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A Comparison Of The Effectiveness Of Two Group Counseling Formats

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A Comparison Of The Effectiveness Of Two Group Counseling Formats

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Content A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TWO GROUP COUNSELING FORMATS by Kenneth Strickland Washington A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) August 1970 71-7747 WASHINGTON, Kenneth Strickland, 1922- A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TWO GROUP COUNSELING FORMATS. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1970 Education, guidance and counseling University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED UNIVERSITY O F SO UTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA B 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by Kanneth..S.tr±ckland..Maajalngt.an... under the direction of h..±3... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y | j Dean DISSERTATION CO: TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES....................................... iv Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ................................. 1 The Study................................... 7 Basic Assumptions and Conditions of the Experiment........................ 13 Organization of the Remainder of the S t u d y ............................ 16 II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................ 17 Overview of Research on Group Counseling............................... 17 Development of the Self-Concept ........... 52 Accelerated Interaction ................... 65 Summary..................................... 79 III. METHODOLOGY................................... 81 The Sam p l e ................................. 82 Instrumentation............................ 90 Statement of Hypotheses ................... 103 Proposed Treatment of the D a t a ............ 105 Summary..................................... 108 IV. REPORT OF FINDINGS........................... 109 Introduction ............................... 109 Analytic Procedures and Tabulations .... Ill ii Chapter V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................ 125 Summary..................................... 125 Conclusions................................. 131 Recommendations ............................ 138 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................... 141 APPENDIX A ............................................ 153 APPENDIX B ............................................ 161 APPENDIX C ............................................ 164 iii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Comparison of Counseled Versus Non- Counseled Gains Scores on Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values............. 112 2. Comparison of Counseled Versus Non- Counseled Gains Scores on Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank ................. 113 3. Comparison of Counseled Versus Non- Counseled Gains Scores on Butler Q-Sort Real Self-Ideal Self Measure .... 113 4. Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Control Group on Bills’ Index of Adjustment and Values............. 115 5. Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Control Group on Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank ................. 116 6. Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Control Group on Butler Q-Sort Real-Self Ideal-Self Measure .... 117 7. Comparison of Traditional Group Versus Control Group on Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values ...................... 119 8. Comparison of Traditional Group Versus Control Group on Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank ................. 119 iv Table Page 9. Comparison of Traditional Group Versus Control Group on Butler Q-Sort Real-Self Ideal-Self Measure ......... 120 10. Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Traditional Group on Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values .... 121 11. Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Traditional Group on Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank ........... 121 12. Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Traditional Group on Butler Q-Sort Real-Self Ideal-Self Measure.......................................... 122 13. Correlation Matrix for Gains in Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values Dis crepancy Scores, Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank and Q-Sort Gains ........... 123 v CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The educative process termed "teaching" has tradition ally been conducted in groups in public schools; the educa tive process termed "counseling" has traditionally been con ducted in individual sessions. Only recently have groups been used routinely as a counseling format by public school counselors, and, as Anderson pointed out, "There is still no body of theoretically related knowledge on which the practice of group counseling can be solidly grounded."^ Al though Anderson reviewed over 240 articles covering the per iod from Summer 1965 to Fall 1968, he found most studies to be small-scale efforts which provided only the accumulation of bits of evidence. There were few long-term treatment 2 studies, follow-up studies or replication studies. Yet, group counseling and therapy are being practiced by all the ^■Alan R. Anderson, "Group Counseling," Review of Edu cational Research. XXXIX (April, 1969), p. 209. 2Ibid. 1 2 helping professions. Mowrer called the group counseling and therapy move ment the "wave of the future,1 1 while Moreno referred to it 3 as the "third psychiatric revolution." It is apparent that working with students in groups will demand a different set of skills from those possessed by counselors trained in the "wave of the past" before the "revolution" and it seems log ical that one of these skills should be a creative approach to the group process. This study was designed to assess one creative approach— accelerated interaction--as it might be useful to the public school group counselor. Counseling was practiced in public schools long before the profession was designated by name and made a staff posi tion. Early definitions of the counselor's role, however, assigned to him a function much different from his currently perceived duties and responsibilities. The increase in size of secondary schools created a volume of administrative chores that exceeded the capacities of the principal and his ^George M. Gazda and Mary Juhan Larsen, "A Comprehen sive Appraisal of Group and Multiple Counseling Research," Journal of Research and Development in Education, LVH (1968), p. 132. 3 assistants; therefore, counselors were appointed to perform certain operating tasks. These might include record keep ing, programming, attendance, student discipline and related supervisorial duties. One counselor might have as many as 2,000 students assigned to him, and consequently was re quired to deal with a variety of personalities and their needs. When counseling positions were first created, they were most often assumed by persons who aspired toward prin- cipalships or by older teachers who perhaps had lost their enthusiasm for the classroom. The counseling office was seen as a sort of "half-way house" for the semi-retired teacher or for the apprentice administrator. The wide range of activities loosely termed "counseling" marked it as an intermediate step between classroom teaching and school ad ministration. Usually, no qualifications were stipulated for the positions, and among the various school systems, no common role definitions existed. Pre-service training was not generally available; professional literature was virtu ally non-existent; and counseling often was prescriptive, advice-giving and punitive. School counseling has made marked advancement toward 4 its own professionalization since the National Defense Edu cation Act of 1958 made federal funds available for train ing counselors and for upgrading the skills of practicing counselors. As counselors returned to the schools from NDEA Institutes and as more and more states required a special credential for counselors, a point of view developed which perceived counseling as a distinct function in the school. Counselors were expected to function at a level of competency different from teaching and thus it may have been natural that this competency was mainly concentrated on the individual relationship, since teaching was perceived as primarily a group relationship. The change from the early clerical-advisor role of the counselor to that of a professional practitioner with both individual counseling and group counseling skills has been gradual and uneven. In the main, forces outside the school in the form of accrediting agencies, state legisla tures and professional organizations have made demands that compelled districts to reduce the ratios of students and to increase the numbers of counseling personnel. Schools and school districts made efforts to reverse the trend toward professionalization of counselors--usually by postponing a 5 commitment for adequate funding. Also, public opposition still exists regarding psychological services in the schools. In communities where this resistance is prevalent, it has been difficult to establish the type of school coun seling services recommended by the profession. The high specialization in job-training requirements of urban America has required that schools perform a func tion which is increasingly complex. High school graduation often is the minimum level of education accepted by employ ers, and for many positions, additional training is re quired. Furthermore, the high degree of social and geo graphic mobility in this country has broadened student ho rizons and expectations beyond any previous experience. Awareness of social and political disorder and of eco nomic inequity has penetrated the secondary schools, and ed ucational institutions have been required to assume new roles in a changing society. All personnel have been af fected by these changing expectations--counseling personnel have been no exception. The increased interest in group counseling may per haps be a reflection of these changing perceptions, partic ularly, as Gazda maintains, if the small group represents a 6 4 microcosm of social reality. New roles of the school present varied challenges for the school counselor, whether he functions in the areas of curriculum advisor, college advisor, vocational planner or personnel consultant. To some degree counseling has become recognized as a necessary function in both the accultura tion and the individuation processes of the school. This acceptance has brought with it the need and the responsibil ity to intensify efforts to discover more effective methods of obtaining desired results. The particular thrust of this study is directed at discovering new and better ways of con ducting groups in the public school so that the school coun selor can meet the new challenges which are constantly aris ing in our culture. The literature as reviewed in the following chapter will show that only limited research has been done on the subject of group counseling in high schools. The lack of precedents has not deterred the innovators who have devised several variations of the group format. These are desig- 4 George M. Gazda, Basic Approaches to Group Psycho therapy and Group Counseling (Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas Publishing Co., 1968), p. 2 7 nated as: T-groups, sensitivity training, confrontation groups; task groups; basic encounter groups and marathon groups. This study is an attempt to measure the effective ness of a variation of the marathon group in a high school setting. The Study Need for the Study The need for studies in the area of group counseling for early youth has been mentioned. Group counseling has enjoyed a rising popularity and a widespread application which few phenomena in modern society have had without con current scrutiny of research investigators. Schools need confirmation of their efforts in group counseling and direc tion for their planning in this area. A second need for the study is to assess whether group counseling can be effective in aiding adolescents to negoti ate what Erikson terms the "identity crisis."'* This study subsumed peer relationships, relationships with parents, teachers and other significant authority figures, and per- ^Eric H. Erickson, Childhood and Society (New York: Norton Press, 1950). 8 ceptions of self, vis-^-vis ideal versus real self under identity crisis. Since the identity crisis may be one of the prominent factors of the adolescent period, aiding the adolescent to negotiate this crisis successfully seems a legitimate goal of the group process. The complications of growth change and adjustment to a bewildering world are more acute for some youth than for others. Anxieties accompany sexual maturation, social in tercourse, family pressures, academic stresses, value orien tation, health problems and questions about the future. Ideally, counseling services would be made available to all students as they experience developmental stress. The ex tent and quality of the services provided, as well as the time element for achieving the desired goals, are factors which must be considered in relation to the effectiveness of counseling. Dr. Ronald Waller of the Youth Training and Employment Program of Los Angeles County developed a format for group counseling which had its origin in the marathon concept.** « ^Ronald C. Waller, "Accelerated Interaction: An Inno vation in Group Counseling Technique," Chicago, 1965. (Mimeographed.) 9 He termed his procedure "Accelerated Interaction." He se lected ten young people to form a group which met for five hours for two consecutive days and thereafter for three one hour weekly sessions. In comparing this format with tradi tional weekly counseling, he observed that there was: 1) Greater interaction which included the isolates; 2) Greater depth of communication; 3) More realistic self-evaluation; and 4) More realistic planning for the future.7 With Waller's permission, this format was adapted to the school setting, and an attempt was made to verify his obser vations. If it is true that the same degree of change can be ef fected through Accelerated Interaction that is achieved through traditional group counseling, the import of time as a variable in change would warrant re-examination. Further the new format, which can be completed in four weeks, may provide a method of reaching those youth who are less than successful in dealing with problems of identity. Conceiv- 7Ibid. 10 ably, the shorter time span required for Accelerated Inter action can be effective for the student before his problems reach crisis proportions in the school. The school staff and faculty react more favorably to the new format because it involves less interruption of the school and student schedule. Statement of the Problem The problem examined in this study was to compare the effects of group counseling practiced with two different formats: the traditional and the accelerated interactional. An effort was made to determine the effects upon self-con cept with the same number of counseling hours but utilizing different time spans. This posed a question in counseling theory: Is self-concept change a function of time and pro cess or a function of process alone? The hypothesis to be tested was that the process of counseling rather than the time and process is the signifi cant factor in producing change in self-concept. Each group had equal counseling time in hours, but in one case it was concentrated in two days plus one hour weekly for three ses sions; while the other group had one hour of counseling 11 weekly for thirteen sessions. Further, the experiment was designed to determine the feasibility of using accelerated interactional counseling in the public school setting. These hypotheses will be ex amined fully in Chapter IV. Setting of the Study The experiment in group counseling design was conducted at Centennial High School, which is in the Compton Union High School District. The community of Compton is adjacent to the Watts community, scene of demonstrations in August, 1965. Compton was developed originally as a "bedroom com munity;" therefore, it had exceptionally few taxable indus tries. As minorities moved south from the city of Los An geles into suburban Compton, the district experienced all the agonies of change now common to metropolitan areas. Centennial High School was the second high school built in the district. Since its opening in 1952, the enrollment has been comprised of more than 95 percent minority. Cen tennial is fed by three junior high schools: Bunche, Wil- lowbrook and Vanguard. The first two are tenant-populated, highly transient communities, while the Vanguard school is 12 located in a community with preponderant home ownership. Accordingly, the school population ranges from lower-income, socially dependent families to the lower-middle income group of semi-skilled and civil service employees. A recent survey showed the families to be 84 percent Negro and 15 percent Mexican-American. Some form of social welfare benefits are received by 34 percent of the families. The transiency rate among students ranges from 25 to 30 per cent annually. Between the beginning of the tenth grade and the close of the twelfth, Centennial High School loses from 50 to 60 percent of each class. Although between 40 and 50 percent of those who do graduate continue their schooling, those who actually find placement in a four-year academic institution comprise only eight percent to twelve percent of this group. Counseling services at Centennial High School were al most entirely of a corrective nature. For years the daily absence rate at the school was from 15 to 25 percent of its population. The follow-up of truancy was one of the many . Report on poverty survey at Centennial High School filed with the Office of Equal Opportunity, Compton, Calif., 1965). (Mimeographed.) 13 responsibilities of the counselor. Acceptance had been slow and skeptical concerning group counseling in the tradi tional format; therefore, considerable resistance was of fered when a proposal was made to introduce the accelerated interaction counseling format into the regular school pro cesses . The district administrative office granted permission to conduct the experiment in accelerated interaction, which was perceived as a procedure which might increase the ef fectiveness of the school's counseling services. Support was obtained from the local school administration, and most faculty members agreed to cooperate in making the necessary adjustments. This procedure was implemented in the spring of 1966. Basic Assumptions and Conditions of the Experiment Statement of Assumption Underlying this experiment was the assumption that the self-concept exists; that it can be altered; and that changes can be measured. Another assumption was that all adolescents are engaged in a search for identity, and that 14 counseling can aid in this search. Further, it was assumed that the measuring devices would accurately measure the degree of change without re gard to age, sex and maturity. It was assumed that the counselor would maintain the same level of counseling compe tency at all sessions, and that recording the sessions had no adverse effects on the dynamics of the group. Also, it was assumed that the individual has an inner drive toward psychological homeostasis and social acceptance, and that the processes toward these goals are facilitated through verbalizations. Limitations in the Design Three limitations are inherent in the basic design: 1. The experiment required that the subjects voluntar ily change their normal daily patterns. They had to be told that they were subjects in an experiment; therefore, a reac tive arrangements effect was unavoidable. 2. Other students and the teachers and administrators also knew of their participation. 3. The measuring devices were novel and strange, thus a practice effect was unavoidable in the testing situation. 15 Delimitations Only eleventh and twelfth grade students were selected for participation. The subjects were further restricted to persons who had indicated a career choice that would in volve at least four years of college training. Records showed this group to be the less mobile segment of the stu dent population. All subjects in the experiment were mem bers of minority groups, coming from homes with a socio-eco nomic level within the upper-lower and lower-middle income 9 groups, according to Warner's social class demarcations. The orientation of the counselor was non-directive, and no special changes in technique or practice were made for the various groups. The investigator served as counse lor for all groups. Definition of Terms The two formats in the comparison have been distin guished as: (1) the traditional format, and (2) the accel erated interactional format. Each of the four experimental g William L. Warner, Social Class in America (Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1949). 16 groups (two per format) has a corresponding control group. The corresponding counseling formats are defined thusly: Traditional group counseling: The counseling format in which the counselor meets with a group of ten students, one hour each week for thirteen weeks. Accelerated interaction counseling: The format in which the counselor met a group of ten students for five hours on each of two consecutive days, followed by three one-hour weekly sessions. Organization of the Remainder of the Study In Chapter II, the literature which pertains to the study is reviewed. In Chapter III, the setting for the study is described in detail, including the selection pro cess; the nature of the counseling environment; the conduct of the counseling; and the testing procedures. The find ings as they relate to the hypotheses are presented in Chap ter IV. The overall study is summarized in Chapter V. Con clusions derived from the data are extrapolated and sugges tions for further study close this chapter. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter reviews major research sources which pro vided theoretical and functional support for the investiga tion. The first section of the review examines research on group counseling and the applicability of counseling to cer tain aspects of the educational process. The second section presents the development of the self-concept and its rela tion to achievement and the modification of attitudes. A degree of overlap between the second and third sections will be apparent. The third section reviews groups designed around formats related to accelerated interaction groups. Overview of Research on Group Counseling In 1965 Shaw and Wursten published a comprehensive sum mary of research on group procedures and stated that a rather liberal definition of the term "research" was neces sary in order to develop this review. Their summarization of published materials, however, provides a framework 17 18 against which to place more recent work. These compilers found that most early research related to group counseling was concerned with prevention and remedying of personality problems. The preventive aspect of group counseling was stressed in order that problems would not reach the point where an individual might require specialized help. The stated purposes of work done in group counseling focused principally upon resolving problems which interferred with the school performances of its members.^ In this summarization of studies reported by Shaw and Wursten, it was repeatedly stressed that individuals who participated in group counseling experienced improvement in achievement, self-acceptance, school attendance, attitudes, cooperativeness and adjustment. Participants became more able to cope with problems and to evaluate and understand their feelings. Group members also experienced an in creased self-awareness and a greater degree of congruence between real and self-concepts as well as making gains in the area of independence. ^Merville Shaw and Rosemary Wursten, "Research on Group Procedures in Schools: A Review of the Literature," Person nel and Guidance Journal. XLIV (September, 1965), p. 27. 19 Shaw and Wursten felt that many of the elementary ques tions related to the use of group procedures in schools were left unanswered. The validity of the reported out comes was questioned because these reviewers considered that many of the studies lacked adequate controls, adequate statistical methodology, and adequate outcome criteria. These reviewers did conclude, however, that group proce dures appeared to offer the school counselor at least a partial solution to increasing his effectiveness and the size of the population with which he dealt. These authors recommended more rigorous attempts to study group proce- 2 dures in order to test and increase their efficiency. Gazda edited a comprehensive report on group counseling 3 and therapy in the winter of 1968. In this report the pro ceedings in a Group Counseling and Therapy Symposium spon sored by the College of Education, University of Georgia, on January 8 and 9, 1968, were outlined. The symposium was or ganized to encourage a "team approach" among educators and members of the helping professions from other disciplines to 2Ibid., p. 34 q Gazda and Larsen,"Multiple Counseling Research," p. 132. 20 report some of the most recent and promising approaches to group counseling and therapy and to give recognition to the need for more and better research in group counseling and therapy. Among the participants in this symposium were John Krumboltz from Stanford University; Frederick Stoller from the University of Southern California; and Charles Truax from the University of Arkansas. A comprehensive appraisal of group and multiple coun- 4 seling research was completed by Gazda and Larsen. These authors organized a graphic tabulation of significant stud ies around the name of the experimenter and date, purpose of the study, type of group involved, size of the group, type of control group used, treatment and the process, instrumen tation, test statistics, experimental design and criteria and outcomes. An extensive bibliography is also provided in this publication. Gazda and Larsen commented, "The basic conclusion is that group counseling research is inconclu sive."'’ Their reasoning is supported by the following: variation in group size, length and duration or intensity of 4 Ibid. 5Ibid., p. 129. 21 treatment, type and quality of treatment, sophistication of research designs, instruments of evaluation and test statis tics. Thus, the outcome of the research looked promising, since approximately one-half of the studies showed some pos itive changes or growth in the subjects. These reviewers found that almost 70 percent of the outcome studies utilized a pre-test/post-test control group design which were con sidered carefully designed. It was further mentioned by these reviewers that the most popular means of evaluation was grade point average; that Q-sorts of various types were cited in seven studies; that six studies utilized the Bills Index of Adjustment and Values; and that four used sentence completion items. Treatment averaged seventeen group counseling sessions of one hour each week over approximately seventeen weeks. No continuous session groups comparable to marathons or accel erated interaction groups were reported. Gazda and Larsen felt that the most frequent omissions of the studies were a lack of a clear statement of the theo retical orientation of the counselor(s), a precise descrip tion of the treatment process and an enumeration of the 22 group counselor(s)— thus, replication is difficult. The most recent review of the literature was published in April of 1969 by Anderson, who covered the period from Summer 1965 to Fall 1968 and reviewed some 240 articles. He agreed with Gazda in that he found no body of theoreti cally related knowledge on which the practice of group coun seling could be solidly grounded. The review was organized around the following: (1) client selection and prepara tion; (2) outcomes; (3) group interaction; (4) group devel opment; (5) leadership styles and group structure; and (6) innovations and suggestions for research. Anderson sug gested that "...exciting things are happening in group work and many of them will have great impact on future practice and research."7 He goes on to mention a variety of innova tive gr^-up approaches, among them the marathon, which he de scribed as relatively unexplored territory for the group re searcher. ^Anderson, "Group Counseling," pp. 209-226. 7Ibid., p. 221. 23 Dynamics of Group Counseling The reviews just cited (Shaw and Wursten; Gazda and Larsen) provide an overview of research on group counseling. Other writers limit their observations to more specific com ponents of the group process. For example, the dynamics of group counseling have been analyzed by Ohlsen, whose work on the application of group dynamics to group counseling 8 processes deserves review. Ohlsen felt the reason that few appraisals of group counseling were definitive was that re searchers have neglected to define their treatment care fully. According to Ohlsen, it is imperative that the goals for clients be defined, and that individuals be selected carefully for membership in the group. He further commented that one of the key problems in organizing a group was to determine when group counseling was an appropriate technique, and under what conditions it was desirable. Ohlsen proposed twelve criteria for consid- eration--the first six specify when group counseling might be considered appropriate; the second six specify the con- g Merle M. Ohlsen, "Adapting Principles of Group Dynam ics for Group Counseling," School Counselor, XIII (March, 1966), pp. 159-162. 24 ditions which effect group success: 1) When clients recognize that they need help, are willing to try, and can see the value of the group for them. 2) When students recognize and accept responsibil ity for group maintenance of group goals, and reduce negative forces within the group. 3) When students learn to express their true, inner feelings and to reveal things that bother them. 4) When clients feel that they belong, develop in teraction, become more ego-involved and their commit ment and willingness to change increases. 5) When both the counselor and the clients feel they belong, they are influenced and can influence others. 6) When the group counseling session is a place where clients can experiment and try to obtain evalua tion of their efforts to change. 7) The better the clients relate and approve of the group, the greater the chances for successful change. 8) The individual client's prestige within the group determines his influence upon the group. 9) The fact that clients are with others who want to change helps to increase their commitment to try to change. 10) When counselees realize and accept the reasons and purposes of group counseling prior to the actual group, they are more inclined to want to make the group a success. 11) When the size of the group is increased, indi vidual interaction is reduced and one person tends to become the spokesman for the group. He speaks to the 25 group as a whole rather than to the individuals. 12) Within the groups, people tend to assume three or four roles. The roles a person adopts within the group give insight into the person's personality. How the other members respond to these roles is important, as is the impact these people have on the group.9 A study done by Rousseve in 1965 was related to Ohl- sen's in that it also dealt with the dynamics of the group process.^® Rousseve studied the effects of guided group in teraction and found that permissive group interaction re sulted in self-awareness. Rousseve's study revealed a com mon core within the group of shared collective insights and shared experiences which he outlined as follows: 1) Similarities among individuals in their need to communicate with one another. 2) Shared belief in personal integrity and the dignity of one's own "life style." 3) Shared belief that the examined life is better than the unexamined life. 4) Shared belief that a balanced perspective is definitive of a mature outlook. 5) Similarities in non-adult dominated group-inter- action sessions resulting in a greater sense of self- 9Ibid. ^Ronald J. Rousseve, "A Counselor Education Pilot Pro ject in Guided Interaction," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (September, 1965), p. 53. 26 adequacy.^ The participants in this study felt that they achieved a greater level of self-confidence and greater self-accep tance. There was a "mellowing" of attitudes in a positive direction. Mahler set up specific guidelines for group counseling size and purpose. He recommended a group of five to ten when working with truants, and a group of ten to twenty for working with underachievers. According to this author, the small group, from two to ten members, should meet one hour a week for a semester and the approach should be non-directive in the area of topic choice. The suggestions for group ac tivity included role playing, group discussion and socio drama. ^ Mahler also believed that group size had a direct rela tionship to the purpose of the group and possible relation ships that may occur between group members. The larger the 11Ibid., p. 56, 12Ibid. 13 Clarence Mahler and Edson Caldwell, Group Counseling in Secondary Schools (Chicago: Science Research Associ ates, 1961). 27 group, the more difficult it is to achieve the security which the group members seem to need to delve into threaten ing material.^"4 Reitan and Shaw also studied the composition of groups. They found that the amount of conformity within a group was determined by the sex composition of the group. If indepen dent behavior is a primary goal, it was advised that work be done with a same-sex group.^ The dynamics of group counseling can be analyzed from the viewpoint of stages of development, according to writers in this field. Foley and Bonney discussed two of the major stages leading to the development of a group: the estab lishment stage and the transition stage.^ During the es tablishment stage, individuals reveal personal characteris tics through verbal and non-verbal expression, and they re ceive feedback from the group members. In the transition 14Ibid., p. 133. l-*Harold T. Reitan and Marvin E. Shaw, "Group Member ship, Sex-Composition of the Group, and Conformity Behav ior," Journal of Social Psychology, XLIV (1964), p. 45 ^■^W. J. Foley and W. C. Bonney, "A Developmental Model for Counseling Groups," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (February, 1966, pp. 576-580. 28 stage, members of the group accept the goals of the group as being unique. It is then that members form what could be considered a real group. Foley and Bonney’s stages of group development were stated in another way by Hopkins, who illustrated the func tional characteristics of a group as follows: 1) Members come together to resolve common needs. 2) Leadership emerges from within. 3) Unity and functional organization are developed internally around the group's own purposes in relation to its own need. 4) All planning and all major and minor decisions are made by the group itself. 5) Decisions, as to policy or action, are made by consensus, not by the majority rule. 6) The group as a whole sets climate or psycholog ical atmosphere. 7) Responsibility for success is assumed by every one. 8) Cooperation and continuous evaluation is made by the group.^ The dynamics of group counseling can be summed up as consisting of an individual working for the group, and the L. Thomas Hopkins, "What is Group Process?", in Per spective on the Group Process, ed. by C. Gratton Kemp (Bos ton: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964), pp. 91-93. 29 group as a whole working for an individual. The group be comes a cooperative interaction among the various parts, whereby each person participates in every action and inter action. As aptly stated by Gawrys and Brown, group counsel ing is a process within a group setting designed to as sist individuals with normal developmental con cerns. It is a process in which attitudes, emo tions, self and other concepts are the foci with ultimate responsibility for change, directions and movement resting squarely on the shoulders of the group members.1° Purposes of Group Counseling Gawrys and Brown pointed out that group counseling is more than a matter of saving the counselor's time. It is a process with goals which are not always attainable through individual counseling. These authors presented an overview of group counseling wherein they stated that the purpose of group counseling is not to pass out information and not to teach academic material; rather, the purpose is to deal with the feelings and emotions of the participant, i.e., "The group provides an opportunity for the individual to realize 18 John J. Gawrys and Bruce 0. Brown, "Group Counseling: More than a Catalyst," School Counselor, XII (May, 1965), p. 207. 30 the worth of human relations while assisting him in apprais ing his values.^ Insight can be gained concerning the universality of human problems as members work in the safety of group coun seling. Corsini, in 1957, described universalization as the group experience wherein the members realize that their problems, fears and inadequacies are not unique. He wrote: The group situation provides an opportunity for re ality testing and the experience of dealing with oth ers. To be accepted and understood by the counselor is a satisfying experience; to be accepted and understood by a number of individuals who are also giving of them selves is profound. The individual becomes both a giver and a receiver of help.20 Group Counseling Roles and Themes The counselor plays the role of the facilitator during the group counseling session, but the structure and content of the group comes from its members. The major emphasis in the group process falls on the development of social aware ness, mutual sharing and resolution of problems that con 19Ibid., p. 208. ^Raymond J. Corsini and B. Rosenberg, "Mechanisms of Group Psychotherapy: Process and Dynamics," Journal of Ab normal and Social Psychology, LI (July, 1955), pp. 406-411. 31 cern the group. In the words of Gawrys and Brown: The counseling relationship is essentially a human relationship; an interaction between and among people; a helping relationship. It is a relationship charac terized by warmth, acceptance, permissiveness and em pathy. It is genuineness and human confrontation at a most fundamental level. Is is non-possessive love.^l Cohn and Combs defined group counseling roles in slightly different terms, as being . . . a dynamic interpersonal process through which in dividuals within the normal range of adjustment work in a peer group and with a professionally trained coun selor exploring problems and feelings in an attempt to modify their attitudes so they are better able to deal with developmental problems. The authors last cited felt that groups should be prob lem-centered and feeling-oriented, and that the focal point should be clarification of feelings and modification of at titudes. The counselor must be flexible and consistent, with faith in each individual's ability to solve his own problems. Themes which recur throughout group sessions were dis cussed in an article by Bates, who listed the themes as fol- 21 Gawrys and Brown, "More than a Catalyst," p. 211. 22 Benjamin Cohn, Chester F. Combs, et al., "Group Coun seling and Orientation," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLII (February, 1966), p. 355. 32 lows: 1) My Vices 2) Outwitting the Adults 3) Problem Parents 4) My Brother the Brat 5) My Public Image 6) Nobody Loves Me 7) Let's Change the Rules Bates also described the role of the group counselor as be ing "to reflect, to clarify and to summarize, and... through the group counseling process the counselees can clarify their value systems as they struggle in search of their identity.24 A study by Bosdell and Teigland cited the topics and problems of concern that are discussed in group counseling-- topics which centered around school, future problems and ac tivity problems. Their breakdown of the major categories discussed was as follows: 1) School Problems 2) Family Relations 3) Relationships with Others 4) Personal Problems ^Marilyn Bates, "Themes in Group Counseling with Ado lescents," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (February, 1966), pp. 568-575. 24Ibid., p. 575. 33 5) Future Problems 6) Activity Problems These areas were further explored by the clients. Un der the first category, teachers, course work, tests, grades, study habits, interest and motivation, and school regulations were discussed in one or both of the groups. Under the second category, sibling rivalry, mother and fath er relationships and parental control were discussed. Peer, adult and dating problems were discussed under the third category. Under the fourth category, behavior problems, un happy self-concept, shyness and physical appearance were the topics of discussion. The fifth category covered college preference, vocational choice, military service, marriage 26 and uncertainty of the future. Bosdell and Teigland referred to a study in which Bell reported that dropouts viewed economic security, education, home, personal and social problems as being major problems o c Betty J. Bosdell and John Teigland, "Problems Dis cussed by Underachievers in Different Treatment Groups," School Counselor. XII (May, 1965), p. 225. 26Ibid.. pp. 223-224. 34 27 to be discussed in group counseling. In the same study, it was found that under-achievers had greater feelings of insecurity and hostility than did achievers. Under-achiev ers were much concerned about physical characteristics, and 28 also had poor relationships with their fathers. Bradford noted other concerns of students--students who were anxious and fearful about self-exposure and who had low personal assessments of their own abilities tended to with- 29 draw from the group counseling session. Advantages of Group Counseling as Opposed to Individual Counseling E. Wayne Wright, who also described the group counsel ing process, felt that there is a definite advantage in using group counseling rather than limiting counseling to an individual basis. He challenged the idea that counseling must be a one-to-one relationship, although he recognized 27Ibid., p. 222. 28Ibid., p. 226. 29 L. P. Bradford, "Developing Potentialities through Class Groups," Teachers College Record, LI (1960), pp. 443- 450. 35 that there were some similarities between the two processes. For example, counseling, whether on an individual basis or in groups, should give assistance to an individual in the following areas: 1) Evaluation of himself and others or gaining knowledge necessary for wise choices, i.e., learning. 2) Decision-making and self-direction, i.e., growth in the ability to make decisions and be responsible. 3) Carry through of learning to action, i.e., changed behavior.30 According to Wright, there are some unique characteristics of group counseling which make it different from individual counseling, as follows: 1) All members of the group have a common problem. 2) All of the members identify with this common element which has real meaning for them. 3) The counselor functions as the leader of the group but does so from within the group. 4) A permissive atmosphere favors free expression. 5) Interaction and mutual help among members is es sential, and members have the opportunity to evaluate pressures created by the group situation. ^E. Wayne Wright, "Multiple Counseling: Why? When? How?" The Personnel and Guidance Journal? XXXVIII (April, 1959), pp. 551-557. 36 6) The participants are stimulated by group stan dards to accomplish the goals of counseling suggested earlier; i.e., evaluation of self and opportunities, making wise choices, accepting responsibility and ini tiating courses of action. 31 Values of group counseling which do not seem to be ex perienced in individual counseling include the life-like setting for making decisions and choices, influences of peers through group interaction and group norms, opportunity for free expression of opinions and emotions with less per sonal reference, and opportunity to give and receive support as a group member. Carter also demonstrated and evaluated the merit of small group counseling and its effect on participants. Cer tain factors were identified by observing how £roup members interacted. The interaction was divided into three categor ies. Category I: Individual Prominence and Achievement was seen as behavior of an individual to stand out and achieve personal goals. Category II: Aiding Attainment by the Group was re lated to efforts to assist the group in achieving group-oriented goals. 31Ibid. 37 Category III: Sociability was behavior to establish and maintain socially satisfying relations with group members.32 Ohlsen, in discussing the advantages of group counsel ing, described its importance with adolescents. The ado lescent's strong desire to be like his peers and his strug gle for independence from his parents make it easier for the adolescent to accept peer help more than parental assis- 33 tance. Thus, the adolescent often can especially benefit from group counseling. It may be said on the basis of the research cited above that group counseling seems to be effective as a process for helping group members develop a better self-concept, greater self-understanding and more self-direction. Group counsel ing processes have the particular value of creating life like settings for problem-solving and emotional growth. OO I.aunor F. Carter, "Evaluating the Performance of In dividuals as Members of Small Groups," Personnel Psycho logy. VII (Winter, 1954), pp. 477-484. 33 Merle M. Ohlsen, "Counseling Within a Group Setting," Journal of the National Association of Women Deans and Coun selors. XXIII (April, 1960), pp. 104-105. 38 Problems that Affect Counseling Sessions During group counseling sessions, certain problems of ten develop which affect the productivity or effectiveness of the group sessions. These problems may involve selec tion of members or the competence of the group leader. For example, Irwin D. Yalom pointed out that students who parti cipate in group counseling and therapy sometimes drop out. He identified the major reasons for dropouts, in the order of dominance, as follows: 1) Problems surrounding intimacy. 2) Problems of group deviancy. 3) Problems of sub-grouping. 4) Problems of early provocators. In another article, Yalom stated that the major prob lems neophyte group counselors experience when they start groups are: 1) group pressures, 2) group cohesiveness, 35 3) group leadership, and 4) group development. 34 Irwin D. Yalom, "A Study of Group Therapy Dropouts," Archives of General Psychology, XIV (1966), pp. 393-394. _______________ . "Problems of Neophyte Therapists," International Journal of Social Psychology, XII (1966), pp. 52-53. 39 In the group process identities must be established before a group can become cohesive. In a study done by McCall and Simmons, the encounter is identified, including both cognitive and expressive proces- 36 ses as essential to this task. This must be accomplished through interaction, for it is through interaction that we negotiate identities. In any group this is the first task— a task which is always present. The process of establish ing identities within a group, however, will fade as the task is addressed actively, and other problems can replace this initial process. Most groups require a "warm-up" period. If leadership during this initial interaction period is not forthcoming, frustration which may not be conducive to group process may result. This idea that group frustration of any kind may be potentially productive has been discounted by Abrahamson, who believes that ignoring frustration created by a leader's default during the "warm-up" period is not conducive to pos itive learning, especially if time available for the group George J. McCall and J. L. Simmons, Identities and Interactions (New York Free Press, 1966), p. 146. 40 37 to interact is limited. It would follow, then, that a group leader should have a number of procedures available to him which could be used to generate interaction during the "warm-up" period. The importance of involving all members in the warm-up might be drawn from Hopkins, who found that the less a member feels a part of a group, the less he will participate actively; or 38 at least the more hesitant he will be in doing so. Thus, one function of the warm-up process is to help all group members interact so that a sense of group belonging is de veloped which, in turn, will generate more interaction. Sherif and Sherif felt that there might be undesirable 39 pressures toward conformity inherent in the group process. The danger of undesirable conformity may be especially great in adolescents, according to Biderman and Zimmer, who found consistently that younger people were more responsive to ^Arthur C. Abrahamson, Group Methods in Supervision and Staff Development (New York: Harper and Bros., 1959), pp. 51-61. OQ Hopkins, "What is Group Process?", p. 93. 39 Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn W. Sherif, Groups in Har mony and Tension (New York: Octagon Books, Inc., 1966), p. 186. 41 social pressures than older individuals.^ Minor evidence also was presented to the effect that males were more resis tant to social pressures than were females, although loss of sleep appeared to render both more susceptible to pressure. Leon Festinger addressed himself to the dangers inher ent in the group process and felt that the pressures toward conformity and non-conformity might be especially damaging to an adolescent. He pointed out that the informal pres sures which a group exerts on its members are frequently 41 subtle ones which are difficult to localize. The weight of the opinions of others, gradual changes in ideas, mutual influence of people on one another— all serve as pressures toward conformity and non-conformity, yet members may be un aware that such pressures are extant. Added recognition of the adolescent's particular vul nerability is given by Michael Argyle, who identified one of the adolescent's tasks as being the separation of himself Albert D. Biderman and Herbert Zimmer, The Manipula tion of Behavior (John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1961), p. 251. ^Leon Festinger, "Informal Communication in Small Groups," ed. by H. Guetzkaw, Groups. Leadership and Men (New York: Russell and Russell, 1963), pp. 31-43. 42 / 0 from corporate family identity. Thus he saw the conflict within the adolescent who struggled with group identity and individual identity as a source of constant tension. The effort of the adolescent to project autonomous identity through dress, behavior, speech patterns, eye contact, fa cial expressions, body stances and the like, is often in conflict with his efforts to find a mutuality-type identity which requires that his self-image incorporate group pres sures— some of which may be at odds with his individuality. The reality of this conflict is recognized by Klein, who pointed out that dimensions made in groups tended to gener- 43 alize to other dimensions of living. The adolescent with his weak ego structure is especial ly sensitive to the group process because he is easily ashamed. As Lynd pointed out, there is no clear code for shame; thus, the adolescent may leave a group feeling set apart and may experience guilt as a result of feeling mis- ^Michael Argyle, The Psychology of Interpersonal Be havior (Middlesex, England, Penguin Books, 1967), p. 120. 43 Alan F. Klein, Role Playing in Leadership Training and Group Problem Solving (New York: Association Press, 1956). 43 44 understood or rejected in the group process. The very fact that shame is an isolating experience, however, also means that if a way can be found to communicate it, such communication can bring about particular closeness with oth er persons and groups, and thus an adolescent will increase his ability to trust himself and others. This basic trust, then, which can be incorporated into his identity, can be based on both mutuality and autonomy. It would seem that a group leader has a responsibility to move with a non-conforming member to protect him from group pressure. Since, as Festinger found, members tend to direct increased communication toward deviant members in an effort to influence toward conformity, group leaders should be alert to this process and protect the individuality of each member.^ This demands that a group leader have a high degree of recognition and awareness of his own positive and negative feelings about individuals in the group. As Abra- hamson pointed out, transference reactions between group 44 Helen Tuerrell Lynd, On Shame and the Search for Identity (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1958), p. 43. ^Festinger, "Informal Communication,1 1 p. 35. 44 members and group leaders must be recognized if maximum alertness to conformity and non-conformity pressures is to be maintained.^ This overview of research on group counseling thus has identified various considerations which must be addressed in designing a research paradigm: organizational problems, stages of development of groups, functional characteristics of groups, concerns of the group process— especially with respect to the roles of counselor and counselees. Specific themes, topics and problems which often arise in group coun seling sessions were discussed and clarified. In addition, attention was given to the advantages of small group coun seling with adolescents as opposed to counseling on an indi vidual basis. Group Counseling and Gains in Achievement. Attitudes and Adjustment This section of the review cites studies which deal with changes in grade point averages, attendance patterns and attitudinal changes. Special attention is given to writings which were concerned with the type of student se- ^Abrahamson, Group Methods in Development, p. 74. 45 lected as a segment of the population of the present study. Consideration is also given to studies which relate to lead ership behavior. Bates made brief mention of the educational process in herent in living with people of other cultures as a guidance goal related to the more frequently named goals of self- evaluation, cognitive knowledge and socialization, and the ultimate goal of behavior change.^ Even when the focus is on more immediate, more tangible concerns, these aspects of counseling have continuous applicability to education. Theodore Woal designed a group counseling study of jun ior high school students who had a high truancy rate, who were underachievers, who lacked in social skills, and who had poor attitudes. He found that group counseling for twenty-eight weeks resulted in a significant reduction in academic failures and truancy. He also found that group members gained insight into the attitudes necessary for bet- 47 Marilyn Mildred Bates, "A Study of the Effectiveness of Group Counseling in Achieving the Goals of Guidance in Education, Using Two Contrasting Formats," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1967), p. 115. 46 48 ter school adjustment. Speilberger and Weitz worked in groups with anxious college freshmen. These authors found that students who regularly attended group counseling sessions made signifi cantly higher grades than those students who did not attend 49 the sessions. McDaniel and Johnson reported group counseling sessions with under- and over-achieving junior high school students. The choice of topics for discussion was left to the discre tion of the counselees. At the culmination of the project, the underachievers were reported as being more at ease in classroom discussions and evidenced a positive increase in grades and citizenship marks. Counseling with college underachievers was undertaken 48 Theodore S. Woal, "A Project in Group Counseling in a Junior High School," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLII, (February, 1964), p. 613. 49 Charles D. Spielberger, H. Weitz and J. P. Denny, "Group Counseling and the Academic Performance of Anxious College Freshmen," Journal of Counseling Psychology, IX, (Fall, 1962), p. 204. Harold McDaniel and Boyd A. Johnson, "Effect of Group Counseling on Achievers and Underachievers," Journal of Secondary Education. XXXVII, (March, 1962), pp. 136-139. 47 in a study by William Ofman, who called the group sessions a "Study Habits Seminar." At the end of the semester, mem bers of the counseling group showed a significant gain in their grade point averages.^ During 1960, John Broedel and others completed a study with underachieving gifted youth. Hostility, indifference and unsociability characterized the students' behavior. At the culmination of the study, it was found that the stu- co dents' acceptance of self and others had increased. Group counseling with college underachievers was suc cessfully accomplished by Dickenson and Truax. Twenty-four group-counseled freshmen were matched with twenty-four un counseled freshmen. At the end of the semester, those stu dents who had received group counseling showed a signifi cant improvement in grade point averages. Twenty-five per cent more of the counseled group received passing grades. Also, it was found that the greatest academic improvement ^William Ofman, "Evaluation of a Group Counseling Pro cedure," Journal of Counseling Psychology, XI (Spring, 1964) pp. 152-159. 52 John Broedel, et. al., "The Effects of Group Counsel ing on Gifted Underachieving Adolescents," Journal of Coun seling Psychology, XII (1960), pp. 169-170. 48 occurred in students who had high levels of accurate empa- 53 thy, genuineness and unconditional positive regard. Ohlsen counseled with twenty-nine ninth grade under achievers and divided them into two experimental groups and two control groups. The students were in group counseling for one class period twice weekly for eight weeks. Growth was determined by use of the California Achievement Test, Picture Story Test (acceptance of self and others), Behavior Inventory (by pupils themselves), and by observers, parents and counselors. In three of the four groups, significant growth was made. Behavior was more congruent with ideal ad justment. There was increased self-understanding, accepting 54 and helping one another. Oscar Hendrix studied twenty college freshmen with pre dicted low grade point averages who received special advise ment rather than only faculty aid. The freshmen achieved better grades in English, mathematics, physical education, military science, natural sciences and social sciences. The CO Walter A. Dickenson and Charles B. Truax, "Group Counseling with College Underachievers," Personnel and Guid ance Journal, XLV (November, 1966), p. 243. ^Ohlsen, "Counseling Within a Group Setting," p. 104. 49 differences in achievement were not attributable to the in clusion of less difficult courses. A study of small group counseling sessions conducted by Robinett and Waite dealing with students who had not re sponded to individual counseling and who were considered po tential dropouts indicated that group sessions provided mem bers with the following opportunities: 1) To display hostility without meeting hostility in return. 2) To recognize individual evolving insights as the year progressed. 3) To meet critical evaluation.^ The students reached a point where they seemed more willing to admit their true feelings and reasons for their misbe havior. Students also achieved significant change in their values and attitudes.^ A relevant study reviewed in this section was conducted ^Oscar Hendrix, "The Effect of Special Advising on Achievement of Freshmen with Low Predicted Grades," The Per sonnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV, (October, 1965), p. 185. ^Donald W. Robinett and Warren K. Waite, "Voluntary Group Counseling in a Junior High School," Journal of Secon dary Education. XXXIX, (May, 1964), p. 228. 57Ibid., p. 229. 50 by E. R. Cunoy, whose findings indicated that as a result of group counseling, college-bound seniors experienced reduced fears and anxiety through interaction, which in turn reduced 58 feelings of isolation. Leadership Behavior Abrahamson enumerated principles of leadership behavior in groups and the application of these principles. He pointed out that the leader must keep pace with the movement of the group and not lag behind or speed too far beyond it. If a leader advances too swiftly, group members will show uncertainty, become puzzled and tend to be vague in their reactions. On the other hand, if a leader is too slow, a group will become impatient. A sensitive group leader must keep the group pace timed to the capacities of the group as 59 they are reflected in individual members. At the same time, a group leader must maintain a certain amount of psy chological distance from members in order to be effective, -*®E. R. Cuony, "Group Guidance for College-Bound Sen iors," Journal of the National Association of Women Deans and Counselors. XVIII (1955), pp. 131-132. 59 Abrahamson, Group Methods in Development, p. 54. 51 60 according to Fred Fiedler. This requires an emotional in dependence and detachment from others on the part of the leader. In addition, this same leader should be liked and trusted by the members of the group. The qualities which increase probabilities that a lead er will be effective were enumerated in a study by Franklyn Haiman, who suggested that a group leader ought to possess a well-adjusted personality, free of emotional excesses; that he ought to be secure and confident; that he must pos sess a basic respect and concern for other human beings; and that he must believe in the value of the human being. He must also possess characteristics of being sensitive to the basic trends and words of a group. He must also possess knowledge concerning the behavioral sciences and must be able to exercise the power inherent in this knowledge with restraint and mellowness.^ ^^Fred E. Fiedler, Leader Attitudes and Group Effect iveness (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1958), p. 44. ^Franklyn S. Haiman, Group Leadership and Democratic Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1951), p. 29. 52 The climate of a group is, to a high degree, determined by the behavior of the leader. Hanan Selvin has studied the effects of leadership and has described leadership climate as falling into four categories: paternal, persuasive, ar bitrary and weak. He developed these categories from work ing with a polar index— positive versus tyrannical. Selvin found that the paternal leader was high in both positive and tyrannical areas; that the persuasive leader was high in having positive direction with minimum vacillation; that the arbitrary leader had low positive direction and high tyran ny; and that the weak leader had low positive direction and low vacillation as he exercised little force in any direc tion. ^ Development of the Self-Concept The design of this study is based, in part, on the as sumption that a change of self-concept will occur as a re sult of the group process. The instrumentation of the study involves measures of self-concept, i.e., Bills1 Index of Ad- ^Hanan C. Selvin, The Effects of Leadership (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press of Glencoe, 111., 1960), pp. 44-50. 53 justment and Values, Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank and the Q-Sort. Therefore, attention must be given to a review of literature concerning the development of self-concept, particularly as it relates to group counseling with adoles cents . Stanley Coopersmith, in his comprehensive study of the antecedents of self-esteem, pointed out that the concept of self as an object is a complex concept, formed out of di- 63 verse experiences and is multi-dimensional. Yet, over and over researchers in group counseling have reported changes in self-concepts as a goal to be achieved, both from the viewpoint of the individual growth factor and the academic achievement factor. Bates reported from her experimentation with two con trasting formats of group counseling, pointing out that the accelerated format produced changes in reported self-con cepts in the fourteen-day period between pre-test and post test. She said further that: ^Stanley Coopersmith, The Antecedents of Self-Esteem (San Francisco: W. R. Freeman and Co., 1967), p. 21 54 . . . apparently changes of self-concept may well be a function of experience only with time an ir relevant factor. Unfortunately, this finding can not necessarily be viewed with approval, for as many of the accelerated group demonstrated poorer scores after their counseling as demonstrated im proved scores. It certainly would be undesirable to provide an experience for students who, as a group, already had a fairly poor self-concept, in which they would suffer a deterioration of this self-concept. It is always difficult to know, of course, whether reported changes are a result of increased honesty on the part of the student, or whether there was an actual change of self-concept as far as the amount of change was concerned.64 The Influences of Negative and Positive Self-Perception In 1964, Charles Combs explored differences in the way that under-achievers and achievers perceived themselves, and differences in the two groups' relations with other people. Twenty-five under-achieving boys were compared with twenty-five achieving boys. The groups were comparable in age, grade, race, socio-economic status and intelligence. Combs discovered that under-achievers contrasted with achievers in the following ways: 1) Underachievers saw themselves as less adequate. Bates, "A Study of the Effectiveness of Group Coun seling in Achieving the Goals of Guidance in Education, Using Two Contrasting Formats," p. 272. 55 2) Underachievers saw themselves as less accept able to others. 3) Underachievers saw their peers as less accept able. 4) Underachievers saw adults as less acceptable. 5) Underachievers showed an inefficient and less effective approach to the problems. 6) Underachievers showed less freedom and adequacy of emotional expressions.65 The underachievers appeared to see themselves as inade quate and unable to handle problems that occurred at school. They were unable to continue when faced with problems, and they expressed doubt concerning their ability. They lacked definite initiative and seemed unable to make decisions. The underachievers were threatened by the group and contin ually demonstrated a need to defend themselves. They exper ienced difficulty in releasing their emotions. Combs com mented: Underachievement must be understood to be a com pletely personal and consistent adaptation of the un derachiever to his needs and capacities. It is be cause of his unique perceptions that a basic reorgani- Charles F. Combs, "Perception of Self and Scholastic Underachievement in the Academically Capable," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII, (September, 1964), p. 50. 56 zation of the self-concept must be effected if the un derachiever is to be brought to the point where his perceptions can encompass success.66 In order for a student to improve academically, he may first need to develop a more positive view of himself. Combs, in a study done in 1962, discussed the relative im portance of a positive view of self. He stated: Extremely adequate persons seem to be characterized by a positive view of self. Negative aspects can be taken in stride. A positive view is learned from the way people treat the learner. People learn they are able, not from failure, but from success.6? Combs has also defined the role of those possessing a posi tive self-concept as being . . .open people who are free to devote their energies to what is positive and constructive. They can and do set more realistic goals for themselves. Their level of aspiration is more likely to achieve their goals be cause those goals are more realistic.68 A. H. Maslow has stated that . . .growth forward...requires courage and strength in 66Ibid. ^Arthur W. Combs, Perceiving. Behaving, Becoming: A New Focus for Education (Washington, D. C.: National Educa tional Association, 1962), p. 99. 57 the individual as well as protection, permission and encouragement from the environment, especially for the child.69 Gratton Kemp commented that . . . changes in behavior are preceded by changes in an individual's perception of self; a genuine change re quires total involvement, and it takes place more readily when the individual is in the group than when he is alone.70 Robert Blake's definition of how to help teenagers is in line with the previous definitions mentioned regarding the self-concept. He stated that, "In group counseling the counselor must convey to the client, 'I see you, I hear you, and, I accept you. Edwin Wheeler hypothesized that level of anxiety has an inverse relationship with a client's self-report. He concluded in his findings that the higher the anxiety level, A. H. Maslow, "Self-Actualizing People, A Study of Psychological Health," in The Self: Explorations in Per sonal Growth, ed. by Clark Moustakas (New York: Harper and Bros., 1956), pp. 160-194. ^®C. Gratton Kemp, ed., Perspective on the Group Pro cess (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964), p. 379. ^Robert W. Blake, "How Can We Help Our Teen-Agers?" The Clearing House (April, 1965), p. 63. 58 the lower the person's self-concept. Parental Perception of Children Compared with the Child's Self-Perception Kemp also studied the relationship between parents' perception of adolescents and the adolescents' perception of their parents, as well as the self-perception of adoles cents. It was concluded that accuracy of perception is a significant factor in the adolescent's adjustment. Adoles cents with many problems perceived their parents as being poorly adjusted and less well-adjusted than themselves. The parents perceived their children as having less self-reli ance than did the adolescents themselves. The adolescents with many problems perceived themselves as having poorer school relations, more nervous symptoms and a lower sense of personal worth and freedom than they were perceived to have by their parents. The adolescents felt that most of their 73 problems were in the areas of future, money and work. ^Edwin E. Wheeler, "Anxiety, Mental Ability, and Re ported Views of Self," School Counselor, XIII (October, 1965), p. 33. 73C. Gratton Kemp, "Parents and Adolescents' Percep tion of Each Other and the Adolescent's Self-Perception," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (September, 1965), 61. 59 Effect of Social Factors on Self-Esteem A study by Morris Rosenberg dealt chiefly with adoles cent self-esteem. The central idea of the study was to specify the effect certain social factors had on individual self-esteem. An additional concern was to determine the in fluence of self-esteem on socially significant attitudes and behavior. It was found that students who came from up per social classes were more likely to have high esteem than were students who came from lower classes. The most important determinants of self-esteem were adolescent sub cultural norms and other aspects of experiences that were derived from cultural factors rather than from general • - i 74 social prestige. Grande and Simons found that a group of students on the Dean's list differed significantly at the .05 level of con fidence on the variables of need for achievement, direction, aspiration, self-control and independence in planning.^ Morris Rosenberg, Society and the Adolescent Self- Image (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1965), p. 61. ^Peter P. Grande and Joseph B. Simons, "Personal Val ues and Academic Performance among Engineering Students," Personnel and Guidance Journal. XLV (February, 1967) p. 585. 60 la each of the previous studies, the element of self- concept played a major role in achievement and attitudes of an individual. The reaction of peers to an individual through the medium of the group only re-emphasizes the im port and strength of negative or positive effects of the group. Significance of the Self-Concept in Relation to Achievement Several studies have been made dealing with the influ ence of the adolescent's self-concept upon his academic achievement. In one such study, Finger and Silverman have stated that, from the seventh grade on, motivation and con sistency of motivation play a significant role in academic achievement. The degree to which a student remains in volved in the youth culture determines the fate of his grades. A drop in a student's grades may reflect the in fluence of a lower level of academic aspiration and a higher degree of involvement in the youth culture.^ It is, there fore, important to insure academic achievement through con- ^^John A. Finger, Jr., and Morton Silverman, "Changes in Academic Performance in Junior High School," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLV (October, 1966) pp. 162-163. 61 sistent motivation. According to Whitely and Hummel, overachievers were more able to choose appropriate alternative courses of ac tion than were underachievers. The achievers were more sen sitive to a situation and generally more able to control their actions. They accepted responsibility and handled conflict in such a manner as to satisfy their long-range goals. The achievers in this study were more mature and de- cidely more goal-oriented than were the underachievers.^ Self-Concept and Personality of the Underachiever An extensive review of literature covering a ten-year span by R. C. Taylor elaborated upon the major personality traits which seemed closely connected with self-concept, as well as with underachievement and overachievement. He con cluded that the underachiever had a poor overall adjust ment, felt very inadequate, had strong feelings of inferi ority, and displayed passive attitudes. Taylor reported that anger and hostility were directly influenced by rela- ^John M. Whitely and Raymond Hummel, "Adaptive Ego Functioning in Relation to Academic Achievement," Journal of Counseling Psychology. XII (Fall, 1965), p. 310. 62 tionships between underachievers and their parents. Under achievers were classed as being very critical of others, withdrawn and unconcerned about others. Their reactions were often described as rebellious, negative and evasive. They seemed to feel penned-in and helpless to change a sit uation. Taylor also stated that the underachiever was rated very low on cooperation, judgment, academic interest and motivation. The review noted that the underachiever seemed to have great feelings of anxiety which demoralized personal and academic productivity. Thus, the underachiever 78 was described as being maladjusted. The following personality traits were listed in Tay lor's work as being related to the student's ability to achieve academically: 1) The degree to which a student can handle his anxiety. 2) The student's self-concept of his personal worth. 3) The ability to conform to authority demands. 7<5 R. C. Taylor, "Personality Traits and Discrepant Achievement: A Review," Journal of Counseling Psychology, XI (1964), pp. 76-81. 63 4) Student acceptance by peers. 5) Less conflict over dependence and independence. 6) Activities centered around academic interests which produce better achievement. 7) The realism of the student's goals; the more re alistic, the better chance for success.79 Modification of Attitudes A study of significant importance was made by Ladato, Sokoloff and Schwartz in the area of attitudinal modifica tion through group work. Their question was whether it would be permissible to produce changes in slow-learning students with regard to their attitudes toward school, the learning situation and their peers and teachers. The study was further concerned with development of a more adequate self-concept, reduction of truancy and dropout frequency, reduction in acting out behavior, and changes in attitude toward these students on the part of faculty members and other students. Activities of the groups included puppetry, role-playing, pantomime, structured and unstructured group discussions, and individual counseling. The results of this 79Ibid., p. 81. 64 study indicated positive changes in attitudes toward learn ing and authority figures as judged by teacher ratings, in crease in self-concept, significantly improved attendance records, satisfactory classroom integration, increased tol erance, new insight, and greater understanding on the part of classroom teachers.®® McDaniel and Johnson completed a study on the effec tiveness of group counseling in changing the attitudes of achievers and underachievers. After twelve weeks of coun seling, the participants reportedly were having fewer con flicts with their parents, brothers and sisters. Their cit- 81 izenship marks, grades and study habits improved. A significant study of the effect of group counseling on the self-concepts of junior high school boys was com pleted in 1957 by Stanley Caplan. The group members were chosen because of their unruly, anti-social, incorrigible, unteachable attitudes. The participants were divided into 80 Francis J. Ladato, M. A. Sokoloff, and L. J. Schwartz, "Group Counseling as a Method of Modifying Atti tudes in Slow Learners," School Counselor. XII (October, 1964), pp. 27-29. 81 McDaniel and Johnson, "Effect of Group Counseling on Achievers and Underachievers," pp. 138-139. 65 two groups: a control group and an experimental group. The students were given a pre- and post-Q-sort to determine changes of self-concepts. The results of Caplan's study in dicated that positive changes took place in the counseled students' self-concepts. This was reflected in the inci- OO dence of better citizenship grades. Accelerated Interaction Bates has the only study dealing with the format spe cifically defined as accelerated interaction. Her experi ment contrasted the traditional group counseling schedule with the newly proposed accelerated interaction and found consistent results in favor of the traditional format. The study was concerned mainly with the effectiveness of group counseling in achieving the goals of guidance in education and with whether a change of self-concept was a function of both time and experience or a function of experience alone. A commonality of themes was found in both formats, and the ^Stanley Caplan, "The Effects of Group Counseling on Junior High School Boys' Concepts of Themselves in School," Journal of Counseling Psychology, IV (Summer, 1957) pp. 124-125. 66 traditional format was found effective in achieving goals of education while the accelerated interaction format demon- 83 strated no consistent results. The literature reviewed is notably lacking in research involving extended group counseling sessions. The studies and observations most closely related to the present inves tigation are provided by Bach, who has published materials concerning groups in a marathon format. While the studies reported were concerned primarily with counselor techniques, Bach's descriptive work, which is reviewed in the following sequence, has some relevance. Marathon Groups George R. Bach, of the Institute of Group Psychother apy, Beverly Hills, has contributed significantly to the de velopment of the marathon technique.®^ Beginning in 1964, Bach combined weekend retreats, which he had attempted ear lier in the 1950's with his patients, with the idea of an all-day-long, group therapeutic session developed by Freder- ®^Bates, "Counseling, Using Two Formats," pp. 247-283. ®^George R. Bach, "The Marathon Group: Intensive Prac tice of Intimate Interaction," Psychological Reports, XVIII (1966), pp. 995-1002. 67 85 ick Stoller. Bach's rationale was that one to two-hour group sessions were not long enough for either patient or therapist to take off their social masks and start interact ing truthfully, authentically and transparently. Bach reported that, in his institute practice, the mar athon retreats for private patients were systematically in tegrated with the regular group therapy program. Most pa tients were first seen individually (briefly) and then as signed to a regular two to four-hour weekly therapy group. Marathon retreat experiences were interspersed at intervals of three to six months. Some marathons were "specialized" for marital couples, executives of business organizations, or an advanced training session for group psychotherapists or social science researchers. The actual schedule of a particular marathon session varied, depending upon the setting and the members' goals and values. In the standard procedures, members met non stop throughout the first night, i.e., without sleeping for ^Frederick H. Stoller, "Use of Video Tape (Focused Feedback) in Group Counseling and Group Therapy," Journal of Research and Development in Education, II (Winter, 1968), pp. 30-44. 68 twenty-four hours or longer. The marathon terminated in non-verbal, silent communication exercises, conducted in pairs. This was followed by a "closure party" in which sub grouping was resumed. Thus, a gradual re-entry into the conventional social atmosphere was reluctantly made. The entire session was recorded and a feedback follow-up was scheduled four to eight weeks later, which was designed to reinforce those decisions for change which had been emerg ing during the marathon itself. In order to participate in a marathon, the candidates had to convince the therapists that they were anxious to make significant changes in their customary ways of acting and being in this world. They had to be prepared to quit blaming others and their environment for their present un satisfactory lot. Also, they had to give up the attitude which suggested, "I am sick...You, Doctor, and you-all 86 (group) do something and take care of me." Bach felt that in the marathon, the reduction of shame 86 George R. Bach, "Marathon Group Dynamics: 1. Some Functions of the Personal Facilitator," Psychological Re ports . XX (1967), pp. 995-999. 69 and guilt through expression, followed by total acceptance, was only one relatively minor and fleeting aspect of the total learning experience, which centers more on experiment ing with the actual trying-out of new, improved ways of openly dealing with the current conflicts that naturally emerge between self and others in the marathon group ses sions. He further stated that it takes disciplined, con certed group cooperation to create properly-focused, selec tive group pressure. Behavioral change is not created by unilateral influence, or chaotic, disorganized free-for-all cathartic group emotions per se. Marathons were not seen as tension-relieving, cathartic, acting-out groups, but rather as generating high levels of emotional tensions which stimu late cognitive re-orientation for their relief. Generally, two new modes of acting, feeling and being emerge: trans parency of the real self and psychological intimacy. Bach claimed that tired people tend to be truthful and do not 87 have the energy to play games. In another article about the marathon gropp, Bach ad- 87Ibid., p. 998. 70 vanced ten marathon commandments: 1) To stay together in the same place and not leave until the group breaks or ends at its prearranged time. Everyone communicates with the whole group...no sub grouping. 2) Creature comforts are to be taken care of on a self-regulatory basis. Eating is usually on a buffet basis without disrupting the continuity of the group proceedings. 3) The group leader can rest for four hours away from the group. 4) All forms of physical assault or threats of phy sical violence are outlawed. Attacks must be confined to verbal critiques...no limits on words, though. 5) Legitimate, professionally correct group proce dures such as Psycho-Drama, Sensitivity Training, etc., may be used temporarily but only under very special circumstances. They have found that the use of a tech nique may retard rather than help the slow, natural emergence of trust, transparency and intimacy. 6) The encountering experience is a four-phase pro cess. Individual expressions are (a) reacted to, and (b) these reactions are shared in a 'feedback,' (c) the feedback in turn generates counter-reactions (d) from the original expressors as well as from the rest of the group. No one should wait to be brought-out. In feed back reactions, no holds are barred. Trying to make people feel better is not the purpose of the marathon. 7) Show me now..do not tell me when. Owning up to feelings here and now and sharing them is the mode of participation. Telling the group about how one behaves outside the group and how he then and there reacted in bygone times and other places...is only warm-up ma terial. 8) As you are in the group, so you are in the 71 world. 9) Giving affectionate recognition to growth and new learning is as much in order as cuddling, defensive behavior is out of order. 10) While nothing is sacred within the group, the information is not revealed to anyone outside. These rules emerged gradually and painfully in years of 88 clinical experience with interaction groups. Esalen Groups Another reference which is relevant, but only tangen- tially so, is the work done at Esalen as reported in Life 89 Magazine. This comprehensive article reported that the Human Potential Movement, centered in Esalen, California, is an activity engaged in by large numbers of people from all walks of life. Their commonality is the feeling that life holds much more than most are permitted to explore. From the teachings of Maslow, Rogers, Tillich, Fromm, de Chardin 88 Bach, II. "Dimensions of Helpfulness: Therapeutic Aggression," pp. 1147-1158; and III. "Dimensions of Dis junctive Contact," pp. 1163-1172. ®^Jane Howard, "Inhibitions Thrown to the Gentle Wind," Life Magazine. LXV (July, 1968), pp. 48-65. 72 and Zen Buddhists incorporated in Hudley's concept of the "multiple amphibian," the adherents recognize the variety of life's worlds. There are the biological, spiritual, emo tional, cerebral, social— worlds in which we find ourselves guilty of neglecting to the point of atrophy. Modern so ciety resides in the cognitive domain almost to the exclu sion of the affective domain. The concept of original sin 90 should be placed with original virtue. The movement had its origin at the National Training Laboratories (N.T.L.) Institute for Applied Behavioral Sci ence in Bethel, Maine. Its members have grown and spread across the country to enrich the lives of all kinds of par ticipants. Two of the greatest advocates of this "inten sive group experience" are Carl Rogers, who places the ex periences above religious conversion because the change is wrought by the individual rather than from external forces; and Abraham Maslow, who described Esalen as potentially the 91 most important educational institution in the world. "ibid., p. 49, 91Ibid. 73 Esalen is located near the Big Sur on the California coast. This no-acre site provides an aesthetically pleasing location for weekend and five-day workshop groups to "learn" through the experience. The activities vary, but persist at 92 the affective level. Enemies of the movement raise the following charges against it: 1) The movement may be medically irresponsible. (Dr. Milton Kline, hypnotherapist, questions the advis ability of breaking down ego-defenses unless the pa tient has been reasonably well-educated.) 2) The movement is anti-intellectual. (Dr. Silvant Arieti, New York psychiatrist, says, "If we escape from cognitive processes, we return to a prehuman state.") 3) The movement is a hotbed of Communists, or, any way, anarchists. 4) The movement is led by dope-fiends. (Wrong. They want you to turn on without dope.) \ ■ - j f Q f j f f r * i . * . 5) The feelings the movement induces frequently don't last and can't be transplanted, in the soil of real life. 6) The movement can breed narcissism. 7) The movement breeds a kind of "emotional elite- ism." 92Ibid. 74 8) The movement legitimizes and fosters promiscu ity. (This charge is leveled mostly at Esalen, where there seems to be a lot of bedding down with new-found friends...or at least a lot of talking about it.) 9) The movement constitutes a massive invasion of privacy. (Embarrassing people into telling publicly about the privacies of the body and the psyche is a form of tyranny.) 10) The groups could be used for brainwashing. 11) The movement's concerns are trivial and irrele vant to the desperate problems of the day.93 Michael Murphy, Esalen's co-founder and president, con cedes that of the 150 approaches Esalen has so far identi fied as means of expanding the human potential, some will indeed pass away unlamented. But, "If we don't experiment with them," he says, "how will we know which are the good ones?"94 "Sensitivity" Groups Another group approach which purports to expand human potential through group processes is the "sensitivity train ing" movement. Attention is given to this approach to group occupation because of its relevance to accelerated interact ^ Ibid. 9 p. 65. 94Ibid. 75 tion in that both utilize intensive continuous group experi ences . Sensitivity training is an innovation in education, having begun as an experimental program in Bethel, Maine, in 1947. This approach to learning is now in use in more than forty education centers in the United States. It is estimated that each year approximately 10,000 persons parti cipate in such a program. Objectives of Sensitivity Training In general, sensitivity training groups are designed to help a person gain greater insight into his own behavior, better understanding of others and their reaction to him, and greater awareness of processes which help or hinder group action. The goals for outcomes developed by the Na tional Training Laboratories specify: 1) "Introspectiveness" or "awareness"— partici pants should develop their ability to reflect on feel ings and ideas within themselves, including feelings and ideas about others with whom they are interacting, and about the environmental context within which they live. 2) "Openness"— participants should develop an abil ity to be open to the feelings and ideas within them selves and others, reflected in the abilities to be more expressive of themselves and more receptive to a wide range of expressive behavior from other people. 76 A key idea here is that of confrontation--ability to confront self and others, and to be receptive to con frontation from others. 3) Developing an awareness of feelings— partici pants should develop a high regard for the importance of recognizing their feelings and the feelings of oth ers. This means developing an attitude which encour ages the expression of and receptivity to feelings of varied types and of varied intensity, and of the de velopment of understanding of a complex set of feel ings, rather than of the recognition only of very strong and explosive feelings. 4) Recognition and concern about feeling--behavior dissonances— participants should develop an ability to diagnose the relation between their feelings and their behavior, and to move more toward consonance between these. This involves a receptivity to subtle aspects of communication, especially to those cues which re flect feelings and which are mostly nonverbal. 5) Flexibility— participants should expand their repertoire of behavior, develop skill in behaving in new and different ways from their accustomed behavior, and develop an understanding and commitment to these changes. This involves an emphasis on integration of new ways of behavior into one's total self, rather than adding new ways of behavior as compartmentalized techniques. 6) Integration among sub-identities--participants should move more toward integrating their various sub identities into a conception of a total self— rather than compartmentalizing them. This means that one's sense of himself as a counselor or teacher should be more congruent with one's sense of himself as a hus band or a father.95 ^Warren H. Schmidt, "Sensitivity Training: Report and Critique," (Graduate School of Business Administration, UCLA, 1968), pp. 1-4. 77 Brief Description of a Sensitivity Training Group With the above objectives in mind, a group of six to fifteen people meet over an extended period of time. Typi cally, such a group will meet in a circle with a trained be havioral scientist as one of its members. The key ingredi ents of a sensitivity training group are as follows: 1) A small face-to-face group. 2) A Mtrainerir who is usually a behavioral scien tist or educator with psychological training. 3) No imposed task; (the group has no product to produce or service to render). 4) No organizational structure; (the trainer does not serve as a chairman, nor are any other officers designated). 5) An emphasis on feelings, "here-and-now" experi ences, and experimentation.96 Some Underlying Theories and Concepts Sensitivity training is based on many theories and con cepts from social psychology. Some examples of such con structs are the following: 1) People can learn best about themselves by pro ducing behavior, becoming aware of that behavior, an ^Ibid., p. 1. 78 alyzing the behavior and its consequences, and then drawing generalizations. 2) People can learn about their own assumptions and values by being in a setting where there is consider able ambiguity. This ambiguity permits them to project their own meanings into the situation and to compare their projections with those of their colleagues. 3) By being a member of a group which is permitted to envolve in slow motion without the usual pressure of a task, an individual can become more fully aware of processes which occur in almost every group.97 In the process of developing a group, participants are likely to gain insight into such issues as: how to develop a climate of trust in a group; how to confront a person with the effects of his behavior; how to deal with differences among members and how to develop a system for making deci sions. These are examples of issues which every group must face, and therefore the learnings from the sensitivity group are applicable elsewhere. It should be emphasized that the predominant feeling which develops in a sensitivity training group is a feeling of acceptance and support. Most participants discover that many of their differences are less necessary than they 97Ibid., p. 4. 79 thought. They discover that they can afford to be them selves and that when they behave in a forthright manner, 98 they become more attractive to other human beings. Summary The review of the literature contained certain implica tions relative to the study and has served to give the in vestigator a perspective on the project, as well as provid ing practical and theoretical support. The value of group counseling and basic group counsel ing techniques and processes necessary to conduct the pro ject were considered. Information concerning what to ex pect from group members, members' roles, the counselor's role, effecting attitudinal change, and discussion topics were included in this chapter. The review of the literature also included information which provided the rationale for controlling of certain variables in the organization of a group, such as sex, age, grade level, length of session, in telligence quotient levels, attitudes, self-concepts, atten dance and achievement. 98Ibid. 80 The literature cited in the review continually stressed the importance of an individual's self-concept on his over all adjustment, and was a pertinent factor in choice of in strumentation and methods to be employed in conducting the group sessions. Attention was given to groups organized around formats similar to accelerated interaction: Mara thon groups, Esalen groups and "sensitivity" groups. The information gained in the research of the literature was used as a guideline for the study which will be reported in Chapter III. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Counseling services at Centennial High School were largely of a corrective nature. The student body was as signed to the counselors alphabetically, and the task of the counselor was to intercede when the student failed to conform to the written and implied design of student behav ior. Seldom did the counselors function in the develop mental aspects of student growth. Counselees were generally not free to select their counselor. Counselor-student rela tionships were issue-oriented and thus restricted to one-to- one interviews. Thus, the introduction of group counseling ia the school was met with some resistance and skepticism from both faculty and administration. For a period of two years prior to this experiment, there had been several group experiences in the school conducted by two members of the counseling staff. Early attempts to select student participants re- 82 fleeted the reluctance of the school and the natural skep tical curiosity of the subject. Gradually, the group pro cess won the grudging compliance of the faculty and accep tance of the administration. Within this educational atmos phere the present experiment was proposed. The district administration granted its permission to perform the experiment which was perceived as a school func tion that offered a promise of improvement for the counsel ing services. The support of the local school administra tion was obtained and most of the faculty members agreed to actively cooperate and make the adjustments that were neces sary for the undertaking. In this chapter, the sample and testing procedures are detailed; the instrumentation is described and evaluated; and the four hypotheses of the experiment are re-stated. Also, the proposal for treatment of data is indicated. The Sample Student Selection Examination of the past records of the school indicated that those students who were taking college prepatory cour ses represented the most stable group in the school. Al 83 though a review of the literature revealed that many studies attacked the problem of underachievement, no attempt was made to follow these examples. Rather, in an effort to min imize the mortality risk in the experimental period, those students who indicated a vocational goal requiring a four- year, post-high school academic preparation became the stratified sample. The sample of students showed an array of social so phistication that would combine the very protected and naive tenth grade students with a number of emancipated, ma ture twelfth grade students. After serious deliberation, the sophomores were excluded from the experiment in order to arrange more homogeneous groupings. Each of the remaining subjects was assigned a number which corresponded with the numerical place in the school's total alphabetical listing. With the aid of a table of ran dom numbers, eighty subjects were selected with an addition al twenty alternates to accommodate those group positions where the first chosen elected not to participate. Individual interviews were held with the eighty sub jects, i.e., two groups of ten persons each in the Accele rated Interaction format and in the Traditional, plus a 84 corresponding number in control groups. The interviewer did not promise membership in either the experimental or the control group. It was explained that one-half of the students would comprise the control group. They accepted this role when the experiment was likened to a television commercial dealing with tooth-paste. The students readily understood that some participants used the new item while others did not, in order to provide for comparison of the two groups. Only one subject declined the invitation to participate, and he was replaced with an alternate. Grouping Procedures Cards were prepared for the subjects and arranged 60 that there was no difference in the average measured Intel ligence Quotient for each group of ten. One-half of the group was male; one-half was female; one-half was eleventh grade and one-half was twelfth grade. Thus, matching for the proposed groups was done on the basis of IQ, sex and grade level. Each eleventh and twelfth grade student was tested in his junior year with the California Test of Mental Maturity as a part of the school's regular testing program. The in 85 dex is posted in the student's records. With this informa tion, the groups were arranged such that the average group index varied 2.8 or less. PARADIGM February March April May A °1 °2 E °1 °2 C °1 °2 G °1 °2 D °1 °2 H °1 °2 B °2 F °1 °2 (A) Early Accelerated Interaction (February) (B) Late Accelerated Interaction (May) (C) Traditional Counseling Group (February-May) (D) Traditional Counseling Group (February-May) (E) Control Group matched with "A" (F) Control Group matched with "B" (G) Control Group matched with "C" (H) Control group matched with "D" 86 Plan of the Study The experiment was designed to provide an Accelerated Interaction group and a Traditional Counseling group with a control group for each. Then, the entire design was doubled to provide for a larger and more significant sample. There fore, there were two experimental groups representing each format with four corresponding control groups. The pre-test, post-test control group design required that each experimental group and its control group be tested before and after the experiment period. The two Traditional groups and one Accelerated Interaction group began their sessions in February of 1966. At the close of the first Accelerated Interaction period of four weeks, a second Ac celerated group was started and timed to conclude simultan eously with the thirteen-week Traditional groups. The counselor behavior model used by the group counsel or was identical in both experimental formats. The Para digm was based on findings advanced by George Bach in his articles on "Dimensions of Helpfulness."'*' Bach found that emphatic identification, acceptance-warmth, self-understand- ^Bach, o j j . cit., p p . 1147-1158. 87 ing facilitated by insight, problem-solving through con flict acceptance were most helpful in bringing about growth in group counseling clients. He found also that the aliena tion of self from others through narcissicism, disjunctive communication which involves poor listening, putting words into the mouth of the communicator, resonance withholding, and derailing, i.e., getting developing thinking and emerg ing feelings off the track through disruptive comments were not effective behavioral patterns on the parts of either the group leader or group members.^ The group leader, who also was the experimenter, at tempted to behave within the limitation described above-- this coincides with the theoretical model of existentialism and therefore is the preferred orientation of the writer of this study. The behavior of the group leader was primarily aimed at transmitting acceptance of thought and feelings on the part of counselees; of generating confrontations when appropriate; of testing reality through role-playing; and of facilitating self-understanding through stimulating ver balizations . 2Bach, II, p. 1158. 88 Pre-Testing On Saturday, February 12, 1966, all of the subjects met in the school library for the pre-testing. The students were divided into three groups for the three tests, rotat ing to the different testing areas until all tests had been administered to all students. The tests given wr *e: (1) Bill's High School Inventory of Adjustment and Values, (2) Butler's Q-Sort and (3) Rotter's Incomplete Sentences Blank. Treatment Setting Overcrowded conditions in the school caused the experi ment to be arranged in a vacated custodian's storage room. The room lacked windows, ventilation and heat. It was nec essary to install radiant heat lamps and electric heaters. Wall decorations helped ease the cell-like austerity of the surroundings. The students soon learned to accept the con ditions of the room, but seldom appeared completely comfort able. In the mornings, they huddled in their wraps and were often more concerned with the temperature of the room than the interactions of the group. Most of the time, however, the room was adequate and offered few distractions from the work at hand. 89 Traditional Group Schedule The Traditional groups met one hour a week for thir teen weeks. A schedule was prepared to allow the group to meet at a different class period each week. This required each member to be absent only twice from each of his regu lar classes with the exception of the last meeting, which caused a third absence from one class. Each member of the group was given a proposed group schedule which was pre sented to his teachers in order to permit both teacher and student to plan ahead for the thirteen absences. This plan was quite successful in obtaining faculty support for the experiment. The Accelerated Interaction Group Schedule One of the Accelerated Interaction groups was scheduled to begin at the time the Traditional groups finished the thirteen-week period. Thus, the first Accelerated Interac tion group met during the beginning four weeks of the ex periment, and the second met during the final four weeks. Each member arranged to be absent from each of his six classes for two consecutive days. The three one-hour fol low-up meetings were scheduled weekly thereafter at times 90 when they would most easily fit into the school's weekly ac tivities . The group met at the beginning of the school day in the same counseling room used by the Traditional group. The us ual school schedule was observed, i.e., the five-minute passing period was used as a relief period, and the group members ate lunch at the regular time. Post-Testing The groups were tested again with the original three instruments during the week immediately following the ex perimentation. When the first Accelerated Interaction group had finished their sessions, they were post-tested, together with their corresponding control group. When the second Accelerated Interaction group had finished, they were also post-tested with their corresponding control group. All other subjects in the experiment were tested at the end of the thirteen-week period. Ins trumentation Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values Robert E. Bills' high school form of The Index of Ad- 91 justment and Values constituted the major evaluation instru- 3 ment of the research project. It was selected because it effectively measured changes in adjustment and values— one of the goals of the group counseling process. Bates de scribed this instrument as being derived from perceptual theory, i.e., the concept that ". . .behavior is consistent 4 with the behavor's perceptions of the world. Bills' high school form (see Appendix A) is divided in to two sections: the MSelf,r form and the "Others" form, but the same word list is used for the two parts. Since the instrument's first publication in 1951, its originator has conducted research demonstrating that the instrument has a fair degree of reliability and validity as a measure of self-acceptance and beliefs about other people's acceptance of themselves. Bills claims that the Index will accurately differentiate discrepancies between the self and the ideal self-concept. O Robert E. Bills, The Index of Adjustment and Values (Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1951), pp. 1-45; and Robert E. Bills, Edgar Vance and 0. S. McLean, "An In dex of Adjustment and Values," Journal of Consulting Psy chology, XV, (1951), pp. 257-261. ^Bates, "Counseling, Using Two Formats," p. 115. 92 Adjectives selected as stimulus words in the high school form were selected from Allport and Odbert's list of 17,953 trait words. The words were chosen because of the frequency with which they occurred in client-centered inter views. The words which revealed the greatest variations from test to test had been eliminated by Bills in the com pilation of his Index. On the "Self" instruction sheet for the high school In dex of Adjustment and Values, the subject reads the follow ing sentence: "I am a (an) ______ person." The first word on the answer sheet is inserted into the blank space. The sentence then reads: "I am a (an) active person." The subject is given directions for Column I on the "Self" instruction sheet. The subject decides and rates himself on a one-to-five point scale as to how much of the time the statement describes him. His answer is recorded under Column I on the answer sheet. The instructions for Column II tell the subject to rate how he feels about him self as described in Column I. The subject marks how much of the time he would like the trait to be characteristic of 93 himself— "seldom," "occasionally," or "most of the time." The same procedure is used on the "Others" instruction sheet as he thinks the average person in the high school group (juniors or seniors) would complete it for himself. The Scoring Procedures for the Index Forms The forms were later scored— the total ratings in Col umn II on the "Self" were totaled, and ratings from the same column in the "Others" form were totaled separately. The score achieved by the subject on the "Self" form re flected the subject's attitude toward himself or his ac ceptance of self. The "Others" score had meaning only when it was compared with the "Self" form Column II scores. The total score on the Column II "Self" or "Others" form could not be less than thirty-seven when each item was given a rating of one. There could not be a score of more than 185 if all of the items were given a rating of five. The categorical scores from the Index placed the sub ject in one of four categories. The scoring series of the four categories are as follows: ++, -+, and — . The first sign of each pair designated the individual's attitude to ward himself, and the second sign revealed the relationship 94 of the "Others" Column II score toward the subject's self score. The scoring series was a ++ positive self-accep tance to a — , which was less accepting. Explanation of Scores According to Bills, originator of the Index, the cate gorical scores depend on the mean self-acceptance scores of those subjects who participated in the original testing. Their scores were used to standardize the Index. The mean self-acceptance score for the high school In dex, based on a sample of 1,635 high school students, was 142.74. The categories were defined as follows: 1) A ++ person on the high school Index has a "Self" Column II score of 143 or more, and an "Others" Column II score equal to or greater than the self score. 2) A -- person on the same index has a score of 142 or less on "Self" and a score equal to or greater than the self score on "Others" Column II. 3) A +- person on the same index has a "Self" Column II score equal to or greater than 143, and a lesser score for "Others" Column II. 4) A -- person has a "Self" score of 142 or less and an "Others" score less than the "Self" Column II ^Bills, Index, p. 9. 95 self.^ The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank-- High School Form The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (see Appendix B) WAS Selected as an instrument which would provide some sub jective data and at the same time permit objective scoring, thus providing more freedom of response than the other measuring devices selected. The "good" or the "bad" an swers were not apparent, and thus the stereotyped, socially- desirable responses on the part of more sophisticated stu dents v^ere averted. The test consists of forty sentence stems, which the respondent is asked to complete by expressing his real feel ings. This test was assumed to be an effective and direct measure of the degree of tension and hostility in the re spondent. Rotter's College Form has been adapted by its originator for high school use by changing six sentence stems. The scoring standards provide for differentiation between males and females, with a numerical score from "0" to "6" assigned to each sentence to indicate the degree of 6Ibid. 96 conflict, positive or neutral content of the response. Adding the scores for the forty sentences gives an overall score, with a score of 135 suggested as the cutting score which will provide for efficient separation of adjusted and maladjusted students.^ Scores could range from 2 to 240, theoretically; but practically, they have ranged usually from 70 to 200, with scores between 110 and 150 being most common. It has been found that the use of a cutting score of 135 for this test enabled identification of 68 percent of maladjusted females and 80 percent of those adjusted. For males, the test correctly identified 69 percent of mal- g adjusted males and 89 percent of those adjusted. Q Methodology Q technique has been defined as the use of statement rankings to measure traits and their relationships. The Q- sort is a card-sort device whereby statements are usually ^Julian B. Rotter and Janet E. Rafferty, Manual for The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank; College Form (New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1950), p. 10. g Julian B. Rotter, Janet Rafferty and Eva Schachtitz, "Validation of The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank for College Screening," Journal of Consulting Psychology. XIII (October, 1949), pp. 348-356. 97 arranged in a predetermined distribution (forced choice) in to one or more sorts according to a specific set of direc tions. For example, the subject making the sort might be asked to arrange the statements according to those "most like his ideal self" and "least like his ideal self;" he then sorts the statements according to his perceptions of his "real" self.^ According to Rinn, Q-technique procedures make it feasible for an individual experimenter to perform basic re search in the area of group and individual psychology. He felt that Q-sort procedures were admirably adapted to the field, for this technique was based on a theoretical ap proach which attempts to view the complexity of interactions in an experience in terms of the total situation rather than as an isolated abstraction.*- ® The Q-sort statements are composed of brief comments which the subject applies to himself. For example, the q David M. Jackson and C. E. Bidwell, "Modification of the Q-Technique," Educational and Psychological Measurement, XIX (1959), pp. 221-232. *"®John L. Rinn, "Q Methodology: An Application to Group Phenomena," Educational and Psychological Measurement, XXI (Summer, 1961), pp. 315-329. 98 the stimulus statement may consist of "I like to go to par ties ,M and the subject is asked to determine whether this is most like, or least like, or somewhere in between his perceptions of himself, usually either real and ideal. The number of items included in a sort are about fifty, al though Jackson and Bidwell felt that 36 items were close to maximal.^ The method is fairly time-consuming compared with other instrumentation, but the statements have the ad vantage of focusing on the subject's self which, in the case of the present study, stimulated self-examination pre paratory to the group experience. The most frequent set of directions found in the lit erature involved asking subjects to arrange the card-sort statements four times--once before the experiment and once at the termination of the experiment. In each session sub jects were asked to respond according to how they would like to be (ideal self) and how they thought they were (real self). The sorts were used to measure a variety of anticipated outcome variables. For example, Cartwright ^Jackson and Bidwell, ojk cit., p. 225. 99 used the Butler-Haigh Q-sort to measure the effectiveness 12 of therapy. Huff used a Q-array to measure the effec- 13 tiveness of a teaching methodology. Hanlon and Hofsetter measured the personal adjustment of high school juniors 14 with a sort consisting of 100 statements. The dimensions of group behavior was studied by Rinn through the use of Q technique.^ The construction of the statements on a Q-sort pre sents problems, as this is not a standardized instrument containing static items. In a study done in 1958, Hilden commented that in Q-sort, since each subject's perceptions of self and ideal self are unique, construction of alternate 12 Desmond S. Cartwright and Irvin Roth, "Success and Satisfaction in Psychotherapy," Journal of Clinical Psychol ogy, XIII (January, 1957), pp. 20-26. ^George R. Huff, "The Use of the Q-Sort Technique in Investigating Changes in Self-Concept and Self-Adjustment During a General Psychology Course." (unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern California, 1960). ^Thomas Hanlon, et. al., "Congruence of Self and Ideal Self in Relation to Personality Adjustment," Journal of Con sulting Psychology. XVIII (June, 1954), pp. 215-218. ^Rinn, "Q Methodology, Group Phenomena," p. 317. 100 forms, matched items and split halves is not feasible. Thus, the same form is used for the pre- and the post-test ing.^ Hilden also commented that the reliability of the Q-sort was a matter of great importance. However, Phillips, who also studied the Q-sort, indi cated that the real self and the ideal self were not inde pendent constructs, but interrelated; therefore, the corre lation coefficient obtained from a Q-sort of ideal-real selves is not entirely effective in assessing the results of therapy. ^ The problem of social desirability is always an issue in any self-reporting instrument such as the Q-sort. For example, Kogan and Quinn felt that assessments made through Q-methodology were based more on cultural stereotypes than they were on factors related to the kinds of self-concepts Arnold H. Hilden, "Q-Sort Correlation: Stability and Random Choice of Statements," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXII (1958), pp. 45-50. ^A. S. Phillips, "Self Concepts of Selected Groups of Training College Students and Their Relationship to Other Variables in the Teacher Training Situation," Educational Research, VI (June, 1964), pp. 230-234. 101 (ideal-real) purportedly being measured by the instru ment. Kniss, in working with an unforced Q-sort, found high loadings on an ideal self-sort of the factors of personal worth and physical health, while there also were high load ings on factors of social conformity and submission to authority figures. He did find the Q-sort arrays indepen dent of the variables of age and l.Q. Kniss also reported that the overall reliability was satisfactory, but that there was a wide range in the consistency of the individual 19 Q-sorts. Block, in studying the feasibility of forced and un forced Q-sorting procedures, found that the forced Q-sort 20 appeared equal or superior to the unforced Q-sort. William Kogan, "Some Methodological Problems in the Quantification of Clinical Assessment by Q-Array," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXI (February, 1957), pp. 57-62. 19 Janet T. Kniss, A. Butler, L. Gorlow and G. M. Guth rie, "Ideal Self Patterns of Female Retardates," American Journal of Mental Deficiency. LXVII (1962), pp. 245-249. 20 Jack Block, "A Comparison of Forced and Unforced Q- Sorting Procedures," Educational and Psychological Measure ment, XVI (1956), pp. 481-493. 102 The Butler Q-Sort The Butler Q-sort consists of fifty statements rela ting to perception of self, designed to be used with a high 21 school population. Butler constructed the instrument from a population of mental health or adjustment statements gleaned from a large number of standardized group inven tories, using a committee of experts and randomization to reduce the statements to a useable fifty. The statements were scaled from most desirable to least desirable and as signed a scale value according to the ratings of twenty- five reputable psychologists. Butler found a reliability coefficient of .74 for the sort, based on a test/re-test procedure. (See Appendix C) An Index of Adjustment could be computed by intercorre- lating the Psychologists' Criterion Sort and any one of the individual's self sorts. This Index was a measure of the discrepancy between the psychologist's rating of a desir able real self and the individual's expressed real self or ^John J. Butler, "Differential Factors in the Self Concepts of Overachieving, Underachieving and Expected Achieving Adolescents." (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, May, 1957). 103 ideal self. The discrepancies that existed between the subject's expressed self and the ideal self were intercorrelated and comprised an Index of Self-Esteem. Scale value number six designated statements most de scriptive of the subject; scale value number zero identi fied those least descriptive of the subject. The seven point continuum proceeded from the most desirable to the least desirable description of self-concept in the follow ing fixed manner: Number of Statements: 2 6 9 16 9 6 2 Scale Value: 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Continuum: Most desirable - Least desir able Statement of Hypotheses For purposes of identification, the groups involved in the experiment are labeled as follows: A. Early Accelerated Interaction (February) B. Late Accelerated Interaction (May) C. Btaditional Counseling Group (February-May) D. Traditional Counseling Group (February-May) E. Control Group matched with A. 104 F. Control Group matched with B. G. Control Group matched with C. H. Control group matched with D. Hypothesis No. 1 The general concept to be tested is that counseling is advantageous for all students meeting the "existential mo ment" in their lives where identity, attitudes and self-con cept are each being defined. Therefore, there will be a significant reduction in discrepancy scores between real and ideal self-measures for the total counseled group as compared with their control counterparts. Or, discrepan cies A+B+C+D ^discrepancies E+F4G+H. Hypothesis No. 2 Specifically in this experiment the Accelerated Inter action groups will have a psychologically healthier measure (smaller discrepancies between real and ideal self-mea sures) than the Traditional groups because of the compact nature of the design which eliminated the time to relapse to former behavior patterns. Thus, discrepancies A+B < dis crepancies C+D. 105 Hypothesis No. 3 The Accelerated Interaction groups will have greater improvement in measured areas than their designated control groups. Therefore, A+B <E+F. Hypothesis No. 4 The Traditional Counseling groups will experience a greater change in self-concept than the measured control group. Traditional counseling is the practice employed in most schools, with the general premise that much of the psychological development occurs between group sessions. Here the counselee has the opportunity to test new atti tudes and insights in his world of reality. Those without the opportunity of counseling sessions may change, but not as markedly. Therefore, discrepancies C+D <G+H. Proposed Treatment of the Data Each group involved in the experiment was matched to each other on the basis of: members of each grade level (eleventh and twelfth), members of each sex, and mean I.Q. of the group. Assuming that all other variables, which were not measured, cancelled themselves, this provided eight com- 106 parable groups. Pre-test scores for the two Accelerated Interaction groups (A+B) of ten each were pooled. Pre-test scores for the two Traditional Counseling groups (C+D) were pooled. The control groups for A and B (E+F) were pooled— as were the control groups for C and D (G+H). The same approach was used for the post-test scores. The groups thus formed contained twenty subjects each. The Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values was hand- scored for all eighty subjects. In accordance with the manual instructions, the center column was totaled to pro vide the Adjustment Index. The indication of a positive ad justment would be a decrease in the index from pre-test to post-test. The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank was hand-scored for each of the entries. The responses require matching with possible responses in the Scoring Manual. Frequently, responses appear which fail to match those suggested in the manual and an interpretation is required. The same judge must score all responses to maintain consistency in inter pretations. The positive adjustment is reflected in a low er post-test score than pre-test score. 107 The Q-sort asks that fifty statements be sorted in a forced distribution from "Most like me" to "Least like me" twice. The first sorting should describe the "real self;" the second sort is for the "ideal self." This provides a discrepancy score. Positive adjustment is indicated by a decrease in the discrepancy score from pre-test to post test. All test scores were punched on IBM cards and fed through a computer which compared gain scores between ex perimental and control groups. The statistical signifi cance was measured by a "t" test of significance comparing the hypotheses stated above. Stanley and Campbell comment: The most widely used acceptable test is to com pute each group's pretest-post-test gain scores and to compute a "t" between experimental and control groups on these gain scores... Since the great bulk of educa tional experiments show no significant difference, and hence are frequently not reported, the use of this more precise analysis would seem highly desirable. 22 Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, "Experi mental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research on Teach ing," Handbook of Research on Teaching, ed. by N. L. Gage (American Educational Research Association, /jjew York: Rand McNally and Co., 196J7)* 108 Summary The method used in the experiment is the pretest, post-test control design as described under Design IV by Stanley and Campbell. The total stratified sample was di vided into matched experimental and control groups. All were pretested and post-tested with three measuring de vices: (1) Rotter*s Incomplete Sentences Blank, (2) Bills1 High School Inventory of Adjustment and Values, and (3) the Butler Q-Sort. There were four groups of ten students each: an Ac celerated Interaction group, a Traditional Counseling group and two control groups--one for each experimental group. Then the entire experiment population was doubled. The da ta from like groups was pooled and compared for statistical significance. The findings are reported in Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV REPORT OF FINDINGS Introduction This investigation was concerned with a comparison of the effectiveness of two approaches to group counseling in a high school setting. One model was designed around a traditional format consisting of weekly group sessions held over a period of thirteen weeks. The second model was de signed around an accelerated interaction format consisting of groups which met for consecutive day-long sessions equal ing the time spent in the traditional format, but condens ing the calendar span. The accelerated interaction format represented a modification of marathon group procedures adapted for appropriateness to the school setting but re taining the characteristics of intensive group interaction inherent in marathon models. The investigation was conducted through use of three 109 110 instruments of established validity: (1) The Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values--an adjective, self-descriptive measure which utilized a comparison of self-perceptions and perceptions of others; (2) The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank--a semi-projective instrument which could be scored quantitatively; and (3) The Butler C^-Sort measure of real- ideal evaluation of the self. Each measuring instrument was carefully scored— pretest and post-test--and the results were key-punched for computer processing of the cards, each of which carried a student's number and his scores from the different criteria. Programming was done by Dr. Bobby Hopkins, who used the computer facilities at Biola College, La Mirada, Cali fornia, for data processing. Results of the statistical procedures are stated according to the hypotheses already posed. The major section of this chapter is devoted to a description of the analytic procedures and presentation of the findings in tabulated form. A summary closes the chap ter. Ill Analytic Procedures and Tabulations The Hypotheses and the Test Results Hypothesis Number One: This hypothesis stated that the total experimental group would experience a greater change of self-concept than would the total control group. The hypothesis was tested by the "Self" and "Others" mea sures of Bills1 Index of Adjustment and Values; by the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank; and by the Butler Q-Sort measure for comparison of the real with the ideal self. No significant difference was found between the change in self- concept of the experimental group and that of the control group using the Bills' and Rotter instruments (see Table 2). On the Bills1 Index of Adjustment and Values, Self Gains scores, the mean for the counseled group was 1.45, while the mean for the non-counseled group was .35. The standard deviation for the non-counseled group was 9.11. The "t" value which resulted was .53, which did not approach significance. On the "Others" gains scores, the mean for the counseled group was 1.58, with a standard deviation of 20.13. The non-counseled group had a mean of .30, with a standard deviation of 9.43. This resulted in a "t" value 112 TABLE 1 Comparison of Counseled Versus Non-Counseled Gains Scores on Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values Mean Standard No. of Group Score Deviation Students Value "Self" Scores Counseled 1.45 19.64 40 Non-counseled 0.35 9.11 40 .52 "Others" Scores Counseled 1.58 20.13 40 Non-Counseled .30 9.43 40 .36 of .36, which was not significant. The same trend was apparent on the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank gains scores (see Table 2). The counseled group had a mean of .30 with a standard deviation of 21.08, and the non-counseled group had a mean of .38, with a stan dard deviation of 11.29. The "t" value of .18 was not sig nificant, allowing 78 degrees of freedom. Test results from the Butler Q-Sort measure indicated a decided difference in change of attitude which occurred for the counseled and the non-counseled group (see Table 3). 113 TABLE 2 Comparison of Counseled Versus Non- Counseled Gains Scores on Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank Group Mean Score Standard Deviation No. of Students 111" Value Counseled .30 21.08 40 Non-Counseled .38 11.30 40 00 T “ l • TABLE 3 Comparison of Counseled Versus Non-Counseled Gains Scores on Butler Q-Sort Real Self-Ideal Self Measure Group Mean Score Standard Deviation No. of Students llj.ll Value Counseled .14 .36 40 Non-counseled .44 .63 40 5 .19a a Significant at the .001 level of confidence. The counseled group had a mean of .14, with a standard devi ation of .33; the non-counseled group had a mean of .44, 114 a standard deviation of .63. This produced a "t" value of 5.18, which is statistically significant at the .001 level of confidence. Hypothesis Number Two: This hypothesis stated that the Accelerated Interaction group would experience a greater change of self-concept than would the control group. Mea sures used were the Bills1 Index of Adjustment and Values. Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank and the Butler Q-Sort. On the Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values self scores, the mean of the Accelerated group was 2.69, with a standard deviation of 22.25 (N=20). The mean of the con trol group was 2.60, with a standard deviation of 9.21 (N=20^. The resultant Student "t" value was .96, which was not significant at the .05 level of confidence. The data are presented in Table 4. On the Bills1 Index of Adjustment and Values--"Others1 1 gains scores, the Accelerated group's mean was 4.45, while the mean of the control group was .96. The standard devia tion was 20.60 for the Accelerated Interaction group, and 12.73 for the control group. Each group had an "N" of 20. The Student "t" value was .64, which is not significant. The tallies are shown also in Table 4. 115 TABLE 4 Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Control Group on Bills1 Index of Adjustment and Values Mean Standard No. of Group Score Deviation Students Value "Self" Scores Counseled 2.60 22.25 20 Non-counseled 2.60 9.21 20 0.96 "Others" Scores Counseled 4.45 20.60 20 Non-counseled 0.95 12.73 20 0.65 On the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank criterion, the Accelerated Interaction mean gains score was 6.70, with a standard deviation of 24.07. The control group had a standard deviation of 12.65 and a mean of 4.75. Again, the "N" was 20 for each group— control and experimental. The "t" value was 1.88, with a degree of freedom of 38, which indicates that the coefficient would have to reach 2.025 in order to be significant at the .05 level of confidence (see Table 5). 116 TABLE 5 Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Control Group on Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank Mean Standard No. of "t" Group Score Deviation Students Value Counseled 6.70 24.08 20 Non-Counseled 4.75 12.65 20 1.88 The Q-Sort criterion did demonstrate a difference which probably was beyond chance. The "t" value was 3.03, which was significant at the .01 level of confidence. The mean of the Accelerated Interaction experimental group was .16, and the mean of their control was .29. The standard deviation of the former was .34, and of the latter, .54. Numerical values, reflected in Tables 4 and 5, are also shown in Table 6. While the measures which seemed to tap changes in stu dents in relation to the outward life space did not demon strate a significant difference statistically, the measure which tapped inner changes, i.e., ideal-self versus real- self, was significant. Apparently the Accelerated Interac- 117 TABLE 6 Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Control Group on Butler Q-Sort Real-Self Ideal-Self Measure Group Mean Score Standard Deviation No. of Students Mtf f Value Counseled 0.16 0.34 20 Non-Counseled 0.28 0.55 20 3.033 Significant at the .01 level of confidence tion group process was instrumental in effecting some change in the inward viewing of self. Hypothesis Number Three: This hypothesis stated that the traditional format of group counseling would generate a greater change in self-concept on the criterion variables than would the control group. The Bills1 Index of Adjust ment and Values. the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank and the Q-Sort were used to test this hypothesis. On the Bills' Index, Self Form, the traditional group had a mean of 2.90 and a standard deviation of 28.06 (N=20). The controls had a mean of .70 and a standard deviation of 118 13.03 (N=20). The "t" value was 2.17, which is significant at the .05 level of confidence. On the Bills' Index. Others form, the mean was 3.15 for the traditional group, and .60 for the control group. Stan dard deviations were 28.74 and 13.50 respectively, and each had an N of 20. The "t" value was 1.45, which is not sig nificant with 38 degrees of freedom. On the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank, the differ ence was statistically significant at the .01 level of con fidence, with a "t" value of 2.57. The mean for the tra ditional group was .60, with a standard deviation of 30.20. The mean for the control group was .75, and the standard de viation was 16.17. On the Q-Sort measure, the differences between the ex perimental group and the control group (1^20 each) was sig nificant at the .001 level of confidence, with a "t" value of 4.33. The standard deviation of the traditional group was .43, and for the control group it was .63. The mean of the control group was .88. The data which summarize the differences between the traditionally counseled group and their controls are pre sented in Tables 7, 8 and 9. Three out of the four criter- 119 TABLE 7 Comparison of Traditional Group Versus Control Group on Bills1 Index of Adjustment and Values Group Mean Score Standard Deviation No. of Students "t" Value "Self" Scores Counseled 2.90 28.06 20 A Non-Counseled 0.70 13.03 20 2.17 "Others" Scores Counseled 3.15 28.74 20 Non-counseled 0.06 13.50 20 1.45 Significant at the .05 level of confidence TABLE 8 Comparison of Traditional Group Versus Control Group on Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank Group Mean Score Standard Deviation No. of Students Value Counseled 0.60 3.020 20 Non-counseled 0.75 16.18 20 2.57a ^Significant at the .05 level of confidence 120 TABLE 9 Comparison of Traditional Group Versus Control Group on Butler Q-Sort Real-Self Ideal-Self Measure Group Mean Score Standard Deviation No. of Students H^tl Value Counseled Non-counseled 0.28 0.88 0.43 0.63 20 20 a 4.33 Significant at the .001 level of confidence ion variables are statistically significant. Apparently, the calendar time of a period of weeks over which the tradi tional format spread the group counseling experience was in strumental in producing more results on the measures used in the study than was the case in the accelerated interaction group format, which condensed the calendar time span. Hypothesis Number Four: This hypothesis stated that the accelerated interaction groups would experience more change on the criterion variables than would the traditional groups. None of the "t" values on these measures was sig nificant. Statistics are presented in Tables 10, 11 and 12 121 reflecting these facts. Apparently, the instruments used to measure the effects of the experimental variable did not reflect any changes which may have taken place. TABLE 10 Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Traditional Group on Bills1 Index of Adjustment and Values Mean Standard No. of "t" Group Score Deviation Students Value "Self" Scores Counseled 2.60 22.26 20 Non-counseled 5.50 16.18 20 1.32 "Others'1 Scores Counseled 4.45 20.60 20 Non-counseled 7.60 18.18 20 1.96 TABLE 11 Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Traditional Group on Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank Qroup Mean Score Standard Deviation No. of Students Hg.ll Value Counseled 6.70 2.08 20 Non-counseled 6.10 15.70 20 1.99 122 TABLE 12 Comparison of Accelerated Interaction Group Versus Tradition Group on Butler Q-Sort Real-Self Ideal-Self 'Measure Group Mean Score Standard Deviation No. of Students Value Counseled 0.16 0.34 20 Non-counseled 0.13 0.34 20 0.27 reflecting these facts. Apparently, the instruments used to measure the effects of the experimental variable did not re flect any changes which may have taken place. Correlation Matrix on Instrumentation A correlation matrix was computed on the various in struments used in the study. This gave evidence that for the most part, the measures were discrete. Only the Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values. "Self" measure and the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank measure showed any degree of correlation, i.e., .45. All other correlations range from .01 to .12, which indicates that the measures were in deed measuring different aspects of the self-concept, as 123 shown in Table 13. TABLE 13 Correlation Matrix for Gains in Bills1 Index of Adjustment and Values Discrepancy Scores, Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank Scores and (^-Sort Gains Item 1 2 3 1 1.00 0.31 0.05 2 80.00 1.00 0.19 3 80.00 80.00 1.00 1 = Bills' discrepancy scores from pre-test discrep- ancy to post-test discrepancy. 2 = Rotter gains pretest to post-test. 3 = Q-Sort gains pretest to post-test. This chapter has presented the findings generated by the criterion measures chosen for the investigation. From the comparative results as set forth and as treated statis tically, it appears that the traditional group counseling format is more effective for producing self-concept changes 124 than is the accelerated interaction group counseling format. Also, it is apparent that changes in self-concept which are directed outwardly respond to measurement more slowly than do changes of internalized aspects of the self-concept. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary This study has been concerned with the comparison of two differing formats for group counseling in a public school setting. The traditional format involved ten stu dents per counseling group, which met one hour weekly for thirteen weeks. The accelerated interaction format in volved ten students per counseling group. They met on two consecutive days, five hours each day, and also one hour each week for the following three weeks. Control groups of ten students each were matched to each of the experimental groups--the control students par ticipated in no group counseling. The routine counseling and guidance experiences as normally provided by the school were continued without alteration. The design provided for two Accelerated Interest groups, two traditional counseling 125 126 groups and four control groups. All subjects were students from the eleventh or twelfth grades who had indicated on their enrollment cards that their expectations for post high school education would require at least a four-year academic degree. Out of a total school population of 2,382, a pool of 247 students was provided on the basis of enrollment card indication. From a table of random num bers, the final selection of eighty subjects was made. Experience has shown that this segment which looked to ward the four-year academic degree was the most stable in the total school population, and it was felt that this qualification would decrease possible mortality in the ex periment. It is recognized that the conditions imposed on the subjects limited the possibility of generalizing in re gard to the total population of the school in which the ex periment was conducted. The subjects were assigned to groups on the basis of grade level, sex and Intelligence Quotient as measured by the California Test of Mental Maturity. Each group of ten was composed of five males and five females; and five eleventh grade students and five twelfth grade students. The I.Q. was measured by the California Test of Mental Ma- 127 + turitv: the mean of each group was 104-1. The experimenter had seen each student individually where he was invited to participate in the experience. After an explanation of the nature and purposes of the experiment, each student indi cated whether he would be willing to participate. Only one of the students approached in this manner declined to coop erate. Tentative group assignments were then made and the testing procedures were initiated. After completion of the pretesting, the group assignments were announced. The four hypotheses posed by the study were: 1. That the accelerated interaction counseling group would experience a greater positive change in attitude and self-concept than would the traditional counseling group. 2. That the traditional counseling group would exper ience a greater positive change in attitude and self-con cept than would the control group. 3. That the total counseled group would experience a greater positive change in attitude and self-concept than would the total non-counseled group. 4. That the accelerated interaction groups would ex perience more change on the criterion variables than would the traditional groups. 128 Three instruments were used to measure these hypo theses: The Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values, the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank and the Butler Q-Sort in strument. Stanley and Campbell's paradigm, True Experi mental Design Number Four, was used as the model for the ex periment. ^ One week prior to the beginning of the experimental period, sixty students were pretested in the school library on a Saturday morning. Testing was completed in four hours and assignments were made for the experimental groups dur ing the next week. It had been explained in the initial in terview that control group subjects were not to be con tacted. (The remaining twenty of the eighty selected for the experiment were tested six weeks later as the second accelerated interaction group and its control group.) The setting of the experiment was Centennial Senior High School, located in the Compton Union High School Dis trict in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. The community is entirely minority in its composition and is largely Negro. The socio-economic spectrum ranges from lower middle ^"Stanley and Campbell, "Experimental Designs for Teach ing." 129 class to lower-lower class on Warner's scale of socio-eco- 2 nomic groups. Although no statistical documentation is available, it was the investigator's observation that from eight to ten percent of the students go on to a four-year college. The tenth grade class usually contains about one thousand students, with approximately six hundred gradua ting from the twelfth grade each year. Prior to the experiment as reported in this study, limited experiences in group counseling had been offered to the student body. Only two members of the counseling staff had ever been engaged in counseling with groups; therefore, only a very small segment of the student population had ex perienced group counseling. Permission to conduct the ex periment required approval from the district superintendent and, through the school administration, from each of the faculty members who would be involved for the release of students for the counseling periods. At the outset, sus picion was apparent relative to the process, and apprehen sion was evident concerning the findings which might be pub- 2 Warner, Social Class in America. 130 lished. Detailed explanation and considerable reassurance were required to allay these anxieties in order to elicit at least minimal faculty cooperation. The counseling groups met in a custodian's supply clos et without windows and without adequate ventilation or heat. Each session was recorded on tape. At the end of the experimental periods, the experi mental groups and their matched control groups were post tested— instrumentation used was identical to that used for pretesting. The test results were transferred to IBM data cards and processed by computer to determine levels of sta tistical significance. Scores from the three instruments used revealed no con sistent trend for either the traditional or the accelerated interaction group. The Bills1 Index of Adjustment and Val ues and the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank showed little by way of significance, although a slight indication of trend was indicated. The Butler Q-Sort Measure, however, showed in each instance a greater change than would be ex pected normally. Both experimental groups demonstrated greater changes than did the control groups as measured by the Q-Sort instrument. The accelerated interaction group 131 also showed a significantly positive change over the tradi tional counseling group when measured by the Q-Sort instru ment. Conclusions The experiment seemed to establish the effectiveness of group counseling as opposed to no counseling in bringing about a positive change of self-concept and attitudes to ward others and self. Although there was no consistent sta- tistically-significant evidence that the accelerated inter action groups experienced a greater degree of positive change than that experienced by the traditional groups, this writer, who was also the experimenter in the study, is of the opinion that changes did occur which were not reflected by the instrumentation. In the accelerated interaction groups there seemed to be more continuity in the patterns of reaction, e.g., the discussions which ended at lunch time in the accelerated interaction groups tended to resume after lunch at the same level of intensity, whereas in the traditional counseling groups a fresh beginning was required at the outset of each meeting. Also, the accelerated interaction groups seemed 132 to delve at a level seldom witnessed in the traditional counseling group. For instance, the accelerated interac tion groups discussed such subjects as the frequency of thoughts of suicide and the possible effect of free distri bution of birth control pills. Their intensity of expres sion concerning adolescent-adult relationships was not ex perienced in the traditional counseling groups. Each of the accelerated interaction groups experienced a tearful episode which called forth the protection of the group, and thus revealed a level of emotional interaction unique to this format. Since the criterion measures produced inconsistent re sults, it is difficult to state with confidence that there were reliable differences between counseled and non-couns seled groups. Two of the measures (Bills* Index of Adjust ment and Values and Rotter *s Incomplete Sentences Blank) were not statistically significant in results. The Q-Sort measure, however, was significant at a high level beyond that which could be expected by chance. Certainly, there is some indication that change did take place on the third measure as a result of the counseling experience. A pos sible explanation may lie in the fact that the criterion 133 which was statistically-significant dealt with intra indi vidual differences. The two criteria which were not sig»» nificant were primarily normative. Apparently, as a result of both group counseling formats, students perceived the differences between their real and ideal selves differently, while their general projections of self to the world and their perceptions of differences between themselves and oth ers did not change to a significant degree. The consistent trend of the Q-Sort scores may indicate that factors tapped by this measure are most sensitive to the group counseling process. Perhaps change through group interaction begins with a realignment of perceptions of in ternalized selves. The counseling group which was spread over more calendar time demonstrated statistically-signi ficant change to a greater degree than did the counseling group which was condensed in calendar time. This fact may be further evidence that changes which relate to the out ward world, i.e., relationships to others and relationships of the outward self, may be slower in occurring and perhaps need to be preceded by an adjustment of internalized self concept. It is possible also that the consistent trend on the 134 Q-Sort measures may be explained by the fact that the Q- Sort test requires a forced distribution. This process re quires the student to re-evaluate continually the state ments presented and to make gradations of comparisons, so that the cards will satisfy a predetermined distribution pattern. Both the Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values and the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank will accept the im mediate response of the student without requiring reconsid eration of his original decision. It might be concluded from this analysis that the Q-Sort is a more sensitive in strument because it demands that the student engage in sev eral hours of introspection. The group which met for thirteen weeks, designed as "Traditional," experienced more apparent change than did the group which met for thirteen hours, designated as "Ac celerated Interaction." This fact might be explained by hypothesizing that the students became more introspective with the passage of calendar time, and then had the oppor tunity to become aware of actual differences between how they had felt themselves to be and how they had come to re alize that they were in actuality. It is altogether pos sible that, through the group process, students became more 135 honest in their self-appraisal and therefore less likely to respond in a manner socially desirable. It is highly conceivable that the time structure of the school broke some of the continuity of the interaction of the groups. In the accelerated interaction format, the five-hour period was interrupted by dismissal for the five- minute passing periods. Often, when the group resumed af ter five minutes, the same reluctance to communicate was ob served as that of the traditional group. For this reason, it is felt that the differences were somewhat minimized be tween the two formats being compared. An additional disturbing factor which was difficult to overcome was the undesirable physical setting, i.e., it was necessary to arrange for heat, lighting, ventilation and furnishings for the room. These elements may have been less significant for the traditional groups. However, the ac* celerated interaction groups were subjected to the discom forts of the environment for more consecutive hours than the other groups. Presumably, the effects of these physical limitations might accumulate when experiencing continued activities in a short time span. The unstructured approach to group counseling has 136 marked limitations in terms of hastening significant inter actions. Therefore, the formats used in both the accele^ rated interaction and traditional counseling groups may re quire longer than fifty-five minutes to effectuate signifi cant eoiratraicatiiien. The client-oriented technique, by definition, presumes a heavy responsibility on the part of group members for meaningful dialogue. This position may be basically contradictory to the accelerated interaction format, whereas in the traditional group format, time is provided for members to internalize an increasing responsi bility for group progress. Thus, it is felt that the same approach used in both formats minimized the opportunity to exploit what may be an inherent uniqueness of the accele rated interaction group approach. The findings of the study are limited in generaliz- ability because of the nature of the sample used in the ex periment, i.e., the subjects were college-bound eleventh and twelfth grade students of minority background. It is felt, however, that these students represent a population which is fairly typical of most comprehensive urban high schools. There is relevance in the implications of the findings which indicated no significant difference between 137 the two formats for the general population of the school. It is obvious that if the accelerated interaction group for mat is as effective as the traditional group counseling for mat, then for a school population which is typically drop out and transient, the accelerated interaction group format seems desirable. The style of group leadership exhibited by the facili tator was the same in the accelerated interaction groups as in the traditional counseling groups. This style has been identified as non-directive in technique, and tends to go from cognitive to conative by way of verbal vehicles. It is the opinion of this writer that a more non-verbal ap proach might elicit meaningful dialogue within a shorter period of time. It is entirely possible that adolescents operate more at an affective and sensory level than at a cognitive and affective level. The emphasis on an essen tially verbal approach in group counseling would not capi talize on this characteristic of adolescents. In addition, the verbal approach seems to deal with adolescents at a level where they are neither competent nor comfortable; thus, students are forced to leave their present orienta tion to satisfy the needs of the counseling format. In ef- 138 feet, they must regress to a level not typical before at taining a level which was already typically present. The purpose of this study was to contrast two formats for group counseling which might be applicable to a public school setting. Evidence has been generated that either format is effective in bringing about changes in attitude and self-concept of adolescents. Test results did not es tablish the superiority of one format over the other; thus, either would be effective where appropriate. Recommendations The following recommendations are made on the basis of the experiment which contrasted the effectiveness of an ac celerated interaction group counseling format with the tra ditional group counseling format. 1. It is recommended that more use be made of the ac celerated interaction format in the public school setting, since the study showed this format to be as effective as traditional group counseling in producing changes of self- concept and attitude. 2. It is recommended that this study should be repli cated, but that individual directions should be predicted 139 rather than using the mean scores for groups; the latter then must cancel out individual scores and thus obliterate the true effects of the experiment. 3. It is recommended that in the use of the accele rated interaction format, the session should be interrupted only as the demands of comfort necessitate, i.e., do not observe a five-minute break at passing period, and do not break the group setting at lunch time. This unbroken con tinuity would permit cumulative effects from the interaction and would permit a more sensitive testing of the uniqueness of the format. 4. It is recommended that the accelerated interaction group counseling format should be removed from a school set ting, and instead should be held in the home of a student, or at a community center or camp site. The "credibility gap" between the counselor who represents the school and the counselees would thus be minimized, and the effective ness of the accelerated interaction might be exploited to better advantage. 5. It is recommended that a comfortable setting should be provided for students in group counseling. 140 6. It is recommended that techniques of confronta tion and non-verbal sensory activities should be explored to facilitate group solidarity, support and more rapid movement toward authority. BIBLIOGRAPHY 141 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Abrahamson, Arthur C. Group Methods in Supervision and Staff Development. New York: Harper and Bros., 1959. Argyle, Michael. The Psychology of Interpersonal Behavior. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1967. Biderman, Albert D., and Zimmer, Herbert. The Manipulation of Behavior. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1961. Bills, Robert E. The Index of Adjustment and Values. Uni versity: University of Alabama Press, 1951. Combs, Arthur W. Perceiving. Believing. Becoming: A New Focus for Education. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1962. Coopersmith, Stanley. The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. San Francisco: W. R. Freeman and Co., 1967. Erickson, Eric H. Childhood and Society. New York: Nor ton Press, 1950. Fiedler, Fred E. Leader Attitudes and Group Effectiveness. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1958. Gazda, George M. Basic Approaches to Group Psychotherapy and Group Counseling. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publishing Co., 1968. Haiman, Franklyn S. Group Leadership and Democratic Action. Cambridge, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1951. Hopkins, Terence K. The Exercise of Influence in Small Groups. Totowa, New Jersey: Bedminster Press, 1964. Kemp, C. Gratton., ed. Perspective on the Group Process. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964. $ 142 143 Klein, Alan F. Role Playing in Leadership Training and Group Problem Solving. New York: Association Press, 1956. Lifton, Walter M. Working with Groups: Group Process and Individual Growth. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1966. Lynd, Helen Tuerrell. On Shame and the Search for Iden tity. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1958. Mahler, Clarence, and Caldwell, Edson. Group Counseling in Secondary Schools. Chicago: Science Research Associ ates, 1961. McCall, George J., and Simmons, J. L. Identities and Inter actions . New York: New York Free Press, 1966. Rosenberg, Morris. Society and the Adolescent Self Image. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965. Rotter, Julian B., and Rafferty, Janet E. Manual for The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank: College Form. New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1950. Selvin, Hanan C. The Effects of Leadership. Glencoe, Illi nois: The Free Press of Glencoe, Illinois, 1960. Sherif, Muzafer, and Sherif, Carolyn W. Groups in Harmony and Tension. New York: Octagon Books, Inc., 1966. Warner, William L. Social Class in America. Chicago: Sci ence Research Associates, 1949. Articles and Periodicals Akerman, Nathan W. "Group Psychotherapy with a Mixed Group of Adolescents." International Journal of Group Psy chotherapy. V (July, 1955), 249-260. Anderson, Alan R. "Group Counseling.1 1 Review of Educa tional Research. XXXIX (April, 1969), 209. 144 Bach, George R. "The Marathon Group: Intensive Practice of Intimate Interaction." Psychological Reports, XVIII (1966), 995-1002. _________. "Marathon Group Dynamics: I. Some Functions of the Personal Facilitator." Psychological Reports, XX (1967), 995-999. _________. "Marathon Group Dynamics: II. Dimensions of Helpfulness: Therapeutic Aggression." Psychological Reports. XX (1967), 1147-1158. _________. "Marathon Group Dynamics: III. Dimensions of Disjunctive Contact." Psychological Reports, XX (1967), 1163-1172. Bates, Marilyn M. "Themes in Group Counseling with Adoles cents ." Personnel and Guidance Journal. XLIV (Febru ary, 1966), 568-575. _________. "Test of Group Counseling." Personnel and Guid ance Journal. XLVI (1968), 749-753. Bills, Robert E.; Vance, Edgar; and McLean, 0. S. "An Index of Adjustment and Values." Journal of Consulting Psy chology. XV (1951), 257-261. Bilovsky, David, et al. "Individual and Group Counseling." Personnel and Guidance Journal. XXXI (July, 1955), 363-365. Blake, Robert W. "How Can We Help Our Teen-Agers?" The Clearing House (April, 1965), 65. Block, Jack. "A Comparison of Forced and Unforced Q-Sort- ing Procedures." Educational and Psychological Meas urement . XVI (1956), 481-493. Bonney, Warren C. "Pressures Toward Conformity in Group Counseling in Terms of Congruence Theory." Journal of Counseling Psychology. II (1963), 136-138. 145 Bosdell, Betty J., and Teigland, John. "Problems Discussed by Underachievers in Different Treatment Groups." School Counselor. XII (May, 1965), 222-227. Boy, A. V.; Isaken, H. L.; and Pine, G. J. "Multiple Coun seling: A Catalyst for Individual Counseling." School Counselor, II (October, 1963), 8-11. Bradford, L. P. "Developing Potentialities through Class Groups." Teachers College Record, LI (1960), 443-450. Broedel, John, et. al. "The Effects of Group Counseling on Gifted Underachieving Adolescents." Journal of Coun seling Psychology. XII (1960), 169-170. Callis, R.; Polmantier, P. C.; and Roeber, E. C. "Five Years of Research on Counseling." Journal of Counsel ing Psychology, IV (Summer, 1957), 119-123. Campbell, Donald T., and Stanley, Julian C. "Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research on Teach ing." Handbook of Research on Teaching. Edited by N. L. Gage. (American Educational Research Association, New York: /Rand-McNally and Co., 19637). Caplan, Stanley. "The Effects of Group Counseling on Junior High School Boys1 Concepts of Themselves in School." Journal of Counseling Psychology. IV (Summer, 1957) 124-125. Carter, Launor F. "Evaluating the Performance of Individ uals as Members of Small Groups." Personnel Psycho logy. VII (Winter, 1954), 477-484. Catron, David W., et al. "Educational-Vocational Group Counseling: The Effects of Perceptions of Self and Others." Journal of Consulting Psychology, VI (1957), 495-500. Cartwright, Desmond S., and Roth, Irvin. "Success and Sa tisfaction in Psychotherapy." Journal of Clinical Psy chology. XIII (January, 1957), 20-26. 146 Christensen, E. W. "Group Counseling: Its Use and Poten tial Value." Counseling and Guidance: A Summary View. Edited by J. F. Adams. New York: Macmillan Co., 1965. Clements, Barton E. "Transitional Adolescents, Anxiety and Group Counseling." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXV (September, 1966), 67-71. Cohn, Benjamin; Ohlsen, Merle; and Proff, F. C. "Roles Played by Adolescents in an Unproductive Counseling Group." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXVIII (May, 1960), 724-731. Cohn, Benjamin; Combs, Chester F.; et al. "Group Counsel ing, an Orientation." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLII (December, 1963), 355. Combs, Charles F. "Group Counseling: Applying the Tech nique." School Counselor, XI (October, 1963), 12-18. _________. "Perception of Self and Scholastic Underachieve ment in the Academically Capable." Personnel and Guidance Journal. XLIII (September, 1964), 47-51. Corsini, Raymond J., and Rosenberg, B. "Mechanisms of Group Psychotherapy: Process and Dynamics." Journal of Ab normal and Social Psychology, LI (July, 1955), 406- 411. Cuony, E. R. "Group Guidance for College-Bound Seniors." Journal of the National Association of Women Deans and Counselors. XVIII (1955), 131-132. Davis, D. A. "Effect of Group Guidance and Individual Counseling on Citizenship Behavior." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXVIII (October, 1959), 142-145. Dickenson, Walter A., and Truax, Charles B. "Group Counsel ing with College Underachievers." Personnel and Guid ance Journal. XLV (November, 1966), 243. 147 Festinger, Leon. "Informal Communication in Small Groups." Groups, Leadership and Men. Edited by H. Guetzkaw. New York: Russell and Russell, 1963), 31-43. Finger, John A., and Silverman, Morton. "Changes in Aca demic Performance in Junior High School." Personnel and Guidance Journal. XLV (October, 1966), 162-163. Foley, W. J., and Bonney, W. C. "A Developmental Model for Counseling Groups." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (February, 1966), 576-580. Froelich, C. P. "Group Guidance Approaches in Educational Institutions." Review of Educational Research. XXIV (April, 1954), 145-155. _________. "Must Counseling Be Individual?" Educational and Psychological Measurement, XXVIII (Winter, 1958), 681-689. Gawrys, John J., and Brown, Bruce 0. "Group Counseling: More than a Catalyst." School Counselor. XII (May, 1965), 206-213. Gazda, George M. , and Larsen, Mary Juhan. "A Comprehensive Appraisal of Group and Multiple Counseling Research." Journal of Research and Development in Education. LVII (1968), 132. Grande, Peter P., and Simons, Joseph B. "Personal Values and Academic Performance among Engineering Students." Personnel and Guidance Journal. XLV (February, 1967), 585. Hanlon, Thomas, et. al. "Congruence of Self and Ideal Self in Relation to Personality Adjustment." Journal of Consulting Psychology. XVIII (June, 1954), 215-218. Harris, W. K. "A Beginning Counselor's Experience with Counseling." School Counselor. XIII (October, 1965), 47-50. 148 Hendrix, Oscar. "The Effect of Special Advising on Achieve ment of Freshmen with Low Predicted Grades." Person nel and Guidance Journal. XLIV (October, 1965), 185. Hilden, Arnold H. "Q-Sort Correlation: Stability and Ran dom Choice of Statements." Journal of Consulting Psy chology. XXII (1958), 45-50. Hopkins, L. Thomas. "What is Group Process?" Perspective on the Group Process. Edited by C. Gratton Kemp. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964. Howard, Jane. "Inhibitions Thrown to the Gentle Wind." Life Magazine. July, 1968, 48-65. Hoyt, K. B., and Moore, G. D. ,rGroup Procedure: Guidance and Personnel Work." Review of Educational Research. XXX (April, 1960), 157-158. Jackson, David M., and Bidwell, C. E. "Modification of the Q-Technique." Educational and Psychological Measure ment. XIX (1959), 221-232. Kemp, C. Gratton. "Behavior in Group Guidance (Socio Pro cess) and Group Counseling (Psycho Process).1 1 Journal of Counseling Psychology. X (Winter, 1963), 373-377. _________. "Parents' and Adolescents' Perceptions of Each Other and the Adolescent's Self Perception." Person nel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (September, 1965), 61. Kniss, Janet.; Butler, A.; Gorlow, L.; and Guthrie, G. M. "Ideal Self Patterns of Female Retardates." American Journal of Mental Deficiency. LXVII (1962), 245-249. Kogan, William. "Some Methodological Problems in the Quan tification of Clinical Assessment by Q-Array." Journ al of Consulting Psychology. XXI (February, 1957), 57- 62. 149 Ladato, Francis J.; Sokoloff, M. A.; and Schwartz, L. J. "Group Counseling as a Method of Modifying Attitudes in Slow Learners." School Counselor. XII (October, 1965), 27-29. Lifton, W. M. "Group Therapy in Educational Institutions." Review of Educational Research. XXIV (April, 1954), 156-165. McDaniel, Harold, and Johnson, Boyd A. "Effect of Group Counseling on Achievers and Underachievers." Journal of Secondary Education. XXXVII (March, 1962), 136-139. Maslow, A. H. "Self-Actualizing People, A Study of Psycho logical Health." The Self: Explorations in Personal Growth. Edited by Clark Monstakas. New York: Harper and Bros., 1956. Miller, K. M., and Biggs, J. B. "Attitude Change through Undirected Group Discussion." Journal of Educational Psychology. XXXIX (August, 1958), 224-228. Ofman, William. "Evaluation of a Group Counseling Proce dure." Journal of Counseling Psychology. XI (Spring, 1964), 152-159. Ohlsen, Merle M. "Adapting Principles of Group Dynamics for Group Counseling." School Counselor. XIII (March, 1966), 159-162. ________ . "Counseling Within a Group Setting." Journal of the National Association of Women Deans and Counselors. XXIII (April, 1960), 104-109. Ohlsen, Merle M., and Pearson, R. E. "A Method for the Classification of Group Interaction and its Use to Ex plore the Influence of Individual and Role Factors in Group Counseling." Journal of Clinical Psychology. XXI (October, 1965), 436-441. 150 Phillips, A. S. "Self Concepts of Selected Groups of Train ing College Students and Their Relationship to Other Variables in the Teacher Training Situation." Educa tional Research. VI (June, 1964), 230-234. Reitan, Harold T., and Shaw, Marvin E. "Group Membership, Sex-Composition of the Group, and Conformity Behavior." Journal of Social Psychology. XLIV (1964), 45. Richardson, William; Higgins, A. A.; and Ames, Richard. "Rate of Attendance and Reasons for Non-Attendance at a Clinic of Handicapping Conditions." Journal of Pub lic Health. LVIII (August, 1964), 1183-1184. Rinn, John L. "Q Methodology: An Application to Group Phe nomena." Educational and Psychological Measurement. XXI (Summer, 1961), 315-329. Robinett, Donald W., and Waite, Warren K. "Voluntary Group Counseling in a Junior High School." Journal of Secon dary Education. XXXIX (May, 1964), 226-229. Rotter, Julian B.; Rafferty, Janet; and Schachtitz, Eva. "Validation of the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank for College Screening." Journal of Consulting Psycho logy, XIII (October, 1949), 348-356. Rousseve, Ronald J. "A Counselor Education Pilot Project in Guided Interaction." The Personnel and Guidance Journal. XLIV (September, 1965), 53. Seegars, James E., Jr., and McDonald, R. L. "The Role of Interaction Groups in Counselor Education." Journal of Counseling Psychology, II (1963), 156-162. Shaw, Merville C., and Wursten, R. "Research on Group Pro cedures in Schools: A Review of the Literature." Per sonnel and Guidance Journal. XLIV (September, 1965), 27-34. 151 Spielberger, Charles D.; Weitz, H.; and Denny, J. P. "Group Counseling and the Academic Performance of Anx ious College Freshmen." Journal of Counseling Psycho logy. IX (Fall, 1962), 195-204. Stoller, Frederick H. "Use of Video Tape (Focused Feedback) in Group Counseling and Group Therapy." Journal of Re search and Development in Education. II (Winter, 1968), 30-44. Taylor, R. C. "Personality Traits in Discrepant Achieve ment: A Review.” Journal of Counseling Psychology, XI (1964), 76-81. Wheeler, Edwin E. "Anxiety, Mental Ability, and Reported Views of Self." School Counselor. XIII (October, 1965), 33. Whitely, John M., and Hummel, Raymond. "Adaptive Ego Func tioning in Relation to Academic Achievement." Journal of Counseling Psychology. XII (Fall, 1965), 310. Woal, Theodore S. "A Project in Group Counseling in a Junior High School." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLII (February, 1964), 611-613. Wright, E. Wayne. "A Comparison of Individual and Multiple Counseling for Test Interpretation Interviews." Jour nal of Counseling Psychology. X (February, 1964), 126- 135. _________. "Multiple Counseling: Why, When, How?" Person nel and Guidance Journal. XXXVIII (April, 1959), 551- 557. Yalom, Irwin D. "A Study of Group Therapy Dropouts." Archives of General Psychology. XIV (April, 1959), 393-394. . "Problems of Neophyte Therapists." Internation al Journal of Social Psychology. XII (1966), 52-53. 152 Unpublished Materials Bates, Marilyn M. "A Study of the Effectiveness of Group Counseling in Achieving the Goals of Guidance in Edu cation, Using Two Contrasting Formats." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1967. Butler, John J. "Differential Factors in the Self Concepts of Overachieving, Underachieving and Expected Achiev ing Adolescents." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern California, May, 1957. Huff, George R. "The Use of the Q-Sort Technique in Inves tigating Changes in Self-Concept and Self-Adjustment During a General Psychology Course." Unpublished doc toral dissertation, The University of Southern Cali fornia, 1960. Report on poverty survey at Centennial High School filed with the Office of Equal Opportunity, Compton, Cali fornia, 1965 (mimeographed). Schmidt, Warren H. "Sensitivity Training: Report and Cri tique." Graduate School of Business Administration, University of California, Los Angeles, 1968. Waller, Ronald C. "Accelerated Interaction: An Innovation in Group Counseling Technique." Chicago: May, 1965 (mimeographed). APPENDIX A HIGH SCHOOL INDEX OF ADJUSTMENT AND VALUES 153 154 "SELF" INSTRUCTIONS FOR HSIAV There is a need for each of us to know more about our selves, but seldom do we have an opportunity to look at ourselves as we are or as we would like to be. On the next page is a list of terms that to a certain degree describe people. Take each term separately and apply it to yourself by completing the following sentence: I AM A (AN) _________ PERSON. The first word in the list is jolly, so you would sub stitute this term in the above sentence. It would read— I am a jolly person. INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLUMN I (next page) Then decide HOW MUCH OF THE TIME this statement is like you and rate yourself on a scale from 1 to 5 according to the following key. 1. Seldom, is this like me. 2. Occasionally, this is like me. 3. About half of the time, this is like me. 4. A good deal of the time, this is like me. 5. Most of the time, this is like me. EXAMPLE: Beside the term JOLLY, Number 2 is inserted to indicate that— occasionally I am a jolly person. INSTRUCTIONS FOR COBOMN II (next page) Now go to Column II. Use one of the statements given below to tell HOW YOU FEEL about yourself as described in Column I. 1. I very much dislike being as I am inthhis respect. 2. I dislike being as I am in this respect. 3. I neither dislike being as I am nor like being as I am in this respect. 4. I like being as I am in this respect. 5. I like very much being as I am in this respect. 155 You will select the number beside the statement that tells how you feel about the way you are and insert the number in Column II. EXAMPLE: In Column II beside the term JOLLY, Number 1 is inserted to indicate that I dislike very much being as I am in respect to the term, jolly. Note that being as I am al ways refers to the way you described yourself in Column JL INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLUMN III (next page) Finally, go to Column III; using the same term, com plete the following sentence. I WOULD LIKE TO BE A (AN) _________ PERSON. Then decide HOW MUCH OF THE TIME you would like this trait to be characteristic of you and rate yourself on the following five point scale. 1. Seldom, would I like this to be me. 2. Occasionally, I would like this to be me. 3. About half of the time, I would like this to be me. 4. A good deal of the time, I would like this to be me. 5. Most of the time, I would like this to be me. You will select the number beside the phrase that tells how much of the time you would like to be this kind of per son and insert the number in Column III. EXAMPLE: In Column III beside the term JOLLY, the number 5 is inserted to indicate that most of the time, I would like to be this kind of person. Start with the word ACTIVE and fill in Column I, II, and III before going on to the next word. There is no time limit. Be honest with yourself so that your description will be a true measure of how you look at yourself. "SELF" A. JOLLY 1. Active 2. Alert 3. Carefree 4. Cheerful 5. Considerate 6. Cooperative 7. Courteous 8. Dependable 9. Democratic 10. Faithful 11. Friendly 12. Generous 13. Happy 14. Helpful 15. Honest 16. Humorous 17. Intelligent 18. Interesting III 19. Kind 20. Loyal 21. Neat 22. Obedient 23. Patient 24. Playful 25. Polite 26. Quiet 27. Sharing 28. Sincere 29. S tud ious 30. Sociable 31. Tactful 32. Thoughtful 33. Thrifty 34. Trustworthy 35. Truthful 36. Understanding 37. Unselfish 157 "OTHERS1 1 INSTRUCTIONS FOR HSIAV We would like to gain a better idea of what you think other people are like. To do this we would like you to: (1) Think of other people who are in general like you, for example, other freshmen, sophomores, juniors, or seniors and (2) Complete the IAV as you think the average person in this group would complete it for himself. Take each of the 37 words and use it to complete the following sentence for the average person in your reference group: HE IS A (AN)__________ PERSON. INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLUMN I (next page) Then decide how much of the time this statement is like this average person and rate him as. he would himself on the following scale: 1. Seldom, is this like he sees himself. 2. Occasionally, this is the way he sees himself. 3. About half ojE the time, this is the way he sees himself. 4. A good deal of the time, this is the way he sees himself. 5. Most of the time, this is the way he sees himself. Select the number beside the phrase that tells how much of the time he sees himself this way and insert it in Column I on the next page. EXAMPLE: Beside the tern JOLLY, Number 2 is inserted to in- indicate that this average person in your reference group sees himself occasionally as a jolly person. INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLUMN II (next page) Now go to Column II. Use one of the statements given below to tell how he usually feels about himself as de scribed in Column I. 1. He very much dislikes being as he is in this re- 158 spect. 2. He dislikes being as he is in this respect. 3. He neither dislikes being as he is nor likes being as he is in this respect. 4. He likes being as he is in this respect. 5. He very much likes being as he is in this respect. Select the number beside the statement that tells how the average person in your group feels about the way he is and insert the number in Column II. EXAMPLE: In Column II beside the term JOLLY, Number 1 is inserted to indicate that this person dislikes very much being as he is in respect to the term, jolly. Note that being as "he is" always refers to the way he was described in Column I. INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLUMN III (next page) Finally, go to Column III. Using the same term, comQ plete the following sentence. HE WOULD LIKE TO BE A (AN) _______ PERSON. Then describe how much of the time this average person in your group would like this trait to be characteristic of him and rate him on the following five point scale: 1. Seldom, he would like this to be him. 2. Occasionally, he would like this to be him. 3. About half of the time, he would like this to be him. 4. A good deal of the time, he would like this to be h i him. 5* Most of the time, he would like this to be him. Select the number beside the phrase that tells how much of the time this average person in your group would like to be this kind of person and insert the number in Column III. 159 EXAMPLE; In Column III beside the term JOLLY, Number 5 is inserted to indicate that most of the time this average per son in your group would like to be this kind of person. Start with the word ACTIVE and fill in Columns I, II and III before going on to the next word. There is no time limit. 160 "OTHERS" II III II H I A. JOLLY — 1. Active , --- _ 2. Alert — 3. Carefree _ 4. Cheerful _ 5. Considerate . ___ _ 6. Cooperative .-- _ 7. Courteous . 8. Dependable ___ . 9. Democratic ___ . 10. Faithful--------- 11. Friendly_________ 12. Generous_________ 13. Happy --- 14. Helpful --- 15. Honest --- 16. Humorous --- 17. Intelligent --- 18. Interesting ___ 19. Kind _ 20. LoyAl _ 21. Neat _ 22. Obedient _ 23. Patient _ 24. Playful _ 25. Polite . 26. Quiet . 27. Sharing . 28. Sincere__________ 29. Studious_________ 30. Sociable_________ 31. Tactful__________ 32. Thoughtful ___ 33. Thrifty__________ 34. Tru s tworthy ___ 35. Truthful ___ 36. Understanding ___ 33. Undelfish ___ APPENDIX B INCOMPLETE SENTENCES BLANK 161 o 162 INCOMPLETE SENTENCES NUMBER_____________________________________ SEX AGE_____ GRADE _________________________________________________________________ Complete these sentences to express your real feelings. Try to do everyone. Be sure to make a complete sentence. 1. I LIKE ___________________________________________________________ 2. THE HAPPIEST TIME _______________________________________________ 3. I WANT TO KNOW __________________________________________________ 4. AT HOME __________________________________________________________ 5. I REGRET _________________________________________________________ 6. AT BEDTIME _______________________________________________________ 7. BOYS _____________________________________________________________ 8. THE BEST _________________________________________________________ 9. WHAT ANNOYS ME __________________________________________________ 10. PEOPLE ___________________________________________________________ 11. A MOTHER _________________________________________________________ 12. I FEEL ___________________________________________________________ 13. MY GREATEST FEAR ________________________________________________ 14. IN THE LOWER GRADES _____________________________________________ 15. I CAN'T ________ ________________________________________ 16. SPORTS 163 17. WHEN I WAS YOUNGER 18. MY NERVES ________ 19. OTHER KIDS _______ 20. I SUFFER __________ 21. I FAILED __________ 22. READING ___________ 2 3 . MY MIND ___________ 2 4 . THE FUTURE ________ 2 5 . I NEED ____________ 2 6 . DATING ____________ 2 7 . I AM BEST WHEN ___ 2 8 . SOMETIMES _________ 2 9 . WHAT PAINS ME ____ 3 0 . I HATE ____________ 3 1 . AT SCHOOL _________ 3 2 . I AM VERY _________ 3 3 . THE ONLY TROUBLE _ 3 4 . I WISH ____________ 3 5 . MY FATHER _________ 3 6 . I SECRETLY ________ 3 7 . I _________________ 38. DANCING 39. MY GREATEST WORRY IS 40. MOST GIRLS APPENDIX C BUTLER Q-SORT STATEMENTS 164 165 BUTLER Q-SORT STATEMENTS 1. I obey my parents most of the time. 2. I am a leader in school activities. 3. I'm seldom critical of other people. 4. I'm slow to forgive people I'm mad at, but finally do. 5. I'm afraid of making mistakes. 6. I take part in sports or club activities at school. 7. Teachers don't seem to like me. 8. I get along well with my friends. 9. Sometimes my parents get annoyed with me. 10. I'm usually on time for my classes. 11. I need to develop more self-confidence. 12. I'm kind of loud or noisy at times. 13. I know how to study. 14. I save some of my money for things I need or want. 15. I'm considered about average in the things I do. 16. I spend too much time studying. 17. I'm interested in current events. 18. I don't like to exercise. 19. I usually do what I'm told but very little extra. 20. When something big or important is about to happen, I find it hard to go to sleep at night right away. 21. I can't keep my mind on my studies. 22. I like to go on picnics. 23. I'd rather play games than sit around and watch them. 24. I wouldn't want to be younger than I am now. 25. I'm stronger and healthier than most kids my age. 26. I wish that I were as happy as others seem to be. 27. I don't mind school. 28. I like animals. 29. I'm courteous even when people are disagreeable. 30. I don't think my parents trust me. 31. I'm restless in class. 32. I hesitate to speak up in class. 33. My parents let me decide many things for myself. 34. I'm pretty much like the rest of the kids. 35. I like to do more than my share of the work. 36. I have a great deal of confidence in my abilities. 37. I find it hard to get acquainted with kids I'd like to have for friends. 38. Our family has always had a Idt of fun together. 166 39. I'm easy to please. 40. My parents compare me with other kids too much. 41. I talk over personal problems with my parents. 42. I don't go out of my way to help others. 43. I have good posture. 44. I need advice on what to do after high school. 45. I'm about average in looks. 46. I like to wear bright colors. 47. I feel lonely even when I'm with people. 48. I sometimes can't help breaking into a conversation. 49. I am invited to parties that the kids have. 50. I have definite tasks or chores to do at home. GRADE NAKL DAI t A N S W E R S H E E T SORT 1 (FfS) D i R r;c t i o n s s In this sof.t i ug or sutemms, you a r l DESCRIBING Y 0 US E I F JUST THE WAY YOU AR^ NOW, ROW NO. lb TWO STATEMENTS MOST LIKE HE, II. s i X STATEMENTS NEXT LIKE KE, III. Nine statements next like he, IV. Sixteen statements which may OR MAY NOT 6E LIKE ME. V. Nine statements more unl i ke me. VI Six STATEMENTS STILL MORE UNLIKE ME, VII. Two STATEMENTS MOST UNLIKE ME. CODt NUMBER 2 O' GRADE n a k : DATE A N S W E R S H E E T SORT 11 (IS) ..Di r e c t i o n;-; In this sorting or s t u c k ; i.t i , too an e ;.:-V Of SC r ID! KC YO Ur C !l I NOT AG YOG ATI, 01’'I AS YOU WOULD I IKE TO EE. I . Two STATCKtl TS ¥ ° J - . Z . .l . ,KJ m ‘ I I . Six statements next like kc, 111 . M int sta t e m e n t s next like m e . IV, Sixteen statements which may ON MAY NOT BE LI KE ME. V.*,:; Nine statements more unlike me. VI i: Si x statements still moke uv ikt me , VI I . Two STATEMr NTS MOST UNLIKE ME. CODE NU:

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Creator Washington, Kenneth Strickland (author)

Core Title A Comparison Of The Effectiveness Of Two Group Counseling Formats

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education, Guidance and Counseling

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Guidance and Counseling,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format dissertations (aat)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Carnes, Earl F. (committee chair), Dembo, Myron H. (committee member), Robinson, L.A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-452237

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Identifier 7107747.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-452237 (legacy record id)

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Document Type Dissertation

Format dissertations (aat)

Rights Washington, Kenneth Strickland

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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