v o c a b u la r y , and im a g e r y , a c h a r a c
t e r ' s b a ck g ro u n d , th o u g h ts, a c tio n s and a s p ir a t io n s . T he c u lm in a tio n of
C a r y 's e ffo r ts to c r e a t e an in d iv id u a l's c h a r a c t e r is t ic s p e e c h p a tte r n s
is in G u lle y J im s o n 's s p e e c h . T he d is c u s s io n of a r t by M r. L o m m a x
80
is a fo r e s h a d o w in g of th e ty p e o f s p e e c h th a t c h a r a c t e r iz e s G u lle y , and
L o m m a x 's c h e e r fu l a n a r c h is m is a ls o a p r e fig u r a tio n of G u lle y 's c h a r
a c t e r .
" T h e r e is naw su c h th in g a s in s p ir a tio n , J im m y ," M r. L o m m a x
n e v e r m in d s c o n tr a d ic tin g h im s e lf , "and o r r ig in a lit y is m e r e ly a
fa s h io n a m o n g th e yo u n g le d d ie s in th e a r r t s c h o o ls - - n a w , n aw , n aw ,
bu t lo o k a t th e c o r r n - - i t ' s su n k a w e e b it, b u t it 's r ic h s t i l l - - i t ' s th e
c o r r n th a t in c r r e a s e d a h u n d r e d - f o ld - - d 'y e s e e t h a t - - i t ' s t r r e m e n -
d o u s, th a t c o r r n - - y o u ca n h e a r it g r r o w in g - - y o u c a n s m e ll it, w a r r m
and fu s ty , lik e a f o x - - y o u c a n e v e n s e e it tr r e m b lin g a s th e s c y t h e s
c o m e n e r r - - y o u c a n s e e th e h e a v in e s s of it, lik e a g r a v id w u m m a n
w h e n h e r h o u r h a s c o m e - - n a w , n aw , th a t's m e t a p h y s ic a l- - a h 'm t a lk
in g n o n s e n s e - - i t ' s n o t a w u m m a n , it ' s c o r r n - - t h e c o r r n ie s t c o r r n ah
e v e r p e n t e d - - a n d h o w d id a h do it, J im m y ? - - c o m e h e r e , and lo o k " - -
d r a w in g W an d le to th e c a n v a s and m a k in g h im sto o p . "Now lo o k up
th is w a y - - d 'y e s e e n o w - - t h o s e s t r o k e s of r e d - - v e r m ilio n , n o th in g
e l s e but p u r e v e r m ilio n - - d r r a w n th r o u g h th e c h r o m e s and th e o c h r e s
M
C h a r le y , u n d er W a n d le's e lb o w , is a lm o s t ru b b in g h is n o s e on
th e p ic t u r e , " d rra w n th r r o u g h - - w it h a w e t b r u sh on th e w e t p e n t - -
now th a t's th e s o r r t o f th in g ah c o u ld n 't do n o w - - a h w o u ld n 't do now
- - i t ' s a t r r i c k - - i t ' s a n e x p e e d i e n t - - i t ' s a s h a m e fu l d e e d . B ut m a n ,
h o w it s u c c e e d e d - - h o w it c a m e o f f - - m a n it w a s a s tr o k e of g e n iu s
and h ow d id ah do it? G od k n o w s." L o m m a x s h a k e s h is h e a d in a
r e g r e t f u l s a d n e s s . "How d id a h d e v is e su c h a t e c h n ic a l s h o r r t c u t - -
s u c h a p e r f e c t m e a n s of e x p r e s s i o n - - f o r m y id e a - - w h e n to t e l l y e
th e tru th , J im m y , ah w a s n o th in g b u t a c o n c e ite d y o u n g fo o l w a s tin g
v e r y im p e r m a n e n t c o lo u r s up on a f o r r tu n a te ly im p e r m a n e n t m is c o n
c e p tio n o f e v e r y th in g in th e w o r r ld in c lu d in g th e a r r t , s o - c a lle d , of
p e n tin g , an d th e p r iv ile g e s o f the a r t is t . W hen I h ad n e ith e r th e
m o d e s ty to le a r n b y m y ow n m is t a k e s or th e in s tr u c tio n of o th e r s .
A nd y e t, I b r r o u g h t off th a t c o r r n - - t h e f in e s t c o r r n in p e n tin g . I do
n o t f o r g e t th a t V an G ogh h a s t r r ie d h is h an d a t c o r r n e e t h e r ." (p.
160)
T he e m o tio n a l c o n tin u ity , w h ic h C a r y b e lie v e d to be th e u n ify in g
fa c to r in a n o v e l, is a c h ie v e d in C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g b y c r e a tin g
sy m p a th y fo r C h a r le y . C a ry d id not a llo w th a t sy m p a th y to be a lte r e d ,
s o th a t th e r e a d e r u n c r it ic a lly fo llo w s C h a r le y fr o m a c t to a c t. T he
r e a d e r 's fo c u s is on th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l m o t iv e s fo r C h a r le y 's a c t s , n o t
on th e e f f e c t s o f th o s e a c ts on o th e r p e o p le . A b a s ic te n e t of C a r y 's
p h ilo s o p h y w a s th a t p e o p le li v e b y th e ir f e e lin g s ; t h e r e f o r e , in h is stu d y
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of a c h a r a c t e r 's r e a c t io n s to th e w o r ld , p s y c h o lo g ic a l s t im u li a r e m o r e
im p o r ta n t th an r a t io n a liz a t io n s . A ll of C h a r le y 's a c ts a r e fo r th e p u r
p o s e of s a t is f y in g h is f e e lin g s , w h e th e r h e is h a p p ily d r a w in g p ic t u r e s
or sw in g in g on a c h a n d e lie r , and C a r y m a k e s C h a r le y 's p s y c h o lo g ic a l
m o t iv e s a p p e a r tr u e to lif e an d c o n v in c in g to th e r e a d e r .
P lo t and s t y le a ls o c o n tr ib u te to th e u n ity of th e n o v e l. T he
s t o r y c o n c e n tr a te s on C h a r le y 's e m o tio n s and a c t iv it ie s ; e v e r y th in g in
th e n o v e l is r e la t e d to h is d e v e lo p m e n t and n o th in g d e tr a c ts fr o m it.
B u t th e p lo t d e v e lo p m e n t s e e m s to r i s e n a t u r a lly out o f th e c h a r a c t e r s '
a c t iv it ie s ; it is n o t a s c h e m e a r b it r a r ily im p o s e d on th e c h a r a c t e r s .
T he s t y le , u s in g th e p r e s e n t t e n s e , c a r r i e s th e r e a d e r a lo n g in th e u n
r e f le c t in g m a n n e r th a t C a ry d e s ir e d , and e a c h in c id e n t is a c c e p t e d a s
a n o u tg ro w th of th o s e p r e v io u s to it.
T h e n o v e l g iv e s a m e a n in g fu l p ic tu r e of c o n te m p o r a r y s o c ie t y
and th e fla w s in th a t s o c ie t y w h ic h le a d to d e lin q u e n c y . T he th e m e is
th a t c h ild r e n e x p lo r e t h e ir w o r ld a s th e y g r o w an d le a r n , an d th a t on e
o f th e ir m e th o d s o f e x p lo r a tio n is d e s t r u c t iv e . T he e x p r e s s io n of th is
th e m e in th e s t o r y of C h a r le y r e f le c t s C a r y 's b e lie f th a t c h ild r e n b e
c o m e d e lin q u e n t b e c a u s e th e ir p a r e n ts and t e a c h e r s a r e la x in s e ttin g
th e m g o o d e x a m p le s , in g u id in g th e m , and in e d u c a tin g th e m . T he r e a d
e r is m a d e to f e e l th e th e m e e m o tio n a lly . He s e e s a c h ild c o n tin u a lly
m a k in g th e d if fic u lt m o r a l c h o ic e s th a t c o n fr o n t a n y p e r s o n , you n g o r
o ld , in ou r c o m p le x s o c ie t y . In a d d itio n , a ll th e e le m e n t s o f c h a r a c t e r i
z a tio n , p lo t, and s t y le c o n tr ib u te d ir e c t ly to th e to t a l e f f e c t of th e n o v e l;
t h e r e f o r e , th e fo r m s u c c e s s f u l l y e m b o d ie s th e m a t e r ia l.
T he s y m p a th e tic p r e s e n t a t io n o f a d e lin q u e n t c h ild m ig h t s e e m
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a r o m a n tic iz in g or e v e n an e x c u lp a tio n of d e lin q u e n c y . C ary d id not
con d on e d e lin q u e n c y , but n e ith e r did h e v ie w it a s an u n a lte r a b le s ta te .
H e kn ew th a t it is m u ch e a s ie r fo r a d u lts to d e c r y d e lin q u e n c y a s s o m e
th in g p e c u lia r to our t im e s th an fo r th em to a d m it th e ir ow n r e s p o n s i
b ility fo r g u id in g c h ild r e n 's l i v e s . A s C a ry w r o te in " H orror C o m ic s ,"
b a b ie s and p u p p ies a r e d e s tr u c tiv e b y n a tu r e , but "we do n ot se n d fo r
th e p o lic e , w e do n ot c r y out th at m o r a l d e g e n e r a c y a m o n g p u p p ie s and
b a b ie s th r e a te n s to d e s t r o y c iv iliz a tio n " (p. 177). C a r y 's p o in t w a s th at
a d u lts h a v e to a c c e p t th e ir r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s . If th e y do n ot, to m o r r o w 's
w o r ld w ill b e w o r s e th an to d a y 's .
CHAPTER IV
TH E FIR ST TRILOGY
The th r e e n o v e ls of the F ir s t T r ilo g y h a v e b e e n p r a is e d and b e
r a te d fa r b ey o n d an y of C a r y 's o th er w o r k s. T h ey h a v e b e e n p r a is e d a s
in d iv id u a l n o v e ls fo r th e ir g u sto and v ita lity of c h a r a c te r iz a tio n and
s ty le , and fo r th e ir o v erla p p in g th r e e -d im e n s io n a l v is io n as a tr ilo g y .
T h ey h a v e b een c r it ic iz e d a s p o r tr a its of lim ite d , a m o r a l o u tc a sts fr o m
s o c ie t y , fo r " p ica r e sq u e " p lo t le s s n e s s , and fo r b ein g a tr ilo g y in ste a d
o f b ein g c o m p le te ly s e p a r a te d n o v e ls . O b v io u sly , th ey h a v e b e e n c r i t i
c iz e d fo r n o t b ein g w hat th e v a r io u s in d iv id u a l c r it ic s th ought n o v e ls
sh o u ld b e.
A c r e a tiv e w o rk m u st f ir s t be a p p ro a ch ed fr o m th e in ten tio n of
th e c r e a to r . In th e p r e fa c e to the F i r s t T r ilo g y C ary w ro te:
It is c o m p la in e d of th is tr ilo g y that it is not a tr ilo g y at a ll in
the o r d in a r y s e n s e of th e w o rd . T hough its th r e e p a r ts c o v e r the
s a m e p e r io d of h is to r y , th e y a r e in d iffe r e n t s t y le s , about d iffe r e n t
p e o p le and h a v e a v e r y c a su a l r e la tio n in fo r m . But th is w a s in
ten d ed . W hat I s e t out to do w a s to sh ow th r e e p e o p le , liv in g e a c h in
h is ow n w o r ld by h is ow n id e a s , and r e la tin g h is lif e and s tr u g g le s ,
h is triu m p h s and m i s e r i e s in th at w o r ld . T h ey w e r e to know e a ch
o th er and h a v e s o m e c o n n e c tio n in the p lo t, but th ey w ou ld s e e c o m
p le te ly d iffe r e n t a s p e c ts of e a c h o th e r 's c h a r a c te r . . . .
T h a t's w h y e a c h of m y th r e e c h ie f c h a r a c te r s had to w r ite in th e
f ir s t p e r s o n and r e v e a l h is own w o r ld in h is own s t y le . M y w om an ,
S a ra M onday, in h e r w o m a n 's w o r ld , w a s to sh ow how sh e f e lt about
th e w h o le of th at w o r ld , p o litic s and a rt, r e lig io n and fa m ily lif e , as
w e ll a s th e tw o o th er c h ie f c h a r a c t e r s , th e old la w y e r W ilc h e r , and
th e a r tis t, G u lley J im so n . T h ey, in th e ir tu rn w e r e to g iv e th e ir
c o m p le te w o r ld s , in clu d in g S a ra . B y th is m e a n s I h op ed to g et not
o n ly a r ic h e r s e n s e of lif e in its a ctu a l c o m p le x ity , but a th r e e -
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84
d im e n s io n a l d ep th of c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n ; q u a litie s n o t to b e o b ta in e d in
a s in g le b o o k w ith o u t c o n fu sio n ; o r , w h a t w a s fo r m y p u r p o se e q u a lly
b ad , c o n c e p tu a l a n a ly s is .
U n fo r tu n a te ly , C a ry fo u n d th a t h is s c h e m e , " lik e a ll a p r io r i s c h e m e s
fo r b o o k s o r a n y th in g e l s e ," h a d u n e x p e c te d fla w s . T he f i r s t p r o b le m
a r o s e in H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d w ith S a r a .
I fou n d th a t if I a llo w e d h e r to ta lk ab ou t p o lit ic s an d a r t, sh e b e c a m e
l e s s v iv id a s a c h a r a c t e r . Sh e l o s t im m e d ia c y a s a fa m ily w o m a n .
In s u c h a p r o b le m , f a m ilia r to e v e r y w r it e r , m y r u le is c h a r a c t e r
f i r s t , s o I s a c r if ic e d th e p o li t ic s , and s o fa r l o s t th e r ic h n e s s of c o n -
t r a s t b e tw e e n th e b o o k s.
L ik e w is e fo r th e sa k e of v iv id c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n C a ry h a d to le a v e out
W ilc h e r 's id e a s a b ou t a r t an d G u lle y 's id e a s ab ou t p o lit ic s ; th e b o o k s
w e r e " a lr e a d y to o p a c k e d w ith th e ir c l o s e r , m o r e p e r s o n a l in t e r e s t s ."
C a ry f e lt th a t h e h ad a c h ie v e d " th eir c o n flic tin g id e a s o f e a c h o th e r , th e
c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n t h e ir id e a s o f lif e ," and, m o r e im p o r ta n t, "as b a c k
g ro u n d o f th e w h o le , th a t c o n tin u o u s r e v o lu tio n in w h ic h th e y w e r e c o m
p e lle d , and w e a r e c o m p e lle d , to liv e , w h ic h is a t o n c e th e f ie ld of f r e e
d om , ou r o p p o rtu n ity and ou r tr a g e d y ."
C a r y sa w th e l i v e s of a ll th r e e m a in c h a r a c t e r s a s tr a g ic :
T he tr a g e d y o f o ld W ilc h e r in s u c h a w o r ld is th a t of th e c o n
s e r v a t iv e w h o lo v e s h is o ld h o m e , h is o ld f ie ld s , an d th e old w a y s .
F o r h e h a s c r e a t e d fr o m th em a w o r ld o f a s s o c ia t io n s in w h ic h a lo n e
h e c a n a c h ie v e h is d e s ir e , h is n e e d fo r a ffe c tio n . H e lo v e s th in g s a s
w e ll a s p e o p le , an d c a n n o t b e a r to l o s e th e m . . . .
G u lle y , on th e o th e r han d , is th e o r ig in a l g e n iu s , th e in n o v a to r ,
w h o c a n o n ly a c h ie v e h im s e lf in e x p lo r in g n ew f o r m s of e x p r e s s io n .
H is tr a g e d y is th a t th e c o n s e r v a t iv e s fig h t h im an d d e s t r o y h im . F o r
th e y know h o w d a n g e r o u s a n y n ew id e a , a n y n ew a r t, is to t h e ir ow n
a c h ie v e d w o r ld , in and b y w h ic h th e y liv e .
S a r a 's tr a g e d y is th e w o m a n 's e v e r la s t in g tr a g e d y : sh e c r e a t e s
a h o m e , an d b y its v e r y s u c c e s s it b r e a k s up, th e c h ild r e n g o out to
c r e a t e h o m e s o f th e ir ow n . A nd th e n s h e g r o w s o ld . . . .
T he c h a r a c t e r s t r y to c o n s o le t h e m s e lv e s b y m e th o d s s u ita b le
85
to th e ir n a tu r e s:
W ilc h e r is a c h u r c h m a n and t r ie s to c o n s o le h im s e lf w ith th e r e
f le c t io n th a t a ll e a r th ly s a t is f a c t io n s a r e tr a n s ito r y . G u lley , h a r d e r
p r e s s e d , a d o p ts th e c y n ic a l, fa c e tio u s to n e of th e s o ld ie r ju s t b e fo r e
h e g o e s o v e r th e to p . . . .
But th is v u lg a r ity w a s w h a t I w a n te d fo r G u lley . He h a s to e x
p r e s s h is d e s p e r a tio n , h is r a g e a g a in s t th e w o r ld , and ju s t a s m e n
u s e bad la n g u a g e a s a s u b stitu te fo r p h y s ic a l v io le n c e , fo r k ic k in g
th e fu r n itu r e or b e a tin g th e ir w iv e s , s o G u lley h a s to b e v u lg a r and
fa c e tio u s a s an a lte r n a tiv e to cu ttin g h is th r o a t. . . .
C a ry s a id th at h e w a s a im in g at "a h ig h c o n c e n tr a tio n of c h a r a c
te r ," and he f e lt th a t h e h a d a c h ie v e d h is in te n tio n . "M y th r e e c h a r a c
t e r s did g a in s o m e t h r e e - d im e n s io n a l d ep th fr o m th e ir c o n tr a s tin g
v ie w s of t h e m s e lv e s and e a c h o th e r ." C a ry e m p h a s iz e d th a t e a c h c h a r
a c t e r 's v ie w of h im s e lf and the o th e r s , th o u g h lim ite d , is tr u e a s fa r as
it e x t e n d s .
S a r a r e g a r d s h e r s e l f a s a te n d e r h e a r te d c r e a tu r e w h o s e t r o u
b le s a r e due to h e r g o o d n a tu r e . T h is e s t im a te is tr u e . W ilc h e r
s e e s h e r a s an e a s y g o in g m i s t r e s s w h o w ill c h e r is h h im in h is d e
c r e p itu d e . He is q u ite rig h t. G u lle y c a lls h e r a m a n g r a b b e r , and
h e is a ls o r ig h t. A ll th e id e a s o f the th r e e abou t e a c h o th er a r e
r ig h t fr o m th e ir own p o in t of v ie w . . . .
T he th r e e d iffe r e n t w o r ld s w e r e a ls o d is tin c t. M y fa ilu r e w a s
in th e c o n tr a s t o f o v e r la p of t h e s e w o r ld s . T h ey w e r e n ot s u f f ic ie n t
ly in te r lo c k e d to g iv e th e r ic h n e s s and d ep th of a c tu a lity th at I had
h o p ed fo r . . .
C a r y 's id e a s of fr e e d o m and c r e a tio n , w h ic h u n d e r lie a ll h is
w o r k s and w h ic h a r e m o r e c lo s e ly in te r w o v e n in th e F ir s t T r ilo g y th an
in th e r e s t of h is fic tio n , a r e to u c h e d u p on in th is p r e fa c e : m a n ’s p r o b
le m of fr e e d o m , th e tr a g e d y th at fr e e d o m c r e a t e s , and th e e f f e c t o f th a t
tr a g e d y on th e c o n s e r v a tiv e w ho " lo v e s th in g s a s w e ll a s p e o p le , and
* F i r s t T r ilo g y ; H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d , T o B e A P ilg r im , The
H o r s e ’s M outh {N ew Y ork , 1958), p. x iv .
86
c a n n o t b e a r to lo s e th em " ; and on th e c r e a t iv e m a n - - " H is tr a g e d y is
th a t th e c o n s e r v a t iv e s fig h t h im and d e s t r o y h im ."
A ll o f C a r y 's w r it in g s a r e b a s e d on w h a t w a s fo r h im th e " p r in
c ip le fa c t of l i f e " - - t h e f r e e m in d .
F o r go o d and e v il, m a n is a f r e e c r e a t iv e s p ir it . T h is p r o d u c e s th e
v e r y q u e e r w o r ld w e liv e in, a w o r ld in c o n tin u o u s c r e a t io n and
th e r e f o r e c o n tin u o u s c h a n g e and in s e c u r it y . . . fu ll of tr a g e d y and
in j u s tic e . (W r ite r s A t W o rk , p. 55)
T h e th e m e of fr e e d o m an d c r e a tio n , w ith th e r e s u lt a n t c o n flic t and
tr a g e d y , is th e c o -o r d in a t in g th e m e of th e w h o le F i r s t T r ilo g y . W ith in
th is fr a m e w o r k , e a c h n o v e l h a s an in d iv id u a l th e m e . S a r a , tr y in g to
a c h ie v e a s ta b le and c o m fo r ta b le h o m e , c r e a t in g a n ew a s e a c h " h om e"
is d e s tr o y e d , illu s t r a t e s th e th e m e o f e v e r la s t in g w o m a n c r e a tin g th e
w o r ld o v e r an d o v e r a g a in . W ilc h e r , th e c o n s e r v a t iv e w h o w o u ld be a
p ilg r im , illu s t r a t e s th e th e m e o f th e c o n flic t b e tw e e n E n g lis h P r o t e s
ta n tis m and a u th o r ity , and h e g lim p s e s e t e r n it y th ro u g h r e lig io n . G u l
le y , w h o c r e a t e s e v e n a s h e is d e s tr o y e d , e p it o m iz e s C a r y 's b e lie f in
th e d u a lity of fr e e d o m and in j u s tic e in l if e , and s e e s e t e r n it y th ro u g h
h is c r e a t iv e im a g in a tio n . A c c o r d in g to C a r y , T he H o r s e 's M outh "is'
a b ou t th e e s t h e t ic im a g in a tio n and it s s p e c ia l d ile m m a in th e w o r ld "
(" T h e N o v e lis t A t W ork ," p. 22); it is "a stu d y of th e c r e a t iv e im a g in a
tio n w o r k in g in s y m b o ls " (W r ite r s A t W o rk , p. 6 5 ).
T he fr e e d o m to liv e and c r e a t e is illu s t r a t e d b y th e o p p o site
t y p e s of m e n , W ilc h e r and G u lle y , e a c h liv in g a c c o r d in g to h is ow n n a
tu r e . T he c o n flic t r e s u lt in g fr o m fr e e d o m is a ls o illu s t r a t e d b y t h e m - -
th e c o n s e r v a t iv e w h o w o u ld p r o t e c t th e a c h ie v e m e n t of p a s t c iv iliz a t io n ,
th e c r e a t o r w h o p e r p e tu a lly e n d a n g e r s th e o ld in c r e a tin g th e n e w .
D is c u s s in g th e tw o n o v e ls , C a ry s a id ,
87
It's a fu n d a m en ta l tr a g e d y in lif e , and you c a n 't g e t a w a y fr o m it.
We a r e c r e a t o r s , w e lo v e ou r c r e a tio n and y e t th e r e m u s t b e n o v e lty
in th e w o r ld , th e th in g s m u s t be r e n e w e d . So t h e r e 's an e v e r la s t in g
w a r . ("T he N o v e lis t A t W ork," p. 22)
T h e f i r s t n o v e l in th e tr ilo g y is H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d . H e r e , C a ry
p r e s e n t e d S a r a M on d ay as s h e s e e s h e r s e l f and a s sh e s e e s th e tw o
m e n , W ilc h e r and G u lley . She h a s s h a r e d lif e w ith both of th e m , g iv e n
th em lo v e and c o u r a g e , and c r e a te d h o m e s fo r b oth. S a r a is C a r y 's
v e r s io n of th e b a s ic w o m a n , th e e v e r la s t in g E v e , w h o li v e s on th e in
s t in c t iv e , e m o tio n a l le v e l, "the fa m ily w om an " c o n c e r n e d w ith th e e l e
m e n ta l fa c ts of lif e - r b ir t h , lo v e and d ea th , c le a n in g and c o o k in g . She is
n o t a th in k in g w o m a n . G u lley w o u ld n o t d is c u s s a r t w ith h e r , and
th ou gh W ilc h e r d is c u s s e d r e lig io n w ith h e r , he r e a liz e d th a t o ften sh e
w a s not e v e n lis t e n in g - - h e r p h y s ic a l a tte n tio n w a s on h im but h e r
th o u g h ts w e r e ru n n in g on th e ir ow n tr a c k . H o w e v e r , S a r a is a p e r c e p
tiv e w om an ; sh e is s e n s it iv e to m e n 's m o o d s and f e e lin g s if not to th e ir
a s p ir a t io n s .
A s I p o in te d out in th e f i r s t c h a p te r , C a ry u s e d , fo r a r t is t ic p u r
p o s e s , th e B la k ea n c o n c e p t of th e e a r th y in s tin c tiv e w o m a n a s th e n e c
e s s a r y c o m p le m e n t to the c r e a t iv e th in k in g m a n . The c o n c e p t w o r k s
w e ll w ith in th e fr a m e w o r k of a b ook . T h is d o e s n o t m e a n th a t C ary sa w
a ll w o m e n a s m e r e ly in s tin c t iv e and u n th in k in g. But in th e n o v e ls ,
w h en he d id p r e s e n t an in t e lle c tu a l w o m a n --A n n in T o B e A P ilg r im
and A m an d a in T he M o o n lig h t- - t h e y a r e d e p r iv e d of th e a n im a l v it a lit y
and p h y s ic a l e x u b e r a n c e th at S a r a p o s s e s s e s , and C ary c o u p le d th em
w ith m e n w h o w e r e in s tin c t iv e and u n th in k in g --R o b e r t and H a r r y --b o th
f a r m e r s and sh a r in g a s im ila r e a r th y f e r t ilit y and n o n -v e r b a l c h a r a c
te r iz a t io n . T h u s, C a ry s im p ly r e v e r s e d th e B la k ea n fo r m u la . It is
88
s u r p r is in g th a t h e n e v e r tr ie d to w o r k out a r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n a m a n
and w o m a n , b oth p o s s e s s i n g in t e llig e n c e and p h y s ic a l a t t r a c t iv e n e s s and
v ita lity . N in a, in th e S e c o n d T r ilo g y , h a s b o th ,b u t C h e ste r N im m o
th ou gh in te llig e n t is p h y s ic a lly u n a ttr a c tiv e to her, and J im L a tte r is a t
tr a c t iv e but u n in te llig e n t.
I th in k th e r e a s o n fo r C a r y 's p o r tr a y a l of th e in t e llig e n t w o m a n
a s la c k in g th e p h y s ic a l v it a lit y of th e e a r th y w o m a n is h is b e lie f th at
m o d e r n w o m e n h a v e u n d e rta k e n a jo b fa r g r e a t e r and m o r e d em a n d in g
th an an y w o m e n in th e p a s t and th a t th e job w e a r s th em out. T h ey n o t
o n ly u n d e rta k e m a r r ia g e , h o m e s , and c h ild r e n , but c a r e e r s a s w e ll; and
th e y c h o o s e a ll th is k n o w in g ly . "H er lif e , in sh o r t, h a s b e c o m e in f i
n it e ly m o r e c o m p le x th an any liv e d by w o m e n in th e p a s t. . . . F r e e d o m
is a b u rd en and r e s p o n s ib ilit y and an y d o c to r ca n t e ll y o u w h at th at
m e a n s in n e r v o u s p r e s s u r e " (" R e v o lu tio n of W om en ," p . 149).
H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d is th e s t o r y of S a r a M onday, a m id d le -a g e d
w o m a n w r itin g h e r m e m o ir s w h ile in p r is o n to s e l l th em fo r on e h u n
d r e d p o u n d s. Sh e t e l l s th e s to r y of h e r lif e fr o m th e tim e sh e w a s a
you n g g ir l, th e d a u g h ter of a s c h o o lte a c h e r and a fo r e m a n , s t r ic t ly
b ro u g h t up in th e E n g lis h ch u rch , and w a r n e d b y h e r m o th e r th at if sh e
e v e r w a n ted a h u sb an d , " Y o u 'll h a v e to do it on y o u r te m p e r and y o u r
c h a r a c te r . Y our fa c e and y o u r fig u r e w ill ta k e you no fu r th e r th an th e
w o r k h o u se " (p. 14). T he ir o n y of th e p r e d ic tio n is th a t b oth S a r a 's
v o lu p tu o u s fig u r e and c h e e r fu l c h a r a c te r g e t h e r s e v e r a l " h u sb a n d s."
A t s ix te e n , sh e w en t in to s e r v ic e a s a co o k , m a r r ie d th e tim id , fo r ty is h
so n of h e r m i s t r e s s , b o r e h im fo u r c h ild r e n , and at th e ag e of tw e n ty -
th r e e w a s th e m i s t r e s s of a s ix t e e n ro o m h o u s e w ith fiv e s e r v a n t s and
th r e e c a r r ia g e s . She liv e d h a p p ily w ith h im fo r o v e r tw e n ty y e a r s u n til
sh e m e t th e a b le b u t u n s u c c e s s f u l an d u n co n v en tio n a l p a in te r , G u lley
J im so n , w h o b e c a m e the lo v e of h e r lif e ! S o m e y e a r s la te r , a fte r h e r
h u sb a n d 's d ea th , sh e a g r e e d to m a r r y G u lley , but at th e p o in t of r e g i s
te r in g to m a r r y , G u lley to ld h e r he a lr e a d y h ad a w ife and s u g g e s te d
th a t th e y liv e to g e th e r a s m a n and w ife . T he b a s ic a ttr a c tio n b e tw e e n
th em and h is e n d le s s a r g u m e n ts w o r e S a r a dow n to an a c c e p ta n c e of the
s itu a tio n . She liv e d fiv e y e a r s w ith G u lley in b oth g r e a t jo y and u n h ap
p in e s s , and th e ir lif e to g e th e r b rok e up w h en h e le f t h e r a fte r a b itte r
q u a r r e l. D eep in d ebt, S a r a w a s a r r e s t e d fo r w r itin g bad c h e c k s and
w a s le t off on a p r o m is e to p a y . B e c a u s e of h e r r e p u ta tio n a s th e m i s
t r e s s of a p a in te r and a p a s s e r of bad c h e c k s , sh e had to a c c e p t a job as
c o o k -h o u s e k e e p e r at T o lb r o o k , w h e r e th e m a s t e r , M r. W ilc h e r , w a s
k now n a s b oth a s tin g y m a n and an e x h ib itio n is t w ho to o k a d v a n ta g e of
h is w o m e n s e r v a n t s . S a r a , e n s c o n c e d at T o lb ro o k , w a s s u r p r is e d to
fin d h e r s e l f hap p y in h e r su r r o u n d in g s and r e fu s e d , at th e tim e , to go
b a ck to G u lley . She sta y e d th ir te e n y e a r s w ith W ilc h e r at T o lb r o o k and
at h is L on d on h o u se a s h is m i s t r e s s a s w e ll a s h o u s e k e e p e r , and w a s
g o in g to m a r r y h im w h en h is r e la t iv e s , tr y in g to b r e a k up th e a r r a n g e
m e n t, c h a r g e d h e r w ith th eft and s e n t h e r off to p r is o n , w h e r e th e s to r y
e n d s.
T he th e m e s of fr e e d o m and in ju s tic e u n d e r lie H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d
a s w e ll a s th e s t o r ie s of th e tw o m en . B ut th e th e m e s a r e n ot a s e v i
d en t b e c a u s e S a r a h e r s e lf is n o t as a w a r e of th e m . She a c ts w ith o u t
k n ow in g w h y and is c o n s ta n tly " su r p r ise d " at h e r s e lf . H er lif e is a s e
r ie s of fr e e c h o ic e s , m a r r y in g M atth ew M onday, liv in g w ith G u lley ,
90
b e c o m in g W ilc h e r 's m i s t r e s s , e t c . S h e is s n e e r e d at b y M o n d a y 's r e l a
t iv e s and f r ie n d s a s b e in g a s e r v a n t w h o m a r r ie d a b o v e h e r s e l f . She is
t r e a t e d c r u e lly a n d u n ju s tly b y G u lley ; sh e is ta k e n a d v a n ta g e of fin a n
c ia lly and m o r a lly b y W ilc h e r , is th r e a te n e d an d th e n ru n out o f th e
h o u s e b y h is n ie c e , an d is e v e n tu a lly p u t in p r is o n fo r ta k in g s o m e
b r o k e n k n ic k k n a c k s fr o m W ilc h e r 's h o u s e . Sh e w o r k s h a r d a ll h e r lif e
to c r e a t e a s ta b le h o m e , and h e r w o r k f a lls to p i e c e s a r o u n d h e r o v e r
an d o v e r a g a in .
T he id e a of w o r k a s b o th th e c u r s e an d b le s s in g o f m a n a n d w o
m a n k in d , w h ic h is c o n s c io u s ly e n u n c ia te d b y G u lle y , is a ls o i n s t in c t iv e
ly im p o r ta n t to S a r a . B o th s h e and G u lle y e x p r e s s t h e m s e lv e s in w o r k .
W ilc h e r e n v ie s th e m t h e ir r o le in l i f e - - t o w o r k fo r o n e 's b r e a d . A s a
m e m b e r of th e la n d e d a r is t o c r a c y , h e ta lk s a b o u t th e v a lu e of w o r k , but
h is is th e s t e r i l e b u s y n e s s of th e p e tt ifo g g in g la w y e r a d m in is t e r in g an
e s t a t e c r e a t e d b y o th e r m e n . S a r a l i v e s to w o r k , to p u t th in g s in o r d e r ,
to b r in g ou t th e b e s t in p e o p le , fu r n itu r e , p o t s , an d p a n s . If s h e s to p s
w o r k in g , s h e c e a s e s to e x i s t . W hen s h e is f i r s t a w id o w an d h e r
d a u g h te r s a r e a p p a lle d a t h e r w is h to ru n a b o a r d in g h o u s e , sh e r e p lie s
th a t s h e " c a n 't s i t d o w n an d tw id d le a t t h ir t y - n in e , an d a l l I know is to
w o r k a b o u t a h o u s e ." S im ila r ly , s h e is r e a ll y c a p tu r e d b y G u lle y b e
c a u s e o f h is to r n c o a t. K n o w in g h is c h a r a c t e r , sh e d o e s n o t w a n t to
m a r r y h im an d h a s r e f u s e d h im s e v e r a l t i m e s , b u t h e c o m e s to s e e h e r
in a to r n c o a t, and s h e m e n d s it fo r h im b e c a u s e "the c o a t k ep t on n a g
g in g a t m e . It w a s o p e n in g it s m o u th lik e a b a b y c r y in g to be ta k e n up
and a t l a s t I c o u ld n o t b e a r it" (p. 9 1 ). T h is is a s u p e r b to u c h of p s y
c h o lo g ic a l r e a l i s m . C a r y a p p a r e n tly r e a liz e d , a s fe w m e n e v e r d o, th a t
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m o s t w o m e n sp e n d th e ir l i v e s d o in g th in g s s im p ly b e c a u s e th e y n e e d d o
in g , and th e n e c e s s i t y of ta k in g c a r e o f th in g s o fte n b e c o m e s m o r e o f an
im p e r a tiv e to a c tio n th a n o th e r p e o p le 's w is h e s .
A d o m in a tin g id e a in H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d is th a t a w o m a n lik e S a r a
a c c o m m o d a te s h e r s e l f to l i f e a s it h a p p e n s. W ilc h e r r a g e s at life ; G u l
l e y u s e s l i f e to s u it h is p u r p o se ; but S a r a a c c o m m o d a te s h e r s e l f to e a c h
u p h e a v a l and im m e d ia te ly s t a r t s to r e b u ild h e r n e s t, and if g iv e n th e
c h o ic e w ill a v o id b r e a k in g up th e n e s t . T h e r e fo r e , a fte r G u lle y le a v e s
h e r , sh e g o e s to T o lb r o o k a s c o o k -h o u s e k e e p e r and w h e n a m o n th la te r
G u lle y w r it e s fr o m L o n d on and a s k s h e r to c o m e b a c k to h im , sh e h a s a
n ew n e s t a lr e a d y w e ll s ta r te d and h a te s to b r e a k it up. She r a t io n a liz e s
h e r r e f u s a l by s a y in g th a t s h e is r e s p o n s ib le a s h o u s e k e e p e r and ca n n o t
s u d d e n ly w a lk ou t on a jo b . B ut a c o u p le o f y e a r s la t e r in L on d on w h e n
G u lle y c o m e s fo r h e r in e a r n e s t , s h e k n o w s th a t if h e a c tu a lly m a k e s
th e e ffo r t sh e w ill go b a c k to h im , s a c r if ic in g h e r c o m fo r t and e a s e .
T h e m a n is m o r e im p o r ta n t th an th e n e st; th e n e s t h a s to b e b u ilt a ro u n d
a m a n .
A n im p o r ta n t a d v a n c e in th e n o v e ls of th e F i r s t T r ilo g y o v e r
C a r y 's e a r l i e r w o r k s is th e a b ility o f th e c h a r a c t e r s to u n d e r sta n d
t h e m s e l v e s - - t o c o m e to s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n . It m a y b e e q u a le d in th e b a l
a n c e b y s e lf - d e lu s io n a s in S a r a , or n o t c o m e u n til th e m o m e n t b e fo r e
d e a th a s in W ilc h e r ; but a t s o m e one m o m e n t, e a c h in h is ow n s to r y , th e
c h a r a c t e r s do s e e t h e m s e lv e s a s th e y r e a ll y a r e . T h is p e r c e p t io n ad d s
to th e r ic h n e s s c r e a t e d b y th e t h r e e - d im e n s io n a l v ie w of e a c h c h a r a c
t e r b y th e tw o o th e r s . S a r a 's m o m e n t of s e lf - k n o w le d g e c o m e s to h e r
at T o lb r o o k . W ilc h e r 's L o n d o n s ta ff, M r. and M r s. F e lb y , h a v e c o m e
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dow n to T o lb r o o k fr o m th e L on don h o u s e , and th e y b it t e r ly c r it ic i z e
W ilc h e r 's s t in g in e s s . S a r a w o n d e r s th e n if h e r s e r v a n ts had c r it ic i z e d
h e r in th e s a m e w a y w h en a s M r s . M a tth ew M onday sh e w a s m i s t r e s s o f
W ood view .
It s e e m e d to m e th a t it w a s p r o v id e n c e H im s e lf th at h ad ta k en
m e b y th e hand and le d m e b a c k to th e k itch en . . . .
T h en it c a m e b a c k to m e about w h at p o o r J im s o n had s a id abou t
m y tr u e h o m e b e in g in a k itc h e n and th at I w a s a b o r n s e r v a n t in m y
so u l and m y h e a r t g a v e a tu r n o v e r and I f e lt th e tr u e jo y of m y lif e
a s c le a r and s tr o n g a s if th e b ig rou n d c lo c k o v e r th e c h im n e y -
m o u th w a s tic k in g in s id e m e . . . .
W e ll, I th ou gh t, if y o u tie d a kn ot of a ll th e r o a d s and r a ilw a y s
and p ip e s and w ir e s in th e w o r ld it w o u ld c o m e to a k itc h e n in th e
m id d le of it. A nd s o c lo s e and n e a t, th e r e w o u ld n 't be r o o m in it fo r
a s in g le p ie c e of u s e l e s s n o n s e n s e o r v a in fu r n itu r e . F o r th e g r e a t
b e a u ty o f m y j e w e ls w a s th a t e v e r y one of th em w a s n e e d e d and of
m y t r e a s u r e c h e s t s th a t a ll th is s ilv e r and g o ld w a s n e w -m in te d
flo u r and fr e s h -b a k e d c a k e s and m y sh in in g a r m o r w a s to k e e p d in
n e r s w a r m and m y r e g im e n ts w e r e cu t up c h ic k e n s and d u ck s and to
s t ic k th e ir b a y o n e ts in ch o p s and s te a k s fo r th e g lo r y o n ly o f c o n
q u er in g h u n g ry s to m a c h s and bad t e m p e r s , (p. 184)
A nd S a r a is q u ite r ig h t, th e sto m a c h is th e c e n te r of m a n , and th e
k itc h e n is th e c e n te r of th e w o r ld .
T he c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n of S a r a is p a r t ia lly a stu d y in ir o n y . A p
p a r e n tly , S a r a 's w h o le e ffo r t in w r itin g h e r m e m o ir s is an a tte m p t to
le a r n h e r ow n tr u e s e lf; sh e is s u r p r is e d th at th e w o r ld r e g a r d s h e r a s
a c r im in a l and im m o r a l w o m a n , and w h en sh e r e m e m b e r s h e r p a s t e x
p e r ie n c e s sh e is c o n tin u a lly " s u r p r is e d " at h e r s e lf . T he ir o n y is th at
sh e b oth s e e s h e r s e lf r e a li s t i c a lly and, at th e s a m e tim e , f a ils to u n d e r
sta n d h e r s e lf . D u rin g h e r h o n ey m o o n in P a r is a s a y o u n g g ir l, sh e sa w
h e r s e lf a s "fat and c o m m o n ” fo r th e f i r s t tim e . A m id d le -a g e d w o m a n
in p r is o n , sh e ca n s e e h ow sh e to r tu r e d h e r f i r s t h u sb an d w ith h e r
r e c k le s s an d flig h ty w a y s , and y e t ca n c o n s id e r h e r s e lf a lo v in g w ife
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w ho b o r e h im fo u r ch ild ren , by th e tim e sh e w a s tw e n ty -th r e e . It is tr u e
th a t sh e m a d e h e r tim id , in s e c u r e h u sb a n d h ap p y and g a v e h im c o n fi
d e n c e in h im s e lf , but S a r a f e ll in lo v e m o r e w ith b e in g m a r r ie d th an
w ith h e r h u sb a n d .
S a r a 's s e lf - d e lu s io n is in h e r v ie w of h e r s e lf a s a r e lig io u s w o
m a n . She d o e s fo llo w the ou tw a rd f o r m s , but h e r e a r th y n a tu re is fa r
s tr o n g e r th an an y r e lig io u s c o d e . She f la t t e r s M a tt's fr ie n d , H ic k so n
th e m illio n a ir e , th in k in g sh e is d o in g it to h e lp M att, and w h en H ic k so n ,
a lo n e w ith h e r , g o e s to o fa r , sh e c o m fo r ta b ly r a t io n a liz e s , "W hat h a rm
if h e e n jo y s it, p o o r lit t le m a n ." S a r a 's r e lig io n is a p r a c tic a l, o v e r -
th e - c o u n te r ty p e. If sh e b e h a v e s w e ll, sh e w ill be happy; if sh e s te p s
out of lin e , sh e w ill be p u n ish e d . T h u s, w h en h e r o n ly so n d ie s , sh e
f e e l s sh e is b e in g p u n ish e d fo r h a v in g m a r r ie d a b o v e h e r s e lf : "My
m a r r ia g e w a s fa r b ey o n d m y d u e, s o out of m y m a r r ia g e c o m e s m y
p u n ish m e n t and d e s tr u c tio n " (p. 33).
S a r a , lik e m a n y w o m e n , w a s n o t p a r tic u la r ly a ttr a c te d at f ir s t
to th e m e n w ho b e c a m e c e n tr a l in h e r lif e . M atth ew M onday w a s in h is
f o r t ie s and h ad a lo n g n e c k and b u lg y e y e s and w a s b ald . G u lley J im -
so n , w h e n sh e m e t h im , w a s a ls o in h is f o r t ie s , and w a s lit t le , u g ly and
b a ld , and h ad a to o th m is s in g . S a r a , in p r is o n , u s e s r e lig io s it y to r a
t io n a liz e h e r lo v e fo r G u lley , "the tu r n in g p o in t in m y d o w n fa ll, and I
d a r e s a y it, th e in s tr u m e n t of p r o v id e n c e , to p u n ish m y p r o s p e r it y and
fo r g e tfu ln e s s " {p. 4 1 ). G u lley liv e d in M a tt's h o u se w h ile w o r k in g on a
w a ll fo r the T ow n H a ll. D u rin g th e m o n th s h e w a s th e r e h e w a s an a n
n o y a n ce to M atth ew and S a r a , but w h en h e m o v e d out a fte r p a in tin g an
u g ly p o r tr a it of M atth ew , S a ra fou nd h e r s e lf i r r e s is t ib ly d raw n to h im
94
and v is it e d h im and h is w ife , N in a , e v e r y d a y . She h ad b e c o m e a c
c u s to m e d to p o s in g a han d, a r m , o r fo o t fo r G u lle y , and b it by b it b e
c a m e p e r s u a d e d to p o s e fo r h im h a lf - s t r ip p e d . M atth ew w a s a n g r y at
h e r f lir t a t io n and th r e a te n e d d iv o r c e , th e n b la m e d h im s e lf fo r h e r
s tr a y in g , to o k h e r o ff to P a r i s , and r e v e r t e d to h is t im id it y and u n c e r
ta in ty o f e a r li e r d a y s . H is fo r tu n e w a s d e s tr o y e d in th e w a r , and d u rin g
h is la s t y e a r s h e w a s a q u a r r e ls o m e and d if fic u lt o ld m a n . S a r a w a s
b u sy a c tin g a s h is n u r s e and a s m e d ia t o r b e tw e e n h im an d th e ir d a u g h
t e r s , tr y in g to k e e p h im h a p p y and g e t th e g ir ls m a r r ie d o ff and s e t t le d
in lif e .
C a r y 's p o r tr a it of S a r a is a m a s t e r p ie c e of fe m in in e p s y c h o lo g y .
W hen G u lle y p r o p o s e s , sh e s e n d s h im p a c k in g ,, th ou gh s h e ca n n o t r e s i s t
m e n d in g h is c o a t. Sh e lo o k s fo r w a r d to ru n n in g a s e a s id e h o te l w ith h e r
o ld fr ie n d R o z z ie , w h o m a d e one " en jo y b e in g a liv e ." B ut R o z z ie
p r o v e s u n a b le to m a k e up h e r m in d ab ou t su c h a s e r io u s u n d e r ta k in g ,
an d S a r a , le f t a t a l o s s w ith n o th in g to do, w is h e s sh e h a d n o t s e t G u lley
dow n s o h a r d . E v e n w h ile sh e w a s h a v in g m o r e fu n w ith R o z z ie th an
sh e h ad e v e r kn ow n in h e r l if e , sh e h a d a f e e lin g lik e a h ic c u p th a t
w o u ld n 't c o m e up. W hen G u lle y r e a p p e a r e d , " T h en I k n ew w h a t th e
h ic c u p w a s ly in g on m y c h e s t" (p. 1 0 5 ). O nly th e n d o e s sh e r e a li z e th e
s tr e n g th of th e a ttr a c tio n G u lle y h a s fo r h e r . A fte r sh e d o e s " m a rry "
h im s h e f e e l s h e r s e l f "the lu c k ie s t w o m a n to h a v e su c h g a ie t ie s and a
n ew lo v in g h u sb a n d , at m y a g e" (p. 1 1 8 ).
T h e la c k of c o m p r e h e n s io n and u n d e r sta n d in g o f G u lle y 's w o r k
th a t c a u s e s th e r ift b e tw e e n th em e x i s t s fr o m th e b e g in n in g . S a r a a s k s
G u lle y if h e w a n ts to b e a s u c c e s s o r o n ly to a m u se h im s e lf . He
r e p lie s th a t h e w a n ts o n ly to p le a s e h im s e lf . S a r a th en s e r m o n iz e s th a t
"if t h e r e 's on e th in g s u r e in th is u n c e r ta in l if e , it is th a t no on e ca n a f
fo r d to p le a s e h im s e lf . . . an a r t is t liv e s o n ly by g iv in g p le a s u r e " (p.
106). W hen sh e and G u lle y q u a r r e l, h e c o m p la in s th a t sh e w a n ts to tu rn
h im in to a m o n e y m a k e r , and h e h its h e r on th e n o s e . S a r a d e lu d e s h e r
s e l f b y s a y in g th a t sh e n e v e r in t e r f e r e d w ith G u lle y , bu t sh e s e e s c le a r ly
th a t G u lle y h im s e lf w a n te d an e x h ib itio n . "H e h im s e lf w a n ted to be
know n an d to m a k e m o n e y , fo r h e a d m itte d th a t v e r y th in g a t W o o d v iew
w h en h e s a id h e w a n te d to be in th e A c a d e m y " (p. 1 3 4 ). S a r a g o e s o ff b y
h e r s e lf but w h e n a lo n e fin d s sh e ca n n o t d e c id e w h a t to do, w h e th e r to
liv e w ith R o z z ie o r tr y to m a k e a h o m e w ith one of h e r d a u g h te r s . She
k e e p s th in k in g o f th e p le a s u r e of c o o k in g fo r G u lley , w h o a p p r e c ia te d an
a r t is t in a n o th e r m e d iu m , and a t th e s a m e tim e r a g e s at G u lle y 's c r u e l
ty and s p ite . Y et sh e k n o w s sh e w ill go b a c k to h im and s im p ly w a its
fo r h im to a s k h e r . She c r i e s a ll th e w a y b a c k to h im , f e e lin g th a t sh e
is le a v in g h e r y o u th b e h in d h e r , an d th en , fo r th e f i r s t tim e in h e r lif e ,
sh e s e e s h e r s e l f a s sh e r e a ll y is : "God k n o w s, I th o u g h t, y o u 'r e a
flo a tin g k in d of w o m an ; th e tid e ta k e s y o u up and dow n lik e an o ld can"
(p. 139).
A fte r th e ir fin a l fig h t w h e n h e b e a ts h e r up b a d ly , S a r a r a g e s
fo r tw o d a y s at h im ; th e n h e r in s t in c t fo r l i f e and s e lf - p r e s e r v a t io n
c o m e s to th e f o r e and sh e th in k s, "I m u stn 't go on in th is r a g e or I
s h a ll do m y s e lf an in ju r y and p e r h a p s tu r n m y h a ir g r e y and h a v e a
s tr o k e fr o m th e p r e s s u r e o f m y b lo o d " (p. 1 6 3 ). T he en d of h e r lif e
w ith G u lle y and th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e h o m e sh e h a s b u ilt is s y m b o liz e d
b y a fin e p ie c e o f v e a l sh e h ad b o u g h t w h ic h h a s gon e r o tte n an d w h ic h
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s h e th r o w s out: " W a ste and n o th in g b u t w a s t e . I th ough t: 'I h a v e w a s te d
f iv e of m y b e s t y e a r s , and I h o p e I 'll n e v e r s e e h im a g a in " ' (p. 164).
A t T o lb r o o k , S a r a a g a in r a t io n a liz e s th a t th is is h e r p e n a n c e fo r
h a v in g liv e d w ith G u lle y . B ut h e r p e n a n c e is m ix e d w ith e a r th y v a n ity .
'If it is bad , p e r h a p s it is m e a n t fo r m e . A nd b ad a s it m a y b e,
it w o n 't k ill m e .' F o r th a n k God, I h ad m y h e a lth and m y s tr e n g th ,
a ll m y te e th , w h ic h , th o u g h I s a y it, w e r e th e w o n d er of e v e r y d e n tis t
th a t e v e r sa w th e m . . . . N o one w o u ld h a v e ta k e n m e fo r f o r t y - s i x ,
n o r y e t t h i r t y - s i x . (p. 167)
She s e t t l e s in to T o lb r o o k , and h e r n u r tu r in g in s tin c t r e a p p e a r s ,
p r o m p te d b y W ilc h e r , w h o h a s a bad r e p u ta tio n w ith th e s e r v a n t s and
you n g g ir ls , and w h o a ls o s u f f e r s t e r r ib ly fr o m b o ils . W ilc h e r a g a in is
u n a ttr a c tiv e , a lit t le m a n , b a ld , w ith a " lon g b lu e u p p er lip ." In c o n tr a s t
to th o s e w h o c r it ic i z e d W ilc h e r fo r b e in g a h y p o c r ite to m a k e s o m u c h
of c h u r c h an d th en ru n a fte r y o u n g g ir ls , S a r a th in k s of h is b o ils and h is
h o t b lo o d and f ig u r e s th a t "he c o u ld n o t h e lp it and ou gh t to b e p itie d , or,
if m a d , lo c k e d up, or m a r r ie d " {p. 174).
C a r y 's d ic tu m w a s th a t a c h a r a c t e r m u s t b e c o n s is t e n t , and
S a r a 's c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n is c o n s is t e n t in h e r v e r y in c o n s is t e n c ie s ; it is
c o n s is t e n t w ith in th e lim it s of th e b o o k and w ith l i f e . In L on d on , w h e n
G u lle y a s k s h e r to c o m e b a c k to h im , s h e p r e f e r s to s ta y in c o m fo r t
w ith W ilc h e r ; y e t sh e a d m its , lo o k in g b a c k w a r d y e a r s la t e r , th a t G u lle y
w a s "the m o s t of a m a n th a t I e v e r k n ew ," and sh e p a id h im on e p ou n d a
w e e k , "but w h e th e r to k e e p h im in s o m e c o m fo r t and p le a s e m y c o n
s c ie n c e , or o n ly to k e e p h im a w a y and p le a s e m y f le s h , I n e v e r c o u ld
t e ll" (p. 2 0 8 ). S a r a a t t im e s r e a l i z e s h e r ow n in c o n s is t e n c ie s . Sh e is
l e s s c le a r - s ig h t e d in r e g a r d to W ilc h e r th a n sh e is a b ou t G u lle y . W hen
W ilc h e r s a y s th a t h e is a t h e r m e r c y and ta lk s h e r in to a s s u m in g
97
h o u se k e e p e r d u tie s at both T o lb ro o k and C ra v en G ard ens fo r l e s s
m o n ey th an he had p a id a h o u se k e e p e r to m a n a g e one h o u se b e fo r e , sh e
d o e s n ot f e e l th at h e h a s ta k en a d van tage of h e r . "If I had b e e n done it
w a s m y ow n fa u lt fo r g iv in g w a y to h im ." S im ila r ly , w h en he m a k e s a
p r o p o s itio n and sh e th in k s he is p r o p o sin g m a r r ia g e , r e a liz in g la te r
th at sh e w a s m ista k e n , sh e is a fr a id th at if sh e t e lls h im it w a s a m i s
ta k e, he w ill f e e l fo o lis h . S a r a r e m e m b e r s that sh e w a s to r n b e tw e en
h e r c o n s c ie n c e and h e r duty and th a t sh e p r a y e d a ll n ig h t "yet a ll the
tim e , I kn ew I w o u ld g iv e w a y . F o r I lik e d m y h a p p in ess in C ra v en
G ard en s and m y c o m fo r ts and m y d ea r M r. W. h im s e lf fa r to o w e ll to
do an yth in g to lo s e th em , or do th em any in ju ry" (p. 214).
S a r a 's in s tin c ts and h e r s e n s e c o n flic t in r e g a r d to W ilch er.
W h ile he bu ys h e r a n ew h o u se and is b u sy p u ttin g it in o r d e r , and a fte r
sh e h a s gon e to th e m a r r ia g e r e g is t r y w ith h im , sh e s t ill sp en d s e v e r y
W ed n esd ay at G u lle y 's , c le a n in g and str a ig h te n in g h is p la c e up and ta k
ing c a r e of h is so n T o m m y . She lo v e d h er W ed n esd a y s at G u lle y 's, y e t
at the tim e to ld h e r s e lf th at "M r. W. w a s w o r th th r e e G u lley s, a b e tte r
and a d e e p e r m an , and a m o r e tr ie d . I kn ew m y s e lf h o n o red by h im and
I m ea n t to m a k e h im a good w ife" (p. 2 68).
W hen W ilc h e r 's r e la t iv e s b r e a k in and go th ro u g h S a r a 's th in g s
and c h a r g e h e r w ith th eft, S a r a p a s s iv e ly a c c e p ts th e c h a r g e . She r a
tio n a liz e s it in th e s a m e w a y that sh e had r a tio n a liz e d h e r s o n 's d eath ,
by a c c e p tin g it as ju st p u n ish m e n t fo r lo o k in g a b ove h e r sta tio n . "I w a s
n ot e v e n a fr a id or unhappy. I w a s o n ly s u r p r is e d at m y s e lf and m y
d e v a sta tio n s" (p. 2 7 2 ). But a s h e r in s tin c t fo r life had c a r r ie d h e r
th rou gh a ll p r e v io u s d e b a c le s , the en d is a g a in S a r a 's b eg in n in g a s sh e
98
r e a s o n s th a t a g o o d c o o k w ill a lw a y s fin d w o r k " e v e n w ith o u t a c h a r a c
te r , and c a n g e t a n ew c h a r a c t e r in tw e lv e m o n t h s ,1 1 and s h e r e s o l v e s to
k eep a w a tc h on h e r s e l f now th a t sh e k n o w s h e r s e l f b e tte r .
T h u s, C a ry p o r tr a y e d an e le m e n t a l w o m a n , "the e v e r la s t in g
E v e ," w h o s w im s w ith th e tid e of lif e , w h o c r e a t e s l if e , and w h o in
s t in c t iv e ly s t a r t s c r e a tin g a n ew w ith e a c h o p p o rtu n ity . She is n e v e r d e
s tr o y e d b e c a u s e lif e is s tr o n g w ith in h e r , but sh e n e v e r r e a lly " u n d e r
sta n d s" h e r s e l f in th e c o n s c io u s s e n s e b e y o n d r e a liz in g th a t " flo a tin g "
or a c c o m m o d a tin g h e r s e l f to l i f e is h e r tr u e n a tu r e . She is m o tiv a te d
in a ll h e r a c tio n s b y th a t f o r c e o f lif e w ith in h e r , an d sh e c r e a t e s b e
c a u s e of th a t s tr o n g s u r g e of l i f e . T he s tr o n g c r e a t e , th e w e a k liv e on
o th e r 's c r e a tio n s a s W ilc h e r l i v e s on S a r a 's v it a lit y .
T he p lo t of H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d is a s tr a ig h tfo r w a r d n a r r a t iv e in
th e f i r s t p e r s o n , p u r p o r te d ly a m e m o ir w r itte n in p r is o n to s e l l to a
n e w s a g e n c y f o r one h u n d red p o u n d s w h ic h w ill p a y fo r T o m m y 's s c h o o l
b i l l s . T h u s, C a r y p r o v id e d S a r a w ith a m o t iv e fo r w r itin g c o n s is t e n t
w ith h e r c h a r a c t e r . O b v io u sly , b y n a tu r e s h e is n o t a w r itin g w o m a n .
H er n a tu r a l a c t iv it ie s a r e d o m e s t ic , and o n ly w h en d e p r iv e d o f th e s e
w o u ld sh e tu rn to w r itin g , and th e n o n ly fo r a p r a c t ic a l p u r p o s e .
T h e s t o r y fo llo w s a s im p le c h r o n o lo g ic a l p a tte r n fr o m th e tim e
of h e r f i r s t job , th ro u g h h e r f i r s t m a r r ia g e , fiv e y e a r s w ith G u lle y , an d
t h ir t e e n y e a r s w ith W ilc h e r to th e e ig h te e n m o n th s in p r is o n d u rin g
w h ic h sh e is s u p p o s e d ly w r itin g . If an y o f C a r y 's n o v e ls d e s e r v e s th e
terra " p ic a r e s q u e ," a la b e l w h ic h h a s b e e n a p p lie d in d is c r im in a t e ly to
h is w o r k s , it is H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d . It is s t r i c t l y c o n c e r n e d w ith th e
e v e n ts in S a r a 's lif e an d d o e s n o t s e e k to c o m p a r e p a s t and p r e s e n t o r
99
in v e s tig a te th e m a in s p r in g s of lif e a s d o e s T o B e A P i l g r i m . S a r a h a s
lif e and th e r e fo r e d o e s n ot n e e d to in v e s tig a te it. N e ith e r is th e s to r y a
stu d y of a e s t h e t ic s and the im a g in a tiv e p r o c e s s a s is T he H o r s e 's
M outh. Such a b s tr a c tio n s do n o t c o n c e r n one w ho liv e s at an e le m e n ta l
le v e l. S a r a 's c h a r a c te r d o e s n ot c h a n g e . It w o u ld be in c o n s is te n t w ith
h e r e le m e n ta l c h a r a c te r fo r h e r to ch a n g e o r d e v e lo p fr o m h e r o r ig in a l
s ta te as a you n g g ir l. S a ra li v e s and c r e a t e s but sh e d o e s n ot le a r n .
T h e re a r e no su b p lo ts in H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d lik e th e A n n -R o b e r t
s to r y in T o B e A P i lg r im , no v a r ia tio n s to th e m a in p lo t lin e lik e th e
s to r y of A b e l, th e s c u lp to r , and L o lie in T he H o r s e 's M o u th . E v e r y
th in g in th e b ook c o n tr ib u te s d ir e c t ly to th e m a in s t o r y - lin e , s t r ic t ly
a c c o r d in g to C a r y 's sta n d a rd th a t e v e r y th in g not r e la tin g d ir e c t ly to the
th e m e sh o u ld be e lim in a te d . E v en th e c h a r a c t e r s of B la n ch e L o ftu s and
h e r s i s t e r C la r y a ffe c t S a r a 's lif e d ir e c t ly . It is B la n c h e w ho w a r n s
S a r a not to in t e r fe r e in W ilc h e r 's a f f a ir s , w ho c h a r g e s S a r a w ith r o b
bery, and w h o m a k e s c e r ta in th a t sh e g o e s to p r is o n .
In th e p r e fa c e C a ry w r o te th a t e a c h o f h is c h a r a c t e r s had to
w r ite in th e f i r s t p e r s o n and r e v e a l h is own w o r ld in h is ow n " d is tin c
tiv e " s t y le . C a ry a c h ie v e d th is g o a l w ith a m a z in g s u c c e s s in a ll th r e e
n o v e ls . E a ch s ty le is in d e lib ly m a r k e d b y th e p e r s o n a lit y of th e c h a r a c
te r w r itin g it, and th e c h a r a c te r is c r e a te d fo r th e r e a d e r a s m u c h by
th e s ty le a s by th e e v e n ts r e la te d . S in c e S a r a is th e " fa m ily " w o m a n in
th e w o m a n 's w o r ld , h e r s ty le n e c e s s a r ily r e f le c t s h e r lif e . A n in d iv id u
a l's th ought p a tte r n s and im a g e r y a r e n e c e s s a r i l y in flu e n c e d b y h is
p e r s o n a lity , e n v ir o n m e n t,a n d w a y of lif e ; t h e r e fo r e , it is p e r f e c t ly c o n
s is t e n t w ith th e c h a r a c te r th a t S a r a 's s t y le sh o u ld be s im p le , h e r
1 0 0
s e n te n c e s tr u c tu r e d ir e c t , u n le s s sh e is q u o tin g fo lk s a y in g s or s e r
m o n iz in g , and h e r im a g e r y th a t o f th e k itc h e n , w h e r e h e r lif e is c e n
t e r e d . T he s t y le r e n d e r s th e c h a r a c t e r an d th r o u g h it S a r a b e c o m e s
c o m p le t e ly a liv e and b e lie v a b le to th e r e a d e r .
T he c h a n g e s in s t y le w h ic h r e p r e s e n t th e d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n
h e r e le m e n t a l lif e o f p h y s ic a l o b je c ts and h e r r a tio n a liz a t io n s a ls o in
c r e a s e th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f th e c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n . T he p o m p o u s s e r m o n
iz in g sty le , s u c h a s h e r d e s c r ip t io n of h e r m e e tin g w ith G u lle y , "who w a s
th e tu r n in g p o in t in m y d o w n fa ll, and . . . 'th e in s tr u m e n t o f p r o v id e n c e ,
to p u n ish m y p r o s p e r it y and f o r g e t f u ln e s s ," d o e s n o t r e f le c t h e r b a s ic
n a tu r e and w o u ld be c o m p le t e ly ou t o f p la c e in a d e s c r ip t io n of th in g s
sh e k n o w s and w o r k s w ith . S im ila r ly , th e v o c a b u la r y w ith w h ic h sh e
e v a lu a te s h e r k itc h e n or d e s c r ib e s a sk y (lik e " w a sh ed o u t Jap silk " )
w o u ld be in s u f fic ie n t, b o th in h e r ow n m in d and in th e a r t if ic ia l f r a m e
w o r k of a b ook , to in t e r p r e t p e r s o n s o r id e a s . T he s u p r e m e e x a m p le s
of S a r a 's s t y le a r e in h e r d e s c r ip t io n s o f T o lb r o o k , w h ic h sh e s e e s w ith
a c o u n tr y g ir l's e y e b oth fo r b e a u ty and p r a c t ic a lit y , and w h ic h sh e d e
s c r ib e s in th e e a r th y t e r m s w h ic h a r e r e a l fo r h e r . She lo v e s th e c o w s
g r a z in g "as r e d a s p o r t," th e b a n k s u n d er th e t r e e s " so f r e s h g r e e n as
a n g e lic a , r ig h t in to J u n e," th e e lm s " r ic h lik e c u c u m b e r s h a lf w ay
th ro u g h A u g u st," th e f is h p on d "w hen it w a s c o v e r e d w ith th e r a in lik e
s e q u in s or c r in k le d up w ith w in d lik e a w a te r e d s ilk ." S a r a h a s th e in
s t in c t iv e f e e l fo r th e tr u e and s o lid in th in g s . P o lis h in g th e fin e o ld
fu r n itu r e at T o lb r o o k g a v e h e r p le a s u r e ; " fu rn itu r e lik e th a t h ad a r ig h t
to b e p r o p e r ly lo o k e d a fte r ." B ut th e e p ito m e of S a r a and o f S a r a 's
s t y le is th e d e s c r ip t io n of h e r k itc h e n and h e r h a p p in e s s in it:
1 0 1
So h e r e I a m . . . m i s t r e s s of m y ow n w o r ld in m y ow n k itc h e n ,
and I lo o k e d a t th e sh in in g s t e e l o f th e r a n g e and th e c h in a on th e
d r e s s e r g lit t e r in g lik e j e w e ls , and th e d is h c o v e r s , h a n g in g in th e ir
row fr o m th e b ig v e n is o n one on th e le f t to th e lit t le ch op one on th e
r ig h t, a s b e a u tifu l a s a ro w o f c a le n d a r m o o n s , and th e k itc h e n ta b le
sc r u b b e d a s w h ite a s b e e f fa t an d th e c o p p e r on th e d a r k w a ll th r o w
in g out a g lo w to w a r m th e h e a r t, and th e b lu e d e lf b o w ls lik e p o ts of
p r e c io u s b a lm . A nd th e n b ey o n d w h e r e th e la r d e r d o o r s to o d a ja r
y o u c o u ld s e e b o t tle s o f o il an d r e l i s h and a n c h o v ie s and p ic k le s and
u n d e r n e a th th e lid o f th e b ig f lo u r - b in a s w h ite a s its ow n lo v e ly
flo u r , I c a ll it a t r e a t fo r q u e e n s to s in k y o u r h an d s in n ew w h e a te n
flo u r . . . . I c o u ld n o t s e e its g la s s - f r o n t e d cu p b o a rd s a s fin e a s th e
B r it is h M u seu m , o r its c h in a and g la s s in th ic k h e a p s lik e th e t r e a s
u r e s o f A la d d in . I c o u ld n ot s e e th e m , but I f e lt th e m lik e k in g d o m s
in m y c h a r g e . A nd, in d e e d , I f e lt b its of m y s e lf ru n n in g out fr o m th e
g ra n d k itc h e n in to p a n tr y and s c u lle r y and la r d e r and b e y o n d in to th e
p a s s a g e and th e s t i l l - r o o m an d e v e n to th e w o o d c e lla r and th e b o o t-
h o le a s if I w a s r e a ll y a k in g o r q u ee n w h o s e f l e s h is b ro u g h t up to
b e th e fa th e r of a ll h is c o u n t r ie s , and n o t to f o r g e t th e lit t le b y e
la n d s e v e n w h e n th e y a r e on th e d a r k s id e of th e su n . Y ou w o u ld s a y
I w a s p u ttin g ou t in b u ds lik e a s h a llo t w ith m y b ig k itc h e n h e a r t in
th e m id d le and m y l i t t l e h e a r t s a ll ro u n d in th e e m p ir e o f th o s e go o d
fa ith fu l o f f ic e s , a ll fit te d up a s th e y w e r e , e v e n th e c u p b o a r d s, in th e
b e s t o f c o u n tr y m a t e r ia ls . . . .
So I lo o k e d ro u n d m e th a t n ig h t and m a n y m o r e a fte r w a r d s in th e
T o lb r o o k k itc h e n , and p r a y e d : 'L e t m e o n ly liv e c o o k in th is d e a r
p la c e and n o t d ie to o o ld fo r th e w o r k , and I 'll n e v e r w a n t a n o th e r
h e a v e n .' (p. 183)
H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d is one of C a r y 's m o s t s u c c e s s f u l a c h ie v e
m e n t s , and h is ow n id e a s o f u n ity and fo r m c o n tr ib u te to its s u c c e s s .
T he e m o tio n a l c o n tin u ity is a c h ie v e d by th e s h e e r a t t r a c t iv e n e s s of S a r a
a s a c h a r a c t e r . E v e r y th in g sh e d o e s or th in k s is s o m u ch of a p i e c e - -
e a r th y , e le m e n t a l, and n u r t u r in g -- th a t th e r e a d e r 's fo r m a l c o n c e p ts of
p r o p r ie t y an d m o r a lit y a r e s u b m e r g e d in sy m p a th y fo r h e r . A w a r m th
r a d ia te s fr o m th e b o o k th a t o v e r c o m e s a n y c o o l ju d g m e n t, and th is
e m o tio n a l a c c e p ta n c e is w h a t C a r y s tr o v e fo r . E v e r y th in g in th e b ook ,
th e c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n , p lo t, and s t y le c o n tr ib u te d ir e c t ly to th e e f f e c t ,
and, t h e r e f o r e , in a ll r e s p e c t s th e fo r m is th e e m b o d im e n t o f th e b ook .
In a n o b je c tiv e s e n s e , C a r y a c h ie v e d s o m e th in g v e r y r a r e - - t h e
1 0 2
c r e a t io n b y a m a n o f a fe m in in e c h a r a c t e r th a t is b e lie v a b le to w o m e n .
He k n ew th e b a s ic p h y s ic a l d if f e r e n c e s th a t a lw a y s s e p a r a t e c o m p le te
u n d e r sta n d in g o f m e n and w o m e n , and th o s e d if f e r e n c e s a r e p a r t o f th e
p e r p e tu a l is o la t io n o f a ll h u m a n b e in g s : "W e ca n s y m p a th iz e w ith e a c h
o th e r . . , b u t w e c a n n e v e r c o m p le te ly u n d e r sta n d e a c h o th e r . W e a r e
n o t o n ly d iffe r e n t in c h a r a c t e r and m in d , w e d o n 't know how fa r th e d if
f e r e n c e g o e s " ( P r e f a c e , p . x ii) . B ut out of c r e a t iv e sy m p a th y C a r y
a c h ie v e d a w o r k of a r t th a t a lm o s t r e a c h e s c o m p le te u n d e r sta n d in g .
T o B e A P ilg r im is a fa r d iffe r e n t b o o k fr o m H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d .
T h o m a s W ilc h e r , a la n d e d g e n tle m a n and a la w y e r , w r it e s h is m e m o ir s
a t th e a g e o f s e v e n t y a t h is h o m e , T o lb r o o k , w h e r e h e is in th e c u s to d ia l
c a r e of h is n ie c e , A nn, a .q u a lifie d d o c to r , an d h e r h u sb a n d , R o b e r t,
W ilc h e r 's n ep h ew . A s W ilc h e r w a n d e r s th ro u g h th e o ld h o u se w h e r e he
g r e w up, th e v o ic e s o f h is b r o th e r s E d w a rd an d B ill, and h is s i s t e r L u c y
s p e a k to h im , and h e s lip s b a c k in tim e to th e s c e n e s o f h is ch ild h o o d .
H e b e g in s to q u e s tio n h is ow n lif e and to c o n te m p la te th e s p r in g s of
l i f e - - t h e fa ith w h ic h m a k e s s o m e p e o p le liv e p u r p o s e fu lly and th e la c k
of w h ic h c a u s e s o th e r s to f a il. H is s i s t e r L u c y , lik e S a r a , h ad th a t
fa ith and w a s a p ilg r im in l i f e . W ilc h e r r e a l i z e s th a t h e h a s b e e n a
fa ilu r e ; h e h a s b e e n w e d d e d to p o s s e s s i o n s , n o t to th e s p ir it . In h is e f
f o r t to d is c o v e r w h y s o m e liv e s u c c e s s f u lly an d s o m e do n o t, h e t r a c e s
L u c y 's lif e w ith h e r e v a n g e lis t h u sb a n d B ro w n , and t h e ir s o n R o b ert;
E d w a r d 's b r illia n t s u c c e s s a s a s t a t e s m a n an d la t e r f a ilu r e , h is d a u g h
te r Ann; B i ll's lif e a s a s o ld ie r , h is w ife A m y , and t h e ir so n John; W il
c h e r 's fa th e r and m o th e r , and E d w a r d 's m i s t r e s s , J u lie E e l e s , w h o
la t e r b e c a m e h is ow n m i s t r e s s . I n t e r s p e r s e d w ith h is m e m o r ie s a r e
103
r e c o lle c t io n s of h is lif e w ith S a ra J im s o n , w h o h ad b e e n h is h o u s e k e e p e r
and m i s t r e s s , and w h o is now in p r is o n on a c h a r g e o f ro b b in g h im .
One of h is r e a s o n s fo r w r itin g h is m e m o ir s is to k e e p h im s e lf sa n e
w h ile w a itin g fo r S a r a to be fr e e d s o th at he ca n m a r r y h e r . L in k ed
w ith h is m e m o r ie s o f the p a s t is th e a c tio n of th e p r e s e n t , in w h ic h A nn
and R o b ert b e c o m e lo v e r s , th en m a r r y and h a v e c h ild r e n . T he c o u n te r
p o in t of th e p a s t and p r e s e n t e n a b le s W ilc h e r to c o m p a r e p a s t and p r e s
en t sta n d a rd s and c o d e s of lif e fo r m e n , w o m e n , and c h ild r e n .
On th e s a m e day th a t A nn and R o b e r t's so n Jan is b o rn , R o b ert
sh o w s W ilc h e r a f ie ld h e h a s p lo w e d . W ilc h e r 's lif e - lo n g , b e lo v e d o ld
la n d m a r k s h a v e b e e n e r a d ic a te d , and h e s u ffe r s a h e a r t a tta c k a s a r e
s u lt of th e l o s s . B la n c h e , W ilc h e r 's n ie c e by m a r r ia g e , t r ie s to r e m o v e
h im fr o m A n n 's c a r e , s a y in g th at A nn and R o b e r t w ill h a v e h im sh u t up;
but w h en W ilc h e r s a y s th a t if h e is sh u t up h e w o n 't be a b le to m a r r y
S a r a , B la n ch e c h o o s e s th e l e s s e r of tw o e v ils , and W ilc h e r r e a li z e s he
is c o m p le te ly in th e h an d s of th e tw o you n g c o u s in s . A s h is m e m o r ie s
b r in g h im c lo s e r and c lo s e r to th e p r e s e n t , he fin d s th em no lo n g e r a
r e fu g e fr o m th e p r e s e n t , and h e ru n s a w a y fr o m T o lb r o o k to L ondon to
fin d S a r a and m a r r y h e r . S a r a , liv in g w ith a w id o w e r y o u n g er th an s h e ,
s u r p r is in g ly p u ts h im off, and w h en h e f a lls a s le e p in h e r p a r lo r he
w a k e s to fin d A nn and R o b ert th e r e . He r e tu r n s w ith th em to T o lb r o o k
and to an a c c e p ta n c e of th e c h a n g e s th a t lif e b r in g s and th e v a lu e s th a t
n ew lif e g iv e s e v e n w h en d e s tr o y in g th e o ld . T hus h e c a n s it c o n te n te d
ly in th e b e a u tifu l A d am s a lo o n in T o lb r o o k and w a tc h th e g ia n t t h r e s h
ing m a c h in e th a t R o b e r t h a s b ro u g h t in s id e . T he m a c h in e s h a k e s th e
h o u se to its fo u n d a tio n s, th e b e a u ty and g r a c e of th e r o o m a r e c o v e r e d
104
b e n e a th d u st and ch a ff, b u t lif e flo w s th r o u g h th e h o u se and c a r r ie s
W ilc h e r w ith it.
O b v io u sly , T o B e A P ilg r im is an e x t r e m e ly c o m p le x b o o k w ith
its p lo t of W ilc h e r 's m e m o r ie s and su b p lo t of A nn and R o b e r t's a c t iv i
t i e s , o r v ic e v e r s a , its d o m in a tin g th e m e of E n g lis h P r o t e s t a n t is m , its
m o t if of m a n b e in g a p ilg r im in l if e , and th e c e n tr a l s tr u c tu r e of W il
c h e r 's q u e s t fo r s e lf - k n o w le d g e . It is an u t t e r ly d if fe r e n t ty p e of b o o k
fr o m T he H o r s e 's M ou th and H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d , in d e e d , fr o m m o s t o f
C a r y 's o th er n o v e ls . T he n o v e l is a stu d y o f th e c o n s e r v a t iv e m a n
r a th e r th a n th e c r e a t iv e m an , and th e v e r y ty p e is l e s s a tt r a c tiv e to
m o s t r e a d e r s . C a ry , th e e x - m a g is t r a t e and b e lie v e r in c le a r c o d e s of
r ig h t and w r o n g fo r c h ild r e n , k n ew how s tr o n g th e c o n s e r v a t iv e s id e of
m a n 's n a tu r e is and h ow s tr o n g ly im a g in a tiv e th e c o n s e r v a t iv e m a n is .
It's a p e r p e tu a l c o m p la in t o f th e o ld C o n s e r v a tiv e th a t h e la c k s
im a g in a tio n . W e ll, th a t's n o t s o . V e r y o fte n h e 's a m a n of th e m o s t
in te n s e im a g in a tio n . , . .
H e 's c r e a t e d h is w o r ld in d ep th . T he m a n of v a s t im a g in a tio n ,
h e lo v e s h is th in g s w ith m o r e s tr e n g th . H is lif e g o e s in to th e m , and
old W ilc h e r in th a t b o o k is fig h tin g f o r h is lif e a g a in s t c h a n g e . . . .
w h a t lif e m e a n s to h im is in h is o ld h o m e and o ld w a y s . (" N o v e lis t
A t W ork, " p . 21)
T h e n o v e l f o c u s e s on th e e n o r m o u s a ttr a c tio n of th e e v a n g e lic a l
E n g lis h P r o t e s t a n t r e lig io n to a c o n s e r v a t iv e p e r s o n - - t h e e v a n g e lic a l
r e lig io n w h ic h C a ry c o n s id e r e d a c r e a t io n of p u r e im a g in a tio n . T he
c r e a t iv e and r e v o lu tio n a r y p o w e r o f th e e v a n g e lic a l tr a d itio n f a s c in a t e d
C a ry an d illu s t r a t e d h is b e lie f in fr e e d o m a s o p p o se d to d o g m a , in th e
c o n s ta n t w o r k in g o f m a n 's c r e a t iv e im a g in a tio n s tr iv in g to c r e a t e a
s a t is f a c t o r y lif e :
th is w o r ld , s o lid a s it a p p e a r s , is a c o n s tr u c tio n o n ly o f d e s ir e . A ll
th o s e c o t t a g e s , th o s e f ie ld s , and th e v e r y la n e s a r e th e d e e d s of
105
d e s ir e . T h ey a r e th e s p ir it of m a n m a d e v is ib le in th e f le s h of h is
a c c o m p lis h m e n t , (p. 146)
T o B e A P ilg r im i s C a r y 's o n e w o r k d e v o te d c o m p le t e ly to th is b a s ic
th e m e o f P r o t e s t a n t is m , an d h is c h o ic e of a le a d in g c h a r a c t e r w h o is
r o o te d in tr a d itio n and c o n s e r v a t iv e b y n a tu r e e m p h a s iz e s th e d ra w of
s u c h a r e lig io n m o r e th a n w o u ld th e c h o ic e o f a c h a r a c t e r w h o is b y n a
tu r e f r e e and u n a tta c h e d .
In h is la t e r n o v e ls , th e S e c o n d T r ilo g y and T he C a p tiv e an d T he
F r e e , h e d e v e lo p e d h is th e m e th a t P r o t e s t a n t is m fo r m s th e b a s is of
E n g lis h lib e r a l th ou gh t and p o l i t i c s . B ut in T o B e A P ilg r im h e m a d e a
w id e r and m o r e p o e tic a p p lic a tio n of th e th e m e , lik e n in g E n g la n d i t s e lf
to a p ilg r im , a F ly in g D u tch m a n , a w a n d e r e r , s w im m in g f r e e ly in th e
s e a of t im e and w a k in g to a n ew w o r ld e v e r y m o r n in g {p. 1 03). T o C a ry
th e E n g lis h a r e ir r e v o c a b ly P r o t e s t a n t , and W ilc h e r s p e a k s of h im s e lf
a s a " b e ll tu n ed to th a t n o te . . . . F o r th e W ilc h e r s a r e a s d eep E n g lis h
a s B u n y a n h im s e lf . A P r o t e s t a n t p e o p le , w ith th e r e v o lu tio n in th e ir
b o n e s " (p. 13). T h e v e r y t it le and m o t if o f th e n o v e l a r e d ra w n fr o m th e
h y m n b y B unyan, an d W ilc h e r 1 s c o n f lic t is b e tw e e n th e d e s ir e to b e tr u
ly a p ilg r im and th e d e s ir e to h o ld f a s t to th in g s r a th e r th a n to th e
s p ir it .
T h e c o m p a r is o n o f c o d e s of lif e in th e p a s t and p r e s e n t - - t h e
V ic to r ia n and E d w a r d ia n p e r io d s a s o p p o se d to th e 1 9 3 0 's and 1 9 4 0 's - -
a ls o f o r m s p a r t of th e b a s is o f th e n o v e l. W ilc h e r is b o th a n in t e llig e n t
and c o n te m p la tiv e m a n w h o a b h o r s but t r i e s , to a d e g r e e , to u n d e r sta n d
th e s ta n d a r d s th a t A nn and R o b e r t liv e b y, th o u g h o fte n it s e e m s to h im
th a t th e y liv e b y a v e r y la c k of s ta n d a r d s . In d eed , it is A n n 's tr a g e d y
th a t sh e c a n fin d n o th in g to b e lie v e in, and fo r a tim e sh e a c c e p t s
106
p s e u d o - s ta n d a r d s b y a d o p tin g th e d r e s s and m a n n e r s o f th e V ic to r ia n
p e r io d . T h e c o n f lic t of c o d e s is m o s t e v id e n t w ith r e s p e c t to s e x u a l b e
h a v io r an d th e u p b r in g in g of c h ild r e n , th o u g h W ilc h e r a ls o c o m p a r e s th e
fa ith an d o p tim is m o f h is y o u th in s o c ia l p r o g r e s s w ith th e d e c a y and
c y n ic is m of p o s t-W o r ld W ar I and p r e -W o r ld W ar II.
W ilc h e r is s h o c k e d by th e m o r a l u n c o n c e r n w ith w h ic h A nn b e
c o m e s R o b e r t's m i s t r e s s , and h e is r e a lly s u r p r is e d th a t th e lo v e r s
th e n m a r r y . A n n h ad p u t h e r fa ith b e fo r e m a r r ia g e in m e c h a n ic a l d e
v i c e s , an d w h e n W ilc h e r r e m o n s tr a t e d w ith h e r th a t s o m e of th e "old
c o n v e n tio n s a b o u t c h a s t it y and s o on w e r e d e s ig n e d fo r th e h a p p in e s s
and p r o te c tio n o f w o m e n " h e a s k e d h e r w h a t m e c h a n ic a l d e v ic e s w o u ld
do fo r h e r if R o b e r t w a lk e d o ff and le f t h e r . Sh e r e p lie d th a t sh e
w o u ld n 't be to o t r a g ic , b u t w h en R o b e r t d o e s le a v e h e r sh e s u ffe r s
g r e a t u n h a p p in e s s. C a r y 's p o in t is th a t m a n y e d u c a te d m o d e r n w o m e n
do n o t u n d e r s ta n d th e ir r e a l n a tu r e s a s w o m e n , th a t it is im p o s s ib le fo r
w o m e n to ta k e s e x a s e a s i l y a s m e n do. W ilc h e r th e n th in k s b a c k to h is
f a t h e r 's c o d e f o r w o m e n w h ic h e m b o d ie d th e V ic to r ia n id e a l.
H e lo o k e d in w o m e n , a b o v e a ll, fo r th e p e c u lia r g r a c e w h ic h in
s p ir e d a ll m y m o t h e r 's a c ts an d m o o d s; a g r a c e o f s p ir it a s w e ll a s
body; a c h a r ity of s o u l w h ic h a ff e c te d e v e n h e r c a r r ia g e and h e r
v o ic e . . . . H e u n d e r s to o d and v a lu e d m y m o t h e r 's p e c u lia r s e n s i b i l i
ty an d h e r g e n t le n e s s o f s p ir it , a s w e ll a s L u c y 's c o u r a g e and p a s
s io n . B ut c o a r s e n e s s an d b r u ta lity in a w o m a n w a s to h im a s in
a g a in s t n a tu r e , a s w e ll a s h is c o d e . He th o u g h t of w o m e n a s th e
g u a r d ia n s o f a s p e c ia l v ir tu e g iv e n th em b y God. (p. 37)
S o d o m in a n t w a s th is c o d e in W ilc h e r 's ow n th in k in g th a t it w a s im p o s
s ib le fo r h im to m a r r y h is m i s t r e s s , J u lie E e l e s , a fte r h e r h u sb a n d
d ie d . H e f e lt, th o u g h h e lo v e d h e r d e e p ly , th a t it w o u ld b e an " im p ie ty
to b r in g a J u lie to T o lb r o o k , now in m y c a r e " (p. 2 0 4 ). W ilc h e r a s k s
h im s e lf th e q u e s tio n w h ic h C a ry s p e c u la te d a b o u t in s e v e r a l e s s a y s , ’
107
"W hat do w o m e n s e e k in lif e a s w o m e n ? " B ut, a s a m a n , h e fin d s it im
p o s s ib le to a n s w e r .
W ilc h e r and A nn a r g u e c o n s ta n tly ab ou t th e r a is in g of c h ild r e n .
H e b la m e s h e r b e h a v io r w ith R o b e r t on h e r bad u p b r in g in g and e d u c a
tio n . W hen A nn h ad r e p lie d th a t it w a s a s tr a n g e co d e by w h ic h L u c y
w a s b e a te n fo r n ot b e in g a b le to r e p e a t a s e r m o n , W ilc h e r a n g r ily s a id
th a t
O ur c h ild h o o d w a s go o d fo r u s; w h a te v e r it w o u ld h a v e b e e n fo r y o u
n in n ie s in y o u r fo g o f flu m m e r y . . . . W e k n ew w h e r e w e w e r e and
w h a t w e h ad to do, and w h a t w a s r ig h t and w r o n g , (p. 33)
T h e s ta te m e n t r e it e r a t e s C a r y 's b e lie f , s ta te d in s e v e r a l e s s a y s , and
d r a m a tiz e d in th e n o v e ls of c h ild h o o d , th a t it is im p e r a tiv e fo r c h ild r e n
to know w h e r e th e y a r e , and w h a t is r ig h t and w r o n g as th e y g r o w up.
T o tr y to in s u r e th a t A n n 's s o n w ill be b r o u g h t up in w h at W ilc h e r c o n
s id e r s th e tr u e C h r is tia n tr a d itio n , h e o ff e r s to s e t t le tw o h u n d red
p o u n d s a y e a r on J a n , and h e is a s t o n is h e d at A n n 's r e p ly th a t sh e is
n o t s u r e th a t sh e w a n ts Jan to be a C h r is tia n , and sh e fu r th e r t e l l s W il
c h e r th at sh e d o e s n o t c a r e w h a t he d o e s w ith h is p r o p e r ty . H e c o n s id
e r s h e r a ttitu d e an in s a n e d is r e g a r d of th e im p o r ta n c e of m o n e y .
B e c a u s e of Jan , W ilc h e r r e v iv e s th e c u s to m of m o r n in g p r a y e r s ,
an d th o u g h h e r e a l i z e s th a t A nn a c c e p t s th em w h o le h e a r te d ly a s fo r m s
b u t n o t a s in s p ir a tio n , h e fin d s th e p r a y e r s ta k e h o ld of h im an d fo r a
m o m e n t h e a c h ie v e s a v is io n of e t e r n it y th a t a lm o s t e q u a ls G u lle y 's v i
s io n s :
T h ey o p e n e d fo r m e , if I m a y s p e a k so , a w in d o w upon th e la n d s c a p e
of e t e r n it y w h e r e in I sa w a g a in th e fo r m of th in g s , lo v e an d b ir th and
d ea th , ch a n g e and f a ll, in t h e ir e t e r n a l k in d s, (p. 121)
T he c o n flic t b e tw e e n g e n e r a t io n s , b e tw e e n W ilc h e r and A nn,
108
in c lu d e s th e ir p o lit ic a l id e a s . A nn, w r itin g a b io g r a p h y of h e r fa th e r ,
ca n n o t u n d e r s ta n d th e w a s t e o f E d w a r d 's lif e on "old p o li t ic s ." W ilc h e r
c o n s id e r s th a t E d w a rd s t a r t e d a r e v o lu t io n - - g e t t in g r id of th e L o r d s .
He ca n h a r d ly b e p a tie n t w ith A n n 's v ie w th a t it w a s a ll a lo t of n o is e
a b ou t n o th in g w h e n he r e m e m b e r s s ittin g up in b ed in th e e a r ly 1 9 0 0 's
c e r t a in th a t b o m b s h ad b e e n s e t o ff. T he id e a w a s ta k e n s e r io u s ly by
th e f a m ily th a t E d w a rd m ig h t b e th e f i r s t P r e s id e n t of th e B r it is h R e
p u b lic . B ut th o u g h fr e e d o m e x c it e d W ilc h e r , h is n a tu r e c lu n g to th e o ld
t r a d it io n s , an d h e s u f f e r e d fr o m th e f e e lin g th a t h e w a s a tr a it o r to o ld
id e a ls . He ta lk e d d e m o c r a c y , but h e s u ffe r e d , a t l e a s t in h is d r e a m s .
C h a th a m , C a s t le r e a g h , W e llin g to n , in fu ll r o b e s , s e e m e d to h o v e r
o v e r m e w ith r e p r o a c h fu l f a c e s . I w o u ld e v e n b e h a u n ted b y c o r o n e ts,
e r m in e , an d w o o ls a c k s , w ith o u t a n y th in g in s id e th e m a t a ll. A nd a ll
a c c u s e d m e of c r u e lt y and m e a n n e s s . "W hy do y o u a tta c k u s , th e
h a r m le s s d ig n itie s of o ld E n g la n d ? " (p. 2 0 0 )
W ilc h e r is c a r r ie d b a c k to th e m e m o r y of th e J u b ile e y e a r w h en
h e and o th e r y o u n g m e n w e r e L ib e r a ls , "of a r e lig io u s tu r n ."
But th o s e w h o th in k of J u b ile e y e a r a s a v u lg a r g lo r if ic a t io n of p o w e r
and w e a lth f o r g e t o r n e v e r k n ew its s e n s e o f b l e s s e d n e s s . . . .
W e w r it e of an a g e . B ut th e r e is n o c o m p le te a g e . In J u b ile e
y e a r th e o ld m e n r e m e m b e r e d P e e l and C an n in g and C ob b ett; th e old
a d m ir a ls h a d fo u g h t in s a il; th e o ld g e n e r a ls h ad b e e n b ro u g h t up u n
d e r P e n in s u la r c o lo n e ls . M id d le -a g e d m e n sp o k e o f D iz z ie and th e
N ew T o r ie s ; th e y h a d h u n ted w ith T r o llo p e and S u r te e s ; th e yo u n g
o n e s w e r e fu ll of K ip lin g and K itc h e n e r , L lo y d G e o r g e and th e r a d i
c a l C h a m b e r la in .
M en fo r w h om th e E m p ir e h ad b e e n a t r u s t fr o m G od to e v a n g e l
iz e th e w o r ld , In d ian v e t e r a n s w h o h a d h e a r d L a w r e n c e p r a y and
H a v e lo c k p r e a c h , s to o d b e s id e y o u n g s t e r s fr o m th e K im b e r le y m in e s
fo r w h o m E m p ir e m e a n t w e a lth , p o w e r , th e d o m in a tio n o f a c h o s e n
r a c e .
On b o th s id e s it w a s a b a ttle of fa ith . R h o d es w a s a lr e a d y lo o k
in g fo r th e r e ig n o f e t e r n a l p e a c e and j u s t ic e u n d er th e fe d e r a t e d im
p e r ia l n a tio n s , and a g a in s t h im th e R a d ic a ls p a s s io n a t e ly so u g h t n a
tio n a l fr e e d o m fo r a ll p e o p le s . T he f i r s t sp o k e in th e n a m e o f G od
th e la w - g iv e r , fo r w o r ld -w id e j u s t ic e and s e r v ic e ; th e s e c o n d in th e
109
n a m e of C h r is t th e r e b e l, fo r u n iv e r s a l lo v e and tr u st; and b oth w e r e
f ille d w ith th e s e n s e of m is s io n , (p. 134)
B ut W ilc h e r fin d s it im p o s s ib le to c o n v e y th is s e n s e of f e r v o r and e x a l
ta tio n to A nn, th e c h ild o f tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y d is illu s io n m e n t.
A nn and W ilc h e r q u a r r e l about th e c o m in g W orld W ar II; A nn
th in k s B r ita in ough t to m a k e an a r r a n g e m e n t w ith G erm a n y and a v o id
w a r . W ilc h e r s e e s n o d a n g er of w a r , o n ly th e d a n g er o u s d iv is io n of
C a th o lic s and C o m m u n ists in E u r o p e , and he tu rn s on A nn, s a y in g , " it's
th e youn g p e o p le lik e R o b ert and y ou w h o m ig h t b r in g about th is aw fu l
m i s e r y s im p ly b y ta lk in g n o n s e n s e ab ou t our c iv iliz a t io n h a v in g no v a l
u e" (p. 2 3 7 ). W ilc h e r , tr u e to h is c o n s e r v a tiv e n a tu r e, p u ts h is tr u s t in
th e M a g in o t L in e , and s ta te s th a t " H isto r y w ill s a y th at M a gin ot, th at
m o d e s t lit t le s o ld ie r , w a s th e g r e a t e s t of a ll. He m a d e c iv iliz a t io n s a f e ,
b y m a k in g E u r o p e a n w a r a d ou b tful and d a n g e r o u s e n te r p r is e " (p. 237).
T o W ilc h e r it is p e r p e tu a lly a m a z in g th a t c iv iliz a t io n s u r v iv e s
at a ll.
We a r e a p e s and w o r s e th an a p e s . We know the lig h t and tu rn
fr o m it. We do e v il fo r th e s e c r e t d e lig h t of it; n o t b e c a u s e it is d e
lig h tfu l to our s e n s e s , but b e c a u s e it is e v il. It w a s th is te r r ib le
tru th w h ic h I h ad g r a s p e d in th e y e a r s 1913 and 1914, b e fo r e th at
la s t and m o s t s a v a g e of w a r s . I sa w th e e n o r m o u s p o w e r of e v il,
and th e w e a k n e s s o f goo d , and in m y t e r r o r I r a n abou t lik e a m a n
w ho h a s ju s t n o tic e d th a t h is h o u se is in d a n g er of c o lla p s e . . . . It
s e e m e d to m e th a t m illio n s d e lig h te d in w ic k e d n e s s , a lit t le w ic k e d
n e s s , and w h en a ll th e s e lit t le s p ite s p u sh ed th e s a m e w a y , w a r m u s t
c o m e and c iv iliz a t io n m u st f a ll. (p. 238)
It a m a z e s h im - th at a fte r th e s e n s e of d e d ic a tio n th e n a tio n p o s s e s s e d
d u rin g th e w a r th a t c y n ic is m an d d e c a y sh o u ld c r e e p in, and th at you n g
m e n lik e h is n ep h ew John, w ho h ad fo u g h t v a lia n tly , sh o u ld sta n d a s id e
fr o m lif e an d e v e n tu a lly s im p ly c e a s e to liv e . T h e w o r ld , to W ilc h e r ,
s e e m e d to b e d is s o lv in g in to " u n iv e r s a l n o th in g n e s s ." W ilc h e r did not
1 1 0
s u r v iv e th is d is illu s io n m e n t th ro u g h an a c t of w ill or c o n v ic tio n , but w a s
lif te d out of it b y S a r a 's " liv in g fa ith ," w h ic h b ro u g h t h im b a ck to a
s e n s e of G od's w ill.
W ilc h e r w r it e s h is m e m o ir s e s s e n t ia ll y a s a s e a r c h fo r s e lf -
k n o w led g e. S a r a 's s e lf - r e a liz a t io n c a m e to h e r in a f la s h and th en w a s
fo r g o tte n a s sh e w e n t on w ith th e b u s in e s s of liv in g ; G u lley k n ow s h im
s e l f and h is s tr u g g le is to a c h ie v e h im s e lf , but W ilc h e r 's s e l f - r e a l i z a
tio n c o m e s a fte r a lo n g , a rd u o u s s e a r c h fo r tr u th a s he a n a ly z e s h is
w h o le lif e and th e liv e s of th o s e n e a r and d ea r to h im .
T he q u e st b e g in s in th e v e r y f i r s t p a r a g r a p h a s W ilc h e r t r ie s to
s e t m a tte r s r ig h t about h is r e la tio n s h ip w ith S a r a . H is r e la t iv e s had
v ie w e d h im as a f o o lis h old m a n in th e han d s of a s c h e m in g w o m a n .
"But th e y w e r e q u ite w r o n g . It w a s I w ho w a s th e u n fa ith fu l s e r v a n t,
and S a ra th e v ic tim " {p. 1). W hen h e b e g in s to r e m e m b e r p a s t e v e n ts ,
th e in itia l m e m o r y is L u c y sp e a k in g th e p h r a s e "to be a p ilg r im ," a
p h r a s e p r iv a te to th e tw o c h ild r e n . W ilc h e r r e a li z e s th a t b e in g a p i l
g r im w a s "the c lu e to L u cy , to m y fa th e r , to S a r a J im so n ; it is th e c lu e
to a ll tjiat E n g lis h g e n iu s w h ic h b o re th em and c h e r is h e d th em " (p. 9).
He th en q u e s tio n s h im s e lf , "And is n o t th at th e c lu e to m y ow n fa ilu r e
in lif e ? P o s s e s s i o n s h a v e b e e n m y c u r s e . I ought to h a v e b e e n a w a n
d e r e r , to o , a f r e e s o u l. . . ." (p. 9). B ut th is is not s e lf - r e a liz a t io n b e
c a u s e W ilc h e r th in k s th at one ca n b e c o m e a p ilg r im s im p ly by an a c t of
w ill. T he fa s c in a tio n o f th e w a n d e r e r 's lif e to th e c o n s e r v a tiv e , th e
p u ll of th e lif e of th e s p ir it to th e m a n a tta c h e d to p o s s e s s i o n s had b e e n
p o w e r fu l s in c e W ilc h e r 's y o u th . He h a d b e e n lit e r a lly a fr a id of th e
m a n B ro w n w ho b e c a m e L u c y 's h u sb an d .
Ill
I th ou gh t he c o u ld c o n v e r t m e , and I w a s e n jo y in g lif e th en a s n e v e r
b e fo r e , in m y f i r s t y e a r at O xford . . . . But w h en he sa n g th e s e v e r s e s
fr o m B unyan , h is fa v o r ite h y m n and th e b a ttle c r y of h is r id ic u lo u s
lit t le s e c t , th e n so m e th in g s w e lle d in m y h e a r t a s if it w o u ld ch o k e
m e u n le s s I, to o , o p en ed m y ow n m o u th and sa n g . I m ig h t h a v e b e e n
a b e ll tu n ed to th at n o te , and p e r h a p s I w a s . . . . I did n ot know it
th en b e c a u s e I kn ew n o th in g and nob od y r e a l, o n ly k n o w led g e abou t
th in g s . . . . A t th a t tim e m y ow n E n g lis h s p ir it, lik e L u c y 's w a s a
m y s t e r y to m e . I f le d fr o m B row n b e c a u s e I f e lt th a t if I did n o t ru n
h e w o u ld g e t m e . (p. 13)
A s th e f a m ilia r r o o m s and fie ld s o f T o lb r o o k r e m in d h im of th e
v io le n t s c e n e s of h is c h ild h o o d and you th , h e f e e l s th a t "the s e c r e t of
h a p p in e s s, of lif e , is to fo r g e t th e p a s t, to lo o k fo r w a r d , to m o v e on.
The s o o n e r I c a n le a v e T o lb r o o k th e b e tt e r , e v e n fo r an a sy lu m " (p. 2 7 ).
T he th ou gh t of m o v in g on b r in g s S a ra to m in d , "the o n ly p e r s o n in th e
w o r ld w h o c a n s a v e m e ," and h e w r it e s o r th in k s h e w r it e s a le t t e r to
h e r w h ic h is a r e it e r a t io n of th e th e m e an d h is q u e st.
F o r w e a r e th e c h ild r e n of c r e a tio n , and w e ca n n o t e s c a p e our fa te ,
w h ic h is to liv e in c r e a tin g and r e - c r e a t in g . W e m u s t r e n e w o u r
s e lv e s o r d ie; w e m u s t w o r k e v e n at o u r jo y s or th e y w ill b e c o m e
b u r d e n s. . . . W e a r e th e p ilg r im s w h o m u st s le e p e v e r y n ig h t b e
n ea th a n ew sk y , fo r e ith e r w e go fo r w a r d to th e n ew ca m p o r th e
w h ir lin g e a r th c a r r ie s u s b a ck w a rd s to one b eh in d , (p. 2 9 )
H e e n v ie s h is s i s t e r L u cy , w h o h ad b e e n a tr u e p ilg r im , and w o n d er s
how sh e k n ew at tw e n ty -o n e , " e v e n in h e r w h im s, w h a t I d on 't know t i l l
now fr o m a ll m y b o o k s, th a t th e w a y to a s a t is f y in g lif e , a good lif e , is
th ro u g h an a c t of fa ith and c o u r a g e ? " H e k n ow s th a t no one lo v e d c o m
fo r t and lu x u r y lik e L u cy , y e t sh e le f t th em w ith o u t r e g r e t. "W hy? N ot
fo r lo v e ; n ot fo r c h a r ity . N ot b e c a u s e h e r c o n s c ie n c e tr o u b le d h e r .
N ot fo r th e s a c r if ic e . B ut fo r th e a d v e n tu r e ” (p. 4 8 ). He r e m e m b e r s
h is s e a r c h fo r L u c y a fte r sh e had gon e o ff w ith B row n , and fin d in g h e r
in an in d u s tr ia l to w n w h e r e the b a c k s t r e e t s w e r e lik e th e c o r r id o r s of
a p r is o n and th e p e o p le w e r e " lik e p r is o n e r s co n d em n ed fo r lif e ." Y et
1 1 2
L u c y , s c r u b b in g f lo o r s b e c a u s e a s a la d y s h e had n o t b e e n tr a in e d to do
a n y th in g u s e fu l, t e l l s W ilc h e r th a t sh e h a s "the jo y o f th e L o r d ," and
a s k s h im to s t a y w ith h e r b e c a u s e "you w ill fin d th e a n s w e r to e v e r y
th in g " {p. 5 5 ). W ilc h e r r e m e m b e r s th a t in s p ite of h is fu r y at L u c y 's
d e g r a d a tio n h e f e lt th a t a s p ir it w a s e n te r in g h im , d is s o lv in g h is s e l f -
w ill. "T he d a r k w a v e w a s r is in g o v e r m e , and I h ad lo n g e d to d ro w n in
it, to g e t r id o f s e lf; to fin d w h a t? A c a u s e . E x c ite m e n t. . . . a b o v e a ll,
an a n s w e r to e v e r y th in g " (p. 6 2 ).
W ilc h e r s e e s h is lif e in a p a tte r n o f th r e e w a v e s . H is y o u th
e n d e d w ith th e W ar. H is m id d le a g e w a s "a sta g n a n t la k e " fr o m w h ic h
S a r a r e s c u e d h im and sw e p t h im in to th e th ir d w a v e w h ic h w a s " ju st
a b ou t to c o m e in to p o r t w h en it s tr u c k a sa n d bar" (p. 2 2 2 ). D u rin g th e
d e c a d e s of h is m id d le a g e , l i f e c a r r ie d h im a lo n g and th e n e c e s s i t y to
u n d e r s ta n d h im s e lf and th e d e s ir e to be a p ilg r im w e r e s u b m e r g e d .
A fte r h e e s c a p e s fr o m T o lb r o o k , fin d s S a r a in L on d on , is r e f u s e d by
h e r , and is r e tu r n e d to T o lb r o o k , h e f in a lly le a r n s th e m e a n in g o f h is
lif e . "I s a y no lo n g e r , 'C h a n g e m u s t c o m e .' . . . I h a v e s u r r e n d e r e d b e
c a u s e I ca n n o t fig h t an d now it s e e m s to m e th a t n ot ch a n g e but lif e h a s
lif t e d m e an d c a r r ie d m e fo r w a r d on th e s tr e a m ." H e c o m e s a t l a s t to
b o th a r a tio n a l and an e m o tio n a l a c c e p ta n c e and u n d e r sta n d in g o f h im
s e lf: "I h a v e a lw a y s b e e n a lo v e r r a th e r th a n a d oer; I h a v e liv e d in
d r e a m s r a th e r th a n a c ts ; and lik e a ll l o v e r s , I h a v e liv e d in t e r r o r of
c h a n g e to w h a t I lo v e ." A t l a s t h e a d m its to h im s e lf th a t h is d e s ir e to
be a p ilg r im w a s s e lf - d e lu s io n . "I th o u g h t I c o u ld be a n a d v e n tu r e r lik e
L u cy and E d w a rd , a m is s io n a r y . I sh o u te d th e p ilg r im 's c r y . . . . but I
w a s a p ilg r im o n ly b y r a c e " (p. 3 4 2 ).
113
O r v ille P r e s c o t t c a lls W ilc h e r "one of th e m o s t su b tly d e v e lo p e d ,
c o m p le te an d o r ig in a l c h a r a c t e r s in m o d e r n fic tio n ," an d h e s a y s th a t
W ilc h e r , c o n te m p la tin g th e s tr a n g e w o r ld of th e tw e n tie s and t h ir t ie s
w ith " th e ir f e t is h of m a t e r ia lis m ," is n o t j u s t a n o ld m a n m o u r n in g h is
y o u th , bu t "an in t e llig e n t m a n a w a r e o f th e sa d s ta te of th e m o d e r n
w o r ld . T h o m a s W ilc h e r 's w e a k n e s s e s a r e d e p lo r a b le , b ut h e h a s a n in -
2
t e g r it y of h is ow n." I th in k th is a v e r y w e ll b a la n c e d c r i t i c i s m of
C a r y 's a c h ie v e m e n t. T he c o n s is t e n c y and m o tiv a tio n o f th e c h a r a c t e r i
z a tio n a r e n e v e r u p s e t, and C a r y , at th e s a m e tim e , m a in ta in e d th e
r e a d e r 's sy m p a th y fo r a s o m e w h a t u n a ttr a c tiv e p e r s o n . It w a s a t e s t of
s k ill to c r e a t e a c h a r a c t e r w ith r e p e lle n t h a b its w h o w o u ld n o t r e p e l th e
r e a d e r . T h e la r g e v i c e s , su c h a s G u lle y 's and S a r a 's c h e e r fu l a m o r a li-
ty , a r e a tt r a c tiv e in th e r e a lm o f fic tio n , b u t W ilc h e r is p o r tr a y e d a s a
h a s ty and p e tty lit t le o ld m an ; h e is stu b b o r n , b a d -te m p e r e d , a r g u m e n
t a t iv e , a c o n n iv e r , a w ill- s h a k e r and an e x h ib itio n is t, in sh o r t, a h y p o
c r it e . T h a t C a ry w a s a b le to c r e a t e and m a in ta in s y m p a th y fo r s u c h a
c h a r a c t e r i s r e m a r k a b le .
W ilc h e r 's in t e llig e n c e d o e s n o t a llo w h im to e s c a p e th e s ig h t of
h im s e lf a s p h y s ic a lly s m a ll and r id ic u lo u s w ith s c r u b b y h a ir and s t a r
in g e y e s . N e ith e r d o e s h e e v a d e h is r e la t io n s h ip s w ith h is b r o th e r s and
s i s t e r s - - t h e h a n d so m e , b r illia n t o ld e r b r o th e r , E d w a rd , o f w h om h e w a s
je a lo u s a n d fr o m w h om h e s t o le b o th T o lb r o o k an d J u lie ; h is s o lid y o u n
g e r b r o th e r B ill, a t w h o m he la u g h e d but u p on w h o s e s t e a d f a s t n e s s h e
le a n e d , an d h is w ild s i s t e r L u c y , w h o sa w h im in h is tr u e s e lf , w h o
2
" T w o M o d ern M a s t e r s : C o z z e n s , C a r y ," In M y O p in ion (N ew
Y o rk , 1 9 5 2 ), p. 196.
114
m a d e h im e x a m in e h is ow n m o t iv e s , and w h o b ro u g h t h im th e s e n s e of
lif e w h ic h he h im s e lf la c k e d . But it is c o n s is t e n t w ith h is " p ettifo g g in g "
n a tu r e, a s L u cy c a lle d it, th a t o n ly la te in lif e d o e s h e a c k n o w le d g e h is
r e a l s e lf .
T he c o r e o f W ilc h e r a s a c h a r a c te r is h is r e lig io n and h is lo v e
of o r d e r and d is c ip lin e . C a ry o b s e r v e d s e v e r a l tim e s in h is c r it ic a l
w r itin g s th at r e lig io n w a s m o r e im p o r ta n t to p e o p le th an e th ic s ; it w a s
w hat m a d e th em tic k . T h is is o b v io u sly tr u e w ith a c h a r a c te r lik e W il
c h e r; h is e th ic s a r e n ot m u ch , but th o u g h at t im e s he sin k s into r e l i g i
o s ity , h is r e lig io n d o e s s u s ta in h im . A t t im e s in h is lif e , th e m e r e
fo r m s an d o b s e r v a n c e s w ith o u t in s p ir a tio n a r e s u ffic ie n t to c a r r y h im ,
and in h is you th and o ld a g e h e fin d s r e a l in s p ir a tio n and p e a c e . He
r e a li z e s th a t P r o te s ta n tis m is n ot an e a s y fa ith ; "It th r o w s up on e v e r y
one th e r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r th e w h o le w o r ld 's s in s , and it d o e s n 't p r o v id e
an y e s c a p e - - n o t e v e n a c o n f e s s io n box" (p. 15). S in ce o r d e r and fo r m
a r e s o im p o r ta n t to h im h e ca n n o t u n d e rsta n d J u lie E e le s , a d ev o u t
C a th o lic , w ho r e f u s e d to d iv o r c e h e r c r u e l h u sb a n d , w ho liv e d w ith E d
w a rd , th en W ilc h e r h im s e lf , and w ho r e fu s e d to go e ith e r to M a ss or
c o n fe s s io n . T he r e f u s a l to a c c e p t th e c o m fo r t of r e lig io n w a s in e x p lic a
b le to W ilc h e r .
A ls o p a r t o f th e c h a r a c te r is W ilc h e r 's c o m p a r is o n of h im s e lf
a s one w h o la c k s th e s u r g e o f lif e w ith th o se p e o p le w ho d id p o s s e s s it
- - L u c y , B ro w n , S a r a , R o b e r t. H e th in k s of L u c y and B row n a s "both
p e o p le o f p o w er; lif e ra n in th em w ith a p r im it iv e fo r c e and in n o c e n c e ."
He f e e l s th e s a m e w a y ab ou t S a r a , "One of th o s e w h o se lif e o v e r flo w e d
to a ll ab ou t th em . I f e e l th a t e n e r g y in R o b e r t, but n ot in Ann" (p. 93).
115
L u c y 's , B r o w n 's an d S a r a 's e n e r g y h e a s c r ib e s to t h e ir fa ith ; b u t R ob
e r t 's fa it h is in th e e a r th , in h im s e lf . S in c e W ilc h e r is s e n s it iv e to th e
p o w e r o f v it a l e n e r g y , h e d e t e c t s th e la c k of it in o t h e r s , in E d w a r d and
h is d a u g h te r A nn. B ut W ilc h e r w a s a m a z e d a t th e f a ilu r e of E d w a r d 's
in t e r e s t in lif e , f o r E d w a rd h a d b e e n a c o u r a g e o u s fig h t e r . E d w a r d 's
d is in te g r a tio n w a s fo r e s h a d o w e d w h e n , a s a yo u n g m a n d is c u s s in g lif e ,
h e h ad m u s e d , " T h e q u e s tio n , is , o f c o u r s e , w h e th e r lif e is w o r th liv in g .
. . . H ow d o e s one go on b e in g in t e r e s t e d in lif e ? " (p. 6 9 ). E d w a rd s im -
p ly g a v e up liv in g and f e l l a p a r t at th e a g e of s ix t y - t h r e e . W ilc h e r 's
r e a l q u e s tio n is "H ow d o e s fa ith fa il? " and th is q u e s tio n is n e v e r a n
s w e r e d .
W ilc h e r is a tta c h e d to th in g s and p e o p le s o s tr o n g ly th a t w h e n
th e y d ie he is s h a t t e r e d e m o tio n a lly and p h y s ic a lly . W hen R o b e r t h a s
p u lle d dow n th e o ld e lm t r e e s a t T o lb r o o k , W ilc h e r f e e l s it a " c a t a s t r o
p h e" and s u f f e r s a h e a r t a tta c k . W hen L u c y d ie d h e f e lt a s if h e h ad
l o s t an e s s e n t i a l o r g a n , and a fte r th e d e a th of h is s i s t e r - i n - l a w , A m y ,
a t w h o m h e h ad a lw a y s la u g h e d , h e f e lt a fr a id . A m y , a s im p le c o u n tr y
g ir l, to o k lif e a s it c a m e , and a c c e p t e d d ea th " lik e a n a fte r n o o n c a lle r ."
W ilc h e r w a s s o s tr o n g ly a tta c h e d to p e o p le th a t th e v e r y h a b it of a t
ta c h m e n t k ep t up r e la t io n s h ip s no lo n g e r w a n te d , co n tin u in g w ith J u lie
a s h is m i s t r e s s y e a r s a fte r h e h a d c e a s e d lo v in g h e r an d h ad p a s s e d
th ro u g h a p h a s e of h a tin g h e r to on e of s h e e r b o r e d o m . O nly a n o th e r
p e r s o n of g r e a t e r f o r c e c o u ld c h a n g e W ilc h e r 's w a y s; h e w a s in c a p a b le
of ch a n g in g h is ow n . So S a r a r e m o v e d h im fr o m J u lie , and R o b e r t and
A nn c h a n g e h is l a s t d a y s . T he p r o b le m of th e c o n s e r v a t iv e is th a t
s o m e o n e e l s e m u s t im p le m e n t h is lif e ; h e is p o w e r le s s to do so ; h e is
1 1 6
s t r u c k h e l p l e s s b y a c h a n g e , y e t lif e c o n s ta n tly f o r c e s c h a n g e .
W ilc h e r 's lif e w ith A n n a n d R o b e r t is e q u a le d in im p o r ta n c e b y
h is m e m o r ie s , a n d th e s t o r i e s o f p a s t t im e an d p r e s e n t t im e in t e r c o n
n e c t an d p r o v id e a c o n tr a p u n ta l c o m m e n t o f p a s t on p r e s e n t . A fte r th e
b ir th o f Jan , w h e n W ilc h e r r e a l i z e s th a t it is A p r il a n d h e m a y n o t l i v e
to s e e a n o th e r A p r il, h e d e c id e s "I w a n t to u s e e v e r y m o m e n t of t h e s e
l a s t m o n th s a t h o m e w ith th o s e I lo v e d , w ith L u c y an d A m y , B ill an d E d
w a rd " (p. 1 0 9 ). T h is m a r k s a d e fin ite s h if t in to th e p a s t fo r W ilc h e r ;
th e p a s t e v e n ts b e c o m e m o r e im p o r ta n t to h im th a n th e a c t i v i t i e s o f
t h o s e a ro u n d h im in th e p r e s e n t . S o o n a f t e r th is C a r y 's u s e o f th e p a s t
a s a c o n tr a p u n ta l c o m m e n t o n th e p r e s e n t r e a c h e s it s c lim a x - - R o b e r t
an d A n n , a lr e a d y a d is illu s io n e d m a r r ie d c o u p le , an d M o lly , th e fa r m
g ir l w h o is a f t e r R o b e r t an d w h o s o o n b e c o m e s h is m i s t r e s s , m a r c h
d ow n to th e p on d " as if th e y w e r e p e r f o r m in g a r it e r a th e r th a n e n jo y in g
t h e m s e lv e s " (p. 1 3 2 ), p u t la n t e r n s on a b o a t, and pu n t u p o n th e la k e w ith
a g r a m o p h o n e p la y in g m u s ic . T h e g lo o m y t r io a r e a s h a r p c o n t r a s t to
th e g a y an d b e a u tifu l w a te r p a r t ie s o f W ilc h e r 's y o u th an d s y m b o liz e a ll
th e d e c a y and d i s i l l u s i o n o f th e g r a y p r e s e n t . R o b e r t and A n n do n ot
e v e n s p e a k to e a c h o th e r , th e p o n d is a s h r u n k e n , m u d d y r e m n a n t o f its
f o r m e r s e l f , and th e j a z z m u s ic w a ilin g fr o m th e g r a m o p h o n e s e e m s a
b e s t ia l p a r o d y o f th e s p ir it e d m u s ic of th e p a s t . A n n s o o n le a v e s R o b e r t
a lo n e w ith M o lly , s a y in g th a t if h e is g o in g to le a v e h e r fo r M o lly sh e
w is h e s h e w o u ld do it, an d e v e n th e b o n d s o f f a m ily a r e b r o k e n . A s W il
c h e r 's m e m o r y s w in g s b a c k an d fo r th f r o m th e w a te r p a r t ie s of th e p a s t
to th e p r e s e n t , h e r e m e m b e r s m e e t in g J u lie E e l e s a t on e o f th e p a r t ie s ,
th e y e a r s w h e n h e w o r s h ip e d J u lie a s E d w a r d 's m i s t r e s s , th e y e a r s
w h en sh e w a s h is m i s t r e s s .
H is m e m o r ie s o f th e d e a th s of John, B ill, A m y, L u c y and E d w a rd
b r in g h im to a c r i s i s at the v e r y tim e w h en A nn h a s le f t T o lb r o o k fo r a
fe w d a y s to s e t t le h e r d iv o r c e . D eath s e e m s to w a it fo r h im in e v e r y
r o o m . He f e e ls a s if T o lb r o o k w e r e b e c o m in g s m a lle r an d s m a lle r and
c lo s in g in on h im lik e a c o ffin , and "th at I had b e e n sh u t up in it a liv e ."
He ru n s a w a y to L on d on to fin d S a ra and l i f e - - t h e p a s t is n o lo n g e r a
r e fu g e fo r h im . T he c o u n te r p o in t jo in s w ith th e m a in th e m e a fte r one
l a s t m e m o r y - - o f h is h is t o r y of a c c o s tin g you n g g ir ls in p a r k s . B ut h is
h u m ilia tio n at th e m e m o r ie s is su b m e r g e d in h is b u oyant h a p p in e ss at
b e in g fr e e and a lo n e in L on d on and on h is w a y to S a ra . T he a c tio n of
th e p r e s e n t day w h en S a r a tu r n s h im o v e r to A nn and R o b e r t, w h o h a v e
r e c o n c ile d in s te a d of d iv o r c in g , and th e p a tte r n of h is m e m o r ie s jo in to
fo r m a fu ll c ir c le , jo in to g iv e h im s e lf - r e a liz a t io n and a c c e p ta n c e of
l if e . T he p lo t is c o m p le x , but one d o e s n ot f e e l it o v e r -m a n ip u la te d .
T he p a tte r n s e e m s to fo llo w th e s t o r y r a th e r th a n b ein g im p o se d on it.
B ein g th e m a n h e is , a lo v e r of o r d e r and g r a c e , and b ein g an
in h e r ito r of th e V ic to r ia n tr a d itio n , and an e d u c a te d m a n , W ilc h e r h a s a
s ty le th at both r e f le c t s h is p e r s o n a lit y and c r e a t e s th at p e r s o n a lity in
th e r e a d e r 's m in d . It is a c o n s c io u s , lit e r a r y s t y le , fitte d to c a r r y th e
a b s tr a c t s p e c u la tio n s abou t r e lig io n an d p o lit ic s th at o c c u p y h is m in d .
He a b h o rs A n n 's m o d e r n s t y le , " w h ich is th at of a m e d ic a l jo u r n a l r e
p o r tin g a c a s e of in f a n tilis m , I h a v e to r e m e m b e r th at th e youn g of th is
ag e do n ot stu d y P a t e r and N ew m a n , a s w e did in the n in e tie s " (p. 2 3 3 ).
W ilc h e r 's s t y le r e f le c t s th e m o d e ls h e stu d ie d a s a youth; it c o n s is t s
of lo n g , in v o lv e d s e n t e n c e s w ith c a r e fu lly b a la n c e d c la u s e s , and h is
118
f ig u r e s a r e lit e r a r y , n o t th e e a r th y m e ta p h o r s of S a r a n o r th e v is u a l
m e ta p h o r s of G u lle y . H is b a s ic , th e m a tic m e ta p h o r is d ra w n fr o m a
h y m n . T h is s t y le is e x c e lle n t ly f it t e d to r e n d e r o b s e r v a t io n of a c tio n s ,
to s e e p e o p le fr o m th e o u ts id e , a s W ilc h e r d o e s; h e is b y n a tu r e an o b
s e r v e r w h o w a tc h e s b u t d o e s n o t u n d e r sta n d . T h e s t y le w o u ld n ot w o r k
to r e n d e r an in t e r io r c r e a t iv e p r o c e s s lik e G u lle y 's .
W ilc h e r ca n n o t lo o k a t a la n d s c a p e , o r a n y th in g e l s e , w ith o u t
s e e k in g to p la c e it in r e la t io n s h ip , in o r d e r , w ith h is t o r y and e t e r n a l
v a lu e s . H is lit e r a r y and c o n s e r v a t iv e n a tu r e is e p ito m iz e d in a p a s s a g e
d e s c r ib in g th e s u m m e r h a r v e s t .
On s u m m e r d a y s lik e th is in h a r v e s t , th e r ic h n e s s of th e g ro u n d
s e e m s c h a r g e d u p on th e a ir , s o th a t e v e n th e b lu e of th e s k y is
ta in te d lik e th e w a te r of a co w p on d , e n r ic h e d but no lo n g e r p u r e . It
is a s if a th o u sa n d y e a r s of c u ltiv a tio n h a v e b ro u g h t to a ll, t r e e s ,
g r a s s , c r o p s , e v e n th e sk y and th e su n , a s p e c ia l q u a lity b e lo n g in g
o n ly to v e r y o ld c o u n t r ie s . A q u a lity n ot of m a tte r o n ly , but of
th ought; a s if th e h a n d th a t p la n te d th e t r e e s in th e ir c h o s e n p la c e s
h ad im p o s e d up on th e m th e d ig n ity o f b e a u ty a p p o in ted , but ta k e n
fr o m th e m , a t th e s a m e t im e , th e in n o c e n c e o f n a tu r a l fr e e d o m . A s
if th e yo u n g f a r m e r w h o s e t th e h e d g e , to d iv id e o ff h is in h e r ita n c e ,
w r o te w ith it s c r o o k e d lin e th e h is t o r y of h u m a n g r o w th , of r e s p o n s i
b ilit y n o t b e lo n g in g to th e w ild h a w th o rn , bu t to h u m a n lo v e an d f a
th e r h o o d , a s if u p on th e w h e a t la y th e c o lo r of h a r v e s t s s in c e A lfr e d ,
and its e a r s g r e w p lu m p w ith th e h o p e s and a n x ie t ie s of a ll th o s e
g e n e r a tio n s th a t s o w e d w ith B e o w o lf and p lo w e d w ith P i e r s and
r e a p e d w ith C o b b ett. E v e n a t m y ow n l a s t h a r v e s t a t T o lb r o o k , n in e
y e a r s a g o , th e g a r d e n e r 's b o y b r o u g h t m e fr o m th e f ie ld a l i t t l e p la it
of s tr a w . H e d id n o t kn ow w h a t it w a s or w h y h e b ro u g h t it, or th a t
h e w a s r e p e a tin g a s a c r i f i c e to th e c o r n g o d m a d e s o lo n g a g o th a t it
w a s th o u sa n d s o f y e a r s o ld w h e n A lfr e d w a s th e m o d e r n m a n in a
ch a n g in g w o r ld , (p. 130)
T h e u n ity of th is lo n g , c o m p le x n o v e l is a tta in e d b y e s t a b lis h in g
e m o tio n a l s y m p a th y fo r W ilc h e r , th o u g h one d o e s n o t f e e l a s s y m p a
th e t ic to w a r d h im a s to w a r d C a r y 's m o r e c o m p e llin g c h a r a c t e r s . T he
t
r e a d e r 's in t e r e s t is o c c u p ie d , m o r e th a n u s u a l in a C a r y n o v e l, w ith th e
w o r k in g out o f th e p a tte r n o f th e d if fe r e n t l i v e s , and w ith W ilc h e r 's
119
c o m m e n ts and c o m p a r is o n s of t im e s p a s t an d p r e s e n t . T h ou gh W ilc h e r
is th e c e n t r a l f ig u r e , an d th e r e a d e r f o c u s e s u p on h im , a t t im e s h e b e
c o m e s m u c h lik e L a m b e r t S t r e th e r in H e n r y J a m e s 's T he A m b a s s a d o r s ,
w h o s e e k s to l i v e h is ow n lif e but fin d s h i m s e l f m o r e in v o lv e d in o t h e r 's
l i v e s th a n in h is ow n, an d w h o c o m e s to th e r e a liz a t io n th a t h e is b y n a
tu r e an o b s e r v e r , n o t a d o e r . W ilc h e r h a s t r ie d d e s p e r a t e ly to a c t, to
b e a p a r t of l if e , e v e n p a r t ic ip a t in g in E d w a r d 's p o li t ic a l c a m p a ig n s; h e
h a s n o t w a n te d to b e p a s s i v e , and h e r e c o g n iz e s h is tr u e s e l f o n ly in
h e l p l e s s o ld a g e .
T o B e A P i lg r im h a s b e e n c r i t i c i z e d a s b e in g m e r e l y a f a m ily
c h r o n ic le w ith o u t f o r m . I th in k th is o b je c tio n is n o t v a lid . T h e fo r m is
e v id e n t, b u t n o t o b v io u s; it c o n s is t s o f W ilc h e r 's lif e an d m e m o r ie s ,
m e r g e d in a q u e s t fo r s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n and c u lm in a tin g in th a t s e l f -
k n o w le d g e . T he s t o r i e s o f h is b r o t h e r s a n d s i s t e r s a r e n o t im p o r ta n t
in t h e m s e l v e s , a s th e y w o u ld be in a f a m ily c h r o n ic le , but a s th e y r e
f l e c t lig h t u p on a n d g iv e W ilc h e r u n d e r s ta n d in g of h is ow n l i f e . E d w a r d
th e f a ilu r e , L u c y th e p a s s io n a t e p il g r im , B i l l th e s t e a d f a s t s o l d i e r - -
t h e ir l i v e s h e lp W ilc h e r s e e w h a t h e i s an d w h a t h e is n o t. T he s t o r i e s
o f th e r e l a t i v e s a r e n o t s p a c e - f i l l e r s ; th e y a r e illu s t r a t io n s o f p s y c h o
lo g ic a l r e a li t y . A n e x c e lle n t e x a m p le of C a r y 's u n d e r s ta n d in g of th e
m a in s p r in g s o f l i f e a r e th e s c e n e s o f B i l l ' s d y in g y e a r s . H o p e le s s ly i l l
w ith c a n c e r , h e p la n ts a g a r d e n , w o r k in g a t it w ith a f e r v o r th a t b e
c o m e s an o b s e s s io n . T h e d e s i r e of th e d y in g to e n te r in to l i f e is w e ll
k n o w n to t h o s e w h o h a v e w it n e s s e d it , and C a r y w a s a b le to c le a r ly d e
p ic t th is d e e p , s u b c o n s c io u s a s p e c t o f m a n 's n a tu r e .
C a r y s a id h e c h o s e a s t o r y o f f a m ily l i f e b e c a u s e it is th e
1 2 0
" to u g h est" th in g in th e w o r ld . N oth in g sto p s it. "But o f c o u r s e it is a l
s o th e m ic r o c o s m of a w o r ld . Y ou g e t e v e r y th in g t h e r e - - b ir t h , lif e ,
d eath , lo v e and j e a lo u s y , c o n flic t of w i l l s , of a u th o r ity and fr e e d o m , th e
n ew and th e old" (W r ite r s A t W ork , p. 54). C h o o sin g th e fa m ily s e ttin g
fo r a s to r y to illu s t r a t e h is th e m e of th e c o n s e r v a tiv e w h o lo v e s fa m ily
tr a d itio n is n ot th e s a m e th in g a s a tte m p tin g to w r ite a " p s e u d o -sa g a ."
B e c a u s e c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n , p lo t, s ty le an d e m o tio n a l c o n tin u ity a ll c o n
tr ib u te to th e s t o r y o f th e c o n s e r v a tiv e in h is w o r ld , th e fo r m is s u c
c e s s f u l and e m b o d ie s th e m a t e r ia l.
T he H o r s e 's M outh b e g in s on an au tu m n m o r n in g a s the s ix ty -
s e v e n - y e a r - o ld a r t is t , G u lley J im s o n , w a lk s b y th e T h a m e s in L ondon ,
e n jo y in g th e sk y and a ir a fte r a m o n th in p r is o n fo r u tte r in g th r e a ts
o v e r th e te le p h o n e to a m illio n a ir e a r t p a tro n , H ic k so n . G u lley n e e d s
m o n e y to buy p a in ts in o r d e r to g e t on w ith h is e p ic p ic tu r e "The F a ll."
A sc h o o lb o y , " N osy" B a rb o n , w ho w a n ts to be an a r t is t , w o r s h ip s J im
so n , fo llo w s h im ab ou t, and n o is ily s y m p a th iz e s w ith h im to J im s o n 's
g r e a t a n n o y a n ce. G u lley s t e a ls s o m e p a in ts , t r i e s to ta lk N o sy out of
b e in g an a r t is t , and a tte m p ts to w o rk . C o k er, th e u g ly , p ro u d b a r m a id
a t th e n e a r b y pub, w h o w a n ts to g e t b a c k s o m e of th e m o n e y sh e h a s
le n t h im , d r a g s G u lley off to s e e h is fo r m e r " w ife," S a ra M ond ay. S a ra
kep t s e v e r a l of J im s o n 's p a in tin g s w h en h e le f t h e r and s o ld s o m e to
H ic k so n . A t S a r a 's h o m e , w h e r e sh e now liv e s w ith a w id o w e r y o u n g er
th an sh e , G u lley is a m a z e d to fin d h e r an old w o m a n , y e t th e r e a l S a r a
s t ill s h in e s th ro u g h , "the o ld in d iv id u a l g e y s e r ." G u lley g o e s h o m e d y
ing to p a in t, but ju s t th en a fr ie n d , M r. P la n t, b r in g s tw o p r e a c h e r s to
s e e "The F a ll" and u n c o m p r e h e n d in g ly t r i e s to e x p la in th e p ic tu r e to
1 2 1
th e h o s t ile m e n . R u sh in g ou t in to th e o p en a ir , r e a d y to te a r h im s e lf to
p ie c e s a t th e in j u s tic e of l if e , G u lle y r e m e m b e r s th e in j u s t ic e of h is
fa t h e r 's lif e , a fin e p a in te r w h o d ie d b r o k e n and p e n n ile s s . G u lle y r e
v ie w s h is ow n c a r e e r ; h e h a d b e e n a r e s p e c t a b le c le r k w h o w a s s u d d e n
ly b itte n by a r t, s t a r t e d a s a C la s s ic , th e n sa w a M an et w h ic h " sk in n ed "
h is e y e s , b e c a m e an I m p r e s s io n is t , th en a C u b ist, and is s t i l l tr y in g to
fin d an in d iv id u a l s t y le .
H e g o e s to a p h ilo s o p h ic a l m e e tin g a t P la n t 's , and S a r a c o m e s
th e r e lo o k in g fo r h im . Sh e a n n o u n c e s th a t sh e w o u ld go o ff w ith h im
a g a in , but ru n s to c a tc h th e l a s t b u s h o m e . C o k e r , s t i l l tr y in g to g e t
h e r m o n e y b a ck , d r a g s h im o ff to s e e H ic k s o n . G u lle y p o c k e ts a fe w
m in ia t u r e s , H ic k s o n h a s h is b u tle r se n d fo r th e p o lic e , and G u lle y g e ts
s ix m o n th s in j a il.
F r e e a g a in , h e fin d s a m a g n ific e n t p ie c e of c a n v a s and g e ts a n
id e a fo r a n ew " F a ll." He a ls o r e c e i v e s a le t t e r fr o m a M r. A la b a s te r
p r o p o s in g "a b io g r a p h ic a l and c r i t i c a l stu d y of y o u r w h o le a r t is t ic d e
v e lo p m e n t." G u lle y 's b o a th o u se h a s b e e n ta k e n o v e r b y C o k e r , now
p r e g n a n t and d e s e r t e d b y h e r lo v e r , and b y C o k e r 's m o th e r , w h o ru n s
G u lle y o ff. H e g o e s to s t a y w ith P la n t, w h o h a s l o s t h is r ig h t han d fr o m
b lo o d -p o is o n in g . A le t t e r a r r iv e s fr o m A la b a s te r s a y in g th a t s o m e
w e a lth y f r ie n d s , L o r d and L a d y B e e d e r , a r e in t e r e s t e d in b u y in g a J im
so n p a in tin g . G u lle y m e e t s th e B e e d e r s and is c h a r m e d b y th e ir m o n e y .
H e p r o m is e s th em a p a in tin g an d g o e s to C o k er to g e t th e " F a ll" b a c k ,
o n ly to le a r n th a t M r s . C o k er m e n d e d th e r o o f w ith it. A la b a s te r t e l l s
h im th e B e e d e r s w a n t a p ic tu r e o f S a r a lik e th e one H ic k so n o w n s.
G u lle y v i s i t s S a r a , w h o c la im s s h e d o e s n 't h a v e a p ic tu r e . He g o e s
1 2 2
th ro u g h h e r b ox and fin d s a g o o d p a in tin g , but sh e r e f u s e s to g iv e it to
h im , th en s a y s he c a n h a v e it if h e 'll l e t h e r w ra p it p r o p e r ly . A t h o m e ,
h e fin d s n o th in g in s id e but r o lls of t o ile t p a p e r . He g o e s to th e B e e d e r s 1
to a s k fo r m o r e tim e and le a r n s fr o m A la b a s te r th at th e y h a v e gone to
A m e r ic a fo r th r e e m o n th s. G u lley s ta y s th e w e ek en d , and w h en A la b a s
te r le a v e s w ith s o m e o th er fr ie n d s fo r th e co u n try , p r o m is e s to tu rn
o v e r th e k e y to the p o r te r . B ut h e fin d s a b e a u tifu l w a ll in th e a p a r t
m e n t, and su d d en ly h e g e ts an id e a fo r th e " R a isin g of L a z a r u s ." He
d e c id e s to c h a r g e th e B e e d e r s one h u n d red and s ix ty p ou n d s fo r it and
p aw n s s o m e of th e ir ch in a a s an a d v a n ce to bu y p a in ts , A b e l, a sc u lp to r
fr ie n d , m o v e s a b lo c k of sto n e in to th e a p a r tm e n t one a fte r n o o n w h en
G u lle y is out. He s u g g e s t s p a w n in g th e B e e d e r s ' fu r n itu r e to p r o te c t it
fr o m th e sto n e d u st. A b e l f in is h e s and r e m o v e s h is s c u lp tu r e , and
w h ile G u lley is n appin g one a fte r n o o n , th e B e e d e r s r e tu r n . He s lip s
out, and, w ith N o sy , e s c a p e s to th e c o u n try . T h ey s le e p o v e r n ig h t in a
f o r e s t , and w h en G u lley w a k e s to the t r e e s he s e e s a v is io n of e te r n ity .
He s e l l s s c e n ic p o s tc a r d s on th e s t r e e t , im p ly in g th e y a r e d ir ty p i c
tu r e s , and is b e a te n up b y th e r e g u la r h a w k er fo r in v a d in g h is t e r r it o r y .
In th e h o s p ita l h e g e ts th e " b ig g e s t id e a of m y lif e . . . a C r e a tio n ."
B a ck in L ondon , h e m o v e s in w ith C o k er, w ho is now a g r u m b lin g but
d e v o te d m o th e r of a b e a u tifu l b a b y b o y . He fin d s a m a r v e lo u s w a ll in a
c o n d e m n ed b u ild in g and s ta r ts to w o r k . V is itin g h is e x - w if e R o z z ie 's
g r a v e , he m e e t s S a ra , w ho h ad b e e n h e r fr ie n d . S a r a s a y s sh e w ill s e l l
th e p ic tu r e in o r d e r to put b y m o n e y fo r h e r fu n e r a l. G u lley le a v e s h e r
in a pub, g o e s to h e r fla t to s t e a l th e p ic tu r e , is s u r p r is e d b y h e r , and
p u sh e s h e r dow n a flig h t of s t e p s . N o sy t e lls h im th a t h e h a s s e e n
123
s o m e o n e co p y in g th e p ic tu r e of S a ra w h ic h H ic k so n le f t to th e T a te M u
seu m in h is w ill. G u lley m a k e s a co p y to s e l l to th e B e e d e r s and g o e s
b ack to h is w a ll. H e is r e p e a te d ly w a r n e d by th e d is t r ic t c o u n c il th at
the w a ll w ill be to r n dow n. B e e d e r and s e v e r a l w e a lth y p e o p le c o m e to
s e e G u lley; th e y a r e u n in te r e s te d in th e w a ll and w a n t G u lley to do a
p o r tr a it. G u lley r e a li z e s h e w ill p r o b a b ly n e v e r f in is h th e " C r ea tio n ,"
and h e a r s a r e p o r t on the r a d io th at b e fo r e sh e d ie d S a r a d e s c r ib e d h e r
m u r d e r e r as a r e d -h a ir e d f o r e ig n e r . W ith a h ig h te m p e r a tu r e , h e
c lim b s th e s c a ffo ld , and w h ile p a in tin g h a s a lo n g im a g in a r y a r g u m e n t
w ith S a r a . A s h e p a in ts, th e d e m o lis h in g c r e w p u lls th e w a ll dow n. A ll
he c a n th in k of is a new stu d io to w o r k in w h ile he h a s th e " C rea tio n "
c le a r ly in m in d , b u t he w a k e s up in an a m b u la n c e , le a r n s th at h e is d y
in g and on h is w a y to the h o s p it a l. H e w a n ts to la u g h , th e n u r s e a d v is e s
h im to p r a y , and h e r e p lie s th a t th e tw o a r e th e s a m e .
O b v io u sly , th is is n o c a s u a l " p ic a r e sq u e " s to r y . T he H o r s e 's
M outh is the m o s t c o m p le x o f a ll of C a r y 's n o v e ls . A stu d y o f th e a e s
th e tic im a g in a tio n and c r e a t iv e p r o c e s s , it is a ls o , a s C ary c a lle d it, "a
v e r y h e a v y p ie c e o f m e ta p h y s ic a l w r itin g " (W r ite r s A t W ork , p . 65); it
is b u ilt upon th e tr ip le th e m e s of fr e e d o m , c r e a tio n , and in ju s tic e , and
c o n ta in s C a r y 's b a s ic id e a s abou t th o se th e m e s and ab ou t th e m e a n in g
l e s s n e s s of the w o r ld .
C a ry b e lie v e d m a n is fr e e to c h o o s e h is w a y o f lif e fo r go o d or
e v il, and th is is sta te d e x p lic it ly in th e p a s s a g e w h e r e th e id e a of th e
n ew " F a ll" d e v e lo p s in G u lle y 's m ind:
T he fa lle n m a n --n o b o d y 's g o in g to lo o k a fte r h im . The p o o r b a sta r d
is f r e e - - a f r e e and r e s p o n s ib le c it iz e n . T he F a ll in to fr e e d o m . Y e s,
I m ig h t c a ll it th e F a ll in to F r e e d o m . . . .
124
Y e s . . . F r e e to cu t h is b lo o d y th r o a t, if h e lik e s , or u n d e r sta n d
th e b lo o d y w o r ld , if h e l i k e s , and co o k h is b r e a k fa s t w ith h e llf ir e , if
h e lik e s , and c o n s tr u c t fo r h im s e lf a lit t le h e a v e n o f h is ow n, if h e
lik e s , a ll c o m p le te w ith a p ig - f a c e d a n g e l an d e v e r y s p ir itu a l p l e a s
u r e in c lu d in g th e jo y s of lo v e ; or a ls o , o f c o u r s e , h e ca n b u ild h im
s e l f a lit t le h e ll f u ll of p ig - f a c e d d e v ils an d a ll m a t e r ia l m i s e r i e s in
c lu d in g th e jo y s of lo v e an d e n jo y in it s u c h to r t u r e s of th e d a m n ed
th a t he w ill w a n t to b u rn h im s e lf a liv e a h u n d red t im e s a d a y , but
w o n 't b e a b le to do it b e c a u s e h e k n ow s it w ill g iv e su c h e x tr e m e
p le a s u r e to a ll h is f r ie n d s . H e 's in h e ll, th a t is , r e a l h e l l - - m a t e r i a l
h e ll, n a ile d to th e e v e r la s t in g f ir e w ith a r e d - h o t c la g ; and h is k ic k s
and w r ig g le s a r e en o u g h to m a k e a c a t la u g h . In f a c t, th e y a r e th e
c h ie f a m u s e m e n t of a ll th e o th e r c it iz e n s in th e s a m e p o s itio n , (p.
166)
W hen N o s y a s k s G u lle y if th e " F a ll" w ill lo o k r e a l, G u lle y a n s w e r s " N o
b o d y e v e r sa w th e r e a l - - b u t y o u c a n f e e l it. . . . Y e s, I f e e l it, th e s o lid
fo r m s o f th e im a g in a tio n ."
It is th ro u g h h is im a g in a tio n th a t m a n c r e a t e s h is w o r ld . T he
n e c e s s i t y to c r e a t e is b oth a b le s s in g and a c u r s e b e c a u s e th e e ffo r t c a n .
n e v e r c e a s e .
Im a g in a tio n , u n d e r s ta n d in g . . . . to e n te r in to e a c h o th e r 's
m in d s . . . . lo v e d o e s n 't g r o w on t r e e s lik e a p p le s in E d e n - - it 's
s o m e th in g y o u h a v e to m a k e . A nd y o u m u s t u s e y o u r im a g in a tio n to
m a k e it to o , ju s t lik e a n y th in g e l s e . It's a ll w o rk , w o r k . T he c u r s e
of A d a m . B ut if h e d o e s n 't w o r k , h e d o e s n 't g e t a n y th in g , e v e n lo v e ,
(p. 165)
B e c a u s e c r e a t io n n e v e r c e a s e s , w h a t is a lr e a d y e s t a b lis h e d is
e n d a n g e r e d and d e s t r o y e d b y th e n e w ly c r e a t e d , and c o n flic t e n s u e s ,
c a u s in g th e n e v e r - e n d in g in j u s t ic e of th e w o r ld . E v e r y tim e G u lle y is
m a d e c o n s c io u s ly a w a r e of th e in j u s tic e o f th e w o r ld , h is m e m o r y r e
tu r n s to th e lif e o f h is s i s t e r J e n n y , w h o s y m b o liz e s m i s e r y to h im .
W hen h e sa w h e r r e d u c e d to s k in and b o n e s a ft e r one y e a r of m a r r ia g e
to R an k en , an u n s u c c e s s f u l in v e n to r , "It m a d e m e s w e a r . . . . B ut I
w a s y o u n g th en . . . . I d id n 't m a k e a llo w a n c e s fo r o th er p e o p le d o in g
w h a t th e y lik e d , a s w e ll a s m y s e lf " (p. 1 2 2 ). T o k e e p J e n n y h a p p y , a ll
125
of G u lle y 's s a v in g s fo r th r e e y e a r s w e n t to R a n k en to sp e n d on h is in
v e n tio n s . E v e n tu a lly R a n k en b e c a m e s u c c e s s f u l, but he w a s s t i l l u n h a p
p y , an d J e n n y " b egan to f e e l w h a t lif e w a s lik e w h en y o u liv e d it w ith a
m a n w ith a g r ie v a n c e . L ik e b e in g s w a llo w e d b y a v e r y b ig la z y sh a r k ,
w h o c a n 't sto p if h e w a n ts to" (p. 151). A t t h ir t y -tw o J en n y w a s w o r n
out, an d G u lle y h ad t r ie d to c o n s o le h e r b y s a y in g th a t h e r lu c k w o u ld
tu rn . J en n y s a id it w a s n 't lu ck ; it w a s " ju st th in g s I su p p o se ." G u lley
d e c id e s th a t J en n y c o u ld f o r g iv e an y in j u s tic e to h e r s e l f b ut n o t to h e r
h u sb a n d . "No on e on e a r th c o u ld do a n y th in g fo r h e r . Sh e w a s p u sh e d
r ig h t up a g a in s t it, a s th e y sa y " (p. 2 2 7 ). W hen R a n k en le f t h e r , J e n n y
put h e r h e a d in a g a s o v e n . " H e'd a lw a y s h ad h is g o v e r n o r s and r e g u
la t o r s to th in k ab ou t. B ut s h e 'd o n ly h a d R o b e r t and w h e n h e w e n t off,
sh e h a d n o th in g and n o id e a o f a n y th in g " (p. 2 2 4 ).
T he in j u s tic e o f J e n n y 's lif e p a r a lle ls , in G u lle y 's m in d , th e
p r e s e n t in j u s tic e o f P la n t 's l i f e . W h ere J e n n y c o m m itte d s u ic id e , P la n t,
th e p e r e n n ia l p h ilo s o p h e r , sp e n d s h is d a y s s e e k in g fu n d a m e n ta l c a u s e s .
G u lle y c o n s id e r s th e w o r ld m e a n in g le s s { C a r y 's v ie w ), b ut P la n t w a n ts
to th in k th a t lo s in g h is h an d m u s t m e a n s o m e th in g , th a t th e r e m u s t b e a
r e a s o n fo r it. G u lle y r e p lie s ,
"W hy sh o u ld it m e a n a n y th in g ? D o e s a k ic k in th e s to m a c h fr o m
a b lin d h o r s e m e a n a n y th in g ? "
O ld P la n t sh o o k h is h e a d . "It c a n 't b e w a s te d . It's a r e v e la tio n .
It m a k e s m e f e e l lik e I n e v e r k n ew a n y th in g b e fo r e ."
"W hat do y o u know n ow , M r. P la n t? "
H e sh o o k h is h e a d . " T h a t's w h e r e th e th in k in g c o m e s in ." (p.
119)
G u lle y f ig u r e s th a t P la n t "has a s e n s e of j u s t ic e . . . . A nd h e c a n 't g e t
o v e r i t - - n o t a t h is a g e" (p. 121). G u lle y k n o w s th a t th e r e is no j u s t ic e
1 2 6
and " th ere c a n 't be a n y su c h th in g in th is w o rld " (p. 158); th e r e fo r e , he
d o e s n o t le t in ju s tic e c r u s h h im but l i v e s in c r e a tio n , in c o n sta n t r e n e w
a l. E v en in th e a m b u la n ce a s h e la y s d y in g , he c o u n s e ls N o sy to g e t r id
of h is s e n s e of in ju s tic e or h e 'll f e e l s o r r y fo r h im s e lf and ro t aw ay.
C a r y u s e d id e a s a n d -q u o ta tio n s fr o m W illia m B la k e , p a r tic u la r ly
fr o m " J e r u s a le m ," w h ic h G u lley kn ow s b y h e a r t, to p r o v id e a v e r b a l
fo r m fo r G u lle y 's id e a s . B la k e , both p o e t and a r t is t , w a s th a t r a r e in
d iv id u a l w ho c o u ld c r e a te in tw o a r t is t ic m e d ia and co u ld tr a n s la te e x
p e r ie n c e fr o m th e te r m in o lo g y of one m e d iu m to a n o th e r . A s G u lle y 's
id e a s ta k e sh a p e h e e x p r e s s e s th em in B la k e a n t e r m s , and B lak e s tim u
la t e s h im to b e tte r and c le a r e r e x p r e s s io n . T h is is p a r tic u la r ly e v id e n t
in the p a s s a g e s abou t th e c r e a t iv e p r o c e s s . In th e v e r y b e g in n in g of the
b o o k G u lley q u o te s B la k e a s h e w a lk s b y th e T h a m es:
F iv e w in d o w s lig h t th e c a v e r n e d m an : th ro u g h one h e b r e a th e s the
a ir;
T h ro u g h one h e a r s m u s ic o f th e s p h e r e s ; th ro u g h one c a n lo o k
A nd s e e s m a ll p o r tio n s of th e e te r n a l w o r ld , (p. 1)
G u lley at h is b e s t, h is m o s t c r e a t iv e , s e e s " s m a ll p o r tio n s of the e t e r
n a l w o rld " and liv e s in th e th ou gh t th at "the w o r ld of im a g in a tio n is the
w o r ld of e te r n ity " (p. 32). He th in k s of lo v e in B la k e 's te r m s of m a n
g o in g " th rou gh g e n e r a tio n to r e g e n e r a tio n ." W hen P la n t t r i e s to e x
p la in G u lle y 's p a in tin g to th e h o s t ile p r e a c h e r s , it s e e m s to G u lley to
b e lik e B la k e 's "old w o m a n of th e w o rld " w ho " n a ils th e bab e dow n on
th e r o c k ," m e a n in g th a t a w o r k of im a g in a tio n is b e in g su b m itte d to a
lo g ic a l a n a ly s is . T he p e a k of G u lle y 's e x p r e s s io n of c r e a tio n in
B la k e a n t e r m s is th e p a s s a g e w h e r e h e t r i e s to e x p la in th e p a in tin g of
S a r a to C ok er: "H alf a m in u te of r e v e la t io n is w o r th a m illio n y e a r s of
know n o th in g .''
127
C o k e r 's h o s t ili t y an d in c o m p r e h e n s io n , do n o t m a r G u lle y 's ow n
e n jo y m e n t, an d e n jo y m e n t le a d s h im fr o m id e a s to c r e a t io n .
B e in g a liv e w a s e n o u g h - - t o c o n te m p la te G o d 's m a g n if ic e n c e and
e t e r n it y . T h a t w a s h a p p in e s s . . . .
B u t m y p o in t is t h i s , I s a id . C o n te m p la tio n i s n o t th e d o in g s . It
d o e s n 't g e t t h e r e , in f a c t . . . .
Y e s , I s a id to m y s e lf , I'v e g o t s o m e th in g . C o n te m p la tio n , in fa c t, is
ON T H E O U T S ID E . . . . F r e e d o m , to b e p la in , is n o th in g b u t T H E IN
SID E O F T H E O U T S ID E .
W h e r e a s O ld B ill, th a t d a m n e d E n g lis h m a n , d id n 't u n d e r s ta n d
a n y th in g e l s e b u t f r e e d o m , and s o a ll h is n o n s e n s e is fu ll o f tru th ;
an d e v e n th o u g h h e m a y b e a b it o f an o u t s id e r , HIS O U T SID E IS ON
T H E IN S ID E . . . .
B u t w h a t y o u g e t on th e in s id e , I s a id to m y s e lf , is th e w o r k s - -
it 's S O M E T H IN G T H A T G O ES ON G O ING ON. H o ld on to th a t, o ld
b o y , I s a id , fo r i t ' s th e f a c t s of l i f e . I t's th e g in g e r in th e g in g e r
b r e a d . . . . I t's th e k ic k in th e o ld h o r s e . I t's th e c r e a t io n . A nd
th a t's w h e r e it ' s le a d in g m e . R ig h t up to th a t b la s t e d p ic t u r e of
m in e . . . .
W hat h a p p e n s to a th o u s a n d E v e s a n d A d a m s e v e r y n ig h t o f th e w e e k
s o m e w h e r e u n d e r th e w illo w s o r th e p a lm t r e e s h a d e . . . . I t's n o t
p le a s u r e , o r p e a c e , o r c o n te m p la tio n , o r c o m fo r t, o r h a p p i n e s s - - i t ' s
a F a ll. Into th e p it . T h e g ro u n d g iv e s w a y , and d o w n y o u g o , h e a d
o v e r h e e l s . U n le s s , of c o u r s e , y o u kn ow h o w to f ly . T o r i s e a g a in
on y o u r w in g s . . . .
Y e s , I th o u g h t, t h e r e 's B illy a g a in . H a n d in g m e th e tr u th . E v e n
w h e n I w o u ld n 't ta k e it. T h a t's w h a t h e w a s s a y in g a l l h is l i f e . . . .
It's w is d o m in v is io n . I t's th e p r o p h e t ic e y e in th e lo in s . T h e p a s
s io n o f in t e llig e n c e . Y e s , b y G ee an d G ay, I th o u g h t. T he e v e r l a s t
in g c r e a t io n o f d e lig h t. T h e jo y th a t is a lw a y s n ew a n d f r e s h b e
c a u s e it is c r e a t e d . T h e r e v e la t io n e v e r r e n e w e d , in e v e r y f a ll . (p.
95)
C a r y 's id e a s a b ou t th e im p o r ta n c e o f a r t to s o c i e t y a r e a ls o e x
p l i c i t l y s ta te d , p a r t ic u la r ly in G u lle y 's e x p la n a tio n s o f a r t to N o s y .
G u lle y s a y s w ith s a v a g e ir o n y ,
A ll a r t i s b ad , b u t m o d e r n a r t is th e w o r s t . . . . T h e n e w e r it i s , th e
m o r e d a n g e r o u s . A n d m o d e r n a r t is n o t o n ly a p u b lic d a n g e r - - i t ' s
in s id io u s . Y ou n e v e r k n ow w h a t m a y h a p p e n w h e n i t ' s g o t l o o s e , (p.
16)
128
S in c e a r t is th e m o s q u ito th a t s tin g s th e b o tto m of a la z y w o r ld th a t
w a n ts o n ly to s le e p , it is th e f o r c e b eh in d p r o g r e s s : "God, n ot in te n d
in g to lo s e a v a lu a b le p e d ig r e e d h o g th a t w a y , h a s s e n t th e m o s q u ito to
g iv e it e x e r c i s e , and f e v e r and th e f e a r of d eath " (p. 2 0 8 ). G u lle y
e q u a te s m o d e r n a r t, e s p e c ia lly in it s C u b ist p h a s e , w h ic h h e th in k s an
o v e r - s im p lif ic a t io n , w ith th e m o d e r n S o c ia lis t s ta te w h ic h t r i e s to s u b
due h u m a n c o m p le x ity u n d er o r g a n iz e d p la n n in g , s u b s titu tin g s e c u r it y
fo r fr e e d o m .
I p a in te d s o m e c u b is ts m y s e lf o n c e and th o u g h t I'd g o t m y m a id
e n tin d er p a d lo c k at l a s t . N o m o r e c h a s e , no m o r e tr o u b le . T h e f o r
m u la of a n ew c l a s s i c a l a r t. . . .
C u b isto n . On th e g r a v e l. A ll s e r v i c e s . M o d e rn d e m o c r a c y .
O r g a n iz e d c o m f o r t s . T h e S o c ia lis t s t a t e . B u r e a u c r a tic lib e r a lis m .
S c ie n t if ic m a n a g e m e n t. A n ew s e c u r it y . B ut I d id n 't liv e th e r e lo n g
m y s e lf . I g o t in d ig e s tio n , (p. 55)
G u lle y 's s ta te m e n t th a t w h e n g o v e r n m e n ts s u c c e e d in s t if lin g
o r ig in a l a r t th e r e s u lt is an in s id io u s d r y r o t th a t s p r e a d s th ro u g h th e
w h o le s o c ie t y r e f le c t s C a r y 's o p in io n th a t it is d a n g e r o u s to s o c ie t y to
a tte m p t to c o n tr o l and c e n s o r a r t i s t s . N o s y la c k s G u lle y 's fa ith and is
a fr a id th a t a r t c a n be sto p p e d a lto g e th e r . S p e c if ic a lly , h e is w o r r ie d
th a t th e w a ll on w h ic h th e " C r ea tio n " is b e in g p a in te d w ill f a ll dow n.
G u lle y k n o w s th e e v e n tu a lity ; "it w ill f a ll d ow n ."
"Y our w -w o r k w ill b e l o s t f o r e v e r ." " T h a t's it, N o sy , b u t t h e r e 'll
s t i l l b e a lo t of b lo o d y f o o ls p a in tin g p ic t u r e s , e v e n w a ll p ic t u r e s .
You c a n 't sto p a r t b y d ro p p in g b r ic k s on its h e a d ." (p. 25 7 )
T h ou gh G u lle y k n ow s n o th in g c a n sto p a r t, h is a ttitu d e to w a r d
th e lif e of an a r t is t is m o r e a m b iv a le n t. W hen N o s y a n n o u n c e s he
w a n ts to be an a r t is t and th a t th e r e m u s t b e a r t is t s in th e w o r ld , G u l
l e y ' s im m e d ia te r e p ly i s , " Y e s, and lu n a tic s and le p e r s , but w h y go and
liv e in an a s y lu m b e fo r e y o u 'r e s e n t fo r ? " (p. 14). G u lle y d e s c r ib e s h is
129
fa th e r , a fin e a r t is t w h o p a in te d p e o p le "w ith th e ir n o s e s b e tw e e n th e ir
e y e s " (p. 15), w ho liv e d in p o v e r ty , and h is m o th e r w h o r a is e d h e r f a
m ily by s h e e r c o u r a g e . K now ing th e p e n a lty o f an a r t is t 's lif e , G u lle y
n e v e r m e a n t to be an a r t is t . H e r e v ie w s th e s t a g e s of h is a r t is t ic d e
v e lo p m e n t, g iv in g c a p s u le d e fin itio n s o f w h o le a r t m o v e m e n ts , b e g in n in g
w ith h is f i r s t p e r io d a s a C la s s ic , " a ll c o r r e c t . . . . A n ic e p ie c e of
s tu ff. L ik e a n ic e s a u s a g e ." A fte r M a n et " sk in n ed " h is e y e s , h e fin a lly
c a m e to I m p r e s s io n is m , "pu re s e n s a tio n . . . . J u s t a h a r p in th e w in d ."
C a r y m a k e s a t e llin g a n a ly s is of th e a p p ea l of I m p r e s s io n is m . P e o p le
lik e it " b e c a u se it h a s n 't a n y id e a in it. B e c a u s e it d o e s n 't a s k a n y th in g
fr o m th e m . . . B ut G u lle y g o t t ir e d of I m p r e s s io n is m , " tir e d of s u
g a r . I g r e w up ." A fte r h e sa w B la k e 's Job d r a w in g s , "G oodbye Im
p r e s s io n is m , a n a r c h is m , n ih ilis m , D a r w in is m , . . . H a il th e n ew C la s
s ic ! " T h e p o in t of G u lle y 's le c t u r e is th a t th e a r t is t 's g r e a t e s t p r o b
le m is a lw a y s fin d in g h is fo r m . T h e C u b ists th ou gh t th e y h ad s o lv e d th e
p r o b le m f o r e v e r , but th e y d id it "too e a s il y . T h e y k n o ck ed th em dow n
w ith h a m m e r s and t ie d up th e fr a g m e n ts w ith w ir e . . . . th e r e s t lo o k
m o r e lik e b ir d - c a g e s th an fo r m s of in tu itio n an d d e lig h t" (p. 56).
T a k in g th e b a d w ith th e g o o d , G u lle y d e c id e s th a t
A n yon e w h o g o e s in fo r a r t d e s e r v e s w h a t h e g e t s . If h e en d s up in
th e A c a d e m y , h e o u gh t to th an k G od th a t h e e s c a p e d w o r s e . . . . A nd
if h e e n d s in th e w o r k h o u se h e ou gh t to s a y to h im s e lf: A fte r a ll, I've
b e e n out fo r a g o o d t im e . A nd I'v e h ad a d a m n g o o d tim e to o . (p.
132)
A n y th in g th e a r t is t s u f f e r s is w o r th th e fe w m o m e n ts in h is lif e w h e n
th e s h e e r jo y o f c r e a t io n m a k e s h im f e e l o m n ip o te n t.
C e r ta in ly an a r t is t h a s no r ig h t to c o m p la in of h is fa t e . F o r h e h a s
g r e a t p le a s u r e s . T o s t a r t n ew p ic t u r e s . E v e n th e w o r s t a r t is t th a t
e v e r w a s , e v e n a o n e - e y e d m e n ta l d e fic ie n t w ith th e s h a k e s in b oth
h a n d s w h o s e t s ou t to p a in t th e c h ic k e n -h o u s e , ca n e n jo y th e f i r s t
130
stro k e. Can think, B y God, lo o k w hat I’ve done. A m ir a c le . I have
tr a n sfo r m e d a hunk of w ood, ca n v a s, e tc ., into a sp ir itu a l fa ct, an
e te rn a l b eauty. I am God. Y es, the beginn ing, the f ir s t stro k e on a
p ic tu re , or a back fe n c e , m u st be one of the k e e n e st p le a s u r e s open
to m ankind. It's c e r ta in ly the g r e a te s t that an a r tis t can h av e. It's
a ls o the only one. And it d o esn 't la s t lo n g --u s u a lly about fiv e m in
u te s. (p. 161)
G ulley, the c r e a tiv e m an, d e te s ts c r it ic s , and, given the op p or
tunity, s a t ir iz e s them w ick ed ly . A t h is k in d est he ad m its that he knew a
c r itic once w ho "even knew w hat a p ictu re w as" {p. 130). But in m o re
c h a r a c te r is tic m ood s he s a tir iz e s the p om pous sty le of a rt c r itic s :
But the m a tch w ent out b efo re I cou ld s e e w h eth er I w as look in g at a
genuine in tu ition of fu nd am en tal and u n iv e r sa l e x p e r ie n c e in p la s tic
fo r m s of c la s s ic a l p u rity and s im p lic ity , or a p ie c e of b a refa ced
p orn ograph y that ought to be d ea lt w ith by the p o lic e , (p. 16)
W hen he c o p ie s h is own w ork of "Sara in the Bath" in o rd er to s e ll it to
the B e e d e r s, he r ec a p tu r es the fr e s h n e s s of h is e a r lie r sty le , a fea t
that c r it ic s d e c la r e is im p o ssib le , and he ex u lts in h is s k ill and lau gh s
at the stu p id ity of c r it ic s .
And b efo re four o 'c lo c k the n ext aftern oon I had the p r e ttie s t e a r ly
J im so n you e v er saw . Sk etch for the Bath. Or ra th er, from the
Bath, but b ea rin g on its fa c e a ll th o se indubitable m a rk s w h ich as the
c r ic k e ts sa y , te s tify to that e a r ly fr e s h n e s s of v is io n and b ravu ra of
e x ecu tio n w hich can n ev er be im ita ted by a hand w h ich in a cq u irin g a
m a tu re d e c isio n of p u rp o se, has lo s t, n e v e r th e le s s , that je ne s a is
quoi, w ith out w h ich p erh ap s no w ork of art is e n titled to the nam e of
g en iu s, (p. 255)
The B lak ean c o n cep ts of life and a rt u n d erlie G u lley 's r e la tio n
sh ip w ith S ara, h is attitu d e tow ard w om en , and h is w ork . The th ree
m o st im p ortan t w om en in h is life w e r e h is m oth er and tw o of h is
" w iv es," Sara and R o z z ie . Som e of h is attitu d es are a ls o r e v e a le d in
h is a ffectio n fo r C oker and in h is d islik e of the w ay A b el, the scu lp to r,
tr e a ts h is w ife L olie; " after a ll, w om en a re an e s s e n tia l raw m a te r ia l."
G u lley 's m oth er had b een the tru e V icto ria n w om an and he s till
131
co m p a res w om en to h e r .
H er id ea w as duty and d evotion . H er v is io n w a s, p e r fe c t s e r v ic e .
And w hen papa stopp ed s e llin g p ic tu r e s and sh e found h e r s e lf w ith
fiv e ch ild ren to fe e d and no m on ey, and a husband who w a s a lr ea d y
brokenh earted; w hen, that is , the old w om an n a iled h er down on the
ro ck of n e c e s s it y and cut h e r h ea rt open sh e c a r r ie d on w ith duty and
devotion . She w en t on w o rsh ip p in g r e a l art, p ap a's art, and sh e ev en
w ent on having ch ild ren , or w h ere sh ou ld I be now? She w ent on co n
ducting h e r life in the grand c la s s ic a l s ty le . Y es, th at's w hat it w a s.
And w hat a tech n iq u e w hen you co m e to think of it. N othing lik e the
c la s s ic a l. A s e n s e of fo rm . N one of your su r fa c e tr ic k s; but so lid
co n stru ctio n , (p. 48)
Sara w as quite an oth er s t o r y - - h e r id ea of life w as not duty and
d evotion , at le a s t not as G ulley w anted th em . S ara w as not a w om an to
G ulley, sh e w as a ll w o m e n --g o o d and bad. W hen he f ir s t m et h er she
w a s in h er la te th ir tie s and goin g "full b la st on a ll c y lin d e r s. R egu lar
m a n -k ille r ." Sara w as the e te r n a l s e d u c tr e s s in w om an.
She b e lie v e d in b u tter, S ara did. G rea sin g the s lid e s . Why, she
could n 't a sk you to have so m e m o r e crea m w ithout putting the
co m eth er in h er v o ic e and sh ootin g off h er e y e s and jerk in g up h er
fron t, (p. 21)
A cco rd in g to G ulley, S ara grabbed h im y e t n e v e r w ould adm it it, e v en to
h e r s e lf.
S ara cou ld c o m m it a d u ltery at one end and w eep for h er sin s at the
oth er, and en joy both o p era tio n s at on ce. She w a sn 't a w o m a n --s h e
w as a bag fu ll of w om en, and ev er y o n e w o r se than a ll the o th er s.
G u lley 's b a sic co m p lain t a g a in st Sara w as that a ll h er atten tion
w as c en te re d on h e r s e lf, and h e a d m its he h it h e r "Just to le t you know
th e r e 's som eb od y e ls e in th e w orld" (p. 23). A s he w a tch es h e r w h ile
v is itin g h er hom e w ith C oker, sh e s t ill g o e s through th e act of a s e d u c
tiv e w om an, a rra n g in g h er s k ir ts , h er a r m s, and h er e x p r e ssio n . "I'd
s e e n h er do the w h ole a ct a th ousand tim e s and w anted to g iv e her a
rap. J u st to bring to h er atten tion the e x iste n c e of the fo rg o tten m an"
< P - 27).
132
T h e c o m p la in t a b o u t "the f o r g o tte n m an " m a k e s G u lle y sou n d
lik e a lit t le b oy w h o is n 't g e ttin g a ll o f h is m o t h e r 's a tte n tio n , but he r a
t io n a liz e s th at a ll S a r a 's a tte n tio n to h im w a s fo r h e r ow n s a t i s f a c t i o n - -
" S tir r in g a ll th a t f ir e o n ly to c o o k h e r ow n p o t. G ro w in g w in g s on m y
fa n c y o n ly to s tu ff a f e a th e r bed" (p. 4 2 ). G u lle y tu r n s to B la k e to p u t
h is f e e lin g s in to w o r d s . H e s e e s S a r a a s th e o ld w o m a n w ho bound m a n
dow n in ir o n th o r n s, cu t h is h e a r t ou t, and f in g e r e d e v e r y n e r v e , u n til
m a n " r en d s up h is m a n a c le s " and " p la n ts h im s e lf in a ll h e r n e r v e s " and
" sh e b e c o m e s h is d w e llin g - p la c e ." G u lle y t r a n s la t e s it in to s t i l l m o r e
p e r s o n a l te r m s :
M a te r ia lity , th a t is , S a r a , th e o ld f e m a le n a tu r e , h a v in g a tte m p te d to
b u tto n up th e p r o p h e tic s p ir it , th a t is to s a y , G u lle y J im s o n , in h e r
p la c k e t - h o le , g o t a b on k on th e co n k , an d w a s r e d u c e d to h e r p r o p e r
s t a t u s , a s s p ir it u a l fo d d e r . But w h a t fo d d e r . W hat a tim e th a t w a s .
(p- 43)
W hen G u lle y c o m p a r e s S a r a and R o z z ie he r e a l i z e s th a t S a r a w a s ju s t
th e w o m a n he n e e d e d .
S a r a w a s a ty r a n t w h o t r ie d to p u t m e in a b o ttle and c o r k m e up
in to a w o m a n 's cup of te a ; and R o z z ie w a s a s la v e w h o s a id , " B e a t
m e , e a t m e , b u t n e v e r , n e v e r a s k m e to m a k e up m y m in d ."
S a r a w a s a n e m p r e s s . It w a s a g lo r y to h a v e th a t w o m a n , and to
b e a t h e r . A le x a n d e r n e v e r f e l t b ig g e r th a n m e w h e n I th u m p ed th a t
m a j e s t ic m e a t u p on th e n o s e . R o z z ie w a s a L ea h , a c o n c u b in e , a
m a n t ic k le r , th e w o r ld 's h a r e m ; sh e w a s th e v a lle y of p e a c e and jo y .
She w a s a p illo w fo r y o u r h e a d an d a f o o t s t o o l fo r y o u r r h e u m a tis m .
B ut o f c o u r s e p illo w s an d m a t t r e s s e s a r e n o t th e s o r t of b a g g a g e a
m a n w a n ts to c a r r y w ith h im on a lo n g jo u r n e y . Y ou c o u ld n e v e r g e t
y o u r ow n w a y w ith S a r a . Y ou m ig h t th in k s o , b u t th a t w a s o n ly h e r
cu n n in g . L ife w ith S a r a w a s a ll on th e d ip lo m a tic s c a le , b e tw e e n th e
g r a n d c o n tr a c tin g p a r t ie s . S o m e t im e s w e w e r e n o b le a l l i e s and c a r
r ie d on th e w a r to g e th e r , s o m e t im e s w e w e r e e n e m ie s ; but y o u w e r e
a lw a y s y o u r s e lf and S a r a w a s a lw a y s h e r s e l f , and m a k in g lo v e to
S a r a w a s a s t o r m y jo y , th u n d er an d lig h tn in g . T h e r e w a s an e x -
ch a n g e of p o w e r s , a f la s h and a ban g; J u p ite r and th e clo u d . Y ou
g a v e s o m e th in g and y o u to o k s o m e th in g . . . .
S a r a w a s a sh o t in th e a rm ; sh e b ro u g h t y o u a liv e on e w a y or
a n o th er; th e v e r y id e a o f S a r a c o u ld a lw a y s m a k e m e s w e a r o r ju m p
133
o r dan ce or sw e a t. B e c a u s e o f h e r d am n ed in d ep en d en ce and h y p o c
r is y . W hen you knew S a ra , y o u knew w om an k in d , and no one w ho
d o e s n 't know w om an k in d kn ow s an yth in g about th e n atu re of N a tu re.
B ut R o z zie w a s on ly a fe m a le and sh e n e v e r s t ir r e d up an yth in g but
lo v e and p ity . S a ra w a s a m e n a c e and a to n ic , m y b e s t en em y; R o z
z ie w a s a d is e a s e , m y w o r s t fr ie n d . S a r a m ad e a m a n of m e and
dam n n e a r ly a m u r d e r e r ; R o z z ie m ig h t h a v e tu rn ed m e into a lo p -
e a r e d c r o o n e r , (p. 246)
It is d iffic u lt to d is c u s s c h a r a c te r iz a tio n in T he H o r s e 's M ou th .
If e v e r a to ta l b ook w a s a c h a r a c te r iz a tio n of a p e r s o n a lity , the w h o le of
The H o r s e 's M outh is th e c h a r a c te r iz a tio n of G u lley . H is a c tio n s , h is
sp e e c h , h is fr ie n d s , h is r e a c tio n s to p e o p le a r e a ll e le m e n ts of c h a r a c
te r iz a tio n . T he n o v el is d iffe r e n t fr o m b oth H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d and T o
Be A P ilg r im in th at th e r e is no q u e st fo r s e lf - r e a liz a t io n . G u lley n e v
e r d e lu d es h im s e lf about h is n a tu re as do S a ra and, p a r tic u la r ly , W il-
c h e r . F ro m th e b eg in n in g of the n o v e l he is c le a r - s ig h t e d about h im
self:
H e re am I . . . G u lley J im so n , w h o se p ic tu r e s h ave b e e n bought by
th e n ation , or so ld a t C h r is tie 's b y m illio n a ir e s fo r h u n d red s of
p ou n d s. . . . and I h a v e n 't a b r u sh or a tu b e of c o lo u r . . . . I am s i m
p ly fo rb id d en to w o rk . It's en ou gh to m a k e an u n d erta k er s m ile . . . .
I m u stn 't g e t up a g r ie v a n c e . . . . I m u stn 't e x a g g e r a te . The n a tio n
h a s on ly one o f m y p ic tu r e s w h ic h w a s le f t it by w ill and w h ich q u ite
lik e ly it d id n 't w ant. . . . So I h a v e no r e a s o n to f e e l a g g r ie v e d and
ought in fa c t to thank God I h a v e n 't got c o r n s and b u n io n s, (p. 7)
It is G u lley 's h u m or and h is a b ility to s e e a ll e le m e n ts of a situ a tio n
that k eep h im sa n e e v en in the m id s t of d e s p a ir . A fte r P la n t and the
tw o p r e a c h e r s lo o k at h is A dam and E v e in the " F a ll," he r u s h e s out in
to th e open a ir .
I sh o u ld h a v e lik e d to ta k e m y s e lf in both han d s and p u ll m y s e lf
a p a rt. To s p ite m y g u ts fo r b e in g G u lley J im so n , w ho, at s ix t y - s e v e n
y e a r s of a g e , a fte r f o r t y - f iv e y e a r s of e x p e r ie n c e , co u ld b e put off
h is in te n tio n s, th o ro u g h ly b a m b o o z led and flo o r e d , by a sp ro u t of
d og m a , a b lin d sh e p h e r d , a v e g e ta te d e y e , a p u ffed -u p a d d er of m o
r a lit ie s . (p. 41)
134
B e c a u s e G u lle y k n ow s h im s e lf h e fin a lly a d m its to h im s e lf , in a
b e tte r m o o d , w h at h e r a r e ly a c k n o w le d g e s --th a t h e is a g e n iu s . He t e l l s
C ok er w h o, of c o u r s e , d o e s n o t b e lie v e it, "The fa c t is , C o k er, I’m f i r s t
c l a s s . . . . I'm one of th e b ig f is h . . . . B e c a u s e m y stu ff is the r e a l
stu ff. . . . T he fa c t i s , C ok ey, I'm a g e n iu s" (p. 8 1 ). He s im p ly f ig u r e s ,
kn ow in g lif e , th at fo r th e p le a s u r e of r e a liz in g th a t h e is a g e n iu s h e 'll
g e t s e v e r a l k ic k s . B ut G u lley is s e c u r e in h im s e lf and k n ow s th a t he
ca n tak e w h a te v e r c o m e s a lo n g and g iv e a c o u p le of k ic k s in r e tu r n .
G u lle y is an o p tim is t and e n jo y s lif e (p. 7 8 ), and if a n y th in g ca n
be s a id to b e G u lle y 's p h ilo s o p h y (m o st of th e b o o k is ) it is to m a k e a
v ir tu e of n e c e s s it y : "You n e e d to tak e n e c e s s it y and m a k e h er do w h at
y o u w an t. . . . L o o k at w h at M ick A n g e lo did in b la c k and w h ite or a
chun k of rock " (p. 4 8 ). He k n ow s th e r e is no s e n s e in w a s tin g o n e 's
lim ite d tim e and e n e r g y la m e n tin g in j u s tic e - -n o t h in g w ill be ch a n g ed .
A nd h e k n ow s th at s e lf - p it y is a b lo o d s u c k e r , and th at h a te is c o r r o s iv e .
H e a d v is e s C o k er, w h o b o ils w ith h a tr e d of th e b lo n d e w h o s to le h e r
b o y fr ie n d , th a t if s h e m u s t h a te sh e sh o u ld h a te so m e th in g a b s tr a c t:
h a te th e g o v e r n m e n t or th e p e o p le o r th e s e a o r m e n , but d o n 't h ate
an in d iv id u a l p e r s o n . . . . N e x t th in g y o u know h e 'll be g e ttin g into
y o u r b e e r lik e p r u s s ic a c id . . . . A nd a n ic e fo o l y o u 'd lo o k if he
k n ew . (p. 87)
G u lle y 's s a lv a tio n is w ork ; h is kin d of c r e a t iv it y s im p ly ca n n o t
b e s e a le d o ff. It c a n b e th w a r te d or r e p r e s s e d , s o h is g r e a t e s t h a p p i
n e s s is to w o r k w ith o u t fr u s tr a tio n . T h at is w h y th e c lim a x of h is lif e
is th e w a ll of th e " C r e a tio n " -- " Y ou 've r o lle d in to p o r t a t la s t . Y ou ’v e
got y o u r b r e a k . F i r s t the id e a and th e n th e w a ll. God h a s b e e n g o o d to
you" (p. 2 3 4 ). The o th er w o r k s lik e th e L a z a r u s w a ll and th e c a n v a s e s
of th e " F a ll" a r e l e s s e r e n jo y m e n ts. G u lle y is th e tr u e c r e a to r w ho
135
l i v e s in th e p r e s e n t c r e a t io n . W hat h e h a s d on e b e fo r e is fin is h e d and
fo r g o tte n . H e d o e s n ot c a r r y h is p a s t a c h ie v e m e n ts a ro u n d lik e a p a c k
o n h is b a ck .
T h e c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n of G u lle y i s , a b o v e a ll, th e p o r tr a it o f th e
c r e a t iv e m in d a t w o r k , an d is C a r y 's s u p r e m e a c h ie v e m e n t in th e p o r
t r a y a l of th e c r e a t iv e m a n . G u lle y is c o m p le t e ly c o n s is t e n t a s a c h a r
a c t e r , and h is s in g le m o tiv a tio n is th e d e s ir e to p a in t. B e c a u s e G u lle y
is , b e fo r e a n y th in g e l s e , c r e a t iv e , h is im m o r a lity , h is s e lf is h n e s s and
h is th e fts a r e a ll r e s u lt s of th is in t e n s e fo c u s in g on th e c r e a t iv e p r o c
e s s . W h a tev e r h e d o e s is fo r th e p u r p o se of p a in tin g , w h e th e r s t e a lin g
p a in ts , p o c k e tin g H ic k s o n 's m in ia t u r e s , or p a w n in g th e B e e d e r s ' fu r n i
t u r e - - t h e m o n e y is n o t to k e e p h im in c o m fo r t or to b e sp e n t on s o m e
one e l s e , but g o e s o n ly in to p a in tin g . T h is d o e s n o t e x c u s e h is a c tio n s
a g a in s t tr a d itio n a l m o r a lit y , it o n ly e x p la in s th e m .
E v e r y th in g G u lle y s e e s or h e a r s o r th in k s a b o u t is tu rn ed in to
c o lo r s y m b o ls , th en p a t t e r n s , th e n a r r a n g e d in to a c o m p o s itio n . T he
b o o k b e g in s in th e m id s t of th is p r o c e s s . G u lle y , w a lk in g b y th e
T h a m e s , m o v e s in a p r o c e s s fr o m th e o b s e r v a t io n of th e fa c tu a l w o r ld
o f an a u tu m n m o r n in g , " su n in a m is t ," " d ir ty w a te r ," to th e p a tte r n
" lik e a v ip e r s w im m in g in sk im m ilk ," to th e s y m b o l "the o ld s e r p e n t ,
s y m b o l o f n a tu r e and lo v e ," and th e n e x te n d s h is id e a s w ith B la k e 's p o
e t r y of " F iv e w in d o w s lig h t th e c a v e r n e d m a n . . . . th ro u g h one ca n
lo o k / A n d s e e s m a ll p o r tio n s of th e e t e r n a l w o r ld ." T h e p r o c e s s d o e s
n o t c u lm in a te in c o m p o s itio n b e c a u s e G u lle y r e tu r n s to th e p r e s e n t
w o r ld , e n jo y in g th e a ir and sk y , and b e c a u s e th e c o m p o s itio n o f th e
" F a ll" is a lr e a d y p r e s e n t in h is m in d and h is p r o b le m is to w o r k out
136
te c h n ic a l d if fic u lt ie s he h a s a lr e a d y e n c o u n te r e d . The c r e a tiv e p r o c e s s
g o e s on c o n tin u o u sly , an d h is bad tim e s a r e w h en h e is p r e v e n te d fr o m
p a in tin g , or th e v e r y w o r s t , w h en h is im a g in a tiv e s tim u la tio n d r ie s up.
H is r e m e d y is th a t of th e w o r k in g a r t is t , "W hen y o u c a n 't p a in t - -
P A IN T !"
A s in th e b e s t of C a r y 's c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n s th e v e r y in c o n s is t e n
c ie s of p e r s o n a lit y s e r v e to m a k e th e c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n s e e m c o n s is t e n t
ly l i f e - l i k e . T h u s, G u lley , w ho liv e s w ith a co n tin u a l a w a r e n e s s of God,
is to t a lly ir r e lig io u s in a n y c o n v e n tio n a l s e n s e . R e lig io n is so m e th in g
to be u s e d fo r p r a c t ic a l p u r p o s e s . H is m o th e r , a p r a c t ic a l w o m a n ,
w h en G u lley a s a lit t le b o y had b e e n k ic k e d b y h is u n c le , m a d e h im p r a y
fo r f o r g iv e n e s s . "She d id n 't m e a n I w a s to b e f o r g iv e n - - sh e m e a n t th a t
God w a s to p u t f o r g iv e n e s s in m e " (p. 10). T o G u lley a p r e a c h e r is
s im p ly an a r t is t in a n o th e r m e d iu m , to be a d m ir e d as a c r a fts m a n w ho
" r a ttle s a lo t of w o r d s a g a in s t h is e a r to m a k e h is b a b ie s lau gh " (p. 39),
but n o t to b e ta k e n s e r io u s ly . G u lle y c o m p a r e s h im s e lf w ith a c o n v e n
tio n a lly r e lig io u s m a n lik e W ilc h e r , w h om he c o n s id e r s d a n g e r o u s, ju s t
a s W ilc h e r c o n s id e r s h im :
M en lik e W ilc h e r , th e r e a l o ld b la c k c o a t b r e e d , out of H e llf ir e b y th e
T im e s , g e t on m y n e r v e s . . . . T h e y 'r e n o t n o r m a l. . . . T h e y 'r e a l
w a y s fit fo r ra p e and m u r d e r , and w h y n ot? B e c a u s e th e y d o n 't lo o k
u p on y o u a s h u m an . Y o u 'r e a L o s t S o u l, o r a B ad H usband, o r a
M o d e rn A r t is t . . . . T h e y d o n 't liv e in th e w o r ld w e know , c o m p o s e d
of in d iv id u a l c r e a t u r e s . . . . th e y 'r e p h a n to m s, s p e c t r e s . . . .
N o w o n d er th e y in v e n ted r e lig io n . N o th in g but th e h e a v ie s t d o g m a
c a s t in th e t h ic k e s t m e t a l ca n k e e p s u c h d e m o n s, a fr e e ts an d p o lt e r
g e is t s b o ttle d in th e ir ow n j u ic e , w h ic h is th e o n ly a c id s tr o n g
en o u g h to d is in f e c t th e ir v ir t u e s , (p. 177)
G u lley is th e tr u e a n a r c h is t, the c r e a to r w h o c o n s ta n tly d e v e lo p s
new fo r m s and w h o c o n s ta n tly d e s tr o y s o ld o n e s . S im ila r to h is la c k of
137
in t e r e s t in c o n v e n tio n a l r e lig io n is h is la c k of r e s p e c t fo r g o v e r n m e n t,
w h ic h to h im d o e s n o t r e a lly e x is t .
N ot th a t I'v e p e r s o n a lly g o t a bad o p in io n of g o v e r n m e n ts , a s g o v e r n
m e n ts . A g o v e r n m e n t is a g o v e r n m e n t, th a t's a ll. Y ou d o n 't e x p e c t
it to h a v e th e v ir t u e s of a g o r illa b e c a u s e it d o e s n 't b e lo n g to th e
s a m e c l a s s . It's n ot a h ig h e r a n th ro p o id . It h a s to o m a n y le g s and
hands. . . .
F o r th e p e o p le is ju s t a s b ig a d a n g er a s th e g o v e r n m e n t. I m e a n , if
y o u le t it g e t on y o u r m in d . B e c a u s e t h e r e 's m o r e of it. M o re and
w o r s e an d b ig g e r and e m p tie r and s tu p id e r . One m a n is a liv in g
so u l, but tw o m e n a r e an in d ia r u b b er m ilk in g m a c h in e fo r a b e e r e n
g in e , and th r e e m e n a r e n o is e s o ff and fo u r m e n a r e an a s y lu m fo r
c r e tin s and fiv e m e n a r e a c o m m itte e and tw e n ty - fiv e m e n a r e a
m e e tin g , and a fte r th a t y o u g e t to th e m u m m y -h o u s e at th e B r it is h
M u seu m , and th e S o v e r e ig n P e o p le and C o m m o n H u m a n ity and th e
A v e r a g e and th e P u b lic and th e M a jo r ity and th e L ife F o r c e and S ta
t i s t i c s and th e E c o n o m ic M an b r a in le s s , e y e l e s s , w ic k e d sp a w n of
th e u n iv e r s a l to a d s ittin g in th e b la c k b lo o d y d itc h of e te r n a l n igh t
and c r o a k in g fo r its m a te w h ic h is th e s p e c t r e of H e ll. (p. 21 0 )
O b v io u sly , both G u lle y 's id e a s ab ou t th e typ e of m a n , lik e W ilc h e r , w ho
s e e s p e o p le on ly in t e r m s of th e la b e ls a tta c h e d to th em , and th e r e
m a r k s abou t g o v e r n m e n t r e f le c t C a r y 's id e a s abou t th e d a n g er of th in k
ing in c o n c e p tu a l t e r m s , ab ou t th e c o n s tr ic t io n of a d u lt m in d s and
th in k in g th a t is th e r e s u lt of b e in g e d u c a te d to th in k in em p ty , a b s tr a c t
c o n c e p ts .
T he p lo t of T he H o r s e 's M outh is b u ilt a ro u n d G u lle y 's c o n tin u
a lly in te r r u p te d e ffo r ts to p a in t. T h e r e a r e fo u r s e c t io n s in th e n o v e l,
c o r r e sp o n d in g to th e fo u r p a in tin g s h e a tte m p ts to w o r k on. F i r s t th e
" F a ll," th e p a in tin g to w h ic h h e r e tu r n s fr o m ja il in th e b e g in n in g of th e
b ook . T h is s e c t io n o f th e n o v e l te r m in a t e s w h en G u lle y is s e n t to j a il
fo r s te a lin g H ic k s o n 's m in ia tu r e s , and C o k e r 's m o th e r u s e s th e c a n v a s
to m en d th e r o o f of th e b o a th o u se w h en sh e ta k e s it o v e r . In ste a d of
w e e p in g o v e r th e l o s s of h is w o r k , G u lle y is d e lig h te d to be f r e e d of it
b e c a u s e he h a s an id e a fo r a m u ch b e tte r " F a ll" in m in d . In o r d e r to
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g e t m o n e y to bu y th e c a n v a s fo r th e n ew " F a ll," h e t r i e s to g e t th e
p a in tin g fr o m S a r a to s e l l to th e B e e d e r s . T he n ew " F a ll" is put a s id e
w h e n G u lle y s ta y s a t th e B e e d e r s an d sp e n d s th r e e m o n th s p a in tin g th e
L a z a r u s w a ll. T h is s e c t io n e n d s w ith G u lle y 's e s c a p e to the c o u n tr y
and h is s t a y in th e h o s p ita l, w h e r e h e g e ts th e id e a of th e " C r e a tio n ,"
w h ic h is th e c lim a x of h is lif e an d w o r k . T he fo u r th s e c t io n c e n t e r s on
th e " C rea tio n " w a ll and its u ltim a te d e s tr u c tio n .
T h e o n ly d e v ia tio n s fr o m th is m a in p lo t lin e a r e th e A b e l- L o lie
e p is o d e a t th e B e e d e r s ' fla t, a d e p ic tio n o f an odd but s u c c e s s f u l m a r
r ia g e b e c a u s e th e w o m a n L o lie " is a tta c h e d fo r lif e ," and th e fla s h b a c k
e p is o d e o f G u lle y 's m e m o r y of th e s e v e n y e a r s of h is lif e w h e n h e w a s
h u sb a n d to b oth S a r a and R o z z ie w ith o u t e ith e r on e k n o w in g th a t h e w a s
liv in g w ith th e o th e r . T he c o m p a r is o n o f lif e w ith e a c h sh o w s G u lle y 's
r e a c tio n s to and n e e d o f d iffe r e n t w o m e n . T he o n ly w e a k p o in t in th e
w h o le p lo t is th a t S a r a le a r n s ab ou t R o z z ie 's so n , T o m , b e in g G u lle y 's
c h ild o n ly y e a r s la t e r w h en s h e and G u lle y ta lk a t R o z z ie 's g r a v e . S a r a
h a s k n ow n T om s in c e h e w a s a lit t le b o y and ta k e n c a r e o f h im ; t h e r e
f o r e , it is u n lik e ly th a t sh e w o u ld n o t k n ow w h o h is r e a l m o th e r w a s .
C a r y 's u s e of on e t e c h n ic a l d e v ic e in th e p lo t is m o s t i n t e r e s t
in g , a s it is a d e v ic e th a t h e c r i t i c i z e d s tr o n g ly in F la u b e r t 's M ad am e
B o v a ry , c la im in g th a t it w a s h ig h ly a r t if ic ia l and th a t th e r e a d e r w a s
a w a r e of its a r t if ic ia lit y . T h is is th e s c e n e w h e r e R o d o lp h e m a k e s lo v e
to E m m a a t th e c o u n tr y f a ir a g a in s t a b a c k g r o u n d o f th e p r iz e - g iv in g at
th e a g r ic u ltu r a l sh o w ("W ay A N o v e l G e ts W r itte n ," p. 9 1 ). C a ry u s e d
th e s a m e d e v ic e in th e s c e n e a t P la n t 's p h ilo s o p h ic a l m e e t in g w h e r e
S a r a and G u lle y d rin k b e e r in th e s c u l l e r y and m a k e lo v e a g a in s t th e
139
b a ck g ro u n d of a yo u n g p r e a c h e r d is c u s s in g th e n a tu re of lo v e . It is
s t i l l a d e v ic e , and th e s o p h is tic a te d r e a d e r is a w a r e of it, but I th in k
C a r y 's u s e of it is le g it im a t e and in te g r a te d b e c a u s e th e s c e n e d e v e lo p s
out of th e c h a r a c t e r s ' p e r s o n a lit ie s and th e w h o le of th e ir p r e v io u s
l i v e s . S a r a c o m e s to s e e G u lley b e c a u s e sh e is d e p r e s s e d and fe e lin g
o ld , a fr a id th at th e m a n sh e is liv in g w ith w ill se n d h e r to a h o s p ita l.
She t e l l s G u lley th a t if sh e c o u ld t r u s t h im not to put h e r in a h o s p ita l,
s h e 'd go off w ith h im a g a in . G u lley th in k s it is "the la s t flu tte r of the
o ld c a n d le " (p. 6 7 ), th a t S a r a w a n ts one m o r e flin g b e fo r e sh e d ie s , but
a s th e y d rin k m o r e b e e r , and he p u ts h is a r m a rou n d h e r to c o n s o le her,
sh e r e m e m b e r s th e ir old lo v e and lif e to g e th e r , and th e sa d s ta te of
G u lle y 's s h o e s and s o c k s b r in g s h e r a ro u n d to th e p r e s e n t m o m e n t. A s
th e y r e m e m b e r th e ir p a s t h a p p in e s s and e n jo y th e p r e s e n t, C a ry b e g in s
to c o u n ter p o in t th e y o u n g p r e a c h e r 's w o r d s ab ou t lo v e w ith S a r a 's and
G u lle y 's d ia lo g u e :
"T he n a tu re of m a n is lo v e . L o o k at th e lit t le h e lp le s s ch ild ,
b o rn s o u t te r ly d ep en d en t. D ep en d en t o n ly on lo v e ."
"He sp e a k s n ic e ly , th e you n g m a n ," s a id S a r a . "I sh o u ld n 't th in k
h e 'd b e e n m a r r ie d , do y o u ? I'm g la d it 's ab ou t r e lig io n . I h a v e n 't
b e e n to a c h u r c h fo r a lo n g tim e , I'v e b e e n s o b u sy ."
"And s o it is to lo v e a lo n e th a t N a tu re e n tr u s ts h e r m o s t im p o r
tan t ta s k . L o v e , th e s o u r c e and g u a r a n te e of a ll our h o p e s ."
" T h a t's r ig h t," s a id S a r a . "T hough g o o d n e s s k n o w s, c h ild r e n
a r e a w o r k to o . . . . Y e s, I a lw a y s lik e d c h u r c h , e v e n on a w e e k -d a y ,
and it s a v e s tim e w ith o u t a s e r m o n . ..."
" C om e, S a r a , y o u 'v e had a go o d in n in g s --y o u 'v e s q u e e z e d the
le m o n . T h r e e h u sb a n d s and f iv e c h ild r e n - - n o t co u n tin g th e sta n d -in s,
th e F r e d s and th e D i c k i e s - - i t ' s a lo t of h a p p in e s s fo r on e w o m a n ."
"D on't ta lk of h a p p in e s s lik e th a t G u lle y , a s if it w a s a ll o v e r , I
n e v e r w a s hap py u n le s s I w a s w ith y o u , and y o u g a v e m e a c h a n c e . I
a lw a y s s a y th e r e w a s no one lik e y o u fo r g a ie ty ." . . . A nd th e r e sh e
w a s lo o k in g at m e a s if sh e c o u ld e a t m e w ith o u t s a u c e , th e old
140
c r o c o d ile . I'v e s e t th e tow a lig h t in th e o ld c a sk , I th ou gh t. It's th e
la s t f la r e of th e o ld b o n fir e ; and th e r e m a y b e a lo t o f c o m b u stib le
th e r e s t i l l . You c a n 't t e l l b y th e bung, I 'll g e t m y fa c e sin g e d u n le s s
I'm c a r e fu l. . . .
"In th at k in g d o m of lo v e w h ic h is th e h o m e , d o e s any fa th e r a sk
fo r la w s to a s s i s t h is a u th o r ity ? D o es th e m o th e r se n d fo r th e p o
lic e ? " . . .
" Y e s, I a lw a y s n e e d e d a m a n to p eg m e down, a r e a l m a n . And I
o n ly fou n d o n e. B ut, I m u stn 't s a y th at, m u s t I? A nd now it's a ll
o v e r , I'm o n ly f it fo r a w a r n in g . ..."
" N a tu re, th a t s u p r e m e c r e a to r in ten d ed m a n fo r h a p p in e s s and
p e a c e , in th e e n jo y m e n t of a ll h e r b e a u t ie s - - " th e sk a te w a s sa y in g .
"It a ll h e lp s ," s a id S a r a , "But not u n le s s t h e r e 's so m e k in d n e ss
on both s i d e s - - a n d p e r h a p s w h en N atu re g o e s out, th e k in d n e ss
c o m e s in . . .
"D am n old a g e ," I s a id . "I'm not o ld , and if I w a s n 't s o b u sy and
had th e m o n e y , I'd ta k e y ou to B rig h to n to m o r r o w . . . . "
"Y ou o n ly w an t m e fo r a ch ea p m o d e l, G u lley , I kn ow ."
"T he b e s t m o d e l I e v e r h ad . W hy, S a r a , th e y 'r e g iv in g th o u
sa n d s fo r th o s e o ld s k e tc h e s of y o u in th e y e llo w b ath . And y o u 'v e
got it abou t you s t ill," and, in fa c t, I c o u ld h a v e p a in te d th e old t r o l
lop th a t m in u te if I c o u ld h a v e g o t h e r c lo th e s off. . . .
"And w h at do w e s e e ab ou t u s? " c r ie d th e sk a te , w o rk in g h im
s e lf up and a n s w e r in g h is own q u e s tio n s lik e th e en d m a n at th e n ig
g e r m in s t r e ls . "N oth in g but c r im e and h a tr e d and w a r s . . . . A nd
w h y? B e c a u s e of p r o p e r ty . . . . th a t in s titu tio n of th e d e v il. T he
lo v e of th in g s, w h ic h is th e e n e m y of G od 's lo v e - - "
A nd old P la n tie b e g a n b e a tin g h is g r e a t w a lr u s flip p e r s to g e th e r
and sh o u tin g , " H ea r, h e a r ."
" T h e r e ," s a id S a r a , "I kn ew th e you n g m a n w a s n 't m a r r ie d - - b u t
h e d o e s sp e a k n ic e . It's th e v o i c e - - l i k e b u rn t su g a r ." {p. 73)
T he s ty le of T he H o r s e 's M outh h a s b e e n c o m m e n te d up on at
g r e a t le n g th . T he s t r e a m - o f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s p a s s a g e s of c r e a tiv e a c t iv
ity w h e r e im a g e s u c c e e d s im a g e in G u lle y 's m in d w ith o u t c o n n e c tiv e
w o r d s, th e c o lo r im a g e r y w h ic h G u lley u s e s , th e in t e r s p e r s e d q u o ta
tio n s fr o m B la k e, th e f a c e t io u s n e s s and v u lg a r ity , a ll th e s e a r e .
141
e le m e n t s w h ic h s e r v e to p r e s e n t th e p e r s o n a lit y o f G u lle y J im s o n , an d
w h ic h c o u ld n o t b e m is t a k e n fo r th e c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n of a n y o th e r f ig u r e
in E n g lis h f ic t io n w h o c o m e s to m in d . C a r y s a id th a t e a c h c h a r a c t e r
h a d to r e v e a l h im s e lf in h is ow n d is t in c t iv e s t y le , an d G u lle y 's s e l f
r e v e la t io n i s a s u p e r la t iv e a c h ie v e m e n t . C a r y h a s b e e n c r i t i c i z e d fo r
g iv in g G u lle y v is u a l im a g e r y o n ly , w h ic h s e e m s to m e to b e a c o m p le te
ig n o r in g o f C a r y 's g o a l. A n a r t i s t o b v io u s ly th in k s in th e t e r m s m o s t
f a m ilia r to h im , c o lo r s y m b o ls and v is u a l im a g e r y , ju s t a s S a r a th in k s
in th e t e r m s m o s t f a m ilia r to h e r , c o o k in g m a t e r i a l s . T h is is l i f e - l i k e ;
m o s t m e n an d w o m e n a r e m o ld e d b y th e o c c u p a tio n s in w h ic h th e y sp e n d
t h e ir l i v e s - - d o c t o r s , la w y e r s , a c c o u n ta n ts o r c a r p e n t e r s e a c h h a v e a
s e t o f f a m ilia r s ta n d a r d s a n d im a g e s in w h ic h t h e ir th o u g h ts ta k e s h a p e .
L e s s o b v io u s is th e r e a s o n f o r C a r y 's u s e o f B la k e 's p o e t r y a s
p a r t of G u lle y 's s t y le , th o u g h its e f f e c t i v e n e s s is im m e d ia t e ly f e lt . G u l
le y is an a r t i s t and v is u a l im a g e r y i s h is n a tu r a l m e d iu m , b u t T he
H o r s e 's M o u th is a n o v e l a n d n o v e ls a r e m a d e up o f w o r d s , an d v is u a l
im a g e r y m u s t b e t r a n s la t e d in to and p r e s e n t e d in v e r b a l f o r m . C a r y 's
u s e o f B la k e w a s a b r illia n t s o lu t io n o f th e p r o b le m b e c a u s e B la k e 's
p o e t r y d e a ls w ith m e t a p h y s ic s in v i s u a l t e r m s an d e v o k e s in t e n s e ly p i c
t o r ia l im a g e s .
In a d d itio n to G u lle y 's b a s ic s t y le h e h a s s e v e r a l o th e r s t y le s
s u ita b le f o r d if f e r e n t o c c a s io n s . I h a v e a lr e a d y p o in te d o u t th e m a s t e r
l y s a t ir e o f th e p o m p o u s s t y le of a r t c r i t i c s , but G u lle y h i m s e l f s p e a k
in g s t r a ig h t f o r w a r d ly a b o u t a r t a s h e t r i e s to t e a c h C o k e r h o w to lo o k a t
a p ic t u r e , is q u ite a d if f e r e n t m a t t e r .
I 'll sh o w y o u h o w to lo o k at a p ic t u r e . . . . D o n 't lo o k at it. F e e l it
w ith y o u r e y e . . . th e s h a p e s in th e fla t . . . . a n d th e n y o u f e e l it in
142
th e round . . . . a ll th e r o u n d s, th e s m o o th s , th e sh a rp e d g e s , th e fla ts
and th e h o llo w s , th e lig h ts and s h a d e s , th e c o o ls and w a r m s . T he
c o lo u r s and t e x t u r e s . . . . And th e n yo u f e e l th e b ath , th e c h a ir , th e
to w e l, th e c a r p e t, th e b ed , th e ju g, th e w in d ow , th e f ie ld s , and th e w o
m a n a s t h e m s e lv e s . B ut n o t a s an y old ju g and w o m a n . But a s th e
ju g of ju g s and th e w o m a n of w o m e n . Y ou f e e l ju g s a r e lik e th a t and
y o u n e v e r knew it b e fo r e . . . .
a jug c a n be a d o o r if y o u open it. A nd a w o r k of im a g in a tio n o p en s
it fo r y o u . And th e n y o u f e e l w ith a ll th e w o m e n th a t e v e r liv e d and
a ll th e w o m e n th a t a r e e v e r g o in g to liv e , and you f e e l th e ir f e e lin g
w h ile th e y a r e a lo n e w ith t h e m s e l v e s - - i n so m e c h o s e n p r iv a te p la c e ,
b a th in g , d r y in g , d r e s s in g , c r it ic iz in g , to u ch in g , a d m ir in g t h e m s e lv e s
s a fe b eh in d lo c k e d d o o r s . N oth in g th e r e but w o m e n 's f e e lin g s and
w o m a n 's b ea u ty and c r it ic a l e y e . (p. 91)
A nd G u lley h a s s t i l l a n o th er s ty le to s a t ir iz e m illio n a ir e 's p r e te n tio u s ly
fu r n ish e d a p a r tm e n ts and o th er m o d e r n a r t is t s :
U su a l P e r s ia n r u g s and a n tiq u e s, v a s e s , m a r b le s , A fr ic a n g o d s,
A m e r ic a n m o b ile s , T a n a g r a , and r o c k c r y s t a l a s h - t r a y s . O ld p o r
tr a its in th e d in in g -r o o m , m o d e r n o ils in th e stu d io , d r a w in g s in the
b e d r o o m , w a t e r - c o lo u r s in th e h a ll. U su a l m o d e r n c o lle c t io n . W il
so n S te e r , w a te r in w a t e r - c o lo u r . . . U tr illo , w h ite w a sh e d w a ll in
m o r ta r c o lo u r ; M a tis s e , o d a lisq u e in s c o r ta c o lo u r ; P i c a s s o , s p a tc h
c o c k h o r s e in t o r t a - c o lo u r . . . . B ra q u e, h a lf a b o ttle of h a lf and h a lf
in p o r te r c o lo u r ; . . . R o u a u lt, p e r is h in g S a in t in fo r ta c o lo u r ; E p s te in ,
L ea h w a itin g fo r J a co b in s q u a w ta c o lo u r . A ll th e m o s t h ig h -to n e d
and e x p e n s iv e , (p. 138)
G u lle y 's f a c e t io u s n e s s and v u lg a r ity s e r v e tw o im p o rta n t p u r
p o s e s . T h ey c r e a te an a tm o sp h e r e of h u m o r w ith o u t w h ic h th e b o o k
w o u ld sin k of its ow n p h ilo s o p h ic a l w eig h t; at an y r a te , it n e v e r w o u ld
h a v e b e e n r e a d , m u c h l e s s h a v e b e c o m e p o p u la r . S e co n d , th e y s e r v e
s u c c e s s f u lly to e s t a b lis h w h a t C a ry c a lle d G u lle y 's d e s p e r a tio n and
r a g e a g a in s t th e w o rld ; " G u lley h a s to be v u lg a r and f a c e tio u s a s an a l
te r n a tiv e to cu ttin g h is th r o a t." T h e r e fo r e , th e y a r e e le m e n ts of c h a r
a c t e r iz a t io n as w e ll a s of s t y le .
T he u n ity of th is c o m p le x b ook d ep en d s on th e e m o tio n a l c o n ti
n u ity p r o v id e d by h u m o r . B e c a u s e th e n o v e l is funny and fu n ny about
s e r io u s th in g s lik e r e lig io n and g o v e r n m e n t, th e r e a d e r a c c e p t s m a n y
143
o p in io n s h e w o u ld n o t n o r m a lly a c c e p t, and h e s y m p a th iz e s w ith G u lley ,
a c h a r a c t e r w h o v io la t e s a ll th e n o r m a l s ta n d a r d s of A n g lo - A m e r ic a n
m o r a lit y . U n d ilu ted e c c e n t r ic it y and a n a r c h is m h a v e to be p r e s e n t e d
w ith a la r g e le a v e n o f h u m o r to b e a c c e p t e d b y r e a d e r s . I th in k th is is
th e r e a l r e a s o n fo r th e d if fe r e n c e in p o p u la r ity b e tw e e n To B e A P i l
g r im and T h e H o r se * s M o u th . T he s e r io u s n e s s of T o B e A P ilg r im is
u n r e lie v e d b y any h u m o r . C a r y w a s a s k e d if h e th ou gh t T he H o r s e 's
M outh w a s w id e ly r e a d b e c a u s e it w a s l e s s p h ilo s o p h ic a l th a n s o m e of
h is o th er w o r k s or b e c a u s e it had b e e n p r in te d in p a p e r b a c k . H is a n
s w e r w a s th a t it w a s "a v e r y h e a v y p ie c e of m e t a p h y s ic a l w r it in g ,’1 and
he a s c r ib e d its p o p u la r ity to its b e in g fu n n y {W r ite r s A t W ork , p. 6 5 ).
B y th e tim e h e w r o te T h e H o r s e 's M o u th , C a ry h ad le a r n e d a g r e a t d e a l
a b ou t th e r e a d in g p u b lic .
T he fo r m is th e s u c c e s s f u l e m b o d im e n t of a ll th e e le m e n t s of
th e n o v e l. T he c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n of th e h u m o r o u s e c c e n t r ic is m a g n e tic ,
and G u lle y 's c h a r a c t e r is fu r th e r r e v e a le d b y h is r e la t io n s h ip s w ith
S a r a , w ith w h o m h e is in " p u re o r ig in a l sy m p a th y " lik e "the o ld A dam
and th e o ld E ve" ; w ith C o k e r , w h o m h e a d m ir e s a s "one of th e M a r
th a s" ; w ith N o sy , one of th e le g io n o f th e u g ly an d d am ned; and w ith
P la n t, th e g o o d fr ie n d w ith w h o m h e d is a g r e e s ab ou t th e v e r y m e a n in g
of th e w o r ld . T he c o m p le x p lo t s e e m s c a s u a l and e p is o d ic , e n h a n cin g
th e sp o n ta n e o u s q u a lity of G u lle y 's th o u g h ts and a c tio n s , but it is c a r e
fu lly b u ilt a ro u n d G u lle y 's p a in tin g s an d r e v e a ls th e in s e p a r a b ilit y of
fr e e d o m , c r e a tio n , an d d e s tr u c tio n . T he s t y le w ith its h ig h ly in d iv id u a l
s y n ta x , u n c o n v e n tio n a l g r a m m a r , and in te n s e v is u a l im a g e r y is , a s O r
v i l l e P r e s c o t t s a y s , "the m o s t c o n v in c in g p r e s e n t a tio n of a r t is t ic
144
g e n iu s I h a v e e v e r e n c o u n te r e d in p rin t" (In M y O p in ion , p. 96). The
w h o le n o v e l is u n ifie d by its u n d e r ly in g p h ilo so p h y , w h ich , in s p ite of
its a c k n o w le d g m en t of th e tr a g e d y and in ju s tic e of lif e , r e c o g n iz e s th at
th e e s s e n c e of lif e is c r e a tio n , and th a t " life d e lig h ts in lif e ." T he
b ook is fu r th e r u n ifie d by its w it and h u m o r, ra n g in g fr o m the s im p ly
fu n n y d e s c r ip t io n of a p r e a c h e r a s a " fogh orn of s a lv a tio n ," to G u lle y 's
h a n g in g h is p ic tu r e s tw o f e e t off th e flo o r to "keep th em ab ove dog l e v
e l," to th e s a tir e of a r t c r it ic s and a r t m o v e m e n ts , to G u lle y ’s h u m o r
a s a d e fe n s e a g a in s t th e w o r ld - - " I d e c id e d to g iv e w a y to m y g a ie ty .
It’s n o t an e a s y th in g to do w h en y o u h a v e a r e a l g r ie v a n c e " (p. 160).
T he n o v e l is tr u ly w h a t C a ry th ou gh t a n o v e l sh o u ld b e - - a n e m o tio n a l
e x p e r ie n c e .
T he F i r s t T r ilo g y is C a r y 's m o n u m e n ta l im a g in a tiv e c r e a tio n of
h u m a n e x p e r ie n c e , of m a n 's and w o m a n 's p la c e in th e w o r ld , th e w o r ld
a s C ary sa w it and f e lt it. S in ce h e b e lie v e d th at a w r it e r 's v is io n of
tru th is o n ly a p a r tia l v is io n of th e w h o le w h ic h is u n k n ow ab le b y any
s in g le in d iv id u a l, and a s in g le n o v e l is a s t i l l s m a lle r p a r t of th e w r it
e r 's v is io n , he c o n c e iv e d th e id e a of th e tr ilo g y in w h ic h e a c h s e c tio n ,
tr u e in it s e lf , w o u ld c o n tr ib u te to a la r g e r tr u th . In th is tr ilo g y h e
w o r k e d out h is id e a s of th e c r e a t iv e m a n , th e c o n s e r v a tiv e m an, and th e
c r e a tiv e w o m a n , u s in g th e th e m e s o f a r t, of r e lig io n a s e x e m p lifie d in
P r o t e s t a n t is m , and of h o m e m a k in g ; and d e v e lo p e d a ll th e s e w ith in th e
fr a m e w o r k of h is id e a of th e f r e e , c r e a t iv e , and u n ju st w o r ld w h ic h
p e r p e tu a lly r e n e w s it s e lf .
B e c a u s e C a ry b e lie v e d a n o v e l m u st be f e lt a s an e x p e r ie n c e ,
n ot a s a c o n c e p t, h e c o n v e y e d h is id e a s in th e fo r m s of n a r r a tiv e s about
145
c h a r a c t e r s w h o h a v e th e v it a lit y of a c tu a l lif e . T he r e a d e r both a c c e p ts
th e c o n c e p ts in t e lle c t u a lly and f e e ls th em e m o tio n a lly . T h u s, C a ry w a s
a b le to e x p r e s s h is id e a s of th e e te r n a l w o r k of w o m a n in n e s t-b u ild in g
in H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d , of th e r o o ts of th e P r o te s ta n t tr a d itio n and th e n a
tu r e o f th e c o n s e r v a tiv e m a n in T o B e A P i lg r im , and th e d ile m m a of
th e c r e a tiv e m a n w ho w o r k s in a e s t h e t ic s y m b o ls in The H o r s e 's M ou th ,
and c o u ld c o n v e y th e s e c o n c e p ts a s r e a lit y , as "the fa c t p lu s the fe e lin g ,
a to ta l c o m p le x e x p e r ie n c e of a r e a l w o r ld " (W r ite r s A t W ork, p. 55).
C H A P T E R V
A F E A R F U L JOY A N D T H E M O O N LIG H T
B e tw e e n th e f i r s t and s e c o n d t r ilo g ie s C a ry w r o te tw o n o v e ls ,
T he M o o n lig h t and A F e a r fu l Joy, c e n te r in g o n w o m e n c h a r a c t e r s , and
d e a lin g w ith p r o b le m s v it a l ly im p o r ta n t to C a ry . A F e a r fu l J o y is a
stu d y o f th e th e m e of c h a n g e in h u m a n life : "not th e m e r e ly s u p e r f ic ia l
ch a n g e th a t w e a ll s e e , b u t w h y th is c h a n g e c o m e s " (" N o v e lis t A t W ork,"
p. 17). A c c o r d in g to C a r y , w h en h e p r o b e d th e r e a s o n fo r th e c o n s ta n t
ch a n g e in h is t o r y , w h e n h e w en t "dow n to th e r o o ts ," he fou n d th e
s o u r c e in h u m a n n a tu r e , in "the n e e d o f n o v e lty ," w h ic h m e n r e q u ir e
"to r e v iv e th e ir liv e s " (p. 17). T h e M o o n lig h t d e a ls w ith a s t i l l m o r e
b a s ic s u b j e c t - - w o m e n - - t h e ir p h y s ic a l n a tu r e , th e e f f e c t on th em o f th e
s o c ia l c o n v e n tio n s and m o r a lit i e s of a p a r tic u la r tim e , an d th e p r o b
le m in a ll t im e s o f s o c ia l c o n tr o l o v e r th e r e la t io n s h ip o f th e s e x e s .
A F e a r f u l J o y is a d e lig h tfu l n o v e l in w h ic h th e f a s t p a c e ,
c r o w d e d a c tio n , and e x u b e r a n t c h a r a c t e r s b o th r e f le c t th e in c r e a s in g ly
s w ift r a te of ch a n g e in th e w o r ld s in c e 1890 an d d is g u is e th e s e r i o u s
n e s s o f th e th e m e . T he s t o r y is a c h r o n o lo g ic a l n a r r a tiv e of th e lif e of
T a b ith a B a s k e tt, a s im p le and p r e t t y g ir l of g o o d fa m ily , s e d u c e d at
s e v e n t e e n b y a g o o d -lo o k in g f a s t - t a lk e r , D ic k B o n s e r , w h o p r o m is e s to
m a r r y h e r but a lw a y s m a n a g e s to e v a d e it. W hen T a b ith a t e l l s h im sh e
is g o in g to h a v e a b ab y a n d h e m u s t m a r r y h e r , h e k n o ck s h e r out and
146
147
d is a p p e a r s . She is ta k e n up by a w e a lth y , m id d le -a g e d c o n n o is s e u r of
th e a r t s , F r e d e r ic k S tu r g e, w h o p u b lis h e s a lit t le m a g a z in e , T he B an k -
s i d e , in an e ffo r t to o u t-d o T he Y e llo w B ook and T he S y m b o lis t, and
T a b ith a b e c o m e s th e h o s t e s s of a s a lo n m u c h fr e q u e n te d by th e " d e c a
d e n t1 1 a r t is t s of th e 1 8 9 0 's . A t t h ir t y - t h r e e sh e m a r r ie s J a m e s G o lla n ,
a r ic h ir o n - m a s t e r in h is s ix t ie s w h o is e x p e r im e n tin g w ith a f a s c in a t
in g n ew in v e n t io n -- th e a ir p la n e . G o lla n r e a li z e s th at w a r is c o m in g and
th a t m e c h a n ic a l tr a n s p o r t w ill be e s s e n t ia l. T ab ith a th in k s th e w a r a
p u n ish m e n t fo r p e o p le 's s in s . G o lla n s e e s th a t it h a s p u sh ed fo r w a r d
c a r d e s ig n by te n y e a r s and a ir p la n e d e s ig n b y tw en ty .
T he end of th e w a r b r in g s a n ew w o r ld of h ig h w a g e s , s h o r t
s k ir t s , and m o to r c a r s . G o lla n d ie s , and T a b ith a 's s o n John b e c o m e s a
don at a n ew in d u s tr ia l m id la n d c o lle g e and m a r r ie s a ty p ic a l e d u c a te d
g ir l o f th e tw e n tie s w h o th in k s th at " c o lle g e w o m e n ou gh tn 't to w a s te
t h e m s e lv e s on h a v in g f a m ilie s and d o in g d o m e s tic w o rk . B o n s e r r e
a p p e a r s and T a b ith a m a r r ie s h im , a m a z e d a t h e r h a p p in e s s . H e in
s t in c t iv e ly u n d e r sta n d s th e c h a n g e s in s o c ie ty ; p e o p le a r e in s e a r c h of
p le a s u r e and a r e n o t c o n c e r n e d w ith m o r a ls . H e b u y s h o t e ls w h ic h s o o n
b e c o m e r o a d h o u se s; c a r s h a v e ch a n g e d th e w h o le s o c ia l o r d e r and p a r
e n ts no lo n g e r c o n tr o l th e ir c h ild r e n . The a ir is fu ll of r u m o r s of w a r
w ith G erm a n y . B o n s e r a d m ir e s H itle r b e c a u s e he t e l l s p e o p le th e y a r e
s h e e p , and n o t o n ly g e ts a w a y w ith it but is lo v e d fo r it. The en d of th e
w a r b r in g s a n o th er u p h e a v a l. B o n s e r d ie s , d is s o lv e d b y a lc o h o l at
s e v e n t y - s i x . A s T a b ith a r e m e m b e r s h is ir r e s p o n s ib ilit y sh e g r o w s
^ A Fearful Joy, Carfax edition (London, 1952), p. 231.
148
a n g r y , th en r e a l i z e s th a t w ith o u t h im sh e w o u ld h a v e b e e n a b it te r and
u s e l e s s o ld w o m a n fo r th e p a s t tw e n ty y e a r s . She l i v e s fo r a tim e w ith
h e r g r a n d -d a u g h te r N a n c y and h e r h u sb a n d , P a r k in , a n e x -R A F p ilo t,
and t h e ir c h ild r e n , but P a r k in d o e s b a d ly and ta k e s h is fa m ily to C an ad a.
T a b ith a , le f t a lo n e b e c o m e s s e r io u s ly i ll, th e n r e c o v e r s , and on e day,
s ittin g in a p a r k , fin d s h e r s e l f la u g h in g a t th e s h e e r s p e c t a c le o f lif e ,
C a ry w a s e n d e a v o r in g in A F e a r fu l J o y to sh o w th e e f f e c t of
m e c h a n ic a l in v e n tio n s on s o c ia l an d m o r a l c o d e s - - o n th e w h o le w a y o f
l if e . B e g in n in g in th e 1 8 8 0 's w ith th e in tr o d u c tio n of th e b ic y c le , th e s e
m e c h a n ic a l in v e n tio n s p r e c ip it a t e d in c r e a s in g ly s w ift c h a n g e s in s o c i e
ty . T o u s th e b ic y c le s e e m s a lm o s t a s a n tiq u e a s th e o r ig in a l w h e e le d
c a r t, b u t to p e o p le w h o s e w o r ld w a s th e a r e a th e y c o u ld c o v e r on fo o t or
on h o r s e b a c k , th e b ic y c le w a s an e x t e n s io n o f th e ir r a n g e an d e n o r
m o u s ly f a c ilit a t e d c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith o th e r s . In one of h is v e r y l a s t
e s s a y s C a r y d e s c r ib e d th e im p a c t o f b ic y c le s on th e q u ie t lif e of r u r a l
Ir e la n d in th e e ig h t ie s a n d u s e d th e lif e o f one o f h is yo u n g a u n ts a s an
e x a m p le .
It w a s an e x p e n s iv e p r o p e r ty . In th a t d a y 's v a lu e it c o s t m o r e th a n a
h o r s e . B ut it w a s w o r th a d o z e n h o r s e s to m y y o u n g au n t. It e n
la r g e d h e r w o r ld b y a t l e a s t tw e n ty m i l e s , it e n r ic h e d h e r lif e b y a
d o z e n m o r e f r ie n d s h ip s . . . . It g a v e h e r th e p o w e r to go sh o p p in g
w h e n sh e lik e d , e v e n if D an, th e g r o o m , w a n te d to h o e p o ta to e s th a t
d a y . . . .
A nd p o w e r is fr e e d o m . P o w e r to do, to kn ow , to s e e , to c o m p r e h e n d .
B ic y c le s w e r e a v e r y im p o r ta n t a d d itio n to p o w e r , in r e m o te c o u n
t r y p la c e s . T h e ir im p a c t w a s r e v o lu tio n a r y , e s p e c ia lly w ith w o m e n .
P e o p le o f m y a g e h a v e s e e n b ig g e r c h a n g e s in th e w o r ld th a n a n y
g e n e r a tio n b e fo r e . T h e y a r e n o t o n ly a m a t te r o f m e c h a n ic a l in v e n
t io n s , m o to r tr a n s p o r t, a e r o p la n e s , and th e w i r e l e s s , but o f th e id e a
149
2
and th e f e e lin g s th at go w ith th e id ea .
C ary c o m p r e s s e d t h e s e c h a n g e s of id e a s and b e h a v io r into th e
tw o w a r tim e e p is o d e s of th e n o v e l, the tw o p e r io d s w h en s o c ia l c h a n g e s
h a p p en ed m o s t s w iftly . A ir p la n e s w e r e s t i l l e x p e r im e n ta l, s t i l l r ic h
m e n 's a m u s e m e n ts p r io r to W o rld W ar I, but m e c h a n ic a l tr a n s p o r t w o n
th e w a r . A fte r th e w a r , c a r s b r o k e dow n th e old s o c ia l o r d e r and c r e
a te d a n ew p a tte r n in w h ic h you n g p e o p le f le d th e ir p a r e n ts ' r e s t r ic t io n s
to d a n ce in r o a d h o u se s and m a k e lo v e in p a r k e d c a r s . T r a d itio n a l
c o d e s n o lo n g e r g o v e r n e d b e h a v io r . The a ir p la n e a g e fu r th e r s p e e d e d
up th e p a c e of lif e and th e b re a k d o w n of tr a d itio n a l p a tte r n s .
T he ch a n g e in c o d e s is a ls o e x e m p lifie d b y th e d iffe r e n t a ttitu d e s
of th e g e n e r a tio n s to w a r d m a r r ia g e and c h ild r e n . T ab ith a, a w o m a n of
th e 1 8 9 0 's , d e n ie d b y th e r e s p e c t a b le w o r ld and liv in g am on g th e
p r e a c h e r s of th e v ir t u e s of s in , w a s n e v e r t h e le s s d e te r m in e d to b r in g
up Joh n p r o p e r ly . J o h n 's w ife , im b u ed w ith th e r e v o lu tio n a r y f e m in is t
d o c tr in e s o f th e tw e n tie s , f e lt it h e r duty to sp en d h e r e n e r g ie s in in t e l
le c t u a l w o rk , not in ch ild b ea r'in g . She f e lt h e r one p r e g n a n c y a t r e a c h
e r y to th e c a u s e and w a s d e te r m in e d to r a i s e th e c h ild s c ie n t if ic a lly
w ith no o ld -fa s h io n e d e m o tio n a l n o n s e n s e . T ab ith a h ad b e e n h o r r if ie d
at th e id e a of a p la n n ed c h ild le s s m a r r ia g e and w a s o v e r jo y e d w ith th e
b ab y. B ut sh e w a s so o n b a n ish e d fr o m th e n u r s e r y fo r fo n d lin g N ancy;
it w a s u n s c ie n t if ic and m ig h t g iv e th e c h ild a " c o m p lex ." N a n cy is
C a r y 's e x a m p le of th e g ir ls of th e t h ir t ie s w h o g r ew up w ith o u t a gu id e
to lif e . The w o m e n of th e tw e n tie s h ad liv e d by th e c o d e of fa m ily or
2
" J o y ce C a r y 's L a s t L ook at H is W o r ld s," V o g u e , A u g u st 15,
1957, p. 152.
150
c a r e e r ; th e m id - c e n t u r y id e a of fa m ily an d c a r e e r had n o t y e t d e v e lo p e d .
N a n cy w a n d e r e d in a c h a o s w ith no m o r a l co d e to guide h e r and w a s an
e a s y p r e y to an y d o m in a tin g m a n . W ith th e in c r e a s in g lo o s e n e s s of any
m o r a l r e s t r ic t io n s in W orld W ar II, g ir ls lik e N a n cy s im p ly liv e d fo r
th e m o m e n t. B ut out of th e b rea k d o w n of the o ld o r d e r a n ew c o n c e p t of
w o m a n h o o d d e v e lo p e d . N a n c y is C a r y 's e x a m p le of p o s t W orld W ar II
w o m e n w h o a g a in f u lf ill th e ir b a s ic n a tu r e s by h a v in g c h ild r e n and n u r
tu r in g th e ir m e n , and w ho c h o o s e to do s o . N a n c y is h a r r ie d and w o rn ,
liv in g w ith a d iffic u lt and d em a n d in g h u sb a n d , and c a r in g fo r tw o c h il
d r e n w ith o u t a n y h e lp , but sh e is liv in g lif e to th e f u lle s t , r e f le c t in g
C a r y 's b e lie f th a t p e o p le w a n t to liv e fu lly m o r e th an th e y w an t m e r e
h a p p in e s s . H e b e lie v e d th a t m o d e r n w o m e n a r e p r o b a b ly n o t " h ap p ier"
th an V ic to r ia n w o m en :
B ut no m o d e r n g ir l c o u ld en d u re th e o ld lif e again ; it is n o t h a p p i
n e s s th a t m a t te r s to h e r , but p o w e r , fr e e d o m to a c t, r ic h n e s s of lif e .
And th a t r ic h n e s s is a ll our r ic h n e s s . T he g a in to g e n e r a l s o c ie t y is
im m e n s e . (" L a st L o o k ," p . 97)
T hough th e b a s ic th e m e of A F e a r fu l J o y is ch a n g e in h u m an
lif e , p a r tic u la r ly th e v a s t p h y s ic a l, e c o n o m ic , and m o r a l c h a n g e s m a d e
in th e l a s t s ix ty y e a r s b y m e c h a n ic a l tr a n s p o r t, th e n o v e l a ls o r e f le c t s
C a r y 's in t e r e s t in th e e f f e c t of th e " sp e llb in d e r " on p e o p le .
T he s p e llb in d e r , th e a r t is t in w o r d s , th e p r e a c h e r , th e d e m a g o g u e ,
w h a te v e r y o u c a ll h im . R o u s se a u , M a rx , T o ls t o i.. . . w e r e g r e a t
s p e ll- b in d e r s . . . . B o n s e r w a s a s p e llb in d e r in b u s in e s s , th e m a n of
im a g in a tio n . He w a s a ls o a c r o o k , b u t s o a r e m a n y s p e llb in d e r s .
P o e ts h a v e s ta r te d m o s t o f th e r e v o lu tio n s , e s p e c ia lly n a tio n a lis t
r e v o lu tio n s . On th e o th er han d, lif e w o u ld d ie w ith o u t p o e ts , and
d e m o c r a c y m u s t h a v e it s s p e llb in d e r s . (W r ite r s A t W ork , p. 56)
B o n s e r , a s m a ll- t im e s p e llb in d e r , w a s fa s c in a te d b y H itle r b e c a u s e
H itle r had su c h p o w e r o v e r p e o p le . A p r o p h e t of e v il, h e m a d e a t r e
m e n d o u s im p r e s s io n b e c a u s e p e o p le r e a c t to a m a n of p o w e r fu l
151
im a g in a tio n , and b e c a u s e th e s p e llb in d e r w o r k s on t h e ir f e e lin g s . Cary-
b e lie v e d th a t p e o p le liv e by th e ir f e e lin g s , n o t th e ir r e a s o n , and sp e n d
th e w h o le of th e ir l i v e s tr y in g to s a t is f y th e ir f e e lin g s .
It is B o n s e r 's c r e a t iv e p o w e r th a t w o r k s on T a b ith a . C a r y d e
s c r ib e d h e r a s a n ic e , r e s p o n s ib le y o u n g w o m a n w h o h a te d c h a n g e , a
w o m a n of d o g m a tic m o r a lit y and l i t t l e im a g in a tio n . B ut w h en lif e stu c k
h e r "on a m u d b a n k ," B o n s e r c a m e a lo n g and flo a te d h e r off. E v e n
th o u g h sh e r e s e n t s c h a n g e and h e w a s o n ly a ft e r h e r m o n e y , th e c o n ta c t
w ith h im t r a n s f o r m s h e r ; " a ll lif e is r e v iv e d fo r h e r a g a in . . . . a s an
o ld w o m a n , lo o k in g b a c k , s h e d o e s r e a l i s e th a t B o n s e r 's g iv e n h e r
s o m e th in g , th a t h e h a s g iv e n h e r l i f e ” (" N o v e lis t A t W ork ," p. 17).
T h e b o o k h a s b e e n c r i t i c i z e d fo r le a v in g th e r e a d e r b r e a t h le s s .
T he e m o tio n a l e f f e c t o f s p e e d - - t h e c o n s ta n tly in c r e a s in g r a p id ity of th e
te m p o o f m o d e r n l i f e - - w a s w h a t C a r y w a s tr y in g to c o n v e y . He a d
m it te d th a t a d iffe r e n t p r e s e n t a t io n m ig h t h a v e g iv e n th e e f f e c t of s p e e d
w ith o u t c a u s in g c o n fu sio n . I th in k th e r e a l fa u lt o f th e b o o k is n ot th a t
it is to o p a c k e d w ith in c id e n ts , but th a t th e c h a r a c t e r s a p a r t fr o m
T a b ith a , and, to a l e s s e r e x te n t, N a n c y , a r e n o t v it a l o r in t e r e s t in g .
B o n s e r is n o t a s u f f ic ie n t ly s tr o n g c h a r a c t e r to h o ld th e r e a d e r 's in t e r -
e s t - - m e n lik e h im a r e c o m m o n en o u g h in lif e but in a b oo k h e s e e m s
m e r e ly r e p e t it io u s . N ot u n til C a r y d e v e lo p e d th e c h a r a c t e r of N im m o ,
th e s p e llb in d e r in w o r d s in th e S e c o n d T r ilo g y d id h e s a t is f a c t o r i ly
a c h ie v e s u c h a p e r s o n a lit y . John r e f le c t s th e d e fe a tis m th a t sa p p e d th e
e n e r g ie s o f in t e lle c t u a l m e n in th e t w e n t ie s , but a d e fe a te d c h a r a c t e r is
r a r e ly e f f e c t iv e w ith in th e c o n fin e s o f a b o o k . K it, th e e d u c a te d w o m a n
of th e tw e n t ie s , is m o r e o f a ty p e th a n a p e r s o n a lit y , and G o lla n , th e
152
sh r e w d p e a s a n t w ho b e c a m e an in d u s tr ia lis t, is m o r e of a D ic k e n s ia n
g r o te sq u e th an a c h a r a c t e r . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y c h a r a c t e r s in th e s to r y
th at th e y had to be s k e tc h e d b r ie f ly , and o ften C a r y a c h ie v e d th e m o s t
e ffe c t iv e c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n s w ith m in o r fig u r e s lik e B o o le , th e d e c a d e n t
a r t is t . G r o te s q u e n e s s is e f f e c t iv e in m in o r c h a r a c t e r s but s e e m s u n
r e a l in an im p o rta n t fig u r e lik e G ollan .
T he o th er m a jo r fla w o f th e n o v e l is th a t th e th e m e s g et lo s t in
the ta n g le of T a b ith a 's p e r s o n a l p r o b le m s . T hough it is tr u e th a t h u
m a n b e in g s f e e l th e e f f e c t of g r e a t ch a n g e s in s m a ll w a y s th at a ffe c t
th e ir ow n p e r s o n a l l i v e s , T a b ith a ’s a ff a ir s , p a r tic u la r ly w ith B o n s e r , do
not c le a r ly c o n v e y C a r y 's m a in th e m e . A nd th e s e c o n d a r y th e m e of the
s p e llb in d e r is n ot s u ffic ie n t ly m e s h e d w ith th e th e m e of c h a n g e . G o lla n
illu s t r a t e s th e th e m e of m e c h a n ic a l ch a n g e and B o n s e r d o e s n ot, but
B o n s e r is c e n tr a l in T a b ith a 's s t o r y and G o lla n is n ot. T h e r e fo r e , th e
p r o b le m of th e b o o k is e s s e n t ia ll y one of b a la n c e d fo r m w h ic h C a ry w a s
u n ab le to s o lv e .
T he M o o n lig h t is th e s t o r y of tw o g e n e r a tio n s of w o m en ; tw o
s i s t e r s , R o se and E lla V enn, e ig h t y e a r s a p a r t, and E lla 's ille g it im a t e
d a u g h ter, A m a n d a . T he n o v e l b e g in s w h en E lla is s e v e n t y -fo u r and
A m an d a th ir ty -tw o , and R o se is d y in g . E lla e n c o u r a g e s A m a n d a to
m a r r y H a r r y D aw barn, a g o o d -lo o k in g youn g fa r m e r , a s sh e b e lie v e s
a ll w o m e n a r e d e s tin e d to be h a p p ily m a r r ie d and h a v e c h ild r e n . R o se
o p p o se s th e m a r r ia g e v io le n t ly . H a r ry , u n ed u c a te d , w ith no m o n e y and
a r e p u ta tio n a s a s e d u c e r , is an u n su ita b le m a tc h fo r the O x fo r d -e d u
c a te d A m an d a. T he tw o s i s t e r s q u a r r e l, r e v e a lin g the lo n g h is t o r y of
lo v e and h a tr e d b e tw e e n th em .
153
E lla s u g g e s ts b u yin g a fa r m fo r A m an d a b e c a u s e H a r r y 's fa th er
is about to lo s e h is fo r debt. H a r ry and A m an d a c o m e to an u n d e r
sta n d in g , but R o se , h e a r in g of E lla 's p la n , is fu r io u s and sen d s fo r a
you n g la w y e r c o u sin , R obin Sant, to r e w r ite h e r w ill and to d is tr a c t
A m an d a fr o m H a rry . E lla th in k s R o se is d e te r m in e d to stop A m a n d a 's
m a r r ia g e b e c a u s e sh e h e r s e lf w a s d isa p p o in ted in lo v e and g a v e up h er
fia n cd in o r d e r to r a is e h e r y o u n g er s i s t e r s . E lla r e m e m b e r s R o s e 's
fia n cd , J a m e s G room , a p o o r s e lf -e d u c a te d b o y , w ho b e c a m e one of the
f i r s t a p o s tle s of s c ie n c e . G room w a ite d fiv e y e a r s fo r R o se , th en d e
m a n d ed sh e m a r r y h im or b r e a k th e e n g a g e m e n t. R o se f e lt d u ty-b ou n d
to tak e c a r e of h e r fa th e r and s i s t e r s . F o u r y e a r s la te r , G room f e ll in
lo v e w ith R o s e 's n in e t e e n - y e a r - o ld s is t e r , B e s s ie , w ho d e te s te d h im .
R o se ta lk e d B e s s ie in to m a r r y in g G room , and w h en B e s s ie ra n a w a y on
h e r w ed d in g n igh t, fo r c e d h e r to go b a ck to h im .
R ob in and A m and a g e t a lo n g w e ll, and R obin, u n h ap p ily m a r r ie d ,
p r o p o s e s t r ia l m a r r ia g e to A m an d a. R o se a s k s E lla to r ea d the new ,
u n sig n e d w ill w h ic h p u ts e v e r y th in g in tr u s t s o th at E lla w ill not be a b le
to bu y A m and a a fa r m . W ith s u b c o n s c io u s p u r p o se E lla d rop s th e w ill
dow n a d eep h o le . W hen H a r r y le a r n s of the n ew w ill he s u g g e s ts b reak -
in g the e n g a g e m e n t--A m a n d a d o e s n 't r e a liz e w h at g rin d in g p o v e r ty is
lik e . R obin and A m an d a a g r e e th at lo v e is n a tu r e 's m e s s y sw in d le to
k eep lif e goin g and w o n d er if th e w o r ld ought to go on. T h e ir r e m a r k s
r e m in d E lla of h e r g r e a t lo v e , a young p o e t n a m ed G e o ffr e y T ew . R o se
b ro k e up the e n g a g e m e n t to G e o ffr e y , and E lla d e te r m in e s th at A m and a
s h a ll n ot lo s e h e r ch a n ce to m a r r y . E lla g iv e s R o se a s le e p in g p ill;
th ey q u a r r e l, and d u rin g th e n ig h t R o se d ie s . E lla f e e ls it is h e r fa u lt,
154
th a t s h e is g u ilty o f R o s e 's d ea th .
H a r r y le a v e s th e a r e a . R o b in r e s ig n s h is jo b in L on d o n in o r d e r
to liv e at th e v illa an d b e n e a r A m a n d a , but E lla d e c id e s to s e l l th e
v illa . Sh e c o n tin u a lly t e l l s th e p o lic e sh e is r e s p o n s ib le fo r R o s e 's
d ea th , an d sh e a ls o f in a lly a d m its th a t A m a n d a is h e r n a tu r a l d a u g h te r .
T he fa th e r , E r n e s t C r a n a g e , an u n s u c c e s s f u l t e a c h e r , h ad ta lk e d h e r in
to an e lo p e m e n t, th e n c o n f e s s e d th a t h is w if e w a s s t i l l liv in g and p e r
su a d e d E lla to liv e w ith h im a s m a n and w if e . A t R o s e 's b e h e s t , h e le f t
E lla a fte r A m a n d a 's b ir th , and s h e n e v e r sa w h im a g a in . E lla w a n te d
to b r in g up A m a n d a h e r s e l f , but R o s e , B e s s i e , and t h e ir fa th e r a r g u e d
th a t sh e w o u ld o n ly r u in A m a n d a 's l if e , a n d B e s s ie h a d r a is e d th e c h ild .
R o b in t e l l s A m a n d a h e w ill g e t a d iv o r c e a n d a s k s h e r to m a r r y h im .
H o w e v e r , h e r e tu r n s to L on d on w h e n h is w ife K ath y s a y s s h e is g o in g to
h a v e a b ab y. H a r r y r e a p p e a r s and s e d u c e s A m a n d a a fte r th e y a tten d
th e co u n ty f a ir t o g e th e r . S ix w e e k s la t e r , A m a n d a , p r e g n a n t, w o u ld lik e
to be s e t t le d , b u t H a r r y is ju d g ed th e fa t h e r o f a n o th e r g ir l's b ab y and
is m a d e r e s p o n s ib le fo r it s s u p p o r t. R o b in a g a in a s k s A m a n d a to m a r
r y h im ; K a th y 's p r e g n a n c y h ad b e e n a t r ic k . A m a n d a t e l l s h im abou t
h e r b ab y, and h e a c c u s e s h e r of g o in g p r im it iv e . A m a n d a , c o n fu se d
a b ou t h e r m o t iv e s , t e l l s H a r r y h e w o u ld b e b e tte r o ff w ith o u t h e r . E lla ,
le a r n in g ab ou t th e b ab y, is s h o c k e d and in s i s t s on th e m a r r ia g e ; th e o n
l y im p o r ta n t th in g is A m a n d a 's r e s p o n s ib ilit y to th e c h ild . A m a n d a
f e e l s it w o u ld b e u n fa ir to H a r r y an d th at s h e ca n su p p o r t th e c h ild h e r
s e l f . R o b in s u g g e s t s th a t h e , A m a n d a , and E lla ta k e a f la t to g e th e r in
L on d on , b u t E lla c o n fu s e d ly s w a llo w s to o m a n y s le e p in g p il ls and d ie s .
A m a n d a g o e s to L o n d o n a lo n e . R o b in r e m a in s w ith h is w ife ; H a r r y
155
r e tu r n s to h is f o r m e r g ir l f r ie n d and t h e ir b ab y. A m a n d a g o e s on,
lo n e ly an d sa d , w o r k in g and w a itin g fo r th e b ir th of h e r c h ild .
C a r y 's n o v e ls u s u a lly d e v e lo p e d fr o m "the fe e lin g o f a c h a r a c t e r
in a s itu a tio n ," n o t fr o m an id e a fo r a b o o k (" N o v e lis t A t W ork ," p . 15).
B ut T he M o o n lig h t, C a r y 's m o s t c o m p le x b ook , h ad tw o s o u r c e s : o n e,
th e stu d y of a w o m a n w h o s e lif e w a s s p e n t r a is in g h e r y o u n g e r s i s t e r s
to "w hat s e e m e d to h e r good , d ig n ifie d , w o r th y and h ap p y liv e s " ("W ay
A N o v e l G e ts W r itte n ," p. 8 7 ), a n d ,th e s e c o n d , C a r y 's v io le n t r e a c t io n
a g a in s t T o ls t o y 's K r e u tz e r S o n a ta . T o ls t o y 's s t o r y of a m a n w h o m u r
d e r e d h is w ife out o f j e a lo u s y and r e s e n t m e n t a t th e w a y s o c ie t y tr a in e d
w o m e n to b e s e n s u a l a n im a ls , f it o n ly to e n s n a r e m e n , s e e m e d to C a ry
to be not o n ly u n fa ir to w o m e n b u t " stu p id ab ou t th e w o r ld in w h ic h th e y
c r e a t e th e ir liv e s " ("W ay A N o v e l G ets W r itte n ," p. 87).
C a r y h ad w r itte n an e a r l i e r v e r s io n o f T he M o o n lig h t w h ic h w a s
p r im a r ily th e stu d y o f a r e s p o n s ib le e ld e r s i s t e r w h o " tr ie d w ith a ll h e r
m ig h t to m a k e o r d e r in th e w o r ld ." C a r y c o n s id e r e d th a t e v e r y w o m a n ,
m o r e or l e s s , h a s th is p r o b le m , and fo r m a n y y e a r s he h ad b e e n tu r n in g
o v e r id e a s in h is m in d ,
n o t o n ly of R o s e 's c h a r a c t e r , th a t o f th e r e s p o n s ib le p a r e n t, t e a c h e r ,
r u le r , bu t of y o u n g e r s i s t e r s , th e ta u g h t, th e g o v e r n e d , s tr u g g lin g ,
n ot s o m u c h fo r lib e r t y a s fo r th e fr e e d o m to m a k e th e ir ow n l i v e s .
H e h ad a b a n d o n ed th e s t o r y fo r y e a r s , an d it w a s o n ly a ft e r h is r e a c t io n
to th e K r e u tz e r S o n a ta th a t "the tw o c o n c e p tio n s ra n to g e th e r ." T he
s e c o n d M o o n lig h t w a s to h a v e a la r g e r b a c k g r o u n d and w a s to sh o w w o
m a n 's " s p e c ia l d ile m m a " and, b y c o m p a r in g d iffe r e n t g e n e r a t io n s , sh o w
th e m e a n s b y w h ic h it is s o lv e d in d if fe r e n t s o c ia l p e r io d s . T he n o v e l
w a s a ls o to illu s t r a t e th e r e la t io n b e tw e e n th e " e x p e d ie n ts or
156
m o r a lit ie s " o fte n c a lle d "the c o n v e n tio n of th e tim e ," and w h a t C a ry
c o n s id e r e d "the fu n d a m e n ta l q u a lity " o f a w o m a n 's lif e ,
im p o s e d on h e r by h e r s e x , h e r n a tu r a l p o w e r s , and h e r n a tu r a l
p la c e in a s o c ie t y w h ic h c o n ta in s , lik e h e r s e lf , b oth p r im a r y e l e
m e n ts fr o m n a tu r e an d a s e c o n d a r y s o c ia l and p o lit ic a l fo r m . ("W ay
A N o v e l G ets W r itte n ," p. 88 )
C a r y 's id e a of th e e ld e r s i s t e r w h o g a v e up h e r lif e to lo o k a fte r
h e r y o u n g e r s i s t e r s , w h o s e r e w a r d w a s to "be r a th e r d is lik e d by b oth
th e o th e r s and to be h a te d b y one of th e m ," r e f le c t e d h is g e n e r a l id e a of
life :
I f e lt p r o fo u n d ly th e b it te r in j u s t ic e of th is w o m a n 's p o s it io n and o f
c o u r s e . . . th a t a ls o jo in e d up w ith m y g e n e r a l id e a o f l i f e , th e fu n
d a m e n ta l and u n a v o id a b le in j u s tic e o f l if e . (" N o v e lis t A t W ork ," p .
15)
He w a s t h e r e f o r e s u r p r is e d th a t th e c r i t i c s c o n s id e r e d R o s e a V ic to r ia n
ty r a n t.
She w a s a V ic to r ia n a c c e p tin g th e r e lig io n and th e c o n v e n tio n s of h e r
tim e and s a c r if ic in g h e r ow n h a p p in e s s to c a r r y th e m out. A fin e
w o m a n . A nd no m o r e of a ty r a n t th a n a n y p a r e n t w h o t r i e s to g u id e a
c h ild in th e r ig h t p a th . T h at r e lig io n , th a t s y s t e m , h a s g o n e , b u t it
w a s th o r o u g h ly go o d and e f f ic ie n t in its ow n tim e . I m e a n , it g a v e
p e o p le good l i v e s and p r o b a b ly a ll th e h a p p in e s s th a t c a n b e a c h ie v e d
fo r a n y b o d y in th is w o r ld . (W r ite r s A t W o rk , p . 56)
C a r y th o u g h t th a t th e c r i t i c s w e r e u n c o n s c io u s ly in flu e n c e d b y th e " pop
u la r n o tio n s" th a t h ad b e e n flo a tin g a ro u n d s in c e b e fo r e th e f i r s t W o rld
W ar th a t "any V ic to r ia n p a r e n t w h o a tte m p te d to b r in g up c h ild r e n to be
(a c c o r d in g to c o n te m p o r a r y sta n d a r d s) g o o d w o m e n , go o d h u sb a n d s and
3
c it iz e n s , w a s a ty r a n t." He b e lie v e d , a s d is c u s s e d in th e c h a p te r on
th e n o v e ls of ch ild h o o d , th a t " e v e r y p a r e n t an d g u a r d ia n h a s to m a n a g e '
th e l i v e s of c h ild r e n , to ta k e r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r te a c h in g th e m , th a t is ,
3
Prefatory essay to The Moonlight, Carfax edition (London,
1952), p. 5.
157
fo r m in g th e ir c h a r a c t e r ." E v e n if th e p a r e n t le a v e s th e jo b to s c h o o l
m a s t e r s and o th e r s , h is is th e fin a l r e s p o n s ib ilit y (p. 5).
S in c e th e n o v e l is a stu d y of th e d iffe r e n t s o c ia l c o n v e n tio n s
c o n c e r n in g w o m e n in d if fe r e n t p e r io d s , it is e s s e n t ia ll y ab ou t s e x .
C a ry th o u g h t th a t th e V ic to r ia n a n s w e r to "the e t e r n a l p r o b le m of se x "
w a s one of g r e a t n e s s and d ig n ity : "It sa id : ’W o m a n 's c h a s tity and r e
fin e m e n t o f s e n tim e n t a r e s o p r e c io u s to c iv iliz a t io n , and to h e r ow n
r e s p o n s ib ilit y a s w ife , a s m o th e r , th a t th e y m u s t be g u a r d e d fr o m e v e r y
c o n ta m in a tio n .'" C a ry co n tin u ed :
It c o n c e n tr a te d , th a t is , on w o m a n 's c e n tr a l im p o r ta n c e to f a m ily
lif e ; and it sa w th a t th e fa m ily is a fu n d a m e n ta l c h a r a c t e r o f c i v i l i z a
tio n , not a c o n s tr u c tio n , but fr o m n a tu r e it s e lf ; th a t it is to a ll c i v i l i
z a tio n w h a t lo v e is to r e lig io n , th e o r ig in a l s ta te of a f f a ir s fr o m
w h ic h , sh o u ld e v e r y id e a of e x is t in g c iv iliz a t io n b e a b o lis h e d , a n ew
one w ill in s ta n tly b e g in to g ro w . (p. 6)
In c o n tr a s t, th e m o d e r n w o m a n ,
b ro u g h t up in a c o m p le t e ly d iffe r e n t m o r a l c lim a t e fr o m h e r g r a n d
m o th e r (and o ften h e r m o t h e r - - m a n y V ic to r ia n h o u se h o ld s e x is t e d
in fu ll f o r c e u n til 1 9 1 4 ), h a s a lm o s t c o m p le te s e x u a l fr e e d o m .
B ut C a ry th o u g h t th a t th e m o d e r n w o m a n h a s "a s e n s e o f r e s p o n s ib ilit y
and in t e g r ity w h ic h , in th is c o m p le t e ly d if fe r e n t s itu a tio n , h a s v a lu e and
d is tin c t io n p o s s ib ly g r e a t e r th an th e o th e r " (p. 7 ).
T h e m o d e r n w o m a n h a s a s e n s e of r e s p o n s ib ilit y b e c a u s e sh e
h a s a fr e e d o m of c h o ic e n e v e r b e fo r e a v a ila b le to w o m e n . B e c a u s e sh e
c h o o s e s fa m ily lif e and c h ild r e n r a th e r th an a c q u ir in g th em a s a m a tte r
of c o u r s e , "it l i e s u p on h e r h on ou r to m a k e a s u c c e s s " o f b e in g a h o u s e
w ife and m o th e r .
T he a n x io u s s e n s e of d u ty, of a t y p ic a l m o d e r n w ife , n o t o n ly to w a r d s
h e r fa m ily b ut o fte n to w a r d s s o c ie t y , is v e r y n o t ic e a b le . A sk a n y
d o c to r ab ou t th e n e r v o u s p r e s s u r e th a t c o m e s of it. A n d th is e n
la r g e d c o n s c ie n c e , a r is in g d ir e c t ly fr o m e n fr a n c h is e m e n t, is a m a r k
o f th e p e r io d , (p. 7)
158
C a r y d is t in g u is h e d th e w o m a n o f th e la t e 1 9 3 0 's an d 1 9 4 0 's fr o m
th e w o m a n o f th e 1 9 2 0 's w h e n th e p r e v a ilin g id e a w a s th a t h a v in g c h i l
d r e n w a s a c r im e a g a in s t w o m a n h o o d in th e b a t tle fo r f r e e d o m . T h e
im p o r ta n t th in g w a s f o r e d u c a te d w o m e n to f ig h t th e ir w a y in to m e n 's
c a r e e r s . O b v io u sly , m o s t w o m e n in th e 1 9 2 0 ’s fo llo w e d th e u s u a l c o u r s e
- - m a r r i e d a n d h ad c h ild r e n . B ut a c c o r d in g to C a r y , th e y s u f f e r e d
in c o n fu s io n o f m in d and f e e lin g ; in u n c e r ta in t y o f p u r p o s e and
a c h ie v e m e n t . . . th e y w e r e d e p r iv e d of h a p p in e s s w h ic h c o n s i s t s
in th e c e r t a in t y o f v a lu e s , th a t l i f e is b e in g w e ll u s e d . (p. 9)
In th e e s s a y " T h e R e v o lu tio n o f W o m en " C a r y w r o te th a t th e
t w e n t ie t h - c e n t u r y e m a n c ip a t io n of w o m e n is th e g r e a t e s t s o c i a l r e v o lu
tio n th a t th e w o r ld h a s e v e r k n ow n . H e th o u g h t, in th e e a r ly 1 9 5 0 's ,
th a t th e r e v o lu t io n an d it s r e s u lt a n t w r e c k a g e h a d b e e n c le a r e d a w a y ,
th a t w o m e n a r e e s s e n t i a l l y f r e e (a m a n 's o p in io n ). W hat in t e r e s t e d h im
a t m id - c e n t u r y w a s to s e e h o w m o d e r n w o m e n a r e " ta c k lin g a lif e in
f in it e ly m o r e d if f ic u lt an d c o m p le x f o r th e m , m o r e r e s p o n s ib le , th a n
th a t o f th e a v e r a g e V ic t o r ia n g ir l." R e f le c t in g h is b e lie f in th e in e v it a
b le c o n n e c tio n o f fr e e d o m a n d is o la t io n , r e s p o n s ib ilit y an d s u ffe r in g , is
th e b e lie f th a t fr e e d o m fo r w o m e n
lik e a ll f r e e d o m , m e a n s w o r k and s u f f e r in g , in s e c u r it y and th e e n d
l e s s a n x ie ty o f m o r a l c h o ic e ; and y e t it is th e m o s t p r e c io u s th in g
th e y h a v e . It is th e s o u l o f th e ir d ig n ity a s m o d e r n w o m e n , (p. 9)
T h e M o o n lig h t i s n o t o n ly a s tu d y o f th e id e a s a b o u t s e x h e ld b y
d if f e r e n t g e n e r a t io n s b u t a ls o a stu d y of d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f w o m e n w ith
in a g e n e r a tio n :
th e w o m a n w h o s e r v e s , th e w o m a n w h o r e b e ls (. . . e v e r y r e g im e
h a s it s r e b e ls ; fo r a l l r e g im e s , d e a lin g in g e n e r a l r u l e s , c a u s e s p e
c i a l in j u s t ic e ) an d th e w o m a n w h o is ta u g h t to c o n fo r m , fo r h e r ow n
g o o d . (p. 11)
T h e c o n t r a s t in a tt itu d e s and id e a s b e tw e e n g e n e r a t io n s a b o u t
th e p r o b le m of s e x is d e v e lo p e d in d ia lo g u e s b e tw e e n A m a n d a an d E lla ,
and A m a n d a an d R ob in , and in d is c u s s io n s w ith R o s e , r e - c r e a t e d in
E lla 's m e m o r y . A m a n d a a s k s E lla w h y s h e is s o d e te r m in e d abou t
H a rry ; m a r r ia g e s a r e n 't a lw a y s h ap p y. E lla r e p lie s th at " it's n a tu r e 's
in te n tio n fo r u s w o m e n - - f o r m o s t of u s . A nd n a tu r e is s o w is e " (p. 30).
E lla , a s a y o u n g g ir l, h a d a lw a y s b e e n r e a d y to f a ll in lo v e an d m a r r y .
It w a s th e a s s u m p tio n of th e t im e th a t m a r r ia g e an d c h ild r e n w e r e a
w o m a n 's s o le d e s tin y and th a t h e r w h o le lif e u n til th en w a s a w a itin g
tim e u n til sh e c o u ld a s s u m e "the d u tie s an d p r iv ile g e s of w o m a n h o o d "
(p. 7 4 ). B e c a u s e E lla h ad a lw a y s b e lie v e d u n d o u b tin g ly in lo v e s h e is
e x t r e m e ly u p s e t w h e n sh e h e a r s A m a n d a and R ob in d is c u s s lo v e a s "na
t u r e 's r u t h le s s d e te r m in a tio n to p r o p a g a te lif e ," a s "a h u ge b lo o d y
s w in d le ." R o b in b e lie v e s th a t T o ls t o y w a s r ig h t in s a y in g th a t w o m e n
a r e r a is e d fo r th e m a r r ia g e m a r k e t, and a r e b r o u g h t out h a lf -n a k e d to
c a tc h h u sb a n d s, m e r e l y in o r d e r to h a v e m o r e b a b ie s . E lla a s k s w h a t
w o u ld h a p p en to th e w o r ld if th e r e w e r e no m o r e c h ild r e n . R ob in , a
tr u e e x p o n e n t o f t w e n tie th -c e n tu r y d is illu s io n m e n t , s a y s th a t p e r h a p s
th e w o r ld ought, n o t to go on (p. 9 2 ). E lla w o n d e r s w h a t sh e h ad lo v e d s o
d e s p e r a t e ly in G e o ffr e y T e w - - a d r e a m , a p h a n to m --" a n id e a c a lle d
lo v e . . . . W as it a ll a f r a u d - - a m a d e -u p th in g ? " (p. 1 0 1 ). S te r n V ic to
r ia n s lik e R o s e , w ith in f le x ib le id e a s o f r ig h t and w r o n g , n e v e r t h e le s s
b e lie v e d im p lic it ly in God and lo v e . E lla e x p la in s to A m an d a and R ob in
th a t R o s e ta u g h t h e r to h a v e fa ith , to t r u s t in G od and g o o d n e s s , and sh e
s a y s th a t if it h ad n ot b e e n fo r R o s e s h e n e v e r w o u ld h a v e h a d th e c o u r
a g e to run a w a y w ith E r n e s t - - b e c a u s e of R o s e sh e t r u s te d in lo v e .
A m a n d a m e r e ly s e e s E lla 's lif e an d s e p a r a t io n fr o m E r n e s t a s
160
u n n a tu ra l. "Y ou w e r e b ro u g h t up fo r m a r r ia g e and th en e x p e c te d to do
w ith o u t e v e n a lo v e r " (p. 1 4 8 ). E lla is sh o ck ed ; "It w a s n 't th a t I n e e d e d —
a lo v e r . I lo v e d y o u r fa th e r a s a h u sb a n d . I th ou gh t o f h im a s a h u s
band." T h e in e v ita b le c o n f lic t b e tw e e n lo v e and V ic to r ia n c o d e s of r ig h t
and w r o n g is m o s t c le a r ly r e v e a le d in E r n e s t 's f a r e w e ll le t t e r to E lla
in w h ic h he w r it e s th at it is n e c e s s a r y th a t R o s e 's id e a ls of lif e " sh o u ld
b r in g in to th e w o r ld c r u e lt y a s w e ll a s h a p p in e s s , p u r ity and c h a s tity
fo r s o m e w o m e n , p r o s titu tio n and d is e a s e fo r o th e r s ." E r n e s t, to o
w e a k to c o n fo r m to th e c o d e m u c h l e s s co m b a t it, a g r e e s w ith R o s e 's
sta n d a r d s and b la m e s th e ir in f le x ib ilit y fo r h is w e a k n e s s .
M a r r ia g e m u s t be p r o te c te d . H ard c a s e s m a k e b ad la w . A d ictu m
w h ic h w r a p s up th e le g a l m in d in fiv e t e r r ib le w o r d s , w h ic h s a y s
J u s tic e is im p o s s ib le , bu t la w is n e c e s s a r y , to s a v e s o m e r a g s of
h o n o u r, s o m e fr a g m e n ts of p e a c e , tru th , and n o b ility in a w o r ld of
d a m n a tio n , (p. 161)
E lla h ad b e e n d e te r m in e d to be a go o d m o th e r and to r a is e A m an d a, but
e v e n th a t w a s d e n ie d h e r b y th e s o c ia l co d e o f th e p e r io d . B e s s ie s a id
th a t E lla co u ld n ot fla u n t h e r s e lf a s th e w o m a n w ho w a s s e d u c e d by
E r n e s t and had an ille g it im a t e b ab y. "T hat m a y be p o s s ib le to k itc h e n -
m a id s , bu t it 's c e r ta in ly n o t p o s s ib le to y o u in y o u r ra n k of l if e . Y ou'd
be a b y -w o r d " (p. 187). B e s s i e ' s w o r d s h a v e no e f f e c t on E lla , but h e r
fa th e r , e n lig h te n e d and s e lf is h , is fa r m o r e e f f e c t iv e .
I know y o u r c r im e is p u r e ly a g a in s t c o n v e n tio n , bu t w e h a v e to r e
m e m b e r th at it is o ften m o r e d a n g e r o u s to b r e a k a c o n v e n tio n th an a
la w . T he p u n ish m e n t is s o m u ch m o r e c r u e l. I sh o u ld n o t b e d o in g
m y du ty if I le t y o u e x p o s e y o u r s e lf and y o u r b ab y to its a c tio n . It
w o u ld d e s tr o y y o u b oth. (p. 191)
T h e e s s e n t ia l d iffe r e n c e in th e a ttitu d e s of th e g e n e r a tio n s is
m o s t c le a r ly r e v e a le d in E lla 's r e a c tio n to A m a n d a 's p r e g n a n c y . E lla ,
th e r e b e l a g a in s t th e c o d e s o f h e r o w n tim e , n e v e r t h e le s s b e lie v e s in
161
th e m . H er V ic to r ia n b e lie f in lo v e is s u b m e r g e d b y h e r V ic to r ia n s e n s e
of d u ty and r e s p o n s ib ilit y . S h e c o u ld u n d e r sta n d a m a n an d w o m a n l i v
in g to g e th e r b e c a u s e o f lo v e ; sh e is c o m p le t e ly u n a b le to c o m p r e h e n d
th a t A m a n d a c o u ld g o w ith H a r r y s im p ly a s an e x p e r im e n t w ith o u t lo v e .
E lla is C a r y 's e x a m p le of th e r e b e l. B e s s i e is h is e x a m p le of
the w o m a n w h o is f o r c e d to c o n fo r m to th e c o n v e n tio n s o f h e r tim e fo r
h e r ow n goo d . B e s s i e d e t e s t e d J a m e s G ro o m fr o m th e b e g in n in g , but
w a s f o r c e d b y th e s tr e n g th of R o s e 's w ill and by th e id e a th a t s h e w a s
m a k in g an e n v ia b le m a r r ia g e to g o to th e a lta r w ith h im . C a r y e x p lic it
ly s t a t e s th at h e r m in d d id n o t go b ey o n d th e a lta r . Sh e r u n s a w a y fr o m
jGroom on h e r w e d d in g n ig h t, e x p la in s to R o s e th a t G ro o m w a s d is g u s t
in g , and r e f u s e s to go b a c k to h im . B e s s i e ' s fa th e r u n c o m p r o m is in g ly
s t a t e s th at, o n c e m a r r ie d , G ro o m a s a h u sb a n d h a s " c e r ta in r ig h ts ."
R o s e a r g u e s th a t B e s s i e w ill r u in h e r w h o le lif e fo r a w h im , th a t sh e is
a n in n y and " w ick ed " to ru n a w a y fr o m a th in g th a t is " b le s s e d and h o ly .
. . ." B e s s i e g o e s b a c k to G ro o m s a y in g " H ere I a m , th en . W hat do y o u
w a n t w ith m e ? " B ein g p r e p a r e d to s u ffe r , " sh e w a s p le a s e d to ta k e h u
m ilia t io n to h e r b r e a s t an d p r e s s in th e th o r n s" (p. 5 1 ). E lla , y e a r s
la t e r , s t i l l a c k n o w le d g e s "Of c o u r s e sh e h ad to go b a ck , sh e h ad m a r
r ie d h im and m a d e h e r p r o m is e s ." W hat a m a z e d E lla w a s th a t s e v e r a l
y e a r s a fte r h e r m a r r ia g e B e s s i e c la im e d th a t sh e h ad a lw a y s lo v e d an d
r e s p e c t e d J a m e s and th a t sh e h ad ru n a w a y fr o m h im b e c a u s e sh e w a s
s o m u c h in lo v e w ith h im th a t s h e f e a r e d s u c h h a p p in e s s . E lla th in k s
th a t B e s s i e in v e n te d a c h a r a c t e r fo r J a m e s in h e r ow n m in d .
Y e s , sh e m a d e h e r w h o le lif e up; sh e m a d e J a m e s u p , h e r J a m e s ,
th a t is . A nd h e r J a m e s w a s q u ite d if fe r e n t fr o m th e r e a l J a m e s .
Sh e tu r n e d h is b r u ta lity in to m a n lin e s s . . . . Sh e m a d e v ir t u e s of a ll
h is v ic e s and s h e la u g h e d a t th e o n ly g o o d th in g a b ou t h im , w h ic h w a s
162
h is h o n e s ty and s im p lic it y . But w h y? To d e c e iv e h e r s e lf . W as sh e
d e c e iv e d ? - -a n d w a s n 't it a ll a kind o f fra u d ju s t a s R ob in and
A m an d a sa y ? B e s s i e c h e a te d in to a c r u e l m a r r ia g e , and th e n c h e a t
in g h e r s e l f into a kin d of a r t if ic ia l h a p p in e s s , fr o m p r id e and d e s p e r
a tio n - - b e c a u s e th e r e w a s n o th in g e l s e to be d o n e. (p. 102)
A m an d a, a s a tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y w o m a n , la c k s E lla 's in n er c e r
ta in ty about lo v e , and in s te a d in t e lle c t u a liz e s h e r r e a c tio n s to s e x . She
th in k s sh e m ig h t lik e b ein g m a r r ie d to H a r ry b e c a u s e of h is la c k of
s e n tim e n ta lity ; m a r r ia g e w ith h im w o u ld be a lm o s t " s u r g ic a l." R ob in
c a lle d h e r c o ld and s h e w a s a n g r y . She t r i e s to a n a ly z e h e r r e a c tio n s
and d e c id e s th at sh e h a s b e e n e s c a p in g fr o m lif e and h a s no r ig h t to be
sa n e w h en e v e r y o n e e l s e is in s a n e . " T h a t's w h at R obin m ea n t, and w h y
I w a s fu r io u s . N a tu re is tr y in g a ll the tim e to put m e b a c k in to th e
s t r e a m - - b y m a k in g m e in sa n e" (p. 86). A m an d a e x p e r ie n c e s a s e r i e s
of v io le n t ly c o n tr a d ic to r y r e a c t io n s . F i r s t is h e r d is g u s t at th e b a s ic
s e x u a lity of th e V ic to r ia n a ttitu d e to w a r d w o m en .
A nd A m and a f e lt su d d e n ly not th a t g e n ia l a llo w a n c e fo r V ic to r ia n
o b je c ts; th a t s e n tim e n ta l t o le r a n c e fo r th e a g e , w h ic h had b e e n h e r
m o o d w ith E lla , w ith R o se , but h o r r o r and lo a th in g . T he r e d -p lu s h
p ad d ed c h a ir w ith its s lo p in g s h o u ld e r s on w h ic h a ta tte r e d a n tim a
c a s s a r hu ng lik e a fic h u , s e e m e d to h o ld out its fa t stu m p y a r m s , not
w ith c o m ic a l w e lc o m e , but w ith an a n im a l s e n s u a lity , g r o s s , s h e e p
lik e; th e b e d sid e cu p b o a rd s s e e m e d lik e g r o te sq u e p r ia p ic m o n u
m e n ts; th e g r e y h e a d le s s M a r y Jan e in th e c o r n e r w ith its a b su r d
to r tu r e d w a is t, its f o r c e d -o u t c h e s t and sto m a c h , b e c a m e th e c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c fo r m of th a t fo r w h ic h it sto o d a s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e V ic to r ia n
w o m a n , a s e n s u a l v ic tim and m a c h in e , a f le s h ly d e v ic e fo r th e p r o
d u ctio n and n o u r ish m e n t of o th e r lit t le lu m p s of f le s h , a c r e a tu r e a s
lit t le f r e e or n o b le a s th e s e g m e n t o f a tap e w o rm ; and b eyon d , in
th e c o r n e r a m o n g th e c o n fu se d h e a p , o n e sa w a h u ge s id e b o a r d
c a r v e d w ith g r a p e s , a w a sh sta n d h o ld in g a p a r t its th ic k c r o o k e d le g s ,
a h a t -s t a n d flo u r is h in g h o r n s a g a in s t th e d im p o r tr a it of w h ic h n o th
in g c o u ld be s e e n but a w h ite n e c k r is in g fr o m a lo w -c u t fro ck ; and
d ra p ed b eh in d , th e g r e a t p lu s h c u r ta in s d ro o p in g w ith c r im s o n fo ld s
lik e th e w a lls of s o m e im m e n s e w o m b . (p. 150) '
A m an d a th e n h a s a su d d en r e a liz a tio n o f h e r ow n p h y s ic a l n a tu r e.
But th e s ig h t of h e r own w h ite and p lu m p le g th r u st in to th e m o o n
lig h t s ta r tle d h e r in to a n ew h o r r o r - - o f h e r s e lf . She f e lt h e r ow n
163
fle s h , and it, to o , w as p a rt of th is h id eo u s w o rld of the fle s h . She,
too, w a s w om an; m e a t fo r lu s t ; . a w alk in g w om b; a cow to y ie ld m ilk ;
a s la v e to n a tu re, w h ich had g iv e n h e r a h e a r t on ly that sh e m ig h t be
a se r v a n t to h e r r ep ro d u c tiv e o r g a n s. A n a n im a l c o n str u c te d fr o m
top to toe o n ly to con tin u e the s p e c ie s , so th at lif e sh ou ld not p e r is h
fr o m the w o r ld , (p. 150)
U n fortu n ately, on ce sh e h a s r e a liz e d how a w o m a n 's p h y sic a l
m a k e-u p d o m in a tes h er a c tio n s, th oughts and f e e lin g s , A m anda b e c o m e s
u n b alan ced and le t s h er body c o m p le te ly d om in ate h er w ill and a llo w s
H arry to sed u c e h e r . E v en though h e r w ill and s e n s e a r e gone, h er
m in d co n tin u es to a n a ly ze h er r e a c tio n s w ith c u r io sity .
I'm lik e tw o g ir ls , and one of th em is pu tty, and y e t th is putty g ir l is
not at a ll a m o r o u s. A nything but; sh e w an ts to go to s le e p . . . .
W ell, r e a lly , is th is the w a y one c o m e s to the c r is is of o n e's
lif e . How s im p le . . . . I w ish I w a sn 't q u ite so tir e d . . . . But I su p
p o s e th a t's a ll p a rt of th e s y s te m , to o . T he F a ir . . . the c id e r , th e
lig h ts , the d an cin g, th e m u s ic , w hat a c o m p lic a te d w a y to m ake
w iv e s and m o th e r s and h u sb an d s and c h ild re n , and good w iv e s, te n d er
m o th e r s . A t le a s t , I hope so . (p. 217)
Once sh e is p reg n a n t, d e c is io n no lo n g e r m a tte r s , and A m anda r e a liz e s
that m a r r ia g e is s o c ie t y 's b a ited tra p fo r the p u rp o se of tyin g the m an
down b e fo r e he g e ts w hat he w a n ts. A s H a rry got w hat he w an ted w ith
out m a r r y in g , h e is in no h u rry to m a r r y . A m anda a ls o u n d ersta n d s
that m a r r ia g e is b a se d on a m o r e fu n d am en tal n eed , th at the n a tu ra l f a
m ily u n it is not m o th er and ch ild but m o th e r, fa th e r, and ch ild , and th at
sh e h a s gone a g a in st the n a tu ra l p a ttern . O nce m o r e sh e co m p reh en d s
how a w o m a n 's body d o m in a tes h er life ; sh e f e e ls so lan gu id that n oth
ing s e e m s to m a tte r .
I s h a ll p ro b a b ly be v e r y happy w ith H a r r y - -a s a kind of n a tu ra l d e
v elo p m en t. T h is don't c a r e fe e lin g is v e r y lik e ly the b egin n in g of it.
One on ly h as to tr u s t in the fle s h , or n a tu re, or the lif e fo r c e , w h a t
e v e r th at is , and it w ill sim p ly m ou ld one into a w if e - - lik e dough.
And f ir s t it m a k e s th e dough. Y e s, I'm g ettin g s o fte r e v e r y day. (p.
260)
164
W h e r ea s A m a n d a 's w ill had b e e n p o w e r le s s b e fo r e , it b e c o m e s
o v e r - a c t iv e a fte r R ob in a c c u s e s h e r of m a k in g a r e lig io n of p r o c r e a tio n :
R o b in is an e x a m p le of tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y s t e r ili t y and la c k s th e d e s ir e
to liv e , but h e c o n fu s e s A m an d a w ith h is a c c u s a tio n th a t sh e is s ta r tin g
at th e m o s t p r im it iv e le v e l and u s in g "the w o m a n 's r a ck et" to "keep the
a n t-h e a p goin g" (p. 2 6 6 ). Sh e su d d en ly b e c o m e s d o m in a ted by th e id ea
th a t it w o u ld be " u n fair" to H a r r y to m a r r y h im . " U n fa ir n e ss" is c e r
ta in ly a tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y e t h ic a l c o n c e p t. A m a n d a 's b e lie f th a t sh e ca n
s a t is f a c t o r ily p r o v id e fo r th e c h ild is a ls o a tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y id e a , and
sh e f o o lis h ly a llo w s th e s e id e a s to d ir e c t h e r b e h a v io r s o th at sh e is
le f t at th e en d w ith a b s o lu t e ly n oth in g but h e r ow n a b ility to w o r k and
th e n e c e s s it y , to ta k e c a r e of h e r b od y in o r d e r to p r o te c t th e c h ild
g r o w in g in s id e it.
C a ry c o n c e n tr a te d on th e d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e V ic to r ia n and
m id -tw e n tie th c e n tu r y id e a s and c o d e s , and th a t le f t lit t le r o o m in th e
n o v e l fo r d is tin g u is h in g b e tw e e n th e e a r ly w o m e n r e v o lu tio n a r ie s and
w o m e n of th e la te 1 9 3 0 's lik e A m an d a. C a ry c o m p r e s s e d h is id e a s of
th e f i r s t e m a n c ip a te d w o m e n in to th e c h a r a c te r of I r is , one of B e s s i e ' s
o ld e r c h ild r e n . S u ch a w o m a n w a s a lr e a d y o ld -fa s h io n e d b y th e la te
1 9 3 0 's .
Sh e b e lo n g e d to th e g e n e r a tio n of 1890 w h ic h h ad n a tu r a lly r e a c te d
a g a in s t its V ic to r ia n p a r e n ts , a ll th e m o r e v io le n t ly b e c a u s e of the
s tr o n g and a s s u r e d s e lf - c o n f id e n c e of th a t a g e . A nd a ll Ir is ' v ir t u e s ,
h e r c o u r a g e , h e r in t e lle c t u a l h o n e s ty . . . h e r lo v e of fr e e d o m , w e r e
n ow o b je c ts of w o n d er o r m ild a m u se m e n t, to you n g w o m e n of a new
r o m a n tic a g e , s u s p ic io u s of a ll th a t lo g ic , m o r a l or p o lit ic a l, w ith
w h ic h th e ir ow n y o u th h ad b e e n d r e n c h e d . I r is c a lle d th e y o u n g er
g e n e r a tio n r e a c tio n a r y , and m u ch of h e r lo a th in g fo r D o ro th y [h er
y o u n g er s i s t e r ] w a s p r o m p te d by th e la t t e r 's p o s e a s a w o m a n ly w o
m a n , w ho to o k no in t e r e s t in v o te s or p o lit ic s , (p. 27 3)
T he n o v e l c e n t e r s on E lla and A m an d a. E v en th o u g h R o se w a s
165
d o m in a n t in E lla 's l if e , s h e d ie s e a r ly in th e n o v e l and h e r p o w e r is r e
v e a le d th ro u g h E lla 's m e m o r y . R o s e 's s tr e n g th of w ill is sh o w n w h en
a s a d y in g w o m a n sh e t r ie s to p r e v e n t A m a n d a 's m a r r ia g e to H a r r y - - " I
h a v e to d o --w h a t I th in k rig h t" (p. 32). E lla r e m e m b e r s R o se a s a lw a y s
r ig h t and a lw a y s d e te r m in e d to do w h a t sh e th ou gh t r ig h t, w h a te v e r th e
c o s t . A t th ir te e n , r e s p o n s ib le fo r th e y o u n g e r c h ild r e n in h e r p a r e n ts '
a b s e n c e , sh e r e fu s e d to a llo w th e f iv e - y e a r - o l d E lla on a b o a tin g p a r ty
a s sh e co u ld n ot sw im - E lla , in r e v e n g e , s e t f ir e to R o s e 's b ed . At
s e v e n te e n , u p on h e r m o t h e r 's su d d en d ea th , R o se w a s lo a d e d w ith the
c o m p le te r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r h e r y o u n g e r b r o th e r and s i s t e r s . A t tw e n ty -
o n e, sh e f e lt h e r d uty la y w ith h e r fa m ily m o r e th an w ith h e r fia n c e .
F o u r y e a r s la te r sh e w a s c o m p le te m i s t r e s s of th e h o u se h o ld and lo o k e d
t h ir t y - - " a w o m a n w h o h a d s u ffe r e d and u p on w h om th e w o r ld h a d b egu n
to g ro w o m in o u s and m o n s tr o u s " (p. 4 8 ). She w a s b y p a s s e d by h e r f o r
m e r fia n c d fo r h e r n in e t e e n - y e a r - o ld s i s t e r B e s s i e . R o s e 's w o r ld in
d e e d b e c a m e m o n s tr o u s w h en th e ir fa th e r , n o t r e a liz in g sh e s t i l l lo v e d
G ro o m , le f t th e d e c is io n up to h e r w h e th e r B e s s ie sh o u ld m a r r y h im .
It b e c a m e s t i l l m o r e m o n s tr o u s w h en sh e , a s in g le w o m a n , had to ta lk
B e s s ie in to g o in g b a ck to G room and a c c e p tin g h im p h y s ic a lly . E lla , as
an o ld w o m a n , th in k s R o se n e v e r w o u ld a d m it a n yth in g to h e r s e lf , e v e n
th at sh e c o n tin u e d to lo v e G room an d th at B e s s i e ' s m a r r ia g e w a s "a
kind o f c r u c if ix io n fo r h e r . A nd I o fte n th in k th at w a s w h y it w a s a kin d
of p le a s u r e " (p. 51). C a ry r e m a r k e d th a t h e w e n t fu r th e r th a n h e lik e d
in u n d e r lin in g th e in j u s tic e of R o s e 's lif e (P r e fa to r y e s s a y , p. 6). D u r
in g th e b rea k u p of E lla 's e n g a g e m e n t to G e o ffr e y T ew , R o se c o m p la in e d
th at B e s s ie fla u n te d h e r p r e g n a n c ie s o v e r h e r and w o u ld not h e lp h er
166
w ith th e ir fa t h e r , w h o w a s liv in g w ith a n e ig h b o r w o m a n , M r s . W ilm o t.
E lla h ad s u d d e n ly r e a li z e d th a t lif e w a s h a r d fo r R o se in h e r t h ir t ie s .
In th e q u a r r e l b e tw e e n R o se an d E lla on th e n ig h t o f R o s e 's d ea th , sh e
a c c u s e d E lla of w a n tin g h e r to d ie , but of b e in g to o w e a k to do a n y th in g
ab ou t it, and th e in j u s t ic e o f R o s e 's lif e is c lim a x e d b y h e r c r y ,
H ow w r e tc h e d it i s , h ow h o r r ib le , h ow c r u e l! T h at y o u sh o u ld h a te
m e s o m u c h . . . . I m ig h t h a v e s e e n th a t it 's im p o s s ib le to do o n e 's
duty, to th in k fo r o th e r s an d n o t to b e h a te d b y th e m . (p. 105)
R o s e 's id e a ls of tru th , g o o d n e s s and h o n o r , o b s e r v e d u n s w e r v
in g ly , m a d e h e r a c t in w a y s th a t c a u s e d in ju s tic e to o th e r s and h u r t to
h e r s e lf . G e o ffr e y c o u ld n o t su p p o r t E lla , s o th a t e n g a g e m e n t h ad to be
b r o k e n . E lla c o u ld n o t b e a llo w e d to liv e u n m a r r ie d w ith E r n e s t o r to
r a is e A m a n d a , and th o s e r e la t io n s h ip s w e r e b r o k e n up. B e s s i e , m o r e
u n d e r s ta n d in g o f R o s e 's p o s itio n , to ld E lla th a t h a lf of R o s e 's illn e s s
and t e m p e r s w e r e
b e c a u s e sh e h a s n 't m a r r ie d - - b e c a u s e sh e to o k o u r m o t h e r 's p la c e
an d r e f u s e d o f f e r s . T h in k w h a t h e r lif e h a s b e e n and w h a t s h e h a s
to lo o k fo r w a r d to . W e ow e R o s e e v e r y c o n s id e r a t io n , (p. 168)
R o s e 's l a s t y e a r s w e r e b itte r an d u n h ap p y. E v e r y th in g sh e b e lie v e d in
and had s a c r if ic e d h e r s e l f fo r w a s b e in g d e s tr o y e d :
a w o r ld . . . a ll c h a n g e d , and w h ic h n e v e r c e a s e d ch a n g in g . She
s e e m e d lik e a l o s t s o u l in s o m e g r e a t h o u s e fu ll o f b e a u tifu l th in g s ,
in w h ic h e v e r y k in d of d e s t r u c t io n w a s g o in g on a t a f a s t e r and f a s t e r
r a te . (p. 271)
E lla , in c o n tr a s t to th e in d o m ita b le R o s e , w a s w e a k and g o v
e r n e d b y h e r e m o tio n s , n o t h e r in t e llig e n c e . In m o m e n ts o f p a r tia l s e lf-
r e a liz a t io n sh e s e e s h e r s e l f a s w e a k and s c h e m in g but th in k s sh e is
g u id e d b y an e v il w ill w h ic h e x c u s e s h e r fr o m r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r h e r a c
t io n s . O nly a ft e r R o s e 's d ea th and A m a n d a 's p r e g n a n c y d o e s sh e u n d e r
sta n d th a t one is r e s p o n s ib le fo r w h a t o n e d o e s . R o se h ad s a id th a t
167
s in c e E lla to o k e v e r y o p p o rtu n ity of th ro w in g A m an d a and H a r r y t o
g e th e r , one w o u ld th in k th at sh e w a n te d A m an d a c o m p r o m is e d . R o se
c o u ld s e e th at a c tio n le a d s to r e s u lt . E lla n e v e r u n d e rsta n d s th e p r o c
e s s of a c tio n and r e a c tio n . Sh e liv e s in th e p r e s e n t m o m e n t and in h e r
m e m o r ie s of th e p a st; th e fu tu r e d o e s n o t e x is t fo r h e r .
E lla 's e m o tio n a l te m p e r a m e n t is e s t a b lis h e d in th e f i r s t ch ap ter.
It f it s th e c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n of the e m o tio n a l w o m a n th at sh e is a p ia n is t
and th at p la y in g th e p ia n o is th e on ly th in g sh e r e a lly k n ow s how to do.
H er r o m a n tic , sw a y in g , e x a g g e r a te d s t y le is th a t of h e r p e r io d : " sh e
had b e e n tau gh t to r e g a r d m u s ic as a p o e tr y of th e f e e lin g s in w h ic h ,
w h ile sh e p e r fo r m e d , sh e w a s r e q u ir e d , lik e a p o e t, to lo s e h e r s e lf " (p.
18). A s sh e p la y s th e " M oon ligh t S o n a ta ," w h ic h C ary u s e d a s a sy m b o l
of V ic to r ia n r o m a n t ic is m , h e r th o u g h ts of the m u s ic a r e m ix e d w ith
th o u g h ts o f A m an d a and " s e n s a tio n s of e x a lta tio n , s a c r if ic e , d a n g er,
m o r ta lit y and p r id e ." In a s u r p r is in g ly a n a ly tic a l s ta te m e n t, C a ry c o n
tin u ed ,
a ll th at b e lo n g s , in the m in d s of o ld la d ie s lik e E lla , to a w o m a n 's
fa te a s b r id e , w ife and m o th e r; a c o n fu se d and c lo u d y w o r ld of la r g e
v a g u e im p r e s s io n s w h ic h in a m o d e r n b r a in co u ld h a v e b e e n in sta n tly
b ro u g h t dow n to v e r y c o m m o n p la c e p h y s ic a l e v e n ts , no m o r e th an
en ou g h to f i l l ou t h a lf an h o u r 's g o s s ip at e le v e n s e s , (p. 18)
E lla h a s " s e n s a tio n s ," n ot id e a s . C o n s is te n t w ith h e r u n q u e stio n e d a s
su m p tio n th at th e o n ly r o le fo r w o m e n is m a r r ia g e and c h ild r e n is h e r
a la r m and a n g e r at th e c o u s in 's in t e lle c tu a l d is c u s s io n s . She b e r a te s
A m an d a, "You lik e R obin b e tte r th an H a r r y . R o se s e n t fo r h im , sh e
th ou gh t y o u w o u ld lik e h im b e tte r th an H a rry " (p. 60). She is sh o c k e d ,
to o , by R o b in 's fr a n k d is c u s s io n of h is m a r ita l r e la tio n s w ith A m a n d a .
She f e e ls h e m u s t go b a ck to h is w ife and h is w ork ; p r o m is e s m a d e
m u s t b e k ep t.
E lla 's v a g a r ie s and c o n tr a d ic tio n s a r e p a r t of th e c h a r a c t e r .
A n g e r e d a t R o s e 's in te r v e n tio n w ith A m a n d a and a n g r y a t th e m e m o r y
of R o s e 's in te r v e n tio n in h e r ow n e n g a g e m e n t to G e o ffr e y T ew , sh e
th in k s, " it w o u ld b e e a s y to h a te R o s e fo r h a tin g p o o r G e o ffr e y . B ut it
w o u ld b e w ic k e d . Y e s, e v e n if sh e r u in e d b oth our li v e s and s p o ilt a
g r e a t, a w o n d e r fu l h a p p in e s s ." S h e f e e l s g u ilty , n e a r ly s ix t y y e a r s
la t e r , a t h e r v a c illa t io n s in r e g a r d to G e o ffr e y , th a t sh e a llo w e d R o s e
to b r e a k up th e e n g a g e m e n t. She a c c u s e s R o s e in th e ir la s t q u a r r e l of
s e e in g "that I h a v e no h o m e , no m o n e y , no fr e e d o m . Y o u 'v e r u in e d m y
w h o le lif e a s y o u r u in e d G e o ffr e y 's a s y o u k ille d p o o r B e s s ie " (p. 103).
B ut th o u g h sh e r e a l i z e s R o se is m a n ip u la tin g A m a n d a 's l i f e , sh e is in
c a p a b le o f ta k in g d ir e c t a c tio n . W hen R o s e d ie s sh e ru n s a w a y fr o m
h e r r e s p o n s ib ilit y by s e ll in g th e v illa ; sh e f e e l s lik e an o u tc a s t d e fy in g
a s a n c tu a r y . R o b in and A m a n d a p le a d w ith h e r n o t to s e l l th e v illa , and
s h e p r o m is e s to r e v o k e th e o r d e r but d o e s n o th in g . R o b in u n d e r sta n d s
h e r u n th in k in g , e m o tio n a l n a tu re: " s h e 's lik e a f o r c e of n a t u r e - - t h e y
s a y m u s h r o o m s w ill lif t a c a th e d r a l if t h e y 'r e p u t to it" (p. 1 2 8 ). He
w a r n s A m a n d a th a t E lla w a n ts h e r to m a r r y s o th a t sh e c a n e n jo y th e
" v ic a r io u s s a tis fa c tio n " o f A m a n d a 's m a r r ia g e b ed and b a b ie s .
E lla d o e s n o t w e ig h r ig h t and w r o n g . Sh e s t i l l th in k s of E r n e s t
a s a fin e m a n , "the s o u l of h o n o r . . . w h o n e v e r w is h e d h a r m to a n y
o n e, l e a s t of a ll to m e " (p. 132). Sh e r e m e m b e r s h e r h a p p in e s s and
o v e r lo o k s h is w e a k n e s s by s a y in g th a t h e n e v e r h ad a c h a n c e . W ith
th o se s h e d o e s n o t lik e , sh e s c h e m e s to g e t h e r ow n w a y . A n x io u s to
g e t r id o f R ob in , s h e in v it e s h is w ife , K a th e r in e , to th e v illa and in s is t s
169
on tr e a tin g h e r lik e a b r id e , s p e a k in g c o n s ta n tly of th e ir h a v in g c h ild r e n
and o f th e h a p p in e s s of a w o m a n h a v in g a b a b y --" th a t s e c r e t f e e l i n g - - o f
b e in g a w o m a n " (p. 145).
E lla a c c o m p lis h e s h e r p u r p o s e s b y c ir c u la r m a n e u v e r s . She
h a s a lw a y s r e s e n t e d A m a n d a 's r o o m w ith its b o o k s, s e v e r e c h r o m iu m
fu r n itu r e , and a ir of th o u g h tfu l p r iv a c y . Sh e s e n s e d " its e n m ity to h e r
s e l f and h e r w o r ld , and w h a t w a s m o r e im p o r ta n t, to h e r id e a s fo r
A m a n d a . It w a s h e r r iv a l" {p. 1 2 7 ). She a lw a y s h e s it a t e d to s e t fo o t in
it, but a t la s t c o n q u e r s it b y m o v in g in th e p ie c e s of fu r n itu r e sh e w a n ts
to k e e p out o f th e s a le . T h e r o o m b e c o m e s s o c r o w d e d th a t A m an d a
s a y s to h e r s e lf , " S h e's n e v e r lik e d th e r o o m . . . and now s h e 's n e a r ly
b e a te n m e ou t o f it" (p. 1 4 8 ). She b r in g s A m a n d a and H a r r y to g e th e r
a g a in by a s k in g A m an d a to d ia l a n u m b er fo r h e r (sh e h a s n e v e r d ia le d ).
A m a n d a a s k s E lla if sh e w a n ts h e r to b e a la b o r e r 's w ife .
"Oh, w h a t n o n s e n s e !" s a id E lla . " H a rry w ill n e v e r be a la b o u r
e r , h e is fa r to o c le v e r an d h a r d -w o r k in g ."
"B ut th e n h e is r a th e r u n a m b itio u s ," s a id A m a n d a , "and r a th e r
to o fo n d o f th e g ir ls . . . . "
" H a rry h a s n e v e r h a d a c h a n c e ," s a id E lla , in d ig n a n tly .
"B ut d o n 't p e o p le w h o s u c c e e d in lif e m a k e th e ir ow n c h a n c e s? "
"How c a n th e y u n le s s th e y h a v e s o m e m o n e y f ir s t ? H ow ca n
th e y do a n y th in g w ith o u t a s ta r t? " E lla p e r h a p s lo o k e d u p on m o n e y
a s a q u a lity lik e h e a lth , g iv e n or w ith h e ld b y fa t e . She h ad no id e a of
a c c u m u la tio n , (p. 193)
It is E lla , d e te r m in e d on A m a n d a 's m a r r ia g e , w ho p u ts d ow n th e
v illa a s s e c u r it y on a fa r m and in s t a lls H a r r y . A m an d a is to o p h le g
m a t ic to do a n y th in g . In a ll t h e s e a c tio n s E lla is c o n s is t e n t ly m o tiv a te d
b y h e r e m o tio n s . It is w h e n A m a n d a r e f u s e s to m a r r y th a t h e r w o r ld
f a ll s a p a r t. S h e a s k s if A m a n d a d o e s n 't w a n t to b e h ap p y. W hat is sh e
170
a fr a id of? S h e 'll h a v e lo t s of b a b ie s . A m a n d a 's s ta te m e n t th a t sh e
m ig h t b e b o r e d b y b a b ie s th r o w s E lla in to c o m p le te c o n fu sio n . E lla is
b ro u g h t f a c e to fa c e w ith h e r r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r m a n ip u la tin g A m a n d a 's
lif e , an d sh e h a s h e r m o m e n t o f s e lf - k n o w le d g e .
"Do y o u th in k th a t I m e a n t th is to h a p p e n --th a t I s e n t y o u to th e
F a ir on p u r p o se ? " . . .
" Y e s, I o u g h tn 't to ru n a w a y - - I o u gh t to a d m it th e r e s p o n s ib ilit y .
R o s e a c c e p t e d h e r f a t e - - s u c h a h a r d and c r u e l fa te ."
"B ut th a t w a s n 't y o u r fa u lt."
"I w a s h e r f a t e . "
"B ut y o u m u s tn 't b la m e y o u r s e l f - - i t w a s A unt R o s e g a v e y o u
th is f e e lin g ."
". . . on e m u s t h a v e i t - - o n e m u s t h a v e a s e n s e of c o n s c ie n c e . D id I
s e n d y o u to H a r r y - - t o e n jo y m y s e l f - - i n y o u ? " (p. 307)
But E lla d o d g e s out of r e s p o n s ib ilit y a g a in b y c a llin g th e p o lic e and
t e llin g th e m th a t sh e g a v e R o s e th e w r o n g s le e p in g p i l l s . T h en in
s le e p y c o n fu sio n sh e h e r s e l f ta k e s an o v e r d o s e of s le e p in g p il ls and
d o d g e s r e s p o n s ib ilit y f o r e v e r .
T h e c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n s of R o se an d E lla a r e c o n s is t e n t and e f f e c
t iv e . It is th e c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n of A m a n d a th a t I th in k is in c o n s is t e n t
and th e g r e a t e s t fla w in th e b o o k . S h e is d e s c r ib e d , in th e b e g in n in g of
th e s t o r y , a s a s le e p y s c h o la r , n ot in lo v e w ith H a r r y b u t p h y s ic a lly
a r o u s e d b y h im and a n n o y ed th a t sh e is s t ir r e d up w h e n sh e d o e s not
w ill it. It m a k e s h e r f e e l m e c h a n ic a l, " lik e on e of P a v lo v 's d o g s" (p.
16). Sh e r e a l i z e s th a t sh e h a s b e e n d r iftin g , liv in g d e ta c h e d , an d th at
H a r r y w o u ld be a g o o d h u sb a n d . R o b in t e l l s h e r th a t th e f a r m e r w o u ld
s u it h e r w e ll; sh e s e e m s to h a v e a t a s t e fo r a n im a ls . In r e a c tio n
A m a n d a b e c o m e s in to x ic a te d w ith R o b in 's m in d but is n o t p h y s ic a lly
171
a ttr a c te d to h im , and s h e is a n g e r e d at h is a c c u s a tio n of c o ld n e s s and
s u g g e s tio n of a t r ia l m a r r ia g e . "It's y o u w ho a r e c o ld . Y our w h o le
p la n is lik e an e x p e r im e n t on a n im a ls" (p. 78). H a r r y 's d ir e c t a p p ro a ch
is fa r p r e f e r a b le , and sh e fin d s th at sh e d o e s n ot w a n t to b r e a k h e r e n
g a g e m e n t to h im . A m a n d a 's e x te r n a l p r o b le m is th a t n e ith e r m a n is
s u ffic ie n t fo r h e r . H a r y a ttr a c ts h e r p h y s ic a lly , not in t e lle c tu a lly .
R ob in a tt r a c ts h e r in t e lle c t u a lly , not p h y s ic a lly . H er in te r n a l p e r s o n a l
p r o b le m is th a t sh e h a s no c e n te r of b a la n c e . H er su d d en d is g u s te d
c o m p r e h e n s io n of V ic to r ia n s e n s u a lit y and of h e r ow n p h y s ic a l m a k eu p
is th e r e a c tio n to th e V ic to r ia n co d e th a t b r o k e up E lla and E r n e s t. She
is a n g r y at H a r r y 's r e m a r k th a t the bad w e a th e r h a s g iv e n a ll th e g ir ls
h e a d a c h e s , "as if w e w e r e p a r t of th e w e a t h e r - - e le m e n t a r y " (p. 1 66).
T h en sh e s w in g s to th e o p p o site e x tr e m e in r e a c tio n to E r n e s t 's le tte r :
"I m ig h t h a v e w r itte n th a t le t t e r m y s e lf - - d o d g in g out of e v e r y th in g ,
e v e n m y s e lf . . . . I've n e v e r b e e n a n y th in g , a n y th in g r isk y " (p. 168).
She c o n n e c ts th e id e a th a t sh e h a s d o d g ed r is k w ith w o m e n 's p r o c r e a
tiv e r o le : " w o m en a r e r a th e r s p e c ia lly c o n s t r u c t e d - - f o r a p u r p o se .
And th e y m a y b e v e r y t e r r ib ly p u n ish e d fo r n o t fu lfillin g it. . . . th is
p o w e r h a s g o t its g r a sp on th em . . . m o r e th an on m e n ." H a r r y w o u ld
f u lf ill h e r w h e r e R ob in w o u ld not; H a r ry w o u ld b e a good h u sb an d ,
" n eed in g a r e g u la r w o m a n and r e g u la r m e a ls " (p. 2 0 0 ). It is th e d o m i
n a tio n of th is id e a of n ot d od gin g h e r r o le a s a w o m a n , r a th e r th an a
p h y s ic a l n e e d , th a t le t s h e r p a s s iv e ly a c c e p t H a r ry .
I d o n 't m in d w hat h a p p e n s. . . . I su p p o se th a t's th e w h o le id e a . I
h a v e n 't g o t a m o r a l le f t . . . . T he w o n d er is n o t th a t g ir ls fa ll, but
th a t an y o f th em d o n 't fa ll. . . . Oh d e a r , I c a n 't th in k and I sh a n 't
tr y .
I r o n ic a lly , s h e h o p es th a t " E lla w ill be p le a s e d ." She r e a liz e s th a t h e r
172
b od y h a s ta k en o v e r h e r lif e w h e n sh e is h u m b le d b e fo r e H a r r y , w h o is
a n g r y a t b e in g cau gh t:
I d o n 't m in d w h a t h a p p en s to m y w a is t , or m y r e p u ta tio n , or a n y
th in g . I'v e g o t no p r id e a n y m o r e , no b r a in s , n o th in g . Y o u 'r e a ll I
h a v e , s o s ta y w ith m e , u s e m e , b e a t m e if y o u lik e .
A s tr a n g e r e v e r s a l of r o le s o c c u r s ; A m a n d a f e e l s g u ilty , s m a ll, and
m e a n in a s k in g h im to m a r r y h e r e v e n w h e n c a r r y in g h is c h ild .
A m a n d a is in c o n s is t e n t in th a t sh e is , on th e one han d, e a s il y
s w a y e d b y R o b in 's r e m a r k s ab ou t m a k in g a r e lig io n of r e p r o d u c tio n ,
and, on th e o th e r , f e e lin g th a t sh e w o u ld be " u n fair" to H a r r y to m a r r y
h im . S in c e h e r b o d y h a s d o m in a te d h e r th in k in g up to th is p o in t, it is
in c o n s is t e n t and u n lik e ly th a t sh e w o u ld c h a n g e s o su d d en ly . E v e n R o b in
d e t e c t s th e r id ic u lo u s n e s s o f th e s itu a tio n .
"I'm n o t g o in g to m a r r y h im . I'v e ju s t to ld h im so ."
"W hat's th e id ea ? "
" I've ch a n g e d m y m in d ."
" D on 't ta lk n o n s e n s e . E x c u s e m e , but y o u 'r e b e in g s illy ."
"I k n ow , but it s tr u c k m e th a t y o u m ig h t be r ig h t."
"W hat ab ou t?"
" T h is im p u ls e - - w h a t e v e r it i s - - t h e w o m a n 's r a c k e t."
"I s a id r e lig io n ."
"I d o n 't m in d ab ou t th e n a m e s , but H a r r y is n ot a r a c k e t e e r .
A nd sh o u ld I be a p r o p e r w ife to h im ? Of c o u r s e I sh o u ld n 't." {p.
267)
A m a n d a 's c h a n g e o f m in d d o e s n o t r in g tr u e . Sh e is to o f o o lis h to be
c o n s is t e n t to th e in t e llig e n t c h a r a c t e r in th e e a r li e r p a r t of th e b ook .
She t e l l s h e r s e l f th a t sh e is n o t ru n n in g a w a y fr o m r e s p o n s ib ilit y b e
c a u s e sh e is p r e g n a n t and is p r e p a r e d to h a v e th e c h ild , but s h e is
173
ru n n in g a w a y b y r e f u s in g to m a r r y H a r r y .
If C a r y w a s u s in g A m a n d a a s r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y
w o m e n , sh e is a g a in u n s a t is f a c t o r y . T oo fe w w o m e n to be r e p r e s e n t a
t iv e liv e a s A m a n d a d o e s - - d e c id in g to liv e a lo n e and b r in g a c h ild in to
th e w o r ld a lo n e , p a r t ic u la r ly w h e n A m a n d a r e a li z e s th a t th e n a tu r a l f a
m ily u n it in c lu d e s th e fa th e r a s w e ll a s th e m o th e r . S h e is to o u n b a l
a n c e d and stu p id to b e c o n s is t e n t w ith th e s c h o la r ly c h a r a c t e r f i r s t e s
t a b lis h e d fo r h e r , and s h e is to o ir r e s p o n s ib le in h e r s h ift s o f d e c is io n
to b e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e of m o d e r n w o m e n , e s p e c ia lly in lig h t of C a r y 's e s
s a y s ab ou t th e r e s p o n s ib le m o d e r n w o m a n w h o w illin g ly ta k e s on m a r
r ia g e , f a m ily an d c a r e e r . A m a n d a 's en d is t r a g ic , b u t it d o e s n ot h a v e
th e e f f e c t of tr a g e d y b e c a u s e h e r r e n u n c ia tio n of H a r r y d o e s n o t g iv e
h e r th e f o r c e o f a tr a g ic h e r o in e ; it s e e m s m o r e o f a w illf u l im p u ls e
th a n a d e c is io n b a s e d on d e e p p r in c ip le s . T h e la s t in c o n s is t e n c y in
A m a n d a 's c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n is C a r y 's a s k in g th e r e a d e r to a c c e p t an e n
t i r e l y d iffe r e n t w o m a n :
No one c o u ld h a v e r e c o g n iz e d in A m a n d a th e b lo w s y and d is c o u r a g e d
g ir l of th e V illa 's l a s t d a y s. N o r c o u ld h e h a v e d is c o v e r e d th e s c h o l
a r of a y e a r b e fo r e , c h a r m in g b u t s le e p y . She w a s v is ib ly a w o m a n
of th e w o r ld , a t g r ip s w ith its lo n e ly and m o r ta l n e c e s s i t y , (p. 314)
T h e ch a n g e in c h a r a c t e r c o m e s to o la te in th e b o o k to s e e m c o n s is t e n t ,
and it h a m p e r s th e r e a d e r 's a c c e p ta n c e of th e w h o le s to r y .
T he p lo t of T he M o o n lig h t is in t r ic a t e , and, lik e T o B e A P i l
g r im , d e p e n d s on th e u s e o f th e fla s h b a c k to e s t a b lis h th e d if f e r e n c e s in
c o d e s and a ttitu d e s of th e V ic to r ia n and m o d e r n p e r io d s . T he n o v e l w a s
c r it ic i z e d fo r its c o m p le x ity of p lo t, and C a r y r e p lie d th a t h e h a d " th ree
e le m e n ts " (the p o s it io n o f w o m e n a s w o m e n , th e p o s it io n of w o m e n in
th e c o n v e n tio n of a n y s p e c ia l tim e , and t h e ir r e a l n a tu r e ) in th e n o v e l,
174
and th a t m a d e a n a w fu lly c o m p le x c o n s tr u c tio n ; I'd g o t to sh o w tw o
d if f e r e n t g r a d e s o f f e e lin g fo r tw o d if f e r e n t p e r io d s of c o n v e n tio n , a ll
o v e r th e b a c k g r o u n d o f th e r e a l fu n d a m e n ta l, b a s ic s itu a tio n , w h ic h
y o u g e t in th e m o s t p r im i t iv e t r ib e , an d a n y c i v i l i z e d c o u n tr y to o .
H e c o n c lu d e d th a t h e d id n 't s e e a n y o th e r w a y o f h a n d lin g th e m a t e r ia l:
"I'd g o t a ll t h e s e th in g s to d o , an d it h a d to b e c o m p le x ( " N o v e lis t A t
W o r k ," p . 2 4 ).
S in c e E lla is an e m o tio n a l an d n o t to o in t e llig e n t w o m a n , h e r
fla s h b a c k s o f m e m o r y r e v e a l th e e m o tio n a l im p a c t of th e c o d e s o f th e
V ic t o r ia n s m o r e th a n W ilc h e r ’s in t e lle c t u a l a n a ly s e s o f c o m p a r a tiv e
c o d e s o f b e h a v io r . A c h a r a c t e r 's e m o t io n a l r e a c t io n to a c o d e is m o r e
c o n v in c in g b e c a u s e th e r e a d e r c a n h i m s e l f r e a c t , b u t an in t e lle c t u a l
a n a ly s is c a l l s fo r in t e lle c t u a l u n d e r s ta n d in g and is c o n s e q u e n tly c o o le r
in e f f e c t .
T h e t h r e e e le m e n t s in th e p lo t a r e w e ll c o n n e c te d . E lla th in k s
R o s e is d e te r m in e d to p r e v e n t A m a n d a 's m a r r ia g e b e c a u s e sh e h a d to
s a c r i f i c e h e r ow n f ia n c e , a n d a f la s h b a c k f o llo w s to th e G r o o m -R o s e
a n d G r o o m - B e s s ie e p is o d e s in th e p a s t . E lla 's b e w ild e r m e n t at th e
c o u s in s ' d i s c u s s io n of lo v e p r o m p ts th e m e m o r y of h e r lo v e fo r G e o f
f r e y an d R o s e 's in t e r f e r e n c e . A p ic t u r e o f a f a m ily g r o u p in g o f G r o o m ,
B e s s i e , R o s e and B e s s i e ' s c h ild r e n a c t iv a t e s th e m e m o r y o f B e s s i e ' s
f lir t a t io n w ith E r n e s t C r a n a g e and th e d e v e lo p m e n t of E lla 's lo v e fo r
h im . T h e ir o n y e s t a b lis h e d b y th e p lo t is th a t E lla t r i e s to m a n ip u la te
A m a n d a ’ s l i f e in th e s a m e w a y th a t R o s e d id h e r s , and f e e l s th a t s h e is
d o in g it fo r A m a n d a 's h a p p in e s s j u s t a s R o s e j u s t if ie d h e r s e l f . A m a n
d a 's h a p p in e s s is th e m o t iv a t io n fo r E lla 's in v ita tio n to K ath y. R o b in
and K a th y a r e m a r r ie d , p r o m i s e s h a v e b e e n m a d e and m u s t b e k e p t, and
R ob in , a m a r r ie d m a n , m u s t n o t be a llo w e d to d is t r a c t A m a n d a fr o m
175
m a r r y in g .
T he w e a k p o in ts in th e p lo t a r e th a t it tu r n s on c ir c u m s t a n c e s :
R o s e 's su d d en d ea th , E lla 's d r o p p in g th e w ill d ow n a h o le , A m a n d a 's
p r e g n a n c y and r e f u s a l to m a r r y , and, m o s t u n s a t is f a c t o r y of a ll, E lla 's
d ea th . E lla is th e p iv o t a l fig u r e of th e s t o r y , k illin g h e r o ff s u d
d e n ly u n b a la n c e s th e p lo t s t r u c t u r e . C a r y 's id e a w a s to sh o w th e c o n
f l i c t of s u c c e e d in g g e n e r a t io n s , b u t E lla h a s o c c u p ie d th e c e n tr a l p la c e
in th e p lo t, and th e s h ift to A m a n d a a s th e c e n t r a l fig u r e is n ot s u c c e s s
fu l. T h e p lo t en d in g is a ls o u n s a t is f a c t o r y . R o b in b e c o m e s a f ig u r e of
c o m p le te f u t i l i t y - - h e h a s d r ift e d b a c k to K athy and h is o ld jo b and w e a k
ly c o m p la in s th a t he is to o b u s y to s e e th e f r ie n d s h e lik e s and A m a n d a ,
w h o m he lo v e s . H e fa d e s out of A m a n d a 's lif e , s a y in g th a t he w ill n o t
s e e h e r b e c a u s e sh e r e m in d s h im th a t h e is h o p e le s s . It is a ls o a fla w
in th e p lo t th a t in th e la s t tw o p a g e s of th e n o v e l C a r y a s k s th e r e a d e r
to a c c e p t a n ew A m a n d a , c o m p le t e ly d if fe r e n t fr o m th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e
r e s t o f th e b ook .
C a ry h ad th r e e e le m e n t s in th e n o v e l- - " t h e d iffe r e n t s e x u a l
id e a s of d iffe r e n t g e n e r a t io n s , in th e ir r e la t io n w ith e a c h o th er an d w ith
th e fin a l sh a p e o f th in g s ," and th e n a tu r e o f s e x it s e lf . T h e th r e e e l e
m e n ts m a d e fo r a v e r y c o m p le x p a tte r n , and h e f e l t th a t h e " n e e d e d a
b ig s c e n e , a c o n te m p la tiv e m o o d , and th e c l a s s i c a l th ir d p e r s o n n o t
c e n tr e d in o n e m in d but e n te r in g in to a ll th e c h a r a c t e r s " (p. 11). C a ry
w a s c o m p le t e ly s u c c e s s f u l in th e u s e o f th e c l a s s i c a l th ir d p e r s o n s t y le ,
and th e n o v e l is u n m a r k e d b y a n y of th e f e a t u r e s th a t d is tin g u is h th e
s t y le s of H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d , T h e H o r s e 's M o u th , or th e A fr ic a n n o v e l s - -
r a c y d ia lo g , c o lo r f u l im a g e r y , or th e s tr e am - o f - c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h ou gh
176
h e u s e d d ia le c t to d is tin g u is h th e b a c k g r o u n d and s o c ia l c l a s s o f H a r r y
fr o m th a t o f th e a r is t o c r a t ic V e n n s, th e d ia le c t is u n o b tr u s iv e . T h e on
ly d is t in c t iv e fe a tu r e o f th e s t y le is s o m e e la b o r a te n a tu r e d e s c r ip t io n
w h ic h a ls o s e r v e s to c h a r a c t e r iz e a p e r io d . E lla , a s a yo u n g V ic to r ia n ,
h a d b e e n tr a in e d to e n jo y and a p p r e c ia te th e w e a th e r fr o m h e r e a r l i e s t
y e a r s " w hen h e r n u r s e s and e s p e c i a l l y h e r s i s t e r R o s e , h ad c a lle d u p on
h e r to a d m ir e th e b e a u t ie s of h e d g e , f lo w e r s , t r e e s , s u n r is e s , c a ttle ,
s h e p h e r d s or th a tc h e d c o tta g e s " (p. 32). A n e la b o r a te d e s c r ip t io n of a
m o r n in g la n d s c a p e s e r v e s to r e in f o r c e E lla 's b e lie f in G od and b e a u ty
an d to c o n fir m h e r f e e lin g th a t A m a n d a 's and R o b in 's id e a s a r e w r o n g .
T he s la t e r o o fs of th e fa r m w e r e p a le lik e c u c k o o flo w e r s ; th e
s t r e a m , s t i l l f u ll, w ith b r o a d p o o ls an d a s p a r k lin g f a ll at th e d a m ,
r e f le c t e d a s k y o f w h ic h th e b lu e w a s s o p a le th a t it c o u ld s c a r c e l y
b e c a lle d a c o lo u r ; an d s o c le a r and s h a r p to th e e y e th a t it s e e m e d
th e b lu e s t p o s s ib le sk y , th e v e r y s o u l o f b lu e . A nd th is p ie c e o f sk y
r e f le c t in g w a te r w ith its q u iv e r in g m o tio n w h ic h d iv id e d th e v a lle y
in to tw o u n eq u a l p a r t s , g a v e to th e d e lic a c y o f its c o lo u r s an u n su b
s t a n t ia lit y o f fo u n d a tio n . It s e e m e d th a t a ll th is p e ta l b e a u ty upon
w h ic h th e s h o w e r , c o m p o s e d o f s in g le d r o p s n o t b ig g e r th a n a p in 's
h e a d , la y lik e b lo o m , w a s su p p o r te d on n o th in g b u t sky; it w a s a
p h a n to m , a v is io n , a w o r k o f th e fa n c y .
"Y ou c o u ld b lo w it a w a y ." E lla fo r m e d h e r lip s a s if to b lo w .
"W hat b e a u ty , w h a t a m ir a c le ! " s h e s a id , a d o r in g and s e e k in g b y
a d o r a tio n to m a k e th e w o r ld a d m ir a b le . " Y e s, n ow one c a n b e lie v e
in G od. . .."
E lla to o k c a r e n e v e r to a s k m u c h fr o m p r o v id e n c e . Sh e f e a r e d
p e r h a p s to b e d is c o u r a g e d . Sh e so u g h t s tr e n g th an d h o p e in a d o r a
tio n a lo n e , (p. 78)
C a ry u s e d a c o m p le x f o r m a l p r o s e fo r th e V ic to r ia n c h a r a c t e r s
e v e n in m o m e n ts o f s t r e s s . A m a n d a and R o b in , b e in g tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y
p e o p le , s p e a k in a s h o r t e r , m o r e c lip p e d s t y le . B ut w h e th e r u s in g d i
a lo g a s a d is tin g u is h in g m a r k o f g e n e r a t io n s , o r w r itin g an e la b o r a te
s y m b o lic a l p a s s a g e lik e A m a n d a 's a n a ly s is o f V ic to r ia n s e n s u a lit y , or
d e s c r ib in g n a tu r e , C a ry h a d a m a r v e lo u s ly f le x ib le s t y le , a d a p ta b le to
177
a n y n e e d .
T h e M o o n lig h t d o e s n o t p o s s e s s the e m o tio n a l c o n tin u ity th at
C a ry c o n s id e r e d th e p r im e u n ify in g e le m e n t in a n o v e l. The r e a d e r
f e e ls c o m p a s s io n fo r E lla and A m an d a, and f e e ls th e in ju s tic e of th e
liv e s p o r tr a y e d , bu t th e r e is no e m o tio n a l a u r a e s t a b lis h e d as in H e r
s e l f S u r p r is e d , T he H o r s e 's M outh, M r. J o h n so n or C h a r le y Is M y D a r
l in g . I th in k th is la c k of an e m o tio n a l a tm o sp h e r e is th e th ir d m a jo r
fla w of the b ook . T he c l a s s i c th ir d p e r s o n s t y le , of c o u r s e , c r e a t e s a
c o o l and d e ta c h e d q u a lity , and it is d iffic u lt to s e e how e l s e C a ry m ig h t
h a v e h a n d led th e m a te r ia l; but b e c a u s e th e r e a d e r is n ot e m o tio n a lly in
v o lv e d , th e b o o k s e e m s c o ld and h a s n ot b e e n a s p o p u la r a s it d e s e r v e s .
T he fo r m is n o t th e s u c c e s s f u l e m b o d im e n t of th e s to r y b e c a u s e
of th e fla w s in p lo t and c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n . But th e n o v e l m e r it s s e r io u s
c o n s id e r a t io n fo r its tr e a tm e n t of an im p o rta n t th e m e - - w o m e n c o n s t i
tu te h a lf of th e w o r ld , and w h a t a ff e c ts th e ir liv e s a ffe c ts th e w h o le of
s o c ie t y . C a ry a tte m p te d an h o n e s t and s e r io u s d e v e lo p m e n t of th e
th em e; th at it w a s n ot s a t is f a c t o r y is u n fo r tu n a te.
CHAPTER VI
T H E SE C O N D TR ILO G Y
T h e S e c o n d T r ilo g y r e s t s on C a r y 's id e a th a t a ll h u m a n lif e is
p o lit ic a l, th a t a ll h u m a n r e la t io n s h ip s n e e d " m a n a g in g " -- in th e n u r s e r y ,
in m a r r ia g e , in b u s in e s s , in g o v e r n m e n t. A t th e g o v e r n m e n ta l l e v e l h e
b e lie v e d th a t th e r e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y o n ly tw o c h o ic e s in th e m a n a g e m e n t
o f m e n - - t o p e r s u a d e th em o r to s h o o t t h e m - - a n d s in c e d e m o c r a c ie s a b
s t a in fr o m sh o o tin g m e n a s a m e th o d of c o n tr o l, t h e ir o n ly a lte r n a tiv e
is p e r s u a s io n . C a r y th o u g h t th a t th e o r a to r o r " s p e llb in d e r " is p o w e r
fu l and im p o r ta n t in d e m o c r a c ie s b e c a u s e h e is th e m a s t e r o f th e t e c h
n iq u e s o f p e r s u a s io n , w h ic h a r e p r im a r ily v e r b a l.
R e lig io n is o r g a n iz e d to s a t is f y and gu id e th e s o u l - - p o l i t i c s d o e s th e
s a m e th in g fo r th e b od y. . . . B ut th e p o lit ic ia n is r e s p o n s ib le fo r
la w , fo r p h y s ic a l s e c u r it y , and in a w o r ld of tu m u lt, or p e r p e tu a l
c o n flic t, he h a s th e a lt e r n a t iv e s , r o u g h ly a g a in , o f p e r s u a d in g p e o p le
or sh o o tin g th e m . In th e d e m o c r a c ie s , w e p e r s u a d e . A n d th is g iv e s
g r e a t p o w e r to th e s p e llb in d e r , th e a r t is t in w o r d s , the p r e a c h e r , th e
d e m a g o g u e , w h a te v e r y o u c a ll h im . . . . M y N im m o is a t y p ic a l s p e l l
b in d e r . . . . and d e m o c r a c y m u s t h a v e its s p e llb in d e r s . (W r ite r s At
W ork , p. 56)
C a r y c o n s id e r e d th e g e n iu s of th e s p e llb in d e r to be "the a r t o f g e ttin g
a t p e o p le an d m o v in g th e c r o w d ," and he in c lu d e d s u c h d iv e r s e m e n a s
R o o s e v e lt, L lo y d G e o r g e , B ev a n , M ood y, an d B illy G ra h a m a s e x a m p le s
of th e s p e llb in d e r in d e m o c r a c ie s (p. 57). Of c o u r s e , th e s p e llb in d e r is
a ls o o n e of C a r y 's v e r s io n s o f th e c r e a t iv e m a n , a m a n w h o c r e a t e s a
v is io n of a w a y of lif e fo r p e o p le and m o v e s th em to t r y to a c h ie v e th e ir
178
179
d r e a m s .
C a r y b e lie v e d in a d y n a m ic w o r ld , a w o r ld in c o n s ta n t c r e a tio n ,
th e r e f o r e a d a n g e r o u s and u n c e r ta in o n e , s o h e th ou gh t o f p o lit ic s a s
" b ein g lik e n a v ig a tio n in a s e a w ith o u t c h a r ts ." S in c e h e v ie w e d r e l i
g io n a s a g u id e fo r th e s o u l and p o lit ic s a s a g u id e fo r th e b od y, h e sa w
th a t th e y te n d to e m p lo y th e s a m e a p p r o a c h e s to m a n 's m in d and e m o
tio n s:
R e lig io n is fu ll of a e s t h e t ic f e e lin g an d p o lit ic a l a c tio n ; p o lit ic s u s e s
a e s t h e t ic and r e lig io u s a p p e a l. E v e r y m a n is b o rn in to a s o c ie t y
w h ic h is a t o n ce c o n s ta n t in its p r im it iv e n a tu r a l e le m e n t s , th e n a tu
r a l f a m ily r e la t io n s h ip s , th e n e e d s , p a s s io n s an d a m b itio n s of a ll h u
m a n n a tu r e; and h ig h ly f le x ib le in th e la r g e r g r o u p in g s o f tr ib a l, n a
tio n a l, and m o r a l o r g a n iz a tio n . ("W ay A N o v e l G ets W r itte n ," p. 89)
He sa w r e lig io u s p r in c ip le s c le a r ly at w o r k in E n g lis h p o li t ic s , and th e
S e c o n d T r ilo g y r e f l e c t s h is in t e r e s t in th e p o lit ic a l a s p e c t s of th e E n g
l i s h e v a n g e lic a l m o v e m e n t. T h e e v a n g e lic a l d o c tr in e w a s to C a ry b oth
fa n a tic a l and " p ro fo u n d ly im a g in a tiv e " (" N o v e lis t A t W ork ," p. 19), and
E x c e p t th e L o r d is h is s p e c if ic e ffo r t to g e t at th e r o o ts of le f t - w in g
E n g lis h p o lit ic s in e v a n g e lic a l r e lig io n .
In th e p la n of th e T r ilo g y C h e s te r N im m o is th e c r e a t iv e m a n , a
p o lit ic a l g e n iu s an d a s p e llb in d e r , a m a s t e r of th e a r ts o f p e r s u a d in g
m e n . J im L a tte r is th e n o n - c r e a t iv e m a n , a r ig id s o ld ie r w h o th in k s
tr u th is a m a t te r of s im p le an d c le a r f a c t s on w h ic h g o v e r n m e n t sh o u ld
r e s t , and w ho p r e f e r s sh o o tin g to p e r s u a d in g . He a b h o r s p o lit ic ia n s and
th e ir m e th o d s o f p e r s u a s io n a s m e r e " w a n g lin g ." B e tw e e n th e tw o m e n
sta n d s N in a , w h o s e lif e is a c o n tin u o u s jo b of " m a n a g in g " on e or th e
o th er or b oth o f th em a t th e s a m e t im e . She and J im a r e c o u s in s . T h ey
w e r e r e a r e d to g e th e r a s c h ild r e n , and h e b e c a m e h e r lo v e r w h en sh e
w a s s e v e n t e e n . He r e m a in s h e r lo v e r d u rin g th e th ir ty y e a r s o f h e r
180
m a r r ia g e to C h e s te r , u n til th e r o le s of th e tw o m e n a r e r e v e r s e d : sh e
m a r r ie s J im but C h e s te r c o n tin u e s to m a k e p h y s ic a l and e m o tio n a l
c la im s on h e r .
N in a is a n o th e r v e r s i o n o f C a r y 's " n u rtu rin g " w o m a n . B o th
C h e s te r and J im d ep en d up on h e r a ll th ro u g h t h e ir liv e s fo r c o m fo r t and
su p p o r t. W h ile s h e is n o t a " flo a tin g " w o m a n lik e S a r a , sh e p o s s e s s e s
s im ila r tr a its ; sh e fin d s th a t sh e c a n " r e c o n c ile " h e r s e l f to a n y th in g ,
and it is h e r n a tu r e to " d rift" a lo n g , s e e k in g o n ly a c o m fo r ta b le a tm o s.-
p h e r e . It is h e r a b ilit y to r e c o n c ile h e r s e l f to e v e n th e m o s t u n p le a sa n t
th in g s in lif e th a t e n a b le s h e r to m a k e a s u c c e s s of h e r f o r c e d m a r r ia g e
to C h e s te r , and, o n c e e n ta n g le d , to sta n d b y h im w h e n h e n e e d s h e r .
T h ou gh N in a is c h a r m in g and w e a k , sh e is m o r e c o m p le x th a n C a r y 's
o th e r " n u rtu rin g " w o m e n c h a r a c t e r s in th a t sh e is q u ite w e ll a w a r e of
h e r ow n n a tu r e , an d sh e h a s th e in t e llig e n c e to c o n te m p la te and u n d e r
sta n d th e n a tu r e o f s o c ia l and p o lit ic a l c o n flic ts and th e c h a n g e s in s o
c ie t y w h ic h m a r k th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y . N in a a ls o u n d e r s ta n d s th e n a
tu r e s o f h e r m e n m u c h b e tte r th a n S a r a u n d e r sta n d s W ilc h e r and G u lley .
N in a 's a b ility to u n d er sta n d h e r m e n is o b v io u s in h e r s to r y ,
P r is o n e r o f G r a c e . A n o rp h a n , r e a r e d b y h e r au n t, sh e g r e w up w ith
J im L a tte r in a b r o th e r and s i s t e r r e la t io n s h ip . Sh e f i r s t m e t C h e s te r
N im m o w h e n h e w a s a p o o r c le r k w h o c a m e to h e r A u n t's h o u se to ta lk
p o li t ic s , and sh e w a s e m b a r r a s s e d b y h is o b v io u s a d m ir a tio n . F o r c e d
b y J im to p r o v e th a t sh e lo v e d h im , N in a b e c a m e p r e g n a n t, and s in c e
th e r u le s of h is r e g im e n t p r e v e n te d h is m a r r y in g , N in a 's A unt p r o v id e d
a n a lte r n a tiv e by a r r a n g in g a m a r r ia g e to N im m o . In ste a d of b e in g
m is e r a b le in a l o v e l e s s m a r r ia g e , N in a fou n d h e r s e l f s u r p r is in g ly
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c o m fo r ta b le . C h e s te r w a s a ta c tfu l h u sb a n d w ho e v e n a r r a n g e d th a t
th e y be in F r a n c e w h en th e b ab y, T om , w a s b o rn . On th e ir r e tu r n fr o m
F r a n c e C h e s te r b e c a m e a p o lit ic a l c a n d id a te fo r a co u n ty o ff ic e , and
N in a w a s fa llin g in lo v e w ith h im w h en J im r e tu r n e d , a c c u s e d h e r of
jiltin g h im to m a r r y C h e ste r , and in s u lte d C h e ste r . N in a th en le a r n e d
th a t C h e ste r h ad n ot know n sh e w a s p r e g n a n t w h en h e m a r r ie d h er; he
had m e r e ly b e e n to ld th a t sh e had b e e n a b u se d . E v e n a fte r J im 's r e tu r n
C h e ste r r e f u s e d to a d m it th a t T om w a s n ot h is c h ild . N in a f e lt sh e
co u ld not go on in su c h a f a ls e r e la tio n s h ip , and C h e s te r r e p lie d th a t if
sh e le f t h im "it w o u ld b r e a k h is heart."'*' C h e s te r , p r e a c h in g p e a c e and
p a c ific a tio n at th e tim e of th e B o e r c o n flic t, w a s a tta ck ed by a m o b and
b e c a m e a h e r o to th e r e lig io u s R a d ic a ls w ho o p p o se d m ilit a r y a c tio n s .
F ir e d fr o m h is jo b in a r e a l e s t a te o ffic e b e c a u s e of p o lit ic a l a g ita tio n ,
C h e ste r th o u g h t th a t h is p o lit ic a l c a r e e r w a s o v e r , b u t N in a a s k e d h im
to u s e h e r in h e r ita n c e and h e co n tin u ed h is a tta c k s on la n d lo r d s , p o v e r
ty, and s lu m s . J im r e tu r n e d fr o m th e B o e r w a r , f e l l in lo v e w ith N in a,
th e young w ife , and sh e w ith h im ; h is w a s a s im p le and e a s y n a tu re in
c o m p a r is o n w ith C h e s t e r 's c o m p lic a te d on e. C h e ste r sa w th a t N ina
w a s in lo v e , and, s a y in g th at h e o n ly w a n ted h e r h a p p in e s s , a s k e d if sh e
w a n ted to go to Jim o r if s h e o n ly w a n ted to e s c a p e h im . N in a r e a liz e d
th at he w a s p la y in g th e c o n fid e n c e g a m e and w a s f u r io u s ly in d ig n a n t,
but sh e fo u n d it im p o s s ib le to le a v e h im . She w en t to sta y w ith h e r
A unt, and C h e ste r p u t out th e s to r y th a t sh e w a s i l l - - a c a n d id a te m u s t
h a v e a r e s p e c ta b le h o m e lif e .
Prisoner of Grace, Carfax edition (London, 1954), p. 43.
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N in a w a s s u r e th a t C h e ste r w o u ld g iv e h e r a d iv o r c e w h en he
le a r n e d th a t sh e w a s a g a in p r e g n a n t by J im . In stea d h e a c te d p le a s e d ,
arid sh e r e a liz e d th at if sh e did n ot h e lp h im w in h is e le c t io n a s an M .P .,
sh e w o u ld f e e l g u ilty if h e lo s t and w o u ld n e v e r be f r e e , but a fte r the
e le c t io n sh e w a s m o r e bound th an b e fo r e ; sh e co u ld n o t s p o il h is b ig o p
p o r tu n ity . C h e s te r b ou gh t a la r g e h o u se in L ondon, h ir e d a p r iv a te s e c
r e t a r y w h o s e m a in job w a s to k e e p w a tc h on N ina, and a g r e e d to p a y
J im 's g a m b lin g d eb ts on c o n d itio n th at he le a v e E n glan d . D u rin g N in a 's
c o n fin e m e n t A unt L a tte r to o k o v e r th e h o u se k e e p in g and s e r v e d as a
b u ffe r fo r N ina a g a in s t C h e s t e r 's m o r a l p r e s s u r e s , bu t he p ic k e d a
q u a r r e l w ith h e r in o r d e r to g e t r id of h e r . B e c a u s e of d if fe r e n c e s in
c la s s and o u tlo o k , C h e ste r and N in a c la s h e d o v e r b r in g in g up c h ild re n ;
N in a w a s d e te r m in e d th a t T o m 's lif e not be r u in ed by C h e s t e r 's p r e ju
d ic e a g a in s t b o a r d in g -s c h o o ls , w h ile C h e ste r f e lt it p o lit ic a lly im p o s s i
b le to go a g a in s t h is R a d ic a l p a r ty p r in c ip le s and m a k e an e x c e p tio n of
T o m . N in a, d e s p a ir in g , to o k an o v e r d o s e of s le e p in g p il ls , and C h e ste r ,
d e fe a te d fo r o n c e , d e c id e d th at T om co u ld go if he c o u ld p a s s th e s c h o l
a r s h ip e x a m in a tio n s .
In 1913 C h e ste r b e c a m e in v o lv e d in a n in v e s tm e n t s c a n d a l but
v in d ic a te d h im s e lf b y s e llin g out h is s h a r e s ; h o w e v e r , th e c h a p e l p e o p le
w h o w e r e h is m a in su p p o rt th r e a te n e d to fin d a n o th er ca n d id a te , and
C h e s te r , to h o ld th e m , to o k up p a c if is m , a c a u s e p o p u la r w ith th e r e l i
g io u s r a d ic a ls . Upon th e d e c la r a t io n of w a r th e o th er R a d ic a l m in is t e r s
r e s ig n e d , but C h e ste r is s u e d a s ta te m e n t th a t th ough h e w a s a g a in s t
w a r h e w a s h o r r ifie d at G e r m a n y 's a c tio n s , thatrhe h ad b e e n m is le d ,
and th a t h e m u s t su p p o rt th e c a u s e of tru th and p e a c e a g a in s t a
183
" d e v ilish " a g g r e s s io n . A s a w a r tim e M in is te r of P r o d u c tio n he h ad no
n e e d of h is old r e lig io u s c o n s titu e n ts and fr ie n d s .
Jim r e tu r n e d h o m e in 1917 ta lk in g n a tiv e r ig h ts , and, to r a is e
m o n e y fo r the n a t iv e s , a n n o u n ced a p u b lic m e e t in g w h ic h C h e s te r h ad
c a n c e le d , a s s e r t in g it w a s an a tta c k on th e p o li c ie s of the w a r tim e g o v
e r n m e n t of w h ic h h e w a s a m in is t e r . N in a, d e te r m in e d to le a v e C h ester,
w e n t to the f a m ily c o u n try h o u se , but sh e w a s w a r n e d that if sh e did not
r etu r n , J im , a s a m a n in the g o v e r n m e n t s e r v i c e , w o u ld be " su b jec t to
d is c ip lin e ." N in a su b m itte d , r e a liz in g th at sh e c o u ld a c c e p t an " im p o s
s ib le " situ a tio n , and C h e s t e r d e c id e d on a " F re n c h " plan; h e w o u ld buy
the c o u n try h o u se and in s ta ll J im as a g en t, e n a b lin g N in a to s e e h im
w ith o u t m a k in g a s c a n d a l. A fte r the w a r T om b e c a m e s u c c e s s f u l as a
n ig h tclu b e n te r ta in e r d oin g a s a t ir e of C h e ste r , but, w h en h is clu b w a s
r a id e d , he w en t to G e rm a n y , and in d e s p a ir sh ot h im s e lf . A fte r T o m 's
d ea th N in a w e n t aw ay, w a s in te r c e p te d b y J im , and on ce a g a in b e c a m e
p r e g n a n t. She d iv o r c e d C h e s te r , m a r r ie d J im , and fin a lly fou nd h a p p i
n e s s at f o r t y - f iv e . B ut it w a s o n ly a fe w m o n th s u n til C h e s te r a r r iv e d ,
in v o lv e d h e r in h e lp in g h im w r it e h is m e m o i r s , and, w h en th e y w e r e
a lo n e , a s s a u lt e d h e r . He m o v e d into J im 's h o u se , and a fte r he had a
h e a r t attack , it w a s im p o s s ib le to g et r id of h im . A s the s t o r y e n d s,
C h e ste r h a s b e e n liv in g in the h o u s e fo r o v e r a y e a r and N in a r e a li z e s
th at sh e is s t i l l in h is p o w e r , and that th e r e is no so lu tio n u n le s s Jim
s h o o ts h e r dead.
C a r y 's m a in th e m e th at a ll h u m a n r e la t io n s h ip s n e e d m a n a g in g
is e s t a b lis h e d in the b eg in n in g of the n o v e l a s N in a d e s c r ib e s h e r s it u a
tio n w ith J im w h ile g r o w in g up: "I w a s fa r to o you n g and s c a t te r b r a in e d
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to m a n a g e our r e la tio n s or e v e n to know (as s o m e c h ild r e n w ith b r o th
e r s and s i s t e r s know quite young) that r e la tio n s n e e d m an agin g" (p. 10).
H er Aunt L a tte r , though a s p in s te r w ith a sh a rp ton gu e, w a s v e r y m u ch
a "m an aging" w o m a n and w a s w e ll a w a re of N in a ’s ten d en cy to "drift."
A s a m id d le -a g e d w o m a n N in a lo o k s b ack on th e tim e of h er p r e g n a n c y
at s e v e n te e n and a d m ir e s h e r A u n t's str en g th of m in d in a r ra n g in g h er
m a r r ia g e .
It is q u ite f a ls e to s a y that sh e s a c r if ic e d m e - - s h e thought of m y
"good" a s w e ll as N im m o 1 s. And if h e r id ea w a s to r e s c u e m e fr o m
a c a r e l e s s e x is t e n c e , to s a v e m e fr o m m y s e lf , th is w a s a p e r f e c t ly
r e s p e c ta b le id ea at that tim e , and not at a ll a stu p id one, fo r h e a v e n
know s w h a t w ould h ave h ap p en ed to m e w ith m y p o w e r of daw dling
. . . if I h a d b e e n a llo w e d to "drift."
How bold, then, Aunt w a s in s e e in g w h at "could be done" w ith
both N im m o (g iv en m y fiv e th o u sa n d pounds) and m y s e lf . It w a s
r e a lly a triu m p h fo r h er and h e r " p o litica l" s e n s e , w h en a fo rtn ig h t
la te r . . . I found m y s e l f in a tr a in w ith N im m o going aw ay fo r our
h o n ey m o o n , (p. 25)
On th e h o n ey m o o n N in a le a r n e d that p o lit e n e s s by it s e lf m a d e fo r a
w o rk in g r e la tio n s h ip , and fo r a " situ a tio n w h ic h is v e r y lik e a ffe c tio n
and m u ch m o r e m a n a g ea b le" (p. 25).
The ir o n y of s u c c e s s f u lly "m anaged" r e la tio n s h ip s is that the
p e o p le w ho h o ld truth to be th e ir id e a l find it n e c e s s a r y to s u p p r e s s the
tru th and to liv e by t a c it a g r e e m e n ts . N ina a d m ir e d C h e s t e r 's ta c t on
the h o n ey m o o n , h is in s tin c tiv e , u n sp o k en k n o w led g e of h e r d e s ir e s
w ith ou t sp o ilin g it, p e r h a p s f o r e v e r , by b rin g in g it out into the open
and p u llin g it a ll out of sh a p e in a c o n te s t of m a n n e r s w h ich w ou ld
h a v e b een , of c o u r s e , a s p e c ia l d an ger to u s, w h en w e w e r e b oth so
an xiou s to be " n ice." (p. 26)
N in a p h ilo s o p h iz e s th at sh e le a r n e d fr o m h im how c o m p lic a te d a r e l a
tio n sh ip m a r r ia g e is , "a p o litic a l ed u cation " in w h ich one "should be
g r a te fu l fo r s im p le th o u g h tfu ln ess" (p. 32). Iro n ica lly , C h ester
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m a n a g ed h is m a r r ia g e by r e fu s in g to a d m it the tru th during the c r i s i s
of J im 's f ir s t r etu rn . W hen N in a sa id to h e r Aunt that sh e co u ld not go
on liv in g w ith C h e ste r u n le s s he a d m itte d the fa c ts , h er Aunt r e p lie d ,
"Why sh ou ld he a d m it anything?" and a sk e d N ina if sh e thought th ey had
a c tu a lly d is c u s s e d h e r c o n d itio n in s o m a n y w o r d s. "Did I r e a ll y e x p e c t
any d e c en t m a n to tak e J im 's le a v in g s if it w as a d m itted th ey w e r e
le a v in g s? " (p. 41). Aunt L a tte r s a y s sh e th inks C h e ste r w ould be a fo o l
to ad m it a n y th in g --
"H e's got to be in a p o s itio n to d en y e v er y th in g . . . . I s e e m to r e
m e m b e r that y ou put y o u r s e lf in a p o s it io n - - a n d you can thank your
lu ck y s ta r s and C h e ste r and m e fo r g e ttin g you out." (p. 42)
W hen N in a r e a liz e d the depth of C h e s t e r 's lo v e for h e r , she sa w h e r
m a r r ia g e as p o s s ib le b e c a u s e C h e ste r w ou ld not a d m it T o m 's p a ter n ity .
But life a ls o b e c a m e m o r e c o m p lica te d : "I knew now and n e v e r could
fo r g e t that C h e ste r , w ith a ll h is a ffectio n , w a s p la y in g a kind of p o lit i
c a l g a m e w ith m e . He w a s tak in g up a str o n g p o s itio n and th in k in g of
h is c a r e e r " (p. 47).
C h e ste r u s e d the s a m e m e th o d to m a n a g e th e se c o n d c r i s i s of
th e ir l i v e s - - t h e p a te r n ity of S a ll y - - b y p reten d in g that the ch ild w a s h is ,
and by p r e v e n tin g N ina fr o m " c o n fe s sin g anything" {p. 106). N in a r e a l
iz e d that sh e w o u ld have to h elp C h e ster w in h is e le c tio n in o r d e r to
g a in h e r fr e e d o m . W hen sh e le a r n e d a fter the e le c t io n that sh e w ou ld
not be f r e e , sh e u n d e r sto o d th a t fa c ts a r e not " so lid ." "When y o u a re
d ea lin g w ith m e n lik e C h e ste r fa c ts s im p ly tu rn round the oth er way;
and as fo r s itu a tio n s, it is th e ir b u s in e s s to change th em " {p. 112).
E v en the s m a lle s t d eed of C h e s t e r 's w a s a m a n ip u la tio n of c ir c u m
s t a n c e - - " H e n e v e r stop p ed h is m a n e u v e r s fo r a m om en t; th e r e w a s
186
t r ic k e r y in h is k in d e st d e e d - - i t w a s a n o th er n a il to hold m e " (p. 129).
N in a c o m e s to a c le a r u n d ersta n d in g of C h e s t e r 's attitud e to w a rd
life in th e c r i s i s o v e r fo r c in g Aunt L a tte r to le a v e th e ir h o u se . C h e ste r
had b e e n ta lk in g about th e p r o b le m of " m an agin g o n e's r e la tio n s w ith
p eo p le w ho did not r e a lly u n d ersta n d the w h o le p r o b le m of r e la t io n s ,"
and m o r e im p o rta n t, on ce a s u c c e s s f u l p o litic ia n , he b eg a n to ta lk about
the d iffic u lty of "m anaging" p e o p le as th e u ltim a te p r o b le m of d e m o
c r a tic p o lit ic s (p. 148). By co u p lin g the tw o a s p e c t s of C h e s t e r 's lif e ,
C ary e m p h a s iz e d h is b e lie f that a ll h u m an r e la tio n s h ip s a r e c o n sta n tly
being "m an aged ," and that the b a s ic p r o b le m of d e m o c r a c ie s is " m an
aging" p e o p le by " p ersu ad in g" th e m . N ina w a s s t i l l to o youn g and in
v o lv e d in h e r own e m o tio n a l r e a c tio n s to u n d ersta n d h e r A u n t's a p p r e
c ia tio n of p o litic a l m a n e u v e r in g in d o m e s tic r e la tio n sh ip s; t h e r e fo r e ,
sh e w a s a m a z e d to s e e C h e ste r and h er Aunt,
w ho had ju st had a b itte r ir r e c o n c ila b le q u a r r e l, c o m e to g e th er
a g a in w ith ou t an y kind of ex p la n a tio n or f o r g iv e n e s s , and in l e s s than
ten m in u te s s ta r t a n ew r e la tio n s h ip at a d iffe r e n t le v e l, (p. 154)
What N in a had y et to le a r n w a s that p o litic ia n s a r e " p ra ctica l" p e o p le
w ho tr y to "m ake the b e st" of th in g s (p. 17 3).
A s N in a le a r n e d and m a tu r e d , C a r y sh ifte d the e m p h a s is of the
s to r y fr o m m a r r ia g e to p o lit ic s , as a p r o b le m of m a n a g e m e n t in a
la r g e r s p h e r e . A fte r the in v e s tm e n t sc a n d a l in w h ich C h e ste r w a s in
v o lv e d but c le a r e d b e c a u s e he s o ld out ju s t in tim e , he w a s s t ill a t
ta ck ed . H is ch a p el fo llo w e r s fe lt he w a s p r e a c h in g v ir tu e but s e r v in g
M am m on . N ina had le a r n e d by y e a r s of e x p e r ie n c e that p o litic a l q u e s
tio n s h a v e no e a s y a n s w e r s . She fe lt that C h e ste r m a d e good in v e s t
m e n ts " b e c a u se he had the im a g in a tio n to s e e w hat m ig h t be good, and
187
not b e c a u s e h e had s p e c ia l in fo rm a tio n " (p. 213), but h e so ld out b e c a u s e
he w a s fo r e w a r n e d that th e n e w sp a p e r s w e r e g oin g to m a k e a fu s s about
the s to c k d ea lin g . N in a 's s ta te m e n t is a r e it e r a tio n of C a ry 's th em e:
It's no good, in fa ct, p r e te n d in g that th e r e is any e a s y w a y to so lv e
p o litic a l q u e stio n s, b e c a u s e th e y a r e a ll so m ix e d up w ith fe e lin g s
and p r e ju d ic e s that p e o p le h a v e to be p e r su a d e d and ind uced to do
and th ink r ig h tly (u n le ss you ju s t sh o o t th em , w h ich is im p o s s ib le in
a d e m o c r a c y ). . . .
And w h at I am tr y in g to do in th is book is not to m ak e out that
C h e ste r w a s a sa in t (w h ich w o u ld be stup id, a fter a ll the book s and
a r t ic le s about h im ) but to show that he w a s , in sp ite of the b o o k s, a
"good m a n " - - I m e a n (and it is sa y in g m o r e than could be s a id of
m o s t p e o p le ) a s good as he co u ld be in h is s p e c ia l c ir c u m s t a n c e s ,
and b e tte r than m a n y w e r e in m u ch e a s ie r o n e s. (p. 216)
T o be "as good a s he cou ld be in h is s p e c ia l c ir c u m s t a n c e s " w e ll d e
s c r ib e s C h e s t e r 's p r o b le m . A b so lu te id e a ls of tru th and g o o d n e ss and
ju s tic e a r e d iffic u lt, e v e n im p o s s ib le , to m a in ta in in the b attle of p o li
t ic s , in the fin e a d ju stm e n ts m a d e c o n sta n tly in the e ffo r t to m a in ta in
p o w e r and p e r su a d e p e o p le . A m a n th e r e fo r e a d m its that he d o e s the
b e s t h e can, or h e b e c o m e s a h y p o c r ite lik e C h e ste r , w ho c la im s that
he a lon e s e r v e s tru th and ju s t ic e . P o lit ic ia n s su ffe r w oun ds in th eir
b a ttle s ju st as do oth er w a r r io r s . A s N in a s a y s ,
P o l it ic s , a fter a ll, is a kind of w a r (and in m an y p la c e s th ey
s t ill sh o o t or e v e n to r tu r e the d efea ted ), and p eo p le w ho a re figh tin g
fo r th e ir li v e s (at l e a s t th eir p o lit ic a l liv e s ) h a v e q u ite a d iffe r e n t
v ie w of th in gs fr o m th o se w ho on ly w o r k and ea t fo r th em . (p. 225)
C a ry sh ifted , in the la tte r th ird of the n o v el, to an e m p h a s is of
the c o n n e c tio n of r e lig io n and p o lit ic s . To w in h is b a ttle and r e g a in h is
ch a p el s u p p o r te r s, C h e ste r took up p a c if is m . A c c o r d in g to N ina he did
not take up p a c if is m fa ls e ly ; he had "a r e n e w e d c o n v ic tio n a g a in s t a r
m a m e n ts ." She did not f e e l that he w a s h y p o c r itic a l; "people don't n eed
to be h y p o c r ite s . T h ey can so e a s i l y 'm a k e 1 t h e m s e lv e s b e lie v e
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anything th ey fancy" (p. 225). T h e r e fo r e , sh e d e s c r ib e d C h ester as a
m an
w h o se p o litic s w e r e m ix e d up w ith r e lig io n and w h o se r e lig io n w as
alw ays gettin g into h is p o litic s . . . . It did not p r e v en t h is r e lig io n
fr o m b ein g "true" that he knew how to "use" it. (p. 232)
C a ry 's d ev elo p m en t of the tw o t h e m e s - - p o lit ic s as the a rt of
m an agin g p eo p le and e v a n g e lic a l r e lig io n 's in flu en ce on le ft-w in g E n g
lis h p o l i t i c s - - c o m e s to a c lim a x in the p o r tio n of the sto r y co n cern in g
C h e ste r 's a d v o c a c y of p a c ifism and th en h is r e je c tio n of h is p led g e to
r e s ig n h is p o s t in ev en t of w a r. He had m ad e an im p ortan t sp e e c h d e
c la r in g that p a c if is t s should r e s i s t e v il but w ithout a r m s . A s good
C h ristia n s th ey sh ou ld go to m e e t the e n e m y and s im p ly stand in th eir
w a y and le t t h e m s e lv e s be m a r ty r e d , "as a w itn e s s a g a in st the w a r -
m a k e r s and b lood guilty" (p. 256). W hen C h ester broke h is p led g e by
not r e sig n in g at the ou tbreak of the w ar, he w a s a ttack ed by h is r e l i
g io u s -R a d ic a l su p p o rter s fo r d e str o y in g "the v e r y so u l of our g rea t
c a u s e ." He w a s b la m ed fo r "the fin a l d iv o r c e of p o litic s and m o r a lity ,"
fo r "the u n iv e r s a l c o lla p s e of C h r istia n v a lu e s" by w h ich m a t e r ia lis m
b e c a m e "ram pant and u n ash am ed " (p. 262). In N in a's d e sc r ip tio n , the
ch ap el p eo p le w e r e a ll a g a in st w a r and w e r e p a r tic u la r ly sh o ck ed
at the v e r y thought of sen d in g out th e ir so n s to do m u rd er (as th ey
thought of it) on oth er p e o p le 's s o n s. A lso th ey argu ed that if w e did
not m ak e our C h ristia n p r o te s t and a ctu a lly en gaged in m a s s m urder,
th en th ere w ould be nothing to stop the w ar sp rea d in g a ll o v e r the
w o r ld and it w ou ld c e a s e to be C h ristia n at a ll. C iv iliz a tio n it s e lf
w ould d isa p p ea r , (p. 264)
L ookin g b ack a fter s o m e tw e n ty -fiv e y e a r s , she r e m a r k s that th o se a r
gu m en ts s e e m s illy , that "people a re u se d to w a r s and p a c ifis m is r e
ga rd ed as fo o lis h or cow ard ly" (p. 264).
In tr y in g to u n d erstan d the c r i s i s and ex p la in C h e ste r 's r o le in
189
it, Nina e m p h a s iz e s the im p o rta n ce of m an agin g and d ir e c tin g p eo p le if
n eed be at the e x p e n se of a b so lu te id ea ls:
A fter a ll, p eo p le w ho s a y th ey don't w ant m u ch fr o m li f e - - o n l y o r d i
nary p e a c e and q u ie t - - a r e r e a lly a sk in g (as Aunt p oin ted out to m e
so often) a g r e a t d ea l. F o r the o rd in a ry thing is m o r e lik e a v io le n t
a rgu m en t about the righ t road in a runaw ay co a ch . . . g a llop in g down
h ill in a fog. If no one d r iv e s (and c h o o s e s a road) ev ery th in g and
e v er y o n e , inclu ding th e h o r s e s , w ill c r a sh .
P e r h a p s C h e ster did "get away" w ith l i e s and tr ic k s and did
help to " d estro y our g r e a t c a u se ." But a ll le a d e r s (who r e a lly d riv e
and s te e r ), e s p e c ia lly r e fo r m le a d e r s , do d e str u c tio n to a c a u se .
B e c a u se th ey s e t out to m ak e new w o r ld s and new w o r ld s can n ev er
be so good (or s o new ) as p eo p le e x p ect, (p. 263)
In c o n tr a st to the F i r s t T r ilo g y w h e r e the books are p u rp o rted ly
w r itte n by the c h a r a c te r s as effo r ts to u n d erstan d the truth about th e m
s e lv e s , th e n o v els of the Secon d T r ilo g y are w r itte n to t e ll the truth
about the oth er c h a r a c te r s in the tr ia n g le . T h e r e fo r e , se lf-k n o w le d g e
is not a g o a l of the c h a r a c te r s , and N ina is the only one to a ch iev e it.
N e ith e r of the m e n e v e r s e e s h im s e lf c le a r ly ; th ey a r e incapab le of it.
N im m o d elu d es h im s e lf w ith r e lig io n , Jim w ith duty. N im m o s e e s Jim
as a " p o litica l idiot"; Jim s e e s N im m o only as a " w a n g le r " --th e la b e ls
th ey u s e clou d th eir a ck n o w led g m en t of the m a n behind the la b el.
Though th e ir c h a r a c te r s a re a m p lified in th eir own s t o r ie s , th ey do not
tu rn out e s s e n t ia lly d iffe re n t fro m the w ay N ina s e e s th em .
N in a ’s ow n n atu re is p a s s iv e , and h er r e fu s a l to figh t a lw a y s
goads Jim into v io len ce:
T his, of c o u r se (b ec a u se he r e a liz e d that he could do nothing to m e
e x cep t b a tter m e or k ill m e and that e v e n th en I sh ou ld not c a re ),
m ad e h im s till m o r e fu rio u s, e s p e c ia lly as he thought I w a s doing it
on p u rp o se.
N ina a s s e r t s that h e r p a s s iv it y w as not a ssu m e d , that sh e could not
h elp it. A t se v e n te e n she had r e fu se d to defend h e r s e lf a g a in st Jim ,
190
and. on ce p reg n a n t, inten ded, as h e r Aunt a c c u s e d h e r , of doing nothing
"as u s u a l- - e x c e p t d r ift .'1 W hen A unt L a tte r p r o p o s e d sh e m a r r y N im
m o , N in a fe lt sh e w ould ra th er d row n h e r s e lf . "Of c o u r s e you w ould;
y o u 'r e a th o ro u g h ly s p o ile d s e l f i s h g ir l. Go on, then, and m a k e the b ig
g e s t sca n d a l y o u can. W rig g le out of ev er y th in g " {p. 23). N in a a d m its
h er Aunt r e s c u e d h er fr o m d riftin g and that sh e h e r s e l f w ou ld h ave done
nothing. "I th ink I w a s p ro b a b ly ca p a b le of anything b e c a u s e I had begun
to s u s p e c t that I could r e c o n c ile m y s e lf to anything" (p. 25).
N in a 's gro w in g m a tu r ity a p p ea r s d u rin g the c r i s i s of J im 's f ir s t
le a v e . B y C h e s t e r 's r e f u s a l to a d m it Jim to be T o m 's fa th er, N ina
found h e r s e lf "in the p la c e of a c r im in a l w h o m a y be a c c u s e d any d a y - -
in e v e r la s t in g u n c e r ta in ty and in s e c u r ity " (p. 42). She g o e s th rou gh an
a g ita tio n of b od y and m in d c a u se d by h e r a m b iv a le n t f e e lin g s to w a rd
Che s t e r .
It s e e m e d that I w a s tw o w o m e n , one of th em qu ite fu rio u s s t ill and
w a tch fu l of e v e r y m o v e by th is cunning e n e m y , and one of th em so
c lo s e and s y m p a th e tic to him th at sh e f e lt a ll h is fe e lin g s lik e h e r
own. (p. 44)
W hen h e b e g g e d h er to s ta y w ith h im and c o m p lim e n te d h e r on h er g o o d
n e s s and f o r g iv e n e s s , sh e tr ie d to a rg u e w ith him ; "I s a id at once that
he w a s quite w ro n g about m y v ir tu e s . I w a s not so m u c h a fo r g iv in g
p e r s o n as a la z y one w h o lik e d to be c o m fo r ta b le and p e a c e fu l in h e r
m ind" (p. 46). But as sh e r e a liz e d the depth of C h e s t e r 's fe e lin g fo r
h er, sh e e x p e r ie n c e d a ch an ge of m in d a lm o s t lik e a " c o n v e r sio n ."
L ooking back, sh e p h ilo s o p h iz e s that th e r e w a s p ro b a b ly nothing e x t r a
o r d in a r y about h e r ch a n g es of h ea rt; " E v e ry young m a r r ie d w o m a n has
th em , w h en sh e s e e s th in gs in a new light" (p. 47).
But the a m b iv a le n c e r e m a in s . She a d m ir e s and h a te s C h e ste r at
191
the sa m e tim e . She h a te s the w o r ld he f o r c e s h er to liv e in, a w o rld
"without any so lid o b jects at all" w h e r e sh e is con d em n ed to float
day and night th rou gh clou d s of w o rd s and s c h e m e s and h op es and
a m b ition s and c a lc u la tio n s w h e r e you cou ld not sa y that th is id ea w a s
fa ls e and w ic k e d b e c a u s e all of th em w e r e r e la tiv e to so m eth in g e l s e .
(p. 60)
To p r e v e n t h e r s e lf fr o m d e te stin g C h ester, N ina b e c a m e a good p o lit i
c a l w ife, but "the r e a s o n w hy I w o rk ed so h ard at the le tte r s and
s p e e c h e s w a s that I w a s a fra id of w hat w ould happen to m e , if I c a m e to
hate C h ester" (p. 61).
It w as e a s y fo r N ina to fa ll in lo v e w ith Jim in r e a c tio n from
C h ester. Jim w a s " sim p le and co m p le te " and s e e m e d s o lo v a b le in the
a tm o sp h e r e of C h r istia n fo r g iv e n e s s and m u tu al sy m p a th y that C h e ster
c r e a te d around t h e m - - " even w h en Jim and I w e r e p e r su a d in g ea ch oth er
to run aw ay fr o m C h e ster . . . . w e w e r e u sin g w o rd s lik e lo v e , honor,
truth, fe e lin g in h is 'noble' s e n s e " (p. 83).
C a ry r e m a r k e d that he w ro te the s c e n e in the r a ilw a y station
fir s t, th at it w a s the c e n tr a l s c e n e of the book and that the r e s t of the
sto ry w as built around it. It is h e r e that N in a 's in a b ility to m ake a d e
c is io n and act upon it is m a n ife st, and the r e s u lt is that she b e c o m e s
fo r e v e r the p r is o n e r of g r a c e , of C h e ste r 's lo v e . She know s he intends
to keep h e r , that h e w ill not le t go, and he u s e s the r e lig io u s app roach.
"I m u st sp e a k o u t - - it 's a duty."
"A duty to k eep m e e v en if I don't w ant to sta y . I thought you
sa id you w an ted m e to be h a p p y --th a t you w ould n't tr y to keep m e ."
"No, I m e a n t a duty to our m a r r ia g e , w h ich has b een so fru itfu l
in r e s u l t s - - i n our w ork to g e th er . . . . I r e a lly think, N ina, that our
life to g e th er has had G od's b le s s in g upon it, and you m ig h t b lam e
y o u r s e lf if you b roke it up.
C h e ste r 's u se of "the co n fid en ce tr ic k again w ith a little bit of tr u st in
192
God added" m a k e s N ina fu r io u s, e s p e c ia lly s in c e he ta lk s about lo v e
w h en "all he w an ts is to g et into P a r lia m e n t." But no m a tte r how a n gry
sh e is , sh e cannot think or a c t. The c r u c ia l p oin t of h e r life is w hen
the tr a in is rea d y to go:
But w h en I r e a c h e d th e door m y fe e t stop p ed and tu rn ed m e
a s id e . I s im p ly cou ld not go out, and n e ith e r could I m a k e up m y
m in d to sta y . I w en t a ste p to one s id e , and th en c a m e b a c k to the
d oor, but a b s o lu te ly stu c k th e r e . I s e e m e d to h ave no w ill to do a n y
th ing, or ra th e r I had tw o w ills w h ic h w e r e figh tin g in sid e m e and
te a r in g m e a p art. I can n e v e r fo r g e t the a g o n y of that tim e , w h ich
m u st a c tu a lly h ave la s t e d th r e e or fo u r m in u te s b e fo r e the tr a in
w en t out. And r e a lly 1 th in k it w a s a kind of r e lie f to m e w h en at la s t
it did so , fo r it m a d e a d e c is io n fo r m e . (p. 96)
N in a 's A unt is fu r io u s at h e r sca n d a lo u s b e h a v io r , but N in a f e e ls that,
to be fa ir to m y s e lf , I am n ot r e a lly a bad w o m a n - -n o t v e r y bad. F o r
one th ing, I am to o la z y . In fa ct, I am a v e r y o r d in a r y kind of w o m a n
w ho s im p ly w a n ts to be hap py w ith o u t g iv in g too m u ch tro u b le and
can, in fa ct, be happy q u ite e a s ily . It is r e a lly th o ro u g h ly u n ju st that
I sh o u ld h a v e got m ix e d up w ith su c h an e x tr a o r d in a r y p e r s o n as
C h e ste r , w ho u s e s h is r e lig io n to to r tu r e m e and h is c l a s s h a tr e d to
tie m e to h im t ill I ca n h a r d ly b r e a th e , {p. 98)
E v en in h e r m o m e n t of s e lf - r e a liz a t io n , N ina e x c u s e s h e r s e l f on the
ground s of la z in e s s and C h e s t e r 's p r e s s u r e s .
F r o m th en on the r e la tio n s h ip d o e s n ot ch an ge. N ina t r ie s tw ic e
m o r e to le a v e - - w h e n Aunt L a tte r is f o r c e d out, and w h en J im is on c o n
v a le s c e n t le a v e d u rin g W orld War I - - b u t sh e n e v e r r e a lly h a s the
str en g th of w ill to m a k e a b reak ; sh e d r ifts alon g, " r ec o n c ilin g " h e r s e lf
to e a c h n ew d iffic u lty w ith C h e ste r . And, in the fin a l a n a ly s is , sh e a ls o
r e c o g n iz e s that C h e ste r is fa r m o r e of a m a n than Jim .
H er A unt's r e m a r k s illu m in a te an oth er a s p e c t of N in a 's r e l a
tio n sh ip w ith J im . N ina f e e l s that J im h a s a lw a y s to r tu r e d h e r w ith h is
je a lo u s y and s tu b b o r n n e ss, but h e r A unt a sk e d h e r a fter she r etu rn ed
fr o m the r a ilw a y sta tio n w h at sh e w o u ld do if sh e did g et h im --" W h a t
193
have you a lw a y s done w ith the p oor w r etc h ? D riv en h im out of h is w its
w ith you r a ir s and g r a c e s " (p. 107). Thus C ary added another d im e n
s io n to the p ictu re: N in a and Jim a re not the p e r fe c tly -m a tc h e d , s ta r -
c r o s s e d lo v e r s that th ey think t h e m s e lv e s , but ea ch to r tu r e s the oth er.
N in a ’s life w ith C h e ster b e c a m e a n e v e r -e n d in g b attle, a c o n
tin u al s e r ie s of a d ju stm en ts, fo r the v e r y r e a s o n that he lo v e d h e r . "To .
be lo v e d is an ob ligation . W h atever you do y o u can 't shake it off. You
s im p ly have to d eal w ith it, if only fo r the sa k e of you r own p e a c e" (p.
126). N ina's m o tiv a tio n throughout h er life is h er lo v e fo r Jim and
th eir ch ild ren , p a r tic u la r ly T om . Instead of being one in s p ir it w ith
C h ester, w h ich w ould h ave m ad e th e ir m a r r ia g e str o n g and p e a c efu l,
she fo r e v e r r e s is t e d h im , and w a s f o r e v e r h is p r is o n e r . In fact, r e
s is ta n c e to h im w a s h e r guiding thought fo r ov er tw en ty y e a r s , and it is
dom inant in h er a ctio n s about T om . N in a 's la z in e s s and ten d en cy to
d rift can be c o n s id e r e d e ith e r a m o tiv a tio n or a co n flict w ith h e r oth er
m o tiv a tio n s. C ary so w e ll co m b in ed the tr a its of N in a's c h a r a cter and
m ad e h er so c o n s iste n t that it is im p o s s ib le to u n ra v el the str a n d s.
Truth as a c o m p o site w h ole can be s e e n only by an o m n isc ie n t eye; the
truth e a ch individual s e e s is lim ite d . C h e ster thinks N ina loyal; she
know s she h as r e m a in e d w ith him b e c a u s e of la z in e s s and ex p ed ien cy .
That sh e n e v e r gain ed h e r fr e e d o m w a s p r o o f of C h e ste r 's su p e r io r
p ow er and t a c tic s . In N in a 's own w o r d s, "I think I am p rob ab ly a w o
m an w ho n eed s to be n eed ed , to get involved " (p. 132). N othing ex p la in s
h er m o tiv a tio n b etter. She in s tin c tiv e ly sta y e d w ith C h e ster , who
n eed ed h er m o r e than Jim , w ho w a s s e lf - s u f f ic ie n t in h is in su la r s e l f
is h n e s s . I think it is th is e le m e n t of N in a's c h a r a c te r that A ndrew
194
W right m is t a k e s w h en h e s a y s sh e is d is tin g u is h e d by h e r s e n s e of lo y -
2
alty; it is not lo y a lty as m u ch a s the n eed to be n eed ed . L o y a lty in
v o lv e s a c o m m itm e n t to a p e r s o n or a p r in c ip le . N ina is not c o m m itte d
to any p r in c ip le , n o r is sh e c o m m itte d to C h e ste r . She sta y s w ith the
m a n w ith w h o m sh e is m o s t in v o lv ed .
In sp ite of h e r a m b iv a le n c e to w a rd C h e ste r , N ina u n d ersta n d s
h is c h a r a c te r w e ll, e x c e p t fo r one c r u c ia l p o in t-- th e r e lig io n w h ich w a s
the w e lls p r in g of h is b ein g in e a r li e r y e a r s and w h ich b e c o m e s p o llu ted
in la te r y e a r s b y h is lo v e of p o w e r . S in ce r e lig io n is the m o s t im p o r
tant e le m e n t in C h e s t e r 's c h a r a c te r , C a ry r e s e r v e d the s to r y , E x c e p t
The L o r d , fo r the d e v e lo p m e n t of the r e lig io u s th e m e . O th er w ise,
N in a 's s to r y is m o r e often a c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n of C h e ste r th an of h e r s e l f
.and g iv e s a b e tte r p ic tu r e of h im than d o e s h is ow n n o v el, w h ic h is a
r e m in is c e n c e of h is youth only. O b viou sly, it is a b e tter b a la n ce d p i c
tu re of him than J im 's b e c a u s e N in a 's d is lik e is b a la n ce d by h er r e
sp e c t and a d m ir a tio n fo r C h e ste r . C a ry did a m a s t e r ly job in d e v e lo p
ing C h e s t e r 's c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n th rou gh N in a ’s e y e s . It is fa r m o r e
th orou gh than th e c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n s of W ilch er or G u lley in S a r a 's
sto r y , and it is a c o m p le te p ic tu r e of th e r i s e and fa ll of th e m a n p o
lit ic a lly and of the d e te r io r a tio n of h is c h a r a c te r .
In h is e s s a y " P o litic a l and P e r s o n a l M o r a lity ," w r itte n in 1955,
C ary d is c u s s e d the p r e v a le n t id ea that th er e is a s p e c ia l p o litic a l m o
r a lity , " allow in g a s ta te s m a n m o r e la titu d e th an the o rd in a ry p r iv a te
m an ," an id ea s o w id e ly a c c e p te d "that it is m a d e an e x c u s e fo r the
2
Joyce Cary: A Preface to His Novels (New York, 1958), p. 139.
195
3
g r e a t e s t c r im e s ." C ary, though a g r e e in g that the p o litic ia n s o m e
tim e s n ee d s to " arran ge" truth and to a ct ex p e d ie n tly , did not a g r e e that
a s ta te s m a n w a s e x e m p t fro m the m o r a l sta n d a rd s that g o v e r n p r iv a te
c i t i z e n s :
In fa ct, th e r e is no double stan d ard . L ie s a r e a lw a y s l i e s , e v il
is a lw a y s evil; p u b lic and p r iv a te m o r a ls a re g o v e r n e d by p r e c i s e l y
the s a m e law . The d e s tr u c tio n of one lif e by c r im in a l p r id e or fo lly
is no l e s s and no m o r e a c r im e than the sla u g h ter of a m illio n . The
q u a lity of an in d iv id u a l is h is unique lif e . And you cannot tr e a t that
life as a unit in a m a s s . . . . A m o th e r or a fath er w ho c o r r u p ts and
d e s tr o y s a c h ild 's lif e is in e x a c t ly the s a m e m o r a l p o s itio n a s the
sta te sm a n , the p o litic a l le a d e r , w ho c o r r u p ts or d e s tr o y s a p e o p le .
(p. 31)
The e s s a y continued:
P a r e n ts , m o t h e r s , in th e ir own fa m ily r e la tio n s , a ct as r e s p o n
s ib le s ta te s m e n . What is m o r e , th ey p r a c t is e the s a m e p o li c ie s .
T hey d e c e iv e , th ey evade; in a w ord , th ey m a n a g e a situ a tio n . What
m o th e r w ou ld t e ll a b a ck w ard c h ild that it is a fo o l? . . . Who h as not
m a d e p r o m is e s that cannot be kept; ch a n g ed h is m in d to m e e t s o m e
new co n tin g en cy ? A ll r e la tio n s b e tw e e n h u m an b e in g s in a f r e e
w o r ld r eq u ir e con tin u ou s a d ju stm en t.
It is ju st b e c a u s e the f r e e c r e a tiv e w o r ld , in w h ic h w e liv e , p r e
s e n ts to u s a con tin u ou s n o v e lty of e v en t that p e r s o n a l in te g r ity is of
su ch e n o r m o u s im p o rta n c e. It is our on ly c r it e r io n of v a lu e . Our
tr u s t is g iv e n to c e r ta in le a d e r s b e c a u s e th e ir h on or, th e ir c h a r a c
te r , a r e the only th in g s w e can tr u st, (p. 31)
In the c h a r a c te r of C h e ste r , C a ry h an d led both p r o b le m s at the s a m e
t i m e - - t h e p a r e n t w ho d e s tr o y e d th e c h ild as C h e ste r d e s tr o y e d T om ,
and the s ta te s m a n w ho co rr u p te d a w h o le p e o p le .
In the b eg in n in g of the n o v e l C h e ste r is a g o o d -lo o k in g young
m an w ho is r id ic u lo u s ly in lo v e w ith N ina. A unt L a tter w a r n e d h e r not
to be too h ard on him ; he had the gift of gab and he had c h a r a c te r : "He
s tic k s to h is r a d ic a l n o n se n s e e v e n w ith m e " (p. 20). Aunt L a tte r a ls o
Saturday Review, December 31, 1955, p. 6.
196
sh rew d ly p e r c e iv e d that C h ester w a s a m b itio u s and that N in a 's in h e r it
ance and co n n ectio n s "would be the m ak in g of h im --a n d w e ll he knows
it" (p. 23). He w a s a m b itio u s enough to take Nina, e v en w ith the shadow
on h er, so long a s the m a tte r w as kept qu iet.
C ary's th em e of P r o te sta n t e v a n g e lic a l relig io n , b a s ic to the d e
v elo p m en t of C h e ste r 's c h a r a c te r , is f ir s t sound ed on the h on eym oon .
R elig io u s o b se rv a n ce a ls o r e f le c ts c la s s b eh a v io r and m a r k s the d iffe r
en ce in train in g and attitu d es b etw een C h e ster and N in a --" fo r C h ester
p ra y ed aloud night and m o rn in g (and though I had a lw ays sa id m y p r a y
e r s at night, I sa id th em to m y s e lf) and u s e d w hat I c a lle d fa n a tic a l la n
guage" (p. 27). C h e ste r 's r e lig io u s attitude is m a d e c le a r in Italy by
h is d islik e of C ath olic c a th e d r a ls. To N ina th ey a r e " a r tistic ," but he
d e c la r e s that " A rtistic r e lig io n isn 't r e lig io n at a ll- -h o w could it be?
T h ere is only one true r e lig io n -- b e tw e e n a m a n 's own so u l and h is
God" (p. 28).
The thoughtful, tactfu l, and atten tiv e C h e ster w as a ls o c o m p li
cated and tr ic k y . W hen N ina m a d e the aw kw ard r e m a r k that the baby
w as going to h ave J im 's n o se , C h ester ju m p ed up and said , "M ost p e o
p le sa y he is the im a g e of m e e x ce p t fo r the e y e s; they, I a g r e e , are
a b so lu te ly y o u r s." It w a s then that Nina, for the f ir s t tim e , r e a liz e d
that C h e ste r 's c o n s id e r a t e n e s s w a s lik e "the m a s k of so m eth in g v e r y
u gly and d an gerou s" (p. 30). She w as s u r p r is e d at C h e ste r 's d e v e lo p
m e n t into a p o litic a l w a r h o r se ; she could not u n d erstan d how h e r fiv e
thousand pounds had chan ged "the n ice qu iet r e s p e c ta b le and v e r y p r o p
er little c le r k at B in g's into th is a g g r e s s iv e fireb ran d " (p. 32).
In the e a r ly y e a r s C h e ster co n sta n tly a c c u se d N ina of th eir
197
c la s s d iffe r e n c e s, ch argin g h e r w ith " feeling" him a cad if not thinking
him one. W hen N ina in s is te d that she did not f e e l th is d iffe r e n c e of
c la s s , C h e s t e r ’s a n sw er w a s " P erh a p s n o t--b u t it's th er e or I should n't
have w an ted you. N one of y o u r b a c k -la n e g ir ls fo r m e . I alw ays sw o r e
I'd get a la d y and I have" (p. 34). The v e r y a rg u m en ts about c la s s c r e
ated a te n s io n b e tw e en th em that e x c ite d h im . A s N ina n o ticed , C h ester
w a s k ey ed up by ex citem en t; he had a p o w er,
not, as p eo p le sa y , of " letting h im s e lf go," but of k eep in g up w ith h is
own ex citem en t; of thinking so f a s t that he w en t w ith the c r e s t of the
w ave and did not sink into co n fu sio n , {p. 56).
C h e ste r 's a b ility to think kept him ahead of the crow d and m a d e it p o s
s ib le fo r h im to c h o o se ex p ed ien t is s u e s lik e p o v e r ty or ed u ca tio n for
attack, but N ina t r ie s to m a k e c le a r that h is c h o ic e s w e r e not b a se d on
ex p e d ie n c y alo n e. "The r e a l truth . . . is that C h e s te r 's im a g in a tio n
s u g g e ste d to h im e v e r y day h u ndreds of tru th s and it w a s a lw a y s e a s y
for him to find am on g th em one that 'su ited ' h im ." She add s, as an
iro n ic afterthou ght, that "at that tim e (taught by e x p e r ie n c e ) he w as
v e r y c a r e fu l in h is ch o ic e of w hat to be e x c ite d about" {p. 70). In the
e a r ly y e a r s C h e s te r 's r e lig io n guided him ; he r e v e r te d to it in the c r i s i s
ov er T o m 's p a ter n ity and u s e d it to h o ld N ina in the c r i s i s of h er le a v in g
him fo r J im . But it w a s then a s in c e r e b e lie f. A s Nina s a y s , " C h ester
w as a tr u ly r e lig io u s m an and a lw a y s on h is guard (perhap s b e c a u se of
h is s p e c ia l tem p ta tio n s) a g a in st a low idea of hum an n atu re and m e a n
w o r ld ly a m b itio n ." T his attitude led h im into taking the "bold approach"
w ith Jim . One of C h e ste r 's p o lic ie s w a s to a ct a s if p eo p le w e r e good
and tru stw o rth y , hoping that th ey w ould th en be so. T his p o lic y w o rk ed
e ffe c tiv e ly on N ina and w as th e r e a l ch ain that h eld h er w hen sh e tr ie d
198
to run aw ay, e v en though she r e a liz e d h is ta c tic s . C h e ster w a s h yp o
c r it ic a l in te llin g her that if she r e a lly w an ted to le a v e h im he w ould n't
d rea m of stopp ing h er, b e c a u se he w a s th orou gh ly d e te r m in e d to do so.
He u se d the a rg u m en t of the dan ger of sinning a g a in st G o d --th e c o n s e
qu en ce of doing w r o n g ~ -b e g g e d h e r not to h u rry into the d e c isio n , and
m ad e the te llin g p oin t that J im w a s not a m an of r e lia b le ju dgm ent. He
a sk ed h er to take a little m o r e tim e , then for good m e a s u r e , sa id it w a s
n atural fo r h er to tr e a t him badly b e c a u se she sto o p ed to m a r r y h im in
the f ir s t p la c e . Though N ina found it im p o ss ib le to le a v e C h e ster , she
fe lt fo r h im "that s p e c ia l h a tred one fe e ls tow ard p eo p le w ho take up a
p o sitio n of m o r a l s u p e r io r ity and u se it to d o m in eer o v er one. The b e t
ter th ey a r e , the m o r e one h a tes them " {p. 100).
In E x cep t the L ord C h ester d e s c r ib e s h is own child hood and f a
m ily , a v e r y c lo s e and a ffectio n a te one. N ina, not know ing h is b a ck
ground, fe lt h e did not u n d erstan d fa m ily life . Though sh e d en ied f e e l
ing any c la s s d iffe r e n c e , the d iffe r e n c e s in tra in in g and thought c o n
stan tly a ffec te d th eir liv e s . W hen C h e ster bought the b ig L ondon h o u se
fr o m h er r e la t iv e s , h e did it p a r tly as a m a n eu v er to p ile one m o r e ob
lig a tio n on Nina, and he n ev e r le t h er fo r g e t it. He a ls o fe lt that the
Slapton fa m ily had so m eh o w trap p ed him by o fferin g the h o u se. In th e se
e a r ly London y e a r s C h ester d ev elo p ed into the m a n e u v e r e r and m an of
exp ed ien t c h o ic e s; in other w o r d s, the p o litic ia n b e c a m e dom inant in
h im . S in ce he im a g in ed " sin iste r " a r ra n g em en ts e v en in the buying of a
h ou se, he began to r e s e m b le oth er p o litic ia n s who s e e p lo ts in e v e r y
thing. Nina s a y s that C h e ster "did s e e life la r g e ly as r e la tio n s w h ich
(like th o se b e tw e en n ation s) w e r e su b jec t to a ll s o r t s of 's t r a in s 1 and
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'd ip lo m a tic a c t i o n . B u t sh e a d d s,
It w a s no go o d b la m in g m e n lik e C h e s te r and h is fr ie n d s fo r b e in g
a rtfu l and in sid io u s; th e y thought th at th e r e w a s no o th er w a y fo r
s e n s ib le m e n to liv e , at l e a s t if th e y w a n te d "to k eep th e ir en d up."
(p. 135)
T h u s, N in a in d ir e c tly c r i t i c i z e s C h e s t e r b y im p ly in g that th e r e a r e
o th er w a y s fo r " s e n s ib le " m e n to a c t, th at th e d e v io u s p lo t is n ot the
o n ly w a y .
A ll the e le m e n t s of C h e s t e r 's c h a r a c t e r a r e r e v e a le d in the
c r i s i s o v e r r e s ig n in g at th e o u tb r ea k of W o r ld W ar I. H is r e lig io u s
c o m m it m e n ts w e r e c o m p le t e ly fo r n o n - r e s is t a n c e , fo r p a c if is m . He
had p le d g e d h im s e lf in th e m o s t d e fin ite t e r m s n e v e r to s e r v e in a w a r
tim e c a b in et, and h is c h a p e l c o n s titu e n ts in T a rb ito n , w ho b e lie v e d m o s t
s tr o n g ly in the s in fu ln e s s of v io le n c e , t r u s te d h im to h on or h is p le d g e s .
T h e r e fo r e , he w a s c o n s id e r e d a t r a ito r by th e m , one w ho h ad b r o k e n a
s o le m n p r o m is e . N in a, not r e a liz in g the e x te n t of ch an ge in C h e s t e r 's
c h a r a c t e r , w a s a ls o a m a z e d . C h e s t e r 's r e p ly w a s th at T a r b ito n w a s "a
lit t le out of th in g s." To th e s ta te m e n t that if h e r e s ig n e d , th e c a b in e t
w o u ld sp lit, and he co u ld c o m e b a c k a s "the le a d e r of the n a t io n ," C h e s
t e r a sk e d , "A le a d e r ? But w h e r e t o ? - - t h a t 's the q u e stio n ." C a ry i m
p lie d h e r e , th ough su b tly , th a t th is is th e c r u c ia l q u e s tio n fo r an y le a d
e r , p a r t ic u la r ly in a d e m o c r a c y . But it is n ot the q u e s tio n th at r e a lly
c o n c e r n e d C h e s te r at th e m o m e n t of c r i s i s . H e, w ho had p r e a c h e d
a g a in s t w o r ld ly te m p ta tio n , w a s te m p te d by th e o ffer of the M in is tr y of
P r o d u c tio n and "a f r e e h an d," and h e s u c c u m b e d to the te m p ta tio n .
N in a co u ld n ot b e lie v e th at h e c o u ld s o e a s i l y tu rn h is b a ck on th e id e a ls
h e h ad u p h eld fo r so m a n y y e a r s .
W hat is the p o s itio n ? A t e r r ib le o n e - - a n d one th at no one c o u ld h a v e
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fo r e to ld . And m y p o sitio n ? The P .M . s a y s the cou n try n ee d s m e - -
that I am in d isp e n sa b le . . . . it m a y be m y d u t y - - a m o r a l d u ty --to
ch an ge m y m in d and fa c e th e c o n s e q u e n c e s . . . (p. 267)
C h e ste r cap p ed the ta lk about h is m o r a l duty w ith the c y n ic a l r e m a r k
that "all th is fu s s w ill be fo r g o tte n in s ix m o n th s," and is s u e d a s t a t e
m e n t, d enyin g h is p le d g e s , and r a tio n a liz in g h is a c tio n on m o r a l
gro u n d s. N in a 's w r y and r e a li s t i c c o m m e n t to the w h o le c r i s i s , w r itte n
m a n y y e a r s la t e r , is th at "in r e a l life one can n ot a lw a y s k eep p le d g e s"
(p. 269).
C h e s t e r 's a c tio n s in the c r i s i s cou ld be c o n s id e r e d th o se of a
m an , b a s ic a lly p a c ific , w ho r e a liz e d that th e r e a re t im e s in the life of a
m a n and a n a tio n w h en fig h tin g is n e c e s s a r y to sta y a liv e . But C ary
c r e a te d a c h a r a c te r d o m in a ted by a h u n g er fo r p o w e r - - t h e d an ger in
h e r e n t in a s p e llb in d e r - -a n d C h e ste r so o n c o m m itte d an a c tio n that
le a v e s no doubt in the r e a d e r 's m in d about the d e te r io r a tio n of his
c h a r a c te r . One of h is o ld e s t fr ie n d s and s u p p o r te r s, a ch ap el m a n
n a m ed G oold, w a s tu rn ed aw ay s e v e r a l t im e s fr o m C h e s t e r 's door.
N ina, d is g u s te d w ith C h e ste r and h is m e th o d s, w a s o v e r w h e lm e d w ith
the s e n s e of in ju stic e w h en sh e le a r n e d C h e ste r had w r itte n a le tte r to
the lo c a l n e w sp a p e r d e c la r in g G oold had m a d e a fortu n e fr o m the B o er
w a r and that he w a s a d a n g er to the p a rty . Y ea rs la te r , sh e r e f le c t s ,
What is in c r e d ib le in a p e r s o n y o u r e s p e c t is not that th ey
sh ou ld do so m e th in g e v il (w hich m ig h t be an im p u lse) but that th ey
sh ou ld p la n it c o ld ly and b r a z e n ly . . . . It w a s as though I had n e v e r
s e e n b e fo r e th is m a n (to w h o m I had b e e n m a r r ie d fo r tw en ty y e a r s )
w ho had su d d en ly r e v e a le d h im s e lf ca p a b le of a c r u e l and sp ite fu l
p lo t a g a in s t an o ld fr ie n d , (p. 276)
F r o m th is p o in t fo r w a rd p o w er is the m o tiv a tin g fa c to r in C h e s
t e r 's a c tio n s. He h a s in tim id a te d G oold, he th r e a te n s Jim w ith d i s c i
p lin a r y a c tio n w h en N ina t r ie s to le a v e , and y e t t e lls h er that no one can
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take h e r p la c e w ith h im and that th ey should sta rt again. C h ester is a l
w a y s r ea d y to s ta r t again on h is own t e r m s . N ina's opinion is that th er e
w a s nothing le ft "of the old C h ester . . . so sk illfu l in m ak in g m e fe e l
the w eig h t of h is lo v e , ex ce p t the n erv o u s e n e r g y w ith w h ich he p u rsu ed
h is ob ject and h is fir m b e lie f that God w as on h is sid e" (p. 305). As h is
h e lp le s s p r is o n e r sh e fe lt that "he w ould k ill m e as he n e a r ly k ille d his
o ld e st frien d , p oor Goold, b e c a u s e w e have not g iv en o u r s e lv e s o v er to
h im , b o d ies and so u ls" (p. 309). A fter he h as c r u sh e d h er a ttem p t to
g et aw ay fro m h im , he ta k es no trou b le to h id e h is r e a l opinions fro m
N ina. The m an w ho h as p r e a ch ed truth, ju s tic e , and fr e ed o m fo r all
m e n r e v e a ls h im s e lf as h o s tile to the v e r y c la s s fro m w h ich he a r o se :
"the m a s s e s a r e out of hand. It’s th e c a s e of the G adarene Sw ine over
again. What w e w ill n eed after th is w ar is ten y e a r s of the s tr o n g e st
kind of g o v ern m en t." N ina, s t ill s u r p r is e d a s sh e lo o k s back, w r ite s ,
He had n ev e r tak en so little trou b le to a ct a p art w ith m e; often he
w as so in d is c r e e t that I w as frig h ten ed to find m y s e lf in p o s s e s s i o n
of su c h s e c r e t s . He sh ow ed m e not only h is en o rm o u s am b ition and
s e lf -c o n fid e n c e , h is con tem p t fo r the " m a s s e s " and fe a r of the
"m ob," h is d is tr u s t of a ll h is c o lle a g u e s . . . h is b e lie f that " fr e e
dom " had gone to o far and the cou n try n e e d e d " stron g govern m en t,"
but h is m o m en ts of d e sp a ir , (p. 314)
It is no s u r p r is e to the r e a d e r that C h ester w a s d efea ted in the
e le c tio n s a fter the w ar, or that he w a s a sto n ish e d at b ein g d efea ted and
b ein g p e lte d by ro tten v e g e ta b le s in T arb iton . C h ester had b een p r o
p o sin g a " real in tern a tio n a l law w ith teeth in it" w h ich did not c o r r e
spond w ith the p e o p le 's m o o d in 1918. C h e ster b la m ed h is d efea t on the
p e o p le 's w ill to evil: "It's ju st w hat w e w e r e told, that w a r w ould d e
s tr o y us body and sou l, w h eth er w e w on or not." He a ttack s Nina for
u sin g lip s tic k and Tom fo r going on s p r e e s : "R otten n ess is the ru le.
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M oth ers paint th eir fa c e s lik e h a r lo ts, and th eir son s p ro p a g a te lie s to
r a is e a laugh a m on g drunken w a sters.* ' In h is fu ry at b ein g d efea ted he
r e v e r ts to the c l a s s - c o n s c io u s n e s s of h is youth and attack s both Nina
and th eir m a r r ia g e : "I had b een a fo o l to think that you and your kind
could e v e r be at one w ith m in e," and at la s t he a d m its the truth about
T om and S a ll y - -
"H e's not m y s o n - - I have no ch ild ren . B y a tru ly b r illia n t c o n tr iv
ance I w a s p la c e d in a situ a tio n gu a ra n teed to m a k e m e the obedient
s la v e of fa m ily in te r e s t. . . . our life is ea ten h ollow w ith f a ls e n e s s ."
(p. 333)
But h e r e f u s e s to ad m it that he had n e v e r r e le a s e d N ina to le t h er m a r
ry Jim , the fath er of h er child ren; in stea d , he b la m e s h e r fa m ily and
c la s s , not h im s e lf.
C h ester r e v e r te d to h is e v a n g e lic a l b egin n in gs, p a r tly out of
p e r so n a l n eed and p a r tly out of exp ed ien cy; to g et back into p o litic s he
n eed ed the supp ort of the ch ap el p eo p le. A fter T o m 's su ic id e , after
N ina had le ft h im and m a r r ie d J im , C h e ster w ro te h er a le tte r sayin g,
ir o n ic a lly , that he had "alw ays thought it w ron g, in p r in c ip le , to hold
any hum an so u l to a 'le g a l1 bond, a g a in st sp ir itu a l co n v ictio n ." He
w is h e d N in a h a p p in ess in h er new " r e s p o n s ib ilitie s ," but he did not
le a v e h er alon e fo r lon g. He w a s r e fu s e d p e r m is s io n to c a ll at the
h o u se, s o he w a y la id h e r at the G oold 's.
The c h a r a c te r iz a tio n of C h e ster is c o n siste n t, but it s e e m s e x
a g g e ra ted fo r e ffe c t in the la s t p o r tio n of the n o v el. A m a n n e a r ly
sev en ty , w h ite -h a ir e d , bald, and shrunken, looking eigh ty, C h ester a r
riv ed at N in a 's h o m e, announced he had b een in vited by Aunt L a tter,
a ssa u lte d Nina, and once en tren ch ed in the h o u se, contin ued to a s sa u lt
h er at e v e r y opportunity, en joyin g the dan ger of h is e x p lo its. The
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c o m p le te d e te r io r a tio n of the m a n 's c h a r a c te r is s y m b o liz e d by the
p a ra d o x that a fte r a s u c c e s s f u l a s s a u lt on N ina, the e x c ite m e n t of the
e x p lo it "with a ll its a u d a city and r is k o v e r flo w e d into a ll h is e n e r g ie s ,
and s o he quite tr u ly fe lt r e n e w e d and in s p ir e d by h is v is io n of a f r e e
w o rld ," and h e w ou ld d icta te lo n g r h e to r ic a l s e n te n c e s to h is s e c r e t a r y
"full of the m o s t lo fty s e n tim e n ts ." N in a r a tio n a liz e s C h e s t e r 's a tta ck s
on the ground s of h is c o m p le x nature:
H is r e lig io n s t ir r e d up h is p o litic s and h is p o litic s s t ir r e d up h is r e
lig io n , and both of th em s t ir r e d up h is a ffe c tio n s and h is im a g in a tio n ,
and h is im a g in a tio n kept e v e r y th in g e l s e in a p e r p e tu a l tu r m o il, (p.
397)
N ot s u r p r is in g ly , Jim o c c u p ie s a m u ch s m a lle r p o r tio n of N in a 's
s to r y than d o e s C h e ste r . C h e ste r is a m u ch m o r e c o m p le x c h a r a c te r
than J im , and N ina is m a r r ie d to him fo r n e a r ly th ir ty y e a r s . Jim
w a n d e r s in and out of h e r life fo r sh o rt p e r io d s but a lw a y s b r in g s p r o b
le m s w ith h im and c a u s e s c r i s e s . He is stu b b orn , s u s p ic io u s , and
je a lo u s , and life w ith h im w a s a lw a y s d iffic u lt. N in a d e s c r ib e s how he
w ou ld "rage and te a r " at h e r to g et h is ow n w a y w h en th ey w e r e c h il
d ren . A s th ey g r ew up he a c te d in the s a m e m a n n e r, but o n ce he had
h is w a y he "would w ith d ra w h is c h a r g e s ," and th e ir q u a r r e ls w o u ld end
w ith the a g r e e m e n t to be m a r r ie d as so o n as p o s s ib le . He fo r c e d N ina
into a c c e p tin g h im p h y s ic a lly by co m p la in in g that sh e did not lo v e h im
a s m u ch as he lo v e d h e r , and w h en sh e sa id sh e did, d arin g h e r to p ro v e
it. A fterw a rd , he p r e f e r r e d to sta y in h is r e g im e n t ra th er than be
fo r c e d out of it by m a r r y in g . The la c k of u n d ersta n d in g and the s e l f
is h n e s s that m a r k h is c h a r a c te r th rou gh ou t life a r e ev id e n t in h is in
s u lts a fter N ina m a r r ie d C h e ster ; Jim a c c u s e d h e r of jiltin g h im and
m a r r y in g a "tout." W hen N ina r e p lie d that he w a n ted to go to India and
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play p olo m o re than he w anted to m a r r y h er, Jim had no answ er, but
in stead insulted C h ester by stating he had m a r r ie d N ina for h er m oney.
Jim , on h is secon d lea v e hom e, w as m o r e m atu re. N ina n oticed
that he had changed:
He w as not only m uch older lo o k in g --h e had the a ir of a disappointed
m an. He had often that e x p r e ssio n w hich you see in such m e n w hen
they think no one is looking at them : of anxious inquiry, as if s o m e
thing had ju st happened to them w hich it is im portant for th em to un
derstand. (p. 72)
Jim a lso fe ll sen tim en ta lly in love w ith Nina, the young w ife and m other,
but Nina rem a rk s that in 1902 to be sen tim en ta l w as a "true m an ly f e e l
ing" (p. 74). She b la m es C h ester fo r the incid en ts that followed:
It w as C h e ster 's attitude tow ard Jim 's retu rn that s e t the key for us
all. When he u rged Jim to com e as often as he liked, I fe lt at once
how im p o ssib le it w a s, how m ean, for m e to avoid him or ev en to be
on m y guard.
It is a m in or point to J im 's cred it that he w aited s ix w eek s to sed uce
Nina, d eclarin g that he had loved her for y e a r s , even as a child.
I w as m ad about you, but I didn't know it. How could I? You
w ere su ch an ex tra o rd in a ry kid; all bones and spit. E xtraord in ary
how you have changed; I m ean all round. . . . What a fool I w a s, Nina,
to le t m y s e lf be sw indled out of you. And now I supp ose it is too late.
I se e m to have m ade a m e s s of things all round, (p. 79)
Jim r e a liz e d that h is com ing th ere to liv e w ould cause trouble. But
once he had d ecid ed to c a rr y her off, any h esita n cy on N ina's part m ade
him su sp iciou s and irrita b le. Nina did not want to hurt C h ester's f e e l
ings, but Jim w anted to know why sh e w as anxious about C hester:
"What about h is fe e lin g s a ll th ese y ea rs? " (p. 85). He once m o re fo r c ed
h er to p ro v e that sh e loved him , then r e v e a le d h is e s s e n tia l nature:
"That's all right then. Now you belong to m e, and you can n ever
have anything to do w ith that p o o p -stic k a g a in --n o t if you have a
grain of honorable feelin g . ..."
F o r the stran ge thing w as that now Jim had forgotten h im se lf so
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p a s s io n a te ly and m ad e su re of m e , as he said , he w as the old Jim
again; he had stopped being r e sp e c tfu l to m e, or p olite about C hester.
(p. 86)
The irony is that Jim , the sed u c er , should talk about "honorable f e e l
ing."
When C h ester a g r ee d to pay J im 's gam bling debts on condition
that he go into the A frican s e r v ic e , it did not co m e out that C h ester in
tended to p ay only the tr a d e s m e n 's debts, not the "debts of honor" w hich
Jim c o n sid e re d the only im p ortant on es. Jim , not su rp r isin g ly , w as
v e r y happy in A frica , w h ere he could b o ss the n a tiv es around to h is
h e a r t's content. On h is retu rn so m e y e a r s la te r , h is attitude tow ard
Nina w as c o o l and dignified, and he reg a rd ed h im s e lf as C h e ster 's
frien d , sa y in g w ith g rea t r e s p e c t, "W onderful how the chap has com e
through the c r o w d --a r ea l w inn er . . . and startin g w ith a handicap lik e
that." Nina c o m m en ts that Jim "(perhaps b eca u se of his own fa ilu r e s)
had a stron g sym p ath y fo r anyone who had to fight a g a in st odds." Iron
ic a lly , C h ester w as glad to have Jim in the h ou se b e c a u se he w as "very
k een to get in sid e in form ation fro m Jim about the actual situ ation in
A frica" (p. 196).
Jim , the u ltr a -r ig id c o n se r v a tiv e , spent y e a rs in A frica, r e s i s t
ing all p r o g r e s s , including ro a d s, w h ich he in s is te d w ould d e str o y the
n a tiv es' c iv iliz a tio n by b ringing in a crow d of p etty tr a d e r s and sw in
d le r s "on the m ak e." Nina, not having s e e n him fo r y e a r s , w as a sto n
ish ed at J im 's app earan ce on h is retu rn to England in 1917 in an old-
fa sh io n ed su it with p ip e - s t e m tr o u s e r s and a high b ow ler. She su g
g e ste d that he at le a s t change h is hat b efo re a d d ressin g a co m m ittee
in v estig a tin g native rig h ts. Jim refu sed , and w hen she sa id that if he
206
in s is te d on lo o k in g odd " th ey 're qu ite lik e ly to think y ou a r e on ly b ein g
c r o tc h e ty about the L,ugas, to o ," h is r e p ly w a s that the c o m m itte e
sou n d ed "like a bunch of ta r ts ." The iro n y of h is c h a r a c te r is that a s a
m id d le -a g e d m a n he ran ts a g a in st the d e g e n e r a te d m o r a ls of the y o u n
g e r g e n e ra tio n , young m e n and w o m e n liv in g o p en ly to g e th er , fo r g e ttin g
that he had s e d u c e d N ina, that h er c h ild r e n a r e h is, and that he s t ill
w an ts h e r , C h e s t e r 's w ife or not. W hen N ina le ft C h e ste r a fter T o m 's
s u ic id e , J im fo llo w e d h er b e c a u s e h e w an ted to talk to so m e o n e about
h is n a tiv e s and to a s s u r e h im s e lf that he w ou ld not " let the p o o r b a s
ta r d s dow n." N ina, w e ll tr a in e d by C h e ste r , lis te n e d so sy m p a th e tic a lly
that he s ta r te d c o m in g around e v e r y day, and Nina, so o n en ta n g led w ith
h im , found h e r s e lf , to h er s u r p r is e , p reg n a n t. Jim lo s t a ll h is m o n e y
fig h tin g fo r the L u g a s, and th ey a ls o fa ile d him ; the n ative c h ie fs r e
je c te d the t a c tic s of J im 's c o m m itte e as an "object. . . . to p er p e tu a te
r a c ia l d is tin c tio n s and k eep A fr ic a n s in a sta te of p o v e r ty and d ep en d
en c e" (p. 364).
J im , as a hu sb and, w a s a je a lo u s ty ra n t w ho did not tr u s t Nina,
a c c u s e d h e r of b ein g " d o u b le -fa c e d ," and, in a r e v e r s a l of r o le s , he as
hu sband and C h e ste r as lo v e r , he w a s w ild and fu rio u s w h e r e C h e ste r
had b e e n sh r e w d and tr ic k y . Incapable of h an dlin g C h e ste r e v e n in h is
own h o m e , J im s u ffe r e d w e e k a fter w e e k as C h e ste r e n s c o n c e d h im s e lf
and sta y e d on and on. C ary d ir e c t ly e s t a b lis h e d the lin e that the p lo t
and c h a r a c te r s w o u ld take in J im 's s to r y , the fin a l n o v e l of the^ trilogy,
a t the end of N in a 's s to r y w h e r e sh e c o m p la in s,
So that the lif e w h ich w a s going to be so s im p le and r e stfu l, m y " r e
tir e m e n t fr o m p o litic s ," is m o r e d iffic u lt and c o m p lic a te d th an e v e r ,
and a ls o , of c o u r s e , m o r e " p o litic a l." I h ave to c o n s id e r e v e r y w o rd
I sa y and e v er y th in g I do. . . . But w h a t is str a n g e is th at I h a v e
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n e v e r had so m u ch h a p p in ess b e c a u s e Jim h a s n ev e r b efo re b ee n so
m u ch in lo v e . You w ould s a y that n e ith er of us has known till now
w hat is m ea n t by a grand p a s s io n -~ I su p p o se J im , lik e m e , f e e ls that
e v e r y day m a y be the la s t.
At the sa m e tim e , sh e f e e ls sh e d are not turn C h e ster out b e c a u se she
w ou ld be c o m m ittin g a m e a n c r im e a g a in st " som eth in g b ig g e r than
lo v e ." So, co n sta n tly te r r if ie d of d e str o y in g h er h a p p in ess, she sa y s
sh e w ill not tu rn C h e ster out and that "Jim can only sh oot m e dead" (p.
402).
The p lo t of P r is o n e r of G race is a c o m p lic a te d one. C ary w as
handling th ree la r g e th em es: the p o litic a l nature of a ll hum an a c t iv i
t ie s , the two op p osin g view p o in ts tow ard the g o v ern m en t of m en (co n
tr o llin g m en by sh ootin g th em or co n tro llin g m en by p e r su a d in g th em ),
and the d e m a g o g u e's or sp e llb in d e r 's p o w er in a d e m o c r a c y . The p lo t
s e e m s to a r is e out of the c h a r a c te r s' a c tio n s ra th er than to depend on
c ir c u m s t a n c e s , to be the outgrow th of the c h a r a c te r s and th eir m o tiv e s .
It is c o m p le te ly c o n s is te n t w ith J im 's c h a r a c te r that he sh ou ld fo r c e
N ina to a c ce p t h im , though it is c ir c u m sta n tia l that she sh ou ld b e c o m e
pregn an t the f ir s t tim e sh e is p o s s e s s e d . It is c o n s is te n t that he w ould
ra th er go off to India than m a r r y h er, though C ary le a v e s it in doubt
w h eth er he knew that N ina w as p regn an t. The p lo t tu rn s on N in a's th ree
p r e g n a n c ie s, and, of c o u r se , p reg n a n cy is c ir c u m sta n tia l. C h e ste r 's
r e fu s a l to ad m it that Jim is the fath er of the c h ild ren c a u s e s the m a jo r
c o n flic ts and m a jo r d efea ts of N in a 's lif e . H er th ird p reg n a n cy r e
v e r s e s the r o le s of the tw o m en; Jim b e c o m e s the je a lo u s husband and
C h e ster the p u rsu in g lo v e r . W ithin th e s e m a jo r tu rn s of the p lo t are
in n u m erab le s m a lle r m o v e m e n ts: the le s s e n in g in flu en ce of Aunt
208
L atter; the childhood, young m anhood, and d isin teg r a tio n of Tom; C h e s
t e r 's r e la tio n s w ith h is old fr ie n d s and su p p o r te r s, Goold and Round,
and w ith h is s e c r e ta r y , B ootham .
P r is o n e r of G race is h igh ly ir o n ic a l, and the p lot co n trib u tes to
the o v e r - a ll a tm o sp h e r e of iron y. The sto r y is w r itte n by N ina w hen
sh e is J im 's w ife as an a n sw er to p op ular " r ev e la tio n s" m a d e about
C h e ster . She f e e ls that sh e can su p p ly the r e a l truth about c ir c u m
s ta n c e s b e c a u s e the "truth" is m o r e than m e r e fa cts; it is the b a ck
ground of m o tiv e s and fe e lin g s behind th o se fa c ts . It is ir o n ic a l that
Nina, who h as d e s p is e d C h e ster , f e e ls that sh e is the only one who ca n
g iv e a tru e and fa ir a cco u n t of h is a c tio n s, and that she f e e ls it is n e c
e s s a r y to do so. N e v e r t h e le s s , h er c o m m e n ts on a ctio n s m a d e m an y
y e a r s in the p a st a re w r y and iro n ic, and h er tr a c in g of the r is e and fa ll
of. C h e ster , both as a p o litic ia n and a m a n , is ir o n ic to the e x tr e m e .
She o b s e r v e s that the m an w ho p r e a c h e d truth and ju stic e u s e d h is r e l i
g io n and m o r a lity fo r p o litic a l p u rp o se s; the m a n who c a lle d h im s e lf
hu m ble lo o k e d down on the m a s s e s w ith contem pt; the m an w ho sa id
e v er y o n e sh ou ld be f r e e m ea n t by fr e e d o m w hat he thought "right."
A bove a ll, the p lot c r e a te s iro n y by the r e v e r s a l of the r o le s of the tw o
m en: J im b e c o m e s the hu sband after th irty y e a r s and C h e ster the
lo v e r , and Jim is fa r w o r s e than C h ester at "m anaging," but N ina is in
lo v e w ith h im and d oes not m in d that he is a je a lo u s husband.
N in a 's sty le e x p r e s s e s iron y and a ls o r e f le c t s h e r la c k of w ill,
h er in te llig e n c e , and h er ch a r m . P a r t of h er in a b ility to act, h er la c k
of w ill, is b a se d on h e r ca p a c ity to s e e m an y s id e s of a situ ation . T hus,
she cannot e x p r e s s h e r s e lf w ithout co n sta n t r e s o r t to p a r e n th e tic a l
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r e m a r k s, r e m a r k s that a r e an in tellig en t and ir o n ic c o m m e n t on the
situ a tio n sh e is rela tin g . F o r e x a m p le , w h en C h e ste r and Jim g r e e t
e a ch oth er w ith e x a g g e r a te d w a rm th , sh e o b s e r v e s the two m e n going
through a routin e lik e bad a cto rs:
A nd C h e ste r w e lc o m e d h im w ith su c h w a rm th (holding and p r e s s
ing h is hand) that I w a s a fra id J im w ould m a k e so m e c a u stic rem a rk .
It w a s a r e lie f to s e e Jim (after a m o m e n t's s u r p r ise ) a lm o s t as e n
th u s ia stic as C h e ster . The tw o m en , I thought, m ig h t have b een
lo n g - lo s t b r o th er s in s o m e m e lo d r a m a , (p. 71)
N in a 's in te llig e n c e is ev id en t in h e r p e r c e p tiv e a n a ly s e s of c o m p le x h u
m a n a ffa ir s . It is sh e w ho e x p r e s s e s the e s s e n t ia l p ro b lem of g o v e r n
m en t in a str ik in g an a lo g y w h ich c o m p a r e s s o c ie t y w ithout a le a d e r to a
c o a ch w ith out a d riv er:
A fter a ll, p eo p le who sa y th ey don't want m u ch fr o m li f e - - o n l y o r d i
nary p e a c e and q u ie t - - a r e r e a lly ask in g (as Aunt p oin ted out to m e
so often) a g r e a t d eal. F o r the o rd in a ry thing is m o r e lik e a v io le n t
a rg u m en t about the righ t road in a runaw ay c o a ch (like our lo c a l
c o a c h e s ) gallop in g dow n hill in a fog. If no one d r iv e s (and c h o o s e s a
road) ev ery th in g and e v e r y o n e , inclu ding the h o r s e s , w ill c r a sh , (p.
263)
H er s e n s e of iro n y is app arent in h e r a m u se m e n t at C h e ste r 's s u c c e s s
in b u s in e s s , the r e lig io u s m an s e r v in g M am m on w ith en erg y , and in h er
sim u lta n e o u s ack n o w led g m en t that sh e en joyed the r e su ltin g lu x u r ie s.
H er sty le is a w itty and ch a rm in g e x p r e s s io n of the iron y of the s itu a
tion and of h er d elig h t in m o n e y and what it can buy:
N ex t to liv in g w ith the m an you lo v e and havin g good h ealth , it is
the m o s t d elig h tfu l thing p o s s ib le . E v en w h en you can only e s t e e m
your hu sb and and are su b ject to e y e h e a d a c h e s, it is a v e r y g rea t
c o n so la tio n , (p. 140)
C a ry w as a m a z in g ly s u c c e s s f u l in c r e a tin g N in a's sty le; it
s e e m s th e v a lid e x p r e s s io n of a ch a rm in g and in tellig en t though w ea k -
w ille d w o m a n liv in g w ith a c o m p le x m an in an e n o r m o u sly c o m p lic a te d
w o rld . The v e r y fin e lin e b etw een d islik e and h a tred is c a r e fu lly drawn;
210
and, of c o u r se , N ina w r ite s of p a st ev en ts so that the b itte r n e s s of the
im m ed ia te m o m en t has p a s s e d and a so p h istic a te d h u m orou s attitude
has tak en its p l a c e .
In spite of its c o m p lica te d p lot and th e m e s, P r is o n e r of G race
is a h ig h ly un ified w ork, and iron y is the unifying elem en t. The v e r y
th e m e s, though s e r io u s , are iro n ic in th eir co n tra d ictio n of so m e fondly
held th e o r ie s about hum an n ature. The idea that hum an rela tio n s need
"m anaging" runs cou n ter to the popular A n g lo -A m e r ic a n idea that h on
e sty and b a ld -fa c e d tru th are m o r a l to u ch sto n es, and that the le a s t g o v
ern m en t is the b e s t g overn m en t. The id ea that r e lig io n is the b a s is for
m u ch le ft-w in g p o litic a l thought c o n flic ts w ith the view that r e lig io u s
p eo p le are p o litic a lly c o n se r v a tiv e and that p o litic s is a s tr ic t ly s e c u
lar b u sin e s s . But the v e r y b e lie f that m an should be p o litic a lly fr e e b e
c a u se he is a unique individual, r e s p o n sib le only to God, is a r e lig io u s
idea.
F u rth e rm o re , the a tm o sp h ere of iron y enabled C ary to p r e se n t
a sto r y and id ea s w hich, p r e se n te d s e r io u s ly , w ould have b een both dull
and ob jection ab le. A w e a k -w ille d w om an , who m a r r ie s a h y p o c r itic a lly
r e lig io u s p o litic ia n , is rep ea ted ly unfaithful to him w ith a n a r r o w
m in d ed so ld ie r , and r a is e s h er lo v e r 's tw o ch ild ren a s h er husband's is
not p a r tic u la r ly ad m ira b le. Irony m a k es the sto r y of th eir in trigu es
and actio n s w orth w h ile and r a is e s the s to r y to the le v e l of a co m m en t
on lif e - - t h a t p eo p le a re not what th ey should be, no m a tter how lofty
th eir stated p r in c ip le s , and that ev en good p eop le d e s e r t th eir p r in c i
p le s fo r exp ed ien cy.
Cary, statin g that th ere is no double stand ard for p o litic ia n s,
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that " lie s a r e a lw a y s l i e s , e v il is a lw a y s e v il, p u b lic and p r iv a te m o r a ls
a r e g o v e r n e d b y p r e c i s e l y the s a m e la w ," n e v e r t h e le s s knew that s itu a
tio n s in h u m an a ffa ir s a r e "m anaged" by d e c ep tio n , e v a s io n s , and p r o m
i s e s . The c r u c ia l q u estio n , then, is
W hen is a s ta te s m a n e n title d to b r e a k p r o m is e s , to ch an ge a p o lic y
w h ic h often is the one w h ich h e w a s e le c t e d to c a r r y out? And a b ig
g e r and m o r e fo r m id a b le q u e s tio n is th is: W hen is he e n title d to d e
c e iv e ?
The r e a d e r is le ft w ith the q u e stio n w h e th e r or not C h e ste r w a s en titled
to b r e a k h is p r o m is e s on the o u tb rea k of W orld W ar I, sin c e he had
b een e le c t e d on h is p le d g e of n o n -v io le n c e . W as he e n titled to d e c e iv e
h is co n stitu en ts w h en the lif e of the n ation it s e lf w a s at sta k e? C ary
w r o te that the fin a l t e s t of a s ta te s m a n or p o litic ia n is the q u estio n ,
"Was h e an h o n e s t m an ?" The su b tle p r o b le m in r e g a r d to C h e ste r , or
the C h e ste r d raw n by N ina, is that he w a s h o n e s t on the s u r fa c e and
d is h o n e s t in w a r d ly - - y e t h e r e a lly f e lt h im s e lf a r ig h te o u s m a n and j u s
tifie d in h is a c tio n s . So C a ry le ft th e im p o rta n t q u e stio n on ly p a r tly an
s w e r e d or im p lie d that it is u n a n sw e r a b le . W ithout the ir o n ic p r e s e n t a
tio n I doubt that he cou ld h a v e a c h ie v e d so su b tle and c o m p le x and u n i
fie d a w ork .
C ary w en t one ste p b eyon d the c h a r a c te r s of the F i r s t T r ilo g y
in P r is o n e r of G r a c e , p a r tic u la r ly in the c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n of C h e ste r .
G u lley m a d e no attem p t to c la im that h e w a s v irtu o u s or m o r a l. H is a t
t r a c t iv e n e s s as a c h a r a c te r l i e s p a r tly in h is c h e e r fu l a m o r a lity . C h e s
te r c la im s to be not on ly v ir tu o u s and m o r a l but truthful, h o n e st, and
j u s t - - t o be the fr ie n d and c h a m p io n of the o p p r e s se d . G u lley w ou ld
h ave sn o r te d at su c h d e lu s io n s and a s s u m p tio n s . But it is m u ch h a r d e r
fo r an author to c r e a te a b e lie v a b le h y p o c r ite and m a k e the r e a d e r c a r e
212
about h im . In th a t r e s p e c t, C h e ste r is a g r e a t e r a c h ie v e m e n t th an G ul
le y , though h e is far l e s s a ttr a c tiv e , b ein g s e r io u s , p o m p o u s and du ll.
U n fortu n ately, the w o r ld h as fa r fe w e r G u lley s than C h e s te r s , m e n w ho
liv e w ith in the fr a m e w o r k of the la w and bend it to th e ir own p u r p o se s
w h ile c la im in g to uphold and d efen d it.
S im ila r ly , N ina in s o m e w a y s is a g r e a t e r a c h ie v e m e n t than
S ara, w ho is s o a ttr a c tiv e in h e r w a r m th and s im p lic it y . S a ra can be
eq u ated w ith h e r k itch en , but N in a is a fa r m o r e c o m p le x c h a r a c te r ,
and th e r e is no s in g le a r e a or a c tiv ity that c h a r a c t e r iz e s h er. She is
w ife, m i s t r e s s , and n o th er, y e t sh e is m o r e than the su m of h e r f e m a le
fu n c tio n s. W hat is p erh a p s the g r e a t e s t d iffe r e n c e b e tw e en S a ra and
N ina is that N in a is a th inking w o m a n and is ab le to be o b je c tiv e about
h e r s e lf . N ina r e s e n t s C h e s t e r 's p e r s is t e n t e ffo r ts to w o r m h is w a y in
to h e r soul; sh e is c u r io u s ly o b je c tiv e about h e r body. I think th is one
point o b v io u sly r e f le c t s the m a le a u th o rsh ip of a fe m in in e c h a r a c te r .
M o st w o m e n a r e m o r e su b je c tiv e about t h e m s e lv e s than N ina. C a ry a p
p a r e n tly r e a liz e d that th is m ig h t be a p s y c h o lo g ic a l flaw ; th e r e fo r e ,
Nina c o m m e n ts about h e r u n u su a l o b je c tiv ity about h e r s e lf , about h er
a b ility to p le a s e C h e ste r e v e n w h ile d e te s tin g h im , that "it a p p ea rs I
should h ave done w e ll on the s t r e e t s ."
S in ce a ll the e le m e n ts of p lo t, c h a r a c te r iz a tio n , and sty le w o rk
p e r fe c tly , the fo r m is the " em b o d im en t" of the m a t e r ia l. H ow ever,
th er e a r e th r e e im p r o b a b ilitie s w h ic h s e e m q u e stio n a b le , though th ey
do not a ffect the fo r m . One is C h e s t e r 's a p p a ren tly e x tr a o r d in a r y
p h y s ic a l p o w e r s a s a m a n of se v e n ty . S in ce the r e a d e r sto p s to q u e s
tion, the n o v el is h e r e in fe r io r b y C a r y 's own stan d ard . The s e c o n d is
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the r e m a r k a b le c o n tr o l e x e r c is e d b y both N ina and C h e ste r . N eith er
c h a r a c te r s e e m s g iv e n to bad te m p e r or su d d en ou tb reak s of r e g r e t t a
b le w o r d s. A th ir d im p r o b a b ility is that C h e ste r co u ld dem an d so m u ch
c lo s e n e s s , sy m p a th y , and u n d ersta n d in g fr o m N ina, and at the sa m e
tim e p la y d ip lo m a tic g a m e s and k eep s e c r e t s fr o m h e r .
A p a rt fr o m th e s e th r e e m in o r p o in ts I think P r is o n e r of G race
one of C a r y 's f in e s t w o r k s and an im p o rta n t c o m m e n ta r y on s o c ia l and
g o v e r n m e n ta l tr e n d s , p a r tic u la r ly th e c o n sta n t c o n flic ts b e tw e e n d e m o -,
c r a tic id e a ls and e x p e d ie n t a c tio n and the co n sta n t a d ju stm e n ts m ad e
b e c a u s e of p o litic a l p r e s s u r e s and m a n ip u la tio n s. C a r y 's e ffo r t is im
p o rta n t b e c a u s e p o litic a l p r e s s u r e s d o m in a te e v e r y a s p e c t of lif e in
d e m o c r a c ie s tod ay, and fe w n o v e lis t s h a v e a p p ro a ch ed the a n a ly s is of
p o lit ic s and its w o r k in g s both r e a li s t i c a lly and im p a r tia lly , r e c o g n iz in g
th at all h u m an lif e is a s e r i e s of p o litic a l a d ju stm e n ts, that m e n m u st
be g o v ern ed , but not e n s la v e d by any th e o r y of g o v ern m en t.
The p o r tr a it of C h e ste r in P r is o n e r of G race is p a in ted by the
p e r s o n c l o s e s t to h i m - - h i s w ife . But no m a tte r how c lo s e the o b s e r v e r ,
it is s t ill fr o m th e o u tsid e. N in a w a s ad ep t at u n d erstan d in g h e r h u s
band, but often sh e did not u n d ersta n d h is m o tiv a tio n s . E x ce p t The L o rd
is C h e s t e r 's own s to r y of h is e a r ly y e a r s , and it p r o v id e s the r e a d e r
w ith the d e ta ils of h is ch ild h ood and y o u t h --t h e fo r m a tiv e y e a r s that
g a v e m o tiv a tio n and p a tte r n to the la t e r y e a r s r e la te d by N ina. U n for
tu n ately, C h e s t e r 's s to r y c o v e r s o n ly h is ch ild h ood and youth. I think
it a s e r io u s fla w in the S eco n d T r ilo g y that h is sto r y d o e s not c o v e r h is
p o litic a l c a r e e r and that C a ry did n ot a ttem p t to give C h e s t e r 's ow n
r e a s o n s fo r h is a c tio n s in h is f o r t y - y e a r c a r e e r . Of c o u r s e , C h e s t e r 's
214
c h a r a c te r p r e v e n ts h im fr o m s e e in g h im s e lf as he r e a lly i s - - h e is not
cap ab le of in sigh t. Yet the T rilo g y su ffe r s a co rr e sp o n d in g la c k of
r ic h n e s s .
Though a ll of C a ry 's n o v e ls a re c e n te r e d on a sin g le t h e m e - - i t
w a s p art of h is cod e of n o v e l w r i t i n g - - E x ce p t the L ord is m o r e in te n s e
ly fo c u se d than u su a l. It is the one c o n c en tr a ted effo rt C ary m a d e to
show the in flu en ce of the id e a s of P r o te s ta n t r e lig io n on le ft-w in g E n g
lis h p o litic s . To Be A P ilg r im w a s a stud y of P r o te s ta n tis m , but p o li
t ic s w as tou ch ed upon only in c id en ta lly in the sto r y of the c a r e e r of
W itc h e r 's b ro th er, E dw ard. E x cep t the L o rd tr a c e s the d ev elo p m en t of
C h e ste r 's id ea s fr o m r e lig io u s b egin n in gs to p o litic a l ad ap tation s, fro m
an in te n se ly r e lig io u s ch ild h ood to an id e a lis tic S o c ia lis tic youth, to a
b r ie f tim e a s a fa n a tic a l M a rx ist, to p o litic a l a c tiv ity in the R a d ica l
p arty.
The s to r y b e g in s w ith C h e ste r 's m e m o r ie s of h is child hood on
the fa m ily fa rm w h e r e the fa th er, a la y p r e a c h e r , too often put a sid e h is
own duties to help s o m e un fortun ate n eig h b o r. In sp ite of d a ily e x h o r ta
tio n s about truth, c o n fe s sio n , and the t e r r o r s of h e ll, it w a s a happy and
s e c u r e childhood, b e c a u s e , as C h e ster sa y s (r e fle c tin g C a ry 's b e lie f
about ch ild ren ), "we knew, in the c o m m o n p h r a s e , e x a c tly w h e r e w e
w e r e - - t h e w ic k e d w ould be p u n ish ed , and the good sh ou ld have r e -
4
w ard ." T he m o th e r, o v erw o rk ed and w orn, co n tra cted tu b e r c u lo s is
and w a ste d s lo w ly aw ay. The fa rm w as lo s t, and the fa m ily m o v e d to
the n ea rb y v illa g e so that the fath er w ould be w ith in r e a c h of h is flock .
^Except The Lord (New York, 1953), p. 6.
215
He cou ld g et w o rk only as a la b o r e r and e v e n that w o rk w a s s c a r c e fo r
a m a n of fifty . He w as fin a lly tak en on as fo r e m a n by M rs. C oyte, the
c h ie f fa r m e r of the v illa g e , on w hom m o s t of the p e o p le d ep en d ed fo r
w ork .
C h e ste r 's old er b ro th er R ich a rd w a s a b r illia n t student, th e hope
of the fa m ily , and th ey a ll s c r im p e d to put h im th rou gh sch o o l. C h e s
t e r 's s is t e r G eo rg in a w en t to w o rk fo r the v illa g e g r o c e r at the age of
nine, and a fter th eir m o th e r 's death took on the r e s p o n s ib ility of r a isin g
the fa m ily and k eep in g h o u se in add ition to h e r w o rk in th e shop. H er
r e s p o n s ib ility fo r the fa m ily m a d e h e r put up w ith a c ts by the g r o c e r
that sh e w ou ld not e v e n d e s c r ib e . The fa th er w an ted h e r to le a v e her
job, but sh e fe lt bound to contin ue, and as so o n as p o s s ib le w en t to w o rk
in the v illa g e pub, a g a in st the w is h e s of h e r fa th er, a te e to ta le r . Her
v ic to r y m a r k e d the b egin n in g of th e -fa th e r 's d eclin in g in flu en ce and the
grow in g in d ep en d en ce of the c h ild ren .
The h igh poin t of C h e ste r 's ch ild h ood w a s s e e in g a p la y at L il-
m ou th F a ir . It w as during the tim e of a m in e r s ' str ik e , and the c h il
d ren had g iv e n th eir sa v in g s to the p o o r. C h e ster w en t off w ith so m e
b o y s, m a g n e tiz e d by the id ea of the th ea tre , fo rb id d en to h im and to
oth er ch u rch m e m b e r s a s the e p ito m e of e v il b e c a u se it w as a p r e te n s e .
A s an old m a n C h e ster r e m e m b e r s how v io le n tly s tir r e d he w a s and
s a y s that ra th er than a m a n 's f ir s t e x p e r ie n c e in the th ea tre opening a
n ew w o r ld to him "it w ou ld be b e tter to sa y that it d e s tr o y s the old one"
(p. 88). The p la y a ls o opened h is e y e s to "the s p e ll of the o r a to r ," and
fro m th en on he s e c r e t l y p r a c tic e d d e c la im in g to h is flo c k of sh e ep on
the m o o r .
216
The fa th er, in ju red w h ile try in g to b rea k up a rio t b etw een
s tr ik e r s and p o lic e , w a s la te r a r r e s t e d a s a str ik e le a d e r . He w as
s a v ed fro m p r is o n only by M rs. C o y te 1 s te s tim o n y that he w a s try in g to
stop the fight. W hile the fath er w as in the h o sp ita l, C h e ster w as tak en
out of sch o o l and, at the age of e le v e n , put to w ork . The fath er lo s t h is
in flu en ce over the ch ild re n w h en the p ro p h ecy of C h r ist's Secon d C o m
ing, w h ich he had b een c a lcu la tin g and p rea ch in g fo r y e a r s , fa iled to be
fu lfille d . The ex p la n a tio n that He w ou ld not app ear to th o se who did not
b e lie v e in H im did not k eep the p r e a c h e r fro m b e c o m in g a la u g h in g sto ck
in the v illa g e .
H is fa th e r 's au th ority d e str o y e d and h is r e lig io u s fa ith gone, the
boy w a s an e a s y m a r k fo r S o c ia lis t ic id e a s, and, in h is e a r ly a d o le s
c en ce , ca m e under the in flu en ce of so m e in te lle c tu a l E u rop ean r e f o r m
e r s . M rs. C o y te's s h if t le s s so n F r e d p r o p o se d to G eorgin a, who d e
te s te d h im , and y e t aged s ix te e n and w ith no other p r o s p e c ts in sigh t,
a c ce p ted h im . Soon a fter , an old frien d , W ill W ilson, ap p eared , and
G eorgin a spent m u ch tim e w ith h im , o b v io u sly infatuated. The father
d isa p p ro v ed , fo r G eorgin a, young as she w a s, had c h o se n F r e d f r e e ly
and to b rea k h e r g iv en w ord w ou ld be "a w ic k e d thing" (p. 189). M rs.
Coyte died; F r e d sa ck ed W ilson, but so o n ru in ed h im s e lf and the fa r m
w ith drinking and gam b lin g. C h e ste r 's fa th er r e m o n s tr a te d w ith h im
and w a s fir e d fo r it after y e a r s of s e r v ic e . At the c o n g r eg a tio n 's r e
qu est, h o w e v e r, old N im m o c h o se to r e m a in in the v illa g e in the only
cottage a v a ila b le, one that w a s dam p and unhealthy. C h e ste r m e a n
w h ile had o r g a n iz ed s o m e of the fa rm w o r k e r s into a union and had s u c
cee d e d only in g ettin g th em and h im s e lf fir e d . By th is tim e F r e d had
217
abandoned th e fa rm , and W ilso n a sk ed G eorgin a to m a r r y h im and go to
the S ta tes. She r e fu se d , d e c la r in g th e r e w a s no one e l s e to n u r se th eir
fa th er, who w a s c rip p le d w ith r h e u m a tism , and W ilso n w en t into the
ca rtin g b u s in e s s , w a itin g for G eorgin a to m a r r y h im .
C h ester w a s b ea ten up by h is fa r m w o r k e r s b e c a u s e th ey thought
he had so ld th em out. G eo rg in a th en to o k h im up to London, su p p o sed ly
to s e e th eir you n ger s is t e r R uth's new baby and a ls o R ichard, w ho had
gone up fr o m O xford and w a s w ork in g in an o ffice . T h ere C h e ster m e t
P r in g , the b ig g e s t union le a d e r in E ngland, and w a s sen t by h im b a ck to
T arb iton to w o rk in the d o c k e r 's union. C h e ster , havin g le a r n e d that
P r in g w as an e x p e rt at h is b u s in e s s and a c o n siste n t, fa n a tica l M a rx ist,
so o n b e c a m e one h im s e lf. The d o c k e r s str u c k in w in ter , tying up fifty
m i l e s of c o a st, but the str ik e did not go w e ll. In o r d e r to stop the m en
fr o m retu rn in g to w ork , P r in g d e cid ed to " d iscip lin e" and " p ersu ad e" a
cou p le of th em . W hen C h e ste r saw a m a n so b ea ten as to be u n r e c o g
n iz a b le, he fin a lly r e a liz e d that P r in g w a s in te r e ste d only in a c la s s
w a r, in v io le n c e for v io le n c e 's sa k e. He c o m p la in e d to P r in g , w ith the
r e s u lt that h e w as to ld to r e s ig n if he did not a g r e e . Then h is b e lo n g
ings w e r e th row n into the s tr e e t, and no one w ould ta lk to h im . It w as
G eorgin a w ho d rove up and took h im h o m e to the v illa g e , but th er e he
c a m e down w ith in flu en za. The w h ole fa m ily w as ill, G eorgina m o s t of
a ll. By sta y in g w ith h e r fath er sh e con d em n ed h e r s e lf to death b y tu
b e r c u lo s is . W hen it w a s obviou s that sh e w a s going to die, she w ro te
W ilso n that he w as f r e e and that sh e co u ld n ev er have m a r r ie d h im b e
c a u se of h er b rok en p r o m is e to F red . She died, and s ix m on th s la te r
C h ester b eg a n to p r e a c h to h is fa th e r 's flo c k . He had r e a liz e d that
218
"E xcept the L o rd build the h ou se, th eir labour is but lo s t that build it"
(p. 273).
F ro m the beginning of the book C ary con cen trated on the in te r
w eavin g of e v a n g e lic a l r e lig io u s id eas w ith r a d ica l p o litic s. When the
fa m ily s t ill liv e d on th eir fa rm , a drunk had dem anded m o n ey from
C h e ste r 's fath er and had then ab u sed him for p r o fe s sin g to be C h ristian
and refu sin g the req u est. C h ester, look in g back as an old m an on the
incident, show s how his thought and ex p e rie n c e connect r e lig io n and
p o litics:
How c ru el is that ch arge, of the s e lf is h a g a in st the C h ristian , often
p o o r e r than h im s e lf, "You p r o fe s s C h rist, th e r e fo r e you have no
right to r e fu se m e anything." In fifty y e a rs of p o litic s, I have not
known w o r s e - - i t w ounds so deep. But m y fath er w ould have said,
"The w ea k m u st be fo r g iv e n b e c a u se they are w eak." (p. 3)
The p a ren ts w e re liv in g e x a m p le s of C hristianity: the father
con fid en tly w a ited for and p rea ch ed the Second Com ing of C hrist, and
the m o th er, a s c h o o lm a s te r 's daughter, who w as look ed upon by h er
n eigh b ors as a w itch b e c a u se she read books, w as a "dedicated c r e a
tu re. H er life w as inward and she tr e m b le d b efo re a God that judged
the v e r y heart" (p. 8). The p a ren ts put th eir duty to oth ers b efo re th eir
duty to t h e m s e lv e s . W hen the fath er lo s t h is fa rm , he sta y ed in the v i l
la g e to be near h is flo ck rath er than d e s e r t them to take a b etter job,
and y e a r s la ter, w hen fir e d by F r e d C oyte, he rem a in ed in the v illa g e ,
condem ning h im s e lf and G eorgina to death, rath er than le a v e h is c o n
gregation.
R eligion brought the fath er into troub le in the v illage; M rs.
Coyte had not known that he p r e a ch ed the Second C om ing and she said
fir m ly that she w ould h ave no " n on sen se p reach ing" in h er c o tta g es.
h a n d led th is th e m e in th e c h a r a c te r of B ro w n in T o Be A P i l g r i m .
T h e r e the e m p h a s is w a s on the e m o tio n a l, a lm o s t h y s t e r ic a l a ttr a c tio n
of th e B e n th a m ite s, hut it w a s a s e c o n d a r y th em e in the h ig h ly c o m p le x
s t o r y of W ilc h e r 's lif e . The e m p h a s is in E x c e p t The L o r d is n ot on the
e m o tio n a l a p p ea l of e v a n g e lic a l r e lig io n but on its e ffe c t on p e o p le w ho
fo llo w e d its s t r ic t m o r a l co d e, w ho liv e d in a w o r ld w h ic h th ey r e g a r d e d
p r im a r ily a s a " te stin g p la c e fo r the so u l." A c c o r d in g to C ary, P r o t e s
tan t thought s t r e s s e s th e im p o rta n c e of th e h o m e and fa m ily in te a c h in g
c h ild r e n good fr o m bad , and in tr a in in g th em to tak e th e ir p la c e s in the
w o r ld a s r e s p o n s ib le c it iz e n s . In the s t o r y th is is only a s u b s id ia r y
th e m e . A lth ou gh C a ry w r o te about it o fte n in h is c r it ic a l w o r k s, it a p
p e a r s in the n o v e ls o n ly in To B e A P i l g r i m , w h ic h d i s c u s s e d the r e
s p o n s ib ilit ie s of an u p p e r - c la s s fa m ily , and in The M oon ligh t and
P r is o n e r of G r a c e , b oth of w h ic h a g a in c o n c e r n u p p e r - c la s s f a m ilie s .
E x c e p t The L o rd d e a ls s t r ic t ly w ith the r u r a l la b o r in g c l a s s . A s C h e s
te r m a t u r e s , the im p o r ta n c e of the h o m e b e c o m e s a c e n tr a l p o in t in h is
p o lit ic a l p h ilo so p h y , but in h is ch ild h o o d it w a s an u n c o n sc io u s s o u r c e
of s e c u r ity . The ch a n g e fr o m a s e c u r e ch ild h o o d to r e s p o n s ib le youth
c a m e at the age of e le v e n w h en h is fa th e r w a s a r r e s t e d . A t.th is p oin t
in th e s to r y C a ry w r o te a p a s s a g e w h ic h s e r v e s to ou tlin e C h e s t e r 's
w h o le c a r e e r and to e x p la in the in te r c o n n e c tio n of r e lig io u s id e a s and
p o litic s :
M y b io g r a p h e r s a re fon d of d iv id in g m y lif e into th r e e p e r i o d s - -
th at of th e a g ita to r, the p r e a c h e r and the s ta te s m a n , e a c h of w h ich ,
th e y sa y , le d n a tu r a lly to th e n ex t and c o n ta in ed a ll th e f o r m e r , so
th at th ey w e r e r a th e r c h a p te r s in a c o m p le te s to r y th an e p is o d e s in
a b ro k en c a r e e r . T he a g ita to r w ho le a r n t the a r t of r a b b le -r o u s in g
fr o m h is fa th e r p a s s e d n a tu r a lly into th e r e v iv a lis t p r e a c h e r , the
p r e a c h e r w ith h is e x tr e m e P r o t e s t a n t and d is s e n tin g c r e e d n a tu r a lly
o p p o sed h im s e lf to p r iv ile g e and e n te r e d p o lit ic s to a c h ie v e h is id ea l
221
of eq u ality. A n d th en a g a in h e u se d the m eth o d s of the d em a g o g u e.
T hey quote m y e a r ly s p e e c h e s to show that I w as one of the f ir s t "to
dangle b e fo r e the m o b the o ffer of so m e th in g fo r nothing, p e n sio n s
and d o le s , buying th eir v o te s w ith s u b s id ie s w h ich m u s t in the end
ruin the n ation al e co n o m y and confound p oor and rich , in d u strio u s
and la z y , the p a r a s ite and the w o rk er, in one c o m m o n d isa ster." (p.
100 )
C h e ster in s is t s that he spoke not as a d em a g o g u e but as a " C h ristian
and a P r o te sta n t," and sta te s in rebuttal:
True r e lig io n . . . c e n tr e s in the f a m ily - - f o r the P r o te sta n t, p r i e s t
hood r e s id e s in e v e r y p a r e n t r e s p o n sib le for a c h ild 's up bringing.
That is w hy w e a r e bound to stand fo r any sta te p o lic y that can s e
cu re the fa m ily unit as a unit. F o r it is only in fa m ily life that the
fr e e d o m and dign ity of a r e s p o n sib le c itiz e n a c c o r d s w ith h is r e l i
giou s duty, and w ho sh a ll s a y that one, w ho know s the b u rd en of a u
th o rity o v e r h e lp le s s d ep en d en ts, is th er e b y w ea k en ed in r e s p o n s i
b ility to w a rd s the sta te that is a fath er to its p eo p le, (p. 100)
The fa th e r 's p r ie sth o o d , h is in flu en ce o v er C h e ster , w a s lo s t in
the deb&cle o v e r the Secon d C o m in g --" it r e m o v e d fr o m m e m y c o m
p le te tr u st in m y fa th e r 's w isd o m and so opened the w ay to p o litic a l
agitation " (p. 121). When C h e ster rea d a cru de p o litic a l p a m p h let on
p o v e r ty w h ich a rg u ed that e ith e r the om n ip oten t God w as a tyran t and
d ev il or th e r e w as no God at a ll- -" o m n ip o te n c e b eing a s s u m e d as an
a ll- e m b r a c in g p o w er ov er tim e and sp a c e , to su b v ert nature its e lf, to
in terv en e at any m o m e n t in hum an fa t e " - -th e argu m en t so fitted h is
fe e lin g s that it illu m in a ted the w h ole w o rld , but it a ls o th rew h im into
d e sp a ir b e c a u s e he cou ld no lo n g e r r e s p e c t h is fa th er and saw h im a s
an ign orant m an w ho had b e e n d e c e iv e d in a rid icu lo u s m a n n er. The
boy w a s not s u r p r is e d to find su ch a p a m p h let c ir c u la te d . T h ere w as
m u ch r e p u b lic a n ism in the w e s t, and m a n y e v a n g e lic a ls f e lt "from a r e
lig io u s m o tiv e , that God alon e sh ou ld rule"; th e r e fo r e th ey cou n ten an ced
attack s on the crow n . He w a s fe r t ile ground fo r the kind of id e a lis tic
S o c ia lis m he h ea r d p r e a c h e d in a B a p tist ch u rch by a d is c ip le of
219
The fa th er then fe lt it h is duty to sta y and p r e a ch . M rs. C oyte o b jected
to h is p rea ch in g b e c a u se sh e fe lt it a d isru p tiv e in flu en ce in the v illa g e ,
and C h e ster w r ite s a c a r e fu l a n a ly s is of v illa g e life a s "a b alan ce of
p o w e r s," guided b y C h ristia n p r in c ip le s , a p a s s a g e that is the k ey to
h is w hole life and thought:
it w a s a h igh ly c o m p le x and d e lic a te b a la n ce of p e r s o n a l r ela tio n s
b etw een f a m ilie s and p e r s o n s , w ho w e r e o b lig ed to liv e so c lo s e t o
geth er that the w h ole of e v e r y o n e 's a c tio n s, and a lm o s t h is thoughts,
w as open to in sp e c tio n by a ll the r e s t. T h ere w a s no su ch thing as
p r iv a c y , for though a g e n e r a l d is c r e tio n c a u se d every, prud en t p e r s o n
to be c a r e fu l of w hat he sa id , in p u b lic, e a ch had in tim a te s to w hom
all w a s d is c lo s e d . Thus ev ery th in g w a s known, a ll sca n d a ls c ir c u
la ted co n tin u a lly b en eath the sm o o th s u r fa c e of m u tu al caution. . . .
And so m e d e g r e e of qu iet and d e c e n c y could only be m a in ta in ed by a
r e c ip r o c ity of o b lig a tio n and r e p r is a l, a b a la n ce of p o w e r s in w h ich
tru e ch a rity and fe llo w -f e e lin g , c o n s c ie n c e and s e l f - r e s p e c t - - i n
short, C h ristia n tra d itio n and e x a m p le , m o r e or l e s s r e c o g n is e d as
s u c h - - w e r e m in g le d w ith w hat I m u st c a ll r e a l p o lit ic s , a s y s te m e s
ta b lish ed ov er y e a r s of tr ia l and e r r o r , (p. 22)
The death of th e ir m o th e r b eg in s the o b s e s s io n w ith c la s s that
r e m a in s throughout C h e s te r 's life , the h a tred of the r ic h and of the u n
ju st p o v e r ty that k ille d th eir m o th er, but it is an u n c o n sc io u s, u n r e a l
iz e d h atred . C h e ster , s t ill a young child , r e a c te d f ir s t to the p ow er of
the o rator in the th ea tre , co m in g la te r to the tu m u lt of p o litic a l id e a s.
He s a y s about h im s e lf that he had not y et co m e to h is "m om en t of illu
m in ation" b e c a u se
I had liv e d w ith in eq u ality a ll m y l i f e - - f o r m e s t ill the c r u e lty of
s o c ia l in ju stic e w as sw a llo w ed up in a v a s te r , m o r e d ra m a tic, m o r e
im m ed ia te fa te fu ln e s s of life its e lf, of a r b itr a r y death, (p. 96)
The a s p e c t of P r o te s ta n tis m that C a ry stu d ied in E x cep t The
L o rd , d ifferen tia tin g it fr o m the study of the id ea s of the e sta b lis h e d
ch u rch in T o Be A P i l g r i m , is the e m p h a sis by the e v a n g e lic a l la y
p r e a c h e r s on the Secon d C om ing of C h rist, on a b so lu te truth and h on
e s t y b efo re God, and on m a n 's a c ce p ta n c e of God's p o w e r . C ary
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P roudhon, a n ih ilis t who b e lie v e d g o v ern m en t and p r o p e r ty to be the
so u r c e of a ll e v il, w ho d e s p is e d o r g a n iz ed r e lig io n a s a bran ch of the
p o lic e , but w ho spoke of fa m ily lo v e , the lo v e of fa th e rs and m o th e r s for
th eir c h ild r e n - - "He sp ok e, that is , of w hat I knew, of what w a s fa m ilia r
to m e as bread; m a d e m e know it again fo r a h o ly thing, the foundation
of a ll h a p p in ess and p e a c e " (p. 131). (It is an a m u sin g sid e point h e r e
that th is v e r y typ e of r e lig io u s S o c ia lis m is u se d as a b ackgroun d for
the sc e n e in P la n tie 's r o o m s in The H o r s e 's M outh w h e r e G u lley and
S a ra r e m in is c e about th eir lo v e in fo r m e r days; the s a t ir ic a l c o u n te r
point of a le c tu r e on a b str a c t lo v e e m p h a s iz e s the r e a lity of the ea rth y
lo v e of G ulley and S ara.) C h e ster r e a liz e d that he had r e je c te d w ith the
id ea of God the lo v e and c h a r ity and g o o d n ess that he had known in h is
own h o m e. "Now under another n am e, that of hum anity, He w a s r e
s to r e d to H is fu ll gran d eu r and m a je s ty as ru le r of the w orld" (p. 136).
F o r s e v e r a l y e a r s the boy w a s content under the in flu en ce of m ild ,
thoughtful in te lle c tu a ls of the P roud hon S o ciety , but then he sta r te d a
s e c r e t union of fa r m w o r k e r s , a d a n g ero u s a c tiv ity b e c a u se the m e n
w e r e a fra id of the m a s t e r s and no fa r m e r w ould h ir e a union m an .
C ary gave a g ra p h ic p ic tu r e of the u n certa in ty , d an ger, and
w e a k n e ss of the la b o r -u n io n m o v e m e n t in its e a r ly days in E ngland.
B e c a u se C h e ste r 's union w a s b e tr a y e d by one of its m e m b e r s , the m en
w e r e fir e d by the lo c a l f a r m e r s and cou ld not g et w o rk again. S om e
fifty p eo p le who had tr u s te d C h ester w e r e out o f w o rk and sta rv in g .
C h e ster , o b s e s s e d by p o v e r ty , fe lt that th e r e w a s an u n seen , u n sp ok en
c o n s p ir a c y on the p a rt of the o w n ers a g a in st the d is p o s s e s s e d . The
m e n did not r e a liz e that C h e ster h im s e lf had b een th row n out of w ork;
223
th e y thought that h e h ad ro b b ed th em of m o n e y and jo b s , and th ey b ea t
h im up. A s C h e ste r w r it e s h is m e m o ir , he lo o k s b a ck and p h ilo s o p h iz e s
that the b ea tin g w a s s u p e r fic ia l, but
I can tr u ly sa y th at the w oun d to m y so u l h a s n e v e r h e a le d . It w a s
the f i r s t tim e I had b e e n m a d e to u n d e rsta n d the fe a r fu l co n d itio n of
p o litic a l lif e , the fu n d a m en ta l w an t of a ll s e c u r ity , th e ap p allin g
r is k s of th o se w h o a c c e p t an y la r g e r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r th eir fe llo w s ,
(p- 219)
P r in g , the top u n ion le a d e r in E nglan d , w a s one of the e a r ly f a
n a tic a lly M a r x is t u n io n is ts , a m a n w ho lo o k e d lik e an y o r d in a r y w o r k e r
or la b o r e r but w ho w a s o u tsta n d in g in h is e x p e r t n e s s and a b ility . He
w a s a c o n s c io u s and p r a c t ic e d le a d e r , and C h e s t e r 's " w ea k n ess and
fr u s tr a tio n w e r e d raw n to h is a s s u r a n c e a s i r r e s i s t i b l y a s the sta r v in g
m a n by a w e ll- f u r n is h e d ta b le" (p. 231). P r in g ta lk ed n ot of s m a sh in g
the m a c h in e but of ta k in g it o v e r and u s in g it; h is p la n of a ctio n w a s "the
tak ing o v e r of a ll g o v e r n m e n t b y the w o r k e r s , or r a th e r by the w o r k e r s '
l e a d e r s - - a p r o g r a m m e e x t r e m e ly a ttr a c tiv e to an a m b itio u s and f r u s
tr a te d b o y of tw enty" {p. 233). P r in g se n t C h e ste r b a c k to h is own p a rt
of the c o u n try w ith an o b ject in lif e and a r e a s o n fo r fig h tin g , in to x i
c a te d by p o w e r and w illin g to u s e v io le n c e . P r in g , m o r e su b tle, w h en
he ta lk ed about k e ep in g the m e n out on s tr ik e u s e d w o r d s lik e " d is c i
p lin e" and " p e r su a sio n ." C h e ste r , as an o ld m a n , r a tio n a liz e s h is a c
tio n s as a you n g m a n by w r itin g ,
T h is b o o k w ou ld b e w o r t h le s s if it did not show how m en , e s p e c ia lly
young and ard en t m e n a s I w a s th en, c o m e to do e v il in the n a m e of
good, a lo n g and g r o w in g e v il fo r a t e m p o r a r y and doubtful ad van tage,
(p. 243)
But it w a s p e r s o n a l a n im o s ity , not p r in c ip le s , that s e p a r a te d C h e ste r
fr o m the u n ion group. He w a s a n g r y at not b ein g c o n s u lte d about the
a c tio n ta k en in h is ow n d is t r ic t , and P r in g to ld h im to r e sig n ; he
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c o n s id e r e d C h e s t e r ’s o m is s io n a m e r e " tech n ica l poin t." C h e ster then
fin a lly r e a liz e d the truth about P rin g , "a truth I had a lw ays know n and
ev en g lo a ted upon, but n ev er ap p lied to m y own c a s e , that no one on
earth counted w ith h im b e s id e the ca u se" (p. 260). C h e ster found h im
s e lf in the s tr e e t, the m an b etra y ed , tr ic k e d by fate itse lf.
In a fin al b ackw ard lo o k at the y e a r s of h is youthful un ion a c tiv i
ty, he co n n ects h is la te r p o litic a l c a r e e r w ith the e a r ly y e a r s . A s an
old m an he has b e e n throw n out of o ffice, and again he fe e ls h im s e lf a
m an b etrayed .
I am to ld that m y w h o le c a r e e r h a s been a d is a s te r and a fraud.
That g rea t p a rty , ca lled s o tru ly and p rou d ly the lib e r a l p arty, the
p a rty of fr e e d o m , to w h ich I gave fo r ty y e a r s of m y life, in w h ich I
r o se to honour, l i e s in r u in s, and th o se who la t e ly fille d the s tr e e ts
to c h e e r m e on m y w ay lo n g only that I should d ie. I am an e m b a r
r a s s m e n t to th em . (p. 263)
Truth, s e lf -p it y , and r a tio n a liz a tio n a r e w o v en to g e th er in h is r e su m e
of h is life and c a r e e r ; the s t y le is s tr o n g ly e v a n g e lic a l, and at the end
of the b ook C ary r ein tr o d u c e d the th em e of the s p e ll of the o ra to r w h ich
c h a r a c t e r iz e s C h e ste r in N in a 's sto r y and w hich is dom inant in the
c h a r a c te r iz a tio n of C h ester in J im 's s to r y . It is a ls o a fo resh a d o w in g
of C h e ste r 's own doom . He w r it e s that th e p eop le w ho a re r e v ilin g him
are d e c eiv e d , "they a r e under a sp e ll of w o r d s." In a p a s s a g e w h ich
r e f le c ts C ary's in t e r e s t in the p ow er of w o r d s and of sp e llb in d e rs who
u se w o r d s, C h e ster w rites:
The w o r ld it s e lf is young, we a r e but little r e m o v e d fr o m the
tim e w hen w r itin g w as a w o n d er, w h en any w r itte n sp e e c h w a s m a g ic .
W ords p rin ted in b o o k s - - R o u ssea u , P roudhon, Owen, M arx, what
p o w er th ey ca n w ield . But it is the p o w e r of s o r c e r e r s - - t h e sp e ll
th ey c a s t is a b racad ab ra. And the fr u it of th eir s o r c e r y is e g o tis m
and m a d n e s s , w a r and death.
So e v il is the brood of the slo g a n s that the m o s t sp len d id and
noble battle c r i e s , L ib erty , E quality, F r a te r n ity , b red nothing but
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new and m o r e cunning, m o re h y p o cr itica l d esp o ts, better organ ized
m u rd er, popular n ation alism drunk w ith the co n ceit of h ooligan s,
m ilita r ism as the tool of d em agogu es, hatred not to be a ssu a g ed by
the blood of m illio n s and a cen tu ry of te a r s , (p. 263)
In E x cep t The Lord C ary a ls o u se d the th em e of w om an 's p la ce
in the w orld in a m an ner that is c o n siste n t with the c h a ra cteriza tio n of
C h ester. W om en do not appear to C h ester to be c r e a tu re s fr e e ly le a d
ing th eir own liv e s; th ey are tigh tly held by nature to th eir rep rod u ctive
ro le. As a young m an going through the Slapton m a n sio n w h ere h is
younger s is t e r Ruth w a s a ser v in g m aid, he w as asto n ish ed at G eo rg i
na's in te r e st and delight in the h o u se and fu rn ish in gs, in con trast to her
hatred of the rich, and he thought that w om en have "no p o litica l se n se ."
A s an old m an dictating h is m e m o ir s to Nina, he ponders w o m en 's a tti
tudes tow ard life and thinks that
A w om an has a lik e brain w ith ou rs, a lik e p ow er of reason in g. But
she ap p lies them from e a r lie s t y e a rs to a different m a tter, to her
own p lace and function in the w orld . . . .
It is not in stin ct that te lls a young w om an in love that p o litic s
d eal w ith the ep h em era l, the p a ssin g situ a tio n --w h ile sh e is con
cern ed w ith a perm an en t truth, w ith p ro b lem s of loyalty and r e sp o n
sib ility that n ev er change th eir e s s e n c e , with fa m ily duty, w ith the
h e a v ie st and m o st in escap ab le of r e sp o n sib ilitie s . She knows it by
im agination and ex p erien ce, (p. 209)
He c a r r ie s the idea further into a p a ssa g e that is a d irect r eflec tio n of
C ary's ph ilosop h y about life, that no m a tter what govern m en ts r is e and
fall, and even if the atom bom b should w ipe out m o st of life on earth,
life w ill in evitab ly sta rt all over again:
The lands of the earth r ise and fall, the ice advances and r e c e d e s,
but if all the life on earth should be ov erw h elm ed in an afternoon, the
w om b of ocean w ould s till hold the teem in g s e e d and in its own tim e,
a m illio n y e a r s or so, bring forth another race of man, other c u l
tu res.
The e m p ir e s die and are su c c e e d e d by m o re ru th less and cu n
ning, m o r e m ea n and ev il d esp o ts, the kings depart and p r e sid en ts
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s e t new and c r u e lle r p r is o n s for m o r e e ffic ie n t o p p ressio n ; the ra ck
and b oot a re a b o lish ed , the s c ie n t is t ta k es ch a rg e of the to rtu re
ch am b er; m a s k s and c a tch w o rd s ch an ge, the sa m e m ob s of fo o ls and
th u gs, of h y s t e r ic a l b oys and g r e e d y ly in g op p ortu n ists ru sh through
the s t r e e t s and cry , "Down w ith the g o v e r n m e n t--d o w n w ith the law";
a u to c r a c y w ith a sw o r d is fo llo w ed by d e m o c r a c y w ith a Cheka; the
c a p ita list w ith h is w a g e s la v e s g iv e s w a y to a m in is t e r of p rod u ction
and the co n c en tr a tio n cam p; but thug, student, m in is te r , e a ch has
s o m e w h e r e a h o m e, and in e v e r y h o m e, throughout the c e n tu r ie s in
a ll the w o rld , w o m e n a s k t h e m s e lv e s the q u e stio n --H o w sh a ll w e e n
su re p e a c e , how sh a ll lo v e be se r v e d ? (p. 210)
The c h a r a c te r iz a tio n of C h e ster by N ina in P r is o n e r of G race
m a d e him a p om p ou s, s e lf-d e lu d in g h y p o cr ite . The C h ester of E x cep t
The L ord is a s e r io u s young m an, fu ll of v ir tu e . The point at w h ich he
b eg a n to ch an ge, or the p r o c e s s of changin g, is lo s t s o m e w h e r e in the
p e r io d of tim e that is not c o v e r e d in the tr ilo g y . The t r ic k in e s s and
s c h e m in g in C h e s te r 's n atu re, about w h ich N ina so b itte r ly com p lain ed ,
a r e n o w h ere ev id e n t in the boy in E x ce p t The L o r d . He is d om in ated by
the p r in c ip le of truth, h eld up to him a s the ca rd in a l v ir tu e by h is p a r
en ts:
Our w h o le ed u ca tio n as c h ild re n tu rn ed on r e s p e c t for the tr u t h --
f a ls e n e s s w a s a s in and f a ls e n e s s had a v e r y w id e m ea n in g . Any
kind of p r e te n c e , any kind of condu ct havin g the le a s t tin ctu re of h y
p o c r is y w a s not only a s in but a d ead ly trap . How often had I b een
told that the lie c o rru p ts and p o is o n s the v e r y sou l? (p. 82)
T he boy did not d rink or sm o k e , s te a l or lie , or c h a se w o m en but spent
h is youth tr y in g to r e p la c e the lo s t r e lig io u s foundation of h is childhood
w ith S o c ia lis m , u n io n ism , and M a r x ism un til he fin a lly retu rn ed to r e l i
g io n and b egan to p r e a c h to h is fa th e r 's flo ck .
The fig u re of C h e ster in P r is o n e r of G race and Not Honour
M o re is a g r o te sq u e , h y p o c r itic a l, sc h e m in g m o n ste r . The boy of E x
cep t The L o rd is a lm o s t too good to be tr u e . It is a triu m p h of C a ry 's
c r a ftsm a n sh ip that he cou ld m a k e both a s p e c ts of one p e r so n a lity
227
b e lie v a b le . It m u st be r e m e m b e r e d that C ary d efen d ed the u se of a
g ro tesq u e c h a r a c te r b e c a u se it is often m o r e v iv id than a s o - c a lle d
"true to life" c h a r a c te r . T his attitude e x p la in s the C h e ster of N in a 's
and J im 's s t o r ie s , but the C h e ste r of E x ce p t The L ord is quite d ifferen t.
The m a n of P r is o n e r of G race is to ta lly in cap ab le of in sigh t, of s e lf -
k n ow led ge. E x ce p t The L ord is w r itte n as a m e m o ir , as C h e ste r 's e f
fo r t at u n d ersta n d in g h is life and thought by r ee x a m in a tio n . Y et in the
fin al p a s s a g e in w h ich he c o m p la in s that he is again sittin g in the gutter,
it is ev id en t that h e h as not g ain ed in s ig h t--w h a t he s a y s is not put in
the s im p le w o rd s w ith w h ich he had d e s c r ib e d im p ortan t in cid en ts in h is
youth, but is w r itte n in an e la b o r a te ly fo r m a l sty le for p u b lication , not a
sty le r e fle c tin g e m o tio n a l u n d erstan d in g. S e lf- d e lu s io n is a ls o ev id en t
in the k ey p a s s a g e in w hich he d e s c r ib e s how h is b io g ra p h ers and c r it
ic s have d ivid ed h is life into the th re e p e r io d s of a g ita to r, p r e a c h e r ,
and sta te sm a n . He in s is ts that he did not a d vocate the buying of v o te s,
p e n s io n s , or in su r a n c e as a d em o g o g u e but as a C h ristia n . He s a y s he
b e c a m e a p r e a c h e r not b e c a u s e he had b een an ag ita to r but b e c a u se he
had b een brou gh t up to e v a n g e lis m . He r e p e a ts h is b e lie f in the h om e
and the " p riesth ood " of the p a ren t. But th er e is so m e th in g in h is
ap ology that is su b tly s e lf-d e fe a tin g , not the id ea s or the w ord s but the
u se of an e la b o ra te sty le to d efend h im s e lf - - n o t the s im p le w o rd s in
w hich stro n g e m o tio n s b rea k th rou gh but the e la b o ra te se n te n c e s of
r e a so n e d and c a lc u la te d r h e to r ic . Thus, C ary im p lied that the s in c e r e
m o tiv a tio n s of the e a r ly y e a r s b e c a m e m a n ip u la ted in la te r y e a r s .
C h e ster knew the p eo p le am on g w hom h e g rew up, s in c e r e r e l i
gious p eo p le lik e h is fa th er, w h o se e y e s w e r e m o r e on h ea v en than on
228
ea rth , and a s a young v o t e - g e t t e r h e w ould h a v e know n that r e lig io u s
a p p ea ls w ou ld h a v e had m u ch m o r e e ffe c t on th em than ta lk of ta x e s or
fo r e ig n a ffa ir s . T his is the e le m e n t in C h e ste r that N in a d e s c r ib e d so
w e ll b y sa y in g that h is r e lig io n w a s not f a ls e b e c a u s e he knew how to
u s e it.
C o n sid e r in g the am ou n t of ch an ge the c h a r a c te r u n d e r g o e s, the
d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n the C h e ste r of N in a 's or J im ’s s t o r ie s and of E x c e p t
The L o r d , it is r e m a r k a b le how c o n s is t e n t the c h a r a c te r r e m a in s in
sp ite of s e e m in g ly c o n tr a d ic to r y c h a r a c te r t r a it s . C h e ste r lo v e d to go
w a n d erin g on the m o o r s , s im p ly sk ip p in g s c h o o l - - ,,to d efy the law w a s
b ra v e and f r e e ." T h is e le m e n t of d e fia n ce d e te r m in e d h im to go to the
th ea tre a g a in st a ll the te a c h in g s of h is ch ild h ood . In fa ct, the th ea tre
r e p r e s e n te d the p o w er of Satan to h im - - " i t s e e m e d that so m e th in g
fla s h e d fr o m the v e r y c e n tr e of e v il into m y d e e p e st sou l" (p. 89).
L ook in g b a ck on that night at the th e a tr e , C h e ste r w r it e s that "pow er
it s e lf h as a fa s c in a tio n fo r the young so u l in its w e a k n e s s and d ep en d
e n c e . A nd w h en to p o w e r is added th e guilt of blood, s o m e h o r r o r of
c r u e lty , its fo r c e can be h yp notic" (p. 90). In ad d ition to d e fia n ce ,
C h e ste r had a s u r p r is in g am ou n t of in d ep en d en ce. S in ce he had s ta r te d
w o rk in g fo r a liv in g as a boy of e le v e n , he h ad c o n s id e r e d h im s e lf a
m a n "and gave m y s e l f a m a n 's r ig h t to think fo r h im s e lf and to d ecid e
w hat k n ow led ge h e w ou ld a c cep t" (p. 104). T h is in d ep en d en ce m a k e s
h is r e je c tio n of h is fa th e r 's r e lig io n and h is a c c e p ta n c e of M a r x is m
c o n s is te n t. The c o m b in ed t r a i t s - - t h e r e lig io u s fe r v o r , the e v il p o w er
of d r a m a tic o r a to r y , the r e b e llio u s n e s s and in d ep en d en ce, d e v e lo p e d
and d is to r te d in m a tu r ity , m a k e c o n s is t e n t the c h a r a c te r of C h e ste r in
229
h is la te r y e a r s as s e e n by N ina and J im .
The s to r y often s e e m s m o r e a c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n of C h e s te r 's
fa th er and s i s t e r than of h im s e lf , the fa th e r w h o se id e a ls and faith in
God w e r e sta n d a rd s C h e ste r at f ir s t a d m ire d , th en r e je c te d , then r e a c
cep ted but cou ld n e v e r a p p roach . The e ld e r N im m o , an in te n s e ly id e a l
is tic r e lig io u s m an , w a s often h ig h ly im p r a c tic a l. W hen h e d en ou n ced
an im p o rta n t f a r m e r , a m a n w h o se r e c o m m e n d a tio n he n eed ed , fo r s e p a
ra tin g fr o m h is w ife , he illu s t r a t e d to the young C h e ster the b a sic p r o b
le m of "How truth and s in c e r it y w e r e to liv e in the w o r ld of m en" (p.
15). The fa th e r 's a n sw e r to w o r ld ly a ffa ir s and g r ie f s , e v e n h is b e
lo v e d w ife 's u n tim e ly death, w a s a co m b in a tio n of "It is not fo r us to
q u e stio n the w o r k of P r o v id e n c e , the L o rd g iv e s and He ta k e s aw ay" and
"R ender unto C a e sa r w h at is C a e s a r 's ." H is n e ig h b o rs c o u ld not u n d e r
stand h is m eth o d s of b rin g in g up ch ild ren ; he p r a y e d w ith h is c h ild r e n
for th e ir sp ir itu a l v ic t o r ie s o v e r the d e v il in ste a d of b ea tin g th em fo r
e v e r y s m a ll o ffe n se . So im m e r s e d w a s h e in h is w o rk and h is r e lig io n
that he did not n o tice w o r ld ly v a lu e s or c h ild r e n 's m o o d s, y e t he p a id
the g r a v e s t atten tio n to any p r o b le m that the c h ild r e n brou gh t h im . The
e ffe c t of the fa th e r 's p r in c ip le s on C h e s t e r 's p o litic a l thought is e v i
dent:
It w a s the v e r y fou n d ation of h is c r e e d that e v e r y o n e is en titled to
fr e e d o m as so o n a s he is old enough to u s e it, and that c h ild re n
sh ou ld not on ly be brou gh t up to r e s p o n s ib ility but g iv en e v e r y ch a n ce
to p r a c t is e it. . . ."And I w ill w a lk in lib e r ty , fo r I s e e k Thy p r e
c e p ts ." (p. 149)
E q u a lly im p o rta n t w ith fr e e d o m w a s r e s p o n sib ility ; the r e a s o n the f a
th er w a s o p p o sed to G e o r g in a 's b rea k in g h e r en g a g e m e n t to F r e d , a
p r o m is e lig h tly m a d e at s ix te e n , w a s that sh e had c h o se n f r e e ly and
230
r e s p o n s ib ly - - " M y fa th e r , in sh o r t, to o k a v ie w of G e o rg in a 's o b lig a tio n s
that w ould now be thought s e v e r e by th o se w ho do not b e lie v e that th is
w o r ld is but a te s tin g p la c e fo r the sou l" {p. 189).
The fa th er is a m a n w ho liv e d b y h is id e a ls , w ho stu ck w ith th em
under e x tr e m e p r e s s u r e , so m e th in g h is so n did not. W hen F r e d C oyte
w a s ruining h im s e lf and the fa r m w ith d rin k in g and g am b lin g, th e fa th er
f e lt it h is duty to r e m o n s tr a te , e v e n at the l o s s of h is job, know ing it
w ou ld be im p o s s ib le to g e t an oth er job. K now ing he w a s ru in in g h im
s e lf , he f e lt that God to ld h im to sp ea k , and sa id , "how can lig h t c o m e
s a v e w e s e e k it, and w h e r e can w e s e e k it but w ith God?" (p. 196).
The fa th er in a s e n s e s y m b o liz e s the id e a ls to w h ich C h e ste r
a s p ir e d and w h ich he cou ld n e v e r r e a c h . H is s i s t e r G eo rg in a r e f le c t s
the p a s s io n a te r e b e llio u s n e s s and str o n g fa m ily lo y a lty that a r e an oth er
p a r t of h is n a tu re. G eo rg in a w a s dark, w ir y , and p roud , r e b e llio u s and
a fig h te r . A t the age of ten sh e got into a braw l; in s te a d of b ea tin g h er,
the fa th er k n elt and p r a y e d w ith h er: "To h im the b attle in G e o rg in a 's
h e a r t b e tw e en the d e v ils of h e r te m p e r and h e r p a s s io n s , and th e g r a c e
of G od's lo v e w a s a s r e a l a s an y fig h t upon a fa ir day" (p; 32). W h erea s
b ea tin g w ou ld h ave m a d e h e r im p la c a b ly stub born, p r a y in g r ed u c ed h er
to a w e ep in g , ob ed ien t lit tle g ir l. H er ch ild h ood en ded at e le v e n w ith
the m o t h e r 's death, and sh e b e c a m e c o m p le te ly r e s p o n s ib le fo r the
h o u seh o ld , a situ a tio n e s s e n t ia ll y s im ila r to that of R o se in The M oon
lig h t . G eo rg in a had the s a m e p r o b le m s a s R ose:
She w a s n ot only too young fo r su c h c a r e s , but sh e w a s in the d iffi
c u lt p o s itio n of a ll s u c h e ld e r s i s t e r s w ho h a v e to tak e a m o t h e r 's
p la c e w ith ou t a m o th e r 's n a tu ra l au th ority, (p. 41)
G eo rg in a w a s fo r c e d into e a r ly m a tu r ity by h e r r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s . A s
231
C h e ster r e m in is c e s , he r e a liz e s that h e r d e c isio n to put up w ith the
g r o c e r w a s the turn ing p oin t b e tw e en child hood and m aturity:
It w ould be tem p tin g to sa y that the b attle w ith m y fath er changed
G eorgin a fr o m a ch ild to a w om an , at le a s t in sp ir it. That the w o
m a n 's a n x iety about h o u se h o ld b ills , about feed in g h er fa m ily , fo r c e d
upon h e r a d e c is io n far beyond h e r y e a r s , to b ea r w ith G as long a s
sh e could. And that lik e a grow n w o m a n sh e p e r c e iv e d too that sh e
m u st m a k e a d e c is io n a lon e. That h er m e n , ev en h e r fath er and h er
own b r o th e r s, w ould not u n d ersta n d the situ a tio n as she did. {p. 49)
C h ester w r ite s that she did not grow up in that one m o m en t, but that the
r e so lu tio n tak en in o p p o sitio n to h e r fa th er changed h e r profoundly.
U ntil then sh e had n ev e r d r e a m e d of q u estio n in g any of h er fa th e r's
w is h e s or acts; now "he b e c a m e to h e r a p e r s o n who, lik e o u r s e lv e s ,
s o m e tim e s n e ed ed to be handled, m an aged , w ho could not be tr u ste d to
know h is ow n advantage" (p. 49)- T h is one sta te m e n t is the only p la ce
in E x cep t The L ord that C ary m en tio n ed the th em e of m an agin g p eop le
w h ich is b a sic in P r is o n e r of G r a c e . G e o rg in a 's m eth o d of handling h er
a f f a ir s - - b y s ile n c e - - w a s r e s p e c te d . A c co r d in g to C h e ster , the w orld
w as a m u ch ro u g h er p la c e fo r w o m e n then than now, and w o m e n w e re
a c c u sto m e d to a c ts that w ou ld tod ay be taken to a p o lic e court. So
G eo rg in a 's s ile n c e w as r e s p e c te d and a p p r o v e d --
It w as fe lt that sh e w as a g ir l of c h a r a c te r w ho did not m ak e a fo o l
ish fu s s , and knew how to keep h e r s e l f - r e s p e c t w ithout the indignity
of pu b lic a c c u sa tio n s or the u n r e a s o n a b le n e s s of b rin gin g G to public
sh a m e, (p. 53)
T h ere w as a v io le n t s tr a in in G eorgina; she a lw a y s ta lk ed about
h e r s e lf as a " lost sou l," and sh e lik ed to n u r se h er a n g er. H er sec o n d
battle w ith h e r fa th er a r o se ov er h e r d islik e of F r e d C oyte, who, she
sa id w as "just nothing at a ll." H er fath er w a s for the m a r r ia g e , th ink
ing that havin g her own p la c e and b ein g h er own m i s t r e s s w ould m ak e
h er l e s s r e b e llio u s and touchy. A fter a v is it to R ich a rd at Oxford, she
232
re tu r n e d , d e te r m in e d to a c c e p t F r e d and to m a k e a go of the m a r r ia g e ,
sa y in g "it w o u ld be stu p id n ot to t r y - - a n d at l e a s t it m a k e s fa th e r happy.
It's the f i r s t tim e in h is lif e h e 's b e e n r e a ll y p le a s e d w ith m e " (p. 166).
R e b e llio u s n e s s is n o t s o e a s i l y c u red , p a r t ic u la r ly w h en a g ir l f a lls v i
o le n tly in lo v e , a s G e o r g in a d id w ith W ill W ilso n , but stu b b o r n n e s s w a s
e q u a lly str o n g in h e r . W hen h e r fa th e r h ad b e e n f ir e d b y F r e d sh e r e
f u s e d to m a r r y W ill on the grou n d that t h e r e w a s no one to n u r se h e r
fa th e r . C h e s te r r e m in d s the r e a d e r th at b y the s t r ic t V ic to r ia n co d e
h e r d e c is io n w a s n ot c o n s id e r e d str a n g e :
A ll to o k it fo r g ra n ted , lik e G e o rg in a h e r s e l f , th at in the c i r c u m
s t a n c e s th e r e w a s n oth in g e l s e fo r h e r to do. She h ad had a p ie c e of
b ad lu c k s u c h a s h ap p en s to th o u sa n d s of w o m e n , (p. 213)
But a c c o r d in g to W ill W ilso n , G e o rg in a and h e r fa th e r fou gh t e a c h o th er
c o n s ta n tly but n e v e r w o u ld a d m it it. "Why sh o u ld n 't Jo le t the o ld m a n
do w h at he l i k e s - - i t ' s m y b e lie f h e 'd be g la d if sh e w ent: She g e ts on
h is t o e s a ll the tim e " (p. 213). A fte r W ils o n w a s s u c c e s s f u l and h ir e d a
h o u s e k e e p e r to take c a r e of the fa th e r , G e o r g in a s t i l l r e f u s e d to le a v e .
B y th en sh e w a s in c u r a b ly ill, but in s ta y in g sh e c o n d e m n ed h e r s e l f to
d eath . Y et o n ce h e r illn e s s w a s so s e r io u s that sh e c o u ld not c o n t e m
p la te m a r r ia g e , sh e a c h ie v e d s e r e n it y . She d ied , and, as sh e h ad r e
q u e ste d , w a s b u rie d w ith o u t a sto n e or m a r k e r , to sa v e the fa m ily fr o m
g o in g into d eb t fo r h e r . C h e ste r e u lo g iz e s h e r a s "a h e a r t that co u ld
n ot know d e s p a ir b e c a u s e it fo r g o t it s e lf in th e duty of its lo v e " (p. 276).
The p lo t is a s im p le c h r o n ic le , c o v e r in g the c o m p a r a t iv e ly few
im p o rta n t e p is o d e s in C h e s t e r 's ch ild h o o d and youth and a llo w in g fo r
in t e r s p e r s e d c o m m e n t a r ie s at any p o in t. T he in c id en ts r e la t e d a r e
p r im a r ily th e m a jo r u p h e a v a ls of the f a m ily 's lif e du rin g C h e s t e r 's
233
ch ild hood and y o u th --th e l o s s of the fa rm , the m o th e r 's death, G e o r g i
n a 's b attle w ith h er fa th er, the p la y at L ilm ou th F a ir , the d is a s te r of the
Secon d C om ing, W ill W ilso n 's a r r iv a l, the fa th e r 's l o s s of h is job,
G eo rg in a 's r e fu s a l to le a v e h er fa th er, the union a c tiv ity , the s tr ik e , and
G eo rg in a 's death. T h ese o c c u r r e n c e s d r a m a tize the c h a r a c te r s in th eir
v a rio u s r e a c tio n s to th eir p r o b le m s , brin gin g out the stron g in d iv id u a l
is tic tr a its of m e m b e r s of the sa m e fa m ily and e m p h a siz in g , as C h ester
w ish e d , the h ard life and so m b e r r e lig io u s s e r io u s n e s s of the p o o r r u r a l
folk of E ngland, and a ls o the p r e s e n c e of p r o b le m s of g o v e r n m e n t-- a u
th ority and r e s p o n s ib ilit y - - in all situ a tio n s and at a ll le v e ls .
C a ry 's r e a s o n fo r w r itin g n o v e ls w a s to show h is c h a r a c te r s
thinking and fe e lin g , co n sta n tly coping w ith a d an gerou s and in s e c u r e
w orld . A s he r ep ea ted ly said, he w a s in te r e ste d in w hat m a k es p eo p le
tick , w hat th ey b e lie v e in, the b a s ic d r iv e s that p u sh th em o n - - r elig io n ,
am b ition, lo v e, etc . T h e se b a sic d r iv e s a re all ev id en t in N im m o, and
it is im p o ss ib le to te ll w h ich p u sh es h im the la r d e s t . C ary w ro te that
he n e a r ly abandoned the id ea of the Secon d T rilo g y a fter fin ish in g P r i s -
oner of G r a c e , u n til he got the id ea of w r itin g about N im m o 's r e lig io n
as a young m an . "T his a p p ea red to m e as opening a w h ole new w o rld of
explanation, and a ls o g ivin g a stron g c o n tr a st to the la s t book" (W r ite rs
A t W ork, p. 65). S in ce C ary w as in te r e ste d in the em o tio n a l e ffe c t of a
r e lig io n a s m u ch as in the r e lig io u s ideas, he had to co n v ey the "feel" of
that r e lig io n . T h e re fo r e , how C h ester d e s c r ib e s h is r e lig io n is a s im
p ortan t a s what he d e s c r ib e s ; h is sty le d o m in a tes the book and r e n d e r s
the m an. As E liz a b e th B ettm a n w ro te in h er e x c e lle n t a r tic le , "Joyce
C ary and the P r o b le m of P o litic a l M orality":
234
To giv e the f e e l of a m a n lik e N im m o , to w hom th e lin g o of p o litic s
w a s as n a tu ra l as the a ir he b rea th ed , C a ry had to in c o r p o r a te into
the fa b r ic of h is n a r r a tiv e the jin g o is m of p o litic a l sp e e c h . E x p o se d
s in c e ch ild h ood to the p o w er of the sp o k e n w o rd , N im m o w a s r a is e d
in an a tm o sp h e r e of r e lig io u s e v a n g e lic is m and w o rk in g c la s s a g ita
t io n - - w h e r e the e m o tio n a l im p a c t of la n g u a g e w a s a p o ten t fo r c e .
C o n seq u en tly h is m a s t e r y of la n g u a g e b e c a m e an o ffen se and a s h ie ld
in h is lon g s tr u g g le to p o w er. . . . u n d er C a ry 's hand, N im m o the
sp e llb in d e r sp r in g s to life in a ll the c o m p le x ity of h is d u al n a tu r e - -
the r a b b le -r o u s in g a g ita to r and the r e v iv a lis t p r e a c h e r .
B e c a u s e E x c e p t The L o rd is c o n c e r n e d p r im a r ily w ith r e lig io n , and not
p o lit ic s , the s ty le r e f le c t s the r e lig io u s thought and s p e e c h that p e r
m e a te d C h e s t e r 's ch ild hood. The e v a n g e lic a ls liv e d by the a u th o rity of
the s c r ip t u r e s and in c lo s e in tim a c y w ith th e ir god, and the B ib lic a l c a
d en ce d o m in a te s C h e s t e r 's sty le and m a r k s its v o c a b u la r y , m e ta p h o r s,
and rh yth m .
An old w a r h o r s e lik e C h e ste r cou ld not stop h im s e lf fr o m s p e a k
ing in su c h a m an n er; by nature he m a g n ifie d e v er y th in g into s e r io u s ,
d ig n ifie d t e r m s , p a r tly to im p r e s s h is r e a d e r s , p a r tly to im p r e s s h im
s e lf. The v e r y f i r s t p a r a g r a p h of the book read s:
Y e ste r d a y , an old m a n n e a r in g m y end, I sto o d by th e g ra v e of a
n ob le w om an , one of th e th re e n o b le s t I h ave e v e r known, m y m o th e r ,
m y s is t e r , m y w ife . If I draw b a ck now the c u r ta in fr o m m y fa m ily
lif e , s a c r e d to m e m o r y , I do s o only to honour the dead, and in the
c o n v ic tio n that m y s t o r y th ro w s lig h t upon the c r i s i s that s o fe a r fu lly
sh a k e s our w h o le c iv ilis a tio n , (p. 1)
C h e ste r know s that w o r d s do not m e r e ly a c t as v e h ic le s fo r thoughts .
but h a v e an e m o tio n a l im p a ct (w hich of c o u r s e r e f le c t s C a r y 's id eas
about the p o w er of w o r d s). R e lig io u s v o c a b u la r y and m e ta p h o r s w ou ld
h ave had the g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on C h e s t e r 's r e lig io u s c o n stitu e n ts, and
h is s ty le is both a r e f le c tio n of the m a n and of h is k n o w led g e of the
^Antioch Review, 17:266, Summer 1957.
235
p ow er of the w ord in sw ayin g p e o p le . C h e ste r cannot sp ea k of h im s e lf
m e r e ly a s an old m a n , he is "an old m an n ea rin g m y end." H is w o m e n
fo lk are n ot m e r e ly good, th ey a r e " n o b le.” He r is e s to the o c c a s io n in
the sec o n d se n te n c e , in w hich h e "draws b ack the cu rtain ," not m e r e ly a
m e ta p h o r ic a l cu rtain but one " sa c r e d to m e m o r y ." He sa y s h is only
r e a so n for w ritin g is to "honour the dead," but the r e a d e r , know ing the
con text of the tr ilo g y , is aw are that C h e ster is u sin g th is book a s an
oth er m a n eu v er to g et back into p o litic s . C h e ster n e v e r " b e lie v e s"
so m eth in g , he has a " con viction ," and he t r ie s to w eig h t the im p o rta n ce
of h is m e m o ir by sa y in g that it w ill "throw lig h t upon the c r is is that
now so fe a r fu lly sh a k e s our c iv ilis a tio n ." One r e m e m b e r s N in a ’s
sta tem en t that C h e ster , lik e oth er p o litic ia n s , liv ed in a p e rp etu a l " c r i
s is ." And as a p o litic ia n it is u n lik ely that C h e ster cou ld d is c u s s an y
thing so m in u te as e v e n the p r ic e of m ilk w ith out en d ea v o rin g "to throw
lig h t upon a c r is is ."
A s M r. W right poin ts out, C ary a ls o u se d the d e v ic e of sh iftin g
to the p r e s e n t te n se as C h e ster r e la te s in cid en ts in h is p a st. The se n se
of being p a r t of an e v en t w hile b ein g c a lle d upon to judge the e v en t by
p a s t co d es of b eh avior has a str o n g e ffect upon the r e a d e r , and C ary
u se d it p r im a r ily in ren d erin g s c e n e s of g r e a t em o tio n a l in t e n s it y --f o r
ex a m p le, the sc e n e b etw een G eo rg in a and th e ir father o v er the g r o c e r .
T h ere C ary sh ifted b a ck and fo r th from the p a s t te n s e fo r n a r r a tio n to
the p r e s e n t te n se fo r the em o tio n a l h igh p oin ts.
"What did I h e a r about G?" m y fa th er said. And then taking
G eorgin a by the sh o u ld er he sa id to h e r abruptly, "What has G b ee n
doing to you?"
"Nothing, fa th er."
236
"But I h ea rd h is n a m e, Did you not s a y that you w e r e not a fra id
of G? Why should you be afraid of G?"
G eorgin a h e s ita te d a m o m en t look in g up at h er fa th er, and then
a n sw e r e d that sh e had sa id nothing about G. She spoke a s a ch ild
sp eak s w h en su d d en ly r e s o lv e d to te ll a lie , w ith a gulp and a ru sh .
(p. 48)
It m u st be r e m e m b e r e d that E x cep t The L ord is w r itte n by
C h ester as an old m a n w ho h as lo s t both h is w ife and h is p o litic a l of
f ic e . T h e r e fo r e , the s ty le a ls o s e r v e s to co n v ey p ath os, and, at the
s a m e tim e, as I p oin ted out in h is ap ology fo r h is life , s e r v e s to su b tly
in d icate that C h e ster n e v e r u n d ersta n d s w h y he has lo s t w hat he lo v e d
m o s t and fe lt m o s t im p ortan t. In sp ite of the d ign ified ca d en ce, th e r e is
a c le a r note of s e lf -p it y . The old m a n " n earin g h is end" w an ts r e s p e c t
and approbation. He a ls o w an ts the p o w er and v e n e ra tio n due to a w is e
c o u n se lo r . But th er e is a lm o s t a w hining qu ality about h im --" N o w
again, at the other end of m y life , an old and brok en m an , I am throw n
into the gu tter, I s it and w a it fo r the night, th e la s t d a r k n ess" (p. 263).
It is d ifficu lt to sa y that th e r e is any one unifying fa c to r in E x
cep t The L o r d . The sto r y r e q u ir e s the co n tex t of the tr ilo g y to be fu lly
a p p recia ted , though it is a strik in g stud y of the hum ble b egin n in gs of a
p o litic a l sp e llb in d e r of the m a s s e s . C a ry 's c o n c e r n w as w ith the p o w er
of the spok en and w r itte n w o rd to in flu en ce m a s s p sy c h o lo g y and b e h a v
ior, the p o w e r of the d em a g o g u e w h ich is g r e a te r than e v e r in h isto r y .
R h etoric can be u se d for good or e v il, and d em a g o g u es u s e the e m o tio n
al e ffe c t of w o rd s on p eo p le to sw a y th e ir b e lie fs and a c tio n s.
If any one e le m e n t u n ifie s the n o v el, it is the sty le w h ich lu lls
the r e a d e r into a qu iet a c ce p ta n c e of the s to r y of w hat m a d e C h ester,
the sp e llb in d e r, the m a n he b e c a m e . The q u iet but d ig n ified and
237
so n o r o u s sty le w ith e c h o e s of B ib lic a l rh yth m , sound, and m e ta p h o r s is
a sp le n d id in str u m e n t to co n v e y th e s e n s e of the n o b ility of p oor p e o p le ,
liv in g h a rd l i v e s by a s t r ic t co d e, u n der the ey e of a God w ho w a s fe a r e d
b e c a u s e
he is lit e r a lly the so u l of g o o d n e ss and truth, b e c a u s e to do him
w r o n g is to do w ro n g to so m e m y s t e r io u s p a rt of o n e s e lf, and one
d o e s not know e x a c t ly w h at the c o n se q u e n c e m a y be. (p. 47)
The n o v e l e m p h a s iz e s not the p r o b le m s of n ation al g o v e rn m e n t
as did P r is o n e r of G ra ce but the p r o b le m s of au th o rity and r e s p o n s ib ili
ty in a fa m ily . C a ry b e lie v e d the f a m ily to be the m ic r o c o s m of a ll s o
c ie ty , and the p r o b le m s e n c o u n te r e d in a f a m ily to be the s a m e as th o se
in la r g e r units of g o v e rn m e n t. N oth in g in the fo r m d e tr a c ts fr o m the
s to r y of C h e s t e r 's d e v e lo p m e n t fr o m r e lig io n to S o c ia lis m , v io le n t
M a r x is m , b ack to r e lig io n and to the a c k n o w led g m en t of the p o w er of
lo v e and g o o d n e s s , e x e m p lifie d b y p a r e n ts ' r e s p o n s ib ility fo r th eir
c h ild re n .
E x cep t The L ord s e e m s u n u su a l to r e a d e r s of C a ry 's F i r s t
T r ilo g y , or e v e n of P r is o n e r of G r a c e , in its v e r y q u ie tn e ss . T h ere is
none of the u p r o a r io u s h u m o r of H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d or The H o r s e 's
M outh to lig h te n the s o m b e r n e s s of the sto r y . T h ere is not e v e n the
iro n ic to u ch that h e lp s s o m u ch in P r is o n e r of G r a c e . But it m u st be
r e m e m b e r e d th at C ary w a s a im in g at a h ig h e r a c h ie v e m e n t in the S e c
ond T rilo g y , and he fe lt that he w a s su c ce e d in g :
I w a s d is s a t is f ie d w ith the f i r s t tr ilo g y . I've s e t out th is tim e w ith
the in ten tion of doing b e tte r . I think I am doing b e tte r . The c o n
tr a s t s b e tw e en the d iffe r e n t w o r ld s a re m u ch s h a r p e r . (W r ite r s A t
W ork , p. 65)
No c o n tr a s t cou ld be s h a r p e r than that b e tw e en E x ce p t The L o rd
and N ot H onour M o r e . N ot only a r e tw o c o m p le te ly c o n tr a stin g
238
p e r s o n a litie s opp osed in the tw o s to r ie s , but two co m p letely c o n tra d ic
to r y attitud es tow ard the w orld . In d is c u s sin g sp ellb in d ers in g en era l
and N im m o in p a rticu la r, C ary sa id that he w as "a ty p ica l sp ellb in d er"
and that sp e llb in d e rs are so m e tim e s cro o k s (W riters At W ork, p. 56).
(In the P r e fa c e to P r is o n e r of G r a c e , h o w ev er, C ary e m p h a sized that
N im m o w a s a m an of p r in c ip le, not a cro o k .) Jim L atter, in N ot Honour
M o r e , is "the m an of honour, of duty, of s e r v ic e rea ctin g a g a in st the
p olitician " (W riters A t W ork, p. 65), a g a in st p o litic ia n s whom he con
s id e r s nothing but cro o k s.
Not Honour M ore is w r itte n by Jim , the su rv iv o r of the trio . The
end fo resh a d o w ed in P r is o n e r of G race has b een a r r iv e d at: Jim has
m u rd ered Nina, and N im m o d ied of a h ea rt attack in the ser v a n t's la v a
to r y as Jim broke down the door to k ill h im . Not Honour M ore is J im 's
exp lanation of h is a ctio n s. It is a v io len t book, w ritten in a turbulent
sty le by a v io le n t m an, and C ary c re a te d the a tm o sp h ere of a m an r a c
ing again st t im e - - h is d e a th -s e n t e n c e -- to exp lain h im se lf, to exp lain
w hat he thinks is w ron g w ith the w orld , how it should be c o r r e c te d , and
w hat he did to "clear up the m e s s ."
Jim begins abruptly, statin g that he had r e c e n tly r e c e iv e d anon
ym ou s le tte r s " su ggestin g so m eth in g b etw een L ord N im m o and m y
6
w ife"; so o n after he had found N im m o " in terfering" w ith Nina. He
shot at N im m o, w as knocked out by N im m o 's bodyguard, and, on r e
gaining c o n s c io u s n e s s , found h is h ou se fu ll of p eop le. Nina im p lored
him to te ll the p o lice that the shootin g w as an accid en t, but Jim ,
^Not Honour More (New York, 1955), p. 1.
un in terested , fe lt that he had a cco m p lish ed "som e good at the end in
k illing that old sw ine." H ow ever, N im m o w as not dead, and Jim e sc a p e d
from the h ou se in order to give his own v e r s io n of the incident to the
p r e s s . To h is su r p r ise , the r ep o rters refu sed to print the leading s e n
ten ce about N im m o, saying it w as lib el. J im then returned hom e, d e
term in ed to k ill N im m o, and found the house filled w ith old p oliticia n s
and "huskies," w ith w hom he got into a fight. N im m o stopped the fight,
sw earin g to Jim that Nina w as a faithful w ife. Jim retorted that N im m o
wanted to "wiggle out" of h is p red icam en t so that he could m ake a p oliti
cal com eb ack and go on "swindling the people and sellin g the country."
By this tim e, Brightm an, a lo c a l F a s c is t, appeared and show ed Jim a
note from an e x -n u r se cla im in g she had b een fired b eca u se she had a lso
caught Nina and N im m o in an in crim in atin g situation. Jim pointed h is
p isto l at Nina and asked if the n u r se 's statem en t w as true; she nodded
and he fired , but the p isto l w as em pty. C ertain that Nina w as "hope
l e s s l y rotted through," Jim a c cu se d N im m o of poison in g her soul and
ord ered him out of the h ou se. N im m o, in sistin g that Jim w as trying to
gratify a p rivate spite when the country w as totterin g on the edge of
ruin, left, accom p an ied by his bodyguard.
The G eneral Strike of 1926 w as in effect at th is tim e, and Jim ,
at the req u est of N im m o and the lo c a l T arbiton o fficia ls, took charge of
the sp e c ia l depu ties to p reven t v io len ce during the em erg en cy . Nina,
acting as a g o -b etw een for N im m o w ith the lo ca l C om m unist lead er,
P incom b, m ade an a g reem en t w ith him to sa c r ific e the lo c a l shipyard,
P o tte r 's, in return for C om m unist support of N im m o's p o litica l c a m
paign. P in co m b attacked the yard, w h ere the m en had voted against a
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s tr ik e , and a rio t en su ed . Jim , h ea rin g P in c o m b in cite the s tr ik e r s to
m a r c h on P o tte r 's and b rin g out the m en , o r d e r e d h is a r r e s t. P in co m b ,
r e s is t in g a r r e s t, w a s str u c k on the head by J im 's deputy, M aufe, and
the C o m m u n ists im m e d ia te ly c o m p la in e d of u n p rovok ed c r im in a l a s
sa u lt. M ean w hile, J im , tryin g to r ea c h N im m o in London, w as to ld that
he w a s busy, but, retu rn in g h o m e, d is c o v e r e d N im m o in h is bed. P r o
te stin g that he had fain ted , N im m o ju m p ed up, b e r a te d Jim as a fool,
and fu r io u sly in s is t e d that J im 's a r r e s t of P in c o m b had r e m o v e d the
one m a n in the d is t r ic t able to k eep o r d e r . A ll th r e e - - N im m o , Nina,
and J im - - p r o c e e d e d to the T ow n H all, w h e r e N ina tr ie d to c o m m it s u i
c id e by th row in g h e r s e lf in fro n t of s o m e p a s s in g m ilita r y lo r r i e s .
N im m o a c c u se d Jim of m u r d e r in g Nina; Jim fe lt she had dodged h e r
p r o b le m s , then d ecid in g that sh e w a s " m o re w ea k than w ick ed ," b egged
h er, w h ile sh e w as in the h o sp ita l, to go aw ay to A fr ic a w ith h im and to
s ta r t life over again.
M aufe w a s t r ie d and c o n v ic te d of u sin g u n ju stified v io le n c e , in
sp ite of te stim o n y in h is d e fe n se . W hile Jim and N ina w e r e p ack in g to
le a v e England, Jim r e a d so m e of N im m o 's le tte r s to h e r and le a r n e d
that sh e had k n ow in gly te s tifie d at M au fe's tr ia l in su ch a w ay that he
h ad b een in c r im in a te d . At th is m o m e n t N im m o a r r iv e d to s e e N ina,
and Jim attack ed h im w ith a r a z o r . N im m o lo c k e d h im s e lf in the la v a
to r y and d ied of a h e a r t attack a s Jim b a tte r e d down the door. N ina
b eg g ed Jim to help h e r get N im m o out; but Jim , d e c la rin g that th ey
w e r e up a g a in st so m e th in g b ig g e r than th e ir lo v e - - t h e tr u th --m u r d e r e d
h e r . Jim in s is t s that he did not k ill N ina fr o m je a lo u sy , that the p r e s s
m a d e a s e x sto r y out of it to s e l l p a p e r s, and that he p e r fo r m e d an
241
e x ec u tio n , not a m u rd er.
A s I p o in ted out at th e b eg in n in g of th is ch a p ter, th e tr ilo g y is
b a se d on the p ro b lem of g o v ern m en t, on C a ry 's b e lie f th at th er e a r e in
e s s e n c e only tw o w ays of h an d lin g m e n --p e r s u a d in g them or sh o o tin g
th em . Jim d is m is s e s p e r s u a s io n as "w an gling." To h im "the talk y
b o y s" do n oth in g but su c k the b lood of good h o n est p eo p le. Jim b e lie v e s
th e w o r ld 's ills can be c u r e d by sh o o tin g , that "if w e cou ld only b la s t
so m e w ay out of th is m e s s , w e'd fin d it on ly a n ig h tm a re and w ake up in
G od's c le a n d a y lig h t again " {p. 39). T h is is the m a in th em e of N ot H on
our M o r e . C oup led w ith it is a d e s ir e fo r the tr u th --th e a b so lu te tru th .
Jim liv e s in a w o rld of b la c k and w h ite and b e lie v e s in a b s o lu t e s - - a b s o
lu te tru th, h o n o r, lo v e , d e c e n c y , and ju s t ic e . B e c a u se he d em an d s a b
s o lu te s , tr a g e d y e n s u e s. A s A nd rew W righ t p o in ts out, J im 's id ea of
tru th , h on or, and ju s tic e is a s o ld ie r 's v e r s io n of th o se v ir tu e s (J o y ce
C ary: A P r e fa c e to H is N o v e ls , p. 138). A t one p o in t in th e s to r y N in a
tw its h im about th is by p a ro d y in g h is fa v o r ite p o em , su b stitu tin g "duty"
fo r "honor" in "You co u ld not lo v e m e , d ea r so m u ch , lo v e d you not duty
m o r e " (p. 173).
Jim co n tin u a lly in s is t s th at h is p e r so n a l f e e lin g s - - h is lo v e fo r
N ina and h a tred of N im m o --h a d nothing to do w ith h is a c tio n s , that he
a c te d in "the p u b lic in t e r e s t and d ecen cy " (p. 26), th at he k ille d N im m o
b e c a u s e he w a s ru in in g th e cou n try. W hat is ap p aren t to th e r ea d er is
the tr a g ic c o n fu sio n th at r e s u lt s w h en a m a n w ho is m u d d led about p r i
v a te and p u b lic a ffa ir s t r ie s to rig h t th em by v io le n c e . Jim r e v e a ls h is
c o n fu sio n in th e sta tem en t:
I s a y h e 's sp e n t h is lif e d e str o y in g th e cou n try and s e llin g th e p e o p le .
. . . I sa y it's the N im m o gang w ho h a v e d e str o y e d a ll tru th and
242
h o n o u r in th e c o u n tr y , in c lu d in g th e s a n c tity of th e h o m e and m a r
r ia g e s o th a t it is n o th in g but a jo b b e r 's m a tc h o f g im m e and w h a t do
I g e t out of it. N o c o n fid e n c e or fa ith in a n y m a n and d iv o r c e s r u n
n in g a t fif ty th o u sa n d a y e a r s , (p. 6)
In h is e s s a y " P o lit ic a l and P e r s o n a l M o r a lity " C a ry e m p h a s iz e d
th a t p e r s o n a l in t e g r it y is th e m o s t im p o r ta n t t r a it in c h o o s in g a m a n
fo r p u b lic o f f ic e , a n d I h a v e q u o ted h is r e m a r k s a b ou t th e p o w e r of
s p e llb in d e r s in d e m o c r a c ie s and th e d is h o n e s t y of s p e llb in d e r s .
L ie s a r e fa r m o r e e f f e c t iv e th a n tr u th , b e c a u s e th e y a r e s im p le r and
e a s i e r to r e m e m b e r . T h e y h a v e th e e f f e c t of m is le a d in g , and , in due
tim e , of b e in g fo u n d ou t. But m e a n w h ile a s th e d e m a g o g u e s c a lc u
la t e , th e y pu t h im in p o w e r and th e tr u e d e m a g o g u e n e v e r lo o k s f u r
th e r a h e a d th a n n e x t w e e k . (" L a s t L o o k ," p . 153)
A t th e o p p o site en d o f th e s p e c tr u m is J im , th e m a n o f a b s o lu te , r ig id
id e a ls , w h o th in k s th at he c a n fin d h o n e s t an d s in c e r e m e n and ca n
s tr a ig h te n out th e w o r ld s im p ly b y s h o o tin g th e c r o o k s .
J im is f o r e v e r p u z z le d by N im m o 's p o w e r o v e r p e o p le . H e
th in k s th a t h e a lo n e s e e s th r o u g h N im m o an d th a t e v e r y o n e e l s e is
fo o le d b y h im : "W hat c o u ld be m a d d e r th a n to c a ll N im m o g ood ? A
k n ow n c r o o k and w a n g le r " (p. 14). H e c o n tin u a lly a s k s w h y p e o p le c a ll
N im m o good: "W hy is N im m o a g r e a t m a n - - b e c a u s e h e 's g o t a w a y w ith
e v e r y k in d of d ir ty w o rk ? W hy is h e g o o d - - b e c a u s e h e ta lk e d a b o u t G od
at S h a g b ro o k , c a s h in g in on h is s i s t e r ' s g r a v e ? " (p. 2 2 ).
T h e p o lit ic ia n e x is t s b y p la y in g on e g ro u p a g a in s t a n o th e r to a t
ta in a b a la n c e o f p o w e r , b y p r o m is in g th e u n a tta in a b le and d o lin g out
o n ly w h a t is n e c e s s a r y . P o l i t i c s is a n e v e r - e n d in g s e r i e s o f fin e a d
j u s t m e n t s , but to a m a n lik e J im th e w h o le th in g lo o k s lik e "a d ir ty
g a m e ." H e d o e s n o t s e e th a t h u m a n a f f a ir s a r e e n d le s s ly flu id ; h e
th in k s th e y sh o u ld b e ru n b y a n u n a lte r a b le co d e; if th e y a r e n o t, e v e r y
th in g sh o u ld be b la s t e d a w a y and s ta r te d o v e r . To J im "the w h o le
243
s y s te m " is w r o n g , and th at of c o u r s e im p lie s the w h o le s y s te m of d e
m o c r a c y :
W hy do th ey b u ild up th e s e g r a b b e r s and fa k e r s in to n o b le s o u ls and
h e r o e s of the n ation ? It's a ll in th e g a m e . . . . P o o r d e v ils of th e
m o b w a n t to th in k th e y 'v e g o t a g e n iu s to lo o k a fte r 'e m , h o ld o ff the
n e x t slu m p , k eep out of th e w a y . A nd th e p o lit ic o s m a k e h a y in b e
tw e e n , w ith th e ir to n g u e s in th e ir c h e e k s . It's th e w h o le s y s t e m is
w r o n g . It's th e w a y w e 'v e got fix e d , (p. 126)
J im th in k s h e is a L ib e r a l b e c a u s e h e b e lo n g s to "one of th e o ld e s t L ib
e r a l f a m ilie s ," b u t a p p a r e n tly h is id e a of th e b e s t g o v e r n m e n t w o u ld be
m a r tia l la w , fo r h e r e g a r d s p o lit ic ia n s of an y c o lo r a s a ll a lik e :
A ll th e p la n s a r e th e s a m e , in c lu d in g th e C o m m u n ist p la n s . . . . T h ey
a ll p r o m is e th e e a r th done to a tu rn on a s ilv e r p la te by s o m e ta lk y
b oy w h o 's n e v e r c o o k e d up a n y th in g y e t bu t a stin k . . . . p la n s a r e
tw o a p en n y. W hat w e w an t a r e m e n - - a fe w h o n e s t m e n . (p. 197)
B e c a u s e th e "talky" b o y s a r e in c o n tr o l, Jim th in k s e v e r y th in g
is h o p e le s s ly r o tte d th ro u g h . He s e e s e v id e n c e of th is e v e r y w h e r e ,
p a r t ic u la r ly in th e p r e s s and in th e c o u r ts . J u s tic e to h im is n o t a m a t
t e r of c o d e s but of a d m in is tr a tio n by h o n e s t m e n . D e s ir in g to su e th e
lo c a l C o m m u n ists fo r lib e lin g h im , h e is a d v is e d b y h is la w y e r to k eep
out of c o u r t b e c a u s e of h is c o n n e c tio n w ith N im m o .
"You m e a n th e c o m m ie s w ill g e t a w a y w ith th is d e lib e r a te p o
lit ic a l lie s im p ly b e c a u s e th e ju r y w o n 't tak e m y w o r d a g a in s t
th e ir s ? "
"We h a v e to a llo w fo r th a t p o s s ib ilit y ."
"W hat is th e good of y o u r p r e c io u s la w s if th e y c a n 't d is tin g u is h
b e tw e e n an h o n e s t m a n and th e b ig g e s t know n lia r s p la y in g th e d ir t i
e s t kin d of p o lit ic a l r a c k e t e v e r s e e n a n y w h ere? "
"I'm a fr a id th e la w is h u m a n and s o a r e j u r ie s , v e r y h u m an .
N ot to sp e a k of ju d g e s."
" I've h e a r d th a t p r e tty o fte n fr o m la w y e r s , b u t w h a t d o e s it
m ea n ? S im p ly th a t j u s t ic e is a ll fo r th e c r o o k s and l i a r s . A s k an y
p o lic e m a n . A nd y o u ca n a s k y o u r s e lf w h y th is co u n try is in its p r e s
en t s ta te of c o r r u p tio n and c h a o s ." (p. 210)
244
A g a in th e r ig id m a n r e f u s e s to r e c o g n iz e h u m a n f a l l i b i l i t y and b la m e s
th e w h o le s y s t e m , w h ic h w a s , a f t e r a ll, c r e a t e d b y h u m a n b e in g s .
J im a l s o c o m p le t e ly ig n o r e s th e r e m a r k m a d e to h im b y N im -
m o 's s e c r e t a r y , B o o th a m , a b o u t " m a n a g in g " p e o p le a s th e p r o b le m o f
g o v e r n m e n t; "I th in k y o u 'll a g r e e w ith m e , L a tte r , fr o m y o u r ow n A f r i
c a n e x p e r ie n c e , th a t g o v e r n m e n t is l a r g e l y h a n d lin g p e o p le - - p ic k in g
th e m and m a n a g in g th e m " (p. 1 4 7 ). J im ig n o r e s it in s p it e of h is ow n
e x p e r ie n c e in g o v e r n in g . H a v in g p la c e d B o o th a m in th e p ig e o n - h o le of
" ta lk y b o y ," h e is in c a p a b le of h e a r in g h im . T h is one s t a t e m e n t is th e
o n ly s p e c i f i c m e n t io n of " m a n a g in g " p e o p le in N o t H o n o u r M o r e , th e
th e m e w h ic h is b a s ic to th e w h o le t r ilo g y .
T h e n o v e l c o n tin u a lly e m p h a s iz e s th e th e m e of th e r ig id m a n 's
q u e s t fo r a b s o lu te tr u th . J im s a y s th a t " h is w h o le c a s e " is th a t
if a m a n o r c o u n tr y g iv e s up th e tr u th , th e a b s o lu te tr u th , th e y a r e
th r o w in g a w a y th e a n c h o r a n d d r ift in g s lo w ly b u t s u r e ly to d e s t r u c
tio n . I s a y n o th in g c a n s a v e b u t tr u th a n d th e g u ts to ta k e it. F o r
tr u th w ill a lw a y s p r e v a il, (p. 32)
H is is a r ig id m in d r e ly in g on la b e ls , w o r d s th a t e x p r e s s g e n e r a li t ie s .
In A r t an d R e a lit y C a r y w r o te a b o u t th e t r a g e d y th a t o c c u r s w h e n p e o
p le w ith r ig id id e a s c o m e in to c o n f lic t w ith r e a lity :
W e k n ow h o w m a n y p e o p le g o a b ou t th e w o r ld p r e c i s e l y in th is c o n d i
t i o n - - m e n w h o a r e on th e on e h an d e m o t io n a l w ith o u t s e n s e and on
th e o th e r f u ll of th e m o s t r ig id o p in io n s on e v e r y p o s s i b l e s u b j e c t
w ith o u t r e g a r d e it h e r to f a c t o r s e n s ib ilit y , (p. 165)
N o t H on ou r M o r e is h is d r a m a t ic v e r s i o n of s u c h a m a n in c o n f lic t w ith
r e a l p r o b le m s . E v e n a r e a d e r w h o is n o t a j e s t in g P ila t e w i l l q u e s tio n
"W hat is tr u th ," p a r t ic u la r ly th e " a b s o lu te tr u th ." W h ere c a n it b e
fo u n d ? H ow d o e s a c o u n tr y " th ro w a w a y th e a n c h o r ? " H ow d o e s a
c o u n tr y d r ift to d e s tr u c tio n ? W hat is d e s t r u c t io n ? D o e s th e tr u th
245
a lw a y s p r e v a il? T h u s, b y in d ir e c tio n , C a ry m a d e a d e fin ite s ta te m e n t
ab ou t th e w o r ld and on e ty p e o f a ttitu d e to w a r d it, on e h e c o u ld u n d e r
sta n d b u t th o u g h t c o m p le t e ly w r o n g . C a ry k n ew th at in th is w o r ld th e r e
a r e no a b s o lu t e s , th a t "the w h o le tr u th c a n n o t be know n" (A r t and R e a li
t y , p. 115), th a t tr u th is r e la t iv e .
In th e c r u c ia l s c e n e o f th e n o v e l th e tw o m e n and th e ir v ie w s a r e
c o n tr a s te d . T h is is th e s c e n e a fte r th e sh o o tin g w h e n J im h a s r e tu r n e d
h o m e , an d a fte r B r ig h tm a n h a s sh o w n h im th e n o te fr o m th e e x - n u r s e
a lle g in g s h e h ad c a u g h t N in a and N im m o to g e th e r . J im h a s th ro w n th e
p is t o l a t N in a , c u ttin g h e r h e a d . He c o m p la in s , " It's a ll th e s e l i e s . . . .
I d o n 't kn ow w h e r e I a m ." N in a r e p lie s th a t h e " c o u ld n 't u n d e r sta n d ,
it 's no g o o d ." J im d e m a n d s, "B ut w h a t is th e t r u t h - - t h e r e a l tru th ? "
T h e s c e n e tu r n s on th e w o r d "truth" a s N im m o p ic k s it up. A nd C a ry
sh o w e d th e tw o d iffe r e n t a ttitu d e s to w a r d t r u t h - - t h a t of th e m a n w h o
th in k s it is a n a b s o lu te , and th a t of th e m a n w h o u s e s it fo r h is ow n p u r
p o s e s . N im m o b e g in s in tr u e o r a t o r ic a l fa s h io n :
L e t u s s t a r t a g a in in t r u t h - - t h e tr u th of m u tu a l sy m p a th y , th e r e a lit y
of a ffe c tio n , th e fa c t o f t o - d a y and its l e s s o n . L e t u s n ot th ro w aw ay
th is g r e a t p r e c io u s s u b s ta n c e fo r th e sh a d o w o f o ld p r e p o s s e s s i o n s .
A b o v e a ll, le t u s a v o id a n y s te p th a t w o u ld g iv e a h a n d le to m a lic io u s
g o s s ip and b r in g f r e s h m i s e r y to N in a . (p. 88)
H e s u g g e s t s th a t N in a 's d a u g h te r S a lly a lw a y s be p r e s e n t w h e n h e w o r k s
w ith N in a . J im is a sto u n d ed ; h e th in k s th a t h e h a s a r r iv e d at a d e fin ite
en d , and h e r e N im m o is p r o p o s in g to go on. J im th in k s, "M y God . . .
H e r e a lly m e a n s it. . . . H e 's s o u s e d to w a n g lin g th a t he c a n 't b e lie v e
th e r e 's , a n y th in g o n e a r th th a t c a n 't be w a n g led " (p. 8 8 ). J im o r d e r s
N im m o out o f th e h o u se and s a y s th a t N im m o is b la c k m a ilin g h im .
N im m o la u g h s a t J im 's id e a o f h o n o r: " D on 't ta lk abou t y o u r h o n o u r .
246
W hat is it w o rth ? T he c o u n try is to tte r in g on the e d g e of r e v o lu tio n and
y o u s e iz e th is m o m e n t to g r a tify a p r iv a te s p ite ? (p. 8 9 ). W hen th e
o th e r s b u r s t in , th e y s e e th at J im h a s a gun, and h e th in k s, " T h ey r e c o g
n iz e d a b it of tr u th w h en it had a gun in its hand" {p. 9 1 ). B ut J im is
s u r p r is e d th at N in a le a v e s the h o u s e as w e ll a s N im m o . He f e e l s sh e is
c o m p le te ly fo o le d by N im m o and is h is p la y th in g .
I s a id to m y s e lf th e w o r ld w a s m a d w ith c a c k le . C a ck le th a t n ob od y
m e a n s fo r tr u th and n ob od y ta k e s fo r tru th . C o p y -c a c k le . T he tru th ,
I sa id , g iv e u s s o m e tru th . T h a t's a ll I w a n t. . . . You c a n s le e p on
tru th if it 's a p ile of s to n e s , h o n e s t s to n e s , (p. 98)
T he d e s ir e fo r tr u th is th e k e y to J im ’s c h a r a c te r and p r o v id e s
th e m o tiv a tio n and c o n s is t e n c y . T h e r e a d e r of the tr ilo g y is a w a r e of
th e u n d e r ly in g ir o n y of J im 's q u e s t fo r tru th . A fo r m e r a d u lte r e r , J im
is fu r io u s at C h e s t e r 's a tta c k s on N in a w h en sh e is h is w ife , th ou gh h e
h ad b e e n N in a ’s lo v e r fo r the th ir t y y e a r s th a t sh e w a s C h e s t e r 's w ife .
He c a lls S a lly h is n ie c e , kn ow in g th a t sh e is r e a lly h is ow n d a u g h ter,
y e t not a d m ittin g th e tru th . He o r ig in a lly s e d u c e d N in a , m a d e h e r
p r e g n a n t and r e f u s e d to m a r r y h e r , y e t he a c c u s e s C h e ste r of s te a lin g
h e r and p o is o n in g h e r s o u l. T he s tr ik in g ir o n y of J im 's d e c la r a tio n th at
th e N im m o gan g h a s " d e str o y e d a ll tru th and h on ou r in th e c o u n tr y , in
c lu d in g th e s a n c tity of th e h o m e and m a r r ia g e " {p. 6) is th at J im d e
s tr o y e d the s a n c tity of C h e s t e r 's h o m e and m a r r ia g e fo r th ir ty y e a r s ,
but th is n e v e r o c c u r s to h im , and, if c o n fr o n ted by it, h e w o u ld ju s tify
h im s e lf by s a y in g th at h e lo v e d N in a and sh e h a ted C h e ste r . T h u s, J im
s e e k s the tr u th b lin d ly , u n a w a re of and in c a p a b le of r e a liz in g th a t h e,
to o , u s e s th e tr u th fo r h is own p u r p o s e s . J im , e v e n m o r e th an C h e ste r ,
is in c a p a b le of s e lf -k n o w le d g e . He th in k s he is an h o n o r a b le m a n , y e t
by b oth m o r a l c o d e s and a w o r ld ly v ie w h e is a d ish o n o r a b le m a n .
,247
J im is b o th r ig id and stu p id . N in a and C h e ste r to g e th e r c o n s id e r
h im "a p o lit ic a l id io t .'1 He m ix e s up h is p e r s o n a l f e e lin g s w ith th e s ta te
of th e co u n try , p r o te s tin g th a t he a c te d n ot " from any g r ie v a n c e or p e tty
je a lo u s y but in th e p u b lic in t e r e s t and d e c e n c y " (p. 36). He h a s no s e n s e
of p r o p o r tio n . W hen h e r e f u s e d to le a v e h is h e a d q u a r te r s at th e T ow n
H a ll to go h o m e w ith N in a, h e s a id it w a s b e c a u s e th e c o u n tr y w a s in
d a n g er . N in a , fa r m o r e a r e a li s t , r e p lie d th a t th e c o u n try a lw a y s h ad
b e e n in d a n g er .
H is h a tr e d and j e a lo u s y o f N im m o a r e s tr o n g e r m o tiv a tio n s th an
h is lo v e fo r N ina. T h ou gh h e lo v e s h e r a s d e e p ly as h is n a tu re p e r m it s ,
he d o e s n o t tr u s t h e r b e c a u s e sh e a c k n o w le d g e s C h e s t e r ’s g r e a t n e s s and
s e r v e s h im . He th in k s sh e is f a it h le s s b e c a u s e sh e is c a p a b le of b e in g
in t e r e s t e d in s o m e o n e e l s e , and h e is c o m p le te ly s e lf is h and c h ild lik e in
h is d em an d fo r th e w h o le of h e r lo v e and a tte n tio n . B e c a u s e h e is in
ca p a b le of d e a lin g w ith e ith e r N in a o r N im m o , he r a tio n a liz e s th a t h e is
h o n e s t and d ig n ifie d and th a t th e y a r e t r i c k y - - eq u a tin g c o m p le x ity w ith
t r ic k in e s s and d is h o n e s ty . He c o m p la in s th a t in d e a lin g w ith e ith e r
N in a or N im m o , " b e c a u se th e y w e r e tr ic k y , th e y m a d e y o u f e e l tr ic k y "
(p- 131).
J im is in c a p a b le o f d e a lin g w ith e ith e r c o m p le x p e o p le or c o m
p le x situ a tio n s; th e r e f o r e , he is c o n s ta n tly in a s ta te of c o n fu sio n , and
h e b la m e s n ot h im s e lf but o t h e r s - - N im m o , o th er p o lit ic ia n s , th e p r e s s ,
"the w h o le s y s t e m ." B e c a u s e h is ow n lif e h a s gon e a w ry , h e th in k s th e
w h o le w o r ld h a s don e th e s a m e arid g e n e r a liz e s , " E u ro p ea n s w e r e s i m
p ly an u n lu ck y lo t of p e o p le w h o had ta k e n a w r o n g tu rn in g s o m e w h e r e
and w a lk e d r ig h t o ff th e p r o p e r n a tu r a l ro a d in to e v e r y k in d of tr o u b le "
248
(p. 2 5 0 ). J im 's b a s ic a s s u m p tio n is th a t th e r e is on e p r o p e r w a y to do
th in g s and one " p ro p er n a tu r a l road " to t r a v e l. H is c o n fu sio n a r is e s
b e c a u s e h e d o e s n 't know w h a t th e p r o p e r w a y i s , and s in c e h e h a te s
N im m o he f e e l s th at N im m o 's w a y m u s t be w r o n g . W hen N im m o h a s
s t ir r e d up th e lo c a l s itu a tio n and s e e m s lik e ly to g e t b a c k in p o w e r , J im
th in k s h is m a n e u v e r s a r e s im p ly d is h o n e s t ta lk .
N o one s a id , " T h is is a b it q u e e r . The ta lk y b o y ta lk s abou t th e e v il
o f ta lk and g e ts th e job , o v e r th e m e n w h o h a v e b e e n d o in g th e job
and s a y in g n o th in g ab ou t it." N o one w a s e v e n s u r p r is e d at th is con*
ju r in g tr ic k .
I s a y th is is m a d n e s s . . . . W hen a w h o le n a tio n p u ts str a w in its
h a ir and s a y s , "T he o n ly w a y to k e e p a c o u n tr y s tr a ig h t is b y l i e s
and w a n g le , c r o o k e r y and th e P ic c a d illy s m ile . A nd an yon e w h o s a y s
it is n 't is s im p ly a f o o l and n ot w o r th ta lk in g to ." {p. 21)
J im , in h is s e lf - p it y , lin k s h im s e lf w ith " d ecen t h o n e s t p e o p le " and
f e e l s th a t h e , to o , is b e in g p u sh e d around :
It is th e s a m e e v e r y w h e r e , d e c e n t h o n e s t p e o p le h a v in g no c h a n c e
a g a in s t th e g o v e r n m e n t. T h e y a r e ju s t p u sh e d up a g a in s t th e w a ll.
N o one w ill l is t e n to th em b e c a u s e th e o n ly id e a is to g e t a ll y o u c a n
b y an y d ir ty t r ic k w h ic h p a y s . A nd fa m ily lif e w h ic h is th e l i f e
b lo o d of an h o n o u ra b le s o u n d -h e a r te d n a tio n m o c k e d at a s to o m u c h
tr o u b le and g o in g dow n e v e r y d ay. (p. 31)
It is ir o n ic th a t J im e q u a te s h im s e lf w ith p o o r , d e c e n t, h o n e s t
p e o p le w h en h e h a s b e e n an o f f ic e r g iv in g o r d e r s a ll h is lif e . B e c a u s e
J im h a s b e e n a m ilit a r y m a n , h e ta k e s r e fu g e in th a t p e r p e tu a l r a tio n
a liz a tio n of the m ilit a r y m in d th a t h e w ill ta k e o r d e r s but w ill not be
r e s p o n s ib le fo r s e ttin g p o lic y . W hen N im m o a s k e d h im to be th e c o m
m a n d in g o ff ic e r of th e s p e c ia l d e p u tie s , he r e f u s e d on the grou n d , "I d id
m y p la in duty w h ic h w a s to ta k e o r d e r s fr o m m y s u p e r io r o f f ic e r s , but I
w o u ld r a th e r n o t g iv e o r d e r s c a r r y in g out th e N im m o p o lic y " (p. 105).
T h is m ilit a r y w a y of th in k in g --j u s tify in g a c tio n a s d u t y - - e v e n t u
a lly c u lm in a te s in th e m u r d e r of N in a . If a m a n d w e lls lo n g en o u g h on
249
h is "duty," he c a n r a tio n a liz e h is r e a s o n s fo r a c tin g . T h u s, J im r a tio n
a liz e s the m u r d e r a s an e x e c u tio n b e c a u s e N in a and N im m o r u in e d
M aufe b y " d e lib e r a te c o llu s io n ."
She c o u ld n 't u n d e r sta n d sh e w a s up a g a in s t so m e th in g b ig g e r th an
e ith e r of u s or a n y o n e 's h a p p in e s s . T he tru th . A nd n oth in g c o u ld
ch a n g e it. Sh e d id n 't w an t to u n d e r sta n d . It w a s to o b ig . I s a y I
kn ew e v e n th e n p e r h a p s no one w o u ld w a n t to u n d e r sta n d . A s h a p
p en ed . L o o k at th e w a y th e p a p e r s h a v e h a n d le d th is th in g . A s a
s e x m u r d e r . A s a c o m m o n a d u lte r y c a s e . S u g g e s tin g I k ille d m y
w ife b e c a u s e sh e w a s u n fa ith fu l, (p. 307)
J im j u s t if ie s h im s e lf b y s a y in g , "I d id it b e c a u s e I, m y s e lf , h ad to do it.
T h e re w a s no o th e r c h o ic e fo r a m a n w h o w a s n 't p r e p a r e d to liv e lik e a
ra t" (p. 309).
It is s u r p r is in g h ow lit t le s p a c e N in a o c c u p ie s in J im 's s to r y .
He sp e a k s of how m u ch h e lo v e s h e r , of h o w tr ic k y sh e is , and how sh e
w a s fo o le d by N im m o , but h e d o e s n ot th in k of h e r a s a w o m a n in d e p e n d
en t of h im and liv in g h e r ow n lif e . She is an e x te n s io n of h im s e lf , and
w h en sh e d o e s n o t a c t a s h e w o u ld a c t, he d is t r u s t s h e r .
N ot s u r p r is in g ly , C h e s te r is th e fo c a l p o in t of J im 's s to r y . T he
n o v e l is a c tu a lly th e n a r r a tio n of J im 's s tr u g g le a g a in s t C h e ste r , and
th e m a n p o r tr a y e d is C h e s te r a t th e en d of a lo n g lif e , d is to r te d in to a
ly in g p o litic ia n w illin g to do a n y th in g to g e t b a ck in to p o w e r . O ften J im
s e e m s h ig h ly j u s t if ie d in h is a c tio n s , fo r C h e s t e r 's in s u lts w o u ld h a v e
stu n g a l e s s to u ch y m a n th an J im to v io le n c e . T h ou gh th e w h o le n o v e l
is J im 's v e r s io n of N im m o , o n ly th r e e f a c e - t o - f a c e s c e n e s a r e r e
co u n ted , and th e y a r e th e h ig h p o in ts of th e book . In th e f i r s t o f th e s e
s c e n e s , C h e ste r is th e s u a v e , w ily p o lit ic ia n in c o n tr o l of th e situ a tio n ,
d e te r m in e d to w in d Jim a ro u n d h is fin g e r th ou gh J im h a s ju s t sh o t and
w ou n d ed h im .
250
So I sh o o k han d s and h e k ep t tig h t h o ld of m y hand and pu t h is o th er
hand o v e r it and s a id b e fo r e th em a ll, " D am n it, old m a n , w e 'v e b e e n
fr ie n d s fo r fo r ty y e a r s . And fr ie n d s a r e n o t so e a s y to fin d at our
a g e . I d o n 't lo s e th em if I ca n h e lp it." (p. 58)
C h e ste r k n ew th a t Jim s t i l l in ten d ed to k ill h im and k n ew J im 's co d e of
fa c in g d a n g er, not d od gin g it; th e r e fo r e , h e a r g u e d th a t sh o o tin g is "the
e a s y w a y out fo r a m a n w ho w a n ts to d od ge th e fa c t s . . . . a c o w a r d 's
w a y out." W hen J im w a s not p e r su a d e d , C h e s te r d e n ie d tr y in g to fla t te r
h im , to g e t rou n d h im . He to ld J im , w h o s a id h e co u ld tr u s t w h at he
sa w w ith h is ow n e y e s : "You sa w w h a t y o u su p p o se d to be so m e th in g
im p r o p e r . . , . A nd it is d iffic u lt fo r you, w e 'll a g r e e , to a d m it y o u r s e lf
m is ta k e n , th at you h a v e w ild ly e x a g g e r a te d a v e r y s m a ll m a tte r ." Jim
w a s s t ill n ot m o llifie d ; th e r e fo r e C h e ste r t r ie d th e g e n tle m a n ly a p
p r o a c h , s a y in g "You a r e , in th e h ig h e s t s e n s e o f th at m u ch a b u se d w o r d ,
a g e n tle m a n . Y ou v a lu e tr u e j u s t i c e - - y o u a r e n o t th e sp o r t of . . .
m e a n g o s s ip , and p e tty j e a lo u s ie s " (p. 6 3 ). U n fo r tu n a te ly , J im , stu b
b o r n as w e ll a s stu p id , r e fu s e d to p la y th e g a m e , but s in c e h e w a s n ot
q u ite s u r e of h im s e lf , th e situ a tio n d id not b e c o m e a c r i s i s u n til C h e ste r
s u g g e s te d s ta r tin g a g a in "in tru th ." T h en J im , r e a liz in g th at C h e ste r
had in d eed b e e n w o r k in g arou n d h im , f u r io u s ly o r d e r e d C h e ste r out of
th e h o u se . C h e ste r , at th a t p o in t, q u e s tio n e d th e w o r th of J im 's h on or
w ith n e g a tiv e im p lic a tio n s . J im a n s w e r e d in ty p ic a l fa s h io n b y fir in g at
N im m o 's fe e t.
The b a s ic c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e tw o m e n w a s c o m p le te ly r e v e a le d
a fte r J im d is c o v e r e d C h e ste r in h is b ed . T he old m a n ju m p ed up
s c r e a m in g and d is c lo s e d w h a t h e r e a lly th ou gh t of J im and w h a t he had
a lw a y s th ou gh t of h im :
W hat y o u a r e is a fo o l. . . . An e v e r la s t in g u n lim ite d god d am n
251
w o o d e n -h e a d e d fo o l. And I'v e had en o u g h of y o u r p is t o l w a v in g . I'm
s ic k of th e w h o le lo t of y o u . F o r G od 's sa k e m a k e a fin is h . Go aw ay
- - o r sh o o t. Of c o u r s e w e d id n 't t e ll y o u a n y th in g . B e c a u s e w e kn ew
y o u 'd g e t it a ll w ro n g , b e c a u s e yo u a r e our b ig g e s t h e a d a c h e . B e
c a u s e you a r e a k ep t m a n . B e c a u s e y o u h a v e to b e kep t b y p e o p le
w ith so m e g lim m e r of c o m m o n s a p ie n c e - - k e p t or y o u 'd s t a r v e . N ow
sh o o t, y ou k ep t a s s , y o u h a n g e r -o n . S h o o t - - s h o o t - - s h o o t , (p. 227)
T he tir a d e w a s w ith o u t e ffe c t e x c e p t th a t J im th ou gh t he w a s fin a lly s e e
ing th e " rea l" N im m o , "a m is e r a b le o ld w r e c k f a ir ly c o m in g to b its
w ith h is ow n p u tr e s c e n c e ." C h e ste r q u ic k ly r e s u m e d c o m m a n d of h im
s e lf and th e s itu a tio n , a sk e d N in a to d r iv e h im and J im in to to w n to d e a l
w ith th e P in c o m b a ffa ir , and th e c lim a x w a s d e la y e d .
J im th in k s he k ille d N im m o and N in a in r e tr ib u tio n fo r th e ir
r a ilr o a d in g of M au fe, but it is m e r e ly a r a tio n a liz a tio n of h is d e s ir e to
k ill. J im r e a liz e d , a fte r r e a d in g N im m o 's le t t e r s to N in a ab ou t M aufe,
th at C h e ste r h ad a lw a y s r e g a r d e d h im "as a p o lit ic a l id io t. T h a t's w h at
e v e r y c r o o k . . . in th e w o r ld th ou gh t ab ou t e v e r y h o n e s t m a n ju s t b e
c a u s e he w a s h o n e s t and la id h im s e lf o p en to be sw in d led " (p. 302).
J im th e r e fo r e d e c id e s th a t h e, s in g le -h a n d e d , w ill c u r e th e r o tte n n e s s
b y k illin g b oth N im m o and N in a. A c c o r d in g to h is s to r y , N im m o lo c k e d
h im s e lf in th e la v a to r y and s c r e a m e d " M u rd er" ou t of th e w in d o w . Jim
s a y s , a s if it w e r e a p o in t o f h o n o r, "I s a y d e fin ite ly I n e v e r to u ch ed th e
m a n th rou gh ou t" (p. 304). J im s e e m s to b e a m a d m a n , d e te r m in e d to
k ill, and n ot th e fig u r e of ju s t r e tr ib u tio n th a t h e th o u g h t h im s e lf .
W h eth er or n ot C h e ste r d e s e r v e d to d ie is a m a tte r of op in ion; c e r t a in
ly it is n ot fo r a Jim to d e c id e w ho s h a ll liv e and w ho s h a ll d ie .
T he c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n of J im is an o u tsta n d in g a c h ie v e m e n t. It is
a p ic tu r e of a stu p id , p a s s io n a te , je a lo u s m a n w h o c r a c k s u n d er th e
p r e s s u r e of c ir c u m s t a n c e s to o c o m p le x fo r h im to co p e w ith . He
252
b e c o m e s in c r e a s in g ly u n a b le to h a n d le h is p r o b le m s , an d s in c e h e b e
l i e v e s in s h o o tin g h is w a y out o f a m e s s , h e e n d s up b y k illin g . C a r y
h o ld s h im j u s t th is s id e o f th e v e r y fin e lin e th a t w o u ld m a r k h im in
s a n e , or sh o w s h im in s a n e in th a t fr ig h t e n in g ly r a tio n a l m a n n e r th a t
s o m e t im e s o c c u r s . B ut J im is a t a ll t im e s c o n v in c in g . T h e c h a r a c t e r
c o u ld e a s il y h a v e b e c o m e m e r e ly g r o te s q u e o r e v e n fu n n y, but one f e e l s
th at J im ’s a c tio n s a r e j u s t th o s e th a t s u c h a m a n w o u ld p e r fo r m . T he
c h a r a c t e r m a y be u n lik a b le , b u t h e is b e lie v a b le .
C o n tr a r y to th e p lo t of P r is o n e r of G r a c e , w h ic h c o v e r s s o m e
f o r t y - f iv e y e a r s fr o m N in a 's c h ild h o o d to th e s itu a tio n j u s t p r io r in
tim e to J im ’s s to r y , and to th e p lo t o f E x c e p t T he L o r d , w h ic h c o v e r s
th e tw e n ty - fiv e y e a r s o f C h e s t e r 's c h ild h o o d an d y ou th , th e p lo t o f N ot
H on ou r M o r e , th o u g h n o t c le a r ly d e fin e d in t im e , s e e m s to c o v e r at
m o s t a fe w w e e k s . T h e s h o r t s p a c e of tim e , th e v io le n t e v e n ts r e
co u n ted , and th e r a c e to w r ite a g a in s t a d ea th s e n te n c e c o m b in e to g iv e
a s e n s e of h u r r y and in t e n s it y . In c o n t r a s t to th e d e ta c h e d ir o n y of
N in a ’s s t o r y and to th e q u ie t r e c o lle c t io n of C h e s t e r 's , w h ic h E liz a b e th
7
B e ttm a n a p tly p a r a lle le d to th e a n d an te m o v e m e n t of a sy m p h o n y , th e
p lo t of N ot H on ou r M o re r a c e s fr o m c r i s i s to c r i s i s , e v e n th ou gh it, to p
is to ld a s a r e c o lle c t io n an d e x p la n a tio n of p a s t e v e n ts , b u t e v e n ts i m
m e d ia t e ly p a s t.
U n d e r ly in g J im 's c o n fu s io n of p e r s o n a l and p r iv a te a ff a ir s is the
in v o lv e m e n t of th e ir p r iv a te liv e s in v io le n t p u b lic a f f a i r s - - t h e G e n e r a l
S tr ik e of 1 9 2 6 , r io t s , and a c o u r t t r ia l. T h e p lo t is a d is p la y of C a r y 's
7
"Joyce Cary and the Problem of Political Morality," Antioch
Review, 17:267, Summer 1957.
253
t e c h n ic a l v ir t u o s it y in its a lte r n a tio n and in te r w e a v in g of p u b lic and
p r iv a te a f f a ir s , th e tw o e le m e n ts in e x tr ic a b ly le a d in g to an in e v ita b le
c o n c lu s io n . T he s t o r y s ta r t s off s w iftly and c o n tin u a lly in c r e a s e s p a c e ,
e x c e p t in th e d e lib e r a t e ly s lo w e d s c e n e s of J im 's d is c u s s io n of F a s c is m
w ith S a lly , of C o m m u n ism w ith th e v ic a r , and of r e c o n c ilia t io n w ith
N ina in h is h e a d q u a r te r s . The te n s io n in J im 's and N in a 's p r iv a te liv e s
is in c r e a s e d by th e s tr ik e , th e a c tio n o f th e " s p e c ia ls ," and th e r io t at
P o t t e r 's . P in c o m b 's a r r e s t m o v e s th in g s to a s t ill h ig h e r p itc h . The
a n tic lim a x is N in a 's a tte m p te d s u ic id e . T h en M a u fe 's t r ia l and c o n v ic
tio n le a d to J im 's r e a d in g o f N im m o 's le t t e r s , r e v e a lin g h is c o llu s io n
w ith N in a to c o n v ic t M au fe, and to th e fin a l c r i s i s . C a r y 's te c h n iq u e
w a s to c o n tin u a lly in c r e a s e th e p a c e of th e s to r y , e a c h in c id e n t c r e a tin g
a g r e a te r te n s io n th an th e la s t , but to c o n v e y to th e r e a d e r c n ly th e
" s e n se " o f in c r e a s in g c r i s i s and im p en d in g d is a s t e r , n e v e r th e r e a li z a
tio n of th e a u th o r 's p lo ttin g of th e s to r y . One r e m e m b e r s C a r y 's d ic
tu m th a t th e r e a d e r sh o u ld n e v e r be a w a r e of th e au th or p u llin g th e
s tr in g s ; h e c o n s id e r e d it a fla w in te c h n iq u e if th e m a n ip u la tio n of p lo t
b e c a m e o b v io u s.
N ot H onour M o re is one m o r e e x a m p le of C a r y 's r e m a r k a b le
a b ility a s a s t y lis t . It is w r itte n in th e t e r s e , s e m i- t e le g r a p h ic s ty le of
a m ilit a r y r e p o r t, e x a c t ly th e s ty le th a t a m a n lik e J im w o u ld u s e in
o r d e r to e x p r e s s h im s e lf . C ary not o n ly c h a r a c t e r iz e d th e m a n but in
d ic a te d h is c r a c k in g u n d er p r e s s u r e a s th e h a r s h and te le g r a p h ic m a n
n e r of th e b eg in n in g b e c o m e s in c r e a s in g ly sh o r t and s ta c c a to . T he s t y le
r e f le c t s J im 's in c r e a s in g c o n fu sio n u n til he r e a c h e s h is u ltim a te c r i s i s
and k ills N in a. T he b e g in n in g of the s t o r y is f a ir ly c a lm ; Jim s ta te s
254
th at h e h ad g iv e n th e a n o n y m o u s le t t e r s h e had r e c e iv e d to N im m o b e
c a u s e h e had a lw a y s c o n s id e r e d su c h c o m m u n ic a tio n s "as b e n e a th c o n
te m p t." C a ry so o n r e v e r s e d th e c a lm , d is p a s s io n a te m o o d to e s t a b lis h
th e r e a l n a tu re of h is m a n . W hen J im s e e s N im m o " in te r fe r in g " w ith
N ina, h e y e lls , "Now I'v e g o t y o u , y o u d am n sw in e ," and f i r e s th r e e
t im e s , th e la n g u a g e and a c tio n b e in g n a tu r a l to a m a n of J im 's h ot t e m
p e r . J im , w h o v ie w s h im s e lf a s an h o n e s t and op en m an , a tte m p ts to
s e t fo r th h is v ie w of N im m o im m e d ia te ly a fte r r ec o u n tin g th e s h o o t in g - -
"I sh o u ld lik e to s ta te h e r e and I ca n c a ll w it n e s s e s to p r o v e I had a l
w a y s o b je c te d to L o rd N im m o 's p r e s e n c e in m y h o u se a s I c o n s id e r e d
h im a fa k e r and h y p o c r ite ." H is fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t r e v e a ls a n o th er
b a s is of h is lo n g -s ta n d in g g ru d g e a g a in s t N im m o : " N eith er w a s th is a
new id e a w ith m e due to p e r s o n a l fe e lin g , a s h a s b e e n c h a r g e d , a s I ca n
p r o v e fr o m m y b ook T he L u g a s and B r it is h A fr ic a n P o l ic y . T he G rea t
B e tr a y a l." Jim a s s e r t s th e b e tr a y a l w a s c a u s e d b y W h iteh a ll p o lic y ,
" W h itehall" im p ly in g p o lit ic ia n s and th e ir c r o o k e d w a y s, and e v id e n c in g
h is a d d ic tio n to c lic h e s . To J im , W h iteh a ll p o lic y w a s m e r e ly an e x
a m p le of " E u ro p ea n d e g e n e r a c y " and c o n s is t e d of E n g la n d lo s in g
h e r h on ou r and h e r so u l due to th e W h iteh a ll p o lic y of b u yin g off
e v e r y kin d o f g r a b b e r and s m a r t A le c a ll o v e r the w o r ld by h a n d in g
o v e r s im p le t r ib e s m e n and h e lp le s s p o o r p e o p le to be e x p lo ite d by
s o - c a lle d n a t io n a lis ts , o th e r w is e lo c a l p o lit ic a l c r o o k s , (p. 5)
C ary e m p h a s iz e d th ro u g h s t y le th e d ile m m a of J im and m e n lik e h im
w ho th in k in te r m s of la b e ls and c l ic h e s - - p o lit ic ia n s a r e a lw a y s " c a n t
in g c r o o k s ," " ro tten sw in e ," " w a n g le r s," " c o n ju r o r s," " b lo o d s u c k e r s ,"
e tc . T h ey do n ot le a d th e c o u n tr y but o n ly p la y " d irty g a m e s ," " s e ll the
co u n try ," "push d e c e n t p e o p le a g a in s t th e w a ll," e tc .
Jim te n d s to d ro p c o n n e c tiv e s w h e n e v e r h e is u n d er s t r e s s u n til
255
h is e x p r e s s io n is s im p ly a s e r i e s of sh o r t p h r a s e s , and C a ry u s e d th is
d e v ic e e x t e n s iv e ly to in d ic a te J im 's in c r e a s in g c o n fu sio n a s th e b ook
p r o g r e s s e s . U n d er th e p r e s s u r e of h is je a lo u s y , Jim b e c o m e s s a v a g e ly
in v e c tiv e to the p o in t of b e in g a lm o s t h u m o r o u s. F o r e x a m p le , he d e
s c r ib e s N ina and o th er w o m e n a d m ir in g N im m o at a m e e tin g :
C o u n tess and w ife in s m a r t e s t n ew sp r in g fr o c k s . B ought fo r o c c a
sio n , i .e ., fo r an y r e v o lu tio n on an y s id e . B oth s m ilin g a ll round .
F lu s h e d w ith jo y . P u sh in g out b o s o m s . G ivin g lo v e c a ll, " L et us
c o m e to g e th e r in th e n a m e of our d e a r lo r d . L et u s a d o r e h im , th e
p r o p h et of lo v e ." (p. 17)
J im had d e s c r ib e d th e c ro w d N im m o w a s a d d r e s s in g a s a lo t of " w o lv es
and h y e n a s" ja m m e d t o g e t h e r - - " A lo t of n a s ty f e e lin g g e ttin g w o r s e a ll
the tim e .. Due to n a s ty n o is e . One b a rk in g dog b ite s a n o th e r. A nd th en
th e y a ll w a n t to b ite" (p. 15). J im , an e x - m a g is t r a t e in A fr ic a , d o e s not
a c k n o w le d g e C h e s t e r 's a b ility to h a n d le n a s ty c ro w d s; h e ca n s e e on ly
th a t th e N im m o he h a te s so m u ch s e e m s to fo o l th em b y " p r o m isin g the
e a r t h ."
E v e r y th in g in J im 's s t y l e - - c l i c h e s , la b e ls , d is c o n n e c te d p h r a s e s
- - b o i l s up to a fin a l c lim a x in h is d e s c r ip t io n of w hy he had to k ill N in a,
" B e c a u se of th e r o tte n n e s s . B e c a u s e of th e c o r r u p tio n ." He a lte r n a te s
s h o r t s e n t e n c e s , b a s e d on c lic h e s , w ith p h r a s e s d e s c r ib in g r e s u lt s :
T he tru th . A nd n o th in g c o u ld ch an g e it. She d id n ’t w an t to u n d e r
sta n d . It w a s to o b ig . I s a y I kn ew e v e n th e n p e r h a p s no one w ou ld
w a n t to u n d e rsta n d . A s h a p p en ed . L o o k at th e w a y th e p a p e r s h a v e
h a n d led th is th in g . A s a s e x m u r d e r . A s a c o m m o n a d u lte r y c a s e .
(p. 307)
It is im p o s s ib le to s a y th a t an y one e le m e n t is th e u n ify in g fa c to r
in N ot H onour M o r e ; a ll th e e le m e n ts o f th e b o o k fu n ctio n s o w e ll th at
its fo r m is th e c o m p le te e m b o d im e n t o f th e m a t e r ia l. If any one e l e
m e n t m u s t b e s in g le d out, it is , a s in E x c e p t T he L o r d , th e s ty le . T he
256
r e a d e r fo llo w s J im w ith f a s c in a tio n , th o u g h n e ith e r lik in g n o r a g r e e in g
w ith h im , but th e c h a r a c t e r is s o c o n s is t e n t th a t e v e r y th in g h e d o e s
s e e m s v a lid . T he h a r s h , d r iv in g s t y le and th e s t e a d ily in c r e a s in g p a c e
of th e p lo t to g e th e r c r e a t e th e im p r e s s io n of in e v it a b ility of a c tio n . It
is an in c r e d ib le a c h ie v e m e n t th a t C a ry c o u ld c r e a t e tw o su c h o p p o site
ty p e s o f c h a r a c t e r s a s C h e s t e r an d J im and m a k e th em b oth b e lie v a b le ,
p a r t ic u la r ly w h e n J im sta n d s fo r th e a u th o r ita r ia n a ttitu d e to w a r d th e
w o r ld w ith w h ic h C a r y h im s e lf c o m p le t e ly d is a g r e e d .
T he n o v e ls o f th e S e c o n d T r ilo g y , w r itte n to w a r d th e en d of h is
c a r e e r , a r e th e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l in fu lf illin g C a r y 's r e q u ir e m e n t th at
r e a d in g a n o v e l be an e x e r c i s e in m o r a l ju d g m e n t. T he r e a d e r is r e
q u ir e d to m a k e m o r a l ju d g m e n ts c o n s ta n tly in r e g a r d to N in a , C h e s te r ,
and J im , p a r t ic u la r ly in r e g a r d to C h e s t e r , w h o is r e s p o n s ib le fo r
o th e r s a s w e ll a s h im s e lf b e c a u s e h e w ie ld s p o w e r . C a r y 's id e a s a r e
c le a r ly an d e m p h a tic a lly s ta te d in h is c r it ic a l w r it in g s , but a s h e f e lt a
n o v e lis t 's jo b w a s to sh o w p e o p le in a c tio n m a k in g m o r a l c h o ic e s , not
to is s u e m o r a l d ic ta , th e n o v e ls le a v e m o r a l ju d g m e n ts up to th e r e a d e r .
J im 's a c tio n s c o u ld b e e x c u s e d a s th o s e o f an ir r a t io n a l m a n , but I b e
lie v e C a r y k e p t h im sa n e en o u g h to b e r e s p o n s ib le fo r h is ow n a c tio n s .
H e is n o t r e s p o n s ib le if h e is c o n s id e r e d ir r a tio n a l; h e is r e s p o n s ib le if
h e is v ie w e d a s an a u th o r ita r ia n w h o b e lie v e s h e h a s a "duty" to c le a r
up b y v io le n t m e a n s w h a t h e p e r s o n a lly ju d g e s to be c o r r u p tio n . C h e s
te r is r e s p o n s ib le fo r h is a c tio n s , fo r d is to r tin g and s u p p r e s s in g the
tr u th , and u s in g a n y m e a n s s h o r t o f v io le n c e to a c h ie v e h is end. T he
r e a d e r is c o m p e lle d to c o n s id e r th e c h o i c e s - - i s a n y th in g but v io le n c e
j u s t if ia b le ? Or is v io le n c e j u s t if ia b le w h e n it is u s e d fo r g o o d r e a s o n s ?
257
Who is to ju d g e th e r e a s o n s ?
C a r y b e lie v e d th a t th e r e is no a lte r n a tiv e to p e r s u a s io n (and a ll
th e sh a d in g s th at p e r s u a s io n in v o lv e s ), th at sh o o tin g m e n is n o t to be
c o n s id e r e d . T hough he m a d e no d e fin ite s ta te m e n ts in th e n o v e ls , he
o b v io u sly fa v o r e d th e p o litic ia n , n o t th e a u th o r ita r ia n , b e c a u s e Jim a p
p e a r s s o c h ild lik e and in c o m p e te n t in h is stu p id ity and v io le n c e . A
w o r ld g o v e r n e d by m e n lik e Jim w o u ld be e v e n w o r s e th an it is . C ary
w a s c o n c e r n e d w ith m a t u r it y - - r e s p o n s ib le p e o p le c o p in g w ith th e p r o b
le m s of a d iffic u lt and d a n g e r o u s w o r ld . C h e s te r , a m a tu r e m a n th ou gh
a p o w e r -h u n g r y and u n sc r u p u lo u s on e, kn ew he w a s d e a lin g w ith C o m
m u n is ts an d o th er a n t i-d e m o c r a tic g r o u p s, but th ey e x is t and m u s t be
d e a lt w ith ; it is im p o s s ib le s im p ly to ig n o r e or sh o o t th o s e w ith w hom
one d is a g r e e s a s J im w o u ld do. W hat C ary im p lie d in the w h o le tr ilo g y
is th a t by th e n a tu r e of th e d e m o c r a tic p r o c e s s w e a r e c o m m itte d to
C h e s t e r ’s w a y , n o t to J im ’s; th e r e fo r e , w e m u s t be e x c e e d in g ly c a r e fu l
of the c a lib e r of m a n w e p ic k to be a le a d e r . The u ltim a te t e s t of a
d e m o c r a tic s ta te s m a n is in t e g r it y - - t h e t e s t th a t C h e ste r fa ile d .
C a ry a c h ie v e d in th e la s t t r ilo g y th e g o a l he h ad s e t fo r h im s e lf
m a n y y e a r s e a r l i e r - - " t o do fo r p o lit ic s w h at T o lsto y h a s done fo r w a r - -
sh ow w h a t a m u d d le and c o n fu sio n it is" (T o B e A P i lg r im , p. 2 6 6 ).
M any of th e th e m e s of C a r y ’s e a r lie r w o r k s c o m e to fr u itio n , p a r tic u
la r ly th o s e p r e v io u s ly d e v e lo p e d in T o B e A P i lg r im : th e p o w e r and e f
f e c t on m e n 's m in d s of r e lig io n , e s p e c ia lly of P r o te s ta n tis m w ith its
e m p h a sis on fr e e d o m ; th e P r o te s ta n t b e lie f in th e im p o r ta n c e o f the
h o m e and th e r e s p o n s ib ilit y of p a r e n ts to gu id e th e ir c h ild r e n ; th e e ffe c t
of P r o te s ta n t id e a s on E n g lis h p o lit ic a l thought; and th e p o w er o f th e
258
s p e llb in d e r w h o u s e s th e m a g ic of w o r d s to s w a y p e o p le 's b e lie f s and
a c t io n s . A ll o f t h e s e th e m e s illu s t r a t e C a r y 's b a s ic id e a th a t m a n in
c e s s a n t ly and f r e e l y c r e a t e s h is w o r ld - - t h a t th e w o r ld is d o o m e d to
c r e a tio n b e c a u s e w h a te v e r is n ot c o n s ta n tly r e n e w e d w it h e r s a w a y and
d ie s . T he S e c o n d T r ilo g y h a s lit t le of th e jo y in lif e th a t r a d ia te s fr o m
th e F i r s t T r ilo g y , bu t it h a s a m o r e d ir e c t im p a c t. T he r e a d e r is
f o r c e d to c o n te m p la te our w o r ld b e c a u s e C a ry p r e s e n t e d its p r o b le m s
a s a m e a n in g fu l e x p e r ie n c e : th ro u g h a r t h e im p o s e d o r d e r and m e a n in g
on "the m u d d le and c o n fu sio n " o f l i f e - - h e m a d e s e n s e of a s e n s e l e s s
w o r ld . He to o k th e s u p r e m e ly im p o r ta n t f ie ld of p o li t ic s , g e n e r a lly ig
n o r e d by c o n te m p o r a r y n o v e lis t s e x c e p t fo r O r w e ll, and a c h ie v e d w h a t
O r w e ll h ad t r ie d to d o - - h e r a is e d p o lit ic a l w r itin g to th e l e v e l of a r t and
m o v in g ly d e m o n s tr a te d h is t h e s is th a t a ll h u m a n lif e is in e s s e n c e p o
l i t ic a l.
CHAPTER VII
C O N C LU SIO N
I b e lie v e it is e v id e n t fr o m th e a n a ly s is of C a r y 's w o r k th a t h e
w a s a w r it e r of im p o r ta n c e . H is w o r k s ca n n e v e r b e m is ta k e n fo r th o se
of any o th er w r it e r . H is id e a s , s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , m e th o d s of c h a r a c t e r i
z a tio n , and s t y le a r e u n m is t a k a b le - - t h e y c a r r y th e in d e lib le sta m p of a
m a jo r w r it e r .
C a r y 's id e a s a lo n e sh ow h im to h a v e b e e n a m a n v e r y m u ch of
h is tim e , but one n o t d o m in a te d b y it. F r o m th e b e g in n in g o f h is n o v e l-
is t ic c a r e e r he had a c le a r v ie w of th e w o r ld , and h is p r o b le m in w r it
ing w a s to fin d the s u c c e s s f u l e x p r e s s io n of it. T h e r e fo r e , h is m e th o d s
ch a n g ed but h is id e a s d id n ot. C a ry b e lie v e d th a t th e w o r ld is c h a o s,
but, at th e s a m e tim e , h e b e lie v e d in a p e r s o n a l God and a p e r s o n a l u n i
v e r s e . T hough th e v ie w of th e w o r ld a s c h a o s is a f a m ilia r E x is t e n t ia l
is t te n e t, C ary m a in ta in e d th a t h e w a s n o t an E x is t e n t ia lis t , b e c a u s e h e
b e lie v e d in a liv in g and p e r s o n a l G od and o p p o se d th e id e a of a m e c h a
n is t ic u n iv e r s e . H is b e lie f in a p e r s o n a l u n iv e r s e sh a p ed h is w h o le a t
titu d e to w a r d life :
Now th e c h a r a c te r of th e w o r ld , a s w e know it, is e s s e n t ia ll y e x p e r i
e n c e , p h en o m e n a . A nd a ll th e p r im a r y e le m e n ts of a r t and k n o w l
ed g e a r e f e e lin g s . . . . A ll th e g iv e n e le m e n ts of s o c ia l l i f e - - l o v e ,
h a te, and f e a r - - a r e f e e lin g s . A nd f e e lin g s ta k e p la c e o n ly in w h a t
w e c a ll a p e r s o n . So th a t th e fu n d a m en ta l c h a r a c te r of th e liv in g
259
u n iv e r s e is p e r s o n a l.
C a r y 's w o r k is d o m in a te d b y h is b e lie f th at m a n fu n c tio n s a s a
f r e e a g e n t. M an is n o t g o v e r n e d by in s tin c t and e n v ir o n m e n t lik e an ant
in a h iv e . B e c a u s e m a n is f r e e , h e c r e a t e s th e w o r ld to s a t is f y h is ow n
fe e lin g s ; h o w e v e r , e a c h m a n 's c r e a tio n c o n flic ts w ith th o se of o th er
m e n . M o r e o v e r , th e n e w ly c r e a te d c o n flic ts w ith th a t w h ic h is a lr e a d y
e s t a b lis h e d - - t h e id e a s , tr a d it io n s , and s t a t e s to w h ic h m e n a r e a c c u s
to m ed . T hus c r e a tio n and d e s tr u c tio n a r e in d is s o lu b ly c o n n e c te d , and
tr a g e d y e n s u e s . C a ry fu r th e r b e lie v e d th a t th e f r e e m a n is c o n sta n tly
c o m p e lle d to m a k e c h o ic e s in life ; c h o ic e is d e te r m in e d by m o tiv e , and
m o tiv e is e s s e n t ia lly m o r a l; th e r e fo r e , m a n is a f r e e m o r a l a g e n t in a
m o r a l w o r ld . O b v io u sly , C a ry did n o t a g r e e w ith th e m e c h a n is t th in k e r s
of th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y .
C a ry b e lie v e d in th e e x is t e n c e of e v il and in th e w ill to e v il.
B e c a u s e m a n is f r e e h e m a y c h o o s e good or e v il, and he d o e s n o t a l
w a y s c h o o s e th e goo d . C a ry u n d e r sto o d th a t e v il is b oth p o w e r fu l and
a ttr a c tiv e and th at s o m e p e o p le a c tu a lly e n jo y d oin g e v il. B ut, a s E d
w a r d C a se o b s e r v e d in h is d is c u s s io n of C a r y 's w o rk , "To a c c e p t th a t
bad lu c k , in ju s tic e , and e v il s o m e t im e s w in is not to r e j e c t life ; it is to
2
a c c e p t lif e in its e n tir e ty ."
C a r y 's a ttitu d e s to w a r d r e lig io n and p o lit ic s , to w a rd th e r e l a
tio n sh ip of m e n and w o m e n , and to w a r d a r t a r e u n u su a l. H is
^"W hat D o e s A r t C r e a te ? " L ite r a tu r e and L ife , II (L ond on,
19 5 1 ), 4 0 .
^"T he F r e e W o rld of J o y c e C a ry ," M o d ern A g e , 3 :1 1 5 -1 2 4 ,
S p rin g 1959.
2 6 1
d e s c r ip tio n of r e lig io n and p o litic s a s the tw o b a s ic m e a n s m en u s e to
s a t is f y th e ir f e e lin g s and to o r d e r th e ir l iv e s - - " r e l ig io n is a gu id e fo r
th e so u l and p o litic s a guid e fo r th e b o d y " - - is , to sa y th e le a s t , u n co m
m o n in our t im e s . C a r y 's tr e a tm e n t of r e lig io n and p o litic s r e f le c ts
h is b e lie f in m a n 's fr e e and in c e s s a n t c r e a tio n of th e w o r ld and in th e
in e v ita b le tr a g e d y th at a r is e s fr o m the p e r p e tu a l c o n flic t of th e n ew ly
c r e a te d w ith th e e s ta b lis h e d . H is attitu d e to w a rd r e lig io n r e f le c t s the
P r o te s ta n t v iew p o in t. The in tu itiv e , c r e a tiv e , u n d o g m a tic, and r e v o lu
tio n a r y a s p e c ts of e v a n g e lic a l P r o te s ta n tis m e x a c tly su ite d C ary, p a r
tic u la r ly th e fr e e and in tim a te r e la tio n s h ip of m a n to God. C ary w a s an
in te n s e ly r e lig io u s m a n , but h e a d m itte d th at no o r g a n iz e d ch u rch w ou ld
a c c e p t h im w ith h is h ig h ly in d iv id u a lis tic v ie w s . H o w ev er, the P r o t e s
tan t a ttitu d e to w a rd m a n 's r e la tio n s h ip to God d o m in a te s h is tw o g r e a t
t r ilo g ie s .
In th e r e a lm of p o lit ic s , C ary o p p o sed the m e c h a n is tic , b e h a
v io r is t ic a ttitu d es to w a rd m a n th at a r e p r e v a le n t tod ay. F o r e x a m p le ,
h e c o n tr a d ic te d the a s s e r t io n of m a n y c o n te m p o r a r y th in k e r s th at the
p r o b le m s of th e m o d e r n w o r ld w e r e c a u s e d by in d u s tr ia liz a tio n . He
p o in ted out th at th e id ea of p r o g r e s s h a s d e v e lo p e d on ly s in c e in d u s tr i
a liz a tio n ; p r o g r e s s w a s u n d r ea m ed of in th e s tr a tifie d , m e d ie v a l s o c i e
ty. F u r th e r m o r e , m o d er n n a tio n s m u st ed u ca te th e ir c itiz e n s to run
c o m p lic a te d m a c h in e r y . E d u ca tio n le a d s to h ig h er sta n d a rd s; p eo p le
w ho h a v e e x p e r ie n c e d a b e tte r lif e r e fu s e to r e t r o g r e s s - - t h e y dem an d
b oth h ig h er sta n d a rd s and th e s e c u r ity and p e a c e n e c e s s a r y to p r o te c t a
b e tte r w a y of lif e . C a ry b e lie v e d th at th e new w ea p o n s d isc o u r a g e w ar;
th e r e fo r e , he o p p o sed th e p e s s im is t ic v ie w of 1 9 8 4 . In th e p r e s e n t
262
a tm o s p h e r e o f d o o m and d is c o u r a g e m e n t h is a ttitu d e is u n u su a l and e n
c o u r a g in g .
C a r y 's a ttitu d e to w a r d w o m e n 's p la c e in th e w o r ld and to w a r d
th e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n m e n and w o m e n w a s e n lig h te n e d . H e lo o k e d
u p on w o m e n a s f r e e , c r e a t iv e in d iv id u a ls; h e sa w th em a s p e r s o n s , n ot
a s fu n c tio n s; th e y e x i s t fo r t h e m s e lv e s , n o t m e r e ly a s c o n v e n ie n c e s fo r
m e n . T h is a ttitu d e s e t s C a r y d is t in c t ly a p a r t fr o m m a n y c o n te m p o r a r y
f ic t io n w r it e r s . H e b e lie v e d th a t w o m a n 's p la c e in lif e is c o n s tr u c tiv e ;
" sh e b u ild s a s o c ie t y ," and h e c o n s id e r e d th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y a d v a n ce
of w o m e n "the g r e a t e s t s o c ia l r e v o lu tio n th e w o r ld h a s e v e r k n ow n ."
B e c a u s e w o m e n a r e f r e e , th e y m a k e c h o ic e s ; th e y c h o o s e to m a r r y , to
h a v e c h ild r e n , and th e ir f r e e a s s u m p tio n o f r e s p o n s ib ilit y e n r ic h e s
tw e n tie th c e n tu r y s o c ie t y .
C a r y 's w o m e n c h a r a c t e r s r e f l e c t h is a ttitu d e s . I d is a g r e e w ith
A n d rew W r ig h t's s ta te m e n t th a t C a r y 's h e r o in e s e x is t d e p e n d e n tly on
3
th e ir m e n . Ig n o rin g C a r y 's e s s a y s on th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y w o m a n ,
W rig h t e x te n d s h is ow n v e r s io n o f th e B la k e a n fo r m u la th a t w o m e n b oth
c o m p le te an d c o n s t r ic t m e n , u s e d by C a r y in T he H o r s e 's M ou th , to a ll
o f C a r y 's n o v e ls , and it s im p ly w ill n o t w o r k . E v e n S a r a d o e s n o t r e
m a in d e p e n d en t w h en G u lle y le a v e s h e r ; sh e c r i e s fo r th r e e d a y s , but
th e n sh e p u lls h e r s e l f to g e th e r and d e c id e s to go to w o r k . She l i v e s and
c r e a t e s in d e p e n d e n tly in s p ite of G u lle y . T a b ith a g o e s o n in s p ite of
B o n s e r 's d e s e r t io n s ; sh e b r in g s up h e r s o n an d liv e s w ith o th e r h u s
b a n d s. In h e r s e v e n t ie s , sh e d e s i r e s o n ly to liv e and w o r k a lit t le
3
Joyce Cary: A Preface to His Novels (New York, 1958), p. 98.
263
lo n g e r . A m a n d a , th e m o s t im p o r ta n t of C a r y 's e x a m p le s o f th e m id
tw e n tie th c e n tu r y w o m a n , c a r r ie s on a lo n e , p r e p a r e d to ta k e c a r e of h e r
u n b o r n c h ild h e r s e lf , a ft e r sh e h a s r e f u s e d b oth h e r l o v e r s . C a r y 's
w o m e n c h a r a c t e r s , e v e n m o r e th a n h is m e n , illu s t r a t e h is b e lie f th a t
p e o p le s e e k n o t h a p p in e s s but f u lf illm e n t . T h is v ie w s e t s h im d is t in c t ly
a p a r t fr o m t h o s e w ho b e lie v e th a t p e o p le w a n t a p a s s iv e , u n r e f le c t iv e ,
p r e - n a t a l s ta te o f h a p p in e s s and s e c u r it y lik e th a t d e p ic te d in B r a v e
N ew W o rld . C a r y 's c h a r a c t e r s in s te a d s e e k c h a lle n g e , e x c it e m e n t , and
th e c h a n c e to c r e a t e , a n d h is v ie w s a r e a m a tu r e and e f f e c t iv e a n tid o te
to c u r r e n t g lo o m y th in k in g . C a ry r e s p e c t e d m a n , and h e b e lie v e d in
m a n 's c a p a c ity to g o v e r n h is ow n lif e and to h a n d le h is p r o b le m s .
C a r y 's v ie w s on a r t a r e th e k e y to h is w o r k . A rt is a n e c e s s a r y
fu n c tio n b e c a u s e m a n is is o la te d ; th e o n ly b r id g e to h is f e llo w m e n is
th ro u g h s o m e m a n n e r o f c o m m u n ic a tio n . C a r y w a s v it a lly c o n c e r n e d
w ith th e a e s t h e t ic s of th e n o v e l, b u t in th e g e n e r a l s e n s e h e e q u a te d a r t
w ith c o m m u n ic a tio n . A r t g iv e s o r d e r and m e a n in g to th e s h a p e le s s e x
p e r ie n c e th a t is lif e , an d by g iv in g m e a n in g to l i f e it g iv e s th e c o n v ic
tio n th a t lif e is w o r th w h ile . C a r y a ls o o p p o se d tw e n tie th c e n tu r y d e t e r -
m in is t th in k e r s by a s s e r t in g th a t a r t is th e e x p r e s s io n o f th e in d iv id u a l,
n ot th e g ro u p . T he a r t i s t c o n s c io u s ly in te n d s to c o m m u n ic a te h is ow n
e x p e r ie n c e ; h e e x p r e s s e s h i m s e l f - - h e is n o t th e p a s s iv e m o u th p ie c e of
grou p e x p e r ie n c e . T he im p o r ta n c e of a r t is e v id e n t in it s c r e a t io n of
f e e lin g s and id e a s , of a fe r m e n t th a t is in h e r e n tly s u b v e r s iv e to e s t a b
lis h e d d o g m a s and s t a t e s . T o c o u n te r a c t th a t fe r m e n t, to c o n tr o l m e n 's
m in d s , and to m a in ta in t h e ir p o w e r , a u t h o r ita r ia n s in s titu te c e n s o r s h ip .
T he e x is t e n c e o f c e n s o r s h ip a g a in su p p o r ts C a r y 's b e lie f in th e
264
p e r p e tu a l c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e n e w ly c r e a te d and th e e s t a b lis h e d .
T h ou gh s o m e of our m o d e r n A n g lo - A m e r ic a n p o e ts h a v e b e e n
c r it ic s and p h ilo s o p h e r s , our n o v e lis t s , a p a r t fr o m H en ry J a m e s and E .
M . F o r s t e r , h a v e in g e n e r a l b e e n n e ith e r . T h e r e fo r e , C a r y 's w o r k on
a e s t h e t ic s and th e w r it e r 's c r a ft, A r t and R e a lit y , is u n u su a l. M o r e
o v e r , it is a w o r k of s ta tu r e , an e x c e lle n t and illu m in a tin g stu d y , r e
m a r k a b le fo r th e d ep th of its a n a ly s is and th e v a lid ity of its c o n c lu
s io n s . T he d is c u s s io n of th e w r it e r 's t e c h n ic a l p r o b le m s and th e p s y
c h o lo g ic a l a n a ly s is o f th e r e a d e r 's p e r c e p t io n o f a b o o k a r e p a r t ic u la r ly
im p r e s s iv e . I w o u ld ra n k A r t and R e a lity w ith o r e v e n a b o v e F o r s t e r 's
A s p e c ts of th e N o v e l or L u b b o ck 's T h e C ra ft of F ic tio n b e c a u s e of its
w id e r s c o p e . T he w r it e r 's p r o b le m in b r id g in g th e gap b e tw e e n in tu i
tio n and e x p r e s s io n is th e c e n tr a l c o n c e r n of A r t and R e a lity , but th e r e
is a ls o a p e r c e p t iv e a n a ly s is o f th e p o w e r of th e sy m b o l. A b o v e a ll,
C a ry e m p h a s iz e d th a t b oth th e p u r p o s e and e f f e c t of a r t a r e m o r a l.
T h is a s p e c t of h is th o u g h t h a s b e e n c o m p le te ly ig n o r e d b y o th e r c r i t i c s ,
and it is one w h ic h is v it a lly im p o r ta n t in b oth h is fic tio n and n o n - f ic
tio n . T he e m p h a s is on th e m o r a l a s p e c t of a r t s e t s C a ry d is t in c t ly
a p a r t fr o m c o n te m p o r a r y c r i t i c s w h o r e f u s e to c o n s id e r m o r a l ju d g
m e n t or e f f e c t in c o n n e c tio n w ith a e s t h e t ic ju d g m e n t. He a s s e r t e d , and
h is th e o r y is p s y c h o lo g ic a lly v a lid , th a t it is im p o s s ib le to s e p a r a te
o n e 's e m o tio n a l r e s p o n s e fr o m o n e 's c r it ic a l ju d g m en t. The w h o le m a n
- - m o r a l and c r i t i c a l - - r e a c t s to a w o r k of art; th e r e fo r e , th e m o r a l f a c
to r is in v o lv e d in e v e r y a e s t h e t ic ju d g m en t of th e a r t s . H o w e v e r , C a ry
sta te d th at p a in tin g , s c u lp tu r e , and m u s ic a im a t s e n su o u s m e a n in g ,
w h e r e a s th e w r itte n a r ts a r e c o n c e r n e d p r im a r ily w ith m o r a l m e a n in g .
265
T he w r it e r c r e a t e s a w o r ld of a ctio n ; h e d e a ls w ith m o tiv e , w ith m o r a l
c h o ic e . C a ry in s is t e d , and h e r e h e o p p o se d d id a c tic w r it e r s , th a t p e o p le
le a r n m o r a l m e a n in g s o n ly th ro u g h e x p e r ie n c e , n ot fr o m d icta ; th u s f i c
tio n is im p o r ta n t b e c a u s e it g iv e s u s th e e m o tio n a l e x p e r ie n c e of m e n
and w o m e n in u n iq u e s itu a tio n s . F u r th e r m o r e , he a s s e r t e d th a t r ig id
fo r m u la s lik e a lle g o r y , w h ic h t r e a t th e w o r ld a s a m e c h a n is m and
m a n 's b e h a v io r a s p r e d ic ta b le , a r e in v a lid b e c a u s e th e y do n o t r e g a r d
th e in d iv id u a l a s f r e e . C a ry a ls o b e lie v e d th a t a r t h a s a g r e a t in flu e n c e
on m e n 's co n d u ct. B e c a u s e it d e a ls w ith th e fu n d a m en ta l p a s s io n s in an
e m o tio n a l m a n n e r , b e c a u s e it c r e a t e s d r e a m s w h ich m e n tr y to r e a liz e ,
a r t a ff e c ts co n d u ct.
T h e se id e a s ab ou t th e w o r ld and a r t a r e a ll c o m p a r a tiv e ly o b v i
o u s. B ut s o m e of C a r y 's id e a s a r e m o r e su b tle; th e r e a r e , fo r e x a m p le ,
h is c o n c e p t of ch a n g e and h is d is lik e of a b s tr a c tio n s . He b e lie v e d th a t
h is t o r ic a l ch a n g e o c c u r s b e c a u s e of th e h u m a n n e e d fo r " n o v elty ," th e
h u m an d e s ir e fo r n ew e x p e r ie n c e . T h e te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s of th e
p a s t s ix t y y e a r s su p p o r te d h is t h e s is . B oth th e a u to m o b ile and th e a i r
p la n e in th e ir e x p e r im e n ta l s t a g e s w e r e r ic h m e n 's h o b b ie s; th e y w e r e
so u g h t a s th e m e a n s of n ew and e x c it in g e x p e r ie n c e s . L a te r , th e y w e r e
ta k en up b y s o c ie t y a s a w h o le , a d a p ted to m a n 's ch a n g in g n e e d s , and
put to p r a c t ic a l u s e .
A b s tr a c t e x p la n a tio n s of lif e and h is t o r y s e e m e d e m p ty and
m e a n in g le s s to C a r y . F o r e x a m p le , h e c o n s id e r e d th e id e a of th e L ife
F o r c e a f o o lis h d e lu sio n : " F o r c e and lif e a r e a b s tr a c tio n s and tw o a b
s t r a c t io n s do n ot m a k e a th in g . L ife m e a n s so m e th in g o r so m e b o d y ,
266
- 4 -
w ith d e fin ite , and I sh o u ld s a y , fix e d c h a r a c t e r , th is and n ot t h a t .”
C a r y 's a r g u m e n t sh o w s not o n ly th e s u b tle ty and c la r it y of h is th ou gh t,
but h is s k e p tic a l a ttitu d e to w a r d o v e r ly s im p le e x p la n a tio n s of h u m a n
b e h a v io r , e x p la n a tio n s w h ic h d en y th a t m a n is a f r e e a g e n t.
One m o r e e x a m p le w ill s e r v e to illu s t r a t e C a r y 's s k e p t ic is m
about a b s tr a c tio n s : h is d is c u s s io n of th e M a ss M ind. C a ry o b s e r v e d
th at e v e r y a g e b e lie v e s in s o m e p a r tic u la r n o n se n s e : th e e ig h te e n th
c e n tu r y in th e n o b le s a v a g e , th e n in e te e n th in a u to m a tic p r o g r e s s , and
the tw e n tie th in th e M a ss M ind. C a ry a r g u e d th a t th e M a ss M ind d o e s
not e x is t in th e c o u n tr ie s of th e W e ste r n w o rld ; it is fou n d o n ly in p r im
itiv e t r ib e s lik e th o s e h e h ad k n ow n in A fr ic a . T he tr ib e h u n ts, d r in k s,
or d a n c e s to g e th e r , and e v e n if a m a n w a n te d to do so m e th in g d iffe r e n t,
"it w o u ld n o t b e th e r e to do." In c o n tr a s t, th e " m ob s" of th e W e ste r n
w o r ld s e e n a t fo o tb a ll g a m e s or m o tio n p ic tu r e s a r e not a m a s s m in d
fu n ctio n in g a s one w ill but la r g e g ro u p s
a c tu a lly c o m p o s e d of in d iv id u a ls w h o h a v e f r e e ly c h o s e n to jo in th at
c ro w d to d a y and w ill jo in a d iffe r e n t one to m o r r o w . W hat lo o k s lik e
a p r o o f of th e m o b m in d is r e a lly e v id e n c e o f sp r e a d in g in t e r e s t s
a m o n g th e p e o p le and a v a r ie t y of o c c u p a tio n s. . . . th e c r o w d s at the
c in e m a s and th e b u s lo a d s on th e s ig h t - s e e in g to u r s a r e on th e w a y
up. T h ey h a v e a lr e a d y le f t th e m a s s ; th e y a r e in d iv id u a ls s e e k in g
id e a s fo r t h e m s e lv e s .
C a ry b e lie v e d th a t th e d e v e lo p m e n t of n ew in t e r e s t s w a s th e r e
s u lt of m o d e r n e d u c a tio n . T he n u m b er of u n iv e r s ity -e d u c a t e d p e o p le is
m a n y h u n d red tim e s w h a t it w a s fif ty y e a r s a g o , and th e e ffe c t is an im
m e n s e d e v e lo p m e n t in th e a p p r e c ia tio n of th e a r ts and lit e r a t u r e .
4
"W hat D o es A r t C r e a te ? " II, 4 0 .
^"The M a ss M ind: Our F a v o r ite F o lly ," H a r p e r 's , 2 0 4 :2 5 -2 7 ,
M a rch 1952.
267
S im ila r ly , th e g r e a t m a s s of p e o p le is b e in g e d u c a te d and is r e a c h in g
u p w a rd s. C a ry a ls o a r g u e d a g a in s t th e b e lie f th a t d e m o c r a tic e d u c a
tio n d e b a s e s sta n d a r d s of th ou gh t and p r o d u c e s m in d s w ith o u t s p ir itu a l
s tr e n g th , w h ile S o v ie t e d u c a tio n p r o d u c e s s k illf u l but d o c ile c r a f ts m e n .
T he E a s t is n o t s u c c e e d in g in o b ta in in g a m a s s m in d e i t h e r - - i t is
g o in g in th e o p p o site d ir e c t io n . M e r e ly b y th e p r o c e s s of e d u c a tio n ,
it is p r o d u cin g e v e r y y e a r p e o p le w h o ca n at l e a s t th in k a lit t le m o r e
f r e e ly th an illit e r a t e p e a s a n ts , w h o a r e v e r y lik e ly th e r e fo r e to th in k
c r it ic a l th o u g h ts, h o w e v e r m u ch th e y m a y h id e th em . (p. 27)
C a ry b e lie v e d th a t e d u c a tio n ca n n o t p r o d u c e th e m a s s m in d; m in d s a r e
c r e a t iv e , and th o u g h ts c a n n o t be c o n tr o lle d b y th e c le v e r e s t p o lic e .
C a ry w a s d e te r m in e d to p r e s e n t h is id e a s su b tly , a c c o r d in g to
h is b e lie f th at p e o p le le a r n fr o m e x p e r ie n c e not fr o m d icta ; h o w e v e r ,
h is v it a l c o n c e r n w ith th e p r o b le m s o f th e m o d e r n w o r ld is c o m p le te ly
e v id e n t in h is n o v e ls . A ll c o n c e r n b a s ic p r o b le m s , and a ll d e p ic t th e
tw e n tie th c e n tu r y s c e n e . T he d o m in a n t th e m e s in C a r y 's w o r k a r e
m a n 's fr e e d o m and c r e a t iv it y and th e in e v ita b le c o n flic t b e tw e e n f r e e
dom and a u th o r ity . C a ry t r e a t e d t h e s e th e m e s in th e r e a lm s of r e l i
g io n , m a r r ia g e , g o v e r n m e n t, and a r t. He a ls o e x a m in e d th e c o n te m p o
r a r y p r o b le m s o f ju v e n ile d e lin q u e n c y , w o m a n 's n a tu r e and p la c e in th e
w o r ld , and th e im p a c t of m o d e r n te c h n o lo g y on s o c ia l and m o r a l c o d e s .
A s I p o in te d out in th e c h a p te r on th e A fr ic a n n o v e ls , C a ry w a s
to o w e ll b a la n c e d to be e ith e r a c o lo n ia lis t or an A f r i c a - f i r s t e r . He
sa w th a t A fr ic a n e m e r g e n c e is in e v ita b le and th a t A fr ic a n e e d s E u r o
p e a n h e lp to b r id g e th e gap b e tw e e n th e S tone A g e and th e tw e n tie th
cen tu ry ; it h a s a fe w y e a r s in w h ic h to m a k e th e t r a n s itio n w h ic h r e
q u ir e d c e n tu r ie s in th e W e ste r n w o r ld . C a ry w a s in t e r e s t e d in th e im
p a c t of E u r o p e a n c u ltu re and id e a s on th e A fr ic a n , and in th e n ew id e a s
268
w h ic h lib e r a te h im fr o m tr ib a l d o m in a tio n . H o w e v er , C a ry o b s e r v e d
th a t th e c o n flic tin g g r o u p s w ith in A fr ic a , th o s e w h o w o u ld m o v e a h e a d
and th o s e w ho w o u ld r e m a in in th e tr a d itio n a l p a tte r n s , fu r th e r c o m p li
c a te th e e f f e c t of E u r o p e a n c u ltu r e on A fr ic a .
In e a c h of th e A fr ic a n n o v e ls C a ry e x a m in e d s o m e im p o rta n t a s
p e c t of th e A fr ic a n s c e n e : in A is s a S a v ed th e im p a c t of fu n d a m e n ta list
C h r is tia n ity on m in d s g e a r e d to ju ju and a n im ism ; in T he A m e r ic a n
V is ito r th e p e r p e tu a l c o n flic t in g o v e r n m e n t b e tw e e n d e s p o tis m and a n
a r c h y . A s an e x p e r ie n c e d p o lit ic a l a d m in is tr a to r C ary k n ew th at p e a c e
is n o t a n a tu r a l d e v e lo p m e n t; it ca n n o t be a c h ie v e d w ith o u t la w and th e
p o w e r to e n fo r c e la w . He kn ew th e p e n a lt ie s of d e s p o tis m , but he a ls o
kn ew th a t u n c o n tr o lle d fr e e d o m r e s u lt s in a n a r c h y . The A fr ic a n W itch
is , in m y o p in io n , th e m o s t im p o r ta n t in id e a s th ou gh not th e b e s t of the
A fr ic a n n o v e ls . T he c o n flic tin g f o r c e s , b o th n a tiv e and E u ro p ea n , th o se
tr y in g to h o ld A fr ic a b a c k and th o s e tr y in g to p u sh it fo r w a r d , a r e v i v
id ly d e p ic te d . T he u n fo r g e tta b le w itc h c r a ft p r i e s t e s s , E liz a b e th A la d a i,
and h e r b r o th e r , the O x fo r d -e d u c a te d p r in c e , w h o t r ie s to h e lp h is p e o
p le a d v a n ce , a r e b r illia n t c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n s , but th e b o o k is im p a ir e d
by w e a k n e s s e s in fo r m .
The b e s t of th e A fr ic a n n o v e ls , M r. J o h n so n , c o n c e r n s the p r o b
le m of r e s p o n s ib ilit y (a b a s ic p r o b le m in a ll of C a r y 's n o v e ls ). J o h n so n
a p p e a r s to b e a n ir r e s p o n s ib le a d o le s c e n t , y e t a ll h is e ffo r ts a r e to w a rd
a c h ie v in g r e s p o n s ib ilit y , to w a rd w h a t h e c o n s id e r s th e g r e a t e r , m o r e
s a t is f y in g E u r o p e a n w a y of lif e . T he E u r o p e a n c h a r a c t e r s a ls o e x p e r i
e n c e c o n flic ts b e tw e e n o ff ic ia l and p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s ib ility . R u d b eck is
fa c e d w ith a c h o ic e b e tw e e n h is d u ty to th e B r it is h c o lo n ia l
269
a d m in istr a tio n and h is p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s ib ilit y to th e b o y w ho w o r sh ip s
h im and t r ie s to e m u la te h im . M r. J o h n so n h a s th e p e r fe c tio n of fo r m
th at th e o th er n o v e ls of A fr ic a la c k , but in c o m p a r is o n w ith th e n o v e ls
of th e t r ilo g ie s it is a d is tin c t ly m in o r a c h ie v e m e n t.
C ary p r e s e n te d c le a r ly in th e 1 9 3 0 's and 1 9 4 0 's th e c o n flic ts
th at h a v e b e c o m e in c r e a s in g ly v io le n t in A fr ic a to d a y . He d is c u s s e d
b a s ic A fr ic a n p r o b le m s th o ro u g h ly in T he C a se fo r A fr ic a n F r e e d o m
and in B r ita in and W est A f r ic a , and h e s u g g e s te d s o m e v e r y p r a c tic a l
s o lu tio n s, w h ic h co u ld be a c h ie v e d b y th e n a tiv e s th e m s e lv e s , su c h a s
s im p le ro a d c o n str u c tio n , a g r ic u ltu r a l and m in in g d e v e lo p m e n t, e d u c a
tio n , e tc . In th e n o v e ls he su c c e e d e d , in k e e p in g w ith h is b e lie f th at a
n o v e l sh ou ld b e an e m o tio n a l and m o r a l e x p e r ie n c e , in p r e s e n tin g both
the A fr ic a n 's and th e E u r o p e a n 's p r o b le m s m o v in g ly and s y m p a th e tic a l
ly w ith g r e a t r e a lis m , in te n sity , and depth of p s y c h o lo g ic a l in sig h t.
In th e n o v e ls of ch ild h o o d C ary e x a m in e d p r o b le m s of v ita l c o n
c e r n to c o n te m p o r a r y s o c ie ty : th e d e v e lo p m e n t fr o m ch ild h o o d to
adu lth ood and th e r e a s o n s fo r ju v e n ile d elin q u en cy . C a r y 's id e a s w e r e
d efin ite: c h ild r e n n eed a gu id e to life ; th ey n e e d to know w h e r e th ey
a r e, to be to ld rig h t fr o m w ro n g . But h e a ck n o w led g ed th at d e s t r u c
t iv e n e s s is one w a y c h ild r e n le a r n about th e w o r ld , and th at c h ild r e n
and p u p p ies a r e d e s tr u c tiv e by n a tu r e. He b e lie v e d th a t c h ild r e n g et
into tr o u b le fr o m b ored om ; th e ir im a g in a tio n s a r e fu r io u s ly a c tiv e and
n eed to b e fed; th e y a r e a v id fo r new id e a s and e x p e r ie n c e . C h ild re n
le a r n about th e p h y s ic a l w o r ld w ith r e la t iv e e a se ; it is th e m o r a l w o r ld
w h ich is th e ir g r e a t d iffic u lty b e c a u s e th e y ca n not s e e it or to u ch it,
y e t th e y know it e x is t s . C a r y 's th e o r y , and I th in k it a v a lid on e, w a s
270
that c h ild r e n c o m m it c r im e s a s m o r a l e x p e r im e n ts to s e e w hat w ill
happen. The only a n sw e r to ju v en ile d elin q u en cy is fo r p a r e n ts to a s
su m e th e ir r e s p o n s ib ilitie s for guiding th e ir ch ild ren . C a r y 's s t r e s s on
the im p o rta n c e of the h o m e in To Be A P i l g r i m , The M o o n lig h t, A F e a r
fu l J o y , and the Secon d T rilo g y , is fo r e sh a d o w e d in the n o v e ls of c h ild
hood. In To Be A P ilg r im and E x ce p t The L o rd the im p o rta n c e of the
h o m e is r e in fo r c e d b y P r o te s ta n t th eo lo g y . But m o r e im p ortan t than
th eo lo g y is the fa c t that the fa m ily is the p r im a l unit of so cie ty ; the
h om e is w h e r e c h ild re n le a r n about lif e .
I do not find A H ou se of C h ild ren a s a tis fy in g n o v e l. The c h a r
a c te r iz a tio n s , sty le , and e v o c a tio n of s c e n e s of ch ild h ood a r e e x ce lle n t;
the u s e of the se n sa tio n s of sig h t and s m e ll to evok e m e m o r ie s is s t y l
is t ic a lly in te r e stin g , but I fin d the n o v e l too e p is o d ic to be s a tis fy in g .
C h a rley Is M y D arlin g is w ild ly e x a g g e r a te d in c e r ta in p a s s a g e s , but
the a n a ly s is of d elin q u en t c h ild r e n is b e lie v a b le , and the s to r y and
c h a r a c te r iz a tio n s a re m o v in g . C a ry ack n o w led g ed that feed in g c h il
d ren 's a c tiv e im a g in a tio n s w ou ld not by it s e lf s o lv e the p r o b le m of ju
v e n ile delin quency; h o w e v e r, h is e m p h a sis on the im p o rta n ce of the
h o m e and the r e s p o n s ib ility of p a r e n ts fo r tea ch in g th eir c h ild re n a se t
of m o r a l stan d ard s is fa r w is e r than the s o c io lo g ic a l so lu tio n of m o r e
and b ig g e r s c h o o ls , p la y g r o u n d s, and youth g ro u p s. But as lit e r a r y
w o r k s, the n o v e ls of ch ild h ood a r e the le a s t im p o rta n t and le a s t s a t i s
fyin g of C a ry 's w o r k s.
The n o v e ls b e fo r e the F i r s t T r ilo g y w e r e a ll e x p e r im e n ts in
su b jec t m a tte r and tech n iq u e. A s A n d rew W right puts it, C ary had to
m ak e a n o v e lis tic jo u rn ey b e fo r e he w a s su ffic ie n tly e x p e r ie n c e d as a
271
n o v e lis t to w r ite the F i r s t T r ilo g y (J o y c e C ary: A P r e f a c e To H is N o v
e l s , p. 65). He had to w o r k h is w a y th rou gh the A fr ic a n s c e n e b e fo r e he
w a s r ea d y to a ttem p t the m o r e c o m p lic a te d E n g lis h and Irish s c e n e s .
He had a lr e a d y s o lv e d m a n y p r o b le m s of p r e se n ta tio n , m o v in g fr o m the
o v e r - c o m p le x it y of T he A fr ic a n W itch to the d e c e p tiv e s im p lic it y of M r .
J o h n so n and C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g . F u r th e r m o r e , the c h a r a c t e r s of the
F i r s t T r ilo g y h a v e a c o m p le x ity and m a tu r ity that the c h a r a c t e r s of the
e a r li e r n o v e ls la ck . Thus C ary w a s a fu lly d e v e lo p e d c r a f ts m a n w h en
h e w r o te the F i r s t T r ilo g y .
T h e se n o v e ls s u c c e s s f u lly co m b in e id ea and fo r m . M o r e o v e r ,
C a ry m a d e fu ll u s e , fo r the f i r s t tim e , of the tr e m e n d o u s a d v a n ta g es of
h u m o r and c o m ic iro n y . He w an ted to u s e the n o v e l to h elp the w o r ld
u n d ersta n d it s e lf , but he kn ew that s e r io u s , p h ilo s o p h ic a l n o v e ls a re
s e ld o m read! H um or and ir o n y h e lp e d h im p r e s e n t s e r io u s id e a s a t
tr a c tiv e ly . M o r e o v e r , as Ilse L ind p e r c e p t iv e ly o b se r v e d , h u m or is the
a c h ie v e m e n t of " s u p r e m e ly m a tu r e a w a r e n e s s ," and the F i r s t T r ilo g y
in th is s e n s e is " m e ta p h y sic a l c o m e d y o r d e rin g th e d isp a r a te tru th s of
the m o d e r n w o r ld in the w a y Don Q uixote o r d e r e d th em in the R e n a is
sa n ce." ^ The F i r s t T r ilo g y im p o s e s o r d e r on our c h a o tic w o rld .
C erta in e le m e n ts c h a r a c t e r is t ic of C a r y 's la te r w o rk r e v e a l
t h e m s e lv e s c le a r ly fo r the f i r s t tim e in the F i r s t T rilo g y : all th r e e
n a r r a to r s f e e l the tw e n tieth c e n tu r y s e n s e of iso la tio n ; a ll a r e im p r i s
oned in one w a y or a n o th er, y e t a ll a r e f r e e . S a ra and G u lley a r e both
f r e e c r e a tiv e s p i r i t s - - S a r a b u ild s h o m e a fte r h om e; G u lley p a in ts, and
^"Doomed to Be Free," Nation, March 29, 1958, pp. 280-281.
e n u n c ia te s the c r e d o that m a n is f r e e to c r e a t e a h e a v e n or a h e ll for
h im s e lf . W ilc h e r r e a li z e s at the en d of h is lif e that he had f r e e l y c h o
s e n to c lin g to m a t e r ia l p o s s e s s i o n s . The c h a r a c t e r s a ls o illu s t r a t e
C a ry 's b e lie f in the p e r p e tu a l r e v o lu tio n of life: S a r a 's h o m e s a r e d e
stro y ed ; G u lley 's p a in tin g s a r e u n sa la b le; W ilch er is put in c h a r g e of
h is n ie c e . The p e r p e tu a l r e v o lu tio n a ls o a ffe c ts the c o d e s by w h ich m e n
l i v e - - s e x u a l m o r e s , the e d u ca tio n of c h ild re n , and p o lit ic s . S ara, liv in g
in s tin c t iv e ly and u n th in k in gly, d o e s not r e a li z e th is; she d o e s not change
and d o e s not r e a li z e the c h a n g e s arou n d h e r . H o w ev er, both W ilc h e r
and G u lley o b s e r v e h is t o r ic a l ch a n g e. G u lley v ie w s th in gs in th e ir
e te r n a l p a tte rn s; h e a ls o s e e s the ch a n g es in art, g o v ern m en t, and w o
m en . F o r e x a m p le , he c o n tr a s ts h is m o th e r , a c l a s s i c V ic to r ia n w o
m a n w ho co n d u cted h e r life by the cod e of duty, w ith a m o d e r n g ir l w ho
a ls o w a n ts to be " attach ed fo r life " but w h o h a s no cod e to liv e by. It is
W ilch er, the c o n te m p la tiv e m a n , w ho o b s e r v e s the e n o r m o u s s o c ia l up
h e a v a ls of the p a s t s ix ty y e a r s : the d iffe r e n c e b e tw e en the fa ith in
p r o g r e s s of the V ic to r ia n s and th e c y n ic a l d is illu s io n m e n t of the tw e n ti
eth cen tury; the d if fe r e n c e b e tw e e n the b e lie f that c h ild r e n sh ou ld be
brough t up as C h r istia n s and h is n ie c e ' s u n c e r ta in ty that h e r so n sh o u ld
be a C h r is tia n at all; the d if fe r e n c e in s e x u a l c o d e s - - W ilc h e r r e f u s e d
to m a r r y h is m is t r e s s ; h is n ie c e li v e s w ith h e r lo v e r and th en m a r r ie s
h im . H o w ev er, W ilch er fin a lly r e a li z e s th at the c o d e s ch an ge but the
fa m ily co n tin u es; life flo w s on, and life is a p ilg r im a g e fo r e v e r y h u
m a n b ein g . W ilc h e r 's s t o r y is a m a g n ific e n t illu str a tio n of C a r y 's b e
lie f th at in th is d a n g er o u s w o r ld , "W ise m e n le a d the liv e s of p ilg r im s."
T o Be A P ilg r im is a ls o an ou tstan d in g p o r tr a y a l of the
273
c o n s e r v a tiv e te m p er a m e n t. R a r e ly h as an author so p e n e tr a tin g ly
a n a ly zed the c o n s e r v a tiv e m in d. C ary u n d ersto o d that the c o n s e r v a tiv e
is n eith er b lin d nor stupid; in stea d , he is d e e p ly attach ed to ru le, tr a d i
tion, and o r d e r - - t h e v e r y fou ndations of r e lig io n , g o v ern m en t, and art.
The c o n s e r v a tiv e and h is d ile m m a in the fa st-c h a n g in g tw en tieth c e n
tu ry a r e su p e r b ly d ep icted in W ilc h e r 's sto ry .
The H o r s e 's M outh is , of c o u r se , a p a ea n to m a n 's c r e a tiv ity ,
Man is fr e e to c o n str u c t a h e a v e n or h e ll for h im se lf; c r e a tio n is both a
b le s s in g and a c u r se b e c a u s e the e ffo rt can n e v e r c e a s e ; c r e a tio n
c a u s e s c o n flict, tra g ed y , and in ju stic e , and the only so lu tio n is fu rth er
c r e a t io n - - co n sta n t ren ew a l. The g o s p e l of w o r k w a s C a ry 's a n sw er to
m a n 's p r e d ic a m e n t- -w o r k , not d e sp a ir or c o m p la in ts --b e c a u s e n e ith er
w ill help m a n w ith the job of liv in g . The d istin c tiv e c h a r a c t e r is tic of
both S ara and G ulley is that th ey a re d e te r m in e d to en joy life; th ey m ak e
a v ir tu e of n e c e s s it y . E a ch know s that s e lf - p it y and hate a r e c o r r o s iv e .
Sara is a fra id she w ill g et s ic k and old and be unable to work; G u lley is
a fra id only of a stro k e w h ich w ould r en d er h im unable to w o r k - - h e can
ig n o re s ic k n e s s and a g e . T h ey a r e con fid en t of th eir a b ility to cop e
w ith th eir p r o b le m s , and th eir attitu d es r e f le c t C ary's b a s ic co n fid en ce
in m an.
The H o r s e 's M outh is a ls o an outstan din g p o r tr a y a l of the a r tis t
at w ork , the c r e a tiv e m in d in the p r o c e s s of c o m p o sitio n . The c r e a tiv e
p r o c e s s h as n e v e r b e e n so c le a r ly and co n v in cin g ly r e p r e s e n t e d - - f r o m
the f ir s t p e r c e p tio n of s e n s e data to-the sh apin g of s e n s e im p r e s s io n
into p a ttern , to the a r ra n g em en t of sy m b o ls in a c o m p o sitio n to e x p r e s s
m ea n in g .
275
7
a r tis tic gen iu s I h ave e v e r en co u n ter e d in p rin t." C ary knew that in a
n o v el " ch a ra cter c o m e s first" ; h o w e v e r , it is the id e o lo g ic a l and m o r a l
co m p le x ity as w e ll as the r ic h n e s s of c h a r a c te r iz a tio n and the p e r f e c
tion of fo r m that m a k e s th e s e s t o r ie s s o m e m o r a b le . The jo y in life
that su rm o u n ts the tr a g e d ie s is a ls o r e m a r k a b le . G u lley is c a r te d off
to the h o sp ita l and la u g h s though h e knows he is dying; la u g h ter is h is
one d e fe n se . S a ra d ie s by G u lley 's hand, y et, w ith h e r la s t b reath , sh e
p r o te c ts h im . W ilch er d ie s s e r e n e ly , r e a liz in g that life ch a n g es but is
in d e str u c tib le . T h ere is hope in sp ite of tr a g e d y --h o p e in life its e lf.
T h is d is tin g u is h e s the F i r s t T r ilo g y fro m the S econ d T rilo g y , in w h ich
nothing r e lie v e s the g r im n e s s of the tr a g e d ie s .
B etw een the t r ilo g ie s c a m e tw o c h r o n ic le n o v e ls w hich, though
u n s a tisfa c to r y in fo rm and in fe r io r to the n o v e ls of the t r ilo g ie s , s t ill
m e r it s e r io u s c o n sid e r a tio n . The p r o b le m w ith both A F e a r fu l Joy and
The M oon ligh t w a s fo r m , not th e m e . I think A nd rew W right is c o r r e c t
in statin g that the c h r o n ic le w a s not C a ry 's b e s t m d tie r (J o y ce Cary: A
P r e fa c e to H is N o v e ls , p. 70). H is a ttem p t to u s e the c h r o n ic le fo rm
w a s u n s u c c e s s fu l in both of th e se n o v e ls .
A F e a r fu l Joy is an im p o rta n t study of the e ffe c t of te c h n o lo g ic a l
in ven tion s on tw en tieth c en tu r y s o c ie t y and m o r a lity . But the c h a r a c
te r iz a tio n s apart fr o m T abitha a r e not of the c a lib r e of th o se of the
b etter n o v e ls, and the fo r m is not s a tis fa c to r y . The book is b u sy ra th er
than e ffe c tiv e . The M oon ligh t is fa r m o r e im p o rta n t in te r m s of th em e,
c h a r a c te r iz a tio n , and fo r m . No m o d e r n n o v e lis t h as a ttem p ted both an
7
In My Opinion (New York, 1952), p. 198.
276
a n s w e r to T o ls t o y 's K r e u tz e r Son ata and a stu d y of w o m e n 's p la c e in
s o c ie t y , th e ir p o s itio n s in d iffe r e n t e r a s , and th e ir se x u a l n a tu re. The
id e a s and th e a ttitu d es of th e V ic to r ia n s to w a rd w o m e n - - t h e ir id ea that
w o m e n 's liv e s a r e d e te r m in e d by s o c ia l ly p r e s c r ib e d c o d e s and th eir
e s s e n t ia ll y s e n s u a l attitu d e th at w o m e n 's r o le is lim it e d to c h ild b e a rin g
- - a r e c le a r ly a n a ly z e d and c o n tr a s te d to the tw e n tieth c e n tu r y attitud e
to w a rd w o m e n as f r e e and r e s p o n s ib le and ab le to c o m b in e both c h ild
b e a r in g and c a r e e r . T he v a lu e to s o c ie t y of m o d e r n w o m e n 's fr e e d o m
is n ot c le a r ly ev id e n t in T he M o o n lig h t b e c a u s e . C a r y 's h e r o in e , A m an d a,
is u n s a tis fa c to r y . She is c o n fu se d about h e r r o le in life . She d o e s not
r e a liz e that c h ild b e a r in g a lo n e is n ot en ou gh fo r a w o m a n 's h a p p in e s s,
that the fa m ily unit in c lu d e s fa th e r a s w e ll a s m o th e r and ch ild . A m an d a
c a r r ie s on p r e g n a n t and a lo n e a fte r r e je c tin g tw o m en ; sh e f a c e s the in
e x o r a b le d em a n d s of lif e , but th is is an u n s a t is f a c t o r y s o lu tio n of the
d ile m m a of s in g le w o m e n in our t im e . H o w e v er , it is a v a lid r e p r e s e n
ta tio n of the m a n y w o m e n su p p o rtin g f a m ilie s by t h e m s e lv e s . A m a n d a 's
c o n fu sio n r e p r e s e n t s the c o n fu sio n of m a n y m o d e r n w o m en , but co n fu
s io n is n ot s a t is f a c t o r y in a n o v el. A n o v el, as C a ry h im s e lf a s s e r t e d ,
sh ou ld e s t a b lis h a m e a n in g . M o r e o v e r , A m an d a is not C a r y 's on ly e x
a m p le of th e m o d e r n w o m a n . B oth Ann in To Be A P ilg r im and N a n cy
in A F e a r fu l J oy a r e of the sam e' e r a , and both put up w ith d iffic u lt, d e
m a n d in g h u sb a n d s w ho a r e th e ir in f e r io r s s o c ia l ly and in te lle c tu a lly .
B oth w o m e n s e e k n ew so lu tio n s to o ld p r o b le m s but s u c c e e d o n ly by
adap ting t h e m s e lv e s to the w a y s of th e ir m e n , the tr a d itio n a l so lu tio n
fo r w o m e n .
It sh o u ld be n o ted th at C a r y 's b e lie f in the in d e s tr u c tib ility of
277
lif e , in th e co n tin u a tio n of the f a m ily , and in the c r e a tiv it y of w o m e n is
s y m b o liz e d by the r e m a r k a b le f e r t ilit y of h is h e r o in e s . T hey b e c o m e
p reg n a n t, m o s t ly b e fo r e m a r r ia g e , in e v e r y n o v e l w ith th e e x c e p tio n of
E x c e p t The L o rd and N o t H onour M o r e . C a r y 's w o m e n a r e g e n e r a lly
e a g e r fo r life , and th e y h old on to th e ir m e n by e v e r y m e a n s p o s s ib le ;
th e y a re o n ly s e c o n d a r ily c o n c e r n e d w ith co n v en tio n a l m o r a lit y b e fo r e
m a r r ia g e . H o w ev er, on ce m a r r ie d , th e y b e c o m e s tr ic t m a tr o n s . C ary
b e lie v e d in the s o c ia l c o n v e n tio n s, but h e knew th at th e y a r e im p o s e d on
a b a s ic n atu re w h o s e d em a n d s o ften c o n flic t w ith tr a d itio n a l r u le s .
N e v e r t h e le s s , it is p la in ly e v id e n t th at C a ry b e lie v e d in and u p h eld the
tr a d itio n a l r e la tio n s h ip of m e n and w o m e n in the fa m ily , and h e b e lie v e d
that it w o u ld co n tin u e. The co d e fo r the b e h a v io r of m e n and w o m e n
o u tsid e m a r r ia g e h a s ch a n g ed and w ill con tin u e to ch an ge, but the f a
m il y r e la tio n s h ip w ill r e m a in b e c a u s e it is b a s ic to s o c ie t y , and p e o p le
c o n s c io u s ly or u n c o n s c io u s ly a c k n o w le d g e its im p o r ta n c e .
T he S eco n d T r ilo g y m a r k s a n o th er sh ift in C a ry 's w o r k - - a sh ift
b a c k to the tr ilo g y fo r m a fter the tw o in te r v e n in g c h r o n ic le n o v e ls and a
sh ift in tone fr o m the r e s t of h is w ork . The th r e e n o v e ls of the S eco n d
T r ilo g y a r e in c r e a s in g ly g r im and dark. P r is o n e r of G r a ce en d s w ith
N in a 's k n o w led g e th at th e only s o lu tio n to h e r p r o b le m s is death. But
th e e n su in g d eath s a r e c o m p le te d e fe a ts , u n lik e the tr iu m p h s w ith in d e
fe a t w h ic h m a r k the F i r s t T r ilo g y . N in a p a s s i v e l y a llo w s J im to k ill
h er; C h e ste r d ie s ig n o m in io u sly , and J im is s e n te n c e d to d eath s t ill
o b liv io u s of the r e a l n a tu re of h is c r im e . T his g r im n e s s is not p r e s e n t
in any of C a r y 's oth er novels^ e v e n in th e m o s t v io le n t of the A fr ic a n
n o v e l s .
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The n o v el is a d istin g u ish e d p r e se n ta tio n of the a r t is t 's r e l a
tion sh ip to s o c ie ty , a r e la tio n sh ip th at has b een a p r o b le m in a ll c o m
p le x c u ltu r e s. W hen the a r t is t w a s p a tr o n iz e d b y an ind ividu al, h e w as
fo r c e d to con form to that in d iv id u a l's lik e s and d is lik e s . S in ce in d ivid u
al p a tro n a g e h as c e a s e d , th e a r tis t's p r o b le m is to s a tis fy s o c ie t y as a
w h o le. U n fortu nately, s o c ie t y is g e n e r a lly u n in te r e ste d in the a r tist,
p a r tic u la r ly w h en he is a d istu rb in g a n a ly st of the p r e s e n t s c e n e or a
p rop h et of the fu tu re. In addition, C a ry gave a v a lid r e a s o n for the
tim e la g b etw een the a r t is t 's e x p r e s s io n s and s o c ie t y 's u n d ersta n d in g of
th em . He c o m p a r e d the w o r ld to a la z y p ig w h ic h w ants on ly to s le e p
and the a r tis t to a m o sq u ito sen t by God to k eep the p ig fr o m going to
s le e p fo r e v e r . Thus C ary e m p h a s iz e d the im p o rta n c e of a r t as the
fo r c e w h ich p r o p e ls s o c ie t y fo rw a rd . E q u a lly im p ortan t is the p a r a lle l
C ary m a d e b etw een a rt m o v e m e n ts of the tw en tieth cen tu ry and c o n
te m p o r a r y fo r m s of g o v e rn m e n t. He c o m p a r e d C ub ism w ith S o c ia lis m ,
equating the effo rt to red u ce a rt to s im p le fo r m s w ith the effo rt to r e
duce h u m an c o m p le x itie s to sim p le fo r m u la s . H is p a r a lle l is strik in g,
and h is a n a ly s is of the e s s e n t ia l fa lla c y of o v e r s im p lifie d v ie w s of m an
is v a lid and im p ortan t.
In m y opinion, the F i r s t T r ilo g y is a m a jo r w o rk of art. The
th ree s t o r ie s a r e a c o m p e llin g v is io n of m an and s o c ie ty in the tw e n ti
eth cen tu ry, and the c h a r a c t e r s are s o m e of the m o s t v ita l and b e lie v
able fig u r e s in m o d er n fic tio n . As O r v ille P r e s c o t t w r o te, W ilch er is
"one of the m o s t su b tly d ev elo p ed , c o m p le te and o r ig in a l c h a r a c te r s in
m o d er n fic tio n ," and G ulley is "the m o s t co n v in cin g p r e se n ta tio n of
278
The Second T rilo g y is a rem a rk a b le a ch iev em en t. No other co n
te m p o ra r y E n g lish n o v e lis t h as ta ck led the p r o b le m s of go v ern m en t in
the c o m p le x con d ition s of a tw en tieth cen tu ry d e m o c r a cy , tack led the
p r o b le m s as th ey e x is t , not r em o v in g th em for con v en ien ce to an u n
fo r e s e e a b le future as did H uxley in B rave N ew W orld or O rw ell in 1 9 8 4 .
Nor has any other n o v e list so c la r ifie d the e s s e n tia l p ro b lem of g o v e r n
m ent, p r e se n tin g g o v ern m en t as a ch o ice b etw een p ersu a d in g m en or
sh ootin g th em . F u rth e rm o re , no other n o v e lis t has so c le a r ly show n
the p o litic a l nature of a ll hum an a c tiv ity - -th e constant str a in s and a d
ju stm en ts that are m e t in a ll hum an r ela tio n sh ip s w h eth er in the n u r s
ery , m a r r ia g e , b u sin e s s , or go v ern m en t. None of the e x tr e m e ly su b tle
co n tem p o ra ry p s y c h o lo g ic a l n o v e lis ts h ave e v e n ap p roached so c le a r
and so b road an a n a ly sis of m a n 's d ilem m a w h ich is p r e s e n t at all
tim e s and in a ll fo r m s of so c ie ty .
C ary thought of p o litic s as b eing lik e "navigation in a s e a w ith
out c h a r ts." He b e lie v e d that th ere is no e a s y w ay to s o lv e p o litic a l
q u estion s; h e a ls o b e lie v e d that "m anaging" p eo p le is the u ltim a te p r o b
le m of d e m o c r a tic p o litic s . S in ce "m anaging" and "m anipulating" o v e r
lap in m ean in g, the p r im a r y c o n c er n of the Second T rilo g y , as of a ll
C ary's w ork, is m o r a l. The m a tu r ity of C a ry 's thought is a lso evident;
he b e lie v e d that "there is no double stand ard of m o ra lity " in p o litic s ,
y et he ack n ow led ged that a p o litic ia n m u st a ct ex p ed ien tly in individual
situ a tio n s. C ary w as a p r a c tic a l id e a list, and he knew that the d iffe r
en ce b etw een the id ea l and the exp ed ien t is m e a s u r e d by the q u estion ,
"When is the s ta te sm a n e n titled to d eceiv e? "
C ary w as unique in h is ex a m in a tio n of E n g lish p o litic s for its
279
r e f le c tio n of P r o te s ta n t thought. The r e s u lt is a str ik in g c la r ific a tio n
of th e p a tte rn s of E n g lis h r a d ic a l p o lit ic s w h ich o ften s e e m in e x p lic a b le
to f o r e ig n e r s . He a lo n e d e m o n str a te d the in flu e n c e of e v a n g e lic a l r e l i
g io u s i d e a s - - t h e id e a s of p o lit ic a l lib e r ty , eq u al fr a n c h is e m e n t, and s o
c ia l w e l f a r e - - o n E n g lis h p o lit ic s . He s t r e s s e d the im p o rta n c e of the
h o m e in e v a n g e lic a l thought, th e e m p h a s is on th e r e s p o n s ib ility of p a r
en ts fo r te a c h in g c h ild r e n g o o d fr o m bad and fo r tr a in in g th em in p e r
so n a l, fa m ily , and c iv ic r e s p o n s ib ility . The S e c o n d T r ilo g y m a k e s p la in
h is c o n c ep t that the p r o b le m s of lib e r ty , r e s p o n s ib ility , and a u th o rity
a re p r e s e n t at a ll le v e l s of g o v e r n m e n t, w h eth er of a fa m ily or of a n a
tion .
The S eco n d T r ilo g y is a v iv id p ic tu r e of th e d iffe r e n c e s b e tw e en
the c o m p r o m is in g m a n and the a u th o r ita r ia n m a n . The p o litic ia n and
the s o ld ie r a r e the m o s t o b v io u s e x a m p le s of e a c h typ e. T he p o litic ia n
w ill c o m m it an y c r im e s h o r t of v io le n c e to get p o w e r and to k eep it.
The s o ld ie r w ill s h o o t m e n r a th e r than p e r su a d e th em ; he b e lie v e s that
v io le n c e can s o lv e m e n 's p r o b le m s . The a u th o r ita r ia n d e n ie s h u m an
fa llib ility ; he r e f u s e s to m a k e a d ju stm e n ts; he ig n o r e s the fa c t that v io
le n c e h a s n e v e r s o lv e d p r o b le m s ; he is o b liv io u s of the flu id n a tu re of
h u m an a ffa ir s . C ary r e a liz e d th at both attitu d es to the w o r ld a r e in h e r
ent in m en , th at both a r e u n a lte r a b le , and that c o n flic t b e tw e en th em is
in e v ita b le . He p r e s e n t e d that c o n flic t in t e r m s m e a n in g fu l fo r our tim e .
A s W a lter A lle n p o in ted out, a m a n m a y h a v e the w is e s t , m o s t
g
p rofou n d v ie w of lif e and s t ill be a fa ilu r e as a n o v e lis t . The fin a l
g
Joyce Cary (London, 1953), p. 8.
280
ev a lu a tio n of a w o r k of a rt is a e s t h e tic . C a r y ’s id ea s w e r e w is e and
m atu re, but it is h is e x c e lle n c e a s a c r a ftsm a n that m a k e s h is n o v e ls
im p ortant. A s 1 s a id b e fo r e , h is poin t of v ie w r e m a in e d the s a m e fr o m
the b eg in n in g of h is n o v e lis tic c a r e e r , but c e r ta in a s p e c ts of h is m eth o d
changed. The p r im a r y im p o rta n c e of c h a r a c te r is ev id en t fro m th e b e
ginning. C a ry s ta r te d w r itin g a n o v el to w o rk out h is in tu ition of a h u
m an b e in g in a p a r tic u la r d ile m m a . The hum an b ein g, u n p red icta b ly r e
sponding to a c o m p le x situ a tio n , w a s h is c e n tr a l in te r e s t. His p o w er of
creatin g c h a r a c te r is a tte s te d to by the fa c t that m on th s a fter fin ish in g
one of h is n o v e ls, lo n g a fter one h as fo r g o tte n the d e ta ils of the sto r y ,
the vital and unique p e r s o n r e m a in s v iv id ly in on e's m e m o r y . He c r e
ated a w h o le g a lle r y of su c h u n fo rg etta b le c h a r a c t e r s - - E liz a b e t h
A ladai, M r. Johnson, S a ra M onday, G u lley J im son, W ilch er, Tabitha,
Nina, C h e s te r N im m o and Jim L a t t e r - - a n d the c r e a tio n of c h a r a c te r is
the m o s t im p o rta n t a c h ie v e m e n t of the n o v e lis t.
H o w e v er , C a r y 's m eth o d of p r e se n ta tio n w a s c a r e fu lly in d ir ec t.
H is id eas w e r e d efin ite, but, b e lie v in g that m e n le a r n fr o m e m o tio n a l
e x p e r ie n c e not fr o m d icta, he w a s d e te r m in e d to p r e s e n t h is id eas
subtly. H e w a s c o n v in c e d that th e author sh ou ld s ta y out of sigh t, fo r
the r e a d e r w ho b e c o m e s aw are of the a u th o r's p lo t m a n ip u la tio n or
sty le c e a s e s to b e lie v e in the c h a r a c t e r s or story: the a u th o r's d e s ir e
to in str u c t h a s b e c o m e o b v io u s. C a r y 's p lo ts w e r e c a r e fu lly str u c tu r ed ,
n ev er h ap h azard . Indeed, in h is e a r ly n o v e ls he e r r e d too m u ch on the
sid e of p lo t m a n ip u lation . M o r e o v e r , a s E d w ard C a se p o in ted out, C ary
n ev er in d u lg ed h im s e lf w ith fa c ile p lot d e v ic e s lik e the c u r r e n tly p op u
la r " m om en t of truth" in w h ich a c h a r a c te r , in a fla sh , su dd en ly
281
9
a c h ie v e s in sig h t. C a ry k n ew that sudden, f la s h e s r a r e ly o c cu r in life;
life is a slo w , u n even , u n p r ed icta b le p r o c e s s . The " m o m en t of truth"
d e p ic ts m a n a s caught in a tra p . C ary, b e lie v in g in the p o w e r of ch a n ce
and in the c a p a c ity of m a n to h an d le h is p r o b le m s , a v o id ed su ch d e v ic e s .
H is e a r ly n o v e ls w e r e a ll w r itte n in th e sta n d a rd th ir d p e r s o n ,
s in g le s to r y m a n n e r. T he ad op tion of the t r ilo g y fo r m and the u se of
the f i r s t p e r s o n m a r k e d a ch a n g e in m e th o d w h ic h en a b led h im to fo c u s
m o r e in t e n s e ly on c o m p le x m o r a l s itu a tio n s . The v e r y c o n c e p t of th e
t r ilo g y is p h ilo s o p h ic a l- - t h e tru th one p e r s o n can know is lim ite d , but
the v ie w s of s e v e r a l o b s e r v e r s of the s a m e e x p e r ie n c e can g iv e a t h r e e -
d im e n s io n a l tru th . E a ch r e t e llin g fr o m a d iffe r e n t p oin t of v ie w p r o
v id e s n ew in s ig h ts , n ew m o t iv a tio n s , and n e w in te r p r e ta tio n s of the e x
p e r ie n c e and of the c h a r a c t e r s . The t r ilo g y fo r m is c e r ta in ly not a new
one, but it h as n ot b e e n a p o p u la r fo r m in E n g lis h fic tio n , and one of
C a r y 's g r e a t a c h ie v e m e n ts is to h a v e ta k en th e fo r m and u s e d its tr ip le
fo c u s to g iv e a m o d er n , c o m p le x , m a n y - s id e d v e r s io n of e x p e r ie n c e and
truth. F u r t h e r m o r e , the f i r s t p e r s o n m e th o d e n a b led h im to get in sid e
h is c h a r a c t e r s , to w o r k fr o m the in sid e out, a m e th o d m o r e e ffe c tiv e
fo r h is p u r p o se than the c ir c lin g s and p r o b in g s of the th ird p e r s o n . He
co u ld g e t an in c r e a s e d in t e n s it y of c h a r a c te r w ith the f i r s t p e r s o n
m eth o d , and, a b o v e a ll, he w a n ted h is n o v e ls to be " so a k ed in c h a r a c
te r ." S in ce th e n a r r a to r r e la t e s h is own im m e d ia te r e a c tio n s to a s it u
ation , C a ry co u ld a ls o c a p tu re th e s e n s e of th e a ctu a l p r e s e n t , the f l e e t
ing m o m e n t in a ll its in te n sity , and h is n o v e ls a r e u n m a tch ed in the
^"The F r e e W orld of J o y c e C a ry ," M o d e rn A g e , 3 :1 1 5 -1 2 4 ,
S p rin g 1959.
282
a tta in m en t of th is s e n s e of im m e d ia c y . M o r e o v e r , as the n a r r a to r r e
f le c t s on p r e v io u s o c c u r r e n c e s , the c o m p a r is o n of p a st and p r e s e n t
sh o w s c le a r ly both the c o n tr a s ts and the s im ila r it ie s of d iffe r e n t e r a s .
T h is co n sta n t ju x ta p o sitio n of p a st and p r e s e n t co m b in ed w ith the s e n s e
of the liv in g m o m e n t is a m a r k of C a r y 's b e s t w ork .
C a ry w a s a ls o e m in e n t in h is u s e of lan gu age to d ep ict in te r io r
m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s . A s H a za rd A d a m s o b se r v e d ,
C a ry 's m eth o d in the lon g run r e a lly d o es w ith lan gu age w hat the
s y m b o lis ts c o n sta n tly c la im e d to do, that is, to e x p r e s s lin g u is t ic a l
ly by s u g g e s tio n depths w h ich cannot be e x p r e s s e d by d ir e c t r e p r e
sen ta tio n .
I a g r e e w ith A d a m s that C a ry did
fr o m the le v e l of a r tic u la te s p e e c h . . . w hat Jo y ce and W oolf did
fr o m b elo w the le v e l of a r tic u la tio n . . . . He h a s r e a s s e r t e d that the
su r fa c e of s p e e c h as w e ll as that w h ich m o v e s b elo w it r e v e a ls the
m ind. (p. 120)
I think it is ev id en t that C a ry had a tr a g ic but not a p e s s i m i s t i c
v ie w of lif e . He a ck n o w led g ed the p o w e r of e v il, of bad luck, and of
ch a n ce. He b e lie v e d in the in h eren t tr a g e d y of life , but, in the fin a l
a n a ly s is , h e w a s not a p e s s i m i s t b e c a u s e he b e lie v e d in the e s s e n t ia l
in d e s tr u c tib ility of life:
if a ll lif e on e a rth sh ou ld be o v e r - w h e lm e d in an aftern oon , the w om b
of o c ea n w ou ld s t i l l h old the te e m in g s e e d and, in its own tim e . . .
w ould b r in g fo rth an other r a c e of m en , oth er c u ltu r e s.
T h e r e fo r e , C ary w a s n e ith er a p e s s i m i s t nor an unthinking o p tim ist.
W hat has c o n fu se d c r it ic s is that he e x p r e s s e d h is tr a g ic v ie w of life
w ith h u m or and iron y.
^ " J o y c e C a r y 's T h ree S p e a k e r s," M od ern F ic tio n S tu d ie s , 5:
1 0 8 -1 2 0 , Siam m er 1959.
^ Except The Lord (New York, 1953), p. 210.
283
The fin a l ju d g m en t of lit e r a r y w o r k s is a e s t h e tic . C a r y 's tw o
t r ilo g ie s are m a jo r w o r k s b e c a u s e in e a c h of th e s e s ix n o v e ls , th e m e ,
c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n , p lo t, and s ty le c o m b in e in h ig h ly in te g r a te d f o r m s .
A s I h a v e p o in ted out in the d is c u s s io n s of the in d iv id u a l w o r k s in the
p r e c e d in g c h a p te r s , the oth er n in e n o v e ls f a il in fo r m , p r im a r ily in p lo t
s tr u c tu r e .
In both the t r i l o g i e s and the o th er n o v e ls , C a ry u s e d a ll the n o v -
e l i s t i c r e s o u r c e s to s ta te h is v ie w of the h u m an p r e d ic a m e n t. He r e a s
s e r t e d th e b e lie f in a h u m a n is tic u n iv e r s e in an e r a d o m in a te d by m e c h
a n is tic b e lie f s . He r e a s s e r t e d m a n 's p o s itio n as a f r e e a g en t in a f r e e
w o r ld in an e r a w h ic h te n d s to d en y f r e e a c tio n . He r e a s s e r t e d the
u n iq u e n e ss of th e in d iv id u a l in an e r a in w h ic h m a n 's in d iv id u a lity is
c a lle d m o r e and m o r e into q u e stio n . He r e a s s e r t e d the im p o r ta n c e of
m o r a l v a lu e s in an e r a w h ic h q u e s tio n s and e v e n d e n ie s th e v a lid ity of
m o r a l sta n d a r d s.
In e s s e n c e , h is w o r k s a r e about h u m a n b e in g s' a tte m p ts to
a c h ie v e m a tu r ity . A s John H o llo w a y o b s e r v e d ,
C ary, in fa c t, h a s a m a tu r e m a n 's o u tlook at e x a c t ly the p oin t w h e r e
L a w r e n c e . . . in c lin e s to w a rd th e lo v e r s ' p r iv a te ly s u s ta in e d p a r a
d is e of the y o u n g . C a ry s e e s th a t h u m a n v ita lity , in v in c ib le in d eed ,
is s o b e c a u s e it m a k e s its c e n tr a l a s s e r t i o n th rou gh the c r e a tio n of
the h o m e, the co n tin u in g of a lin e a g e , th e c a r in g fo r c h ild r e n . . . .
C a r y 's attitu d e to w a r d m a n a ls o d iffe r e d fr o m S h a w 's. He did not take
the o m n is c ie n t p o s it io n and a m u s e h im s e lf by lau gh in g at m a n or p r o
p o sin g the so lu tio n of the S u p erm a n . N e ith e r did h e ta k e the p o s itio n of
B ec k e tt, d is g u s te d b y m a n and p r o p o sin g th e s o lu tio n of o b lite ra tio n .
12
" J o y ce C a r y 's F ictio n : M o d e rn ity and S u sta in in g P o w e r ,"
T im e s L ite r a r y S u p p le m e n t, A u g u st 7, 1959, pp. x iv - x v .
284
C a ry b e lie v e d f ir m ly in m a n and in h is a b ility to fa c e h is p r o b le m s , to
con tin u e liv in g and g r o w in g . C a ry w a s to o w is e to b e lie v e in fo r m u la s
or a b so lu te so lu tio n s; h e knew th at m a n 's p r o b le m s a r e not r e a lly s o l v
able; c o n flic t is in e v ita b le in lif e .
C a ry p r e s e n t e d t h e s e v ie w s in w o r k s th at a r e ou tstan d in g in
th e m e , c h a r a c te r iz a tio n , and s t y le . U nd oubtedly, the s ix n o v e ls of the
tw o t r ilo g ie s a re h is g r e a t e s t a c h ie v e m e n ts . And though the oth er n o v
e l s a r e not g r e a t, th e y a r e w o r th y tr e a tm e n ts of im p o rta n t t h e m e s . The
w h o le body of h is w o r k d e s e r v e s s e r io u s attention; but e v e n if he had
w r itte n n oth in g e ls e , th e tw o t r ilo g ie s w o u ld e n title h im to a p o s itio n
am o n g the m a jo r A n g lo - A m e r ic a n n o v e lis t s of the tw e n tieth c en tu ry .
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
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N o v e ls b y J o y ce C ary
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C a stle C o r n e r . London (C arfax ed itio n ), 1952.
M is t e r J o h n so n . London (C arfax ed itio n ), 1952.
C h a r le y Is M y D a r lin g . L ondon (C a rfa x ed itio n ), 1951.
A H ou se of C h ild re n . L ondon (C a rfa x ed ition ), 1951.
H e r s e lf S u r p r is e d . L ondon (C arfax ed ition ), 1951.
F i r s t T r ilo g y . New Y ork, 1958.
The M o o n lig h t. London (C arfax ed itio n ), 1952.
A F e a r fu l J o y . L ondon (C arfax ed itio n ), 1952.
P r is o n e r of G r a c e . L on d on (C arfax ed ition ), 1954.
E x c e p t The L o r d . N ew Y ork, 1953.
N ot Honour M o r e . New York, 1955.
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P o w e r in M e n . London, 1939.
The C a se fo r A fr ic a n F r e e d o m . London, 1941.
P r o c e s s of R e a l F r e e d o m . London, 1943.
B r ita in and W e st A frica . London, 1946.
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"C atching up w ith H isto ry " (rev. of R ich a rd W righ t's B la ck P o w e r ),
N a tio n , O ctober 16, 1954, pp. 3 3 2 -3 3 3 .
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tob er 30, 1949, pp. 1, 52.
"H orror C o m ic s," S p e c ta to r , F e b r u a r y 18, 1955, p. 177.
"The Idea of P r o g r e s s ," V ogu e, M a rch 15, 1954, pp. 6 8 -7 1 .
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He r a id -T r ib u n e B ook R e v ie w , O ctober 8, 1950, p. 10.
"Including M r. M ica w b er," N ew Y ork T im e s B ook R eview , A p r il 15,
1951, p. 4.
"An In terv iew w ith J o y c e C ary," W r ite r s At Work: The P a r is R e v iew
I n te r v ie w s , ed. M a lc o lm C ow ley. N ew York, 1958.
" Joyce C a ry 's L a st L ook A t H is W o r ld s ,” V ogue, A u gu st 15, 1957, pp.
9 6 -9 7 , 1 5 0 -1 5 3 .
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"My F i r s t N o v el," L is t e n e r , A p r il 16, 1953, pp. 6 3 7 -6 3 8 .
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30, 1950, pp. 1, 34.
"A N o v e lis t and H is P u b lic ," Saturday R e v iew , N o v e m b e r 27, 1954, pp.
11, 3 6 -3 7 .
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D avid C e c il," A dam In tern ation al R e v ie w , 1 8 :1 5 -2 5 , N o v e m b e r -
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" P a rty of One," H o lid a y , 16:6, 8, 1 1 -1 2 , 97, N o v e m b e r 1954.
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S c h o la r , 2 9 :2 3 5 -2 3 9 , Sp rin g I9 6 0 .
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