Iconic And Symbolic Representation Modes Through Media Presentations In An Independent Learning Situation

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Content ICONIC AND SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION MODES THROUGH MEDIA PRESENTATIONS IN AN INDEPENDENT LEARNING SITUATION by Jacques Lapointe A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) June 1972 INFORMATION TO USERS This dissertation was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing pagels) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. Unlvarttty Microfilm* 300 North Zaab Rood Ann Arbor, Mlehtsan 41106 A Xarox Education Company 72-27,675 LAPOINTE, Jacques Philias, 19*H- ICONIC AND SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION MODES THROUGH MEDIA PRESENTATIONS IN AN INDEPENDENT LEARNING SITUATION. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1972 Education, theory and practice University Microfilms, A X E R Q K Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan (£) Copyright by JACQUES IHILIAS LAPOINTE 1972 t THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFIUCD EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THK ORADUATI SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANOC1XS. CALIFORNIA SOOOT This dissertation, written by J a c ques Phi l ia s L a p o in te............... under the direction of h.kH... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by ali its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y Date...J\m&..X9L22. DISSERTATION COMMITTEE A/ . Chairmen PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have In d istin c t p r in t. Filmed as received. University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ....................................... lv LIST OF TABLES ........................................ v Chapter I. THE PROBLEM .................................. 1 Statement of the problem. Delimitations, Research problems and hypotheses. Definitions of terms. II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ..................... 13 Theoretical background. Theories of learning and instructional design. Encoding process. Developmental and cognitive theories. Media selection and design. Media research. III. DESIGN METHODS AND PROCEDURES ................ 41 Experimental design. Experimental variables. Experimental population. Experimental materials. Measurement instructions. Instructional package. Environmental control. Conducting the experiment. Preparation of data and statistical analysis. IV. RESULTS ...................................... 87 Experimental findings. Analyses of the hypotheses. Summary of results. V. SUMMARY - CONCLUSIONS - IMPLICATIONS ......... 108 REFERENCES ............................................ 118 APPENDICES ............................................ 127 I. Supplementary Data ........................... 128 II. Estimation of the Power ...................... 134 III. Experimental Classroom Floor Plan ............. 137 ii IV. Printed Booklet*? ............................. 139 V. Test Material*? ............................... 179 iii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Structures and fonctions .................... 21 2. Model of 2X2X2 experimental design ............ 44 3. Floor plan of the experimental classroom ...... 138 iv LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Descriptions and uses of flipcard sets ......... 52 2. Item analysis statistics for initial tryout .... 59 3. Item analysis statistics for final tryout ....... 60 4. Item difficulty indices ....................... 65 5. Item difficulty by subtest .................... 66 6. Performance test - item analysis .............. 67 7. Iconic test - item analysis ................... 67 8. Symbolic test - item analysis ................. 68 9. Subtests correlation matrix.................... 70 10. Rotated matrix of iconic and symbolic items .... 72 11. Factor correlation matrix ............. 76 12. Means and standard deviations of subtests and total test - first level ...................... 88 13. Means and standard deviations of subtests and total test - second level ..................... 89 14. Means and standard deviations of subtests and total test - third level ...................... 91 15. Modes main effect - subtests and total test measures ............................... 93 16. Modes X age interactions - subtests and total test measures ....... 94 17. Symbolic mode effects ......................... 95 18. Iconic mode effects ........................... 96 19. Modes X media interactions - subtests and total test measures .................................. 98 20. Media main effect - subtests and total test measures ...... 99 v Table 21. Media X age interactions - subtests and total test measures ................... 100 22. Time-to-completion measures .................. 101 23. Test of homogeneity of variances for treatment times ........................................ 102 24. Test of homogeneity of variances by modes .... 104 25. Test of homogeneity of variances by age ...... 105 26. Experimental schedule ........................ 129 27. Descriptions and uses of flipcards sets ...... 131 28. Correlation matrix of iconic and symbolic items ........................................ 132 vi 1 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Statement_of the Problem A central and ultimate goal that has long been espoused by educators is to help all individuals actuate their human potential. Among the recent trends in educa tion, the development of instructional theories, pro grammed instruction, and the physical aspect of instruc tional technology can be viewed as effective means for taking steps toward the individualisation of instruction. Unfortunately, the design, development, selection, and utilization of educational media and materials based upon substantive theory and research are still rare (Briggs et aL, 1967). Because of the diversity of individual needs, the acceleration of change, and the explosion of knowl edge occuring in our society, the actualization of human capacities requires a wide range of learning situations which will account for individual differences. Furthermore, the design, development, and implementation of instruc tional materials in independent learning situations has to be based upon relevant and valid theories. Considering the research in the field, the fol lowing difficulties were identified as part of the failure of media research and design: 1. Many studies had and still have as a main objec tive the comparison of the effectiveness of two media or classes of media (Roshal, I960: Lumsdaine, 1963; Knowlton, 1964; Brigg* et al, 1967; Reid and Maclennan, 1967); 2. The learning behaviors to be performed by the learners were not identified with precision (Briggs et al, 1967); 3. The distinction between "modalities" and "channel" are occasional. No effort has been made to differentiate the presentation mode (media) from the mode of representa tion (learning style by which the instructional events are managed) (Hsia, 1968; Conway, 1967; Gropper, 1965); 4. No clear distinction was made between the content presented and the learning outcome (Eisner, 1969; Gagn6, 1965a); 5. No relationship was established between the physi cal aspect of the media used and its relevancy for certain learning styles; 6. Past research in the media field failed to study interactions of media characteristics with developmental variables of intellectual functioning (Nielsen, 1970); 7. The studies have been conducted mostly in large- group rather than in individual learning settings (Nielsen 1970); 8. Most of the media researches conducted have imple mented pictorial type of learning setting while the test- 3 ing situation represented an attempt to measure the verbal or written aspect of learning (Lumsdaine, 1963; and Reid and Maclennan, 1967); 9. Many studies in the field are also considered as once-and-for-all definitive experiments (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). These weaknesses explain why only few systematic procedures are applied in media research design, selection, and utilization. It is the intent of the present study to overcome these difficulties and to apply cognitive theory considerations to the use of media. The concern of this study is related to the con struct of modes, derived by Nielsen (1970), from the cogni tive theories of Bruner (1964b, 1966) Baldwin (1966), and Piaget (1964), and related to the media theories of Knowlton (1966), and Conway (1967, 1968), If modes of presentation and representation are to be related to media theory, the modes of representation become an instructional parameter which will help one to design and develop instructional events dictated by the learning styles of the population one wants to teach. This position has the advantage of differentiating between what (content) has to be learned by the subjects, the presenta tion mode (channel), and the learning style (the way the content is structured) involved in the instructional sit uation. Therefore, in this study the modes of representa- tion will become a means by which media design and cogni tive theory will be related. That is, cognitive and devel opmental theories will help one to structure an instruc tional event and will give one directions for the develop ment and selection of media. Modes of Representation Although Bruner's and Piaget's concepts of devel opmental psychology specify three modes of cognitive func tioning, this study investigated only the iconic and sym bolic modes of representation. This is justified by the fact that the enactive mode does not deal directly with written symbols, but with actions which require the physi cal presence of the reality to be taught. Also enactive functioning occurs at an earlier age than the iconic and symbolic functioning. Media Presentation The motion picture was selected as a mode of presentation because it can by nature account for the ele ment of continuity of events presented in the teaching of the animation concept. Furthermore, its physical nature also suggests a positive relationship with the iconic mode of representation. This is due to the potential of the filmloop in presenting images which are close to reality having a capacity to account for both the still and motion characteristics of pictures. 5 The filmstrip was choosen because of its flexi bility and its potential to be as effective as the motion picture mode (Allen and Weintraub, 1967). Subject Matter Concepts related to flipcard animation were cho sen instead of traditional school subject matter in order to reduce the possible effect of previous learning. The subjects were limited to 9 and 11 year olds because these age levels conformed to the evolution of the two modes of representation investigated in this study. Because of the small number of subjects per treatment this study dealt only with a ’ 'normal population", excluding mentally retarded subjects. School Because independent learning settings were re quired for this study, a school which required minimum ad aptation in its schedule and environment was selected. Research-Problems and Hypotheses The major purpose of this study was to invest igate the efficiency and the effectiveness of an independ ent learning situation considering two variables as they interact with two learner levels of cognitive functioning. The first variable studied was related to the mode by which the concepts acquired were represented, that is, the iconic and symbolic modes of representation. The 6 second variable was related to the means by which the rep resentation modes were presented, that i«, the Super 8mm filmloop and the filmstrip. The third variable was related to two different age levels: 9 and 11 years old of elemen tary school learners. Research Question 1.0 Is the effectiveness of the representation modes related to the age of the learners? HYjaath.esjs As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is no significant difference between the population mean of students using the iconic mode and the population mean of students using the symbolic mode. As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is a significant interaction of modes of representa tion and age levels of the population sampled. Hypothesis 1.3 As measured by subtests and total test scores, the population mean of students of age 11 is significantly greater than the population mean of students of age 9 with the symbolic treatment. Hypothesis 1.4 As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is no significant difference between the population mean of students of age 9 and the population mean of stu dents of age 11 with the iconic treatment. Research Question 2.0 Is the effectiveness of the mode of representa tion related to the medium by which the pictorial compo nent is presented? As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is a significant interaction of modes of representa tion and media of presentation for the population sampled. Research Question 3.0 Is the effectiveness of the media of presenta tion a function of the age level? As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is no significant difference between the population mean of students using the filmloop medium and the popula tion mean of students using the filmstrip medium. Hypothesis 3.2 As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is a significant interaction of the media of presen tation and age levels for the population sampled. Research Question 4.0 Are there treatments which are more efficient than others in terms of time to completion? HYRatkftSlSJUl As measured by treatment time to completion the 8 population mean of student* using the filmloop is signifi cantly greater than the population mean of students using the filmstrip. Hypothesis 4.2 As measured by treatment time to completion, the population standard deviation of students using the film strip is significantly greater than the population stand ard deviation of students using the filmloop. Reaearch-_Questlon 5 . . . Q Are there treatments which are significantly greater in terms of variability of performance? Hypothec1* 5.1 As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is a significant difference between the population standard deviation of students using the iconic mode and the population standard deviation of students using the symbolic mode. Hypothesis 5.2 As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is a significant difference between the population standard deviation of students of age 11 and the popula tion standard deviation of students of age 9. Research Question 6.0 Is the modes construct an approach which can be useful to media research and design? 9 Mode? This term refers to different levels of cognitive functioning by which reality is perceived by a person and different ways by which the same reality is presented to others. Two different modes will be distinguished: a repre sentation mode and a presentation mode. The presentation mode will refer to the channels by which reality is presented to others, e.g., reality can be presented to others through a book or a film. The representation mode refers to the levels by which an individual perceives developmentally the reality, e.g., reality can be perceived through different levels of abstraction according to different ages of the subject. According to Bruner (1966) and Piaget (1964) there are three modes by which reality can be represented. These three modes of representation are distributed along a continuum of experiences starting at a very concrete lev el and ending at a very high level of abstraction. Bruner (1966) named these different modes of re presentation as being enactive when reality is represented through action, iconic when reality is represented by im ages, and symbolic when it is represented by a system of symbols other than the image. The enactive mode of repre sentation has not been Investigated in this study. 10 Iconic The term iconic refers to that mode by which the representation are governed by the principles of physical, perceptual, and temporal-spatial organization, relation, and transformation (Bruner, Pp.11, 1966). In this study the term iconic will consider the motion pictures and still pictures as being the principal means whereby reality will be represented to the subjects. However, a written component will direct attention of the students toward certain elements of the pictorial compo nent by means of interrogative sentences presented in a printed booklet. Symbolic The term symbolic refers to that mode whereby the representation are composed of such elements as verbal descriptions, formalized statements, or rules, and analo gous or metaphorical models and symbols (Baldwin, Pp. ISO- 182, 1966). In this study the term symbolic refers to both a pictorial component (filmstrip or filmloop) and a symbolic written component (printed booklet) as means by which re ality was represented to the students. In the iconic treatment the role of the written component is to guide the students' inquiry power toward certain elements of the picture. The written component of the symbolic treatment directed the attention toward cer- 11 tain elements of the picture by formalizing statements or rules inherent to the pictures. Media In this study the term media represents the mode by which image and written symbols are presented. The filmstrip and filmloop were used as media to present the photographic component of the treatment. The verbal component of the treatment was presented by a print ed booklet. The term flipcards refers to sets of 18 to 42 card*;, each having a simple line drawing appearing on the lower portion of the card. When arranged in the proper or der and flipped rapidly, an animated action was seen (Nielsen, Pp.4, 1970). Filmstrip The term filmstrip refers to 35mm film contain ing a succession of still pictures intended for projection one at a time in the same way as slide are shown. In this study the filmstrip contained 49 related still pictures. Filmloop The term filmloop refers to a sequence of photo graphs or drawings packaged in a cartridge which permit the film to move continuously without reloading the pro jector. The films used for this study were Super 8mm films. 12 Baaklst The booklet consisted of a small book of 38 8"X5" sheets of paper fastened together along one edge with General Binding plastic binders between two protective cov ers. The pages with printing has been typed originally with an IBM electric machine using Pica type and enlarged 140 percent with a Xerox camera. Cognitive Structure Cognitive structure refers to the organization of facts, concepts, and principles. Such a structure is not arbitrary. It is determined partly by how man's mind works and partly by the nature of the subject, i.e., the intel lectual discipline to be learned (Gage, Pp.138, 1963). The formation of this cognitive structure is de pendent upon operations such as memory, application, anal ysis, and synthesis (Bloom, 1956); modes of representation such as enactive, iconic, and symbolic (Bruner, Pp.11, 1966); and levels of abstraction such as concrete, and formal (Piaget, Pp.25-75, 1964). 13 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The media research specifically relevant to the problem being studied will be reviewed under three catego ries: theoretical background, media selection and design, and media research. This section will draw upon a number of areas providing a theoretical background for the study. First, the necessity to base the design and development of in struction upon sound theories is covered. Then, the struc turing of a learning situation is described as being an encoding process. Finally, developmental and cognitive the ories are presented as possible parameters guiding the de signer of mediated learning situation. Theories of Learning and Instructional Design In 1965 Hoban remarked, "There is some reason to believe that the problem of management of learning becomes more acute when any aspect of new technology is introduced into education (Hoban, Pp. 125, 1965)," Two years later Heinich wrote, "Technology makes teachers aware of instructional styles, characteristics, and shortcomings which they may not have been conscious be fore (Heinich, Pp.260, 1967)." One of the main effects of media upon the instructional process was to force us to a 14 nalyse the act of teaching. In trying to simulate the in structional process it became necessary to study systemat ically the variables involved in it. Hoban (i960), Hilgard (1966), Gentile (1967), Glaser (1961, 1965a), Bruner (1963, 1964b, 1966), Gagn4 (1969), McDonald (1964), Gage (1963, 1964), Lumsdaine (1963, 1964), Travers (1962), Skinner (1968), Tosti and Ball (1969), and Briggs et al (1967), after intensive and extensive researches on the variables involved in the learning teaching process, concluded that the design and development of media must be disciplined by some of the experiments of sciences, that is, technology. Parallel to this effort, they also began to shape rules and standards around which an instructional model was developed. That commitment to a "general model" of instruction estab lished a research framework for the media field. (Lumsdaine and Glaser, I960; Glaser, 1965a; Lange, 1967; Hickey, 1963). The general steps involved in the instructional process were the following: the inventory of "what" is to be taught, the analysis of the nature of "whom" it is to be taught to, the development of "how" it is to be taught, and the implementation and evaluation of "what" has been taught. Since technology is concerned with the applica tion of scientific knowledge to practical problems, each of these steps implied the existence of theories to be ap- 15 piled. Gradual analysis was performed on which and what science can contribute in order to permit the maximum utili zation of human resources and instructional materials and equipment. The third step of the instructional process (the "how" to structure instructional events), received particu lar attention. The use of theories was justified by their possibilities to explain, predict, unify phenomena, and generate strategies for research (Heinich, 1967; 3rodbeck, 1969). Little by little the use of theories has been con sidered necessary, not stricly on logical grounds, but also on practical grounds. Because of their potential in provid ing more specific guidelines for instructional decisions, learning theories received special attention. When pure science's achievement are selected as foundations for research, such theories should form a base for applied research being conducted. So, before being ap plied, a theory of learning must be transformed into ap plied forms. Bruner (1964a) maintained that learning theo ries are not directly translatable into instruction and that we make a mistake in not developing theories of in struction separate from theories of learning. This position is consistent with Hilgard. The relationship between learning theory and educa tional practice is that between any pure science and its technological application, in the process of ap plication something more than the theory is always involved (Bruner, 1965, p.40). 16 According to Gage (1964) theories of learning will be more useful to education if transformed into theo ries of teaching. This thesis is justified by the fact that theories of learning deal with the ways in which an organ ism learns, while theories of teaching deal with the ways in which specifiable means of events are structured to pro duce predictable learning outcome. Hoban (1965) argued in the same direction in maintaining that: The central problem of education is not learning, but the management of learning. Learning and the manage ment of learning are not equivalent terms, anymore, than are learning and teaching. The so-called teach ing-learning problem is subsumed under the management- of-learning problem (Hoban, 1965, p.243). Heinich supported a similar position in asserting that: Learning theory ... is the process of making models of laboratory experiments. Instruction, as an applied field, is involved in making models for future events (Heinich, 1967, p.100). So, without being directly applied in a class room situation, theories dealing with learning principles can provide guidelines for media design. As pointed out by Bruner, ... this is not to say that learning and developmental theories are irrelevant to a theory of instruction. In fact, a theory of instruction must be concerned with both learning and development and must be congruent with those theories of learning and development to which it subscribes (Bruner, 1966, p.40). 17 Encoding _Prac&&a We learn by interacting with the world. We can relate ourselves to reality through actions, images, or symbols. Whatever the means we use to perceive the reality, we always end up with a subjective perception of what is "out there". We never receive passively and never register events without acting upon them. Knowledge is never a copy of reality; it always involves a subjective element. In other words, knowledge is an assimilation of reality by hu man beings. This assimilation or transformation of reality is done according to certain encoding systems which vary from age to age. According to Piaget (1967) the external world will become objectified to the degree that the self builds itself as a function of subjective or internal activity. So the knowledge we have at a given moment is no less than a conquest of the entire universe that surrounds us through different encoding processes. In that sense, an encoding system must be perceived as a means of conveying data about reality. As it has been said earlier, it is possible to i- dentify different ways of conveying data about reality. Some of these encoding systems or modes of representation have been identified and studied by Bruner (1966) and Piaget (1964, 1967). The structure of any domain of knowledge may be char acterized in three ways, each affecting the ability of any learner to master it: (a) the mode of repre- 18 sentatlon in which it is put, (b) its economy, and (c) its effective power (Bruner, 1964a, p. 309-310). If an educational event is to be effectively de signed, it must be translated into learner's encoding sys tems or constructions of reality. So an instructional event must be perceived as being a replica of the learner's ab straction of the reality: the more faithful the replica, the better it will be as a model of the learner representa tion of reality. As Bruner observed, The task of teaching a subject to a child at any par ticular age is one of representing the structure of that subject in terms of the child's way of viewing things (Bruner, 1963, p.33). What is needed is knowledge of the different en coding systems used by children of different ages, in or der to match an instructional event to the requirements of the learner. Considering the same problem, Saettler stated, ..., what is needed is systematic research on the rel ative effectiveness of analogical and digital modes of representation as these relate to the content of instructional message, to communicator and learner characteristics, and to physical and psychological as pects of a particular medium or combination of media (Saetler, 1968, p.125). Piaget and Bruner conducted extensive research on these encoding systems, and it will be the subject of the following section. Developmental and Cognitive Theories Piaget's theory of intellectual development and Bruner's theory of cognitive structure are particularly relevant to this study. Both recognize the existence and 19 developmental evolution of human encoding systems. Piaget's Theory of Intellectual Development Piaget could legitimately be considered as being a psychologist, logician, biologist, and philosopher, but the best way to understand his approach is to perceive him as a genetic epistemologist. Piaget's studies have been conducted to answer epistemological questions through the developmental study of the child. The epistemological interests of Piaget re sulted in the empirical investigation of the construction of the categories of the object, of space, of causality, and of time. It should be kept in mind that, for Piaget, knowledge is action. He considers intellectual development as being a continual process of organization and reorgani zation of structures. This organization/reorganization process involves biological adaptation and equilibrium be tween the individual and the environment. Piaget is con cerned with structure which hold true for the individual and for the species. Functions, structures, and content. According to Piaget two general elements are considered in mental devel opment: first, elements which are invariant and, second, elements which are variable. The functions remain invari ant, but the structures change as the child evolves. He maintains that we inherit two basic tendencies or "invari ant functions": adaptation and organization. The term or- 20 ganization refers to "the tendency for all species to sys tematize or organize their processes into coherent systems which may be either physical or psychological (Ginsburg and Opper, 1969, p.25)." Assimilation and accomodation are com plementary, whereas organization and adaptation are inter mixed. Another important concept for Piaget is the structure of behavior; that is, "an abstraction of the fea tures common to a wide variaty of acts which differ in de tail (Ginsburg and Opper, 1969, p.21)." As was shown ear lier, these structures change systematically from age to age. For instance, the different encoding systems con structed by the child of two years old and the child of four years old are "variant". Each structure can be divided in schema, which refer to the basic elements of the child's overt actions. The term content "refers to what the individual is thinking about, what interests him at the moment, or the terms in which he contemplates a given problem (Ginsburg and Opper, 1969, p.11)." Figure 1 summarizes functions, structures and content relationships. Eventually the organism tends toward a progressive equilibrium between accomodation and assimi lation. Structures (varying across the stages and contents) I Schemata I 1 --------- 1 ---1 CQ GO U3 03 01 01 r > o o o o o O* IT D* 3* 3" 3* ( t > (t> fD fp O (D 3 3 3 3 3 3 Q) f l l Q) Q) d> CD (Flavell, 1963, p.10) Periods of Intellectual development. Piaget perceives the development of the Intelligence as occuring in stages, each reaching a distinctive level of equilibrium. Further more, each stage interpenetrates subsequent stages. He i- dentified three distinctive periods. There is first the period of sensori-motor intel ligence which extends from birth to two years of age. Dur ing this period, the child evolves ''from a neonatal reflex level of complete self-world undifferentiation to a rela tively coherent organization of sensori-motor actions vis- 4-vls his immediate environment (Flavell, 1963, p.86)." From two to eleven years, there is a period of preparation for and organization of concrete operations. During this nine year period of time the child begins to 21 FIGURE I (invariant across the stages and contents) . ---------L— n Organization Adaptation > m U i H* 3 H* t ~ > 0 1 r+ 1 > O O o 3 o a Q » c+ O 3 22 master the ability to think symbolically. From two to four years, the period of pre-conceptual touoht appears. It is characterized by the appearance of representational thought and an early use of language. The four to seven years peri od of intuitive thought shows a progressive differentiation between the signifiers and the significates. "In causality there is a steady shift toward accomodation to an external realLty and away from the internal orientation that charac terizes assimilation (Wilson, Robeck and Michael, 1969, p.240)." The next stage, seven to eleven years, is one of concrete operations. "during which the reasoning processes are logical but not altogether dissociated from the con crete data, complete conceptual generality not yet having been attained (Bruner, 1964, p.245)," The use of written language and numerical symbols illustrate a progress toward the use of abstract encoding systems. The period of formal operations, from eleven to fifteen years, is marked by the ability to think at the a- dult level. The child is able to think in logical terms and to reverse his propositions without dealing with concrete reality. In his analysis of the three periods of intellec tual development Piaget identifies three different encoding systems gradually constructed by the child in interacting with reality. In the sensori-motor period the child does not differentiate between himself and the world around him. 23 His principal means of interacting with reality is by ac tion. In the second period the child begins to "interi or lze1 1 the sensori-motor structures and representations. Finally the young person frees himself from concrete opera tions and masters this operational intelligence in manipu lating concrete and abstract representations. Bruner's. .Modes of Representation Bruner wrote on thinking, concept formation, and education. His contribution to psychology cluster around the task of establishing a "conceptual framework for think ing that could be useful in defining learning and instruct ion (Mathis, B. C., Cotton, J. W., and Sechrest, L, 1970, p. 181)." He established that "learning and categorization are the basic elements of the cognition process (Rowland, T., and McGuire, C. 1965, p.320)". He identified two class es of categories: Identify categories, which are common atto- ributes of stimuli, and equivalence categories, which ex plain how stimuli share commonality. As stated by Hilgard, explaining Bruner's cognitive structure, "knowledge has an inherent relatedness that should be followed in its presen tation to the learner (Hilgard, 1964b, p.75)." In a recent publication, Bruner (1966) worked toward the development of a theory of instruction integrating what is known about learning. Bruner (1964a) also distinguished between three 24 mode*? representing three different encoding systems used by man to internalize reality. There is a gradual evolution from an enactive to a symbolic mode of representation going through an intermediary stage called the iconic mode of rep resentation. There is no complete disappearance of the modes from age to age, but an integration of the modes with each other. Each mode of representation is characterized as followed: Enactive representation, a process of representing past events through motor responses; Iconic representation, in which percepts and images are organized in a selective fashion to represent e- vents; Symbolic representation, in which information proc- essing takes place by means of a symbol system, such as a language, with the environment being represented by features of the symbol system (Mathis, B. C., Cotton, J. W., and Sechrest, L, 1970, p. 198)." In sum these three modes describe three encoding systems by which reality is represented. Representation In Media Theory Gibson (1954) developed the concept of surrogate "an artificial stimulus produced by another individual which is relatively specific to some object, place, or e- vent not at present affecting the sense organs of the per ceiving individual (Gibson, 1954, p.7)." The surrogates have functions similar to the encoding system; they convey data about reality, are used for communication purposes, and represent the essence of knowledge. Gibson classified 25 surrogates Into two categories: (1) image surrogates, which are replication of perceptual properties; (2) symbolic sur rogates, which are conventional. The application of this theory is dependent upon whether the instructional objec tives were related to the learning of perceptual or ab stract properties. It is important to point out that his theory was generated from properties of the environment and not from organism’s attributes. Knowlton (1966) differentiated between iconic and digital sign vehicles. The sign vehicle was the physical arrangement of picture or word. The digital sign was con ventional in nature, and the iconic sign was a logical projection of its significant. In relation to the iconic sign, he prepared a taxonomy which formed a 3X3 matrix. The matrix permitting the categorization of iconic signs accor ding to elements, pattern of arrangement, and order of con nection at the first level, and in terms of realistic, a- nalogical, and arbitrary relationships at the other level. According to Knowlton, it was possible to categorize the same picture differently, depending on the context which established the relationship between the picture and its referent. Conway (1967,1968), in a review of research re lated to the channels and representation, summarized his position relative to the problem in the following terms: ... the apparent confusion between "modalities" and 26 "channel”. That is, there is no consistent distinc tion drawn between the sensory modality involved in the communication of information and the coding sys tem which characterizes the information presentation. The failure to make necessary conceptual distinc tions not only leads to ambiguous treatment compar isons both within and across separate studies but it seems also to have blinded researchers to the exist ence of significant presentational conditions (Conway 1967, p.377). He then used Knowlton*s concept of iconic and digital sign types and showed that the controversy over single-versus multiple-channel was due to conceptual inade quacies of models, designs, and interpretations. Theoretical Position of the Present Study The similarities observed between cognitive and developmental theories, and the issues related to the modes of representation, cause the present investigator to agree with the theoretical position assumed by Nielsen (1970), who stated that, "there is a probable potentially significant congruence of modes of knowing (Intellectual functioning, as articulated bv Piaget. Bruner and othersi andjmodes of representation In the media of instruction (Nielsen, 1970, p.31).'* Media Selection and Design The necessity to identify principles and criter ia of media selection and design lead investigators to de velop strategies, theories, and models. Miller et al (1967) made one of the first attempts to synthesize principles for learning from motion pictures as possible criteria to con- slder In the selection and design of media. This approach was based upon Miller's drive-cue-response-reward theory of learning. Allen (1967) presented a media selection matrix relating six different learning objectives to the selection of nine different media types. The effectiveness of the me dia types in relation to the objectives were rated high, medium, and low. May (1968) considered instructional outcomes as a creteria for the selection of media. He emphasized the outcomes of instructional objectives rather than the proc esses involved. This "product" orientation considered two principal tasks: reproductive and productive-constructive tasks. Briggs et al.,(l967) presented procedures of se lection and design based upon the main steps involved in the instructional process. The steps of the procedure were: (l) statement of the behavioral objectives; (2) identifica tion of the type of learning involved; (3) design of a "me dia program" for each objective; (4) preparation of media options for a sequence of instruction; (5) assignment of media for portions of the course; and (6) statement of spe cifications for the media producers, Tosti and Ball (1969) proposed a model for in structional design and developed a system component called a presentation form, "Presentation form is designed to be 28 independent of media and content so that media forms may be paired to educational requirements and theories in a rigor ous manner (Tosti and Ball, 1969, p.5)." The steps leading to the design of the operational system considered the i- dentification of general goals, the analysis of general goals into specific behaviors, the enumeration of entering behaviors of the students, the design of student shaping procedures, the selection of media which fit the presenta tion requirements, and the implementation of the operation al system. Presentation design was discussed by them in terms of six dimensions: encoding form and duration of the stimulus, demand form and demand frequency of the response, and form and frequency of management. The media are select ed in terms of their limitations rather than in terms of their advantages. This behavioral approach to instructional design and media selection obliges us to be clear about presentation form before selecting the appropriate media. Bretz (1971) described eleven uses for communica tion in instruction: (l) to provide the learner with knowl edge of his learning objectives, (2) to motivate the learn er , (3) to present information, (4) to stimulate discus sion, (b) to direct learner activities, (6) to conduct drill and practice, (7) to reinforce learning, (8) to pro vide a learner stimulator interface, (9) to evaluate learn er progress and effectiveness, (10) to assist in the admin- 29 istration of instructional system, and (11) to assist in research and development. The selection of the appropriate media for each of these uses considered the following criteria: visual presentation, audio presentation, motion, and abstraction of subject matter. Media Research The media research category will have three sec tions: still and motion presentations, directing attention and posing questions, and the modes variable. Still and Motion Presentations As reported by Allen and Weintraub (1968), no intensive study has been conducted to identify the differ ential effects of motion picture compared with still pic ture presentation. Hoban and Van Ormer (1950) demonstrated that sim ilar learning effects were induced, regardless of the still or motion modes used in the treatment. When differential effects were found favoring still pictures, it was attri buted to a slow rate of instruction, and when motion pic ture was superior, it was interpreted as an effect due to the flexibility of the film in conveying interactive e- vents. The research reported by Allen (i960) showed that both modes of presentation (still and motion) were about as effective as the other when combined with audio narra tion. 30 Miller (1967), in a two-channel study, compared motion picture film with still picture film. Even though the subject matter (breaking a wild horse) selected in this study seemed to favor the motion variable, no significant differences were found. Allen, Filep, and Cooney (1967) found similar results in their study. In spite of the in herent movement nature of the selected subject matter, the printed-verbal group performed slightly better than did the pictorial presentation groups. In another related study, Allen, Cooney, and Weintraub (1968) investigated the effectiveness of five different modes of audio narration in combination with mo tion picture and still slides. Considering the visual pres entation variables, they found no significant differences. In term of attitude toward the presentation modes, there was an indication, though, that sound motion picture films were perceived more positively than sound still slide pres entation. Allen and Weintraub (i960) investigated the mo tion variable upon the learning of cognitive information. The study was conducted to determine the appropriateness of motion in communicating cognitive information. Three si lent film modes were studied: motion picture, sequenced still pictures, and single still pictures. They found that the silent motion picture mode of presentation was superior to the two silent still picture modes regardless of subject 31 matter content, learning objectives, the grade level of the subjects, or the sex of the students. Houser, Houser, and Mondfrans (1970) conducted an experiment in which still slides and motion pictures were used to teach two concepts, one involving movement and the other characterized by non-motion attributes. They found that, regardless of the motion or the non-motion na ture of the concepts taught, the motion picture mode of presentation was significantly superior as a learning de vice. Allen et al.,(l970) conducted a study in which the effectiveness of motion picture presentation was compared to still picture and verbal presentations. Their study was designed to investigate seven visual-verbal modes of pres entation: sound motion picture, silent motion picture, sound still picture, silent picture, sound print, print a- lone, and sound alone. Their conclusions were that the sound motion picture and sound still picture proved to be superior to all other treatment modes, but no significant differences were evident between still and motion in the sound modes. However, the silent picture was greatly supe rior to the silent uncaptioned still picture. Conclusion. Regarding the issue of motion versus still picture, the results showed no significant difference when the motion and non-motion nature of the concept taught is considered. When significant differences were found it was attributed to other variables than the motion or still na ture of the picture presented. However, the interactions of the motion and still variables with different levels of cognitive functioning have not been investigated and could reveal some interesting effects. D.irectina Attention and Posing Questions McGuire (1961) investigated the effects of de scriptive narration in a demonstration film on a pursuit- rotor tracking task. He observed that the attention-direct ing narration facilitated criterion performance on the fea tures to which attention was directed but debilitated per formance on the feature to which attention was not direct ed. Gibson (1947) reported that verbal descriptions of visual shapes were helpful in learning the identifica tion of aircraft. Zuckerman (1949) studied modes of film narration and concluded that imperative instructions were superior to passive-voice descriptions of the steps in the task being demonstrated. Contradictory findings have been reported by those investigating the insertion of rhetorical questions in instructional media (Lumsdaine, May, and Hadsell, 1956; May and Lumsdaine, 1958; Maccoby, Michael, and Levine, 1961). Butts (1956) investigated the effectiveness of declarative, interrogative, and imperative captions with still slides and found declarative and imperative captions superior to 33 interrogative caption*. Kantor (1960) in*erted questions in a film, either before or after the content. A third film had no inserted questions. The results of the experiment showed that the subjects learned equally well from all three versions of the film. Vuke (1962) also studied in serted questions in an existing film and found no signif icant differences on post or retention tests when compared with a film in which no questions were inserted. Conclusions. It is clear that the verbal direc tion of attention to elements in visual presentation can affect learning. When a film is used the effectiveness of the question remains contradictory. "However, the relation ships of the form of the verbal component to characteris tics and design of the media, the mode of concept represen tation in the visual component, and the cognitive level and functioning of the learner appear to be crucial in deter mining the effectiveness of the verbal component directing attention or posing questions (Nielsen, 1970, p.51)." Modes Variable--Representation Beilin (196S) conducted a study which consisted of three phases: (1) pretraining tests of number, length, and area conservation: (2) training with four experimental procedures on conservation of number and length; and (3) posttraining transfer test* of number, length, and area conservation. Following pretesting, subjects were (l) clas sified as conservers, transitional conservers, and non-con- 34 servers, (2) further stratified by age, and (3) assigned to control and treatment groups with an attempt to balance for conserving and age. Each child was tested and trained individually. The four training procedures employed were: (l) non-verbal reinforcement, in which a buzzer sounded to reinforce a correct choice; (2) verbal orientation reinforcement, which involved verbalization of the concept in the instruction for each trial; (3) verbal rule instruction, which provided the same procedures as in (2) and, in addition, provided a statement of the rule to apply in each instance of a prob lem error; and (4) equilibration, in which the spatial ar rangement of the objects was deformed but in which none were removed or added to any of the problems. Results indicated that each group in the study, including the control group, had a significant number of subjects who improved in performance from pretest to post test. However, only one qroup-*the verbal rule instruction group--had significantly more subjects improving than did the control group. The control group’s improvement was at tributed to the fact that the pretests and posttests were, in themselves, training experiences. The significant re sults were related only to the concept of number and length conservation. Area conservation improvement was not signif icant. Kohnstamm (1968) selected three teaching methods 35 for teaching class inclusion relations. They were: (1) ver bal representation of the class objects, (2) pictorial rep resentation of the class objects and verbal representa tions, and (3) Logo blocks as class objects and pictorial representation^ of class objects. Inclusion relations was defined as being "the quantitative comparing of two classes A and B in which one (B) contains the other (A) (Kohnstamm, 1953, p.394)." Every child was trained separately in a tu torial arrangement in which the experimenter tried to lead the child to an understanding of the correct response after an incorrect response was made. Results indicated that the Logo block and picto rial representation method was superior to each of the oth er two methods of training used in this study. Belling, Kagan, and Rabinowitz (1963) attempted to determine the role of language and perceptual experience in improvement of cognitive representation. Using a pre- test-training-posttest-transfer design, the investigators studied the effects of two types of training procedures: (1) perceptual training, involving visual confirmation of water level in covered jar, and (2) verbal program train ing, Involving verbal instruction in the concepts of hori- zontality and water level by means of a programmed in struction booklet. Two variations of the perceptual proce dures, four combination of the verbal procedure, and three control group variations constituted the nine treatment 36 groups in the study. The results indicated that, while there were no significant differences among the nine groups on the pre test, there were significant differences on the posttest. The means of both perceptual training groups differed sig nificantly from all other group means except the mean for the group with the verbal program on the water level con cept. That group mean differed significantly from one con trol group and from the group with the verbal program on the horizontal level concept. No significant differences were found on the transfer test. Cropper (1965) investigated "response control" during and after pictorial and verbal presentations and the integration of pictorial and verbal presentations in two studies. Programming principles were applied in the design of the lessons. In Study No.l the subjects either made an ticipatory responses to partly prompted materials or pas sively observed. In Study No.2 all subjects responded ac tively. Criterion measures included both verbal and picto rial test items. In Study No.l a completely pictorial lesson and a completely verbal lesson were compared. The subjects saw the pictorial lesson followed by the verbal lesson, or the verbal lesson followed by the pictorial lesson, or only the verbal or only the pictorial lesson. Results of Study No.l indicated that there were 37 no significant differences between students who received ei ther visual program or the verbal program on verbal test i- terns. On visual test items, the visual program showed a significant superiority over the verbal program group. Fur thermore, Students who first acquired concepts on the basis of the solely visual lesson and then once again ( in technical language) on the basis of the verbal lesson achieved higher test scores than students who worked on these two lessons in the reverse order. The visual/ verbal order of presentation proved superior. Transfer from one learning situation to another appears to have been facilitated by the visual/verbal order of presen tation (Gropper, 1965, p.ii). In Study No,2, the visual and verbal lessons were divided into segments and then intermixed. The experiment was designed to observe the effects of: (a) visual/verbal and verbal/visual sequences, (b) responses to pictorial op tions and responses to verbal options during instruction, and (c) the presentations on the work rate (time-to-comple- tion) on the verbal program. In this study the verbal seg ments were presented by means of printed booklets. The pic torial segments were presented by means of closed circuit TV. Results of Study No.2 indicated that, the visual/ verbal order of presentation was more efficient and more effective than the verbal/visual treatment. Gropper concluded that for teaching concepts and principles: Pictorial materials should be programmed to be capa 38 ble, fia their own, of teaching concepts, during such presentations, discrimination practice should be based on pictorial response actions, programmed pictorial materials should be accompanied by but precede verbal materials (Gropper, 1965, p.iii). Nielsen (1970) investigated the differential ef fects of (1) iconic and symbolic modes of representing con cepts and (2) audio tape and printed booklet versions of filmstrips with 9 and 11 years old students. Four treatments of two filmstrip lessons on con cepts of flipcard animation were produced. The verbal com ponent of the symbolic treatments described and explained the filmstrip images and stated the rules and principles of flipcard animation. The verbal component of the iconic treatments directed attention to aspects of the filmstrip images and posed questions about them: but rules and prin ciples were not explicitly stated. The filmstrips for the two lessons were the same for both the symbolic and iconic treatments. The verbal component of the four treatments was presented by means of printed booklets and audio-tapes. The verbal components for the audio tape and the printed book let treatments were the same at each level of the mode of representation. Subjects were taught and tested individual ly. The measurement instrument was composed of three subtests. One subtest on assembly and use of flipcards con taining four questions was conducted during the first phase of testing. Eleven verbal and eleven pictorial items were 39 produced for the two remaining subtests. Each symbolic sub* test item was matched with an iconic subtest item. Symbolic subtest items were verbal and the iconic subtest items had both verbal and pictorial components. It was concluded that: 1. There is no significant differences in the effec tiveness of iconic and symbolic filmstrip treat ments for 9 and 11 years old learners. 2. For the 9 year old learner, the mode of representa tion may be more crucial for learning than for the 11 year old students. 3. There is no interaction of modes of representation and media presenting the verbal component of film strip lessons for 9 and 11 year old learners. 4. There is no meaningful difference in the effectiv eness of audio tape and printed booklet as media presenting the verbal component. 5. There is no interaction of the media and age levels for 9 and 11 year olds learning from filmstrip les sons. 6. There is no interaction of the modes of representa tion and the media presenting the verbal component of filmstrip lesson for 9 and 11 year old learners. 7. The printed booklet is more efficient than the au dio tape treatment when completion time of film strip lessons is the criterion. 41 CHAPTER III DESIGN METHODS AND PROCEDURES This chapter describes the design, methods and procedures which provided the structure and *trategie* that controlled the experimental variables in order to give val- id and reliable answers to research questions. The statis tical rationale and the descriptive statistics of the meas- uring instruments are also presented in this chapter. Experimental Design It was not the intent of this study to investi gate the effects of particular treatments compared with a situation without treatment, but to compare the effects of different treatments with each other. Controlled investiga tions were used to assess the differential effects of modes of representation and media presentation for two age lev els . The Posttest Only Control Group Design #6 report ed by Campbell and Stanley (1963, p.25-27) was selected as the basic model. The original Campbell and Stanley design was the following one 1. R X 0 2. R O (p.25) (where R*random assignment, X»treatment, and 0*measuring instrument). The design adopted in this study simply ellml- 40 8. There are no differences in variability for either modes of representation or media of presentation. 9. 11 year old learners do consistently better than 9 year old learners with all modes of representation. Conclusions. It may be concluded that the iconic and the symbolic mode of representation had differential effects in learning. Interaction of these modes with film- loop and filmstrip, the age of the learners, and the con tent characteristics merits further investigation. 41 CHAPTER III DESIGN METHODS AND PROCEDURES This chapter describes the design, methods and procedures which provided the structure and strategies that controlled the experimental variables in order to give val id and reliable answers to research questions. The statis tical rationale and the descriptive statistics of the meas uring instruments are also presented in this chapter. It was not the intent of this study to investi gate the effects of particular treatments compared with a situation without treatment, but to compare the effects of different treatments with each other. Controlled investiga tions were used to assess the differential effects of modes of representation and media presentation for two age lev els. The Posttest Only Control Group Design #6 report ed by Campbell and Stanley (1963, p.25-27) was selected as the basic model. The original Campbell and Stanley design was the following one 1. R X O 2. R O (p.25) (where R*random assignment, X»treatment, and 0*measuring instrument), The design adopted in this study simply elimi nated the control group and became: 1. R X 111 0 2. R X 112 0 3. R X 121 0 4. R X 122 0 5. R X 211 0 6. R X 212 0 7. R X 221 0 8. R X 222 0 (where for X , 1 and 2 are levels indices of the cells, ijk and i*age, j»medium, k*mode of representation). The three-factor ANOVA design presented in fig ure 2 was developed based upon Campbell and Stanley's Post test Only Group Design #6. Experimental Variables Three sets of experimental variables were manipu lated: the modes of representation and the media presenta tion for two age levels. Modes of HepreseQlellen Intellectual development is conceived as a grad ual and continual process of reorganization of thinking 43 functions, each new pattern of intellectual functioning in tegrates the previous one into itself. Consequently in the evolution of the intelligence there is never a complete fade out of the previous structure. This principle is also applicable concerning the development and emergence of dif ferent modes of representation. The term "modes of repre sentation" refered to different levels of cognitive func tioning by which reality is perceived by children of 9 and 11 years old. There is a gradual evolution of the representa tion modes from an iconic to a symbolic cognitive function ing for children from age 9 to age 11. The levels of repre sentation will never be found in a pure state but will al ways exist concurrently with a dominance of one of the two representation modes in relation to different age levels. For purpose of the study, the two modes of representation have been separated. In order to investigate these two modes of repre sentation two different sets of treatments were designed and employed. Iconic mode. The iconic mode of representation was used in one half of the treatments. Each iconic treat ment had a pictorial and a verbal component. Because the iconic mode is primarily governed by principles of percep tual organization, pictorial images were the main stimuli by which the concepts were represented. The two media used 44 age Iconic Symbolic Filmstrip Filmloop MEDIA Fig,2. Model of 2X2X2 Experimental Design MODES 45 to present the pictorial component of the treatment were filmstrip and 8mm filmloop. The verbal component of the treatment was presented by means of a printed booklet. Im perative and interrogative sentences were used, not as a "symbolic" description of the image, but as cues which di rected the attention of the subject toward a more complete investigation of the image itself. Symbolic mode. The other half of the treatments used the symbolic mode of representation. Like the iconic, each symbolic treatment had a verbal and a pictorial compo nent. Because the symbolic mode is a more abstract way of perceiving reality, the concepts taught by the symbolic treatments emphasized more of the verbal component than of the pictorial component of the concepts represented. The printed booklet used in these treatments was composed of declarative sentences which were abstractions of perceptual properties and formalizations of rules and principles re lated to the images presented. The conceptual messages were transmitted to the subjects using a more abstract structure than employed in the iconic instructional situation. The pictorial elements of the treatment were presented by means of filmstrip and 8mm filmloop. Media As used in this study, the modes of representa tion were considered as a generator of instructional strat egies which will hopefully give insights regarding possible 46 ways of structuring an environment corresponding to the learning styles proper to children of different age levels. So the strategy called for an identification of elements common to all the components of an instructional situation. In this study the selection of the media was based upon similar considerations and permitted us to distinguish a- mong the behavioral objectives, the content, the subject’s learning styles, and the channels. The term media refers to a mode of presentation, that is, the channels by which im ages are presented. So there was a content (motion picture animation principles) structured according to different en coding systems (iconic and symbolic) presented through dif ferent channels (filmstrip and filmloop). To investigate the effects of and interactions between age, the iconic and symbolic modes, and the medium by which the content was presented, two media were se lected. 8mm filmloop. Super 8mm color motion pictures in Technicolor cartridges mediated the iconic and symbolic treatments for half of the treatment*. All images were pho tographic motion pictures of real objects and events. Filmstrip. The 35mm color filmstrip presented the iconic and symbolic treatments for the remaining half of the treatments. All Images were photographic still pictures of the same real objects and events presented with 8mm mo tion picture films. The sequence of the presentations were 47 the name for both media. Learner Variable The ages of the subjects were selected according to the natural evolution of child intelligence concerning his cognitive functioning. Since children of 9 years old are predominantly characterized by an iconic cognitive functioning and children of 11 years old are predominantly characterized by a symbolic way of representing reality, children who were i 4 months of being 9 and 11 years old were selected for the study. Experimental Population The experiment was conducted in the Neimis School, ABC School District, Cerritos, California. By grade level, 3 (6%) were in the third grade, 22 (46%) were in fourth grade, 19 {41%) were in fifth grade, and 4 (7$) were in sixth grade. By race, more than 95% of the school popu lation were white American. The majority of the students attending this school came from the middle and lower-middle class families. The school is situated in a residential area. From all children who were 14 months of being 9 and 11 years old, 24 students of each age level were randomly selected. The educable mentally retarded and the trainable mentally retarded were excluded from the population. Experimental Materials The motion picture animation principles was selected as subject matter for this research. This content was cho 48 sen because it was different than the traditional school topics, and consequently minimized the effects of previous learning and increased the possibility of detecting the treatment effects. The concepts to be represented iconically and symbolically in the experimental treatments included the following: (l) seriation of images, that is, gradual dif ferences on the image from flipcard to flipcard; (2) static image elements, that is, the elements of the image which are static from flipcard to flipcard; (3) transient image elements, that is, the elements of the image which are transient from flipcard to flipcard; (4) reversibility of planned action, that is, the possibility to reverse the ac tion of a set of cards simply by changing the order of the cards composing a flipcards set; (5) quantumization of an action into a series of still images, that is, a regular and consistent change in the drawing from flipcard to flip card until the planned action is completed. This content had been originally developped by Nielsen (1970) in his doctoral dissertation. To reduce the treatment and test time to completion, one instructional objective related to the assembly of flipcards using a ma trix strategy was eliminated from the original content. This decision was based upon recommendations made by Nielsen regarding this objective of the program (1970, p.134). 49 By the end of the treatment the subject*? will: (l) identify parts of a pic ture which are static from flipcard to flipcard and parts of the picture which are transient from flipcard to flip card; (2) identify the gradual difference of the transient elements of the image from flipcard to flipcard; (3) iden tify three conditions necessary to simulate an action with a set of cards; (4) looking at different positions of the transient elements, the subjects will identify the direc tion of the action; (b) looking at different positions of the transient elements, the subjects will situate the mov ing object in relation to the starting, middle, and ending points of the action; (6) looking at different cards of a set the subjects will locate where these cards are situated in the set of flipcards; (7) rearrange the cards in such a way that the action happens backwards; (8) identify the perceived position of the viewer in a standing still anima tion situation; (9) identify the perceived position of the viewer in a moving along animation situation; (10) identify which element of the image is transient and which element is static in a standing still kind of animation; (11) iden tify which element of the image is transient and which el ement of the image is static in a moving along kind of ani mation; (12) differentiate between a standing still and moving along kind of animation; (13) hold correctly a set of cards in order to flip them; (14) flip correctly a set 50 of cards. Entering behaviors. No specific knowledge was re quired to participate in the experiment. The only skill considered as essential was at least a fourth grade reading ability. Among the forty-eight students selected, no stu dent exhibited reading problems related to the verbal com ponent of this particular study. Development of the Experimental The lesson began with an introduction, the main goal of which was to familiarize the subjects with the ma terials and equipment they had to manipulate. This intro duction was followed by a general statement of the instruc tional objectives of the program. The lesson ended with a review of the concepts taught. Fifteen different sets of flipcards were used for instructional and testing purposes in this study. These specific flipcards were selected from twenty one sets pro duced and utilized by Nielsen (1970). Table 27 of Appendix I presents a descriptive summary of the action animated, the types of animation, and their uses in the experiment for the entire set of flipcards. It is consequently appro priate to quote Nielsen regarding the description of the flipcards and the production techniques he used. An animated line-drawing appeared on the lower half of each flipcard. Picture backgrounds and the objects ap pearing to move were drawn on separate animation 51 cell*;. By repositioning either the object or the back ground and photographing the composite picture on high-contrast film with a single-frame camera, it was possible to produce a negative with a single frame for each flipcard drawing in a set. Each frame was en larged to the finished size on double-weight, photo graphic paper. Where more than one copy of a set was needed, the pnoto-enlarged flipcards were produced by offset printing on heavy index card stock and trimmed to size. Fourteen flipcard sets had animated pictures with objects which changed position from drawing to drawing within the "frame” of the picture. The effect was as if one were standing still in one place, watching the object move by (Type SS). Seven flipcard sets showed an animated object in the center of each picture "frame”i the background changed position from drawing to drawing. The effect was as if one were moving along with the animated object (Type MA). (Nielsen, 1970, p.70) . Each set of flipcards was made up of 18 to 42 cards measuring 2.5"X4.25". The flipcard sets were the bas ic material around which all concepts of animation were de veloped. They were also used in the production of the film loop, the filmstrip, and the measurement instruments as testing materials and as illustration for certain ques tions. Table 1 gives a summary of the type of animation which characterized each set, a description of the action and their uses in the experiment. The flipcard sets were manipulated by the subjects only when they were taking the performance test. The booklet was the medium by which the verbal component of the treatments were presented throughout the experiment. It was also the medium through which the treat- 52 TABLE 1 DESCRIPTIONS AND USES OF FLIPCARDS SETS Action Animated Type of Animation Use Balloonist descending SS, MA 0 Ball rolling between thank SS, MA X Big fish chasing little fish SS X Boy hopping on pogo stick MA 0 Ice truck driving away MA X 0 Man riding bicycle SS X 0 Moon rising behind castle SS X Seashores do-si-doing SS 0 Ship sailing to a castle SS X 0 Sub moving under water SS MA X 0 Sub sinking to sea bottom MA X 0 Villain learing SS 0 SS* Standing Still X =Treatment MAs Moving Along Os Measuring Instrument 53 merits were given an iconic or a symbolic orientation. Two symbolic booklets were produced, one to be used when the filmstrip was employed and the other one when the filmloop was the medium of presentation. The only difference between the two symbolic booklets was the instructions given to use either the filmstrip or the filmloop. Two iconic booklets were also produced, one for the filmstrip treatments and the other for the filmloop treatments. These also differed only in relation to the instructions given to use either of these two media. Covers of different colors were used to differentiate the four booklet versions. Each frame in the booklet had a number which cor responded to the number of each film sequence of the film loop and to each still picture of the filmstrip. The number at the beginning of each frame was used to indicate the mo ment at which the student had to turn the filmstrip to the picture which had the same number. The symbol "Look Again1 1 written at the end of each frame, indicated that the expla nation was over and that it was now time to study the still picture before continuing. The instruction related to the use of the filmloop were a little different since each film sequence had to be studied after the subject read the cor responding frame. The number was used to indicate the point at which the student started to read the frame. At the end of each frame the symbol "Look Again" was used to point out that the explanation of this particular frame was over and 54 that it was now time to start the projector and study the corresponding film sequence. The verbal component, although represented in an iconic or a symbolic style, never differ ed in itc content and instructional objectives. Although some changes were made to the original content developed by Nielsen, the format of the booklet and the technics used to produce them remained the same. Book lets were of 8"X5" Xeroxed pages bound with General Binding plastic binders. The booklets were first typed with an IBM electric machine using Pica type. The original booklet was enlarged 140 percent with a Xerox camera. In addition, sev eral important concepts were emphasized by underlying them. Appendix IV includes reduced reproductions of the two book lets used in the experiment. Filmloop Four Super 8mm color motion picture films in Technicolor cartridges were produced to present the motion pictorial component of half of the treatments. The first cartridge lasted 3 minutes 49 seconds, the second 3 minutes 14 seconds, the third 3 minutes 16 seconds, and the fourth 3 minutes 38 seconds for a total of 13 minutes 57 seconds. The content of all the film sequences were first photographed by means of Kodachrome II 35mm (indor Type A), processed and previewed by 4 children representative of the selected population. Factors considered in the testing of the visual 55 material? were the vocabulary used in the pictures, the clarity of the image, and the size of the image projected. Regarding the vocabulary used for certain pictures, the children were asked to tell the experimenter if there were some words which they did not understand. Since the pic tures were supposed to illustrate animation principles, the elements of the pictures used to simulate actions had to be clearly illustrated. So the children were asked to identify the elements of the picture which were transient. Concern ing the size of the image projected, 10"X6" was considered as a minimum to permit the subjects to perceive clearly every important detail of the pictures. The subjects were also asked to read orally the verbal element of the picture and the reading time was registered for each of these color slides. These estimations were used as time indices for the presentation of each corresponding film sequence. The data obtained in the development of the first slide presentation served as information to produce the mo tion pictures. The motion pictures were composed of live- action of two children of age 9 and 11 using sets of flip card in different situations and graphic displays of flip cards, titles, instructional objectives, and sequence num bers. Both the live-action and the verbal elements of the film were photographed on Kodachrome II Super 8mm (indor Type A) film. No optical effects were used in the produc tion of the motion pictures. 56 A rough cut was made utilizing the data obtained, and a first tryout of the film sequences was conducted. A- nalysis of the subject reactions and observations of the staff were all considered in the development of the final product. The main modifications made to the original film were related to the difficulty of few concepts found by the subjects and perceptual problems due to a lack of details of certain graphic displays. Finally 49 sequences were re tained and matched with 49 printed frames contained in the booklet. The finished films were duplicated in six copies by Eastman Kodak Company and were packaged in Super 8 Magi- Cartridges by Technicolor. The data obtained in the development of the mo tion picture served as basic information for the production of the filmstrip. The content of the still pictures was first presented by means of Kodak Carousel slide projector and required only minor modifications. One filmstrip of 49 frames was produced for the remaining half of the experi ment. The filmstrip was composed of llve-action of two children of age 9 and 11 years old using flipcard sets in different situations, and graphic displays of flipcards, titles, instructional objectives, and numbers. The filmstrip, a still version of the fllmloops, was produced after a selection of appropriate scenes from the motion picture set-up. The Images presented by the 57 filmstrip conformed in every detail to those in the 8mm filmloops. Each picture in the filmstrip had a number in the lower right corner which corresponded to each frame of the printed booklet. Both live-action and still pictures were photographed on Kodachrome II 35mm (indor Type A) film. An Olympus Pen-F single-frame camera with a Micro- Nikkor lens was used to adapt and copy the original slides on Eastman Color Negative (Type 5254). The finished film strip, printed on Eastman Color film, were duplicated and packaged by R.G.B. Color Laboratory. Measurement Instruments One of the most important research questions to be investigated in this study was related to the appropri ateness of the modes construct in media design and re search. Two modes were identified and investigated. The in vestigation of the representation modes was possible only if the two categories of treatments compared were charac terized by a clear and measurable iconic or symbolic pre dominance differentiating the two groups of instructional settings. Since, in all experimental studies, a treatment is measured indirectly through its effects, it was neces sary to built a measuring instrument sensitive to the dif ferent changes produced by the treatments which had an iconic orientation and by the treatments which emphasized the symbolic cognitive functioning. The problems related to 58 the development of an environment corresponding to the cog nitive styles proper to children of 9 and 11 years old, and to the validation of a measuring instrument sensitive to the representation variables under investigation were dif ficult to solve, first, because of a lack of clear and sub stantive cognitive theories, and second, because of the o- verlapping nature of the two modes from one stage of cogni tive functioning to the other. Consequently, the situation called for a very critical analysis of the tests in order to see objectively if the tests presumably designed to measure two particular levels of cognitive functioning were really sensitive to and only to these two independent variables. Test Development Out of 31 items validated by Nielsen (1970, p.75) 8 symbolic items and 7 iconic items were selected to con form to the instructional objectives common to both experi ments. The two written subtests were combined by randomly ordering the iconic and symbolic items into an objective test. Furthermore a performance test composed of 6 items was designed to account for the objectives which required manipulation of the flipcard sets. The tests are presented in Appendix V. All test items were developed through a tryout- revise-tryout cycle. The adapted measuring instruments were revised twice and subjected to item analysis in order to 59 reach the desired sensitivity and reliability. The first tryout of the tests was conducted with children of 9 and 11 years old. Table 2 presents the item analysis statistic for this initial tryout. TABLE 2 ITEM ANALYSIS STATISTICS FOR INITIAL TRYOUT Number Item Grouping of Items Mean S.D. K-R #20 1. Performance Subtest 6 2.62 1.30 .35 2. Iconic Subtest 7 3.74 1.28 .04 3. Symbolic Subtest 8 4.34 1.83 .60 4. Total Test 21 10.70 2.81 .47 After analysis of these data, major revisions were made in the tests to refine the measuring instruments. The instructions to the students concerning the use of the test were simplified and clarified, the pictures used in the iconic subtest were corrected in order to reveal more details, the number of alternatives in the multiple-choice questions were reduced to 3, and the type size of the orig inal test was enlarged 120 percent with a Xerox camera. Instead of marking their answers on a separate response sheet, subjects registered their answers directly on the test. 60 The second tryout was conducted with 6 students representative of the experimental population. Analysis for estimating reliability showed major improvement for all the subtest** and total te«t, a® is ehown in Table 3. TABLE 3 ITEMS ANALYSIS STATISTICS FOR FINAL TRYOUT Item Drouping 0fU?tem= Mean S.D. K-R #20 1. Performance 6 Subtext 2.56 1.54 0.52 2. Iconic Subtest 7 3.78 1.40 0.20 3. Symbolic Subtest 8 4.78 2.10 0.70 4. Total Test 21 11.71 3.46 0.64 ministration of the test, all students read directions ex plaining how to proceed. They were then given two practice questions in order to familiarize them with the format of the test. Iconic and symbolic subtests. Eight verbal and seven pictorial multiple-choice items were randomly or dered. Each symbolic item was matched with an equivalent pictorial item. The only verbal item which had no equiva lent pictorial item was matched with a performance item in- tended to measure the same concept. The symbolic subtest was composed only of verbal items. These items contained 59 reach the d*sired sensitivity and reliability. The first tryout of the tests was conducted with children of 9 and 11 years old. Table 2 presents the item analysis statistic for this initial tryout. TABLE 2 ITEM ANALYSIS STATISTICS FOR INITIAL TRYOUT .... T3umEeF“ Item Grouping _ _ _ of Items Mean S.D. K-R #20 1. Performance Subtest 6 2.62 1.30 . 3b 2. Iconic Subtest 7 3.74 1.28 .04 3. Symbolic Subtest 8 4.34 1.83 .60 4. Total Test 21 10.70 2.81 .47 After analysi* of these data* major revisions were made in the tests to refine the measuring instruments. The instructions to the students concerning the use of the test were simplified and clarified* the pictures used in the iconic subtest were corrected in order to reveal more details, the number of alternatives in the multiple-choice questions were reduced to 3* and the type size of the orig inal test was enlarged 120 percent with a Xerox camera. Instead of marking their answers on a separate response sheet* subjects registered their answers directly on the tes* . 61 verbal description*? of actions and statements of rules. The iconic subtest items had both verbal and pictorial compo nents. In order to design each item as iconically as pos sible, each concept tested was represented by an image. To reduce problems related to the manipulation of testing ma terials by the students, they recorded their answers di rectly in the test itself. Performance subtext. The performance test con sisted of 6 items and was given after the students finished the written test. This test was administered by the same experimenter throughout the experiment. The experimenter asked the students to do the following: (l) identify, a- mong four different flipcard sets, which ones were consid ered as "moving along" type of animation and which ones were characterized by a "standing still" kind of animation; (2) show the experimenter how to hold and flip a set of flipcards; (3) show the experimenter how to reverse the ac tion of a set of flipcards; (4) to flip a set of cards in order to make the action happens backwards. The test materi al for the performance subtest is presented in Appendix V. Analysis of Criterion Test This section includes the rational for the analy sis of the criterion test, the analysis of the data related to the reliability of the final subtests, and the findings of the factor analysis. 62 Statistical rationale. An item analysis of the criterion test was performed using the Kudar-Richardson #20 to esti mate the reliability of the subtests and total test. The data were analyzed by means of a computer program written by Young B. Lee (1969). The program also contained a sub routine for estimating the item difficulty, a subroutine for making the discrimination Index of the items, and a subroutine for making a point-biserial statistic to com pute the item-test correlations. A factor analysis was also performed to verify if the measuring instruments were mainly sensitive to the two modes of representation (iconic and symbolic) under in vestigation. Factor analysis is defined by Kerlinger as a statistical procedure for explaining the intercor relation between a large number of variables (iconic and symbolic test items) in terms of a relatively small number of dimensions (iconic and symbolic modes of representation) that in the instance of carefully designed studies involving test variables are hypoth esized to represent psychological constructs (iconic and symbolic cognitive functioning) of the tests (Kerlinger, 1964, p.570). (italics are researcher's) The computer program used to perform the analy sis was the Biomedical Computer Program BMD X 72 (Dixon, 1969). The principal axes method of factoring was selected because it "extracts the maximum variance for each succes sive factor, and produces a lower-valued final residual ma trix (Dixon, 1969, p.62)." The diagonal elements were not altered and the computer was asked to iterate extracted factors considering new communalities. An orthogonal rota- 63 tlon wa«t performed. .tte j p f t a . a u E i a < i .ias.tm- ments. Estimate of the reliability of the subtests and to tal test were conducted using the Kuder-Richardson #20, Furthermore, means, standard deviations, and standard er rors were determined for each subtest and for the total test. An analysis of each item of the test was calculated, and the following statistics are reported: difficulty in dices, standard deviation of each item, point-biserial sta tistics, and reliability index. Because equivalent forms of the tests used in this experiment were not available, the internal consist ency method of measuring reliability was selected (Adams, 1964, p.87), The K-R #20 was selected because of its poten tial to avoid biases due to arbitrary splitting into halves (Guilford, 1965, p.458). Ideally, reliability coefficient should be com puted on groups which have about the same standard devia tion. To insure such variability among the groups, 24 stu dents of each age levels were randomly selected and as signed to eight different treatments. In order to test the assumption of homogeneity of variance an F max. statistic was computed (Kirk, 1969, p.62). F - largest of K variances max~smallest of K variances with degree of freedom equal to K and n-1, where £ is the 64 number of variance and q is the number of observations within each treatment level. The assumption of homogeneity of variance were not rejected because the F found (8.15) m o x was smaller than the tabled value at the .05 level (22.9). Furthermore the K-R method asumes nearly equal difficulty of the test items. Table 4 includes the diffi culty index for each item of the total test. Considering the item difficulty of the total test (Table 4), 53$ of the items had difficulty indices between .50 and .67, and 28.2% of the items had difficulty indices between .33 and .44. Looking at each subtest indi vidually (Table 5) an unusual phenomenon is observed. In spite of the widest range of item difficulty, (.50) the symbolic subtest is the one which has the highest the reli ability coefficient. The range of the difficulty indices of the iconic subtest is the lowest one (.39) among the three subtests, and its reliability coefficient is the low est. It is usually assumed that a wide range of item diffi culty will have a negative effect on reliability (Guilford, 1965, p.456). According to Guilford (1965, p.461), all the internal-consistency formulas that depend upon a test which has a wide dispersion of item difficulties give an underes timate of reliability coefficients. This situation is prob ably due to the very low number of items in each subtest. It must also be mention that the K-R method gives a lower band of reliability coefficient because all major types of TABLE 4 ITEM DIFFICULTY INDICES Difficulty #10-.20 .20-.30 .30-.40 .40-.50 .50-.60 .60-.70 .70-.80 .80-.90 s2 .11 I2 .22 P4 .39 Px .44 P3 .50 P5 -61 P2 .83 S6 .28 S1 .33 I6 .44 Ix .50 P6 .67 S4 .33 S7 .44 I4 .50 I3 .61 I7 .53 I5 .61 S^ .56 S^ .61 Sg * 56 Percentage 4.7# 9.4# 14.1# 14.1# 28.8# 24.2# 4.7# Note: S Indicate? the symbolic subtext, I the iconic subtest, P the performance subtest, and the number represents the item's number. o cf 66 error variance are included, and also because K-R #20 shows test homogeneity as reflected in all inter-item relation ships (Adams, 1964, p.93). Table 5 present* means, standard error and reliability coefficient for the subtests and total test. TABLE 6 ITEM DIFFICULTY BY SUBTEST Iconic subtest Symbolic subtest Performance subtest # of the item Difficulty index # of the item Difficulty index # of the item Difficu index 1 .50 1 .33 1 .44 2 .22 2 .11 2 .83 3 .61 3 .61 3 .50 4 .50 4 .33 4 .39 5 .61 5 .56 5 .61 6 .44 6 .28 6 .67 7 .44 7 .44 8 .56 Range .39 .50 .44 Even though the iconic subtest shows improvement (.04 from Table 2 to .20 from Table 3) from the first to the second revision, 80$ of the variance is still attrib- uable to error variance. The lowest point-biserial correla tion coefficient (0.20) and the lowest reliability index (0.08, Table 7) were found in this subtest. Three out of 67 TABLE 6 PERFORMANCE TEST - ITEM ANALYSIS Item % S.D. of ftem total” 1 Reliability # correct item point-biserial index answer _ ^ — ^ ___ correlation 1 0.56 0.50 0.54 0.29 2 0.17 0.37 0.52 0.19 3 0.50 0.50 0.43 0.22 4 0.61 0.49 0.59 0.29 5 0.39 0.49 0.53 0.26 6 0.33 0.47 0.67 0.31 TABLE 7 ICONIC TEST - ITEM ANALYSIS ItenT^ of ^ S.D. of *ota} , RellabilitY # correct item point-biserial index answer correlation 1 0.50 0.50 0.32 0.16 2 0.78 0.42 0.20 0.08 3 0.39 0.49 0.29 0.14 4 0.50 0.50 0.56 0.28 5 0.39 0.49 0.45 0.22 6 0.56 0.50 0.50 0.25 7 0.67 0.47 0.56 0.27 68 TABLE 8 SYMBOLIC TEST - ITEM ANALYSIS Item # % of correct answer S.D. of item Item total point-biserial correlation Reliability index 1 0.67 0.47 0.54 0.26 2 0.89 0.31 0.38 0.12 3 0.39 0.49 0.52 0.25 4 0.67 0.47 0.71 0.34 5 0.44 0.60 0.52 0.26 6 0.72 0.46 0.70 0.32 7 0.66 0.50 0.60 0.30 8 0.44 0.50 0.52 0.26 seven items have a point-biserial correlation coefficient lower than .32, so it is difficult to predict from these three iconic items the score on the total iconic subtest. This finding shows that either the internal consistency of the test is low or that the iconic test items are not very homogeneous. This can be due to two main reasons. First, the number of items which composed the iconic test is low. To double the number of items would have certainly in creased the reliability of the test. Second, it must be re called that the subtests were developed to measure two lev els of cognitive functioning which were by nature overlap ping. The iconic subtest was composed of pictorial and ver bal elements, while the symbolic subtest was composed only 69 of verbal elements. According to Adams (1964, p.93), if two tests overlap considerably with respect to abilities meas ured, a large portion of the consistent variance in each score is due to the overlapping part. When that variance is substracted, the remaining test variance contains a larger proportion of error and a lower reliability coefficient. The reliability coefficients of the two re maining tests (performance subtest, .52; symbolic subtest, .70) are both greater than the reliability coefficient of the iconic subtest. A comparison of the reliability coefficients of the symbolic and iconic subtests supported Adam's proposi tion (1964, p.94). Both tests are supposed to measure two different way of abstracting the same reality (content). The pictorial element is presented only in the iconic test and the verbal element is common to both the iconic and the symbolic subtests. The overlapping part of the two subtests (verbal element) had the effect of decreasing the reliabil ity of the test which had both elements (iconic test .20); while the subtest (symbolic), which is composed only of verbal elements, showed a greater reliability coefficient (.70). An examination of the reliability coefficient for the iconic subtest (Table 7) indicates that only 20% of the variance in scores is "true variance," whereas 80% of the remaining variance is attribuable to error variance. In squaring the correlation coefficient of .456 (Table 9) be - 70 tween the iconic and the symbolic subtest, it is found that 20.8% of the variance on either test can be interpreted as representing abilities common to both tests. Since 80% of the variance is error variance, this leaves only .8% of the variance on the iconic test that is attributable to abili ties not measured by the symbolic test. TABLE 9 SUBTESTS CORRELATION MATRIX Performance Iconic Symbolic Performance 1.000 .340 .572 Iconic .340 1.000 .456 Symbolic .572 .456 1.000 The reliability for the performance subtest shows that 48% of the variance is "error variance", whereas the remaining 52% is considered to be "true variance". If the correlation coefficient of .34 (Table 9) between the Iconic and the performance subtests is squared, it is found that 11.5% of the variance can be perceived as representing abilities measured by both tests. This leaves 40.5% of the variance unique to the performance test. The reliability coefficient for the symbolic subtest indicates that 70% of the variance is true variance and that 30% is error variance. If the correlation coeffi cient of .572 (Table 9) between the symbolic and the per- 71 formance is squared, it is found that 32.7% of the variance is common to both subtests and only 37.3% of the variance remains unique to the symbolic subtest. It can be concluded that the reliability of the subtests used in this experiment could have been improved by increasing the length of the test and by minimishing the part of the subtests which were overlapping. F a s . t M ~ A Q a . l x 5 . l s . Factor analysis is a method for extracting com mon factor variances from sets of measures (Kerlinger, 1964, p.650). In this study factor analysis was used to verify mathematically how many factors or constructs were meas ured by the measuring instruments; second, to determine the weight of each of these factors or their respective propor tion of the total variance; and third, to identify each of these factors or constructs. The distribution being dichot- omous, the phi coefficients were computed (Guilford, 1965, p.333) among fifteen test items which represented the iconic and the symbolic subtests. The Table 28 of intercorrelation (Appendix I) which includes the intercorrelation within the items of each subtests and between the items of both subtests, was factor-analyzed by the principle axes method, and a ortho gonal rotation was attempted. Seven factors were extracted and are presented in Table 10. It was evident that the test designed was sensitive to other variables than the two TABLE 10 ROTATED MATRIX OF ICONIC AND SYMBOLIC ITEMS Dimension I II III IV V VI VII 'tem Symbolic 1 0.07404 Symbolic 2 0.06386 Symbolic 3 0.81518 Iconic 4 0.14291 Symbolic 5 0.51158 Symbolic 6 0.78757 Iconic 7 -0.08950 Iconic 8 -0.04689 Symbolic 9 -0.42100 Iconic 10 -0.02455 Iconic 11 0.10136 -0. 33142 0.12246 0.74418 0.04918 0.08709 -0.07068 0.06116 0.11152 -0.19706 -0.50264 -0.07514 -0.10651 0.24653 0.15748 0.73535 0.01680 0.04557 -0.29978 0.16290 0.17875 -0.00787 -0.85168 -0.35627 0.05816 0.10721 -0.18312 0.04802 0.04032 0.11786 -0.04390 -0.10907 -0.48814 -0.10095 -0.01843 -0.67195 -0.25798 -0.06216 -0.01133 -0.28263 -0.35426 0.03734 -0.79531 0.15177 0.16360 0.35616 -0.54085 0.32403 0.09667 -0.09881 -0.25559 -0.13494 -0.80136 0.08102 -0.08993 -0.12171 0.09048 0.03499 0.06169 0.02945 -0.04238 -0.29477 -0.50120 -0.05136 -0.04060 0.11129 0.21706 - j N > TABLE 10 (continued) ROTATED MATRIX OF ICONIC AND SYMBOLIC ITEMS Dimension I II III IV V VI VII Item Iconic 12 0.39893 0.39552 -0.50377 -0.09476 0.25030 -0.06565 -0.27798 Symbolic 13 -0.02862 0.56911 -0.10328 -0.25824 -0.03988 -0.33389 -0.00515 Symbolic 14 0.14432 -0.03546 -0.04027 -0.84052 0.19503 -0.04817 -0.04671 Iconic ■ i . . i * ■■ , 15 ■ ■ 0.22142 -0.11480 0.13203 0.00702 -0.04089 -0.83197 -0.10255 74 modes of representation. Factor I seems to cover the concepts related to the kinds of animation and to the identification of condi tion*! which are necessary to reverse an action on flipcards. This factor contains only symbolic items. Factor II is derived from two different concepts, one related to the "standing still" kind of animation and the other to the identification of the right way to use flipcards. This factor contains symbolic and iconic items. Factor III appears to be related to the condi tions necessary to make a flipping action happens backward and to the possibility of situating a card in a set of flipcards. It is interesting to note that the same concept has been identified in Factor I by a symbolic item and is found in Factor III but under an iconic item. This factor also contains two types of items, that is, iconic and sym bolic. Factor IV seems to relate only to the order of the cards in a flipcard set. It is composed of two kinds of items, iconic and symbolic. Both items were designed to measure the same concept. It is the only case where items related to the same content are regrouped under the same factor. Factor V is related to a demonstration of how the card sets must be held. This factor has only one high loading factor which represents an iconic item. 75 Factor VI shows a certain similarity to Factor V. Both have only one high factor loading represented by an iconic item. The concept measured by the item is related to the "moving along" kind of animation. Factor VII is the purest factor because the items with high loading factors are all related to the ordering of cards in a set of flipcards. Here again the items are symbolic and iconic. A tendency for the factors to overlap is noted in the case of Factor I and III, which have a correlation coefficient of .03 (Table 12). Looking at the factor correlation matrix pres ented in Table 11, it can be seen that the intercorrela tions ranged from .21 to -.11, which permit a conclusion that the seven factors are highly independent. It was im possible to logically regroup the factors to reduce their numbers. Obviously all items of the tests do not fall ex clusively into the two designated categories. Seven inde pendent factors were identified in relation to the content taught. It was impossible to identify the presence of one of the two modes of representation within these seven fac tors. Consequently the iconic and the symbolic subtests will be combined for the analysis of the hypotheses. TABLE 11 FACTOR CORRELATION MATRIX I II III IV V VI VII I 1.00000 0.05154 0.02611 -0.01582 0.04566 0.20978 -0.03663 II 0.05154 1.00000 -0.07890 -0.05140 0.07915 -0.03842 -0.04894 III 0.02611 -0.07890 1.00000 0.06107 -0.05408 0.05666 -0.11271 IV -0.01582 -0.05140 0.06107 1.00000 -0.07554 0.04740 -0.16055 V 0.04566 0.07915 -0.05408 -0.07554 1.00000 0.03551 0.07599 VI 0.20978 -0.03842 0.05666 0.04741 0.03551 1.00000 -0.05797 VII -0.08663 -0.04894 -0.11271 -0.16055 0.07599 -0.05797 1.00000 - i O' 77 The four treatments --filmstrip/iconic, film strip/symbolic, filmloop/iconic, and filmloop/symbolic-- used in the research, were packaged in four self-contained units. Each of these four learning units was composed of (l) instruction sheets, (2) four super 8 Magi-Cartridges, or one filmstrip (according to the treatment), (3) one printed iconic or symbolic booklet related to the instruc tional situation, (4) a written and performance subtests, and (5) two pencils with erasers used by the subjects. E nv iro nmenta1_Cgn tro1 The entire experiment was conducted in Neimy El ementary School, Cerritos, California. A vacant classroom was assigned and used throughout the experiment where six learning stations were set up for film projection. At three stations the filmloop was used to present the image and at the other three stations the filmstrip was used. The three stations using the filmloop were separated from the three remaining stations by a temporary partition in order to e- liminate the distraction elements which could occur because of the different nature of the Images presented in both sections. Figure 3 of Appendix 111 presents a floor plan of the experimental room. Space Because a maximum of six students worked at the same time, the space available to conduct the experiment 78 was more than sufficient. It was permissible for the exper imenters to work or help the students who needed it without disturbing the other ones. The space reserved for each sta tion covered an area of 7'X4' or 28 squared feet. Further more, the physical situation of the classroom isolated the group from external distractions. Since only six students were involved at any one time, there was a minimum of dis ruption of either class or experimental activities. Llafrta The intensity of light was adjusted in such a way that the images projected on the screen were clear e- nough without obstructing the visibility of the students reading the printed booklet. nd_Ia.kls£ In order to decrease as much as possible the variance among the group due to uncontroled environmental variables, the seats and tables used in the six experimen tal stations were all similar. Each station within a sec tion was equidistant from the middle one. Instrumentation The presentation media used in this experiment were motion projectors and filmstrip projectors. Motion pictures were projected with a Super 8mm Technicolor 510 (Z). The screens were all the same size and at the same distance (48") from the motion picture projectors. The size of the image on the screen was standardized at 13"X10". 79 Students viewed the filmstrip with Graflex filmstrip pro jectors with an 3" lens projecting a 17"X11M image at 48" from the screen, and Kodak Signet 500 with a 5" lens pro jecting a 12"X8" image at 72” from the screen. The printed booklets used to present the verbal component of each treat- ment were made of 8"X5" Xeroxed pages typed with an IBM e- lectric typewriter using Pica type and enlarged 140$ with Xerox camera. Additional equipment included plugs, exten sion cords, extra motion and filmstrip lamps and projec tors. The materials were inspected daily prior to use with each group of subjects. These precautions were undertaken to guard against interruptions of mechanical nature. Experimenta1 Controls In addition to the experimental design, special efforts were made to control possible effects of factors which could jeopardize the validity of the experiment. To control against maturation effects the combined treat ments and testing time-to-completion were carefully planned in order to conduct the experimental events without making major changes in the school schedule. Schedules were worked out with the principal and reviewed with the teachers of the classes which had subjects involved in the experiment. The experimental schedule is included in Table 26 of Appen dix I. The present study adopted a scheduling unit of one hour forty minutes as compared to the time unit used by 80 Nielsen (1970), (one day). This scheduling unit permitted the conduct of three experiments per day without causing changes in the school schedule. The experiments were con ducted either between the beginning of the school day and the first recess, between the first recess and the lunch time, or between the beginning of the afternoon and the second recess. The daily schedule was arranged in such a way that an equal number of each treatment was conducted with an equal number of subjects at each age level. To control against instrumentation effects, each of the three experimenters was randomly assigned to two of the six stations. To control against reactive effects of the experimental arrangement the study was conducted with the equipment and facilities available in the school each time it was possible. To control for possible effects due to the equipment, motion picture and filmstrip projectors were reallocated to stations after each experiment within the same section. One week prior to the experiment a pilot study was conducted with three students of 11 years old and three students of 9 years old who did not participate in the main experiment. The learning stations for this first tryout used the following treatments: (l) filmloop iconic 9 years old; (2) filmloop iconic 11 years old; (3) filmloop symbol ic 11 years old; (4) filmstrip iconic 9 years old; (5) 81 filmstrip symbolic 9 years old; and (6) filmstrip symbolic 11 years old. The objective of this study was to check out the materials and procedures used later in the experiment. Teacher participation. Prior to the conduct of the experiment at the school a conference was held with the staff at a regular meeting to explain the nature of the study and the involvement of the teachers in the research. No discussion of the specific content was made in order to minimize the possibilities of familiarizing their students about the content. Each morning identification cards for the subjects and treatment assignment (indicated by room and station number) were delivered to the teachers. Teach ers distributed the cards to the subjects shortly before they were to come to the experimental classroom. Cards for absent students were returned to the teacher, and alter nates were selected by the experimenter from a pool of ran domly selected subjects. Subject schedule. Each student was scheduled to treatment and testing phase*. They came from their class rooms and had to return to their teachers after completion of the entire treatment. Experimental events. The experiment took place from December 1 to December 4, 1970. The subjects came to the experimental room and were then taken to the appropria te stations as determined by their identification cards. Each subject was given instruction (see Appendix IV) as he 82 sat at the station and was supervised individually by one of the experimenters to ensure that he knew the steps to be followed in using the filmstrip or the filmloop with the booklet. The first four frames of the lesson were practice in nature and permitted the experimenter to be sure that the subjects were able to operate correctly the experimen tal materials and equipment. Immediately after the student began the lesson, the experimenter responsible of that sta tion recorded the starting time on the identification card. At the end of the treatment the student raised his hand and again the experimenter recorded the finishing time on the card. Testing was conducted immediately following comple tion of the treatment, being supervised individually by an experimenter. Subjects read the test instructions and an swered the two practice questions. They were permitted to ask questions concerning the understanding of the test pro cedures. Practice questions were reviewed and when the students understood the procedures, they were instructed to begin the test. Starting and finishing time for the test were recorded by the experimenter. Immediately after com pletion of the written test, the students were given the performance test. Items were read directly from a check list, by the experimenter, and the students performed the required activities. Student performance was recorded on his data sheet. Starting and finishing times were recorded. Upon completion of all the items, tests were collected and 83 students were Instructed to return to their classes. Preparation of Data and Statistical .Analysis. The strategy used for processing the data con sisted of (1) gathering descriptive data, (2) collecting test answers, (3) giving identification numbers for each students, (4) recording treatment and testing time-to-com- pletion, (5) matching data with identification numbers, (6) keypunching data, (7) revising data, (8) scoring of test items, (9) computing and analysing data. All the analyses of the data were performed on the IBM 360/65 computer of the Computer Science Laboratory, University of Southern California. AQ4lYS.£S._2LJiY£2ttl£££5 In this study, two types of hypotheses were stated. The first category of hypotheses was stated in terms of significant differences. For the research hypothe ses stated in terms of significant differences it was nec essary to be protected against the possibility of rejecting a null when in fact it could have been true; that is, to be protected against a type I error. For the hypotheses stated in term* of non-significant differences it was necessary to guard against the possibility of accepting the hypothesis when in fact it would have been considered as false; that is, to be protected against a type II error. In the later case it was necessary to determine the beta probability which was the probability of making a type II error, or its 04 complement 1-(1 indicating the probability of not making a type II error. Because of the similarities of the present study with the Nielsen research, most of the remaining statistics used were based upon the statistical rationale he used in his doctoral dissertation (Nielsen, 1970, p.84-91). ta^ed An Aerm^ cant differences. An analysis of variance was performed to estimate the main effect*? and interactions of the age, me dia, and representation modes. The analysis took the form of a 2X2X2 design. For tests of main effects and interac tions, the F statistic was used. When differences between means had been hypothesized, a £ statistic was used. For hypothesized differences in standard deviations, the £ statistic was employed in tests of homogeneity of variances (Natrella, 1963, p.4.8-4.9). Significance level. Since the two categories of findings hypothesized in this research illustrated two types of errors, it was important to adopt a level of sig nificance which would decrease the probability of making a type I error when the hypotheses were stated in terms of significant differences, and a type II error when the hy potheses were stated in terms of non-significant differ ences. Alpha and beta being inversely related, an increase of one of the two values automatically decreases the value of the other. The conventional choice of alpha as small as .05 and .01 are almost always made without considering the 85 beta value or the probability of making a type II error. In research on theoretical issue like the present one, a higher than usual level of alpha was tolorated. In an exploratory study such as this, it is important not to cut off a promising line of research by guard ing too severely against type I and type II decision errors. For the purpose of this study, the .05 sig nificance level was considered to be less desirable than the .10 level. The reasoning was twofold: First, in an exploratory study, before refinement of meas urement instruments and experimental procedures, er rors of measurement and other factors affecting the population error variance could make the error term in the statistical tests relatively large. Second, in independent learning settings, individual learner variables are more likely to obtain those conditions for their maximum expression. Consequently, the error terms could be relatively large. In either event, the probability of detecting a meaningful difference would materially reduced. Therefore, the ,10 signif icance level was considered to be appropriate and a- dopted for the tests of the hypotheses in this study (Nielsen, 1970, p.85-86). fctotttottsu* jiXji ta d -ia -tm is . _9l _aao=.5.i9JiilUaat c^fferences. In the case of research hypotheses stated in term** of significant differences, it was necessary to be protected against acceptance of a false research hypothesis or rejection of a true null hypothesis. In the instance of a research hypothesis stated in terms of non-significant differences or in terms of conventional null, the situation is different. The problem here is not to reject the null hypothesis since the research hypothesis is stated in terms of a null. In this case it was necessary to be protected a- gainst the retention of a false null hypothesis or a type II error. The probability of making this type of error is 86 symbolized by ^ . In this situation, it is very important to estimate the probability of being wrong in making a type II error (l-p). Since the estimation of 0 is related to the power of a test (l-f>) it was necessary to estimate this power in the case of hypotheses stated in terms of non-sig nificant differences. The estimation of the power was adopted from the doctoral dissertation of Nielsen (1970) and is presented in Appendix II. 87 CHAPTER IV RESULTS This chapter presents the findings of the exper iment . The results of the study are organized into two sections: the first section contains a preliminary descrip tion of the means and standard deviations for each inde pendent variables {media, age, and modes of representation) on the written and performance subtests and the total test, and time-to-completion for the lesson and treatment (lesson and testing time); the second section presents a statisti cal analysis for each hypothesis. Preliminary Descriptive Statistics The means scores and standard deviations on the five measures taken are presented in Table 12, 13, and 14. These data are presented for each independent variable in dependently (Table 12) as well as for the combination of two independent variables (Table 13) and the combination of the three independent variables (Table 14). As can be seen in Appendix I. The experimental schedule is included in Table 26, Table 27 contains a correlation matrix of iconic and symbolic items. On the criterion measures, the most effective TABLE 12 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF SUBTESTS AND TOTAL TEST - FIRST LEVEL Treatment N Written Subtest Performance Subtest Total Test Lesson Time- to-Completion Lesson Time- to-Completion X <r X 0" X <r X <r X <r Age 9 23 7.44 1.93 2.57 1.50 10.00 2.61 33.74 6.76 50.87 10.44 Age 11 24 9.83 2.82 3.50 1.91 13.33 4.34 26.30 6.91 39.30 9.10 Filmloop 23 9.04 2.70 3.48 1.62 12.52 3.70 30.09 5.86 44.00 7.73 Filmstrip 24 8.29 2.76 2.63 1.84 10.92 4.09 29.80 9.32 45.88 14.02 Iconic 23 9.13 2.8b 3.09 1.95 12.21 4.33 28.26 8.02 42.13 10.34 Symbolic 24 8.21 2.50 3.00 1.61 11.21 3.55 31.54 7.25 47.67 11.73 a > a > TABLE 13 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF SOBTESTS AND TOTAL TEST - SECOND LEVEL Treatment N Written Subtest Performance Subtest Total Test Lesson Time- to-Completion Lesson Time- to-Completion X <T X (T X <r X <r X <r Iconic 9 11 7.64 1.75 2.36 1.75 10.00 2.86 31.46 5.56 47.27 7.84 Symbolic 9 12 7.25 2.14 2.75 1.30 10.00 2.49 35.83 7.30 54.17 11.72 Iconic 11 12 10.50 3.03 3.75 1.96 14.25 4.54 25.33 9.00 37.42 10.36 Symbolic 11 12 9.18 2.55 3.25 1.91 12.42 4.12 27.25 4.07 41.17 7.63 Filmloop 9 11 7.64 2.42 3.18 1.60 10.82 3.22 31.73 4.56 46.64 6.55 Fllmloop 11 12 10.33 2.15 3.75 1.66 14.03 3.50 28.58 6.67 41.58 8.20 Filmstrip 9 12 7.25 1.42 2.00 1.21 9.25 1.71 35.58 8.04 54.75 12.02 Filmstrip 11 12 9.33 3.40 3.25 2.18 12.58 5.09 24.00 6.62 37.00 9.72 Filmstrip Iconic 12 12 7.25 3.57 2.42 1.97 11.33 4.52 25.92 8.87 39.75 12.38 Filmstrip Symbolic 12 7.58 2.61 2.83 1.75 10.42 3.87 29.83 11.98 52.00 13.26 OD vO TABLE 13 (continued) MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF SUBTESTS AND TOTAL TEST - SECOND LEVEL Treatment N Written Subtest Performance Subtest Total Test Lesson Time- to-Coaipletion Lesson Time- to-Completion X <r X <T 1 xl i i i X < r X <r Filmloop Iconic 11 9.36 2.84 3.82 1.72 13.18 4.09 31.73 5.90 44.73 7.24 Filmloop Symbolic 12 8.75 2.49 3.17 1.53 11.92 3.34 28.58 5.63 43.33 3.41 \o o TABLE 14 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF SUBTESTS AND TOTAL TEST - THIRD LEVEL Treatment N Written Subtext Performance Subtest Total Test Lesson Time- to-Completion Lesson Time- to-Completion X <r X <r X <r X <r X <r Iconic Filmloop 9 5 8.00 2.34 5.40 5.13 11.40 3.21 32.20 0.84 46.20 7.84 Iconic Filmstrip 9 6 7.33 1.21 1.50 1.22 8.83 2.14 30.83 7.76 48.17 10.76 Iconic Filmloop 11 6 10.50 2.88 5.80 5.86 14.67 4.41 31.33 8.29 43.50 9.79 Iconic Filmstrip 11 6 10.50 3.45 3.33 2.25 13.83 5.04 19.33 4.84 31.33 7.17 Symbolic Filmloop 9 6 7.33 2.66 4.67 3.88 8.67 4.68 31.33 6.38 47.00 3.97 Symbolic Filmstrip 9 6 7.17 1.57 2.50 0.96 9.67 1.21 40.33 5.28 61.33 9.91 Symbolic Filmloop 11 6 10.17 1.33 5.00 5.10 13.50 2.59 25.83 3.31 39.67 6.56 Symbolic Filmstrip 11 6 8.00 3.40 3.17 2.32 11.17 5.49 26.00 4.94 42.67 8.91 ^ o 92 treatment was the filmloop/iconic and the most efficient one was the filmstrip/iconic. The least effective treatment was the filmstrip/symbolic and the least efficient (time- to-completion) was the filmloop/iconic. The most important single main effect was attributable to the age (Table 12). AnalYs.es of the Hypotheses This section includes the findings related to each of the research hypotheses. Analysis of variance was performed to estimate the main effects and interactions of the age, media, and representation modes. For tests of main effects and inter action, the statistic was used. When differences between means had been hypothesized, a statistic was used. The .10 significant level was considered appropriate for the tests in this study. As measured by subtests and total scores, there is no significant difference between the population mean of students using the iconic mode and the population mean of students using the symbolic mode. Since no significant difference was hypothesized, the power approach, protecting against a type II error, was used. The significance of the differences between the two modes of representation are presented in Table lb. The t's were non significant. The power of the preplanned contrasts being greater than .99, the null hy- 93 TABLE 15 MODES MAIN EFFECT: SU9TESTS AND TOTAL TEST MEASURES Source of Variance: Modes Treatment N SD Statistic 1-(J Measurement: Performance Subtest Iconic Symbolic Iconic Symbolic Iconic Symbolic 23 3.09 1.95 t a 0.17 24 3.00 1.62 Measurement: Written Subtest 23 9.13 2.85 t = 1.18 24 8.21 2.50 Measurement: Total Test 23 12.22 4.33 t»0.88 24 11.21 3.55 0.99— 0.99— 0.99— — fK.05 pothesis of n.s.d. in performance means of the iconic and symbolic treatments is supported with confidence. Hypothesis 1.2 As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is a significant interaction of modes of representa tion and age for the population sampled. Since s.i. was hypothesized,conventional two- tailed tests of the null were employed. The4 being greater than .10 the null is accepted and the research hypothesis of significant interaction of the modes of representation 94 and age levels is not supported. These results are summa rized in Table 16. TABLE 16 MODESXAGE INTERACTION: SUBTESTS AND TOTAL TEST MEASURES Source of Variance: Modes X Ages MS MS Measurement Source Error df F-Ratio Performance Subtest 1.87 3.04 1.39 0.62 Written Subtest 2.46 6.16 1.39 0.28 Total Test 8.63 13.53 1.39 0.64 As measured by subtests and total test, the pop ulation mean of students of age 11 is significantly greater than the population mean of students of age 9 with the sym bolic treatment. Since s.g.dL and direction were hypothesized, con ventional one-tailed tests of the null were made using the t statistic. The results of the t_ tests are presented in Table 17. The«( level being greater than .10, the null hy pothesis is considered tenable and the research hypothesis of significant difference between students of age 11 and students of age 9 having received the symbolic treatment is 95 not supported. TABLE 17 SYMBOLIC MODE EFFECTS Treatment N SD Statistic 1-1 9 year?! 11 year? 9 year ? i 11 years 9 years 11 years Me a surement: Performance Subtest 12 2.75 1.29 t = 0,75 12 3.25 1.91 Measurement: Written Subtest 12 7.25 2.14 t = 1.99 12 9.17 2.55 Measurement: Totql Tefjt 12 10.00 2.49 t * 1.48 12 12.42 4,12 0.89 0.96 0.89 fcLYft9tUfeS.i.£_U4 As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is no significant difference between the population of students of age 9 and the population of students of age 11 with the iconic treatment. Since n^s.d. was hypothesized, the power ap proach was used to test retention of the null hypothesis. Table 18 presents the results of £ tests of mean difference for performance, written subtests, and total test. Means differences were significant for the written subtest and the total test at the .05 level, but 96 they were not significant for the performance subtest. The (I error rate for retention of the hypothesis of n.s.d. at the iconic level is .12 (1.00-0.88). TABLE 18 ICONIC MODE EFFECTS Treatment N X SD Statistic 1-(3 Measurement: Performance Syfrtest 9 years 11 2.36 1.75 t = 1.78 0.88 11 years 12 3.75 1.96 Measurement: Written Subtest 9 years 11 7.64 1.74 tr2.74- 0.88 11 years 12 10.50 3.03 Measurement: Tqfral Test 9 years 11 10.00 2.86 t=2.66- 0.88 11 years 12 14.25 4.54 * -•K.05 The research hypothesis of no significant dif ference between the iconic and symbolic modes of represen tation (Hypothesis 1.1) was supported with confidence since the power (1-p) of the test was equal to .99, which gives an 0 error rate being less than .01. Concerning the interaction of the modes of rep resentation and the age levels, no significant interaction was observed (Hypothesis 1.2). No significant differences 97 between students of age 11 and students of age 9 were found for students using the symbolic treatment (Hypothesis 1,3). Contrary to what was predicted, significant differences were found on the written test between students of age 11 and students of age 9 when the iconic mode was considered (Hypothesis 1.4). The power of the preplanned contrasts being equal to .88 gives a (* error rate of .12. Consequent ly the null of n.s.d. is tenable, but it cannot be retained with confidence. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe first, that, when the symbolic mode was used, subjects of age 9 performed as well as students of age 11, but when the iconic mode was used, students of age 11 performed better than the students of age 9 on the written test; and second, that the effectiveness of the modes of representation may be a func tion of the age of the learner and of the modes of repre sentation. As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is a significant interaction of modes of representa tion and media of presentation for the population sampled. Since s.l. was hypothesized, conventional two- tailed tests of the null were employed. The £ ratios for the total test may be seen in Table 19. None of the £s were significant. Therefore the * null hypothesis was considered tenable, and the research 98 hypothesis of significant interaction of modes of represen tation and media of presentation was not supported. TABLE 19 MODES X MEDIA INTERACTIONS: SUBTESTS AND TOTAL TEST MEASURES Source of Variance: Modes X Media Measurement MS Source MS Error F-Ratio Performance Subtest 3.13 3.04 1,39 1.03 Written Subtest 1.65 6.16 1,39 0.27 Total Test 0.23 13.53 1,39 0.02 The findings do not permit an affirmative answer to the question related to possible interaction between the modes of representation and the media. Neither medium (filmstrip or filmloop) seemed to have an advantage for ei ther of the two representation modes. EYR2ttl65.i5_l*l As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is no significant difference between the population mean of students using the filmloop medium and the popula tion mean of students using the filmstrip medium. Because n.s.d. was hypothesized, the power ap proach was used. The results of the contrast are presented in Table 20. 99 TABLE 20 MEDIA MAIN EFFECT: SUBTESTS AND TOTAL TEST MEASURES Treatment N SD Statistic 1-0 Filmloop Filmstrip Filmloop Filmstrip Filmloop Filmstrip Measurement: Performance Subtest 23 3.48 1.62 t=1.69- 24 2.63 1.84 Measurement: Written Subtest 23 9.04 2.62 t= 0.96 24 8.29 2.76 Measurement: ZQAai._IesA 23 12.52 3.69 t % 1.41 24 0.99— 0.99— 0.99— — (><■.05, -{K.10 The t tests related to the written subtest and total test showed no statistical differences between means. Therefore, the research hypothesis of n.s.d. between the filmloop and filmstrip on the written subtest and total test is retained with confidence (1-0=.99). Means differ ence was significant for the performance subtest, and the related research hypothesis is supported. As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is significant interaction of the media of presenta tion and age levels for the population sampled. 100 Since s.i. were hypothesized, the conventional two-tailed tests of the null were used. Table 21 presents the results related to the hypothesis 3.2. TABLE 21 MEDIA X AGE INTERACTION: SUBTEST AND TOTAL TEST MEASURE Source of Variance: Media X Age Measurement MS Source MS Error df F-Ratio Performance Subtest 1.43 3.04 1,39 0.47 Written Subtest 0.99 6.16 1,39 0.16 Total Test 0.04 13.53 1,39 0.002 Since none of the .Fs were significant, the null hypothesis is accepted, and the research hypothesis of sig nificant interaction of the media of presentation and the age levels is not supported. The results indicate that there is no reason to support the position that the effectiveness of the medium is a function of the age level of the learner. As indicated by the verification of hypothesis 3.1 and 3.2, no signifi cant differential learning effect1 ? were observed whatever the media employed or the age considered. As measured by treatment time-to-completion the 101 population mean of students using the filmloop is signifi cantly greater than the population mean of students using the filmstrip. Since s.d. and direction were hypothesized, con ventional one-tailed tests of the null were employed. The means, standard deviations and statistics are presented in Table 22 for the presentation modes. TABLE 22 TIME-TO-COMPLETION MEASURES (in minutes) Contrast: Filmloop vs Filmstrip Treatment N X SD Statistic Measurement: Lesson Time-to-Completion Filmloop 23 30.09 5.85 t= 0.129 Filmstrip 24 29.79 9.32 Since the t was not significant, the null hypoth esis is considered tenable, and the research hypothesis of significant differences in mean time-to-completion between the filmloop and filmstrip treatments was not supported. As measured by the treatment time-to-completion, the population standard deviation of students using the filmstrip is significantly greater than the population standard deviation of students using the filmloop. Since $.d. and direction were hypothesized, con- 102 ventlonal one-tailed tests of the null were employed. The results of the analysis of homogeneity of variance are presented in Table 23. TABLE 23 TESTS OF HOMOGENEITY OF VARIANCES FOR TREATMENT TIMES Source of Variance: Media Measurement*? filmloop Filmstrip F_Ratlo ^ . e t ^ Lesson Time 34.27 86.87 2.53 0.11 Written Sub- 9.47 32.06 3.38- 0.06 test Time Complete 59.72 196.55 3.29- 0.07 Treatment -4<.l0. Each of the £s related to the written test and the complete treatment time-to-completion variability were significant at the .10 level. Therefore, the null is re jected, and the research hypothesis considering the com plete treatment and written test is supported favoring the filmstrip medium as having a greater time-to-completion variability (Table 12). The F related to the lesson time (testing time not considered) is not significant at the .10 level (.11) therefore the null is accepted. The results showed no significant difference in 103 terms of mean time-to-completion (Hypothesis 4.1) and no significant difference in term of variance when the lesson time-to-completion (testing time not included) was consid ered. A significant difference was found in terms of vari ance when the written test time-to-completion and the com plete treatment time-to-completion (lesson time and testing time) were considered (Hypothesis 4.2). The results indi cate that when variance lesson time is considered, both media (filmloop and filmstrip) seemed to have the same var iance time-to-completion, but the variance of the testing time-to-completion was significantly greater for the sub jects who used the filmstrip during the lesson than for the subjects who used the filmloop. Hypothesise J. As measured by the subtests and total test scores, there is a significant difference between the popu lation standard deviation of students using iconic mode and the population standard deviation of students using the symbolic mode. Since a s.d. was hypothesized, the conventional two-tailed tests of the null were employed. Table 24 pres ents the results of the JF for the homogeneity of variance. Since none of the .Fs were significant, the null hypothesis is considered tenable, and the research hypoth esis of significant difference in variability between the iconic and the symbolic mode is not supported. TABLE 24 TESTS OF HOMOGENEITY OF VARIANCE BY MODES 104 Source of Variance: Modes . . x . Iconic Symbolic c 0 . . Exact Measurements variance Variance F"Ratio Probability Performance Subtest Written Subtest 3.81 2.61 1.46 0.12 6.26 1.30 18.72 12.60 1.49 0.23 0.26 Total Test 18.72 12.60 1.49 0.22 As measured by subtests and total test scores, there is a significant difference between the population standard deviation of students of age 11 and the population standard deviation of students of age 9. The variance from age 9 and 11, and the Fs tests for the performance and written subtests and the total test are presented in Table 2b. Since s.d. was hypothesized, the conventional two-tailed tests of the null were used. The _Fs were not significant for the performance and written subtests, and the null hypothesis of no signif icant difference between the variance ages is tenable. How ever the X ^or the total test was significant at the .10 level. Consequently, the null is rejected and the research hypothesis is supported for this test. 105 TABLE 25 TESTS OF HOMOGENEITY OF VARIANCE BY AGE w x a9® 9 Age 9 c Dbixja Exact Measurements variance Variance F*Ratl° Probability Performance Subtest 2.26 3.65 1.62 0.21 Written Subtest 3.71 7.97 2.15 0.14 Total Test 6.62 18.84 2.76- 0.10 "<<.10 When both age levels were considered In the a- nalysis (Hypothesis 5.2) the results indicated that the on ly significant difference in terms of variance was observed for the total test favoring the 11 year olds learners (Table 12). The results also indicate that when both modes of representation were considered, (Hypothesis 5.1), the variability of the two modes did not differ significantly. If it is reasonable to believe that age intensifies differ ences, such effects were observed in the present study. S u m m a r y of Jis.*uil£ Modes of ReoresentatIon Main .Eiiftci There are no significant differences between the iconic and symbolic treatments for the performance and written subtests and the total test. Media-Mala Ejfeot There are no significant differences between the 106 filmloop and filmstrip versions of the booklet treatment for the written subtest and the total test, but there is a significant difference between the filmloop and the film strip for the performance subtest favoring the filmloop me dium (Table 12). Mpdas-_of Representation X Media _lQt££§.£ii£Q There are no significant interactions of modes of representation and media of presentation for the per formance and written subtests and the total test. Modes Qf__Re&resentation _X_Ag.£_latS£atli2Q There is no significant interaction between the modes of representation and age levels on the performance and written subtests and the total test. Media X_Age Interaction There is no reason to support the hypothesis of an interaction of media and age for the performance and written subtests and the total test. There is no reason to believe that the hypoth esis of differential efficiency (media time-to-completion) between the filmloop and filmstrip can be supported. Variability of Treatment Time-to-Completlon The variability is significantly greater for the filmstrip than for the filmloop version of the booklet les son when the written subtest time-to-completion is consid ered. Variability of Tast-SC-bre^ There are no significant differences in varia bility of the performance and written subtests and total test when the modes of representation are considered. For the age levels variables, there are no significant differ ences in variability for the performance and written sub tests, but there is significant variability on the total 108 CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS This chapter is divided into two sections; the first section presents a summary of the study; and the sec ond section presents the conclusions and implications that may be derived from the study. Svmaxy Problem Design and Procedures This «?tudy was designed to determine the effi ciency and the effectiveness of an independent learning situation considering two variables as they interact with two learner levels of cognitive functioning. The first var iable considered was related to the mode by which the con tent acquired were represented, that is, the iconic and symbolic modes of representation. The second variable was related to the means by which the representation modes were presented, that is, the 8mm filmloop and the filmstrip. The third variable considered was related to two different age levels, that is, 9 and 11 years old of elementary school learners. The study consisted of a 2X2X2 experiment con ducted in one elementary school. Four self-contained in structional packages (filmstrip/iconic, filmstrip/symbolic, filmloop/iconic, and filmloop/symbolic) were prepared. One filmloop and one filmstrip version on concepts of flipcard 109 animation were produced. A printed booklet was the medium by which the verbal component of the treatment were pres ented throughout the experiment. The iconic mode was used in one half of the treatments, and the other half of the treatments used the symbolic mode of representation. From all children of the Neimis School (ABC School District, Cerritos, California) who were £4 months of being 9 and 11 years old, 24 students of each age level were randomly selected and assigned to four media treat ments . The test consisted of a performance subtest, and a written subtest composed of pictorial multiple-choice 1- tems matched by verbal items of the *ame type. Two types of hypotheses were stated. They were stated in terms of significant differences and in terms of non-significant differences. For the hypotheses stated in terms of significant differences, analyses of variance were performed to estimate the main effects and interactions of the age, media, and representation modes. For tests of main effect and interactions, the F statistic was used, and a t statistic was used when differences between the means had been hypothesized. For the hypotheses stated in terms of non-significant differences, the beta probability was de termined indicating the probability of making a type II er ror. The test for hypotheses were performed considering an alpha and beta error rate of .10. d Y B aitogs .a ad JU sB ltii Hypothesis 1.0 that the effectiveness of the representation modes was related to the age of the learner was not supported for the symbolic treatment .05). At the iconic level the hypothesis of n.s.d. for the written subtest and the total test was considered tenable but can not be retained with confidence ((J = .12). The hypothesis of n.s.d. in performance means of the iconic and symbolic treatments was supported with confidence (P-.01), and the hypothesis of significant interaction of modes of repre sentation and age levels was not supported (*> .10). Hypothesis 2.0 that the effectiveness of the modes of representation was a function of the medium of presentation was not tenable H^.10). Hypothesis 3.0 that the effectiveness of the me dium of presentation was a function of the age levels was not tenable (*0.10) for the written subtest and total test but was considered tenable when the performance test was a- nalyzed. Hypothesis 4.0 that there was a significant dif ference in mean time-to-completion between the filmloop and the filmstrip was rejected (H).IO), but a significant dif ference {*0.10) was observed in terms of variability for the time-to-completion of the treatment and the written subtest favoring the filmstrip treatment. Hypothesis 5.0 that the variability of perform Ill ance is a function of the modes of representation was not supported (H^.10). The variability of performance being a function of the age levels was supported (*1 — •10) when the total test was considered. Cgnslualags ^aad_IiQElisaligas. C<*Qtgnt The selection of flipcard animation seemed to be a suitable subject matter for the study. The students who participated to the experiment showed a great deal of in terest in learning about it. Many of them asked whether it was possible to leave some instructional packages in the school. Furthermore none of the 47 students who partici pated in the experiment knew anything about flipcard anima tion. Methodology The decision to use school equipment made it necessary to employ two different types of filmstrip pro jectors which projected two different sizes of image. This decision could have increased variability within treatments and consequently increased the error variance. In the light of the other half of the treatments, using the filmloop me dium, this explanation is difficult to accept, however. In deed, the treatments using the filmloop as medium had standardized projectors and equal size of image projected on the screen, and no significant effects among the two other variables were perceived. 112 foawsh .Qa&itlaQs. 1. Is the effectiveness of the representation modes related to the age of the learner? Conclusions. The iconic mode of representation was superior for students of age 11 over students of age 9, but the symbolic mode of representation was not found supe rior whatever the age considered. Contrary to expectations, the abstraction level of the modes of presentation was not related to the age of the learner. Children of age 11 performed better than chil dren of age 9 only when the iconic mode was considered. It may be possible to explain why did the re sults of this study contradicted the earlier study. It must be recalled that both the iconic and the symbolic modes of representation had the same pictorial component. The two modes were made different by the intermediary of two ver sions of a printed booklet: one using interrogative sen tences (iconic) in order to direct the attention of the subjects toward certain elements of the picture, and the other one (symbolic) using declarative sentences which were abstractions of perceptual properties of the picture. Con sequently the pictorial component of the symbolic treat ment was to important, giving to this mode an iconic nature which rendered difficult the perception of effects which were supposed to be induced exclusively by the symbolic treatment. According to anterior research (Mialaret, 1966; Beilin et al, 1966; Allen et al, 1967; Nielsen, 1970) in teractions were observed with an iconic or directive mode of the verbal component and young learners when verbal mul tiple-choice test items were used to measure performance. In the present study it was impossible to verify the possi ble interaction of the age levels and the modes of represenr tation with symbolic multiple-choice items because the iconic and symbolic subtests were united into a single written subtest. It is felt that this overlapping pictorial ele ment of both the iconic and the symbolic treatments was important in accounting for the failure of the experimental treatments to produce differential effects. Implications. As far as the usefulness of the modes construct to media research is concerned, it would be preferable to design the material giving less emphasize on the pictorial component for the symbolic mode of represen tation. 2. Is the effectiveness of the mode of representation related to the medium by which the pictorial com ponent is presented? Conclusions. There is no interaction between the representation mode and medium of presentation. There is no apparent advantage of using the mo tion picture or the still picture modes of presentation in teaching concepts related to animation whatever symbolic or 114 Iconic modes of representation are considered. Either me dium seems to be as efficient as the other. The results in dicating that the still picture treatments were as effi cient as the motion picture treatments are not in contra diction to previous research. Implications. For media theorizing and research, further consideration and investigation of such media vari- bles would have more value with treatments which have two modes of representation which are differentiated clearly. For media design, this study suggests that the interrogative and declarative forms of the verbal component is as effective when used with still as it is when used with motion picture for the topic selected and the popula tion sampled. 3. Is the effectiveness of the presentation modes a function of the age level? Conclusions. The filmloop medium of presentation was not superior to the filmstrip medium of presentation and no significant interaction was observed between the me dia of presentation and the age level of the learners. It seems that the media selected are independent of the modes of representation and the age level for the population sam pled. There is no apparent advantage in using the mo tion picture or the still picture mode of presentation in teaching concepts related to animation whatever the age 115 levels considered. Both media seem to be as efficient as the other for the two age levels selected in the study. Implications. For media selection and design the implications of this study suggest that the filmloop medium does not justify the care and expense required to produce a motion picture when the filmstrip (a less expensive me dium), can be as effective. 4. Are there treatments which are more efficient than others in terms of time and rate-to-completion? Conclusions. Considering the mean tlme-to-com- pletion, there is no significant difference between the filmloop and the filmstrip as means presenting the picto rial elements of the booklet lesson. When the variance time-to-completion is considered, the filmstrip is superior for the written subtest and for the complete treatment. Implications. For media selection and design, the research suggests that when there is maximum variabili ty in time-to-completion considered to complete a treat ment the filmstrip medium should be used. 5. Are there treatments which are significantly greater in terms of variability of performance? Conclusions. When the modes of representation were considered, no significant difference was found in terms of score variability. When the age level was consid ered, significant difference of variability was observed indicating an increase in score variability with the age. 116 Implications. Since the cause (maturity) of the effect on score variability is not a function of one of the two variables under investigation in this study, it does not have to be considered in the selection of media, 6. Is the mode construct an approach which can be useful to media research and design? Conclusions, Eventhough experimental findings of the study do not provide data which support the modes con struct as providing a conceptual link between developmental and cognitive psychology and media theorizing, the review of the literature favors such a construct. The lack of significant effects among the vari ables investigated can be due to one or a combination of the following conditions. First, the fact that it was impossible to iden tify the presence of one of the two modes of representation within the seven factors found in the measuring instruments probably masked possible effects of the experimental varia bles . Second, since the symbolic mode of representa tion employed by children around 11 years old integrates the iconic mode into itself, renders difficult the develop ment of two distinctive treatments corresponding to the two cognitive styles proper to children of 9 and 11 years old. Implications. The implications of this study for the design of media do not seem to be positive. This does 117 not mean that the modes of representation are not Important in the design of media; but that, the way it was manipu lated in this study did not produce the expected effects. Rather than seeking criteria to verify the over all presence of the two modes of representation, it would have been preferable to select a concept similar to "con servation” where the two modes could have been investi gated. This concept being more specific and already inves tigated empirically (Sigel and Hooper, 1968) would have been easier to control and to measure. 118 REFERENCES Ackoff, R. L., Gupta, S. K., and Minas, J. 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F., Logical thinking In chil dren. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968. Skinner, B. F. Reflections on a decade of teaching ma chines. In R. A. Weisgerber (Ed.), Instructional proc ess and media innovation. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1968. Pp. 404-417. Tosti, D. T., & Ball, J. R. A behavioral approach to in structional design and media selection. AV Communica tion Review. 1969, 17, 5-25. Travers, B. M. W. A study of the relationship of psycholog ical research to educational practice. In R. Glaser (Ed,), Training research in.education, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962. Vuke, G. J. Effects of inserted questions in films on de veloping an understanding of controled experimentation, Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University, 1962.(USOF Title VII Project no. 657, University Microfilms No. 63-2866.) Walker, H. M., & Lev, J. Statistical Inference. New York Henry Holt and Co. 1953. Wilson, J. A., Robeck, M. C., & Michael, W. B. P l_£oundallons of learning iraw-Hill Book Co.,1969. Zuckerman, J. V. Commentary variations: Level of vi Laaltouridallgns of learning and teaching. New York: MacG] erman, J. V. Commentary variations: Level ol_Yerball&a tlon^ persona, reference. and phase relations in in structional f:Jjnaon perceptual-motor tasks. Penn. State University Instructional Film Research Program, Technical Report No. SDC 269-7-4. Port Washington, N. Y.: U.S. Naval Training Devices Center, Office of Naval Research, 1949. 127 APPENDICES 128 APPENDIX I SUPPLEMENTARY DATA TABLE 26 EXPERIMENTAL SCHEDULE Filmloop 1 2 3 student number age student number age student number age +» 8:10 AM Iconic 1 11 2 9 3 11 K >* H IS -H T) 9:45 AM Iconic 7 9 8 11 9 9 uu 1:00 PM Iconic 13 11 14 9 15 11 TJ 8:10 AM Iconic 19 9 20 11 21 9 U o a 0 * 0 e 9:45 AM Symbolic 25 11 26 9 27 11 CO 1:00 PM Symbolic 31 9 32 11 33 9 TJ M > •rl 4 J=TJ 8:10 AM Symbolic 37 11 38 9 39 11 H 1:00 PM Symbolic 43 9 44 11 45 9 Third i Second i Firs TABLE 26 (continued) EXPERIMENTAL SCHEDULE Filmstrip student number age student number age student number age >• ( 0 •o 8:10 AM 9:45 AM 1:00 PM Iconic Iconic Iconic 4 10 16 9 11 9 5 11 17 11 9 11 6 12 18 9 11 9 >. < o TJ 8:10 AM 9:45 AM 1:00 PM Iconic Symbolic Symbolic 22 28 34 11 9 11 23 29 35 9 11 9 24 30 36 11 9 11 < o *U 8:10 AM 1:00 PM Symbolic Symbolic 40 46 9 11 41 47 11 9 42 48 9 11 131 TABLE 27 DESCRIPTIONS AND USES OF FLIPCARD SETS Action Animated Type of Animation Use Seahorse do-si-doing SS X, 0 Ship sailing to a castle SS X Ship sinking SS 0 Sub moving underwater SS, MA X, 0 Sub sinking to sea bottom SS, MA X, 0 Big fish chasing little fish SS X Train moving along tracks SS X, 0 Ball rolling between tanks SS, MA X, 0 Balloonist descending SS, MA X, 0 Ice truck driving away SS, MA 0 Moon rising behind castle SS X, 0 Man riding bicycle SS, MA X, 0 Ball rolling away SS 0 Villain learing SS 0 Boy hopping on pogo stick MA 0 SS = Standing Still Type Xr Used in Treatment MA= Moving Along Type 0=Used in Measure ment Instruments (Nielsen, 1970, p.170) 132 TABLE 28 CORRELATION MATRIX OF ICONIC AND SYMBOLIC ITEMS 1-4 1-7 1-8 I- 4 1.000 I- 7 -0.015 1.000 I- 8 0.014 0.092 1.000 1-10 0.041 0.079 0.211 1-11 -0.228 -0.299 -0.023 1-12 0.156 0.092 0.225 1-15 0.138 0.021 0.084 S- 1 0.135 0.027 -0.167 CM 1 CO -0.033 0.192 0.376 S- 3 0.203 -0.134 0.005 S- 5 0.117 0.069 -0.168 S- 6 0.125 -0.081 -0.003 S- 9 0.270 0.211 0.142 S-13 0.050 0.185 0.180 H 1 to 0.019 0.263 0.109 1-10 1-11 1-12 1-15 1.000 0.186 1.000 0.163 0. 350 1.000 0.061 -0.156 0.091 1.000 0.022 -0.121 0.013 -0.011 0.119 0.011 0.136 -0.206 0.004 0.098 0.438 0.235 0.090 0.286 0.265 0.058 0.061 0.157 0.260 0.170 0.187 -0.090 0.053 0.136 0.157 0.034 0.180 0.099 0.079 -0.013 0.109 0.017 133 TABLE 28 (continued) CORRELATION MATRIX OF ICONIC AND SYMBOLIC ITEMS S-l S-2 S-3 S-5 S-6 S-9 S-13 I- 7 I- 8 1-10 1-11 1-12 1-15 S- 1 1.000 S- 2 -0.174 1.000 S- 3 0.164 -0.002 1.000 S- 5 0.073 -0.002 0.390 S- 6 -0.080 -0.039 0.470 S- 9 0.113 -0.066 -0.158 S-13 -0.104 0.285 0.146 S-14 0.285 -0.170 0.068 1.000 0.384 1.000 0.110 -0.136 1.000 0.030 -0.099 0.135 1.000 0.068 0.246 0.149 0.192 APPENDIX II ESTIMATION OF THE POWER 135 Power, The power approach to retention of n.s.d. re search hypotheses is based upon the discussion pre- ented by Kirk (1968), Natrella (1963), and Ackoff. Gupta, and Minas (1962). Power is defined as 1-0 (P being the probability of a type II error), so it fol lows that If the error rate is set at .10, then what is necessary for retention of the null, with confi dence, is a power value of .90 or greater. Five factors are involved in the determination of the power of a test: the * error rate, the number of treatments, the sample size the population er ror variances, and the smallest difference between treatment means considered to be of practical signif icance, i.e., the "smallest meaningful difference" (SMD) to be detected at the ( > significance level. Taking these factors into account, power functions make possible estimation of sample size n and (» for required power values. Kirk (1968, p.110) notes the extreme sensitivity of such computations to errors in estimating theCJ term (1968, p.110), and recommends that estimation of n. be made by specifying the SMD in terms of units of 6V whenever an accurate estimate of G& is not available from previous research. As a means of obtaining the desired power level for retaining n.s.d. hypotheses, the preplanned con trasts employed the t statistic. Kirk, Natrella, and Ackoff, Gupta, and Minas provide formulas for esti mating sample size for desired power levels where standard deviation (SD) is the unit of the estimate of 63 . The power function for a two-tailed jz test (after Ackoff et al, 1962, p.305), where (Y'-a) r SMD in raw score units, and z^and are normal deviates corresponding to probabilities*! and 0 , reduces to when the SMD is in SD units. Solving for ^ and correcting for the level of * , (1) n (2) (3) where c*2 for an « of .05 and c«l for an « of ,01 (Natrella, 1963, pp. T.16-T.17). 136 Then, whenzjjis positive, (1 equals the exact probability of the standard deviate *0 ; when is negative, ( l equals ,500 plus the exact probability of the standard deviate^. Significance levels and the SMD. For the pre planned constrasts employing the t, statistic, func tions (2) and (3) were used to estimate sample size £, the error rate (> , and the power (l-P ) of the tests of n.s.d. hypotheses. A p error rate of .10 was selected for the reasons previously given for selec tion of the error rate. The SMD for preplanned contrasts was defined as .80SD (.80 standard deviations, the SD being the es timate of population variance). The rationale for se lecting . 80SD was based upon both logic and practi cality. As the SMD to be selected becomes smaller (in units of SD), within treatments there is an increase in the percentage of scores differing more than the SMD from their means. E.g., with the SMD ,80SD, ap proximately 42 of every 100 scores within treatments would differ more than the SMD from their means; with the SMD .40SD, approximately 69 of every 100 scores within treatments would differ more than the SMD from their means. Logic argues that the meaningfulness of differences between treatments is relative to the variability within treatments; i.e., a difference be tween two treatment means might be expected to be of limited practical consequence if the variability within treatments is such that more than half of the scores within treatments differ more from their means than the defined SMD between treatment means. On the other hand, practicality argues that if the SD's of treatments are large, defining the SMD as large as or larger than 1.00SD would result in a raw score value for the SMD so large that realization of such a difference would be highly improbable, espe cially in educational research. Thus logic and prac ticality seem to argue for a definition of the SMD for preplanned contrasts in units of SD such that (1) at the least, less than half of the scores within treatments would differ more than the SMD from their means while (2) at the same time, the actual magni tude of the SMD would be limited to a reasonable size in cases where SD's were expected to be large. For the purposes and expectations of this study, a SMD of .80 appeared to satisfy both criteria. ror estimates of the power of ANOVA tests, equa tions provided by Kirk were used (1968, pp. 178-179). Since charts of the power function for ANOVA tests are only available ford error rates of .05 and .01, the SMD was defined as 1.00SD. 137 APPENDIX III EXPERIMENTAL CLASSROOM FLOOR PLAN FIGURE 3 FLOOR PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENTAL CLASSROOM Working Table rr\ rr\ rr\ ata rr\ nr\ Break away wall FL FL FL □ Storage Cabinet □ Stations a □ □ Stations Experimenters Table Note: The numbers one to six represented the location of the stations, FS = Filmstrip, FL = Filmloop, \ /screen. Schelves 139 APPENDIX IV PRINTED BOOKLETS Media procedure During this little course you will work by yourself without the help of the teacher. The projector in front of you will show a filmstrip picture. On each filmstrip picture you will have a number in the lower right corner like this: Picture number Along with this picture you will have explanations in the booklet which will help you to learn what is on the picture. So it is important to read the booklet first and study the picture after. Each explanation in the booklet will have a number which will be the same as the one on the picture. Die number on the page of the booklet is written like this: Number 1. This lesson will .............. Look again. At the end of each explanation you will se this: Look again. It means that the explanation is over and that you must study the picture now. When you see a number in the booklet it means: 1st Turn the filmstrip to the picture of the number you have just seen. 2nd Read the explanation as far as this: Look again. 3rd Look at the picture and study it. 4th ftien read on. Take your booklet now and open it to the first page. During this little course you will work by yourself withour the help of the teacher. Hie projector in front of you will show a series of short film sequences. At the beginning of each short film sequence you will see a number like this: Sequence number 1 This number will be followed by a short film sequence. Along with this film sequence you will have explanation in the booklet which will help you to learn what is on the film sequence. So it is important to read the booklet first and study the film after. Each explanation in the booklet will have a number which will be the same as the one on the film sequence. The number on the page of the booklet is written like this: Number 1, This lesson will ............ Look again. At the end of each explanation you will see this: Look again. It means that the explanation is over and that you must study the picture now. When you see a number in the booklet it means: 1st Read the explanation as far as this: Look again. 2nd Start the projector and look the film sequence until you see: Sequence number 3rd Turn the projector of. 4th Then read on. Take your booklet now and open it to the first page. 146 147 Iconic Booklets Number 1. This course is about to begin in a few seconds. In order to learn about the film sequence you must read the explanation in this booklet attentively. After each explanation you will see this: look againi it means the explanation is over and you must study the film now. Look again. Number 1. This course is about to begin in a few seconds. In order to learn about the filmstrip picture you must read the explanation in this booklet attentively. After each explanation in the booklet you will se this: Look again, it means the explanation is over and you must study the picture now. Look again. Number 2. Read the following explanation as far as this: loo* again, thsn turn on the projector and look at sequence number 2 until you see sequence nwnher 3 then turn the projector of. In this course you will have one lesson on animation. Look again. Number 3. You know what the number means now. If you do not knew how to focus the projector ask the teacher for help. Look again. Number 4. Before beginning the course on animation be sure you know how to proceed. If you do not know ask the teacher to explain what you do not understand. Look again. Number 5. Host school children see many moving picture cartoons. They see some on TV. Look again. Number 6. Some children learn how to make their own moving picture cartoons. They learn about animation. Some even learn how to make movie films of their animated drawings. Look again. Number 7. Most boys and girls learn a simple way of animating drawn pictures. They use sets of cards with drawings on them. Look again. H um ber 2 . Humber 2 B M u change the picture new to nunber 2, then read the explanation at far as this: Look again, study the picture and read on. This course will have one lesson on animation. Look aaain. Humber 3. You know what a number mean now. Humber 5. Most school children see many moving picture cartoons. They see some of them on TV, yook again. Humber 6. Soma children learn how to make their own moving picture cartoona. They learn If you do not know how to focus the projector, ask the teacher for help. Look again. Hund)er_4. Before begining the course on animation be sure you know how to proceed. If you do not know ask the teacher to explain what you do not understand. Look again. about animation. Some even learn haw to make movie films of their animated drawings. Look again. Humber 7. Most boys and girls learn a simple way of animating drawn pictures first. They use sets of cards with drawings on them. Look again. Number 8. When the cards are put together In the right order and flipped, the picture seems to move. Look again. Number 9. After you have done this lesson, you will put some flipcards together, and show someone how to use them. Then you will take a test. It will be about to answer the questions. Pictures can be animated with sets of flipcards. See what is drawn on the flipcards. Look again. Number 12. Do you think that each set of flipcards has the same number of cards? Look aaain. animation. Look again. Number 10. This lesson is about flipcards. Look again. Number 11. See what the picture shows you. What you see in the picture should help you Number 13. Now you will learn about one of two ways of animating drawn picture. Do you know what will seem to move when this set is flipped? Will it be the ship? Will it be the castle? Look again. Number 14. See what things in the animated picture are in the same place in every flipcard drawing. Do you see what things in the picture are in different place* in each flipcard drawing? I* the ship closer to the castle in the first flipcard than in the last flipcard? Look again. Number 15. Catridge number 1 is finished. Change to film catridge manber 2. See the flipcard where the animated ship starts. On which flipcard does the animated ship end up? Is the ship in very different places in drawings that are far apart in the flipcard set? Look again. Number 16. What will seem to move when this set is flipped? Will it be the ball or the tanks? Look aaain. Number_J7. Notice the thing that changes its location from flipcard to flipcard. Do you see what things are in the same place in every flipcard drawing? Do you see the two flipcards where the ball is in just a little different place in the drawings? Is the ball in the middle drawing much different from the first and last flipcard drawing? Look again. Number 18. Do you know what seems to happen if things in an animated picture change their position just a little from drawing to drawing? This is one important fact about animation. Look again. Number 19. Another important fact is the order of the flipcards in the set. Do you know picture are In different place* in each flipcard drawing? Is the ship closer to the castle In the first flipcard than In the last flipcard? Look again. Number IS. See the flipcard where the animated ship starts. On which flipcard does the animated ship end up? Is the ship in very different places In drawings that are far apart In the flipcard set? Look aaain. Number 16. What will seem to move when this set is flipped? Will it be the ball or the tanks? Look aaain. Number 17. Notice the thing that changes its location from flipcard to flipcard. Do you see what things are in the same place in every flipcard drawing? Do you see the two flipcards where the ball is in just a little different place in the drawings? Is the ball in the middle drawing much different from the first and last flipcard drawing? Look again. Number 18. Do you know what seems to happen if things in an animated picture change their position just a little from drawing to drawing? This is one important fact about animation. Look again. Number 19. Another important fact is the order of the flipcards in the set. Do you know what will seem to move when the flipcards are in the right order and flipped? Will it be the train or the mountains? Look again, Nu^>er_20. Do you know what is happening in this flipcard set? Look again. Mi m K*T 91 These four flipcards come one after the other from the middle of a flipcard set. Do they look like they are in the right order? Does the big fish seem closer to the little fish from drawing to drawing? Look aaain. Number 22. These four flipcards come one after the other from the middle of the same flipcard set. Do they look like they are in the right order? Do you see why the real action could not be seen with this set? Look again. Number 23. Do you know which would be the important thing to do in order to see an animated picture? Flipping the cards quickly or flipping them slowly? Look again. Number 24. Do you see how you change the order of the flipcards if you want to make the planned action happen backwards? Do you think you will reverse the order of the flipcards? This is the only way to fix the set so the action happens backwards. Never flip the set backwards. Look again. Number 25. Because the order of the flipcard set has been reversed, do you know in which direction the bike will go? Look again. Number 26. Now do you know what all moving pictures you see must be made up of? Do you know four important facts about animated pictures? Do you know something about the differences from drawing to drawing? Are the differences big or little? Do you know something about the order of the drawings? Must they be in the right or wrong order? Do you know something about how fast the pictures or drawings must be flipped? Must they be flipped quickly or slowly? Do you know how to make the planned action happen backwards? Look again. 97. Catridge number 2 is finished. Change to film catridge number 3. See what is changing its place from flipcard to flipcard. Will it be the train or the mountains? Look again. Number 28. Is the second flipcard in the row very different from any other flipcards? Do you see which flipcard the 3rd one is only a little different from? Which flipcard must come just before the last flipcard? The 3rd one or the 2nd one? Which flipcard must be from the middle of the flipcard set? The 1st one or the 2nd one? Look again. Number 29. See what la changing position from drawing to drawing. Look at the 2nd flipcard in the row. Do you see where it should be in the flipcard set? Number 25. Because the order of the flipcard set has been reversed, do you know in which direction the bike will go? Look again. Number 26. Now do you know what all moving pictures you see must be made up of? Do you know four important facts about animated pictures? Do you know something about the differences from drawing to drawing? Are the differences big or little? Do you know something about the order of the drawings? Must they be in the right or wrong order? Do you know something about how fast the pictures or drawings must be flipped? Must they be flipped quickly or slowly? Do you know how to make the planned action happen backwards? Look again. Number 27. See what is changing its place from flipcard to flipcard. Will it be the train or the mountains? Look again. Number 28* Is the second flipcard in the row very different from any other flipcards? Do you see which flipcard the 3rd one is only a little different from? Which flipcard must come just before the last flipcard? The 3rd one or the 2nd one? Which flipcard must be from the middle of the flipcard set? The 1st one or the 2nd one? Look again. Number 29. See what is changing position from drawing to drawing. Look at the 2nd flipcard in the row. Do you see where it should be in the flipcard set? Look at the 3rd flipcard in the row. Do you see where it should be in the flipcard set? On which flipcard is the position of the noon very different fron its position in all the other flipcard drawings? Look again. Number 30. So far you have learned about one way of animating a drawn picture. Do you know what happens to the position of things that are supposed to move? Do you know about the position of the things that don't move in the animated pictures? Look again. Wiiwh»-r n Look at the position of the plants and rocks in the flipcard drawings. Do you seen to be standing still watching the fish swim by? The standing still kind of animation is one way of animating drawn pictures. Look again. Number 32. Do you seem to be standing still watching the ship? Look again. Number 33. Notice what you seem to be doing as you watch the train? Do you know what kind of animation was used in the other flipcard sets you have seen? Look again. Number 34. Now you will learn another way of animating drawn pictures. See what Is animated in this picture. Look again. Number 35. See whet seems to stay in the center of each flipcard drawing. See what changes position from drawing to drawing. Do the plants and rocks change position from drawing to drawing? As you watch the sub go by, do you seem to be moving along with it, or do you seem to be standing still watching it go by? Look again. Number 36. What do you think will stay in the center of the picture, the truck or the fence and the houses? Do you seem to be moving along with the truck as it moves in the street? Look again. Number 37. Notice where the ball Is in each drawing? Do you see what changes position from drawing to drawing? Do you know what kind of animation is used to make this flipcard set? Look again. Number 38. If the truck stays in the middle of each flipcard drawing, do you know what kind of animation it would be? Look again. Number 39. Catridge number 3 is finished. Change to film catridge number 4* Do you see what you seem to be doing as you watch the truck? Do you see what is happening to the position of the things in the flipcard drawings? Look again. Number 40. Now you have seen two ways of animating a drawn picture. In the standing still M O' nO Number 35. See what seems to stay in Che center of each flipcard drawing. See what changes position from drawing to drawing. Do the plants and rocks change position from drawing to drawing? As you watch the sub go by, do you seem to be moving along with it, or do you seem to be standing still watching it go by? Look again. Number 36. What do you think will stay in the center of the picture, the truck or the fence and the houses? Do you seem to be moving along with the truck as it moves in the street? Look aaain. Miwwh^y ^ Notice where the ball is in each drawing? Do you see what changes position from drawing to drawing? Do you know what kind of animation is used to make this flipcard set? Look again. Number 38. If the truck stays in the middle of each flipcard drawing, do you know what kind of animation it would be? Look again. Number 39. Do you see what you seem to be doing as you watch the truck? Do you see what Is happening to the position of the things in the flipcard drawings? Look again. Number 40. Now you have seen two ways of animating a drawn picture. In the standing still kind of animation, what la aupposcd to b« moving? Sm what la changing poaltlon froa drawing to drawing. Sea what la In tha same poaltlon. What do you seem to bn doing aa you watch thia kind of flipcard animation? Look again. Humber 41. In tha moving along kind of animation, aaa what la changing poaltlon from drawing to drawing. Sea what la In the same poaltlon from drawing to drawing. What do you aearn to be doing aa you watch thia kind of flipcard animation? Look again. Number 42. Now it la time to find out what you have learned about flipcarda and animation. Look again. Number 43. You know what animation does for drawn picturea. You know what an animated picture la made up of. Look again. Number 44. You know how amall the differences are with flipcarda that are close together. You know how big the differences are with flipcarda that are far apart. You know what la important about the order of the flipcarda. Look again. Number 45. You know how fast you have to aee animated drawings in order that things in the picture seem to move. Look again. Number 46. You know what to do to make the planned action happene backward*. Look again. Number 47. You know what changes its position in the standing still kind of animated picture. You know what stays in the same place in every drawing in this kind of animated picture. You know what you seem to be doing as you watch the animated action. Look again. Number 48. You know what changes position in the moving along kind of animated picture. You know where, in each drawing, the thing that is supposed to be moving is in this kind of picture. You know what you seem to be doing as you watch the animated action. Look again. Number 49. This is the end of the lesson. Now raise your hand and some one will come and help you. Symbolic Booklet? Humber 1. fliis course is about to begin in a few seconds. In order to learn about the film sequence you must read the explanation in this booklet attentively. After each explanation you will see this: look again; it means the explanation is over and you must study the film now. Look again. Number 1. This course is about to begin in a few seconds. In order to learn about the filmstrip picture you must read the explanation in this booklet attentively. After each explanation in the booklet you will se this: Look again, it means the explanation is over and you must study the picture now. Look again. Num ber 2 . Number 2 means change Che picture new to number 2, -then reed the explanation ee far aa this: Look again, study the picture and read on. This course will have one lesson on animation. Look aaaln. Umber 3. You know what a nuaber naan new. Nuaber 5. Most school children see many moving picture cartoons. They see soae of then on TV. Look again. Number 6. Soae children learn how to aake their own moving picture cartoons. They learn If you do not know how to focus the projector, ask the teacher for help. Look again. Number 4. Before begining the course on animation be sure you know how to proceed. If you do not know ask the teacher to explain what you do not understand. Look again. about animation. Soae even learn how to make movie films of their animated drawings. Look again. Number 7. Most boys and girls learn a simple way of animating drawn pictures first. They use sets of cards with drawings on them. Look again. Numbers. When the cards are put together in the right order and flipped, the picture seems to move. Look again. Number 9. After you have seen this lesson you will put some flipcards together. You will shew someone hew to use them. Then you will take a test. It will be about flipcards and animation. Look again. Number 10. This lesson is about flipcards. Look again. Number 11. Pictures can be animated with sets of flipcards. On each flipcard is a drawing. Look again. Number 12. Each set of flipcards will have 15 or more cards. Look again. Number 13. In this set of flipcards, the ship sails to the castle. The action of the ship is animated, so this ship seems to move when the set is flipped. Look again. Number 14. Some parts of an animated picture are in the same place in every drawing. But other parts in the picture are in different places from flipcard to flipcard. In this set the ship is animated, but the castle and the waves are not animated. The ship is in different places in the drawings on the first and last flipcards. But the castle, hill, and waves are each in the same place in all the flipcard drawings. Look again. Number 15. Catrldge number 1 is finished. Change to film catridge number 2. On the first flipcard drawing, the ship that is animated is in the place where it starts. On the last flipcard drawing, it is where it ends up. The ship is at places In between in other flipcard. Number 17. The ball is in very different places in the drawings on the first and last flipcards. But the tanks are in the same place in every flipcard drawing. The places where the ball is at are not very different in the drawings on the first and second flipcards. The ball's place in the sdddle drawing is very different from its place in both the first and last flipcard drawings. Look again. drawings. It is in different places in the first and last drawings that are far apart from each other in a flipcard set. Look again. Number 16. In this set of flipcards, the ball rolls between the two tanks. The action of the ball is animated, so the ball seems to roll when the set is flipped. Look again. Number 18. With animated drawings, things seem to move because parts of the picture change their positions just a little from drawing to drawing. This is one important fact about animation. Look again. Number 19. Another important fact about animation is that the drawings must be in the and 1m t flipcards. But the css tie, hill, and waves are each In the same place In all the flipcard drawings. Look again. Number 15. On the first flipcard drawing, the ship that is animated is in the place where it starts. On the last flipcard drawing, it is where it ends up. The ship is at places in between in other flipcard Number 17. The ball is in very different places in the drawings on the first and last flipcards. But the tanks are in the same place in every flipcard drawing. The placM where the ball is at are not very different in the drawings on the first and second flipcards. The ball's place in the middle drawing is very different from its place in both the first and last flipcard drawings. Look amain. drawings. It is in different places in the first and last drawings that are far apart from each other in a flipcard set. Look again. Number 16. In this set of flipcards, the ball rolls between the two tanks. The action of the ball is animated, so the ball seems to roll when the set is flipped. Look again. Number 18. With animated drawings, things seem to move because parts of the picture change their positions lust a little from drawing to drawing. This is one important fact about animation. Look again. Number 19. Another important fact about animation Is that the drawings mist be In the right order or they won't ahow the planned action. In this set the aniaated train la moving. When the flipcards are in the right order and flipped, the train will seen to move. But when they are in mixed-order they won't show a real notion effect at all. Look again. 30. In this set of flipcards the big fish chases and eats the little fish. These four flipcards cone one after the other. They are fron the middle of the flipcard set that is mixed-up. The real action could not be seen with this set because the flipcards are in the wrong order. Look again. Humber 23. Another fact about animation is that Is that you aist see all the drawings quickly, one after the other. Look aaain. Humber 21. These four flipcards come one after the other from the middle of a flipcard set. They are in the right order. The big fish is closer to the little one from one drawing to the next. Look again. Humber 22. Look again. Humber 24. If you want to make the planned action happens backwards, don't flip the set backwards. To make the action happen backwards, stack the flipcards in the opposite order. Hold them and flip them the right way. Look again. Huaber 25. In flipping this set of cards the man on the bike is going backwards. Look again. Number 26. Any moving picture is really made up of many different pictures or drawings which are changing quickly before your eyes. Because the drawings are in the right Number 27. Catrldge number 2 is finished. Change to film catrldge number 3. Now look at flipcards from another flipcard set. In this set of flipcards, the train goes along the track. The action of the train is animated, so it seems to move when the set is flipped. Look again. Number 28. The train changes its position from order... Because parts of the picture are changing position lust a little from drawing to drawing, and ... because the drawings are changing quickly__ The picture is animated. You see a drawing that seems to move. When the cards are stacked in reverse order the action will happen backwards. Look again. flipcard to flipcard drawing. Everything else is in the same place in every flipcard drawing. The second flipcard in the picture is very different from both the first and last flipcards. It oust be from the middle of the flipcard set. The third flipcard in the picture is only a little different from the last flipcard. It must come just before the last flipcard. Look again. Number 25. In flipping this set of cards the nan on the bike is going backwards. Look again. Number 26. Any moving picture is really made up of many different pictures or drawings which are changing quickly before your eyes. Because the drawings are in the right Number 27. Now look at flipcards from another flipcard set. In this set of flipcards, the train goes along the track. The action of the train is animated, so it seems to move when the set is flipped. Look again. Niiwh^f 28. The train changes its position from order... Because parts of the picture are changing position just a little from drawing to drawing, and ... because the drawings are changing quickly... The picture is animated. You see a drawing that seems to move. When the cards are stacked in reverse order the action will happen backwards. Look again. flipcard to flipcard drawing. Everything else is in the same place in every flipcard drawing. The second flipcard in the picture is very different from both the first and last flipcards. It must be from the middle of the flipcard set. The third flipcard in the picture is only a little different from the last flipcard. It must come Just before the last flipcard. Look again. 172 Number_29. In this set of flipcard*, the moon is going up In the sky. The moon changes its position from drawing to drawing. The castle is in the same position in every flipcard drawing. The second flipcard in the picture must come after the first flipcard. The moon is in only a little different position. The third flipcard in the picture must be from the middle of the flipcard set. The position of the moon in the drawing is very different from Look again. Number 31. In this flipcard set, the plants and rocks are in the same place in every drawing. It seems like you are stending still watching the fish swim by. Because of this it is called the standing still way of animating drawn pictures. All the flipcard sets you have seen so far use the standing still way of animating. its position in the other flipcard drawings. Look again. Number 30. So far you have learned about one way of animating a drawn picture: the things that are supposed to move change their position from drawing to drawing; the other things in the picture are in the same position in every flipcard drawing. Look again. Number 32. The set with the ship sailing has the standing still kind of animation. You seem to be standing still watching the ship sail to the castle. Look again. Number 33. The set with the train is the standing ■till kind of flipcard set, too. You seem to be ■tending atill in one place watching the train go by. Look again. Number 34. The ■tending still kind of animation is one way of making drawn pictures seem to move. This kind of animation is called the moving along kind because you seem to be moving along with the sub. Look again. Number 36. The truck stays in the center of each drawing. But the fence and the houses change their places from drawing to drawing. In a moving along kind of animated picture, the thing that seems to move stays in the center of each Another way is called the moving along kind of animation. When you watch the moving along kind of animation you seem to be moving along, with the things that are moving. Look again. Number 35. In this set of flipcards, a sub goes down. As you watch the sub go down, you seem to be moving along with it down to the bottom of the sea. drawing. Everything else changes its position from drawing to drawing. Look again. Number 37. This flipcard set has the moving along kind of animation. As the ball rolls between the tanks, you seem to be moving along with the ball. Look again. Number 38. The truck seems to move, but it stays in the center of each drawing. It is the fence and Che houses that change their positions from drawing to drawing. Look again. Number 39. Catrldge number 3 is finished. Change to film catrldge number 4. This is a moving along set of flipcards. As the truck move along the street, you seem to be moving along beside it. Number 41. In the moving along way of animating drawings, the thing that is supposed to be moving stays in the center of every drawing. Everything else changes its position from drawing to drawing. Look again. Number 42. Now it is time to find out what you have learned about flipcards and Look again. Number 40. Now you know of two ways to animate a drawn picture. There is the standing still way and the moving along way of making drawn pictures seem to move. In the standing still way of animating drawings, the thing that is supposed to move changes its position from drawing to drawing. Everything else is in the same position in every drawing. Look again. animation. Look again. Number 43. Animation is a way to make pictures seem to move. Many drawings are needed. The drawings may be on movie or on sets of flipcards. i - * Look again. u! pitwh^r 38. The truck seems to move, but It stays In the center of each drawing. It Is the fence and the houses that change their positions from drawing to drawing Look again. Miimhgr 39. This is a moving along set of flipcards As the truck move along the street, vou seem tc be moving along beside it. tftn»her 41. In the moving along way of animating drawings, the thing that is supposed to be moving stays in the center of every drawing. Everything else changes its position trom drawing to drawing. Look again. Number 42. Now it is time to find out what you have learned about flipcards and Look again. Number 40. Now you know of two ways to animate a drawn picture. There is the standing still way and the moving along way of making drawn pictures seem to move. In the standing still way of animating drawings, the thing that is supposed to move changes its position from drawing to drawing. Everything else is in the same position in every drawing. Look again. animation. Look again. Number 43. Animation is a way to make pictures seem to move. Many drawings are needed. The drawings may be on movie or on sets of flipcards. Look again. LA. Each drawing la a little different fron the othera In a flipcard aet. The drawing la a little different from the othera in a flipcard aet. The drawlnga must be In the right order for any real notion effect. Look again. Number 45. When the drawlnga are aeen one after Number 47. There are two way a of animating drawn picturea, In the standine atlll way of animating: 1) the thing that la animated changes ita poaltion from drawing to drawing; 2) everything else atays In the aame place In every flipcard drawing. Vith atandlna atlll kind of picture, what la animated seems to move as you atand atlll and watch. Look again. another, very faat, parts of the picture seem to move. Look aaaln. Number 46. To make the action happen backwards stack the flipcard set in the opposite order. Look aaaln. Number 48. In the moving alone way of animating: 1) the thing that is animated stays In the center of every drawing; 2) Everything else changes Its place a little from drawing to drawing. With the moving alone kind of picture, you seem to move along with the thing that la animated. Look aaaln. M.— AQ This 1* the end of the lesson. Maw raise your hand and soae one will coos and help you. APPENDIX V TEST MATERIALS 180 Instructions 181 Now that you have finished learning about flipcards and animation, you should be ready to answer some questions• Read carefully and silently what follows. First read a question and take whatever time you need to answer the question. Then mark your answer on the line in front of the possible answer and go on to the next question. Now let us try two sample questions and answers before you begin this test. Look at this sample question. Read it, silently. How little or how big are the flipcards? Flipcards are A. Big enoucpi to hold easily in your hand. B. Little enough to be covered up by a postage stamp. C. As big as a safety poster. Now, put a big MXn in the blank of the right answer. The right answer is NA”. Did you put a big "X" in the blank in front of the right answer? Good. Some questions like the following one, will have pictures for you to look at. The picture will follow the question. 182 Let's do a sample question with a picture. Look at the picture after the question. In this case it is a picture of two different flipcards. What is the number of the picture that goes with each of these descriptions? A. A villain with a grin on his face. B. A steam engine on a railroad track. This time you put a number in both blanks. The right answers are # £ for A and I 1 for B. Now you are ready to begin answering the questions about flipcards and animation. If you don't know the answer to a question, pick the one you think might be the right one* Don't skip any question. If you have to, just guess at an answer. Written Subtests 184 Now, let us try question # 1. 1. To make the planned action seem to happen, which rule would be the most Important rule to follow? _____ A. Flip the flipcards very fast. B. Put the flipcards in the right order. C. Hake the top edges of the flipcards even. Do you know how fast a set of flipcards must be flipped. It must be flipped quickly. It must be flipped unevenly. It must be flipped slowly. 3. Imagine a flipcard set with the background keeping the same position and a moving object changing its position from flipcard to flipcard. The set would be an example of A. A set that would not show any action or change. B. A moving along kind of animation. D. A standing still kind of animation 185 4. Which kind of notion the following flipcards will produce? A. These flipcards would not show any action. B. These flipcards would show a moving along kind of animation. C. These flipcards would show an irregular action. Rulei To reverse an animated action or change Stack the flipcards in exactly the opposite order. Flip the flipcards with the opposite hand. Flip the flipcards in exactly the opposite direction. 186 6. Which one, if any, of these statements is describing a moving along kind of animated picture? A. The thing that is suppose to be moving changes position from flipcard to flipcard. B. The background in the picture doesn't change position from flipcard to flipcard. C. None of these statements describes a moving along kind of animated picture. 7. Do the following flipcards look like they are in the right order? A. Yes they look like they are in the right order. B. These flipcards do not come from the same set. C. No they do not look like they were in the right order. 187 Which aet or sets of flipcards must have the standing still kind of animated picture. A. Set I 1. C. Set I l.«*42 B. Set * 2. 188 Which set of flipcards do you know will not show any animation. A set which has flipcards in the reverse order. A set which has flipcards that are all just the same* A set which has only 15 flipcards. 10. Is the boy doing something wrong with the flipcards? A. No. There is no right or wrong way to hold and flip the flipcards. B. No. He is using the flipcards right. C. Yes. He is flipping the flipcards backwards. 189 11. These flipcards ar« from the set showing the ship sinking. What is numbor of the flipcard that would the middle of the set? the be in I * 190 12. Which is the right way to make the action happen in reverse? A. No right or wrong way shown. A B 191 B.The way the boy ia doing it in picture I 2. C.The way the boy ia doing it in picture * 1. 13. The right way to use flipcards is A. tfo flip them in the palm of your hand. B. To flip them on a desk or table top. C. To flip them with your pointing finger. 14. The drawing on a flipcard from the middle of a set is A. Very different from every flipcard drawing in the set. B. Only a little different from the first two flipcard drawings. C. A lot different from the first and last flipcard drawings. 15. Which set or sets of flipcards must have the moving along kind of animated picture? p 1 * r ~ w .. 1 * • ' 3 E , \ ; i j S Q : ■ ■ 2' ‘ -4 . 1 ' • 4 * 4 192 A. Set # 1. B. set I 2. C. Set * 3. D. Sets # 1 « # 2, At soon u you or* finished raise your hand. 193 Performance Subtest Student's n number Performance test. Using the flipcards in front of you, show me how to do the followings t 1. Which set of flipcards is an example of a moving along type of animation? set___________ set set 2. Which set of flipcards is an example of a standing still type of animation? set set set 3. How do you hold the flipcards to flip them. ___ set held correctly. ___ set held incorrectly. 4.snow me how you flip this set of flipcards. ___ set flipped correctly. set flipped incorrectly. 5. Show ste how to reverse the action of this set of flipcards ___ action reversed correctly. action reversed incorrectly. €. Show me how to flip the flipoard set in order to make the action happens backwards. set flipped correctly, set flipped incorrectly.

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Creator Lapointe, Jacques Philias (author)

Core Title Iconic And Symbolic Representation Modes Through Media Presentations In An Independent Learning Situation

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, general,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Allen, William H. (committee chair), Fox, Frank H. (committee member), Kantor, Bernard R. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-857246

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Lapointe, Jacques Philias

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses