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Narrative And Lyric Originality In The Old French Versions Of "La Vie De Saint Eustache"

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Narrative And Lyric Originality In The Old French Versions Of "La Vie De Saint Eustache"

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Content NARRATIVE AND LYRIC ORIGINALITY IN
THE OLD FRENCH VERSIONS OF
LA VIE DE SAINT EUSTACHE
by
Maria C a rlo ta Baca
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P resented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(French)
June 1973
INFORMATION TO USERS
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Xerox University Microfilms
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I
I
73 - 18,793
BACA, Maria C a r lo ta , 1943-
M A RR ATIV E A N D LYRIC ORIGINALITY IN T H E O L D
FR E N C H VERSIONS O F L A VIE D E SAINT EUSTACHE.
[P o r tio n s o f Text in FrenchT.
U n iv e r sity o f Southern C a lifo r n ia , Ph.D., 1973
Language and L ite r a tu r e , modem
University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
i
I
THIS DISSERTATION HAS B EEN M ICROFILM ED E X A C T LY AS RECEIVED.
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. C ALIFORNIA 8 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
under the direction of h.tx... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillm ent of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y
MARIA CARLOTA BACA
Date
JUNE 1973
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
hairman
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To the members of my committee, P ro fe ss o r Arthur J .
Knodel, Department of French and I t a l i a n , and Dr, Ramon
A raluce, Department of Spanish, I wish to express my
a p p r e c ia tio n and g r a t i t u d e for t h e i r h e lp f u l comments and
time spent in reviewing th is t h e s i s .
To the D ire c to r of my committee, P ro fe ss o r Max L.
Berkey, J r . , Chairman, Department of French and I t a l i a n ,
I am indebted more than t h i s b r i e f acknowledgment can
adequately e x p re ss . For his p a in s ta k in g c o r r e c t io n of
the m anuscript, fo r h is p a tie n c e and to le ra n c e when con
fro n ted with the timid and h e s i t a n t s c h o la rs h ip of a
f l e d g lin g m e d i e v a l i s t , and f i n a l l y , fo r h is gracio u s and
k in d ly encouragement during the long process of re sea rc h
and w r i t i n g , I am h is very g r a t e f u l s tu d e n t.
ii
CONTENTS
P«g*
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION 1
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER I 4
CHAPTER I I - THE LEGEND 5
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER II 13
CHAPTER I I I - PRIMARY TEXTS 16
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER I I I 20
CHAPTER IV - FRENCH TEXTS 21
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER IV 49
CHAPTER V - La Vie da s a i n t Euatacha 52
by P le rc a da Baauvals
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER V 121
CHAPTER VI - La Via da a a ln t Euataca 124
Anon*
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER VI 150
CHAPTER VII - CONCLUSION 151
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER VII 162
BIBLIOGRAPHY 163
i l l
I
INTRODUCTION
Over s i x t y years ago, In h is monograph on haglo-
g raphic leg en d s, Paul Meyar wrote:
I I s e r a l t assurement d e s ir a b le de
c l a s s e r an ordre & peu prfcs chrono-
logique la s legendes en v e rs, d ' i n -
dlquer la caract& re de chacune d ' e l l e s ,
d 'e n a p p re c ie r l a v a leu r l l t t S r a l r e ,
qui e s t f o r t v a r i a b l e , de determ iner
la p e t i t e p a rt d *o r i g i n a l l t € qui peut
s ' y r e n c o n t r e r . 1
At the time th is was w r i t t e n , Meyer found t h a t i t was
Impossible to c l a s s i f y the hagiographic m a t e r ia ls chrono
l o g i c a l l y , because l i t t l e s c h o la rs h ip had been devoted to
the v e rn a cu la r s a i n t s ' l i v e s , and composition d ates were
seldom c e r t a i n .
I t is now, however, e a s i e r to c l a s s i f y the legends,
fo r many of tha m anuscripts have been e d ite d and more
m e d ie v a lis ts have turned t h e i r c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n to
th ese v e rn a cu la r v e r s i o n s . In an a r t i c l e e v a lu a tin g the
s t a t u s of such s t u d i a s , W i llis H. Bowen s t a t e s , "Besides
e d i t i o n s and c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s of In d iv id u a l s a i n t s '
1
2
leg en d s, th e re Is s g r e e t need for g e n erel s tu d ie s of the
genre. Bowen goes on to s t e t e :
Whet i s needed for more complete un
d e rs tan d in g of medieval h ag io g rap h ic
l i t e r a t u r e in French is to know aore
about the s t y l f , fundamental s t r u c t u r e ,
and o r i g i n a l i t y of the a u th o rs . • , ,
What needs to be done is to examine
c lo s e ly the French poems and to com
pare them with t h e i r L atin s o u rc es,
c a r e f u l l y studying the grammar, syntax,
and m etaphors. Mow th a t we have e d i
tio n s which in clu d e many of the more
Im portant poems, i t should be p o s s ib le
to come to some general conclu sio n s
concerning the o r i g i n a l i t y of the
au th o rs and the l i t e r a r y value of t h e i r
a c c o u n ts .3
I t is ev id en t th a t the above s c h o la r s were eager to
widen the group of m e d ie v a lis ts i n t e r e s t e d in studying
the v e rn a c u la r forms of these legends. In answer to h is
own q u e s tio n , "Why consider the v u lg ar forms as w ell as
the o r i g i n a l L atin?" A lfred T. Baker r e p l i e s :
The answer i s th a t the a d ap to rs had in
view a wider and an unlearned eudience,
and they have added so many d e t a i l s and
made such d ig r e s s io n s th a t t h e i r t r a n s
l a t i o n is o fte n an e n t i r e l y new work.
I t i s these d e t a i l s and these d ig re s s io n s
which supply the I n t e r e s t t h a t the Anglo-
French v e rs io n s heve to o f f e r u s . 4
An even more pointed answer had been given, some fo r ty
years b e f o r e , by Gaston P a ris in the in tr o d u c tio n to h is
e d i t i o n of the Vie de s e l n t G ille s by Guillaume de
B e r n e v l l l e :
La p lu p a r t des v ie s de s e i n t s en vers
f r a n q a is t r a i t e n t l e u r o r i g i n a l l a t i n
avec une grande l i b e r t e : lea a u te u r s ,
pour e m b e lllr e t ftgayer la matiftra, —
ae p l a l a e n t 3 d S c rlr e lea lle u x ou lea
in stru m e n ts de l ' a c t l o n , 4 motiver le s
evfinenenta, ft a n a ly s e r le s sentim ents
des personnages, ft le u r m ettre dans la
bouche des d is co u rs in v e n te s , e t se
p e rm e tte n t meme souvent de l e u r p r e t e r
des a c ti o n s q u ' i l s ne tr o u v a ie n t pas
dans le u r source ou de m o d ifie r grave-
s e n t le s c l r c o n s t a n c e s . . . . Le rftcit
sec e t ln c o lo re de 1 ' haglographe devlent
e n tr e le s mains du poftte d e t a i l l S ,
dram atlque, p l t t o r e s q u e .
In view of the above a s s e r t i o n s , t h i s t h e s i s w i l l
undertake a study of two Old French t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
v e rsio n s of La Vie de s a i n t E ustach e. w ith the i n t e n t i o n
of determ ining the o r i g i n a l i t y of the r e s p e c tiv e t r a n s
l a t o r s . To do t h i s , the w r i t e r w i l l compare the two
v e rn a cu la r v e rs io n s (one v e rs e and one prose) with the
L atin so u rce. Concerning the verse v e r s io n , i t w i l l be
determined whether or not one can d is c e rn an in flu en c e
of tw e lf th - c e n tu r y l y r i c and romance. In a d d itio n , the
w r i t e r w i l l p o in t out and e v a lu a te the usage of l i t e r a r y
conventions of medieval v e rs e l i t e r a t u r e employed by
P i e r r e de Beauvais, the t r a n s l a t o r of the verse v e r s io n .
As fo r the prose v e r s io n , the w r i t e r would l i k e to de
termine i t s success or f a i l u r e , c o n sid e rin g the f a c t th a t
by i t s date (e a rly t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu r y ) , i t stands a t the
beginning of French p ro se .
4
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER I
* Paul Mayar, "Las Ldgendes Hagiographlquas an
f r a n f a i s , " H la to lr a L l t t i r a l r a da l a F ran ca. 33 (1906),
335.
^ W illis H. Bovan, " P ra s an t S ta tu s of Studias in
S a i n t s ' Lives in Old French v e r s e ," Symposium. I (1947),
84.
3 I b i d . . p. 85.
* A lfred T. Baker, " S a i n t s ' Lives w r i t t e n in
Anglo-Frenchi T h air H i s t o r i c a l , S o c i a l , and L i te r a r y
Im portance," Roval Society of L i t e r a t u r e of the United
Kingdom. T ran sa ctio n IV (1924), 119.
5 Gaston P a ris and A. Bos, a d s . , La Vie de s a i n t
G i l l a a . podma du Eli* s l i d e par Guillaume de B e r n e v i l l e .
publ. d'aprfia le ms. unique de Florence I P a r i s : P ic a r d ,
1881), x x x v l i l .
IX
THE LEGEND
The legend of S a in t Eustace was w ithout a doubt one
of the most popular h a g io g ra p h ic s t o r i e s during the
Middle Ages both in France and in o th er European c o u n tr ie s .
Known in Greek since the e ig h th c e n t u r y , 1 th is legend
spread very quickly and one fin d s i t again in the ten th
century in C o p t i c , 2 Anglo-Saxon,1 and L a t i n . * The L a tin ,
an exact t r a n s l a t i o n of the Greek, was the immediate
source of a l l the v e rs io n s of th e legend which appeared
in French. In c o n sid e rin g t h i s legend, one must bear in
mind t h a t i t had a b s o lu te ly no b a s is in f a c t ; i t is a
purely f i c t i o n a l a c c o u n t.1
Such p o p u la rity was due in p a r t to the f a c t th a t the
legend was a pious and e d if y in g t a l e s u i t e d to the r e l i
gious purposes and f e r v o r of the medieval Church and, as
such, was given the im portant e c c l e s i a s t i c a l stamp of
a p p ro v al. However, i t must have enjoyed a widespread
audience f o r reasons o th e r than Church promotion, for i t s
5
6
p l o t , c h a r a c t e r s , and marvelous a p p a r itio n s a l l s a t i s f i e d
medieval man's t h i r s t for f a n ta s y , ad venture, and romance.
While i t was b a s i c a l l y a t a l e of r e l i g i o u s conversion,
J o b - l i k e s u f f e r i n g , and subsequent martyrdom for C h r i s t i a n
i d e a l s , i t was at the same time an engrossing adventure
s to r y whose c h a r a c te r s captured the p u b l i c 's im a g in a tio n .
What audience of those times could f a i l to be moved by
such personages as the ch iv alro u s and G od-fearing hero,
the p a t i e n t and pure w i f e , the l o s t i n f a n t s o n s, the
v i l l a i n o u s s e a - c a p t a in ? Paul Meyer has ex p lain ed the
appeal of such adventure legends as followst
Les legendes qui ont Ste le plus
souvent t r a d u i t e s e t dont le succda
a §te l e plus durable sont au nombre
des plus fa b u le u s e s . . . . II
s u f f i t de c i t e r c e ll e s de s a i n t
A la x ls , de s a i n t Eustache, de s a i n t
Georgas, de s a i n t e M arguerite, de
s a i n t e C ath erin e. . . . Ellee se
recommandalent ordinalrem ent 2 la
c u r i o s i t e non moins qu'4 l a p ie tb
des f id d l e s par le s r i c l t s mer-
v e i l l e u x e t souvent dramatiques dont
e l l e s sont rem p lles. E lies ont eu
le plus grand succds.6
The p lo t of th e legend of S ain t Eustace was, in i t
s e l f , a f a m i l i a r one. I t included the common m otifs of
s e p a r e tlo n of fam ily, adventurous episodes of p h y s ica l
and human v io le n c e , and u ltim a te re c o g n itio n and raunlon
of the family members.
Analysis
Gordon Hall Gerould has c h a r a c te r iz e d th e g e n eral
m otif of those s t o r i e s resembling the Eustace legend as
"The Motive of the Man Tried by F a t e . " 7 This Is a very
g e n eral c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , for t h i s m otif Is common to many
l i t e r a t u r e s of many epochs. The e s s e n t i a l m otif Is as
follow s: A man, o fte n of high s o c i a l stan d in g and p r e s
t i g e , d e p a r ts from h is home with h is family f o r reasons of
r e l i g i o n or e x i l e . He Is sep a ra te d from h is w ife and
so n (s) e i t h e r by a c c id e n t or through human I n t e r v e n t i o n .
A fte r years of endured s u f f e r in g and a d v en tu res, the mem
b e rs of the family are re u n ite d .
The above p l o t o u t l i n e c h a r a c t e r i z e s the Eustace
legend, of course, but much embellishment and d e t a i l have
been added. The rdsume of t h i s legend as i t appears in
the o r i g i n a l Greek and in the t r a n s l a t e d L a tin and Old
French v e rs io n s i s as follows: During the time of the
Roman emperor, T raja n , th e re liv e d a v irtu o u s pagan named
P l a c id a s , an honored and re sp ec te d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r . One
day, w hile h u n tin g , he i s sep arated from h is companions in
the p u r s u i t of a p a r t i c u l a r l y handsome s ta g . A fter a long
chase, P la c id a s looks up to find the stag on a high rock.
A re s p le n d a n t cro ss appears between the c r e a t u r e ' s a n t
l e r s and P la c id a s hears the voice of C h r i s t , through the
s t a g , urging him to be b a p tiz e d . P la c id a s r e t u r n s home
and t e l l s h i s wife about the ex p erien c e . She claims th a t
she has had an e q u ally s i g n i f i c a n t dream and t h a t they
8
•hould Indeed be p e p tiz ed e t once. The couple end t h e i r
two I n f a n t eons go c l a n d e s t i n e l y to the bishop, who bap
t i s e s them and gives them C h r is tia n names. P la c id a s is
named Eustace; h is w ife, T h eo sp lte; and t h e i r sons, Aga-
p ltu s and T h e o sp itu s. The follow ing day, Eustace again
goes h u n tin g . Ue seeks out and again co n fro n ts the s ta g ,
which o f f e r s Eustace th is choice: to be t r i e d and m isera
ble now or l a t e r . P resen t s u f f e r i n g i s p r e f e r a b le to the
new c o n v e r t, and soon t h e r e a f t e r h is tro u b le s b egin. His
se rv a n ts d ie ; a l l h i s l i v e s t o c k p e r i s h e s , and the family
la robbed of every belonging save the c lo th e s on t h e i r
backs. They journey on fo o t to the s ea p o rt where they
board a ship d e s ti n e d for Eygpt. Once at sea, the b a r
b a ria n s e a - c a p t a i n , upon fin d in g t h a t Eustace cannot pay
the p assag e, demande the w i f e , T heosplte, as payment. The
s a i l o r s throw Eustace and th e two sons overboard. They
manage to swim to sh o re , b u t l a t e r a lio n c a r r i e s o f f one
son^ and a wolf the o th e r . A p eriod of f i f t e e n years
passes during which E ustace, working as a la b o r e r , dwells
in the town of Dadyssus, unaware t h a t his eons were r e s
cued by p easan ts and that h i s wife was c a r r ie d o ff to the
land of the b a r b a r i a n s , where she su p p o rts h e r s e l f as a
sea m s tre ss . I t happens t h a t the king of the b a rb a ria n s
wages war on T raja n , who s o r e ly misses the le a d e rs h ip of
E ustace. T r a j a n 's messengers are s e n t to search f o r the
9
m issing fam ily. They recognize Eustace by a sca r on hie
forehead and take him back to Rome to command an army.
The two l o s t sons happen to serve t h e i r f a t h e r , unknown
to a l l , as m i l i t a r y a i d e s . On campaign, the army encamps
in the town where Theosplte d w ells, and through a s e r i e s
of re c o g n itio n s the family is re u n ite d . A fte r the b a r
b a r i a n king is d e f e a te d , they r e tu r n to Rome where Trajan
has been succeeded by Hadrian, an I n t o l e r a n t pagan.
In Rome, a grand f e a s t is held to c e l e b r a t e the
v i c t o r y , but the re u n ite d family re fu s e s to take p a r t in
the s a c r i f i c e to the pagan gods. The angry and Indignant
emperor throws them to the l i o n s , but they are untouched.
They a re then enclosed fo r th ree days in an i d o l - - a red-
hot bronze b u l l . The family d ie s in the flam es, but God
g ra n ts th a t t h e i r bodies be p e r f e c t l y p re s e rv e d . This
m irac le I n s p i r e s the people and t e r r i f i e s the emperor who
f l e e s . The family is f i n a l l y burled in C h r i s t i a n manner.
The above p l o t o u t l i n e i s common to a l l the Old
French v e r s i o n s , of which th e re are eleven in v e rs e and
t h i r t e e n in prose.® While a l l the v e rsio n s share the
m o tifs of the m iraculous s ta g , the loss of the i n f a n t s ,
the years of s e p a r a t i o n , and f i n a l reunion, the t r a n s l a
to rs of some v e rsio n s have chosen to emphasize c e r t a i n
elem ents of n a r r a t i o n , enlarge c e r t a i n p o r tio n s of d ia
lo g u e, and even to in v en t some episodes not found in t h e i r
10
immediate L a tin sources. These more o r i g i n a l asp e c ts of
the r e s p e c t i v e Old French v e rs io n s w i l l be d is cu ssed in
e l a t e r c h ap te r.
Sources
Tracing the Eustace legend back to I t s ro o ts and
u lt i m a t e sources has proved to be no mean s c h o la r ly
ch allen g e for those who have delved In to t h i s m a tte r.
Three s c h o l a r s , in p a r t i c u l a r , Angelo M onteverdi, Gordon
H all Gerould, and Uolgar P e te r s e n , have devoted much work
to t h i s problem. Along with o th e r r e s e a r c h e r s , they tend
to agree th a t the P la c id a s -E u s ta c h iu s legend goes back
u l t i m a t e l y to an O rie n ta l Buddhist theme.
Holgar P etersen has d iv id ed the legend in to th re e
d i s t i n c t p a r t s : the i n t r o d u c t i o n , which t e l l s of the
m iraculous conversion; the c e n t r a l p a r t , which r e l a t e s the
m isfo rtu n es and s u f f e r i n g s of the family and t h e i r happy
reu n io n ; and the ep ilo g u e , in which the heros are martyred
fo r t h e i r f a i t h . The f i r s t p a r t , according to P e te r s e n ,
i s b e s t ex p lain ed as a d e r i v a t i v e of holy Buddhist t a l e s
c a l l e d j a t a k a s . Before P e te r s e n , t h i s source had been
recognized by three o th e r s c h o l a r s , M. G a ste r, J .S , Speyer,
and Richard Garbe.^ In one la ta k a c a l l e d the Nigrodha-
m l g a - l a t a k a . Buddha, in the form of a s t a g , co n v erts a
generous b u t, l i k e E ustace, u n b e lie v in g l e a d e r . According
to P e te r s e n , ”L 'h y p o th is e d 'u n Element bouddhlque dans
11
une lig en d e c h rd tie n n e tt'a, 2 v r a l dir®, rle n d ' e x t r a -
o r d i n a i r e . " 1^
S im ila r ly , most s c h o la rs have found th a t the c e n t r a l
p a r t of the legend can be tra c e d to o r i e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s .
Sppyer, Gerould, and P e te rs en have found an apparent
p ro to ty p e In the popular Indian j a ta k a of V is v an ta ra ,
which r e l a t e s a former e x is t e n c e of Buddha, In t h i s Hindu
t a l e , V is v a n ta ra , l i k e E ustace, is of high s o c i a l sta n d in g ,
but a f t e r e x i l e he lo s e s his fo r tu n e , h is p o s i t i o n , h is
w i f f , and h is c h i l d r e n . In the end, the family i s r e
u n ite d . Perhaps the s t r o n g e s t argument in favor of t h i s
source is by way of a geo g rap h ical coin cid en ce. In the
Buddhist t a l e , V isv an ta ra is re u n ite d with h is fam ily in
the region along the Hydaspes r i v e r (now c a lle d the
Jhelam s), or what would be Punjab in In d ia . I t i s indeed
curious th a t Eustace a lso recovers h is family n ear the
same r i v e r , which i s so f a r removed from the Roman Empire
as to appear g e o g ra p h ic a lly absurd. Because of t h i s de
t a i l and because the c e n t r a l p o r tio n of the legend i s , in
p l o t and s e t t i n g , so analogous to ty p i c a l examples of
Indian l i t e r a t u r e , one has the im pression th a t the C hris
t i a n veneer was a p p lie d by a l a t e r hand, r a t h e r than
having been in h e re n t in the o r i g i n a l source. In speaking
of the Eustace legend, P e te rs e n s t a t e s :
La lig e n d e ch rS tlen n e f a i t l ' e f f e t
de n ' e t r e qu'une a d a p ta tio n
12
p a r t i e l l e d 'un ensemble d ' l d t e s
t t r a n g i r e s au c h r l s t i a n i s m e .
Et parca qua ce n ' e s t q u 'en ayant
racoura 1 l a concaptlon bouddhlqua
qua l a to u t peut S tra p le in a a a n t
compris, fc'ast 12 l a prauva la
plua convaincanta qua l ' o r l g l n e
da l a ltgande d o it S tra charchee
dana 1 'O r i e n t , ^
Tha f i n a l p a r t or apllogua of tha Euatace a to ry i s ,
on the o th e r hand, unconteatably of C h r ia tia n i n a p l r a t i o n .
I t r a l a t e a tha martyrdom of tha C h ria tla n a in a moat
c o n v en tio n al manner. According to M onteverdi,^ th e re
are obvioua re fe re n c e s to the b l b l c a l epiaodea of Daniel
and tha l i o n s and of tha th re e ad oleacanta of B a b y lo n ^
in the s e c tio n r e l a t i n g tha two methods ( l i o n s ' den and
bronze id o l) or martyrdom.
Having reviewed tha p o s s ib le sources of the Eustace
legend, and co n sid erin g th a t tha f i r s t known te x t was in
Greek, one must concur with P e te rs en when he concludes:
. , ,1a legends de s a i n t Eustache
e s t un conte t d l f l a n t b a st sur des
f a b le s in d le n n e s, bouddhlques, dfi-
pourvu de to u t fondemant h i s t o r l q u e
e t r t d l g t par un r e l l g l e u x en
t e r r i t o i r e de langue grecque, p e u t-
e t r e en Syria} ce r t c i t fabuleux
de la v ie d'un personnage lm a g in a ire
a provoqut le c u l t s , a t t e s t i dfts le
VIII* s i e c l e , d'un nouveau s a i n t ,
qui s ' e s t a j o u t t a l n s i aux a u tr e s
s a i n t s apocryphes de l ' E g l i s e
c a th o liq u e ,
13
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER II
* The Greek v e rs io n is given alo n g sid e the te n th -
century Latin versio n in the Acta Sanctorum. September
VI, 123-135.
2 For an English t r a n s l a t i o n of the Coptic v e rs io n ,
see E. Budge, e d ,, Coptic Martyrdoms (London: 1914), p.
359.
3 A e l f r i c ' s Lives of the S a i n t s . I I (Early English
Text S o c ie ty , 1890-1900), 109.
^ , lo c . c l t .
5 Angelo Monteverdi, "La Leggenda dl S. Eusta-
c h io ," Studi M e d le v a ll. I l l (1909), 171-174. See also
Hippolyte Delehaye. Melanges d'H aglographie Grecque et
Latine (B ru s se ls : Socldtd des B o l l a n d l s t e s , 1966), pp.
217-220.
® Paul Meyer, "Les LAgendes Haglographlques en
f r a n g a i s , " H i s t o i r e L lttf e r a ir e de l a F ran c e . 33 (1906),
332.
7 Gordon Hall Gerould, "F o re ru n n e rs, Congeners,
and D e riv a tiv e s of the Eustace Legend," PMLA, 19 (1904),
338-343.
O
Following i s a l i s t of the eleven Old French
m e tr ic a l v e rsio n :
1. Beginning of the t h i r t e e n t h cen tu ry . Version in
o c t o s y l l a b i c verse by P i e r r e de Beauvais p u b lish ed by
John R. F is h e r , Romanic Review. VIII (1917), 1-67.
2. F i r s t h a l f of the t h i r t e e n t h century. Version of
2052 verses in o c t o s y l l a b i c v e rs e pu b lish ed by Holgar
P e te rsen fo r CFMA, No. 58 ( P a r i s : Champion, 1928).
3. Middle of the t h i r t e e n t h c en tu ry . Fragment of 360
v e rs e s in alex a n d rin e monorhyme l a i s s e s by Benoit pub
l is h e d by Paul Meyer, Romania. 36 (1907), 12-28.
4. T h irte e n th c en tu ry . O c to s y ll a b ic v e rs io n published by
Holgar P e te rs e n , Romania. 48 (1922), 365-402.
14
5. T h irte e n th c e n tu r y . Version in i r r e g u l a r v e r s e com
posed in England by Guillaume de Ferriferes p ublished by
Holgar P e te r s e n , Romania, SI (1925), 363-396.
6. T h irte e n th c e n tu r y . Version of s ix to ten s y l l a b l e
verse composed in England published by Mario E s p o s ito ,
Textes e t etudes de l i t t i r a t u r e encienne e t medlfivale, I
(F lo ren ce, 1921), 29-61.
7. T h irte e n th c e n tu r y . Version in d e c a s y lla b ic q u a tr a in s
p ublished by Andreas C. O tt, Romenlsche Forschungen. 32
(1912), 3-50.
8. Fourteenth c en tu ry . O c to s y lla b ic v e rsio n ptoblitohed
by Holgar P e te r s e n , Romania. 52 (1926), 37-74.
9. Date U n certain . Fragment in s i x - l i n e stanzas pub
lis h e d by E. S te n g e l, flodex M anuscript. Dlgby 86 (H a lle ,
1871), 126-27.
10. Late Fourteenth or Early F i f t e e n t h century. Version
in a lex a n d rin e q u a t r a i n s published by Holgar P a te r s e n ,
Mfemoires de la S o c i e t t n 6 o -p h llo lo g iq u e de H e l s i n g f o r s .
VII (1925), 136-168.
11. L ate F i f t e e n t h c en tu ry . Version in o c t o s y l l a b i c verse
with v a rie d s t r o p h l c p a t t e r n s pub lish ed by Holgar P e t e r
sen, I b i d . , 192-266.
Following is a l i s t of the t h i r t e e n prose v e rs io n s :
1. M id -T h irteen th c e n tu ry . P ublished by J e s s ie Murray
for CFMA, No. 59 ( P a r i s : Champion, 1929).
2. Late T h irte e n th c e n tu r y . U npublished. Blbl. Nat.
MS. f r . 8 1 8 .
3 . Date u n c e r t a i n . Unpublished, B lb l. Nat. M S . f r .
4. Date u n c e r ta in . Unpublished• B lbl. Nat. MS. f r .
5. Date u n c e r ta in . Unpublished. B lb l. N at. MS. f r .
6. Date
1008.
u n c e r ta in . Unpublished. B ibl. Mun. Tours M S
7.
9 9
Date
1 1 A
u n c e r ta in . Unpublished. B ib l. Nat. MS. f r .
15
8. Date u n c e r ta in . Unpublished. B ib l. Nat. MS. f r .
20.330.
9. 1348. Unpubliahed. T ra n a la te d by Jean da Vignai.
Bibl. Nat. MS. f r . 241.
10. Date u n c e r ta in . Unpubliahed. B lb l. Nat. MS, f r .
1534.
11. Date u n c e r ta in , Unpubliahed. B lb l. Nat. MS. f r .
1505.
12. Date u n c e r ta in . P u b lish ed by M.G. B runet, Le V io lie r
des H is to lr e s ro a a ln ea . Ancienne t r a d u c tio n fran c o lse
des Gesta Roaanorua {Parlat 1858). based on e d i t i o n of
1529.
13. Lost MS. of 1508 t r a n s l a t e d by P i e r r e de N atale. Le
p r e a le r voluae du Cathaloque des S aln ctz e t S a ln c te a.
Nouvelleaant t r a n s l a t e de L a tin en Francois (P a r is ;
G a l l i o t DuprS, 1523).
9 M. G aster, "The Nlgrodha-Mlga J a ta k a and the
Life of St. E u sta th iu s P l a c i d a s , " J o u rn a l of the Royal
A s ia tic Society of B r i t a i n and I r e la n d (1894). 335-
340. J . S. Speyer, "B u d d h lstlsch e Elamenten in eenlge
Episoden v i t de Legenden van S t. Hubertus en St. Eusta-
c h iu s ," Theologiach T l l d s c h r i f t . XL (Leiden, 1906), 427-
455. Richard Garbe, "B u d d h lstisch es in der C h r i s t l i c h e n
Legends," Deutsche Rundschau (o c t. 1911), 122-140.
10 Holgar P e te r s e n , "Les O riglnes de la l£gende
de s a i n t Euatache," N euphilologischa M i tte ilu n g e n . XXVI
(1925), 73.
11 I b i d . . 84.
12 I b i d . . 86.
13 Daniel v i . 2 2 .
34 P e te rs e n , l o c . c i t .
I l l
PRIMARY TEXTS
Greek
The prim ary source of a l l the v e rs io n s of the legend
of S ain t Eustace i s the Greek v e r s i o n . Monteverdi con
s id e r s t h i s v e rs io n as tha o r i g i n a l and p r im itiv e t e x t . 1
I t is c e r t a i n th a t th is t e x t , which is re p re se n te d by
te n th - c e n t u r y Greek m a n u sc rip ts , e x is te d as l e a s t as
e a r ly as the eig h th cen tu ry because a passage from i t was
quoted word for word by Bishop John Damascene in or about
726, on the occasion of a d is c o u r se he gave a g a in s t icono
c l a s t s . 2 This Greek v e r s i o n , which r e p r e s e n ts the l i f e of
Saint Eustace in i t s o l d e s t w r i t t e n form was published by
Combefls1 in 1660 and by the B o lla n d is ts
In a d d itio n to the above Greek v e r s io n , th e re e x i s t s
another which d e riv e s from i t and is g e n e r a lly a t t r i b u t e d
to M etaphraste.5 One a l s o f in d s th re a s h o r t e r tre a tm e n ts
of the legend: 1) th e Menologium Baslllanum . a s h o rt
r£sum£ of the legend d a tin g from the te n th century;®
2) the Panegyric of S a in t Eustache by N icetas of Paphla-
16
17
gonia, a m e d ita tio n or eulogy d atin g from the e lev e n th
c e n tu ry ;^ and 3) an a b b re v ia te d f o u r te e n th - c e n tu r y account
found in the H i a t o r l a E c c l e a l a a t i c a of Nlcephorus C a l l l x -
t u s . ®
I t ia the f i r s t v e rs io n e x c l u s i v e l y , however, which
concerns us and which is considered the d i r e c t source of
a l l the o th e r v e r s i o n s , no m atter in what language they
might be t r a n s l a t e d .
L a tin
There are two L a tin v e rs io n s t r a n s l a t e d from the
Greek o r i g i n a l mentioned above. The more im portant of
the two, fo r our purposes, i s q u ite remarkable fo r i t s
f i d e l i t y to the Greek o r i g i n a l . Monteverdi cA lls t h i s
L atin t r a n s l a t i o n the " l i t e r a l v e r s i o n , ” and i t i s the
d i r e c t source of a l l the Old French v e r s i o n s , be they in
verse or in pro se. This l i t e r a l v e rs io n i s conserved in
s e v e r a l m a n u sc rip ts. The o l d e s t e d i t i o n of i t was done
my Mombritius around 1479.® The B o l l a n d i s t s published
an o th er e d i t i o n in the Acta Sanctorum, but the l a t t e r
e d i t i o n in clu d es a few t e x t u a l a d d itio n s borrowed from
o th e r L atin m anuscripts so as to make the e d i t i o n con
form as c lo s e ly as p o s s ib le to the Greek, which was
reproduced alo n g sid e the L a tin t e x t .
According to P e te r s e n , one can e a s i l y determ ine whst
the l i t e r a l L a tin v e r s io n was from o th e r L a tin r e d a c t i o n s ,
18
for I t !• c h a r a c te r iz e d by a iz d i s t i n c t i v e t r a i t s :
1) There are two d e p artu re s of the family from t h e i r home
before t h e i r e x i l e . 2) The l i t e r a l version s p e c i f i c a l l y
names " J o a n n is ," who b a p t i s e s the s a i n t s , 3) I t mentions
the c i t y , Dadyssus, where Eustace works as a la b o re r.
4) I t makes B i b l i c a l r e fe re n c e s to C ornelius the c e n tu r io n ,
the th re e a d o lesc en ts of Babylon, and S a in t P aul. S) I t
included E u s ta c e 's f i n a l p ra y e r th a t t h e i r bodies not be
consumed in the re d -h o t i d o l . 6) I t has a c o n tr a d ic t io n
in the n a r r a t i v e concerning the s e iz u r e of the in f a n t s by
w ild b e a s t s : the o ld e r b r o th e r is c a r r ie d o ff f i r s t by
a l i o n ; however, in the r e c o g n itio n scene many years l a t e r ,
the e l d e r claims th a t he remembers having seen h is b r o th e r
being c a r r ie d o f f by a w o lf, an event which he c o u ld n 't
p o s sib ly have w itn e s s e d .
The o th e r L atin v e rs io n t r a n s l a t e d from the Greek
o r i g i n a l has been la b e le d the " f r e e version" by Monte
v e rd i, Only about h a l f the length of i t s Greek model, th is
v e rsio n * 0 e lim in a te s many p roper names, ignores some
d e t a i l s , and, presumably in the I n t e r e s t s of v e r i s i m i l i
tude, changes the lo c a t io n of the re c o g n itio n scenes from
the region of the Hydaspes r i v e r to the Danube.
There are th r e e o th e r L a tin prose accounts which
were ap p aren tly composed during the t h i r t e e n t h century.
The f i r s t appeared in a c o l l e c t i o n of s a i n t s ' l i v e s
19
e n t i t l e d A b b re v le tlo In g e s t l e e t m lr e c u lle u n c t o r u e ^
and la l i t t l e aore than a s h o rt risum S, The aeeond, by
Vincent of Beauvais, was included In h is Speculum His-
t o r l a l e . ^ and the t h i r d is the v e rs io n f r o a the Golden
Legend by Jacopo de V o r a g i n e . ^ j n a d d i t i o n , th e r e are
l a t e r v e r s i o n s , ^ but they are for the most p a r t rehand
lin g s of previous t r a n s l a t i o n s .
In our comparison of the Old French v e rs io n s with the
L atin s o u rc e , we s h a l l make re fe re n c e only to the l i t e r a l
v e r s io n , fo r i t is from t h i s "que d £ r iv e n t, d lrectem ent
ou in d ir e c te m e n t, to u te s les v e rs io n s en vers comme en
prose, i c r l t e s en ancien f r a n q a i s . " 15
20
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER I I I
* Angelo Monteverdi, " I T e stl d e lla leggenda de
S. E u s ta ch io ," Studi M ed ie v a li. I l l (1910), 393.
2 See "O ratio I I I : Adversus eos qui sacraa
imagines a b j i c i u n t , " in Migne, P a tr o l o g ia G raeca. XCIV,
1382.
^ I l l u a t r i u m C h ris t! martyrum l e c t i triumph!
( P a r i s : 1660). pp. 1-44. (R eprinted in Migne. P a t.
Graeca. CV, 374ff.
* Acta Sanctorum. September VI, 123-135.
3 Analecta B o lla n d ia n a . I l l (1884), 65.
6 Published in AA. S S . . September VI, 1 1 5 .
7 Migne, P a t. Graeca. CV, 375ff.
8 Migne, P a t. Graeca. CXLV, 954.
® Sanctuarium seu V itae sanctorum . I , f o l s , 262-
266 (ca. 1479). Reprinted in Boninus Mombritius, Sanc-
tuarium seu Vitae Sanctorum ( P a r i s : Albertum Fontemoing,
1910), pp. 466-473.
1® Edited by Wilhelm de S p ire, N achrlchten von der
K oniglichen G e s s e l ls c h a f t der W lssenschaften zu G o ttin
gen (B e r lin : 1916). p p . 272-286.
H Paul Meyer, Notices e t e x t r a i t s . XXXVI, Iff.
12 Speculum H i s t o r i a l e . X, cap. 58-62.
13 Golden Legend ( B r a t i s l a v a : Guililmum Koebner,
1890), pp. 712-718.
14
For th ese subsequent L atin v e r s io n s , see
M onteverdi, op. c l t . . 404-417.
13 d o lg ar P e te rs e n , "Deux Vies de s a i n t Eustache,"
N eu p h ilo lo aiach er Vereln H e lsin g fo rs: Memoirs. VII (1924),
59.
IV
FRENCH TEXTS
Verse
There a r e eleven known version* of La Vie de s a i n t
Eustache In Old French v e r s e , a l l of which have been
p u b lis h e d . The v e r s io n by P ie rre de Beauvais, or Version
I, e d ite d by John R. F ish er In The Romanic Review Is
g e n e r a lly accepted aa the e a r l i e s t and w ill be tr e a t e d
s e p a r a te ly In the n e x t c h a p te r .
V ersion I I . Second among the verse v e r s i o n s , th e re
e x i s t s a fragment of 360 v e rs e s by a c e r t a i n B enoit.^
This t r a n s l a t o r , fo r whoa we possess no b io g r a p h ic a l d a ta ,
is i d e n t i f i e d in the f i r s t l a l s s e :
Se i s l vos e s t l ' e s t o r i e r e t r a i t e
e t raco n tee
Come Beneols l ' a d e l l a t l n t r a n s l a t e e :
Mult e rt bone a o l r , a u l t e r t blen
e s c o l t e ( e ) . . .
This fr a g a e n t I s p a r t i c u l a r l y I n t e r e s t i n g for i t s
f o r a : aonorhymed a le x a n d r in e l a l s s e s . Such a fo r a , while
8 o a e tla e s e v id en t In chansons de g e s t e . is indeed r a r e In
21
22
h ag lographic l i t e r a t u r e and Paul Meyer s t a t e s th a t he
knows of only two other s a i n t s ' l i v e s employing t h i s
form,^ Meyer d a t e s the work no e a r l i e r than the mid
t h i r t e e n t h century by reason of the language, and he
n o te s the tendency on the p a rt of the t r a n s l a t o r to
m u ltip ly e x p re ss io n s . Such redundancy, according to
Meyer, was q u ite common in the l a t t e r p a r t of the t h i r
te e n th cen tu ry and he s t a t e s :
Malgre c e t t e su rcharge dans l ' e x p r e s -
sion, on ne peut pas d i r e que l e s t y l e
du poerne s o it mauvals. A to u t l e moins
11 a l e m ir ite de n ' e t r e pas encombre
de ces i n t o l f r a b l e s c h e v i l l e s A l ' a i d e
d e s q u e lle s les c o n teu rs Spiques de la
f i n du XIXIe s l i d e e t du XIV« ob-
tie n n e n t de f a c i l e s rim es.^
In t h i s v e rs io n the t r a n s l a t o r has heightened the
d ram atic s i t u a t i o n s and g r e a t l y a m p lifie d the speeches
to the p o in t where over o n e - t h i r d of the fragment is com
posed of monologue and d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e . This fragment
covers the c e n t r a l p o rtio n of the s t o r y , beginning with
the ship voyage and ending with E u s t a c e 's triumphant
r e t u r n from e x ile into Rome.
Version I I I . The t h i r d v e r s io n , in o c t o s y l l a b i c
v e r s e and of anonymous a u t h o r s h i p , i s p ublished by Holgar
P e te rs e n in the c o l l e c t i o n C lassiq u es f r a n c a l s du Moyen
A
Age. Conserved i n two t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m anuscripts
and composed in Norman d i a l e c t , t h i s v e r s io n of La Vie
23
de s a i n t Eustache has been dated a t the beginning of the
t h i r t e e n t h cen tu ry by Paul Meyer. I t i s 2052 v e rs e s in
le n g th and begins with the l i n e s :
Qui weult o i r sarmon novel,
Orois e t v e r a i et bon et b e l.
Face escout e t entende a noi . . . (1-3)
The au th o r appears to have been in the r e l i g i o u s
l i f e , for he c i t e s E c c l e s i a s t e s ^ and one can remark a
c e r t a i n d i d a c t i c and m o ra liz in g purpose in v a rio u s
p a ss a g es.^ Yet he seems e q u a lly in h is element when
d e sc rib in g n a v ig a t io n a l p ro c e d u res, hunting scenes, and
b a t t l e c o n f r o n t a t i o n s . In some r a t h e r r e v e a lin g l i n e s ,
a f t e r a p a r t i c u l a r l y symbolic and d i d a c t i c passage, he
w r i t e s :
De cen avon assez p a r l e ,
Ke l ' o n ne tie g n e a enui€,
A ces c l e r s en l e s s e r o n d i r e ,
Si reprendroms n o s t r e m a tire . (289-292)
P e te rsen has i n t e r p r e t e d th e se l i n e s to mean t h a t the
au th o r was not a p r i e s t , but r a t h e r in the minor o r d e r s .
This sh o rt passage is I n t e r e s t i n g for an other reason as
w e ll. In h is study on medieval l i t e r a r y c o n v en tio n s,^
Edmond Faral remarks t h a t , a f t e r a d ig r e s s i o n f o r what
ever reason, medieval w r i t e r s o f t e n emphasized the
completion of t h e i r n a r r a t i v e wanderings by announcing
th a t they were now r e t u r n i n g to the p a r t i c u l a r th read of
the s to r y where they had l e f t off. Thus, i t i s not un-
24
common to fin d the l i n e , "Si reprendroms n o s tre m a tire "
and s im ila r ex p re ss io n s in such a t e x t .
As with a l l the v e rsio n s in Old French, the u ltim a te
source of t h i s te x t is the L atin prose v e rsio n published
by Mombritius and by the B o l l a n d i s t s . In g e n e r a l, the
French t r a n s l a t i o n follows the L a tin very f a i t h f u l l y .
In the i n i t i a l hunting scene, however, the author en
la r g e s somewhat on h is model:
Exeunte eo una d ie consueto more
ad montes v e n a r l cum e x e r c l t u et
osn i g l o r i a , a p p a r u it ei grex c e r -
vorum depascens; e t dlsponens s o l l t o
more exercitum , conabatur eos i n s e q u l .8
The Old French au th o r goes beyond a mere t r a n s l a t i o n of
the above L atin sentence and d e s c r ib e s a most v is u a l
p i c t u r e of the procedures of a medieval hunting p a rty :
Un Jor a v i n t q u ' a l o i t c h a c i e r ,
Si conme 11 en l e r t costum ier,
En une f o r e s t mont p l e n i a r e
De b e s te s de mainte m anlere.
De mont r i c h e c h e v a le r ie
Mena o so i g ra n t compalgnie.
Cascuns t i n t son arc en son poig,
Et 11 quivre n ' e s t o i t pas l o i g :
A l 'a r c h o n pendoit devers d e s t r e ,
Qu' i ne n u is se a l a i t s e n e s t r e ,
0 l e s s a l e t e s b a r b e l l e e z ,
Lees, trenchanz et a ch e re ez .
Cascuns sor som d e s t r i e r s e o i t ;
Autre cacheor n ' i q u e r o i t .
Kant 11 f u r e n t el bols e n t r e ,
Ne f u r e n t g a ir e s l o i g aid
Q u 'i l e n co n tren t un fouc de cers
Qui p a l s s o i e n t par l e s d e s e r s .
Flacidus mont blen ordena
Ses compalgnona et enseigna
25
Conment le s cers a t e i n d e r r o l e n t
Lt comment b e r s e r 1 p o r r o i e n t .
Puis a f a i t le s chiens d e sc o u p le r.
As cers l e s s a f a i t t o s t hQer.
De l ' a b a i des chiens et do hu
Se sont 11 c e r f t o s t esmeii.
Placidus souvent esperonne,
D'eures en a u tr e s son cor ssonne,
Souvent le f a i t as chiens o l r
Por eulz f a i r e plus e s b a u d ir ,
Et 11 au tre t u l t ensement
Polgnent apres conmunement. (123-154)
Such d i g r e s s i o n s , while ra re in t h i s v e r s io n , are worthy
of note. I t would almost appear t h a t th is t r a n s l a t o r
was i n t e r e s t e d in e d u catin g h is audience as well as
e d ify in g i t . In t h i s r e l a t i v e l y long passage on the h u n t,
the author has informed h is audience about various te ch
n i c a l asp ects of t h i s medieval s p o r t . His use of such
vocabulary as "arc" and "quivre" and his v is u a l and
a c ti v a te d ta b le a u of men, h o r s e s , dogs and equipment
i l l u s t r a t e s a more than p a ssin g knowledge of the s p o r t .
S i m i l a r l y , t h i s passage dem onstrates the v iv id I n t e r e s t
and l i t e r a r y appeal of the p r in c e ly pass-tim e of the
Middle Ages. One o ften comes upon such passages r e l a t i v e
to the hunt in many genres of medieval l i t e r a t u r e . 9
The author shows h im self to be eq u ally knowledgeable
in a passage concerning n a v ig a tio n . The L a tin source
s t a t e s simply:
Postquam vero duorum fa c e re n t
dierum i t e r , appropinquantes mari,
et in v e n ie n te s navim ad p licatam ,
volebant in g r e d l en earn e t n a v ig a re .
26
Compare the Old French:
Au p o rt ont une nef trouvee,
SI con vos d l s , tout ap restee
Del s i g l e r d r o i t a cel rivage
Ou w o u llo it a l e r E&stache.
Demalntenant qu'euz i e n tr e r e n t
Li n o to n n ler d e s s a a n c r e r e n t.
0 longues perches se d e s r i v e n t ,
T r a ie n t lo r ainz e t cordes t i r r e n t .
0 les cordes de la polee
La v e l l l e ont contremont le v ee .
Des que s ' l f i e r t del vent l ' a l e i n n e
Tost se d e p a r te n t de l ' a r a i n n e .
Plus corent t o s t parmi la mer
Que ne puet un faucon v o le r . (771-784)
There i s one other passage of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t
in t h i s v e rs io n . I t occurs in th a t p a r t of the s to ry
where Eustace and his family are on board s h i p . The
wicked s e a - c a p t a i n has been s tru c k by the beauty of
Theosplte and covets h e r. In most v e rsio n s t h i s re a c tio n
is duly recorded and the n a r r a t i v e c o n tin u e s. In t h i s
v e rsio n however, the author has chosen to c a p i t a l i z e on
the s e a - c a p t a i n 's l u s t and makes of i t an excuse fo r a
h ig h ly d e t a i l e d p o r t r a i t of E u sta ce 's w ife . This p o r t r a i t
is very re m in isc en t of many such p h y sical d e s c r i p t i o n s of
women found in tw m lfth-century l y r i c and romance. I t
in clu d es a t the beginning a b r i e f e v a lu a tio n of the sea-
c a p ta in which leaves l i t t l e room for sympathy:
Mes 11 mestres das n o to n n ie rs ,
Qul mont e s t o i t crttex et f l a r e ,
Kant a p e rc h o it la fanme Eustace
Mont l a couvoite en son corage,
Ker mont av o it bale fachon:
Le f r o n t ot b la n c e t le menton,
27
La face tendre co lo ree
Comme ro se e s t en matlnnee;
Le nez o t d r o i t , g r e i l l e s s o r c i l l e a ,
O r e i l l e s reondes p e t i t e s
Et le s eulz v a i r s , c h i e r e t r a i t i c e ,
Blance la char soz la p e l i c e ,
Et le s cheveux jaunez e t Ions,
Le col blen f a i t , b lan s et roons;
Les b ra s ot Ions et b e le s mains,
Les d e lz g r e i l l e z et Ions et p l a i n s ,
Et par l e s f l a n s l e r t d e l l e e .
Mont l ' a le p aain c o u v o itie . (765-802)
The enumeration of p h y sica l a t t r i b u t e s was a common
technique in the tw e lf th - c e n tu r y and t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
l i t e r a r y p o r t r a i t . F aral has suggested th a t the very
o rder of these p h y s ic a l d e s c r i p t i o n s had become a con
v e n tio n , in that the p o r t r a i t always begaft with an
ev o catio n of the fo reh e ad , followed by the eyes, la s h e s ,
nose, cheeks^ e t c . , proceeding then to the neck, sh o u l
d e r s , arms, hands and f i n g e r s , and o ften some p o r t r a i t s
even describ ed the legs and f e e t . Such a common l i t e r a r y
convention, while ev id en t only in t h i s p a r t i c u l a r v e rs io n
of La Vie de s a i n t E ustach e. was u b iq u ito u s in the medie
v a l g e n re s. This convention, c a l l e d bla s o n , was taught in
the medieval schools as a l i t e r a r y e x e r c is e and most
w r i t e r s and would-be w r i t e r s had some experience w ith i t .
V ersion IV. The f o u r th v e r s io n in verse is t h a t
p ublished by Holgar P etersen in Romania in 1922.^®
I t begins with th e verse " J e s u c r i s t par s e l n t Eustace"
and comprises 2290 o c t o s y l l a b i c rhymed c o u p le ts . P etersen
s t a t e s t h a t th is v e rsio n o f f e r s t r a i t s which are uncon-
28
t e s t a b l y Anglo-Norman in n a tu r e . Aa for the s t y l e of the
v e r s i f i e r , th e e d ito r co n sid ers i t r a t h e r mediocre and
o f f e r i n g l i t t l e in the way of o r i g i n a l i t y . There i s one
long d i g r e s s i o n ^ in which the t r a n s l a t o r a tta c h e s a
r e p e t i t i o u s e x p lan a tio n of the T r i n i t y and a resume of
C h r is tia n r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s , but t h i s does l i t t l e to
enhance the n a r r a t i v e and even appears awkward fo r i t s
length (255 v e r s e s ) .
The t r a n s l a t o r has also added a prologue of t h i r t y -
eig h t verses i n which he s t a t e s th a t he is making t h i s
t r a n s l a t i o n "de l a t l n en romans" at the su g g estio n of
his s p i r i t u a l b ro th e r. He thus I d e n t i f i e s h im se lf as
being i n the r e l i g i o u s l i f e . There i s in t h i s prologue
a s h o r t passage of i n t e r e s t wherein the author j u a t l f i e s
the m e tie r of t r a n s l a t o r :
T r a n s la to r v o i l primerement,
De l a t l n en romans b rie fm e n t,
Lur g lo rlu se passXun
Par mult humble devocXun.
I c i l qui sunt n o s tre v e is l n
Ne sev en t mie t u i t l a t i n ,
Male clerc e l a i communeaument
S o le n t user romans sovent;
Pur qo voil en romans p a r l i e r ,
Pur Deu e pur ses s e in s lofir,
£ que plusurs sacen t entendre
Co que jo v o il par Deu emprendre. (11-22)
The e p ilo g u e (vv, 2201-2290) is very conventional and
co n tain s the u sual e x h o r ta tio n to th in k about impending
death and the a f t e r - l i f e . A fte r some seventy v erses of
29
d i d a c t i c b a n a l i t i e s , the author c l o s e s :
Ne v o il f e l r e tro p lung sernun,
Mes par dulce devocXun
Devum p r l e r s e l n t Euestace
Ke Deus ad e s l i t par sa grace
Od sa sentime com paignie,
En c e le p ard u ra b le v i e .
Les s e in s m artyrs nomeement
Devum p r l e r mult dulcem ent,
Ke J h e s u c r i s t , par lu r m e rite ,
Nu8 d o in t od e ls J o le p a r f l t e ,
Ke nus puissum e s t r e v e i s l n
En la j o i e del c i e l sanz f i n .
Amen. (2279-2290)
One i n t e r e s t i n g d e t a i l of t h i s v e rs io n is th a t i t gives
the etymology of the s a i n t ' s pagan name in the prologue:
F lacid u s out nun proprement,
Kar p l a i s i r sout a bone gent . . . (41-42)
I t is not too s u r p r is in g to find such a play on words in
a medieval t e x t . F a ra l, in h is d is c u s s io n of medieval
l i t e r a r y conventions, has shown t h a t i t was a common
p r a c t i c e to e x p l o i t the etymology of a proper n a m e . 12
Version V. The f i f t h v e r s i o n , 12 w r i t t e n in Anglo-
Norman d i a l e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Northern England, is
d is tin g u is h e d by the mention of an author named in the
f i n a l v erses of the te x t:
G uillilm e de F e re re s out non verelment
Ki c e s t romanz e s c r l t t u t premerment.
Deu g a r t l a sue alme et defende de mal
E nus tuz ensement de peche crim in al! (831-834)
Holgar Petersen has traced t h i s personnage to a w e ll-
known medieval fam ily s i t u a t e d in Derby county in
England.
30
The manuscript has bean dated as belonging to the
second h a l f of th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , ** The n a r r a t i v e
begins w ith the verse "Un r ic h e s horn e s t e i t an Rome j a d l s "
and is 834 versas in le n g th . The most s t r i k i n g aspect of
t h i s v e rsio n has been s t a t e d by P e te rs e n as f o ll o v a :
La v e r s i f i c a t i o n de l a Via de
s a i n t Eustache p re s e n ts 1 ' aspect
o r d i n a i r e des poAmes plus rAcents
composes en A n g le te r re t l ' i r r i g u -
l a r i t i y rAgne. Toutes nos t e n t a -
tlv e s pour compter les s y lla b e s des
v e r s , mime avec to u te s le s excep tio n s
ou c o r r e c t io n s p o s s i b l e s , nous ont
convalncu que 1 ' a u te u r n ' a v a i t pas
une id e e n e t t e des rAgles de la
poAsle c o n t i n a n t a l e , mais seulement
la connaissance de l ' e x i s t e n c s d'un
vers " lo n g ” pouvant av o ir une pause,
une c e s u re , A un e n d r o lt quelconque;
le to u t e s t un milange confus de vers
de s t r u c t u r e in e g a lc comprenant de
neuf A q u ato rse s y l l a b e s , dont l a
se u le r A g u la r ite c o n s is ts en ce qua
le s vers rlm ent ensemble deux A deux , 5
Despite the i r r e g u l a r v e r s i f i c a t i o n , P e te r s a n co n sid ers
t h i s v e rs io n " l a mleux redigee de to u te s les v e rs io n s
p o etiq u es de la lAgende de s a i n t Eustache en anclen
f r a n $ a i s . " 16 He f u r t h e r n o tic e s "une c e r t a i n e f r a l c h e u r
e t un ton p e rso n n e l" in the d ia lo g u e s . The s to ry i t s e l f
has undergone no change nor a m p l i f i c a t i o n in t h i s v e r s i o n ,
and i t i s r e l a t e d in a concise and simple fa s h io n . I t is
even p o s s ib le to c i t e passages where the au th o r has
t r a n s l a t e d word f o r word from the L atin s o u rc e . There i s
one curious discrepancy which can only have been an e r r o r
31
by Che t r a n s l a t o r or the c o p y is t: in verse 684, I t s t a t e s
t h a t "Leons et urs les unt en d e se rt mangez," Yet in
other re feren ces to the wild animals which seized the i n
f a n t s , i t re tu rn s to the more f a m ilia r lio n and wolf found
in the source.
Version VI. The s i x t h v ersio n i s th a t published by
Mario E s p o s i t o . ^ This v e r s io n , 1322 verses in length and
w r i t t e n in Anglo-Norman o c t o s y l l a b i c v e rs e , was composed
in England during the t h i r t e e n t h century and is conserved
in a s i n g l e copy. I t follows the L a tin source very
c lo se ly and th e re are few i f any changes in the n a r r a t i o n .
Version VII. The seventh v e rs io n is a p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n t e r e s t i n g one. Published by Andreas C. Ott in
X 8
Romanische Forschungen. i t was probably composed in the
19
second h a l f of the t h i r t e e n t h century. W ritten in deca
s y l l a b i c verses arranged in monorhyming q u a t r a i n s , i t
begins as follow s:
Selgnor et dames, entendez t u l t a mol,
Vos qui tenez l a c r e s t l e n e l o l .
I I e a t e s c r i t que bone oevre oevre en f o l ,
Et fo iz senz ovre ne vaut ne 90 ne q u o i . (1-4)
The author goes on to s t a t e th a t no one i s safe from the
d e v i l ; some, however, have managed to escape him, but only
a f t e r a d i f f i c u l t b a t t l e .
Si Je l ' e n t a n t , p lu so rs en s a i nomer,
Mais a ' i ' d 'e u z me voudrai demorer.
De sa b a t a i l l e voudrai a vos p a r l e r :
Aprendre 1 puet qui voudra e s c o u te r. (25-29)
32
The poet then p re s e n ts P la c id a s and his family to the
l i s t e n e r s .
T h e r e a s o n fo r the s p e c ia l I n t e r e s t in t h i s v ersio n
i s s t a t e d by Angelo Monteverdi:
L 'i n t e r e s s e p r i n c i p a l e d e l l ' o p e r a
s t a , come accennammo, n e l f a t t o
c h 'e s s a non e d e lle s o l i t e t r a -
d u z io n l, ma & una l i b e r a redazione
d e l l a leggenda. 0
D espite the freedom of t h i s re h a n d lin g , i t is s t i l l e v i
dent t h a t the source i s the " l i t e r a l " L a tin v e r s i o n ,
The s to ry begins with a d e s c r ip ti o n of the g e n e r o s ity
and v a l o r , j u s t i c e and fine c h a r a c te r of P l a c i d a s . The
author o f f e r s a wealth of d e t a i l in d e sc rib in g th e home
l i f e of P lacid as and h is fam ily. Whenever P la c id a s re
turned from h is h u n tin g t r i p s ,
La dame e s t o i t a reg o iv re s 'e s p e e ,
qui de l a chambre i s o i t com' une fee . . .
( 121- 1 2 2 )
As soon as he had s e t t l e d down com fortably, h is c h ild r e n
ran to g re e t him:
Lors les b a i s o i t p lusors foiz en r i a n t ,
Et l o r s d i s o i t : "Bien soiez vos v lg n a n t!"
(127-128)
This l i t t l e domestic scene must have rep eated i t s e l f
q u ite o f t e n , for the author s l y l y informs us th a t P la c id a s
was an avid h u n te r and in f a c t , "Es bois e s t o i t plus
sovent q u 'e l p a l a i s " (96).
There was always a l i b e r a l ta b le at t h i s house, so
33
■uch so t h a t ” ->e la d i s o i e , vos re s em b le ro lt fa b le " (132)
D espite t h i s p le n ty , P la c id a s and h is wife o f te n fa sted
and wore h a ir s h i r t s , though they hid these penances from
t h e i r barons. Their a b s tin e n c e was not lim ite d to the
t a b l e , for according to t h i s t r a n s l a t o r :
Quant i l e s t o i e n t s o l a sol en lo r l i t ,
Et l ' a u t r e genz se dormoient t r e s t u i t ,
N 'i a cel d 'eu z qui Damedeu ne p r l t
Que i l le s g a r t t o t de charnel d e l i t . (145-148)
Such goodness is always r a r e , says the a u th o r, and in a
moment of broadmindedness, he chides h is contem poraries :
Quant l t e l bien menoient ' i i ' payen,
Essample i doivent prandre t u i t c r e s t i e n , . .
(157-158)
The d e v il occupies a most important r o le in t h i s
v e rs io n , for the author gives him a speaking r o l e and
o fte n d e s c rib e s h is r e a c t i o n s to the f a m ily 's s a i n t l i n e s s
Moult het d la b le s l o r mortel co n palgnie,
Perdre le s c r e l n t , por ce en a e n v ie. (161-162)
The author seems to take p le a s u re in reco rd in g the d e v i l '
f r u s t r a t i o n a t the f a i l u r e of h is tem ptation^ :
Sovant p o rq u e rt sor samainS et f e s t e ,
Comant 11 a l t e n t r ' e u z quelque m oleste;
Sovant lo r d l t q u ' i l sont plus fol que
b e s te ,
Et de t e n d e r sovant l e s amoneste. (165-168)
Sovant lo f a i t a v o ir tem ptation,
Sovent lo r v a i t e n to r et environ.
Mais i l sont bien a f a i t e champion,
Toz see assauz ne p r i s e n t ' i ' boton. (181-184)
During the c o n f r o n ta tio n s between the s ta g and
34
P la c id a s , the v ario u s other v e r s io n s , and indeed the Latin
source, a l l a ffir m th a t the d iv in e words were u tte r e d by
the s ta g . In t h i s v e rsio n , however, the voice is from
heaven: "En la c l a r t e desendi une v o iz" (277); thus the
stag does not speak in th is v e rs io n and is more a s i l e n t
symbol of C h r is t.
A fter the scene in which the two I n f a n t s are c a r r ie d
o f f , P la c id a s ' f a i t h wavers fo r an i n s t a n t and he con
tem plates s u ic id e :
"Tot a i perdu, n ' i a i nul r e c o v r i e r ,
Or an p an st Dex, qui je me voiz n o i e r . "
Esgarde l ' a i g u e , p lu n g ie r se v o l d l t anz,
Mais apr€s l ' i r e l e r e s t venuz le sanz.
Del gu§ s ' an 1st o granz repantemanz,
De c e ste chose fu d l a b l e s d o la n z. (487-492)
While the tem p ta tio n of s u ic i d e is suggested in the L atin,
t h i s t r a n s l a t o r has magnified i t somewhat, in d ic a tin g his
tendency to r e l a t e p s y ch o lo g ica l c o n f l i c t more d e l i b e r a t e
ly than t r a n s l a t o r s of other v e r s io n s .
The r e c o g n itio n scenes a r e somewhat longer and more
complicated in t h i s v e rsio n . Ihere i s much d ialogue and
the scenes a r e more true-seem ing. In the r e c o g n itio n
scene between P lacidas and h i s w ife, moreover, th is
t r a n s l a t o r has added a most c u rio u s v a r i a t i o n : P lacid as
recognizes h i s w ife, but she d o e s n 't y et know him; he
d e cid e s to t e s t her f a i t h f u l n e s s and v i r t u e before ex
posing his i d e n t i t y . The follow ing passage r e p r e s e n ts one
35
of the most b i z a r r e , and even p e r v e r s e , mod i f le a t l o n s to
the Latin model. P la c id a s addresses h i s wife:
"Por e ' e s t 11 miaux que remaigniez i c i ,
Par non c o n s o i l , e t s i prenez a a r i .
Ce e s t le miax, dame, que j e vos d l :
Oncor vos puet Dex f a l r e g r a n t m ercl.
Or vos d i r a i ' i ' pue de non d e l i t :
Venez a moi a ln z q u 'a u t r e vos en p r i t .
A l ' a v e s p r a n t en venez en mon l i t ,
Je vos d o n ra l 'x x ' souz por une n u l t .
Ne me devez o re pas e sc o n d ire ,
Que de c e s t o s t sui seneschauz et s i r e . "
La dame l ' o t , mais n 'a t a l a n t de r i r e ,
De ses iax p lo r e et de son cuer s o p lr e .
Li s i r e s v o l t que conmence a p l o r e r ,
Moult l i promet et p lu s 11 vuet doner.
En maintes g u is e s le vuet esperm enter,
S ' 11 la p o r r o l t a f o l i e a t o r n e r .
La dame e s t b e l l e , s i a ten d re la f a c e .
Or l i promet, or la p r i « , or (la) menace.
Mais Theophite r e s p o n d lt conme sage
Que n 'a t a l a n t que d e slo la u tS face. (1017-1036)
Continuing i n t h i s c r u e l l y p la y fu l v e in , Eustace t r i e s
to embrace th e tormented woman:
Et quant i l l ' o t e n tr e ses b ra s l i i e ,
E l l e s ' e s c r i e come fame esm arrie:
" S a ln te Marie, ja su i je b a p t i s i e ,
Gardez mol, dame, ne so le v e rg o n d le ."
(1053-1056)
Seeing th a t she i s f r ig h te n e d out of her w its, Eustace,
n o n e th eless, ". . . e s t moult l i e z et se se t i e n t de r i r e . "
F in a lly , he gives up t h i s s a d i s t i c game and shows her h is
s c a r , i d e n t i f y i n g him self w ithout a doubt. While th e re
18 a b so lu te ly no s u g g es tio n of the whole preceding scene
36
in the L a tin , one might s p e c u la te t h a t i t was composed,
p e rh a p s, to provide some comic r e l i e f to the r e c o g n itio n
scene. On the other hand, i t may have been i n s e r t e d to
prove beyond a doubt th a t Theospite was f a i t h f u l to her
husband during t h e i r long s e p a r a t i o n . In any case, i t is
completely o r i g i n a l , and no such scene can be found in
any of the o t h e r v e r s io n s .
Upon the re u n ite d fa m ily 's r e t u r n to Rome, the d e v il
i s enraged at h is own f a i l u r e :
. . .d la b le s en t r i s t o r ,
T re sq u 'a p e t i t le t r o b l e r a s 'o n o r .
Moult e s t dolans quant le v o it r a j o s t i
0 sa m alnla, dont 11 l ' a v o i t s e v r i .
N 'i pot riena f a i r s en sa g ran t p o v retd .
Or l 'a s a u d r a en sa p r o s p e r i t y . (1243-1248)
Once again th e d e v il takes d i r e c t a c ti o n ; t h i s time he
turns the em peror's sympathy away from the r e p a t r i a t e d
family by p l a n t i n g a seed of doubt in the t y r a n t ' s
h e a r t :
L'empereor f a i t e n c r o ir e par aonge
Dem Placidam una a stra n g e menqonge:
Q u 'l l l ' a t r a l , e t s i garde a i donge.
De f a i r s d r o i t l i d i t q u ' l l le semonge.
(1249-1252)
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t , in t h i s v e r s io n , the
emperor Trajan is not succeeded by H adrian, but r a t h a r he
remains in power throughout the whole s t o r y . Because of
the dream ln s p i r a d by tha d e v i l , Trajan is s u sp ic io u s of
E u s ta c e , even as he goes to meet him:
37
A j o i « va encontra son baron
RecSu l ' a a grant p ro c e ssio n .
Mais en son cuer dote la t r a l s o n ,
Tot d r o i t au temple Apolin e t Noiron.
(1281-1284)
This is the only v e rs io n in which the name "Noiron" ia
mentioned in r e l a t i o n to the temple.
At the entrance to the temple, Eustace b a lk s , and the
emperor rem o n strates:
"Or t ' e n e a tu e t respondre apertem ant,
Por quoi as f a i t i c e s t avilemant
As dex, ( e t) a moi, et a t o t e ma g e n t."
(13BS-1307)
Eustace answers as f o ll o w s :
" S i r e , " f a i t i l , " j ' a i longuemant vescu,
Tant que l a barbe e t lo c h ie f ai chenu.
En maint le u t ' a i gent s e r v i s e rendu:
Encor en p eren t l i cop en mon escu.
Ce 8 aches tu et c i l autre baron,
Que a cex dex ne doi nul guiardon,
Mais a c e lu i qui s o f f r i p a ss io n ,
Cui c r e s t i e n s je s u i e t p o rt son non.
(1313-1320)
E u s ta c e 's reply is i n t e r e s t i n g in t h a t i t s t a t e s t h a t he
has, indeed, grown old and h is h a i r has turned w h ite .
L ater the te x t r e f e r s to him as "P la c id as 11 chenus
anciens" and P lacid as "de la barbe f l o r i e . " This i s the
only v e rs io n in which the aging p rocess is even mentioned.
The family members, upon re fu s in g to worship the
pagan gods, are put through various o rd e a ls : they are
beaten ( " b a t r e , derompre et d e s ta c h e r . . . " ) ; they are
thrown in a dungeon t o s ta r v e for seven days and the d e v il
?8
comes Co tempt them. V in d ic tiv e , he warns E u stace, "Pis
te f e r a i que je ne f i s a Job” (1362). I f Eustace w ill
r e l e n t , the d e v il says that he w i l l grant him g re a t power
and w e alth . The scene of the d e v i l ' s te m p ta tio n appears
to have undergone some in fluence of the B i b i c a l account
of C h r i s t ' s tem ptation in the d e s e r t .
F i n a l l y , when the family is martyred in the bronze
i d o l , the e a r t h and the elements m iraculously r e g i s t e r
d i s p l e a s u r e :
La t e r r e tram ble, l i cieux v a i t e s p a r t a n t ,
Et l a malnnie s 'e n to r n e r e n t f u i a n t .
Li to ria u x e s t de m etail t r a j e t e z ,
I I b r a l t e t b r u i t conme a ' i l f u s t desvez.
Li a i r s e is p e s e , tro b le en e s t l a c i t e z .
Tote en tenebres quant midis fu p a sse z.
(1531-1536)
This v e r s io n , w hile c h a r a c te r iz e d from time to time
by uneven verse and fa u lty rhyme, and d e s p it e some repe
t i t i o n and too lengthy dialogue, i s c e r t a i n l y one of the
more o r i g i n a l Old French v e r s io n s . According to Monte
v e r d i , i t "occupa n e l l a l e t t e r a t u r a d e l l a leggenda un
p osto n o te v o lis sim o . . . ."
Version V III. The eighth v e rs io n in Old French verse
i s th a t pu b lish ed in 1926 by P e te rs e n in Romania. 22 Dated
in the fo u r te e n th c en tu ry , i t begins with the v e r s e , "Au
temps l'em p ere u r T r a l i e n . " This v e r s io n , 1268 v e rs e s in
length and w r i t t e n in o c to s y l la b ic rhymed c o u p l e t s , is
39
conserved in only one copy.
In g e n e r a l, Che L a tin source has been re s p e c te d . The
t r a n s l a t o r has a b b re v ia te d some d ialo g u e and even d e le te d
a few passages, but P e te rs en s t a t e s t h a t , d e s p ite these
small om issions, " l'e x p o s e ne f a i t qu'y gagner en c l a r t £
et les f a i t s eux-memes se font mieux v a l o i r . " This same
s c h o la r s p e c u la te s t h a t the author might have been a clerk
who composed h is poem to be read to n o v ices. He su sp e c ts
t h i s because of two lin e s in the e p ilo g u e :
Chi poes vous exemple prendre
Qui a le s en abids ren d re . . . (1241-1242)
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t , in t h i s v e rs io n , the
"deus s ierg an s" sen t by the emperor to fin d P lacid as play
a much more im portant r o l e , f o r the author en larg es t h e i r
importance to th e p l o t and devotes long passages to t h e i r
se a rc h . In g e n e r a l, t h i s au th o r seems to s t r e s s a c tio n in
h is n a r r a t i o n , fo r th e r e is l i t t l e i f any p o r t r a i t u r e of
the c h a r a c t e r s . ^
Version IX. The n in th v e rs io n in verse i s published
by E. Stengel in Codex m anuscript. Dlgby 86 (H a lle , 1871).
This poem is a mere fragment in s ix lin e sta n z a s rhyming
AABCCB.
Version X. The t e n t h v e r s i o n * * is dated at the end of
the fo u rte e n th or beginning of the f i f t e e n t h century and is
w r i t t e n in alex an d rin e q u a t r a i n s . In the i n t r o d u c t i o n to
40
h is e d i t i o n , P etersen has proved th a t t h i s v e rs io n followed
as i t s d i r e c t source not the L a tin v i t a * but r a t h e r a
French v e r s i f i e d v e r s io n , or v e rs io n 111 d is cu s sed e a r l i e r
in t h i s c h a p t e r . 2^
D espite the f a c t t h a t v e rsio n I I I was the n o d e l, how
e v e r , th e r e are many ad d itio n s to th is v ersio n found in no
o th e r treatm en t of the Eustace legend.
The au th o r s t a t e s in the second s ta n z a :
On a f a i t p lu seu rs d ls du g l o r l e x m a r t l r ,
Mes ceus qui le s ont fez n 'a v o i e n t pas
l e l s i r
De mestre les m a rtlr e z que on l i f i s t
s o u f r i r ,
Mez je l e z vous d i r a y , s ' a Dleu v le n t a
p l a i s s i r ,
The s t o r y - t e l l e r ex p lain s that he wishes to add those
d e t a i l s which previous w r i t e r s have chosen to leave o u t.
Thus he i n v i t e s h is audience to h e a r the complete and
unabridged s t o r y , and in t h i s s u b t l e c r i t i c i s m of previous
v e r s i o n s , he catches o n e's I n t e r e s t with promises of new
a sp e c ts of the s to r y which have come to l i g h t . Some of
th ese a sp e c ts which ths poet has Invented are as follow s:
in s t e a d of the s ta g speaking to P l a c i d a s , i t i s r a t h e r "un
honme nu en c ro ls . . ," (47). This a p p a r itio n of the
c r u c i f i e d C h ris t f l o a t s between th e a n t l e r s of th e s ta g
and, fu rth erm o re, P la c id a s thinks " q u 'i l e v e o lt s a i n i e r "
(60). When the family s e t s off i n t o e x i l e , i t i s " d r o i t
en Jherusalem " th a t they head and not to Egypt, as in the
41
o th er v e r s io n s .
L ater in the s t o r y , a f t e r the lonely Eustace is
s e t t l e d in a town, one learn s t h a t , during his f i f t e e n
years t h e r e , t h e r e were always abundant crops and " n 'i
che? ouruge ne tornment" (297). The e n t i r e r e c o g n itio n
scene has been m odified, tak in g place in a very sh o rt
time. Only then does E ustace, recognized by h i s former
s o l d i e r s , J o in the army to lead i t a g a in s t the enemy, the
" b a r b a r ln s ." The b a t t l e i s an excuse f o r another m iracle
invented by the p o e t: the 20,000 Romans led by Eustace
are g r e a tly outnumbered by the 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 b a r b a r i a n s , and the
poet ex p lain s very l o g i c a l l y , "D'un honme contre ' v ' n ' e s t
pas gieu bien p a r t i s " (475). Seeing t h a t they a re being
s e v e rly ro u te d , Eustace u t t e r s a prayer in which he r e c a l l s
the d is p r o p o r ti o n between David and G o liath . Suddenly:
Puis q u ' l l out d i s t sez moz, guerez
n ' a t a r d a pas
Q u'i v i n t une grant route d'onmez tous blans
ves t u a ,
Qui av o ien t c ro is blanchez p la n te e s as
e s c u s . (496-498)
As w ith many of the more marvelous a d d itio n s to t h i s
v e r s io n , t h i s s u p e r n a tu r a l in t e r v e n t i o n i s completely
o r i g i n a l on th e p a r t of the t r a n s l a t o r .
E u s ta c e 's r e t u r n to Rome is more sp len d id i n t h i s
poem than in p rev io u s ones. The author says t h a t the
s t r e e t s of Rome were adorned, t h a t th e re was music e v e ry -
42
where: "Trompez, core et b u ls ia e z sonnerent pour l e f e s te "
(542). But when the s a c r i f i c e r i t u a l s b eg in , Eustace
re fu s e s to take p a rt in no u n c e r ta in terms:
"Onquez a vos ydoles nule r i e n s ne
requls
Car i l n 'o n t de p u issan ce nen plus
c 'un chien p o u r i s ." (558-559)
Such lack of resp ect throws the emperor i n t o a rag e, and he
has Eustace whipped "Que de tous le z costez le sane s a l i r
l i f i r e n t " (600). The poet in vents v a rio u s ep iso d es not
found in o th er v e rsio n s. For example, the men who were
whipping Eustace suddenly f a i n t . Upon r e v i v i n g , they re
fuse to continue the t o r t u r e and a re promptly d e c a p ita te d .
Eustace is then to r t u r e d by another method: burning pieces
of metal are put on "son presXeus c o r s ." He is then forced
to walk on burning c o a ls , but they have no e f f e c t . Seeing
these o r d e a ls , some four thousand of the assembled Romans
take p i t y on Eustace and in r e c a l l i n g the m iraculous w hite-
clad a l l i e s of the b a t t l e , they denounce the i d o l s . They
too are a l l disp atch ed by d e c a p i t a t i o n . I t is f i n a l l y here
t h a t Eustace o f f e r s h is l a s t prayer b efore martyrdom, but
the poet has seen f i t to em bellish these words. Eustace
asks th a t God give grace to whoever w i l l read h is l i f e
s t o r y . He prays th a t God grant His grace to a l l good mer
c h a n ts , to a l l women with c h i l d , and to a l l those who w i l l
burn candles in honor of h is martyrdom. Suddenly a r e s -
43
plendant angel appears and says t h a t a l l w i l l be g ra n te d .
As in o th e r v e r s i o n s , the family ex p ires p e a c e fu lly and
untouched In the bronze I d o l , but th a t same day a t e r r i b l e
storm racks Rome, and the em peror's son i s s tr u c k and
k i l l e d by l i g h t n i n g .
I t is apparent t h a t the poet of t h i s v e rsio n has
added many new e p is o d e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y to the f i n a l sce n e s.
One c a n 't help s p e c u la te t h a t the more s e n s a tio n a l addi
tio n s were appended to make an almost too f a m i l i a r s to r y
more v i o l e n t , more e x c i t i n g , more marvelous, and in the
end perhaps more em o tio n ally i n s p i r i n g . In any c a s e , the
s a d i s t i c and macabre t o r t u r e s a t the end a re a long way
from the almost a b s t r a c t martyrdom of the L atin v i t a .
Version XI. The l a s t verse v e r s io n , also published
by P e t e r s e n , ^ is d ated in the m i d - f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y . I t
i s w r i t t e n in vario u s s t r o p h l c p a t t e r n s . These many p a t
te rn s a r e , in f a c t , th e most o u ts ta n d in g a s p e c t of the
poem. Paul Meyer had s t a t e d th a t th e poem was w r i t t e n in
o c t o s y l l a b i c verse and in stan z a s of e ig h t l i n e s rhyming
A B A B B C B C , ^ ? but he e v id e n t ly had access only to the be
ginning of the poem, fo r t h i s p a t t e r n i s employed in only
the f i r s t nine s t a n z a s . A c tu ally th e poet has compiled a
complex s e r i e s of meters (v e rs es of 3, 4, 6 , 7, 8 , and 10
s y l l a b l e s ) and an asso rtm en t of s t r o p h l c le n g th s (4, 6 , 7,
8 , 9, and 12 l i n e s t a n z a s ) , but th e r e i s a kind of order
44
in the ensemble which i s a p p a re n t. P etersen has remarked:
"On ne connatt pas d ' a u t r e s legendes v e r s l f i e e s avec un
t e l soin de la sym etrle dans 1 ' arrangement et la d i s p o s i
tio n des s t r o p h e s . " 2 ®
This v ersio n had as i t s d i r e c t model the poem j u s t
dim cussed (Version X). I t th e r e f o r e is also marked by a
c e r t a i n amount of v io le n c e , em bellishm ent, and a d d i t i o n a l
e p iso d es. I t e l i m i n a t e s , however, th re e episodes found in
the previous v e rs io n : the episode of the s o l d i e r s dressed
in w hite, the t o r t u r e of the burning c o a ls , and the de
c a p i t a t i o n of the four thousand Romans. These omissions
were c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of one o th e r manuscript of Version
X.29 i t i s th e r e f o r e re a so n a b le to assume th a t t h i s same
copy was the immediate source of the p re s en t v e r s io n . As
fo r these om issions, i t is p o s s ib le t h a t they were d e le te d
due to t h e i r lack of c r e d i b i l i t y and due to the f a c t th a t
they had never formed a p a rt of the t r a d i t i o n a l legend.
While one cannot say t h a t the poet has been very
o r i g i n a l o r im ag in ativ e in h is treatm en t of the s t o r y , one
must, with P e te r s e n , admire the te c h n ic a l s k i l l of the
v e r s i f i e r :
11 semble done qu'on ne s a u r a i t
re fu s e r & 1 ' a u teu r une c e r ta in e
o r i g i n a l l t e i la v e r s i f i c a t i o n :
s ' i l a souvent eu reco u rs au bien
commun de son Spoque, i l a presque
autant de f o i s , s e m b l e - t - i l , StS
independent e t in v e n te u r de s tro p h e s .
45
Une p a r t i c u l a r i t y digne de
remarque e a t que 1 ' a u teu r ne
r e p i t e jamais une s d r l e de
stro p h e s une fo is employee,^
This v ersio n is the l a s t and most r e c e n t known treatm en t
of S a in t Eustace in Old French verse.
Prose
The only prose v e rsio n of La Vie de s a i n t Eustache
th a t has been published is t h a t e d ite d by J e s s i e Murray in
1929. This w i l l be t r e a t e d s e p a r a te ly in Chapter VI of
t h i s t h e s i s .
The remaining e x ta n t versio n s in prose range in date
from the l a t e t h i r t e e n t h century to the R enaissance. While
some are indeed t r a n s l a t i o n s , o th ers appear to be l i t t l e
more than summaries. Some are anecdotal in t h e i r t r e a t
ment and c o n s i s t of the b a r e s t s k e le to n of the s to r y .
O th ers, s t i l l , are t r a n s l a t e d so l i t e r a l l y by c le r k s of
such lim it e d t a l e n t s , th a t they r e s u l t in confusing and
sometimes n o n se n s ic a l accounts.
Among the unpublished v e rs io n s a c c e s s i b l e to us are
two, both p reserv ed in m anuscript form in the B ib lio th eq u e
N atio n ale in P a r i s . The f i r s t , MS. f r . 818, i s a g e n e r a lly
f a i t h f u l t r a n s l a t i o n of the L a tin . In the manuscript con
t a i n i n g t h i s v e r s io n , th e re i s an i l l u m i n a t i o n ( f o l i o 280)
which r e p r e s e n ts Eustace kn eelin g b e fo re a s t a g . E u s ta c e 's
hands are folded in an a t t i t u d e of p ra y e r and th e re i s a
46
halo around h is head. Between the a n t l e r s of the b e a s t
is a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of C h r i s t ' s fa c e . The v e rs io n begins
c o n v en tio n ally as follow s:
I c i conmence l a vie del beneure
s a i n t Eustache e t l a p a ssio n , et de
sa m o l l l l e r l a t r e s beneuree ense-
ment. Es tens de l'em p ere e u r qui
e s t o l t apelez T rala n u s , es quels
tens l a f a l l a c e del deable v a l o i t
durrem ent, e s t o i t uns mestres de
c h e v a lie rs qui e s t o i t apelez
P la c id a s par son nom, nobles de
lig n ag e . . .
In g e n e r a l, the prose s t y l e of t h i s v ersio n seems to be
somewhat s t i l t e d and p r im itiv e and in p la c e s , the sy ntax
is awkward and s e l f - c o n s c i o u s . Moreover, the sentences
are not always w e l l - d e f i n e d . While i t d o e s n 't appear
th a t the t r a n s l a t o r was t r a n s c r i b i n g h is L atin te x t word
for word, which might r e s u l t in awkward sy n tax , i t does
seem t h a t the e f f o r t to t r a n s l a t e with c l a r i t y has re
s u l t e d in a prose reduced to a very elem entary l e v e l . I t
i s obvious th a t t h i s t r a n s l a t o r was not concerned with
o r i g i n a l i t y , but r a t h e r w ith a clo se f a c s im ile of h is
s o u r c e .
The o th e r prose v e rs io n is MS. f r . 412 ( f o l s , 209-
211). The m anuscript co n tain in g t h i s v e rsio n has an
i n t e r e s t i n g ill u m i n a t i o n r e p r e s e n tin g the martyrdom of
Eustace and h is fam ily. I t p i c t u r e s the bronze b u l l s e t
over leap in g flam es. Out of the back of the i d o l , the
haloed heads of the s a i n t s p ro tr u d e .
47
This v a r iio n has a r e l a t i v e l y f a c i l e s t y l e and though
somewhat s h o rte n e d , i t is a a o st accu rate t r a n s l a t i o n of
the L a tin . I t begins as follow s:
Cl conaence l a v ie mon slg n eu r
s e l n t Eustace. Au tens qe
Tralanus e s t o i t e a p e re re s de
Roae, i l avoit avec l u i un s ie n baron
qui av o it non P la c id e s q i a o l t
e s t o i t g entius hoa e a o l t n o b les.
I I av o it t o te s bones v e rtu z en s o l ,
car 11 r e v e s t o i t les nus . . .
This t r a n s l a t o r has a tendency to trim h is s to ry of excess
d e t a i l , e s p e c i a l l y those d e t a i l s which a ig h t req u ire
e x p la n a tio n . For example, he Ignores the L atin by not
t r a n s l a t i n g the B i b l i c a l r e f e re n c e s to C ornelius or Balaa.
Likewise, he sh o rten s the b is h o p 's c o n g ra tu la to ry speech
to the new ly-baptized family and suppresses the b is h o p 's
name.
L a te r, the t r a n s l a t o r does not s p ec ify the length of
time (15 y ears) th a t Eustace and h is family are s e p a ra te d .
He a e r e ly s t a t e s t h a t E ustace gained h is l i v e lih o o d in a
c ity for a long t i a e ("aout grant p la c e " ) . In a d d itio n ,
he does not s p e c ify the naae of the c i t y .
The re c o g n itio n scenes are extrem ely b r i e f and have
no dram atic developaant w hatsoever. S im ila r ly , the climax
of E u s ta c a 's r e f u s a l to adore f a l s e gods and the subsequent
a a r ty rd o a of h ia and his f a a i l y are ra p id ly n a rra te d with
no e a b e l l i s h a e n t .
48
This v ersio n is a f a i r example of smooth and c l e a r l y -
w r i t t e n e a r ly Old French p ro s e . The t r a n s l a t o r ' s main
concern was, e v i d e n t l y , concise and rap id n a r r a t i o n , ra th e r
than suspense or dram atic dialogue. While he has duly
t r a n s l a t e d those p o rtio n s of the sto ry which might be
termed " r e l i g i o u s " or "ed ify in g " there is a s i n g u l a r lack
of d i d a c t i c purpose. One has the im pression t h a t t h i s
t r a n s l a t i o n was made le s s for reasons of r e l i g i o u s i n s p i r a
tio n and more fo r reasons of sh o rt s t o r y - t e l l i n g . I t i s ,
in f a c t , the kind of account th a t might be found in a
c o l l e c t i o n or encyclopedia of s a i n t s ' liv e s — ra p id n a r r a
t i o n of e s s e n t i a l s , with f r i l l s cut to a minumum.
In th is c h a p te r, the v ersio n s d iscu ssed date from the
e a rly t h i r t e e n t h to the m id - f if te e n th cen tu ry . I t has been
b r i e f l y dem onstrated t h a t the t r a n s l a t i o n s ranged from
very a c c u ra te to in v e n t i v e , and f i n a l l y , to almost t o t a l l y
new tre a tm e n ts of the source m a te r ia l.
The next two chapters w i l l t r e a t in depth two s p e c i f i c
v e rsio n s (one verse and one p ro s e ), d is c u s s in g the various
aspects of o r i g i n a l i t y to be found in each, as w ell as
t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e l i t e r a r y conventions and s t y l e s .
49
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER IV
La Vie de M i n t E u it« ch « . Paul Meyer, a d . ,
Romania. XXXVI l l 9 0 7 ) , 12-28, Loudon, B r i t i s h Museum,
Egarton MS. 1066 ( f o l s . 119 and 1 1 8 --in t h a t o r d a r ) .
2 I b i d . . p. 13, Tha o th a r two s a i n t s ' l l v a s
aantionad by Mayar ara La Via da s a i n t Alban and ona of
tha v a rsio n s of La Via da a a in t a M a r g u e rite .
3 I b i d . . p. 15.
* La Via da s a i n t E u atach a. Holgar P e ta ra a n . a d . ,
Clasalquas fr a n q a ls du Moyan Age, No. 58 ( P a r i s : Champion,
1928). Madrid, B ib l i o t a c a N acio n al, MS. 9446 ( f o l s . 81r -
93r ) with v a r i a n t s froa P a r i s , B ib l. S a in ts Genevidve,
MS. 792 ( f o l s . i i i - 125v) .
^ Veraas 264-266: Corda qui a doubla cordon / Na
r o n t a ia l e g i e r e a a n t , / Aina dura blan e t longuaaent.
Thesa varaas paraphrasa E c c l a s i a s t a s i v .1 2 : ". . . and a
th re e fo ld cord is not q uickly bro k en ."
6 Saa, fo r example, varaas 376-386 and 1905-1919.
7 Edaond F a r a l , Las Arts PoStlquas du XII* a t du
XIII* S iecle ( P a r i s : Chaaplon, 1923), pp. 74-75.
8 AA. S S .. Sept. VI, 124.
9 C f. Maria da Franca, Guigamar. vv. 7 6 ff.
10 La Via de s a i n t Euatacha, Holgar P e ta r a a n , a d . ,
Romania, XLVIII (1922), 365-402. Cheltenham, P h l l l l p p s
L ib ra r y , MS. 4156 ( f o l a . 131-145).
11 Veraas 317-572.
12 F a r a l , op. c l t . . pp. 80-81.
*3 La Via da s a i n t Euatacha by G ulllaune da
F e r r i i r e s , Holgar P e ta ra a n , a d . , Romania. LI (1925), 363-
396. York, L ibrary of tha C hapter, MS. 16 K 13 ( f o l s .
104r -1 1 9 v) .
14 Paul Meyer, N otices e t E x t r a i t s . XXXIII, 20
and XXXIV, 225.
15 P e te rs e n , op. c l t . . p. 365.
^ P e te rs e n , op. c l t . . p. 375.
La Vie de s a i n t E u sta ch e . Mario E s p o s ito , e d . ,
Melanges p h i l o l o g l q u e s : Textes e t Etudes de L i t t S r a t u r e
Anclenne e t M edievale. I (F lo re n ce . 1921^. 2 9 -4 l. Dublin
T r i n i t y C ollege, MS. D.4.18 ( f o l s . ll b - 2 1 b ) .
1 f l
La Vie de s a i n t E u sta ch e . Andreas C. O tt, e d , ,
Romanische Porschunaen. XXXII. Heft 2 (1912), 3-50, P ari
B lb l. N a t., MS. f r . 1374 ( f o l . 165).
19
Angelo Monteverdi, "I T e s ti d e l l a Leggenda di
S. E u stach io ," Studi M ed iev al!. 3 (1910), 430.
20 I b i d . . p. 431.
21 One can recognize the L atin l i t e r a l version as
the source by the presence of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l i s t e d
on page 18 of t h i s t h e s i s .
22 La Vie de » * la t E u s ta ch e . Holgar P e te r s e n , ed.
Romania, LII (1926), 5 7 - 74. B r u s s e ls , B lbliotheque Royal
MS. 10295-304 ( f o l s . 165v-175r ) .
21 This i n i t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n of P l a c i d a s ' family
serv es as a f a i r example of the spare d e s c r i p t i v e s t y l e :
Cil P lacid as . . . / Avoit femme, f i l l e d'un co n te, / Et
deus f i l x de t r e s grant biau t€ . . .
^4 La Vie de s a i n t E u s ta c h e . Holgar P e te r s e n , ed.
MSmoires de l a Socletd n e o -p h llo lo g iq u e de H e l s i n g f o r s ,
VII (1925), 136-168. P a r i s , B i b l . N at. , MS. f r . 1555
( f o l s . 96v- 1 0 8 ) .
21 See pages 22-27 of t h i s t h e s i s for d iscu ss io n
of Version I I I . For a d is c u s s io n of the s i m i l a r i t i e s
between Version I I I and Version X. see P e te r s e n . I b i d . .
pp. 125-126.
26 La Vie de s a i n t E u s ta c h e . Holgar P e te rs e n , ed.
Memolres de l a a o c ie te n e o -p h llo lo g iq u e de H e l s i n g f o r s .
VII (1925), 192-226. P a r i s , B ib l. N a t ., MS. f r . 24951
( f o l s . 2r-3 7 r ) .
51
27 Paul Meyer, HLF, XXXIII, 349.
2® P e t e r s e n , op. c l t . . p. 187.
29 B ib l. de l ' A r s e n a l , MS. f r , 11.583 BL ( f o l s . 2-
15 v) .
30 P e t e r s e n , op. c l t . . p. 188.
V
La Vie de s a i n t Eustache
by P l e r r a de Beauvais
P ie r r e I d e n t i f i e s h im self in the prologue of h is
te x t t 1
A non selg n o r s a i n t Denis p r i s t
Sa vie P ie rr e s qui la mist
Et t r e s t de l a t i n en roumanz. (43-45)
The au th o r says t h a t he came to w r i t e h is s to r y because
"Tels fu 11 grez e t 11 commanz / A un des seig n o rs de
l " I g l i s e " (46-47).
While very l i t t l e i s known about the l i f e of P i e r r e ,
one can confirm t h a t in a d d i t i o n to other sp o n so rs, he was
under the patronage of the Bishop of Beauvais, P h i l i p of
Dreux, during the period 1180-1217, P h i l i p , nephew of
Louis VII and cousin of Marie de Champagne and P h l l i p -
Augustus, was chosen for t h i s post in 1175, thanks la r g e l y
to h is u n c le, H en ri, Archbishop of Reims. P ie r r e was
fo r tu n a te to find such a p r o t e c t o r , for P h ilip was sym
p a t h e t i c to h is p r o f e s s i o n . One c r i t i c has w r i t t e n :
On s a l t que cet eveque fu t un
c h e v a l i e r , au tan t et p lu s qu'un
52
53
p r e l a t . Mais 11 n 'a i m a l t pas
seulement las beaux coups d '£ p £ e:
11 f a v o r l s a i t a u s s i , en p rin ce
faatueux q u ' i l € t a l t , lea b e l l e s -
l e t t r e s e t les d c r i v a l n s . ^
P ie r r e a ls o d ed icated to him one of h is works in p ro s e ,
the B e a t i a l r e . a t the head of which one reads the follow ing
commendations:
En c e s t l i v r e t r a n s l a t o r de l a t l n
en romans mist lone t r a v a i l P i e r r e s ,
qui v o l e n t i e r s le f i s t par le
comman dement l'ev e s q u e P h e lip o n ,
cuers en cui s e r v ic e ne p e r i s t mle,
car 11 e s t espece d e b o n a lre s , l a i -
t u a i r e s de fran c h ise et confors de
g u erred o n ,
This lo rd of the Church sponsored, th e n , P i e r r e ' s ta sk of
t r a n s l a t i n g in to the v e rn a cu la r the a lr e a d y - p o p u la r legend
of S a in t Eustace p reserv ed in a m anuscript of the abbey of
S a in t- D e n is .
This Vie may be reasonably d ated between 1212 and
1217, the former date being a y ear i n which P i e r r e was
probably w r i t i n g o th e r s a i n t s ' l i v e s , the l a t t e r date being
the y e ar during which he announced h is i n t e n t i o n of giving
up w r i t i n g . However, one s c h o la r has convincingly s u g g e s t
ed a co n sid erab ly e a r l i e r date for P i e r r e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n :
"In the y e ar 1200, Bishop P h i l i p ' s s e c r e t a r y , E u s ta c h iu s,
became the twenty-second abbot of Flay. I f P ie r r e knew
him, he may have t r a n s l a t e d the V ita of h is p atro n s a i n t
in h is honor while in the employ of P h i l i p . " ^ In any case,
54
P i e r r e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n appears to be the e a r l i e s t of a l l the
known verse v e rs io n s t h a t lend themselves to a more or
le s s a ccu rate d a tin g .
P ie r r e was indeed a p r o l i f i c w r i t e r . Paul Meyer has
a t t r i b u t e d the follow ing works to him:
1. Vie de s a i n t E ustach e. 1726 verses
2. Vie de s a i n t Germer. 874 verses
3. Vie de s a i n t J o s s e . 820 verses
4. Bes t i a i r e . prose
5. T r a n s l a t i o n e t m iracles de s a i n t
J a c q u e s . prose
6 . Voyage de Charlemagne a C o n s ta n tin o p le ,
p rose
7. Chronique du P seudo-T urpin, prose
8 . Mappemonde. 954 verses^
9. D ie ts du corps et de l 'a m e . 218 verses
10. Oeuvre q u o ti d i e n n e . 120 verses
11. Les Trois s € 1ours , 246 verses
1 2. Les TrPis M aries. 114 verses
13. Olympiads, prose
14, G enialogle des r o i s de France, prose
All the works i n verse were w r i t t e n in o c t o s y l l a b i c coup
l e t s . Such a d iv e rs e range of w r iti n g I n d ic a te s th a t
P ie r r e was, above a l l , a p o p u la r iz e r of knowledge and a
t r a n s m i t t e r of l o r e , lie was, in many r e s p e c t s , a lin k
between the guarded, hallowed l i b r a r i e s of L a tin manu
55
s c r i p t s , s c c s s s i b l s and i n t e l l i g i b l e to only s few, end
the wide sudience of uneducated nen whose idiom was lim ite d
to the v e rn a c u la r. In view of the p o p u la r ity of the legend
of S a in t Euatace, one can surmise t h a t P i e r r e 's t r a n s l a t i o n
of the L a tin Vita—-indeed. h ia was among the f i r s t — was
widely r e s d , heard, and perhaps even im ita te d .
There are four m anuscripts of P i e r r s ' s v e rsio n of La
Vie de s a i n t E ustache:
P - P a ris : B ibl. N a t . , MS. f r . 19530
( f o l s . 83-122)
B - P s r l s : B ib l. N s t . , MS. f r . 13502
( f o l. 76)
L - London: B r i t , Mus,, Egerton 745
( f o l . 1 )
M - P a r is : B ib l. N at. Nouv, acq. f r .
13521 ( f o l s . 1-10 ) 6
In a tte m p tin g to c l a s s i f y the m a n u sc rip ts, F ish e r found
th a t they had no Immediate k in s h ip . While L and M end the
poem with l i n e 1706, B and P add twenty l i n e s . However,
the apparent a f f i l i a t i o n of th ese p a i r s does not w ith s ta n d
s c r u t i n y , fo r P omits a t o t a l of e i g h t lin es in s i x p la c e s ,
w hile none of these omissions is e v id e n t in BLM. Moreover,
BLM appear t o agree i n some v a r i a n t s c ite d by F is h e r ,^
which s tre n g th e n s the p o s i t i o n of BLM ag ainst P. F ish a r
concludes t h a t BLM belong to one branch and P to an o th er
in an Imaginary family of m a n u sc rip ts. Paul Meyer judged
56
P to be th e b e s t m anuscript and Fisher p u b lis h e s i t as
h i s b a s ic t e x t , although he m entions, w ithout o f f e r i n g any
e x p la n a tio n , t h a t he p r e f e r s L.
In g e n e r a l, the p lo t of t h i s v e rsio n is common to
t h a t of most of th e o th er versio n s and follows the Latin
model c l o s e l y . P i e r r e opens h is Vie de s a i n t Eustache
with a p ro lo g u e, f i f t y - s i x verses in le n g th . These verses
are o r i g i n a l w ith our t r a n s l a t o r , for th e L atin m anuscripts
do not give the proemium. In t h i s p ro lo g u e , P i e r r e begins
with g e n eral e x p re ss io n s on the n a tu re of contemporary
man: people are as d i f f e r e n t as summer and w in te r and
genuine goodness i s becoming r a r e :
Qui v o l t horn mes s i c o n te n lr
Qu'en le vole s a i n t devenlr?
Cou s o u l e i t on voeir assez
Au te n s qui e s t pieqa passes . . . (7-10)
P i e r r e im p lies n o s t a l g i a for the s a i n t s of the p a st and a
r
guarded pessimism fo r th e f u tu r e : M S ' [ i ] e r fu mauves et
h u l est p i r e . . . " (17). To c o u n terac t the tem p tatio n s
of the t im e s , P i e r r e o f f e r s , as a s o l u t i o n , the em ulation
of s a i n t s of the p a s t :
Essample devrions la prendre
Et l a vie des sainz apren d re,
OXr souvent e t recorder
Pour l e s nos v ie s amender, (23-26)
He o ffe rs th e account of Saint E ustace, " p la in e d ' e s p i r i t e l
semence," fo r the e d i f i c a t i o n of his au dience.
57
The L atin V ita begina the account as follows:
In diebus T s a jan l lm p e ra to ris ,
daemonum p r a e v a le n te f a l l a c i e . , , ®
P ie r r e em b ellish es h is source from the s t a r t , as one can
see from the corresponding passage in Old French:
Au tens que T raja n s l'em p erere
R eingnoit s u r Roumains en l'e m p e re ,
Ert Rom me de p aien s poeplee;
De t e l gent e r t done h a b ite e :
Mahons e t ydres c o u t i v o i e n t ,
Desmesureement v iv o ie n t
En ouvres, en f a iz mausseanz.
Et s i r a v o i t i l des creanz
Qui g a rd o ie n t fo i e t creance,
Mes poi av o ien t de p u issan ce;
Pour 50 se te n o i e n t c o u v ert,
Croire n 'o s o i e n t en a p ert
Ne dem onstrer l o r fo i a p e r te ,
Quer des cors l o r t o r n a s t a p e r t e . (57-70)
Thus, while the L atin s t a t e s simply th a t paganism p re
v a i l e d , P i e r r e m agnifies t h i s f a c t by r e l a t i n g the e v i l
and immoral p r a c t i c e s of the pagans. Not only did they
worship f a l s e gods, but they liv e d "desmesureement." v/hat
good people th e r e were, had to hide t h e i r f a i t h , fo r they
were in fe a r fo r t h e i r l i v e s . In t h i s p assage, P i e r r e thus
in tro d u ce s te n sio n and c o n f l i c t in th a t he a s s o c ia te s
C h r is tia n m o ra lity and b o d ily p e r i l . Perhaps because i t
was taken fo r g ra n te d , t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n i s not so obviously
apparent in the L a tin model.
P i e r r e a lso m odifies the i n i t i a l m a te ria l of the L atin
model in another manner. The au th o r of the V i t a , in i n t r o
ducing P l a c i d a s , s t a t e s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y , "sed et daemonum
58
captus e r r o r e . " P i e r r e , however, being s y m p ath etic a lly
disp o se d towards his h ero, seems to s o f te n the judgment:
"Un p a ie n , de sa lo i prodomme: (72). L a te r, in in tr o d u c in g
P l a c i d a s ' w i f e , P i e r r e uses a p a r a l l e l e x p re ss io n : "Fame
molt v a l l l a n t de sa lo i " (9 6 ), while the L a tin s t a t e s
" . . .conjugem eadem sub daemonum c u l t u r e e x lste n te m ."
An example of how P i e r r e a m p lifie s his model can be
seen i n the passage where he fclves the p o r t r a i t of E ustace.
The L a tin r e p r e s e n t s a r e l a t i v e l y sp are d e s c r i p t i v e s t y l e :
. . . e r a t quldam m aglster mllltum
nomine P l a c id a s , genere secundum
carnem i n s i g n i a , oblpus p o lle n s et
c u n c tis in honore . . . p r a e c e l l e n s .
Operibus vero j u s t i t l a e et c u n c tis
v i r t u t l b u s e r a t p r a e d itu s e t m e r i t i s .
The Old French r e l a t e s e s s e n t i a l l y th e same t h i n g , but i t
18 i n t e r e s t i n g to note how P i e r r e m u l t i p l i e s ex p ressio n s
on the worth of his hero:
11 e s t o i t P la c id a s nommaz;
Riches e r t moult et renommez,
A Rome de grant s e lg n o u r ie ,
Mestre de l a c h e v a le r le .
Molt e r t prouz et sages de g u e rre ,
Bien s a v o it loinz e t pres conquerre
Cels qui e re n t c o n tre l'e m p e r e .
Durement l 'a m o i t l'e m p e r e r e ,
Quar s o r touz 11 aco m p llso lt
Les granz besoinz e t f o r n i s o l t .
Temprance, debonerete
F r a n c h is e , s e n s , h u m l l l t i
Avoit en l u i . . . (73-85)
In the same pasaage, we are a p p ris ed of the c lo se
r e l a t i o n s h i p between P la c id a s and the emperor, T r a ja n , a
59
f r ie n d s h ip which makes P l a c i d a s ' ev en tu al conversion a l l
the more a p p a llin g In the eyes of the r u lin g e s ta b lis h m e n t.
This point does not seem to be e x p lo ite d in th e L a tin , but
P ie r r e w i l l r e c a l l i t toward the end of the s t o r y .
From time to tim e, i t is apparent t h a t P ie r r e w ill
e x p l o i t an id e a , not so much fo r i t s in h e r e n t i n t e r e s t ,
but simply because i t a ffo rd s him some i n t e r e s t i n g p o s s i
b i l i t i e s in prosody. One of the more curious of these is
presumably suggested by the n o tio n in the L a tin , t h a t , in
goodness and h u m ilit y , P l a c i d a s ' wife resembled him,
" . . . sed similem moribua m a r iti s e n t e n t i a e . " But in
t r a n s l a t i n g t h i s i d e a , P ie r r e does, perhpps, try the
p a tie n c e of his re a d er:
Placldan son selg n o r sembla.
Li uns b ie n ( s ) a l ' a u t r e asembla;
Quar c i l qui touz le s biens assemble
Les v o lt s i assem bler ensenble
Por 90 que 11 s ' e n t r e s e n b l o i e n t . (101-105)
With t h i s pro so d ic e x e r c i s e , P i e r r e may have been try in g
to show o ff a technique he had learned as a f le d g lin g
v e r s i f i e r . Or one might su g g est th a t t h i s passage re p re
s e n ts a p la y f u l o r i g i n a l i t y on the p o e t 's p a r t ; however,
i t i s th a n k fu lly e v id en t t h a t P i e r r e seldom e x h i b i t s h is
in v e n tiv e n e s s in t h i s manner.
While the passage r e l a t i n g to the hunt i s not quite
as developed in t h i s v e rsio n as i t was in Version III,®
p re v io u sly d is c u s s e d , i t i s c e r t a i n l y more developed than
60
in the L a t i n , which s t a t e s simply th a t one day P la c id a s
want h u n tin g , as he was accustomed to do: "Exeunte eo una
d ie consueto more ad montes v e n a r i . " Considering th a t
hunting was the p r in c e ly passtim e of the Middle Ages, one
should not be too s u r p r i s e d to find t h i s episode magnified
in the Old French t e x t s . P ie rr e w r i t e s :
Molt par a v o it P la c id a s chier
L 'a l e r en h o ls e t le c h a c le r:
Tant l ' a m o i t , j a n 'e n f u s t l a s s e z .
Muetes de chiens av o it a sse z,
A grant p len te de chaceSrs,
De c h e v a l i e r s , de veneSrs.
Avint un j o r q u 'en bois ala
Com 11 s o u l e i t . . . (129-136)
By his use of vocabulary, P ie r r e e x h i b i t s at l e a s t a
passin g knowledge of h u nting procedures. He continues his
account of the hunt with a most v i s u a l p ic tu r e of the
i n i t i a l c o n fro n ta tio n between the hu n ters and the hunted:
. . .quant 11 fu l a
Et i l out sa gent e s t a b l i e ,
I I tro u v a , ne demoura mie,
Une grant compaigne de c e rs. (136-139)
Cers commencierent a destendre
Si t o s t con 11 v in r e n t de p re s ,
Et chien et veneSr a p re s,
Qui mielz m (u )ielz a un b r u i t sanz
f a in d r e . (144-147)
The Latin d e s c r ib e s the one o u tstan d in g s ta g as
fo llo w s: ". . . a p p a ru lt unus cervorum vastus u l t r a men-
suram t o t l u s g reg is et speciosus . • ." P ie rre makes
l i t t l e of t h i s , t r a n s l a t i n g l i t e r a l l y : "Li cers qui plus
beaus e r t et g ra in d re " (148). I t is i n t e r e s t i n g , at t h i s
61
p o i n t , to compare P i e r r e ' s l a c k l u s t e r t r a n s l a t i o n with the
more em bellished p o r t r a i t by the author of Version III:*®
E s t o i t un c e r f o mout gent c o r s ,
Gros o t le col et lone le c o r s ,
Cras et ro o n t, p la in s e t lu is s a n z
Et plus des au tres auques granz.
De c o r s , de membres, de fachon
He s a i f a i r e compereson.
Omques ne fu par nule gent
VeQ s i c r a s , s i b e l , se gent. (157-164)
One is tempted to s p e c u la te t h a t the author of Version 111
viewed the e n t i r e hunt scene as being a more e n t e r t a i n i n g
d ig r e s s io n than did P i e r r e . Moreover, while P i e r r e does,
from time to tim e, indulge in d e t a i l e d p o r t r a i t s and
d e s c r i p t i o n , i t i s apparent th a t he was not so e a s i l y prone
to e x p l o i t h is m a t e r i a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f i t d id not d i r e c t
ly enhance h is d i d a c t i c message. This d i d a c t i c purpose is
e s p e c i a l l y evident in P i e r r e ' s account of the p u r s u i t of
the s t a g , for he s t r e s s e s again and again the r o l e of
Providence in the a c t i o n . For example, while some of the
members of the hunting party t r y to keep up w ith P la c id a s :
Tant ch aceren t q u ' i l r e c r e l r e n t
Els melmes et lo r chevaus. (154-155)
by some d iv in e h e l p , Placidas i s able to keep up the pace:
Sanz l u i ne son cheval l a s s e r ,
Sanz d e s t o u r b l e r , sanz mespasser,
Et v in t en p res le c erf t e n d a n t ,
Si com Dex v o l t vers un pendant . * . (157-160)
F in a lly th e p u r s u it reaches an impasse due to topography:
62
I l e c e s t o i t une f a l l s e
Ou 11 a v o it un g ra n t r o c h ie r
M erveilles haut comme un c l o c h i e r .
La monta 11 cers de rav in e. (162-165)
P i e r r e ' s p r e t t y s im ile of th e b e ll tower could only serve
to h e ig h ten the im pression of the h u n t e r ' s f r u s t r a t i o n ,
but Providence again works wonders:
Mes la g ra n t puissan ce d iv in e
Qui en sa main to u t cest mont ha
Le f i s t e t vout q u ' i l 1 monta;
Autrement n ' l f u s t pas montez. (166-169)
iJo d e f i n i t i o n of d iv in e i n t e r v e n t i o n could be more sim ple
or s tr a i g h t f o r w a r d . In g e n e r a l, one must concede t h a t
P ie r r e has not invented the r o le of P ro v id e n c e , for i t i s
c e r t a i n l y p re s e n t in h is model. However, w hile Providence
is apparent in the L a t i n , i t i s more of a d iv in e presence
and plays a com paratively p a ss iv e p a r t . P i e r r e seems to
have converted t h i s presence in to a more dynamic, in v o lv e d ,
and d i r e c t mover of the a c t i o n .
At t h i s point in the p u r s u i t , P l a c i d a s , "toz esperduz
sour son c h e v a l," and th e s t a g are almost fa c e to f a c e .
Following a su g g estio n in the L atin , "Sed t o t i u s s a p l e n t i a e
e t m is e ric o rd ia e Deux, qui cunctas v la s ad s a l u t e s hominum
p r o v i d e t ," P ie r r e counsels h i s audience to remark how God
works wonders to save men:
Or oiez con cortolsem ent
Dex met le suen a sauvement,
Et com b el s e t c e l u i a t r e r e
Qui 11 almme por son blen f a i r e .
63
kemlrer i c i bl«n se dolvent
C il qui le grant pechie deq o iv en t;
Que n o s tr a S ir e s na v e l t ale
La aor de l'omae aes la v i a , (175-182)
Tha l a s t lin e of th is passage i s I n t e r e s t i n g in th a t i t
i l l u s t r a t e s what appears to be an id e a dear to P i e r r e :
the c o n tr a s t of the a b s t r a c t n o tio n s of " l i f e " and "death"
in a s in g le lin e of v e r s e . He uses t h i s c o n t r a s t o fte n
throughout th is v e r s io n : f o r e x aa p la , "Mors a s t o i e s , or
as en v ie" (407); and l a t e r , "En aon p o e ir e s t s o r t e t
v ie" (435). One n ig h t s p e c u la te t h a t t h i s s o r t of verse
p e r i o d i c a l l y f u l f i l l e d a need of prosody, as "vie" is
e a s i l y rhyaed. However, the id ea of l i f e and death i s one
t h a t s u i t s very w ell the th eaes of co n version, n a rty rd o n ,
and f i n a l s a l v a t i o n which aake up the te x tu r e of t h i s
s t o r y ; i f P ie rr e uses i t perhaps too o f te n , one can,
n e v e r t h e l e s s , acknowledge i t s p e r tin e n c e .
In g e n e r a l, i t i s easy t o see t h a t P ie r r e r e s p e c ts
h is L a tin ao d el, for follow ing the L atin he nakes a B lb i-
c al referen ce (Acts x) to C o r n e liu s , the devout c e n tu r io n :
C il qui sauva Cornelion
Li to r n a a s a l v a t i o n , (191-192)
I t i s at t h i s p o in t th a t the d iv in e a p p a r itio n takes p la c e .
The L a tin s t a t e s :
Diu vero s ta n c e P l a c i d a , e t a s p ic ie n te
serv u a, et a d a l r a n t e v a s t i t a t e a e j u s , e t
d e f i c l e n t e c i r c a c a p tio n e a , d e a o n s tr a t
i l l i Deus i n d i c i u a t a l a , quod non t i -
a e r a t , neque supra suae v l r t u t i a a s s e t
64
a a g n itu d in e a : sed s l c u t sub B a l la a a ,
trib u a n a aalnaa verbun, a r g u it ejua
i n s i p l a n t l a n , s i c at hulc d e a o n s tr a v lt
i a t a r cornua c erv l fo raaa s ac ra a Crucis
su p ra c l a r l t a t a a s o i l s s p le n d e n te a , a t
in aed io cornuua ia a g ln a a Doalnl n o s t r l
S a l v a t o r l s Jasu C h r i s t i . Qui a t l a a
huaanaa vocaa iaponens cervo, advocat
P l a c l d a a , dicens e i . . .
P i a r r a has t r a n s l a t e d th is passage vary c l o s e l y . In
f a c t , ha has added l i t t l e i f any e a b a l l l s h a e n t , d e s p ite
the draaa of the ao aen t:
Si coaae P la c id a s s e ( s t ) o i t
Sor sen cheval, e t i l e s t o i t
En t e l pease con vos d e v i a ,
11 to r n a vers le c erf son vis
Qui las us e r t s i f e t e a e n t ;
Si v i t un[e] c ro is soudeaent
E ntre ses so rs a p p a r iss a n t
Coaae s o l e l l r e s p l e n d l s s a n t .
E ntre les cors 1 ' inage s i s t
Da n o a tre Salgnor Jhasu C r i s t ;
C il qui to u t a en son deaaingne
Donna au c e rf reson huaalnne.
M iracles fu grans, e t penser
Devons t u l t por nos aaender,
Quant p a ro le de c e rf e i s i .
Et s i trouvon nos q u 'a u t r e s l
P a r i s 11 asnes v o ire a en t
A Balaan noaaeeaent,
Cui i l r e s p r l s t de sa f o l l e
Dont i l a a u a l s t sa p ro p h e tle .
Le cers P la c ld a a apela
Et Dex e l c erf a l u l p a r la
Et d l s t . . . (193-215)
As i s o fte n apparent in P i e r r e ' s a d a p t a t i o n s , the above
passage i s soaewhat aore d i d a c t i c than the L atin nodel;
one senses a tone of i n s t r u c t i o n in i t , and y e t P ie r r e
has changed very l i t t l e , keeping even the saae s l a i l e s and
B i b l i c a l r e f e r e n c e . I t is an e x c e lle n t exaaple of a cc u ra te
65
and g ra c e fu l t r a n s l a t i o n from ona language i n t o an o th er.
In tha next s e c t i o n , C h ris t speaks through tha s t a g .
God has n o tic e d P l a c i d a s ' goodness and He t e l l s P ls c ld a s
how He has coae to e a r th under t h i s form in o rd er to save
him from "ces faus ydras , . . Qui sunt sans sens e t mut
e t v ain , . . . " P la c id a s i s overwhelmed by the v is io n
and he f a l l s o ff h is h o rs e . When he r e v iv e s , he asks for
c l a r i f i c a t i o n i n order th a t ". . . Je cro le benlgnement /
En to l e t en ce qua t ' o i d i r e . " Through the b e a s t , God
then begins a l i t a n y - l i k e r e c i t a t i o n of sen te n c es be
ginning with " j e su l qui . . ," i I am He Who made heaven
and e a r t h , day and n i g h t , sun and s t a r s and moon. 1 am
He Who made time i n t o days snd years . . . Who made man
of e a r t h , Who came to e a r th to save mankind, Who was
c r u c i f i e d , e t c . Probably because of the f a c t t h a t t h i s
whole r e c i t a t i o n is B i b l i c a l in s o u r c e , P i e r r e has t r a n s
la te d i t almost word for word from the L a tin . In f a c t , i t
i s not u n t i l the end of the " je s u i qui" passage th a t
P i e r r e m odifies s l i g h t l y h is L a tin model: he adds a few
l i n e s r e l a t i v e to C h r i s t ' s descent i n t o h e l l :
. . . puis v i s i t a l
E nfer, dont mes amis g e t a i
Qui devant m 'in c a r n a tio n
A lolent a p e r d i t i o n . (275— 278)
According to F i s h e r , t h i s a d d i t i o n a l passage may have been
suggested to P i e r r e by the B i b l i c a l p a ssa g e, "By which he
66
went and preached unto the s p i r i t s in priso n " (1 P e te r
i l l . 19), However, C h r i s t ' s descent being a p a r t of dogma,
i t is not unreasonable to assume th a t P ie r r e was simply
tr y i n g to be as complete as p o s s i b l e , a tendency not at
a l l a l i e n to th is w r i t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y since he was w r i t i n g
under the patronage and, one might add, the s c r u t i n y , of
-Bishop P h i l i p .
In t h i s s e c t i o n , the dialogue between God and P l a c i
das c o n tin u e s, and P i e r r e proves h im self once again to be
an acc u ra te t r a n s l a t o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y in those passages of
d i r e c t d is c o u r se . The follow ing p a r a l l e l e x c e r p ts , where
God i n s t r u c t s P la c id a s to inform h is family of these
e v e n ts , w i l l serve to i l l u s t r a t e how c lo se ly P ie rr e follows
the su g g e s tio n s of h is model in t h i s s e c tio n of the s to ry :
"Renuntia i l l i s , e t "He te t a r g i e r , amis, du d i r e ,
a c c ip le n te s slgnum Mes nonce le u r e t fe i entendre
b ap tism l mundamini a Q u ' l l recoive [nt] sanz plus
p o l l u t i o n s idolorum, aten d re
e t veni hue e t rursus Signs de baptesme avec t o i .
apparebo t i b i e t de- Puls vlen a r l e r e ci a moi.
monstrabo t i b i f u t u r a , Derechief a toi m 'a p a r [ r ] a l ,
e t patefaciam t i b i Clerement te demosterai
s a l u t i s m y s te r ia ," Tout qo qui t ' i e r t a devenir
Et comment tu devras t e n l r
Les voies de ton sauvement."
(298-307)
The family re c eiv e s baptism c l a n d e s tin e ly from the
bishop of the C h r i s t i a n s . In the L a t i n , h is name is given
when he asks th e newly converted family to remember " a n i-
mae meae Joannls" once they are in heaven. P i e r r e , how-
e v e r, e l im in a te s t h i s d e t a i l .
P l a c i d a s , now E ustace, goes back to the s i t e of the
v is io n as he was I n s t r u c t e d to do and co n fro n ts the s ta g
once again. This time he i s t o ld th a t he has a choice
between postponing h is s u f f e r in g to a l a t e r time or e ls e
s u f f e r i n g many tem ptations now and enjoying s a l v a t i o n in
the f u t u r e . The new convert e l e c t s to s u f f e r now and is
warned by God:
"De t o i f e r a l un a u tr e Job,
Por endurer te m p ta tio n s. (444-445)
The family does not have to w ait long: f i r s t of a l l , the
members of t h e i r household d ie ; then, a l l t h e i r l i v e s to c k
p e r i s h ; "Tot p e r d i r e n t , b e ste s e t homes, / Fors le u r deux
en fa n z, 90 trouvomes" (483-484), In s p i t e of the d esp era
ten ess of the s i t u a t i o n , P ie r r e t y p i c a l l y reminds h is read
e rs :
Por 90 ne se d e s c o n f o r t e r e n t,
Comme c i l qui en Deu f o r t e r e n t ,
Quar de t e l pSeur e s t sa force
Que le s suens en toz biens e f f o r c e . (485-488)
When the family i s out of t h e i r house, th ie v e s e n te r
and take e v e r y th in g : "Et dras e t av o ir en p o r t e r e n t " (494)
The L atin s t a t e s t h a t the robbers took "aurum et argentum
e t v e s t e s . " Upon t h e i r r e t u r n , Eustace and h is wife and
sons see t h e i r p o ssessions completely reduced: "A n een t
l o r ric h e c e v i n t " (503), for ev ery th in g is s t o l e n "Fors
le s p l e r r e s e t le mesrlen" (502). At t h i s p o i n t , P i e r r e ,
68
fch« te a c h e r , la c tu ra a his raad crs by aaans of a s h o r t and
c o a p la ta ly o r i g i n a l passag e, in which he also e x e r c is e s
a a l l d play on the words in Old French aeaning "lo v e" and
" b i t t e r ( n e s s ) " i 11
Mea de Oeu t o s j o r s le u r s o u v l n t ,
£n cul amor n 'a point d ' a a e r ,
Por 90 le f e t molt boen amer,
Kar s'amor e s t sanz amertune. (504-507)
In g e n e r a l, t h i s s h o r t passage s e r v e s as a good i l l u s t r a
tio n of the aanner i n which P ie r r e em bellishes h i s t e x t .
Always the I n s t r u c t o r , he o ften m a n ife s ts h is o r i g i n a l i t y
and adds to the t e x t by t h i s very kind of d i d a c t i c v e rs e .
Thus, in th e s e b r i e f and p ith y p a s s a g e s , one i s more apt
to see P i e r r e aake a conscious e f f o r t to e x p l o i t h is s k i l l
and technique as p o e t - v e r s l f l e r and to expand h i s ro le as
t r a n s l a t o r .
The d e s t i t u t e family remains in h id in g "en l a con-
t r e e . " Meanwhile, the emperor h o s ts a g r e a t f e a s t to
c a l e b r a t e h is recent m i l i t a r y v i c t o r y over "Cels de P e rs e ,
see a n eals" (516). lie i s b ew ild ered and anxious ("Corociez
an fu e t dolenz") about E u s ta c e 's absence and sends sons
of h is aen to fetch h l a . P ie r r e ag ain s t r e s s e s t h a t
T rajan n ls s e s E u sta ce , "kar a o l t l ' a a o l t de g ra n t amor"
(525). The s e a rc h , however, is u n s u c c e s s f u l.
On the s u g g es tio n of the w if e , " S i r e , por Deu, alom
de c i " (535), the f a a i l y s e t s o ff towards Eygpt. As in
69
a l l the v ersio n s they come upon a passage boat whose
c a p t a i n , "Qui feux e s t o i t et p a u to n n ie r s ” (564), demands
the w ife in l i e u of payment when he f in d s th a t Eustace is
p e n n ile s s . The whole episode of the s e p a r a t i o n of Eustace
and T heospite is r e l a t i v e l y b r i e f in the L a tin :
I n g r e s s i ergo navlgabant, et vldens
domlnus n av is Uxorem E u s t a t h i l , quod
e s s e t decora f a c i e , valde c o n cu p lv lt
earn. Et cum t r a n s f r e t a s s e n t mare,
exigebat ab e i s naulum. Non h a b e n t i -
bus autem i l l i s , unde re d d e re n t, re-
t i n u i t Uxorem e ju s , tamquam pro n aulo,
hoc enlm consilium c o ep e ra t, cum prlmum
1 1 1 am contemplatus e s s e t et n o l u i t earn
reddere. Cum vero multum c o n tr a
n o v e re t et o b n l t e r e t u r E u sta th iu s
i n n u i t dominus navis n autls s u i s , ut in
medium mare iliu m p r o j l c e r e n t .
P i e r r e , however, has sensed the Inherent drama and pathos
of t h i s sce n e , and composes what i s , e s s e n t i a l l y , an en
t i r e l y new treatm ent of i t . To begin w i t h , he enhances
the p o r t r a i t of T h eo sp ite:
Si s i r e s qui l a nef garda
La dame v lt e t e sg ard a.
Molt par 11 p lo u t en son courage,
Car de cors e r t et de visage
Plesanz et b e l e durement. (549-554)
Likew ise, P i e r r e augments the L a t i n 's very b r i e f d e s c r ip
tio n of the s h ip at s e a :
11 conmands hastiv em en t
La nef del p o r t en e s lo g n l e r ;
Et i l s i f i r e n t sanz t a r g l e r .
En mer s ' em paingnent: bon vent o re n t
Et c i l de l a mer ass e z so ren t.
A s l g l i e r i t a n t e s t r i v e r e n t
70
Qu'a p o rt d ' a u t r e p a rt a r l v e r e n t
Si comme Dax la conmanda. (554-561)
The drama, which in the L a tin i s r e l a t e d in a b r i e f and
almost j o u r n a l i s t i c fa s h io n , a cq u ires in the Old French a
more Immediate e f f e c t . I t unfolds with the c o n fro n ta tio n
between the c ap tain and the u n fo rtu n a te Eustace:
EQstace[s] n ' o t qua p a i e r .
Forment se p r i s t a esm aier.
Dementer rle n s ne l i v a l u t ,
Au n o to n n ie r p o in t n 'e n chalut
Qui l a dame v o l o i t a v o ir,
11 n 'e n p r e f s t n u l a u tre a v o ir ,
E i n s in t l ' a v o i t a son oes p r is
Sa beautez dont 11 e r t e s p r i s .
EQstace[s] n 'o t que doner,
Molt le p r i s t a aqu elso n n er.
Feux e r t et p la in s de c r u e l t S ,
De hommes, de genz out grant p le n t€ .
I I conmanda q u 'en le p r e l s t ,
S i l b o u ta s t on hors e t m e ls t. (565-578)
Not only does the author r e in f o r c e the u n fe e lin g v i l l a i n y
of the c a p ta in : "Feux e r t e t p la in s de c r u e l t S , " but he
also shows th a t E ustace, d e s p ite h is p l e a s , is g r e a tly
outnumbered, and thus unable to s t r u g g l e a g ain st h is f a t e .
The emphasis on t h i s kind of d e t a i l i n d i c a t e s th a t P ie r r e
was more than j u s t vaguely m otivated to render the whole
scene more r e a l i s t i c , more immediate, and th u s , fo r the
b e n e f it of h is s t o r y , more c r e d i b l e . The above p assage,
then, i s very o r i g i n a l on P i e r r e ' s p a r t , having only been
vaguely suggested in the L a tin . Likew ise, the t r a n s l a t o r ,
in a s i m i l a r b u r s t of I n v e n tio n , c r e a te s a most p l a i n t i v e
scene in which T heo sp ite, se e in g h e r s e l f faced with the
71
1oss of her e n t i r e fa m ily , d e s p e ra te ly w alls her f a t e :
La dame fu molt e s m a rr ie ,
Done s ' e s c r l a , " S a ln te Marie,
Ne soufrex que perde m 'ennor,
Ne mes e ffa n z ne mon s e l g n o r . " (579-582)
Indeed, t h i s i s one of the numerous In s ta n c e s in which
P ie r r e has composed a d d i t i o n a l d ia lo g u e , and i t does
su g g est th a t he did take measures to improve upon h is
model. In f a c t , t h i s whole scene seems to I n d i c a t e th a t
P i e r r e , d e s p i t e his acknowledged ro le as t r a n s l a t o r , did
conceive of h is m e tie r as being a c r e a t i v e one, and not
merely as a mechanical s o r t of t r a n s c r i p t i o n of words from
one language i n t o a n o th er.
This scene i s lengthened f u r t h e r with the^ account of
the f i r s t s e p a r a tio n which d iv id e s the fa m ily , and in th is
passage, P i e r r e gives evidence of g re a t s e n s i t i v i t y to the
trauma of s e p a r a tio n of i n f a n t s and mother. He shows the
u t t e r h e lp le s s n e s s of the woman a g a in s t her cap to rs by
means of a p r o v e rb 12 which begins the passage: "Et la
force 8 1 p a i s t le pre . , ." This v e rs e might be t r a n s
la te d as "Might grazes the meadow" — in o th e r words, she
never had a chance given the h o s t i l e show of s t r e n g t h which
surrounded h e r :
Et l a force s i p a i s t le p re ,
N 'ot vers e l s nul deffendem ent.
Hors le b o u te re n t esram ent,
Avec l u i ses deus effan$ons.
Criz e t p lo rs e s t o l t lo r chansons;
A l e u r p e t i t sens bien sav o ie n t
Que l e u r mere perdue a v o ie n t. (584-590)
72
The drama and force of t h i s scene are un d erlin ed by the
f a c t th a t P i e r r e has dwelled on the emotions of the
s t r i c k e n woman; t h i s emphasis i s nowhere to be found in
the L atin model:
Ele se p r i s t a dementer
De go q u ' e l e v i t hors g e te r
Ses effangons e t son s e ig n o r .
Onques mes n ' o t nul doel g re ig n o r.
En l a mer se v o lt tr e b u c h i e r .
C il l ' a c o u r u r e n t r e d r e c i e r .
Done commenga a d e t i r e r
Chevels, e t dras a d e s c i r e r ,
Por poi l i c u l e ] r s ne l i p a r t o i t ,
De go q u ' e i n s i n t se d e p a r t o i t
Ses boens s i r e s qui t a n t l'am a. (591-601)
At t h i s p o i n t , P ie r r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y Invokes
Providence and i t s r o le in the s t o r y . In so doing, he
also breaks the suspense re g ard in g T h e o s p lte 's ev en tu al
f a te by r e l a t i n g t h a t her prayer to save her honor would
indeed by heeded:
Damledeu del cuer reclama,
Que del t y r a n t l a d e f f e n d is t
Et q u 'a son s e ig n o r la r e n d i s t
Sauf son cors e t sauve sa f o i .
Et Dex en p r i s t i t e l conroi
Que c i l n ' a u t r e s ne l a toucha
Ne por p e c h ie r ne l'a p r o c h a . (602-608)
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note th a t t h i s p o i n t , regarding
T h e o s p ite 's f u t u r e , i s not c l a r i f i e d in the L atin u n t i l
much l a t e r in the s t o r y , when, years a f te r w a r d s , the re
p a t r i a t e d Eustace i s on a m i l i t a r y campaign in a land
"ubi e r a t Uxor e j u s , quae, s i c u t diximus, Deo p ro te g e n te ,
ab a lie n ig e n a e l l l i u s ty ra n n ld e p r a e s e r v a ta f u e r a t . . .
73
P i e r r e records a change of h e a r t in the c r u e l sea-
c a p t a i n , fo r he w r i t e s :
A l a dame ot grant a m is tii
Sanz fere nule mauvestie
Li n o to n n ie rs to te sa v ie . (609-611)
By the a d d itio n of these various d e t a i l s , P i e r r e is
a p p a re n tly a tte m p tin g to t e l l h is audience as much as
p o s s i b l e about Theospite and about her e v e n tu a l f a t e , so
th a t he can get on to the t r i a l s and o rd e a ls of Eustace.
This n o tio n i s underscored by the f a c t th a t the author
ends t h i s s e c t i o n with the s u cc in c t resume: "Oi avez con
fu rav le . . ." (612) .
I t i s th e n , in the midst of th ese s c e n e s - - l n d e e d ,
they are among the most o r i g i n a l of the s t o r y - - t h a t P ie r r e
i n s e r t s a most curious defense of the accuracy of h is
t r a n s l a t i o n :
Or vos e i r t d i t soulonc l a l e t r e ,
Sanz r ie n s os te r ne sanz r ie n s m e ( s ) t r e . . .
(613-614)
Almost im m ediately, the author launches i n to an account
of E u s ta c e 's p e r i l s , beginning with a long and completely
o r i g i n a l lam ent, again an in s ta n c e of in v e n te d dialogue:
" A las," d i s t i l , " t a n t e s t moulue
En d uel ma J o i e , quant n ' a i mle
Avec mol de ma bone amle
Qul m 'e s t o i t assoagemenz,
Solaz et reconfortemenz.
Bone dame, l e a l compaingne,
A bon d r o i t a moi s'acompalgne
Doleurs qul me f a i t compaignie;
Avoir en doi bien ma p a r t i e .
74
Bien s a l que Crop en a grant p a r t
Voetre cuera qui ne se d ep art
De l o e a u t i , alns s ' i t i e n f o r t .
Or n ' a l ge, l a s t qui ma c o n fo rt,
Fore mea enfans qui me c o n f o r te n t.
Me8 p e t i t de c o n fo rt ae p o r t e n t ,
Quer l o r sens ne le s e t p o r t e r ;
Si les ae convient c o n f o r t e r ,
Por $o les acol e t e n b r a z ." (620-637)
This lament was probably su ggested by a s h o rt sentence
u t t e r e d by Eustace in the L a t i n , i n which he exhorte h is
two sons, "Vae mihi e t v o b is , q u ia Mater v e s tr a t r a d i t a
e s t a lie n ig e n a e m a rito ." The l a t t e r u tte ra n c e i s , how
e v e r , an almost i n s e n s i t i v e r e a c t i o n to the tragedy t h a t
has j u s t o ccu rred , and but for the f a c t t h a t i t i s en
closed in q u o ta tio n narks in the L a tin , i t b a re ly escapes
the q u a lity and tone of a t h i r d - p e r s o n documentation.
In g iv in g t h i s whole s e c t i o n more dram atic s t r e n g t h ,
in w r i t i n g t e a r f u l laments for h i s p r i n c i p a l s , P ie r r e has
g r e a t l y modified— and improved upon— the account of th is
f i r s t s e p a r a tio n of family! i t i s no longer a s t a l e Church
document about Ju st another l i t u r g i c a l s a i n t ; i t is a
human saga of romanesque v i c e , v io l e n c e , and emotion; i t
r e l a t e s a c r i t i c a l moment in an e x c i t i n g s t o r y , a moment
to be lengthened, an episode to be e x p l o i t e d , a c r i s i s to
be s k i l l f u l l y n a r r a te d .
As Eustace and h is sons continue t h e i r sorrow ful
jo u rn e y , they are co nfronted with a " r i v i e r e c o u ra n t."
The l o g i s t i c s of g e t t i n g across pose a problem fo r E u sta ce ,
75
for "redde v i t l ' e g u e et g r a n t , / SI le redouta durement"
(644-645). E u stace, t h e r e f o r e , leav es one son on the bank
and c a r r i e s the o th e r a c r o s s , where he leav es him "SiXnt
de j o s t e l a r i v i e r e . " As the f a t h e r r e tu r n s to get the
f i r s t boy, he i s stopped by a t e r r i b l e s i g h t : a l i o n ,
appearing from out of the woods, has c a r r i e d o ff the son
whom E ustace had J u s t d ep o sited on the o th e r side of the
r i v e r . With t h i s new tra g e d y , P i e r r e composes another
wall o f g r i e f for the overwhelmed f a t h e r :
"Que devendral?" d l s t 11, " c h a i t i s .
Or al je d r o i t se m 'a a t i s
Au plus do lereu s de c e s t mont,
Quer p o r p r is et a c o l l i m'ont
Totes d o u leu rs; l a s ! que f e ra l?
Vers c e tu l (a r e t o r n e r a i
A c e s tu i qui remes m 'e s t 9 a." (659-665)
E u s ta c e 's attem pt to reach h is only s u rv iv in g son i s cut
sh o rt when a wolf appears and c a r r i e s off the l a s t family
member; th e s e p a r a t i o n of family i s complete. The Latin
s t a t e s :
Et cum e s s e t in medio f lu m ln ls ,
co ep it e v e l l e r e c a p i l l o s c a p i t i s
s u i , plangens et u l u l a n s , v o lu lt
se p r o j i c e r e in aquam . . .
P ie r r e w r i t e s :
Adonc par ot un d oel s i grant
Qu'a poi l i cuers ne 11 fe n d i.
A p l o r e r H o c s 'e n t e n d l .
Son duel reconmen9 a a f a i r e ,
Poinz de t o r d r e , chevex a t r a l r e , (668-672)
As i f to balance E u s ta c e 's lament u t t e r e d a f t e r th e loss
76
of the f i r s t son, P ie r r e composes a n o th e r , and ag ain , thia
has no p recedent i n the L a t i n :
"He Dex," d is t 11, "or i a f o r t ,
Quer or n ' a i ge q u i me confort
Me l i u ( e ) ne t r u i s ou j e remaingne,
Me n ' a i amis qui me complaigne;
Touz b len [s] me f a u t et m'amenuise,
le ne voi rien q ui ne me n u ls e .
Molt par me doi ore h a i r , " (673-679)
The L a t i n s t a t e s , t h a t by " p r o v id e n tia Dei," E ustace
did not drown h im se lf in u ltim a te d e s p a i r . Other Old
French v e rs io n s have s t a t e d simply th a t God did not con
s e n t ^ to E u s t a c e 's s u i c i d e . P i e r r e , however, t y p i c a l l y
giving Providence a more a c t i v e r o l e , has taken th is d iv in e
I n te r v e n tio n even more l i t e r a l l y , and he invents an a d d i
t i o n a l a p p a r i t i o n :
E l gue se volt l e s s l e r c h a i r .
Par maintes fols s ' i p o r o f f r i .
Mes Dex n e l v o u t, ne ne s o f f r l ,
Qui son angle l i envois
De par l u l l i d i s t et p r i a ,
"EQ stace, ne te r e c r o l r e
De Deu amer ne de l u i c r o l r e .
Me te met en d e se sp era n c e.
Encor s e r a s en g r a n t p u is s a n c e ." (680-688)
At t h i s p o i n t , a l l the v e r s i o n s , in c lu d in g P i e r r e ' s ,
ex p lain and a f f ir m , th a t, unknown to E ustace, the sons
were rescued by shepherds and taken to a nearby town, where
they were "mis a n o r r ig o n ."
The L a t i n then has a long lament by Eustace in which
he reviews h i s l i f e of p le n ty now reduced to d e s t i t u t i o n by
the loss of w ealth and fa m ily . He r e c a l l s J o b 's l i f e of
77
t r i a l s and, conparlng I t with h is own, he sees h im se lf
even more abandoned. He begs God to help him c o n t r o l h is
g r i e f , l e s t by word or deed, he give in to d e s p a i r . The
la m e n tatio n ends as follows in the L atin :
"Pone, Domine, custodlam o r i meo
e t ostium m unitlonls c i r c a la b i a
mea ut non d e c l l n e t cor meum in
verba m a l l t i a e , e t e j l c l a r a fa c ie
t u a . "
P i e r r e has t r a n s l a t e d t h i s lengthy lament r a t h e r c l o s e l y ,
although he has sh ortened i t somewhat, no doubt because
of the p rev io u s dialogue which he had c re a te d for E ustace:
"L as!" d i s t i l , " s i s u l esnuBz
Des grans b ien s ou j a d i s manoie
Et des gens qu'avec moi tenole
Or su i toz seus; mes tu beau[s] S i r e ,
Ne me g u e r p i r , ne me d e s p lr e ,
E in si comme tu me f e l s .
Blen me menbre que me d e l s .
S i r e , que ta n t me tem pteroies
Qu'un a u tr e Job de moi fe ro ie s
Mes molt puls plus en mol v o e ir ;
Job out le femir ou so'elr
Li l l e s o l t , mes 50 n ' a i je m le,
Elnz moi e s t t o t r i e n [ s ] enemie
Nis les b e s te s qui devorez
Ont mes fu iz dont s u i e s p io r e z ,
En p l t l i , P ere, me re g a r d e ,
A ma boche mat bone garde
Que r ie n ne die ne ne face
Dont a v o e ir perde ta fa c e ." (712-730)
E ustace makes h is way to a nearby town, "Dadlssus
where, as th e s to r y r e l a t e s , he worked and so endeared
h im se lf t o the populace th a t "De l e u r bl$ le f i r e n t
m essier" (740). The sto ry a lso informs one t h a t , i n a
nearby r e g io n , the sons were dom iciled, though "Li uns
78
n ' e r t l ' a u t r e co nnoiisanz / N'EQstaces ne s a v o it mie /
Que 11 fu sse n t remis en v ie " (746-748). In a l l the v e r
s i o n s . t h e r e la mentioned a t t h i s p o in t t h a t a period of
f i f t e e n years passed , during which each member of the
family remained i s o l a t e d ; Zheospite in the land where she
had been taken by the s e a - c a p t a i n , the sons in the town of
the shepherds who had recovered th e y and Eustace in
D a d iss u s .
The emperor, meanwhile, has been p u rsuing h is m i l i t a r y
campaigns, and. presumably fo r lack of good le a d e r s h ip
among h is ran k s, he w i s t f u l l y r e c a l l s P l a c i d a s . "Qul s i
b le n l i g a rd o lt sa t e r r e ” (755). Not knowing i f P la c id a s
be dead or a l i v e , the emperor sends two kn ig h ts to search
the empire for him. A ll the v e rs io n s record t h e i r names:
"Antiochus e t Achacius" in the L a t i n , and "Antiochus"
and "Agathlus" in P i e r r e ' s t e x t . For a very long tim e,
th e Old French s a y s , they search in v a i n , u n t i l "Tant que
por a v e n tu r e ." they come to the town of Dadissus.
E ustace, rec o g n izin g the approaching two men almost
at once, u t t e r s a p ra y e r i n which he r e c a l l s h is l o s t
fam ily. P i e r r e has t r a n s l a t e d t h i s p ra y e r very c l o s e l y .
as can be seen by the fo llo w in g p a r a l l e l passages:
"Domine Deus n o s t e r . qul "Dex." d i s t i l . Roi de p ara
de omni t r i b u l a t i o n e e r u l s d l s .
s p e r a n te s en t e . quemadmo- O tro ie moi par t a merci
dum l s t o s p r a e t e r spam Q u 'au si come j e v o i ces ci
v i d i . qul aliquando mecum Dont je garde ne me donoie
79
f u e r u n t; Jube, ut videan
a n cillam tuan Conjugem
meam; nan In f a n te s mei,
s c i o , quod p ro p te r meam
p ra v ita te m a f e r i s commes-
t l s u n t. Da ergo, Domine
ut v e l in d ie r e s u r r e c -
t i o n i s videam F il io a maos."
Ausi v o i l l e s tu que je vole
Ma compaigne, ma bone amie.
De mes e f f a n z ne dout je mie
Q u 'i l ne s o l e n t ale a fin.
Si te p r i , S i r e , de cuer fin
Que je s f o ie presentement
Au Jor de ton g ran t juge-
ment." (778-788)
God answers t h i s p ra y e r through a heavenly v o ic e , urging
Eustace to keep h is f a i t h :
"C onfide, E u s t a t h i , in
p r a e s e n t l enim tempore
remeabis ad tuum priorem
statu m , et a c c ip ie s Uxo-
rem tuam et F i l i o s . In
r e s u r r e c t i o n e vero majora
horum v id e b i s , et aetern o -
rum bonorum d electationem
r e p e r l e s , e t nomen tuum
m a g n ific a b itu r in genera-
tionem et g e n eratio n em ."
"EQstache, ne te d e s p o ir e ,
Mes t i e n te ferme en fo i toz
t ans ,
Quar tu r e p a r e r a s par tans
A t ' e n o r et r e tr o v e r a s
Ta m o u llie r , et tes fulz
rauras .
A l a g ra n t r e s u r r e c t i o n
Vesras l a d e l e c t a t i o n
Des boens e t des j u s t e f l e z ,
Et t i s nons i e r t magniflez
El s i e c l e pard u rab lem en t."
(792-801)
There follows in the Latin an I n t e r e s t i n g scene of interro*
g a tio n between the three men, i n which the dialo g u e con
s i s t s of sh o rt qu estio n s and answers:
(K nights): "Ave f r a t e r . "
(E u sta c e): "Pax vobiscum, f r a t r e s . "
(K nights): "Die nobis s i n o s t i hie
peregrlnum aliquem , nomine
Placidam, cum Uxore et duo-
bus F i l i i s ? Et s i demon-
s t r a v e r i s nobis eum, damus
t l b l p e c u n ia s ."
( E u s t a c e ) : "Quapropter eum q u a e r i t i s ? "
(K n ig h ts): "Amicus n o s te r f u e r a t , et
volumus eum vide re post
multos annos,"
80
( E u s t a c e ) : "Talem h ie vlrum non
cognovi , , . nan et
ego p e re g rin u s sum,"
In the t r a n s l a t i o n of th is sc e n e , P ie r r e has c ite d only
the i n q u i r i e s of the k n i g h t s , r e l a t i n g E u s ta c e 's r e p l i e s
by t h i r d - p e r s o n n a r r a t i o n . However, E u stace, in denying
knowledge of the whereabouts of P la c id a s , i n v i t e s them to
lodge at h is l o r d ' s h o s t e l :
" I t e l home, mien e s c i e n t ,
Ne conois j e , " d i s t 11, "neent;
I c i demiur, s i g a r t ces b le s ;
Mes por 90 que vos me semblez
Bone gent e t de bon a fe re
S'uim£s vos v e lt l i ostel*[s] p l e r e
I t a l con j e le vos f e r a l ,
Venez, je vos h e r b e g e r e ." (825-832)
This i n v i t a t i o n i s not c i t e d in the L atin ; the L atin te x t
simply s t a t e s that Eustace led them to the lodge.
There follows a very to u ch in g scene in which Eustace
serv es the men wine and nourishm ent, but he is hard put to
held back h is t e a r s :
R e f ic ie n s autem eos E u s ta th iu s ,
non p o t e r a t s u s t i n e r e , recolens
prlorem vitam suam, sed perfunde-
b a t u r l a c r l m i s : p l o r a b a t autem
f o r a s e g r e d ie n s , e t la v a b a t faciem
suam, rursusque i n g r e d l e b a t u r e t
m i n i s t r a b a t e i s .
P ie r r e has t r a n s l a t e d t h i s scene c a r e f u l l y , s t r e s s i n g the
domestic d u t i e s of E u s ta ce , h i s comings and goings, and
his flood of t e a r s , a l l under the s c r u tin y of the k n ig h ts
being s erv ed . I t is one of the most h e a r t - r e n d i n g — and
81
in d eed , one of the most s u c c e s s f u l* - s c e n e s evoked by
P i e r r e :
Et i l l o r donna a p le n te
Vin e t viandes sanz d a n g le r ,
Devant e l s s e r v l au mengier.
A p lo u r e r souvent se p re n o it
Quant des enors 11 souvenoit
Ou j a d i s a v o it denoure;
Et quant l a hors av o it p lo u rS ,
Euz e s s u i e z , face la v e e ,
A l a t a b l e sanz demouree
Devant e l s s e r v l r r e v e n o it;
E l n s i p lo u ra n t se c o n t e n o l t .
Souvent a v a n t , souvent a r l e r e ,
I I e s g a rd e re n t sa m aniere,
L ' a l e r de lu i et le v e n i r ,
Son p e r l e r et son c o n te n ir. (846-860)
In c o n s u ltin g and comparing im p re s sio n s, th e two men
n o tic e a remarkable resemblance; one of them s a y s :
"Quam s i m i l i s e s t i s t e ho
mo i l l i , quern quaerim us!"
The o th e r a g re e s , ob serv in g :
"Valde s i m i l i s e s t i l l i ;
s c i o autem ego, quod habet
signum aliquod c i c a t r l c l s
in c e rv ic e sua ex l c t u
b e l l i . Consideremus ergo:
s i habet signum i n c erv ice
s u a , ip se e s t , qui quae-
r l t u r a n o b is ."
"Andui i p r i s t r e n t garde
ensemble
E strangem ent," d i s t l i u[n] s ,
" semb le
C ist hom Placldam de f a i t u r e ,
De contenance, de s t a t u r e .
Tel v is a v o i t et t e l sem blant,
Toz e r t i t e l s e t de t e l
g r a n t . " (861-866)
. . . " C il que queromes,
Por qul en t e l e palne somes,
Avoit une p l a i e sanz f a i l l e
Sor la temple d'une b a t a i l l e
Ou je f u i , b ien 1 ' a i en
memoire;
Si c i s t l ' a , done poons nos
c r o ir e
Que e ' e s t P la c id a s sanz
d o t e r . " (867-873)
The L a tin s t a t e s very simply t h a t the men observed
82
Eustace c a r e f u l l y , were convinced, then jumped up with
jo y , t e a r f u l l y asking i f they had indeed f i n a l l y found
t h e i r man, to which Eustace r e p l i e d , "Non sum e g o ." P i e r r e
has made more of t h e i r o b s e r v a tio n , however, perhaps in
the i n t e r e s t of c r e d i b i l i t y , fo r the men must contend w ith
E u s ta c e 's p h y s ic a l appearance, th a t i s , h is h a i r , h is
proxim ity to them, e t c . :
A l a ta b le r e v ln t e s t e r
Devant e ls debonerement
Et chascus ententivem ent
De p lu s pres q u ' l l pout l 'e s g a r d a
EQstaces ne s 'e n g a r d a ,
Son c h ie f to r n a t o t en pensant
Si q u 'a u t o r n e r l ' a l a b e s s a n t,
Si chevel s ' e s p a r t i r e n t done
Qul encred e re n t e t lone.
La p l a i e q u 'o re n t devisee
Ont t o t de p la in blen a v is e e ,
Quer des cheves e r t d escouverte;
Lors lo r fu v e r i t e ov erte:
De g ra n t goie r e f e t et p l a i n ,
S a l l i r e n t sus andul a p la in ;
En p lo u ra n t l i p r i s t r e n t a d i r e ,
"Vos e s t e s P l a c i d a s , beau s i r e ,
Qul e s t l e z a Rome m e stre."
Et 11 toz j o r z le n o e it e s t r e . (874-892)
The men, however, are not to be deceived and the Latin
n a r r a t e s th a t they swear th a t th ere i s no m istake:
Demonstrantes vero i l l i signum
in c erv ice e j u s et j u r a n t e s , quod
ip s e e ss e t m a g is te r militum
P l a c i d a s .
P i e r r e has co n verted the above passage to d i r e c t d is c o u r s e .
The r e s u l t of t h i s , of co u rse, is t h a t th e e f f e c t i s more
immmdlate and argum entative:
83
" S i r e , " d i s t r e n t 11, "b la n savons
Qua c 'a a t a s vos, e t vos ravons;
Ne le nos poes a ss n o l e r ,
En malnt l i u a f e t e n v o le r
LI enpereres por vos q u e r r e ;
Quls vos avons en malnta t e r r e .
Or e s t n o s t r e e rre s a c o rc ie s
Et l'em p ere re s (qui) c o ra cle s
E s t o i t por vos e t torm entez,
Et tans j o r s s 'e n e s t dementez,
Et e r t toz en jo ie reten u z
Quant 11 s a u r a que revenus
S e re s ; or ne nos t a r j o n e pas.
Bien savons q u 'e s t e s P l a c i d a s . " (893-906)
E u s ta c e 's tru e i d e n t i t y is f i n a l l y uncovered. In the
L a t i n , i t s t a t e s , "Tunc confessus e s t , quod ip s e a s s e t . "
P i e r r e has v a s tl y improved on t h i s r a t h e r bland n a r r a t i v e
statem en t by having the co n fessio n come from the l i p s of
Eustace h im s e lf. I t i s very s k i l l f u l l y worded, however,
so t h a t E ustace, in adm itting h is i d e n t i t y , also Implies
th a t i t is a "former" i d e n t i t y —>he i s no longer the same
p e r s o n :
. . . "P la c id as f u l ,
Mes EQstaces ore sui
Qui le s Roumelns an pes m etole,
Or s u i a u tr e s que done n ' e s t o l e . " (907-910)
With these four l i n e s , P i e r r e has vary much enhanced the
im portant f i r s t r e c o g n itio n , and, at the same tim e , he
has c a p i t a l i z e d on the two names of his h e ro . One can
d e t e c t , moreover, t h a t , in c o n t r a s t i n g th e pagan and
C h r i s t i a n names of h i s s a i n t , P i e r r e has a lso i l l u s t r a t e d
an im portant d i d a c t i c message: Baptism i s a r e b i r t h ; i t
gives one a "new" l i f e , or, in e ss e n c e , a "new" I d e n t i t y .
84
As Eustace t e l l s the men a l l th a t has happened to him
during the past f i f t e e n y e a r s , the people of the v i l l a g e
marvel and "Conmencierent t u l t a p lo r e r " (927), In the
L a tin , they are moved to exclaim , "Quanta e x a l t a t i o V i r i ,
qui nobis mercede s e r v i v i t ! "
Eustace r e t u r n s with h is two companions to Rome,
where "De j o i e fu l a c i t e p la in e / Et la grant gent e t l a
menu / Furent j o i a n t de sa venue" (940-942). The h e r o 's
homecoming i s tim e ly , for the empire is menaced " e t
d 'e s t r a n g e s genz a s a i l l l e " (960). In order to m aintain
t h e i r lan d , a g e n e r a l c o n s c r ip tio n i s o rd e re d , and the
army's ranks are aw elled by "De chascune v i l e deus homes /
Aldanz d'armes e t de p r is . . ." (968-969). I t so happens
t h a t , among the r e c r u i t s , the two sons of Eustace r e p r e
s en t t h e i r town. The follow ing p a r a l l e l passages w i l l
serve to e x p la in how the sons were brought in to proxim ity
to t h e i r f a t h e r :
C o n tig it autem, e t i l l a m Volrs e s t qu'adonques s i a v in t
te rra m , in qua e d u c a ti sunt Qu'en l a v i l e c i s t conmanz
F i l l i i e j u s , d e s c r i b i , ut v in t
d aren t duos ty ro n e s . Cunc- Ou s i dui f l l e re n t manant,
t l vero i l l i u s v ecl c u lto - Qul j a fu r e n t creQ et grant
res i l l o s duos Ju v en es, Par Deu qmi le s av o it g a r i z .
Qulppe ut p e re g rin o s de- De duel en e s t o i t esm arrlz
c e r n e n te s , tr a d u n t ex pedl- Li peres qul c u id o it l o r m o r t ;
tionem f a c i e n t i b u s . Erant Souvent en e r t en d e s c o n f o r t .
autem grand! s t a t u r a e t Par le commun assentement
decora f a c ie v a ld e . Con- Des homes de cel tenement,
g r e g a t i s vero c u n c ti s ty- Ont l e s deus v aslez esletiz
ronibus e t ad d u ctls coram Por 50 que granz et parcreQz
M agistro m ilitum , qui om- Les v i r e n t e t de b e l e s t a g e ,
nes considerans t a x a v i t in Parana de cors et de visage
numeris, Videns vero i l l o s Armes e t dras l e u r f i r e n t f e r e
85
duos A d u le s c e n te s , quod
e sa e n t super omnes decori
s p e c ie e t s t a t u r e , cons-
t l t u i t eos primos in m ini-
s t e r i o suo, et videns in
e i s g e n ero sita te m norun,
n a t u r a l ! a f f e c t u impelsus
in amorem eorun, j u s s i t
i n t e r convivas mensae
suae eos adnumerari.
Com i l convint a t e l a f e r e .
Avec le s esleUz d'esmurent
Quant assem ble(z) de p a r to u t
f u r e n t :
Beau b a c h e le r fu r e n t e t gent.
Moult i ot g ran t p l e n t i de
g e n t.
Tant e s r e r e n t de j o r en j o r
Qu'a Rome v in d re n t sanz
s e j o r .
Et quant fu r e n t grant et menu
Devant EQstace venu,
D'un seign u[n]a e t uns les
seingna
Si com ses cuers l i enseingna,
Les deus v a sle z v i t molt
paranz
A qul Dex fu de mort garanz,
Si con devant vos dls e l
l i v r e .
Molt sem bloient preu et de -
l i v r e ;
De sem blant, de co rs, de
s t a tu r e
P a ro ie n t de g e n t i l n a tu re .
11 ne s o re n t q u ' i l fusent
f r e r e ,
Ne le s connut, i l n ' i l le u r
pere.
Molt par l i v in t a cuer lo r
es t r e s ,
Seignneurs le s f i s t de to z e t
m e s t r e s .
Andui fu ren t s i connestable;
11 donmanda que de sa ta b le
Et de l ' o s t e l fu s s e n t p r i v i .
(975-1013)
The Old French i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y a c c u r a t e - - a l b e i t ampli
f i e d - - t r a n s l a t ion of the L atin passage. P i e r r e seemingly
f e l t i t necessary to r e f e r more than once (vv. 979-982,
vv. 1002-1003, and vv, 1007-1008) to the young men's
rescue and to the f a c t t h a t n e i t h e r they nor t h e i r fa th e r
had, as y e t , recognized each o th e r . This kind of r e p e t i -
86
ti o n and the obvious d e s i r e for c l a r i t y could be ex p lain ed
p erhaps, by the n o tio n t h a t th is v e rs io n was one which was
d e stin ed to be r e c i t e d aloud before an au dience. Since a
l i s t e n e r could h a rd ly be expected to r e t a i n a l l the tu rn s
and c o m p lex ities of the p l o t in h is mind, P i e r r e , no doubt
used th is technique of r e p e t i t i o n as a reminder to h is
au d ien ce, l e s t they get confused in th e ju g g lin g of
c h a r a c te r s and t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e progess in th e s t o r y .
Eustace le a d s h is men to v ic to ry a g a in s t those "Qul
molt a v o it fe t mal a Rome" (1017). U hile th e L atin s t a t e s
merely t h a t " p r o f e c tu s e s t ad bellum, et terram quidem,
quam a b s t u l e r a n t b a r b a r i , l i b e r a v i t , " P i e r r e ' s v e rs io n
of the v ic to r y i s not so u n d e r s ta te d , conforming, not
s u r p r i s i n g l y , to the many examples of s i m i l a r exaggerated
accounts so o fte n found in the epics of previous c e n tu r ie s
I I n ' i l e s s a p ro ie ne home,
P a r t o t f i s t grant destruc [t ] i o n ,
Ses m ist en sa s u b je c tio n ;
Molt e r t de genz puissanz et fo rz . (1018-1021)
A fte r the v i c t o r y , th e army cro sses " . . . a g ran t
e f f o r z / Une egue . . . / Qui avoit a non Y d a s p i s . " ^
P e n e t r a t i n g i n to t h i s re g io n , they come to a town, where,
as i t happens, T heosplte has been l i v i n g . Eustace o r d e r s
h i s men to s e t up camp fo r th ree days, "Quar l a s e r e n t et
l o r cheval" (1047). The two sons find t h e i r lodging in
th e bouse of t h e i r own mother. Again, P i e r r e reminds h is
87
l i s t e n e r s :
Mes ne sout mie qui e l e r e n t ,
Nes connut n ' i l ne l e co nnurent. (1060-1061)
When they are s e t t l e d , the two youths b e g in to converse:
Si con gent f o n t , de mainte c h o se,
A p a r l e r l t a n t s ' e n te n d l r e n t
Que t o t en p a r l a n t d e s c e n d ir e n t
A l e u r e ffa n ce s r e c o r d e r . (1064-1067)
The younger boy asks the other to recount his l i f e as fa r
back as he can remember. At t h i s p o i n t , th e o ld e r b r o th e r
begins a long speech in which he r e l a t e s how he and his
family l e f t t h e i r home s e c r e t l y one n i g h t , how they came
to a b o a t, how they were s e p a r a te d from t h e i r m other, e t c .
The L a tin v ersio n of t h i s speech i s very s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d ,
and th e youth recounts h is l i f e r a p id ly and c l e a r l y .
P i e r r e , however, has modified th e tone of the speech,
making i t more rambling and le s s c l e a r ; he has, in e f f e c t ,
made th e memories appear more juisbled, as indeed they
would be in the mind of a youth who is t r y i n g to remember
what happened when he was s t i l l an I n f a n t , some f i f t e e n
years p re v io u s . P ie r r e does t h i s not by s h u f f l i n g facts
out of t h e i r ch ro n o lo g ic al o rd e r, but r a t h e r by adding
vario u s phrases in which the boy seems to search h i s own
mind, h e s i t a t e , and i t e r a t e t h a t , at l e a s t , this i s how
i t was, so f a r as he can remember. Thus the b o y 's speech
is punctuated with words and p h ra ses such as the fo llow ing:
88
De Cant ne r e c o r t e t c o u v ien t.
Si com a memolre me v ie n t . . . (1073-1074)
Si con je me recor [t] . . . (1081)
. . . ce m 'e s t vis . . . (1082)
. . . s i con moi semble . . . (1083)
Mes ta n t m 'i s a i je u re c o rd er . . .(1092)
. . . co me r e c o r t . . . ( 1101)
N'en so i puis rie n de l a en ; a . (1127)
While such r e p e t i t i o n i s , p erhaps, tiresome in the context
of a d ia lo g u e , i t does have the r e s u l t of ren d erin g the
speech more tru e -se em in g and l e s s l i k e a f l a t p ro cessio n
of r e c i t e d f a c t s . At the end of the speech, the younger
b r o t h e r exclaim s:
"Per Deum C h ristian o ru m , ". . . se Dex me sequeure
ut audio, f r a t e r tuus sum Et par la fo i que j e l i d o i,
ego!" 11 semble que seions andoi
F r e r e , par 90 que tu me
dis . . . "
A fter t h i s exchange, th e lo n g - l o s t b ro th e rs " E in s in t
p a r l a n t s ' e n t r e b a a c i e r e n t / Et p lo u ro ie n t molt tendrement"
(1138-1139).
Unknown to the two b r o t h e r s , T h e o sp ite , t h e i r mother,
has been w itn ess to t h i s e n t i r e c o n v e rsa tio n . While the
L atin s t a t e s only t h a t she l i s t e n e d to t h e i r words, P ie r r e
adds the follow ing d e t a i l :
En son cuer n o ta n t re v e rsa
Leur f e s , l o r d i z , ou molt pensa. (1133-1154)
89
P ie rr e remarks f u r t h e r , again an a d d itio n to the L a tin :
Quant i l o ren t p a r l e a s s e r t
Xant que midis fu Ja p a s s e s ,
A l ' o s t r a l e r e n t sans demor
Plus e s p r i s que devant d'amor
Et mieus l i e de compalgnie. (1155-1159)
P ie r r e added the above few l i n e s most probably fo r the
sake of re a lism , f o r the L a tin does not say th a t they
retu rn ed to t h e i r tro o p s; i t j u s t leaves them th e r e .
Likewise, the L atin is s h o r t on n a r r a t i o n when i t ex p lain s
th a t Theospite went to q u e stio n the m i l i t a r y le a d e r (Eus
t a c e ) . I t simply s t a t e s t h a t "A lte ra autem die i n t e r -
p e l l a v l t magistrum m ilitum , dicens. . . ." This abrupt
jump in the a ctio n was obviously d i f f i c u l t to d i g e s t and
P ie r r e added the follow ing l in e s to serve as a s o r t of
linkage i n the a c ti o n :
Talant l i p r i s t que l a i r o i t
Et qu'au mestre de l ' o s t d i r o i t
Que par l u i fu s t por Deu menee
A Rome dont e le fu nee.
En cel penser dont e r t e s p r l s e ,
Si comme Dex l i v o l t m lse,
Vint el demein a l ' o s t t o t d r o i t .
Ca et la e t en melnt e n d r o it
Demanda quel p a r t poet e s t r e
Li s i r e s qul de l ' o s t e r t m estre.
l l e c ou i l e r t ase n a ,
Si con Dex v o lt qui l ' l mena.
Dit l i fu que c ' e s t o i t l i s i r e .
Done l i p r i s t em p lo r a n t a d ire . , .
(1175-1188)
In adding these l i n e s , P i e r r e has modified the resum g-llke
tone of the L a tin , so t h a t in the Old French, i t reads
more lik e a l o g i c a l p ro g re ssio n of ev en ts. One could say
90
t h a t th e a u th o r, in supplying such "co n n e c tiv e ti s s u e "
to h is t a l e , was consciously tr y i n g t o render i t more
c r e d i b l e and more s u s p e n s e fu l. Lines such as "Ca e t la
e t en meint e n d r o it" are p a r t i c u l a r l y i n d i c a t i v e of th is
e f f o r t to i n s e r t some re a lism and time s c a le to the n a r r a
t i o n . Without these m o d if ic a tio n s , th e tone of the Old
French v e rs io n would be i d e n t i c a l to th a t of the L a t i n - -
a r a t h e r drab and, a t tim es, a b s t r a c t Church document.
A rriv in g f i n a l l y before the m i l i t a r y l e a d e r , T heospite
a d d re ss e s him as follows:
"Deprecor t e , Domine, " S ir e ," d i s t e l e , "que Dex
ego de t e r r a Romanorum a i t
sum, e t c ap tlv a adducta P i t i e de t o i , s i con t ' a l
hue: perdue me ad patriam f a i t ;
meam," Ales p i t i e de c e s te l a s s e ,
Povre s u i , v o l e n t i e r s r a l a s s e
A Rome, quar de la fui nee.
C h aitiv e fui qa amenie.
Remeine m'en en mon p a l s ,
Por Deu qui e s t poS stefs
De rendre quantqu'en f a i t por
l u i . " (1189-1197)
In the L a t i n , th e re follows a s h o r t n a r r a t i v e sequence
which a p p ris e s one of T h e o s p ite 's r e c o g n itio n of h e r hus
band upon see in g h is s c a r :
£t haec dicen s, c o n s id e ra n s , v i d i t
s i g n a , quae e ra n t i n Marito suo;
e t cognoscens, formldabat eum
i n t e r r o g a r e . Cum vero dlu c o n tin e re
se non p o s s e t , procldens a n te eum,
d lc e b a t . . .
P i e r r e has much improved upon th is scene and once a g ain ,
as d u rin g the v i o l e n t s e p a r a tio n on th e s h ip , he has
91
focused h is c r e a t i v e a t t e n t i o n on the r e a c t i o n s , misgivings
and confusion of the u n f o r tu n a te h e ro in e . P i e r r e ' s Theos-
p i t e is not so s u re of h e r s e l f ; she i s f a r more asto n ish ed
and bew ildered, fa r more human as she gazes upon th is man
whose "cors et faqon, / Contenance, semblant e t v is" r e
semble so much t h e t r a i t s of her lo s t husband:
Si con ale p a r l o i t a l u i ,
La p l a i e v l t que 11 p o r t o l t
Qui le z la temple haut e s t o i t .
Duremant s 'e n e r t esm arriz
Sis c u e r s , se e ' e s t o i t 11 ou non.
Molt esgarde cors et faqon,
Contenance, semblant e t v is .
Tant que bien sout t o t sanz av is
Que e ' e r t s i [s] s i r e s certem ent,
En molt grant esbahlsement
Fu done, ne s o t que dev en ir.
Et quant plus ne se pot t e n i r
De p a r l e r , ne fu d e t r l a n z ,
Genolz f l e c h l z , h um llianz,
Li d i s t . . . (1198-1213)
She then r e c i t e s the events of her p a s t l i f e which
serv e as a good rdsumd of a l l the preceding a c t i o n . Once
a g a in , P ie r r e reminds h i s audience th a t she has remained
ch aste during t h e long s e p a r a t i o n , in s p i t e of h e r abduc
t i o n by the b a rb a ria n s e a - c a p t a i n , and she r e p o r t s :
Li s i r e s de l a nef me n r i s t ,
Mes Dex de t e l vol [o iri l ' e s p r i s t ,
Qul as suens sa grace r e p a r t ,
Qu'onques nul gor n ' o t de mol p a r t
Me i l ne a u traa ta n t ne quant.
Demledau en t r a i a g a ra n t
Qui m'a gardee des que ci
Ma chast&e, seua m erci. (1229-1236)
Theospite e n t r e a t s , "que t u / Por Deu e t por sa grant
92
v e r t u . / M e cogaoisees e te p e r e i l l e " (1239-1241). At
these w ords. Eustace "L 'e s g a rd a e n te n t lv e m e n t. / En l ' e s -
garder v lt certement / Que c ' e r t sa fame sanz doutance"
(1245-1247).
There Is much joy and t e a r f u l embracing and the re
un ite d couple
Done p r l s t r e n t Deu a o e r c l e r ,
A l o e r e t a g r a c f e r .
Qui aauve le s suens et rasemble
De d iv e r s e s t e r r e s ensemble.
Cui 11 tense blen e s t t e n s e s . (1257-1261)
The l a s t lin e of the above s h o rt p assage, in i t s proverb
lik e a b s t r a c t i o n , is an ex p re ssio n of a sentim ent dear to
P i e r r e , and im plies a c o n s c ie n tio u s e f f o r t to I n s t r u c t h is
l i s t e n e r s by means of s h o r t d i d a c t i c form ulas, ingenuous
and p ith y enough to be e a s i l y remembered and repeated.
Once r e u n i t e d , the parents* thoughts t u r n to t h e i r
o f f s p r l n g :
Tunc d i c i t e i Uxor sua: " S i r e , ml f i l . " d i s t e l e . "ou
"Domini mi. ubl su n t sunt?"
F i l i i n o s t r i ? " (1265)
Cui d i x i t : "A f e r i s r a p t l Et 11 l i d i s t . " s u e r, j a le s
s u n t" : e t ex p o su it e i que- ont
madmodum p e r d l d l t eos. Bestes devorez. maint j o r
(y) a."
Tout 11 espont e t e s c l a i r a
Conment de b e s te s fu ren t m o rt.
(1266-1269)
Et d i x i t ad eum Uxor e j u s : " S i r e . ” d i s t e l e . "alons con-
"G ra tla s agamus C h r is to . f o r t
puto enim. quemodmodum Deus En Deu qui e s t de t e l
d o n a v it. ut inveniremus nos p uissance
invicem. donavit etlam re-
93
cognoscere F i l l o s n o s t r o s . " Q u 'i l nos d o r r s , c ' e s t ma
c r e a n c e ,
Nos enfanz ausi r e t r o v e r
Com i l nos a fe t raaem bler.
(1270-1274)
D ix it ad earn E u s ta th iu s :
"D ixi t i b i , q u ia a f e r i s
c a p ti s u n t . "
" S u e r," d i s t i l , " j a t ' e je
conte
Conment i l en f u r e n t portd
Andui de b e ste s e t r a v i .
Morir cuidai quant j e le v i . '
(1275-1278)
D ix it ad eum Uxor e ju s :
"Hesterna d ie sedens in
h o r t o , audivi quosdam duos
Juvenes ad invicem lo quen-
te s de i n f a n t i a sua; et
s c i o , quod F i l i i n o s t r i
s u n t; n i s i p e r exposi-
tionem m ajoria f r a t r e s .
Nunc ergo . . . cognosce
quanta s i t p i e t a s C h r i s t i ,
qui u t r i s q u e donavit a g n i-
tionem. D isce i g i t u r ab
e i s , e t d ic e n t t i b i . "
Ele respondi son s e ig n o r ,
" S i r e , " d i s t e l e , " l ’a u tre
Jo r
OX deus enfanz en meson,
Si en ten d i a l a reson
Des p aro les q u 'e n t r e e ls
d i s o l e n t
Si comme lor fez rem en b ro ien t,
Que n o s tr e f i l s u n t , bien le
c r o i ;
Mes i l n ' e s t o i e n t pas andoi
C e rte in de le u r f r a t e r n i t A ,
Fors par le conte de l ' a i n z
n€.
Veez, s i r e s , com l ' a m i a t i e z
De Deu e s t granz e t la p i t i e z
Qui ensemble nos a r a t r e z .
Molt devomes l o e r ses fez.
Done, s i r e fe te s le s mander,
Si l o r porrons l o r s demander
Lor erremenz et t o t le u r
e s t r e . " (1279-1295)
As is e v id e n t , P ie r r e has t r a n s l a t e d the above c o n v ersa tio n
with almost word for word r e s p e c t. At t h i s p o i n t , however,
the f i n a l r e c o g n itio n between sons and p a re n ts i s c u rio u s
ly sketchy in the L a tin , and is d isp atch ed with l i t t l e
more than p e r f u n c to r y re p o rta g e . Thus, i t is not s u r p r i s
ing th a t P i e r r e has e x p l o i t e d the em otional p o t e n t i a l of
such a scene, making i t longer and more p a t h e t i c . I t be-
94
gins w ith the summons of the two youths:
Adonques le s manda l i m estre,
Qui d ' e l s mander d e sir a n z fu.
Quant devant l u i fu r e n t venu,
11 l e u r enquis le u r a v e n tu re . (1296-1299)
The h i s t o r y of the b r o th e r s i s n a r r a t e d r a p i d l y , and P i e r r e
r e f e r s the audience back to the scene of r e c o g n itio n in
the h o s t e l :
Cil l i e s p o n tr e n t a d r o i t u r e
Et d i s t r e n t l i to t au tre t e l
Comme i l o r e n t d it a l ' o s t e l ,
La ou la dame les o l ,
Quant 11 u [n ]s 1 ' a u t r e c o n jo l.
Le g ra in d re s conta l a reson
Del d e p a r t i r de l o r meson,
Si con i l en sout la m aniere,
De la nef et de la r i v i [ e ] r e ,
Ou i l fu re n t des b e s te s p r i s . (1300-1309)
A fte r t h i s e n lig h te n in g e x p o s it io n , the f i n a l re c o g n itio n
takes p la c e . The L a tin s t a t e s th a t Eustace "recognovit
e o s , quia i p s i e s s e n t F i l l i i s u i , " P i e r r e , however, has
Eustace announce the j o y f u l news in d ia lo g u e form:
EQstaces, de j o i e e s p r l s ,
Les p a ro le s b ie n e n te n d i ,
Ses mains en haut v ers Deu tendl
Et d i s t , "Enfanz, vos e a te s f r e r e .
Vez c i , Deu m erci, v o s tre mere.
Vostre p ere s u i , ce s a c h i e z . " (1310-1315)
Eustace embraces h is sons " e s t r o i t e m e n t ," and as f o r
T h e o sp ite , P i e r r e remarks:
. . . la mere t o t ensement
Lor bese v is et o l l z et f a c e .
De Jo ie ne s e t q u ' e l e fa c e . (1318-1320)
The j o y f u l reunion continues and a t t r a c t s much a t t e n t i o n :
95
D 'e ls c o n jo lr n ' e s t a s e j o r
Une grant p a r t l e del j o r ,
Entre acol£ i l i q u e s j u r e n t
For l a J o ie dont e s p r is fu ren t
D 'els at de l e u r rasemblement.
La novele t o t esranment
Courut p a r l ' o e t , el s ' asem blerent
Por e ls voer s i con 11 e r e n t.
A grant m e rv e llle le te n o le n t
De la j o l e q u ' l l demenoient,
Dont cascuns d ' e l s e s t o i t en g r a n t .
L'endemaln f l r e n t f e s te g ra n t,
A Demledeu re n d lre n t graces. (1321-1333)
E u s ta c e 's tro o p s , meanwhile, have been v i c t o r i o u s
under h is le a d e rs h ip . The L atin s t a t e s th a t they came
away " s p o l i a multa p o rta n te s et captivos plurim os ducen-
t e s . " P i e r r e mentions simply th a t "S'en re p e ra vers Ro-
manie / Garniz de p ro le s et d 'a v o ir " (1336-1337).
At t h i s p o i n t , the s to ry informs one t h a t T raja n , so
sym pathetic to Eustace i n former tim es, " a l a a f i n . " His
su cc e sso r Is Hadrian, "Qui plus fe u ls e r t de l u i et p ire "
(1341).
Both the L atin and the Old French then e x p la in th a t
i t was the custom to welcome a r e tu r n in g conqueror w ith a
g r e a t f e a s t . The L atin s t a t e s , "Et i n t e r r o g a n s , quomodo in
p r a e l i o v i r i l i t e r g e s s e r i t , de a g n itlo n e Uxorls e t F iliorum
e j u s , p r o l i x l u s e x te n d it convivium." T r a n s l a t i n g t h i s ,
P i e r r e again manages to i n s e r t a neat summary of t h e i r
o rd e a ls in j u s t a few words:
Li empereres 11 en q u ist
Son e rre t o u t , e t i l 11 d l s t
La p e r t e , le desevrement.
Le t r o v e r , le rasemblement
De see fuiz e t de sa m o l l i e r ,
Qui ta n te s fo iz le f l a t m o llle r
Sa face de d o le n te s lerm es. (1349-1355)
In a d d itio n to the customary f e a s t , the members of
the p arty were obliged "De f e r e le d r o i t a l o r Dex" (1357).
The emperor, t h e r e f o r e , leads the group to the tem ple. The
Latin s t a t e s th a t the r i t u a l was to ta k e place in th e tem
ple " A p o l l l n l s ," but P i e r r e does not in c lu d e t h i s proper
name in his t r a n s l a t i o n . In a s i m i l a r d is d a in for names,
P i e r r e , one w i l l r e c a l l , also chose to omit the name of
the Bishop who bap tized the fam ily e a r l i e r in the s t o r y ,
although i t was given i n the L a tin and t r a n s l a t e d in to
many of the o th e r Old French v e r s i o n s .
At the en tran ce to the tem ple, the f i n a l o rd e a ls of
the drama are imminent and the m ortal machinery of mar
tyrdom slowly grinds on towards i t C h r i s t i a n co n clu sio n .
The r e s t of the sto ry has been g r e a t l y am plified by P i e r r e ,
though not in any way a l t e r e d . Presumably because the
L a t i n 's v ersio n of pagan revenge was too r i t u a l i s t i c , too
ra p id , and perhaps even too a l i e n to a t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
audience, P i e r r e seems to have attem pted to humanize the
proceedings. He has done th is mainly by in tr o d u c in g new
dialogue and by lengthening the e n t i r e s e c t i o n , thus
a lig n in g the f i n a l scenes more c r e d ib ly with human s c a le s
of time passage.
97
The scene begins as follow st
• . . non cun i l l o in -
gressu s esc E u s t a t h i u s ,
sed retro ced en s f o r is
s t e t i t .
Im perator vero convocans
eun, i n t e r r o g a v l t , quare
non 8 a c r i f i c a v e r l t d i i s
p ro p te r v lc to ria m , et v i c -
tlmas non o b t u l i s s e t e l s ,
maxime p r o p te r Uxoris i n
vent ionem e t F iliorum .
EUstaces o l u l a l a ,
Por 50 qua fere 11 e s t u t ,
Mea dehors le temple s ' e s t u t .
(1364-1366)
Et 1 [1] empereres l ' o u t r a ,
Au s a c r e f i c e s 'e n e n t r a
Laiens en la uahomerie,
A to te sa c h e v a le r le .
lle q u e s n ' o t g u le re s e s t e ,
Quant qa dehors v i t a r e s t i
Elistace; molt 11 d e s p l o t .
Vers lu i se t r e s t plus t o s t
q u ' l l pot
Si l i d i s t : "Done, amis,
porquol
Ne viens tu qalens avec mol?
Nos dex deUsses a o r e r
Et gracSer et ennorer
En d r o it l 'e n n o r qui t ' e s t
c relie
De la v l c t o i r e q u 'a s eUe
Et de 90 que sanz p e r i l l i e r
Ras tes enfanz e t t a m o l l l i e r .
Bien sal que por nos dex ovras
Quant tu e i n s i le a r e c o v r a s ."
(1367-1384)
E u s ta c e 's reply to the em peror's q u e stio n is b r i e f in th e
L a tin ; in i t , he s t a t e s q u ite simply h i s b e l i e f in the one,
tr u e God. The Old French r e p l y , however, is much lo n g e r,
and P i e r r e , once again the p re a ch e r, employs t h i s reply to
expound on the r e l a t i v e m e rits of the C h r is tia n God and the
pagan d d i t i e s .
"Ego su p p lico Christum Do-
minum meum e t o f f e r o i n -
c e s s a n t e r e i p r e c e s , qui
m is e rtu s e s t h u m i l l t a t i
meae, et re v o c a v it me de
c a p t i v l t a t e , e t r e s t l t u l t
mihi Uxorem e t F i l i o s t
"V ostre deu ne m 'a i d l e r e n t
onques,
Ainz d 'eu a ne poi a l e avoir
Dont Je l o r dole gre s a v o lr ;
Ne me semble fors g ab erle
D 'e n t r e r en leu r mahomerie.
Ne p o r r e i t e s t r e boens e d l e r r e
98
alium vero Deum neque Dex qui esc de f u s t ou de
s c io , neque c o l o t n i s i p i e r r e ,
Deum caelestem , qui Ou d ' o r , ou de metal fonduz.
f e c i t m i r a b i l i a . " Honnlz e s t e l l e t confonduz
Qui met en s i fez dex sa cure,
Quar i l n ' e s t reson ne
d r o i t u r e .
I I n ' e s t qu'un sol Dex s o l e -
ment
C il e s t v o ir s Dex veraiement
Qui ne conmence ne ne f in e .
A l u i e s t t o t e rien s a c l i n e ;
I I e s t Dex, pere de n a t u r e ,
Qui c r i a t o t e c r l a t u r e .
Celui d o it hom c r o i r e et
amer ,
Celui d o it hom bien r e c la n e r ;
Cil e s t mes Dex, lu i doi ge
c r o i r e ,
Par l u i ai geu heu v i c t o i r e ,
Et ma femme m'a i l rendue
Que j ' a v o i e lone tens perdue
Et mes deus f u iz ausi renduz
Dont j e su l souvent esperduz
Et ml cuers t r o b l e s e t n e r-
c i ( e ) z .
Bien l ' e n doi rendre granz
m e rc l(e )z .
C h a i t l ( e ) f su n t c i l et mal
sene
Qui as vox dex se sunt don€.
De toz b ie n s e n fin se des-
v o i e n t ,
Quer i l n 'e n te n d e n t ne ne
v o l e n t .
Mes c i s t ot e t en ten t et
v o l t ,
Ne ne v e l t que nus se desvoit'.'
(1386-1418)
In the above passag e, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note th a t P ie r r e
t r a n s l a t e s the message about the "one tr u e God" w ith o u t
adding re fe re n c e to the T r i n i t y . For, Indeed, th is
passage would be a rip e occasion f o r P i e r r e to s t r e s s the
C h r i s t i a n dogma of three Persons i n one God, but he has
99
ap p aren tly p r e f e r r e d to c o n t r a s t th e Idea of one God with
the many pagan d e i t i e s which w ere, unlike th e C h r is tia n
C re ato r, made of mere p e r i s h a b l e m a t e r i a l s : wood, s to n e ,
gold, and metal.
A fte r such o r a to r y — in d e ed , i t amounts almost to a
d i g r e s s io n on P i e r r e ' s p a r t — the emperor, enraged, s t r i p s
Eustace of his m i l i t a r y ran k . This is done by the g e stu re
of detaching E u s t a c e 's sword b e l t . The L a tin does not
define t h i s g e stu re but i n r e l a t i n g t h i s symbolic a c t i o n ,
P ie rre e x p la in s i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e , l e s t i t be l o s t on h is
audience t
Tunc im perator i r a re - Li empereres fu p la in s d ' i r e
p l e t u s , j u s s l t ei s o l- Del grant l e t q u ' l l i ol d ire
v i cingulum . . . De ses dex e t del grant des
p i t .
Tot esranment sanz nul r e s -
p i t ,
Por fe r e 11 honte et le d u r e ,
Li f i s t decouper la c e i n t u r e
Dont 11 [ l ' J a v o i t c h e v a lie r
f e t ,
Qu'a desenor 11 fust r e t r e t .
C 'e r t la honte c'on a o l o l t
f e r e
C hevalier c'on v o lo it r e t r e r e
De l ' o r d r e de c h e v a l e r i e ,
S'en p e rd o lt t o t e s e lg n o r le
(1419-1430)
The emperor then has th e family brought b efore him.
The Latin s t a t e s , " s i c f a c i e b a t c o n tra sum q u a estio n e m ."
P i e r r e has used t h i s phrase as the p o in t of d e p artu re for
a sh o rt speech u t t e r e d by the emperor in which he o f f e r s
the family one l a s t chance to change t h e i r minds; t h i s
100
minor a d d i t i o n tends to humanize the t y r a n t somewhat and
Im plies th a t P ie r r e was i n t e r e s t e d in c h a r a c te r develop
ment, even f o r the minor pereonages:
Adonc l o r f l a t menaces granz
Savolr s i la s peQst r e t r e r e
Toz q u atre de l e u r v o l o i r fe re .
" S e ig n o rs ," d l s t 11, " e ' e e t granz
d o s a g e s ,
Quant vos avez i t e l s corages.
Mes consent que mespris a l e z ,
Si vos as dex vos rap alez
Et vos l e u r f e te s s a c r i f i c e ,
J ' o b l l e r g v o s t r e m alice
Et 11 tormenz vos i e r t o stez
Qui molt vos e s t grant a p r e s t e z . " (1434-1444)
The above speech i s not even suggested in th e L a t i n , nor
i s the f a m i l y 's r e p ly t
" S i r e , " f o n t i l , "en t e l manlere
M erroit on c e l devant d e r r i e r e
S'on l e s s o l t Jo ie parmanable
Por le s e r v i s e del d eab le.
T uit c i l au deable se rendent
Qui a vos dex s e r v l r entendent
Mes Jhesu C r i s t d o it horn s e r v l r ,
Envers qui am puet d e s e r v i r
J o i e , c l a r t i a s p l r i t a b l e ,
Rlchece, v ie parmanable.
La e s t f r a n c h is e s i e n t i e r e
Qu'en n ' i puet en nule manlere
Doter ne p e r t e ne dosage,
Ennui ne mal ne nule o u tra g e ." (1445-1458)
Seeing them I n t r a n s i g e n t in t h e i r f a i t h , the emperor who
" e s t molt a l r r e z , " has Eustace and h is family thrown "in
arenam e t d l m i t t i e l s leonem," The p o t e n t i a l h o rr o r and
subsequent marvel of t h i s scene are not in the l e a s t ex
p l o i t e d i n the L a tin :
Accurrens vero le o , et s ta n s prope
B eato s, su b m itten s caput e t quasi
101
adorans r a c a a s l t , at co ap it egradi
da a re n a ,
P i e r r e , however, hai p r e d i c t a b l y aade t h i s scene sore
v i s u a l , more marvelous; he exhorts h is l i s t e n e r s to take
n o tic e of how God p r o te c ts His "amis" and c o n tro ls a l l
c r a a t l o n — even th e b e a s t s : 1*
Mener l e s fet t o s t en l 'a r e l n g n e
Ou l ’en s a l t l e s c h e l t i s mener
Por t r a v e l l i e r e t por pener.
La v e l t q u ' i l s o ia n t torm entd,
Puis q u ' i l ne fo n t sa volontA,
Un l i o n le u r a envoiA,
DeschaenA et delolA ,
Por e ls devorer et mangier,
Elnsl en v e lt ses dex v e n g l [ e ] r .
Or o ie s m iracle et m e r v e llle ,
Conment Dex ses amis c o n s e l l l e .
Li l i o n s ast a e l s venui,
Mes s i e s t humbles devenus
Q u 'i l n ' a f i r t e n 'alx e m e n t,
Ainz l e s aoure simplement.
A s a l l l i z nes ha ne to c h ie z ,
E inceis s ' e s t d e les els couchlez.
Bien e s t pulssans c i l qui se mue
E ln si t o s t cuer de b e ste mue,
Quant l i lions ot JeO a t e r r a
Ausl con por mercl r e q u e rre ,
Devant e l s q u a tre s ' e s t levez
Si q u ' i l nes a de rie n grevez;
Einz le s e n c lin e c h if bessiA ,
Puis a l e liu e t e l s le ss iA . (1462-1486)
Having seen t h i s m ir a c le , the emperor rem ains, n o n e th e l e s s ,
unimpressed and unmoved, and he has prepared a "bovem
aereum." P ie r r e i s more s p e c i f i c in h is d e s c r i p t i o n of
t h i s instrum ent of t o r t u r e and i t s use:
Ainz ha ses c h a r t r i e r e s mandez,
Un t o r d 'a r e l n a v o lt fe t fondre
Por a r d o i r dedenz e t (co n lfundre
Les e n t r e p r i s e t t r a v e l l l [ e ] r .
102
Cel t o r a f a i t a p a r a l l i e r
Et a a t t r a bucha to t a n to r
Por als a r d o lr an* sans r a t o r , (1492-1498)
Bafora a n t a r i n g tha rad-hot i d o l , the s a i n t s bag fo r
a moment's pause so t h a t they might o f f e r a p ra y e r. This
r e s p i t e is granted and, "Laurs mains . . . v e rs la c i a l
tendues" (1503), they begin a vary long o r a t i o n which
serv es as the c lim a c tic t r i b u t e to b le sse d martyrdom com
posed by P i e r r e :
"Domine Deus v irtu tu m ,
qui c u n ctia l n v i s l b l l l s ,
nobis vero visus esse
v o l u i s t i , exaudl nos de-
p re c an te s t e , Ecce enim
votua nostrum peractum
e s t , quia r e c i p i e n t e s nos
lnvicem , e t u n l t l adme-
ruimus sortem Sanctorum
tuorum r e c l p e r e . "
"Voirs Dex," font i l ,
" p la in s de bon td ,
Qui s i aves t o t sormonti
Qu'a go ne p o r r o i t nus e n ten
dre
Qui peiist t e n t s a v o lr
n ' a p re n d re ,
Que to t e ettst l o r co n o issan ce,
De vos e t de v o s tre p u is sa n c e .
Quer n ' e s t e s pas chose q u 'e n
v o l e ;
Fu tex la v o s tre v o le n te s
Que en cest monde fu p r e s e n te s
Vostre cors e i n s l proprem ent,
Que b ie n savomes cartement
Que vos e s te s n o s tr a S a lv e re (s )
Et n o s tra S l r e ( s ) e t n o s tr a
P e r e ( s ) .
Dex, par v o stre s a i n t e p i t l i ,
Queques vos a le s r e s p l e t i i .
Fetes nos maus e i n s l f e n l r
Que a vos s a in s pulsson v e n l r . "
(1507-1524)
Following th e L a tin , P ie rr e makes a B i b l i c a l re fe re n c e
(Daniel) to the th re e ad o lescen ts of Babylon, augmenting
only s l i g h t l y h is model:
" S ic u t t r e s p u eri "Dex, Rois de t o t e c r l a t u r e ,
Babylone per ignem Qui d e l i v r a t e s de l ' a r d u r e
p r o b a ti s u n t , et non te
103
den eg av eru n t, a ic a t nos
f i n i r a jube per istum
ignem ."
Les t r o l s enfans en la f o r -
n e i s ( s ) e ,
Q u 'i l n ' i o ra n t nula n a s a s e ,
Mas t o t enml la fau chan-
t o l a n t
Por 90 qua n u l mal na se n -
t o l a n t ,
N'a 50 nes pot nus d a sn o ia r
Q u 'i l vos v o l s l s s e n t r e n o l e r .
Glorious Dex, sn ta l a a n l e r e ,
Recevex vos n c s t r a p r l a r a
Qua nus na nos p u ls t t a n t
das t r a l n d r a ,
Qua nos couragas p u lst
e s t a l n d r a ,
Et s i salon atarninfi
Qua p ar c as t fau seSns f l n £ , "
(1525-1538)
Continuing th is p r a y e r , tha so o n -to -b a m artyrs ask t h a t
God accord s p a c l a l grace and r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e to
t h a i r human remains:
"Da v e to , Domine, r e l i -
q u i i s n o s t r i s gratiam
omnls, qui memor n o s t r i
habaat in regno caelorum
a t super tarram abundan-
tlam; val s i in m a rl, aut
in f lu v io p e r l c l l t a t i
f u e r i n t , e t in v o c av e rln t
ta in nomine n o s t r o , l i
bs r e n te r da p e r l c u l o , a t
s i in p a c c a tls l n c l d e r l n t ,
per hum ilitatem n o s t r a s
s u p p lic a n tlb u s vanlam
p r a a s ta peccatorum, e t
omnibus memoriam n o s t r i
habantibus a t g l o r i f l -
cantibus t a , auxllium
p r a a s t a e t s u b v e n i."
"El c i l qui as nos os vendront
Qui da nos q u a tr a ramalndront
P u is san t par nos merci t r o v e r ,
De 90 q u ' i l vos voudront
r o v a r ,
Et a l a n t por n o s tr a memoirs
P a rt avac vos an vostre
g l o l r e ;
E [l 11 c i l p l e n t i de b ia n en
t e r r a
Qui p a r nos l a voldra r e -
q u a r r e ;
Et qui p e r i l avra an mar.
Si n o s t r a non v e l t reclam ar,
O tro le s q u 'a sauvatS v ia g n a ,
Sa c ' a s t qua de nos l i sou-
v l a g n a ,
Na pechl£ n ' i a i t ne m a f f a t.
Qua a ' a n da nos memoirs f e t
Qua l a votre m iserico rd s
L'an face pardon at aco rd a,
G loriax Dex en T r i n i t i ,
Quiquonquas p a r hum llltS
En n o s t r a non vos p r i e r a
104
Et M n o lr* de nos f e r a ,
De quel chose q u ' i l vos
requere . . . "
(1539-1559)
F i n a l l y , Eustace asks th a t t h e i r bodies remain unmolested
by the flames:
"Da vero, Domlne, e t
comminationem ig n is in
terro rem t r a n s f e r r i , e t
in hoc f i n i r e nos ju b e .
Et complace in c o rp o ri-
bus n o s t r i s , ut non se-
p a r e n t u r , sed hie slm ul
reponi ea ju b e ."
"Recevez, S i r e , sa p r e i r e
Dex, qui t o t e r i e n j o s t l s l e x ,
Quant n o s t r a feus l e r t a t l s l e s
Et la bucha mlus a b ra se e ,
Si s o l t 1 ' ardor comma rousee,
Qu'en ne p u i s t feu e n to r nos
mettre
Qui nos p u i s t a r d o i r ne mau-
m e tre ,
Ne por d e s tre c e de dolor
N 'a i t n o s t r e chars mortal
c o u l o r ,
Ainz s o i t ausi et b ele e t
salne
Con s ' e l e n'eU st eQ peinne.
Beaux S i r e , Dex m i s e r i c o r s ,
Quant sanz ame s e r o n t 11 cors
Et nos seron v o s tre m a rty r,
Nes l a s s i e s . S i r e , d e p a r t i r . "
(1560-1574)
When they have f i n a l l y fin ish e d t h e i r p ra y e r, a voice
descends from heaven. In the L a tin , the words are c i t e d :
" I t a e r l t v o b i s , s l c u t s u p p l l c a s t i s ,
et ampllus ab h is f i s t . Quia cer-
t a t o r e s per bonam vitam f a c t l e s t l s ,
multas e t magnas s u a ti n e n te s temp-
t a t i o n e s , e t non v l c t i e s t l s , v e n ite
in pace r a c e p t u r i coronas v i c t o r i a s ,
e t pro tem poralibus mails i n sa e c u la
saeculorum fru im in i p r a s p a r a t i s
bonis S a n c t i s . "
F ie r r e has chosen to r e l a t e the co n ten ts of t h i s heavenly
message by th i r d - p e r s o n n a r r a t i o n , i n o rd e r, p e rh a p s, to
avoid any tedious r e p e t i t i o n :
105
. . . une volz ont del d e l ole
Q u 'i l one a o l t amee e t j o i e .
Par cela voiz a Dex mand€
Que t o t (o q u ' i l ont demands
Et encor plus q u ' i l n 'o n t p rle
Lor a donfi e t o t r o i d . (1577-1582)
The fam ily, at th is p o i n t , e n t e r s the burning i d o l , "qui
s i par e s t b o i lla n z " (1587). P i e r r e s t r e s s e s to h is
audience the danger of f i r e by saying " Q u 'i l n ' e s t rien
vive que 11 n ' a r d e , " but he adds c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , "Se
Dex melsme8 ne le g a rd e ," (1589-1590). As i f to f u r th e r
assure h is l i s t e n e r s t h a t the f i r e i s of no consequence,
P ie r r e w r ite s t h a t God
. . . lo r ha t e l merci f e t e
Que l a force ha au feu r e t r e t e .
Si qu'onques en nule mesure
Ne s e n te n t ne chalor n 'a r d u r e .
Ainz aorent Deu en chantant
De go que mal ne sont s e n t a n t .
Demledex n ' a pas c o n se n tl
Que nes un [s ] chevels n e l s e n t i ,
Le feu qui en ha f e t f u l r ,
Qu'es cors ne pu isse r i e n s bruXr.
Et 11 s a i n t qui a Deu s 'a t e n d e n t
Tot en chantant le s ames rendent. (1591-1602)
For three days, the s a i n t s are enclosed in t h e i r
ignoble oven. The follow ing sce n e , in which the s a i n t s
are brought out before Hadrian and the Roman crowds, has
been g r e a tly am p lified by P i e r r e . This i s not too s u r
p r i s i n g , fo r the m irac le is one which i s both a sto n ish in g
and symbolic. I t i s , in e f f e c t , the "p u n ch -lin e" of
P i e r r e ' s s t o r y : I t could not f a l l to e x c i t e , fo r medieval
man seemed i n s a t i a b l e fo r scenes of m iraculous e v e n ts ,
106
nor could ifc f a l l to i n s p i r e , f o r P la r r a makes of i t a
damply r e l i g i o u s , moving, and l y r i c a l symbol of tha power
of C h r is tia n love and f a i t h . The following p a r a l l e l
passages w i l l serve to i l l u s t r a t e how P ie r r e has modified
h is model:
Post t r e s autem dies
v e n it im piissim us im-
p e r a to r in locum, et
p r a e c e p i t a p e r i r i aeream
machinam, ut v l d e r e t ,
quid factum e s s a t de re -
l i q u i i s Sanctorum, e t
v id e n te s corpora aorum,
putaverunt eos adhuc v i
va re , e t e j i c i e n t e s ,
posuerunt eos super
terram .
Admlratlo autem cunc-
tos h a b u lt c i r c u m s t a n t e s ,
quia neque ad capillum
dominatus f u e r a t in e is
i g n i s , sed e r a n t corpora
s p l e n d e n t i a su p er nlvem.
Trols jo rz les i a l ' o n
le s s l e x
Tant que 11 feus e s t ab es slez
Et tos e s t e l n s e t av elez.
Lors i e s t l'em p ere re a l e z ,
Quant l i t r o i j o r su n t t r e s -
passd,
S ' i sont avac l u i amass€
Bien pres que t r e s t o t c i l de
Rome,
Por o lr e t s a v o ir la some,
Coment c i l sunt ars e t remls
El to r ou 11 e s t o l e n t mis,
L'empereres l ' a f e t o u v rlr
Por l a v e r itS d e s c o v r ir .
Si t o s t con 11 t o r s e s t
o v e rz ,
S ' e s t 11 m iracles descoverz
Que Dex a fe ta por ses amis,
Que b le c l e ne sont ne maumls.
Einz lo r ha l i fus e s c h iv f
Si q u ' i l ne sunt de r l e n mue,
A toz cels semblent qui le s
v o i e n t ,
Q u 'au tre t e l sunt con s ' i l
v iv o le n t.
Del t o r le s ha hom fors
s a c h i e z ,
Nes v o ie n t b u s ies ne t a c h i e z ;
Nls un chevel n ' i ot vefl
Qui par le fu a i t mal eO;
Einz e s t le u r char et b ele et
blanche
Comme nois de novel sor
b ran ch e,
Une c l a r t e s la s enlumlne,
Si t r e s v e r a i e , s i t r e s f i n e ,
Que nus ne s a u r o i t i t a n t d i r e
Qui la pettst mia d e s c r i r e ,
(1603-1632)
10 7
At t h i s p o i n t , P i e r r e adds an alo n an t to h is n a r r a t i o n of
thase miraculous avants which is nowhera suggested in tha
L a t i n , but which must hava had a p raced an t in othar s a i n t s '
l iv e s of the time. This a d d i t i o n a l d e t a i l r e l a t e s t h a t a
miraculous odor emanated from tha bodies of th e m artyred
s a i n t s :
D 'a ls (1) e s t un e odor s i p a r f a i t e
Qui ta n t le u r p l e s t a t lo r d a l i t a
Qua qui a u r o i t espacas chi e res
D'odors de d lv a rs es m anleras,
Ses eQst ensemble amassdes
Les a u ro it cast odor pass&es. (1633-1638)
The marvelous notion of d e l i g h t f u l odors being a s s o c ia te d
with divine p arsonages, p l a c e s , o r events has long e x i s t e d .
Egyptian t e x t s have i l l u s t r a t e d th e se b e l i e f s and in
P e r s ia n b e l i e f , the rig h teo u s a f t e r death are s a id to have
a sweet odor. Likewise, the Hindu and Buddhist r e l i g i o n s
share t h i s t r a d i t i o n . This same id e a i s r e f e r r e d to in
i n s c r i p t i o n s on C h r i s t i a n g ra v e sto n e s , and according to
C h r i s t i a n l o r e , s p i r i t u a l persona and m artyrs a lso possess
a b e a u t i f u l f r a g r a n c e . ^ Thus, w hile t h i s d e t a i l was not
in c lu d e d in the te n th - c e n t u r y L atin model, one must assume
t h a t t h i s n o tio n of a d e lic io u s frag ra n c e coming from
martyred corpses i s one which had become q u ite conventional
in C h r i s t i a n mythology and l o r e , and th a t by P i e r r e ' s
tim e, i t had, Indeed, become firm ly e s t a b l i s h e d . In s h o r t ,
t h i s convention served most e f f e c t i v e l y t o symbolize th e
108
p u r ity and i w a e t n u i of s a l v a t i o n which P le r r a was
p r a a c h in g .
The Latin r e c o r d s , then, th a t " . . . fo rn id an s impera-
t o r a b i i t in p a l a t i u a suum. . . In r e l a t i n g the f e a r
f u l f l i g h t of H adrian, P i e r r e m otivates i t more r e a l i s t i
c a lly by re co rd in g the change in mood of the crowd. In
doing t h i s , P i e r r e again appears to be atte m p tin g to put
h is s t o r y to g e th e r in a lo g ic a l cause and e f f a c t manner,
su p plying the n e ce ssa ry n a r r a t i v e linkage where i t is
wanting in the L a tin :
Tult c i l qui ses m iracles voient
En Demledeu molt s 'e n e s j o l e n t
Del fu qui r i e n nes ha graves.
Tuit ont en h aut le u r criz levez
Et o n t l o 6 Deu e t p r i s i i ,
Por l e fu q u ' i l a j o s t l s l e .
Einsl que nus mals n ' e s t venus
As s a i n s que 11 a malntenuz.
Molt e s t Adriens e sb a h is ;
I I cuide bien e s t r e t r a h i s ,
N'ose remanoir en l a p la c e ,
Q u 'i l c r ( e ) l e n t c i s t m iracle ne face
Envers l u i sa gent c o r o c ie r .
Molt t o s t se p re n t a a d r e c ie r
Sans a r e s t e r vers son p a l€ s;
I lo s e ne v e l t demorer mes. (1639-1654)
The crowd becomes e x c it e d . In the L a tin , t h e i r words are
c i t e d , giving t h e im pression t h a t they a l l spoke in
chorus, P ie rr e com pletely e lim in a te s t h i s r a t h e r f a r
fetched n o tio n , p r e f e r r i n g a more c re d ib le n a r r a t i v e
account of the crowd's sudden f a i t h :
109
. . • multitude) v aro, qua*
c i r c u n 8t a b a t , axclamava-
r u n t, d ic*nt*a: "Magnus
Deus C hristianorum , anus
a t v«rus Oaus Jasus
C h r is tu s , a t non a s t a l i u s ,
quia nac in c a p i l l i s aorun
dominatus a a t i g n i s . "
Cil qui avac las s a i n s ra -
malnent
Grant n o i s a , grant a s c r i de-
mainant
Chascuns d i t et a s t cog-
n o lssan s
Que dasus tos ast Dax
pu is sa n x .
Li Dax as C restlan s e s t
S ir * ( a ) ,
Encontre tos mals a s t drolz
m i r a ( s ) .
Da l u i v o i t en apartamant
Q u 'i l f e t to t son conaanda-
m ent.
Nus mals ne put a c ala v a n ir
Qui se v o lan t a lu i t e n i r .
Lui d o i t om aorar a t c r o i r e
Et an l u i av o ir sa memoire
E in sin t vont t u i t p a r l a n t
d e [1 ] fu
Et del lio n qui doz l o r fu,
As m artyrs Deu, a t d e b o n air* ,
Onques na l o r pot nul mal
f a r * ,
Si s o l o i t las homes mangier;
Et Dax l i f i s t i l i a c changier
Et s a f i r t d at sa n atu re
Que d ' e l s graver n ' o t onquas
cure.
E i n s in t t i e n e n t en grant
memoir*
Le non Jhasu C ris t e t sa
g l o i r a ,
Mes p a t i t a p e t i t aco ise
Li granz a s c r i s a t l a g ran t
n o i s a ,
E in sin t cun chascuns se re
p a ir*
A l o r o s t e l a lo r a fa r* . . .
(1655-1680)
In tha preceding pasaaga, P ie r r * has c a r e f u l l y re
corded the crowd as being im p ressio n ab le and naive obser
vers of i n c r e d i b l e happenings. In so doing, h* makes a
good argument to h is audience as w a l l . Lika a good law-
110
y e r , he p re s e n ts the f s c t s ; l i k e sn e f f e c t i v e d e b ito r, he
shows how the crowd can not p o ssib ly deny the phenonena
which have j u s t o c cu rred . And f i n a l l y , lik e th e scrupu
lous n a r r a t o r t h a t he i s , I n s te a d of abandoning this s c e n e
and jumping i n t o another p a rt of his s t o r y , he completes
the passage by having t h e crowd quiet down and go home.
One wonders, perhaps, why the s t o r y t e l l e r would bother w ith
these seemingly t r i v i a l d e t a i l s , but i t is e a s i l y ex
p la in e d i f one acknowledges the fact t h a t P i e r r e ' s audience
was a naive one, wanting r e l i g i o u s i n s p i r a t i o n , perhaps,
but f a r more i n t e r e s t e d in h e arin g a good s to r y with no
b ew ild erin g " lo o s e e n d s." Thus, P ierre accomodates h is
l i s t e n e r , supplying connective passages to f i l l the gaps
of h i s s k e l e t a l model, and so leaving h i s r e a d e r 's mind
free to grasp the more profound s ig n if ic a n c e o f his
p a r a b l e .
The f i n a l scene of the s t o r y is th e b u r i a l of the
b le s s e d m artyrs:
O cculta vero C h r i s t l a n i Quant la g r a n t gent s'en fu
t o l l e n t e s corpora Sane- al€e
torum, deposuerunt in Si s ' asemblerent a celSe
celeberrim o lo c o , e t p o s t - De to tes p a r s le c r e s t i e n ( s )
quam s e d a ta e s t persecu - Qui re d o to le n t A drien(s).
t l o , ibidem oratbrlum Les sains m artyrs vindrent
c o n s tr u x e r u n t, et de- req u srre
posuerunt eos . . . Por metre l e s cors d 'els en
t e r r a .
Adonc par grant h u a i l i t S
Les m is tre n t d e les la cit€
En une sepouture b a l e ,
Desus f l r e n t une chapele
Ill
Ou chascuns d ' e l s e s t enhores
Et Dex s e r v l s e t aorez,
Qui sanz fin rengne et
rengnera
In seculorum s e c u l a .
(16 81-169 4)
P ie r r e concludes with an o r i g i n a l e x h o r t a t i o n in
which he asks Saint Eustace to i n t e r c e d e fo r him and for
a l l those who "le r e q u e rro n t / Et memolre de l u i fe ro n t"
(1701-1702) .
Or deprlons s a i n t EQstace
Q u 'i l d e p r lt a Deu par sa grace
Que toz f r u l z de t e r r e a b ie n v leg n e,
Et que par son p r i Deu soviegne
De c e lu i qui solonc l a l e t r e
Sot le l a t i n en romanz m etre,
Et de cels qui le re q u e rro n t
Et memoire de l u i f e r o n t,
Et c e ls e t nos et toz creanz
S o it Dex par sa p r i e r e aidanz
Et a la mort e t a la vie
Chascuns de nos amen en d i e . (1695-1706)
The above passage was a conventional c lo s in g f o r t h i s type
of l i t e r a t u r e , so c o n v e n tio n a l, in f a c t , th a t P ie r r e used
almost i d e n t i c a l passages in the c lo s in g s of two of h is
other s a i n t s ' l i v e s : Vie de s a i n t J o s a e l S and Vie de
19
s a i n t Germer:
Josse
Or prions t u l t conmunement
S a in t Gloces q u ' l boneaent
P r i s t Dieu que en s'am or nos tlen g n e
Et que par son p ri l e souviengne
De Perron q u i , selonc l a l e i t r e ,
Seut le l a t i n en romanz m e s tre ,
Et de ceus qui le req u e rro n t
Et memoire de l u i f e r o n t.
Et ceus e t nos et touz creanz
112
S o lt Dlex par aa p r o i a r e a i d a n t ,
Et a la mort a t a la via
Chacun da noa Aman an d i a . (809-820)
Garmar
Or daprions to u t a a i n t Garner,
Qua Danadiax puet ta n t amer
Q u'alnc na f a l l l l q u ' i na tro u v a a t
P ro ia ra dont i l 11 p r o i a a t ,
Q u 'il p r l a t a Dlau q u ' i 11 aouviangna
De caus a t q - 'a n v e r tu la s tlangna
Qui bonenent l e re q u e rro n t
Et namoira de l u i f e r o n t ,
Et caua a t nos e t touz creanz
S o lt Dlex par sa p r o ia r a ald an z ,
Et a l a n o rt a t a la vie
Chaucuns de nos Aman an d ie , (863-874)
The comparison of these c lo s in g passages speaks for i t
s e l f ; P ie r r e had a s e t formula c o n s i s t i n g of a s e r i e s of
i d e n t i c a l lin e s and even some i d e n t i c a l thymes.
As was mentioned at the beginning of th is c h a p te r,
MSS. L and M end the poem with the a b o v e-cite d passage.
F i s h e r 's e d i t i o n of MS. P, however, adds another twenty
v e r s a a , which are c ite d belows
Dax, qui ( s a i n t ) EOstace a s p r o v ( s ] t a s
Et asprovanz ferm(e) l e t r o v a s te a
Encontra l a t a n t a c l o n ,
Qui por s a g ran t davocion
En p a ra d is la c o r o n a s ta s ,
Donez n os, s i com 11 d o n a s ta s ,
En t o t e t r l b u l a c i o n
AX(d)e a t con so laclo n .
Por ses m arltas nos p rio n s
Et par l a p r i ses compaignons
Qu'aons la so laz p e r d u r a b le .
La j o i e qui j a n ' i e r t f i n a b l e ,
Q u 'a i n s l n t la nos d o in t o t r o i a r
C il qui fu por l ' a s c o t p a l e r ,
Et por a q u l t a r le trail
Ou 11 n ' a v o i t r ia n s acraS ,
113
Trente d e n ie r s d 'a r g e n t vanduz,
Et aprds an l a c ro ls penduz;
Qui v l t a t ra lg n a a t r a lg n a r a
In i t c u l o r u a a a c u la . Amen. (1707-1726)
Tha L atin anda i t s account in a s i m i l a r v e in :
I l i a e s t v i t a . . . at h ie f i n i s
g l o r l o s l eorum c a r ta m in ia , Omnes arg o ,
qui m arentur c a la b r a r a memoriam aorum
a t invocara aos in praeaidium , impe-
t r a n t , quae promises sunt S a n c t i s , par
g ratiam Domini n o a t r l S a l v a t o r i s Jesu
C h r i s t l , cui a s t g l o r i a at p o ta s t a s in
s a a c u la saeculorum. Amen.
A d is c u s s io n of P i e r r e ' s La Via da s a i n t Euatacha
would be incom plete w ithout re fe re n c e to tha many l i t e r a r y
techniques and conventions which ha employed in order to
enhance h is t r a n s l a t i o n . For w hile t h i s work was, indeed,
a t r a n s l a t i o n , i t has bean demonstrated t h a t P i e r r e was
no mere slav e to h is source m a t e r i a l . On the c o n tr a r y , he
seemed to con scio u sly tr y to render h is model more
c r e d i b l e , more r e a l i s t i c , and more i n s p i r i n g . He did t h i s
by m o d if ic a tio n s of time s c a l e , a d d itio n of d ia lo g u e ,
su p p re ssio n of r e p e t i t i o u s m a t e r i a l , and, e s p e c i a l l y , by
the i n s e r t i o n of d i d a c t i c passages. Likew ise, he t r i e d
to make h is work more human and p ro v o c a tiv e by s t r e s s i n g
the emotional and p a t h e t i c aspects of h is c h a r a c te r s and
t h e i r dilemmas. Furtherm ore, i t is ev id en t t h a t P ie rr e
was a ls o a tte m p tin g to c r e a t e something of l i t e r a r y
worth— or at l e a s t of l i t e r a r y a c c e p t a b i l i t y — according
to the pro so d ic s ta n d a rd s of th e tim e. That he suceeded
114
la w r i t i n g a p iece of s u p e r i o r poetry is q u e s ti o n a b le , end
even d o u b tf u l , but he was not ig n o ran t of those l i t e r a r y
techniques which found t h e i r way— and perhaps, even forced
th e i r way— i n t o the accepted v e r s i f i e d w r i t i n g of the day.
He was conscious of e f f e c t s of rhyme, of rhythm, and of
r h e t o r i c a l d e v ice s , and he used th e se e f f e c t s often enough
to w a rra n t him the t i t l e of " v e r s i f i e r " over th a t of mere
" t r a n s l a t o r . "
Among the techniques commonly used i s one which
c o n s is ts of using a p a r t i c u l a r rhyme many times w ith in a
given number of v e rs e s . One example of t h i s i s with the
nasal s y l l a b l e "mence":
Qu'or sommes au commencement
De l a vie qui ci commence,
P la in s d ' e s p l r l t e l semence,
Qui en vos p u ls s e semencier
Par Deu qui s o i t au commenciar. (52-56)
Another example— In d eed , a b e t t e r one— is found l a t e r in
the text,^® in which th e poet m u l t i p l i e s the sound " o r t " :
De lo e a u td , ains s ' i t i e n t f o r t .
Or n ' a l ge, I a s i qui me c o n f o r t,
Fors mes enfans qui me c o n f o r te n t.
Mes p e t i t de c o n fo rt me p o r t e n t ,
Quer l o r sens ne le s e t p o r t e r ;
Si le s me convient c o n f o r te r . . . (631-636)
The o v e r a l l im pression of the rhyme value i s one of
very r i c h rhyme. One reason i s t h a t P i e r r e makes very
e x te n s iv e use of words and t h e i r compound forms. A
s e l e c t i o n of these rhymes follow s: c o n v ie n t-v la n t (13-14);
115
esg ard e-g ard e (1 5 - 1 6 )j pren d re-ap ren d re (23-24); c o n te r -
e sc o n te r (3 7 -3 8 ); sembla-aaambla (101-102); a v i n t - v i n t
(173-174); esp o n d re-resp o n d re (315-316); p r l s - a n t r a p r l s
(405-406); r e c a v o l r - v o l r (453-454); and p a r t o i t - d a p a r t o l t
(599-600), This tachniqua might seem, to a modern r e a d e r ,
r a t h e r u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d and unim aginative, I n d i c a t i n g a
poet who is h a rd put to fin d more e le g a n t rhymes, but in
the hands of a s o p h i s t i c a t e d v e r s i f i e r , i t can be a to u r
de fo rce.
Another technique which enhanced rhyme was co nsidered
more s o p h i s t i c a t e d and was widely used in Old French v e r s e .
In Les Arts Pofetiques du X lle et du X III 8 S i e c l e s . Edmond
Faral d efin es i t as follo w s: "L' ' an nom inatio' peut . . .
c o n s i s t e r . . . I rapprocher des mots de mime forme mais
de s i g n i f i c a t i o n d i f f e r e n t e P i e r r e has s c a t t e r e d
examples of t h i s technique throughout his work. A few of
them follow:
De l e u r amis et d 'a u t r e s gens.
Deus f i l s o ren t et beaus e t gens . . .(121-122)
Qui l a dame v o l o l t avoir.
11 n 'e n p r e l s t nul au tre a v o ir , . .(569-570)
E l n s i con Dex v o l o l t q u ' i l fu s t.
En un manolr povre de f u s t . . . (1037-1038)
Por 90 que fa re 1 e s t u t ,
Mes dehors le temple s ' e s t u t . (1365-1366)
Bien e s t p u lssa n s c i l qui se mue
E ln si t o s t cuer de baste mue. (1479-1480)
116
E in sin t vont t u l t p a r la n t de [1] fu
Et del lio n qui doz lor fu . . . (1667-1668)
In d is c u s s in g t h i s te c h n iq u e , F aral remarks:
A ce propos, on notera que souvent chez
les podtes l e meae mot rime avec l u i -
meae; mais i l e s t extremement r a r e q u ' i l
s o l t p r l s le s deux fols dans le meae sens;
aussi e s t - c e seulement en apparence que
l a r e p e t i t i o n c o n stltu e un n € g lig en ce;
c ' e s t p l u t o t une recherche et une
f i n e s s e . 2?
In h is v e r s i f y i n g , P i e r r e makes use of se v e ra l
p e c u l i a r i t i e s of s t y l e which he seems to fa v o r. One such
device i s r e p e t i t i o n - - o f words or of p h r a s e s - - th e r e s u l t
being emphasis and enhanced rhythm. One of h is favored
r e p e t i t i o n s is of the p re p o s itio n " s a n s " :
Sanz l u i ne son cheval l a s s e r ,
Sana d e s t o u r b i e r , sanz mespasset . , .(157-158)
and l a t e r in the t e x t :
Sanz rie n s o s t e r ne sanz r i e n s m e (s )tre . . .
(614)
Other examples of t h i s device follow :
Tant out c r i e , ta n t out p l o r e . . . (693)
Souvent a v a n t, souvent a r l e r e . . . (857)
Celui d o lt hom c r o ir e et amer,
Celui d o i t hom b ie n reclam er . . . (1403-1404)
Not included in t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of technique is the
lo n g "Je s u i q u i” p ssssge (258-279) which has much r e p e t i
t i o n , but which had i t s model in the B i b l i c a l syntax of
tha L atin source.
117
Another device which P i e r r e employs — on* might say,
even to excess— l s the d e v ic e of accum ulation. The
technique c o n s i s t s of the l i s t i n g of words, w ithout
connective p a r t s of speech. Sometimes th e r e s u l t of t h i s
i 8 an i n t e n s i f i e d im p ressio n , as in a d e s c r i p t i o n . Other
tim es, th e e f f e c t is one of padding for re a so n of rhythmic
or rhyming n eeds, or for s y l l a b l e counts. Some examples
of t h i s p r a c t i c e follow:
Li bon, l i n e t, 11 p lu , 11 fin . . . (33)
Temprance, deboneretd
F ra n c h ise , s e n s , h u m ilitd . . . (83-84)
. . . l a reson.
La m esestance, l'a c h e s o n , . . (911-912)
. . . 11 a c o le lz ,
La com plelnte, l i p lo re fz , , . (917-918)
. . . s a p ro esce,
Sa s e i g n o r i e , sa ric h e c e
Et sa v a lo r . . . (921-923)
De sem blant, de c o r s , de s t a t u r e . . . (1003)
. . . cors et fag o n ,
Contenance, sem blant e t vis . . • (1204-1205)
La p e r t e , le desevrem ent,
Le t r o v e r , le rasemblement . . . (1351-1352)
Not only i s t h i s an a t t r a c t i v e device for th e purpose of
summarizing e v e n t s , but i t i s a lso a rhythm ical use of
language, which had, by t h i s tim e, become a kind of l i t e
rary convention. Generally speaking, P i e r r e used t h i s
technique of accumulation of nouns, a d j e c t i v e s , e t c . , to
118
flood th e l i s t e n e r , as I t were, with a d e sire d im pression,
or to sum up p ast events for him with d is p a t c h .
In a s s a s s ln g th is v e rs io n of La Vie de s a i n t Eustache
by P i e r r a de Beauvais, i t has been shown th a t th e author
was not merely t r a n s l a t i n g words from one language i n t o
a n o th er. He was not w r i t i n g in a vacuum, ig n o rin g his
•poch and the s e n s i t i v i t i e s of h is audience. His e f f o r t s
at i n f u s i n g l i f e i n to h is L a tin source a re a p p a r e n t,
p a r t i c u l a r l y when one compares the model with h i s subse
quent re n d e rin g in the Old French v e r s e .
P ie r r e was not an Inexperienced w r i t e r ; h i s b i b l i o
graphy proves t h i s . As for h is alms and am bitions to
l i t e r a r y e x c e lle n c e , one can only c o n je c tu r e , but he was
obviously not w r i t i n g h i s works j u s t to have them s to re d
in m o n a sterial bins of musty m a n u sc rip ts. His purposes
were most probably t h r e e - f o l d : 1) to i n s p i r e r e l i g i o u s
fervoT (by the c h a r a c te r of h i s p a tro n a g e, one must
presume t h i s ) ; 2 ) to i n s t r u c t in the day to day manners
of C h r i s t i a n bdhavior (h is heroa are human modela of
C h r i s t i a n v i r t u e ) ; and 3) to e n t e r t a i n h is au d ien ce, to
hold t h e i r a t t e n t i o n , to capture t h e i r im ag in atio n s by
the n a r r a t i o n of a s to ry th a t h e ld ex citem e n t, romance, and
suapenae. I t i s in t h i s l a t t e r e f f o r t t h a t P i e r r e most
ably could allow h is c r e a t i v e ten d en cies to come f o r th ,
modest though they were. Given a s to r y whose p l o t ,
119
c h a r a c te r s , and outcome were alre ad y well-known, he
managed, n o n e th e l e e s , to Improve upon I t by the many
m o d ifica tio n s which have been documented in the previous
pages. Given a s t y l i s e d m e tr ic a l medium in which to r e
l a t e his s t o r y , P i e r r e was able to compose adequate coup
l e t s , la p s in g o c c a s io n a lly i n t o humdrum v e r s e , but from
time to tim e, s t a r t l i n g h i s read er with a w e ll-tu rn e d
metaphor, a l i l t i n g rhythm, a c le v e r play on words, a l l of
which managed to p l e a s a n t l y c lo th e some old and well-worn
d i d a c t i c c l i c h d s .
Compared to the sunny f i c t i o n s of the j o n g le u r s ,
P i e r r e ' s oeuvre might be considered as somewhat gloomy.
Compared to a C h re tie n de Troie and to the c r e a tiv e l i t e
rary explosion of the tw e lf th c en tu ry , P i e r r e ' s o r i g i n a l i
ty must seem so modest as to be but a f l i c k e r , hardly
worthy of n o t i c e . So w hile one should applaud t h i s h a rd
working p o e t 's e f f o r t s at o r i g i n a l i t y and in v e n tiv e n e ss —
and indeed, one cannot begrudge him th ese q u a l i t i e s — one
should a p p re c ia te even more th a t P i e r r e , the p o e t - t r a n s -
l a t o r , had a job to do and he did i t exceedingly w e ll.
One s c h o la r has ably d e sc rib e d P i e r r e ' s s e r v i c e as follo w s:
P i e r r e was aware of h is r o le in the
development of French as a worthy lan
guage, and not one of h is w r iti n g s
f a l l s to remind th e re a d er of h is
I n t e n t i o n s i n th is r e s p e c t . Above a l l ,
he was a t r a n s l a t o r of L a tin models,
u s u e lly follow ing " l a l e t t r e ” , the
120
l i t e r a l t e x t , with c o n sid erab le c e r e .
One senses h is r e s p e c t fo r these so u rc e s ;
no inform ation they o f f e r , however
n a iv e , is ever c r i t i c i s e d . Though
P i e r r e no doubt tu rn ed to t r a n s l a t i n g
fo r f i n a n c i a l reasons . . . and t h e r e
fore wrote to p le a s e his p a tro n s , he
would have us b e lie v e in an a d d itio n a l
s e l f l e s s motive: to make th e se in fo rm ativ e
and exemplary t e x t s a v a il a b le to those
not f o r tu n a te enough to have mastered
L a tin . Ue o fte n s t r e s s e s the point t h a t
the m atter deserves a t t e n t i o n ; he some
times i n s i s t s th a t he has undertaken to
t r a n s l a t e a work because persons not
f a m i l i a r w ith the s u b je c t e i t h e r would
l i k e to be or should be. 3
Thus P i e r r e was f u l f i l l i n g an Im portant and necessary
ro le i n the development of th e language. In a d d i t i o n , he
was c o n t r i b u t i n g to th e n a t i o n a l h e r i t a g a t h a t is French
l i t e r a t u r e ,
In comparing a l l the v e rs io n s of the Eustace legend
th a t have appeared in Old French v e r s e , P i e r r e ' s treatm ent
stands out most fav o rab ly . While some may have been char
a c t e r i z e d by more a d d itio n s to the b a s i c t e x t , they
appear i n f e r i o r in m a tte rs of s t y l e and l i t e r a r y b alance.
I t i s a great t r i b u t e to P i e r r e t h a t , while h is v s rs io n is
conceded to be the e a r l i e s t in d a te , i t i s a lso undeniably
the b e s t of th e verse a cc o u n ts, and was not to be outdone
by subsequent v e r s io n s .
121
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER V
P i e r r e tie B eauvais, La Vie de s a i n t E u s ta c h e .
John R. F is h e r , e d , , Romanic Review. VIII (1917). 1-67.
For background on P ie r r e anti his work, see Max L. Berkey,
J r . , " P i e r r e de Beauvais: An I n tr o d u c tio n to His Works,"
Romance P h i l o l o g y . XVIII (1965), 387-398.
2
Anthime F o u r r i e r , Le Courant R e a l i s t s dans le
Roman C ourtois ( P a r i s : N i z e t , I960), I , p. l ) 3 .
3 Cited in Notices e t E x t r a i t s . XXXIII (1890), 10.
in th is c i t a t i o n , the word " cu e rs" makes no s e n s e . For
a d is c u s s io n of t h i s , see Max L. Berkey, J r . , " P i e r r e de
Beauvais . . . , " D i s s e r t a t i o n U niv ersity of C a l i f o r n i a at
Berkeley 1961, p. 192, n. 18.
^ Max L. Berkey, J r . , " P ie rre de Beauvais: An
In tr o d u c ti o n to His Works," Romance P h il o lo g y . XVII
(1965), 397.
^ La Mappemonde was w r i t t e n under the sp o n so rsh ip
of Count Robert of Dreux, the e ld e r b ro th e r of Bishop
P h i l i p .
^ This t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y MS, having belonged to
the Marquis de la C l a y e t t e , and containing a l l P i e r r e ' s
work, was not discovered u n t i l 1952. P r io r to th a t d a te ,
an e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y copy of i t , B ib l. Nat. MS. Moreau
1715-19, was the source of M. See S. S o len te, "Le Grand
Recmeil La C la y e tte I la Bibllothfeque N a t i o n a l s , "
S c r ip t o r iu m . VII (1953), 226-234,
^ F is h e r , op. c i t . « p. 5. One should mention here
t h a t the v a r i a n t s c i t e d by F ish er do not a f f e c t t h i s study,
® A ll re fe re n c e s to the L atin Vita w i l l come from
the Acta Sanctorum. Sept. VI, 123-135.
9 For a d is c u s s io n of t h i s v e r s io n , see Chapter
I I I of t h i s t h e s i s , pp. 22-27.
10 Ibid.
122
The e x p l o i t a t i o n of these words, "amer" (verb)
and "amer" ( a d j e c t i v e ) , was a f a v o r i t e play in Old French
v e rse. See, fo r example, ChrStien de T r o ie , C liggs
(vv. 545f f . ) .
12
Joseph Morawskl, e d . , Proverbes F r a n c a i a .
( P a r is : Champion, 1925), p. 37, no. 1003.
13
For example, see La Vie de s a i n t E u s ta c h e .
Holgar P e t e r s e n , ed. ( P a r is : Champion, 1928), p. 33,
v. 920.
14
The L a tin gives the name of the town as
"B adyssus." The place seems to be f i c t i t i o u s .
This r i v e r i s i d e n t i f i e d by F ish er as the
Hydaspis, a r i v e r of In d ia which flows i n t o the Indus.
The e d i t o r adds, "The a u t h o r 's geography is d o u btless
c o n fu sed ." F is h e r , op. c l t . . p. 67. F ish e r should have
s p e c i f i e d th a t P i e r r e was not the "author" in t h i s case,
fo r the place name is found in the L atin and in the Greek
models .
^ This passage has obviously undergone the i n
fluence of the B ib ic a l account of D an iel. See a ls o
vv. 1527-1528 fo r another re fe re n ce to the Book of D aniel.
^ Encyclopaedia of R eligion and K th ic a . ed.
James H a s tin g s , VII (New York: Charles S c r i b n e r 's Sons,
1915), 201.
X 8
"La Vie de s a i n t Joce: elne a l t f r a n z S s i s c h e
H eiligenlegende aus dem e r s te n V i e r t e l des 13. J a h r -
hunderts n e b st swei s p f te r n B earb eitu n g en ," ed, P.
U l n s e l e r , Rom. Mus. . IV (1915)} r e e d i t e d by Max L. Berkey,
J r . , " P i e r r e de Beauvais . . . , " D i s s e r t a t i o n U n iv e rsity
of C a l i f o r n i a at Berkeley 1961, pp. 120-180,
19 ••vie v e r s i f i e e de s a i n t Germer par P i e r r e de
B eauvais," ed. Vicomte de Calx de Saint-Aymour, Mgm. e t
doc, pour a e r y l r A l ' h l a t o l r e . . . de l 'O l a e ( P a r i s ,
1898), pp. 165-200; r e i d l t e d by Max L. Berkey, J r . ,
" P i e r r e de Beauvais . . . , " D i s s e r t a t i o n U n iv e rs ity of
C a l i f o r n i a at Berkeley 1961, pp. 59-119.
20
A f u r t h e r example of t h i s technique i s c ite d
on p . 59 of t h i s t h e s i s , where P ie r r e c a p i t a l i s e s on the
n a sa l s y l l a b l e s / s ? b l / . In a d d i t i o n , the f i r s t s i x l i n e s
of the poem may serv e to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s te ch n iq u e.
123
Edmond F e r a l , Lea A rta Pofetlquea du XII* e t du
XIII* S ieclea (P a rla : Champion, 1923), p. 96,
^ Max L, Berkey, J r . , " P ie rre de Beauvaia: An
I n tr o d u c tio n to Hia Worka," Romance P h il o lo g y . XVIII
(1965), 397.
VI
La Via de s a i n t E m t t c a
(Anon,)
This v e rsio n of Saint E u s t a c e 's l i f e i s the only one
in prose t h a t has been p u b lis h e d .^ In the in tr o d u c tio n
to her e d i t i o n of t h i s v e r s io n , J e s s i e Murray s t a t e s t h a t
she c o n su lted nine m anuscripts:
A - P a r i s , B lb llo th iq u e n a t i o n a l s , f r ,
2464 ( f o l s . 41v-60)
B - P a r i s , Bibl. n a t , , f r . 183 ( f o l s .
231-36)
C - P a r i s , Bibl. n a t . , f r . 185 ( f o l s .
129-33)
D - P a r i s , Ste. GeneviSve, f r . 588
( f o l s . 106-13)
E - A rras, Bibl. m u n ic ip a ls , f r . 657,
inc. 139 ( f o l s . 75-81)
F - C h a n tilly , Mus6e Condi, f r . 456
( f o l s . 89-94)
G - Lyon, Bibl. m u n ic ip a l* , fr. 867,
anc. 772 ( f o l s . 91-102)
H - London, B r i t i s h Museum, A dditional
17.275 (f o ls . 114-18)
124
125
J - Oxford, Queen's C ollege, f r , 305
( f o l s . 122-25)
In e d d itio n to t h e s e , Murray mentions th a t th e re were
three o th e rs which were i n a c c e s s i b l e to her a t the tin e
of her e d i t i o n :
1. Cheltenham, B ibl. P h i l l i p s , ms. 3660
2. B r u s s e l s , B ibl. Royals, ms. 9225
3. F lo ren c e , B ibl. L au ren sian a, ma. 141
Among the c o n su lted MSS, the e d i t o r d isce rn s four
groups: the f i r s t two, BCU and DF, while p re s e n tin g
d i f f e r i n g l e s s o n s , seem to go back to a common m anuscript;
the t h i r d group, EGA, gives evidence of gen eral I n t e r n a l
agreement, although G appeara to have undergone some re
h an d lin g , as some of th e more popular vocabulary aeems to
have been e ra se d in p l a c e s . The fo urth group c o n s is ts of
J , a very a b b re v ia te d v e r s io n , which, however, in some
a s p e c ts , resembles group EG.^ In g e n e r a l, one must concede
th a t t h i s v e rs io n is a r e l a t i v e l y c o l o r l e s s one when p laced
alongside some of the o th e r v e rs io n s in v e rs e . S t i l l , th e
f a c t th a t i t i s re p r e s e n te d by twelve MSS a t t e s t s to the
wide appeal and p o p u l a r i t y of the Eustace legend in
medieval France.
The b a s ic t e x t p u b lis h e d follows A, which is d ivided
i n to t h i r t y - n i n e p a ra g ra p h s , i n d i c a t e d by Murray in her
e d i t i o n by Roman n um erals. In a d d itio n to the Old French
126
t e x t , Murray has raproducad the ta x t of th e l i t e r a l L atin
3
v e r s i o n . She does t h i s , she e x p l a i n s , i n order to render
" a i n s i p o s s ib le s des c o a p a r a is o n a , non seulement avec
n o tr e v e rs io n en p ro se , a a is avec les v e rsio n s en vers
d e j i p u b lie e s e t les v e rs io n s encore l n i d l t e s . " ^
I t i s n e c e s sa ry , h e r e , to a e n tio n t h a t the L atin te x t
reproduced by Murray could not p o s sib ly have been the
exact and i a a e d l a t e source of th e prose t r a n s l a t i o n which
she has e d i t e d . ^ This f a c t is not c r i t i c a l for t h i s
t h e s i s , for we are concerned aore with a d d itio n s and
o r i g i n a l n o d i f i c a t ions to the b a s i c L a tin sto ry r a th e r
then w ith any p a r t i c u l a r n a n u s c rip t of t h e L atin te x t .
N o n eth eless, i t should be p o in ted out t h a t Murray was a i s -
taken i n assuaing th a t she was d e alin g w ith the i a a e d l a t e
L atin source of her prose v e rs io n .
Concerning the date of t h i s v e r s io n , Murray has re-
a ark ed , " la d i c l l n a i s o n e t la conjugalson y sont consarvees
I un e t a t asses ancien pour qu'on ne p u is se pas p la c e r
c e t t e c o n p o s ltio n plus t a r d qua l a p re n id re n o i t i e du
X IIIe s i i c l e , conae l ' a d € ji indiqu€ Paul M ey e r, T h u s,
i t a u s t stand as the e a r l i e s t exaaple of t h i s legend
w r i t t e n in Old French p ro s e .
While the t r a n s l a t o r ' s i d e n t i t y a u s t renain unknown,
one can a ssu a e, by the language, t h a t he was w r i t i n g in
the c e n t r a l reg io n of France, fo r the t r a n s l a t i o n ", . .
127
ne presence eucun c a r a c te r e d i a l e c t a l d € f i n i . , . , " 7
However, Murray concedes Chat s e v e r a l MSS, as E, G, or J ,
do o c c a s io n a lly p resen t sose d i a l e c t forms, "en p a r t l c u -
l i e r plcardes."**
In d ram atic c o n tr a s t to the verse v e rs io n d is c u s s e d
i n the p revious c h a p te r, th is prose handling of the legend
can most c e r t a i n l y be termed a t r a n s l a t i o n with l i t t l e or
no embellishm ent or o r i g i n a l i t y . I t follows ths L a tin
source so c lo s e ly th a t one has the image of an almost
tim id c l e r k p a in s ta k in g ly t r a n s l a t i n g h i s model word fo r
w ord,
The main i n t e r e s t i n t h i s version l i e s in i t s to n e ,
which i s e s p e c i a l l y p o pular. One gets t h i s im pression
from the f a c t t h a t th e re are many f a m ilia r and c o l l o q u i a l
e x p re ss io n s I n t e r s p e r s e d in the t e x t . Moreover, the s t y l e
and tenor of the prose appear to be those which would s u i t
an I l l i t e r a t e audience.
The account begins as follows
1. - Au tans Traian l'em p are o r, qua
deables av o it g ran t force a g ra n t
p o o lr qua par l u i qua par ses m e n ls tr e s ,
fu uns horn, m estres de c h e v a lie rs e de
g ra n t lig n a g e , P la c id a s par non, e de
g ra n t r i c h e s c e , honorez sor toz le s
a u t r e s ; mas un pou 1 o t del p o l l del
le u , car 11 e s t o i t en e r r o r e en
mescreance, ( 1 , 1- 6 )
The above passage t r a n s l a t e s the corresponding L atin
opening very f a i t h f u l l y . However, the t r a n s l a t o r i n s e r t s
128
a popular e x p r e s s io n , "mea un pou 1 o t dal p o ll del le u ,"
to I n d ic a te a c e r t a i n r e s e r v a tio n about P la c ld a a ' good
q u a l i t i e s . This ex p ressio n means t h a t th e re was a s l i g h t
flaw in t h i s man, and th u s, one must w ithhold complete
approval fo r he was "an e r r o r e en m e s c r e a n c e T h e
t r a n s l a t o r , then, as i f to f o r e s t a l l any argument, w r i t e s ,
"Ce e s t o i t domages, s i vos d i r a l por q u o i." This w i l l be
the f i r s t of many times when the a u t h o r 's perso n al pre
sence in h is text is in d i c a t e d by the use of the f i r s t -
person pronoun. In doing t h i s , he gives the t e x t an oral
to n e ; t h a t i s , his t e x t appears to be one which would be
most e f f e c t i v e when spoken. The s h o r t p h ra se, "Ce e s t o i t
domages, s i vos d i r a i por q u o i ," a ls o has an other e f f e c t :
from the very s t a r t , i t renders the tone of the account
somewhat s im p le — in d e e d , i t presumes a simple audience—
fo r i f n o th in g e l s e , the tone of t h i s v e rs io n i s one which
would be taken by a p a tie n t s t o r y t e l l e r t a lk in g down to a
r a t h e r naive and c h i l d l i k e au dience.
The a u th o r goes on to enumerate the good q u a l i t i e s
and good works of P la c id a s as follow s:
XI s e c o r o it tos cels qui a v o le n t
m e stie r de s e c o rs ; 11 a l d o i t to s c e ls
qui avolent m e stier d ' a l d e , c e l s qui
e s t o l e n t grevez en jugement, le s
f o r s j u g l e z e les dampnez a t o r t ; 11
r e l e v o i t de son a v o ir les po v res; 11
r e v e s t o i t le s nus; i l r e p e i s s o l t les
fam elleu s; 11 d e p a r t o i t de ses viez
ch o ses; 11 sem blolt j a au te n s de l o r e s
C o r n ille le preudome que s a i n t Peres
129
c o n v e r ti. I I av o lt feme . . . ( I , 8-15)
The most n o t i c e a b l e asp ect of the above passage is i t s
very sim ple syntax: the pronoun, " i l , " repeated e i g h t
tim es, begins each c la u s e . This r e s u l t s in a kind of
monochromatic passage having l i t t l e r e l i e f o th e r than the
varying length of the word groups. As an a cc u ra te t r a n s
l a t i o n of the L a t i n , i t leaves l i t t l e to be d e s i r e d ; how
e v e r , as an example of f l u i d and g ra c e fu l p r o s e , one must
concede th a t i t f a i l s . Rather than vigor and i n t e r e s t ,
i t o f f e r s a b la n d , c h r o n i c l e - l i k e o b j e c t i v i t y , and p re s e n ts
a somewhat one-dim ensional attem pt a t p o r t r a i t u r e .
In d e s c r ib in g the w ife , the t r a n s l a t o r notes t h a t
" e l e e s t o i t ausi en e r r o r e a o r o i t le s ydres" ( I , 17-18).
tfhere th e sons are concerned, the Old French follows the
L atin most f a i t h f u l l y :
P r o c r e a n tu r s i s F i l i i C ll dui av o ien t deus enfantz
duo, quos educabant pares q u ' i l n o r r i s s o i e n t d 'u n cuer
p r o p r ia e v o l u n t a t i . e d'une v o lo n te . ( I , 18-19)
The t r a n s l a t o r In tro d u c e s some b r i e f comments about
P l a c i d a s ' m i l i t a r y a b i l i t y by again employing the f i r s t -
person pronoun: "Encor vos di plus de l u i . . , ." D espite
the b r e v i t y of the p o r t r a i t , the au th o r does add some
depth i n h is d e s c r i p t i o n of P l a c i d a s ' q u a l i t i e s as a
h u n t e r :
De chiens e d 'o l s e a u s s a v o i t 11
quant q u ' i l en e s t o i t , de b o i s ,
de r i v i e r e e de g i b e c i e r : en ce
s ' e s t u d i o i t i l chascun j o r . ( I , 22-24)
130
This embellishment is s l i g h t , however, and may have been
a ra th e r conventional d e t a i l used to d e s c rib e any
medieval h ero, f o r e x p e r t i s e in hunting was an e v e r - p r e
s en t and almost necessary a t t r i b u t e of l i t e r a r y protago
n i s t s of the e p ic s and adventure romances of medieval
l i t e r a t u r e ,
Scrupulously follow ing the L a tin , the t r a n s l a t o r
w rite s t h a t God was not untouched by the good works of
t h i s generous pagan and for t h a t re a so n , He took p ity on
the man and wanted to redeem him by such a means, claims
the t r a n s l a t o r , th a t " j e vos d i r a i , " The t r a n s l a t o r then
launches i n t o th e account of th e hunt: "Un jo r a v in t q u ' i l
s 'e n i s s i , s i com i l a v o it en us e en costume, as mon-
taignes por c h a c ie r , . , As in a l l the v e r s i o n s , the
hunting p a r ty comes upon a herd of g razin g deer and the
p u r s u it b e g in s. Providence allows t h a t P la c id a s and his
stee d continue the hunt d e s p ite the ex h au s tio n of the
companions who f a l l behind. The L atin s t a t e s t h a t P la c i
das was a b l e to keep up the pace, not w ith s ta n d in g the
d i f f i c u l t t e r r a i n ("nec ip so p r o p te r d i f f l c u l t a t e m loci
d e s i s t e n t e " ) , The t r a n s l a t o r i s more s p e c i f i c in his
d e s c r i p t i o n of th e rough f o l i a g e : "nes l e l s s a a l e r par
l e s broces ne par e s s a r s ne par e sp in es apres le c erf"
( I I , 17-18).
The L a tin im plies t h a t God, by His mercy, provides
131
many roads to s a l v a t i o n , and t h a t Ha is Indeed a k in d of
Divine Hunter of s o u l s ; t h i s i s implied by th e sh o rt
ph rase, "venantem venatus e s t . " The author develops th is
id ea i n t o a lo n g e r s e n te n c e , seemingly because the n o tio n
i s an a t t r a c t i v e one: . . c i l qui a t o t l a sens e t to t
le s a v o l r par sa douqor a par sa m iserlcorde porchaqa a
chaga c e l u l qui l e c srf ch aq o it a bersa c e l u l qui le cerf
v o lo it b e rs e r . . ( I l l , 4 -7 ).
The i n i t i a l c o n f r o n ta tio n between the s ta g and P l a c i -
das is a study i n a cc u ra te t r a n s l a t i o n . This is e a s i l y
seen by the s y n ta x , the v o c ab u lary , and by the p ro g res sio n
of the scene which follows the L a tin model s tep by s t e p :
Diu vero stan te P l a c i d a ,
e t a s p ic ie n te cervum, e t
admirante v a s ti ta te m
e j u s , e t d e f i c i e n t s c irc a
captionem, demonstrat i l l i
Deus indicium t a l e , quod
non t l m e r e t , naque supra
suae v i r t u t i a e s s e t mag-
nitudlnem : aed s i c u t sub
Balaam, tribuens a s in a e
verbum, a rg u lt e j u s l n s i -
p le n tia m , s ic e t h u ic
dem onstravlt i n t e r cornua
c erv l formas s a c r a e Crucis
su p ra c l a r i t a t e m s o i l s
splendentem , et i n medio
cornuus imagines Domini
n o s t r l S a lv a to r is Jesu
C h r i s t i . Qui e tia ai hu-
manam voces imponens cervo,
advocat Placidam, dicens
e l . . .
P lacid as a ' e s t u t longue-
ment e se m e r v e l l l o l t de
l a grandor e de l a beautfi
del c e r f , mes sanz e p o o ir
l i f a l l l o i t d e l p ren d re.
Ensl e s t o i t t o t p ris de ce
q u ' i l nel pooit prendre;
mes Nostre S ir e s 11 m ostra
l o r e s q u ' i l ne montast en
fauvel e q u ' i l n 'e n c h a rc h a s t
chose ne n 'e n p r e l s t dont
i l ne p o ls t c h e v ir , e t t o t
s u sl com i l f i s t l ' a s n e s s e
p a r l e r desoz Balan e r e -
prendre le v a s s a l de sa
musardia, to t a u t r e s s i mostra
11 a c a s tu i e n t r e les cornea
del c e r f le slgne de l a
v e r a la c r o iz , plus c le r e
plus r e s p la n d ls s a n t qua l i
r a i s del s o l e i l l , e en mi
des co m es 1 ' image Nostre
Seignor Jhesu C r i s t , qui f i s t
le c e r f p a r l e r en guise d'ome
e a p ela P l a c i d a l n , s i l i
d l s t . . . ( H I , 10-23)
132
In C h r i s t ' s I n i t i a l spaach, tha L a tin containa a
vague and b r i e f a llu a lo n to tha hunt in which C hriat
a t a t a a t h a t Ha came to e a r th through tha a ta g in order to
"hunt" and " c a p tu re " the fin e pagan, Thia metaphor of
G od-aa-hunter l a , once a g ain , ap p aren tly very appealing
to the t r a n a l a t o r for he adda to the image by augmenting
a l l g h t l y t h i a p a r t of the speech:
"Or me aui venuz a t o l moatrer p a r
c ea t c e r f . Tu beea a la p r ia e d e l
c e r f e je b i a fe re de t o i ma p r o ie :
tu ne l l e r a a ne ne prendraa le c e r f ,
mea je t ' e n menrai pria et IIS . .
( I l l , 29-32)
One can 8p e c u la te t h a t th e above paaaagc waa included to
c l a r i f y aa much a8 p o s s i b l e the metaphor, which was not
so obvious in the L a tin . This c a r e f u l e x p la n a tio n and
i l l u s t r a t i o n of an image again r e in f o r c e s the idea t h a t
the probable audience of t h i s prose v e rs io n was not a
s o p h i s t i c a t e d one; th ese l i s t e n e r s may w e ll have had need
of l e s s s u b t l e images and language than were to be found
in th e L a tin model.
The dumbfounded P l a c i d a s , upon h e a rin g the c e l e s t i a l
v o ic e , f a l l s from h is h o rs e . Upon r e v i v i n g , he m utters to
h im s e lf i n asto n ish m en t. The L atin s t a t e s t h a t the pagan
" a l t i n t r a s e . " To t r a n s l a t e t h i s , the au th o r w r i t e s ,
" s i d i e t e n t r e ses d e n s ," using an Id io m a tic ex p re ssio n
th a t i s s t i l l c u rre n t today.
133
C h r is t then t e l l s P ls c id s s th e t He Is Who asde day
and n i g h t , sun and moon, e t c . I f P la c id a s b e l i e v e s what
he has s e e n , he is to go to th e c ity and re q u e st baptism
from the bishop and then r e tu r n again to the p lace of the
v i s i o n , where, C h ris t e x p l a i n s , . . te m o s te rra i quant
q u ' i l t ' a v e n d r a , e coment tu vendras a v e ra l s a l u de
l ’ ame" (V, 13-15).
That very n ig h t P la c id a s t e l l s h is wife of h is exper
ience and she exclaims th a t sh e , to o , has had a re c e n t
v i s i o n . Thus, "sanz plus a ten d re e t sans le seu de l o r
m esnlee," they go to the b is h o p , t e l l i n g him of the
a p p a r i t i o n and asking fo r the sacram ent. The bishop is
overjoyed a t t h e i r conversion and b a p tis e s them i n the name
of the T r i n i t y , g iv in g them t h e i r C h r is tia n names. A fte r
the ceremony, th e b is h o p , in the L atin v e r s io n , asks the
family to remember him when they are in heaven and one
thereby le a r n s th s b i s h o p 's name:
" Vos autem cum fruem lnl p a ra d ls o ,
mementote anlmae meae Joannls . . . "
I t la cu rio u s t h a t in t h i s prose v e r s io n , the name given
a p p aren tly caused some con fu sio n , for one read s:
" • • • vos p r i , quant vos s e r o i s en
l a j o i e de p a r a d l s , menbre vos de moi,
s i com i l me menberra de vos. A s a i n t
Johan B a p t is te s o le s vos comendes,"
( V l l , 18-20)
Nowhere in th e L a tin t e x t i s th e r e mention of John the
B a p t i s t . One might s u g g e s t, however, th a t i t is not too
134
remarkable to find t h i s m ention, p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r a
scene In which a whole fam ily has been b a p t i s e d . One might
surmise t h a t t h i s " e rro r" was alread y p re s e n t in the
immediate L atin source which the a u th o r was t r a n s l a t i n g .
Or, th ere i s the p o s s i b i l i t y that th e t r a n s l a t o r made the
e r r o r h im s e lf, although t h i s seems to be th e l e a s t lik e ly
e x p la n a tio n , co n sid erin g th e accuracy of t h e t r a n s l a t i o n
as a whole. In any case, t h i s prose v e rsio n holds the
bishop in anonymity and evokes a most reasonable a l t e r n a t e
c an d id ate to s a t i s f y the name, " J o a n n ls ."
The next morning, the author w r i t e s , E u s ta ce , with
"ne s a l quanz c h e v a l i e r s , " goes a g ain to the mountain.
He s e p a r a te s him self from h i s companions as q u ic k ly as he
can and proceeds alone fo r the second meeting with the
s t a g . Through the b e a s t, C h r is t ag ain re c e iv e s and b le ss e s
him for having r e lin q u is h e d the d e v i l , e x h o rtin g him to
i l l u s t r a t e h is newfound f a i t h with good works. At th is
p o i n t , the author i n s e r t s a d i d a c t i c phrase which has no
source in the L a tin : " . . . foi sanz oevres e s t morte
c h o se ." Eustace is warned t h a t he w i l l have to s u f f e r
"maintes choses" to merit s a l v a t i o n ; he w i l l have to fo rg et
h is honor and h is worldly v i c t o r i e s which so much pleased
the mortal emperor. C h rist cautions E u stace, " s o le s
cu rleu s de t o l d effandre das agues e des assaus au deable
e de l u i metre s o t pies por moi s e r v i r a gre e por m'amor
135
garder qui s u i amparares de p ard u rab la empire" (IX, 10-13).
Eustace w i l l have to ba another Job, winning over tha d e v il
by the sh ear s tr e n g th of " f in e p a c ie n c e ."
C h ris t then poses the q u e stio n t h a t fo rces Eustace
to choose between p re s e n t or postponed s u f f e r i n g and
te m p ta tio n s . The new convert r e p l i e s , "comende qua e le s
vlegnent p re s en te m e n t, car je le s aim ore mlelz a s o f f r i r "
(X, 7 -8 ). As i n a l l th e v e r s io n s , the s u f f e r i n g s are by
no means minor, and t h e family loses e v e r y th in g , "fora
ce q u ' i l avolent e n to r les o s." The L atin s t a t e s th a t
Eustace accpptad th ese t r i a l s "cum gratlaru m a c t i o n s . "
The Old French records a s i m i l a r r e s i g n a t i o n : "Ceste
tem ptation requt i l debonerement e sanz m o le s ts ."
The family s l i p s away on the su g g estio n of T h eospite.
They se t out in the d i r e c t i o n of Eygpt and a f t e r two days'
Journey, they come upon a s h ip . As in a l l the v e r s io n s ,
t h i s one records the v i l l a n y of the c a p ta in in no uncer
t a i n term s: "Li m estres de c e le nef e s t o i t b a r b a r i n s ,
crueus hom e sanz p i t i d . " Upon demanding the fare and
fin d in g Eustace p e n n i l e s s , the c ap ta in takes Theospite as
payment. This action a ffo rd s the only p h y s ic a l d e s c r ip ti o n
of the wife to be found in th is prose v e r s i o n : " l i mestres
de la nef v i t l a fame Eustace s i avenant e s i g e n ts, i l la
golosa e c o v o ita f o m e n t . . ." (X II I, 7-9). Eustace and
h is sons are thrown overboard, but they make t h e i r way
136
" p lo ra n t j u s q u 'a un fla u v a ." The aubsaquant events happen
r a p i d l y , and the t r a n s l a t o r adds no e n b e ll ls h n e n t to the
t r a u a a t i c and t r a g i c s e iz u r e of the sons by w ild b e a s t s .
L eft alone in the a ld d le of the r i v e r , Eustace
"coaenca sea chavex a t i r a r e sa robe a d e s c i r e r e p la in -
dre a p l o r e r , e se v o lo lt n o ier e l fleuve" (XIV, 17-19).
The only d i f f e r e n c e in t h i s t r a g i c scene is t h a t tha
L a tin aakes no aen tlo n of Eustace shredding h is g a r a e n t s .
The a d d itio n of th is s a a l l d e t a i l in the Old French p o in ts
out what seeas to ba a tendency on the p a rt of the t r a n s
l a t o r to a u l t l p l y e x p re ss io n s; th a t i s , he o f te n w i l l com
pose two or aore synonyaous or s l a l l a r ex p ressions where
the L atin o f f e r s only one. This r e s u l t s , for the a o s t
p a r t , in r e p e t i t i v e padding fo r the t e x t and can hardly
ba considered a c r e a t i v e or o r i g i n a l e a b e l l i s h a e n t . More
o v er, the t r a n s l a t o r has a tendency to connect these ex
p re ssio n s w ith the s i a p l e c o n ju n ctio n , "and," which, in
tu r n , tends to render the syntax r a th e r f l a t and r e p e t i t i v e
and th u s, having l i t t l e or no r e l i e f or s u b o rd in a tio n . In
f a c t , one n o tic e s th a t the t r a n s l a t o r tends, in g e n e r a l,
to avoid senten ces which carry c o a p llc a te d su b o rdinate
c la u s e s . A very s i a p l e exaaple of how the t r a n s l a t o r nodi-
f i e s the sy n tax of the L atin p rose nay ba seen by the
following s h o r t passage; in the L a tin , one re a d s, " . . .
r a l i q u i t uxorea suaa e t a c c lp le n s duos in f a n te s suos lb a t
137
ingemescens e t dlcene . . The t r a n s l a t o r , In e seeming
attem pt at s y n t a c t i c symmetry, has w r i t t e n :
. . . ai l o r l e l s s a s a fame,
s i p r i s t e n tr e ses b ra s sea deux cnfanz,
s i s ' e n a l a p lo r a n t e p la lg n a n t . . .
Thus, in e l i m i n a t i n g the s u b o rd in a tio n caused by the L atin
p re s e n t p a r t l c i p a l " a c c i p l e n s t h e t r a n s l a t o r has re n
dered his passage w ith an almost l i t a n y - l i k e q u a l i t y ,
r e p e t i t i v e and s t y l i s e d , bland and p r e d i c t a b l e . One might
o f f e r two reasons f o r t h i s kind of syntax red u ctio n :
-either the t r a n s l a t o r was h e s i t a n t to use various p a r t s
of speech f o r verbs because of h is own l i t e r a r y l i m i t a
t i o n s , or e l s e he p r e f e r r e d to keep h is syntax as simple
as p o ssib le because of the l i n g u i s t i c l i m i t a t i o n s of h i s
audience. In any c a s e , the o v e r a ll e f f e c t is one of a
r a t h e r dull and one-dim ensional prose s t y l e , having l i t t l e
v e r s a t i l i t y and l i t t l e contour.
Following the L a tin , t h i s version goes on to r e l a t e
th a t the sons were saved by shepherds and farm ers, and
nourished and cared fo r by t h e i r re s c u e rs , E ustace, mean
w h ile , unaware of t h e i r re s c u e , laments his g re a t l o s s ,
and comparing h is s i t u a t i o n to th a t of Job, says th a t he
is indeed more abandoned, for he has not even a d u n g h ill
to s i t upon. Unlike Job, Eustace has no frien d s nor
family to comfort him in h is torment. Eustace f i n a l l y
begs God, "garde moi e s e r r e ma boche, qua mes cuers ne
138
p u i s t p enser ne bocbe d ire chose qui te d e s p l e l s e . " The
h a p le s s aan makes h is way thus to "Dadissus" where he
d w ells for f i f t e e n years* Tha t r a n s l a t o r reminds the
audience t h a t the two sons, " s i come je vos al d i t , " are
s a f e in an o th er v i l l a g e , but unaware of t h e i r blood r e l a
t i o n to each o th e r. Likewise, T h eo sp ite, who was kid
napped, is d e liv e r e d by the death of her abductor and she
s e t t l e s in the country where she was ta k e n . I t happens
t h a t t h i s country i s a t war w ith T raja n , the emperor of
Rome, who s o r e ly misses the le ad e rs h ip and s k i l l of his
former "m estre des c h e v a l i e r s . " As in a l l the v e r s io n s ,
T ra ja n c a l l s to g e th e r a l l h is troops and o ff e rs g re a t
w ealth to the one who can find out the whereabouts of
P l a c i d a s . Among the s o l d i e r s are two k n ig h ts named
"A ntiocus" and "Gachius" who had, at one time, known the
m is sin g aan r a th e r w e l l . They t r a v e l and search fo r a
long time, u n t i l , "par aventure" they come to E u s ta c e 's
town. Seeing them a t a d i s t a n c e , Eustace recognizes them
a t once and o f f e r s a prayer r e c a l l i n g h i s p sst happiness
and g lo ry . A voice from heaven r e p l i e s t h a t soon, Eustace
s h a l l again see his w ife and c h ild re n .
As in th e L atin and the o th e r Old French a cco u n ts,
E u sta ce meets the two men g r a c io u s ly , b u t denies any
knowledge of P l a c i d a s . He i n v i t e s them, n o n e th e l e s s , to
come to h is lodging fo r some refresh m en t, "car i l f e i s o i t
139
■ult g r a n t c h a u t." The n e s t scene shows Eustace s erv in g
the men food and v in e , and I t is I n t e r e s t i n g to note th a t
the scene in no way Batches the pathos and h e a r t- r e n d in g
drana found in sone of the verse v e r s i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
P i e r r e ' a :
Que qua 11 c h ev a le r m anjolent,
Eustaces ne se p o o lt t e n l r de
p lo r e r por ce q u ' i l l i a e n b r o it
de sa p r e a le r e v i e . I I s 'e n
i s s o i t fors de l a aeiaon, s i
p l o r o l t a grosses l e r a e s , p u is
la v o lt sa face e r e n t r o i t anz,
s i s e r v o i t les c h e v a l i e r s . (XXII, 12-17)
The scene of r e c o g n itio n is in no way n o d lfie d fr o a
the L a t i n ; i t is rapid and b r i e f , t r a n s l a t e d a l a o s t word
for word. The author s t a t e s t h a t , s in c e a crowd was
g a th erin g around the reu n io n , the two s o l d i e r s to ld the
onlookers about the p ast honor of t h i s huable la b o r e r they
had been employing ,"11 c h ev a le r lo r c o n te re n t t o t de f l l
en a g u i l l e . . . . ” The use of the e x p r e s s io n , "de f l l en
a g u i l l e , " is one of s e v e r a l In s ta n ce s in which the t r a n s
l a t o r amploys an l d l o n a t l c e x p re ssio n i n the n a r r a t i o n .
E ustace and h is two companions s e t off to Rome and
on the way, E ustace a p p rises them of the past f i f t e e n
y e ars. On the f i f t e e n t h day, they a r r i v e in Rome and th e
eaperor a e e ts Eustace with g r e a t joy; " s i le b e i s a et
acola," and the r e p a t r i a t e d hero i s again in v e ste d with
the b e l t s i g n i f y i n g h is high s t a t i o n . As a i l l t a r y l e a d e r ,
140
Eustace takes coaaand, and s e e in g th a t th ere are i n s u f f i -
cient tro o p s , he orders a g e n e ra l c o n a c r l p t i o n .
Aa in the other v e r s io n s , the two sons of Eustace are
aaong the youths d r a f te d for a i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . The L a tin
d e sc rib e s thea as fo llo w s: "E rant a u te a grandl a t a t u r a a t
decora facie v a ld a ." As has been shown p re v io u s ly , the
Old French tends to a u l t i p l y e x p r e s s i o n s , in t h i s case,
d e s c r i p t i v e a t t r i b u t e s . This I s d e a o n s tra te d by the
s t r i n g of a d je c tiv e s modifying the y o u th s: ". . . e g ran t
a fo r t e juene e s t o i a n t e de b e le fa q o n ." A few lin e s
l a t e r , the d e s c r i p t i o n is rep eated when Eustace chooses
the two young men for h is p e rs o n a l a i d e s :
Mes les deus Jovenceax, qui e s t o i e n t
grant e gent e juene e bel s o r tos
les autres de faqon e de cors a b le,
e s t a b l l 11 to s prem iers a l u i s e r -
v i r , car i l le s conut a fran s homes
e a g en tix a de cuer e de c o r s , ses
p r i s t a amer e coaenda q u ' i l fu ssen t
de s a ta b le . (XXVI, 9-14)
The t r a n s l a t o r s t a t e s t h a t the company d e p arted to go
to b a t t l e , and again he i n s e r t s his own words i n to his
ta le by s a y in g , "e qua i r o i e j e lone conte f e i s a n t ? "
A fter t h i s r h e t o r i c a l q u a s tl o n , the t r a n s l a t o r , t y p i c a l l y
a b rid g in g his t a l e , t e l l s of th e v i c t o r y in t h e b r i e f e s t
of term s: " t o t e l a t a r r e qua 11 b a r b a r i n av o len t s a i s l e ,
11 la d e l l v r a . . . ." Following the L a t i n , t h e sto ry r e
l a t e s t h a t Eustace routed a l l h i s enem ies, crossed the
141
Hydaspia r i v e r , proceeded to the b a r b a r i a n s ' atronghold
where he "gaata t o t le p a l a , " Euatace ia now in tha very
region where hia lo n g - l o s t wife i s l i v i n g . The s to ry
reminds the audience t h a t she had been "bien e t netement
gardee de la compaignie au m a r i n i e r ."
Seeing the need fo r r e s t , Eustace orders h is b a t t l e -
weary troops to s e t up camp for th rea days. The Latin
remarks t h a t the s h o rt repose would be for e v ery o n e's
p l e a s u r e . In d e s c rib in g the cam psite, the t r a n s l a t o r
again m u l t i p l i e s e x p re s s io n s : "11 leu e s t o i t beax e
p la is a n z a p la in s de t o t d e l i t e de to t s o l a s . " I t so
happens t h a t E u s ta c a 's te n t is a re c te d very n e ar the
dw elling of Theoaplte and t h a t the two sons are sta y in g
th e r e "en la loge l o r mere; mes ne sav o ie n t que l o r mere
f u s t . " One day, around noon, the two youths begin ta lk in g
about t h e i r childhood memories, ig n o ra n t of th a f a c t th a t
t h e i r mother is able to h e ar tham. A fter comparing t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e p a s t s , tha b r o th e r s d is co v e r t h e i r k in s h ip .
T h e o s p ite , who has w itnessed t h i s r e c o g n itio n scen e, re
so lv es to go to the m i l i t a r y c h ie f the next day. She
comes thus b efore E ustace, and w hile begging him to take
her back to her n a tiv e Rome, she n o tic e s "un seln g que
see marls s o l o i t a v o i r . " No lo n g a r able to co n tain h e r
s e l f , she f a l l s a t h is f e e t and t e l l s him of her p a st
t r a g e d ia s and asks him, "Or t ' a i j e d i t bonas an selg n as;
142
se tu l«s re c o n o is, di 1* moi, Je t ' e n c o n ju r, par la
fo l Jhaau C r i s t , ton Sauvaor" (XXXI, 1-3). Whan Eustaca
hears t h i s emotional pronouncement, ha looks at her
" a n t r a daus i e l z " and reco g n isin g h e r , he begins to weep
and embrace h is w if e . Theospite In q u ires about the fate
of t h e i r sons, and a f t e r E u s ta c e 's sad r e p l y , she says t h a t
she is convinced t h a t she has indeed found them, Eustace
sends fo r the two boys and they r e l a t e t h e i r adventures
" t o t de c h ie f en a u t r e . " The s e r i e s of r e c o g n itio n s
i s complete and the s to r y r e l a t e s t h a t tha family hosts
a g re a t f e a s t to c e le b r a te t h e i r reunion as well as the
v ic to r y over the enemies. The family and the s o l d i e r s
d e p a r t fo r Rome, but before t h e i r a r r i v a l , i t so happens
t h a t T raja n , the emperor, has died, and been replaced
by H adrian, "paiens c ru e ls a de mal afere e p ire s assez
que e l l d e v an t."
The host e n te r s Rome and Eustace is met p e rso n ally
by tha emperor, for t h a t was the Roman custom. There
follows much f e a s t i n g . This author w r i t e s :
Li mangiers fu a p p a r e i l l l e s a
las ta b le s m ls e s ; 11 c h e v a lie r
a s s i s t r e n t , a l i empereres de-
mandolt t o t e s vales so r ta b le a
Eustaca comant i l s ' a s t o l t con-
tenus an l a g u e rra , e comant i l
av o lt tro v e s sa fame a ses e n fa n s,
s i an dura plus longuamant l i
mangiers. (XXXIV, 4-9)
The L atin does not provide the above d e t a i l s r e l a t i n g to
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the p re p a ra tio n of tha f e a s t , and in a d d i t i o n , i t makes
no mention of th e k n i g h t s ' attendance.
The next day, the emperor goea to the temple of
Apollo to o ff e r a thanksgiving s a c r i f i c e . The t r a n s l a t o r
adds, a f t e r the name Apollo, the a p p o sitio n , "son dau."
Eustace refuaee to e n t e r the tem ple, and when Hadrian asks
him why, tha C h r i s t i a n r e p l i e s :
"Je aor le mien Seignor, Jhesu
C r i s t ; a lu i fax je s a c r e f l c e s e
o ro iso n s a p r o i e r a s ; a lui re n t
je g races e m e rc is, q u ' i l a eu de
mol p i t i i , e m'a v l a l t i en mes
t r i b u l a t i o n s e m'a rendu mes p e rte s
e mes domages. Autre deu ne c ro i
j e , ne ne s e r f , ne n 'a o r fors c e lu l
dal c i e l qui f a t les m iracles e les
m e rv e ille s tax com i l v e l t . " (XXXV, 7-14)
Enraged, th e emperor s t r i p s Eustace of h is b e l t . The
t r a n s l a t o r e x p la in s th a t t h i s symbolic a c tio n occurred
because i n r e f u s in g to honor th e pagan i d o l s , . Eustace
" a l o l t contra l a lo i da Rome." This ex p lan a tio n is pure
assumption and has no precedant in the L a tin . Tha emperor
has the whole fam ily brought before him and th re a te n s
them, b u t , the au th o r adds, " t o t ce ne l i v alu t r l e n . "
Seaing them unmoved by t h r e a t s and r e a l i z i n g th a t " i l ne
le s p o r r o i t e s c r o l l e r ne g l t e r de lo r cra an c e," Hadrian
commands t h a t th e four be led to the aremm. I t i s here
t h a t the t r a n s l a t o r makes a r a r e ad d itio n to h is L atin
model, fo r he i n s e r t s a b r i e f d ig r e s s io n , ex p lain in g the
functions of the Roman arena:
144
L 'a ra in n e s i ••C olt uni mult
grant placa an Roma. Ou 11 v a l l a t
jo o la n t a l'e s c re m ia a laa da-
a o ia a la a i f a l a o i a n t l o r baua a lo r
qu a ro la a; 11 daaolaal 1 polgnolant
lo r chavax, 11 chaaplon 1 d o n olant
laa cox l'em p areo r, a 11 b a c h a la r 1
jo o la n t a l'aacram la aa borraaua
a aa t a l a v a s : por tax jaus a por
autraa a ' a a a a ab lo ia n t llu a c aa faataa
c l 1 da l a c l t d . (XXXV, 22-28)
Tha abova paaaaga waa, parhapa, ln a e r ta d to aducata tha
audlanca to an a l i a n custom. Bayond t h a t . I t aay w a l l
hava s e rv a d to d lap lay tha t r a n s l a t o r ' s knowladga of
h l a t o r l c a l d a t a l l a . However, ona must s u a p a c t t h i a "Roman"
h l a t o r y , fo r tha a c t l v i t l a e described hava a decidedly
medieval r in g , in t h a t they could well apply to a t y p i c a l
tourney of the Middle Ages.
As i n a l l the v e r s io n s , tha savage l i o n does th a
family no harm and tha emperor la f r u s t r a t e d in h i s f i r s t
attempt to k i l l Eustaca and hia family. Tha Old French
s t a t e s , "Mas onquas par ca na l o r chal somma de d o s , "
fo r Hadrian has a huge bronse I d o l fashioned and th a n s e t
i n t o a b i a s i n g f l r a . Before tha family l a thrown i n t o
t h i s oven, they ask leave to make a f i n a l prayer i n which
they ask God to remember those who w ill honor them, to
grant s a f e t y to those in p e r i l from tha a a a , and f i n a l l y ,
t o allow t h a l r bodies to ba untouched by t h e flames. Tha
l a t t e r r e q u e s t , which i s also in tha L a t i n , i s i n t e r e s t i n g
in that i t s a t i s f i e s a te n e t of C h r is tia n dogma. T his
145
t e n s t s t a t e s t h a t only th o se bodies which were whole and
unmolested could be r e s u r r e c t e d a f t e r the Final Judgment.
A heavenly voice r e p l i e s t h a t a l l s h a l l be g ra n te d ,
and the family jo y f u l ly e n t e r s th e hot I d o l . The t r a n s
l a t o r r e l a t e s th a t " t a n t o a t le feus devlnt douz e t soef
ausl come ro se e ," and t h a t , In s in g in g and p r a i s i n g God,
the m artyrs rendered t h e i r s o u l s . The L a tin s t a t e s : "non
t e t l g l t eos I g n i s , neque c a p i l l u s s e n s l t odorem I g n i s . "
The Old French has only s l i g h t l y em bellished t h i s with a
modest s i m i l e :
SI poXst an v e o lr i l e c hautes
m a r v e llie s , q u ' l l g l s o i e n t el ml
leu del feu come 11 f e l s s e n t en
un l i t de roses ne ne p a r o i t a
chevol ne a robe q u ' l l eu ssen t
arsure de feu ne de flambe. (XXXVII, 36-40)
Three days l a t e r , the emperor comes to in s p e c t th e rem ains,
and when he and the crowd see the b o d ie s, they b e lie v e
them to be s t i l l l i v i n g ; " e s t o l e n t 11 cors plus blans qua
n e is n eg iee e plus r e s p la n d is s a n s qua 11 r a i s de s o l e i l l . "
The second sim ile Is not i n the L atin and i s indeed another
in s ta n c e in which the t r a n s l a t o r has added to a s i n g l e
e x p re s s io n In the L a tin .
The frig h ten e d emperor runs to his p a la c e , b u t the
remaining e p e c t a t o r s cry out t h a t the God of th e C h r is tia n s
must be g r e a t and pow erful, to b r in g about such m arvels.
L a t e r , some C h ris tia n s come s e c r e t l y to fe tc h the bodies
146
in o rd e r to tak e them to a "vary b e a u t i f u l p l a c e , " where,
some time l a t e r , they c o n s tr u c t a chapel to honor the
b ia ss e d m a rty rs, whose fe a s t i s in Novembar.
This prose v e rs io n ends very c o n v e n ti o n a lly , with
the f i n a l passage t r a n s l a t e d d i r e c t l y from the Latins
111a e s t v ita e h ie f i n i s Tex e s t l a vie a t tax e st
g l o r i o s i eorum c e r ta m i n is . l a fin s d e l bonaurd s a i n t
Omnes e rg o , qui merentur Eustace e de see compalg-
c e l e b r a r e manorlam eorum nons, e bien s a c h le s qua
e t invocare eos In p ra e - t u i t e l l qui l ' a v r o n t an
sidlum , im p e tr a n t, quae memoire, e qui l a s honore-
prom issa sunt S a n c t i s , ro n t en t e r r a , e la s ap ele-
per gvatiam Domini n o s t r i ront a l o r b e so in g , s o i t
S a l v a t o r i s Jesu C h r i s t l , por p e r i l l de c o r s , s o i t por
cul e s t g l o r i a e t p o te s ta s p e r i l l d'ame, i l avront
i n s a e c u la s a e c u lo ru . h a s t i f c o n s e i l l a h a s tl v e
Amen. aide por q u ' i l s o i e n t v e ra i
r e p e n ta n t e v e r a i confes.
Car cast don 11 dona Nostra
S i r e s , qui v i v l t e t regnat
per omnia s ee u la saeculorum.
Amen. (XXXIX, 1-9)
In g e n e r a l, th is prose t r a n s l a t i o n is im p o r ta n t, not
so much for i t s a r t i s t r y , whlsh is c e r t a i n l y l i m i t e d , but
fo r i t s d a tin g , which sta n d s a t the e a r l y p a r t of the
t h i r t e e n t h c en tu ry . This period marked a time when, more
and more, French prose was being w r i t t e n down. This in
cre ase i n the evidence of l i t e r a r y p ro sa was due, in p a r t ,
to the f a c t th a t the read in g p u b lic was growing co n sid era
b ly . While verse is w e ll adapted to r e c i t a t i o n , the
i n c r e a s e in w r i t t e n prose l i t e r a t u r e around 1 2 0 0*° su g g ests
t h a t a growing number of the v e rn a c u la r-s p e a k in g p u b lic
was le a r n in g how to re a d .
S t i l l , th is p a r t i c u l a r v a rs io n of La Via da s a i n t
Eustaca appears, fo r the most p a r t , to have been d e stin ed
fo r l i s t e n e r s r a t h e r than r e a d e r s . As has been pointed
out in the preceding pages, th e r e are numerous in s ta n c e s
in which the t r a n s l a t o r uses t h e f i r s t - p e r s o n pronoun and
the e f f e c t is a markedly o ra l one. The dearth of d e s c r i p
t io n and embellishment gives the piece an anecdotal e f f e c t
and a spoken s t y l e seems to outweigh the more romanesque
l i t e r a r y s t y l e t h a t one would come to expect i n l a t e r
prose l i t e r a t u r e . This modest and r a t h e r bland prose
s t y l e may have been d i c t a t e d by the t r a n s l a t o r ' s s c ru p le s
t o render the L a tin as p l a i n l y as p o s s i b l e , and even to
s im p lify the syntax found in th e Latin model. This sim
p l i f i c a t i o n of sy n tax can be seen in h is tendency to avoid
more complicated c o n s tr u c ti o n s and dependent c la u s e s . I t
has been pointed out t h a t the favored p a t t e r n s of ex
p re s s io n i n t h i s v e rsio n are sim ple d e c l a r a t i v e statm en ts
linked by c o r r e l a t i v e c o n ju n c tio n s.
Another a s p e c t of t h i s p ro s e is the presence of
numerous id io m a tic e x p re s s io n a . Murray, the e d i t o r of
t h i s v e r s io n , s t a t e s , "Ly s t y l e du tr a d u c te u r e s t d'un
ton souvent asses familier. Among the more f a m ilia r
ex p re ssio n s are the follow ing: "un pou 1 o t del p o ll del
leu " ( I , 5 ) , " q u ' i l ne montast en fauvel" ( I I I , 14), "Ne
onques puis n ' o l ne vent ne v o ie de mon pere . . ."
148
(XXVIII, 33), "de £11 an a g u i l l e " (XXIV, 5 ) , " a n t r a aaa
danz" (IV, 6 ) , "bal a t blan" (XIV, 29), " t o t da c h iaf an
a u tr a " (XXXII, 13), and "somme da doa" (XXXVI, 8 ) . The
prasanca of t h i s kind of e x p re ss io n in such a p la ce of
r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e a p p ears, fo r the most p a r t , to p re
clude an a r i s t o c r a t i c or le a r n e d audience.
Taken as a whole, th is t r a n s l a t i o n Is extrem ely
f a i t h f u l to th e L atin model. The only n o t i c e a b l e a d d itio n
i s the s h o r t passage d e fin in g a Roman arena. Compared
to the various t r a n s l a t i o n s in verse p re v io u s ly d is c u s s e d ,
t h i s version must be termed among the most a c c u r a te . At
the same tim e, i t must also be considered among the l e a s t
i n t e r e s t i n g , f o r the t i m i d i t y of the t r a n s l a t o r in re
fu sin g to em bellish h i s model r e s u l t s in a r a t h e r sketchy
and s k e l e t a l o u t l i n e of a p o t e n t i a l l y e x c i t i n g s t o r y .
There is l i t t l e or no e f f o r t to achieve c o n c r e te n e ss ,
e i t h e r by the a d d i t i o n of p ic tu re s q u e d e t a i l s or by the
s l i g h t e s t c h a r a c te r development. E ustace, T h eo sp ite,
t h e i r sons, the s e a - c a p t a i n , the emperors, the two
s o l d i e r s who found Eustace — a l l are r a t h e r pale f ig u r e s
in t h i s v e r s i o n , r a t h e r l i k e t r a n s p a r e n t icons frozen in
s t a i n e d g l a s s . Because the personages have r e l a t i v e l y
l i t t l e flesh and human warmth, t h i s v ersio n s u f f e r s from
a kind of im personal and c h r o n l c l e - l l k e to n e. In many
r e s p e c t s , i t has outdone the L atin in i t s a b s t r a c t n e s s .
149
In judging the p ro s* , on* a u s t t«lte In to account th*
fa c t th a t th* t r a n s l a t o r had probably few aod*ls a f t a r
which to p p t t e r n h is w r l t t a n s t y l e , Thla c o n s id e ra tio n
is p e r t i n e n t , for on* finds very l i t t l e in the way of
prose l i t e r a t u r e at t h i s e a r ly d a t e . 1^ This prose la
f u r t h e r lim ite d by th* fa c t th a t i t is a t r a n s l a t i o n and
not a work of pur* i a a g i n a t i o n . Thus, given th e se conside
r a t i o n s , one must accep t th is t e x t as a very e a r l y , i f
somewhat lim it e d example of Old French prose. While i t
has none of the appeal and b e a u ty , nor the highly developed
conventions of Old French t w e l f t h - and t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
v e r s e , at l e a s t , i t has th* modest v i r t u e s of c l a r i t y and
c o r r e c t n e s s .
I n s o f a r as o r i g i n a l i t y i s concerned, one must f l a t l y
s t a t e t h a t t h i s v e rs io n o f f e r s no I n t e r e s t to the s tu d en t
of n a r r a t i v e s of im ag in atio n . I t is purely a work of
t r a n s l a t i o n , b u t , in t h a t r e s p e c t , i t must stand as a
s o l i d example of accuracy and f i d e l i t y to i t s so u rce.
ISO
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER VI
La v ie de s a i n t E u i t » c i . J e s s i e Murray, a d .,
( P a r i s : Champion, 1929). For c o rra c tlo n s and commentary
on t h i a a d i t i o n , aaa H, P e t a r t e n , "Notas c r i t i q u e a su r la
v ersio n an p roae fr a n g a is e da l a Vie da a a in t Euatacha at
sur son models l a t i n , " N euphilologische M l t t e l l u n g a n . 83
(1932), 26-34.
2
For a d e t a i l e d duscuaslon of the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
of th a s a m a n u sc rip ts, sea Murray, op. c l t . . pp. i i l - v .
3 The l i t e r a l L atin v e rs io n Is d iscu ssed In
Chapter I I I of t h i s t h e s i s , pp. 17-18. The L atin te x t
published in M urray's a d i t i o n Is th s t of Blbl. N at. ms.
l a t i n SS77 ( f o l s . 3-15). For c o rre c tio n s to the L a tin
t e x t , sea P e t e r s e n , o p . c l t . . pp. 27-32.
* Murray, op. c l t . . p. v.
3 P e t e r s e n , op. c l t . . p. 29.
^ Murray, op. c l t . . p. v i .
7 Murray, op . c l t . . loc.
Murray, op. c l t . lo c .
® All c ite d Old French m a te ria l w i l l be followed
by the Roman numeral and l i n e number, as a ffix e d by
Murray in her e d i t i o n .
Urban Tlgner Holmes, J r . , A H istory of Old
French L i t e r a t u r e (New Yorkt R ussell and R u ase ll, I n c . ,
1962) , p. 36.
** Murray, op. c l t . lo c .
1 2
B rian Uoledge and H.P. C live, R i p e r t o i r e das
plus anclene t e x t e s an prose f r a n c a ie e depute ^42
l u s a u ^ u x p r e m lir e s annees du XIII* s l i d e . (Geneva: Dros,
1964), Pub 11 c a t 1 ons Romanes e t F ren ^ e is e s, LXXIX.
VII
CONCLUSION
The preceding ch ap ters have examined La Vie de s a i n t
Eustache from the p o in ts of view of i t s background as a
leg en d , of i t s appearance in various L atin and Old French
t r a n s l a t i o n s , and f i n a l l y , of the degree of o r i g i n a l i t y
and l i t e r a r y q u a lity d is p la y ed in the Old French tr e a t m e n t s .
P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n has been paid to two s p e c i f i c Old
French t r a n s l a t i o n s : the verse v e r s io n by P i e r r e de Beau
vais and the prose v ersio n of anonymous a u th o rs h ip . These
two v e r s io n s are extrem ely w ell s u i t e d to comparison for
th r e e reasons: 1) they are both t r a n s l a t i o n s of an i d e n t i
cal s o u rc e , 2) they both appear to hava been w r i t t e n during
the same p e rio d , t h a t i s , the f i r s t h a l f of the t h i r t e e n t h
c e n tu r y , and 3) they i l l u s t r a t e ex ceedingly w ell the p o in t
to which the Old French language had a r r i v e d , both i n i t s
verse and prose re n d e rin g s .
In comparing th e se two v e r s i o n s , one i s i n e v i t a b l y
led t o make a judgment on t h e i r r e l a t i v e l i t e r a r y w orth.
151
152
la naking auch a judgment, tha proaa v ersio n must, of
c o u rs e , s u f f e r the mark of i n f e r i o r i t y . One reason for
t h i s was mentioned in the preceding c h a p te r, th a t i s ,
th e r e were few i f any adequate models of h a g io g ra p h ic
t a l e s in Old French prose and th u s , very l i t t l e in the way
of examples and conventions to em ulate. On th e o th e r hand,
P i e r r e de Beauvais had a whole century of l i t e r a r y conven
tio n on which to draw and h is verse t r a n s l a t i o n b e tra y s
the work of an experienced and educated v e r s i f i e r , an
a r t i s a n who knew the ru le s and how to apply them. There
f o r e , any judgment of the prose v ersio n must be tempered
with a c e r t a i n le n ie n cy , fo r i t s t r a n s l a t o r was indeed an
i n t r p p l d w r i t e r who was at the vanguard of a movement in
Old French l i t e r a t u r e to w r i t e in prose w ithout the b e n e f i t
and guidance of co n ventions, r u l e s , and s ta n d a r d s . The
fa c t th a t the t r a n s l a t o r spoke in pro se, and thus was not
d e a lin g with an a l ie n medium, can mean l i t t l e when i t is a
q u e stio n of w r i t i n g , yet h is spoken s t y l e was perhaps his
only model, and i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g to find t h a t the
prose v ersio n abounds in id io m a tic e x p re ssio n s and i s
marked by an o ra l to n e.
I t must be s t r e s s e d t h a t th e se t r a n s l a t o r s were
d e a lin g with a very well-known s t o r y . The P la c ld a s -E u s ta c e
legend was one which had found i t s way i n to common l o r e ,
as was evidenced by th e many w r i t t e n accounts of i t as
153
w all as by Cha many renderings of I t i n Church iconography.
Thus the t r a n s l a t o r had a more d i f f i c u l t ta sk i f h is work
was to be s u c c e s s f u l : he had to employ im ag in atio n and
in n o v atio n in the handling of such well-known m a te r ia l
i f i t was to hold the a u d ien c e 's a t t e n t i o n , i f i t was to
be new and i n t e r e s t i n g , and, as an im portant by -p ro d u ct,
i f i t was to ba s p i r i t u a l l y e d ify in g . Again, in t h i s
r e s p e c t , P i e r r e ' s v ersio n compares very favorably with
the pro se, fo r he was obviously t r y i n g to r e ju v e n a te an
old s t o r y by the a d d itio n of d e s c r i p t i v e p a ss a g es, d i a
logue, and c h a r a c te r development. In the L a tin , the
perso n ag es, in t h e i r f r i e z e - l i k e p o stu rin g s and t h e i r
l im it e d d is c o u r s e , are l i t t l e more than su g g estio n s of
human b ein g s. On t h e other hand, P i e r r e ' s men and women,
in t h e i r p a ss io n a te and sometimes p a t h e t i c r e a c tio n s to
v i o l e n t and tra u m a tic e v e n ts , are Indeed made of human
s t u f f . The prose v e rs io n , on the c o n tr a r y , has held more
c lo s e ly to i t s model in the p o r t r a y a l of c h a r a c t e r s ; while
Eustace and Theosptte might have seamed more r e a l by the
very fa c t t h a t they were speaking in the contemporary and
v e rn a c u la r idiom, they s t i l l lacked a c e r t a i n pathos and
a c t i v i t y which one might expect of c h a r a c te r s in what was
e s s e n t i a l l y an adventure s t o r y .
As for the n a r r a t i o n of the s t o r y , the p rose v e rs io n
cannot be f a u lte d fo r lack o f c l a r i t y , but then n e i t h e r
154
can the L a tin . P i a r r a , howtvar, saw c e r t a i n apparant
gaps in the n a r r a t i v e which he t r i e d to f i l l by the
a d d itio n of s e c t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g to tin e p assage, a c ti o n
m o tiv a tio n , e t c . No such e f f o r t i s in d ic a te d in the p ro se ,
and t h i s p o in ts up one p r i n c i p a l d if f e r e n c e between the
two v e r s io n s , t h a t i s , the co n sc ie n tio u s and d e l i b e r a t e
a tte m p t, on P i e r r e ' s p a r t , to in f u s e some re a lis m i n t o
h is account. Ua does t h i s in numerous wayss for example,
by the a d d itio n of p ic tu re s q u e d e t a i l s , as in the hunt
sce n e ; by the p o r t r a y a l of common, everyday ta s k s , such
as the scene in which the m ise rab le Eustaca goes about
h is domestic d u tie s in s e r v in g refreshm ent to the two
k n ig h ts ; and by the scenes of s e p a r a tio n of fam ily, where
he t r i e s to p o r tr a y th e vary r e a l and h o r r i b l e b r u t a l i t y
of v io le n c e and i t s subsequent d e s p a ir . Because of t h i s
attem pt to render the c h a r a c te r s and a c tio n more r e e l l s -
t i c , the verse t r a n s l a t i o n p a r t s company from i t s a b s t r a c t
e c c l e s i a s t i c a l model; i t becomes, i n s t e a d , a very human
drama infuaed w ith su sp e n se , immediacy, and romance.
Because of the presence of th e l a t t e r elem ent,
romance, one i s led to ask i f P i e r r e was a t a l l in flu en c ed
by the adventure t a l e s and romances of the tw elfth c en tu ry ,
a heavy and Im portant l i t e r a r y leg acy , Indeed. The answer
to t h i s q u estio n must be somewhat ambiguous for s e v e r a l
155
re a so n s . F i r s t of a l l , one must conceda t h a t tha p l o t and
form of P i e r r e ' s v arsio n wara s i m i l a r , in many r a s p a c t s ,
to t y p i c a l axamplas of tw a lf th - c e n tu r y adventure n o v a la,
such as Guillaume d 'A n g l a t e r r e . sometimes a sc rib e d to
C hretien da Troia and compoaad most probably around 1170,*
S t i l l , one cannot even auggast t h a t tha p lo t underwent
any tw a lf th - c a n tu r y i n f l u e n c e , for i t has been demonstrated
th a t i t was wall e s t a b l i s h e d at l e a s t as fa r back as tha
eig h th c en tu ry . As fo r the l i t e r a r y form of P i e r r e ' s v e r
s i o n , however, one can assume a modest in flu e n c e by the
very fa c t t h a t P ie r r e was a p r a c tic e d and educated w r i t e r ,
and thus knew and used the l i t e r a r y conventions of the
g re a t century of medieval re n a issa n c e which had preceded
him. S t i l l , P i e r r e ' s employment of such conventions
was r e l a t i v e l y subdued, and t h i s was i n e v i t a b l e , no doubt,
because of the genre w ith which he waa d e a li n g , th a t i s ,
a h a g io g ra p h ic t a l e , a kind of conte d d l f i a n t which,
d e s p ite i t s o r i g i n a l i t y , was f i r s t of a l l a t r a n s l a t i o n
of a r e l i g i o u s work. And t h i s genre may account fo r
an other g l a r i n g absence of tw e lf th - c e n tu r y in f l u e n c e :
nowhere i n P i e r r e ' s t e x t can one d e t e c t the s l i g h t e s t h i n t
of the p r i n c i p l e s and t r a d i t i o n s of amour c o u r t o l s . This
is not too s u r p r i s i n g f o r Eustace and T heosplte were a
married c o u p le, and thua not " e l i g i b l e " fo r the excesses
and amorous r i t u a l normally a s s o c ia te d with th e behavior
p a tte rn s of c o u r tly love. In f a c t , t h i s husband and w ife
appear to r e a l l y love each o t h e r , a con d itio n alm ost
unheard of i n th e l i t e r a r y and p h ilo s o p h ic a l concepts of
f i n 1 amor. But th e n , such concepts would be very much
out of p lace in the account of a s a i n t ' s l i f e , a complete
c o n t r a d i c t i o n to the C h r is tia n m o ra lity t h a t P i e r r e was
p reach in g . S t i l l , th e re i s a c e r t a i n ly r i c is m evident
in the t e x t , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the lam entations u t t e r e d by
Eustace a f t e r th e t r a g i c loss of h is "bone amle." More
over, one might suggest t h a t i f these few verses were
taken out of context and t r e a t e d simply as a l y r i c poem,
they might conceivably pass for a tro u b a d o r's lament on
the absence of h i s belo v ed . N o n eth eless, the examples
are too few and th e resemblance too co n triv e d to say
dogm atically t h a t P i e r r e was, in any way, tr y i n g to imi
t a t e the p o e t i c models of c o u rtly love to which h e, how
ev er, had most c e r t a i n l y been exposed.
Thus, i n summary, one must s t a t e th a t the i n f l u e n c e s
of tw e l f t h - c e n t u r y l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s in P i e r r e ' s v e rs io n
a r e , for th e most p a r t , minimal, and perhaps at tim e s ,
even c o i n c i d e n t a l . One can even go so f a r as to remark
th a t many of th e se s o - c a l l e d romance elements were alre ad y
i n h e r e n tly p r e s e n t in P i e r r e ' s s o u rc e . One s c h o la r has
w r i t t e n t h a t i t i s " c l e a r th a t many of the elements which
15 7
we c o n sid e r as developed In th e romance form e x is t e d
alre ad y In th e Church l i t e r a t u r e . . . . There a re not
an I n f i n i t e number of ways to t e l l a good s t o r y , whether
I t be a haglographlc legend or an amorous ad v en tu re."^
In comparing the language of th e two v e r s i o n s , one
must, of c o u rse, consider the r e s p e c tiv e m e rits and l i m i t a
tions of verse and p ro s e . P i e r r e ' s verse i s , in g e n e r a l,
very re a d a b le and f l u e n t . I t has been p o in te d out t h a t he
was very conscious of the a r t i s t i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s of
o c t o s y l l a b i c rhymed c o u p le ts ; h is p ro so d ic e f f e c t s d is p la y
both competance and keen knowledge, i f not complete mas
te ry , of his medium. The prose v e r s i o n , w hile perhaps
lim ite d by a c e r t a i n elementary and s e lf - c o n s c io u s s t y l e ,
possesses the m erits of being c o n c is e , c o llo q u ia l and
qu ite r e a d a b le . Thus, one must accord to th e prose a
co n sid e ra b le measure o f s u c c e ss , given i t s e a r ly d a te and
i t s g e n eral la ck of p re c ed e n t.
In comparing c h r o n o lo g ic a lly a l l the Old French
v e rs io n s discu ssed in the previous c h a p t e r s , one i s s tru c k
by a marked tre n d s the various tre a tm e n ts seem to undergo
an i n t e r a s t i n g a l t e r a t i o n in r e l a t i o n to th e epoch of
t h e i r com position. This change in emphasis i s r e f l e c t e d
in the follow ing way: the l a t e r the h a n d lin g of th e legend
the more i t appears to r e f l e c t c e r t a i n p re o c cu p a tio n s of
158
the t i n e . In the l a t e r t r a n s l a t i o n * of La Vie de sain t
E u s ta c h e . on* d is c e r n s a more marked emphasis on adventure,
v io le n c e , marvelous elem en ts, a p p a r i t i o n s , and complex
c h a r a c te r development. Th* e a r l i e r t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
v e r s io n s , on the o th e r hand, are c h a r a c te r iz e d by a more
guarded and d i d a c t i c s i m p l i c i t y . Th* f o u r t e e n t h - and
f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v ersio n s ap p ear, by comparison, almost
"decadent" in t h e i r accumulation of a d d itio n a l episodes of
3
vio len ce and t o r t u r e . This same tendency has been noted
in o th e r legends which have been rehandled over a period
of s e v e r a l e a n t u r i e s . One e x c e l l e n t example is La Vie
de s a i n t A l e x i s .^ which is re p re se n te d by v e rs io n s dating
from th* elev en th to the f o u r te e n th c en tu ry . In his
Chrestomathie de la L l t t d r a t u r e en Anclen F r a n c a i s . A lbert
Henry has remarked upon t h i a tendency as fo llo w s : " . . .
l a Via de s a i n t Alexis a 6 t£ p lu s ia u r s f o is remanlee, to u t*
en p e rd a n t sa b e l l e s l m p l l c i t e . . . . Le te x t* p r l m i t i f
n 'a pas e t i conaiderablement modifie en s o l : s ' i l a
t r l p l d de longueur, c ' e s t qua 1 * rem anieur, guide par des
tendances romanesques et par l e souci de repondre A cer
tain* goQts du J o u r , I ' a f a r c i de longs developpements.
Thus the somewhat improbable embellishments which appear
in tha l a t e r Eustace v e r s i o n s , such as th e m iraculous
a p p a r i t i o n of the w h ite - c la d army, th* d e c a p i t a t i o n of
159
four thousand Roaans, and tha r a t h a r s a d i s t i c t o r t u r a
r i t u a l s s u ffa ra d by E ustace, a re perhaps r e f l e c t i v e of a
aore jaded audience which r e q u ir e d s o r e in the way of
roaanesque developaents and s t y l i s e d l i t e r a r y v e r s i f i c a
tion in order to be s a t i s f i e d . 6
This n o tio n of a growing and i n s a t i a b l e audience
brings one to s p e c u la te on t h e whole r a is o n d ' f t r a of
v ern a cu la r t r a n s l a t i o n s in the Middle Ages. The t h i r
teenth century was, w ithout a doubt, the r i c h e s t in
v e r s i f i e d v e rn a cu la r s a i n t s ' l i v e s . In a d d itio n , th e use
of v e rn a c u la r prose as a l i t e r a r y medium began almost with
the b i r t h of t h i s same c e n tu r y . T h e re fo re , given t h i s
volume and breadth of a c t i v i t y , the t h i r t e e n t h century
may j u s t l y be termed as the age t h a t w itn essed the growth
and development of t r a n s l a t i o n in to a mature a r t or s k i l l .
One may wonder why t h i s kind o f l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y would
f l o u r i s h at such a time in th e h i s t o r y of medieval
l i t e r a t u r e . A good answer i s given by Urban Tigner Holmes:
"The t h i r t e e n t h century is apt to be n e g le c te d by the
h i s t o r i a n of medieval French l i t e r a t u r e because i t was
not a p e rio d of renaissance or o r i g i n a l i t y ; i t followed
upon th e tw e lf th century and merely c u l t i v a t e d f u r t h e r
the h e r i t a g e which had been l e f t i t . What the preceding
century had o r i g i n a t e d was th en I m i ta te d and developed."^
In other words, the t w e lf th c e n tu r y , i n i t s remarks-
160
bl« explosion of im ag in ativ e and d i v e r s i f i e d l i t e r a r y
p ro d u c tio n , was " a hard a c t to fo llo w ." Not s u r p r i s i n g l y
th e n , one sees th e r i s e of the t r a n s l a t o r , the a b r ld g e r ,
the com piler, the e n c y c lo p e d is t , the c o d l f i e r . To some,
these kinds of w r i t e r s might seem to be the e q u iv a l e n t of
I n t e l l e c t u a l and l i t e r a r y p a r a s i t e s , but i f t h a t ware so,
one would have t o regard the t h i r t e e n t h century as being
populated with l i t t l e more than human w r i t i n g automatons
and hacks. While there were most c e r t a i n l y many examples
of i n f e r i o r and unim aginative reh an d lin g s of previous
m a t e r i a l , n o n e th e l e s s , one cannot w rite o f f the t r a n s l a t o r
and h is accomplishments so c a v a l i e r l y . While one has
seen some u n fo r tu n a te examples of mechanical and u n in sp ire d
t r a n s l a t i o n in some v e rs io n s of La Vie de s a i n t E u s ta c h e .
so has one seen some r e n d e tin g s , which, by t h e i r very
o r i g i n a l i t y and p o e t i c te c h n iq u e , are indeed e x t r a o r d in a r y
i l l u s t r a t i o n s of what c r e a t i v e t r a n s l a t i o n can be. The
attem pts a t im a g in a tiv e a d a p t a t i o n s , by such w r i t e r s as
P i e r r e and o t h e r s , must speak w ell for the t r a n s l a t o r ' s
s k i l l . This o ften -m alig n ed m etier need not produce
simply a s l a v i s h and i n h i b i t e d re p ro d u c tio n of old
m a t e r i a l ; in d e ed , i t can be an illu m i n a t i n g and u sefu l
t o o l to b rin g e d u ca tio n to the masses. At the same tim e,
i f th e t r a n s l a t o r i s c r e a t i v e l y g i f t e d , i t can be a to o l
to b rin g l i t e r a t u r e . in a l l i t s beauty and charm, to a
161
massive n a t i o n a l audience, t h i r s t y fo r i n s p i r a t i o n and
accounts of grand deads*
Thus, i n speaking of La Vie de s a i n t Eustache in i t s
vario u s Old French v e r s i o n s , one must recogniss the
fu n c tio n and a r t of t r a n s l a t i n g s a i n t s ' l i v e s i n t o the
v e r n a c u la r . The fu n ctio n c o n s i s t s in the t r a n s l a t o r ' s
duty to p r e s e n t an e d u c a tio n a l and a cc u ra te message to h is
a u dience, to ed ify them with r e l i g i o u s and id e o l o g i c a l
examples of C h r is tia n b e h av io r. The a r t , on the o th er
hand, c o n s i s t s in the t r a n s l a t o r ' s a b i l i t y to c l o th e h is
e d ify in g message in b e a u t i f u l words and forms, d ram atic
i n t e r e s t , and l y r i c s e n s i b i l i t i e s ; to adapt h is source to
his epoch and the t a s t e s and needs of h is l i s t e n e r s ; and
f i n a l l y , to c r e a te something of l i t e r a r y worth whleh w ill
be both new and a l i v e , and worthy of fu tu re c o n s id e r a tio n
by g e n e r a tio n s of read ers to come. On the whole, a good
number of th e v ersio n s of La Vie de s a i n t Eustache have
proven durable for j u s t such reasons and m erit t h e r e f o r e
c r i t i c a l and s c h o la r ly a t t e n t i o n .
162
FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER VII
Urban Tlgnar Holmes, J r . , A H isto ry of Old
French L i t e r a t u r e (New York: R ussell and R u s s e ll, I n c . ,
1962) , p. 151
2 I b i d . . p. 136.
^ See, In p a r t i c u l a r , the d is c u s s io n s of Versions
X and XI In Chapter IV of t h i s t h e s i s , pp. 39-45.
* Gaston P a ris and L. P a n n ie r, La Vie de s a i n t
A lexia, poime du XI* a i e c l e et renouvellam ents dee XII*.
X III* . e t XIV* s i d e l e s ( P a r i s : 1872).
^ Albert Henry, Chrestom atie de l a L i t t d r a t u r e en
Ancien F r a n c a i s . Fourth E dition (Bern: E d itio n s A. Francke,
1967), p. 14.
6
One w i l l r e c a l l th a t the l a t e r verse v e r s io n s ,
s p e c i f i c a l l y v e rs io n s X and XI, were c h a r a c te r iz e d by a
much more complex prosody in comparison to the t y p i c a l
t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y form of o c t o s y l l a b i c rhymed c o u p le t s .
7 Holmes, op. c i t . . p. 219.
163
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Creator Baca, Maria Carlota (author)

Core Title Narrative And Lyric Originality In The Old French Versions Of "La Vie De Saint Eustache"

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program French

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag literature, romance,OAI-PMH Harvest

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Advisor Berkey, Max Leslie, Jr. (committee chair), Araluce, Jose Ramon (committee member), Knodel, Arthur J. (committee member)

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