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Predicting and assessing academic achievement of disadvantaged high school students utilizing a test of study habits and skills

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Predicting and assessing academic achievement of disadvantaged high school students utilizing a test of study habits and skills

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Content PREDICTING AND ASSESSING ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OP
DISADVANTAGED HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS UTILIZING
A TEST O P STUDY HABITS AND SKILLS
A D is s e r t a t io n
P r e se n te d t o
t h e F a c u lty o f th e S c h o o l o f E d u ca tio n
U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t
o f th e R eq u irem en ts f o r th e D egree
D o cto r o f E d u c a tio n
by
John G uerin G ualderon
F eb ru ary 1973
INFORMATION TO USERS
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University Microfilms
300 N orth Z eeb R oad
Ann A rbor, M ichigan 48106
A Xerox E ducation C om pany
73-7250
GUALDERON, John Guerin, 1919-
PREDICTING AND ASSESSING ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
OF DISADVANTAGED HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
UTILIZING A TEST OF STUDY HABITS AND SKILLS.
University of Southern California, Ed.D. , 1973
Education, psychology
University Microfilms, A X E R O X Com pany, Ann Arbor, Michigan
©Copyright by
JOHN GUERIN GUALDERON
1972
This dissertation, written under the direction
of the Chairman of the candidate’s Guidance
Committee and approved by all members of the
Committee, has been presented to and accepted
by the Faculty of the School of Education in
partial fulfillm ent of the requirements for the
degree of Doctor of Education.
Guidance Committei
PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages may have
in d is tin c t p rin t.
Filmed as received.
U niversity M icrofilm s, A Xerox Education Company
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The p rim ary so u r c e o f d a ta came from s tu d e n ts in
; th e Compton U n if ie d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t . I am g r a t e f u l fo r t h e
'c o o p e r a tio n o f th e p a r t i c i p a t i n g s t u d e n ts and s t a f f members.
I I th a n k a l l o f my g r a d u a te p r o f e s s o r s , e s p e c i a l l y
members o f my D i s s e r t a t io n C om m itteej b u t p a r t i c u la r ly , I
am in d e b te d t o Dr. Newton S. M e t f e s s e l, Com m ittee Chairman,
i
f o r h i s a c t i v e en cou ragem en t, a d v ic e and g u id a n c e th ro u g h
put t h e y e a r s o f my d o c t o r a l s t u d i e s .
i i
CONTENTS
Page
LIST OP TABLES.......................................................................................... v
C hapter
I . THE PROBLEM
The P urpose o f th e Study
Im p ortan ce o f th e Study
Q u e stio n s t o he Answered and
H yp oth eses t o be T e ste d
A ssu m ptions
L im ita tio n s
O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e R em aining C hapters
I I . REVIEW O F THE LITERATURE............................................. 19
P urpose o f th e P r e se n t C hapter
O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e P r e se n t C hapter
L it e r a t u r e P e r ta in in g to E a r ly
A ttem p ts in th e D evelopm ent
o f M easures o f Study H a b its
and S k i l l s
L it e r a t u r e P e r ta in in g t o R ecent
A ttem p ts i n th e D evelopm ent
o f M easures o f Stu d y H a b its
and S k i l l s
Summary, C o n c lu s io n s , and Recom m endations
I I I . DESCRIPTION O P THE TEST OP STUDY HABITS
AND SKILLS AND RELATED
RESEARCH VARIABLES . ............................................. 49
D e s c r ip tio n o f th e T est o f Stu d y H a b its
and S k i l l s
The Lorge T h orndike I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s ,
Form 1, V erb a l B a tte r y
IV. PROCEDURES................................................................................ 57
S u b je c ts
In str u m e n ts Used
L orge-T h orn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s ts
L ata A n a ly s is
C hapter Summary
i i i
' * ■ ,
C h ap ter Page
V. RESULTS, FINDINGS, AND SU M M A R Y . . . . . . . 67
Q u e stio n s t o be Answered
and M ajor H y p o th ese s
to be T e ste d
M ajor F in d in g s
C hapter Summary
V I. SU M M A R Y OF THE INVESTIGATION, D IS
CUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................. 107
REFERENCES.................................................................................................... 115
APPENDIX......................................................................................................... 123
i
I i v
i_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
LIST OF TABLES
T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s — 1967
D isa d v a n ta g e d S tu d en t Norms . . . .....................
T ab le o f S im p le and P a r t i a l C o e f f ic i e n t s
o f C o r r e la tio n f o r 1969 and 1970 Sam ples
(Compton B o y s, Compton G i r l s , C en ten
n i a l B o y s, and C e n te n n ia l G ir ls D e sig n a te d :
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , R e s p e c t iv e ly ) i n w hich
V a r ia b le 1 i s G ra d e-p o in t A verage (GPA);
V a r ia b le 2 i s L orge-T h orn d ik e I n t e l l i
g e n c e T e s ts ( LTV) and V a r ia b le 3 i s
T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s (TSHS) . . .
T ab le o f M u ltip le R s, R23j and B eta W eigh ts
o f t h e M u lt ip le R e g r e s s io n E q u a tio n s f o r
1969 and 1970 S a m p le s' (Compton B o y s,
Compton G i r l s , C e n te n n ia l B o y s, C en ten
n i a l G i r l s , D e sig n a te d : 1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 ,
R e s p e c t iv e l y ) , i n w h ich B i i s W eight
f o r t h e L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s ts
(LTV) and Bp i s W eight f o r t h e T e st ~of~
S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s ( TSHS) ..............................
T ab le o f C o e f f i c i e n t s o f C o r r e la tio n f o r
P r e d ic te d (R O GPA (1 9 7 0 ) and A c tu a l
(R) GPA (1 9 7 0 ) U sin g B eta W eights
from 1969 Sam ples f o r Compton B oys,
Compton G i r l s , C e n te n n ia l B o y s, and
C e n te n n ia l G ir ls D e sig n a te d 1 , 2,
3 , 4 , R e s p e c t iv e ly . . . . . . .........................
M eans, S tan d ard D e v ia tio n s , t j s and F T s
f o r Compton H igh S c h o o l (E x p e r im e n ta l)
and C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l (C o n tr o l)
1969 and 1970 . ....................................................... .
M eans, S tan d ard D e v ia t io n s , F* s and t l s
f o r Compton H igh S c h o o l (E xp erim en F al)
and C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l (C o n tr o l)
Boys and G i r l s , 1969
M eans, S tan d ard D e v ia tio n s , F* s and t_»s f o r
Compton H igh S c h o o l (E x p e r im e n ta l) and
C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l (C o n tr o l) B oys
and G i r l s , 1970 .................................................................
T a b le Page
8 . M eans, Stan dard D e v a tio n s , t_'s and F 's
f o r Combined S c h o o ls by Y ears ..............................
'
90
9 .
M eans, Stan dard D e v ia tio n s , t_'s and P ’ s
f o r A l l Boys and A l l G ir ls f o r 1969 . . . .
91
1 0. M eans, Stan dard D e v ia tio n s , t_'s and P 's
f o r A ll Boys and A ll G ir ls f o r 1970 . . . .
1 1. M eans, Stan d ard D e v ia t io n s , t_'s and P ’s
fo r A ll Boys by Y ears .................................................. 93
1 2 . M eans, Stan dard D e v ia tio n s , t / s and P ’ s
f o r A l l G ir ls by Y ears .. ... .................... 94
13.
M eans, Stan d ard D e v ia t io n s , t_'s and F 's
f o r Compton H igh S c h o o l by Y ears .................... 95
14. M eans, Stan d ard D e v ia tio n s , t_'s and P ’ s
f o r C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l by Y ears . . . . 96
15.
M eans, Stan d ard D e v ia tio n s , t_’s amd F 's
f o r Compton H igh S c h o o l Boys by Y ears . . . 97
1 6 . M eans, Stan d ard D e v ia tio n s , t_'s and P 's
f o r Compton H igh S c h o o l G ir ls by Y ears . .
98
17.
M eans, S tan d ard D e v ia tio n s , t_'s and F ' s
f o r C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l Boys by Y e a r s. . 99
1 8 . M eans, S tan d ard D e v ia t io n s , t_’ s and P 's
f o r C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l G ir ls by Y ears . 100
v i
CHAPTER I |
; i
THE PROBLEM j
; j
The p r e d ic t io n o f academ ic a ch iev em en t h as lo n g j
|
t e e n t h e prim ary c o n c e r n o f many i n v e s t i g a t o r s . In su ch I
I in s t a n c e s academ ic ach ievem en t* su ch as g ra d es* h as b een j
: ■ i
■ d e s ig n a te d a s th e d ep en d en t ( p r e d ic te d ) v a r ia b le w ith th e |
in d ep en d e n t (p r e d ic t o r ) v a r ia b le s b e in g d e s ig n a te d a s |
e i t h e r o f th e c o g n it iv e v a r ie ty * e .g .* v e r b a l and n u m er ica l
: a p t it u d e sco res* p r io r a ch iev em en t sc o re s* o r o f t h e non -
• c o g n i t iv e v a r ie ty * e .g .* p e r s o n a lit y t r a i t s * academ ic
■ in t e r e s t s * stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s * e t c . Khan (19^9)^ lo o k -
: in g a t o n ly th e c o g n i t i v e v a r ia b le s * ta k e n e i t h e r s i n g l y
; or i n m u ltip le s fo rm in g a com p reh en sive s e r i e s w ith reg a rd
: t o t h e ach ievem en t c r i t e r i a * a f t e r an e x t e n s iv e r e v ie w o f
th e p e r t in e n t l it e r a t u r e * foun d t h a t " o n e -h a lf to t h r e e -
; q u a r te r s o f th e v a r i a b i l i t y i n academ ic a ch iev em en t rem ain s
i u n e x p la in e d [p, -2 1 6 ] ." As a r e s u lt * r e le v a n t r e s e a r c h h as
i c o n c e n tr a te d on e x p lo r in g th e n o n c o g n ltiv e f a c t o r s a s s o c l -
I a te d w ith academ ic a ch iev em en t i n an a ttem p t t o d e c r e a s e
| th e e r r o r v a r ia n c e and t o in c r e a s e th e tr u e v a r ia n c e . In
j t h i s regard* G u ilfo r d ( 1 9 6 5 ) and o th e r s h a v in g s t a t i s t i c a l
| e x p e r t i s e have e x p la in e d th a t* i n e s t a b l i s h i n g th e amount
i >
I o f a c c o u n ta b le v a r ia n c e * th e g o a l rem ains f o r th e in d e -
p en d en t v a r ia b le s t o p o s s e s s v a r ia n c e in common w ith th e j
d ep en d en t v a r ia b le w h ile h a v in g z e r o -o r d e r v a r ia n c e among I
th e m s e lv e s a s th e y a cco u n t f o r s e p a r a te com ponents o f th e j
c r i t e r i o n v a r ia n c e . j
P ro m isin g r e s u l t s w ere o b ta in e d by c e r t a i n i n v e s
t i g a t o r s , e . g . , C a rter (1 9 ^ 8 , 1 9 5 0 ), Brown and H oltzm an j
(1 9 5 5 ), M ic h a e l and R eed er ( 1 9 5 2 ) , when stu d y h a b it s and
a t t i t u d e s w ere th e n o n c o g n it iv e com ponents o f th e p r e d ic
t i v e r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n ; and, u s in g th e same n o n c o g n itiv e
com p on en ts, c o n f l i c t i n g and d is a p p o in tin g r e s u l t s w ere ob
t a in e d by o th e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s , e . g . , Ahman and C lock
t
( l 957)* Ahman, Sm ith and G lock ( 1 9 5 8 ) . Some i n v e s t i g a t o r s ,
e . g . , M ic h a e l e t a l . (1 9 5 7 )* h ave changed t h e i r p r e v io u s ly j
e x p r e s s e d p o in t o f v iew r e g a r d in g t h e p r e d i c t i v e e f f e c t i v e - |
t
n e s s o f t e s t s o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s : th u s , s i g n i f i
c a n t ly v a l i d (M ich a el & R eed er, 1952) was changed t o "not
s i g n i f i c a n t l y v a l i d [M ic h a e l e t a l . , 1957* P* 1 8 2 ] ."
N o tw ith sta n d in g t h e amount o f p r e d ic a te d s u c c e s s
a t t r i b u t a b l e t o th e i n c l u s i o n o f m easu res o f stu d y h a b it s
and a t t i t u d e s i n t h e p r e d i c t i v e r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n o f
academ ic ach iev em en t i n t e n s i v e e f f o r t c o n tin u e s t o be p u t
in t o th e r e fin e m e n t o f su ch m ea su res, e . g . , C a r te r ( 1 9 6 9 )*
H oltzm an and Brown ( 1 9 6 8 ) , Zimmerman e t a l . (1 9 7 0 ),
M ich a el e t a l . (1 9 7 1 ).
F o llo w in g th e s p i r i t o f su ch r e s e a r c h e r s who seem
t o u n d e r sta n d th e l o g i c I m p li c it i n th e r e l a t i o n o f stu d y
3 |
h a b it s and. s k i l l s t o academ ic ach ievem en t t h e q u e s tio n o f i
con cern f o r t h i s stu d y c e n te r e d on e x te n d in g r e se a r c h em-
!
p lo y in g m easu res o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s in t o a r e l a - j
t i v e l y u n e x p lo r e d area., nam ely, i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e v a l i d i t y ;
o f a t e s t o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s i n p r e d ic t in g th e j
!
i
academ ic ach iev em en t o f d isa d v a n ta g e d y o u th . j
)
: ' 1
The P u rp ose o f th e Study
The p rim ary p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y was t o i n v e s t i
g a t e th e v a l i d i t y o f t h e T est o f Stu d y H a b its and S k i l l s
'( M e t f e s s e l, 1 9 6 6 ) a s a p r e d ic t o r o f academ ic a ch iev em en t
o f d isa d v a n ta g e d h ig h s c h o o l y o u th b o th s e p a r a t e ly and i n
c o n ju n c tio n w ith a s ta n d a r d iz e d m easure o f s c h o l a s t i c
a p t it u d e .
The se co n d a r y p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y was t o e v a lu a te
th e f e a s i b i l i t y o f im p ro v in g acad em ic a ch iev em en t by t e a c h
i n g p r o p e r s tu d y te c h n iq u e s and s k i l l s . A cco rd in g t o
iHaslam and Brown ( 1 9 6 8 ) , "The a ssu m p tio n t h a t im proved
stu d y h a b it s and im proved academ ic e f f e c t i v e n e s s w i l l r e -
j s u lt from s y s te m a t ic s t u d y - s k i l l s i n s t r u c t i o n i s i n t u i
t i v e l y a p p e a lin g [p . 2 2 3 ]."
I Im p ortan ce o f t h e Study
t
E d u c a tio n a l p s y c h o l o g is t s h ave d e v o te d c o n s id e r
a b le tim e and e f f o r t t o th e problem o f p r e d ic t in g a c a -
idemic a c h ie v e m e n t. Much o f t h i s e f f o r t h a s gon e in t o c o n -
i
js ld e r in g th e v a l i d i t y o f th e p r e d ic t o r v a r i a b l e s . More
41
i
i
:p r e c i s e l y , th e c o n c e r n h a s b e e n a m atter o f in c r e a s in g th e !
tr u e v a r ia n c e p a r t o f th e t o t a l v a r ia n c e . S in c e , a p p a r - j
e n t l y , th e c o g n i t iv e p r e d ic t o r v a r ia b le s , e . g . , a p t it u d e ,
i
h ave rea ch ed t h e i r z e n it h a s t o th e amount o f c o n t r ib u t io n j
th e y can make i n t h e r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n w it h reg a rd t o !
!
;p r e d ic t in g s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t, th e l o g i c a l r e c o u r s e j
irem a in s to g iv e m ore a t t e n t i o n to th e n o n c o g n itiv e p r e d ic - j
; I
t o r v a r ia b le s (Khan, 1 9 6 9 ) . I t h a s been h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t j
' one a r e a o f v a r ia b le s w h ich h ave e s t a b lis h e d th e m s e lv e s a s I
: i
i e f f e c t i v e i n p r e d ic t in g academ ic a ch iev em en t and w orth y o f
; f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s th e a r e a o f stu d y h a b i t s and s k i l l s
(C a r te r , 1 9 48, 1 9 5 0 , 1 9 6 9 ; M ich a el & R eed er, 1952; Khan,
1 9 6 9 )* That su ch r e s e a r c h i s n ot o n ly im p o r ta n t but n eed ed j
!
! i s con firm ed by t h e trem en dou s amount o f e n e r g y d ir e c t e d j
in t o th e r e fin e m e n t o f in s tr u m e n ts fo r p r e d ic t in g academ ic
;ach ievem en t by a s s e s s i n g p e r t in e n t stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s ,
;a t t i t u d e s and m o tiv a tio n (H oltzm an & Brown, 1 9 6 8 ; C a r te r ,
! 1 9 6 9 ; Zimmerman e t a l . , 1 9 7 0 ; M ich ael e t a l . , 1971)* Ac
c o r d in g ly , t h i s r e s e a r c h i s im p ortan t s i n c e i t i s d ir e c t e d
tow ard (a ) g e n e r a l ly f u r t h e r in g th e r e s e a r c h o f th e v a l i d -
:i t y o f p r e d ic t in g academ ic ach ievem en t th r o u g h th e u s e o f
1
|m easu res o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s , and (b ) s p e c i f i c a l l y
i e x te n d in g th e r e s e a r c h i n t o an alm ost f o r g o t t e n a r e a ,
I nam ely, th e a r e a o f d isa d v a n ta g e d h ig h s c h o o l y o u th .
• 5 !
Q u e stio n s to be Answ ered and
H y p o th eses t o be T e ste d j
S in c e t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w ith r e g a r d t o i t s prim ary j
p u rp o se (p . 3 ) r e l i e s h e a v i ly on sim p le and p a r t i a l c o e f - I
; i
!f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n , m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a - j
|t i o n , and b e ta w e ig h ts o f th e p r e d ic t o r v a r ia b le s , t h i s j
:w r it e r foun d i t a d v a n ta g eo u s t o r a i s e q u e s tio n s t o be a n - j
jsw ered f p r d is p o s in g o f the- i s s u e s p r e s e n te d r a th e r th a n
t o p r o p o se h y p o th e s e s t o be t e s t e d . j
! I
: i
H owever, f o r t h e se c o n d a r y p u rp ose o f t h i s i n v e s
t i g a t i o n (p . 3 ) , th e w r it e r fou n d i t e x p e d ie n t t o p rop ose
!h y p o th e s e s t o be t e s t e d . M oreover, in t e s t i n g th e h y p o th e -
!
| s e s , w h en ever d i r e c t i o n a l i t y a s an e f f e c t o f t h e e x p e r i-
i 1
1 m en ta l c o n d it io n was assum ed, e . g . , com paring th e e x p e r i-
j
|m e n ta l sam ple v e r s u s th e c o n t r o l sam ple w ith r e g a r d t o
!s c o r e s on th e T e st o f Stu dy H a b its and S k i l l s , o n e - t a i l e d
I ' T - - - - - .n - . r-r- , .r - - ,
|
| t e s t s ( t _ t e s t s ) w ith a lp h a s e t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i
c a n c e t o m it ig a t e a g a in s t Type I e r r o r , and F t e s t s f o r
c o r r e sp o n d in g a n a ly s e s o f v a r ia n c e w ere u t i l i z e d . When,
h ow ever, d i r e c t i o n a l i t y o f t h e e f f e c t o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l
c o n d it io n was n o t assum ed, e . g . , com paring e x p e r im e n ta l
|
-jsa m p le s v e r s u s c o n t r o l sam p les w ith r e g a r d t o a p t itu d e
|s c o r e s , th e t w o - t a i l e d t e s t s (t_ t e s t s ) w ith a lp h a s e t a t
I
| .0 1 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e t o m it ig a t e a g a in s t Type I e r r o r
i
| and F t e s t s f o r th e c o r r e sp o n d in g a n a ly s e s o f v a r ia n c e
|
| w ere u t i l i z e d .
Q u e stio n s t o b e Answered j
: i
As t o th e p r e d ic t io n o f th e academ ic ach iev em en t o f !
i
d isa d v a n ta g e d t w e lfth -g r a d e s t u d e n t s : j
f
1 . G iven sim p le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e la t io n w ould j
; ■ i
t h e d a ta c o l l e c t e d su p p ort th e c o n te n tio n th a t th e T e st o f j
i
Stu dy H a b its and S k i l l s p r e d ic t s academ ic ach iev em en t o f |
: I
id isa d v a n ta g e d tw e lfth -g r a d e s t u d e n t s as w e l l a s t h e a p t i - !
; I
t u d e t e s t u se d in t h i s study?
2 . G iven p a r t i a l c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n ,
iwould th e d a ta c o l l e c t e d su p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n th a t th e
■ T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s p r e d ic t s academ ic a c h ie v e
m ent o f.d is a d v a n ta g e d tw e lf t h - g r a d e s tu d e n ts a s w e l l a s th e
a p t itu d e t e s t u sed in t h i s stu d y ?
3 . G iven th e m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n ,
l
w ould t h e d a ta c o l l e c t e d su p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n th a t th e
;T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s , when in c lu d e d as a p r e -
j d ic to r v a r ia b le in th e m u lt ip le r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n , su b -
1
j s t a n t i a l l y ( e . g . , n u m e r ic a lly ) in c r e a s e s th e em erging m ul-
j t i p l e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e la t io n above c o r r e sp o n d in g
n u m er ica l v a lu e s o f sim p le c o e f f i c i e n t s o r p a r t i a l c o e f
f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e la t io n ?
i
| 4 . G iven th e b e ta w e ig h ts o f th e 1969 sam p les in
i
]o r d e r t o p r e d ic t th e g r a d e -p o in t a v e r a g e s o f c o r r e sp o n d in g
| 1 9 7 0 sa m p le s, e . g . , b o ys ( 1 9 6 9 ) o f Compton H igh S c h o o l
1
I v e r s u s b o y s (1 9 7 0 ) o f Compton H igh S c h o o l, w ould t h e d a ta
c o l l e c t e d , e . g . , m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f d e te r m in a tio n , !
su p p o rt th e c o n t e n tio n t h a t th e T e st o f Stu d y H a b its and
S k i l l s , when in c lu d e d i n th e m u lt ip le p r e d ic t iv e r e g r e s s io n j
e q u a tio n , s u b s t a n t i a l l y a id s a c cu r a c y o f p r e d i c t i o n o f aca-j
dem ic a ch iev em en t o f d isa d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e stu d e n ts ? j
j
The answ er t o t h e s e fo u r q u e s tio n s ( i t w as assum ed) j
w ould e s t a b l i s h (a ) w h eth er t h e T e s t o f Stu d y H a b its and
S k i l l s i s a v a l i d p r e d ic t o r o f academ ic a c h iev e m en t o f d i s
a d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s , and (b) w h eth er i t makes
a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r ib u t io n in th e m u ltip le p r e d i c t i v e r e
g r e s s io n e q u a tio n .
I H y p o th eses to b e T e ste d
!Ho1 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
t h e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l (group r e c e iv in g fo r m a l
! i n s t r u c t i o n in a p p r o p r ia te s tu d y h a b it s and
s k i l l s ) and th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l (group r e c e i v in g
no fo rm a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n a p p r o p r ia te stu d y
I h a b it s and s k i l l s ) in term s o f g r a d e -p o in t
| a v e r a g e s ((3-PAs) i n 1969 or 19 7 0 . (The e x p e r i -
i
! m en ta l s c h o o l was Compton H igh S c h o o l and
t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l was C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l.)
T here w i l l he no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l and t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l in
term s o f s c o r e s on th e a p t it u d e t e s t , e . g . , th e
L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s , Form 1,
V e rb a l B a t te r y ( LTV), i n 1969 o r 1 9 7 0 .
T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l and t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l
i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e T e st o f Stu d y H a b its
and S k i l l s ( TSHS) i n 1969 or 1 9 70.
T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l boys and c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys
i n term s o f GPAs i n 1969 or 1 9 70.
T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys and c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys
i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e LTV in 1969 or 1 9 7 0 .
T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l boys and c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys
i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS i n 1969 or 1 9 7 0 .
T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l boys and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
i n term s o f GPAs i n 1969 o r 1 9 70.
Hog T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l boys and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV i n 1969 o r 1 9 70.
HOg T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS i n 1969 or 1 9 7 0 .
Ho^0 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys
i n term s o f GPAs i n 1969 o r 1970.
Ho^1 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys
i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV i n 1969 or 1 9 7 0 .
Ho^2 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys
i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS i n 1969 or 1 9 7 0 .
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l
g i r l s i n term s o f GPAs i n 1969 o r 1 9 70.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l
g i r l s i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV i n 1969 o r
1970.
H o ^ There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l
g i r l s i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS i n 19^9 or
1 970.
Ho^g There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l 19&9 anci th e e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l 1970 in term s o f GPAs.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l 1969 and th e e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l 1970 in term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
H o-j^g There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een
th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l 19&9 an<^ th e e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l 1970 in term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l 19&9 an(^ th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l
1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
Ho20 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l 1969 anc* th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l
1970 i n terras o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
Ho2^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een
th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l 1969 and th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l
1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
Hogg T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l b oys 1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
Hog^ T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l boys 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
HOgj| T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l boys 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
HOg^ T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
Hogg T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
HOg^, T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
HOgQ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 l n term s o f GPAs.
Ho2£ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 in term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
Ho^q T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b o y s 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys 1970 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 in term s o f GPAs.
HO 22 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b o y s 1970 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 in term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys 1970 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 in term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys 1969 anc* c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys
1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys
1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
Ho^g There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
c o n tr o l s c h o o l boys 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys
1970 i n terras o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
Ho^y " There w i l l be no' s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een
c o n tr o l s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
Ho^g There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
H o ^ There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1970 i n terras o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
Ho^0 There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1969 i n term s o f GPAs.
H °4i There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een
c o n tr o l s c h o o l b oys 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1969 i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e LTV.
H o^2 There w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
c o n tr o l s c h o o l b oys 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1969 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys 1970 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1970 i n terras o f GPAs,
-B °4 4 There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys 1970 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
H o ^ There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l b o y s 1970 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
Ho^g There w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
a l l s u b j e c t s 19^9 ^ e.g .* b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l
and c o n t r o l s c h o o l com bined, and a l l s u b j e c t s
.1970, e . g . , b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l and c o n t r o l
s c h o o l com b ined, i n term s o f GPAs.
H o ^ There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
" a ll s u b j e c t s 19& 9* e.g .* b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l
and c o n t r o l s c h o o l com bined, and a l l s u b j e c t s
1970, e . g . , b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l and c o n t r o l
s c h o o l com b in ed , i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
Ho^q There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
a l l s u b j e c t s 1 9 6 9 * e . g . , b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l
and c o n t r o l s c h o o l com bined, and a l l s u b j e c t s
1 9 7 0 ) e . g . , b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l and c o n t r o l
s c h o o l com bined, i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
b oys o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1969 i n term s o f GPAs.
Ho^q T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
b o y s o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1969 i n term s o f s c o r e s
on th e LTV.
Ho^^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
b oys o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1969 i n term s o f s c o r e s
on th e TSHS.
Hocri T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
b o y s o f 1970 and g i r l s o f 1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
HOr-o T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
Po
b oys o f 1970 and g i r l s o f 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s
on th e LTV.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
b o y s o f 1970 and g i r l s o f 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s
on th e TSHS.
HOrr T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
PP
b o y s o f 1969 and b oys o f 1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
16
Ho^g T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
i
b oys o f 1969 and b oys o f 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s i
i
on th e LTV. J
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
b oys o f 1969 and b oys o f 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s
on th e TSHS.
Ho^g T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
g i r l s o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1970 i n term s o f GPAs. j
j
H o,^ T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
g i r l s o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1970 i n term s o f
s c o r e s on t h e LTV.
i
HogQ T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een j
g i r l s o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1970 i n term s o f j
s c o r e s on t h e TSHS.
i
i
A ssu m p tion s
For th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y i t was assum ed t h a t :
1 . The d ep en d en t v a r ia b le em ployed i n t h i s s tu d y ,
e . g . , g r a d e -p o in t a v e r a g e ( h e r e a f t e r som etim es d e s ig n a te d
sim p ly GPA), was a v a l i d in d e x o f acad em ic a c h ie v e m e n t.
2. The L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s , Form I ,
V e r b a l B a tte r y ( h e r e a f t e r som etim es d e s ig n a te d sim p ly LTV)
was a v a l i d m easure o f s c h o l a s t i c a p t it u d e .
3 . The T e s t o f Study H a b its and S k i l l s ( h e r e a f t e r j
j
som etim es d e s ig n a te d sim p ly TSHS) was a v a l i d m easure o f j
stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s . I
4 . The s u b j e c t s em ployed i n th e stu d y resp o n d ed to j
;the v a r io u s a d m in is te r e d t e s t s in an a c c e p ta b le and r e l i - |
i
a b le mannerj and w here any e r r o r due t o e x tr a n e o u s t e s t - |
; ■ i
i f a c t o r s , e . g . , r e s p o n s e - s e t , a r o se t o c o n ta m in a te th e
i r e s u l t s , su ch v a r ia b le s d id n o t add s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o th e
! e r r o r v a r ia n c e a s s o c i a t e d w ith academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t.
; |
L im ita tio n s j
i
For th e p u r p o se s o f t h i s s tu d y t h e f o llo w in g l i m i -
' I t a t i o n s a re a p p lic a b le i n i n t e r p r e t in g t h e o b ta in e d r e - j
: i
j
s u i t s : I
; i
1 . The T e s t o f Stu dy H a b its and S k i l l s (M etfessel,j
'1966) was c o n s id e r e d an e x p e r im e n ta l in s tr u m e n t.
2. The stu d y w as lim it e d t o s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d a t
| tw o h ig h s c h o o ls (C e n te n n ia l H igh and Compton H igh) lo c a t e d
I i n Compton, C a lif o r n ia , in t h e t w e lf t h g ra d e d u rin g th e
; 1969 acad em ic y e a r and i n th e t w e lf t h g r a d e d u rin g th e
| 1970 academ ic y e a r .
| . O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e R em aining C h ap ters
1
| C hapter I I r e v ie w s t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d t o th e
I
I d evelop m en t o f m easu res o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s a s v a l i d
I
! p r e d ic t o r s o f academ ic ach ievem en t u t i l i z i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l
i
1 ap p ro a ch .
18
C h ap ter I I I d e s c r ib e s th e v a r ia b le s u sed i n t h i s
s tu d y , w ith s p e c i a l em p h asis g iv e n t o th e T e st o f S tu d y
H a b its and S k i l l s ( M e t f e s s e l, 1 9 6 6 ) .
C h ap ter IV d e s c r ib e s th e p r o c e d u r e s fo llo w e d i n
t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e sam p les i n v e s t i g a t e d , in s tr u m e n ts
u s e d , and th e m ethod em ployed i n a n a ly z in g th e d a ta .
C h ap ter V p r e s e n t s t h e f in d in g s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a
t i o n b o th i n term s o f t h e q u e s tio n s p o sed and th e h y p o th
e s e s t e s t e d .
C h apter VI sum m arizes th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n and i t s
f i n d in g s , draws c o n c lu s io n s , and makes recom m end ation s f o r
f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .
I
CHAPTER I I |
i
j
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Purpose o f t h e P r e se n t C hapter
The p u rp ose o f C h apter I I was tw o fo ld : (a ) t o e x - j
am ine t h e l i t e r a t u r e p e r t a in in g t o th e d evelop m en t o f
m easu res o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s a s v a l i d p r e d ic t o r s o f
: i
I
academ ic a c h iev e m en t, and (b ) t o e s t a b l i s h th e need f o r thej
j
p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , e . g . , to e s t a b l i s h th e v a l i d i t y o f j
th e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s ( M e t f e s s e l, 1 9 6 6 ) as a
; v a l i d p r e d ic t o r o f th e academ ic a ch iev em en t o f d is a d v a n
ta g e d h ig h s c h o o l y o u th . I
j
i
O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e P r e se n t C hapter
C h apter I I i s d iv id e d in t o two m ajor s e c t i o n s each
r e v ie w in g th e l i t e r a t u r e w ith reg a rd t o th e d evelop m en t o f
stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s a s v a l i d p r e d ic t o r s o f academ ic
a ch iev em en t u t i l i z i n g th e h i s t o r i c a l ap p roach . The f i r s t
: p a r t exam in es t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f d evelop m en t from e a r ly
| a tte m p ts a t m easuring stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s d u rin g th e
1 t h i r t i e s and f o r t i e s w h ile th e secon d p a r t com p lim en ts th e
t
t
; f i r s t p a r t by e x te n d in g th e e x a m in a tio n o f th e l i t e r a t u r e
i
I from t h e f o r t i e s , or n e a r m id -c e n tu r y , t o th e p r e s e n t
I s e v e n t i e s . In th e f i r s t p a r t th e l i t e r a t u r e r e v ie w e d
1
! 19
2 °
d e m o n str a te s how in s tr u m e n ts m easu rin g s tu d y h a b its and
s k i l l s w ere c o n s tr u c te d w ith em p h asis b e in g g iv e n t o e s
t a b l i s h i n g t h e d is c r im in a t iv e power o f ite m s s e l e c t e d in
d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b etw een s u c c e s s f u l and f a l l i n g s tu d e n ts .
H erein an ex a m in a tio n o f th e l i t e r a t u r e shows more a t t e n
t i o n b e in g p a id t o ite m s m easu rin g stu d y p r o c ed u r es and
m ech an ics o f stu d y th a n t o ite m s co n cern ed w ith m easuring
th e m o t iv a tio n a l and a t t i t u d i n a l f a c t o r s a s s o c ia t e d w ith
stu d y b e h a v io r . H owever, th e it e m - a n a ly s is p ro ced u res em-
;p lo y e d and th e v a l i d i t y s t u d ie s made w ere in s tr u m e n ta l in
;la y in g t h e fo u n d a tio n m aking p o s s i b l e t h e g r e a t ad van ce
m ents o f t h e f i f t i e s and s i x t i e s . The se co n d s e c t io n ,
'a c c o r d in g ly , show s g r e a t e r em p h asis was g iv e n to m o tiv a
t i o n a l and a t t i t u d i n a l f a c t o r s r e l a t e d to s tu d y h a b it s and
:s k i l l s i n th e s e l e c t i o n o f ite m s d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g betw een
'good and p o o r s tu d e n ts a lo n g w ith c o n cern f o r i n v e s t i g a t in g
|t h e s i t u a t i o n a l and p e r s o n a l i t y c o r r e l a t e s o f academ ic
|a c h ie v e m e n t. In t h i s s e c t i o n , a l s o , v a l i d i t y s t u d ie s em-
i
jp h a s iz in g t h e im p o r ta n c e o f f a c t o r a n a l y s is o f item s to
ju n cover t h e u n d e r ly in g d im e n s io n a lit y o f in s tr u m e n ts o f
j
|s tu d y b e h a v io r p u r p o r tin g t o p r e d ic t acad em ic ach ievem en t
make t h e i r ap p earan ce and s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r ib u t io n .
L it e r a t u r e P e r t a in in g to E a r ly A ttem p ts
1 i n th e D evelopm ent o f M easures o f
| : S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s '
I A lth o u g h most o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e v ie w e d showed
|t h e g r e a t e s t c o n c e n tr a tio n o f i n v e s t i g a t i v e e f f o r t r e g a r d -
2 1 j
;ing m easu res o f s tu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s as p r e d ic t o r s o f j
acad em ic a c h iev e m en t t o be fo c u s e d a t th e c o l l e g e l e v e l , j
e . g . , W einland ( 1 9 3 0 ) , Wrenn (1933).> R eeder (1935).» Locke j
j
; ( l 9 4 o ) , Stump ( 1 9 4 0 ) , Brown ( l 9 4 l ) , Gordon ( l 9 4 l ) , Wrenn |
land Humber ( l 9 4 l ) , T ieb o u t (1943).> and B rooks and H eston
(1945)^ two s i g n i f i c a n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w ere made a t th e
I lo w er s c h o o l l e v e l s , e . g . , e le m e n ta r y and h ig h s c h o o l l e v -
l e l s , C u ff (1 9 3 7 )* and h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l , D o u g la ss and
:Bauer (1 9 3 8 ).
; C om p ilin g 70 ite m s "from v a r io u s d i s c u s s i o n s on how
!to s tu d y [p . 5 2 1 ]" in t o a q u e s t io n n a ir e , W einland (1 9 3 0 )
I
!q u e r ie d 20 u p p e r - d iv is io n honor s tu d e n ts and 5 f a i l i n g
i
js tu d e n ts i n one o f th e e a r l i e s t a tte m p ts made t o a s s e s s
|
|th e "m ech anics o f s tu d y a c t u a l l y i n u se by t h e g r e a t e s t
Inumber o f s u c c e s s f u l s tu d e n ts [p . 5 2 3 ]." The ite m s s e -
j le c t e d c o v e r e d su ch a r e a s a s how, when and w here stu d y was
jco n d u cted , m ethods o f n o t e - t a k in g , u s e o f n o t e s , a t t i t u d e s
i n c l a s s and p e r s o n a l h e a lt h h a b i t s . A fte r e s t a b l i s h in g
th e " ord er o f m erit" o f th e ite m s answ ered , W einland v e ry
a s t u t e l y , c o n s id e r in g th e s i z e o f h i s sa m p le, l e f t one to
1
!draw h i s own c o n c lu s io n s .
1
(
| Wrenn (1 9 3 3 )* m atch in g h ig h and low s c h o la r s h ip
I
i
j c o lle g e m ale s tu d e n ts on I n t e l l i g e n c e and m ajor f i e l d s o f
s tu d y , p u b lis h e d t h e f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t l y im p o rta n t s tu d y -
jh a b lt in v e n to r y b a se d on i t e m - a n a ly s is o f r e s p o n s e s to a
!c h e c k l i s t . H ow ever, th e p r e d i c t i v e v a l i d i t y o f th e i n s t r u -
ment was q u e s tio n e d s u c c e s s i v e l y by R eeder (1 9 3 5 ) and
Gordon ( l 9 4 l ) . R eed er, a s s e s s i n g th e stu d y h a b it s o f c o l - |
: le g e fresh m en i n a n o th e r s e t t i n g w ith Wrenn’s in s tr u m e n t, !
t
p o in te d o u t " th a t i t became v e r y c l e a r t h a t t h e s c o r e s on !
i
i
th e s t u d y - h a b it s in v e n t o r y w ere n o t i n l i n e w ith t h e known !
|
academ ic r e c o r d [p . 4 l 4 ] ." L a te r , Gordon ( l 9 4 l ) , i n a s - |
: s e s s in g t h e s t u d y - h a b it s o f new stu d e n t n u r s e s , fou n d " th a t
! th e s c o r e s can n ot be ta k e n t o p r e d ic t academ ic s u c c e s s
; [p . 1 0 6 ] ."
W orking on " th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t te c h n iq u e o f stu d y
i
; was a c lu e [p . 4931" tow ard e x p la in in g some o f th e v a r ia n c e
: a s s o c i a t e d w ith s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y , Locke (1 9 4 0 ) d e v e lo p e d
a s e l f - r a t i n g s c a l e o f 56 ite m s c a l l e d th e S tu d e n ts S k i l l s
; I n v e n to r y . A f t e r b e in g a d m in is te r e d t o e ig h t g rou p s o f j
; c o l l e g e fe m a le s t u d e n t s , t h e in str u m e n t y ie ld e d o n ly f a i r
; s u c c e s s . N e v e r t h e le s s , L ocke in d ic a t e d th a t " th e d a ta w ere
su ch t h a t one i s j u s t i f i e d i n s t a t i n g th a t t h e In v e n to r y
| d i f f e r e n t i a t e s h ig h in d e x s tu d e n ts from low in d e x s tu d e n ts
! [p . 4 9 8 ] ." L ook in g a t t h e r e p o r t g iv e n by L ock e, one must
: co n ced e t h a t t h e d evelop m en t o f in s tr u m e n ts t o m easure
t
j stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s was w it n e s s in g some d e g r e e o f s c i -
j e n t i f i c r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . H e r e in one f in d s th e u se o f m ean-
; i n g f u l v a r i a b l e s , e . g . , in v e n t o r y , g r a d e -p o ln t a v e r a g e ,
i
i
| i n t e l l i g e n c e and h o u rs o f s tu d y . H owever, a lth o u g h Locke
j was a b le t o r e p o r t s a t i s f a c t o r y ’r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s
j
| o f c o r r e l a t i o n s , e . g . , t e s t - r e t e s t .8 0 and, u t i l i z i n g t h e
'Spearman-Brown fo rm u la , in t e r n a l c o n s is t e n c y r e l i a b i l i t y j
i
. 8 1 , he was c o n te n t m er ely t o e s t a b l i s h sim p le v a l i d i t y !
; _ t
c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n b etw een t h e v a r ia b le s i n v e s t i - j
g a te d , e . g . , .3 5 f o r th e in v e n to r y c o r r e la t e d w ith g r a d e - !
p o in t a v e r a g e , .1 8 f o r th e in v e n to r y c o r r e la t e d w ith i n t e l
l i g e n c e , .2 8 f o r th e in v e n to r y c o r r e la t e d w ith h o u rs o f
;s tu d y , .3 8 fo r g r a d e -p o in t a v e r a g e c o r r e la t e d w ith i n t e l
l i g e n c e , .2 6 f o r g r a d e -p o in t a v e ra g e c o r r e la t e d w ith h o u rs
o f s tu d y , and a n e g a t iv e c o r r e l a t io n o f .0 3 f o r i n t e l l i
g e n c e c o r r e la t e d w ith h o u rs o f stu d y .
U sin g a m o d ifie d form o f th e P r e s s e y Stu d y In v e n
t o r y , Stump (1 9 4 0 ) e s t a b lis h e d t h a t , when t h e r e i s no s i g
n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e i n s c h o l a s t i c a p t it u d e b etw een f r e s h -
imen and sop hom ores,
i sophom ore c o l l e g e s tu d e n ts a lm o st c o n s i s t e n t l y show
! h ig h r ' s b etw een s c o r e s on su ch an in v e n to r y and r a t -
| in g s o f s e lf - a d j u d g e d im provem ent r e l a t i v e t o a number
| o f stu d y f a c t o r s . . . le a d one t o b e l ie v e t h a t so p h o
m ores adopt a la r g e r number o f s a t i s f a c t o r y stu d y
; h a b it s w h ich a cco u n t f o r t h i s in c r e a s e d r e l a t io n s h ip
| [p . 2 2 8 ] .
i
iE v id e n t ly , Stump o v e r lo o k e d th e academ ic s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f
1
jth e sophom ore sam ple a s b e in g a c o n t r ib u t in g f a c t o r l n f l u -
j
|e n c in g t h e o b ta in e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r c o e f f i c i e n t s o f
i '
j c o r r e l a t io n .
I ‘
Brown ( 1 9 4 0 ) , s i m i l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n m easu rin g th e
jstu d y h a b it s o f s tu d e n ts in t h e f i r s t two y e a r s o f c o l l e g e ,
;d is c o v e r e d w ith r e g a r d t o " th e amount o f v a r ia t i o n in stu d y
2 4
i
m ethods t o be fou n d among f a l l i n g and s u c c e s s f u l s tu d e n t s !
: ' j
[p . 205]" th a t |
1
th e f a l l i n g s tu d e n t r e p o r te d u s in g c o r r e c t s tu d y h a b its !
a s f r e q u e n t ly a s d o es t h e s u c c e s s f u l stu d e n t . . . i n ;
f a c t , t h e r e i s s l i g h t e v id e n c e th a t more f a i l i n g s t u - j
d e n ts th a n s u c c e s s f u l s t u d e n t s h ave d e v e lo p e d sound I
stu d y h a b it s . . . [ a n d ] ‘la r g e p e r c e n ta g e s o f b o th j
f a i l i n g and s u c c e s s f u l s tu d e n t s f a i l t o make u s e o f
many e f f i c i e n t stu d y te c h n iq u e s [p . 2 0 7 ] .
1 1
: T hus, Brown a n t i c ip a t e d t h e r e s e a r c h o f s e v e r a l i n v e s t ! - j
' g a to r s d u rin g t h e f i f t i e s who q u e s tio n e d t h e c r i t e r i o n o f j
!
: s u c c e s s f u l and f a i l i n g s t u d e n t s . j
.
C o n c e n tr a tin g on im p ro v in g t h e p r e d i c t i v e e f f e c
t i v e n e s s o f WrennJs (1 9 3 3 ) in v e n to r y w hose sh o r tc o m in g s j
w ere i n p a r t a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f a c t th a t i t had few ite m s !
; c o n c e r n in g s tu d y h a b it s i n t h e a r e a o f s tu d y en viron m en t
and h e a lt h , Wrenn and Humber (1 9 4 1 ) a tte m p te d a v a l i d a t i o n
■ o f th e r e f in e d in str u m e n t on a s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n w h ich s
; in c lu d e d fe m a le s u b j e c t s i n th e sa m p lin g s in c e t h e y had n o t
: b een in c lu d e d i n th e e a r l i e r sa m p lin g . The new i n v e s t i g a
t i o n r e v e a le d tw o s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t s : (a ) women a r e l e s s
: v a r ia b le i n s tu d y s k i l l s th a n men, and (b ) o n e -fo u r th o f
; th e ite m s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r men w ere a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t f o r
;women, t h u s , a n t i c i p a t i n g l a t e r r e s e a r c h e r s who p o in t e d ou t
I th e n eed f o r s e p a r a te s c o r in g k e y s .
W hile s e v e r a l o f t h e p r e v io u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s showed
ic o n c e r n o v e r t h e d i f f i c u l t y e n c o u n te r e d i n c o m p ilin g ite m s
1
1
ic a p a b le o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b etw een s u c c e s s f u l and f a i l i n g
i
j s tu d e n ts a t th e c o l l e g e l e v e l , B rooke and H esto n ( 1 9 4 5 ) ,
f o llo w in g t h e exam ple o f R eed er (1 9 3 5 ) and Gordon ( l 9 4 l ) , j
r e s e a r c h e d ’’t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f ite m s c la im e d t o h a v e j
v a l i d i t y i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b etw een good and p o o r s tu d e n ts !
[ p . 257]*" U sin g fresh m en o f a n o th e r u n i v e r s i t y i n a j
t v i
c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n s tu d y t h e y w ere a b le t o r e p o r t 'th a t ite m s
v a l i d f o r one group do n o t show e q u iv a le n t v a l i d i t y when
u s e d w ith a d i f f e r e n t stu d e n t p o p u la tio n [p . 264]" and
r i g h t f u l l y c o n c lu d e d , "Item s o f an in v e n to r y sh o u ld be
v a lid a t e d on w id e ly s e l e c t e d sam ple o f c o l l e g e s o r each
i
s c h o o l sh o u ld f i n d ite m s w h ich a r e v a l i d f o r i t s own s t u -
I
|dent p o p u la t io n [p . 2 6 6 ]." A lth ou gh a p p a r e n tly a g r e e in g
W ith Brown ( l 9 4 l ) i n a c c e p tin g t h e f a c t t h a t good s tu d e n ts
y i o l a t e d a s many a c c e p te d r u le s f o r e f f e c t i v e s tu d y a s poor
|s t u d e n ts , th e y a ffo r d e d a u s e f u l s u g g e s t io n t o f o llo w b a sed
jon t h e a ssu m p tio n t h a t " stu d y h a b it s may change a f t e r t h e
i
fresh m an y e a r a s s tu d e n t s becom e a c c lim a te d t o c o l l e g e and
le a r n .h o w t o g e t g r a d e s [p . 2 6 6 ] ," n am ely, stu d y h a b it
s c o r e s sh o u ld b e c o r r e la t e d w ith th e c r i t e r i o n o f g r a d e s
1
b e in g th o s e g r a d e s a c t u a l l y made d u rin g th e same p e r io d o f
i
jtim e a s c o v e r e d by t h e r e s p o n s e s made t o t h e ite m s o f th e
{in v e n to r y .
I
| W hile a l l o f th e p r e c e d in g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w ere made
(at t h e c o l l e g e l e v e l , two s i g n i f i c a n t s t u d ie s w ere c o n -
j
jd u cted a t t h e lo w e r s c h o o l l e v e l s , e . g . , e le m e n ta r y and
jhigh s c h o o l l e v e l s , C u ff (1 9 3 7 )* and h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l ,
iD ou glass and B auer ( 1 9 3 8 ).
i
C u ff (1 9 3 7 )* a f t e r an e x t e n s iv e r e v ie w o f t h e
l i t e r a t u r e c o l l e c t e d t o g e t h e r 175 ite m s " g e n e r a lly a g r ee d
■ i
upon a s im p o rta n t [p . 2 9 6 ]" f o r s u c c e s s i n s c h o o l work and j
I
■ form ed an in str u m e n t w h ich h e em ployed t o m easure t h e stu d yj
h a b it s o f o v e r 1200 s tu d e n ts i n g ra d es fo u r t o t w e lv e . He |
foun d th a t " th e e x te n t t o w h ich th e y o u n g e st p u p ils h ave a
I
: stu d y h a b it i n e x c e s s o f t h e o l d e s t i s t h e b e s t in d e x o f I
: i
; i t s d is c r im in a t iv e v a lu e [ p . 2 9 9 ] ." M oreover, he made t h e j
f o llo w in g i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a tio n s : " th e b r ig h t young s t u -
: d e n ts u t i l i z e d t h e b e s t m ethods o f stu d y w h ich m ethods a p -
t
: p e a r t o c r y s t a l l i z e i n th e ele m en ta ry g r a d e s and do n o t J
seem t o im prove a p p r e c ia b ly t h e r e a f t e r [p . 3 0 1 ]" and " th e j
1
fo r m u la te d m ethods o f work w h ich a re c o n s id e r e d v e r y s i g - j
i
n i f l e a n t f o r u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n t s may n o t be v a lu a b le a t j
lo w e r l e v e l s [p . 2 9 7 ] ."
’ i
A d m in iste r in g a m odest in v e n to r y o f 50 ite m s a t
I th e h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l D o u g la ss and B auer (1 9 3 8 ) i n v e s t l -
! g a te d th e " a t t it u d e s and p r a c t i c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e
i
l a t t e r , w ith r e s p e c t t o s tu d y [p . 3 6 ]" o f 395 s tu d e n ts and
| c o n c lu d e d t h a t " a p p a r e n tly d i f f e r e n c e s i n stu d y m ethods a r e
in o t o f p rim ary im p o r ta n c e i n making marks [p . 4 2 ]."
1
j W ith a l l o f t h e p r e c e d in g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s b e in g c o n -
j c ern ed p r i n c i p a l l y w ith ite m s c a p a b le o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g
I b etw een good and p o o r s t u d e n t s , and, i n c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s ,
| b e in g in c o r p o r a te d i n t o in s tr u m e n ts a tte m p tin g t o p r e d ic t
; academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t, th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d a r e c o n f l i c t i n g .
;T ieb o u t (1 9 4 3 ) and S c h le s s e r and Young (1 9 4 5 ) p erh a p s aw are|
i
; o f th e c o n f u s io n en gen d ered by t h e v a r io u s r e p o r t s r e la t iv e J
! to m easu res o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s tu r n e d t h e i r a t t e n - j
; j
t i o n t o more fu n d a m en ta l f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w ith s tu d y j
i
t
; h a b it s . T ie b o u t, u s in g t h e o b s e r v a t io n a l m ethod i n an i n - j
? [
i
t e n s i v e c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g w h ile a tte m p tin g t o u n d e r sta n d th ej
: d if f e r e n c e i n a ch iev em en t b etw een good and p oor fe m a le c o l -
; le g e s tu d e n ts o f com parable i n t e l l i g e n c e , fou n d many o f th e
poor s tu d e n t s t o h ave th e f o llo w in g p e r s o n a l i t y 'c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s : t h e y " ten d ed t o r e l y upon s tr o n g m o tiv a tio n t o g e t j
: I
w ork in g, t o h ave i n t e r e s t s o f a t r a n s i t o r y , im perm anent j
; n a tu r e , and t o be g o v ern ed by s tr o n g h e d o n is t ic p r i n c i p l e s
[p . 1 2 4 ] ." T h ese f in d in g s c o n v in c e d T ie b o u t th a t t h e " la c k
, o f work i s th e r e s u l t o f o th e r and v e r y d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s j
|
j i n o n e ’ s makeup [p . 1 2 9 ] ," and j u s t i f i e d t h e l a b e l l i n g o f j
■ t h e s e s t u d e n t s a s "h avin g a d e e p s e a te d p rob lem i n le a r n in g
I [ p . 1 2 8 ] ," w h ich c o u ld be u n co v ered th r o u g h th e u s e o f
; a p p r o p r ia te R orsch ach t e c h n iq u e s . In a s im ila r s t r a i n , .
I S c h le s s e r and Young (1 9 4 5 ) , u s in g t h e q u e s t io n n a ir e a p -
|p r o a c h , fo u n d t h a t p r in c ip a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g ite m s Were
; th o s e t h a t w ere co n c er n e d w ith a t t i t u d e , s e t , and m o tiv a -
! t i o n r a th e r th a n stu d y h a b it s a s su c h .
j L it e r a t u r e P e r ta in in g t o R ecen t A ttem p ts
' i n t h e D evelopm ent o f M easures o f
S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s
i
i T h is s e c t i o n , co m p lim en tin g t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n i n
28 i
s c o p e , e x te n d s th e r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i v e t o th e !
d evelo p m en t o f m easu res o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s a s v a l i d |
p r e d ic t o r s o f academ ic a ch iev em en t from n e a r m id -c e n tu r y t o |
|
:t h e p r e s e n t s e v e n t i e s .
'
W hereas t h e p r e c e d in g s e c t i o n r e v e a le d th a t m ost o fj
t h e r e s e a r c h e x te n d in g from th e t h i r t i e s t o n ea r m id - j
c e n tu r y was p r im a r ily co n d u cte d a t th e c o l l e g e l e v e l , t h i s
, s e c t i o n r e v e a ls t h a t b o th th e c o l l e g e and lo w er s c h o o l
l e v e l s w ere ab ou t e v e n ly r e p r e s e n te d i n t h e r e p o r te d l i t -
i
^ e r a tu r e w ith a tr e n d b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d , nam ely, o f e x te n d - j
;in g th e r e s e a r c h downward in t o th e ju n io r h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l j
I
: (Khan, 1969.* 1970; Khan & R o b e r ts, 1 9 6 9 ) . In b r i e f , t h e j
l i t e r a t u r e r e v ie w e d d i s t r i b u t e s i t s e l f o v e r th e f o llo w in g !
i
i
t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : (a ) r e s e a r c h co n d u cte d a t th e c o l l e g e !
: l e v e l , (b ) r e s e a r c h co n d u cte d a t e i t h e r th e s e n io r h ig h o r
: ju n io r h ig h o r e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l l e v e l , and (c ) r e s e a r c h
co n d u cte d a t b o th th e c o l l e g e and h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l s .
S tu d ie s c o n d u cte d a t th e c o l l e g e l e v e l . M yers and
S c h u ltz (1 9 5 0 ); C a rter (1 9 5 0 , 1 9 5 1 . 1 9 5 3 . 1955. 1 9 6 9 );
Duncan e t a l . ( 1 9 5 1 ); D a n sk in and B u r n e tt (1 9 5 2 ); S c h u ltz
la n d G reen (1 9 5 3 ); H oltzm an e t a l . (1 9 5 ^ ); Brown and H o lt z -
|man (1 9 5 5 ); S c h u tte r and Maher (1 9 5 6 ); Ahman and G lock
! (1 9 5 7 ); C hahbazi (1 9 5 7 ); M ich ael e t a l . (1 9 5 7 . 1 9 5 9 ).
I Ahman e t a l . (1 9 5 8 ); H olm es (1 9 5 8 ); Popham and Moore
; (1 9 5 9 ); Lum ( i 9 6 0 ); P r e s to n ( 1 9 6 1 ); B ig g s ( 1969a , 1969b );
2 9
D e s id e r a to and K osk in en ( 1 9 6 9 ) ; E n tw is t le and E n t w is t le j
I
(1 9 7 0 ); E n t w is t le and W ilso n (1 9 7 0 ); L in and M cK eachie !
(1 9 7 0 ). I
I
1
S tu d ie s co n d u cted a t e i t h e r th e s e n io r h ig h o r j
: ju n io r h ig h or e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l l e v e l . C a r te r (1 9 4 8 , I
‘ 1 9 53, 1 9 56, 1 9 59. 1 9 6 1 ); Brown and H oltzm an (1956., 1969)5 I
: |
: S i s t e r J o s e p h in a (1 9 5 6 ); N orton (1 9 5 9 ); McGuire e t a l . |
( 1 9 6 1 ); H oltzm an and Brown ( 1 9 6 8 ); Khan ( 1 9 6 9 * 1 9 7 0 ); Khan
and R o b erts ( 1 9 6 9 ) .
S tu d ie s co n d u cted a t b o th th e c o l l e g e and h ig h j
- - - - - - 1 ' ' ’— r - - - “ T - . . . j
s c h o o l l e v e l s . M ich a el and R eed er (1 9 5 2 ); C a r ter (1 9 5 3 ); j
; i
: Brown and H oItzm an (1 9 5 6 ); Zimmerman e t a l . (1 9 7 0 ).
N ear m id -c e n tu r y C a r te r (1 9 4 8 ) p u b lis h e d h i s f i r s t
: o f a lo n g s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s d e a lin g w ith th e develop m en t
o f an in v e n to r y o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s . I n a c r o s s -
1 v a l i d a t i o n i n v e s t i g a t i o n , em p loyin g 100 h ig h and 100 low
I n in th -g r a d e a c h ie v e r s , h e o b ta in e d v a l i d i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s o f
' .4 5 b etw een h i s s t u d y - h a b it s t e s t com posed o f ite m s d e r iv e d
I from th e f i e l d o f p sy c h o lo g y o f le a r n in g and a sta n d a r d
: t e s t o f a c h ie v e m e n t. H o ld in g IQ, c o n s ta n t h e o b ta in e d a
i c o r r e l a t io n o f .3 2 b etw een th e same two t e s t s , c o n c lu d in g
1
i t h a t th e s t u d y - h a b it s t e s t was v a l i d f o r p r e d ic t io n o f
I su b seq u e n t acad em ic a ch iev em en t and, m oreover, th e d e r iv e d
I s c o r in g k e y , b a sed on th e r e s p o n s e s o f s u c c e s s f u l and u n -
1 s u c c e s s f u l s t u d e n t s , was r e l i a b l e . I n a l a t e r I n v e s t i g a -
; 3 0 !
j t i o n , a f t e r r e f i n i n g th e ite m s o f h i s in str u m e n t to d e a l |
w ith " s c h o la r ly a t t i t u d e , m o t iv a tio n , p la n n in g o f s c h o o l !
i
w ork, and m ech a n ics or p r o c e d u r e s o f s tu d y [p . 3 3 3 ] ," !
1 . I
C a r ter (1 9 5 0 ) e x te n d ed h i s s u r v e y o f stu d y h a b it s and j
■ s k i l l s in t o t h e c o l l e g e l e v e l and o b ta in e d th ro u g h c r o s s - |
^ v a lid a tio n s t u d i e s c o r r e la t io n s o f .3 6 and .3 4 , and, h o ld in g
! I
1 IQ c o n s t a n t , a p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t io n o f . 2 9 . H e, a c c o r d in g ly ,'
i I
; co n c lu d e d t h a t , a lth o u g h th e s tu d y m ethod t e s t p r e d ic t e d j
‘s l i g h t l y l e s s w e l l th a n i t d id i n an e a r l i e r s tu d y , i t d id
I make an in d e p e n d e n t c o n t r ib u t io n t o th e p r e d ic t io n o f
I ach iev em en t and c o u ld t h e r e f o r e b e c o n s id e r e d a u s e f u l
I v a r ia b le d i f f e r e n t from i n t e l l i g e n c e . A y e a r l a t e r (1 9 5 1 )
t
1
|h e r e p o r te d th e r e s u l t s o f a f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c stu d y c o n -
j
id u c te d a t t h e c o l l e g e l e v e l . In t h i s s tu d y fo u r h y p o th e -
|s i z e d f a c t o r s w ere e x tr a c te d : "m easures o f m o ra le, s c h o la r
l y d r iv e s and v a lu e s , m easu res o f stu d y p r o c e d u r e , and t h e
te n d e n c y t o be p la n f u l and d e l i b e r a t e ab ou t s c h o o l work
!done [p . 1 7 2 ]." In t h i s same s tu d y th e f o llo w in g s u g g e s -
i
j t i o n was g iv e n : " A ll a s p e c t s o f p e r s o n a l i t y su ch as e n t e r
1 '
in t o a f u l l program o f p e r s o n a l work [p . 1 73]" sh o u ld be
i n v e s t i g a t e d a lo n g w ith stu d y m ech an ics o r p r o c e d u r e s.
i
I n v e s t i g a t i n g a more g e n e r a liz e d a r e a th a n t h a t o f
jt h e p r e v io u s ly m en tion ed C a r te r , Myers and S c h u ltz (1 9 5 0 )
|r e s e a r c h e d n o n - i n t e l l e c t l v e f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w ith s c h o
l a s t i c a c h iev e m en t among w h ich t h e y in c lu d e d stu d y h a b i t s .
The q u e s t io n n a ir e em ployed p r o v id e d o n ly a m odest g a in o f
.0 1 when added t o an i n t e l l e c t i v e t e s t p r e d ic t o r , hut j
when b o th an i n t e l l e c t i v e t e s t and h ig h s c h o o l a v e r a g e s
w ere t h e p r e d ic t o r s s c a r c e ly any in d e p e n d e n t c o n t r ib u t io n :
was made. T h is e a r l y d is c o v e r y was co n firm ed by tw o s u b - |
;se q u en t c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n s t u d ie s made by S c h u ltz and G reen j
: ( 1 9 5 3 ) who r e p o r te d t h a t t h e i r " fin d in g s a r e i n agreem ent j
j
w ith p r e v io u s r e p o r t s o f a sm a ll but p o s i t i v e r e l a t io n s h ip
i
b etw een s im ila r k in d s o f in v e n t o r ie s and c o l l e g e g r a d e s
; [p p . 6 3 - 6 4 ] ."
C o n c e n tr a tin g on t h e r e fin e m e n t o f ite m s o f an
!in v e n to r y f o r p r e d i c t i n g academ ic a ch iev em en t a s w e l l a s '
s e r v in g a c l i n i c a l f u n c t io n o f " s p o t tin g w e a k n e sse s i n
jstu d y h a b it s o f h ig h s c h o o l and c o l l e g e g ro u p s f o llo w in g a
i
|c o l l e g e p r e p a r a to r y c u r r ic u lu m [p . 237]*" M ich a el and
i
I R eed er (1 9 5 2 ) c o n c lu d e d a f t e r c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n s t u d ie s
t
I t h a t (a ) s e p a r a te s c o r in g k e y s w ere r e q u ir e d fo ri-b o y s and
i
| g i r l s s i n c e o n e - h a lf o f th e ite m s o f t h e i r in v e n t o r y w ere
I
s i g n i f i c a n t l y v a l i d i n b o th sa m p le s, and (b ) when c r o s s
v a lid a t e d on a p o p u la t io n o f c o l l e g e fresh m en th e m easure
|o f s tu d y h a b it s w as fou n d n o t o n ly p o s s e s s in g s i g n i f i c a n t
v a l i d i t y f o r p r e d i c t i o n o f s c h o l a s t i c a ch iev em en t b u t a l s o
|c o r r e l a t i n g low w ith m easu res o f s c h o l a s t i c a p t it u d e .
W hile c o n tin u in g b a s ic r e s e a r c h , C a r te r (1 9 5 3 )* i n
c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n s t u d i e s co n d u cted a t b o th t h e c o l l e g e and
h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l s , fou n d t h a t h i s s tu d y m ethod t e s t
3 2
1
I n v o lv in g a f f e c t i v e and .c o n a tiv e v a r ia b le s y i e l d s a p - j
; p a r e n tly e q u a lly good p r e d ic t io n o f a ch iev em en t . . . |
l ± n f a c t ] p r e d ic t s a ch iev em en t ab ou t a s w e l l a s th e
b e s t one o f s e v e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s [and y i e l d i n g ] J
b e t t e r p r e d ic t io n o f a ch iev em en t a t th e h ig h s c h o o l
l e v e l th a n a t t h e c o l l e g e l e v e l [p . 3 6 ] .
U sin g o n e -s e m e s te r g ra d e a v e r a g e s a s t h e i r c r i - I
t e r i o n , H oltzm an e t a l . (1 9 5 4 ) and Brown and H oItzm an
(1955* 1 9 5 6 ) o b ta in e d v a l i d i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s a v e r a g in g .4 2
1
i
:and .4 5 f o r men and women, r e s p e c t i v e l y , w ith an in str u m e n t!
c a l l e d t h e S u rvey o f S tu d y H a b its and A t t it u d e s ( SSHA) j
w h ich t h e y d e v e lo p e d a s a v a l i d m easure o f stu d y m o tiv a
t i o n and r e la t e d a t t i t u d e s o f im p o rta n ce i n s c h o l a s t i c
; s u c c e s s . W hile c o n c e n tr a tin g on t h e e x te n t t o w h ich th e
i SSHA made a u n iq u e c o n t r ib u t io n t o th e p r e d ic t io n o f a c a -
:dem ic s u c c e s s t h e s e same i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e p o r te d t h a t t h e i r
in str u m e n t c o r r e la t e d c o n s i s t e n t l y low (.25 and .3 4 f o r men
and women, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) w ith a sta n d a r d a p t it u d e t e s t ;
w ith p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t io n s o f t h e in v e n t o r y w ith g r a d e s ,
a p t it u d e h e ld c o n s t a n t , b e in g .3 4 and .3 3 f o r men and
;women, r e s p e c t i v e l y . T hus, th e y c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e SSHA
;h a s u n iq u e p r e d i c t i v e v a l i d i t y w ith r e f e r e n c e t o academ ic
a c h ie v e m e n t. N e x t, tu r n in g a t t e n t i o n "to what e x te n t stu d y
j h a b it s and a t t i t u d e s i n h ig h s c h o o l c o n tin u e t o p la y an
: im p o r ta n t r o le i n d e te r m in in g s c h o l a s t i c s u c c e s s i n c o l l e g e
i [p . 2 1 5 ]," Brown and H oltzm an (1 9 5 5 ) o b ta in e d c o r r e l a t io n s
• o f .4 8 and .5 1 f o r b oy s and g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , b etw een
j h ig h s c h o o l SSHA and h ig h s c h o o l g r a d e s , and ,5 0 and ,4 4
ifo r men and women, r e s p e c t i v e l y , b etw een h ig h s c h o o l SSHA !
| and c o l l e g e g r a d e s , and .5 6 and .5 5 f o r t h e s e same men and j
|women, r e s p e c t i v e l y , b etw een h ig h s c h o o l SSHA and h ig h
| j
s c h o o l g r a d e s . In a f o llo w -u p s tu d y ( 1 9 5 6 ) , c o r r e l a t io n
: , j
i o f b o th h ig h s c h o o l SSHA and c o l l e g e SSHA w ith su b seq u e n t |
c o l l e g e g r a d e s was c l o s e t o .5 0 . M oreover, t h e s e i n v e s -
; I
t i g a t o r s s t a t e d t h a t o b ta in e d c o r r e l a t io n s o f r e l i a b i l i t y |
I !
jof .8 3 and .8 0 "betw een th e two a d m in is t r a t io n s in d ic a t e d j
I a s u r p r is in g d e g r e e o f s t a b i l i t y o f stu d y h a b it s and a t t i - j
jtu d es d u rin g t h e t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d from h ig h s c h o o l t o
t
I c o l l e g e [p . 2 1 8 ] ."
! C a r te r 's (1 9 5 5 ) f in d in g s a t t h e c o ll e g e l e v e l w ere
1
I i n t e r e s t i n g l y i n agreem ent w ith r e s u l t s o b ta in e d by Brown
| and H oltzm an (1 9 5 5 ) ’ • !
i i
j F or p r e d i c t i o n o f a ch iev em en t t h e l e a s t e f f e c t i v e p a r t j
■ o f th e t e s t i s t h e p a r t c o n s i s t i n g o f q u e s tio n s ab ou t j
; t h e m ech a n ics o f stu d y . . . [ w h ile ] th e item s m ost j
I s i g n i f i c a n t f o r p r e d ic t io n o f s c h o la r s h ip are t h o s e j
! co n c er n e d w ith p e r s o n a l a d ju stm e n t, s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e ,
i and m orale i n th e academ ic s e t t i n g [p . 3 2 ] ,
I T hese same f in d in g s w ere co n firm ed a t th e h ig h s c h o o l l e v - j
! e l , a llo w in g C a r te r ( 1 9 5 6 ) t o c o n c lu d e : " It ap p ears t h a t
ith e f a c t o r s co n c er n e d w ith a t t i t u d e s a r e b e t t e r p r e d ic t o r s
!o f a ch iev em en t th a n a r e f a c t o r s c o n c er n e d w ith m ech a n ics o f i
!stu d y [p . 2 1 6 ]." At t h e same tim e , C a r te r r e p o r te d s a t i s -
j
|f a c t i o n t h a t t h e C a lif o r n ia Stu dy M ethods T e st ( CSMT) made
i
!an in d ep en d e n t c o n t r ib u t io n to t h e p r e d ic t io n o f acad em ic
i
I a c h ie v e m e n t: t h e m u lt ip le c o r r e l a t io n o f g r a d e -p o in t
a v e r a g e w i t h s t u d y t e s t s c o r e a n d IQ w a s .63,* a n d , m o r e -
i
o v e r , h ig h s c h o o l a ch iev em en t was foun d t o b e p r e d ic te d j
e q u a lly w e l l by b o th th e stu d y m ethods t e s t ( r s o f .5 4 and j
.5 0 ) and by a sta n d a r d i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t ( 3? o f . 5 1 ) . j
In an a tte m p t t o com p en sate f o r ite m tr a n sp a r e n c y
: |
:o f s e l f - r e p o r t t e s t s , S h u tte r and Maher ( 1 9 5 6 ) d e v is e d a I
:f o r c e d - c h o ic e S tu d y A c t i v i t y Q u e stio n n a ir e ( SAQ) w h ich
a c h ie v e d o n ly " u sa b le v a l i d i t y ” but b e c a u se o f i t s low
:i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n w it h i n t e l l i g e n c e g a v e some p rom ise o f
jm aking a c o n t r ib u t io n t o t h e m u lt ip le r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n
I f o r p r e d i c t i o n o f c o l l e g e a c h ie v e m e n t. I n a fo llo w -u p
i
[ v a l i d i t y s tu d y , Maher (1 9 5 9 ) e s t a b lis h e d t h a t a r e f in e d
;SAQ c o r r e la t e d o n ly .0 3 w ith an a p t it u d e t e s t and .4 8 w ith
I
|g r a d e - p o in t a v e r a g e and t o g e t h e r w ith an a p t it u d e t e s t g a v e
I a s i g n i f i c a n t m u lt ip le p r e d ic t io n o f g r a d e -p o in t a v e ra g e o f
| . 6 2 .
| A lth o u g h an in s tr u m e n t r e l a t i v e l y in d ep en d en t o f
I m easu res o f s c h o l a s t i c a p t it u d e was d e v e lo p e d b y M ic h a e l,
j
i
l e t a l . ( 1 9 5 7 )* d isa p p o in tm e n t was r e g i s t e r e d r e l a t i v e to
!
| e f f o r t s expended i n o b ta in in g v a l id s c o r in g k e y s f o r men
i
1
I and women a t t h e U n iv e r s it y o f S ou th ern C a lif o r n ia f o r t h e
!
I
p u rp o se o f p r e d ic t in g a ch iev em en t d u rin g t h e f i r s t se m e s te r
o f th e fresh m an y e a r . T h ese i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e p o r te d th a t
i
j " c r o s s - v a l id a t io n r e s u l t s in d ic a t e d th a t t h e in v e n to r y was
I n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y v a l i d t o be u sed i n t h e p r e d ic t io n o f
1
I s c h o l a s t i c a c h iev e m en t a t t h e freshm an l e v e l [p . 1 8 2 ]" an d ,
i
I 35;
: a c c o r d in g ly , a d v is e d t h e need f o r a f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c stu d y i
j o f th e in v e n to r y t o a s c e r t a in i t s d im e n s io n a lity and t o j
; f u r n is h in fo r m a tio n abou t p o s s i b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f f a c - !
! t o r s a s s o c ia t e d w ith stu d y h a b it s and a t t i t u d e s . i
i S im ila r d isa p p o in tm e n t w ith th e p r e d ic t iv e a s p e c t ;
; i
; o f s t u d y - h a b it s t e s t s r e l a t i v e t o f i r s t - t e r m academ ic
j a ch iev em en t in c o l l e g e or t o h ig h s c h o o l g r a d e -p o in t a v e r - j
j a g e was in d ic a t e d by Ahman and G lock (1 9 5 7 ) who s t a t e d j
: |
I " th e r e i s l i t t l e e v id e n c e t o su p p o rt t h e i n c lu s i o n o f SSHA j
i i
| i n a fresh m an t e s t i n g b a t t e r y f o r u se i n c o n n e c tio n w ith a j
i r e a d in g im provem ent program [p . 3 0 2 ]."
1
C o n tr a d ic to r y r e s u l t s w ere r e p o r te d by Chahbazi
j i
j (1 9 5 7 ) who foun d he c o u ld a c co u n t fo r 3 2 .3 p e r c e n t o f t h e j
i v a r ia n c e r a th e r th a n 2 8 .7 p e r c e n t when h e in c lu d e d e ig h t |
i j
| q u e s tio n n a ir e ite m s , w h ich c o n ta in e d o n ly s i x ite m s in t h e !
j i
; s t u d y - h a b it s a r e a , o f th e C o r n e ll O r ie n ta tio n In v e n to r y
!
j among th e p r e d ic t o r v a r ia b le s .
H owever, i n a su b seq u e n t v a l i d i t y s tu d y , Ahman,
j j
I G lock , and Sm ith ( 1 9 5 8 ) co n firm ed t h e i r p r io r a sse ssm e n t j
j i
J th a t SSHA s c o r e s a s a v a r ia b le c o u ld "be dropped from a
j r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n w ith o u t le s s e n in g t h e p r e d i c t i v e e f f l -
! c ie n c y t o any s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e [p . 8 5 4 ]."
i
U sin g r a t i n g s - b y - o t h e r s , both p e e r s and t e a c h e r s ,
i o f n in th -g r a d e g e n e r a l s c ie n c e s t u d e n t s , N orton (1 9 5 9 )
| fou n d t h a t stu d y h a b it s a s r a te d by i n s t r u c t o r s w ere l e s s
: v a lu a b le a s p r e d ic t o r s th a n any o th e r in d ep en d en t v a r i a b l e .j
: W hile a p t itu d e m easu res w ere fou n d t o b e th e b e s t p r e d ic -
; t o r s o f t h i s s p e c i a l ty p e o f a ch iev em en t f o r b o th boys and I
! i
| g i r l s , s tu d y h a b it s a s r a te d by o n e 's p e e r s w ere a s i g n i f i - i
! c a n t p r e d ic t o r o f a ch iev em en t f o r b oys but n o t f o r g i r l s . j
j V a lid a t in g th e S u rvey o f Stu d y H a b its and A t t i t u d e s j
i (SSHA) i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith B orow 's C o lle g e In v e n to r y o f !
i j
I Academic A d justm ent (CIAA) Popham and Moore (1 9 5 9 ) d i s - i
; i
; c o v er ed t h a t s c o r e s on e i t h e r t h e SSHA or th e CIAA had a
j s i g n i f i c a n t l y s tr o n g e r r e l a t io n s h ip t o u n d erg ra d u a te c o l - |
|
! le g e s t u d e n t s ' g r a d e s th a n w ith a p t it u d e s c o r e s , c o n c lu d in g
i
j i
| t h a t t h e s e two in s tr u m e n ts "do in f a c t m easure so m eth in g j
| j
| o th e r th a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a p t it u d e w h ich i s a s s o c ia t e d w ith j
I stu d e n t academ ic s u c c e s s [p . 5 0 5 1 ." . j
! Towards t h e end o f th e f i f t i e s , Holmes (1 9 5 8 ), i n - !
j i
I v e s t i g a t i n g th e c o l l e g e d rop ou t q u e s tio n , s u g g e s te d t h a t j
j an in v e n to r y o f stu d y h a b it s m ight be a s e f f e c t i v e i n id e n -
! t i f y i n g th e p o t e n t i a l c o l l e g e d rop ou t a s th e p r e s e n t b a t - ;
1 t e r y o f a p t it u d e s c a l e s . M eanw hile, C a r ter (1 9 5 8 ), i n
; j
! r e f i n i n g t h e ite m s o f h i s t e s t d e a lin g w ith m ech an ics o f |
i j
I stu d y , made an i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c l o s u r e : "The m ech an ics o f j
! stu d y p r o c e d u r e s . . . a r e im p o rta n t d e te r m in e r s o f s c h o - !
! j
j l a s t i c a ch iev em en t [p . 1 3 ]." I n f a c t , th e new d a ta i n d l - j
■ c a te d th a t an im proved "m easure o f m ech a n ics o f stu d y
| p r o c ed u r es p r e d ic t s a ch iev em en t a s w e l l a s do m easu res o f
| m orale and s c h o la r ly d r iv e [p . 1 2 ]."
! 3 7 !
; I
i
I F u r th e r c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s u s in g new I
isa m p le s o f h ig h s c h o o l s tu d e n ts c o n v in c e d C a r te r
i , I
i J
t h a t n o t o n ly t h e a t t i t u d e f a c t o r s , but a l s o th e
s c o r e s f o r m ech an ics o f stu d y and e f f i c i e n t u s e o f I
tim e a r e e f f e c t i v e p r e d ic t o r s o f h ig h s c h o o l a c h ie v e -
! ment . . . and [m oreover] p r e d i c t s s c h o o l a ch iev em en t j
I about a s w e l l a s do th e commonly u sed group i n t e l l i - i
g e n c e t e s t s [ 1 9 5 9 ^ p . 2 06] . |
; i
| Im p lem en tin g an e a r l i e r recom m endation r e g a r d in g i
I i
j t h e n eed t o c a r r y o u t f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c s t u d i e s t o a s c e r t a i n j
i !
|t h e u n d e r ly in g d im e n s io n a lit y o f t h e i r in v e n t o r y , M ich a el |
l e t a l . ( 1 9 5 9 ) i d e n t i f i e d fo u r f a c t o r s a s s o c ia t e d w ith stu d y ;
1
I h a b it s and a t t i t u d e s f o r tw o sam p les o f c o l l e g e men and I
! I
; 1
I women: i
] ;
I ( l ) g e n e r a l a ch iev em en t d r iv e , (2 ) n e u r o tic o r ie n t a
t i o n t o stu d y a c t i v i t i e s , ( 3 ) b a s ic stu d y s k i l l s , (4 )
s e l f - r e l i a n c e o r s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y , (5 ) c o lla b o r a t io n j
I ( g iv in g and a c c e p tin g h e l p ) , (6 ) v e r b a l a p t it u d e , and |
i • p o s s i b l y ( 7 ) c o n fo r m ity t o te a c h e r e x p e c t a t io n . . . j
! [ a l s o ] i n t h e in s t a n c e o f women a f a c t o r o f p e r s e v e r - j
a n ce was r a th e r c l e a r l y d e fin e d and a f a c t o r o f p o s i t i v e
j a f f e c t was s u g g e s te d [p . 6 6 8 ] . j
j 1
| F o llo w in g t h e exam p les o f Stump (1 9 4 0 ) and Brown j
■ 1
; ( 1 9 4 0 ) , s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s d u rin g th e f i f t i e s q u e s tio n e d
I t h e u s e o f r e s p o n s e s o f s tu d e n ts a s a d eq u a te d is c r im in a t o r s j
I o f s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e in t h e academ ic s e t t i n g , n o ta b le j
'among t h e s e w ere: Duncan e t a l . ( 1951)5 D an sk in and R o b e r ts!
! i
1( 1952)5 S i s t e r J o se p h in a ( 1958)5 and Lum ( i 9 6 0 ) .
I Duncan e t a l . ( 1 9 5 1 ) foun d t h e lo w -r a n k in g s tu d e n t
1
i was more a p t t o be a freshm an th a n an u p p e rc la ssm a n , h i s j
! 1
I stu d y l o c a t i o n was more a p t t o b e n o i s i e r th a n h i s h ig h - |
1 j
jr a n k in g c o u n te r p a r t, he d id n ot p u t i n a s many h o u rs i n j
3 8 ;
s tu d y in g f o r exams a s s tu d e n ts w ith b e t t e r g r a d e s . More
o v e r , h e d o e s n o t have a s much i n t e r e s t i n t h e s u b j e c t i
|m a tte r and i s a slo w e r th a n a v e r a g e r e a d e r . «
D an sk ln and R o b erts (1 9 5 2 ), in t e r v ie w in g 37 s u p e r io r
s tu d e n ts a t O hio S t a t e U n iv e r s it y , fou n d th a t w ith r eg a r d
I t o stu d y m ech a n ics th e s u p e r io r s tu d e n t was below a v e r a g e . !
'T h is f in d in g was co n firm ed s i m i l a r l y f o r f i f t h - and s i x t h - j
jg r a d e s t u d e n t s h a v in g IQ s o f a t l e a s t 138 by S i s t e r J o s e - j
! p h in a ( 1 9 5 8 ) . !
! |
i Lum ( i 9 6 0 ) , u s in g an e x p e r im e n ta l form o f t h e SSHA !
; i
•w ith c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , fou n d th a t u n d e r a c h ie v e r s do n o t j
! j
>d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from o v e r a c h ie v e r s i n t h e r e p o r te d u se
I o f e f f e c t i v e stu d y h a b it s w it h t h e d i f f e r e n c e b etw een s u e - j
; j ,
! c e s s and f a i l u r e b e in g one o f a t t i t u d e and m o tiv a tio n j
j r a t h e r th a n m ech a n ics o f stu d y s u g g e s t in g r e s e a r c h e r s |
i j
: "m ight p r o f i t a b l y d e lv e f u r t h e r i n t o th e d eep er la y e r s o f !
! I
I p e r s o n a l i t y f u n c t io n in g i n a tte m p tin g t o d e ter m in e t h e j
i i
I r e a s o n s f o r academ ic s u c c e s s or f a i l u r e [ p . 1 1 3 ] ." j
P r e s to n ( 1 9 6 1 ), i n c o ll a b o r a t io n w ith B o t e l, th o u g h t|
; h e c o u ld c a p i t a l i z e on t h e k n ow led ge o f s u p e r io r s t u d e n t s
i
i i n t h e d evelop m en t o f an in v e n to r y
i
b a sed on what good s tu d e n ts r e g a r d a s im p o rta n t stu d y
s k i l l s f o r t h e weak s tu d e n t . . . and fou n d t h a t su b
s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s w ere o b se r v e d i n t h e a c t u a l p r a c
t i c e s o f s u p e r io r s tu d e n ts and t h e i r recom m end ation o f
: stu d y h a b it s f o r weak s tu d e n ts [ p . 1 2 9 ] .
| Somewhat r e l a t e d t o t h e t o p ic o f d evelop m en t o f
| m easu res o f stu d y h a b it s a s v a l i d p r e d ic t o r s o f acad em ic
' a ch iev em en t w ere c e r t a i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s show ing i n t e r e s t in !
j th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s t u d y - s k i l l s i n s t r u c t i o n on f u t u r e j
: s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t. One su ch i n v e s t i g a t o r , E n t w is t le j
; ( i 9 6 0 ) , i n r e s e a r c h in g a t o t a l o f 22 e v a lu a t io n s a t th e j
i \
i h ig h s c h o o l and c o l l e g e l e v e l s , fou n d " th a t some k in d o f j
1 . '
; im provem ent f o llo w in g a s t u d y - s k i l l c o u r s e seem s t o be t h e !
j r u le [p . 2 4 4 ]." She n o t e d ,t h a t s tu d e n ts w is h in g t o ta k e j
• - i
i su ch a c o u r se b u t p r e v e n te d from d o in g so f a i l e d t o show ;
! s i g n i f i c a n t im provem ent. S im ila r ly , D iL orenzo (1 9 6 4 ) found:
i 1
! t h a t I
| I
: j
I th e s t a t i s t i c a l e v id e n c e in d ic a t e d t h a t th e t r a i n in g :
; in f lu e n c e d im provem ent f o r t h e e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p , t h e j
i j u n io r s ( i n a c o l l e g e s e t t i n g com pared t o fresh m en and j
; sophom ores) a s a su b grou p , th e s u b j e c t s w ith th e lo w e r
stu d y h a b it s r a t in g and th o s e w ith h ig h e r p a s t a c a
dem ic a v e r a g e s [p . 4 7 4 ] .
| Haslam and Brown ( 1 9 6 8 ) , m atch in g two g rou p s on th e b a s i s |
; I
: I
j o f r e c e iv in g s t u d y - s k i l l s i n s t r u c t i o n or n o t r e c e iv in g suchj
: t
I i n s t r u c t i o n and em p loyin g t h e SSHA i n a p r e - and p o s t t e s t
I
J s i t u a t i o n , c o n c lu d e d t h a t " th e sam ple o f 'h ig h s c h o o l so p h -
| om ores d id in c r e a s e t h e i r k n ow led ge ab ou t e f f e c t i v e stu d y
: p r o c e d u r e , d id im prove t h e i r o v e r a l l stu d y o r ie n t a t i o n and
I d id im prove su b se q u e n t academ ic a ch iev em en t [p . 2 2 6 ] ."
! F o llo w in g th e e e a r l i e r recom m endations o f T ie b o u t
’ (1 9 4 3 )* S c h le s s e r and Young (1945)* and Lum ( i 9 6 0 ) , w ith
i !
: r eg a r d t o " w heth er p e r s o n a l i t y in f lu e n c e s and sh a p e s stu d y
1
j te c h n iq u e s and a t t i t u d e s [ p . 1 5 9 ]*" G la d s te in (1 9 6 3 ) c o n -
: c e n tr a te d on i n v e s t i g a t i n g "which s tu d y m ethods a p a r t l c u -
! |
j 40
! |
; l a r s tu d e n t sh o u ld u s e [p . 1 5 8 ] . ” In a c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n *
! stu d y he co n firm ed t h e h y p o t h e s is t h a t ea ch p e r s o n a l i t y
it y p e u se d a d i s t i n c t i d e n t i f i a b l e s tu d y b e h a v io r o r p a tt e r n !
j o f s tu d y s t a t i n g ’’p e r s o n a l i t y in f lu e n c e s s tu d y b e h a v io r
; i
: and s tu d e n t s can g a in e q u a l a ch iev em en t w h ile u s in g d i f f e r - j
| . !
: e n t stu d y b e h a v io r [p . l 6 l ] . " He s u g g e s te d " th a t i t i s no I
; lo n g e r l e g i t i m a t e t o e x p e c t t o f in d one p a tte r n o f stu d y
I t h a t i s b e s t f o r a l l s t u d e n t s s in c e no two i n d iv id u a ls h ave!
| e x a c t l y t h e same n eed s or a r e g o v ern ed by t h e same b a s ic !
; i
J p e r s o n a lit y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s [p . 1 6 3 ] ." j
| L ik e w is e , B ig g s ( 1 9 7 0 a , 1970b) e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t |
| s tu d e n ts i n t h e A rt f a c u l t y u se d s tu d y s t r a t e g i e s c a l l e d j
■ i
! " s im p lify in g " s t r a t e g i e s w h ile t h e s tu d e n ts i n th e S c ie n c e j
I j
j f a c u l t y em ployed " o p en in g -o u t" s t r a t e g i e s b a se d on d i f f e r - !
i en t c o g n i t iv e s t y l e s . Somewhat r e m in is c e n t o f G u ilf o r d 's j
j ( 1 9 6 7 ) c o n v e r g e n c e -d iv e r g e n c -e d im e n sio n s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , !
; i
| each s t y l e a p p ea rs a p p r o p r ia te t o t h e ty p e o f s tu d e n t f o l - |
i lo w in g e i t h e r th e A r ts o r S c ie n c e c u r r ic u lu m . |
j !
I U t i l i z i n g E y se n c k ’ s (19^7.> i 9 6 0 ) p e r s o n a l i t y s c a le s j
| o f e x t r a v e r s i o n - i n t r o v e r s io n and e m o tio n a l s t a b i l i t y - j
| i n s t a b i l i t y i n c o n ju n c tio n , w ith s tu d y p e r fo r m a n c e, E n t- j
1 I
| w i s t l e and W ilso n ( 1970b) fou n d t h a t s tu d e n t s who w ere j
i i n t r o v e r t s , a s a g ro u p , te n d e d t o be s u c c e s s f u l s t u d e n t s , I
i i
I b u t e m o tio n a l i n s t a b i l i t y h a s a l e s s c e r t a i n r e l a t io n s h ip !
1 !
I !
j w ith academ ic p erfo rm a n ce. T h is f in d in g was s u b s e q u e n tly {
: 4 1 ]
! i
;co n firm ed by E n tw is t le and E n t w is t le ( 1970a) who e s t a b -
; ■ ■ i
; l is h e d q u it e c l e a r l y t h a t |
th e s u c c e s s f u l s tu d e n t i n b o th c o l l e g e and u n i v e r s i t y
ten d e d t o h ave b elow a v e r a g e s c o r e s on e x t r a v e r s io n ,
I t o g e t h e r w ith h ig h s c o r e s on t h e stu d y m ethods and
m o t iv a tio n a l s c a l e s . T here was a c le a r l i n k b etw een j
good s tu d y m ethods and b o th in t r o v e r s io n and s t a b i l i t y , j
th ou gh some h ig h ly m o tiv a te d s tu d e n ts had h ig h e r s c o r e s j
on n e u r o tic is m . . . [h ow ever] th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s
b etw een academ ic p erfo rm a n ces p r o v id e d room f o r much !
s p e c u la t io n . . . . W e can n ot assum e t h a t stu d y m ethods j
o f i n t r o v e r t s c o u ld be u se d e q u a lly e f f e c t i v e l y by j
e x t r a v e r t s , ev en w ith c a r e f u l t r a in in g [p . 1 4 0 ].
I A lso i n t e r e s t e d in exam in in g p e r s o n a lit y t r a i t s a s j
: i
j • j
i th e y a f f e c t academ ic p erfo rm a n ce, D e s id e r a to and K osk ln en !
! |
| ( 1 9 6 9 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e v e l s o f a n x ie t y . Theyj
| . j
j fou n d t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s in l e v e l s o f a n x ie t y w ere a l s o r e - j
i 1
i l a t e d t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n stu d y h a b it s o f c o l l e g e women and j
; j
I t h e s e , i n tu r n , w ere r e l a t e d t o g r a d e -p o in t a v e r a g e , im - j
| p l i c a t i n g stu d y h a b it s a s a p o s s i b l e m e d ia tin g p r o c e s s . |
I 1
I T h is l i n e o f r e s e a r c h e s t a b l i s h e d t h e f o llo w in g r e l a t i o n - j
I s h ip s a s e x i s t i n g b etw een a n x ie t y and stu d y h a b i t s : h ig h j
! • i
I d e b i l i t a t i n g a n x ie t y was r e l a t e d t o p oor stu d y h a b it s and j
! I
i h ig h f a c i l i t a t i n g a n x ie t y was r e l a t e d t o good s tu d y h a b i t s ,I
| j
1 how ever i t c o u ld n o t be d e ter m in e d c o n c lu s i v e l y w h eth er j
i
| a n x ie t y o r some o th e r v a r ia b le ( e . g . , s e lf - im a g e ) was
i
; c a u s a lly lin k e d t o good and p oor stu d y t e c h n iq u e s .
i
| Toward th e end o f t h e s i x t i e s , t h e q u e st f o r v a l i d
i
{ p r e d ic t o r s o f acad em ic a ch iev em en t u t i l i z i n g n o n - i n t e l l e c -
! t i v e v a r ia b le s seem ed t o assum e two tr e n d s : (a ) more empha
s i s on a c o n s id e r a t io n o f b a s ic o r " d eep er la y e r " p e r s o n -
4 2 |
i
i a l i t y t r a i t s a lo n g w ith m easu res o f m o tiv a tio n , a t t i t u d e s !
• j
; j
|and s tu d y m ech an ics i n in s tr u m e n ts a tte m p tin g t o p r e d ic t j
I - I
!academ ic a ch iev em en t u t i l i z i n g th e stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s 1
m ethod, and (b ) an e x t e n s io n o f th e r e s e a r c h w ith m easures i
io f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s b elow th e c o l l e g e and h ig h I
| s c h o o l l e v e l s , e . g . , t h e ju n io r h ig h s c h o o l (Khan, 1 9 6 9 , i
1 i
11970, Khan & R o b e r ts, 1 9 6 9 ) . !
i
j H oltzm an and Brown ( 1 9 6 8 ) i n r e v i s i n g t h e S u rvey o f I
I Stu dy H a b its and A t t it u d e s d e v e lo p e d a s e p a r a te sta n d a r d - j
i |
j iz e d form o f t h e SSHA f o r th e c o l l e g e l e v e l , nam ely, th e
j
| SSHA-C, and a s e p a r a te sta n d a r d iz e d form f o r th e h ig h
|s c h o o l and ju n io r h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l s , nam ely, t h e SSHA-H.
In b oth o f th e new fo rm s, 100 ite m s w ere d iv id e d in t o fo u r j
I s u b s c a le s b a sed on a p r i o r i c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and ite m -s u b - !
i “ 1
; s c a l e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s , nam ely, d e la y a v o id a n c e , work
i !
| m eth ods, t e a c h e r a p p r o v a l, and e d u c a tio n a c c e p ta n c e . The j
| f i r s t tw o s u b s c a le s p r o v id e d s t u d y - h a b it s s c o r e s and th e
! l a s t two s u b s c a le s p r o v id e d a t t i t u d e s c o r e s w h ile th e t o t a l
I
j s c o r e y ie l d e d t h e Stu dy O r ie n ta tio n s c o r e . The a u th o rs o f
I th e new form s r e p o r te d t h a t th e m u lt ip le c o r r e la t io n o f th e
! SSHA-C o r SSHA-H a lo n g w it h m easures o f a p t it u d e make an
! 1
j in d ep en d e n t c o n t r ib u t io n i n th e p r e d ic t io n o f academ ic
|
| a ch iev em en t and m a in ta in low i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n w ith th e
i
! m easures o f a p t it u d e .
! E x ten d in g r e s e a r c h in t o th e ju n io r h ig h s c h o o l
l e v e l , Khan (19&9) o b ta in e d r e s u l t s show ing ’’th e m u lt ip le |
c o r r e l a t i o n betw een s c o r e s on e ig h t SSHA f a c t o r s and s i x j
— j
i
a ch iev em en t f a c t o r s ran ged from .4 8 t o . 6 9 ." T h is s u c c e s s
1 I
in s p ir e d Khan and R o b erts ( 1 9 6 9 ) t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e v a l i d - j
I t y o f a m o d ifie d form o f th e SSHA f o r p r e d ic t in g sta n d a r d - j
; !
:ize d a c h iev e m en t s c o r e s a s w e l l a s t e a c h e r s ’ marks a t t h e j
i I
|e ig h th -g r a d e l e v e l . U t i l i z i n g o n ly th r e e f a c t o r s o f th e j
SSHA m u lt ip le c o r r e la t io n s r a n g in g from .3 9 t o .5 4 b etw een
th e t h r e e f a c t o r s and g r a d e a ch iev em en t w ere o b ta in e d .
! I n a lo n g it u d in a l stu d y co n cern ed w ith t h e d e g r e e
|o f v a r i a b i l i t y o f academ ic p erform an ce o v e r tim e and th e
I s t a b i l i t y o f t h e p r e d ic t o r s f o r p r e d ic t in g rem ote c r i t e r i a ,
j
:Khan (1 9 7 0 ) r e p o r te d t h a t o b ta in e d r e s u l t s "show t h a t
i
!in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s i n a t t i t u d e s and m o tiv a tio n rem ain
i
|s t a b l e o v e r a lo n g p e r io d o f tim e [ p . 7 9 ] j " i n f a c t th e
1
p r e d ic t io n o f sta n d a r d iz e d a c h iev e m en t by b o th a t t i t u d e and
a f f e c t i v e m easu res rem ain in v a r ia n t o v e r a s u f f i c i e n t l y
i
jlo n g p e r io d o f tim e t o e n su r e t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s e v a r i
a b l e s in t h e p r e d ic t io n o f academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t. The o b -
1
jta in e d c o r r e l a t io n s w ere .7 5 and .8 9 f o r b oys and .7 9 and
1
i .8 7 f o r g i r l s , w ith c o r r e l a t io n s o f .7 0 and .7 8 f o r b oys
i
land g i r l s t o g e t h e r .
W ith o v e r tw e n ty y e a r s o f r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a o f
stu d y h a b i t s and a t t i t u d e s t o t h e i r c r e d i t , b o th C a r ter
| ( 1 9 6 9 ) , and M ich ael (1 9 7 1 ) and h i s a s s o c i a t e s (Zimmerman
j e t a l . , 1 9 7 0 ), a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n ia ,
I
' r e p o r te d r e fin e m e n t o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e in s tr u m e n ts u t i l i z -
!ln g th e f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c ap p roach t o a s c e r t a i n u n d e r ly in g j
d im e n s io n s . j
C oncerned w ith im p ro v in g th e s c a l e s m easu rin g a t -
; t i t u d e tow ard s c h o o l and "to f u r n is h more hom ogeneous
| s c a l e s [p . 1 8 6 ] ," C a r te r ( 1 9 6 9 ) s h i f t e d from a c r i t e r i o n
ap p roach t o a f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c ap p ro a ch . He was c o n v in c e d i
i ■ i
! t h a t f a c t o r i a l l y pu re s c a l e s w ould be more u s e f u l i n a n a - j
I l y t i c s t u d ie s and w ould have more a r e a s o f a p p l ic a t io n , j
j" m oreover, th e f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c ap p roach te n d s t o p r o v id e j
! j
(m easu res w h ich a r e more r e l i a b l e [p . 1 8 7 ] ." j
I i
i |
j S im ila r ly , Zimmerman e t a l . ( 1 9 7 0 ) r e p o r te d " e f - j
j f o r t s d ir e c t e d tow ard i d e n t i f y i n g th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l d im en - (
! j
; i
I s io n s u n d e r ly in g th e r e s p o n s e s o f h ig h s c h o o l and c o l l e g e i
! |
! s tu d e n ts t o 167 s ta te m e n ts d e s c r ib in g t h e i r a t t i t u d e and |
(work h a b it s in a s c h o o l s e t t i n g [p . 4 3 3 ] ." For th e h ig h (
I s c h o o l g ro u p , f i v e i n t e r p r e t a b l e f a c t o r s w ere i s o l a t e d : !
j (
I(a) l e a r n i n g - a f f e c t - s a t i s f a c t i o n v s . d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith j
! le a r n in g e x p e r ie n c e , (b ) p e r s is t e n c e - c o n f o r m it y v s . d i s - >
i !
I t r a c t a b i l i t y - i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , ( c ) s e l f - a s s u r a n c e o r s e l f - !
! i
jc o n fid e n c e v s . a n x ie t y o r s e l f - d e p r e c i a t i o n , (d ) m eth od o-
( l o g i c a l and s y s te m a tic v s . s lip s h o d and d is o r g a n iz e d
(a p p ro a c h e s t o s t u d y in g , and ( e ) a l i e n a t i o n tow ard v s .
! i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w it h t e a c h e r s and e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s .
(F o r t h e c o l l e g e group t h e s e same i n v e s t i g a t o r s fou n d t h a t
j " f a c t o r s ap p eared th a t w ere l a r g e l y c o n g lo m e r a te s o f two or
!
i
t
i t h r e e o f th e f a c t o r s h y p o th e s iz e d , a lth o u g h th e seco n d h y -
| p o t h e s iz e d f a c t o r o f m ethod and sy stem s was q u it e c l e a r l y
: d e fin e d [p p . 4 3 4 -4 3 5 ]."
i
I R e p o r tin g on a d d it io n a l f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c s t u d ie s
i
! " th a t h ave b een c a r r ie d o u t t o r e f i n e t h e d im e n sio n s o f th e
I in str u m e n t [p . 54 5 ]" em p loyin g in tr o d u c to r y c l a s s e s o f a
j ju n io r c o l l e g e a s s u b j e c t s , M ich a el e t a l . (1 9 7 1 ) c la im e d
I
! t h a t c e r t a i n r e v i s i o n s h ave b een made r e l a t i v e t o a p r e -
I v io u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n (Zimmerman e t a l . , 1970) " p r im a r ily t o
| e lim in a t e f a c t o r i a l c o m p le x ity w h en ever p o s s i b l e [p . 5 4 6 ] ."
i
I A ccord in g t o t h i s r e p o r t , se v e n r e l a t i v e l y in d ep en d en t
1
i f a c t o r s w ere i s o l a t e d : " (a ) academ ic d r iv e , (b ) c o n fo r m ity ,
j
| ( c ) academ ic i n t e r e s t , (d ) a n x ie t y , ( e ) a l i e n a t i o n , ( f )
| m ethod and sy s te m , and (g ) m a n ip u la tio n ." H owever, in
! v ie w o f th e m eaning o f th e f a c t o r s g iv e n by t h e i n v e s t i g a -
i
I t o r s , o f t h e s e v e n o n ly " m an ip u lation " seem s t o d i f f e r from
i
| p r io r r e p o r te d u n co v ered d im e n sio n s o f th e in s tr u m e n t, and
! t h i s new f a c t o r , when i t s d e f i n i t i o n i s a s s e s s e d , e . g . ,
j " in v o lv in g p o l i t i c a l sh rew d n ess or s a v io r f a i r e on th e p a r t
i
| o f s tu d e n ts i n e x e r t in g pow er o v e r I n s t r u c t o r s to g a in
I t h e i r own e n d s, a s i f a t th e e x p e n se o f th e p r e s t i g e o f
1
j th e te a c h e r [p . 5 4 6 ] ," m ight be lin k e d a p p a r e n tly t o a l i e n -
I a t i o n .
j
i
1
Summary, C o n c lu s io n sj j
and R ecom m endations 1
1 r * i
j
Summary j
[
In t h i s c h a p te r s e l e c t e d l i t e r a t u r e in t h e f i e l d o f I
r e s e a r c h r e l a t i v e t o th e d evelop m en t o f m easu res o f stu d y
h a b it s and s k i l l s a s v a l i d p r e d ic t o r s o f academ ic a c h ie v e - J
t
I
ment was r e v ie w e d . The c h a p te r was d iv id e d i n t o two m ajor |
: ' I
[ s e c t i o n s . D e v e lo p m e n ta lly , S e c t io n I d e a lt w it h a r e v ie w o f
[th e l i t e r a t u r e d u rin g t h e t h i r t i e s and th e f o r t i e s w h ile
S e c t io n I I d e a lt w ith a r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e from n ea r
m id -c e n tu r y t o th e p r e s e n t s e v e n t i e s . The f i r s t s e c t i o n
d e m o n stra te d t h e c o n c e r n o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o c o l l e c t and
■key ite m s d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b etw een s u c c e s s f u l and f a i l i n g
[s tu d e n ts . C o n f lic t in g r e s u l t s c a s t some doubt on th e ad
v i s a b i l i t y - o f u s in g m easures o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s a s
[ v a lid p r e d ic t o r s o f academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t. P erh a p s, to o much
j a t t e n t io n was g iv e n t o e x p lo r a t io n o f th e m e c h a n ic a l a s p e c t s
io f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s r a th e r th a n t o m o t iv a tio n a l and
[ p e r s o n a lit y f a c t o r s , and t h i s o v erem p h a sis may h ave le d
!c e r t a i n i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o e x p lo r e "more b a s ic " f a c t o r s o f
[ p e r s o n a lit y a s s o c ia t e d w ith stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s .
i
IHowever, lim it e d s u c c e s s was g a in e d , a lth o u g h t h e fo u n d a -
i
j t io n f o r fu r t h e r r e s e a r c h was g iv e n im p e tu s. The seco n d
s e c t i o n , co m p lim en tin g th e f i r s t s e c t i o n , d e m o n stra te d t h e
i
jg r e a t s t r i d e s made i n t h e d evelop m en t o f m easu res o f s tu d y
[h a b its and s k i l l s a s v a l i d p r e d ic t o r s o f academ ic a c h ie v e -
I 47!
I m ent. In t h i s s e c t i o n t h e r e v ie w e d l i t e r a t u r e d em o n stra ted ;
i t h a t th e n o n - i n t e l l e c t i v e f a c t o r s su ch a s a t t i t u d e s and
i i
; I
; m o tiv a tio n r e c e iv e d more a t t e n t i o n th a n m ech an ics o r p r o - I
j c e d u r e s o f stu d y i n th e d evelop m en t o f m easures u se d t o !
; p r e d ic t academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t. M oreover, t h e l i t e r a t u r e
| r e v ie w e d showed t h a t r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s h i f t e d i t s e f f o r t j
! from a c r i t e r i o n ap p roach t o a f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c a p p ro a ch . i
I j
I H ow ever, ev en t h i s s h i f t o f e f f o r t , a lth o u g h w o r th w h ile in j
j ' I
I u n c o v e r in g th e u n d e r ly in g d im e n sio n s o f th e m easu res u s e d , j
j j
i h a s n o t b een e x c e p t i o n a l ly f r u i t f u l . j
; i
t i
| j
j C o n c lu sio n s ;
I t |
! The f o llo w in g c o n c lu s io n s a r e b a sed upon th e p r e - j
! c e d in g r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e : |
; 1 . F or t h e m ost p a r t th e s t u d ie s r e v ie w e d seem t o j
I j
I depend to o h e a v i ly upon t h e u s e o f t h e q u e s t io n - j
i I
I n a ir e m ethod o f r e s e a r c h i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h i
! I
ite m s c a p a b le o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b etw een s u e - !
i |
! c e s s f u l and f a i l i n g s t u d e n t s . In t h i s r e g a r d , j
; ' i
i t h a s n o t b een f ir m ly e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t th e j
; s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y v a r ia b le had b een a d e q u a te ly
1
I
c o n t r o l l e d , th u s a llo w in g f o r e x tr a n e o u s c o n -
;
! ta m in a tlo n o f th e d e g r e e o f a s s o c i a t i o n b etw een
i i
| stu d y h a b it s and s c h o l a s t i c s u c c e s s or f a i l u r e .
!
2 . M oreover, a lth o u g h much o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e -
i
i v iew ed recommended more a t t e n t i o n b e in g fo c u s e d
i
1
1 . __________________________
upon p e r s o n a lit y and a t t i t u d l n a l f a c t o r s a s s o c i
a te d w ith stu d y b e h a v io r , t h e r e was no c le a r - c u t
e v id e n c e g iv e n t o su p p o rt t h i s recom m endation.
In f a c t , su ch a recom m endation m ight even p ro v e
; s u p e r flu o u s and u n n e c e ss a r y (C a r te r , 1958, 1 9 5 9 ).
R ecom m endations
In v ie w o f t h e p r e c e d in g sh o rtc o m in g s o f th e a t
tem p ts t o e s t a b l i s h m easu res o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s a s
v a l i d p r e d ic t o r s o f academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t, i t i s recommended
I
't h a t more e f f o r t be d ir e c t e d to C a r t e r 's ( 1 9 5 8 ) s u g g e s t io n
j r e l a t i v e t o e x p lo r in g th e m ech an ics and p r o c ed u r es o f stu d y
;h a b i t s and s k i l l s — s in c e " e v id e n c e i n d ic a t e s th a t t h e me-
i
jc h a n lc s o f s tu d y p ro ced u re . . . a r e im p o rta n t d e te r m in e r s
i
|o f s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t. T h is f in d in g s u g g e s t s a n eed ed r e -
!i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s from o th e r s t u d ie s [p . 1 3 ] ."
|
|One in str u m e n t t h a t seem s t o h o ld p rom ise i n t h i s r e g a r d
j i s t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s ( M e t f e s s e l, 1 9 6 6 )
w h ich h as shown p ro m ise i n p r e d ic t in g academ ic s u c c e s s o f
jd isa d v a n ta g e d y o u th i n p i l o t s t u d i e s . In t h i s m easure o f
!s tu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s , m o tiv a tio n a s a v a r ia b le i s n o t
jr u le d out a lth o u g h th e m ajor em p hasis i s on kn ow led ge and
i
(a w aren ess o f p s y c h o l o g ic a ll y and e d u c a t io n a lly a p p r o p r ia te
(s tu d y b e h a v io r and p r o c e d u r e s.
CHAPTER I I I ;
!
DESCRIPTION OP THE TEST OP STUDY HABITS AND ;
SKILLS AND RELATED RESEARCH VARIABLES !
i
T h is c h a p te r d e s c r ib e s t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its a n d j
S k i l l s ( M e t f e s s e l, 1 9 6 6 ) and r e l a t e d v a r ia b le s u se d i n i n - j
v e s t i g a t i n g i t s v a l i d i t y a s a p r e d ic t o r o f academ ic a c h ie v e ^
1
i
ment o f t w e lf t h - g r a d e e d u c a tio n a l d isa d v a n ta g e d y o u th . j
i
A ls o , th e s u c c e s s o f th e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s in j
j
e a r l i e r p i l o t s t u d ie s i s d is c u s s e d . |
i
I
A th o ro u g h se a r c h o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i v e t o !
i
stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s a s m easu res p r e d i c t i v e o f acad em ic j
a ch iev em en t in d ic a t e d t h a t su ch in s tr u m e n ts a r e u s u a l l y j
i
co n cern ed w ith one or more o f t h e f o llo w in g a r e a s a s s o c i - !
a te d w ith stu d y : j
1
1 . The stu d y b e h a v io r o r stu d y a c t i v i t y p e r s e j
(C a r te r , 1 9 4 8 , 1 9 50, 1 9 5 1 , 1 9 5 2 , 1 9 53, 1 9 55, 1956, 1958; j
Brown, 1941; C u ff, 1937; S c h u tte r & M aher, 1956; M aher,
1 9 5 9 ).
t
2 . The stu d y b e h a v io r o r stu d y ach iev em en t and |
j
r e la te d a ttitu d e s (Holtzman, Brown & Farquhar, 1 9 5 6 ; Brown j
& Holtzman, 1 9 5 5 ; C arter, 1 9 5 1 , 1 9 5 5 , 1 9 5 6 , 1 9 5 8 , 1 9 5 9 ;
M ichael & Reeder, 1 9 5 2 ; M ichael, Jon es, & Trembley, 1 9 5 9 J
5 0
Zimmerman, M ic h a e l, & M ic h a e l, 1970; H olm es, 1958,* Wrenn & j
jHumber, 1941; Khan, 1 9 6 9 , 1970; Khan & R o b e r ts, 1969;
C h ah b azi, 1 9 5 7 ).
3 . A t t it u d e s and i n t e r e s t s a s s o c ia t e d w ith s tu d y
h a b i t s (S c h u ltz & G reen, 1953; Myers & S c h u lt z , 1 9 5 0 ).
4 . P e r s o n a lit y f a c t o r s a s s o c ia t e d w ith and I n f l u - j
: i
e n c in g stu d y b e h a v io r (T ie b o u t, 1943; G la d s te in , 1963; Lum,
■i9 6 0 ; Ahman, Sm ith & G lo ck , 1958; B ig g s , 1 9 7 0 a , 1970b;
: S c h le s s e r & Young, 1945; E n t w is t le & W ilso n , 1 9 7 0 a , 1 9 7 0 b ).
Prom th e a b o v e -m en tio n ed a r e a s o f c o n cern o f r e -
t
is e a r c h e r s i n v e s t i g a t i n g stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s i t was
j
!e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t one can i n v e s t i g a t e e i t h e r t h e i n t e l l e c -
i
j t i v e and c o g n i t iv e com ponents or n o n - i n t e l l e c t i v e and
j a f f e c t i v e a s p e c t s o f stu d y b e h a v io r . The im p o rta n ce g iv e n
|t o one or t h e o th e r ap p roach h a s v a r ie d from i n v e s t i g a t o r
i
!to i n v e s t i g a t o r , and, a l s o , w ith th e same i n v e s t i g a t o r
I (C a r te r , 1 9 5 5 , 1 9 5 6 , 1 9 5 8 , 1959) from tim e t o tim e .
j
| D e s c r ip t io n o f t h e T e st o f
j S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s
I The T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s was d e v e lo p e d
!
1
!i n 1966 t o a s s e s s th e kn ow led ge and a w a ren ess o f a p p r o p r i-
ja te s tu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s o f d isa d v a n ta g e d s tu d e n ts l l v -
iin g i n t h e same s c h o o l d i s t r i c t from F eb ru ary 1 t o June 1 5 ,
11967.
i
| The norms g iv e n i n T a b le 1 showed t h a t i t c o u ld be
I '
|u s e d s u c c e s s f u l l y in a s tu d y su ch a s t h i s .
TABLE 1
TEST OF STUDY HABITS AND SKILLS--1 9 6 7
DISADVANTAGED STUDENT N O R M S
H igh S c h o o l
J u n io r
H igh S c h o o l
Boys
Number
357 123
Mean 6 6 .6 2 5 4 .7 4
S tan d ard D e v ia tio n
1 4 .8 3
1 2 .6 2
G ir ls '
Number
319 91
Mean 6 9 .6 1 54.61'
S tan d ard D e v ia tio n
1 2 .2 7 1 3 .3 1
T o ta l
Number 676 214
Mean 6 6 .9 5 5 4 .6 8
Stan d ard D e v ia tio n
1 3 .9 7
1 2 .9 2
Stan d ard E rror
.5 3 7 .8 8 5
R e l i a b i l i t y
.8 9 5
.8 6 1
The T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s c a p i t a l i z e s
: |
|h e a v i l y on i n t e l l e c t i v e a s p e c t s o f s tu d y -b e h a v io r by way o f ;
: k n ow led ge and a w a ren ess o f a p p r o p r ia te stu d y h a b it s and !
: s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y f o r academ ic s u c c e s s .
i
i
An in s p e c t i o n o f th e in str u m e n t (A p pend ix) shows i t j
; i s d iv id e d i n t o (a ) g e n e r a l a r e a s , P a r ts I -X , ea ch p a r t i
i w ith i t s own s h o r t e a s i l y r ea d and u n d e r sto o d s p e c i f i c d i - j
i i
| r e c t i o n s , and ca n b e d iv id e d i n t o (b ) s p e c i f i c a r e a s . |
I The g e n e r a l a r e a s a r e : j
| 1
P a rt I and P a rt I I a s s e s s g e n e r a l k n ow led ge o f j
! f
i i
| b a s ic p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r ly in g acad em ic s u c c e s s . T h is i n - i
I !
j e lu d e s k n ow led ge o f th e k in d o f environm entram ost c o n d u c iv e
i
| f o r e f f i c i e n t stu d y a s w e l l a s kn ow led ge o f th e m ost e f -
; i
I f e c t i v e stu d y m ethods i n le a r n in g s p e c i f i c t y p e s o f m a te r i-|
i a l s . j
! P a rt I I I a s s e s s e s k n ow led ge o f p u n c tu a tio n and
i
i r e f e r e n c e m arks, w h ich a r e v i t a l f o r c l a r i t y i n w r it in g
! . !
! and r e a d in g . I
I I
! P a rt IV and P art V a s s e s s th e s t u d e n t 's a b i l i t y t o
i
j u s e th e l i b r a r y . Em phasis i s p la c e d on th e Dewey D ecim al
I System I n c lu d in g arrangem ent and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s and f u n c -
j t i o n o f t h e ca rd c a t a lo g .
| P a r t VI t e s t s t h e s t u d e n t 's k n ow led ge o f t h e
! v a r io u s p a r t s o f a b ook , t h e i r f u n c t io n and w here th e y may
! be foun d i n a b ook .
i
; 5 3 1
P art V II and P art V I II a s s e s s th e s t u d e n t ’ s k n o w l- i
I
ed ge o f r e f e r e n c e book s a v a i la b l e i n th e l i b r a r i e s and th e !
i
k in d s o f in fo r m a tio n in c lu d e d i n s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e b o o k s. !
P a rt IX and P a rt X t e s t t h e in d iv id u a l s t u d e n t 's
1 t
i
a b i l i t y t o u s e th e R e a d e r s 1 G u id e. :
The s p e c i f i c a r e a s a r e : !
i
i
1 . A k n ow led ge o f b a s ic s tu d y s k i l l s ( q u e s t io n s 1 , |
i
2 , 9 , 1 7 ) . |
2 . An a w a ren ess o f th e m ost a p p r o p r ia te stu d y
; c o n d it io n s ( q u e s t io n s 3* 4 , 5* 14* 2 4 ) .
3 . A k n ow led ge o f how t o ta k e good n o te s
I ( q u e s t io n s 7 , 8 , 1 8 , 2 1 , 2 7 ) .
1 4 . A k n ow led ge o f how t o s tu d y e f f e c t i v e l y
( q u e s t io n s 6 , 1 0 , 13* 1 9 * 2 0 , 2 2 , 2 5 ).
5 . An a w a ren ess o f t h e im p o r ta n c e o f m o t iv a tio n a l
f a c t o r s ( q u e s t io n s 1 0 , 1 9 * 2 0 , 3 0 , 6 1 - 7 0 , 7 7 ) .
6 . A g e n e r a l k n ow led ge o f th e u s e o f th e lib r a r y
( q u e s t io n s 4 l , 4 2 , 4 3 , 44* 4 5 ) .
!
; 7 . A s p e c i f i c k n ow led ge o f t h e u s e o f th e ca rd
c a t a lo g ( q u e s t io n s 4 6 , 47* 4 8 , 49* 5 0 ) .
8 . A k n ow led ge o f t h e m eaning and t h e p ro p er u s e
o f p u n c tu a tio n and r e f e r e n c e marks ( q u e s t io n s
31* 3 2 , 33* 3 4 , 35* 36 * 37* 38* 39* 4 0 ) .
9 . A w ork in g k n ow led ge o f g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e ma
t e r i a l s ( q u e s t io n s 3 0 , 71* 7 2 * 73* 74* 75* 76*
77* 78* 79* 8 0 , 83* 8 4 , 8 5 ) . '
; 5 4
1 0 . A k n ow led ge o f th e p u rp o se and u s e o f p a r ts o f
a hook ( q u e s t io n s 6 l , 6 2 , 6 3 , 7 4 , 6 5 , 6 6 , 6 7 , 1
6 8 , 6 9 , 7 0 ) . j
i i
I 1 1 . A k n ow led ge o f th e u s e o f th e R e a d e r ^ Guide
! • ' !
I and th e c a t e g o r i e s I n to w h ich s p e c i f i c m agazin es j
f a l l ( q u e s t io n s 91* 9 2 , 9 3 , 9 4 , 95* 9 6 , 97* 9 8 * j
| 99* 100). !
! 1 2 , A w ork in g k n ow led ge o f s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e m a te- j
j r i a l s ( q u e s t io n s 8 2 , 8 6 , 8 7 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 0 ) .
The L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s ,
| Form 1 , V e r b a l B a tte r y
i
| The o th e r in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le u se d i n t h i s l n v e s -
j t i g a t i o n was th e IQs o f t h e t w e lf t h - g r a d e d is a d v a n ta g e d
i
! y o u th s o f t h e 1969 and 1970 s c h o o l y e a r s . The IQs w ere
! o b ta in e d from an a ss e s sm e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e u s in g t h e
| L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s , Form 1 , V erb a l B a tte r y
j (L orge & T h o rn d ik e, 1 9 5 7 ).
! W ith r e g a r d t o t h e L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e
!
j T e s t s , Freem an i n The F i f t h M en tal M easurem ents Y earbook .
| (B u r o s, 1959) s t a t e s : "The 1957 v e r s io n o f th e L orge-
I
I T h orn dike I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s i s among t h e b e s t group t e s t
i
| a v a i la b l e from t h e p o in t o f v iew o f t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n -
| s t r u c t s upon w h ich i t i s b a sed and th a t o f s t a t i s t i c a l
|
j s t a n d a r d iz a t io n [p . 4 7 9 ]* " and, m oreover, v e r b a l IQs w ere
I
; c o n s id e r e d s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r a s s e s s i n g a p t it u d e b e c a u se " th e
c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e much more c o n v in c in g r a n g in g from ,5 4 t o
5 5 !
.7 0 , a l l b u t two b e in g i n th e ,6 0 ' s [B u r o s, 1959* p . 4 8 l ] . " l
Cronbach ( i 9 6 0 ) c o r r o b o r a te s B u r o s1 a s s e r t io n s w ith I
t
th e f o llo w in g comment c o n c e r n in g th e L orge-T h orn d ik e I n t e l - j
I
l ig e n c e T e s t s , v i z . , "A w e ll c o n s tr u c te d t e s t . . . . S in c e |
t h e v e r b a l and n o n -v e r b a l s c o r e s c o r r e l a t e abou t . 7 0 , d i f - |
i
f e r e n c e s b etw een s c o r e s w i l l n o t be s i g n i f i c a n t f o r th e I
m a jo r ity o f p u p ils [p p . 2 30- 2 3 1 ] ." j
I
; j
;The D ependent V a r ia b le !
i n t h i s I n v e s t ig a t i o n
The d ep en d en t v a r ia b le i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was
ith e a ccu m u lated g r a d e -p o in t a v e r a g e s (GPAs) o f t w e l f t h -
;g r a d e d isa d v a n ta g e d s tu d e n ts a t t h e end o f th e s c h o o l y e a r
:(1 9 6 9 and 1 9 7 0 ). T h ese in d ic e s o f academ ic a ch iev em en t
!were o b ta in e d from t h e c u m u la tiv e f o ld e r s o f th e s tu d e n ts
;in c lu d e d in th e r e s e a r c h sa m p le s. The GrPAs r e f l e c t e d ( i t
;was assum ed) th e l e v e l o f ach iev em en t rea ch ed by t h e s t u -
jd en t in c lu d e d in th e stu d y a t t h e tim e o f m easurem ent w ith
jth e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s ( M e t f e s s e l, 1 9 6 6 ) . -
In summary, th e T e st o f Stu d y H a b its and S k i l l s i s
Ian 1 0 0 -ite m p a p e r -a n d -p e n c il t e s t d e v e lo p e d f o r a s s e s s i n g
i
|s tu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s o f d isa d v a n ta g e d y o u th by a r e -
t
'se a r c h team u n der th e d ir e c t o r s h ip o f Newton S. M e t f e s s e l,
lu n iv e r s it y o f S ou th ern C a lif o r n ia , P r o je c t P o t e n t i a l , i n
H 9 6 7 . B eca u se o f i t s s u c c e s s i n p i l o t s t u d i e s , w here t h e
i
|s t r e n g t h s and w e a k n esse s o f d isa d v a n ta g e d y o u th w ere s u c -
i
I c e s s f u l l y a s s e s s e d (T a b le l ) i t was d e c id e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f em p lo y in g i t a lo n g w ith an e x c e l l e n t
a p t it u d e t e s t ( LTV) a s p r e d ic t o r v a r ia b le s o f GPAs o f d i s
a d v a n ta g ed t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s .
The T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s may be s e e n in
th e A ppendix a lo n g w ith i t s s c o r in g k e y .
CHAPTER IV
t '
1 ;
: i
! PROCEDURES |
; T h is c h a p te r w i l l e x p la in t h e p r o c e d u r e s fo llo w e d
! i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a ls o th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e
i sa m p le s, t h e in s tr u m e n ts u s e d , and th e manner o f d a ta |
i :
j a n a l y s i s . j
i i
: i
S u b je c ts
! ;
| S u b je c ts f o r th e s tu d y w ere t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n ts j
; t
j drawn from tw o s e n io r h ig h s c h o o ls i n a d i s t r i c t lo c a t e d in;
] ‘ j
I t h e s o u th c e n t r a l p o r t io n o f t h e Los A n g e le s urban a r e a I
I I
I c o v e r in g a p p r o x im a te ly 18 sq u a re m ile s and h a v in g a p p r o x i- !
i ‘ j
! m a tely 7000 s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d i n t h r e e s e n io r h ig h s c h o o ls ,!
; a v e r a g in g abou t 2500 p u p ils a t e a ch o f t h e t h r e e s e n io r j
I h ig h s c h o o ls . The e th n ic breakdown o f th e two t a r g e t
i
! s c h o o ls in t h i s s tu d y was a s o f O ctob er 1969 th ro u g h June j
; 1 9 7 0 , t h e p e r io d o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n : J
i j
j
| A p p ro x im a tely 1$ W hite
i
| 85# B la ck
! 14$ S p a n ish surnam ed
i The breakdown a s t o s u b j e c t s o f t h e two s c h o o l s , j
I !
: 1
; Compton H igh S c h o o l and C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l, in c lu d e d i
1
1
i n t h i s s tu d y i s a s f o llo w s : i
5 7 ■ !
Compton H igh S c h o o l
(E x p e r im e n ta l)
iq g q B o y s ............................................... 88
* Lyoy G i r l s ............................................._93_
T o ta l 181
- Q7n B o y s ............................................... 36
^97° G i r l s ............................................... 44
1970
T o ta l 80
C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l
(C o n tr o l)
iq g q B o y s ...............................................94
G i r l s ............................................ 134
T o ta l 228
B o y s .............................................. 35
G i r l s .............................................. 35
T o ta l 70
For th e p u rp ose o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h e Compton
sam p les w ere c o n s id e r e d t h e e x p e r im e n ta l group s in c e th e y
j r e c e iv e d fo rm a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n a p p r o p r ia te m ethods o f stu d y
w h ereas t h e C e n te n n ia l sam p les r e c e iv e d no su ch i n s t r u c t i o n
and, a c c o r d in g ly , w ere c o n s id e r e d th e c o n t r o l g ro u p . The
groups w ere c o n s id e r e d r e p r e s e n t a t iv e sam p les o f th e s e n io r
jp o p u la tio n s o f each r e s p e c t i v e s c h o o l s in c e (a ) a l l s e n io r s
| a t Compton H igh S c h o o l who had b een random ly s e l e c t e d to
j p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e te a m -te a c h in g and E n g llsh -G overn m en t
I
> c l a s s e s w ere t e s t e d b o th d u rin g 1969 and 1 9 7 0 , and, t h e r e
a f t e r , sa m p les w ere random ly s e l e c t e d from a l l t e s t e d t o j
i
i
p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The m ethod o f s e l e c t i o n '
o f s u b j e c t s was a s f o l lo w s : ( l ) f o r 1 9 6 9 , e v e r y o t h e r su b -
I
j e c t t e s t e d , and ( 2 ) f o r 1 9 7 0 , e v e r y f i f t h s u b j e c t t e s t e d , |
I
a f t e r a l l s u b je c ts * names had b een p la c e d i n a lp h a b e t ic a l I
1
o r d e r . (b ) A l l s e n io r s a t C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l e n r o lle d j
i n t h e E n glish -G overn m en t c l a s s e s w ere t e s t e d in 1969 and
1 9 7 0 , and, t h e r e a f t e r , sa m p les w ere s e l e c t e d in th e same
manner a s d e s c r ib e d ab ove f o r s e l e c t i o n o f sam p les a t Comp-
;ton H igh S c h o o l, t h a t i s , sam p les in c lu d e d : ( l ) e v e r y o th e r
;s u b j e c t t e s t e d i n 1 9 6 9* and ( 2 ) e v er y f i f t h s u b j e c t t e s t e d
;in 1 9 7 0 , a f t e r a l l s u b je c ts * names had b een a rra n g ed i n
:a lp h a b e t ic a l o r d e r .
The s u b j e c t s w ere c o n s id e r e d r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f t h e
d is a d v a n ta g e d p o p u la tio n s i n c e th e h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s
j
I in an a r e a r a n k in g low i n term s o f fa m ily in co m e, unem ploy
m en t (m a le ), e d u c a tio n and d e lin q u e n c y (McCone, 1 9 6 5 ) .
jM oreover, d u rin g th e p e r io d o f t h i s stu d y i t q u a l i f i e d f o r
1
jgovernm ent fu n d in g u n der t h e E lem en tary and S econ d ary Edu-
I
;c a t io n A c t, T i t l e I , e s t a b l i s h i n g program s f o r d is a d v a n -
i
jta g e d c h ild r e n i n o r d e r t o com p en sate f o r t h e i r s o c i a l ,
ie d u c a tio n a l and c u l t u r a l d e f i c i e n c i e s w ith p a r t i c u la r em-
ip h a s is on e d u c a tio n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s .
60\
In str u m e n ts Used
Two t e s t s w ere in c lu d e d a s in d ep en d e n t v a r ia b le s in i
! t h i s stu d y : (a ) th e T e st o f Stu d y H a b its and S k i l l s (M et-
| f e s s e l , 1 9 6 6 ) , (A p p e n d ix ), and (b ) th e L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e
; • 1
; I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s , Form 1 , V e rb a l B a tte r y . j
The T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s , an 1 0 0 -ite m j
; ' |
* p a p e r -a n d -p e n c il t e s t d e s c r ib e d i n C hapter I I I , was adm in- j
; j
; i s t e r e d t o th e s u b j e c t s s e l e c t e d d u rin g th e l a s t week o f j
: i
1 ' I
j A p r il o f th e 1969 s c h o o l y e a r and d u rin g t h e f i r s t week o f j
j i
; ;
! May o f th e 1970 s c h o o l y e a r . The 1970 t e s t i n g was c a r r ie d j
i ■ i
; I
j o u t p r im a r ily f o r th e p u rp o se o f c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e j
i
; i
i e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e b e t a w e ig h ts u se d in th e p r e d i c t i v e
i
! r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n d e r iv e d from th e 1969 sa m p les (T a b le
I 3 ) .
j One h ou r was a llo w e d f o r a d m in is t r a t io n o f t h e
I TSHS; t h i s was fou n d t o be a d e q u a te . E a s ily rea d and
i
i u n d e r s ta n d a b le d i r e c t i o n s a r e in c o r p o r a te d i n t h e t e s t .
! L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s ts
|
C h o ice o f th e L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s ,
i Form 1 , V e r b a l B a t t e r y , was fou n d t o be v a l id by r e a so n o f
| p r e v io u s r e s e a r c h r e p o r te d i n B u r o s1 (1 9 5 9 ) The F i f t h Men-
I
i t a l M easurem ents Y earb ook . The L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i -
i ,
1
! g e n c e T e s ts a r e u s e d p r im a r ily a s a m easure o f th e s t u -
i d e n t s ’ a b i l i t y t o su c c e e d i n f u t u r e s c h o o l work (B u r o s,
! 1 9 5 9 ).
(
: I
S c o r in g o f t h e T e s t o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s was
done m a n u a lly by t h i s w r it e r . An in d iv id u a l s c o r e on th e
t
t e s t was o b ta in e d by c o u n tin g t h e t o t a l number o f q u e s tio n s !
■ _ |
an sw ered c o r r e c t l y a llo w in g one p o in t fo r ea ch c o r r e c t
|
1
;a n sw e r . j
i
S c o r e s on t h e L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e sts.,
Form 1 , V e rb a l B a tt e r y , w ere o b ta in e d from th e c u m u la tiv e
f o l d e r s o f th e s u b j e c t s a lo n g w ith t h e i r g r a d e -p o in t a v e r -
a g e s .
; For th e 1969 sa m p le s, t h e L orge-T h orn d ik e I n t e l l i -
'g e n c e T e s t s , Form 1 , V erb a l B a t t e r y , was a d m in is te r e d
1
!
j.during t h e end o f t h e sophom ore y e a r , w h ile f o r th e 1970
sam p les th e same t e s t was a d m in is te r e d d u rin g t h e b e g in n in g
o f t h e se n io r - y e a r . The a p t it u d e t e s t i n g was c a r r ie d out
b y th e G uidance and C o u n selin g D epartm ent o f th e s c h o o l d is--
I .
t r i c t , w h ereas th e T e st o f S tu d y and S k i l l s was a d m in is
t e r e d a t th e two s c h o o ls b y t h e s u b j e c t s ' E n g lish -G o v e r n -
j
ment t e a c h e r s u n d er th e s u p e r v is io n o f t h i s w r it e r .
1 D ata A n a ly s is
i
: The d a ta d e r iv e d from t h e in d ep en d en t v a r i a b l e s ,
v i z . , (a ) th e L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s , Form 1,
I
| V e rb a l B a t t e r y , and (b) th e T e st o f Stu dy H a b its and S k i l l s
i
j and from t h e d ep en d en t v a r ia b le , v i z . , ( c ) th e g r a d e -p o in t
i
| a v e r a g e s w ere s t a t i s t i c a l l y a n a ly z e d th ro u g h program s p r o c -
I
L . ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ • - .
; 6 2 1
j i
;e s s e d a t t h e U n iv e r s it y Computer C e n te r, th e U n iv e r s it y o f j
|
S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia , on t h e IBM -370, Model 1 - 1 5 5 . I
' j
The m ajor s t a t i s t i c a l tr e a tm e n ts r e q u ir e d o b ta in in g j
th e f o llo w in g : (a ) sim p le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n a s ;
; |
w e l l a s p a r t i a l c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n f o r a l l sam p les j
(T a b le 2 ) , (b ) m u lt ip le R s, R2 s , and ( c ) b e t a w e ig h ts f o r j
i
; a l l sa m p le s. (The 1969 b e ta w e ig h ts w ere em p loyed in th e J
m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n u se d t o p r e d ic t 1970 GPAs j
’(T a b le s 3 and 4 ) ) , (d) t_ t e s t s o f d if f e r e n c e o f means b e -
i
itw een a l l g ro u p s w ith r e g a r d t o s e x , s c h o o l, and y e a r o f
|t e s t i n g (T a b le s 5 - 1 8 ) , ( e ) F t e s t s f o r a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e
!f o r a l l g ro u p s on t h e b a s i s o f s e x , s c h o o l, and y e a r o f
i t e s t i n g (T a b le s 5 - 1 8 ) . (F or th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e s
I o f th e sam p les i n v e s t i g a t e d , t h e .0 1 l e v e l (p < .01) was
jch o se n . A ls o , o n e - t a i l e d t e s t s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e w ith (p <
1.01) w ere u se d f o r d e te r m in in g d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e e x
p e r im e n t a l and c o n t r o l g rou p s w h erev er i t was assum ed th e
I ' '
je x p e r im e n ta l c o n d it io n (fo r m a l in s t r u c t io n i n s tu d y h a b it s
and s k i l l s ) a f f e c t e d r e s u l t s , e . g . , com paring e x p e r im e n ta l
b oys v e r s u s c o n t r o l b o y s . H ow ever, w h erever i t was assum ed
j
t h a t th e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d it io n (fo r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n in stu d y
h a b it s and s k i l l s ) d id n o t a f f e c t t h e r e s u l t s , e . g . , com
p a r in g e x p e r im e n ta l b oys v e r s u s e x p e r im e n ta l g i r l s , th e
j t w o - t a ile d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e was u sed (p < .01)), and (f)
jK ud er-R ich ard son e s t im a t e s o f r e l i a b i l i t y , K-R 20 and
K-R 21.
! C h apter Summary
i >
! T h is c h a p te r h a s d is c u s s e d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f j
; I
I th e sa m p les u sed i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , th e in s tr u m e n ts
iem p loyed a s in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , t h e d ep en d en t v a r ia b le
! . !
; (GPA), t h e s t a t i s t i c a l tr e a tm e n t u se d in a n a ly z in g t h e d a ta !
i |
|f o r d is p o s in g o f t h e q u e s tio n s t o be an sw ered and f o r a c - j
j c e p tin g o r r e j e c t i n g th e h y p o th e s e s s e t f o r t h i n C h apter I . j
j j
j A co m p reh en siv e d i s c u s s i o n o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l j
' I
j r e s u l t s a r e g iv e n i n t h e f o llo w in g c h a p te r , C h apter V. |
64 |
I
i
i
i
TABLE 2 I
TABLE OP SIMPLE AND PARTIAL COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION FOR!
1969 AND 1970 SAMPLES (COMPTON BOYS, C O M PTO N GIRLS, I
CENTENNIAL BOYS, AND CENTENNIAL GIRLS DESIGNATED: j
1 , 2 , 3 j 4 , RESPECTIVELY) IN W HICH VARIABLE 1 j
IS GRADE-POINT AVERAGE (GPA)j VARIABLE 2 IS !
LORGE-THORNDIKE INTELLIGENCE TESTS (LTV) !
AND VARIABLE 3 IS TEST OF
STUDY HABITS AND SKILLS
( TSHS)
r 12 r 13 r 2 3 r 1 2 . 3 r13.2 r 2 3 .1
1969
1
.5 7 1 .5 3 9
.6 5 0
.3 4 5 .2 6 9 .4 9 5
2 .6 3 0 .6 7 2 .6 2 7
.3 6 2 .4 5 8 .3 5 4
3
.4 4 4
.5 5 5 .6 4 9 .1 3 2
.3 9 1
.5 4 0
4 .5 8 4
.6 1 5 .7 1 4 .2 6 2 .3 4 8 .5 5 4
1970
1
.3 8 9 .2 5 9
.6 1 8 .3 0 1 .0 2 6 .5 8 1
2 .6 3 8
C O
C O
t-
•
.7 8 0 .1 4 8
.4 9 9 .5 9 5
3
.3 2 1 .4 4 4 .5 4 8 .1 0 4 .3 3 8 .4 7 8
4 .5 9 4 .2 9 0
.5 5 9 .5 4 3
.0 6 2 .502
6 5
TABLE 3
TABLE OP MULTIPLE R s, r £ s , AND BETA WEIGHTS OP THE MULTIPLE
REGRESSION EQUATIONS FOR I 969 AND 1970 SAMPLES (COM PTON
BOYS, CO M PTO N GIRLS, CENTENNIAL BOYS, CENTENNIAL GIRLS,
DESIGNATED: 1 , 2 , 3 , AND 4 , RESPECTIVELY), IN W HICH
Bt IS WEIGHT FOR THE LORGE-THORNDIKE INTELLIGENCE
TESTS (LTV) AND BP IS W EIGttt? FOR THE TEST OP
STUDY HABITS AND SKILLS ( TSHS)
R r 2
B l
b 2
1969
1
1
1
1
.6 1 2
.3 7 5
.3 8 2
.2 9 1
2
.7 2 3 .5 2 3
.3 4 4 .4 5 6
3
.5 6 6 .3 2 0 .1 4 5 .
.4 6 1
4 .6 4 9 .4 2 1 .2 9 6 .4 o 4
1970
1 .3 9 0 .1 5 2 .3 7 0 .0 3 0
2
.7 4 5 .5 5 5 .1 5 9
.6 1 4
3
.4 5 4 .2 0 6 . i l l
.3 8 3
4
.5 9 5
.3 5 4 .6 2 7 .0 6 0
•
i
TABLE 4
TABLE O E COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION FOR PREDICTED (R»)
CPA (1 9 7 0 ) AND ACTUAL (R) GPA (1 9 7 0 ) USING BETA WEIGHTS
FRO M 1969 SAMPLES FOR CO M PTO N BOYS, C O M PTO N GIRLS,
CENTENNIAL BOYS, AND CENTENNIAL GIRLS DESIGNATED
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , RESPECTIVELY .
R J_ R
1 .3 6 2 .3 9 0
2
.7 3 7 .7^ 5
3
.4 5 4 .4 5 4
4 .4 5 1 .5 9 5
.CHAPTER V
RESULTS, FINDINGS, AND SU M M A R Y
T h is c h a p te r d i s c u s s e s th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s i n v e s t i -
i g a t io n , w ith m ajor em p h asis b e in g g iv e n t o th e v a l i d i t y o f j
i I
! th e T e s t o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s ( M e t f e s s e l, 1 9 6 6) ,as a
! i
j p r e d ic t o r o f acad em ic a ch iev em en t o f d isa d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - j
| g ra d e s t u d e n t s . The f o llo w in g a r e a s c o v e r e d i n t h i s c h a p - j
t e r a r e s (a ) sta te m e n t o f t h e q u e s tio n s t o .b e an sw ered and
: t h e h y p o th e s e s t o be t e s t e d , (b ) m ajor f in d in g s y i e l d i n g
j an sw ers t o t h e q u e s t io n s p o se d and a llo w in g f o r a c c e p ta n c e
I
; o r r e j e c t i o n o f t h e s t a t e d h y p o th e s e s , and ( c ) c h a p te r
!
| summary.
Q u e stio n s t o be Answ ered
! and M ajor H y p o th ese s j
I t o be T e s te d
| I n C hapter I q u e s t io n s t o b e answ ered w ere s e t
I f o r t h and a r e r e p e a te d h e r e :
[
|
I Q u e stio n s t o be A nsw ered
I ■ ■ ' ■ J 1 ■
I
| 1 . G iven s im p le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n , would,
| th e d ata c o lle c te d support th e c o n te n tio n .th a t th e T est of
| Study H abits and S k i l l s p r e d ic ts academic achievem ent o f
disadvantaged tw e lfth -g r a d e stu d en ts as w e ll as th e a p t l-
j
tu d e t e s t u se d i n t h i s stu d y ?
2 . G iven p a r t i a l c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n , |
w ould th e d a ta c o l l e c t e d su p p o rt th e c o n te n t io n t h a t th e
I T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s p r e d ic t s academ ic a c h ie v e - |
j i
iment o f d isa d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e s tu d e n ts a s w e l l a s t h e
I a p t it u d e t e s t u sed i n t h i s stu d y?
I 3 . G iven th e m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n
w ould t h e d a ta c o l l e c t e d su p p o rt t h e c o n te n t io n t h a t th e
T e st o f Stu d y H a b its and S k i l l s , when in c lu d e d a s a p r e
d i c t o r v a r ia b le i n t h e m u lt ip le r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n , su b -
j s t a n t i a l l y ( e . g . , n u m e r ic a lly ) in c r e a s e s th e em ergin g m ul-
j t i p l e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n above c o r r e sp o n d in g nu
m e r i c a l v a lu e s o f sim p le c o e f f i c i e n t s or p a r t i a l c o e f f i
c i e n t s o f c o r r e la t io n ?
| • 4 . G iven th e b e t a w e ig h ts o f th e 1969 sam p les i n
io rd er t o p r e d ic t th e g r a d e -p o in t a v e r a g e s o f c o r r e sp o n d in g
11970 sa m p le s, e . g . , b oys ( 1 9 6 9 ) o f Compton H igh S c h o o l
v e r s u s boys (1 9 7 0 ) o f Compton H igh S c h o o l, w ould t h e d a ta
c o l l e c t e d , e . g . , m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f d e te r m in a tio n ,
su p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n t h a t t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and.
S k i l l s , when in c lu d e d i n th e m u ltip le p r e d i c t i v e r e g r e s s io n
e q u a tio n , s u b s t a n t i a l l y a id s a c c u r a c y o f p r e d i c t i o n o f a c a -
jdem ic a ch iev em en t o f d isa d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e s tu d e n ts ?
j The answ er t o t h e s e fo u r q u e s tio n s ( i t was assum ed)
i ;
!w ould e s t a b l i s h (a ) w h eth er t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and
i •
| S k i l l s i s a v a l i d p r e d ic t o r o f academ ic a ch iev em en t o f d i s -
|a d v a n ta g ed t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s , and (b ) w h eth er i t makes
[ ........................ '....... '.............. 69
a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r ib u t io n in t h e m u lt ip le p r e d i c t i v e r e - j
; j
g r e s s io n e q u a tio n . |
In t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i t was a c c e p te d t h a t a s ig n if - j
f
1 1
le a n t c o n t r ib u t io n w ou ld b e made i f . t h e m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s
o f c o r r e l a t io n w ould be in c r e a s e d o v e r (o r g r e a t e r n u m eri- j
: c a lly th a n ) c o r r e sp o n d in g sim p le and p a r t i a l c o e f f i c i e n t s ofj
c o r r e la t io n . S t a t e d i n a n o th e r way., i f i t c o u ld be e s t a b
l i s h e d th a t in c lu d in g t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s
;in th e m u lt ip le p r e d i c t i v e r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n m a n if e s t ly
ia llo w ed i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f more o f t h e u n e x p la in e d v a r ia n c e .
! In C h ap ter I th e m ajor h y p o th e s e s w ere s t a t e d and
jare r e p e a te d h e r e :
J ho- j ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
, th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l (group r e c e iv in g fo rm a l
I
j i n s t r u c t i o n i n a p p r o p r ia te s tu d y h a b it s and
j s k i l l s ) and t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l (grou p r e c e iv in g
I no fo r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n in a p p r o p r ia te stu d y
I
| h a b it s and s k i l l s ) i n term s o f g r a d e -p o in t
j a v e r a g e s (GPAs)in 1969 o r 1 9 7 0 . (The e x p e r i-
I
j m en tal s c h o o l was Compton H igh S c h o o l and th e
I c o n t r o l s c h o o l was C e n te n n ia l H igh School.)
t
1
1
I
jHo2 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
; th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l and th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l in
i
| term s o f s c o r e s on th e a p t it u d e t e s t , e . g . , t h e
L o rg e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s , Form 1 ,
j V erb a l B a tt e r y (LTV), in 1969 o r 1970»_____________ ______
T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l and th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l
in term s o f s c o r e s on th e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its
and S k i l l s ( TSHS) i n 1969 o r 1 9 7 0 .
T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys and c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys
i n term s o f G-PAs i n 19^9 o r 1970.
T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys and c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys
i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e LTV i n 19&9 o r 1 9 70.
T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b o y s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys
In term s o f s c o r e s on t h e TSHS i n 1969 o r 1 9 7 0 .
T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b o y s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
i n term s o f GPAs i n 1969 o r 1 9 70.
T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV i n 1969 o r 1 9 7 0 .
There w i l l be no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e between
experim ental sch o o l boys and c o n tr o l sch o o l g i r l s
in term s o f sc o res on th e TSHS in 1969 o r 1 9 7 0 .
|Ho10 T here w i l l he no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een j
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l b o y s !
I i n term s o f GPAs i n 1969 o r 1 9 7 0 . j
1 ■ i
jH o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een j
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys
I i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV i n 1969 o r 1 9 7 0 . j
i i
! 1
> 1
!Ho^2 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
I I
; e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys j
| i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e TSHS i n 19^9 o r 1 9 7 0 . j
! I
1
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een j
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l
j g i r l s i n term s o f GPAs i n 1969 o r 1 9 7 0 . j
1
IH o^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
| e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l j
g i r l s i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e LTV i n 19^9 o r j
! 1 9 7 0 . |
I
|H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n f l e a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s and c o n t r o l s c h o o l
j g i r l s i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS i n 1969 o r
| 1 9 7 0 . |
j
; Ho^g T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
| t h e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l 1969 an<* ^he e x p e r im e n ta l
i
s c h o o l 1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
t h e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l 1969 and t h e e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
H o ^ T h ere w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
t h e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l 1969 and th e e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
H o ^ T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l 1969 and t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l
1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
Ho2q T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l 1969 and, t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l
1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e LTV.
HOg^ T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l 1969 and t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l
1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e TSHS.
Ho22 T h ere w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l boys 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l b o y s 1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
H o^ There w i l l be no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e between
exp erim en tal sch o o l boys 1969 and experim ental
sc h o o l boys 1970 in terms o f sc o re s on th e LTV.
Ho2^ T h ere w i l l he no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b o y s 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l b oys 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e TSHS.
HOg^ T h ere w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
Hogg T h ere w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e LTV.
HOg^. T h ere w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e TSHS.
Hogg T h ere w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 i n term s o f GPAs.
Hog^ T h ere w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys 1969 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e LTV.
H o^q There w i l l be no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e between
exp erim en tal sc h o o l boys 1969 and experim ental
sc h o o l g i r l s 1969 in terms o f sc o res on th e TSHS.
74
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys 1970 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
110^2 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b oys 1970 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e LTV.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b o y s 1970 and e x p e r im e n ta l
s c h o o l g i r l s 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e TSHS.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l b o y s 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys
1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l b o y s 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys
1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e LTV.
Ho^g T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l b o y s 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys
1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
Hoy j There w i l l be no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e between
c o n tr o l sch ool g i r l s 1969 and c o n tr o l sc h o o l g i r l s
1970 in terms o f GPAs.
IH o^q T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1970 in term s o f s c o r e s on t h e LTV.
Ho^^ T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
! 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
;Ho^0 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys 1969 a n d - c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1969 i n term s o f GPAs.
jH o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
! c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
! 1969 i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e LTV.
j 1 ' -
1
j
;Ho^2 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys 1969 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1969 i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
Ho^^ T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l boys 1970 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1970 i n term s o f GPAs.
Ho44 There w i l l be no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e between
| c o n tr o l sc h o o l boys 1970 and c o n tr o l sch o o l g ir ls
| 1970 in term s o f sco res on th e LTV.
7 6
H o ^ T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
c o n t r o l s c h o o l b oys 1970 and c o n t r o l s c h o o l g i r l s
1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e TSHS.
;Ho^g T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
a l l s u b j e c t s 1 9 6 9 * e .g .* b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l
; and c o n t r o l s c h o o l com b ined, and a l l s u b j e c t s
j 1 9 7 0 , e . g . , b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l and c o n t r o l
; s c h o o l com b in ed , i n term s o f GPAs.
|H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
a l l s u b j e c t s 1 9 6 9 , e . g . , b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l
| and c o n t r o l s c h o o l com b ined, and a l l s u b j e c t s
I 1 9 7 0 , e . g . , b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l a n d .c o n t r o l
|
| s c h o o l com b ined, i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e LTV.
I
SHo^q T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
| a l l s u b j e c t s 1 9 6 9 , e . g . , b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l
and c o n t r o l s c h o o l com b ined, and a l l s u b j e c t s
1 9 7 0 , e . g . , b o th e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l and c o n t r o l
s c h o o l com b in ed , i n term s o f s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
H o ^ T here w i l l b e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
b oys o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1969 in term s o f GPAs.
Ho^0 There w i l l be no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e between
. boys o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1969 in terms o f sco res
on th e LTV.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
b oys o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1969 in term s o f s c o r e s
on t h e TSHS,
Ho^2 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
b oys o f 1970 and g i r l s o f 1970 in term s o f GPAs.
Ho^^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
b oys o f 1970 and g i r l s o f 1970 in term s o f s c o r e s
on t h e LTV.
H o ^ T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
b oys o f 1970 and g i r l s o f 1970 in term s o f s c o r e s
on t h e TSHS.
Ho,-,- T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
00
b o y s o f 1969 and b oys o f 1970 in term s o f GPAs.
Ho,_g T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e b etw een
b o y s o f 1969 and b oys o f 1970 in term s o f s c o r e s
on t h e LTV.
Hocr7 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
Of
b oys o f 1969 and boys o f 1970 i n term s o f s c o r e s
on t h e TSHS.
Ho^0 T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een
g i r l s o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1970 in term s o f GPAs.
T h e r e w i l l h e n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n j
g i r l s o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1970 i n term s o f j
s c o r e s on t h e LTV. !
, |
‘ i
: 1
IH o^q T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een j
g i r l s o f 1969 and g i r l s o f 1970 i n term s o f j
s c o r e s on th e TSHS.
For t e s t i n g th e h y p o th e s e s , w ith r e f e r e n c e t o mean
‘d i f f e r e n c e s i n term s o f th e e f f e c t s o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l
1
ic o n d it io n , th e o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ( t _ t e s t )
j
|was c h o se n w ith a lp h a s e t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l f o r mean d i f f e r -
' e n c e s b etw een t h e e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l sam p les on th e
jp r e d ic te d v a r ia b le and on one o f th e p r e d ic t o r v a r ia b le s ,
I
I e . g . , on s c o r e s o f stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s ( TSHS) . For th e
1
|o th e r p r e d ic t o r v a r ia b le , e . g . , s c o r e s on t h e a p t it u d e
1
t e s t , t h e t w o - t a i ie d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e (t_ t e s t ) w ith
a lp h a s e t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l f o r mean d i f f e r e n c e s was u s e d .
1
F t e s t s (p < .0 1 ) f o r c o r r e sp o n d in g a n a ly s e s o f v a r ia n c e
f o r a l l sam p les w ere a ls o in c lu d e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
! H e r e in , th e sam p les in c lu d e d : (a ) Compton H igh
i ■ ■ .
|S c h o o l, 1969j v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l, 1969 (T a b le 5 ) }
|
! (b ) Compton H igh S c h o o l, 1 9 7 0 , v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh School
j 1970 (T a b le 5 )5 ( c ) Compton H igh S c h o o l b oys and Compton
i
|H igh S c h o o l g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh .
j '
S c h o o l b oys and C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
d u rin g 1969 and 1970 (T a b le s 6 and 7)* and (d ) Compton H igh
7 9 !
TABLE 5
M E A N S, S T A N D A R D DEVIATIONS, t ' s AWDF's FO R C O M P T O N H IG H S C H O O L
(E X PE R IM EN TA L ) A N D C E N T E N N IA L H IG H S C H O O L (C O N T R O L )
1969 A N D 1970
1969
Compton Cent.
H.S. H.S.
1970
Compton Cent.
H.S. H.S.
M ean Mean
Variable 1
( gpa)
2.507 2.316
3.329** 2.320 2.245
0.7^5
Variable 2
(LTV)
91.550 90.757
O.719 89.787 84. 4oo 2.769**
Variable 3
(TSHS)
74.271 71.618 2.299* 70.600
59-1^5
4.889**
Variable 1
(G PA
SD
0.575 0.571
F
11.080**
SD
O.672 0.509
F
O.568
Variable 2
(LTV)
11.241 10.914
0.517
12.672 10.738 7.667**
Variable 3
(TSHS)
IO.356 12.431 5.287* 13.627 14.876 23.901**
Note.—Variable 1 and o n e-ta iled te s t of sign ifican ce.
Variable 2: tw o-tailed t e s t of sig n ifica n ce.
*p < .05.
**p < .01.
' 80 ]
t
T A B L E 6 |
'M E A N S , S T A N D A R D DEVIATIONS, F 's A N D t ' s FO R C O M P T O N H IG H S C H O O L j
(EX PE R IM E N T A L ) A N D C E N T E N N IA L H IG H S C H O O L (C O N T R O L ) !
B O Y S A N D GIRLS, 1969 I
Compton
Boys
(1)
Compton
G irls
(2)
Cent.
Boys
(3)
Cent.
G irls
w
Means
Variable
(GPA)
1
2.507
2.506 2.116
2.457
Variable
(LTV)
2
92.330
90.77^
90.596 90.836
Variable
(TSHS)
3
73.318 75.172 68.309 73.940
Standard Deviations
Variable
(GPA)
1
0.588 0.562
0.533
0.556
Variable
(LTV)
2
11.669 10.766 11.167 10.732
Variable
(TSHS)
3
10.479
10.156
F 1
12.892
’s
11.545
Var. Is
■ 10.646** Var. 2s 0.476 Var. 5 6 . 700**
1
t ’s
1-2 1-3 1-4 2-3 2-4
3-4
’ Var.
i Var.
I Var.
1
2
3
0.016
0.927
1.202
4.686** 0.643
I .019 O.975
2 . 850** 0 .to 5
4.846** 0.648
0.111 0.420
4.020** 0.826
4 . 620**
0.163
3 .439**
N ote.—Variables 1 and 3: o n e-ta iled te s t of sig n ifica n ce.
| Variable 2s tw o -ta ile d -te st o f sig n ifica n ce.
| *p < .05.
j **p < .01.
T A B L E 7
M E A N S, S T A N D A R D DEVIATIONS, F 's A N D t ' s F O R C O M P T O N H IG H S C H O O L
(E X PE R IM EN TA L) A N D C E N T E N N IA L H IG H S C H O O L (C O N T R O L )
B O Y S A N D GIRLS, 1970
Compton
Boys
(1)
Compton
G irls
(2)
Cent.
Boys
(3)
Cent.
G irls
(4)
Means
Variable
(GPA)
1
2.054 2.538 2.231 2.260
Variable
(LTV)
2
88.972
90.455 83.971
84.829
Variable
(TSHS)
3
66.861
73.659
55.829 62.457
Standard Deviations
Variable
(GPA)
1
O.58I O0663 O.568 0.441
Variable
(LTV)
2
12.426 12.830 11.582 9.802
Variable
(TSHS)
3
13.815 12.676
F
15.713
"s
13.181
Var. 1:
4 . 779**
Var. 2: 2.660 Var,
. 3:
11.180**
t 's
1-2 1-3 1-4 2-3 2-4 3-4
1 Var.
Var.
Var.
1 .
2
3
3.391**
0.515
2.263*
1.279 1.660
1.728 1.535
3 . 100** 1.354
2.153*
2.299*
5.571**
2.104* 0.241
2.116* O.329
3.785** 1.885
iNote.—Variables 1 and 3 : on e-tailed te s t o f sign ifican ce.
Variable 2: tw o-tailed te s t of sign ifican ce.
| *P < .05.
I **p < .01.
82 !
I
I
S c h o o l h o y s v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s and Compton j
j
H igh S c h o o l g i r l s v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l b oys d u rin g i
'1969 and 1 9 7 0 , r e s p e c t i v e l y (T a b le s 6 and 7 ) . !
In sum, ( a ) , ( b ) , ( c ) , and (d ) can be s t a t e d s u e - |
ic i n c t ly r
1 . Compton (1 9 6 9 ) v s . C e n te n n ia l ( 1 9 6 9 ) ,
2 . Compton ( l 9 7 0 ) . v s . C e n te n n ia l (1 9 7 0 ),
3 . Compton b oys ( 1 9 6 9 ) v s . C e n te n n ia l b oys ( 1 9 6 9 )*
: 4 . Compton b oys (1 9 7 0 ) v s . C e n te n n ia l b oys (1 9 7 0 ),
| 5* Compton g i r l s ( 1 9 6 9 ) v s . C e n te n n ia l g i r l s ( 1 9 6 9 )*
6 . Compton g i r l s (1 9 7 0 ) v s . C e n te n n ia l g i r l s (1 9 7 0 ) ,
j
| 7 . Compton boys. ( 1 9 6 9 ) v s . C e n te n n ia l g i r l s ( 1 9 6 9 )^
j
8 . Compton boys (1 9 7 0 ) v s . C e n te n n ia l g i r l s (1 9 7 0 ) ,
I 9 . Compton g i r l s ( i9 6 9 ) v s . C e n te n n ia l b oys ( 1 9 6 9 )*
i
I and
j
! 1 0 . Compton g i r l s (1 9 7 0 ) v s . C e n te n n ia l b oys (1 9 7 0 ) .
|
I
j I t was a n t ic ip a t e d t h a t a th o ro u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f
J e x p e r im e n ta l sam p les v e r s u s c o n t r o l sam p les w ould p r o v id e
an a d e q u a te r a t io n a le f o r a c c e p t in g or r e j e c t i n g th e s t a t e d
h y p o th e s e s r e g a r d in g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f fo rm a l i n s t r u c -
1 ’
!t i o n i n a p p r o p r ia te stu d y b e h a v io r a s in f lu e n c in g f u tu r e
j ■ .
academ ic a ch iev em en t o f t w e lf t h - g r a d e d is a d v a n ta g e d h ig h
s c h o o l s t u d e n t s .
I In o r d e r to make t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n more m ea n in g fu l,:
j
| th e f o llo w in g com p arison s o f sam p les (w ith no assum ed d i
r e c t i o n a l e f f e c t due t o th e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d it io n i n t e r - ;
j
v e n in g t o a f f e c t th e r e s u l t s , e . g . , com paring e x p e r im e n ta l j
s c h o o l boys v e r s u s e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l g i r l s ) w ere in c lu d e d !
i n t h i s stu d y* (a ) f o r 1 9 6 9 * Compton H igh S c h o o l boys v e r su s
Compton H igh S c h o o l g i r l s , and C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l b oys
i
v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s (T a b le 6 ) ; and (b ) I
I
f o r 1 9 7 0 , Compton H igh S c h o o l b oys v e r s u s Compton H igh j
I
:S c h o o l g i r l s , and C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l b oys v e r s u s C en- |
: t e n n i a l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s (T a b le 7)*
In b o th (a ) and (b ) sa m p le -c o m p a r iso n s, th e m ethod
i s e l e c t e d f o r d e te r m in in g s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f mean
i
I d i f f e r e n c e s was th e t w o - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ( t _ t e s t )
|w ith a lp h a s e t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l ; w h ile f o r t h e c o r r e sp o n d
i n g a n a ly s e s o f v a r ia n c e , F t e s t s w ith p < .0 1 w ere u t i l
i z e d .
F i n a l l y , i n o r d e r t o d e te r m in e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f
th e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s , K u d er-R ich ard son e s
t i m a t e s o f r e l i a b i l i t y (K-R 20 and K-R 21) w ere o b ta in e d
ju s in g 1970 sa m p le s, e . g . , Compton H igh S c h o o l and C e n te n -
j n i a l H igh S c h o o l.
|
j M ajor F in d in g s
i
]
j W ith r e g a r d t o t h e q u e s t io n o f t h e Te s t o f S tu d y
j
I H a b its and S k i l l s b e in g a v a l i d p r e d ic t o r o f t h e academ ic
|a c h ie v e m e n t o f d is a d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s th e
l
|f o llo w in g d a ta w ere c o l l e c t e d : sim p le and p a r t i a l c o e f f i
c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een a l l v a r ia b le s (in d e p e n d e n t____
i 84 |
jand d ep en d en t) f o r a l l sam p les (T a b le 2 ) . j
M oreover, w ith r eg a r d t o th e o th e r two q u e s tio n s :
! I
; (a ) w ould t h e T e st o f Stu dy H a b its and S k i l l s I n c r e a s e t h e j
;p r e d i c t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e m u lt ip le r e g r e s s io n eq u a - I
!t i o n , and (b ) w ould ad d in g th e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and
I |
i S k i l l s t o th e m u lt ip le r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n a ffo r d e v id e n c e i
i • |
o f making a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r ib u t io n r e l a t i v e t o i t s p r e - j
; !
!d i c t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s , th e f o llo w in g d a ta w ere c o l l e c t e d : I
!m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n (R s) and m u ltip le
| p
| c o e f f i c i e n t s o f d e te r m in a tio n (R s ) a lo n g w ith b e t a w e ig h ts j
| o f th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le s f o r a l l sa m p le s. P a r t ic u la r !
I
| i n t e r e s t was g iv e n t o th e b e ta w e ig h ts o f th e 1969 sam p les
| s in c e th e y w ere u se d i n p r e d ic t in g th e g r a d e -p o in t a v e r a g e s j
| o f th e c o r r e sp o n d in g 1970 sam p les (T a b le s 3 and 4 ) . !
I • The o b ta in e d r e s u l t s y ie ld e d th e f o llo w in g in fo r m a -j
| t io n : (a ) in s p e c t in g th e sim p le c o r r e l a t io n s (T a b le 2) i t j
I i
| can be r e a d il y a s c e r t a in e d t h a t th e T e st o f Study H a b its
i
! and S k i l l s p r e d ic t s GPA a s w e l l a s o r b e t t e r th a n th e
| L orge-T h orn d ik e I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s , Form 1 , V erb a l B a t t e r y ,I
• j
i f o r a l l o f t h e 1969 sam p les in v e s t ig a t e d ,a n d , a l s o , p r e d ic t s
j b e t t e r th a n t h e a p t it u d e t e s t f o r th e 1970 Compton H igh
| S c h o o l g i r l s a n d -fo r t h e 1970 C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l b o y s , j
! j
j but d oes n o t p r e d ic t a s w e ll a s th e a p t it u d e t e s t f o r th e j
I 1970 Compton H igh S c h o o l b oys ( r 1g = .3 2 9 ; = .2 5 9 ) and j
; , I
i f o r th e 1970 C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s ( ^ 2 = *593; j
85
= .2 9 0 ) . The same e f f e c t s a r e n o t ic e d w h ile in s p e c t i n g !
ith e p a r t i a l c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n (T a b le 2 ) . I n -
j |
I s p e c t in g t h e means (t_ t e s t s ) and t h e v a r ia n c e s (P t e s t s ) I
| o f th e 1970 Compton H igh S c h o o l b oys and t h e 1970 C e n te n - j
;n i a l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s , a l s o i n com paring th e 19&9 Compton!
j H igh S c h o o l b o y s w ith t h e 1970 Compton H igh S c h o o l b oys
j(T a b le 15) and th e 1969 C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s w ith
i t h e 1970 C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s (T a b le 1 8 ) , and a l s o j
I i
|lo o k in g a t com p arison s o f sa m p les f o r 1969 and 1970 (T a b le s I
j j
| 6 and 7 ) , i t ap p eared t h a t f o r th e Compton H igh S c h o o l b oys j
! j
| o f 1970 low s c o r e s on th e T e s t o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s !
! i
j in d ic a t e d p o o r stu d y b e h a v io r a f f e c t i n g t h e i r g r a d e -p o in t
I a v e r a g e , w h erea s f o r th e C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s o f
1 1970 i t ap p ea red th a t low a p t it u d e s c o r e s may h ave i n f l u -
t
' en ced t h e i r s c o r e s on th e T e s t o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s .
I E s p e c i a ll y w ith r eg a r d t o th e g i r l s o f C e n te n n ia l H igh
j S c h o o l ( 1 9 7 0 ) , t h e r e seem ed t o be some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t th e
i p r e d i c t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and
: S k i l l s r e q u ir e d a c e r t a in l e v e l o f i i n t e l l i g e n c e , e . g . , t o
i
; be e f f e c t i v e a s a p r e d ic t o r v a r ia b le t h e T e st o f Stu d y
j H a b its and S k i l l s seem ed t o r e q u ir e th e sam p les i n v e s t ! -
I I . - T--' L I T . I
I •
! g a te d t o b e a t l e a s t w it h in on e sta n d a r d d e v ia t io n o f th e
j sta n d a r d norm al a v e r a g e . A c c o r d in g ly , a p t it u d e s c o r e s
i
I seem ed t o e x p la in th e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s (p < .0 1 )
i
; n o te d i n com p arin g th e 1970 sa m p les o f Compton H igh S c h o o l
j boys v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l b o y s , and Compton
H igh S c h o o l g i r l s v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l b o y s and
g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . N e v e r t h e le s s , t o th e q u e s tio n w h eth er |
t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s i s a v a l i d p r e d ic t o r o f i
: |
academ ic a ch iev em en t f o r d isa d v a n ta g e d h ig h s c h o o l s tu d e n t s j
I
th e answ er was i n th e a f f i r m a t i v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when i t
:co u ld be e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t th e sam p les w ere from th e same
p o p u la tio n .
W ith r e g a r d t o w h eth er t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and
; i
:S k i l l s in c r e a s e d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n when com-
|b in e d w ith a n o th e r in d ep en d e n t v a r ia b le i n t h e m u lt ip le
'r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n , t h e f o llo w in g d a ta em erged: a l l sam
p l e s showed m u lt ip le Rs (T a b le 3 ) g r e a t e r th a n e i t h e r sim p le
!c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n and r l 3 ^ ( Ta^ l e 2 ) or p a r -
J t i a l c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n (^ 12 3 and 2 ) ( Ta^l e
j2 ) . T h e r e fo r e i t c o u ld be s a id t h a t th e T e st o f S tu d y
i
H a b its and S k i l l s d id a id i n p r e d ic t in g academ ic a c h ie v e
ment o f d is a d v a n ta g e d h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n ts when in c lu d e d
i n th e p r e d i c t i v e m u lt ip le r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n .
W ith r eg a r d t o w h eth er th e T e s t o f S tu d y H a b its and
!S k i l l s makes a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r ib u t io n when in c lu d e d in
1 ------! -----
i
|t h e m u lt ip le p r e d i c t i v e r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n , t h e c o l l e c t e d
|m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n (T a b le 4 ) a llo w e d
i
|t h e f o llo w in g answ er when th e fo u r s e l e c t e d sam p les o f
11970 w ere i n v e s t i g a t e d in term s o f t h e i r p r e d ic t e d GPA and
I
|a c t u a l GPA: (a ) f o r Compton H igh S c h o o l g i r l s o n ly a mere
!1 p e r c e n t d i f f e r e n c e e x is t e d b etw een a c t u a l and p r e d ic t e d
GPAs, (b ) f o r C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l boys no p e r c e n ta g e j
d if f e r e n c e e x i s t e d , ( c ) fo r Compton H igh S c h o o l boys a j
mere 2 p e r c e n t d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d , w h ile (d ) f o r C e n te n n ia l
H igh S c h o o l g i r l s a s i z a b l e 15 p e r c e n t d i f f e r e n c e o c cu rr ed
b etw een th e a c t u a l and p r e d ic t e d GPAs. A g a in , th e d i f f e r
en ce n o te d i n ( d ) , a b o v e , i s e x p la in e d by th e f a c t a lr e a d y
m en tio n ed c o n c e r n in g t h e drop i n a p t it u d e s c o r e s f o r t h e
1970 sam ple o f C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s (T a b le 1 8 ) .
A c c o r d in g ly , w ith r e g a r d to t h e q u e s tio n : Would in c lu d in g
:th e T e s t o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s in th e m u lt ip le r e g r e s -
; s io n e q u a tio n show t h a t i t makes a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r ib u t io n
:i n p r e d ic t in g t h e academ ic a ch iev em en t o f d isa d v a n ta g e d
;tw e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s , th e f o llo w in g sta te m e n t seem ed a p -
t
jp r o p r ia te : When t h e sam p les compared on p r in c ip a l v a r ia b le s
|cam e from t h e same p o p u la t io n , t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and
!S k i l l s d id make a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r ib u t io n to th e m u lt ip le
1 •
r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n u se d in p r e d ic t in g th e academ ic a c h ie v e -
im ent o f d isa d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s .
1
j W ith r e g a r d t o t h e m ajor h y p o th e s e s t o b e t e s t e d
! in term s o f w h eth er fo rm a l i n s t r u c t i o n in s tu d y h a b it s and
i
| s k i l l s makes a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n th e academ ic
I
I a ch iev em en t o f d is a d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s , th e
I
j
I f o llo w in g sam ple g ro u p s w ere I n v e s t ig a t e d a s to ' d i f f e r e n c e s
j o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e means and v a r ia n c e s , Compton H igh S c h o o l
; b e in g t h e e x p e r im e n ta l group and C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l
jb e in g t h e c o n t r o l grou p :
Compton H igh S c h o o l, 19^9* v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh
S c h o o l, 1969* and Compton H igh S c h o o l, 1 9 7 0 ,
v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l, 1970 (T a b le 5 ) .
F or t h e 1969 sam p les (a ) Compton H igh S c h o o l
h oys v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l b o y s , v e r s u s
C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s , (b) Compton H igh
S c h o o l g i r l s v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l b o y s ,
v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s (T a b le 6 ) .
For t h e 1970 sa m p le s, (a ) Compton H igh S c h o o l
b oys v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l b o y s , v e r s u s
C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s , (b) Compton H igh
S c h o o l g i r l s v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l b o y s ,
v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l g i r l s (T a b le 7 ) .
D is r e g a r d in g th e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d it io n , th e f o l -
com p arison s o f sam p les w ere a ls o in c lu d e d i n t h i s
A l l s u b j e c t s o f 1969 v e r s u s a l l s u b j e c t s o f
1970 ''(-Table 8 ) .
A l l b oys o f 1969 v e r s u s a l l g i r l s o f 1969
(T a b le 9 ) .
A l l b oys o f 1970 v e r s u s a l l g i r l s o f 1970
(T a b le 1 0 ) .
A l l b oys o f 1969 v e r s u s a l l boys o f 1970
(T a b le l l ) .
A l l g i r l s o f 1969 v e r s u s a l l g i r l s o f 1970
! ' ' .......~ ......................................... ..............8 9 1
6 . A ll Compton s u b j e c t s o f 1969 v e r s u s a l l Compton ;
s u b j e c t s o f 1970 (T a b le 1 3 ) . j
7 . A ll C e n te n n ia l s u b j e c t s o f 1969 v e r s u s a l l C en- j
t e n n i a l s u b j e c t s o f 1970 (T a b le 1 4 ) . I
: * i
8 . Compton b oys o f 1969 v e r s u s Compton b oys o f j
1970 (T a b le 1 5 ) . j
9 . Compton g i r l s o f 1969 v e r s u s Compton g i r l s o f j
1970 (T a b le 1 6 ) .
1 0 . C e n te n n ia l b o y s o f 1969 v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l b oys
o f 1970 (T a b le 1 7 ) . ‘
i
! 1 1 . C e n te n n ia l g i r l s o f 19^9 v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l g i r l s
; o f 1970 (T a b le 1 8 ) .
| A n a ly z in g t h e ab ove d a ta (w here v a r ia b le 1 = GPA,
|v a r ia b le 2 = LTV and v a r ia b le 3 = TSHS) t h e f o llo w in g r e
s u l t s w ere o b ta in e d : (a ) from T ab le 5 i t can be e s t a b l i s h e d
it h a t f o r th e 1969 sa m p le -c o m p a r iso n s, Compton H igh S c h o o l
v e r s u s C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l, no s i g n i f i c a n t mean d i f f e r
e n c e s or v a r ia n c e d i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r r e d r e g a r d in g v a r ia b le s
2 and 3 ; h ow ever, a s i g n i f i c a n t mean d i f f e r e n c e and v a r i -
ja n ce d i f f e r e n c e d id o c c u r w ith r e s p e c t t o v a r ia b le 1 , w h ile
! f o r th e 1970 sam p le co m p a riso n s (Compton H igh S c h o o l v e r s u s
i
j C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l) th e o p p o s it e e f f e c t s a r e n o te d ,
!
j e . g . , s i g n i f i c a n t mean d i f f e r e n c e s and v a r ia n c e d i f f e r e n c e s
I
jo b ta in e d f o r v a r ia b le s 2 and 3 , b u t n o t f o r v a r ia b le 1 ,
| (b ) f o r t h e 1969 sa m p le -c o m p a r iso n s, e . g . , e x p e r im e n ta l
90!
TABLE 8
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, t ' s AND P 's
FOR COMBINED SCHOOLS BY YEARS
1969 1970
M t_
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
1
2 .4 0 0 2 .2 8 5 2 . 0 45*
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
2
9 1 .0 8 8
8 7 .2 7 3 3 . 513**
V a r ia b le
(TSHS)
3
7 2 .7 9 2 6 5 .2 5 3
SD
6 . 193**
F
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
1
0 .5 8 1 0 .6 0 3 4 .2 1 9 *
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
2
1 1 .0 6 7 1 2 .1 1 1 1 2 .3 3 8 * *
V a r ia b le
(TSHS)
3
1 1 .6 3 4
1 5 .3 2 9 3 8 .3 4 7 * *
N o t e .— For a l l v a r ia b le s : t w o - t a i le d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . I
*P < .0 5 . !
**p < . 0 1 .
TABLE 9
M EANS, STAND ARD DEVIATIONS, t ’s A N D P ’s
FO R ALL BO YS A N D ALL GIRLS FOR 1969
Boys G ir ls
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
1
2 .3 0 5
M
2 .4 7 7
t_
3 . 0 0 0 **
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
2
9 1 .4 3 4 9 0 .8 1 1
0 .5 6 5 ;
1
V a r ia b le
( TSHS)
3
7 0 .7 3 1 7 4 .4 4 5 3 .2 4 2 * *
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
1
0 .5 9 3
SD
0 .5 5 9
F
9 .0 0 0 * * :
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
2
1 1 .4 4 5 1 0 .7 4 6
0 .3 1 9 |
V a r ia b le
(TSHS)
3
1 2 .0 5 0 1 1 .0 1 4 10.510**1
i
N o t e .—F or a l l v a r ia b le s : t w o - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .I
i
*p < . 0 5 . !
* * p < . 0 1 . !
i
92!
TABLE 10
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, t ' s AND P 's
FOR ALL BOYS AND ALL GIRLS"FOR 1970
Boys G ir ls
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
1
M
2 .1 4 1
2 .4 1 5
. t_
2 . 83 8 **
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
2
8 6 .5 0 7
8 7 .9 6 2
0 .7 3 1
V a r ia b le
(TSHS)
3
6 1 .4 2 3 6 8 .6 9 6
2 . 967**
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
1
SD
0 .5 8 1 0 .5 9 2
F
8 .0 5 2 * *
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
2
1 2 .2 7 5 1 1 .9 1 9
0 .5 3 4
V a r ia b le
(TSHS)
3
1 5 .7 7 6 1 4 .0 5 1 8 . 8 01**
N o t e .— F or a l l v a r ia b le s : t w o - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .
*p < .0 5 .
**p < .0 1 .
TABLE 11
M EANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, t» s A N D F 's
FOR ALL BO YS BY YEARS “
1969 1970
V a r ia b le 1
(GPA)
: V a r ia b le 2
(LTV)
V a r ia b le 3 -
(TSHT)
2 .3 0 5
9 1 .4 3 4
7 0 .7 3 1
M
2 . l 4 l
8 6 .5 0 7
6 1 .4 2 3
t_
1 .9 8 2 *
3 .0 0 2 * *
5 .0 1 9 * *
V a r ia b le 1
(GPA)
V a r ia b le 2
(LTV)
V a r ia b le 3
(TSHT)
0 .5 9 3
1 1 .4 4 5
1 2 .0 5 0
SD
0 .5 8 1
1 2 .2 7 5
1 5 .7 7 6
F
3 .9 2 9 *
9 .0 1 0 * *
2 5 . 189**
N o te .—For a l l v a r ia b le s: tw o -ta ile d t e s t o f s ig n ific a n c e .
94 '
TABLE 12
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, t * s AND F»s
FOR ALL GIRLS BY YEAHS ”
1969
1970
V a r ia b le 1
(GPA)
V a r ia b le 2
(LTV)
2 .4 7 7
9 0 .8 1 1
M
2 .4 1 5
8 7 .9 6 2
t_
0 .8 3 2
1 .9 6 5 i
V a r ia b le 3
(TSHT)
7 4 .4 4 5 6 8 .6 9 6
3 .6 9 5 * *
V a r ia b le 1
(GPA)
V a r ia b le 2
(LTV)
0 .5 5 9
1 0 .7 4 6
SD
0 .5 9 2
1 1 .9 1 9
F 1
0 .6 9 3 |
3 .8 6 1 !
V a r ia b le 3
(TSHT)
1 1 .0 1 4 1 4 .0 5 1 1 3 .6 5 1 * * !
i
N o t e .— For a l l v a r ia b le s : t w o - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .;
*p < . 0 5 . !
**p < . 0 1 . i
95
TABLE 13
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, t » s AND F«s
FOR C O M PTO N HIGH SCHOOL B f YEARS ~
1969 1970
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
1
2 '
2 .5 0 7
9 1 .5 3 0
M
2 .3 2 0
8 9 .7 8 7
2 . 282*
1 .1 0 5
: V a r ia b le
(TSHT)
3
7 4 .2 7 1
7 0 .6 0 0
2 .3 7 7 *
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
1
2
0 .5 7 5
1 1 .2 4 1
SD
0 .6 7 2
1 2 .6 7 2
F
5 . 206*
1 .2 2 2
V a r ia b le
(TSHT)
3
1 0 .3 5 6 1 3 .6 2 7
5 .6 5 0 *
N o t e .— For a l l v a r ia b le s : t w o - t a i le d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , j
i
*P < .0 5 . j
**p < .0 1 .
-TA BLE l 4
M EANS, STAND ARD DEVIATIONS, t« s A N D F ' s
FOR CENTENNIAL HIGH SC H O O L BY YEARS
1969 • 1970
V a r ia b le 1
(GPA)
V a r ia b le 2
(LTV)
2 .3 1 6
9 0 .7 3 7
M
2 .2 4 5
8 4 .4 0 0
t_
0 .9 2 7
4 .2 5 1 * *
: V a r ia b le 3
(TSHT)
7 1 .6 1 8
5 9 .1 4 3 6 .9 7 4 * *
V a r ia b le 1
(GPA)
V a r ia b le 2
(LTV)
0 .5 7 1
1 0 .9 1 4
SD
0 .5 0 9
1 0 .7 3 8
F
0 .8 6 0
1 8 .0 6 9 * *
V a r ia b le 3
(TSHT)
1 2 .4 3 1 1 4 .8 7 6
4 8 .6 4 3 * *
N o te .—For a l l v a r ia b le s : tw o -ta ile d t e s t o f s ig n if ic a n c e .
TABLE 15
M EANS, STA ND A R D DEVIATIONS, t ' s A N D F»s
FO R C O M P T O N H IGH SC H O O L BO YS BY YEARS
1969
1970
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
1
M
2 .5 0 7
2 .0 5 4
t_
3 . 88 2 **
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
2
9 2 .3 3 0 8 8 .9 7 2 1 .4 1 5
V a r ia b le
(TSHT)
3
7 3 .3 1 8 6 6 .8 6 1 2 .8 0 4 * *
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
1
SD
0 .5 8 8 0 .5 8 1
F
1 5 .0 6 7 * *
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
2
1 1 .6 6 9
1 2 .4 2 6
2 .0 0 3
V a r ia b le
(TSHT)
-3
1 0 .4 7 9 1 3 .8 1 5
7 . 860**
N o t e .— F or a l l v a r ia b le s : t w o - t a i le d tfe s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .
*p < .0 5 .
**p < . 0 1 .
TABLE 16
M EA N S, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, t» s A N D P ’s
PO R C O M P T O N HIGH SC H O O L GIRCS BY YEARS
1969 1970
V a r ia b le 1
(GPA)
V a r ia b le 2
(LTV)
2 .5 0 6
9 0 .7 7 4
M
2 .5 3 8
9 0 .4 5 5
t_
0 .2 9 4
0 .1 5 1
V a r ia b le 3
(TSHT)
7 5 .1 7 2
7 3 .6 5 9
0 .7 4 4 j
V a r ia b le 1
(GPA)
V a r ia b le 2
(LTV)
0 .5 6 2
1 0 .7 6 6
SD
0 .6 6 3
1 2 .8 3 0
P j
0 .0 8 6
0 .0 2 3
V a r ia b le 3
(TSHT)
1 0 .1 5 6 1 2 .6 7 6 0 .5 5 4 j
i
N o te .—Por a l l v a r ia b le s : tw o -ta ile d t e s t o f s ig n if ic a n c e .!
99
i
TABLE 17
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, t ' s AND P 's
POR CENTENNIAL HIGH SCHOOL BOYS BY YEARS
1969 1970
V a r ia b le 1
(GPA)
V a r ia b le 2
(LTV)
2 .1 1 6
9 0 .5 9 6
M
2 .2 3 1
8 3 .9 7 1
t_
1 .0 6 0
2 .9 4 2 * *
V a r ia b le 3
(TSHT)
6 8 .3 0 9 5 5 .8 2 9
4 .5 6 0 * *
V a r ia b le 1
(GPA)
V a r ia b le 2
(LTV)
0 .5 3 3
1 1 .1 6 7
SD
0 .5 6 8
1 1 .5 8 2
P
1 .1 2 3
8 .6 5 7 * *
V a r ia b le 3
(TSHS)
1 2 .8 9 2
1 5 .7 1 3
2 0 .7 9 2 * * !
i
N o t e .— P or a l l v a r ia b le s : t w o - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , j
*p < .0 5 . i
**p < . 0 1 .
100
.TABLE 18
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, t_'s AND P 's
FOR CENTENNIAL HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS BY YEARS
1969 1970
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
1
2
2 .4 5 7
9 0 .8 3 6
M
2 .2 6 0
8 4 .8 2 9
t_
1 .9 2 8
2 . 983**
V a r ia b le
(TSHT)
3
7 3 .9 4 0
6 2 .4 5 7
5 .0 5 2 * *
V a r ia b le
(GPA)
V a r ia b le
(LTV)
1
2
0 .5 5 6
1 0 .7 3 2
SD
0 .4 4 1
9 .8 0 2
F
3 .7 1 8
8 .8 9 7 * *
V a r ia b le
(TSHS)
3
1 1 .5 4 5
1 3 .1 8 1
2 5 .5 2 7 * *
N o t e .— For a l l v a r ia b le s : t w o - t a i le d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .;
*p < .0 5 . j
**p < .0 1 . |
i o i j
! i
b oys v e r s u s c o n t r o l b o y s , v e r s u s c o n t r o l g i r l s ; e x p erim en - !
; I
t a l g i r l s v e r s u s c o n t r o l b o y s , v e r s u s c o n t r o l g i r l s (T a b le i
6 ) , s i g n i f i c a n t mean d i f f e r e n c e s (p < .0 1 ) o c c u r r e d b etw een J
e x p e r im e n ta l b o y s and c o n t r o l b oys on v a r ia b le s 1 and 3 , |
jw h ile no s i g n i f i c a n t mean d i f f e r e n c e s o c cu rr ed when e x p e r i- i
;m ental b oys w ere com pared w ith th e c o n t r o l g i r l s ; s i g n i f i
c a n t mean d i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r r e d b etw een e x p e r im e n ta l g i r l s
and c o n t r o l b o y s on v a r ia b le s 1 and 3 .> but n o t on v a r ia b le
i
1 2; and no s i g n i f i c a n t mean d i f f e r e n c e s (p < .0 1 ) o c c u r r e d
.'between e x p e r im e n ta l g i r l s and c o n t r o l g i r l s on any o f th e
j v a r ia b le s ; and (c ) f o r th e 1970 sam ple c o m p a riso n s, e . g . ,
!
!e x p e r im e n ta l b o y s v e r s u s c o n t r o l b o y s, v e r s u s c o n t r o l
I
I
j g i r l s , and e x p e r im e n ta l g i r l s v e r s u s c o n t r o l b oys and c o n -
i
j t r o l g i r l s (T a b le j ) , s i g n i f i c a n t mean d i f f e r e n c e s (p <
|
j . O l ) o c c u r r e d b etw een e x p e r im e n ta l boys and c o n t r o l b oys
!
jo n ly on v a r ia b le 3* w h ile no s i g n i f i c a n t mean d i f f e r e n c e s
on any o f th e v a r ia b le s o c c u r r e d betw een e x p e r im e n ta l b oys
and c o n t r o l g i r l s ; and, m oreover, e x p e r im e n ta l g i r l s d id
d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y (p < .0 1 ) from c o n t r o l b o y s on v a r i
a b le s 1 and 3 , and from c o n t r o l g i r l s o n ly on v a r ia b le 3 .
L ook in g a t t h e r e s u l t s g iv e n i n T a b le 5 i t i s
e v id e n t t h a t t h e h y p o t h e s is o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e
(p < .0 1 ) a s r e g a r d s th e e f f e c t s o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d i
t i o n (fo r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n a p p r o p r ia te s tu d y b e h a v io r ) i s
r e j e c t e d when t h e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l (Compton H igh) i s
com pared w ith t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l (C e n te n n ia l H igh) i n 19^9
r ’ " " ' '.................................... ’ .............. 102]
but n o t In 1 9 7 0 . A ls o , from T a b le 6 i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t ;
th e h y p o th e s e s o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s (p < . 0 1 ) i n i
term s o f academ ic a ch iev em en t a r e r e j e c t e d when b o y s and |
1
g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l i n 1969 a r e |
^ i
com pared w ith b oys o f t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l i n 1 9 6 9 . 0n th e j
|sam e v a r ia b le , boys and g i r l s , r e s p e c t iv e ly * o f t h e e x p e r i
m e n ta l s c h o o l ( 1 9 6 9 ) do n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from g i r l s
i o f t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l ( 1 9 6 9 ) . H ow ever, T a b le 7 show s a l l
j n u ll h y p o th e s e s r e g a r d in g academ ic a ch iev em en t a re a c c e p te d .
S ta te d s u c c i n c t l y t h e f o llo w in g r e s u l t s em erged:
iProm T a b le 5 i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t Ho.^ i s r e j e c t e d in 1969
iand a c c e p te d in 1 9 7 0 ; m oreover, w h ile Ho2 and Ho^ a r e a c
c e p te d i n 1969 th e y a r e b o th r e j e c t e d i n 1 9 7 0 .
Prom T a b le s 6 and J , i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t Ho^,
Hog, Ho1 0 , Ho1 2 , Ho^ q, and Ho^2 a r e r e j e c t e d and Ho^, Ho^,
Hog, Ho^, H o .^ , H o ^ j ^^15 ^^30'*
H o ^ a r e a c c e p te d i n 1 969; h o w ev er, Ho^, Ho^, Ho^., Hog,
H o ^ , H o ^ q , H o ^ j , H o j ^^ H o ^2j ., H o 33-» H o43-» ^ 0 4 4 '> '^0 4 5 ',
a r e a c c e p te d and H og, Ho^2, H o ^ , H o ^ a r e r e j e c t e d i n 1 9 7 0 .
C o n se q u e n tly , th e f o llo w in g s ta te m e n ts seem ap p ro
p r i a t e :
1 . P or 1969 (T a b le 6 ) o u t o f fo u r p o s s i b l e sam ple
c o m p a r iso n s, e . g . , e x p e r im e n ta l b o y s v e r s u s c o n t r o l b o y s ,
v e r s u s c o n t r o l g i r l s , and e x p e r im e n ta l g i r l s v e r s u s c o n -
i t r o l b o y s , v e r s u s c o n t r o l g i r l s , two sam p le co m p a riso n s
i
l
I a llo w e d f o r r e j e c t i o n o f th e h y p o t h e s is o f no d i f f e r e n c e
' “ ............ ......... ................................... ‘............. " ....* ........... ... 103
w ith r eg a rd t o th e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d it io n a f f e c t i n g a c a
d em ic a c h ie v e m e n t.
2. For 1970 (T a b le 7 ) o u t o f th e fo u r p o s s i b l e
c o m b in a tio n s o f sam ple c o m p a riso n s, no com p arison a llo w e d
;fo r r e j e c t i o n o f th e h y p o t h e s is o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r
e n c e (p < . 0 1 ) b etw een sam p les compared i n term s o f th e
!e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d it io n in f lu e n c in g academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t.
! A c c o r d in g ly , . i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t fo rm a l i n s t r u c
t i o n i n a p p r o p r ia te s tu d y b e h a v io r can n ot be f ir m ly e s t a b
l i s h e d a s m aking any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e (p < . 0 1 ) i n
jterm s o f t h e academ ic ach iev em en t o f d is a d v a n ta g e d h ig h
jsc h o o l s t u d e n t s .
j
| W ith r eg a r d t o t h e r em a in in g com p arison s in c lu d e d
jin t h i s stu d y (T a b le s 8 t o 18) th e f o llo w in g d a ta em erged:
I
1 . From T a b le 8 i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t Ho^g i s
a c c e p te d and Ho^y. and Ho^g a r e r e j e c t e d .
2 . From T a b le 9 i t i s e s t a b lis h e d t h a t H o ^
and H o ^ a r e r e j e c t e d and Ho^Q i s a c c e p te d .
3 . From T a b le 10 i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d th a t Ho^g
and Ho^2 j . a r e a c c e p te d and H o ^ . i s r e j e c t e d .
4 . From T a b le 11 i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t Hot
55
»
5 . From T a b le 12 i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d th a t Ho
i s a c c e p te d and Ho^g and Ho^ a r e r e j e c t e d .
58
and Ho^£ a r e a c c e p te d and HogQ i s r e j e c t e d .
6 . From T a b le s 13 and 14 i t i s e s t a b lis h e d th a t
H ° i g , H o ^ , H o i 8 ' ' ‘ t io 1 9 a p e a c c e P t e c i .» a n d
HOgQ and HOg^ a r e r e j e c t e d .
1
7* From T a b le 15 I t i s e s t a b lis h e d t h a t HOgg and
HOg^ a r e r e j e c t e d and HOg^ i s a c c e p te d .
8 . From T ab le 16 i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t HOg^, Ho26-’
! and HOg^ a r e a c c e p te d .
9 . From T ab le 17 i t i s e s t a b lis h e d t h a t H o ^ i s
a c c e p te d and H o ^ and Ho^g a r e r e j e c t e d .
1 0 . From T a b le 18 i t i s e s t a b lis h e d t h a t H o ^ i s
a c c e p te d and Ho^g and H o ^ a r e r e j e c t e d .
I In sum, com paring b o th s c h o o ls (ta k e n t o g e t h e r ) i n
:1969 w ith b o th s c h o o ls (ta k e n t o g e t h e r ) i n 1970 and t h e r e -
i
ia fte r ., a l l b oys and a l l g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n 19^9 ^ w ith
j
j a i l b o y s and a l l g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n 1 9 7 0 , t h e f o llo w
in g r e s u l t s w ere o b ta in e d ,:
! 1 . Compton H igh S c h o o l o f 1969 d id n ot d i f f e r s i g -
|
j n i f i c a n t l y (p < .0 1 ) from Compton H igh S c h o o l
i
I o f 1 970, how ever C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l o f
t
j
j 1969 d id d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y (p < . 0 1 ) from
! C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l o f 1970 on b o th v a r ia b le s
2 and 3 .
2 . B oys o f Compton H igh S c h o o l o f 1969 d i f f e r e d
| s i g n i f i c a n t l y (p < .0 1 ) from b o y s o f Compton
j
H igh S c h o o l o f 1970 on v a r ia b le s 1 and 3j how
e v e r , no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s was n o te d
when Compton H igh S c h o o l g i r l s o f 1969 w ere
com pared w ith Compton H igh S c h o o l g i r l s o f
_ i 9 7 ~ o - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - — _ _ — - - - - - - - - - - - - — — — _
105
3* Boys and g i r l s ., r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f C e n te n n ia l H igh
S c h o o l i n 19&9 d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y (p < .0 1 )
from h oys and g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f C e n te n n ia l
H igh S c h o o l i n 1970 on v a r ia b le s 2 and 3 o n ly .
W ith r e g a r d t o th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e T e s t o f S tu d y
H a b its and S k i l l s , th e o b ta in e d K u d er-R ich ard son e s t im a t e s
(K-R 20 and K-R 21) w ere a s f o llo w s :
1 . Compton H igh S c h o o l, 1970
K-R 20 = 0 .9 3 2
K-R 21 = 0 .9 0 3
2 . C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l, 1970
K-R 20 = 0 .9 3 0
K-R 21 = 0 .9 0 0
C h apter Summary
! In t h i s c h a p te r th e q u e s tio n s t o be an sw ered and
i
! t h e h y p o th e s e s t o be t e s t e d w ere r e v ie w e d . M ajor f in d in g s
i
|e s t a b l i s h e d th e f a c t t h a t th e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and
i
1 S k i l l s p r e d ic t e d academ ic a ch iev em en t o f d is a d v a n ta g e d
|t w e lf t h - g r a d e s tu d e n ts a s w e l l a s , and , i n c e r t a in i n s t a n -
!
c e s , b e t t e r th a n a c o n v e n tio n a l a p t it u d e t e s t j m oreover,
t h e same t e s t in c r e a s e d th e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n
!
jwhen com bined w ith th e a p t it u d e v a r ia b le u se d to p r e d ic t
i g r a d e -p o in t a v e r a g e s o f d is a d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u -
!
! d e n t s . A c c o r d in g ly , i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e T e s t o f
!
1 S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s made a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r ib u t io n
106-1
when in c lu d e d i n t h e m u lt ip le p r e d i c t i v e r e g r e s s io n eq u a - j
j
, t i o n . I
W ith r e g a r d t o th e s t a t e d h y p o th e se s c o n c e r n in g th e J
lv a lu e o f fo rm a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n a p p r o p r ia te stu d y b e h a v io r
a s making s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e w ith r eg a rd
’t o th e academ ic a c h iev e m en t o f d isa d v a n ta g e d tw e lf t h - g r a d e
;s t u d e n t s j t h e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d w ere c o n f l i c t i n g and in c o n
c l u s i v e .
The K u d er-R ich a rd so n e s t im a t e s o f r e l i a b i l i t y
!ran ged from .9 0 t o .9 3 f o r th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l (1 9 7 0 )
j
land t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l ( 1 9 7 0 ) .
|
|
I
i
1
i
i
|
CHAPTER VI
SUM M A R Y OP THE INVESTIGATION, D IS - j
I CUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS |
i j
’ !
j T h is c h a p te r sum m arizes th e p u rp o se o f t h i s i n v e s -
I i
■ t i g a t i o n , th e p r o c e s s by w h ich i t was c a r r ie d o u t, and th e i
| • j
!r e s u l t s y ie l d e d by s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . D is c u s s io n and j
I \
!recom m endations a r e fo r m u la te d from th e d a ta . !
! . i
j . j
| The p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y was t w o fo ld : j
! 1 . To d e ter m in e t h e v a l i d i t y o f th e T e st o f S tu d y j
H a b its and S k i l l s ( M e t f e s s e l, 1 9 6 6 ) i n p r e d ic t in g t h e a c a - j
1 — 1 |
dem ic a ch iev em en t o f d is a d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s , j
| 2 . To d e ter m in e t h e im p o rta n ce o f form al i n s t r u c - j
t i o n i n a p p r o p r ia te stu d y b e h a v io r f o r d is a d v a n ta g e d j
i
t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s . j
R e le v a n t d a ta w ere c o l l e c t e d from o v e r 500 p a r t i c i - J
jp a t in g s u b j e c t s who q u a l i f i e d a s b e in g d is a d v a n ta g e d h ig h j
I s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . Two h ig h s c h o o ls lo c a t e d i n th e so u th w e st
i urban a r e a o f Los A n g e le s w ere I n v e s t ig a t e d . One o f th e i
! |
(h ig h s c h o o ls g a v e i t s s tu d e n ts fo r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n ap p ro -j
| p r i a t e stu d y b e h a v io r (Compton H igh S c h o o l) and w a s, a c - J
i c o r d in g ly , c o n s id e r e d t h e e x p e r im e n ta l, s c h o o l, w h ile th e
j •
! o th e r h ig h s c h o o l (C e n te n n ia l H igh S c h o o l) d id n o t p r o v id e
i t s s tu d e n ts fo rm a l i n s t r u c t i o n in a p p r o p r ia te s tu d y b e h a v -
107
! 1 0 8 !
: j
iio r and was a l t e r n a t e l y c o n s id e r e d th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l.
The In d ep en d en t v a r ia b le s in c lu d e d i n t h i s stu d y j
jwere (a ) a p titu d e a s m easured b y t h e L org e-T h o rn d ik e I n t e l - I
j i
jl ig e n c e T e s t s , Form 1 , V e rb a l B a t t e r y , and (b ) stu d y h a b it s !
land s k i l l s a s m easured by t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and
j S k i l l s ( M e t f e s s e l, 1 9 6 6 ) . The d ep en d en t v a r ia b le was a c a - j
[dem ic ach iev em en t o f th e d is a d v a n ta g e d s tu d e n ts a s d e t e r
m in e d by t h e i r g r a d e -p o in t a v e r a g e s a t th e tim e o f a d m in is
t r a t i o n o f th e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s .
j ■ i
Q u e stio n s t o be an sw ered w ere: (a ) Would t h e T e st j
I |
I I
I o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s be a v a l i d p r e d ic t o r o f t h e a c a -J
i I
Idem ic ach iev em en t o f d is a d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e s tu d e n ts ? I
I ■ j
■(b) Would th e T e s t o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s s u b s t a n t i a l l y
|i n c r e a s e th e m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n beyond
|s im p le o r p a r t i a l c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n when i n -
i i
|e lu d e d i n a m u lt ip le p r e d i c t i v e r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n ? and j
I ( c ) Would th e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s make a s i g - |
i
' n i f l e a n t c o n t r ib u t io n when in c lu d e d i n th e m u lt ip le r e g r e s -
j
| s io n e q u a tio n u se d t o p r e d ic t t h e academ ic a ch iev em en t o f
j
| d isa d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e s tu d e n ts ? I t was assum ed t h a t
| a f f ir m a t iv e an sw ers t o q u e s tio n s ( a ) , ( b ) , and ( c ) , a b o v e,
| w ould i n d ic a t e th e p r e d i c t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e T e st o f
| S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s . A ls o , w ith r e g a r d t o q u e s t io n
I ( c ) , a b o v e , i t Was f u r t h e r assum ed t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n -
| t r i b u t i o n in t h e m u lt ip le p r e d i c t i v e r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n
j c o u ld be e s t a b l i s h e d i f t h e m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f d e -
i 1 0 9 ;
'te r m in a tio n showed a c t u a l in c r e a s e s (p e r c e n ta g e w is e ) i n ;
term s o f a c c u r a c y o f p r e d ic t in g t h e c r i t e r i o n v a r ia b le i
: j
( s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t).
S e v e r a l n u l l h y p o th e s e s w ere p ro p o sed i n term s o f
;w hether fo r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n a p p r o p r ia te s tu d y b e h a v io r j
i I
• made any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e (p < .0 1 ) a s t o t h e academ ic!
:a ch iev em en t o f d isa d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s . j
| F or t h e q u e s tio n s t o be an sw ered , t h i s i n v e s t i g a
t i o n r e q u ir e d c o l l e c t i n g and in t e r p r e t in g many sim p le and
|p a r t i a l c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n o f sa m p les and a ls o j
. i i
I r e q u ir e d a s s e s s i n g m any. m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a
t i o n , m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f d e te r m in a tio n and r e s p e c t i v e
I b e ta w e ig h t s . P a r t ic u la r i n t e r e s t was d ir e c t e d t o th e 1969
b e ta w e ig h ts s in c e th e y w ere em ployed i n t h e p r e d ic t io n , o f j
' j
th e GPAs o f t h e 1970 sa m p le s. j
| F or th e h y p o th e s e s t o be t e s t e d many s t a t i s t i c a l I
i
I
I co m p a riso n s b etw een g ro u p s w ere made. For t h e s e co m p a rl-
;s o n s , a s t o mean d i f f e r e n c e s when a d i r e c t i o n a l e f f e c t o f
I !
;t h e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d it io n was assum ed, e . g . , com paring t h e ;
I j
j e x p e r im e n ta l v e r s u s c o n t r o l sa m p le s, th e o n e - t a i l e d t e s t |
i . . !
;o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ( t ^ t e s t ) w ith a lp h a s e t a t t h e .0 1 l e v e l j
j i
j t o m it ig a t e a g a in s t Type I e r r o r , was u t i l i z e d . Where no
i d i r e c t i o n a l e f f e c t o f t h e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d it io n was a s -
i !
|sum ed, e . g . , a s s e s s i n g a p t it u d e o f e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l b o y s;
jv e r s u s c o n t r o l s c h o o l b o y s , th e t w o - t a i le d t e s t o f s i g n i f i
c a n c e (t_ t e s t ) w ith a lp h a s e t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l t o m it ig a t e
! n o
; I
ia g a in s t Type I e r r o r was u t i l i z e d . Por com p a riso n s i n v o l v - i
jin g v a r ia n c e d i f f e r e n c e s , F t e s t s w ith p < .0 1 w ere u s e d . j
' R e s u lt s o f th e stu d y in d ic a t e d th a t t h e T e st o f j
; S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s was a v a l i d p r e d ic t o r o f academ ic j
; a ch iev em en t o f t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s . In f a c t , th e r e - j
■ l
! s u i t s in d ic a t e d t h a t i t p r e d ic t e d , f o r th e m ost p a r t , b e t - i
! t e r th a n a c o n v e n tio n a l a p t it u d e t e s t u se d in t h i s stu d y . I
! i
t ' I
j M oreover, when th e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s |
| I
| was in c lu d e d i n t h e m u lt ip le r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n u sed t o j
! . i
I p r e d ic t th e acad em ic a ch iev em en t o f d isa d v a n ta g e d h ig h I
i j
i
I s c h o o l s t u d e n t s , th e o b ta in e d m u lt ip le c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r -
i
I
j r e l a t i o n showed s u b s t a n t i a l in c r e a s e s o v e r c o r r e sp o n d in g
I s im p le o r p a r t i a l c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t io n i n a l l i n -
i
j s t a n c e s i n v e s t i g a t e d . T h ese r e s u l t s a llo w e d c l e a r e v id e n c e
! o f th e p r e d i c t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e T e st o f Stu d y H a b its
j and S k i l l s w ith r e g a r d t o t h e academ ic a ch iev em en t o f d i s -
i a d v a n ta g ed t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s . In f i n e , i t was e s t a b -
j l is h e d t h a t th e T e s t o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s , when
j in c lu d e d i n t h e m u lt ip le p r e d i c t i v e r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n ,
' i i
I d id make a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r ib u t io n . j
As t o th e h y p o th e s e s i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e e f f e c t s o f I
| fo rm a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n a p p r o p r ia te stu d y h a b it s and s k i l l s
i (th e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d it io n ) i n term s o f m aking s i g n i f i c a n t
i
I d if f e r e n c e i n th e academ ic a ch iev em en t o f d isa d v a n ta g e d j
| t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s , t h e f o llo w in g r e s u l t s w ere o b -
j
| t a in e d :
j 1 . F or 19^9j com paring th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l w ith
|t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l, t h e r e seem ed to b e some I n d ic a t io n t h a t ;
! !
jth e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d it io n produced a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r - ;
i j
|e n c e (p < .0 1 ) i n term s o f th e d epend en t v a r ia b le (GPA). j
2 . F or 1 9 7 0 , a c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n s tu d y , com paring j
I t h e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l v e r s u s th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l, e s t a b -
i l i s h e d th a t e a r l i e r r e s u l t s w ere not r e p li c a t e d : t h e e x - j
Ip e r im e n ta l s c h o o l was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t (p < . 0 1 ) !
i i
: 1
! from th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l i n term s o f b o th in d ep en d e n t v a r i - I
| |
|a b l e s but n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i n term s o f t h e ;
i j
I d ep en d en t v a r ia b le .
1 |
! L ooking a t th e su b sa m p les, e . g . , b oys and g i r l s , o f |
! i
| t h e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l and c o r r e sp o n d in g su b sa m p les, e . g . , !
j |
|b o y s and g i r l s , o f th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l, t h e f o llo w in g r e s u lt ^
! w ere o b ta in e d : {
j 1 . F or 1969, b o th boys and g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f
j t h e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l showed s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
; (p < . 0 1 ) from b oys o f th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l r e g a r d in g s c o r e s j
: i
j j
| on t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s and on t h e d ep en d en t]
' v a r i a b l e (GPA)j h o w ev er, th e r e w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t . d i f f e r - '
! e n c e s (p < . 0 1 ) on any, v a r ia b le s b etw een b o y s and g i r l s , j
! r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l v e r s u s g i r l s o f
! t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l, and |
2 , P or 1 9 7 0 , t h e r e was c l e a r i n d ic a t io n t h a t b oys ■
|and g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o l d i f -
jf e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y (p < . 0 1 ) from boys o f th e c o n t r o l i
i ;
j s c h o o l i n term s o f s c o r e s on t h e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and ;
I S k i l l s and c le a r i n d i c a t i o n th a t g i r l s o f t h e e x p e r im e n ta l i
j ' |
is c h o o l d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y (p < . 0 1 ) from g i r l s o f th e j
! i
|c o n t r o l s c h o o l on t h e same v a r ia b le (TSHS). In f a c t , t h e s e ;
|w ere th e o n ly s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s n o t ic e d in 1 9 7 0 . !
i C o n se q u e n tly , w ith r e g a r d t o th e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n - j
j j
i d i t i o n making a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e (p < . 0 1 ) i n term s I
| !
!o f th e academ ic a ch iev em en t o f d isa d v a n ta g e d t w e lf t h - g r a d e j
|s t u d e n t s , e a r l i e r p r o m isin g r e s u l t s ( 1 9 6 9 ) w h ich ap p eared I
I ' ■ '
I to i n d i c a t e a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e (p < . 0 1 ) b etw een !
|b o th boys and g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l j
|s c h o o l when compared w ith th e b o y s o f th e c o n t r o l s c h o o l j
! , I
|( t h e r e b e in g no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een e x p e r im e n ta lj
i j
|b o y s and g i r l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , when compared w ith c o n t r o l j
i !
| g i r l s ) w ere n o t s u b s t a n t ia t e d i n a c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n stu d y
1 (1 9 7 0 ).
t
> The K u d er-R ich ard son e s t im a t e s o f r e l i a b i l i t y u s in g
I ■ i
jfo r m u la s 20 and 21 ra n g ed from .9 0 t o .9 3 f o r th e e x p e r i- !
! 1
I m en ta l s c h o o l and t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l, r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n
113 i
R ecom m endations j
i
The recom m endations a r e a s f o llo w s : i
I
1 . A f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c stu d y o f th e T e st o f S tu d y ' !
H a b its and S k i l l s i s n eed ed t o e s t a b l i s h t h e d im e n s io n a l! -
: t
!
t i e s r e l a t e d t o th e academ ic ach iev em en t o f d is a d v a n ta g e d j
i
t w e lf t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s .
2 . A ls o , an it e m - a n a ly s is o f th e T e st o f S tu d y
H a b its and S k i l l s i s n eed ed i n o r d e r t o r e f i n e ite m s and t o
|d e ter m in e w h ich ite m s r e a l l y d is c r im in a t e b etw een lo w -
is c o r in g and h ig h - s c o r in g s t u d e n t s .
3 . R e l i a b i l i t y s t u d i e s , e . g . , e s t a b l i s h i n g s t a b i l
i t y o f p erform an ce on th e T e st o f S tu d y H a b its and S k i l l s ,
!sh o u ld be c a r r ie d o u t.
i
I
| 4 . M oreover, f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f v a r ia b le s
’in f lu e n c in g academ ic a ch iev em en t o f d isa d v a n ta g e d h ig h
i
{ sc h o o l s tu d e n ts i s n e e d e d . Any f u t u r e s tu d y , a lo n g w ith
a p t it u d e and stu d y b e h a v io r s c o r e s , sh o u ld in c lu d e r e a d in g
s c o r e s and m easures o f p e r s o n a lit y t r a i t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
th o s e w h ich a r e r e l a t e d t o (a ) s c h o o l e x p e r ie n c e s and a s -
j p ir a t io n s , (b ) in t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith s i g n i f i c a n t
|a d u lt s and p e e r s , ( c ) s e l f - e s t e e m , and (d ) m oral and s o c i a l
j v a lu e s .
I
I 5 . O ther sta n d a r d c r i t e r i a o f academ ic a ch iev em en t
j
jof. d isa d v a n ta g e d h ig h s c h o o l s tu d e n ts b e s id e s g r a d e -p o in t
{a v era g e sh o u ld be I n v e s t ig a t e d . A ls o , th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
!
n o n - lin e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een c e r t a in o f t h e n o n - i n t e l - j
i
l e c t u a l v a r ia b le s and academ ic a ch iev em en t sh o u ld be c o n - I
s id e r e d .
R E F E R E N C E S
i
1
115
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S i s t e r J o s e p h in a , C. S . J . S tu d y s k i l l s p erform an ce o f
g i f t e d p u p i l s . S c h o o l and S o c i e t y , 1958* 8 6 , 2 2 3 -2 2 4 .
Stump, N. P . A co m p a riso n o f s c o r e s on a stu d y in v e n t o r y
w ith s e lf - a d j u d g e d im provem ent on a number o f s tu d y
f a c t o r s . Jou r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 4 0 , 31*
2 23- 2 2 8 .
T ie b o u t, H. M. The misnam ed la z y s t u d e n t . E d u c a tio n a l
R ecord , 1 9 4 3 , 24* 1 1 3 -1 2 9 .
W ein lan d , J . D. How s u c c e s s f u l c o l l e g e s tu d e n ts s tu d y .
J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l P sy c h o lo g y , 1 9 3 0 , 2 1 , 5 2 1 -5 2 6 .
1221
' j
I Wrenn, C. G. M anual f o r t h e stu d y h a b it s in v e n t o r y . |
(R ev. ed.) S ta n fo r d : S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 4 1 . j
Wrenn, C. G ., & Humber, W . J . Stu d y h a b it s a s s o c ia t e d w ith
h ig h and low s c h o la r s h ip . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l P sy
ch o lo g y ., 1 941, 3 2 , 6 1 1 -6 1 6 . |
i
Wrenn, C. G ., Humber, W . J . , & McKeown, R. B. S tu d y h a b it s 1
in v e n t o r y . (R ev. e d . ) S ta n fo r d : S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y !
P r e s s , 1 9 4 1 . j
!
Wrenn, C. G ., & L a r se n , R. P. S tu d y in g e f f e c t i v e l y .
S ta n fo r d : S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1941.
;Zimmerman, W . S . , M ic h a e l, J . J . , 8 s M ic h a e l, W . B. The
f a c t o r e d d im e n sio n s o f th e stu d y a t t i t u d e s and m ethods
su r v e y t e s t — e x p e r im e n ta l form . E d u c a tio n a l and P sy -
i c h o l o g i c a l M easurem ent, 1 9 7 0 , 3 0 , 4 3 3 -4 3 b .
A P P E N D I X
TEST OP STUDY HABITS AND SKILLS
AND ANSWER KEY
1 2 3
TEST OF STUDY HABITS AND SK ILLS
PART I j
DIRECTIONS: P l a c e a "+" a f t e r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e num ber o n |
y o u r a n s w e r s h e e t i f t h e s t a t e m e n t i s t r u e , p l a c e a n "o" i f I
t h e s t a t e m e n t i s f a l s e . W r ite o n l y o n y o u r a n s w e r s h e e t . j
Make no m a rk s o n t h i s t e s t , s i n c e i t i s t o b e u s e d b y o t h e r |
s t u d e n t s . I
1 . T h e a b i l i t y t o s t u d y i s a s k i l l t o b e l e a r n e d , j
2 . H om ework h e l p s y o u l e a r n t o w o rk b y y o u r s e l f . j
i
3 . W here y o u s t u d y i s n o t im p o r t a n t a s l o n g a s !
t h e r e i s g o o d l i g h t i n g . I
i
4 . T h e b e s t t im e t o s t u d y i s j u s t b e f o r e g o in g t o j
b e d , w h en i t i s q u i e t . I
5 . I t i s b e s t t o l e a v e m o s t o f y o u r hom ew ork u n t i l j
t h e w e e k e n d w hen t h e r e i s m ore t im e t o do i t . |
|
6 . When y o u a r e r e a d in g a n d y o u com e t o a w o rd y o u |
d o n ’ t k n ow , i t i s b e s t t o s a v e t im e b y g u e s s i n g i
a t i t s m e a n in g . j
j
7 . I t i s w i s e t o t a k e l e c t u r e n o t e s i n c l a s s a s j
w e l l a s n o t e s o n r e a d in g a s s i g n m e n t s . j
i
i
8 . When t a k i n g l e c t u r e n o t e s , y o u s h o u ld t r y t o
c o p y down a s much o f t h e l e c t u r e a s p o s s i b l e .
j
9 . R e a d in g t h e a s s ig n m e n t a h e a d o f t im e h e l p s {
d u r in g t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n c l a s s .
1 0 . When d o in g hom ew ork , i t i s b e t t e r t o w o r k b y
t h e j o b th a n b y t h e h o u r .
1 1 . I f y o u d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d a n a s s i g n m e n t , i t i s j
b e s t t o a s k a f r i e n d a b o u t i t . j
j
1 2 . P l a g i a r i s m i s c o p y in g .f r o m a n a u t h o r a n d n o t j
g i v i n g h im c r e d i t . j
1251
1 3 . I t i s b e s t t o s t u d y f o r a n exam a s i f i t w e r e
t o b e a n e s s a y e x a m in a t io n e v e n i f y o u know i t j
w i l l b e an o b j e c t i v e . j
1 4 . I t i s b e s t t o s p r e a d t im e s p e n t s t u d y i n g f o r an!
exam o v e r tw o o r t h r e e s e p a r a t e s t u d y s e s s i o n s !
r a t h e r th a n t r y i n g t o g e t i t a l l a t o n c e .
i
1 5 . F l a s h c a r d s a r e a n e f f e c t i v e d e v i c e f o r l e a r n - j
i n g a f o r e i g n la n g u a g e . I
1 6 . T im e l i n e s a r e m o s t h e l p f u l i n m a s t e r i n g j
f a m i l i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . !
1 7 . S t u d e n t m a n n e r s , s u c h a s g e t t i n g t o c l a s s o n
t i m e , b e i n g a t t e n t i v e d u r in g l e c t u r e s , an d
h a n d in g i n a s s ig n m e n t s w h en t h e y a r e d u e h a v e
v e r y l i t t l e t o d o w i t h a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s .
1 8 . I t i s a g o o d i d e a t o r e v ie w y o u r c l a s s n o t e s as!
s o o n a s y o u c a n a f t e r t h e c l a s s . j
1 9 . When a p p r o a c h in g a new b o o k , i t i s a d v a n ta g e o u s !
t o s u r v e y t h e b o o k a s a w h o le b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g .!
2 0 . I t i s u s u a l l y a w a s t e o f t im e t o g o t o a n y I
s o u r c e o t h e r th a n y o u r t e x t b o o k w h en d o in g a n j
a s s ig n m e n t .
PART I I !
I
DIRECTIONS: P l a c e t h e l e t t e r o f t h e m o st c o r r e c t s t a t e m e n t !
b e s i d e t h e num ber o f t h e q u e s t i o n o n y o u r a n s w e r s h e e t .
i
2 1 . T h e b e s t t im e t o r e v ie w m a t e r i a l l e a r n e d i n j
c l a s s i s : ;
a . im m e d ia t e ly a f t e r c l a s s
b . tw o d a y s l a t e r
c . tw o w e e k s l a t e r
2 2 . When m e m o r iz in g r o t e m a t e r i a l i t i s b e s t t o :
a . l e a r n i t a l l a t o n c e
b . l e a r n i t i n tw o s t u d y s e s s i o n s
c . l e a r n i t i n s e v e r a l s h o r t s e s s i o n s
126
2 3 . M a sse d p r a c t i c e , t h a t i s , w h en l e a r n i n g
m a t e r i a l a l l a t o n c e , i s b e s t w h en :
a . l e a r n i n g l i s t s o f n u m b ers o r n o n s e n s e
s y l l a b l e s
b . t h e l e a r n e r i s d e r i v i n g a n d o r g a n i z i n g
r e l a t i o n s h i p s
c . t h e l e a r n e r f i n d s t h a t h i s a t t e n t i o n
p e r s i s t e n t l y w a n d e r s
2 4 . T he n i g h t b e f o r e a t e s t s h o u ld b e u s e d t o :
a . l e a r n a s much a s p o s s i b l e
b . r e v ie w m a t e r i a l a l r e a d y l e a r n e d
c . r e l a x
2 5 . B e f o r e b e g i n n i n g t o s t u d y :
a . c a l l a f r i e n d t o s e e i f h e h a s d o n e t h e
a s s ig n m e n t
b . d e c i d e w h a t y o u a r e g o in g t o s t u d y a n d
f o r how lo n g
c . p l a n w h a t y o u a r e g o in g t o d o d u r in g y o u r
s t u d y b r e a k s
2 6 . I n o r d e r t o g e t t h e m o st o u t o f a t e x t b o o k ,
y o u s h o u ld :
a . r e a d i t s e v e r a l t im e s
b . m e m o r iz e c e r t a i n p a r t s a s y o u g o
c . r e a d w i t h a z e s t t o f i n d o u t m ore a b o u t
t h e w o r ld i n w h ic h y o u l i v e
2 7 . A f t e r t a k i n g n o t e s o f a l e c t u r e i t i s b e s t t o :
a . t y p e th em e x a c t l y a s t h e y a r e
b . s a v e th em t o s t u d y b e f o r e t h e exam
c . r e w r i t e p a r t s t h a t a r e n o t c l e a r
2 8 . W hich o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s h o u ld y o u n o t d o w h i l e
r e v i e w i n g f o r a n e x a m in a t io n ?
a . a t t e m p t t o r e c a l l t h e m a in h e a d in g s o f
y o u r o u t l i n e
b ' . . s t u d y a s l a t e a s y o u c a n t h e n i g h t b e f o r e
t h e t e s t
127
c . a s k y o u r s e l f q u e s t i o n s and a t t e m p t t o
a n s w e r th em
2 9 . To s p e l l c o r r e c t l y a l l t h e t im e y o u s h o u ld :
a . b e c a r e f u l
b . a s k y o u r t e a c h e r w h en y o u a r e i n d o u b t
a b o u t t h e c o r r e c t s p e l l i n g o f a w ord
c . d o n ' t u s e w o r d s w h ic h y o u d o n ' t know how
t o s p e l l
3 0 . T he R e a d e r 's G u id e i s h e l p f u l w h en y o u a r e
l o o k i n g f o r :
a . a n a r t i c l e i n a j o u r n a l
b . a n e d i t o r i a l i n a n e w sp a p e r
c . in f o r m a t i o n a b o u t im p o r t a n t p e o p l e
PART I I I
DIRECTIONS: I n t h e f i r s t co lu m n a r e nam es o f p u n c t u a t io n
an d r e f e r e n c e m a r k s . In t h e s e c o n d co lu m n i s an a n s w e r
l i s t . On y o u r a n s w e r s h e e t , w r i t e t h e m a tc h in g l e t t e r
n e x t t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n u m b er.
3 1 . d a s h a .
ii ii
3 2 . i n t e r r o g a t i o n
p o i n t b .
•
•
3 3 . a p o s t r o p h e c . -
3 4 . q u o t a t i o n m ark s d .
3 5 . h y p h e n e . • •
3 6 . e l l i p s i s f .
f
3 7 . a s t e r i s k
g -
3 8 . s e m i c o l o n h . ?
3 9 . c o l o n i .
f
•
4 0 . e x c la m a t io n
p o i n t
j*
•
>
k .
1 .
m.
• •
#
*
PART IV
DIRECTIONS: P l a c e t h e l e t t e r o f t h e m o st c o r r e c t s t a t e m e n t !
b e s i d e t h e num ber o f t h e q u e s t i o n .
A r r a n g e m e n t o f B o o k s j
T h e s y s t e m o f a r r a n g in g b o o k s u s e d i n o u r j
l i b r a r y a n d i n a lm o s t a l l o t h e r l i b r a r i e s i s !
c a l l e d ( a ) l i b r a r y s y s t e m , (b ) num ber s y s t e m ,
( c ) D ew ey D e c im a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . I
B o o k s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o tw o m a in t y p e s . T h e s e I
a r e ( a ) f i c t i o n a n d n o n - f i c t i o n , ( b ) c o l o r a n d |
s i z e , ( c ) a u t h o r a n d t i t l e . j
|
F i c t i o n b o o k s a r e a r r a n g e d o n t h e s h e l v e s j
a c c o r d in g t o ( a ) t i t l e , ( b ) s u b j e c t , ( c ) s i z e , j
t
N o n - f i c t i o n b o o k s a r e a r r a n g e d o n t h e s h e l v e s ;
a c c o r d in g t o ( a ) a u t h o r , (b ) s u b j e c t , ( c ) s i z e . )
j
4 5 . T he nu m ber o n t h e b a c k o f a n o n - f i c t i o n b o o k !
t e l l s ( a ) p r i c e , ( b ) s u b j e c t , ( c ) g r a d e .
C ard C a t a lo g
i
i
4 6 . T h e c a r d c a t a l o g i s u s e d t o f i n d ( a ) how m uch j
t h e b o o k c o s t s , ( b ) t h e c a l l num ber o f t h e
b o o k i n o r d e r t o f i n d t h e b o o k o n t h e s h e l v e s , i
( c ) t h e a d d r e s s o f t h e p u b l i s h e r . i
!
4 7 . T h e c a r d s i n t h e c a r d c a t a l o g a r e a r r a n g e d ( a ) j
a l p h a b e t i c a l l y , ( b ) b y n u m b er, ( c ) b y g r a d e . |
4 8 . A c a r d c a t a l o g c o n t a i n s c a r d s ( a ) w h ic h g i v e
b o o k r e v i e w s o f b o o k s , ( b ) w h ic h g i v e
b i o g r a p h i e s o f a u t h o r s , ( c ) w h ic h g i v e t h e ;
a u t h o r , t i t l e , an d s u b j e c t o f e a c h b o o k i n j
t h e l i b r a r y .
4 9 . To f i n d a b o o k w r i t t e n b y E d g a r A l l a n P o e , l o o k
i n t h e c a r d c a t a l o g u n d e r £ a ) A l l a n , E d g a r P o e ;
( b ) P o e , E d g a r A l l a n ; ( c ) E d g a r , A l l a n P o e .
4 1 .
4 2 .
4 3 .
4 4 .
129
5 0 . The q u i c k e s t w ay t o f i n d o u t w h e t h e r a b o o k
c a l l e d "L ook A head" i s i n t h e l i b r a r y i s t o
lo o k i n t h e c a r d c a t a l o g d r a w e r m ark ed ( a )
G e-H u , ( b ) L i-M a , ( c ) J a - L a .
PART V
D ew ey D e c im a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
DIRECTIONS: The f i r s t c o lu m n c o n t a i n s t i t l e s o f b o o k s , t h e
s e c o n d c o lu m n c o n t a i n s t h e m a in c l a s s e s o f t h e D ew ey
D e c im a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . On y o u r own p a p e r , w r i t e t h e
m a t c h in g l e t t e r n e x t t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n u m b er.
EXAMPLE: j " L iv e s o f A m e r ic a n P r e s i d e n t s "
5 1 . "HOW THE GREAT
RELIGIONS BEGAN"
a . G e n e r a l w o r k s ,
e n c y c l o p e d i a s
5 2 . "STORY OF CHEMISTRY" b . P h i l o s o p h y ,
p s y c h o lo g y
5 3 . "ENCYCLOPEDIA
BRITANNICA"
c . R e l i g i o n ,
m y t h o lo g y
5 4 . "LISTENING TO MUSIC" d . E d u c a t io n , g o v
e r n m e n t ,
v o c a t i o n s
5 5 . "LIVES OF AMERICAN
PRESIDENTS"
e . L a n g u a g e , d i c -
i o n a r i e s ,
gram m ar, f o r
e i g n la n g u a g e
5 6 . "FRENCH GRAMMAR" f . S c i e n c e , m a th e
m a t i c s ,
z o o l o g y
5 7 . "SPORTS FOR FUN
OF IT"
g -
M e d ic i n e ,
a v i a t i o n , hom e
e c o n o m ic s
5 8 . "JOY OF COOKING" h . F in e a r t s , d ra w
i n g , m u s i c ,
s p o r t s
5 9 . "INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY"
i . L i t e r a t u r e ,
p o e t r y , dram a
6 0 . "PROBLEMS IN AMERICAN
GOVERNMENT"
T r a v e l , b i o
g r a p h y , h i s t o r y
i
i
PART V I
P a r t s o f a B ook i
|
DIRECTIONS: I n t h e f i r s t co lu m n a r e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p a r t s j
o f b o o k s . In t h e s e c o n d co lu m n i s a n a n s w e r l i s t . M a tch I
t h e a n s w e r s w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s b y w r i t i n g t h e m a t c h in g j
l e t t e r n e x t t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n u m b er.
6 1 . S u g g e s t i o n s f o r
f u r t h e r r e a d in g
a . d i c t i o n a r y
6 2 . E x p la n a t io n o f d i f f i
b . a p p e n d ix
c u l t o r new w o r d s
6 3 . L i s t o f t h e c h a p t e r s
c . p u b l i s h e r
a n d p a g e s o n w h ic h
t h e y b e g i n d . c o p y r ig h t d a t e
6 4 . L i s t o f a l l t h e
t o p i c s i n a lp h a e . p r e f a c e o r
b e t i c a l o r d e r i n t r o d u c t i o n
6 5 . T h e r i g h t g i v e n t o
t h e a u t h o r t o p u b f . c h a p t e r
l i s h t h e m a t e r i a l
i n t h e b o o k
9 -
b i b l i o g r a p h y
6 6 . A d d i t i o n a l in f o r m a
t i o n , c h a r t s , o r h . i l l u s t r a t i o n s
t a b l e s
6 7 . A m a in d i v i s i o n o f
i . t i t l e p a g e
a b o o k
6 8 . T h e a u t h o r ' s r e a s o n s
f o r w r i t i n g t h e b o o k
j -
t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s
6 9 . T h e c o m p le t e t i t l e o f
t h e b o o k , t h e a u t h o r
k . in d e x
t h e i l l u s t r a t o r , an d
1 . g l o s s a r y
7 0 .
p u b l i s h e r
C h a r t s , p i c t u r e s , o r
m. e n c y c l o p e d i a
d r a w in g s
PART V I I
R e f e r e n c e s
DIRECTIONS: I n t h e r i g h t h an d c o lu m n i s a l i s t o f r e f e r
e n c e b o o k s t o b e fo u n d i n a lm o s t a l l l i b r a r i e s . From t h i s
l i s t , c h o o s e t h e b o o k y o u w o u ld u s e t o f i n d t h e in f o r m a t i o n
n e e d e d i n t h e l e f t h a n d c o lu m n . On y o u r own p a p e r , w r i t e
th e l e t t e r which i s c o r r e c t.
7 1 . A b o o k p u b l i s h e d a n n u a l l y
w i t h m any f a c t s an d
s t a t i s t i c s o n a lm o s t
a l l s u b j e c t s .
7 2 . A m o n th ly m a g a z in e w i t h
b i o g r a p h i e s o f l i v i n g
p e o p l e i n t h e new t o d a y .
7 3 . A b o o k w h ic h g i v e s b r i e f
b i o g r a p h i e s o f p r o m in
e n t p e o p l e o f a l l
c o u n t r i e s a n d a l l p e r i o d s .
7 4 . A g e o g r a p h i c a l d i c t i o n a r y .
7 5 . A b o o k p u b l i s h e d a n n u a l l y
w i t h s t a t i s t i c s a n d i n
f o r m a t i o n o n e v e r y
c o u n t r y — i t s g o v e r n m e n t,
e d u c a t i o n , p o p u l a t i o n ,
i n d u s t r y , e t c .
7 6 . A b o o k o f s y n o n y m s.
7 7 . An i n d e x t o m a g a z in e
a r t i c l e s o n a l l s u b j e c t s .
7 8 . A b o o k o f m a p s.
7 9 . A b o o k w h ic h g i v e s b r i e f .
b i o g r a p h i e s o t o u t s t a n d
i n g p e r s o n s l i v i n g now
i n G r e a t B r i t a i n and
o t h e r c o u n t r i e s o u t s i d e
t h e U n it e d S t a t e s .
8 0 . A b o o k w h ic h g i v e s t h e
s p e l l i n g , . d e f i n i t i o n , and
p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f
E n g l i s h W o rd s.
A t l a s
b . C u r r e n t
c .
B io g r a p h y
E n c y c l o p e d ia
B r i t a n n i c a
d . G a z e t t e e r |
e . New C e n tu r y j
C y c lo p e d ia !
o f Nam es !
I
i
f . R e a d e r s 1 G u id e j
g . S ta te sm a n * s j
Y e a r b o o k j
|
h . T h e s a u r u s i
— j
i . . W e b s t e r ' s i
D i c t i o n a r y
!
i
j . W h o's Who i
I
j
k . W orld A lm a n a c I
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - j
1 . W orld B ook i
PART V I I I
R e f e r e n c e B o o k s
; DIRECTIONS: T h is i s a t e s t t o s e e how w e l l y o u u n d e r s t a n d
| t h e k in d s o f i n f o r m a t i o n fo u n d i n im p o r t a n t r e f e r e n c e
I b o o k s a v a i l a b l e i n e v e r y l i b r a r y . O n ly o n e a n s w e r i s
| c o r r e c t . W r it e t h e c o r r e c t a n sw e r o n y o u r own p a p e r .
8 1 . To f i n d t h e m e a n in g o f t h e w o rd " e x a g g e r a t e ,"
I s h o u ld l o o k i n
132
a . a gram m ar b o o k c . a d i c t i o n a r y
b . a n a t l a s d . a n e n c y c lo p e d
i a
8 2 . T h e s e a r e t h e g u i d e w o rd s fo u n d a t t h e t o p o f
t h e f o u r p a g e s o f a d i c t i o n a r y . On w h ic h p a g e
w o u ld I f i n d t h e w o rd " s u s p e n s e " ?
a . s u n - s u p e r b c . sw a d -s w a sh
b . s u r y a - s w a c k e n d . s u r f e i t -
s u r v i v o r
8 3 . T h e m o s t r e c e n t s t a t i s t i c s a b o u t fa r m c r o p s
p r o d u c e d r e c e n t l y i n t h e U n it e d S t a t e s w o u ld b e
fo u n d i n :
a . t h e W orld A lm a n a c c . a d i c t i o n a r y
b . t h e R e a d e r s ! G u id e d . an a t l a s
8 4 . W hich o n e o f t h e s e i s NOT l i k e l y t o b e fo u n d i n
an a t l a s ?
a . t h e nam es o f g o v e r n m e n t l e a d e r s i n
v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s .
b . m aps o f c o u n t r i e s and s t a t e s .
c . t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d ' s l a r g e c i t i e s .
d . t h e w o r l d ' s im p o r t a n t r i v e r s .
8 5 . W hich o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c o u ld b e fo u n d b y
u s i n g a g lo b e ?
a . t h e s h o r t e s t r o u t e b e tw e e n New Y ork
a n d P a r i s .
b . t h e a r e a o f N o r th A m e r ic a .
c . t h e h e i g h t o f t h e m o u n ta in s i n A s i a .
d . t h e a r e a o f t h e A t l a n t i c O cean
PART IX
R e a d e r s ' G u id e
DIRECTIONS: T h e a r t i c l e b e lo w i s l i s t e d i n t h e R e a d e r s '
G u id e . On y o u r own p a p e r , w r i t e t h e c o r r e c t a n s w e r .
I READERS' GUIDE
( a ) " A to m ic P o w e r - T r a in in g A to m ic -A g e j
S c i e n t i s t s . " j
( b ) A . M. J o n e s
( c ) i l |
( d ) U. S . N ews |
( e ) 4 8 : j
( f ) :1 0 6 |
( g ) May 1 6 , '6 3 !
I
; i
8 6 . W hat i s t h e t i t l e o f t h e a r t i c l e ? j
8 7 . Who w r o t e i t ?
8 8 . I n w h a t m a g a z in e w o u ld y o u f i n d i t ?
8 9 . W hat i s t h e d a t e o f t h e m a g a z in e w h ic h j
I h a s t h e a r t i c l e ?
| 9 0 . On w h a t p a g e w o u ld y o u f i n d t h i s a r t i c l e ? i
I • j
PART X !
> , i
i I
; !
j
i M a g a z in e s an d t h e R e a d e r s ' G u id e ]
i DIRECTIONS: I n t h e f i r s t c o lu m n a r e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f j
a r t i c l e s . I n t h e s e c o n d c o lu m n i s a n a n s w e r l i s t . M atch i
t h e a n s w e r s w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n b y w r i t i n g t h e m a tc h in g i
j
i
a . A m e r ic a n G i r l j
I
l
b . B e t t e r Homes |
a n d G a r d e n s
|
I
c . B o v s ' L i f e j
j
d . M od el A ir p l a n e j
News i
)
e . N ew sw eek i
: — ; — [
f . N a t i o n a l G eo - j
g r a p h ic J
M a g a z in e j
g . P o p u la r
M e c h a n ic
l e t t e r n e x t t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n u m b er.
9 1 . A g o o d m y s t e r y s t o r y
f o r g i r l s .
9 2 . A r e c i p e f o r g in g e r b r e a d .
9 3 . T he l a t e s t t r e a t m e n t f o r
t h e common c o l d .
9 4 . S o m e th in g a b o u t B oy S c o u t s .
9 5 . F a s h io n s f o r t h e
t e e n a g e g i r l .
9 6 . An a r t i c l e o n l i f e i n
I n d o n e s i a , w i t h
m any p i c t u r e s .
9 7 . S o m e th in g a b o u t t h e
R o se B ow l g a m e.
9 8 . D i r e c t i o n s f o r b u i l d i n g
a m o d el p l a n e .
9 9 . P o l i t i c a l n ew s o f t h e w e e k .
1 0 0 . C o m p a r iso n s o f s e v e r a l o f
t h e new a u t o m o b i l e s .
( c o n t i n u e d )
PART X — (c o n tin u e d )
h . Stam ps
i . S e v e n te e n
j . S c ie n c e News
L e t t e r
k . T o d a y 's H e a lth
1 . S p o r ts
I l l u s t r a t e d
m. U. S . News and
W orld R ep ort
135
T e s t o f S t u d y H a b it s a n d S k i l l s
ANSWER KEY
1 . T 2 5 . B 4 9 . B 7 3 . J 9 7 . K
2 * T 2 6 . C 5 0 . B 7 4 . A 9 8 . D
3 . F 2 7 . C 5 1 . C 7 5 . K 9 9 . M
4 . F 2 8 . B 5 2 . F 7 6 . H 1 0 0 . G
5 . F 2 9 . A 5 3 . A 7 7 . F
6 . F 3 0 . A 5 4 . H 7 8 . A
7 . T 3 1 . G 5 5 . J 7 9 . G
8 * F 3 2 . H 5 6 . E 8 0 . I
9 * T 3 3 . F 5 7 . H 8 1 . C
1 0 . T 3 4 . A 5 8 . G 8 2 . B
1 1 . F 3 5 . C 5 9 . B 8 3 . A
1 2 . T 3 6 . K 6 0 . D 8 4 . A
1 3 . T 3 7 . M 6 1 . G 8 5 . A
1 4 . T 3 8 . J 6 2 . L 8 6 . A
1 5 . T 3 9 . B 6 3 . J 8 7 . B
1 6 . F 4 0 . I 6 4 . K 8 8 . D
1 7 . F 4 1 . C 6 5 . D 8 9 . G
i
S 1 8 . T 4 2 . A 6 6 . B 9 0 . F
1 9 . T 4 3 . C 6 7 . F 9 1 . A
I 2 0 . F 4 4 . B 6 8 . E 9 2 . B
j 2 1 . A 4 5 . B 6 9 . I 9 3 . L
i 2 2 . C 4 6 . B 7 0 . H 9 4 . C
2 3 . B 4 7 . A 7 1 . K 9 5 .. I
■
2 4 . B 4 8 . C 7 2 . B 9 6 . F

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Asset Metadata

Creator Gualderon, John Guerin (author)

Core Title Predicting and assessing academic achievement of disadvantaged high school students utilizing a test of study habits and skills

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Metfessel, Newton S. (committee chair), Hayes, Mabel E. (committee member), Moore, Fred A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-789973

Unique identifier UC11364236

Identifier 7307250.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-789973 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7307250

Dmrecord 789973

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Gualderon, John Guerin

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA