University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Changes In The Intensity Of An Overt Response Before, During, And After Instances Of Stuttering

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Changes In The Intensity Of An Overt Response Before, During, And After Instances Of Stuttering

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Content CHANGES IN T H E IN TEN SITY O F AN O V E R T R E SPO N SE
B E F O R E , DURING, AND A F T E R
IN STA N C ES O F ST U T T E R IN G
by
M ild re d O nnette C r e r a r
A D is s e r ta tio n P r e s e n te d to th e
F A C U L T Y O F TH E GRA D U A TE SC H O O L
U N IV ER SITY O F SO U TH ERN C A LIFO R N IA
In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t of the
R e q u ire m e n ts fo r th e D e g re e
D O C T O R O F PH ILO SO PH Y
(C o m m u n ic a tiv e D is o r d e r s )
June 1972
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University Microfilms
300 North Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
A Xerox Education Company
73-9309
CRERAR, Mildred Qnnette, 1907-
CHANGES IN THE INTENSITY OF AN OVERT RESPONSE
BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER INSTANCES OF
STUTTERING.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1972
Speech Pathology
University Microfilms. A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
© 1973
MILDRED ONNETTE CKERAH
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.
U N IV E R S IT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 0 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
MILDRED ...ONNETTEL.CRERAR.............
under the direction of Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
y
Date June.iJ.?.?.?.
PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages may have
indistinct print.
Filmed as received.
University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
One of the m o s t s a tisfy in g r e s u l ts of th is study w as the d is c o v
e ry of f rie n d s who w e re w illing to donate th e ir s k ills w ith infinite g e n
e r o s ity and p a tie n c e in tim e of need.
D e e p e s t a p p re c ia tio n is given to P r o f e s s o r G riffith G. R ic h a rd s
who don ated so u n s tin tin g ly of h is tim e and of h is know ledge in the
fie ld s of S p eech S c ie n c e and S peech P a th o lo g y . H e a lso s e rv e d as the
aide in the e x p e r im e n t, and p ro v id e d the n e c e s s a r y h e lp n e e d e d to b rin g
th is study to fru itio n .
D eep a p p re c ia tio n is e x p r e s s e d to Jo h n J e n s e n , E le c tro n ic s
E n g in e e r, H e w litt- P a c k a r d C om pany, P a lo A lto, fo r the donation of
I i
i :
h is s k ill in d e s ig n in g and developing the in s tr u m e n ta tio n , and fo r h is
g u id an ce in a ll of the e le c tr o n ic s a s p e c ts of the r e s e a r c h . j
5 i
A p p re c ia tio n is e x p r e s s e d to a lo n g -tim e frie n d , A lm a K nubel, j
i
for h e r in v alu a b le h e lp in p r e p a r in g the m a n u s c r ip t. j
i The a u th o r is e s p e c ia lly in d ebted to P r o f e s s o r G o rd o n Duck whcj
h e lp e d in so m a n y w a y s; to P r o f e s s o r D o ro th y M o ly n eau x , to Professor*
V e ra L a n e , to F lo r e n c e B e r n h a rd , and to a ll the o th e r c o - w o r k e r s who'
| :
took on a d d itio n a l d u tie s and o f fe r e d m u c h e n c o u ra g e m e n t a s th e ir con-j
jtrib u tio n to th is p r o je c t.
TA B LE OF CONTENTS
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S ......................................................................................... ii
L IST O F T A B L E S ................................................................................................... v
L IS T O F ILLU STR A TIO N S ............................................................................... vi
C h a p te r P ag e
I. IN T R O D U C T IO N .................................................................................... 1
S ta te m e n t of th e P r o b le m
R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n s
I m p o rta n c e of th e Study
II. R E V IEW O F TH E L I T E R A T U R E .............................................. 9
R e s e a r c h R e la te d to M ethod
R e s e a r c h R e la te d to H y p o th e s e s T e s te d
I
III. M ETH O D S AND P R O C E D U R E S .................................................. 26
J
R e s e a r c h D e sig n
P r e - e x p e r i m e n t a l P r o c e d u r e s and E q u ip m e n t
E x p e r im e n ta l P r o c e d u r e s j
D a ta A n a ly sis
|
IV. PR E S E N T A T IO N A N D DISCUSSION O F R E SU L T S. . . 48;
j
P e a k A m p litu d e s of P u s h R e s p o n s e s j
In te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e M e a s u r e m e n ts of
P u s h R e s p o n s e s !
V. SUM M ARY, CO NCLUSIO NS, AND IM PLIC A TIO N S . . 85 j
The P r o b le m ,
The M ethod
R e s u lts
jChapter
i
I
j C o n c lu sio n s
! Im p lic a tio n s
EXCURSUS: P IL O T S T U D Y ........................................................................
In tro d u c tio n
j W ord L is ts
E q u ip m e n t
A P P E N D IX E S
A. S u b je c t A g re e m e n t F o r m .................................................
B. C a se H is to r y O utline ........................................................
C. I n s tr u c tio n s to S u b j e c t s ....................................................
D. P e a k A m p l i t u d e s ..................................................................
E. Ip so d iz e d L o g a rith m s of P e a k A m p litu d e s :
M e a n s , V a r ia n c e s , and S a m p le Size . . . .
F. In te g r a te d T i m e - F o r c e s in V e r n ie r U n its . . . .
G. Ip so d iz e d L o g a r ith m s of I n te g ra te d T im e -
F o r c e M e a s u r e m e n ts : M e a n s , V a r ia n c e s ,
and S am p le S i z e ..........................................................
H. S tu tte re d W o rd s, P o s itio n 3: D u ra tio n of Voice
and P u sh R e s p o n s e s , and In te g r a te d T im e -
F o r c e of the P u s h ............................................... .
|r e f e r e n c e s .......................................................................................................
P a g e ;
95
103
105
112
114
121
123
130
1 3 2 1
j
135
iv
LIST O F TABLES
T able P age
1. G lobal A n a ly s is , F. V alue of P e a k A m p l i t u d e s .................... 50
2. O n e-W ay A n a ly s is of V a ria n c e of P e a k A m p litu d e s . . . . 51
3. G lobal A n a ly s is , F V alue of In te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e
M e a s u r e m e n ts .................................................................................. 62
4. O n e-W ay A n a ly s is of V a ria n c e of In te g r a te d T im e -
F o r c e M e a s u r e m e n t s ..................................................................... 63
5. In d ividual F T e s ts of In te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e
M e a s u r e m e n t s ...................................................................................... 65
6. I n te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e M e a s u r e m e n ts , P e r c e n ta g e
D ro p f r o m P o s itio n 3 to P o s itio n 4, S tu tte r e d and
F lu e n t W o rd s ...................................................................................... 66
7. S tu tte re d W o rd s , P o s itio n 3, D u ra tio n of V oice and
P u s h R e s p o n s e .................................................................................. 78|
8. P e a k A m p litu d e s in M illim e te r s by C a t e g o r i e s ................... 114:
9. Ip so d iz e d L o g a r ith m s of P e a k A m p litu d e s : M e a n s ,
V a r ia n c e s , and S a m p le S i z e ....................................................... 121!
10. In te g r a te d T i m e - F o r c e s in V e r n ie r U n i t s ................................. 123!
j
11. Ip so d iz e d L o g a r ith m s of In te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e j
M e a s u r e m e n ts : M e a n s , V a r ia n c e s , a n d S a m p le Size 130i
j
12. S tu tte re d W o rd s , P o s itio n 3: D u ra tio n o f V oice and !
P u s h R e s p o n s e s and In te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e of •
th e P u s h .................................................................................................... 132!
I
V
LIST O F ILLUSTRATIONS
F ig u re
1.
2 .
3.
4.
5.
6 .
7.
8 .
9.
10.
11 .
12 .
13.
14.
P a g e
P r e s e n ta tio n and S ig n a l-d e te c tio n A p p a r a t u s ..................... 36
S p rin g -lo a d e d L e v e r ........................................................................ 37
C a lib ra tio n C urve of th e S ta tic R e s p o n s e C h a r a c t e r
is tic s of the S p rin g -lo a d e d L e v e r . .................................. 40
R e sp o n se C u rv e s of th e D y n am ic C a lib ra tio n of the
L e v e r A r m .............................. 41
P e a k A m p litu d es at E a c h P o s itio n , U tilizin g G roup
M e an s of Ip so d iz e d L o g a r i t h m s ......................................... 53
S ub ject A. T . : P e a k A m p litu d e s at E a c h P o s itio n . . . 55
S ubject A. A. : P e a k A m p litu d e s at E a c h P o s itio n . . . 56
S ubject C. M . : P e a k A m p litu d e s at E a c h P o s itio n . . . 57
S ubject T. M. : P e a k A m p litu d e s a t E a c h P o s itio n . . . 58
S ub ject I. W. : P e a k A m p litu d e s a t E a c h P o s itio n . . . 59
S u b ject R. G. : P e a k A m p litu d e s a t E a c h P o s itio n . . . 60
In te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e M e a s u r e m e n ts at E a c h P o s i
tio n U tilizin g G ro u p M e a n s of Ip so d iz e d
L o g a r i t h m s ......................................................................................... 68
S u b ject A. T . : In te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e a t E a c h
P o s i t i o n ................................................................................................ 70
S ub ject A. A . : In te g r a te d T i m e - F o r c e at E a c h
P o s i t i o n ................................................................................................ 71
vi
F ig u r e P age
i 15. S u b je ct C. M. : I n te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e at
E a c h P o s i t i o n .................................................................................. 72
16. S u b je c t T. M. : I n te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e at
E a c h P o s i t i o n .................................................................................. 73
17. S u b je ct I. W. : I n te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e at
E a c h P o s i t i o n .................................................................................. 74
18. S u b je ct R. G. : I n te g r a te d T i m e - F o r c e at
E ach P o s i t i o n .................................................................................. 75
19. C u rv e s of G r e a te s t In te n sity of T i m e - F o r c e
M e a s u r e m e n t of P u sh R e s p o n s e a t P o s itio n 3 . . . . 77
20. S u b ject R. G. : E x a m p le of D u ra tio n of V oice and
P u sh D u rin g S t u t t e r i n g .............................................................. 80
21. S u b je ct T. B. : I n te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e at E a c h
P o s i t i o n ................................................................................................ 82
22. S u b je ct M. L. : I n te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e at E a c h
P o s i t i o n ................................................................................................ 83
23. D ia g ra m of R e s p o n s e S t i m u l a t e r ................................................. 98
i
J
C H A P T E R I
INTRODU CTIO N
T he m a in p r o b le m in a tte m p tin g to u n d e rs ta n d any c o m p le x
h u m an b e h a v io r is th a t s u c h a c tiv ity is m e d ia te d . T h a t is , b e tw e en the
o c c u r r e n c e of a s tim u lu s and the re s p o n s e to it th e r e in te r v e n e s a
s e r i e s of in te r n a l e v e n ts w hich a r e su b tle and d iffic u lt to in v e s tig a te
(K im ble, 1961, p. 460; M e d n ic k , 1964). I n v e s tig a to rs who a tte m p t to
fo rm u la te s y s te m a tic a c c o u n ts of b e h a v io r o ften a p p e a l to i n te r m e d ia r y
e x p la n a to ry f a c t o r s c o m m o n ly c a lle d in te rv e n in g v a r i a b le s . M o re
s p e c ific a lly , m a n y t h e o r i s t s fre q u e n tly re ly upon s o m e kind of m o v in g ,
p u sh in g , d riv in g , o r e n e rg iz in g fo rc e o r ag en cy a s one type of i n t e r
vening v a ria b le o p e ra tin g to in flu en ce b e h a v io r (B ro w n , 1961, p. 24).
S p eech , a s a c o m p le x f o rm of h u m an b e h a v io r , is a m e d ia te d
a c tiv ity . D u rin g s tu tte r in g it ca n be a s s u m e d th a t a n a d d itio n a l i n t e r
n a l e n e rg iz in g fo rc e o r s t r e s s is o p e ra tin g . The t e r m " s t r e s s " as
u s e d in th is study is d e fin e d a s any p sy c h o lo g ic a l f o r c e a p p lie d to a
p sy c h o lo g ic a l s y s te m , s u ffic ie n t to c a u s e a s tr a in o r d is to r tio n in th e
s y s te m , o r , w hen v e ry g r e a t , to a lt e r it into a new f o r m (E n g lish and j
i
I
E n g lis h , 1965). The p r e s e n c e of s t r e s s d u rin g s tu tte r in g s e e m s j
ev id e n t both f r o m o b s e rv a b le te n s io n in th e s t u t t e r e r 's s p e e c h b e h a v io r
and f r o m h is in tr o s p e c tiv e r e p o r t s . H o w e v e r, r e s e a r c h s tu d ie s on
s tu tte r in g h av e failed to p r e s e n t u n e q u iv o c a l ev id en ce th a t th is i n t e r
vening v a ria b le e x is ts ; the m a j o r p r o b le m s e e m s to be in finding so m e
u se fu l and o b je c tiv e m e a n s of defining it. In so m e c a s e s , i n t e r p r e t a
tion of r e s e a r c h te n d s to be ta u to lo g ic a l. S tu tte rin g is a ttr ib u te d to a
F a c to r X, and F a c to r X is th e n u s e d to e x p la in s tu tte rin g . B ro w n
(1961, p. 35) s u g g e s ts s e v e r a l m e th o d s fo r defining in te rv e n in g v a r i
a b le s in su ch a way a s to avoid c i r c u l a r in te r p re ta tio n . Two of th e
s u g g e ste d m e th o d s w hich a r e a p p lic a b le to r e s e a r c h on s tu tte r in g
in clu d e d e fin itio n s of the in te rv e n in g v a ria b le in t e r m s of: (1) r e s p o n s e s
th a t th e s u b je c t m a k e s o th e r th a n th o se u s e d in the t e s t s itu a tio n , o r
(2) d iff e re n c e s in o rg a n ic v a r ia b le s .
The se co n d m eth o d , m e a s u r in g d iff e re n c e s in o rg a n ic v a r i a b le s ,
h as b e e n a tte m p te d w ith m ix e d r e s u l t s . On th e o th e r h an d , th e r e is a
p a u c ity of s y s te m a tic r e s e a r c h u s in g the f i r s t m e th o d , m e a s u r in g so m e
o v e rt r e s p o n s e o th e r th an s tu tte r in g . Yet f ro m the stan d p o in t of both
p a rs im o n y and o p e ra tio n is m , th e f i r s t m e th o d would be p r e f e r a b le ,
a s s u m in g th a t it would y ield a t l e a s t a s a c c u r a te m e a s u r e m e n ts of the
i
r e a c tiv e p r o c e s s a s th e seco n d m e th o d . T he law of p a rs im o n y s a y s ,
e s s e n tia lly , th a t the s im p le s t of a lte r n a tiv e p ro p o sitio n s should be |
a c c e p te d . It w ould s e e m th a t a s im p le m o to r r e s p o n s e , such a s p u s h - i
ing a s p rin g - lo a d e d le v e r in r e s p o n s e to a g iven s tim u lu s , would be j
m u c h le s s c o m p le x fo r p u r p o s e s of c o n tro l and m e a s u r e m e n t th an
a tte m p tin g to d e fin e an i n tr a - o r g a n i s m i c ev ent. The p rin c ip le of o p e r
a tio n is m r e q u i r e s th a t a ll t e r m s have e m p i r ic a l r e f e r e n t s . An o v e r t
r e s p o n s e , su c h a s a le v e r p u sh , is d ire c tly o b s e r v a b le , while an in tra -
o r g a n is m ic e v e n t is only in d ir e c tly o b s e rv a b le th ro u g h th e m e a s u r e
m e n t s e le c te d . In o th e r w o r d s , the S -R f o r m u la fo llo w ed in the f i r s t
m e th o d is m o re d ir e c t th a n th e S -O -R f o r m u la fo llo w e d in the se co n d
m eth o d .
It s e e m s r e a s o n a b le to a s s u m e th a t if s tu tte r in g is a s tr e s s f u l
ev e n t fo r the s t u t t e r e r , th is s t r e s s w ill e n e r g iz e a v a r ie ty of r e s p o n s e s ,
o v e rt as w ell a s o r g a n ic , in a d d itio n to s tu tte r in g . S u p p o rt fo r th is
a s s u m p tio n c o m e s f r o m t h e o r i e s of m o tiv a tio n an d e m o tio n . B ro w n
(1961, p. 42) s u g g e s ts th a t the c r i t e r io n m o s t w id ely a c c e p te d f o r
iden tify in g a m o tiv a tio n a l v a r ia b le is th e o b s e rv a tio n t h a t it f a c ilita te s
o r e n e rg iz e s a w ide v a r ie ty of r e s p o n s e s . A c c o rd in g to P e t e r s (1965,
pp. 445-446), th e th e o r y of e m o tio n a s e n e rg y o r f o r c e co m es f r o m the
o b s e rv e d v a ry in g in te n s ity of r e s p o n s e s in e m o tio n a l s itu a tio n s . M any
e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d ie s in the fie ld of psy ch o lo g y s u p p o rt th is th e o ry .
Two e x a m p le s a r e e x p e r im e n ta l s tu d ie s of f r u s t r a t i o n (H an er and
B ro w n , 1955; L o n g s tr e th , I9 6 0 ), both of w hich d e m o n s tr a te d in te n s if i
c a tio n of an o v e r t ongoing r e s p o n s e w hen a n o th e r r e s p o s e was t h w a r t e c .
| A d d itio n a l s u p p o rt c o m e s fro m th e field of s p e e c h pathology.
P e r k in s (1970) s ta te s :
If we a s s u m e th a t e v e ry in s ta n c e of b e h a v io r h a s a c o rre s p o n d in g
in sta n c e in e a c h p h y s io lo g ic a l s y s te m , we a s s u m e th a t a change
in b e h a v io r r e q u i r e s a change in p h y sio lo g ic r e s p o n s e . T h is
a s s u m p tio n p e r m i ts a b le s s e d e c o n o m y . It e n a b le s the in v e s t i
g a to r to u s e b e h a v io r as a s c r e e n in g d e v ic e fo r p ro fita b le p h y s i
o lo g ic a l le a d s , (p. 221)
A s s u m in g th e n th a t the m o m e n t of s tu tte r in g is s t r e s s f u l , we
c a n u tiliz e a n o th e r b e h a v io r a l r e s p o n s e to m e a s u r e its p r e s e n c e .
S ta te m e n t of the P r o b le m
The g e n e ra l p u rp o s e of th is study w as to in v e s tig a te v a ria tio n s
in the in te n s ity of an o v e r t r e s p o n s e o th e r th an s tu tte r in g , b e fo r e , dur
in g , and a fte r in s ta n c e s of s tu tte r in g .
T he h y p o th e s is te s te d w as: the in te n sity of an o v e rt r e s p o n s e
w hich d iff e rs f r o m s tu tte r in g w ill v a ry d ire c tly w ith m o m e n ts of s tu t-
te r ing.
D e fin itio n s of T e r m s
" In te n s ity " m a y be d e fin e d in tw o d iffe re n t w a y s, depending
upon w h ich a s p e c t of e n e rg y is to be m e a s u r e d . M o st c o m m o n ly and
p a r t i c u l a r l y in p sy c h o lo g y , in te n s ity is c o n s id e r e d a s r e f e r r i n g to the
r e la tiv e a m o u n t of s tr e n g th , f o r c e , o r e n e rg y a t a g iv en point. H ow
e v e r , in p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e , in te n s ity is s o m e tim e s c o n s id e r e d in t e r m s
of w o rk done, o r in o th e r w o r d s , e n e rg y ex p e n d ed (D en es and P in so n ,
1963). F u n k an d W ag n alls C o lleg e S ta n d a rd D ic tio n a ry (1946) p r e s e n ts
th e c l e a r e s t d iff e re n c e of the tw o m e a n in g s :
1. R e la tiv e s tr e n g th o r d e g re e of a q u a lity o r fo rc e .
2. (P h y s ic a l S c ien c e ) T h e f o r c e , e n e rg y or q u a n tity o f any
p h y sic a l a g e n t g e n e ra lly e s tim a te d by its r a t i o to th e
s p a c e w ithin w hich it a c ts . . . .
In th is study, in te n s ity w a s m e a s u r e d in two w ay s: f i r s t , in
t e r m s of g r e a t e s t a m o u n t of f o r c e , a s m e a s u r e d by the p e a k a m p litu d e
of e a c h r e s p o n s e ; se c o n d , in t e r m s of e n e rg y ex p en d ed , a s an i n t e
g r a te d t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n t, i. e. , the e n tir e a r e a u n d e r e a c h
r e s p o n s e c u rv e . The h y p o th e s is w as te s te d s e p a r a te ly f o r e a c h d e f i
n itio n of in te n s ity , and th u s b e c o m e s tw o p ro p o sitio n s:
1. The peak a m p litu d e of an o v e r t re s p o n s e w h ic h d iff e rs
f ro m s tu tte r in g w ill v a ry d ir e c tly w ith m o m e n ts of
s tu tte rin g .
2. The in te g r a te d t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n t of a n o v e rt
r e s p o n s e w h ich d if f e r s f r o m s tu tte rin g w ill v a ry d ir e c tly
w ith m o m e n ts of s tu tte r in g .
T he t e r m " m o m e n t" is u s e d to include the p e rio d s b e fo r e , d u r - i
in g , and a fte r in s ta n c e s of s tu tte r in g . The t e r m " in s ta n c e " is u s e d to ;
I
in d ic a te s p e c ific a lly the a c t of s tu tte r in g . It is used in s te a d of th e
w o rd " m o m e n t" in th o se c a s e s w h e re c la r if ic a tio n is n e e d e d in r e la tio n
I
to a m e a s u r e m e n t d iffe re n tia l.
R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n s
The o v e r t r e s p o n s e s e le c te d fo r u s e in the p r e s e n t in v e s tig a tio n
w as the push in g of a s p rin g - lo a d e d le v e r.
T h is stu d y w as d e s ig n e d to a n s w e r th e follow ing q u e stio n s:
1. W ill in te n s ity of the push r e s p o n s e v a ry b e fo r e , d u rin g ,
a n d / o r a fte r in s ta n c e s of s tu tte r in g ?
2. W ill in te n s ity of the push r e s p o n s e v a ry b e fo re , d u rin g ,
a n d / o r a fte r in s ta n c e s of flu e n c y ?
3. W ill th e in te n sity of the push r e s p o n s e d iff e r d u rin g
m o m e n ts of s tu tte r in g as c o m p a r e d w ith m o m e n ts of
flu e n c y ?
4. W ill the in te n sity of the push r e s p o n s e d u rin g m o m e n ts of
s tu tte r in g and flu en cy d iffe r a s c o m p a r e d w ith m o m e n ts of
s ile n c e ?
Im p o rta n c e of the Study
T h is stu d y is im p o r ta n t fo r the follow ing r e a s o n s :
1. S e v e ra l t h e o r ie s on s tu tte rin g h y p o th e s iz e th a t an a n tic i
p a to ry r e a c tio n b e g in s at s o m e p o in t p r i o r to the in sta n c e
of s tu tte r in g (B lo o d ste in , 1958; S h e e h a n , 1958; W is c h n e r, I
1952a). S e v e ra l r e s e a r c h s tu d ie s ten d to su p p o rt th is
h y p o th e s is . H o w e v e r, a m a jo r w e a k n e s s in so m e of th e s e !
s tu d ie s d e riv e s f r o m the u se of th e s u b je c t's in tro s p e c tiv e j
d e c is io n of h i s e x p e cta n cy to s tu tte r , i . e . , he in d ic a te s
w o rd s on w h ic h he e x p e c ts to s tu tte r by u n d e rlin in g th e m in
a p a s s a g e , e t c . R e s u lts have shown th a t the su b je c t s o m e
t im e s s tu t t e r s unex p ected ly a n d that h e does not alw ay s
s tu t t e r when e x p e c te d . One p o s s ib le in te r p r e ta tio n of th e s e
fin d in g s is t h a t a n tic ip a to ry r e a c tio n s m ay n o t alw ay s o c c u r
at th e c o n s c io u s le v e l. A n o th e r p o s s ib ility is th a t the a c t
of in d ic a tin g e x p e c ta n c y to s tu t t e r m a y s e rv e as a confound
ing v a r ia b le . This s tu d y w as d e s ig n e d to p ro v id e an o b je c
tive m e a n s o f e s ta b lis h in g th e p r e s e n c e , if an y , of an a n tic
ip a to ry r e a c tio n to s tu tte r in g .
2. S om e t h e o r i s t s say t h a t the a c t of s tu tte r in g is s e lf
r e in f o rc in g b e c a u s e o f its te n s io n - r e d u c tio n p r o p e r tie s
(S heehan, 1958; W is c h n e r, 1952b). T h is study w as an
a tte m p t to d is c o v e r o b je c tiv e ly w h e th e r o r n o t te n s io n -
r e d u c tio n is a s s o c i a te d with s tu tte r in g .
3. H ill (1944) c o m p a r e d d a ta f r o m p h y sio lo g ic a l s tu d ie s of ,
i
s t u t t e r e r s w ith data o n p h y sio lo g ic a l r e a c tio n s of n o r m a l
s p e a k e r s d u r in g s t a r t l e . H is c o n c lu sio n of a r e s e m b la n c e
b e tw e e n the tw o r e a c tio n s w a s b a sed m a in ly upon the fa c t !
j
th a t du rin g th e in s ta n t of s t a r t l e , s u r p r i s e , o r d is ru p tiv e
I
f e a r a ll b e h a v i o r - i n - p r o g r e s s c e a s e s and h is a s s u m p tio n j
th a t du rin g s tu t t e r in g p sy c h o lo g ic a l c o n ta c t w ith the i
8
s itu a tio n is b r o k e n - - th e r e s p o n s e th a t is d e m a n d e d by the
s itu a tio n is ju s t not t h e r e . T he m eth o d u se d in the p r e s e n t
study w as d e sig n e d to t e s t w h e th e r o r not b e h a v io r in
p r o g r e s s c e a s e s d u rin g s tu tte r in g .
4. As p re v io u s ly s ta te d , an o b s tr u c tio n to a d v a n c e m e n t in the
u n d e rs ta n d in g of s tu tte r in g b e h a v io r h as r e s u lte d f r o m the
ten d e n c y to u s e q u e s tio n a b le ta u to lo g ic a l in te r p r e ta tio n s of
in te rv e n in g v a r ia b le s . The m e th o d d e v ise d fo r th is p r o
je c t avoids su c h c ir c u la r it y . In ad d itio n , the study should
y ield m o re in fo r m a tio n about w hat the in d ividual s t u t t e r e r
does w hen he is s tu tte r in g .
C H A PT E R II
R E V IE W OF T H E L IT E R A T U R E
M o st of the r e s e a r c h on c o m p le x f o r m s of h u m an b e h a v io r, such
as s tu tte r in g , is b a s e d on a s s u m p tio n s a s to c a u s e of th e b e h a v io r.
T h e s e a s s u m p tio n s te n d to c lu s te r e ith e r a ro u n d so m e kind of m o tiv a
tio n a l v a r ia b le (an x ie ty , r e in f o r c e m e n t, e tc . ) o r a ro u n d so m e kind of
p h y sio lo g ic a l v a r ia b le such a s a c o n s titu tio n a l d iff e re n c e . Since the
p r e s e n t study is d e sig n e d to gain m o r e in fo rm a tio n about w hat the s tu t
t e r e r does w hen he s t u t t e r s , no a s s u m p tio n as to c a u se of th e s t u t t e r
ing b e h a v io r is m a d e . T h e r e f o r e , s e le c tio n of th e l it e r a tu r e fo r
re v ie w h as b e e n m a d e not on the b a s is of a s s u m p tio n s a s to c a u se but
on the b a s is of its r e le v a n c y to e ith e r (1) m e th o d s u se d in the p r e s e n t
stu d y , o r (2) r e s e a r c h d ire c tly r e la te d to h y p o th e s e s being te s te d .
I
R e s e a r c h R e la te d to M ethod
In P sy c h o lo g y
The p sy c h o lo g y r e s e a r c h w hich s e e m s to be m o s t d ir e c tly >
r e la te d to m e th o d s u s e d in th e p r e s e n t stu d y w a s co n d u cted by the
R u s s ia n s c ie n tis t, A . R. L u r ia (1932). H e b e g a n h is in v e s tig a tio n j
e a rly in 1920, w ith th e h y p o th e s is th a t "the a ffe c tiv e d is o r g a n iz a tio n of
b e h a v io r is c o n n e c te d in tim a te ly w ith the fa te of th e a c tiv e p r o c e s s e s "
(p. 17). It w a s h is c o n v ic tio n th a t in u n d e rta k in g a study of th e d i s o r
g a n iz a tio n of h u m a n b e h a v io r we sh o u ld "on the one hand p ro d u c e the
c e n tr a l p r o c e s s of th e d is o r g a n iz a tio n of h u m a n b e h a v io r; on the o th e r
hand, we should t r y to r e f l e c t th is p r o c e s s in so m e s y s te m a c c e s s ib le
and su ita b le fo r e x a m in a tio n " (p. 18). H is s e le c tio n of a n a c tiv e o b
s e rv a b le p r o c e s s w hich w ould r e f l e c t c h a n g e s due to a ffe c t, w as the
s u b je c t's re s p o n s e of p r e s s in g a p n e u m a tic bulb w ith the rig h t hand.
The le ft hand r e s te d on an id e n tic a l bulb and r e g i s te r e d in v o lu n ta ry
t r e m o r s . T he c e n tr a l p r o c e s s w as r e p r e s e n te d a s the s u b je c t's v e rb a l
r e s p o n s e . L u r ia u s e d s u b je c ts who w e re in e x tr e m e s ta te s of anxiety,
such a s known m u r d e r e r s n o t y e t f o rm a lly c h a rg e d and s tu d e n ts who
w e re about to tak e e x a m in a tio n s o r to be p r o c e s s e d fo r p o s s ib le r e
m o v al fro m th e u n iv e r s ity . H is s u b je c ts w e r e a s k e d to re s p o n d v e r
bally to w o rd s p r e s e n te d in a w o rd a s s o c ia tio n t e s t and s im u lta n e o u s ly ,
J
to p r e s s a p n e u m a tic bulb. The b u lb s w e re a tta c h e d to ta m b o u r s which!
r e g i s te r e d th e r e s p o n s e s upon a k y m o g ra p h d ru m . L u r ia in d ic a te d th a t
both in te n s ity and r e a c tio n tim e of th e v o lu n ta ry m o to r r e s p o n s e would
r e f l e c t ch an g es in a ffe c t a s a r e a c tio n to th e w o rd s p r e s e n te d . R e s u lts
i
of h is study a r e s u m m a r iz e d below : j
N o rm a l S u b je ct S u b je cts Showing A ffect
1. S p e e c h r e a c tio n s w e re S p e e c h r e a c tio n s o c c u r r e d m u ch
ra p id and s ta b le . m o r e slow ly (1 .4 s e c o n d s v e r s u s
5. 7 to 10 seco n d s).
2. M o to r r e a c tio n s had
a s ta n d a r d fo rm and
show ed m o r e o r le s s
e q u a l in te n sity of
p r e s s u r e s .
S u b je ct w as not able to c o o rd in a te
m o v e m e n ts of hand w ith s p e e c h .
M o to r p r e s s u r e s o m e tim e s
o c c u r r e d b e fo re sp e e c h . M any Ss
show ed a s h a r p t r e m o r b e tw e en
s e p a r a te r e a c tio n s . The m o to r
f o rm u la w a s l o s t - - l o s s of r e g u la r
c o o rd in a te d p r e s s u r e .
D is o rg a n iz a tio n and d is c o o r d in a -
tio n of b e h a v io r w as r e a liz e d in
th e m o to r settin g . T he e x c ita tio n
did n o t m e e t with any d e la y , w ith
any in h ib itio n , and im m e d ia te ly
p r o c e e d e d to its t e r m in u s . In
ste a d of th e e x p ected even line
follow ing th e fre e in te r v a l a s it
o c c u r r e d in n o rm a l s u b je c ts , the
s u b je c t g ave s e v e r a l d is c o o r d i-
n a te d s h a r p p r e s s u r e s n o t c o n
n e c te d w ith sp eech r e s p o n s e s and
o ccu p y in g a ll of the fre e in te r v a l.
B r a c k b ill, e t a l . (1963), r e p o r t e d a stu d y involving the e ffe c t of
r e s p o n s e a m p litu d e , i . e . , its d u ra tio n and in te n s ity , d u rin g le a rn in g
i
upon s u b s e q u e n t r e te n tio n of the le a r n e d m a t e r i a l. They p e rf o r m e d
two e x p e r im e n ts on tw o g ro u p s of t h i r d - g r a d e b o y s. In th e f i r s t e x p e r
im e n t, the le a r n in g of b ig r a m s w as p a ir e d w ith the a m p litu d e of an
i
e le c tr o m y o g ra p h ic r e s p o n s e a c c o m p a n y in g a v e rb a l r e s p o n s e and tw o j
d iffe re n t s c h e d u le s of r e in f o r c e m e n t. In the se co n d e x p e r im e n t, a
3. B e h a v io r w as c h a r
a c te r iz e d by a c o m p le te
c o o rd in a tio n of the
s e p a r a te s y s te m s .
m o to r r e s p o n s e w as s u b s titu te d fo r th e v e r b a l r e s p o n s e - - p u s h in g a
tw o -p o u n d v e r s u s a fo u r-p o u n d le v e r . R e s u lts in d ic a te d r e te n tio n of
le a rn in g w as fa c ilita te d by r e in f o r c e m e n t d elay and by a m p litu d e of
m o to r r e s p o n s e but not by a m p litu d e of v e rb a l r e s p o n s e .
R ad tk e (1967) s tu d ie d the e ffe c ts of a s s o c ia tio n of w o rd s w ith the
in te n sity of an e le c tr i c s h o c k on s u b s e q u e n t p r e s e n ta tio n of the s a m e
w o rd s p a ir e d w ith in te n s ity of a r e s p o n s e of pulling a le v e r . R e s u lts
in d ic a te d th a t th e r e s p o n s e - s h o c k g ro u p re s p o n d e d w ith c o n s id e ra b ly
m o re v ig o r in p ulling th e le v e r th a n did the c o n tro l g ro u p s .
In S peech P ath o lo g y
S e v e ra l s tu d ie s of the g e n e ra l m o to r a b ility of s t u t t e r e r s w e re
c o n d u cted in th e la te 1 9 2 0 's and in the 1930's. M any of th e s e s tu d ie s
u tiliz e d a k y m o g ra p h o r sm o k e d d ru m s im i la r to L u r i a 's ( s e e s u p r a ,
p. 10). A m ong th e s e s tu d ie s , the r e s e a r c h m o s t d ir e c tly r e la te d to the
p r e s e n t study w a s H e r r e n 's (1931) study of the e ffe c t of s tu tte r in g on
v o lu n ta ry hand m o v e m e n t. D e ta ils of th is study a r e r e p o r t e d la te r in
th is c h a p te r u n d e r S tu tte rin g a s a S ta rtle R e a c tio n . A s a r e s u l t of th is
study, th e a u th o r co n c lu d e d th a t s tu tte r in g is a s s o c ia te d w ith a g e n - >
e r a liz e d m o to r b lo ck in g .
In a d d itio n to H e r r e n 's study, only one o th e r w as found th a t
in v e s tig a te d the d ir e c t r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e en m a n u a l a c tiv ity and the !
m o m e n t of s tu tte r in g . T a n b e rg (1938, 1955) u tiliz e d L u r i a 's m eth o d of
a w ord a s s o c ia tio n t e s t a n d re c o r d in g of ongoing v o lu n ta ry and involun-j
t a r y hand m o v e m e n ts to te s t J o h n s o n and K n o tt's (1936) h y p o th e s is th a t
e x p e c ta tio n of s tu tte r in g c a u s e s an im p u ls e to inhibit such e x p e c te d
s tu tte r in g . T h irte e n a d u lt s t u t t e r e r s w e re c o m p a re d w ith th ir te e n n o n -
s t u t t e r e r s on a w ord a s s o c ia tio n t e s t c o n ta in in g tw e n ty -fiv e " e m o tio n a l"
w o rd s and s e v e n ty -fiv e " n e u tr a l" w o r d s . I n s tr u m e n ta tio n in clu d e d a
p o ly g ra p h fo r r e c o r d in g r e a c tio n tim e in w o rd a s s o c ia tio n , two t a m
b o u r a ir s y s te m s fo r r e c o r d in g v o lu n ta ry and in v o lu n tary m o to r
r e s p o n s e s f ro m p r e s s u r e cups on r ig h t and le ft h a n d s , and an e l e c t r i
c a lly c o n tro lle d tim e m a r k e r . A ll s u b je c ts w e re in s tr u c te d to re s p o n d
a s q u ick ly a s p o s s ib le , both m a n u a lly and v e rb a lly , to e a c h of th e 100
s tim u lu s w o rd s p r e s e n te d o r a lly by the e x p e r im e n te r . The o r ig in a l
d a ta on th is e x p e rim e n t w e re no lo n g e r a v a ila b le a t the tim e of p u b lic a -
I
ition but r e s u l t s in d ic a te d m o r e m a n u a l d is tu r b a n c e s p re c e d in g s tu tte r e d
i
th a n both n o n - s tu tte r e d and n o r m a l r e s p o n s e s (c o n tro l g ro u p ). A lso ,
i ;
the r e s p o n s e tim e w as lo n g e r fo r s tu tte r e d w o rd s and show ed a n in - '
I !
c r e a s e in the la te n c y of v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s follow ing m a n u a l r e s p o n s e s , i
; f
H e r r e n 's study w as th e o u tg ro w th of p re v io u s s tu d ie s by O rto n i
and T r a v is , T r a v is and H e r r e n , and T r a v is and F a g a n . T h e se s tu d ie s j
(had in d ic a te d how s t u t t e r e r s d iffe r f r o m n o r m a l s p e a k e r s in v a rio u s
! i
jm o to r a c tiv itie s d u rin g s p e e c h , and w e r e b a s e d on the th e o ry th a t
i .
s tu tte r in g is c a u se d by so m e s ig n ific a n t v a ria tio n in fu n ctio n al o r g a n i- !
z a tio n of th e c e n tr a l n e rv o u s s y s te m , p a r t ic u la r ly a s it c o n c e r n s
c e r e b r a l d o m in a n c e .
O rto n and T r a v is (1928) in v e s tig a te d a p o s s ib le p h y sio lo g ica l
lea d to in d ic a te a r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n s tu tte r in g and e n fo rc e d u se of
the r ig h t hand in le ft-h a n d e d c h ild re n . T h e ir study c o n s is te d of 11
n o r m a l adult s p e a k e r s and 17 ad u lt s t u t t e r e r s . A ll s u b je c ts w e re
rig h t-h a n d e d w ith only four giving a h is to r y of a sh ift fro m left hand in
childhood. T h is study m e a s u r e d " a c tio n c u r r e n t s " of sim u lta n e o u s
v o lu n ta ry c o n tr a c tio n s of m u s c le s of th e f o r e a r m s . R e s u lts in d ic a te d
th a t in th e n o r m a l s p e a k e r s who w e re r ig h t-h a n d e d , w hen both han d s
w e re v o lu n ta rily c lo s e d s im u lta n e o u s ly , m u s c u la r "a c tio n c u r r e n t s "
fro m th e rig h t f o r e a r m g e n e ra lly p re c e d e d th o s e f ro m the left, w h e re a s
in the s t u t t e r e r s who w e re r ig h t-h a n d e d , the r e v e r s e w as g e n e ra lly
tru e . The a u th o r s c o n clu d ed th a t the m o to r tr a in in g of s tu t t e r e r s is
out of h a rm o n y w ith " p h y sio lo g ic " le a d s .
T r a v is and H e r r e n (1929) p u rs u e d th e s a m e p ro b le m of d i f f e r
e n c e s b e tw e en rig h t-h a n d e d s t u t t e r e r s and rig h t-h a n d e d n o rm a l
s p e a k e r s . T h e ir study w as an in v e s tig a tio n of s im u lta n e o u s a n titro p ic
m o v e m e n ts of th e h a n d s of s t u t t e r e r s to d e te rm in e w h e th e r both h a n d s
s ta r te d to m o v e at e x a c tly the s a m e in s ta n t w hen the su b je c t a tte m p te d
to m o v e th e m a t the s a m e tim e but in o p p o site d ir e c tio n s . T h is a p p o
sitio n of d ire c tio n w as c h o s e n in o r d e r to m a k e u s e of the s im i la r i t y of i
o p p o site m o v e m e n ts w hich r e s u l ts f ro m s t r i c t a n titr o p is m , th a t is , j
rig h t an d left p a ir in g of the n e u r o m u s c u la r m e c h a n is m s . R e s u lts indi-i
c a te d th a t r ig h t-h a n d e d n o r m a l s p e a k e r s w ith a h is to r y of r ig h t- !
15
h a n d e d n e s s le a d m o re fre q u e n tly w ith the left hand; rig h t-h a n d e d n o r
m a l s p e a k e r s w ith a h is to r y of le f t-h a n d e d n e s s lea d about a s often w ith
one h and as th e o th e r; b u t rig h t-h a n d e d s t u t t e r e r s , r e g a r d l e s s of a
p o sitiv e o r n e g a tiv e h is to r y of le f t-h a n d e d n e s s , lead m o re fre q u e n tly
w ith the rig h t hand.
T r a v is and F a g a n (1928) in v e s tig a te d the p o s s ib ility th a t s tu tte r
ing c r e a te s a c e r ta in a m o u n t of e n e rg y th a t is lib e r a te d a s a m o to r
o v e rflo w into u n r e la te d c h a n n e ls su c h as into p a te lla r and a c h ille s
r e f le x e s . A s a c o m p a r is o n stu d y , an in v e s tig a tio n w as m a d e of the
r e s i s ta n c e to p a s s iv e d is p la c e m e n t of the r e la x e d hand, i . e . , th e r e
s is ta n c e in a r b i t r a r y u n its th a t the p en d an t hand o ffe re d to an u n e x
p ected blow . A ll m e a s u r e m e n ts w e re r e c o r d e d u n d e r sp e ak in g and
s ile n t c o n d itio n s . R e s u lts in d ic a te d th a t p a te lla r and a c h ille s r e f le x e s
of n o r m a l s p e a k e r s show ed a g r e a t e r a m p litu d e d u rin g s p e e c h th a n
d u rin g s ile n t p e rio d s . In s t u t t e r e r s a c o m p a ra b le in c r e a s e in a m p l i
tu d e w as found to o c c u r d u rin g s tu tte r in g but w hen the s t u t t e r e r w as
sp e ak in g flu e n tly , the a m p litu d e of the tw o r e f le x e s w as le s s th a n d u r
ing the s ile n t p e rio d s . V a r ia tio n s in r e s i s ta n c e o ffe re d by th e p en d an t
hand to an u n e x p e c te d blow w e r e d ire c tly c o m p a ra b le to th e s e re f le x
v a ria tio n s .
T r a v i s ' s tu d ie s s tim u la te d e x te n s iv e r e s e a r c h on th e g e n e ra l
m o to r a b ilitie s of s t u t t e r e r s p e r h a p s b e c a u s e , a c c o rd in g to Seth (1958),
th e r e w as an im p lic a tio n th a t d is tu r b a n c e in the " c o n tro l of th e s p e e c h
• - - l 6
m e c h a n is m should be a p p a r e n t n o t only in the s p e e c h situ atio n . " S e th 's
study (1958) a n a ly z e d th e v o lu n ta ry c o n tro l of a m o to r p e rf o r m a n c e
(fin g e r-ta p p in g ). R e s u lts of h is study, u sin g 15 s tu tte r in g and 15 n o n
s tu tte rin g s u b je c ts , in d ic a te d th a t the s t u t t e r e r s w e r e m a rk e d ly in fe
r i o r to th e n o r m a l c o n tro ls in a b ility to m a in ta in v o lu n ta rily the
rh y th m o r r e g u la r ity of the p e r f o r m a n c e . He c o n clu d ed th a t the d i s
o rg a n iz a tio n of p s y c h o m o to r p e r f o r m a n c e is not confined to the sp e e c h
function.
On th e o th e r h a n d , R o tte r (1955) u se d s e v e r a l t e s t s of m o to r
p e r f o r m a n c e including a f in g e r-ta p p in g te s t in h is in v e s tig a tio n of the
m o to r a b ility of 20 s t u t t e r e r s c o m p a r e d to 20 n o n - s t u t t e r e r s. A lthough
the n o r m a l s u b je c ts m a d e h ig h e r m e a n s c o r e s on a ll t e s t s , v e ry few of
the d iffe re n c e s w e re s ta t is t ic a ll y s ig n ific a n t. He c o n clu d ed th a t the
r e s u l ts of th e s e t e s t s d id not s u p p o rt the h y p o th e s is th a t s t u t t e r e r s a r e
l e s s able th a n n o n - s t u t t e r e r s to c o o rd in a te left and r ig h t s id e s .
R o s s (1955), u s in g 21 ad u lt s t u t t e r e r s and 21 n o n - s t u t t e r e r s
m a tc h e d fo r a g e , sex, and in te llig e n c e t e s t s c o r e s , found no s ig n ific a n t
d iff e re n c e s b e tw e en g ro u p s on p s y c h o m o to r d is c r im in a tio n ta s k s e x
c e p t th a t on a s p e e d t e s t of tu rn in g o v e r c a r d s , the s t u t t e r e r s w e re
I
I
s u p e rio r to the c o n tr o ls a t the 0. 05 le v e l. i
F in k e ls te in and W e is b e r g e r (1954) a d m in is te r e d the O s e r e ts k y j
|
T e s ts of M o to r P ro fic ie n c y to 15 s tu tte rin g and 15 n o r m a l- s p e a k in g j
c h ild re n m a tc h e d for a g e , s e x , and la te r a lity . T h ey found the j
17
s t u t t e r e r s s lig h tly , b u t not s ig n ific a n tly , s u p e r io r to t h e i r c o n tr o ls ,
and th e s t u t t e r e r s w e r e e s s e n tia lly n o r m a l as a g ro u p .
S u m m a ry
Som e r e s e a r c h in p sy ch o lo g y h a s in d ic a te d th a t t h e r e is a s ig
n ific a n t r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n the in te n s ity of a s im p le m o to r r e s p o n s e
and a v e rb a l r e s p o n s e , p a r tic u la r ly u n d e r c o n d itio n s of s t r e s s .
In the s p e e c h path o lo g y l i t e r a t u r e , two s tu d ie s w e r e found th a t
r e la te to the p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h . R e s u lts of one study in d ic a te d th a t
m o to r a c tiv ity is b lo c k e d d u rin g s tu tte r in g ; the o th e r in d ic a te d th a t
m a n u a l a c tiv ity is ongoing d u rin g s tu tte r in g but th a t it d iff e rs fro m
r e s p o n s e s o b ta in e d d u rin g fluent s p e e c h of the s t u t t e r e r and th e s p e e c h
of n o r m a l s u b je c ts .
E a r ly r e s e a r c h on g e n e ra l m o to r s k ills of s t u t t e r e r s a s c o m
p a re d to n o r m a l s p e a k e r s , a s id e f r o m sp e ak in g s itu a tio n s , in d ic a te d
so m e p o s s ib le d iff e re n c e s in n e u r o m u s c u la r c o o rd in a tio n but l a t e r ,
r e s e a r c h fa ile d to c o r r o b o r a t e th e s e fin d in g s.
R e s e a r c h R e la te d to H y p o th e ses T e s te d
S tu tte rin g a s an A n tic ip a to ry ;
R e a c tio n j
i
M a rtin and H a r o ld s o n (1967) ch e ck e d B lo o d s te in 's (I960) j
I
i
a s s u m p tio n th a t the p r e s e n c e of c o n s is te n c y in s tu tte r in g im p lie s the
!
p r e s e n c e of a n tic ip a tio n . T h irty a d u lt s t u t t e r e r s re a d a 3 0 0 -w o rd J
p a s s a g e aloud five tim e s . P r i o r to re a d in g , e a c h s u b je c t r a te d h is
e x p e c ta tio n to s tu tte r on a 5 -p o in t s c a le (fro m d e fin ite ly w ill s tu tte r to
d e fin ite ly w o n 't s tu tte r ) . R e s u lts in d ic a te d th a t th e r e w as a h ig h e r p e r
c e n ta g e of s tu tte r in g on w o rd s h a v in g h ig h e x p e c ta n c y v a lu e s.
G o ss (1952) in v e s tig a te d th e r e la tio n s h ip b etw een the fre q u e n c y
of s tu tte r in g and the tim e in te r v a l f r o m the p r e s e n ta tio n of a w o rd to
the s ig n a l to say th e w ord. The fre q u e n c y of s tu tte r in g w as ta k e n a s a
m e a s u r e of th e d e g re e of a n x ie ty . Two e x p e r im e n ts w e re c o n d u cted .
In the f i r s t e x p e r im e n t, 24 m a le s t u t t e r e r s , a g e s 12 to 25, re a d 96
w o rd s f r o m a H ull M e m o ry D ru m . T im e in te r v a ls b e tw e en w ord
p r e s e n ta tio n and the sig n al to say th e w o rd aloud v a rie d ra n d o m ly
b e tw e e n 0, 1, 2, and 5 s e c o n d s. T h e r e w as a 5-to 10-second in te r v a l
b e fo re p r e s e n ta tio n of the next s tim u lu s w ord. T he second e x p e rim e n t
w as co n d u c te d on 12 of the 24 s u b je c ts in the f i r s t e x p e rim e n t. P r o
c e d u r e s w e r e b a s ic a lly s im ila r e x c e p t th a t the tim e in te r v a ls w e re 0,
1, 2, 4, 7, and 10 se co n d s b e tw e en w o rd p r e s e n ta tio n and sig n a l to say
the w o rd , w ith a 1 0 - to 1 5 -se c o n d in te r v a l b e fo re p r e s e n ta tio n of the nexf:
s tim u lu s w o rd . T he r e s u l ts of both e x p e r im e n ts in d ic a te d th a t s ig n if i
c a n tly g r e a t e r a m o u n ts of s tu tte r in g o c c u r r e d a t th e 0 -s e c o n d in te r v a l,
w hich w as in te r p r e te d to m e a n a g r e a t e r a m o u n t of a n x ie ty . T he [
r e s p o n s e c u r v e s of both e x p e r im e n ts show ed a d ro p f ro m 0 to 1 o r 2 !
i
s e c o n d s and a su b s e q u e n t g r a d u a l r i s e to 10 s e c o n d s . !
jS u m m a ry
A lthough r e s u l ts of th e s tu d ie s cited above in d ic a te p o s s ib le
p r e s e n c e of an a n tic ip a to ry r e a c tio n a s s o c ia te d w ith a n x ie ty , th e s e
r e s u l t s a r e q u e s tio n a b le . In th e f i r s t stu d y , p r i o r e v a lu a tio n of e x p e c
ta n c y to s tu tte r could be a confounding v a ria b le . O ne w e a k n e s s of the
se c o n d study lie s in th e a s s u m p tio n th a t fre q u e n c y of s tu tte r in g is a
m e a s u r e of the d e g re e of an x ie ty ; th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e en a n x ie ty and
s tu tte r in g h as n o t b e e n c le a r ly e s ta b lis h e d . One of the in te r e s tin g
r e s u l t s of th is stu d y w as the d e c r e a s e in s tu tte r in g , e rg o , a d e c r e a s e
in a n x ie ty , w hich o c c u r r e d at the 1- o r 2 -second in te r v a l as c o m p a re d
to the 0 -s e c o n d in te r v a l , follow ed by a g ra d u a l r i s e to 10 s e c o n d s .
T e n s io n - r e d u c tio n a s R e in fo r c e m e n t
of S tu tte rin g
W is c h n e r (1950) h y p o th e s iz e d th a t re d u c tio n of a n x ie ty r e i n
f o r c e s s tu tte r in g b e h a v io r. H e i n te r p r e te d r e s e a r c h show ing th e
a d a p ta tio n e ffe c t a s b ein g a n a lo g o u s to e x p e rim e n ta l e x tin c tio n w h e re in
r e s p o n s e s b e c o m e e x tin g u is h e d by w ith d ra w a l of r e in f o r c e m e n t. He
r e la te d th is c o n c ep t of w ith d ra w a l of r e in f o r c e m e n t to a re d u c tio n of
e x p e c ta n c y to s t u t t e r . In h is study (1952a) he had a g ro u p of s u b je c ts
s ile n tly re a d a p a s s a g e five s u c c e s s iv e tim e s at one s ittin g and u n d e r
line w o rd s on w hich th e y w ould e x p e c t to s tu tte r . R e s u lts in d ic a te d a
p r o g r e s s iv e d e c r e a s e in the n u m b e r of w o rd s u n d e rlin e d on e a c h re a d in g .
P e in s (1961) did a s i m i l a r stu d y to d e te r m in e w h e th e r a d a p ta tio n
and r e c o v e r y o c c u r in the e x p e c ta n c y p a ra d ig m . In h e r study, an
e x p e c ta n c y a d a p ta tio n e ffe c t w as not d e m o n s tra te d .
W is c h n e r (1952b) in s tr u c te d 33 adult s t u t t e r e r s to d r a w a p i c
tu r e of w h a te v e r th ey fe lt m o s t a d e q u a te ly r e p r e s e n t e d a m o m e n t of
s tu tte r in g . R e p r e s e n ta tio n s w e r e a n a ly z e d in t e r m s of c o n ten t and
sp o n ta n e o u s w r itte n la n g u a g e u s e d by the s u b je c ts . R e s u lts w e r e i n t e r
p r e te d as iden tify in g c le a r l y a cy cle of e v e n ts s u rro u n d in g th e s t u t t e r
ing m o m e n t: p r o g r e s s iv e m o u n tin g te n s io n , a n x ie ty , o r s t r e s s , f o l
low ed by a r e d u c tio n in th e s e s ta te s im m e d ia te ly follow ing th e c o m p le
tio n of the s tu tte r in g a c t.
S heeh an (1958) a ls o u se d the a d a p ta tio n e ffe c t to s u p p o rt h is
a p p ro a c h -a v o id a n c e h y p o th e s is . A c c o rd in g to h im , th e s tu tte r in g th a t
o c c u r s on th e f i r s t re a d in g of a p a s s a g e d e c r e a s e s f e a r s u ffic ie n tly to
p e r m i t le s s s tu tte r in g on the seco n d re a d in g , e tc . R e c o v e ry w ould be
e x p la in ed a s r e in f o r c e m e n t of s tu tte r in g th ro u g h f e a r re d u c tio n .
An e x p e rim e n t by S h eeh an and V oas (1954) te s te d th e h y p o th e
s is th a t th e o c c u r r e n c e of s tu tte r in g r e d u c e s th e f e a r w hich e lic ite d the
s tu tte r in g . E le c tr o m y o g r a p h ic m e a s u r e m e n ts w e re ta k e n f r o m th e
m a s s e t e r m u s c le s of s t u t t e r e r s d u rin g the m o m e n t of s tu tte rin g .
|
T h e s e m e a s u r e m e n ts w e r e r e la te d to th e tim e b e tw e e n w o rd in itia tio n j
and c o m p le tio n . It w as p r e d ic te d th a t th e r e w ould be an i n c r e a s e in j
!
I
f e a r (tension) a s the s t u t t e r e r m o v ed th ro u g h the b lo c k c lo s e r to th e I
I
f e a r e d g oal of sp e ak in g . R e s u lts in d ic a te d th a t m a x im u m te n s io n j
o c c u r r e d la te in th e b lock n e a r the r e l e a s e .
On the o th e r h and, T a y lo r (1965), m e a s u r in g the h e a r tb e a t
in te r v a l and GSR b e fo re , d u rin g , and a fte r both s tu tte r in g and fluent
s p e e c h , found no e v id e n c e of an x iety being a s s o c ia te d w ith m o m e n ts of
s tu tte r in g .
S h e e h a n , C o r te s e , and H ad ley (1962) e x p lo re d d im e n s io n s of
g u ilt, s h a m e , te n s io n , and d e je c tio n a s r e la te d to c o n flict and f r u s
t r a t io n in s tu tte r in g . F o r ty - e ig h t s t u t t e r e r s , a g e s 11 to 44, w e re
a s k e d to d ra w a p ic tu re of w hat they fe lt to be t h e i r b e h a v io r b e fo re ,
d u rin g , and a f t e r an in sta n c e of s tu tte r in g . T w elve ju d g es r a te d the
d ra w in g s a s to d e g re e of guilt, s h a m e , te n s io n , and d e je c tio n . T he
g r e a t e s t a m o u n t of te n s io n w as judged to o c c u r d u rin g the b lo ck and the
l e a s t a m o u n t a f t e r , although o th e r p a tte r n s w e re found. The a u th o rs
c o n clu d ed th a t "th e m o m e n t a f te r s tu tte r in g is n o t one of u n a llo y e d t e n
s io n re d u c tio n , and fre q u e n tly is a c c o m p a n ie d by i n c r e a s e s in s h a m e ,
d e je c tio n , and g u ilt." It w as s u g g e ste d th a t v a ry in g p a tte r n s of p o s
s ib le r e in f o r c e m e n t m a y o c c u r in d iff e re n t s t u t t e r e r s .
S u m m a r y .- - S e v e r a l r e s e a r c h m e th o d s h a v e b een tr i e d fo r the j
p u rp o s e of te s tin g the h y p o th e s is th a t te n s io n re d u c tio n is a r e i n f o r c e - j
m e n t of s tu tte r in g . One m ethod u tiliz e d th e d ra w in g s m a d e by s t u t
t e r e r s of t h e i r ow n re a c tio n s b e fo r e , d u rin g , and a fte r in s ta n c e s of
s tu tte r in g . j
22
A seco n d m e th o d in c lu d e d EM G r e c o r d in g s of m a s s e t e r m u s c le
a c tio n d u rin g s tu tte r in g . O th e r m eth o d s have t e s te d fo r p o s s ib le
c h a n g e s in au to n o m ic fu n c tio n s su ch as h e a r tb e a t and GSR b e fo re ,
d u rin g , and a fte r s tu tte r in g .
Som e of th e e v id e n c e s e e m s to su p p o rt te n s io n r e d u c tio n a fte r
s tu tte r in g but th is is n o t s u b s ta n tia te d by s tu d ie s r e f le c tin g ANS
c h a n g e s.
S tu tte rin g as a S ta rtle R e a c tio n
H ill (1944) u s e d H e r r e n 's (1931) study a s a m a jo r e v id e n c e for
h is c o n c lu sio n th a t s tu tte r in g is r e la te d to s ta r tl e in th a t d u rin g the
in s ta n t of s ta r tl e , s u r p r i s e o r d is ru p tiv e f e a r , a ll b e h a v io r - in -
p r o g r e s s c e a s e s . H e r r e n in v e s tig a te d th e h y p o th e s is th a t v o lu n ta ry
m o v e m e n t is s u s p e n d e d o r in so m e way i n te r f e r e d w ith by the a c t of
s tu tte r in g . T he a p p a ra tu s u s e d in h is study c o n s is te d of id e n tic a l r u b -:
b e r bulbs c o n n ected to t a m b o u r s w hich r e g i s t e r e d upon a k y m o g ra p h
d ru m . A c h ro n o g ra p h r e c o r d e d tim e in te r v a ls in s e c o n d s . P e r io d s of
o v e r t s tu tte rin g w e re d e s ig n a te d by u se of a m a g n e tic s ig n a l m a r k e r .
The e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p c o n s is te d of 12 a d u lt s t u t t e r e r s , ra n g in g in
s e v e r ity of s tu tte r in g f r o m m ild clo n ic to s e v e r e to n ic s p e e c h b lo c k s. ;
i
A to n ic b lo ck w a s d e fin e d a s a g e n e ra liz e d , long, s u s ta in e d s p a s m |
involving all o r a m a j o r p o rtio n of th e e n tir e s p e e c h m e c h a n is m . The {
o th e r type of b lo ck d e s ig n a te d a s a "clo n ic s p a s m " w as d e s c r ib e d a s a j
" s h o r t, t r a n s i t o r y , r e p e titio u s b lo c k ." T w elve n o r m a l s p e a k e r s w e re
u s e d fo r the c o n tro l g ro u p . E a c h s u b je c t w as in s tr u c te d to g r a s p e a c h
b u lb and to a lte r n a te ly fle x and e x te n d , in p h a s e , th e f in g e r s of th e tw o
h a n d s w hile r e a d in g m a t e r i a l f r o m a n e w s p a p e r. R e c o r d s w e r e m ad e
d u rin g sp e ak in g and d u rin g s ile n c e . F r o m th e r e s u l ts of th is stu d y , it
w as c o n clu d ed th a t w hile f r e e s p e e c h of the n o r m a l s p e a k e r h a s no d e
te r m in a b le e ffe c t upon v o lu n ta ry m o v e m e n t, d u rin g s tu tte r e d s p e e c h of
th e s t u t t e r e r c o m p le te in h ib itio n of m o v e m e n t o c c u r s , th is re d u c tio n
in m o v e m e n t c o r r e s p o n d in g ro u g h ly to the length and s e v e r ity of s tu t
te r in g . The lo n g e s t p e rio d in w hich th e r e w as no m o v e m e n t a t a ll
o c c u r r e d d u rin g a p ro lo n g e d to n ic s p a s m , th e s h o r t e s t d u rin g clonic
s e iz u r e s w h e re th e lo s s of m o v e m e n t am o u n te d to only one o r two b e a ts
in rh y th m , o r to a s lig h t d elay in in itia tin g m o v e m e n t. T he a u th o r c o n
clu d ed th a t s tu tte r in g is due to o r c a u s e s o r a c c o m p a n ie s a g e n e r a liz e d
m o to r b lo ck in g .
H ill (1944) r e m a r k e d th a t s tu tte r in g often b e c o m e s an u n p le a s
ant a d v e n tu re in w h ich th e in d iv id u al fig u ra tiv e ly and s o m e tim e s l i t
e r a l ly c lo s e s h is e y e s and ju m p s into the d a rk . T h is r e m a r k led to
th e q u e s tio n of w h e th e r o r not a re d u c tio n in d is c r im in a tiv e a w a r e n e s s
I
is a s s o c ia te d w ith s tu tte r in g . :
L o v e tt-D o u s t and C o le m a n (1955) h y p o th e s iz e d th a t it w as not j
so le ly d u rin g th e ir e f f o r ts to s p e a k th a t s t u t t e r e r s r e v e a le d d e fe c ts of
c o n s c io u s n e s s . T he a u th o r s in v e s tig a te d d is c r im in a tiv e a w a r e n e s s a s
one p a r a m e t e r of c o n s c io u s n e s s . T he C r itic a l F l ic k e r F u s io n (C F F )
T h r e s h o ld T e s t w as u se d a s a m o d e l fo r te s tin g the ab ility of su b je c t
to d i s c r im in a t e e v e n ts in a r e g u la r ly r e c u r r i n g s e q u e n c e . F o r ty - s ix
ad u lt s t u t t e r e r s w e re c o m p a re d on th is t e s t w ith 131 n o r m a l s u b je c ts .
R e s u lts in d ic a te d th a t the C F F of th e c o n tro l g ro u p w as sig n ific a n tly
h ig h e r th a n th a t of th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p of s t u t t e r e r s . T he a u th o rs
co n c lu d e d th a t s tu tte r in g p ro b a b ly e x is ts on a n e u ro g e n ic b a s is .
F r o e s c h e l s and R ie b e r (1963) found th a t s t u t t e r e r s ex h ib ited
v is u a l and a u d ito ry im p e rc e p tiv ity w hile s tu tte r in g .
H o w e v e r, P e r k in s (1969). in a s y s te m a tic study of a u d ito ry ,
v is u a l, and ta c tu a l d is c r im in a tio n , found th a t s t u t t e r e r s ' a b ility to d i s
c r im in a te su ch s tim u li did not v a ry b e fo r e , d u rin g , o r a fte r in s ta n c e s
of s tu tte r in g . A s in d ic a te d by the a u th o r, th is study did n o t ex clu d e
the p o s s ib ility th a t s tu tte r in g m ay be r e la te d to g e n e ra l o r sp e c ific j
i
p r o b le m s of m o to r in c o o rd in a tio n .
S u m m a r y . - -O ne e a r ly study p ro v id e d e v id e n c e to s u p p o rt the
c o n c ep t of s tu tte r in g as a s ta r tl e r e a c tio n on the b a s is of a b lock in !
m o to r b e h a v io r d u rin g s tu tte r in g . S om e r e s e a r c h a ls o te n d e d to s u p - j
p o rt a re d u c e d le v e l of d is c r im in a tiv e a w a r e n e s s , e ith e r a t th e m o - |
i
|
m e n t of s tu tte r in g o r a s a g e n e ra l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of s t u t t e r e r s . H ow -
■ i
i j
e v e r , a r e c e n t stu d y of d is c r im in a tiv e a w a r e n e s s in th e a u d ito ry , j
v is u a l, and ta c tu a l m o d a litie s fa ile d to s u p p o rt th e co n c ep t of a i
jreduced le v e l of a w a r e n e s s , at l e a s t in th o se m o d a litie s a s s o c ia te d
|
w ith s tu tte r in g . T he q u e s tio n of m o to r blocking s till r e m a in s open to
f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .
C H A P T E R III
M ETH O D S AND PR O C E D U R E S
R e s e a r c h D e sig n
T h is study w as d e s ig n e d to in v e s tig a te the follow ing: (1) v a r i a
tio n s in th e in te n s ity of a m o to r r e s p o n s e b e fo r e , d u rin g , and a fte r
in s ta n c e s of s tu tte rin g ; (2) v a ria tio n s in the in te n s ity of a m o to r
r e s p o n s e b e fo r e , d u rin g , and a fte r in s ta n c e s of fluency; (3) v a ria tio n s
in the in te n s ity of a m o to r r e s p o n s e b e fo r e , d u rin g , and a fte r in s ta n c e s
of n o n -sp e a k in g ; (4) a c o m p a r is o n of p o s s ib le d iff e re n c e s in in te n s ity of
m o to r r e s p o n s e s b e fo r e , d u rin g , and a f t e r in s ta n c e s of s tu tte r in g ,
flu e n c y , and n o n -s p e a k in g . T he t e r m " n o n -s p e a k in g " is u s e d in ste a d
of " s ile n c e " to in d ic a te th a t m e a s u r e m e n ts w e r e ta k e n d u rin g w o rd - !
p r e s e n ta tio n p e rio d s and n o t d u rin g r e s t p e rio d s . i
I
S om e of the p r o c e d u r e s and th e in s tr u m e n ta tio n s e le c te d fo r usej
in th is study d e riv e d f r o m c h a n g e s m a d e th ro u g h e x p e rie n c e in running;
a p ilo t stu d y . Since s e le c tio n in th e s e two a r e a s can e x e r t an in flu
en ce on r e s u l t s , it is c o n s id e r e d su ffic ie n tly im p o r ta n t to r e v ie w th e j
p ilo t study in so m e d e ta il, not a s a p a r t of th e d is c u s s io n but a s an
I
e x c u r s u s . In g e n e r a l, h o w e v e r, the p ilo t stu d y d e te r m in e d len g th of |
' " ' " " " " 27 !
w o rd l i s t s , ty p e s of w o rd s to be u s e d , w eig h tin g in fa v o r of s tu tte r e d
w o r d s , u s e of cue c a r d s , and type of in s tr u m e n t u s e d fo r the push
r e s p o n s e .
T he in d ep e n d e n t v a ria b le in clu d ed the th r e e co n d itio n s of s t u t
te r i n g , flu e n c y , and n o n -s p e a k in g . The d e p e n d e n t v a ria b le w as in te n
sity of p u sh in g a s p rin g - lo a d e d le v e r .
F o r p u r p o s e s of th is study, in te n sity w as m e a s u r e d and tr e a te d
s e p a r a te ly a c c o rd in g to two d iffe re n t d e fin itio n s of the te r m : f i r s t ,
and m o s t c o m m o n ly a c c e p te d , a s the peak a m p litu d e of th e push; s e c
ond, in t e r m s of to ta l e n e rg y ex p en d ed , a s in te g r a te d tim e - f o r c e ; i. e. ,
th e e n tir e a r e a u n d e r the p u sh c u rv e .
T he s a m p le c o n s is te d of s ix s u b je c ts who e x h ib ite d su ffic ie n t
fre q u e n c y and c o n s is te n c y of s tu tte rin g w hen r e a d in g to in s u re a s u f
fic ie n t a m o u n t of s tu tte rin g w hen re a d in g sin g le w o rd s o r s h o rt p h r a s e s
in th e e x p e r im e n ta l s e s s io n .
In p r e - e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s , an in d iv id u a liz e d lis t of 120 I
w o rd s fo r e a c h s u b je c t w as o b tain e d f r o m r e a d in g s and f ro m a tap e d
in te rv ie w . T h is l is t co n tain ed 80 s tu tte r e d w o rd s and 40 fluent w o rd s . ;
E a c h " w o rd " w a s e ith e r a single m u ltis y lla b ic w o rd o r a s h o rt m e a n
ingful p h r a s e . T h e s e w o rd s w e r e ra n d o m iz e d , and ty p ed on Stowe pre-j
punched v e llu m tap e fo r p r e s e n ta tio n on a Stow e M e m o ry D ru m .
P e a k a m p litu d e and in te g r a te d t i m e - f o r c e of th e le v e r p u sh
w e r e m e a s u r e d a t one of five tim e d p o in ts fo r e a c h w o rd p re s e n ta tio n :
(1) as th e w ord w as p r e s e n te d (0 -s e c o n d tim e in te rv a l); (2) m id -p o in t
b e tw e en w ord p r e s e n te d and w o rd sp o k en (5 -s e c o n d t m e in te rv a l);
(3) a s the w ord w as sp o k en u n le s s p re v io u s ly in s tr u c te d (1 0 -s e c o n d
tim e in te rv a l); (4) a f te r the w o rd w as spoken (2 0 -se c o n d tim e in te rv a l);
and (5) m id -p o in t b e tw e en w o rd p r e s e n ta tio n s (3 0 -se c o n d tim e i n t e r
val). T he e n tir e cy cle f r o m p r e s e n ta tio n of one w o rd to p r e s e n ta tio n
of th e n e x t w ord to o k 40 s e c o n d s . The w o rd w as p r e s e n te d fo r 20 s e c
onds w ith a 2 0 -se c o n d in te r v a l b e tw e en w o rd p r e s e n ta tio n s .
W ords sp o k en v e r s u s n o t sp o k en and th e five p o s itio n s fo r p u s h
ing the le v e r w e re ra n d o m iz e d along w ith the w ord lis t. T he c h o ic e of
120 w o rd s follow ed a d e s ig n of 8 w o rd s fo r e a c h c e ll of c o n d itio n s and
p o s itio n s . F o r 6 s u b je c ts , th is w ould be a to ta l of 720 push r e s p o n s e s
w ith 48 in e a c h c e ll.
M id -P o in t
W ord
P r e s e n te d
B e fo re
W ord
Spoken
W ord
Spoken
P o s t
Spoken
W ord
M id -P o in t
B etw een
W o rd s
S tu tte rin g 48 48 48 48 48
F lu e n c y 48 48 48 48 48
N on-S poken 48 48 48 48 48
T h is d e s ig n of 48 r e s p o n s e s in e a c h c e ll a s s u m e s th a t a ll s u b
j e c ts w ill s tu tte r o r be flu e n t a s p re d ic te d . H o w e v er, s in c e no s tu t
t e r e r is c o m p le te ly p r e d ic ta b le , a m in im u m of 25 r e s p o n s e s in e a c h
c e ll w as d e e m e d a c c e p ta b le fo r p u r p o s e s of s ta t is t ic a l a n a ly s is . !
B elow is th e a c tu a l d is tr ib u tio n of r e s p o n s e s in th is e x p e rim e n t^
I
fo r e a c h of th e c e lls .
M id -P o in t
W ord
P r e s e n te d
B e fo re
W ord
Spoken
W ord
Spoken
P o s t
Spoken
W ord
M id -P o in t
B etw een
W ords
S tu tte rin g 55 63 58 55 50
F lu en cy 41 33 38 41 46
N on-Spoken 48 48 48 48 48
Two c o m m a n d lig h ts w e re a tta c h e d to the m e m o r y d ru m : a re d
light w ith the w o rd "p u sh " u n d e r it and a y e llo w light w ith the w ord
" s a y " u n d e r it. Cue c a r d s w e r e u s e d to in d ic a te to the e x p e r im e n te r
w hen to p u sh light s ig n a ls fo r e a c h w o rd cy c le ; an e le c tr i c t im e r
in s u re d e x a c t tim in g .
T h r e e c h a n n e ls of a B e c k m a n 8 -c h a n n e l p e n - r e c o r d e r , D yno-
g ra p h , Type R , w e re u se d fo r r e c o r d in g d a ta . One c h an n el r e c o r d e d
v o ice , one r e c o r d e d lig h t p r e s e n t a t io n s , and one r e c o r d e d the push '
r e s p o n s e s . S u b je c t's v e rb a l r e s p o n s e s w e re a ls o r e c o r d e d on a B e ll |
and H ow ell ta p e r e c o r d e r fo r the p u rp o s e of p o st e v a lu a tio n by th r e e j
t r a in e d ju d g e s to d e te r m in e s tu tte r in g v e r s u s fluency.
A fte r th e s p e e c h ta p e s w e re e v a lu a te d , d a ta on th e in te n s ity of J
i
the le v e r p u sh w e re s ta tis tic a lly a n a ly z e d by an a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e to)
30
d e te r m in e w h e th e r any o v e ra ll e ffe c ts e x is te d . M e a s u r e m e n t d a ta w e re
c o n v e rte d to lo g a r ith m s , for p u rp o s e s of c o m p a rin g one s u b je c t's push
w ith th a t of a n o th e r. W h ere f u r th e r s ta tis tic a l c o m p a r is o n w as in d i
c a te d , F t e s t s w e re m a d e w ithin the a n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e . Individual
and g ro u p d a ta w e re a ls o plo tted in g ra p h fo rm .
P r e - e x p e r i m e n t a l P r o c e d u r e s and E q u ip m e n t
Six s u b je c ts , t h r e e m a le s and th r e e f e m a le s , w e re s e le c te d
who m e t the follow ing r e q u ir e m e n ts : (1) age ran g e , 19 to 35 y e a r s (as
a c o n tro l of r e a c tio n tim e and focus of atten tio n ); (2) su ffic ie n t s e v e r ity
and c o n s is te n c y of s tu tte r in g a t the w ord le v e l to in s u r e a c r i t ic a l n u m
b e r of s tu tte r in g b lo ck s n e c e s s a r y fo r th is e x p e rim e n t; (3) no v isio n o r
h e a rin g p r o b le m s ; (4) no a p p a re n t re a d in g p r o b le m s ; (5) w illin g n e ss to
sig n a S u b je ct A g r e e m e n t f o rm (see A ppendix A).
Only th r e e of the six s u b je c ts , one m a le an d tw o f e m a le s , w e re
c u rr e n tly re c e iv in g th e r a p y , tw o at San F r a n c is c o S tate C o lleg e , one
at S tan fo rd U n iv e rs ity . None of the s u b je c ts had b e e n involved in
r e s e a r c h on s tu tte r in g . T h is s e le c tio n e lim in a te d two b ia s e s a s s u g
g e s te d by S h eeh an (1970): b ia s f ro m " s e l f - s e le c ti o n to c e r ta in c lin ic s "
and b ia s f r o m "th e s o p h is tic a te d g u in ea pig. "
S tu tte rin g s e v e r ity , in t e r m s of fre q u e n c y , w as d e te r m in e d by a
c r i t e r io n of a m in im u m of 12 p e rc e n t s tu tte r in g w hen re a d in g (Jo h n so n ,
!
D arley, and S p r ie s t e r s b a c h , 1963, p. 281). P e r c e n ta g e of w o rd s
s tu tte r e d on the f i r s t re a d in g of a p a s s a g e v a rie d f ro m a low of 12 p e r
c e n t to a high of 58 p e rc e n t.
A c o n s is te n c y index w as p r e p a r e d fo r e ach su b je c t in o r d e r to
d e te r m in e w h e th e r the c o n s is te n c ie s e x c e e d e d th o se one would e x p e c t
to o c c u r by c h a n ce . A c o n s is te n c y in dex p ro p o se d by Jo h n so n , D a rle y ,
and S p r ie s t e r s b a c h (1963) w as u se d . A ll s u b je c ts e x c e e d e d the o v e r a ll
c r i t e r i o n of 1 .0 e x p e cte d by c h a n ce . P e r c e n ta g e of c o n s is te n c y
b e tw e e n f i r s t and fifth re a d in g v a rie d f ro m a low of 32 p e rc e n t to a
h ig h of 76 p e rc e n t.
A lthough a m in im u m c r i t e r i o n w as e s ta b lis h e d for s e v e r ity of
s tu tte r in g in t e r m s of fre q u e n c y and c o n s is te n c y , no c r i t e r io n w a s se t
f o r the s e v e r ity d im e n s io n s of te n s io n and d u ra tio n of s o u n d /s y lla b le
d y s flu e n c ie s . C o n s id e ra b le v a r ia tio n e x is te d along th e s e la tte r
d im e n s io n s .
W ord L is ts
A n in d iv id u a liz e d 1 2 0 -w o rd l i s t for e a c h s u b je c t w as c o m p ile d
f r o m th r e e s o u rc e s : (1) five s u c c e s s iv e r e a d in g s of th e "R ainbow
P a s s a g e " ( F a ir b a n k s , I960); (2) one r e a d in g of "S e n te n c e s fo r P h o
n e tic In v e n to ry " ( F a ir b a n k s , I960); (3) a ta p e d in te rv ie w w ith s u b je c t
( s e e A ppendix B fo r c a s e h is t o r y o u tlin e follow ed in the in te rv ie w ).
i
To d iffe re n tia te p o s s ib le n o r m a l d y s flu e n c ie s fro m s tu tte r in g ,
I
|
th e l a t te r w as defined fo r a ll p u r p o s e s of th is study a s s o u n d /s y lla b le
32
d y s flu e n c ie s only ( P e r k i n s , 1971).
Two ju d g e s r a te d the re a d in g s and the tap e d in te rv ie w s in d e
p e n d e n tly . W o rd s s e le c te d a s s tu tte r e d o r flu en t w e re b a s e d on c o m
m o n a g r e e m e n t of th e two ju d g e s . T ap ed in te rv ie w s w e re u s e d as a
s o u rc e for w o rd s only w hen th e re a d in g s did n o t give a s u ffic ie n t n u m
b e r . F o r the "R ain b o w P a s s a g e , " s e le c tio n of w o rd s w as m a d e fro m
w o rd s s tu tte r e d th r e e o r m o r e tim e s in five r e a d in g s . T h is p a s s a g e
w as a ls o u se d to d e te r m in e th e d e g re e of s tu tte rin g c o n s is te n c y .
A s a r e s u l t of a pilot stu d y w h e re an in su ffic ie n t a m o u n t of
s tu tte r in g o c c u r r e d a t the sin g le w ord le v e l, w o rd s s e le c te d fo r th is
e x p e r im e n t w e r e w eig h ted in fa v o r of s tu tte r e d v e r s u s flu e n t in a ra tio
of 80 to 40.
In a d d itio n , r e s u l t s of tw o r e s e a r c h s tu d ie s in d ic a tin g the in flu
en ce of ty p e s of w o rd s on s tu tte r in g w e re u tiliz e d in lim itin g w o rd l is t s
to e ith e r sin g le m u ltis y lla b ic w o rd s su c h as " a lle g ia n c e " (B ro w n , 1945)
o r s h o r t m e a n in g fu l p h r a s e s su c h as "nothing to d o " (E is e n s o n and
H o ro w itz , 1945).
R a n d o m iz a tio n of the w o r d s , sp e ak in g c o n d itio n s, and the p u s h -
r e s p o n s e s ig n a ls fo r the five p o s itio n s w e re a c c o m p lis h e d in the f o l
low ing m a n n e r : the 80 s tu tte r e d w o rd s follow ed by th e 40 flu e n t w o rd s
w e r e f i r s t lis te d ; sp e ak in g c o n d itio n s w e r e lis te d a lo n g s id e th e w o rd s 1
in a p a tte r n of one n o n -s p o k e n w o rd in e a c h g ro u p of fo u r w o rd s ; the 1
n u m b e r s 1 to 5 w e re p la c e d c o n s e c u tiv e ly along the sid e of th e s e |
sp e ak in g c o n d itio n s to in d ic a te the tim e in te rv a l b etw een the p r e s e n t a
tio n of th e w o rd and th e p u sh r e s p o n s e . T h is s y s te m a tiz e d l is t w as
th e n ra n d o m iz e d w ith th e R and T ab le (1955). T his a s s u r e d (1) the
iright p r o p o rtio n s of the p o s s ib le c o m b in a tio n s of p o s itio n -a c tio n , (2)
the rig h t p ro p o rtio n s of p o s itio n -a c tio n and kind of w o rd , and (3) the
im p o s s ib ility of f o r e s e e in g the c o m b in a tio n of the n e x t w o rd .
A n o th e r lis t c o n ta in in g five p r a c tic e w o rd s , one fo r e a c h of the
five p o s itio n s , w as a ls o p r e p a r e d fo r p u rp o s e s of o rie n tin g s u b je c t to
the e x p e rim e n t and in s u rin g th a t he u n d e rs to o d the in s tr u c tio n s . T his
p r a c tic e l is t co n tain ed m o n o s y lla b ic w o rd s su ch a s " if." T h e s e w o rd s
w e r e a r r a n g e d in a se q u e n c e of th r e e w o rd s spoken and two n o n -sp o k e n .
A ll w o rd s w e re ty p ed , w ith e x tr a la r g e type fo r re a d a b ility , on Stowe
p r e - p u n c h e d v e llu m ta p e fo r p r e s e n ta tio n on a Stowe M e m o ry D ru m .
R e a r in g and V isio n T e s ts
A M aico a u d io m e te r w as u s e d fo r h e a rin g s c r e e n in g , to in s u re \
' i
th a t e a c h s u b je c t could h e a r a ll in s tr u c tio n s and c o m m a n d s in the
E x p e rim e n ta l situ a tio n . A c o lo r v isio n te s t w as a d m in is te r e d utilizingj
j j
P s e u d o - I s o c h r o m a tic P la te s fo r T e s tin g C olor P e r c e p tio n (A m e r ic a n I
i
O p tic a l C om pany, 1940 and 1957), to d e te r m in e th a t e a c h s u b je c t could j
d iff e re n tia te the two c o lo r e d lig h ts , one sig n alin g p u sh , the o th e r s ig -
!
h a lin g sp e ec h .
Cue C a r d s
C a r d s w e re p r e p a r e d for p ro v id in g in s tr u c tio n s for the e x p e r i
m e n te r . T h e s e c a r d s in clu d ed (1) the n u m b e r o f the n ext w ord to
a p p e a r on the d r u m , (2) w h e th e r o r n o t the w o rd w as to be spoken (yes
o r no), (3) tim e in s e c o n d s w hen the r e d s ig n a l to p u sh w as to be p r e
se n te d , (4) tim e in s e c o n d s w hen the y e llo w sig n a l (if any) to say the
w ord w as to be p r e s e n te d .
Two s a m p le c a r d s m ig h t re a d a s follow s:
9 y e s 10" T o g e th e r r e d and y e llo w (P o s. 3)
65 no 5" R ed (P o s . 2)
T h e s e c a r d s w e r e la rg e so th a t the e x p e r im e n te r could jo t down
c o m m e n ts o r note s tu tte r in g .
E x a c t tim in g of s ig n a ls to " p u sh " o r to " s a y " w e re r e q u ir e d fo r
th is study. The tim in g w as a s follow s: 0 s e c o n d s , p u sh, P o s itio n 1;
5 s e c o n d s , p u sh , P o s itio n 2; 10 s e c o n d s , p u sh and sa y , P o s itio n 3;
20 s e c o n d s , p u sh , P o s itio n 4; 30 s e c o n d s , p u s h , P o s itio n 5. T h is
tim in g w as in d ic a te d f r o m the r e s u l ts of tw o s tu d ie s . G oss (1952) in d i
cated th a t a n in te r v a l of 10 se co n d s b e tw e e n w o rd p r e s e n ta tio n and s i g
n al to say th e w o rd w as d e s ir a b le (se e page 18 of th is study fo r d e ta ils ).
A c c o rd in g to R ad tk e (1967), the in te r v a l b e tw e e n w o rd p r e s e n ta tio n s
should be e v e n lo n g e r to avoid the p o s s ib ility th a t a t r a c e of any s tr e s s ;
a tta c h e d to one s tim u lu s w ill p e r s i s t beyond th e in te r - s t im u lu s in te r v a l, j
R ad tk e n o ted th a t alth o u g h sig n ific a n t e ffe c ts w e re e s ta b lis h e d w ithin '
35
th e s u b je c ts in h is stu d y , th e s e e ffe c ts w e re quite s m a ll. He s u g g e ste d
th a t th is m ay h av e been due to the fa c t th a t the m e d ia te d e m o tio n a l
r e s p o n s e p e r s i s te d lo n g e r th a n the in te r - s t im u lu s in te rv a l. T h is i n t e r
v a l in h is study w as not r ig o r o u s ly c o n tro lle d b u t ten d e d to v a ry a ro u n d
15 s e c o n d s . T h e r e f o r e , it w ould s e e m th a t the in te r v a l b etw een w o rd s
should be len g th en ed beyond a 1 5 -se c o n d lim it. F o r p u rp o s e s of the
p r e s e n t stu d y , th e follow ing tim e in te r v a ls w e re s e le c te d : 10 se c o n d s
b e tw e e n w o rd p r e s e n ta tio n and sig n a l to say the w o rd , 10 se c o n d s fo r
sa y in g the w ord to a c c o u n t fo r p o s s ib le s e v e r e s tu tte r in g b lo c k s , and
20 s e c o n d s b etw een w o rd p r e s e n ta tio n s . T h is m a d e a convenient tim e
c y c le of 20 se c o n d s of w o rd e x p o s u re and 20 se co n d s of in te r - s t im u lu s
in te r v a l, m ak in g a to ta l tim e cy cle of 40 s e c o n d s.
A p p a ra tu s
In s tr u m e n ta tio n u se d in p r e s e n tin g w o rd s and obtaining s u b je c t's
r e s p o n s e s , a s w ell a s s e a tin g a r r a n g e m e n ts a r e show n in F ig u r e 1.
A Stowe M e m o ry D r u m , M odel 459B , w as u s e d for w o rd p r e s
e n ta tio n s . The b u ilt-in tim e cy cle of th is type of d r u m did n o t m a tc h
th e s e q u e n c e of e v e n ts r e q u ir e d in th e p r e s e n t study. T h re e s e p a r a te i
tim e d m o v e m e n ts w e re n e c e s s a r y to o p e ra te the m e m o r y d r u m fo r
p r e s e n ta tio n of w o rd s: (1) a t the s ta r tin g point of e a c h se q u en c e th e
s h u tte r , w hich had b e e n m o d ifie d , w as down to c o n c e a l the w ord; (2)
th e s h u tte r c a m e up 20 s e c o n d s l a te r ; and (3) in a n o th e r 20 se co n d s
F ig . 1 . - - P r e s e n ta t io n and S ignal -
D e te c tio n A p p a ra tu s
the d r u m re v o lv e d one sp a c e and the s h u tte r c a m e down s im u lta n e o u s ly
fo r th e s t a r t of a n ew c y c le . T h e r e f o r e , two tim e p a c e r s w e re u tiliz e d
fo r c o n tro llin g th e m o v e m e n t of th e d ru m and the a tta c h e d s h u tte r. A
H u n te r D e c a d e I n te r v a l T im e r , M odel 11 1 -C , S e r ie s D, c o n tro lle d the
s h u tte r a t 2 0 -s e c o n d in te r v a ls ; a L a fa y e tte I n te r v a l and R e p e a t C ycle
T i m e r , M odel 5400B , re v o lv e d th e d ru m at 4 0 -s e c o n d in te r v a ls to
!
c o m p le te th e c y c le .
i
Tw o c o m m a n d lig h ts w e re a tta c h e d to th e u p p e r rig h t side of
I
the m e m o r y d r u m . A r e d light h a d the w o rd " p u sh " u n d e r it and a
y e llo w lig h t had the w o rd " s a y " u n d e r it. L a r g e C h r is tm a s t r e e lig h ts ;
| 37
I
iw ere u s e d in th is e x p e r im e n t, r a t h e r th an the u su a l je w e l lig h ts , in
I
o r d e r to in s u re th a t th ey w ould be s e e n by s u b je c t at the a p p ro p r ia te
tim e s . The e x p e r im e n te r o p e ra te d th e s e lig h ts by p r e s s in g one o r both
iof two e le c tr i c sw itc h e s and a L a fa y e tte e le c tr ic stop clock w as u se d
fo r e x a c t tim in g of th e sig n a l p re s e n ta tio n .
F o r th is stu d y , a s p rin g - lo a d e d le v e r w as s p e c ific a lly d e sig n e d
fo r the push r e s p o n s e . T h is d e v ic e is show n in F ig u re 2. A m e ta l
b a r w as c o n s tru c te d of lig h tw e ig h t a lu m in u m . One end of the b a r w as
a tta c h e d to a hinge w h ich , in tu r n , w as a tta c h e d to one end of a w ooden
a r m r e s t . A w ooden c r o s s b a r a tta c h e d to the o th e r end of the m e ta l
b a r p ro v id e d a r e s t fo r th r e e f in g e rs of s u b je c t's hand. T h is w ooden b a r
had a r u b b e r iz e d s t r a p a tta c h e d to hold s u b je c t's f in g e r s . A s p rin g
F ig . 2. - - S p rin g -lo a d e d L e v e r
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ - - - - - - ....................................- 38
could be p la c e d in one of th r e e p o sitio n s along the long a x is u n d e r the
m e ta l b a r to a c t a s a f u lc r u m . T h is a r r a n g e m e n t p ro v id e d v a rie d r e
s is ta n c e to in s u r e r e c o r d in g of m in im a l push r e s p o n s e s fo r e a c h s u b
j e c t w ithout lim itin g m a x im a l r e s p o n s e s . One end of a rig id w ire w as
p laced u n d e r th e c r o s s b a r of the le v e r and the o th e r end w as a tta c h e d
to a v a ria b le p o te n tio m e te r . The p o te n tio m e te r w as fed by a 5 -v o lt
b a tte ry . W hen the le v e r w as d e p r e s s e d , a change in p o sitio n of the
rig id w ire ch a n g ed the o utput voltage of the p o te n tio m e te r . T h is change
w as r e c o r d e d on one c h a n n el of a s t r i p - c h a r t r e c o r d e r . The e x te n t to
w hich the le v e r w as d e p r e s s e d w as th u s p r o p o rtio n a l to the d e g re e of
pen d e fle c tio n .
T h re e c h a n n e ls of an 8 -c h a n n e l pen r e c o r d e r , D y n o g ra p h , w e re
u se d fo r r e c o r d in g d ata: one ch an n el fo r v o ic e , one fo r lig h t p r e s e n t a
t i o n s , and one fo r th e p u sh r e s p o n s e . T h is D y n o g ra p h w as equipped
w ith A -C c o u p le r s , T ype 9806A , p r e a m p li f i e r s , T ype 481B , and a m p l i
f i e r s , Type 482. R e c o rd in g s w e re m a d e on R e c tilin e a r C h a rt P a p e r,
No. 1512B, o r No. 206476. P a p e r sp e ed w as s e t a t 1.0 c m / s e c .
The le v e r w as s u b je c te d to both s ta tic and d y n a m ic c a lib ra tio n , j
j
S tatic c a lib r a tio n w as a c c o m p lis h e d by p lacin g a s e r i e s of w eig h ts
in c r e a s in g f r o m 1 pound to 6 pounds s u c c e s s iv e ly on th e c r o s s b a r of
i !
i
; I
the le v e r and r e c o r d in g the sh ift in the b a s e lin e on th e D yn o g rap h . Two!
s ta tic c a lib r a tio n r e c o r d s w e re ru n a t the beg in n in g and two a t the end
of e a c h e x p e r im e n ta l s e s s io n in o r d e r to v e rify the c o n s is te n c y of the
s ta tic r e s p o n s e and a ls o to d e te r m in e w h e th e r o r not any s ig n ific a n t
c h a n g e s w e r e r e c o r d e d w hich could be a ttr ib u te d to the r e s p o n s e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the le v e r o r the D y n o g ra p h . No s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e s
w e re r e c o r d e d . In fa c t, a ll m e a s u r e m e n ts w e re e s s e n tia lly lin e a r in
p ro file and r e m a in e d s ta b le th ro u g h o u t a ll e x p e rim e n ta l s e s s io n s . A ll
c a lib ra tio n r e c o r d s y ie ld e d a fa m ily of c u rv e s f ro m w h ich an a v e ra g e
c u rv e could be d e riv e d . T h is a v e r a g e c u rv e is show n in F ig u re 3.
S ta tic c a lib ra tio n a lo n e , h o w e v e r, is not s u ffic ie n t g u a ra n te e
th a t the e q u ip m e n t u se d is s u ita b le fo r th e r e s p o n s e b e in g m e a s u r e d .
A c c o rd in g to R ic h a rd s (1971):
A m e a s u r e of fo rc e o r p r e s s u r e u n d e r s ta tic c o n d itio n s is a
v alid m e a s u r e of th e s e p a r a m e t e r s u n d e r d y n a m ic c o n d itio n s if,
and only if, the d y n a m ic r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e to ta l
s y s te m a r e c a p ab le of follow ing, r e c o r d in g , and d isp la y in g both
the s lo w e s t and the m o s t ra p id s ig n a ls of in te r e s t, (p. 49)
D y n a m ic c a lib r a tio n w as a c c o m p lis h e d by d ro p p in g a 1-pound
w e ig h t onto the c r o s s b a r o f the l e v e r a r m f ro m a h e ig h t of 6 in c h e s .
T h is w eig h t w as allo w ed to fall off the le v e r a r m im m e d ia te ly a f te r the
c o n ta c t, w hich p e r m itte d th e le v e r a r m to r e t u r n ra p id ly to its r e s tin g
p o sitio n . The d e sig n of the le v e r a r m , i . e . , h inged a t one end and s u p
p o rte d by a s p rin g , c r e a te d a s e r i e s of b o u n c e s. The r e s u ltin g c u rv e s
of th e o utput r e s p o n s e s , in clu d in g the b o u n c e s, w e re r e c o r d e d on the
D y n o g ra p h . F ig u r e 4 show s th e s e r e s p o n s e s .
T he a n g le s b e tw e e n the b a s e lin e and the d e s c e n t of the f i r s t
c u rv e and the b a s e lin e and the a s c e n t of the la s t c u rv e w e r e m e a s u r e d .
r-1
-20
I S "
P e n D e f l e c t i o n in x / 1 6 'i n c h e s
f i g . 3 . - - C a lib r a tio n C u rv e of th e S ta tic R e s p o n s e
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the S p r in g - lo a d e d L e v e r
41 ;
I
/C3
.... h —
F ig . 4 . --.R e s p o n s e C u r v e s of the D y n a m ic
C a lib r a tio n of th e L e v e r A r m
T h e s e m e a s u r e m e n ts w e r e c o m p a r e d w ith th e m e a s u r e m e n t s of the
I \
a n g le s b e tw e e n th e b a s e lin e s a n d d e s c e n d in g and a s c e n d in g c u r v e s o f
; j
th e m o s t r a p id p u sh r e s p o n s e s of th e s u b je c ts . T h e r e s u l t s in d ic a te d
th a t the s p rin g - lo a d e d le v e r a r m w a s c a p ab le of r e g i s t e r i n g r e s p o n s e s
I
w h ich w e r e m o r e ra p id th a n a n y r e s p o n s e r e c o r d e d by th e s u b je c ts .
T he a c c u r a c y w ith w hich the s p r in g - lo a d e d l e v e r a r m co u ld fo llo w a
slo w p u sh r e s p o n s e w a s d e te r m in e d f r o m the c u r v e s p ro d u c e d d u rin g
th e s ta tic c a lib ra tio n p r o c e d u r e s . T he w eig h ts w e r e p la c e d on the
I
c r o s s b a r and re m o v e d f ro m th e c r o s s b a r r e la tiv e ly slo w ly . T he
I
a n g le s b e tw e en th e b a s e lin e and the d e s c e n d in g a n d a s c e n d in g c u r v e s
w e r e m e a s u r e d and c o m p a r e d w ith the a n g le s a t th e s e s a m e points of
th e s lo w e s t push r e s p o n s e s of the s u b je c ts . T he r e s u l ts in d ic a te d th a t
th e le v e r a r m w as c a p a b le of r e g i s te r in g r e s p o n s e s w hich w e r e a s slow
o r s lo w e r th an any r e s p o n s e r e c o r d e d by the s u b je c ts . T h e r e f o r e , it
w as d e te r m in e d th a t th e ra n g e of th e d y n a m ic r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of the le v e r a r m and the D y n o g ra p h s t r i p - c h a r t r e c o r d e r w e re a p p r o
p r ia te to a c c u r a te ly d e te c t and r e c o r d a ll p ush r e s p o n s e s .
A B ell an d H ow ell T ap e R e c o r d e r , M odel 2297, w as u se d fo r
tap in g s u b je c t's v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s to be a n a ly z e d la te r by a pan el of
ju d g e s . P r i o r to e a c h s e s s io n , a ll e q u ip m e n t w as te s te d fo r w o r k a b il
ity. A ll th r e e s ig n a ls , the lig h t p r e s e n ta tio n , th e voice s ig n a l, and the
push r e s p o n s e , w e r e f i r s t fed to a T e k tro n ix 4 - t r a c e s to r a g e o s c i l l o
sc o p e , Type 564, in o r d e r to m o n ito r the s ig n a ls and c o m p le te any
n e c e s s a r y a d ju s tm e n ts b e fo re fin a l r e c o r d in g on the D y n o g rap h .
E x p e r im e n ta l P r o c e d u r e s
In o r d e r to e lim in a te e x tra n e o u s e l e c t r i c a l i n te r f e r e n c e , th e
s u b je c t w as s e a te d in sid e a d o u b le -w a lle d , c o p p e r - s h ie ld e d F a r a d a y
Cage R oom . T he Stow e M e m o ry D ru m w as p la c e d on a ta b le in fro n t
of th e s u b je c t a t th e a p p r o p r ia te h e ig h t to f a c ilita te r e a d in g th e w o rd s . :
The w ooden a r m r e s t , h o ld in g th e s p rin g - lo a d e d l e v e r , w as c la m p e d to
e ith e r the rig h t o r le ft s id e of th e ta b le , d ep en d in g on th e s u b je c t's i
j
la te r a lity . Both of th e s u b je c t's f o r e a r m s w e r e s tr a p p e d to a r m r e s t s j
43
to re d u c e the influence of body s h ifts on the push r e s p o n s e . S u b je ct
p la c e d h is f i r s t th re e f in g e r s u n d e r the ru b b e riz e d s tr a p on the w ooden
c r o s s b a r of the le v e r. Two audio m ic ro p h o n e s w e re a tta c h e d to a
boom and p laced 18 in c h e s f r o m the s u b je c t's m o u th . One m ic ro p h o n e ,
E le c tr o - V o ic e No. 35606, fed th e audio sig n a l to the D y n o g rap h
r e c o r d e r and the o th e r m ic ro p h o n e fed the audio sig n a l to the B e ll and
H ow ell tap e r e c o r d e r .
The in s tr u m e n ta tio n u s e d in th is e x p e rim e n t w as o p e ra te d by
the e x p e r im e n te r and an a id e . T he e x p e r im e n te r w as s e a te d a t the
o p p o site end of the ta b le f ro m th e su b je c t in sid e the F a r a d a y C age. On
th e ta b le in fro n t of the e x p e r im e n te r w e re th e tim e p a c e r s for c o n
tro llin g th e m e m o ry d r u m , cue c a r d s , the two buttons fo r a c tiv a tin g
lig h t s ig n a ls on the d r u m , and th e e le c tr ic s to p -c lo c k . T h is equipm ent!
w as a r r a n g e d so th a t the s u b je c t could not s e e the e x p e r i m e n t e r 's cue !
i
c a r d s o r m o v e m e n ts , b u t the e x p e r im e n te r could w atch the s u b je c t's ;
i
r e s p o n s e s (se e F ig u re 1). !
I
The aide o p e ra te d a ll o th e r e q u ip m e n t in an o u tsid e ro o m . Thisj
e q u ip m e n t in clu d ed the o s c illo s c o p e , D y n o g rap h , and tap e r e c o r d e r .
i
The aid e w o re e a rp h o n e s w hich w e re plugged into the a m p lif ie r f e e d
ing th e v oice ch an n el of the D y n o g ra p h . T h is p ro c e d u re allow ed the
aide to m a r k on the D y n o g ra p h c h a r t p a p e r the w o rd n u m b e r , the
e x p e r i m e n t e r 's v o ic e , and the s u b je c t's v o ice.
. . - . . . - - - . . . - - 44
E a c h r e c o r d in g s e s s io n began w ith the s ta tic c a lib r a tio n of the
llever. The e x p e r im e n te r th e n r e a d in s tr u c tio n s to th e s u b je c t (see
A ppendix C). It w as c r i t ic a l for p u rp o s e s of th is study th a t e a c h s u b
j e c t be u n a w a re of th e type of m e a s u r e m e n t to be u s e d in a n s w e rin g the
r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s . T h e r e f o r e , e ach su b je c t w as to ld th at th e p u rp o se
of th is e x p e rim e n t w as to o b tain a m e a s u r e m e n t of h is re a c tio n t i m e .
T h is w as follow ed by a w a rm u p p e rio d fo r the s u b je c t to re s p o n d only
to the re d (push) sig n a l. A s e r i e s of 16 re d s ig n a ls w a s g iv en , with
the s ig n a ls sp a c e d 1 to 5 se c o n d s a p a rt. T his w a r m u p p e rio d w as f o l
low ed by a p r a c tic e s e s s i o n d u rin g w hich five m o n o sy lla b ic w o rd s w e re
p r e s e n te d to th e s u b je c t along w ith the sig n a l and in s tr u c tio n to say o r
not to say th e w o rd and the sig n a l to p u sh the le v e r at e a c h of the five
tim e p o sitio n s d is c u s s e d p re v io u s ly (s u p r a , p. 34). T h is p r a c tic e
l is t w as r e p e a te d tw ic e , and m o re if n e c e s s a r y , u n til the s u b je c t
re s p o n d e d w ithout e r r o r . A fte r th is w as a c c o m p lis h e d , the e x p e r i
m e n ta l w o rd s w e re p r e s e n te d . i
The e x p e r i m e n t e r n oted in ad v an ce of a w ord p r e s e n ta tio n
w h e th e r o r n o t th a t w o rd w as to be spoken. If n o t, th e e x p e r im e n te r i
w ould sa y , "Y ou w ill n o t say the n e x t w o rd ." T h is p ro v id e d a co n tro l
; j
of e x p e c ta n c y to s tu t t e r a s f a r a s the n o n -s p o k e n w o rd s w e re c o n c e rn e d .
J u s t p r io r to e a c h w o rd p r e s e n ta tio n , the e x p e r i m e n t e r c a lle d out the j
| i
w o rd n u m b e r and s ta r te d the e le c tr i c s to p - c lo c k as th e s h u tte r r a is e d |
!
to ex p o se th e w o rd . L ig h t s ig n a ls w e re p r e s e n te d a c c o r d in g to
in s tr u c tio n s on e a c h cue c a rd .
A 10-m in u te b r e a k w as ta k e n a t the end of the f i r s t 60 w o rd s .
F ollow ing th is , the l a s t 60 w o rd s w e re p r e s e n te d . R e c o rd in g s e s s io n s
ended w ith a fin al s ta tic c a lib ra tio n of the s p rin g - lo a d e d le v e r.
D a ta A n a ly s is
J u d g m e n ts of S tu tte rin g
T h re e tr a in e d ju d g e s who h av e had e x te n s iv e c lin ic a l e x p e rie n c e
w ith s t u t t e r e r s lis te n e d to e a c h ta p e d s e s s io n and m a d e in d ep en d en t
ju d g m e n ts of s u b je c t's s tu tte r e d and flu en t w o rd s . A g r e e m e n t of two o r
m o r e ju d g es w as the g e n e r a l c r i t e r io n of a v alid ju d g m e n t of s tu tte rin g
o r fluency. In th o se in s ta n c e s w h e re two ju d g e s q u e s tio n e d th e ir e v a lu
a tio n s , the ta p e s w e re lis te n e d to a g a in and th e s e ju d g m e n ts w e re com-j
p a re d w ith th o s e of the e x p e r im e n te r w hich had b een m a d e and n oted ,
on the cue c a r d s d u rin g the r e c o r d in g s e s s io n s .
The D y n o g ra p h c h a r t re a d in g s fo r e a c h w o rd w e r e th en m a r k e d
a s to w hich w o rd w as s tu tte r e d , o r flu e n t, o r n o n -sp o k e n .
; j
i j
R e s p o n s e M e a s u r e m e n t
i ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- j
| ;
1 In te n s ity of a r e s p o n s e m ay be c o n s id e r e d e ith e r a s p eak am p li-j
1 |
tu d e , a m e a s u r e of g r e a t e s t m a g n itu d e of the c u rv e , o r a s in te g r a te d ;
jtim e -fo rc e , a m e a s u r e of the a r e a u n d e r th e c u rv e (M cG lone, et a l. ,
1967). F o r p u r p o s e s of th e p r e s e n t stu d y , both p e a k a m p litu d e and j
(in te g ra te d tim e - f o rc e w e re ta k e n a s the s e p a r a te m e a s u r e s of in te n sity .
P e a k a m p litu d e w as m e a s u r e d in m il li m e t e r s . An O tt p la n im e te r, No.
16, w as u s e d to m e a s u r e the a r e a u n d e r th e c u rv e , in v e r n ie r u n its.
A b so lu te v e r n i e r v alu e for th is p la n im e te r is 0 .0 1 s q u a re inch.
U tilizin g the c o m p o s ite d e c is io n s of th e tr a i n e d ju d g es a s to
s tu tte r e d and flu e n t sp o k en w o r d s , all m e a s u r e m e n ts w e re g rouped
u n d e r the th r e e c o n d itio n s of s tu tte r e d , flu e n t, and n o n -sp o k e n and in
e a c h of five p o s itio n s . P e a k a m p litu d e s fo r six s u b je c ts with 120 o b
s e r v a tio n s e a c h , o r a to ta l of 720 m e a s u r e m e n ts , w e re th e n ta b u la te d
into 15 c a te g o r ie s o r c e lls (se e A ppendix D, T a b le 8). V e r n ie r unit
v a lu e s fo r the s a m e n u m b e r of o b s e rv a tio n s w e re a lso ta b u la te d into 15
c a te g o r ie s o r c e lls (se e A ppendix F , T ab le 10).
jM e a s u r e m e n t of G ro u p D ata
i
A n a ly s is of v a ria n c e w as the t e s t s e le c te d fo r g ro u p d a ta a n a ly
s is . F i r s t , h o w e v e r, so m e m e th o d had to be e s ta b lis h e d fo r c o m p a rin g
one s u b je c t w ith a n o th e r s u b je c t by e lim in a tin g th e ir o v e ra ll d if f e r
e n c e s . To a c c o m p lis h th is , two in itia l s te p s w e r e tak e n . F i r s t the ;
b a s ic MM and VU m e a s u r e m e n ts w e re c o n v e rte d to lo g a rith m s in order;
to h o m o g e n iz e v a r i a n c e s w ithin the c e lls . S eco n d , th e s e lo g a rith m s w e re
!
th e n ip so d iz e d w ith in e a c h s u b je c t, i . e . , c e n te r e d a t 0, by s u b tra c tin g ;
f r o m e a c h o b s e r v a tio n the a v e ra g e of a ll the o b s e r v a tio n s fo r th a t ]
I ;
isu b je c t. T h is s e c o n d s te p s e r v e d to e lim in a te a co m p o n en t of v a ria n c e i
due to d iff e re n c e s b etw een s u b je c ts ,
A tw o -w a y a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e (ANOVA) w as p e r f o r m e d on the
ip so d iz e d lo g a r ith m s . T he tw o -w a y lay o u t c o n s is te d of th r e e c o n d i
tio n s o r kinds of w o rd s , i . e . , s tu tte r e d , flu e n t, o r n o n -s p o k e n , in
one d ire c tio n a s ro w s w ith five push sig n a l p o sitio n s in the o th e r d i r e c
tio n a s c o lu m n s, m ak in g fifte e n c e lls in a ll. T h is F t e s t p ro v id e d an
a n a ly s is of the o v e ra ll d iff e re n c e s b e tw e en kinds of w o rd s and p o s i
tio n s , a s w ell a s a te s t f o r in te r a c tio n b e tw e en the two. E ig h t o n e -w a y
ANOV As w e re p e rf o r m e d , te s tin g fo r d iffe re n c e b e tw e en kinds of w o rd s
s e p a r a te ly , and fo r d iffe re n c e b etw een p o s itio n s w ithin e a c h kind of
w o rd . F in a lly , w h e re in d ic a te d , F t e s t s w e re u se d fo r m e a s u r in g
d iff e re n c e s b e tw e en c e lls . In a ll t e s t s , the 0. 05 le v e l of sig n ific a n c e
w as a c c e p te d . In a d d itio n to s ta t is t ic a l a n a ly s is , both g ro u p and in d i- ;
vid u al d a ta a r e p r e s e n te d in g ra p h form.
C H A PT E R IV
P R E S E N T A T IO N AND DISCUSSION O F R E SU L T S
The p r e s e n t study w as d e sig n e d to p e r m it u tiliz a tio n of a
s a m p le s iz e su ffic ie n tly s m a ll to c o n tro l and r e p o r t individual d a ta ,
y e t su fficie n tly la r g e to r e p o r t s ig n ific a n t d iff e re n c e s in g ro u p d a ta . A
s m a ll n u m b e r of s u b je c ts p ro d u cin g a la r g e n u m b e r of o b s e rv a tio n s
fitted th is d e s ig n . T he im p o rta n c e of c o n s id e rin g in d iv id u al d iff e re n c e s
as w ell a s g ro u p c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is s ta te d by P e r k in s (1971):
S tu tte rin g is the e n ig m a of s p e e c h pathology. Not long ago, m o re
had b een w r itte n a b o u t it th a n m o s t o th e r c o m m u n ic a tiv e d i s o r d e r s
co m b in e d . W hat h a s b een le a r n e d fo r the m o s t p a r t, is w hat
ad u lt s t u t t e r e r s do a s a group; we a r e r e la tiv e ly u n c e r ta in about
how o r why in d iv id u al s t u t t e r e r s b eh av e a s th ey do. (p. 302)
G e n e r a liz a tio n s fro m th e g ro u p d a ta a r e lim ite d not only by the i
sm a ll n u m b e r of s u b je c ts u se d but a ls o by the s e le c tio n of only a c e r
ta in kind of s t u t t e r e r , i . e . , the one who s tu t t e r s a t the w o rd le v e l
i
j
w hile re a d in g . K eeping th e s e lim ita tio n s in m in d , r e s u l t s of g ro u p j
d a ta a r e p r e s e n te d f i r s t , follow ed by a d e s c r ip tio n of how in d iv id u als I
‘r e a c te d in r e la tio n to g ro u p t r e n d s . T h is , a t l e a s t , g iv e s u s so m e j
! _ I
!in fo rm a tio n a b o u t "how " in d ividual s t u t t e r e r s b e h a v e , if not "w hy" th ey
I
behav e in a c e r t a i n w ay in a s p e c ific s itu a tio n .
48
i 4 9
I
I T he p r e s e n t study w as c o n c e rn e d w ith two d iffe re n t a s p e c ts of
ithe m e a s u r e m e n t of a le v e r - p u s h r e s p o n s e in r e la tio n to m o m e n ts of
s tu tte r in g c o m p a re d w ith m o m e n ts of fluency and n o n -s p e a k in g . The
p u rp o s e of th e f i r s t m e a s u r e m e n t, p eak a m p litu d e s , w a s to d e te rm in e
w h e th e r o r n o t th e r e w as any d is tin c t v a ria tio n in the fo rc e of the p ush
b e fo r e , d u rin g , o r a fte r in s ta n c e s of s tu tte r in g . The p u rp o se of the
se co n d m e a s u r e m e n t, in te g r a te d t im e - f o r c e , w as to d e te r m in e w h e th e r
o r not th e r e w as any d is tin c t v a ria tio n in the to ta l a m o u n t of e n e rg y
ex p e n d ed d u rin g the p u sh b e fo re , d u rin g , o r a f te r in s ta n c e s of s t u t t e r
ing c o m p a re d w ith the co n d itio n s of flu en cy and n o n -sp e a k in g . R e s u lts
of e a c h type of m e a s u r e m e n t a r e tr e a te d s e p a r a te ly .
In a d d itio n to o b je c tiv e m e a s u r e m e n ts , c a s e h i s t o r i e s , of
c o u r s e , w e re unique to e a c h su b je c t. H o w e v e r, th e s e d iffe re n c e s a r e !
; i
inot s ta te d h e r e s in c e , a s n o ted e a r l i e r , the p u rp o s e of taking c a s e h is-!
t o r i e s w as p r im a r i ly to gain ad d itio n a l w o rd s fo r the w ord l i s t s if
n e c e s s a r y . Two o th e r m a jo r p u rp o s e s w e re : f i r s t , to a s c e r ta i n
w h e th e r o r not anything in the c a s e h is to r y ( p a r tic u la r ly m e d ic a l) of a j
i
ip ro s p e c tiv e s u b je c t w ould in fluence r e s e a r c h r e s u l ts and thus e lim in a te j
h im f r o m the study; se c o n d , to d e te r m in e la te r a lity so th a t ch an g es in ,
i
| !
(the p o s itio n of the s p rin g - lo a d e d le v e r could be m ad e if n e c e s s a r y . j
i I
jT h ere w e re only two le ft-h a n d e d s u b je c ts: C .M . and I. W.
. 50
I
i P e a k A m p litu d e s of P u sh R e s p o n s e s
I ' ~ ~ ' ' — ...
i
R e s u lts f r o m G ro u p D a ta
A tw o -w ay a n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e , a s s u m in g one n u ll h y p o th e s is
a s a g lobal a n a ly s is , w as f i r s t c o m p le te d to d e te r m in e w h e th e r any
o v e ra ll d iffe re n c e s e x is te d in the g ro u p d a ta on p e a k a m p litu d e s .
T ab le 9 in A ppendix E l is t s the m e a n s of ip so d iz e d lo g a r ith m s , v a r i
a n c e s , and s a m p le s iz e fo r kin d s of w o rd s a t e a ch of the five p o sitio n s
of a m p litu d e m e a s u r e m e n ts . T able 1 giv es r e s u l ts of the tw o -w ay
ANOVA fo r d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n kinds of w o rd s , d iff e re n c e s b etw een
p o s itio n s , and th e ir in te r a c tio n .
T A B L E 1
G L O B A L AN ALY SIS, F VA LUE O F P E A K
A M P L IT U D E M EA SU R E M E N TS
S o u rc e
i
ss _df m s F
K inds of W ords (Rows) 0 .0 0 0 0 2 0. 000 0. 000
P o s itio n s (C olum ns) 0 .0 0 0 4 4 0. 0001 0. 001
I
In te ra c tio n
i
0 .8 9 6 0 8 0. 112 1. 551
Individual D iffe re n c e s 5 0 .7 6 0 0 705 0. 072
j (W ithin C ells)
T otal 51. 6564 719
51
K in d s o f w o r d s ( r o w s ) in c lu d e th e t h r e e c o n d itio n s o f s t u t t e r i n g ,
j
f lu e n c y , a n d n o n - s p e a k i n g ; p o s i t io n s ( c o lu m n s ) in c lu d e th e f iv e p l a c e s j
i
in t h e s e q u e n c e o f w o r d p r e s e n t a t i o n s w h e r e th e s i g n a l to p u s h w a s j
jg iv e n . |
i ' i
A lth o u g h t h i s g lo b a l a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r
a l l d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d , e ig h t o n e - w a y A N O V A s w e r e p e r f o r m e d , t h r e e
i
f o r d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n p o s i t i o n s w ith in k in d s o f w o r d s , a n d f iv e f o r
I
d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n k in d s o f w o r d s w ith in p o s i t i o n s . R e s u l t s a r e s h o w n
in T a b le 2 .
T A B L E 2
O N E -W A Y A N A L Y S IS O F V A R IA N C E
O F P E A K A M P L IT U D E S
D i f f e r e n c e s F V a lu e
B e tw e e n P o s i t i o n s in S t u t t e r e d W o r d s 5 .7 8 7 *
B e tw e e n P o s i t i o n s in F lu e n t W o r d s 2 .4 9 2
B e tw e e n P o s i t i o n s in N o n -S p o k e n W o r d s 0 . 8 5 4
[
B e tw e e n K in d s o f W o rd s in P o s i t i o n 1 0 . 0 5 3
B e tw e e n K in d s o f W o rd s in P o s i t i o n 2 0 . 4 1 4
B e tw e e n K in d s o f W o rd s in P o s i t i o n 3
I
0 .4 2 8
B e tw e e n K in d s o f W o rd s in P o s i t i o n 4 0 . 6 9 6
B e tw e e n K in d s o f W o rd s in P o s i t i o n 5 0 . 106
*
p < 0 .0 1
R e s u lts o f th e s e 8 o n e -w a y ANOVAs in d ic a te d th a t a s ig n ific a n t
d iffe re n c e e x is te d only b e tw e en p o sitio n s in s tu tte r e d w o rd s . A ll o th e r
F v a lu e s w e r e n o n - s ig n ific a n t and w e r e , with one e x c e p tio n , v e ry low.
In d ividual (tw o -c e ll) F t e s t s in d ic a te d th a t the s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e in
a m p litu d e m e a s u r e m e n ts b e tw e en p o sitio n s in r e la tio n to s tu tte r e d
w o rd s o c c u r r e d p r im a r i ly b e tw e en P o s itio n 1 (w ord p re s e n te d ) and
P o s itio n 3 (w ord spoken). T h is tw o -c e ll t e s t , w ith 1 and 111 d e g r e e s
of fre e d o m , y ie ld e d an F value of 6. 60, s ig n ific a n t a t the 0. 05 le v e l.
T he p eak a m p litu d e at P o s itio n 3 w as sig n ific a n tly le s s th a n a t P o s itio n
1, r a th e r th an g r e a t e r , a s a n tic ip a te d . The d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n P o s i
tio n 1 and P o s itio n 2 w as a ls o s ig n ific a n t a t the 0. 05 le v e l, w ith an F
valu e of 5. 19, w ith 1 and 116 d e g r e e s of fre e d o m .
F ig u re 5 show s the r e la tiv e p o sitio n s of a m p litu d e m e a s u r e - ;
m e n ts a t e a c h p o s itio n p r e c e d in g , d u rin g , and follow ing the 3 d iffe re n t .
kinds of w o rd s . T h e se m e a s u r e m e n ts a r e e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of group!
m e a n s of the ip so d iz e d lo g a r ith m s , I
i
i
T h e r e w as a d r o p in th e a m p litu d e of p u sh r e s p o n s e s fo r a ll 3 j
i
k in d s of w o rd s f r o m P o s itio n 1 to P o s itio n 2. O nly fo r flu e n t w o rd s i
did the d o w n w ard d ire c tio n r e v e r s e its e lf a t P o s itio n 3. H o w e v e r, fo r
I
, I
flu e n t w o rd s t h e r e w as an i n c r e a s e in a m p litu d e of the p u sh f ro m Posi-J
I ;
|tion 3 to P o s itio n 4, r e v e r s in g dow nw ard a g a in to P o s itio n 5. T he j
> j
jlow est point on th e f lu e n t-w o rd c u rv e o c c u r r e d at P o s itio n 2, b u t fo r j
J s tu tte r e d w o rd s th e low point w as P o s itio n 3.
Ip so d ize d L o g a r i t h m s
53
--------------------- S t u t t e r e d !
_ ------------------F l u e n t J
I
- — . — . — N o n -S p o k e n
- 1 - 0 . 080
+0.060
-1-0.040
-1-0. 020
0
0 . 020
0.040
0.060
0.080
P o s
1
P o s
2
P o s
3
P o s
4
P o s
5
F ig . 5 . - - P e a k A m p litu d e s a t E a c h P o s i t i o n ,
U t i l iz in g G r o u p M e a n s o f I p s o d iz e d L o g a r i t h m s
i 54
R e s u lts f r o m In d iv id u al D ata
! On s tu tte r e d w o r d s , fo u r of the s ix s u b je c ts (A. A. , C. M. ,
T. M. , and R. G. ) follow ed th e g ro u p p a tte r n of a d ro p in push a m p l i
tude f ro m P o s itio n 2 to P o s itio n 3, w ith a su b s e q u e n t r is e to P o s itio n
4. O nly one s u b je c t (A. T. ) follow ed the e x p e c te d d ire c tio n of an
in c r e a s e in a m p litu d e of p u sh fro m P o s itio n 2 to P o s itio n 3, w ith a
s u b s e q u e n t d ro p to P o s itio n 4, and co n tin u in g dow nw ard to P o s itio n 5.
The p u sh a m p litu d e s of S ub ject I. W. , fo r a ll kinds of w o rd s , w e re so
c o n s is te n t th a t p r a c tic a lly no change could be noted fo r any of the five
p o s itio n s of the le v e r push.
Two s u b je c ts (C. M. and R. G. ) show ed an i n c r e a s e in push
a m p litu d e on s tu tte r e d w o rd s f r o m P o s itio n 1 to P o s itio n 2. The o th e r
fo u r follow ed th e d ow nw ard g ro u p p a tte r n . F o r S ubject R. G. , the
i
j a m p litu d e m e a s u r e m e n ts in r e la tio n to s tu tte r e d and n o n -sp o k e n w o rd s
i
|f o r m e d a sh ad o w c u rv e , w ith a m p litu d e s f o r n o n -sp o k e n w o rd s being
|
slig h tly h ig h e r . F o r S u b je ct T. M. , a n o th e r a lm o s t p e rf e c t shadow
c u rv e o c c u r r e d f o r s tu tte r e d and flu e n t w o rd s .
I
i F i g u r e s 6 th ro u g h 11 p r e s e n t, in g r a p h ic f o rm , the m e a n s of
|the p e a k a m p litu d e s in m i l l i m e t e r s , a t e a c h p o sitio n for e a c h su b je c t.
I
t
j
I
i
M i l l i m e t e r s
55
i
S t u t t e r e d
------------------ F l u e n t
. — . N o n -S p o k e n
55
50
45
40
35
30
P o s P o s P o s P o s P o s
F ig . 6 .--S u b ject A. T . : P eak A m plitudes a t E ach P o sitio n
56
—— S t u t t e r e d
---------------------- F l u e n t
• — - — • — N o n -S p o k e n
u
v
4 >
e
55
50
45
40
35
3 0
P o s P o s P o s P o s P o s
F i g . 7 . - - S u b j e c t A . A . : P e a k A m p litu d e s a t E a c h P o s i t i o n
M illim eters
57
--------------------- S t u t t e r e d
F lu e n t
i
• — • — •— N o n -S p o k e n
j
65
60
55
50
45
40
P o s P o s P o s P o 8 P o s
F ig. 8 . --S u b ject C . M . : P e a k A m plitudes a t E ac h P o sitio n
M i l l i m e t e r s
S t u t t e r e d
F lu e n t
N o n -S p o k e n
P o s P o s P o s P o s P o s
1 2 3 4 5
F ig . 9 .--S u b je c t T . M . : P e a k A m p litu d es a t E ac h P o sitio n
M illim eters
59
------------------------ S t u t t e r e d
— F lu e n t
- — ------- — N o n -S p o k e n
5 0 _______
4 5
40
30
25
r— r
-4 !
P o s
1
P o s
2
P o s
3
P o s
4
P o s
5
F ig. 10.--S u b je c t 1. W .: P eak A m plitudes at E ac h P o sitio n
S t u t t e r e d
F lu e n t
— * — N o n -S p o k e n
4 5
4 0
3 5
3 0
2 5
P o s P o s P o 8 P o s P o s
4
F ig . 1 1 .--S ubject R. G. P e a k A m plitudes a t E ach P o sitio n
[D iscussion
i i,- ■ —
; T he g e n e ra l h y p o th e s is te s te d in th is study w as th a t the intensity,
of an o v e r t r e s p o n s e w hich d iffe rs f ro m s tu tte r in g w ill v a ry d ire c tly
w ith m o m e n ts of s tu tte r in g . T h is h y p o th e s is w as b a s e d on two a s s u m p
tio n s: (1) th a t so m e in te r n a l e n e rg iz in g fo rc e o r s t r e s s is p r e s e n t d u r
ing m o m e n ts of s tu tte r in g , and (2) th a t th is s t r e s s o p e r a te s a s a g e n
e r a liz e d fo rc e o r e n e rg y . In th is p o rtio n of th e stu d y , " in te n s ity " w as
d efin e d a s the p o int of g r e a t e s t m ag n itu d e of the r e s p o n s e a s m e a s u r e d
by its p e a k a m p litu d e . "M o m e n t" w as defin ed a s in clu d in g b e fo re ,
d u rin g , and a f te r in s ta n c e s of s tu tte rin g .
G ro u p r e s u l t s did not s u p p o rt the h y p o th e s is a c c o rd in g to its
b a s ic a s s u m p tio n s and d e fin itio n s. The tw o -w a y a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e
in d ic a te d th a t no s ig n ific a n t o v e r a ll d iffe re n c e in push r e s p o n s e s
e x is te d e ith e r in r e la tio n to kin d s of w o r d s , i . e . , w h e th e r s tu tte r e d ,
flu e n t, o r n o n -s p o k e n , o r b e tw e e n p o s itio n s at w hich the p ush re s p o n s e ;
w as m e a s u r e d in r e la tio n to w o rd p r e s e n ta tio n s . T h e r e w a s , h o w ev er,;
so m e in d ic a tio n th a t any v a ria tio n w hich did e x is t in p u sh r e s p o n s e s |
i
i
d u rin g m o m e n ts of s tu tte r in g , w ent in the o p p o site d ire c tio n to th a t !
; i
;ex p ected . At P o s itio n 2, w h e re s u b je c ts had o b s e rv e d the w o rd for
!5 s e c o n d s , it w as e x p e c te d th a t the a m p litu d e of th e p u sh r e s p o n s e !
j
|would r i s e to r e a c h th e to p a t P o s itio n 3, w h e re the s tu tte r e d w o rd |
\ !
jwas sp o k en , and d ro p down a t P o s itio n 4, im m e d ia te ly follow ing the
}s tu tt e r e d w o rd . In s te a d , the r e v e r s e o c c u r r e d a s the p u sh re s p o n s e
, - 62
b e c a m e s ig n ific a n tly w e a k e r f r o m P o s itio n 1 th ro u g h P o sitio n 3, to
b e c o m e s o m e w h a t s tr o n g e r at P o s itio n 4.
In te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e M e a s u r e m e n ts
of P u s h R e s p o n s e s
R e s u lts f r o m G ro u p D a ta
A tw o -w a y a n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e , a s s u m in g one n u ll h y p o th e sis
a s a glo b al a n a ly s is , w as f i r s t c o m p le te d to d e te r m in e w h e th e r any
o v e ra ll d iff e re n c e s e x is te d in the g ro u p d a ta on tim e - f o r c e m e a s u r e
m e n ts . T ab le 11 in A ppendix G lis ts the m e a n s of ip so d iz e d lo g a r ith m s ,
v a r ia n c e s , and s a m p le s iz e fo r kinds of w o rd s at e a c h of the five p o s itio n s
of t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts . T able 3 g iv es r e s u l ts of th e tw o-w ay
ANOVA fo r d iff e re n c e s b etw een kinds of w o rd s , d iff e re n c e s b etw een
p o s itio n s , and th e ir in te ra c tio n .
T A B L E 3
G L O B A L ANALYSIS, F V A LU E O F IN T E G R A T E D
T IM E -F O R C E M E A S U R E M E N T S
S o u rc e ss df m s
- =-=^
F
iKinds of W o rd s (Rows) 1. 586 2 0. 793 7. 424 *
^Positions (C o lu m n s) 3 6 .8 3 6 4 9 .2 0 9 8 6 .2 2 2 4
1
In te r a c tio n 20 .2 7 2 8 2. 534 23. 726 5 ) 1
In d ividual D iffe re n c e s
(W ithin C e lls)
7 5 .4 3 5 705 0. 107
T o ta l 134.129 719
* p < 0. 01
K inds of w o rd s (ro w s) include the th r e e c o n d itio n s of s tu tte r in g ,
jfluency, and n o n -sp e a k in g ; p o s itio n s (co lu m n s) in clu d e the five p la c e s
in the se q u en c e of w o rd p r e s e n ta tio n s w h e re the s ig n a l to push w as
given.
A lthough a ll d iff e re n c e s w e re sig n ific a n t, fa n ta s tic a lly high s i g
n ific an c e o c c u r r e d in d iff e re n c e s betw een p o s itio n s and in in te r a c tio n
betw een w o rd s and p o s itio n s . Since the g lo b al a n a ly s is in d ic a te d th a t
o v e ra ll d iff e re n c e s e x is te d , e ig h t o n e-w ay AN OV As w e re p e rf o r m e d ,
th r e e fo r d iff e re n c e s b e tw e e n p o s itio n s w ithin kin d s of w o rd s , and five
fo r d iffe re n c e s b e tw e en kinds of w o rd s w ith in p o s itio n s. R e s u lts a re
show n in T able 4.
T A B L E 4
O N E-W A Y ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE O F IN T E G R A T E D
T IM E -F O R C E M E A S U R E M E N T S
D iffe re n c e s F V alue
B etw een P o s itio n s in S tu tte re d W ords
B e tw e e n P o s itio n s in F lu e n t W ords
B etw een P o s itio n s in N o n -S poken W ords
87. 456*
27. 803*
0. 735
B etw een K inds of W o rd s in P o s itio n 1
B e tw e e n K inds of W o rd s in P o s itio n 2
B etw een K inds of W o rd s in P o s itio n 3
B etw een K inds of W o rd s in P o s itio n 4
B etw een K inds of W o rd s in P o s itio n 5
2. 705
2. 113
51. 830*
5. 447*
0. 333
*
p < 0. 01
___________
64
R e s u lts of th e s e eig h t o n e -w a y AN OV As in d ic a te d th a t s ig n ific a n t
jd iffe ren c e s e x is te d b e tw e en p o s itio n s in s tu tte r e d w o rd s and in flu en t
w o r d s , but not in n o n -s p o k e n w o rd s . S ig n ific a n t d iff e re n c e s b e tw e en
ikinds of w o rd s o c c u r r e d only in P o s itio n s 3 and 4. The r e s t w e re n o n
s ig n ific a n t. A low F value in P o s itio n 5 would in d ic a te th a t tim in g of
the b e tw e e n -w o rd s in te r v a l w as su ffic ie n t to re m o v e any t r a c e of s u b
j e c t 's r e a c tio n to a p re v io u s w o rd .
In d ividual (tw o -c e ll) F t e s t s w e re c o m p le te d to t e s t fo r d i f f e r
e n c e s b e tw e en k in d s of w o rd s in P o s itio n s 3 and 4. R e s u lts of th e s e
c o m p u ta tio n s a r e shown in T a b le 5. It can be se en th a t th e r e w e r e
highly s ig n ific a n t d iff e re n c e s b e tw e en s tu tte r e d and fluent w o rd s and
s ig n ific a n t d iff e re n c e s b e tw e e n s tu tte r e d o r flu e n t w o rd s in r e la tio n to
th e n o n -s p e a k in g con d itio n at P o s itio n 3 w h e re the s ig n a ls to "p u sh "
i '
'and to " s a y " w e re s im u lta n e o u s . At P o s itio n 4, w h e re the sig n a l to
i ;
jpush c a m e im m e d ia te ly a f te r th e w o rd had b e e n s a id , the only sig n ifi-
i . :
c a n t d iffe re n c e o c c u r r e d b e tw e e n s tu tte r e d w o rd s and n o n -sp o k e n
w o rd s . A t P o s itio n 3, th e t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts w e re sig n ific a n tly
jla r g e r fo r both s tu tte r e d and flu e n t w o rd s in r e la tio n to n o n -s p o k e n , j
jwith s tu tte r e d w o rd s e x c e s s iv e ly la r g e , w hile a t P o s itio n 4, th e s it u a
t io n w as r e v e r s e d w ith m e a s u r e m e n ts fo r s tu tte r e d w o rd s b ein g s ig - ;
i
jnificantly le s s th a n for n o n -s p o k e n w o rd s (se e F ig u re 12). F lu e n t (
j
w o rd s a ls o follow ed a s im i la r p a tte r n of d ro p fro m P o s itio n 3 to P o s i - j
I
I
tio n 4, alth o u g h the d iffe re n c e b e tw e en flu e n t and n o n -s p o k e n w o rd s I
“ 65
TA BLE 5
INDIVIDUAL F T E S T S O F IN T E G R A T E D
T IM E -F O R C E M EA SU R E M E N TS
S o u rc e ss d ft m s F
"
P o s itio n 3
S t u tte r e d /F lu e n t (SF) 4. 5454 1 4. 5454 1 9 .0 9 8 *
S tu tte re d /N o n - s p o k e n (SN) 19.9687 1 19. 9687 9 0 .3 1 5 *
F lu e n t/N o n - s p o k e n (FN) 3. 8640 1 3. 8640 35. 352*
E r r o r (SF) 2 2 .3 7 2 0 94 0 .2 3 8 0
E r r o r (SN) 22. 9944 104 0 .2 2 1 1
E r r o r (FN) 9 .1 8 1 2 84 0. 1093
^ s i t i o n 4
S t u tt e r e d /F lu e n t (SF) 0 .1 8 1 3 1 0 .1 8 1 3 2. 427
S tu tte re d /N o n - s p o k e n (SN) 0 .8 2 9 5 1 0 .8 2 9 5 1 0 .7 1 7 *
F lu e n t/N o n - s p o k e n (FN) 0 .1 8 5 5 1 0 .1 8 5 5 2. 434
E r r o r (SF) 7. 0218 94 0. 0747
E r r o r (SN) 7 .8 1 7 4 101 0 .0 7 7 4
E r r o r (FN) 6 .6 2 9 4 87 0 .0 7 6 2
! df = (k - l ) / ( n j - 1) + (n2 - 1)
"p < 0. 01
w as n o n - s ig n ific a n t. The d iff e re n c e b e tw e en s tu tte r e d and flu en t w o rd s
at P o s itio n 4 w as a ls o n o n - s ig n ific a n t. T his la c k of d iffe re n c e betw eerj
the co n d itio n s of s tu tte rin g a n d flu e n c y at P o s itio n 4 do es not y ie ld
in fo rm a tio n on the d e g re e of d iffe re n c e in in te r a c tio n b e tw e e n P o s itio n ^
3 and 4 u n d e r th e two sp e a k in g c o n d itio n s. T a b le 6 g iv e s th e p e r c e n t- ;
i j
age of d ro p in t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts f ro m P o s itio n 3 to P o s itio n 4
follow ing s tu tte r e d w o rd s a s c o m p a r e d to the p e rc e n ta g e of d ro p in
6 6
TA BLE 6
IN T E G R A T E D T IM E -F O R C E M E A S U R E M E N T S,
P E R C E N T A G E D R O P F R O M PO SIT IO N 3 TO PO SITIO N 4,
S T U T T E R E D AND F L U E N T WORDS
S u b ject
S um of M ean s
A b so lu te
V alu es
P o s . 3
S um of M e a n s
A b so lu te
V alu es
P o s . 4
R atio
P o s . 4 to 3
P e r c e n ta g e
D ro p f r o m
P o s . 3 to 4
P e r c e n ta g e
S tu tte re d
A. T. 9 7 .9 32. 7 33 67
A. A. 54. 3 26. 4 49 51
R. G. 75. 5 24. 4 32 68
T. M. 50. 3 10. 2 20 80
C. M. 261. 2 54. 5 21
79
I. W. 19. 1 16. 9 89 11
T otal 558. 3 165. 1 30 70
F lu e n t
A. T. 68. 1 33. 6 49 51 ;
A. A. 39. 7 32. 8 83 17
R. G. 54. 3 22. 8 42 58 i
T .M . 29. 6 10. 3 35 65 ,
C. M . 72. 3 60. 8 85 15
I. W. 21. 4 19. 7 92 8 !
T o tal 285. 4 180. 0 63
“ ' ' 1
37 i
i
i —
th e s e m e a s u r e m e n ts follow ing flu e n t w o rd s . F o r the g ro u p a s a w hole,
1
70 p e rc e n t r e d u c tio n follow ing s tu tte rin g c o m p a r e d to a 37 p e rc e n t
re d u c tio n follow ing flu e n t sp eak in g r e p r e s e n t s a 33 p e rc e n t d iffe re n c e
b e tw e en the tw o c o n d itio n s.
T i m e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts a t P o s itio n s 1 and 2 for the th re e
c o n d itio n s of s tu tte r in g , flu e n c y , and s ile n c e show ed no sig n ific a n t d i f
f e r e n c e s . In fa c t, a t P o s itio n 2, w hen th e w ord had b e e n e x p o sed fo r
5 s e c o n d s, t h e r e w as e v en a slig h t, though n o n -s ig n ific a n t d r o p in the
t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n t w hen it p r e c e d e d s tu tte r e d w o rd s.
F ig u r e 12 sh o w s the r e la tiv e p o sitio n s of m e a s u r e m e n ts at e a c h
p o sitio n p r e c e d in g , d u rin g , and follow ing the t h r e e d iffe re n t k in d s of
w o rd s . T h e s e m e a s u r e m e n ts a r e e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of g ro u p m e a n s
of the ip so d iz e d lo g a r ith m s .
R e s u lts f r o m In d iv id u a l D ata
: F o u r s u b je c ts (A. T. , A. A. , R. G. , and T. M. ) c o n fo rm e d g e n - j
; |
e r a lly to g ro u p p a tt e r n s show n in F ig u re 12 a s th e y r e l a te to a ll th r e e !
!
co n d itio n s of s tu tte r in g , flu e n c y , and n o n -s p e a k in g . P a tte r n s fo r th e s e j
| I
fo u r s u b je c ts show ed in c r e a s e d t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts a t P o s itio n 3j
j |
fo r both s tu tte r in g and fluen cy w ith su b s e q u e n t d ro p s a t P o s itio n 4
|
u n d e r th e s e s a m e c o n d itio n s. S u b je ct C. M. d e v ia te d only d u rin g flu e n t ■
I
sp eak in g , w h e r e h e r p u sh m e a s u r e m e n ts u n d e r th a t con d itio n w e re
even le s s th a n d u rin g n o n -s p e a k in g , e x c e p t a t P o s itio n 3 w h e re they i
Ip so d ize d L o g a r i t h m s
i
i
----------------------- S tu t t e r in g
-------------- — — F lu e n t
i
• — • — • — N o n - s p o k e n J
+ 0 .9 0 0
+ 0 .7 0 0
+ 0 . 6 0 0
+ 0 .3 0 0
+0.200
+0.100
0
0.100
0.200
0 . 300
P o s P o s P o s P o s P o s
1 2 3 4 5
F ig . 1 2 .--In te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e M e a s u re m e n ts at E ach
P o s itio n U tilizing G roup M e a n s of Ipso d iz e d L o g a rith m s •
69
i
w e re about equal. S u b je c t I. W. p ro d u c e d a d iffe re n t p a tte r n f ro m the
jother s u b je c ts by an a lm o s t u n ifo r m push re s p o n s e u n d e r a ll co n d itio n s
w ith v e ry low m e a s u r e m e n ts at a ll p o s itio n s. T able 6 show s th a t
w hile a c o n s id e ra b le g ro u p d iff e re n c e o c c u r r e d in d e g re e of m e a s u r e
m e n t re d u c tio n b e tw e e n P o s itio n s 3 and 4 u n d er the c o n d itio n s of s t u t
te r in g a s c o m p a re d to flu e n c y , th is d e g re e of d iffe re n c e show ed a wide
in d ividual v a ria tio n . T he ra n g e w a s f ro m a low of only 3 p e r c e n t d if
fe r e n c e b etw een the two s itu a tio n s fo r I.W . to a high of 64 p e r c e n t d if
fe r e n c e fo r C .M . T he o th e r fo u r s u b je c ts fell b e tw e e n th e s e tw o, but
c lo s e r to the lo w e r en d of th e c o n tin u u m . S p e c ifica lly they w e r e a s
follow s: R. G. , 10 p e rc e n t; T .M . , 15 p e rc e n t; A. T. , 16 p e rc e n t; and
A. A. , 34 p e rc e n t.
No s ig n ific a n t d iff e re n c e s in t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts d u rin g
is tu tte rin g w e re n oted b e tw e e n P o s itio n s 1 and 2 in th e d a ta of any su b -
I
je c t. S u b ject A. T. show ed the g r e a t e s t change a t P o s itio n 2, and th is
w as d o w nw ard, in the o p p o site d ir e c tio n f ro m th a t a n tic ip a te d .
F o r a ll s u b je c ts , t i m e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts d u rin g s tu tte r in g
d ro p p e d f ro m P o s itio n 3 to P o s itio n 4, although fo r S u b je ct I. W. th is
idrop w as n e g lig ib le .
F ig u r e s 13 th ro u g h 18 p r e s e n t, in g ra p h ic f o r m , the m e a n s of
i
a b so lu te v a lu e s of t i m e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts at e a c h p o s itio n fo r e a c h
s u b je c t.
V e rn ie r U n its
--------------------- S tu t t e r in g
— — — — F lu e n t
N o n - s p o k e n
100
95*
901
85
75
70
55
50
45
4 0
35
30
i=-
P o s P o s P o s P o s P o s
1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 13.--S u b je c t A. T. : In te g ra te d T i m e - F o r c e a t E ach P osition
V ernier U n its
-------------------- S tu tte rin g
— — F lu e n t
------- ---------N o n -s p o k e n
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
P o s P o s P o s P o s P o s
F ig. 1 4 .- - S u b je c t A . A . : I n te g r a t e d T i m e - F o r c e a t E a c h P o s itio n
U nits
1 m
I 4)
i tr 4
1 s
I *
! «
I >
210 .
V F 3 ■ !
M
120 f=
45 E=
30
P o s . 1 P o s . 2 P o s . 3 P o s . 4 P o s . 5
Fig. 15.--S u b je c t C . M . : I n te g r a te d T im e - F o rc e a t E ac h P o sitio n
73 j
! OB
I -tJ
\s
i
i u
! .2
: a
u
■ 0 )
: >
S tu tte rin g
F lu e n t
• ----------- N o n -sp o k e n
-
F ig . 1 6 .- - S u b je c t T. M . : I n te g r a t e d T i m e - F o r c e a t E a c h P o s itio n
V ernier U n its
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------— ----------------------------------------------------------------------v r
i
i
I
i
I
i
I
i
i
--------------------- S tu tte rin g
— — — — F lu e n t
!
___ . __ N o n -s p o k e n
P o s P o s P o s P o s P o s
1 2 3 4 5
i
I
F ig . 1 7 .- -S u b je c t I. W . : I n t e g r a t e d T i m e - F o r c e a t E a c h P o s itio n
V e rn ie r U n its
75
85
80
75
70
6 5
60
55
/ - - t v
50
45
4 0
■ E T '
35
30
25
20
15
P o s P o s P o s P o s P o s
I
I
Fig. 18.--S u b je c t R. G . : In te g ra te d T im e -F o rc e at E a c h P o sitio n
| 76 !
j F o r a ll s u b je c ts the tim e - f o r c e m e a n s o f th e ir p u sh r e s p o n s e s
jduring s tu tte r in g and flu en cy fo rm e d shadow c u r v e s w ith v ary in g
i
t
d e g re e s of s p a c e b e tw e en the c u rv e of one con d itio n and its shadow of
the o th e r co n d itio n . H o w e v e r, in d iv id u al d iff e re n c e s in p u sh r e s p o n s e s
o c c u r r e d a t P o s itio n 3 a s a r e a c tio n to s tu tte r in g v e r s u s fluency. F i g
u re 19 show s e x a m p le s of th e s e b e tw e e n - s u b je c t d iffe re n c e s by d e p ic t
ing the sh a p e of th e c u rv e u n d e r c o n d itio n s of s tu tte r in g and fluency.
The m o s t in te n s e m e a s u r e m e n t fo r each of th e s e two co n d itio n s w as
s e le c te d fo r c o m p a r is o n , w ith the c u rv e fo r flu e n t sp e e c h p laced a lo n g
side the c u rv e fo r s tu tte r e d s p e e c h .
T he tw o e x tr e m e s on the co n tin u u m of m o to r b e h a v io r r e p r e
sen ted in F ig u r e 19 a r e for s u b je c ts I. W. and C. M. It is im p o s s ib le to
d e te c t any d iff e re n c e in m o to r b e h a v io r b e tw e e n s tu tte r e d and fluent
j j
;re s p o n s e s in th e c a s e of I. W. , but C .M .'s p ush r e s p o n s e s in the two
| !
s itu a tio n s show a w ide v a ria tio n . The o th e r s a r r a n g e th e m s e lv e s in ■
v a ry in g d e g r e e s along th is con tin u u m of c u rv e d if f e r e n c e s . M a jo r d if- j
' I
i
fe r e n c e s in sh ap e of the c u rv e d u rin g s tu tte r in g o c c u r a t the p e a k , w ith!
! j
[som e s u b je c ts ex h ib itin g continuous m o v e m e n t f r o m d ow nw ard to u p - i
| I
iw ard w hile o th e r s show a tim e lag be tw e en the two m o v e m e n ts , a s show n a t
I !
jthe peak. S u b je c t C .M .'s p ush re s p o n s e ty p ic a lly show ed a s q u a rin g off atj
i
jthe end of th e d o w n w a rd m o v e m e n t a t v a ry in g d e g r e e s of a m p litu d e .
H o w e v e r, in s p ite of tim e lag s in p u sh r e s p o n s e s d u rin g s t u t t e r
ing, th e r e w as a f a ir ly c o n s is te n t c o m p le tio n of the p u sh m o v e m e n t
Stuttered
co
Fluent
Fluent
« -3
Stuttered
.u t.t c red
>
Fluent
Stuttered
Fluent
CO
Stuttered
co o
Fluent
Fluent
! " ' 78
f
b e fo re the s tu tte r e d e v e n t w as te r m in a te d . T ab le 7 lis ts in d ividual
're a c tio n tim e s fo r v o ice and p u sh of e a c h s u b je c t d u rin g s tu tte r in g a t
P o s itio n 3 w h e re voice and p u sh w e r e s im u lta n e o u s . T he m o s t s e v e r e
s tu tte r in g in t e r m s of d u r a tio n , w as fo r S u b je ct C. M. T a b le 12 in
A ppendix H g iv e s d e ta ils fo r a ll s u b je c ts .
T A B L E 7
S T U T T E R E D WORDS, PO SIT IO N 3, D U RA TIO N O F
VOICE AND PU SH R E SPO N SE
N u m b e r of
R e s p o n s e s
V oice in S econds P u s h in S econds
S u b je c t T o ta l M ean T o ta l M ean
T .M . 8 35. 0 4. 4 17. 0 2. 1
I. W. 7 37. 0 5. 3 5. 0 0. 7
R .G . 13 31. 5 2. 4 31. 0 2. 4
A. A. 9 26. 5 2. 9 12. 5 1. 4
C. M. 13 84. 5 6. 5 69. 0 5. 3
A. T. 8 16. 6 2. 2 2. 1 0. 3
T o ta l
M ean
N = 58 231. 1
4 .0
136. 6
2. 4
i Since s o m e of the d a ta in T a b le s 7 and 12 s e e m e d to in d ic a te
a p o s s ib le c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e en d u ra tio n of voice and d u ra tio n of p u sh,
the p o s s ib ility a r o s e th at so m e s u b je c ts could h a v e m is u n d e rs to o d the
in s tr u c tio n s c o n c e rn in g push in g the le v e r w hile sa y in g th e w o rd , and
sim p ly h e ld on to th e le v e r d u rin g the sp e ak in g s itu a tio n . It w as
a s s u m e d th a t th is p o s s ib ility w as e lim in a te d by th e s ta te m e n t to the
s u b je c t in the e x p e r im e n ta l ru n th a t we w e re m e a s u r in g r e a c tio n tim e
fo r the push and by putting the s u b je c ts th ro u g h a p r a c tic e run b e fo re
the e x p e r im e n ta l w o rd s w e re p r e s e n te d . H o w e v e r, for added i n s u r
a n c e , the s t r i p - c h a r t r e c o r d s fo r e a ch su b je c t w e r e re v ie w e d fo r th is
p o s s ib le e r r o r . S u b je c t R . G. w as p a r tic u la r ly s u s p e c t b e c a u s e the
m e a n d u ra tio n of b o th h is voice and h is push in d ic a te d id e n tic a l tim in g .
F ig u r e 20 g iv e s a ty p ic a l r e s p o n s e fo r th is s u b je c t. It c a n be s e e n that;
i ,
alth o u g h d u ra tio n of v o ice and of push if m e a s u r e d s e p a r a te ly would
i
show a v e ry c lo s e c o r r e la t io n , th e p u sh s ta r te d p r i o r to the speaking
i !
e v e n t and w as c o m p le te d b e fo re te r m in a tio n of v o ic e . A s im ila r lack |
of c o in c id e n c e b e tw e e n v o ice and push w as found fo r a ll s u b je c ts . j
i
I
I
I j
D is c u s s io n j
! i
J In th is p o rtio n of th e stu d y , " in te n s ity " w a s d efin e d in t e r m s of j
! t
'to ta l e n e rg y e x p e n d e d o v e r the e n tir e p u sh r e s p o n s e c u r v e , as an in te - !
i j
g r a te d t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n t. G ro u p r e s u l t s , u tiliz in g this type of i
! I
l j
[m e a s u re m e n t, s u p p o rte d , in p a r t , the g e n e r a l h y p o th e s is te s te d in thisj
• •—••••« «-*r -• - f • • • • t l . f ;• t-v n- 7- | » \ f . • • • •. »
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1 I ' . l . r T ' t ‘ r . f v - - ' - f ' '
Fig. 2 0 .--S ubject R. G. : E xam ple of D uration of Voice and P ush D uring Stuttering
O O l
O'
‘ ' " 81
|
i
istudy, that the intensity of a r e s p o n s e which differs fro m stu tterin g will
I
I
[vary d ire c tly with m o m e n ts of stuttering. This hypothesis w as b a sed ,
i !
bn the a s su m p tio n th at an additional in te rn a l energizing force or s tr e s s
,is a s so c ia te d with m o m e n ts of stu tterin g and that this in te rn al s t r e s s is;
g e n e ra liz e d so that it will be reflec ted in any other re s p o n s e the s tu t
t e r e r m a k e s during stu tterin g m o m e n ts .
A significant in c re a s e in tim e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts o c c u rr e d
only at P osition 3, the act of stu tterin g . Fluent speech also reflec ted a
significant in c r e a s e in m e a s u r e m e n ts at this position ov e r the non
spoken condition, but the push m e a s u r e m e n ts during stu tterin g w e re
significantly g r e a t e r than those during fluent speaking. Table 5 and
F ig u re 12 re fle c t this group pattern. Only one subject (I. W .) did not
ifollow this group tre n d (see F ig u re 17). H e r tim e -fo rc e m e a s u r e m e n ts ;
I |
jwere so c o n sisten tly low as to ra is e the possibility of inhibition of |
(movement. J
i I
As a point of c o m p a ris o n to s e e how fluent sp e a k e rs would react!
I !
to this e x p e rim e n t, two additional s u b je c ts w ere tested. One subject j
i
i !
i(T. B. ) w as a situational s tu tte re r who read fluently, the o th er (M. L. ) |
! !
; I
jwas a n o r m a l s p e a k e r. The word lis t of a s tu tte r e r who was e lim i- j
| j
jnated f ro m this study was utilized. F ig u r e s 21 and 22 re fle c t the t im e - j
! |
[force m e a s u r e m e n ts of these two subjects for .'luent and no n -sp o k en c o n
ditions. C u rv e s of th e se two s p e a k e rs showed a r i s e during fluent speech
at P o s itio n 3 , which w as typical for five of the six e x p e rim e n ta l subjects.
Vernier Units
--------------------Fluent
• — •— Non-spoken
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
P o s Pos Pos Pos Pos
Fig. 2 1 .--S u b je c t T. B . : In te g r a te d T i m e - F o r c e at E a c h P osition
V e rn ier U n its
---------------------- F lu e n t 1
1
• — - — N on-s poke 11
P o s P o s P o s P o s Pos
1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 2 2 . --S u b je c t M. JL.: I n te g r a te d T i m e - F o r c e at E a c h P o sitio n
84
i
|It would s e e m then, that the push re s p o n s e s of the sixth subject, I. W. ,
iduring speaking, w e re atypical for som e unknown re a so n .
When tim e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts for the lev e r push a re used as
the m e a s u r e of itensity, the group data as it r e la te s to m o m e n ts of
stuttering follows the expected d ire c tio n of in c re a s e fro m P osition 1
to P osition 3, with a reduction at P osition 4, leveling off at Position 5.
The only exception to this o c c u rr e d at P osition 2, w here tim e - f o rc e
m e a s u r e m e n ts dropped slightly but insignificantly, r a t h e r than in c re a s
ing as expected and conform ed to a s im ila r but significant d e c re a s e
shown in peak am plitude m e a s u r e m e n ts .
C H A PT E R V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IM PLICATIONS
The P r o b le m
T his study w a s designed to investigate v a ria tio n s in the intensity
of an o v e rt re s p o n s e other that stuttering, before, d u rin g , and a fter
in sta n c e s of stu tterin g and to c o m p a re these intensity m e a s u r e m e n ts
with the intensity of the o v e rt re s p o n s e before, during, and a fter in
sta n c e s of fluency and of no n -sp eak in g . The o v e rt re s p o n s e selected
for use in the p r e s e n t investigation w as the pushing of a sp rin g -lo a d e d
le v e r. R e s e a rc h q u e stio n s asked w e re :
1. Will intensity of the push resp o n se v a ry b efo re, during,
a n d /o r a fte r in s ta n c e s of stu tterin g ?
2. Will intensity of the push resp o n se v a ry b efo re, during,
a n d /o r a fte r in s ta n c e s of fluency?
3. Will th e r e be a significant difference in the intensity of the
push r e s p o n s e d u rin g m o m e n ts of stu tterin g as c o m p a re d
with m o m e n ts of fluency? j
4. Will th e r e be a significant difference in the intensity of the
I
push r e s p o n s e d uring m o m e n ts of stu tterin g and fluency a s j
i
c o m p a re d with m o m e n ts of n o n -sp e a k in g ? |
The t e r m "m o m e n t" w a s defined a s including the e n tire period p r e c e d - ,
ing, d uring, and a fte r the speaking act. The t e r m "in stan c e " was used
to indicate sp ecifically the act of speaking. The t e r m "intensity" w a s
defined and m e a s u r e d in two different w ays: f ir s t, in t e r m s of the
relativ e fo rc e of the push as m e a s u r e d by its peak am plitude and s e c
ond, in t e r m s of total energy expended d u rin g the push, as an in te
g rate d t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n t.
The hy p o th esis tested w as: the intensity of an o v e rt re s p o n s e
which d iffe rs f r o m stu tterin g will v a ry d ire c tly with m o m e n ts of s tu t
terin g . T his hy p o th esis w as based on the a ssu m p tio n that if stuttering
is a s tr e s s f u l event for the sp e a k e r, th is s t r e s s will e n e rg iz e a v a rie ty
of re s p o n s e s , o v e rt a s well a s o rg an ic . A f u rth e r assu m p tio n was
m ad e that, f r o m the standpoint of p a rs im o n y and e m p ir ic is m , the p r e
f e r r e d m ethod for m e a s u r in g the p ossible p re s e n c e of s t r e s s would be
to utilize an o v e r t re s p o n s e .
The Method
The sam p le c o n sisted of six su b je c ts, th re e m a le and three f e
m a le , ranging in age f ro m twenty to th irty -tw o y e a r s . All subjects
s tu tte re d frequently when reading single w o rd s . An individualized
w ord l i s t of 120 w o rd s , 80 stu ttere d and 40 fluent, w as p re p a re d for
e a c h subject. E a c h "w ord" w as e ith e r a single m u ltisy lla b ic word o r a
s h o rt m ea n in g fu l p h r a s e . T hese w o rd s w e r e p re s e n te d on a Stowe
M e m o ry D ru m .
Intensity of the sp rin g -lo a d e d lev er push w as m e a s u r e d as peak
am plitude and a s in te g ra te d t im e - f o r c e at one of five tim ed points for
e a ch w ord p re se n ta tio n : (1) a s the w ord w as p re se n te d ; (2) m id -p o in t
betw een w ord p r e s e n te d and w ord spoken; (3) a s the w ord w as spoken;
(4) im m ed ia te ly after the w ord w as spoken; and (5) m id -p o in t betw een
w ord p r e s e n ta tio n s . E a c h w o rd w a s exposed on the d r u m for 20 s e c
onds with a 2 0 -se c o n d tim e in te rv a l betw een w ord p re s e n ta tio n s , m a k
ing a total of 40 seconds for the e n tir e cycle. The choice of 120 w o rd s
for each subject followed a sta tis tic a l design of 8 w o rd s for e a ch cell
of th re e c o n d itio n s --s tu tte rin g , fluency, and n o n -s p e a k in g --a n d five
positions for m e a s u r in g intensity of push r e s p o n s e s . F o r 6 subjects
this would m ak e a total of 48 push m e a s u r e m e n ts for e a ch cell, and a
total of 720 w o rd s . W o rd s spoken v e r s u s not spoken and the five p o s i
tions fo r pushing the le v e r w e re ra n d o m iz e d along with each s u b je c t's
w ord list. Two c o m m a n d lights attached to the m e m o r y d r u m w ere
o p e ra te d by the e x p e rim e n te r for signaling when to push the le v e r and
w hen to say the w ord. F o r n o n -sp o k e n w o rd s, e a ch subject w a s alw ays
notified in advance of the w ord p re se n ta tio n .
T h re e ch a n n els of a B e c k m an D ynograph, Type R, eig h t-ch a n n e l
p e n - r e c o r d e r w e r e u se d for r e c o rd in g d ata. E a c h s u b je c t's v e rb a l
i
re s p o n s e s w e re also re c o r d e d on a Bell and Howell tape r e c o r d e r fo r !
i
j
the pu rp o se of evaluation by th re e tra in e d jud g es to d e te r m in e j
stu tterin g v e r s u s fluency. P r o c e d u r e s a r e based on a pilot study,
d e ta ils of which a re included in the E x c u r s u s .
P e a k am plitude of the le v e r push w as m e a s u r e d in m illim e te r s
at the highest point of each c urve r e c o r d e d on the D ynograph s trip
c h a r ts . Integrated tim e - f o rc e a s the e n tire a r e a of each curve w as
m e a s u r e d with an Ott P l a n im e te r in V e r n ie r units. Since each subject
would differ in his o v e ra ll level of fo rc e of the push, a m ethod w as
d e v ise d for p u rp o se s of group s ta tis tic a l a n a ly sis. This m ethod i n
cluded two steps: fir s t, all m e a s u r e m e n t units w e re converted to
lo g a rith m s; second, these lo g a rith m s w e re then ipsodized within each
subject, i . e . , c e n te re d at z e ro , by su b tra c tin g f ro m e a ch m e a s u r e
m e n t the average of all the m e a s u r e m e n ts for that subject. The r e
sulting group data for e a ch type of m e a s u r e m e n t was then statistically
evaluated by a two-way an a ly sis of v a ria n c e (ANOVA) for o v e ra ll d if
f e r e n c e s , eight o n e-w ay ANOVAs for m o r e specific d iffe re n c es, and
finally a tw o -ce ll F te st, w h ere indicated, for m e a s u rin g d iffe re n c es
betw een c e lls . The 0 .0 5 level of confidence w as accepted. G raphs
w e re utilized for c o m p a ris o n of individual diffe re n c es with group r e
sults since an an a ly sis of individual d iffe re n c e s within the group w as
c o n s id e re d to be an im p o rta n t a s p e c t of this study.
R e s u lts
A ssum ing that the basic p r e m i s e s underlying the hypothesis
te s te d in this study w e re c o r r e c t, the p r e d ic tion w as th at the fo rc e of
the push as m e a s u r e d by its peak am plitude would b e c o m e in cre asin g ly ,
s tro n g e r the n e a r e r it o c c u rr e d relativ e to the a c t of stuttering, r e a c h
its peak during stu tterin g , d rop im m ed ia te ly a fter stu tterin g and level
off betw een w ord p re s e n ta tio n s . The sam e type of c u rv e w as predicted
for the am ount of e n e rg y expended in each push a s d e te rm in e d by an
in teg rated t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n t, i .e . , a m e a s u r e m e n t of the e n tire
a re a under the push c u rv e .
The h y p o th esis with its b a sic a ssu m p tio n s w a s not supported in
this study by the r e s u l ts of peak am plitude m e a s u r e m e n ts . A two-way
an aly sis of v a ria n c e of the group data indicated that no significant o v e r
all difference e x isted in th e se m e a s u r e m e n ts betw een stuttered, fluent,
or non-spoken w o rd s o r betw een any of the five p o sitio n s at which the
peak am plitude w as m e a s u r e d in rela tio n to the kinds of w o rd s. A o n e
way a n aly sis of v a ria n c e did indicate, how ever, th a t th e re w as a s i g
nificant difference betw een positions on stu ttere d w o rd s , but this d if
fe re n c e w as in a r e v e r s e d ire c tio n to the p red ic te d one. The stro n g e st
push fo rc e o c c u r r e d a s the w ord w a s p rese n ted , r e a c h e d its lowest
point durin g stu tte rin g , regained som e of its s tre n g th im m ediately
following stu tterin g , but dropped down a lm o s t to z e ro base between
|
word p re s e n ta tio n s . A s im ila r but insignificant d ro p also o c c u rre d
fro m P osition 1 to P o sitio n 2, preced in g fluent speaking. |
In c o n tra s t, the group data on integrated t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e - |
J
m e n ts followed, for the m o s t p a rt, the p red icted d ire c tio n and p a rtially j
^ ,
supported the hypothesis, in that a significant in c r e a s e in tim e -fo rc e
m e a s u r e m e n ts o c c u rre d during stu tterin g with a subsequent d ro p i m
m ed ia te ly following the stu tterin g act. H ow ever, the tim e - f o rc e m e a s
u r e m e n ts did not show any in c r e a s e p reced in g stuttering.
A significant i n c r e a s e in tim e - f o rc e m e a s u r e m e n ts also o c
c u rr e d during fluent speaking but to a significantly s m a lle r d e g re e than
during stu tterin g . The p ictu re of reduction in push m e a s u r e m e n ts
following stu tterin g w as not so obvious. A significant difference follow
ing stu tterin g w as found in relatio n to the sam e position for n o n -sp o k e n
w o rd s but not in relation to that position for fluent w o rd s . H ow ever,
the p e rc e n ta g e drop in tim e - f o rc e m e a s u r e m e n ts following stuttering
w as 33% g r e a t e r than the p e rc e n ta g e d ro p following fluent speaking.
A study of individual d iffe re n c e s in rela tio n to group tre n d s
showed som e unique p a tte rn s . F o r peak am plitudes, one subject of the
six, followed the expected d ire c tio n of in c r e a s e in m e a s u r e m e n ts
through the a c t of stu tterin g , with a d ro p following speaking. A nother
subject w a s so co n sisten t that p r a c tic a lly no change could be noted.
Two of the six subjects showed an i n c r e a s e in am plitude of the push
re s p o n s e preced in g stu tterin g but they followed the group p a tte rn with
i
a redu ction in am plitude of the push during stuttering and a subsequent
in c r e a s e after stuttering. In tim e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts preceding
saying the w ord, no significant differ en c es w ere noted am ong individual 1
I
su b jects. A lso, although som e su b jects resp o n d ed with a g r e a te r !
jreduction in tim e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts following stu tterin g , as c o m
p a re d with fluent and n o n-spoken w ords, so m e d e g re e of drop was
noted in all c a s e s . H ow ever, individual d iffe re n c es in th e s e push
m e a s u r e m e n ts during stu tterin g w e re found to range f ro m very little
if any difference in any m e a s u r e m e n t for any condition for one subject
j
to an e x tre m e difference fo r another subject. In the la tte r c a se , a
tre m e n d o u s i n c r e a s e in the tim e - f o rc e m e a s u r e m e n t o c c u rr e d during
stuttering but only a s m a ll in c r e a s e o c c u rr e d during fluent speaking.
F o u r of the six s u b je c ts, how ever, se e m e d to c lu s te r in the sim ila rity
of o v e ra ll tim e - f o r c e r e s p o n s e s .
C onclusions
1. The concept that stu tterin g a c ts as a g e n e ra liz e d internal
energizing fo rc e in the se n se that it will in c r e a s e the am plitude of
ianother r e s p o n s e a s s o c ia te d with it, is negated by the r e s u lts of this
istudy.
2. G roup re s u lts of am plitude m e a s u r e m e n ts indicated that if
an anticipatory re a c tio n p rec e d e d s tu tte rin g and te n sio n reduction f o l
lowed s tu tte rin g in this study, th e ir p re s e n c e could be reflected only ir
the r e v e r s e - f r o m - p r e d ic te d d irectio n of th e s e am plitude m e a s u re m e n ts ,
In te g rate d t im e - f o r c e m e a s u r e m e n ts , h o w e v e r, did tend to support ten-
f
sion reduction im m ed ia te ly following stu tterin g .
3. R e su lts f r o m in teg ratin g the force of the push with the time,
taken fo r its com pletion, indicated th a t significantly m o r e energy is
expended during stu tterin g . T his would also indicate the p r e s e n c e of a
tendency tow ard d iso rg a n iz a tio n of g e n e ra liz e d m o to r behavior d uring
stuttering, but this d o e s not n e c e s s a r i ly m ean that an a c tu a l m o to r
block o c c u rs w here "all behavior c e a s e s " a s proposed in the th eo ry of
stu tterin g as a s ta rtle rea c tio n . A r e f e re n c e to F ig u re 19 shows that
th re e of the six su b jects in this study w e re able to continue f ro m d o w n
w ard m o v e m e n t of the le v e r push to the upw ard m o v em e n t without
in te rru p tio n . The o th e r th re e also showed som e m o v e m e n t o c c u rr in g
although th ere w as a b re a k betw een com pletion of the dow nw ard push
and the upw ard swing. H ow ever, the p r e s e n t study w as not designed to
give exact data on the initiation and te rm in a tio n of stu tterin g blocks
within stu ttere d events, so sm a ll m o to r blocks could o c c u r within
stu ttere d events. T h e re a p p e are d to be a s im ila r b re a k in m o v e m e n t
during fluent speech for th re e of the six subjects also, although to a
s m a lle r extent. T h e re w as one incidental finding, not d ire c tly re la te d
to the p r e s e n t study but a p p ro p ria te to the question of lo s s of d i s c r i m
inative a w a re n e s s a s it r e la te s to stu tterin g a s a s ta rtle r e a c tio n . Two
i
I
subjects, C. M. and I. W. , in one in sta n c e each, had not com pleted a
I
stuttering block before the shutter d escen d ed to cover the w ord. In j
both c a s e s , the a tte m p t to speak w a s te rm in a te d , and v e r b a l r e c o g n i
tion of the closing of the speech period w as given. j
None of the above sta te m e n ts can be accepted unequivocally as
g e n e ra liz a tio n s fo r the following r e a s o n s :
1. The s m a ll group included in th is study r e p r e s e n t s only a
specific type of s tu tte r e r , the one who s tu tte rs while r e a d
ing single w ords.
2. Even w ithin this sm all group som e individual su b jects did
not c o n fo rm to group p a tte rn s in th eir m o to r b eh av io r.
Im plications
R e s u lts f r o m th is study contain s e v e r a l im p licatio n s for fu rth e r
investigation. The following a r e proposed:
1. M ore subjects of the type included in the p r e s e n t study
should be ru n in o r d e r to d e te rm in e w hether o r not the
group tr e n d s would still r e m a in stable in a la r g e r popula
tion.
2. A change in in stru m e n ta tio n should be m ad e to p e rm it m o re
specific study of the initiation and te rm in a tio n of a stutter - '
I
ing block within a stu ttere d event, in rela tio n to concurrent)
m o v e m e n ts o c c u rrin g in the push re s p o n s e .
3. A m o r e thorough study of individual d iffe re n c e s should be j
|
m a d e . F o r exam ple, it is p ossible, a s suggested by
P e r k in s (1970, p. 215), "that stu tterin g behavior is e m -
i
bedded in, o r is p e rh a p s an in te g ra l p a r t of a l a r g e r I
p attern of behavior that is rein fo rc e d , stu tterin g and all. "
T here w as som e indication in the p r e s e n t investigation that
although v a ria tio n in p a tte rn s of responding existed fro m
one subject to the o th er, w ith in -su b je c t r e s p o n s e s tended
to exhibit quite u n ifo rm rela tio n sh ip s betw een push r e s
ponses under stu ttering, fluent, and non-speaking conditions.
4. O ther b e h a v io ra l data in addition to the push r e s p o n s e could
be r e c o rd e d sim u ltan eo u sly on the s t r i p - c h a r t r e c o r d e r .
F o r ex am p le, e le c tr o d e s for m e a s u r in g o rganic re s p o n s e s
could be attached to the subject, fo r c o m p a ris o n of volu n
ta ry and involuntary r e s p o n s e s .
5. Since the design of this study lim ited selection of subjects
to w o rd -le v e l s tu t t e r e r s , a change in desig n to p e rm it
inclusion of o th e r types, such a s the situational s tu tte re r,
could be c o n s id e re d .
EXCURSUS
PILO T STUDY
Introduction
The r e s u lts of any study m ay be g re a tly influenced by choice of
p ro c e d u r e s and in stru m e n ta tio n . The m o re com plex the study, the
g r e a te r the danger b e c o m e s of introducing a rtifa c ts due to r e s e a r c h
design. Since the p r e s e n t study is fa irly com plex, both in t e r m s of
p ro c e d u r e s and in stru m e n ta tio n , it w a s d e e m e d advisable to check out
the p r o c e d u r e s and equipm ent o riginally p ro posed by running som e
subjects through under the o riginal d esig n . S e v e ra l changes w e re
m ad e as a r e s u lt of this pilot study, and a r e included h e re as an in d i
cation of the types of p ro b le m s which a r o s e in connection with this
study.
Word L is ts j
The o rig in a l p ro p o sa l r e q u ire d a single lis t of 300 w ords for j
10 su b je c ts. It w as com posed of 15 stu tte re d w o rd s and 15 fluent w ord^,
or a total of 30 w o rd s for e a ch subject. T his concept of a long single
I
I
w ord list w a s abandoned fo r s e v e ra l r e a s o n s : j
1. By the tim e the 10 su b je c ts w e re found, w ord lis ts p r e
p a re d , ran d o m ize d , and p r o g ra m m e d for p re s e n ta tio n , one
subject had m oved away. This m e a n t that his w o rd s w ere
unusable and would have to be replaced;
2. The f ir s t two subjects run w ere fluent throughout the e x
p e rim e n t, so th eir w o rd s w e re also unusable;
3. With a tim e cycle of 40 seconds for each w ord, the u se of
a 300-w ord lis t involved a m in im u m of 4 h o u r s for running
one subject. T h e re fo re , it w as n e c e s s a ry to b re a k the te s t
run into 3 different s e s s io n s , thus introducing possible u n
known confounding v a r ia b le s fro m outside s o u rc e s ;
4. Since each subject had to re a d w o rd s in the lis t w hich w e re
p re p a r e d for o th e r su b jects, by far the l a r g e s t portion of
the data co v ered fluent sp e ec h r a th e r than stu tterin g .
In the o rig in a l plan, s tu tte re d and fluent w ords w e re selected in
equal ra tio s, and the w o rd s w e re not n e c e s s a rily m u ltisy lla b ic . As
noted e a r l ie r , the f ir s t two su b je c ts in the pilot study did not stu tter at
all during the e x p e rim e n ta l s e s s io n s , and the third subject stu ttered
v e ry little. This w as tru e even of the w o rd s selected a s th eir own
s tu tte re d w o rd s.
In o r d e r to elim inate the c o m p le x itie s involved in a long single
w ord lis t and to in su re a sufficient am ount of stuttering fo r e a ch sub
je c t, the long single w ord lis t w a s abandoned in favor of a s h o rte r list,
individualized for each subject. In addition, for fu rth e r a s s u r a n c e of 1
sufficient d a ta in rela tio n to stuttering, p a rtic u la rly at the single w ord
level while reading, w o rd s selected w e re m u ltisy llab ic, and the ratio
of stu tte re d w o rd s to fluent w ords w a s changed f ro m l / l to 2 /1 .
Equipm ent
In the te s t run, an attem pt w a s m ade to utilize an a p p a ra tu s
which would have a p r e p r o g r a m m e d , a c c u ra te ly -tim e d sequence of
w ord d isp la y s and com m and light signals built in. A m odified Audio
Sonic Slide P r o je c t o r , Model No. 1, w as used for w ord displays.
C om m and lights w e re installed in the face of the p ro je c to r. The slide
e je c to r m e c h a n is m w as m odified to allow the slide e je c t to stop at both
the in and out positions. A standard tape r e c o r d e r w as selected for
use a s a p r o g ra m m e d sequential t i m e r . A code in the f o rm of tone
b u r s t s at th re e different fre q u e n c ie s w as used for encoding and deco •
ing. Reed r e la y s w e re built into the p ro je c to r and p ro g ra m m in g w a s
ac co m p lish e d through the use of th re e tone g e n e ra to r s . One tone gen-
I
t
e r a to r switch activated the slide e je c t, one activated the red (push)
light, another activated the yellow (say) light. The entire te s t sequencd
w as p r o g ra m m e d on an A m pex tape r e c o r d e r . F ig u re 23 is a d ia g r a m j
I
of the s y s te m and its connection w ith the D ynograph. Although this i
s y s te m had the advantage of a p r o g ra m m e d tim e sequence which fre e d I
|
the e x p e rim e n te r for o th er duties in the te s t situation, it w as abandoned|
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SAMI AS ABOVE HO
j i x c C E t e q ^ qram '
CFUi/SPGNSE S IM U L A TER
?>Sv 2 3 .--C o m p le te D ia g ra m of R esponse S tim ulater
b e c a u s e : (1) the tape proved to be unstable e ith e r f ro m bleeding or
b e c au se the tone b u r s t fre q u e n c ie s w e re too s im ila r; (2) the slide
e je c to r m e c h a n is m ja m m e d occasionally, thus throw ing off the tim ing
sequence; (3) any deviation in the tim ing p r o c e s s c re a te d a rtifa c ts such
as in c r e a s e d tension, in both subject and the e x p e rim e n te r , while a d
ju s tm e n ts w e re m ade; (4) once a b re a k o c c u r r e d it w as practically
im p o ssib le to r e s e t the tape. F o r these r e a s o n s , the m e m o r y d ru m
and cue c a r d s w e re substituted for the slide p ro je c to r and p ro g ra m m e d
tape.
A sp rin g -lo a d e d plunger was u se d in the pilot study for the
p u s h - r e s p o n s e . It had a door knob handle attached to a shaft. A
spring w a s attached to the shaft and both w e re placed inside a r e ta in e r
and housing unit, which w as then, in tu rn , attached to a table. It had
a p o te n tio m e te r built into it. T his plunger w a s abandoned for the fo l
lowing r e a s o n s : (1) during the f ir s t s e ssio n , although the subject w as
c a re fu lly in fo rm e d that the purp o se of the e x p e rim e n t w a s to te s t his
re a c tio n tim e in responding to the p u s h -s ig n a l, he continued to a lm o s t |
pounce on the plunger. When asked why he did this he said it se e m e d 1
i
to offer som e "challenge to his m asc u lin e power." (2) fo r subsequent
t
s e s s io n s of the te s t run, the door knob handle w a s se p a ra te d f r o m the j
I
shaft and attached to a s tra in gage. T h is c re a te d d issa tisfac tio n in !
i
su b jects b e c au se when they pushed the knob handle, they could not feel
the r e s u l ts of th e ir push.
100
The sp rin g -lo a d e d le v e r designed for the p r e s e n t study w as
m uch s m a lle r , thus e lim inating the d e s ir e to re a c h the lim it of push.
Yet, it had a spring so that the subject could feel the r e s u l ts of his
push.
A P P E N D I X E S
i
101
A PPEN D IX A
S U B JE C T A G R EE M E N T FO RM
103
SU B JEC T A G R EE M E N T FO RM
I a g re e to s e rv e a s a subject in the r e s e a r c h p ro je c t dealing
with the p ro b le m of stutterin g, to be conducted in the C om m unication
D i s o r d e r s C linic on the San F r a n c is c o State College c a m p u s . My p a r
ticipation in th is p ro je c t is contingent upon the following:
1. My p a rticip atio n will be anonym ous, in that I will not be
identified in this study th ro u g h nam e, pictu re, o r in any
o th e r m a n n e r;
2. I w ill not be subjected to e m b a r r a s s m e n t , pain, or d i s c o m
fo rt;
3. My p a rticip a tio n will involve approxim ately ten (10) hours;
4. In addition to m aking a r e a l contribution to the study of the
p r o b le m of stuttering, m y p a rticip atio n in this p ro ject a s
s u r e s m e of e n ro llm e n t in the special stu tterin g p ro g ra m
to be begun in F e b r u a r y 1969, providing I w ish to p a r tic i
pate at that tim e .
I a g re e to the use of a tape r e c o r d e r during all s e ss io n s ,th e re b y
enabling the r e s e a r c h e r s to study m y stu tterin g p a tte rn . T his tape is
to be utilized only a s a m e a n s of collecting data. N a m e s w ill not be
utilized and the in fo rm a tio n on the ta p e s will be available only to the
e x a m in e r s .
SU B JEC T
WITNESS
Code No. D A T E
J
A PPEN D IX B
CASE HISTORY O U TLINE
104
CASE HISTORY OUTLINE
IDENTIFICATION Date of E xam ination
N am e
A d d re s s Phone
No. & S tre e t City
Age Date of B irth Educational Level
Occupation
F a t h e r 1 s n am e Occupation
R e f e rr e d by
E x a m in e r
TH E DISORDER
D e sc rip tio n of the d is o r d e r
P r i m a r y or secondary
B rie f d e scrip tio n of sy m p to m s with c o m m e n t on se v e rity
Age of o n se t
D e sc rip tio n of changes in se v e rity o r p attern
Steady in c r e a s e in difficulty since on set
Steady d e c r e a s e in difficulty since on set
F luctuations
C a u s e s of "good" and "bad" p erio d s
D E V E L O P M E N T A L HISTORY
B irth H istory
Age of p a re n ts when patient w as born
N o rm a l d eliv ery
B irth in ju rie s
Full t e r m or p r e m a tu r e
Illn e s s e s of m o th e r during pregnancy
C o m p lic a tio n s following b irth
O th e rs
H ealth H is to ry
D is e a s e s and a g e s when e a ch o c c u rr e d
T h e ir se v e rity
O p e ra tio n s and a g e s when each o c c u r r e d
T h e ir se v e rity
Injurie s
G e n e ra l health in ad e q u a c ie s
F r e q u e n t o r co n stan t m in o r illn e s s e s , colds, a lle rg ie s,
fainting, e tc .
T hyroid d is tu rb a n c e s
E x c e s s iv e thyroid m edication
Lack of sufficient sleep
M alnutrition
Im p r o p e r d iet, poor eating habits, etc.
Head in ju r ie s
N e rv o u s instability
Night t e r r o r s , bed wetting, nail biting, ex cessiv e
crying, face twitching
Speech developm ent
D e sc rip tio n and d a te s of events th a t se em e d to in te rfe re with
the n o r m a l d e v e lo p m en t of speech
S ubm ission to s e v e re punishm ent
V e rb a l confession of guilt
O th e r e m o tio n a lly -c h a rg e d events
S e v e re illn e s s or s u rg e ry
Situation re s u ltin g f r o m an em otional conflict j
Shock o r frig h t j
D e s c rip tio n of f i r s t stu tterin g o ccasio n \
|
P r e s e n t speech statu s j
Situations under w hich the stu tterin g is w o rs e than !
othe r s !
Talking to c e rta in p e rs o n s j
Talking on c e rta in su b jects i
107
Talking in c e rta in situations
Speaking when fatigued, ill, irr ita te d , etc.
L a te ra lity of the patient
A m bidextr ou s
L a te ra lity changed
IV. EN VIRONM ENTAL AD JU STM EN T
Hom e E nv iro n m en t
N um ber of siblings
A ges of siblings; place of patient in the age group
Education and econom ic status of the fam ily
At p r e s e n t
F a t h e r 's occupation
M o th e r 's occupation
Other wage e a r n e r s in the fam ily
When patient w as born
F a t h e r 's occupation
M o th e r 's occupation
O ther wage e a r n e r s in the fam ily
F a m ily health
P h y s ic a l h andicaps in the fam ily ,
Illn e s s e s , p a rtic u la rly continued o r ex cessiv e
O ther d i s e a s e s
F a m ily m e n ta l health o r n e rv o u s stability
M ental illn e s s in fam ily j
M ental r e ta rd a tio n
C hronic a lc o h o lism
E pilepsy
Mild n e rv o u s d is o r d e r !
Othe r s j
Nationality of the fam ily I
Bilingual p ro b le m d uring the fo rm ativ e y e a r s j
R eligious affiliations
R esulting conflicts
F a m ily h a rm o n y o r d isc o rd j
C om patability of p a re n ts j
H arm o n y betw een p a re n ts and siblings and siblings with j
each o th e r j
L a te ra lity status of fam ily m e m b e r s j
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i
T e n sio n s b ro u g h t about by faulty child r e a r in g
E valuation of e a rly hesitations in speech
C ir c u m s ta n c e s of o n se t of stuttering
R eactio n of fam ily to the speech diffe re n c e
T e c h n iq u e s u se d by fam ily to help patient o v e rc o m e his
stu tterin g
R e a c tio n s to se co n d a ry sy m p to m s, etc.
Othe r s
P r e s s u r e s in fam ily routine
Too rigid schedule of a ctivities
Too high s ta n d a rd s for the c h ild 's c a p ab ilitie s
(speech, education, m o to r and social skills)
C o n sta n t e x c ite m e n t in home
High, rasping, loud voices w ith rap id , excitable
speech
Continuous radio o r television blasting
A c c e le ra te d tem po in m any a c tiv itie s of fam ily
C onstant h u rry in g of the child beyond his n o r
m a l tem po of operatio n
O th e rs
Sense of se cu rity d istu rb ed
S eparation of p a re n ts during c h ild 's e a rly y e a r s
Long ab sen ce f r o m hom e by a p a re n t
Child c a re d fo r by r e la tiv e s or frie n d s
Lack of affection by p a re n ts
F r e q u e n t or constant p a re n t-c h ild se p a ra tio n
Ineffective discipline by p a re n ts
Too s tr ic t
Too lax
T h r e a ts ; s e v e r e punishm ent
L ack of p a re n ta l a g re e m e n t on d isc ip lin a ry m e a s u r e s
O th e rs
Ego-building d istu rb e d
P la c e in fam ily u su rp e d by new baby for which c a se w as j
not p re p a re d
C om petition with a su p e rio r sibling j
C o n sta n t nagging by p a re n ts and frie n d s in r e g a r d to
c h ild 's speech difference i
P a r e n t a l a tte m p t to m a k e all c h ild 's d e c is io n s for him \
L ack of social and re c r e a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e with other j
ch ild ren
F a ilu r e of p a re n ts and siblings to give child an audience
when he w ants to talk
P r e s e n t ten sio n s
Continuations of any of the above
School a d ju stm e n t (child)
Age when patient e n te re d school
H is p r o g r e s s
G ra d e s skipped
G ra d e s in which he w a s held back
G e n e ral ac h ie v e m e n t
A d ju stm e n t to school a c tiv itie s
O ccupational ad ju stm e n t (adult)
P a tie n t's occupation
H is re a c tio n to this occupation - sa tisfie d o r d iss a tis fie d
H is a d ju stm e n t to the d e m a n d s of the job
H is ad ju stm e n t to his s u p e r io r s and a s s o c ia te s
H is goals and am bitions
A re they w ithin the bounds of his capabilities
Social a d ju stm e n t
P a tie n t's social opportunities
(child) His play habits, f rie n d s , in te r e s ts , skills
(adult) His social a c tiv itie s, frie n d s, in te r e s t s , hobbie
skills
H is a d ju s tm e n t to h is en v iro n m en t
D oes he like to be with people, o r p r e f e r books o r isolation
Did he e v e r steal, lie, run away f r o m hom e, etc.
Is his d isposition happy, affectionate, cold, gloomy, change
able, jea lo u s, obstinate, n eg ativ istic
H is a d ju s tm e n t to his handicaps
R eactions
E m b a r r a s s m e n t o r w ith d ra w a l
A g g r e s s iv e n e s s o r p r o te s t be h a v io r
Indifference
Objective acceptance
V. P R E V IO U S DIAGNOSES
M e d ic a l e x a m in a tio n s (for g e n e r a l h ealth )
E x a m in a tio n s by s p e c ia lis ts (for sp e cific h andicap)
P s y c h o lo g ic a l e x a m in a tio n
N e u ro lo g ic a l e x a m in a tio n
O th e r c lin ic a l e x a m in a tio n s
VI. PR E V IO U S T H E R A P Y TR IED
D e s c rip tio n and e v a lu a tio n
A P P E N D IX C
IN STR U C TIO N S TO S U B JE C T S
111
IN ST R U C T IO N S TO S U B JE C T S
1. The p u rp o se of th is e x p e r im e n t i s to m e a s u r e y o u r r e a c tio n
tim e fo r p u sh in g th is l e v e r , i . e . , to see how f a s t you r e s p o n d to
the r e d lig h t s ig n a l by p u sh in g on th is b a r . T h is r e a c tio n tim e w ill
be m e a s u r e d u n d e r bo th speak in g an d n o n -sp e a k in g c o n d itio n s .
2. W o rd s w ill be p r e s e n te d on th is d r u m . S o m e tim e s , b e fo r e a
w o rd is p r e s e n te d I w ill te ll you th a t you w ill not say the n e x t w o rd .
U n le s s I te ll you th a t you w ill not sa y the n e x t w o rd , you w ill w ait
u n til the y e llo w lig h t f la s h e s on a s a sig n al f o r you to say th e w o rd .
R e m e m b e r to w a it f o r the y e llo w lig h t b e fo re say in g the w o r d .
3. T he r e d lig h t t e l l s you to p u sh th e le v e r , th e y e llo w lig h t te lls
you to say the w o r d . W hen bo th re d and y e llo w lig h ts c o m e on
to g e th e r, you a r e to p ush the le v e r w hile you a r e say in g th e w o r d .
Be s u re to p ush and sp eak to g e th e r . The r e d p u sh lig h t m a y fla s h ,
a t any t i m e . ,
4. We w ill s t a r t by giving you a w a r m - u p p e rio d of re s p o n d in g ju s t
|
to the re d lig h t. I
5. Now we w ill t r y a few p r a c tic e w o r d s to b e s u re you u n d e rs ta n d !
the in s tr u c tio n s . Do n o t w o r r y ab o u t w h e th e r o r n o t you sa y a
w o rd c o r r e c tl y . A lw a y s say i t in r e s p o n s e to the y e llo w lig h t. j
A P P E N D IX D
P E A K A M P L IT U D E S
114
TA BLE 8
P E A K A M P L IT U D E S IN M IL L IM E T E R S BY C A T E G O R IE S
(p o sitio n and type of w ord)
C a te g o ry A T AA CM TM IW RG
1 47 44 49
26 45 14
(P o s . 1 S tu tte re d ) 59
42 52 32 36 21
48 47 56 32 41 28
63 49 52 28 45 25
41 54 48 39
44 32
57 45 54 32 44 50
48 53 58 43 45 47
47 49
57
47
33 53 59
43
49
58
47
44 58
T o tal 443 529 601 232 300 354
S a m p le Size 9
11 11 7 7 10
M e an 49. 2 48. 1 54. 6 33. 1 42. 9
35. 4
2 58 37 42 33 36 17
(P o s . 2 S tu tte re d ) 42 44 50 35 37 44
1
47 54 56 33 34 47
35 51 56 21 32 42
42 48 53 32 35 41
!
44 42 58 26 37 43
37 44 59
34 34 51
44 49
57 30 32
37 42 58 40 35
36 48 58 32 41
39
58
36 58
40 59
T o ta l 537 459
722 316 353
285
S a m p le Size 13 10 13 10 10
7
i M ean 41. 3 45. 9 60. 1 31. 6 35. 3 40. 7
j
|
i
i
1
i
115
TABLE 8 - -Continued
C a te g o ry A T AA CM TM IW RG
3 60 37 37 37 31 21
(P o s. 3 S tu tte re d ) 61 40 39 28 32 17
45 38 35 20 37 18
47 48 24 29
37 24
30 42 36 37 40 28
42 34 57 25 43 34
58 32 58 31 40 37
30 39
53 26
32
40 48
47
58 31
51
35
45
32
49
34
T o ta l 373 350 590 233 260 390
S a m p le Size 8 9 13 8 7 13
M ean 46. 6 38. 9 45. 4 29. 1
37. 1 30. 0
4 46 45 58 30 33 15
(P o s . 4 S tu tte re d ) 30 48 58 35 37 26
35 54 58 34 35 36
51 47 59 23 45 42
42 54 58 35 40 36
35 47 58 48 33 36
41 44 58 39 49
37 35 58 40 51
36 58
44 39
32 57
50
30 58
T o ta l 415 374 638 205 346 380
S a m p le S ize 11 8 11 6 9
10
M ean 37. 7 46. 7 58. 0 34. 2 38. 4 3 8 .0
________
TA BLE 8 - -Continued
( ■
C a te g o ry A T AA CM TM IW RG
5 44 37 50 23 40 21
(P o s . 5 S tu tte re d ) 34 48 53 19
34 24
34 56 51 41 36 41
40 44 58 28 35 37
33 40 58 27 37 46
26 47 58 44 47 41
29
41 58 43 43
36 59 29
44
58 31
59
58
57
T o ta l 240 349
677 285 316 210
S a m p le Size 7 8 12 9 8 6
M ean 34. 2 43. 6 56. 4 31. 7 39. 5
35. 0
6 68 58 42 31 37 35
(P o s . 1 F luent) 54 50 45 25 37 41
50 56 58 33 33 32
48 48 58 29
32 44
53 47 58 34 41 42
17 40 37 48
37
34 38
33 40
32 44
T o ta l 327 259
261 291 339
242
S a m p le Size 7 5 5 9 9
6
M ean
: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — _
46. 7 51. 8 52. 2 32. 3 37. 7 40. 3
- 1 T T
TA BLE 8 - -C ontinued
C a te g o ry AT AA CM TM IW RG
7 53 38 57 22 32 26
(P o s. 2 F lu e n t) 41 36 59 25 33 29
37 42 58 37 37 55
41 25 42 33
38 34 41 37
42 33 34 35
44
, 46
36
T otal 131 237 174 176 219
341
S a m p le S ize 3 6 3 6 6 9
M ean 43. 7 39. 5 58. 0 29. 3 36. 5 37. 9
8 54 38 55 23 41 25
(P o s. 3 F lu e n t) 40 41 50 23 41 30
55 40 58 32 39 41
43 39
22 31
50 32 28 35
46 51 29 43
44 43 26 39
41 30 40
43
T o tal 373 284 163 213 352 96
S a m p le S ize 8 7 3 8 9
3
M ean 4 6 .6 40. 6 54. 3 26. 6 39. 1 3 2 .0
9 39 67 55 30 36 29
(P o s. 4 F lu e n t) 43 47 48 24 33 29
51 46 58 25 36 25
30 43 58 33 38 33
37 60 57 30 42
53
41 28 41 40
36 30 36
48 30
48
31
T otal 200 388 276 309
262 209
S a m p le S iz e 5 8 5 10 7 6
M ean 40. 0 48. 5 55. 2 30. 9 3 7 .4 34. 8
118
TA BLE 8 - -Continued
„ ■ —
C a te g o ry AT AA CM TM IW RG
10 41 43 55 20 36 32
(P o s . 5 F lu e n t) 30 47 59
28 43 26
35 45 58 25 35 39
38 49
57 29
35 39
36 42 33 33 43
30 51 33 29 39
31 47 41 32 45
30 53
41 44
27 36
35
T o ta l 298 377 229 209
284 378
S a m p le Size 9 8 4 7 8 10
M ean 33. 1 47. 1 57. 2 2 9 .9
35. 5 37. 8
11 66 50 39
24 41 23
(P o s. 1 N on -sp o k en ) 57 42 58 31 36 32
43 46 54 38 39 32
40 37 58 35 44 44
40 40 58 37 43 47
36 51 59
32 43 43
27 59
58 39
41 42
50 54 57 37 45 37
T o ta l 359 379
441 273 332 300
S a m p le Size 8 8 8 8 8 8
M ean 44. 9 47. 4 55. 1 34. 1 41. 5 37. 5
12 52 41 41 22 32
17
(P o s . 2 N on-sp o k en ) 39 35 58 29
40 55
34 42 58 34 42 55
34 40 58 38 37 38
46 43 58 35 41 47
29
45 58 27 42 43
38 48 58 42 40 49
49 48 58 40 40 42
T o ta l 321 342 447 267 314 346
S a m p le Size 8 8 8 8 8 8
M ean 40. 1 42. 7 55. 9 33. 4 39. 2 43. 2
U 9
TA B LE 8--C ontinued
C a te g o ry A T AA CM TM IW RG
13 61 35 44 18 40 23
(P o s . 3 N o n -sp o k en ) 40 43 53 30 33 21
36 43 56 33 37 40
31 54 58 37 36 47
35 40 58 21 36 41
24 44 58 38 39 43
26 59 58 23 47 52
26 57 58 45 36 40
T o ta l 279
375 443 245 304 307
S a m p le Size 8 8 8 8 8 8
M ean 34. 9 46. 9 55. 4 30. 6 38. 0 38. 4
14 40 45 58 24 30 28
(P o s . 4 N o n -sp o k en ) 61 46 58 30 31 48
26 48 58 26 39 43
27 46 58 27 32 42
30 41 59
36 34 42
24 40 58 37 43 47
24 44 58 25 40 48
34 43 58 24 44 38
T o tal 266 353 465 229 293 336 i
S am p le Size 8 8 8 8 8 8
M ean 33. 2 44. 1 58. 1 28. 6 3 6 .6 42. 0!
15 49
42 46 19
35 20 ;
(P o s . 5 N o n -sp o k en ) 60 51 43 25 37 24
45 47 57 33 35 30
35 44 58 48 35 36 |
36 49
57 23 36 42 ;
22 34 58 35 34 41 !
33 46 58 37 41 55 |
24 50 59
32 33 47 |
T o tal 304 363 436 252 286 295 !
S am p le Size 8 8 8 8 8 8
M ean 38. 0 45. 4 54. 5 3 1 .5 35. 7 36. 9 1
O v e r a ll M ean 40. 6 45. 2 5 4 .7 31. 1 3 8 .0 37. 2 |
i
1
L
A P P E N D IX E
IPSO D IZ E D LO G A RITH M S O F P E A K A M PL IT U D E S :
M EAN S, VA RIAN CES, AND S A M P L E SIZ E
| ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ! 2 i
i
I
i
T A B L E 9
IPSO D IZ E D LO G A R ITH M S O F P E A K A M P L IT U D E S :
M EA N S, V A RIA N CES, AND S A M P L E S IZ E
1 2
P o s itio n
3 4 5
S tu tte re d
M ean + 0 .0 8 1 - 0 .0 2 8 - 0 .0 5 4 + 0 .0 1 9 + 0 .0 0 4
V a ria n c e 0. 074 0. 062 0. 082 0. 081 0. 081
S a m p le Size 55 63 58 55 50
F lu e n t
M ean +0. 010 - 0 .0 6 5 - 0 .0 0 4 + 0 .0 2 9 - 0 .0 0 3
1
V a ria n c e 0. 070 0. 057 0. 067 0. 070 0. 059
I
S am p le Size 41 33 38 41 46
i
N on-S poken
!
M ean + 0 .0 0 2 - 0 .0 2 3 - 0 .0 2 7 + 0 .0 2 6 + 0 .0 2 2
V a ria n c e 0. 055 0. 064 0. 085 0. 083
!
0. 089
I
S am p le Size
i
48 48 48 48 48 ;
1
A P P E N D IX F
IN T E G R A T E D T IM E -F O R C E S IN V E R N IE R UNITS
123
TA BLE 10
IN T E G R A T E D T IM E -F O R C E S IN V E R N IER UNITS
C a te g o ry AT AA CM TM IW RG
1 59
31 36 9
14 15
(P o s . 1 S tu tte re d ) 132 37 32 10 14 17
35 23 46 17 20 15
81 24 57 8 30 20
45 35 38 12 24 17
63 35 47 11 20 46
28 38 58 14 19
25
35 46 48 31
32 31 40
24
25 64 28
25 45
T o ta l 510 350 511 81 141 238
S a m p le Size 9
11 11 7 7 10
M ean 56. 7 3 1 .8 46. 5 11. 6 20. 1 23. 8
2 49
23 29 10 19
17
(P o s . 2 S tu tte re d ) 34 32 29
10 13 40
! 36 36 36 10 13 28
39
22 49
6 14 28
31 37 53 10 15 28
42 28 73 9
12 30
38 38 54 12 14 47
40 23 52 10 17
43 23 67 15 17
28 45 63 8 24
57
55
28
67
36
64
T o ta l 501 307 691
100 158 218
S a m p le Size 13 10 13 10 10 7
! M ean
i
38. 5 30. 7 53. 2 10. 0 15. 8 31. 1
I______
124
T A B L E 10- -C o n tin u ed
1
1
C a te g o ry AT AA CM TM IW RG
3 120 82 295 25 17 47
(P o s. 3 S tu tte re d ) 187 67 184 48 12 24
■ 96 64 213 28 15 65
107 59
273 31 25 50
44 53 192 77 23 116
62 38 205 60 23 80
127 35 238 70 19
77
40 36 186 63
66
55 378 93
458 59
331
115
222
95
220
95
T o ta l 783 489
3 ,3 9 5 402 134 982
S a m p le S ize 8 9 13 8 7 13
M ean 9 7 .9 5 4 .3 261. 2 50. 3 19. 1
75. 5
! 4 34 21 28 9
14 10 1
i(P o s. 4 S tu tte re d ) 25 26 38 8 19
23 |
'
28 23 49 10 13 30 j
40 25 50 8 17 26 |
46 36 60 10 15 22
32 24 35 16 13 17 !
40 34 64 15 26 1
;
30 22 75 23 30 !
j
42 65 23
25 j
i
20
75
35
!
23 61 i
i T o ta l 360 211 600 61 152 244 j
! S a m p le S ize 11 8 11 6 9
i o !
1 M ean 32 7 26. 4 54. 5 10. 2 16.9
24. 4 i
i
TABLE 10--C ontinued
C a te g o ry A T AA CM TM IW RG
5 42 35 35 8 19
20
(P o s. 5 S tu tte re d ) 34 21 47 7 14 19
36 46 51 12 15 27
25 22 81 10 13 27
23 23 59
12 19
27
25 28 62 10 23 24
20 38 69
16 22
48 74 10 24
59
10
42
62
78
T o ta l 205 261 719
95 149
144
S a m p le S ize 7 8 12 9 8 6
M ean 29. 3
32. 6 59. 9
10. 6 18. 6 24. 0
6 72 32 42 8 15 20
(P o s . 1 F lu e n t) 60 25 38 6 14 30
30 37 37 11 14 22
60 21 66 9 13 27
60 21 37 9 17 26
10
14 17 27
35
12 14
10 21
7 20
T o ta l 327 136 220 86 145 152
S a m p le S ize 7 5 5 9 9
6
M e an 46. 7 27. 2 44. 0 9. 6 16. 1 25. 3
7 60 34 48 8 18 19
(P o s . 2 F lu e n t) 40 22 45 10 10 22
26 37 53 12 17 46
32
8 24 23
;
28
11 25 35
|
31
13 18 30
1
38
I
35
32
T o ta l 126 184 146 62 112 280
S a m p le S ize 3 6 3 6 6 9
- - M e an ----------------
4 2 .0
3 0 .7 4 9 ,7 18. 7 31. 1
126
TA BLE 10--C ontinued
C a te g o ry
AT AA CM TM IW RG
8 50 28 60 27 19 43
(P o s . 3 F lu e n t)
75 32 73 20 21 54
87 41 84 23 20 66
78 46 38 24
84 35 37 16
55 48 35 19
66 48 22 25
50
35 25
24
T otal
545 278 217 237 193 163
S am ple Size 8 7 3 8 9 3
M ean
68. 1 39. 7
72. 3 29. 6 21. 4 54. 3
9
25 39
43 8 17 22
(P o s . 4 F lu e n t) 46 42 56 8 16 21
42 38 68 7 15 14
26 22 61 10 17 20
29
45 76 10 22 35
23 10 26 25
28 13 25
25 10
'
15
12
T o tal
168 262 304 103 138 137
S am p le Size
5 8 5 10 7 6
M ean 33. 6 32. 8 60. 8 10. 3 19. 7 22. 8
10 50 21 60 5 15 27 i
(P o s . 5 F lu e n t) 30 37 76 10 20 27 !
46 23 60 9
12
17 ;
37 35 70 10 10 25 !
42 23
10 13 27
38 37 12 13
31 i
28 32 14 15 25 :
24 37
22 28
30
30 1
.2 3 |
T otal
325 245 266 70 120 260 I
S am p le Size 9
8 4 7 8 10
1
M ean 36. 1 30. 6 66. 5 10. 0 15. 0 26. 0 I
-- -----1
TABLE 10--C ontinued
C a te g o ry A T AA CM TM IW RG
11 110 46 69 7 15 19
(P o s . 1 N o n -sp o k e n ) 84 26 35 8 16 30
55 24 69
12 14 22
50 23 60 10 17 25
37 39
57 15 20 25
26 38 59 10 22 20
27 46 67 14 19
27
42 32 63 14 22 32
T o tal 431 274 479 90 145 200
S a m p le Size 8 8 8 8 8 8
M ean 53. 9 34. 3 59. 9
11. 3 18. 1 25. 0
12 55 25 43 7 14 14
(P o s . 2 N o n -sp o k e n ) 39
28 59 11 18 43
30 39
52 11 23 40
35 23 70 13 15 20
41 25 84 15 22 23
32 33 65 10 28 23
31 33 70 18 22 40
43 38 80 14 19
25
T o tal 306 244 523 99
161 228
S a m p le Size 8 8 8 8 8 8
M ean 38. 3 30. 5 65. 4 12. 4 20. 1 28. 5
13 55 32 71 5 17 26
(P o s . 3 N o n -sp o k e n ) 60 31 35 13 14 15
50 48 75 13
15 36 i
42 48 75 13 15 47
39 23 84 9
11 46 j
23 46 75 15 20 35 1
25 32 68 9
24 33 |
20 35 82 13
24 31
T o ta l 314 295 565 90 140 269 j
S a m p le Size 8 8 8 8 8
8 |
M ean 39. 3 36. 9 70. 6 11. 3 17. 5 33. 6 (
' 1
TA BLE 10--C ontinued
;
i
C a te g o ry AT AA CM TM IW RG
14 146 22 40 8 13 26
( P o s . 4 N on-sp o k en ) 50 25 85 10 14 35 '
27 37 69 10 22 46
!
36 38 62 10 15 33
31 38 79 17 17 28
25 36 90 11 23 32
19 39
95 10 26 32
36 41 80 9
27 20
T o ta l 370 276 600 85 157 252
S a m p le Size 8 8 8 8 8 8
M ean 46. 25 34. 5 75. 0 10. 6 19. 6 3 1 .5
15 37 21 52 5 15 25
(P o s . 5 N on-sp o k en ) 80 38 37 10 14 20
43 23 41 10 16 31
37 38 71 13 10 25
34 37 64 8 13 47
26 29
68 14 15 30
33 39
78 11 26 34
18 48 62 12 17 31 I
T o ta l 308 273 473 83 126 243 !
S a m p le Size 8 8 8 8 8 8 ;
M ean 38. 5 34. 1 59. 1 10. 4 15. 8 3 0 .4 '
O v e r a ll M ean 46. 5 34. 0 80. 9 14. 5 18. 1
1
33. 4j
1
1
A P P E N D IX G
IP S O D IZ E D LO GARITHM S O F IN T E G R A T E D
T IM E -F O R C E M EA SU R E M E N TS: M EA N S,
VA RIA N CES, AND S A M P L E SIZ E
129
TA BLE 11
IP S O D IZ E D LO GARITHM S O F IN T E G R A T E D T IM E -F O R C E
M E A SU R E M E N T S: M EA N S, V A RIA N CES, AND S A M P L E SIZE
1 2
P o s itio n
3 4 5
S tu tte re d
M ean
o
o
o
t
-0. 146 + 0 .8 6 0 -0 .2 0 9 - 0 .1 4 2
V a ria n c e 0. 134 0. 070 0. 318 0. 076 0. 072
S a m p le Size 55 63 58 55 50
F lu e n t
M ean - 0 .1 8 8 -0. 104 +0. 415 -0. 121 -0. 143
V a ria n c e 0. 120 0. 072 0. 116 0. 073 0. 054
S a m p le Size 41 33 38 41 46
N on-S poken
M e an - 0 .0 1 6 - 0 .0 4 3 -0 . 012 - 0 .0 2 9 - 0 .1 0 4
V a ria n c e 0. 109 0. 068 0. 104 0. 079 0. 091 '
S a m p le Size 48 48 48 48 48
t
i
A P P E N D IX H
S T U T T E R E D W ORDS, PO SITIO N 3: D U RA TIO N O F
VOICE AND PUSH R E SPO N SE S , AND
IN T E G R A T E D T IM E -F O R C E O F TH E PUSH
131
132 1
TABLE 12
S T U T T E R E D WORDS, PO SITIO N 3: DURA TIO N O F VOICE
AND PU SH R E SPO N SE S, AND IN T E G R A T E D
T IM E -F O R C E O F TH E PUSH
i
S ubject
In S econds P u sh
In te n sity
A b so lu te V alues V oice P u sh
A. T. 2. 0 2. 0 120
2. 5 3. 0 187
2. 0 1. 8 96
2. 3 2. 6 107
2. 5 1. 6 44
2. 5 1. 6 62
1. 3 3. 2 127
1. 5 2. 3 40
A. A. 2. 0 2. 0 82
2. 5 2. 0 67
3. 0 1. 5 64
3. 5 1. 5 59
j 2. 0 1. 5 53
4. 0 1. 0 38
!
3. 0 1. 0 35
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Creator Crerar, Mildred Onnette (author)

Core Title Changes In The Intensity Of An Overt Response Before, During, And After Instances Of Stuttering

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Comparative Disorders

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag health sciences, speech pathology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Perkins, William H. (committee chair), Haney, Russell (committee member), Longstreth, Langdon E. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-786890

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Crerar, Mildred Onnette

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