University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Development And Evaluation Of A Personal Management Program And Its Effects Upon The Self-Concept And Perceived Locus-Of-Control Of Blind Adolescent Females

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The Development And Evaluation Of A Personal Management Program And Its Effects Upon The Self-Concept And Perceived Locus-Of-Control Of Blind Adolescent Females

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Content THE DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A PERSONAL
M ANAGEMENT PROGRAM AND ITS EFFECTS UPON
THE SELF-CONCEPT AND PERCEIVED LOCUS OF
CONTROL OF BLIND ADOLESCENT FEMALES
by
T e s s a A lb e r t W arschaw
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d t o t h e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e
R e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e D e g re e
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(E d u c a tio n )
June 1973
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Xerox University Microfilms
300 North Zeeb Road
A nn A rb o r, M ichigan 46106
I
I
73-31,395
W A R S C H A W , Tessa A lb ert, 1934-
T H E D E V E L O IM E N T A N D E V A LU A TIO N O F A
PE R SO N A L M A N A G E M E N T P R O G R A M A N D ITS EFFECTS
U PO N T H E SELF-CONCEPT A N D PER C EIV ED L O C U S
O F C O N T R O L O F BLIND A D O LESC EN T FE M A LES.
U n iversity o f Southern C a lifo rn ia , Ph.D .,
1973
Education, sp e c ia l
t
\ University Microfilms, A XEROX C om pany, A nn Arbor, M ichigan I
THIS DISSERTATION H A S B EEN M IC R O FIL M E D E X A C T L Y AS RECEIVED.
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ERN CALIFORNIA
T H E GRADUATE SC H O O L
U N IV ER SITY PA R K
L O S A N G ELES, C A L IFO R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
T e s s a A lb e r t W arschaw
under the direction of k& X.... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
Dean
Date.
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
m L , A 2
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The i n v e s t i g a t o r w is h e s t o e x p r e s s d eep
a p p r e c ia t i o n t o t h e many p e o p le who h a v e c o n t r ib u t e d
t o t h e c o m p le tio n o f t h i s s t u d y .
F i r s t , t o t h e members o f h e r c o m m itte e , D r.
Jam es F . M agary, c h a ir m a n , D r. R ic h a r d K och , and
D r. E d d ie W illia m s , f o r th e g u id a n c e w h ic h th e y
p r o v id e d .
S e c o n d , t o t h e B r a i l l e I n s t i t u t e o f A m e rica ,
t h e F o u n d a tio n f o r t h e J u n io r B l in d , and t h e o u t
s t a n d in g program s t a f f who v o lu n t e e r e d t h e i r
e x p e r t i s e and t im e . A p p r e c ia tio n i s a l s o e x p r e s s e d
t o S e a r s R oebu ck and Company, Joh n R o b e r t Pow ers
S c h o o l, A id a G rey B e a u ty S a lo n , D y-A n n 's B e a u ty
S a lo n , and Mr. M arty ( c l o t h i n g m a n u fa c tu r e r ) f o r
p e r m it t in g t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o u s e t h e i r f a c i l i t i e s
t o b r o a d e n t h e h o r iz o n s o f t h e program p a r t i c i p a n t s .
F i n a l l y , t o Dan S l a t e r , m en tor and f r i e n d ,
who w as a lw a y s t h e r e .
i i
DEDICATION
To B e r n ie , who i s t r u l y a " s i g n i f i c a n t
o t h e r ," and t o my p a r e n t s , who a lw a y s v a lu e d
t h e w o r th o f a d a i s y .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF T A B L E S ......................................................................................... v i
C h ap ter
I . BASIC DESIGN OF THE S T U D Y .......................................... 1
I n t r o d u c t io n
The P rob lem
Im p o rta n ce o f t h e S tu d y
The R e s e a r c h D e s ig n
D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms
O r g a n iz a t io n o f th e R em a in in g C h a p te rs
I I . REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH.......................................... 16
The S e lf - C o n c e p t
P e r c e iv e d L ocus o f C o n tr o l
I I I . METHODOLOGY.............................................................................. 53
The Program
The S e t t i n g
T he S u b j e c t s
D a ta C o l l e c t i o n T e c h n iq u e s
T e s t A d m in is t r a t io n
T e s t S c o r in g
S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly s is
C h a p ter Summary
IV . PRESENTATION OF THE F IN D IN G S ..................................... 71
F in d in g s R e l a t i n g t o H y p o th e se s
E v a lu a t io n s b y P a r e n ts
E v a lu a t io n s by P a r t i c i p a n t s
S t a f f O b s e r v a tio n s
P a r e n t I n t e r v ie w s
C h a p ter Summary
V . SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................... 108
Summary
F in d in g s
Page
D i s c u s s i o n
I m p lic a t io n s
R ecom m end ation s
B IB LIO G R A PH Y ................................................................................................... 126
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THE PERSONAL MANAGEM ENT
PROGRAM............................................................................................................. 140
A P P E N D IC E S ........................................................................................................ 143
A. P e r s o n a l M anagement P rogram : S t a f f and
S c h e d u l e ................................................................................ 144
B. Sam ple L e s s o n P la n s ..................................................................... 147
C . P a r t i c i p a n t E v a lu a t io n Form ................................................. 156
D. P a r e n t E v a lu a t io n F o r m ................................................... 158
E . B r a i l l e I n s t i t u t e Program A nnouncem ent . . . . 160
F . E xam ple o f T e n n e s s e e S e lf - C o n c e p t S c a le M a tr ix
S c o r e S h e e t , as U sed i n th e S t u d y .................. 162
G. M ean s, S ta n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s , and R e l i a b i l i t y
C o e f f i c i e n t s - - T e n n e s s e e S e lf - C o n c e p t S c a l e . 164
H . I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l T e s t D a ta :
R e l i a b i l i t y and D is c r im in a n t V a l i d i t y . . . . 166
I . O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t ........................................................... 168
J . P a r e n t I n t e r v ie w S c h e d u l e ............................................. 170
K. T e n n e s s e e S e lf - C o n c e p t S c a le ........................................... 172
L . The I-E S c a l e ............................................................................ 178
M. A r t i c l e A p p e a rin g i n S p r in g I s s u e o f L ig h t
M a g a z i n e ................................................................................ 184
N. P h o to g r a p h ic E xam ples o f Program E x p e r ie n c e s . 186
v
. LIST OF TABLES
T a b le P age
1 . Means and S ta n d a r d D e v ia t io n s f o r S e l f -
C r i t i c i s m ................................................................................... 72
2 . A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e Summary T a b le f o r S e l f -
C r i t i c i s m ................................................................................... 74
3 . Means and S ta n d a r d D e v ia t io n s f o r I d e n t i t y . 75
4 . A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e Summary T a b le f o r
I d e n t i t y ................................................................................... 76
5 . M eans and S ta n d a r d D e v ia t io n s f o r S e l f -
S a t i s f a c t i o n ......................................................................... 77
6 . A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e Summary T a b le f o r S e l f -
S a t i s f a c t i o n ......................................................................... 79
7 - Means and S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s f o r B e h a v io r . 80
8 . A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e Summary T a b le f o r
B e h a v i o r .................................................................................... 8 1
9 . Means and S ta n d a r d D e v ia t io n s f o r P h y s ic a l
A p p e a r a n c e ............................................................................... 82
1 0 . A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e Summary T a b le f o r
P h y s ic a l A p p earan ce .......................................................... 83
1 1 . M eans and S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s f o r M o ra l-
E t h i c a l ......................................................................................... 85
1 2 . A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e Summary T a b le f o r M o ra l-
E t h i c a l ......................................................................................... 86
1 3 . M eans and S ta n d a r d D e v ia t io n s f o r P e r s o n a l
S e l f .............................................................................................. 87
1 4 . A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e Summary T a b le f o r
P e r s o n a l S e l f ......................................................................... 88
1 5 . M eans and S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s f o r F a m ily S e l f 90
1 6 . A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e Summary T a b le f o r F a m ily
S e l f .............................................................................................. 91
v i
T a b le Page
1 7 . M eans and S ta n d a r d D e v ia t io n s f o r S o c i a l S e l f 92
1 8 . A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e Summary T a b le f o r S o c i a l
S e l f .............................................................................................. 93
1 9 . Means and S ta n d a rd D e v ia t io n s f o r T o t a l
P o s i t i v e S c o r e . .......................................................... 95
2 0 . A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e Summary T a b le f o r T o t a l
P o s i t i v e S c o r e .................................................................... 96
2 1 . Means and S ta n d a r d D e v ia t io n s f o r R o t t e r
I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le ............................................... 97
2 2 . A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e Summary T a b le f o r R o t t e r
I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le ............................................... 98
2 3 . t - T e s t on G a in s B etw een P r e - P o s t T r e a tm e n t
f o r O v e r a ll S o c i a l I n t e r a c t i o n .......................... 100
2 4 . t - T e s t on G a in s B etw een P r e -P o s t T rea tm en t
f o r O v e r a ll A p p earan ce ............................................... 101
CHAPTER I
BASIC DESIGN OF THE STUDY
I n t r o d u c t io n
A p p earan ce i s our m ost o b v io u s p e r s o n a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , and . . . an i n d i v i d u a l ' s
f i r s t im p r e s s io n s o f a n o th e r p e r s o n
a f f e c t s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r a c t i o n s [b e tw e e n
t h e t w o ] . (B e r s c h e id & W a ls t e r , 1972)
S u p p o se a p e r s o n 's a c q u i s i t i o n o f an a p p e a r a n c e
c o n c e p t i s r e s t r i c t e d , a s i n th e c a s e o f a b lin d p e r s o n who
p e r c e iv e s t h e p h y s i c a l p r e s e n c e o f a n o th e r o n ly d u r in g th e
a l t e r n a t i n g p e r io d s o f t h e o t h e r p e r s o n 's u t t e r a n c e s
(S im m e l, 1 9 7 0 ) . What p a r t , t h e n , d o e s a p p e a r a n c e p la y i n
t h e b l i n d p e r s o n 's l i f e ?
F i r s t im p r e s s io n s a r e l a r g e l y d e r iv e d from outw ard
a p p e a r a n c e , w h ic h i s com posed o f m u lt it u d in o u s n o n v e r b a l
c u e s su c h a s m ovem ent, p o i s e , c l o t h i n g , a g e s t u r e , a f a c i a l
e x p r e s s i o n , a l l o f w h ic h se n d co m m u n ica tio n m e s s a g e s .
T h e se e m itt e d n o n v e r b a l c u e s su p p o r t v e r b a l m e s sa g e s and
h e lp a p e r s o n t o d e f i n e h i s s i t u a t i o n (G offm an , 1 9 5 9 ) . The
la c k o f a b i l i t y , on th e p a r t o f t h e b l i n d , t o r e c e i v e or
se n d su c h n o n v e r b a l m e s s a g e s g r e a t l y ham pers t h e i r e f f o r t s
t o e s t a b l i s h an i d e n t i t y . When v i s u a l c u e s a r e m i s s i n g , a
1
d i f f i c u l t and awkward s i t u a t i o n i s c r e a t e d f o r b o th b lin d
and s i g h t e d when t h e tw o a tte m p t t o com m u nicate (R ic h a r d s o n ,
1 9 6 9 ) .
W ith o u t a c c u r a te c o m m u n ic a tio n , how i s on e a b le t o
d e v e lo p a p o s i t i v e a w a r e n e ss o f s e l f ? T h is f a c i l i t y i s
im p o r ta n t t o t h e o r i s t s who e x p l a in th e s e l f - c o n c e p t a s
a r i s i n g and d e v e lo p in g from i n t e r a c t i o n s w it h o t h e r p e o p le
(M ead, 1 9 3 4 ; L e c k y , 1 9 4 5 ; Snygg & Combs, 1 9 4 9 ; R o g e r s ,
1 9 5 1 ) . S u l l i v a n ' s h y p o t h e s i s , "We a r e our e x p e r ie n c e ," i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r t i n e n t t o s e l f - c o n c e p t d e v e lo p m e n t among
b l i n d p e r s o n s .
The fe e d b a c k t h e b li n d c h i l d r e c e i v e s from s ig h t e d
p a r e n t s , s i b l i n g s , and p e e r s d e te r m in e s w h at h e b e l i e v e s
h i m s e l f t o b e . T h at fe e d b a c k d e v e lo p s n o t o n ly h i s s e l f -
c o n c e p t , b u t a c o n c e p t o f h i s a p p e a r a n c e . From t h e e v a lu a
t i o n s o f " s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s ," t h e r e f o r e , h e may b e g in t o
c o n s id e r h i m s e l f u g ly o r b e a u t i f u l (H ob b s, 1 9 5 2 ) . S c h ild e r
(1 9 5 0 ) h o ld s t h a t b e a u ty and u g l i n e s s a r e s o c i a l phenom ena
o f u tm o s t im p o r ta n c e .
J e r s i l d ( 1 9 5 2 ) , Diamond ( 1 9 5 7 ) , and S to n e (1 9 6 2 )
h y p o t h e s iz e d t h a t a p e r s o n 's c o n c e p t io n o f h i m s e l f w i l l
i n f l u e n c e and b e i n f lu e n c e d by how h e v ie w s h i s p h y s i c a l
a p p e a r a n c e and p h y s i c a l a b i l i t i e s . M ost p e o p le a r e aw are
o f t h e p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e o f b o th th e m s e lv e s and o t h e r s .
But f o r t h e b l i n d , su ch a w a r e n e ss i s m o st d i f f i c u l t to
o b t a in , and t o com prehend t h e body im age o f a n o th e r i s e v e n
m ore e l u s i v e th a n com p reh en d in g o n e 's own p h y s i c a l a p p e a r
a n c e ( C r a t t y , 1 9 6 8 ; D a v is , 1 9 6 9 ) .
Man h a s g e n e r a l iz e d f o r c e n t u r i e s t h a t a p e r s o n 's
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and p e r s o n a l i t y c a n b e "known" from h i s
ou tw ard a p p e a r a n c e . As e a r l y a s 1 8 8 2 , S c h i l l e r s t a t e d t h a t
" p h y s ic a l b e a u ty i s t h e s i g n o f an i n t e r i o r b e a u t y , a
s p i r i t u a l and m o ra l b e a u ty . . . [D io n e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 ,
p . 1 ] ." T h ere i s c o n s id e r a b le e v id e n c e ( E l l i s , 1959;
W r ig h t, 1 9 6 0 ; G offm an , 1 9 6 3 ) t h a t c o n tem p o ra ry s o c i e t y h a s
com e t o w o r s h ip t h e "b ody b e a u t i f u l . " Women i n p a r t i c u l a r
a r e u n d er c o n s t a n t bom bardm ent t o im p rove t h e i r b o d ie s by
m aking them c l e a n e r , m ore f r a g r a n t , s t r o n g e r , and s e x i e r
( F i s h e r , 1 9 7 2 ) . E l l i s (1 9 5 9 ) la b e le d t h i s p r o c e s s t h e
" B e a t i f i c a t i o n o f b e a u t y ."
T h ere a l s o a p p e a r s t o b e a u n i v e r s a l s o c i a l a t t i
tu d e t h a t i f an i n d i v i d u a l lo o k s d i f f e r e n t , h e m ust be
d i f f e r e n t . T h is p l a c e s th e b l i n d p e r s o n i n an i n f e r i o r
p o s i t i o n , n o t o n ly w it h r e s p e c t t o h i s s p e c i f i c l i m i t a t i o n ,
b u t a s a t o t a l p e r s o n . E s s e n t i a l l y , i t i s b lin d n e s s i t s e l f
w h ic h e l i c i t s t h e s o c i a l r e s p o n s e . T h u s, th e b lin d p e r s o n
f i n d s h i m s e l f c o n fr o n te d w it h a s e r i o u s s i t u a t i o n , t h a t o f
l o s s o f s e l f - e s t e e m and s o c i a l s t a t u s , b o th o f w h ic h a r e
b a s i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l n e e d s (W r ig h t, 1 9 6 0 ) .
S to n e (1 9 6 2 ) p o in t s t o t h e " u n d e n ia b le and in t im a t e
lin k a g e o f s e l f and a p p e a r a n c e [ p . 1 0 3 ] ." He h y p o t h e s iz e d
t h a t t h e s e l f i s e s t a b l i s h e d , m a in t a in e d , and a l t e r e d i n
s o c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s a s much by th e c o m m u n ica tio n o f a p p e a r
a n c e a s by d i s c o u r s e . S to n e d e p a r t s from M ea d 's h y p o t h e s is
t h a t d i s c o u r s e a lo n e i s th e b a s i s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n . He
f u r t h e r a s s e r t s t h a t i t i s a p p e a r a n c e w h ic h s e t s th e s t a g e
f o r m e a n in g fu l d i s c o u r s e ; t h a t v a l u e p la c e d upon t h e
a p p e a r a n c e o f a n o th e r seem s t o p la y an im p o r ta n t r o l e i n
su c h d i s c o u r s e .
The P rob lem
The p u r p o se o f t h i s s tu d y w as t o d e v e lo p a P e r s o n a l
M anagement P rogram f o r u s e b y b l i n d a d o le s c e n t f e m a le s and
t o e v a lu a t e i t s e f f e c t s u p on t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t and p e r c e iv e d
lo c u s o f c o n t r o l o f t h e s u b j e c t s . To t h i s e n d , t h e h y p o th
e s e s s e t f o r t h b e lo w w ere t e s t e d .
R e s e a r c h H y p o th e se s
H^: A P e r s o n a l M anagem ent Program w i l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y
c o n t r i b u t e t o a p o s i t i v e ch a n g e i n t h e s e l f -
c o n c e p t a s m ea su red by t h e T e n n e s s e e S e lf - C o n c e p t
S c a l e .
Hg: A P e r s o n a l M anagem ent P rogram w it h Rap T h erap y
w i l l h a v e a g r e a t e r p o s i t i v e e f f e c t upon s e l f -
c o n c e p t th a n P e r s o n a l M anagement a lo n e a s m easu red
by t h e T e n n e s s e e S e lf - C o n c e p t S c a le .
H^: A P e r s o n a l M anagement P rogram w i l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y
c o n t r ib u t e t o a p o s i t i v e ch a n g e i n p e r c e iv e d lo c u s
o f c o n t r o l as m easu red b y th e R o t t e r I n t e r n a l -
E x t e r n a l S c a l e .
H^: A P e r s o n a l M anagement Program w it h Rap T h erap y
w i l l h a v e a g r e a t e r p o s i t i v e e f f e c t upon
p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l th a n P e r s o n a l M anage
m ent Program a lo n e a s m easu red by t h e R o tte r
I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a l e .
: A P e r s o n a l M anagem ent P rogram w i l l e f f e c t a
ch a n g e i n th e o v e r a l l a b i l i t y o f G roups I and I I
t o s o c i a l l y i n t e r a c t as m easu red b y th e
O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t .
H g : A P e r s o n a l M anagement Program w i l l e f f e c t a
ch a n g e i n th e o v e r a l l p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e o f
G roups I and I I a s m easu red by th e O b s e r v e r 's
R a tin g S c a l e .
S t a t i s t i c a l H y p o th e se s
H : T h ere w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e among t h e t h r e e g ro u p
°1
m eans on th e s e l f - c r i t i c i s m v a r i a b l e a s m easu red
b y t h e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g .
H : T h ere w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among t h e t h r e e grou p
2
m eans on t h e i d e n t i t y v a r i a b l e a s m easu red by t h e
TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g .
H : T h ere w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among th e t h r e e g ro u p
3
m eans on th e s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n v a r i a b l e a s
m easu red by th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d
p o s t - t e s t i n g .
T h ere w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among th e t h r e e
grou p m eans on th e b e h a v io r v a r i a b l e a s m easu red
by th e TSCS in p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g .
T h ere w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among th e th r e e
grou p m eans on th e p h y s i c a l a p p ea r a n c e v a r i a b l e
a s m ea su red by th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and
d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g .
T h ere w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among th e t h r e e
grou p m eans on t h e m o r a l - e t h i c a l v a r i a b l e a s
m easu red by th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d
p o s t - t e s t i n g .
T h ere w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among t h e grou p
m eans on t h e p e r s o n a l s e l f v a r i a b l e a s m easu red
by t h e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g .
T h ere w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among th e grou p
m eans on t h e f a m ily s e l f v a r i a b l e a s m ea su red by
t h e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g .
T h ere w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among th e t h r e e
g ro u p m eans on t h e s o c i a l s e l f v a r i a b l e a s
m easu red b y th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d
p o s t - t e s t i n g .
7
H : T here w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among th e th r e e
°10
grou p m eans on th e t o t a l p o s i t i v e s c o r e a s
m easu red by t h e TSCS in p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d
p o s t - t e s t i n g .
H : T here w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among th e th r e e
°11
grou p m eans on p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l a s
m easu red by th e R o tte r I n t e r n a l- E x t e r n a l S c a le .
H : T h ere w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e in th e o v e r a l l
12
a b i l i t y o f Group I and Group I I t o s o c i a l l y
i n t e r a c t as m easured by th e O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g
Shee t .
H_ : T here w i l l b e no ch a n g e i n o v e r a l l p h y s ic a l
13
a p p ea ra n ce o f Group I and Group I I a s m easured
by th e O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t.
Im p o rta n ce o f th e Study
A ppearan ce p la y s a p o w e r fu l r o l e d u r in g a d o l e s
c e n c e . The n eed to "be lik e " or " lo o k lik e " o n e 's p e e r s i s
o f p rim a ry im p o r ta n c e t o th e a d o le s c e n t . An e x h a u s t iv e
r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a ttir e by H artup (1 9 7 0 ) r e v e a le d t h a t
p o p u la r it y d u r in g t h i s p e r io d i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to
p h y s ic a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s . From h i s f in d in g s h e s u g g e s te d
th a t " s o c i a l l y a c q u ir e d s e l f - a t t i t u d e s m e d ia te th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e en p h y s i c a l f a c t o r s and p e e r a c c e p ta n c e
[p . 3 9 4 ]." A d o le s c e n t fe m a le s a r e n o ta b ly i n t e r e s t e d in
b o d i l y a t t r a c t i v e n e s s a s th e y c o n s id e r th e p r o s p e c t s o f
d a t in g and h e t e r o s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Y e t , th e s k i l l s
n e c e s s a r y t o en h a n ce t h e i r a t t r a c t i v e n e s s t o s e l f and
o t h e r s a r e u s u a l l y l a c k in g a t t h i s a g e . P a r e n ts o f b lin d
a d o l e s c e n t s o f t e n n e g l e c t t h e s e s k i l l s b e c a u s e th e y assum e
su ch c h i ld r e n a r e u n a b le t o assu m e s e l f - i n i t i a t e d r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y f o r t h e i r p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s . T h is a t t i t u d e
seem s t o p r o lo n g d e p e n d en cy and o f t e n lo w e r s s e l f - e s t e e m .
T h ere i s a p le t h o r a o f s t u d i e s w h ic h p o i n t t o t h e
g r e a t e s t p rob lem t h e b lin d a d o l e s c e n t m u st f a c e i n fo r m in g
a p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t . T h at p ro b lem i s t h e n e g a t iv is m h e
m u st f a c e w i t h i n h i s p e r s o n a l e n v ir o n m e n t and i n t h o s e who
a r e s e e n a s " s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s ." B a rk er (1 9 5 3 ) h a s s t a t e d
t h a t t h e r e i s " u n iv e r s a l a g r ee m e n t among b l i n d t h a t th e y
a r e p e r c e iv e d t o b e h e l p l e s s , d e p e n d e n t, and p la c e d i n
u n d e r p r iv ile g e d s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s [ p . 2 9 0 ] ." P e r so n s in
su c h p o s i t i o n s r a r e l y e x p e r ie n c e much c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r
e n v ir o n m e n t.
A number o f c o n c e p t s h a v e b e e n u s e d i n d i s c u s s i o n s
o f t h e c o n t r o l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n man and h i s s o c i a l and
p h y s i c a l e n v ir o n m e n t. F or e x a m p le , A d le r w r o te e x t e n s i v e l y
a b o u t o v erco m in g h e l p l e s s n e s s , and h i s id e a s r e g a r d in g
d i s a b l e d p e r s o n s a r e r e l e v a n t to t h i s s t u d y . He s u g g e s t s
t h a t one m ust b r in g d is c o u r a g e d ( i . e . , e x t e r n a l l y c o n
t r o l l e d ) p e r s o n s th r o u g h num erous d e v i c e s t o th e p o in t
w h ere t h e y a c q u ir e f a i t h i n t h e i r own m e n ta l and p h y s i c a l
pow er s .
A lth o u g h f o r a c o n g e n i t a l l y b li n d p e r s o n th e rew ard
o f how h e lo o k s i s la c k in g ( C u t s f o r t h , 1 9 5 1 ) , h e m ust
co n fo rm to t h e r e a l i t y o f th e s i g h t e d w o r ld , a w o r ld o f
p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t i n w h ic h h e i s th e c e n t e r and i n w h ic h
t h e r e e x i s t no r e l a t i o n s h i p s o u t s id e h i m s e l f . The b lin d
a r e o f t e n f o r c e d , t h e r e f o r e , t o a d o p t s o c i a l l y a c c e p te d
b e h a v io r s o f t h e s e e i n g p o p u la t io n , su ch a s t a b l e m anners
and l i s t e n i n g h a b i t s . F u r th e r , th e t y p i c a l t e e n - a g e
a p p e a r a n c e , w h ic h u s u a l l y te n d s t o d e p a r t from a d u lt norm s,
i s o u t o f th e b lin d a d o l e s c e n t ' s r e p e r t o i r e o f e x p e r ie n c e
b e c a u s e h e m ust c o n s t a n t ly l i v e w it h t h e " p r o j e c t e d im age"
( D a v is , 1 9 6 9 ) o f m e t ic u lo u s s e l f - c a r e . C o n s e q u e n tly , t h e r e
i s a n eed f o r a v i a b l e program i n w h ic h b l i n d a d o l e s c e n t s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y f e m a le s , may becom e aw are o f t h e i r p h y s i c a l
and s o c i a l s e l v e s .
T h ere i s a l s o a n eed t o p r o v id e o p p o r t u n it y f o r
b li n d a d o l e s c e n t s t o v e r b a l i z e p r o b le m s i n t e n s i f i e d by
t h e i r h a n d ic a p . Rap T h erap y i s a s i t u a t i o n i n w h ic h
v e r b a l i z a t i o n i s e n c o u r a g e d i n grou p s e s s i o n s , a p r o c e s s by
w h ic h p e r s o n s a r e a b le t o c h a n g e t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t s .
S in c e Rap T h eory i s h i g h l y v e r b a l i n n a t u r e , p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in i t by b lin d a d o l e s c e n t s may h a v e an e f f e c t on t h e i r
s e l f - c o n c e p t s . Rap T h erap y w as in c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e s tu d y
a s an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e P e r s o n a l M anagem ent P rogram .
10
The R e se a r c h D esign .
T h is s tu d y w as d e s ig n e d t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r
P e r s o n a l M anagem ent tr e a tm e n t h a s s i g n i f i c a n t p o t e n t i a l f o r
ch a n g e o f b e h a v io r among th e b l i n d i n ter m s o f t h e s e l f -
c o n c e p t and p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l .
T h ree g r o u p s o f b l i n d a d o le s c e n t f e m a le s r a n g in g i n
a g e from 13 t o 21 w e re v o lu n t e e r p a r t i c i p a n t s . Group X
(N=9) to o k p a r t i n a P e r s o n a l M anagem ent Program o n ly ;
Group I I (N =9) to o k p a r t i n th e P e r s o n a l M anagem ent Program
and Rap T h era p y ; Group I I I (N=9) s e r v e d a s a c o n t r o l and
r e c e i v e d p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g . E ach
fe m a le w as g iv e n th e T e n n e s s e e S e lf - C o n c e p t S c a le t o
m easu re th e s e l f - c o n c e p t and th e R o t t e r I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l
S c a le t o m ea su r e p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l . The e x p e r i
m e n ta l g r o u p s (G roups I and I I ) w e re r a te d p r e - and p o s t
t r e a t m e n t , b y s k i l l e d n o n p a r t ic ip a t in g o b s e r v e r s on t h e
O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t , f o r o v e r a l l s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n and
o v e r a l l p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e .
As su m p tio n s
The s tu d y r e s t e d upon th e f o l lo w in g a s s u m p tio n s :
1 . The T e n n e s s e e S e lf - C o n c e p t S c a le i s a v a l i d
t o o l f o r m e a su r in g s e l f - c o n c e p t .
2 . The R o t t e r I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le i s a v a l i d
t o o l f o r m e a su r in g p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l .
3 . The P e r s o n a l M anagem ent Program u se d i n th e
11
s tu d y c a n f u n c t i o n a s a c h a n g e a g e n t i n t h e
l i f e o f a b l i n d a d o l e s c e n t .
4 . A w aren ess o f p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l s e l f a r e
r e l e v a n t t o t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t .
5 . S e l f - c o n c e p t d e v e lo p m e n t i s n o t a t y p i c a l i n
b lin d a d o l e s c e n t s ; t h u s , t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e ls
a r e a p p l i c a b l e .
6 . The i n a b i l i t y t o form an im p r e s s io n o f o n e ' s
a p p e a r a n c e may a f f e c t th e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f b lin d
a d o le s c e n t f e m a l e s .
L im it a t io n s
The f o l lo w in g l i m i t a t i o n s w e re in h e r e n t i n t h e
s tu d y :
1 . I n a b i l i t y t o o b t a in a random sam p le o f t h e
b lin d p o p u la t io n .
2 . P o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e sa m p le b eco m in g " t e s t - w i s e "
b e c a u s e o f p r e - t e s t , p o s t - t e s t , and d e la y e d
p o s t - t e s t m ea su rem en t.
3 . The mode o f t e s t p r e s e n t a t i o n , w h ich may h a v e
i n f l u e n c e d t h e r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f th e
m e a su r e m e n ts.
4 . The a d ju stm e n t p o t e n t i a l o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s .
5 . Lack o f e x p e r i e n c e , on th e p a r t o f in v o lv e d
s t a f f m em bers, i n t e a c h in g b lin d a d o l e s c e n t s .
12
D e l im i t a t io n s
The s c o p e o f th e s tu d y w as d e l im i t e d a s f o l l o w s :
1 . The s tu d y w as c o n c e r n e d w it h c h a n g e s i n s e l f -
c o n c e p t , a s m ea su red b y t h e T e n n e s s e e S e l f -
C o n cep t S c a l e , and i n p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f
c o n t r o l , a s m ea su red b y t h e R o t t e r I n t e r n a l -
E x t e r n a l L ocu s o f C o n t r o l, w h ic h o c c u r r e d a s a
r e s u l t o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a P e r s o n a l M anage
m ent P rogram .
2 . P e r c e iv e d l o c u s o f c o n t r o l w as c o n s id e r e d a
r e l a t e d v a r i a b l e o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t d o m in io n .
3 . The s u b j e c t s w e r e b li n d a d o l e s c e n t fe m a le s
w it h o u t a d d i t i o n a l p h y s i c a l h a n d ic a p s .
4 . The sa m p le w as r e s t r i c t e d t o s u b j e c t s a t t e n d in g
B r a i l l e I n s t i t u t e and F o u n d a tio n f o r th e J u n io r
B lin d , 1 9 7 2 .
5 . The sam p le w as r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll b e c a u s e o f
l i m i t e d p o p u la t io n a v a i l a b l e (N = 2 7 ).
D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms
The f o l lo w in g term s a r e d e f in e d b e lo w i n o r d e r t o
i n s u r e an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e i r m ea n in g s i n t h i s s t u d y .
A p p e a r a n c e . E x t e r n a l f e a t u r e s , in c lu d i n g a d o rn
m en t, w h ic h s e r v e t o i d e n t i f y th e i n d i v i d u a l d u r in g s o c i a l
t r a n s a c t i o n s .
13
B l in d . A b el sum m arized t h e f o l lo w in g d e s c r i p t i o n
o f b l i n d n e s s i n E d u c a tin g E x c e p t io n a l C h ild r e n (K ir k ,
1 9 6 2 ):
1 . P e o p le who a r e t o t a l l y b l i n d or h a v e l i g h t p e r
c e p t i o n , up t o b u t n o t in c lu d i n g 2 /2 0 0 w o u ld b e
u n a b le t o p e r c e iv e m o tio n or hand m ovem ents a t
a d i s t a n c e o f t h r e e f e e t ;
2 . The b l i n d i n d i v i d u a l h a v in g m o tio n o r form p e r
c e p t i o n m ig h t p e r c e iv e up t o 5 /2 0 0 and w o u ld b e
u n a b le t o c o u n t f i n g e r s a t a d i s t a n c e o f t h r e e
f e e t ;
3 . T h o se p e o p le who m ig h t b e e x p e c te d t o h a v e
t r a v e l v i s i o n w o u ld p e r c e iv e up t o 1 0 /2 0 0 and
w o u ld be u n a b le t o r e a d l a r g e l e t t e r s s i m i la r
t o t h o s e i n t h e h e a d l i n e s o f a n ew sp ap er;
4 . T h o se who w o u ld b e e x p e c t e d t o r e a d la r g e h e a d
l i n e s m ig h t b e m easu red on t h e S n e l l e n C h art up
t o 2 0 /2 0 0 ; t h e y w ou ld n o t , h o w e v e r , be e x p e c te d
t o r e a d 1 4 - p o in t or s m a lle r t y p e ;
5 . I n d i v i d u a l s h a v in g b o r d e r li n e v i s i o n m ig h t h a v e
a v i s u a l a c u i t y o f 2 0 /2 0 0 o r m ore b u t th e y
w o u ld n o t h a v e s u f f i c i e n t v i s i o n f o r a c t i v i t i e s
i n w h ic h e y e s i g h t i s e s s e n t i a l ; t h e s e i n d i v i d
u a l s a r e f u r t h e r d e s c r ib e d a s u n a b le t o r e a d
1 0 - p o in t t y p e , o r i f th e y r e a d i t a t a l l , t h e y
w o u ld do s o w it h a m arked h a n d ic a p [p . 2 1 4 ] .
B o d y -Im a g e . The s t r u c t u r e , f u n c t i o n , and a p p e a r
a n c e o f an i n d i v i d u a l (J o u r a r d , 1 9 5 8 ); synonym ous w it h
b o d y - c o n c e p t .
P e r c e iv e d I n t e r n a l L ocus o f C o n t r o l. P e r c e p t io n o f
p o s i t i v e a n d /o r n e g a t i v e e v e n t s a s b e in g a c o n s e q u e n c e o f
o n e 's a c t i o n s , a n d , t h e r e b y , u n d er p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l
(J o h n so n , 1 9 7 1 ) .
14
P e r c e iv e d E x t e r n a l L ocus o f C o n t r o l. The p e r c e p
t i o n o f p o s i t i v e a n d /o r n e g a t iv e e v e n t s a s b e in g u n r e la t e d
to o n e 's own b e h a v io r s and t h e r e f o r e beyond p e r s o n a l
c o n t r o l (J o h n so n , 1971) .
P e r s o n a l Management P rogram . S ev en -w eek program
d e s ig n e d t o te a c h p e r s o n a l s e l f - c a r e s k i l l s .
Rap T h er a p y . In fo r m a l w e e k ly d i s c u s s i o n s f o c u s in g
on a d o le s c e n t p rob lem s u n iq u e t o b l i n d n e s s .
S e lf - C o n c e p t . The i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r c e p t io n o f h i s
own b e in g .
V is u a l P o i s e . The m anner i n w h ich th e s e l f i s
p r e s e n te d to o t h e r s .
O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e R em ain in g C h a p ters
C h ap ter I I p r e s e n t s a r e v ie w o f th e p r o f e s s i o n a l
l i t e r a t u r e and r e s e a r c h d e a lin g w it h t h e f o llo w in g a r e a s :
th e s e l f - c o n c e p t ; s e l f - c o n c e p t and c h a n g e ; s e l f - c o n c e p t
d e v e lo p m en t i n th e b lin d ; th e r o l e o f a p p e a r a n c e ; and
p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l .
C h apter I I I p r o v id e s f u r t h e r e x p l i c a t i o n o f th e
s t u d y , in c lu d in g background in fo r m a tio n r e l e v a n t t o th e
in s tr u m e n ts u s e d .
C hapter IV r e p o r t s th e f i n d in g s o f th e s tu d y .
15
C h ap ter V su m m arizes th e c o n t e n t s o f th e p r e c e d in g
c h a p t e r s and p r e s e n t s c o n c lu s io n s and reco m m en d a tio n s
b a s e d on th e s t u d y .
CHAPTER IX
REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH
A t th e tim e o f t h i s s t u d y , th e p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r a
t u r e c o n t a in e d no s t u d i e s d e a l in g d i r e c t l y w it h t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a p p ea r a n c e and s e l f - c o n c e p t i n b lin d
a d o l e s c e n t s . H ow ever, t h e r e a r e many s t u d i e s w h ic h m u st
be c o n s id e r e d g erm a n e, b e c a u s e th e y d e a l w it h t o p i c s t h a t
h a v e an im p o r ta n t b e a r in g on t h e p ro b lem u n d er s t u d y . Such
s t u d i e s a r e r e v ie w e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r .
The S e lf - C o n c e p t
A r e c u r r e n t them e i n e d u c a t io n , s o c i o l o g y , and
p s y c h o lo g y i s th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i
t u d e s tow ard h i m s e l f a s a f a c t o r i n h i s a d ju s tm e n t t o l i f e .
R o g e rs (1 9 5 1 ) a s w e l l a s L eck y (1 9 4 5 ) h a v e p o s t u l a t e d t h a t
a p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l
and s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t. W r ite r s o f many o th e r d i f f e r e n t
o r i e n t a t i o n s h a v e p r o v id e d t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f th e
s e l f . A lth o u g h i t h a s becom e on e o f t h e m o st im p o r ta n t
p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t s i n p e r s o n a l i t y th e o r y (H ob b s,
1 9 5 2 ) , i t s n a tu r e and th e way i t f u n c t i o n s g e n e r a t e s
c o n f u s io n . A l l p o r t (1 9 6 1 ) s u g g e s t e d one r e a s o n f o r th e
16
17
c o n f u s io n i n d e s c r i b in g t h i s s u b j e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e :
The s u b j e c t op en s up p ro fo u n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l
d ilem m as c o n c e r n in g th e n a tu r e o f m an, o f [ S o u l ] ,
o f fr e e d o m and im m o r t a lit y . I t i s e a s y t o s e e
why many p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f p e r s o n a l i t y
a v o id t h e p ro b lem a l t o g e t h e r [p . 1 1 1 ] .
W y lie ( 1 9 6 1 ) , i n an e x t e n s i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t
c r i t i q u e , s t a t e d t h a t t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t e m p ir ic a l l i t e r a t u r e
h a s w i t h i n i t a b e w ild e r in g a r r a y o f h y p o t h e s e s . She
a s s e r t e d : "The t h e o r i e s a r e i n many w ays a m b ig u o u s, in co m
p l e t e , and o v e r la p p in g , and no s i n g l e t h e o r y h a s r e c e i v e d a
la r g e am ount o f s y s t e m a t ic e m p ir ic a l e x p l o r a t i o n [p . 3 ] ."
W illia m Jam es ( 1 8 9 0 ) , o n e o f th e f i r s t t o c o n c e r n
h i m s e l f w i t h th e s e l f - c o n c e p t , d e f in e d t h e " e m p ir ic a l m e,"
or t h e s e l f , a s b e in g com posed o f t h e m a t e r i a l m e, th e
s o c i a l m e, and th e s p i r i t u a l m e. I n r e s p e c t t o t h e
m a t e r i a l m e, h e p o s t u l a t e d : "The bod y i s t h e in n e r m o s t
p a r t o f t h e m a t e r ia l me i n e a c h o f u s ; and c e r t a i n p a r t s o f
t h e body seem m ore i n t i m a t e l y o u r s th a n th e r e s t . The
c l o t h e s com e n e x t [ p . 1 7 7 ] ."
J e r s i l d (1 9 5 2 ) and A d le r (1 9 2 7 ) b o th s u g g e s t t h a t
a p p e a r a n c e and p h y s i c a l a b i l i t y p la y an im p o r ta n t r o l e i n
o n e ' s a p p ro a c h t o l i f e . A c c o r d in g t o A d le r , t h e s e l f i s a
s u b j e c t i v e s y s te m th r o u g h w h ic h e x p e r ie n c e s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d
and g iv e n m e a n in g . J e r s i l d s t a t e d :
The s e l f i s a c o m p o s ite o f many p s y c h o l o g i c a l
s t a t e s , im p r e s s io n s and f e e l i n g s . I t i n c l u d e s th e
p e r c e p t io n s th e a d o l e s c e n t h a s o f h i m s e l f ; th e
im p r e s s io n s h e h a s o f h i s b o d y , t h e im age h e h a s
o f h i s p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e and th e t a n g i b l e
p r o p e r t i e s o f h i s p e r s o n [ p . 3 ] .
18
S u l l i v a n ' s (1 9 5 3 ) s e l f - s y s t e m a r i s e s o u t o f th e
a n x i e t y p ro d u ced by i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . A n x ie ty i s
f i r s t t r a n s m it t e d from th e m oth er t o th e i n f a n t . L a te r i t
i s t r a n s m it t e d by t h r e a t s t o o n e 's s e c u r i t y . S u l l i v a n
c o n s id e r s a n x ie t y t o b e a " c r ip p le r " w h ic h f o r c e s th e
i n d i v i d u a l to a d a p t p r o t e c t i v e m e a su r e s o v e r h i s b e h a v io r
i n o r d e r t o a v o id a n x i e t y . I n fo r m a tio n w h ic h i s in c o n g r u
ou s w it h th e s e l f i s a v o id e d or d i s t o r t e d .
R o g e r s ' (1 9 5 1 ) s e l f - t h e o r y i s t h e m o st f u l l y
d e v e lo p e d and t h e m o st e m p i r i c a l l y s u p p o r te d o f th e s e l f -
c o n c e p t t h e o r i e s . I t r e p r e s e n t s a s y n t h e s i s o f phenom e
n o lo g y a s d e v e lo p e d by Combs and Snygg and s o c i a l i n t e r a c
t i o n t h e o r y a s r e p r e s e n t e d i n th e w r i t i n g s o f M ead, C o o le y ,
and S u l l i v a n . The m ain co m p o n en ts o f R o g e r s ' t h e o r y a r e :
1 . The o r g a n ism , w h ic h i s th e t o t a l i n d i v i d u a l .
2 . The p h en om en al f i e l d , w h ic h i s t h e t o t a l i t y o f
e x p e r i e n c e .
3 . The s e l f , w h ic h i s a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p o r t i o n o f
t h e p h en om en al f i e l d and c o n s i s t s o f a p a t t e r n
o f c o n s c io u s p e r c e p t io n s and v a l u e s o f t h e "I"
or "me" [p . 4 7 8 ] .
F i t t s (1 9 5 5 ) s t a t e d t h a t th e s e l f - c o n c e p t r e f e r r e d
t o t h e im a g e , p i c t u r e , and s e t o f p e r c e p t io n s and f e e l i n g s
w h ic h h e h a s o f h i m s e l f .
S e lf - C o n c e p t and Change
W hether th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s " c o re " s e l f - c o n c e p t ca n
ch a n g e r a d i c a l l y i s a s u b j e c t o f c o n t r o v e r s y . S h ib u ta n i
(1 9 6 2 ) and S t r a u s s (1 9 6 2 ) b e l i e v e t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l
u s u a l l y n e e d s t o f e e l t h a t h i s c o r e i d e n t i t y p e r s i s t s
d e s p i t e e v e r y d a y c h a n g e s . F ren ch and K aln (1 9 6 2 ) i n d i c a t e
t h a t th e " c e n t r a l i t y " o f p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e and s t r e n g t h
i n an i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t ( i . e . , th e d e g r e e t h a t
d e te r m in e s t h e p e r s o n 's s e l f - s y s t e m ) v a r i e s from p e r s o n t o
p e r s o n . For e x a m p le , t h o s e p e r s o n s w it h a c o n g e n i t a l
d i s a b i l i t y , i n c o n t r a s t t o an a c q u ir e d d i s a b i l i t y , do n o t
n eed t o in c o r p o r a t e c h a n g e s i n t o t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t ,
a lth o u g h n e g a t iv is m may h a v e b e e n i n t e r n a l i z e d th r o u g h th e
m a j o r it y v a l u e s a b o u t b e a u t y , c o m p e te n c e , and p h y s i c a l
i n t e g r i t y ( S a f i l i o s - R o t h s c h i l d , 1 9 7 0 ) .
W righ t (1 9 6 0 ) d i s c u s s e s th e p ro b lem s a s s o c i a t e d
w it h s e l f - c o n c e p t ch a n g e among p h y s i c a l l y h a n d ic a p p e d . She
i n d i c a t e s t h a t new s e l f a t t r i b u t e s a r e i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n
o ld o n e s e i t h e r th r o u g h m o d ify in g t h e m ean in g o f t h e form er
o r l a t t e r , o r b o t h . T h is h o ld s t r u e f o r t h e bod y a s w e l l .
F u r th e r , W righ t p o s i t s t h a t i n t e g r a t i o n o f a new s t im u lu s
o r s e n s a t i o n n eed n o t r e q u i r e o r d e r in g i n t o a t o t a l im age
o f t h e b o d y , b u t r a t h e r a su b p a r t may b e s u f f i c i e n t . She
a s s e r t s t h a t t h e i n t e g r a t i o n p r o c e s s i s on e r e a s o n why th e
s e l f - c o n c e p t i s d i f f i c u l t t o c h a n g e :
The v e r y t h in g t h a t i s t o b e ch an ged h a s c o n s i d e r
a b le pow er i n m o ld in g th e e x p e r ie n c e s im p in g in g on
t h e p e r s o n t o f i t i t s own im age s o t h a t t h e y a r e
in t e r p r e t e d a s n o t c o n f l i c t i n g w it h t h a t s e l f -
c o n c e p t . A s i n g l e f a c t a b o u t a p e r s o n c a n becom e
s o p o t e n t a s t o p r i n t i t s n e g a t i v e stam p on t h e
p e r s o n a s a w h o le [ p . 1 4 8 ] .
20
R o g e r s (1 9 5 1 ) h a s a l s o a s s e r t e d t h a t i t t a k e s a
g r e a t d e a l o f c o n v in c in g b e f o r e a d r a s t i c r e m o d e lin g o f th e
s e l f c a n ta k e p la c e i n e i t h e r a p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e
d i r e c t i o n .
E n g e l's (195 9) l o n g i t u d i n a l s tu d y i n v e s t i g a t e d th e
s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t i n a d o l e s c e n t s o v e r a tw o -
y e a r p e r i o d . She e x p lo r e d t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n
s e l f - c o n c e p t s t a b i l i t y , q u a l i t y o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t , and
s e v e r a l i n d i c e s o f a d ju s tm e n t. A l t o g e t h e r , 172 p u b lic
s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n t h e e ig h t h and t e n t h g r a d e s w ere
i n v o l v e d . S t a b i l i t y w as m ea su red by te a c h e r r a t i n g s , p e e r
r a t i n g s , and t h e M in n e so ta M u lt ip h a s ic P e r s o n a l i t y I n v e n
t o r y . I t w as p r e d ic t e d t h a t a c h a n g e i n s e l f - c o n c e p t w o u ld
b e r e l a t e d t o im p roved a d ju s tm e n t. The i n v e s t i g a t i o n
r e v e a le d th e f o l l o w i n g f i n d i n g s :
1 . T h ere w as r e l a t i v e o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y o f th e
s e l f - c o n c e p t .
2 . T h ose s u b j e c t s w it h n e g a t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t w ere
s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s s t a b l e th a n t h o s e w it h
p o s i t i v e c o n c e p t s .
3 . More m a la d ju s tm e n t w as fo u n d among t h o s e w it h
n e g a t iv e s e l f - c o n c e p t s .
4 . S u b j e c t s who show ed m ore r e g a r d f o r th e m s e lv e s
on th e Q - s o r t r e t e s t a l s o s h i f t e d tow ard
s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore a d ju s tm e n t on p e e r r a t i n g s .
5 . P o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s in c r e a s e d s i g n i f i
c a n t l y b e tw e e n t h e tw o t e s t s f o r t h e t e n t h and
t w e l f t h g r a d e s u b j e c t s . [ p . 2 1 4 ] .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e a r e t h e o r i s t s , su ch a s
Combs and Snygg ( 1 9 4 9 ) , who h o ld :
21
. . . I t i s p r o b a b le t h a t th r o u g h o u t th e l i f e t i m e
o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ch an ge i s c o n s t a n t l y o c c u r r in g
i n th e s e l f - c o n c e p t a s h e p e r c e iv e s th e r e a c t i o n s
o f o t h e r s t o h i m s e l f . . . . We a r e c o n t in u o u s ly
e n g a g ed i n a p r o c e s s o f s e l f - d i s c o v e r y , so m etim es
m ore r a p id th a n o t h e r s , b u t n e v e r c o m p le t e ly
a b s e n t from our e x p e r ie n c e s . . . [p . 1 5 7 ] .
The v e r y n a tu r e o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l a p p ro a ch t o th e
s e l f - c o n c e p t b y i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s su ch a s R o g e r s , L e c k y , and
Murphy im p l ie s t h a t , a s a c o n se q u e n c e o f th e e x p e r ie n c e s an
i n d i v i d u a l h a s w i t h i n th e ph en om en al f i e l d , h e m o d if ie s h i s
c o n c e p tu a l p e r c e p t io n o f h i m s e l f .
A lth o u g h th e s e l f - c o n c e p t le n d s s t a b i l i t y t o
b e h a v io r , i t d o e s n o t ap p ea r t o b e a f i x e d and im m u tab le
e n t i t y . H i l l ( 1 9 5 7 ) , i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e
s e l f - c o n c e p t , s t a t e d : " A t t it u d e s tow ard s e l f seem s t o v a r y
s i g n i f i c a n t l y w it h th e c h r o n o l o g ic a l a g e . . . [ p . 3 9 5 ] ."
T h u s, th e s e l f - c o n c e p t w h ic h seem s t o b e r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e
d u r in g a d u lth o o d i s i n a s t a t e o f " flu x " d u r in g th e a d o l e s
c e n t p e r io d . I t i s d u r in g t h i s tim e t h a t b o d i ly c h a n g e s
a r e a cco m p a n ied b y c h a n g e s i n t h e s e l f (H ob b s, 1 9 5 2 ) .
S h e r if and C a n t r i l (1 9 4 7 ) sum m arized th e p r o c e s s a s
f o l l o w s :
As may be s e e n i n e x a m p les s e l e c t e d a t random from
h u n d re d s o f c a s e s , b o y s and g i r l s , d u r in g a d o l e s
c e n c e , becom e a c u t e l y aw are o f t h e i r own b o d ie s and
e v e n p a r t s o f i t ( b e s i d e s s e x o r g a n s ) , e s p e c i a l l y
i n a s o c i e t y w h ere t h e r e i s a h ig h premium on
p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s . An a d o l e s c e n t ' s w h o le e g o
c o n c e r n may a t tim e s b e fo c u s e d on th e a t t r a c t i v e
n e s s o r r e a l o r f a n c ie d u n a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f e v e n a
p a r t o f th e b o d y . P r e v a il i n g norms c o n c e r n in g
f e m in in e and m a s c u lin e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s and th e
r e l a t i v e im p o r ta n c e a t t a c h e d t o t h e s e norms i n t h e
22
p e r s o n ’ s r e f e r e n c e and m em bership g r o u p s m ay, o f
c o u r s e , d e te r m in e i n s i g n i f i c a n t w ays t h e e x t e n t
and i n t e n s i t y o f e g o - in v o lv e m e n t s fo c u s e d on th e
bod y or i t s p a r t s [ p . 1 3 ] .
R o g e r s (1 9 5 1 ) h a s a s s e r t e d t h a t a d ju stm e n t i s
p a r t i a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t and s e l f -
a c c e p t a n c e . Y e t , t h e r e h a s b een l i t t l e d ocu m en ted e f f o r t
t o in d u c e a ch an ge i n s e l f - c o n c e p t s o a s to a l t e r a d j u s t
m e n t, e v e n th o u g h p s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e o b s e r v e d t h a t m arked
a l t e r a t i o n s i n th e s e l f o c c u r a s a r e s u l t o f c e r t a i n
e x p e r ie n c e s (H ob b s, 1 9 4 4 ) .
P sy c h o th e r a p y h a s b een th e m o st p o p u la r m ethod t o
a l t e r s e l f - a t t i t u d e s . O th er m eth od s a r e m u sic and a r t
t h e r a p y , o c c u p a t io n a l t h e r a p y , and s e lf-im p r o v e m e n t
c o u r s e s . R aim y (1 9 4 8 ) s t u d ie d c h a n g e s i n t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t
b r o u g h t a b o u t by p s y c h o th e r a p y . He n o te d t h a t t h o s e
s u b j e c t s who e x p r e s s e d t h e m s e lv e s i n f i n a l i n t e r v i e w s a s
s a t i s f i e d w it h t h e i r p r o g r e s s in c o u n s e lin g w e re fou n d t o
h a v e i n c r e a s i n g num bers o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s and
d e c r e a s in g num bers o f n e g a t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s th r o u g h o u t
t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s .
C o l l i n s (1 9 7 2 ) a tte m p te d t o in d u c e c h a n g e in th e
s e l f - c o n c e p t s o f t h i r t y fe m a le s w it h b e h a v io r d i s o r d e r s ,
u s in g b o th a s e lf-im p r o v e m e n t c o u r s e and c a sew o rk th e r a p y .
A c o n t r o l g ro u p r e c e iv e d p r e - and p o s t - t e s t i n g o n ly a s a
m eans o f s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n . For t h o s e g i r l s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n
th e s e lf-im p r o v e m e n t g r o u p , s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere
23
noted as measured by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale.
B i l e s (1 9 6 9 ) e x p o se d c o l l e g e fresh m an women t o a b a s i c
p h y s i c a l e d u c a t io n program and o b ta in e d s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s
i n th e s o r t i n g o f s e l f - r e f e r e n t s t a t e m e n t s ( Q - s o r t d e s ig n
b y Page and P a t t i n o ) .
In a n o th e r s tu d y in v o l v i n g a s e lf-im p r o v e m e n t
c o u r s e . J a m es, O sborn and O e ttin g (1 9 6 7 ) e x p lo r e d s e l f -
c o n c e p t c h a n g e s in " a c t in g ou t" a d o l e s c e n t g i r l s . I n s t r u
m en ts u s e d f o r p r e - and p o s t - t e s t i n g w e re D ra w -A -P erso n
t e s t , a c h e c k l i s t o f p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s e n t e n c e
c o m p le t io n . The o n ly s i g n i f i c a n t ch a n g e w as an i n c r e a s e i n
th e s i z e o f f i g u r e s draw n.
C o le , O e t t i n g , and M isk im en s (1 9 6 9 ) e x p o se d
d e lin q u e n t and a c t i n g o u t a d o le s c e n t s t o a te n -w e e k s o c i a l
i z a t i o n program d e s ig n e d t o p ro d u ce p o s i t i v e c h a n g e s i n t h e
s e l f - c o n c e p t . S u b j e c t s ra n g ed i n age b e tw e e n 13 and 17 and
w ere lo c a t e d i n t h r e e c o m p a riso n g r o u p s : f i v e s u b j e c t s
w e re i n a g ro u p th e r a p y e x p e r ie n c e r u n by p r o f e s s i o n a l
m e n ta l h e a l t h w o r k e r s ; n in e w ere i n a grou p ru n b y v o lu n
t e e r s , and e i g h t w e re s e l e c t e d from t h e p u b lic s c h o o l s t o
p r o v id e a "norm al" c o m p a riso n g r o u p . The program e s s e n
t i a l l y o f f e r e d t h r e e a p p ro a c h e s t o t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
s e l f - c o n c e p t : fe m in in e r o l e m o d e ls, a t t r a c t i v e n e s s
t r a i n i n g , grou p d i s c u s s i o n s . C om p arison s b e tw e e n p r e - and
p o s t - t r e a t m e n t m e a su r e s o f s e l f - c o n c e p t , i d e a l s e l f , and
a n x ie t y w e re p erfo rm ed o v e r th e te n -w e e k p e r i o d . T h ere
24
w e re no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e p r e - and p o s t
t e s t m eans f o r t h e t h r e e g r o u p s .
The R o le o f A p p earan ce
A p o w e r fu l p o t e n t i a l f o r e l i c i t i n g s p e c i f i c s o c i a l
r e s p o n s e i s p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e . How a p e r s o n f e e l s a b o u t
h i m s e l f d ep en d s som ew hat on how h e f e e l s a b o u t t h e p h y s i c a l
p a r t o f h i m s e l f . C o o le y (1 9 2 2 ) w as one o f t h e e a r l i e s t t o
r e c o g n iz e th e i n f l u e n c e o f a p p e a r a n c e upon s e l f - c o n c e p t
d e v e lo p m e n t. He p o s i t e d th r e e p r i n c i p a l e le m e n t s : th e
im a g in a t io n o f ou r a p p ea r a n c e t o o th e r p e r s o n s , th e
im a g in a t io n o f o th e r p e r s o n s ’ ju d gm en t o f t h a t a p p e a r a n c e ,
and some s o r t o f s e l f - f e e l i n g , su ch a s p r id e o r m o r t i f i c a
t i o n . S u l l i v a n s u g g e s t s t h a t th e s e l f i s c o m p r ise d o f th e
" r e f l e c t e d a p p r a i s a ls o f o t h e r s ." I t i s th r o u g h a s s i m i l a
t i o n o f t h e s e a p p r a i s a ls t h a t t h e c h i l d com es t o d e v e lo p
e x p e c t a t i o n s and a t t i t u d e s tow ard h i m s e l f a s an i n d i v i d u a l .
T h u s, p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e b ecom es a d e te r m in e r o f s e l f
e s te e m .
W y lie ( 1 9 6 1 ) , i n a r e v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d
t o s e l f - c o n c e p t , w r o te :
T h e o r e t i c a l l y a p e r s o n 's b od y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s h e
p e r c e i v e s them m ig h t e x e r t a c e n t r a l i n f l u e n c e on
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h i s s e l f - c o n c e p t . . . . I t seem s
s a f e t o s a y t h a t s e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r i s t s a g r e e on
th e g e n e r a l id e a t h a t bod y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h ic h
a r e lo w ly v a lu e d by S may b e e x p e c te d t o u n d erm in e
h i s g e n e r a l s e l f - r e g a r d , w h ile h i g h l y v a lu e d bod y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s sh o u ld en h a n ce s e l f - r e g a r d [p . 1 5 9 ] .
25
I t i s o n ly i n r e c e n t t im e s , h o w e v e r , t h a t i n v e s t i
g a t o r s a r e e x p lo r in g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p h y s i c a l a p p e a r
a n c e ( i . e . , p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s ^ t o s e l f - c o n c e p t
d e v e lo p m e n t. A ron son (1 9 6 9 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t o n e r e a s o n
f o r a v o id in g t h e s u b j e c t h a s b e e n th e b e l i e f t h a t i n t e r n a l
a t t r i b u t e s , n o t e x t e r n a l , a r e d e te r m in e r s o f who r e c e i v e s
a f f e c t i o n . He w r o te :
As an a s i d e , I m ig h t m e n tio n t h a t p h y s i c a l a t t r a c
t i v e n e s s i s r a r e l y i n v e s t i g a t e d a s an a n t e c e d e n t o f
l i k i n g - - e v e n th o u g h a c a s u a l o b s e r v a t io n . . .
w o u ld i n d i c a t e t h a t we seem to r e a c t d i f f e r e n t l y t o
b e a u t i f u l women th a n t o h o m ely wom en. I t i s d i f f i
c u l t t o b e c e r t a i n why t h e e f f e c t s o f p h y s i c a l
b e a u ty h a v e n o t b e e n s t u d ie d m ore s y s t e m a t i c a l l y .
I t may b e t h a t , a t some l e v e l , we w o u ld h a t e t o
f i n d e v id e n c e i n d i c a t i n g t h a t b e a u t i f u l women a r e
b e t t e r l i k e d th a n h o m ely w om en--som ehow t h i s seem s
u n d e m o c r a tic . In a d em ocracy w e l i k e t o f e e l t h a t
w it h h a rd w ork and a good d e a l o f m o t i v a t i o n , a
p e r s o n ca n a c c o m p lis h a lm o s t a n y t h in g . . . .
B e c a u se o f t h i s s u s p i c i o n p e r h a p s m o st s o c i a l
p s y c h o l o g i s t s i m p l i c i t l y p r e f e r t o b e l i e v e t h a t
b e a u t y i s in d e e d o n ly s k in d e e p --a n d a v o id th e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f i t s im p a c t f o r f e a r t h e y m ig h t
le a r n o t h e r w is e [D io n , e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 , p . 3 ] .
Few e m p ir ic a l s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n d i r e c t e d to an
e x a m in a tio n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s e l f - c o n c e p t and
a p p e a r a n c e . H e r e t o f o r e , a p p e a r a n c e w as presum ed t o b e a
s u p e r f i c i a l and p e r ip h e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w it h l i t t l e
i n f l u e n c e upon th e s e l f - c o n c e p t (D io n e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 ) .
H ow ever, t h e r e s e a r c h t h a t h a s b e e n don e (R yan , 1 9 5 4 ;
S t o n e , 1 9 6 2 ; D io n e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t th e r e l a t i o n
s h ip i s a s i g n i f i c a n t o n e .
26
Numerous s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t th e p h y s i c a l l y
u n a t t r a c t i v e , a s com pared t o th e a t t r a c t i v e , a r e l e s s
l i k e l y t o b e a sk ed o u t on d a t e s (W a ls te r , 1 9 6 6 ) , t o be
l ik e d (Byrne e t a l . , 1 9 6 8 ) , or t o a c h ie v e in s c h o o l
(R o s e n th a l & J a c o b so n , 1 9 6 8 ) . A l l o f t h e s e f a c t o r s c o u ld
i n f l u e n c e th e d ev elo p m en t o f a n e g a t iv e s e l f - c o n c e p t .
A p p a r e n tly , p h y s i c a l l y u n a t t r a c t iv e i n d i v i d u a l s , l i k e
G o ffm a n 's (1 9 5 9 ) s t ig m a t iz e d p e r s o n s , e x p e r ie n c e g r e a t e r
i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . Thus i t ca n b e s e e n
t h a t th e im p a ct o f t h i s com p on en t, a p p e a r a n c e , upon t h e
s e l f - c o n c e p t m ig h t be p o w e r fu l. I f a p h y s i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e
p e r s o n i s t r e a t e d as an e f f e c t i v e human b e in g h e may becom e
o n e . C o n v e r s e ly , i f an u n a t t r a c t iv e p e r s o n i s t r e a t e d a s
an i n e f f e c t i v e b e in g , h e , t o o , may becom e one (D io n , 1 9 7 2 ).
T h ere i s a w id e a r r a y o f e v id e n c e (W rig h t, 1 960;
G offm an, 1963; S c o t t , 1 9 6 9 ; D io n e t a l . , 1972) t h a t
p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o an i n d iv i d u a l on
t h e b a s i s o f p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , b e a u ty i s
o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w ith good and u g l i n e s s w it h e v i l . D e s p it e
e m p ir ic a l e v id e n c e t o su p p o r t th em , t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s
c o n t in u e t o e x i s t , p erh a p s b e c a u s e th e y s e r v e a number o f
p u r p o se s i n t h e I n i t i a l e n c o u n te r and s e r v e t o i d e n t i f y t h e
o th e r ( S c o t t , 1 9 6 9 ; K efg e n & T o u c h ie - S p e c h t , 1 9 7 1 ) . T h ese
f i r s t im p r e s s io n s , a c c o r d in g t o K efgen and T o u c h ie -S p e c h t
( 1 9 7 1 ) , o ccu r a s t o n is h i n g ly so o n and a r e lo n g l a s t i n g .
H an d icapp ed p e r so n s a r e o f t e n s u b j e c t t o su c h d e v a lu a t io n .
27
W rig h t ( 1 9 6 0 ) , who h a s d on e e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h in th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n p h y s iq u e and s o c i o - p s y c h o l o g i c a l
c o m p o n e n ts, h a s s t a t e d t h a t t h e im p u te d , and c o n s e q u e n t ly
f e l t , i n f e r i o r i t y p e r m e a te s th e t o t a l p e r s o n .
G offm an (1 9 6 3 ) n o te d t h a t d e v i a t i o n from an ad m ired
s t a t e o f p e r f e c t i o n i s p u n is h e d by s o c i a l s t i g m a t i z a t i o n :
[W h ile a s t r a n g e r i s b e f o r e u s , ] e v id e n c e c a n a r i s e
o f h i s p o s s e s s i n g an a t t r i b u t e t h a t m akes him
d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r s i n th e c a t e g o r y o f p e r s o n s
a v a i l a b l e f o r him t o b e , and o f a l e s s d e s i r a b l e
k i n d - - i n th e e x tr e m e , a p e r s o n who i s q u i t e th o r o u g h ly
b a d , o r d a n g e r o u s or w ea k . He i s th u s r e d u c e d i n
ou r m inds from a w h o le and u s u a l p e r s o n t o a t a i n t e d ,
d is c o u n t e d o n e . Such an a t t r i b u t e i s a s t ig m a ,
e s p e c i a l l y w hen i t s d i s c r e d i t i n g e f f e c t i s v e r y
e x t e n s i v e ; so m e tim e s i t i s c a l l e d a f a i l i n g , s h o r t
com in g or h a n d ic a p [ p . 3 ] .
W righ t (1 9 6 0 ) h a s a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t a p e r s o n 's
s e l f - c o n c e p t d e f i n e s f o r him t h e k in d o f p e r s o n h e i s a s an
" o b je c t" o f s t i m u l a t i o n t o o t h e r s . A m b ig u itie s o c c u r ,
h o w e v e r , i n a s o c i e t y w h ic h p l a c e s h e a v y v a lu e on th e
p e r f e c t i o n o f ou tw ard a p p e a r a n c e . I m p e r f e c t io n i n n a t u r e ,
a c c o r d in g t o K e s s le r ( 1 9 5 2 ) , h a s b e e n a b h o r r e n t t o t h e
human m in d , and a n y th in g d e v i a t i n g from t h e i d e a l i s
c o n s id e r e d r e p u l s i v e . Many you n g wom en, p a r t i c u l a r l y
h a n d ic a p p e d wom en, a r e n o t a b le t o co n fo rm t o su ch body
n orm s, th u s i n c r e a s i n g t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f p ro b lem s g r o w in g
o u t o f d im in is h e d s e l f - e s t e e m . A c c o r d in g t o Murphy ( 1 9 4 7 ) ,
t h e d e g r e e to w h ic h s e l f f e e l s a d e q u a te w it h r e g a r d t o
p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e " d ep en d s m ore on th e a b i l i t y t o m eet
s o c i a l l y im p osed s ta n d a r d s o f b e a u t i f i c a t i o n , th a n upon
28
p o s s e s s i n g raw e le m e n ta r y b e a u ty [p . 7 0 ] ." H o w ev er, a t a
tim e w hen s o c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e made upon th e b a s i s o f
b e a u ty or p h y s i c a l n o r m a lity a p e r s o n w i l l b e h a v e i n
accordance with his evaluation of these criteria. Basic
i n f e r i o r i t y , t h e r e f o r e , b ecom es a s o c i a l phenom enon ( A d le r ,
1 9 2 7 ) . I n a p p ly in g t h i s c o n c e p t t o th e p ro b lem s o f
physical disability, Adler stated:
Children with imperfect organs are overburdened.
T hey may becom e d is c o u r a g e d b y com p arin g th e m s e lv e s
w it h t h o s e around them and i n t h e i r f e e l i n g s o f
i n f e r i o r i t y may be s t r e s s e d by th e p i t y , r i d i c u l e
o r a v o id a n c e o f t h e i r f e l l o w s : - - t h e y may c o n s id e r
th e m s e lv e s p e r f e c t l y h u m ilia t e d by t h e w o r ld [p . 1 4 ] ,
S u l l i v a n (1 9 5 3 ) a l s o d is c u s s e d th e e f f e c t s o f
a w a r e n e ss o f i n f e r i o r i t y on th e s e l f - c o n c e p t . He d e s c r ib e d
th e p o in t from w h ic h a d i s a b l e d p e r s o n may o p e r a te i n
i n t e r p e r s o n a l e x c h a n g e .
The a w a r e n e ss o f i n f e r i o r i t y m eans t h a t on e i s u n a b le
t o k e e p o u t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s th e f o r m u la t io n o f som e
c h r o n ic f e e l i n g o f th e w o r s t s o r t o f i n s e c u r i t y , and
t h i s m eans t h a t on e s u f f e r s a n x i e t y and p e r h a p s ev en
so m e th in g w o r s e . . . . The f e a r t h a t o t h e r s ca n
d i s r e s p e c t som eone b e c a u s e o f so m e th in g h e show s
m eans t h a t h e i s a lw a y s in s e c u r e i n h i s c o n t a c t w it h
o t h e r p e o p le and t h i s i n s e c u r i t y a r i s e s , n o t from
m y s t e r io u s and som ew hat d i s g u i s e d s o u r c e s , a s a
g r e a t d e a l o f a n x i e t y d o e s , b u t from s o m e th in g h e
knows h e c a n n o t f i x . Now t h a t r e p r e s e n t s an a lm o s t
f a t a l d e f i c i e n c y o f th e s e l f - s y s t e m , s i n c e t h e s e l f
i s u n a b le t o d i s g u i s e or e x c lu d e a d e f i n i t e fo r m u la
t i o n t h a t r e a d s : " I am i n f e r i o r . T h e r e fo r e p e o p le
w i l l d i s l i k e me and I c a n n o t b e s e c u r e w it h them
[ p . 1 5 4 ] .
From S u l l i v a n ' s f o r m u la t io n , i t seem s p o s s i b l e t o i n f e r
t h a t a p h y s i c a l l y d i s a b l e d a d o le s c e n t may f e e l u n su r e i n
h i s i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
l
29
S to n e (1 9 6 2 ) p o s t u l a t e s t h a t a p p ea r a n c e i s a t l e a s t
i f n o t m ore im p o r ta n t th a n la n g u a g e i n th e co m m u n ica tio n
p r o c e s s . E x t e r n a l a p p ea r a n c e seem s t o i n f l u e n c e n o t o n ly
how o t h e r s r e sp o n d t o th e i n d i v i d u a l b u t a l s o how th e
i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e iv e s h i m s e l f . Diamond (1 9 5 7 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t
t h e i n d i v i d u a l who p o s s e s s e s th e p h y s iq u e and f e a t u r e s t h a t
con form t o t h e s o c i a l i d e a l e x p e r ie n c e s l e s s c o n f l i c t i n
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a s a t i s f a c t o r y body im a g e.
D io n , B e r s c h e id , and W a ls te r (1 9 7 2 ) h a v e d e a l t
e x t e n s i v e l y w it h th e e f f e c t s o f a p p e a r a n c e , and t h e i r
a c c u m u la te d f i n d i n g s a l s o g i v e v a l i d i t y t o S t o n e ' s c o n c e p t
r e g a r d in g a p p e a r a n c e . D io n e t a l . w r o te :
A p e r s o n 's p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e , a lo n g w it h h i s s e x u a l
i d e n t i t y , i s th e f i r s t l i n k t o co m m u n ica tio n i n th e
s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s . . . . I n one b r i e f
p e r u s a l a p p e a r a n c e i s e q u a te d w it h p e r s o n a l i t y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and c o n fo r m a tio n o f th e "What i s
b e a u t i f u l i s good" c o n c e p t i s c o n fir m e d [p . 1 ] ,
D io n r e p o r t e d t h a t s u b j e c t s n o t o n ly a t t r i b u t e
p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o a t t r a c t i v e p e r s o n s , b u t i t
i s presum ed t h a t t h e i r l i v e s w i l l b e m ore s u c c e s s f u l and
h a p p i e r .
M ille r (1 9 7 0 ) e x p lo r e d s o c i a l p e r c e p t io n o f
i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l w h e r e in s u b j e c t s w ere g i v e n
p h o to g r a p h s p r e v io u s l y s c a l e d a s b e in g h ig h o r lo w i n
p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s . H is h y p o t h e s is t h a t p e r s o n s low
i n a t t r a c t i v e n e s s w ere p e r c e iv e d t o b e e x t e r n a l s w as
s u b s t a n t i a t e d . The s tu d y d e m o n str a te d t h e r e l e v a n c e o f
30
i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l p e r c e p t io n and
t o t h e cu e v a lu e o f p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i o n . I f one d o e s
n o t h in g m ore th a n " s e e " a n o th e r p e r s o n , th e l a t t e r * s
a p p e a r a n c e i s a p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e o f o t h e r in f e r r e d c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s .
In many c a s e s e m o tio n a l m ake-up i s ju d g e d b y f a c i a l
a t t r i b u t e s and body m o v em en ts. T h ere a p p e a r s t o b e a
u n i v e r s a l s o c i a l a t t i t u d e w h ic h h o ld s t h a t i f an i n d i v i d u a l
lo o k s d i f f e r e n t , h e m ust b e d i f f e r e n t . S p e c i f i c a l l y , an
i n d i v i d u a l w it h a f a c e m a rk ed ly d e v ia n t from t h a t o f th e
norm i s a d e v ia n t p e r s o n n o t o n ly i n f a c i a l a p p e a r a n c e , b u t
i n p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s w e l l (G offm an , 1 9 6 3 ) .
T h ese f i r s t im p r e s s io n s may h a v e l o n g - l a s t i n g
c o n s e q u e n c e s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , th e way i n w h ic h a p e r s o n i s
f i r s t p e r c e iv e d i s im p o r ta n t i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s e l f i n
new s o c i a l r o l e s (R ic h a r d s o n , 1 9 6 9 ) . Many c h i l d r e n ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y b l i n d c h i l d r e n , may s u f f e r s o c i a l im p o v e r is h
m en t b e c a u s e o f f i r s t p e r c e p t io n s w h ic h c o u ld d is c o u r a g e
f u r t h e r i n t e r a c t i o n .
W a ls t e r , A r o n so n , A braham s, and R ottm an (1 9 6 6 )
c o n d u c te d a f i e l d s tu d y i n w h ic h i n d i v i d u a l s w ere ran d om ly
p a ir e d a t a com p u ter d a n c e . R e s e a r c h e r s w ere a tte m p tin g t o
d e te r m in e who w o u ld b e l i k e d b e s t . The p r e d i c t i v e v a r i
a b l e s w e re p e r s o n a l i t y , i n t e l l e c t u a l and s c h o l a s t i c
a p t i t u d e m e a s u r e s . F in d in g s show ed th e o n ly r e l i a b l e
p r e d ic t o r i n l i k i n g w as th e o t h e r ' s p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s .
31
B r i s l i n and L ew is (1 9 6 8 ) r e p l i c a t e d t h i s s tu d y and r e p o r t e d
s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s .
O ther r e s e a r c h (J a c o b s o n , 1 9 4 5 ; F itz s im m o n s , 1 9 6 1 ;
R o s e n c r a n z , 1 9 6 2 ) o f f e r s s t r o n g e v id e n c e t h a t c l o t h i n g and
p e r s o n a l a p p ea r a n c e a r e v i t a l f a c t o r s in th e f o r m a t io n o f
f i r s t im p r e s s io n s . Of p a r t i c u l a r r e le v a n c e t o t h i s i n v e s
t i g a t i o n i s J a c o b s o n 's f i n d i n g t h a t a p h y s i c a l h a n d ic a p i s
n o t a s s i g n i f i c a n t i n a f i r s t im p r e s s io n a s i n c l o t h i n g and
g r o o m in g . A c o n d i t i o n t h a t c a n n o t b e c o r r e c t e d i s o f t e n
o v e r lo o k e d ; h o w e v e r , u n t id y a p p e a r a n c e and p o o r ly s e l e c t e d
c l o t h e s a r e r a r e l y ig n o r e d . Of f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t i n t h e
J a c o b s o n stu d y w as t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f i m p r e s s i o n s . The
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s w e re p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n t e l l i
g e n c e , c l o t h i n g , g r o o m in g , and p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s
t i c s su c h a s t r a i t s , a t t i t u d e s , and tem p era m en t. J a c o b s o n ’ s
r e s u l t s i n d ic a t e d t h a t th e r e s p o n s e s m e n tio n e d p s y c h o lo g
i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , m o st f r e q u e n t l y , w it h groom in g
r a n k in g s e c o n d .
S e v e r a l r e c e n t e x p e r im e n t a l s t u d i e s h a v e e x p lo r e d
th e i n f l u e n c e w h ic h p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s e x e r t s on
a d o le s c e n t s o c i a l p e r c e p t io n o f p e e r s (D io n e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 )
and h e t e r o s e x u a l a t t r a c t i o n (W a ls te r e t a l . , 1 9 6 6 ;
B e r s c h e id , D io n , W a ls te r & W a ls t e r , 1 9 7 1 ) . I n t h e B e r s c h e id
e t a l . s t u d y , f i n d i n g s r e v e a le d t h a t t h e " g a te k e e p e r s " f o r
i n t e r a c t i o n w it h m em bers o f th e o p p o s i t e s e x w e re t h e
p h y s i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e . A ls o n o te d w as t h e p o s i t i v e
32
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a t t r a c t i v e n e s s and d a t in g f r e q u e n c y .
W a ls te r and B e r s c h e id (1 9 6 9 ) h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t p h y s i c a l
a t t r a c t i o n may be th e s i n g l e m o st im p o r ta n t f a c t o r i n
d e te r m in in g p o p u l a r it y among c o l l e g e age p e r s o n s .
I n th e s tu d y by D io n e t a l . ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p h y s i c a l l y
a t t r a c t i v e a d o l e s c e n t s w ere p e r c e iv e d to h a v e m ore s o c i a l l y
d e s i r a b l e t r a i t s th a n u n a t t r a c t i v e a d o l e s c e n t s . The
s t e r e o t y p e o f an a t t r a c t i v e a d o le s c e n t w as t h a t o f a
" s o c i a l l y w e l l - a d j u s t e d i n d i v i d u a l ." T h ese i n v e s t i g a t o r s
h a v e n o te d t h a t a p p e a r a n c e e v a lu a t io n s b e g in e x tr e m e ly
e a r l y i n l i f e . A s tu d y by C r o ss and C r o ss (1 9 7 1 ) su p p o r te d
t h e s e o b s e r v a t io n s and s u g g e s t e d t h a t s t e r e o t y p i c a t t i t u d e s
b e g in d u r in g p r e - s c h o o l p e r i o d s .
S e l f - e s t e e m . T h ere i s c o n s id e r a b le i m p l i c i t
e v id e n c e t h a t o n e ' s a p p e a r a n c e i s an im p o r ta n t d e te r m in e r
o f s e l f - e s t e e m . S e c o r d and J o u ra rd ( 1 9 5 3 ) , f o r e x a m p le ,
fo u n d t h a t th e f e e l i n g s an i n d i v i d u a l had a b o u t h i s bod y
w e re com m ensurate w it h th e f e e l i n g s t h a t h e had a b o u t
h i m s e l f a s a p e r s o n . I n a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s by t h e s e same
i n v e s t i g a t o r s , c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s w ere a sk e d t o r a t e t h e i r
f e e l i n g s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w it h t h e s e d im e n s io n s . G e n e r a lly ,
t h o s e who e x p r e s s e d f e e l i n g s o f s e c u r i t y and s e l f -
c o n f id e n c e w ere s a t i s f i e d w it h t h e i r b o d i e s . Z io n 's (1 9 6 3 )
i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l s o r e v e a le d a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e tw e e n b o d y -c o n c e p t and s e l f - c o n c e p t .
33
Two s e p a r a t e l i n e s o f r e s e a r c h p r o v id e d i n d i r e c t
e v id e n c e t h a t p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e m ig h t h a v e i n f l u e n c e on
s e l f - e s t e e m : f i r s t , th e a v e r s io n f o r p h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t y ,
and s e c o n d , p e e r g ro u p a c c e p t a n c e .
A d orn m en t. A d orn m en t, w h ic h seem s t o b e in h e r e n t
i n human a c t i v i t y , i s one o f th e m o st w i d e l y a c c e p te d
t h e o r i e s i n r e g a r d t o a p p e a r a n c e (H orn, 1 9 6 8 ) . M ost p e o p le
a tte m p t t o e m b e llis h or m old th e body i n o r d e r t o a c h ie v e
b e a u t y . B o th J e r s i l d 1s (1 9 5 2 ) and R y a n 's (1 9 5 4 ) r e s e a r c h
i n d i c a t e s t h a t many i n d i v i d u a l s w is h f o r som e c h a n g e i n
t h e i r p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The d e s i r e t o r e n d e r t h e
b od y m ore b e a u t i f u l , h o w e v e r , i s c o d i f i e d by s p e c i f i c
c u l t u r a l r u l e s . M a rg a ret Mead ( 1 9 6 4 ) , i n h e r c r o s s -
c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s , n o te d t h a t e a c h s o c i e t y h a s i d i o s y n c r a t i c
a t t i t u d e s and s ta n d a r d s o f p e r s o n a l b e a u t y , th u s v e r i f y i n g
t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f t h e d e s i r e t o a c h ie v e " id e a l" b e a u t y .
K efg e n and T o u c h ie -S p e c h t (1 9 6 9 ) s u g g e s t t h a t
a c c o u tr e m e n ts ( i . e . , adorn m en t) su ch a s c l o t h i n g and
j e w e l r y a i d t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n p r e s e n t in g an im age and
e x p r e s s i n g h i m s e l f . I t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l
m a n ip u la te h i s a p p e a r a n c e t o f i t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a
s p e c i f i c r o l e . I n r e l a t i o n t o c l o t h i n g , G ardner Murphy
(1 9 4 7 ) w r o t e , " C lo th in g i s l a r g e l y a m eans f o r m akin g r e a l
t h e r o l e t h a t i s p la y e d i n l i f e [p . 4 9 4 ] ." Y outh t o d a y ,
h o w e v e r , p la y m u l t i p l e r o l e s and a tte m p t t o d r e s s f o r e a c h
34
one p la y e d . T h e se c h a n g in g r o l e s , a lo n g w it h c h a n g e s i n
b od y im age d u r in g a d o l e s c e n c e , c o u ld p ro d u ce a m arked
c h a n g e i n t h e c o n c e p t o f s e l f .
S to n e (1 9 6 2 ) h a s t h e o r i z e d t h a t a n e c e s s a r y p r e c o n
d i t i o n t o s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n i s an a n a l y s i s o f a p p e a r a n c e ,
i n c lu d i n g c l o t h e s . B ased on t h i s t h e o r y , Smucker and
C reekm ore (1 9 7 2 ) h y p o t h e s iz e d t h a t a r e l a t i o n s h i p sh o u ld
e x i s t b e tw e en c o n fo r m ity t o th e m ode, p e e r a c c e p t a n c e , and
a w a r e n e ss o f th e m ode. T h e ir f i n d i n g s r e v e a le d a s i g n i f i
c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s im p lie d t h a t
c o n fo r m ity i n m a tt e r s o f d r e s s may be an im p o r ta n t c o n d i
t i o n t o p e e r a c c e p ta n c e f o r a d o l e s c e n t s . S t u d ie s p r e v i
o u s ly c i t e d v e r i f y t h i s i m p l i c a t i o n .
P r e o c c u p a tio n w it h a p p e a r a n c e seem s t o b e a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a d o l e s c e n c e . C olem an (1 9 6 1 ) n o te d
in c r e a s e d c o n c e r n o v e r p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e among a d o l e s
c e n t s . G ir l s i n p a r t i c u l a r show m ore c o n c e r n o v e r c o s m e tic
c o n s e q u e n c e s (R ic h a r d s o n e t a l . , 1 9 6 1 ) . B oth C olem an
(1 9 6 1 ) and S h e r i f (1 9 6 9 ) h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t th e s t r o n g
d e s i r e f o r p e e r a p p r o v a l i s r e l a t e d t o " a p p e a ra n ce
c o n f o r m it y ." The a d o le s c e n t i n v e s t i g a t e s many b e h a v io r a l
a l t e r n a t i v e s t o d i s c o v e r th e c o m b in a tio n s w h ic h w i l l b r in g
home som e d e g r e e o f a c c e p ta n c e and a p p r o v a l. Sm ucker
e t a l . (1 9 7 2 ) s u g g e s t t h a t su ch a c t i o n s a s h a b i t s o f d r e s s
and sp e e c h w h ic h seem t o b e e f f e c t i v e a r e r e a d i l y a d o p te d .
H orn ( 1 9 6 8 ) , who r e f e r s t o c l o t h i n g a s t h e " se c o n d s k in ,"
35
m a n if e s t e d th e same v ie w , and s t a t e d : " . . . The im p o r
ta n c e o f c l o t h i n g a s a m eans o f a c h ie v in g a p p r o v a l and
a c c e p ta n c e i s param ount i n th e v a lu e c o n f i g u r a t io n o f t h e
a d o le s c e n t . . . [p . 8 1 ] ." F lu g a l (1 9 3 0 ) many y e a r s
e a r l i e r e x p r e s s e d t h e b e l i e f t h a t w h a t p e o p le r e a c t t o a r e
n o t th e b o d ie s b u t th e c l o t h e s o f t h o s e a b o u t u s .
D u rin g a d o le s c e n c e c l o t h i n g seem s t o h a v e i t s
g r e a t e s t e f f e c t s upon th e mood and a c t i o n s o f t h e i n d i v i d
u a l . A w e l l - d r e s s e d a d o le s c e n t seem s t o ex u d e a f e e l i n g o f
r e l a x a t i o n and c o n f id e n c e , b u t i f h e i s p o o r ly d r e s s e d h e
becom es i l l a t e a s e and s e l f - c o n s c i o u s (R yan , 1 9 6 6 ) . R yan
s t r e s s e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e y o u n g e r fe m a le a d o l e s c e n t i s
l e s s c o n f i d e n t a b o u t h e r a p p e a r a n c e . R o f f (1 9 5 9 ) a l s o
fo u n d t h a t s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n i n g e n e r a l g r a d u a lly d e c l i n e s
th r o u g h o u t t h e a d o l e s c e n t p e r io d , b u t b e g in s t o r i s e
s l i g h t l y a t t h e end o f a d o l e s c e n c e .
R yan (1 9 5 4 ) com pared s c o r e s on t h e B e r n r e u te r
P e r s o n a l i t y I n v e n t o r y w it h s e l f and g ro u p r a t i n g s on
a p p e a r a n c e w it h a grou p o f c o l l e g e f e m a l e s . S h e h y p o th e
s i z e d t h a t t h o s e who o v e r r a te d or u n d e r r a te d th e m s e lv e s a s
com pared w it h th e grou p r a t i n g s and t h e i r e s t i m a t e o f g ro u p
r a t i n g s w o u ld d i f f e r i n c l o t h i n g i n t e r e s t , p e r s o n a l i t y , and
s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n . F i f t y p e r c e n t r a t e d t h e m s e lv e s and
e s t im a t e d th e grou p r a t i n g th e same a s th e g ro u p r a te d
th em . She a l s o r e p o r t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n
s h ip b e tw e e n dom in ance and a h ig h s e l f - r a t i n g on w e l l
36
d r e s s e d . F u r th e r , t h o s e who s c o r e d h ig h in s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e
and i n s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y r a t e d th e m s e lv e s a s h ig h on th e
w e l l - d r e s s e d s c a l e . R y a n 's e x p e r im e n t w as r e p e a t e d f o r
s e v e n s u c c e s s i v e y e a r s , and th e r e s u l t s w ere g e n e r a l l y in
a g reem en t w it h th e o r i g i n a l f i n d i n g s .
Self-Concept Development in the Blind
S e l f - c o n c e p t d e v e lo p m e n t i s n o t a t y p i c a l f o r b lin d
a d o l e s c e n t s . A lth o u g h t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n c e s , th e
sam e t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e ls w h ic h a p p ly t o s ig h t e d a d o l e s c e n t s
a r e a p p l ic a b l e t o th e b l i n d . The q u e s t i o n o f how th e s e l f -
c o n c e p t d e v e lo p s i n t h e b l i n d a p p e a r s t o b e d e s c r ib e d i n
t h e l i t e r a t u r e a s an i n t e r a c t i n g p r o c e s s . The s e l f d o e s
n o t d e v e lo p i n i s o l a t i o n , b u t i s th e r e s u l t o f i n t e r p e r
s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w it h " s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s ." The r e s u l t
i s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t .
N o th in g i s in h e r e n t i n b l i n d n e s s t o p r o d u c e a n e g a t i v e
c o n c e p t; t h e r e f o r e , i t s d e v e lo p m e n t i s s o c i a l , n o t p h y s i c a l
( S c o t t , 1 9 7 0 ) .
Mead ( 1 9 3 4 ) , on e o f th e f i r s t i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s ,
s t a t e d t h a t t h e s e l f b ecom es a s e l f " . . . o n ly by ta k in g
th e a t t i t u d e s o f o th e r i n d i v i d u a l s to w a rd h i m s e l f w i t h i n a
s o c i a l e n v iro n m en t o r c o n t e x t o f e x p e r ie n c e and b e h a v io r i n
w h ic h b o th h e and t h e y a r e in v o lv e d [ p . 1 3 8 ] ."
S u l l i v a n ' s (1 9 4 7 ) h y p o t h e s is t h a t th e a t t i t u d e o f
o t h e r s d e te r m in e s o n e ' s a t t i t u d e to w a rd h i m s e l f seem s to
37
concur with the above.
Snygg and Combs1 (1 9 4 9 ) d e f i n i t i o n o f th e phenom
e n a l s e l f a s b e in g w h at on e th o u g h t w as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
h i m s e l f i s a p p l ic a b l e t o t h e above p o s i t i o n :
Out of the interaction of the child with the world
around him, the individual comes to differentiate
more and more clearly his phenomenal self.
Obviously, this concept can only be a function of
•the way he is treated by those who surround him.
. . . The child can only see himself in terms of
his experience, and in terms of the treatment he
receives from those responsible for his development
[p - 8 2 ] .
The im p o r ta n c e o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s c o n fir m e d by
B la n k 's (1 9 5 7 ) comment t h a t e g o d e v e lo p m e n t in b l i n d c h i l
d r e n w ou ld i n e v i t a b l y be r e t a r d e d b e c a u s e o f th e d i f f i c u l t y
w h ic h th e y had i n s h a r p ly d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b e tw e e n s e l f and
e n v ir o n m e n t.
It is during this early period that the body-self
is explored. Brodey (1 9 6 9 ) claims that, for a child with
out object perception, a functional body image is difficult
to achieve. Earlier, Schilder (1 9 5 0 ) noted the importance
of optical verification for body image development. Brodey
(1 9 6 9 ) also noted that many blind adolescents have not been
able to clarify this concept. Meighan (1 9 7 1 ) reported low
scores on physical appearance concept as measured by the
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale in his study exploring self-
concepts of blind adolescents.
Because the body image is an important part of
self-awareness and identity, it provides a base line for
38
the development of the self-concept. Brodey suggests that
an individual who lacks a significant part of this dimen
sion cannot form a clear conception of his physical self.
D a v is (1 9 6 2 ) s t r e s s e s th e im p o r ta n c e o f a llo w in g
b li n d c h i ld r e n t o e x p lo r e t h e i r own b o d i e s , a s w e l l a s
t h o s e o f t h e i r p e e r s , i n o r d e r t o w id e n t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s .
He s t a t e s t h a t n o th in g " s h o u ld i n t e r f e r e w it h an i n d i v i d
u a l ' s o p p o r t u n it y t o d e v e lo p an a d e q u a te body im age b e c a u s e
w it h o u t an a d e q u a te im a g e , th e s e l f - c o n c e p t c a n n o t b e o th e r
th a n d i s t o r t e d [ p . 4 5 ] ."
R o le P la y i n g . A c c o r d in g t o S c o t t ( 1 9 6 9 ) , on e o f
th e p rim a ry m eans by w h ich a c h i l d le a r n s t o i n t e r n a l i z e
th e b e h a v io r o f o t h e r s i s p l a y . The b l i n d c h i l d i s l im i t e d
i n h i s a b i l i t y t o p la y o r i m i t a t e a w id e v a r i e t y o f r o l e s .
Many p a r e n t s h a v e a te n d e n c y t o o v e r p r o t e c t and l i m i t t h e i r
c h i l d ' s c o n t a c t w it h o t h e r s , th u s l i m i t i n g t h e r a n g e and
v a r i e t y o f h i s s e l f - a t t i t u d e s . T h is l i m i t a t i o n a l s o
c o n t r i b u t e s t o s t e r e o t y p e d b e l i e f s a b o u t f a m ily p a t t e r n s
a n d , c o n s e q u e n t ly , a d e l im i t e d c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l r o l e s .
S in c e m o st conmon r o l e s a r e v i s u a l l y a c q u ir e d
( S c o t t , 1 9 6 9 ) , t h e b lin d c h i l d ' s k n o w led g e i s s e r i o u s l y
h am p ered . He i s u n a b le t o d e v e lo p a r e p e r t o i r e o f r o l e s
and a " c o n s e q u e n t a b i l i t y t o u n d e r s ta n d how p e r s o n s i n
t h e s e r o l e s e v a lu a t e him [R ic h a r d s o n , 1 9 6 9 , p . 1 0 3 5 ] ."
An important phase of play is communication through
body language. Not only does the blind child miss the
39
fe e d b a c k o f c u e s , b u t h e i s u n a b le t o se n d th e im p o r ta n t
n o n v e r b a l m e s sa g e s w h ic h may c o n v e y th e m ea n in g b e h in d
them . G e s tu r in g becom es p a r t i c u l a r l y im p o r ta n t a s th e
c h i l d i n c r e a s e s i n a g e and s o c i a l c o n t a c t . I t i s th r o u g h
th e i m i t a t i o n o f body la n g u a g e t h a t many s o c i a l r o l e s a r e
le a r n e d and s u b s e q u e n t ly i n t e r n a l i z e d . The b lin d c h i l d ' s
m eans o f g e s t u r i n g , or b l i n d is m s , a r e so m e tim e s s o o f f e n
s i v e t o o t h e r s t h a t t h e y a r e p e r c e iv e d a s sym ptom s o f
m e n ta l d e f i c i e n c y or b r a in dam age. T h is l a b e l o n ly
r e i n f o r c e s th e c h i l d ' s i s o l a t i o n and s e p a r a t e n e s s ( S c o t t ,
1 969) .
S c o t t (1 9 6 9 ) e x p r e s s e s t h e b e l i e f t h a t many o f th e
e x p e r ie n c e s n e c e s s a r y f o r th e g ro w th and d e v e lo p m e n t o f a
h e a l t h y s e l f - c o n c e p t a r e l a c k in g i n th e l i f e o f a b l i n d
a d o l e s c e n t , and t h a t h i s a c q u i s i t i o n o f a d e q u a te s o c i a l
r o l e s i s a n e c e s s i t y i n s e l f - c o n c e p t d e v e lo p m e n t. F or
e x a m p le , a m ajor r o l e - l e a r n i n g e x p e r ie n c e i s t h a t o f
com p reh en d in g t h e q u a l i t i e s o f m a s c u l i n i t y and f e m i n i n i t y .
W ith o u t v i s i o n , t h i s i s a d i f f i c u l t t a s k b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e
no s o c i a l l y ap p roved m eth o d s by w h ic h on e c a n m e a n in g f u lly
com m u nicate t h e s e q u a l i t i e s ( S c o t t , 1 9 6 9 ) . S c o t t a s s e r t s
t h a t s e l f - c o n c e p t s i n b l i n d c h i ld r e n a r e u s u a l l y fr a g m e n te d
and d i f f u s e and may b e r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t s o c i a l
r o l e s a r e v i s u a l l y a c q u ir e d .
The a c q u i s i t i o n o f a s o c i a l r o l e seem s t o b e th e
m o st d i f f i c u l t t a s k f o r a b li n d a d o l e s c e n t b e c a u s e " e v e r y
40
day in n u m era b le a c t s m ust be p erform ed i n a m ore or l e s s
awkward manner j u s t t o m eet v i s u a l r e s p e c t a b i l i t y and
a p p r o v a l [ C u t s f o r t h , 1 9 5 1 , p . 1 3 3 ] ." I t d o e s n o t seem t o
be th e o b ta in m en t o f t h e s e r o l e s w h ich c a u s e s th e d i f f i
c u l t y , b u t r a th e r th e s e e in g members o f s o c i e t y and th e
s e l f - r e g a r d i n g a t t i t u d e s t h a t th e y in d u c e i n t h e b l i n d .
A c co r d in g t o C u t s fo r th ( 1 9 5 1 ) , i t i s t h e s e members who a r e
" e n t i r e l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r e m o tio n a l d is tu r b a n c e foun d i n
th e b lin d a s a grou p [p . 1 2 5 ]." T h at th e r e i s n o t a
g r e a t e r amount o f d is tu r b a n c e i s v e r i f i e d by som e r e s e a r c h
e r s su ch a s J e r v i s , 1 949; G r a v it z , 1 954; and Cowen, 1 9 6 0 .
J e r v i s ( 1 9 5 9 ) , who h a s d on e e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h i n
r e l a t i o n t o th e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f b o th b lin d and s ig h t e d
p e r s o n s , d e s ig n e d a stu d y t o e x p lo r e d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een
b lin d and s ig h t e d a d o l e s c e n t s . J e r v i s u se d o p en -en d ed
in t e r v ie w s and Q - s o r ts t o s tu d y th e s e l f - c o n c e p t s o f t h e s e
s u b j e c t s . The in t e r v ie w m a t e r ia ls w ere s u b j e c t e d t o
c l i n i c a l ju d g m e n ts, and no o v e r a l l d i f f e r e n c e s w ere fou n d
b etw een t h e g r o u p s , a lth o u g h th e b li n d group e x p r e s s e d m ore
ex trem e p o s i t i v e or n e g a t iv e s e l f - a t t i t u d e s . J e r v i s h a s
s t a t e d t h a t , i n o r d e r t o m a in ta in a s e l f - s y s t e m , one m ust
f e e l a d e q u a te , c o m p e te n t, and e f f e c t i v e as a human b e in g .
The Cowen e t a l . (1 9 6 1 ) s tu d y c o m p le te d th e m ost
c o m p re h e n siv e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a d ju stm e n t among b lin d
a d o le s c e n t s and t h e i r p a r e n t s . The a r e a s s t u d ie d w ere
p e r s o n a l i t y m ake-up and a d ju s tm e n t, p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s t o
child-rearing, relationships between parental attitudes and
adolescent adjustment, and parental understanding in the
two groups and the relationship between parental under
standing and adjustment. New research techniques were also
developed. The sample included a group of visually
disabled adolescents living at home, a group of "residen
tial" legally blind adolescents, and a sighted group.
Findings revealed no differences between groups in adjust
ment or parental attitude. Instead of the expected
positive relationship between adjustment and attitudes, the
findings indicated a strong relationship between parental
understanding and adjustment.
Sommers' (1 9 4 4 ) c l a s s i c s tu d y i n v e s t i g a t e d th e
i n f l u e n c e o f p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e and s o c i a l e n v ir o n m e n t on
t h e p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e a d o le s c e n t b l i n d .
A g ro u p o f 143 w e re s t u d ie d by t h r e e d i f f e r e n t m e th o d s :
p e r s o n a l i t y t e s t , q u e s t io n n a ir e on t h e p ro b lem s o f b l i n d
n e s s , and c o n t r o l l e d i n t e r v i e w s w it h a sa m p le o f 50
a d o l e s c e n t s and p a r e n t s . The f i n d i n g s in d ic a t e d p a r e n t a l
r e a c t i o n t o t h e i r b li n d c h i l d a s f o l l o w s : a c c e p t a n c e ,
d e n i a l , o v e r p r o t e c t i v e n e s s , d i s g u i s e d r e j e c t i o n , o v e r t
r e j e c t i o n . A d ju stm e n t b e h a v io r o f t h e a d o le s c e n t f e l l i n t o
th e f o l lo w in g c a t e g o r i e s : c o m p e n s a to r y , d e n i a l , d e f e n s i v e ,
w ith d r a w a l, g e n e r a l l y n o n a d j u s t iv e b e h a v io r . Sommers
c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e m ain s o u r c e o f m a la d ju s tm e n t i s s o c i e t y ' s
a t t i t u d e tow ard b l i n d n e s s . She a l s o fo u n d b lin d f e m a le s t o
42
b e s l i g h t l y b e t t e r a d ju s te d th a n b li n d m a le s .
C h e v ig n y and B raverm an (1 9 5 0 ) a l s o r e l a t e d t o
s o c i e t y ' s a t t i t u d e and s t a t e d t h a t many b lin d i n d i v i d u a l s
who a r e c o n s id e r e d an i n f e r i o r m in o r it y by s o c i e t y co n fo rm
t o t h i s v ie w by b eco m in g d e p r e s s e d and d e p e n d e n t.
A s u r v e y o f th e l i t e r a t u r e p u b lis h e d d u r in g t h e
l a s t tw e n ty y e a r s r e v e a le d t h a t n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s tow ard
h a n d ic a p p e d p e r s o n s e x i s t to th e sam e d e g r e e a s w as fo u n d
i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s , and t h a t h a n d ic a p p ed p e r s o n s a r e aw are o f th e
e x t e n t t o w h ic h th e y a r e r e sp o n d e d t o d i f f e r e n t l y (H im es,
1 9 5 0 ; B a r k e r , 1 9 5 3 ; R u sa lem , 1 9 5 4 ; Cowen, 1 9 6 1 ; G offm an,
1 9 6 3 ; Kim, 1 9 7 0 ) .
T h u s, t h e r e a r e num erous s t u d i e s p o i n t in g t o th e
p ro b lem o f fo r m in g a p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t , and t h a t i s th e
n e g a t iv is m a b li n d a d o le s c e n t m u st f a c e w i t h i n h i s p e r s o n a l
e n v ir o n m e n t and from t h o s e who a r e s e e n a s " s i g n i f i c a n t
o t h e r s ." C u rren t a t t i t u d i n a l r e s e a r c h (W in to n , 1 9 7 1 )
r e a f f i r m s t h i s b e l i e f .
M eighan (1 9 7 1 ) e x p lo r e d s e l f - c o n c e p t d e v e lo p m e n t o f
b li n d a d o l e s c e n t s and fou n d t h a t t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t s a r e
a f f e c t e d b e c a u s e o f f e l t n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s . P a r t i c u l a r l y
low s c o r e s w ere a l s o fo u n d i n th e a r e a o f i d e n t i t y .
M eighan s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e b lin d a d o l e s c e n t may b e s u f f e r
in g from an " i d e n t i t y c r i s i s . "
V ery l i t t l e s y s t e m a t ic r e s e a r c h on t h e s o c i a l
b e h a v io r and p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e v i s u a l l y h a n d ic a p p e d
43
a d o le s c e n t h a s b e e n d o n e , and much o f w hat h a s b e e n
a tte m p te d h a s b e e n c a u g h t i n th e s n a r e o f m e t h o d o lo g ic a l
d i f f i c u l t i e s . B ark er (1 9 5 3 ) and D a v is (1 9 6 9 ) h a v e b o th
i n d ic a t e d t h a t th e b u lk o f r e s e a r c h e x p lo r e d i s i n d i c a t i v e
o f weak e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n s and m e th o d o lo g y d u e t o
sa m p lin g e r r o r s , in a d e q u a te p a p e r - p e n c il t e s t s , no c o n s i d
e r a t i o n o f d e g r e e o f v i s i o n or a g e o f o n s e t . Much o f th e
r e s e a r c h , • t h e r e f o r e , m u st b e i n t e r p r e t e d c a u t i o u s l y and
some r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e s e s e r i o u s in a d e q u a c ie s .
Handicapping Conditions and the Interaction
P r o c e s s . A d o le s c e n c e f o r b o th b l i n d and s i g h t e d i s u s u a l l y
a p e r io d o f f r u s t r a t i o n , l o n e l i n e s s , and c o n f l i c t . I t i s
a l s o a tim e when i n t e n s e i n t e r a c t i o n s b e tw e e n a g e -m a te s h a s
i t s g r e a t e s t im p a c t. S h e r i f (1 9 6 9 ) c o n c lu d e d , on th e b a s i s
o f an i n t e n s i v e s tu d y o f m ore th a n 24 g ro u p s i n s e v e r a l
c i t i e s , t h a t :
. . . A d o le s c e n t a t t i t u d e s and g o a l s a r e p r o fo u n d ly
a f f e c t e d by th e i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s w it h a g e -m a t e s .
O ver a p e r io d o f t im e , th e in f o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n i s
p a t t e r n e d i n t o e s t a b l i s h e d r e c i p r o c i t i e s among th e
v a r io u s members and r e g u la t e d by c u s to m s , s t a n d a r d s ,
or norm s t h a t a l l come t o s h a r e i f th e y a r e "good
i d e n t i f i e d members" [ p . 1 2 5 ] .
When one member o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s i s w i t h
o u t s i g h t , h o w e v e r , th e r u l e s o f t h e "game" c h a n g e . The
b li n d a d o l e s c e n t m u st n o t o n ly c o p e w it h th e "gam e," b u t
w it h p r o b le m s w h ic h a r e u n iq u e t o h i s h a n d ic a p . He m u st
c o p e w it h tw o k in d s o f o v e r la p p in g s i t u a t i o n s , t h a t ow ing
44
t o h i s d i s a b i l i t y and t h a t ow in g t o h i s t r a n s i t i o n a l s t a t u s
a s a c h i l d - a d u l t (W r ig h t, 1 9 6 0 ) . W rig h t (1 9 6 0 ) r e a f f ir m e d
th e im p a c t o f a t t i t u d e s w hen s h e r e f e r r e d t o th e o v e r l a p
p in g s i t u a t i o n o f p e o p le b ecom in g sh o ck ed and d i s c o n c e r t e d
w hen th e i n d i v i d u a l d o e s n o t a c t l i k e a b li n d p e r s o n . She
p o in t e d o u t t h a t th e a d o l e s c e n t m ust a l s o c o p e w it h a t t i
t u d e s w h ic h a r e s t e e p e d i n s t e r e o t y p i c b e l i e f s and s tig m a
im p u t a t io n s . B lin d n e s s i n i t s e l f e l i c i t s t h e s e r e a c t i o n s .
The m anner i n w h ic h th e b li n d a d o l e s c e n t f a c e s t h e s e
p r o c e s s e s i s p a r t i a l l y d e te r m in e d by t h e n a tu r e o f h i s
s e l f - c o n c e p t and how i t i s a f f e c t e d d u r in g th e i n t e r a c t i o n
w it h h i s " s i g n i f i c a n t o th e r " p e e r s .
S o c i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h (M cC roskey e t a l . , 1 971)
im p l ie s t h a t , g i v e n p r o x im it y and th e o p p o r t u n it y f o r
c o m m u n ic a tio n , t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f our " lik in g " a n o th e r w it h
whom we come i n t o f r e q u e n t c o n t a c t i s p r o b a b le . C o n tr a
d i c t i n g t h i s i m p l i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , i s a s tu d y r e p o r t e d by
R ic h a r d so n (1 9 6 9 ) w h ic h i n d ic a t e d t h a t co m m u n ic a tio n among
h a n d ic a p p ed and n o n h a n d ica p p ed c h i l d r e n d id n o t i n c r e a s e
d e s p i t e p r o lo n g e d l i v i n g " t o g e t h e r n e s s ."
K le c k e t a l . (1 9 6 6 ) e x p lo r e d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
p r o c e s s b e tw e e n s ta n d a r d iz e d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s com p arin g
b e h a v io r o f h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s tow ard h a n d ic a p p e d and
n on h a n d ica p p ed s t r a n g e r s . They a tte m p te d t o f o c u s u p on th e
s o c i a l e n v ir o n m e n t t h a t th e h a n d ic a p p e d p e r s o n c o n f r o n t s
r a th e r th a n u p on h i s p e r c e p t io n o f t h a t e n v ir o n m e n t or h i s
r e a c t i o n t o i t . For th e h a n d ic a p p e d , a s com pared t o t h e
n o n h a n d ic a p p e d , th e y fo u n d : m ore d i s t o r t i o n o f o p i n io n ,
l e s s v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e o p in io n s o f f e r e d , s h o r t e r r e s p o n s e s
t o q u e s t i o n s , and m ore v a r i a b i l i t y among s u b j e c t s i n t h e i r
r e s p o n s e s . One i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s s tu d y seem s t o b e t h e
a v o id a n c e o f c o n t a c t on t h e p a r t o f th e n o n h a n d ic a p p e d .
L o w en feld (1 9 6 4 ) s u b s t a n t i a t e d t h i s i n f e r e n c e w hen h e
s u g g e s t e d t h a t b l i n d n e s s b r e e d s f e a r and t h a t m o st n o n
h a n d ic a p p e d p e r s o n s a tte m p t t o a v o id a v e r s i v e s t i m u l i .
Psychological literature (Safilios-Rothschild,
1 9 7 0 ) r e l a t i n g t o t h e n a tu r e o f t h e a n x i e t y , d i s c o m f o r t ,
and a v e r s i o n t h e n o n h a n d ica p p ed f e e l tow ard h a n d ic a p p e d
p e r s o n s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e m ain ty p e o f a v e r s io n i s
1 1 e s t h e t i c - s e x u a l R e p u l s i o n and a v e r s i o n a r e o f t e n f e l t
by t h e n o n h a n d ic a p p ed b u t n e v e r v e r b a l l y c o m m u n ic a te d .
T h ere a p p e a r s t o be a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f a v e r s i o n i n r e a c
t i o n t o c e r t a i n d i s a b i l i t i e s ( i . e . , h a n d ic a p s ) su c h a s s k in
d i s o r d e r s , bod y d e f o r m i t i e s , and c e r e b r a l p a l s i e d , th a n t o
d e a f n e s s o r b l i n d n e s s . R ic h a r d s o n (1 9 6 9 ) s t a t e d t h a t
f a c i a l d is f ig u r e m e n t i s t h e l e a s t l ik e d o r t o l e r a t e d among
c h i ld r e n and a d u l t s . The c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a c o s m e t ic
d i s a b i l i t y a r e w e l l know n. I n many c a s e s th e d is f ig u r e m e n t
n o t o n ly i n t e r f e r e s w it h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , b u t a s a
" stig m a " c o u ld c a u s e s o c i a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l dam age
(M a cg reg o r, 1 9 5 1 ; A b e l, 1962). B ark er e t a l . (1 9 5 3 ) a l s o
fou n d p e r s o n s w it h u n a t t r a c t i v e f a c e s o r o b e s i t y h i g h l y
46
r i d i c u l e d . A lth o u g h b lin d n e s s seem s t o be th e m ost fe a r e d
(L u k o ff & W hitem an, 1965), i t d o e s n o t p ro v o k e as s t r o n g an
a v e r s io n a s t h o s e w it h f a c i a l d is f ig u r e m e n t .
J o n e s , G o t t f r i e d , and Owens (1 9 6 6 ) r e p o r te d on h ig h
s c h o o l s t u d e n t s ' p r e f e r e n c e , or a c c e p t a n c e , o f 12 g r o u p s o f
e x c e p t i o n a l p e r s o n s . The g i f t e d w ere th e m ost a c c e p t a b le ,
w h ile t h e s e v e r e l y m e n t a lly r e ta r d e d w ere th e l e a s t
a c c e p t a b l e . Among t h e 12 g r o u p s , th e b lin d w ere ra n k ed
from s i x t h t o e le v e n t h , d e p e n d in g on th e in t e r p e r s o n a l
s i t u a t i o n .
R ic h a r d so n (1 9 6 9 ) h a s shown t h a t t h o s e n o n h a n d i
capped c h ild r e n who do spend t im e , or i n i t i a t e c o n t a c t ,
w it h h a n d ic a p p ed c h ild r e n a r e l i k e l y t o b e i s o l a t e d , t o
p o s s e s s l e s s g e n e r a l s o c i a l e x p e r ie n c e s , and t o h a v e
le a r n e d th e v a lu e s o f t h e i r p e e r s l e s s a c c u r a t e ly th a n
t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s .
W right (1 9 6 0 ) im p lie s t h a t i n i t i a t i n g s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s m ore d i f f i c u l t f o r th e h a n d ic a p p ed p e r s o n
b e c a u s e o f h i s lim i t e d ra n g e o f " g e t t in g a r o u n d ." T h is i s
e s p e c i a l l y t r u e f o r t h e b lin d a d o le s c e n t w h o se la c k o f
v i s i o n r e s t r i c t s b o th h i s p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l s e t t i n g s .
A ls o , h e i s u s u a l l y unaw are t h a t o th e r s a r e p r e s e n t .
A cco rd in g t o S c o t t ( 1 9 6 9 ) , a s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e
i n f l u e n c in g th e i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s i s t h a t o f s o c i a l
d e p e n d en cy . The d ep en d en cy s t a t e i s u s u a l l y le n g th e n e d f o r
th e b lin d a d o le s c e n t b e c a u se o f p r a c t i c a l p r o b le m s, su c h as
47
t h o s e p r e v io u s l y m e n tio n e d , and t h o s e r e l a t e d t o e n v ir o n
m e n ta l a w a r e n e ss su ch a s o r i e n t i n g t o a new l o c a t i o n ,
c o n f u s in g c r o w d s, or n o i s e p o l l u t i o n . F u r th e r , h e i s
d e p e n d e n t upon o t h e r s t o s e l e c t h i s c l o t h e s , i n d i c a t e
v i s u a l p o i s e , and i s i n g e n e r a l d e p e n d e n t upon t h e t a s t e s
o f o t h e r s .
I f , a s t h e s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s r e v ie w im p ly ,
b e h a v io r d i f f e r e n c e s do e x i s t i n a t t r a c t i v e and u n a t t r a c
t i v e c h i ld r e n , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y a r i s e s t h a t a d u l t s em p loy
d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l i z a t i o n te c h n iq u e s w i t h c h i ld r e n who d i f f e r
i n a p p ea r a n c e (D io n , 1972). T h is i m p l i c a t i o n i s e x tr e m e ly
im p o r ta n t when a p p lie d t o th e b lin d a d o l e s c e n t , who i s
u n a b le t o v a l i d a t e h i s p h y s i c a l a t t r i b u t e s and m u st r e l y
upon o t h e r s t o fe e d b a c k h i s im a g e. F eed b a ck w h ic h i s
n e g a t i v e c o u ld s e r i o u s l y damage h i s t o t a l s e l f - c o n c e p t
d e v e lo p m e n t. S c o t t (1 9 6 9 ) s u g g e s t s tw o m ajor e f f e c t s on
t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f t h e b l i n d . F i r s t , h e i s o n c e a g a in
r e a s s u r e d h e i s d i f f e r e n t and c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e
d e n ie d t o h im . S e c o n d , h e i s d e n ie d a c c u r a te fe e d b a c k a s
t o th e ty p e o f p e r s o n h e i s . He i s , t h e r e f o r e , u n a b le t o
fo r m u la te an h o n e s t i d e n t i t y a s w e l l a s la c k in g t h e a g e -
m ate in te r c h a n g e w h ic h c o u ld h e lp him th r o u g h t h e c r i s i s
p e r i o d .
P e r c e iv e d L ocu s o f C o n tr o l
48
I m p l i c i t th r o u g h o u t t h i s r e v ie w h a s b e e n t h e id e a
t h a t s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s a r e a d e te r m in e r o f th e s e l f -
c o n c e p t . The e m p h a sis i n t h i s s t u d y , h o w e v e r , w as on th e
q u a l i t y o f i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n h a n d ic a p p e d ( i . e . , b l i n d )
and n o n h a n d ica p p ed p e r s o n s . The q u a l i t y o f i n t e r a c t i o n s
c a n a l s o b e r e l a t e d t o R o t t e r ' s S o c i a l L e a r n in g T h e o r y ,
w h ic h h a s s e r v e d a s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r w ork d e a l in g
w it h th e c o n s t r u c t i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l o f r e i n f o r c e
m e n t. The a fo r e m e n tio n e d r e f e r s t o th e d e g r e e t o w h ic h th e
i n d i v i d u a l f e e l s t h a t h e , r a th e r th a n e x t e r n a l f o r c e s su ch
a s f a t e , c h a n c e , or p o w e r fu l o t h e r s , c o n t r o l s h i s l i f e .
Lefcourt (1965), in an extensive review of this
c o n c e p t , s a id :
Under v a r io u s r u b r i c s , and from d i v e r s e o r i e n t a t i o n s ,
i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e c o n c e r n e d th e m s e lv e s r e p e a t e d l y
w it h man’ s a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l h i s p e r s o n a l e n v ir o n
m en t. C o n c e p ts su ch a s c o m p e te n c e , h e l p l e s s n e s s ,
h o p e l e s s n e s s , m a s t e r y , and a l i e n a t i o n h a v e a l l b e e n
u t i l i z e d i n one way o r a n o th e r t o d e s c r i b e th e
d e g r e e t o w h ic h an i n d i v i d u a l i s a b le t o c o n t r o l th e
im p o r ta n t e v e n ts o c c u r r in g i n h i s l i f e s p a c e [p . 775].
A d le r 's id e a o f m an’ s " s t r i v i n g f o r s u p e r i o r i t y , "
White's (1 9 5 9 ) c o n c e p t o f c o m p e te n c e , and m ore r e c e n t l y
R e a l i t y T h erapy (1 9 6 5 ) h a v e b e e n c o n c e r n e d w it h t h e s e
i d e a s . I n r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s s t u d y , h o w e v e r , t h e term lo c u s
o f c o n t r o l i s n o t c o n s id e r e d a m o t i v a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e a s
M acD onald (1 9 7 1 ) p o in t e d o u t , b u t an e x p e c ta n c y v a r i a b l e .
49
Many d is a b l e d p e r s o n s w o u ld l i k e t o im p ro v e t h e i r
s i t u a t i o n b u t do n o t b e l i e v e th e y c a n . J o h n so n (1 9 7 1 )
s t r e s s e s t h e f a c t o r t h a t t h e "d e s i r e t o a f f e c t t h e e n v ir o n
m ent i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f e e l i n g s or b e l i e f
t h a t one c a n a f f e c t o n e ' s e n v iro n m en t [p . 1 ] ." H o w ev er,
e v id e n c e (H aw es, 1 9 7 0 ; M acD onald, 1 9 7 1 ) d o e s e x i s t t h a t
e x p e c ta n c y l e v e l s c a n b e r a i s e d th r o u g h c e r t a i n e x p e r i
e n c e s . P erh a p s a s A d le r (1 9 2 7 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d , " d is c o u r
aged " ( i . e . , e x t e r n a l l y c o n t r o l l e d ) i n d i v i d u a l s n eed a
s e r i e s o f s u c c e s s e s b u i l t upon p r io r s u c c e s s b e f o r e t h e y
a r e a b le t o b e l i e v e i n t h e i r own p o w e r s . I f th e p e r s o n
b e l i e v e s t h a t h e h a s no c o n t r o l o v e r t h e rew a rd s o r p u n is h
m ent h e r e c e i v e s , h o w e v e r , th e n h e h a s l i t t l e r e a s o n t o
m o d ify h i s b e h a v io r i n an a tte m p t t o a l t e r t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
t h a t t h o s e e v e n t s w i l l o c c u r (C r a n d a ll e t a l . , 1 9 6 5 ) .
M acDonald (1 9 7 1 ) h a s s a id t h a t on e i n h i b i t o r o f t h e
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n p r o c e s s i s a la c k o f e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f
t h e d i s a b l e d . He s u g g e s t s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s do n o t a tte m p t
t o e f f e c t ch a n g e b e c a u s e o f t h e i r n e g a t i v e e x p e c ta n c y f o r
s u c c e s s . T h is v ie w i s s u b s t a n t i a t e d b y S eem a n 's (1 9 6 3 )
s tu d y w h ic h r e v e a le d t h a t p e r c e iv e d e x t e r n a l lo c u s o f
c o n t r o l b e l i e f s a r e u n l i k e l y t o be s u s c e p t i b l e t o in fo r m a
t i o n p e r t i n e n t t o i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i r l i f e s i t u a t i o n s .
L e f c o u r t ' s (1 9 6 7 ) s tu d y h a s r e l e v a n c e t o m o d i f i c a
t i o n o f i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l b e l i e f s among c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s
and h i s f i n d in g s a r e c o n t r a r y t o t h e Seem an s tu d y ( 1 9 6 3 ) .
50
L e f c o u r t h y p o t h e s iz e d t h a t a lth o u g h t h e s e s t u d e n t s w ere
g e n e r a l l y m o tiv a te d t o a c h ie v e a t t a s k s , i t was d on e w it h
d i f f e r e n t i a l s t r i v i n g . He s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s v a r i a t i o n
w as due t o d i f f e r i n g p r o p e n s i t i e s t o p e r c e iv e t h e a v a i l
a b i l i t y o f a c h ie v in g r e in f o r c e m e n t . T he d a ta s u p p o r te d t h e
h y p o t h e s i s t h a t e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l o r ie n t e d i n d i v i d u a l s f a i l
t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e s i t u a t i o n s w it h r e g a r d t o r e in f o r c e m e n t
a v a i l a b i l i t y , and t h a t t h e y c a n be i n f l u e n c e d t o e x h i b i t
m ore i n t e r n a l b e h a v io r i f t h e y a r e c u e d t o t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y
o f r e in f o r c e m e n t i n p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s .
R o tt e r (1 9 6 6 ) h y p o t h e s iz e d a lo w l i n e a r r e l a t i o n
s h i p b e tw e en a d ju stm e n t and p e r c e iv e d l o c u s o f c o n t r o l .
W arehim e and F o u ld s (1 9 7 1 ) e x p lo r e d t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w it h
a g ro u p o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s . I n s tr u m e n ts u s e d w e r e t h e
I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l C o n tr o l o f R e in fo r c e m e n t and t h e P e r s o n a l
O r ie n t a t io n I n v e n t o r y w h ic h i s a m ea su re o f on e c o n c e p t io n
o f i d e a l p e r s o n a l a d ju s tm e n t, s e l f a c t u a l i z a t i o n . T h e ir
r e s u l t s s u p p o r te d t h e h y p o t h e s iz e d r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n
i n t e r n a l i t y and p e r s o n a l a d ju stm e n t m ore s t r o n g l y f o r
fe m a le s th a n f o r m a le s .
A p s y c h o l o g i c a l p ro b lem among p h y s i c a l l y d i s a b l e d
p e r s o n s i s t h e p e r c e p t io n by o t h e r s and h i m s e l f t h a t h e i s
d i f f e r e n t . T h e p s y c h o s o c ia l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s d i f f e r
e n c e , su ch a s i n f e r i o r i t y , i n a b i l i t y t o m eet s o c i a l
s t a n d a r d s , e t c . , h a v e b e e n d is c u s s e d i n o th e r s e c t i o n s o f
t h i s p a p e r . L ip p , K o ls t o e , and Jam es (1 9 6 8 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t
51
p h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t y i s t h r e a t e n in g t o an i n d iv i d u a l and
t h a t h e r e a c t s by d e n i a l . F u r th e r , a lth o u g h th e p h y s i c a l l y
d i s a b l e d , in g e n e r a l , deny t h e i r d i s a b i l i t i e s , t h e r e w i l l
be p e r s o n a l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s . They s u g g e s te d th a t t h e
p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e i n t e r n a l v e r s u s e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l o f
r e in fo r c e m e n t s h o u ld a c c o u n t f o r i n d iv i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s o f
d e n i a l . Both p h y s i c a l l y d is a b le d and norm al s u b j e c t s w ere
g iv e n th e James I n t e r n a l- E x t e r n a l C o n tr o l o f R e in fo r c e m e n t
S c a l e , w h ich i s b a se d on th e w ork o f R o t t e r ( 1 9 5 4 ) , and
w ere p r e s e n te d p i c t u r e s o f d is a b le d and n o n d is a b le d p e o p le
t a c h i s t o s c o p i c a l l y . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e
m o st s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d in g o f t h e i r s tu d y w as th e e x tr e m e
d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r c e iv in g s l i d e s o f d i s a b i l i t y a s dem on
s t r a t e d by th e p h y s i c a l l y h a n d ic a p p ed g r o u p , a s com pared to
th e n o rm a l. I t w as s u g g e s te d t h a t t h i s f in d in g su p p o r te d
th e w id e ly h e ld c o n t e n t io n t h a t " d i s a b i l i t y i s u n a c c e p ta b le
t o th e d is a b le d and t h a t th e y d e fe n d a g a i n s t t h i s t h r e a t by
th e m echanism o f d e n i a l [p . 7 4 ] ."
I t h a s b e e n o b se r v e d from th e M cCroskey (1 9 7 1 ) d a ta
t h a t p e o p le l i k e p e o p le who r e c ip r o c a t e i n t h e i r e v a lu a
t i o n s o f each o t h e r . J o n es and S h rau ger (1 9 6 8 ) e x p lo r e d
t h i s c o n c e p t and q u e s tio n e d how e x t e r n a ls and i n t e r n a l s
d i f f e r i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e c ip r o c a t io n . They p r o p o sed t h a t
e x t e r n a ls r e c ip r o c a t e m ore th a n i n t e r n a l s i n t h e i r e v a lu a
t i o n s . T h is p r o p o s a l was c o n fir m e d a s w e l l a s th e f i n d in g
t h a t i n d iv i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a f f e c t r e s p o n s e s to s o c i a l
52
o u tc o m e s . The r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s w e re
t h e r e s u l t o f a t te m p t s by i n t e r n a l s t o i n f l u e n c e th e s o c i a l
e v a lu a t io n s t h e y r e c e i v e d .
O ther s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t s u b j e c t s w it h h ig h
e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l show a g r e a t e r te n d e n c y t o co n fo rm ( O d e ll,
1 9 5 9 ); t o f r e q u e n t l y b e lo n g t o s o c i a l g r o u p s o f m in im a l
pow er ( B a t t l e & R o t t e r , 1963) and a r e d o u b t f u l a b o u t t h e i r
p e r s o n a l e f f i c a c y (L ich tm a n & J u l i a n , 1 9 6 4 )♦
A t th e p r e s e n t t im e , t h e r e i s a p a u c i t y o f r e s e a r c h
r e l a t e d to b l i n d n e s s and p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l . The
few s t u d i e s ( e . g . , L an d, 1 9 6 5 ) r e p o r t e d a r e a t te m p ts t o
v a l i d a t e th e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l C o n s t r u c t .
CHAPTER I I I
M ETHODOLOGY
The Program
In o r d e r t o o b t a in p rim a ry d a ta f o r t h e s tu d y , a
se v e n -w e e k P e r s o n a l M anagement Program (A p p en d ix A) w as
d e s ig n e d t o p r o v id e a d o le s c e n t b lin d fe m a le s w ith th e
s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y to ta k e c a r e o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l n e ed s and
to in c r e a s e t h e i r a w a r en ess o f t h e e f f e c t o f t h e i r a p p e a r
a n c e upon e n v ir o n m e n ta l f a c t o r s o f im p o r ta n c e t o them . An
a d j u n c t iv e s e r v i c e , Rap T h erap y, w as d e s ig n e d t o p r o v id e
o p p o r tu n ity f o r one grou p o f th e s u b j e c t s t o v e r b a l i z e
p ro b lem s i n t e n s i f i e d by t h e i r h a n d ic a p .
The r a t i o n a l e f o r th e P e r s o n a l M anagem ent Program
w as a s f o l l o w s :
1 . B lin d a d o le s c e n t s ap p ear t o d e v e lo p p o s i t i v e
s e l f - c o n c e p t s th ro u g h e x p e r ie n c e s w h ich
e n c o u r a g e s e l f - r e s p o n s i b i l i t y (B r o d e y , 1969;
S h e r i f , 1969) .
2 . D ep en d in g upon th e e x t e n t to w h ic h sh e h a s
a d o p ted s o c i a l l y a c c e p te d b e h a v io r s ( C u t s f o r t h ,
1 9 5 1 ; D a v is , 1 9 6 9 ), a b lin d p e r s o n 's p h y s ic a l
a p p ea ra n ce c o u ld e l i c i t fa v o r a b le fe e d b a c k
53
w h ic h , i n t u r n , c o u ld im p ro v e h e r s e l f - c o n c e p t .
3 . A t t r a c t i v e youn g a d o l e s c e n t s , in c o m p a r iso n t o
t h e i r u n a t t r a c t i v e p e e r s , a r e w e l l l i k e d , d a te
m o re, a r e c o n s id e r e d b e t t e r a d j u s t e d , and
ap p ear t o b e t r e a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y by t h e i r
p a r e n ts (D io n , 1 9 7 2 ).
4 . T h ere i s a h ig h e r p r o b a b i l i t y o f em ploym ent f o r
b lin d p e r s o n s who a r e w e l l groom ed and f u n c t i o n
in d e p e n d e n t ly i n s e l f - c a r e s k i l l s . F or b lin d
p e r s o n s , s u c c e s s f u l , a p p r o p r ia t e em ploym ent
e n h a n c e s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a p o s i t i v e s e l f -
c o n c e p t .
5 . A u t h o r i t i e s i n th e f i e l d h a v e lo n g r e c o g n iz e d
th e n eed f o r a m eans w h ereb y b lin d p e r s o n s c a n
b e p r o v id e d w it h e x p e r ie n c e s t h a t d e v e lo p
p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t s , a m eans w h ic h , b y i t s
a p p e a l, w i l l a l s o m o t iv a t e them t o p e r s e v e r e
u n t i l t h e n e e d e d l e v e l o f s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e c a n
b e m a in t a in e d .
To d e te r m in e w h e th e r P e r s o n a l M anagement tr e a tm e n t
h ad s i g n i f i c a n t p o t e n t i a l f o r c h a n g e o f b e h a v io r , t h e
T e n n e ss e e S e lf - C o n c e p t S c a le was u s e d t o m easu re s e l f -
c o n c e p t and th e R o t t e r I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le w as u s e d t o
m easu re p e r c e iv e d l o c u s o f c o n t r o l . T h ree o b s e r v e r s r a t e d
th e ch a n g e i n a p p e a r a n c e and s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n by m eans o f
p r e - and p o s t - o b s e r v a t i o n a l r a t i n g s .
55
The i n v e s t i g a t o r s e l e c t e d s t a f f members w h o , i n th e
m a in , had e x p e r t i s e i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f i e l d s b u t w h ose
e x p e r ie n c e w i t h b lin d a d o l e s c e n t fe m a le s w as m in im a l.
T h e r e f o r e , d i s c u s s i o n s w e r e h e ld p r io r t o i n i t i a t i o n o f th e
program t o a c q u a in t t h e s t a f f w it h p r o b le m s w h ich m ig h t be
c o n s id e r e d u n iq u e among t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . D i s c u s s i o n s w ere
a l s o h e ld w it h company m em bers who a llo w e d t h e i r f a c i l i t i e s
t o b e u se d f o r f i e l d t r i p s .
The s e s s i o n s w ere h e ld fo u r d a y s p e r w e e k , Monday
th r o u g h T h u r sd a y , two h o u r s ea ch d a y . The s c h e d u le w as
a l t e r e d on f i e l d t r i p d a y s . F or th e m o st p a r t , t h e
tr e a tm e n t c o n s i s t e d o f " le a r n in g by d o in g ," r a t h e r th a n
l e c t u r e s . T h u s, th e s u b j e c t s w ere a c t i v e l y in v o lv e d i n
m o st o f t h e l e s s o n s (A p p en d ix B ) .
An e v a l u a t i o n fo rm w as d i s t r i b u t e d t o e a c h
p a r t i c i p a n t a t th e c o n c lu s i o n o f th e p rogram (A p p e n d ix C ) .
E v a lu a t io n fo r m s (A p p en d ix D) w ere a l s o d i s t r i b u t e d t o
t h e i r p a r e n t s .
The S e t t i n g
The B r a i l l e I n s t i t u t e Y outh C e n t e r , Los A n g e le s ,
C a l i f o r n i a , w a s u sed a s t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l f a c i l i t y . I n
A p r i l , 1 9 7 3 , t h e I n s t i t u t e n o t i f i e d p a r e n t s and a d o l e s c e n t s
t h a t a summer charm c o u r s e , w h ic h w ou ld p r o v id e o p p o r t u n it y
f o r d e v e lo p m e n t o f p e r s o n a l m anagem ent s k i l l s , w as t o b e
56
h e ld a t th e Y outh C e n te r J u ly 5 th r o u g h A u g u st 1 8 , 1973
(A p p en d ix E ) .
The S u b j e c t s
The s u b j e c t s i n th e s tu d y in c lu d e d a l l f e m a le s who
r e g i s t e r e d f o r t h e charm c o u r s e ( r e f e r r e d t o h e r e i n a s th e
P e r s o n a l M anagement Program ) and m et th e f o l l o w i n g
c r i t e r i a :
1 . B l i n d .
2 . Age r a n g e , 1 3 - 2 1 .
3 . Recommended b y t h e I n s t i t u t e a s b e in g i n t e l l e c
t u a l l y c a p a b le o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e p rogram .
4 . No s e v e r e p h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t y o t h e r th a n
v i s u a l .
T h ese v o l u n t e e r s c o m p r ise d th e e x p e r im e n t a l g r o u p ,
w h ic h w as ran d om ly d iv id e d i n t o two g r o u p s (Group I and
Group I I ) , u s in g t h e Random Numbers T a b le i n K ir k 's
E x p e r im e n ta l D e s ig n : P r o c e d u r e s f o r t h e B e h a v io r S c ie n c e s
( 1 9 6 8 ) . The c o n t r o l g ro u p (G roup I I I ) w as com posed o f
v o l u n t e e r s u b j e c t s from t h e F o u n d a tio n f o r t h e J u n io r
B lin d . Group I (N =9) to o k p a r t i n th e P e r s o n a l M anagem ent
P rogram o n ly ; Group I I (N=9) to o k p a r t i n th e P e r s o n a l
M anagem ent Program and Rap T h era p y ; Group I I I (N=9) s e r v e d
a s a c o n t r o l and r e c e i v e d p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g o n ly . A lth o u g h th e o r i g i n a l sa m p le c o n ta in e d 27
s u b j e c t s , th e f i n a l N e q u a lle d 1 8 . Two s u b j e c t s w ere
57
d r o p p ed a f t e r t h e p r e - t e s t due to summer m o v es; o n e d rop p ed
o u t due to i l l n e s s ; one m oved from t h e a r e a ; tw o becam e
a c t i v e l y in v o l v e d i n c o l l e g e a c t i v i t i e s and w ere u n a v a i l
a b l e f o r d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g . T w e n ty -o n e s u b j e c t s (G roup
1 = 6 ; Group I I = 7 ; Group I I I = 8) c o m p le te d d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g ; h o w e v e r , t h r e e s u b j e c t s w e r e ran d om ly d ro p p ed from
G roup I I and Group I I I i n o r d e r t o e q u a l i z e c e l l s i z e f o r a
tw o -w a y a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e . S e v e n te e n s u b j e c t s (G roup
1 = 8 ; Group I I = 9) w ere r a t e d p r e - p o s t - t r e a t m e n t on t h e
O b s e r v e r 's R a t in g S h e e t p r i o r t o c e l l e q u a l i z a t i o n .
D a ta C o l l e c t i o n T e c h n iq u e s
T he T e n n e sse e S e lf - C o n c e p t S c a le
The T e n n e s s e e S e lf - C o n c e p t S c a le (TSCS) w as d e v e l
o p e d by W illia m F i t t s t o m ea su re s e l f - c o n c e p t .
R a t io n a le f o r s e l e c t i o n . T h is in s tr u m e n t w as
s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f i t s p r i o r u s e i n t h e M eighan s t u d y
( 1 9 7 1 ) , w h ic h i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f b l i n d
a d o l e s c e n t s , and t h e C o l l i n s s tu d y ( 1 9 7 2 ) , w h ic h im p le
m e n te d a s e lf -im p r o v e m e n t program f o r fe m a le s w it h b e h a v io r
p r o b le m s and b e c a u s e i t y i e l d s a w id e v a r i e t y o f d a t a
r e l e v a n t t o t h e s tu d y i n t h e a r e a s o f p h y s i c a l s e l f , s o c i a l
s e l f , and s e l f - e s t e e m . I t i s a l s o e a s i l y a d m in is te r e d i n
o n e s e s s i o n , c o v e r s a w id e a g e r a n g e and a v a r ie d p o p u la
t i o n .
58
S tr u c tu r e o f th e s c a l e . The TSCS i s com posed o f
100 s e l f - d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t e m e n t s . The s u b j e c t i n d i c a t e s h i s
p e r c e p t io n o f th e t r u t h o f each s ta te m e n t on a f i v e - p o i n t ,
L ik e r t - t y p e s c a l e w h ich ru n s from " c o m p le te ly tr u e " t o
" c o m p le te ly f a l s e . " Ten o f th e 100 s ta te m e n ts a r e u sed
s o l e l y f o r a s e l f - c r i t i c i s m and w ere ta k e n from t h e L ie
S c a le o f th e M in n eso ta M u ltip h a s ic I n v e n to r y (MMPI). F i t t s
(1 9 6 5 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e s e t e n s ta te m e n ts a s m ild ly d i s t o r t e d
or d e r o g a to r y s ta te m e n ts t h a t m ost p e o p le ad m it a s b e in g
tr u e f o r them .
The r e m a in in g 90 s ta te m e n ts a r e e q u a lly d iv id e d
i n t o 45 p o s i t i v e and 45 n e g a t iv e s ta te m e n ts i n an a tte m p t
t o m in im iz e th e b ia s o f a p o s i t i v e or n e g a t iv e r e s p o n s e
s e t . When o r g a n iz e d , t h e s e 90 s ta te m e n ts form a m a tr ix
w ith t h r e e row s and f i v e colum ns (A p p en d ix F ) . Each row
and e a c h colum n h a s a s e p a r a te s c o r e . Row 1 o f t h i s m a tr ix
i s com posed o f ite m s w h ic h r e f e r t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s id e n
t i t y , or "w hat h e i s " ; Row 2 p e r t a in s to how th e i n d iv i d u a l
a c c e p ts h i m s e l f , or s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n . T h is row i s e s s e n
t i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w ith th e d e g r e e t o w h ich a p e r s o n m ea su res
up t o t h e sta n d a r d s and e x p e c t a t io n s h e s e t s f o r h i m s e l f .
Row 3 d e a l s w ith th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r c e p t io n o f h i s own
b e h a v io r .
The f i v e colum ns r e f e r t o t h e fram e o f r e f e r e n c e th e
in d iv i d u a l u se d t o d e s c r ib e h i m s e l f , n am ely:
59
Column A - - P h y s ic a l s e l f : p h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
h e a l t h , s k i l l s , a p p e a r a n c e , and s e x u a l i t y .
Column B - - M o r a l- e t h ic a l s e l f : d e s c r ib e s th e s e l f
w it h in a m o r a l - e t h i c a l fram e o f r e f e r e n c e - -
f e e l i n g s o f b e in g a "good" or "bad" p e r s o n ,
m oral w o r th , and s a t i s f a c t i o n w it h o n e 's
r e l i g i o n or la c k o f i t .
Column C --P e r s o n a l s e l f : p e r s o n a l s e l f - w o r t h , p s y c h o
l o g i c a l t r a i t s , and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Column D --F a m ily s e l f : a d e q u a cy , w o r th , and v a lu e a s a
fa m ily member and w it h c l o s e f r i e n d s .
Column E - - S o c i a l s e l f : ad eq u acy i n s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n
w it h o th e r s i n g e n e r a l.
The sum o f th e f i v e colum ns e q u a ls th e sum o f th e
t h r e e r o w s. T h is sum i s an im p o r ta n t s c o r e b e c a u s e i t
r e p r e s e n t s t h e s u b j e c t ' s t o t a l s e l f - c o n c e p t a s m easu red by
t h i s in s tr u m e n t. F i t t s (1 9 6 5 ) d e s c r ib e d t h i s s c o r e a s :
. . . th e m o st im p o r ta n t s i n g l e s c o r e . I t r e f l e c t s
t h e o v e r a l l l e v e l o f s e l f - e s t e e m . P e o p le w it h h ig h
s c o r e s te n d t o l i k e t h e m s e lv e s , f e e l t h a t th e y a r e
p e r s o n s o f v a lu e and w o r th , h a v e c o n fid e n c e in
t h e m s e lv e s , and a c t a c c o r d in g ly . P e o p le w it h low
s c o r e s a r e d o u b t fu l a b o u t t h e i r own w o r th , s e e them
s e l v e s a s u n d e s ir a b le ; o f t e n f e e l a n x io u s , d e p r e s s e d ,
and unhappy; and h a v e l i t t l e f a i t h in th e m s e lv e s
[p . 2 ] .
The TSCS h a s o th e r m ea su res w h ich seem t o be m ost
u s e f u l f o r i n d iv i d u a l d i a g n o s t i c w ork i n a c l i n i c a l
s e t t i n g . They w ere o m itte d from t h i s s t u d y , b u t i n t e r e s t e d
r e a d e r s may r e f e r to th e m anual d e v e lo p e d by F i t t s ( 1 9 6 5 ).
60
N orm s. The norm s f o r t h e TSCS w ere o b t a in e d from a
sa m p le o f 6 26 i n d i v i d u a l s r a n g in g i n a g e from 12 t o 68
y e a r s and w h o se e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d s r a n g e from s i x t h
g r a d e t o d o c t o r a t e d e g r e e s . The sa m p le r e p r e s e n t e d a
c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f t h e c o u n tr y and in c lu d e d N e g r o e s and
C a u c a s ia n s , a s w e l l a s m a le s and f e m a l e s . The m eans and
sta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e norm g ro u p may b e fo u n d i n
A p p en d ix G. A c c o r d in g t o F i t t s ( 1 9 6 5 ) , i t i s now p o s s i b l e
t o expand t h e norm g r o u p c o n s i d e r a b l y , b u t h e h a s n o t don e
s o b e c a u s e d a t a from o t h e r p o p u la t io n s do n o t d i f f e r
s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h e e s t a b l i s h e d norm s.
R e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y . The r e l i a b i l i t y d a ta on
t h e TSCS w e r e b a sed l a r g e l y on a sa m p le o f 60 c o l l e g e
s t u d e n t s o v e r a tw o -w e e k p e r io d and y i e l d e d a c o e f f i c i e n t
o f .9 3 f o r t h e in s t r u m e n t . T h ese d a t a may b e s e e n i n
A p p en d ix G. O ther r e l i a b i l i t y e v id e n c e w as fo u n d i n th e
c o m p a r iso n o f p r o f i l e p a t t e r n s o b t a in e d from r e p e a t e d
t e s t i n g o f t h e same i n d i v i d u a l on a l o n g i t u d i n a l b a s i s .
A f t e r p e r io d s o f m ore th a n a y e a r , F i t t s (1 9 6 5 ) d is c o v e r e d
t h a t i n t h e c a s e o f b o t h c h i ld r e n and a d u lt s t h e d i s t i n c
t i v e f e a t u r e s o f t h e i r p r o f i l e p a t t e r n s r em a in ed rem a rk a b ly
c o n s i s t e n t .
The TSCS m an u al c o n t a in s fo u r k in d s o f v a l i d i t y
d a t a : (1 ) c o n t e n t v a l i d i t y , (2 ) d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e tw e e n
g r o u p s , (3 ) c o r r e l a t i o n w it h o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y m e a s u r e s ,
6 1
(4 ) p e r s o n a l i t y ch a n g es u n d er p a r t i c u la r c o n d i t i o n s . F i t t s
(1 9 6 5 ) c o l l e c t e d d a ta from b o th e x tr e m e s o f th e p s y c h o lo g
i c a l h e a l t h con tin u u m .
P i e t y (1 9 5 8 ) o b ta in e d s c o r e s f o r 50 p s y c h i a t r i c
p a t i e n t s and 5 0 n o n p s y c h ia t r ic p a t i e n t s and p r e s e n te d t h e
d a ta to F i t t s , who c o m p le te d a b lin d a n a l y s i s f o r th e
p u rp ose o f d e te r m in in g w h e th e r e a ch p r o f i l e w as p a t i e n t or
n o n p a t ie n t . F i t t s ’ a c c u r a c y w as s i m i la r t o c o m p a riso n s
done w ith t h e M in n e so ta M u ltip h a s ic I n v e n to r y (L e fe b e r ,
1 9 6 5 ). F u r th e r c r o s s v a l i d a t i o n e v id e n c e from d i f f e r e n t
g ro u p s i n a n o th e r p a r t o f th e c o u n tr y s u p p o r ts F i t t s '
v a l i d i t y c o n t e n t io n .
In th e M en tal M easu rem en t' s Y earb ook (1 9 7 2 ) r e v ie w ,
B e n t le r r e p o r t e d th a t s e v e r a l s c o r e s from t h e s c a l e h a v e
rem a rk a b ly h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n w ith o th e r m e a su r e s o f p e r s o n
a l i t y f u n c t i o n i n g . F or e x a m p le , th e T a y lo r M a n ife s t
A n x ie ty S c a le c o r r e l a t e s - . 7 0 w it h T o ta l P o s i t i v e S c o r e .
C o r r e la t io n s w ith v a r io u s MMPI s c a l e s a r e f r e q u e n t ly i n th e
.5 0 s and .6 0 s .
A m ajor c r i t i c i s m o f th e s c a l e h a s b e e n th e ite m
o v e r la p s i n c e a l l ite m s i n th e s u b s c o r e s a r e a l s o r e p r e
s e n te d i n th e T o ta l P o s i t i v e S c o r e . B e n t le r (1 9 7 2 ) h a s
s u g g e s te d a m ajor d e f e c t o f th e m anual and th e s c a l e i s th e
a b se n c e o f in fo r m a tio n r e g a r d in g th e i n t e r n a l c o n s is t e n c y
o f th e s c a l e . He s u g g e s t s t h a t s u b s c o r e s " a r e g e n e r a l ly
n o t u n c o r r e la t e d and s im p ly d u p l i c a t e on e a n o th e r
62
e x t e n s i v e l y [p . 3 6 7 ] . ”
B e n t le r r e f e r s t o a n o th e r d e f e c t a s b e in g th e h ig h
d e g r e e o f o v e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . C r it e s (1 9 6 5 ) a l s o r e f e r s t o
th e p rob lem and s t a t e s , f o r e x a m p le , t h a t th e s c a l e d o e s
n o t a llo w t h e ex a m in ee t o u s e h i s own w ords t o d e s c r ib e -
h i m s e l f , th u s p o in t in g o u t th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t th e s c a l e
may n o t b e c o n s id e r e d t r u l y a p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l m easu re o f
s e l f - c o n c e p t .
The R o t t e r I n t e r n a l- E x t e r n a l
S c a le ( I - E S c a le )
T h is in s tr u m e n t w as d e v e lo p e d by R o t t e r to m easu re
lo c u s o f c o n t r o l . A lth o u g h t h e r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e
d id n o t r e v e a l e x t e n s i v e u s e o f th e s c a l e w it h b lin d
a d o l e s c e n t s , i t showed w id e sp r e a d u s e i n a v a r i e t y o f
s e t t i n g s .
The I -E S c a le i s a 2 9 - it e m f o r c e d - c h o ic e t e s t ,
in c lu d in g s i x f i l l e r it e m s . The e x t e r n a l s c o r e i s r e c o r d e d
and r e f e r s to th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s b e l i e f r e g a r d in g lo c u s o f
c o n t r o l . R o tte r (1 9 6 6 ) h a s s t a t e d t h a t th e m ajor p u rp o se
o f t h e I -E S c a le i s :
. . . t o m easure th e s u b j e c t s ' b e l i e f a b o u t th e
n a tu r e o f th e w o r ld . T hat i s , th e ite m s on th e
t e s t a r e co n cern ed w ith th e s u b j e c t s ' e x p e c t a t io n s
a b o u t how r e in fo r c e m e n t i s c o n t r o l l e d . C o n se
q u e n t ly , th e t e s t i s c o n s id e r e d a m ea su re o f
g e n e r a liz e d e x p e c ta n c y . Such a g e n e r a liz e d e x p e c
ta n c y may c o r r e l a t e w ith th e v a lu e th e s u b j e c t
p l a c e s on i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l b u t none o f t h e ite m s
i s d i r e c t l y a d d r e ss e d t o th e p r e fe r e n c e f o r
i n t e r n a l or e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l [p . 1 0 ] .
63
R o tte r (1 9 6 6 ) d e f in e s th e I-E S c a le a s f o l l o w s :
1. I n t e r n a l C o n t r o l. T h is c o n c e p t r e f e r s to th e
p e r c e p t io n o f e v e n ts a s b e in g a c o n se q u e n c e o f
o n e ' s own a c t i o n s , and th e r e b y u n der p e r s o n a l
c o n t r o l .
2 . E x te r n a l C o n t r o l. T h is c o n c e p t r e f e r s to th e
p e r c e p t io n o f e v e n ts a s b e in g u n r e la t e d to
o n e ' s own b e h a v io r s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , beyond
p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l [p . 1 ] .
R e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y . An e a r l i e r v e r s i o n o f
t h i s s c a l e , b a sed on t h e work o f R o t t e r , Seetnan, and
L iv e r a n t , in c lu d e d 100 f o r c e d - c h o ic e it e m s . L iv e r a n t ite m -
a n a ly z e d , f a c t o r - a n a l y z e d , and r e d u c e d th e s c a l e t o 60
ite m s on t h e b a s i s o f i n t e r n a l c o n s is t e n c y c r i t e r i a
(R o t te r , 1 9 6 6 ) . In i t s f i n a l fo r m , th e s c a l e c o n ta in e d th e
29 f o r c e d - c h o ic e it e m s .
I n t e r n a l c o n s is t e n c y d a ta fo r th e I -E S c a le may be
found i n A p p en d ix H. R o tte r (1 9 6 6 ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t e s t i
m a tes a r e r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e and m o d e r a te ly h ig h f o r a s c a l e
o f t h i s l e n g t h . He s t a t e d :
I t s h o u ld b e rem em bered t h a t ite m s a r e n o t a rra n g ed
in a d i f f i c u l t y h ie r a r c h y , b u t r a th e r a r e a t t i t u d e s
in a w id e v a r i e t y o f s i t u a t i o n s . The t e s t i s an
a d d i t i v e one and ite m s a r e n o t com p arab le [p . 1 0 ] .
C o r r e la t io n s w it h t h e M arlow e-C row ne S o c i a l D e s i r a b i l i t y
S c a le r a n g e from - .0 7 t o - . 3 5 . R o tte r i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith v a r i a b l e s su ch a s a d ju s tm e n t, s o c i a l
d e s i r a b i l i t y or need f o r a p p r o v a l, and i n t e l l i g e n c e ap p ear
low in th e sa m p les s t u d ie d and i n d i c a t e good d is c r im in a n t
v a l i d i t y . He f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t th e m o st s i g n i f i c a n t
64
e v id e n c e o f t h e c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y com es from p r e d ic t e d
d i f f e r e n c e s i n b e h a v io r i n i n d i v i d u a l s b e lo w or a b o v e th e
m e d ia n o f t h e s c a l e or from c o r r e l a t i o n s o f b e h a v io r a l
c r i t e r i a .
Item v a l i d i t y ca n a l s o be fo u n d , a c c o r d in g t o
R o t t e r ( 1 9 6 6 ) , i n th e s tu d y by Seeman and E van s w it h
t u b e r c u l o s i s p a t i e n t s who had e v id e n c e d g r e a t e r s e l f - e f f o r t
to w a r d r e c o v e r y v e r s u s t h o s e who w e re m ore p a s s i v e .
O b s e r v e r 's R a t in g S h e e t
T h is in s tr u m e n t w as d e s ig n e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r to
m e a su r e o b s e r v e r s ' p e r c e p t io n s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e
f o l l o w i n g a r e a s : v i s u a l p o i s e , w e i g h t , s k i n , m a k e-u p ,
h a i r , c l o t h e s , s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , and o v e r a l l a p p e a r a n c e .
I t i s a s im p le c h e c k s h e e t (A p p en d ix I ) f o r o b s e r v e r s who
w e r e n o n p a r t ic ip a n t s i n th e program t o u s e i n r a t i n g th e
s u b j e c t s i n t h e e x p e r im e n ta l grou p (G rou ps I and I I ) b e f o r e
and a f t e r tr e a tm e n t i n t h e a r e a s i n d i c a t e d a b o v e . T h ese
n o n p a r t ic ip a n t o b s e r v e r s w e r e s e l e c t e d on th e b a s i s o f
t h e i r e x p e r ie n c e and r e c o g n iz e d e x p e r t i s e i n w o r k in g w it h
b l i n d a d o l e s c e n t s . A f i v e - p o i n t s c a l e r a n g in g from
E x c e l l e n t (5 ) t o P oor (1 ) c o n s t i t u t e d t h e b a s i s f o r
s c o r i n g .
P a r e n t I n t e r v ie w s
A d d it io n a l d e s c r i p t i v e d a ta w e r e c o l l e c t e d b y th e
i n v e s t i g a t o r th r o u g h p a r e n t i n t e r v i e w s . B e c a u se o f th e
im p o r ta n t r o l e p a r e n t s p la y i n th e i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s ,
i n t e r v i e w s w ere c o n d u c te d a t t h e home o f e a c h s u b j e c t
d u r in g t h e f i r s t tw o w eek s o f t h e t r e a t m e n t . A lth o u g h b o th
p a r e n t s w ere i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e , in e v e r y c a s e i t w as
th e m o th er or fe m a le g u a r d ia n who to o k p a r t i n th e i n t e r
v ie w . One p a r e n t i n th e e x p e r im e n t a l g ro u p r e f u s e d t o
p a r t i c i p a t e in an in t e r v ie w s e s s i o n ; a n o th e r w as n o t c o n
t a c t e d b e c a u se t h e fe m a le p a r t i c i p a n t l i v e d in d e p e n d e n t ly
i n an a p a r tm e n t. D i s c u s s i o n s c e n t e r e d arou n d ty p e s o f
e x p e r i e n c e s t h e a d o l e s c e n t w as h a v in g i n t h e p rogram , and
w ays i n w h ic h t h e p a r e n ts c o u ld r e i n f o r c e c o n t in u e d u s e and
f o llo w - t h r o u g h o f new s k i l l s . Q u e s tio n s w e r e a sk ed t o
d e te r m in e th e p a r e n t ' s v ie w o f t h e c h i l d ' s p e r c e p t io n o f
h e r s e l f (A p p en d ix J ) .
T e s t A d m in is t r a t io n
T e s t s f o r t h e e x p e r im e n t a l grou p w e r e a d m in is te r e d
a t t h e B r a i l l e I n s t i t u t e Y ou th C e n te r . The c o n t r o l g ro u p
w as t e s t e d a t t h e F o u n d a tio n f o r th e J u n io r B lin d .
A l l o f t h e s u b j e c t s i n th e sam p le w e r e a d m in is te r e d
a p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t o f t h e TSCS and th e
I -E S c a l e . The f i r s t t e s t s w e r e a d m in is te r e d b e f o r e t r e a t
m e n t, t h e p o s t - t e s t s w ere a d m in is te r e d s e v e n w e ek s l a t e r ,
and t h e d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t s w e r e a d m in is t e r e d t h r e e m onths
a f t e r c o m p le t io n o f th e program i n o rd er t o d e te r m in e th e
6 6
l a s t i n g e f f e c t s o f th e t r e a t m e n t .
The mode o f p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r b o th t e s t s was o r a l
r a t h e r th a n v i s u a l . I n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e TSCS t e s t ,
i n s t r u c t i o n s w ere p r e s e n t e d o r a l l y a c c o r d in g t o m anual
i n s t r u c t i o n s , w it h m o d i f i c a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r u se w it h
b li n d s t u d e n t s . E ach s t u d e n t u s e d a B r a i l l e or la r g e p r i n t
a n sw er s h e e t and r e s p o n s e fo rm . A l l s u b j e c t s w ere g i v e n a
t h r e e - q u e s t i o n sa m p le p age t o a c q u a in t them w it h m ark in g
p r o c e d u r e s . The s u b j e c t s w ere a b le t o p e r fo r m th e t a s k s
and p r o c e e d e d w it h o u t a d d i t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n . The 100
s t a t e m e n t s i n th e TSCS w ere r e a d a lo u d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r ,
and s u f f i c i e n t tim e w as g iv e n f o r e a ch s t u d e n t t o mark h e r
an sw er s h e e t . One a s s i s t a n t w as a v a i l a b l e i f h e lp w as
r e q u i r e d . The mean t e s t i n g tim e f o r t h e TSCS was 40
m i n u t e s .
T e s t i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r t h e I -E S c a l e w ere p r e s e n t e d
o r a l l y a c c o r d in g t o t h e a u t h o r 's i n s t r u c t i o n s , w ith m o d i f i
c a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r u s e w it h b l i n d s t u d e n t s . Each
s t u d e n t u s e d a B r a i l l e o r la r g e p r i n t a n sw er s h e e t . T he 2 9
p a ir e d it e m s w e re r e a d a lo u d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r , and
s u f f i c i e n t tim e w as g i v e n f o r e a c h s t u d e n t t o mark h e r
an sw er s h e e t . One a s s i s t a n t w a s a v a i l a b l e i f h e lp w as
r e q u i r e d . The mean t e s t i n g tim e f o r th e I - E S c a le w as 2 0
m in u t e s .
The O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t w as a d m in is te r e d t o t h e
e x p e r im e n t a l grou p (G roups I and I I ) o n ly and was b a sed on
67
p r e - and p o s t - t r e a t m e n t .
T e s t S c o r in g
S c o r in g p r o c e d u r e s fo r th e TSCS f o llo w e d th e m anual
i n s t r u c t i o n s . B r a i l l e and la r g e p r i n t answ er s h e e t s w ere
t r a n s c r ib e d o n to th e TSCS answ er s h e e t f o r s c o r in g . O nly
th e f o l lo w in g s c o r e s w e re c o n s id e r e d r e l e v a n t t o th e s tu d y :
1 . T o ta l P o s i t i v e S c o r e .
2 . I d e n t i t y .
3 . S e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n .
4 . B e h a v io r .
5 . P h y s ic a l s e l f .
6 . M o r a l- e t h ic a l s e l f .
7 . P e r s o n a l s e l f .
8 . F am ily s e l f .
9 . S o c ia l s e l f .
1 0 . S e l f - c r i t i c i s m S c o r e .
R o tte r I n t e r n a l- E x t e r n a l S c a le
As p e r th e a u t h o r ’ s i n s t r u c t i o n s , th e e x t e r n a l
s c o r e s on t h e I-E S c a le w ere r e c o r d e d . The l e t t e r p r e c e d in g
th e e x t e r n a l c h o ic e i n e v e r y ite m w as i t a l i c i z e d . The raw
s c o r e i s t h e t o t a l number o f e x t e r n a l c h o i c e s . T h ese ite m s
r e p r e s e n t t h e s u b j e c t s ' b e l i e f a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f th e
w o r ld . S p e c i f i c a l l y , " th e y are c o n c e r n e d w it h t h e s u b j e c t s '
e x p e c t a t io n s a b o u t how r e in fo r c e m e n t i s c o n t r o l l e d [p . 1 0 ] ."
68
O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g S h ee t
A f i v e - p o i n t s c a l e r a n g in g from E x c e lle n t (5 ) t o
P oor (1 ) c o n s t i t u t e d th e b a s i s fo r s c o r i n g . The t h r e e
r a t e r s 1 o b s e r v a t io n s w ere a v e r a g e d t o o b t a in a mean r a t in g
f o r e a ch s u b j e c t . Only th e o v e r a l l s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n and
o v e r a l l a p p ea r a n c e v a r i a b l e s w ere s u b j e c t e d to s t a t i s t i c a l
a n a l y s i s .
S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly s is
The TSCS and I-E S c a le d a ta f o r th e th r e e s u b j e c t
g ro u p s w ere a n a ly z e d by th e tw o-w ay a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e
w it h r e p e a te d m ea su res on one f a c t o r . T u c k e y 's HSD ( i . e . ,
H o n e s tly S i g n i f i c a n t D if f e r e n c e ) p r o c e d u r e was u se d to make
p a ir - w is e c o m p a riso n s on s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . The
d e te r m in e d l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e w as .0 5 .
U sin g th e F is h e r t - t e s t , grou p m eans w ere compared
t o d e te r m in e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e a r e a s o f
o v e r a l l s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n and o v e r a l l a p p ea ra n ce a s
m easu red b y th e O b ser v er * s R a tin g S h e e t .
C h ap ter Summary
P r o c e d u r e s i n c o n d u c tin g t h i s s tu d y a r e sum m arized
b e lo w :
1 . A se v e n -w e e k P e r s o n a l M anagement Program was
d e s ig n e d t o p r o v id e b lin d a d o le s c e n t fe m a le s w it h t h e
69
s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y t o ta k e c a r e o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l n e e d s and
t o in c r e a s e t h e i r a w a ren ess o f th e e f f e c t o f t h e i r ap p ear
an ce upon e n v ir o n m e n ta l f a c t o r s o f im p o rta n ce t o them .
The i n s t r u c t i o n a l f a c i l i t y f o r th e program was t h e B r a i l l e
I n s t i t u t e Y outh C e n te r .
2 . S u b j e c t s c o n s i s t e d o f b lin d fe m a le a d o le s c e n t s
r a n g in g i n age from 13 t o 21 y e a r s . T w e n ty -fiv e s u b j e c t s
c o m p le te d p r e - and p o s t - t e s t i n g , 17 s u b j e c t s w ere c o n s id
e r e d i n th e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f th e O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g
S h e e t . T w en ty-on e s u b j e c t s c o m p lete d d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g ;
h o w e v e r , t h r e e s u b j e c t s w ere dropped i n o rd er t o e q u a liz e
c e l l s i z e t o 18 f o r a tw o-w ay a n a l y s is o f v a r ia n c e on th e
TSCS and I-E S c a l e .
3 . D ata g a t h e r in g t e c h n iq u e s w e r e : th e TSCS t o
c o l l e c t s e l f - c o n c e p t in fo r m a tio n ; O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g S h eet
t o m ea su re o b s e r v e r s ' p e r c e p t io n s o f v i s u a l p o i s e , w e ig h t ,
s k i n , m ak e-u p , h a i r , c l o t h i n g , o v e r a l l s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ,
o v e r a l l a p p e a r a n c e ; p a r e n t in t e r v ie w s t o a c q u a in t p a r e n ts
w ith program o b j e c t i v e s and t o d e te r m in e th e p a r e n t ' s v ie w
o f th e a d o l e s c e n t ' s p e r c e p t io n o f h e r s e l f ; and b o th p a r e n t
and p a r t i c i p a t i o n e v a lu a t io n s t o g a th e r r e s p o n s e s r e g a r d in g
program e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
4 . A l l s u b j e c t s w ere a d m in is te r e d p r e - , p o s t - , and
d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t s o f th e TSCS and I -E S c a l e . T he O bserv
e r ' s R a tin g S h e e t was a d m in is te r e d p r e - and p o s t - t r e a t m e n t
t o t h e e x p e r im e n ta l group (G roups I and I I ) o n ly . The mode
o f p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r th e TSCS and I-E S c a l e w as o r a l r a t h e r
th a n v i s u a l .
5 . The s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s f o r t h e TSCS an d I -E
S c a le f o r th e t h r e e s u b j e c t g r o u p s w as t h e tw o-w ay a n a l y s i s
o f v a r ia n c e . T u c k e y 's H'SD p r o c e d u r e made p a i r - w i s e com par
i s o n s on s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . L e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e w as
s e t a t a lp h a = .0 5 . F i s h e r ' s t - t e s t c o m p a r iso n s w e r e u se d
t o d e te r m in e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e a r e a s o f o v e r a l l
s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n and o v e r a l l a p p e a r a n c e .
CHAPTER XV
PRESENTATION OF THE FINDINGS
T h is c h a p te r d e a ls w ith th e m ajor f in d in g s w h ic h
a p p ly i n t e s t i n g th e h y p o th e s e s s t a t e d i n C h ap ter I .
T h ese f in d in g s a r e b a sed on a co m p a riso n o f t h e s c o r e s
o b ta in e d by th e th r e e stu d y g r o u p s on s e v e r a l m easu res o f
th e T e n n e sse e S e lf-C o n c e p t S c a le and th e R o tte r I n t e r n a l -
E x t e r n a l S c a le . P r e - and p o s t - t r e a t m e n t o b s e r v a t io n a l
r a t i n g s , made on th e O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t , a r e a l s o
d i s c u s s e d . Each h y p o t h e s is i s r e s t a t e d a s an in t r o d u c t io n
to t h e s e c t i o n .
F in d in g s R e la t in g t o H y p o th e se s
H y p o th e s is 1
H y p o th e s is 1 s t a t e d : "T here w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e
among th e th r e e grou p means on th e s e l f - c r i t i c i s m v a r i a b l e
a s m easu red by t h e TSCS in p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g . "
T ab le 1 p r e s e n t s th e m eans and sta n d a r d d e v i a t io n s
fo r t h e th r e e g r o u p s f o r s e l f - c r i t i c i s m . W h ile no s i g n i f
i c a n t d if f e r e n c e a p p ea r e d , Group I ten d e d t o e x h i b i t a
c o n tin u o u s d e c r e a s e i n s e l f - c r i t i c i s m o v e r th e th r e e
71
72
TABLE 1
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
FOR SELF-CRITICISM
Group Pre P o st D e la y e d -P o s t
I 3 3 .5 0 3 2 .8 3 3 1 .8 3
(4 .2 3 ) ( 4 .9 9 ) ( 4 .7 2 )
I I 3 5 .1 6 3 6 .1 6 3 7 .5 9
(5 .9 8 ) ( 4 .0 7 ) (4 .7 6
I I I 2 8 .5 0 2 9 .6 6 3 1 .1 6
(6 .0 2 ( 5 .0 0 ) ( 5 .9 4 )
(S ta n d a rd d e v ia t io n i n p a r e n t h e s e s .)
73
t e s t i n g p e r io d s . T a b le 2 p r e s e n t s th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d
from th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e . As can be s e e n i n th e t a b l e
no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s a p p e a r e d . T h e r e f o r e , th e n u l l
h y p o t h e s is w as a c c e p te d .
H y p o th e s is 2
H y p o th e s is 2 s t a t e d : "There w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e
among th e t h r e e grou p m eans on th e i d e n t i t y v a r ia b le a s
m easured by t h e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g . "
T a b le 3 p r e s e n t s th e m eans and sta n d a r d d e v ia t io n s
f o r th e th r e e g ro u p s f o r i d e n t i t y . W hile a s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e d id n o t a p p e a r , t h e d e c r e a s e i n s c o r e s from
p r e - t o d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g ca n be o b s e r v e d . Group I ,
h o w ev e r, was t h e o n ly grou p t o e x h i b i t a s l i g h t p o s i t i v e
in c r e a s e on p r e - p o s t m e a s u r e s . T a b le 4 p r e s e n t s th e
r e s u l t s o b ta in e d on th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e w h ic h i n d i
c a te d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . T h e r e fo r e , th e n u l l
h y p o t h e s is w as a c c e p t e d .
H y p o th e sis 3
H y p o th e s is 3 s t a t e d : "T here w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e
among th e t h r e e grou p m eans on th e s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n v a r i
a b le a s m easu red by th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d
p o s t - t e s t i n g ."
T a b le 5 p r e s e n t s th e m eans and sta n d a r d d e v i a t io n s
o f th e th r e e g r o u p s f o r s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n . W h ile no
74
TABLE 2
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUM M A R Y TABLE
FOR SELF-CRITICISM
S ou rce
Sum o f
S q u a res
D e g r e e s
o f
Freedom Mean Square
G roups
S (A)
2 8 1 .3 7 0 1
9 9 4 .9 9 5 6 15
1 9 0 .6 8 5 1
6 6 .3 3 3 0 4
2 .8 7 4 7
T e s t s (B) 1 1 .1 4 8 1 5 5 .5 7 4 0 7 3 0 .8 6 6 5
AB 3 5 .1 8 5 3 5 8 .7 9 6 3 3 7 1 .3 6 7 4
BXS (A) 1 9 2 .9 9 3 6 30 6 .4 3 3 1 2 0
75
TABLE 3
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
FOR IDENTITY
Group P re P o s t D e la y e d -P o s t
I 9 3 .1 6 9 4 .8 3 9 0 .8 3
( 3 .4 3 ) ( 3 .3 1 ) ( 3 .4 8 )
I I 9 1 .8 3 9 0 .1 6 87 .3 3
( 6 .1 7 ) ( 5 .0 7 ) ( 5 .7 1 )
I I I 9 1 .1 6 8 9 .3 3 8 8 .5 0
( 6 .5 2 ) ( 3 .9 3 ) ( 4 .1 3 )
(S ta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n i n p a r e n t h e s e s .)
76
TABLE 4
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUM M ARY TABLE
FOR IDENTITY .
S o u rce
Sum o f
S q u ares
D e g r e e s
o f
Freedom Mean Square
Groups
S (A)
1 2 4 .7 0 3 7
5 0 1 .3 8 7 7
T e s t s (B) 1 0 1 .5 9 2 6
AB 3 1 .2 9 1 1 4
2
15
2
4
6 2 .3 5 1 8 4
3 3 .4 2 5 8 4
5 0 .7 9 6 2 8
7 .8 2 2 7 8 4
1 .8 6 5 4
2 .8 6 5 7
0 .4 4 1 3
BXS (A) 5 3 1 .7 7 2 7 30 1 7 .7 2 5 7 5
77
TABLE 5
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
FOR SELF-SATISFACTION
Group P re P o s t D e la y e d -P o s t
I 9 1 .0 0 8 7 .8 3 8 6 .0 0
( 4 .6 9 ) ( 6 .1 6 ) ( 2 .2 8 )
I I 8 4 .8 3 9 3 .1 6 9 0 .0 0
( 4 .9 1 ) ( 7 .6 5 ) ( 3 .0 3 )
I I I 85 .6 6 9 0 .3 3 8 6 .6 6
( 6 .9 7 ) ( 5 .1 6 ) ( 4 .3 2 )
(S tan d ard d e v i a t i o n i n p a r e n t h e s e s .)
78
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were d e n o te d , Group I I ten ded to
m a n if e s t more p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s in th e a r e a o f s e l f -
s a t i s f a c t i o n th a n th e o th e r two g ro u p s. T able 6 p r e s e n t s
th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d from t h e a n a l y s is o f v a r ia n c e w h ich
i n d ic a t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . T h e r e fo r e , th e n u l l
h y p o t h e s is was a c c e p te d .
H y p o th e s is 4
H y p o th e sis 4 s t a t e d : "There w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e
among th e th r e e group means on th e b e h a v io r v a r ia b le a s
m easured by th e TSCS in p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y ed p o s t
t e s t i n g . "
Table 7 p r e s e n t s th e means and stan d ard d e v ia t io n s
o f t h e th r ee g ro u p s o f a c c e p ta n c e . T ab le 8 p r e s e n t s th e
r e s u l t s o b ta in ed from th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e w h ich i n d i
c a te d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . The n u l l h y p o th e s is was
a c c e p t e d .
H y p o th e sis 5
H y p o th e sis 5 s t a t e d : "There w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e
among th e th r e e group means on th e p h y s i c a l appearance
v a r i a b l e as m easured by th e TSCS in p r e - , p o s t - , and
d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g . "
Table 9 p r e s e n t s t h e means and stan d ard d e v ia t io n s
o f t h e th ree g r o u p s on p h y s i c a l a p p earan ce. T able 10
p r e s e n t s th e r e s u l t s o b ta in ed from th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e
w h ic h in d ic a t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een Group I
79
TABLE 6
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUM M ARY TABLE
FOR SELF-SATISFACTION
Source
Sum of
Squares
Degrees
of
Freedom Mean Square
Groups
S (A)
2 8 .7 7 7 7 7
4 3 5 .3 8 7 9
T e s t s (B) 1 1 5 .4 4 4 4
AB 2 4 6 .1 1 1 2
BXS (A) 8 4 9 .1 0 1 8
2
15
2
4
30
1 4 .3 8 8 8 9
2 9 .0 2 5 8 5
5 7 .7 2 2 2 1
6 1 .5 2 7 8 0
2 8 .3 0 3 3 9
0 .4 9 5 7
2 .0 3 9 4
2 .1 7 3 9
80
TABLE 7
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
FOR BEHAVIOR
Group Pre P o st D e la y e d -P o s t
I 8 8 .8 3 9 1 .3 3 9 0 .3 3
( 8 .3 0 ) ( 4 .9 2 ) (9 .1 5 )
I I 8 7 .6 6 8 9 .8 3 8 7 .5 0
( 6 .5 9 ) ( 8 .8 8 ) ( 3 .1 4 )
I I I 8 3 .0 0 8 4 .3 3 8 4 .5 0
( 7 .7 4 ) ( 6 .3 4 ) ( 4 .5 0 )
(S tan d ard d e v i a t io n i n p a r e n t h e s e s .)
81
TABLE 8
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUM M ARY TABLE
FOR BEHAVIOR
Source
Sum o f
Squares
D e g re es
o f
Freedom Mean Square
Groups 3 7 8 .9 2 5 8 1 8 9 .4 6 2 9 2 .2 9 4 6
S (A) 1 2 3 8 .5 5 3 15 8 2 .5 7 0 2 1
T e s t s (B) 3 6 .0 3 7 0 2 1 8 .0 1 8 5 1 0 .5 9 3 1
AB 1 2 .5 1 4 0 1 3 .1 2 8 5 0 2 0 .1 0 3 0
BXS (A) 911 .436 0 30 3 0 .3 8 1 2 0
82
TABLE 9
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
FOR PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
Group Pre P o s t D e la y e d -P o st
I 5 5 .3 3 57 .66 5 4 .5 0
( 4 .8 4 ) ( 3 .5 5 ) (2 .7 3 )
I I 5 3 .6 6 5 4 .0 0 5 1 .6 6
( 2 .3 3 ) ( 2 .2 8 ) ( 4 .4 5 )
I I I 4 9 .6 6 5 4 .5 0 5 0 .5 0
(5 .4 6 ) ( 6 .6 2 ) ( 3 .2 7 )
(Stan dard d e v i a t io n in p a r e n t h e s e s .)
83
TABLE 10
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUM M ARY TABLE
FOR PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
Source
Sum o f
Squares
D egrees
o f
Freedom Mean Square F
Groups 1 6 8 .7 7 7 8 2 8 4 .3 8 8 8 9 2 .7 8 7 8
S (A) 4 5 4 .0 5 4 7 15 3 0 .2 7 0 3 1
-
T e s ts (B) 1 0 0 .3 3 3 3 2 5 0 .1 6 6 6 6 4 .4 3 8 1 *
AB 3 1 .2 1 7 0 3 4 7 .8 0 4 2 5 6 0 .6 9 0 4
BXS (A) 3 3 9 .1 0 6 2 30 1 1 .3 0 3 5 4
-
*p < .05
84
and Group XX on post- and delayed post-testing which has no
relevance to this investigation. The null hypothesis was
accepted.
Hypothesis 6
Hypothesis 6 stated: "There will be no difference
among the three group means on the moral-ethical variable
as measured by the TSCS in pre-, post-, and delayed post
testing."
T a b le 11 p r e s e n t s th e means and sta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s
f o r th e t h r e e g ro u p s f o r m o r a l - e t h i c a l s e l f . T able 12
p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d from th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e
w h ich i n d ic a t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . The n u l l
h y p o t h e s is was a c c e p t e d .
H y p o th e s is 7
H y p o th e s is 7 s t a t e d : "There w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e
among th e group m eans on the p e r s o n a l s e l f v a r i a b l e a s
m easured by th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g . "
T a b le 13 p r e s e n t s th e m eans and sta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s
f o r t h e t h r e e g ro u p s f o r p e r s o n a l s e l f . T a b le 14 p r e s e n t s
th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d from th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e w h ic h
i n d ic a t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . The n u l l h y p o t h e s is
was a c c e p t e d .
85
TABLE 11
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
FOR MORAL-ETHICAL
Group Pre P o st D e la y e d -P o s t
I 4 8 .5 0 5 0 .3 3 4 9 .8 3
(6 .2 5 )
(5 .2 0 ) (6 .1 7 )
I I 4 9 .8 3 5 2 .0 0 5 1 .3 3
(5 .2 3 ) (4 .3 8 ) (4 .5 9 )
I I I 4 9 .3 3 5 2 .3 3 5 1 .0 0
(2 .3 3 ) (4 .7 6 ) (4 .2 9 )
(S tan d ard d e v ia t io n i n p a r e n t h e s e s .)
86
TABLE 12
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUM M ARY TABLE
FOR MORAL-ETHICAL
Source
Sum o f
Squares
D egrees
o f
Freedom Mean Square
Groups
S (A)
2 4 .3 3 3 3 3
7 2 3 .1 6 5 8
T e sts (B) 5 0 .3 3 3 3 3
AB 2 .3 3 4 0 3 0
2
15
2
4
1 2 .1 6 6 6 6
4 8 .2 1 1 0 4
2 5 .1666 6
.5835073
0 .2 5 2 4
2 .0 4 4 3
0 .0 4 7 4
BXS (A) 369.3230 30 12.31077
87
TABLE 13
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
FOR PERSONAL SELF
Group Pre P o st D e la y e d -P o st
I 5 4 .3 3 5 3 .1 6 5 4 .5 0
( 5 .3 9 ) ( 5 .9 7 ) (5 .5 4 )
I I 5 1 .6 6 5 3 .6 6 53 .66
( 3 .8 8 ) ( 5 .1 6 ) (6 .1 7 )
I I I 5 0 .5 0 5 1 .5 0 5 3 .0 0
( 5 .6 4 ) ( 3 .2 0 ) ( 4 .6 9 )
(Standard d e v i a t io n i n p a r e n t h e s e s .)
88
TABLE 14
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUM M ARY TABLE
FOR PERSONAL SELF
S ou rce
Sum o f
Sq u ares
D e g rees
o f
Freedom Mean Square
Groups
S (A)
AB
4 9 .3 3 3 3 3
7 8 3 .3 3 2 5
T e s t s (B) 2 2 .1 1 1 1 0
1 9 .2 2 2 0 8
BXS (A) 4 4 5 .3 2 3 2
2
15
2
4
30
2 4 .6 6 6 6 6
5 2 .2 2 2 1 7
1 1 .0 5 5 5 5
4 .8 0 5 5 1 9
1 4 .84 411
0 .4 7 2 3
0 .7 4 4 8
0 .3 2 3 7
89
H y p o th e s is 8
H y p o th e s is 8 s t a t e d : "There w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e
among th e group means on th e f a m ily s e l f v a r i a b l e a s
m easured by t h e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g . "
T a b le 15 p r e s e n t s th e means and sta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s
f o r th e t h r e e grou p s f o r f a m ily s e l f . T a b le 16 p r e s e n t s
th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d from th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e w h ich
i n d ic a t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . The n u l l h y p o t h e s is
was a c c e p te d .
H y p o th e s is 9
H y p o th e s is 9 s t a t e d : "There w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e
among th e t h r e e group means on th e s o c i a l s e l f v a r i a b l e as
m easured by th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g . "
T ab le 17 p r e s e n t s th e means and sta n d a rd d e v i a t io n s
f o r t h e t h r e e g ro u p s f o r s o c i a l s e l f . A lth o u g h no s i g n i f i
c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was d e n o te d , Group I I g a in e d on p r e - and
p o s t - t e s t i n g , w h il e th e o th e r two g rou p s showed d e c r e a s e s .
T a b le 18 p r e s e n t s th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d from th e a n a l y s i s o f
v a r ia n c e w h ich i n d ic a t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . The
n u l l h y p o t h e s is was a c c e p t e d .
H y p o th e s is 10
H y p o th e s is 10 s t a t e d : "There w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e
among th e t h r e e group means on th e t o t a l p o s i t i v e s c o r e as
90
TABLE 15
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
FOR FAMILY SELF
Group Pre P o st D e la y e d -P o st
I 5 7 .8 3 5 7 .1 6 5 6 .0 0
( 3 .8 1 ) (3 .8 6 ) (5 .0 6 )
I I 5 5 .3 3 5 6 .8 3 5 4 .1 6
( 3 .5 0 ) (4 .9 1 ) (4 .9 5 )
I I I 5 4 .0 0 5 2 .3 3 5 2 .5 0
( 6 .2 6 ) ( 2 .9 4 ) (3 .6 1 )
(Standard d e v i a t io n i n p a r e n t h e s e s .)
91
TABLE 16
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUM M ARY TABLE
FOR FAMILY SELF
S ou rce
Sum o f
S q uares
D eg rees
o f
Freedom Mean Square
Groups
S (A)
1 5 0 .7 0 3 7
6 1 2 .7 2 1 4
T e s t s (B) 2 2 .9 2 5 9 0
AB 1 8 .9 6 0 2 4
BXS (A) 2 7 2 .7 7 0 0
2
15
2
4
30
7 5 .3 5 1 8 2
4 0 .8 4 8 0 8
1 1 .4 6 2 9 5
4 .7 4 0 0 5 9
9 .0 9 2 3 3 4
1 .8 4 4 7
1 .2 6 0 7
0 .5 2 1 3
92
TABLE 17
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
FOR SOCIAL SELF
Group Pre P o s t D e la y e d -P o s t
I 5 7 .0 0 5 5 .6 6 5 2 .6 6
( 4 .2 9 ) ( 2 .8 0 ) ( 3 .5 0 )
I I 5 3 .8 3 57 .6 6 5 4 .0 0
( 3 .4 3 ) ( 6 .5 9 ) ( 2 .7 5 )
I I I 5 6 .3 3 5 3 .3 3 5 2 .6 6
(3 .2 6 ) ( 4 .3 6 ) ( 5 .4 2 )
(S ta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n i n p a r e n t h e s e s .)
93
TABLE 18
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUM M ARY TABLE
FOR SOCIAL SELF
Source
Sum o f
Squares
D egrees
o f
Freedom Mean Square
Groups
S (A)
1 2 .7 0 3 7 0
2 4 8 .0 5 5 1
T e s ts (B) 7 6 .9 2 5 8 9
AB 8 4 .2 9 4 5 1
2
15
2
4
6 .3 5 1 8 5 1
1 6 .5 3 7 0 0
3 8 .4 6 2 9 4
2 1 .0 7 3 6 2
0 .3 8 4 1
2 .0 7 9 9
1 .1 3 9 6
BXS (A) 5 5 4 .7 6 9 0 30 1 8 .4 9 2 2 9
94
measured b y th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g . "
T a b le 19 p r e s e n t s th e means and stan d ard d e v i a t io n s
f o r th e t h r e e groups f o r t o t a l p o s i t i v e s c o r e . T ab le 20
p r e s e n ts th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d from th e a n a l y s is o f v a r ia n c e
w hich i n d ic a t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t F - r a t i o o f 4 .0 0 . T u ck ey's
HSD ( i . e . , H o n e s tly S i g n i f i c a n t D if f e r e n c e ) p roced u re
in d ic a t e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e b etw een Group I and Group III a t
3 .9 7 (q^> 12 = 3 .7 7 ; q o b serv ed = 3 . 9 7 ) . W hile no s i g n i f i
c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found fo r Group II a p o s i t i v e trend can
be n o te d . The n u l l h y p o t h e s is was r e j e c t e d .
H y p o th esis 11
H y p o th e sis 11 s t a t e d : "There w i l l be no d if f e r e n c e
among th e t h r e e group means on p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l
as measured by th e R o t t e r I n t e r n a l- E x t e r n a l S c a le ."
T ab le 21 p r e s e n t s th e means and stan d ard d e v ia t io n s
f o r th e th r e e groups f o r p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l . T ab le
22 i n d i c a t e s th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d from th e a n a l y s i s o f
v a r ia n c e w h ich r e v e a le d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . The
n u l l h y p o t h e s is was a c c e p t e d .
H y p o th esis 12
H y p o th e sis 12 s t a t e d : "There w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e
i n th e o v e r a l l a b i l i t y o f Group I and Group II t o s o c i a l l y
i n t e r a c t a s m easured by th e O b se r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t."
95
TABLE 19
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
FOR TOTAL POSITIVE SCORE
Group Pre Post Delayed-Post
I 2 7 3 .0 0 2 7 4 .0 0 2 6 7 .5 0
( 1 0 .1 1 ) (9 .4 6 ) ( 1 0 .5 2 )
I I 2 6 4 .3 3 2 7 3 .1 6 2 6 4 .8 3
t
(4 .9 7 ) (1 2 .6 2 ) (7 .2 8 )
I I I 2 5 9 .3 3 2 6 4 .0 0 2 6 9 .6 6
(9 .4 9 ) ( 8 .0 5 ) (5 .2 8 )
(Standard d e v i a t io n in p a r e n t h e s e s .)
96
TABLE 20
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUM M ARY TABLE
FOR TOTAL POSITIVE SCORE
S ou rce
Sum o f
S au ares
D eg rees
o f
Freedom Mean Square F
Groups 9 7 5 .8 1 4 2 2 4 8 7 .9 0 7 0 4 .0 0 7 8 *
S (A) 1 8 2 6 .1 0 2 15 1 2 1 .7 4 0 1
-
T e s t s (B) 3 9 3 .3 6 9 6 2 1 9 6 .6 8 4 8 3 .3 0 2 9
AB 1 2 1 .3 9 1 6 4 3 0 .3 4 7 9 0 0 .5 0 9 6
BXS (A) 1 7 8 6 .4 8 0 30 5 9 .5 4 9 3 3
-
*p < .05
97
TABLE 21
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR
ROTTER INTERNAL-EXTERNAL SCALE
Group Pre P o s t D e la y e d -P o s t
I 1 2 .0 0 1 2 .8 3 1 1 .1 6
(5 .8 9 ) ( 2 .7 8 ) ( 6 .3 6 )
I I 1 0 .5 0 1 1 .1 6 1 1 .3 3
(2 .3 4 ) ( 1 .1 6 ) ( 1 .3 6 )
I I I 9 .3 3 1 0 .8 3 1 0 .5 0
( 1 .3 6 ) ( 1 .8 3 ) ( 3 .5 0 )
(S tan d ard d e v i a t i o n i n p a r e n t h e s e s .)
98
TABLE 22
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUM M ARY TABLE FOR
ROTTER INTERNAL-EXTERNAL SCALE
S ou rce
Sum o f
Squares
D eg rees
o f
Freedom Mean Square
Groups
S (A)
2 8 .5 9 2 5 6
3 9 1 .1 1 0 4
T e s t s (B) 0 .8 8 0 3
AB 8 .9 6 2 8 1 6
2
15
2
4
1 4 .2 9 6 2 8
2 6 .0 7 4 0 2
4 .5 7 4 0 7 3
2 .2 4 0 7 0 4
0 .5 4 8 3
0 .8 8 0 3
0 .4 3 1 2
BXS (A) 1 5 5 .8 8 0 7 30 5 .1 9 6 0 2 2
99
T a b le 23 p r e s e n t s th e r e s u l t s o f th e t - t e s t
co m p a riso n b e tw e e n p r e - and p o s t - t r e a t m e n t and i n d i c a t e s
a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .05 l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e .
The null hypothesis was rejected.
H y p o th e s is 13
H y p o th e s is 13 s t a t e d : "There w i l l be no change i n
o v e r a l l p h y s i c a l ap p earan ce on Group X and Group I I as
m easured by th e O b s e r v e r f s R a tin g S h e e t."
T a b le 24 p r e s e n t s th e r e s u l t s o f t - t e s t co m p a riso n s
b etw een p r e - and p o s t - t r e a t m e n t and i n d i c a t e s a s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .05 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . The n u l l
h y p o t h e s is was r e j e c t e d .
E v a lu a t io n s by P a r e n ts
A d d it io n a l f i n d i n g s w ere r e v e a le d i n th e P a ren t
E v a lu a t io n form s r e tu r n e d t o th e i n v e s t i g a t o r 30 t o 60 d ays
a f t e r program c o m p le tio n . A lth ou gh o n ly 65 p e r c e n t o f t h e
form s w ere r e t u r n e d , t h e r e s p o n s e s w ere q u i t e p o s i t i v e .
F o llo w in g a r e t y p i c a l o f th e comments r e g a r d in g th e e f f e c
t i v e n e s s o f th e program .
Q u e s tio n 1
"Have you seen a positive or negative change in
your daughter? Please comment."
" P o s i t i v e . She seem s t o h a v e more c o n f id e n c e i n h e r
s e l f and t o l i k e h e r s e l f b e t t e r - - d e s p i t e outw ard
TABLE 23
t-TEST ON GAINS BETW EEN PRE-POST TREATMENT
FOR OVERALL SOCIAL INTERACTION
Variable
Number
of
Cases Mean
Standard
Deviation
Difference
Mean
Standard
Deviation
t
Value
Degrees
of
Freedom
Pre 2 .5 2 5 9 0 .9 2 1
17 0 .9 6 1 2 0 .6 2 1 6 .3 8 * 16
Post 3 .4 8 7 1 0 .6 0 2
*p < .05
i—•
o
o
TABLE 24
t-TEST ON GAINS BETW EEN PRE-POST TREATMENT
FOR OVERALL APPEARANCE
V a r ia b le
Number
o f
Cases Mean
Standard
D e v ia tio n
D if fe r e n c e
Mean
Standard
D e v ia tio n
t
V alue
D egrees
o f
Freedom
Pre 2.6635 0 .7 0 7
17 1 ,0 9 8 2 0 .3 6 9 1 2 .2 8 * 16
P o st 3.7618 0 .5 8 5
*p < .05
o
102
a p p ea ra n ce sh e had n o t l ik e d h e r s e l f - - s h e f e l t
u n a t t r a c t i v e ’ ."
" P o s i t i v e . She seem s to b e more c o n s c io u s o f th e
way sh e d r e s s e s ."
" P o s i t i v e . Her p o i s e seem ed t o h a v e im p roved ."
Q u e s tio n 2
"Does your d a u g h te r e x p r e s s h e r s e l f a s b e in g aware
o f any change in h e r p h y s i c a l a p p earan ce? P le a s e comm ent."
"Y es. She seem s t o f e e l b e t t e r ab ou t h e r p h y s i c a l
a p p e a r a n c e . W hereas, b e f o r e when som eone t o l d h e r
sh e w as p r e t t y sh e o f t e n f e l t th e y w ere j u s t s a y in g
i t to b e n i c e ."
"Y es, sh e i s proud o f h e r s e l f . "
One e x c e p t io n t o th e p o s i t i v e comments was a
r e s p o n s e from a p a r e n t who r e f u s e d an i n i t i a l i n t e r v i e w
w it h th e i n v e s t i g a t o r . For th e m ost p a r t , a l l comments o f
t h i s p a r e n t w ere n e g a t i v e and sh e i n d ic a t e d th e r e was no
need f o r t h e program . To t h i s p a r e n t , w e ig h t c o n t r o l was
t h e o n ly component o f s e lf-im p r o v e m e n t . C o n v e r s e ly ,
a n o th e r p a r e n t e m p h a t ic a lly su p p o rte d t h e need f o r program s
o f t h i s n a tu r e and s t a t e d :
" U n fo r t u n a t e ly , n o t enough p a r e n ts o f b l in d make
them c o n s c io u s o f t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e , many do n o t
d r e s s i n s t y l e . T h is i s n o t t h e i r f a u l t , b u t o f
whomever i s g u id in g them . X p e r s o n a l l y f e e l more
p a r e n ts sh o u ld w ork w it h t h e i r b l i n d c h i ld r e n and
make them aware o f t h e i r ap p earan ce s o th e y f i t i n t o
a s i g h t e d s o c i e t y . "
I n r e s p o n s e t o th e i n i t i a t i o n o f a p a r e n t d i s c u s
s i o n g r o u p , i n c o n j u n c t io n w it h th e program , th e m a j o r it y
103
o f p a r e n ts th o u g h t i t was an e x c e l l e n t id e a b u t would not
p a r t i c i p a t e .
Evaluations by Participants
In e v a lu a t in g th e program , p a r t i c i p a n t s in d ic a t e d
a lm o st unanim ous p o s i t i v e r e sp o n s e to th e f o llo w in g
q u e s t i o n s :
Q u e stio n 1
"Did th e P e r s o n a l Management Program a id you in
your p e r s o n a l growth?"
"I f e l t I sh o u ld le a r n t o l i k e m y s e lf b e t t e r and th e
c o u r se d id h e lp me i n t h i s w ay."
" I t h e lp e d me t o r e a l i z e t h a t i t i s im p orta n t to
lo o k good o f f s t a g e as w e l l as o n ."
"I am b e g in n in g t o ta k e c a re o f my own c l o t h e s and
I f e e l b e t t e r about m y s e lf."
Q u e stio n 2
"Did you r e a c h any g o a ls you had s e t a t th e b e g in
nin g o f th e cou rse?"
" Y es, I made new f r i e n d s ."
"I h ave rea ch ed one g o a l i n t h i s c o u r s e , t o ap p ly
w hat I ' v e le a r n e d to my everyd ay l i f e . "
"Y es, I l o s t w e ig h t and l i k e m y s e lf now."
S e v e r a l o th e r comments r e f e r r e d t o w e ig h t l o s s and
p o s i t i v e f e e l i n g s ab o u t s e l f , a s w e l l a s e x p r e s s in g p o s i
t i v e f e e l i n g s ab ou t t h e i r new found in d ep en d en ce.
104
"I can put on my own face."
" I now s e l e c t my own c l o t h e s ."
N e g a tiv e comments fo c u se d upon th e la c k o f a c t i v e
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n program p la n n in g and th e need f o r a d d i
t i o n a l tim e f o r in -d e p th s tu d y and r e in fo r c e m e n t o f new
s k i l l s ,
S t a f f O b ser v a tio n s
A lth ou gh m ost o f th e changes m en tioned above were
d r a m a tic a lly e v id e n t to s t a f f o b s e r v e r s , th e y d id n ot
r e v e a l th e m se lv e s s t a t i s t i c a l l y . T h is la c k o f congruence
b etw een o b s e r v a t io n a l r e p o r t s and t e s t d a ta can be i l l u s
t r a t e d i n th e c a s e o f S an d ra, a 1 5 - y e a r - o l d a d v e n t i t i o u s l y
b lin d p a r t i c i p a n t . S a n d ra 's b lin d n e s s w as^caused by a
b r a in tumor; sh e was u n d erg o in g tr e a tm e n t w h ile p a r t i c i p a t
in g i n th e program . Her i n i t i a l r e sp o n s e t o p e e r s and
s t a f f was su ch s l i g h t p h y s i c a l movements as a headshak e or
hand g e s t u r e . A lthough no p h y s i o l o g i c a l b a s i s , sh e used
no sp ee ch fo r com m unication and r e f u s e d t o i n t e r a c t w ith
o t h e r s . For t h e m ost p a r t , Sandra s a t mute and f r ig h te n e d
i n a c o r n e r . D uring th e Rap Therapy s e s s i o n s , sh e m erely
l i s t e n e d . H ow ever, a f t e r th e fo u r th s e s s i o n sh e b lu r te d
o u t :
"I'm th e one p e r so n who w ants t h e i r s i g h t b a ck ,
th e o t h e r s d o n 't know what th e y a re m is s in g ."
105
Gradually, through discussion with the therapist
and other group members, Sandra began to bring into aware
ness, and confront, deeply held feelings such as the
aforementioned. In response to overtures from peers she
gradually began to unfold and reveal part of herself. She
also began to participate and enjoy group activities and
asked questions regarding her personal grooming such as
how to take care of wigs until her hair grew back and how
to apply make-up without looking.
Sandra’s comment, when asked about the effective
ness of the program, was:
"It helped me. I needed to walk a lot and I
had to here. I also had to speak to others.
This was good for making friends. It helped
me see that being blind is different than to
see, but I can still do things."
Parent Interviews
Of t h e t o t a l p a r e n t p o p u la t io n in t e r v ie w e d (N = 1 5 ),
r e s p o n s e s t o q u e s t io n s (A ppendix J) were f o r t h e m ost p a r t
n e g a t i v e . Many s t a t e m e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e p a r e n t was
aw are o f t h e la c k o f s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e i n h er c h i l d . N e v e r
t h e l e s s , comments d e n o te d o v e r p r o t e c t i o n , a s r e p r e s e n t e d
b y p a r e n t a l s e l e c t i o n o f c l o t h i n g , u s e o f m ak e-u p , s e l e c
t i o n o f f r i e n d s , and a c t i v i t i e s . I n e f f e c t , l i f e d e c i s i o n s
w ere made b y th e p a r e n t .
106
Most p a r e n ts in te r v ie w e d doubted t h e i r d a u g h te r 's
a b i l i t y t o assum e s e l f - i n i t i a t e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r t h e i r
own p e r s o n a l c a r e , nor d id th e y c o n s id e r th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
t h e i r d au gh ter l i v i n g in d e p e n d e n tly . E x c e p tio n s t o th e
a fo rem en tio n ed w ere th r e e p a r e n ts who b e l ie v e d t h e i r
d a u g h te rs c o u ld le a r n t o ta k e c a r e o f t h e m s e lv e s . At th e
tim e o f th e stu d y t h e s e th r e e a d o le s c e n t s w ere e i t h e r in
c o l l e g e or w ere e n t e r in g c o l l e g e in th e F a l l , 1972.
Chapter Summary
The d a ta o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e v e a le d th e f o l l o w
in g f i n d i n g s :
1. A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found a t th e
p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f .05 on th e t o t a l p o s i t i v e s c o r e
betw een Groups I and XXI as m easured by th e TSCS.
2 . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were r e v e a le d on th e
s e l f - c o n c e p t d im en sio n s o f s e l f - c r i t i c i s m , i d e n t i t y , s e l f -
s a t i s f a c t i o n , b e h a v io r , p h y s i c a l s e l f , m o r a l - e t h i c a l s e l f ,
p e r s o n a l s e l f , fa m ily s e l f , or s o c i a l s e l f .
3 . S u b je c ts e x h ib it e d n e g a t iv e s e l f - c o n c e p t s as
m easured by t h e TSCS.
4 . O b s e r v a tio n s , com m ents, and s e l f - r e p o r t s
o b ta in e d from p a ren t e v a l u a t i o n s , p a r t i c i p a n t e v a l u a t i o n s ,
and s t a f f o b s e r v a tio n s i n d ic a t e a c o n s i s t e n t , a lth o u g h n ot
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , tr e n d toward more p o s i t i v e
107
s e l f - c o n c e p t s among program p a r t i c i p a n t s .
5 . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e co u ld be found i n any
o f th e groups i n th e a rea o f p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l;
th u s , a P e r so n a l Management Program or a P e r so n a l Manage
ment Program w ith Rap T herapy d id n ot s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t
p e r so n s on t h i s v a r i a b l e w i t h i n th e tim e s tu d ie d as
m easured by th e I-E S c a le .
6 . A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found a t t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f .05 fo r a t - r a t i o mean g a in on th e
o v e r a l l s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n v a r ia b le fo r Groups I and I I
as m easured by t h e O b se r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t.
7 . A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found a t th e
p r o b a b i li t y l e v e l o f .05 f o r a t - r a t i o mean g a in on o v e r a l l
app earance v a r ia b le fo r Groups I and I I as m easured by th e
O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t.
8 . F in d in g s o f t h i s stu d y d id n o t r e v e a l th e
s u p e r i o r i t y o f P e r s o n a l Management Program over th e
P e r so n a l Management Program w it h Rap T herapy.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
T h is c h a p te r p r e s e n t s a r e v ie w o f th e s tu d y . The
summary s e c t i o n o f th e c h a p te r r e l a t e s t h e p u rp ose o f th e
s tu d y , th e s t a t i s t i c a l h y p o t h e s e s , and th e p r o c e d u r e . The
secon d s e c t i o n o f t h e c h a p te r r e p o r ts th e f i n d i n g s , and
t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n p r e s e n ts th e d i s c u s s i o n , i m p l ic a t i o n s ,
and recom m endations fo r fu r th e r r e s e a r c h .
Summary
The purpose o f t h i s stu d y was to d e v e lo p a P e r so n a l
Management Program fo r u se by b lin d a d o le s c e n t fe m a le s and
t o e v a lu a t e i t s e f f e c t s upon th e s e l f - c o n c e p t and p e r c e iv e d
lo c u s o f c o n t r o l o f th o s e s u b j e c t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n th e
program. An a d ju n c t program , Rap T h erapy, was d e sig n e d t o
p r o v id e o p p o r tu n ity fo r a group o f th e s u b j e c t s t o
v e r b a l i z e p rob lem s, many o f w h ich w ere i n t e n s i f i e d by t h e i r
h a n d ic a p .
A r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a le d few e m p ir ic a l
s t u d i e s w h ich attem p ted to in d u ce ch an ges i n e i t h e r o f th e
ab ove-m en tion ed v a r i a b l e s w h ic h , a c c o r d in g t o R ogers (1951)
108
109
and R o t te r ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p la y an im p o r ta n t r o l e i n p e r s o n a l l i f e
a d j u s tm e n t.
R e se a r c h H y p o th e se s
H, : A P e r s o n a l Management Program w i l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y
c o n t r i b u t e t o a p o s i t i v e change i n t h e s e l f -
c o n c e p t as m easured by t h e T e n n e ss e e S e lf - C o n c e p t
S c a l e .
H2 : A P e r s o n a l Management Program w it h Rap T herapy
w i l l have a g r e a t e r p o s i t i v e e f f e c t upon s e l f -
c o n c e p t th a n P e r s o n a l Management a lo n e as m easured
by th e T e n n e ss e e S e lf - C o n c e p t S c a l e .
Hq : A P e r s o n a l Management Program w i l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y
c o n t r i b u t e t o a p o s i t i v e change i n p e r c e iv e d lo c u s
o f c o n t r o l as m easured by t h e R o tt e r I n t e r n a l -
E x te r n a l S c a l e .
H . : A P e r s o n a l Management Program w it h Rap Therapy
w i l l h a v e a g r e a t e r p o s i t i v e e f f e c t upon p e r c e iv e d
lo c u s o f c o n t r o l th a n P e r s o n a l Management Program
a lo n e as m easured by t h e R o t t e r I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l
S c a l e .
H : A P e r s o n a l Management Program w i l l e f f e c t a change
5 i n t h e o v e r a l l a b i l i t y o f Groups I and I I t o
s o c i a l l y i n t e r a c t as m easured by th e O b s e r v e r ’ s
R a tin g S h e e t .
H g : A P e r s o n a l Management Program w i l l e f f e c t a change
i n t h e o v e r a l l p h y s i c a l a p p ea ra n ce o f Groups I and
I I a s m easured by t h e O b s e r v e r 's R a t in g S c a l e .
S t a t i s t i c a l H y p o th e se s
H : T here w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among t h e t h r e e group
1 means on t h e s e l f - c r i t i c i s m v a r i a b l e a s m easured
by t h e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g .
HQ : T h ere w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among t h e t h r e e group
2 means on t h e i d e n t i t y v a r i a b l e as m easured by t h e
TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g .
H : T h ere w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among th e t h r e e group
3 means on t h e s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n v a r i a b l e as
1X0
m easured by th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d
p o s t - t e s t i n g .
H : There w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e among th e th r e e
4 group means on t h e b e h a v io r v a r i a b l e as m easured
by t h e TSCS in p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g .
Hq : There w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e among th e th r e e
5 group means on th e p h y s ic a l app earance v a r ia b le
as m easured by th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and
d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g .
H : There w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e among th e th r e e
6 group means on th e m o r a l - e t h i c a l v a r i a b l e as
m easured by th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d
p o s t - t e s t i n g .
Hq : There w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e among th e group
7 means on th e p e r s o n a l s e l f - v a r i a b l e as m easured
by th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g .
Hq : There w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e among th e group
8 means on th e fa m ily s e l f - v a r i a b l e as m easured by
th e TSCS in p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t
t e s t i n g .
H : There w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among th e th r e e
9 group means on th e s o c i a l s e l f - v a r i a b l e as
m easured by th e TSCS in p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y ed
p o s t - t e s t i n g .
Hq : There w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e among th e th r e e
10 group means on th e t o t a l p o s i t i v e s c o r e as
m easured by th e TSCS i n p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d
p o s t - t e s t i n g .
Hq : There w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e among t h e th r e e
11 group means on p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l as
m easured by th e R o t te r I n t e r n a l- E x t e r n a l S c a le .
Hq : T here w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e in th e o v e r a l l
12 a b i l i t y o f Group I and Group I I t o s o c i a l l y
i n t e r a c t as m easured by th e O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g
S h e e t .
Hq : There w i l l b e no change in o v e r a l l p h y s ic a l
13 app earance o f Group I and Group I I as m easured
by th e O b se r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t .
P rocedure
A sev en -w e ek P er so n a l Management Program was
d e sig n e d t o p r o v id e b lin d a d o le s c e n t fe m a le s w ith th e
s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y t o ta k e c a re o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l needs and
t o in c r e a s e t h e i r aw areness o f t h e e f f e c t o f t h e ir ap p ear
ance upon en v iro n m en ta l f a c t o r s o f im p ortan ce to them .
The i n s t r u c t i o n a l f a c i l i t y f o r th e program was th e B r a i l l e
I n s t i t u t e Youth C e n te r . The I n s t i t u t e o f f e r e d a c o u r s e in
charm and p e r s o n a l management d u rin g th e 1972 summer
program , and was l im i t e d t o p a r t i c i p a n t s who met th e
f o l lo w in g c r i t e r i a :
1 . B l i n d .
2 . Age ra n g e 1 3 -2 1 .
3 . Recommended by th e I n s t i t u t e a s b e in g i n t e l l e c
t u a l l y c a p a b le o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n th e program .
4 . No s e v e r e p h y s ic a l d i s a b i l i t y o th e r than
v i s u a l .
E ig h te e n v o lu n t e e r s com p rised t h e e x p e r im e n ta l
group w h ich was random ly d iv id e d in t o two groups (Group I
and Group I I ) . The c o n t r o l group (Group I I I ) was composed
o f n in e v o lu n t e e r s u b j e c t s from th e F ou n d ation o f th e
J u n io r B lin d . Group I took p a r t i n th e P e r s o n a l Management
Program o n ly ; Group I I took p a r t i n th e P e r s o n a l Management
Program and Rap Therapy; and Group I I I s e r v e d as a c o n t r o l
and r e c e i v e d p r e - , p o s t - , and d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g o n l y .
A lthough th e o r i g i n a l sample c o n ta in e d 27 s u b j e c t s , o n ly 21
112
s u b j e c t s (Group 1 = 6 ; Group I I = 7 ; Group I I I = 8)
co m p lete d d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g ; h o w e v e r , t h r e e s u b j e c t s
w ere random ly dropped from Group I I and Group I I I in o r d e r
t o e q u a l i z e c e l l s i z e f o r a tw o-w ay a n a l y s is o f v a r ia n c e .
S e v e n te e n s u b j e c t s (Group 1 = 8 ; Group I I = 9) w ere r a te d
p r e - and p o s t - t r e a t m e n t on th e O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g S h eet
p r i o r t o c e l l e q u a l i z a t i o n .
T e s t s a d m in is te r e d to m easu re th e v a r i a b l e s under
s tu d y w ere t h e T e n n e ss e e S e lf- C o n c e p t S c a le (TSCS) and t h e
R o t te r I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le ( I - E S c a l e ) . A l l s u b j e c t s
w ere t e s t e d p r io r t o t r e a t m e n t , s e v e n weeks l a t e r , and
t h r e e months f o l lo w in g program c o m p le tio n t o d e te r m in e
l a s t i n g e f f e c t s o f s a i d program . T h ree o b s e r v e r s r a te d
th e e x p e r im e n ta l group (Groups I and I I ) p r e - and p o s t -
tr e a tm e n t on th e O b s e r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t .
A d d it io n a l d a t a c o l l e c t i o n t e c h n iq u e s w e r e : p a r e n t
i n t e r v i e w s , p a r e n t e v a l u a t i o n s , p a r t i c i p a n t e v a l u a t i o n s ,
and s t a f f o b s e r v a t i o n s .
The s t a t i s t i c a l tr e a tm e n t f o r th e t h r e e s u b j e c t
groups on t h e TSCS and I -E S c a le w as th e tw o-w ay a n a l y s i s
o f v a r ia n c e w it h r e p e a t e d m easures on one f a c t o r . T u c k e y 's
HSD p r o c e d u r e made p a i r - w i s e co m p a riso n s on s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s . The l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e was s e t a t a lp h a =
.0 5 . F i s h e r ' s t - t e s t com p arison s w ere used t o d e ter m in e
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n th e a r e a s o f o v e r a l l s o c i a l
i n t e r a c t i o n and o v e r a l l a p p ea r a n c e .
F in d in g s
113
1. A P e r so n a l Management Program w ith Rap Therapy
d id n o t have a s t a t i s t i c a l l y g r e a t e r p o s i t i v e e f f e c t upon
s e l f - c o n c e p t or p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l th a n P e r so n a l
Management Program o n ly .
2 . S e l f - c o n c e p t s o f s u b j e c t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h i s
stu d y are b a s i c a l l y n e g a t iv e in n a tu re when compared t o th e
n orm ative group.
3 . A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found a t t h e
p r o b a b i li t y l e v e l o f .05 on th e T o t a l P o s i t i v e Score
b etw een Groups I and I I I as m easured by th e TSCS.
4 . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among th e th r e e
groups w ere r e v e a le d on th e s e l f - c o n c e p t d im en sio n s o f
s e l f - c r i t i c i s m , i d e n t i t y , s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n , b e h a v io r ,
p h y s ic a l s e l f , m o r a l - e t h i c a l s e l f , p e r s o n a l s e l f , fa m ily
s e l f , or s o c i a l s e l f , a s m easured by th e TSCS.
5 . O b s e r v a tio n s , comments, and s e l f - r e p o r t s
o b ta in e d from p a ren t e v a lu a t io n s , p a r t i c i p a n t e v a lu a t io n s ,
and s t a f f o b s e r v a tio n s i n d ic a t e a c o n s i s t e n t , a lth o u g h not
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , tr e n d tow ard more p o s i t i v e
s e l f - c o n c e p t s among program p a r t i c i p a n t s .
6. No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e c o u ld be found in any
o f t h e groups i n th e a r e a o f p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l;
t h u s , a P e r so n a l Management Program o r a P e r so n a l Manage
ment Program w ith Rap Therapy d id n ot s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t
114
p e r so n s on t h i s v a r ia b le w it h in th e tim e s t u d i e d , as
m easured by th e I-E S c a le .
7 . A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found a t t h e
p r o b a b i li t y l e v e l o f .05 fo r a t - r a t i o mean g a in on th e
o v e r a l l s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n v a r ia b le f o r Groups I and I I ,
as m easured by th e O b se r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t.
8 . A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found a t t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f .05 fo r a t - r a t i o mean g a in on o v e r a l l
p h y s ic a l app earance fo r Groups I and I I , as m easured by th e
O b se r v e r 's R a tin g S h e e t.
D is c u s s io n
The f in d in g s o f t h i s stu d y i n d i c a t e t h a t p a r t i c i p a
t i o n i n a P e r so n a l Management Program can c o n t r ib u t e t o a
p o s i t i v e change in o v e r a l l s e l f - e s t e e m ( i . e . , t o t a l
p o s i t i v e s c o r e ) . F i t t s (1965) c o n s id e r s t h i s th e m ost
im p ortan t s i n g l e m easure i n th e e n t i r e s e l f - c o n c e p t s c a l e .
I t r e p r e s e n t s a c o m p o site p i c t u r e o f how th e i n d iv i d u a l
d e s c r ib e s what h e i s , how h e f e e l s about h i m s e l f , and how
h e d e s c r ib e s h i s b e h a v io r . The s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
betw een th e d a ta f o r Groups I and I I I i n d i c a t e s th e
p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f program p a r t i c i p a t i o n . W hile no such
e v id e n c e was o b ta in e d fo r Group I I i n t h i s a r e a , th e
r e s u l t s d id i n d i c a t e a p o s i t i v e tr e n d , th u s p o in t in g up th e
p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s o f a P e r so n a l Management Program w it h Rap
115
Therapy. The aforementioned is offered as evidence that,
with increased time, a significant difference might be
manifested after the use of such an approach.
While the other eight self-concept dimensions did
not yield statistically different data for Group'll, slight
positive increases were noted in the areas of self-
satisfaction, moral-ethical self, personal self, family
self, and social self, thus suggesting the consideration of
Rap Therapy as an important facet of the Personal Manage
ment Program. In spite of the fact that such statistical
evidence did not reveal the effectiveness of Personal
Management with Rap Therapy, the fact remains that there
were also outward manifestations of improved self
acceptance, the participants communicated with one another
much more freely, and an increase in basic trust was
exhibited. The aforementioned may be found in the signif
icant improvement of overall social interaction as well as
the nonstatistical behavioral observations of staff
members, parent evaluations, and participant evaluations.
Further, it was demonstrated that one accepts oneself when
one is acceptable to others. For example, Group II was
just beginning to find that' almost everything about them
was acceptable, but they had no opportunity to test this
concept because of the short-term program. This limited
period of time may have contributed to the fact that the
lowest score on the self-concept domain was behavior.
116
F u r th e r , i n r e g a r d t o t h e la c k o f s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e e i g h t s e l f - c o n c e p t dom ains f o r b o th
g r o u p s , c o n s i d e r a t io n c o u ld be g i v e n t o t h e t h e o r y o f a
r a t h e r r i g i d s e l f - c o n c e p t w h ich i s d e v e lo p e d e a r l y i n l i f e
and i s r e s i s t a n t t o th e i n f l u e n c e o f l a t e r e x p e r i e n c e s .
B erger ( 1 9 7 0 ) , i n d i s c u s s i n g ch an ges i n s e l f - c o n c e p t and
b e h a v io r , s t a t e s :
The t e n a c i t y o f one or more o v e r la p p in g n e g a t i v e
s e l f - i m a g e s or s e l f - c o n c e p t s h a s b e e n n o t ic e d f o r
many y e a r s and h as b een a so u r c e o f p e r p l e x i t y t o
t h e r a p i s t s and t o p a t i e n t s t h e m s e lv e s . , . . How
common i t i s f o r p e o p le t o m a in ta in t h e i r o l d ,
h a t e f u l s e l f - c o n c e p t r a t h e r th a n r i s k g i v i n g i t
up f o r a new im ag e. I t i s hard fo r anyone t o
th row away a f a m i l i a r , b r o k e n - in p a ir o f s h o e s
w h ic h h a s s t r e t c h e d t o accom modate o n e 's b u n io n s
[p . 1 8 9 ].
The f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t a P e r s o n a l Management
Program a lo n e or a P e r s o n a l Management Program w it h Rap
T herapy can c o n t r i b u t e t o in c r e a s e d s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n by
p r o v id in g e x p e r ie n c e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s w h ich prom ote su ch
i n t e r a c t i o n . T h ese p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s a r e i n k e e p in g w it h
th e t h e o r y o f S u l l i v a n , who s t r e s s e s th e im p o r ta n c e o f
s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n f o r h e a l t h y a d ju s tm e n t. He s u g g e s t s
t h a t , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u rin g a d o l e s c e n c e , p e e r i n t e r a c t i o n i s
o f p rim e im p o r ta n c e . The work o f H arlow (1 9 5 9 ) a l s o
s u g g e s t s t h a t th e l a c k o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , or i s o l a t i o n
d u r in g t h e e a r l y d e v e lo p m e n ta l p e r io d i n m onkeys, b r e e d s
f e a r and m en tal d is t u r b a n c e .
117
One can c o n c lu d e , a l s o , t h a t s u b j e c t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g
i n th e stu d y d e v e lo p e d s e l f - c a r e s k i l l s i n su ch p e r s o n a l
ap p earan ce a r e a s as m ak e-u p , h a i r c a r e , s k in c a r e , and
s e l e c t i o n , c o o r d in a t io n , and m a in te n a n c e o f c l o t h i n g .
T h e se s k i l l s a r e l i k e l y t o become a v e h i c l e f o r ap p earan ce
enhancem ent a s w e l l as p rom otin g in d e p e n d e n t d a i l y l i v i n g .
W h ile th e r e was no s t a t i s t i c a l e v id e n c e t h a t t h e program
f o s t e r e d in d e p e n d e n c e , t h i s c o n c lu s i o n i s drawn from
b e h a v io r a l o b s e r v a t io n s and s e l f - r e p o r t s . One c a n n o t know
a t t h i s tim e t h e im pact o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r program upon
t h e l i v e s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n v ie w o f t h e
s t a t i s t i c a l d a ta ; h o w ev er, t h e o b s e r v a t io n s made by th e
i n v e s t i g a t o r a t th e tim e o f d e la y e d p o s t - t e s t i n g w ere
s t a r t l i n g . N ot o n ly was th e group w e l l groom ed, b u t many
h a d , s in c e t h e i r r e t u r n t o s c h o o l , p a r t i c i p a t e d i n "W eight
W atch ers" ; had s e l e c t e d c l o t h i n g a p p r o p r ia te t o t h e i r
i n d i v i d u a l c o l o r and f i g u r e ; and w ere d i s c u s s i n g p r e s e n t
and f u t u r e p la n s w it h p e e r s and s t a f f . In th e i n v e s t i g a
t o r ' s o p in io n t h e s e b e h a v io r s r e p r e s e n t a move tow ard
h e a l t h y in d e p e n d e n t l i v i n g .
The d a t a o b ta in e d do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y su p p o r t t h e
c o n t e n t io n t h a t change i n p h y s i c a l a p p ea ra n ce i s an im p etu s
t o change i n s e l f - c o n c e p t u n le s s t h a t change i n ap p eara n ce
r e c e i v e s im m ed iate and s t r o n g v a l i d a t i o n from p e r so n s who
a r e s i g n i f i c a n t t o them . T h is c o n c lu s io n i s d e r iv e d from
th e work o f S u l l i v a n and o th e r s e l f - t h e o r i s t s who co n ten d
118
t h a t t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t d o es n o t d e v e lo p i n i s o l a t i o n , but
r a th e r th ro u g h th e " r e f l e c t e d a p p r a is a l o f o t h e r s ." T h is
a p p r a i s a l i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n e c e s s a r y w it h b lin d a d o le s c e n t s
b e c a u se t h e y h ave l i t t l e or no o th e r means by w h ic h t o
e v a lu a t e t h e i r ad eq u acy (D a v is , 1 9 6 9 ). I n a d d i t i o n , th e
f a c t t h a t group p a r t i c i p a n t s who e x p e r ie n c e d t h i s program
d id r e p o r t ch an ges tow ard a more p o s i t i v e s e l f , a s w e l l as
an a w a ren ess o f ch a n g es i n t h e i r p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e , led
t o th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t su ch a t t i t u d e s w e re a l t e r e d through
t h e P e r s o n a l Management Program a lo n e as w e l l as th ro u g h
t h e P e r s o n a l Management Program w ith Rap T h erapy.
At th e s t a r t o f t h e program , t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f
s u b j e c t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h i s stu d y w e re b a s i c a l l y n ega
t i v e i n n a t u r e , a lth o u g h im provem ent was n o te d a s a r e s u l t
o f th e program . I t was n o t e d , t o o , t h a t th e means and
sta n d a r d d e v i a t io n s f o r t h e s e s u b j e c t s w ere low er th a n
t h o s e o f t h e norm grou p who d id not p a r t i c i p a t e . T h u s, th e
s c o r e s f o r t h e form er group a r e i n m ost i n s t a n c e s lo w er
th a n t h o s e on th e norm g ro u p . M eighan (1 9 7 1 ) r e p o r t e d
s i m i l a r f i n d in g s i n h i s s tu d y o f b lin d a d o le s c e n t s e l f -
c o n c e p t. T h is n e g a t iv is m may b e a r e f l e c t i o n o f s o c i e t a l
a t t i t u d e s w h ic h , a c c o r d in g t o B arker ( 1 9 5 3 ) , v ie w t h e b lin d
a s h e l p l e s s and d e p e n d e n t. T h ere has b e e n a p l e t h o r a o f
r e s e a r c h w h ich has r e v e a le d th e im pact o f t h e s e a t t i t u d e s
upon b l i n d p e r s o n s . R e s u lt s o f t h i s s t u d y seem t o p r o v id e
f u r t h e r e v id e n c e o f n e g a t iv is m from e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s .
119
The results of the study Indicate that the Personal
Management Program with Rap Therapy and without Rap Therapy
are almost equal in the development of positive self-
concepts or perceived locus of control among the subjects
participating. Thus, in terms of significant changes
measured for any of the treatment groups on the Rotter
Internal-External Scale, there is no evidence to conclude
that a Personal Management Program, with the inclusion or
exclusion of Rap Therapy, changed the internality of blind
adolescent females typical of the subjects of this study.
Implications
What has been demonstrated in this study is that
even under minimum circumstances, without full support and
cooperation of parents, change in a positive direction was
noted, although not statistically significant. One impli
cation might be that before any similar program with blind
adolescents was initiated, it is important to first enlist
the cooperation and train parents of these young people.
It appears that without the consistent reinforcement and
motivation in the girl's normal social environment, the
gains will be minimum.
Parents of visually handicapped children, as is
true in general of other parents with handicapped children,
act out their own guilt feelings through the dual modes of
120
overprotection and rejection, which account in part for
some of the confusion demonstrated by these young people
and their lack of confidence. Parents of these youngsters,
in addition to training, require some kind of group therapy
in which they can confront their own feelings and learn to
deal with their children in a more productive manner. What
is needed, then, for the parents is a dual program of
education and re-education. Many of these parents have
perceptual sets in that they have learned to perceive their
children and their relationships to their children in
limited and stereotyped terms, and it is these perceptual
changes which are very resistant to change.
With r eg a r d t o t h e s l i g h t p o s i t i v e changes t h a t
w ere n o ted i n t h e s t u d y , in f e r e n c e can be made t h a t w ith
w e l l t r a in e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s and a f a c i l i t a t i n g en v iro n m en t,
d e s p i t e th e h an d icap o f n o n p a r t ic ip a t in g p a r e n t s , i t was
p o s s i b l e fo r young p e o p le t o e f f e c t ch an ges i n s o c i a l
i n t e r a c t i o n w h ich te n d s t o g iv e c r e d e n c e t o M aslow 's (1954)
c o n c ep t o f human p e r s o n a l i t y w h er ein th e i n d iv id u a l i s
c o n s t a n t ly s t r i v i n g fo r s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t and s e l f -
a c t u a l i z a t i o n . One c o u ld p o s t u l a t e t h a t s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n
i s a need and t h a t th e improvement n o te d by t h e s t a f f
r e f l e c t e d t h e b lin d i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o n tin u o u s e f f o r t a t need
s a t i s f a c t i o n .
A lthough th e s tu d y d id not p r o v id e d i r e c t e v id e n c e
w it h r e g a r d t o a change i n s e l f - c o n c e p t among a l l
121
e x p e r im e n ta l s u b j e c t s , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r b e l i e v e s th e r e were
fu r t h e r im p lic a t io n s t h a t c o u ld be c o n sid e r e d r e l e v a n t to
f u t u r e r e s e a r c h .
A lthou gh t h e r e w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in
t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t dom ain, w ith th e e x c e p t io n o f th e t o t a l
p o s i t i v e s c o r e b etw een Groups I and I I I , th e r e s u l t s
r e v e a le d some p o s i t i v e ch an ges among group p a r t i c i p a n t s .
T h u s, i t can be in f e r r e d t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n over an
in c r e a s e d p e r io d o f tim e m ig h t e f f e c t more change on th e
a t t i t u d e s under s tu d y . P a r t i c u l a r l y i s t h i s i n f e r e n c e
w arran ted from th e p r e -p o s t in c r e a s e s as compared t o s l i g h t
p o s t - d e la y e d p o s t d e c r e a s e s . A lthou gh t h e s e d e c r e a s e s were
s l i g h t , th e y d id r e p r e s e n t a c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n over most
a r e a s o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t dom ain.
In r e f e r e n c e t o s e l f - c o n c e p t change per s e , one
must c o n s id e r t h a t ch an ges occu r s lo w ly and im p e r c e p tib ly .
The s e l f - c o n c e p t i s many y e a r s i n th e making and in v o lv e s
c r u c i a l e x p e r ie n c e s i n o n e 's l i f e p r io r t o d evelop m en t o f
th e program . That any change o c cu rs s h o u ld , i n t h e in v e s
t i g a t o r ' s o p in io n , be c o n s id e r e d a s u c c e s s .
In c o n s id e r in g d e c r e a s e i n t h e p o s t - d e la y e d p o st
p e r io d , one must ta k e i n t o c o n s id e r a t io n th e s t e r e o t y p i c
a t t i t u d e s o f b o th th e s ig h t e d t o th e b lin d and t h e b lin d to
th e s i g h t e d . F u r th e r , one d o es not v a r y h i s a t t i t u d e over
a b r i e f p e r io d o f tim e b e c a u se s t e r e o t y p i c a t t i t u d e s have
b een e s t a b l i s h e d over y e a r s . Any change i n s o c i a l a t t i t u d e
122
ta k e s a lo n g tim e t o be m ea su r a b le . S t e r e o t y p ic c o n c e p ts
o f i n d iv i d u a l s change s lo w ly over a lo n g p e r io d o f tim e ,
and u s u a l l y as a co n seq u en ce o f c r i s i s . T hus, a t h r e e -
month p e r io d w h e r e in th e p a r t i c i p a n t s r e tu r n e d t o s c h o o l
may n o t be lo n g enough t o r e f l e c t c h a n g e s .
S in c e th e TSCS and I-E S c a le u sed h ave never been
v a l id a t e d on a n o n sig h te d p o p u la t io n , th e l i m i t a t i o n o f
t h e s e in str u m e n ts p ro b a b ly w ould a cco u n t f o r th e la c k o f
s t a t i s t i c a l v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e o b ser v ed phenomena. On th e
w h o le , th e e x p e r t o b s e r v e r s n oted t h e young p e o p le e x p e r i
e n c in g th e m se lv e s i n a new s e t t i n g and b e g in n in g t o d e v e lo p
t h e s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y fo r in d ep en d e n t and in te r d e p e n d e n t
l i v i n g . The c o n c e p t o f d e v e lo p in g su ch in d ep en d en t s k i l l s
i s an im p ortan t o n e , e s p e c i a l l y i n l i g h t o f Oscar C ohen's
r e c e n t comments (1972) t h a t th e o n ly way th e b lin d p o p u la
t i o n w i l l change s t e r e o t y p i c a t t i t u d e s i s th rou gh in d e p e n
d e n c e - -in d e p e n d e n c e i n assum ing s e l f - c a r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ,
work r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and as members o f th e n o rm a lly s ig h t e d
s o c i e t y .
Recom mendations
The r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a le d t h e power o f
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een ap p earan ce and s e l f - c o n c e p t , y e t
few s t u d i e s h a v e b een d e s ig n e d t o a l t e r app earance w hich
c o u ld h a v e a p o s i t i v e e f f e c t upon s e l f - c o n c e p t ; th u s r e p l i
c a t io n o f t h i s s tu d y i s recommended w it h th e f o llo w in g
123
m o d i f i c a t i o n s :
1 . E x p a n sio n o f a y e a r -r o u n d program s i n c e lo n g e r
and more i n t e n s i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n m ight w e l l have
a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t upon s e l f - c o n c e p t .
2. A c t iv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f p a r e n ts t o f a m i l i a r i z e
them w it h im p o rta n ce o f p o s i t i v e r e in f o r c e m e n t ,
a p p ea ra n ce and i t s e f f e c t upon t h e e n v ir o n m e n t,
and t o p r o v id e a b a s i s f o r d i s c u s s i o n o f
a d o l e s c e n t problem s u n iq u e t o t h e b lin d p o p u la
t i o n .
3 . G rouping b a se d on e x p e r i e n t i a l b a ck g ro u n d ,
r a th e r th a n on age r a n g e .
4 . F l e x i b i l i t y i n program p la n n in g t o a llo w f o r
a c t i v e s u b j e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
5 . I n i t i a t i o n o f a program s i m i l a r i n d e s i g n t o
th e P e r s o n a l Management Program a t th e e a r l i e s t
s t a g e s o f a d o le s c e n c e .
6 . I n c r e a s e d sam p le s i z e i n o rd er t o i n c r e a s e
c o n f id e n c e i n t h e f i n d i n g s .
P r io r t o tr e a tm e n t a d i f f e r e n t i a l d ia g n o s is sh o u ld
be a d m in is te r e d t o d e te r m in e s p e c i f i c a r e a s o f s t r e n g t h
and w e a k n e s s . I n some c a s e s t h i s may b e m ore b e n e f i c i a l
th a n a b la n k e t program .
L o n g it u d in a l s t u d i e s s i m i l a r t o t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n
c o v e r in g a t l e a s t one f u l l y e a r , and p r e f e r a b ly lo n g e r
p e r io d s o f t im e , sh o u ld be co n d u cted i n o r d e r t o a s s e s s
124
more adequately the effects of the Personal Management
Program. In fact, a continual follow-up during a ten-year
period would be preferable to evaluate the effects of a
Personal Management Program in later life.
Important findings may accrue from additional
research investigating the relationship between the devel
opment of perceived locus of control and self-concept of
blind adolescent females.
Periodic individual evaluation should be conducted
so as to provide feedback to participants and enable staff
to revise objectives according to need.
Additional research investigating the effects of a
Personal Management Program upon the self-concept of blind
pre-adolescent females may also reveal important findings.
A further recommendation is that careful considera
tion be given to the measuring instruments used to
determine change--specifically, perceived locus of control
and self-concept. An on-going part of any program working
with blind adolescents should be to develop instruments
which can more sensitively measure behavioral changes.
Perhaps more attention might be given to observable behav
ioral indices of change.
Finally, it is strongly recommended that other
investigators generalize the findings with caution. The
population from which the participants in the current study
were drawn was confined to females from the Braille
I n s t i t u t e Youth C e n te r who r e g i s t e r e d f o r a c o u r s e i n
"Charm and P e r s o n a l Management" and t o v o l u n t e e r s from t h e
F o u n d a tio n f o r th e J u n io r B lin d who com p rised t h e c o n t r o l
grou p . The program was co n d u cted by a s t a f f o f h i g h l y
q u a l i f i e d p e r so n s who had e x p e r t i s e i n t h e i r r e s p e c t e d
f i e l d s . T h u s, g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e f i n d in g s t o o th e r
s e t t i n g s , t o o th e r program s, o r t o o th e r s t a f f members
sh o u ld b e made w it h th e a p p r o p r ia te c a u t io n s and r e s e r v a
t i o n s .
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
126
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l e c t u r e s e r i e s in s p e c i a l e d u c a tio n and r e h a b i l i t a
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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THE
PERSONAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
140
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THE
PERSONAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
A l l p o r t , G. W. Becom ing: B a s ic c o n s i d e r a t io n s f o r a
p s y c h o lo g y o f p e r s o n a l i t y . New Haven: Y a le
U n iv e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 96 8 .
A m erican F o u n d a tio n f o r th e B l i n d . A s t e p - b y - s t e p g u id e
f o r b l i n d p e r s o n s . New York: Am erican F o u n d a tio n
f o r th e B lin d , 1 97 0 .
A m erican M ed ic a l A s s o c i a t i o n . The lo o k you l i k e .
A m erican M e d ic a l A s s o c i a t i o n , 1967.
Blum, M ., & McLean, J . S h opp ers h an d b ook . E x t e n s io n
B u l l e t i n No. 1 0 9 3 . I t h a c a , N . Y .: C o r n e ll
U n i v e r s i t y , New York S t a t e C o lle g e o f Home
E co n o m ics, 1969.
B r e e d , A. E. Good groom ing f o r t e e n - a g e r s . M in n e a p o lis ,
M in n .: B u rg ess P u b lis h in g C o ., 1969.
Cham bers, H ., & M o u lto n , V. C lo t h in g s e l e c t i o n .
P h ila d e lp h ia : L i p p i n c o t t , 1 9 6 9 .
Consumers a l l : The o f f i c i a l c o n su m e r s1 g u i d e . New York:
P ock et B o o k s, 1965 .
E rw in , M. D ., & K in ch en , L. A. C lo th in g fo r m o d e rn s.
(4 th e d .) L ondon: M a cM illa n , 19 69.
N u t r i t i o n a l g u i d e l i n e s f o r t e e n - a g e r s . N u t r i t i o n T o d a y .
March, 1 9 6 7 , 2 .
P o w ers, J , R. How t o h a v e m odel b e a u t y , p o i s e , and p e r s o n
a l i t y . Englew ood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l ,
1964.
R u esh , J . , & K e e s , W. N o n v erb a l c o m m u n ic a tio n s: N o te s on
t h e v i s u a l p e r c e p t io n o f human r e l a t i o n s .
B e r k e le y : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 5 6 .
S a u e r , G. T een s k i n . S p r i n g f i e l d , 1 1 1 .: C h a r le s C.
Thomas, 1 9 6 5 .
141
142
S c h o e n fe ld , D. , & N a t e l l a , A. The consumer and h i s
d o l l a r s . Dobbs F er ry , N .Y .: Oceana P u b lic a t io n s ,
1966.
S k i l l s o f d a i l y l i v i n g m anual. B a ltim o r e: Maryland
S c h o o l f o r t h e B lin d , 1970.
Uggams, L. The L e s l i e Uggams b e a u ty b ook . Englewood
C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t ic e - H a ll, 1967.
V ogu e's book o f e t i q u e t t e and good m anners. New York:
Conde N a st P u b lic a t io n s , 1969.
Whitcomb, H ., & Lang, R. Charm. New York: M cG raw -H ill,
1964.
W in g a te, I . , G i l l e s p i e , K ., & A d d iso n , B. Know your
m e r c h a n d is e . New York: McGraw-Hill"] 1964.
A P P E N D I C E S
143
APPENDIX A
PERSONAL M ANAGEM ENT PROGRAM:
STAFF AND SCHEDULE
144
PERSONAL MANAGEM ENT PROGRAM: STAFF
145
S t a f f
P h y l l i s T o u ch ie Sp echt (PTS)
Teacher , M t. San A n ton io
C o lle g e
A u th o r e s s , I n d i v i d u a li t y i n
C lo th in g S e le c t io n and
P e r so n a l Appearance
L e c tu r e r , Self-Im p rovem en t
C ourses
John R ob ert Powers Charm
S c h o o l
Aida Grey C osm etics (AG)
R e p u ta b le co sm etic fir m
Dan S l a t e r (DS)
P s y c h o lo g is t
P r iv a t e P r a c tic e and
P u b lic S ch ool System
K arin H u ll (KH)
H air s t y l i s t , 8 y e a r s
e x p e r ie n c e
G eorgia G ia r d in i (GG)
M a n ic u r is t , 10 y e a rs
e x p e r ie n c e
C h ester S p ech t (CS)
H air s t y l i s t and s a l o n
ow n er, 15 years
e x p e r ie n c e
Sherry J a ck so n (SJ)
P r o f e s s i o n a l A c t r e s s ,
25 y e a r s e x p e r ie n c e
Judy Schw artz (JS)
T each er V is u a lly H andicapped
M o b ilit y I n s tr u c to r
Joey Bambaugh (JB)
B r a i l l e I n s t i t u t e
Jack Doran
P r o f e s s i o n a l p h otograp h er
R e s p o n s ib il i t y
P e r so n a l H ygiene
F a sh io n A n a ly s is
V is u a l P o is e
V o ice and D ic t io n
E t iq u e t t e
F a sh io n Show
S k in Care and Make-up
F a c i l i t a t e Rap S e s s io n s
Teach h a ir s t y l e and
c a r e (w a sh in g , s e t t i n g ,
combing)
Teach n a i l c a r e ( f i l i n g ,
c le a n i n g , b u f f in g ,
p o lis h in g )
Teach h a ir s t y l e and
c a r e (w a sh in g , s e t t i n g ,
combing)
The a r t o f g e s tu r in g
C om parative bu ying
P r o je c t A s s is t a n t
Photograph Program
A c t i v i t i e s
PERSONAL MANAGEM ENT PROGRAM: SCHEDULE
M ONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY
7 /3 UK
HOLIDAY
7 /5
O r ie n t a t io n F a sh io n
A n a ly s is (1 - 3 ) PTS
John
3142
382-
7 /6
R ob ert Powers
W ils h ir e , L.A.
2217 (1 -3 )
7 /1 0
H air & N a i l Care
I n tr o d u c t io n (1 -3 )
KH, CS, G G
;
S k in Care
(1 0 -1 2 )
Rap Theraj
DS, T W
"T alent"
JB
7 /1 1
& Make-up
AG
>y ( 1 - 3 ) I I
: i “3) I
7 /1 2
F a sh io n A n a ly s is
PTS (1 -3 )
7 /1 3
7 /1 7
| Grp. A --B e a u ty S a lo n
i KH, CS, GG
| Grp. B --C om p arative
| Shopping JS
1 Grp. C --G e stu r in g
| SJ
|
7 /1 8 7 /1 9
N a r c o t ic s Seminar
G uest Speaker (1 -2 )
F a sh io n A n a ly s is
(2 -3 ) PTS
7 /2 b
7 /2 1
v. F ie ld T rip
Mr. Marty
\ ( 1 0 - 3 )
| 7 ilk
Grp. B --B e a u ty S alo n
KH, CS, GG
Grp. C -- Com parative
Shopping JS
Grp. A— G estu r in g
SJ
7 /2 5 7 /2 6
F a sh io n A n a ly s is
(1 -2 ) PTS
P e r so n a l H ygiene
( 2 -3 ) PTS
7 /2 7
7 /3 1
I ” 8/1 8 /2
8/T
j.aj.eni_ v .
JB
j.
7 /1 7
Grp. A --B ea u ty S alon
KH, CS, G G
Grp. B --C om parative
Shopping JS
Grp. C --G estu r in g
SJ
7 /1 8 7 /1 9
N a r c o t ic s Seminar
G uest Speaker (1 -2 )
F a sh io n A n a ly s is
( 2 -3 ) PTS
7/2fr
7 /2 1
v F ie ld T rip
Mr. Marty
X T ( i o - 3 )
7 /2 4
Grp. B --B eau ty S alon
KH, CS, GG
Grp. C --C om parative
Shopping JS
Grp. A— G estu rin g
SJ
7 /2 5 7 /2 6
F a sh io n A n a ly s is
(1 -2 ) PTS
P e r so n a l H ygiene
(2 -3 ) PTS
7 /2 7
7 /3 1
Grp. C --B eau ty S alon
KH, G G
Grp. A --C om parative
Shopping JS
Grp, B --G e stu r in g
SJ
8 / 1 8 /2
F a sh io n A n a ly s i s - -
C olor Coding
(1 -3 ) PTS
8 /3
i
8 /7
A l l groups
G estu rin g JS
8 /8 8 /9
F ash io n A n a ly s is - -
C lo s e t O r g a n iz a tio n
(1 -3 ) PTS
8 /1 0
f
8 /1 4
G eneral H air & N a il
R eview (1 -3 )
KH, CS, G G
8 /1 5
V
8 /1 6
S ea rs F ie ld T rip
"Undergarment s '1
(1 0 -3 )
8 /1 7
John R obert Powers
F a sh io n Show (1 -3 )
146
APPENDIX B
SAMPLE LESSON PLANS
147
SAMPLE LESSON PLAN
Elements of Design
(Staff: Phyllis Touchie-Specht)
C u r r ic u la r O b je c tiv e
The p a r t ic ip a n t w i l l be a b le to r e c o g n iz e l i n e ,
s h a p e , and te x tu r e i n g a r m e n ts.
Instructional Objective
The p a r t ic ip a n t w i l l be a b le to :
1 . i d e n t i f y round , s q u a r e , and v - n e c k garm ents;
2 . d i s t i n g u i s h a garm ent l i n e ( h o r iz o n t a l or
v e r t i c a l ) i n k e e p in g w ith h i s body;
3 . i d e n t i f y d i f f e r e n t f ig u r e sh a p es and m atch ing
c lo t h e s s t y l e ;
4 . d i s t i n g u i s h b etw een m a t e r ia ls t h a t a re t h i c k -
t h i n , s l i c k - s c r a t c h y , ro u g h -sm ooth .
Materials
1 .
2 .
3 .
Bias material’ strips .
Variety of textures.
Round, square, and v-neck garments
A c t i v i t i e s
1 . Teacher t o r e v ie w e le m en ts o f d e s ig n d is c u s s e d
i n p r e v io u s l e s s o n s .
148
149
2 . T each er t o r e v ie w " lin e s " ( e . g . , s t r a i g h t -
v e r t i c a l , h o r i z o n t a l , d ia g o n a l, and cu rved ) .
3 . Each group individually feels clothes and
identifies lines. (Leader to assist.)
4 . Each group t o l o c a t e l i n e s on f i g u r e .
5 . Name t e x t u r e s and d is c u s s t h e i r e f f e c t s ( e . g . ,
t h i c k f a b r ic s make you lo o k t h i c k ) .
6. Each group member d e s c r ib e s th e t e x t u r e and
l i n e b e s t fo r h e r body s t r u c t u r e and w h ich
l i n e s a re t o be a v o id e d .
Evaluation
The p a r t i c i p a n t can:
1. i d e n t i f y round , sq u a r e , and v -n e c k garm en ts;
2. distinguish a garment line (horizontal or
vertical) in keeping with her body structure;
3 . i d e n t i f y d i f f e r e n t f i g u r e sh ap es and m atch in g
c lo t h e s s t y l e ;
4 . d i s t i n g u i s h t e x t u r e s .
SAM PLE LESSON PLAN
Comparative Buying
(Staff: Judy Schwartz)
C u r r ic u la r O b je c tiv e
The p a r t i c i p a n t w i l l a p p ly her kn ow led ge o f l i n e ,
sh a p e , t e x t u r e , c o l o r , age, s e a s o n , and econ om ic v a lu e i n
s e l e c t i n g an a p p r o p r ia te garment fo r h e r s e l f .
Instructional Objective
The p a r t i c i p a n t w i l l s e l e c t :
1. a garm ent th a t i s a p p r o p r ia te f o r h e r own
f i g u r e ;
2. a garm ent a p p r o p r ia te fo r h er c o l o r ;
3. a garm ent w ith a t e x t u r e a p p r o p r ia te fo r th e
se a so n ;
4 . a garm ent a p p r o p r ia te fo r h er a g e ;
5 . a garm ent which i s an economic v a l u e .
M a te r ia ls
C lo th in g m erch and ise a t a l o c a l departm en t s t o r e
( e . g . , S ears R oebuck, Los A n g e le s , C a l i f o r n i a ) .
A c t i v i t i e s
1. F ie ld t r i p t o departm ent s t o r e .
150
151
2 . Each p a r t ic ip a n t t o s e l e c t , t r y on , and exam ine
g a r m e n ts.
3 . Compare body sh ap es and m atch in g c lo t h e s s t y l e .
4 . '’O n -th e -sp o t" d i s c u s s i o n and d e m o n str a tio n o f
econom ic v a l u e s . For e x a m p le , lo o k fo r q u a l i t y
i n f a b r i c s , lo o k fo r w ell-m a d e seams and hem s,
n o te w hether consum er i s p a y in g f o r f a b r i c ,
d e s ig n , or l a b e l .
E v a lu a tio n
The p a r t ic ip a n t can s e l e c t :
1. a garment that is appropriate for her own
figure;
2. a garment appropriate for her color;
3 . a garment w ith a t e x t u r e a p p r o p r ia te fo r th e
s e a so n ;
4 . a garment a p p r o p r ia te f o r h e r a g e;
5 . a garm ent w hich i s an econom ic v a l u e .
SAMPLE LESSON PLAN
G e stu r in g
( S t a f f : S h erry Jack son )
C u r r ic u la r O b je c tiv e
The p a r t i c i p a n t w i l l know how t o u s e a p p r o p r ia te
g e s t u r e s i n a v a r i e t y o f s i t u a t i o n s .
I n s t r u c t i o n a l O b je c tiv e s
The p a r t ic ip a n t w i l l know:
1. hand p o s i t i o n s fo r w a v in g , r e l a x i n g , in t r o d u c
t i o n s , and sim p le c la s p ;
2 . a p p r o p r ia te f a c i a l r e s p o n s e s f o r e x p r e s s in g
em otion s such as frow n in g fo r a n g e r , s u r p r is e
fo r h u r t f e e l i n g s , c o n t r o l l e d e x p r e s s io n f o r
s a d n e s s , tem pered la u g h te r fo r h a p p in e s s ;
3 . comm unicate w ith body g e s t u r e s su ch as d i r e c
t i o n s ( s h 1 .) or d e s c r i p t io n s ( f i n g e r s t o
i n d i c a t e la r g e or s m a l l ) .
M a te r ia ls
L i s t o f common g e s t u r e s .
A c t i v i t i e s
1. D is c u s s io n o f a p p r o p r ia te tim e f o r p a r t i c u la r
g e s t u r e and e x p r e s s io n .
152
2. T eacher t o d em o n stra te by a llo w in g e a c h i n d i
v i d u a l t o f e e l h er f a c e or body d u r in g v a r io u s
g e s t u r e s .
3 . T each er to d em o n stra te and a s s i s t p a r t ic ip a n t
in m od elin g h e r e x p r e s s i o n s .
4 . D isc u s s and d e v e lo p k i n e s t h e t i c memory fo r
each g e s t u r e .
5 . R o le p l a y i n g .
E v a lu a tio n
The p a r t ic ip a n t can:
1. d em on strate hand p o s i t i o n s fo r w a v in g , r e l a x
i n g , i n t r o d u c t i o n s , and sim p le c la s p ;
2 . e x p r e ss em o tio n s through a p p r o p r ia te f a c i a l
e x p r e s s io n ;
3 . communicate w it h body g e s t u r e s .
SAMPLE LESSON PLAN
V is u a l P o is e
( S t a f f : John R obert Powers S ch o o l)
C u r r ic u la r O b je c tiv e s
The p a r t ic ip a n t w i l l sta n d w ith c o r r e c t p o s t u r e .
I n s t r u c t i o n a l O b je c tiv e
The p a r t ic ip a n t w i l l :
1. keep sh o u ld e r s back;
2. keep m i d r if f in ;
3 . h o ld head o v e r c e n te r o f body;
4 . h o ld in stom ach and b u tto c k s ;
5 . p la c e one f o o t s l i g h t l y i n fr o n t o f th e o th e r ;
6. k eep k n ees s l i g h t l y b e n t;
7 . p la c e hands a t body s i d e s or c la s p e d l o o s e l y
a t th e w a i s t .
M a te r ia ls
How to Have Model Beauty. Poise, and Personality
by John Robert Powers.
A c t i v i t i e s
1. T eacher t o d em on strate p o s i t i o n s on a o n e -t o -
one b a s i s f o r i n d iv id u a l com p arison.
154
155
2 . P r a c t i c e d i f f e r e n t hand p o s i t i o n s .
3. Compare s t a n c e s .
4 . D is c u s s and d e v e lo p k i n e s t h e t i c memory o f
v a r io u s p o s i t i o n s as d em on stra ted by m o d e ls.
E v a lu a tio n
The p a r t i c i p a n t can:
1. k eep sh o u ld e r s b ack ;
2. keep m i d r if f i n ;
3. h o ld head over c e n te r o f bod y;
4 . h o ld i n stomach and b u tto c k s ;
5 . p la c e one f o o t s l i g h t l y in f r o n t o f t h e o th e r ;
6. k eep k n ees s l i g h t l y b en t;
7 . p la c e hands a t s i d e s or w a i s t .
APPENDIX C
PARTICIPANT EVALUATION FORM
156
PARTICIPANT EVALUATION FORM
PERSONAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
Name
Did th e charm c o u r se a id you i n your
p e r s o n a l grow th? I f s o , in what ways?
Did you r e a c h any g o a ls you had s e t a t
t h e b e g in n in g o f th e co u rse?
D e sc r ib e what you lik e d or d i s l i k e d
ab ou t th e c o u r s e .
What im provem ents would you make fo r
fu t u r e charm c o u r s e s ?
APPENDIX D
PARENT EVALUATION FO R M
158
PARENT EVALUATION FO RM
PERSONAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
The B r a i l l e I n s t i t u t e would a p p r e c ia t e your
e v a lu a t io n o f th e P e r so n a l Management Program
(Charm C ourse) h e ld t h i s summer a t th e Youth
C en ter. Your comments can h e lp u s im prove th e
program .
1. Have you se e n any p o s i t i v e or n e g a t iv e change
in your d au gh ter?
Comment__________________________________________
2 . Does your d au gh ter e x p r e s s h e r s e l f a s b e in g
aware o f any change i n h er p h y s i c a l appearance
C omment______________________________________________
3 . Would you want t o se e t h i s program c o n tin u ed
n e x t y e a r , th rou gh ou t th e y e a r , or n ot a t a l l ?
C o m m e n t ________
4 . Should a p a r e n t d i s c u s s i o n group b e h e ld
c o n c u r r e n tly w it h th e program?
Comment__________________________________________
5 . What e x p e r ie n c e do you f e e l was m ost v a lu a b le
f o r your d au gh ter?
C omment _________________________
6 . Do you have any s u g g e s t io n s t o im prove th e
program?
Comment_________________________________________
APPENDIX E
BRAILLE INSTITUTE PROGRAM ANNOUNCEMENT
160
Braille Institute of America, Inc.
741 North Vermont Avenue
Los Angeles, California 90029
851-5695 or 6 6 3 -1 1 1 1 , Ext. 26 or 56
ANNOUNCES
t o i t s te e n a g e g i r l m embers, a co m p lete c o u r se in charm,
th e s o c i a l g r a c e s , and proper b e a u ty c a r e . During i t s
se v e n w eek s, J u ly 5 t o A ugust 18, th e co u rse h i g h l i g h t s
w i l l in c lu d e : g u e s t l e c t u r e s , rap s e s s i o n s , and v i s i t s t o
a c lo t h in g m a n u fa ctu rer, departm ent s t o r e s , and a m od elin g
a g e n c y .
As s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s fo r t h i s e x c i t i n g summer
c o u r s e , we w i l l t r a v e l t o a nearby b ea u ty s a lo n fo r a h a ir
s e t and f a c i a l , and p r e s e n t a f a s h io n show a t one o f th e
m o d e lin g a g e n c ie s i n th e a r e a .
F i n a l l y , t o wind up th e summer o f fu n , le a r n in g ,
and se lf-im p r o v e m e n t, we w i l l have a d in n er o u t on th e
town!
Classes will be held Monday, Tuesday. Wednesday.
and Thursday, and will stress hair, nail, and skin care,
and personal hygiene including posture, exercise, and diet,
fashion analysis, and social presence.
Call the Youth Department immediately to make a
reservation. Transportation will be provided.
161
APPENDIX F
EXAMPLE OF TENNESSEE SELF-CONCEPT SCALE MATRIX
SCORE SHEET, AS USED IN THE STUDY
162
SCORE SHEET
Onicd and ReuarcFi Farm
Tenntoee Sdf Concept Scale
B E T T r Do e -
IHOQL 5 c x LftGC lO A Tt
j i r n I n m n \ i f 3 - / 7 2.
IN TERMS
OF:
ROW t.
IDENTITY
WHAT HE
IS
ROW 2.
SELF
SATIS
FACTION
HOW HE
ACCEPTS
HIMSELF
P-7 P-8 P-9 N-10N-1IN-12
5 5 5 1 1 1
© 0 4 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z 2 2 O '} - * 4
1 » G ) 5
COLUMN A
PHYSICAL SELF
P-1 P-Z P-3 N-4 N-5 N-6
5 5 5 1 1 1
2
3
Z 2 2 4 4 4
i ® N 5 s9 ©
3IW4
Q
■ ' lAUj- 5 ;
+ nS - h
P-19P-20P-2I N-22N-23NJ4
5 5 5 1 1
4 4 0 ) 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
Q ) s 5^1
,-N
P-25P-2BP-27N-28N-29NJ0
5 5 5 1 1 ( ©
4 4 4 2 Q ) Z
3 3 Q , ( 3 ) 3 3
2 2 2 4 4 4
5
P + N .
H O W THE INDIVIDUAL PERCEIVES HIMSELF
nut STAetto
3 : ,
n**E rimsntO TQTA4. T 1 K
' 7 : 4 - 3 U d M i t i .
COLUMN B
MORAL-ETHICAL SELF
P-37P-38P-39 N-40N-41N-42
5 5 5 1 1 I
4 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 ^
< 3 > @
p
p +
_ ^ 7 y N ~ 3 _
N _ / j p - N J - ,
” _ 3 l n ^
p + N y . / p - n = _ /
P-43P-44P-45 N-46N-47N-4B
5 5 5 C y 1 © 1
4 4 4 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 J
2 2 4 4
I 5 5 ,5
Q - Q )
COLUMN C
PERSONAL SELF
I
S?
p + n 2 3 p - n . ^ 3 .
Q>
r t
M —- 3
P
P
P-81P-82P-B3 N-64N-B5N-68
5 © Q 1 1 1
4 4 4 0 0 *
A 3 3 3 3
© 2 2 4 4 4
1 1 1 5 5 5
COLUMN D
FAMILY SELF
P-55P-5BP-S7 N -5BN -59N-60
. % < P : /
? S - N ^
+ N IX P - N r .
9
p
p +
A2-n
NA ^ - p -
n 4
COLUMN E
SOCIAL SELF
P-73P-74P-75 N-7BN-77N-78
'^ c U c i
2 Q j ) 2 4 4 4
1 1 .1 5 5 1 .1 5 5
Z O J T
P + P - N /
P-79P-80P-BI N-B2N-83N-04
5 5 i I 1 I 1
t s ‘
5 — n Z z
+ N . / 7 P - N - /
SELF
CRrTICtSM
91 92 93 94
5 5
2
1 1
97 98
5) 5 5
4 O 4
3 3 3
I ? c b
ROW TOTALS
POSl-
WE
P + N
94
7 1
C O N F L IC T
N E T I TOTAL
H o t
Ittbrac AUbroic
d P -N tfe J T -N
VAI1A.
• ILITY
l e a g i
d P + N
C«t
Stflm
.1 > 1 5
U .7 1
- P
e -te
-P.il -
-5
/ o
/ r w
ROW 3.
HOW HE
ACTS
P-13 P-t4 P-1S N*18 N-17 N-18
5 5 © > 1 1 ©
( V ) 4 4 2 2 2
3 (?) 3 ( J ) 3 3
2 2 2 4 ( 4 J 4
1 1 1 5 5___5
P-31P-32P-33 N-34N-3SN-36
p c i u n S L
p + n A q p - n y
a
5 5 5 /A. 1
4 4 2
3 © 3 3 3
2 ^ 1 ) 2 4 4 (7)
1
A - n g
P + N W p - N - 2
P-49P-50P-S1 N-S2N-53N-S4
5 5 5 1 1 1
4 4 4 2 2 ( " 2)
3 Q ) Q ) 0 3 3
r< 2 2 4 C V
L T > 1 1 = SlO s
P-B7P-68P-69 N-70N-71N-72
1 1
~7 N JO
0 ) 0 j* 0 2 ^
3 3 © 3 3 ©
2 2 2 4 4
’__ 1 . 1 3 Vs; 5
p^5P-B6P-87N-8BN-S9N-90
© 5 5 1 1 1
4 J 4 2 2
P + N / 7 p - N -
JJL - N A Z P
p + n 3 - 7 p - n f.
3 0 3 3~ 3 3
2 2 A * A ©
' ’ C i) 5 U) 5
99 tO O
4 4
3 $ 1 5
P A Z
P + p - n * ~ A »
©
1 I
- a
rC rS rtW E (*P + N > Lff
COLUMN
TOTALS
- /
* (Algebraic) P - N
, Nor- '13
* (Algebraic) P - N 7
e o
/ I w g » o l \ jf*
v —
4 >10
9
1 1 .1 1
&
- 3
(O )
A
(S _
Total Positive
or P - * • N -
2 i / “
Tolal Net C onFltct
(P - N)
T » 6
(44)
a
10 1
J L
Total ConRict
CoL Tot. V.
a
Tor.
3 2 H i
&
S i
I - 1
ai
u >
APPENDIX G
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND RELIABILITY
COEFFICIENTS--TENNESSEE SELF-CONCEPT SCALE
164
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS
TENNESSEE SELF CONCEPT SCALE
S co re Mean
Standard
D e v ia tio n R e l i a b i l i t y *
S e l f - C r i t i c i s m 3 5 .5 4 6 .7 0 .75
T o t a l P o s i t i v e 3 4 5 .5 7 3 0 .7 0 .92
Row 1 127 .10 9 .9 6 - .9 1
Row 2 1 0 3 .6 7 1 3 .7 9 .88
Row 3 1 1 5 .0 1 1 1 .2 2 .88
C o l. A 7 1 .7 8 7 .67 .87
C o l. B 7 0 .3 3 8 .7 0 .80
C o l. C 6 4 .5 5 7 .4 1 00
U i
C o l. D 7 0 .8 3 8 .4 3 .89
C o l. E 6 8 .1 4 7 .8 6 .90
* R e l i a b i l i t y d a t a b a sed on t e s t - r e t e s t w it h 60 c o l l e g e
s t u d e n t s ov er a tw o-w eek p e r io d .
165
APPENDIX H
INTERNAL-EXTERNAL CONTROL TEST DATA:
AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY
RELIABILITY
166
«
167
fN'i'BIINM.-EXTKIIXAL CdNTHOt, l ’EST D aTA: JlEMABIMTV A N 'Ii DlSClUMlNAXT V rAJ.tl>lTi‘
Sam ple 1 Type j Sex
1
1
! »
<
j Source
Internal consistency
Ohio Stale U niversity Split half [ fit)
! -u : .05 i
Elementary psyHuthigv Spearman-Brown
! no
i F
: .70
students
1
Sample J
I
100 Combined I .73
i
Kudor-Richardson 50 M
! -7°
i
50 ! ■ ’ | .70
I
100 Combined 1 .73
1
Ohio S tate University ; Kuder-Richardson 200 M i .70
Elem entary psychology
1
t
200 F | .70
students
t
400 Combined .70
N ational stratified sample Kuder-Richardson 1000 Combined .00 Franklin (1903;
Purdue opinion poll M & F approxi
mately
10th, U th , and 12th gradcsj Equal A's
* T cst-retest reliability
Ohio S tate University 1 month 30 M .60
Elem entary psychology Group adm inistration 30 F .83
students
. 00 Combined ' .72
Prisoners 1 mouth 28 M .78 JcssorlClOGl)-
Colorado Reformatory
Ohio S tate University 2 months G 3 M .49
Elem entary psychology 1st group adm inistra
students tion 54 F .01
2nd individual adm in
istration 117 . Combined .55
Correlation w ith Marlowe-Crown e Social Desirability Scale
Ohio S tate U niversity
Elem entary psychology
students
i
I
166
140
306
M
F
Combined
- .1 6
- .3 2
- .2 1
Ohio S tate University
Elem entary psychology
students
136 ■ ■ RI - .2 2 Schwarz (1963)
Ohio State University
Elem entary psychology
students
180 F - .1 2 Strickland (I9G2)
Ohio S tate University
Elem entary psychology
students
103
77
ISO
M
F
Combined
- .1 7
- .3 5
- .2 0
W att (1962)
Kansas S ta te University
Elem entary psychology
. students
113 45M, 0SF
Combined
- .2 8 Ware (1964)*
Ohio Federal prisoners
Ages 18-26, 8th grade plus
reading -
80 M - .4 1 Ladwig (1963)
APPENDIX I
OBSERVER’ S RATING SHEET
168
169
OBSERVER'S RATING SHEET
P le a s e r a t e th e fo llo w in g stu d e n ts from 1 t o 5 on th e item s noted below :
5 = E x c e lle n t
4 = Very good
3 = Good
2 = F a ir
1 = Poor
Student
V is u a l
P o ise Weight Skin Make-up Hair C lo th es
O v e r a ll
S o c ia l
I n t e r a c t io n
O v er a ll
Appearance
APPENDIX J
PARENT INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
170
PARENT INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
1. I s your d au gh ter a s c o n f id e n t as you would l i k e
h e r to be?
2. Does she t a l k to you i n such a way as to
i n d ic a t e t h a t she i s concerned about her
appearance?
* 3 . Does she seem t o c a r e abou t th e c lo t h in g she
w ears?
4 . How do you f e e l sh e v ie w s her appearance?
* 5 . Do you s e l e c t m ost o f your d a u g h te r 's c lo t h in g ?
How do you th in k sh e f e e l s when you s e l e c t h er
p e r s o n a l item s?
* 6 . How much s e l f - i n i t i a t e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y does
sh e assume f o r ta k in g c a r e o f h e r p e r so n a l
n eed s?
* 7 . D oes your c h i l d seem to b e e a s i l y in f lu e n c e d
by p e o p le who are im p o rta n t t o h er?
*Key q u e s t io n s r e l a t e d to f e e l i n g s abou t s e l f
i n i t i a t e d a c t i v i t i e s .
171
APPENDIX K
TENNESSEE SELF-CONCEPT SCALE
172
TENNESSEE SELF-CONCEPT SCALE
INSTRUCTIONS: The s ta t e m e n t s you w i l l h e a r are t o h e l p you
d e s c r ib e y o u r s e l f as you s e e y o u r s e l f . P le a s e r esp o n d to
them as i f y ou w ere d e s c r i b i n g y o u r s e l f t o y o u r s e l f . Do
n o t om it any item ! L i s t e n t o each s ta te m e n t c a r e f u l l y ;
th e n s e l e c t one o f t h e f i v e r e s p o n s e s l i s t e d on your
r e s p o n s e form . Put a mark above t h e r e s p o n s e yo u c h o s e .
I f you w ant t o change an answ er a f t e r you h a v e marked i t ,
ask fo r h e l p .
1 . I h a v e a h e a lt h y bod y.
2 . I am an a t t r a c t i v e p e r s o n .
3 . I c o n s id e r m y s e lf a s lo p p y p e r s o n .
4 . I am a d e c e n t s o r t o f p e r s o n .
5 . I am an h o n e s t p e r s o n .
6. I am a bad p e r so n .
7 . I am a c h e e r f u l p e r s o n .
8 . I am a calm and e a s y g o in g p e r s o n .
9. I am a nobody.
1 0 . I h a v e a fa m ily t h a t w ould alw ays h e l p me i n any k in d
o f t r o u b l e .
*RESPONSES: 1 = c o m p le t e ly f a l s e ; 2 = m o s tly f a l s e ; 3 =
p a r t l y f a l s e and p a r t l y t r u e ; 4 = m o s t ly t r u e ; 5 =
c o m p le t e ly t r u e .
173
11. I am a member o f a happy f a m ily .
1 2 . My f r ie n d s have no c o n fid e n c e i n me.
1 3 . 1 am a f r i e n d l y p erso n
14. I am p op u lar w ith men.
1 5 . X am n ot i n t e r e s t e d i n what o th e r p e o p le d o .
1 6 . I do n ot alw ays t e l l th e t r u t h .
17 . I g e t angry som etim es.
18 . I l i k e t o lo o k n ic e and n e a t a l l th e tim e .
1 9 . I am f u l l o f a ch es and p a i n s .
•
o
C M
I am a s i c k p e r so n .
2 1 . X am a r e l i g i o u s p e r so n .
22. I am a m oral f a i l u r e .
2 3 . X am a m o r a lly weak p erso n .
2 4 . I have a l o t o f s e l f - c o n t r o l .
2 5 . X am a h a t e f u l p e r so n .
2 6 . I am l o s i n g my m ind.
27 . I am an im p ortan t p erson to my f r ie n d s and f a m ily .
2 8 . I am n o t lo v ed by my fa m ily .
2 9 . I f e e l t h a t my f a m ily d o e sn ’ t t r u s t me.
3 0 . I am p op u lar w it h women.
3 1 . X am mad a t th e w h o le w orld .
3 2 . I am hard t o be f r i e n d l y w it h .
3 3 . Once in a w h ile I th in k o f t h in g s to o bad t o t a l k
a b o u t.
3 4 . Som etim es, when I am n ot f e e l i n g w e l l , I am c r o s s .
35 . I am n e it h e r to o f a t nor to o t h i n .
175
3 6 . I l i k e my lo o k s j u s t th e way t h e y a r e .
3 7 . I w ould l i k e t o change some p a r t s o f my bod y.
3 8 . I am s a t i s f i e d w ith my m oral b e h a v io r .
3 9 . I am s a t i s f i e d w ith my r e l a t i o n s h i p t o God.
4 0 . I ou gh t t o go t o church m o r e .
4 1 . X am s a t i s f i e d t o be j u s t what I am.
4 2 . I am j u s t as n i c e as I sh o u ld b e .
4 3 . I d e s p i s e m y s e l f .
4 4 . I am s a t i s f i e d w it h my fa m ily r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
4 5 . I u n d e rsta n d my f a m ily as w e l l as I s h o u ld .
4 6 . I sh o u ld t r u s t my f a m ily m ore.
4 7 . I am a s s o c i a b l e as I want t o b e .
4 8 . I t r y t o p l e a s e o t h e r s , b u t X d o n 't overd o i t .
4 9 . I am no good a t a l l from a s o c i a l s t a n d p o in t .
5 0 . I do n o t l i k e e v e r y o n e I know.
5 1 . Once i n a w h i l e , I lau gh a t a d i r t y j o k e .
5 2 . I am n e i t h e r t o o t a l l nor to o s h o r t .
5 3 . X d o n 't f e e l as w e l l as I s h o u ld .
5 4 . I sh o u ld h a v e more s e x a p p e a l.
5 5 . X am as r e l i g i o u s as I want t o b e .
5 6 . I w is h I c o u ld b e more t r u s t w o r t h y .
5 7 . X s h o u ld n 't t e l l s o many l i e s .
5 8 . X am as sm art as X want t o b e .
5 9 . I am n o t t h e p e r so n X w ould l i k e t o b e .
6 0 . I w is h X d i d n ' t g i v e up as e a s i l y as I d o.
176
61. I t r e a t my p a r e n ts as w e l l as I s h o u ld ( u s e p a s t
t e n s e i f p a r e n ts a re n o t l i v i n g ) .
6 2 . I am to o s e n s i t i v e to t h in g s my f a m ily s a y .
6 3 . I sh o u ld lo v e my f a m ily m ore.
6 4 . I am s a t i s f i e d w ith th e way I t r e a t o th e r p e o p le .
6 5 . I sh o u ld b e more p o l i t e t o o t h e r s .
6 6 . I ou gh t t o g e t a lo n g b e t t e r w ith o th e r p e o p l e .
6 7 . I g o s s i p a l i t t l e a t t i m e s .
6 8 . At tim e s I f e e l l i k e s w e a r in g .
6 9 . I t a k e good c a r e o f m y s e lf p h y s i c a l l y .
7 0 . I t r y t o be c a r e f u l about my a p p ea r a n c e .
7 1 . I o f t e n a c t l i k e I am " a l l thum bs."
7 2 . I am t r u e t o my r e l i g i o n in my e v e r y d a y l i f e .
7 3 . I t r y t o ch an ge when I know I'm d o in g t h in g s t h a t are
w r o n g .
7 4 . I som etim es do v e r y bad t h i n g s .
7 5 . I can a lw a y s ta k e c a re o f m y s e lf i n any s i t u a t i o n .
7 6 . I ta k e th e blam e f o r t h i n g s w ith o u t g e t t i n g mad.
7 7 . I do t h in g s w ith o u t t h i n k i n g about them f i r s t .
7 8 . I t r y t o p la y f a i r w it h my f r i e n d s and f a m ily .
7 9 . I ta k e a r e a l i n t e r e s t i n my f a m ily .
8 0 . I g i v e i n t o my p a r e n ts (u s e p a s t t e n s e i f p a r e n ts a r e
n o t l i v i n g ) .
8 1 . I t r y t o u n d e r sta n d t h e o th e r f e l l o w ' s p o in t o f v ie w .
8 2 . I g e t a lo n g w e l l w ith o t h e r p e o p le .
00
«
I do n o t f o r g i v e o th e r s e a s i l y .
8 4 . I w ould r a th e r w in th a n l o s e in a gam e.
85 .
8 6 .
87 .
8 8 .
8 9 .
90.
9 1 .
9 2 .
9 3 .
9 4 .
9 5 .
9 6 .
9 7 .
9 8 .
9 9 .
100.
177
I f e e l good m ost o f th e t im e .
X do p o o r ly in s p o r t s and g a m es.
I am a poor s l e e p e r .
I do w hat i s r i g h t m ost o f t h e tim e .
I som etim es u s e u n f a ir means t o g e t ah ead . -
I h a v e t r o u b le d o in g th e t h in g s t h a t a re r i g h t .
I s o l v e my problem s q u i t e e a s i l y .
I change my mind a l o t .
I t r y t o ru n away from my p r o b le m s .
I do my sh a r e o f work a t hom e.
I q u a r r e l w ith my f a m ily .
I do n o t a c t l i k e my f a m ily t h in k s I s h o u ld .
I s e e good p o in t s i n a l l t h e p e o p le I m e e t.
I do n o t f e e l a t e a s e w ith o th e r p e o p le .
I f i n d i t hard t o t a l k w it h s t r a n g e r s .
Once i n a w h il e I pu t o f f u n t i l tom orrow w hat I ough t
t o do to d a y .
APPENDIX L
THE I-E SCALE
178
THE I -E SCALE
I n s t r u c t io n s
T h is i s a q u e s t io n n a i r e t o f i n d ou t t h e way i n
w h ich c e r t a i n im p o r ta n t e v e n ts i n our s o c i e t y a f f e c t
d i f f e r e n t p e o p le . Each item c o n s i s t s o f a p a ir o f a l t e r n a
t i v e s l e t t e r e d a or b . P le a s e s e l e c t t h e one s ta te m e n t o f
each p a ir (and o n ly o n e ) w h ich you more s t r o n g l y b e l i e v e
t o b e t h e c a s e as f a r as y o u 'r e c o n c e r n e d . Be s u r e t o
s e l e c t t h e one you a c t u a l l y b e l i e v e t o be more t r u e r a t h e r
th an th e one you t h in k yo u sh o u ld c h o o se or t h e on e you
w ould l i k e t o be t r u e . T h is i s a m easure o f p e r s o n a l
b e l i e f ; o b v io u s ly t h e r e a re no r i g h t or wrong a n sw e r s.
Your answ ers t o t h e ite m s on t h i s in v e n to r y a r e t o
be r e c o r d e d on a s e p a r a t e answer s h e e t .
F in d th e number o f th e ite m on t h e answ er s h e e t and
mark th e l e t t e r under t h e number 1 o r 2 w h ic h you c h o o se as
t h e s ta te m e n t more t r u e .
I n some i n s t a n c e s you may d is c o v e r t h a t you b e l i e v e
b o th s t a te m e n ts or n e i t h e r o n e . I n su ch c a s e s , be s u r e t o
s e l e c t t h e one you more s t r o n g l y b e l i e v e t o be t h e c a s e as
f a r as y o u 'r e c o n c e r n e d . A lso t r y to resp o n d t o each ite m
in d e p e n d e n tly when m aking your c h o i c e ; do n o t be in f lu e n c e d
by your p r e v io u s c h o i c e s .
179
180
I n t e r n a l v e r s u s E x te r n a l C o n tr o l o f R e in fo rc em e n t
1 . a . C h ild r e n g e t i n t o t r o u b le b e c a u se t h e i r p a r e n ts
p u n ish them t o o much.
b . The t r o u b l e w it h m ost c h i l d r e n nowadays i s t h a t t h e i r
p a r e n ts a r e t o o e a sy w it h them .
2 . a . Many o f t h e unhappy t h in g s i n p e o p l e ' s l i v e s a re
p a r t l y due t o bad lu c k .
b . P e o p l e ' s m is f o r t u n e s r e s u l t from th e m is ta k e s th e y
m ake.
3 . a . One o f t h e m ajor r e a so n s why we h a v e wars i s b e c a u se
p e o p le d o n 't ta k e enough i n t e r e s t i n p o l i t i c s .
b . T h ere w i l l a lw a y s b e w a r s , no m a tte r how hard p e o p le
t r y t o p r e v e n t them .
4 . a . In t h e lo n g ru n p e o p le g e t t h e r e s p e c t th e y d e s e r v e
i n t h i s w o r ld .
b . U n f o r t u n a t e ly , an i n d i v i d u a l ' s w orth o f t e n p a s s e s
u n r e c o g n iz e d no m a tte r how hard he t r i e s .
5 . a . The i d e a t h a t t e a c h e r s a r e u n f a ir t o s t u d e n t s i s
n o n s e n s e .
b . Most s t u d e n t s d o n 't r e a l i z e th e e x t e n t t o w h ich t h e i r
g r a d e s a r e in f l u e n c e d by a c c i d e n t a l h a p p e n in g s .
6 . a . W ith ou t t h e r i g h t b rea k s one ca n n o t be an e f f e c t i v e
l e a d e r .
b . C apable p e o p le who f a i l t o become le a d e r s have n o t
ta k e n a d v a n ta g e o f t h e i r o p p o r t u n i t i e s .
7 . a . No m a tte r how h ard you t r y some p e o p le j u s t d o n 't
l i k e y o u .
b . P e o p le who c a n ' t g e t o t h e r s t o l i k e them d o n 't u n d e r
sta n d how t o g e t a lo n g w it h o t h e r s .
8 . a . H e r e d it y p la y s t h e m ajor r o l e i n d e te r m in in g o n e 's
p e r s o n a l i t y .
b . I t i s o n e 's e x p e r ie n c e s i n l i f e w h ich d e te r m in e what
t h e y ’r e l i k e .
181
9. a . I h a v e o f t e n found th a t what i s g o in g t o happen w i l l
h a p p e n .
b . T r u s tin g to f a t e h as never tu rn ed o u t as w e l l f o r me
as making a d e c i s i o n to ta k e a d e f i n i t e c o u r se o f
a c t i o n .
1 0 . a . In th e c a se o f t h e w e l l prepared stu d e n t t h e r e i s
r a r e l y i f ev er su ch a th in g as an u n f a ir t e s t .
b . Many tim es exam q u e s tio n s ten d t o be so u n r e la te d to
c o u r s e work t h a t stu d y in g i s r e a l l y u s e l e s s .
1 1 . a . Becoming a s u c c e s s i s a m a tter o f hard work, lu c k
h as l i t t l e or n o th in g t o do w it h i t .
b . G e ttin g a good jo b depends m a in ly on b e in g in th e
r i g h t p la c e a t th e r i g h t tim e .
1 2 . a . The average c i t i z e n can have an in f lu e n c e in g o v e rn
ment d e c i s i o n s ,
b . T h is w orld i s run by th e few p e o p le i n pow er, and
t h e r e i s not much th e l i t t l e guy can do about i t .
1 3 . a . When I make p l a n s , I am alm ost c e r t a i n t h a t I can
make them work.
b . I t i s n o t alw ays w is e t o p la n to o fa r ahead b e c a u se
many th in g s tu r n out t o be a m a tter o f good or bad
fo r t u n e anyhow.
1 4 . a . There are c e r t a i n p e o p le who a r e j u s t no good,
b . T here i s some good in everyb od y.
1 5 . a . In my c a se g e t t i n g what I want has l i t t l e or n o th in g
t o do w ith lu c k .
b . Many tim es we m igh t j u s t as w e l l d e c id e what t o do
by f l i p p i n g a c o in .
16. a.. Who g e t s t o be th e b o ss o f t e n depends on who was
lu c k y enough t o be i n th e r i g h t p la c e f i r s t .
b . G e ttin g p e o p le t o do th e r i g h t th in g depends upon
a b i l i t y , lu c k h as l i t t l e or n o th in g t o do w it h i t .
182
1 7 . a . As f a r as w orld a f f a i r s are c o n c e r n e d , m ost o f us
are th e v ic t im s o f f o r c e s we can n e it h e r u n d e rsta n d ,
nor c o n t r o l .
b . By ta k in g an a c t i v e p a r t i n p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l
a f f a i r s th e p e o p le can c o n t r o l w orld e v e n ts .
18. a . Most p e o p le d o n 't r e a l i z e th e e x t e n t t o w h ich t h e i r
l i v e s are c o n t r o l l e d by a c c i d e n t a l h a p p e n in g s .
b . T here r e a l l y i s no su ch th in g a s " lu c k ."
19. a . One sh o u ld alw ays b e w i l l i n g t o adm it m is t a k e s ,
b . I t i s u s u a l l y b e s t t o cover up o n e 's m is t a k e s .
2 0 . a.. I t i s hard t o know w h eth er or n o t a p e r so n r e a l l y
l i k e s you.
b . How many f r ie n d s you have depends upon how n i c e a
p e r so n you a r e .
21. a . In th e lo n g run t h e bad t h in g s t h a t happen t o us are
b a la n ce d by th e good o n e s .
b . Most m is fo r tu n e s a re th e r e s u l t o f la c k o f a b i l i t y ,
ig n o r a n c e , l a z i n e s s , or a l l t h r e e .
22. a . With enough e f f o r t we can w ip e o u t p o l i t i c a l
c o r r u p tio n .
b . I t i s d i f f i c u l t fo r p e o p le t o h a v e much c o n t r o l
over th e t h in g s p o l i t i c i a n s do i n o f f i c e .
2 3 . a.. Som etim es I c a n ' t u n d erstan d how te a c h e r s a r r iv e a t
th e g ra d es th e y g i v e .
b . T here i s a d i r e c t c o n n e c tio n b etw een how hard I
stu d y and th e g ra d es I g e t .
2 4 . a . A good le a d e r e x p e c ts p e o p le t o d e c id e f o r them
s e l v e s what th e y sh o u ld do.
b . A good le a d e r makes i t c le a r t o everybod y w hat t h e ir
jo b s a r e .
2 5 . a . Many tim e s I f e e l t h a t I have l i t t l e i n f lu e n c e over
th e t h in g s t h a t happen t o me.
b . I t i s im p o s s ib le f o r me t o b e l i e v e th a t ch an ce or
lu c k p la y s an im p ortan t r o le i n my l i f e .
183
2 6 . a . P e o p le are l o n e ly b e c a u se th e y d o n 't t r y t o be
f r i e n d l y .
b . T h e r e 's n o t much u se i n t r y in g to o hard to p le a s e
p e o p le , i f th e y l i k e y o u , th e y l i k e y o u .
27. a . T here i s to o much em phasis on a t h l e t i c s in h ig h
s c h o o l.
b . Team s p o r ts a re an e x c e l l e n t way t o b u ild c h a r a c te r .
28. a . What happens t o me i s my own d o in g .
b . Som etimes I f e e l t h a t I d o n 't have enough c o n t r o l
over th e d i r e c t i o n my l i f e i s t a k in g .
2 9 . a . Most o f th e tim e I c a n 't u n d erstan d why p o l i t i c i a n s
behave th e way th e y d o .
b . In t h e lo n g run th e p e o p le are r e s p o n s ib l e fo r bad
governm ent on a n a t io n a l as w e l l as on a l o c a l
l e v e l .
NOTE: S core i s number o f u n d e r lin e d i t e m s .
APPENDIX M
ARTICLE APPEARING IN SPRING ISSUE OF
LIGHT MAGAZINE. 1973
184
E xp erien ces i n Make-up, H a ir -d o , and M odeling
MAKEUP
YOU’ RE LOVELY
< f y i t h tgngfai
la n im m cfm irm
M O D E L IN G
I — 1
00
Ln
APPENDIX N
PHOTOGRAPHIC EXAMPLES OF PROGRAM EXPERIENCES
186
187
L earn in g th e E lem en ts o f D e sig n : L ine and Shape

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Creator Warschaw, Tessa Albert (author)

Core Title The Development And Evaluation Of A Personal Management Program And Its Effects Upon The Self-Concept And Perceived Locus-Of-Control Of Blind Adolescent Females

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Degree Doctor of Philosophy

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Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

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Advisor Magary, James F. (committee chair), Koch, Richard (committee member), Williams, Eddie H. (committee member)

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