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An Empirical Study Of Sex-Role Identification And Sex-Role Preference In A Selected Group Of Stuttering Male Children

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An Empirical Study Of Sex-Role Identification And Sex-Role Preference In A Selected Group Of Stuttering Male Children

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Content This dissertation has been 62— 6041
microfilmed exactly as received
BROIDA, Helen, 1916-
AN EMPIRICAL STUDY O F SEX-ROLE IDENTIFI
CATION AND SEX-ROLE PREFERENCE IN A
SELECTED GROUP OF STUTTERING MALE
CHILDREN.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1962
Speech — theater
Univeisity Microfilms, Inc., A nn Arbor, M ichigan
Copyright by
Helen Broida
1963
AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF SEX-ROLE IDENTIFICATION
AND SEX-ROLE PREFERENCE IN A SELECTED GROUP
OF STUTTERING MALE CHILDREN
by
Helen Broida
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Speech)
June 1962
UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
GRA DUATE SC H O O L
UNIV ER SITY PA R K
LOS A N G E LE S 7 . C A L IFO R N IA
This dissertation, written by
......................................
under the direction of hsx....Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
_______
Dean
D ate Ju n e ...1 .9 .6 ........................................
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
A C K N O W LED G M EN TS
For their generosity and practical assistance, the w riter wishes
to thank Las Floristas for a research grant which made it possible to
devote m ore time to this study than would otherwise have been feasible.
Gratitude is expressed to the many individuals who contributed
their efforts to this investigation, and especially to Dr. Herbert
Popenoe, Chairman of the Committee on Research of the Los Angeles
City Schools, to Miss Miriam Keslar, Supervisor of Speech Correction
in the Elementary Schools of Los Angeles, to Mr. Leo Buscaglia, Su
pervisor of Special Education of the Pasadena City Schools, to Mrs.
Doras Lawrence, Administrative Assistant in the Inglewood City
Schools, to Mrs. Susan Zacon and Mrs. Catherine Mann, speech thera
pists in the Culver City Schools, to the Directors and therapists of the
Speech and Hearing Clinic of the University of Southern California, of
the Children's Speech and Hearing Clinic, and to the many speech ther
apists, school principals, classroom teachers, parents, and children
who participated.
The w riter wishes to express particular appreciation to Mr.
Milton Fogelman who provided encouragement, inspiration, perspective,
and humor, all of which helped to make this study an interesting and
profitable experience.
T A B L E OF C O N TEN TS
P a g e
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................. ii
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
USED....................................................................................................... 1
In tro d u ctio n.................................................................................... 1
The P ro b lem .................................................................................... 2
Statement of the Problem
Importance of the Study
Definitions of Terms U sed................................................... 3
Stuttering
Role
Sex-role
Identification
Sex-role identification
Sex-role Preference
Power
Ma s culinity
Instrumental behavior
Aggressive behavior
Courageous behavior
Expressive Behavior
Organization of the Remainder of the Study. . . . 8
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................................................. 9
Stuttering as a Neurotic Sym ptom ................................. 10
N arcissistic Neurosis Hypothesis
Moral Perfectionism in Stuttering and
Neurosis
Identification in Stuttering Children
Identification T h e o r i e s ........................................................... 14
Developmental and Defensive Identification
Research Supportive of Mowrer's
Theory
Role-taking "Power" Theory of
Identification
Literature Related to Methods Used in this
S tudy............................................................................................ 19
Sex-role Preference Test
iii
iv
C h ap ter P a g e
"Power" Theory Test
DAP Test
Sex of the F ir s t Figure Drawn
Relative Sizes of the P aired Figures
Sexual C haracteristics Drawn for
Each Sex
Sexual Differentiation
Parental P re fe re n c e ..................................................................... 25
C o n c lu s io n s.................. 26
III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES..................................................... 28
Subjects . ............................................................................................ 28
C riteria for Selection
Selection of the Subjects
Test M a t e r i a l s ............................................................ 33
M aterials Used with the Subjects
The IT Scale for Children (ITSC)
Structured Story-Completion Test
(SSCT)
D raw -A -P erson Test (DAP)
Structured Puppet Play Test (SPPT)
Questionnaire for P arents and Teachers
Constructing the Questionnaires
P a rt A of the Questionnaires
P a rt B of the Questionnaires
Validity and Reliability of the
Questionnaires
Administration of Test Battery and
Questionnaires
Environment of Test Administration
Establishing Rapport
P rocedure of Test Administration
A dm inistration and Scoring of the
SSCT
Administration and Scoring of the
SPPT
A dministration and Scoring of the
DAP
Adm inistration and Scoring of the
ITSC
Adm inistration and Scoring of the
Questionnaires
V. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA.................................................. 52
Presentation of the Data from Tests of Subjects 53
Sex-role Preference
Data from ITSC Scores
Developmental Change
V
C h ap ter
V.
P a g e
Sex-role Identification
Data from DAP Scores
Sex of the F irst Figure
Developmental Change
Relative Sizes of the Two Figures
Developmental Change
Number of Sexual C haracteristics
Drawn
Developmental Change
Sexual- Differentiation
Developmental Change
Summary of Data from DAP Scores
Data from the SSCT Scores
P arents as Power Figures
Developmental Change
Parents as Sources of Nurturance
Developmental Change
Parents as Sources of Punishment
Developmental Change
Comparison of Total Nurturance
and Total Punishment
Developmental Change
Summary of Data from the SSCT
Parental Preference
Developmental Change
Presentation of Data from the Questionnaires . . 65
Adopted Sex-role Behavior
Developmental Change
Sex-role Identification
Masculinity Scores
Developmental Change
Expressive Behavior
Developmental Change
Conscience
Developmental Change
Parental Discipline and P arent Re
sembled More by Subjects
Developmental Change
Summary of Data from Question
naires as Indicators of Identifi
cation
Parental Preference
Developmental Change
Parent Attitudes
Developmental Change
INTERPRETATION OF THE D A T A ......................................... 78
Advantages and Limitations of the Method used
in this S tu d y ........................................................................ 78
v i
C hapter P a g e
Data Pertaining to Sex-role P re fe re n c e .................... 79
Comparison of ITSC and Masculine
Activity Scale Data
Comparison of ITSC Findings of this
Study with Data from Other
Studie s
Summary
Data Pertaining to Sex-role Identification................. 81
Comparison of DAP Findings with
Findings from SSCT and Question
naires
Comparison of DAP Findings of this
Study with Findings of Other
Studies
Comparison of SSCT Findings with
Findings from the DAP and the
Que stionnaire s
Comparison of SSCT Findings with
Findings of Other Studies
Comparison of Data from Conscience
Scale with Findings in Another
Study
Summary
Data Pertaining to Parental P re fe re n c e ................... 94
Comparison of SPPT Data with
Questionnaire Data
Comparison of SPPT Data with
Findings of Other Studies
Summary
Interpretation of the Data Related to Questions
of the P r o b l e m .............................................................................. 96
VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS . . 98
S u m m a ry ........................................................................................................ 98
C o n clu sio n s..................................................................................... 99
Im plicatio ns.................................................................................... 101
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................... 104
APPENDIXES
Appendix A
Table 2 3 ..................................................................................................................... 110
Table 2 4 ..................................................................................................................... I l l
Table 2 5 ..................................................................................................................... 112
Appendix B
Structured Story Completion Test (SSCT)..................................... 114
Structured Puppet Play Test ( S P P T ) .................................................. 115
V l l
C hapter P a g e
Scoring S h e e t .............................................................................................. 116
Swensen Sexual Differentiation Rating Scale for the
D raw -A -Person T e s t ................................................................ 117
Questionnaire Scales
Instrumental S c a l e ............................................................ 119
Aggressive Behavior Scale . . . .................................. 120
Courageous Behavior S c a l e ................................................. 121
Expressive Behavior S c a l e ................................................. 122
Masculine Activity S c a le ......................................................... 123
Conscience S c a le ............................................................................ 123
P arent Attitude S c a l e ................................................................ 123
Parents' Q uestion n aire........................................................................ 125
Teachers' Q uestion naire.................................................................... 133
Appendix C
F o r m u la s .......................................................................................................... 138
LIST OF T A B L E S
Table Page
1. Scores, Number of Subjects, and Percentages of
Total Sample on the I T S C ............................................................... 53
2. Age Level Scores and Variability on the I T S C ............. 54
3. Number and Percentages in Each Group and Total
Sample Drawing Male or Female F irst on the DAP . 55
4. Number and Percentages of Each Age Level in
Relative Sizes of Figures Drawn on the DAP................... 55
5. Significance of Changes Between Groups A and B in
Relative Sizes of Figures Drawn on the DAP as
Measured by Chi S q u a r e .................................................................. 56
6. Significance of the Differences Between Means
Within Groups for Number of Sexual Characteristics
Drawn for Each Sex as Measured by t_ R a tio ................... 57
7. Significance of the Differences Between Means of
Groups I and III for Numbers of Sexual Details
Drawn for Each Sex as Measured by t R a tio ................... 58
8. Group Means and Significance of the Difference
Between Means of Groups I and III in Sex-Differenti
ation on the DAP as Measured by t^ R a tio .......................... 59
9. Significance of the Differences Between Power Figure
Means at Each Age Level and for Total Sample as
Measured by t R atio............................................................................. 61
10. Significance of the Differences Between Means at
Each Age Level Between Mother and Father N urtur
ance as Measured by t R a t i o ....................................................... 62
11. Significance of the Differences Between Group Means
for Mother and Father Punishment as Measured by
t_ R atio.................. 62
12. Significance of the Differences Between Means at
Each Age Level for Total Punishment and Total Nur
turance as Measured by t R a t i o ................................................ 63
v iii
ix
Table
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
2 0 .
2 1 .
2 2 .
P age
Significance of the Differences Between Means in
Each Group of Parental Preference as Measured by
t_ R atio............................................................................................................. 64
Differences Between Parents' Opinions within Groups
and Significance of these Differences Between P a r
ents of Total Sample as Measured by Chi Square
with Respect to which Parent the Subjects Desire
More to Please, Respond to More when Disciplined,
and Resemble More in Interests, Mannerisms, and
Personality.................................................................................................. 7 3
Significance of the Difference Between Proportions of
Mothers and Fathers Selecting the Father as the
Subject's Model in Personality as Measured by z
T e s t ................................................................................................................. 74
Parents' Opinions of Subjects' Parental Preference
Before Age Four and at the Present Tim e--Paired
Parents who Agreed and All Individual Opinions . . . 76
Comparison Between Means and Medians of Boys'
ITSC Scores of Brown's Study with those Obtained
from Subjects of this S t u d y ........................................................... 80
A Comparison of Weider-Noller Findings and Data
from this Study with Respect to Relative Sizes of
Paired Figures in the D A P .......................................................... 84
Comparison Between Boys and Girls of Each S-E
Class in Weider-Noller Study to the Boys of Eight to
Ten Years in this Study with Respect to the Number
of Characteristics Drawn for Each Sex on the DAP . 86
Similarities and Differences Between the Boys and
Girls of Six, Eight, and Ten Years in Swensen's
Study and the Same Aged Subjects of this Study with
Respect to Sex-Differentiation S c o r e s ................................. 87
Comparison Between the High and Low ITSC Scorers
in the Mussen and Distler Study and the Five Year
Old Subjects of this Study with Respect to their
SSCT M e a n s ............................................................................................... 91
Comparison of Ratings of Five Year Olds and Total
Sample of this Study with Five Year Old Boys and
Girls in other Study with Respect to Strength of
C onscience.................................................................................................. 93
X
T ab le P a g e
23. Group Means and Distribution for Mother, Father,
and Teacher Ratings of Subjects in the Instrumental,
Aggressive, and Courageous Behavior Scales and
the Masculinity Score M e a n s ........................................................ 110
24. Group Means and Distribution for Mother, Father, and
Teacher Ratings of Subjects in the Expressive and
Masculine Activity Scales, and for Parents' Ratings
in the Conscience and Parent Attitude S c a l e s .................... I ll
25. Descriptions of Subjects with Respect to Age, IQ or
Teachers' Estimates, S-E Status, Age of Onset of
Stuttering According to Mother a.nd Father, Foster
Parents, and Additional Speech P ro b le m s............................. 112
LIST OF ILLU STR A TIO N S
Figure Page
1. Masculine Activity Scale Ratings by Parents and
Teachers of Groups I, II, and III, Arranged on the
Quartile Distribution of the Total Scale Range............... 67
2. Masculinity Scores Arranged on the Quartile D istri
bution of the Total Range for Groups I, II, and III. . . 68
3. Expressive Behavior Scale Ratings of Parents and
Teachers of Groups I, II, and III Arranged on the
Quartile Distribution of the Total Scale Range............... 70
4. Conscience Scale Ratings by Parents of Groups I, II,
and III Arranged on the Quartile Distribution of the
Total Scale R a n g e ................................................................................. 71
x i
C H A PT E R I
THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
Introduction
Clinical observation has led to the hypothesis that the person
who stutters seems to be in conflict over his role or identity. This con
flict appears to rob him of a full sense of personal power and to prevent
him from asserting himself vigorously in his life situations. F urther
more, the conflict appears to have resulted in, rather than from, the
symptom of stuttering. As Glauber said, the symptom of stuttering
represents an unsuccessful attempt "to bind the underlying anxiety."'*'
Mowrer theorized that all conflicts which result in neurotic
symptoms arise from disturbances occurring in early childhood that
2
have interfered with the normal process of identification. He asserted
that there was confused, ambivalent sex-role identification in every
neurosis.
Results of research stemming from M owrer's theory led Brown
3
to introduce the theory of sex-role preference. According to Brown,
*Jon Eisenson (ed.), Stuttering--A Symposium (New York: Har
per and Bros., 1958), p. 93.
2
O. H. Mowrer, Learning Theory and Personality Dynamics
(New York: Ronald P ress, 1950), p. 597.
3
Daniel G. Brown, "Sex-Role Preference in Young Children,"
Psychological Monographs, LXX (1956), 1-19.
1
2
the neurotic conflict develops when there are discrepancies between the
degree of identification with a sex-role and the degree of preference for
that sex-role. To develop into a normal adult who is relatively free
from conflicts which result in neurosis, the child must not only strongly
identify with his own biological sex-role, but he must also strongly p r e
fer that sex-role to the other.
In this study, stuttering has been considered a neurotic symp-
4
tom, consistent with one viewpoint of the etiology of stuttering. Ac
cording to the theories of Mowrer and Brown, an investigation of sex-
role identification and sex-role preference in a sample of stuttering
boys should provide a clearer understanding of the nature of the con
flict with which the person who stutters appears to be involved.
The Problem
Statement of the Problem
This study was undertaken to investigate sex-role identification
and sex-role preference in the stuttering male child between the ages
of five through ten. The problem was stated in the form of six ques
tions :
1. Does the boy who stutters have a sex-role preference?
2. Does his sex-role preference change with age?
3. Does he identify with a specific sex-role?
4. Does his sex-role identification change with age?
5. Does he prefer one parent to the other?
4
E is e n s o n , op. c it., pp. 7 3 -1 1 9 .
6. Does his parental preference change with age?
Importance of the Study
This study was considered to be of importance because: (1) The
theory that stuttering is the result of a neurosis needs further research,
and evidence from this study might have bearing on that theory. (2) If
the conflict theory appears to be supported, this study might offer an
opportunity to obtain a clearer understanding of the nature of the con
flict in which the child who stutters is struggling. Since clinical evi
dence seems to point consistently toward a conflict over identification,
a research study was indicated. (3) During the past ten years there has
been a marked increase in the reported studies of identification and
sex-role preference in many populations. These studies have provided
a clearer understanding of personality development. So far as can be
determined, no study has been reported of an investigation of sex-role
identification and preference in children who stutter, and only one at-
5
tempt to study identification in stuttering children has been found.
Definitions of Terms Used
Stuttering
Stuttering was defined as a persistent form of speech behavior
which is an attempt to reduce anxiety without rectifying its cause,^ and
^D. M. Wilson, "A Study of the Personalities of Stuttering Chil
dren and Their Parents as Revealed Through Projection Tests" (unpub
lished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Speech, University of Southern
California, 1950).
£
Mowrer's definition of neurosis applied to the symptom of
7
is "characterized by hesitations, blocks, spasms, or repetitions" in
speech.
Role
"Role" was defined as a "patterned sequence of learned actions
perform ed by a person in an interaction situation" that becomes charac-
g
teristic of his position in a group and of his contribution to the group.
Sex- role. - - Sex-roles are culturally determined psychological
and social behavior patterns that are typical of one sex in contrast to
the other in each culture
Identification
Identification is the process in which the child "acts as though
he were occupying another person's ro le"^ and thereby adopts some
forms of parental behavior, attitudes, interests, and values.
Sex- role identification. - - Sex-role identification was
stuttering by the w riter. See Mowrer, op. cit., p. 535.
7
Bureau of Special Education, "Teacher's Guide for Survey of
Speech Defects" (Sacramento: State Department of Education, February
16, 1955), [n.p.].
g
Gardner Lindzey (ed.), Handbook of Social Psychology (Read
ing, Mass.: Addis on-Wesley Publishing Co., 1959), p- 224.
g
Brown, "Sex-Role P reference m Young Children," loc. cit.,
pp. 1-2.
^ M a rg a re t Mead, Male and Female (New York: William M or
row and Co., 1949).
^ R . Sears, E. Maccoby, and H. Levin, Patterns of Child R ear
ing (Evanston, 111.: Row, Peterson, and Co., 1957), p. 369.
operationally defined as the scores resulting from administering the
12
D raw-A-Person Test (DAP) and the Structured Story Completion Test
13
(SSCT) to the subjects, and from questionnaires given to the parents
and classroom teachers of the subjects. These scores were suggestive
of "behavior associated with one sex or the other that the individual in-
14
trojects and acquires as his own."
Sex-role Preference
Sex-role preference was operationally defined as the score re-
15
suiting from administering the IT Scale for Children (ITSC) to each
subject. The ITSC is a sex-role preference test for children, and the
obtained score is suggestive of the degree to which the subject prefers
and would like to adopt "behavior associated with one sex or the
other .
Power
Power was operationally defined as one of the scores resulting
from administering the SSCT to the subjects. This score was
1 2
Karen Machover, Personality Projection in the Drawing of the
Human Figure (Springfield, 111.: Chas. C. Thomas, 1949).
1 3
Paul Mussen and Luther Distler, "Masculinity, Identification,
and Father-Son Relationships," Journal of Abnormal and Social P sy
chology, LIX (November, 1959), 352.
14
Brown, "Sex-Role Preference in Young Children," loc. cit.,
p. 3.
^ D . G. Brown, The IT Scale for Children (Grand Forks, N. D.:
Psychological Test Specialists, 1956).
^B row n, "Sex-Role Preference in Young Children," loc. cit.
suggestive of the degree to which the subject perceives each of his p ar
ents as a source of nurturance and punishment, i.e., a power figure.
17 18
Role theorists Brim and Parsons maintained that a child will identi
fy more strongly with that parent whom he perceives as the more pow
erful source of both nurturance and punishment.
Masculinity
Masculinity was operationally defined as the sum of the scores
obtained from the Instrumental, Aggressive, and Courageous Behavior
scales of the questionnaires administered to parents and teachers of the
subjects. These three behavior scales, which are separately defined
below, purport to show the stereotype of masculinity in middle-class
American culture.
Instrumental behavior.--Instrum ental behavior was operational
ly defined as the score resulting from administering the Instrumental
Behavior Scale of the questionnaire to parents and teachers. The In
strumental Scale was designed to obtain ratings of the subjects' instru
mental or task behavior which has been assigned to the masculine role
19
by social psychologists. Behavior which can effectively alter or con
trol the environment, and accomplish this without emotional or
17
Orville G Brim, "Family Structure and Sex Role Learning by
Children: A Further Analysis of Helen Koch's Data," Sociometry, XXI
(1958), 3.
18
T. Parsons and R. F. Bales (eds.), Family, Socialization, and
Interaction Process (Glencoe, 111.: Free P ress, 1955).
19
7B r im , " F a m ily S tru ctu re and Sex R ole L ea rn in g by C hildren:
. . .j'lo c . c i t ., pp. 6 -7 .
expressive behavior as components, has been described as instrumen
tal. Although both males and females include instrumental traits in
their repertoire of behavior, studies have found males to be more in-
20
strumental than females.
Aggressive behavior.--Aggressive behavior was operationally
defined as the score resulting from administering this scale of the
questionnaire to parents and teachers. This score was obtained from
ratings of the subjects in behavior which reveals "a tendency to push
21
forward one's own interests or ideas, despite opposition." Aggres
sive behavior may be purely instrumental or it may contain emotional
or expressive elements.
Courageous behavior. - - Courageous behavior was operationally
defined as the score obtained from parent and teacher ratings of the
subjects in this scale of the questionnaire. Behavior measured by this
scale was the degree of overt withdrawal behavior in the subjects as
observed by the raters. Lack of withdrawal behavior was considered
indicative of greater courage.
Expressive Behavior
Expressive behavior was operationally defined as the score r e
sulting from parent and teacher ratings of the subjects' behavior as
measured by this scale of the questionnaire. Expressive behavior has
^ Ibid., p. 6.
21
Horace B. English and Ava C. English, A Comprehensive Dic
tionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytical Terms (New York:
Longmans, Green, and Co., 1958). p. 19.
22 2 3
been assigned by them to the feminine role. ’ Males as well as fe
males include expressive behavior traits in their repertoire, although
this behavior is more typical of the female. Parsons stated: "The
father is not all boss; the necessary basis of identification in object-
cathexis precludes an entirely instrumental relation of father and
„24
son."
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
This study was reported in six chapters, a bibliography, and an
appendix. In Chapter I, the problem has been stated, and term s were
defined which were used throughout the report. In Chapter II, a sum
mary of the literature was presented, and pertinent studies were selec
tively reviewed. A description of the subjects, the measures employed
to obtain data, and the procedure of test administration, was presented
in Chapter III. In Chapter IV the data gathered from the subjects' r e
sponses to the tests and from the parents' and teachers' responses to
the questionnaires were presented, together with the statistical analysis
of the data. An interpretation of the analysis of the data was presented
in Chapter V. The interpretations were made by relating the findings of
this study to findings in previous studies cited in the review of the lit
erature and by comparing the data from the tests to data from the ques
tionnaires. In Chapter VI the study was summarized, conclusions were
listed, and implications of the findings were presented.
22
Brim, "Family Structure and Sex Role Learning by Children:
. . .,"loc. cit., pp. 6-7.
^ P a r s o n s and B a le s, op. c i t ., p. 326. ^4 Ibid.
C H A PTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The view that stuttering is a neurotic symptom is representa
tive of only one school of thought concerning the etiology of stuttering.
However, the point of view from which this study was approached was
that stuttering is symptomatic of neurosis, therefore the literature r e
viewed in this chapter has been selected in relation to this point of
view.
The theories of Mowrer and Brown were basic to the present in
vestigation, and the literature presented in this chapter has been ex
plored in relation to these theories.
Clinical experience led Mowrer^ to conclude that neurosis is al
ways the result of difficulties in parent-child relationships during the
first five years and thereby prevent normal identification from develop
ing. He asserted that the connection between neurosis and identification
difficulties had not been sufficiently stressed, and that there are three
basic personality patterns resulting from the process of identification:
(1) the normal adult who is strongly identified with his own biological
sex; (2) the neurotic adult who is ambivalent and confused in sex-role
identification; and (3) the inverted adult who is strongly identified with
the opposite sex-role.
^Mowrer, Learning Theory and Personality Dynamics, p. 597.
9
10
2
Brown added the theory of sex-role preference to Mowrer's
theory of neurosis. Brown maintained that the neurotic conflict re
sulted whenever a person was not strongly identified with the sex-role
which he preferred, or when he was ambivalent in his sex-role prefer
ence .
Stuttering as a Neurotic Symptom
Narcissistic Neurosis Hypothesis
3 4
Coriat and Glauber described stuttering as a narcissistic
neurosis. In discussing narcissism, Horney stated:
The factor which contributes most fundamentally to the development
of narcissistic trends appears to be the child's alienation from
others, provoked by grievances and fears. His positive emotional
ties with others become thin; he loses the capacity to love.
The parents have so thoroughly superimposed themselves on the
mind of the child that he complies through fear. . . .h e gradually
loses the capacity to measure his own values. He becomes depend
ent on the opinions of others.^
Glauber discussed his opinion that the parental influences
which contributed to the child's acquisition of the stuttering symptom
were superimposed upon hereditary-constitutional factors in the child.
He believed that these constitutional factors gave the child diminished
2
Brown, "Sex-Role Preference in Young Children," loc. cit.,
p. 3.
3
Isador H. Coriat, "The Psychoanalytic Conception of Stammer
ing," II (January, 1943), 167-171.
^Eisenson (ed.), Stuttering--A Symposium, pp. 104-110.
5
Karen Horney, New Ways in Psychoanalysis (New York: W. W.
Norton and Co., 1939), pp. 230-231.
^ E isen so n , op. c it ., pp. 9 3 -1 1 0 .
11
protection against stimuli, leading him to motoric over-reaction.
Against these factors, Glauber described the m aternal influences to be
overprotective, anxious, and ambivalent. He found the father to be in
flight from the paternal role, thus providing his wife with a rationaliza
tion to play the father's role "by default." A confusion of parental roles
was the result of these relationships.
Glauber stated that the character structure and the stuttering
symptom developed from fixation at an early stage of ego organization.
Because of oral fixation, the essentially passive experience of identifi
cation was difficult, if not impossible, and there was a quality in identi
fication which was both literal and hostile. He described a vicious
circle in which identification was equated with being consumed and even
annihilated, but on the other hand, separation was unbearable because of
its early, traum atic, anxiety-provoking associations. As a result,
identifications of the stuttering person represent mainly partial objects,
rather than a total person who was taken as a model.
Moral Perfectionism in Stuttering and Neurosis
One result of the identification process has been hypothesized as
7 8
the development of conscience. Van Riper described the person who
9
stutters to be a "perfectionist who feels delinquent m orally" whenever
he does not live up to his standards. Van Riper referred to this m oral
perfectionism as "part of the underlying neuropathology of stuttering,"’ ^
7
Sigmund Freud, The Ego and the Id (first copyright, 1927;
London: Hogarth P re ss, 1950).
^ E ise n so n , op. c i t . , pp. 185-190. ^Ibid., p. 186. ^ Ib id .
1 2
and described the m other's influence in creating strong guilt feelings in
the child which are labeled "conscience."
Horney referred to all perfectionist aims as neurotic. She said
that "far from being identical with m oral norms and ideals, [they] p r e
vent the latter from developing."^
Identification in Stuttering Children
12
Wilson compared the personality characteristics of stuttering
children and their non-stuttering siblings to the personality c h arac ter
istics of their parents. The responses of each family m em ber to the
Rorschach, the TAT, and the Travis-Johnson Test were compared for
sim ilarities.
Wilson found significant sim ilarities between the stuttering sub
jects and their m others in aggression and hostility when the m others
were high in these responses. They were also sim ilar to their m others
in emotional im m aturity in Rorschach responses. Compared io their
siblings, the stuttering children were extrem ely aggressive on the TAT
and displayed greater inverted hostility. They resem bled their fathers
in a lack of positive identification with either sex. Fathers and stu tter
ing children alike revealed considerable ambivalence in identification
with one sex-role.
The conclusion Wilson drew from these and other findings of his
investigation was that children who stutter appear to have appreciably
^H o rn ey , loc. cit.
12
Wilson, "A Study of the Personalities of Stuttering Children
and Their Parents as Revealed Through Projection Tests," loc. cit.
13
introjected characteristics of their mother.
Wilson's study bears directly upon the purpose of the present
investigation. No other studies of identification in the stuttering person
have been found.
As parent-child relationships are basic to the process of identi-
13
fication, studies that have investigated these relationships in the fami
lies of people who stutter are indirectly pertinent to the present prob
lem.
14
Moncur investigated the importance of parental domination in
stuttering. He found mothers of stuttering children to rate significantly
higher than mothers of non-stuttering children in all classifications of
domination. Domination was defined as disciplinary action, oversuper
vision, overprotection, excessively high standards, and undue criticism.
i r
On the other hand, when La Follette compared the traits and
attitudes of parents of stuttering and non-stuttering children and adults,
he found no significant differences between both groups of mothers in
any of four tests. He pointed out that this may have been due to parent
counseling which most of the mothers of stuttering children had r e
ceived.
Significant differences, however, were found between the two
groups of fathers. The fathers of stuttering children were more poorly
adjusted in term s of mental health than the other fathers. They also
^M ow rer, loc. cit.
14
J. P. Moncur, "Parental Domination in Stuttering," Journal of
Speech and Hearing Disorders, XVII (June, 1952), 155-165.
C. La Follette, "Parental Environment in Stuttering Chil
dren," Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, XXI (June, 1956),
14
showed a greater tendency toward submission than all the m others and
than the control group of fathers.
Identification Theories
Developmental and Defensive Identification
Mowrer theorized"^ that in order for a child to develop a n o r
m al personality without neurosis, his early experiences m ust include
both loving care and discipline. Loving care or nurturance leads to de
velopmental identification, in which the child reproduces parts of the
beloved parent and develops certain skills as a result. These skills in
clude such abilities as speech, the beginning of social conduct, and
other necessary tools for acculturation. Discipline leads to fear of loss
of parental love in the child, and results in defensive identification. At
this stage of identification, the child assum es the role of the feared, but
loved parent, in order to reduce his threat. Defensive identification is
a necessary process in development of inner controls and conscience.
An optimum balance between nurturance and discipline appears
to exist for norm al identification to occur. Nurturance m ust precede
and exceed discipline. Without nurturance the child will make no a t
tempt to identify with the parent in order to acquire the necessary basic
skills. M oreover, since there will be no fear of loss of love, no defen
sive identification will occur. On the other hand, without discipline, the
child will not develop inner control and conscience or character. He
202-207.
^ M o w re r, op. cit., pp. 596-608.
15
will not assume the role of his sam e-sexed parent, a process which is
theorized by Mowrer to be essential to strong identification with one's
17
biological sex-role. As previously discussed, Mowrer believes this
to be critical in the development of a normal personality free from
neurosis.
According to Mowrer, children of both sexes form their original
developmental and defensive identification with the mother who gave
them their first loving care and discipline. Therefore, boys and girls
both incorporate much of their m other's personality. However, where
the girl continues and strengthens the original identification with her
sam e-sexed model, the boy m ust shift to his father as his main model if
he is to become strongly identified with the masculine role. This shift
of models is a gradual process which normally begins to occur around
age three. In the healthy family, the nurturing father begins to assume
m ore responsibility for the boy at that time, and the nurturing mother
encourages and rewards this relationship. Discipline from the loved
father leads to defensive identification and strong assumption of the
father's role on the part of the boy.
Because of the two different courses in identification taken by
boys and by girls, the boy's course is seen as m ore precarious due to
the shift of models.
Research Supportive of M owrer's Theory
l O
In one study of sex-role identification with kindergarten
18
Sears, Maccoby, and Levin, Patterns of Child Rearing, p. 369.
1 6
children of both sexes, the investigators reported that kindergarten
boys are not as strongly identified with their fathers as the girls are
with their mothers.
19
Snyder reviewed reported sex ratios of stuttering and found
that, although sex ratios varied from two to one to as high as ten to
one, all researchers agreed that males tend to stutter more than fe
males. The more precarious course of identification among boys can
not be overlooked as a possible contributing factor to this sex differ
ence.
Most cases of stuttering begin between the ages of two and four
years of age,^® the same time period in which the boy is beginning to
shift his identification model from his mother to his father, according
to Mowrer1 s theory.
In two independent studies, the MMPI was administered to male
and female subjects as a m easure of identification with either parent.
By comparing the subjects' self scores to the scores they obtained
when they were told to respond as they thought each parent and most
21
people would respond, identification scores were obtained. Sopchak
found that normal men tend to identify more with their fathers than
with their mothers. Men whose scores revealed them to have some
19
Dominick A. Barbara (ed.), Psychological and Psychiatric
Aspects of Speech and Hearing (Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas,
1960), p. 349.
^ C h a rle s Van Riper, Speech Cor re ction-- Principle s and Meth
ods (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954), p. 343.
^A ndrew L. Sopchak, "Parental 'Identification' and 'Tendency
Toward Disorders' as Measured by the Minnesota Multiphasic Person
ality Inventory," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLVII
(April, 1952), 159-165.
17
abnormal personality patterns as m easured by the MMPI, also were
found to show: (1) greater lack of identification with their fathers than
with their mothers; or (2) lack of identification with either parent; or
(3) lack of identification with people in general.
The second study in which the MMPI was used was reported to
find that boys significantly identify m ore strongly with their fathers
than with their mothers; and a highly father-identified boy ascribes
22
more than average femininity values to his mother.
2 3
Payne and Mussen investigated the importance of father nur
turance in father identification with 182 adolescent boys whose mean
age was 17.0. They administered three scales including a Masculinity-
Femininity (M-F) scale to each boy and each of his parents. Identifica
tion was defined as similarity of response between subject and either
parent.
The twenty highest and twenty lowest father-identified boys
were further tested with five incomplete stories which they were to
complete, in order to reveal their perception of either or both of their
parents as rewarding or punishing.
They found strong support for their hypothesis that the degree
to which boys identify with their fathers is related to the degree to
which they perceive their fathers as rewarding. The hypothesis that
degree of father-identification is related to the extent the father is seen
22
Ernst G. Beier and F red Ratzeburg, "The Parental Identifica
tions of Male and Female College Students," Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, XLVIII (October, 1953), 569-572. —
^D onald E. Payne and Paul H. Mussen, "Parent-Child Rela
tions and Father Identification Among Adolescent Boys," Journal of Ab
normal and Social Psychology, LII (May, 1956), 358-362.
18
as more rewarding than the mother, received only partial support. The
father-identified boys were significantly more masculine than the low-
identified boys, yet the fathers of the form er group were not more m a s
culine than the other fathers. The interpretation offered was that boys
who identify strongly with their fathers will, through generalization,
tend to identify with other masculine models and therefore become
more masculine. Identification with fathers is the decisive factor, not
the masculinity of the fathers, in determining the degree of masculinity
in sons. This study also revealed that boys whose mothers' masculinity
scores were high, tended to be less strongly identified with their
fathers.
Role-taking "Power" Theory of Identification
24 25
Role theorists ’ have presented an identification theory in
which they maintain that the child will tend to identify with that parent
whom he perceives as the greater combined source of nurturance and
punishment. The degree to which one parent controls the rewards and
punishment would be perceived by the child as the degree to which he is
more powerful. The child would be motivated more strongly to take-
the-role-of this parent, i.e., to identify with him, since it would be
more important for him to predict the behavior of this parent than that
of the less powerful figure.
Parsons and Bales (eds.), Family, Socialization, and Interac
tion P ro cess.
2 5
B rim , " F am ily Structure and Sex Role Learning by Children:
. . .," lo c. cit., p. 3.
Literature Related to Methods Used in this Study
19
Sex-role Preference Test
Brown administered the ITSC to 613 boys and girls whose ages
Z 6
ranged from 5 1/2 to 11 1/2 years. He found that:
1. In each age group, the boys had significantly higher mascu
line preference scores than the girls, whereas the girls were signifi
cantly more feminine than the boys.
2. Girls were significantly more variable in sex-role prefer
ence than boys in all age groups.
3. Boys, especially from kindergarten through fourth grade,
strongly preferred the masculine role more than girls preferred the
feminine role.
4. At the kindergarten level, girls' preferences for either sex
role were relatively equal.
5. From first through fourth grades, girls preferred the m as
culine role.
6. Fifth grade girls predominantly preferred the feminine role.
Brown interpreted these findings to uphold the observation that
female children are permitted more freedom in their choice of sex-
role behavior, while at the same time superior status is given to the
masculine role. On the other hand, boys receive censure for feminine
role behavior. Therefore, boys are more apt than girls to adopt behav
ior which is culturally approved for their sex and which is also
Daniel G. Brown, "Masculinity-Femininity Development in
Children,1 1 Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXI (June, 1957), 197-202.
2 0
considered superior. At puberty, girls who are strongly identified with
their own sex will begin to prefer feminine role behavior. In the face of
cultural censure, when boys have low masculine preference scores,
there are probable differences in their personalities which would ac
count for these deviations. Brown indicated that further research was
needed to support this hypothesis.
27 28
Other studies ’ were reported in which the ITSC was admin
istered to children from the ages of 3 1/2. Significant preference for
the masculine role was found among boys at these earlier ages also.
"Power" Theory Test
Mussen and Distler^^ investigated the developmental theory, the
defensive theory, and the "power" theory of identification. They ad
m inistered the ITSC to thirty-eight Caucasian boys of kindergarten age
from families of middle socio-economic (S-E) status. The ten boys
with the highest masculine preference scores (range = 79~84 with a
mean of 83) and ten boys with the lowest scores (range = 30-63 with a
mean of 53) were selected for further study.
A Structured Story Completion test consisting of nine incom
plete stories was presented to each subject for completion. The stories
^ G . D. Handy, "The Sex-Role Preference Scale for Children: A
Study of the IT-Figure" (unpublished M aster's thesis, University of
Denver, 1954).
28
W. P. Low, "Sex of the Examiner in Relation to Sex-Role
Preferences in Kindergarten Children" (unpublished M aster's thesis,
University of Denver, 1957).
29
Mussen and Distler, "Masculinity, Identification, and Father -
Son Relationships," loc. cit., pp. 350-356.
2 1
were structured to obtain responses indicating whether either or both
parents of the doll family accompanying the presentation would punish
or nurture the boy doll in each situation. The subjects' responses were
assumed to be projections of their own perceptions of their parents as
punishing or nurturing.
The findings were consistent with each theory of identification.
The high ITSC scorers significantly perceived their fathers as more
nurturing than did the low scorers at the .02 level. They also perceived
their fathers as more punishing at the .06 level. These findings sup
ported both the developmental and the defensive theories. However, the
"power" theory received the strongest support. At the .007 level the
high ITSC scorers perceived their fathers to be both more nurturing
and more punishing than did the low scorers. The interpretation of
fered was that boys whose fathers are more powerful sources of r e
ward and punishment will identify with them more strongly and, through
them with the masculine role, which they strongly prefer to feminine
role behavior.
There was no difference between the mothers' scores in the two
groups. Moreover, although both groups perceived their parents as
more nurturing than punishing, the low group perceived more punish
ment at the .07 level.
The teachers were asked to rate the boys on twenty behavior
traits. Their ratings of four of these traits significantly distinguished
between the two groups. The low ITSC scorers were rated higher in
friendliness, gregariousness, cheerfulness, and gross activity. The
first three of these traits have been assigned to the feminine or
2 2
30
expressive role by social psychologists. These ratings w ere in te r
preted to suggest that boys who are low in m asculine preference are
m ore feminine in some personality characteristics, and children who
are m ore expressive are apt to be seen as m ore active.
DAP Test
Sex of the F irst Figure Drawn
Many studies have been reported which investigated sex-role
identification in children and adults by determining which sex was drawn
first when a subject was asked to draw a whole person. These studies
have repeatedly found that m ales and fem ales of all ages will signifi
cantly draw their own sex first when they are free to make this
choice No study was found which did not contain this
Brim, op. cit., pp. 6-9.
31
Machover, P ersonality Projection in the Drawing of the Hu
m an F igure, p . 101.
■^Arthur Weider and Paul Noller, "Objective Studies of Chil
dren's Drawings of Human F ig ures," Journal of Clinical Psychology, VI
(October, 1950), 319- 325.
^^Arthur Weider and Paul Noller, "Objective Studies of Chil
dren's Drawings of Human F igu res," Journal of Clinical Psychology, IX
(January, 1953), 2 3.
■^Vytautas Bieliauskas, "Sexual Identification in Children's
Drawings of the Human F igure," Journal of Clinical Psychology, XVI
(January, I960), 42-44.
35
Clifford H. Swensen and Kenneth R. Newton, "Development of
Sexual Differentiation on the D raw -A -P erson Test," Journal of Clinical
Psychology, XI (October, 1955), 417-419.
D. G. Brown and A. Tolor, "Human Figure Drawings as Indi
cators of Sexual Identification and Inversion," Perceptual and Motor
Skills, XII (Monogr. Sup. 3, 1957), 199-211.
23
result.
There is a controversy over the meaning of this strong and ap
parently near-universal tendency. Although many researchers believe
that this is evidence of sex-role identification, others do not agree.
07
Brown and Tolor have found that people who were classified as be
havior disorders of both sexes also tended to draw their own sex first,
although this response was more true of the women in this group than of
the men. As these subjects had revealed confused sex-role identifica
tion by other m easures, the investigators concluded that the adequacy
of psycho-sexual adjustment and identification was not revealed by the
sex of the first figure drawn. They added that it was not yet understood
what the tendency indicated when some individuals drew the opposite
sex first.
Relative Sizes of the Paired Figures
3 0 3 0
Weider and Noller ’ have found that girls from ages eight to
twelve tend significantly to draw their own sex larger. A small p e r
centage of girls draw the male larger or draw both sexes of equal size.
On the other hand, boys of these ages are almost evenly divided between
the tendency to draw either the male or female figure larger. About
one-fifth of the boys tend to draw both figures of equal size. In this age
group they found no change in these responses with increasing age.
M ach o v er^ who developed the DAP, has found that normal men
■^Ibid. ^ W e id e r and N oller, loc. c it .. Vol. VI.
■^Weider and N oller, lo c. c it., Vol. IX.
40
M achover, op. c it., p. 132.
24
and women draw figures realistically proportioned. When males draw
the female figure larger, Machover has interpreted this to indicate con
fusion of sex-role and, often, of mother-fixation. When infantile adult
males draw the female larger and with more detailing than in the male
figure, she has interpreted this to indicate that they ascribe "m ore au
thority, social dominance, virility, and self assurance" to the female
r o l e . ^ -
Sexual Characteristics Drawn for Each Sex
Weider and N o lle r^ found that the drawings of subjects eight to
ten years of age contained significantly more sexual characteristics
drawn for each sex in the lower S-E levels than in the upper levels.
This was true for children of both sexes. However, boys of the lower
S-E levels tended also to draw more details for their own-sexed figure,
whereas the girls drew the same number of details for both figures.
Sexual Differentiation
43
Swensen developed a rating scale for m easuring the ability to
differentiate between the sexes in the DAP. Swensen found that girls
from the first to eighth grades differentiate significantly better than
boys. Beyond that age and at the college level, he found no difference
between males and females in this ability.
Boys improve rapidly from ages six to eight, m ore slowly from
eight to twelve, and then very rapidly from twelve to thirteen where
^ Ibid., pp. 157-158. ^ W e id e r and Noller, loc. cit., Vol. VI.
43
S w en sen and Newton, loc. cit.
25
their responses are like those of the girls.
Swensen said that sexual differentiation indicates the degree of
sexual identification, and that ability to differentiate increases as a
function of age.
Parental Preference
44
Gesell and Hg have reported the results of their controlled
observations of children. One aspect of their report was concerned
with the preference of children for either parent at each age level from
five to ten years.
They reported that to the average five year old boy, his mother
is still the center of his world. Although some five year olds prefer
their fathers, this is exceptional. Six year old boys appear to admire
and fear their fathers more strongly than their mothers. Seven and
eight year old boys waver in their attachment to either parent. Some
eight year olds appear to have more emotional interaction with their
mothers, while their father-son relationships are smoother. From age
nine, when the father is respectful of the boy's increasing maturity, the
relationship is described as becoming a father-son group against fe
male interference.
45
Gardner analyzed the attitudes of fifth and sixth grade boys
and girls toward their parents. She found that: (1) parents tend to pun
ish their sam e-sexed children more than their opposite-sexed children;
^ A rn o ld Gesell and F. ILg, The Child from Five to Ten (New
York: Harper and Bros., 1946), pp. 341-344.
45
Pearl Gardner, "An Analysis of Children's Attitudes Toward
Fathers," Journal of Genetic Psychology, LXX (March, 1947), 28.
2 6
(2) children reveal extreme preference for requesting the services of
their same-sexed parent; (3) no special affection was expressed for the
opposite-sexed parent; however, when it was shown, mothers were p re
ferred twice as often as fathers; and (4) children of each sex listed
more ways in which they hoped to be like the same-sexed parent.
Conclusions
This review of the literature has led to the conclusion that no
valid measure of the sex-role identification of children has yet been es
tablished. Some m easures have appeared reliable by producing the
same results in repeated applications, but only the operational defini
tions of these m easures have been supported, and validity is still ques
tionable. This refers especially to the first person drawn on the DAP
test which is the technique most widely used with the DAP to m easure
identification. The other three uses of the DAP reported in this chapter
are: (1) the relative sizes of the two figures; (2) the number of sexual
details drawn for each figure; and (3) the Sex-Differentiation score.
These three uses of the DAP have been reported less frequently, and
their reliability and validity are questionable. The SSCT has had very
limited usage, and no m easure of reliability has been obtained. As with
the DAP, the face validity of the SSCT has been supported, but further
research is indicated before validity is established.
One sex-role preference test is in use with children, the ITSC.
Reliability of the ITSC appears to have been established. Validity of the
ITSC rests upon its operational definition. Although the results
46
obtained by Mussen and Distler in their use of the ITSC appear to
support the validity of the test, much research is still needed to estab
lish validity.
Clinical observation and judgment still appear to be the most
widely used methods of determining a child's sex-role identification.
46
*°Cf. p. 1 9.
CHAPTER III
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Data were gathered from four tests administered to the subjects
and from questionnaires administered to the parents and classroom
teachers of the subjects. Tests given to the subjects were: (1) the IT
Scale for Children (ITSC), a sex-role preference test for children; (2)
the Structured Story Completion Test (SSCT), a test used to determine
the subjects' power figure as a partial measure of sex-role identifica
tion; (3) the Draw-A-Person Test (DAP), which was also used as a
partial measure of identification; and (4) the Structured Puppet Play
Test (SPPT), to m easure the subjects' parental preference. The ques
tionnaires were included in order to obtain observers' reports of the
subjects' sex-typed behavior and parental preference.
In this chapter descriptions were presented of the subjects, the
materials used to gather the data, and the procedures of test adm inis
tration.
Subjects
Criteria for Selection
Forty-five male children from Caucasian families of middle
socio-economic (S-E) status participated in this study. Forty-five sub
jects should provide an adequate sample from a stuttering population
28
29
for the application of statistical m easures. The total number was tri-
chotomized equally in order to measure developmental change: Group I
consisted of five and six year olds; Group II consisted of seven and
eight year olds; and Group III of nine and ten year olds.
Selection of the subjects was based on the following criteria:
1. All diagnoses of subjects as children who stuttered were con
firmed by the writer, who holds Basic Certification with Sponsor P rivi
lege in Speech in the American Speech and Hearing Association?-
2. All subjects were male. The study was limited to males be
cause: (1) stuttering is more frequent among males than among fe-
?
males; (2) courses of development in identification and sex-role pref
erence appear to be different for boys and for girls. According to
3
Mowrer, girls normally remain identified with their mothers, but boys
have to shift their model to their fathers for normal sex-role develop
ment. According to Brown? masculine preference among female chil
dren is not culturally censured, but male children are censured if they
prefer the feminine role. Therefore, different norms are established
for boys and for girls from their responses to'the ITSC. In order to
control variables which might adversely influence the results, only
males were included in this study.
3. The subjects were selected from the age range of five
through ten years. Although any age group might have been chosen,
these ages were selected because: (1) by the age of five, sex-typed
^American Speech and Hearing Association-- 1962 Directory
(Danville, 111.: American Speech and Hearing Association, 1962), pp. xx-
xxvi.
2Cf. p. 16. 3Cf. p. 15. 4Cf. pp. 19-20.
30
5
behavior is normally fairly well developed and observable; (2) the
same measures could be utilized with all ages within this age range,
whereas older children would require more sophisticated tools, and the
inclusion of younger children would preclude the classroom teacher as
one important source of information; (3) this six year span of age dur
ing a period of rapid change offered an opportunity to observe develop
mental changes in any of the variables under investigation. In order to
insure an even distribution of age, seven or eight subjects were se
lected for each of the six age levels of the total sample, so that each
Group contained fifteen subjects. By controlling the age distribution
within Groups, smaller increments of change could be observed.
4. Subjects were selected only from Caucasian families of mid
dle S-E status. Some differences in identification data among the three
/I
major S-E classes have been reported. Moreover, standards of sex-
role behavior and the status of the female vary among different cultural
and ethnic groups. To control variables which might adversely influ
ence the results, subjects from ethnic groups other than Caucasian, as
well as subjects from upper and lower S-E classes, were excluded
from the study.
The criteria for judging a family to be in the middle S-E class
were based on W arner's simplified method of estimating class by
Sears, Maccoby, and Levin, Patterns of Child Rearing, p. 369.
6 Cf. p. 24.
7
D. G. Brown, "Sex-Role Development in a Changing Culture,"
Psychological Bulletin, XV (July, 1958), 235.
31
O
knowledge of occupation and home address. As an additional measure,
the teachers' estimates of the S-E status of each family were obtained.
5. One or both parents of each subject had to consent to his p a r
ticipation and agree to fill out the questionnaire. A subject was not ex
cluded from the study who had only one parent living with him. More
over, a parent surrogate, i.e., an adult(s) who lived with the boy and
took the place of his natural parent(s) was acceptable. It was felt that
any event or attitude which produced the results of a broken home or
lack of co-operation of one parent should be included in the findings and
would be pertinent.
6. The subject's IQ was recorded in the school files as 90 or
above. In the cases of kindergarten children or others who had not been
tested formally in the schools, the teachers' estimate of their potential
was obtained. This estimate was required to be at least low average
for inclusion of the child in the study. These minimum requirements
were necessary to insure that each child would have the intellectual po
tential needed for co-operation. Furthermore, any variables which
might be associated with mental retardation were controlled.
If any of the above criteria were not met, the subject was not
included in the study.
Selection of the Subjects
The subjects were located with the co-operation of the elemen
tary school speech therapists of the Los Angeles City Schools,
®W. L. Warner, M. Meeker, and K. Eells, Social Class in
America (New York: American Book-Stratford P ress, Inc., 1949).
32
Pasadena City Schools, Culver City Schools, Inglewood City Schools,
Speech and Hearing Clinic of the University of Southern California, Cal
ifornia Remedial Services (a private Speech Clinic), and Children's
Speech and Hearing Center (a non-profit organization). Approval of the
study by the Committee on Research of the Los Angeles City Schools
was required in order to secure the co-operation of the school authori
ties and to locate the subjects. In the other communities the supervisor
of speech therapy or the director of special education made the n eces
sary arrangem ents. In each of the three speech clinics, contacts were
made through the therapists with the consent of their directors.
Table 25, in Appendix A, dem onstrates that the criteria for s e
lection of subjects were fully met. Not only were all subjects Caucasian
males who stuttered, but as the Table shows: (1) the subjects1 ages
were evenly distributed throughout the range from five through ten
years; (2) the minimum IQ or teacher estim ate of potential was 92 and
low average; (3) all families were classified in the middle S-E level.
F urther descriptions of the subjects were obtained, and, as
shown in the Table: (1) About three-fourths of the parents agreed with
in six months concerning the age of onset of stuttering. With two ex
ceptions, onset of stuttering was listed by at least one parent to be be
tween the ages of one and one-half and five years. The two exceptions
were pairs of parents who agreed the onset was at six years. Of the
remaining parents who did not agree, differences ranged from one to
six and one-half years. (2) Only one child had two foster parents. All
remaining subjects were living with their natural m others, three of
these had foster fathers, and only one child had no father in the home.
33
The father of this child was living but had not been seen by the boy in
three years. (3) One-fifth of the subjects had had additional speech
problems. Six subjects were described as having begun to speak very
late. Four of these also had articulation problem s which were still
evident. Three other subjects had articulation problems, but had not
been late in developing speech.
Test M aterials
Five types of m aterials were employed as instruments to obtain
data. Of these five, four were tests administered to the subjects, and
one was a questionnaire given independently to each parent and to the
classroom teachers.
M aterials Used with the Subjects
The IT Scale for Children (ITSC)^
The ITSC was developed by Brown for the purpose of measuring
the sex-role preference of children. Brown acknowledged his debt to
Sears for pointing out the need to differentiate between sex-role p ref
erence and sex-role identification.^ Brown said:
It is probably true that in most cases an individual may be said both
to identify with a given sex model as well as to prefer that model.
. . . there is no inconsistency, no internal conflict, and the two p ro c
esses would tend to fuse into a single phenomenon. Such consistency,
however, does not always prevail; thus, a person might identify with
the appropriate sex model but nevertheless retain varying degrees
^Brown, The IT Scale for Children.
^B row n, "Sex-Role Preference in Young Children," loc. cit.,
p. 3.
34
of preference for the other sex model.^
Furtherm ore, a person might prefer one sex model but he might identi
fy to varying degrees with the other sex model. In such cases internal
conflicts are assumed to arise.
The ITSC consists of 36 picture cards in black and white, three
by four inches in size. The cards depict various objects and activities
commonly associated with masculine or feminine roles in our culture,
those typical for boys in contrast to girls, and those differentiating
adult sex-roles to which the child has had continual exposure. These
pictures include: (1) sixteen pictures of toys of which eight are classi
fied as masculine toys, such as a gun and soldiers, and eight as femi
nine toys, such as a doll and dishes; (2) eight paired pictures of a fe
male versus a male choice, such as a choice between wishing to be an
Indian chief or squaw; (3) four child figures depicting a boy, a girlish
boy, a boyish girl, and a girl; (4) the IT figure, a child figure drawing,
unstructured as to sexual identity and referred to throughout the test as
IT.
The IT figure is the projective element of the test. By asking
the subject to make the choices for IT instead of directly asking for his
own choices between paired pictures, "the assumption is made that the
child will project himself or herself into the IT-figure on the basis of
his or her own sex-role preference, and will attribute to IT the child's
12
own role preference."
The ITSC ranges from an exclusively feminine score of zero to
an exclusively masculine score of 84. Only masculine choices are
1ZIbid., p. 5.
35
scored. Scores between zero and 84, falling on either side of the m id
point of 42, are indicative of degrees of preference for the feminine or
masculine roles, respectively.
The te st-re te st reliability of the ITSC at an interval of one
month was established with five year olds at .69 for boys and .82 for
girls. Later uses of the test by B row n^ and o th e r s ^ ’^ dem onstrated
that substantially the same responses were obtained from five year olds
in samples which were separated geographically. Responses were
sim ilar between each age level of children within the age range of three
and one-half to eleven and one-half years.
The operational validity of the ITSC rests upon the assumption
that preference for aspects of the masculine or feminine roles are indi
cated by preferences for the m ale and female items of the ITSC picture
cards
Structured Story-Completion Test (SSCT)
The original form of the SSCT was designed by Mussen and
17
Distler to evaluate the subject's perception of each of his parents as a
source of nurturance and/or punishment, and to determine if he
1 ^
Brown, "M asculinity-Femininity Development in Children,"
loc. cit., p. 199-
14
Handy, "The Sex-Role P reference Scale for Children: A Study
of the IT-Figure," loc. cit.
^ L o w , "Sex of the Exam iner in Relation to Sex-Role P r e fe r
ences in Kindergarten Children," loc. cit.
^ B r o w n , " S e x -R o le P r e f e r e n c e in Young C hildren," lo c . c i t .,
p. 5.
1 7Cf. pp. 2 0 -2 2 .
36
perceives one parent as the greater combined source of both, i.e., the
power figure who is theorized to be the child's main identification
^ i 18
model.
The test was designed for use with five year olds, and it con
tained nine stories appropriate to that age level. Previously, Mussen
and Payne^9 had given a similar test to adolescent boys to m easure
nurturance in identification with five stories appropriate to the age
level of the group. As the present investigation included the ages of
five through ten, some of the Mussen and Distler stories were changed
by the w riter to be acceptable to all ages in the total sample, but the
structure of the test and of the stories remained essentially the same
as the original. As an example of an alteration, the first story required
the child to ask parental help because he could not reach a toy he
wanted. In the present form, the child asked parental help to fix a toy
he wanted. The nine stories of the SSCT are reproduced in Appendix B.
The test consists of three family dolls made of colored rubber:
a father doll six inches in length, a mother doll five and one-half inches
20
long, and a boy doll of four and three-fourths inches. Appropriate
manipulation of these dolls accompanies each story presentation. The
subject's responses in completing each story are scored by assigning
one point to either parent or to both for a nurturing and/or punishing
act toward the boy doll.
The operational validity of the test rests upon the assumption
18Cf. p. 18. 19Cf. pp. 17-18.
? 0
These family dolls may be ordered as No. B290 from C rea
tive Playthings, Inc., P. O. Box 1100, Princeton, New Jersey.
37
that the subject's responses in completing each story will reveal his
own expectation of treatment from his parents by the process of pro
jection. The reliability of the test has not been established.
Draw-A-Person Test (DAP)
21
The DAP has been widely used as a projective test to gather
both quantitative and qualitative information with children and adults in
many populations. A variety of administration and scoring methods
have been utilized. Including it in the present study was due to its fre
quent use in obtaining what is assumed by many to be evidence of sex-
22
role identification.
In this investigation, four m easures of DAP responses were
operationally defined as degrees of sex-role identification: (1) the sex
of the first person drawn, (2) the relative sizes of the paired figures,
(3) the number of sexual characteristics drawn for each sex, and (4) the
ability of the subject to differentiate between the sexes in his drawings.
Although many investigators feel that these four responses are
indicative of sex-role identification, others have the opinion that more
23
research is needed before this interpretation is acceptable. There
appears to be a recurring pattern of responses to the DAP which is dif
ferent for males and for females, and these differences are suggestive
of identification.
Despite the lack of established validity of the DAP, the different
21
Machover, Personality Projection in the Drawing of the Hu
man Figure, pp. 4-158.
2 2Cf. pp. 2 2 -2 5 . 23Cf. p. 23.
38
responses of males and females in other studies were considered sug
gestive of identification. Therefore, the DAP was used in this investi
gation as a partial m easure of this variable.
Structured Puppet Play Test (SPPT)
The SPPT was designed by the w riter for clinical use to e s ti
mate the parental preference of children.
The test consists of six scenes enacted with the use of family
hand-puppets These six scenes are to be found in Appendix B. After
a scene is explained to the subject, the dialogue and actions which fol
low are loosely structured around the situation involving a boy puppet,
whose role is taken by the subject, and a mother and father puppet
whose roles are played by the examiner. The purpose of each scene is
to present a situation in which the boy puppet m ust choose between his
parents at the conclusion. One choice is made following each scene,
and each choice is scored as one point given to the father or the mother
for that scene. Therefore, if the mother was selected twice in the six
scenes, the Mother Preference (MPref) score would be 2, and the
Father Preference (FPref) score would be 4. Of the six choices be
tween parents, two choices involve deciding upon which parent is to r e
main with the boy puppet while the other one has to leave, two choices
are of the parent who is to join the boy puppet in activities, and two are
of a parent for assistance and nurturance.
A search of the literature revealed no attempt to m easure
^ T h e family hand puppets may be ordered as No. G450 from
Creative Playthings, Inc., P. O. Box 1100, Princeton, New Jersey.
39
parental preference in relatio n to sex -ro le identification or role p re f
erence. Because nurturance and punishm ent w ere considered im p o r
tant factors in identification, an assum ption was m ade by the w rite r
that there m ight be som e factors in common between a child's p arental
preference and the degree to which he has identified with that parent.
This study will attem pt to describe some of these factors, if they do
exist.
The operational validity of the te st re s ts upon the assum ption
that preference for one paren t or the other is indicated by p referen ce
for either puppet-parent in the SPPT. Reliability of the SPPT has not
been established.
Q uestionnaire for P aren ts and T eachers
Basic data w ere gathered from m e asu re s used with the subjects.
In addition, it was considered im portant to gather inform ation from
persons who had opportunities to observe the subjects' sex-typed b e
havior in o rd er to com pare te st findings with rep o rts of behavior.
P arents and teachers w ere selected as sources of this inform ation, be,-
cause both had the advantage of frequent exposure to the subjects, and
both could give data otherw ise unobtainable from any other source.
Judgm ents requ ired from these sources w ere subjective in n a
tu re and subject to the bias of personal opinion and social p re s s u re .
Because of this draw back among others, critic ism of the questionnaire
method as a re se a rc h tool is undeniably justifiable. However, Cannell
and Kahn pointed out that some types of behavior can only be rep o rte d
40
2,5
by this method and are "virtually unobtainable by other m eans." Ac
cordingly, the questionnaire method was used in this study because
there w ere no other feasible means of obtaining observers' reports of
the subjects' behavior.
Constructing the Questionnaires
The questionnaires w ere constructed in two parts: P a rt A con
sisted of questions concerning behavior which was to be rated by the
parents and the teachers; and P a rt B consisted of questions pertaining
to m ore factual inform ation of case history and school record, as well
as questions used to obtain statem ents of opinion. The questionnaires
were presented in Appendix B.
P art A of the Questionnaires
P art A of the questionnaires consisted of questions obtained
from seven behavior Scales which w ere designed by the w riter for use
in this study and are described in this section of the report. The Scales
were presented in Appendix B. There are forty-nine questions in the
seven Scales, and these questions w ere assigned to P a rt A of the p a r
ents' questionnaire in random order by use of the table of random num
bers. Only five of the Scales w ere used with the teachers, because two
Scales, the Conscience and P arent Attitude Scales, could only be an
swered by parents. Therefore, P a rt A of the teachers' questionnaire
was composed of only forty-two questions, and they w ere also in
L. Festinger and D. Katz (eds.), R esearch Methods in the Be
havioral Sciences (New York: The Dryden P re s s, 1953), p. 331.
random o rd er.
The seven behavior Scales are:
1. Instrum ental Behavior Scale
2. A ggressive Behavior Scale
3. Courageous Behavior Scale
4. M asculine A ctivity Scale
5. E x p ressiv e Behavior Scale
6. Conscience Scale
7. P a re n t Attitude Scale
The firs t th ree Scales w ere defined as the re p e rto ire of role
behavior stereotyped as m asculine behavior in m id d le-class A m erican
c u ltu r e .^ Scores acquired from these th ree Scales w ere added to
gether to obtain each su b ject's M asculinity score in accordance with
the operational definition of M asculinity p re se n te d in Chapter I. Q ues
tions assigned to the Instrum ental Scale w ere selected from social psy-
27
chologists' lists of in stru m en tal tra its . A ggressive behavior is fre -
2 8
quently isolated for study of m asculinity in children, th e re fo re a
sep arate Scale was constructed pertaining to this type of behavior.
Courageous behavior w as defined as lack of w ithdraw al behavior, and
this Scale was designed to obtain data d escrip tive of the degree to
which the subjects use w ithdraw al behavior.
The M asculine Activity Scale consisted of three questions
^ C f . pp. 6-7.
27
B rim , "F am ily S tructure and Sex Role Learning by Children:
. . .," loc. c it., p. 7.
28
H arry Levin and R obert S ears, "Identification with P a re n ts as
a D eterm inant of Doll P lay A ggression," Child D evelopm ent, XXVII
42
pertaining to degree of participation in vigorous and com petitive play.
29
Lynn has pointed out that behavior m ay be adopted for expediency,
but it m ay not tru ly reflect sex -ro le p referen ce. M oreover, Fenichel
observed: "Unconscious longings for passivity may be overcom pen-
30
sated by an apparently extrem ely active and m asculine behavior."
The behavior described in the M asculine Activity Scale is behavior
which has been adopted by the subjects. The data are used to differen
tiate between sedentary, non-com petitive boys and physically active,
com petitive boys. These data could then be used for a com parison of
adopted behavior and the p re fe rre d behavior indicated by the ITSC
s c o re .
E xpressive behavior was defined as em otional behavior and has
31
been assigned to the fem inine role. T raits selected for this Scale
w ere taken from social psychologists' lists of expressive behavior
32
tra its. Although m ales as w ell as fem ales include expressive tra its
in their re p e rto ire of behavior, ex pressive behavior is quantitatively
m ore typical of fem ales. M oreover, there are qualitative differences
between the sexes in revealing expressiv en ess.
The Conscience Scale contained the th ree identical questions
used in another study to m e asu re strength of conscience in five year
(June, 1956), 135-152.
^ D a v id B. Lynn, "A Note on Sex D ifferences in the Develop
m ent of M asculine and Fem inine Identification," Psychological Review,
LXVI (March, 1959), 127.
30
Otto Fenichel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of N eurosis (New
York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1945), p. 490.
31Cf. pp. 7 -8 . B rim , op. c i t ., pp. 6-9-
43
33
old children as evidence of identification with parents. As in the
original study, strength of conscience was operationally defined as p a
rental rating of the subjects' (1) inability to conceal a misdeed; (2) con
fession of the m isdeed when confronted; and (3) confession without con
frontation.
The P arent Attitude Scale was used to obtain parental ratings of
their own attitudes toward four aspects of behavior in boys of their
sons' ages. Through the process of identification, parental values and
attitudes are theorized to be incorporated by the child and to influence
his own attitudes toward his behavior. Therefore, it is not unreason-
able to assum e that parents whose attitudes toward m asculine behavior,
tearfulness, bravery, and freedom of speech in their children are rigid
and punitive will produce children whose behavior differs from chil
dren reared m ore perm issively."^
The usefulness of this Scale in the present study is somewhat
lim ited because it does not differentiate between the attitudes of p a r
ents in this study and parents of children from other populations. How
ever, the data obtained from this Scale are suggestive of the environ
ment in which the subjects have developed their value system.
P art B of the Questionnaires
P a rt B of the parents' questionnaire was included to obtain case
history information. In addition, parental opinion was sought concern
ing which parent the child preferred , whose discipline was m ore
■^Sears, Maccoby, and Levin, op. cit., pp. 376-391-
34
Ibid.,pp. 1-488.
44
im pressive, and which adult the child resem bled m ore in in terests,
m annerism s, and personality.
P a rt B of the te ach ers' questionnaire was used to obtain factual
inform ation from the school record.
Validity and Reliability of the Q uestionnaires
The face validity of the questionnaires re s ts upon the assu m p
tion that the operational definitions of m asculine and expressive behav
ior, of conscience strength, and of p aren t attitudes w ere adequately
rep resen ted by the individual Scales.
T e s t-re te s t reliab ility was not m easu red because independent
ratings by each parent w ere essential, and a consultation between p a r
ents would undoubtedly have occu rred before a second sessio n could
take place. Although the questionnaires could not be considered sta
tistically reliable, three independent opinions of the subjects' sex-typed
behavior w ere obtained for com parisons among each other by m eans of
a t test and for n o n -statistical com parison with the data from te sts
used with the subjects, and th erefo re they had descriptive value.
A dm inistration of Test B attery and Q uestionnaires
Environm ent of Test A dm inistration
A lm ost all subjects and parents contacted through the schools
w ere tested in their hom es, with the exception of two children who w ere
tested in room s provided by the schools because the parents p re fe rre d
this arrangem ent. The parents of these two subjects w ere la te r given
the questionnaires in their hom es. Subjects and parents contacted
45
through the speech clinics w ere tested at these clinics. In each situa
tion the subject was alone with the exam iner in a closed room and they
w ere seated together at a table. An assistan t rem ained with the parents
in another room of the house or clinic to insure independent responses
to the questionnaire.
Establishing Rapport
P arents had been instructed to tell the subjects that inform ation
was being sought about how children of their age felt about the activities
in which they w ere to participate with the w riter. Most subjects w ere
unaware of any connection between the testing and their speech pro b
lem , with the possible exception of the subjects tested at the speech
clinics.
Little m ore than the initial greeting was n ecessary to establish
rapport, because the fam ily doll figures of the firs t test w ere intriguing
to all subjects. Without exception, co-operation was obtained from the
m om ent the dolls w ere placed on the table.
P rocedure of Test A dm inistration
All testing m aterials w ere contained in a large box. M aterials
for each test w ere rem oved for adm inistration and replaced in the box
im m ediately after completion of the te st in order to avoid distractions.
O rder of te st adm inistration was: (1) the SSCT, (2) the SPPT,
(3) the DAP, and (4) the ITSC. This order was followed because in the
firs t two tests a tape reco rd er was used to reco rd the entire procedure
so that the subjects' responses could be resco red la te r from the
46
recorded sessions, by a judge and the w riter. The tape re c o rd e r was
not needed for the DAP and ITSC; therefore, it was turned off at the end
of the SPPT adm inistration. F u rth erm o re, the rapport established by
the dolls and puppets used in these two tests was helpful to put the sub
jects at ease so that they w ere not reluctant to co-operate in the DAP
which followed. The ITSC was adm inistered la st because the score is
obtained im m ediately, and knowledge of it might have influenced the ex
am iner in presenting the rem aining tests.
The exam iner sat on the left of the subjects for all tests. This
allowed the c learest possible view of the DAP drawings in p rocess.
The seating arrangem ent was rev ersed for only three subjects who
w ere left handed and was accom plished casually as if it w ere p a rt of the
procedure.
Testing tim e varied from th irty m inutes to one hour, because
some subjects w ere m ore detailed in their drawings and some used
m ore e ra su re s in the DAP. M oreover some subjects presented m ore
elaborate stories about the two figures while others m erely answ ered
the exam iner's questions.
The average tim e taken by the parents to complete the ques
tionnaires was approxim ately the sam e as the time spent with the sub
jects .
A dm inistration and Scoring of the SSCT
The nine incomplete stories of the SSCT w ere presented in turn
by the w riter, accompanied by appropriate m anipulation of the fam ily
dolls. The subject was instructed to complete each story when the
47
exam iner said: "What happens?" and gave the dolls to the subject.
When the subject's response did not produce the necessary information
of nurturance or punishment from either parent, probing questions w ere
used: "What did Mother or Father say or do?" or, if necessary, "Who
did that, Mother or Father?"
One point was given for each response and entered upon a sc o r
ing sheet which is reproduced in Appendix B. Any parental behavior
which rewarded, supported, assisted, accepted, or was loving to the boy
doll was scored as a Nurturance response. P arental behavior which
disciplined, limited, rejected, disapproved of or was hostile to the boy
was scored as a Punishm ent response.
The following scoring categories w ere used: Father Nurturance
(FN), Mother Nurturance (MN), They Nurturance (TN), Total N urtur
ance (TotN), Father Punishm ent (FP), Mother Punishment (MP), They
Punishm ent (TP), Total Punishm ent (TotP), Mother Power (MPow), and
Father Power (FPow). They (T) scores w ere given when the subject
insisted that both parents w ere nurturing or punishing as a unit even
after probing. Total (Tot) scores w ere the sums of M, F, and T scores
in N urturance and Punishm ent respectively. Power (Pow) scores w ere
the sums of each p aren t's N and P scores respectively. One story
could produce one or m ore scorable response(s). For example, a
m other might firs t refuse a request and then decide to grant it. In this
case the story would be scored both MP and MN.
The scores obtained during the testing session w ere com pared
to scores obtained when the w riter and a judge independently scored
the taped sessions. In all cases there was complete agreem ent between
48
the th ree sets of sc o re s. This is not su rp risin g considering that the
relativ ely slow speech of people who stu tter allows sufficient tim e to
un derstand and score th eir resp o n ses without e r r o r . M oreover the
probing questions clarified any initial m isunderstanding.
A dm inistration and Scoring of the S P PT
At the com pletion of each of the six scenes of the SPPT, which
a re presen ted in Appendix B, the subject is asked: "Which p aren t does
he choose?" indicating the boy puppet. The subject's resp o nses are
sco red by assigning one point to the p aren t he selects in each scene.
The total range for each p aren t is from zero to six. A M other P r e f e r
ence and F ath er P re fe re n c e sco re a re obtained from each test, and the
com bined total of the two sc o re s equals six. In other w ords, if the
m other w ere p re fe rre d in two scenes, the te st would be scored: M P ref
= 2; F P re f = 4. The scoring sheet for the SPPT is reproduced in Ap
pendix B.
A dm inistration and Scoring of the DAP
35
The DAP w as ad m in istered according to M achover's method,
with the exception that instead of asking the subject to tell a story about
the figures, the subjects w ere asked specific questions p ertin en t to the
inform ation req u ire d for this study. The questions w ere concerned
w ith the fig u re 's nam e, age, likes and dislikes, and what the best and
w o rst things about him (her) w ere. These questions not only clearly e s
tablish ed the sex of the figure draw n but yielded som e inform ation of
35
M a ch o v er, op. c i t . , pp. 2 8 -3 2 .
the subject's aw areness of sex -ro le behavior.
Four sets of sco res w ere obtained from each pair of draw ings:
(1) the sex of the f ir s t figure drawn; (2) one sco re for Male L arg e r
(MLg), F em ale L arg er (FLg), or Equal Size (EqSz); (3) the num ber of
details draw n for each figure which w ere clearly identified as suitable
to one sex or the other, such as h air, clothing, shoes, facial details,
and body contours. Slacks on a fem ale w ere sco red if they w ere c le a r
ly distinguishable as fem ale clothing eith er in the drawing or in the
su bject's com m ents; (4) a Sexual D ifferentiation score according to
3 6
Sw ensen's method. The Swensen Rating Scale is p resen te d in Appen
dix B. The reliab ility of this scale was .84 when fifty-eight p aired
37
drawings w ere rated independently by two judges.
A dm inistration and Scoring of the ITSC
The subject was given the picture card depicting the IT figure,
in stru cted to hold it throughout the test, and to decide which of the pair
of pictured item s IT would ra th e r play with, use, or be.
Each p a ir of p ictu res p re se n te d in tu rn contains a choice b e
tween a m ale or fem ale item . A ccording to the in structions, only m a s
culine resp o n ses a re scored. Some item s receive a score of one;
others receive sco res of four, eight, or twelve. The response is r e
corded im m ediately on a scoring sheet.
The total range of the ITSC is from an exclusively fem inine
36>
C. H. Swensen, "Sexual D ifferentiation on the D raw -A -P erso n
T est," Journal of C linical Psychology, XI (January, 1955), 37-41.
50
score of zero to an exclusively m asculine score of 84. Scores between
zero and 84 falling on either side of the midpoint of 42 are indicative of
degrees of p referen ce for the fem inine or m asculine roles, respectively.
A dm inistration and Scoring of the
Q uestionnaires
As both parents filled out the questionnaires in the sam e room ,
the presence of a re s e a rc h assistan t was requ ired to prevent consulta
tion. T eacher questionnaires w ere m ailed to the school principals
whose co-operation had been secured previously. P rincipals instru cted
the teach ers to com plete the fo rm s and re tu rn them to the w rite r in a c
companying stam ped, addressed envelopes.
Included with each questionnaire was an instruction sheet with
an explanation of the rating method. R aters w ere in structed to select
one of five adverbs whose m eaning b est applied to the subject's behav
ior described in each question. These adverbs w ere: always, frequ ent
ly, som etim es, seldom , or never. The num bers from one to five w ere
individually equated with each adverb in that respective order, and the
ra te rs w ere in stru cted to w rite the selected num ber in the space p ro
vided before each question. By this method quantifiable data w ere ob
tained concerning the frequency of occurrence of each type of behavior
which the questionnaire was designed to m easu re. Ratings w ere only
used in P a rt A. P a rt B of the questionnaires was designed to provide
space for factual inform ation or stated opinions.
In scoring the questionnaires, low sco res w ere in the direction
of high m asculinity in the Instrum ental, A ggressive, Courageous Be
havior, and M asculine Activity Scales, and in the direction of low
51
femininity in the Expressive Behavior Scale. Low scores w ere indica
tive of Strong Conscience in the Conscience Scale and of rigid attitudes
in the P arent Attitude Scale.
Although m ost questions w ere stated so that the responses w ere
properly arranged for data processing, in some cases questions w ere
best stated in term s which required a re v e rsa l of the num bers when
scored. For example, in the question "Does he avoid speaking situa
tions?" a "never" (5) response was indicative of high masculinity;
therefore, the number was rev ersed when computed and it was recorded
as "1." Where ratings were to be reversed, a minus sign appears be
fore the number and question in the list of Scales in Appendix B.
Some questions w ere used in two or m ore Scales because they
appeared equally im portant in defining each category. Some responses
to repeated questions w ere rev ersed in the scoring in one Scale but not
necessarily in another.
The data obtained from the test battery and questionnaires were
arranged for statistical analysis. Data and analyses w ere presented in
the following chapter.
CH APTER IV
PRESENTATION OF THE DATA
Data gathered from scores obtained in four tests adm inistered
to the subjects and from questionnaires to the parents and teachers are
presented in this chapter. Data collected from tests of the subjects are
presented in the first section, followed by a section presenting data
from the questionnaires. Data w ere evaluated in two ways: (1) as de
scriptive of the total sample; (2) as descriptive of developmental
change. In m ost cases developmental change was m easured by com par
ing the means of the three age Groups of the sample. In some te st r e
sults, however, an individual age level within the Group appeared to dif
fer from the other age to the extent of greatly changing the Group mean.
When this occurred, the m eans for each age level w ere presented. For
*
clarification of meaning, in the rem ainder of the report the term
"Group" will apply to two combined ages, and the term "age level" will
apply to a single age.
Sequence of presentation of the subjects' test data follows the
order in which the data pertain to: (1) sex-role preference, (2) sex-
role identification, and (3) parental preference.
52
53
Presentation of the Data from Tests of Subjects
Sex-role P reference
Data from ITSC Scores
Sex-role preference was m easured by the score resulting from
adm inistration of the ITSC to each subject. Table 1 dem onstrates the
obvious skewing of this sample toward high-m asculine preference.
Eighty per cent of the sample strongly p re fe rre d the m asculine role,
with scores of 80 and above. Sixty-seven per cent had all-m asculine
preference scores of 84. There w ere no subjects who obtained a fem i
nine or near-fem inine preference score, and only one subject, with a
score of 40, fell below the midline of 42.
TABLE 1
SCORES, NUMBER OF SUBJECTS, AND PERCENTAGES
OF TOTAL SAMPLE ON THE ITSC
Range N Mean Median % of Total
84 30 84.00 84.0 67
80-83 6 81.33 81.0 13
70-76 6 74.50 75.5 13
40-64 3 50.67 52.0 7
0-39
0 0.0 0.0 0
40-84 45 80.15 83.9
100
Developmental Change.- - Table 2 shows that only the five year
olds had a m ean which fell below high-m as culine preference, although
the median indicates that half of the five year olds expressed high p ref
erence for m asculinity with scores above 78. The three low sco rers
54
w ere distributed in each of the three age levels of la rg e st standard d e
viation (SD). Age ten was m ore accurately depicted by the m edian than
the m ean because all but one subject had sco res of 84.
Developmentally, after age five there was no change with age in
the sam ple's high m asculine p reference.
TABLE 2
AGE LEVEL SCORES AND VARIABILITY ON THE ITSC
Age N Median Mean SD
5 8 78.0
73.9 13.59
6 7 83.8 82.3 3.45
7 7 83.8 81.7 3.61
8 8 83.9 81.5 6.62
9 8 83.8 83.0 1.73
10 7 83.9 78.9 12.60
Sex-role Identification
Data from DAP Scores
Scores resulting from adm inistration of the DAP to each subject
w ere defined as p a rtia l m easu res of identification. Four sco res w ere
obtained from the p aired drawings, and these data are p resented sep a
rately.
Sex of the F irs t Figure
Table 3 dem onstrates that 84.4 per cent of the subjects drew
their own sex first.
Developmental Change. - - This strong tendency did not change
55
w ith age since it was true in all Groups. No test of significance of the
difference between Group II and the other Groups was made because
only two m ore subjects drew the male firs t in Group II, and this differ
ence was probably due to chance.
TABLE 3
NUMBER AND PERCENTAGES IN EACH GROUP
AND TOTAL SAMPLE DRAWING MALE
OR FEMALE FIRST ON THE DAP
Gr oup N
Male F irs t Fem ale F irst
N % of Group N % of Group
I 15 12 80.0 3 20.0
II 15 14 93.3 1 6.6
III 15 12 80.0 3 20.0
T otal 45 38 84.4 7 15.6
Relative Sizes of the Two Figures
As shown in Table 4, the subjects tended to draw paired figures
of equal size m ore than twice as often as they drew either figure la rg e r.
TABLE 4
NUMBER AND PERCENTAGES OF EACH AGE LEVEL IN
RELATIVE SIZES OF FIGURES DRAWN ON THE DAP
N
Male L arger Female L arger Equal Size
.tt.ge
N *
N a
% of Na Na* % of Na
Na* % °£ Na
5 8 0 0.0 2 25.0 6 75.0
6 7 1 14.3 1 14.3 5 71.4
7 7 1 14.3 1 14.3 5 71.4
8 8 3 37.5 1 12.5 4 50.0
9 8 3 37.5 4 50.0 1 12.5
10 7 2 28.5 2 28.5 3 43.0
T otal 45 10 22.22 11 24.45 24 53.33
V N indicates the number in each age level giving response.
56
Developmental C h a n g e Because there appeared to be a change
in the relative size response after the f ir s t three age levels, a chi
square test'*' was made for significance of the changes between the five,
six, and seven year olds (Group A) and the eight, nine, and ten year
olds (Group B). Table 5 shows that th ere was an approach to signifi
cance for the older subjects to d ecrease the Equal Size response while
they in creased the responses of drawing either figure la rg e r. The r e
sult was that Group B w ere evenly divided among the three responses.
In other w ords, one third of the subjects w ere in each response cate-
gory in Group B.
TABLE 5
SIGNIFICANCE OF CHANGES BETWEEN GROUPS A AND B
IN RELATIVE SIZES OF FIGURES DRAWN ON THE DAP
AS MEASURED BY CHI SQUARE
Group M Lgr FL gr Eq Chi Sq df P
A 2 4 16
4.934 2 .10
B 8 7 8
Number of Sexual C h arac teristics Drawn
Table 6 shows that there was no difference between the num ber
of sexual c h a ra c te ristic s for each sex in the total sam ple when a_t te st
2
was m ade. The m eans dem onstrate that the subjects tended to draw
slightly m ore than two sexual c h a ra c te ristic s for each figure. These
*"J. P. Guilford, Fundam ental S tatistics in Psychology and Edu
cation (New York: M cG raw-H ill, 1956), p. 232. (F orm ula 11.2.)
^Ibid., p. 220. (F o rm u la 10.6.)
57
ch aracteristics w ere usually the hair, a sk irt on the fem ale, and hair
and tro u sers on the m ale.
Developmental Change. - - Table 6 also dem onstrates that when t
3
tests w ere made of the differences within Groups; Group I drew m ore
sexual ch aracteristics for the fem ale than for the m ale figure, but
Group III drew m ore ch aracteristics for the m ale. No difference was
found in Group II.
TABLE 6
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
MEANS WITHIN GROUPS FOR NUMBER OF
SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS DRAWN FOR
EACH SEX AS MEASURED BY t RATIO
Group N
Sex of
Figure
Mean _t df P
I 15
Male
F emale
1.27)
)
1.47)
2.1052 14
N . _3.
>.05
II 15
Male
F emale
2.40)
)
2.27)
1.0833 14 .30
III 15
Male
Fem ale
3.47)
)
2.80)
2.9130 14
a
.02
Total 45
Male
Fem ale
2.36)
)
2.13)
1.8182 44 NSb
a These differences are for opposite responses in I and III.
NS means not a significant diffe rence.
3Ibid.
58
Although the different trends that appeared between the r e
sponses of Groups I and III w ere significant within the age Groups, when
4
t tests w ere made of the differences between Groups no significant dif
ferences w ere found. Table 7 shows that the difference between the
male drawings of Groups I and III approached significance, whereas the
female drawings showed only a trend. These findings indicate that the
nine and ten year old subjects tended to draw m ore m ale characteristics
than the five and six year olds. Other between-Group findings w ere not
shown because their chance differences w ere even greater.
TABLE 7
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS
OF GROUPS I AND III FOR NUMBERS OF
SEXUAL DETAILS DRAWN FOR EACH SEX
AS MEASURED BY t RATIO
Group N
Sex of
Figure
Mean t df P
I 15 Male 1.27)
)
1.9469 28 .10
III 15 Male 3.47)
I 15 Female 1.47)
)
1.3854 28 .20
III F emale 2.80)
The t tests for correlated m eans was used to test the differ
ences between paired drawings within Groups and the total sample, be
cause the scores w ere obtained from the same subjects. The_t test for
uncorrelated means was used for differences between Groups, and the_t
test used was suitable when groups w ere of equal size.
^Ibid., p. 220. (Form ula 10.5.)
59
Sexual-D ifferentiation
Table 8 shows that the m ean for the total sam ple in ability to
differentiate between the sexes was 3.58. This m ean is equivalent to a
rating of P oor Sexual D ifferentiation on the Swensen rating scale (see
Appendix B).
TABLE 8
GROUP MEANS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
D IFFERENCE BETW EEN MEANS OF GROUPS I AND III
IN SEX-DIFFERENTIATION ON THE DAP
AS MEASURED BY t RATIO
Gr oup N Mean SD t df P
I 15 2.27 .81
II 15 3.53 1.01
III 15 4.63 1.88
I 15 2.27)
)
1.6835 28 .15
III 15 4.63)
Total 45 3.58
Developm ental Change.--T h e m eans of the Groups shown in
Table 8 appear to indicate an in c re ase in ability to differentiate with in
creasin g age. However, when a t te st w as used between Groups I and
III, only a tre n d was found. The standard deviations show that th ere
was little variance in the v ery poor ability of Group I to differentiate,
but some subjects in Group III receiv ed sco res of 7, indicating a rating
of Good D ifferentiation. However, other nine and ten y ear olds w ere no
b etter than the five y ear olds in differentiation.
Sum m ary of Data from DAP Scores
A ccording to the analysis of the data from the DAP sco res, the
subjects: (1) w ere identified with the m asculine sex as m easu red by the
sex of the firs t p erso n drawn; (2) equally identified with both sexes as
m easu red by the relative sizes of the figures drawn; (3) appeared to be
m ore identified with the fem ale at five and six years but with the m ale
at nine and ten y ears, according to the num ber of sexual c h a ra c te ristic s
drawn; and (4) appeared to in crease slowly but not significantly in abili
ty to differentiate between the sexes from age five to age ten. If Sex-
D ifferentiation is a m easu re of identification, the subjects w ere poorly
identified with both sex ro les.
These findings are suggestive that the four types of data ob
tained from the DAP in this study each m e asu re s something different.
By com paring these findings to the rem aining m easu res of identification
and to findings in other studies, the resu lts m ay become m ore m eaning
ful.
Data from the SSCT Scores
The SSCT was used to determ ine the subject's power figure,
who was operationally defined as the paren t with whom the subject is
identified because he is the g reater source of nurturance and punish
ment.
P aren ts as Pow er Figures
Table 9 shows that the subjects perceived no difference between
their parents as power figures. When a_t te s t was used for the
61
significance of the difference between the means of the Mother and
Father Power scores, no significant difference was found. According
to this finding, the subjects w ere either equally identified with both sex
roles or they w ere identified with neither. Ambivalence was strongly
suggested.
TABLE 9
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
POWER FIGURE MEANS AT EACH AGE LEVEL
AND FOR TOTAL SAMPLE
AS MEASURED BY t RATIO
Age N
MPow
Mean
FPow
Mean
t df P
5 8 3.500 5.500 2.3256 7 .10*
6 7 4.286 4.286 identical means
7 7 4.571 5.429 1.3157 6 .30
8 8 4.125 4.375 .2137 7 .90
9 8 4.250 5.375 1.0504 7 .40
10 7 5.286 4.429 1.8689 6 .15*
Total 45 4.311 4.911 1.3636 44 NS
'‘Approaching significance but for opposite responses.
Developmental Change. - - Table 9 shows that the five year olds
approached significance in perceiving their fathers as greater power
figures. From ages six through nine there was no difference between
the power of the parents. However, at age ten there was a trend toward
perceiving greater Mother Power.
P arents as Sources of Nurturance
As shown in Table 10, the total sample perceived no difference
between their parents as sources of nurturance.
62
T A B L E 10
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS
AT EACH AGE LEVEL BETWEEN MOTHER AND
FATHER NURTURANCE AS MEASURED BY t RATIO
Age N MNur FNur t df P
5 8 1.50 3.13 2.3737 7 .10
6 7 2.00 2.29 .4085 6 NS
7 7 2.14 1.71 1.5357 6 NS
8 8 2.13 1.25 1.2394 7 NS
9 8 2.13 2.75 1.1887 7 NS
10 7 2.86 1.43 3.9722 6 .01
Total 45 2.11 2.11 No Difference
Developmental Change.--T ab le 10 indicates that the five year
olds approached significance in perceiving th e ir fathers as m ore n u r
turing, but the ten year olds v ery significantly perceived m ore n u rtu r-
ance from th eir m oth ers (p = .01).
P aren ts as Sources of Punishm ent
Table 11 dem onstrates that this sam ple very significantly p e r
ceived th eir fathers to be m o re punishing than their m others (p = .01).
TABLE 11
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
GROUP MEANS FOR MOTHER AND FATHER
PUNISHMENT AS MEASURED BY t RATIO
Gr oup N
MPun
Mean
FPun
Mean
t df P
I 15 2.067 2.067 No Difference
II 15 2.200 3.400 2.3077 14 .01
III 15 2.267 2.800 .7881 14 NS
Total 45 2.178 2.755 3.222 44 .01
63
Developmental Change.--T able 11 shows that the seven and
eight year olds of Group II very significantly perceived m ore F ather
Punishm ent. The rem aining Groups saw no difference between their
parents, but the FPun m ean of Group III was higher than their MPun
mean.
Com parison of Total N urturance and
Total Punishm ent
Total Nur and Pun sco res w ere the sums of the MNur, FNur, and
5
TNur, and the MPun, FPun, and TPun scores, respectively. Table 12
dem onstrates that this sample very significantly perceived their fam i
lies to be m ore punishing than nurturing (p = .001).
TABLE 12
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS
AT EACH AGE LEVEL FOR TOTAL PUNISHMENT AND
TOTAL NURTURANCE AS MEASURED BY t RATIO
Age N
Tot Pun
Mean
TotNur
Mean
t df P
5 8 4.25 5.25 1.2987 7 .30
6 7 5.14 4.43 1.9722 6 .10
7 7 6.43 4.00 2.0385 6 .10
8 8 6.88 4.13 6.7073 7 .001
9 8 5.88 5.25 .8514 7 NS
10 7 6.00 5.14 .6637 6 NS
Total 45 5.756 4.711 3.2500 44 .001
Developme ntal Chang e.--T ab le 12 indicates that only the five
year olds had a higher N urturance m ean but this was not significant.
The six and seven year olds approached significance in perceiving
5Cf. p. 47.
64
m o re Punishm ent. The eight y ear olds v ery significantly perceiv ed
m ore Punishm ent (p = .001). The nine and ten y ear olds p erceiv ed no
difference, although the Punishm ent m eans w ere higher.
Sum m ary of Data from the SSCT
A ccording to the analysis of the data from the SSCT sco res, this
sam ple had no pow er figure with which to identify. Only the five y ear
olds approached significance in perceiving m o re pow er in th eir fath ers,
but this tren d was re v e rse d at ten.
P a re n ta l P referen ce
P a re n ta l p referen ce w as operationally defined as the sco re r e
sulting from adm inistration of the S P PT to each subject. Table 13
shows that the total sam ple p re fe rre d th e ir fath e rs to th e ir m o th ers.
TABLE 13
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS
IN EACH GROUP OF PARENTAL PR EFER EN C E
AS MEASURED BY t RATIO
Gr oup N
M P re f
Me an
F P re f
Me an
t df P
I 15 2.400 3.600 2.400 14 < .05
II 15 3.000 3.000 No D ifference
HI 15 2.533 3.467 1.5246 14 < .20
Total 45 2.600 3.267 2.1515 44 < .05
D evelopm ental Change.--A s shown in Table 13, only Group I
significantly p re fe rre d th eir fath e rs. The higher F a th e r m ean of Group
III was not significant. Group II ex p ressed no difference between
65
preference for either parent, but the equal means of Group II w ere ac
tually due to a complete re v e rsa l of preference m eans between the
seven and eight year olds, neither of which was significant. The eight
year olds w ere the only age group with a higher M other P reference
mean.
P resentation of Data from the Q uestionnaires
In P a rt A of the questionnaires data w ere gathered from parent
and teacher ratings of the subjects' behavior which had been assigned to
separate behavior scales. Tables 2 3 and 24, which are to be found in
Appendix A, dem onstrate that when_t tests w ere used with any two
m eans which appeared to differ the m ost and had the sm allest variance,
the levels of confidence w ere between .60 and .90. Therefore, no fu r
ther t te sts w ere used, since these findings seem ed to indicate that
there was no difference between the ratings of parents and teachers in
any scale. Although there appeared to be some differences in the
m eans, these differences w ere not statistically significant.
In order to dem onstrate how the ra te rs perceived the subjects in
each type of behavior, b ar graphs w ere presented of the full possible
range divided into quartiles. The num ber of scores obtained from each
group of ra te rs , i.e., m other, father, and teacher, w ere arranged in the
quartile distribution of each age Group.
Adopted Sex-role Behavior
The Masculine Activity Scale of the questionnaire was used to
m easure adopted behavior of the subjects as perceived by their parents
6 6
and teach ers. Sex-role preference, which was m easured by the ITSC,
was defined as behavior which is seen as m ore desirable and which the
subject would like to adopt/*
Figure 1 shows that m ost subjects w ere placed in the firs t and
second quartiles of M asculine Activity on the high m asculine side of the
midpoint.
Developmental Change.--A s shown in Figure 1, m o st of Group I
w ere in the second quartile, but th ere appeared to be an increase in
m asculine types of behavior with increasing age. Only two subjects in
the entire sample w ere placed in the fourth quartile, and few w ere in
the third.
Sex-role Identification
M asculinity Scores
M asculinity was defined as the sum of the scores from the In
strum ental, A ggressive, and Courageous Behavior Scales of the ques
tionnaires. Figure 2 dem onstrates that m ost subjects w ere placed in
the second quartile of M asculinity by all ra te rs .
Developmental Change.--F ig u re 2 shows that there was little
change with age in the M asculinity ratings, although m ore subjects of
Group I w ere in the third quartile, especially in the teacher ratings.
This finding suggested that half the teachers of the five and six year
olds tended to see them as less m asculine than their parents saw them,
6 Cf. p. 5.
67
M other (M)
F ather (F)
T ea ch er(T )
Scores
Qi =3-5
Qz = 6 - 9
Q3 = 10-12
Q4 = 13-15
M = 15
F = 15
T = 15
M = 15
F = 14*
T = 15
M = 15
F = 15
T = 15
o
a >
3
C T
0 )
U
Ui
u
V
&
< D
U
hi
> n
O
0
0 )
&
a )
! h
hi
Group II
Group I
Low
Low
High Low
Fig. 1 .--M asculine Activity Scale ratings by parents and teach
e rs of Groups I, II, and III, arranged on the quartile distribution of the
total scale range.
‘F a th e r le s s boy in Group II.
68
M = 15
F = 15
T = 15
M = 15
F = 15
T = 15
M others' Ratings
F ath ers' Ratings
T eachers' Ratings
M = 15
F = 14*
T = 15
U
(h
< D
3
C T 1
( U
> -
o
P i
< u
p i
cr
< D
! - t
O
P i
a )
d
C T
< U
Scores
Q l = 42- 83
Q2 = 84-125
Q , = 126-167
Q4 = 168-210
Group III
Group II
Group I
Low
Low
High Low
Fig. 2 .- -M asculinity Scores arranged on the quartile d istrib u
tion of the total range for Groups I, II, and III.
‘F a th e r le s s boy in Group II.
69
although this difference was not significant. A greement was closer in
the older two Groups. Only one subject was placed by teacher rating in
the fourth quartile, and this was the fatherless boy of Group II.
Expressive Behavior
The Expressive Behavior Scale was used to obtain a m easure of
the subjects' emotional or feminine role behavior, as rated by the p a r
ents and teachers. Figure 3 dem onstrates that m ost subjects w ere
placed in the third quartile of E xpressive Behavior on the high feminine
side of the midpoint. Teachers tended to perceive m ore subjects as
less expressive than did the parents, but these differences w ere not sig
nificant.
Developmental Change. -- There was no apparent change with age
in the rating of the subjects' E xpressive Behavior.
Conscience
Conscience strength was m easured by parent ratings to d eter
mine the strength of identification. As Figure 4 shows, m ost subjects
were placed in the second quartile on the high conscience side of the
midpoint. Although there was no significant difference between the
means, m others tended to rate the subjects higher in Conscience than
did the fathers. No subjects w ere in the fourth quartile.
Developmental Change.--T h e re was no apparent change with age
in parental ratings of strength of Conscience.
70
] =
M other (M)
F ath er (F)
T eacher (T)
Scores
Qi = 13-25
Q2 = 26-38
Q3 = 39-51
Q4 = 52-65
M = 15
F = 15
T = 15
M = 15
F = 14*
T = 15
M = 15
F = 15
T = 15
o
p !
< u
pt
o*
< 1 >
U
o
Pi
o
pi
o '
< L >
M
Ui
o
Pi
< D
pi
oH
o
f n
Low
Group II
10
Low
Group I
Low
High
High
High
Fig. 3 .--E x p ressiv e Behavior Scale ratings of p aren ts and
te a c h e rs of Groups I, II, and III arran g ed on the quartile distribution of
the total scale range.
F a t h e r le s s boy in Group II.
71
= M others
= F athers
Scores
Qi =
Q2 =
3- 5
6- 9
Q , = 10 -1 2
Q I = 13-15
Q rw p.Ifl.
M
F
15
15
M
F
15
14*
M = 15
F = 15
o
C
< u
d
p *
o
fa
o
d
< u
d
c d
o
!-i
fa
o
d
< u
g *
Q J
in
fa
High
Low
Group II
Group I
10 -
Low
Q 2 Q 3 Q 4
Low
Fig. 4 .- - Conscience Scale ratings by parents of Groups I, II,
and III arranged on the quartile distribution of the total scale range.
‘F a th e r le s s boy in Group II.
72
P arental Discipline and P arent Resem bled
More by Subjects
Five questions w ere asked the parents in P a rt B of their ques
tionnaires concerning: which parent the child wanted m ore to please,
responded to m ore when disciplined, resem bled m ore in interests,
m annerism s, and personality. Chi squares w ere computed with data
from the firs t four questions, and the results are shown in Table 14.
Some parents left these questions unansw ered because they w ere unable
to decide on their response; others indicated that both parents w ere
alike to the subject. However, m ore than two thirds of the parents s e
lected one parent or the other as the choice, and the chi squares w ere
computed with data from at least tw o-thirds of the total group of p a r
ents. The computations w ere made of m others choosing them selves
(Mg), m others choosing fathers (M .jr), fathers choosing them selves (F g),
and fathers choosing m others (F ). Table 14 shows that of the parents
who answ ered these questions, the father was chosen significantly m ore
than the m other (p = < C -01).
The question pertaining to the parent the child resem bled m ore
in personality was m ore difficult to answer. The responses revealed
greater disagreem ent than in the first four questions, m ore "both" and
"neither" responses, and m ore who did not answer at all. Of those who
7
chose one parent or the other, a test was made of the difference be-
Q
tween proportions of both parents who chose the father. Table 15
^Guilford, op. cit., p. 185. (Form ula 9.18.)
g
Ibid., p. 191. Form ula 9.20 used to compute standard e rro r of
the difference between these proportions.
73
TABLE 14
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PARENTS' OPINIONS WITHIN
GROUPS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THESE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN PARENTS OF TOTAL SAMPLE
AS MEASURED BY CHI SQUARE WITH RESPECT TO
WHICH PARENT THE SUBJECTS DESIRE MORE
TO PLEASE, RESPOND TO MORE WHEN DISCIPLINED,
AND RESEMBLE MORE IN INTERESTS,
MANNERISMS, AND PERSONALITY*
Q ues. Group Ms Mf
Chi Square df P
Please
I 3 7 6 5
II 2 11
9
2
III 4 8 7 1
Total
9
26 22 8 14.6744 1 <.01
D isci
plined
I 1 7 9
2
II 2 12
9
2
III 3 9 9
3
Total 6 28 27 7 25.9638 1 <.01
Inter
ests
I 1 8 10 2
II 1 12 13 1
III 0 13 11 0
Total 2 33 34 3 53.4298 1 <.01
Manne r -
ism s
I 3 7 8 5
II 1 11 8 3
III 2 11 8 1
Total 6 29
24
9 21.2795 1 <.01
P e rso n
ality*
I 5 5 7 5
II 6 4 6 5
III 5 5 6 1
Total 16 14 19 11
❖
Chi square was not computed for data pertaining to personality
for reasons discussed in text. See Table 15 for z_ test data of this
variable.
74
shows a trend toward selecting the father m ore often.
TABLE 15
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
PROPORTIONS OF MOTHERS AND FATHERS
SELECTING THE FATHER AS THE SUBJECT'S
MODEL IN PERSONALITY
AS MEASURED BY z TEST
Rater Proportion z P
Mother .5000
1.2845
• 19
F ather .6562
Developmental Change.--A s shown in Table 14, m ore fathers
than m others w ere selected in all age groups in every category except
Personality. In wanting to please their fathers m ore and responding
m ore to paternal discipline, the Group II parents' responses were som e
what stronger than those of Groups I and III. Groups II and III appeared
to be seen as m ore like their fathers in Interests and M annerism s than
Group I.
There was no apparent change with age in the P ersonality r e
sponses. At all ages nearly as many parents felt the subjects w ere like
the m other as they w ere like the father, although a few less fathers of
Group III selected the m other than in the other Groups.
Summary of Data from Questionnaires
as Indicators of Identification
Data from the M asculinity Scales w ere indicative of m ore m a s
culine than feminine identification in the subjects. These findings w ere
further supported by parental opinion that the fathers have m ore
75
authority over the subjects than the m others, and that fathers have
m ore often been selected as the m odel in in terests and m an n erism s.
Data from the Conscience Scale w ere suggestive that the subjects identi
fied with their parents, but no distinction between the parents was ap
parent. Data from the E xpressive Behavior Scale w ere indicative of
much incorporated fem inine-role behavior.
Developmentally, there was little apparent change with age in
any ratings in the M asculinity, E xpressive, and Conscience Scales. Al
though all age Groups wanted to please their fathers m ore and r e
sponded m ore to paternal discipline, the seven and eight year olds w ere
somewhat stronger in these responses. All age Groups resem bled
th eir fathers m ore in in te re sts and m an nerism s, and there appeared to
be a growth in this resem blance with increasing age. No change was
apparent in any age Group in the nearly divided respon ses of whom the
subjects resem bled in P ersonality.
P aren ta l P referen ce
P aren ts w ere asked in P a rt B of the questionnaires to state
which parent the child had been m ore attached to before age four and at
the p re se n t tim e. Table 16 shows that among the obtained responses,
m ore than twice as many m others had been p re fe rre d to fathers before
age four, w hereas m ore than twice as many fathers w ere p re fe rre d to
m others at present. Of these resp onses, however, only about twenty
p airs of p arents w ere in agreem ent. Table 16 shows the agreed r e
sponses as well as all the individual selections of either parent. Be
cause of the confusion of responses, no statistics w ere applied to these
76
data.
T A B L E 16
PARENTS' OPINIONS OF SUBJECTS' PARENTAL
PR EFER E N C E BEFORE AGE FOUR AND AT THE
PRESENT T IM E--PA IR E D PARENTS WHO AGREED
AND A LL INDIVIDUAL OPINIONS
Group N
Before Age 4 At P re s e n t
A gree A gree
on F on M
All
F
on
M
A gree A gree
on F on M
All
F
on
M
I 30 0 9 4 22 6 2 17 5
H 29 2 6 7 16 3 2 9 6
IH 30 1 2 8 7 4 3 13 7
Total 89
3 17
19
45 13 7 39 18
Developm ental C hange.-- M ore fath ers we re p re fe rre d by Group
I at the p re se n t tim e. Group III was sim ila r to Group I in father p re f
erence. P aren ts of Group II appeared to be the m ost confused in th eir
resp o n ses concerning the p resen t. M ore paren ts of the younger sub
jects w ere certain that m o th ers had been p re fe rre d before four.
P a re n t Attitudes
Means obtained from the P a re n t Attitude Scale w ere p resen ted
in Table 24 in Appendix A. The Table dem o n strates that the m eans of
both p aren ts w ere at the m idpoint of the total Scale range, and the d is
tribution of sco res was n early alike for both p aren ts.
The m eans of p aren tal ratings to each of the four questions of
the Scale w ere also alm ost identical. P a re n ts rated th em selv es as fol
lows: (1) they frequently felt that boys should act m asculine; (2) they
som etim es felt that children should never talk back to adults; (3) they
seldom felt that boys a re "sissy " to cry; and (4) m others som etim es,
77
while fathers frequently felt that boys should be brave.
Developmental Change.--A s shown in Table 24, th ere was no
significant difference between m eans of parents within Groups. F u r
th erm o re, the between Group m eans w ere alm ost identical.
Developm ental differences within Groups with resp ect to the in
dividual questions w ere: (1) fathers of Group II always felt boys should
act m asculine, w hereas all other parents frequently felt this way; (2)
m others of Groups I and II frequently felt children should not talk back,
w hereas all other paren ts som etim es felt this way; (3) no differences;
all parents seldom felt crying was "sissy "; and (4) m others of Group III
frequently felt as all the fathers did that boys should act brave. Other
m others felt this way so m etim es.
CH A PTER V
IN TER PR ETA TIO N OF THE DATA
In. Chapter IV the data w ere presented by m eans of statistical
analysis w herever this method was appropriate. In this chapter the
data w ere interpreted by non -statistical procedures which included: (1)
com parison of data from tests and questionnaires that w ere used to ex
plore the sam e phenomena; and (2) com parison of data from this inves
tigation with findings of other studies in which the same methods w ere
employed to m easure the sam e phenomena in non-stuttering sam ples.
Advantages and Limitations of the Method
Used in this Study
The em pirical method of research used in this study was ad
vantageous because it "may be used to explore, scientifically, a new
phenomenon or area of behavior, and thus establish hypotheses for
la te r testing"^ by experim ental m ethods. Thus, this study explored the
phenomena of sex-role identification and preference in stuttering chil
dren with the objective of establishing hypotheses for future ex p eri
m ental testing.
The em pirical method is lim ited in the extent to which its
^ Clyde W. Dow (ed.), An Introduction to Graduate Study in
Speech and Theatre (East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State U niversity
P re ss, 1961), p. 179-
78
79
2
findings may be used as a basis for prediction. Therefore, the data
from this study could not be used to provide definitive answ ers to the
questions stated in the problem, but rather to provide qualified answers
3
as implications for hypotheses and further research.
Data Pertaining to Sex-role Preference
Comparison of ITSC and Masculine
Activity Scale Data
Analysis of the data from the ITSC revealed that 80 per cent of
the subjects strongly p referred the masculine role, and with one excep-
4
tion, all the scores fell on the masculine side of the midpoint. Devel-
opmentally, the five year olds were weaker than the remaining ages in
masculine preference.
Figure 1, a graphic presentation of the data from the Masculine
Activity Scale, dem onstrated that m ost subjects were on the masculine
side of the midpoint in adopted role behavior pertaining to play activi
ties. Group I was rated somewhat lower in this behavior than the r e
maining age Groups.
Comparison of ITSC Findings of this
Study with Data from Other Studies
1. Brown and others have found that m ost male children from
age 3 1/2 to 11 1/2 prefer the masculine role as m easured by their ITSC
scores. Table 17 shows the ITSC means and medians of boys in one of
2 Ibid., p. 180. 3Ibid., p. 189- 4 Cf. pp. 53-54.
80
5
Brow n's studies com pared by grade level to the equivalent age level
findings of the p re se n t study.
TABLE 17
COMPARISON BETWEEN MEANS AND MEDIANS
OF BOYS' ITSC SCORES OF BROWN'S STUDY
WITH THOSE OBTAINED FROM SUBJECTS
OF THIS STUDY
Grade Age
Brown' s This Study
N Mean M edian N Mean M edian
Kndg 5 44 66.18 72.50 8 73.90 78.00
1 st 6 55 66.04 77.00 7 82.30 83.80
2nd 7 52 77.58 81.16 7 81.70 83.80
3rd 8 56 77.93 81.46 8 81.50 83.90
4th
9
51 75.98 81.23 8 83.00 83.80
5 th 10 45 76.73 80.87 7 78.90 83.90
Table 17 shows that the sco res of the stuttering boys w ere con-
sisten tly higher than those of Brow n's subjects. M oreover, the stand-
ard deviations of Brow n's study ranged from 17.05 to 25.39. Table 2 of
this study showed that the standard deviations of the p re se n t subjects
ranged from 1.73 to 13.59. These differences w ere suggestive of far
less variance from a high m asculine p referen ce among stutterin g boys
than in a norm ally distributed population. Developm entally, the five
y ear old stuttering boys had a higher m asculine p referen ce than the
no rm al subjects, a difference which was even g re a te r between the six
year olds.
2. When M ussen and D istler ad m inistered the ITSC to th irty -
eight k in d erg arten boys to obtain high and low scoring boys for fu rth er
5
Brow n, " M a sc u lin ity -F e m in in ity D ev elo p m en t in C hildren,"
lo c. cit., p. 198.
81
study, at le a st ten boys' sco res in that group ranged from 30-63.^ In
the p re se n t study only one of eight kin d erg arten boys had a sco re w ithin
that range with a score of 40, and only three subjects of the forty -five
in this sam ple had sco res between 40-64.
Sum m ary
These com parisons w ere suggestive that boys who stu tter not
only have a strong p referen ce for the m asculine role, but they ex p ress
this p referen ce m o re frequently and with le ss variance than do boys
from n o n-stuttering populations. Developm entally, five and six year,
old boys who stu tter p a rtic u la rly appear to have a stro n g er m asculine
p referen ce than do non-stuttering boys of these ages. M oreover, boys
who stu tter have adopted m asculine form s of play activity which a re
consistent with th e ir p re fe rre d role behavior. I
Data P ertaining to S ex-role Identification
C om parison of DAP Findings with
Findings from SSCT and Q uestionnaires
1. According to the data pertaining to the sex of the f ir s t p erso n
7
draw n on the DAP, the subjects identified m o re closely with the m a sc u
line than the fem inine role, as 84.4 per cent of the subjects drew the
m ale figure firs t. M asculinity sco res w ere obtained from the question-;
n aire data. F igure 2 dem onstrated that p aren ts and te ach ers alike d e
scrib ed the subjects as m ore m asculine than fem inine in behavior,
which was operationally defined as m asculine. M oreover, the father
6 Cf. p. 20. ^Cf. Table 3, p. 55.
82
was selected significantly m ore often as the identification m odel in in-
Q
te re s ts and m an n erism s by both p aren ts' independent opinions. The
father was also significantly designated as the p aren t the subjects
9
wanted m ore to please and responded to m ore when disciplined. This
finding is indicative of m ore pow erful interaction between father and
son which is held to be the basis of identification.^
2. On the other hand, as shown in Table 4, the subjects tended
to draw figures of equal size as often as they drew the m ale or the fe
m ale la rg e r. If the relative sizes of the figures drawn are indicative of
identification, then these data suggest that one-third of the subjects are
am bivalent in identification, o ne-third are identified with the m asculine
role, and o n e-th ird with the fem inine role. The five, six, and seven
y ear olds w ere m ore am bivalent than the older subjects, because about
th ree-fo u rth s of them drew equal sized figures, and no five y ear olds
drew the m ale la rg e r.
Am bivalence in identification was also supported by the findings
of the SSCT in which th ere was no difference between the Power sco res
of both p aren ts. However, the five y ear olds approached significance in
finding m ore pow er in th e ir fath ers, w hereas the ten y ear olds, to a
le s s e r degree, perceiv ed m o re pow er in th e ir m others.
Data from the E xp ressiv e Behavior Scale w ere also supportive
of evidence of am bivalence. F igure 3 showed that the subjects w ere
rated m ore fem inine than m asculine in E xpressive Behavior. In com
paring these findings with those of the M asculinity sco res, there is a
suggestion of m uch fem inine and m asculine identification, implying
8Cf. pp. 7 2 -7 4 . 9Ibid. 10Cf. p. 18.
am bivalence.
3. According to the num ber of ch aracteristics drawn for each
sex, the five and six year olds w ere m ore identified with the feminine
role, w hereas by ages nine and ten identification was stronger with the
m asculine role, as shown in Table 6.
Comparing these findings with the Relative-Size data, among the
younger subjects ambivalence rath e r than strong feminine identification
was suggested. Eleven of the five and six year olds drew equal sized
figures, three drew the fem ale la rg e r, and one drew the m ale la rg e r.
Tables 5 and 7 showed that changes in both responses of num ber of de
tails drawn as well as of Relative-Sizes, approached significance at the
.10 level between Groups I and III, suggestive of a slow trend toward
stronger m asculine identification with increasing age. These findings
jwere not supported by the data from the SSCT. As discussed above, the:
power figure scores w ere suggestive of an opposite interpretation.
4. As Table 8 dem onstrated, if ability to differentiate between
the sexes in the DAP is indicative of identification, then the subjects
m ay be poorly identified with both sex roles as a total group, although a
few of the older subjects differentiated well. Lack of differentiation
m ay also be indicative of poor perception of differences between the
two sex -ro les. This interpretation is supportive of evidence of am biv
alence.
Com parison of DAP Findings of this
Study with Findings of Other Studies
1. The subjects resem bled a norm al population of boys in tend
ing to draw their own sex first. The percentages of subjects responding
84
with this behavior w ere sim ilar to reported percentages of boys' r e
sponses in other studies.^
2. In the Relative-Size response, a somewhat different r e
sponse appeared to be obtained from this sample than the findings r e
ported by Weider and Noller with boys and girls eight to twelve years of
12
age. Table 18 shows that one-fifth of the non-stuttering m ale subjects
drew equal sized figures. Of the rem aining four-fifths there was no
significant difference between the Male L arger and Fem ale L arger r e
sponses. On the other hand, girls drew the female figure larg er, and
there was no significant difference between their Male L arger and
Equal Size responses.
TABLE 18
A COMPARISON OF WEIDER-NOLLER FINDINGS AND
DATA FROM THIS STUDY WITH RESPECT TO
RELATIVE SIZES OF PAIRED FIGURES IN THE DAP
Study N Ages % MLgr % FLgr % EqSz
WN Boys 210 8-12 38.1 43.3 18.6
Stutt 23 8-10 34.8 30.4 34.8
WN Girls 228 8-12 17.1 69.3 13.6
The stuttering subjects w ere evenly divided among the three r e
sponses. This difference m ay have been due to the lack of eleven and
twelve year olds who were included in the other study, although it was
reported that age did not play a p art in these responses. In the present
n Cf. pp. 22-23.
12
Weider and Noller, "Objective Studies of Children's Drawings
of Human F igures," loc. c it., IX, 20-23.
85
study, the eight to ten year olds tended to decrease the Equal Size r e
sponse from that of the five to seven year olds (p - .10). It is possible
that if older subjects had been included in this group, results sim ilar to
those of the other study would have been obtained.
These findings w ere suggestive that boys who stutter are m ore
like other boys than like girls in this behavior. As the different r e
sponses of boys and girls in the DAP have been interpreted as evidence
of stronger identification of girls with the female role than boys are
identified with the m ale role, the present findings w ere consistent with
this interpretation. F urtherm ore, they w ere supportive of other find
ings in this study pointing toward ambivalence and were suggestive that
boys who stutter are m ore ambivalent than non-stuttering boys in their
sex-role identification.
No study was found which investigated the Relative-Size r e
sponses of younger children, so no com parison could be made with the
five to seven year old subjects.
3. In the number of sexual characteristics drawn for each sex,
there appeared to be some differences between the findings of this
study and of an earlier study by Weider and Noller with eight to ten
13
year old boys and girls from each m ajor S-E level.
Weider and Noller found that boys drew m ore details for the
male figure while girls drew m ore for the female figure between the
ages of eight to ten. The nine and ten year old subjects of this study
drew m ore details for the m ale figure, as Table 6 showed. The means
1 3
Weider and Noller, "Objective Studies of Children's Drawings
of Human F igures," loc. cit., VI, 319-325.
86
of the eight year olds w ere slightly higher for the m ale figure; th e re
fore, had they been included in the statistical analysis, the differences
would probably have remained significant.
However, as shown in Table 19, when the eight, nine, and ten
year old stuttering subjects w ere compared with the boys and girls of
each S-E level in the W eider-Noller study, the means of the stuttering
subjects are much closer to the means of the upper class m ales than to
the means of the middle class m ales. Weider and Noller reported that
there was a significant increase in number of sexual characteristics
drawn as the S-E levels descended from upper to lower levels. As the
TABLE 19
COMPARISON BETWEEN BOYS AND GIRLS OF EACH
S-E CLASS IN WEIDER-NOLLER STUDY TO THE
BOYS OF EIGHT TO TEN YEARS IN THIS STUDY
WITH RESPECT TO THE NUMBER OF
CHARACTERISTICS DRAWN FOR
EACH SEX ON THE DAP
Subjects
8-10 yrs.
N
Male Figure
Mean
Fem ale Figure
Mean
Stutt 23 3.13 2.63
Boys UC1 10 3.10 2.70
Boys MCI 34 3.44 2.76
Boys LC1 29 4.69
4.21
Girls UC1 24 2.75 3.04
Girls MCI 23 3.40 4.13
Girls LC1 33 3.70 4.27
Stutt (9-10) 15 3.47 2.80
subjects of the present study w ere selected from middle S-E levels,
their sim ilarity in this behavior to that of upper class non-stuttering
boys was interesting. It was of further in terest to note that when the
87
eight year olds w ere removed from the stuttering group, the means of
the nine and ten year olds w ere like those of the middle class norm al
boys.
These differences w ere suggestive of slower m aturation of this
response among stuttering boys, yet only by means of an experim ental
study can it be determ ined whether or not these differences w ere due to
chance.
These findings, however, w ere supportive of an interpretation that
stuttering boys are m ore like other boys than like girls in the num ber of
ch aracteristics they draw for each figure. This same interpretation
was suggested for the Relative-Size responses.
4. The Sex-Differentiation scores of the six, eight, and ten year
old stuttering subjects w ere com pared to the scores Swensen obtained
14
from the sam e aged boys and girls in Table 20. The means of the six
TABLE 20
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE
BOYS AND GIRLS OF SIX, EIGHT, AND TEN YEARS
IN SWENSEN'S STUDY AND THE SAME AGED
SUBJECTS OF THIS STUDY WITH RESPECT
TO SEX-DIFFERENTIATION SCORES
Age
Stuttering Boys Males F em ales
N Mean N Mean N Mean
6 7 3.43 21 2.57 22 3.27
8 8 3.38 21 4.86 16 5.94
10 7 5.29 15 5.40 14 6.29
year old stuttering subjects appeared to be m ore like the means of the
14
Swensen and Newton, "Development of Sexual Differentiation
on the D raw -A -P erson Test," loc. cit., pp. 417-418.
88
girls in Swensen's study as shown in Table 20. However, beyond this
age there w ere differences. W here Swensen found that girls in creased
rapidly in ability to differentiate and w ere significantly better than boys
in the y ears before adolescence, he also found that boys increased
rapidly from six to eight y ears, and then m ore slowly from eight to
twelve. The stuttering boys showed no in crease in this ability between
six and eight, but they w ere v ery m uch like the other boys by age ten.
These differences w ere noteworthy and indicative that experim ental
testing should be undertaken.
If these are actual differences, they are suggestive of m ore
feminine identification in the younger stuttering boys, an in terp retation
which has been supported in other data of this study. They are also
supportive of other findings of sim ilarity between the older stuttering
boys and other boys.
Com parison of SSCT Findings with Findings
from the DAP and the Q uestionnaires
According to the data from the SSCT, the stuttering subjects
p erceived no difference between th e ir paren ts as Pow er F igures, as
was shown in Table 9- These findings w ere suggestive of am bivalent
identification with both sex -ro les in accordance with the "pow er" theory
of identification. The five year olds approached significance in p e r
ceiving m ore F ather Pow er, and to a le s s e r degree, the ten year olds
tended to attribute m ore power to th eir m o thers.
These age differences appeared to differ from the in te rp re ta
tions applied to the DAP findings. However, norm al children of both
sexes incorporate m any feminine c h a ra c te ristic s of their m others.
89
Studies have been reported which w ere supportive of the theory that
boys are not as strongly identified with their fathers as girls are with
their m others, and the courses of identification are different for each
15
sex. Therefore, findings indicative of feminine identification in five
year olds are not inconsistent with simultaneous findings of g reater
F ather Power.
These findings w ere supportive of an in terpretation that boys
who stutter do not appear to have relinquished as much of their original
feminine identification as non-stuttering five and six y ear old boys.
Data from the last three m easu res of the DAP w ere supportive of this
interpretation. At the sam e tim e, the SSCT findings w ere suggestive
that five year old stuttering boys find th eir fathers powerful enough in
nurturance and punishment to enable them to incorporate many of their
fathers' ch arac teristics. That these boys had incorporated much m a s
culine role behavior was supported by data from the questionnaires.
F u rth erm o re, the ITSC scores of these boys w ere indicative that they
p re fe rre d m asculine to feminine role behavior.
That the ten year olds perceived m ore power in their m others
m ay be due to a developmental change in their perception of their p a r
ents as sources of nurturance and punishment. As shown in Tables 10,
11, and 12, the sample perceived m ore punishm ent than nurturance
from th eir fam ilies. This was especially true of the eight year olds
who w ere in the Group that perceived their fathers to be m ore punish
ing than the m others. It is possible to assum e fhat, beyond age five,
1 5Cf. p. 15.
90
since this sam ple found th e ir fath ers m ore punishing than n u r t u r i n g , ^
the norm al course of identification was prevented from occurring.
N orm ally, they would have continued consolidating th e ir initial attem pts
at identification with the m asculine role through th e ir fath ers.
By age ten th eir m o th ers becam e m o re nurturing than th e ir
17
fath ers. According to the re p o rts of G esell and Ilg, at this age n o rm al
boys p erceive m uch nurturance in th eir fath ers and becom e strongly a t
tached to them to the exclusion of the fem ale.
C om parison of SSCT Findings with
Findings of Other Studies
1. A com parison between the SSCT sc o re s of the stuttering sub
je cts with the SSCT sco res of the low and high ITSC s c o re rs in the
M u ssen -D istler study was p resen ted in Table 21. The other study was
with five y ear olds, so only the five y ear old subjects of this study w ere
com pared.
It was noteworthy that the ITSC m eans of the stuttering boys fell
betw een the m o re fem inine and high m asculine m eans of the other study.
This finding was also tru e of th e ir F a th e r Pow er, F ath er N urturance,
and Total N urturance m eans.
T heir M other Pow er and M other Punishm ent m eans w ere higher
than those of both groups, w hereas in M other N urturance th e ir m ean
16
Although these data w ere not p resen ted in Chapter IV, for
Group II the F P un m eans w ere g re a te r than the FN ur m eans at the .001
level. The m eans of F P un w ere also g re a te r for Group III, but the dif
feren ce was not significant. There w ere no significant differences b e
tw een M Pun and MNur in any Group.
17
1 'Cf. p. 25.
91
was sm aller than the low ITSC s c o re rs' m ean.
TABLE 21
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE HIGH AND LOW ITSC
SCORERS IN THE MUSSEN AND DISTLER STUDY
AND THE FIVE YEAR OLD SUBJECTS OF THIS
STUDY WITH RESPECT TO THEIR SSCT MEANS
Variable
Low ITSC Ss
M = 53.0a
N = 10
Stut
M = 73.9a
N = 8
High ITSC Ss
M = 83.0a
N = 10
MPow 3.20b 3.50 3.30b
FPow 4 .30c 5.50 6.50°
MNur
1 -70 j
1.50 2. i °b
FNur 2.20 3.13 3.70
MPun 1.50b 1.87 1.20b
FPun 2.1 0e 2.12 2.80e
TotNur
4*701
5.25 6.60^
Tot Pun 4.30 4.25 4.20
aITSC means.
- L
NS in M ussen-D istler study.
cSignificant at the .007 level in M -D study.
^Significant at the .02 level in M-D study.
eSignificant at the .06 level in M-D study.
£
Significant at the .004 level in M -D study.
In F ather Punishm ent the stuttering boys and the low ITSC
group appeared the sam e. In Total Punishm ent they w ere like both of
the other groups.
The sim ilarities and differences between the m eans of the stu t
tering boys and those of the other study could not be considered signifi
cant without experim ental procedures. However, the com parisons w ere
suggestive of differences between stuttering boys and other populations
92
of five y ear old boys in p attern s of identification. C om pared to the m ore
fem inine boys, the stuttering subjects appeared to perceive th e ir fa
th e rs as m ore nurturing and m o re powerful, but not so nurturing and
pow erful as fath ers w ere p erceiv ed by the high m asculine boys. These
apparent differences w ere supportive of other findings in this study that
the stuttering boys have a basis for attem pting identification with their
fath ers. T heir m others w ere p erceiv ed as m o re punishing and le ss
nu rturing than the m o th ers in either of the other two groups. These
facto rs can reasonably be assum ed to be im portant v ariab les in the con
flict which resu lted in the stuttering sym ptom , in accordance with
M o w rer's theory of p aren t-ch ild relationships as determ inants of neu-
1 ft
ro sis and sex -ro le identification.
2. Payne and M ussen rep o rte d that adolescent boys identified
with th e ir fath ers and with the m asculine role in relatio n to the extent
they p erceiv ed th e ir fath ers as nurturing?-9 The SSCT findings of this
study w ere indicative that after the age of five or six, the subjects p e r
ceived th e ir fath ers as m o re punishing than nurturing. It is reasonable
to hypothesize that this p attern m ay continue into adolescence and is
im portant in preventing strong identification with the m asculine role
from occurring.
C om parison of Data from Sonscience Scale
w ith Findings in Another Study
A co m parison of the findings of this study with the findings r e
ported by S ears, M accoby, and Levin^9 with re sp e c t to the stren gth of
1 8Cf. pp. 1 4 -1 5 . 19Cf. pp. 1 7 -1 8 . 2 0 Cf. pp. 4 2 -4 3 .
93
conscience of five year old children, is p resen te d in Table 22. Methods
of obtaining the data and scoring the resp o n ses w ere different in the
two studies which m ay be v ery im portant in the different re su lts ob
tained. F u rth e rm o re , g irls w ere included in th eir data, and they found
that girls develop a stro n g er conscience e a rlie r than boys. However,
the sam e th ree questions w ere used to obtain the resp o n ses in both
stu d ie s.
TABLE 22
COMPARISON OF RATINGS OF FIVE YEAR OLDS AND
TOTAL SAMPLE OF THIS STUDY WITH FIVE YEAR
OLD BOYS AND GIRLS IN OTHER STUDY WITH
RESPECT TO STRENGTH OF CONSCIENCE
Degree of
Conscience
Strength
% of Stuttering Boys
O thers
% of Boys and G irls
5 y rs. 5-10 y r s . 5 y rs .*
Str ong 20.0 18.0 3.0
C onsiderable 67.0 66.5 17.0
M oderate 13.0 15.5 38.0
Little or no 0.0 0.0 41.0
No data 0.0 0.0 1.0
* N = 37 9
These com parisons a re strongly suggestive that boys who stu t
te r have m uch stro n g er conscience developm ent than do norm al boys
and girls and are supportive of Van R ip e r's d escrip tion of the "m o ral
21
p erfectio n ism " of people who stu tter. If strength of conscience is in
dicative of strength of identification, the subjects appear to be strongly
identified with both p a re n ts, because th ere w as no difference between
the p a re n ts' ratings of the subjects in the Conscience Scale.
2 1 Cf. pp. 1 1-12.
94
Sum m ary
M easu res of se x -ro le identification w ere obtained from the DAP,
the SSCT, and the q u estionnaires. The findings w ere supportive of the
following in terp retatio n s: (1) The stuttering boy has in co rp o rated m any
aspects of the m asculine role through identification with his fath er. (2)
He has also in co rp o rated m any aspects of the fem inine ro le through
identification with his m o th er. W here n o rm al boys relinquish m uch of
th e ir original fem inine identification, the stuttering boy ap p ears to have
retained m any fem inine qualities which affect his resp o n ses to the DAP
and the SSCT. M oreover, his E x p ressiv e Behavior Scale ratings are
descriptive of fem ininity in se x -ro le behavior. (3) A m bivalence in
identification with both sex ro les has been supported by m any findings
in this study.
Data P ertain in g to P a re n ta l P re fe re n c e
C om parison of S P P T Data with
Q uestionnaire Data
A ccording to the SPPT data, the sam ple p r e fe r re d th e ir fath e rs
to th e ir m o th ers, and this w as especially tru e of Group I. The m eans
of Group II w ere identical for both p aren ts as w as shown in Table 13.
P a re n ts ' opinions of the subjects' p a re n ta l p re fe re n c e w ere in strong
agreem en t with these findings as Table 16 dem onstrated . Groups I and
III w ere felt to p re fe r th e ir fa th e rs, w h ereas not m any of Group II p a r
ents could m ake a choice.
A ccording to p aren tal opinion, m o re than twice as m any subjects
had p re fe rre d th e ir m o th ers to th e ir fa th e rs before the age of four but
had shifted to their fathers, and at the p resen t tim e m ore than twice as
many subjects p re fe rre d fathers to m o t h e r s ^
Com parison of SPPT Data with
Findings of Other Studies
2 3
According to G esell and Hg, norm ally there are developm ental
changes in a child* s p reference for either parent. O bservation of many
children led these re s e a rc h e rs to describe the norm al course of p a re n
tal p referen ce in the m ale child. They stated that at age five the m oth
er is strongly p re fe rre d , and only the exceptional boy p re fe rs the fa
ther; however, by age nine and ten the father is strongly p re fe rre d .
The subjects of this study appear to be among the exceptional
group at age five in th eir strong father preference. Although m ore of
Group III p re fe rre d their fath ers, the difference was not significant,
which again was different from the boys described by G esell and Hg.
Sum m ary
Boys who stutter appeared to differ from no rm al boys in th e ir
parental preferen ce, especially at age five when they p re fe rre d th eir
fathers. Instead of moving clo ser to their fathers by ages nine and ten,
there was no significant difference between th eir preference for either
paren t at those ages on the SPPT, but p arents felt fathers w ere p r e
ferred .
2 2 Cf. Table 16, p. 76. 2 3 Cf. p. 25.
96
Interpretation of the Data Related to
Questions of the Problem
1. Does the boy who stutters have a sex-role p referen ce?
The findings w ere strongly suggestive that boys who stutter had
a high preference for the m asculine role.
Z. Does his sex-role preference change with age?
Five year old boys who stutter appear to be m ore am bivalent in
m asculine preference than the older boys, but from ages six through ten
there was no change.
3. Does he identify with a specific s e x -ro le ?
Evidence was provided by the various m easures of identification
used in this study, that the boy who stutters was identified with both
s e x -ro le s .
4. Does his sex-role identification change with age?
Different developmental changes w ere suggested in the various
m easures of identification. Some DAP findings w ere indicative of
g reater m asculine identification with increasing age, while the five and
six year olds seem ed to have retained much feminine identification.
On the other hand, the SSCT data w ere suggestive of m ore father-identi
fication among the five year olds, while the ten year olds appeared to
move tow ard their m others. Some DAP data w ere supportive of no
change with age in m asculine identification. Questionnaire data sup
plied evidence of identification with both sex -ro les which did not change
with age, although there was a trend tow ard increasing m asculine iden
tification.
5. Does he p re fe r one p aren t to the o th e r?
A ccording to the m e asu re s used in this study, the boy who stu t
te rs p re fe rre d his father to his m other.
6. Does his paren tal preferen ce change with a g e ?
There w ere developm ental changes in the parental p reference of
the subjects. Five and six y e a r olds p re fe rre d their fathers, but this
preference was not significant among the nine and ten year olds. Seven
and eight year olds expressed no difference in th eir preferen ce for
either parent.
C H A PTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS
Summary
The purpose of this em pirical study was to investigate sex-role
identification and sex-role preference in boys who stutter. The prob
lem was stated in the form of six m ajor questions: (1) Does the boy
who stutters have a sex-role preference? (2) Does his sex-role p re f
erence change with age? (3) Does he identify with a specific sex-role?
(4) Does his sex-role identification change with age? (5) Does he p r e
fer one parent to the other? (6) Does his parental preference change
with age?
According to one theory, only when an individual is highly iden
tified with the sex-role which he strongly p refers will he escape neu ro
sis. N eurosis develops when: (1) one sex-role is p re fe rre d but identi
fication is am bivalent or with the opposite role; or (2) a person is iden
tified with a given sex-role but is am bivalent in preference for it.
L iterature was reviewed that provided a background and orien
tation to this investigation. Studies w ere reported in which the same
m easu res of identification and role preference had been utilized that
w ere used in this study.
Forty-five stuttering boys from Caucasian fam ilies of middle
socioeconomic status w ere selected as subjects. Their ages w ere
98
99
evenly distributed from five through ten years to enable investigation of
developmental change.
Four tests w ere adm inistered: (1) the IT Scale for Children, a
sex-ro le preference test; (2) the Structured Story-Com pletion Test, a
partial m easu re of identification; (3) the D raw -A -P erson Test, a p a r
tial m easu re of identification; (4) the Structured Puppet Play Test, a
m easure of parental preference.
Q uestionnaires w ere adm inistered to parents and classroom
teachers of the subjects to obtain their ratings of the subjects' sex-
typed behavior for com parison with data from the tests. The data w ere
analyzed by statistical and non-statistical procedures, and in te rp re ta
tions of these analyses w ere presented.
Conclusions
The following conclusions seem w arranted within the lim itations
of this study:
1. Boys who stutter seem to express their preference for the
m asculine role m ore often, at an e a rlie r age, and with less variance
than m asculine preference is found in a norm al population of boys.
2. Boys who stutter seem m ore am bivalent in sex -ro le identifi
cation than are norm al boys.
3. The developmental course of parental preference among
boys who stutter seem s to differ from that in norm al boys.
4. Boys who stutter perceive their fathers as m ore punishing
than nurturing, a perception that differs from the theorized balance of
nurturance and punishm ent that w ell-adjusted boys perceive.
1 0 0
The findings of this study lend some support to the theory that
the neurotic conflict resulting in stuttering develops from disturbances
in the identification p ro cess in early childhood. The conflict appears to
be due to ambivalent identification with both sex roles in contrast to an
unusually strong preference for the m asculine role.
It is further hypothesized that the disturbances in the identifica
tion p rocess w ere created by the child's perception of m ore punishment
than nurturance from his parents. Although he was strongly attached to
his m other before age four,'*' his perception of her as a punishing fig-
2 3 4
ure led him to prefer his father along with his fath e r's sex-role and
5
to perceive his father as m ore nurturing by age five.
Whether or not his perception of g reater father nurturance was
real or distorted, it was short lived. It served the purpose of p e rm it
ting him to acquire m any aspects of m asculine role behavior, but did
not help him to relinquish his e a rlie r feminine identifications. After
the age of six, the boy's perception of his father as a punishing figure
increased.^ Here again, whether or not the father was actually m ore
punishing than nurturing was not im portant. His distance and threat
w ere perceived as real by the boy, and they might have served to drive
the boy away from m asculine identification, if the m other w ere m ore
nurturing and if the boy did not retain a yearning for g reater closeness
7
with his father. When the boy began to perceive his m other as m ore
2Cf. Table 16, p. 76. 2Cf. Table 21, p. 91.
3Cf. Table 13, p. 64. 4Cf. Table 2, p. 54.
5Cf. Table 10, p. 62. 6Cf. n. 16, p. 90.
7Cf. Table 13, p. 64.
1 0 1
8 9
nurturing by age ten, her power began to increase. This condition
could only serve to increase his feminine identifications. Because he
had incorporated much m asculine role behavior and strongly p re fe rre d
that role, his conflict and neurosis w ere strengthened.
It is not unreasonable to hypothesize further from these p re
adolescent findings that after the age of ten the boy continued to
strengthen his perception of his m other as a power figure. Clinical ob
servation of adolescent and adult m ales who stutter lend support to this
theory. As the father grew m ore distant and threatening, the m other
assum ed m ore of the fath e r's role, making it even h ard er for the ado
lescent to differentiate between the sexes in role behavior and to identi
fy with the sex-role which he p referred .
Implications
Experim ental methods of re se a rc h are n ecessary to te st these
hypotheses, and the following problem s would yield valuable information:
1. Sex-role p reference and identification should be investigated
from age three and one-half into adulthood by com paring sam ples of
people who stutter with control groups from other populations.
2. V ariables in addition to stuttering, age, sex, S-E status, IQ,
and ethnic group should be controlled in order to secure better control
over the phenomena of identification and role preference. Therefore,
control groups should be selected from populations whose symptoms
appear to have resulted from different identification and preference
patterns from those hypothesized in stuttering. For example,
8Cf. Table 10, p. 62. 9 Cf. Table 9, p. 61.
1 0 2
com paring a group of boys who stutter with a group of delinquent boys
who have no speech problem s and to a group of norm al boys should be
profitable.
3. These phenomena should be investigated among fem ales who
stutter in the same ways suggested for the m ales.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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English, H orace B., and English, Ava C. A C om prehensive D ictionary
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Fenichel, Otto. The Psychoanalytic Theory of N eu ro sis. New York: W.
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F estinger, Leon, and Katz, Daniel (eds.). R esearch Methods in the Be
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Gesell, Arnold, and ILg, F. The Child from Five to T en. New York:
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Guilford, J. P. Fundam ental S tatistics in Psychology and Education.
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Horney, Karen. New Ways in P sy ch o an aly sis. New York: W. W. N or
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Lindzey, G ardner (ed.). Handbook of Social Psychology. Reading,
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104
105
M owrer, O. Hobart. Learning Theory and Personality D ynam ics. New
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P arsons, T., and Bales, R. F. (eds.). Family, Socialization, and Inter
action P ro c e s s . Glencoe, 111.: The F ree P re ss, 1955.
Sears, R. Maccoby, E., and Levin, H. P atterns of Child R earing.
Evanston, 111.: Row, Peterson, and Co., 1957.
Van Riper, Charles. Speech C orrectio n--P rin ciples and M ethods.
Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: P rentice-H all, Inc., 1954.
W arner, W. L., Meeker, M., and Eells, K. Social Class in A m erica.
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A rticles and Periodicals
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Human Figure," Journal of Clinical Psychology, XVI (January,
I960), 42-44.
Brim , Orville G. "Fam ily Structure and Sex Role Learning by Chil
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(January, 1958), 1-15.
Brown, Daniel G. "M asculinity-Fem ininity Development in Children,"
Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXI (June, 1957), 197-202.
. "Sex Role Development in a Changing Culture," Psychologi-
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___________. "Sex Role P reference in Young Children," Psychological
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Brown, Daniel G., and Tolor, Alexander. "Human Figure Drawings as
Indicators of Sexual Identification and Inversion," Perceptual and
Motor Skills, XII (September, 1957), 199-211.
Coriat, I. H. "The Psychoanalytic Conception of Stam m ering," The
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Gardner, P earl. "An Analysis of Children's Attitudes Toward Fathers,"
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106
La Follette, A. C. "P a re n ta l E nvironm ent in Stuttering C hildren,"
Journal of Speech and H earing D iso rd ers, XXI (June, 1956), 202-
207.
Levin, H arry, and S ears, R obert. "Identification with P a re n ts as a De
term inant of Doll P lay A ggression," Child D evelopm ent, XXVII
(June, 1956), 135-152.
Lynn, David B. "A Note of Sex D ifferences in the Development of M as
culine and Fem inine Identification," Psychological Review, LXVI
(M arch, 1959), 126-135.
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___________, and Newton, K. R. "Developm ent of Sexual D ifferentiation on
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___________. "Objective Studies of C hildren's Drawings of Human F ig
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Handy, G. D. "The Sex-Role P re fe re n c e Scale for Children: A Study of
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107
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16, 1955.
A P P E N D I X E S
APPENDIX A
TABLE 23
GROUP MEANS AND DISTRIBUTION FOR MOTHER, FATHER, AND TEACHER RATINGS OF SUBJECTS
IN THE INSTRUMENTAL, AGGRESSIVE, AND COURAGEOUS BEHAVIOR SCALES AND THE
MASCULINITY SCORE MEANS
Scales
(ranges and
midpoints )a
Group
N
Mother
Mean
D istri
bution
N
Father
Mean
D istri
bution
Teacher
N Mean Range
1. Instrumental I
15k
32.06
15k
31.87°
15-h
40.00°
(rg - 14-70 II 14 33.07 14 30.43 14 32.29
mpt = 42) III 15 30.60 15 30.13 15 39.53
Total 44 31.91
17-50 44 30.48 21-44 44 37.27 19-51
2. Aggressive I
1 5 1
44.87d
15h
45.87
15,
52.27d
(rg = 16-80 II 14 39.86 14 38.29 14 46.50
mpt = 48) III 15 41.00 15 41.60 15 44.47
Total 44 41.91 24-58 44
41.92 32.58 44 47.73 28-67
3. Courage I
151 ,
29.60
15,
31.87
15,
30.67
(rg = 12-60 II 14 29.50 14 30.43e 14 22.87e
mpt = 36) III 15 28.67 15 30.13 15 22.87
Total 44 30.48 19-44 44 30.48 16-41 44 25.78 13-39
Masculinity I
1 5 b
106.53
15b
106.73
15b
122.93
(rg = 42-210 II 14 102.43 14 96.14 14 102.44
mpt =126) III 15 100.27 15 100.60 15 96.20
Total 44 103.08 81-142 44 101.06 79-126 44 107.19
64-148
aLow scores indicate higher masculinity in ranges and means.
^Fatherless boy omitted from Group II for these comparisons.
CF vs T:t = .584, P = .60; dM vs T:t= .397, P = .70; eF vs T:t= .1596, P = .90.
TABLE 24
GROUP MEANS AND DISTRIBUTION FOR MOTHER, FATHER, AND TEACHER RATINGS OF SUBJECTS
IN THE EXPRESSIVE AND MASCULINE ACTIVITY SCALES, AND FOR PARENTS' RATINGS IN THE
CONSCIENCE AND PARENT ATTITUDE SCALES
Scales
(ranges and
midpoints )a
Group
N
Mother
Mean
D istri
bution
N
Father
Mean
D istri
bution
Teacher I
N Mean Raiige
i
4. Expressive I
1 5 k
48.13°
1 5 h
44.93
1 5 k
1
39.53°
(rg = 13-65 II 14 45.29
14 45.64 14 41.21
mpt = 39) III 15 43.00 15 41.73 15 37.67
Total 44 45.47 40-57 44 43.10 37-53 44 39.47 30-51
5. Masculine I 15 5.33 15 6.67 15 7.87
Activity II 14b 5.93 l 4 b 4.86 14b 5.93
(rg = 3-15 III 15 5.73 15 5.33 15 4.67
Total 44 5.87 3-13 44 5.64d 3-11 44 6.16d 3-12!
i
6. Conscience I 15 6.73e 15 7.80e
(rg = 3-15 II 14b 7.00 14b 7.43
mpt = 9) III 15 7.33 15 7.93
Total 44 7.02 3-12 44 7.72 3-12
7. Parent Att. I
1 5 k
12.60 15 12.13
(rg = 4-20 II 14 13.07* 14b 12.00
mpt =12) III 15 12.87 15 13.33
Total 44 12.85 7-17 44 12.49 5-19
aLower scores indicate: lower expressiveness, higher masculine activity, stronger conscience,
rigid attitude.
^Fatherless boy omitted from Group II for these comparisons.
C M vs T:P = .70; dF vs T:P = NS; eM vs F:P = .80; fM vs F:P = NS.
TABLE 25
DESCRIPTIONS OF SUBJECTS WITH RESPECT TO AGE, IQ OR TEACHERS' ESTIMATES, S-E STATUS,
AGE OF ONSET OF STUTTERING ACCORDING TO MOTHER AND FATHER, FOSTER PARENTS, AND
ADDITIONAL SPEECH PROBLEMS
s Age
IQ
o r K
Est.
S-Ea
Level
St. Onset
M F
Fost.
Par.
Other0
Sp.
Prob.
S Age
IQ
o r K
Est.
S-Ea
Level
St. Onset
M F
F ost.
Par.
Other0
Sp.
Prob.
1
5/1 av UM 4 4 23 8/6 110 UM 6 6 A.
2 5/4 av LM 2 1/2 3 M F 24 8/11 110 LM 3 3
3 5/10 av LM 3 5 F 25 8/6 98 LM 4 4 L.S., A.
4 5/2 1-av LM 3 3 26 8/2 92 LM 5 no fath
5 5/11 av LM 5 3 1/2 27 8/11 105 UM 3 1 1/2
6 5/7 1 -av LM 5 4 28 8/11 123 LM 6 6
7 5/1 a-av UM 3 3 L.S.,A.
29
8/4 102 LM 5 5
8 5/8 av UM 3 3 30 8/10
129 LM 4 4
9
6/4 92 UM 2 1/2 2 1/2 31 9/5 136 UM 3 5 1/2
10 6/11 av LM 3 1/2 3 1/2 32 9/6 96 UM 4
?
F
11 6/3 111 LM 4
?
33 9/10 124 UM 5 4
12 6/2 113 LM 4 4 34 9/6 a-av LM 3 1/2 4
13 6/6 av LM 3 1/2 4 L.S.,A. 35 9/7 103 LM 4 4 A.
14 6/5 107 UM 3 3 36 9/8 110 LM 5 3
15 6/7 109 UM 3 1/2 4 37
9/1
116 LM 3 3 L.S.
16 7/4 110 UM 2
?
A. 38 9/2 111 UM 3 5
17 7/10 110 UM 4 4 39
10/1 92 UM 3 3
18 7/3 137 UM 2 2 40 10/4 av LM 3
?
F
19
7/4 111 LM 2 1/2 2 41 10/2 93 UM 4 6 L.S.
20 7/3 107 UM 3 1/2 4 L.S.,A. 42 10/8 114 LM 4 4
21 7/11 108 UM 3 4 43 10/6 99 UM 4 4
22 7/6 113 LM 3 3 44 10/2 123 UM 2 8 1/2
45- 10/3 116 LM 4 4
aUM = upper middle; LM = lower middle.
b l -av = low average potential; a-av = above average potential.
CL.S. = late in beginning to talk; A. = articulation problem.
APPENDIX B
STRUCTURED STORY COMPLETION TEST (SSCT)
1. This boy is trying to fix one of his toys but he needs help. His
m other and father are both very busy reading. What happens?
2. This boy is getting ready to go to school. He has a knot in his
shoelace and can't undo it alone. Mother and Father are both at
home. What happens?
3. This boy got hurt while he was outside playing. He comes into the
house crying very hard. Father and Mother are both inside and
they hear him cry. What happens?
4. This boy is having fun playing with his things. F ather and Mother
say: "It's time to go to bed now." The boy says: "No, I don't want
to go to bed now'." He throws a toy on the floor, and it breaks.
What happens ?
5. This boy has had a bad dream . He wakes up from this bad dream
scream ing. He calls for Mother or Father. Which one does he call
for and what happens?
6. This boy has been outside playing and having fun. He comes into
the house and into the living room very dirty and laughing and
shouting. Mother and Father are having company in the living
room. What happens?
7. This boy and his F ather and Mother are at dinner. He accidentally
spills his milk. What happens?
8. This boy is fighting with another boy his age and his size. His
Mother and Father see the fight from the window. What happens?
9- This boy is outside playing in his front yard. His Father and
Mother come out and tell him they have to go away for a short
time and he m ust not leave the yard while they are gone. After
they leave, some of his friends come by and tell him they are going
to the store to see some new toys. He wants to go, too. He decides
to go with them. His parents come home while he is away. After a
while he returns home. What happens?
114
115
Scene 1.
Scene 2.
Scene 3.
Scene 4
Scene 5
Scene 6
STRUCTURED P U P P E T PLAY TEST (SPPT)
M other, F ather, and boy puppets are in the living room . The
phone rings and p aren ts ask the boy to answ er it. An adult
relativ e tells him to send one of his p aren ts to th e ir house
right away to help them with som ething that will take the
whole evening. Which p aren t does the boy want to stay hom e
with him and which does he send to the re la tiv e 's house?
The boy is getting ready for bed. W ashes his face, b ru sh es
his teeth, gets into his p ajam as, and gets into bed. Then he
calls for one of his p aren ts to come in and say goodnight and
talk for a few m inutes. Which one does he call for?
This boy got a new game for his birthday. He can 't play with
it alone as it needs two people. He w ants to play with it v ery
m uch and both his parents are home and free. Which one
does he ask to play it with him ?
The phone rings and the boy answ ers it. It is one of his
friends inviting him to go on an outing with his fam ily the
next day which is a holiday. There is room in the car for
one of his parents to come along also. As his fam ily had no
plans for the holiday, he wants to go. Which p aren t does he
ask to come along?
This boy ov erslep t and he needs a ride to school or he w ill
be late. Both p aren ts can drive and both are awake and
d re sse d and free that m orning. Which one does he ask?
A le tte r com es to them from a relativ e who lives fa r away.
They ask that one of the boy1 s p aren ts come and help them
with som ething v ery im portant to the whole family; how ever,
it m ay keep the p aren t away for th ree m onths, a long tim e.
T here is someone who can cook and take care of the house if
M other goes, and F ath er can easily get away for that tim e.
They decide to leave it to the boy to choose. Which one does
he send to the relative and which does he want to stay home
with him ?
116
SCORING SHEET
1. SSCT
Story No. 1 ______2______3_ _ _ _ _ 4_ _ _ _ _ 5______6______7______8_ _ _ _ _ 9
MPun
FPun
TPun
MNur
FNur
TNur
MPun
FPun
TPun
TotPun
2. SPPT
Scene No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M
F
MNur = MPow =
FN ur = FPow =
TNur =
TotNur =
Mo P ref. =
F a P ref. =
117
Point
Point
Point
Point
Point
Point
Point
Point
Point
SWENSEN SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION RATING SCALE
FOR THE DRAW-A-PERSON TEST
1 Little or No Differentiation between the male and female
figures. Any difference does not include sexual differences
such as hair, clothing, body contours, or facial details.
2 Slightly better.
3 Poor Sexual Differentiation: Longer hair on female; slight
suggestion of difference in clothing and/or body contour.
4 Slightly better.
5 Fair Sexual Differentiation: Female definitely longer hair;
female has clearly different body contour with rounded hips
or breasts or both; male body more angular; may be a sug
gestion of difference in clothing.
6 Slightly better.
7 Good Sexual Differentiation : Female has longer hair, a
clearly different body countour as described in (5), the
male is more angular; both have clear difference in cloth
ing, although female may be in slacks; there may be a dif
ference in minor details such as lashes.
8 Slightly better.
9 Excellent Sexual Differentiation: All the details listed in
(7) plus all minor details appropriately drawn.
QUESTIONNAIRE SCALES
IN S T R U M E N T A L SC A LE
1. Does he stay with something he has started until it is finished to
his satisfaction?
2. Is he aggressive?
3. Does he ask questions or attempt to find out about things in which
he is interested?
4. Does he plan ahead for things he intends to do?
5. Can you depend on him to carry out things for which he is respon
sible without being reminded?
6. Does he make suggestions about things to do?
7. Does he make decisions easily?
8. Does he seem self-confident?
9. Does he participate in competitive games and sports with other
boys ?
10. Does he ask what to do before he does it?
11. Is he sure about the things he wants?
12. Is he the leader of a group of children?
13. Does he seem as mature as most boys his age?
14. Does he seem as masculine as m ost boys his age?
119
1 2 0
AG G RESSIVE BEH AVIO R SCALE
-1. Does he seem to avoid aggressive boys?
-2. Does he try to please other children?
3. Is he the leader of a group of children?
-4. Does he give in to children other than his brothers or sisters?
5. Does he have physical fights with children other than his
brothers or sisters?
6. Does he talk back to you?
7. Does he seem to be stubborn?
8. Is he aggressive?
9. Is he likely to push others aside when he is in a hurry?
10. Does he try to get his way?
11. Does he stand up for his rights?
12. Does he lose his temper?
13. Does he enjoy rough, energetic outdoor play?
14. Does he prefer vigorous activity to quiet play?
15. Does he seem as masculine as m ost boys his age?
16. Does he prefer to be with aggressive boys rather than with boys
who are more quiet?
1 2 1
COURAGEOUS BEHAVIOR SCALE
-1. Does he avoid speaking situations?
-2. Does he seem to avoid or hold back from new situations ?
-3. Is he reluctant to try a new skill or activity?
-4. Does he avoid situations in which he might be hurt?
-5. Does he cry?
-6. Does he seem to be a tense child?
-7. Is he reluctant to meet new children?
-8. Is he withdrawn or shy with women he doesn't know well?
-9. Does he seem to avoid aggressive boys?
-10. Does he seem reserved with other boys?
-11. Doe s he seem about to cry but holds back the tears?
-12. Does he seem as masculine as most boys his age?
E X P R E S S IV E BEH A V IO R SC A L E
-1. Is he cheerful?
-2. Is he friendly to adults?
-3. Is he friendly to boys?
-4. Is he friendly to girls?
-5. Does he seem to prefer play with children to playing alone?
-6. Does he lose his tem per?
-7. Does he seem to be stubborn?
-8. Is he likely to push others aside when he is in a hurry?
-9- Does he give in to children other than his brothers or sisters?
10. Does he cry?
11. Does he seem about to cry but holds back the tears?
12. Does he seem to try to please other children?
13. Does he avoid situations in which he might be hurt?
123
MASCULINE ACTIVITY SCALE
1. Does he enjoy rough, energetic outdoor play?
2. Does he prefer vigorous activities to quiet play?
3. Does he participate in competitive games and sports with other
boys ?
CONSCIENCE SCALE
1. Can you tell when he has done something he is not supposed to do?
2. Does he tell you without your having to ask him, when he has done
something he is not supposed to do?
3. Does he admit it when you ask him about something you know he
has done that he is not supposed to do?
PARENT ATTITUDE SCALE
1. Do you feel that a boy of his age should act like a "real boy"?
(masculine)
2. Do you feel that a child should never talk back to an adult?
3. Do you feel it is "sissy" for a boy of his age to cry?
4. Do you feel it is important for a boy of his age to be brave?
PARENTS' QUESTIONNAIRE
INSTRUCTIONS
This form consists of two (2) parts: P a rt A and P a rt B.
P ar t A consists of 49 questions. There are five (5) possible choices
for each question ranging from always to n ev er:
Read each question and decide which word best applies. Then put the
number of your choice to the left of the question. Some few questions
may not be applicable. In such cases, w rite NA in the blank space.
Please do not use NA unless you have no other possible choice. Try to
answer all of the questions. This is very important. R em em ber to give
your OWN opinion and to be as honest with yourself as you can. Fill in
only one (1) choice per question. E rase completely any answer that you
wish to change.
P art B consists of 25 item s, some in several sections, to be filled in
or checkmarked. Spaces are provided for your answ ers. If, in any
question, you need m ore space, use the back of that page, clearly
marking the statement with the appropriate number of that question.
1 = always 2 = frequently
4 = seldom 5 = never
3 = som etim es
NA = not applicable
Thank you.
125
126
P - A
1 = a lw a y s 2 = fr e q u e n tly 3 = s o m e t im e s
4 = se ld o m 5 = n e v e r NA = not a p p lic a b le
1. Does he avoid speaking situations?
2. Does he stay with something he has started until it is finished
~~~~ to his satisfaction?
3. Can you depend on him to carry out things for which he is r e
sponsible without being reminded?
4. Does he seem to be stubborn?
5. Does he seem to prefer play with other children to playing
alone?
6. Does he lose his tem per?
7. Is he withdrawn or shy with women he doesn't know well?
8. Is he likely to push others aside when he is in a hurry?
9- Does he seem self-confident?
10. Is he cheerful?
11. Does he enjoy rough, energetic outdoor play?
12. Does he talk back to you?
13. Does he seem as m ature as m ost boys his age?
14. Is he friendly to adults?
15. Can you tell when he has done something he is not supposed to
do?
16. Does he cry?
17. Is he reluctant to meet new children?
18. Does he make decisions easily?
19- Does he stand up for his rights?
20. Does he prefer vigorous activities to quiet play?
21. Does he ask what to do before he does it?
22. Does he seem to avoid or hold back from new situations?
127
P - A
1 a s alw ays 2 = freq u en tly 3 = s o m e tim e s
4 = seld o m 5 = n ev er NA = not app licab le
23. Is he the leader of a group of children?
24. Does he seem to avoid aggressive boys?
25. Does he seem about to cry but holds back the tears?
26. Does he tell you without your having to ask him, when he has
done something he is not supposed to do?
27. Does he give in to children other than his brothers or sisters?
28. Does he participate in competitive games and sports with other
boys ?
29- Does he ask questions or attempt to find out about things in
which he is interested?
30. Does he seem reserved with other boys?
31. Does he admit it when you ask him about something you know he
has done that he is not supposed to do?
32. Does he make suggestions about things to do?
33. Is he reluctant to try a new skill or activity?
34. Is he sure about the things he wants?
35. Is he friendly to boys?
36. Is he aggressive?
37. Does he have physical fights with children other than his
brothers or sisters?
38. Does he prefer to be with aggressive boys than with boys who
are more quiet?
39- Does he seem to be a tense child?
40. Does he try to get his way?
41. Does he plan ahead for things he intends to do?
42. Is he friendly to girls?
43. Does he seem as masculine as most boys his age?
44. Does he avoid situations in which he might be hurt?
128
P - A
1 = always 2 = frequently 3 = som etim es
4 = seldom 5 = never NA = not applicable
45. Does he seem to try to please other children?
46. Do you feel that a boy of his age should act like a "real boy"
(masculine)?
47. Do you feel that a child should never talk back to an adult?
48. Do you feel it is "sissy" for a boy of his age to cry?
49- Do you feel it is im portant for a boy of his age to be brave?
129
P - B
1. Age of son_____________ . His birthdate_______________________
2. How old was he when he began to stutter?_________________
3. Had his speech been normal for his age until that time?
Yes_______ No_______.
4. If you checked "no," please explain:________________________
5a. Have any other m em bers of the family ever stuttered?
Yes_______ No_______.
b. If "yes," name relationship to son:____________________________________
6a. Since he began to stutter, have there been any notable periods of
time when he was free from stuttering? Yes_________ No___
b. If you checked " y e s , " list the length of time periods and his ages
at these times as accurately as you can recall:
(Example: 6 months 4 yrs., 3 mos., to 4 yrs., 9 mos.)
Time Periods His Age at These Times
7. List ages of his brothers, if any:_________________________________
8. List ages of his sisters, if any:________________________________________
9. Are both his natural parents living with him? Yes No
10. If "no," give his age(s) when he was separated from his natural
parent(s), and explain the circumstances briefly. If he has a
foster parent, include son's age when this relationship began.
130
P - B
11. What does he say he'd like to be when he grows up?
12. Does he seem to enjoy helping mother around the house?
Yes_______ No_______
13. Does he seem to enjoy and seek opportunities for time spent alone
with his father or some other male adult? Yes_______ No_______
14. To what adult did he seem m ost attached before he was four?
15. To what adult is he m ost attached now?_________________________
16. What adult does he seem the m ost eager to please?__________
17. Whose discipline does he seem to respond to m ost readily?
18. What adult does he seem to resem ble m ost in his interests?
19. What adult does he seem to resem ble m ost in his m annerism s?
20. What adult does he seem to resem ble m ost in his personality
traits?__________________________________________________________________
21. List his favorite activities and interests:
22. Check ALL that apply:
Same Age Older Younger
He tends to play:
a. Alone ___________
b. With one boy who is ___________
c. With one girl who is _________ ____ ___________
d. With two or more
boys who are _______________ ___________
131
P - B
Same Age Older Younger
e. With two or more
girls who are _______________ ___________ ____________
f. With groups of boys
and girls who are _______________ ___________ ____________
23. What are your favorite leisure time activities and interests?
24. What is your occupation?__________________________________________________
25. On this page, please list any notable periods of time when he has
been separated from either or both parents and his ages during
these periods. If some other adult took care of him during
these times, please indicate relationship. If his father (or
mother) travels regularly, indicate this and frequency of ab
sence.
(Example: Mother - 2 weeks - 3 1/2 yrs. - Maternal grand
mother
Both - 3 weeks - 5 yrs. 1 mo. - Paternal grand
parents
Father - travels 3 days/wk - 3 yrs. - now - Mother)
Either or
Both Parents Time Period Son1 s Age Cared for Him
TEACHERS' QUESTIONNAIRE
INSTRUCTIONS
This form consists of two (2) parts: P art A and P art B.
P a r t A consists of forty-two questions (42). There are five (5) pos-
sible choices for each question, ranging from always to never:
Read each question and decide which word best applies. Then put the
number of your choice to the left of the question.
Some few questions may not be applicable, as in a question pertaining
to his way of relating to others where you have had no opportunity to ob
serve such behavior. In such cases write NA in the blank space.
Please reserve NA only for such questions. Try to answer all the
questions. This is very important. Use only one (1) choice per ques
tion. Erase completely any answer that you wish to change.
P a r t B consists of information required from the boy's cumulative
record. If he has no recorded IQ in his record, please indicate your
own estimate of his potential by writing one of the following descriptive
phrases: below average, average, superior, very superior, in the ap
propriate space.
1 = always
4 = seldom
2 = frequently
5 = never 5 =
3 = sometimes
NA = not applicable
Thank you.
133
134
T-A
1 = a lw a y s 2 = fr e q u e n tly 3 = s o m e t im e s
4 = s e ld o m 5 = n e v e r N A = not a p p lic a b le
1. Does he avoid speaking situations?
2. Does he stay with something he has started until it is finished
to his satisfaction?
3. Can you depend on him to carry out things for which he is r e
sponsible without being reminded?
4. Does he seem to be stubborn?
5. Does he seem to prefer play with other children to playing
alone?
6. Does he lose his tem per?
7. Is he withdrawn or shy with women he doesn't know well?
8. Is he likely to push others aside when he is in a hurry?
9- Does he seem self-confident?
10. Is he cheerful?
11. Does he enjoy rough, energetic outdoor play?
12. Does he talk back to you?
13. Does he seem as m ature as m ost boys his age?
14. Is he friendly to adults?
15. Does he cry?
16. Is he reluctant to m eet new children?
17. Does he make decisions easily?
18. Does he stand up for his rights?
19- Does he prefer vigorous activity to quiet play?
20. Does he ask what to do before he does it?
21. Does he seem to avoid or hold back from new situations?
22. Is he the leader of a group of children?
23. Does he seem to avoid aggressive boys?
135
T-A
1 = a lw a y s 2 = fr e q u e n tly 3 = s o m e tim e s
4 = se ld o m 5 = n e v e r NA = not ap p lica b le
24, Does he seem about to cry but holds back the tears?
25. Does he give in to other children?
26. Does he participate in competitive games and sports with other
boys ?
27. Does he have physical fights with other children?
28. Does he ask questions or attempt to find out about things in
which he is interested?
29. Does he seem reserved with other boys?
30. Does he make suggestions about things to do?
31. Is he reluctant to try a new skill or activity?
32. Is he sure about the things he wants?
33. Is he friendly to boys?
34. Is he aggressive?
35. Does he prefer to be with aggressive boys than with boys who
are more quiet?
36. Does he seem to be a tense child?
37. Does he try to get his way?
38. Does he plan ahead for things he intends to do?
39. Is he friendly to girls?
40. Does he seem as masculine as most boys his age?
41. Does he avoid situations in which he might be hurt?
42. Does he seem to try to please other children?
136
T-B
la. What is his recorded IQ?_________________________________________________
b. If his IQ has not yet been computed, what is your opinion of h i s
potential? (See instructions)
2. In your opinion, does he come from a family that could be c l a s s i
fied as: (Check one)
Upper class ________________________
Upper-middle class ________________________
Lower-middle class
Upper-lower class____________________________________
Lower-lower class___________________________________
3. Please give a brief account, from his cumulative reco rd , of h is
behavior, academic performance, and his personality an d
adjustment.
APPENDIX C
FORMULAS
1. When means of paired sam ples were correlated, i.e., when
means were obtained from scores on tests taken by the same subjects,
formula 10.6 was used to derive _t directly from sums of squares:"*’
= m ean of the N differences of paired observations
= deviation of a difference from the mean of the differ
ences
2. When two samples were of equal size, formula 10.5 was used.
2
This is a t test for the difference between uncorrelated means:
M
d
t =
N(N - 1)
M 1 - Mz
t =
= size of either sample
1
Guilford, Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education,
p . 2 2 0 .
2
Ibid.
138
3
3. The formula used for obtaining chi square was formula 11.2:
(fo - fe>2"
f e
f = observed frequency
f = expected frequency
Each cell provides a ratio (cell-square contingency). Chi
square is the sum of the cell-square contingencies in a contin
gency table.
4. The formula used to ascertain the difference between propor-
4
tions was the z ratio for a difference between means:
- M 2
z =
crd
m
crdrn = standard error of the difference between the means
5. Formula 9-20 was used to compute the standard error (SE) of
5
the difference between two proportions:
c T j = /c £ + cr2 - 2 r 1? c r o r
S U P1 P2 12 P1 p2
cjp^ = SE of the first proportion
cT p = SE of the second proportion
r 12 = corre- * - a^ on proportions in pairs of samples
3Ibid., p. 232. ^Ibid., p. 185 (formula 9.18).

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Asset Metadata

Creator Broida, Helen (author)

Core Title An Empirical Study Of Sex-Role Identification And Sex-Role Preference In A Selected Group Of Stuttering Male Children

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Speech

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Theater

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Perkins, William H. (committee chair), [Jordan] (committee member), Garwood, Victor P. (committee member), Haney, Russell (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-261405

Unique identifier UC11358648

Identifier 6206041.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-261405 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6206041.pdf

Dmrecord 261405

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Broida, Helen

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA