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A Comparison Of Pupil Achievement And Pupil Attitudes With And Without The Assistance Of Batch Computer-Supported Instruction

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A Comparison Of Pupil Achievement And Pupil Attitudes With And Without The Assistance Of Batch Computer-Supported Instruction

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Content A COMPARISON OF PUPIL ACHIEVEMENT AND PUPIL ATTITUDES WITH AND WITHOUT THE ASSISTANCE OF BATCH COMPUTER-SUPPORTED INSTRUCTION A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education by Gerard Akkerhuis January 1974 INFORMATION TO USERS This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1.The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 74-9052 AKKERHUIS, Gerard, 1930- A COMPARISON OF PUPIL ACHIEVEMENT AND PUPIL ATTITUDES WITH AND WITHOUT THE ASSISTANCE OF BATCH COMPUTER-SUPPORTED INSTRUCTION. University of Southern California, Ed.D., 1974 Education, curriculum development University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan j I . . . . . . . . . . . _ . J THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. This dissertation, written under the direction of the Chairman of the candidate's Guidance Committee and approved by all members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of D octor of Education. j y at e November, 1 1 . , ...1973 Dean Guidance/Committee / sWT ' M Chairman ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In developing Batch CSI and in conducting this evaluative study, I have received valuable assistance from many generous people. Some of the more significant contributors have been my friend and advisor, Dr. William Georgiades and his very able assistant, Dr. Flavian Udinsky, and Drs. William O'Neill and Robert A. Smith, the other members of my com mittee . I thank them all for their guidance and inspiration. To the Director of the United States Dependents Schools in the European Area, Dr. Joseph A. Mason, and to the Superintendent of the Wiesbaden School Complex, Dr. Ralph Ziskin, I extend my appreciation for giving me the opportunity to conduct this study. My sincere thanks go also to the eighteen sixth-grade teachers who cooperated in a most pleasant and willing manner. Much assistance was given me by Ms. Helen Jones in editing and typing the manuscript. I thank her for her interest and care. To the many students in my Computer Studies classes who helped write the programs, prepare the worksheets, and .keypunch the data, I am very grateful. Special mention ii should be made of Jon Jackson, Kerry Jones, Debbie Perrow, and Darrell Strom. Finally, to my wife, Patricia, to my daughters, Gretchen and Ila Jeanne, and to my son, Gerard, I give my love for the extensive times they managed without me in a most helpful way. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii LIST OF TABLES vi Chapter I. PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM 1 Introduction Area of Concern Statement of the Problem Specific Areas of Concern Importance of the Study Definition of Terms Description of Batch CSI Research Hypotheses Delimitations Limitations Assumptions Organization of Remaining Chapters II. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON THE STATUS OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION .............. 14 Introduction Present Day Misgivings with Computer- Assisted Instruction Human Resistance to Computer Technology in the Classroom Batch CSI as a Transitional Mediary Summary III. PROCEDURES OF THE STUDY.................... 3 2 Introduction The Setting for Research Operational Procedures The Research Design Instrumentation Hypotheses Statistical Treatment Summary iv Chapter Page IV. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY........................ 40 Introduction Cognitive Findings Affective Findings Teacher Attitude and Class Achievement Summary V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 47 Summary Conclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................... 5 5 APPENDICES.............................................. 60 A. An Excerpt From Batch CSI Study Procedural Time Line ..................................... 61 B. Three Instruments Used for Batch CSI Affective Measurements....................... 63 C. The Present State of the Development of Batch C S I ..................................... 67 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. t-Test Results from Batch CSI Evaluation Instruments.................................. 4-3 2. A Comparison of Teacher Opinion of Batch CSI With Student Success in Utilization of Batch C S I ..................................... 45 3. Status of Classes in the Batch CSI Experiment in Years of Growth for Quarters II and III of School Year 1972-1973 or Rank Total. . . 53 CHAPTER I PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM Introduction This study focused on a new way to harness the capabilities of the computer to the typical classroom environment. It was generated from a concern for students and teachers who desire to have a current curriculum, but who have not been able to utilize advantageously existing computer technology in their classrooms. This study has been nurtured by the hope that the insights gained from the experiences of many classes utilizing the new technique may serve to help make elementary and secondary curricula more relevant. Area of Concern After the typewriter and copy machine were invented as business machines, they quickly found their way into the educational world, not only as extensions of the adminis trative arm of the school, but as aids to both the teacher and the student as universal tools to facilitate learning. A newer business machine, the computer, has a potentially great contribution to make in the world of 1 2 education. The computer has been widely used as an exten sion of the administrative arm of the school, but as an instrument in the hands of teachers and students to facilitate learning, its employment has been less than anticipated. Evidence of this appears in abundant sources. To quote one study at this time will suffice since a cross section of this evidence will appear in Chapter II, The Review of the Literature. In the spring of 197 0 the Re search Division of the National Education Association sought to determine to what extent the nation's public schools were involved in the use of the computer for instructional purposes. The division found that less than one per cent of the respondents actually used computer capabilities in their classroom work (30:3-4). If it can be shown that teachers generally seem reluctant to use the computer in their daily work, effort should be made to help them take steps in this direction with a minimum of meddling into their teaching programs. The concern of this study was to evaluate one such effort— to attempt, in a non-interfering manner, to help teachers take steps in the direction of using the computer in their daily work. Statement of the Problem The problem of this study centered around two 3 groups of people, students and teachers, and their relationships to computer assistance in the classroom. First, did students who received personalized assistance from the computer in their study of mathematics achieve superior computational and comprehensional skills and have better attitudes toward mathematics and the computer as aids to human endeavor than did students who had not received such assistance? Second, did teachers who enthusiastically desired their students to have such assistance have students who achieved greater success in using such assistance? Specific Areas of Concern This project had as its purpose a careful study of a new method of computer-supported instruction called Batch CSI. Batch CSI showed promise in large group, small group, and individualized instruction. The scheme seemed to have development potential to some degree for use at all levels of most disciplines in pre-college education. It could lend itself to all Roman languages and to all computer languages. The primary area of concern for this study was, therefore, to measure the change in academic growth in mathematics and the change in attitudes toward mathematics and the computer made by sixth grade students who experi enced Batch CSI. A secondary concern was an investigation of the 4 degree of correlation that existed between each teacher's opinion of Batch CSI and his students' success in using it. Since the affective is known to play an important role in the development of cognitive skills, this experiment offered an opportunity to measure such a correlation. Importance of the Study Batch CSI achieves a high degree of individualiza tion of learning while keeping the social setting of the classroom. It provides another alternative for the modern instructor who has a rich array of teaching techniques in his repertoire. When any school acquires computer capa bilities, either on-site or off-site, Batch CSI might warrant careful consideration as a possible computer service, one which might attract more teachers than those techniques which have had limited success to date. Despite problems of rising costs of education, of public sentiments against technology, and of resistance on the part of some teachers to innovation and change, educa tors should continue to address themselves to the problem of the computer and the classroom. As society becomes more and more trussed, braced, and permeated by the computerized technology of communications, finance, industrial control, and government, educational services to the student should include knowledge of how this technology goes about its business. Alienation occurs in people when they are not 5 given the opportunity to control a significant force in their lives. Educational theory dictates that the needs of students be given highest priority in an educational program. If such theory is indeed the determining factor in school planning, then a school system should automati cally obtain computer capability for the preparation of its students for modern life. Sometimes, however, realism forces other considerations to prevail in school policy formation. Many school systems receive their first computer capability at some centralized administrative site. Factors such as school supply, employee payroll, or scheduling needs necessitate computer capability. Regard less of the reason a school system gets computer capability, Batch CSI comes as a rider. Since Batch CSI does not alter substantially the workload of any computer, Batch CSI can perform at all times significant services to students and teachers. In addition to the rider concept, Batch CSI can claim application of the domino principle. Once a student has computer contact, his curiosity is aroused concerning the computer and its work. This leads to a series of questions for which he will seek answers. This motivation can be used to increase the student's (and the teacher's) general understanding of the roles that computers play, and of the methods for which they are used in everyday acti vities of society. In processing the worksheets, classroom concern for order, sequence, and detail are advanced. Batch CSI gives high school keypunch students live, meaningful data to process. A review of the rationale of Batch CSI would include the concept that any high school community which has access to a conventional digital com puter can have abundant computer-supported instruction. Each computer program developed for this educational plan can be used year after year, and an effective library of programs can be established and expanded. In any locality this project can be designed and realized to meet the needs and desires of the people it serves. Definition of Terms In this study the following terms had the meanings indicated: Achievement - Student performance ability as measured by the computational and comprehensional sections of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills— Form 4, a measurement of cognitive skills. Attitude - A learned, emotionally-toned predisposi tion to react in a consistent way, favorable or unfavor able, toward a person, object, or idea. In this study student attitudes toward both mathematics and the computer were measured using semantic differential instruments. Batch - A quantity or lot, such as (in this case) student worksheets which contain computer inputs selected by and in the interest of those students using the computer to help them achieve a specified learning objective. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAP - A man-machine interaction in which the teaching function is accomplished by a computer system without the intervention of a human instructor. Both training material and instructional logic are stored in computer memory (28:39). Computer-Supported Instruction (CSI) - All computer applications in support of instruction in which the com puter is used by a human instructor to assist him in the accomplishment of his instructional objectives; essentially all uses of the computer as a classroom aid (28:39). Semantic Differential - A combination of controlled association and scaling procedures where the subject is presented with a concept to be differentiated and a set of bipolar (opposite in meaning) adjectival scales on which the concept is rated. The directions and intensity of the association is rated on a series of scales with a specific number of steps. Five specific steps were used for the purposes of this study (35:64). Description of Batch CSI The individual student is given a mass-produced worksheet containing the format of an appropriate exercise or simulation. The student chooses input parameters which 8 define his personal version of the problem exercise or simulation. Weaker students select smaller, easier-to-work versions, while stronger students not only make more challenging choices but also complete more worksheets as well. The student works his problem on the worksheet. Until optical scanning becomes commonplace, low-skill stu dent assitance on the keypunch is required to introduce into the computer the parameters chosen by the student. From this input the computer also accomplishes the work sheet requirements and supplements them as it alone is able. Hundreds of student worksheets can be processed at one time. The student can then compare the respective stages in his solution of the problem with the stages of the solution of the computer and thereby learn of his successful and unsuccessful responses. Most responses are reinforcing since the students tend to choose that degree of difficulty which they are able to handle. Thus, there are various inputs in a common enterprise which together achieve a balance of freedom and cooperation. The cost analysis of Batch CSI is important. There are many factors in such an analysis. These must be weighed against the benefits obtained as presented pre viously under "Importance of the Study." The decision to bring computer knowledge to the student is not based on short-term economics. It is the result of the educator's recognition of the role of computers in today's society and 9 of the need to prepare the student for that society. By any method education today is a yery expensive enterprise. Giving the student computer contact will be expensive, too; but less expensive in the long run than ignoring the machine, pretending that it does not exist, and losing the respect of the student. Batch CSI is by far the least expensive form of giving the student computer contact, because only the student's name and the parameter choices need to be relayed to the computer. Other methods require much more interface between the student and the computer over longer periods of time. The computer support required by Batch CSI may be an on-site computer, a time-sharing terminal, or an off-site computer with courier contact. If the computer is owned by the school, or if rental is by calendar time, processing costs must be pro rated. These costs will be insignificant when compared to the costs of the computer in the performance of its primary functions. If rent is paid by usage time, then costs at the rate of seven cents (7 0 a second (the time to process one worksheet) must be borne. Added to this would be a one cent (lO cost of providing the worksheet. If optical scanning equipment is not available, there is an additional cost of one cent CIO for transferring the parameter choices of the student into the input medium of the com puter. Finally, there is a one cent (lO cost of one page 10 of computer printout paper per student. Therefore, the total cost of processing one worksheet would be approxi mately ten cents (10£). Research Hypotheses The research hypotheses for this study were organized into three sections: Cognitive Domain 1. There is a significant relationship between student exposure and non-exposure to computer assistance and ability of students to do mathematical calculations. 2. There is a significant relationship between student exposure and non-exposure to computer assistance and ability of students to comprehend mathematics. Affective Domain 3. There is a significant relationship between student exposure and non-exposure to computer assistance and attitude of student toward mathematics. 4. There is a significant relationship between student exposure and non-exposure to computer assistance and attitude of students toward the computer. Teacher Attitude and Class Achievement 5. There is a significant relationship between a teacher's attitude toward computer assistance for his 11 students and the success his students have in learning with computer assistance. Delimitations 1. This study was delimited to selected sixth grade students of the United States Dependents Schools in Wiesbaden, Germany. 2. This study was delimited to information obtained during the 1972-1973 academic year. 3. This study was delimited to the discipline of mathematics. Limitations It should be recognized as the study is read that the findings may be limited in application because of several factors which include: 1. The Mathematics Sections of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills might not have content validity for Batch CSI simulations such as payrolls and bank statements. 2. The semantic differential attitude tests for the assessment of student attitudes toward computers and mathematics were prepared specifically for use in this study and the results might be subject to question. 3. The adjustment required by the experimental groups and their teachers to new and different lesson forms, techniques, and content might have reduced their 12 efficiency in learning and teaching during this first trial. 4. The pacing of the Batch CSI worksheets might not coincide with the pacing of the textbook in current use. This lack of phasing might have interfered with the obtaining of maximum benefits from Batch CSI. 5. The confounding variables typical to all social science multigroup experimentation might have occurred in this study, namely: a. Contamination leakage from the experimental groups to the control groups. b. The Hawthorne effect when students become aware of the project in which they are participating. c. Participant mortalities due to transfers and rotations of the sponsors of the participants. d. Experimental bias in participating teachers despite minimization of this problem through random selection of the experi mental classes. e. Variations in the school environments and student populations due to cultural condi tions for and among dependents of officers, enlisted men, and civilians. « f. The presence of other studies, innovations, 13 and experiments simultaneous to this one in the Wiesbaden sixth grade classes. Assumptions Two assumptions were made for this study: 1. That any significant differences found in the experimental and control group gain scores, as shown by the tests administered, are a result of the difference in treatment. 2. That the results of the experiment will be generally applicable in any pre-college school system which has computer support. Organization of Remaining Chapters The remaining chapters in the study have been organized in the following manner: Chapter II is a review and summary of the existing literature on the current situation in computer assisted instruction (CSI) with an addendum on Batch CSI. Chapter III discusses the procedures utilized in the study. Chapter IV presents the findings of the study. Chapter V summarizes the problem, procedures, and findings, and makes conclusions and recommendations. CHAPTER II A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON THE STATUS OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION Introduction This chapter presents a review of the literature on the status of computer-assisted instruction. Historians of the development of computer-assisted instruction might describe the decade of 1965 to 197 5 as a period of plateau. A reevaluation of computer-assisted instruction is occur ring on the basis of what was learned during the previous decade of phenomenal growth. The emergence of problems with learning theory, movements toward social conscious ness, discoveries of the costliness of hardware and soft ware, combined with simultaneous sentiments of caution and restraint in public spending have dampened the overabundant vitality of the computer-assisted instruction movement. Literature is reported which reveals present day misgivings with computer-assisted instruction and human resistance to computer technology in the classroom. Chapter II concludes with an offering of the Batch CSI as a possible ameliora tion of these two difficulties. 14 15 Present-Day Misgivings With Computer- Assisted Instruction Oettinger (5) stated that the problem with harnessing computer capabilities to the classroom is that technology has been oversold; that its claims are pre mature. There are great promises in CAI systems, but their development is nowhere near the point where we can expect anything reasonable within the next decade (5:215). Other authors, Ianni (18), Rosenbaum (27), Kopstein (20), and Slack (29), for example, have expressed the same idea. Slack exclaimed: Yes, indeedy, there was a teaching machine movement all right. Only thing was there were just no teaching machines . . . Ahem, folks, Mr. and Mrs. PTA, Office of Education, Sol Linowitz, U. S. Industries, Norm Crowder, Encyclopedia Britannica Salesmen, Leon Rhodes, Jerry McDonnell, Cal Sontheimer . . . Ahem, I’m sorry to have to announce to you that a mistake was made and there are no teaching machines. Actually, I hate to admit it, but we all wasted the ten best years of our lives believing in teaching machines, hoping that if we believed hard enough, if we really thought teaching machines, that, somehow, it all would come true and there would be teaching machines. However, truth be known, nobody actually did ever, well, really invent a teaching machine. I hate to say it folks, but Skinner made a boo-boo. I mean there was a box with a slit in the lid and a roll of paper went inside the box but it didn't actually turn out too good and it never actually taught anything. It just sort of sat there and got looked at by the faithful grad students who came to visit the lab. (29:24) Co-authors, Ianni and Rosenbaum (18) stated their opinion thusly: There has been an audible diminuition in the once- shrill claims of the technologist that, given the opportunity, he could revolutionize American Education. 16 In contrast to the initial excitement over the promise of educational technology, a pervasive feeling of skepticism is now discernible when this promise is compared with the relatively unimpressive results of technological innovation to date. Nowhere is perfor mance failure so glaring as in urban education, where the problems have been so urgent. . . . From the marketing standpoint, the fact of 1) the nonpurchase of equipment, 2) the nonuse of purchased equipment, and 3) the use of equipment for purposes other than those intended by the manufacturer, i.e., 'misuse,1 would be seen as a simple case of product failure. (18:39) One program, called PLATO, at the University of Illinois recently received a 2.6 million dollar computer for the development of computerized education. A spokesman for the University of Illinois, Edward G. Bohanon, wrote, "PLATO proceeds on the premise that existing technology, while valuable for research, has made no significant economic or practical contribution to the nation's educa tional program." (13:39) Others had the same opinion. Hansen (16) wrote: Unfortunately, it seems apparent that we are a good decade away from the day when computer-assisted instruction will be widespread. This is partly because of the high costs of such systems. The computer, or hardware, costs are high enough: the monthly rental for an IBM 1500 system would be $20,000. But costs for hardware are just the beginning. A student cannot learn anything from a computer which wasn't put there previously in the form of a computer program. These programs are frightfully expensive to produce and they cannot be mass-produced. While programming costs vary widely depending on a number of factors, it is estimated, for example, that to produce one hour of computer-assisted instruction, programming costs in the neighborhood of $3 0,000. Perhaps even more important, not only are such programs expensive, but good programs of high educational benefit are most difficult to produce; they are scarce and will continue to be so for a long time to come. (16:199) 17 Nee (24) broadened the theme that CAI is still in its embryonic stage to include specific complications brought on by the current state of flux in our educational philosophy: Yet, the computer has not made the strides in edu cation that were predicted five years ago, and today there is a reluctance on the part of manufacturers to delve further into computer-assisted instruction. This lack of success is due in part to the high cost of computers, which quickly become obsolete, and also to the lack of guidelines from chief educators, state departments, or educational associations. But, of more significance, the manufacturers are quick to point out, is the need for educators to define objectives. Just what does the educator want to know about the student? These are measureable outputs of the computer, outputs which are analyzed first before so-called 'inputs.1 What is needed in the way of computer inputs are defined programs of strategies ranging from drill and practice to student-directed inquiry. (24:63,64) Luskin (33) studied the inhibiting factors to the further development of CAI. Seven obstacles emerged as critical to such development. They were: (1) availability of individuals with appropriate component skills; (2) sufficient local funds; (3) sufficient funds for research and development; (4) attitude of faculty; (5) lack of incentives to stimulate preparation of educational soft ware; (6) poor documentation of educational software; and (7) the existence of a communication gap between educators and representatives of industry. In the same study a convergence of the opinions of a jury of 7 5 experts of CAI from education and industry showed breakeven times for the resolution of all obstacles 18 for CAI use in the majority of higher education institu tions is 1987, in secondary schools 1988, and in elementary schools 1990. Pessimism was shown, however, regarding the achievement of each of these times (33:161). The same theme was stated by Bellman of the Univer sity of Pittsburgh's "Project Solo," whose desire has been to involve students in CAI program writing: Yet the revolutionary effect of the computer on both calculation and concept remains a secret to most mathematicians in colleges and universities. Indeed, most of the courses in all subjects in the colleges, and naturally the high schools (let alone the elemen tary schools), remain precisely what they would have been had the computer never happened. Distressing as the situation is, it is not surprising to those of us with some knowledge of the history of science and education. That this unfortunate lack of interaction with current philosophy, science, mathematics, tech nology, and life results predictably in alienating and embittering students hardly needs stating. (31:5) Diebold (2) echoed the now familiar theme of the period .of plateau in the development of CAI when he wrote: ". . . immense obstacles must be overcome before effective CAI systems can be put into action. The materials are crude, the technologies are inadequate, and the teachers are not ready." (2:130) Other forces curtailing the development of CAI are found in the literature. There is the complication of the transiency of the contemporary curriculum. Complex CAI systems as they exist today do not, even cannot, serve the diverse needs of teacher-pupil planning across the spectrum of the curriculum. Another hindrance is the lack of trans 19 portability of products and programs. A new development in one system is usually incompatible with other systems without extensive reworking. Molnar (23) wrote concerning these difficulties: There is no effective mechanism in education to disseminate innovations that involve technology. Usually an educator visits a demonstration project, and then goes home and tries to build it. He usually makes the same mistakes as the originator, seldom gets the innovation to work, and finally ends up making his version of the original. While this form of transfer of innovations has worked fairly well in the past, it is doomed to failure when it involves complex tech nological systems. Most of the current available instructional pro grams were written without any thought of transporta bility. Many were designed as material for research experiments and the documentation was limited or changed as different experimental treatments were introduced. Only a few programs were developed with the aim of making them machine independent and using them solely for instructional purposes. (23:61) Yet another obstacle was the high price tag on CAI. Kopstein and Seidel (21) dealt with economics. They wrote: In 1966-67 the cost estimate of teacher-wise instruction is 35-36<J: per student-hour. The CAI hard ware cost alone for the same configuration would be $3.6 3 per student-hour. Add to this 1£ for instruc tional material and 9£ for the cost of a proctor, and a final cost of $3.73 indicates that CAI would have to be 10 times as effective as teacher-wise instruction to warrant its adoption. Even adding evening classes could not reduce this cost much below $2 per student- hour. (21:157) Another writer who believed that if CAI is ever to be successful it must save the public money was Molnar (23). He maintained: When other non-traditional educational systems, such as television and computers, become necessities because students learn and teachers prefer to teach in 20 this manner and more people may be reached more quickly, conveniently, and economically, then, and only then, will media systems be used. (23:63) Other monetary problems focused on how much money has been spent poorly and with ill effects in attempts to stimulate improvements in progressive education. Randal and Blaschke (26) complained: The rewards for the educational profession are not contingent upon indices of improved productivity, as is customary in industry. Rewards thus tend to be asso ciated with indications of desire to achieve improve ments rather than with objective evidence of achieved improvements. Clearly such a reward structure is con- ducive to the introduction of one fad after another and counter to any consistent and integrated evolution of effective educational processes. (26:13) Granted that money for difficult to measure improvements has been spent poorly on occasions, other times it has not been spent at all for improvements. As Molnar (23) wrote: There is little incentive to produce computer instructional materials. Recognition is usually obtained through publications and not through time- consuming efforts of developing instructional programs. Since there is no commercial outlet that will pay significant royalties for instructional programs, and since universities do not usually remunerate staff by promotion or by an increase in salary based upon the increased productivity of the instructor, there is little incentive to write instructional programs. . . . Little financial or manpower assistance is avail able to develop and test instructional materials to assure that they will be educationally effective. The costs of development of quality materials are high. Consequently, since the quality of the instructional programs is generally low and the documentation is usually poor, there is a natural resistance to the use of someone else’s instructional programs. (23:61) Luskin (33) also urged more support for those 21 trying to develop CAI: All panels and the consensus indicate that the need for support personnel in appropriate numbers and com binations has not been emphasized. . . . Numerous educators are not working in computer-assisted instruc tion simply because it is more profitable to write books and do consulting. It appears that lack of rights and recognition, at the present time, contri butes to the low-level of endeavor in the field of computer-assisted instruction materials. Those who are now doing developmental work are individuals who happen to possess high curiosity and a special interest in the use of the computer instruc tion, or who have contracted to develop materials from some outside source of funding. The fact remains that quality materials, whether prepared through the motive of profit or idealism are sorely needed in the field. (33:104, 119) A final reason for present day misgivings with com puter-assisted instruction was the mechanical terminal teletypewriter. Regarding the inadequate technology in this area Luskin added: The teletypewriter is the most commonly used terminal device. Many of those who were interviewed reported that typewriter terminals are restrictive in terms of their ability to present materials properly. Comments were made that while the internal computer capability exists, many instructors are stifled by the input/output capability of the terminal. Frustration was evidenced by the educators who indicated they are required to adapt to education devices designed for business purposes. In addition, typewriter terminals are painfully slow, mechanical, subject to wear and tear, and noisy. (33:85) Another similar view was given by Duncan and Slack (15) : The primary consequence of computer-assisted instruction, as we see it, is to raise the noise level in the classroom about 30 decibels. The clack of the teletype machines is deafening. The teacher shouts, and the students shout back, and they proceed reading through their lessons. 22 Another consequence of CAI, not mentioned by the experts, is the extra personnel which accompany the machine: district coordinator, repairman, and a machine paper-feeder for each school. Of course, some body has to watch to see that the children don't break the keyboard. (15:39) While the cathode ray tube (CRT) terminals are quiet and less mechanical, there is no hard copy of the development of the lesson for the student to review. It is not feasible to take notes on computer time at the terminal. These words of Ianni (17) conclude this portion of the review of the literature: The current stance of the educational technology assumes that the machine has come to rescue a moribund educational system from its own excesses. . . . It is more accurate to say that neither the state of develop ment of the machines nor the state of the art of the materials . . . permits any confidence in the supremacy of the machine. (17:1) Human Resistance to Computer Technology in the Classroom The most troublesome problem experienced by all innovative efforts seemed to be the inertia of traditional education. Postman and Weingartner (8) referred to this common problem in The Soft Revolution with the thought that: People who have functioned successfully within a system are generally unwilling to have the system change, much less work to change it. They are not 'evil' (at least, no more than you.) They just don't want to let go of a good thing. That is why people sometimes prefer problems that are familiar to solu tions that are not. (8:8) Johnson (4) added: 23 Educators resist change for many reasons, not the least of which is their comfortable commonplace with the 'tried and true.1 It is easier to meander along the smooth plain which experience has shown to be reasonably safe than to pick their way across the torturous terrain left by upheaval which innovation conceivably could create. Educators realize that inno vations will not necessarily succeed, and they fear to risk the consequences of an experiment that might fail. (4:17) It appeared that innovations by their very nature pose a threat to the stability and continuity of an on going system. Any change of any consequence required some shift in habits, beliefs, and attitudes, very often in patterns of behavior learned in emotionally compelling ways. Long and Schwartz (22) iterated the same theme: Computer-assisted instruction will have a notice able effect on teachers' attitudes, practices, and training, and may be met with strong resistance in some educational circles. It has been said that there is no educational innovation that a teacher cannot cause to fail, either through improper use or by simply not investing the interest or time required to look into it. (22:10) Thus, individual enthusiasm for a specific change was found to be inversely proportional to how much the individual involved must change. People desired it in and for others. They praised change for others, but seldom valued change for themselves. Change meant exertion and planning to make the adjustment. Usually people would stipulate that any change they are asked to make would make their work easier or they must receive additional compensa tion . 21+ In the past several years David Austin (12) has experienced highly successful pioneering in instructional technology (combining the telephone, the television set, and the computer into an educational threesome). Yet he observed: It was clear that the teachers were more than willing to recommend the use of technology as long as it did not interfer with their own classroom procedures. This was due to the fact that the technology was extraneous to their own learning experience, and thus did not fit into the pattern of their own classroom routine. If the technology were part of the teacher’s own learning experience, then the teachers would make use of the technology in their teaching. The average teacher will teach the way he was taught. Hence it appears that college and university education depart ments will need to establish computer technology as part of their teacher training before that technology will be widely used by teachers in their classrooms. (12:20) This is the age of technology. Society would be totally paralyzed should electricity be withdrawn. All significant communications and other processes would be impossible. Yet few high schools and fewer elementary schools enable their students to experience the chief of our technological achievements, the computer. While the public likes to think of the computer as a cure-all for everything (the segment of the public that supports tech nology is much larger than the segment that does not), the majority of teachers seem reluctant to use the computer in their daily work. Effort should be made to help them take steps in this direction. In fairness to teachers, evidence should be pre- 25 sented relative to the questionable learning theory under lying CAI. This theory is based on student isolation at the terminal, and is objected to by many. Oettinger and Marks (25) reviewed current research and development on CAI and concluded that the short-range claims will not be realized. This was sure to be so because CAI was being built upon a house of sand: the value of individualized instruction. While everyone has paid lip service to this glorious notion that children learn most and best under an individualized regimen, there was little or no evidence to support the idea. As a matter of fact, there was evidence that group instruction was preferred in a variety of situa tions as more stimulating and productive. Group instruc tion reduced the teacher’s problem of processing informa tion in the classroom because it minimized the spread between the fastest and the slowest students being taught. This is the reason that lockstep, eggcrate, thirty to a room education has become a world-wide tradition (25:700). In Kopstein’s words (20): Imperfectly developed and/or formulated principles are being improperly implemented and must inevitably lead to near term failures. What a boon for those striving to demolish the strawman! Now they can backup their forgone conclusion: ’We tried CAI, but it wasn't any good. X and Y and Z also tried it and had nothing but trouble. We always said nothing can replace the teacher.' (20:51) Schools appear to be committed to learning by hand. The dogma that nothing can replace the physical presence of 26 the teacher for the provision of warm human relationships is still alive. Two cartoons in a recent issue of an educational journal had the following captions respec tively: "The best teaching machine is 36-24-36," and "The computer couldn't help me. . . , My zipper's stuck." (14:62) Students need social interaction among themselves in the learning situation. As Arnstein limericked (11): The latest word from the Dean In praise of the teaching machine Says that Oedipus Rex Could have learned about sex By himself, without both'ring the Queen. (11:1) Feldhusen (3 2) concluded that: Problems of student saturation or tolerance for programmed instruction, or computer-assisted instruc tion, or any other individualized instruction should be researched thoroughly. For the present we merely guess that on the average most students can stand a limited amount, but some students probably could stand to do all their learning on CAI, while others can stand none. Alternatively the question may be, ’How do we make CAI more palatable or interesting?' As yet, nothing quite matches learning in groups with a live teacher. (32:10) Another problem which may have caused teacher resistance is the spectre of industrial pressure behind technology. Teachers, who like to think of themselves as being relatively altruistic, sensed the profit motive and expansionist interests of big business behind the impetus to mechanize education. The disclaimer of industry would be that new scientific inventions provide the ingredients 27 which facilitate making even further inventions, for inven tion consists of making new combinations of already known principles and means. Ianni and Rosenbaum (18) wrote: The primary targets of vendors and their spokesmen are the teachers. Their claims are straight forward and to the point. Teachers, both from the standpoint of training and aptitude, are technically and emotion ally not prepared for the technological era. Their resulting insecurity, it is felt, gives rise to resis tance to innovation and thus blocks the use of technology in the schools. (28:39) That CAI was in trouble was the consistent theme of Kopstein (20) and Oettinger and Marks (25). Kopstein declared: One may predict with an extremely high probability of being correct that sometime during the next decade CAI will be pronounced a costly failure. This predic tion is based in no way upon the presently presumed merits of CAI, nor upon the anticipated cumulative weight of to-be-compiled objective (repeat: objective) evidence; rather, it is strongly implied by the political factors operating in what the approved current vernacular would term ’the educational establishment.’ (20:51) And Oettinger and Marks concluded: . . . the observed combination of institutional rigidity with infant technology will preclude really significant progress in the next decade if significant progress is interpreted, in accord with contemporary literature, as widespread and meaningful adoption, integration, and use of technological devices within the schools. In addition, this discussion should suggest the enormous difficulties that will have to be overcome if educational technology is to be introduced in any decade in the twentieth century. (25:7 08) Apparently there was deep concern over the ways in which technology and education are related in the world today. The relationship may best be described as a dynamic 28 interaction between two extremely potent forces. The question was how each of these powerful forces were cur rently shaping each other and, in so doing, were shaping the evolving world. This was an enormously broad question of profound importance. However, the ability to invent, improve, and use techniques and facilities, is probably the characteristic of man which most clearly serves to set men apart from the relatively static behavior of other beings. Partly out of necessity, and partly to justify this inven tive tendency, the human being never feels himself confined to the limits of his present environment, and ever seeks to extend those limits. Even in the few instances in which he strives to conserve a familiar part of his environment, he usually does so in order to ornament it in some way; never does he simply accept what has gone before. The preceding portion of the review of the litera ture regarding the status of CAI revealed the present interplay of two strong forces, technology and education. The two giants have been flirting with each other for many decades. Efforts to evolve a courtship are in trouble. The inevitable wedding is years off. Meanwhile, what should be done to prevent the two collectives from becoming strangers? 29 Batch CSI as a Transitional Mediary It appears that the demand for computers in educa tion will not significantly affect the broad course of developments in computer technology; consequently, educa tors and others must find ways to exploit the technology presented to them. The future use of data processing in education depends on how well educators can take advantage of the technological capabilities now available. The main problem seems to be how to overcome teacher reluctance to get involved with it. Koethe (19) wrote: The teacher needs both hardware and software that can be used with little instruction and that can reach as many students as possible as soon as possible. Material for classroom use must also be readily avail able. Only a few teachers are capable of developing their own material, but many thousands are capable of making excellent use of material developed by others. This material must include mathematics applications; a programming manual is not sufficient. (19:3) A brief description of Batch CSI for purposes of this study is found in Chapter I. Additional information is found in Appendix C. Batch CSI is an attempt to amelio rate the real world systems of education and technology. Batch CSI reflects modern learning theory in its emphasis on the role of the teacher to promote human relations that result in lasting motivation despite the persistence of classroom single-paced instruction so prevalent today. Batch CSI features: 1. Flexible content. 30 2. Student- or teacher-made worksheets. 3. Student- or teacher-written computer programs (or imported programs should writing capability be unavailable). 4. A live classroom situation with social inter action among students and between students and teacher. 5. Student-selected problem parameters (an unsophisticated way for the learner to have some degree of control over his study). 6. Real contact with a computer. 7. Minimal use of computer hardware. 8. Minimal costs for computer contact. 9. A "non-interfering" innovative practice. 10. Simple programming support required. The literature revealed no other interdependent development of Batch CSI. Two authors have complementary halves of the technique, but no duplication of the complete idea has been found. The worksheet aspect has been sug gested recently by Rosenbaum (27). The student creation of his own version of the problem has been in the Set Theory Program of Project Solo authored by Richardson (34). The use of technology can be structured into a . { program such as Batch CSI because the computer is not "a machine." The computer is the machine we make it to be, A study of the use of machines and technology reveals that 31 their use seems to be proportionate to the economics of labor supply and demand. In the prosperous twenties, Pressey developed his teaching machine. During the 1930's (the Great Depression) when there was an abundance of labor, the teaching machine was neglected. During World War II and the prosperous fifties and sixties (when there was a shortage of labor), technologies received great impetus. At the present time (the Great Plateau in CAI growth) there is again an emphasis on human sociology. How well does Batch CSI capitalize on the capa bilities of the computer while it meets the needs of teachers and students in the present educational scene? Summary The literature reported revealed present day mis givings with computer-assisted instruction and human resistance to computer technology in the classroom. It is clear that new technology is exerting far less impact on education than had been anticipated. The kinds of work teachers do and the skills they use to do their work do not lend themselves to conventional computer-assisted instruc tion. The role of the teacher and the training he receives to fulfill this role point to a new type of computer utilization, Batch CSI, as that form of automation most suited to the contemporary classroom. CHAPTER III PROCEDURES OF THE STUDY Introduction The preceding chapter presented a review of the literature on the status of computer-assisted instruction as a vehicle for education in a technological age. Some difficulties have been encountered by conventional CAI. A new form of computer aid to classroom instruction, Batch CSI, exists to help make the computer beneficial to the teaching of groups of children. This chapter sets forth the procedures used to test Batch CSI on the sixth grade mathematics classes of one school district. The Setting for Research Location of the Study The study was located among the Department of Defense Schools for children of members of the United States Armed Forces in Wiesbaden, Germany. This school complex serves more than 7,000 elementary and secondary students in seven schools: 32 33 Arnold High School Arnold Junior High School Aukamm Elementary School Crestview Elementary School Lindsey Elementary School Vandenberg Elementary School Wiesbaden Air Base Elementary School Computer Facilities Used in the Study A Burroughs B-3 500 computer equipped with MCP-5 and owned by the United States Air Force was utilized for the computer runs. All of the programs were written in the FORTRAN IV computer language. Copies of the programs are available from the author for any who may wish to replicate the study. Copies of the worksheets are similarly avail able . Operational Procedures The problem was whether students who received personalized assistance from the computer in their study of mathematics achieved superior computation and comprehension skills and had better attitudes towards mathematics and the computer as aids to human endeavor than did students who did not receive such assistance. Eighteen sixth grade classes in three schools were selected to participate in the experiment: four classes in school A, six classes in school B, and eight in school C. The decision was made to treat all eighteen classes as one population rather than to randomly select two classes from school A, three classes from school B, and four classes from school C. The reasons were: (1) all schools were contributing several classes, (2) all schools practiced heterogeneous grouping, and (3) gain scores, not level of achievement, were used in the t-Tests for significant differences. In a random assignment, 9 of 18 classes became the experimental group. There were two classes from school A, two classes from school B, and five classes from school C. All participating students were pretested for their respective academic levels in mathematics computation and comprehension skills and for their respective positions on mathematical and attitudinal scales. Then the experi mental classes received computer support for a period of eighteen weeks, while the control classes received no such support. Finally all classes, both experimental and control, were posttested for the same achievement and attitudinal criteria as those on the pretests. A more detailed testing and programming schedule of the experiment can be found in Appendix A of this study. The Research Design Experimental Group: Pretest Treatment Posttest Control Group: Pretest Posttest Instrumentation 35 Names of Measuring Instruments 1. Cognitive: Mathematics sections of the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, Form ^. 2. Affective: Semantic Differential weighted attitudinal tests. 3. Teacher Opinion Form: A questionnaire with a rating scale concerning Batch CSI. The Semantic Differential Instrument 1. General Information; A good discourse on the semantic differential technique has been prepared by Rosenthal (25). His study included (a) description and rationale, (b) historical background, (c) terminology, (d) theoretical framework, (e) operational framework, (f) objectivity of the method, (g) studies dealing with relia bility, (h) studies dealing with validity, and (i) studies dealing with sensitivity. The semantic differential tech nique was first devised by Osgood (6). Today it is widely accepted by statisticians as a powerful instrument which accurately measures attitudes held by persons toward things, ideas, and concepts (3:601). 2. Specific Information: To develop the attitu dinal instrument used in this study, 10 0 adjectives were given to 3 00 sixth graders. Each student was asked to give 36 the antonym of each adjective. Fourteen adjectives were chosen, seven for each instrument, on the basis of consis tency of response among the students and applicability as a descriptor of mathematics or the computer. Those selected were all found to be "evaluative" rather than "potency" or "activity" (See Tables 1-5 in Osgood [6]). Although the teachers were aware of the efficacy of apparently irrele vant adjectives such as "red" versus "green," the teachers felt that the more "meaningful" evaluative descriptors such as those finally used were superior for the purposes of this experiment than were potency adjectives as hard-soft, heavy-light, deep-shallow, or thick-thin and activity adjectives as young-old, sharp-dull, fast-slow, or hot- cold.* Since evaluative descriptors make up at least 57 per cent of the semantic space, and dynamic descriptors (potency and activity adjectives combined) make up only 2 8 per cent of the semantic space, to include only evaluative descriptors was justified (6:72,73). In Osgood's words, "The greater the emotional or attitudinal loading of the set of concepts being judged, the greater the tendency of the semantic framework to collapse into a single dimension." (6:74) Related also to the design of the attitudinal instruments used in this experiment was Osgood's observa- *The wisdom of the teachers was confirmed by the fact that over half of the student respondents made a neutral response to the adjective combination, beautiful- ugly, on the computer attitude evaluation instrument. 37 tion that children of grade school ages seem to operate better with a five-step than with a seven-step scale (6:227). A pilot run of the instruments was made on two classes of seventeen students each, one class being com posed of mathematically inclined people engaged in a dynamic study of the computer, and the other composed of students less mathematically inclined and less familiar with the computer. Both instruments accurately reflected these differences, the mean of the first group being 1.41 above the mean of the second group on a scale of five. Consult Appendix B for copies of the semantic differential instruments used in this study. Teacher Opinion Form . At the conclusion of the experimental use of Batch CSI, a questionnaire was utilized to obtain the opinions of the teachers of the experimental groups regarding Batch CSI. This survey form included a rating scale with a range of 0-8, 0 being defined as "of doubtful value" and 8 being defined as "a highly desirable method." This form for feedback can also be found in Appendix B. Hypotheses The following hypotheses were organized into three sections: Cognitive Domain 1. Hq (1): The presence or absence of computer assistance does not affect differentially at the .10 level a student's success in mastering the computational skills of mathematics. 2. Hq (2): The presence or absence of computer assistance does not affect differentially at the .10 level a student's success in mastering the comprehensional skills of mathematics. Affective Domain 3. Hq (3): The presence or absence of computer assistance does not affect differentially at the .10 level a student's attitude toward mathematics. 4. Hq (4): The presence or absence of computer assistance does not affect differentially at the .10 level a student's attitude toward the computer. Teacher Attitude and Class Achievement 5. Hq (5): The attitude of a teacher toward Batch CSI does not correlate with his students' success in the utilization of that computer support. Statistical Treatment 1. Cognitive: Gain scores on the mathematics com putational and the mathematics comprehensional tests under 39 went the SPSS t-Test computer program to determine if there were significant differences between the experimental and control groups. 2. Affective: Gain scores on the mathematics attitudinal and the computer attitudinal tests underwent the SPSS t-Test computer program to determine if there were significant differences between the experimental and control groups. 3. Correlation: Teacher rank in opinion of Batch CSI was correlated with class rank in academic success using Kendall’s Rank Correlation Coefficient. Summary This chapter reported the procedures used to ascer tain the significance of Batch CSI as a facilitator of learning in the cognitive and affective areas of mathe matics. Nine sixth grade mathematics classes received computer assistance and nine similar classes did not. Gain scores in four areas were exposed to t-Tests for signifi cance . This chapter reported also the procedure used to measure the degree to which the opinion a teacher held of Batch CSI correlated with the performance of that teacher’s class. A ranking of the teachers by their opinion of Batch CSI and a ranking of the classes by academic achievement were exposed to Kendall’s Tau for a measure of correlation. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Introduction For the purpose of presenting the findings of the study, the chapter was organized into three sections. The first section reports the findings for the cognitive areas of mechanical skills in mathematics and comprehensional skills in mathematics. The second section presents findings for the affective areas of attitudes toward mathe matics and attitudes toward the computer. The third section is concerned with teacher attitudes and class achievements. The data for these findings were collected from the Form for Teacher Opinion of Batch CSI and an analysis of class performances on the Iowa Test of"Basic Skills, Form *4. Cognitive Findings For consideration of the cognitive data the following hypotheses were proposed: Hypothesis One Hq (1): The presence or absence of computer assis- 40 41 tance does not affect differentially at the .10 level a student’s success in mastering the computational skills of mathematics. This hypothesis was found to be acceptable. It was sustained by a t value of -.05 which is not significant at the .10 level of significance. A t value of -.05 means that there is a 96 per cent probability that there is no significant difference between whether or not a student receives computer assistance in his pursuit of computa tional skills in mathematics (1:121). Hypothesis Two Hq (2): The presence or absence of computer assis tance does not affect differentially at the .10 level a student’s success in mastering the comprehensional skills of mathematics. This hypothesis was found to be untenable. It was rejected because of a t value of -1.9 3 which is significant at the .10 level of significance. A t value of -1.93 means that there is a 94.5 per cent probability that there i£ a significant difference between whether or not a student receives computer assistance in his pursuit of comprehen sional skills in mathematics (1:121). Affective Findings With respect to student attitudes the following 42 hypotheses were proposed: Hypothesis Three Hq (3): The presence or absence of computer assis tance does not affect differentially at the .10 level a student’s attitude toward mathematics. This hypothesis was found to be untenable. It was rejected because of a t value of -2.43 which is significant at the .10 level of significance. A t value of -2.43 means that there is a 9 8.5 per cent probability that there is a significant difference between whether or not a student receives computer assistance in the development of a posi tive attitude toward mathematics (1:121). Hypothesis Four Hq (4): The presence or absence of computer assis tance does not affect differentially at the .10 level a student's attitude toward the computer. This hypothesis was found to be acceptable. It was sustained by a t value of -.85 which is not significant at the .10 level of significance. A t value of -.85 means that there is a 39 per cent probability that there is no significant difference between whether or not a student receives computer assistance in the development of a positive attitude toward the computer (1:121). The cognitive and affective findings can be sum marized as follows: (1) In two areas, mathematical compu 43 tational skill and attitude toward the computer, Batch CSI was as effective as the traditional program used in the control classes; (2) In two areas, mathematical comprehen sion and attitude toward mathematics, the large and negative t values indicate that the traditional program used in the control classes was superior to Batch CSI. These findings are reviewed in Table 1. TABLE 1 t TEST RESULTS FROM BATCH CSI EVALUATION INSTRUMENTS Chance of No Significant Research Question___________t Value Difference 1. Gain in Math Mechanics -.05 96.0% 2 . Gain in Math Comprehension -1.93* 5.5% 3 . Gain in Math Attitude -2.43* 1.5% 4. Gain in Computer Attitude -.85 39.0% ' ’ 'Significant at the .10 level. A t value of + 1.6 5 is required to achieve significance at the .10 level when there are 400 degrees of freedom as there were in this study (1:121). Teacher Attitude and Class Achievement With regard to a teacher's opinion of Batch CSI and the performance of his class, the following hypothesis was proposed: 44 Hypothesis Five Hq (5): The attitude of a teacher toward Batch CSI does not correlate with his students1 success in the utilization of that computer support. This hypothesis was found to be untenable. The ranking of the teachers according to their respective opinions of Batch CSI correlated with the ranking of the classes according to their respective academic successes while utilizing Batch CSI resulted in a Kendall's tau of .96. A correlation of .96 is greater than the maximum allowed for acceptance of this hypothesis. The teacher responses to the questionnaire revealed also that all the teachers, with one exception, said they would use Batch CSI regularly as a teaching method alterna tive if it were generally available. The teachers were asked to rate the worth of Batch CSI on a rating scale with a range of 0-8, 0 being defined as "of doubtful value" and 8 being defined as "a highly desirable method." The average rating was 5.8, with a range of 2-8. Table 2 shows the correlation between the esteem the respective teachers held for Batch CSI and the gains made by the classes under the direction of the respective assigned teachers. Summary The findings of this study were presented in three sections. The first section reported the findings of the 45 TABLE 2 A COMPARISON OF TEACHER OPINION OF BATCH CSI WITH STUDENT SUCCESS IN UTILIZATION OF BATCH CSI* Teachers Ranked by Their Classes Ranked by Their Opinion of Batch CSI Success With Batch CSI Teacher 1 Class 7 Teacher 2 Class 1 Teacher 3 Class 2 Teacher 4 Class 3 Teacher 5 Class 4 Teacher 6 Class 8 Teacher 7 Class 9 Teacher 8 Class 5 Teacher 9 Class 6 *These two rankings have a Kendall’s Rank Correlation Coefficient of .96. H~(5) required a maximum of less than .90 to be accepted (7T96-97) 46 cognitive skills as measured by the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, Form Sections two and three dealt with the results of the affective measures and a correlation between teacher opinion of Batch CSI and the performance of the classes. In the cognitive area a significant difference was found for comprehensional skills but not for computational skills. In the affective area a significant difference was found for development of a positive attitude toward mathe matics but not for development of a positive attitude toward the computer. With regard to teacher attitude toward Batch CSI and the academic achievement of the teacher's class, a high correlation was found. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Early efforts to harness the computer to public school instruction have had less impact upon lower educa tion than was first anticipated. Batch CSI evolved through attempts to overcome difficulties encountered through early efforts to involve the computer in the educative process. An analysis of these difficulties pointed the way to the use of worksheets for student-made problems in the class room situation, and thus Batch CSI was born. The Problem This study was primarily an attempt to test Batch CSI, which is an inexpensive method of involving ordinary classroom groups of students with the computer. Investiga tions were made with experimental and control groups regarding cognitive skills in mathematical computations and comprehensions and affective attitudes toward mathematics and the computer. Additionally, a correlational study was made of teacher attitude toward the program and the success each respective class had in using the program. 47 48 Design and Methodology For the primary purpose of this study an experi mental pretest-posttest control group was selected. From eighteen sixth-grade classes in one community, nine were selected at random for the experimental group. Selected pretests were administered to all eighteen classes. Then the nine experimental classes received eighteen weeks of batch computer-supported instruction (Batch CSI) in mathe matics. That support involved student-made problems on worksheets and computer printouts of those problems. Each student could then match his solution to his problem with the computer’s solution to his problem. After the eighteen weeks of computer-supported instruction in the nine experi mental classes, all eighteen classes were posttested. Student gains in the experimental groups were compared with student gains in the control groups using the t-Test of the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) for the com puter analysis of the respective gains. Additional evaluation of Batch CSI was made with reference to the teachers and classes who had used it. A survey questionnaire regarding the merits and deficiencies of Batch CSI was completed by each experimental teacher. The results of this opinion survey were correlated with gains made by the respective classes of these teachers. 49 Findings In the cognitive areas, significant differences were found for mathematics comprehensional skills but not for mathematics computational skills. In the affective areas, significant differences were found for student attitudes toward mathematics but not for student attitudes toward the computer. With respect to attitudes of teachers toward Batch CSI and the success of their respective classes in using it, the study showed that the higher in opinion a teacher held Batch CSI, the better his class did with it. Conclusions The conclusions of the study are stated within the framework of the hypotheses previously enumerated. Cognitive Domain Hypothesis One was concerned with the relationship between student exposure and nonexposure to computer assis tance and the ability of students to do mathematical calcu lations. Since the null hypothesis was accepted, the conclusion was that Batch CSI could be utilized to teach mechanical skills in mathematics without jeopardizing pupil progress. The advantage is that the curriculum is updated so that the student is encouraged to think, talk, and study computer concepts while he learns his mathematics. 50 Hypothesis Two was concerned with the relationship between student exposure and nonexposure to computer assis tance and the ability of students to comprehend mathe matics. Since the null hypothesis was rejected, the conclusion was that for student progress in mathematics comprehension, Batch CSI was less effective than were traditional methods. If Batch CSI is utilized in the teaching of mathematics, special provision must be made for the teaching of mathematical comprehension. Affective Domain Hypothesis Three was concerned with the relation ship between student exposure and nonexposure to computer assistance and the attitude of students toward mathematics. Since the null hypothesis was rejected, the conclusion was that for student progress in developing a positive attitude toward mathematics, Batch CSI was less effective than were traditional methods. If Batch CSI is utilized in the teaching of mathematics, special provision must be made for the development in the student of a positive attitude toward mathematics. Hypothesis Four was concerned with the relationship between student exposure and nonexposure to computer assis tance and the attitude of students toward the computer. • > Since the null hypothesis was accepted, the conclusion was that Batch CSI could be utilized to teach mathematics 51 without affecting the attitude of the student toward the computer. Teacher Attitude and Class Achievement Hypothesis Five was concerned with the relationship between a teacher's attitude toward computer assistance for his students and the success of his class in the utiliza tion of that assistance. Since the null hypothesis was rejected, the conclusion was that there was a significant relationship between a teacher's esteem of Batch CSI and his students' success in using it. Discussion of Conclusions Any significance given to the findings of this study should be tempered by the following observations: 1. Table 3 reveals that there were more experi mental classes than control classes in the upper 50 per cent of the classes according to progress in the mechanical skills of mathematics. That the Hawthorne effect was present in all the classes is suggested by the fact that in one-half year the average growth for mechanical skills was .86 year. 2. Table 3 reveals also that some experimental classes did well in mathematical comprehension. Two experimental classes gained almost one year of growth within one-half year of time. The average growth for all 52 the classes in mathematical comprehension was .80 year in one-half year of time. 3. Another item of explanation which should be mentioned is that it was impossible to obtain a standard ized test which had excellent content validity. While the Iowa Test of Basic Skills had good content validity, some teachers found it to be a poor choice. 4. Other teacher comments against which evaluation of these findings should be weighed are as follows: From Teacher A: "I found this computer-supported program to be a highly effective motivation for the students with whom I worked. Their enthusiasm carried throughout the program. I found the worksheets to be diversi fied in concepts, challenging, adaptable to ideas the students could grasp, and effective in enfor cing basic arithmetic follow-up and were almost always taken home for inspection." From Teacher B: "Batch CSI was very good for defining indivi dual math problems and wrong concepts. The students needed more time to complete the work sheets because of our trying to 'work in' this program with our regular program." From Teacher I: "This was a valiant effort, and I am sure a lot was learned about the construction of computer programs. I am sure that innovative programs must begin experimentally, and ones such as this are in the future." From Teacher 0: "The Batch CSI experiment was valuable. The children enjoyed knowing the computer and their attitude toward the computer is positive. A few children were extremely frustrated due to being in TABLE 3 STATUS OP CLASSES IN THE BATCH CSI EXPERIMENT IN YEARS OF GROWTH FOR QUARTERS II AND III OF SCHOOL YEAR 1972-1973 OR RANK TOTAL MATH MECHANICS MATH COMPREHENSION TOTAL PERFORMANCE Hanx Class Type Growth Class Type Growth Class Type Total 1. Class A Con 1.73 Class F Con 1.92 Class A Con 5 2. Class B Exp 1.39 Class D Con 1.39 Class 0 Con 6 3. Class C Exp 1.37 Class J Con 1.01 Class F Con 7 Class D Con 1.17 Class A Con .98 Class C Exp 8 5* Class . E Con 1.11 Class C Exp .92 Class J Con 13 6. Class F Con 1 .1 0 Class Q Exp .92 Class B Exp 16 7* Class G Exp 1.0 0 Class K Con .68 Class H Exp 16 8. Class H Exp .99 Class H Exp .75 Class G Exp 18 9* Class I Exp .97 Class P Con .75 Class K Con _ , 18 Upper' 50** .... ...rcpBSS.ffi......... Upper 50* Lower: _ 50* "_Lower_50?2"” ” Lower 50* 10. CIsbs J Con .82 Class R Exp . 58 Class E Con 18 11. Class K Con .70 Class G Exp .50 Class Q Exp 23 12. CIbsb L Exp ,6b Class M Con ,b9 Class I Exp 2b 13* Class M Con .63 Class E Con .36 Class P Con 25 l4. Class N Con •^9 Class B Exp .36 Class M Con 25 15* Class 0 Exp • 39 Claes I Exp .33 Class L Exp 28 16. Class P Con • 38 Class L Exp .28 Class R Exp 28 17. Class Q Exp .37 Class N Con .17 Class N Con 31 18. Class R Exp .27 Class 0 Exp .16 Class 0 Exp 33 Average Growth " .86 Average Growth ” .80 Average Growth “ n 00 In this column there are 5 Experimental Classes and b Control Classes in the Upper 50*. In this column there are 3 Experimental Classes and o Control Classes in the Upper 50*. In this colunn there are b Experimental Classes and 5 Control Classes in the Upper 50% * 54 ’over their heads.'" Recommendations In examining the findings and conclusions of this study, several recommendations appear to be appropriate. 1. Batch CSI should be tested at the junior high school and high school to determine how it functions at these levels. 2. Method research and curriculum revision should continue to receive a high priority in every educational program. An up-to-date curriculum is necessary for rele vancy in public education. 3. Elementary, junior high, and high school Batch CSI packages should be prepared for use by those teachers who desire to use them and who do well with them. 4. In view of the critical role of teacher atti tude in the implementation of Batch CSI, a strong effort should be made to optimize the teacher1 s attitude if Batch CSI is offered as a classroom educational service. 5. Efforts should be continued to find the optimum method for enabling teachers inexperienced in the ways of the computer to utilize the computer in their teaching. 6. Better devices and instruments should be developed to measure the efficacy of a new curriculum as it is devised. BIBLIOGRAPHY 55 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books 1. Arkin, Herbart, and Colton, Raymond R. Tables for Statisticians. New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1963 . 2. Diebold, John. Man and the Computer. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, 19 69. 3. Fox, David J. The Research Process in Education. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1969. M-. Johnson, B. Lamar. Islands of Innovation Expanding: Changes in the Community College. Beverly Hills: The Glencoe Press, 1969. 5. Oettinger, Anthony G. Run, Computer, Run. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1969. 6. Osgood, Charles E. et al. The Measurement of Meaning. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1957 . 7. Owen, Donald B. Handbook of Statistical Tables. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1962. 8. Postman, Neil, and Weingartner, Charles. The Soft Revolution. New York: Dell Publishing Company, Incorporated, 1971. 9. Silberman, Charles E. The Myths of Automation. New York: Harper and Row, 19 66. 10. Teacher's Manual, The Stanford Project Computer- Assisted Instruction in Initial Reading" Institute for Mathematical Studies m the Social Sciences. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 197 0. 56 57 11. 12 . 13. 14. 15. 16 . 17 . 18 . 19. 2 0 . 21. 22 . Articles and Periodicals Arstein, George E. "Damn the Computer, Full Speed Ahead." Educational Data Processing Newsletter, 3 (July-August, 1964), 1. Austin, David. "The Little Red School House and the Big Black Box." Computers and Automation, (December, 1970), 18-21. Bahanon, Edward G. "University of Illinois Installs CDC 6400 for Development of Computerized Education." Computers and Automation, (April, 1971), 36-40. Cartoons, "Learning Can Be Fun." Educational Technology, 9 (December, 1969), 62. Duncan, A. D., and Slack, C. W. "Computer Assisted Diversion in the Classroom." Educational Technology, 9 (February, 1969), 39. Hansen, B. P. "Computers in Education." The Clearing House, 45 (December, 1970), 195-200 . Ianni, Francis A. J. "Technology and Culture in Education." National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 54 (February, 1970), 1-6 . Ianni, Francis A. J., and Rosenbaum, Peter S. "Technology in the Urban Education Market Place." Educational Technology, 10 (September, 1970), 39-43 . Koetke, Walter J. "Computer Facilities and Secondary School Mathematics." View, 1 (Winter, 1972), 3. Kopstein, Felix F. "Why CAI Must Fail!" Educational Technology, 10 (March, 1970), 51-53. Kopstein, Felix F., and Seidel, R. J. "Computer- Administered Instruction versus Traditionally Administered Instruction: Economics." A. V. Communication Review, (Summer, 1968), 147-175. Long, H. S., and Schwartz, H. S. "The Potentials of Computer-Assisted Instruction in Industry." A Technical Report, IBM System Development Division. TROO.13 93, 1966, pp. 1-19. 58 23 . 24. 25 . 26 . 27 . 28 . 29 . 30 . 31. 32 . 33. 34. Molmar, Andrew R. "Critical Issues in Computer-Based Learning." Educational Technology, 11 (July, 1971), 60-64. Nee, Thomas R. "Educational Usages of the Computer." The Clearing House, 46 (September, 1971), 60-64. Oettinger, A., and Marks, S. "Educational Technology: New Myths and Old Realities." Harvard Educational Review, 38 (Fall, 1968), 697-717 and 751-755. Randay, R. K., and Blaschke, C. L. "Educational Tech nology: Economics, Management, and Public Policy." Educational Technology, 8 (December, 1968), 5-13. Rosenbaum, Peter. "Toward the Automated Workbook: A New Direction for CAI." Educational Technology, 12 (May, 1972), 36-38. Salisbury, Alan B. "Computers and Education: Toward Agreement on Terminology." Educational Technology, 11 (September, 1971), 35-39. Slack, Charles W. "Three Essays on Our New Movement." Educational Technology, 12 (January, 1972), 21-26. Survey Report. NEA Research Bulletin, 49 (March, 1971), 5. Unpublished Materials Bellman, Richard. "Myopia, Cornucopia, and Utopia." Paper presented at Carnegie-Mellon University on 7 October 1970 from ERIC document ED 057 599. Feldhusen, John H. "A Position Paper on CAI Research and Development." A Series Two Paper from ERIC at Stanford, Stanford University, February, 197 0. Luskin, Bernard J. "An Identification and Examination of Obstacles to the Development of Computer- Assisted Instruction." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 197 0. Richardson, Judy. "Sample Interaction with Sets." A program in Project Solo from ERIC document ED 057 602. 59 35. Rosenthal, Oscar A. ”A Semantic Differential Investi gation of Critical Factors Related to Achievement and Underachievement of High School Students." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1965. APPENDICES 60 APPENDIX A AN EXCERPT FROM BATCH CSI STUDY PROCEDURAL TIME LINE 61 62 AN EXCERPT FROM BATCH CSI STUDY PROCEDURAL TIME LINE Step in Experiment Date Accomplished 1. Pretest of all Classes Involved 20-24 November 1972 2. Give Batch CSI Support to the Experimental Classes a. "Family Weekly Budget" 27-30 November 1972 b. "Bank Statement Simulation" 4-8 December 1972 c. "Pay Roll Simulation" 11-15 December 1972 d. "Insurance Simulation" 1-4 January 1973 e. "Whole Number Multiplication" 8-12 January 1973 f. "Whole Number Division" 15-19 J anuary 1973 g- "Decimal Multiplication" 22-26 January 1973 h. "Decimal Division" 29 1 January February 1973- 1973 i. "Addition and Subtraction of Fractions" 5-9 February 1973 j • "Multiplication and Division of Fractions" 12-16 February 1973 k. "Compound Operations" 19-23 February 1973 1. "Large Number Operations" 26-29 February 1973 m. "Signed Number Operations" 5-9 March 1973 n. "Micro Mathematics" 12-16 March 1973 o. "Even Divisors" 19-23 March 1973 P- "Fraction-Decimal-Per Cent Equivalents" 26-30 March 1973 q- "Manufacturing for Profit" 2-6 April 1973 r. "Computer Mathematics" 3. Posttest of all Classes Involved 9-12 16-20 April April 1973 1973 APPENDIX B THREE INSTRUMENTS USED FOR BATCH CSI AFFECTIVE MEASUREMENTS 63 Dear Student: You can use this form some day to poll people on how they feel about someone or something. Please place a check (*^) on each line below in that section of the line which tells best how you feel about MATHEMATICS. Thank you for your help. M A T H E M A T I C S like:_____ :______:______ :_____ :______.'dislike hard:_____ :______:______ :_____ :______: easy boring :_____ :______:______ :_____ :______: interesting fun:_____ :______:______ :_____ :______: disgusting tense :_____ :______:______ :_____:______:relaxed important:_____ :______:______ :_____ :______runimportant nervous: : : : : : calm Dear Student: You can use this form some day to poll people on how they feel about someone or something. Please place a check (^ ) on each line below in that section of the line which tells best how you feel about COMPUTERS. Thank you for your help. COMPUTERS welcome:______:_____ :______:______:_____ : unwelcome bad :_____ :_____ :______:______:_____ :good useless :______:_____ :______:______:_____ :useful helpful:______:_____ :______:______:_____ : harmful ugly:______:_____ :______:______:_____ : beautiful pleasant:_____ :______:______:______:______:unpleasant impractical:______:_____ :______:______:_____ : practical 66 TO EACH 6TH GRADE "EXPERIMENTAL" TEACHER: KINDLY ANSWER THIS QUESTIONNAIRE IN DUPLICATE AND SIGN BOTH COPIES. YOU MAY KEEP ONE COPY FOR YOUR RECORDS. If a) your school had its own computer on school premises, b) you had an adequate supply of worksheets such as the ones you have been using in the experiment, and c) the computer printouts and worksheets were returned to you promptly, would you use the experimental method of worksheets and printouts as one of your alternatives in your classroom? Answer "yes" or "no": _____ As a teaching technique, I rate the experimental method of worksheets and computer printouts on a scale of 0 to 8 as: of ________________________________________ a highly doubtful 0 1 2 3 ‘4 5 6 7 8 desirable value method (Enter a check (v/) somewhere on this scale which mark reflects your opinion.) 3. In this space (and on the back of this paper if addi tional room is needed), please make any comments, observations, or remarks you may wish to make regarding this experimental method of worksheets and computer printouts: (Please sign the form here.) APPENDIX C THE PRESENT STATE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF BATCH CSI 67 68 COPY BATCH CSI - SUMMER 19 72 CATALOG OF EXISTING PROGRAMS (Printed Worksheets Supported by FORTRAN IV Programs) A. Mathematics Programs (Grades 1-3 worksheets in large type) Topic 1. Whole number addition 2. Whole number subtraction 3. Whole number multiplication 4 . Whole number division 5. Whole number powers 6. Whole number roots 7. Decimal fraction addition 8. Decimal fraction subtraction 9. Decimal fraction multiplication 10. Decimal fraction division 11. Decimal fraction powers 12. Decimal fraction roots 13. Common fraction addition 14. Common fraction subtraction 15. Common fraction multiplication 16. Common fraction division 17. Common fraction powers 18. Common fraction roots 19. Compound operations 20. Even Divisors of numbers less than 1000 Grade Levels 1 - 1 - 3 - 3 - 5 - 7 - 3 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 5 - 7 - 3 - 3 - 5 - 6 - 6 - 6 - 3 - 3 - 9 9 9 9 9 10 9 9 9 9 9 10 9 9 9 10 11 12 9 9 21. Micro math (math everybody needs) 22. Large number operations 23. Fraction-decimal-per cent equivalents 24. Signed number operations 25. Payroll simulation 3 3 4 4 4 9 9 9 9 10 6 9 Topic Grade 26. Manufacturing for profit 4 - 27. Bank statement simulation 4 - 28. Family budget simulation 4 - 29. Insurance simulation 4 - 30. Geometric formulas 4 - 31. Computer mathematics 6 - 32. Scientific notation 7 - 33. Square root algorithm — 7 - 34. Bar algorithm (e.g. x = .356) 7 - 35. Euclid's algorithm 7 - 36. Polynomial evaluations 7 - 37. Simple algebraic equations 7 - 38. Simultaneous equations 8 - 39. Simultaneous equation graphs 8 - 40. Quadratic equations 8 - 41. Quadratic equation graphs 8 - 42. Conic Section graphs 8 - 43. Matrix operations 8 - 44. Vector operations 8 - 45. Modular mathematics 8 - 46. Simple logarithms 8 - 47. Complex logarithms 8 - 48. Trigonometry 9 - 49. Binomial expansion 9 - 50. Integration and multiple differen- 9 - tiation of an algebraic function 51. Solving a triple system 9 - 52. Solving cubic equations 9 - 53. Newton's method for higher equations 9 - 54. Statistical package (Sort, Mean, 9 - Median, Standard Deviation, and Range) B. Science Programs: computer replications 7 - of student's manipulation of experimental data obtained in student's laboratory work C. English and Foreign Language Studies Programs Levels 10 10 10 10 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 1. Humorous stories with critical words 4-12 omitted which the student can supply to create his own narrative. I 70 Topic Grade Level 2. Attractively arranged printouts of 0-12 short compositions or poems created by the student (cassette tapes are used for preschool and primary creations) D. Social Studies Programs 1. World tour - Student creates a round 4 - - 12 the world tour by sea or by air. Computer prints detailed itinerary. 2. Inventor or Discoverer - Student 4-12 researches a famous person. Computer prints out a documentary.

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Creator Akkerhuis, Gerard (author)

Core Title A Comparison Of Pupil Achievement And Pupil Attitudes With And Without The Assistance Of Batch Computer-Supported Instruction

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, curriculum and instruction,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Georgiades, William (committee chair), O'Neill, William S. (committee member), Smith, Robert A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-818350

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Identifier 7409052.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-818350 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7409052

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