The Relationship Of Father-Absence, Socio-Economic Status, And Other Variables To Creative Abilities In Fifth-Grade Boys

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Content THE RELATIONSHIP OF FATHER-ABSENCE, SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS,
AND OTHER VARIABLES TO CREATIVE ABILITIES
IN FIFTH-GRADE BOYS
by
R ic h a rd Elwood C antey
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P re s e n te d to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
R eq u irem en ts f o r th e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(E d u c a tio n )
June 1973
INFORMATION TO USERS
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University Microfilms
300 N orth Z e e b R oad
Ann A rbor, M ichigan 48106
A X erox E d u catio n C om pany
73-31,635
CANTEY, Richard Elwood, 1939-
THE RELATIONSHIP OF FATHER-ABSENCE,
SO CIO ECO N O M IC STATUS, A N D O TH ER VARIABLES
TO CREATIVE ABILITIES IN FIFTH-GRADE BOYS.
University o f Southern C alifornia, Ph.D.,
1973
Education, psychology
University Microfilms, A XEROX C om pany, A nn Arbor, M ichigan
C o p y rig h t © by
RICHARD ELWOOD CANTEY
1973
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.
UNIVERSITY O F SOU TH ERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA S 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
....................
under the direction of Ai.?.... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C TO R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
V bean
Date Jyne.l£7.3.
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
— C ' / / Chairman
c
A CKN OWEEDGMENTS
The p rim a ry so u rc e o f d a ta f o r t h i s stu d y came from
f i f t h - g r a d e s tu d e n ts i n th e P a lo s V erdes and Param ount
sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s . I am g r a t e f u l f o r th e c o o p e r a tio n o f th e
p a r t i c i p a t i n g s t u d e n t s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y th e s t a f f memberB.
I w ish to th a n k a l l my g ra d u a te p r o f e s s o r s , e s p e
c i a l l y my D i s s e r t a t i o n Com m ittee, f o r t h e i r t u t e l a g e and
a t t e n t i o n . P a r t i c u l a r l y , I am g r a t e f u l to Dr. Newton M et-
f e s s e l , Committee Chairm an, f o r h i s a c t i v e enco uragem ent,
a d v ic e and g u id a n c e d u rin g th e p u r s u i t o f my d o c to r a l s t u
d i e s . My h e a r t f e l t th a n k s go to D r. R o b e rt Sm ith f o r h i s
g r e a t h e lp i n g u id in g me th ro u g h th e i n t r i c a c i e s o f a f a c
t o r i a l e x p e rim e n ta l d e s ig n .
To my w if e , C a ro l, I g iv e my w arm est thankB f o r h e r
u n c o m p lain in g s a c r i f i c e s , en co u rag em en t, p a t i e n c e , and u n
d e r s ta n d in g th ro u g h o u t my g r a d u a te s t u d i e s . My tw o -y e a r-
o ld d a u g h te r , E l i z a b e t h , d e s e rv e s a v o te o f th a n k s f o r
b e in g a so u rce o f m is c h ie v o u s n e s s , jo y , and m o tiv a tio n .
My i n f a n t son, Mark, h a s e a rn e d a B p e c ia l p l a u d i t by w a i t
in g to be b o rn u n t i l a f t e r I had co m p leted a rough d r a f t
o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .
F i n a l l y , I th a n k my p a r e n t s , who th ro u g h t h e i r
s a c r i f i c e s , gave me e v e r y th in g .
11
CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF FIGURES v i i i
C h a p te r
I . INTRODUCTION 1
B ackground o f C r e a t i v i t y R e se a rc h
The Problem o f C o n s tru c t D e f i n i t i o n
I I . THE PROBLEM
7
S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem
The P rim ary R e se a rc h H ypotheses
R a tio n a le f o r R e se a rc h H y p o th eses
R e se a rc h D esign
O p e ra tio n a l D e f i n i t i o n s
A ssum ptions
P a r e n t Absence d u rin g C hildhood
F a t h e r ’ s R e la tio n s h ip and
F a t h e r 's O ccupation
Socioeconom ic S ta tu s and C r e a t i v i t y
P e r c e p tu a l Mode and C r e a t i v i t y
S e lf - c o n c e p t ( S e x - o r ie n t a t i o n )
M other R e la tio n s h ip
Race
Sex
S ib lin g C o n s t e l l a t i o n and B i r t h O rder
IV. PROCEDURES........................................... 4 l
Sam pling T echniques
I n s tru m e n ts
V a l i d i t y and R e l i a b i l i t y
o f th e GTOC
S c o rin g th e GTOC
I n t e r - j u d g e R e l i a b i l i t y P ro c e d u re s
D ata A n a ly s is
I I I . REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH 20
iii
C h a p te r
V. FINDINGS
Page
54
R e s ta te m e n t o f H y p o th eses
M ajor F in d in g s
D is c u s s io n o f P o s s ib le C onfounding
V a r ia b le s
V I. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS,
AND SIGNIFICANCE OF FIN D IN G S................................ 66
Summary
C o n c lu sio n s
Recom m endations
S i g n i f ic a n c e o f F in d in g s
REFERENCES................................................................................................... 78
APPENDICES................................................................................................... 87
APPENDIX A. B a s ic T a b le s o f Means, A d ju ste d
M eans, ANOVA's and ANCOVA's . . . . 89
APPENDIX B. E l i c i t i n g S tim u li f o r S u b testB
o f th e GTOC............................................................ 102
i v
LIST OP TABLES
T ab le Page
1. SES C h i-s q u a re V a lu es betw een E x p e rim e n ta l
(P/A) and C o n tro l (P /P ) B o y s ................................... 44
2. ANOVA and ANCOVA P/A P R a ti o s : R e d e f i n i
t i o n A ......................................................................................... 56
3 . ANOVA and ANCOVA SES P R a tio s : G lo b a l C re a
t i v i t y B a t t e r y and O r i g i n a l i t y .............................. 57
4 . ANOVA and ANCOVA SES P R a ti o s : F lu e n cy and
F l e x i b i l i t y S u b te s ts ...................................................... 58
5 . Means and A d ju ste d Means: F lu e n c y and F l e x i
b i l i t y S u b t e s t s ................................................................ 58
6 . ANOVA and ANCOVA I n t e r a c t i o n P R a tio s :
R e d e f i n it i o n A ..................................................................... 59
7 . Means and A d ju ste d Means: R e d e f i n i t i o n A . . . 59
8 . ANOVA and ANCOVA I n t e r a c t i o n P R a ti o s :
R e d e f i n it i o n B ..................................................................... 62
9 . Means and A d ju ste d Means: R e d e f i n it i o n B . . . 62
10. Means and A d ju ste d Means f o r Low S o c io
econom ic Group: A ll S u b te s ts
(C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) ...................................................... 89
11. Means and A d ju ste d Means f o r H igh S o c io
econom ic Group: A ll S u b te s ts
(C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) ...................................................... 89
12. A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : G lo b a l C r e a t i v i t y
(C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) ...................................................... 90
13. A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : G lo b a l C r e a t i v i t y
(C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) ...................................................... 90
14. A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : G lo b a l C r e a t i v i t y
(A ll S u b j e c t s ) ..................................................................... 90
1 5 . A n a ly stb o f C o v a ria n c e : G lo b a l C r e a t i v i t y
(A ll S u b j e c t s ) ..................................................................... 91
v
T ab le Page
1 6 . A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : R e d e f i n it i o n A
(C a u c a sia n S u b je c ts ) ...................................................... 91
17. A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : R e d e f i n it i o n A
(C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) ...................................................... 91
18. A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : R e d e f i n it i o n A
(A ll S u b j e c t s ) ..................................................................... 92
19. A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : R e d e f i n it i o n A
(A ll S u b j e c t s ) ..................................................................... 92
20. A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : R e d e f i n it i o n B
(C a u c a sia n S u b je c ts ) ...................................................... 92
21. A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : R e d e f i n it i o n B
(C a u c a sia n S u b je c ts ) .............................. . . . . . 93
22. A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : R e d e f i n it i o n B
(A ll S u b j e c t s ) ..................................................................... 93
2 3 . A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : R e d e f i n it i o n B
(A ll S u b j e c t s ) ..................................................................... 93
24. A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : S e n s i t i v i t y to
Problem s (C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) ............................ 94
2 5 . A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : S e n s i t i v i t y to
Problem s (C a u c a sia n S u b je c ts ) ............................ 9^
26. A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : S e n s i t i v i t y to
Problem s (A ll S u b je c ts ) ........................................... 94
2 7 . A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : S e n s i t i v i t y to
Problem s (A ll S u b je c ts ) ........................................... 95
28. A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : F lu en cy o f T h ink
in g (C a u c a sia n S u b je c ts ) ........................................... 95
2 9 . A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : F lu en cy o f T h in k
in g (C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) . . . . ....................... 95
3 0 . A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : F lu e n cy o f T h in k
in g ( A ll S u b j e c t s ) ......................................................... 96
31. A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : F lu en cy o f T h in k
in g ( A ll S u b je c ts ) ...................................... 96.
vi
T ab le Page
3 2 . A nalysiB o f V a ria n c e : F l e x i b i l i t y o f
T hinking (C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) ............................... 96
3 3 . A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : F l e x i b i l i t y o f
T hin kin g (C a u c a sia n S u b je c ts ) .............................. 97
34. A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : F l e x i b i l i t y o f
T hin kin g (A ll S u b je c ts ) ........................................... 97
35. A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : F l e x i b i l i t y o f
T h in k in g (A ll S u b je c ts ) ............................................ 97
3 6 . A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : O r i g i n a l i t y
(C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) . ................................................. 98
3 7 . A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : O r i g i n a l i t y
(C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) .......................................................... 98
3 8 . A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : O r i g i n a l i t y
(A ll S u b j e c t s ) ..................................................................... 98
39- A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : O r i g i n a l i t y
(A ll S u b j e c t s ) ............................................................... . 99
40. A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : E la b o r a tio n
(C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) ................................................... 99
4 1 . A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : E la b o r a tio n
(C a u ca sian S u b je c ts ) ................................................... 99
4 2 . A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e : E la b o r a tio n
(A ll S u b j e c t s ) ..................................................................... 100
4 3 . A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n c e : E la b o r a tio n
(A ll S u b j e c t s ) ..................................................................... 100
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
F ig u re Page
1. Means and a d ju s te d m eans, R e d e f i n it i o n A . . . 60
2. Means and a d ju s te d m eans, R e d e f i n it i o n B . . . 63
viii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
B ackground o f C r e a t i v i t y R e se a rc h
C o n c e n tra te d r e s e a r c h on c r e a t i v i t y h a s had a v e ry
s h o r t h i s t o r y when com pared to many o t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l co n
s t r u c t s In p sy c h o lo g y . P r i o r to 1950 th e p r e s i d e n t o f th e
Am erican P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n o f t h a t y e a r , J . P.
G u ilf o r d , "found t h a t , o f a p p ro x im a te ly 121,000 t i t l e s
l i s t e d i n th e p r e v io u s tw e n ty - th r e e y e a r s o f P s y c h o lo g ic a l
A b s tr a c t s , o n ly 186 were in d e x e d a s d e f i n i t e l y p e r t a i n i n g
to th e s u b j e c t o f c r e a t i v i t y [M e tfe s s e l, 1967* P* 6 1 9 ] ."
F o llo w in g t h i s pronouncem ent, G u ilfo r d p ro c e e d e d to s y s
t e m a t i c a l l y a t t a c k th e problem o f c r e a t i v i t y f o r a number
o f v e ry p r o d u c tiv e y e a r s . The r e s u l t waB a l a r g e number o f
r e s e a r c h p a p e r s and r e p o r t s on c r e a t i v i t y , r e p r e s e n t i n g th e
f i r s t s e r i o u s a tte m p t to u n r a v e l th e many p e r s p e c t i v e s o f
th e c r e a t i v i t y c o n c e p t. G u i l f o r d 's sp e a rh e a d n o t o n ly p r o
duced an enormous amount o f d a ta co n ce rn e d w ith c r e a t i v i t y ,
b u t I t a ls o g e n e r a te d a p r o f e s s i o n a l , p s y c h o lo g ic a l Z e i t
g e i s t t h a t was co n ce rn e d w ith g i f t e d n e s s and c r e a t i v i t y .
The la u n c h in g o f S p u tn ik I i n O ctober 1957 was to p ro v id e
even more im p e tu s to c r e a t i v i t y r e s e a r c h , and th e r e s u l t i n g
1
o u tc r y from p u b lic and p o l i t i c a l s e c t o r s c o n c e rn in g th e
e d u c a ti o n a l system demanded im m ediate a c t i o n . The i n
c re a s e d o u tc r y f o r s p e c i a l p rogram s f o r th e g i f t e d added
a more u r g e n t n o te to th e e f f o r t s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l p s y c h o l
o g i s t s and e d u c a to r s to c o n s id e r th e f a c t o r s which d i f f e r
e n t i a t e and a r e common to b o th th e c o n c e p ts o f c r e a t i v i t y
and i n t e l l i g e n c e . S in c e th e view was i n c r e a s i n g l y advanced
t h a t th e cru x o f e d u c a tin g th e g i f t e d i s th e d evelopm ent
o f c r e a t i v i t y , th e c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e common v a r i a b i l i t y
o f th e two c o n c e p ts became v e ry im p o r ta n t. One outcom e o f
t h i s common q u e s t f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n was a " c l a s s i c " work
d e a lin g w ith t h i s q u e s tio n by Jaco b G e tz e ls and P h i l i p
J a c k s o n , C r e a t i v i t y and I n t e l l i g e n c e ( 1962) .
Many a tte m p ts to d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een i n t e l l e c t u a l
and c r e a t i v e a b i l i t i e s have been made. One a p p ro a c h a v a i l
a b le to i d e n t i f y , c a t e g o r i z e , and d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een
th e two a b i l i t i e s i s p ro v id e d by G u i l f o r d Ts S t r u c tu r e o f
I n t e l l e c t , w hich i n c o r p o r a te s b o th c o n c e p ts i n t o one m odel.
The m odel can be v i s u a l i z e d a s a cu b e, d iv id e d i n t o 120
more cubes o r " c e l l B , " each c e l l p ro p o se d a s one o f 120
d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . The name and hence
f u n c t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e d e n o te d i n e a c h c e l l i s d e riv e d
from th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a s s ig n e d to
t h r e e s i d e s o f th e l a r g e c u b e. One s id e I s co n cern ed w ith
th e o p e r a t io n s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e j a n o th e r w ith th e p r o d u c ts
o f i n t e l l i g e n c e f u n c t i o n in g ; and s t i l l a n o th e r w ith th e
c o n te n ts o f i d e a t i o n . T hat paradigm i s a d o p te d i n t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n to d i s t i n g u i s h c r e a t i v e p e rfo rm a n c e , and th e
c r e a t i v e m easures u se d a r e a ll e g e d to p r i m a r i l y m easure
th e f a c t o r s w hich G u ilf o r d h a s te a s e d o u t th ro u g h f a c t o r
a n a l y s i s a s p e r t i n e n t to c r e a t i v i t y i n th e i n d i v i d u a l .
C o n s is te n t w ith th e Z e i t g e i s t g e n e r a te d Bince
1 950, m ajo r r e s e a r c h c e n t e r s w ith th e m is sio n o f i n v e s t i
g a tin g th e v a r io u s a s p e c t s o f c r e a t i v i t y were form ed and
have c o n tr i b u te d a la r g e p o r tio n o f th e r e s e a r c h knowledge
now a v a i l a b l e in c r e a t i v i t y . The m ajo r c e n t e r s form ed
w ith t h e i r p r i n c i p l e i n v e s t i g a t o r s i d e n t i f i e d w ere: ( l )
The U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , J . P. G u ilf o r d ,
(2) The U n i v e r s i ty o f M in n e so ta, E. P. T o rra n c e , ( 3 ) The
U n i v e r s i ty o f C hicago, th e G e tz e ls and Ja ck so n s tu d y p r e
v io u s ly r e f e r r e d to was c o n d u cted a t t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n ,
(4) The U n i v e r s i ty o f U ta h , C. W. T a y lo r, ( 5 ) The P e n n s y l
v a n ia S t a te U n i v e r s i ty , th e l a t e V ik to r L ow enfeld, (6)
The U n i v e r s i ty o f B u f f a lo , A. F. O sborn— " b r a in s to r m in g ,"
and (7) The U n i v e r s i ty o f C a l i f o r n i a a t B e rk e le y , M ackin-
non, B a rro n , and C r u t c h f i e l d .
The Problem o f C o n s tru c t D e f in i t io n
One o f th e m ajor pro blem a r e a s i n v e s t i g a t e d by th e
I n s t i t u t e o f P e r s o n a l i t y A ssessm ent and R e se a rc h (IPAR) a t
th e U n i v e r s i ty o f C a l i f o r n i a a t B e rk e le y i s sh a re d by many
o t h e r p e rv a s iv e p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n s t r u c t s such a s I n t e l l i
g e n c e , em o tio n , e t c . , t h a t o f d e f i n i t i o n . The ta s k o f
d e f i n i t i o n , o f c o u rs e , h a s g r e a t im p o rt f o r c r e a t i v i t y
r e s e a r c h , a s r e s e a r c h c a n n o t even be a tte m p te d u n t i l some
a tte m p t h a s been made to do so . The prob lem w ith d e f in in g
c r e a t i v i t y o p e r a t i o n a l l y h a s been d e li n e a t e d by M e tf e s s e l
(1 9 6 7 ):
S in ce w ith t e s t s o f c r e a t i v i t y , a d e q u a te v a l i d i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t s , r e l i a b i l i t y i n d i c e s , and n o rm a tiv e
d a ta a re f r e q u e n t l y la c k in g in term s o f g e n e r a l -
i z a b i l i t y to sc h o o l age c h i l d r e n , th e pro b lem o f
d e f in in g c r e a t i v i t y o p e r a t i o n a l l y by "The s c o re
on t e x t X" h a s many l i m i t a t i o n s a t p r e s e n t [p. 6 2 6 ].
A d e t a i l e d s e a r c h and a n a l y s i s o f c r e a t i v i t y l i t e r
a t u r e was p erfo rm ed and an a p r i o r i c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f th e
r e s e a r c h a c c o m p lish e d . Of th e n in e c a t e g o r i e s form ed,
th e c a te g o ry o f i n t e r e s t , "The e f f e c t s o f . . . [ d i f f e r e n t
v a r i a b l e s ] upon c r e a t i v i t y , " was f u r t h e r b ro k en down i n t o
r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s w hich u se d a s t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n o f c r e a t i v
i t y : a t e s t o r c o m b in a tio n o f " c r e a t i v i t y " t e s t s to r e l e
g a te p e rs o n s to e i t h e r a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h o r low c r e a t i v i t y
l e v e l , a p ro d u c t o r p r o d u c ts m an u fa ctu red by th e i n d i v i d u a l
t h a t a r e ju d g ed to be h ig h o r low i n c r e a t i v i t y , o r d e f i n
i t i o n s w hich u se b o th t e s t s and p r o d u c ts to d e f in e c r e a t i v
i t y . Of 53 s t u d i e s s t u d i e s i n t h i s c a te g o ry a p p e a rin g i n
th e P s y c h o lo g ic a l A b s tr a c t s betw een th e y e a r s 19&5 and
1969j e ig h t u se d a p r o d u c t ( s ) a s a t l e a s t p a r t o f t h e i r
c r i t e r i o n o f c r e a t i v i t y . Some s t u d i e s u se d th e r a t i n g s o f
5
e x p e r ts on p r o d u c t s , and a p o p u la tio n a lr e a d y b ro u g h t t o
g e t h e r f o r some o t h e r p u rp o se ( c f . , P a r l o f f , D a tta , Kleman,
& H andlon, 1968, who u se d i n d i v i d u a l s from th e 22nd and
2 4 th W estin g h o u se A nnual S c ien c e T a le n t S e a r c h ) . O th er
B tu d ie s ( c f . , H a ll & MacKinnon, 1969) u se d th e r a t e d
c r e a t i v i t y o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l s such a s a r c h i t e c t s
a s t h e i r c r i t e r i o n o f c r e a t i v i t y . A few i n d i v i d u a l s ,
B e rk o w itz and A v r il ( 1969) a c t u a l l y had s u b j e c t s c r e a t e
p r o d u c ts (s u b je c t-m o d e le d s c u l p t u r e s i n t h i s caBe) r a t e d
f o r c r e a t i v i t y b y a p a n e l o f ju d g e s a s t h e i r c r i t e r i o n o f
c r e a t i v i t y . No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ere found i n
t h i s s tu d y p o s s i b l y p a r t l y due to th e p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l
t i e s i n h a v in g s u b j e c t s " c r e a te " p r o d u c ts a t a s p e c i f i e d
tim e i n o t h e r th a n a l o n g i t u d i n a l s tu d y . P ro b a b ly m o ti
v a te d a t l e a s t p a r t l y by p ra g m a tic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s th e n ,
m ost c r e a t i v i t y r e s e a r c h p erfo rm ed in t h i s c a te g o r y h as
u s e d " th e s c o re on t e x t X" a s a c r i t e r i o n o f c r e a t i v i t y ,
a p ro c e d u re t h a t w i l l be fo llo w e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
even though s a t i s f y i n g p e rh a p s o n ly one o r two o f th e
a s p e c t s o f c r e a t i v i t y i d e n t i f i e d by IPAR ( U n iv e r s ity o f
C a l i f o r n i a a t B e rk e le y ) a f t e r s i x and o n e - h a l f y e a r s o f
I n t e n s i v e a n a l y s i s o f th e problem o f d e f i n i t i o n :
I t h a s seemed to u s t h a t t r u e c r e a t i v i t y f u l f i l l s a t
le a B t t h r e e c o n d it i o n s . I t In v o lv e s a re s p o n s e t h a t
i s n o v e l o r a t l e a s t s t a t i s t i c a l l y i n f r e q u e n t . B ut
n o v e lty o r o r i g i n a l i t y o f b e h a v io r , w h ile a n e c e s s a ry
a s p e c t o f b e h a v io r r e l a t e d to c r e a t i v e o u t p u t, I s n o t
s u f f i c i e n t . I f a re s p o n s e i s to la y c la im to b e in g a
p a r t o f th e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s , i t m ust he a d a p tiv e ,
o r o f r e a l i t y . I t m ust se rv e to s o lv e a p ro b lem ,
f i t a s i t u a t i o n , o r a c c o m p lish some r e c o g n iz a b le
g o a l. And t h i r d l y , t r u e c r e a t i v i t y in v o lv e s a s u s
t a i n i n g o f th e o r i g i n a l i n s i g h t , and e v a lu a tio n and
e l a b o r a t i o n o f i t , and d e v e lo p in g i t to th e f u l l
[q u o ted by M e tf e s s e l from MacKinnon, 1 9 6 1].
CHAPTER II
THE PROBLEM
S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem
The problem o f d e f i n i n g , m e a su rin g , and e x p e r i
m e n ta lly a s s e s s in g d i f f e r e n t i a l l e v e l s o f c r e a t i v i t y i n
i n d i v i d u a l s h a s been a tta c k e d i n many w ays. R e se arch
l i t e r a t u r e abounds in a r t i c l e s t h a t a tte m p t a p r i o r i a n a ly
s e s o f th e c o n c e p t; g iv e b i o g r a p h i c a l c o r r e l a t e s o f " g r e a t"
men; a tte m p t to d e s c r ib e how th e te a c h in g o f c r e a t i v i t y may
be enhanced; employ f a c t o r a n a l y t i c a l m ethods i n an a tte m p t
to f u r t h e r d e f in e c r e a t i v i t y ; a tte m p t to f u r t h e r v a l i d a t e
e x i s t i n g m easurem ents o f c r e a t i v i t y ; employ v a r io u s p e rs o n
a l i t y t e s t s i n an a tte m p t to p r e d i c t c r e a t i v i t y by c o r r e l a t
in g p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s t h a t a re found to e x i s t in " c r e a tiv e "
i n d i v i d u a l s ; and m easure th e d i f f e r e n c e i n c r e a t i v i t y p e r
form ance by e i t h e r m a n ip u la tin g in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s such
a s s e n s o ry e n ric h m e n t o r d e p r i v a t i o n d u rin g th e e x p e rim e n ta l
s e s s io n , o r by m easu rin g th e d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t upon c r e
a t i v i t y c o r r e l a t e d w ith th e i n d i v i d u a l 's d e v e lo p m e n ta l
c irc u m s ta n c e s such a s socioeco nom ic s t a t u s , se x , p a r e n t a l
v a lu e s , e t c . The p r e s e n t s tu d y i s i n th e l a t t e r c a te g o r y .
I t I s an a tte m p t to s t a t i s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e more c r e a
t i v e from l e s s c r e a t i v e p e rs o n s on th e b a s i s o f th e d e v e l- ;
opm ental v a r i a b l e s o f f a t h e r a b se n c e , and th e so cioecono m ic
l e v e l t h a t th e d e v e lo p in g i n d i v i d u a l f in d s h i m s e l f / h e r s e l f
i n . Prom th e s e s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a tm e n ts , p o s s i b l e c a u s a l
f a c t o r s i n th e developm ent o f c r e a t i v i t y can th e n be i n
f e r r e d . In r e l a t i o n to th e n in e b a s ic m ethods o f r e s e a r c h
d e fin e d i n I s s a c and M ic h a e l's handbook (1971)* th e stu d y
p ro b a b ly b e s t f i t s th e c a te g o ry o f " c a u s a l-c o m p a r a tiv e o r
'Ex P o s t P a c t o . ' "
The P rim ary R e se a rc h H ypotheses
The p rim a ry r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s a r e a s f o llo w s :
1. F i f t h - g r a d e , C a u c a sia n , boys w ith f a t h e r s
a b s e n t d u rin g some o r a l l o f t h e i r d e v e lo p m e n ta l h i s t o r y
( a s o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f in e d on page 1 8 ), w i l l e x h i b i t l e s s
c r e a t i v e p erfo rm an ce on th e Group T e s t o f C r e a t i v i t y (GTOC)
th a n f i f t h - g r a d e , C a u c a sia n , boys w ith f a t h e r s p r e s e n t .
2 . A lth o u g h p r e v io u s r e s e a r c h does n o t p e rm it a
sim p le s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn in g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een c r e a
t i v i t y and so cio eco n o m ic s t a t u s (SES), i t i s h y p o th e s iz e d
t h a t t h e r e w i l l be a d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t upon c r e a t i v i t y
p e rfo rm an c e a c c o rd in g to th e SES l e v e l a s m easured by War
n e r 's so cio eco n o m ic s c a l e . E x p e rim e n ta l e f f e c t s may v a ry
w ith th e c r e a t i v i t y f a c t o r ( f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , e t c . )
a n d /o r by th e ty p e o f c r e a t i v i t y s u b t e s t u se d ( i . e . , v e r b a l
o r n o n v e rb a l) . See r a t i o n a l e on page 11.
9
3. F o r e x p lo r a to r y p u rp o s e s , i t i s h y p o th e s iz e d
t h a t th e r e w i l l be an i n t e r a c t i v e e f f e c t betw een th e in d e
p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e r e w i l l be a s i g n i f i
c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een F/A low SES and F/P low SES su b
j e c t s , betw een F/A h ig h SES and F /P h ig h SES s u b j e c t s ,
betw een F/A lo s SES and F/A h ig h SES s u b j e c t s , and betw een
F /P low SES and F/P h ig h SES s u b j e c t s .
R a tio n a le f o r R e se a rc h H ypotheses
R e se a rc h betw een f a t h e r - a b s e n c e and c r e a t i v i t y has
n o t been p r e v i o u s ly r e p o r t e d . The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s h y
p o th e s iz e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s d e riv e d from th e c o r r e l a t i o n
m easu res o f o t h e r v a r i a b l e s to c r e a t i v i t y , and to each
o t h e r . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i n a number o f s t u d i e s (K e rn aleg u e n ,
1969; Gensemer, 1968; McWhinnie, 1967; S p o tts & M ack ler,
1967)> c r e a t i v e s u b j e c t s have b een c o n s i s t e n t l y found to
have a more f i e l d - in d e p e n d e n t mode o f p e r c e p tio n th a n n o n -
c r e a t i v e s a s d e f in e d by W itk in ’s ( 195^) c o n c e p tu a liz e d
f le ld - in d e p e n d e n t/d e p e n d e n t p e r c e p t u a l continuum . Schulman
( 1966) found a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n betw een c r e a t i v i t y
and a p r o p e n s i ty f o r p e r c e p tu a l- o p e n n e s s a s d e fin e d by
S c h a c te l (1959) and a s m easured by th e Changing F ig u re s
T e s t and th e E n clo se d A reas T e s t. O th er r e s e a r c h (B a rc la y
& Cusumano, 1967) h a s found F/A boys to be more f i e l d -
d ep en d en t (a s d e f in e d by W itk in e t a l . ) , to have a more
fe m in in e s e x - o r i e n t a t i o n ( B i l l e r , 1 9 6 8; B i l l e r , 1969) and
to p e rfo rin lo w er on c o g n itiv e t a s k s aB m easured by th e
A m erican C o lle g e E n tra n c e E x am in a tio n (S u tto n -S m ith ,
R o se n b e rg , & Landy, 1 968; Landy, R o se n b e rg , & S u tto n -S m lth ,
1969) . W ltk ln , L ew is, H ertzm an, M achover, M e lssn e r, and
Wapner (1954) have found t h a t fem ale s u b j e c t s a r e c o n s i s
t e n t l y more f ie ld - d e p e n d e n t i n p e r c e p t u a l mode th a n maleB.
B a rc la y e t a l . ( 1967) u se d th e p e r c e p t u a l mode a s a m easure
o f s e x - o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e i r s tu d y . They h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t
s in c e F/A boys have been found to have a more fe m in in e se x -
o r i e n t a t i o n , th e y sh o u ld a ls o have a more f ie ld - d e p e n d e n t
mode o f p e r c e p t i o n . T h e ir h y p o th e s is , u s in g th e R od-and-
Frame t e s t a s th e p e r c e p t u a l m easu re, was s i g n i f i c a n t a t
th e .01 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . S in c e v a r io u s r e s e a r c h s t u
d i e s have found th e fo llo w in g r e l a t i o n s ( l ) t h a t F/A boys
a r e more f i e l d - d e p e n d e n t and have a more fe m in in e Bex-
o r i e n t a t i o n th a n F/P b o y s, (2) t h a t c r e a t i v i t y i s more a s
s o c i a t e d w ith f i e l d - in d e p e n d e n t p e r c e p t u a l p erfo rm an ce
th a n th e f i e l d - d e p e n d e n t mode, and ( 3 ) t h a t th e f i e l d -
d ep en d e n t p e r c e p t u a l mode i s more a s s o c i a t e d w ith fem aleB ,
th e n i t can be a rg u e d t h a t t h i s t r a i n o f lo g ic can be
e x te n d e d to su rm ise t h a t F/A boys w i l l be l e s s c r e a t i v e ,
more f i e l d - d e p e n d e n t , and have a more fe m in in e s e l f -
c o n c e p t th a n do F /P b o y s.
A d d itio n a l e v id e n c e f o r th e p l a u s i b i l i t y o f th e
p rim a ry h y p o th e s is can be d e r iv e d from th e l i t e r a t u r e
re v ie w p r e v i o u s ly r e p o r t e d c o n cern ed w ith th e c a t e g o r i e s
o f " p a re n t a b sen c e d u rin g c h il d h o o d ," " f a t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p
and f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n ," " p e r c e p tu a l mode and c r e a t i v i t y , "
and " s e l f - c o n c e p t ( s e x - o r i e n t a t i o n ) ." Eisenm an and Fox-
m an 's ( 1970) stu d y i n p a r t i c u l a r h e lp e d le n d c re d e n c e to
th e h y p o th e s iz e d F/A r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith t h e i r f i n d in g s t h a t
th e fa m ily v a r i a b l e , " s p e n t moBt o f l i f e w ith one o r b o th
p a r e n t s , " was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .001 l e v e l . O th er s t u d i e s
such a s B a rc la y e t a l . , who a rg u e d t h a t s in c e C a u ca sian
F/A boys w ere more f i e l d - in d e p e n d e n t (and hence h y p o t h e t i
c a l l y o f a more m a s c u lin e o u tlo o k ) th a n Negro boys r e g a r d
l e s s o f F /P o r F/A, would seem to a rg u e a g a i n s t th e t h e s i s
t h a t th e m o th er r e l a t i o n s h i p i s a dom inant one i n l i g h t o f
th e f r e q u e n t l y dom inant Negro m a te rn a l model (w ith accom
p an y in g b e h a v io r d e s c r ib e d a s more t y p i c a l l y m a s c u l in e ) .
C o r o lla r y e v id e n c e f o r t h i s v ie w p o in t o f th e asce n d an c y o f
th e f a t h e r c o u ld come from d a ta such a s B a r ro n ’ s ( 1968) who
r e p o r t e d t h a t " h ig h s" more th a n "low s" had a s tr o n g and
p o s i t i v e l y v a lu e d f a t h e r , W eisberg and S p rin g e r ( 1961) who
r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e i r c r e a t i v e s had f a t h e r s w ith o c c u p a tio n a l
autonom y, and a c o r r e l a t i o n o f .5 betw een th e " i n t e g r i t y o f
th e f a t h e r - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p , " and o t h e r s t u d i e s r e f e r r e d
to in th e l i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h .
C o n c lu s io n s r e s u l t i n g from r e s e a r c h d e a lin g w ith
th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een c r e a t i v i t y and SES seems to be f a r
from c l e a r . A number o f r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s (D re v d a h l,
1956; K a rs te n , 1967; Owens, 1969; T ib b e ts , 1968) have found
no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een t h e two v a r i a b l e s .
O th e r r e s e a r c h (H o lla n d , 1967; Savoca, 1965; S in g h , 1967;
S m ith, 1 9 6 5) h a s n o te d s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s , b u t no
c o n s i s t e n t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s can seem in g ly be drawn from
them . Upon an a n a l y s i s o f th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e
s t u d i e s t h a t o b ta in e d s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s , and th o s e t h a t
d id n o t , one com m onality seems to a p p e a r im p o r ta n t. Those
s t u d i e s t h a t d id n o t have s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s were g e n e r
a l l y p erfo rm ed on an o l d e r p o p u la tio n th a n w ere th o s e w ith
s i g n i f i c a n t outcom es. The s t u d i e s w hich o b ta in e d s i g n i f i
c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s were on a yo u n g er p o p u l a t i o n , from p r e
s c h o o le r s to s i x t h - g r a d e r s . The rea so n (B ) f o r t h i s phenom
enon a re n o t Im m e d ia tely o b v io u s . One s p e c u l a ti o n , however,
m ig h t be t h a t a s o l d e r p o p u la tio n s a re sam pled f o r s tu d y ,
many o f th e low er so cioeconom ic s u b j e c t s t h a t have l e s s
s t r e n g t h s and a b i l i t i e s th a n t h e i r SES p e e r s w i l l have a l
r e a d y " d ro p p e d -o u t" o f th e sy stem , p o s s i b l y b e ca u se o f
g r e a t e r d e f i c i e n c y f a c t o r s o r c o m b in a tio n s o f d e f i c i e n c i e s
i n t h e i r e n v iro n m e n ta l s i t u a t i o n . As sam ples a re drawn
from o l d e r groupB , t h e r e f o r e , low er SES sam ples would have
r e l a t i v e l y h ig h e r a b i l i t i e s even th o u g h from th e same SES
l e v e l . W hatever th e r e a s o n ( s ) , th e r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e
re v ie w e d a p p a r e n tly I n d i c a t e s t h a t In th e sam ple w hich w i l l
be o b ta in e d i n t h i s s tu d y , a s i g n i f i c a n t outcom e m ig h t be
e x p e c te d , even th o u g h th e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l p r o b a b ly n o t b e :
a sim p le o n e. U sing th e M e tf e s s e l I n d i v i d u a l T e s t o f
13
C r e a t i v i t y , S ing h ( 1967) found t h a t a s SES in c r e a s e d ,
f l e x i b i l i t y and o r i g i n a l i t y i n c r e a s e d , w hereas when SES
d e c re a s e d , f lu e n c y , r e d e f i n i t i o n , s e n s i t i v i t y to p ro b le m s,
and e l a b o r a t i o n i n c r e a s e d . Sm ith ( 1965) , on th e o t h e r
h a n d , found t h a t m id dle SES C au casian c h il d r e n p erfo rm ed
s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on v e r b a l c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s th a n d id
low SES c h i l d r e n , b u t low SES c h il d r e n p e rfo rm ed s i g n i f i
c a n t l y b e t t e r th a n d id m idd le SES c h il d r e n on p erfo rm an ce
c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s . T h is r e l a t i o n s h i p h e ld f o r th e f a c t o r s
o f flu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , e l a b o r a t i o n , and p e n e t r a t i o n ,
b u t no d i f f e r e n c e was found f o r th e o r i g i n a l i t y f a c t o r .
These r e s u l t s m ust be view ed w ith c a u tio n w ith r e g a r d to
th e c o n te x t o f t h i s s tu d y , how ever, s in c e t h i s s t a t i s t i c a l
c o n c lu s io n was re a c h e d u t i l i z i n g th e d a ta from b o th m ale
and fem ale s u b j e c t s . Fem ales s i g n i f i c a n t l y o u t- s c o r e d
m ales on n in e o f th e t h i r t e e n v e r b a l c r e a t i v i t y f a c t o r s
i n v e s t i g a t e d , a lth o u g h no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
se x e s c o u ld be found w ith r e g a r d to th e p e rfo rm an c e t e s t s
u t i l i z e d . T hus, d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e SES g ro u p s c o u ld
be a t t r i b u t a b l e , i n th e m ain, to th e sex v a r i a b l e , These
s t u d i e s s u g g e s t, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a S E S /c r e a ti v i ty d i f f e r
ence m ight be found in th e d i f f e r e n t c r e a t i v i t y f a c t o r s
t e s t e d , a n d /o r betw een th e v e r b a l and p e rfo rm an c e s u b t e s t s .
S m ith 's r a t i o n a l e f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een v e r b a l and
p e rfo rm an c e t e s t s i n h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l SES g ro u p s can be
g ra s p e d from a q u o te by him:
14
I t can be se e n , th e n , t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e i n c h i l d -
r e a r i n g p r a c t i c e s betw een th e low er and m iddle s o c i a l
c l a s s e s do a f f e c t th e c h i l d ’ s developm ent o f a p r e
d i s p o s i t i o n tow ard engaging i n in d e p e n d e n t b e h a v io r .
W hile m iddle c l a s s p a r e n t s e n co u rag e Independence i n
e a r l y y e a r s , and w ith in th e fa m ily s t r u c t u r e , th e y
a ls o e x e r t more b e h a v io r a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r c h i l
d r e n . However, low er c l a s s c h i l d r e n , whose in d e p e n d
ence i s g r a n te d o u t s i d e th e home, and whose i n t e r n a l
b e h a v io r c o n tr o l i s n o t p a r e n t a l l y in f lu e n c e d , sh o u ld
be more in d e p e n d e n t and autonom ous th an m iddle c l a s s
p e e r s [Sm ith, 1965, p . 1 3 ].
R e se a rc h Btudies p r e v i o u s ly c i t e d ( B i l l e r , 1 968;
B i l l e r , 19^9; S u tto n -S m ith e t a l . , 1 9 6 8; Landy e t a l . ,
1 969) have found P/A e f f e c t s such a s a more fe m in in e s e x -
o r i e n t a t i o n and low ered c o g n itiv e a b i l i t i e s to be f a i r l y
c o n s ta n t a c r o s s SES l e v e l s u s e d . A lth ough th e in s tr u m e n ts
u se d to a s s e s s SES s t a t u s were n o t i d e n t i c a l , B i l l e r ( 1968,
1969) found F/A (more fem in in e s e l f - c o n c e p t ) e f f e c t s to be
i n th e same d i r e c t i o n f o r l o w e r - c la s s i n d i v i d u a l s in th e
l a t t e r . S u tto n -S m ith e t a l . ( 1968) , and Landy e t a l .
( 1969) have found u n i d i r e c t i o n a l e f f e c t s on c o g n itiv e
a b i l i t i e s on P/A i n d i v i d u a l s o f m id d le - and lo w e r-m id d le
c l a s s SES s t a t u s ( 1 968) , and w o r k in g - c la s s i n d i v i d u a l s
( 1969) . In t h e i r 1968 s tu d y , S u tto n -S m ith e t a l . , u se d
th e W arner s c a le o f socioeconom ic s t a t u s and found no
d i f f e r e n c e betw een SES and se x , o r any o f th e v a rio u s
o r d i n a l g ro u p s . T h is f in d in g was e la b o r a t e d upon i n a
f o o tn o te on page 1215 i n th e stu d y :
Only 2 o u t o f th e 10 co m p ariso n s . . . o f f a t h e r a b
sence and f a t h e r p re s e n c e on socioeconom ic s t a t u s
ap p ro ach ed a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e (MIF and P I P ) .
I t may be co n clu d ed t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n ACE
15
s c o re were n o t due to d i f f e r e n c e s i n socioeconom ic
s t a t u s .
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s d i s c lo s e d i n th e s e r e s e a r c h
s t u d i e s th e n , would a rg u e a g a i n s t an i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t
betw een th e SES and F/A v a r i a b l e s i n th iB i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
R e se a rc h D esign
P rim ary a n a l y s i s o f th e d a ta was perform ed v ia a
2 x 2 f a c t o r i a l d e s ig n . F a th e r a b sen ce and SES a r e th e
in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s on e i t h e r s id e o f th e f a c t o r i a l
deBign w ith c r e a t i v i t y a s m easured by v a rio u s s u b t e s t s o f
th e Group T e s t o f C r e a t i v i t y a c t in g a s th e d ep en d en t
v a r i a b l e . P o s s ib le i n t e r a c t i o n o f th e v a r i a b l e s waB
a s s e s s e d .
F i f t h - g r a d e s u b j e c t s were chosen f o r t h i s s tu d y
b e c a u se some r e s e a r c h on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f SES and
c r e a t i v i t y , such a s t h a t o f Sm ith ( 1965) i s b a sed on
f i f t h - g r a d e s u b j e c t s . In a d d i t i o n , o t h e r s t u d i e s ( c f . ,
Landy e t a l . , 1 9 6 9) have found t h a t F/A e f f e c t s a re g r e a t
e s t when th e f a t h e r i s a b s e n t d u rin g th e f i r s t n in e y e a r s
o f d ev elo p m en t. N i v e t t e 's r e s e a r c h was p erfo rm ed on
s e v e n t h - g r a d e r s . C o n se q u e n tly , f i f t h - g r a d e s u b j e c t s would
seem a good com prom ise. I f age i n t e r a c t s w ith SES and
c r e a t i v i t y , a s s u g g e s te d p r e v i o u s ly , f i f t h - g r a d e r s sh o u ld
a ls o be young enough to show th e e f f e c t s o f th e SES v a r i
a b le .
16
As d e s ig n e d , two s o u rc e s o f c o n fo u n d in g v a r i a b i l
i t y , r a c e and se x , were e lim in a te d by u s in g o n ly C au casian
m ales a s s u b j e c t s . B ecause o f th e m ethod u t i l i z e d o f
draw ing th e e x p e rim e n ta l p o p u la tio n from a l a r g e r p o o l o f
s u b j e c t s , how ever, a number o f n o n -C a u ca sian F/A boys were
o b ta in e d by ch an c e. These a d d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s were r e
t a i n e d , and a s e p a r a te a n a l y s i s p erfo rm ed w ith them i n
c lu d e d i n o r d e r to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f th e g r a t u i t o u s d a ta .
As can be d is c e r n e d i n th e re v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e s e c t i o n ,
th e s e v a r i a b l e s have been found to have s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a
t i o n s h i p s and i n t e r a c t i o n s w ith c r e a t i v i t y a s a d ep en d en t
v a r i a b l e and i f n o t p r o p e r l y c o n t r o l l e d , c o u ld be a so u rc e
o f c o n fo u n d in g and c lo u d in g o f t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
As com puted by th e te c h n iq u e recommended by K irk
( 1 9 6 8, pp. 107~109) , an N o f 79 was u s e d , y i e l d i n g an
a p p ro x im ate deBign power o f . 7^ on th e 2 x 2 f a c t o r i a l
d e s ig n , and a fa m ily -w is e e r r o r r a t e o f .0 5 was em ployed.
A q u o te by Roweton (1970) e x p re s s e s a t l e a s t one
i n v e s t i g a t o r ^ o p in io n c o n c e rn in g r e s e a r c h d e a lin g w ith
th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i n t e l l i g e n c e and c r e a t i v i t y :
The r e s u l t s o f s t u d i e s r e l a t i n g c r e a t i v i t y and i n t e l
lig e n c e a n d /o r academ ic p erfo rm an c e have been q u i te
in c o n c lu s iv e s in c e th e f i n d i n g s o f one s tu d y o f te n
c o n tr a d ic t e d th e f i n d in g s o f a n o th e r . E v a lu a tin g
c r e a t i v i t y - I Q s t u d i e s , R ip p le and May ( 1962) a s t u t e l y
r e p o r t e d t h a t any s t a t i s t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
c r e a t i v i t y and IQ depended upon th e ra n g e o f i n t e l l i
gence s c o r e s sam pled. S c o re s o b ta in e d from h e t e r o
g eneous IQ sam ples a r e more p r e d i c t i v e o f c r e a t i v e
b e h a v io r th an I n t e l l i g e n c e m easu res from r e l a t i v e l y
17
homogeneous sam ples m ere ly b e c a u se I n c r e a s in g p o p u la
t i o n v a r ia n c e i n c r e a s e s c o r r e l a t i o n s ( i . e . , r e s t r i c t e d
ra n g e p r o b le m ) . A lso , th e r e s u l tB o f each stu d y needed
to be q u a l i f i e d , s in c e th e y depended upon th e p o p u la
t i o n t e s t e d and th e m easu res o f c r e a t i v i t y and i n t e l
l ig e n c e em ployed [Roweton, 1970, p . 8 ] .
An a tte m p t was made to c o n t r o l th e c o n fo u n d in g
e f f e c t s o f 10 by random sam p lin g a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e . An
a d d i t i o n a l c o n t r o l , In l i e u o f IQ s c o r e s w hich were n o t
a v a i l a b l e , was th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f re a d in g s c o r e s o b ta in e d
from th e S ta n fo r d A chievem ent T e s t a t th e t h i r d g ra d e
l e v e l , a s a c o v a r i a t e . Sm ith ( 1965) c o v a rie d b o th I n t e l
lig e n c e and a ch iev e m e n t i n h i s s tu d y o f 603 w h ite and
Negro c h i l d r e n .
O p e r a tio n a l D e f i n i t i o n s
C r e a t i v i t y . The p ro b lem s a s s o c i a t e d w ith d e f i n i n g
c r e a t i v i t y a s "The s c o re on t e a t X" h a s been p o in te d o u t
in a p r e v io u s s e c t i o n . A s e a r c h and a n a l y s i s o f c r e a t i v i t y
l i t e r a t u r e betw een 1965 and 19^9 r e v e a le d t h a t e x c e p t f o r
some r a t h e r l a r g e e x i s t i n g p o p u la tio n s b ro u g h t t o g e t h e r
f o r some o t h e r p rim a ry p u rp o s e , o r r e s e a r c h u s in g p e rs o n s
a lr e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d In some p r o f e s s i o n and r a t e d a s c r e a
t i v e In i t , m ost r e s e a r c h p erfo rm ed co n ce rn e d w ith " th e
e f f e c t s o f . . . [ d i f f e r e n t v a r i a b l e s ] upon c r e a t i v i t y "
h a s u s e d "The s c o re on t e s t X" even th ough s a t i s f y i n g o n ly
one o r two a s p e c t s o f th e c r e a t i v i t y d e f i n i t i o n composed
by IPAR a t th e U n i v e r s i ty o f C a l i f o r n i a a t B e rk e le y
18
(MacKinnon, 1 9 6 l ) . ThiB s tu d y fo llo w s t h a t p re c e d e n t and
u s e s G u i l f o r d 's c o n c e p tu a l m odel a s a b a s i c paradigm o f
th in k in g p r o c e s s e s . The s p e c i f i c t e s t em ployed i s th e
Group T e s t o f C r e a t i v i t y (GTOC) b a t t e r y , w hich i s an
e l a b o r a t i o n o f th e I n d i v i d u a l T e s t o f C r e a t i v i t y (ITOC)
d ev elo p ed by M etfeB sel and R lS B er. The GTOC and ITOC a re
b ased on th e f a c t o r s i d e n t i f i e d by G u ilf o r d a s th o s e p e r
t a i n i n g to c r e a t i v i t y .
F a t h e r - a b s e n c e . F a th e r o r f a t h e r s u r r o g a te was
c o n tin u o u s ly a b s e n t from s u b j e c t 's home (d e a th , d iv o r c e ,
e t c . ) f o r a t l e a s t one y e a r .
R eading s c o r e . In l i e u o f IQ s c o r e s w hich were
u n a v a i l a b l e , t h i r d - g r a d e S ta n f o rd A chievem ent T e s t r e a d in g
s c o r e s were o b ta in e d from sc h o o l r e c o r d s .
Socioeconom ic s t a t u s . T h is v a r i a b l e i s d e fin e d a s
m easured v i a th e u s e o f W arner, M eeker, and E e ls (19^9)
s c a l e . T h e ir a l t e r n a t e t h r e e - f a c t o r p la n was u t i l i z e d
e n t a i l i n g f a t h e r o c c u p a tio n , d w e llin g a r e a , and house
ty p e . S in c e th e f a t h e r o c c u p a tio n f a c t o r c o u ld n o t be
u t i l i z e d to s t r a t i f y th e e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s so c io ec o n o m i
c a l l y , a method o f e q u iv a le n c y o f e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l
g ro u p s was em ployed (s e e P ro c e d u re s s e c t i o n ) .
19
A ssum ptions
S in ce th e GTOC was s e l e c t e d a s th e in s tr u m e n t to
m easure c r e a t i v i t y ., i t s a ssu m p tio n s (and a ls o th o s e o f th e
ITOC) sh o u ld a ls o be a p a r t o f th e s tu d y . As e x p re s s e d
by N iv e tte ( 1966, p . 6 9 ) i n h i s s tu d y , th e a ssu m p tio n s
w e re :
1. C r e a t i v i t y was c o n s id e re d aB an e n t i t y t h a t 1 b
p r e s e n t i n a l l p e rs o n s in d i f f e r e n t d e g re e s and
c o m b in a tio n s from th e s ta n d p o in t o f i n d i v i d u a l
d i f f e r e n c e s . T h is m odel p re s u p p o s e s t h a t e v ery
i n d i v i d u a l can be s tu d ie d to d e te rm in e how d i f
f e r e n t t r a i t s a r e in v o lv e d in c r e a t i v i t y and
u n d e r what c o n d itio n s p r o d u c tio n o f th e c r e a t i v e
ty p e o c c u r s .
2. I t was a ls o presum ed t h a t th e ITOC sh o u ld co n
t a i n a p e rfo rm an c e s e c t i o n t h a t In v o lv e d the.
a c t u a l m a n ip u la tio n o f c o n c re te m a t e r i a l s . T h is
was done w ith th e i d e a t h a t a t e s t o f p erfo rm an ce
would p r o v id e more in f o rm a tio n a b o u t c r e a t i v e
a b i l i t i e s th a n a v e r b a l t e s t a lo n e . T h is id e a
was a ls o b a se d on th e f a c t t h a t i t i s known t h a t
d i f f e r e n t a b i l i t i e s a re in v o lv e d i n t e s t ite m s
w hich can be re s p o n d e d to v e r b a l l y from th o se
a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d by th e a c t u a l m a n ip u la tio n
o f th e t e s t i n g m a t e r i a l s o r an a c t u a l c r e a t i v e
p r o d u c tio n o f some k in d .
3. A t h i r d a ssu m p tio n was t h a t th e GTOC i s a r e l i
a b le and v a l i d m easure o f c r e a t i v i t y . R e l i a b i l
i t y and v a l i d i t y o f t h i s m easure i s d is c u s s e d
i n a l a t e r s e c t i o n [ p r e s e n t w r i t e r 's a s s u m p tio n ].
CHAPTER III
REVIEW O P RELATED RESEARCH
P a r e n t A bsence d u rin g C hildhood
B arro n ( 1968) r e p o r t e d th e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c ie s o f
l i f e - h i s t o r y f a c t o r s i n s u b j e c t s r a t e d h ig h o r low on d e
p a rtm e n t so u n d n ess in a r e c e n t book. A t a s i g n i f ic a n c e
l e v e l o f .0 5 , g ra d u a te stu d e n tB r a t e d h ig h i n d e p artm e n t
so u n d n ess were found to have a h i g h e r p e rc e n ta g e on th e
l i f e - h i s t o r y f a c t o r o f " p re s e n c e o f b o th p a r e n t s in home
u n t i l a d o le s c e n c e ." A ccording to B a rro n , "The Lows te n d e d
to be th e p ro d u c ts o f homes b ro k en by d e a th , d iv o r c e , o r
i l l n e s s , o r by f r e q u e n t long a b se n c e s o f th e f a t h e r [p.
5 9 ] ." B a r ro n Ts i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s phenomenon was:
What seems to be im p o rta n t h e r e i s t h a t th e High
s u b j e c t s had th ro u g h o u t t h e i r c h ild h o o d th e c o n tin u
in g p re s e n c e o f a m odel on w hich th e y c o u ld b a se
t h e i r own c o n c e p tio n o f p o t e n t m a s c u l in i t y . . . .
The Low s u b j e c t s , on th e o t h e r hand , w ere u n a b le ,
sim p ly f o r la c k o f th e s i g n i f i c a n t e x p e rie n c e o f i t ,
to a d o p t In im a g in a tio n th e r o l e o f th e r e s p e c te d
"man o f th e h o u se" [p. 6 0 ].
Eisenm an and Foxman (1970) u se d 75 s u b j e c t s from
t h r e e random ly s e l e c t e d u n d e rg r a d u a te p sy c h o lo g y c o u rs e s
a t Temple U n i v e r s i ty to i n v e s t i g a t e a number o f d e v e lo p
m e n ta l c o r r e l a t e s o f c r e a t i v i t y . They p o s t u l a t e d t h a t c o l
le g e s t u d e n ts h a v in g s p e n t m ost o f t h e i r l i v e s w ith b o th
20
p a r e n t s would be more c r e a t i v e th a n s tu d e n ts sp e n d in g m ost
o f t h e i r l i v e s w ith one o r no n e, and t h a t l i v i n g a t home
w h ile a tt e n d i n g c o lle g e would be n e g a t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d
w ith c r e a t i v i t y . C r e a t i v i t y was o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f in e d by
th e B ric k and P e n c il s u b te B ts o f th e U nusual U ses t e s t .
They found t h a t th e fa m ily v a r i a b l e o f " s p e n t m ost o f l i f e
w ith one o r b o th p a r e n t s " was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .001
l e v e l . In a d d i t i o n , " t h e r e was a weak r e l a t i o n s h i p b e
tween c r e a t i v i t y and sp e n d in g more tim e w ith th e f a t h e r
r a t h e r th a n th e m o th e r, a ls o i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e f a t h e r
r a t h e r th a n th e m other a s th e fa v o re d p a r e n t was w eakly
r e l a t e d to c r e a t i v i t y [p . 6 1 ] ."
R e p o rtin g i n Mooney and R a z i k 's 19^7 book, E x p lo ra
t i o n s i n C r e a t i v i t y , MacKinnon l i s t e d i n h i s c h a p te r (p .
6 3 ) seven main f i n d i n g s w hich d i s t i n g u i s h e d th o s e "h ig h on
p e r s o n a l so u n d n ess" from " th o s e low on t h i s d im en sio n " a s
was sum m arized by B a rro n (195^& ). Among th e s e f i n d in g s
was th e i d e n t i c a l s ta te m e n t q u o te d above from h i s 1968
book c o n c e rn in g s t u d e n t s h ig h o r low in p e r s o n a l so u nd ness
a s s o c i a t e d w ith i n t e g r a l o r b ro k en hom es. These were th e
f in d in g s o f th e IPAR a t th e U n i v e r s i ty o f C a l i f o r n i a a t
B e rk e le y , and th e f i n d i n g s have a p p a r e n t l y rem ain ed s t a b l e
i n tim e a t l e a s t u n t i l B a r r o n ’ s book. P e rs o n a l so u n d n ess
o r e m o tio n a l s t a b i l i t y waB found to be one o f two v a r i a b l e s
c e n t r a l l y d e te r m in a tiv e o f e f f e c t i v e f u n c t i o n in g , th e o t h e r
b e in g o r i g i n a l i t y o r c r e a t i v i t y o f th o u g h t and a c t i o n .
M otlagh ( 1968) , i n h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , found no r e l a t i o n s h i p
betw een c r e a t i v i t y and d iv o rc e i n p a r e n t s . Again i n 1968,
Oden found t h a t h i s p o p u la tio n o f s u c c e s s f u l men h a d , f o r
th e m ost p a r t , i n t e g r a l homes a s c h il d r e n u n d iB ru p te d by
d e a th o r d iv o r c e . Roe (1 9 5 3 )j on th e o t h e r h an d , r e p o r t e d
d i s c r e p a n t f i n d in g s f o r a sam ple o f s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s ,
i n t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t num ber came from n o n i n t e g r a l fa m i
l i e s . In Terman and Oden’ s (1925) fo llo w -u p s t u d i e s o f
1,000 g i f t e d c h i l d r e n , th e l e a s t s u c c e s s f u l g roup had more
th a n tw ic e a s many boys from f a t h e r l e s s homes th a n d id th e
s u c c e s s f u l g ro u p .
F a th e r R e la tio n s h ip and
F a t h e r ’ s O ccu p atio n
S c h a e fe r and A n a s ta s i ( 1968) , i n a s tu d y u s in g
400 Am erican h ig h sc h o o l boys t h a t w ere d iv id e d i n t o c r e a
t i v e and n o n c r e a tiv e g ro u p s i n a r t i s t i c and s c i e n t i f i c
f i e l d s , found t h a t a h ig h p e rc e n ta g e o f th e c r e a t i v e s were
from f a m i l i e s where th e f a t h e r was o c c u p ie d a s a p r o f e s
s i o n a l . T h is r e l a t i o n s h i p h e ld r e g a r d l e s s o f s p e c i a l i z a
t i o n . R e p o rtin g a g a in from B a r r o n ’ s ( 1968) book on th e
r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c ie s o f l i f e - h i s t o r y f a c t o r s i n s u b j e c t s
r a t e d h ig h and low on d e p a rtm e n t so u n d n e ss, he r e p o r t e d a t
a p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l o f l e s s th a n . 0 5 , t h a t h ig h s more th a n
lows had a s tro n g and p o s i t i v e l y v a lu e d f a t h e r . T here was,,
on th e o t h e r hand , a zero p e rc e n ta g e d i f f e r e n c e betw een
th e h ig h s and lows c o n c e rn in g a p o s i t i v e l y v a lu e d m o th e r.
MacKinnon, r e p o r t i n g from B arro n (l9 5 ^ a ) in th e Mooney and
R a zik book ( 1967) , i n d i c a t e d t h a t one o f th e seven main
d e te rm in a n ts o f h ig h p e r s o n a l sou ndness was im ag ery o f th e
f a t h e r a s a r e s p e c t e d , s u c c e s s f u l p e rs o n . M ilto n (1957)
found a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e c h i l d ’ s p ro b lem
s o lv in g a b i l i t y and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e f a t h e r — t r u e o f
b o th boys and g i r l s . M acK innon's ( 1965b) a r c h i t e c t s came
from f a m i l i e s w here t h e r e was a p l e n t i f u l su p p ly o f s u c
c e s s f u l and r e s p e c t e d r e l a t i v e s a s s u i t a b l e m odels f o r
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . O den's ( 1968) s u c c e s s f u l g ro u p , i n 40
p e r c e n t o f th e c a s e s , came from a p r o f e s s i o n a l b ackground
w here f a t h e r and even th e g r a n d f a t h e r had had some c o lle g e
e d u c a tio n , w here books were v a lu e d (38 p e r c e n t had a l i
b r a r y o f 500 o f more) and where th e f a t h e r h e ld p o s i t i o n s
o f h o n o r and t r u s t in th e n e ig h b o rh o o d . R o e 's (1953)
sam ple e s s e n t i a l l y a g re e d w ith th o s e o f MacKinnon and Oden.
As r e p o r t e d in s e v e r a l s o u r c e s , W eisberg and S p r in g e r
( 1961) [ a ls o r e p o r t e d i n A ra s te h ( 1968) and Mooney and
R a zik ( 1967) ] in a s tu d y o f 32 c h il d r e n whose I Q 's w ere
among th e to p 50 o f a sam ple o f 7*000 p u b lic sc h o o l c h i l
d re n , and who w ere d i f f e r e n t i a t e d on t h r e e o f th e M in n eso ta
T e s ts o f C r e a tiv e T h in k in g , found a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l betw een th e c h i l d ’ s t e s t e d
24
c r e a t i v i t y and f a t h e r 's o c c u p a tio n a l autonom y. They a ls o
r e p o r t e d a c o r r e l a t i o n o f .5 betw een th e " i n t e g r i t y o f th e
f a t h e r - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p " and th e l e v e l o f c r e a t i v e t e s t
p e rfo rm a n c e . As r e p o r t e d i n Mooney and R a zik (19&7) >
" i n t e n s i t y o f f a t h e r - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p " was s i g n i f i c a n t
a t th e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e .
Socioeconomic Status and C reativity
Drevdahl (1956) studied p r o fessio n a l c r e a tiv ity in
p sy ch o lo g ists. He divided the p sy ch o lo g ists in to three
groups: c r e a tiv e , noncreative and productive, and noncrea-
tiv e and nonproductive. He found th at p ro fessio n a l educa
tio n a l training was a prim ary-influence upon crea tiv e
p o te n tia l. Family and emotional factorB were also o f some
importance. Socioeconomic sta tu s (SES) did n ot, however,
appear to be a cru cia l v ariab le. The follow ing i s a quote
from Holland's study:
The group composed o f highly in t e llig e n t and highly
crea tiv e children had the h igh est means for a l l three
socioeconomic v a ria b les. . . . The groups composed o f
more creative children with average and below-average
in te llig e n c e gen erally had higher mean scores or r a t
ings for socioeconomic sta tu s, academic gradeB,
achievement t e s t scores in reading, and ra tin g s by
teachers on personal c h a r a c te r is tic s . The more crea
tiv e boys with above-average in te llig e n c e received
gen erally lower mean Bcores or ra tin g s on two so c io
economic v ariab les, academic grades, and ra tin g s by
teachers on personal c h a r a c te r is tic s , but the d i f
ferences were s ig n ific a n t in only a few in stan ces
[1967, P. 147-A ].
Subjects were elementary public school ch ild ren . Using
three o f G uilford 's t e s t s for c r e a tiv it y (P lot T itle s ,
25
A l t e r n a t e Uses., and I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y ), J a n s s e n ( 1966)
found t h a t in te n t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s , sc h o o l d ro p o u ts sc o re d
s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r th a n d id th o s e who rem ain ed i n Bchool
i n a low socioeconom ic g ro u p . K a rste n ( 1967) found no s i g
n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n m easured econom ic s t a t u s in term s
o f c u l t u r a l ad v an tag e i n 201 t h i r t e e n - y e a r - o l d Negro p u p i l s
on any o f th e s i x m easu res o f c r e a t i v i t y employed i n th e
s tu d y . U sing th e W allach and Kogan ( 1965) t e s t s o f c r e a
t i v i t y , Massad ( 1969) found i n a low SES group t h a t th e
c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s and th e Modern Language A p titu d e T e s t do
n o t m easure a u n i t a r y p r o c e s s . Owens ( 1969) , i n a 1964
fo llo w -u p stu d y o f 1 ,5 0 0 e n g in e e r in g s t u d e n t s , found no
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n c r e a t i v i t y when r e l a t e d to SES.
Savoca ( 1965) found in p r e s c h o o l c h il d r e n t h a t h ig h SES
g ro u p s sc o re d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r th an low er o n es on
t o t a l d iv e r g e n t th in k i n g . C u l t u r a l d e p r i v a ti o n was n e g a
t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d to d i v e r g e n t th in k in g ( i . e . , s u b j e c t s
who were N egro, o f low i n t e l l i g e n c e , and o f th e lo w e st SES
group e x h ib i t e d th e l e a s t c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l ) . Employing
f i f t h - g r a d e c h ild r e n i n P i t t s b u r g h , Sm ith ( 1965) found t h a t
m iddle SES C au casian c h i l d r e n p e rfo rm e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t
t e r on v e r b a l c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s th a n d id low SES c h i l d r e n ,
b u t low SES c h il d r e n p e rfo rm e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r th a n
d id m iddle SES c h il d r e n on p e rfo rm an c e c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s .
T h is r e l a t i o n s h i p h e ld f o r th e f a c t o r s o f f lu e n c y , f l e x i
b i l i t y , elaboration, and penetration, but no d ifferen ce
was found for the o r ig in a lity fa cto r. Singh ( 1967)> using
the M etfessel Individual Test o f C reativity as the c r e a tiv
it y cr iterio n for subjects in grades one and s ix , found
that as SES increased to a higher le v e l, su bjects ex celled
in f l e x i b i l i t y and o r ig in a lity . Lower SES su b jects, on
the other hand, ex celled In performance on the r e d e fin itio n ,
fluency, s e n s it iv it y to problems, and elaboration fa cto rs.
Tibbets ( 1968) , using se lec te d t e s t s from Torrance and
G etzels and Jackson as the c r e a tiv ity c r ite r io n , fa ile d to
e sta b lish a s ig n ific a n t re la tio n sh ip between c r e a tiv ity and
SES variab le. His subjects were from grades 10 to 12.
Perceptual Mode and C reativity
W itkin1s e t a l. (1954) concepts o f field -in d ep en d -
ence and field-dependence have been demonstrated to in t e r
act highly with other p sych ological constructs and various
p erson ality v a ria b les. I t i s argued that a broad band o f
p erson ality c h a r a c te r istic s i s a ssociated with these dif-^
ferences In perceptual behavior and theBe d ifferen ces are
subsumed under the " d iffe re n tia tio n h ypothesis." In i t s
sim plest form, th is hypothesis s ta te s that the f ie ld -
dependent in d ivid u al i s le s s d iffe r e n tia te d in h is general
s ty le o f l i f e , and, among other th in gs, seems more passive
in h is approach to the environment, apparently depending
more upon external cues to determine h is behavior. In
c o n tr a s t., th e f i e l d - in d e p e n d e n t i n d i v i d u a l seems to r e l y
more upon h im s e lf f o r cu es to d e te rm in e h i s " b e h a v io r"
(B a rc la y & Cusumano, 1967j P- 2 4 4 ). Dyke and W itk ln ( 1965)
found t h a t among th e Je w ish m iddle c l a s s i n New Y ork, m oth
e r s o f f ie l d - d e p e n d e n t c h il d r e n w ere d e s c r ib e d a s i n t e r f e r
in g w ith s e p a r a t i o n , p r e v e n tin g th e a ssu m p tio n o f r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y and s t r e s s i n g c o n fo rm ity . B a rc la y and Cusumano
( 1967) a rg u e d t h a t s in c e th e f ie ld - d e p e n d e n t mode o f p e r
c e p tio n i s more t y p i c a l o f fe m a le s th an m a le s, an h y p o th e
s iz e d u n c o n sc io u s r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f f a t h e r - a b s e n t
maleB w ith th e fem ale (m other) psyche sh o u ld be r e v e a le d
i f f a t h e r - a b s e n t m ales a re more f ie ld - d e p e n d e n t i n t h e i r
p e r c e p t u a l modes th a n a r e o t h e r f a t h e r - p r e s e n t m a le s.
U sing 40 m ale a d o le s c e n t s , th e main e f f e c t o f f a t h e r a v a i l
a b i l i t y was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l ,
i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e f a t h e r - a b s e n t b o y s d e m o n s tra te d more
f ie ld - d e p e n d e n t b e h a v io r th a n d id f a t h e r - p r e s e n t b o y s.
The T o rra n ce T e s ts o f C r e a tiv e T h in k in g , v e r b a l and
f i g u r a l , Form A, w ere u se d by K ernaleg uen ( 1969) to i n v e s
t i g a t e th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een c r e a t i v e th in k in g and W it-
k i n ' s b o d y - f i e l d p e r c e p t u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . The sam ple
c o n s i s t e d o f 68 j u n i o r and s e n i o r fem ale s t u d e n ts e n r o l l e d
i n th e C o lle g e o f Home Econom ics a t th e U n i v e r s i ty o f S a s
k atch ew an . F ie ld -in d e p e n d e n c e r e l a t e d p o s i t i v e l y w ith
v e r b a l flu e n c y and f i g u r a l e l a b o r a t i o n .
28
T o r r a n c e ’s M in n eso ta T e s ts o f C r e a tiv e T hinking
were u se d "by Gensemer ( 1968) a s h i s c r i t e r i o n t e s t s . He
u s e d 66 c o ll e g e s e n i o r s m a jo rin g i n se c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n a t
E a s t S tro u d sb u rg S t a te C o lle g e i n P e n n s y lv a n ia a s s u b j e c t s ,
and a tte m p te d to r e l a t e c r e a t i v i t y to th e f i e l d - i n d e p e n d e n t /
d e p e n d e n t p e r c e p t u a l contin uum . I t was found t h a t a f i e l d -
in d e p e n d e n t mode o f p e r c e p tio n does p ro v id e more f a v o r a b le
c o n d it i o n s f o r c r e a t i v e th in k i n g . In Mooney and R a zik
(1967)> Mackinnon in tim a te d t h a t th e W itk in phenomena c o u ld
p o s s i b l y be u se d a s a p r e d i c t o r o f c r e a t i v i t y a lth o u g h he
d id n o t r e l a t e any e x p e r im e n ta l e v id e n c e (p p. 58- 6 0 ) .
McWhinnie ( 1967) u t i l i z e d a n o n v e rb a l m easure d e v elo p ed by
T o rra n c e f o r a m easure o f c r e a t i v i t y in a s tu d y w hich r e
l a t e d W itk in ’ s n o tio n o f p e r c e p t u a l m odes. A s i g n i f i c a n t
c o r r e l a t i o n was found betw een f ie ld - in d e p e n d e n c e and o r i g i
n a l i t y and e l a b o r a t i o n . In a c o n c e p tu a lly d i f f e r e n t p e r
c e p t u a l d im e n sio n , Schulman ( 1 9 6 6) r e l a t e d th e p erfo rm an c e
o f 89 f o u r t h - g r a d e r s on a c r e a t i v i t y t e s t (Drawing Comple
t i o n T e s t —DCT) and two p e r c e p t u a l t e s t s (C hanging F ig u re s
T e s t; F in d in g o f E n c lo se d A reas T e s t — FEAT). The c o r r e l a
t i o n betw een p e rfo rm an c e on th e DCT and th e FEAT was low,
b u t s i g n i f i c a n t : r = .1 8 , p c . O l . S u b je c ts s c o rin g h ig h
on th e DCT a ls o s c o re d h ig h on th e FEAT, b u t n o t th e r e
v e r s e . I t was co n clu d ed t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s were
found betw een th e c r e a t i v i t y and p e r c e p tu a l- o p e n n e s s t e s t s .
29
SpottB and M ackler ( 1967) r e l a t e d two m easu res o f " f i e l d -
d e p en d e n c e /in d e p e n d e n c e " to c r e a t i v e t e s t p e rfo rm a n c e .
They administered to 138 c o lleg e males the Embedded Figures
Test (EFT, short form), the Hidden Figures Test (HFT), two
verbal (Ask and Guessj Unusual Uses) and two nonverbal
(C ircles Testj Decorations) c r e a tiv ity t e s t s and also ob
tained two in te llig e n c e measures. Cognitive s ty le scores
were used to divide subjects in to high, medium, and low
field-dependent/independent groups. The cogn itive sty le
groupings did not d iff e r on IQ,. The r e s u lts indicated that
field-independent subjects (as measured by the EFT) were
sig n ific a n tly more cr ea tiv e, as assessed by a composite
c r e a tiv ity score.
S e lf - c o n c e p t ( S e x - o r i e n t a t i o n )
A s tu d y by B a rc la y and Cusumano ( 1967) u s in g 40
a d o le s c e n t m ales h a s been p r e v i o u s ly r e f e r r e d t o . UBing
W it k i n 's p e r c e p t u a l continuum a s a m easure o f s e x - r o le
o r i e n t a t i o n i n f a t h e r - a b s e n t (F/A) m a le s, th e y found t h a t
f a t h e r a b sen ce does i n c l i n e m ales tow ard a l a t e n t fem in in e
s e l f - c o n c e p t . In 1968 , Henry B i l l e r p e rfo rm ed r e s e a r c h
d e sig n e d to e x p lo re th e e f f e c t s o f f a t h e r a b sen ce on m ascu
l i n e developm ent i n lo w e r - c l a s s Negro and C a u ca sian b o y s.
H is s u b j e c t s w ere 29 s i x - y e a r - o l d b o y s. A s s e s s in g se x -
r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n by means o f B ro w n 's (1957) IT s c a l e , he
found t h a t th e C au casian boys had a more m a sc u lin e s e l f
30
c o n c e p t (p < .01) th an d id th e Negro boys., and t h a t f a t h e r -
p r e s e n t (F /P ) boys had a more m a s c u lin e s e x - o r i e n t a t i o n
th an d id th e F/A b o y s. No s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n was
found betw een f a t h e r - s t a t u s and r a c e . T here w ere no s i g
n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s on any o f th e v a r i a b l e s when o v e r t
m a s c u l in i t y was m easured w ith th e u s e o f a 15- ite m r a t i n g
s c a l e . B i l l e r e x te n d e d h i s work ( 1969) w ith a sam ple o f
34 m atched (a g e , SES l e v e l , s i b l i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n , Peabody
P i c t u r e V o c ab u la ry T e s t) k in d e r g a r te n - a g e O au casian b o y s.
S ev en teen o f th e boys w ere f a t h e r - a b s e n t , and 17 were
f a t h e r - p r e s e n t . M easurem ent o f s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n was
p e rfo rm e d by B row n's IT s c a le and a game p r e f e r e n c e t a s k .
M a te rn a l encouragem ent was m easured by u se o f m u l t i p l e -
c h o ic e q u e s tio n s c o n s tr u c te d from an e a r l i e r p i l o t B tudy.
R e s u l ts i n d i c a t e d t h a t F /P b oys had much more m a s c u lin e IT
s c o r e s ( p c . O l ) and s l i g h t l y more m a s c u lin e g a m e -p re fe re n c e
BCoreB (p < . 0 5 ) , b u t d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n m an i
f e s t s e x - o r i e n t a t i o n r a t i n g s c a l e s c o r e s . The m o th e rs o f
th e F /P boy s a p p e a re d to be s l i g h t l y more e n c o u ra g in g o f
m a s c u lin e b e h a v io r th a n d id th e m o th ers o f F/A boys (p <
.0 5 ) j w h ile m o th ers o f F/A boys a p p e a re d to be more am bi
v a l e n t c o n c e rn in g m a sc u lin e b e h a v io r i n t h e i r so n s. F or
F/A b o y s, d e g re e o f m a te r n a l encouragem ent o f m a sc u lin e
b e h a v io r was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to g a m e -p re fe re n e e s c o r e s
( p < . 0 5 ) and to r a t i n g s c a l e s c o r e s ( p < . 0 5 ) , b u t n o t to
31
IT s c o r e s . Owens ( 1969)^ In h ' s fo llo w -u p o f 1,500 e n g i
n e e rin g s t u d e n t s , found t h a t g r e a t e r c r e a t i v e s had a l e s s
f a v o r a b le s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n o f th e m se lv e s th a n d id th e l e s s
c r e a t i v e . P e r k in s ( 1 9 6 7) u t i l i z e d th e Remote A s s o c ia te s
T e s t a s a v e r b a l m easure o f c r e a t i v i t y w h ile u s in g th e
Drawing C om pletion T e s t a s a v i s u a l m easure o f c r e a t i v i t y ,
i n a d d it i o n to em ploying a 7 0 - a d j e c t i v e Q s o r t to a s s e s s
co n g ru en ce i n s u b j e c t s ' s e l f - c o n c e p t s . He employed 434
j u n i o r and s e n i o r h ig h sc h o o l s t u d e n ts a s s u b j e c t s . He
found no r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e con gruence mean c o r r e l a
t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s o f h ig h i n t e l l i g e n t —h ig h c r e a t i v e ,
a v e ra g e i n t e l l i g e n t - - h i g h c r e a t i v e , a v e ra g e i n t e l l i g e n t —
low c r e a t i v e , and h ig h i n t e l l i g e n t — low c r e a t i v e s t u d e n t s ,
when s t r a t i f i e d on e i t h e r c r e a t i v i t y c r i t e r i o n t e s t . S is k
( 1967) u t i l i z e d th e B i l l s In d ex o f A d ju stm en t and V a lu e s to
r e l a t e th e s e l f - c o n c e p t to t h a t o f c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g .
S e v e ra l o f G u i l f o r d 's t e s t s w ere u s e d to o b ta in m easu res
o f f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , and o r i g i n a l i t y . I t was found
t h a t h ig h s e l f - c o n c e p t s t u d e n ts p e rfo rm ed a t a s i g n i f i
c a n t l y h ig h e r l e v e l on o r i g i n a l i t y and f l e x i b i l i t y -than d id
low s e l f - c o n c e p t s t u d e n t s . Her s u b j e c t s were s i x t h - g r a d e
c h i l d r e n . Terman (1934) found t h a t c r e a t i v e p h y s i c a l
s c i e n t i s t s w ere s t r o n g l y m a s c u lin e . V illa s - B o a s ( 1968)
u s e d B cores on p ro b lem s d e v e lo p e d b y C r u t c h f i e l d and Cov
in g to n a s h e r c r i t e r i o n o f c r e a t i v i t y . A sp e c ts o f th e
s e l f - c o n c e p t were exposed from C o o p e rsm ith rs S e lf-E s te e m
S c a le . Only th e v a r i a b l e s o f assum ing c r e d i t , ta k in g
blam e, and s e l f - c o n c e p t v ia s o c i a l com petence had a mean
i n g f u l r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith c r e a t i v i t y . C r e a tiv e c h i l d r e n ,
r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r ach iev em en t l e v e l , have l e s s s e l f -
c o n c e p t v i a s o c i a l com petence th an n o n c r e a tiv e c h i l d r e n .
The s u b j e c t s w ere 325 s ix g r a d e r s w ith a m id d le o r u p p e r
m id d le SES b a ck g ro u n d . W eisberg and S p r in g e r , w r i t i n g in
Mooney ( 1967* P* ! 3 l ) u se d c a t e g o r i e s o f Judgm ent from
i n te r v ie w s w ith c h ild r e n and c o r r e l a t e d th e judgm ents w ith
c r e a t i v i t y t e s t i n g p e rfo rm a n c e . " S tr e n g th o f s e lf -im a g e "
was found to be s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e ,
and c o r r e l a t e d more h i g h ly th a n any o t h e r judgm ent w ith th e
c r i t e r i o n . MacKinnon, i n l i s t i n g d e te rm in a n ts o f p e r s o n a l
so u n d n e ss, q u o te d B a rro n :
In g e n e r a l , th e H ighs w ere c h a r a c t e r i z e d e i t h e r by
m a tu re , e a s i l y a c h ie v e d m a s c u l in i t y o r by a s o l u t i o n
i n w hich f e m i n in i t y was s u b lim a te d , and m a sc u lin e sex
d r i v e s were s a t i s f i e d in a s t a b l e m a rria g e m arked by
c lo s e dependency on th e w if e ; th e Lows were c h a r a c
t e r i z e d e i t h e r by m a n n e r is tic f e m i n in i t y , . . r e s u l t
in g e i t h e r i n hom osexual r e l a t i o n s o r m inim al s e x u a l
" o u t l e t " . . . o r by a " m a s c u lin ity " w hich p r o t e s t e d
too much [ 195^a]*
In h i s 1968 book, B a rro n v e r i f i e d th e s t a b i l i t y o f t h i s
c o n c lu s io n o v e r tim e by o b ta in in g d a ta w hich d e m o n stra te d
t h a t s u b j e c t s h ig h in p e r s o n a l so u ndness c o u ld , a t th e .05
l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e , be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s h a v in g " c u r r e n t
e s ta b lis h m e n t o f an e n d u rin g p o s i t i v e h e te r o s e x u a l r e l a
t i o n s h i p [p . 5 9 ] ."
33
Mother R elationship
Barclay and Ousumano ( 1967) * when diBcussing the
r e s u lts and im p lication s o f a study previously referred
to, had some in te r e stin g speculations concerning the ro le
o f the mother re la tio n sh ip in the observed e ff e c t s upon
F/A children:
The obtained s ig n ific a n t d ifferen ces between fa th er-
present and fath er-ab sen t groups with resp ect to rod
and frame Bcores [perceptual measure], on the other
hand, o ffe r support for our hypothesis regarding
field-dependency and i t s m anifestation s. . . . I t
can be remarked, o f course, that there are degrees
o f p a s s iv ity -e x p r e s s iv ity in the maternal model, and
i t i s in te r e stin g to speculate whether the male ch ild
who id e n t if ie s with a role-appropriate aspect o f the
maternal model— that i s , with a mother who i s domi
nant, a g gressive, and lnstrum entally o rien ted —makes
a more adequate adjustment in terms o f h is subsequent
r o le I d e n tific a tio n . W e may speculate from our fin d
ings that the observed d ifferen ces between Negro and
white adolescents in terms o f greater field-dependency
o f the Negro adolescents regardless o f father-presence
or father-absence, would argue against t h is . That
i s , in lig h t o f the ty p ic a lly matriarchal Negro family
structure with a dominant maternal model, we might
have expected the croBs-sex id e n tific a tio n with such
a maternal model to produce le s s field-dependent be
havior. I t i s our contention, rather, that the ab
sence o f a male model i s the cr u c ia l factor [pp. 248-
249].
Barron ( 1968) found a zero d ifferen ce between sub
je c ts rated high or low on department soundness on the
statem ent, " p o sitiv e ly valued mother." Balagtus ( 1968) ,
in h is study o f four-and fiv e -y e a r -o ld children, found a
p o s itiv e re la tio n sh ip between the democratic a ttitu d e of
the mothers and th e ir ch ild ren 's c r e a tiv ity in rhythmic
movements as measured by the Nebraska Parental A ttitude
34
S c a le (NPAS). B i l l e r ' s 1969 stu d y w ith 34 m atched C aucasian
hoys i n d i c a t e d t h a t m a te r n a l en couragem ent o f m a sc u lin e b e
h a v io r i n P/A boys was somewhat p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d ( p < .05)
to one m easure o f s e x - o r i e n t a t i o n , b u t n o t to th e o t h e r .
Dyke and W itk in (1 9 6 5 )j a f t e r i n te r v ie w in g and t e s t i n g 48
t e n - y e a r - o l d boys and t h e i r m o th e rs, found a s i g n i f i c a n t l y
n e g a tiv e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e c h i l d 's d e g re e o f d i f f e r
e n t i a t i o n ( i . e . , fie ld -d e p e n d e n c e /in d e p e n d e n c e ) and th e
d e g re e to w hich th e m o th e r s t r e s s e d c o n fo rm ity and l im i te d
h e r s o n 's c u r i o s i t y . Eisenm an and Poxman (1 9 7 0 ), in t h e i r
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f fa m ily p a t t e r n s and c r e a t i v i t y in c o lle g e
s t u d e n t s , found a weak p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e
i n d i c a t i o n o f th e f a t h e r r a t h e r th a n th e m other a s th e
fa v o re d p a r e n t ( p < . 0 5 ) . G e tz e ls and Ja c k so n (1971) found
t h a t th e m o th e rs o f l e s s c r e a t i v e c h il d r e n w ere more " c o r
r e c t " i n t h e i r u p b r in g in g . MacKinnon ( 1 967) , q u o tin g B a r
ro n (1 9 5 4 a ), d e s c r ib e d th e fo llo w in g r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
s u b j e c t s and t h e i r m o th e rs:
Mothers o f the Highs appear to have been loving and
s o lic it o u s o f th e ir sons, c lo s e ly co n tro llin g them
at home when they were young. Mothers o f the Lows
appear, as described by them, to have been seductive,
demanding, and o v erp ro tectiv e. In the liv e s o f the
Lows, the mother had been the dominant parent; in the
case o f the Highs, the strength o f the fath er appears
to have been determ inative [p. 6 3 ].
I n R o e 's sam ple (1953)> th e s c i e n t i s t s e x p re s s e d g e n u in e
r e s p e c t f o r t h e i r f a t h e r s b u t n o t c lo s e a f f e c t i o n ; th e y
f e l t c l o s e r to t h e i r m o th e rs e m o tio n a lly . W eisberg and
35
S p rin g e r ( 1961) found t h a t com p ulsive m o th ers te n d e d to
have l e s s c r e a t i v e c h i l d r e n th a n th o s e t h a t were n o t com
p u l s i v e .
Race
B a r c l a y 's s tu d y ( 1967) I n d i c a te d t h a t th e Negro
f a th e r -a b B e n t group waB more f i e ld - d e p e n d e n t (on W itk in l s
continuum ) th an th e C a u ca sian group ( p < . 0 5 ) . T h is o u t
come was i n t e r p r e t e d to mean t h a t th e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f F/A
Negro boyB i s more fe m in in e th a n P/A C au casian b o y s. W ith
h i s sam ple o f l o w e r - c la s s Negro and C au casian boys., B i l l e r
( 1 9 6 8) found t h a t f o r h i s s i x - y e a r - o l d sam ple, C au casian
boys had more m a sc u lin e s e x - o r i e n t a t i o n s c o r e s on a s e x -
o r i e n t a t i o n m easure th a n d id th e Negro b o y s, b u t t h e r e
a p p ea re d to be no d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e two g ro u p s i n
term s o f m a n if e s t s e x - o r i e n t a t i o n a s m easured by a r a t i n g
s c a l e . T here was no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n betw een
f a t h e r - s t a t u s and r a c e I n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e b e
tween F/P and P/A s u b j e c t s i n t h i s s tu d y was n o t d ep en d en t
upon th e r a c e o f th e s u b j e c t . I s c o e and P ie r c e - J o n e s
(1964) found t h a t Negro c h il d r e n g e n e r a l l y o b ta in e d h ig h e r
d iv e r g e n t th in k in g s c o r e s th a n w h ite c h il d r e n ( p r i m a r il y
In term s o f I d e a t i o n a l f l u e n c y ) , b u t th e w h ite c h il d r e n
g o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r IQ s c o r e s on th e WISC. T h e ir
s u b j e c t s w ere a g ro u p o f T exas lo w e r - c la s s w h ite and Negro
c h i l d r e n , f i v e to n in e y e a r s o l d . The c r e a t i v i t y t e s t
used was Torrance^ UU t e s t . Savoca ( 1965) found that
cu ltu ra l deprivation was n eg a tiv ely re la ted to divergent
thinking. Subjects who were Negro, o f low in te llig e n c e ,
and o f the low est SES group exh ib ited the le a s t creative
p o te n tia l. Singh ( 1967)* using 200 white and Negro f i r s t -
and Bixth-grade children as subjects and the M etfessel
Individual Tests o f C rea tiv ity , found that there was no
sig n ific a n t d iffer en ce s between children according to race
on fa cto rs o f r e d e fin itio n (verb al), fluency (verb al),
f l e x i b i l i t y (v erb al), o r ig in a lity (v erb a l), and elaboration
(performance). His overfindings showed that c r e a tiv ity as
defined in h is study increased with age, but does not r e
f l e c t race. Employing 603 fifth -g r a d e Negro and white
children as su b jects. Smith ( 1965) found that white c h i l
dren performed s ig n if ic a n t ly higher than Negro subjects on
17 out o f 20 c r e a tiv ity dependent v a ria b les. A s ig n ific a n t
in te ra c tio n was obtained between race and SES. No s i g n i f i
cant re la tio n sh ip was found between c r e a tiv ity and SES for
Negro su b jects. White males were found to outscore Negro
males on six o f eigh t nonverbal c r e a tiv ity t e s t s , while no
s ig n ific a n t re la tio n sh ip was found between these two groupB
on verbal c r e a tiv ity t e s t s . White fem ales were found to
score s ig n if ic a n t ly higher on three o f eigh t nonverbal
c r e a tiv ity t e s t s , and on 10 o f 13 verbal t e s t s than the
Negro fem ales. T ib b etts1 1968 In v estig a tio n u t iliz in g
258 su b jects, 36 percent non-white and 64 percent white,
found t h a t knowledge o f r a c e was second o n ly to IQ In
p r e d i c t i v e v a lu e f o r s u c c e s s on th e c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s u se d
( s e l e c t e d t e s t s from T o rra n c e and G e tz e ls & J a c k s o n ) . He
found t h a t C a u c a sia n g i r l s c o u ld be p r e d i c t e d to p e rfo rm
b e t t e r on th e c r i t e r i o n t e s t s th a n a l l o t h e r s u b j e c t s ,
e s p e c i a l l y i n th e v e r b a l a r e a s . The G e tz e ls and Ja c k so n
s c o re s w ere lo a d e d on th e v e r b a l f a c t o r and w ere more d i s
c r im in a to r y a g a i n s t n o n -w h ite s u b j e c t s th a n w ere th e T o r
ra n c e t e s t s . T o rra n c e , how ever, a c h ie v e d g r e a t e r s i g n i f i
cance w ith th e sex v a r i a b l e .
Sex
No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een sex o f th e
sam ple and c r e a t i v i t y o f rh y th m ic movements a s m easured
b y th e R a tin g S c a le f o r C r e a tiv e Rhythm ic Movements was
found by B a la g tu s 1969 s tu d y o f f o u r - and f i v e - y e a r - o l d
c h i l d r e n . B a rro n ( 1968) found a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
betw een s u b j e c t s on d e p a rtm e n ta l so u n d n ess ( p < . 0 5 ) on
th e s ta te m e n t, " c u r r e n t e s ta b lis h m e n t o f an e n d u rin g
p o s i t i v e h e te r o s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , " w ith High s u b j e c t s
f i t t i n g th e c a te g o r y b e t t e r . C i r c i r e l l i (1 9 6 7 )j u s in g
th e M in n eso ta T e s ts o f C r e a tiv e T h in k in g , found t h a t v e r b a l
c r e a t i v e a b i l i t i e s , r e a d in g , and a r i t h m e t i c a c h ie v e m e n ts
were enhanced f o r s u b j e c t s w ith s i b l i n g s o f l i k e sex c lo s e
i n a g e . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found on c r e a t i v i t y
t e s t p e rfo rm an c e on th e b a s i s o f sex o f th e s u b j e c t , how
e v e r . In M c tla g h ’ s 1968 s tu d y o f 168 c o lle g e s t u d e n t s , a
s i g n i f i c a n t sex d i f f e r e n c e was d e te rm in e d betw een m ales and
fe m a le s , w ith fe m a le s r e c e i v i n g h i g h e r s c o r e s . Sm ith
( 1965) r e p o r t e d t h a t w h ite fe m a le s o u ts c o r e d w h ite m ales
on n in e o f 13 c r e a t i v i t y f a c t o r s . The s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r
ence stemmed from th e v e r b a l f a c t o r s , t h e r e a p p e a rin g to
be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n term s o f th e n o n v e rb a l
t e s t s . As r e p o r t e d i n th e RACE s e c t i o n , T ib b e ts ( 1968)
found t h a t C a u c a sia n g i r l s c o u ld be p r e d i c t e d to p e rfo rm
b e t t e r on th e c r i t e r i o n th a n a l l o t h e r s u b j e c t s . A cco rd
in g to A ra s te h ( 1968) , T o rra n c e ( 1963) h a s found l i t t l e
d i f f e r e n c e i n th e a b i l i t y o f boys and g i r l s u n t i l f i v e
y e a r s o f age i n h i s t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e th in k i n g . Prom
t h a t a g e , bo ys b e g in to a c q u ir e s u p e r i o r a b i l i t y in m anipu
l a t i n g and e x p e rim e n tin g , w h ereas g i r l s e x c e l o n ly i n
flu e n c y o f re s p o n s e .
S ib lin g C o n s t e l l a t i o n and B i r t h O rder
B a rro n ( 1 9 6 8) found t h a t s u b j e c t s h ig h i n d e p a r t
m e n ta l so u n d n ess w ere c h a r a c t e r i z e d from th o s e low on d e
p a r tm e n ta l so u n d n ess by th e s ta te m e n t: "p re s e n c e o f o t h e r
s i b l i n g s and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s w ith them [p . 5 9 ] ." C i r -
c i r e l l i ( 1967) found t h a t s i x t h - g r a d e s t u d e n ts c o u ld n o t be
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d on th e M innesota T e s ts o f C re a tiv e T h in k in g
on th e b a s i s o f fa m ily s i z e , b u t t h a t c r e a t i v i t y s c o r e s
w ere h i g h e r i f th e s u b j e c t had a s i b l i n g o f l i k e sex c lo s e
39
i n a g e. MacKinnon (1967) q u o tin g from B a rro n (l95^a).>
n o te d t h a t s u b j e c t s h ig h i n d e p a r tm e n ta l so u n d n ess te n d e d
to have more s i b l i n g s and to r e p o r t more f r i e n d l y r e l a
t i o n s h i p s w ith them th a n d id th e low s. S u tto n -S m ith e t a l .
( 1968) have i n v e s t i g a t e d th e e f f e c t s o f f a th e r - a b s e n c e in
f a m i l i e s o f d i f f e r e n t s i b l i n g c o m p o s itio n s on th e c o g n itiv e
developm ent o f th e c h i l d a s m easured by th e Am erican C o l
le g e E n tra n c e E x a m in a tio n . Sophomores i n a l o w e r - d iv is io n
p sy c h o lo g y c o u rs e were sam pled o v e r a f i v e - y e a r p e rio d
y i e l d i n g a F/A N o f 295^ w h ile a l i k e number o f F/P i n
d i v i d u a l s was s e l e c t e d from a t o t a l N o f 7 6 0 . R e p r e s e n ta
t i v e o f th e d ra m a tic e f f e c t s o f f a t h e r - a b s e n c e , th e m a jo r
i t y o f th e sam ple A, L, and T s c o r e s on th e ACE w ere lo w er
f o r F/A s u b j e c t s r e g a r d l e s s o f th e s u b j e c t ’ s s ta g e in
developm ent o r th e le n g th o f tim e th e f a t h e r was away.
S u b je c ts whose f a t h e r s were a b s e n t d u rin g th e a g e s o f one
to n in e showed more d e p re s s iv e e f f e c t s on th e ACE th a n any
o t h e r c o m b in a tio n o f y e a r s . I t was i n d i c a t e d t h a t f a t h e r -
ab sen ce e f f e c t s a re s t r o n g e s t i n t h r e e - c h i l d f a m i l i e s ,
m o d erate i n tw o - c h ild f a m i l i e s , and m inim al i n o n e - c h ild
f a m i l i e s . W hile b o th se x e s seem a f f e c t e d i n t h r e e - c h i l d
f a m i l i e s , m ales a r e more a f f e c t e d i n tw o - c h ild f a m i l i e s
and fe m a le s i n o n e - c h ild f a m i l i e s .
The s i b l i n g p o s i t i o n o f th e u n a f f e c t e d fe m a le s (on
w hich th e r e a re d a ta ) s u g g e s ts t h a t th e p o s s e s s io n s
o f a l i k e sex s i b l i n g m o d ifie s th e e f f e c t s o f f a t h e r
a b se n c e . The boy w ith a y o u n g e r b r o t h e r i s l e s s
4o
a f f e c t e d th a n th e hoy w ith a y o u n g e r s i s t e r , and th e
g i r l w ith a y o u n g e r s i s t e r i s l e s s a f f e c t e d th a n th e
g i r l w ith a yo u n g er b r o t h e r [S u tto n -S m ith e t a l . ,
1968, p . 1 2 1 9 ].
A ccord ing to A r a s te h ( 1968) , A ltu s ( 1965)> G o e r tz e l
and G o e rtz e l ( 1962) , S c h a c h te r ( 1963)* Terman ( 1925) , and
W eisberg and S p r in g e r ( 1961) , " g i f t e d n e s s , " b r o a d ly d e
f i n e d , te n d s to o c c u r more f r e q u e n t l y i n o n ly o r f i r s t
b o rn c h il d r e n th an in y o u n g e r s i b l i n g s . S c h a c te r ( 1963)^
how ever, su g g e s te d t h a t b i r t h o r d e r e f f e c t a s shown by p r e
dom inance o f f i r s t b o rn s among em inen t men i s an a r t i f a c t
o f la c k o f a p p r o p r i a te c o n t r o l g ro u p s . C i c i r e l l i ( 1967)
found no r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een b i r t h - o r d e r and c r e a t i v i t y
i n s i x t h g r a d e r s . D a tta ( 1968) found no r e l a t i o n s h i p
betw een b i r t h - o r d e r and c r e a t i v i t y . Eisenm an found t h a t
f i r s t - b o r n s u b j e c t s showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s c r e a t i v i t y
i n a stu d y i n 1964. A s tu d y p e rfo rm ed by Eisenm an i n
1969j how ever, r e s u l t e d i n th e r e v e r s e s i t u a t i o n . M otlagh
( 1968) c o u ld n o t f i n d a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
b i r t h o r d e r and c r e a t i v i t y . In R o e 's sam ple o f 64 s c i e n
t i s t s , she n o te d a g r e a t e r th a n chance in c id e n c e o f f i r s t
b o rn c h il d r e n among th e sam p le.
C H A PT E R IV
PROCEDURES
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e sam ple a s w e ll a s th e sam
p lin g te c h n iq u e s u se d to s e l e c t s u b j e c t s a re e l u c i d a t e d In
t h i s c h a p t e r . I t a ls o In c lu d e s a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e i n s t r u
m ents em ployed, s c o rin g and i n t e r - j u d g e r e l i a b i l i t y p r o
c e d u re s u t i l i z e d , and a d is c u s s io n o f th e r e l i a b i l i t y and
v a l i d i t y o f th e c r e a t i v i t y t e s t u t i l i z e d a s th e d ep en d en t
v a r i a b l e . In a d d i t i o n , d a ta a n a l y s i s p ro c e d u re s a r e
in c lu d e d .
Sam pling T ech n iq u es
The c r e a t i v i t y b a t t e r y was a d m in is te r e d to 901
f i f t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s , from e i g h t s e p a r a te s c h o o ls i n a
la r g e sc h o o l d i s t r i c t (P a lo s V e rd e s, C a l i f o r n i a ) whose
c o n s t i t u e n t s a re p r i m a r il y from th e m iddle to u p p e r s o c i o
econom ic s ta tu B ( a s d e fin e d by W arner, M eeker, & E e l l s ,
i 9 6 0) , and to 82 f i f t h - g r a d e boys from one sc h o o l in a
s m a lle r s c h o o l d i s t r i c t (P aram ount, C a l i f o r n i a ) whose
s t u d e n ts ra n g e ro u g h ly from th e lo w e r-lo w e r to m iddle
so cio eco n o m ic c l a s s e s .
41
42
Socioeconomic S t r a t i f i
cation Procedures
The method for determining equivalency o f F/A and
P/P groups for both socioeconomic le v e ls o f the fa c to r ia l
design i s the same and 1 b described in th is paragraph.
Socioeconomic s t r a t if ic a t io n procedures described by Warner,
e t a l. gen erally u t i l i z e the four factors o f father occupa
tio n , source of income, dwelling area, and house type.
Since no method was availab le in which complete and accurate
data concerning source o f income could be gathered (espe
c i a lly for the experimental groups), a m odification o f
Warner’s et a l. a ltern a te th ree-fa cto r plan u t il iz i n g
fath er occupation, dwelling area, and house type was em
ployed in th is study. D eletion of the source o f income
factor was important for both socioeconomic le v e ls , but
e s p e c ia lly c r i t i c a l for the higher socioeconomic groups,
as i t can be in ferred that many of the P/A fa m ilies are
receivin g indeterminant amounts of income in the form of
alimony, death b e n e fits , etc., from the absent Bpouse.
Mother occupation was not included as a fa cto r, Bince
occupations for females are s t i l l highly truncated in th is
culture for the most part. Even r e la t iv e ly high paying
jobs such as le g a l secretary* court recorder, etc., cannot
be reasonably equated to other occupations which are s t i l l
r e s tr ic te d almost e x c lu siv e ly to males. Former father oc
cupation was also not employed, since many of the fa m ilies
may have moved s in c e becom ing n o n i n t e g r a l and n eig h b o rh o o d
know ledge o f th e fo rm er o c c u p a tio n r a t h e r vague., and b e
cau se th e in f lu e n c e o f t h i s f a c t o r would p ro b a b ly v a ry w ith
th e amount o f tim e t h a t th e fa m ily had become n o n i n t e g r a l .
S in c e th e f a c t o r s m en tio n ed c o u ld n o t be u t i l i z e d to s t r a t
i f y th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p s s o c io e c o n o m ic a lly , a method o f
e q u iv a le n c y f o r th e e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s was
d e v is e d , a lth o u g h a l l t h r e e f a c t o r s w ere employed to s t r a t
i f y th e c o n tr o l g ro u p s . I t was re a s o n e d t h a t a t l e a s t f o r
n o n i n t e g r a l f a m i l i e s , SES would be b e s t a p p ro x im ate d by
th e type o f house and n e ig h b o rh o o d i n w hich th e y l iv e d .
I f house ty p e and d w e llin g a r e a W arner s c a l e v a lu e s were
n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t betw een th e e x
p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s , SES o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l and
c o n t r o l g ro u p s c o u ld th en be assum ed to be a p p ro x im a te ly
th e same, o r a t l e a s t c o n t r o l l e d a s a f a c t o r i n th e d e s ig n .
E q u iv a le n c y o f th e r e s p e c t i v e e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l
g ro u p s c o u ld th a n be a p p ro x im a te d by p e rfo rm in g c h i- s q u a r e
t e s t s betw een th e r e s u l t i n g n u m e ric a l v a lu e s a s s ig n e d to
th e house ty p e and d w e llin g a r e a . A su rv e y o f th e l i v i n g
a r e a s f o r a l l s u b j e c t s was t h e r e f o r e c o n d u c te d , and th e
house ty p e (W arner e t a l . , I9 6 0 , pp. 149-150) and d w e llin g
a r e a (W arner e t a l . , i 9 6 0 , p p . 151-154) a s s e s s e d f o r each
s u b j e c t by W a rn e r's e t a l . r e s p e c t i v e s c a l e s . C h i-s q u a re s
were computed betw een e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s f o r
h o u s e -ty p e a lo n e , d w e llin g a r e a a lo n e , and f o r h o u s e -ty p e
and d w e llin g a r e a com bined. T e s ts d e li n e a t e d above were
computed f o r C a u c a sia n s u b j e c t s a lo n e and f o r a l l s u b j e c t s
I n c lu d in g n o n -C a u c a s ia n s . None o f th e c h i- s q u a r e s com puted
w ere s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . C h i-s q u a re v a lu e s a r e
p r e s e n te d i n th e t a b l e below :
T A B L E 1
SES C H I-SQ UARE V A L U E S B E T W E E N E X P E R IM E N T A L (f/ a)
A N D C O N T R O L (F/p) G R O U P S
Factors
Paramount Palos Verdes
Caucasian Ss A ll Ss Caucasian Ss A ll Ss
House-type alone
Dwelling area alone
House-type and
dw elling area combined
2 .4 l6 .502
.070 .785
1.722 I .787
1.460 a
1.550 S
.920 a
aChi-squares were not computed since there were very few non-
Caucasian Ss in the sample.
M iddle S ocioeconom ic Groups
Drawing from th e l a r g e p o o l o f s tu d e n ts In P a lo s
V e rd e s , a number o f f a t h e r - a b s e n t (F/A) male s t u d e n ts were
I d e n t i f i e d a s m eeting th e P/A o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n ,
s t r a t i f i e d s o c io e c o n o m ic a lly , and u t i l i z e d aB th e h ig h e r
SES e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p . As t h e r e were no male P/A s t u d e n ts
i d e n t i f i e d i n two o f th e P a lo s V erdes s c h o o ls , th e r e s u l t
in g e x p e rim e n ta l sam ple was drawn from o n ly s i x o f th e
e i g h t s c h o o ls .
A c o n t r o l gro u p f o r th e h ig h e r so cioecon om ic l e v e l
o f th e f a c t o r i a l d e s ig n was d e riv e d by draw ing random ly
from th e re m a in d e r o f th e p o o l s t r a t i f i e d s o c io e c o n o m ic a lly
by u s in g th e th r e e W arner f a c t o r s , and a d d i t i o n a l l y s t r a t
i f i e d a c c o rd in g to th e num ber o f F/A s tu d e n ts i d e n t i f i e d
i n each s c h o o l. The w e ig h te d t o t a l o f r a t i n g s on th e
W arner, M eeker, and E e l l s s c a l e s o b ta in e d f o r s t u d e n ts i n
th e P a lo s V erdes g roup ra n g e d from 19 to 35 w ith a mean o f
2 6 .8 1 . The r a t i n g o f 19 a c c o rd in g to th e c o n v e rs io n t a b l e
on page 127 f o r s o c i a l - c l a s s e q u iv a le n t s i s d e f in e d a s :
"Upper c l a s s p ro b a b ly , w ith some p o s s i b i l i t y o f U pper-
M iddle c l a s s " ; 35 i s d e f in e d a s " I n d e te r m in a te : e i t h e r
U pper-M iddle o r Low er-M iddle c l a s s " ; w h ile th e mean o f
2 6 .8 1 i s d e fin e d a s "U pper-M iddle c l a s s . "
Low Socioeconom ic Groups
A l l m ale, F/A s t u d e n ts i d e n t i f i e d a s m eetin g th e
F/A o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n , were s t r a t i f i e d so c io e c o n o m i
c a l l y , and u t i l i z e d a s th e low er SES e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p .
The c o n t r o l g ro up was drawn from th e re m a in d e r o f th e
f i f t h - g r a d e m ales i n th e sc h o o l on a random b a s i s . The
w e ig h te d t o t a l o f r a t i n g s o b ta in e d from s t u d e n ts in th e
Param ount gro up ra n g e d from 55 to 7^* w ith a mean o f 6 1 .6 6 .
As r e p o r t e d on th e c o n v e rs io n t a b l e , th e r a t i n g o f 55 i s
d e fin e d a s "Upper-Low er c l a s s " ; 7^ i s d e fin e d a s "Lower-
Lower c l a s s " ; w h ile th e mean o f 6 1 .6 6 i s d e fin e d a ls o as
"Upper-Low er c l a s s . " Many o f th e c h i l d r e n u t i l i z e d in
th e e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s drawn from th e P a r a
mount E le m e n ta ry School a re e n r o l l e d i n th e f r e e lu n ch
program u n d e r th e Aid f o r D ependent C h ild re n P r o v is io n .
T h is i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s a n o th e r i n d i c a t i o n o f th e r e l a t i v e l y
low so cio eco n o m ic s ta n d in g o f th e Param ount g ro u p s.
In s tru m e n ts
A d m in is tr a tio n
The c r e a t i v i t y b a t t e r y u t i l i z e d was th e Group T e s t
o f C r e a t i v i t y (GTOC), a m o d if ic a tio n o f th e I n d i v id u a l
T e s t o f C r e a t i v i t y (ITOC), c o n s t r u c t e d by Newton M e tfe s s e l
and Jo se p h R i s s e r . The b a t t e r y was a d m in is te r e d i n g ro u p s
w hich co m p rised th e e n t i r e f i f t h - g r a d e c l a s s from th e
v ariouB s c h o o ls . Two t e s t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w ere a v a i l a b l e .
One examiner administered the b attery from standard In
stru ctio n s, while the other answered Individual questions
and acted as a proctor. Examiners alternated in the two
r o le s . A fter the examiner had fin ish ed giving In stru c
tio n s, he/Bhe also acted as a proctor.
As p r e v i o u s ly m e n tio n ed , th e socioeconom ic schema
em ployed to s t r a t i f y th e v a r io u s g ro u p s in th e s tu d y was
t h a t d e s c r ib e d in a volume by W arner, M eeker, and E e l l s ,
f i r s t c o p y rig h te d I n 1949 by S c ie n c e R e se arch A s s o c ia te s ,
I n c . , and a g a in i n i 960 by H a rp er and Row, P u b l i s h e r s ,
I n c o r p o r a te d . The t h r e e s c a l e s u t i l i z e d f o r s y s te m a tiz in g
SES c a t e g o r i z a t i o n w ere: ( l ) th e r e v i s e d s c a le f o r r a t i n g
o c c u p a tio n , pp. 140-141; ( 2 ) th e r e v i s e d s c a le f o r r a t i n g
house ty p e , pp. 149-150; and ( 3 ) th e s c a le f o r r a t i n g
d w e llin g a r e a , p p . 151-154.
R eading s c o r e s u se d aB a c o v a r i a t e were g a th e r e d
from sc h o o l d i s t r i c t r e c o r d s . The re a d in g s c o r e s a v a i l a b l e
f o r a m a jo r ity o f th e sam ple w ere from a S ta n fo rd A c h iev e
ment T e s t a d m in is te r e d i n May o f 1970 when th e s u b j e c t s
w ere i n th e t h i r d g r a d e . The s c o r e s o f s tu d e n ts who had
ta k e n th e SAT on o t h e r d a te s were e q u a te d by th e u s e o f
v a r io u s c o n v e rs io n s c a l e s .
V a l i d i t y and R e l i a b i l i t y
o f th e GTOO
Jam es N iv e tte r e p o r t e d a s tu d y c o n cern ed w ith th e
GTOC In Ja n u a ry ± 9 6 6. The t e s t he u se d was b a se d on th e
ITOC w hich waB c o n s t r u c t e d by Newton M e tf e s s e l and Jo sep h
R i s s e r . M o d if ic a tio n s , to make th e b a t t e r y am enable to
group u s e , were made by th e s t a f f o f P r o j e c t P o t e n t i a l on
th e campus o f th e U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a .
S in ce th e GTOC i s a m o d if ic a tio n o f th e ITOC, r e l i a b i l i t y
and v a l i d i t y s t u d i e s a re an I n d i r e c t so u rc e o f GTOC v a l i d a
t i o n . R e l i a b i l i t y f o r th e ITOC was computed u s in g common
f a c t o r v a ria n c e p lu s th e s p e c i f i c f a c t o r , e q u iv a le n t form s,
and by co m p ariso n s o f 60 p r o t o c o l s s c o re d by two In d ep e n d
e n t w e l l - t r a i n e d ju d g e s .
V a l i d i t y was e s tim a te d u s in g G u i l f o r d 's m ark er t e s t s
w ith known f a c t o r s t r u c t u r e f o r i d e n t i f y i n g th e f a c t o r
s t r u c t u r e o f th e ITOC. J u n i o r h ig h sc h o o l c r e a t i v e
s t u d e n ts were a ls o compared w ith n o n c r e a tiv e s and a
random sam pling o f j u n io r h ig h sc h o o l s t u d e n ts on th e
b a s i s o f t o t a l V e rb a l, t o t a l P erfo rm a n ce , and t o t a l
ITOC s c o r e s . The same was done f o r a com parison o f
c r e a t i v e j u n i o r c o lle g e freshm en and a random sam
p l e o f [ n o n c r e a tiv e ] j u n i o r c o lle g e freshm en [N iv e t-
t e , 1966, p . 7 4 ].
N i v e t t e 's s tu d y u t i l i z e d a sam ple o f 473 s e v e n th -
g ra d e s tu d e n ts from E l l i o t J u n i o r High S chool i n P asad en a,
C a l i f o r n i a . A random sam ple o f 100 boys and 100 g i r l s was
th e n e x t r a c t e d from t h i s t o t a l N on w hich th e s tu d y was
th e n b a s e d . F o r v a r io u s r e a s o n s an e f f o r t to e s t a b l i s h
s o p h i s t i c a t e d r e l i a b i l i t y I n fo r m a tio n was n o t p erfo rm ed in
h i s s tu d y . A p erfo rm an c e and v e r b a l t e s t was u se d f o r each
o f s i x h y p o t h e t i c a l f a c t o r s b e lie v e d to be p e r t i n e n t to
c r e a t i v i t y ( i . e . , r e d e f i n i t i o n , f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , o r i g -
I n a l i t y , e l a b o r a t i o n , and s e n s i t i v i t y to p ro b le m s ), y i e l d
in g a t o t a l b a t t e r y o f 12 t e s t s . P e r t i n e n t to v a l i d a t i o n ,
he found t h a t f o u r o f th e v e r b a l and p e rfo rm an c e t e s t s e t s
t h a t were suppo sed to be m easu rin g th e same f a c t o r were
s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d . A d d i t io n a l ly , he found t h a t a l l
o f th e v e r b a l s u b t e s t s c o r r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith each
o t h e r , e x c e p t o r i g i n a l i t y , w hich was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y
c o r r e l a t e d w ith any o f th e o t h e r v e r b a l t e s t s . P erfo rm an ce
t e s t s , on th e o t h e r hand, had no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s
among th e m s e lv e s . P erform ance s u b t e s t s c o r r e l a t e d h ig h e r
th a n d id th e v e r b a l s u b t e s t s w ith t o t a l GTOC s c o r e s . In
term s o f v a l i d i t y th e n , s in c e e a c h s e t o f v e r b a l and p e r
form ance t e s t s i s a l l e g e d to m easure one f a c t o r o f c r e a t i v
i t y , v e r b a l and p e rfo rm an c e m easu res f o r each s e t sh o u ld
c o r r e l a t e w e ll w ith e ac h o t h e r . On th e o t h e r h a n d , th e y
sh o u ld n o t c o r r e l a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith o t h e r v e r b a l and
p e rfo rm an c e t e s t s B ince each i s d e s ig n e d to m easure s e p a
r a t e f a c t o r s . The r e s u l t s show t h a t th e p e rfo rm an c e te s tB
a re m ea su rin g s e p a r a te f a c t o r s w h ile th e v e r b a l t e s t s
s h a re more common v a r ia n c e . An e x c e p tio n i s o r i g i n a l i t y
w hich was shown to be an in d e p e n d e n t f a c t o r f o r b o th th e
v e r b a l and p e rfo rm a n c e s u b t e s t s . In th e c a se o f f o u r f a c
t o r s , s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s were found betw een th e
v e r b a l and p e rfo rm an c e s u b t e s t s o f e ac h s e t ( f lu e n c y , r =
. 5^; f l e x i b i l i t y , r = .2 8 ; o r i g i n a l i t y , r = . 2 7 ; and
s e n s i t i v i t y to p ro b le m s, r - . 5 1 ).
50
A n o th er Btudy w hich in c lu d e d a c o n s i d e r a ti o n o f
th e v a l i d i t y o f th e GTOC was r e p o r t e d by Logan Pox in
Septem ber 19^7 • The sam ple u se d was o b ta in e d from te n
p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s ta u g h t by s ix d i f f e r e n t t e a c h e r s in a
com p reh en siv e j u n i o r c o lle g e i n S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a . A l
though 293 s t u d e n ts w ere in v o lv e d in th e b e g in n in g , b e ca u se
o f th e la c k o f s c o re s on some m ea su re s, o n ly 217 were i n
c lu d e d in th e f i n a l sam p le — 150 m ales and 67 fe m a le s .
Most o f th e s tu d e n ts w ere second o r t h i r d se m e s te r s tu d e n ts .
U n lik e N i v e t t e , Logan u se d o n ly one v e r b a l t e s t in h i s t e s t
b a t t e r y , th e t e s t d e sig n e d to m easure r e d e f i n i t i o n . On th e
o t h e r h an d , he d id in c lu d e p e rfo rm an c e t e s t s f o r a l l o f th e
s ix h y p o th e s iz e d f a c t o r s u t i l i z e d i n th e fo rm er stu d y ( r e
d e f i n i t i o n , s e n s i t i v i t y to p ro b le m s, f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y ,
o r i g i n a l i t y , and e l a b o r a t i o n ) . In o r d e r to a s s u r e r e l i a b l e
s c o rin g o f th e t e s t b a t t e r y , each s u b t e s t was c o r r e c t e d by
one i n d i v i d u a l and checked by two " c h e c k e r s ." An a v e ra g e
r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f .8 8 3 was a s s e s s e d f o r th e two
" c h e c k e r s ." The r e s u l t s o f a f a c t o r a n a l y t i c tr e a tm e n t o f
th e GTOC a r e sum m arized i n two q u o te s from th e stu d y :
Q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e Group T e s t o f C r e a t i v i t y : The
GTOC s c o r e s d id n o t c o r r e l a t e w e ll w ith e i t h e r g rad e
p o i n t a v e ra g e s o r w ith SCAT s c o r e s . The m eaning o f
t h i s la c k o f c o r r e l a t i o n i s n o t known and t h i s s tu d y ,
i s , i n p a r t , aim ed a t b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g th e s e d i s
p a r i t i e s . I t was found t h a t th e Group T e s t o f C re a
t i v i t y i s w e ll r e c e iv e d by j u n i o r c o ll e g e s t u d e n t s ,
t h a t i t can be sc o re d r e l i a b l y , t h a t i t s s u b t e s t s
a l l c o r r e l a t e w e ll w ith t o t a l s c o r e , and t h a t i t m eas
u r e s a t l e a s t f o u r d i s t i n c t f a c t o r s . No a d e q u a te v a l - :
51
i d a t i o n h as been a c h ie v e d , b u t th e c o n s t r u c t v a l i d a
t i o n o f th e t e s t i s s u p p o rte d by th e way i n w hich th e
S t r u c t u r e o f I n t e l l e c t f a c t o r s a p p e a r i n th e f a c t o r
a n a l y s i s [Pox, 19^7, p . 1 7 1 ].
The r e s u l t s o f th e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s w ere n o t v e ry
d i f f e r e n t from w hat was e x p e c te d . The i n t e r c o r r e l a
t i o n s w ere a l i t t l e on th e low s id e b u t n o t a t a l l
u n u s u a l. Of f a r g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t , b e c a u se o f th e
r e le v a n c e to th e developm ent o f th e Group T e s t o f
C r e a t i v i t y , i s th e in f o r m a tio n th e c o r r e l a t i o n m a trix
y i e l d e d on th e i n t e r n a l n a tu r e o f th e GTOC. The s u r
p r i s i n g l y h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een each o f th e su b
t e s t s and GTOC t o t a l s c o re s u g g e s t good i n t e r n a l con
s i s t e n c y and le n d s u p p o rt to th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e
w hole t e s t [Pox, 1967^ P- 1731*
The f i r s t f a c t o r was i d e n t i f i e d by two t e s t s d e
sig n e d to m easure G u i l f o r d 's g e n e r a l f a c t o r o f e l a b o r a t i o n .
Pox chose to c a l l th e s p e c i f i c a b i l i t y d i s c lo s e d "D iv e rg e n t
P ro d u c tio n o f P i g u r a l I m p l i c a t i o n s ." The second f a c t o r was
i d e n t i f i e d p r i m a r i l y by h ig h n e g a tiv e lo a d in g s on two p e r
form ance t e s t s . One o f them was d e s ig n e d to m easure th e
r e d e f i n i t i o n f a c t o r , and th e o t h e r , t h a t o f o r i g i n a l i t y .
P o x 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was t h a t w h a te v e r f a c t o r two does
m easu re, i t i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from w hat th e y were d e sig n e d
to d i s c r i m i n a t e . He h a z a rd e d th e g u e ss t h a t i t m ig h t be
"C onvergent P ro d u c tio n o f S em antic C l a s s e s ." The t h i r d
f a c t o r was i d e n t i f i e d by a h ig h lo a d in g on r e d e f i n i t i o n
s u b t e s t s , and a m o d erate lo a d in g on th e s u b t e s t d e sig n e d
to m easure f lu e n c y . Pox a rg u e d t h a t th e "d o o d le" t e s t s
u se d r e q u i r e th e a b i l i t i e s o f r e d e f i n i t i o n , f lu e n c y , and
f l e x i b i l i t y . He t e n t a t i v e l y named th e f a c t o r " D iv e rg e n t
P ro d u c tio n o f S em antic T ra n s f o r m a tio n s ." The l a s t f a c t o r
52.
was d e fin e d by a heavy lo a d in g on th e S chool and C o lle g e
A b i l i t y T e s ts (SCAT), and by a s u b t e s t i n th e GTOC b a t t e r y
a ll e g e d to m easure " s e n s i t i v i t y to p ro b le m s ." From th e s e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s , he t e n t a t i v e l y la b e le d th e l a s t f a c t o r " d i
v e rg e n t P ro d u c tio n o f S em antic S y ste m s."
S c o rin g th e GTOC
The "Group T e st o f C r e a t i v i t y ; A d m in is tra tio n
M anual; S c o rin g G uide; R ecord B o o k le t," 1 s t R e v is io n 1972,
c o a u th o re d by M e tf e s s e l and Hammond, was u se d to sc o re th e
b a t t e r i e s . F iv e ju d g e s w ere em ployed i n s c o r in g . Two o f
th e ju d g e s sc o re d a p p ro x im a te ly o n e - t h i r d each o f th e t o t a l
number o f t e s t s , w h e rea s, th e o t h e r t h r e e sc o re d th e r e
m aining o n e - t h i r d . The l a t t e r t h r e e ju d g e s d id n o t s c o re
th e e n t i r e t e s t o f any one s u b j e c t , b u t s c o re d o n ly c e r t a i n
s u b t e s t s i n th e b a t t e r y .
I n t e r - J u d g e R e l i a b i l i t y P ro c e d u re s
R e l i a b i l i t y o f s c o r in g was e s t a b l i s h e d by h av in g
a l l o f th e ju d g e s s c o re 30 random ly s e l e c t e d t e s t s . The
te B ts u t i l i z e d i n th e i n t e r - r e l i a b i l i t y c o m p u ta tio n s were
random ly s e l e c t e d from th o s e to be s c o re d by each ju d g e i n
d i r e c t p r o p o r t io n to th e number t h a t he was s c o r in g . B ased
on th e common s c o r in g o f th e s e t e s t s , a m o d ifie d Spearm an-
Brown i n t e r - j u d g e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t was computed from
th e p ro c e d u re c o n ta in e d i n M iner ( 1962, p p . 1 2 4 -1 3 2 ). Two
c o e f f i c i e n t s w ere computed* one t h a t was a d ju s te d f o r th e
fram e o f r e f e r e n c e * and th e o t h e r computed w ith o u t r e g a r d
f o r fram e o f r e f e r e n c e . The a d ju s te d fram e o f r e f e r e n c e
r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t i s .9*3* w h ile th e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f
f i c i e n t com puted w ith o u t r e g a r d f o r fram e o f r e f e r e n c e i s
. 9 6 .
D ata A n a ly s is
The m a j o r it y o f th e d a ta was s t a t i s t i c a l l y a n a ly z e d
th ro u g h a b io m e d ic a l program (BMD X64)* by th e Com puter
S c ie n c e s L ab o ra to ry * a t th e U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r
n i a . I n th o s e a n a ly s e s o f v a ria n c e t a b l e s w here th e i n d e
p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w ere found to i n t e r a c t * t_ r a t i o s were
com puted to a s s e s s sim p le main e f f e c t s .
CHAPTER V
FINDINGS
In c lu d e d I n t h i s c h a p te r a re th e f o llo w in g su b
h e a d in g s : (a) a r e s ta te m e n t o f th e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s ,
(b) m ajo r f i n d i n g s , and (c) a d is c u s s i o n o f p o s s i b l e co n
fo u n d in g v a r i a b l e s . T a b le s c o n ta in in g b a s i c s t a t i s t i c a l
r e s u l t s f o r a l l ANOVA’ s and ANCOVA’s computed f o r th e seven
s u b t e s t s and g l o b a l c r e a t i v i t y s c o r e s a re in c lu d e d i n Ap
p e n d ix A. A d d itio n a l t a b l e s , lum ping C au casian and th e
g r a t u i t o u s d a ta f o r n o n -C a u ca sian s u b j e c t s t o g e t h e r , a re
a ls o p r e s e n te d i n Appendix A. F in d in g s f o r C au casian su b
j e c t s o n ly a r e p r e s e n te d i n t h i s c h a p te r .
R e sta te m e n t o f H yp oth eses
P rim ary r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s a r e r e p e a te d h e re f o r
e a se o f r e a d in g , and a re a s fo llo w s :
1. F i f t h - g r a d e , C a u c a sia n , boys w ith f a t h e r s a b s e n t
d u rin g some o r a l l o f t h e i r d e v e lo p m e n ta l h i s t o r y
(a s o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f in e d on page 18) , w i l l e x
h i b i t l e s s c r e a t i v e p e rfo rm a n c e on th e Group T e s t
o f C r e a t i v i t y (GTOC) th a n f i f t h - g r a d e , C a u ca sian ,
boys w ith f a t h e r s p r e s e n t .
5 4
55
2. A lthou gh p r e v io u s r e s e a r c h does n o t p e rm it a
sim p le s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn in g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p
betw een c r e a t i v i t y and so cio eco n o m ic s t a t u s
(SES), i t i s h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t t h e r e w i l l be
a d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t upon c r e a t i v i t y p e rfo rm
ance a c c o rd in g to th e SES l e v e l a s m easured by
W a rn e r’ s socioecono m ic s c a l e . E x p e rim e n ta l
e f f e c t s may v a ry w ith th e c r e a t i v i t y f a c t o r
( f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , e t c . ) , a n d /o r by th e
ty p e o f c r e a t i v i t y s u b t e s t u se d ( i . e . , v e r b a l
o r n o n v e r b a l ) .
3 . F o r e x p lo r a to r y p u rp o s e s i t i s h y p o th e s iz e d
t h a t t h e r e w i l l be an i n t e r a c t i v e e f f e c t b e
tween th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . S p e c i f i c a l l y ,
t h e r e w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
F/A lo s SES and F /P low SES s u b j e c t s , betw een
F/A h ig h SES and F/P h ig h SES s u b j e c t s , b e
tween F/A low SES and F/A h ig h SES s u b j e c t s ,
and betw een F /P low SES and F /P h ig h SES su b
j e c t s .
M ajor F in d in g s
S u p p o rt f o r each r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is i s p r e s e n t e d
i n th e same o r d e r a s l i s t e d ab o v e. E ig h t s t a t i s t i c a l h y
p o th e s e s can be d e r iv e d from each m ajo r r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is
to ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t th e seven s u b t e s t s and g l o b a l c r e a t i v -
56
i t y s c o r e s , and w i l l be d e l i n e a t e d i n th e d i s c u s s i o n o f
each m ajo r r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s is .
S t a t i s t i c a l h y p o th eses f o r each o f th e seven sub-
te stB and th e g lo b a l c r e a t i v i t y s c o re s fo r th e F/A re s e a rc h
h y p o th e sis ta k e th e form in d ic a te d below :
H0 i = 0 f o r a l l i .
H1 1 ° i ^ 0 fo r Bome 1 •
A l l F/A F r a t i o s com puted f o r s u b t e s t s and th e g l o b a l c r e a
t i v i t y s c o re f a i l e d to r e a c h s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e e x
c e p t f o r t h a t o f th e R e d e f i n i t i o n A s u b t e s t . S in c e i n t e r
a c t io n F r a t i o s f o r t h i s s u b t e s t (and f o r th e R e d e f i n it i o n
B s u b t e s t and g l o b a l c r e a t i v i t y s c o r e s ) a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t , th e s i g n i f i c a n t F r a t i o a t t a i n e d f o r main
e f f e c t s i s i n t e r p r e t e d w ith c a u t i o n . S t a t i s t i c a l means
and a d ju s te d s t a t i s t i c a l means f o r t h i s s u b t e s t a re p r e
s e n te d l a t e r in th e i n t e r a c t i o n r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is d i s c u s
s io n .
A t a b l e c o n ta in in g F/A F r a t i o s f o r th e ANOVA and
ANCOVA computed i s p r e s e n t e d below :
TABLE 2
A N O V A A N D A N C O V A F/A F RATIO S; RED EFIN ITIO N A
A N O V A A N C O V A
5,878*
5.059
*p < .0 5 .
57
I t can be seen from i n s p e c t i o n o f th e p re c e d in g t a b l e t h a t
th e F/A F r a t i o f a i l s to re a c h s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e
when th e r e a d in g s c o re i s c o v a r ie d . R eading a b i l i t y can ,
t h e r e f o r e , be c o n s id e r e d a s a v i a b l e r i v a l h y p o th e s is to
a c c o u n t f o r th e s e r e s u l t s . A c c o rd in g ly , no s t a t i s t i c a l
s u p p o r t i s a v a i l a b l e f o r th e F/A r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is .
S t a t i s t i c a l h y p o th e s e s f o r each o f th e Beven su b
t e s t s and th e g l o b a l c r e a t i v i t y s c o r e s f o r th e SES r e s e a r c h
h y p o th e s is ta k e th e form i n d i c a t e d below :
H0 s p j = 0 f o r a l l j .
: P j H 0 f o r some j .
S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t SES P r a t i o b were computed f o r
g l o b a l c r e a t i v i t y s c o r e s , and f o r th e F lu e n c y , F l e x i b i l i t y ,
and O r i g i n a l i t y s u b t e s t s . In th e c a s e o f th e G lo b a l c r e a
t i v i t y b a t t e r y and O r i g i n a l i t y s u b t e s t s c o r e s , SES F' r a t i o
f a i l e d to re a c h s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e when re a d in g s c o re s
w ere u se d a s a c o v a r i a t e . R eading a b i l i t y c a n n o t, t h e r e
f o r e , be r u l e d o u t a s v i a b l e r i v a l h y p o th e s e s f o r th e s e
r e s u l t s . T ab le 3 below p r e s e n t s th e F r a t i o s in v o lv e d :
TABLE 3
A N O V A A N D A N C O V A SES F RATIOS: G L O B A L CREATIVITY
BA TTER Y A N D ORIGINALITY
A IT O V A A N C O V A
G lobal c r e a t iv it y
b a ttery
O r ig in a lity su b test
6 . 330*
3 . 869*
O.563
0.824
< . 03.
58
SES F r a t i o s f o r th e F lu en cy and F l e x i b i l i t y su b -
t e s t s re a c h e d s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n b o th ANOVA and
ANCOVA c o m p u ta tio n s . S t a t i s t i c a l s u p p o rt f o r th e SES
r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is i s , t h e r e f o r e , a v a i l a b l e f o r each su b -
t e s t . ANOVA and ANCOVA F r a t i o s , means and a d ju s te d means
a re p r e s e n te d i n T a b le s 4 and 5 .
T A B L E 4
A N O V A A N D A N C O V A SES F RATIOS: F L U E N C Y A N D FLEXIBILITY SUBTESTS
A N O V A A N C O V A
Fluency subtest 18.240** 8.485**
F le x ib ility , sub test 18.905** 5 . 909*
*p < .0 5 .
**p < .01.
T A B L E 5
M E A N S A N D AD JU STED M E A N S: F L U E N C Y A N D FLEXIBILITY SUBTESTS
Group
Fluency F le x ib ilit y
Means
Adjusted
Means Means
Adjusted
Means
Lov SES groups 10.84 11.66 5.84
4.57
(*=57)
(n=29) (*=37) (*=29)
High. SES groups 16.02 16.15 7.12 6.49
(n=42)
(**=39)
(n=42)
(*=39)
59
S t a t i s t i c a l h y p o th e s e s f o r e ac h o f th e seven su b -
t e s t s and th e g l o b a l c r e a t i v i t y B cores f o r th e i n t e r a c t i o n
r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is ta k e th e form i n d i c a t e d below :
H q : = 0 f o r a l l i j .
: aP-jj \ 0 f o r some i j .
S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n F r a t i o s were com put
ed f o r th e R e d e f i n i t i o n A and R e d e f i n i t i o n B s u b t e s t s .
T a b le s 6 and 7 p r e s e n t ANOVA and ANCOVA i n t e r a c t i o n
F r a t i o s , and means and a d ju s te d means f o r th e R e d e f i n i t i o n
A B u b te s t. These a re fo llo w e d by a g ra p h p i c t o r i a l l y p o r
t r a y i n g means and a d ju s te d m eans.
TABLE 6
A N O V A A N D A N C O V A IN TER A C TIO N F RATIOS: REDEFINITION A
A N O V A A N C O V A
10. 876** 16.460**
**p < . 01.
T A B L E 7
M E A N S A N D ADJUSTED M E A N S i REDEFINITION A
Group
A N O V A A N C O V A
f / a f / p f / a f / p
Low SES groups
High SES groups
7.265 12.533
(n=19) (n=l8 )
9 . 5O O 8.727
(n=20) (n=22) .
7.9^5 13.064
(n=l4) (n=15)
9.530 7.496
(n=l8) (n=2l )
Creativity Scores
60
20
L o w
Legend:
F/A — —
f/ p -----------
Means □
Adjusted
Means
V
Socioeconomic Status
F ig . 1. Means and adjusted means, R ed efin ition A
I n s p e c t i o n o f th e t a b l e s and. g ra p h s u p p o r t th e I n t e r a c t i o n
h y p o th e s is f o r t h i s s u b t e s t , and i n d i c a t e s th e need f o r
f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s o f means f o r sim p le main e f f e c t s . A
t_ r a t i o was t h e r e f o r e computed betw een th e a d ju s te d means
o f th e lo w er so cio eco n o m ic g r o u p .1 C om putation o f th e
_t r a t i o r e s u l t e d i n a v a lu e o f 3 - 5 9 2, w hich i s s t a t i s t i
c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l .
T hese r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t an e f f e c t lo w e rin g
c r e a t i v i t y s c o r e s f o r P/A s u b j e c t s i s o p e r a t io n in th e low
so cioecono m ic g ro u p , b u t n o t in th e h ig h so cio eco n o m ic
g ro u p . A s u r p r i s i n g f in d in g i s t h a t th e c r e a t i v i t y s c o re
on t h i s f a c t o r i s a c t u a l l y h ig h e r f o r P /P s u b j e c t s i n th e
low so cio eco n o m ic gro u p th a n i t i s f o r e i t h e r th e P/A o r
P /P h ig h so cio eco n o m ic g ro u p s.
As i n R e d e f i n it i o n A, a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s f o r BUb-
t e s t R e d e f i n i t i o n B a r e p r e s e n te d i n T a b le s 8 and 9 and
F ig u re 2.
1
The t r a t i o em ployed th e fo rm u la
62
T A B L E 8
A N O V A A N D A N C O V A INTERA C TIO N F RATIOS: REDEFINITION B
A N O V A A N C O V A
5.655* 6.525**
*p < .0 5 .
**p < .01.
T A B L E 9
M E A N S A N D ADJUSTED M E A N S: REDEFINITION B
Group
A N O V A A N C O V A
f/ a f/ p f/ a f/ p
Low SES groups
8 .9 4 7
14.056
9.677 1 4 .8 5 7
(n-1 9 )
S '
u
(n=l4)
(n=15)
Higb. SES groups 1 0 .9 5 0 10.518 11.005
8.999
(n=20) (n=22)
S'
1 1
(n=2l)
R e s u lts a r e p a r a l l e l to th o s e o f R e d e f i n i t i o n A, and s i m i
l a r c o n c lu s io n s can be drawn from them . The _t r a t i o com
p u te d betw een th e a d ju s te d means o f th e low er socioecono m ic
group r e s u l t e d i n a v a lu e o f 2 .6 6 2 , s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i -
63
20
18 -
1 6 -
s -
o
o n _
to 12 -
4 3 1 0 -
•H
O
Lov
Legend:
P/A -----------
F / P -----------
Means □
Adjusted ^
Means
Socioeconomic Status
F ig. 2 . Means and adjusted means, R edefinition B
2
c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . A gain, a s in R e d e f i n it i o n A, th e
c r e a t i v i t y s c o re o f th e F /P low socioeconom ic gro u p i s
h ig h e r th a n a l l o t h e r g ro u p s.
'The jt r a t i o computed employed th e fo rm u la
t =
M S v . c e l l (a d j.)
(CJ2 (C.’)
1 \2
A
n , n.
J
64
D iscu sB io n o f P o s s i b l e C onfounding V a r ia b le s
O th e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s o f f a th e r - a b s e n c e e f f e c t s
( B i l l e r , 1968 & 1969; Landy e t a l . , 1969) have u se d a m in i
mum span o f s u b j e c t f a t h e r - a b s e n c e tim e a s an o p e r a t i o n a l
d e f i n i t i o n , a p ro c e d u re fo llo w e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . In
o r d e r to a t t a i n a s u f f i c i e n t number o f e x p e r im e n ta l su b
j e c t s i n b o th SES g ro u p s , i t was n e c e s s a r y to u t i l i z e s t u
d e n ts from two sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s . S u b je c ts were g a th e r e d
from s ix s c h o o ls i n th e P a lo s V erd es d i s t r i c t , and from one
e le m e n ta ry sc h o o l In th e Param ount s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . Of
a p p ro x im a te ly 450 f i f t h - g r a d e boys t e s t e d i n th e P a lo s
V erd es sc h o o l d i s t r i c t , o n ly 20 C aucasian, m id d le and u p p e r-
m iddle SES boys w ere I d e n t i f i e d a s m ee tin g th e P/A c r i t e r
io n . In th e Param ount Bchool d i s t r i c t , on th e o t h e r hand,
19 lo w er SES C a u ca sian boyB m et th e F/A c r i t e r i o n o f 82
t e s t e d ( f i v e o f th e 82 a re c l a s s i f i e d a s e d u c a b le m e n ta lly
r e t a r d e d and were n o t u t i l i z e d i n th e s t u d y ) . U n le ss i t
can be v a l i d l y assum ed t h a t th e number o f b ro k en f a m i l i e s
i n th e h ig h e r SES s t r a t a sam pled In P a lo s V erdes i s i n p r -
d i n a t e l y s m a lle r In p r o p o r tio n to t h a t o f th e lo w er SES
s t r a t a sam pled i n P aram ount, i t w ould a p p e a r t h a t some
P a lo s V erd es bo ys t e s t e d may have had s i g n i f i c a n t p e r io d s
o f f a th e r - a b s e n c e i n t h e i r l i v e s t h a t w ent u n d e te c te d . I f
t h i s a ssu m p tio n i s v a l i d , s u b j e c t s t h a t may have m et th e
F/A c r i t e r i o n c o u ld be i n th e c o n t r o l gro u p and have p a r -
t i a l l y masked any F/A e f f e c t i n th e h ig h e r SES g ro u p . In
a d d i t i o n , th e a v e ra g e number o f f a t h e r - a b s e n c e y e a r s i s
m ark ed ly h ig h e r f o r th e lo w er SES grou p th a n t h a t f o r th e
h ig h e r SES g ro u p . The mean y e a r s o f f a t h e r - a b s e n c e f o r
th e Param ount e x p e rim e n ta l grou p i s 4 .6 y e a r s w ith a ra n g e
from 2 to 11 y e a r s . Mean yearB o f f a t h e r - a b s e n c e f o r th e
P a lo s V erdes e x p e rim e n ta l group i s 2 .3 y e a r s w ith a ra n g e
from 1 to 11 y e a r s . These two f a c t o r s th e n , may have i n
tro d u c e d some co n fo u n d in g e f f e c t i n t o th e e x p e r im e n ta l
d e s ig n .
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS,
AND SIGNIFICANCE OF FINDINGS
Summary
Summary o f E x p e rim e n ta l D esign
and O p e r a tio n a l P ro c e d u re s
The b a s i c c o n f i g u r a ti o n o f th e s tu d y was a 2 x 2
f a c t o r i a l d e s ig n . In d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s on each s id e o f
th e d e s ig n w ere f a t h e r a b sen c e and so cio eco n o m ic s t a t u s
w ith c r e a t i v i t y a s m easured by th e Group T e s t o f C r e a t i v i t y
b a t t e r y , th e d ep en d e n t v a r i a b l e . F a t h e r - a b s e n t boys f o r
th e h ig h e r socioeconom ic l e v e l o f th e d e s ig n w ere o b ta in e d
from a p o o l o f 901 s t u d e n ts a d m in is te r e d th e c r e a t i v i t y
b a t t e r y o f e i g h t d i f f e r e n t s c h o o ls i n th e PaloB V erdes
s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . No boys met th e c r i t e r i o n o f f a t h e r
ab se n c e a t two o f th e s c h o o ls , and th e e x p e rim e n ta l group
f o r th e h i g h e r so cioeconom ic l e v e l waB t h e r e f o r e drawn from
o n ly s i x o f th e schoolB , The e x p e rim e n ta l gro u p f o r th e
lo w er so cio eco n o m ic l e v e l o f th e d e s ig n was drawn e n t i r e l y
from a p o o l o f 82 s t u d e n ts a t a s i n g l e e le m e n ta ry sc h o o l
i n th e Param ount Bchool d i s t r i c t . The c o n t r o l gro u p f o r
th e h i g h e r so cioeconom ic l e v e l was o b ta in e d by s t r a t i f i e d
66
67
random sam pling i n p r o p o r t io n to th e num ber o f f a t h e r -
a b s e n t s u b j e c t s i d e n t i f i e d a t e ac h s c h o o l, w hereas th e
c o n t r o l g roup o f th e lo w er so cioeconom ic l e v e l was ex
t r a c t e d by random sam pling from th e re m a in d e r o f th e s t u
d e n ts i n th e P aram ount sc h o o l m ee tin g th e socioeco nom ic
c r i t e r i o n . F i f t h - g r a d e s t u d e n ts were cho sen f o r th e s tu d y
b e c a u se o t h e r p e r t i n e n t r e l a t e d r e s e a r c h i s b a se d upon
f i f t h - g r a d e s u b j e c t s . In a d d i t i o n , some i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
( c f . , Landy e t a l . , 1 9 6 9) have found t h a t f a t h e r - a b s e n t
e f f e c t s a r e g r e a t e s t when th e f a t h e r i s a b s e n t f o r some
p e rio d d u rin g th e f i r s t n in e y e a r s o f d ev elo p m en t.
Two s o u rc e s o f co n fo u n d in g v a r i a b i l i t y , r a c e and
s e x ,' were e lim in a te d b y u s in g o n ly C au casian m ales a s
s u b j e c t s . The m ethod u t i l i z e d o f draw ing th e e x p e rim e n ta l
sam ple from a l a r g e r p o o l o f s u b j e c t s , how ever, r e s u l t e d
in t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a number o f n o n -C a u ca sian f a t h e r -
a b s e n t boys by c h a n c e . These s u b j e c t s w ere in c lu d e d i n a
s e p a r a te a n a l y s i s i n o r d e r to b e n e f i t from th e g r a t u i t o u s
d a ta , and th e r e s u l t s a r e p la c e d i n A ppendix A.
S ta te m e n t o f H y p o th eses
P rim ary r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s a r e a s f o llo w s :
1. F i f t h - g r a d e , C a u c a sia n , boys w ith f a t h e r s
a b s e n t d u rin g some o r a l l o f t h e i r d e v e lo p m e n ta l h i s t o r y ,
w i l l e x h i b i t l e s s c r e a t i v e p erfo rm an c e on th e Group T e s t
68
o f C r e a t i v i t y (GTOC) th a n f i f t h - g r a d e , C a u c a sia n , hoys
w ith f a t h e r s p r e s e n t .
2. A lth o u g h p r e v io u s r e s e a r c h d o es n o t p e rm it a
sim p le s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn in g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een c r e a
t i v i t y and so cioeconom ic s t a t u s , i t i s h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t
t h e r e w i l l be a d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t upon c r e a t i v i t y p e r
form ance a c c o rd in g to th e so cio eco n o m ic l e v e l a s m easured
by W a rn e r's socioecono m ic s c a l e . E x p e rim e n ta l e f f e c t s may
v a ry w ith th e c r e a t i v i t y f a c t o r ( f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y ,
e t c . ) , a n d /o r by th e ty p e o f c r e a t i v i t y s u b t e s t u se d ( i . e . ,
v e r b a l and n o n v e rb a l) . See r a t i o n a l e on page 11.
3. F o r e x p lo r a to r y p u r p o s e s , i t i s h y p o th e s iz e d
t h a t t h e r e w i l l be an i n t e r a c t i v e e f f e c t betw een th e in d e
p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e r e w i l l be a s i g n i f i
c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een F/A low SES and F /P low SES su b
j e c t s , betw een F/A h ig h SES and F /P h ig h SES s u b j e c t s ,
betw een F/A low SES and F/A h ig h SES s u b j e c t s , and betw een
F /P low SES and F/P h ig h SES s u b j e c t s .
Summary o f F in d in g s
Of th e sev en s u b t e s t s and th e G lo b a l C r e a t i v i t y
B a t t e r y s c o r e , o n ly one F/A F r a t i o re a c h e d s t a t i s t i c a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e . T hat F r a t i o was s i g n i f i c a n t (.0 5 l e v e l)
f o r th e s u b t e s t , R e d e f i n it i o n A. When th e r e a d in g s c o re
c o v a r i a t e was e n te r e d i n t o th e c o m p u ta tio n s , how ever,
th e r e s u l t i n g ANCOVA F r a t i o f a i l e d to r e a c h s t a t i s t i c a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e . R eadin g a b i l i t y c o u ld n o t , t h e r e f o r e , be
r e j e c t e d a s an a l t e r n a t i v e r i v a l h y p o th e s is . A c c o rd in g ly ,
t h e r e I b no s u p p o rt f o r p rim a ry r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is number
o n e .
S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t SES _ F r a t i o s were com
p u te d f o r th e G lo b a l C r e a t i v i t y B a tt e r y sco reB , and th e
F lu e n c y , F l e x i b i l i t y , and O r i g i n a l i t y s u b t e s t s . When r e a d
in g s c o re s w ere u se d a s a c o v a r l a t e In c o m p u ta tio n s , o n ly
F lu e n cy and F l e x i b i l i t y rem ain ed s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .
R eading a b i l i t y t h e r e f o r e , re m a in s a v i a b l e r i v a l h y p o th e
s i s f o r th e G lo b a l C r e a t i v i t y B a t t e r y and O r i g i n a l i t y su b -
t e s t . S t a t i s t i c a l c o m p u ta tio n s th e n o f f e r s u p p o rt f o r
p rim a ry r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is number two o n ly f o r th e F lu e n cy
and F l e x i b i l i t y s u b t e s t s .
S u p p o rt f o r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is i s
o f f e r e d by s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n F r a t i o s
computed f o r Bubt e s t s R e d e f i n i t i o n A and R e d e f i n it i o n B.
T r a t i o s w ere com puted In o r d e r to a s c e r t a i n sim p le main
e f f e c t s a f t e r I n s p e c t i o n o f ANOVA means and means a d ju s te d
f o r th e r e a d in g c o v a r i a t e . The r e s u l t s o f th e t_ r a t i o
a n a l y s i s f o r b o th s u b t e s t s o f f e r s u p p o rt t h a t a F/A e f f e c t
was I n s t r u m e n t a l I n d e p r e s s in g s c o r e s o f th e F/A s u b j e c t s
in r e l a t i o n to F /P s u b j e c t s i n th e low so cioecon om ic g ro u p .
No F/A e f f e c t a p p e a re d to have been o p e r a tin g i n th e h ig h
socioecono m ic g ro u p .
70
C o n c lu sio n s
S o le ly on th e baB ls o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , no
e v id e n c e was p ro duced w hich s u p p o r ts a F/A e f f e c t on c r e a
t i v i t y p e rfo rm a n c e r e g a r d l e s s o f SES l e v e l .
U sing th e M e tf e s s e l I n d i v i d u a l T e s t o f C r e a t i v i t y ,
S ingh ( 1967) found t h a t as SES i n c r e a s e d , f l e x i b i l i t y and
o r i g i n a l i t y in c r e a s e d , w h ereas when S E S 'd e c re a s e d , f lu e n c y ,
r e d e f i n i t i o n , s e n s i t i v i t y to p ro b lem s, and e l a b o r a t i o n i n
c re a s e d . In t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , s i g n i f i c a n t F r a t i o s were
computed f o r th e g lo b a l c r e a t i v i t y s c o r e s , and f o r th e
O r i g i n a l i t y , F lu e n c y , and F l e x i b i l i t y s u b t e s t s . When th e
re a d in g c o v a r i a t e was in c lu d e d in s t a t i s t i c a l c o m p u ta tio n s ,
o n ly th e F lu en cy and F l e x i b i l i t y s u b t e s t s r e t a i n e d s t a t i s
t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . C o n s is te n t w ith S i n g h 's r e s u l t B , i s
th e f i n d in g t h a t h ig h SES g ro u p s s c o re s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r
th a n low SES g ro u p s on th e F l e x i b i l i t y s u b t e s t o f th e Group
T e s t o f C r e a t i v i t y . In c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n w ith h i s com puta
t i o n s , i s th e f in d in g t h a t h ig h SES g ro u p s s c o re s i g n i f i
c a n t l y h i g h e r th a n low SES groupB on th e F l e x i b i l i t y su b -
jb e st o f th e Group T e st o f C r e a t i v i t y .
A number o f s t u d i e s u s in g p r i m a r i l y low SES F/A
s u b j e c t s have fou n d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s when compared
to F /P s u b j e c t s i n such a r e a s a s p e r c e p t i o n , s e x - o r l e n t a -
t i o n , s e l f - c o n c e p t , and c o g n it i o n . The e f f e c t on F/A c o g
n i t i v e p e rfo rm a n c e , as m easured by th e Am erican C o lle g e
E n tra n c e E x am in a tio n ( S u tto n Sm ith e t a l . , 1968; Landy
e t a l . , 1 9 6 9) j was to lo w er c o g n itiv e s c o r e s . C o n s is te n t
w ith th e s e s t u d i e s , i s th e f in d in g t h a t low SES F/A su b
j e c t s have d e p re s s e d B cores on th e R e d e f i n it i o n s u b t e s t s
o f th e Group T e s t o f C r e a t i v i t y when compared w ith low SES
F /P s u b j e c t s . S u p p o rt f o r th e c o n te n tio n t h a t th e s t a t i s
t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e foun d f o r r e d e f i n i t i o n c r e a t i v e a b i l i t y
1b n o t a ty p e I e r r o r , i s th e f a c t t h a t two s u b t e s t s w ere
in v o lv e d in th e m easurem ent o f t h i s c r e a t i v i t y f a c t o r , each
w ith t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t e l i c i t i n g s t i m u l i , w ith each com par
i s o n re a c h in g s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . An u n e x p e c te d
f i n d in g was t h a t low SES F /P s u b j e c t s sc o re d h ig h e r on th e
r e d e f i n i t i o n f a c t o r th a n e i t h e r o f th e h ig h SES g ro u p s .
T h is f in d in g was c o n s i s t e n t f o r b o th s u b t e s t s . In a d e
p a r t u r e from th e p a t t e r n o f th e s e s t u d i e s , was th e p e rfo rm
ance o f F/A s u b j e c t s on th e o t h e r s u b t e s t s o f th e c r e a t i v
i t y b a t t e r y , i n w hich co m p ariso n s o f low SES F/A and F /P
s u b j e c t s f a i l e d to r e a c h s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .
Recom m endations
S e v e ra l f a c t o r s t h a t may have p a r t i a l l y masked any
F/A e f f e c t i n th e h i g h e r SES group w ere d is c u s s e d i n th e
" D is c u s s io n o f P o s s i b l e C onfounding 'V a ria b le s " s e c t i o n .
I f t h e i n f e r e n c e c o n c e rn in g th e p o s s i b l e d i l u t i o n o f th e
F/A e f f e c t i n th e h i g h e r SES e x p e rim e n ta l group i s a c c u ra te ,
a need f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s i n d i c a t e d to v e r i f y t h a t th e
72
i n t e r a c t i o n found f o r th e r e d e f i n i t i o n c r e a t i v i t y f a c t o r i s
n o t a f u n c tio n o f c o n fo u n d in g .
As i n much r e s e a r c h t h a t e x p lo r e s r e l a t i v e l y u n
e x p lo r e d a r e a s , i n a d d i t i o n to p r o v id in g some t e n t a t i v e
a n sw e rs, o t h e r i n t r i g u i n g q u e s t io n s have been r a i s e d . Ex
p l i c a t i o n o f th e s e q u e s t io n s may I n d i c a t e th e need f o r
f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .
Some o f th e s e q u e s tio n s a re s In th e c a se o f two
s u b t e s t s , F lu e n cy and F l e x i b i l i t y , why w ere s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s found betw een th e h ig h and low SES
g ro u p s , when o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have found no d i f f e r e n c e s
on c r e a t i v i t y p e rfo rm an c e betw een SES g ro u p s? One phenome
non n o te d by t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r t h a t may have some b e a r in g
on th e s e r e s u l t s , i s t h a t many o f th e s t u d i e s w hich d id n o t
y i e l d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een SES
g ro u p s w ere p e rfo rm e d on o l d e r p o p u l a t i o n s th a n th o s e i n
w hich s t a t i s t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s w ere fo u n d . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h
c o u ld be a d d re s s e d to t h i s i s s u e . An a d ju n c ti v e q u e s tio n
i s th e p o s s i b l e r e a s o n , o r r e a s o n s why t h e r e a p p e a rs to be
a F/A e f f e c t o p e r a tin g o n ly i n th e r e d e f i n i t i o n c r e a t i v i t y
f a c t o r . A d d i t i o n a l l y , why was p e rfo rm a n c e a f f e c t e d i n th e
F/A g ro u p o n ly i n th e lo w er SES l e v e l ? F u r t h e r , why was
th e a r i t h m e t i c mean o f th e low SES F/A g ro u p h i g h e r th a n
th e means o f any o f th e o t h e r groupB? E v id e n ce f o r th e
c o n te n tio n t h a t t h i s r e s u l t may n o t be a ty p e I e r r o r , i s
73
any c o r r o b o r a tio n b a se d on th e c irc u m s ta n c e t h a t two su b -
t e s t s w ere in v o lv e d in m easu rin g th e r e d e f i n i t i o n c r e a t i v
i t y f a c t o r , each w ith d i f f e r e n t e l i c i t i n g s t i m u l i .
O th er q u e s tio n s were r a i s e d by th e p a t t e r n s o f 3 ?
r a t i o s found betw een th e v a r io u s ANOVA and ANOOVA a n a l y s e s ,
and betw een th e s u b t e s t s in v o lv e d . W ith i n s p e c t i o n o f
T a b le s 13 th ro u g h 43 i n A ppendix A, a number o f p a t t e r n s
c o n c e rn in g th e e x p e r im e n ta l v a r i a b l e s can be d is c e r n e d .
The g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s d i s c lo s e d a r e a s fo llo w s : F/A F
r a t i o s a l l d e c re a s e when th e c o v a r i a t e i s in c lu d e d i n
a n a l y s i s o f v a ria n c e c o m p u ta tio n s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f th e
s u b t e s t u n d e r e x a m in a tio n . A ll SES F r a t i o s d e c r e a s e in
a b s o l u te v a lu e when th e c o v a r i a t e i s in c lu d e d a l s o , e x c e p t
i n th e c a s e s o f th e s u b t e s t s , R e d e f i n i t i o n A, and R e d e f i n i
t i o n B. In th e s e i n s t a n c e s , th e r e s u l t i n g F r a t i o s i n
c r e a s e when th e c o v a r i a t e i s in c lu d e d i n a n a l y s i s o f v a r i
ance c o m p u ta tio n s . W ith o u t e x c e p tio n , i n t e r a c t i o n F r a t i o s
i n c r e a s e when re a d in g s c o r e s a r e c o v a rie d i n th e s t a t i s t i
c a l a n a l y s i s . I n term s o f a b s o lu te s i z e , w ith th e e x ce p
t i o n o f th e R e d e f i n i t i o n A and R e d e f i n i t i o n B s u b t e s t s ,
a l l F r a t i o s com puted f o r i n t e r a c t i o n w ere s m a lle r th an
th o s e com pared f o r th e c o v a r i a t e F r a t i o . In th e c a se o f
th e r e d e f i n i t i o n s u b t e s t s , c o v a r i a t e F r a t i o s w ere s m a lle r
th a n th o s e computed f o r th e i n t e r a c t i o n v a r i a b l e . F i n a l l y ,
th e q u e s tio n t h a t can be aBked i s : What a r e th e c a u se s o f
th e r e v e r s e s i n p a t t e r n s betw een th e r e d e f i n i t i o n s u b t e s t s
and th e o t h e r s u b t e s t s w ith r e l a t i o n to th e SES, i n t e r a c
t i o n , and c o v a r i a t e P r a t i o s ?
L a s t l y , th e g r a t u i t o u s d a ta o b ta in e d f o r n o n -
C a u ca sian s u b j e c t s r a i s e some p o i n t s t h a t may p r o f i t a b l y
be e x p lo r e d . These d a ta a r e c o n ta in e d i n T a b le s 13 th ro u g h
43 i n A ppendix A. A l l o f th e p a t t e r n s r e f e r r e d to f o r
C a u ca sian s u b j e c t s rem ain c o n s ta n t when n o n -C a u c a sia n su b
j e c t s a r e in c lu d e d in s t a t i s t i c a l c o m p u ta tio n s. In g e n e r a l,
a l l P r a t i o s com puted i n th e ANOVA and ANCOVA a n a ly s e s b e
come s m a lle r when th e y were in c lu d e d i n s t a t i s t i c a l compu
t a t i o n s . The e x c e p tio n s w ere P r a t i o s com puted f o r s o c i o
econom ic s t a t u s . ’ When non-C aucaB ian s u b j e c t s w ere in c lu d e d
i n c o m p u ta tio n s , SES P r a t i o s g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s e d i n m agni
tu d e . These changes i n r e s u l t s , when n o n -C a u c a sia n s u b je c ts
a r e in c lu d e d i n c o m p u ta tio n s , th en may i n d i c a t e th e need
f o r f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n o f an e t h n i c i t y f a c t o r i n r e g a r d
to th e v a r i a b l e s e x p lo re d i n t h i s s tu d y .
S i g n i f ic a n c e o f P in d in g s
K e r li n g e r ( 1965) and o t h e r s have p o in te d o u t some
o f th e i n h e r e n t w eak n esses o f ex p o s t f a c t o r e s e a r c h such
as t h i s s tu d y . Some o f th e more s e r i o u s draw backs a r e th e
o b v io u s la c k o f c o n t r o l o v e r in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , th e
la c k o f pow er to ran d o m ize , and th e r i s k o f im p ro p e r i n
t e r p r e t a t i o n . D e s p ite th e s e fla w s i n s c i e n t i f i c r i g o r ,
75
he h a s em phasized th e g r e a t need f o r t h i s ty p e o f i n v e s t i
g a ti o n :
D e s p ite i t s w e a k n e sse s, much ex p o s t f a c t o r e s e a r c h
m ust he done i n p sy c h o lo g y , s o c io lo g y and e d u c a tio n
sim p ly b e ca u se many r e s e a r c h p ro b lem s do n o t le n d
th e m se lv e s to e x p e rim e n ta l i n q u i r y . A l i t t l e r e f l e c
t i o n on some o f th e im p o rta n t v a r i a b l e s i n e d u c a tio n a l
r e s e a r c h — i n t e l l i g e n c e , a p t i t u d e , home b ack g ro u n d ,
p a r e n t a l u p b r in g in g , t e a c h e r p e r s o n a l i t y , sc h o o l a t
m o sphere—w i l l show t h a t th e y a r e n o t m a n ip u la b le .
C o n tr o lle d in q u ir y i s p o s s i b l e , o f c o u r s e , b u t tr u e
e x p e rim e n ta tio n i s n o t . . . .
I t can even be s a id t h a t ex p o s t f a c t o r e s e a r c h
i s more im p o rta n t th a n e x p e r im e n ta l r e s e a r c h . T h is
i s , o f c o u rs e , n o t a m e th o d o lo g ic a l o b s e r v a t i o n . I t
m eans, r a t h e r , t h a t th e m ost I m p o r ta n t s o c i a l s c i e n
t i f i c and e d u c a ti o n a l r e s e a r c h p ro b lem s do n o t le n d
th e m se lv e s to e x p e r im e n ta tio n , a lth o u g h many o f them
do le n d th e m se lv e s to c o n t r o l l e d i n q u i r y o f th e ex
p o s t f a c to k in d [ K e r lin g e r , 1965* PP. 372 “3 7 2 ].
I r r e s p e c t i v e o f i t s m e th o d o lo g ic a l w e a k n e sse s, th e
p r e s e n t w r i t e r d e c id e ly a g re e s w ith th e Im p o rta n ce a t
ta c h e d by K e r lin g e r to t h i s k in d o f r e s e a r c h . I f d e v e lo p
m e n ta l v a r i a b l e s such a s b i r t h o r d e r , s i b l i n g p o s i t i o n in
th e fa m ily , fa m ily I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e t c . , do in d e e d
have g r e a t im p o rt In th e developm ent o f a p e r s o n ’ s cog
n i t i v e , p e r c e p t u a l , I n t e r p e r s o n a l o r o t h e r a b i l i t i e s ,
r e s e a r c h a s t h i s may r e v e a l I n d i v i d u a l outcom es t h a t may
be am enable to m o d if ic a tio n i f n e e d e d . D e trim e n ta l e f f e c t s
o f f a t h e r a b sen ce such a s th o s e fo u n d i n th e c o g n itiv e
domain by o t h e r I n v e s t i g a t o r s , and th o s e found In th e r e
d e f i n i t i o n c r e a t i v i t y f a c t o r i n t h i s s tu d y , may p o i n t to
th e im p o rta n c e o f c r e a t i n g m ethods o f I n t e r v e n t i o n such a s
"model f a t h e r " program s to h e lp th e I n d i v i d u a l overcome
th e s e l i a b i l i t i e s . I t may a l s o u n d e rs c o re th e g r e a t im
p o r ta n c e to th e c h i l d o f e x i s t i n g program s such a s "Big
B r o t h e r s ," e t c . On th e p o s i t i v e s i d e , f i n d in g s t h a t do n o t
s u p p o rt h y p o th e s iz e d d e f i c i e n c i e s may be a s im p o rta n t to
th o s e t h a t do s u p p o r t them . The f i n d in g s i n t h i s s tu d y ,
f o r exam ple, i n d i c a t e d t h a t o n ly th e r e d e f i n i t i o n c r e a t i v
i t y f a c t o r i s a f f e c t e d a t a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l
by th e a b sen c e o f th e f a t h e r f o r a p e r io d o f tim e , and t h i s
o n ly in th e lo w er SES g ro u p . These r e s u l t s p o i n t to some
im p o rta n t o r e a t i v e a b i l i t i e s t h a t have a p p a r e n tly n o t s u f
f e r e d from f a t h e r a b s e n c e . In sp e ak in g o f d e v e lo p m e n ta l
v a r i a b l e s a s a w h ole, t h e r e may w e ll be some p o s i t i v e o u t
comes a s s o c i a t e d w ith d e v e lo p m e n ta l c ir c u m s ta n c e s , w hich
upon s u r f a c e i n s p e c t i o n , w ould le a d o n ly to n e g a tiv e c o n se
q u en ces .
I r r e s p e c t i v e o f o u r p r e s e n t a b i l i t y to m odify o r
enhance e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e s e d e v e lo p m e n ta l v a r i
a b l e s , i t would seem im p o r ta n t to i n v e s t i g a t e some o f th e
outcom es a s s o c i a t e d w ith them . Only i f th e s e v a r i a b l e s a re
m o n ito re d , and some o f th e a s s o c i a t e d e f f e c t s i s o l a t e d ,
can e f f e c t i v e pro g ram s be c r e a t e d t h a t d e a l w ith th e o u t
comes, and enhance th e developm ent o f th e i n d i v i d u a l .
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77
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APPENDICES
87
APPENDIX A
BASIG TABLES OP MEANS, ADJUSTED MEANS,
ANOVA1 B AND ANCOVA»s
88
TABLE 10
M E A N S A N D ADJUSTED M E A N S FOE L O W SO C IO E C O N O M IC G E O U P : ALL SUBTESTS
(Caucasian Subjects)
E ed efin ition A E ed efin ition B S e n sitiv ity
f / a f/ p
f/ a
f/ p f / a f / p
Means 7.26
(n=19)
8.95
(n=19)
l4.o6
(n=l8)
3.79 5-11
(n=19) (n=l8)
Adjusted means 7-94
(n=l4)
13.06
(n=15)
9.68
(n=l4)
14.84
(n-15)
4 .l4 3.49
(n=l4) (n-15)
Fluency F le x ib ility O rig in a lity Elaboration
f / a f / p f / a f / p f / a f / p f / a f / p
Means
Adjusted means
9.68 12.06
(n=19) (n=l8 )
i o .4 i 12.83
(n=l4) (n=15)
3.42 4.28
(n=19) (n=l8 )
4.10 3.01
(n=l4) (n=15)
2.05 2.22
(n=19) (n=l8 )
2.16 2.34
(n=l4) (n=15)
13.63 13.61
(n=19) (n=19)
14.25 14.27
(n«l4) (n=15)
T A B L E 11
M E A N S A N D AD JU STED M E A N S FOB H IG H S O C IO E C O N O M IC G E O U P : A LL SUBTESTS
(Caucasian Subjects)
E ed efin ition A E ed efin ition B S e n sitiv ity
f / a f / p F/A F/P f / a f / p
Means
9.50
(n=20)
8.73
(n=22)
10.95
(n=20)
10.31
(n=22)
5.75
(n=20)
5-59
(n=22)
Adjusted means
9.55
(n=l8 )
7-50
(n=2 l )
11.00
(n=l8)
9.00
(n=2l )
5.78
(n=l8 )
4.95
(n=2 l)
Fluency F le x ib ilit y O rigin ality Elaboration
f / a f / p f / a f / p f / a f / p f / a f / p
Means
Adjusted means
16.75 16.90
(n=20) (n=22)
16.80 15.60
(n=l8) (n=2l )
6.65 7-55
(n=20) (n=22)
6.70 6.31
(n=l8 ) (n=2l)
2.40 2.59
(n=20) (n=22)
2 .4 1 2.39
(n=l8 ) (n=2l)
14.80 15.82
(n=20) (n=22)
14.85 14.71
(n=l8) (n=2l)
89
90
TABLE 12
ANALYSIS OP VARIANCE: GLOBAL CREATIVITY
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source i f Mean Square F
Mean 1 298998.62500 810.26953
Father absence/presence 1 1191.54834 3.22903
Socioeconomic statu s 1 23^3.10669 6.34969*
Interaction 1
986. 992^3
2.67469
Error
75 369.OH23
*P < .05.
T A B L E 13
ANALYSIS O F C O V A R IA N C E : G L O B A L CREA TIV ITY
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 73177.50000 223.87181
Father absence/presence 1 344.18286 1.02236
Socioeconomic statu s 1 184.75272 0.56521
Interaction 1 2153,63989 6.59963*
Covariance 1 3^87.30170
10.66870**
Error 74 326.87231
*p < .05.
**p < . 01.
T A B L E 14
ANALYSIS O F V A R IA N C E: G L O B A L C R EATIVITY
(A ll Subjects)
Source i f Mean Square F
Mean 1 372084.87500 IO6O.81738
Father absence/presence 1 375*15102 1.06956
Socioeconomic statu s 1 3356.67432
9.56991**
Interaction 1 26.12222 0.07447
Error
99 350.75293
**p < .0 1 .
9 1
TABLE 15
ANALYSIS O F C O V ARIANCE: G L O B A L CREATIVITY
(A ll S u bjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 10^286,93750
323.95679
Father absence/presence
1 34.98314 O.IO869
Socioeconomic sta tu s 1 3^5.919^ 1.07475
Interaction
1 428.34448 1.33084
Covariance 1 3182.21338 9.88693**
Error 98 321.86060
**p < , 01.
T A B L E 16
ANALYSIS O F V A R IA N C E: REDEFINITION A
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 7025.26562 455.37866
Father absence/presence
1 90.68900 5.87847*
Socioeconomic statu s 1 9.20617
0.59675
Interaction
1 167.64500 10.86677**
Error 75
15.42730
< .05.
**p < . 01.
T A B L E 17
ANALYSIS O F C O V A R IA N C E : REDEFINITION A
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 1634.18994 115.13829
Father absenae/presence 1
43.11797 3.03791
Socioeconomic sta tu s 1 58.89322
4.14937*
In teraction 1 233.62602
16.46033**
Covariance 1
106,74489
7 . 52080**
Error 74 14.19328
*p < .05.
**p < . 01.
92
TABLE 18
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: REDEFINITION A
(All Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 8795.15625
537.59351
Father absence/presence 1 15.48171 0,95650
Socioeconomic status 1 H .62676 O.7IO67
Interaction 1 52.57029 1.97860
Error
99
16.56025
TA BLE 19
ANALYSIS O F COVARIANCE: REDEFINITION A
(All Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 2590.84570 155.4 0265
Father absence/presence 1 2.64155 0.16950
Socioeconomic status 1 64.58897 4.14446*
Interaction 1 66.45462 4.26475*
Covariance 1 92.59070 5,92840*
Error 98 15*58441
*p < .05.
TA BLE 20
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE: REDEFINITION B
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1
9624.40625
556.42159
Father absence/presence 1
98.59772 3.45950
Socioeconomic status 1 14.77758
0.51655
Interaction 1 l 6 l . 7925I
5.65545*
Error
75
28,60818
*p < .05.
93
TABLE 21
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE: REDEFINITION B
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1
2518.59055
84.80452
Father absence/presence 1 . 45.75105 1.67625
Socioeconomic sta tu s 1 76.55732 2.79284
Interaction 1 255.06665 8.52462**
Covariance 1 122.42577 4 . 47776*
Error 74
*P < . 05,
**p < . 01.
T A B L E 22
ANALYSIS O F V A R IA N C E: REDEFINITION B
(A ll Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 12241.08594 595.29150
Father absence/presence 1
16.53317 0.53389
Socioeconomic statu s 1 18.09750 0.58441
Interaction 1
31.37747
I.O I325
Error
99
ANALYSIS O F
T A B L E 25
C O V A R IA N C E : REDEFINITION B
(A ll Subjects)
Sourae df Mean Square F
Mean 1
3531.79761 H 6.06967
Father absence/presence 1 3.45348 0.11350
Socioeconomic statu s 1
72.30037
2.37609
Interaction 1 63.04012 2.07176
Covariance 1
83.78733
2.75560
Error 98 30.42825
94
T A B L E 24
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: SENSITIVITY TO PROBLEMS
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1
Father ahsence/presenee 1
Socioeconomic sta tu s 1
Interaction 1
Error 75
2011.95581
6.63675
29.24342
10.76674
9.41*005
213.12982
0.70304
3.09780
1.11*054
T A B L E 25
ANALYSIS O F C O V A R IA N C E : SENSITIVITY T O P R O B L E M S
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1
Father absence/presence 1
Socioeconomic sta tu s 1
Interaction 1
Covariance 1
Error 74
.' - 473-20483
1-24375
4.44938
21.45021
28.96425
9.17621
51.46865
0.13554
0.48488
2-33759
3.15645
3-15645
T A B L E 26
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE: SENSITIVITY T O P R O B L E M S
(A ll Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1
Father absence/presence 1
Socioeconomic sta tu s 1
Interaction 1
Error 99
2480.37817
I . 8658I
37.59116
2.31317
8.69882
285.13940
0,21449
4.32141*
0.28891
*p < .05.
95
TABLE 27
ANALYSIS OP COVARIANCES SENSITIVITY TO PROBLEMS
(All Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 647.77271 76.65784
Father absence/presenae 1 0.00011 0.00001
Socioeconomic status 1
4.35157 0.51497
Interaction 1 9.80601 1.16045
Covariance 1 33.06523 3.91296
Error 98 8.45018
T A B L E 28
ANALYSIS OP VARIANCE; FLU EN CY OF THINKING
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 15070.75000 394.02466
Father absence/preBence 1 31.44299 0.82208
Socioeconomic status 1 697.64844 l 8 .2lt001**
InternetIon 1 24.03273 0.62834
Error
75
38.24823
**p < .01.
TA BLE 29
ANALYSIS OF CO V A RIA N CE: FLU EN CY O F THINKING
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 3917.91602 105.49272
Father absence/presence 1
6.85375
0.18454
Socioeconomic status 1 315.04077 8,48270**
Interaction 1 59.63821 1.60580
Covariance 1
120.31587 3.23959
E rror 74 37.13921
**p < , 01.
96
TA B LE 50
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: FLUENCY OF THINKING
(All Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 1851*8.07031 565. 8276I *
Father absence/presence 1 34. 310l*7 1. 01*668
Socioeconomic status 1 901*.62061
27. 59637**
Interaction 1 0 . 08081* 0 . 0021*7
Error
99
32. 7801*1
**p < .01.
T A B L E 31
ANALYSIS O F CO VA RIA NCE: FLU EN CY OF THINKING
(All Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 5632.86719 174.34389
Father absence/presence 1 13.41815 0.41531
Socioeconomic status 1 424.56763 13.11*087#*
Interaction 1 4.90467 0.15181
Covariance 1
78.98393
2.44465
Error 98 32.30894
**p < .01.
T A B L E 32
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: FLEXIBILITY OF THINKING
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 2353.93701 214.71074
Father absence/presence 1 15.07616
1.37515
Socioeconomic status 1 207.25681 18. 901* 60**
Interaction 1 O .OO736 O .O O O 67
Error
73 IO.96329
**p < .01.
97
TA B L E 53
ANALYSIS O F CO VARIANCE: FIEXIBILITY O F THINKING
(Caucasian S u b jects)
Source
df Mean Square F
Mean 1 595.58150 40.80794
Father absence/presence 1 1.24054 0.12828
Socioeconomic status 1 57.15126
5 .90857*
Interaction 1 7.56628 O.78251
Covariance 1 106. 72¥ H 11.05755**
Error 74 9.66925
*P < .05.
**p < .01.
TA BLE 54
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: FLEXIBILITY OF THINKING
(All Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 2810.71045 298.68970
Father absence/presence 1 12.89965 1.57082
Socioeconomic statu s 1
280.14551
29, 77065**
Interaction 1
8.95370 0.94957
Error
99
9.41015
**p < .01.
TA BLE 55
ANALYSIS O F CO V A RIA N CE: FLEXIBILITY OF THINKING
(All Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 556.12045 64.92067
Father absence/presence 1 0.92044 0.11146
Socioeconomic statu s 1 66.98766
8.11177**
Interaction 1 0.05114 0.00619
Covariance 1 122.51049 14.81100**
Error 98 8 . 258O 8
**p < . 01,
98
TA B LE 56
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE! ORIGINALITY
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1
t e i . 59521 982,68896
Father absence/presence 1 0.65818 1.48752
Socioeconomic status 1
2.51785 5. 86877*
Interaction 1 0.00225 0.00520
Error
75
0.t e 902
*p < .05.
TABLE 57
ANALYSIS O F COVARIANCE! ORIGINALITY
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 112.51157 285.01050
Father absence/presence 1 0.11828 0.29806
Socioeconomic status 1 O.52685 0.82561
Interaction 1 0.17165 0.45254
Covariance 1 2.81012 7.08114**
Error 74 0.59684
**p < .01*
TA BLE 58
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: ORIGINALITY
(A ll Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 558.76851 1512.82597
Father absence/presence 1
0.26665 0.74869
Socioeconomic status 1
5.22079
9.04574**
Interaction 1
0.15055 O.566OI
Error
99 0.54615
**p < .01.
99
TA BLE 39
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE: ORIGINALITY
(All Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1
Father absence/presence 1
Socioeconomic statu s 1
In teraction 1
Covariance 1
Error 98
155.21355
0.01100
0.22754
O.O377O
3.75266
0.32168
482.50952
0.01100
0.70756
0.11721
11. 60366**
**p < . 01.
T A B L E 40
ANALYSIS O F VARIA N C E: E L A B O R A T IO N
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1
Father absence/presence 1
Socioeconomic statu s 1
Interaction 1
Error 75
l 6M » 0 . 05469
4.88816
55.9509^
5.29751
69.^5557
236.69887
O.O7038
0.80556
O.O7627
TABLE 4 l
ANALYSIS O F C O V A R IA N C E : E L A B O R A T IO N
(Caucasian Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1
Father absence/presence 1
Socioeconomic statu s 1
In teraction 1
Covariance 1
Error 74
4506.20703
0.05715
4 .O637I
0.11555
86.47722
69.22556
65.09456
O .O O O 83
O.O587O
0.00164
1.24921
1Q0
T A B L E 42
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE: E L A B O R A T IO N
(All Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1 20422.84766 545.64282
Father absence/presence 1 O.I5866 0.00267
Socioeconomic sta tu s 1 127.58542 2,14680
Interaction 1 20,84825 O.5508O
Error
99
59.45044
ANALYSIS
T A B L E 45
O F C O V A R IA N C E : E L A B O R A T IO N
(A ll Subjects)
Source df Mean Square F
Mean 1
6086,75781 105.22662
Father absence/presence 1 7.49827 0.12716
Socioeconomic statuB 1 16.22551 0.27517
Interaction 1 2.29441 O.0589I
Covariance 1 105.04154 1.78142
Error 98 58.96500
APPENDIX B
ELICITING STIMULI FOR SUBTESTS
OF THE GTOO
101
P.otfcff n it ion A
L i s t a l l t h e t h i n g s t h i s p i c t u r e c o u l d b e .
1 . ____________________________________
2 . ; ________
3 . ' _______________________________
4 . ___________________________________________
5. : __________________ ; ______________
6 • ’ --
7 . ______________________________________________________________________________________; ______________________________
8. ; ; ______
S. ■ ___________________ ; _________________________________
10. ____________________________________________
11. ----------------------
1 2. _______ : ___________________ : _________ ; ______
13 . ____________________________________________
1 4 . _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
15. ' ____________________________ „
16. , : ; ___________
1 7 . _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
18 . _____________________________ ; ______________
18. ____
102
R edefinition B
O
L i s t a l l t h e t h i n g s t h i s p i c t u r e c o u l d b e
io4 !
S E i l S I T I V l T Y T O P R O B L E M S
P r o b l e m s y o u m i g h t h a v e w i t h a b r o o m j
A , M i g h t g e t a 6 p l i n t c r i n y o u r h a n d .
B . B r i s t l e s m i g h t m i s s 6 o n a o f t h e d i r t .
2 « __________________________________________________________________
3 . ________________________________________________________________________________________ __
4 . __________________ __________________
5. _______________; _____________________
6 . ____________________________________
7. ___________________________ __________
8. _______________________________
9. ____________________________________
1 0 . ________________________________________________
12. ,
1 3 . ■ ______________________________________________________________________________
14 . _____________________________________ ; _______________________________________________________________________
1 3 a _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
16. ___________________________________________
i 7 . _________________________________ ; _________
i« * ___________________________________________
19. __ _________________________________
2 0 . __________________________________________
SI. ____________________ ; _____________
72. ____________________._________________________________
23
24. ______________________________________________
25.
105
F L U E N C Y
Orau as m any things as you can using a circle. Label each drouing.
F L i i X I D I L I T Y
H o w m a n y J i f f s r e n c k i n d s o f t h i n g s - c a n y o u d o w i t h a s h o e s t r i n g ?
A . U c e i t t o k e e p s h o e s o n y o u r f e e t .
1 - -----
1 0 6
* *
3 . ................................................................
. , - ■
5 . ............................... .......
6 . , - . . . .. ..............................................................................................................
7 . , , .
8 . , , , , .....................................................................................................................................................................
9 . ..............................................................................
1 0 . , ,
1 1 , , , _ ____________
1 2 . _ ______________________ __________ __ . . . . . .
1 3 , ........................ . . . . . . ....................................................................... . ............................
I S . ..................................................
1 6 .
1 7 .
1 8 . . . _______________
1 9 .
2 0 , ............................... ..............................
2 1 .
2 3 -
1 0 7
Original tty
i n TUi£ '"DALLOOn L IK E ” STAGE BELOW, WHITE IM SOMETHING FUNNY THAT THE WAN
Oil T (l£ ISLAND MIGHT BE SAYING — BE OEICT.NALl
108
E L A B O R A T I O N
I N S T R U C T I O N S : I N F I V E M I N U T E S , U S I N G T H E N A V Y L I N E , D R A ' J A U R G E D E T A I L E D
P I C T U R E

Asset Metadata

Creator Cantey, Richard Elwood (author)

Core Title The Relationship Of Father-Absence, Socio-Economic Status, And Other Variables To Creative Abilities In Fifth-Grade Boys

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Metfessel, Newton S. (committee chair), Frankel, Andrew Steven (committee member), Smith, Robert A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-861799

Unique identifier UC11363491

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Legacy Identifier 7331635

Dmrecord 861799

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Cantey, Richard Elwood

Type texts

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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