Christian Science and the rhetoric of argumentative synthesis

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Content CHRISTIAN SCIENCE AND THE RHETORIC OF ARGUM ENTATIVE SYNTHESIS by G age W illiam C hapel A D is se r ta tio n P r e se n te d to the FA C U LTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t of th e R eq u irem en ts fo r the D e g r e e DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Speech C om m unication) S ep tem b er 1972 INFORMATION TO USERS This malarial was producad from a microfilm copy of the original documant. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependant upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. Whan a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again - beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catelog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zoob Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48100 CHAPEL, Gage William, 1943- CHRISTIAN SCIENCE AND THE RHETORIC OF ARGUMENTATIVE SYNTHESIS. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1972 Speech University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan © 1973 GAG.C. n lG L iA M CHAPiuL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFLIMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CA LIFORN IA S0007 This dissertation, written by under the direction of A La..... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y J[)a ^ Se2tem berl972 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE o/iairna* — T A BLE OF CONTENTS C hapter P age | i I. IN T R O D U C T IO N 1 j i The P ro b lem R e se a r c h P lan R ev iew of L itera tu re I P r e v ie w of the C hapters N otes II. CHRISTIAN SCIENCE ORIGINS AND PR IN C IPLES . . 20 P r in c ip le s of C h ristia n S cien ce O rigin s of C h ristia n S cie n c e Sum m ary N otes III. CHRISTIAN SCIENCE AS ARGUM ENTATIVE SY N T H E SIS.......................................................................................... 70 A rgu m en tative S y n th esis C h ristia n S cie n c e as an Instance of A rgu m en tative S yn th esis Sum m ary N otes IV. CHRISTIAN SCIENCE RHETORIC - -INH ERENT A P P E A L S .......................................................................................... 102 W idespread A ppeal of the M ovem ent C h ristia n S c ie n c e as a M iddle C la ss M ovem ent The In trin sic A ppeal of A rgu m en tative S y n th esis The P e r s u a s iv e n e s s of M rs. E ddy's U se of A rgu m en tative S yn th esis Sum m ary N otes ii C hapter P a g e ! V. CHRISTIAN SCIENCE RHETORIC: A RGUM ENT, ST Y L E AND C O M P O SIT IO N .................... 191 A rgum ents S tyle E thos O rganization Sum m ary N otes VI. SUMMARY AND C O N C L U SIO N S............................................. 251 C h ristia n S c ie n c e O rigin s and P r in c ip le s The N ature o f A rgu m en tative S y n th esis Inherent A ppeal of A rgu m en tative S y n th esis The P e r s u a s iv e n e s s of M rs. E ddy's U se of A rgu m en tative S y n th esis A rg u m en ts, S ty le , and C om p osition Im p lica tio n s of the Study A r e a s fo r F u rth er Study N otes B IB L IO G R A P H Y ..................................................................................................... 284 iii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION C h r istia n S c ie n c e em er g ed out of the flu x and tu r m o il of the late n in eteen th c e n tu r y --a tim e of tr a n sitio n in A m e r ic a . O rthodox I r e lig io n w as engaged in a h ea d -o n con fron tation w ith s c ie n c e .* In du s tr ia l s tr ife in d icated that a new r e la tio n sh ip w as d evelop in g betw een 2 labor and m an agem en t. E xp osu re of graft and corru p tion in city j ! p o litic s r a ise d q u estio n s as to the adequacy of m u n icip al p o litic a l | 3 str u c tu r e s. The P o p u list m ovem en t sig n a led that fa r m e r s w ere d is - ! sa tisfie d w ith th eir lot and su sp ic io u s of the in te r e sts and pow er of 4 expanding urban c e n te r s. The statu s of w om en w as under attack by 5 the su ffr a g e tte s. In p h ilosop h y, W illiam J a m e s urged A m eric a n s to relin q u ish " sp in e le ss" p e r sp e c tiv e s in favor of a robust toughm inded- jn e ss.k In lite r a tu r e , Stephen C ran e, O. H en ry, and T heodore D r e is e r i j advanced a lite r a r y n a tu ra lism ch allen gin g the o p tim ism and n a iv ete of 7 the id y llic w ritin g s of E m e r so n and W hitm an. P u b lic sp ea k ers such as E ugene D ebs and H enry G eorge q u estion ed s o c ie ta l foundations w hile R u s s e ll C onw ell and C hauncey D e P ew e x to lle d th em . 1 2 C h ristian S cien ce grew out o f th is in te lle c tu a l, r e lig io u s , and s o c ia l ferm en t. It w as a r e sp o n se to the id e o lo g ic a l co n flict during the tim e , and brought togeth er id ea s m any A m eric a n s b eliev ed m utually e x c lu s iv e . In its u s e of tra d itio n a l th e s e s w ith em erg in g a n tith e se s, C h r istia n S cien ce w as an " argum entative sy n th e sis." R ecogn ition of jthe sy n th etic ch a ra cter of C h ristia n S cie n c e is the beginning point in i any attem pt to account fo r the w id esp rea d accep ta n ce of C h ristian S c ie n c e --a n apparent paradox of tra d itio n a l th e s e s and n ew er an tith esen i j - -w h ich is the cen tra l in te r e st of th is study. I j "A rgum entative sy n th esis" is a con cep t developed by Edw in iB lack . It r e fe r s to the p r o c e ss of uniting id ea s w hich appear to be in | o p p o sitio n into a coh eren t w hole. The rh eto r, u tiliz in g argu m en tative ! i s y n th e s is , is not "attacking and defending s p e c ific is s u e s " but " elab o ra tin g a synoptic view that would su b su m e and subordinate h is oppo- g n en t's view ." M rs. E ddy's th eology p o sited a syn op tic view that sought to su bsu m e view points on both sid e s of a num ber of is s u e s : I ‘s c ie n c e v e r su s C h ristia n ity , tra d itio n a l v e r su s m od ern view s of the I l | r o le of w om en, and the C a lv in istic notion of m an's d ep ravity v e r su s the ! |lib e r a l th e o lo g ic a l p ositio n that m an is upright and the child of a b e n e fic e n t God. B y 1910, M rs. Eddy had pu blish ed n u m erou s b ook s, founded a p u blish in g h ou se and in tern a tio n a l daily n ew sp a p er, printed four p e r io d ic a ls , esta b lish e d a parent church o rg a n iza tio n w ith o v er 1212 3 b ra n ch es, com m anded a com m itted fo llo w in g , and a m a sse d a s ig n ifi- 9 cant p erso n a l fortu n e. Such w ere the im m ed ia te r e su lts of h er m in is tr y . But sc h o la r s have fa ile d to in v e stig a te h er sy n th e sis of id eas and argu m en ts as a fundam ental ele m e n t in the s u c c e s s of th e relig io n . By exam in ing the arg u m en ta tiv e sy n th etic nature of C h ristia n S c ie n c e , th is study con trib u tes to an u n derstanding of the re a so n s fo r the a ccep ta n ce of C h ristia n S c ie n c e by m any A m erica n s at the turn of the cen tu ry. The p r e se n t study should a lso add in sig h ts into the nature and function of a rg u m en tative sy n th e sis. The P ro b lem T his study w ill a n sw er the question: How did the rh eto ric of M ary B aker Eddy fu n ction to p rom ote the w id esp read a ccep ta n ce of C h ristia n S cie n c e b etw een 1875 and 1910? S u bsid iary q u estio n s are: 1. What w ere the o r ig in s and p rin cip les of C h ristia n S c ie n c e ? 2. What is the nature of argu m en tative sy n th e sis and the re la tio n sh ip of C h r istia n S cie n c e to argu m en tative sy n th e sis ? 3. How and why did the argu m en tative sy n th etic natu re of the C h ristia n S c ie n c e d o ctrin e contribute to the p e r s u a s iv e appeal of C h ristia n S c ie n c e ? 4. How did M r s. E d d y's com m u n ication of h er d o ctrin e con trib u te to the a ccep ta n ce of C h ristian S c ie n c e ? 5. What can w e le a r n h is to r ic a lly and r h e to r ic a lly from th is stud y? 4 R e se a r c h P lan T his study p artak es of both h is to r ic a l and c r itic a l m eth o d o lo g ie s . It is h is to r ic a l in that it se e k s to a cq u ire know ledge of what has been rath er than what is or should be; it se e k s to a sc e r ta in why and how things d evelop ed as they did. The c h a r a c te r is tic s of M rs. E ddy's w ritten p ersu a sio n are ex am in ed in d e ta il. The m eth od ology of th is study is c o n siste n t w ith P h ife r 's sta tem en t on h is to r ic a l r e s e a r c h in rh etoric: j Any sp eech p rob lem that re q u ir e s know ledge of the p a st, of what ; has been rath er than w hat is or should b e, co m p els the u se of | h is to r ic a l m eth o d s. T h ese m eth od s do not stop w ith a d e s c r ip - : tion of what has been but continue to su g g e st in terp reta tio n of the p ast to show why th in gs d evelop ed a s th ey did and how they c o m pared with s im ila r d e v e lo p m e n ts. T his study is a lso c r itic a l in that it ev a lu a tes a given r h e to r i cal d is c o u r se by u tilizin g a g iv en se t of c r ite r ia or m o d el. As C arter and F ife in d icate: "We m ay d efine the c r itic a l approach as the m ethod, |o r p r o c e d u r e s, of evalu atin g phenom ena of sp e e c h a cco rd in g to a p p ro p r ia t e c r ite r ia or stan d ard s of judgm ent."** S p e c ific a lly , th is study i I j ev a lu a tes one rea so n for the w id esp rea d a ccep ta n ce of C h ristia n I S cie n c e by p o st-C iv il War A m e r ic a n s, u tilizin g B la c k 's notion of argu m en tative sy n th e sis as the th e o r e tic a l m o d el. The study id e n ti fie s the in h erent p e r s u a siv e appeal of a rg u m en ta tiv e s y n th e s is , d e m o n str a te s that C h ristia n S c ie n c e is an in sta n ce of argu m en tative s y n t h e s is , and em p lo y s B la c k 's notion to evalu ate the p e r s u a siv e n e s s af M rs. E ddy's d o ctrin e. The tem p o ra l lim ita tio n s of th is study fo rm a m an ageab le and coherent unit of in v e stig a tio n . M rs. E ddy's fir s t m ajor p ublication was in 1875; she died in 1910. She spent the y e a r s b efo re 1875 fo r m u lating h er r e lig io n . A fter h er death, the rh eto ric of C h ristia n S cie n c e was c a r r ie d on by h er fo llo w e r s. C onseq u en tly, the y e a r s 1875 to 1910 con stitu te th o se in w hich M rs. Eddy a ctiv e ly engaged in w ritten p e r su a sio n to advance h er c a u se . The focu s of th is study is on M rs. jEddy' s w ritten p e r su a sio n . H er com m u n ication w as la r g e ly w ritten jand she spoke p u b licly on only a few o c c a s io n s . Though a p ro ficien t ! sp e a k e r , M rs. Eddy b e lie v e d she could reach a m uch la r g e r au d ien ce by con cen tratin g on w ritten com m u n ication . To speak of C h ristian S cien ce p e r su a sio n during th e se y e a r s is to speak of the p ersu a sio n em p loyed by M ary B ak er E ddy, fo r she w as not only the founder but the dom inating fo r c e in C h ristia n S cien ce during th is p eriod. T his study s e e k s to id en tify the nature and function of M rs. i E ddy's p e r su a sio n and show how it contributed to the s u c c e s s of the C h ristian S cien ce church; it does not attem pt to d eterm in e to what exten t M rs. Eddy c o n sc io u sly sought to p ersu ad e h er au d ien ce in the p a rticu la r way sh e did. T h is study tak es a sta n ce s im ila r to that taken by G ilb ert H ighet in h is c r itic a l study of L in co ln 's "G ettysburg A d d re ss." H ighet w as s a tis fie d w ith the fa ct that L incoln " ch ose the th em e. F ro m its d evelop m en t and from the em o tio n a l tone of the en tire 6 o c c a s io n , a ll the r e st fo llo w ed , or g r e w --b y that m a rv elo u s p r o c e s s of 12 ch oice and r eje ctio n w hich is e s s e n tia l to a r tis tic crea tio n ." L ik e w is e , the focu s of th is study is on the natu re of M rs. E ddy's rh eto ric rath er than on p roviding a d eta iled d is c u s sio n of h er intent and co n sc io u s p u rp o se . M rs. Eddy w as an in d ividu al, s im ila r to o th e r s in h er e r a , e x p o sed to the m any co n flictin g id ea s of the la te r p a rt of the n in eteen th cen tu ry. H er r e sp o n se w as to m ake so m e s e n se of th e se co n flictin g th e o r ie s , to d evelop a co h eren t s y n th e s is , a c o n s iste n t and sa tisfy in g th eo lo g y . I | P e r u s a l of the follo w in g so u r c e s in d icate a study of M rs. i 'Eddy's u se of w ritten and spoken p e r su a sio n has not b een p rev io u sly attem pted: J. J e ffr e y A u er's " D octoral D isse r ta tio n s in Speech: Work 13 in P r o g r e s s , " C lyde W. D ow 's " A b stracts of T h e s e s in the F ie ld of 14 S p eech ," F r e d e r ic k W. H aber m an 's "A B ib liograp h y of R h e to ric and 15 P u b lic A d d r e ss," F ra n k lin H. K now er's "An Index of G raduate Work |in the F ie ld of S p eech ," and K now er's T able of C ontents of the Q uar- 1 * n ' te r ly Jou rn al of S p eech , 1 9 1 5 -1 9 6 2 , S p eech M on ograp h s, 1 9 3 4-1964, and the S p eech T e a c h e r , 19 5 2 -1 9 6 4 w ith a R e v ise d Index C om piled 17 Through 1964. A D a trix s e a r c h rev e a le d no lite r a tu r e on the o r a l or l w ritten d is c o u r s e of M ary B ak er Eddy, but did r e v e a l a num ber of d is se r ta tio n s on C h ristia n S c ie n c e that w ere u sefu l. C o m p reh en siv e p rim a ry so u r c e m a te r ia l is a v a ila b le in the v a rio u s ed itio n s of M r s. E d d y's textb ook , S c ie n c e and H ealth with K ey to S c r ip tu r e s . She a lso published a num ber of m inor w orks after S c ie n c e and H ealth ; a volu m e of M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s; an au tob iog raphy title d , R e tro sp ectio n and In tr o sp e c tio n ; The F ir s t Church of C h r ist, S c ie n tist and M isc e lla n y , a d isc u s sio n of the founding and d evelop m en t of h er church; a s e r ie s of m e s s a g e s to h er church; P ulpit and P r e s s , containing n ew sp ap er rem a rk s about C h ristia n S cien ce; a pu blish ed serm o n titled " C h ristian H ealing"; a serm o n titled "The P e o p le s Idea of God: Its E ffe c ts on H ealth and C hristianity" ; two e s s a y s dealing with the b a sic p rin c ip le s of C h ristian S c ie n c e , No and Y es and R udim ental D ivine S c ie n c e ; an e s s a y titled C h ristian S cie n c e 19 v e r s u s P a n th e ism ; and a th e o r e tic a l e s s a y , Unity of G ood. F a c ili tatin g the study of th e se m a te r ia ls is A C om plete C oncordance to the 20 W orks of M ary B aker E ddy. R eview of L ite ra tu r e j L itera tu re d isc u ssin g the w id esp rea d accep ta n ce of C h ristian jScience is lim ited in quantity, and often is sk etch y . None of it fo c u se s on the o r a l and w ritten d is c o u r se of M rs. Eddy as an im portant e l e m en t in the a ccep ta n ce of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . M ark T w ain attributed M rs. E ddy's s u c c e s s p rim a rily to her 21 p ro ficien t b u sin e ss a b ility , ex tra o rd in a ry d arin g, and w ill to pow er. He denied h er w ritin g s had any p o sitiv e e ffe c t on the s u c c e s s of C h r is tia n S c ie n c e . T w ain b e lie v e d M rs. Eddy had "but a rude and dull sen se of the v a lu es of w ords . . . that sh e "could not ev en draft a P r e fa c e 22 that a p e r so n can fu lly com prehend. . . . " A lthough T w ain is c o r r ec t in attrib u tin g b u sin e ss ab ility to M rs. E ddy, he fa ile d to s e e that h er u se of language to com bine su pp osed ly d isp a ra te id ea s w as e s s e n tia l to the appeal of C h r istia n S c ie n c e . It s e e m s im p rob ab le that M rs. Eddy b u ilt a th rivin g and continuing church com p osed of m id d le and upper m id d le c la s s ad h eren ts purely on b u sin e ss a b ility and in c o m p r e - 23 h en sib le E n g lish . F o r M rs. E ddy's d o ctrin es w ere sp rea d a lm o st j e x c lu siv e ly by h er w r itin g s. A fter the p u blication of h er textb ook , S cie n c e and H ealth (1875), sh e w ithdrew fro m a ll s o c ia l a c tiv itie s , 24 r etirin g to the country and refu sin g ev en to attend h er own church. She le t h er w ritten w orks speak for th e m s e lv e s . E dw in D akin argued that the popularity of C h ristia n S c ie n c e 25 lay in M rs. E d d y's e ffe c tiv e u se of public rela tio n s ta c tic s . He concluded that the c o n tr o v e r sia l nature of M rs. E ddy's r e lig io n lent its e lf to public in te r e st, but that M rs. Eddy m a ste r fu lly ex p lo ited that in te r e st. He pointed out that her crea tio n of The C om m ittee on P u b li cation and h er four p e r io d ic a ls and n ew sp ap er functioned as e ffe c tiv e 2 6 p u b licity o u tle ts. But D akin did not d is c u s s M r s. E ddy's u se of la n guage in and of its e lf. He fo cu sed on the m ean s of d isse m in a tin g the w ord rath er than the w ord its e lf. Edw in S. G austad a lso co n cen trated on M rs. E ddy's m ean s of d issem in a tin g h er m e s s a g e , and he in d icated the u se fu ln e ss of h er R eading R o om s, public le c tu r e r s , lite r a tu r e and jchurch organization in spreading the C hristian S cien ce doctrine. M r s. Eddy did spread her doctrine by skillful public relations p r a c - I t ic e s , but s h e grounded those p ractices on ideas relevant and attractive to h er audience. 1 Donald M eyer's investigation of The P o s itiv e Thinkers posited j j another r e a so n for the attractiveness of Christian Scien ce. He I I argued that A m e r ic a n m en of the early nineteenth century still p e r ceived th e m s e lv e s largely in relation to a la rg er sociological unit: ! i v illa g e r s , w orkers of a certain craft, m e m b e r s of church and state. ■ ; i 1 Their place was fixed and they were subservient to la rg er institutions, i i They saw t h e m s e lv e s as parts of a la rg er whole. But as the century , l advanced, they cam e to question those institutions as they becam e j i 1 c u m b e r s o m e and unsuited to the advancing urban, secu larized society, j M e y er claim ed that m en found a "new way" to cope with the contingencies of the latter nineteenth century. It "was to know on eself i as potency, as power. A m an was real to the extent that he m oved, fun .28 m otion r e g istered his self-im p u lsion .' M eyer sum m arized: One of the features of the new age was the crum bling of old con cepts of the whole. If there was a ":>chemc of things, " it was . . . the em bodim ents of Will. E xcitem en t, clam or, room lor a g g r e s sion, a multitude of hard realities with which to g r a p p le --m e n J o had these to enjoy. • But M eyer a lso pointed out: '.'Women in the nineteenth century w e r e not so lucky. . . . The more their m en su cceed ed , the le s s they w ere ■ 5 0 n ee d e d ." C h r istia n Science, was s u c c e s s f u l in p ersu a d in g many women to accept its doctrines becau se it prom ised them equality, I power, potency. I Donald M eyer, Harold Pfautz, and Richard Shryock argued that the poor quality of late nineteenth century m edical care contributed to the w idespread acceptance of Christian Science. T h ese w r ite r s su g gested that a fairly ineffectual m ed ical prpfession, high m ortality r a te s, and the p rim itive state of psychosom atic m edicine added to the attr a c tiv en ess of Christian Science. As the m ed ical historian Shyrock pointed out: "The significance of the Christian Scien ce m ovem en t can be best apprehended if all the c ir c u m sta n c e s of its o r ig in --a m id the popular distrust of regular m ed icin e and the support of rival c u lts - - are recalled."^ * j Joseph Kelley Johnson argued that Christian Science gained converts because it helped A m erica n s adapt to the new , industrialized, ! 32 city life. Johnson stated: The 1926 Census of R eligious B odies credits 94 per cent of the [C hristian Scien ce] m e m b e r sh ip to urban ter r ito r y , and it was found that 95. 6 per cent of the churches and 95. 7 per ceot of the p ractitioners listed by the m ovem ent w ere in urban territory .-^3 Christian S cien ce gave these new urbanites a sen se of comfort and security. It told them that they w ere the perfect children of an all- loving Father, and if they would but ' correct their thinking," harm ony, oeacc, and health would be realized , believed Johnson. Another j i i . n r - s o c io lo g ic a l approach w as that o f Isid or T h o rn er, who d escrib ed C h r istia n S c ie n c e in te r m s of its settin g in A m eric a n cu ltu re. T horner argu ed that C h ristia n S cien ce w a s s u c c e s s fu l in a r e a s in te lle c tu a lly andj c u ltu ra lly s im ila r to N ew E n glan d , that C h ristia n S cie n c e had a New ! E ngland a p p e a l.^ V ariou s authors have e x p lo r ed the d o c tr in e , p h ilosop h y, and o r ig in s of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . R o b ert P e e l's p ion eerin g stu d y, C hris - tian S cien ce: Its E ncounter w ith A m e r ic a n C u ltu re, was e s s e n tia lly a study in in te lle c tu a l h isto ry ; he tra ce d the s im ila r ity of C h ristian ( S c ie n c e with o th er id ea s in A m e r ic a . He saw a rela tio n sh ip betw een the id e a s of C h ristia n S cien ce and the id e a s of p ra g m a tism and tra n - 35 sc e n d e n ta lism . H enry W. S te ig e r provid ed valuable in form ation regard in g the p h ilo so p h ica l a ssu m p tio n s and im p lica tio n s of C h ristia n ! 36 I S c ie n c e . Inform ation d ealing w ith the o r ig in s of C h ristian S cie n c e ! I a re found in th r e e w o rk s. H oratio W. D r e s s e r 's book, The Quimby J M an u scrip ts Showing the D isc o v e r y of S p iritu a l H ealin g and the O rigin s 1 of C h ristia n S c ie n c e , attributed M rs. E d d y's r e lig io u s d o ctrin es to the i i tea ch in g s and w ritin g s of P h in ea s P . Q uim by, a m en ta l h e a le r M rs. 37 Eddy co n su lted . In M rs. Eddy P u rlo in s fro m H e g e l, W alter M. H au sh a lter contended M rs. E d d y 's d o ctrin es w ere d ire ctly attributable 38 to the G erm an p h ilo so p h er, H e g e l. C onrad H. M oehlm an, in O rdeal by C o n co rd a n ce, d em on strated th a t the docum ent upon w hich H aushalter 39 b ased h is c la im w as fraudulent. I Two stu d ies in v estig a ted the in flu en ce of C h ristia n S c ie n c e on i A m eric a n thought. R. J. C unningham studied the in flu en ce of C h r is - ; I 40 ! tian S c ie n c e on A m e r ic a n ch u rch es b etw een 1880 and 1910. And B ryan E pps provided in form ation on the in flu en ce and sta tu s of C h r is - ‘ i . 41 tian S c ie n c e in m o r e rec en t y e a r s . In form ation regard in g M rs. E ddy's u se of public rela tio n s tech n iq u es was a v a ila b le not only in Edwin D akin's M rs. E ddy, but also; 42 in L ee Z eunert Joh n so n 's d is se r ta tio n . D em ographic data of C h r is tian S c ie n tists w as a v a ila b le not only in J osep h K. Joh n son 's d is s e r t a - 43 44 tion , but a lso in that of A . J. L am m e, and the w orks of L eo R o sten , 45 46 47 Bryan W ilson , H arold P fa u tz, and N eal B. D e Nood. In addition to the stu d ie s accounting fo r the o rig in s and s u c c e s s of C h ristia n S c ie n c e , n u m erou s seco n d a ry so u r c e s e x ist w hich g iv e j I in sig h ts into M rs. E ddy's lif e , h er ch u rch , and the tim e in w hich sh e I liv ed . B ooks d ea lin g w ith M rs. E ddy's textbook and w ritin g s include Max K ap p eler's T he S tru ctu re of the C h ristia n S cie n c e T extb ook , W il- i lia m Dana O rcu tt's M ary B ak er Eddy and H er B o o k s, and A lic e L. O rgain 's D istin g u ish in g C h a r a c te r istic s of M ary B aker E ddy's P r o - j 48 i g r e s s iv e R e v isio n s of S c ie n c e and H ealth and O ther W ritin g s. j j A num ber of pu blish ed accou n ts of M rs. Eddy by in d ivid u als | who knew h er p e r so n a lly g iv e added in sig h t into M rs. Eddy and C h r is tian S c ie n c e . T h ese acco u n ts in clud e Hugh A. Studdert K ennedy's 13 M rs. Eddy as I Knew H e r , Irving C. T o m lin so n 's T w elve Y ea rs w ith M ary B aker E d d y, and a s e r ie s of books containing p e r so n a l accou n ts 49 by v a rio u s p eop le c lo s e to h e r . We Knew M rs. E ddy. A dditional in fo rm a tio n about M rs. Eddy is found in the book E d ito ria l C om m ents 50 on the L ife and W ork of M ary B aker E ddy. T h ere a r e m any b iog ra p h ies of M rs. Eddy. T hey fa ll g en era lly into th ree c a te g o r ie s: highly c r itic a l of M rs. E ddy, high ly su pp ortive of M r s. Eddy, and th o se m o re or le s s o b jectiv e w hich p r esen t a b a l anced v iew . C r itic a l b iograp h ies in clud e G eorgin e M ilm in e's The L ife of M ary B a k er Eddy and the H isto ry of C h ristia n S c ie n c e , E r n e st I S. B a tes and John V. D itte m o r e 's M ary B ak er Eddy: The T ruth and th<; T ra d itio n , and E dw in O akin's M rs. E ddy; th o se b io g ra p h ies sy m p a th etic to M rs. Eddy include Sibyl W ilb er's T he L ife of M ary B aker E ddy, M ary E . R a m sa y 's C h ristia n S c ie n c e and Its D is c o v e r e r , and 51 J ew el Spangler S m a u s ' M ary B aker Eddy: The G olden D a y s. B ooks fa llin g betw een th e s e two e x tr e m e s in clud e R obert P e e l's M ary B aker j Eddy: The Y ea rs of D is c o v e r y , N orm an B e a s le y 's The C r o ss and the i jcrow n , B e a s le y 's The Continuing S p ir it, and Lym an P . P o w e ll's M ary i 52 jBaker Eddy: A L ife S ize P o r tr a it. A num ber of books d eal s p e c ific a lly w ith the founding and h is tory of the C h r istia n S cien ce Church. T hose em p loyed fo r the p resen t study include M a rg a ret W illia m so n 's The M other C hurch E x te n sio n , C arol N orton 's T he C h ristia n S cie n c e Church: Its O rgan ization and 14 P o lity , and Hugh A. Studdert K ennedy's C h ristian S cie n c e and O rgan iz e d R e lig io n . ^ A lso u se fu l a re the b r ie f d e sc r ip tio n s by sig n ifica n t A m e r ic a n h isto r ia n s on C h ristia n S cie n c e and M rs. Eddy in g en era l A m eric a n h isto r y b ook s. John D. H ick s, H enry S teele C om m ager, M er le C u rti, R ichard H o fsta d ter, and H arold J. L a sk i have a ll d isc u s se d C h ristia n 54 S c ie n c e , in g en era l t e r m s , as it r e la te s to A m erica n h isto r y . P r e v ie w of the C hapters C hapter I in clud ed the in trod u ction , sta tem en t of the p ro b lem , r e se a r c h p lan , rev iew of the lite r a tu r e , and a p rev iew of the c h a p te r s. C hapter II r e v ie w s the o r ig in s and p r in c ip le s of C h ristian S c ie n c e . C hapter III in v e s tig a te s th e nature of argu m en tative sy n th e sis and the rela tio n sh ip of C h ristia n S c ie n c e to argu m en tative s y n th e s is. How and why the arg u m en ta tiv e sy n th etic nature of the C h ristian S c ie n c d octrin e contributed to the p e r s u a siv e appeal of C h ristian S cie n c e is th e su b ject of C hapter IV. C hapter V ex a m in es M rs. E ddy's co m m u n ication of h er d octrin e and the im p ortan ce of that com m u n ication in gain in g accep ta n ce fo r the r e lig io n . The concluding chapter rev iew s th e h is to r ic a l and r h e to r ic a l in fo rm a tio n and in sig h ts lea rn ed from th is stud y. 15 N otes ^C lifton E . O lm stea d , R elig io n in A m eric a : P a st and P r e se n t (N ew Y ork, 1961), p. 118. 2 C arl D e g le r , The A ge of E con om ic R ev o lu tio n , 1875-1900 (N ew Y ork, 1968), p. 132. ^I b id ., p. 108. ^I b id ., p. 124. 5 E r n e st J. W rage and B arn et B a s k e r v ille , A m eric a n F orum : S p eech es on H isto r ic I s s u e s , 1788-1900 (S ea ttle, I9 6 0 ), pp. 3 1 3 -3 1 7 . j ^M ilton R. K onvitz and G ail K ennedy, e d s. , The A m erica n jP r a g m a tists (N ew Y ork, 1964), p. 28. ! 7 G erard Cannon, A m erica n L itera tu re ( N ew Y ork, 1964), pp. |3 6 -4 0 . I g E dw in B la ck , R h eto rica l C ritic ism : A Study in M ethod (New Y ork, 1965), p. 159. 9 E dw in D akin, M r s. Eddy (New Y ork, 1930), p. 512. ^ C ite d by Clyde W. Dow in An Introduction to G raduate Study in S p eech and T h eatre (E a st L an sin g, M ich igan , 1961), p. 53. * *Ibid. , p. 82. 1 12 j G ilb ert H ighet, A C lerk of O xenford (N ew Y ork, 1954), p. 56. 13 J. J e ffr e y A u er, " D octoral D isse r ta tio n s in Speech: W ork in P r o g r e s s ," S p eech M onographs (annually sin c e 1951). 14 F r e d e r ic k W. H aber m an , "A B ib liograp h y of R hetoric and P u b lic A d d ress" (annually sin c e 1948; in Q u a rterly Journal of Sp eech fo r y e a r s 1 9 4 8 -1 9 5 0 , and S p eech M onographs begin n in g w ith 1951; now co m p iled by J a m es W. C lea ry ). 15 C lyde W. D ow, " A b stracts of T h e se s in th e F ield of S p eech , " S p eech M onographs (annually sin c e 1946). TE F ran k lin H. K now er, "An Index of G raduate W ork in the F ie lt of S p eech , " S p eech M onographs (annually sin c e 1935; the 1935 is s u e in clu d es the p eriod 1902-1934; the 1945 is s u e a ls o con tain s a com bined index fo r the y e a r s 1902-1944). 17 F ran k lin H. K now er, T able of C ontents of the Q u arterly Jour nal of S p eech , 1915-1964, S p eech M onographs, 1 9 3 4 -1 9 6 4 , and the S p eech T e a c h e r , 1915-1964, w ith a R e v ise d Index C om piled Through 1964 (N ew Y ork, 1965). 18 M ary B aker E ddy, S cie n c e and H ealth w ith Key to the S c r ip tu r e s (B o sto n , ed ition s 1875, 1890, 1894, 1901). 19 The above w o rk s, w ritten during d ifferen t tim e s , have b een c o lle c te d in P r o s e W orks (B o sto n , 1924). 20 A lb ert F . C onant, A C om plete C oncordance to the W orks of M ary B ak er Eddy (B o sto n , 1916). C hurch a r c h iv e s w ere not e x a m ined b eca u se (1) they a re not open to sc h o la r s ex ce p t by s p e c ia l p e r m is s io n o f the church, w hich is not gran ted read ily; and (2) the fo cu s of th is study is on M rs. E ddy's d octrin e a s it is d evelop ed in her m ajor w ork, S c ie n c e and H ealth, rath er than on b io g ra p h ica l or h is to r ic a l a sp e c ts of C h ristian S c ie n c e . 21 M ark T w ain, C h ristia n S c ie n c e (New Y ork , 1899), p. 201. ^ Ib id ., p. 211. 23 E x te n siv e data of the m id d le and u p p er-m id d le c la s s c h a r a c te r of C h ristia n S c ie n tists is found in th r e e sc h o la r ly so u r c e s: J o sep h K. Joh n son , "C hristian S cien ce: A C a se Study of a R elig io n as a F o rm of A djustm ent B eh a v io r, " D is s ., U n iv e r sity of W ashington, St. L o u is, 1937; A . J. L am m e, III, "The S p a cia l and E c o lo g ic a l C h a r a c te r istic s of the D iffu sion of C h ristia n S c ie n c e in the U nited S tates: 1 8 7 5 -1 9 0 0 , " D is s ., S y ra cu se U n iv ersity 1968; and B ryan W ilson , S e c ts and S o ciety (B e r k e le y , C alifo rn ia , 1961). ^ D a k in , pp. 2 4 5 -2 5 8 . ^ Ibid. , p. 52. 2 6 T U - . Ibid. 17 27 Edwin S. G austad, H isto r ic a l A tla s of R elig io n in A m eric a (New Y ork, 1962), pp. 133-134. 28 Donald M ey e r, The P o s itiv e T h in k ers (G arden C ity, New Y ork, 1965), p. 52. ^ Ibid. , p. 30. Ibid. 31 M ey er, pp. 5-13; H arold W. P fa u tz, "A C ase Study of an Urban R elig io u s M ovem ent: C h ristian S c ie n c e , " in C ontributions to Urban S ociology, ed. E rn est W. B u r g e ss and D onald J. B ogue (C hicago 1964), p. 289; R ich ard H. S hryock, The D evelop m en t of M odern M ed i cine (N ew Y ork, 1947), p. 258. 32 Josep h Joh n son , p. 9. i 33Ibid. I 34 j Isid o r T h orn er, " C hristian S c ie n c e and A sc e tic P r o te sta n t ism : A Study in the S ociology of R elig io n , P e r so n a lity Type and S o cia l S tru ctu re, " D is s ., H arvard U n iv ersity 1951. 35 R obert P e e l, C h ristia n S cie n c e: Its E ncounter w ith A m e r i can C ulture (N ew Y ork, 1966). 36 H enry W. S te ig e r , C h ristia n S cie n c e and P h ilo so p h y (New Y ork, 1948). 37 H oratio W. D r e s s e r , ed. , The Q uim by M an u scrip ts Showing I the D isc o v e r y of S p iritu al H ealing and O rigin of C h ristia n S cie n c e |(N ew Y ork, 1921). 38 W alter M. H au sh alter, M rs. Eddy P u rlo in s from H egel (B oston , 1936). 39 Conrad H. M oehlm an, O rdeal by C oncord ance (N ew York, 1955). 40 R. J. C unningham , " M in istery of H ealing: The O rigin s of P sy ch o th era p eu tic R o le of the A m eric a n C h u rch es, " D is s., Johns H opkins 1965. 18 41 B ryan C ran dell E p p s, " R elig io u s H ealing in the U nited S ta te s, 1940-1960: H isto r y and T h eology of S ele cted T ren d ," D is s., U n iv ersity of Ohio 1966. 42 L ee Z eunert Johnson, " C h ristian S cien ce C om m ittee on P ub lication : A Study of Group and P r e s s In tera ctio n , " D is s ., S y ra cu se U n iv ersity 1963. 43 L am m e, "Spacial and E c o lo g ic a l C h a r a c te r istic s. . . ." 44 L eo R o sten , A Guide to th e R elig io n s in A m e r ic a (N ew Y ork, 1959). 45 B ryan W ilson , S e c ts and S o cie ty (B e r k e le y , 1961). 46 I P fa u tz, p. 1. I i 4 7 j N eal B. D e N ood, "The D iffu sio n of a S y ste m of B e lie f, " D is s ., H arvard U n iv ersity 1937, pp. 1 -10. j 4g M ax K ap p eler, The S tru ctu re of the C h ristia n S cien ce T ex t book (London, 1954); W illiam Dana O rcutt, M ary B ak er Eddy and Her B ooks (B oston , 1950); A lic e L. O rgain , D istin g u ish in g C h a r a c te r istic s of M ary B ak er E ddy's P r o g r e s s iv e R e v isio n s of S c ie n c e and H ealth and Other W ritings (N ew Y ork, 1933). 49 Hugh A. Studdert K ennedy, M rs. Eddy as I Knew H er (San F r a n c is c o , 1933); Irvin g C . T o m lin so n , T w elve Y ea rs with M ary B ake:1 Eddy (B oston , 1945); C h ristia n S c ie n c e P u b lish in g S o c ie ty , We Knew M r s . Eddy (B o sto n , 1943, 1950, 1953). 1 50 E d ito r ia l C om m ents on the L ife and Work o f Mary B ak er Eddy (B oston , 1911). 51 G eorgin e M ilm in e, The L ife of M ary B aker Eddy and the H istory of C h ristia n S c ie n c e (New Y ork , 1909); E r n e st B ates and John V. D itte m o r e , M ary B aker Eddy: T he Truth and the T radition (London, 1933); D akin, M rs. E ddy; S ib yl W ilber, The Life of M ary B ak er Eddy (B oston , 1938); M ary E . R a m sa y , C h ristia n S cie n c e and Its D isc o v e r e r (B o sto n , 1955); J ew el Sp angler S m au s, M ary B aker Eddy: The G olden D ays (B oston , 1966). 52 R obert P e e l, M ary B aker Eddy: The Y ears of D isc o v e r y (N ew Y ork, 1966); N orm an B e a s le y , The C r o ss and th e Crown (B oston , 19 1952) and The C ontinuing S p irit (N ew Y ork , 1956); L ym an P . P o w e ll, M ary B ak er Eddy: A L ife S iz e P o r tr a it (B oston , 1950). 53 M argaret W illia m so n , The M other C hurch E x ten sio n (B oston , 1939); C arol N orton , The C h ristia n S c ie n c e Church; Its O rgan ization and P o lity (B oston , 1904); Hugh A. Studdert K ennedy, C h ristia n S cie n c e and O rgan ized R elig io n (N ew Y ork, 1952). 54 John D. H ic k s, A Short H isto ry of A m eric a n D em o cra cy (N ew Y ork, 1949), pp. 4 8 4 -4 8 5 ; H enry S te e le C om m ager, T he A m e r i can Mind (N ew H aven, 1952), pp. 186-187; M erle C u rti, H isto r y of A m erica n C iv iliz a tio n (N ew Y ork, 1953), pp. 4 0 5 -4 0 6 ; R ich ard H of- sta d te r , The A m eric a n R ep u b lic, II (E nglew ood C liffs , 1959). 278; H arold J. L a sk i, The A m eric a n D em o cra cy (New Y ork, 1948), pp. 2 8 9 -2 9 1 . I CH APTER II CHRISTIAN SCIENCE ORIGINS AND PR INC IPLES T h ere has b een m uch c o n tr o v e r sy con cern in g the o rig in a lity of M rs. E ddy's th eology as w e ll a s g en era l m isu n d ersta n d in g about the d octrin e its e lf. T his chapter w ill ex a m in e the b a sic p r in c ip le s of the C h ristia n S cie n c e d o c tr in e , rev iew what h as b een w ritten about the o r ig in a lity of C h ristia n S c ie n c e , and d istin g u ish the d octrin e from oth er r e lig io n s and b e lie f s y ste m s a ss o c ia te d w ith C h ristia n S c ie n c e . T he p r esen t chapter a im s at cla rify in g th e o rig in s and d octrin e of C h ristian S cien ce so that C h ristia n S c ie n c e 's appeal to m any p o st- C iv il War A m eric a n s m ay be u n d erstood . It la r g e ly p ro v id es n e c e s sa r y in form ation ra th er than o rig in a l r e s e a r c h . The p resu p p o sitio n s upon w hich C h r istia n S c ie n c e is b ased w ill be d is c u s se d in C hapter IV, w hich e x a m in e s the p e r s u a siv e n e s s of C h ristian S cie n c e d o ctrin e. E x p lica tio n of the p resu p p o sitio n s of C h ristia n S cien ce is in teg ra l to a d is c u s sio n of M rs. E ddy's a rg u m en ta tiv e sy n th e s is , fo r she united w hat ap p eared to be d isp a ra te su p p o sitio n s into a coh eren t and b elie v a b le d o ctrin e. 20 2FI 1 i P r in c ip le s of Christian Science j The doctrine of C hristian Scien ce can be described in tr a d i tio n a l philosophic t e r m s , i . e . , according to its ontology, e p isto m o lo g y , and axiology. An ontological d iscu ssio n of Christian Science should begin with its concept of God. As M rs. Eddy states: "To g r a sp the reality of being in its Scien ce you m u st begin by reckoning God as the divine P rin cip le of all that really is."* i I ! M r s. Eddy em p loys seven synonym s for God, which sh e capi- i ! 2 ^alizes: Mind, Spirit, Soul, P rin cip le, Life, Truth, Love. God is I the Mind of the u n iv e r se , the animating intelligence of e x iste n c e, the I ! 3 :source of reason , inform ation, c o n sc io u sn e ss. God is Spirit, not I 4 imatter. There is no elem en t of m atter or corporeality in God, for i matter is the opposite of Spirit. And God did not create m atter, for God could not c r e a te that which is foreign to his nature. W hereas God, i jSpirit, is su p r e m e ly good, the se e d s of all evil derive from m atter. God ic Soul, and there is but one Soul: I j The T e r m sou ls or s pirits is as im proper at the te r m gods. Soul | or Spirit sig n ifies Deity and nothing e ls e . There is no finite soul i or spirit. Soul or Spirit m ean s only one Mind, and cannot be j rendered in the plural.-** i Soul, then, is not in human bodies but is a quality of God. Since God |is Soul, human beings do not have individual souls. There is only one divine Soul, and this Soul is harm onious and pure without the p o s s i b ility of sin, suffering, tr:o death. 22 God is P r in c ip le .^ He is the law of the u n iv e r s e , the p erfec t ca u se of e x is te n c e , not an anthropom orphic b ein g. D eity d o es not m ake ca p ricio u s ju d g m en ts, fo r God is con stant, unchanging law . God is the P r in c ip le govern in g the u n iv e r se , the P r in c ip le of harm ony and g o o d n ess. He is a lso L ife , o r m o re p ro p erly , the so u r c e of e x iste n c e 7 and c o n sc io u sn e ss. W ithout God, th ere would be nothing. God is g T ruth, u ltim a te v e r a c ity . What is of God is r e a l and true; w hat is not of God is not only fa lla c io u s and untrue, but u n rea l. To understand Truth is to understand God, fo r God is the in te llig e n c e of th e u n iv e r se . 9 God is L o v e, not m e r e ly a b stract law . God is the P r in c ip le of L o v e, and L ove d oes not b lam e but is accepting of its o b ject of a ffe c tio n , its c re a tio n . L ove is kind and m erc ifu l. D efin in g God a s L ove had great sig n ific a n c e for M rs. Eddy. She said: "L ove alone can im p art the lim it le s s id ea of in fin ite Mind, G o d ." ^ A nd, " L ove. What a w o r d ! I am in aw e b efo re it. O ver what w orld s it hath ran ge and is so v e r e ig n ! The u n d eriv ed , the in com p arab le, the in fin ite A ll of Good, I 11 the alone God, is L ove." The im portance M rs. Eddy p laced on the con cep t of God as L ove is ev id en ced by her su b stitu tio n of the w ord "Love" fo r "the L ord" in the tw e n ty -fir st P sa lm . She in clu d es th is a lter ed P s a lm in h er textb ook , S cie n c e and H ealth w ith Key to the S c r ip tu r e s. M rs. Eddy held th at "In the follow in g P s a lm one w ord sh o w s, though fain tly the lig h t w hich C h ristian S c ie n c e th row s on the S crip tu res by su b stitu tin g fo r the co rp oreal s e n s e , th e in co r p o r ea l ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ZT • • r ^ • !2 or sp ir itu a l s e n se of D eity . . . : [D ivin e L ove] is m y shepherd; I sh a ll not want. [L ove] m aketh m e to lie down in g ree n p a stu re s: [L ove] lead eth m e b e sid e the s t ill w a te r s. [L ove] r e sto r e th m y so u l [ sp ir itu a l se n se ]: [L ove] lead eth m e in the paths of r ig h te o u sn e ss fo r His n a m e 's sak e. Y ea, though I w alk through the v a lle y of the shadow of d eath , I w ill fe a r no ev il: for [L ove] is w ith m e; [L o v e 's] rod and [L o v e 's] sta ff they co m fo rt m e. [L ove] p rep areth a tab le b efore m e in the p r e se n c e of m in e e n e m ie s: [L o v e] anointeth m y head w ith o il: m y cup runneth o v e r . S u rely g o o d n ess and m e r c y sh a ll fo llo w m e a ll the days of m y life; and I w ill d w ell in the h ou se [the c o n s c io u s n e s s] of [L o v e] fo r e v e r . ^ I H aving co n sid ered the nature of God, it is now p o s sib le to co n sid e r the natu re of m an. M rs. Eddy d e s c r ib e s m an in a num ber of jw ays. Man is the e x p r e s sio n of God; the r e fle c tio n of God; the m a n i- I ifesta tio n of God; the im age of God; the id ea of God: Man is id ea , the im a g e of Love; he is not p h ysiqu e. He is the g e n e r ic te r m fo r a ll that r e fle c ts G od's im a g e and lik e n e ss; the co n scio u s id en tity of being as found in S c ie n c e , in which m an is the r e fle c tio n of God, or M ind, and th e r e fo r e is etern al; that w hich has no sep a ra te m ind fro m God; that w hich p o s s e s s e s no life , in te llig e n c e , nor c r e a tiv e pow er of h is ow n, but r e fle c ts l sp ir itu a lly a ll that b elon gs to h is M a k e r .^ S in ce m an is the r e fle c tio n of God, and sin c e God is sp iritu a l and h a rm o n io u s, m an m u st be w holly sp ir itu a l and h a rm o n io u s. M rs. Eddy sa y s: Man is not m a tter; he is not m ade up of b ra in , blood, b on es and oth er m a te r ia l e le m e n ts. The S c r ip tu r e s in fo rm us that m an is m ade in the im age and lik e n e ss o f God. M atter is not th at lik e n e s s . The lik e n e ss of S p irit cannot be so u nlike S p irit. M an is sp ir itu a l and p erfect; and b eca u se he is sp ir itu a l and p e r fe c t, he m u st be so u n derstood in C h ristia n S c ie n c e .^ 24 An u n derstanding of the te r m s "Jesus" and "C hrist" a r e r e l e vant in understan d in g the nature of m an in C h ristia n S c ie n c e . M rs. Eddy m ak es a d istin ctio n betw een J e su s the hum an being and the title " C hrist." "C hrist" is id en tic a l w ith th e m an God created : C h rist r e p r e se n ts the in d estru ctib le m an, w hom S p irit c o n s ti tu tes and g o v e r n s. C h r ist illu s tr a te s that blending w ith God, h is d ivine P r in c ip le , w hich g iv e s m an dom inion o v er a ll the ea rth . ^ 17 C h rist is the id e a l m an, the divine arch etyp e or p aradigm o f m an. M rs. Eddy view ed J e su s as a hum an being who c o r r e c tly id e n ti fied h is tru e natu re or m anhood. J e su s w as ab le to s e e he w as the e x p r e s s io n of God. T he sa m e option is open to ev er y m an . A ll m en should id en tify th eir s e lv e s with the C h r ist, th e ir true s e lf . M rs. Eddy sa id that "the w ord C h rist is not p rop erly a synonym for J e s u s , though it is com m on ly so u sed . J e su s w as a hum an n a m e, w hich 18 belon ged to h im in com m on with other H ebrew boys and m en ." But " Jesu s d em o n stra ted C h rist; he proved that C h rist is the d ivin e id ea of 19 !God." J e s u s , th e r e fo r e , is the "w ayshow er. " H is life is ex em p la ry and a ll should em u late h is b eh avior. M rs. Eddy b eliev ed sh e had 20 r e d isc o v e r e d th e " p rim itive C hristian ity" taught and d em o n stra ted by J e s u s. She sought to s y ste m a tiz e the tea ch in g s of J e su s so anyone who ap p lied th is know ledge could ex p erien ce h is tru e n atu re as the m a n ifesta tio n o r r e fle c tio n of God. An u n derstanding of the nature of m an in C h ristia n S cie n c e 25 r e q u ir e s an understanding of the n atu re of M rs. E ddy's concept of the u n iv e r se . In an ab solu te p h ilo so p h ica l s e n s e , a cco rd in g to M rs. Eddy, the u n iv e r se is in m an , for m an is "the com pound id ea of God, in clud ing a ll right id eas; th e g en eric te r m fo r a ll that r e fle c ts G od's 21 im age and lik e n e ss ." In h er book, U nity of G ood, M rs. Eddy sp ea k s of m an a s including the u n iv erse: ". . . S p irit is the only cre a to r, and 22 m an, including th e u n iv e r se , is His sp ir itu a l con cep t." G eorge W endell A dam s, a m em b er o f M rs. E d d y's c la s s of 1898 and a m e m ber of the C h ristia n S cien ce Board of D ir e c to r s , in d icated that th ere can be on ly one g e n e r ic m an if th ere is only one God; only one fu ll e x p r e s s io n of one in fin ite God. R eferrin g to M r s. E d d y's 1898 c la s s , he says: . . . th ere w as but one God, and co n seq u en tly , th ere could be but one fu ll r e fle c tio n , which of co u rse w as the com pound id ea, m an. She dw elt at len gth on the point that th ere could be but one fu ll or co m p lete r e fle c tio n of one God, and that th is m u st be the b a sis for a ll s c ie n tific deduction. She in d icated that only a s h er stu dents grasp ed th is fundam ental fa c t that one God could have but one fu ll r e fle c tio n did th ey have the right b a sic s e n s e of C h r is tian S c ie n c e , and that th e r e was no other sta rtin g p o in t .^ The w ritin g s of M rs. Eddy con tain both ab so lu te and r ela tiv e d e sc r ip tio n s of m a n . The ab solu te o r m eta p h y sica lly c o r r e c t s ta te m ent con cern in g th e nature o f man is that one God is m a n ifested in one cr e a tio n , one g e n e r ic m an. But M rs. Eddy a lso d e s c r ib e s the m a n i fe sta tio n of God a s co m p risin g m any m en; and sh e sp ea k s of m an as being part of the u n iv e r se . F o r in sta n c e , ". . . The sp iritu a l L 26 u n iv e r se , in clud ing in d ividu al m an , is a com pound id ea , r e fle c tin g th e 24 divine su b sta n ce of S p irit." An exp lan ation of th is apparent c o n tr a d iction is that M rs. Eddy w as a d d r e ssin g v a rio u s le v e ls of in te llig e n c e and the concept of m any m en inhabiting a u n iv e r se w as n e c e s s a r y fo r the beginning student who had not p r o g r e ss e d fa r in h is u nderstanding of C h ristian S c ie n c e . S te ig e r 's p h ilo so p h ica l in v e stig a tio n of C h r is tian S cie n c e co n firm s th is point: * A s in th e study of God, we h e r e d istin g u ish the o n to lo g ica l approach fr o m the ap p roach to be u sed fo r in stru ctio n of the s tu dent fro m a low er sta g e of u n derstanding to a h ig h er o n e. L ea d ing the thought of h er students to a h igh er co m p reh en sio n of the con cep t of m an , it ap p ea rs that M rs. Eddy did not sp eak in her w ritin g s c o n siste n tly of mem a s th e " gen eric term " of the u n i v e r s e or as "com pound id ea of God, including a ll right id ea s," but sh e often speaks of m an as a part of the u n iv e r se . . . . In speaking of "the u n iv e r se including m an," M rs. Eddy ob viou sly t r ie s to m e e t her r e a d er halfw ay in ord er to lead him to a m ore sc ie n tific con cep t of m an as havin g dom inion o v e r the e a r t h .^ A fter d is c u s sin g th e nature of God, m an , and the u n iv e r se , the e p is te m o lo g ic a l q u estion p r e se n ts its e lf: how can one know anything about God, m an , and the u n iv e r s e ? A ccord in g to M rs. E ddy, m an can know rea lity in th ree w a y s - - "through divine r e v e la tio n , rea so n , and 26 d em on stration ." D ivin e r e v e la tio n , or in tu ition , is one way of know ing. When the hum an m ind tu rn s to the d ivine Mind as the so u r c e of know ledge and re lin q u ish e s attem p ts at hum an in te lle c tu a liz in g , r ea lity is r e v e a le d to him ; mein w ill then s e n s e r e a lity , p o s s e s s "Soul- sen se" : ". . . T his S o u l-s e n s e c o m e s to the hum an m ind when the la tte r y ie ld s to the d ivine M ind. . . . Such in tu ition s r e v e a l w h atever 27 co n stitu tes and p erp etu a tes harm ony. . . . " In h er g lo s s a r y to S cie n c e and H ealth , M rs. Eddy r e la te s the w ord " angels" to intuition. When m an tu rn s to the Mind of God, he r e c e iv e s G od's a n g e ls, G od's in tu itio n s. She d efin es an gels as "God's thoughts p a ssin g to man; sp ir itu a l in tu itio n s, pure and p erfect; the jinspiration of g o o d n e ss, p u rity, and im m o r ta lity , cou n teractin g all I 28 le v il, se n su a lity , and m o rta lity ." Intuition r e q u ir e s a " letting go, " an accep tin g of the Mind of God as m a n 's m ind. M rs. Eddy sp eak s of i jthis "letting go" w hich r e su lts in in sp ired know ledge: ! I L et u n s e lfis h n e s s , g o o d n e ss, m e r c y , ju s tic e , h ea lth , h o lin e s s , lo v e --th e kingdom of h e a v e n --r e ig n . . . . L et u s a cce p t s c ie n c e , relin q u ish a ll th e o r ie s b ased on s e n s e -te s tim o n y . . . le t u s have one God, one M ind. . . . L et us fe e l the d ivine en erg y o f S p irit. . . . L et us r e jo ic e that we are su b ject to th e d ivin e "pow ers that b e." 29 But r e a so n can a lso aid m an in know ing h is tru e s e lf , God, and the u n iv e r se . Startin g fro m the proper p r e m is e s - - t h a t God is sp iritu a and g o o d --d e d u c tiv e lo g ic is u se fu l. But rea so n m u st be b ased on th e p rop er p r e m is e s : ". . . R eason in g fro m f a ls e p r e m is e s - - t h a t L ife is m a te r ia l, that im m o rta l Soul is sin fu l, and h en ce that sin is e te r n a l-- 30 the rea lity of b ein g is n eith er se e n , fe lt, h ea rd , nor understood ." M r s. Eddy b e lie v e d C h ristia n S cien ce c o n s iste n t w ith s y llo g is tic log ic: If both the m ajor and m in or p ro p o sitio n s of a s y llo g ism a r e c o r r e c t, the c o n clu sio n , if p ro p erly draw n, cannot be fa ls e . So in C h ristia n S c ie n c e th ere a re no d isc o r d s nor co n tra d ictio n s, b eca u se its lo g ic is as h arm on iou s a s the r ea so n in g of an a c c u ra tely sta ted s y llo g ism . . . . "31 28 M rs. Eddy often u tiliz e d d ed u ctive lo g ic in the fo rm of 32 en th ym em es to exp lain h er te a c h in g s. F o r ex a m p le, "If God is A ll and God is Good, it fo llo w s that a ll m u st be good, and no other p ow er, 33 law or in te llig e n c e can e x ist." And, "because God is M ind, and th is 34 Mind is good, a ll is good and a ll is M ind. M rs. Eddy con stan tly approved of the u s e of rea so n in g . She 35 sa y s "it is fa ir to ask of ev er y o n e a re a so n fo r the faith w ithin." In the p refa ce to S cie n c e and H ealth , sh e sta te s that "the tim e for th in k ers has co m e. T ruth, independent o f d o ctrin es and tim e-h o n o red 36 s y s te m s , knocks at the p ortal of hum anity." M rs. Eddy w as fond of quoting the sc r ip tu r a l adm onition: ". . . C om e now, and let us rea so n 37 to g eth er." And sh e b e lie v e d " reason is the m o st a c tiv e human , „38 facu lty. M rs. Eddy often view ed rea so n and rev e la tio n a s co m p lem e n tary w ays of know ing. Though sh e did not e x p lica te the point in d eta il, her w ritin g s su g g e st one can know r e a lity by r ev e la tio n but that r e v e lation upon exam in ation w ill conform to reason and in te lle c tu a l s c r u tiny. M rs. Eddy sta te s that her d isc o v e r y of C h ristia n S cien ce em p loyed rea so n and r e v e la tio n in su ch a co m p lem en tary m anner: "In follow in g th e se le a d in g s of s c ie n tific r e v e la tio n , th e B ible w as m y only textbook. The S crip tu res w ere illu m in ed , rea so n and r ev e la tio n w ere r e c o n c ile d , and a fterw a rd s, the truth of C h ristia n S cien ce w as 39 d em on strated ." M rs. Eddy fu rth er su g g e sts the com p lem en tary " 2 9 * nature of re a so n and r ev e la tio n in su ch p a ssa g e s a s " erro r . . . m u st 40 y ie ld to rea so n and rev e la tio n . . . . " And "true id e a lism is a divine S c ie n c e , w hich com b in es in lo g ic a l seq u en ce, n a tu re, r e a so n , and 41 r e v e la tio n ." And again, " C h ristian S c ie n c e h as . . . g iv en im p u lse 42 to rea so n and rev e la tio n . . . . " A third and very im p ortan t way of knowing in C h r istia n S cie n c e is through e x p e r ie n c e or d em o n stra tio n . One can know that God is good and life harm on iou s by ex p e r ie n c in g th e s e fa c ts in d aily e x iste n c e . An individual can learn that h ealth is the r e a l sta tu s of m an by e x p e rien cin g h ea lin g . One d em o n str a tes the a lln e s s of God and the n oth in g n e s s of e v il by h ea lin g sin and s ic k n e s s . M rs. Eddy sa y s "the q u e s tion , What is tru th is an sw ered by d em o n stra tio n , - -b y h ea lin g both d is e a s e and sin; and this d em o n stra tio n show s that C h ristia n h ealin g 43 co n fers the m o st health and m ak es the b est m en ." And, "ask y o u r s e lf . . . am I d em on stratin g the h ea lin g pow er of T ruth . . . your 44 fru its w ill prove what the u n derstan d in g of God b rin gs to m an." Or "the hour has stru ck for C h ristia n S c ie n tists to . . . d em o n stra te se lf-k n o w le d g e . . . to d em o n str a te, as th is p eriod d em an d s, o v er 45 sin , d is e a s e , and death." M rs. Eddy often sp ea k s of the im p ortan ce of e x p e r ie n c e a s a vital way of knowing in C h r istia n S c ie n c e , fo r "each s u c c e s s iv e sta g e of ex p erien ce unfolds new v iew s o f divine g o o d n ess and lo v e ." ^ s h e b eliev ed that " p r o g ress is born of e x p e r ie n c e . 30 If God is a ll and God is good, a p rob lem a r is e s : how and why does m an e x p e r ie n c e or know e v il? M rs. Eddy argu ed that e v il can have no ab solu te r e a lity if God is a ll. E v il--in c lu d in g sin , s ic k n e s s , and d e a th --is the n egation of God. E v il is b e lie f a s opposed to u n d er standing. It is a fa lse h o o d , a d rea m , a co u n terfeit, a su p p osition . M rs. Eddy sa y s "the notion that both e v il and good a re rea l is a d elu - 48 sio n of m a te r ia l s e n s e , w hich S c ie n c e a n n ih ila te s. E v il ap p ears when m an v ie w s the w orld w ith h is hum an m ind, jhis m o rta l m ind. When m an r e fu s e s to y ie ld to th e Mind of God, he i jex p erien ces e v il, o r m o re p r o p e r ly , the b e lie f of e v il. But th is e v il j e x is ts only in m o rta l m in d , and m o rta l m ind is a co u n terfeit of the divine M ind. M ortal m ind o p e r a te s on the a ssu m p tio n that m atter e x is t s , and is "a su p p o sitio n a l m a te r ia l s e n s e , a lia s the b e lie f that sen sa tio n is in m a tte r , w hich is s e n sa tio n le s s ; a b e lie f that life , su b sta n ce, and in te llig e n c e a re in and of m atter; th e op p osite of S p ir it, ,49 and th e r e fo r e the o p p o site of God. . . . S ic k n e ss is the r e su lt of thinking fro m the m o rta l m ind p e r sp e c tiv e . It is thinking of life as m a te r ia l rath er than sp ir itu a l and m en tal. M rs. Eddy sa y s " sic k n e ss is a b e lie f, w hich m u st be anni- 50 h ilated by d ivine M ind." When s ic k n e s s ap p ears in m an 's e x p e r ie n c e , he should turn to God, the authentic M ind, and r e fu se to a c c e p t the m o rta l m ind p e r s p e c tiv e . That i s , 31 . . . When th e illu sio n of sic k n e ss o r sin tem p ts you, c lin g ste a d fa stly to God and h is idea. A llo w nothing but His lik e n e ss to abide in y o u r thoughts. Let n e ith e r fear n or doubt o v ersh ad ow your c le a r s e n s e and ca lm t r u s t . T h ree o th er ep iste m o lo g ic a l q u estion s r e m a in to be d is c u s se d . One is th e fu n ction of p r a y e r , and th e other two co n cern th e B ib le and the C h ristia n S c ie n c e textb ook , S cien ce and H e a lth . P r a y e r in C h r is tian S c ie n c e is not a m a tter of asking God to do so m eth in g . G od's u n i v e r s e is e sta b lish e d , and it is c h a n g ele ss and p erfec t: . . . P r a y e r cannot change the S c ie n c e of b e in g , but it ten d s to bring us into h arm ony w ith it. . . . The m e r e habit of plead in g w ith th e d ivine M ind, as one pleads with a hum an b ein g, p e r p etu ates the b e lie f in God as hum anly c ir c u m sc r ib e d , - - a n e rr o r w hich im p ed es sp ir itu a l g r o w th .^ P r a y e r in C h ristia n S cien ce is the ap p lication of P r in c ip le ; it is a way of d em on stratin g that God is a ll and God is good. P r a y e r is the p r o c e s s w hereb y one le a r n s m ore o f r e a lity , m o r e of God. E ffe c tiv e p ra y er r e s u lts in in c r e a se d understanding: ". . . Who would stand b efo re a b lack b oard , and pray th e p rin cip le o f m a th em a tics to I so lv e the p ro b lem ? The ru le is alrea d y e sta b lish e d , and it is our ta sk 53 to w ork out the solu tio n ." M r s. Eddy view ed the B ible a s the so u r c e o f C h ristia n S c ie n c e , fo r the p u rp ose of h er r e lig io n was "to rein sta te p rim itiv e C h r is - 54 tia n ity . . . . " S cien ce and H ealth is the textb ook that in te r p r e ts the " p rim itive C h ristian ity" p resen ted in the B ib le. T h e r e fo r e , M rs. Eddy b e lie v e d the B ib le and S cien ce and H ealth w e r e so u r c e s of truth. 32 The student of C h ristian S c ie n c e c o u l d u tiliz e th e se two books to u n d er- 55 stand r e a lity . Both p o s s e s s value a s aven u es to tru th . A x io lo g ic a l co n sid era tio n s a r e an im p ortan t part of C h ristian S c ie n c e . On the human le v e l, M rs. Eddy valued tra d itio n a l V ictorian m o r a lity . She included th e follow in g ch a ra cter tr a its as th e b a sis of jm orality: "Hum anity, h o n e sty , a ffectio n , c o m p a ssio n , h o p e, faith, 56 m e e k n e s s , tem p era n ce." She op p osed the drinking of te a , coffee, or a lc o h o lic b e v e r a g e s. M r s. Eddy did not approve of gam b lin g, and argu ed that "the nuptial vow should n ev er be an n ulled , so lon g as its m o r a l o b lig a tio n s are kept in ta ct. . . . M rs. Eddy placed m o ra l ch a ra cter above in te lle c tu a l ab ility. In the p refa ce to h er textb ook , sh e sa y s "no in te lle c tu a l p ro ficien cy is 58 r e q u isite in the le a r n e r , but sound m o r a ls a re m o st d e sir a b le ." M oral ch a ra cte r is an e s s e n tia l c r ite r io n in the s e le c tio n of C h ristia n 5 9 S c ie n c e te a c h e r s and R e a d e r s. And m o ra l ch a r a c te r is fundam ental to th e ed u cation al p r o c e s s --w h e th e r it be teach in g C h ristia n S cien ce o r tea ch in g any su bject: S c h o o l-ex a m in a tio n s are one sided; it is not so m uch a c a d em ic ed u cation , as m o r a l and sp iritu a l cu ltu re, which lif t s one h ig h e r . The pure and u p liftin g thoughts of the te a c h e r , c o n sta n tly im p artin g to p u p ils, w ill rea ch h igh er than the h ea v en s of astron om y; w hile the d eb ased and u n scru p u lou s m ind, though adorned w ith gem s of sc h o la r ly attain m en t, w ill degrade the ch a r a c te r s it should in fo rm and e l e v a t e . M oral v a lu es are e s s e n tia l in the h ea lin g of d is e a s e and d isc o r d . M rs. Eddy in s is t s that C h ristia n S c ie n c e p r a c titio n e r s be o f the high esl 33 m o ra l c h a r a c t e r * And if the in d ividu al C h ristian S c ie n tist is to 62 e x p e r ie n c e h e a lin g , he m u st b eco m e m o ra l and upright. M rs. E d d y's d octrin e p o sited a God who w as M ind, P r in c ip le , Soul, S p irit, L ife , T ruth, and L o v e. Man w as the e x p r e s s io n of th is God. H e was a s sp ir itu a l and good as the God who w as h is s o u r c e . A ll e v il, m a tter, o r inharm ony w e r e n egation s of God, su p p o sitio n s about the true n atu re of e x is te n c e . T hey w ere m o rta l m ind b e lie fs and stood in op p o sitio n to sp ir itu a l u n d erstan d in g. When m an renounced th e se m a te r ia l, e v il b e lie fs , he w ould s e e h im s e lf as the son of God: p e r fe c t, good, and free fr o m the lim ita tio n s of s in , s ic k n e s s , and 63 m o r ta lity . O rig in s of C h ristia n S cie n c e C ertain b io g ra p h ica l data a r e n e c e s s a r y to d em o n stra te that M rs. Eddy o rig in a ted C h ristia n S c ie n c e , that sh e w as an independent th in k er, and that sh e w as not gu ilty of the ch a rg es of p la g ia r ism le v e le d at her. B orn in B o w , N ew H am p sh ire in 1821, M ary B ak er Eddy w as 64 the six th child of M ark B a k er, a w e ll-r e s p e c te d fa r m e r . Though a dom inating fig u r e , M ark B aker found M ary u n w illing to su b m it to h is w ill and w him . In divid u ality w as a sa lie n t c h a r a c te r is tic of M rs. E dd y's p e r so n a lity . C onstant en co u n ters o ccu rr ed b etw een M ary and h er fa th e r , w hich "frequenty se t th e h ouse in an u p r o a r . A n o t h e r 34 exam p le of M rs. E ddy's e a r ly in d ivid u ality w as h er r e fu sa l to a ccep t the C a lv in istic d octrin e of p red estin a tio n a s a p r e r e q u isite to join in g h er lo c a l ch u rch . At the age of tw e lv e , M ary B aker Eddy appeared b efo re the p a sto r and m em b ersh ip of the C on gregation al ch u rch "to a n sw er the m in is te r 's q u estio n s on the su b ject of h er f a i t h . S h e announced to th o se p resen t sh e could not in c o n sc ie n c e a ccep t m e m b e rsh ip in the church if that m ean t a ccep tin g the d octrin e of p r e d e s ti- 67 n ation . She did not b e lie v e God would le a v e h is c r e a tio n w ithout 68 69 free d o m of a ctio n . The church denied h er m em b ersh ip . D esp ite h er refu sa l to a cce p t the to ta l d octrin e of h er fa m ily 's ch u rch , M ary B aker Eddy was d eep ly r e lig io u s . She spent m any hours liste n in g to th e o lo g ic a l d is c u s sio n s betw een h er fath er and h is c le r ic a l 70 fr ie n d s. In adult life , M rs. Eddy w rote: F ro m m y v ery childhood I w as im p elled , by hunger and th ir st a fter divin e th in g s, - -a d e s ir e fo r so m eth in g h ig h er and b etter than m a tte r , and apart fro m it, - -to se e k d ilig e n tly fo r the know ledge of God as the one g rea t and e v e r -p r e s e n t r e lie f fro m hum an w o e .^ M r s. Eddy w as fa m ilia r w ith the B ib le by th e age of tw e lv e , and "w rote p r a y e r s a fter the sty le of the P s a lm s , and prayed se v e n 72 tim e s a day." A s a young ch ild , M rs. Eddy on a num ber o f o c c a - stio n s heard a v o ic e d istin c tly ca llin g h er by n am e. She told h er m o th er of th e se ev en ts w hich trou b led both the m oth er and the child. F in a lly , h er m o th er, a kind w om an with w hom M ary w as v ery c lo s e , read the B ib le sto r y to h er w here a s im ila r vo ice c a lle d S am u el. 35 M ary's m oth er told h er to do what S am u el had done if the v o ic e r e cu rred . S a m u el's re sp o n se w as "Speak, L ord, fo r thy serv a n t 73 74 h ea reth ." M ary's m ind w as ea sed and the v o ic e grad u ally stopped. S in ce M rs. Eddy w as a fr a il ch ild and often ill, sh e attended sch o o l fo r only sh o rt p erio d s of tim e , and m uch of h er ed u cation w as 75 obtained at h om e. She r e c e iv e d in stru ctio n fro m h er o ld er b roth er A lb ert, who la ter graduated fro m D artm outh, during h is su m m er v i s its hom e. M ary w as nine at th is tim e , but resp on d ed a c tiv e ly to the in te lle c tu a l stim u lu s of her b roth er. D uring th is p eriod sh e d ilig en tly studied L indley M u rray's Introduction to the E n g lish R ead er and h is 76 E n g lish R ead er. T h ese two books contained s e le c tio n s from forty su ch d iv e r se w rite r s as A ddison, P o p e, H um e, M ilton , Sam u el Johnson, W ordsw orth, B en jam in F ra n k lin , S o c r a te s , H o ra ce, C icer o , M arcus A u r e liu s, and P la to . Lym an P o w e ll, who had a c c e s s to the s p e c ific books u sed by M rs. Eddy, in d ica tes that "her m a rg in a l m ark in gs in .th e books r ev e a l 77 th r e e of h er childhood ta s te s in read in g." F ir s t, sh e w as in te r e ste d 78 in " so c ia l n ic e tie s" and the "canons of good b reed in g." And M rs. Eddy was con cern ed that h er sp eech r e fle c t "good b reed in g." At an e a r ly age sh e w as con cern ed w ith the p r in c ip le s of good co m m u n ica tio n . As a young g ir l, sh e w rote: To begin a sto r y or n a rra tio n , w hen you a r e not p e r fe c t in it, and cannot go through w ith it, but a re fo r c e d , p o ssib ly , to 36 say in the m id d le of it, "I have fo rg o tten the r e s t, " is v ery u npleasant and bungling. One m u st be e x tr e m e ly e x a c t, c le a r , and p e r s p ic a c io u s , in ev ery th in g one sa y s; o th e r w ise , in stea d of en terta in in g o r in form in g o th e r s, one only tir e s and p u zzle s them . The v o ic e and m anner of sp ea k in g , to o , a re not to be n eg le cted . Som e people a lm o st shut th e ir m ouths when th ey sp eak , and m u tter so , that they are not to be understood; o th ers speak so fa s t, and sp u tter , that they a r e equally u n in te llig ib le . Som e alw ays sp ea k as loud as if they w ere talking to deaf people; and o th ers so low that one cannot h ear th em . A ll th e s e , and m any other h a b its, are awkw ard and d isa g r e e a b le , and a re to be avoided. ^ A nother of h er in te r e sts w as " p atriotic m a tte r s ," e s p e c ia lly 80 the p rob lem of s la v e r y . M rs. Eddy opposed s la v e r y throughout h er life and w rote a num ber of a r tic le s a rticu la tin g th is o p p o sitio n . The id ea of free d o m played an im p ortan t part in the thought and w ritin g s of M rs. Eddy. Not only did sh e advocate free d o m in the a r e a of p o litic s and e c o n o m ic s, sh e a lso advanced a th eology that sought to fr e e m an fro m the bondages of tim e , s p a c e , and h is m a te r ia l en viron m en t. P o litic a l q u estio n s w ere often d isc u s se d in the B aker h ou seh old and the papers of the d a y --p a r tic u la r ly the N ew H am p sh ire P a tr io t and State G azette w ere su b scrib ed to , read, and d isc u sse d . At an e a r ly a g e, M ary B ak er Eddy read th e se n ew sp a p ers. A third m a jo r childhood in te r e st w as m o ra l and sp ir itu a l m a t t e r s , and in la te r life th is in te r e st would p red om in ate. When an ad u lt, M rs. Eddy spoke of h er e a r ly in te r e sts: At ten y e a r s of age I w as as fa m ilia r with L in d ley M u rray's G ram m ar a s w ith the W estm in ister C a tech ism ; and the la tte r I had to rep eat e v e r y Sunday. My fa v o r ite stu d ies w ere n atu ral 37 p h ilosop h y, lo g ic , and m o ra l s c ie n c e . F ro m m y b roth er A lb ert I r e c e iv e d le s s o n s in the an cien t to n g u es, H ebrew , G reek , and Latin. The follow in g books M rs. Eddy rep o rts having studied: ". . . A m ong m y ea r ly stu d ies w ere C o m sto ck 's N atural P h ilo so p h y [ i . e . , n atu ral s c ie n c e ], C h e m istry , B la ir 's R h e to r ic , W hately's L o g ic , 84 W att's On the M ind and M oral S c ie n c e ." P e e l b e lie v e s M rs. Eddy's stu d ie s had a stro n g r a tio n a listic in flu en ce on h er, fo r h er b roth er A lb ert staun ch ly defended rea so n a g a in st rev ela tio n ; W hately u tilized rea so n to con firm C h ristian rev ela tio n ; and Isa a c Watt adm onished his r ea d er s to "deeply p o s s e s s your m ind w ith the vast im p o rta n ce of a good ju d gem en t, and a rich and in e stim a b le advantage of right r e a s - 85 oning." The e a r lie r d isc u ssio n of the d o ctrin e of C h ristia n S cien ce 86 d em o n stra ted that M rs. Eddy valued rea so n and lo g ic . P e e l s th e s is s e e m s c o r r e c t. It is a lso p o s sib le that Hugh B la ir 's con cern for ta s te in flu en ced M rs. Eddy, for sh e b elie v e d " so c ia l n ic e tie s " and 87 "good breeding" im portant to good com m u n ication . M rs. E ddy's ea rly ed u cation , th en , w as la r g e ly se lf-g a in e d . Though no child p rod igy, sh e d em on strated a stron g d e s ir e to lea rn , an independent m ind, and the in te llig e n c e to p rofit fr o m the books a v a ila b le to h er. A s w ill be d em on strated in th is ch a p ter, M rs. Eddy was the s o le founder of C h ristian S c ie n c e . The d eta ils of M rs. E ddy's life a re not alw ays p lea sa n t and she had m any o b s ta c le s to o v e r c o m e , but alw ays sh e sou ght to know , to 38 88 to understand h er life and w orld . She w as m a rried th r e e tim es and 89 d iv o rced tw ice --o n c e w ith a s m a ll ch ild to ca re fo r . One m a rria g e 90 ended in d iv o rce b eca u se of the sex u a l p ro m iscu ity of h er husband. In continual ill h ea lth , w ithout fin a n cia l r e s o u r c e s , and due to the dem ands of the ch ild 's ste p fa th e r , M rs. Eddy had to g ive up h er only 91 ch ild . She sp en t m o st of h er life liv in g in room ing h o u se s or with 92 kindly acq u ain tan ces. She w as r e je c te d by h er r e la tiv e s , and her 93 son was a party to a cou rt actio n to d e c la r e h er le g a lly in sa n e. She w as m aligned by c r itic s of h er r e lig io n as w ell as by d issid e n t fo l- 94 lo w e r s . T h ere w ere no lo n g -te r m hum an r e la tio n sh ip s in her life to su sta in h er, and in m any w ays sh e stood alon e. H er q u est for h ea lth and reg e n e ra tio n led M rs. Eddy through m any cults and b e lie f s y s te m s . T roubled by sp in a l, sto m a ch , and n erv o u s p r o b le m s, sh e exp lain ed that sh e . . . w andered through the dim m a z e s of m a te r ia l m e d ic a , till I was w eary of " sc ie n tific g u e ssin g ," a s it has b een w e ll ca lled . I sought know ledge fro m the d ifferen t s c h o o ls , --a llo p a th y , h o m eo pathy, hydropathy, e le c tr ic ity , and fro m variou s h u m b u gs, but w ithout r e c e iv in g sa tisfa c tio n .* ^ Of the various m e d ic a l c u lts , hom eopathy proved the m o st in stru ctiv e fo r M rs. Eddy. The b a sic m e d ic a l th eory o f hom eopathy is that lik e cu res lik e. H om eopathy tr e a ts d is e a s e by a d m in isterin g sm a ll d o se s of drugs that p roduce the sym p tom s o f the d is e a s e in a healthy p e r so n . The d osage of the drug is con tin u ally d e c r e a se d u n til the drug a ll but d isa p p ea rs 39" from the p a tien t's s y ste m . The h ealth r esu ltin g fr o m the red u ction of the drug su g g este d to M rs. Eddy that fa c to r s other than p h y sic a l ones w ere r e sp o n sib le fo r the r e c o v e r y of the patient. A fter studying J a h r's N ew M anual of H om eopathic P r a c t ic e , sh e w r ite s: I found, in the two hundred and six ty -tw o r e m e d ie s e n u m e r ated by Jahr, one pervad in g s e c r e t; n a m ely , that the le s s m a te r ia l m ed icin e we h a v e, and the m o re M ind, the b etter the w ork is done; a fact w hich s e e m s to prove the P r in c ip le of M in d -h ealin g. One drop o f the th irtieth attenuation of N atrum m u ria ticu m , in a tu m b le r -fu ll of w a ter, and one teasp oon fu l of th e w ater m ix ed with th e faith o f a g e s , w ould cu re p atien ts not a ffected by a la rg er d ose. The drug d isa p p ea rs in the h igh er attenuations of h o m eo p athy, and m a tter is th ereb y r a r e fie d to its fin a l e s s e n c e , m o rta l mind; but im m o rta l M ind, the cu ra tiv e P r in c ip le , r e m a in s, and is found to be ev en m o re a c tiv e .96 i ! In the C h ristia n S cie n c e Jou rn al of M arch, 1888, M r s. Eddy said: ". . . H om eopathy is the la s t link in m a te r ia l m ed icin e. The next step is m ed icin e in M ind. One of the fo r e m o s t virtu es o f hom e* 97 opathy is the e x c lu sio n s o f com pounds from its p h a rm a cy .” In her se a r c h fo r h ealth , M r s. Eddy co n su lted P h in ea s P a rk - 98 h u rst Q uim by in the 1 8 6 0 's. Quim by was a m en tal h ea le r fro m P o rtla n d , M aine, and b elie v e d that "the cu re is not in the m e d ic in e , 99 but in the con fid en ce of the d octor or m e d iu m .” He was b a s ic a lly a m a te r ia lis t d escrib in g "m ind” as the nam e fo r "the flu id s of the b o d y ." * ^ He b elie v e d " d ise a se is th e nam e of the d istu rb a n ce of th e se flu id s o r m ind."*^* Q uim by held that "m atter is th e m edium o f God. Mind is sp ir itu a l m a tter." 40 B eca u se M rs. Eddy stu d ied w ith Q u im b y and b eca u se Quimby taught a type of m en tal h ea lin g , H oratio D r e s s e r argued that Quimby 103 w as the so u rce of M rs. E ddy's id e a s . P e e l refu ted th is cla im by in d icatin g how M rs. E ddy's id ea s d iffer fro m Q uim by's id e a s . Though Q uim by's view s w ere in stru m en ta l in show ing M r s. Eddy the m en tal b a sis of d is e a s e , she developed a sy ste m that w as h er own. The d if fe r e n c e s b etw een Quimby and M rs. Eddy are e s s e n tia lly th ese: 1. Q uim by's id ea s w ere not r e lig io u sly b a sed . M rs. Eddy grounded h er sy ste m fir m ly on a C h r istia n re lig io u s 104 b a se . 2. Q uim by u tilized p h y sic a l m anipulation o f h is p a tien ts, often rubbing th eir heads o r rubbing w ater on h is p a tien ts. M rs. Eddy co u n seled a g a in st p h y sic a l m an ip u lation , u se of w ater 105 or oth er p h y sic a l a g en ts. 3. Quim by em p loyed the u se of su g g estio n in h ea lin g . M rs. Eddy b eliev ed h ea lin g w as a cco m p lish e d by h elp in g the patien t understand and u tiliz e the law s o f God. She opposed 10b m en ta l su g g estio n and h yp n otism in h ea lin g . 4 . W hereas M rs. Eddy did not a ccep t the id ea of a clairv o y a n t fa cu lty , Quim by did. P e e l in d ica te s that In v a rio u s p la ce s he [Q uim by] d e s c r ib e s the c la ir v o y ant facu lty as the a b ility to p e r c e iv e d ire ctly the au ra, o d o r, or sp ir itu a l-id e n tity of an in d ividu al. It a lso included the a b ility to con d en se o n e 's sp ir itu a l id en tity so that it would be v is ib le to o th e r s. Qumby would 41 w r ite his a b sen t p atien ts to think of h im at a cer ta in hour when h e would give them a trea tm en t and would p erh ap s m en ta lly rub th eir h e a d s --a n d at the appointed hour they w ould so m e tim e s s e e him appear b efo re th em like a v isib le bodily p r e s e n c e . 107 5. Quim by d ir e c te d the patient to co n cen tra te on h im . M rs. Eddy ask ed the patient to think about God and the law s of 108 h ea lth . 6. Though Q uim by h ealed p a tien ts, he fa iled to exp lain the p r in c ip le s by w hich they w ere h ea le d . M rs. Eddy devoted 109 her life to teach in g the p rin cip les of C h ristia n h ea lin g . 7. Q uim by's p h ilosophy w as u ltim a tely b ased on m a tter. M rs Eddy grounded her r e lig io n on p h ilo so p h ica l id e a lism . Ideas w ere fundam ental to M rs. Eddy; they w ere not " sp ir - 110 itual m a tter," or "fluids of the body." 8. Q uim by b e lie v e d God w as in m an. M rs. Eddy taught that God could not p o ssib ly be in m an , for m an is the r e fle c tio n or e x p r e s s io n of God. If God w ere in h is cre a tio n , he would be dependent on what he cre a ted . The b e lie f that God is in m an w as p a n th eism , acco rd in g to M rs. Eddy, anc 111 p an th eism w as no part of C h ristian S c ie n c e . 9. Quim by m ain tain ed he took on th e su ffe rin g s of h is p atien ts u tiliz in g what h e ca lled h is th eory of tr a n sfe r e n c e . M rs. Eddy did not a c c e p t any theory o f tr a n sfe r e n c e or taking on « • * *12 the su ffe r in g s of p a tien ts. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ?T" 10. Q uim by's id ea s w ere u n sy ste m a tic . He s e t forth no co n s iste n t s e t of p r in c ip le s so that o th ers could u tiliz e h is id e a s. M r s. Eddy sy ste m a tiz e d h er th eology so it could J ^ 113 be u sed by o th e r s. 11. Q uim by did not co n sid e r the m o ra lity or in teg rity of the h e a le r to be a fa cto r in the h ea lin g . M rs. Eddy m aintained that the m en ta l p ra ctitio n er m u st be m o ra l and upright for the h ealin g to be authentic and p erm an en t. J. S tillso n Judah's approach to the Q uim by-E ddy co n tro v er sy w as to su g g e st that Q uim by's id ea s "contain m uch that w as quite like the tea ch in g s of M rs. E ddy, " but that "it h as been the genius of C h r is tian S c ie n c e to" d evelop a " m eta p h y sica l C h ristia n ity w hich is 115 unique." He b elie v e d that the c o n tro v er sy " con cern in g the u nique n e s s of M r s. E ddy's rev ela tio n " w as "unfortunate" b eca u se: If one ex a m in es the in sp ired sa y in g s or re v e la tio n s of a ll g r e a t h is to r ic a l r e lig io n s , he w ill s e e that e v e r y h is to r ic a l re lig io n h as b een b u ilt upon the r e lig io -c u ltu r a l b lo ck s of the p ast. One cannot study p r im itiv e B uddhism without se e in g the in flu en ce of Hindu p h ilosop h y. One m ay a lso w itn ess part of the Ju d eo- C h ristia n trad ition reco rd ed in the K oran of Isla m . E ven C h r is tian ity r e s ts upon the e a r lie r foundations of the Old T esta m en t. P a r ts of the Old T esta m en t b ear the m a rk es of C anaanite, B a b y lon ia n , o r P e r sia n in flu en ce , e tc . E ach r e lig io n is unique a s a w h o le, and y et its stren g th d e r iv e s so m eth in g fro m the p ast. T h e r e fo r e , the a lle g a tio n s of so m e d ependence upon Quimby need not d is c r e d it the re v e la tio n of M ary B aker Eddy fo r th o se who h o n estly b e lie v e in C h ristia n S c ie n c e . I *6 Judah a lso o b se r v e d the s im ila r ity of so m e of M rs. E ddy's id e a s and th o se of E m anual Sw edenborg, the eig h teen th century S w edish 43 s c ie n tist and th eologian . H e argued that M rs. Eddy sh ared Q uim by's and Sw edenborg's b e lie f "that B ib lic a l w ords had a sp iritu a l in te r p r e - 117 tation d ifferin g fro m th eir lite r a l m ea n in g s." Both M rs. Eddy and Sw edenborg com p osed d ic tio n a r ie s o r g lo s s a r ie s defining the sp ir itu a l m eanings of B ib lic a l te r m s , and Judah pointed out that "som e of M rs. E ddy's d efin itio n s a re very c lo s e to th o se of S w edenb org, although the m ajority d iffer," and he su g g e ste d "the follow in g tabulations . . . s u it- , , ,,118 a b le to com p are so m e of th e d efin itio n s : E m an u el Sw edenborg M ary B ak er Eddy "By the A rk going F o rw a rd , ". . . The ark in d icates te m p - w ere r e p r e se n te d com b ats and tation o v erc o m e and follow ed tem p ta tio n s." by exaltation ." "Dan. A ll kinds of e r r o r . " "Dan (Jacob 's so n ). . . . E r r o r , w orking out the d esig n s of e r r o r . " "Fan. . . sig n ifie d sep a ra tio n "Fan. S ep arator of fable fr o m of the fa ls e fro m good." fa c t. " "Urim . . . sig n ifie s the light "U rim . L ight. " w hich is fr o m the divine truth p roceed in g fro m the L ord . " Both Sw edenborg and M rs. Eddy sought to pu rity and r e e s t a b lis h C h ristia n ity , both sought to h arm on ize s c ie n c e w ith C h ristia n ity , and both ap p recia ted the C a lv in istic con cern fo r m an 's w ill to s in . Sw edenborg d iffered from M r s . Eddy in b eliev in g that the natural w orld had behind it a sp ir itu a l fo r c e producing and s u s taining it. The natural w o rld w as the im a g e of the sp iritu a l o n e , and both r e c e iv e d an in flu x fro m the d iv in e. S im ila r ly , both natural and sp ir itu a l m an w ere r e c ip ie n ts o f the d iv in e influx. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53- M rs. E ddy, though, m ade a c le a r d istin ctio n b etw een n a tu ra l, m a teria l man and the sp ir itu a l m an. The natu ral man w as c o m p lete ly devoid of sp ir itu a lity , a cco rd in g to M rs. Eddy. Sw edenborg a lso did not r e - 120 nounce the rea lity of m a tter a s did M r s. Eddy. C h ristia n S c ie n c e has often been com pared with the New 121 Thought m o v em en t. One rea so n fo r th is is th at M rs. Eddy a lleg ed ly p la g ia r ized from Q uim by, who is co n sid ered a so u r c e of N ew Thought T h eology. A seco n d re a so n fo r the com p a riso n is that M r s. E ddy's m in d -m a tte r , n ou m en al-p h en om en al d istin ctio n is not fu lly u n d erstood and se e n to be a m ajor p rin cip le of h er th eology. This se c tio n c o m p ares and co n tra sts C h ristia n S cie n c e and New Thought to d eterm in e th eir p rop er rela tio n sh ip . B rad en defin ed New Thought as a term " lo o sely u sed to co v e r a wide ran ge of p h ilo so p h ica l, th e o lo g ic a l, p sy ch o lo g ica l, and p r a c tic a l ap p roach es to God, to the w o rld , to life and its p r o b le m s, that had its 122 d evelopm en t w ithin the la s t hundred y e a r s , ch iefly in A m e r ic a ." The N ew Thought m o v em en t, unlike C h ristian S c ie n c e , n e v e r developed a c le a r id en tity and "it could be said that it was lik e the fa m o u s g en era l 123 who m ounted h is h o r se and rode off in a ll d ir e c tio n s." N ew Thought n ever d ev elo p ed a c le a r id en tity or p osed a d ire ct threat to the e s ta b lish ed c h u r c h e s, a s did C h r istia n S c ie n c e . B rad en term ed New 124 Thought a s "m ore a point of v iew than a m ovem en t." ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------? r ~ New Thought p o sited an o p tim istic v iew of m an and h is p oten tial and w as a fo r m of p o sitiv e thinking. One of the e a r lie s t N ew Thought g ro u p s, the M eta p h y sica l Club of B o sto n , founded in 1895, defined the fo llo w in g p u rp o ses of th eir club: . . . To p rom ote in te r e s t in and the p r a c tic e of a tru e philosophy of life and h ap p in ess; to show th at through right thinking, on e's lo ftie st id e a s m ay be brought into p resen t rea liza tio n ; and to advance in te llig e n t and s y ste m a tic trea tm en t of d is e a s e by s p ir itu a l and m en ta l m e t h o d s . 5 The p o sitiv e thinking attitude of New Thought is w e ll-illu s tr a te d |by one of its le a d e r s , W arren F e lt E van s. In h is book, P r im itiv e I | | M in d -C u re, E van s stated that " d ise a se has its sp iritu a l counterpart in I so m e m ental u n h ap p in ess, som e inharm ony of the inner nature . . . i w hich u ltim a tes [s ic ] it s e lf in the body," and he in d icated a rem edy fo r 126 "this a n teced en t m ental d istu rb a n ce." A cco rd in g to E v a n s, the rem ed y for a ll d is e a s e and lack of s u c c e s s w as found in m an h im self: ". . . L et it be o b serv ed that a ll d e sir a b le m en ta l con d ition s are 127 a lr ea d y in the s p ir it of e v e r y m an a s a p o ssib ility ." New Thought sought to a c tu a liz e the p oten tial h ea lth fu ln ess in e v e r y o n e by evok in g the p o sitiv e attitu d es th at produced h ea lth , for " all the happy fe e lin g s and em otion s that go to m ake up a sta te of tr a n q u il b le s s e d n e s s , or sp ir itu a l h e a lth fu ln e ss, a r e a lread y in u s, and can be arou sed fro m th eir dorm ancy or q u ie s c e n c e , and be m ade to 128 e x is t in a c tu , o r in actual c o n s c io u sn e ss." New Thought sought to r e p la c e d is e a s e d thoughts w ith harm on iou s thoughts. It taught that w m an's m ental attitu d e a ls o in flu en ced h is fin a n cia l s u c c e s s and could bring about " those con d ition s that w e d esire" : If w e are one w ith th is Infinite P o w e r , th is so u r c e o f a ll th in g s, th en in the d e g r e e that w e live in the r ea liza tio n of th is o n e n e s s, in that d e g ree do we a ctu a lize in o u r se lv e s a pow er that w ill bring to u s an abundance of a ll things that it is d e sir a b le for us to h ave. In th is way w e com e into p o s s e s s io n of a pow er w hereby w e can a c tu a liz e at a ll tim e s th o se con d ition s that we d e s ir e . ' A lthough th ere a r e m any str a in s of N ew Thought, a com m on d en o m i nator is the " p o sitiv e thinking" p e r sp e c tiv e that su g g e sts that p rop er ithinking w ill r e s u lt in h ea lth and h a p p in ess. P ro m in en t fig u r e s of the New Thought m o v em en t in clud ed P h in ea s P . Q uim by, Ju liu s and H orace D r e s s e r , W arren F e lt E v a n s, Ralph Waldo T rin e , E lla W heeler W ilcox, C harles and M yrtle F illm o r e , Ju lia Seton and E rn est H o lm es. T he D ivine S c ie n c e C hurch, The C hurch of R elig io u s S c ie n c e , and T he Unity S ch ool of C h ristia n ity a re m ajor N ew Thought 131 g ro u p s. Though N ew Thought and C h ristia n S cie n c e appear to be s im i la r , th e r e is a fu n dam en tal d iffere n c e betw een the tw o. The m ajor d iffere n c e is th at C h r istia n S cie n c e th eo lo g y , counter to popular co n cep tio n s, does not p osit a " p ositive thinking" point of v iew . W hereas New Thought a r g u e s that one can im p ro v e hum an con d ition s by prop er thinking, C h ristia n S c ie n c e te a c h e s that one cannot change the hum an con d ition , for it is co rru p t. To e x p e r ie n c e h ea lin g , one h as to to ta lly abandon b elief in the m o rta l mind p e r sp e c tiv e , fo r m o rta l m ind is a 47 co n tra d ictio n of th e noum enal truth. One cannot change nou m en al truth, a cco rd in g to C h ristian S c ie n c e . N ew Thought, on the o th er hand is con cern ed w ith im p rovin g the hum an co n d itio n --m a k in g b e tte r m o r ta ls , and a c tu a liz in g hum an d e s ir e s . N ew Thought is p rim a rily con cern ed w ith p sy ch o lo g y , th e fu n c tioning of the m ind and the rela tio n sh ip of m ind to body. C h r istia n S c ie n c e i s p r im a r ily con cern ed with on tology. A h ea lin g in C h r istia n S cie n c e is a d em o n stra tio n of the sc ie n c e of being. It is a p ro o f of the a u th en ticity of the p erfec tio n of the n ou m en al, id e a l, m an. A lthough M rs. Eddy does con cern h e r s e lf w ith the op eration of m o rta l m in d , and in th is s e n s e is co n cern ed w ith p sy ch o lo g y , h er p rim ary c o n cer n is on tology. The p r a c tic e of C h ristian S cien ce is a se a r c h for o n to lo g ic a l 132 truth, not applied p sych o lo g y . A secon d d iffe r e n c e b etw een New Thought and C h r istia n S cie n c e is that C h r istia n S c ie n c e is a d eveloped th eo lo g y , w h ile New Thought is a m a n y -sid e d point of v iew . M rs. Eddy p resen ted an o rg a n iz ed s y s - i tern of b e lie f and s tr e s s e d th e im p ortan ce of a rig o ro u s a p p lication of the p r in c ip le s sh e s e t forth . New Thought n ev er d evelop ed in to a s y s tem a tic r e lig io u s d octrin e. M r s. E ddy, then, did not s t r e s s a p o sitiv e thinking ap p roach to life . She taught th at m o rta l e x iste n c e was corrup ted by g r e e d , e v il, v io le n c e , h a te, and m a lic e . In th is s e n s e , M rs. E d d y's d o ctrin e is c lo s e r to orth od ox C h ristia n ity and tw en tieth century n eo -o rth o d o x y 48 than it is to N ew Thought. New Thought is c lo s e r to U n ita ria n ism and tr a n sc e n d e n ta lism than it is to C h ristian S c ie n c e . In 1936, W alter M. H au sh alter argu ed (in M rs. Eddy P u rlo in s from H egel) that the so u rce of C h ristia n S cie n c e w as a tw e lv e -p a g e 133 e s s a y title d "The M etap h ysical R elig io n of H eg el." T h is e s s a y , H a u sh alter m ain tain ed , w as w ritten by F r a n c is L ie b e r , a re sp e c te d G e rm a n -A m erica n p o litic a l s c ie n tis t. H au sh alter contended that a M r. C rafts in 1866 allow ed M rs. Eddy to copy the e s s a y , and that sh e u sed 134 the e s s a y as the b a sis fo r S cie n c e and H ealth. The church h isto r ia n Conrad H enry M oehlm an d em o n stra ted the e r r o r of H a u sh a lter's c la im . M oehlm an had u sed H a u sh a lter's a lle g a tion as a su b ject fo r h is graduate stu d en ts to study. F o r a num ber of y e a r s , h e ask ed h is stud en ts to d e te r m in e --a s a lin g u is tic -h is to r ic a l p r o b le m --w h e th e r the e s s a y , "The M eta p h y sica l R elig io n of H e g el, " w as a so u r c e docum ent u sed by M rs. Eddy in w ritin g S c ie n c e and 135 H ealth. E ach y ea r he gave the a ssig n m e n t, h is students cam e to the c o n clu sio n that the e s s a y w as a fo r g e r y p la g ia r ized fro m S cie n c e and 136 H ealth. M oeh lm an 's book docum ents the fin d in gs of h is stu d en ts. M oehlm an d em on strated that H a u sh a lter's data w ere fau lty and h is co n clu sio n s in c o r r e c t, fo r (1) L eib er did not w rite the e s s a y , (2) the e s s a y w as w ritten a fter the p u blication of S c ie n c e and H ealth , and (3) none of the H eg elia n sc h o la r s M oehlm an co n su lted a g ree d the e s s a y w as a d is c u ssio n o f H e g e lia n ism p er s e .^ ^ 49 Upon exam in in g the e s s a y , M oehlm an reported: . . . The con ten ts proved to be a con flation fro m a lle g e d H egelian q u otation s, a dozen additional G erm an and other w r ite r s , plus heavy b orrow in g fro m S c ie n c e and H ealth w ith Key to the S c r ip tu res by M ary B aker Eddy m o stly fro m p ost 1875 e d itio n s . M oehlm an concluded h is ex h a u stiv e study w ith the statem en t: . . T h is in v e stig a tio n , begun a lm o st tw enty y e a r s ago, has d eliv ered F r a n c is L ieb er fro m the burden of taking r e sp o n sib ility for the c o m m en ts on H egel and M rs. Eddy fro m the charge of having u sed th e m ." 139 The even t that acted as the e s s e n tia l ca ta ly st to M rs. E ddy's r e lig io u s v iew s w as a h ea lin g sh e ex p e r ie n c e d . In 1866 M rs. Eddy f e ll on the ic e , lo s t c o n s c io u s n e s s, and w as taken hom e and a p h y si cian ca lled . A few days a fter the in cid en t, the Lynn R ep o rter stated: ". . . D r. C using found h er in ju rie s to be in tern a l and of a s e v e r e 140 n a tu re, in clud ing sp a sm s and in tern a l su fferin g ." The m orning a fter the a ccid en t, M rs. Eddy ask ed to be left alone and req u ested h er B ib le. Opening the B ib le at random , h er e y e s f e ll on the ninth chapter of M atthew w here J e s u s ' h ealin g of a p aralyzed m an is recoun ted . J e su s healed the m an by te llin g him h is sin s w ere fo r g iv e n and dem and ing he get up and w alk. Im m ed ia tely a fter reading the B ib lic a l p a s s a g e , her pain v a n ish ed , sh e r o se fro m h er bed and d r e s s e d h e r s e lf. Speaking of the h ea lin g , sh e said: . . . It w as to be a r e v e la tio n of T ruth, the lo st chord of T ruth, h ealin g as of old . I caught th is c o n sc io u sly fro m the D ivine_________ 50 H arm ony. The m ir a c le s reco rd ed in the B ib le w hich had b efore se e m e d to m e su p ern a tu ra l, grew divin ely n a tu ra l. . . . *41 Through th is e x p e r ie n c e , M rs. Eddy g lim p se d an idea: m an need not be sick ; h ealin g w as d ivin ely natural. B ut th is v isio n w as only a b egin n in g. She said of th ose e a r ly y e a r s , "When con tem p latin g the m a je sty and m agnitude of th is q u ery , it looked as if cen tu r ie s of sp ir itu a l grow th w ere req u isite to enable m e to elu c id a te o r to d e m - 142 o n str a te what 1 had d isc o v e r e d . . . . " But a s sh e sa id , sh e began 143 "this stupendous w ork at on ce." A lfred F a r lo w , who talk ed at length w ith M rs. Eddy about the h is to r ic a l d evelop m en t of C h ristia n S c ie n c e , r e fe r r e d to h er 1866 healing by saying: j A t that tim e it was not c le a r to M rs. Eddy by what p r o c e s s ! she had been in sta n ta n eo u sly h ea le d , but she knew that h er thought had turned away from a ll e ls e in con tem p lation of God, H is o m n i poten ce and e v e r p r e s e n c e , H is in fin ite love and pow er. It e v e n tu a lly dawned upon her that th is o verw h elm in g c o n sc io u sn e ss of the d ivin e p r e se n c e had d estro y ed h er fear and c o n s c io u sn e ss of d is e a s e e x a ctly as the ligh t d isp e ls the d a r k n e ss. She a fterw a rd s n o ticed that in con n ection w ith the ills of h er n eig h b o rs they too w ere b en efited and it w as in th is m anner that sh e d isc o v e r e d how to g iv e a m en tal trea tm en t. U n fortu n ately, little in form ation is a v a ila b le on how M rs. Eddy d evelop ed h er d o ctrin e b etw een her 1866 h ealing and the p u b lication of S cien ce and H ealth in 1875. D uring th e se y e a r s , sh e devoted h e r s e lf to w ritin g , taught few c la s s e s , and g en era lly did not ca rr y on an a ctiv e m in is tr y . T his was the tim e in w hich M rs. Eddy w as w ritin g h er textb ook on C h ristian S c ie n c e . H er textbook p r e se n ts h er co m p lete s y ste m , and sh e m ade no fundam ental a lter a tio n s in h er th eology a fter 51 the p u blication of h er m ajor w ork. It is apparent from M rs. E ddy's a llu sio n s to to p ics of the day and h er cita tio n s of notable th in k ers, p ast and p r e se n t, that sh e did 145 not liv e in an in te lle c tu a l vacuum . She w as a le r t to what w as h ap pening a ll about h e r , as h er textb ook and other w ritin g s in d ica te. We do know som eth in g about h er a c tiv itie s and the books and s o u r c e s sh e probably con su lted w hile w ritin g h er textbook. Judging fr o m the m a te r ia ls in h er lib ra ry at the tim e , the follow in g books m ay h ave been stud ied in conjunction with w ritin g S c ie n c e and H ea lth . The King J a m es v e r sio n of the B ible w as probably h er m a jo r so u r c e . M uch of S cie n c e and H ealth e x p la in s, a llu d es to, q u o tes, or p a ra p h ra ses the B ib le. In addition to the King J a m e s v e r sio n , M r s. E ddy's lib rary 146 included a m arked copy of the W ycliff B ib le. She em p loyed W illiam S m ith 's A D ictio n a ry of the B ib le , and r e fe r s to it in h er published L . 147 w o r k s. In th is d ictio n a ry , M rs. Eddy . . . w as e s p e c ia lly p lea sed to find the tex t of G e n e sis 6:3 "And the L ord sa id , My s p ir it sh a ll not str iv e with m an, fo r that he a lso is fle s h ," ren d ered , "And Jehovah sa id , My s p ir it sh a ll not f o r ev e r ru le or be hum bled in m en , se e in g that th ey are o r , in th eir e r r o r they are but fle sh ." H ere w as the v ery language of S c ie n c e .1^8 C ruden's C om plete C oncord ance to the H oly S c r ip tu r e s m ust 149 have b een a valu ab le aid to M rs. Eddy. T his con cord an ce m ade th e va rio u s b ib lic a l to p ic s and th em es im m ed ia te ly a v a ila b le to h er. A 52 book title d S cen es and In cid en ts in the L ife of the A p o stle P au l by A lb ert B a rn es m ay have had an im p act on her thinking. In h er copy of th is book, sh e m ark ed the p a ssa g e: In e v e r y c a s e of p e r se c u tio n , w hether in s c ie n c e or r e lig io n , the c a u se s a r e to be sought in so m eth in g p ecu lia r in the v ie w s ad van ced , a s b earin g on r e c e iv e d op in ion s and on the sta te of the w orld; but th e r e are g e n e r a l p rin cip les in volved , w hich dem and only a slig h t m o d ifica tio n to enable us to understand why C h r is tian ity has b een , from the beginning, com p elled to m ake its way through sc e n e s of su ffe r in g.**0 T h is p a ssa g e fo resh ad ow ed M rs. E ddy's life a fte r d isc o v e r in g C h ristia n S c ie n c e . She fe lt a trem en d ou s se n se of p e r se c u tio n and su fferin g fro m n u m erou s groups and in d iv id u a ls. H er son q u estio n ed 151 h er sa n ity in open court; nu m erou s stud en ts attack ed h er id e a s as 152 w e ll as h er ch a ra cter; and M ark T w ain w rote a book q u estion in g her 153 m o tiv e s , in te g r ity , and in te llig e n c e . P arod ying a T ennyson v e r s e , M rs. Eddy d isp la y ed h er s e n s e of being attacked and p ersecu ted : T r a ito r s to the rig h t of th em , M. D. 's to the left o f them , P r ie s tc r a ft in fron t o f th em , V o lley ed and thundered! Into the ja w s of h a te, Out through the door of L ove, On to the b le st above M arched the one hundred. 154 M r s. Eddy saw p e r se c u tio n as m o r ta l m in d 's rea c tio n to th o se attem p tin g to liv e the C h ristia n life . She w rote: . . . C h r istia n s, are you drinking h is cup? H ave you sh a red the blood of the N ew C ovenant, the p e r se c u tio n s w hich attend a new and h ig h er u n derstan d in g of God? If n ot, can you then say that you h ave com m em o ra ted J e s u s in h is c u p ? l ^ 53 M r s. Eddy sa id of S cie n c e and H ealth, that "the author of th is book has b een so un justly p ersecu ted and b elied by w o lv es in sh e e p s' c lo th in g . And in S cie n c e and H ealth , sh e w rote that p e r se c u tio n fo llo w s e a c h advancing step in C hristian ity: ". . . E arth has no repaym ent fo r the p e r se c u tio n s which attend a new step in C h ristian ity; but the 157 sp ir itu a l re c o m p e n se of the p ersecu ted is a ssu r e d ." The id ea of " sp iritu a l reco m p en se" is a lso found in P r e s s e n s e 's The E a rly Y ears of C h r istia n ity . In h er p erso n a l copy of th is book, M r s. Eddy m arked w ith double em p h a sis the p a ssa g e w hich said that su ffe rin g w ill be I even tu a lly o v erc o m e: "He who is r e so lv e d to su ffer and to die for God cannot be van q uish ed . . . . M ortal r e s is ta n c e . . . know s no ch a n ces, no r isk s. It is linked to an im m o rta l p r in c ip le , and d estin ed to c e r - ,, 158 ta in trium ph. A nother id ea found in P r e s s e n s e 's w ork and e x p r e s s e d in the w ritin g s of M rs. Eddy is that it is n e c e s s a r y fo r truth to be "made Iflesh," be a ctu a lized in human b eings if it is to trium ph in the w orld. i The p a ssa g e M rs. Eddy m arked in the book read s: . . . E v e r y g rea t truth w hich is to w in a trium phant w ay m u st becom e in carn ate in so m e one m an, and d e r iv e fro m a liv in g , ferv e n t h ea rt that p a ssio n and pow er w hich co n stra in and su b due. So long as it rem ain s in the cold reg io n of m e r e id e a s it e x e r c is e s no m igh ty in flu en ce o v er m ankind. . . . *59 M r s. Eddy b eliev ed h e r s e lf to be such an in stru m en t of tru th . She w as by h er own w ords "the d isc o v e r e r and founder o f C h ristia n S c ie n c e " * ^ w h ich sought to " rein sta te p rim itiv e C h r istia n ity and its lo st____________ 54 elem en t of h ealing." M rs. Eddy sta rted read ing H enry Ward B e e c h e r 's book, The L ife of J e s u s , the C h r ist, P a r t O ne, published in 1872. H er copy is 162 ca re fu lly m arked up to page 53. She apparently found the rem a in d ei of the book unim portant. One m arked p a ssa g e c er ta in ly con firm ed h er co n v ictio n that C h ristia n truth should be tra n sla ted into m od ern la n gu age. The m arked p a ssa g e read s: But far m o re im portant it is to o b se r v e the habits of thought, the w hole m en tal attitude of the A p o sto lic a g e , and the change which has sin c e com e upon the w orld . T ruths rem ain the sam e; but e v e r y age h as its own s ty le of thought. A lthough th is d iffe r en ce is not so g r e a t as the d iffe r e n c e b etw een one language and an oth er, it is y e t so g r e a t as to req u ire r e sta te m e n t o r , as it w ere tra n sla tio n . . . . If m e r e ly reading the text as it w as o r ig in a lly d e liv e r e d w ere enough, why should th ere be p r e a c h e r s? It is the b u sin e ss of p r e a c h e r s to re-a d a p t tru th , fro m age to a g e, to m en 's e v e r -r e n e w in g w ants. . . . 163 M rs. Eddy m u st have been im p r e s s e d w ith the above p a ssa g e , for h er sta ted goal w as to tr a n sla te old tru th s into a new language "to r e in sta te p rim itiv e C h r is tia n ity ." * ^ She sought to a c c o m p lish th is r e sta tem en t by w edding s c ie n c e w ith C h ristia n ity . A llu sio n s to and e x a m p le s of su ch p oets and p h ilo so p h ers as M ilton , S h a k e sp ea r e, S o c r a te s , and P la to in d icate M rs. Eddy had at 165 le a s t a p a ssin g acquaintance w ith the renow ned w r ite r s. But the rem a rk a b le fa ct about the s o u r c e s M rs. Eddy con su lted is that they a r e so few . She ap p ears not to have b een in flu en ced by any of the w r ite r s of the day. A lthough she had m et E m e r so n , T h oreau , and 55 W h ittier, it d o es not appear sh e read any of the w ritin g s of th e se or other tr a n sc e n d e n ta lists . Nor did sh e s e e m aw are of such books as B ea rd 's The N ervou s A m eric a n o r E van s' M ental C ure w hich su ggestec 166 the m en tal nature of d is e a s e . H er w ritin g s e m er g ed fro m h er deep d e sir e to know God, h er need fo r h ealth and s e r e n ity , and id e a s she en cou n tered fro m d aily n ew sp a p ers and co n v ersa tio n s w ith frie n d s and a cq u a in ta n ces. B e fo r e the p u b lication of S c ie n c e and H ea lth , M rs. E ddy's m ajor w ork , sh e w rote an extended e s s a y and w orked on one unpub lish ed volu m e d ealin g w ith the B ib le. T h e se two w orks p rep ared the way for S c ie n c e and H ealth . They w ere M rs. E ddy's f ir s t attem p ts to put on paper h er grow in g thoughts on C h r istia n h ea lin g . A ttem pting to in terp ret the B ib le c o r r e c tly , M r s. Eddy began to w rite a book titled 167 The B ib le in its S p iritu a l M eaning. She produced a m a n u scrip t on 168 th is f ir s t volu m e by 1869, but the m a n u scrip t w as n ev er pu blish ed . But "out of the e x p e r ie n c e and u n derstan d in g gained by w orking on the G en esis n o tes sh e ev en tu a lly fo rg ed th e'K ey to the S crip tu res'w h ich w as added to la te r ed itio n s of S cie n c e and H ealth . M r s. E ddy's e a r lie s t published w ork on C h ristia n S c ie n c e w as 170 titled The S c ie n c e of M an. T h is e s s a y c o m p rised th ir ty -fiv e q u e s tion s and a n s w e r s, and M rs. Eddy u sed it as a tex t fo r c la s s e s she 171 taught in the 1 8 7 0 's. At th is tim e , sh e had not y et d ecid ed to c a ll h er d octrin e C h ristia n S cien ce; rath er sh e affixed the title "M oral 56 S cien ce" to h er r e lig io n --a n d the nam e rem ain ed fo r s e v e r a l m ore /e a r s . But in th is e s s a y , she c le a r ly b elie v e d s c ie n c e and C h ristia n ity could and should be u n ified . She sa id , "In the n in eteen th century I a ffix fo r a ll tim e the w ord, S c ie n c e , to C h ristia n ity . . . and call the 172 w orld to battle on th is is s u e ." In S c ie n c e of M an, M rs. Eddy grounded h er s y ste m fir m ly on a C h ristia n b a sis rath er than on m ere m en tal tech n iq u es. J e su s w as the exam p le h er students w ere to em u la te. She b eliev ed J e su s "the m o st s c ie n tific m an that e v e r trod the i k m 1 7 3 glob e. In th is ea r ly e s s a y , M rs. Eddy sta rted u tiliz in g d ia m etrica lly opposed te r m s , an e s s e n tia l c h a r a c te r is tic of h er th eo lo g y . One group of t e r m s - - t h e p o sitiv e te r m s --in c lu d e d S p ir it, S ou l, P r in c ip le , L ife, 174 T ruth, and L ove. T h ese w ere the w ords u sed a s syn on ym s for God, but at th is tim e sh e did not c a p ita liz e the syn onym s fo r God as sh e did in h er fu lly -d e v e lo p e d s y ste m . The oth er group of te r m s sh e used in d icated the op p o site of God: m a tter, e r r o r , d is e a s e , m o rta l m ind. M rs. Eddy w as con cern ed w ith a b so lu tes in the e s s a y , not rela tiv e sta te m e n ts. She spoke of Truth v e r su s e r r o r , Soul v e r s u s the m a te r ia l body, L ife v e r su s death, health v e r s u s d is e a s e , rea lity v ersu s 175 illu sio n . The e s s a y in clu d es the e s s e n tia l e le m e n ts of M rs. Eddy's com p leted s y ste m . It in clu d es a d is c u ssio n of su ch to p ic s a s the nature of God, m an, the u n iv e r se , e v il, and a d is c u s s io n of how to apply an under standing of th e se con cep ts in h ea lin g d is e a s e . 57 By 1872 M r s. Eddy rep orted "1 am p rep arin g a w ork on M oral and P h y s ic a l S c ie n c e , that I sh a ll su b m it to the public as soon as it is 176 com p leted ." By May 11 of that y e a r , sh e had com p leted six ty p ag es 177 of the book w hich w ould be title d S c ie n c e and H ealth . M rs. Eddy f ir s t decided to c a ll h er book The S c ie n c e of L ife but fin a lly d ecided to c a ll it S cien ce and H ealth , having d isc o v e r e d a book titled The S c ie n c e 178 of L ife alread y in print. In h er f ir s t draft of the te x t, she often r e fe r r e d to h er th eo lo g y as M oral S c ie n c e , but in the fin a l d rafts the w ords C h ristian S cie n c e 179 began to appear. By the tim e of p u b lication , the te r m C h ristian S c ie n c e w as fu lly in co rp o ra ted into h er th eo lo g y . On O ctober 30, 1875, M rs. E d d y's S c ie n c e and H ealth w as p u blish ed . C ontaining o v e r 450 p a g es, it w as the m o st co m p lete sta tem en t on C h ristia n S cie n c e p ublished by M r s. E ddy. It a m p lified the id ea s contained in S c ie n c e of M an. M ajor to p ic s c o n sid ered w ere (1) n atu ral s c ie n c e and p h y sio lo g y (2) the re la tio n sh ip of S p irit and m a tte r , (3) the natu re of h ealin g s ic k - 180 n e s s , (4) c re a tio n of the u n iv e r s e , (5) p ra y er, (6) m a r r ia g e . The six th edition (1883) in clud ed a g lo s s a r y o f te r m s em p loyed in tea ch in g C h ristia n S c ie n c e , and the title of the ed itio n w as changed to S c ie n c e 181 and H ealth w ith K ey to the S c r ip tu r e s. In the six teen th ed itio n , two ch ap ters w ere added, one an in terp reta tio n of G e n e sis, and the oth er 182 an in terp reta tio n o f R ev ela tio n . The 1902 ed ition o f S c ie n c e and H ealth added a ch ap ter of te s tim o n ia ls fro m th o se h ealed in C h ristia n 58 183 S c ie n c e . F u tu re ed itio n s contained only m in or s ty lis tic a lter a tio n s fro m the 1902 ed ition . M rs. Eddy a lso published a num ber of m in or w orks after S c ie n c e and H ealth: a volu m e of M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s; an au tob iog raphy, R e tro sp ectio n and In trosp ection ; T he F ir s t Church of C h r ist, S c ie n tist and M isc e lla n y , a d isc u s sio n of the founding and d evelop m en t of h er church; a s e r ie s of m e s s a g e s to h er church; P u lp it and P r e s s , containing n ew sp ap er rem a rk s about C h ristia n S cien ce; a published s e r m on titled " C hristian H ealing"; a serm o n title d "The P e o p le s Idea of |God: Its E ffe c ts on H ealth and C h ristian ity" ; two e s s a y s d ealin g w ith i jthe b a sic p r in c ip le s of C h ristian S c ie n c e , No and Y es and R udim ental D ivin e S cien ce; an e s s a y titled C h ristia n S c ie n c e v e r s u s P an th eism ; 184 and a th e o r e tic a l e s s a y , Unity of Good. Sum m ary M rs. Eddy attem p ted to " rein sta te p r im itiv e C h ristian ity and 185 its lo st e le m e n t of h ea lin g ." She was th e o rig in a to r of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . A lle g a tio n s sh e p la g ia r ized fro m P . P . Q uim by o r F r a n c is L eib e r a re in su p p ortab le. Nor d o es it ap p ear she gained any of h er s c ie n tific n otion s from s p e c ific s o u r c e s . Though sh e d isp la y s a know ledge of h is to r ic a lly prom inent s c ie n t is t s , s c ie n tific c o n cep ts, and s c ie n tific ex p erim en ts by quoting or allud ing to them in h er w r it- 186 in g s , no s p e c ific s c ie n tific w ritin g can be sa id to have s p e c ific a lly 59 in flu en ced h er thought. M r s. E ddy's theology can be su m m a r iz e d as follow s: 1. God is the e s s e n c e of a ll rea lity . God is w holly good and he is sp ir itu a lly m en tal in nature. The q u a lities o f God are em b od ied in se v e n synonym s w hich M rs. Eddy c a p ita liz e s: L ife , Truth, L o v e, P r in c ip le , S o u l, S p irit, Mind. 2. Man is the r e fle c tio n of th is se v e n -q u a litie d God. 3. S in , d is e a s e , and death a re but su p p o sitio n s, fa lse b e lie fs o rig in a tin g in the m o rta l m ind. 4. H ealin g r e su lts when m an turns fro m th is m o rta l m ind p e r sp e c tiv e to the divine Mind a s h is so u r c e of in t e l li g en ce and m ean in g. 60 N otes *M ary B aker E ddy, S cie n c e and H ealth w ith Key to the S c r ip tu r e s (B oston, 1906), p. 275. 2I b id ., p. 46 5 . 3Ibid. 4Ibid. 3Ibid. , p. 466. 8 Ibid. , p. 587. ^Ibid. 8Ibid. 9Ibid. 1 0 y. • J Ibid. , p. 510. **M ary B aker E ddy, M isc e lla n e o u s W ritings pp. 2 4 9 -2 5 0 . (B oston , 1898), 12 S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 578. 13tw-a Ibid. 14I b id ., 15Ibid. p. 475. 16T K .„ Ibid. , p. 316. 17tk Ibid. , p. 583. 18tk Ibid. , p. 333. 19T K Ibid. , p. 332. 29M ary B aker E ddy, Church M anual of T he F ir s t C hurch of C h r ist, S c ie n tist, in B oston M a ssa c h u se tts (B o sto n , 1908), p. 17. 61 2 1 S c ie n c e and H ea lth , p. 475. 22Ibid. , p. 502. 23 H enry W. S te ig e r , C h r istia n S cie n c e and P h ilo so p h y (N ew Y ork, 1948), p. 46 24 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 468. 25_ . S te ig e r , p. 45. 26 S c ie n c e and H ea lth , p. 109. ' 2 ^Ibid. , p. 85. 28 I b id ., p. 581. 29Ibid. , pp. 2 4 8 -2 4 9 . ^^M ary B aker Eddy, U nity of Good (B o sto n , 1908), p. 51. 31 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 129. 32 The en th ym em e can be d efin ed "as a s y llo g is tic argum ent appearing in r h e to r ic a l d is c o u r se or as the natu ral language fo rm of d ed u ctive argu m en t." See W alter F is h e r , " U ses of E n th ym em e," The S p eech T e a c h e r , XIII (S ep tem b er 1964), 199. 33 M isc e lla n e o u s W r itin g s, p. 101. 34Ibid. , p. 105. 35 U nity of G ood, p. 48. 36 S c ie n c e and H ea lth , p. v ii. 37 M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, p. 59. 38 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 327. 39Ibid. , p. 110. 4°Ib id ., p. 347. 62 41 M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, p. 217. 4 2 M ary B aker E ddy, No and Y es (B o sto n , 1908), p. 13. 43 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. v iii. p. 496. p. 317. p. 66 . p. 296 . p. 330. p. 592. p. 493. p. 495. p. 2 . p. 3. ^ 'Church M anual, p. 17. 55 S cie n c e and H ealth , pp. x - x i. ^ Ibid. , p. 115. ^ Ibid. , p. 59. 5 8 t . , . . Ibid. , p. x . 59 C h ristia n S cie n c e R ea d ers conduct the Sunday and W ednesday s e r v ic e s . Both s e r v ic e s a re com p osed of read in gs fro m the B ib le and S c ie n c e and H ealth . S ee Church M anual, p. 31. ^ S cie n c e and H ealth , p. 235. ^ M a r y B ak er E ddy, R udim ental D ivin e S c ie n c e (B oston , 1908), p. 9. 44 Ibid. , I b id ., 4 ^Ibid. , 47 I b id ., I b id ., 49 I b id ., 5° I b id ., I b id ., 52I b id ., 53 I b id ., 63 6 2 ^ . . Ibid. ^ S cie n c e and H ea lth , p. 2 9 0 . ^4 Lym an P o w e ll, M ary B ak er Eddy: A L ife S ize P o r tr a it (B oston , 1950), p. 52. 65 G eorgin e M ilm in e, "The H isto r y of C h ristian S cie n c e," M cC lu re's M agazin e, XXVI (1906), 236. ^ E . M ary R a m se y , C h ristia n S cie n c e and Its D isc o v e i (B oston , 1955), p. 10. 6 7 u . , Ibid. 68^ Ibid. 6 < * T ,.A Ibid. 70 Ibid. , p. 9. 71 M ary B aker E ddy, R e tr o sp e c tio n and In tro sp ectio n (B oston , 1892), p. 31. 72 R a m se y , p. 9. 7^Ibid. , p. 6 . 74Ibid. 7 ^Ibid. , pp. 4 -5 . 7^ P o w ell, pp. 5 7 -5 8 . 77Ibid. , p. 58. 78 tu Ibid. 79 Ibid. on Ibid. , p. 59. ^*Ibid. , p. 61. 64 83 R e tr o sp e c tio n and In tr o sp ec tio n , p. 10. 84 M ary B aker E ddy, The F ir s t C hurch of C h r ist S c ie n tist and M isc e lla n y (B oston , 1913), p. 304. 82Ik., Ibid. 85 R obert P e e l, M ary B aker Eddy: The Y ears of D isc o v e r y (N ew Y ork, 1966), p. 56. 86 S ee ab ove, pp. 2 8 -2 9 . 87 Hugh B la ir b e lie v e d "taste . . . is a fa cu lty com m on in so m e d eg ree to a ll m en. " And by ta ste he m eant "the r e lis h of beauty of one kind or another; of what is o r d e r ly , p rop ortion ed , gran d , h a rm on iou s. . . " S ee Hugh B la ir , L ectu re s on R h etoric and B e lle s L e ttr e s (L on don, 1820), p. 19. Such an attitude fits w ell w ith M rs. E ddy's d isd ain fo r the "unpleasant," "bungling," "awkward and d isa g r e e a b le " in d is c o u r se . S ee P o w e ll, p. 58. 88 C h a rles F . P o tte r , The F a ith s M en L ive By (N ew Y ork, 1954), pp. 2 7 0 -2 7 1 . 89Ibid. , pp. 2 7 6 , 27 9 , 287. 90 E dw in D akin, M rs. Eddy (N ew Y ork, 1930), pp. 3 0 -3 3 . 91 P o tte r , p. 279. 92 D akin, p. 91. 93Ibid. , p. 419. 94 N orm an B e a s le y , The C r o ss and the Crown; A H isto ry of C h ristia n S c ie n c e (New Y ork, 1952), p. 396; Sibyl W ilb er, The L ife of M ary B aker Eddy (B o sto n , 1938), pp. 2 1 2 -2 3 6 . 95 R e tro sp ectio n and In tro sp ectio n , p. 33. Ibid. 97 M ary B aker E ddy, "Ways o f Truth, " C h ristia n S cie n c e J o u r - n a l, XX, N o. 3 (1888), 31. 65 98 P o tte r , p. 282. 99 P ortlan d D aily A d v e r tis e r . F eb ru ary 17, 1862. A le tte r to the ed ito r. ^ ^ H o r a tio W. D r e s s e r , ed. , The Q uim by M an u scrip ts (N ew Y ork, 1921), p. 63. 101T K ^ Ibid. 102tk ., Ibid. , p. 112. *°^Ibid. , p. 9. 104 P e e l, pp. 162, 170. * ^ Ibid. , p. 154. 1 0 6 ^ Ibid. ^ ^ Ibid. , p. 163. 1 AO I b id ., pp. 156, 165, 171. * ^ Ibid. , p. 165. *^ Ibid. , pp. 153, 166, 168. * ^ S c ie n c e and H ealth , pp. 71, 588. 112_ , P e e l, p. 184. 113 Ibid. , p. 189. 114 Ibid. , p. 251. 115 J. S tillso n Judah, The H isto ry and P h ilosop h y of the M eta p h y sica l M ovem ents in A m e r ic a (P h ila d elp h ia , 1968), p. 273. * ^ Ibid. , p. 272. 117 Ibid. , p. 273. Ibid. , p. 274. 66 119... „ Ibid. , p. 37. iZO I b id ., p. 42. 121 C h a r les S. B rad en , S p irits in R eb ellion : The R ise and D evelop m en t of N ew Thought (D a lla s, 1963), p. 9. 122 Ibid. 123 Ibid. 124 - - Ibid. , p. 23. 125Ibid. , p. 9. 126 W arren F e lt E v a n s, P r im itiv e M ind-C ure (B o sto n , 1884), p. 39. 127 I b id ., p. 31. *2 * * Ibid. , pp. 3 9 -4 0 . 129 R alph Waldo T r in e , In Tune with the Infinite (N ew York, 1897), pp. 1 7 6 -1 7 7 . *3^Judah, pp. 1 7 0 -1 7 4 . 131Ibid. , pp. 194, 2 0 7 , 229. 132 S ee S c ie n c e and H ea lth , pp. 478, 5 93, 482. 133 : Conrad H enry M oehlm an, O rdeal by C oncordance (New Y ork 1955), p. ix. 134 Ibid. , pp. ix -x . *33Ibid. , p. 21 . 136tk-^ Ibid. 1 3 7 t U .„ Ibid. , pp. ix -x . 138tu Ibid. , p. x. V T 139 I b id ., p. 145. 140 P o tte r , p. 283. 141 R e tr o sp e c tio n and In tro sp ectio n , p. 26. 142 M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, p. 380. 1 4 3 t k Ibid. 144_ , P e e l, p. 212. 145 B oard of T r u s te e s , C h ristian S c ie n c e P u b lish in g S o c ie ty , M rs. Eddy M entioned T hem (B o sto n , 1961), p. 229. P e e l, p. 284. It is notew orthy that in the W ycliff B ib le the p h ra se tra n sla ted "know ledge of salvation " (Luke 1:77) is tra n sla ted s c ie n c e and h e a lth ," the title of M rs. E d d y's textb ook . It is unknown w h eth er M rs. Eddy e v e r read th is phrase in the W ycliff tra n sla tio n . p. 1. 147 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 320; M e ssa g e to the M other C hurch, 148 Ibid. 149 I b id ., p. 274. 150 Ibid. 151~ D akin, p. 419. 152W ilb er, pp. 2 1 2 -2 3 6 . 153 M ark Tw ain, C h ristia n S cien ce (N ew Y ork, 1907). 154 M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, p. 106. 155 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 33. * ^ Ibid. f p# io4. 157 Ibid. , pp. 9 7 -9 8 . 158P ee l, p. 255. 68 159Ibid. , p. 275. ^ ^ M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, p. 144. *^*Q iurch M anual, p. 17. 162P e e l, p. 275. 1 6 3 t k Ibid. ^ ^ Church M anual, p. 17. 165 S c ie n c e and H ea lth , pp. 66 , 112, 372. ^ ^ G e o r g e B ea rd , A m erica n N e r v o u sn e ss (N ew Y ork, 1881); W. F . E v a n s, M ental C ure (B oston , 1869). 167P e e l, p. 204. UQ Ibid. , p. 230. i ------- 16,9T k Ibid. 170 M ary B ak er G lover Eddy, The S c ie n c e of Man (Lynn, M a s sa c h u se tts , 1876). 171P e e l, p. 233. 172_ . , , , S c ie n c e of M an, p. 11. 173 S cie n c e and H e a lth , p. 313. 174^ . S c ie n c e oi M an, pp. l- o . n s . , . , . Ibid. , p. 4. 176P e e l, p. 272. 177 Ibid. 17fl Ibid. , p. 283. 179T , . , Ibid. w 180 S c ie n c e and H ealth , T able of C ontents. 181 A lic e L. O rgain, D istin gu ish in g C h a r a c te r istic s of M ary B aker E d d y's P r o g r e s s iv e R e v isio n s of S c ie n c e and H ealth (N ew Y ork, 1933), p. 21. * ^ Ibid. , p. 25. 183 W illiam D ana O rcu tt, M ary B aker Eddy and H er B ooks (B oston , 1950), p. 101. 184 A ll of the above s e r m o n s , e s s a y s , and books are contained in one volum e: P r o s e W orks (B oston , 1924). 185 C hurch M anual, p. 17. ^ ^ S c ie n c e and H ealth , pp. 100, 111, 121. r CHAPTER III CHRISTIAN SCIENCE AS ARGUM ENTATIVE SYNTHESIS The s u c c e s s of M r s. Eddy's co m m u n ication can b e s t be an a ly z ed through an exam in ation of h er w ork fro m the p e r s p e c tiv e of " argu m en tative s y n th e s is," a concept fo rm u la ted by E dw in B la c k .* T his chapter d efin es the nature of a rg u m en ta tiv e sy n th e sis and d em on s tr a te s that C h ristia n S c ie n c e is an in sta n c e of it. A rgum entative S y n th e sis B lack defined argu m en tative s y n th e sis a s a g en re of a rgu m en ta tio n . He sa id that a p erso n was in an arg u m en ta tiv e situ a tio n . . . w hen he a d d r e s s e s h im se lf p e r s u a s iv e ly to an id ea again st w hich o b jectio n s a re lik e ly to be in h is a u d ien ce's m in d . . . . H en ce, although a g iv en argu m en tative d is c o u r s e m ay d isp lay a fo rm a l unity and co m p lete n e ss by it s e lf , it w ill a ctu a lly be on ly a fra g m en t of the p r o c e ss of argu m en tation im p in ging on the a u d ien ce. T his co m p els the r h e to r ic a l c r itic to reg a rd any argu m en ta tiv e d isc o u r se with the p resu m p tio n that it is fr a g m en ta ry . ^ B la ck su g g este d that argu m en tative s y n th e sis w as a type of larger argu m en t in w hich "the attention of the auditor is turned to id eas 3 th at su bsu m e the is s u e s of the o r ig in a l d isp u te. " A rgu m en tative 70 71 [sy n th e sis, a ccord in g to B la c k , "is a str a te g y of th e rhetor in o rd erin g and su bsu m in g the id ea s of a c o n tr o v e r sy under a g e n e r a l p oin t of • „4 view . In o rd er to e lu c id a te h is notion o f argu m en tative s y n th e s is , 5 B la ck d is c u s se d "three p arad igm s of co n tr o v e r sy ." They w ere "the d isp u te betw een C h a rles K in g sley and John H enry N ew m an in 1864 that r e su lte d in N ew m an's co m p o sitio n of th e celeb ra ted A pologia pro V ita 6 s u a ," the P la to n ic d ia lo g u e s, and the L in co ln -D o u g la s d eb ates of 1858. In 1863, C h a rles K in g sle y , an A nglican m in is te r , attack ed the R om an C atholic C hurch in h is r e v ie w of F ro u d e's H isto ry o f E ngland, V olu m es VII and VIII. John H enry N ew m an, an A n glican th eo lo g ia n who w as a con vert to the R om an C hurch, w as n am ed in this attack: So, again , of th e v irtu e of truth. Truth, fo r its own sa k e, had n ev er been a virtu e w ith the R om an c le r g y . F ath er N ew m an in form s us that it n eed n ot, and on th e whole ought not to be; that cunning is the w eapon w hich H eaven h as given to the sa in ts w h e r e w ith to w ithstand the brute m a le fo r c e of the w ick ed w orld w hich m a r r ie s and is g iv en in m a r r ia g e . W hether h is notion b e d o c- tr in a lly c o r r e c t or not, it is at le a s t h is to r ic a lly so.^ S in ce N ew m an w as m ade a part of th is attack on the R om an c le r g y , he w rote K in g sley a sk in g fo r an apology. K in gsley a p o lo g ized in the F eb ru ary is s u e of M cM illan 's M a g a zin e, but N ew m an thought the g apology eq u iv o ca l and "a w ar of p am p hlets en su ed ." The s e r ie s of p am p hlets w ritten by N ew m an b ecam e the A pologia pro V ita su a . B lack b e lie v e d N ew m an's A p ologia illu str a te d argu m en ta tiv e sy n th e sis; he sa id ,________________________________ ___ 72 N ew m an in the A p ologia propounded a co n cep tu al sy n th e sis that ab sorb ed both o r ig in a l th e sis and its a n tith e s is . The c o n tr o v e r sy began w ith the sim p le th e sis Newm an c a r e s not fo r the tru th . T h is | th e s is is a n sw ered not by d ir e c t d en ia l, but by the A p o lo g ia , w hich 1 r e p r e se n ts N ew m an, in p rayerfu l an gu ish, p a tien tly co n stru ctin g | an in tr ic a te h ier a rch y of v a lu es that fin a lly s a t is f ie s h is q u est fo r ; c e r titu d e . C onfronted with th is rep re se n ta tio n , the rea d er is no | lo n g er d isp o se d e ith e r to a s s e r t or to deny th at N ew m an c a r e s not for truth; or to be p r e c ise , the rea d er is not d isp o se d to deny ! K in g sle y 's th e s is , and finds it now im p o ssib le to a ffirm . The | q u estion o f N ew m an's v e r a c ity is tr iv ia l b efo re the epiphany N ew m an h a s drawn fo rth . 9 | B lack b eliev ed "the sam e stra teg y " of a rg u m en ta tiv e sy n th e sis " occu rs in P la to ," although B lack did not develop the i d e a .^ He d oes sa y . An an ta g o n ist like G orgias is d ire ctly refuted in the G o r g ia s, but th e m iddle and late d ia lo g u es, w hich co n stru ct a new fra m e of r e fe r e n c e fo r view ing and valu in g th in g s, do not d ir e c tly refute su ch a ch a r a c te r as G orgias; rath er, they take no account of h im . : A gain , the d isc o u r s e is p rojected into a new le v e l that le a v e s the o ld c o n tr o v e r sy behind. Or b etter, the is s u e s of the old c o n tr o v e r s y are now seen to be m in or e le m e n ts in a co m p lex sy ste m o f thought that com p reh en d s m any m ore is s u e s than are included in th e old c o n tr o v e r sy . ^ i The th ird exa m p le given of argu m en tative s y n th e sis w as the L in co ln -D o u g la s deb ates of 1858. B lack stated "that both p a rticip a n ts had the m a te r ia ls for s y n th e s is, though n eith er su c c e e d e d in m aking 12 on e." D ou glas' au d ien ce w as divided o v e r the is s u e of w hether {Slavery should be ex tended into the t e r r i t o r i e s . D o u g las' " r h e to r ic a l i ch a llen g e w as to id en tify h im se lf w ith so m e p o licy o r p rin cip le by jwhich he could sa tisfy th is q u estion and at the sa m e tim e unite the d is - isid en t e le m e n ts in h is own state in 1858 and begin d evelop in g a platform 73 w ith national appeal for the p resid e n ta l e le c tio n o f 1860." D ouglas' notion of P opular S o v ereig n ty contained "the em bryo 14 af argu m en tative s y n th e sis." P op u lar S o v ereig n ty held that it w as 1 the r e sp o n sib ility of each sta te or te r r ito r y to d ecid e , w ithin th eir b o rd ers, the statu s of N e g r o s. B lack argued that P opular S o v ereig n ty |was an idea that could r e c o n c ile op p osing s id e s o v er the is s u e o f the (extension of s la v e r y into the te r r ito r ie s : I F ir s t, it did not, on its s u r fa c e , a lien a te any faction in the s la v e r y c o n tro v er sy ex c e p t the R ad ical A b o litio n ists, w h ose su p port D ouglas knew to b e lo s t to h im in any c a s e . Second, P opular S o v ereig n ty enabled D ouglas to sw ing to the o ffe n siv e and a ccu se L incoln and the R ep ub lican s of m aking d isr u p tiv e ly se c tio n a l a p p ea ls. T hird, and p erh ap s m o s t im p ortan t to our co n sid era tio n of argu m en tative s y n th e s is, the d octrin e w as appealing a s a p rin cip le, as w e ll a s p ru d en tia lly , sin c e the righ t of a com m unity ' to d eterm in e its own m eth od of go v ern m en t and its own s o c ia l | s y ste m had long been acknow ledged a s an e s s e n tia l elem en t of d em o cra tic s o c ie ty . F ou rth , the p o licy w as one D ouglas had long esp o u sed in h is se n a to r ia l c a r e e r , and so w as one w ith w hich he could a ch iev e a c lo s e id en tifica tio n in the m in d s of the e le c to r a te . And fifth, the p olicy w as a ll but in v u ln era b le fro m d ir e c t attack; the p rin cip le of se lf-d e te r m in a tio n w as su ch a d eep ly held co n - ! v ic tio n that as a p rin cip le, it w as not the su b ject of debate any ! lo n g er . U nfortunately, D ouglas "took no pains to" d ev elo p the idea of a rg u m en ta tiv e sy n th e sis, and w as "not s u c c e s s fu l in im p o sin g h is point of v iew I | J £ jon the d eb ates." L incoln tr ie d to id en tify h is o p p o sitio n to sla v e r y w ith "the tra d itio n s of the country, p a r tic u la r ly the id e a ls em bodied in the jD eclaration of Independence and the in ten tion s e x p r e ss e d by the F ound- i 17 |ing F a th e r s." If L incoln could have id en tified s la v e r y as con tra ry 7* to w hat the e n tire cou n try stood fo r , he w ould have b een ab le to cut a c r o s s a ll e le m e n ts of the c o n tr o v e r sy , acco rd in g to B lack . L in coln unfortunately did "not u n eq u iv o ca lly propound h is o p p osition to s la v e r y until the fifth d eb ate, at G a lesb u rg , lea v in g only two m o re en co u n ters for the ela b o r a tio n . C on seq u en tly, the end of the d eb ates found the is s u e s join ed so ev en ly and s e c u r e ly that th e d eb ates th e m s e lv e s w ere in co n clu siv e." * ^ B lack did not d evelop a co m p lete s y s te m o f c r itic is m nor w as jhis notion of argu m en tation sy n th e sis an ela b o ra ted m o d el. B lack sa id i iin the co n clu sio n o f h is book, | We have not ev o lv ed any sy ste m of r h e to r ic a l c r itic is m , but only ! at b e st, an o rien ta tio n to it. An o rien ta tio n , to g eth er w ith ta ste and in te llig e n c e , is a ll that the c r itic n e e d s. If h is c r it ic is m is fru itfu l, he m ay end w ith a s y ste m , but he should not, in our p r e se n t sta te o f k n ow led ge, b egin w ith o n e . We sim p ly do not know enough y et about r h e to r ic a l d isc o u r se to p la ce our fa ith in s y s te m s , and it is on ly through im a g in a tiv e c r it ic is m that w e are lik e ly to lea rn m o r e . i B la c k 's con cep t o f a rg u m en tative sy n th e sis o ffered a u sefu l b eginning and help fu l p e r sp e c tiv e fr o m w hich to in v e stig a te th e rh eto ric of (C hristian S c ie n c e . H op efu lly, th is study o f C h ristia n S c ie n c e w ill g en e r a te additional in fo rm a tio n and in sig h ts into the n atu re, fu n ction , and {purposes of a rg u m en ta tiv e s y n th e s is. C h ristia n S cie n c e an In stan ce of A rgu m en tative S y n th e sis C h ristia n S c ie n c e w as an in sta n ce o f argu m en tative s y n th e s is . M rs. E ddy's com m u n ica tio n w as part of a la r g e r a rg u m en ta tiv e________ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 75- situ a tio n and h er d octrin e w as grounded in the is s u e s o f A m eric a at the turn of the cen tu ry . A m erican so c ie ty at th is tim e w as in a p r o c e s s of change r e su ltin g , fro m am ong o th er th in g s, the in d u stra liza tio n and 20 urbanization o f A m e r ic a . T h ree is s u e s o f th is p eriod included a disp ute o v er (1) S cien ce v e r s u s C h r istia n ity , (2) V icto ria n v e r s u s R ad ical F e m in is t v ie w s of w om en, and (3) lib e r a l and orthodox C h r is t ia n ity . M rs. Eddy u sed argu m en tative sy n th e sis to r e c o n c ile th e se th ree is s u e s . jScience v e r s u s C h ristia n ity I | M rs. Eddy r e c o n c ile d the id ea that s c ie n c e w as the m ean s by i I jwhich know ledge of the law s underlying the u n iv e r se w as to be d is - i c o v e r e d and known w ith the idea that the tea ch in g s o f J e su s and the B ib le w ere the m ean s by w hich know ledge about the u n iv e r se w as to be d isc o v e r e d and known. She com b in ed the follow in g id ea s of s c ie n c e w ith C h ristia n ity : (1) th e r e w e r e la w s governing the u n iv e r se , (2 ) th e s e law s could be known by o b serv a tio n of e m p ir ic a l data, (3) su p ern a tu ra l in te r p r e ta - i i tio n s of the u n iv e r se w ere not v a lid . M r s. Eddy in co rp o ra ted the f o l low ing id ea s o f C h ristia n ity w ith sc ie n c e : (1) J e su s' tea ch in g s and the tea ch in g s of the prophets and d is c ip le s w e r e the so u r c e of know ledge about the u n iv e r se , (2) the B ib le con tain ed the reco rd o f th is know ledge (3) the B ib le r e c o r d s that (a) God w as sp ir itu a l, (b) God w as in fin ite i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ good, (c) m an was the im a g e and lik e n e ss of God, (d) the r e a liz a tio n of th e se th ree p recep ts allow ed J e s u s to h ea l s in , d is e a s e and death and prove G od's infinite g o o d n ess and harm ony. M rs. E ddy's m ethod of h arm on izin g sc ie n c e and C h r istia n ity w as to p o sit J esu s as the m a ste r I l s c ie n tis t who rev ea led the law s govern in g the u n iv e r se . F ro m th is j ! p e r s p e c tiv e , she in co rp o ra ted the p rev a ilin g th e s e s and a n tith eses of i I C h ristia n ity and s c ie n c e . H er e s s e n tia l argu m en t w as that through \ I studying the B ib le, sh e had d isc o v e r e d know ledge about the u n iv e r se . I J e s u s a M a ster S c ie n tis t.- - M r s . Eddy reco g n ized J e s u s as "the j 21 m o st sc ie n tific man that e v e r trod the glob e." J e su s w as the m odel s c ie n tis t, and h is know ledge of the law s of God enabled him to h eal the sic k . H is u tiliza tio n of p ast B ib lic a l tea ch in g s in conjunction w ith h is i deep sp ir itu a l in sigh t enabled h im to g ra sp the know ledge of m an 's p e r fectio n as the e x p r e ss io n of God: " Jesu s beheld in S c ie n c e the p e r fe c t | m an, who appeared to h im w h ere sin n in g m o rta l m an ap p ears to m o r ta ls . In th is p erfec t m an the S a v io r saw G od's own lik e n e s s , and th is 22 ! c o r r e c t view of m an h ea led the sic k ." j M rs. Eddy b elie v e d the tea ch in g s of J e su s could be s y s te m a tized into a sc ie n c e that r e v e a le d C h ristia n and sc ie n tific p rin cip les govern ing e x iste n c e . She fe lt that it w as unfortunate that re lig io n had tra d itio n a lly been sep a ra ted fr o m s c ie n c e ; sh e sought rapprochem ent: 7 7 F o r c e n tu r ie s --y e a , a lw a y s--n a tu r a l s c ie n c e has not been co n sid e r e d a part of any r e lig io n , C h ristia n ity not ex cep ted . E ven now m u ltitu d es c o n sid e r that w hich they c a ll s c ie n c e h as no p rop er con n ection w ith faith and p iety. M y stery does not ensh rou d C h r ist's te a c h in g s, and they a re not th e o r e tic a l and i fra g m en ta ry , but p r a c tic a l and com p lete; and being p r a c tic a l ^3 ' and c o m p le te , they a re not d ep rived of th eir e s s e n tia l v ita lity . j I M rs. Eddy ad m on ished h er stud en ts to b ecom e " sc ie n tists" as i i J e su s w a s, and apply the p r in c ip le s she r e d isc o v e r e d . T hey would | i then a c c o m p lish h ea lin g s s im ila r to th ose attrib u ted to J e su s: "Jesus | I d em o n stra ted the pow er of C h ristia n S cie n c e to h ea l m o rta l m inds and ^ 1 b o d ies. But th is pow er w as lo s t sig h t of, and m u st again be sp ir itu a lly d isc e r n e d , taught, and d em o n stra ted accord in g to C h r ist's com m and, 24 w ith 'sig n s follow in g'." And, A sk y o u rself: A m I liv in g the life that a p p roach es the su p rem e good ? Am I d em o n stra tin g the h ealing pow er of Truth. . . . j Your fru its w ill prove w hat the understanding of God b rin gs to | m an . . . d e m o n str a te, w ith s c ie n tific c e r ta in ty , the ru le of 1 h e a lin g , based on its d ivin e P r in c ip le .^ J e s u s , th en , w as view ed a s a m a ste r s c ie n tis t who d em o n stra ted the j I law s u n derlyin g the u n iv e r se by h ealin g s in , d is e a s e , and death. F u r th er, M rs. Eddy taught that J e s u s ' tea ch in g s could be sy ste m a tiz e d and p ra ctic ed by o th e r s. The B ible: A R eco rd of K now ledge About the U n iv e r s e . - -M r s . Eddy m aintained that the B ib le , p rop erly in te r p r e te d , w as c o n s is te n t, c o h e r e n t, and rev e a le d know ledge about the u n iv e r se . M rs. Eddy contended the B ible "was h e r so le tea ch er ," "her only textbook," 78 I ; ! 1 26 "her only auth ority." She b e lie v e d the B ib le to be the "suprem e sta tu te-b o o k ," of "deep d ivin ity," and she w as con vin ced that "the 27 B ib le contained the r e c ip e for a ll h ealin g." I M rs. Eddy held that C h r istia n S c ie n c e w as an ex ten sio n of j 28 ' p r im itiv e C h ristia n ity . She taught that C h ristia n S c ie n c e w as proph- i I ! e s ie d as the c o m fo rter p ro m ised in the G osp el of John: "This c o m - j 29 fo r te r I understand to be D ivin e S c ie n c e ." The B ib le and S cie n c e and j H ealth w ere to be so u r c e books u sed by stud en ts of C h ristia n S cie n c e to ; understand the d o ctrin es of the r e lig io n. 1 I U n iv erse G overned by L a w s.-- M r s . Eddy taught that im p lic it or sta ted in the B ib le w as know ledge about the u n iv e r se . One such fa ct w as that the u n iv e r se w as govern ed by la w s. M rs. Eddy view ed God as "Law" or " P rin cip le," and C h ristia n S c ie n c e w as se e n as rev ea lin g I the know ledge about th is P rin cip le : "God is the P r in c ip le of d ivine j m e ta p h y sic s. A s th ere id but one God, th ere can be but one divine j P r in c ip le of a ll S cien ce: and th ere m u st be fix ed ru les fo r the d em on - j 31 stra tio n of this divine P r in c ip le ." And, The P r in c ip le of d ivin e m e ta p h y sic s is God; the p ra ctic e of divine m eta p h y sics is the u tiliz a tio n of the pow er of Truth o v er err o r; its r u le s d em o n stra te its s c ie n c e . D ivine m eta p h y sics r e v e r s e s p erv er ted and p h y sica l h y p o th eses as to D eity , even a s the exp lan ation of o p tics r e je c ts the in cid en ta l or in v erted im age and sh ow s what th is in v erted im a g e is m eant to r e p r e s e n t.^2 w S in ce God w as P r in c ip le , and the la w s of the u n iv erse w ere e sta b lish e d , p rayer could not be a petition to God to in terv en e in th is ord ered u n iv e r s e . P r a y e r cou ld not change sc ie n c e : " P rayer cannot change the s c ie n c e of b ein g, but it tends to bring u s into harm ony w ith it . . . . The m e r e habit of p lead in g w ith th e divine M ind a s one pleads w ith a hum an b ein g, p erp etu a tes the b e lie f in God a s hum anly c ir c u m - 33 sc r ib e d , - - e v e n an e r r o r w hich im p ed es sp iritu a l grow th." P ra y e r lin C h ristian S c ie n c e w as the ap p lication o f P rin cip le ; it w as an act d em on stratin g the law s of the u n iv e r s e . P ra y e r w a s the p r o c e s s i w hereby one le a rn ed m o r e of r e a lity . It re su lte d in understanding: '"Who would stand b efo re a blackboard, and pray the p rin cip le of m a th e m a tic s to s o lv e the p ro b lem ? The rule is alrea d y e sta b lish e d , and it 34 is our task to w ork out the solu tion ." M r s. Eddy b e lie v e d the la w s govern ing the u n iv erse w ere b ased jon three p r e m is e s , w hich w ere p resen ted throughout the textbook and h er other w r itin g s and on w hich sh e built h er d o ctrin e. The b a sic i I jp rem ise w a s that God w as the in fin ite M ind of the u n iv e r s e . She said : j"God is M ind, and God is in fin ite; hence a ll is M ind. On th is statem en t ! r e s ts the S c ie n c e of b ein g , and the P rin c ip le of th is S cien ce is d ivin e, 35 d em o n stra tin g harm ony and im m o rta lity ." j M r s. Eddy m ade it c le a r that th is f ir s t p r e m ise w as the foundation o f C h ristia n S c ie n c e : 80 T h e se two co n tra d icto ry th e o r ie s --th a t m a tter is so m eth in g , or that a ll is M in d --w ill dispute th e ground, until one is acknow led ged to be the v ic to r . D isc u ssin g h is cam p aign , G en eral Grant sa id : 'I p rop ose to fig h t it out on this lin e , if it ta k e s a ll s u m m e r .' S c ie n c e s a y s : A ll is Mind and M ind's id e a . You m u st figh t it out on th is lin e . 36 M r s. E ddy's B ib lica l w arran t fo r God's sp ir itu a lly m en ta l nature in clud ed the fa c t that J e s u s , the son of God, "acknow ledged no t ie s of 37 the fle sh ," and said "C all no m an your fath er upon the earth . . . ." i j T h is su g g e ste d that God, the fa th er of m an, w as not o f an ea rth ly or | 3g c o r p o r e a l n a tu re. And it said in th e B ib le, "God is a S p irit." God | iwas a p e r fe c t S p irit w ithout m a te r ia l im p e r fe c tio n s, fo r J e su s said : ! 39 "Be ye th e r e fo r e p e r fe c t, even a s your F a th er in heaven is p er fe c t." I j B uilding on the p r e m ise th at all is in fin ite M ind, M rs. Eddy I in trod u ced tw o m o re p r e m is e s o f C h ristian S c ie n c e . One w as that God or M ind w as good and h a rm o n io u s. She sa id : "God is good, and th e r e fo re good is in fin ite, is a ll," and, "The ex ter m in a to r o f e r r o r is the jgreat truth th at God, good , is th e only M ind, and that the su p p o sitio u s o p p o site of in fin ite M in d --c a lle d d e v il or e v i l - - i s not M ind, is not i 40 T ruth, but e r r o r , w ithout in te llig e n c e or r e a lity ." M rs. Eddy found j su pp ort fo r G od's g o o d n ess in the B ib lica l accou n t o f cre a tio n : "And 41 |God saw ev ery th in g that he had m ad e and b eh old it w a s good." | A th ird b a sic p r e m ise of C h ristian S c ie n c e w a s that m an w as I | the r e fle c tio n , im a g e, id e a , or m a n ifesta tio n of M ind. M rs. Eddy I sa id : "The S crip tu res in form us that man is m ade in th e im a g e and -----------------------------------------------------------------------gr 42 lik e n e ss of God." And in her G lo ssa ry sh e defined m an a s: "The compound id ea o f in fin ite S p irit; the sp ir itu a l im age and lik e n e ss of 43 pod; the fu ll re p r e se n ta tio n of M ind." T h ese th ree p r e m is e s , th en , jare the foundation of C h ristia n S cie n c e d o ctrin e. S in ce God w as a ll and good, M rs. Eddy argued that e v il and d ish arm on y w ere the r e s u lt of a m o rta l m ind in co n tra d istin ctio n to jim m ortal M ind. M ortal m in d w as the co u n terfeit of the r e a l Mind; the j phenom enal as opposed to the id e a l and p e r fe c t. M rs. Eddy b eliev ed : J esu s d efin ed th is o p p o site of God and H is c re a tio n b etter than ; w e can when he said , "He is a lia r , and the father of it." . . . . J e su s n ev er in tim ated that God m ade a d ev il, but he did sa y of e v il, "Ye a re of your fa th er, the d ev il." A ll th e se sa y in g s w ere to show that m ind in m a tter is the author of its e lf, and is sim p ly a fa ls ity and illu sio n . 44 I H ealin g grew out o f the b a sic d octrin e of C h ristia n S cie n c e and w as a d em o n stra tio n of its v a lid ity . The fundam ental p rin cip le of h e a l ing w as that by c o r r e c tly id en tifyin g w ith the divine Mind a s o n e's jsource of e x is te n c e , one could era d ica te th e appearance of e v il and d is e a s e fro m o n e 's e x p e r ie n c e . J e su s' exam p le w as to be em u lated by j ithe h e a le r : " Jesu s beheld in S cie n c e the p e r fe c t m an, who ap p eared to Jhim w here sin n in g m o rta l m an ap p ears to m o r ta ls. In th is p erfec t m an i jthe Savior saw G od's own lik e n e s s , and th is c o r r e c t v iew of m an h ea le d ! 45 |the sick ." T his p rin c ip le , or "rule of health" w a s, accord in g to i I |M rs. Eddy, the m o st e ffe c tiv e approach to healing the d ish a rm o n ies of sin and s ic k n e s s : "Subject s ic k n e s s , sin , and death to the rule o f health and h olin ess in Christian S cience, and you a scertain that this S cien ce is d em o n stra b ly tru e, for it h ea ls the sic k and sin n in g a s no ,,46 oth er sy ste m can . M rs. Eddy d evelop ed num erous la w s, or r u le s, for h ea lin g . A s a re c e n t 1971 e d ito r ia l in the C h ristia n S cie n c e Jou rn al said : " S trict ru le s govern the p ra ctice of C h ristia n S c ie n c e , and a p r a c ti tio n er is fa ced w ith s e r io u s penalty for d eviatin g fro m th e m --h e w ill 47 lo s e the pow er to h ea l." And, the e d ito r ia l w ent on, " S u ccess in the I C h r ist m ethod of h ealin g has alw ays been su b ject to w h oleh ea rted faith I I jin T ruth and u n com p ro m isin g fid e lity to the ru le s of d ivin e P r in c i- i 48 Iple." M rs. Eddy, for ex a m p le, w arned a g a in st m ix in g h ealin g m eth o d s. U nder m o st c ir c u m sta n c e s, if a c a s e w ere being tr e a te d by a m e d ic a l d o ctor, M rs. Eddy sa id it w as u su a lly not e ffe c tiv e to u se 49 C h ristia n S cie n c e trea tm en t. M ed ical trea tm en t tended to hinder C h r istia n h ealin g b eca u se God w as not being r e lie d on c o m p le te ly . A nother rule w as that the h e a le r should not think that d is e a s e i I jwas r e a l and then try to h ea l that d is e a s e . D is e a s e cou ld only be j h ealed by r e a liz in g it w as untrue b eca u se not of God: "It is m en tal l qu ack ery to m ak e d is e a s e a r e a lity --to hold it a s som eth in g se e n and 50 fe lt--a n d then to attem p t its cu re through Mind." It w a s a lso u n w ise to reco m m en d "human aid s" to h ea lin g such as h y g ien e, d iet, e x e r c is e , or a change in c lim a te . H ealing r e su lte d fro m a change in the thinking o f the p atien t, not a change in h is m a te r ia l body or the nature of h is 51 en v iro n m en t. M rs. Eddy a ls o adm onished p r a c titio n e r s not to attem p t to j in flu en ce the p a tien ts' thinking in any way ex ce p t to h ea l and regenerate! i th em . H e a lers w ere not to u se th eir pow er fo r p u rely s e lfis h m o tiv e s, i i P r a c titio n e r s w ere only to in flu en ce the patien t to r e c o g n iz e God as the| I 52 j so u r c e of h is being. A nother ru le of h ealin g w as that the p r a c titio n e r j m u st u tiliz e the p rin cip les of C h r istia n S cie n c e to so lv e h is own p ro b - , j le m s and d is e a s e s if he w ish ed to h ea l o th ers of th eir p ro b lem s and d is e a s e s . M rs. Eddy d eveloped m any ru le s fo r healing; they are found throughout her w r itin g s. If the h e a le r did not fo llo w th e se r u le s or p r in c ip le s , th eir h ea lin g a b ilitie s w ere d r a stic a lly red u ced , if not co m p le te ly ren d ered in e ffe c tiv e . M rs. Eddy taught that the u n iv e r se w as govern ed by law s or p r in c ip le s. T h ese law s enabled the h e a le r to p r a c tic e C h ristia n h e a l ing e ffe c tiv e ly and w ith p r e c isio n . M rs. Eddy su g g este d that th ese la w s could be known by o b serv a tio n sin c e one could s e e that the e ffe c ts of applying th e se la w s resu lte d in the h ealin g of d is e a s e s and other in h a rm o n ies. L aw s Known by O b serv a tio n .-- S c ie n c e h old s that the law s of th e u n iv e r se can be known by o b serv a tio n of e m p ir ic a l ev id e n c e. M rs. Eddy argued that the truth of C h ristia n ity w as am en ab le to e m p ir ic a l o b serv a tio n and d em o n stra tio n and, h en ce, it w as s c ie n tific . C h ristia n S c ie n tis ts , M rs. Eddy b e lie v e d , w ere applying the sa m e p r in c ip le s as J e su s did and produced the sa m e type of e m p ir ic a l ev id en ce: h e a lin g s. I M rs. Eddy m ade m uch u se of the e m p ir ic a l ev id en ce of h ea lin g s in h er ; w r itin g s. She e s ta b lis h e d se c tio n s in The C h ristian S cie n c e J o u r n a l, i C h r istia n S c ie n c e S e n tin e l, and The H erald of C h ristia n S c ie n c e for j 54 a u th en ticated h ea lin g s; a ch ap ter in h er textb ook , S c ie n c e and H ea lth ,; con tain ed te s tim o n ie s of th o se h ea led by C h ristian S c ie n c e as did a 55 ch a p ter in h er book, M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s. C o n siste n t with M rs. E ddy's co n cern for the o b se r v a tio n of e m p ir ic a l e v id e n c e w as h er u tiliza tio n of the p ragm atic th eo ry of truth. I M rs. Eddy u sed th is th eory p a rticu la rly in rela tio n to d is e a s e and j h ea lin g . P r a g m a tism h old s that the te s t of the truth of an id e a is its j p r a c tic a lity , its u sa b ility in ev ery d a y e x p e r ie n c e . P r a g m a tism p la ce s g r e a t em p h a sis on the o b serv a tio n of e m p ir ic a l e v id e n c e . The evid en ce of the truth of an id ea w ill be found by looking at the fa c ts , e ffe c ts or | c o n se q u e n c e s g en era ted by the id ea . W illiam J a m es w as the fo r e m o st exponent of p ra g m a tism . Though J a m es did not w ant to su ccu m b to "Spencerian n a tu ra lism ," he advanced a philosop h y w ith "a sc ie n tific lo y a lty to fa c ts" and an "em pir - 56 ic is m w ithout inhum anity." J a m e s b eliev ed if an id e a " w ork s, it w ill 57 have so m e truth that ought to be h eld to." T his w as the c o r e of h is S 5 th eory of k n ow led ge. Truth rela ted to u sa b ility , p r a c tic a lity . F o r J a m e s, "ideas b eco m e true ju st in so fa r a s th ey h elp us to get into sa tisfa c to r y rela tio n w ith other parts of our e x p e r ie n c e . . . . An id ea 58 is tru e so long as to b e lie v e it is p rofitab le in our liv e s ." J a m es had g r e a t con fid en ce in fa c ts and e m p ir ic a l data but a s th ese fa c ts h elp ed m an in h is p r a c tic a l day to day livin g: "True id e a s are th o se w e can ja ssim ila te , v a lid a te , co rr o b o r a te, and v e r ify . F a ls e id e a s are th o se ! 59 th at w e cannot." I ! M rs. Eddy u tiliz e d th is p ragm atic th eo ry of know ledge, p a r tic u la r ly in rela tio n to d is e a s e and h ea lin g . She argu ed that d is e a s e w as u n rea l or untrue b eca u se by u sin g the p r in c ip le s of C h ristia n S c ie n c e , one could e x p e r ie n c e a p ra ctica l state of h e a lt h .^ T ruth w as w hat | could be d em o n stra ted to bring p eace and h arm on y in o n e 's life . She w ro te, "The q u estio n , What is Truth, is a n sw er ed by d e m o n str a tio n ,- - |by h ealin g both d is e a s e and sin; and th is d em o n stra tio n sh ow s that C h ristia n S cie n c e h ealin g co n fe r s the m o st h ealth and m a k es the b e s t jm en ." ^ E v il and e r r o r w ere u n real b eca u se th ey could be rem oved fr o m o n e's e x p e r ie n c e and rep la ced w ith good. M rs. Eddy sa id , "we jneed to understand that e r r o r i£ nothing, and th at its n oth in gn ess is not j (to be sa v ed , but m u st be d em on strated in o rd er to prove th e som ething- ! 62 n e s s - - y e a the a lin e s s of T ruth." Truth fo r M rs. Eddy w as p r a c tic a l, r e la te d to w hat one e x p e r i en ced in o n e 's daily life . One could lite r a lly know only w hat one e x p erien ced . One could know only w hat one d em o n stra ted , for: "We m u st r e c o lle c t that Truth is d em o n stra b le w hen u n d erstood , and that 63 good is not understood u n til d em on strated ." And God w a s not on ly to be "adored" and "understood," he w a s to be "dem onstrated" in th e 64 in d ividu al ex p erien ce of the C h ristian S c ie n tist. God w a s seen a s a u sab le p rin cip le fo r liv in g . That one could prove in a p r a c tic a l w ay th e u n rea lity of e v il in th eir liv e s w as e s s e n tia l to M rs. E ddy's th eo lo g y . She said : "What is th e ca rd in a l point o f the d iffe r e n c e in m y m eta p h y sica l sy ste m ? T h is: [that by knowing the u n rea lity of d is e a s e , sin , and death, you dem on- str a te the a lln e ss o f God. T his d iffere n c e w holly se p a r a te s m y s y ste m 1 i 65 (from a ll o th ers." j I M rs. Eddy often pointed to the p ra g m a tism of the B ib le. The B ib le provided num erous accou n ts o f the im p ortan ce of p ra ctic a l r e s u lts in r elig io n . F o r J e s u s said: "By th eir fr u its ye s h a ll know jthem. . . . He that b e lie v e th on m e, the w ork s that I do sh a ll he do jalso. . . . Show m e thy fa ith w ithout thy w o rk s, and I w ill show th ee jmy faith by m y w o r k s ." ^ And when John the B a p tist sa id to J e su s, 1 "Art thou be that should c o m e , or do we look fo r an oth er? " J esu s rep lied : |"Go show John again th o se th in gs w h ich ye do h ea r and s e e : the blind r e c e iv e th e ir sig h t, the la m e w alk, and the le p e r s are c le a n se d . . . And J e su s adm onished h is fo llo w e r s to h ea l the s ic k and r a ise the 68 klead. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------87 B eca u se M r s. Eddy valu ed p r a c tic a l, e m p ir ic a l e v id e n c e , sh e r e je c te d su p e r n a tu r a lism , in sistin g th at the tea ch in g s o f J e s u s w e r e not to be v iew ed a s su p ern atu ral. M r s. Eddy h eld that " C hristian S cie n c e is n a tu ral, but not p h y sica l. The S c ie n c e of God and man is no m o re su p ern a tu ra l than the s c ie n c e of n u m b ers, though departing fro m the r e a lm o f the p h y sic a l, as th e S cien ce o f God, S p ir it, m u st. I The f ir s t w ay th en , that M rs. Eddy em p loyed argu m en tative 'sy n th esis w as through the uniting o f s c ie n c e and C h r istia n ity . She j jposited J esu s as the m a ste r s c ie n tis t who taught and p r a c tic e d the law s u n d erly in g the u n iv e r se . B eca u se h e c o r r e c tly un derstood th ose la w s, i !he w as able to p erfo rm w hat ap p eared to be m ir a c le s . J e s u s w as j i [therefore a b le to d e m o n str a te the u ltim a te r e a lity that the u n iv e r se is h arm on iou s and good, by h ea lin g a ll m anner o f d is e a s e , s in , and death. C a lv in ism and L ib e r a l C h ristia n ity A seco n d w ay M rs. Eddy em p loyed argu m en tative sy n th e sis w as I !by brin gin g to g eth er two popular th e o lo g ic a l v ie w s , th e r e fo r e allow in g i [her fo llo w e r s to a c c e p t both the tra d itio n a l and n ew er v ie w s o f God and I [man. The orth od ox, C a lv in istic v ie w held that m an w as a sin n er, [depraved and fa lle n fro m g r a c e . T he m ore lib e r a l th e o lo g ic a l v iew held that m an w as e s s e n tia lly good and the ch ild o f a lo v in g F a th er. i M r s. E ddy's d istin ctio n b etw een m in d and m a tte r , n oum enal and w p henom enal rea lity , m ade the sy n th e sis o f th ese dichotom ous v ie w s of m an p o s s ib le . M ortal, m a te r ia l m an a g r e e d w ith C a lv in istic notions; sp iritu a l m an was the child o f a lovin g God. M r s. Eddy's sy n th e sis w as r e la te d to the P laton ic d istin ctio n of noum enal and phenom enal r e a lity , and h er d octrin e w as v e r y s im ila r to this id ea of P la to 's . P la to d istin g u ish ed betw een o b jects p er c e iv e d by the s e n s e s and '" F o rm s' sep a ra te fr o m the things our s e n s e s p e r - 70 c e iv e ." T he noum enal w orld , the w o rld o f fo r m s, w as unchanging i I jand im m u tab le. A s C ornford sa id : I j F o rm s m u st alw ays be w hat th ey a re and can su ffe r no kind of change. The m any things that b ear th e sa m e n a m es as the F o r m s I are p erp etu ally changing in a ll r e s p e c ts ; and th e se are the th in gs ! we se e and touch, w h erea s the F o rm s a r e u n seen . It is thus laid down th a t there a r e two o r d e r s of th in g s: the u n se en , exem p t from a ll change, and the s e e n , w hich ch an ges p erp etu a lly .^ * P la to 's a lle g o r y of the ca v e illu s tr a te d th is n ou m en al- 72 phenom enal d istin ctio n . P la to p ictu red a cave w ith p r iso n e r s chained inw ard, fa c in g a w a ll. Behind them w as a fir e b lazin g; the p r is o n e r s sa w only sh adow s o f th e m se lv e s and o th e r s p a ssin g by the ca v e r e fle c te d on th e w all. P lato su g g este d th is sto r y w as analogous to life , ^iumans liv e d in a w o rld of sh a d o w s--th e p henom enal w orld . T hey i I w e r e ch ain ed by th eir p ercep tio n s for th e ir s e n s e s w e r e in cap ab le of reco g n izin g the true fo r m s behind the phenom ena. T h e y --u n lik e a p h ilo so p h e r --w e r e ign oran t of the n ou m en al w orld , the w orld o f Ideal F o rm s, and a ccep ted the im p e r fe c t, ch an gin g w orld of th eir s e n s e s 89 73 w hich only shadow ed the p e r fe c t and ete r n a l. M rs. Eddy h eld that the phenom enal w o rld , the w orld of the s e n s e s , w as illu sio n and shadow : "If m a tter, so ca lled , is su b sta n ce, then S p irit, m a tte r 's u n lik e n e ss, m u st be shadow ; and shadow cannot 74 produce su b sta n ce." M rs. Eddy rea so n ed th at S p irit w as tru e su b s ta n c e and m atter m e r e ly shadow . God w as the so u rce of r e a lity , and I r e a lity w as the noum enal w o rld . God w as a lso L ife , Truth, P r in c ip le , Mind; and Mind only c r e a te d im m u tab le and p e r fe c t id ea s: "Mind c r e a te s H is own lik e n e ss in id e a s, and the su b sta n ce o f an id ea is v e r y I ! 75 jfar fro m being the su p p osed su b sta n ce of n o n -in te llig e n t m a tter." j M rs. Eddy b eliev ed the p h en om en al w orld w as a co n trad iction of r e a l it y , b eca u se it w as im p e r fe c t, and th e divine M ind only c re a ted p e r fe c t i e x p r e ssio n s: Mind is the d ivin e P r in c ip le , L o v e, and can produce nothing unlike i the e ter n a l. . . . R ea lity is sp ir itu a l, h a rm o n io u s, im m u tab le, im m o rta l, d iv in e, e te r n a l. N othing u n sp iritu a l can be r e a l, h arm on iou s, or e te r n a l. Sin, s ic k n e s s , and m o rta lity a r e the su p p osition al an tip od es o f S p irit, and m u st be co n tra d ictio n s of | r e a lity . M ortal m in d , o r m an thinking of h im s e lf a s a m o rta l and im a teria l being, w as co rru p t and e v il. Man, p erce iv in g h im s e lf in th is w ay, w as in a sta te of d ep ravity and c o n siste d of "E vil b e lie fs , p a s sio n s and a p p e tite s, fe a r , dep raved w ill, s e lf-ju s tific a tio n , p rid e, 77 envy, d e c e it, h atred , r e v e n g e , sin , s ic k n e s s , d is e a s e , and death." M rs. Eddy adm onished h er fo llo w e r s to c a s t o ff "m ortal m ind" and 90 accep t the r e a l id ea of th e m s e lv e s a s p e r fe c t and im m o rta l, for D ivine S c ie n c e , does not put new w ine into old b o ttle s, Soul into m a tte r , nor the in fin ite into the fin ite . Our fa ls e v ie w s of m a tter p e r ish as w e g r a sp the fa c ts of S p irit. The old b e lie f m u st be c a s t out or the new id ea w ill be s p ille d , and the in s p ir a tion , w h ich is to change our standpoint, w ill be lo s t. W hen m an exch an ged the fa ls e co n cep t fo r the tr u e , he found h im se lf im m o r ta l--a n im a g e of God: Im m ortal m an w a s and is G od's im a g e or id ea , even the in fin ite e x p r e s s io n of in fin ite M ind, and . . . sp ir itu a l m a n 's c o n s c io u s n e s s and in d ivid u ality a re r e fle c tio n s of God. T hey a re the em an a tio n s of H im who is L ife , T ruth, and L ove. Im m ortal m an is not and n ev er w as m a te r ia l, but alw ays sp ir itu a l and e te r n a l. i J j M rs. Eddy found B ib lic a l su pp ort for th is m in d -m a tte r , n ou m en al-p h en om en al d istin ctio n , and argu ed that a p rop er in te r p r e tation of G e n e sis in d icated two v ie w s of m an. In the f ir s t ch ap ter "God 80 c re a ted m an in H is own im a g e," b le s s e d m an and said : "Be fru itfu l, and m u ltip ly , and r e p le n ish the ea rth , and subdue it; and have dom inion o v er the fis h of the s e a , and o v er the fow l o f the a ir , and o v er e v e r y 81 liv in g thing that m oveth upon the earth ." And "God saw every th in g I 82 th a t He had m ad e, and behold, it w as v e r y good." i B ut in the seco n d ch ap ter o f G e n e sis "there w ent up a m is t fro m | 83 [the earth , and w a tered th e w hole fa c e of the ground." M rs. Eddy in terp re ted th is "m ist" a s sy m b o lic a lly r e p r e se n tin g an o b scu red v ie w of c r e a tio n . It w as the m o rta l m ind co n cep t, the o p p o site of the r e a l. She said: 91 The secon d ch ap ter of G e n e sis con tain s a sta tem en t of this m a te r ia l view of God and the u n iv e r se , a sta tem en t w hich is the e x a c t op p osite o f s c ie n tific truth a s b efo re reco rd ed . . . . it is the fa ls e h isto r y in c o n tra d istin ctio n to the true.® ^ M rs. Eddy argu ed that if the f ir s t ch ap ter w e r e tru e, that God c re a ted a u n iv e r se and c a lle d it good, the seco n d account in G e n e sis m u st be fa ls e . The seco n d w as the m o rta l view : The S cie n c e of the f ir s t r e c o r d p ro v es the fa ls ity of the seco n d . If one is tr u e , the oth er is fa ls e , for they are an tago n is tic . The f ir s t r e c o r d a ssig n s a ll m igh t and govern m en t to God, and endow s m an out of G od's p erfectio n and p ow er. The seco n d reco rd c h r o n ic le s m an a s m utable and m o rta l, - - a s having broken aw ay fr o m D eity and as revolvin g in an o rb it of h is ow n. ®5 M rs. Eddy su pp orted her in terp re ta tio n by noting that B ib lic a l sc h o la r sh ip in d icated: . . . two d istin c t d ocu m en ts in the ea r ly p art of the book of G e n e sis. One is c a lle d the E lo h istic , b eca u se the Suprem e B eing is th erein ca lle d E loh im . The oth er docum ent is c a lle d the J e h o v istic , b eca u se D eity th e r e in is alw ays c a lle d Jehovah. . . . 8 ® The secon d accou n t o f c r e a tio n in G e n e sis, then, d e sc r ib e d (m ortal, m a te r ia l m an: "And the L ord God Jehovah form ed m an of the i d u st of the ground, and b reath ed into h is n o s tr ils the b reath of life . 87 J . . ." It w as in the seco n d chapter of G e n e sis that " ev il is fir s t i ! 88 pnentioned in the fo r m of a tr e e of know ledge o f good and e v il," and jthe chapter su g g este d that e v il w as a s r e a l a s good. M rs. Eddy taught jthat: "The 'tree o f k n o w led g e1 stands fo r the erro n eo u s d octrin e that ^he know ledge of e v il is r e a l, h ence a s G od -b estow ed, as the know ledge 92 89 of good." T h is b e lie f in e v il resu lted in the con cep t of m o rta l m an as a sin n e r . When A dam ate fro m the tr e e of know ledge o f good and e v il, a g a in st the in stru ctio n s of God, he f e ll fro m the g ra ce of God, accord in g to orthodox C h ristian th eo lo g y . A ccord in g to C h ristia n S cie n c e, a ll that kept m an from g ra ce w as h is b e lie f in a m a te r ia l, e v il u n iv e r s e . M rs. Eddy taught that a God of L ove could not condem n m an to d ep ravity and sin . It w as m an 's m ista k en con cep t o f God and h im s e lf i jthat condem ned m an to d ep ravity. But m an, thinking fro m the m o r ta l I m ind p e r sp e c tiv e , w as indeed in a state of se lf-im p o s e d s in . M rs. iEddy brought togeth er two popular th eo lo g ica l v ie w s w ith th is p e r s p e c tiv e , allo w in g fo llo w e r s to a ccep t both. M ortal m an a g ree d w ith th e C a lv in istic notion of m an; h er v iew that sp iritu a l m an w as good and the c h ild of a lo v in g God w as c o n siste n t w ith lib e r a l th eology. Two V iew s o f W om anhood j M rs. Eddy u sed argu m en tative sy n th e sis in a third w ay. She i {united w hat ap p eared to be two sep a ra te v ie w s of w om anhood. The i '"Victorian v ie w held that w om en w ere by nature r e lig io u s , s e n s itiv e , 90 in tu itiv e, e m o tio n a l, ten d er, com fo rtin g , e tc . The V ictorian v ie w o f m en w as that they w e r e e s s e n tia lly d iffere n t fro m w om en: ra tio n a l, in te lle c tu a l, tough, co n cern ed w ith w o rld ly m a tte r s , and lack ed ten d er- 91 n e s s . On the o th er hand, m any a d vocates of the w o m en 's m o v em en t 1 7 during the turn o f the cen tu ry argued that w om en should b eco m e m o re like m en , and so m e of the e x tr e m is ts sought to em u la te m a scu lin e 92 c h a r a c te r is ts . M rs. Eddy p osited an argu m en t th at en co m p a ssed both the V icto ria n and the R a d ica l F e m in is t points o f v ie w s. She argued th at the q u a lities a sso c ia te d w ith w om enhood such as te n d e r n e s s, in tu ition , p iety, and purity w e r e q u a litie s in h eren t in both m en and w om en . C o n v e r se ly , the m a sc u lin e q u a lities su ch a s stren g th , c o u r a ge, and in te lle c t w ere a ls o in h eren t in w om en a s w e ll as m en . It w as j n e c e s s a r y for both m en and w om en to e x p r e ss th e ir m a scu lin e and I Jfeminine s id e s fo r them to be co m p lete in d iv id u a ls. | ! Both m en and w om en , M rs. Eddy b e lie v e d , should e x p r e s s th eir c o m p le te n e s s : Union of the m a scu lin e and fem in in e q u a lities co n stitu tes c o m p le te n e s s . The m a scu lin e m ind r e a c h e s a h igher ton e through c e r ta in e le m e n ts of the fem in in e , w h ile the fem in in e m in d gains cou rage and stren g th through m a sc u lin e q u a litie s. T h e se d ifferen t e l e m en ts conjoin n atu rally w ith each o th er, and th e ir true harm ony is in sp ir itu a l o n e n e ss. B oth s e x e s should be lo v in g , p u re, ten d er, and s t r o n g .93 |F or M rs. Eddy, the u ltim a te rea lity w as "the unity of m ale and fem a le i las no lon g er two w edded in d iv id u a ls, but as two in d ividu al n a tu res in i lone; and th is com pounded sp ir itu a l in d ivid u ality r e fle c ts God a s F a th e r - I 94 M other, not as a co r p o r e a l being." I M rs. Eddy rea ch ed th is notion o f o n e n e ss th e o lo g ic a lly . B e ca u se God w as F a th er-M o th er , em bodying both th e m a scu lin e and fem in in e q u a litie s, so g en e r ic m an, the r e fle c tio n o r e x p r e ssio n of w th is F a th er-M o th er God, in clud ed both m ale and fem a le q u a litie s. The r e fle c tio n of God did not m a n ife st on ly half of G od's q u a lities but r e - 9 5 flee ted th em a ll. C onseq u en tly, g en eric m an included both m a sc u lin e and fem in in e q u a litie s. M rs. Eddy pointed out that J esu s p r e se n te d the m a sc u lin e idea of God and that h er own w ritin g s p r esen ted the fem in in e id ea of God. When both th e se a sp ects o f God w e r e fu lly u n d erstood , she look ed fo r the appearance of the com p lete g e n e r ic m an jwho e x p r e s s e d both the m a sc u lin ity and fem in ity of God: I . . . the m anhood and w om enhood of God h ave alread y b een r e v e a le d in a d e g ree through C h r ist Jesu s and C h ristia n S c ie n c e , H is two w itn e s s e s . What rem a in s to lead on the c e n tu r ie s and I i r ev e a l m y s u c c e s s o r , is m an in the im age and lik e n e ss o f the F a th er-M o th er God. . . . ^6 If the in d ividu al w as deeply p e r c e p tiv e , he could sen se in tu itiv e ly ! Iman's c o m p le te n e ss . "Look long enough," she sa id , "and you s e e m a le 9 7 and fe m a le on e. . . ." A lthough M rs. Eddy did not d ev elo p th is c o n cep t w ith the d eta il sh e did h er oth er m ajor te n e ts , the notion th at both jmen and w om en should e x p r e s s both sid e s of th e ir being b eca m e an I 98 'im portant id ea in the C h ristia n S c ie n c e m o vem en t. I Sum m ary I j T h is ch ap ter has d is c u s se d the nature and function o f B la c k 's i | notion of a rg u m en ta tiv e s y n th e s is. A rgu m en tative sy n th e sis w as s e e n to be a str a te g y th at e n c o m p a sse s v ie w s on both sid e s of a given c o n tr o v e r sy , it "is a str a te g y o f the rh etor in o rd erin g and su b su m in g the 95 99 Ideas of a c o n tr o v e r sy under a g en era l point of v ie w ." A rgum entative sy n th e sis is a la r g e r type o f argum ent in w hich "The atten tion o f the auditor is turned to id ea s that su b su m e the is s u e s o f the o r ig in a l d is - 100 pute." C h ristia n S c ie n c e w as se e n to be an in sta n ce o f a rg u m en ta tive s y n th e s is, fo r M rs. Eddy sy n th e siz e d id ea s of s c ie n c e and C h r is t ia n ity , C a lv in istic and lib e r a l n otion s of the nature of God and m an , land the V icto ria n and R a d ica l F e m in ist v ie w o f the ro le o f w om en . The ! i next ch ap ter w ill ex p lo re the in h eren t p e r su a siv e appeal of a rg u m en ta tiv e sy n th e sis and d em on strate how M rs. E ddy's argu m en ta tiv e sy n th e tic d octrin e ap p ealed to m any p o st C iv il W ar A m e r ic a n s. I ~ w N otes 1 Edw in B la ck , R h eto rica l C r itic ism : A Study in M ethod (New Y ork, 1965), pp. 149- 2Ibid. , p. 150. 3Ibid. , p. 155. 4 Ibid. , p. 173. 3Ibid. , p. 150. 6Ibid. 7I b id ., pp. 151 ^Ibid. , p. 152. 9Ibid. , p. 156. Ibid. 1 ^ b id . , p. 156. 1 2 t k Ibid. , p. 157. 13Ibid. 14Ibid. *3I b id ., pp. 157 1 6 . . . , Ibid. , p. 159. 1 7 t k Ibid. , p. 158. Ibid. , p. 159. 19T U .„ Ibid. , p. 177. 2^C arl N. D egle 1900 (G len view , I llin o is , [n. d. ] ) , pp. 2 -1 8 . T f 21 M ary B aker E ddy, S c ie n c e and H ealth w ith Key to the S c r ip - tu r e s (B o sto n , 1906), p. 313. M ost of the cita tio n s fro m M r s. E d d y's w orks w ere fro m S cien ce and H ealth. B eca u se it is the fundam ental textbook of the m o v em en t, m o st of th is in v estig a tio n of C h ristia n S c ie n c e c e n te r s on th is book. 22Ibid. , p. 476. 23Ibid. , P- 98. 24I b id ., P- 110. Ibid. , P* 496. 26Ibid. , PP . v iii, 110 27I b id ., P- 4 3 7 , 546, Ibid. , P- 55. 29 Ibid. 3 ° t „ Lym an P,. P o w e ll, i. 1950). P- 178. 31 S cie n c e and H ealth, 32T K - , I b id ., P- 111. 33I b id ., P- 391. 34Ibid. , P- 3. 35I b id ., P- 492. 36 tk Ibid. I b id ., P- 31. 38I b id ., P- 259. 39Ibid. 4 °Ib id . , PP . 399, 469 98 4 *Ibid. , p. 518. 42 Ibid. , p. 475. 4 3 „ . , Ibid. , p. 591. 44 I b id ., p. 554. 45 Ibid. , p. 477. 4 ^Ibid. , p. 337. 47 N aom i P r ic e , "Som e R u les of C h r istia n H e a lin g ," The C hris tian S c ie n c e Jou rn al, LXXXIX (Septem ber 1971), 482. 48 Ibid. 49 M ary B aker E ddy, M isce lla n eo u s W ritin gs in P r o s e W orks (B oston , 1925), p. 89. 50 S cien ce and H ealth , p. 395. ^*Ibid. , pp. 57, 232. ^ Ibid. , p. 447. ^ Ibid. , p. 455. 54 Ibid. , p. 600; The C h ristia n S cie n c e J o u rn a l, LXXXIX (S ep tem b er 1971), 660. ^ S e e M isc e lla n e o u s W ritings in P r o s e W ork s, pp. 4 0 1 -4 6 0 . ^ H e n r y S te e le C om m ager, The A m eric a n Mind (N ew H aven, 1950), p. 93. 57 W illiam J a m e s, "What P r a g m a tism M ean s, " in The A m e r i can P r a g m a tis ts , ed . M ilton R. K onvitz and G ail Kennedy (C levelan d , 1964), p. 32. 58 Ibid. , p. 32. 59 I b id ., p. 33. 99 M rs. Eddy w as ill m u ch of the tim e p rior to d isco v erin g C h ristia n S c ie n c e . A fter h er d isc o v e r y , M rs. Eddy w as e x tr e m e ly a ctiv e in p rom oting h er r e lig io n and did not show sig n s of illn e s s or fa tig u e. S ee P o w e ll, pp. 1 9 9 -2 1 0 . ^ S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. v ii. 62 I b id ., p. 346. ^3I b id ., p. 323. 64Ibid. , pp. 4 7 1 -4 7 2 . 65 M ary B aker Eddy, U nity of Good in P r o s e W ork s, pp. 9 -1 0 . ^ S cie n c e and H ealth , p. 342. 67Ibid. , p. 27. 68 , , _ I b id ., p. 67. 69Ibid. , p. 111. 70 F r a n c is M. C ornford, P la to 's T h eory of K now ledge (New Y ork, 1957), p. 2. 7 *Ibid. , p. 6 . 72 P la to , R ep ub lic in The C o llected D ia lo g u es of P la to (New Y ork, 1961), p. 747. 73 It cannot be said that M rs. Eddy c o n sc io u sly u sed P la to 's d o ctrin e of id ea s as the b a sis o f h er r e lig io n . T h ere is nothing in h er w ritin g s to in d ica te sh e know ingly em p loyed th is co n stru ct. N or can it be said that M rs. E d d y's th eo lo g y was the sa m e as P la to 's philosophy. P la to was noted b eca u se M rs. E ddy's d o ctrin e contained P la to n ic e l e m e n ts. M r s. E ddy's th eology w as probably c lo s e r to P a rm e n id es' v ie w , which extended P la to 's d o ctrin e of id e a s . P a r m e n id e s denied the e x iste n c e of a ll that w as ch an geab le and fle e tin g , h e n c e , he denied phenom enal e x iste n c e w h erea s fo r P la to , "the tra n sien t e x iste n c e or 'b ecom in g' of se n sib le things in the w orld of ap p earan ce w as to be grounded in the w orld of true b ein g by so m e kind of p articip ation ; they w ere thus to be endow ed with an am biguous h a lf-r e a lity not le ft, as in P a r m e n id e s' u n com p ro m isin g s y s te m , to ta lly unsupported. " F or P a r - mftnirifla, thp wnrIH nf hprnminowaii totally unreal. r n mfnrri, p. 7 74 S c ie n c e and H ealth, 75Ibid. 7 6 . . . , Ibid. P- 169. ?7Ibid. P- 115. 78Ibid. PP 2 8 1 -2 8 2 . 79 Ibid. P- 336. 80Ibid. P- 516. 81Ibid. P- 517. 82Ibid. P- 518. 83Ib id . P- 521. 84Ibid. PP 5 2 1 -5 2 2 . 85Ibid. P- 522. 8 6 t . . . Ibid. P- 523. 8 7 t k . , Ibid. P- 524. Ibid. P- 526. 89r. . . Ibid. 90 B a rb a ra W eltn er, 1 I8 6 0 , " A m e r ic a n Q u a r te r ly , LXXXVII (Sum m er 1966), p. 152. 9 L . . . Ibid. W illia m L. O 'N e ill, " F em in ism a s a R a d ica l Id eology, " D issen t: E x p lo ra tio n s in the H isto r y of A m eric a n R a d ic a lism , ed. 92 A lfred F . Young (De K alb, I llin o is , 1968), p. 276. 93 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 57. 101 *^M ary B aker E ddy, " M essage to the M other C hurch, 1901, " in P r o s e W orks, p. 7. ^ M a r y B aker E ddy, F ir s t Church of C h r ist, S c ie n tist and M isce lla n y in P r o s e W ork s, p. 347. ^ Ibid. , p. 268. 98 See fo r ex a m p le, M ary E liza b eth L e e v e r , "M otherhood and W om en's L ib, " C h ristian S cie n c e S en tin e l, LXXI1I (S ep tem b er 18, 1971), 1641-1644; W innifred B. L angbridge, " L ib eration fo r A ll, " C h ristian S c ie n c e S en tin el, LXXIII (O ctober 16, 1971), 1808-1809; and R ose M. H en n ik er-H eaton , F re ed o m and C o m p le te n e ss, " C h ristian S cien ce S en tin el, LXXIII (A pril 3, 1971), 5 7 3 -5 7 6 . 99 B la ck , p. 173. 1 0 0 T U J , , r I b id ., p. 155. CH A PTER IV CHRISTIAN SCIENC E RHETORIC- - INHERENT A P P E A L S I M rs. E ddy's d octrin e ap p ealed to an e s s e n tia lly m id d le and upper c la s s au d ien ce. H er d octrin e had an in te lle c tu a l appeal that attra cted m any la w y e r s, te a c h e r s , b u sin e ssm e n and even so m e m ed ica l d o c to r s. On the su r fa c e , m any o f M rs. E ddy's id ea s would s e e m ra d ica l and u n attractive to h er au d ien ce of lite r a te , m id d le c la s s A m eric a n s. The "faith h ealin g" e le m e n t of th e r elig io n and su ch id ea s as God is Mind, a ll rea lity is m en ta l, e v il is u n rea l, would s e e m fo reig n to the e x p e r ie n c e s and v a lu e s of m o st m iddle c la s s A m e r ic a n s. But the C h ristia n S c ie n c e d o ctrin e on ly s e e m s fo reig n to its au d ien ce. Though m any o f M rs. E d d y's id ea s appear unorthodox and I e x tr e m e , h er d octrin e con tain ed id e a s w ith w hich m any m iddle and upper c la s s A m eric a n s cou ld id en tify . T his chapter a rg u es that C h ristia n S c ie n c e w as p e r su a siv e b e c a u se it r e c o n c ile d co n flictin g id ea s during the p eriod and o ffe r e d it s au d ien ce a coh eren t, c o n siste n t sy n th e sis advancing id ea s m any A m e r ic a n s a lrea d y id en tified w ith or id e a s they could e a s ily a c c e p t. 102 103 T h is ch ap ter w ill (1) d e ta il the fa c t that M rs. E ddy's d octrin e did indeed have w id e sp r e a d ap p eal betw een 1875 and 1910, (2) d em on s tr a te that the appeal o f C h ristia n S cien ce w a s to m id d le and upper c la s s A m eric a n s, (3) exam in e the in tr in sic p e r su a siv e appeal of a rg u m en tative sy n th e s is , and (4) d em o n stra te s p e c ific a lly how M rs. E ddy's d octrin e w as p e r s u a siv e to h er au d ien ce. W id esp read A pp eal of the M ovem ent M rs. Eddy w a s s u c c e s s fu l in gaining the a ccep ta n ce o f h er d octrin e by m any m id d le c la s s A m eric a n s during the y e a r s o f h er m in is tr y . D uring her e a r ly m in is tr y , sh e had little m on ey or p r e s tig e , often "bartering h er tea ch in g s fo r room and board w ith individual h o sts and cou p les liv in g in the en v iro n s of B oston." * M r s. E ddy's f ir s t s tu dents w ere la r g e ly fa c to r y w o r k e r s in Lynn, M a ssa c h u se tts, and they w ere "not a p a r tic u la r ly p ro m isin g group fo r the study of h igh er m e ta - 2 p h y sics." When M r s . Eddy m o v ed to B oston , sh e w as able to r e a c h a Larger audience and th e co m p o sitio n of h er audience changed fro m fa c - 3 bory w o rk ers to m id d le c la s s A m e r ic a n s. M rs. Eddy m o v ed to B oston in 1882. By 1888, she had m ade co n sid era b le p r o g r e s s in d issem in a tin g h er r e lig io n . In dicative of M rs. E ddy's grow ing ca u se w as h er sp eech at the th ird annual m eetin g cf the N ational A ss o c ia tio n of C h ristia n S c ie n tists h eld in C hicago in 1888. M rs. Eddy d e liv e r e d an a d d ress to an o v erflo w in g crow d of ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- r o r about 4, 000, and n ew sp ap er accou n ts in d icated the sp eech w as quite s u c c e s s fu l. So en th u sia stic w as the au d ien ce at the end of the sp eech 4 that they " p recip itated a n ear rio t." F u rth er ev id en ce of the continuing s u c c e s s o f C h ristia n S cien ce w as the annual m eetin g o f the M other C hurch in B oston in 1902 in w hich an e stim a te d 8 ,0 0 0 C h ristia n S c ie n tists " traveled fro m a ll p a rts of the 5 country to attend." The grow ing w ealth of the m ov em en t w as a lso pndicated by the fa c t that in 1906, the M other C hurch e x ten sio n , w hich c o s t o ver two m illio n d o lla r s, w as b u ilt and d ed icated debt fr e e . By 1907, a C h r istia n S c ie n c e p ublishing h ou se w as under co n stru ctio n . And in 1908, a m onth a fter M rs. Eddy announced her in te r e st in a d aily n ew sp ap er devoid of se n sa tio n a lism , The C h ristia n S c ie n c e M onitor w as e sta b lish e d by h er fo llo w e r s . It b eca m e a n ew sp ap er of in tern a tio n a l a c c la im .^ A noth er index of the grow ing sta tu r e and in te r e s t in C h ristian S cie n c e w a s that a d eleg a tio n of p rom in en t C h ristia n S c ie n tists p a r tic i pated in the W orld's P a r lia m e n t of R e lig io n s held in conjunction w ith 7 th e C hicago C olum bian E x p o sitio n . The p resid en t o f the W orld's C o n g r ess A u x ilia r y , C h a rles C . B oon ey, sp eak in g to C h ristia n S c ie n t is t s said : No m o re strik in g m a n ifesta tio n of the in terp o sitio n of divine P ro v id en ce in hum an a ffa ir s h as co m e in rec en t y e a r s than that shown in the r a isin g of the body o f p eople w hich you r e p r e se n t. . . . C ath olic and P r o te sta n t, B a p tist and P r e sb y te r ia n , M ethodist and F r ie n d s, U n itarian s and C o n g r e g a tio n a lists, m ay a ll thank 105 God for the new en erg y and life contributed to the w o rld , and s p e c ific a lly to C h risten d o m , by you and th ose whom you r e p r e sen t. ® And a publication a n ta g o n istic to C h ristia n S c ie n c e , The C o n g reg a tio n - a list, adm itted "that none o f the c o n g r e s s e s . . . has draw n such im - 9 m en se audience as that o f C h r istia n Science." M rs. E ddy's fo llo w e r s grew fr o m a handful of fa c to r y w o r k e r s and th eir w iv e s in the 1870's to 8 , 724 ch u rch m em b ers by 1 8 9 0 .^ B y 1900, church m e m b e r sh ip clim b ed to 4 8 ,9 3 0 , and in 1910 m e m b e r sh ip 1 11 had in c r e a se d to 8 5 ,0 9 6 . T h ese fig u r e s do not include num erous in d ividu als who attended C h r istia n S c ie n c e s e r v ic e s but did not m e e t 12 the rigorou s m e m b e r sh ip r e q u ir e m e n ts. T h ese in d ivid u als read th e lite r a tu r e and in a ll r e s p e c ts oth er than fo rm a l m e m b e r sh ip w ere p ra cticin g C h ristia n S c ie n tis ts . N or do th ese m em b ersh ip figu res in clud e ch ild ren o f C h r istia n S c ie n tists under 12 y e a r s o f ag e. A nother index o f C h r istia n S c ie n c e grow th are in c r e a s e s in th e num ber of w eek ly C h r istia n S cie n c e ch u rch s e r v ic e s during the p e r io d . 13 In 1890, th ere w e r e 222 s e r v ic e s , 635 in 1906, and 1075 in 1910. C h ristian S c ie n c e p r a c titio n e r s provide another index of th e s u c c e s s o f M rs. E ddy's r e lig io u s d o c tr in e . In 1883, th ere w ere 13 lis te d p r a c ti tio n e r s in The C h r istia n S c ie n c e J o u rn a l, in 1885, 43; in 1887, 111; 14 in 1892, 304; by 1905, 3000, and in 1915, 5034 p r a c titio n e r s. The grow th and sta tu r e of the m ovem en t is also su g g este d by the num ber of ch u rch b u ild in gs co n stru cted during the p erio d . The ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- r u r ~ "great C h r istia n S c ie n c e building boom " sta rted w ith the co n stru ctio n 15 of the B o sto n M other C hurch in 1895. T h ere w e r e 7 ch u rch b u ild in gs in 1890; 1, 104 in 1910.*^ T h ese ch u rch es, a s C unningham noted, w e r e sp read "throughout th e country" and w ere " gleam in g c la s s ic te m p le s, adorned w ith colu m n ed p o rtico e s and crow ned w ith d om es o f T iffany g la s s . . . the c h o se n a rch ite ctu ra l e x p r e ss io n s of the new and p r o s - 17 pering faith ." By the 1890's C h ristia n S c ie n c e w as sp rea d in g to fo reig n c o u n t r ie s . In 1892, 4 p r a c titio n e r s w ere liste d in T he C h ristia n S cien ce X 8 Journal fr o m fo reig n c o u n tr ie s. In 1905, th e r e w ere 196, and by 19 1915, 49 9 . T h ere w e r e 10 C h ristia n S cien ce ch u rch es and s o c ie tie s in fo reig n co u n tries by 1892; by 1905 there w e r e 65; and by 1915 th e r e 20 w ere 165 ch u rch es and s o c ie tie s . C h ristian S cie n c e w as le a s t popu la r in C ath olic c o u n tr ie s such as Spain, P o rtu g a l, as w e ll a s a ll of „ a . 21 South A m e r ic a . B y 1910, M r s. Eddy had published n u m erou s b ook s, founded a publishing h o u se, p rin ted four p e r io d ic a ls , e sta b lish e d C o m m ittees on P u b lica tio n , a B oard of L ectu re sh ip , a parent ch u rch organ ization w ith n um erous branch c h u r c h e s, had a com m itted fo llo w in g , and a m a sse d a sig n ific a n t p e r so n a l fortu n e. Such w ere the im m ed ia te r e su lts of h er m in is tr y . And C h r istia n S cie n c e h as continued to gro w after M r s. E ddy's death. De Nood in d ica ted that "the m em b ersh ip in 1928 had sp read to ------------------------------------------------------------------T O 7 a ll the con tin en ts o f the w orld ," to p red om in ately p ro testa n t and in d u s- 22 tr ia liz e d c o u n tr ie s. Bryan Epps stated th at C h ristia n S cien ce had developed and grow n in r e c e n t y e a r s: S in ce 1940, the grow th o f the C h r istia n S cie n c e m ovem en t has continued . . . F or in sta n c e , th ere have ap p eared new tra n sla tio n s of S c ie n c e and H ea lth , the Q u a rter ly , and the H erald; branch ch u rch es have been added; and in the p ast 10 y e a r s the num ber o f C h r istia n S cie n c e o rg a n iza tio n s at u n iv er s itie s and c o lle g e s has m ore than doubled. 23 And P fautz in d icated the co n tem p orary d evelop m en t of the m ovem en t when he concluded: In 1950, w hich w as the s e v e n ty -fifth a n n iv ersa ry of the publication of the C h ristia n S c ie n c e textb ook , so m e 7, 500 S c ie n tists fro m a ll o v er the w orld m et in B oston for the Annual M eeting of the M other C hurch. The n ew ly e le c te d p resid en t w as the son of a w h o le sa le g r o c e r , a fo r m e r E p isco p a lia n , and educated at A ndover and Y a le. The m a n ager of the P u b lish in g S o cie ty announced that eight m illio n lin e s of a d v ertisin g had been c a r r ie d in the M onitor during the y e a r , including o v er 2 5 ,0 0 0 a d v e r tis e r s, and rep re se n tin g an in c r e a s e of 5 ,0 0 0 lin e s over the p rev io u s y e a r . The M onitor that y e a r , won a P u litiz e r P r iz e for in tern a tu ra l rep ortin g, and 'The M onitor V iew s the N ew s' radio p rogram w a s c a r r ie d by ap p ro x im a tely one hundred sta tio n s of the A m eric a n B road ca stin g C om pany. In m any r e s p e c ts , C h ristia n S c ie n c e could be sa id to have 'a r r iv e d .'^4 C h ristia n S cien ce a M iddle C la s s M ovem ent M rs. Eddy f ir s t m in iste r e d to the w orking c la s s people of L ynn, M a ssa ch u setts in the 1870's. H er d octrin e w as u n attractive to th is so c ia l ranking, and the s u c c e s s o f her m o v em en t w as lim ite d to a handful o f p eo p le. When she m o v ed her m in istr y fro m the fa cto ry tow n o f Lynn to the c ity o f B oston , sh e w as a b le to rea ch a la r g e r audience T T Jff with m o re d iv e r se b ack grou n d s. In B oston her re lig io n soon gained support fr o m m id d le and upper m iddle c la s s p eo p le. M r s . Eddy's com m en t regardin g her 1888 c la s s in d ica te s how the s o c ia l sta tu s of C h ristia n S cien ce changed fro m fa c to r y w o r k e r s in Lynn to th e "better" c la s s e s : B y th e tim e th is rea c h e s our r e a d e r s , a P r im a r y C la s s of 45 m e m b e r s , r e p r e se n tin g 14 sta te s and C anada, w ill have c o m pleted th e c o u r se . In th is c la s s th e r e a re c le r g y m e n , p h y sic ia n s, a d e n tist, te a c h e r s, and w iv e s of g o v e r n o r s, b e s id e s o th er n o te w orthy m e m b e r s . ^5 And in 1899, a Jou rn al n o tice proudly announced: T he r e s e r v e d pew on the m ain flo o r w as held for and o ccu p ied by the C ou n tess o f D unm ore, her son Lord F in c a s tle , and h er d aughter, Lady M ild red M urry, who had com e to A m eric a e s p e c ia lly to be p r e se n t at th is annual com m union. The c o u n te ss and h e r husband, the E a rl of D unm ore are C h ristian S c ie n tis ts , as a re th e ir c h ild r en . 26 A s D e Nood sa id a fter exam in ing C h ristian S cie n c e lite r a tu r e during th e period: "Since th o se days, w hen m em b ers of the p r o fe s sio n a l c la s s and the p eera g e o c c a sio n e d sp e c ia l m en tion in C h ristia n S cien ce lite r a tu r e , th e m em b ersh ip o f C h ristian S cie n c e h as grad u ally r ise n in s o c ia l sta tu s u n til today it c o n s is ts of, and is m ain ly r e c r u ite d 27 fro m the m id d le and upper c la s s e s ." I m p r e ssio n istic data fro m w rite r s at th e turn o f the cen tu ry co n firm De N ood's sta tem en t o f the 28 e s s e n tia lly m id d le c la s s nature of C h ristia n S c ie n tists . And recen t sc h o la r s h a v e docum ented the m iddle c la s s nature o f C h ristia n S c ie n c e by u tiliz in g su ch in d ic ie s as church m em b ersh ip , m a g a zin e r e a d e r sh ip , 109 29 fe r tility , e t c . Pfautz indicated that C hristian S cience has sustained the m iddle c la s s nature of its m em b ersh ip : "em ploying th e o ccu p ation al o r ig in s of t e s tifie r s (w hose p ro to co ls a re p u blish ed in the Journal) betw een 1920 and 1950 as a cru d e index of s ta tu s, the p erce n ta g e of w h ite- c o lla r and p r o fe ss io n a l te s tifie r s has in c r e a se d fr o m 84 per cen t in the period 1921-30, to 87 per cen t in the d ecad e 1 9 3 1 -4 0 , and to 97 per 30 c en t in the decade 1 9 4 1 -5 0 ." De Nood had " c o n siste n tly found that S c ie n tists a r e 'w ell-to -d o ' and gain th eir liv in g m a in ly fr o m n on -m an u al .,31 occu p ation s Joh n son stren gth en ed th e con ten tion that C h r istia n S c ie n tists a r e m iddle c la s s w ith an in te r e stin g s ta tis tic a l argu m en t. He em p loyee C h ristia n S cien ce p r a c titio n e r s as h is population b eca u se th ere w as am p le s ta tis tic a l data availab le for th is group, and b e c a u se p r a c ti tio n e r s a p p ear to be o f e s s e n tia lly the sa m e s o c io -e c o n o m ic stra ta a s o th er C h ristia n S c ie n tis ts . Johnson sa id : ! T he high n eg a tiv e c o r r e la tio n b etw een p r a c titio n e r ratio and per ce n t of w o r k e r s em p loyed in m a n u factu rin g and m ech a n ica l in d u str ie s, cou p led w ith a p o sitiv e c o r r e la tio n betw een p r a c ti tio n ers rate and p er cent o f w o rk ers em p lo y ed in tra d e adds c o n sid era b le w eig h t to our a ssu m p tio n that C h ristia n S cien ce appeals ch iefly to the m id d le c la s s , fo r it is in m od ern in d u stry that th e m id d le -c la s s e n te r p r ise r h a s been m o s t n ea rly o b lit erated . . . w h ile he has s t ill been a b le to h old h is own fa ir ly w e ll in tra d e, though the p r o c e ss o f c h a in -s to r e m erch a n d isin g p r o m is e s soon to do for th e sm a ll, in d ep en d en t m erch a n t what m a ss production and co rp orate o rg a n iza tio n h as a lr ea d y done for in d u stry . 32 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n rr When Johnson look ed c lo s e ly at the city o f St. L o u is, he found fu rth er s ta tis tic a l ev id e n c e o f the m id d le c la s s natu re o f the m ovem en t. A gain u sin g p r a c titio n e r s a s an in d ex, he found that they liv e d in m id d le c la s s d w e llin g s, d e fin ite ly did not p r a c tic e in w e lfa r e a r e a s , and liv e d in a r e a s o f in term e d ia te m o b ility . Johnson pointed out that a r e a s o f in term e d ia te m o b ility w ere populated by the m id d le c la s s e s , " very low being c h a r a c te r is tic of the sta b le , c o n se r v a tiv e p lu to cra cy , w hile v e r y high m o b ility is c h a r a c te r is tic of the lo w e st eco n o m ic 33 c la s s ." C h ristian S cie n c e w a s th e r e fo r e a ttra ctiv e to the m id d le c la s s , not the poor. T h is m ay h ave been b eca u se M rs. E ddy's d octrin e cou ld be v ie w ed as condem ning the poor fo r th eir pligh t: th e ir p overty and sta tio n in life cou ld be due to th eir m en ta l attitu d e. C h r istia n S c ie n t is t s seld o m conducted urban m is s io n a r y w ork to d ir e c tly a s s is t the poor o r to s o lic it th e ir m e m b e r sh ip in the ch u rch . But a C h ristian S c ie n c e D isp e n sa r y A ss o c ia tio n w as founded during the turn of the 34 cen tu ry to h elp the urban p o o r. The p u rp o ses of the th irty d isp e n s a r ie s of the A sso c ia tio n w e r e to p r e se n t in form ation and talk s on C h r istia n S c ie n c e in the p o o rer se c tio n s of the c ity , p rovid e fr e e tr e a t m en t in C h ristia n S c ie n c e , and d istrib u te C h ristia n S c ie n c e lite r a tu r e to th o se who cou ld not afford it. The d is p e n sa r ie s w e r e not s u c c e s s fu l and w e r e soon abandoned. M rs. N o y e s, one of the fou n d ers of a d is p en sa ry in C h icago, r e c a lle d the ven tu re: I l l M em b ers of o u r d isp en so r y [s ic ] took c e r ta in h ou rs in poor d is tr ic ts o f the c ity at that tim e to take C h r istia n S cie n c e to the poor w ithout m o n ey, a lso taking them lite r a tu r e , c lo th e s , and m oney to pay th eir fa r e s to the d isp en so r y room s when th ey w ere unable to co m e fo r trea tm en t. It m ean t to il and s e lf - s a c r if ic e on the p a rt of the d ifferen t m e m b e r s who o ffic ia te d , but a ll w ere w illin g to do th eir b e st. N otw ithstanding it w as m ade a s e a s ily as it cou ld p o ssib ly be fo r the p a tien ts, it w as a fla t fa ilu r e . 35 N eith er w ere n ew ly a rriv ed im m ig ra n ts in the c itie s a ttra cted to C h ristian S c ie n c e . The F ifth Annual M eeting R ep ort of the N ational C h ristian S c ie n c e A s so c ia tio n in 1890 op en ly in d icated the fa ilu r e of 3 6 C h ristian S c ie n c e to a ttra ct th ese new im m ig r a n ts. One apparent r ea so n w as th at at th is tim e m o st o f the C h ristia n S cie n c e lite r a tu r e (was in E n g lish , and it w as not until la te r y e a r s that the lite r a tu r e w as tra n sla ted into fo reig n la n g u a g es. T he fa ct w as that no continued attem p t w as m ade by C h r istia n S c ie n tists to a ttr a c t im m ig ra n ts to the ch u rch . ^ B la ck A m eric a n s are a lso co n sp icu o u sly a b sen t in the C h ristia n S cien ce m o v em en t. L ittle m ention of b lack p eop le is m ade in C h r ist ian S cie n c e lite r a tu r e around the turn of the cen tu ry . N or w e r e th ere any p rom in en t black le a d e r s in the m o v em en t. Johnson stud ied th is " infrequency o f N eg ro es in the M ovem ent" and con clu d ed that " C h rist ian S cien ce s e e m s to have little appeal to the N eg ro ," and of the 1, 321 ch u rch es and 731 s o c ie tie s " he in v e stig a te d , "only two ch u rch es and 38 tw o s o c ie it ie s w ere d istin g u ish ed a s 'C olored . '" No ev id e n c e e x ists to in d icate sig n ific a n t in te r e s t in C h ristia n S cie n c e by b lack A m eric a n s --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- n r during any part of the ch u rch 's h is to r y . T hat C h ristian S cie n c e ap p ealed to m id d le c la s s A m eric a n s is quite c le a r . C h ristia n S c ie n tists w e r e not b lack , poor o r illite r a te , nor w e r e they im m ig r a n ts. They fo rm ed a fa ir ly a ccu ra te c r o s s s e c tion o f the A m erica n m id d le c la s s . But why did a "faith h ealing" re lig io n that p osited a ll r e a lity as m en ta l and denied e v il co m p lete ly , appeal to th is au d ien ce? An im p ortan t re a so n for th is appeal w as that M rs. Eddy sy n th e siz e d m any id e a s a ttr a c tiv e and b e lie v a b le to her au d ien ce. To fu lly understan d the C h ristia n S c ie n c e ap p eal, it is e s s e n tia l to understand its m o st fu n dam en tal c h a r a c te r is tic : its argu m en tative syn th etic n a tu re, fo rm and co m p o sitio n . The In tr in sic A ppeal o f A rg u m en tative S y n th esis In th is se c tio n of the ch a p ter, the in h eren t ap p eal o f argu m en ta tiv e sy n th e sis w ill be an alyzed; th en the s p e c ific w ays in w hich M rs. E ddy's m e s s a g e w as m ad e p e r su a siv e by v ir tu e o f its argu m en tative syn th etic ch a ra cte r w ill be ex a m in ed . O nly a fter su ch a study can one fu lly exp lain the appeal of C h r istia n S c ie n c e . A rgu m en tative sy n th e sis is p e r su a siv e in a num ber o f w ays. F ir s t, argu m en tative sy n th e sis o c c u r s w h ere th ere is co n tr o v e r sy , and is a ttr a c tiv e b eca u se the id ea s in th e sy n th e sis do not a lien a te m any on e ith e r sid e in the o r ig in a l c o n tr o v e r sy . It w ould, though, probably a lien a te e x tr e m is ts and "true b e lie v e r s " on both sid e s of a given is s u e . 113 The rhetor o f the sy n th e s is d o es not d ir e c tly op p ose e ith e r sid e in the o rig in a l d isp u te. F o r ex a m p le, D ou glas' notion of P op u lar S o v ereig n ty w as n eith er an argum ent for or a g a in st th e ex ten sio n o f s la v e r y into the te r r ito r ie s , but rather en co m p a sse d both points of v ie w . B asin g h is sy n th e sis on th e a ccep ted p rin cip le of the rig h t of ea ch sta te to d e te r m ine its own in tr a -s ta te la w s, D ouglas argu ed that ea ch state or t e r rito r y had the right under the C on stitu tion to d eterm in e w hether o r not s la v e r y w as to be a llo w ed w ithin its b o r d e r s. The a ttr a c tiv e n e ss of th is sy n th e sis w as that it had th e p oten tial of not a lien a tin g m any on both sid e s of the o r ig in a l co n tr o v e r sy . B y not a lien a tin g its lis t e n e r s , argu m en tative sy n th e sis p rep a res the w ay fo r p e r su a sio n , or m a k es 39 p ersu a sio n l e s s d iffic u lt, by ren d erin g th e audience le s s h o s tile . S econ d , argu m en tative sy n th e sis adds to p e r su a sio n b e c a u se the id e a s of the sy n th e sis a r e a ttr a c tiv e to p eop le on both s id e s of the c o n tr o v e r sy , p eop le often caught b etw een the appeal of opposing s id e s . A rgu m en tative s y n th e sis is a ttr a c tiv e to the m id d le group on both sid e s of the d isp u te, or the u n d ecid ed . In th eir 1859 d eb a tes, for in sta n c e , both L incoln and D ou glas advanced id ea s a ttr a c tiv e to both proponents and opponents of the e x te n sio n o f sla v e r y . D ouglas u tiliz e d the id ea of " sta tes r ig h ts," w hile L in coln tr ie d to e s ta b lis h "a rela tio n sh ip betw een" h is p osition th a t s la v e r y w as im m o r a l "and th e tra d itio n s of the country, p a r tic u la r ly the id e a ls em b od ied in the D ecla ra tio n of 40 Independence and the in ten tion s e x p r e s s e d by the Founding F a th e r s." 114 A rgu m en tative sy n th e sis r e la te s to the id e a s and^values of m any m e m b ers o f the au d ien ce. T h e o r ists fr o m A r is to tle tj> K enneth B urke have in d icated the im p ortan ce of the rh etor id en tifyin g w ith the id ea s and valu es of h is au d ien ce. A th ird rea so n a rg u m en tative sy n th e sis is a ttra ctiv e to an au d ien ce is that it o ffe r s a th ird a lter n a tiv e to the o r ig in a l debate. The au d ien ce is not ask ed to a ccep t a c o m p ro m ise that r e a lly s a tis fie s n eith er s id e . A rgu m en tative sy n th e sis p r e se n ts a new option not p r e v io u sly apparent in the c o n tr o v e r sy , a third th e s is that b rin gs tog eth er p rev io u s th e s is and a n tith esis into a co h eren t s y n th e s is. N eith er sid e s e e s th e ir o rig in a l id ea su b se r v ie n t to an opponent's th e s is . In a s e n s e , argu m en tative sy n th e sis m a k es the o r ig in a l c o n tro v er sy " trivial" (to u se B la ck 's w ord) b eca u se "the is s u e s of the old c o n tr o v e r s y a re now se e n to be m in or e le m e n ts in a co m p lex s y s te m of 42 thought." And "the rh etor abandoned . . . c o n tr o v e r sy its e lf as a fo rm in favor of the ela b o ra tio n of a syn th etic co n cep t m uch g r e a te r in 43 sco p e than the is s u e s of the o r ig in a l co n tr o v e r sy ." B eca u se argu m en tative sy n th e sis p r e se n ts a "new" option, the rh etor h as the p oten tial fo r in c r e a sin g h is c r e d ib ility a s the so u rce of an o r ig in a l id ea , the c r e a to r o f a new a n sw er to a p e r sistin g p rob lem . B lack b e lie v e s argu m en tative sy n th e s is can even ela b o ra te the rh etor to "the statu s of prophet" w hen the rh etor id e n tifie s h im s e lf a s "the 44 so u rce of the sy n th e sis." ------------------------------------------------------------------nr W hile o fferin g a n ew a ltern a tiv e or option not p r e v io u sly p o sited , argu m en tative sy n th e sis r e la te s it s id eas to com m on v a lu e s and id e a s of the au d ien ce. It is a n o v el, in sig h tfu l a lter n a tiv e not u n fa m ilia r to the thinking and e x p e r ie n c e s of th e au d ien ce. F ourth, a rg u m en tative sy n th e sis o ffe r s a p o sitiv e , c o n siste n t, en co m p a ssin g co n cep t th at fo s te r s c o n cilia tio n and red u ces p sy c h o lo g ic a l s t r e s s . It s e e k s reso lu tio n o f co n flict and ten sio n , p resen tin g a view that e n c o m p a sse s a trou b led situ ation . It s e e k s to r e s o lv e p o la r iza tio n and w o rk s tow ard a u n ification of th e audience and a "healing" of the c o n tr o v e r sy . It p rovid es a way out o f a sta lem a ted or d ea d - I locked debate. One r e a so n for the p e r s u a siv e n e ss o f a rg u m en tative sy n th e sis is that people s e e k to red u ce ten sio n and " d isso n a n ce." M odern so c ia l p sy ch o lo g y supports the id ea that in d ivid u als s tr iv e to r e s o lv e co n flic t and a c h ie v e a c o n siste n t b e lie f sy ste m . S eco rd and B lackm an say in th eir te x t, S o cia l P s y c h o lo g y : One of the p re v a ilin g c h a r a c te r is tic s of hum an thought and b eh avior is it s ten d en cy to be c o n s is te n t. . • ■ S erio u s th in k ers throughout th e a g es h a v e often r e fe r r e d to the c o n siste n c y in hum an thought, f e e lin g s , and b eh a v io r, but only in rec en t y e a r s have b eh a v io ra l s c ie n tis ts given se r io u s attention to th is c o n c e p t. ^ T his c o n sis te n c y notion i s supported by su ch th e o r ie s a s H e id e r 's "balance th eo ry ," N ew com b 's " theory of sy m m etry ," O sgood and T an- nenbaum 's " theory of co n g ru ity ," F e s tin g e r 's "theory o f co g n itiv e d isso n a n ce," and M cG u ire's " tw o -p ro ce ss th eory of c o n s is t e n c y ." ^ Although th e se th e o r is ts d iffer in m any r e s p e c ts , th ey a ll c o n c e iv e --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- —— TTF people as se ek in g c o n siste n c y and co h ere n c y to th e ir b e lie f str u c tu r e s when th ey are con fron ted w ith co n tra d ictio n and c o n tr o v e r sy . A rg u m en tative sy n th e sis ap p eals to th is d e s ir e fo r c o n siste n c y . It o c c u r s when th e s e s a re in c o n flic t and th ere is sig n ific a n t " ten sion o f id e a s." A rgu m en tative sy n th e sis is an attem p t to bring c o h e r e n c e into the en tire a rg u m en tative situ a tio n . It is in c lu s iv e , e n c o m p a ssin g , and p o sitiv e in that it is an a ttem p t to r e s o lv e c o n flic t through s y n th e s is. The p h ilo s o p h e r -s o c io lo g is t, L e v y -B r u h l's notion of a " p a r tic i pation m y stiq u e" su pp orts the id ea that m en need to v ie w th e m s e lv e s 47 as p art o f a la r g e r s o c io lo g ic a l unit. And Jung's notion of the " co l le c tiv e u n co n scio u s" r e in fo r c e s the id ea that m en s e e k co h e r e n t and 48 u n iv e r sa l c o n str u c ts . A rgu m en tative sy n th e sis sp ea k s to m a n 's n eed to be part of a la r g e r b e lie f s y ste m , to sh a re u n iv e r sa l and u n ified c o n str u c ts s im ila r w ith oth er m e m b e r s of h is s o c ie ty . The P e r s u a s iv e n e s s of M rs. E ddy's U se of A rg u m en tative S y n th e sis T h is part o f the ch ap ter c o n s id e r s the q u estio n of why M rs. Eddy's d octrin e of C h ristia n S c ie n c e w as e s p e c ia lly p e r s u a siv e to m iddle c la s s A m e r ic a n s b etw een 1875 and 1910. T h is in v estig a tio n w ill (1) rev iew the p a rticu la r c o n tr o v e r sy M r s. E ddy's s y n th e sis r e c o n ciled , and (2) exa m in e how M r s. E ddy's d octrin e u tiliz e d the four p e r su a siv e p r in c ip le s in h eren t in argu m en ta tiv e sy n th e s is. 117 Science and C hristianity D uring the la tte r p art o f the n in eteen th cen tu ry , th ere w as grow ing c o n tr o v e r sy b etw een th o se who held s c ie n tific notions and thos< who adhered to tra d itio n a l C h ristia n d o c tr in e . T he grow ing in te r e s t in sc ie n c e c a u se d m any to q u estio n the adequacy of C h ristia n d octrin e in the m odern w o rld . M r s. E ddy's d o ctrin e was a r e sp o n se to his c o n flic t. To u n d erstan d the s u c c e s s of M r s . Eddy's r e lig io n , it is n e c e s sa r y to understan d the situ a tio n to w h ich her d octrin e w as a r e sp o n se . A m on u m ental sc ie n tific event o f the n in eteen th cen tu ry w a s the publication o f C h a rles D arw in 's O rigin o f S p e c ie s . It in flu en ced n ot only sc ie n tific thinking, but a lso a lm o st every stra tu m of in te lle c tu a l and a r tistic thought. It w as p a r tic u la r ly fe lt in th e a r ts , p h ilosop h y, 49 ec o n o m ic s, and r e lig io n . M o rriso n and C om m ager b e lie v e d that "from the y e a r 1859. w hen D arw in p u blish ed h is O rigin of S p e c ie s , w e . 50 can date a rev o lu tio n n ot only in natu ral s c ie n c e but in thought." L oew enberg in d ica ted that O rigin of S p e c ie s " in itiated a debate in sc ie n c e , p h ilosop h y, and r e lig io n as in te n se and fundam ental in L ondon, 51 P a r is , and C apetow n a s in B o sto n , P h ila d elp h ia , and N ew Y ork." D arw in 's g en iu s w as in fo rm u la tin g an h y p o th e sis, both s im p le y et broad in sc o p e , th at exp lain ed the g e n e s is of m any s p e c ie s o f p lan ts and a n im a ls. T ra d itio n a l C h ristia n r e lig io n h eld that ea ch s p e c ie s resu lted fr o m an im m ed ia te a c t of God. But by th e 185 0 's, sig n ific a n t sc ie n tific e v id e n c e su g g e ste d s p e c ie s d evelop ed o v e r long p erio d s o f 118 tim e. O ther in v e stig a to r s had sought an explanation fo r the n u m erou s s p e c ie s , but D arw in p rovid ed the f ir s t con vin cin g, popular t h e s is . D arw in 's id ea s w e r e brought to the populace by such p rom in en t and e ffe c tiv e in te r p r e te r s and p o p u la rizers as th e fam ous b ota n ist, A sa Grey o f H arvard , Edward L. Y oum ans, ed ito r of the P op u lar S c ie n c e 52 M onthly, and the h isto ria n and p h ilosop h er, John F is k . Adding to the c r e d ib ility of sc ie n c e in A m e r ic a during th e turn of the cen tu ry w a s the d ev elop m en t of the philosophy o f p ra g m a tism . D uring the late n in eteen h u ndreds, p ra g m a tism , la r g e ly through the w ritin g s of W illia m J a m e s, em erg ed as an im p ortan t philosop h y in A m eric a . 53 P r a g m a tism w as grounded on the id ea o f ch a n g e. In th is r e s p e c t, it w as in flu en ced by D arw in ism , w hich had o v ertu rn ed the idea o f a sta b le and fixed u n iv e r se . The p ra g m a tists v ie w ed the w orld 5 ^ as open to con stru ctu v e ch an ge, and saw m an as the fo c u s of m ea n in g . An id ea o r action w as to be judged by its c o n seq u en ces to m en. J a m es b eliev ed if an id e a "w orks, it w ill have so m e truth th at ought to be held 55 to." J a m es w a s true to th e sc ie n tific s p ir it when he said : "T rue ideas a r e th o se th at we can a s s im ila te , v a lid a te , c o rr o b o r a te, and 56 v erify . F a ls e id e a s are th o se that w e cannot." P r a g m a tists did not look fo r one u n iv e r sa l tru th , but rath er u sa b le , a p p licab le tru th s. They sou gh t to b rin g to g eth er the sc ie n tific attitude w ith a co n cer n for id ea ls and v a lu e s . 119 The p ra g m a tism o f W illia m J a m es w a s never d ev elo p ed in a sy ste m a tic tr e a tis e but w as con tain ed in a s e r ie s of e s s a y s and public 5 7 le c tu r e s . J a m e s 1 ph ilosop h y w a s c o n s is te n t w ith s c ie n tific thought in th at he v a lu ed the e x p e r im e n ta l m ethod and the o b serv a tio n o f e m p ir ic a l d a ta . He w a s a lso c o n siste n t w ith m odern s c ie n c e by o p p o s ing f ir s t p rin cip les d e r iv e d fr o m a p rio ri a ssu m p tio n s. He b e lie v e d that know ledge about th e w orld w a s ob tain ed by c o lle c tin g fa cts about 58 the w orld and m aking in fe r e n c e s fro m th is data. And J a m e s' p h ilo s ophy held, a s did D a rw in ism , th a t the u n iv e r s e w as in a con stan t p ro - 59 c e s s of ch an ge: this w a s an e s s e n tia l a s p e c t of p ra g m a tism . J a m es also in co rp o ra ted a num ber o f tra d itio n a lly id e a lis tic n otion s into h is p h ilosop h y. A s did the id e a lis t s , he argu ed that v a lu es w e r e im p ortan t, for th e individual had the r e sp o n sib ility to ch o o se and a c t in ways th at p rom oted the good life fo r h im se lf and s o c i e t y .^ A nother sim ila r ity b etw een p ra g m a tism and id e a lism w a s that J a m es r e je c te d d e te r m in ism , or the id e a that m an had no fr e e w ill but w as d eterm in ed by his en v iro n m en t. A lthough J a m es b e lie v e d that the en viron m en t in flu en ced the in d ivid u al, h e b e lie v e d the in d ivid u al a lso 61 Influenced h is en viron m en t and the c o u r se o f h isto ry . A s w e r e the id e a lis ts , J a m e s w as n o t unsym pathetic tow ard s r e lig io n . He b e lie v e d that if faith in God m a d e one b e tte r able to liv e in the w o rld , r e lig io u s fa ith w as a p o sitiv e a ttitu d e. A nd as w ith m an y id e a lis ts , J a m es r e je c te d S p en cerian n a tu r a lism and p e s s im is m ; his p h ilosop h y w as Ho e s se n tia lly o p tim is tic and p o sitiv e . He b e lie v e d that m an had the potential to im p ro v e h is lo t in the w o rld and th e w orld w a s not a h o stile 62 place in w hich to liv e . A lthough Jam es com b in ed id e a lis tic e le m e n ts into h is p h ilo so phy, h is ph ilosop h y w as m o r e s c ie n tific a lly than id e a lis tic a lly o rien te d . Although he did not o p p ose r e lig io n , he b e lie v e d v a lu e s w e r e im p ortan t and had an o p tim is tic attitu d e, the c o r e of h is ph ilosop h y w as s c ie n - 63 tific . He p la ce d m uch m o r e im p ortan ce on the s c ie n tific m ethod and e m p irica l o b serv a tio n than id e a lis tic n otion s. He a lso s t r e s s e d the Idea that the w o r ld w as con tin u a lly changing and hence th e r e w e r e no 64 a b so lu te s, a p oin t of v ie w c o n siste n t w ith the sc ie n tific p e r s p e c tiv e . In a num ber of r e s p e c ts , J a m e s' philosophy sto o d in c o n tr a d ic tion to tra d itio n a l id e a lis m . By s tr e s s in g the changing natu re o f the u n iv erse, he r e je c te d the tr a d itio n a lly id e a lis tic b e lie f in u ltim a te, ab solu te p r in c ip le s or id e a s . J a m e s also r e je c te d the m e n ta list o n to l- Dgy; he did not hold that th e e s s e n tia l nature o f the u n iv e r s e w a s m en tal ar co m p o sed of id e a s, and m e n ta lism has b een a sig n ific a n t b ranch of 65 Id ea listic thought. J a m e s had a p lu r a listic v ie w of th e u n iv e r se and this w as another w ay h is p h ilosop h y w as d is s im ila r fr o m id e a lis m . He did n ot hold th at the u n iv e r se w as an ab solu te unity a s did m o st id e a l is ts . He did b e lie v e th at th ere w a s som e d e g r e e of u n ity in the u n iverse 66 3 ut J a m es e s s e n tia lly h e ld to the p lu r a list p o sitio n . W h ereas J a m es' ph ilosop h y w as b ased e s s e n tia lly on s c ie n c e , 121 M rs. E ddy's sy n th e sis w as b a sed e s s e n tia lly on id e a lis m . Although M rs. E ddy's sy n th e sis v a lu ed o b serv a tio n of e m p ir ic a l ev id en ce and p o sited an a n ti-su p ern a tu ra l p h ilosop h y, sh e fu n d am en tally grounded her th eo lo g y on m e n ta lism , a branch o f id e a lis m . She a ls o op p osed p lu r a lism , holding that th ere w ere ab so lu te id e a s u n d erlyin g the u n i v e r s e . And sh e h eld that the u n iv e r se w as u ltim a te ly c h a n g e le ss: only the phenom enal w orld of a p p earan ces changed, but the noum enal w o rld w as u ltim a te ly true or r e a l. The grow th of s c ie n c e , evid en ced in p ra g m a tism and D arw in is m , r e su lte d in a co n tr o v e r sy b etw een th ose w ho w elco m e d sc ie n tific id ea s and th o se who fea red th em . T h o se who fa v o red s c ie n c e attack ed r e lig io n b eca u se it w as u n sc ie n tific and did not ( 1) a c c e p t evolution, (2) u tiliz e o b serv a tio n of e m p ir ic a l ev id en ce to (3) r e v e a l the law s govern in g the u n iv e r se , but (4) r e lie d on su p ern atu ral in terp re ta tio n s of the u n iv e r s e . The tra d itio n a l C h r istia n s m a in ta in ed , am ong oth er th in g s, that (1) the tea ch in g s o f J e s u s , the p rop h ets and d is c ip le s w e r e the so u r c e o f know ledge about the u n iv e r se , (2) the B ib le contained the rec o rd of th is know ledge, (3) J e su s taught su ch id e a s a s God w as a sp ir it, the so u rce o f a ll good , and that m an w a s m ade a fte r God's im a g e . M rs. Eddy r e c o n c ile d the id ea that s c ie n c e w as the m eans by w hich k now ledge of the la w s u n derlyin g the u n iv e r s e w a s to be d is co v e r e d and known w ith the id ea that the te a c h in g s of J e s u s and the 122 Bible w e r e the m ean s by w hich k now ledge about the u n iv e r se w as to be d isco v ered and known. M r s. E ddy's m ethod o f re c o n c ilin g sc ie n c e and C h ristian ity, d is c u s se d at length in the p receed in g ch a p ter, w as to posit J e su s as the m a ste r s c ie n tis t who re v e a le d the la w s governing the u n iv e r se . F ro m th is p e r s p e c tiv e , M r s. Eddy in corp orated s c ie n tific and C h ristian id e a s. M rs. E ddy's sy n th e s is of s c ie n c e and C h r istia n ity contained ideas that w ould not a lien a te th o se p r e d isp o se d to s c ie n c e or th ose p r e d isp osed to C h ristia n ity . To the C h r istia n , sh e did not dem and th at he abandon h is c r e e d . She argu ed that sh e w as r e -e s ta b lish in g the le tte r and s p ir it of p rim itiv e C h r istia n ity . W hile B eec h e r and the lib e r a l m in iste r s su g g este d that C h r istia n ity w a s in n eed of b ein g a cco m m o - 6>7 dated to s c ie n c e , M rs. Eddy argu ed that p ro p erly understood , C h ristian ity w as s c ie n tific . M rs. E d d y's sy n th e sis did not contain Ideas that w ould c o n flic t w ith the a ttitu d es o f the s c ie n tific a lly m in d ed , for one o f her b a sic arg u m en ts w as that C h ristia n ity m u st be s c ie n tific , if tru e. Though M rs. Eddy did not s p e c ific a lly in co rp o ra te D arw in's theory o f natu ral s e le c tio n into h er th eo lo g y , sh e did not v ie w the c o n cept w ith ap p reh en sion a s did orthodox p r o te sta n tism . A s she did not deny that C h r istia n ity w as tru e, so sh e did not deny the valu e of D arw in's id ea of natural s e le c tio n . F o r M rs. Eddy, m o r ta l m an— m an view ing h im s e lf fro m a m a te r ia l sta n d p o in t--c o u ld be sa id to be in a 123 stru g g le fo r su r v iv a l. M an, actin g fr o m m a te r ia l a ssu m p tio n s, could quite p ro p erly be v ie w ed a s d escen d in g from an im al o r ig in , and subject to the la w s of n a tu re. "M r. D arw in," said M r s. Eddy, "may b e right with r e g a r d to m o r ta l m an o r m a tte r , but sh ou ld have m ad e a d is tin c - 68 tion b etw een th e se and the im m o r ta l, w hose b a s is is S p irit." A lthough M rs. Eddy did not deny the u se fu ln e s s o f D arw in 's idea, sh e did not build h er th eo lo g y on the id ea of n atu ral s e le c tio n . R ather sh e sought a m o r e u ltim a te align m en t w ith s c ie n c e . She d e v e l oped a re lig io n that p a r a lle le d the sc ie n tific m o d e l, a sc ie n tific r e lig ion. She w as resp on d in g to s c ie n c e its e lf, not a p articu la r co n cep t of sc ie n c e su ch a s natural s e le c tio n . In th is w ay, M rs. Eddy advanced a doctrine that a lien a ted n eith e r the s c ie n tific a lly m inded nor tra d itio n a l C h r istia n s. C h ristia n S c ie n tists v ie w e d th e m se lv e s a s s c ie n tific a lly m inded, and n u m erou s C h ristia n S c ie n tists h a v e taken d e g r e e s in the 69 natural s c ie n c e s and w orked and taught in th e s e a r e a s. A su r v e y of Literature w ritten by C h r istia n S c ie n tists as w e ll as pu blish ed le c tu r e s I (by C h ristia n S c ie n tists su b sta n tia te the fact th a t C h ristia n S c ie n tists i lappreciate and r e s p e c t th e s c ie n tific o rien ta tio n of th e ir r e lig io n . It cannot be sa id , though, that C h ristia n S c ie n tists w ere r e c r u ite d m ain ly from p eop le in the s c ie n c e s . C h ristia n S c ie n tists r e p re se n ted a good c r o s s se c tio n o f the A m eric a n p eop le who w e r e caught in the c o n flic t over s c ie n c e and r e lig io n . A s m od ern , ed u cated , m id d le c la s s p eop le, they r e sp e c te d s c ie n c e and found C h ristia n S c ie n c e an a ttr a c tiv e r e - synthesis of scien ce and C hristianity. C hristian Science also gained c o n v e r ts from m e m b e r s of a ll the tra d itio n a l P ro te sta n t • • ™ d en o m in a tio n s. M rs. Eddy's s y n th e s is , then, not only did n ot a lien a te th o se p r ed isp o sed to sc ie n c e o r r e lig io n , but did not a lie n a te th o se caught in the " c r o ssfir e " betw een the s c ie n tis ts and the tra d itio n a l th e o lo g ia n s. The sy n th e sis contained id ea s a ttr a c tiv e to som e on both s id e s of the c o n tr o v e r sy and m any in b etw een . By view in g J e su s as the m a ste r 'scien tist, M r s . Eddy found a w ay to r e c o n c ile the c o n flic t, in c o r p o - I ratin g id ea s both sid e s could a p p recia te . The s c ie n tific a lly o rien te d I {could id en tify w ith h er v iew that th ere w e r e law s govern in g the u n iv e r sr i 'that could be known by o b serv a tio n o f e m p ir ic a l e v id e n c e , and that i I I th e se law s a r e not m y s tic or su p ern a tu ra l. C h r istia n s could e a s ily id en tify w ith h er c h a r a c te r iz a tio n of J e s u s as one who d isc o v e r e d th e se la w s and h er sta tem en t that th e se law s w e r e im p lic it in the tea ch in g s of the B ib le. They cou ld a lso a g r e e that God w as sp ir itu a l, the so u r c e Of a ll good, and m any C h r istia n s could a g r e e that m an w as m ade in the lim age of God. M rs. Eddy's u s e o f the w ord s c ie n c e w as r h e to r ic a lly u se fu l. {Her con cep t o f s c ie n c e , as h as been sa id , w as a sy n th e sis of tr a d i- i tio n a l n otion s of sc ie n c e and C h ristia n and p h ilo so p h ica lly id e a lis tic i ! 71 lid eas. She had her ow n s p e c ia l m ean in g fo r the te r m . S in ce sh e b e lie v e d the phenom enal w orld w as a m isr e p r e se n ta tio n of r e a lity , sh e ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ri r ~ did n ot b e lie v e , as w ould the n atu ral s c ie n tis t, that on e should look to s e n s e im p r e s sio n s to g en era te know ledge about the u n iv e r s e . But sh e did v a lu e e m p ir ic a l and p ragm atic data. In a s e n se , M rs. Eddy turned trad ition al e m p ir ic is m " u p -sid e-d ow n ." In stea d o f sta rtin g w ith e m p ir ic a l data, sh e sta rted w ith a s e t o f p ro p o sitio n s, C h r istia n and id e a l- ! jistic p r o p o sitio n s. A lthough sh e did not u tiliz e e m p ir ic a l m eth od s to jgenerate or d evelop th e s e p ro p o sitio n s, sh e did u se e m p ir ic a l data, in ! ithe fo r m of h e a lin g s, to support h er d o c tr in e . M rs. E ddy's id ea of I i jscien ce u tiliz e d such s c ie n tific notions a s ( 1) th ere a r e law s govern ing Ithe u n iv e r se , (2) th ese la w s are not su p ern atu ral, and (3) e m p ir ic a l ^lata can su b stan tiate th e s e la w s. i M rs. Eddy's u s e of the w ord s c ie n c e w as a ls o d iffere n t from I tra d itio n a l u s e s of the w ord . She c a p ita liz e d s c ie n c e in her w r itin g s, and the w ord s e e m s to take on a m eaning s im ila r to A b so lu te W isdom , a fin a l a u th ority, an a b so lu te so u r c e of k now ledge beyond w hich th ere i is no r ea so n a b le ap p eal. T h is, o f c o u r se , is a d iffere n t u se o f the fword sc ie n c e than that u se d in the la b o ra to ry , in w h ich s c ie n c e w orks i (from ten ta tiv e, alw ays changing s e ts of h y p o th e se s, but it w a s a v e r y I i p e r s u a siv e u s e of the te r m , appealing to a grow ing a d m ira tio n and jresp ect for " sc ie n c e ." M rs. Eddy w rote at a tim e in w hich s c ie n tific jadvances w e r e m uch p u b licized and e m p ir ic a l r e s e a r c h and th eory i Iwere b ecom in g a lm o st th e new " religion " to m any. N um erou s A m e r ica n s w ere im p r e s s e d w ith the r e s u lts of n atu ral s c ie n c e and s c ie n tific ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- — — 175" n otion s w ere ca u sin g m an y to q u estio n s e r io u s ly the su ffic ie n c y of their r e lig io n . M rs. Eddy's th eology su g g e ste d that C h ristia n s need not q u estion th eir b a sic r e lig io n , fo r C h r istia n ity w a s indeed s c ie n tific . By id en tifyin g h er r e lig io n a s s c ie n tific , M rs. Eddy m ade h er th eology m ore a ttra ctiv e and b e lie v a b le to A m e r ic a n s in the p ost C iv il War I (years. M rs. E ddy's fo llo w e r s e n th u sia stic a lly c a lle d th e m s e lv e s j" sc ie n tists" and con tin u ally r e in fo r c e d the id ea that th eir re lig io n w as (scien tific. C h ristia n S c ie n c e le c tu r e r s and w r ite r s , p a st and p resen t, i . . . 72 (alm ost alw ays d isc u s s the s c ie n tific nature of th e ir r e lig io n . ! ( In addition to p o sitin g id ea s o f s c ie n c e and C h r istia n ity , M rs. Eddy d evelop ed a C h ristian th eology b a sed on p h ilo so p h ica l id e a lis m . i I [Although s c ie n c e w as grow in g in stren g th in A m e r ic a , p h ilo so p h ica l id e a lis m was a ls o d eeply im bedded in A m eric a n cu ltu re. It w as p a r tic u la r ly popular in New England and the M id w est, a r e a s o f the str o n g e st C h ristia n S cie n c e a p p ea l. M r s. Eddy ad van ced a th eo lo g y b a sed on I (ideas w ith w hich m any o f h er au d ien ce had long been acquainted. ! j That C h ristia n S c ie n c e ap p eal w as str o n g e st in N ew England anc (the M idw est is in d icated by m e m b e r sh ip data. In 1890, 2 .0 p erce n t of |the m e m b e r sh ip of the ch u rch w as in the South A tlan tic d iv isio n ; 1. 5 (percent in the South C en tral; 13 p e r c e n t in the W estern ; but 5 7 .6 p e r cent in the N orth C en tral or M id w est, and 25. 9 p ercen t in the N orth 73 A tla n tic or N ew England a r e a . M ore co m p reh en siv e data a re a v a il able on C h ristian S cie n c e ch u rch s e r v ic e s by g eo g ra p h ic a l d iv isio n nr than by m em b ersh ip , and th e se data a lso co rr o b o r a te the s u c c e s s of 74 C hristian S c ie n c e in New E ngland and the M idw est: D iv isio n 1890 1900 1910 N orth A tlan tic 25. 7% 29.4% 24. 5% South A tlan tic 2.3% 3.4% 4.0% N orth C en tral 59. 3% 49.7% 45.4% South C en tral 4. 1% 5. 5% 7.7% W estern 8 . 6 % 12. 0 % 18.4% L a m m e's co m p r e h e n siv e study d is c lo s e d the g eo g ra p h ica l a r e a s I jof C h ristia n S c ie n c e stren g th . By 1885, L am m e in d icated C h r istia n i S cie n c e w as sp read in g fr o m its n ative New E ngland to the " prin cip al I . 75 ce n te r s" in the M id w est. It w as a type of "leaping diffusion," going 76 "from B oston to M ilw auk ee, C hicago, and oth er c itie s . . . ." By 1890, C h ristia n S cie n c e w a s m aking continued p r o g r e ss not only in the Large c itie s of th e M id w est, but a lso the m edium and s m a lle r tow ns in 77 the M idw est. The 1910 p attern s "w ere an outgrow th of the p attern s 78 {that w e r e o b se r v a b le in 1890." A r e a s of C h ristia n S cie n c e stren g th 79 in 1910 had " developed into roughly an 'L' shaped a rea ," fo cu sin g in New England and the M id w est. T h is area j i | runs from the c o a st o f N ew E ngland w estw ard betw een the 40th | and 50th p a r a lle ls , allo w in g fo r the p r e se n c e o f the G reat L ak es j and so m e C anadian T e r r ito r y , into the M id w est to about the 98th ! m erid ia n . F r o m the 4 5 th p a r a lle l, th is dom ain extends south j b etw een the 95th and 98th m e r id ia n s into O klahom a, and le s s str o n g ly into T exas.® ® M rs. E d d y's d o ctrin e con tain ed id ea s m any in New England and 128 the M idw est cou ld id en tify . M any of her n otion s can b e traced to id e a lis tic co n cep ts that are p art o f A m e r ic a 's r e lig io u s and p h ilo so p h ic a l h isto ry ; tw o such notions o f M r s. E d d y 's, fo r ex a m p le, a r e the u n rea lity o f e v il and m a tte r , and th e m en ta l nature o f God and th e 81 u n iv e r se . W oodbridge R iley tr a c e d id e a lis m in A m e r ic a to Jonathan E dw ards: "The g r e a te st of our P u ritan d iv in es . . - who left th e print 82 of h is iron h e e l upon th e New E ngland c o n sc ie n c e ." A lthough E d w a rd s is now rem e m b er ed for h is stern E n field se r m o n , "Sinners in i Ithe Hands o f an A ngry God," R ile y pointed out that th e r e w as another i jside of E dw ards often n eg le cted by h isto r ia n s, and r e c a lle d how E d- w a r d s ea rly in h is life reach ed th e notion th at "this w o rld e x is ts n o- 83 w h e r e but in the m ind." E dw ards b e lie v e d "that c o r p o r e a l th in g s I co u ld not e x is t o th e r w ise than m en ta lly , and that o th er bodies h ave no 84 e x iste n c e o f th e ir ow n." John H . M uirhead in The P la to n ic T radition in A n g lo -S a x o n P h ilosop h y supported R ile y 's view of E dw ards id e a l- 85 is m . I The p op ularity o f tr a n sc e n d e n ta lism in the 1 8 3 0 's and 1 8 4 0 's ;also in d ica te s the in flu en ce of id e a lis m in A m e r ic a , and p a rticu la rly j in N ew E ngland. G eorge F . W h ich er, d e sc r ib in g tr a n sc e n d e n ta lism a s a " revolt a g a in st m a te r ia lis m ," said: | The tr a n sc e n d e n ta lists w e r e d eeply co n cern ed about the q u ality o f life in A m e r ic a . A g r e a t tid e o f m a te r ia l p r o sp e r ity , ch eck ed o n ly tem p o ra rily by th e c r is is o f 1837 and 1839 and th e en su in g d e p r e ssio n , had o v erta k en the cou n try . . . It ap p eared not u n lik ely that c a r e for m a n 's in te lle c tu a l and sp ir itu a l 129 ft A nature m ight be su b m erged in the ru sh fo r e a sy r ic h e s . P e r r y M ille r argu ed that the id e a lis tic philosophy of tr a n s c e n d en talism had a sig n ific a n t im p act on A m eric a n cu ltu re, and cau tion ed against th e m isle a d in g stero ty p e "of the m ovem en t a s a ch a rm in g id y ll L n a p a sto r a l A m e r ic a ," fo r " A m erica adopted it and m ade it o r th o - 87 dox." M iller b e lie v e d tra n sc e n d e n ta lism w as a vib ran t in te lle c tu a l and r e lig io u s m o v em en t that m ade a sig n ific a n t m ark on A m eric a n thought and is now p art of the A m eric a n trad ition : | . . . the T ra n scen d en ta l ep iso d e w as . . . a profound s tir r in g of i ce r ta in so u ls under con d ition s im p o sed by the cu ltu ral situ ation ; | th eir r e sp o n se to th e se con d ition s is an in d isp en sa b le ch ap ter in the m aking of the A m eric a n m ind . . . the T ran scen d en tal m o v e - 1 m ent w a s the m o st en erg en ic and e x te n siv e upsurge of the m ind J and s p ir it en a cted in A m e r ic a u n til the in te lle c tu a l c r i s i s of the I 1 9 2 0 's. F or th o se who w ould understand the ch a ra cter of th is cou n try, a firsth a n d know ledge of the id ea s that g en era ted and su sta in e d the m o v em en t is im p ortan t. . . . O ctaviu s B rook s F roth in gh am , in h is c la s s ic study o f tr a n s c e n d en ta lism in N ew E ngland, a lso s t r e s s e d the im p ortan ce of the m o v e - [nent on th e A m eric a n m ind: The T r a n sc e n d e n ta lists of N ew England w e r e the m o st stren u ou s w o r k e r s of th e ir day, and at the p rob lem s w hich the day flung | down b efo re th em . The m o st stren u o u s, and the m o st s u c c e s s fu l w o r k e r s too. T hey a ch iev ed m o r e p r a c tic a l b en efit fo r s o c ie ty , i in p rop ortion to th eir n u m bers and the duration o f th eir e x iste n c e I than any body o f B acon ian s of w hom w e e v e r heard. I T he M id w est at the turn of the cen tu ry evid en ced sig n ific a n t p h ilosop h ical a c tiv ity , fo r "The W est, or th e m id w est a s w e m o re app rop riately r e fe r to it today, w a s in te lle c tu a lly , a s w e ll as 130 a g ricu ltu ra lly , f e r t ile . T h is w as p a rticu la rly tr u e in the rea lm o f 90 philosophy . . . in the 1870's and 1 8 8 0 's. . . . " The M idw est su p ported tw o id e a lis tic sc h o o ls of philosophy, both finding com m on c a u se in the need they s e r v e d , both n o u r ish ing th e m inds o f n early two g en era tio n s of p eop le at h om e, and both finding a w id er public e lse w h e r e , e a g e r and an xiou s for th e m e s s a g e they b o r e . 91 One of th e s e p h ilo so p h ies w a s a brand o f A m eric a n H e g e lia n ism and o rigin ated with a group in St. L o u is. This group of in d ivid u als b eca m e , 92 known a s the "Saint L ouis School" o f p h ilosop h y. The oth er id e a lis tic i I p h ilosop h y w as P la to n ic and o rig in a ted in J a c k so n v ille and Q uincy, L i - • 93 Illin o is. | T he le a d e r s of the Saint L ouis School w anted "to tr a n sla te h is j ^ H egel's] p h ilosophy into an A m erica n id iom , ju st as th ey b e lie v e d I fie gel had tr a n sla te d the 'a p e r c u s' of P lato and A r is to tle into the G e r - 94 an p h ilosop h y." T h ese m en , d esp ite th eir lo fty id e a s , w e r e , fo r b i the m o s t part, p r a c tic a l m en, liv in g by tra d es o th er than th e teach in g of p h ilo s - j ophy. They w e r e c o n sc io u s of the co n flic ts and p ro b lem s in h eren t in any so c ia l o rd er and sought a philosophy o f p r a c tic a l im p ort in | w hich th ese p ro b lem s m igh t be r e s o lv e d . T h ey did not ela b o r a te a p h ilo so p h ica l s y ste m and then attem pt to im p o se that upon the i e x is te n t so c ia l sy ste m . On the co n tra ry , th e ir ea g e r p a r tic ip a - i tion in a s o c ia l s y ste m gave sig n ific a n c e and pow er to th eir ! p h ilosop h y, h o w ev er 'sp e c u la tiv e ' it m ight b e . 93 In 1866 the Saint L ou is P h ilo so p h ic a l S o c ie ty w as form ed to arom ote id e a l i s m .^ The Journal of S p ecu la tiv e P h ilo so p h y w as a ls o bunded during th is period and w as u se fu l in d iffu sin g id e a lis tic 131 ph ilosop h y in A m e r ic a . The f ir s t is s u e of the jo u rn a l con tain ed an a r tic le by its e d ito r , W. T . H a r r is, c r itic iz in g the m a te r ia lis tic p h il- 9 7 osophy of S p en cer. In the fourth is s u e , H a rris again w rote of h is d isr e g a r d fo r S p e n c e r 's p h ilosop h y as w e ll an o th er n o n -id e a listic p h ilo so p h ie s : W e, a s a p eo p le, buy im m e n se ed ition s of John Stuart M ill, H erb ert S p en cer, C om te, H am ilton , C ousin, and o th ers; one can I tr a c e the app rop riation and d ig e stio n of th eir thoughts in a ll the I lead in g a r tic le s o f our R e v ie w s. . . . If th is is A m erica n p h il- | osop h y, the ed ito r thinks that it m a y be v e r y m uch elev a ted by ab sorb in g and d ig estin g m o r e refin ed a lim en t. 98 I W illia m T . H arris w a s one of the m o st in flu en tia l m e m b e r s of th e Saint L ouis S ch o o l. In addition to ed itin g The Journal of S p e c u la tiv e P h ilo so p h y , H a r r is in terp re ted H e g e l through h is books and | a r t ic le s , w as Superintendent o f S ch o o ls in St. L o u is, and la te r U nited 99 S tates C o m m issio n e r of E d u cation . O ther in flu en tia l m e m b e r s o f the JSaint L ou is Sch ool included D enton J. S n id er, C a rl S ch u rz, J osep h ! io ( (P u litzer, J. G. W ern er, G eo rg e H. H ow ison , and T hom as D avid son . I The in flu en ce of H e g el and G erm an id e a lism in A m e r ic a w as undoubtedly stren gth en ed b e c a u se n u m erou s A m eric a n in te lle c tu a l and ed u ca tio n a l le a d e r s f ir s t stu d ied in G erm any b e fo r e pursuing th eir c a r e e r s . A p a rtia l li s t of th e s e m en in clu d e H o ra ce M ann, G eorge B an cro ft, G eorge T icknor, H enry B arn ard , H enry J a m e s, S r. C alvin Stow e, F . H enry H edge, and Edw ard E v e r e tt. W oodbridge R ile y b eliev ed : "It m ay sa fe ly be sa id that the G erm an in flu en ces on 132 A m erican thought have been the m o st sig n ific a n t and the m o st w eigh ty of a ll fo reig n in flu en ces." *^ * P la to n ism took root in the M idw est by the 1 8 6 0 's, ce n te r in g in 102 Illin o is w ith th e esta b lish m en t o f a P lato C lub in J a c k so n v ille . The club w a s v e r y a c tiv e , engaging in "much co m m u n ica tio n betw een 103 Illin o is tow ns," and the m o v em en t "spread rap id ly." C lubs w e r e soon form ed in Q uincy, D ecatu r, and B loom in gton . In 1880, the A m e r ican A kadem e w a s founded to p rom ote P la to n ism in la r g e m etro p o lita n j {areas; it b eca m e la r g e r than the Saint L o u is P h ilo so p h ic a l S o c ie ty I 104 [form ed e a r lie r to p rom ote H e g e lia n ism . T h ree p e r io d ic a ls em er g ed |to p rom ote P la to n ism in A m e r ic a : The P la to n is t, the B ib lio th eca P la to n ic a, and the Journal of the A m eric a n A k a d e m e . Though th e s e p e r io d ic a ls had an in tern ation al c ir c u la tio n , "none had quite the c o n tinuous in flu en ce or perm anent im p ortan ce o f The Jou rn al of S p e c u la - 105 |tive P h ilo so p h y ." | j Two o f the p rom in en t le a d e r s of P la to n ism in the M id w est w ere ;Dr. H iram K. Jon es and T hom as M. Joh n son , and "in th e se tw o, the i m o v em en t had m en who co m p ared favorab ly w ith the le a d e r s of the Saint L ouis M ovem en t. Jones w a s c la s s e d w ith H a r r is as one o f the two ou tstan d in g a ttra ctio n s of the C oncord S ch o o l of P h ilo so p h y (1 8 7 9 - 88) and Joh n son 's tra n sla tio n s w e r e co m p a ra b le to th o se produced by 106 the m em b ers o f the Saint L ouis M ovem ent." P la to n ism and H e g e lia n ism in A m e r ic a m ade d eep im p r e ssio n s an A m eric a n thought. A s A n d erso n said : " I T T The P la to n ic and H e g elia n m o v e m e n ts w ere m o r e than p h a se s of p ro v in cia l culture; th e y w ere in te lle c tu a l fo r c e s w ith nation al and in tern a tio n a l in flu en ce and had to be reckoned w ith by the la r g e r p u b lic. The fo r m in w h ich they ca m e to be e x p r e s s e d , j adult group education, w a s soon to be adopted e lse w h e r e under j th eir a e g is . P h ilo so p h ic a l s o c ie t ie s and su m m er sc h o o ls sp ran g up a ll the w ay from C h icago to C oncord M a ssa c h u se tts. en ry A. P ochm ann a lso s t r e s s e d the in flu en ce of P la to n ism and i H e g e lia n ism in A m e r ic a , b e lie v in g th e se b rands of " p h ilosop h ical I Id e a lism have b eco m e so d eep ly im b ed d ed in the c o u r se o f c o n str u c tiv e {thought in A m e r ic a that th e term in a tio n of its in flu en ce cannot be e n - 108 jvisaged u n le ss A m eric a n thinking it s e lf should com e to an end." [Further, A m eric a n P la to n ism and H e g e lia n ism w ere not m o v em en ts of I I p r o fe ssio n a l p h ilo so p h e r s. M em b ers of th e s e m o v em en ts w ere often "average" A m eric a n s w ish in g to expand th e ir k n ow led ge, to b e tte r |understand th e ir w orld , and grow in te lle c tu a lly through adult e d u c a - L . 109 |tion. I Id e a lism o rig in a tin g in the M id w est "was no co m m o n p la ce of A m eric a n h isto r y . N eith er w as it a r e su lt o f geograp h ic ch an ge. It 110 |was the r e su lt o f co n v erg in g fo r c e s a t w ork in the life of the a rea ." i A n d erson su m m a rized the fo llo w in g fo r c e s a s p rom otin g id e a lis m in the M id w est. F ir s t, the in te lle c tu a l read in g of M id w estern ers w as e a ste r n lit e r a t u r e - - e s p e c ia lly the c la s s ic tra n scen d en ta l w r ite r s su ch as E m erso n and T horeau. Indeed, "Not o n ly w as the in itia l im p u lse given in part by New E ngland tr a n sc e n d e n ta lis m but continued 134 stim u lation w as p rovid ed by E m erso n and A lco tt on th eir nu m erou s :rips w est." * * * T ra n scen d en ta lism gave im p u lse to th e se m o v em en ts put the m o v e m e n ts w ere not o ffsh o o ts of New E ngland c u ltu r e , for I 'indigenous fo r c e s w ere ev en m o re im p ortan t than New E ngland c o n - fa c t, . " 112 | T h e se f o r c e s w ere a seco n d r ea so n for the grow th o f id e a lis m ^ .n the M id w est. A m ong th e s e fo r c e s w e r e the " in crea sed le is u r e tim e i jwhich le d to a d e s ir e for s e lf-im p r o v e m e n t;" "the b a sic eq u a lita r ia n - lism of th e M idw est" w hich v alu ed u n iv e r sa l education; the grow ing I pnaturity o f the reg io n w hich m ade it d e s ir e the b en efits o f cu ltu re, [literatu re, and philosophy; and the fa c t that m any saw in H e g e l's and i 1 113 [Plato's p h ilo so p h ies u sefu l c o n str u c ts fo r s o c ia l h arm on y. F o r: l [ | S e r io u s in te r e s t in H e g el and P lato w as p a rtly the r e su lt of | a d e s ir e fo r p h ilo so p h ica l know ledge w hich w ould p rovid e a g o sp e l of s o c ia l unity. A fter the [C ivil] W ar th ere w a s a stro n g cu rren t of n a tio n a lism , now here m o re p r e s e n t than in the M id w est. T h ere w as a d e s ir e not only for the unity of N orth and South, but also for the unity o f E a st and W est. H e g e lia n ism provid ed a g o sp el for th e o c c a s io n on one p attern , b a se d on lo g ic a l s y n th e sis of o p p o sin g fo r c e s . P la to n ism provid ed it on another p a ttern , b a sed not on rig id lo g ic but rath er on b e lie f in the fu n dam en tal harm ony of r e a lity : unity w as not the r e su lt of sy n th e siz in g o p p o site s, but w as pure o r ig in a lly ; c o n flic t could be e lim in a te d , th e r e fo r e , the c lo s e r m an approached know ledge of o rig in a l p e r fe c tio n . A th ird fa c to r prom oting id e a lis m in the M id w est w a s grow ing eq u ality b etw een the s e x e s : "the fe m in e s t m o v em en t had g r e a te r 115 stren gth in the M id w est than e ls e w h e r e . . . ." A n d erso n said: The breakdow n o f the d octrin e o f s e x in eq u ality w as an im p ortan t fa c to r in stren gth en in g th e p h ilo so p h ica l m o v em en ts a t S t. L ouis 135 and in Illinois. Many wom en in the St. Louis m ovem ent group held prom inent positions in the city sch ool system . In the Jacksonville and Quincy groups th ere w ere m ore wom en than m en and a ll of the leading o n es were outspoken b elievers in w om en's rig h ts. Women w ere d esirou s of dem onstrating their equality in I all lin e s and to turn to philosophy, generally regarded as one of the m o st difficult of d iscip lin es, w as to add weight to their ca u se. Without the backing such women gave to th ese m ovem ents, their v ita lity and influence w ould have been decidedly weakened. A fourth fo rce prom oting id e a lism w as that the Platonic and jHegelian schools serv ed a s attractive philosophies for the independent, I |yet religiou sly-m in d ed , individuals who found organized religion too Iconstraining. During the turn of the century, increasing num bers of I ] people w ere finding the estab lish ed churches unacceptable, and j The Hegelian and Platonic m ovem ents se r v e d to bring together a | g rea t many such esse n tia lly relig io u s, y et independent, m inds. ! The tendency in philosophical c ir c le s w as not to deny C hristianity ! but to view C hristianity as one religion am ong many, all of them | rep resen tative in varing d egrees of true religion. The T ran scen - | d en talist m ovem ent had served the sam e function in New England j a generation e a r lie r . I F inally, id ea listic philosophy in the later half of the nineteenth I Icentury w as a reaction to the em ergin g m a te r ia lism that found e x p r e s sion in D arwin's theory o f natural selec tio n and Spencer's Social D ar- jwinism. The H egelians and P latonists offered an idealistic alternative jto this m aterialism .**® ! By the turn of the century, two system atic id ealistic p h iloso- I bhers had appeared on the A m erican scene: Josiah Royce and Borden Parker Bowne. R oyce is "regarded as A m e r ic a 's m o st outstanding I 119 representative of A bsolute Id ealism ," "the m ost brilliant A m erican 136 120 id ealist," and "the m o st outstanding id ea list that A m erica has p ro duced. " 121 R oyce w as a Harvard p rofessor of philosophy; his philosophy 122 has been ch a ra cterized as "native to the A m erican soil." Id ealistic philosophy was fir m ly im planted in the United States during the tim e Royce w as a p r o fe sso r at Harvard, for "between about 1875 and 1900 I alm ost every p r o fe sso r of philosophy in the country w as an id ea list, and the id ea lists rem ained in the m ajority for a decade or two ! 123 pater." And, "in the epoch which we have just d escrib ed id e a lism ! jwas the m ost powerful m ovem ent in A m erican philosophy. Indeed, to |be a philosopher of standing at the turn of the century w as to be an i ! 124 lidealist." I Bordon P a rk er Bowne has been d escribed as the philosopher with "the first com p lete and com prehensive sy ste m of philosophy jdeveloped in A m e r ic a which has had lasting influence and which s till i 125 [counts som e of our outstanding thinkers among its adherents. . . . " Bowne expounded the philosophy of p erson alism , s tr e ssin g the im p o r tance of individual subjective exp erien ce. He w as educated at New i York U niversity and continued his studies in Germany at Halle and at Gottingen. While in Germ any, the teacher who influenced his m o st was H erm an Lotze, the renowned German id ealist. Bowne sa y s, regarding his philosophy: "The conclusions reached are e sse n tia lly those of L otze," but th ese con clusion s w ere com e to "for the m o st part by 137 strictly independent r e fle c tio n s." ^ ^ While at Brown U niversity from 1876 to 1910, Bowne "in a short period . . . b ecam e one of the m ost influential tea ch er s there and he 127 won a wide follow ing among his students." Bowne has been de- 128 scribed as "one of the k een est of A m erican m etaphysicians." And "his influence on A m erican though has been vast. A fter him , p erso n alism b ecam e one of the m o st vigorous sch ools of thought; and in the |n in istry, e sp e c ia lly among M ethodists, a m ore p r o g ressiv e sp irit has I . ,,129 been apparent." i I | Id ea lism , as a philosophical viewpoint, is th erefore firm ly i I jrooted in A m erican culture. Id ealism w as e sp e c ia lly popular and respected in the post C ivil War y e a r s, and its influence extended into the ea rly tw entieth century. Id ealism had a p articularly strong appeal L n New England and the M idw est, the a rea s of stro n g est C hristian Science appeal. The next part of this chapter, accordingly, w ill exam ine the relationship of M rs. Eddy's theology to tran scen d en talism , i {Hegelianism, P latonism , and the philosophies of R oyce and Bowne. I T ranscendentalism and C hristian S cie n c e.--S ig n ifica n t s im il arities m ay be found between C hristian Science and certain id ea s of the New England tra n scen d en ta lists. It is not su ggested that the doctrine of C hristian S cience is the sam e as tran scen d en talism . T ran scen d en talism w as a popular p re-C iv il War philosophy, w hile C hristian Science 138 developed in the postbellum period. M rs. Eddy did not think in a vacuum, and her id ea s show the influence of the tim es in which she lived. T ranscen d en talism and C hristian Science both are philosoph ic a lly id ea listic. R evolting against the m a teria lism of the age, E m e r son said: "The m a te r ia list in s is ts on fa cts, on history, on the fo rce of circu m sta n ces, and the anim al wants of man, w hereas the id ea list is concerned with nobler things, with the power of thought and the w ill. i. . M rs. Eddy believed her religion "true i d e a l i s m , a n d ! pointed out the distinction between id ea lism and m a teria lism : "Natural scien ce . . . is deduced from the evidence of the m a teria l s e n s e s . Ideas, on the contrary, are born of Spirit, and are not m e r e in ferences 132 drawn fro m the m a te r ia l se n se s." Both C hristian Science and transcend entalism place m uch im portance on the individual. Thoreau said: ". . . that governm en t is 133 best which governs not at all." P ark er said "man is . . . subject !to God . . . no people can absolve him from his natural . . . rights. I 134 j. . ." And E m erson , who w rote a book on s e lf-r e lia n c e , in sisted 135 "trust th yself: ev ery heart v ib ra tes to that iron string." A rthur M. S ch lesin g er, J r ., has noted this d isin tere st in political institutions shared by m ost tra n scen d en ta lists. Of E m erson he said: "Fear of institutions kept his cautious. A party seem ed a 136 form of church, and E m erson , a burnt child, shunned the fire." 139 Schlesinger continued: But transcen d en talism in its Concord form w as infinitely individ u alistic providing no m eans for recon cilin g the d iverse intuitions of different m en and deciding w hich w as better and w o rse. T his did not w orry m o st tra n scen d en ta lists, who would allow N icholas Biddle the authority of his inner v o ic e and ask ed only to be allow ed equally the authority of their own. The obligations of politics w ere not so flexib le. 137 M rs. Eddy's religion was also individu alistic. It was not that she preached political anarchism ; rather it w as sim p ly that her th e o lo g y --sim ila r to tran scen d en talism --fou n d little of relevance in jpolitical con cern s. Both w ere concerned with spiritual problem s which jonce solved would enable the individual to o v erco m e so c ia l and w orldly jproblems. Mary Baker Eddy was in agreem en t with E m erson when he baid: I have not yet conquered m y own h ouse . . . Shall I ra ise the sieg e of this hencoop, and m arch baffled away to a pretended siege of Babylon? It s e e m s to m e that to do so w ere to dodge the problem I am s e t out to solve, and hide m y im potency in the thick of a crowd. 138 !Mrs. Eddy's plan for salvation had nothing to do with crowds or groups It w as for each man to look to God, indeed to r e fle c t the w isdom of (Divine Mind. He would then be d irected to take the right w orldly or (social action. I | M rs. Eddy believed that "since God govern s the universe . . . ! m an, reflecting God's pow er, has dom inion over the earth and its 140 host." And sin ce man has this reflected dom inion, the need for the com p lex stru ctu res of governm ent w ith its co m p ro m ise and con sen su s 140 v as dim inished. This p olitical view w as con sistent with the h isto rica l >eriod, for this w as a period in which the individualistic ideas of Laissez f a ir e . Social D arw inism , and the Gospel of Wealth w ere pop- War . 141 But though M rs. Eddy s tr e s s e d a philosophy of individualism , her individualism em bodied a recognition of the need for organization and structure, at le a st in relig io u s m a tte r s. Silent from the rhetoric af C hristian Science is the tem p er w hich su ggests each man "m arch to L 142 |the sound of his own drum." M rs. Eddy did not share E m erson 's j b elief that "the faith that stands on authority is not faith . . . G reat is ! 143 Jjie soul . . . it is no follow er." M rs. Eddy b elieved she had d is- I I Covered a provable s e t of prin ciples u sed by Jesu s to heal the sick and I sinning. She felt she had red isco v e red "prim itive C hristianity and its 144 Lost elem en t of healing." She th erefore w ished to protect the in teg rity of the sy stem by clea rly explaining her doctrine and guarding against it being diluted or a ltered by l e s s knowing individuals; she ! estab lish ed a w ell organized church structure for this purpose. Those fa llin g th em selv es C hristian S cien tists w ere to p ractice the principles of C hristian Science as expounded by its founder. M rs. Eddy provided a Church Manual of ru les for spiritual enlightenm ent and right conduct, set up a system atic and daily le sso n serm on to be studied by her fo llo w er s, and many other organizational 145 procedures. She s tr e s s e d loyalty in her m ovem ent. Often she ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n r talked of "loyal C hristian S cientists," " loyal students, " "loyal m e m bers," "loyal lab orers," "loyal teach ers," and encouraged h er followert 146 to be "loyal to their leader." M rs. Eddy not only identified with a number of the id eas of transcen dentalism , she extended some of them; she advanced a m ore extrem e form of id ea lism and p erfectio n ism than did the transcendent- a lists. This was rhetorically useful. Instead of offering A m ericans unfam iliar id eas, M rs. Eddy presented fam iliar id ea s and altered them isomewhat. But the basic ideas she p resented w ere not new to A m er- I jican culture. M rs. Eddy "asked" her fo llo w ers m e r e ly to extend these pom m on id eas, to "bend" the original attitude. This extension is w ell evidenced in the concept of p erfectionism j Both C hristian S cience and tran scen d en talism s tr e s s e d the latent power of God dwelling in each man. T his being the case, the individual had the potential for perfection, believed the tra n scen d en ta lists. The edu cational philosopher of transcendentalism , Bronson A lcott, defined jeducation as "the art of revealing to a m an the true idea of h is Being 147 j. . . of fitting him for the perfection of h is spirit." E m erson said jthat the perfection of the O ver-Soul "is p resen t in a ll things. . . . It 148 is the adult already in the infant. . . ." And P a rk er ex p ressed a sim ila r p erfection ism when he said: "in a ll things . . . there has been ! a p r o g ressiv e developm ent in mankind. T h e world i s a school . . . to 149 lead m en to God." 142 W h ereas the tr a n sc e n d e n ta list argu ed that m an had the p oten tial ■or perfection, M rs. Eddy said he was in reality already p erfect, and deluded h im se lf by supposing otherw ise. She w as vehem ent on this point, for it was one o f the m ajor ideas of her faith. She defined man 150 as "God's spiritual id ea . . . perfect, etern al," and argued that "it is our ignorance o f God, the divine P rin cip le, that produces appar ent discord, and it is the right understanding of him that r e s to r e s har- 151 mony." M rs. Eddy spoke of apparent discord , for "the real man is not of the dust, nor is he ever created through the flesh; for his father I 152 jand m other are the one Spirit . . . the eternal good." And "without I 153 perfection, nothing is wholly real . . ." She extended her argum ent {until its con verse d isap p eared : "The sc ie n c e of Mind d isp oses of all i I evil. God is not the father of Error . . . E rror is a supposition . . . Error is the contradiction of truth. E rro r is unreal because 154 untrue." Mary Baker Eddy spoke to individuals living with the con flict i jand tension of a so c ie ty in transition. She m in istered to them w ith the I i p rom ise of perfection and harm ony, and this com fort was accepted by |nany. A s C arl D eg ler w rote: The Econom ic R evolution of the la st half of the nineteenth century was m ore than a p ro lifera tio n of fa cto ries and m achines; it w as the transform ation of a so ciety . . . . Many m en no longer lived among the unchanging h ills and valleys but within the crow ded and ev er changing co n flicts of the city. *^5 M rs. Eddy's religion spoke to these people. It told them they had 143 power, even om nipotence, and they w ere perfect, for they w e r e the ex p ressio n of a p erfect God. This m ust have been a rea ssu rin g idea to m any who felt they w ere totally subservient to this em ergin g m a ss, m ach in e-age society. The p ro cess of extending fam iliar ideas is exem p lified by M rs. Eddy's concept of id ea lism . To the tra n scen d en ta lists, id e a lism re - ! ferred to the priority and power one placed in ideas and id e a ls. To requote E m erson: "the m a teria list in sists on fa cts, on h isto ry , on the i |force of circu m sta n ce s and the animal wants of man; the id e a lists on ' 156 the power of thought and of the w ill." But M rs. Eddy extended id ea lism so that co n scio u sn ess w as not only prim ary, but the only i reality. F o r M rs. Eddy, Mind w as all and there w as no m atter: "there is no life, truth, intelligence nor substance in m atter, for God 157 is a ll in all." i One la st relationship between the rhetoric of tran scendentalism i ■and C hristian S cience is important: the use of m etaphor. The tran- i scen d en ta lists w ere bound to a static view of language and m etaphor. "Every appearance in nature corresponds to som e state of the mind, and that state of the mind can only be d escrib ed by presenting that 158 natural appearance as its picture," said E m erson . B ecau se of this fact, E m erson b elieved it w as quite natural to say that "an enraged mar. 159 is a lion, a cunning m an a fox, and a fir m man a rock. . . . " And "who looks upon a river in a m editative hour . . . is rem inded ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------R T of the flux of a ll things. T ranscendental language theory demanded, then, a continued em phasis on nature m etaphor, and m o st transcendentalists m aintained this point of view . But these idyllic m etaphors and im agery w ere in con sisten t with the p ost-C ivil War United States, and the tran scen d ental m ovem ent w as unable to adapt to the burgeoning urbanization of n e w tim e s. And industrialization with its consequent in crea se in labor unrest, crim e, and alienation made it difficult for m odern man to jidentify w ith E m erson when he said: "the woods wave, the pines m u r- i m ur . . . with th ese form s, the sp ells of persuasion, the keys of jpower are put into his the [orator's] han ds." ^ * No longer w ere m o st jAmericans in terested in the idyllic past. It w as the confusing p resent i I that confronted them . Not only was the nature rhetoric of tran scen d en talism ill-equipped to persuade them , transcendentalism lacked the new pragm atic and scientific orientation, and the m ovem ent w as im potent to answ er the problem s of the new age. It was h ere that C h rist- jian Science diverged dram atically fro m transcendentalism . F o r M rs. i Eddy d iscarded the n ature-oriented language of the transcendentalists jfor a pragm atic, hard hitting, scien tifica lly -o rien ted rhetoric. Instead I of str e ssin g the beauties of nature, she talked of "facts," of "proofs," 162 of "hypotheses," of "laws," of "dem onstration." This point w ill be d iscu sse d in detail below. 145 P laton ism and C hristian S cie n c e.-- A s has been noted, there was a strong in tere st in P lato's philosophy in A m erica , particularly in the M idwest; this in tere st cam e not only from philosophers but from many "average" citizen s w ishing to im prove their education and culture. S im ila rities can be seen between M rs. Eddy's theology and P lato's philosophy, particularly in two areas: P lato's doctrine of ideas or Ideal F o rm s, and his concept of A nam n esis. As Chapter III of this study pointed out, P la to 's theory of know- i Hedge centered on his distinction of the noum enal and phenomenal w orld s. The noum enal w orld of Ideal F o rm s w as ch an geless and p e r fect. The phenom enal w o rld --th e m aterial world of se n se p ercep tio n -- was im p erfect and continually changing, and w as but a shadow, an im p erfect counterfeit of the noum enal w orld. As has been d iscu ssed , M rs. Eddy held a v iew sim ila r to P la to 's. She argued that the phenom enal world w as the sou rce of perfection and ultim ate reality. God or Mind inhabited the noum enal w orld, and the real and perfect man w as I the ex p ressio n of this perfect God. M ortal man w as the counterfeit of I the real man: m a teria l, changing and sinful. Another way M rs. Eddy's theology is sim ila r to P lato's phil osophy is in its idea of p r e -e x iste n c e , o r the im m ortality of the soul. In the P haed o, Plato d iscu sse d A nam n esis, or his doctrine of r e c o l lection; this doctrine provides a b asis for p r e -e x iste n c e . A nam n esis r e fe r s to knowledge "acquired not through the s e n s e s or as inform ation R T :onveyed from one m ind to another by teaching, but by recollection in :his life of rea lities and truths seen and known by the sou l before its 163 incarnation." To reco llect what one knew b efo re one was born, then, su ggests m an 's p r e -e x iste n c e . M rs. Eddy not only m aintained that m an lived after death, but that he lived before he was m a teria lly born: "If w e live after death and are im m ortal, we m u st have liv ed before birth, for if L ife ever had a 164 seginning, it m ust a lso have an ending. . . And Science r e v e r se s the evidence of the m aterial se n se s with the spiritual sense that God, Spirit, is the only substance; and that | m an, His im age and lik e n e ss, is spiritual, not m aterial. This great Truth does not destroy but substantiates m an's identity, - - j together with his im m ortality and p r e -e x iste n c e , or his spiritual j c o -e x iste n c e with his M aker. That which has a beginning m ust ! have an ending. *^5 A ccording to Christian S cien ce, man, thinking from the phe- nomenal point of v iew , had lo s t sight of his in itial perfection and needec to r e c o lle c t his orig in a l state: "M ortals w ill lo s e their sen se of |n o r ta lity --d is e a se , sick n ess, sin, and d eath --in the proportion that i jthey gain the sense of man's sp iritu al p r e -e x iste n c e as God's child. ! 166 ii i* • • i l i M rs. Eddy's theology, then, is Platonic in its utilization of Plato's doctrine of id eas and h is concept of an am n esis. M rs. Eddy leld that the noum enal world w a s ch an geless and perfect and the p he nomenal w orld was but a shadow of this perfect w orld. She also believed that man ex isted before his m aterial birth and could 147 recall and regain his origin al perfection. H egel and C hristian S c ie n c e .--B o th H egel and M r s . Eddy relieved in the prim acy of id ea s. F or H egel, ultim ate rea lity w as the 'Absolute Idea." H a rris, speaking of H egel's A bsolute, indicated that 'Mind is the fundamental ground of all objective being and all su b jec - 167 :ive c o n scio u sn ess . . . A bsolute Mind . . . is the absolute being." Ireation, for H egel, resu lted from the thought of this Mind: "God's 168 elf-know ing is a se lf-w illin g and the divine thinking is creative." ^vlrs. Eddy held that God w as the om n iscient Mind of the u n iverse and I the exp ression , the thoughts, of this Mind constituted cre a tio n . 1 1 As i 1 fsteiger said: "Christian S cience has in com m on with H egel the r e lig - I I ous synoptic approach; both sy ste m s are concerned with viewing the 170 in iv erse as a w hole and God as its cause." In addition to str e ssin g the p rim acy of id eas, H egel and M rs. jEddy held com plem entary notions regarding m atter. M atter for H egel 171 jvas a collection of coherent, ab stract ex p erien ces. H egel's concept i I pf m atter, Steiger su ggested, "is valuable for the C hristian S cien tists | &s a further elucidation of statem ents which he finds in the authorized I 172 p h ristian S cience literatu re." H egel's concept of m atter as a b str a c tion was not in con sisten t with M rs. Eddy's b elief that r e a l substance w as derived from Mind, and hence m atter w as not substantial, an abstraction: "Substance is that w hich is eternal and incapable of 148 discord and decay. . . . Spirit, the synonym of Mind, Soul, or God, is 173 the only real substance." ! Another sim ilarity betw een H egel and M rs. Eddy w as that both i believed C hristianity the high est form of religion. Hegel term ed C hristianity the "Absolute religion," m eaning it adequately represented 174 truth. M rs. Eddy held that her religion was a red iscovery of 175 j"primitive C hristianity and its lo st elem en t of healing." H egel ! [translated the C hristian Trinity into his philosophy by positing God the (Father as Logic, the A bsolute Idea before it b eco m es externalized in I mature. God the Son was seen in the A bsolute's externalization in I (nature. And the Holy Spirit w as Mind becom ing selfco n scio u s of r e a l- lity. Man was estranged fro m the Absolute and fe lt a sense of lim ita - i tion and in com p leten ess, according to H egel, and w as conscious of sin. The Incarnation represented the Son united with the Father, and through 175 Iworship man gained an aw a ren ess of his unity with God. There is j no significant sim ila rity betw een H egel's interpretation of the Trinity jand Incarnation and M rs. Eddy's view of the m atter. But both M rs. Eddy and Hegel show a high regard for C hristianity and integrate its (terminology into their sy ste m . [ Both M rs. Eddy and H egel posited a m etaphysic predicated on (experience. The objective w as explained in term s of subjective exp e- I I rien ce. For H egel, "All things are a u n iversality or inner nature in th em selv es. They are a u n iv ersa l which is individualized. Their 149 universality and individuality are distinguished, but the one is at the 177 sam e tim e identical with the other." This "judgment" or "inner nature" w as for H egel, the subjective experience from w hich the o b jec tive w orld w as explained. M rs. Eddy a lso posited a m etaphysic based an subjective experien ce. F or her, "All is infinite Mind and its in fi- 178 nite m anifestation, for God is a ll in all." Not only w as reality based on co n scio u sn ess, there was a relationship betw een subjective thought and objective e x p erien ce. And the proper m ental attitude would result in an altered objective exp erien ce, for exam ple, a healing of I jsickness. There was a definite relationship between inner ex p erien ces i and outward experien ce. But inner experience w as prim ary and o b jec- 179 fcive, or outward exp erien ce, w as derivative. H egel advanced his m etaphysic intellectu ally. The truth of his system reste d on its coh eren cy: it was a unified internally co n sisten t 180 system . M rs. Eddy, on the other hand, em phasized a different type of test. She argued that the experience of healing, of changing an im perfect seem in g into a p erfect reality, provided proof of the truth of her sy ste m . Because one could alter the im perfections of life through prayer, th is indicated, o r w as a sign of, a deeper reality that w as h an geless and perfect. The exp erien ce of the healing of sin and s ic k ness resu lting from an inner change of c o n scio u sn ess w as w arrant for the th esis that being w as u ltim ately p erfect and ch a n g ele ss. M rs. Eddy aelieved "we need to understand that e r r o r i£ nothing, and that its 1 150 po thingness is not to be saved , but m u st be dem onstrated in ord er to I JgJ jjrove the s o m e th in g n e ss --y e a , the a lln e s s - - o f Truth." W hereas i H egel offered an in tellectu al argum ent based on a coh erence te s t of truth, M rs. Eddy em p h asized an exp erien tial argum ent based on the power of inner exp erien ce to alter outer ex p erien ce. Both, though, posited a m etap h ysic b ased on inner exp erien ce as the ultim ate reality.; H e g e l's concept of freed om p aralleled that of M rs. Eddy. F or i H egel, m an fe lt co n str a in e d --a lack of freedorn--w h en he saw h im self as a m ere link in a gigantic chain of unrelated ev en ts. To exp erien ce freed om , m an had to identify with the A bsolute. He then would se e j i h im se lf as part of an organic whole and was fr e e to e x p ress his individ- 182 uality, although rem aining an ind isp en sib le part of the A bsolute. M rs. Eddy s im ila r ly s tr e s s e d that man w as free only when he identified ivith the divine Mind, the u n iv ersa l sou rce of e x iste n c e , and becam e 183 free d from the "bondage' 1 of alienation fro m God. M rs. Eddy's theology re se m b le s H egel's philosophy by (1) r e c ognizing an absolute Mind as the sou rce of ex isten ce , (2) defining m a t ter in a way s im ila r to H egel, (3) view ing C hristian ity as the highest fo rm of relig io n , (4) positing a m ctap hysic based on exp erien ce, and (5) view ing p erson al freed o m as a realization of the interdependence of e x iste n c e . But fu n d a m en ta l d if f e r e n c e s e x i s t b etw een H e g e l's philosophy and the d o c tr in e of C h ristia n S c ie n c e , lit gel did not d istin g u ish 151 between the m o rta l and the divine Mind. He envisioned an A bsolute evolving through a d ialectical triad of th esis, an tithesis, and synthe- 184 sis . M rs. Eddy's contrasting distinction betw een the noum enal, im m ortal Mind and the phenom enal, or m ortal, m ind w as one of the basic concepts of her religion. An inseparable gulf divided M rs. Eddy and H egel on this point. F urther, H egel's notion of the d ialectic p ro c e ss of the u n iverse stands in d ire ct contradiction to M rs. Eddy's v iew of the noum enal w orld. The noum enal world w as perfect, ch a n g eless I 185 land entered into no dialectic with the phenomenal w orld. This t I cardinal point in the doctrine of C hristian Science d ecisiv ely sep a ra tes I I it from H egelian ism . Although M rs. Eddy syn th esized opposing id eas and argum ents in h er doctrine, this is not to say she u tilized H egel's d ialectical m ethod either to construct her syn th esis or as a tenet in her theology. None of M rs. Eddy's tenets or ideas in any w ay su g g est that the world is m oving toward a d ialectical unity. Evil, m atter, all disharm ony, anything in the phenomenal w orld, can never unite with I I jnoumenal rea lity in the C hristian Science doctrine. Nor is there any I Evidence to support the view that M rs. Eddy w as even aware of H egel's d ialectical m ethod. As d iscu sse d before, M olm an's study, Ordeal by C oncordance, dem onstrated that M rs. Eddy did not utilize H egel's 186 writings to con stru ct her theology. R oyce and C hristian S c ie n c e .--R o y c e 's philosophy resem b led C hristian S cien ce in a number of w ays. R oyce a sse r te d that "the w hole 7 5 ? u n iverse, including the physical w orld also, i s e s se n tia lly one living 187 thing, a mind, one great spirit." He said: "All is for thought and without thought is nothing that is," and this thought is "eternal, all i j gg em bracing, and one." Royce maintained that m atter was in som e se n se m ental for if the idea of m atter was tru e, the id ea m ust be like jmatter, and co n v ersely , m atter its e lf m ust be m ental in quality. This |line of reasoning was "a refinem ent of B e r k eley 's contention that an i 189 idea can be like nothing but another idea." F o r R oyce, the universe (was one a ll-in c lu siv e Mind or self. And this s e lf, w hich was God, he 190 referred to as "Infinite Thought" and the "Absolute." This form of [mentalism was sim ila r to M rs. Eddy's b elief that "All is infinite Mind I i 1 9 1 ^nd its infinite m anifestation for God is A ll-in -a ll." I j But when R oyce explained his notion of "idea," he focused on the I i jrelationship of idea to intent and purpose. M r s . Eddy did not s tr e s s |this relationship. Royce defined "idea" as "any state of co n scio u sn ess, | Hvhether sim ple or com plex, which when p resen t is then and there Viewed as at le a s t the partial ex p ressio n or em b odim ent of a single 192 ^ onscious purpose." Ideas ex isted in co n sc io u sn e ss and w ere not jpassive but p o s se s s e d purpose, intention, w ill. Royce gave the ex a m ple of a "m usical idea." When singing a m elo d y , "you are then and | there con sciou s that the m elody, as you hear y o u rself singing it, par- 193 tially fu lfills and em bodies a purpose." It w a s you wanting to sing the tune. H ere, your idea "appears to be rep re se n ta tiv e of a fact --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- r e r 194 existen t beyond itself." But what constitutes an idea w as not the fact that you intended or "purposed" a song, it w as rather "its inner ch aracter as relatively fulfilling the purpose . . . w hich is in the c o n scio u sn ess of the m om ent 195 w herein the idea takes place." The nature of the idea w as evidencec in the intention which pointed beyond the idea. This intention or p u r pose was the "internal m eaning of the id e a ." ^ ^ In contradistinction to this inner m eaning w as an "external m eaning." The sung m elody had i jnot only an internal m eaning, but it a lso referred to som ething other 197 than itself, an "attempted correspon d en ce with other facts." The fact w as, for exam ple, the sp ecific "theme which Beethoven com - 198 posed." The truth of an idea rested ultim ately with the inner m e a n ing: "the final m eaning of e v e r y com plete idea, when fully, developed, 199 m u st be view ed as w holly an internal m eaning." Though M rs. Eddy and Royce w ere both m en ta lists, holding the mind to be prim ary, M rs. Eddy did not relate ideas to intention the :way Royce did. M rs. Eddy believed that intent and purpose belonged i jto the C reator, not his creation: man w as the effect, ex p ressio n , or reflection of the C reator, not a personal creator. She taught that a ll human w ill should be relinquished to G od.^^ R oyce b elieved individual I I intent and purpose w e r e what gave m en uniqueness and selfhood. He w as concerned not only with the w ill of God, but also m en 's w ills and 201 valu es as they related to so ciety . ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ r s r It is not rh etorically im portant that M rs. Eddy and Royce did not share exactly sim ila r v ie w s . What is im portant is that a prominent philosopher such as Royce w as advancing notions str e ssin g the prim acy of con sciou sn ess and the m ental nature of ex isten ce during the sam e tim e M rs. Eddy w as speaking in this fashion. At the sa m e time M rs. Eddy w as teaching that God w as divine Mind and infinite idea, sim ila r term inology and the sam e general view point w as being u tilized in uni- 202 v ersity departm ents in A m erica . It is not suggested that m ost of i iMrs. Eddy's follow ers w ere acquainted with such p ro fesso rs as Royce £>r Bowne. But id ea listic concepts sim ila r to Christian S cience w ere I j in the p rocess of d issem in ation by opinion le a d e r s. T hese ideas w ere Idiffused into the culture by students, for id ea listic philosophy was | firm ly entrenched in the u n iv ersities and co lleg es in the United States 203 at the turn of the century. R oyce, as M rs. Eddy, valued C hristianity and both believed it jconsistent with th eir id ea lism . George H erbert Mead noted that much iof R oyce's term inology and conception w as in "the vern acular of the ichurch" and his philosophy contains "reverberations from C alvinistic and Pauline co n cep tio n s." ^ ^ M rs. Eddy's theology resem b led R oyce's philosophy by ( 1) view ing reality as e sse n tia lly m ental, (2 ) describing God as Absolute Mind, and (3) believing C hristianity con sisten t with philosophical id ea lism . 155 Borden P ark er Bowne and C hristian S cie n c e.--M r s . Eddy and Bowne w ere both m e n ta lists, believing all exp erience took place in mind. Bowne c la ssifie d his philosophy as "idealism ," a term for which he had "no sp ecia l liking or d islike, provided the thing be u n der- 205 stood." D escribin g his philosophy he said, "it is id ealism as d en y ing all ex tra -m en ta l existen ce and making the world of objective e x p e rience a thought w orld which would have neither m eaning nor p o ssib il- 206 ity apart from in telligen ce." And sum m ing up his philosophy in the ■conclusion to his book, M eta p h y sics, Bowne said: | I The world of things can be defined and understood only as we give up the notion of an ex tra -m en ta l reality altogether, and make the entire world a thought world; that is, a w orld that ex ists only through and in relation to in telligence. Mind is the only ontological reality. i Bowne opposed abstractions and u niversals and wished to stay with con crete, in n er exp erien ce. He believed both m a teria lists and Absolute Id ealists, such as H egel, dealt essen tia lly w ith abstraction s, j and abstractions w ere not r e a l--o n ly con crete, sp ecific, conscious jexperience was r ea l. Bowne explained how Absolute Idealists and ! m a teria lists w ere ab stra ctio n ists, both viewpoints being im personal 1 |or not particular and sp ecific: Im p erson alism m ay be reached in two ways. The se n se - bound mind s e e s a great v a riety of extra-m ental, im personal things in the w orld about u s, and these v e r y naturally bulk large in thought. Thus things, with of cou rse such m odifications of I the conception as a su perficial reflection may su ggest, tend to becom e the b a sa l fact of e x iste n c e . In this way n aturalism a r is e s , with its m ech an ical way of thinking and its m a teria listic T3F and atheistic ten d en cies. This is one form of im p erso n a lism . T he other form of im p erso n a lism arises through the fallacy of the abstract. U ncritical minds alw ays attem pt to explain the explanation, thus unwittingly com m itting th em selv es to the infinite r e g r e s s. A ccordingly when they com e to living in te lli gence as the explanation of the w orld, they fancy that they m ust go behind even th is. We have the categories of being, cau se, identity, change, the absolute, and the like. . . . This is a s p e c ie s of id ea listic im p erso n a lism . ^08 The person or self w as the m o st important aspect of Bowne's philosophy, for p ersonal con sciou s exp erience w a s the starting point of his s y s te m . Knowledge cam e from experience: "we rem ain w here jwe begin, in the w orld of personal experien ce, and with the strength ened conviction that this w orld can n ever be explained on any im p e r sonal p l a n e . a n d " self-co n scio u s existen ce is the truly ultim ate I 210 jfact." As d isc u sse d e a r lie r , M rs. Eddy also em p h asized the im - I I portance of exp erien ce, w hich provided warrant fo r the truth of her system . Although Bowne did not incorporate healing into h is philosophy, both he and M rs. Eddy s tr e s s e d the im portance o f personal experience as data to be used in their philosop hies. | Bowne w as concerned that the individual w a s seen as "self- 211 iactive," " self-determ ining," " self-con sciou s." He did not want I individuality subm erged in the A bsolute Mind, though he did not reject i 212 God as A bsolute Mind. M rs. Eddy did not em p h asize m a n 's s e lf- idetermining nature for she believed m en to be God's reflection , the 213 effect of Mind. Bowne defined God as suprem e P erson . Individual ex p erien ces 157 w ere not derived fro m im personal fo r c e s , but by this living, personal God. Individual experien ce "depends on the living will and purpose of the C reator. And its s u c c e s s iv e ph ases, so far as we m ay use t e m poral language, are but the fo r m s under which the Suprem e P erson 214 produces and m aintains the personal fin ite spirit." To say that God was a person was not to say he was corp oreal or anthropomorphic for P erson ality and corp oreality are incom m ensurable id e a s. The e ssen tia l m eaning of personality is selfhood, s e lf-c o n sc io u sn e s s, self-co n tro l, and the power to know. These elem ents have no corp oreal significance or lim itation s. Any being, finite or ! infinite, which has knowledge and se lf-c o n sc io u sn e ss and s e lf- | control is personal: for the term has no other m eaning. Laying | aside, then, all thought of corporeal form and lim itation as being no factor of personality, w e must re a lly say that com plete and p erfect personality can be found only in the Infinite and A bsolute Being, as only in Him can w e find that com plete and p erfect s e l f hood and s e lf-p o s s e s s io n w hich are n e c e ssa r y to the fu lln ess of ! p e r s o n a l i t y . ^ 15 M rs. Eddy shared Bow ne's rejection of an anthropomorphic or jcorporeal God. She wrote "the word anthropornorphic, in such a phrase as 'an anthropomorphic God' is derived from two Greek w ord s, isignifying man and form , and m ay be defined as a m ortally m ental I lattempt to reduce D iety to corp oreality. The life giving quality of 216 |Mind is Spirit, not m atter." But M r s. Eddy also defined God as | j"Person:" "If the term personality, as applied to God, m ean infinite i personality, then God is infinite P erson , --in the sense of infinite p e r - 217 sonality, but not in the lower sense." And, "God is L ove. He is 218 therefore the divine, infinite P rin cip le, called P erson or God." 158 Bowne posited a God of Love, a caring and totally good God: If God is to be of any religious value to us and an object of real and adoring w orship, he m ust be suprem ely good. . . . the God of theology for a long tim e hardly attained to any real active good n ess, such as the thought of ethical love im p lies. This God, too, w as rather m etaphysically conceived, and his h olin ess co n sisted m ainly of making rules for m en and in punishing their tra n sg ressio n . He w as conceived largely after the fashion of the m ed ieval despot, and the conception of any obligation on his part to his creatu res would have been looked upon a lm ost as blasphem y. But now we have begun to think m ore clearly and profoundly as to what ethical love dem ands, and with this thought the im m oral, se lfish , and indifferent gods have disappeared, and the God of theology, also, has been greatly m odified. ^ *9 I A s has been seen, M rs. Eddy also posited a loving God, m ade "Love" i lone of her seven synonym s for God, and con sidered it the single b est ■ J ^ 0 2 2 0 Kvord to d escrib e God. ! Bow ne's religiou s ideas w ere the subject of co n tro v ersy and i con servative "Methodist m in isters disliked his lib era l theology, and 221 so he w as accused of h eresy ." He retained his p ro fesso rsh ip at 222 M ethodist-founded Boston U niversity, though, until his death in 1910. He w as ultim ately credited with promoting "a m ore p ro g ressiv e sp irit 223 . . e sp e c ia lly among the M ethodists." M ayer indicated that "Bowne did much to em ancipate A m erican religiou s thinking. Hence I he alm o st gave a death-blow to the C alvinistic tradition in A m erica. He pictured God as good and m ercifu l and as the source of all va lu es. This v iew is very different from that of Jonathan Edwards, who p ic tured the m ajesty of God and His delight at the damnation of the sin - 224 And W erk m eister said: j Bow ne's philosophy- . . . laid anew the foundation for a theistic I theology at a tim e when m a te r ia listic evolutionism , higher c r itic ism , and com parative religion threatened the v e r y ex isten ce J of C hristian theology itse lf. Sm all w onder, th erefo re, that j Bow ne's influ en ce in the field of religion was profound and far- reaching, and that it has lasted to our own d a y .c ^ ! S te ig e r 's dissertation dealing w ith C hristian Science and p h il osophy, d irected by the prom inent A m erican P e r so n a list, Edgar S. Brightm an, found s im ila r itie s betw een C hristian Science and P e r so n alism : The d octrine of C hristian S cience certain ly a grees with the b a sic position of id ea listic P e r so n a lism , that all exp erien ce is in mind, and that the objects in a phenom enal m a teria l exp erien ce ' have no en tity sep arate from mind. The m ain point of possible d isa g r e e m e n t is in the relationship of God to n iiin ," ^ Steiger further said: "The doctrine of C hristian Science rep resen ts that form of P e r so n a lis m in which the concept of P erso n is reserv ed 227 to God." i j B ow n e's philosophy and M rs. Eddy's theology are sim ila r, then I in ( 1) their m e n ta listic em p h a sis, (2) th eir concern for con crete e x p e rience, (3) their religious em p h asis, and (4) their an ti-C alvinistic notion of a loving God. In su m m a ry , M rs. Eddy grounded her sy n th esis of scien ce arid C hristianity upon idea^ many Arne, ricans acce pt ed or w ere acquainted t with. Such id ea s us the n m ini > \turc of the e x iste n c e , God as Mind, ,and evil as illu sio n rc ia i unfam iliar to many A m erican s. Such 160 Ideas w ere advanced in p ost-C ivil War A m erica by Plato and H egel clubs, philosophically id ea listic p eriod icals, and by such philosophers as Royce and Bowne. M rs. Eddy's syn th esis of scien ce and religion, then, was p ersu asive b ecau se it contained ideas attractive to m any A m ericans between 1875 and 1910. Her syn thesis offered m ore than a com p rom ise between scien ce and C hristianity. Her doctrine did m ore than pay lip serv ice to sc ie n c e . It w as m ore than a com p rom ise satisfying neither sid e. W hereas p reach ers such as Henry Ward B eecher and Lyman Abbott 228 sought to accom m odate C hristianity to evolution, M rs. Eddy argued that C hristianity was scien tific, and that it w as only through the ages that it becam e contam inated with supernaturalism and superstition. M rs. Eddy asked her audience to go back to the original, fundamental teachings of J esu s. What one would find, she explained, was a s y ste - 229 m atic religion worthy of the nam e sc ie n c e . I Although M rs. Eddy was in m any w ays in the tradition of the | lib era l theologians, her appeal had a fundamental "ring" to it. A s has been noted, M rs. Eddy continually em phasized her reliance on the Bible and the fundamental teachings of J e su s. The accom m odating theology of m any liberal m in isters asked liste n e r s to alter C hristianity F or instance, B eecher included the follow ing reason s for altering traditional C hristianity: "Evolution is accepted as the method of c r e a tion by the w hole scien tific world," and "the theory of Evolution is the w orking th eory of e v e r y d ep artm en t of p h y sic a l s c ie n c e a ll o v er the i n 230 world." Other reason s cited by B eecher included: "This scien ce of Evolution is taught in all advanced academ ies in all co lleg es and uni v e r sitie s," and "that in another generation Evolution w ill be regarded as uncontradictable as the Copernican sy ste m of astronom y, or the 231 Newtonian doctrine of gravitation, can sc a r c e ly be doubted." After giving the above reasons in his serm on, "Two R evelations," B eecher concluded that therefore Evolution "is certain to oblige theology to 232 reconstru ct its system ." j B eech er's approach w as to alter C hristianity to fit scientific notions. This com p rom ise left the traditional C hristian believing that his religion m ust lack ultim ate truth and caused m any to question long- held religious b eliefs. M rs. Eddy's appeal lacked this discom forting quality of the liberal religiou s appeal. She asked her follow ers to r e estab lish the letter and sp irit of prim itive C hristianity and they would find a scientific religion based on provable p rinciples. i i By identifying with scien ce itse lf rather than a particular con- I jcept of scien ce such as evolution, M rs. Eddy in creased the potential I i long range appeal of her doctrine. For after the 1920's and the Scopes trial, the issu e of C hristianity and evolution w as no longer important in theology. The reconciliation of scie n c e and religion is , though, a 233 much larger issu e and still w orthy of d iscu ssio n and in terest. By seeking to m odel her religion on the b asic scien tific construct rather T5T Jian sp ecific th eo rie s or id eas of sc ie n c e , M rs. Eddy's syn th esis c o n f in e d the potential for continued relevan ce. F a r from offering h er audience a w atered-dow n com p rom ise, Mrs. Eddy argued that, properly view ed, C hristianity was scien tific and sc ie n tists w ere in fact practicing principles taught by J e su s, the m aster scien tist. A final rea so n for the p ersu a siv en ess of M rs. Eddy's syn th esis af scien ce and C hristianity is that this syn thesis appealed to m an's i peed for c o n sisten cy and conciliation. Modern balance th eo rists such jas F estin g er , H eid er, and N ew com e su ggest that m an's natural ten - i dency is to seek p sych ological equilibrium , coherency in his b elief 234 system ,to reduce the tension of in consistent attitudes. M rs. Eddy's synth esis brought c o n siste n c y to ideas of scien ce and C hristianity in Late nineteenth century A m erica . L evy-B ruhl and Jung s tr e s s e d that individuals seek a s e n s e of unification with each other and are u n com fortable with polarization and estrangem ent. M rs. Eddy's doctrine i joffered a unification of conflicting ideas of scien ce and C hristianity, I and su ggested C hristians and the scien tifically m inded really shared a com m on set of b e lie fs . The turn of the century was a tim e of heightened idealogical conflict for A m e r ic a n s. D isa g reem en t w as all about them . Not only was there debate o v e r scien ce and religion, there also was str ife between b u sin ess and labor, corruption and conflict within city ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- YEJ gov ern m en t, w hile the P o p u list M ovem ent sig n a led c o n flic t b etw een 235 urban and a g ra ria n s o c ie ty . S im m e ll, G ist and H alb ert, M ayo, and H all have show n that th e u rb an ized and in d u str ia liz e d en viron m en t en - 236 c o u r a g e s fe e lin g s of in s e c u r ity , a lien a tio n , fru stra tio n and ten sio n . 237 C h ristia n S c ie n c e m in is te r e d to th ese te n sio n s and fr u str a tio n s. M rs. E ddy's d octrin e o ffered r e c o n c ilia tio n s fo r a num ber of id ea s in c o n flic t, including th e c o n flict o v e r s c ie n c e and r e lig io n . It w as a p o sitiv e , u nifying, te n sio n -r e d u c in g sy n th e sis that appealed to m any A m eric a n s at the turn o f the cen tu ry . [Synthesis of C a lv in istic and L ib e r a l V iew s of God and Man M rs. Eddy's s y n th e sis o f C a lv in istic and lib e r a l v ie w s o f God and m an w as a lso p e r su a siv e fo r m any A m e r ic a n s . T h is sy n th e sis m u st be se e n as part o f a la r g e r r e lig io u s debate during the turn of the cen tu ry . By the late n in eteen h u nd reds, m any c le r g y m e n had turned ifrom the C a lv in istic notion of a v en g efu l God and a depraved m an to a m o re lib e r a l id ea of God as a b en ev o len t c r e a to r and m an as a ch ild of a lovin g d eity . H enry Ward B e e c h e r 's th eo lo g y ex e m p lifie d the g ro w ing a n ti-C a lv in istic attitude o f m an y c le r ic s in the U nited S ta te s. He su g g e ste d th at evolu tion supported the id e a that m an w as not h o p e le s s ly 238 d ep raved but w as p r o g r e ssin g e th ic a lly and r e lig io u s ly . B e e c h e r 's a rg u m en t that m an w a s not a h e lp le s s sin n e r found support in the 164 w ritin gs and p reach in g of Lym an A bbott, who r e je c te d the G e n e sis account of the fa ll o f m an as "a b eau tifu l fa b le," and u rged ea ch m e m - aer o f h is au d ien ce to have con fid en ce in the pow er of God to "lift h im up and out of h is lo w er s e lf into h is h igh er, tr u e r , n ob ler s e lf, u n til he sh a ll be no lo n g e r the son of the a n im al, but in e v e r y truth a son of 239 God." And e v a n g e lis t C h a rles G randison F in n y p rea ch ed that m en , far fr o m being d ep raved , could b eco m e sa n ctified and "perfect" if they 240 su rren d ered th e m s e lv e s to God. i j But A m e r ic a w as divided on the issu e o f m an 's s in fu ln e s s. A s j A lla n H. S a g er sa id , " again st the o p tim istic r o m a n tic ism of the lib e r a l s o c ia lly o rien te d C h ristia n ity , fu n d am en talists p ro cla im ed m an 's 241 d ep ravity." The serm o n of a sta lw a r t P r e sb y te r ia n , R ev eren d C la ren ce E. M acartn ey, ' Shall U n b elief Win," illu s tr a te d the c o n s e r v a tive p o sitio n regard in g m an 's sin fu ln e s s. T h is serm o n "was p rin ted 242 in pam phlet fo r m and w id ely cir c u la te d ." M a ca rtn ey 's argu m en t w as that the c r u c ifix io n of J e su s and h is su bseq u en t aton em en t fo r m a n 's jsins had no m ean in g if m an w as not a sin n er. He argued that "the one j jgreat truth of C h ristia n ity " w as "that w e have r e m is s io n o f our sin s I 243 and a r e ju stifie d w ith God." M acartney b e lie v e d that J e su s atoned for m a n 's s in s , "that the blood of our L ord, sh ed in a su b stitu tio n a ry i 244 death, p la ca tes an a lien ated D eity." The fu n d a m en ta list op p osed any v ie w that su g g e ste d m an w as not born in sin . M rs. E ddy's sy n th e sis of C a lv in istic and lib e r a l id e a s did not ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- T5T a lien a te m any on e ith er sid e o f the c o n tr o v e r sy . She did not deny that man w a s depraved nor that he w as e s s e n tia lly good. H er sy n th e sis p rep ared the w ay fo r p e r su a sio n by n ot containing id ea s denying the p o sitio n of e ith e r the C a lv in ists or the r e lig io u s lib e r a ls . M rs. Eddy's sy n th e sis a ffirm ed what ap p eared to be a co n tra d ictio n and p o sited id ea s both sid e s could id en tify w ith: m an w as a d ep raved sin n er; man w as good and the ch ild of a loving God. M ortal m an, phenom enal m an, w as v iew ed as to ta lly corru p t and e v il; sp ir itu a l m an, noum enal m an, jwas good and the crea tio n o f a b e n e fic ie n t D eity . N eith er the C a lv in - i jists n or the lib e r a ls w ere a sk ed to ren ou n ce th e ir id e a s, for both w ere jco rrect. j | T his sy n th e sis w as p e r su a siv e b eca u se it o ffered m o re than m e r e c o m p r o m ise . M rs. Eddy did n ot argue that m an w as a little sin fu l, but not a s sin fu l as the C a lv in ists b e lie v e d , nor did she argue that m an w as e s s e n tia lly good but not a s good as the lib e r a ls b e lie v e d . She provided a th ird a lter n a tiv e o fferin g an id ea that m ade the o r ig in a l I ‘ c o n tr o v e r sy "trivial." H er sy n th e sis en c o m p a sse d the en tire d eb ate, [was "an engulfm ent of that c o n tr o v e r sy ," a " sy n th esis that ab sorb ed i 245 both the o rig in a l th e s is and its a n tith esis." T his sy n th e sis su g g e ste d both p a r tie s in the d isp ute w ere d e pendent on each o th er. T ruth w as s e r v e d by a u n ification of both p o s i tio n s, sin c e it took both v ie w s to e n c o m p a ss th e b read th o f m an 's con d ition . M rs. E ddy's sy n th e sis sp oke to m a n 's n eed and d e s ir e for 166 c o n siste n c y by advancing a co h ere n t notion of m an in w hich ap p aren tly d ifferin g id e a s w ere found to b e co m p lem en ta ry rath er than a n ta g o n istic. That C h r istia n S cie n c e cu t a c r o s s lib e r a l-o r th o d o x d istin ctio n s is in d icated by the fa c t that th e r e w ere d efectio n s to C h ristia n S cie n c e fro m v a rio u s se g m e n ts of P r o te sta n tis m . By the e a r ly 1 8 8 0 's, the |rapid grow th of C h ristia n S c ie n c e ca u sed m any m in is te r s to a sse m b le I lo c a l m in is te r ia l a sso c ia tio n m e e tin g s. A London T im e s rep o rte r in i B oston w rote that j C lerg y m en of a ll d en om in ation s a re s e r io u s ly c o n sid e r in g how to d eal w ith w hat th ey regard a s the m o s t dan gerou s innovation that i has th rea ten ed the C h ristia n C hurch in th is reg io n for m any y e a r s . S c o r e s of the m o st valu ed ch u rch m e m b e r s are joining the C h r is t ian S c ie n c e branch of the m e ta p h y sic a l o rg a n iza tio n , and it has j thus far b een im p o ssib le to ch eck the direction. 246 'The C h ristia n S cien ce Journal rec o rd ed d efectio n s fro m the v a rio u s 247 P r o te sta n t v ie w p o in ts. C unningham 's study of the im p a ct of C h r is t ian S cien ce on the A m eric a n ch u rch es r e v e a le d that C h ristia n S cie n c e {was gaining c o n v e r ts fro m a ll the m ajor P r o te sta n t d enom inations as w e ll as "m any e v a n g e lic a l ch u rch es," and C unningham noted that "by the end of the 1 8 8 0 's, ou trigh t d efectio n fro m the h isto r ic ch u rch es ■ 248 b eca m e in c r e a sin g ly com m on ." C h ristia n S cie n c e w as not draw ing h e a v ily fro m R om an C atholic and J ew ish c o m m ic a n ts, but fr o m the 249 v a r io u s se g m e n ts o f P r o te sta n tism . 167 Synthesis o f V icto ria n and R ad ical F e m in ists' V iew s of W om anhood M rs. Eddy's sy n th e sis o f V icto ria n and R ad ical F e m in is ts' view s of w om en r e la te d to a g e n e r a l c o n tr o v e r sy o v er the sta tu s and role of w om en in s o c ie ty . W illia m L. O 'N e ill has defin ed th e v a rio u s a sp ects o f "the w om en m ovem en t." O 'N e ill u se d the p h rase "the w om an m ovem en t" as a g en eric te r m in clu d in g a ll e le m e n ts of the m ovem en t. It included not only th o se things p ertain in g to w o m en 's rig h ts but j a ls o any a c t or e v e n t that en la rg ed w om en 's sp h e r e , in c r e a se d h er op p o rtu n ities, o r broadened her outlook. It co v ered e v e r y - | thing fro m wom an su ffra g e and s o c ia l reform down to the in d iv id u a l a cco m p lish m en ts of g ifted , am b itiou s w om en . I If one view ed th e w om en m o v em en t on a continuum , one sid e would be th o se w om en who w ere a ctiv e in such th in g s as ch u rch groups or lite r a r y s o c ie t ie s . T h ese w om en fo rm ed the rig h t w ing o f the m ovem en t, and they did not attack the s o c ia l and p o litica l sta tu s q u o. T hey w ere con ten t to h e lp the ch u rch and im p rove the com m unity in i [traditionally a ccep ta b le w a y s. The oth er end of th e continuum in clud ed Jthe ra d ic a ls who fa v o red fr e e lo v e and d ra stic lib e r a liz a tio n o f d iv o rce | la w s . Many o f th ese w om en d e -e m p h a siz e d the s a c r e d n e s s o f m arriage a :d the fa m ily . S om e, lik e E liza b eth C ady Stanton, w ent so far as to 251 denounce m a r r ia g e a lto g e th e r . Som e of the ra d ic a ls argu ed that w om en should em u late tr a d itio n a lly m a scu lin e c h a r a c te r is tic s by b ecom in g in volved in p o litic s and the a ffa ir s of the w orld. T hey w e r e ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ T E F to be tough and in te lle c tu a l, le s s d o m e stic , and op p ose "double sta n d - 252 a rd s," and ev en d r e ss lik e m en by w earin g b lo o m e r s. A m eric a n so c ie ty w as not read y for the r a d ic a ls . When V icto ria W oodhull, op p osin g the double standard, c a lle d a m a s s m e e t ing to d e c la r e h e r s e lf a "free lo v e r" even sh e w as " aston ish ed at the 253 fe r o c io u s re a c tio n to th is public c o n fe ssio n ." She w a s snubbed by fe llo w fe m in is ts , hounded by n ew sp a p ers, and a d v e r s e ly a ffected 254 fin a n cia lly and em o tio n a lly . M any in the m o v em en t w ere quick to r e a liz e th at e x tr e m e v ie w s [would a d v e r s e ly a ffect the s u c c e s s of the m o v em en t, fo r ex tre m e v ie w s i I and a ctio n s: . . . r e a ffir m e d the g en era l con v ictio n that su ffra g e p o litic s and ra d ic a l sp e c u la tio n s, p a rticu la rly th o se a ffectin g m a r r ia g e and the fa m ily , did not m ix . In co n seq u en ce the m o v em en t, although it n ev er d isow ned the s o c ia l g o a ls that w o m en 's v o te s w e r e p resu m ab ly to im p lem en t, em p h a sized the m o s t c o n s e r v a tiv e a s p e c ts of the su ffrage q u estio n . O pposed to the w om en m o v em en t w as the tra d itio n a l V icto ria n co n cep t of w om en . B arb ara W eltner has d e sc r ib e d th is tra d itio n a l co n cep t. By cu llin g n u m erou s n ew sp a p ers, m a g a z in e s , and n o v e ls, sh e a r r iv e d at four v ir tu e s of V icto ria n w om anhood. The V icto ria n 256 w om en d isp la y ed p iety , w hich w as the core o f w om an 's v ir tu e . P ie ty w as synonym ous w ith r e lig io u s b e lie f and r e lig io n w as fe lt to a ct as a type of tr a n q u iliz e r fo r the undefined u r g e s w hich plagued even the m o st pious young la d ie s . 169 257 P u rity w as an oth er v ir tu e . It w a s as e s s e n tia l as p iety to a w om an and w as natural and fem in in e . M en w ere m o r e lu stfu l than w om en and w ould be g ra tefu l to th em when they w ithstood th eir ad van ces and sa v ed them fro m th e m s e lv e s . The m a r r ia g e night w as the sin g le g rea t ev en t of a w om en 's life w hen "she b estow ed h er g r e a te st tr e a s u r e 258 upon h er husband." W om en w e r e pure and ign oran t of e v il. But a d ilem m a a r o s e when a w om an w a s d ev ir g in ized by m a r r ia g e , fo r sh e no lo n g er w as ign oran t and in n ocen t. A ny fo rm o f s o c ia l ch an ge, w ear-' I |ing b lo o m e r s fo r e x a m p le, w as an attack on w o m en 's unique and d is - j I jtinct n atu re, i . e . , b lo o m ers w e r e an attem p t to m ak e w om en m o re I I ilike m en . 259 W om en w ere s u b m iss iv e . T hey w ere p a s siv e in c o n tr a st to I m en , who w ere m o v e r s and d o e r s. W om en w ere not to fe e l and a c t fo r th e m s e lv e s and w e r e n a tu ra lly tim id and w eak . W om en d e sp ise d a ll things that w e r e lik e th e m s e lv e s , i . e . , te n d e r n e s s , p a ssiv ity , e tc . They w ere aw are of th e ir in fe r io r ity and w e lc o m e d support fr o m m en . I 260 j W om en w ere d o m e stic . And th ey w ere n ot to d etra ct fro m | th eir w om anhood by in te lle c tu a l p u rsu its o r lite r a r y en d eavor, fo r th eir p lace w as in the h om e. T hey w ere to lea rn p a tien ce, b ear s u ffe r ing, and not ex p e c t too m uch fr o m m a r r ia g e . W om en w ere to c o m fo rt and m in is te r to th eir fa m ilie s ' p h y sica l s ic k n e s s e s and m en tal d is t r e s s e s . W om en w ere to m a r r y fo r love and not w ealth; no m a r r ia g e at a ll w as b etter than a m a r r ia g e co n tra cted out o f s e lfis h m o tiv e s . 170 S ocia l r e fo r m m o v e m e n ts, m iss io n a r y a c tiv ity , utopian c o m m u n ities, w estw a rd exp an sion , in d u str ia lism and the C iv il W ar a lter ed 261 this im a g e of w om anhood. The v ery im a g e of the id e a l w om en helped change that im a g e , for b ein gs so pure and n o b le, it se e m e d , w ere im p elled to take a m o re a ctiv e p art in c o r r e c tin g the s o r r y state of a ffa ir s r esu ltin g fro m m ale d om in an ce. But the new w om an w as ther caught in a c o n tra d icto r y se t of v a lu e s --a c tio n v e r s u s p a ssiv ity , know - 262 ledge v e r s u s in n o c e n c e --a n d the r e su lt w a s gu ilt and ro le str a in . J M rs. E ddy's sy n th e sis spoke to th is c o n tr o v e r sy . H er r e c o n - i jciliation of R a d ica l F e m in ist and V icto ria n v ie w s w a s p e r su a siv e b e - ! ca u se it did not a lien a te m any on eith er s id e . M rs. Eddy did not deny that w om en sh ould be in te lle c tu a l, a ctiv e , p o litic a l, e tc . And sh e did not deny that w om en should be s e n s itiv e , p io u s, p a s s iv e , e tc . N eith er those having V icto ria n sy m p a th ies nor th o se p o s s e s s in g R ad ical F e m in ist attitu d es w e r e rebuked by the sy n th e sis. The id e a s p o sited by M rs. Eddy r e la te d to the v a lu es to w hich both groups w e r e p red isp o sed . She argued that w om en should be what |the V icto ria n s b e lie v e d th ey w ere and sh e argu ed that w om en should be I what the r a d ic a ls ad vocated . M r s. Eddy did not r e c o n c ile th e se ap p ar ently co n flictin g v ie w s by co m p ro m isin g the v ie w s o f e ith e r s id e . She I found a w ay to e n co m p a ss both v ie w p o in ts, su g g estin g both p e r sp e c tiv e s w ere c o r r e c t. M rs. E ddy argued that the q u a lities a s so c ia te d w ith “ w o m e n --te n d e r n e ss , p ie ty , e t c .- - w e r e q u a litie s in h eren t in both m en 171 and w om en. C o n v e r se ly , the m a sc u lin e q u a lities o f stren g th , co u ra g e, in te lle c t, e tc . , w ere a ls o in h eren t in w om en as w e ll as m en . It w as n e c e s s a r y fo r both m en and w om en to e x p r e s s th e ir m a scu lin e and 263 fem in in e s id e s fo r th em to be c o m p lete in d iv id u a ls. R ecogn izin g the im p ortan ce of the tra d itio n a l fem in in e q u a litie s, M rs. Eddy b elie v e d w om en should expand th eir p e r so n a litie s and be w hat they had alw ays b een y et m o r e . B oth m en and w om en, M rs. Eddy argu ed , should e x p r e ss th eir c o m p le te n e s s . T h is id ea w as p e r su a siv e i [because it in co rp o ra ted the is s u e s of the o rig in a l d isp u te. F o r m any i during th e se y e a r s , n eith er e x tre m e v ie w alone w a s a ccep ta b le. M rs. i [Eddy's a ltern a tiv e r e sp e c te d the o ld e r v ie w , yet in co rp o ra ted the n ew er v iew of w om en into its c o n str u c t. And M rs. Eddy's d octrin e a ttra cted m any w om en into the m o v em en t. A s P fau tz noted in h is study of C h ristia n S c ie n c e : C h ristia n S cie n c e w a s not on ly in ven ted and le d by a w om an, but a lso has ty p ica lly b een o b se r v e d to have d isp ro p o rtio n a tely low ! s e x ratio and d isp ro p o rtio n a tely high fe m a le p a rticip a tio n in its ex ecu tiv e o rg a n iz a tio n . W om en have alw ays s e r v e d in le a d e rsh ip p o s itio n s --a s 'R e a d e r s,' as 'p r a c titio n e r s,' and even as P r e sid e n t o f the M other C h u rc h --to a d e g r e e not found am ong other | d e n o m i n a t i o n s . 2 6 4 i Johnson co rro b o ra ted P fa u tz 's rem ark : "When a ll d en om in a tio n s in the U nited S ta tes are c o n s id e r e d , the a v era g e num ber of m a le s p er hundred fe m a le s is a lm o st two and a h alf tim e s the ratio for 265 C h ristia n S c ie n c e ." R e ferrin g to the ratio of m a le to fem a le p r a c titio n e r s in the 1880's and 1890's, De N ood pointed out: "Fluctuating 172 b etw een one and two and on e and fiv e during the e a r ly y e a r s , the ratio of m a le to fe m a le p r a c titio n e r s in la te r y ea rs sta b iliz e d at a p p ro x i- 266 m ately one to n in e." The w om en a ttra cted to C h ristia n S cie n c e w ere not ex tre m e r a d ic a ls . No p rom in en t fe m a le a c tiv is ts e m er g ed fr o m the ch u rch , and a p eru sa l o f te s tim o n ie s and a r tic le s w ritten by w om en in the C h ristia n S cie n c e p e r io d ic a ls co n firm ed the m o d era te sta n ce o f w om en a ttra cted to the m o v e m e n t. No a r tic le in d icated that w om en need ed to abandon the tra d itio n a l w om anly v ir tu e s to b eco m e m o r e m a n lik e or ! 267 [accept m a scu lin e q u a litie s. j M rs. E d d y's sy n th e s is of th e s e two v ie w s of w om anhood o ffered a p o sitiv e c o n c ilia to r y co n cep t that ap p ealed to the hum an n eed for red u ction of c o n flic t. N ot on ly did M r s. E ddy's sy n th e sis argu e that there w a s no n eed fo r the ex istin g d isa g r e e m e n t o v er the ro le and status o f w om en, it argu ed that th e r e w as no n eed to a ssu m e a "battle of the s e x e s ." M en and w om en w e r e fundam entally the im age of a F a th er-M o th er G od, a God p o s s e s s in g the q u a lities of m anhood and w om anhood. B oth m en and w om en had a com m on id en tity as the e x p r e s s io n of th is m a s c u lin e -fe m in in e God. Su m m ary T his ch a p ter has ex a m in ed the p e r su a siv e ap p eal of the C h r is t ian S c ie n c e d o c tr in e . The a ttr a c tiv e n e ss of th is d o ctrin e to m any 173 m id d le c la s s A m eric a n s during the turn of the cen tu ry w as se e n to be an im p ortan t rea so n fo r the s u c c e s s of th e r e lig io n . A lthough so m e of M rs. E ddy's id ea s appear at f ir s t fo r e ig n to h er a u d ien ce, h er d o c trin e a s a w hole w as c o n siste n t with the id e a lis tic valu es h eld by m any m id d le c la s s A m e r ic a n s. N ot only did M rs. Eddy identify w ith A m e r i can v a lu e s , h er d octrin e sp oke to a n u m ber of c o n tr o v e r sie s in p o st- b ellu m A m erica : s c ie n c e v e r s u s C h r istia n ity , C a lv in ism v e r su s lib e r a l C h r istia n ity , tra d itio n a l view s of w om en v e r s u s p r o g r e s s iv e and ra d ic a l v ie w s. M rs. E ddy's d octrin e provided an argu m en tative sy n th e sis fo r each of th e se co n flictin g id e a s . Her sy n th e sis w as a ttractive b eca u se it o ffered a c o n siste n t, coh eren t a ltern a tiv e to the e x tr e m e s of both s id e s of ea ch is s u e . M rs. E ddy's th eology o ffered a b eliev a b le sy n th e sis to the m any m id d le c la ss A m eric a n s caught b etw een the co n flic t of d ifferin g id e a s. 174 N otes ^H arold W. P fa u tz, "A C ase Study of an U rban R e lig io u s M ovem ent: C h r istia n S c ie n c e , " in C ontributions to Urban S o c io lo g y , ed . E rn est W. B u r g e ss and D onald J. B ogue (C hicago, 1964), p. 290. 2 E r n e s t S. B a tes and John V. D ittem o re, M ary B ak er Eddy (N ew Y ork, 1932), p. 139. ^Ibid. 4 P fa u tz , p. 29. ^Ibid. , p. 295. 6Ibid. 7 R ich ard O ak es, The Story of the C hicago A d d ress (L ondon, 1950), p. 9. i 8 Ibid. 9 F ra n k lin , "The P a r lia m e n t of R e lig io n s, " C o n g r eg a tio n a list, LXXVUI (S ep tem b er 28, 1893), 416. ^ H . K. C a r r o ll, The R elig io u s F o r c e s of the U nited S ta tes E n u m era ted , C la s s ifie d , and D escrib ed ; R e fe r e n c e s fo r 1900 and 1910 C om pared w ith the G overnm ent C en su s of 1890: C ondition and C h arac t e r is t ic s of C h r istia n ity in the U nited S ta tes (New Y ork , 1912), XLV, 98. A lthough stu d ies have in v estig a ted in depth the grow th of C h ristian S c ie n c e , d e fin itiv e data a re u n availab le on the su b je c t. M rs. E ddy's p ro v isio n in h e r Church M anual that C h ristia n S c ie n tists not p u blish m em b ersh ip s ta tis tic s m ake ex a ct data im p o ssib le . T his p r o v isio n w as ign ored by the govern m en t and we h ave a reco rd of C h r istia n S c ie n c e m e m b e r sh ip fro m cen su s rep o rts of 1890, 1906, 1926, and 1936. B e c a u se of the p r o v isio n , though, it is im p o ssib le to t e ll to whal d e g r e e the c e n su s w as c o r r e c tly a n sw er ed . In addition to th is p rob le m , L am m e in d ica ted a fu rth er p rob lem in in terp retin g c e n s u s data on C h ristia n S cien ce: . . . The C en su s of R elig io n s w as going through a tr a n s itio n dur ing the y e a r s stud ied h e r e , 1 8 7 5-1910. In 1890 the r e lig io u s in fo rm a tio n w as in the reg u la r c e n s u s, and then a sep a ra te and d if fere n tly o rg a n iz ed s p e c ia l cen su s w as issu e d fo r r e lig io u s b od ies in 1906. The data given and the m eth od s of p r esen ta tio n in the 175 two c e n s u se s m ak e co m p a riso n b etw een the tw o dates d ifficu lt o r im p o s s ib le . F in a lly , a s a m inor r e lig io n in te r m s of n u m e r ic a l stren g th during th o se t im e s , C h ristia n S c ie n c e is not g iv e n the sa m e am ount o f attention in the c e n su s as the la r g e r g ro u p s. S ee A ry Johannes L a m m e, III, "The S p a c ia l and E c o lo g ic a l C h a r a c te r is t ic s of the D iffu sion of C h ristia n S c ie n c e in th e U nited S ta tes: 187 5 - 1910, " D is s . S y r a c u se U n iv e r sity 1968, p. 35. * ^ C arroll, pp. 4 4 0 -4 4 1 . 12 Church M anual, p. 35; Lym an P . P o w e ll, M ary B aker Eddy: A L ife S iz e P o r tr a it (B oston , 1930), p. 266. ^ L a m m e , p. 60. 14 N eal B. D e Nood, "The D iffu sio n of a S y ste m of B e lie f, " D is s . H arvard U n iv ersity 1937, pp. 2 0 2 , 203, 2 0 8 . * ^ P ow ell, p. 178. ^ C a r r o ll, R elig io u s F o r c e s , pp. 98, 4 4 0 -4 4 1 . 17 R aym ond J. Cunningham , "The Im pact of C h ristia n S c ie n c e on the A m erica n C h u rch es, 1 8 8 0 -1 9 1 0 , " A m eric a n H isto r ic a l R ev iew , LXXII (A p ril 1967), 893. 18 De N ood, p. 212. i 9 T K ^ Ibid. 2 ° Ibid. , p. 219. 21 Ibid. , p. 214. 22Ibid. , p. 233. 23 B ryan C ran d ell E p p s, " R elig io u s H ealin g in the U nited S ta tes, 1940-1960: H isto r y and T h eology of S e le c te d T ren d , " D is s . U n iv ersity of Ohio 1966, pp. 2 1 8 -2 1 9 . 24 P fa u tz, p. 229. 25 " P rim a ry C la s s ," C h ristia n S c ie n c e J o u rn a l (O ctober 1888), p. 375. 176 26 "Annual C om m union, " C h ristian S c ie n c e J o u rn a l, XVII (July 1899), 233. ^ D e N ood, p. 203. 28 S ee H. A. L. F is h e r , Our N ew R e lig io n (London, 1929), p. 152; W oodbridge R ile y , A m eric a n Thought fr o m P u rita n ism to P r a g m a tism a n d B eyond (N ew Y ork, 1915), p. 52; and A . M. B ellw a ld , C h r istia n S c ie n c e and the C ath olic F a ith ( N ew Y ork , 1922), p. 24. 29 S ee E . G. L ouis B u lten a, "Church M em b ersh ip and C hurch A ttendance in M ad ison , W isco n sin , " A m erica n S o c io lo g ic a l R e v ie w , XIV (June 1949), 384-3 8 9 ; H erb ert W. S ch n eid er, R elig io n in the T w en tieth C entury (C am b rid ge, M a ss. , 1952), pp. 224-238; P a u l F . L a z e r sfe ld and R ow ena W yant, "M agazines in 90 C itie s--W h o R eads What?" P u b lic O pinion Q u a rter ly , I (O ctober 1937), 29-41; and R onald F re em a n and P . K. W elpton, " Social and P sy c h o lo g ic a l Factor* A ffectin g F e r tility P lann ing and F e r tility R ates by R elig io u s In te rest and D en om in ation , " M ilbank M em o ria l Fund Q u a r te r ly , XXVII (July 1950), 2 9 4 -3 5 5 . ^ P f a u t z , p. 298. ^*De N ood, p. 239. 32 Jo sep h K. Joh n son , " C hristian S cie n c e; A C ase Study of a R elig io n as a F o rm of A djustm ent B eh a v io r, " D is s . U n iv ersity of W ashington, St. L ou is 1937, p. 108. ^ Ibid. , p. 111. 34 C lifford S m ith , H isto r ic a l S k etch es (B o sto n , 1941), pp. 1 8 0 -1 8 3 . ^ L a m m e , p. 175. ^ Ibid. , p. 175. 37 Sm ith , pp. 1 8 0 -1 8 3 . 38 Jo sep h K. Joh n son , p. 98. 39 W ayne N. T hom p son , Q uantitative R e s e a r c h in P u b lic A d d re ss and C om m unication (N ew Y ork, 1967), pp. 38-39; R ichard 177 F. C a r te r , R onald H. P y sz k a and J o se L. G u er rero , " D isson an ce and E xp osure to A v e r siv e In form ation , " J o u rn a lism Q u arterly, LVI (Spring 1969)t 37-42; R aym ond A. B a u er, "The O bstinate A u d ien ce," A m e r i can P s y c h o lo g is t, LXXVIII (May 1964), 3 1 9 -3 2 8 . 40 Edw in B lack, R h e to r ic a l C r itic ism : A Study in M ethod (N ew Y ork, 1965), p. 158. 41 K enneth B u rk e, A R h eto ric of M o tiv es (B e r k e le y , 1969), pp. 55-59; se e a ls o Hugh D a lz ie l D uncan, C om m un ication and S o cia l O rder (New Y ork, 1962), p. 169. ^ B la c k , p. 156. 4 3 TV • J Ibid. 44 Ibid. , p. 174. 45 P au l F . S eco rd and C arl W. B ack m an , S o cia l P sy ch o lo g y (New Y ork, 1964), p. 109. ^ Ibid. , pp. 110-111; s e e a ls o C h e ste r In sk o, T h eo ries of A ttitude Change (New Y ork , 1967), pp. 1 0 2 -2 8 5 . 47 L u cien L e v y -B r u h l, H ow N a tiv es Think (N ew Y ork, 1966), pp. 2 2 -8 7 ; s e e a lso H. G. B a y n e s, M ythology of the Soul; A R e se a r c h Into th e U n con sciou s (B a ltim o r e , 1940), p. 690. 48 C. G. Jung, The S p irit in M an, A rt, and L itera tu re (L ondon, 1966), p. 80; s e e a lso A v is M. D ry , The P sy c h o lo g y of Jung: A C r it i cal In terp reta tio n (London, 1961), p. 198. 49 S am u el E liot M o riso n and H enry S te e le C o m m a g er, The G rowth of the A m erica n R ep u b lic, II (N ew Y ork, 1937), 364. 50Ibid. 51 B ert Jam es L o en b erg , "The R ise of the City: 1 8 6 5 -1 9 0 0 ," ir The U nited S ta tes: A m eric a n D em o cra cy in W orld P e r s p e c tiv e , ed. Ray A llen B illin g to n (N ew Y ork, 1947), p. 379. 52 C arl D e g le r , The A ge of the E co n o m ic R evolution: 1 8 7 6 -190( (G lenview , I llin o is , n. d .) , p. 185. 178 53 C h a rles San ders P e ir c e , C o lle cted P a p ers o f C h a r les Sandert P e ir c e , ed. C h a r le s H artsh orn e and P au l W e iss , V (C a m b rid g e, M a ss. 1934), 3 1 2 -3 1 3 . 5 4 ^ Ibid. 55 W illiam J a m e s, P r a g m a tism : A New N am e fo r Som e Old W ays of Thinking (New Y ork , 1907), pp. 6 7 -6 8 . ^ Ib id . 57 W illiam K elley W right, A H isto ry of M odern P h ilo so p h y (N ew Y ork, 1952), p. 508. 58 W illia m J a m e s, "What P ra g m a tism M ean s, " in The A m e r ic a i P r a g m a tis ts , ed . M ilton R . K onvitz and G ail K ennedy (New Y ork , I960 p. 38. ^ Ibid. , p. 36. ^ Ibid. , p. 30. ^ W illia m J a m e s, " P ragm atism .'s C onception of T ruth, " in The A m erica n P r a g m a tis ts , pp. 56-57. 82 "What P r a g m a tism M ean s, " pp. 3 1 -3 2 . 63Ibid. 64Ibid. 65 E dgar S h effield B righ tm an , "The D efin ition of Id e a lism , " Journal of P h ilo so p h y , XXX (June 1933), 432. A d d ress: 174 0 -1 9 5 2 (N ew Y ork, 1956), pp. 1 6 0 -1 6 8 , ed. A. C ra ig ^ " P r a g m a tis m 's C onception of T ruth, " p. 4 9 . 6 7 H enry W ard B e e c h e r , "Two R e v e la tio n s, " in A m eric a n P ublic B aird; and L ym an A bbott, The T h eology of an E v o lu tio n ist (B o sto n , 1897), p. 49. 68 R obert P e e l, C h ristia n S cien ce: Its E n cou n ter with A m eric a n C ulture (N ew Y ork , 1958), p. 91. 179 , pp. 218-222; s e e a lso C h a rles H. L e e , D ivine D ir e c - tio n or C haos ? (N ew Y ork, 1952), p. 12. 70 London T im e s , May 2 6 , 1885; " P reach ing A ga in st C h ristian S c ie n c e , " C h ristia n S cie n c e J o u rn a l, V (June 1887), 152; and Raym ond J . C unningham , "The Im pact of C h ristia n S c ie n c e on the A m erica n C h u rch es, 188 0 -1 9 1 0 , 1 1 A m erica n H isto r ic a l R e v ie w , LXXII (A pril 1967), 891. 71 S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 490. 72 E dw ard A. K im ball, C h ristia n S cien ce: Its A dvantage to Mankind (B o sto n , 1908); F r e d e r ic k D ixon , C ausation V iew ed in the L ight of C h ristia n S cie n c e (B oston , 1911); W illiam R. R athvon, C h r is tia n S cie n c e: Its R e su lts (B o sto n , 1912); F r a n c is J. F lu n o, C h ristia n S cien ce: A R eason ab le and R ation al V iew of A ll T hings (B o sto n , 1917) John D o o r le y , The P u re S c ie n c e of C h ristia n S c ie n c e (London, 1949); M ax K ap p ler, Why Study C h ristia n S c ie n c e as a S c ie n c e ? (London, n. d . ); "An In terview w ith a C h e m ist, " C h ristia n S c ie n c e S e n tin e l, LXXIII (F eb ru ary 13, 1971), 2 8 0 -2 8 4 ; D orothy H. J o n e s, " S cien tific Thinking G ets R e s u lts, " C h ristia n S c ie n c e S e n tin e l, LXXIII (O ctober 3 0 , 1971), 1905-1908; and E r n e st H. L y o n s, " R eality and W ave M e c h a n ic s, " C h ristia n S c ie n c e S e n tin e l, LXXIII (O ctober 30, 1971), 18 9 3-1895. p. 655. 73 R elig io u s Data: C en su s of R e lig io u s B o d ie s , 1906, P a rt I, 74 L a m m e, p. 60. 75Ibid. , p. 196. 76Ibid. 77Ibid. Ibid. 7^I b id ., p. 64. 80 Ibid. 81 B rig h tm a n 's c la s s ic d efin itio n of id e a lis m h elp s r e la te the con cep t o f id e a lis m to the v a rio u s id e a lis tic p h ilo so p h ers. He said that "if id e a lis m is to be d efin ed , it m u st be by r e fe r e n c e to what TM B e r k e le y , H e g e l, and L otze thought. If that b e tru e, w e m ay sa y that id e a lism h is to r ic a lly con tain s four m ain p rop osition s: (1) P la to 's (v a l ue is o b je c tiv e --its m ean in g and o rig in lie beyond the hum an know er); (2) B e r k e le y 's (r e a lity is m e n ta l--th e r e is no n o n -m e n ta l being); (3) H e g el's (r e a lity is o r g a n ic --w h o le s have p r o p e r tie s w h ich th eir p a rts do not have); and (4) L o tze's (r e a lity is p e r s o n a l--o n ly p e r so n s or s e lv e s are r e a l). Any s y ste m is id e a lis tic w h ich a ffirm s one or m o r e of th e se four p r o p o sitio n s, provided H e g el's be included. Thus it m ay be sa id that th e H eg elia n p rin cip le y ie ld s a m in im u m id e a lis m , w h ile a 'four point' id e a lis m is p e r s o n a listic ." See B righ tm an , p. 432. 82 R ile y , p. 28. Ibid. 84 I b id ., p. 34. 85 John H. M uirhead, The P la to n ic T rad ition in A n glo-S axon P h ilosop h y (N ew Y ork, 1931), p. 307. 86 G eo rg e F . W hicher, ed . , The T r a n sc e n d e n ta list R evolt A gain st M a te r ia lism (B oston , 1949), pp. v -v i. 87 P e r r y M ille r , The T ra n sc e n d e n ta lists: An A nthology (C a m b rid g e, M a ss. , 1950), p. 14. ^ Ibid. , pp. 14-15. 89 O ctaviu s B rook s F roth ingh am , T r a n sc e n d e n ta lism in N ew England: A H isto r y (N ew Y ork, 1965), p. 140. 90 W illia m A n d erson , P la to n ism in th e M idw est (N ew Y ork, 1969). pp. 91 I b id ., p. 15. 92 F r a n c is B . H arm on, The S o cia l P h ilo so p h y o f th e St. L ou is H eg elia n s (N ew Y ork, 1943), pp. 1-2 . ^ A n d e r s o n , p. 6 . 94 H arm on , p. 6 . 95 Ibid. , p. 2. 181 9 6 . . - A n d erson , p. 5. 9 7 W alter G. M u eld er, L a u ren ce S e a r s , and A nne V. S c h la - back, The D evelop m en t of A m erica n P h ilo so p h y (N ew Y ork, I9 6 0 ), p. 212. 9 8 ^ Ibid. 99 H arm on, p. 3. ^ ^ M u e ld e r , S e a r s , and S ch la b a ck , p. 212. *^*Ibid. ; se e a ls o R iley , p. 229. 102a A n d erson , p. 6 . 1 0 3 ^ Ibid. Ibid. 105 Ibid. , p. 7. 106T K .„ Ibid. 1 0 7 ^ .. Ibid. 108 H enry A. P o ch m a n , N ew E ngland T ra n scen d en ta lism and St. L o u is H eg elia n ism : P h a se s in th e H isto r y of A m eric a n Id ea lism (P h ila d elp h ia , 1948), p. 125; se e a ls o R ile y , p. 229; and M uirhead, pp. 3 1 5 -3 2 3 . 109 A n d erson , p. 7; se e a ls o H arm on, p. 2. 110 . , A n d erson , p. 15. * * *Ibid. , p. 16. i i 2 TU. . Ibid. 113Ibid. , pp. 3 1 6 -3 2 1 . U 4Ibid. , pp. 2 1 - 2 2 . 115 . Ibid. , p. 19. 182 1 1 6 t k Ibid. Ibid. , p. 23. Ibid. , p. 25. 119 W. H. W erkrr^eister, A H istory of P h ilo so p h ic a l Ideas in A m e r ic a (N ew Y ork, 1949), p. 133. *2 ^W right, p. 485. 121 M u eld er, S e a r s , and S ch lab ack , p. 212. 122 W e r k m e iste r , p. 133. 123 W right, p. 485. 124 M u eld er, S e a r s , and S ch lab ack , p. 216. 125 W e r k m e iste r , p. 103. 126tk Ibid. 127 F r e d e r ic k M a y er , A H isto ry of A m eric a n Thought (Dubuque, Iow a, 1962), p. 235. 128 M u eld er, S e a r s , and S ch lab ack , p. 214. ^ ^ M a y e r , pp. 2 3 5 -2 3 6 . *3^Ralph Waldo E m e r so n , The C om plete E s s a y s and O ther W orks of R alph Waldo E m e r so n (N ew Y ork, 1940), p. 87. 131 M ary B aker E ddy, S c ie n c e and H ealth w ith Key to the S c r ip tu r e s (B o sto n , 1875), p. 571. 132I b id ., p. 274. 133 H enry D avid T h oreau , W alden and O ther W ritings (New Y ork, 1962), p. 3. *34^ , P a r k e r , p. 78. l 35^ E m e r so n , p. 146. 183 136 A rthur M. S c h le s in g e r , J r . , " Jacksonian D em o cra cy and L ite ra tu r e, " in The T r a n sc e n d e n ta list R evolt A g a in st M a te r ia lism , ed. G eorge F . W hicher (B o sto n , 1949), p. 13. 137T , . , Ibid. , p. 10. 138 E m e r so n , p. 81. 139 S cie n c e and H ealth , p. 102. 140t k Ibid. ^ ^ D e g le r , pp. 1 8 5 -1 8 8 . 142 T horeau, p. 177. 1 4 3 r 9 7 - 7 E m e r so n , p. 277. 144 M ary B aker Eddy, C hurch M anual (B o sto n , 1936), p. 17. 145 H isto r ic a l S k e tc h e s , p. 126. 146 M ary B aker Eddy, R e tr o sp e c tio n and In tr o sp ec tio n , in P r o s e W orks, p. 47; M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, in P r o s e W ork s, V; C hurch M anual, pp. 37, 79, 8 4 , 120. 147_ , P e e l, p. 207. 148 E m e r so n , p. 268. 149 P a r k e r , p. 82. 150 S cie n c e and H ea lth , p. 115. * ^ Ibid. , p. 390. 152 R e tro sp ectio n and In tr o sp e c tio n , p. 22. 153 S cie n c e and H ealth , p. 353. 1 5 4 t,., Ibid. , p. 47 3 . 155_ . D e g le r , p. 2. 156 Em erson, p. 87. 184 157 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 468. 158 E m e r so n , p. 15. F or a d eta iled d is c u s sio n of E m e r s o n 's theory of language s e e R ob erta Kay C lo e r , " E m erso n 's P h ilo so p h y of R h eto ric, " D is s . U n iv e r sity of Southern C alifo rn ia 1969, pp. 2 4 -2 7 , 80, 2 5 4 -2 7 2 . !5 9 ^ E m e r so n , p. 15. 16° lb id . , p. 18. 1 6 1 t k ^ Ibid. 162 S c ie n c e and H ea lth , pp. 95, 472, 79, 27 7 , v iii. ^ ^ F r a n c is M. C ornford, P la to 's T heory o f K now ledge (New Y ork, 1957), p. 2. * ^ S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 429. 165 j M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, p. 47. J 166Ibid. , p. 181. 167 W illiam T . H a r r is , H e g e l's L ogic (C h icago, 1970), pp. 147-148. 16ft Ibid. , pp. 14 8 -1 4 9 . ^S c ie n c e and H ea lth , p. 470. 170 H enry W. S te ig e r , C h ristia n S cien ce and P h ilo so p h y (New Y ork, 1948), p. 130. 171 G eorge W ilhelm F r e id e r ic h H eg el, T he L ogic of H e g e l, tra n s. fr o m the E n cy clo p e d ia of the P h ilo so p h ic a l S c ie n c e s by W illiam W allace (L ondon, 1931); s e e a lso S te ig e r , p. 130. 172 S te ig e r , p. 134. 173 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 468; s e e a lso M isc e lla n e o u s Writ ings , p. 222. 185 174 G eorge W ilhelm F r e d e r ic h H e g e l, L e c tu r e s on th e P h ilo so phy of R e lig io n , tra n s. E . B. S p ears and J. B urdon S an d erson (New Y ork, 1962), II. 330. 175 C hurch M anual, p. 17. 176 L e c tu r e s on the P h ilo so p h y of R e lig io n , pp. 3 2 8 -3 3 5 . 177 The L ogic of H e g e l, p. 300. 178 S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 468. 179T , . . Ibid. 180 W right, pp. 3 1 8 -3 1 9 . 181 S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 346. 182 L ectu re s on the P h ilosop h y of R e lig io n , II, 3 4 6 -3 4 7 . 183 S c ie n c e and H ealth , pp. 171, 227. 184 H a r r is , H e g e l's L o g ic , pp. 309-3 2 8 ; The L ogic of H e g e l, pp. 14 7 -1 4 8 . 185 S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 140. 186 C onrad H enry M oehlm an, O rdeal by C oncord ance (New Y ork, 1955), p. ix. 187 J o sia h R o y ce, The W orld and th e Individual (New Y ork, 1959), I, 3 4 6 -3 4 7 . 188 J o sia h R o y ce, The R elig io u s A sp e c t of P h ilo so p h y (B oston , 1958), p. 43 7 . 189 W right, p. 491. 190 The W orld and the Individual, I, xvi; s e e a lso T he R elig io u s A sp e c t of P h ilo so p h y , pp. 341, 348. 191 S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 468. 192 The W orld and the Individual, I, 2 2 -2 3 . 186 193Ibid. , p. 23. *94Ibid. , pp. 2 3 -2 4 . 195Ibid. , p. 24. 196Ibid. , p. 25. I b id ., p. 26. 198Ibid. , pp. 2 6 -2 7 . 199 I b id ., p. 24. 299S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 9. 2 9 *The W orld and the Individual, I, 465. 292 W right, p. 485. 203 Ib id .; s e e a lso M u eld er, S e a r s , and S ch lab ack , p. 216. 204 G eorge H erb ert M ead, "The P h ilo so p h ie s o f R o y ce, J a m e s, and D ew ey in T h eir A m erica n S ettin g , 1 1 International Jou rn al o f E th ic s, X L (1 9 2 9 -3 0 ), 2 2 1 -2 2 3 . 205 B ord en P . B ow ne, M eta p h y sics (N ew Y ork, 1898), p. 422. 206Ibid. , p. 423. 207tu .„ Ibid. 208 B ord en P . B ow ne, P e r so n a lis m (B oston , 1908), pp. 217- 219. 209Ibid. , p. 109. 2 *9Ibid. , p. 265. 211 B ord en P . B ow ne, T h eory of Thought and K now ledge (New Y ork, 1897), p. 105. 212 P e r s o n a lis m , p. 267. TFT 213 S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 475. 214 P e r s o n a lis m , pp. 2 6 5 -2 6 6 . ^ ^ Ibid. , pp. 2 6 6 -2 6 7 . 216 S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 517. ^ ^ Ibid. , p. 116. 21 ft Ibid. , p. 302. ^ ^ P e r s o n a lis m , pp. 2 9 7 -2 9 8 . 220 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 587. 221 M ayer, p. 235. 222 Ibid. ^ ^ Ibid. , p. 236. 224 I b id ., p. 2 44. ^ ^ W e r k m e is te r , p. 121. ^ ^ S t e ig e r , p. 136. 227 Ibid. , p. 238. 228 A bbott w rote a num ber of b ooks and a r tic le s expounding h is id e a of " C h ristian E v o lu tio n ism " and B e e c h e r w a s fam ou s for h is attem pt to r e c o n c ile re lig io n and evolu tion in h is sp e e c h , "Two R e v e la tio n s. " B e e c h e r and Abbott asked C h r istia n s in la rg e part to a cce p t evolu tion b eca u se of the cre d ib ility and s u c c e s s of m od ern s c ie n c e . S ee Lym an A bbott, The T h eology of an E v o lu tio n ist (B o sto n , 1897), p. 49; and "Two R ev ela tio n s" in A m erica n P u b lic A d d ress; 1740- 1952 (New Y ork, 1956), pp. 160-168. 229 C hurch M anual, pp. 15-17. 230 "Two R e v e la tio n s, " p. 165. ^^Ibid. , p. 166. 188 2 ^2Ibid. , pp. 16 6 -1 6 7 . 233 See K. E . M. B a ie r , "The M eaning of L ife: C h ristia n ity v e r su s S c ie n c e , " in P h ilo so p h y fo r a New G en eration , ed. A. K. B ier m an (New Y ork , 1970), pp. 596-610; H. W. H ea so n , Beyond R ela tiv ity (L ondon, 1963), pp. 109-126; R o b e r t s . E h r lic h , T w entieth C entury P h ilo so p h ers (N ew Y ork, 1965), pp. 10 4 -1 1 4 . 234 P aul F . S ecord and C arl W. B eck m an , S o c ia l P sy ch o lo g y (New Y ork, 1964), p. 109. 235 D e g le r , pp. 2 -1 7 . 236 G eorge S im m e l, "The M etro p o lis and M ental H ealth, " in P e r sp e c tiv e s on the A m eric a n C om m unity, ed . R oland L. W arren (C hicago, 1966), pp. 13-14; Edw ard H all, The F itn e s s of M an's E nvironm ent (W ashington, D . C. , 1968); N oel P . G ist and A. L. H a l b ert, Urban S o cio lo g y (N ew Y ork, 1956), pp. 290, 292; E lton M ayo, The Hum an P r o b le m s of an In d u stria l C iv iliza tio n (N ew Y ork, 1934), p. 117. 237 D e g le r , p. 174. 238 Lym an Abbott, B e st T houghts of H enry W ard B eec h e r (New Y ork, 1883), p. 9. 239 A bbott, The T h eology o f an E v o lu tio n ist, p. 49. 240 J am es R obert E m m e l, "The P e r s u a s iv e T ech n iq u es of C h a rles G randison F inn ey as a R e v iv a lis t and S o cia l R efo rm S p eak er, 182 0 -1 8 6 0 , " D is s . P en n sy lv a n ia S tate U n iv ersity 1959, p. 262. 241 A llen H. S a g er, "The F u n d a m en ta list-M o d ern ist C o n tro v e r s y , 191 8 -1 9 3 0 , " in P re a c h in g in A m erica n H isto r y , ed. D ew itte H olland (N a sh v ille , 1969), p. 276. 242Ibid. , p. 266. 243 C la ren ce E . M a ca rtn ey , "Shall U n b elief W in?" in S erm on s in A m erica n H isto r y , ed. D ew itte H olland (N a sh v ille , 1971), p. 153. 244,, Ibid. , p. 163. 245 B lack , pp. 1 5 5 -1 5 6 . 189 ^ j / London T im e s , May 2 6 , 1885. 247 " P reach in g A gain st C h ristia n S c ie n c e , " C h ristia n S cien ce J ou rn a l, V (June 1887), 152. 248 C unningham , p. 891. 249 Ibid. , pp. 892, 895; th e C h ristia n S c ie n c e appeal w as m ain ly to P r o te sta n t co n g reg a tio n s rath er than J e w ish and C ath olic groups fo r th e se grou p s w ere turned inw ard during th e turn o f the cen tu ry , w ere e sta b lish in g th e m s e lv e s in A m e r ic a , and " still rem ainec o u tsid e the m a in str e a m of A m erica n L ife . " D e g le r , p. 174. S ee a lso P h ilip D avid B o o k sta b ler, Ju d aism and the A m eric a n Mind (N ew Y ork, 1939), p a r tic u la r ly C hapter II, "A djustm ent and Identity," and C hapter III, "Judaism and the A m erica n T r a d itio n ," pp. 1 -1 9 , 115-136; Jacob B. A g u s, G u id ep osts in M odern Judaism : An A n a ly sis of C urren t T ren d s in J ew ish Thought (N ew Y ork, 1954), p a rticu la rly C hapter I, "The Im pact on A m eric a n C u ltu re, " pp. 1 - 19. 250 W illiam L. O 'N e ill, " F em in ism as a R a d ica l Id eology, " in D isse n t: E x p lo ra tio n s in the H isto r y of A m eric a n R a d ic a lism , ed. A lfred F . Young (D e K alb, I llin o is , 1969), p. 276. 251 Ibid. , p. 279. 252 C e lle stin e W are, " P ro b lem s of N in eteen th -C en tu ry F e m i n is m , " in B eyond L ib er a lism : The N ew L eft V iew s A m eric a n H isto ry , ed. Irw in U nger (W altham , M a s s ., 1971), p. 360. 253 Ibid. , p. 281. 254 Ibid. 255 Ibid. , pp. 2 1 8 -2 8 2 . 256 W eltn er, p. 152. 257. . . ... I b id ., p. 154. 2 ^ Ibid. , pp. 154-155. 259 Ibid. , p. 158. 260 , , Ibid. , p. 161. 190 261 Ib id ., p. 174. 262 Ibid. 263 S c ie n c e and H ealth, i ^ ^ P fa u tz , p. 288. ^ ^ J o s e p h K. Johnson, \ ^ ^ D e N ood, p. 203. . 422. . 99. A r tic le s w ere su rv ey ed in the C h ristian S c ie n c e M o n ito r, th e C h ristian S c ie n c e S en tin el, and the C h ristia n S c ie n c e Journal b etw een the y e a r s 1875 and 1910. ! CHAPTER V I i | CHRISTIAN SCIENCE RHETORIC: ARG UM ENT, | I | j ST Y L E AND COMPOSITION i i 1 i C hap ters III and IV exp lored the nature of C h r istia n S cien ce | | I d o c tr in e , and contended that the d octrin e r e p r e se n ts an arg u m en ta tiv e j s y n th e s is, a d ia le c tic tr a n sfo rm a tio n of p rev a ilin g r e lig io u s , s c ie n ti- i i jfic, and so c ia l id e a s of the period follow in g the C iv il W ar. It has a ls o ' b een su g g este d that an argu m en tative sy n th e sis h as in h eren t r h eto rica l i ^appeal. T h is ch a p ter e x a m in e s the ch a r a c te r of M rs. E d d y 's m ethod j j jand m anner of p resen tin g h e r m e s s a g e . H er p erso n a l a p p ea l (eth o s), I i jthe ty p es of rea so n in g she em p loyed , h er language and s ty le , and h er j m ethod of o rg a n izin g her a r tic le s and books w ill be d e sc r ib e d . T he j ' I p e r s u a s iv e n e s s of th ese a p p ea ls and p roofs w ill a ls o be exam in ed . j M rs. E d d y 's m ethod and m an n er of co m m u n ica tio n w as c o n s is - | jtent w ith h er d o ctrin e. A s she em p loyed ap p aren tly d isp a ra te id e a s in | h er s y n th e s is, so she em p loyed d ifferin g fo rm s of a rg u m en t and ap p eal to co m m u n icate h e r d o ctrin e, adding to the b e lie v a b ility of h er m e s sa g e . M rs. E d d y 's m ean s of com m u n ication g r e w out of the nature of the m e s s a g e it s e lf , and the m e ssa g e and m ean s of com m u n icatin g the _________________________ 191 m e s s a g e d isp la y ed an organ ic quality. Both m e s s a g e and m ea n s of | co m m u n ication d isp layed an in te g r ity , lo g ic and co h eren ce. [ | j A rgu m en ts ; ! ! M rs. Eddy u se d two b a s ic a lly d iffere n t ty p es of argum ent: j |( 1) p ragm atic and e m p ir ic a lly o rien ted argu m en t, and (2) d ed u ction s ibased on a p rio r i a ssu m p tio n s. The p ra g m a tic and e m p ir ic a lly ; i o rien ted a rgu m en ts w ere c o n siste n t w ith the sc ie n tific a s p e c ts of h er i i s y n th e sis. The deductions b ased on a p r io r i a ssu m p tio n s w ere c h a r - J a c te r is tic of the r e lig io u s and id e a lis tic a sp e c ts of h er d o ctrin e. j M rs. Eddy m ade m uch u se of p ra g m a tic argum ent. She argu ed j I [that C h r istia n S cie n c e w as tru e b eca u se it w orked, w as p r a c tic a l, and ; i | could be u tiliz e d in ev ery d a y e x p e r ie n c e . And it w orked b e c a u se one {could h e a l h im se lf of sin , d is e a s e , and other p r o b lem s, su ch a s lack i | iof em p loym en t or m en tal d e p r e ssio n . M rs. Eddy u tiliz e d one such {pragm atic argu m en t a s a c e n tr a l p roof of h er s y ste m . She sa id , What i s the card in a l point of the d iffe r e n c e in m y m eta p h y sica l sy ste m ? T his: that by knowing the u n rea lity of d is e a s e , sin , and death, you d em on strate th e a lln e ss of God. T h is d iffere n c e w holly ! s e p a r a te s m y s y s te m fr o m a ll others.^ {D isea se, sin and death w ere u n real b e c a u se you could prove th em so I |in your in d ividu al e x p e r ie n c e . A s R o b e rt P e e l w rote; ". . . H er I Janswer to the p ro b lem of e v il w as . . . a p r a c tic a l d em on stration . M rs. E ddy argued that C h r istia n S c ie n c e w o r k e d --it proved d is e a s e 193 | to be an illu s tio n of m o r ta l m an. M rs. Eddy said "the q u estio n , What is T ruth, is an sw ered by d em o n stra tio n — by h ealin g both d is e a s e and j jsin. i l | T h is type of argu m en t w a s popular with A m e r ic a n s. M rs. ! ' | lEddy w rote during a tim e when W illiam J a m e s' books and a r t ic le s on j I ! p r a g m a tism w ere e x tr e m e ly popular. P r a g m a tism h a s been term ed I ' ; t the A m e r ic a n p h ilosop h y and is h igh ly valu ed in the U nited S ta te s. i i D a v is' study rev e a led that A m e r ic a n s can be v iew ed a s "pursuing 4 ! p r a c tic a l en d s with th e b est a v a ila b le m ea n s. " S te e le and R eading i d e sc r ib e A m e r ic a n s a s valuing " e ffic ie n c y , p r a c tic a lity , and p ra g m a - j tis m : h igh er regard fo r p ra ctic a l th in k ers and d o ers than for a r t is t s i r 5 1 lor in te lle c tu a ls . " M innick in d ica ted A m e r ic a n s w ere p ra g m a tic fo r j j"they r e sp e c te d e ffic ie n c y . . . think le a rn in g should be 'p r a c tic a l' : 6 : • • • p r e fe r the u se fu l. " M rs. E ddy's u se of p ra g m a tic argu m en t th e r e fo r e added to the a ttr a c tiv e n e ss of h er appeal. | C o n sisten t w ith M rs. E d d y 's sc ie n tific and p ra g m a tic o r ie n ta - ! tio n w as h er continual u se of e m p ir ic a l ev id e n c e and argu m en t fr o m jauthority. H er a rg u m en ts fro m au th ority, h o w ev er, w ere e m p ir ic a lly ! i ! lorien ted for th ey in clu d ed re p o r ts of th o se h ea led in C h r istia n S c ie n c e , a cco u n ts of a ctu a l h e a lin g s p erfo rm ed by J e s u s , s p e c ific " c a se s" of h e a lin g p erfo rm ed by M rs. Eddy h e r s e lf, and r e p o r ts of s c ie n tific e x p e r im e n ts and h y p o th e ses. 194 ! M rs. Eddy used testim on ies of those healed in C hristian S cie n c e to prove that h er d octrin e w as tru e. H ealin gs w ere often au th en ticated by oth er p e r so n s and so m e w ere co n firm ed by m ed ica l 7 d o cto rs. M rs. Eddy com p iled an e n tire ch ap ter of th e se h e a lin g s in I 8 h e r textbook. A nother of h er b o o k s, M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, a ls o ! 9 con tain ed a chapter o f h ea lin g s. O ral sta te m e n ts of h ea lin g s w ere i ,m ade a p art of W ednesday even in g " testim o n ia l m e e tin g s, " h eld in a ll ,C h ristian S cie n c e ch u r c h e s, and th ere w ere se c tio n s containing t e s t i m o n ie s in h er three p e r io d ic a ls: The C h r istia n S cie n c e J o u rn a l, The •C hristian S cien ce S e n tin e l, and the H erald o f C h r istia n S cie n c e. I A noth er type o f ev id en ce cite d by M rs. Eddy w as the h ea lin g s o f J e su s record ed in the B ib le. She said: " . . . In h ea lin g the sick I jand sinning, J esu s ela b o ra ted the fa c t that the h ealin g e ffe c t fo llo w ed I I jthe understanding of the divine P r in c ip le and of the C h r is t-s p ir it which I igoverned the c o rp o re a l J e su s. "*^ T he h e a lin g s of J e s u s provided im p ortan t ev id en ce fo r M rs. E d d y 's d o ctrin e. H er ch u rch w as founded !"to co m m era te the . . . w orks of our M aster" ** w hich w ere lo s t sight |of over the c e n tu r ie s. She said: I ! S cien ce afford s the ev id en ce that God is the F a th er of m an, of a ll that is r e a l and e te r n a l. T h is sp ir itu a l id ea that the p erso n a l J esu s d em on strated , c a stin g out e v ils and h e a lin g , m ore than eig h tee n c e n tu r ie s ago, d isap p eared by d e g r e e s; both b e c a u se of the a s c e n sio n of J e s u s, in w hich it w as se e n that he had grow n beyond the human se n se of th em , and b e c a u se of the co rru p tio n of the C hurch. 12 195; i T hroughout h e r textbook, M rs. Eddy c ite d c a s e s sh e had ; h ea led p e r so n a lly . In addition to h ea lin g h e r s e lf of in tern a l in ju rie s i jas a r e su lt o f a fa ll, M rs. E ddy w rote of such h ea lin g s a s "a w om an j . . . I cu red of con su m p tion. . . . My m eta p h y sica l trea tm en t I ! 13 Ichanged the actio n of h er b e lie f on the lungs. " And M rs. Eddy j : I iwrote: i i i i A c a s e of c o n v u lsio n s produced by in d ig estio n , c a m e under | m y o b serv a tio n . In h er b e lie f the w om en had ch ron ic liv e r - com p lain t, and w as then su fferin g fro m a c o m p lica tio n of sym p tom s i con n ected w ith th is b e lie f. I cu red h er in a few m in u tes. One in sta n ce sh e spoke d esp a irin g ly of h e r s e lf. T he next m inute sh e sa id , "My food is a ll d ig e ste d , and I should lik e som eth in g m o re to eat. | i M rs. Eddy b elie v e d that she and o th ers w ere accu m u latin g lem p irica l e v id e n c e to su b stan tiate the d octrin e of C h r istia n S cien ce: i i j M any y e a r s ago the author m ade a sp ir itu a l d isc o v e r y , the j j s c ie n tific ev id en ce of w hich h as a ccu m u lated to prove that the ! divine M ind p rod u ces in m an h ea lth , harm ony and im m o rta lity . | G radually th is ev id e n c e w ill gath er m om en tu m and c le a r n e s s , u n til j it r e a c h e s its cu lm in ation o f sc ie n tific sta tem en t and p roof. ^ M rs. Eddy a ls o u sed e m p ir ic a l ev id en ce g en era ted by o th e r s I jto in d icate th e e ffe c ts of the hum an m ind on the body. She d evoted a j I jshort ch ap ter in h er textbook to the e x p e r im e n ts of M e sm e r and the ! J ^ jinfluence of h yp n otism . She pointed out "that S ir H um phry Davy ! once ap p aren tly cu red a c a se o f p a r a ly sis sim p ly by introducing a th e r m o m e te r into the p a tien t's m outh. . . . th e sick m an supposed th is c e r e m o n y w as intended to h eal h im , and he r e c o v e r e d a c c o r d in g - 17 ly . " M rs. Eddy devoted s ix p ages in her textb ook to a d is c u s s io n of 1961 "her e x p e r im e n ts in hom eophathy" w hich m ad e her sk ep tica l of m a te r - 18 ia l cu ra tiv e m eth o d s, " and she quoted the ev id en ce of m ed ica l au th o r itie s w hose data and e x p e r im e n ts in d ica ted the d e le te r io u s c o n s e - I jquences of m ed icin e. F o r ex a m p le, she quoted Dr. M ason G ood, a i ! | London p r o fe s s o r of m e d ic in e , who con clud ed : ". . . The e ffe c ts of j I ! 19 | jm edicine on the hum an s y s te m a re in the h ig h e st d eg ree u n certa in . " i : jAndDr. C hapm an, P r o fe s s o r at the U n iv e r sity of P en n sy lv a n ia , was quoted a s saying: C onsulting the reco rd s o f our s c ie n c e , w e cannot h elp being d is gu sted with the m ultitude of h y p o th e ses obtruding upon us a t d if- ! fere n t tim e s. . . . T o h a rm o n ize the c o n tr a r ie tie s of m e d ic a l j i d o ctrin es is indeed a ta s k a s im p r a c tic a b le a s to arran ge th e fle e t- j i ing v a p o rs around u s, o r to r e c o n c ile the fix ed and rep u lsiv e ! an tip ath ies of nature. j M rs. E d d y’s use o f e m p ir ic a l e v id e n c e to support her d octrin e iwas a ttra ctiv e b eca u se it w a s co n site n t with the con tem p oran eou s j i I j ■appreciation fo r fa cts and e m p ir ic a l e v id e n c e . The la te n in eteen th I : i icentury w as a tim e when A m e r ic a n s w ere putting m o re and m o r e faith 'in s c ie n c e . W ilber Sam ual H ow ell h a s in d ica ted that m en p r ed isp o sed I to sc ie n c e p lace m uch v a lu e on n o n -a r tis tic p roof, the d irect ev id e n c e of e m p ir ic a l data.^* D uring a p erio d in w hich s c ie n c e is valu ed , the u se of e m p ir ic a l data to su pp ort an id ea is a ls o valu ed . The a ttr a c tiv e n e ss o f fa cts and e m p ir ic a l data to A m e r ic a n s w as su b sta n tia ted by stu d ie s of the s o c io lo g is t, K in g sley D a v is, who rep o rted that A m e r ic a n s w e r e e m p ir ic is ts "in a ssu m in g a w o rld order 197! 22 ! d isco v era b le through se n so r y o b serv a tio n of n atu re. " W ayne | I jM innick's su m m ary o f v a r io u s stu d ies on A m erica n v a lu e s in d icated i l"A m ericans r e s p e c t the sc ie n tific m ethod and th in g s la b e lle d s c ie n - ! I jtific . . . e x p r e s s a d e s ir e to . . . g e t the fa c ts . . . . T hey p r e fe r | i i ! 23 I quantitative ra th er than q u a lita tiv e m ea n s of ev alu ation . " M rs. | ' i E dd y, then, added to the p e r s u a s iv e n e s s of h er m e ss a g e by using j argu m en ts b ased on e m p ir ic a l e v id e n c e , a type o f argu m en t a ttra ctiv e ; to A m eric a n s. j ; j In addition to e x te n s iv e u se of e m p ir ic a l data and p ra g m a tic j I argu m en t to support h e r d o c tr in e , M rs. Eddy u se d en th y m em es e x - i i p en siv e ly in h er w r itin g s, i. e. , she u sed d ed u ctive arg u m en ts in i 24 n atu ral language often o m ittin g one of the te r m s in the deduction. |M ost of her en th y m em es w ere b ased on som e v a r ia tio n o f a deduction id escrib in g G od's a lln e s s and g o o d n ess and the u n rea lity o f evil: A ll r e a l th in gs a r e th in gs created by God. A ll th in g s c r e a te d by God are not e v il th in gs. A ll e v il th in gs a r e not r e a l things. •For exam ple sh e said : "• • • S ince God is A ll, there is no room for 'His u n lik en ess. God, S p irit, alon e c r e a te d a ll, and c a lle d it good. i T h e r e fo r e e v il, b ein g co n tra ry to good, is u n rea l and can n ot be th e | 25 'product of God." Or "the S c r ip tu r e s im p ly that God is A ll- in - a ll. i F r o m this it fo llo w s that nothing p o s s e s s e s r e a lity nor e x iste n c e 198 , i I I 26 ! |ex c ep t the d ivin e Mind and H is id e a s . " A nd "D ivine L ove (God) is I jinfinite. T h erefo r e a ll that r e a lly e x is ts is in and o f God, and m a n i- 27 ife s ts H is L ove (g o o d n ess). " "If God is A ll and God is good, it fo l- i | ilow s that A ll m u st be good, and no other p o w er, law or in te llig e n c e I ! 28 ! can e x ist. " And "because God is Mind, and th is Mind is good, a ll t 29 I is good and a ll is Mind. " | Often M rs. Eddy u sed en th y m em es to ex p la in h er syn onym s | fo r God. F or in sta n ce: ". . . God is Mind; th e r e fo r e th ere is in ■ ir e a lity one M ind on ly, b eca u se th e r e is one God. T h is en th ym em e , | : I I put into d ed u ctive fo rm w as; j i God is id en tic a l w ith Mind 1 T h ere is one God only ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I j T h ere is one Mind on ly j A nother exam p le of how M rs. Eddy u sed en th y m em es to define the nature of God w as: ". . . S p ir it being God, th ere is but one j 31 ;Spirit, for th e r e can be but one in fin ite and th e r e fo r e one God. " i I |T h is en th ym em e put into d ed u ctive fo rm w as: God is id en tic a l w ith S p irit i T h ere is one God only ! i T h ere is one S p irit only M rs. E d d y 's en th y m em es com p lem en ted h er u se of e m p ir ic a l I e v id e n c e and h elp ed build co n v ictio n in the C h r istia n S c ie n tist. T h ese 199 com p act en th y m em es of G od's g o o d n ess and a lln e s s p rep ared the w ay for the individual to e x p erien ce the e m p ir ic a l p ro o f of G od's g o o d n ess jex p ressed in h ea lin g . The e m p ir ic a l data in turn su bstan tiated the j p r e m is e s of the en th y m em es for the C h ristia n S cie n tist. M rs. Eddy i su g g este d th is in h er statem en t: " . . . We m u st r e c o lle c t that T ruth j lis d em on strab le w hen u n derstood , and that good is not u n d erstood j ! . 32 i ,until d em on strated . " S in ce the textbook w as read d aily by m ost C h ristia n S c ie n tis ts , M rs. Eddy kept th ese stu d en ts con tin u ally c o n - ' | i item plating G od's in fin ite g o o d n ess. T h e se en th ym em es w e r e an aid ' i i !in the h ealing p r o c e s s , for an e s s e n tia l part of healing and r e g e n e r a - | ition w as m aintaining th ese "right" thoughts of G od's a lln e s s and g o o d - 1 ! n e s s . M rs. Eddy in d icated that one m u st dw ell on th ese thoughts I I jrather than upon thoughts of s ic k n e s s and sin if h ealing is to occur: I |". . . Suffer no c la im of sin or s ic k n e s s to g ro w upon the thought. jD ism iss it w ith an abiding co n v ictio n that it is ille g itim a te , b eca u se j jyou know that God is no m ore the author of s ic k n e s s than He is of sin , " land, M eetth e in cip ien t sta g e s of d is e a s e w ith a s pow erful m en ta l o p p o si tio n a s a le g is la to r would em p loy to defeat the p a ssa g e o f an inhu m an law . R ise in the c o n sc io u s stren gth of the sp irit of T ruth to I o v erth row the p lea of m o rta l m ind, a lia s m a tte r , a rra y e d a g a in st I the su p rem acy of S p irit. B lo t out the im a g es of m ortal thought and i its b e lie fs in s ic k n e s s and sin. T h en , when thou are d e liv e r e d to | the judgm ent o f T ruth, C h r ist, the judge w ill sa y , "Thou are j whole.' P e e l h as co rro b o ra ted the C h r istia n S c ie n c e "psychology" of 200 {keeping G od's in fin ite g o o d n e ss b efore c o n sc io u sn e ss; ! j T he p sy ch o lo g y of C h r istia n S c ie n c e --o r it s 'an atom y, ' to u s e the w ord she so m e tim e s em p loyed in a way r e m in is c e n t o f R obert B u r to n --c o n siste d in the d is s e c tio n of in d ivid u al c o n s c io u s n e s s to I d is c o v e r w h eth er the thoughts p resen tin g th e m s e lv e s fo r a cce p ta n ce p ro ceed ed fr o m the d ivin e Mind or its su p p o sitio u s o p p o site . T h is m ean t a co n sta n t p r o c e s s of sep aratin g b etw een on e's tr u e id en tity j | and the fa ls e c h a r a c te r is tic s and lim ita tio n s that would tr y to a t- | i tack th e m s e lv e s to th is id en tity. j I M rs. E d d y 's u se of deductive and in d u ctive argu m en t c o m p le - ! I jm ented ea ch o th er. The d ed u ctive argu m en ts in the fo rm o f en th y- \ Im em es h elp ed c r e a te a p o s itiv e m en tal attitude in the C h r istia n S c ie n - j ; Itist con d u cive to h ealin g. T he e m p ir ic a l data o f h ea lin g s h elp ed su b - I ; stan tiate the tru th of the p r e m is e s of h er d ed u ction s. M ention should be m ad e of the way M rs. Eddy h an dled a rg u - I m e n ts a g a in st C h r istia n S c ie n c e . T h ere w ere a num ber o f atta ck s i j imade on C h r istia n S cien ce and M rs. Eddy p e r so n a lly . It w a s argu ed | i I that M rs. Eddy taught p a n th eism , that C h ristia n S cien ce d id not h e a l, i j I jthat she p la g ia r iz e d fro m o th e r s, and that she dom inated h e r ch u rch j I 35 ! m e m b e r s . M rs. E ddy's p o lic y w as not to a rg u e with th o se who I j i {attacked h er or h e r r e lig io n . She a sk ed a lso that h er fo llo w e r s not j engage in d eb a tes w ith th o se opposing C h ristia n S cien ce. She ask ed i ! {her m e m b e r s to b e ch a rita b le to m en of a ll fa ith s and a ls o the m e d ic a l | p r o fe s s io n , sa yin g; S tu dents a r e a d v ised by the author to be ch a rita b le and kind, not o n ly to w a rd s d ifferin g fo rm s of relig io n and m e d ic in e , but to th o se who h old th ese d ifferin g op in ion s. L et u s be fa ith fu l in p o in t ing th e w ay throu gh C h r is t, a s we u n derstan d it, but le t u s a ls o be 201 i l ca re fu l a lw a y s to "judge rig h teo u s judgm ent, 1 1 and n ev er to c o n dem n r a sh ly . "W hosoever sh a ll sm ig h t th ee on the right ch eek , j tu rn to h im the o th er a lso . 1 On o c c a sio n , h o w ev er, M rs. Eddy did a n sw er h e r c r it ic s . H er i r e p lie s , o ften in the fo r m of le t t e r s , a ssu m ed the c r itic w as attacking I C h r istia n S c ie n c e out of ign oran ce of it s d o ctrin e, or w as attack in g herj lout of ign oran ce of h e r h isto r y . M rs. Eddy a n sw ered th e se a tta ck s by ■ I 37 i b r ie fly citin g what sh e b eliev ed to be the c o r r e c t in form ation . H er I le t t e r s have a d id a ctic, in form ation al qu ality and r e ly h e a v ily on j \ j isp e c ific data to c o r r e c t the ap p aren t e r r o r . M ark T w ain, for exam p le,j 'argued that by having h er fo llo w e r s c a ll her "m other, " M rs. Eddy w as | i ^attempting to make h e r s e lf eq u al to M ary, the m oth er of J e su s. M rs. | j E ddy rep lied to this a lle g a tio n in a le tte r to the N ew Y ork H erald by j |sim p ly statin g a "fact": | It is a fa c t w ell u n d erstood that I begged the stud en ts who f ir s t gave m e th e en d earing a p p ella tiv e "M other, " not to nam e m e thus. B ut w ithout my co n sen t, the u se of the w ord sp read lik e w ild fire, i I s till think the nam e is not a p p lica b le to m e. I stand in r e la tio n to th is cen tu ry as a C h r istia n D is c o v e r e r , F ou n d er, and L ea d er. I regard s e lf-d e ific a tio n a s b la sp h em o u s. ^8 i When it was ch a rg ed that M rs. Eddy w as uneducated, she r e - jplied with an oth er le tte r to a n ew sp ap er to refu te the ch arge: ! I w a s ea rly a pupil of M iss S arah J. B od w ell, the p rin cip a l of Sanborton A cad em y, N ew H a m p sh ire, and fin ish ed m y c o u r se of stu d ies u n der P r o fe s s o r D y er H. Sanborn, author of S an born's I G ra m m a r. A m ong m y e a r ly stu d ies w ere C o m sto ck 's N atural P h ilo so p h y , C h em istry , B la ir 's R h e to ric, W h a teley 's L o g ic , W att's "On the M ind and M oral S c ie n c e . . . . " In 1883, I sta rted The C h r istia n S cien ce Jou rn al, and fo r s e v e r a l y e a r s w as the p ro p rieto r and sole ed ito r. j I a m the author of the C h r istia n S cien ce textbook . . . and the dem and for th is book co n sta n tly in c r e a s e s . I am ra ted in the N ational M agazine (1903) a s "standing eight in a lis t o f tw en ty-tw o I o f the fo r e m o s t liv in g a u th ors. I i ' I ! j M rs. Eddy ap p aren tly did not w ish to en gage in exten d ed deb ate j j I i ;with h er c r it ic s . H er a n sw e r s to v a r io u s c h a rg es w ere b r ie f, and sh e 1 idid not continue to debate the ch arge beyond th ese b rief sta te m e n ts. i ;She focu sed h er r h e to r ic a l e ffo r ts on com m u n icatin g h er m e s s a g e in J i (Positive te r m s . j I | M rs. Eddy e sta b lish e d C o m m ittees on P u b lica tio n in each sta te | to c o r r e c t m is s ta te m e n ts about C h ristia n S cien ce appearing in the j p r e s s . But th e se c o m m itte e s w ere on ly to c o r r e c t m is r e p r e se n ta tio n s of C h ristia n S cie n c e by asking p u b lish ers to p rin t the c o r r e c te d in fo rm a tio n . T hey w ere not to en gage in public debate w ith w r ite r s or ! ! 40 I {publishers. j A p ro b lem in com m u n icatin g C h ristia n S cie n c e w as that the j sp ecta cu la r nature of the h ea lin g e le m e n t of the re lig io n dw arfed the jother e le m e n ts of the r elig io n to m any people. C h ristia n S cie n c e w as {associated in the popular m ind a s a h ea lin g cu lt, and the b readth of the i 41 (religion w as n ev er fu lly com m u n icated . D esp ite th is, M ary B aker ! jEddy n ev er v iew ed p h y sica l h ea lin g a s the param ount a s p e c t of her re lig io n . H er c o n cer n w as w ith teach in g of the r e a lity of the noum enal w o rld , the w o rld of sp iritu a l id e a s. H ealin g did, she b e lie v e d , help 203 bring th e student to a r ea liza tio n of the in fin ite g o o d n ess of the w o rld , |but h e a lin g was not the u ltim a te g oal of C h r istia n S c ie n c e . She said : | . . H ealing p h y sica l sic k n e ss is the s m a lle s t part o f C h ristia n | iScience. It is on ly the b u g le -c a ll to thought and action , in the h ig h er <range o f infinite g o o d n ess. t M rs. Eddy sy n th esized v a r io u s id eas in to a co m p lex th eo lo g y , I ! I ,but on ly the m ore d ram atic a sp ect o f h er r e lig io n - - it s h ealin g a s p e c t --1 'was ap p aren t to the g en era l public. N ew sp ap er r e p o r te r s and pub- ! ; ! ; I lis h e r s o f books and m a g a zin es p u b licized the se n sa tio n a l e le m e n t in j i C h r istia n S cien ce to the ex c lu sio n o f a m ore b alan ced p r e se n ta tio n of j 4 3 the r e lig io n . D an ial B o o rstein in T he Im age argued th at the n ew s ; i _ | m edia ten d to accen tu ate the ex travagen t and u n usu al at the e x p en se of i 44 ja co m p reh en siv e and r e a lis tic co v er a g e of the n ew s. A s W illiam i jRandolph H earst sa id , "new s is anything that m a k es the read er sa y , i 45 "Gee W h iz. 1 1 1 M rs. E ddy was n e v e r able to com m u n ica te the to ta lity ! of her r e lig io n , n or did sh e spend m u ch tim e co u n terin g or attack in g ! |those w ho p resen ted only p art of h er th eology. H er rh eto ric w as je sse n tia lly forw ard m oving and not o rien ted tow ard cou n terattack and I ^debate. She sought to rea c h a s m any people a s p o ssib le w ith h er te x t- ! jbook and other w r itin g s, and these w ritin g s con tain ed h e r total th e o l- l ogy. It i s not u n usu al that h er co m p lete th eo lo g y did not reach the m a jo rity of the p u b lic, fo r the g e n e r a l public n e v e r r e a lly r e c e iv e a 204 I c o m p r e h e n siv e p resen ta tio n o f cu r r e n t is s u e s , id e a s , p eo p le or m o v e - I Im ents. A ls o , M rs. E d d y's s y n th e s is w as co m p le x , uniting v a rio u s I I 'th e se s into a d ia le c tic a l u n ity, and th is m ade c o m p r e h e n siv e co m m u n ic a tio n of h er m e s s a g e on a m a s s s c a le d iffic u lt, if not im p o s sib le . M rs. E d d y's u se of argu m en t p a r a lle le d the d ia le c tic a l natu re of h e r d o c tr in e , w hile h er u se o f d ifferin g fo r m s of a rgu m en t g rew out of the d o c tr in e 's nature. H er m ode of arguing w a s c o n siste n t with th e m e s s a g e she w a s co m m u n ica tin g , adding to the a ttr a c tiv e n e ss of the d o ctrin e. She em p loyed p ra g m a tic and e m p ir ic a lly o r ie n te d arg u m en ts ! that w ere a ttr a c tiv e to m any A m e r ic a n s at the turn of the cen tu ry, and jher in d u ctive and deductive a rg u m en ts co m p lem en ted ea ch other and h elp ed build c o n v ic tio n in her c h u rch 's m e m b e r s. M rs. Eddy did |not a llo w h e r s e lf to g e t in volved in d eb a tes w ith h er c r it ic s , but in stead fo c u se d on com m u n icatin g h er d octrin e in p o sitiv e te r m s . I S tyle ; M rs. E d d y 's s ty le w as sy n th etic in n ature; it w as d id actic; and she em p lo y ed a w ritten , as op p o sed to an o ra l, m ode of p resen ta tio n . M rs. E ddy's s ty le w as sy n th etic in that she com b in ed d ifferin g kinds of d ictio n in to h er w ritin g. She com b in ed both s c ie n tific and C h ristia n i !w ords, p h r a s e s and im a g e s in to h er s ty le . She a ls o com b in ed " m a s cu lin e" and " fem in in e" s ty lis tic c h a r a c te r is tic s . M rs. E d d y's sty le w as didactic :n that h er fo cu s w as c le a r ly on in stru ctio n . A s w ill be i ___ 205 jshown in the se c tio n on the orga n iza tio n of h er m e s s a g e , b elo w , M rs. jEddy u sed org a n iza tio n a l d e v ic e s such a s rep etitio n and r e sta te m e n t, I I Q uestion and a n sw er fo rm a t, m any h ea d in g s, su b h ead in gs, and d efin i- I j Itions to m ak e h er d octrin e u n derstood . The th ird a sp e c t of M rs. i I jEddy1 s sty le w as h e r r e lia n c e on the w ritten w ord. M ost of h er c o m - ! jm unication e ffo r ts w ere d ir e c te d tow ard w ritin g b ook s, ed itin g h er [p erio d ica ls, and com m u n icatin g w ith h er ch u rch es by le tte r . One d istin c tiv e a s p e c t of M rs. E ddy's sty le w as that it c o m - i ibinded tw o d iffere n t kinds of diction or w ord c h o ic e . On the one hand, she u sed sc ie n tific w ords and p h r a se s, and on the o th er, she m ade m u ch u se of trad ition al B ib lic a l w o rd s, p h r a se s, a llu s io n s , and quo ta tio n s. T h is a sp e c t of h er sty le w as c o n siste n t w ith h er sy n th e sis of I I sc ie n c e and C h ristia n ity . M rs. Eddy u sed sc ie n tific w ord s in s e v e r a l I (w ays. F ir s t , she em p loyed the word " scien ce" in the nam e of h er i i [religion: C h r istia n S c ie n c e . H er textb ook s a ls o u sed the w ord sc ie n c e ;in its title : S cie n c e and H ealth with K ey to the S c r ip tu r e s. J e s u s w as j jreferred to a s a s c ie n tis t and M rs. E ddy spoke of C h ristia n S c ie n tists [as " sc ie n tists" throughout h e r w ritin g s. The a d jectiv e " sc ie n tific " w as I I la lso u sed hundreds of tim e s in her textbook; she spoke of "the s c ie n t if i c sta tem en t of b ein g , " " sc ie n tific tru th s, " "our s c ie n tific ap p reh en s io n s , " "the sc ie n tific fa ct, " "having no sc ie n tific b a s is or o r ig in , " "a sc ie n tific m en tal m ethod, " and " sc ie n tific m a n ife sta tio n s. She a ls o often u sed the adverb " sc ie n tific a lly " in h e r w ritin gs. M rs. Eddy u sed such p h ra ses a s " ability . . . to d isc e r n thoughts l s c ie n tific a lly . " " sc ie n tific a lly u n d ersto o d , " and " s c ie n tific a lly 47 d istin ct. " She em p loyed w ord s often u se d by s c ie n tis ts su ch as ! i | " h yp oth esis, " " facts, " "law s, " " p rin cip le, " " dem on strate, " "proof, " ! ! jand " evid en ce. " T hroughout h er textb ook , M rs. Eddy allu d ed to, j jcited, and quoted s p e c ific s c ie n c e s su ch a s p h y sic s , a stro n o m y , and j i natu ral s c ie n c e , a s w e ll as r e fe r r in g to su ch p rom in en t h is to r ic a l and j i | co n tem p o ra ry s c ie n tis ts as L o u is A g a s s iz , N ico la u s C op ern icu s, l ’ C h a r le s D arw in, G a lileo G a lile i, S ir I s s a c N ew ton, T h om as H enry ! 49 iH uxley, and B enjam in Rush. j W ithin the sa m e p a g es, she a ls o em p lo y ed , alluded to, and jparaphrased B ib lica l w ord s, p h r a se s, and im a g e s. Often sh e started Iher ch a p ters of S cie n c e and H ealth w ith a sc r ip tu r a l quotation. The ! i ilogo of h er textbook w as a c r o s s e n c o m p a sse d by a crow n. The f ir s t I i 1 I paragraph of S cien ce and H ealth , for e x a m p le , is fille d w ith B ib lica l \ ip h ra ses and a llu sio n s: ! To th o se lea n in g on ths su sta in in g in fin ite , to -d a y i s big with ; b le s s in g s . The w akeful shepherd b eh o ld s the f ir s t faint m orning I b ea m s, e r e com eth the fu ll radiance of a r ise n day. So shone the p ale sta r to the p ro p h et-sh ep h erd s; y e t it tr a v e r se d the n igh t, and cam e w h ere, in cra d led o b sc u r ity , la y the B eth leh em b a b e, and | human h era ld of C h r ist, T ruth, who w ould m ake plain to benighted j u n d erstan d the w ay of sa lv a tio n through C h rist J e s u s , t il l a c r o s s a night of e r r o r should dawn the m orn in g b eam s and shine the guiding sta r of b ein g . The W isem en w ere le d to behold and to fo llo w th is day star o f divine S c ie n c e , lig h tin g the w ay to e te r n a l harm ony. 50 207 i | T h is p a ssa g e su g g este d a p a r a lle l b etw een the truth brought to ea rth i i |by J e s u s' birth and the tru th r e -e s ta b lish e d in th is age by C h ristia n jS cien ce. B ib lic a l a llu s io n s and te r m s abound in th is p a s s a g e --" th e ^wakeful shepherd, " "pale s ta r ," "the p r o p h e t-sh e p h e r d s," "the ! I iB eth leh em babe, " " salvation through C h rist J e s u s , " "the guiding l [ jstar, " and "the W isem en . " j | ; In the seco n d p art of h er textb ook , in w hich she an alyzed p a r ts j I of the Old and N ew T e sta m e n t, M rs. Eddy o ffered a " sc ien tific " in t e r - | Ipretation of the S c r ip tu r e s. P a rt of th is secon d sectio n contained a J "G lossary" in w hich M rs. Eddy defin ed m any tra d itio n a l C h ristian | iterm s w ith h er n ew er " sc ie n tific " m ean in gs. M rs. Eddy did not g e n era te a c o m p lete ly new se t of w ords or sim p ly u se sc ie n tific w ord s to jd escrib e her r e lig io n . R a th er, she em p loyed m o st of the tra d itio n a l {C hristian w ords but red efin ed them . F o r exam p le: l 51 A n gels: "God's thoughts p a ssin g to m an. . . . " 52 B ap tism : " P u rifica tio n by S p irit; su b m erg en ce in S p ir it. " ! 53 ^ i D evil: "Evil; a lie ; e r r o r . . . . " I H eaven: "Harm ony; the reig n of S p irit; govern m en t by divine P r in c ip le . "54 I l ! H ell; "Suffering and se lf-d e s tr u c tio n ; se lf-im p o se d agony; e ffe c ts I of sin. . . . "55 M ira cle: "That w hich is d iv in ely n atu ral, but m ust be learned hum anly; a phenom enon o f S cie n c e. " 208; ! R e su r r e c tio n : " Sp iritu alization of thought. . . . " j I Salvation: " L ife, T ruth, and L ove u n d erstood and d em o n strated . I ! M rs. Eddy defined the tra d itio n a l C h ristia n T rin ity a s the i 59 th r e e fo ld unity of the C reator: " L ife, T ruth, and Love. " She i p o site d a n egative trin ity of sin , s ic k n e s s and d e a t h .^ M rs. Eddy j | jbelieved her m is s io n a lw a y s w as to " rein state p rim itiv e C h r istia n - ^ ity, and sh e found m uch of tra d itio n a l C h r istia n language adequate i 1 ,for th is p u rp ose. M rs. Eddy a ls o com bined m a scu lin e and fem in ine s ty lis tic 1 c h a r a c te r is tic s . H er fem in in e and m o th erly im a g e s and w ord ch o ice jwere p a r tic u la r ly illu str a te d in h er p o em s and published le tte r s . jAlthough M rs. Eddy w as an ad vocate of p o litic a l and le g a l eq u ality for j j j w om en, her ad vocacy of th is ca u se w as u su a lly gen tle and non- i j a g ita tio n a l in nature. H er p oem , "W om en's R ig h ts, " illu s tr a te d th is ] i jm otherly p ersu a sio n . The im a g e s of h om e, m otherhood, and ch ild ren I jpredom inate. She a sk ed fo r the right to "a happy hom e, " "the right to i i w o rsh ip , " and "to b le s s the orphan, to feed the poor . . . n u rse the j I ; j. . . babe, " and "the right to w ork and pray. ! 1 Though a stron g p e r so n a lity , M rs. Eddy n ever lo s t h er fe m in ine c o m p a ssio n and lo v e for hom e and fam ily. T he im a g e s in her p oem , "The M oth er's E ven in g P r a y e r , " d isp la y ed her d eep co n cern and id en tifica tio n w ith m otherhood. T w o sta n za s of th is p o em read: O g en tle p r e s e n c e , p e a c e and joy and pow er; O Life d iv in e , that ow ns ea ch w aiting h ou r, Thou Love th at guards the n e stlin g 's fa lte r in g flig h t! K eep Thou my c h ild on upward wing to -n ig h t. I No sn a r e , no fo w le r , p e s tile n c e o r pain; J No night d rops down upon the troubled b r e a st, j W hen h ea v en 's a fte r s m ile e a r th 's te a r -d r o p s gain, i And m oth er finds h e r hom e and h eaven ly r e s t . ^ I The w ord "m other" w as im p ortan t to M rs. E ddy, for sh e | i n am ed her c e n tr a l ch u rch in B o sto n the M other C hurch, and w ish ed to ! r e v e a l the fu ll c h a r a c te r of God, to bring out the m otherhood a s w e ll a s the fatherhood of God. H en ce, she r e fe r r e d to God as F a th e r - M oth er. She said: . . . God m ade m an in H is ow n im age and lik e n e s s , and he m ad e > them m a le and fe m a le as the S crip tu res d ecla re; then does not our h eaven ly P a r e n t--th e divine M in d --in clu d e w ithin th is Mind the thoughts th at e x p r e s s d ifferen t m e n ta litie s of m en and w om en, w hereby w e m ay c o n siste n tly sa y , "Our F a th er-M o th er God ?"64 W hereas tra d itio n a l P r o te sta n tis m em p h a sized the fath er q u a litie s of G od, M rs. E ddy brought out the m o th erly q u a lities of the D eity. She u se d the te r m m other in con n ection with God b eca u se it in d icated "His te n d er rela tio n sh ip to H is c r e a t i o n . N o t only did M rs. Eddy p o s it J j a th eology th a t s tr e s s e d m oth erh ood , h er w ritten s ty le a lso exem p lified ! m o th erly q u a litie s. M rs. E ddy's p u blish ed le tte r s to ch u rch m e m b e r s and s p e c ific co n g reg a tio n s r ev e a led the te n d e r , co m p a ssio n a te sid e of her thought. To one of her c o n g reg a tio n s she attem p ted to com m u n icate h er ten d er lo v e for th em . To "My B eloved B reth ren , " she sa id , she had "a s e c r e t to 66 tell" and "a q u estio n to a sk . " By e x p r e ssin g h er a ffectio n for th is Icongregation in the fo rm of a s e c r e t, M rs. Eddy in ten sifie d the p e r - i I jsonal, in tim ate nature of h e r feelin g . She a sk ed r h e to r ic a lly : I ! Do you know how m uch I lo v e you and the n atu re of th is lo v e ? No: j j then m y sa c r e d s e c r e t is in com m u n icab le, and we liv e ap a rt. B ut, ! j y e s: th is in m o st som eth in g b e c o m e s a r tic u la te , and m y book is n ot j ! a ll you know of m e. ^ j I T o a R ea d er in one of her c h u rch es, M rs. Eddy w ro te of j I ' I I iC h rist's m e e k n e ss w ith a d elica te im a g e of " little fish e s . . . sw e et I little thoughts" that "cam e out in o r d e r ly line to the rim " o f a : I fountain; j B elo v ed S tu d e n t:--C h r ist is m e e k n e ss and T ru th enthroned. Put on : the ro b es of C h r ist, and you w ill be lifted up and w ill d ra w a ll m en | unto you. The little fis h e s in my fountain m u st have fe lt m e when I j stood sile n tly b e sid e it, fo r they ca m e out in o rd erly lin e to the r im ; w here I stood. Then I fed th ese sw e e t little thoughts th a t, not f e a r - j ing m e , sought th eir food of m e. ; I Though M rs. E d d y's im a g es and word c h o ic e p o s s e s s e d m uch jthat m igh t be te r m e d fem in in e , she a ls o u tilized s ty lis tic a p p ro a ch es jthat w ere m a sc u lin e in n atu re. She o ften u sed a g r e s s iv e m ilita r y jim ages, ca llin g h e r fe llo w C h ristia n S c ie n tists to fight a h o ly battle. i : Such tough and m a sc u lin e w ord s and p h ra ses a s " stru ggle, " " con test, " " ir r e p r e ss ib le c o n flic t, " "stand a lon g sie g e , " "take the fr o n t rank" p erm ea te her w ork. M rs. Eddy w rote a s a g e n e r a l com m anding h er arm y, a rev o lu tio n a ry g e n e r a l in r e v o lt a g a in st m a te r ia lis m . T his j rev o lu tio n a ry them e w as p a rticu la rly ev id en ced in h er 1888 "C hicago ■ 70 jA ddress" in which she spoke to about 4, 000 people in the C en tral 'M usic H all: I j C h r istia n S cien ce and the s e n s e s are at w ar. It is a revolu tio n a ry | stru g g le. We a lrea d y have had two in th is nation; and they began j and ended in a co n te st for the true id ea , for hum an lib e r ty and j rig h ts. N ow com eth a th ird stru ggle; fo r the free d o m of h ealth , 1 h o lin e s s , and the attain m en t of h eaven . 71 j ! . ! M rs. Eddy told her lis te n e r s that C h r istia n S c ie n c e "has inaugurated j 7Z ^ the ir r e p r e s s ib le c o n flic t b etw een se n se and Soul. " And she co n - | fron ted h er audience w ith th is ch a llen g e: ; M en and w om en of the nineteenth cen tu ry , a re you c a lle d to v o ic e j a h igh er ord er of S cie n c e? Then obey th is c a ll. Go, if you m u st, I to the dungeon or the sca ffo ld , but tak e not back the w ord s of T ruth, j How m any are th ere ready to su ffer fo r a rig h teo u s c a u se , to stand ' a long s ie g e , take the front rank, fa ce the fo e, and be in the battle 7 “ X | e v e r y day. ' J i M rs. Eddy concluded h e r rem a r k s in C hicago with a stirrin g I j parody on a T ennyson v e r s e . She said: j t C h r istia n S cien ce and C h ristia n S c ie n tis ts w ill, m u st have a h isto ry ; and if I could w rite the h isto r y in poor parody on T en n y so n 's grand v e r s e , it would read th u s :-- T r a ito r s to the right of th em , I M. D. 's to the le ft of them , I P r ie s tc r a ft in fro n t of th em , ! V o lley ed and thundered! ! Into the jaw s of h ate, I Out through the door of L o v e, On to the b le s t ab ove, I 7 4 M arched the one hundred. M rs. E ddy's a g g r e s s iv e ly m a scu lin e sty le w as found throughout 212 i j her w r itin g s, p a r tic u la r ly when she spoke of d is e a s e . The C h r istia n j S c ie n tist w as to face s ic k n e s s w ith an a g g r e s s iv e sta n c e , and not cow er b efore m a te r ia l sy m p to m s. M rs. Eddy said in S cien ce and i H ealth: ! ! T o cu re a b od ily a ilm e n t, e v e r y broken m oral la w should be taken j j in to accou n t and the e r r o r be rebuked. F e a r , w hich is an e le m e n t ' j of a ll d is e a s e , m u st be c a st out to read ju st the b alan ce fo r God. | C a stin g out e v il and fe a r en a b les truth to outw eigh e r r o r . T he only ! c o u r se is to take a n ta g o n istic grounds a g a in st a ll that is op p osed to | 1 the h ealth , h o lin e s s , and harm ony of m an, G od's im age. ^ | ! i {And: ". . . E x e r c is e th is G od -given authority. T ak e p o s s e s s io n of ! your body, and govern it s fe e lin g s and actio n . R ise in the stren g th of 7 6 S p irit to r e s is t a ll that i s unlike good. " I M rs. E d d y's syn th etic d ictio n added to the b e lie v a b ility of her j jdoctrine. H er m e s sa g e and m ean s of com m u n icatin g h er m e s s a g e i | {follow ed a c o n siste n t p attern . A s M rs. Eddy p o sited a sy n th e sis of | ! I |s c ie n c e and C h r istia n ity , so her sty le partook of both s c ie n tific and C h r istia n w o rd s, p h r a se s and im a g e s. A s M rs. E ddy argued that w om en should e x p r e s s both m a scu lin e and fem in in e c h a r a c te r is tic s , j i I I jso h er sty le p a r a lle le d th is view and she em p loyed both m a sc u lin e and j fem in in e w ord s, p h r a s e s, and im a g e s in h er w ritin g s. M rs. E d d y's j sty le w a s a n atu ral e x te n sio n of h er id e a s, and it m atch ed w o rd s to j id ea s. T h ere w as a n atu ral "fit" betw een sty le and su b sta n ce, fo rm and co n ten t, in M rs. E d d y 's w ritin g s. H er style w a s b e lie v a b le , for she w rote in a w ay c o n siste n t w ith h er d octrin e. In that p eop le p refer 213 i jco n sisten cy in what they read and h ea r, M rs. E d d y's s ty lis tic sy n t h e s is added to the a ttr a c tiv e n e ss of h er d o ctrin e. ! | M rs. Eddy com m u n icated h er m e s s a g e through w ritten rather than oral d is c o u r s e . Though she spoke to s m a ll grou p s during h er I i lea rly m in istr y , she soon sw itch ed to the w ritten m ed iu m to rea ch I J 1 77 ! |m ore p eop le. M ost of M rs. E d d y's tim e w as spent in w ritin g , and | ; ! ; I jin stru ctu rin g a ch u rch organ ization to d isse m in a te h er w ritin g s. We j ; | |have only one reco rd of h er p reach ing to a la r g e a u d ien ce, to the j i I ! i N ational C h r istia n S c ie n tist A ss o c ia tio n a s se m b le d in C hicago, the j ^ j ["Chicago A d d re ss" d is c u sse d above. D uring th is sp eech , m any ste n - j I lograph ers "were dropping th eir p e n c ils in th e ir ab so rp tio n in what w as | i 7 8 I b ein g said . " The C hicago T im e s rep orted : When the sp eak er concluded, the au d ien ce a r o s e en m a ss and m ade a rush fo r the P la tfo r m . . . . T hey crow d ed about the little wom an and hugged and k isse d h er u n til she w as ex h a u sted , and a m an had ; to com e to her r e sc u e and lea d h er aw ay. ^9 l 'The B oston T r a v e lle r in d icated that i ' ' ■ i An aged w om an, trem b lin g with p a lsy , lifte d h er shaking hands at ! M rs. E d d y 's fe e t, cryin g "Help, Help.' " and the c r y w as an sw ered . Many su ch people w ere known to go aw ay h ea le d . Strong m en turned j asid e to hide th e ir te a r s , a s the p eople th ron ged about M rs. Eddy j with b le s s in g s and thanks. M rs. E ddy's relia n ce on the w ritten w ord is in d icated by the num ber of h e r p u blish ed w ork s. H er m ajor sta tem en t on C h ristia n S c ie n c e w as S cien ce and H ealth. She a ls o p u b lish ed a num ber of 81 sh o r te r w o rk s com p iled in P r o s e W orks. She e sta b lish e d a jC hristian S c ie n c e P u b lish in g S o c ie ty that prin ted h er th ree p erio d ica ls:! ! jThe C h ristia n S cien ce J ou rn al, the C h ristia n S cie n c e S en tin el, and the iH erald of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . M rs. Eddy ed ited h er p e r io d ic a ls during j !the ea r ly p erio d of th e ir e x iste n c e . She a ls o e sta b lish e d an in tern a - i jtional d aily n ew sp a p er, The C h r istia n S cie n c e M onitor. A lm o st a ll o f j j ' [M rs. E ddy's com m u n ication w ith h er branch ch u rch es w as by le tte r , ! t ;and even m o st of h er co m m u n ica tio n with h er M other C hurch w as in t w ritin g. M rs. Eddy a ls o p u b lish ed a se t of " le sso n serm o n s" c o n s is t - ! i | 82 ! ing of cita tio n s from the B ible and S cien ce and H ealth. C h ristia n j I S c ie n tis ts w ere to study th ese le s s o n s each day and the le s s o n serm o n sj j [w ere read alou d each Sunday in a ll C h ristia n S cien ce ch u rch es. The i j ! Ivast m a jo rity of M rs. E d d y's com m u n ica tio n of C h ristia n S cien ce w as j i i th u s by the w ritten w ord. j I M rs. E ddy's u se of the w ritten a s op p osed to the o ra l m ed iu m jhad th ree ad van tages in co m m u n icatin g h er m e s s a g e . The w ritten m ed iu m gave h er m e s s a g e p erm a n en cy , p r e c isio n , and allo w ed h er to ireach a la r g e r au d ien ce than w ould the public p latform . P erm a n en cy o f m e s s a g e w as a ch iev ed by u sin g the w ritten m ed iu m . M rs. Eddy d e s ir e d to p r e s e r v e h er m e s sa g e a s she had (com posed it. She se t up a p u b lish in g s o c ie ty to p u blish h er w orks and d isse m in a te h er w ritin g s. B y m aintaining a p erm an en t w ritten m e s s a g e , M rs. Eddy gave h er id e a s an enduring q u ality, a se n se of su b stan ce and c o n c r e te n e ss . 215; The w ritten m ediu m a ls o gave M rs. E d d y 's d o ctrin e a se n se Jof rig o r and p r e c isio n . Oral m e s s a g e s are u su a lly le s s p r e c is e and 83 jm ore vague and am b igiou s than w ritten m e s s a g e s . And p r e c is io n in thought w as e s s e n tia l to M rs. E ddy's d octrin e w hich c la im e d to be j sc ie n tific and fo llo w fixed p r in c ip le s. H er w ritten sty le a llo w ed h er to i I | I d evelop id e a s, m ake sp ecific and c le a r d istin c tio n s , and p rovid e i ! I | i [accurate d efin itio n s. It w as natu ral that a sc ie n tific r e lig io n would ! ! i l co n cen tra te on the w ritten m ed iu m b eca u se of it s need fo r p r e c isio n . | j By u sin g w ritten com m u n ication , M rs. E ddy w as ab le to reach Jmore p eop le than if she tried to speak to a u d ien ces throughout the J | jcountry. She u sed the m a ss m ed ia of h er tim e; b ook s, m a g a z in e s, | Sand the n ew sp a p er. E a rly in h er m in istr y M rs. Eddy sw itch ed fro m l [preaching to w riting. It w as not until she m oved h er church to a m ajor c ity , B o sto n , and fo cu sed on w ritin g and d isse m in a tin g h er w ritin gs i ' 84 jthrough the m a s s m ed ia that h er r e lig io n gain ed a nation al appeal. It w as in B oston that M rs. Eddy e sta b lish e d h er publishing s o c ie ty , h er p e r io d ic a ls , n ew sp ap er, and C om m ittee on P u b lica tio n jwith the in ten t of try in g to reach a la r g e r a u d ien ce. C unningham noted i j ithat M rs. Eddy m ade a c r u c ia l d e c isio n " when "she d eterm in ed to 85 m ove h er o rg a n iz a tio n from Lynn to B oston . " And D akin b e lie v e d that "M rs. E ddy's d e c isio n to m ove to B oston p la y ed a la r g e part in h er su bseq u en t s u c c e s s , a s s u c c e s s is m e a su r e d in te r m s o f m illio n s 216 i I I 86 ! ! of d o lla r s and o f public a c c la im . " And M ark T w ain su g g este d that j j I jM rs. Eddy w a s acu tely a w a re of the b en efits of w ritten co m m u n ica - ■ g7 ition during the y e a r s of h e r m in istr y . M rs. Eddy ch ose a m o st i i jeffective and e ffic ie n t m ed iu m of h er tim e fo r com m u n icatin g her i m e ssa g e : the printed w ord. ! i ! E th os j Ethos r e fe r s to how the rh etor u se d p roofs to enhance h is | 88 c re d ib ility . M rs. Eddy h eigh ten ed h er c r e d ib ility by (1) id en tifyin g | h e r s e lf as the so le d is c o v e r e r of C h r istia n S c ie n c e , and (2) in d icatin g j she had d em on strated th is sc ie n c e in h er d aily life . M rs. E ddy argued that she had d isc o v e r e d the p r in c ip le s p r a c - I Iticed by J e su s, p rin cip les lo s t fo r c e n tu r ie s. T h is unique d isc o v e r y j | I w as h e r s a lo n e, she a rg u ed , u sin g such w ord s a s " d isc o v e r e r , " I ! j '"founder, " " le a d e r ," " p astor, " and "author, " to d e sc r ib e the im p o r- | 89 ' tan ce of her rela tio n sh ip to C h r istia n S c ie n c e . B ut w hile id en tifying h e r s e lf as d is c o v e r e r and fou n der, she d isco u ra g ed fo llo w e r s from jdeifying her o r d eveloping a cu lt of p e r so n a lity around her. She ask ed h e r fo llo w er s to focus on h e r d isc o v e r y rath er than h e r s e lf. B y doing j jthis, M rs. E ddy reduced the p o s s ib ility of being attacked a s a p ie tistic and e g o -c e n te r e d leader; y e t she w as ab le by th is approach to e sta b lish h e r s e lf as the authentic le a d e r of the m ovem en t. I In the p refa ce to S c ie n c e and H ealth , M rs. Eddy c le a r ly pointed out that C h r istia n S c ie n c e w as d isc o v e r e d , founded, and p erpetuated by h er w ith G od's help: . . W hen God c a lle d the author to p ro cla im I H is G ospel to th is a g e, th ere ca m e a lso the charge to plant and water 90 H is v in eyard . " M rs. Eddy th en recounted the e a r ly h isto r y o f the [C hristian S c ie n c e m ovem ent: [ i ! The f ir s t sch ool of C h r istia n S c ie n c e M ind -h ealin g w as sta r te d by j | the author. . . . In 1881, sh e opened the M a ssa ch u setts M eta - i I p h y sica l C o lleg e. . . . D uring sev en y e a r s over fou r thousand j students w ere taught by the author in th is C o lleg e. M eanw hile, she < w as p a sto r of the f ir s t e sta b lish e d C hurch of C h r ist, S c ie n tist; j P r e sid e n t of the f ir s t C h ristia n S cie n c e A ss o c ia tio n , convening j m onthly; p u b lish er o f h er own w orks; and (for a p o rtio n of th is time)j sole e d ito r and p u b lish er of The C h ristia n S cien ce Journal . . . j the f ir s t p erio d ica l is s u e d by C h ristia n S c ie n tis ts .9 i I ■ i i j M rs. Eddy fu rth er id en tified h e r s e lf a s the d is c o v e r e r of | C h r istia n S c ie n c e by n a rra tin g the ev en ts that led to th e d isc o v e r y of (C hristian S c ie n c e . She said in the p refa ce to S cien ce and H ealth: I". . . A s e a r ly as 1862 she b egan to w rite down and g iv e to fr ie n d s jthe r e su lts of h er S crip tu ra l stud y, " and "the B ible w a s her s o le i 92 |tea ch er. " D uring th e s e y e a r s , she continued "to jo t down h e r jthoughts on" the S c r ip tu r e s, and "her fir s t pam phlet on C h r istia n l IScience w as co p y rig h ted in 1870; but did not appear in print u n til i ! 93 11876. " S c ie n c e and H ealth "was f ir s t p u blish ed in 1875, " sh e w rote. i B y d etailin g the step s lea d in g to h e r p u blication of S c ie n c e and H ealth, M rs. Eddy in d icated sh e did not le a r n of C h ristia n s c ie n c e fr o m oth er co n tem p orary w r ite r s; r a th er, she e sta b lish e d that it w a s her 218 I I ex te n siv e study of the B ib le that le d her to the d isc o v e r y and com m un ic a tio n of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . I j In th is p refa ce, M rs. E ddy c le a r ly stated that the tru th s of i IC hristian M ind -h ealin g w ere to be found in h er w orks: I The f ir s t ed ition of S cie n c e and H ealth was p u blish ed in 1875. | 1 V ariou s b o o k s on m en ta l h ea lin g have sin c e been is s u e d , m o st of i th e m in c o r r e c t in th eo ry and fille d w ith p la g ia r is m s fr o m S cien ce j j and H ealth. They reg a r d the hum an m ind a s a h ea lin g agen t, j w h e rea s th is mind is not a fa c to r in the P r in c ip le of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . A few b ook s, h o w ev er, w hich a re b ased on th is book, j a r e u sefu l. 9 4 | i i ! | M rs. E ddy fu rth er in ten sifie d her c r e d ib ility by arguing that j j ^Christian S c ie n c e fu lfille d p rophecy. M rs. Eddy w as the in stru m en - j j jtality, the hum an d isc o v e r e r , and h er d isc o v e r y w as the "com forter" ! ] ' p ro m ised in the G ospel of John. She said: ". . . T h is c o m fo rter I I 9 5 understand to be D ivine S cien ce. " M rs. Eddy in terp re ted the " little book open" m entioned in the A p o ca ly p se a s "this sa m e book" which j 96 j con tain ed "the rev e la tio n of D ivin e S c ie n c e . " In R ev ela tio n , it w as ] ' | I j jWritten of th is little book: ". . . Go and take the little book. . . . j (Take it, and e a t it up; and it sh a ll m ake thy b elly b itte r , but sh all be I • 97 |in th y mouth sw e e t as honey. " M rs. E ddy in terp reted th is p a ssa g e l J ito r e fe r to C h r istia n S c ie n c e a s r e v e a le d in S cien ce and H ealth. She _ I « IR said: T ak e divine S cien ce. Read th is book fr o m beginning to end. Study it, ponder it. It w ill be indeed sw e et at f ir s t ta s te , w hen it h ea ls you; but m u rm u r not o ver T ru th , if you find its d ig e stio n b itter. W hen you approach n e a r e r and n e a r e r to th is divine P r in c ip le , when 219 j j ! you eat the d ivine body of th is P r in c ip le , --th u s partaking of the natu re, or p rim a l e le m e n ts, you m ust sh a re the h em lo ck cup and ea t the b itter h erb s; fo r the I s r a e lite s of old at the P a sc h a l m ea l I thus p refig u red th is p erilo u s p a ssa g e out of bondage into the E l ! D orado of fa ith and h o p e .9® j Though M rs. E ddy view ed h e r s e lf a s rev ea lin g truth to the a g e , jshe d iverted h er fo llo w e r s from d evelop in g a cu lt of p erso n a lity I (around h er. M rs. Eddy sought to m ake the d isc o v e r y d ivine rath er I I j j than d eify h e r s e lf. She said: I i Guard a g a in st the d eifica tio n of fin ite p er so n a lity . E v e r y hum an ! thought m u st turn in stin c tiv e ly to the d ivin e Mind as its s o le j ce n te r and in te llig e n c e . Until th is be don e, m an w ill n ev er be j found harm on iou s and im m o rta l. j W h osoever lo o k s to me p e r so n a lly fo r h is health or h o lin e s s , I m ista k e s. He that by rea so n of hum an lo v e or hatred or any o th er j ca u se clin g s to m y m a te r ia l p e r so n a lity , g r e a tly e r r s , sto p s h is j own p r o g r e s s , and lo s e s the path to h ealth , h a p p in ess, and h ea v en . | The S crip tu res and C h ristia n S c ie n c e r e v e a l "the way. . . . " j C h ristia n S c ie n c e is taught through its d ivine P r in c ip le . ^9 I |M rs. Eddy, then, turned h er stu d en ts to the d octrin e of C h ristia n ! jS cien ce, not to h er p e r so n a lly . Students w ere to have r e s p e c t fo r h er ! jas a d is c o v e r e r and fo c u s on the d isc o v e r y . M rs. E d d y's fo llo w e r s by and la rg e took her at h er w ord and i ! jrefrained fro m p e r so n a liz in g h er. T hey v ie w ed h er as a d is c o v e r e r !or s c ie n tist. She h eld som ew hat the sam e p o sitio n to h er r e lig io n that | N ew ton did to h is d is c o v e r ie s . T he d iffe r e n c e , though, w as that M rs. Eddy w as seen a s d isc o v e r in g the u ltim a te p r in c ip le s u n d erlyin g the u n iv e r se , not ju st im p ortan t s c ie n tific th e o r ie s a s N ew ton did. F r e d e r ic k D ixon, an e a r ly C h ristia n S cien ce tea ch er and le a d e r , sa id 220; : I jof M rs. Eddy th at she w a s "the f ir s t p erso n to se e the g o o d n ess of |God and the d iv in e law , not a s an em otion , but a s a sc ie n tific jfact. . . . C arol N orton , in an o ffic ia l C h ristia n S cie n c e pub lic a tio n , a sk ed fo llo w e r s to co n ceiv e M rs. Eddy as: I | . . . an in d ividu al . . . who a fter y e a r s of t ir e le s s r e s e a r c h and | e x p e r ie n c e , p rayer and seek in g , d is c o v e r s the sc ie n tific un derlyin g ! p r in c ip le s w hich h e a ls a ll m anner of d is e a s e s and e v ils ; then think j | of the sam e individual statin g th is d isc o v e r y and the s c ie n c e of its ' j p r a c tic a l d em o n str a tio n in an exp lan ative tr e a tis e or textbook. . . . j T h is h o n e stly done, a true e stim a te w ill be reach ed of the g r e a t c o n str u c tiv e w ork of M rs. Eddy a s a s c ie n tific d is c o v e r e r . . . . 101j i ; T h e v ie w of M r s. Eddy su g g este d by N orton, a v ie w c o n s is te n t w ith w hat sh e had w ritten about h e r s e lf, b ecam e the p rom in en t im age of 1 ! i jMrs. Eddy in th e m ovem en t. T h is w as the im a g e rep ea ted by le ctu r ers' Ion C h r istia n S c ie n c e and the im age rep eated am ong C h ristia n {S cien tists. M rs. Eddy w as the in stru m en ta lity through w hich ! C h r istia n truth w as m ade known to th is age; she w as a sc ie n tific i i l [d isco v ere r. j | A seco n d way M rs. Eddy h eigh ten ed h er c r e d ib ility was by | jshowing how sh e had d em o n stra ted the p r in c ip le s she taught. She w as | i [able to p e r fo r m what w ere b eliev ed to be m ir a c le s of h ealin g. ! | jThroughout h er textbook and w r itin g s, she allu d ed to h er h ealin g work: W orking out the ru le s o f S cien ce in p r a c tic e , the author h as r e sto r e d h ealth in c a s e s o f both acute and ch ro n ic d is e a s e in th eir s e v e r e s t fo r m s . S e c r e tio n s have been ch an ged , an k y lo sed jo in ts have b een m ad e su pp le, and c a r io u s b on es have b een r e s to r e d to h ea lth y co n d itio n s. I h ave r e s to r e d what i s c a lle d the lo s t su b stan ce of lu n g s, and healthy o rg a n iz a tio n s have b een e sta b lish e d w here d is e a s e w as o rgan ic. *0-^________________________________________________ 221 i M rs. Eddy a ls o said "it should be gran ted that the author un derstan d s 104 what she is sayin g. " I S o m e tim e s M rs. Eddy d eta iled sp e c ific h e a lin g s she had i Iperform ed: 1 w as c a lle d to v is it Mr. C lark in Lynn, who had been confined ■ { to h is bed s ix m onths with h ip -d is e a s e , ca u sed by a fa ll upon a j w ooden sp ik e when quite a boy. On en terin g the h ou se, I m et h is j p h y sicia n , who sa id that the p atien t w as dying. T he p h y sicia n had ju st probed the u lc e r on h is h ip , and sa id the bone w as c a r io u s for | s e v e r a l in c h e s. He ev en show ed m e the p rob e, w hich had on it the ev id en ce o f th is con d ition of the bone. The d octor w ent out. M r. C lark la y w ith h is e y e s fixed and s ig h tle s s . The dew of death w as on h is b row . I w ent to h is b ed sid e. In a few m om en ts h is fa c e changed; its d ea th -p a llo r gave p lace to a natu ral hue. The e y e lid s c lo se d g en tly and the breathing b eca m e natural; he w as a s le e p . In about ten m in u tes he opened h is e y e s and said: "I fe e l lik e a new j i m an. My su fferin g is a ll gone. " It w as b etw een th ree and fou r ; o 'c lo c k in the aftern oon when th is took p la ce. I told h im to r is e , d r e ss h im s e lf, and take supper with h is I fa m ily . H e did so. The next day I saw h im in the yard. S in ce then | I have not seen h im , but am in fo rm ed that he went to w ork in two w eek s. T h e d isch a rg e from the so r e stopped, and the so re w as | h ealed . *0^ I M rs. Eddy reco rd ed m any a cco u n ts of th o se she h ealed . T h ese I a cco u n ts w e r e in terw o v en into h e r w ritin g s. By id en tifying h e r s e lf as jthe d is c o v e r e r of C h r istia n S c ie n c e and by show ing that she w a s able to |d em on strate p e r so n a lly what sh e taught, M rs. Eddy h eigh ten ed h er I (cred ib ility a s the le a d e r of the C h r istia n S cie n c e m ovem en t. In c o n sid e r in g M rs. E d d y 's c r e d ib ility , it is im p ortan t to r e v ie w the v a r io u s r e sp o n se s to h er r e lig io n and h e r s e lf at the turn of the cen tu ry. A s Cunningham noted, In the c o u r s e of the 1 8 9 0 's, the role o f C h ristian S c ie n c e in A m e r ica n life b eca m e a q u estio n of nationw ide in te r e st. C lerg y m e n w ere jo in ed by p h y sic ia n s, p sy c h o lo g is ts, la w y e r s, and jo u r n a lists in p e r s is te n t a ttem p ts to evalu ate and to d eal with the m ovem en t. ^ i j jThe m a g a zin e revolu tion of the p eriod w as an im portant fa c to r in i 1 acquainting A m e r ic a n s w ith M rs. Eddy and h er r elig io n , for " ed ito rs ! iof the new popular p e r io d ic a ls quickly d isc o v e r e d that [C h r istia n i 1 S c ie n c e ] m ade sa la b le copy. It w as not too m uch to say that one cou ld i ; i s c a r c e ly go am ong the reading public of 1900 w ithout en co u n terin g j j I n te r e s t in the cu lt. " j T h ere w ere th ree b a sic r e sp o n se s to C h ristian S c ie n c e : (1) to I its m en tal th e r a p e u tic s, (2) to its th eo lo g y , and (3) to its le a d e r . j ;Major in te r e st w as d ir e c te d to the th erap eu tic a sp e c ts o f the r e lig io n , Iparticularly the fa ilu r e s in C h ristia n S c ie n c e h ealing. P fau tz p oin ted j i j 1 0 8 jout that "the m ovem en t e x p erien ced an ex c e e d in g ly bad p r e s s " in a h u m ber of in sta n c e s. F o r ex a m p le, in the "Corner C a se" of 1888, a I Ipractitioner w as in d icted fo r m a n sla u g h ter in con n ection w ith the death i jof a m oth er and ch ild during ch ildb irth . The p r e s s gave m uch c o v e r a g e j |to th is c a s e , and the A m eric a n M edical A ss o c ia tio n h elp ed p u b licize | jthe c a s e by m aking continuous atta ck s on the a c tiv itie s o f C h r istia n ! L 109 |Science p r a c titio n e r s. i I The death in 1898 of H arold F r e d e r ic k , the A m e r ic a n au th or, was the o c c a s io n for ad d ition al "bad p u blicity" fo r the m ovem en t. F r e d e r ic k 's p r a c titio n e r w as a r r e ste d and ch arged with m u rd er, 223 , I i although he w as la te r acq u itted b eca u se F r e d e r ic k turned to C h ristia n j i S cie n c e only a fter h is con d ition was d iagn osed a s fatal by a m ed ica l j d octor. The A m eric a n M ed ical A sso c ia tio n denounced C h ristia n j j I {S cien tists a s "M olochs to in fan ts, and p e s tile n tia l p e r ils to com m u n - j t 111 1 jities in sp read in g co n tagiou s d is e a s e s . " | I ! T he A m eric a n M ed ical A sso c ia tio n w as ev en tu a lly s u c c e s s fu l ; : i ! I i # ; in gen era tin g le g is la tio n to r e s tr ic t the public p r a c tic e o f C h ristia n j : I jS cien ce, but, a s C unningham noted, "there w a s, h o w ev er, a s u r p r is - j 1 1 2 ! lingly stron g cu rren t of popular ob jection to le g is la tio n o f th is so rt. : | F o r ex a m p le , the p rom in en t E sp isc o p a l c le r g y m a n , R ich ard H eber j jNewton, cautioned ag a in st attem p ts "to stam p ou t C h r istia n S cie n c e by ! i le g is la tio n . T oo m uch of the b est in the reg u la r th era p eu tics of our 1 ( 1 jday h a s b een of ille g itim a te parentage to w arra n t such h e r o ic m e a - j 1 i 113 I j su re s. " N ew ton added: l ! ! j My hope is that th is p resen ta tio n . . . m ay d isp o se so m e to w e l co m e the r e a l truths of what is known a s C h r istia n S c ie n c e , w hile ! guarding th em ag a in st the e r r o r s and ex a g g er a tio n s in cid en t to a ! new en th u sia sm ; and that it m ay aid such a s fin d n eed ed truths in th is m en tal m ov em en t to a ccep t th em , w ithout feelin g co n stra in ed th ereb y to le a v e th eir old ch u rch es. . . . I W hen a b ill w as introduced in the M a ssa c h u se tts le g is la tu r e j that had the e ffe c t of forbidding the a c tiv itie s of C h r istia n S cien ce p r a c titio n e r s, "the w id esp rea d d isap p roval that g r e e te d th e s e e ffo r ts w as r e fle c te d in the e sta b lish m e n t of the N ation al C onstitutional L ib erty L eague in B oston to cou n tera ct such m e a s u r e s . B en jam in j o . F lo w e r , ed itor of the m uckraking A ren a , w as a p ro m in en t m em b er of the L eague. Though not a C h r istia n S c ie n tist, he g e n e r a lly su pp ort- led the m ovem en t, b eliev in g that | C h ristia n S cie n c e has co m e w ith it s m e s sa g e in stin ct w ith sp iritu a l v ita lity at an hour in our co u n try 's h isto r y when a v ic io u s oppor tu n istic m a te r ia lis m is ad vancing lik e cre ep in g p a r a ly s is over the j body p o litic , the b u sin e ss , ed u cation al and r e lig io u s life of the I nation. ; ! W illiam J a m es a ls o p ro tested a g a in st the M a ssa c h u se tts b ill. | i J a m es said: I I j The id ea s of the C h r istia n ch u rch es are not e ffic a c io u s in the j th erap eu tic d ir e c tio n to -d a y , w hatever th ey m ay have b e e n in j e a r lie r c e n tu r ie s. . . . The m in d -cu re w ith its g o sp e l of h ea lth y - I m in d ed n ess h as com e a s a r e v e la tio n to m any w hose h e a r ts the church C h ristia n ity had le ft hardened. ' Many m in is te r s s tr e s s e d the p o sitiv e a sp e c ts of the C h r istia n S cie n c e j I jth erap eu tics. In 1903, S am u el F a llo w s, the E p isco p a l B ish o p of jC hicago, fo r ex a m p le, w rote of the " great tru th s" of C h r istia n S cien ce j j 2 J g a s "the d iv in e, y et thoroughly hum an law , of su ggestion . . . . " I Many m in is te r s , h o w ev er, resp on d ed n eg a tiv ely to C h r istia n iScience b eca u se it m ade in road s into th eir co n g reg a tio n s. Som e m in - |_ I iiste r s openly w arned that C h r istia n S c ie n c e w as taking m e m b e r s fro m 119 Ithe e sta b lish e d ch u rch es. M in iste r s attack ed the th eo lo g y of C h r istia n S cien ce fo r a num ber of r e a so n s. It w as argued that M rs. I Eddy a lte r e d the tra d itio n a l m ea n in g s of such notions a s the in ca rn a tio n , aton em en t, and d iv in ity of the h is to r ic a l J e su s. A nd it w as 225! a s s e r te d that M rs. E d d y's notion of sin a s illu sio n w a s a p a r tic u la r ly h arm fu l d octrin e for "if th ere is no sin , th ere is no need o f a Saviou r | 121 |and the scen e on C alvary b e c o m e s a stupendous fa r c e . " C h r istia n I 122 {Science w as a ls o attack ed b eca u se it a lle g e d ly taught p an th eism . I A third resp o n se to C h ristian S c ie n c e w as to attack M rs. i {Eddy's c h a ra cte r. P erh a p s the str o n g e st ch arge m ade a g a in st M rs. jEddy w as that of M ark T w ain, who argu ed that M rs. Eddy p o s s e s s e d ! a sch em in g p e r so n a lity , w as e x tr e m e ly a m b itio u s, and w as gaining ■ 123 jm on etarily fro m h er r e lig io n . G eorgin e M ilm in e, who w rote a 124 w id ely read biography of M rs. Eddy, ech o ed th e se c h a r g e s. M rs Eddy tended not to engage in extended debate w ith her c r it ic s . A lthough she d en ied her r e lig io n w as p a n th e istic , h er th e r a p e u tic s w ere d a n gerou s, or that she m isin te r p r e te d C h r istia n ity , sh e |fo cu sed on d isse m in a tin g h er d octrin e a s she had d ev elo p ed it. She jcontinued to sp read h er d octrin e through p e r io d ic a ls and b o o k s, and did not se e the need to b eco m e in volved in d eta iled argu m en t and cou n - i ! 125 jterargum ent. A s h as been d is c u s se d , h er sta n ce w as to v ie w h e r - |s e lf a s a sc ie n tific d is c o v e r e r of the b a sic truths of C h ristia n ity . She I i {saw h e r s e lf a s the o rig in a to r of th is d isc o v e r y , and argu ed that she had proved th is d isc o v e r y by healing m any of h er fo llo w e r s p e r so n a lly . Had she b ecom e in volved in continued argu m en t w ith h er c r it ic s , th is m igh t have le s s e n e d h er cre d ib ility a s the undisputed le a d e r of the 226 i (m ovem en t to h er fo llo w e r s. She w ould have " low ered " h e r s e lf by 1 i (engaging in d ia lo g u es w ith the n e g a tiv ity of " m ortal m ind" c r it ic is m s . J iBy w ithdraw ing h e r s e lf fr o m the v a r io u s c o n tr o v e r s ie s , she w as su g - i I Igcstin g h e r c r it ic s ' m o rta l opin ion s w ere unw orthy of com m en t. A dam D ic k e y , a c lo s e aid to M rs. Eddy, su g g ested : By r e a so n of the fa ct that m uch of what our le a d e r h a s w ritten c o n f lic t s w ith the g en era l thought of m ankind, m any p eop le w rote le t t e r s to M rs. Eddy su g g estin g that she change her b ook s in v a r io u s p la c e s and im p rove th em by adopting the su g g e stio n s of h er c o r r e s pondents. H ere again our L e a d e r ’s d eterm in a tio n to be guided by d ivin e W isdom a lo n e, show ed it s e lf . . . . She w anted her book to be the product of h er thought and not a m ix tu re of what m o rta l m ind fe lt o r b e lie v e d on the su bject. T he a d v e r se c r it ic is m about C h ristia n S cie n c e and its le a d e r n egated the c r e d ib ility of M rs. Eddy and h er c a u se , d esp ite the fa ct that it acquainted A m e r ic a n s w ith the e x iste n c e of the m ovem en t. M uch of th is c r itic is m , though, w as w eakened by two fa c to r s . F ir s t, a num ber of p rom in en t p eo p le, alth ou gh not C h r istia n S c ie n tis ts , su p p o rted the b a sic intent and m any of the id ea s of M rs. E d d y's relig io n ; such p eop le a s W illiam J a m e s, B ro n so n A lc o tt, the n ew sp ap er m an A rthur B r isb a n e , and such p rom in en t m in is te r s of the day a s H enry W ard B e e c h e r , L ym an A b ott, A nd rew P r e sto n P eab od y, and C yru s A. 127 B a rto l. Second, M rs. Eddy w as a b le to d raw to h er church m e m - .b ersh ip m in is te r s and p r o fe s sio n a l p eop le of the u p p er-m id d ie c la s s e s , .and th is h elp ed e sta b lis h ihe c r e d ib ility of the C h r istia n S cie n c e m o v e m en t and its loadt r. T h ese p rom in en t in d ivid u als lent cre d e n c e to the 227 ! t v ie w that C h r istia n S c ie n c e w a s r e sp e c ta b le and its le a d e r had s o m e - I jthing w orth sayin g to r e sp e c ta b le , m id d le and upper m id d le c la s s [A m erica n s. O rganization M r s. Eddy o rg a n ized h er books and a r t ic le s so th ey could be jc le a r ly and e a s ily studied. T h is w as a sa lie n t fea tu re of h er o r g a n i- i z a tio n a l p attern . T h is d id actic p attern v e r y m u ch r e se m b le d a te x t book or le c tu r e stru ctu re. E le m e n ts adding to th is p a ttern w ere (1) a s e r ie s of c le a r ly title d co re sta te m e n ts, (2) a g lo s s a r y o f key te r m s , (3) an e x te n s iv e in d exin g s y ste m , and (4) freq u en t use of rep etitio n jand r e sta tm e n t. A seco n d c h a r a c te r is tic of the stru ctu re of M rs. I jE ddy's w r itin g s w as that it had a d ia le c tic a l, syn th etic q u a lity , rath er 'than " lo g ica l" o rd erin g or a sta te m e n t-p r o o f fo rm a t. » j M rs. E d d y 's w ork s w ere stru ctu red so th ey could be s e r io u s ly p e r u se d . She e s ta b lish e d a s e r ie s of co r e sta tem en ts th at su m m a rized h er d o c tr in e . T h e se w ere c le a r ly la b eled sta tem en ts that se rv ed a s a i t good b egin n in g fr o m which to study C h ristia n S c ie n c e . T h ey con tain ed the fu n dam en tal a s p e c ts of the d o c tr in e , and C h r istia n S c ie n tis ts w ere w e ll acquainted w ith them . T h e se co r e sta tem en ts in clued: (1) s ix jten ets of C h r istia n S c ie n c e , [Z) a " sc ien tific sta tem en t o f b ein g, 1 1 and j(3) a " platform " am p lify in g the b a sic sc ie n tific sta tem en t of being. i I T he six te n e ts rela ted C h ristia n S cie n c e to tra d itio n a l 228! i C h ristia n con cep ts. T he fir s t te n e t in d icated that C h ristia n S c ie n tists "take the in sp ired w ord o f the B ib le a s our su fficien t guide to eter n a l i 128 iLife. 1 1 The second te n e t acknow ledged one God, "H is Son, one 129 ^Christ, " and "the H oly G host or divine C om forter. " The th ird ^indicated "God's fo r g iv e n e ss of s in in the d e str u c tio n of sin, " and the I I jfourth acknow ledged " J esu s' aton em en t a s th e ev id en ce of d iv in e, I e ffic a c io u s L ove. " The fifth te n e t rec o g n iz e d "that the c r u c ifix io n of ! 130 J esu s and h is r e s u r r e c tio n se r v e d to u p lift faith . " The fin a l tenet |was in the fo rm of a p r o m ise or oath: ". . . And w e so lem n ly p rom - i ise to w atch, and pray fo r that M ind to be in u s which w as a ls o in ! ^Christ J esu s; to do unto o th ers a s we w ould have th em do unto us; and 1 ! 131 I to be m e r c ifu l, just, and pure. " T h ese ten ets c le a r ly in d icated jthat the C h ristia n S c ie n c e d o ctrin e was c o n siste n t w ith m any tra d itio n - jal P r o te sta n t notions and allow ed the b eginning student to r e la te i {C hristian S cien ce to h is tra d itio n a l r e lig io u s background. I 1 A secon d core sta tem en t w a s "the sc ie n tific sta tem en t of ! jbeing. " M ost C h ristia n S c ie n tis ts m e m o r iz e d th is sta tem en t and 132 {reflected upon it often. It w a s b r ie f and contained the e s s e n tia l ipoints of C h ristian S c ie n c e : I I j T h ere is no lif e , truth, in te llig e n c e , nor su b stan ce in m atter, j A ll is in fin ite Mind and its in fin ite m a n ifesta tio n , fo r God is A ll- j in -a ll. S p irit is im m o r ta l truth; m atter is m ortal e r r o r . S p irit is the rea l and eter n a l; m atter is the u n r e a l and tem p o ra l. S p irit is God, and m an is H is im age and lik e n e s s . T h erefo r e, m an is not m a teria l; he is sp ir itu a l. 133 229, I T h is " sc ie n tific sta tem en t of being" w as fu rth er a m p lified by an oth er c o r e d ocu m en t, a ten page "platform " in S cie n c e and H ealth. i {M rs. Eddy said that "when the follow in g p la tfo rm is u n d ersto o d and i Ithe le tte r and s p ir it b e a r w itn e ss, the in fa llib ility of divine m e ta - | i 134 i p h y sic s w ill be d em o n stra ted . " In the p latform M rs. Eddy e x - j p lain ed the b a sic te a c h in g s of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . The p la tfo rm dealt I I w ith (1) the nature of God, (2) the nature o f m an, (3) the nature of j m o r ta l m in d , (4) h e a lin g , and (5) S crip tu ra l in terp reta tio n . F o r e x - i i •am ple, it d e sc r ib e d God a s the on ly cau se of the u n iv e r se , d efin in g j i God a s L ife , T ruth, L o v e , P r in c ip le , M ind, Soul, and S p irit. T h ese j w e r e the m en tal and sp ir itu a l q u a litie s of God, who w as d e sc r ib e d a s i i g i • in c o r p o r e a l, the in fin ite S p irit and only su b stan ce. God w as " sp ir i- I 135 jtual, h a rm o n io u s, im m u ta b le, im m o rta l, d iv in e, ete r n a l. " | | M rs. E d d y's g lo s s a r y of 127 te r m s a ls o fa c ilita te d s e r io u s I •study of the textbook and M rs. E d d y's oth er w ritin g s, and added a s e n se of c o n siste n c y and rig o r to the relig io n . One could lo o k to the j {g lo ssa ry fo r d efin itio n s of im portant w ords u sed in M rs. E d d y's w r itin g s. It defin ed th r e e ty p es of w ords: th e o lo g ic a l te r m s , B ib lic a l 136 te r m s , and im portant w o rd s in g e n e r a l u sa g e . If one w ere in te r e s te d in c la r ify in g an im p ortan t te r m u sed by M rs. Eddy it w ould prob ab ly be found in the g lo s s a r y . On e s s e n tia l te r m s of C h ristia n S c ie n c e , the g lo s s a r y a ls o o ffered an expanded d efin ition and often 230i I I r e fe r r e d the rea d er to oth er p a rts of the textbook w here the te r m w as I 137 fu rth er d efin ed or em p loyed . W ith th e se th ree ty p es of te r m s, the C h r istia n S c ie n tist w as jable to in te r p r e t M rs. E d d y's w ritin g s w ith g r e a te r c la r ity than o th e r - jw ise. The g lo s s a r y w as one of the m o st u sed p o rtio n s of the te x t- i ; i 138 jbook. F o r in sta n c e , if a C h ristia n S c ie n tist had a p ro b lem of j i i j i • im p a ired v is io n , he could co n su lt the d efin ition o f "eyes" and m ed ita te j i t on the sp ir itu a l or noum enal m eaning about e y e s , n am ely that they j j j w ere " sp iritu a l d iscern m en t" and not su b ject to m a tte r and d is e a s e . ; j I And if the C h r istia n S c ie n tist w ere studying the B ib le , he cou ld u se ! i the B ib lic a l d efin itio n s to h elp h im u nderstand the S c r ip tu r e s. I ' i i T h ere w as a lso an ela b o ra te s y s te m of in d exin g of M rs. E d d y's | w ork s w hich aided in the study o f her w ritin gs. A n exh a u stiv e con* jcordance w as p u blish ed , w hich con tain ed 1,717 p a g e s of s m a ll p rin t i |and included an index of "C hapter S u b -T itle s, H ead in gs, and T itle s ! 139 iof the P o e m s" in addition to indexing ea ch w ord in her w ork s. M rs. i i jEddy p rovid ed m arg in a l h ead in gs for m o s t p aragrap h s of S cie n c e and H ealth su ch a s "All d is e a s e a d elu sio n , " "Law and G osp el, " and 140 "G hosts not r e a litie s . " M rs. Eddy a ls o num bered each lin e of h er w r itin g s. If one look ed up the w ord "law s" in the co n co rd a n ce, not on ly w ould one find a li s t in d icatin g on w hich p a g es the w ord was found, but a ls o the e x a c t lin e in which the word w a s to be found on ea ch p age.____________________________________________________________________ j A nother o r g a n iz a tio n a l device u sed to c la r ify the d octrin e was I j continual rep etitio n o f the m a jo r co n cep ts of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . M rs. jEddy r e sta te d the m ajor id e a s of h er d octrin e in ev er y ch ap ter of her ! books and u su a lly a num ber o f tim es w ithin e a c h ch ap ter. S tatem en ts j ^ l jsuch a s "God w as in fin ite, " o r "man w as the e x p r e s s io n of God, " w ere I ! 141 irepeated hundreds o f tim e s w ithin h er w r itin g s. T h is rep etitio n ! i i I I !and resta tem en t w a s a kind o f lectu re technique to aid in co m p reh en - | 1 ! sio n and m em ory. ' ■ , l ! I j A second c h a r a c te r is tic of M rs. E d d y's org a n iza tio n w as its j ' i d ia le c tic a l or sy n th etic c h a ra cte r. A lthough M rs. Eddy did organ ize i m o st of h er m a te r ia l in a sta te m e n t-p r o o f fo rm a t, a sig n ific a n t amount! i of her w ork em p lo y ed d e v ic e s that provid ed fo r a " g iv e-a n d -ta k e , " ,in tera c tio n a l, d ia lic e tic a l o rg a n iza tio n . E x a m p les of th is include: !(1) a cou rtro o m a lle g o r y , (2) a " c e le stia l city " a lle g o r y , (3) a c o l- ! jloquy, and (4) u se o f a q u estio n and a n sw er fo rm a t. ! T he d ia le c tic a l stru ctu re of m uch of M rs. E d d y's d isc o u r se jmay have been in flu en ced b y h er v ie w that th e r e was a continual co n - I ! i jflict b etw een good and e v il in human c o n s c io u s n e s s. E v il and m a te r - | I ; i jiality w ere co n sta n tly a s s e r tin g th eir su pp osed rea lity . H ealing and i understan d in g w ere the r e s u lt of sile n c in g e v il su g g e stio n s w ith thoughts o f G od's g o o d n ess an d a lln e s s . M rs. Eddy said : "M ortal m ind is co n sta n tly p roducing on m o rta l body th e r e su lts of fa lse 232 ; opinions; and it w ill continue to do so, u n til m o rta l e r r o r is d ep rived 142 jof its im a g in a ry p ow ers of Truth. " She ad m on ished h er fo llo w e r s I |to "Check th e s e e r r o r s in th eir e a r ly s ta g e s , if you would not c h e r ish I 1 143 |an arm y of c o n sp ir a to r s a g a in st health, h a p p in ess, and s u c c e s s . " I I (And, "The C h r istia n S c ie n tist, u n derstan d in g s c ie n tific a lly that a ll is i M ind, c o m m e n c e s w ith m en tal ca u sation , the truth of b ein g , to j . . .,144 ! d e str o y e r r o r . " j i M rs. Eddy v iew ed hum an c o n sc io u sn e s s a s a b attlegrou n d for j i t h e s is and c o u n ter th e s is , and h er organ iza tio n a l p attern p a r a lle le d { th is d ia le c tic a l form . F o r ex a m p le, in S c ie n c e and H ealth she p r e - | sen ted a co u r tr o o m a lle g o r y to su g g est the in tera c tio n of m o r ta l m ind j ■ I jspeaking to in d ivid u al c o n s c io u s n e s s . She u sed th is a lle g o r y to d e m - j ! I o n stra te that m o rta l m ind w as a con tra d ictio n of D ivin e Mind. M rs. jEddy said: . . Suppose a m en tal ca se to be on tr ia l, a s c a s e s a re j i jtried in co u rt. A m an i s ch arged with having com m itted li v e r - : i com plaint. T h e patient f e e ls ill, ru m in a tes, and the tr ia l c o m - | : 145 i jm en ces. " In the n ext tw elve p a g es, M rs. Eddy d ra m a tized the | j ( m en ta l a rg u m en ts of m o r ta l m ind that attem p ted to prove that the ! | | 'patient w as i l l . N um erou s w itn e s s e s "take the stand" to te s tify that jthe defendant w a s gu ilty or ill. T h ere w as "Coated T ongue, " "Sallow Sk in , " " M ortality, " and "Death, " a ll te stify in g to the p a tien t's illn e s s . 233 A fte r continued debate and op p osition , . . . p e r m is s io n is ob tained for a tr ia l in the C ourt of S p irit, w here C h ristia n S cien ce is allow ed to appear for the unfortunate p r iso n e r . W itn e sse s, ju d g es, and ju r o r s who w ere at the p rev io u s C ourt o f E r r o r , a re now sum m oned to appear b e fo r e the b ar of J u stic e and eter n a l Truth. 146 jC hristian S cien ce argu ed that m an w as the e x p r e s s io n of God and con - jsequently p e r fe c t and h a rm on iou s, and argu ed , fu rth er, that the I Ipatient w a s in r e a lity not g u ilty of liv e r com p laint. T hen The Ju ry of S p iritu al S e n s e s a g ree d at once upon a v e r d ic t, and th ere re sounded throughout the v a st a u d ien ce-ch a m b er of S p ir it the c r y , N ot G uilty. T hen the p r iso n e r ro se up reg e n e ra ted , stron g and fr e e . We n oticed , a s he shook hands w ith h is c o u n se l, C h r is- ian S c ie n c e , that a ll sa llo w n e ss and d eb ility had d isa p p ea red . H is fo rm w a s e r e c t and com m anding, h is countenance beam in g w ith , h ealth and h a p p in ess. 147 i | A nother a lle g o r y M rs. Eddy u sed w as of a stra n g er who d e- jscended fr o m "a city set upon a h ill" w ith the thought of help in g i jhum anity. E v ery w h ere he w en t, he w as rebuked or ign ored . The i !str a n g e r stopped a t a p a la tia l dw elling: I t i ! P a u sin g at the th resh o ld of a p a la tia l d w ellin g, he knocks and w aits. The d oor is shut. He h e a r s the sounds of fe s tiv ity and m irth; | youth, m anhood, and age gayly tr e a d the g o r g e o u sly ta p e str ie d | p a r lo r s , d a n cin g -h a lls and b a n q u et-ro o m s. . . . W ithin th is ! m o rta l m an sion a re a d u lte r e r s, fo r n ic a to r s, id o la to r s, drunken n e s s , w itch cra ft, v a r ia n c e , envy, em u la tio n , h a tred , w rath, m u rd er. 148 " A p p etites and p a ssio n s have so dim m ed" the sigh t of th e se p eop le that they did not s e e the stra n g er. Upon en terin g a ch u rch the str a n g e r a sk ed why the con g reg a tio n w as not h ea lin g the sic k and sin n in g, and the co n g reg a tio n " ca st h im out. " A nother group " fall upon the S tr a n g e r , s e iz e h is p e a r ls , throw th em aw ay, and a fterw a rd s 150 tr y to kill h im . " The str a n g e r found a few p eop le to fo llo w h im b ack to h is c ity ] o n a h i l l . B u t m o s t o f t h e s e p e o p l e w i s h e d t o c a r r y " h e a v y b a g g a g e o f i ! | I t h e i r o w n , a n d i n s i s t e d u p o n t a k i n g a l l o f i t w it h t h e m , w h i c h m u s t i 1 I 1 151 • |g r e a tly h in d er th eir a sc e n t. " T h ese people w ith th eir h eavy load j ' i I w e r e unable to rea ch the city . Only th o se w ithout baggage w ere p e r - j ; _ i m itted to r e a c h it. A t the end of the a lle g o r y , M rs. Eddy r e v e a le d | : ! that "The S tra n g er is the e v e r -p r e s e n t C h rist, the sp ir itu a l id ea w hich! i | jfrom the su m m it of b lis s su r v e y s the v a le of the fle s h , to b u r st the j ! ! 'bubbles of e a rth w ith a breath of h ea ven , and acquaint se n su a l m o r ta ls | 152 ,w ith the m y s te r y of g o o d n ess. . . . " M rs. Eddy then a sk ed h er I j Ifollow ers to fo llo w C h r ist, throw down th eir m o rta l "baggage" and 1 I 153 ifo rg et "those th in gs w hich are behind. " L eaving a ll fo r C h r ist, j th ey would r e a c h the h eav en ly c ity , "the throne of e v e r la s tin g 154 I jglory. " I i I j M rs. Eddy u sed a co llo q u y , another d ia le c tic a l d e v ic e , to in d ica te the natu re of e v il su g g e stio n s. She sa id , "If we o b se r v e our m en ta l p r o c e s s e s , we sh a ll find that w e are p erp etu a lly a rgu in g w ith o u r s e lv e s ; y e t ea ch m o rta l is not two p e r s o n a litie s , but one. . . . in I 155 lik e m anner good and e v il talk to one another. " M rs. E ddy then I___________________________________________________________ ________________________ 235 jrelated a d ialogu e in which good and e v il w ere p e r so n ifie d . G ood said: J"The L ord is God. W ith H im is no c o n s c io u s n e s s of e v il, b eca u se 156 th ere is nothing b e s id e H im or ou tsid e Him , " and "m an is in s e p - 157 arab le fr o m good. " Q uestioning m an 's in s e p a r a b ility from good, 158 E v il a sk e d , "Why i s th is so? " Good r e p lie d , " B ecau se m an is m ade a fte r G od's e te r n a l lik e n e s s , and this lik e n e s s c o n s is ts in a se n se of harm ony and im m o rta lity , in which no e v il ca n p o ssib ly 159 ,dw ell. " E v il th en a s se r te d , "But I would ta s te and know e r r o r for m y s e lf. Good cou n tered w ith, "Thou sh a lt not a d m it that e r r o r is ;som ething to know or be known. . . . To a d m it the e x iste n c e of jerror w ould be to ad m it the truth of a lie . The collo q u y continued |betw een Good and E v il, the dialogue m oving to the c o n clu sio n th at God ■was " C h an geless g o o d n e ss, " and e v il had no p ow er. ! A nother ex a m p le of M rs. E d d y 's sy n th etic o rg a n iza tio n w as I jher freq u en t u se o f a q u estio n and a n sw er fo r m a t. T h is stru ctu re was | d isp la y ed throughout two of h er books: No and Y e s , and R udim ental | 1(>Z jDivine S cie n c e. P a r ts of h er oth er books con tain ed sig n ific a n t use jof q u estio n s and a n sw e r s: M isc e lla n e o u s W r itin g s, U nity of G ood, The i F ir s t C hurch of C h r ist, S c ie n tist and M isc e lla n y , and S cie n c e and 163 H ealth. The ch a p ter in S cien ce and H ealth con tain in g q u estio n s and a n sw e r s w as a r e v is io n of M rs. E d d y 's le c tu r e n otes to h er c la s s e s . T h is ch ap ter ex p la in e d the d octrin e o f C h r istia n S cie n c e through the 236 juse o f q u estio n s. M rs. Eddy sta r te d by a sk in g: "What is God? " H er an sw er was: "God is in c o r p o r e a l, d ivin e, su p r em e, in fin ite M ind, 164 S p irit, Soul, P r in c ip le , L ife, T ru th , L ove. " The n ex t q u estio n expanded upon the f ir s t q u estion : "Are th e se te r m s sy n on ym ou s?" I IMrs. Eddy an sw ered : "They a r e , " and a m p lified th e se syn onym s by i {indicating the a ttrib u tes of God. She said th e se syn onym s " refer to i jthe one ab solu te God. T hey a r e a ls o intended to e x p r e s s the n atu re, e s s e n c e , and w h o le n e ss of D eity . The a ttrib u tes of God are ju s tic e , {m ercy, w isd o m , g o o d n e ss, and so on. M rs. Eddy continued to ex p lo r e the nature of God with such {questions a s "Is th ere m o re than one God or P r in c ip le ? " "What is ! 166 L ife ? " "What is M ind?" A fte r d isc u ssin g God, M rs. Eddy e x - I jplored the op p osite of God, or Truth: e r r o r . She ask ed : "What is I l jerror? " The a n sw er w a s that " E rror is su p p osition . . . . E r r o r is ! {neither Mind nor one of M ind's fa c u ltie s. E r r o r is the co n tra d ictio n I I ! |of T ruth. E r r o r is a b e lie f w ithout u nderstanding. E r r o r is u n rea l i 167 ib ecause untrue. " She continued in th is d ia le c tic a l m anner to round I {out h er d octrin e by exam in in g the nature of m an , and how m an is I i 2 Ihealed in C h ristia n S c ie n c e . | M rs. E d d y's p a ttern of o rgan izin g h er d is c o u r s e its e lf c o n trib u ted to h er d o c tr in e 's b e lie v a b ility . F ir s t , she o rg a n ized h er m e s s a g e for in stru ctio n , fo r c la r ity and fo r s e r io u s p e r u sa l. H er 237 i s e r ie s o f c le a r ly title d co re sta te m e n ts, the g lo s s a r y of key te r m s , an ela b o ra te indexing s y ste m in the fo rm of a co n co rd a n ce, and f r e - I Iquent u se of rep etitio n and resta tem en t w ere u sefu l sin ce the d o ctrin e w as co m p lex and req u ired se r io u s study to be thoroughly u n derstood . | jM rs. Eddy o rg a n ized h e r w ritin g s so they w ere am en ab le to d eta iled ; i ! [ i ; :study, and in th is s e n s e , M rs. E d d y 's m ethod of o rg a n iza tio n fo llo w ed I i ! jnaturally fr o m the n e e d s of the d o ctrin e. A co m p lex d o ctrin e req u ired j ;a w e ll org a n ized fo rm a t to be com p reh en d ed . j M rs. E d d y's m ethod of o rg a n iz a tio n fo llo w ed n atu ra lly fro m J h e r d octrin e in another way. A s h e r d octrin e w as sy n th etic, so h er ! jorgan ization al pattern p a r a lle le d th is syn th etic q u ality. T hroughout ' I h er w orks w ere d e v ic e s which p rovid ed fo r a "give and take" or in te r - I jactional organ ization . T h is syn th etic or d ia le c tic a l quality found in iher u se of a lle g o r ie s , c o llo q u ie s, and h er q u estio n and a n sw er fo rm a ts added to the c o n s is te n c y and co h ere n c y of h er d o ctrin e. D o ctrin e and m e a n s of co m m u n icatin g the d o ctrin e rem ain ed c o n siste n t. j T h is chapter h a s exam in ed M rs. E d d y's co m m u n ica tio n of | C h r istia n S c ie n c e . S a lie n t c h a r a c te r is tic s of th is co m m u n ication in clud ed her u se of p e r so n a l ap p eal, her r ea so n in g , h er language and s ty le , and h er m ethod o f organ izin g her m e s s a g e . A n o v errid in g qu ality of M rs. E d d y's m anner and m ethod of com m u n ication w as her 238 i a b ility to unite differing p roofs and ap p ea ls into a b e lie v a b le sy n th e sis. Not on ly w as her d octrin e a unity of d ifferin g id ea s, h e r m eans o f I com m u n icatin g her d o ctrin e d isp la y ed a s im ila r syn th etic quality. T h is added to C hristian S c ie n c e 's c o h e r e n c e and a ttr a c tiv e n e ss fo r p o stb ellu m A m erica n s. N o tes i 1 1 M ary B aker E ddy, Unity o f Good (B o sto n , 1887), pp. 9 -1 0 . | ! 2 R ob ert P e e l, C h r istia n S c ie n c e ; Its E n cou n ter with A m e r i can C ulture (N ew Y ork, 1968), p. 93. 3 j M ary Baker E ddy, S cie n c e and H ealth (B o sto n , 1906), p. v ii. i j ; 4 ! K in g sley D a v is, "M ental H ygiene and the C la s s S tru ctu re, " P s y c h ia tr y , I (N ovem b er 1938), 55. j | E . S teele and W. R edding, "The A m eric a n V alue S ystem ; P r e m is e s fo r P e r su a sio n , " W estern S p eech , XXVI (F a ll 1962), 83. j I 6 W ayne C. M inn ick, The A r t of P e r su a s io n (B oston , 1968), ! pp. 2 1 8 -2 1 9 . | 7 1 " T e stim o n ie s o f C h ristia n S cie n c e H ealin g, " The C h ristia n S c ie n c e J o u rn a l, LXXXVUI (M ay 1970), 266. i 1 8 ! S c ie n c e and H ea lth , pp. 6 0 0 -7 0 0 . i 9 M ary Baker E d d y, M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin gs (B oston , 1896), pp. 4 0 1 -4 6 2 . I 10 S c ie n c e and H ea lth , p. 141. **M ary Baker E ddy, C hurch M anual (B o sto n , 1910), p. 17. 12 M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, pp. 164-65. i i 13 ! S c ie n c e and H ealth , pp. 8 4 -8 5 . 240 l6 Ibid. , p. 100-106. 17 Ibid. , p. 152. | 18Ibid. ^ Ibid. , p. 163. Z°Ibid . 21 W ilb er S am u el H ow ell, L o g ic and R h etoric in E ngland, 1500-1700 (N ew Y ork, 1961), p. 375. 22 D a v is, p. 55. 23 M innick, p. 218. 24 S ee J a m es H. Me B urney, "The P la c e of the E n th ym em e in R h e to r ic a l T h eo ry , " S p eech M onographs HI (S ep tem b er 1936), 4 9 -7 4 ; |E dw ard H. M adden, "The E nthym em e: C r o s sr o a d s of L o g ic , R h e to ric, land M eta p h y sics, " T he P h ilo so p h ic a l R ev iew ,L X I (1952), 368-376; ILloyd F. B itz e r , " A r isto tle 's E nthym em e R e v isite d , " Q u arterly Jou rn al of S p eech ,X L V (D ecem b er 1959), 4 0 7 -4 1 2 . 25 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 339. 1 26 ; Ibid. , p. 33 1. 27 Ibid. , p. 340. 28 M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin gs, p. 101. 29 Ibid. , p. 105. I 32 I S cie n c e and H ealth, p. 323. t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - t ' 33 Ibid. , p. 391. 34 I C h ristia n S cie n c e: Its E n cou n ter with A m eric a n C u ltu re, i p. 122. ! i 35 i R aym ond J. C unningham , "The Im pact of C h ristia n S c ie n c e j |on the A m eric a n C h u rch es, 1 8 8 0 -1 9 1 0 , " A m eric a n H isto r ic a l R e v ie w , j LXXH (A pril 1967), 8 8 5 -9 0 5 . j 36 S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 444. 37 F o r ex a m p le s of th e se le tt e r s se e M ary B aker Eddy, T he F ir s t Church of C h rist S c ie n tist and M isc e lla n y (B o sto n , 1914), I pp. 2 9 9 -3 19~ 38 Ibid. , p. 302. i ! 39 Ibid. , p. 304. 40 L ee Z eu n ert Johnson, " C h ristian S cie n c e C om m ittee on P u b lication : A Study of Group and P r e s s In teraction , " D is s . S y ra cu se | U n iv ersity 1968. 41 H arold W. P fau tz, "A C ase Study of an Urban R e lig io u s M ovem ent: C h ristia n S c ie n c e , " C ontributions to Urban S o c io lo g y , ed. 'E r n e st W. B u r g e ss and D onald J. B ogue (C hicago, 1964), pp. 2 9 3 - 1294; C unningham , p. 902; E dw in D akin, M rs. Eddy (N ew Y ork, 1930), pp. 157-158; M ark T w ain, C h r istia n S c ie n c e (N ew Y ork, 1907), pp. <3-6. i j 42 [ M ary B aker Eddy, R u d im en ta l D ivine S cie n c e (B oston , 1887), p. 2; se e a ls o M isce lla n eo u s W ritin g s, p. 37. 43 P fa u tz, pp. 2 9 3 -2 9 4 ; D akin, pp. 157-158. 242; I I ! 44 ! D an iel J. B o o r ste in , The Im age; A G uide to P se u d o -E v e n ts in A m eric a (N ew Y ork, 1964), pp. 7 -8 . Ibid. , p. 8. ! 45 ^ S c ie n c e and H ealth, pp. 16, 69, 71, 7 9 , 83. 47 I b id ., pp . 9 5 , 99, 111, 141, 217. 48 I b id ., pp . 11, 19, 7 9 , 295, 398, 458. Ib id ., 100, 104, 111, 121, 162, 543; M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin gs, pp. 22, 99; M ary B ak er E ddy, M e ssa g e to the M other C hurch, June 1901 (B o sto n , 1900), p. 24. 50 S cie n c e and H ealth, p. v ii. Ibid. , p. 581. Ibid. • 53 I b id ., p. 584. 54m-. . Ibid. , p. 587. Ibid. , p. 588 Ibid. , p. 591. 57r... Ibid. , p. 593. Ibid. I 59 w . M isc e lla n e o u s W r itin g s, p. 62. 6°,... Ibid. 243 ^ C hurch M anual, p. 17. 62 M isce lla n eo u s W ritin g s, pp. 388-389- 63 Ibid. , p. 389- 64 " M essage to the M other C hurch, 1901, " p. 7. 65 S cie n c e and H ealth , p. 332. 66 F ir s t C hurch of C h r ist S c ie n tist and M isc e lla n y , p. 133. 67 Ibid. , p. 133. 68 Ibid. , p. 247. 69 M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, pp. 99, 101, 102. 70 R ich ard O akes, T he Story of the C h icago A d d r e ss (London, 1950), p. 7. 71 M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, p. 101. 72 Ibid. , p. 102. 73 Ibid. , p. 99. 74 Ibid. , p. 106. 75 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 392. ^ Ibid. , p. 393. 77 C unningham , p. 887; see a ls o Dakin, p. 157. 244 1 ! O akes, p. 7. i i 79 ! As c ite d by A rth u r C o rey , C h r istia n S cie n c e C la ss In stru c tio n (N ew Y ork, 1950), p. 289. ! 80 A s c ite d by O a k es, p. 8. 81 M ary B aker E d d y, P r o s e W orks (B oston , 1925). I 82 See C h r istia n S c ie n c e Q u a rter ly , LXXXIII (Jan u ary-M arch , 1972). 83 G eorge T. V ardam an, E ffe c tiv e C om m unica tio n of Id eas (New Y ork, 1970), p. 37; Ralph G. N ich o ls and L eonard A. S tev en s, A re You L isten in g ? (N ew Y ork, 1957), p. 130. 84 Cunningham , p. 887. Ibid. 86 i D akin, p. 157. i 87 T w ain, pp. 1 9 9-202. 88 L e ste r T h o n ssen and A. C raig B a ir d , S p eech C r itic ism : ;The D ev elo p m en t of S tandards for R h e to r ic a l A p p ra isa l (N ew Y ork, 1948), pp. 3 8 6 -3 8 7 . 89 S c ie n c e and H e a lth , p. x ii. ' 90 t k - , Ibid. , p. xi. ' 91 i Ibid. 92 Ibid. , p. v iii. 245 9 3 _ . , j Ibid. , p . i x . I 94 j Ibid. , p. x. | J J k r ; Ibid. , p. 55. ' 96 Ibid. , p. 559. 97 Ibid. 98 Ibid. 99 Ibid. , p. 601. 100 F r e d e r ic k D ixon, C ausation V iew ed in the L igh t of C h r is tia n S c ie n c e (B oston , 1911), p. 43. i *^*C arol N orton , The C h r istia n S cien ce Church: Its O rg a n iza tion and P o lity (B o sto n , 1904), pp. 3 7 -3 8 . I 102 S ee a ls o E dw ard A. K im ball, C h r istia n S cie n c e; Its j A dvantage to M ankind (B o sto n , 1908), p. 41; W illis F. G r o ss , 'C h ristia n S cie n c e; T he G osp el of F r e e d o m (B o sto n , 1912), pp. 1 9 -2 2 ; W illia m R . R athvon, C h r istia n S cie n c e; Its R e s u lts (B o sto n , 1912), 1 pp. 8 -1 0 . 103 i S cie n c e and H ealth , p. 162. i 104 j Ibid. , p. 453. j I 105 Ibid. , p. 193; se e a ls o , pp. 184, 389. 106_ . , C unningham , p. 894. 107 Ibid. , p. 895. 246 *^®Pfautz, p. 293. 109 i Ibid. , p. 293. I j | * ^ Ibid. , p. 294. j * 'C h ristia n S c ie n c e 1 and M ed ical P r a c titio n e r s , " Jou rn al of j ithe A m e r ic a n M ed ical A ss o c ia tio n , XXXIII (O ctob er 21, 1899), 1049; !see a ls o " C hristian S c ie n c e , 1 1 Ibid. , XXV (O ctob er 5, 1895), 591; j ["C hristian S cie n c e and the L aw , " Ibid. , XXI (N ovem b er 19, 1898), 11247. i : i 112 j Cunningham , p. 903. j 113 j R ich ard H eber N ew ton, C h r istia n S c ie n c e ; The T ru th s of 1 — - ■ ■ ------- l S p iritu a l H ealing and T h eir C ontribution to the G rowth of O rthodoxy (N ew Y ork, 1898), p. v iii. Ibid. , p . i v . 115 I C unningham , p. 903. 1 j B en jam in O. F lo w e r , C h ristia n S c ie n c e a s a R elig io u s B e lie f and a T h erap eu tic A gen t (B o sto n , 1909), p. 37. 117 W illia m J a m es, V a r ie tie s of R e lig io u s E x p erien ce (N ew Y ork, 1902), pp. 112-113. 118 1 S am u el F a llo w s and H elen M. F a llo w s, S c ie n c e and H ealth j fro m the V iew point of the N ew est C h ristia n Thought (C hicago, 1903), jpreface. i 119 j See W illia m G. M cL oughlin, M odern R e v iv a lism ; C h a r les j G randison F in n ey to B illy G raham (N ew Y ork, 1959), p. 336; E dw in jW. B ish o p , " C on greg a tio n a lism and C h ristia n S c ie n c e , " C o n g reg a - tio n a lis t and the C h ristia n W orld, LXXXIX (O ctob er 8, 1904), 499; L athon A . C ran dall, "E xplanations o f the G row th o f C h ristia n 1 247 (S cien ce, " in S ea rch lig h ts on C h ristia n S cien ce: A S ym p osiu m (C hicago, j 1899), p. 63. I 120 R. L. M arsh, "F aith H ea lin g ; 1 1 A D efen se o r , The L ord |Thy H e a ler (N ew Y ork, 1889)» p. 134; see a ls o C unningham , p. 898. I 121 A m zi C. D ixon, Is C h ristia n S cie n c e A Humbug? (B o sto n , i 1901), p. 29. ' ' i i 122 i S ee W illia m S h o rt, C hristian S cien ce; What It Is, What Is j N ew , and What is T rue about It (N ew Y ork, 1899), p. vi; see a ls o j |F . F. E llin gw ood , "T heosophy, E s o te r ic B uddhism , and C h r istia n S c ie n c e , " H o m iletic R ev iew , XXVI (D ecem b er 1898), 489-4 9 7 ; Ibid. , XXXVH (January 1899), 15-19. 123 T w ain, pp. 2 0 1 -2 1 1 . 124 G eorgin e M ilm in e, The L ife of M ary B aker Eddy and the ( H isto ry of C h r istia n S cie n c e (New Y ork, 1909). 125 A dam H. D ick ey, M em o irs of M ary B aker Eddy (B ro o k lin e, M a ssa c h u se tts, 1927), p. 58. Ibid. 127 S ee C unningham , pp. 887, 8 88, 892, 904; se e a ls o A rthur B risb a n e, What M rs. Eddy Said to A rthur B risb an e (N ew Y ork, 1930). 128 S cie n c e and H ea lth , p. 497. " W , 30ibid. 248 | I of M ary I 132 J N orm an B e a s le y , T he C ro ss and the Crow n (N ew Y ork, 11952), p. 78. ! 133 j S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 468. ! ^ ^ Ib id . , p. 330. *3 ^Ib id . , p. 335. ' 136Ibid. , pp. 579-586. I 137Ibid. , pp. 585, 588, 590, 593, 594. 138 Ib id . , p. 579. 139 A lb e r t F . Conant, A C om plete C oncordance to the W orks y B a k er Eddy (B oston, 1916), p. 1093. 140 S c ie n c e and H ealth, pp. 348, 349, 352. 141 A C om plete C on cord an ce, pp. 2 0 2 -2 1 1 ; 3 0 6 -3 1 3 . 142 S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 403. 143 Ib id . , p. 405. 144 Ib id . , p. 423. 145 Ib id . , p. 430. 146,, . , Ibid. , p. 434. 147 Ib id . , p. 442. 148 M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, p. 324. 249 H 9 Ibid. , p. 326. i 150 Ibid. , p. 325. ^ *Ibid. , p. 327. * ^ Ib id . , p. 328. 153 Ib id . , p. 328. 154iM d. 155 U nity of Good, p. 21. 156ibid. 157ibid. 158 Ibid. , p. 22. 159 Ibid. 160tk Ibid. Ib id . 162 M ary B aker Eddy, No and Y es (B o sto n , 1908). 163 M isc e lla n e o u s W ritin g s, pp. 3 1-94; Unity of Good, pp. 48- 54; S cien ce and H ealth , pp. 4 6 5 -4 8 7 . ^ ^ S c ie n c e and H ealth, p. 465. 165ib id . 250 ^ ^ Ib id . , p. 469. * ^ Ib id . , p. 472. * ^ Ib id . , pp. 47 2 -4 9 7 . C H A PTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS C h ristian S c ie n c e grew out o f the flux and tu rm o il of the United iStates at the turn of the cen tu ry, a tr a n sitio n a r y period in A m eric a . R elig io n was in co n flict w ith s c ie n c e w hile O rthodox C h ristia n ity w as en gaged in a h ea d -o n confrontation w ith lib e r a l C h r istia n ity . C onflict betw een labor and m anagem ent su g g e ste d a new rela tio n sh ip w as d e velop in g betw een em p lo y er and e m p lo y e e . The P o p u list m ovem en t gave c le a r in d ication that fa r m e r s w e r e not happy with th eir statu s or sta tio n in life , and w ere b ecom in g in c r e a sin g ly su sp ic io u s of the in te r e sts and pow er of the new urban c e n te r s. In p h ilosop h y, W illiam J a m es expounded a p ra g m a tism that urged A m eric a n s to relin q u ish " sp in e le ss" p e r s p e c tiv e s in favor o f a robust tou g h m in d ed n ess. And lite r a r y w r ite r s su ch as Stephen C ra n e, O. H en ry, and T heodore D r e is e r advanced a lite r a r y n a tu r a lism that q u estion ed the o p tim ism and n a iv ete of su ch A m erica n lite r a r y h e ro es a s E m erso n and W hit m an. On the p la tfo rm , su ch sp e a k e r s as E ugene D ebs and H enry G eorge attacked the s o c ia l and p o litic a l statu s quo w hile R u s s e ll C on- w e ll and C hauncey De P e w defended it. 251 252 C h ristia n S c ie n c e grew out of th is in te lle c tu a l, r e lig io u s , and s o c ia l ferm en t. B ein g a r e sp o n se to the n u m erou s id ea s in co n flict during the tim e , it b rou gh t to g eth er id ea s m any A m eric a n s b eliev ed m utually e x c lu siv e . B y m erg in g trad ition al th e s e s w ith em er g in g a n ti th e s e s , C h ristia n S c ie n c e was an "argum entative sy n th e sis. " R e c o g nition of the arg u m en ta tiv e sy n th etic natu re of M r s. E ddy's th eology is the sta rtin g point in any attem pt to explain the w id esp rea d a ccep ta n ce of C h ristia n S cien ce in late n in eteen th cen tu ry A m e r ic a . T his stud y, th e n , a n sw ered the qu estion : how did the rh eto ric of M ary B aker Eddy function to prom ote the w id esp rea d a ccep ta n ce of C h ristia n S cie n c e b etw een 1875 and 1910? To a n sw er th is q u estion ad eq u ately, fiv e su b sid ia r y q u estio n s w e r e stated and an sw ered : 1. What w ere the o r ig in s and p r in c ip le s of C h ristia n S c ie n c e ? 2. What is th e nature o f argu m en tative s y n th e s is , and what w as the r e la tio n sh ip of C h ristian S cie n c e to argu m en tative sy n th e sis ? 3. How and w hy did the argu m en tative sy n th etic nature of the C h r istia n S cie n c e d octrin e contribute to the p e r su a siv e appeal of C h r istia n S c ie n c e ? 4. How did M r s . E ddy's com m unication o f h er d o c tr in e , h er u s e of argu m en ts and a p p ea ls, contribute to the accep ta n ce of C h r istia n S cien ce ? 5. What can w e learn h is to r ic a lly and r h e to r ic a lly fr o m this stud y? C h r istia n S cien ce O rigins and P r in c ip le s The C h ristia n S c ie n c e d o ctrin e can be d e sc r ib e d in tra d itio n a l -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Z5T p h ilo so p h ica l te r m s , i . e . , a ccord in g to its on to lo g y , ep iste m o lo g y , and a x io lo g y . An o n to lo g ica l d isc u ssio n should b eg in w ith M rs. E ddy's con cep t of God. M rs. Eddy em p loyed se v e n syn onym s to d e sc r ib e God: M ind, S p irit, Sou l, P r in c ip le , L ife , T ruth, and L o v e. God is the Mind of the u n iv e r se , the anim ating in te llig e n c e of e x is te n c e , the so u r c e of in fo rm a tio n and c o n s c io u s n e s s. God is sp ir itu a l, not m a te r ia l. He is S ou l, and th ere is but one Sou l. S in ce God is S o u l, human b ein gs do not have individual s o u ls . God is P r in c ip le , the law of the u n iv e r se . H e is a lso L ife , o r m o re p r o p e r ly , th e so u rce o f e x iste n c e . God is T ruth, u ltim a te v e r a c ity . And God is L o v e, not m e r e ly a b stra c law . God is the P r in c ip le of L o v e, and L ove d oes not b lam e but is accep tin g of its ob ject of a ffectio n , its cre a tio n . M rs. Eddy d e scrib ed m an in a num ber of w a y s. M an is the e x p r e s s io n of God; the r e fle c tio n of God; the m a n ifesta tio n of God; and the im age and id ea of God. S in ce m an is th e r e fle c tio n of God, and sin c e God is sp ir itu a l and h a rm o n io u s, m an m u st be w holly sp iritu a l and h arm o n io u s. M rs. Eddy view ed J e s u s as a hum an b ein g who c o r r e c tly id en tified h is tru e nature or m anhood. J e su s w as ab le to se e he w as the e x p r e s s io n of God, and th is sa m e option is open to ev er y m an. A ll m en should id en tify th e m s e lv e s w ith th e C h r ist, th eir tru e se lf. In an ab solu te p h ilo so p h ica l s e n s e , acco rd in g to M r s. Eddy, m an is "the com pound id ea of God, in clud ing a ll righ t id ea s; the g en e r ic term fo r a ll that r e fle c ts G od's im a g e and lik e n e ss ." In Unity of 254 Good, M rs. Eddy spoke of m an a s in clud ing the u n iv e r se : "Spirit is the only c r e a to r , and m an , in clu d in g the u n iv e r s e , is H is sp ir itu a l co n cept."^ A fundam ental e p iste m o lo g ic a l q u estio n in C h r istia n S cie n c e is: how can one know anything about God, m an , and the u n iv e r s e ? M rs. Eddy taught that m an can know rea lity in th r e e w ays: ". . . through 3 d ivine re v e la tio n , r e a so n , and d em o n stra tio n ." D ivin e rev e la tio n , or in tu ition , is one way of know ing. When th e human m ind turns to the d ivine Mind a s the so u r c e of know ledge and relin q u ish e s attem pts at hum an in te lle c tu a liz in g , r e a lity is r e v e a le d . But re a so n can a lso aid m an in knowing h is tru e s e lf . M rs. Eddy often view ed rea so n and r ev e la tio n as co m p lem en ta ry w ays of know ing. H er w ritin g s su g g e st that one can know r e a lity by r e v e la tio n , but that r e v e la tio n upon e x a m ination w ill conform to r e a so n and in te lle c tu a l scru tin y . A third way of know ing, and a v ery im p ortan t w ay, is through e x p e r ie n c e or d em o n stra tio n . One can know that God is good and life h arm on iou s by e x p e rien cin g th e se fa cts in d aily life . An in d ividu al can le a r n that health is the rea l sta tu s of m an by ex p e r ie n c in g h e a lin g . One d em o n str a tes the a lln e s s of God and the n o th in g n ess of e v il by h ealing s in and s ic k n e s s . If God is a ll and good , a p rob lem a r is e s : how and why d oes max. e x p e r ie n c e or know e v il? M r s. Eddy a rgu ed that e v il can have no a b so lu te r e a lity if God is a ll. E v il--in c lu d in g sin , s ic k n e s s , and d e a th -- is the n egation of God. E v il is b e lie f a s opposed to u n d erstan d in g. It ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Z5S is a fa lse h o o d , a d r e a m , a co u n terfeit, a su p p o sitio n . E v il a p p ea rs when m an v ie w s the w orld w ith h is hum an m ind, h is m o rta l m ind. When m an r e fu se s to y ie ld to th e Mind of God, he e x p e r ie n c e s e v il, or m o re p ro p erly , the b e lie f of e v il. S ic k n e ss and sin a re the r e s u lt of thinking fr o m the m o r ta l m ind p e r sp e c tiv e . They a r e thinking o f life as m a te r ia l in stea d of sp ir itu a l and m en ta l. P r a y e r in C h ristia n S c ie n c e is th e a p p lication of P r in c ip le ; it is a way of d em o n str a tin g that God is a ll and God is good. P r a y e r is the p r o c e s s w hereby on e le a r n s m ore o f r e a lity , m o r e of God. E f f e c tiv e p ra y er th e r e fo r e r e su lts in in c r e a se d u n derstan d in g. A x io lo g ic a l c o n sid e r a tio n s are an im p ortan t part of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . On the hum an le v e l, M rs. Eddy valued tra d itio n a l V icto ria n m o ra lity . She stated that the follow in g ch a ra cte r tr a its provided the b a sis of m o ra lity : ". . . hum anity, h o n e sty , a ffe c tio n , c o m p a ssio n , 4 h op e, fa ith , m e e k n e s s , tem p era n ce." She opposed the drinking of te a , c o ffe e , o r a lc o h o lic b ev era g e s; did not approve of g am b lin g, and argued that "the n u ptial vow should n e v e r be an n ulled , so long a s its 5 m o ra l o b lig a tio n s a r e kept in ta c t. . . . " T h ere has b e e n co n tro v er sy co n cern in g the o rg in a lity o f M r s. E ddy's th eo lo g y . B e c a u se M r s. Eddy stu d ied w ith Q uim by, who taught a typ e of m en ta l h ea lin g , H oratio D r e s s e r argu ed that Q uim by w as the s o u r c e of M r s . E ddy's id ea s.^ P e e l refu ted th is cla im by d em o n stra tin g s y ste m a tic a lly how M rs. E ddy's id e a s d iffer fro m ______ 256 7 'hose of Q uim by. C h ristia n S c ie n c e has often b een com pared w ith the New Thoughl m ovem en t. One re a so n for th is is that M rs. Eddy a lle g e d ly p la g ia rizec from Q uim by, a so u rce of N ew Thought th eo lo g y . A lthough New Thought and C h ristia n S cie n c e appear to be s im ila r , th e r e is a fu n d a m en tal d iffere n c e b etw een th em which is not apparent u n til the im p lic a tio n s of M rs. E ddy's m in d -m a tte r , n ou m en al-p h en om en al, d istin ctio n is r e c o g n iz e d . C h ristia n S cie n c e th eo lo g y d oes not p o sit a " p ositive j {thinking" point of view as d oes New Thought. W hereas N ew Thought a rg u es that one can im p ro v e hum an con d ition s by prop er thinking, C h ristia n S c ie n c e te a c h e s that one can not change the hum an condition, for it is co rru p t. To e x p erien ce h e a lin g , one has to to ta lly abandon b e lie f in the m o rta l m ind p e r s p e c tiv e , fo r m o rta l m ind is a c o n tra d ictio n of the noum enal truth a cco rd in g to C h ristia n S c ie n c e , and one cannot change noum enal truth. New T hought, on the o th er hand, is con cern ed w ith im p rovin g hum an co n d itio n s, m aking b e tte r m o r ta ls , and a ctu a lizin g hum an d e s ir e s . M rs. Eddy, th en , did not s t r e s s a p o sitiv e thinking approach to life . She taught that m o rta l e x iste n c e w as corrupted by g ree d , v io le n c e , h ate, and m a lic e . In th is s e n s e , M rs. E ddy's d octrin e is close]' to orthodox C h ristia n ity and tw en tieth cen tu ry n eo -o rth o d o x y than it is to N ew Thought; New Thought is its e lf c lo s e r to U n ita ria n ism and tra n sc e n d e n ta lism than to C h ristia n S c ie n c e . 257 In 1936, W alter M . H au sh alter argued that the so u r c e of C h ristia n S c ie n c e w as a tw e lv e -p a g e e s s a y title d "The M eta p h y sica l 8 R elig io n of H eg el." T h is e s s a y , H au sh alter contended, w as w ritten by F r a n c is L e ib e r , a r e sp e c te d G e rm a n -A m erica n p o litic a l s c ie n tis t. H au sh alter contended th at a M r. C rafts in 1866 allow ed M rs. Eddy to m ake a copy of th e e s s a y , w hich sh e u sed as the b a sis fo r S c ie n c e and H ea lth . C hurch h isto r ia n Conrad H enry M oehlm an d em on strated that H a u sh a lter's data w ere fau lty and h is co n clu sio n s in c o r r e c t, fo r (1) L eib e r did not w rite the e s s a y , (2) the e s s a y w as w ritten a fter the pub lic a tio n of S c ie n c e and H ea lth , and (3) none of the H eg elia n sc h o la r s M oehlm an con su lted a g ree d the e s s a y w as a d isc u ssio n of H e g e lia n ism p er s e . M rs. Eddy w as th e o rig in a to r of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . A lthough o b v io u sly in flu en ced by th e id eas in circu la tio n in p o st-b e llu m A m e r ic a h er th eology p o s s e s s e d a d is tin c tiv e n e ss that adds cre d e n c e to the th e s is that C h ristia n S c ie n c e w as h er crea tio n . A lleg a tio n s sh e p la g ia r iz e d fro m Q uim by o r F r a n c is L eib e r are un support a b le. N or is C h ristia n S c ie n c e an o ffsh o o t of N ew Thought. The N a tu re of A rgu m en tative S y n th esis The s u c c e s s of M r s. E ddy's rh eto ric w as an alyzed through an exam in ation of h er w ork fro m the p e r sp e c tiv e o f "argum entative s y n t h e s is , " a con cep t fo rm u la ted by Edw in B lack . B lack defined 258 arg u m en ta tiv e sy n th e sis as a gen re of argu m en tation . "A p e r so n is in an a rg u m en ta tiv e situ a tio n , " said B la ck , "when he a d d r e s se s h im s e lf p e r su a siv e ly to an id ea a g a in st w hich o b jection s a r e lik e ly to be in h is 9 a u d ien ce's m in d . . . . " A rgu m en tative sy n th e sis r e fe r s to the p r o c e s s of uniting id ea s that appear to be in op p o sitio n into a coh eren t w h ole. B la ck su g g este d that argu m en tative sy n th e s is w as a type of la r g e r argu m en t in w hich "the atten tion of the auditor is turned to id eas that su b su m e the is s u e s of the o r ig in a l dispute."*^ A rgu m en tative s y n th e s is "is a str a te g y of the rhetor in o rd erin g and su b su m in g the id ea s of a c o n tr o v e r sy under a g en era l point of v iew . " B la ck did not d ev elo p a co m p lete s y ste m of c r itic is m nor w as h is notion of a rg u m en ta tiv e sy n th e sis an ela b o ra ted m o d el. But h is con cep t did o ffer a u se fu l beginning and help fu l p e r sp e c tiv e fro m w hich to in v e stig a te the rh eto ric of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . C h r istia n S cie n c e w as an in sta n ce of a rg u m en tative sy n th e s is . M rs. E ddy's rh e to r ic w as part of a la r g e r argu m en ta tiv e situ a tio n , and h er d o ctrin e w as grounded in the is s u e s of A m e r ic a at the turn of the cen tu ry. A m eric a n so c ie ty at th is tim e w as in the p r o c e s s of change r e su ltin g fr o m , am ong oth er th in g s, the in d u str ia liz a tio n and u rb an ization of the U nited S ta te s. M rs. Eddy u sed a rg u m en ta tiv e s y n th e s is to r e c o n c ile th ree is s u e s of th is period: s c ie n c e v e r s u s C h r is tia n ity , lib e r a l and orth od ox view s of God and m an , and V icto ria n v e r su s R a d ica l F e m in is t v ie w s of w om en. I W M rs. E ddy r e c o n c ile d the id ea that s c ie n c e w a s the m ean s by w hich know ledge of the law s u n derlyin g the u n iv e r se w a s to be d is c o v e r e d and known with the idea that the tea ch in g s of J e s u s and the B ib le w ere the m eans by which know ledge about the u n iv e r se w as to be d isc o v e r e d and known. Her m ethod of h arm o n izin g sc ie n c e and C h ristia n ity w a s to p o sit J esu s a s the m a ste r s c ie n tis t who rev e a le d the la w s govern in g the u n iv e r se . F ro m th is p e r s p e c tiv e , M rs. Eddy in corp orated th e p rev a ilin g th e s e s and a n tith e se s of C h ristia n ity and S c ie n c e . H er e s s e n tia l argu m en t w as that by studying the B ib le, she d isc o v e r e d know ledge about the u n iv e r se . T h is know ledge was obtainec fro m studying the life and w ords of J e su s, th e p ro p h ets, and d is c ip le s . Im p lic it or sta ted in the B ib le w e r e the fo llo w in g p ro p osition s: (1) the u n iv e r se was govern ed by law s o r p r in c ip le s , the b a s e s of w hich w ere that (a) God w a s sp ir itu a l, (b) God w as in fin ite good, (c) man w as the im a g e and lik e n e s s of G od, (d) th e r e a liz a tio n of th e se th ree id e a s a llo w ed man to h eal s in , d is e a s e , and death and d em on strate G od's in fin ite good n ess and harm ony; (2 ) th e se law s could be known by e m p ir i ca l o b serv a tio n ; and (3) know ledge about the u n iv e r se w as not s u p e r n atu ral. M rs. E ddy em p loyed argu m en tative sy n th e sis in a secon d way by b rin gin g to g eth er two popular th e o lo g ic a l v iew s that allow ed fo llo w e r s to accep t both the tra d itio n a l and n ew er v iew of God and m an. The orth od ox, C a lv in istic v ie w held th at man w as a sin n e r , depraved and 260 la llen fr o m g r a c e . The m o r e lib e r a l th e o lo g ic a l view h eld th at m an was e s s e n tia lly good and the child o f a loving F a th er. M r s. E ddy's d istin c tio n betw een m ind and m a tte r , noum enal and p h en om en al r e a lity , m ade the sy n th e sis of th e se d ichotom ous v iew s of m an p o s s ib le . M or ta l, m a te r ia l m an w as the C a lv in istic notion; sp ir itu a l m an w as the child of a loving God. M rs. E ddy's sy n th e sis w as re la te d to th e P la tonic d istin c tio n o f n oum enal and phenom enal r e a lity , and h er d octrin e was v e r y s im ila r to th is id ea of P la to 's . M rs. Eddy held that the phenom enal w orld , th e w orld of the s e n s e s , w as illu sio n and shadow . She reason ed that S p irit w as the true su b sta n ce and m a tter m e r e ly shadow . God w as the so u r c e of rea lity and r e a lity was th e n oum enal w orld. And God w as L ife , T ru th , P r in c ip le , Mind; M ind only cre a ted im m u tab le and p erfec t id e a s . The phenom enal w o rld , th en , w as a con trad iction of r e a lity , b e c a u se it w as im p e r fe c t, b eliev ed M rs. Eddy. M ortal m in d , or m an thinking o f h im se lf a s a m ortal and m a te r ia l b ein g, was corrupt and e v il. M an p e r - I ceiv in g h im se lf in th is w ay w as in a sta te of dep ravity and c o n siste d of e v il b e lie f s , p a s s io n s , a p p e tite s, p r id e, d e c e it, e tc . But w hen m an exch an ged the f a ls e con cep t fo r the tru e, he found h im s e lf im m o r ta l-- an im a g e of God. F in a lly , M r s. Eddy u sed a rg u m en tative sy n th e sis to u n ite what ap p eared to be tw o se p a r a te view s o f w om anhood. The V ic to r ia n view held th at w om en w e r e by nature r e lig io u s , s e n s itiv e , in tu itiv e , 261 e m o tio n a l, co m fo rtin g , e tc . The V icto ria n v iew of m en w as that they w ere e s s e n tia lly d ifferen t from w om en: r a tio n a l, in te lle c tu a l, tough, con cern ed with w o rld ly m a tte r s, and lack in g te n d e r n e ss . On the other hand, m any r a d ic a ls of the w om en 's m ov em en t at the turn o f the c e n tu ry argued that w om en should b eco m e m o re lik e m en , and som e of the e x tr e m is ts sought to em u late m a sc u lin e c h a r a c te r is tic s . M rs. Eddy propounded an argu m en t that en co m p a sse d both the V icto ria n and the R ad ical F e m in is t points of view . She argu ed that q u a litie s a sso c ia te d w ith wom anhood su ch as te n d e r n e ss, in tu itio n , p iety , and purity w e r e q u a lities in h eren t in both m en and w om en . C o n v e r se ly , m a s c u lin e q u a litie s su ch as stren g th , co u ra g e, and in te lle c t w ere a lso in h e r en t in w om en as w e ll as m en . It w as n e c e s s a r y fo r both m en and w om en to e x p r e ss th eir m a scu lin e and fem in in e s id e s fo r th em to be co m p lete in d iv id u a ls. M r s. Eddy reached th is n otion th e o lo g ic a lly . B e c a u se God was F a th er-M o th er , em bodying both m a sc u lin e and fem in in e q u a litie s, so g e n e r ic m an , the r e fle c tio n or e x p r e s s io n of th is F a th er-M o th er God, included both m a le and fe m a le q u a litie s. C o n seq u en tly , g e n e r ic m an included q u a lities of both s e x e s . M r s. E d d y's d octrin e appealed to an e s s e n tia lly m id d le and upper m id d le c la s s au d ien ce. H er d o ctrin e had an in te lle c tu a l appeal th at a ttra cted m any la w y e r s, te a c h e r s, b u sin e ss m e n , and ev en so m e m e d ic a l d o c to r s. On the su r fa c e , m any o f M rs. E d d y's id ea s would 25Z se e m ra d ica l and u n a ttra ctiv e to h er au d ien ce of lite r a te , m id d le c la s s A m eric a n s. The "faith h ealin g" e le m e n t of the r e lig io n , and su ch ideat as God is M ind, a ll rea lity is m en ta l, e v il is u n rea l, would se e m fo reig n to the e x p e r ie n c e s and v a lu es of m o st m id d le c la s s A m e r ic a n s. But an im portant re a so n fo r C h ristian S c ie n c e 's appeal is that M rs. Eddy sy n th esized m any id ea s a ttra ctiv e and b eliev a b le to h er a u d ien ce. To fu lly understand the C h r istia n S c ie n c e ap p eal, it is e s s e n tia l to {understand its m o st fundam ental c h a r a c te r is tic : its argu m en tative {synthetic appeal. A rgu m en tative sy n th e sis is p e r su a siv e in a num ber of w a y s. F ir s t, it o c c u r s w h ere c o n tro v er sy e x is t s , and is a ttra ctiv e b eca u se the id ea s in the s y n th e sis do not a lien a te m any on e ith er sid e in the o r ig in a l c o n tr o v e r sy . It w ould, though, probably a lien a te the e x tr e m is t s and "true b e lie v e r s " on both s id e s of a giv en is s u e . By not a lie n ating m any on both s id e s of a d eb ate, a rg u m en tative sy n th e sis p r e p a res the way for p e r su a sio n or m ak es p ersu a sio n le s s d ifficu lt by ren d erin g the au d ien ce le s s h o s tile . S econ d , a rg u m en ta tiv e sy n th e sis adds to p ersu a sio n b eca u se the id ea s of the sy n th e s is a r e a ttr a c tiv e to p eop le on both s id e s of the c o n tr o v e r sy , p eople often caught b etw een the appeal of opposing s id e s . A rgu m en tative sy n th e sis is a ttr a c tiv e to the m id d le group on both s id e s Inherent A ppeal of A rgu m en tative S y n th esis ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I E T of th e d isp ute o r the u n decided. T h e o r ists from A r is to tle to Kenneth B urke have in d icated the im p o rta n ce of the rh etor id en tifyin g w ith the id ea s and v a lu es of h is au d ien ce. A third rea so n argu m en tative s y n th e s is is a ttr a c tiv e to an au d ien ce is that it o ffers a third a lter n a tiv e to the o rig in a l d eb ate. The au d ien ce is not asked to a ccep t a "w atered down" id e a , a co m p ro m is e that r e a lly s a tis fie s n e ith e r sid e . A rgu m en ta tiv e s y n th e sis p r e se n ts a new option not p r e v io u sly apparent in the c o n tr o v e r sy . This option is not a a m odified th e s is of the a ffir m a tiv e or n e g a tiv e , but a th ird th e s is that brings to g eth er p reviou s th e s is and a n tith e sis into a I co h ere n t s y n th e s is. N eith er sid e s e e s th e ir o r ig in a l id ea su b se r v ie n t to an opponent's th e s is . In a s e n s e , a rg u m en ta tiv e sy n th e sis m ak es the o r ig in a l co n tro v er sy " trivial" (to u se B la ck 's w ord) b eca u se "the is s u e s of the old c o n tro v er sy are now s e e n to be m in or e le m e n ts in a 12 co m p lex sy ste m of thought." W hile o ffe r in g a new a lte r n a tiv e , an option not p r e v io u sly p o site d , argu m en ta tiv e s y n th e sis r e la te s its i id ea s to com m on values and id ea s of the a u d ien ce. It is a n o v el, in sig h tfu l a lter n a tiv e not u n fa m ilia r to th e thinking and e x p e r ie n c e s of the a u d ien ce. F ou rth , argu m en tative sy n th e sis o ffe r s a p o s itiv e , c o n siste n t, and en co m p a ssin g concept th at fo s te r s c o n c ilia tio n and red u ces p s y ch o lo g ic a l s t r e s s . It se e k s reso lu tio n of co n flict and ten sio n p r e s e n t ing a view that e n c o m p a sse s a troubled situ a tio n . It s e e k s to r e s o lv e 26^ p olarization and w orks tow ard a u n ifica tio n of the au d ien ce and a "healing" of the c o n tr o v e r sy . It p ro v id es a way out of an often s t a le m ated or deadlocked d eb ate. One r e a so n for the p e r su a siv e n e ss of argu m en tative sy n th e sis is th at people s e e k to red u ce ten sio n and " d is son ance. " M odern s o c ia l p sych o lo g y su p p orts th e id ea that in d ivid u als str iv e to r e s o lv e c o n flict and a ch iev e a c o n siste n t b e lie f s y ste m . T his co n sisten cy notion is su pp orted by su ch th e o r ie s as H e id e r 's "balance th eory," N ew com b's "theory o f sy m m etry ," O sgood and T annenbaum 's "theory of con gru ity," F e s tin g e r 's "theory of cogn itive d isso n a n c e ," and M cG u ire's " tw o -p r o c e ss th eo ry of c o n siste n c y ." The P e r s u a s iv e n e s s of M r s. E ddy's U se of A rgu m en tative S y n th esis D uring the la tte r part of the n in eteen th cen tu ry, th ere w as grow ing c o n tro v er sy b etw een th o se who h eld s c ie n tific notions and th o se who adhered to tr a d itio n a l P r o te sta n t C h ristia n d octrin e. The grow ing in te r e st in s c ie n c e ca u sed m any to q u estion the adequacy of C h ristian d o ctrin e in the m o d ern w orld . M rs. E ddy's d octrin e w as a resp o n se to th is c o n flic t. H er sy n th e sis of s c ie n c e and C h ristia n ity contained id e a s that w ould a lien a te n e ith e r th ose p red isp o sed to sc ie n c e nor th o se p red isp o se d to C h r istia n ity . She did not dem and that th e C h ristian abandon h is c r e e d . She argu ed that sh e w as r e -e s ta b lis h in g the le tte r and s p ir it o f p r im itiv e C h ristia n ity . W hereas B e e c h e r and the lib e r a l m in is te r s su g g e ste d that C h r istia n ity w as in n eed of b ein g -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------U n accom m od ated to s c ie n c e , M rs. Eddy argu ed that, prop erly u n d e r sto o d , C h ristia n ity w as s c ie n tific . M rs. E d d y's sy n th e sis a lso did not con tain id ea s that would co n flict w ith the attitu d e of m any of the s c ie n tific a lly m in d ed , for one of h er b a sic argu m en ts w as that C h ristian ity m u st be s c ie n tific , if tru e. M rs. E ddy's sy n th e sis not only did not a lie n a te many p r e d is p o sed to s c ie n c e or r e lig io n , h er sy n th e sis con tain ed id eas a ttr a c tiv e to so m e on both s id e s of the co n tro v er sy and the m any in b etw een . By view in g J e su s as the m a ste r s c ie n tis t, M rs. Eddy found a way to r e c o n c ile the c o n flict and in co rp o ra te id ea s both s id e s cou ld a p p recia te. Th« s c ie n tific a lly m inded could id en tify with h er view that th ere w ere law s g o vern in g the u n iv e r se w hich could be known by o b serv a tio n of e m p ir i ca l e v id e n c e , and that th e s e law s w ere not m y stic o r su pern atu ral. C h r istia n s could e a s ily identify w ith J esu s a s one who d isco v ere d th e se law s a s w ell a s w ith the sta tem en t that th e se law s w e r e im p lic it in the te a c h in g s of the B ib le. They could a lso a g r e e that God was sp ir itu a l, the so u r c e of a ll good; m any C h ristian s could a ls o a g r e e that m an w as m ade in the im age of God. In addition to p o sitin g id ea s of s c ie n c e and C h ristia n ity , M rs. Eddy d evelop ed a C h r istia n th eology b ased on p h ilo so p h ica l id e a lism . A lthough s c ie n c e w as grow ing in stren gth in A m e r ic a , p h ilosop h ical id e a lis m w as a lso d eep ly im bedded in A m erica n cu ltu re. It w as p a r tic u la r ly popular in N ew England and the M id w est, a r e a s of the 266 s tr o n g e st C h ristia n S c ie n c e ap p eal. Such id ea s a s the m en ta l nature I of e x is te n c e , God as M ind, and e v il a s illu sio n w ere com ponents of i (p h ilosop h ical id e a lis m , and su ch id e a s w ere advanced in the p o st- I 1 b ellu m U nited S tates by P la to and H e g el clu b s, p h ilo so p h ica lly id e a lis - i I !tic p e r io d ic a ls , and oy su ch p h ilo so p h ers as R oyce and B ow ne. M r s. ! jE ddy's sy n th e sis of s c ie n c e and r e lig io n , then, w as p e r su a siv e b eca u se 'it contained m any id ea s a ttr a c tiv e to m any A m eric a n s b etw een 1875 anc | 11910. H er s y n th e sis o ffered m o re than a c o m p ro m ise b etw een s c ie n c e t and r elig io n that sa tis fie d n eith er s id e , as w as the c a se w ith the .a ccom m od atin g P r o te sta n t th e o lo g ie s o f B eec h e r and A bbott. M rs. E ddy argued that C h ristia n ity w as s c ie n tific , and that it w as only through the a g e s that it b eca m e con tam in ated w ith su p e r n a tu r a lism . I 1 : ! !She argued th a t she o ffered a sy ste m a tic r e lig io n w orthy of the n am e s c ie n c e . 1 ^ A fin a l rea so n for the p e r s u a siv e n e s s of M rs. E ddy's sy n th e s is of s c ie n c e and C h ristia n ity is that th is sy n th e sis ap p ealed to m a n 's n eed for c o n siste n c y and c o n c ilia tio n . M rs. E d d y's d o ctrin e o ffered u n ifica tio n to co n flictin g id ea s of s c ie n c e and C h ristia n ity and su g g e ste d that C h r istia n s and the s c ie n tific a lly m inded r e a lly sh ared a com m on se t ol b e lie fs . Mrs. E ddy's sy n th e sis of C a lv in ism and lib e ra l v ie w s of God ,and m an w as a lso p e r su a siv e for m any A m e r ic a n s. T his sy n th e sis -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Z 5 T m u st be se e n a s part o f a la r g er re lig io u s debate at th e turn o f the cen tu ry. By th e late n in eteen h u n d red s, m any c le r g y m e n had turned fr o m the C a lv in istic n otion of a ven gefu l God and d ep raved m an to a m o r e lib e r a l id e a of God as a b en evolen t crea to r; m an thus b eca m e the child of a lovin g d eity . But A m e r ic a w as divided on the is s u e of m a n 's s in fu ln e s s. M r s. Eddy's sy n th e sis of C a lv in istic and lib e r a l id ea s did not a lien a te m any on e ith e r sid e o f the c o n tr o v e r sy . She did not deny that m an w as depraved o r that he w as e s s e n tia lly good. H er sy n th e sis p rep a red the way for p e r su a sio n . M rs. E d d y's sy n th e sis a ffirm ed what appeared to be a c o n tr a d ictio n and p o site d id e a s both s id e s could id en tify with: m an w as a d ep raved sin n e r ; m an w as good and the ch ild of a lovin g God. M ortal m an , phenom enal m an , w as v iew ed as to ta lly corrupt and ev il; sp iritu a m an , n oum enal m an, w as good and the c re a tio n of a b en e fic e n t D eity . N eith er the C a lv in ists n or the lib e r a ls w ere asked to ren ou n ce th eir id e a s , for both w ere c o r r e c t. T his sy n th e sis w as p e r su a siv e b eca u se it o ffe r e d m o re than m e r e c o m p r o m ise . M r s. Eddy did not argu e that m an w as a little sin fu l, but not a s sin fu l as the C a lv in ist b e lie v e d , nor did sh e argue that m an w as e s s e n tia lly good but not as good as the lib e r a ls b e lie v e d . And th is s y n th e sis ap p ealed to th e human d e s ir e for u n ifica tio n and con s is te n c y . It su g g e ste d both p a r tie s in the d isp u te w ere dependent on ea ch oth er. T ruth w as serv ed by a u n ification of both p o s itio n s , sin c e 268 it took both view s to en co m p a ss the breadth of m an 's condition. M rs. E d d y's sy n th e sis of V icto ria n and R ad ical F e m in ist view s of w om en related to a g e n e r a l co n tro v er sy o v e r the sta tu s and ro le of w om en in s o c ie ty . H er sy n th e sis spoke to both sid e s of th is debate. If one v iew ed the w om en 's m ovem en t on a continuum , one sid e would be th o se who w ere a c tiv e in su ch things as ch u rch groups or lite r a r y s o c i e tie s . T h ese V icto ria n w om en form ed the right w ing of the m o vem en t, and they did not attack the s o c ia l and p o litic a l status quo. They a c cepted th e tra d itio n a l fem in in e role and sou ght to h elp the church and im p rove the com m unity in tra d itio n a lly a cce p ta b le w a y s. The other end of the continuum in clud ed the ra d ic a ls who argued that w om en should em u late tra d itio n a lly m a scu lin e c h a r a c te r is tic s by b ecom in g in volved in p o litic s and the a ffa irs o f the w o rld . They w ere to be tough and in te lle c tu a l, le s s d o m e stic , and even d r e s s m o re lik e m en by w earin g b lo o m e r s. The C h ristia n S cie n c e sy n th e sis spoke to th is co n tr o v e r sy . M rs. E ddy's r e c o n c ilia tio n of R a d ica l F e m in ist and V ic to rian v ie w s was p e r s u a siv e b eca u se it did not a lien a te m any on eith er sid e . M r s. Eddy did not deny that w om en should be in te lle c tu a l, a c tiv e , p o litic a l, e tc . , and sh e did not deny that they should be d o m e s tic and s e n s itiv e . The id e a s p osited by M r s. Eddy rela ted to the v a l u es to w hich both groups w ere p red isp o sed . She argu ed that w om en should be what the ra d ic a ls advocated and th e y should a ls o be what the V icto ria n s b e lie v e d . She found a way to e n co m p a ss both view p o in ts, 269 su g g estin g both p e r sp e c tiv e s w e r e c o r r e c t. M rs. E d d y's a ltern a tiv e r e sp e c te d the o ld er V ictorian v ie w , y et in co rp o ra ted the n ew er view of w om en into its co n stru ct. M rs. E ddy's sy n th e sis of th e se tw o v ie w s of w om anhood o ffered a p o sitiv e co n c ilia to r y concept th at appealed to the ten d en cy tow ard red u ction of co n flict. Not only did M rs. E ddy's s y n th e sis argu e that th e r e w as no n eed for the e x istin g d isa g reem e n t o v er the ro le and sta tu s of w om en , sh e argued th at th ere w as no n eed to a ssu m e a "bat tle of the s e x e s ." M en and w om en w ere fundam entally the im a g e of a F a th er-M o th er God, a God p o s s e s s in g the q u a lities of m anhood and w om anhood. Both m en and w om en had a com m on id en tity a s the e x p r e ssio n of th is m a sc u lin e -fe m in in e God. A rgu m en ts, S ty le , and C om p osition M r s. E ddy's m ethod and m anner of com m u n ication w as con s is te n t w ith h er d o ctrin e. As sh e em ployed ap p aren tly d isp a r a te id ea s in h er s y n th e s is , so sh e em p loyed d ifferin g fo r m s of argu m en t and appeal to com m u n icate h er d o ctrin e. T his added to the b eliev a b ility of h er m e s s a g e . M rs. E ddy's m ea n s of co m m u n ication g rew out of the nature of the m e s s a g e its e lf, and the m e s s a g e and m ea n s of c o m m u n icatin g the m e s s a g e d isp la y ed an organ ic q u ality. B oth m e s sa g e and m ean s of com m u n ication d isp la y ed an in te g r ity , lo g ic , and c o h e r e n c e . 270 The u se of argu m en ts by M rs. Eddy p a ra lleled h er u se of argu m en tative s y n th e s is. As sh e em p loyed apparently d isp a ra te id e a s , so sh e u sed argu m en ts that stood in co n tra d istin ctio n to one another, i. e. , sh e u tilized both inductive and d ed u ctive fo rm s of argum ent. S cie n c e r e lie s on the u se of e m p ir ic a l data to support t h e s e s , and re lig io n and p h ilo so p h ica l id e a lis m u su a lly u se d ed u ctive argum ents b ased on a p rio r i assu m p tion s a s a m ajor way to support th eir th e s e s . It w as re a so n a b le , th en , for M r s . Eddy to com bine argu m en ts u sed by i jsc ie n tists and a rgu m en ts used by C h r istia n Id e a lists to com m unicate I her m e s s a g e , sin c e h er d octrin e in co rp o ra ted both th e s e v ie w s. T his (co n sisten cy of id ea and argum ent con trib u ted to the b e lie v a b ility of C h ristia n S cie n c e. M rs. Eddy a lso id en tified with an argum ent a ttra ctiv e to A m eric a n s: the p ra g m a tic. She argued th at C h ristia n S cien ce w as true b eca u se it w orked; th is type of argu m en t appealed to m any A m e r ic a n s. j The s ty le em p loyed by M r s . Eddy w a s sy n th etic in nature for it com bined d ifferen t kinds of w ord ch o ice in to its d iction . On the one hand, M r s. Eddy u sed sc ie n tific w ords and p h r a se s, and on the o th er, she m ade m uch u se of tra d itio n a l B ib lic a l w o rd s, p h r a s e s, a llu sio n s, im a g e s , and q u otation s. T his a s p e c t of h e r sty le w as c o n siste n t w ith h er s y n th e sis of s c ie n c e and C h r istia n ity . M rs. Eddy a lso com bined m a sc u lin e and fem in in e s ty lis tic c h a r a c te r is tic s . H er fem in in e and -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------T 7 T m o th erly im a g es and w ord ch o ice w ere p a rticu la rly illu str a te d in h er p oem s and p u blish ed le tte r s . But M rs. Eddy a ls o em p loyed tough and a g g r e s s iv e rh eto ric that could be ca lled m a sc u lin e in n atu re. A s M rs. Eddy argued that w om en should e x p r e s s both m a scu lin e and fem in in e c h a r a c te r is tic s , so h e r s ty le p a r a lle le d th is v iew . By u sin g a w r itte n --a s op p osed to an o r a l--m o d e o f co m m u n i ca tio n , M rs. Eddy gave h er m e s s a g e p erm an en cy and p r e c isio n , and the w ritten m ed iu m o f books and m a g a zin es allow ed her to rea ch a la r g e r au d ien ce than would the public p latform . j By id en tifyin g h e r s e lf a s the s o le d isc o v e r e r of C h ristian i ! S c ie n c e , M rs. Eddy h eigh ten ed h er c r e d ib ility . She argued that sh e had d isc o v e r e d the p r in c ip le s p ra ctic ed by J e s u s , p rin cip les that had b een lo s t fo r c e n tu r ie s. This unique d isc o v e r y w as h ers alo n e, sh e argu ed . But w hile id en tifyin g h e r s e lf a s d is c o v e r e r and fou n der, sh e d isco u ra g ed fo llo w e r s fro m d eifyin g h er or developing a cult of p e r so n a lity around h e r . She ask ed h er fo llo w e r s to fo cu s on h er d is co v ery rath er than h e r s e lf. By doing th is , M rs. Eddy reduced th e p o ssib ility of being attack ed as a p ie tis tic and e g o -c e n te r e d lea d er; y et sh e w as able by th is approach to e s ta b lis h h e r s e lf as the authentic head of the m o v em en t. A secon d way M r s. Eddy h eigh ten ed h er c r e d ib ility w as by show ing how sh e had d em o n stra ted the p r in c ip le s sh e taught. She w as able to p erfo rm what w ere b e lie v e d to be m ir a c le s of h ea lin g . 272 Throughout h er textbook and w r itin g s , she allud ed to h e r h ea lin g w ork, and so m e tim e s sh e d etailed s p e c ific h ealings sh e had p erfo rm ed . And M r s. Eddy sa id "it should be granted that the author u n d erstan d s what , • • M 1 3 sh e is say in g . A c h a r a c te r istic of M r s. E ddy's o rgan ization w as that it w as d ia le c tic a l or syn th etic in n a tu re. Although M r s . Eddy o rg a n ized m ost of h er m a te r ia l in a sta te m e n t-p r o o f form at, a sig n ific a n t am ount of h er w ork em p loyed d e v ic e s that provided for th e "give and tak e," in te r a c tio n a l, d ia le c tic a l o rg a n iza tio n . F o r ex a m p le, sh e u sed a lle g o r ie s , c o llo q u ie s, and m any q u estion and an sw er fo r m a ts . M r s. Eddy a lso o rg a n ized h er books and a r tic le s so they could be c le a r ly and e a s ily stu d ied . T h is d id actic pattern of organ ization v e r y m u ch re se m b le d a textbook or le c tu r e str u c tu r e . Adding to this d id a ctic p attern w e r e a s e r ie s of c le a r ly titled co re s ta te m e n ts, a g lo s s a r y o f key te r m s , an e x te n siv e indexing sy ste m , and freq u en t use of r e p e titio n and r e s ta te - m en t. I I Im p lica tio n s of the Study H isto r ic a l In sig h ts and Im p lica tio n s By studying M rs. E d d y's com m u n ication of h er d octrin e in A m e r ic a , we have gen erated h is to r ic a l in sigh ts in addition to r h e to r i cal in sig h ts. By studying the im p act of M rs. E d d y's id e a s on A m e r i can cu ltu re and the in flu en ce o f that culture on C h r istia n S c ie n c e , we 2J3 have brought to lig h t a num ber of p r e v io u sly n e g le c te d h isto r ic a l p e r s p e c tiv e s. F ir s t , th is study su g g e sts th at C h ristia n S cie n c e is m uch m ore 14 than a fa ith -h e a lin g r e lig io n , though it has b een so d e sc r ib e d . C h ristia n S cien ce is a b ro a d er d o ctrin e p o sitin g a sy ste m a tic th eology. M rs. E ddy's th eo lo g y in clu d es an ontology w hich d e s c r ib e s the e s s e n c e and nature of e x iste n c e ; an e p iste m o lo g y exp lainin g how one can know the n atu re of e x iste n c e ; an axio lo g y d elin ea tin g p rop er valu es and c o u r se s of action; and an exten d ed in terp re ta tio n of the Old and New T esta m en ts. I I M rs. E d d y's d octrin e is not an o b scu re se t of id ea s as som e sc h o la r s have su g g e ste d ,* ^ for m any of the id ea s of C h ristia n S cien ce are s im ila r to id e a s held by A m eric a n s during the la s t half of the n in e teenth cen tu ry. M rs. E d d y's id ea s a r e s im ila r in m any r e s p e c ts to such prom inent p h ilo so p h ers as P la to , H eg el, E m e r so n , R o y ce, and Bowne. H er d o ctrin e a lso contained id eas that rela ted to the em erg in g j jw om en's m ov em en t. She p o sited a sy n th e sis that in corp orated the tr a - I d ictio n a l V icto ria n id eas o f w om anhood with the id ea s of the R adical F e m in is ts. And M rs. E d d y's d octrin e contained id ea s rela ted to the co n tro v er sy b etw een orth od ox and lib e r a l P r o te sta n t th eo lo g ia n s. C h ristian S c ie n c e a lso con tain ed id e a s being advanced by s c ie n tis ts of her day. This stu d y , th en , s u g g e sts that C h ristia n S cie n c e h as been view ed w ithin too lim ited a p e r sp e c tiv e by m any sc h o la r s. It w as m o re 274 than a fa ith -h e a lin g s e c t and sp oke to m any is s u e s in the p o stb ellu m U nited S ta te s. T h is study a ls o e s ta b lis h e s that C h ristia n S c ie n c e is not a 16 branch of N ew Thought a s m any sc h o la r s have thought. When M rs. E ddy's n ou m en a l-p h en o m en a l d istin ctio n is fu lly a p p recia ted , th e d if fe r e n c e b etw een N ew Thought and C h ristia n S cie n c e is se e n . M r s. Eddy taught m o rta l m a n 's d ep ravity and sin fu ln e ss. T his m o r ta l m an, th is phenom enal co n tra d ictio n of the sp ir itu a l m an, w as in cap ab le of jgood n ess. W hereas N ew Thought taught that m o rta l m an w as e s s e n - i tia lly good and could b ecom e b etter through right thinking, M rs. Eddy taught that m o rta l m an w as in cap ab le of sa lv a tio n . M r s. Eddy w as aw are of th e e v il in the w orld as a r e su lt of th is m o rta l m an, and in th is s e n s e , h er th eo lo g y w as quite d iffere n t from the o p tim is tic , p o sitiv e-th in k in g attitu d e of the N ew Thought m ovem en t. M rs. E ddy's th eology a ls o d iffered fro m the tra n scen d en ta l m ov em en t b e c a u se the itr a n sc e n d e n ta lists did not view m an as sin fu l. i | T h is study s u g g e sts a s im ila r ity b etw een the id ea s of P la to and P a rm e n id es and C h ristia n S c ie n c e , and th e sim ila r ity betw een C h r is - I itian S cie n c e and P la to n ism has not p r e v io u sly been fu lly ex p lo red . S om e have su g g e ste d that C h ristia n S c ie n c e contained P la to n ic e l e - ! 17 |m en ts but h ave not d evelop ed th is th e s is . M ost have su g g e ste d that ! 18 | C h ristia n S c ie n c e is d eriv ed e ith e r fro m H eg el or Q uim by. 275 The P la to n ic n ou m en al-p h en om en al d istin ctio n is a fundam ental p art o f the C h ristia n S cie n c e d octrin e and an e s s e n tia l a sp ect of its e p iste m o lo g y . M rs. Eddy u sed th is d istin ctio n to accou n t for e v il in the w orld , fo r a ll e v il and im p erfe ctio n is but a shadow , an a p p ea r a n c e , and is opposed to p e r fe c t b ein g. It is not argued that M rs. E d d y's th eology w as borrow ed from ato or that she knowingly in c o r p orated P la to 's id ea s into h er th eo lo g y . R ath er, it is su g g este d that C h ristia n S c ie n c e is s im ila r or p a r a lle l to P la to n ic thought in its i em p h a sis on a d istin ctio n betw een the noum enal and phenom enal w o r ld s . | T his study su g g e sts that M rs. E ddy's d octrin e is c lo se r to jpiato than H eg el. M rs. E ddy's d octrin e is con trary to an e s s e n tia l p art of H e g e l's p h ilo so p h y --h is d ia le c tic . M rs. Eddy h eld that the n ou m en al, sp ir itu a l w orld w as p erfec t and in cap ab le o f change, w h e r e a s H e g el b elie v e d r e a lity in volved a d ia le c tic a l p r o c e s s of continual ch an ge. H e g e l's philosophy a lso m a k es no d istin ctio n betw een m o r ta l jand im m o rta l m ind a s d oes C h ristia n S c ie n c e . | T his study in v estig a ted the re la tio n sh ip b etw een C h ristian S c ie n c e and p ra g m a tism , and both p h ilo so p h ies w ere s e e n to be a ttem p ts at sy n th e sis of s c ie n c e and id e a lism ; but w hile p ragm atism "leaned" m o re to s c ie n c e in its s y n th e s is, M rs. Eddy "leaned" m o r e to id e a lis m in building h er sy n th e s is. T his r e la tio n sh ip has not b een ex p lo r ed p r e v io u sly . R h eto rica l In sig h ts and Im p lication s T his study su g g e sts a u sefu l n ew way to view a g en re of p e r su a sio n . It applied B la c k 's notion of argu m en tative s y n th e s is , and d em on strated that th is notion w as a u se fu l way to c h a r a c te r iz e an actual r h e to r ic a l cam p aign . By view in g C h ristian S c ie n c e as an I in sta n ce of a rg u m en ta tiv e s y n th e s is, it w as s e e n how the r e lig io n gained the a ccep ta n ce of m any A m eric a n s at the turn of the cen tu ry. M rs. Eddy r e c o n c ile d cer ta in id ea s in co n flict during the p eriod and ioffered her au d ien ce an a lter n a tiv e p o sitio n that in corp orated the id ea s iof both sid e s of the d isp u te. B la c k 's notion of argu m en tative sy n th e - :s is h a s not p r e v io u sly been applied to a s p e c ific r h e to r ic a l situ a tio n . T his study a cco r d in g ly adds cre d e n c e to the u se fu ln e ss of a rg u m en ta tive s y n th e sis a s a m o d el of p e r su a sio n . T his study a ls o co rr o b o r a tes an old id ea about p e r su a sio n , i. e . , the rh eto r m u st id en tify w ith the id eas and valu es of h is au d ien ce | to be p e r s u a s iv e . A lthough M rs. E d d y's d octrin e appeared at f ir s t |glan ce to be fo r e ig n to the id ea s of h er a u d ien ce, her d octrin e w as I se e n to in co rp o ra te id e a s and v a lu es a ccep ted by m any A m e r ic a n s at Ithe tu rn of th e cen tu ry. A lthough sh e did argue that "God w as M ind, " | "all r e a lity w as m en ta l, " " evil w as u n rea l," h er d o ctrin e w as not that j 'ra d ica l nor e x tr e m e . F ir s t, th e se id ea s w ere not as fo r e ig n to m any i in h er au d ien ce as they m ight s e e m . F o r in the United S ta tes during the la tte r part of the n in eteen th cen tu ry , s im ila r id eas w e r e being_____ 277 d isse m in a te d by P la to and H egel clu b s, by a num ber o f m a g a z in e s , and by such p rom in en t p h ilo so p h ers a s R oyce and B ow ne. In addition to |identifying with id e a lis m in A m e r ic a , M rs. Eddy id en tified w ith id ea s |of s c ie n c e , id ea s of the w om en 's m o v em en t, id ea s of tra d itio n a l V ic - to r ia n ism , and id e a s of both orthodox and lib e r a l P r o te sta n t th e o lo - I jgians. T h is study re a ffir m s the notion that p e r su a sio n is enhanced !when th e rhetor id e n tifie s w ith the id ea s and v a lu es of h is a u d ien ce. ! One study could not r ev e a l the total stren g th s and w ea k n e sse s of argu m en tative s y n th e s is. T his study d o e s, though, su g g e st tw o things about the stren g th s and w e a k n e sse s of arg u m en ta tiv e s y n th e s e s , a s r e v e a le d in the rh eto ric of C h ristia n S c ie n c e . A rgu m en tative s y n th e sis is an a ttra ctiv e str a te g y during tim e s of c o n flict and d is a g r e e - I jm ent. It appeals to the hum an n eed for a c o n sis te n t, co h ere n t, s y s t e m of b e lie f, a s w e ll as appealing to the n eed to fe e l join ed w ith oth ers i in a u n ited b e lie f sy ste m . The stren gth of a rg u m en ta tiv e sy n th e s is is that it o ffe r s a r e c o n c ilia tio n of an o rig in a l d isp u te , a h arm on iou s solu tion to a co n tr o v e r sy . A lim ita tio n of argu m en tative sy n th e sis is that it re q u ir e s a cer ta in am ount o f so p h istica tio n to be u n derstood and a p p recia te d . It !is not p r im a r ily an em o tio n a l ap p eal to fe a r , s e lf - in t e r e s t , or th e lik e. B e c a u se it r e q u ir e s a ce r ta in am ount of in te lle c tu a l en g a g em en t, the m e s s a g e m u st be c le a r ly and p e r siste n tly com m u n icated to an au d ien ce P o s s ib ly , the au d ien ce should be told th is is a sy n th e s is of op p osing 273“ v ie w s , or told the id ea s in the sy n th e sis r e la te to com m only held v alu es jof the au d ien ce. B eca u se argu m en tative sy n th e sis req u ir es in tellectu a l I r e fle c tio n on the part of the au d ien ce, and b e c a u se it is su ited to s it u ation s in w hich th ere is e s s e n tia l d isa g r e e m e n t, argu m en tative sy n th e s is is lim ited in its ap p eal to a ll a u d ien ces. M rs. E d d y's u se of a rgu m en tative sy n th e sis was oversh ad ow ed by the sp ecta cu la r and em o tio n a l nature of C h r istia n S cien ce h e a lin g s. The n ew sp a p ers and m a g a zin es s e iz e d upon the se n sa tio n a l a sp e c ts of the r e lig io n , n am ely the fa ct that C h ristia n S c ie n tists do not rely on m ed icin e or su r g e r y . The co m p lete d o ctrin e w as n every fu lly c o m m u n icated to the A m erica n p u b lic, and the su b tle and so p h istica ted b alan cin g of d ifferin g v ie w s in the r e lig io n rem ain ed la r g e ly unknown. Had the m ovem en t been b etter able to com m u n icate its to ta l d o ctrin e, i the s u c c e s s of the m ovem en t w ould probably have been g r e a te r . This study su g g e sts that other c o n c lu sio n s about th e s u c c e s s of M rs. E ddy's re lig io n have b een in co m p le te. W riters have fa iled to s e e M r s. E ddy's sy n th esizin g rh eto ric a s an e s s e n tia l re a so n for the s u c c e s s of the m ov em en t. Som e have fo cu sed on M rs. E ddy's b u sin ess 19 ab ility as a re a so n for the s u c c e s s of the m ovem en t; o th e r s have su g g este d the s u c c e s s o f the m ovem en t r e su lte d fro m the p erso n a l 20 c h a r ism a of M r s. Eddy; so m e have argu ed that the s u c c e s s of the m ovem en t resu lte d fro m M rs. E ddy's e ffe c tiv e church o rg a n iza tio n 21 land m ea n s of d istrib u tin g C h ristia n S c ie n c e litera tu re; and o th ers 279“ have su g g e ste d that the su c c e s s o f C h ristia n S cie n c e w as due to the 22 p rim itiv e sta te of the m ed ica l p r o fe ss io n or that the a n x ie tie s of 23 city life m ade C h ristia n S cien ce an a ttra ctiv e urban r e lig io n . But (M rs. E ddy's a b ility to rec o n c ile co n flictin g id ea s during the tu rn of the century h as not been reco g n ized a s an e s s e n tia l rea so n fo r the s u c c e s s 'of the C h r istia n S cien ce m ovem en t. A reas fo r F u rth er Study T h is study su g g ests a num ber of a r e a s fo r fu rth er study. A lthough th is study in vestig a ted C h ristia n S cie n c e p ersu a sio n b etw een 1875 and 1910, ending in the y e a r of M rs. E ddy's death, it would be u sefu l to in v e stig a te C hristian S c ie n c e r h e to r ic a fter the la tter date. Such an in v estig a tio n could add sig n ific a n tly to our to ta l understanding I of C h r istia n S cie n c e p ersu a sio n , and m igh t include a d etailed study of i the w a y s, if any, that M rs. E d d y's d octrin e has b een a lte r e d , or changed in e m p h a sis, by le a d e rs in the m ovem en t; an in v e stig a tio n of how le a d e r s in the m ovem ent v ie w th eir p e r su a siv e ta sk as w ell as the way they a ctu a lly do attem pt to sp read the C h ristian S cien ce d octrin e; an exam in ation of the role of d is s e n te r s in the church; and r e se a r c h into the e ffe c ts of the cu rrent u se of m a ss m ed ia by the M other C hurch A nother a rea of study su g g este d by th is d iss e r ta tio n r e la te s to the rh e to r ic of Lym an Abbott, H enry W ard B e e c h e r , and W illiam : J a m e s. It w as su g g ested that th e s e in d ivid u als ea ch sought to 280 sy n th e siz e variou s id e a s in c o n flic t during the turn of the cen tu ry. | B la ck 's notion of a rg u m en tative sy n th e sis m ight prove a u sefu l m odel l i fo r in v estig a tin g the r h e to r ic s of th e s e m en . j A fter we have produced m o re stu d ies d ealing w ith s p e c ific in sta n c e s of a rg u m en tative s y n th e s is , it would be u se fu l to undertake stu d ies that com p are and co n tra st g iv en in sta n c e s of argu m en tative sy n th e sis w ith the a im of gaining m o r e so p h istica ted in form ation and in sig h ts into the n a tu re, s c o p e , and function of argu m en tative sy n th e s is in s o c ie ty . But su ch stu d ies m u st aw ait m ore c a se stu d ies of s p e c ific in sta n ces of argu m en ta tiv e sy n th e sis. ------------------------------------------------------------ m r N otes *M ary B aker E ddy, S c ie n c e and H ealth w ith Key to the S c r ip tu r e s (B oston , 1875), p. 475. 2 M ary B aker E ddy, Unity of Good in P r o s e W orks (B o sto n , 1925), p. 32. 3 S c ie n c e and H ealth , p. 109. ^Ibid. , p. 115. ^Ibid. , p. 59. ^H oratio W. D r e s s e r , The Quimby M an u scrip ts (N ew Y ork, 1921), p. 63. 7 R obert P e e l, M ary B aker Eddy; The Y ears of D is c o v e r y (N ew Y ork, 1966), pp. 1 5 2 -1 5 5 , et p a ssim . 8 A s cited in C onrad H enry M oehlm an, O rdeal by C oncordance (N ew Y ork, 1955), p. ix. 9 Edwin B la ck , R h e to rica l C r itic ism : A Study in M ethod (N ew Y ork, 1965), p. 149. ^ Ibid. , p. 150. * *Ibid. , p. 155. ^ Ibid. , p. 156. 13 S c ie n c e and H e a lth , p. 162. 14 M erle C urti, H isto r y o f A m erica n C iv iliza tio n (N ew Y ork, 1953), p. 406; John D. H ic k s, A Short H isto r y of A m erica n D em o cra cy (N ew Y ork, 1949), pp. 4 8 4 -4 8 5 . 15 H arold J. L a sk i, The A m erica n D em o cra cy (N ew Y ork, 1948) p. 290; M ark T w ain, C h r istia n S cie n c e (N ew Y ork, 1907), pp. 2 1 0 - 214; Edw in D akin, M rs. Eddy (N ew Y ork, 1930), pp. 1 11-114. ^ L a s k i, pp. 2 9 0 -2 9 1 ; J. S tillso n Judah, The H isto ry and P h il osop hy of the M eta p h y sica l M ovem ents in A m e r ic a (P h ila d elp h ia , 1962) pp. 7. Q. 1 2 -1 3 . 16. 4 3 . 178.______________________________________________ 282 17 C h a r les S. B rad en , C h ristia n S cie n c e Today: P o w er, P o lic y , P r a c tic e (D a lla s, 1958), p. 31; W oodbridge R ile y , A m erican Thopght F ro m P u rita n ism to P r a g m a tism and B eyond (N ew Y ork, 1915), pp. j45, 4 9 -5 0 ; R ile y , The F a ith , the F a lsity and the F a ilu re of C h ristia n [Science (N ew Y ork, 1925), pp. 6 5 , 7 1 -7 2 , 135. H au sh alter and B raden in d ica te that C h ristia n S cie n c e is d erived in varying d e g r e e s fro m H e g el. S ee H au sh a u lter's sta tem en t [cited in M oeh lm an 's O rdeal by C on cord an ce, p. ix -x ; and B rad en 's C h ristia n S c ie n c e T oday, p. 31. D r e s s e r and D akin argue that Q uim by w as the so u r c e of C h r istia n S c ie n c e . S ee D r e s s e r , p. 9, et p a s s im , and D akin, pp. 1 1 1-112. 19 T w ain, pp. 5 0 -5 1 . ^ °D akin , pp. 157-169; T w ain, p. 50. 21 D akin, pp. 321-3 4 0 ; E d w in S . G austad, H isto r ic a l A tla s of R elig io n in A m eric a (N ew Y ork, 1962), pp. 1 33-134. 22 D onald M ey e r, The P o s itiv e T h in k ers (G arden C ity, N ew Y ork, 1965), pp. 5-13; H arold W. P fa u tz, "A C ase Study of an U rban R elig io u s M ovem ent: C h ristia n S c ie n c e , " in C ontributions to U rban S o c io lo g y , ed. E rn est W. B u r g e ss and D onald J. B ogue (C hicago, 1964), p. 289; R ichard H. S h ryock , The D evelop m en t of M odern M ed i cin e (N ew Y ork, 1947), p. 258. 23 J o sep h K. Joh n son , " C h ristian S cien ce: A C a se Study of a R elig io n as a F o rm of A dju stm en t B eh a v io r, " D is s . U n iv ersity of W ashington, St. L o u is, 1937, p. 9; H arold W. 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Creator Chapel, Gage William (author)

Core Title Christian Science and the rhetoric of argumentative synthesis

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Speech Communication

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Speech Communication

Language English

Advisor Fisher, Walter R. (committee chair), Ellwood, Robert B. (committee member), McBath, James H. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-805381

Unique identifier UC11363389

Identifier 7318801.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-805381 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7318801

Dmrecord 805381

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Chapel, Gage William

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses