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Toward intercultural effectiveness: development of a rationale and strategy for second culture learning

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Toward intercultural effectiveness: development of a rationale and strategy for second culture learning

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Content TOWARD INTERCULTURAL EFFECTIVENESS: DEVELOPMENT OF A RATIONALE AND STRATEGY FOR SECOND CULTURE LEARNING by Vera Yook Ing Young A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) June 1973 INFORMATION TO USERS Thii material was producad from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependant upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target” for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Pags(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When e map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large titeot and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could bo made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Soma pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. Xsrox University Microfilms 900 North Zm S Road Ann Arbor, MtcMgan 41100 1 I 73-30,044 YOUNG, Vara Took lag, 1935- TOWARD INTERCULTURAL EFFECTIVENESS: DEVELOPMENT OF A RATIONALE AND STRATEGY FOR SECOND CULTURE LEARNING. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1973 Education, general University Microfilm s, A XEROX Company , Ann Arbor, M ichigan <£) Copy r i g h t b y VERA YOOK ING YOUNG 1973 THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA t h « o h a d u a t k s c h o o l u n iv e r s i t y r a r k LOS A N O IL U , C A LIFO R N IA S 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by .........^.Wy..XQQK„ING..YQUNG............ under the direction of h&Xi... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of requirements of tke degree of D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y % TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS................................. V LIST OF APPENDICES........................... vi CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ......................... 1 T o p i c ............................. 1 Significance of the Topic ........ 2 Problems Involved ................. 5 Statement of the Problem.......... 9 Significance of the Problem .... 9 Definitions....................... 12 Assumptions....................... 16 Limitations....................... 17 Scope and Delimitations of the Study 18 Methods and Procedures ............. 19 Organization of the S t u d y........ 20 II. REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH.......... 24 Cross-Cultural Research .......... 25 Xntercultural Education for Teacher Development..................... 30 Cross-Cultural Training .......... 34 ii CHAPTER PAGE III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . 44 Research Design ................... 46 Research Methodology ............... 48 Population....................... 50 Selection Criteria .............. 51 Selection and Assignment Procedures..................... 56 IV. A THEORETICAL FRAME OF REFERENCE FOR INTERCULTURAL EFFECTIVENESS .... 59 Definition......................... 59 Assumption I ....................... 60 Assumption I I ..................... 62 Proposition I ..................... 64 Proposition I I ..................... 65 Proposition I I I ................... 68 Proposition III-A ............... 69 Proposition III-B ............... 73 Proposition III-C ............... 77 Proposition i v ..................... 82 Proposition IV-A................. 83 Proposition IV-B................. 84 Proposition IV-C................. 84 iii CHAPTER PAGE V. A STRATEGY FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF INTERCULTURAL EFFECTIVENESS .... 89 Program Orientation............... 91 Organizing Strategy ............... 96 Program Staff ..................... 98 Recommended Plan................... 99 Program Format ................... 99 Program Description ............. 100 Evaluation of Program .......... 125 Substantiation of Intercultural Competencies ................... 126 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS............... 130 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................. 140 iv FIGURE 1. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE The Intercultural Experience ........ 62 v LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX PAGE A. Role Model Exercise............. 150 B. Culture Assimilator ................ 155 C. Critical Incidents Exercise ...... 160 D. Participant Formative Evaluation Form 166 E. Participant Final Evaluation Form . . 16 9 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Approximately three decades have passed since World War II. During this global conflict, U.S. mili tary needs brought to light the scarcity of Americans knowledgeable about the peoples, languages and countries of other areas of the world. At the same time, the gradual movement of the United States from its long standing isolationist stance also prodded Americans into growing realization of the environment beyond U.S. boundaries. As the country's leaders manifested increasing awareness of, and responsiveness to, foreign affairs, citizens displayed more and more interest in knowing about other nations. But not until the advent of Sputnik did Americans awaken with a jolt to the fact that even the internal happenings of other nations impinged on their concerns. Topic This combination of circumstances— the personnel needs of the Armed Forces in World War II, the swing of 1 2 the pendulum away from isolationism, and Sputnik— provided the primary impetus for the flourishing of the field of international studies in the past thirty years. Sputnik in particular, spawned a rash of federal legislation and private foundation support that brought into being programs not only for upgrading science and math studies, but in addition, for technical assistance overseas, foreign language and area study, foreign student and scholar exchange, study abroad, etc. (Mildenberger, 1966). The university, as the primary agent for these activities, was looked upon as the logical institution to provide appropriate training for specialist personnel. Significance of the Topic Today, the field of international studies confronts a dualistic problem of scope and purpose. Traditionally it has identified primarily with the interests of international education in specialized activities for a limited number of personnel prepared at higher education level. Somewhat paradoxically, although there has been widening interest in world events on the part of U.S. citizens since the holocaust 3 of the 1930's and 1940's, only a small proportion of the population has had access to International studies. In recent years, educators have been increasingly distressed by the substantial proportion of students and citizens who have not been exposed to the study of other countries and cultures. This concern is reflected in the observation of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, reported by Phillips (1966: 36) that the many higher education courses with an international emphasis "make quite a splash in the college catalogue, but no splash at all in the lives of most students." The comment supports the finding of Bidwell (1962) that a number of specialized interna tional education courses exist— courses which, however, enroll only a small fraction of the total undergraduate student body. Yet, not only greater undergraduate involvement is needed; to effect increased awareness of foreign affairs, all levels of American education must participate in international studies. Out of this acknowledgment of the restricted influence of international education has emerged an interest in intercultural education, which refers to 4 the processes by which members of different cultures, within or across national borders, learn to understand and accept the differences and similarities among cultures and the contributions each has to offer. Various writers have contrasted international and intercultural education. Reed (1966), for example, alludes to the more circumscribed focus of international education because it has "so many special, yet partial meanings," that are tied to the political concept of the nation state. The primary emphasis of intercultural education, on the other hand, is on the "rich cultural traditions of mankind,M which make possible familiar ization with, and appreciation of, the variety of cultural patterns and the peoples they represent. In keeping with this view Snyder (1972: 1) asserts that . . . we seem to be moving (too slowly perhaps) from a narrow definition of the international content of education as a technical specialty toward a global curriculum— centered on the study of social man in his entire earthly habitat— from a separate discipline to a broader perspective diffused through all learning, where reference to other than our culture-bound experience is appropriate and necessary. 5 Problems involved In more specific terms, Carpenter (1973), In an address to the American Association of State Colleges and Universities, advanced the cause for an intercul tural dimension as an "essential— not an enriching, but an essential objective of American general educa tion. " The conditions from which such a requirement emanates can be documented in a number of ways. First, there is the fundamental reality of a culturally pluralistic world— that locally, nationally, and internationally, diversity of cultures is a basic characteristic of life. That our schools expose only a small group of individuals to this diversity is to deny the larger student population the preparation for living effectively in a culturally pluralistic world. Knowledge of other cultures can no longer be the prerog ative of specialists. Americans in general must also become aware of other cultures, experience those cultures and come to know the peoples of those cultures— not as curious and/or exotic specimens, but as Haskew (1951) says, "human beings living normal lives and making normal contributions to the progress of all the 6 rest of us." Second, while specialized personnel have had the opportunity to study about other countries, the majority of Americans have been constrained in their education, by a monocultural bias. The myth that a unitary Anglo-suburban culture must prevail is thus perpetuated to the detriment of both the individual in particular and American society in general. The literature indicates consensus that the limited study of other countries and cultures is a pervasive quality of American education from kindergarten through college. Moreover, this deficiency characterizes our teacher education programs as well (Bidwell, 1962; Reed, 1966; Taylor, 1969). Third, a more somber call to intercultural education is sounded in the alarm that unless the peoples of the world can effect a fundamental change in their attitudes toward one another, that unless suspicion and distrust can be dispelled, the prospects for peace and survival in the age of the atom are critically imperiled. Fourth, beyond the need for preparing to live 7 in a culturally pluralistic world, and setting aside temporarily the crucial question of global survival, there is inherent in the intercultural dimension, the potential contribution towards development and fulfill ment of the individual and his cultural group. Anthro pologist Franz Boas (1940: 231) expressed it articu lately when he said. The history of mankind proves that advances of culture depend upon the opportunities presented to a social group to learn from the experience of their neighbors. The discoveries of the group spread to others and, the more varied the contacts, the greater the opportunities to learn .... The primary responsibility for provision of such opportunities resides in our educational insti tutions. The studies of other cultures in our schools have generally assumed the form of isolated units, primarily about the Western European world. Although gravely derelict to date, our educational leaders are beginning to manifest greater awareness of the need for an intercultural perspective. Some of these efforts, while well-intentioned, do not address the critical issue. Mandates still persist, for example, for the student to gain more knowledge and understanding of 8 foreign countries--knowledge that encompasses informa tion about the topography, climate, natural resources and principal industries of other nations (Bidwell, 1962). Only tangentially is there mention of the need to recognize and appreciate the cultural achievement of the peoples of these areas. In other instances, there have been inspiring charges to create a sense of "worldmindedness," to enlist children to ride on "spaceship earth," to globalize educational goals, etc. While these may be admirable ends, they lack a clearly defined focus that would enable specification of means for their achievement. On the other hand, the incorporation of an intercultural dimension as an essential objective for American general education, as delineated by Carpenter (1973) provides a specific approach to the problem of broadening the educational perspective. Central to such an effort would be the development of competencies necessary for intercultural effectiveness in a culturally pluralistic world. It is to this general concern that this study is directed. 9 Statement of the Problem The present study focuses on the need for an intercultural dimension in teacher development, as the initial step to introduction of this dimension in general education. Specifically, the problem is twofold: (1) to identify relevant competencies, particularly in the affective domain, that are essential for intercultural effectiveness of teachers, and (2) to attempt to specify an appropriate strategy for effecting these competencies. Significance of the Problem If the introduction of an intercultural dimension in American general education is imperative to provide the information, attitudes and skills requisite for living in a culturally pluralistic society, then specific ways of achieving this objective must be determined. Since this dimension seeks to develop intercultural competencies in the population at large, it is directly relevant to teachers charged with the responsibility for general education. The underlying assumption is that those who would transmit the knowledge, attitudes and values of other cultures, must first develop the capability to do so. But consistent with the bias of 10 our educational system, our teacher development programs have also been monocultural in emphasis. Phillips' (1965) investigation of the extent to which the develop ment of non-Western studies had influenced teacher preparation in Michigan revealed that the effect was virtually negligible. The courses seemed geared towards graduate students or undergraduates interested in specialized study. On a broader scale, a survey of fifty-two institutions across the country conducted in 196 8 by the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education disclosed that only three to five percent of American teachers had ever taken courses dealing with non-Western cultures during the period of their professional preparation (Taylor, 1969). In a related area, cross-cultural training to prepare teachers for work in different cultural con texts, is fairly recent in development (Mathieson and Tatis, 1970). Longer standing efforts in cross-cultural training have largely overlooked educators. These activities have generally involved individuals going overseas for service in business and industry, AID and federal agencies, the Peace Corps and the Armed Forces. 11 Programs are mounted for training of international business executives or military advisors; extensive orientation efforts have been developed by universities and Peace Corps training centers. But educational personnel, whose need for familiarity with cross- cultural skills is no less urgent, are somehow neglected. While they may or may not be serving in overseas settings, teachers as well as students, indeed the general citizenry, live and function in a culturally diverse milieu. The awakening interest in cross- cultural training and related research for educators highlights the significance of the problem and the requirement for further work in this area. Questions to be Answered The questions to be answered by the study include the following: 1. Is consideration of the personal qualities of the individual valid for specification of intercultural competencies? 2. What affective and cognitive competencies are regarded as relevant for intercultural effectiveness? 12 3. On the basis of research results and recorded authoritative experience, is it feasible to identify theoretical bases for the development of inter cultural effectiveness? 4. Could rationale evolving from such theoretical support be applied to specific program planning for second culture learning as it relates to the educational milieu? Definitions The following clarification of terminology as used in the context of this study, may assist in placing the effort in appropriate perspective: 1. Intercultural— pertaining to the inter action between persons of different cultures or group consciousness. Various types of group consciousness are evident, e.g., class (middle class culture): generational (youth culture); professional 13 (culture of physicians); ethnic, etc.* 2. Intercultural effectiveness— referring to the individual's competence to utilize appropriate knowledge, attitudes and skills to live and work effectively with persons of other cultures. 3. Rationale— theoretical principles drawn from social science disciplines and cross-cultural training, as being relevant for intercultural effectiveness. 4. Second Culture— culture other than one's own. (The study will employ the commonly accepted reference to culture as the patterns of behavior of a society developed to meet the needs of that society.) *Note: The present research concerns ethnic consciousness, as distinguished from race consciousness. The former refers to the cultural aspects of the group; the latter, to its physical characteristics. The two concepts have been considered interchangeable, which is actually an inaccurate use of the terms. ttiis can be seen in the rejection of Black Studies in the communities of the Black affluent. Carpenter (1973) has noted that although they may be targets of preju dice as much as the Blacks from the ghetto community by virtue of their race, there is no cultural identi fication between the two groups. 14 5. Strategy— plan for a program providing for second culture learning. 6. Competencies--referring to behaviorally defined abilities in terms of the qualities of the individual as they relate to intercultural effectiveness. 7. Cross-cultural— although the term has carried a comparative connotation, i.e., the comparative study of different cultures, for the purposes of the present research, cross-cultural refers to the interactional or relational processes between individuals of two or more cultures. In addition, the phrase "intercultural dimen sion in general education" is elaborated using Carpenter's statement (January, 1973) as a point of departure for this study. First, "intercultural" rather than "international" is preferred as a more generic term which includes both international and domestic intercultural experience. While these experiences have in the past been regarded as different, 15 Carpenter Indicates that there is basis for identity, since some of the developmental competencies of the domestic intercultural experience are identical with those of the international experience. The development of interpersonal openness and cross-cultural communi cation skills, for example, is important whether the setting is domestic or international. In like manner, Bohannan (1972) has observed that consideration of neglected similarities in problems arising between major world groups within nations may be very fruitful. This expanded outlook is consonant with Reed's view of a more comprehensive scope for intercultural education identified earlier in terms of focusing on concerns about man, rather than on the more limited and ephemeral political concepts of nation-states (1955). Second, "dimension" implies a permeation, a widespread infusion of the regular curriculum at all levels, K-14, with the knowledge, attitudes, values and skills necessary for relating to a variety of cultures. In contrast to the tradition of elective or special area study courses attracting a few students, data and experiences from different cultural bases 16 would be Incorporated Into existing courses, thereby providing multicultural experiences to the general population. Third, "general education" is identified as the "formal process by which the general population is prepared to live effectively in society." This is to be distinguished from specialization, which is the "acquisition of selective knowledge and skills required for particular academic and/or professional expertise." The degree of specialized information needed by the China Watcher, Carpenter notes, would not be necessary for the general populace. The assumptions upon which the study will be based are as follows: 1. That an intercultural dimension in American education is essential in the development of teachers j 2. That intercultural effectiveness is achieved not only by study, but by analytic experiencing of a second culture, particularly in effecting 17 affective competencies; 3. That competencies for intercultural effectiveness may be similar in domestic and international contexts; 4. That the development of rationale and strategy for achieving intercultural effectiveness in the international setting of the study, may also be appropriate for a domestic environ ment ; and 5. That the competencies identified for intercultural effectiveness of teachers, may also be valuable for the general populace. Limitations While it is assumed that intercultural compe tencies, whether of a domestic or international nature, are similar, the study considers only the international situation. That is, the plan to be developed is intended specifically for American teachers and German host nation teachers assigned to U.S. Dependents Schools in Germany. 18 Scope and Delimitations of the Study A number of areas impinge upon the problem of intercultural competencies. Examination of library catalogue files and bibliographic indexes uncovers a lengthy list of cross-referenced topics, e.g., bicul- turalism, ethnocentrism, cultural relations, cross- cultural training, politicization, attitudes, values, intercultural communication, etc. So that the scope of the present study may be reasonable, all of these topics will not be investigated. Since the present effort concerns intercultural effectiveness as it bears upon personal competencies, exploration will be confined primarily to the psychological and social psychological literature. Insofar as these competencies relate to the intercultural context, the research in anthropology and cross-cultural training will also provide sources from which principles may be drawn for the development of intercultural effectiveness. The study will not be empirical in nature, because of time constraints, but the plan formulated on the basis of theoretical principles is intended for actual implementation and validation. 19 Finally, the intercultural competencies iden tified are intended to have general utility for the population at large; however, the specific plan for effecting the competencies will be developed for teachers, using the educational setting as one appli cation of the principles described. Methods and Procedure Since the study seeks to identify competencies that contribute to intercultural effectiveness of teachers, and to specify a strategy for developing those competencies, two phases of the investigation are necessary. First, theoretical bases for inter cultural effectiveness will be identified through reference to the psychological literature. Those aspects of the individual that promote his effective utilization of knowledge, skills and attitudes to live and work productively with people of other cultures, will be of particular interest. In conjunction with this formulation of rationale, competencies that reflect intercultural effectiveness, will be behaviorally defined. Second, a plan for a second culture learning 20 experience will be designed as one example of means by which these competencies may be achieved. Such a plan will also be based upon principles drawn from relevant literature in psychology, anthropology, and cross-cultural training. Organization of the Study The remainder of the study will be organized and presented as follows: Chapter II Review of Related Research Cross-Cultural Research Intercultural Education for Teacher Development Cross-Cultural Training Chapter III Research Design and Methodology Research Design Research Methodology Chapter IV A Theoretical Frame of Reference for Intercultural Effectiveness Definition Assumption I Assumption II Chapter Chapter Proposition I Proposition II Proposition III Proposition IV V A Strategy for the Achievement Intercultural Effectiveness Program Orientation Organizing Strategy Program Staff Recommended Plan VI Summary and Conclusions 22 References 1. Bidwell, Percy M. Undergraduate Education in Foreign Affaire. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963. 2. Boaz, Franz. "Racial Purity." Asia, May, 1940# 40, n.p. 3. Bohannan, Paul. In "Preliminary Review of the Intercultural Dimension in International/ Intercultural Education Grades K-14." Boulder: Social Sciences Education Consortium, Inc., October, 1972. (Unpublished report). 4. Carpenter, John A. The Intercultural Imperative. Washington, D.C.: The American Associ- ation of State Colleges and Universities, January, 1973. 5. ________ . Personal communication, April, 1973. 6. Ha skew, Laurence DeFee. "Education in Human Relations." In Karl Bigelow, ed. Cultural Groups and Human Relatione. Freeport, N.Y. : Books for Librari'es Press, 1970. 7. Mathieson, Moira B., and Tatis, Rita M. "Multicultural Education: A Selected Annotated Bibliography." Washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education, September, 1970. 8. Milderiberger, Kenneth W. "The Federal Govern ment and the universities." International Education: Past. Present, Problems and Prospects— Selected Readings to Supple ment H.R. 14643. Washington, D.C.: Task Force on International Education, Com mittee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, October, 1966. 23 9. Phillips, Claude S., Jr. "World Affairs in Secondary Education: A Sample Survey." Michigan Journal of Secondary Education, Fall, 1965. 10. ________ . "The Role of colleges and Universities." International Education: Past, Present, Problems arid Prospects--Selected Readings to Supplement H.R. 14643. Washington, D.C.: Task Force on International Educa tion, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, October, 1966. 11. Reed, Howard A. "Bringing Intercultural Education into Focus on U.S. Campuses." Interna tional Educational and Cultural Exchange. WasViington7 D.C.: U.S. Advisory Commission on International Educational and Cultural Affairs, Fall, 1966. 12. Snyder, Richard C. "Introduction." Judith V. Torney and Donald N. Morris. Global Dimensions in U.S. Education: The Elementary School. New York: Center for War/Peace Studies, March, 1972. 13. Taylor, Harold. World as Teacher. New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1969. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH The rapidly expanding literature on the subject of intercultural effectiveness may be categorized in three general areas which relate to the present studyt (1) Cross-Cultural Research; (2) Intercultural Educa tion for Teacher Development; and (3) Cross-Cultural Training. That part of cross-cultural research known as sojourn research deals in particular with the ques tion of adjusting to a second culture environment; the implications of adjustment for intercultural effective ness are obvious. Second, the literature on multi cultural education programs for teacher training is also relevant insofar as the plan for achieving intercultural effectiveness proposed in the present study, is applied to teacher development. Third, work in cross-cultural training is particularly germane, since approaches and methods described here may be adapted to the purposes of the present study. The present chapter intends a general survey of these three topics for background purposes. A more detailed discussion of selected aspects of these as 24 25 they relate to identification and development of inter cultural competencies will be undertaken in chapter IV, which will also include a review of pertinent psycholo gical and anthropological principles. Chapter V will elaborate and adapt techniques and methods of cross- cultural training that are especially appropriate. Cross-Cultural Research Traditionally, cross-cultural researchers have engaged in comparative preoccupations. The classic example is the cultural anthropologist, whose investiga tions of other societies since the 1920's have developed into a prominent and reputable field of endeavor. The approach in such studies, however, has tended to be mono- cultural. Emphasis is placed on the cultural patterns of the society under study. There may be contrasts with the cultural patterns of another society, but problems of interaction between peoples of different cultures, the adjustment of visitors to an alien country, or the need to optimize effective functioning of the individual in a second culture, have not been a part of such studies. Subsequent consideration of this interpersonal aspect of intercultural studies has in the past twenty years. 26 resulted in the growth of sojourn research, concerned with intensified exploration of the problems of the "sojourner,“ and the processes involved in cross- cultural contact. In its focus on the traveler, sojourn research treats of cross-cultural behavior and the management of human adjustment problems occasioned by adaptation to a second culture. A number of these studies have singled out the foreign student for scrutiny (Gullahorn and Gullahorn, 1956, 1963; Jacobsen, 1962; Selltiz and Cook, 1962; Mishler, 196 5). Among the most notable results of these works is the description of the U-Curve, a curvilinear trend to explain the pattern of adjustment of a sojourner to the setting of a second culture. Gullahorn and Gullahorn (1963: 35) have elaborated the seouence as follows: There is general excitement or elation over new ideas or skills; feelings of depression and per haps decrement in output as one encounters diffi culties and complexities; and finally, a sense of satisfaction and perhaps even of personal growth if one emerges from the plateau and restructures the problem so he can work effectively. Furthermore, they indicate that an extension of the U-Curve into a W-Curve, may describe more comprehen sively, the adjustment sequence of a sojourn. 27 extension takes into account the problems of reaccultu ration upon return home, similar to those encountered during the period of travel. But despite the wide recognition accorded the Gullahorns' work, their assumption of the inevitable development of this trend has not gone unchallenged. Lundstedt (1963) in a discussion of Smith's (1962) study of the adjustment of Peace corps teachers in Ghana, suggests that instead of a single pattern, various modes of adjustment may be possible. For example, a linear progression may be a more accurate representation for certain cases. He raises in addition, the question of potential relationships between empirical curves which describe adjustment trends and certain personality determinants. The role of personality factors in cross- cultural adjustment holds interesting implications for the present study. The comprehensive investigations of Adorno, et al (1950) on the authoritarian personality and the work of Rokeach (1960) on the open and closed mind evoke concerns that certain personality characteristics, such as those associated with authoritarianism, militate against the development of effective behavior patterns 28 in a second culture. Interestingly enough, negative personality characteristics, e.g., rigidity, ethnocentrism, imma turity, appear to have aroused more attention than those traits that may facilitate intercultural adjustment. While some research has centered on the determination of the latter, consideration of means for their develop ment has unfortunately been limited. Another significant area examined by cross- cultural research is that of "culture shock," thought to be endemic to overseas travel. The term refers to the inability to adjust to new surroundings and people, as a result of which the individual manifests symptoms of anxiety, stress, and apathy (Lundstedt, 1963). Although there is a belief that culture shock may be expected in all cross-cultural experiences, the writings of some have cast doubt on this assumption. Smith's (1962) work with Peace corps teachers indicates that some of the participants did not suffer from culture shock to any large degree. If the phenomenon is not necessarily generali- zable, is it a function of factors that may be identified and controlled? Would these be associated 29 with personality characteristics? To what extent would the nature of the cross-cultural contact be a signifi cant determinant in the inducement of culture shock? Mishler (1965: 555) has written that the adjustment of sojourners is affected by the cultural differences encountered. "The greater the cultural differences the greater is the likelihood that barriers to communication will arise and that misunderstandings will occur." The discrepancy in cultural patterns engenders difficulties for the visitor in terms of daily adjustment. As a consequence, his freedom to engage in even superficial or minimal contacts is restricted. From this may be generated the hypothesis that the cognitive and affec tive disjunction stimulated by a vastly dissimilar culture may be so severe as to precipitate culture shock. Inquiries such as these may be raised to explore further, processes that serve to inhibit or enhance the individual's functioning in a second culture. Yet another facet of the problem of cross- cultural adjustment is linked to reference groups. These have been found to exert considerable influence on the individual's effectiveness in a second culture setting. Generally, the behavior of the sojourner 30 conforms to that of his primary reference groups in his own culture. Again, to the extent that these are discrepant with the expectations of the host culture, difficulties may arise. But existence of reference groups in the second culture may restrict or facilitate the adjustment process. When they provide emotional and intellectual support, the effect is generally positive (Stouffer, 1946). Yet, if these groups serve to insu late the individual from the culture, intercultural adjustment is not really enhanced. As Lundstedt (1963t 4) points out: The richness of the sojourn experience is lost to such people, as it usually is lost for the American tourist who visits only Americanized communities abroad. This walling off of others, while it may reduce the anxiety in the visitor, is eventually self-defeating. Intercultural Education for Teacher Development Intercultural development of teachers is a rela tively recent endeavor. Previously, the primary intercultural concern in education had been the modifi cation of the curriculum, without concomitant regard for training of the conveyers of the curriculum. While the curricular concern remains, it is encouraging to note the growing acknowledgment of the need for development of 31 Intercultural competencies in teachers. Articles on the work conducted to date however, are not particularly informative, although some inter esting activities have been described. Among these is Berne’s (1969) report of an "institute for Secondary School Teachers to Seek Methods of Increasing Inter cultural Understanding." At the termination of the ten-day seminar, the twenty-four participants from six public and six private schools in Boston concluded the following: (1) that great interest was evident in intercultural problems— problems that existed within as well as across national boundaries; and (2) that teachers lacked adequate background, training and resources to meet these problems effectively. It was recommended that summer institutes and pilot pre-service programs be conducted, and an information center for development of materials be established to meet teacher needs. Despite the apparently general level of the seminar, it represents a step in the right direction. Similarly an account of the Urban Area Elemen tary Student Teaching Program at the University of Minnesota (1970), sketches in outline, the approach used. The program focused on background information 32 related to problems of inner city classrooms. Resource specialists from the community and public schools provided expertise on: urban sociology: poverty; the cultures of the Blacks, Indians, Mexican Americans; classroom techniques such as creative drama and role- playing; and the use of multimedia materials. Beyond the description of the factors involved in establishment, administration and coordination of the program, little substantive detail was provided. Two quantitative measures of the program's effectiveness however, were reported in (1) an increase in number of trainees from seventeen to sixty over a five-year period (proportional figures were not indicated); and (2) the preference of approximately two-thirds of the student participants to remain as inner city teachers. Since no other evalua tions were provided, it is difficult to determine specific ways in which the program may have been successful. An effort more closely related to the interests of the present study is the cultural sensitivity train ing conducted by the University of Texas for teachers of Spanish speaking children (Bordie, 1969). Although the term "sensitivity training" is used, it does not seem to 33 correspond to the common usage of the expression related to encounter groups. Rather, the primary emphasis appears that of generally enhancing the teacher's sensi tivity to different cultures. Workshop participants were introduced to several areas in which teaching effectiveness might be improved through greater cultural awareness. For example, the general assumption that "our way is best" was called into guestion. Cultural values were explored in the light of different societal settings, e.g., the premium placed by the dominant middle class Anglo majority on personal success and materialism may not be shared by other groups. But the lack of specific training objectives attenuated somewhat, the strength of the program. Moreover, although the several areas of cultural differences suggested by Bordie for further investigation appear to be realms of potentially fruitful inquiry, the placement of a heavily cognitive emphasis tends to overlook the importance of the affect. Perhaps the most significant of the intercultural teacher development programs surveyed is the training for cross-cultural teaching generated by the southwestern Cooperative Educational Laboratory, Incorporated (Watson, 1969). combining current theory in sociology, learning 34 psychology, anthropology and linguistics with information from their own testing programs the Laboratory staff produced an integrated package of materials and teaching techniques designed for preschool and first grade minor ity group children and their teachers. Two-week institutes were held for two groups of teachers who had the opportunity to use the materials and techniques. In addition, the Laboratory arranged home stays for the institute participants with the minority groups involved, to include an affective element in the training. While no evaluations were available at the time of Watson's writing, the systematic development of materials together with the training of teachers in the two-week institutes appear to be a well-thought-out approach to the problem of improving the effectiveness of teachers in multi cultural contexts. Cross-Cultural Training Probably the most sophisticated studies in cross- cultural effectiveness may be found in the literature on cross-cultural training. A substantial part of the work here deals with applied issues revolving around tech niques and methods. The beneficiaries of such programs 35 have usually been individuals preparing for overseas service in business and industry, various federal agen cies, the Peace corps, voluntary organizations, or university positions. DeCrow's (1969) review of recent training literature on cross-cultural interaction skills reflects increasing recognition that personnel assigned abroad require orientation that goes beyond information about the second culture. An awareness of differing cultural patterns and the capability to deal with these variations, are essential in the individual's repertoire of skills. A few of the more pertinent training studies in cluded in DeCrow's review emphasize the contrast between American and non-American cultural values and assumptions and use of various techniques including T-groups, and role-playing, for such training (Foster and Danielian, 1966? Haigh, 1966). The Culture Assimilator suggested by Stolurow (1965) appears to be a particularly valuable technique in cross-cultural training. Its use is reported in a study by Chemers (1969) in which culture assimilator training was designed to give the individual new infor mation and new behavior skills for the culture under 36 study. Essentially the method derives from Flanagan's (1949; 1954) work on the critical Incident approach. A number of critical cultural incidents are developed. Confronted with episodes involving frequent sources of cultural misunderstanding and conflict, the trainee selects from a series of alternatives, the behavioral response he considers appropriate to the situation. Immediate positive or negative feedback regarding the trainee's choice, and an analysis of his selection, are provided in a programmed, self-instructional format. The reauirement placed upon the trainee to take the role of the other, albeit symbolically, induces participation in the target culture so that passive observation is not possible. Chemers (1969) reports that this type of training successfully develops inter cultural competencies. The cross-cultural testing technique used by Yousef (1968) approximates the culture assimilator method, although the former is not as highly developed as the latter. Despite the high percentage of correct responses by Middle East students to a conventional test about American culture, classroom performance demon strated obvious lack of understanding of American 37 cultural patterns. Teachers consequently provided specific culture training, including discussions of American values and behavioral modes. Tests developed to reflect everyday life situations became a very effec tive part of the training. As in the culture assimilator technique, the tests compelled the students to step out side of their own cultural context and assume instead, the cultural patterns of the “other." Methods such as the cross-cultural test and the Culture Assimilator have great potential for development of empathy in cross- cultural interaction. Furthermore, the simplicity in using these methods, without need for the sophisticated technology of videotape machines and highly trained specialists such as those required to conduct T-group sessions, enhance their adaptability to various training efforts. On a broader scale, Simpson*s (1972) model program for international/intercultural education delineates a theoretical framework in which four aspects of the person-group relationship are specified. She describes these as follows t (1) the parson (an examination of the self and individual variations which stem from differ ential genetic and social inheritances); 38 (2) the interpersonal (which includes the individual's immediate interactions within dyads, triads, and small groups); (3) the cultural (which includes interactions within groups whose members are interde pendent and share systems of values, meanings and behavior)? and (4) the intercultural (which includes inter act ions-EetweenTgroups, as well as interpersonal interactions with multi cultural components). Simpson's model parallels in some respects the approach intended for the present study, i.e., develop ment of a theoretical base, from which a training program for intercultural learning may be formulated. However, certain differences are evident. Her descrip tion of the training program does not provide for integration of all of the elements of her theoretical frame of reference. The personal and interpersonal aspects are separate from the cultural and intercultural dimensions. Furthermore, concerns of personal adjust ment, e.g., problems associated with the phenomenon of culture shock and discrepant cultural patterns and values, were neglected in her program. The current investigation, rather than dealing directly with all four dimensions indicated above, focuses upon the personal qualities of the individual considered essential for intercultural effectiveness. 39 From the perspective of the person, the study also analyzes the interpersonal, cultural, and intercultural dimensions. The resulting theoretical frame of reference t provides a basis for the identification of intercultural competencies that deal with such issues as conflicting attitudes and values, and the development of a plan to effect these competencies. Another area of innovation for achieving inter cultural effectiveness is training of Peace Corps Volunteers, which ranks among the more realistic programs in cross-cultural interaction, in terms of approximation of the second culture context. The emphasis on action and the integration of carefully planned experiential components in the training appear to be key factors in the success of such programs. This point is detailed by Harrison and Hopkins (1967). They cite the inappropriateness of traditional university-based training for Peace Corps Volunteers. Consideration of interpersonal effectiveness in relating to peoples of another culture, is conspic uously absent in such programs. While not denying the cognitive validity of the university approach, a wide-ranging alternative design has been developed. 40 including learning processes that will enable the indi vidual to deal with a variety of situations in different environments. The experience-action orientation towards human values and sensitivities is considered critical in such training. In this regard Harrison and Hopkins (1967: 435) note. The experiences of all our overseas agencies— private, governmental, religious— have demonstrated that the human elements of overseas work are at least as important as the technical ones in the success of a job or mission, and that overseas personnel are much more likely to be deficient in these human aspects of work performance than in technical skills. In an attempt to rectify this situation, Harrison and Hopkins have described the following: (1) certain characteristics necessary for coping effectively with the ambiguity often found in cross-cultural experiences; (2) design principles for development of such charac teristics; and (3) a training program in which some of the design principles were tested. Since the present study has very similar concerns, more detailed review of their work will be deferred to Chapter V. 41 Refereneea 1. Adorno, T.W.; Frenkel-Brunswik, Else? Levinson, D.; and Sanford, R.N. The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950. 2. Berne, John H. Institute for Secondary School Teachers to Seek Methods of Increasing Intercultural Understanding. Final Report, Warrenton, Va.: The Bridge, 1969. 3. Bordie, John G. "Cultural Sensitivity Training for the Teacher of Spanish-Speaking Children." Paper presented at the Third Annual TESOL Convention, Chicago, March 5-8, 196 9. 4. Carpenter, John A. Personal communication. April, 1973. 5. Chemers, Martin M. "Cross-Cultural Training as a Means for Improving Situational Favorable ness. " Human Relations. 1969, 22, 6, 531-546. 6. DeCrow, Roger. Cross-Cultural Interaction Skills: A Digest of Recent Training Literature, ED 029 159. New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education, 1969. 7. Flanagan, J.C. "Techniques for Developing Critical Requirements from Critical Incidents." American Psychologist. 1949, 4, 236. 8. . "The Critical Incident Technioue." Psychological Bulletin. 1954, 51, 327-358. 9. Foster, Robert J., and Danielian, Jack. "An Analy sis of Human Relations Training and Its Implications for Overseas Performance." In Roger DeCrow, ed. Cross-Cultural inter action Skills? Recent Training Literature, ED 029 159. New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education, 1969. 42 10. Gullahorn, J.T., and Gullahorn, J.E. "American Students in France." Washington, D.C.: International Educational Exchange Service, U.S. Department of State, 1956 (Mimeo graphed) . 11. . "An Extension of the U-Curve Hypothesis." Journal of Social Issues, 1963, 19, 3, 33-47. 12. Haigh, Gerard. "Field Training in Human Relations for the Peace Corps." In Roger DeCrow, ed. Cross-Cultural Interaction Skills: A Digest of Recent Training LiteratureT ED 029 159. New York: ERIC Clearinghouae on Adult Education, 1969. 13. Harrison, Roger and Hopkins, Richard L- "The Design of Cross-Cultural Training: An Alternative to the University Model." Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences, 196 7, 3, 4, 431-460. 14. Jacobsen, Eugene. "Sojourn Research." Journal of Social Issues, 1963, 19, 3, 123-129. 15. Lundstedt, Sven. "An Introduction to Some Evolving Problems in Cross-Cultural Research." Journal of Social Issues. 1963, 19, 3, 1-9. 16. Mishler, Anita. "Personal Contact in International Exchanges." In H.C. Kelman, ed. inter national Behavior: A Social-Psychological Analysis. New York: Holt. Rinehart, and Winston, 1965. 17. Rokeach, M. The Open and Closed Mind. New York: Basic Books, 1960. 18. Selltiz, Claire and Cook, Stuart W. "Factors Influencing Attitudes of Foreign Students Toward the Host Country." Journal of Social issues, 1962, 18, 1, 7-23. 43 19. Simpson, Elizabeth L. "International/lntercultural Education: A Re-Examination and A Tenta tive Model.” University of Southern California, 1972. (Unpublished paper). 20. Smith, M.B. "The Peace corps in a West African Country." Unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of the American psycho* logical Association, St. Louis, Missouri, September, 1962. 21. Stolurow, L.M. et al. Critical Incidents with Hetero-cultural Interactions. Urbana, 111.: Illinois University^ Training Research Laboratory TR 42, U.S. Depart ment of the Navy, office of Naval Research Group Psychology Branch, October, 1966. 22. Stouffer, S.A. et al. The American Soldier. Vol. II: CombatT ana Its Aftermath. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1949. 23. University of Minnesota. "Urban Area Elementary Student Teaching Program." Minneapolis: The University, 1970. 24. Watson, Guy A. "Training for Cross-Cultural Teaching," Audiovisual Instruction. 1969, 14, 50-54. 25. Yousef, Fathi s. "Cross-Cultural Testing: An Aspect of the Resistance Reaction.” Language Learning, 1968, 16, 3 & 4, 227-234. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY At a fundamental level of classification, research inquiry is commonly described by two general types: (1) those questions which are directed to dis covery and development of knowledge in and of itself; and (2) those questions which contemplate the utility of knowledge. "Pure" or "basic" research is concerned with issues of the first type; "applied” research lays claim to the second. Frequently, the two are regarded as diametrically opposed, with greater status being accorded one or the other (Selltiz, Jahoda and Deutsch, 1959). Theoreticians place a premium on basic or intellectually-oriented research and the potential long-range fruits of such inquiry. They cite its broad implications for a number of areas as evidence of its higher value, in comparison to the circumscribed results of applied research. Moreover, the latter usually lacks rigor in method and generalizability of findings. The more pragmatically oriented, however, parry that "long- range” may span an indefinite period, during which no 44 45 benefits are discernible. Applied research, on the other hand, can point to immediate improvements in prac tices as tangible results of its endeavors. Practi tioners counter also that while generalizability of their efforts to large populations is restricted, their concern is with vertical extensions of findings with implications for the future (Corey, 1953). If an action research project is conducted to improve the teaching practices of teachers in a given school, its conclusions have applicability not only to the present students of those teachers; their future students in that school will be affected as well. The sometimes heated debate over the significance of "pure" or "practical" investigations, is of little relevance, for as Selltiz, Jahoda and Deutsch (1959: 4-5) have noted, both are appropriate to the scientific enter prise, perhaps especially in the case of social science. On the one hand its responsibility as a science is to develop a body of principles that make possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human interactions. On the other hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked to for practical gui dance in solving immediate problems of human relations. . . . And whether the purpose of a given investigation is primarily intellectual or primarily practical, the requirements of sound research procedure are essentially the same. 46 Research Design The two types of research inquiry discussed should not be regarded as polarities; together they form a complementary approach that is essential to the advancement of science. Investigations are generally inclined in the direction of theoretical interests or practical issues, but very conceivably, a research effort may combine the two. The current investigation is of this third order. It is theoretical in outlook, by vir tue of its reliance upon the results of basic research. Yet it is also pragmatic in approach, by virtue of its application of the findings to the specific problem being explored, and its adaptation of the results of applied research to the development of strategy. In broad outline the design of the study may be sketched in two dimensions. The first is theoretical, and may be conceived in terms of descriptive research in which a survey of the literature is undertaken. This in turn involves two levels of examination. There is an initial review of related research, including investiga tions in areas bearing general relevance to the problem of developing intercultural effectiveness for teachers. These areas are identified as cross-cultural research. 47 intercultural education for teacher development, and cross-cultural training. The findings reported here are intended to provide background information for the pro blem. Subsequently, there will be a second level of scrutiny of the literature in psychology and anthropology from which relevant principles will be derived for the development of a theoretical frame of reference for intercultural effectiveness. The second dimension of the study design is applied in orientation and may be viewed in terms of a plan by which intercultural competencies may be achieved. The strategy will encompass a program plan for a second culture learning experience based upon cross-cultural training principles. While not to be implemented in this study, such strategy will also provide a means by which the competencies postulated as essential for intercul tural effectiveness, may be tested and evaluated, through the comparison of control and experimental group test scores. Selection of samples and administration of tests will be described in the research methodology section. The approach for the present research, then, is (1) to identify a general theoretical foundation for the development of intercultural effectiveness, and (2) to 48 design a plan to effect such development. While the strategy to be formulated focuses on a training program for teachers, this is but one application of the cross- cultural training principles to be embodied in the gen eral plan. In essence, the general design of deriving a theoretical framework for identification of specific competencies, and subsequently planning a strategy for effecting these competencies, may be considered an attempt to develop a prototype or model for expanding information about intercultural effectiveness. Using this model, different competencies may be identified and strategies developed to contribute to knowledge in this area. Moreover, such an approach provides a sound theo retical base for empirical efforts in collection of data and substantiation of postulates. Research Methodology Both theoretical literature and empirical evi dence available in the fields of psychology and anthro pology will be reviewed to identify principles consi dered essential for intercultural effectiveness. These principles will form a theoretical frame of reference, the focal point of which is the individual. The frame 49 work will be used to examine various qualities of the person which characterize him as being interculturally effective. From the series of assumptions and postu lates initially set forth, propositions will be advanced concomitantly with empirical evidence and theoretical rationale for substantiation. The propositions will fur ther yield behaviorally defined competencies, logically deduced and postulated as essential for intercultural effectiveness. The intercultural competencies to be formulated will be adapted from developments in the field of behav ioral objectives. Although educational objectives have been an integral part of American education for some time (Kibler, Barker and Miles, 1970), interest in the speci fication of precise objectives has been relatively recent. Much of the current concern with behavioral objectives is based upon the taxonomies in the cognitive and affective domains, developed by Bloom and Krathwohl (1956; 1964). Attention is directed to learning out comes, and the type of behavior anticipated as a result of the learning experience. In the context of this study, intercultural effectiveness will first be des cribed from the vantage point of the relevant qualities 50 of the individual, then specifically defined in terms of behavioral competencies that represent overt manifesta tions of his effectiveness. The competencies will be formulated in general terms, under which specific behav ioral outcomes will be subsumed. Literature, particularly in cross-cultural train ing will again be reviewed to determine appropriate means for effecting the competencies postulated as essential to intercultural effectiveness. This will result in a plan for a second culture learning experience. Population A plan will be designed for in-service training of a group of American teachers and German host nation teachers assigned to the U.S. Dependents Schools in Germany. As the nineteenth largest American school sys tem, with a 1972 enrollment of some 117,000, the U.S. Dependents Schools European Area (USDESEA) encompasses a fourteen-nation region spanning approximately 9,000,000 square miles. The students in the system's schools are children of military personnel assigned to installations in the European area (Olson, 1971). The unique location of USDESEA schools in an international environment pro- 51 vides an ideal context for a program intended to develop competencies for intercultural effectiveness. Moreover, since German nationals are recruited to teach German cul ture to American students, the participation of the for mer together with that of the American teachers in such a program, would be particularly appropriate. The program to be designed will henceforth be referred to as the USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program. Selection cri teria for participants will be described below. The pro cedures for selection and assignment of groups will also be mentioned briefly, with further elaboration to be made subsequently. Selection Criteria A major issue in the in-service efforts of any school system, but especially a large school system, focuses on ways in which optimal impact may be achieved. Diffusion represents one such critical means. The cri teria for selection of participants are specified with this In mind. 1. Geographic Distribution. Participants will be drawn from schools in West Germany, since this represents the area of highest student 52 density. Approximately eighty-five percent of the total student population of USDESEA is concentrated in West Germany. Schools to be selected for participation in the program will be located in Frankfurt, again an area where the largest number of USDESEA schools are situated. Only those schools within a radius of one to one-and-a-half hours of driving distance from a mutually agreed upon location in Frankfurt will be included, so that accessibility to training sessions will not impede participation. In addition, the schools should be proximate to local German schools, to foster interaction between Ameri can and German institutions, and to encourage participation of German local teachers in the program. 2. Subject Area Representation, in Chapter I, reference was made to an "intercultural dimension in general education" (Carpenter, 1973) as a point of departure for this study. The term, it may be recalled, calls for a widespread infusion of the curriculum with an 53 intercultural dimension. In keeping with this philosophy and with the concern for dif fusion, the program plan will recruit parti cipants from four subject areas that may be especially amenable to an intercultural dimension: social studies, language arts, art, and music. Teachers and/or administra tors will be selected so that representation is equally distributed over the four areas. In addition, German host nation teachers will be recruited to participate. 3. Participant Characteristics, in screening of applicants, the following criteria will be established. a. A commitment to the development of an intercultural dimension in the USDESEA school system, as reflected in the stated intention to remain at least two years in the system subsequent to completion of the program. In view of the higher pre vailing USDESEA turnover rate than that found in stateside schools, in-service 54 activities which cannot reach all per sonnel must concentrate on those who pro vide the potential for returning to the system in some measure, the benefits accruing from such training. b. Leadership qualities, regardless of posi tion as teacher, coordinator or adminis trator. Since participants may be expected to work with their colleagues in a second level diffusion of intercultural training, leadership characteristics are an important criterion for selection of participants. Information on leadership potential will be secured from recommen dations of superiors. c. Interest in and commitment to the pur poses and objectives of the program, as explained by program administrators. Applicants will be requested to submit a one-page statement expressing such inter est and demonstrating understanding of the intent of the program. The statement should include agreement to meet the 55 requirements of the program. d. Sense of acceptance of oneself, and of other members of one's culture, as deter mined by the Berger Scales of Self- Acceptance and Acceptance of Others (Berger, 1952). This criterion will be given the greatest weight and will hope fully select out gross maladjustments that may render training for intercul tural effectiveness highly problematic. The scales will also serve as a means of substantiating the competencies postu lated in the theoretical frame of refer ence for intercultural effectiveness. The instruments will be administered to all teachers of participating schools without reference to the proposed pro gram, to minimize the possibility of the influence of a program "set” on test results. In addition to the above, program adminis trators will interview candidates indivi- 56 dually for twenty minutes. Results of the interview in the form of applicant ratings, will be considered together with the fore going in final selection of participants. Selection and Assignment Procedures Three samples will be employed in the present study. Initially a group of eighty USDESEA teachers, including fifty Americans and thirty Germans, will be selected according to selection criteria specified above. The most influential factors will be high scores on the Berger Scales of Acceptance. The eighty individuals scoring highest on the Scales, and on the other selec tion factors indicated, will be recruited for the study. They will then be randomly assigned to Group A (experi mental group) and Group B (control group), each compris ing forty members of twenty-five Americans and fifteen German host nationals. A third sample. Group C, will be similar in composition, but selected on the basis of low scores on the Berger Scales of Acceptance and on the other selection factors. Groups A and B will be subjected to a pretest- posttest design to evaluate the effectiveness of the pro gram to develop intercultural competencies. Test scores 57 of Groups A and C will be employed to substantiate the derivation of the intercultural competencies from the qualities of the individual selected for study. These procedures will be elaborated in Chapter V. Only Groups A and C will participate in the program to be designed. 58 References 1. Berger, Bmanuel M. "The Relation Between Expressed Acceptance of Self and Expressed Acceptance of Others." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 1952, 47, 778-782. 2. Bloom, B.S. (Ed.); Englehart, M.S.; Furst, E.J.; Hill, W.H.; and Krathwohl, D.R. A Taxonomy of Educational Objectives; Handbook 1, the Cognitive Domain" New York: Longmans, Green, Co., 1956- 3. Carpenter, John A. The Intercultural Imperative. Washington, D.C.: American Association of State Colleges and Universities, 1973. 4. Corey, Stephen M. Action Research to Improve School Practices. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1953. 5. Kibler, Robert J.; Barker, Larry L.; and Miles, David F. Behavioral Objectives and Instruction. Boston: Allvn and Bacon, inc., 1M6. 6. Krathwohl, D.R.; Bloom, B.S.; and Masia, B. A Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II. the Affective Domain. N e w York: David McKay, 1964. 7. Olson, Allen D. "2 5 Years: A History of the United States Dependents Schools European Area (USDESEA)." 1971. (Unpublished paper). 8. Sampson, Donald L., and Smith, Howard. "A Scale to Measure World-Minded Attitudes." Journal of Social Psychology. 1957, 45, 99-106. 9. selltiz, claire; Jahoda, Marie; Deutsch, Morton; and cook, Stuart W. Research Methods in Social Relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart an<!l wlnston, 1959. CHAPTER IV A THEORETICAL FRAME OF REFERENCE FOR INTERCULTURAL EFFECTIVENESS In an effort to organize selected knowledge con cerning intercultural effectiveness, a frame of reference will be suggested to provide a context for identification of relevant theoretical principles. This represents a first step in the direction of a theory of intercultural effectiveness, and is not to be construed as an exhaus tive or comprehensive attempt. The frame of reference will encompass a definition of intercultural effective ness, major assumptions related to intercultural effec tiveness, sub-assumptions or postulates evolving from the major assumptions, and a set of propositions from which intercultural competencies may be derived. Definition Intercultural effectiveness is defined in terms of the individual's competence to utilize knowledge, attitudes and skills to work productively with persons of other cultures. 59 60 Assumption I Intercultural effectiveness is a function of the personal qualities of the individuals involved. In essence, this states that intercultural effec tiveness is a function of the learned and unlearned characteristics of the individuals involved. (Although intercultural effectiveness may also be a function of other factors, the theoretical frame of reference for this study will be restricted to consideration of indivi dual qualities or characteristics.) Postulate I-A: Intercultural effective ness, as evident in the qualities of a given individual, is consistent to some degree. Simply stated, the foregoing merely indicates the possibility of predicting intercultural effectiveness under various conditions, given sufficient similarity of circums tances. Postulate I—B t Intercultural effective ness is characterized by a finite number of personal qualities. 61 This statement delineates a manageable scope of limited responses in the study of the problem. Postulate I—Ci Intercultural effective ness, as a function of the personal qualities of the individual, embodies unique characteristics as well as cul tural and universal characteristics of the individual. Carpenter (1973) , in a graphic description of the intercultural experience, has indicated that although interaction occurs at a personal level, the significant factor is that it involves persons who have different group consciousness. Figure 1 illustrates the intercul tural transaction. Person A, like Person B, comprises characteristics that are unique (clear area), universal (grid area), and cultural (shaded area). The cultures of the individuals are differentiated by the shapes, indi cating that the group consciousness of Person A varies from that of Person B. Without the presence of the cul tural element, intercultural interaction is not possible. By definition the terms refers to a person of one group consciousness interacting with a person of another group 62 Individual Individual Person A Person B Fig. 1.— The Intercultural Experience* consciousness. Assumption II Intercultural effectiveness is demonstrated by the observable behavior of the individuals concerned. The implication of this assumption is that inter cultural effectiveness is accessible to study through direct observation. * Note: Transmitted by Carpenter via personal communication, April, 1973. Postulate II-A: Intercultural effective ness is characterized by identifiable behavioral responses. 63 If intercultural effectiveness lends itself to observable behavior, then such behavior should be suscep tible of identification and description. Postulate II-Bi Intercultural effective ness is demonstrated in behavior that may be classified qualitatively and quan titatively . Basically, such classification consists of a grouping of behaviors of the same kind (qualitative clas sification) , which in turn may be further divided accord ing to subclasses (quantitative classification). Postulate II-Ci Intercultural effective ness is characterized by overt behavior defined in terms of the individual's personal competencies. Intercultural effectiveness may be observed in the degree to which an individual demonstrates certain competencies. A frame of reference such as the foregoing serves as the basis for the derivation of general propositions indicated below. Support for the development of the pro 64 positions will be sought in empirical evidence and theo retical principles. The frame of reference will also provide an organizing structure for the specification of strategy to be described in Chapter V. Proposition I Intercultural effectiveness may be explored at personal level, i.e., from the perspective of the indi vidual . Linton (1945: xiv) has observed that "Every cul ture is participated in, perpetuated and modified by a particular society, but every society is, in the last analysis, a group of individuals.” Although cultural factors are also recognized as contributing substantially to intercultural effectiveness, the present study chooses to focus primarily upon intercultural effectiveness as it relates to the person. The cultural approach would be concerned with the study of patterns and values of a given society. These are examined in the current research not for the purpose of focusing upon cultures in and of themselves, but rather as means for providing a context against which individuals may be identified and understood. Avoidance of eye contact, for example, sig- 65 nifies respect in some cultures, although other groups may impute insidious meanings of guilt, untrustworthi ness, etc. in this rather simple response. In its concentration upon the person, the present study adopts a comprehensive view, for by definition, intercultural effectiveness cannot be a restrictive con cern. Exploration of the qualities of the individual that contribute to his effectiveness interculturally, necessarily considers as well, interpersonal and cultural factors. Insofar as the intercultural experience involves interaction between two or more persons, inter personal factors are involved; insofar as these indivi duals internalize the commonly agreed upon patterns, values, and attitudes of their groups, cultural factors are called in play. Yet despite the interplay of indivi dual and cultural forces, the development of intercul tural effectiveness resides ultimately within the unitary person. The attitudes of Americans as a group, toward the Chinese are altered if individually the predisposi tions of 180 million Americans have been modified. Proppsition II The individual's personal qualities which contri 66 bute to intercultural effectiveness, may be described in terms of selected relevant variables. A major assertion of the theoretical frame of reference is that factors critical to intercultural effectiveness may be found in the personal qualities of the individual. The findings of Christiansen (1959) pro vide corrobating evidence that the individual is a signi ficant factor in the conditions giving rise to intercul tural effectiveness. The results of his study indicate that a person's characteristic way of responding to con flicts of daily life will generalize to his attitudes toward international conflict situations. As a person, the individual comprises a complex of traits and characteristics that are unique and shared. The unique qualities of the individual identify him idio- syncratically as Person A, so that he is not mistaken for Person B, C, D, etc. His shared characteristics include qualities that he holds in common with members of his group or culture, and those that are characteristic of all men. This tripartite nature of the individual at once binds him to his fellow-man, yet casts him in a sin gular mold. For although an individual may hold group memberships and may be exposed to the same stimuli as his 67 fellow members, no one undergoes experiences exactly as another. Similar circumstances, filtered by perceptions that vary by virtue of genetically influenced and differ entially learned predispositions evoke dissimilar reac tions in two individuals. Various writers have posited an association between certain characteristics of the individual and worldmindedness or international mindedness. Kenworthy (1953) advanced a listing of characteristics some twenty years ago. More recently, Simpson (1972) has also alluded to traits that may describe an internationally, interculturally inclined person. Others have attempted to relate worldmindedness to such variables as authori tarianism (Smith and Rosen, 1958; Smith, 1965); and conservatism and liberalism (Hermann, 1963). The works cited above are related in greater or lesser degree, to the interests of the present study. The more cogent concern is with the underlying, enduring traits of the individual. In this respect, Kenworthy*s characterization of the worldminded teacher as an inte grated individual, rooted in his own culture, informed about world events, etc. does not describe inner motiva tions or ego needs that may be expected to have substan- 66 tial, long-term impact on the behavior of the individual. On the other hand, Simpson (1972) has proposed that such basic factors as self-esteem, acceptance, trust and openness, have significant implications for international/intercultural education. One interpreta tion that may be drawn from the abundant literature on acceptance, for example, suggests that an individual's acceptance of others of other cultures is essential for intercultural effectiveness. This interpretation will be examined at length in the consideration of a subse quent proposition. Proposition ill A significant variable essential for intercul tural effectiveness is one's acceptance of the members of other cultures, which in turn is based upon prior conditions of acceptance. Given the foregoing statement, it may be valuable first of all, to examine the predisposing circumstances which foster receptivity to represen tatives of another culture. Such predispositions are described in Propositions III-A and Ill-B. 69 Proposition III-Ai Acceptance of self is fundamental to the individual's positive and productive interaction with others. The premise upon which this subproposition is based, is that before a person can accept others, he must be able to accept himself. Essentially such accep tance derives from his self-concept, which in turn is inextricably linked to his self-esteem, or the evalua tion that he makes of others' perceptions of him (Cooper- smith, 1973). Rogers (1951), in his theory of personality and behavior, has described the dynamics of the development of the self. A simplified outline follows: In his interaction with the environment, the individual places a positive or negative value on his experiences. As a child he may, for example, experience satisfaction in hitting his baby brother. If his parents are able to accept the individual's feelings of satisfaction result ing from such behavior, although not necessarily approv ing of these feelings, no threat is posed to his self- concept. The individual is thus not made to feel inse cure by being rejected, and can furthermore accept him- 70 self fully, including acknowledgment of his aggressive feelings as a part of himself. If, however, the parents are not fully accepting of: (1) the feelings of satis faction experienced by the child; (2) the child who experiences such feelings; and (3) his or her own feel ings that such behavior is unacceptable, then the child*s concept of himself as worthy of esteem, is imme diately threatened. The consequence is either denial in awareness by the child, of the satisfaction experi enced, or a distortion such that he introjects the dis approval of his parents in the manner, "I perceive this behavior as unsatisfying." The conflict between the individual's feelings and his distorted symbolization of the experience of his parents evokes a sense of anxiety that attenuates the self-concept. The accurate symboli zation would be "I perceive my parents as experiencing this behavior as unsatisfying to them." As the individual grows out of childhood and expands his contact with the environment, the distortion may be generalized beyond that of his parents to the perceived judgment of others, thus reinforcing the already low regard he has for himself. Investigations of the phenomenon of self-esteem 71 have drawn various descriptions of individuals deficient in this regard. Rosenberg (1962) notes that the person who views himself negatively, tends to be withdrawn and apathetic, and to feel himself unworthy of any contribu tion. Ziller et al (1969) describe such a person as more susceptible to influence; since he measures himself by the standards of others, he tends toward a passive conformity to the environment. This supports the view of Allport (1968) whose research on religion and preju dice indicates that conformers who attend church in search of status, rather than out of any religious moti vation, may be expected to be insecure and rejecting of others. Moreover, if the organization to which they belonged was not prejudicially inclined, they would con form superficially, for the sake of maintaining their status. In its extreme, conformity is found in member ship in mass movements, which Hoffer (1951) depicts as substitution for the inadequacies of the self. Yet the individual's acceptance of such movements is conditional, for the "true believer's" lack of belief in himself, prevents a genuine commitment to others. Transplanted to an intercultural setting, the individual low in self-esteem finds his tenuous self- 72 concept further shaken by beliefs and values not only at variance perhaps, but in conflict, with his own. The analysis by Rhinesmith and Hoppes (1972: 24) is incisive: When one is cut off suddenly from the environ ment from which he derives most of his self- identifications, he is very likely to be subject to a great deal of inexplicable anxiety, some of which can be traced to a sense of threatened or lost identity. Furthermore, he is confronted with new identities which he must come to under stand and accept if he is going to function effectively. . . . Like our values and attitudes, our iden tities and self-concepts also tend to be frozen into behavior patterns relevant to our own cul tural environment. In an intercultural setting . . . our identities change. Often, however, our behavior remains the same. The visitor, in confronting the consequent adjustment problems, sometimes suffers from what M. Brewster Smith has aptly called "a circumstance of beleaguered self-esteem.1 1 In such a situation he must con quer the anxiety he feels while at the same time developing the capacity to adjust to the new roles and the new learning about himself which are imposed upon him by the new environment. . . . [But] No matter how much an indi vidual may want to learn, he brings to a new environment a certain ambivalence and resistance to learning and change. Behavior change is threatening because it raises questions of per sonal inadequacies to meet new challenges which produce failure and ridicule, and because it stimulates anxieties over the potential impact of the change on one's concept of himself, indeed, on the very nature of his "self." Under such circumstances, it is evident that unless the individual has a strong sense of worth that allows not only acceptance of himself, but a receptivity 73 toward others as well, he will find it difficult to be open to persons with cultural values discrepant with his. Portrayed in these terms, the self-concept is firmly rooted in the individual's relationship to others, and his self acceptance is clearly associated with other types of acceptance. Proposition III-B; The individual's acceptance of others is related to his acceptance of himself. The rationale offered for this assertion is that in the process of socialization, the individual not only introjects the values and concepts of his parents, he internalizes the cultural patterns and values of his society, and establishes positive relationships with the members of that society. If, however, psychodynamic forces inhibit the individual's development of self acceptance, the ties ordinarily established by socializa tion may be weakened, so that receptivity to others does not develop. Considerable investigation into the acceptance of self and others provides substantial support for the proposition that those who accept themselves, are more 74 likely to accept others (Sheerer, 1949; Berger, 1952; McIntyre, 1952; Cmwake, 1954; Fey, 1955; Jones, I960), Several of these studies were stimulated by Rogers' (1951: 520) postulation of a positive correlation between attitudes toward self and others: When the individual perceives and accepts into one consistent and integrated system all his sensory and visceral experiences, then he is necessarily more understanding of others and is more accepting of others as separate indivi duals . The explanation for this relationship evolves again from the individual's self-concept and self-esteem. A person who rejects himself is inclined to deny certain experiences; he views all experiences as potential threats, against which he must defend himself. It is this orientation that he brings to the interpersonal setting, where the words and behavior of others are also perceived as threatening. The consequent reaction is one of attack in defense against danger. This pervasive perception of threat thus precludes understanding of others as separate individuals. But if the distortion in such perception can be made evident, if all experi ences can be integrated into the consciousness, defen siveness is thus minimized. And in the words of Rogers (1951: 521): 75 When there is no need to defend, there is no need to attack.. When there is no need to attack, the person is perceived for what he really is, a separate individual operating in terms of his own meanings, based on his own perceptual field. While empirical evidence widely corroborates Rogers* theory, Gergen and Marlowe (1970) report that studies in this area have been criticized because mea sures to obtain ratings of self and others were similar in nature. Thus the findings may actually reflect the tendency of some people to respond in a consistently more positive way than others. However, the results of an experimental workshop conducted by Jones (1960) to increase self-acceptance, counters this argument. A "variegated" battery of tests, including an objective self rating scale, a sentence completion test, and the Revised Bogardus Social Distance Scale, among others, was used to measure self-acceptance and ethnic attitudes before and after a Self-Knowledge Workshop. Although the sessions were not explicitly concerned with modifi cation of social attitudes, results demonstrated that acceptance of others, as well as acceptance of self, was greater among members of the experimental group, than among control group participants. Jones attributes this finding to a reduced need over the period of the work- 76 shop, for members to rely on projective defenses that ascribe their own shortcomings to others. This reason ing, although developed from a psychoanalytic orienta tion, corresponds closely to Rogers' theoretical formu lation noted earlier. For the individual who accepts others, and is therefore likely to enjoy a sense of worth about himself, it may be expected that his relationship to people may also be characterized by a sense of respect. Insofar as he has appropriately internalized the values of his society, he establishes a positive identification with the members of that society. Without the need to defend and attack, referred to previously, he can afford to be receptive to others. Such acceptance reflects a certain degree of trust, an involvement of the self in one's interpersonal relationships. To the extent that there is acceptance of oneself and others, to that extent is one able to place one's faith and confidence in others (Rutan, 1971). The individual is then less egocentric, less concerned about himself, and willing and able to view the world from a broadened perspective. Conceived in this manner, it becomes evident that acceptance of self, acceptance of others, and trust are but threads of 77 the same fabric interwoven together by interpersonal relationships. Proposition III-C; The individual's acceptance of other members of other cultures, is a specialized instance of his acceptance of others. If the foregoing is valid, then the evidence cited in support of the relationship between acceptance of self and acceptance of others substantiates also, the association between self-acceptance, and openness to people of a culture other than one's own. The rationale for such openness may be extrapolated from the dynamics described as underlying acceptance of self and others. As indicated previously, the denial of certain experi ences predisposes the individual to be non-accepting. If he rejects others because they are seen as threatening, despite the fact that they share his cultural patterns and values, it is likely that he will regard members of other cultures, with their strange and often conflicting values and unfamiliar behavior, as even more menacing. If on the other hand, a person is accepting of himself and of others who have common cultural bases, he 78 la less likely to feel that people from other cultures are dangerous by virtue of their differences. The indi vidual who is secure in himself and is unfettered by the need for defense, can better understand and accept the forces of cultural diversity. On the basis of such acceptance, he is more able to build positive relation ships with representatives of this diversity. The study by Haimowitz and Haimowitz (1950: 235) provides empirical documentation to this effect. In exploring the reduction of ethnic hostility through psychotherapy, the authors note: . . . With improved adjustment, hostility to minority groups declines. As the individual feels less threatened, he is less hostile in his reaction to the world. He becomes more able to cope with the source of his frustra tions directly and effectively. Similarly, the results of the workshop conducted by Jones (1960), as mentioned earlier, offer evidence of a direct link between acceptance of self and acceptance of others of other cultures. Central to the person's receptivity to people of different cultures, is his ability to assume the frame of reference of the latter. Rogers (1951) has drawn an interesting analogy between the disciplines of anthropo logy and psychology. Early studies of primitive socie- 79 ties, whose members were said to engage in bizarre behavior in conformity with meaningless and ridiculous customs, parallel psychological reports of "delusional," "abnormal" or "trial and error" behavior. But both anthropologists and psychologists, unwittingly perhaps, are guilty of invoking their own frame of reference and values in judgment of the behavior under study. We fail to see that we are evaluating the person from our own, or from some fairly general, frame of reference, but that the only way to understand smother culture is to assume the frame of refer ence of that culture. When that is done, the various meaningless and strange behaviors are seen to be part of a meaningful and goal directed activity (Rogers, 1951: 494). Moreover, the individual's acceptance of others of other cultures entails general acceptance as well, of the patterns, values and attitudes embodied by "those others." This is not to suggest that acceptance of the members of other cultures must be based upon receptivity of the abstract entity of culture; fundamentally, there is still the human involvement with individuals who hap pen to represent the patterns and values of another society. While the qualities of the personality shape the individual's uniqueness, the characteristics of the culture determine the behavioral patterns that he shares with other members of his society. It is this element of 80 a commonality held with others, that directs the deve lopment of a group. The conditions imposed by group membership require adherence to its cultural values, and conformity at least to some degree, with the behavior of other members of the society. Cultural patterns, values and needs develop in response to varying needs of a given society. Certain of these needs are fundamental, forming the basis of a common humanity participated in by all men. Such condi tions as hunger, thirst, sex, need for warmth, shelter— even the presence of learned motives as fear, maintenance of self-esteem, need for affiliation and approval, char acterize everyone, regardless of specific cultural identification (Mann, 1969)* To this degree, the indi vidual holds together with all men, certain universal characteristics. To the extent that these needs are common denominators of human behavior, different socie ties may be said to resemble one another; to the extent that alternative arrangements are made by each group for the gratification of these requirements, cultural diver sity arises. In essence then, "each culture is a coher ent, changing expression of group search for the fulfill ment of universal human needs in different conditions" 81 (Carpenter, 1973). Men of dissimilar cultures and societies are thus but reflections of Universal Man. Nevertheless, the individual's acceptance of Universal Man, in reality the acceptance of members of other cul tures, has been hampered, according to Gearing (1970) by the little recognition accorded the existence of Univer sal Man. "The capacity to see Man in men empirically is conspicuously absent in the society at large and conspi cuously needed— at home no less than around the world." Lacking such recognition, Man is subordinated to the parochial identities of men, generating "rankly invidious definitions of 'us' and 'them.'" This is the basis of ethnic consciousness, and of the phenomenon of acceptance and exclusion. Those not of the same culture are looked upon as alien, with all the negative attributes that the term implies. What is conveniently ignored is that such designations as "alien," "ingroup," and "outgroup" are relative in their points of reference. Behavioral pat terns, values and attitudes, while strange and incompre hensible to one, may be familiar and acceptable to an other. But implicit in this fact is another verity, that one's acceptance of others of other cultures is characterized by respect for their cultural values, much 82 as acceptance of oneself is contingent upon one's degree of self-esteem. As Valentine (1968: 2) has noted ”... each way of life is seen as a unique human con tribution, worthy of respect by virtue of its very exis tence, valid in terms of the experience of those who made it and those who live by it.” Proposition IV Xntercultural effectiveness may be behaviorally defined in terms of an individual's personal competencies* An earlier section of this paper outlined the methodology of this research in two phases, viz., (1) identification of competencies that contribute to intercultural effectiveness, and (2) the development of a strategy to effect such competencies. The latter phase will be described in Chapter V. Propositions XZ1-A through III-C may be considered the preliminary stages of Phase I. The thesis was developed in the propositions that the personal qualities of acceptance of self and acceptance of others, are fundamental to one's acceptance of others of other cultures. Furthermore, this last characteristic is asserted to be essential to intercul tural effectiveness. As a subsequent stage of Phase I, 63 in order to specify competencies descriptive of such acceptance, the subjective state of the individual's quality of acceptance will be expressed in terms of observable behavior. This requires an emphasis on the individual's competencies as behaviorally defined— the achievements expected of a person said to be intercul- turally effective. Moreover, these achievements will be anticipated outcomes of the strategy to be developed in Chapter V. The competencies indicated in the following subpropositions will focus specifically on the indivi dual's acceptance of members of other cultures. The major subpropositions will refer to general relevant com petencies; the expected behavioral outcomes will be des cribed below each competency. Proposition IV-Ai The interculturally effective individual who accepts others of other cultures is sensitive to the feelings and reactions of members of another culture. Proposition XV-An He accepts different patterns of personal response from members of another culture. 84 Proposition IV-A2 ’ • He responds supportively to the cultural patterns and values of members of another culture. Proposition IV-Bi The interculturally effective individual who accepts others of other cultures values similarities and differences between his culture and others. Proposition IV-Bl: He partici pates in the cultural patterns of others when appropriate. Proposition IV-B2" • He welcomes the participation of others in his cultural patterns when appropriate. Proposition XV-Ct The interculturally effective individual who accepts others of other cultures seeks mutually satis fying relationships with members of another culture. 85 Proposition IV-Cli He engages in cooperative activities with mem bers of another culture. Proposition IV-C2; He willingly accepts from and gives assistance to members of another culture. 86 References 1. Allport, G. The Person in Psychology. Boston: Bea co“ 1968. 2. Berger, Emanuel M. “The Relation Between Expressed Acceptance of Self and Expressed Acceptance of Others." Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1952, 47, 778-782. 3. Carpenter, John A. "Intercultural Education in American Schools." Unpublished address to the National Conference of the Asso ciation for Supervision and Curriculum Development, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, March 20, 1973. 4. . Personal communication, April, 1973. 5. Christiansen, B. Attitudes Toward Foreign Affairs as a Function of Personality, cited in Irving L. Jan is and Brewster M. Smith. "Effects of Education and Persuasion on National and International Images." In H.C. Kelman, ed. International Behavior: A Social-Psychological Analysis. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. 6. Coopersmith, Stanley. "Building Self-Esteem in the Classroom." 1973. (Unpublished paper). 7. Fey, W.F. "Acceptance by Others and Its Relation to Acceptance of Self and Others: A Reevaluation.1 1 Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1955, 50-51, 274-276. 8. Gearing, Fred. “ 'Mankind' Empirically." Buffalo: State University of New York, 1970. (Unpublished paper). 9. Gergen, Kenneth and Marlowe, David. Personality and Social Behavior. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1970. 87 10. Haimowitz, Morris L. and Haimowitz, Natalie R. "Reducing Ethnic Hostility Through Psycho therapy." journal of Social Psychology. 1950, 31, 231-241. 11. Hermann, Margaret G. "Some Personal Character istics Related to Foreign Aid voting of Congressmen." M.A. Thesis, North western University, 1963. Cited in H.C. Kelman, ed. International Behaviori A Social-Psychological Analysis. New Yorki Holt, Rinehart ana Winston, 1965. 12. Hoffer, E. The True Believer. New York: Harper, 1951, 13. Jones, Richard M. An Application of Psycho analysis to Education. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1960. 14. Kenworthy, Leonard. World Horizons for Teachers. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952. 15. Linton, Ralph. The Study of Man. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1936. 16. McIntyre, Charles. "Acceptance by Others and Its Relation to Acceptance of Self and Others." Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology. 1952, 47, 624-626. 17. Mann, L. Social Psychology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1969. 18. Omwake, K. "The Relationship Between Acceptance of Self and Acceptance of Others Shown by Three Personality Inventories." f ournal of Consulting Psychology. 1954, 8, 443-446. 88 19. Rhinesmith, Stephen H. and Hoopes, David S. "The Learning Process in an Intercultural Setting." In Readings in Intercultural Communication; Volume 11^ Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Regional Council for International Education, June, 1972. 20. Rogers, Carl R. Client-Centered Therapy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Riverside Press, 1951. 21. Rosenberg, M. "Self-Esteem and Concern with Public Affairs." Public Opinion Quarterly. 1962, 26, 201-211. Cited in Elizabeth L. Simpson. Democracy1s Stepchildren. San Francisco:~ Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers, 1971. 22. Rutan, James Scott. "Self Acceptance As a Function of Short Term Small Group Experience." Unpublished dissertation, Boston University Graduate School, 1971. 23. Sheerer, Elizabeth. "An Analysis of the Rela tionship Between Acceptance of and Respect for Others in Ten counseling cases." Journal of Consulting Psychology. 1949, 13, 169-175. 24. Simpson, Elizabeth L. "International/lntercultural Education: A Re-Examination and A Tentative Model." University of Southern California, 1972. (Unpublished paper). 25. Valentine, Charles. Culture and Poverty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968. 26. Ziller, R.C.; Hagey, J.; Smith, M.D.C.; and Long, B.H. "Self-Esteem: A Self-Social Construct." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1969. 33. 1, 84-^5. Cited in Elizabeth L. Simpson. Democracy * s Stepchildren. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers, 1971. CHAPTER V A STRATEGY FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF INTERCULTURAL EFFECTIVENESS Intercultural effectiveness, defined essentially as the ability to live and work productively with persons of another culture, is inextricably related to second culture learning. The strategy to be described here for achieving such effectiveness will assume the form of a program plan for a second culture experience. This plan will be based on the theoretical frame of reference developed in the preceding chapter in terms of selected qualities of the individual, specifically the quality of acceptance. In the translation of personal character istics into observable behavioral states, intercultural competencies were postulated solely with respect to the individual's acceptance of others of other cultures, although other aspects of the variable of acceptance were examined as well. The proposed program will be especially concerned with means for effecting these competencies, employing the setting of USDESEA as one application of the theoretical principles outlined in Chapter IV. 89 90 The environment of the American schools in a German location, where both American and German host nation teachers are employed, affords an appropriate context for the development of intercultural competen cies. For the Americans, their second culture is the German community; for the Germans, the American schools constitute their second culture. While Americans and Germans work in the same setting, they relate marginally to one another, person ally and professionally. The distance between the two groups is further magnified outside of school. The mili tary base, the BX, and the Officers' Club form a tightly knit community in which Americans tend to be insulated from the environment of the host culture. Those who desire to participate in German society may find it difficult to modify old habits reinforced by various American agencies, and by relationship to other Ameri cans. Others may lack the transitional skills necessary for relating to the German community, conversely, German host nation teachers may welcome more contact with Ameri cans, but may not know how to bridge the gap that sepa rates them. Moreover, although the host nation teacher is recruited to teach German language and culture, very 91 often he qualifies primarily by virtue of his ability to speak the language. He may not have any formal training or knowledge to convey various aspects of his culture to his American students. Through participation in the Intercultural Studies program, he will hopefully better understand his culture from the perspective of his stu dents who view it as a second culture. Program Orientation The plan for achieving intercultural effective ness will be designed for those American and German host nation teachers of USDESEA motivated by a genuine inter est in becoming interculturally effective, i.e., in being able to live and work productively with one another as representatives of different cultures. Moreover, accep tance of self and others as determined by the Berger Scales of Acceptance (Berger, 1952) will constitute one of the criteria for selection of participants. In this manner, the program can then be directed specifically to development of acceptance of others of other cultures. To attempt to deal with the total range of acceptance as described in Chapter IV would be too ambitious for this s tudy. 92 Training in the acceptance of others of other cultures has been particularly and effectively addressed by the Peace corps in its preparation of trainees for overseas service. It advocates an experientially-based program, which lends itself more than does primarily cognitively-oriented learning, to development of an affective quality such as acceptance. In a recent address to the annual conference of the Asian Studies Association, Carpenter (1973) noted that: A strictly or primarily cognitive approach in . . . intercultural studies, is not appro priate. In fact, cognitive input and validity are themselves influenced by an individual's value and attitude sets. What is learned has been selectively screened by attitudes and values. A person sees, hears, and learns what he wants to see, hear and learn--or, more accu rately, what his attitudes and values permit. But how can change of attitudes and values, how can change of affect be achieved? This will not be realized primarily by cogni tive activity, but rather by experience. Examination of recent cross-cultural training literature indicates that a number of people in the field support the experiential approach (Stewart et al; Harrison and Hopkins, 1967; Wight and Hammons, 1970; Rhinesmith and Hoopes, 1972) as more significantly effec tive than traditional classroom methods. The individual is more likely to be prepared for the new values and 93 attitudes of a second culture, by the active partici pation required of experiential learning, than by the detached passive mode of cognitive learning. The writings of Harrison and Hopkins (1967: 443), who have had extensive experience in training Peace Corps Volun teers, are particularly cogent in this respect. . . . [Cross-cultural] training designs which lead only to understanding are never good enough. Training problems must require that the person experience the emotional impact of the phenomena with which he is dealing, as well as understand them. He must be able to translate ideas and values into direct action, with all the attendant risks and difficulties. . . . The principle, then, is that training situations Bbould require that discussion and analysis lead to decision and action on the part of the trainee. This would imply, for example, that even the best led "discussion group" is only half a training situation because it does not lead to action. Consistent with the philosophy expressed above, the cross-cultural training efforts of the Peace Corps are experience-based and process-oriented, on the assumption that training cannot be focused solely on content and the information-transmission approach. To attempt to convey everything there is to be learned about another culture would be an impossible under taking. Instead, more substantial and enduring impact can be effected by the teaching of the skills of 94 learning* enabling the trainee to learn how to learn. The requirements for this alternative, as articulated by Harrison and Hopkins (1967: 439) are clear: Education for cross-cultural applications should train the individual in a system of learning operations that is independent of settings* persons and other information sources not found in the overseas environment. If the trainee can be educated to be an effective and independent learner, he need not be filled with all the infor mation he can contain before going into his new job. He will have the capacity to generate his own learning as needed. Indeed* he will have to generate his own learning in any case* whether he is trained to do this or not, for the simple reason that no training agency can train for every exotic contingency, for every aspect of life and work in another culture. Although the Peace Corps Volunteer confronts an inter- cultural experience considerably different from that facing the American and German teachers of USDESEA* there are sufficient similarities in both situations to warrant adaptation of certain Peace Corps training principles in the present study. The experience-action orientation would be valid preparation not only for Volunteers* but for the teachers of USDESEA as well, and perhaps for all who must be trained to live and work in a second culture. Some discussion of the experiential approach, and what is entailed in "learning how to learn*” may be 95 helpful at this point. Rhinesmith and Hoopes (1972: 24) have written of a three-phase cycle of "unfreezing- moving-refreezing." The first phase, requiring the breakdown of ethnocentric biases long ingrained in the individual's background, is usually the most difficult to contend with in the learning process. Rhinesmith and Hoopes maintain that despite strong motivation of the individual to learn, ambivalence and resistance to learning and change tend to be associated with a new environment. But after the reluctance has been dispelled the individual will be able to enter the second or "moving" phase. Here he expands his cultural perspec tive as he becomes more aware of different alternatives. He learns to accept or reject new experiences and to reevaluate his perceptions in the process of developing a new frame of reference. In the third or"refreezing" phase, there is a "locking in place" of the individual's newly acquired perceptions and behavior, to preclude regression to former modes of behavior. Only then can behavioral or attitudinal change be said to have taken place. 96 Organizing Strategy The USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program will be experiential in philosophy* drawing heavily upon the work of Peace Corps training efforts for appropriate methods. As an organizing strategy for the program* participants soon after selection will receive a ques tionnaire in the mail* soliciting their reactions as to expected outcomes of the program. They will be requested to list briefly* and as explicitly as possible* what it is they hope to be able to do as a result of this program in terms of living and working in a second culture. In conjunction with the Questionnaire* partici pants will also be asked to think through their roles relative to their social and work relationships. They will be requested to conceptualize what they perceive to be ideal relationships between the American and German teachers. This may be compared with their per ceptions of existing relationships. A suggested format for the conceptualization is the role model* which charts the individual's relationship with others in terms of the position he holds. Peace corps trainers 97 have referred to this device as one of the most effec tive and analytical for identifying and collecting rele vant information for intercultural training (Wight and Hammons, 1970). An example of a role model used in Peace Corps training is shown in Appendix A. instruc tions will be modified to be appropriate for use in the USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program. Relationships designated in the model will serve as a point of departure for further exploration of a number of topics during the program. Factors that dif ferentiate a relationship with an American from that with a German, for example, will be analyzed against the influence of varying cultural backgrounds. The role model will also be used to suggest activities con sidered normal for the different relationships charted. In this manner, it will serve as the basis for both con tent and approach in the proposed program. If a given activity is especially significant in certain relation ships, participants will be exposed to that type of activity. Through the development of the role model, participants must clarify for themselves the roles they occupy in relation to one another, and what this means 96 in the perspective of the school setting. In the re quirement to specify existing and ideal roles, they must consider first, whether changes in the present situation are desired, and second, what recommendations for modification may he made. Participants will be requested to return the questionnaire indicating their expectations and role conceptualizations, to program administrators three weeks prior to the beginning of the program. From these data a program directed to the needs of the participants can be fashioned. Program Staff Two co-directors, one American and one German, engaged on a half-time basis, will comprise the core personnel of the USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program. The co-directors will not only oversee the program ses sions, but will maintain contact with participants in their classrooms between meetings. Individuals recruited for these positions should have expertise in group dyna mics and human relations. Experience in cross-cultural training is also highly desirable. in addition specialists on American culture and on German culture will participate to provide necessary 99 content through presentations, to which experiential activities will be related. Program exercises will also be designed in which American and German participants will serve as resources for one another, to foster a climate of active participation. Recommended Plan The USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program will encompass two phases, only the first of which will be addressed here. The initial segment will take place during the spring semester, and will be devoted to strategy for the development of intercultural effective ness and preparation for a second culture experience. Since the participants are teaching during weekdays, program sessions will be held over fourteen weekends, for six-hour periods on Saturdays. The second segment will be the actual analytic second culture experience occurring during the summer, for which participants will have been prepared in the spring. The description of the second phase is not within the scope of this study. Program Format So that the various activities of the program 100 may be able to effect optimal Impact on the individual, participants will be divided into five small groups of eight teachers, five of whom will be American and three German. Discussion and participation will take place for the most part in these subgroups, although some activities such as specialist presentations may be scheduled for the total group, This arrangement is intended to enhance the feeling of involvement in the program on the part of the individual. Conversely, it would avoid the impersonal atmosphere that may otherwise result from programming for a group of forty members. Program Description The first meeting of the USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program will consider as the initial item on the agenda, the experiential philosophy underlying the pro gram. Following introduction of staff and participants, program goals and objectives will be articulated in terms of the focus on developing intercultural effectiveness through an action-oriented program. The total group will then divide itself into small groups, as indicated previously. The role models developed by the partici pants as the initial assignment prior to the beginning 101 of the program, will be considered briefly as an introductory exercise, within each group one or two relationships between Americans and Germans will be selected from the models and elaborated upon in a short role-playing vignette to be presented before the total group. In effect, this activity is intended to illus trate, rather than explain, the experiential approach of the program. Wight and Hammons (1970) indicate that an experiential training program is better introduced by first having trainees experience experiential train ing, before they discuss it. The experience is designed to stimulate the interest of the participants in an orientation not found in traditional training programs, which tend to focus instead on information-transmission. It is also intended to acquaint participants with an example of the manner in which they will actively parti cipate in the learning process. The group will be mainly responsible for its own learning; staff personnel will function chiefly in a supportive capacity. To the participants, this initial assignment of constructing a role model and developing a related role-playing vignette, may be perceived as somewhat unstructured and ambiguous, a sense of anxiety may consequently be 102 generated which would be illustrative of the uneasiness and tension that often characterize an intercultural experience. Cues that have a certain meaning in the individual's first culture, may hold different signi ficance in a second culture. It will be explained that participants must become aware early that coping with ambiguity and lack of structure is very much a part of second culture learning. Program Methods. Subsequent to the preliminary phases of introduction of participants and staff, and program orientation, training will focus on selected activities which are directed toward effecting the competencies derived in Chapter IV. Participants will first consider in depth, the develop ment of the role model and its use in cross-cultural training. Each group will analyze its members' conceptualizations of their relationships with Americans and Germans. is there a conspicuous lack of relationships to second culture members in some models? what may be the reasons for this? Are the roles depicted valid? Do they reflect existing relationships accurately? What are the implications of these rela- 103 tlonships? If changes are desired, what specific modi fications would be appropriate? How would these be brought about ? As the role models are analyzed, it will be possible to develop activities or situational exercises in which the participants' relationships may be examined. The description of situations or critical incidents for example, will be related to the culture assimilator. This will serve as a primary means for participants to become aware of their cultural biases, that they are captives of their culture. It will also enable them to acquire more information about another culture, and in so doing, become more sensitive to the attitudes and values held by representatives of that culture. As a programmed learning device, the culture assimilator, according to Fiedler, Mitchell and Triandis (1971: 95) is designed to expose members of one culture to some of the basic concepts, attitudes, role perceptions, customs and values of another culture. There is no single culture assimi lator; different assimilators are needed for each pair of cultures .... Further more, assimilators can be general or specific . . . [and] can also vary a good deal [in content]. Patterned after the critical incident technique 104 developed by Flanagan (1954), the assimilator contains 70 to 100 brief episodes describing an intercultural encounter. The trainee is presented the episodes, each of which is accompanied by four responses to the encounter. He must select what he considers the most appropriate response to the situation described. The program provides a cultural rationale for each response, indicating why it is correct or incorrect. The trainee turns to the page explaining his choice. If the response selected is incorrect, the trainee must review the episode again, and make another response. Feedback on the cultural bases of the encounter and the alternatives given, is thus made immediately available to the trainee. An excerpt from an assimilator for the Iranian culture, reported in the Guidelines for Peace Corps Cross Cultural Training, is shown in Appendix B. The value of the assimilator lies in its requirement for the individual to interpret and evaluate various situations and to assimilate the information provided through immediate feedback as to the accuracy of his response. The method is fairly effective and 105 simple, but there are limitations associated with a paper and pencil instrument. For the purposes of the USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program, it may be possible to have the participants, on a small scale, engage in the development of a culture assimilator that focuses on the American and German cultures. Construction of the instrument is a complex process, but despite the high probability of unsophisticated results, the experience would be very valuable in providing greater insights into the target cultures. Moreover, participants will have been exposed to a somewhat similar instrument in the Test of Inter cultural Effectiveness (TIE), administered as a pretest, as in the case of the Berger Scales of Acceptance, to all teachers in potentially partici pating schools. This measure will comprise approxi mately sixty brief descriptions of critical situations involving intercultural encounters. The descriptive items will be related to the competencies postulated in the theoretical frame of reference for intercultural effectiveness, and to the subject areas, e.g., music, art, social studies, represented by the participants. 106 The TIE will be adapted from the Critical Incident Exercise used in Peace Corps training (see Appendix C) and will differ from the culture assimilator in the following respects: (1) incidents may be described in only three or four sentences; and (2) rather than multiple alternatives, the respondent will respond briefly in an open-ended manner. Predetermined criteria will be used to assess acceptability or non-accept ability of the answer. Pre and post test scores may then be compared to evaluate achievements of members of control and experimental groups. Despite the variations between the TIE and the culture assimilator, exposure to the former in the pretest situation may render less formidable the task of developing the latter. Fiedler, Mitchell and Triandis (1971: 97) have indicated that the assimilator must ideally include incidents which describe: (a) a common occurrence in which an American and a host national interact; (b) a situation which the American finds conflictful, puzzling, or which he is likely to misinterpret; and (c) a situation which can be interpreted in a fairly unequivocal manner, given sufficient knowledge about the culture. Finally, the incident must be relevant to the individual's task or mission requirements. 107 Within the framework indicated above, the culture assimilator as a cross-cultural training device in its various aspects, can be directed to development of the different competencies formulated in Chapter IV. These aspects will be discussed in terms of their relationship to the competencies, which will be listed again as an aid to the reader. Proposition IV-Ai The interculturally effective individual who accepts others of other cultures is sensitive to the feelings and reactions of members of another culture. Proposition iv-a t i He accepts different patterns of personal response from members of another culture. Proposition IV-A2 t He responds supportively to the cultural patterns and values of members of another culture. 108 The first set of competencies is primarily affectively toned, concerned with development of sensitivity to others of other cultures. This entails a sense of empathy, an ability to take the role of the other. By requiring the participant to interpret and evaluate appropriate behavior in various situations, the assimilator compels the individual to set aside his own cultural predispositions, and assume the cultural frame of reference of the other. In the excerpt from the Iranian assimilator given in Appendix B, the trainee must be sensitive to the feelings of the host national, who reflects the attitudes of his culture, and whose behavior is therefore influenced by his culture. When the trainee is able to accept the fact that people of another culture may respond differently to a given situation, his own behavior can be supportive of those responses. This does not, however, imply necessary rejection of his own cultural values. Proposition IV-Bt The interculturally effective individual who accepts others 109 of other cultures, values similarities and differences between his culture and others. Proposition IV-B1t He participates in the cultural patterns of others when appropriate. Proposition 1V-B2i He welcomes the participation of others in his cultural patterns when appropriate. * This set of competencies is both affective and cognitive in focus. Although valuing is an affective process, it assumes that the individual is first aware of the cultural similarities and differences in question. During the course of the development of the culture assimilator, the participant will identify various concepts of the second culture related to such areas as art, music, social studies, that lead to variation in behavioral patterns and values. The USDESEA teacher's investigation of family roles in American and German cultures, for example, will lead to greater understanding of the backgrounds of their students and also a valuing of both similarities and 110 differences that may be evident. Valuing of this kind may be expressed in the sharing of cultural patterns between Americans and Germans. An American participant may invite a German colleague to accompany him and his family to a local baseball game in which his young son is playing as a member of one of the teams. Such games may have great significance for this American family* demanding faithful attendance. This strong interest in sports may be supportive of an informal life style* and a close relationship between father and son frequently found in American homes. The pattern may contrast with the more formal relationship between a German father and son. Since the development of the culture assimilator requires the description of intercultural situations that reflect various facets of the target cultures* it encourages the participants to learn more about the cultures in question. This is accomplished through systematic acquisition of knowledge* as through specialist presentations* and participation in the cultural patterns being considered. Prom such informa tion and experience the individual may then learn to Ill value differences as well as similarities between his culture and others*. As an illustration, an incident may describe a German extending an invitation to after noon tea at his home, to an American colleague for the first time. However, the invitation coincides with a championship baseball game in which the American's son is playing. The American declines the offer of hospi tality, and asks for a "raincheck." The multiple choice alternatives developed will then provide varying interpretations. Does the German appreciate the signi ficance of the baseball game to the American? Is the latter aware that Germans do not lightly extend invi tations to their homes? The ramifications of this incident may be explored at length. Proposition iv-Ct The intercul- turally effective individual who accepts others of other cultures seeks mutually satisfying rela tionships with members of another culture. Proposition IV-Cit He engages in cooperative activities 112 with members of another culture. Proposition IV-C2t He wil lingly accepts from and gives assistance to members of another culture. This last set of competencies is mainly an affective concern. It stresses the interaction between people of different cultures beyond mere superficial contact, involving a relationship that is satisfactory to all participating parties. Development of the cul ture assimilator will necessitate the cooperation of American and German teachers. As resources for one another, they will also serve as sources of mutual assistance. Various field involvements will be iden tified and arranged in conjunction with concepts or aspects of the target cultures. A small group espe cially interested in music for example, may meet with the members of the Stuttgart Ballet Company, and attend one of its performances. The German participant, by virtue of his familiarity with the German community, may be able to facilitate arrangements for such a meet- 113 ing. The Involvement of his American colleagues in effecting these arrangements is essential for the learning of both. An interview with an American jazz artist who may be performing in Germany may also provide a point of comparison for the same group. But the facilitators here would be the Americans, who are expected to encour age the participation of the Germans in identifying appropriate people, making contact, etc. Allport (1954) found that intergroup relationships are positively affected when four major conditions obtain: (1) enjoy ment of equal status by the groups in the situation; (2) pursuit of common goals; (3) cooperative dependence; and (4) interaction with positive support of authorities, laws or customs. It is expected that in working together on common tasks, Americans and Germans may develop meaningful and satisfying relationships. Program Activities. Specific activities for the Intercultural Studies Program will be based primarily on the methods of the role model and the culture assimilator described above. After discussion of the ejq>eriential approach of the program, and the 114 analysis of the role models, various relationships specified in the latter may serve as a focus for the description of critical incidents for inclusion in the development of the culture assimilator. The American teacher's relationship to the German grocer, or the German teacher's interaction with an American parent may be targets of examination. The assignment for the construction of the cul ture assimilator will be kept as simple as possible in view of limitations in time and expertise. Music, art, social studies and language arts, the fields represented by the participants, will constitute the general subject areas to be covered. Five concepts, e.g., family roles, will be selected from these areas by the participants for inclusion in the program. Two weekend sessions will be devoted to each concept. Each group of eight parti cipants comprising five Americans and three Germans will designate the concept for which it will assume primary planning. In keeping with the emphasis on learner responsibility advocated by the experiential approach, each group will: (1) identify a qualified specialist on the subject for which they are accountable; (2) specify one appropriate related field experience for the total group of participants; and (3) make all arrangements for 1X5 the specialist presentation and total group field experience, both of which will be scheduled for the Saturday sessions. in addition, each group will arrange small group field visits for themselves, during the week with respect to the concept being considered at the time. The group of eight will have the latitude to plan these mid-week activities for two or three participants, etc., as they desire. Over the course of the program then, each group will be responsible once for total group activities in conjunction with one concept; it will, however, be involved in planning weekly small group activities related to all five concepts. In discharging their tasks, members of the group will have access to background information in articles selected by the staff as pertinent to the designated concepts. Such material will be compiled in a manual to be distributed to everyone. Participants may find suggestions for specialists and develop ideas for field experiences through reading of the manual. Drawing upon past experiences, and the knowledge gained through reading, specialist presentations and field experiences, each group will develop twenty 116 intercultural encounters descriptive of the five concepts addressed in the program. The incidents should also he related to the competencies formulated in chapter IV. Moreover, the situations depicted should involve signif icant interaction between members of the target cultures. An incident is significant according to Fiedler, Mitchell and Triandis (1971), if the occurrence makes a major difference in the attitudes or behavior toward the members of the other culture. Such an occurrence may be "pleasant, unpleasant, or simply non-under- standable." Participants will be encouraged to explore situations that may be suggested by the role models developed earlier. Approximately half of the incidents developed should involve situations with which students of the program participants may identify. Since ultimately, the USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program should benefit the students of the system, adaptation of the culture assimilator for use in the classroom may be one means of achieving such impact. Having developed the episodes, each group must then prepare four possible responses to each encounter. 117 The alternatives, with accompanying cultural rationale, must all be plausible interpretations of the situation. In effect then, the responses should provide the trainee with a rationale for interpreting the accuracy or inaccuracy of his answer, and assist him in building a frame of reference from which he may generalize to similar situations. As a recent development for use in cross-cultural training, the culture assimilator is not currently available for the American and German cultures. However, the product emanating from the USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program may be considered a first approximation of such an assimilator. The efforts of the separate groups will be consolidated to form a single culture assimilator of 100 items, from which approximately seventy may be culled and retained after an initial item analysis. This process will involve the following procedures: All participants will be administered the 100 items developed collectively in the program. Initially, they will react only to situations and alternative responses without availability of feedback. Each subject's responses will be recorded on a separate 1X8 sheet and submitted to program personnel. Results will be compiled to determine those incidents for which agreement is greatest. Following submission of their answer sheets, participants will then receive feedback for the situ ations and will discuss descriptions and the cultural rationale of the alternative responses. The opportunity of each group to review the total spectrum of items developed by all of the participants serves to enhance learning and to facilitate refinement of the instrument. Those seventy items for which participants' responses indicate greatest agreement, and for which there is concurrence in the discussion relative to clarity of description, will be retained for further validation. Program Outline. Hie activities that have been described for inclusion in the program are generally of four types. These include (1) dis cussions, (2) specialist presentations, (3) small group work sessions in which participants will be engaged in development of incidents for the culture assimilator, and (4) field experiences that will 119 involve the total group of participants on the weekend and small group members during the week. Although stress is placed upon participant responsibility for learning, staff personnel will provide a general frame work within which group members will have considerable latitude to exercise their own judgment. This is prompted by the necessity not only for general guidance, but by the relatively limited time available in the fourteen six-hour sessions of the program. One suggested framework for the weekly sessions is shown as follows: Session #1 1. Introduction of staff, program goals and objectives 2. Division of total group into five small groups 3. Discussion of role model; development of role-playing vignettes by small groups 4. Enactment of vignettes 5. Discussion of experiential approach— action-orientation, supportive staff functions, 120 learner responsibility, active involvement of participant— >and general program format (see Session #2) 6. Analysis of role models Session #2 1. Discussion of man as a creature of his culture; man’s cultural biases and predispositions 2. introduction and discussion of culture assimilator as primary tool for exploring society, including acquiring information about second culture, and engaging in intercultural experiences 3. Development of plans by small groups including selection of cultural concepts and general design of related activities for 121 description of intercultural incidents to be included in assimilator a. Each small group to identify and schedule specialist to make pre sentation on selected concept in first session devoted to concept. b. Each small group to identify and arrange total group field experience related to specialist presentation* in second session devoted to concept. c. Each small group to identify and participate in at least one small group field experience during the week* related to concept under consid eration* Small group 122 members may wish to arrange three or four such experiences for a given concept, each involving two or three members at a time. indi viduals will be encouraged to seek second culture involvement beyond minimum requirements of the program. Experience may then be shared during weekend small group work sessions. Session #3 through Session #12 Consideration of five concepts from four subject areas of music, art, language arts, and social studies. Two sessions will be devoted to each concept in the following formatt 123 1. First session a. Specialist presentation and group discussion b. Small group work on development of inter- cultural incidents 2. Second session a. Total group field experience b. Small group work on development of inter- cultural incidents Note: The small group field experience related to a specific concept will begin in the week prior to the first weekend session dealing with that concept. Session #12 Bach group to submit their twenty intercultural incidents to program personnel at the conclusion of the session, for compilation into a single assimilator. 124 Session #13 Administration of culture assim- ilator of 100 items to all participants, who submit responses on separate answer sheet for item analysis. Participants then review feedback on items. Clarity of item descriptions and validity of alternatives discussed by total group. Session #14 General evaluation 1. Administration of Final Evaluation Form 2. Open discussion Note: One week following conclusion of the program, all teachers in all schools designated for potential participation in the program will be administered the Test of Intercultural Effectiveness. 125 Evaluation of Program. Three measures will be used to assess the effectiveness of the program. The first is the Test of Xntercultural Effectiveness (TIE), which will be modelled generally after the Critical Incident Exercise mentioned previously. The instrument will be used as pretest and posttest to evaluate program success through measurement of participant gain. As with the Berger Scales of Acceptance, the TIE in the pretest situation will be administered to all teachers of schools from which participants would potentially be selected, without reference to the proposed program. Under posttest conditions, the TIE will be administered one week subsequent to the conclusion of the program, to all of the teachers who took the pretest. Mean gain scores of Group A (experimental group) and Group B (control group) will be compared. It may be expected that the mean gain for Group A will be significantly greater than that for Group B. Since only the former would have been subjected to the intervening treatment of the program, the larger gain in performance on the TIE for Group A may be attributed to the effectiveness of the program. 126 In addition, two rating scales will be completed by program participants as part of the evaluation process. The scales will include formative evaluations of program activities, e.g., specialist presentations and field experiences, as illustrated in Appendix D, and a final or summative evaluation. Which will be somewhat more general in scope and tone. This last measure, shown in Appendix E, will focus on the experiential philosophy of the program, and participant opinions as to whether or not it was successful in developing the competencies indicated as objectives at the outset of the program. To complete assessment of the degree to which the program met its objectives, the staff will also rate performance of participants. Such rating will be based on observation, participant participation, results of the TIE, and the Final Evaluation Form, modified in its references to the respondent. Use of the Final Evaluation Form by both participants and personnel will provide some indication of interrater reliability. Substantiation of Intercultural Competencies. Support for the relationship between the variable of 127 acceptance and the postulated Intercultural competencies will be drawn from a comparison of Group A and Group c. The former would have been selected on the basis of high scores on the Berger Scales of Acceptance and on the other selection factors, while recruitment of the latter would have been based on low scores on the same measures. Both samples would have been subjected to the same program treatment. For each group, scores on the Berger Scales of Acceptance will be correlated with those of the TIE. A greater correlation may be expected for the experimental group. Such a result would corroborate the relationship between acceptance of others of other cultures and the intercultural competencies postulated as the behavioral expression of that quality identified as essential for inter cultural effectiveness. 128 References 1. Allport, G.W. The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1954. 2. Berger, E.M. "The Relation Between Expressed Acceptance of Self and Expressed Acceptance of Others." Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1952, 47, 279-284. 3. Carpenter, John A. "Asian Studies and the Inter cultural Dimension of American General Education." Unpublished address to the Asian Studies Association Conference, March 31, 1973. 4. Fiedler, Fred E.; Mitchell, Terence; and Triandis, Harry C. "The Culture Assimilator: An Approach to Cross-Cultural Training." Journal of Applied Psychology. 1971, 55, 2, 95-102. 5. Flanagan, J.C. "The Critical Incident Technique." Psychological Bulletin, 1954, 51, 327-358. 6. Harrison, Roger and Hopkins, Richard L. "The Design of Cross-Cultural Training: An Alternative to the University Model.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences, 1W?, 3, 4, <Ki-4«iCi7------------------- 7. Rhinesmith, Stephen H. and Hoopes, David S. "The Learning Process in an Intercultural Setting." Readings in Intercultural Communication: volume II. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Regional Council for International Education, June, 1972. 8. Stewart, Edward c.; Danielian, Jack; and Foster, Robert J. Simulating Intercultural Communi cation Through Role-Playing. Washington. D.C.: Human Resources Research Office, George Washington University, n.d. 129 9. wight, Albert R. and Hammons, Mary Anne. Guidelines for Peace corps Cross-Cultural TraTninq. Parts I—IV. Estes Park, Coloradot Center for Research and Education, published under contract number PC-25-1710, Office of Training Support, Peace corps, Washington, D.C., March, 1970. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Critics have called to task in recent years, the field of international education as being too limited in its focus. It has restricted itself primarily to the preparation of specialists for highly specific efforts in the international realm, e.g., area studies, tech nical assistance, comparative education, etc. As a result, it has ignored the more general needs of the population at large. This neglect, this failure to recognize that the everyday citizen should learn about the peoples and cultures of the world, has engendered Carpenter's (1973)* charge to American education that the introduction of an intercultural dimension in general education be considered an essential objective. The underlying assumption is this: the type of information about other cultures needed by the layman may differ from that required by the specialist, but the former is no less critical in preparing the population at large *Carpenter, John A. The Intercultural Imper ative. Washington, D.C.: The American Association of State colleges and Universities, January, 1973. 130 131 to live effectively in a culturally pluralistic world. The absence of such preparation constitutes a denial of reality, a refusal to acknowledge that at all levels of our existence—-local, national, and international— cultural pluralism is a fact. Nurtured by such considerations, intercultural education has come into being as a field of study concerned with the processes by which members of differ ent cultures, within or across national boundaries, learn to understand and accept differences and similarities among cultures, and the contributions each has to offer. Within this general frame of reference, the development of competencies necessary for intercultural effectiveness in a culturally pluralistic world, is a central issue. The preparation of teachers in this respect becomes a critical first step in the introduction of an inter cultural dimension in general education. Prompted by a concern for theoretical rationale in the development of intercultural effectiveness, the present study was conceived as a possible prototype for the systematic investigation of ways in which individuals may be prepared to be interculturally effective. The findings of theory and practice were combined in a com- 132 plementary approach to the two-pronged problem of: (1) Identifying relevant competencies, particularly in the affective domain, that contribute to the intercul tural effectiveness of teachers; and (2) attempting to specify an appropriate strategy for effecting those competencies. The four major questions addressed by the study were as follows: 1. Is consideration of the personal quali ties of the individual valid for specifi cation of intercultural competencies? 2. What affective and cognitive compe tencies are regarded as relevant for intercultural effectiveness? 3. On the basis of research results and recorded authoritative experience, is it feasible to identify theoretical bases for the development of inter cultural effectiveness? 4. could rationale evolving from such theoretical support be applied to specific program planning for second culture learning as it relates to the educational milieu? 133 The research design and methodology of the current investigation were developed with these questions in mind. Review of relevant literature, including theo retical principles and empirical evidence primarily in the fields of psychology and anthropology, indicated that response to the first three inquiries could be in the affirmative. Similarly, it was also determined that the theoretical frame of reference developed, could serve as a basis for planning of a program for a second culture learning experience. Cross-cultural training principles taken mainly from work in the Peace Corps, were also valuable in designing of the program. An implicit issue underlying the four questions raised, was whether the general approach adopted to investigate the two-fold problem, was a feasible one. The positive answer to that question may perhaps be seen more clearly in a brief description of the methods under taken. The first phase of the study was concerned with establishment of a theoretical foundation for inter cultural effectiveness. A major assumption here was stated in Chapter IV as follows* intercultural effec tiveness is a function of the personal qualities of the 134 Individual. One outgrowth of this assertion was that these qualities may be described in terms of selected variables. Support for these descriptive statements was found in theoretical literature and in empirical evidence. Specifically, the variable of acceptance was investigated in this study for its possible relationship to intercultural effectiveness. Other qualities, e.g., empathy and trust, may be similarly explored, adding in this manner to information about the subject. The resulting theoretical frame of reference encompassed three aspects of the variable of acceptance. Self-acceptance was seen as a basic pre-condition related to acceptance of others. The acceptance of others of other cultures, regarded as essential for intercultural effectiveness, was conceived of as a specialized instance of acceptance of others. Having identified and substantiated specific qualities of the individual as being associated with intercultural effectiveness, the next task was the translation of this subjective state into observable behavior. The procedure used was one of logical deduction, involving the postulation of behaviorally defined competencies for which support could be provided 135 by a correlational research design. Scores on acceptance and on intercultural effectiveness would be correlated for each of two samples. Twenty*five American teachers and fifteen German host nation teachers of USDESEA would comprise each group. Selected on the basis of high acceptance scores. Group A would be expected to have a higher correlation than Group C, recruited according to low acceptance scores. The second phase of the study centered on the development of a program plan for second culture learning directed to effecting the competencies postulated as essential for intercultural effectiveness. Although the plan specifically involved selected American teachers of music, art, language arts and social studies, and the German host nation teachers of USDESEA, it drew upon fundamental principles of cross-cultural training (e.g., the experiential emphasis on learning how to learn), that may be applied to other populations such as private business and government personnel serving overseas. The strategies used were deliberately restricted in number because of the limited period of the program, and were particularly addressed to the competencies involved. Other activities may be more 136 appropriate for different competencies. The critical incident exercise, the role model, and the culture assimilator were selected for use in the proposed USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program. In adapting them to the specific competencies concerned, five concepts from the subject areas of music, art, language arts, and social studies, served as the focal point for participants' experiences. Emphases were placed on learner responsibility, and participant plan ning and implementation of activities. The problem of determining program effective ness then led to inclusion of evaluation measures in the plan. One such instrument, the Test of intercultural Effectiveness, was to be used as pretest and posttest to gauge the development of the postulated inter cultural competencies. Support for the effectiveness of the program was to obtained through the compari son of two equivalent groups of forty teachers each, selected on the basis of appropriate criteria, including high degree of acceptance of self and others. The total number of eighty individuals selected would be ran domly assigned to an experimental group (Group A) and a control group (Group B). It was expected that 137 attainment of a significantly higher gain between pretest and posttest on the TIE by the experimental group would indicate the degree to which the program was successful in developing in participants, the competencies identified as essential for intercultural effectiveness. In addition to the TIE, other measures of program effectiveness included formative and summative rating scales to be completed by participants. Finally, program personnel, on the basis of review of participant participation, TIE results, and observation, would also rate the teachers. Furthermore, the Final Evaluation Form would be modified to permit staff assessment of the American and German participants that could be compared with the self-rating of the teachers. Perhaps it can be said that the value of the program designed to effect intercultural competencies lies not only in its capacity to train a given number of participants; it is evident also in its potential to reach other individuals. Specifically, three means of diffusion may be mentioned briefly. First, the culture assimilator, sufficiently refined, may be used as a programmed self-instructional device to train other 138 teachers in the USDESEA system. Second, it may be adopted for classroom use to develop intercultural competencies in students. Active involvement of pupils to describe their own incidents may greatly stimulate second culture learning. The role models may be simi larly employed with other teachers or with students, although its use, unlike that of the culture assimilator, requires more guidance from a skilled leader. Such a function may well be performed by the participant who successfully completes the USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program. Third, the participant-graduate may become a teacher leader to assist his colleagues to develop intercultural competencies. This assistance could be provided on a continuing basis, e.g., visiting class rooms one day a week. Another alternative would be to involve the former participant in regularly scheduled in-service workshops. The intercultural dimension could thus be systematically introduced into the school system. But despite the affirmative responses to the questions posed and the positive implications noted, this study, while complete in terms of the objectives for which it was conceived, represents only a beginning 139 Into the exploration of intercultural effectiveness. As a possible model for systematic investigation of the subject, the current research effort remains tenta tive until such time as implementation of the program plan confirms or rejects the competencies postulated as essential for intercultural effectiveness. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Adorno, T.W.; Frenkel-Brunswik, Else; Levinson, D.; and Sanford, R.N. The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950. Allport, G.w. The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Addison-wasley, 1954. The Person in Psychology. Boston; Beacon, ---------- l96ff-------------- Bidwell, Percy M. Undergraduate Education in Foreign Affairs. New York: Columbia University Press, TVGT.- Bloom, B.S. 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Personality and Social Behavior. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1970. Jones, Richard M. An Application of Psychoanalysis to Education. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C ~ . Thomas, Publisher, 1960. Kenworthy, Leonard. World Horizons for Teachers. New Yorks Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952. Kibler, Robert J.; Barker, Larry L.; and Miles, David F. Behavioral Objectives and Instruction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1970. Krathwohl, D.R.; Bloom, B.S.; and Masia, B. A Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II, The Affective Domain. New York: David McKay, r w r . --------------- Linton, Ralph. The Study of Man. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1936. Mann, L. Social Psychology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1969. Rogers, Carl R. Client-Centered Therapy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Riverside Press, 1951. Rokeach, M. The Open and Closed Mind. New York: Basic Books The Ope; , 1S«5. Selltiz, Claire; Jahoda, Marie; Deutsch, Morton; and Cook, Stuart W. Research Methods in Social Relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1959. 143 Stewart, Edward C.; Danielian, Jack; and fobter, Robert J. Simulating intercultural Communication Through Role-Playing, Washington, D.C.: Human Resources Research Office, George Washington University, n.d. Stolurow, L.M. et al. Critical Incidents with Hetero- cultural Interactions. Urbana, Illinois: Illinois University, Training Research Laboratory, TR 42, U.S. Department of the Navy, Office of Naval Research Group Psychology Branch, October, 1966. Stouffer, S.A., et al. The American Soldier. Vol. II: Combat and Its Aftermath. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1949. Taylor, Harold. World as Teacher. New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1969. Valentine, Charles. Culture and Poverty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968. Wight, Albert R. and Hammons, Mary Anne. Guidelines for Peace Corps Cross-Cultural Training. Parts I-IV. Estes Park, Colorado: Center for Research and Education, published under contract number PC-25-1710, Office of Training Support, Peace Corps, Washington, D.C., March, 1970. B. ARTICLES Berger, Emanuel M. “The Relation Between Expressed Acceptance of Self and Expressed Acceptance of Others." Journal of Abnormal and social Psychology, 1952, 47, 778-782. Boas, Frans. “Racial Purity." Asia. May, 1940, 40, n.p. Chemers, Martin M. "Cross-Cultural Training as a Means for Improving Situational Favorableness." Human Relations, 1969, 22, 6, 531-546. 144 Fey, W.F. "Acceptance by Others and Its Relation to Acceptance of Self and Others: A Reevaluation." journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1955, 50-51, 274-276. Fiedler, Fred E.; Mitchell, Terence; and Triandis, Harry C. "The Culture Assimilator: An Approach to Cross-Cultural Training." Journal of Applied Psychology, 1971, 55, 2, 95-102. Flanagan, J.C. "The critical Incident Techniaue." Psychological Bulletin, 1954, 51, 327-358. _________. "Techniques for Developing Critical Requirements from critical Incidents." American Psychologiat, 1949, 4, 236. Foster, Robert J. and Danielian, Jack. "An Analysis of Human Relations Training and its Implications for Overseas Performance." In Roger DeCrow, ed. Cross-Cultural Interaction Skillsi A Digest of Recent Training Literature. ED 029 159. New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education, 1969. Gullahorn, J.T. and Gullahorn, J.E. "An Extension of the U-Curve Hypothesis." journal of Social Issues. 1963, 19, 3, 33-47. Haigh, Gerard. "Field Training in Human Relations for the Peace Corps." in Roger DeCrow, ed. Cross- Cultural Interaction Skills: A Digest of Recent Training LiteratureJ ED 029 159. New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education, 1969. Haimowitz, Morris L. and Haimowitz, Natalie R. "Reducing Ethnic Hostility Through Psychotherapy." Journal of Social Psychology. 1950, 31, 231-241. Harrison, Roger and Hopkins, Richard L. "The Design of Cross-Cultural Training: An Alternative to the University Model." Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences. 1967, 3, 4, 431-460. 145 Haskew, Laurence DeFee. "Education in Human Relations." In Karl Bigelow, ed. Cultural Groups and Human Relatione. Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1970. Jacobsen, Eugene. "Sojourn Research." journal of social Issues. 1963, 19, 3, 123-129. Lundstedt, Sven. "An Introduction to Some Evolving Problems in Cross-Cultural Research." Journal of Social Issues. 1963, 19, 3, 1-9. McIntyre, Charles. "Acceptance by Others and Its Relation to Acceptance of Self and Others." Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology. 1952, 47, 624-626. Mildenberger, Kenneth W. "The Federal Government and the Universities." International Education; Past, Present. Problem~and Prospects— Selected Readings to Supplement H.R. 14645"! Washington, D.C. : Task Force on International Education, committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, October, 1966. Mishler, Anita. "Personal Contact in International Exchanges." in H.C. Kelman, ed. International Behavior: A Social-Psychological Analysis^ New York: Holt, Rinehart ana Winston, 1965. Omwake, K. "The Relationship Between Acceptance of Self and Acceptance of Others Shown by Three Personal ity Inventories." Journal of Consulting Psychology. 1954, 18, 443-446. Phillips, Claude S. Jr. "World Affairs in Secondary Education: A Sample Survey." Michigan Journal of Secondary Education. Fall, 1965. . "The Role of Colleges and Universities." International Education: Past, present. Problems and Prospects— Selected Readings to Supplement H.R. 14643. Washington, B.C.: Task Force on International Education, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, October, 1966. 146 Reed, Howard A. "Bringing Intercultural Education into Focus on U.S. Campuses." International Educational and Cultural Exchange. Washington, D.C.: U.S. AdvisoryCommission on International Educational and Cultural Affairs, Fall, 1966. Rhinesmith, Stephen H. and Hoopes, David S. "The Learning Process in an Intercultural Setting." In Readings in Intercultural Communication: Volume III Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Regional Council for inter national Education, June, 1972. Rosenberg, M. "Self-Esteem and Concern with Public Affairs." Public Opinion Quarterly. 1962, 26, 201—211” Cited in Elizabeth L. Simpson. Democracy’s Stepchildren. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Pub lishers, 1971. Sampson, Donald L., and Smith, Howard. "A Scale to Measure world-Minded Attitudes." Journal of Social Psychology. 1957, 45, 99-166. Selltiz, Claire and Cook, Stuart W. "Factors Influencing Attitudes of Foreign Students Toward the Host Country." Journal of Social issues. 1962, 18, 1, 7-23. Sheerer, Elizabeth. "An Analysis of the Relationship Between Acceptance of and Respect for Others in Ten counseling Cases." Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1949, 13, 16 9-175. Snyder, Richard c. "Introduction." in Judith V. Torney and Donald N. Morris. Global Dimensions in U.S. Education: The Elementary School. New York: Center for War/Peace Studies, March, 1972. Watson, Guy A. "Training for cross-cultural Teaching." Audiovisual Instruction. 1969, 14, 50-54. Yousef, Fathi S. "Cross-Cultural Testing: An Aspect of the Resistance Reaction." Language Learning. 1968, 18, 3 & 4, 227-234. 147 Ziller, R-C-* Hagey, J. r Smith, M D.C.* and Long, B.H. "Self-Esteem: A Self-Social Construct." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1969, 33, 1, 84-95. Citad in Elizabeth L. Simpson. Democracy's Step children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers, 1971. C. REPORTS AMD PAPERS Berne, John H. Institute for Secondary School Teachers to Seek Methods of Increased interculturaT Understanding^ Final Report, Warrenton, Va.: The Bridge, 1969. Bohannan, Paul. In "preliminary Review of the Inter cultural Dimension in International/lntercultural Education Grades K-14." Boulder: Social Sciences Education Consortium, Inc., October, 1972. (Unpublished report). Bordie, John G. "Cultural Sensitivity Training for the Teacher of Spanish-Speaking Children." Paper presented at the Third Annual TESOL Convention, Chicago, March 5-8, 1969. Carpenter, John A. "Asian Studies and the Intercultural Dimension of American General Education." Unpublished address to the Asian Studies Association Conference, March 31, 1973. Carpenter, John A. Personal communication, April, 1973. Coopersmith, Stanley. "Building Self-Esteem in the Classroom." 1973. (Unpublished paper). Gearing, Fred. ' “ Mankind1 Empirically." Buffalo: State University of New York, 1970. (Unpublished paper). 148 Gullahorn, J.T., and Gullahorn, J.E. "American Students in France." Washington, D.C. : Inter national Educational Exchange Service, U.S. Department of State, 1956. (Mimeographed). Hermann, Margaret G. "Some Personal Characteristics Related to Foreign Aid Voting of congress men." M.A- Thesis, Northwestern University, 1963. Cited in H.C. Kelman, ed. Inter national Behavior; A Social-PsycholoqTcal Analysis. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. Mathieson, Moira B. and Tatis, Rita M. "Multicultural Education: A Selected Annotated Biblio graphy." Washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education, September, 1970. (Mimeographed). Olson, Allen D. "25 Years; A History of the United States Dependents Schools European Area (USDESEA)." 1971. (Unpublished paper). Rutan, James Scott. "Self Acceptance As a Function of Short Term Small Group Experience." Unpublished dissertation, Boston Univer sity Graduate School, 1971. Simpson, Elizabeth L. "International/lntercultural Education: A Re-Examination and a Tentative Model." University of Southern California, 1972. (Unpublished paper). Smith, M.B. "The Peace Corps in a West-African country." Unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, St. Louis, Missouri, September, 1962. University of Minnesota. "Urban Area Elementary student Teaching Program." Minneapolis: The University, 1970. APPENDICES APPENDIX A Role Model Exercise* The objectives for this exercise are: 1. To construct a role model that shows signi ficant work and social relationships between the training community and yourself. a. To identify within this community, the categories of existing relationships. b. To identify, through a pattern of roles, the lines of authority, support, respon sibility, etc. 2. To demonstrate an understanding of a concept or design for mapping significant relation ships which can assist you in focusing on your role within a community. (See below.) In the following weeks we will be discussing the role model concept in small groups. It is felt the second objective is an overall goal for this and several other exercises. General Scope and Purpose of Role Model Instrument The role model diagram is designed to graphi cally illustrate the relationships between yourself and those others in the community with whom you have been *Albert Wight and Mary Anne Hammons, Guidelines for Peace Corps Cross-Cultural Training. Part II: Spe cific Methods ana Techniques (Estes Park. Colorado: CenterforResearch and Education, published under Con tract No. PC-25-1710, Office of Training Support, Peace Corps, Washington, D.C., March, 1970), C-9 - c-10. Reprinted by permission. 150 151 working and living. It is intended to help you see and think about these relationships so that you can have a better, more productive role in that community by know ing exactly where you stand in relation to others who you may have to depend upon or who may have to depend upon you, in the future. The role model is not intended to show every person in the community, but should include at least a sample of all the various relationships which you have developed in the community. You will be drawing, in this exercise, a role model of yourself in the context of this training com munity. The design and scope of the model is appli cable to any community in which you may find yourself. It should be clearly understood that this exercise is only intended to give you practice in the design and construction of such a models You will later be asked to construct a model of your field training community after the second field trip, and it is hoped that you will continue to use this instrument to construct a model of your community in Panama, once you are a Volunteer, in order to help you analyze your situation and do a more effective job in the field. The value of this exercise lies not in the quality or complexity of the drawing you make, but rather in the analysis, thought, and investigation which must necessarily go into its construction. Also, the analysis of the completed product and the insights about your position in the coimnunity that will come with this analysis should not be overlooked. Instructions for this Exercise 1. Dividing the training community into work and social areas, analyze your role and relationship to those individuals with whom you come in contact. It is understood that some contacts may be both work and social. This should be indi cated by drawing that contact in both areas 152 with your role clearly indicated in both. That is, your relationship to a specific trainer may be distant during work but close during off hours or vice versa. 2. Draw from each type of relationship at least one sample which you feel comfortable about writing into the role model. e.g. Close and distant trainee relation ships. Close and distant, control or respon sibility relationships with trainers. Control or lack of aontrol relation ships with the administration. Relationships with the wageboard, cooks, etc. who make up a part of this community. Relationships you have built up with the language staff, etc. 3. Construct the role model on blank paper. You may have to reshuffle the positions of the various people on the paper a number of times until you are satisfied that it is as accu rate as you can get it. 4. Put your name on the paper so that they can be redistributed during the analysis and evaluation exercise. 5. Turn the model into the Program Office no later them Friday, July 18th. If you have any questions at all in the con struction of the role model, feel free to ask the assistance of the training staff at any time. Instructions for the Construction of a Personal Role Model On the following page is an exeunple of a hypo- 153 thetical role model as if you were a volunteer. Basi cally, it is divided into two areas, work and social. The work area, above the horizontal, shows those people with whom you actually work in the field. It is, of course, necessarily incomplete in deference to clarity. Those people indicated closest to the vertical are those who can exercise direct control over your actions while you are in the field. The closeness to the vertical indicates the amount of direct control so that the Peace Corps Director is directly above the "YOU" posi tion right on the vertical. The nearness to the "YOU" position indicates the amount of personal closeness that the person has. Therefore, the Director, who you may see and talk to only about three or four times is far ther away than the host country counterpart with whom you will be in contact probably every day. The arrow line indicates the direction of control so that the Host Country Agency Director can control you, to a limited extent in that you may be, at least in part, responsible to him for your actions, but the control, (or if you prefer, responsibility) between "YOU" and the co-op president is going in both directions. The graphic symbols of the role model are there fore : A horizontal dividing line between work and social areas. A dimension of direct control indicated by the closeness or distance from the vertical. A dimension of personal contact as indicated by the nearness of the individual to the "YOU" position. An indication of the direction of responsi bility or control through the use of an arrow. 154 P.C. Director HCN Agency Director Co-op President HCN Counterpart Fellow PCVs Mayor WORK YOU, SOCIAL Fellow PCVs Family Where You Eat 155 APPENDIX B Culture Assimilator* The culture assimilator consists of 70 to 100 items, each describing a brief episode of an inter cultural encounter, four alternative answers, and a discussion of each answer, including an explanation of the cultural basis for the correct answer and further ins tructions. An example from the Iranian assimilator deve loped by M. Chemers is presented on the following pages. 98 An American Peace Corpsman was working as an agricultural advisor in a small Iranian village. He often felt confused by the behavior of the villagers. At times a villager would ask for some advice on a certain technique. After thoughtful consideration, the Corpsman would give his opinion only to find later that it was ignored. In one particular instance, a peasant named Fereydoun, who owned a small piece of land, asked for some advice on plow ing methods. The Corpsman was not sure of his answer and wanted to consult a few manuals, so he told Fereydoun to come to his office the next morning, and he would tell him what to do. However, the next morning Fereydoun did not come, and when the Corpsman sought him out, he found that Fereydoun had already started the plowing his own way. ♦Albert Wight and Mary Anne Hammons, Guidelines for Peace Corps Cross-Cultural Training, Part 11j clftc Methods and Techniques t&fctes PkVk, U616fMfl:--- Center for nesearcn ana Education, published under Con tract No. PC-25-1710, Office of Training Support, Peace Corps, Washington, D.C., March 1970), C-882 - C-884. Reprinted by permission. 156 99 What do you think is the best explanation for Fereydoun's actions? A. When the Peace Corpsman said he was not sure of the plowing method, Fereydoun dismissed him as a valuable source of information. Go to page 100 B. Fereydoun was offended by being asked to come to the Corpsman*s office and felt that the Corpsman should come to his farm. Go to page 101 C. The average Iranian is very impatient, even with short delays, and Fereydoun wanted to begin his plowing. Go to page 102 D. Iranian peasants believe that traditional ways are the only ways and will not listen to any advice. Go to page 103 157 100 You chose At When the Peace Corpsman said he was not sure of the plowing method, Fereydoun dismissed him as any valuable source of information. Correct. Very good! This was a subtle problem, but a very important one for anyone who lives or works in Iran. Since the Peace Corpsman was sent as an expert advisor, in the eyes of his subordinates, the village peasants, he is expected to know every thing about his field. Any hesitation or delay to seek further knowledge is taken as a sign of weakness and lack of knowledge. Thus, a person who has no special knowledge need not be listened to. A more successful method for the Peace Corpsman might have been to provide a tentative answer which would have occupied the villager until the Corpsman could be sure of the definitely correct procedure. Indeed, his hesitation with other peasants, in an effort to give the best possible answer, may have been inter preted by them as uncertainty, and thus the advice ignored. Go to page 104 158 101 You chose B: Fereydoun was offended by being asked to come to the Corpsman1s office and felt that the Corpsman should come to his farm. Incorrect. In the evaluation of this alternative you would draw on your knowledge of the importance of status and role in such a situation. Since the Peace Corpsman is, in essence, a resident expert, his status would be higher than that of a peasant. Fur thermore , the peasant was seeking a favor in the form of advice. Considering both of these facts, it would not be at all likely that Fereydoun was offended by the request, but rather that he considered it quite natural. Reread the passage on page ££ and make another choice. 102 You chose C: The average Iranian is very impa tient, even with short delays, and Fereydoun wanted to begin his plowing. Incorrect. You have made the common error of attributing American characteristics to the Iranian. In fact, the average Iranian is not greatly concerned with time and rigid schedules and is not usually impatient over a short delay. There is another, more important factor which accounts for Fereydoun*s actions• Reread the passage on page 9J0 and make another choice. 159 103 You chose Di Iranian peasants believe that traditional ways are the only ways and will not listen to any advice. Incorrect. Although this answer seems possible at first glance, it is not completely accurate. While it is true that in most countries, the peasants are quite traditional and have a tendency to cling to the old ways, other factors must be taken into account. Agricultural advisors have generally been fairly well received by the Iranian peasants and their ideas put to use when feasible. Furthermore, the passage relates that Fereydoun asked for the Peace Corpsman* s help, and probably, really wished to use it. Reread the passage on page 98 and make another choice. 160 APPENDIX C Critical Incidents Exercise* Instructions to the Trainees In the following pages you will be presented with a series of incidents or situations which are typi cal of those commonly experienced by Peace Corps Volun teers. None is necessarily related to another. They represent a random sampling of Volunteer reports from the field. Reach each incident carefully, studying the entire situation with all its implications. Then respond to the following questions regarding the inci dent on the separate answer sheet. 1. Do you regard this particular incident as a success or a failure in relation to the activities of the Volunteer and the goals of the Peace Corps? How much do you agree or disagree with the action taken by the Volunteer? Indicate your response by selecting one of the nine points on the scale provided for each inci dent on the separate answer sheet. Write the appro priate number in the space provided. 2. When you have completed question 1 for a particular incident, indicate in a very brief statement why you responded as you did and what you would do if you were the Volunteer in that situation. The space for your answers is provided on the separate answer sheet. *Albert Wight and Mary Anne Hammons, Guidelines for Peace Corps Cross-Cultural Training, Part^fcii spe cific rtetnods and Techniaues (testes park, coioraaoi center cor Research and Education, published under Con tract No. PC-25-1710, Office of Training Support, Peace Corps, Washington, D.C., March 1970), C-209. Reprinted by permission. 161 WORK RAPIDLY. When you have completed all the Incidents, place your answer sheet inside the booklet and return it. Be sure that your name is on the answer sheet. 162 (Example of the Critical Incidents Answer Sheet. Additional Pages should be Added, Depending on the Number of Items.)* Critical Incidents Exercise For each item, select your reaction from the following scale, then answer the other questions. The number you select from the scale should indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the opinions, attitudes, or actions of the PCV in each incident. 4) X! 4) • u O * 4) +J o • 0 4 1 U 4 > L >1 >i •H B 4) B 4) 4) O' -P 6 >* I— 1 • i— t . 4) V 4 ft) 0 H 4) < D 4) 4) 4 > 4) M W O' 0 tn 3 o +J 4) +j Q i 4) < 0 4) O' ft) ft) B "H O* >1 +> 4) U D 4 ) h U U R ) m *o • -P «H • 4) • b h t r O' 4) tn 4) ’H 4) 4) +J n 4) 4) • — t V a <o o a 4 0 (0 -M 4 0 C 4) *0 4) C 4) & ?* S w B g w m n) U H 3 u xi B 4) U i u O -H H O *H ■H 3 -H O' m O'X! O' r l H O O' U T3 < O T3 a tr a +1 < to < +* ft) < a ft) C J 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 s 9 1. Agreement What would you do? Why? 2. Agreement What would you do? Why? *Albert Wight and Mary Anne Hammons, Guidelines forPeaceCorps Cross-Cultural Training, Pert I I : Spe cific Methodsand Techniques (Estes Park, Colorado* Center tor Hesearcn ana Education, published under Con tract No. PC-25-1710, Office of Training Support, Peace Corps, Washington, D.C., March 1970), C-210. Reprinted by permission. Agreement Why? Agreement Why? Agreement Why? Agreement Why? What would you do? What would you do? What would you do? What would you do? 164 Examples of Critical Incidents* 1. I had a teacher who was particularly resistant to science as a subject. She avoided it as much as possible prior to my arrival, and was very resentful of me as a science teacher. I think much of this was out of fear of failure. I actually had to exaggerate my attentions to her, building her up in all ways. I praised her every effort and pretended not to be aware of her failures. She has become a very enthu siastic science teacher and she is like a child when discovering new things. 2. Upon my arrival at my job as teacher, I found a dila pidated school with buildings which needed repair. Perfectly good equipment was unused, and the sanita tion was atrocious. The principal was new and unsure of himself, had a poor staff, and needed and wanted help. For two weeks I investigated all aspects of the situation, poking into every nook and asking a thousand questions, and listing everything that needed to be repaired, replaced, cleaned, or altered. 1 knew the staff wouldn't be any help, so I was per sonally able to solve most of them. 3. One of my main projects was to instill in the chil dren a desire to read. I started a small library with books that had been sent from home. The host national teachers were all for this, of course, but for the most part I was the one who organized it and set it up. In the beginning the teachers cooperated in getting more books, and the idea of things such as a story hour in every class at least once a week Albert Wight and Mary Anne Hammons, Guidelines for Peace Corps Cross-cultural Training, Part IIi Spe cific 'Methods ana Techniques fEstes Park. Coloradot Center for Research and Education, published under Con tract No. PC-25-1710, Office of Training Support, Peace Corps, Washington, D.C., March 1970), C-205 - C-206. Reprinted by permission. (The incidents shown here were particularly selected from the Guidelines as illustrations of teaching situations). 165 was well accepted. The children enjoyed it and looked forward to it. We soon outgrew the faci lities in the office and I began thinking about finding a larger place. In our school grounds there was a small cement floor covered by a roof. The head teacher and I decided to look into the cost of making it into a small library. There was a saw mill in the village and we went to see the manager. The owner was there at the time and he was overwhelmed with the "poor American sacrificing so." Before I knew it he had offered to build a library for our school. Now we have our library and the children are making good use of it, but the other teachers will not come into it. 4. During the end of a school year the top students in my class are chosen as honor students. Much too often only the students with influential parents are selected by the principal and other teachers, regardless of academic achievement. I confronted the principal and the others with my rankings of the students, taken from written tests and oral recitations in class, and insisted that we stress academic achievement rather than parents' influence in developing the "honor list." At my insistence, my rankings were accepted instead of the principal's list which was based on the parents' social standing in the community. 166 APPENDIX D USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program Participant Formative Evaluation Form Name Date Specialist Organization and Position_ Title of Presentation Please check the response that best reflects your feel ings. Be sure to complete all items. 1. Was the concept appropriate for inclusion in the program? Very Somewhat Not Appro- Appro- Appro- Appro- priate ___ priate ___ priate ___ priate 2. Was the specialist an effective speaker? Very Somewhat Not Effective Effective Effective Effective 3. Was the material organized? Very Somewhat Not Organized Organized Organized Organized 4. Was the coverage of the concept adequate? Very Somewhat Not Adequate Adequate Adequate Adequate Do you feel that you have a better understanding of the subject as a result of the presentation? Much Better Under standing Better Under standing Fair Under standing No Better Under standing What do you consider were the three most significant points made in the presentation? List briefly. a. b. Did the presentation affect the way you perceive members of the other culture? Yes No Explain why or why not?__________________________ Did the presentation cover specific cultural patterns, values or attitudes which facilitated your acceptance of the second culture? Yes No Explain why or why not?_________________________ Additional comments or recommendations 169 APPENDIX E USDESEA Intercultural Studies Program Participant Final Evaluation Form Name Date We would like your candid reactions to the program to help us assess and improve our planning and implementa tion in future efforts. It is essential that you com plete all items and be as specific as possible in your responses. Unless all items are completed, we cannot obtain an accurate picture of your achievements, and what contribution the USDESEA Intercultural Studies Pro gram made toward those achievements. 1. What were the most significant aspects of the pro gram? List and explain why briefly. a. b. c. 2. Was the overall plan for the program clear? Very Somewhat Not Clear Clear ___Clear Clear Explain briefly.___________________________________ 170 3. Has the program flexible enough to give you direc tion over your own learning? Very Somewhat Not Flexible Flexible Flexible Flexible Explain briefly.______________________________________ 4. Is the experiential approach an effective method for second culture learning? Very Somewhat Not Effective Effective Effective Effective Explain briefly. 5. Do you feel that information transmission through lectures and readings may be more effective for second culture learning than the experiential approach? Very Somewhat Not Effective Effective Effective Effective Explain briefly 171 Indicate the degree to which the program was successful in enabling you to be: 6. Sensitive to the feelings and reactions of members of another culture. Very Somewhat Not Successful Successful Successful Successful Explain briefly. ________________________________ 7. Accept different ways in which members of another culture may react in a given situation. Very Somewhat Not Successful Successful Successful Successful Explain briefly. 8. Support the patterns and values of members of another culture. Very Somewhat Not Successful Successful Successful Successful Explain briefly. 9. Value differences as well as similarities between cultures. Very Somewhat Not Successful Successful Successful Successful 172 Explain briefly. 10. Participate in cultural patterns of others. Very Somewhat Not Successful Successful Successful Successful Explain briefly._______________________________________ 11. Welcome participation of others in your cultural patterns. Very Somewhat Not Successful Successful Successful Successful Explain briefly._______________________________________ 12. Seek mutually satisfying relationships with members of another culture. Very Somewhat Not Successful Successful Successful Successful Explain briefly. 173 13. Cooperate with members of another culture. Very Somewhat Not Successful Successful Successful Successful Explain briefly.______________________________________ 14. Accept from and give assistance to members of another culture. Very Somewhat Not Successful Successful Successful Successful Explain briefly._______________________________________ 15. What comments or recommendations would you have on the program. Thank you for your assistance.

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Creator Young, Vera Yook Ing (author)

Core Title Toward intercultural effectiveness: development of a rationale and strategy for second culture learning

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, general,OAI-PMH Harvest,Sociology, general

Language English

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Advisor O'Neill, William S. (committee chair), Kimizuka, Sumako (committee member), Nelson, D. Lloyd (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-879088

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Rights Young, Vera Yook Ing

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA