University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

An Evaluation Of The Torrance Tests Of Creative Thinking

(USC Thesis Other)

An Evaluation Of The Torrance Tests Of Creative Thinking

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content AN EVALUATION OF THE TORRANCE TESTS
OF CREATIVE THINKING
by
L i l i a da Rocha B a sto s
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d t o th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e
R eq u irem en ts f o r t h e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(E d u c a tio n )
Septem ber 1973
INFORMATION TO USERS
This dissertation was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document.
While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this
document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of
the original submitted.
The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand
markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction.
1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document
photographed is "Missing Page{s)'\ If it was possible to obtain the
missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with
adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and
duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity.
2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black
mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the
copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred
image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame.
3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being
‘ p h o tographed the photographer followed a definite method in
"sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the
upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from
left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary,
sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and
continuing on until complete.
4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest
value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be
made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the
dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at
additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog
number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced.
University Microfilms
300 N orth Z e e b R oad
Ann A rbor, M ichigan 48106
A X erox E d u catio n C om pany
BASTOS, L ilia da Rocha, 1935-
AN EV A LU A TIO N OF THE TO R R A N C E TESTS O F
CREATIVE THINKING.
University of Southern C alifornia, Ph.D.,
1973
Education, psychology
University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
© Copyright by
L ilia da Rocha Bastos
1973
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
under the direction of h.&X.. Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
O t . .....
L i l i a da Rocha B a s to s
Dean
Date.
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
F or th e f i n a n c i a l and l e g a l su p p o rt which have made
my d o c to r a l s t u d i e s p o s s ib l e I am g r a t e f u l t o my s p o n s o rs:
th e Am erican and B r a z i l i a n governm ents.
A s p e c i a l word o f r e c o g n itio n i s due t o Dr. T o r
ra n c e f o r th e p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l s and u p d a te d in f o rm a tio n he
h a s p ro v id e d about h i s t e s t and f o r th e p e rs o n a l i n t e r e s t
he h a s d e m o n stra te d i n t h i s s tu d y .
My s p e c i a l g r a t i t u d e goes t o my com m ittee:
Dr. Acock f o r h i s v a lu a b le comments, c r i t i c i s m s ,
and s u g g e s tio n s ;
Dr. Sm ith f o r h i s s u p p o r tiv e and e n co u rag in g
a t t i t u d e ;
Dr. M ich ael, my i n s p i r i n g Chairm an, f o r th e
p re c io u s tim e and s c h o l a r l y know ledge h e has
c o n tr ib u te d to t h i s s tu d y and f o r t h e sm ilin g
r e i n f o r c i n g f a c e s h e h a s drawn th ro u g h o u t i t s
d r a f t s .
ii
CONTENTS
C h ap ter
I .
I I .
I I I .
Page
THE PROBLEM AND SUPPORTING METHODOLOGY . . . 1
I n tr o d u c tio n
P urpose o f th e Study
Im portance o f th e S tudy
M e th o d o lo g ic a l P ro c ed u re s
R e se arch Problem
Scope and L im ita tio n s o f th e S tudy
O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e Rem ainder
o f th e Study
REVIEW OP LITERATURE...................................................... 15
The I s s u e o f IQ V ersus C r e a t i v i t y
The T h e o r e tic a l B a sis o f th e TTCT
The T o rra n ce T e s ts o f C re a tiv e
T h in k in g
Summary
AN EVALUATION OP THE TORRANCE TESTS OP
CREATIVE THINKING ...................................................... 38
E v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT w ith R esp ect
t o t h e S ta n d a rd s o f D isse m in a tio n
o f In fo rm a tio n
E v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT w ith R esp ect
t o th e S ta n d a rd s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
E v a lu a tio n o f th e TTCT w ith R esp ect
to th e S ta n d a rd s o f V a l i d i t y
E v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT w ith R esp ect
to t h e S ta n d a rd s o f R e l i a b i l i t y
E v a lu a tio n o f th e TTCT w ith R esp ect
to th e S ta n d a rd s o f A d m in is tra
t i o n and S co rin g
E v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT w ith R esp ect
to th e S ta n d a rd s o f S c a le s
and Norms
Summary P r o f i l e
O v e ra ll E v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT
Summary
i l l
C h a p te r
IV. SUM M ARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . .
Summary
C o n c lu sio n s
Recommendations
REFERENCES ............................................................................................
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND SUPPORTING METHODOLOGY
I n t r o d u c t io n
R ecent c o n c e rn w ith s o c i a l j u s t i c e f o r d is a d v a n
ta g e d m i n o r i t i e s seems to have renew ed t h e f i g h t a g a i n s t
t h e u s e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s on th e g ro u n d s t h a t such
t e s t s m easure o n ly c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s and r e f l e c t m id d le -
c l a s s v a lu e s . O th e r argum ents a g a i n s t i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s
commonly i n c lu d e t h e f o llo w in g : (a) t h e i r p r e d i c t i o n
f a i l u r e s i n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s ; (b) n o n -c o n firm e d c la im s
t h a t i n n a t e a b i l i t i e s a r e b e in g m easured; (c) t h e i d e a t h a t
d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t e l l i g e n c e a r e c o n tr a r y to t h e d e m o c ra tic
i d e a l ; and (d) t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e u se o f i n t e l l i g e n c e
m easures le a d s t o e d u c a tio n a l d e te rm in ism (McNemar, 1 9 6 4 ).
Two k in d s o f a c t i o n have been ta k e n i n th e a tte m p t
t o deem phaslze t h e u se o f c o n v e n tio n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s .
The f i r s t h a s been r e p r e s e n te d by th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t e s t s
supposed to be e q u a lly f a i r t o d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l and su b
c u l t u r a l g ro u p s. Such t e s t s , known as c u l t u r e - f a i r t e s t s ,
a r e assum ed t o m easure e x p e rie n c e s s h a re d by t h e g ro u p s t o
w hich th e y a r e t o be a d m in is te r e d . Most o f t h e s e t e s t s
h av e b een d e v is e d t o m easure g e n e r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e . They
1
2
have been s u b je c te d t o s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , th e r e s u l t s
o f w hich have b een c o n f l i c t i n g and c o n fu s in g (Karp & S i g e l,
1965) . However, i n s p i t e o f some d iv e r g e n t r e s u l t s , e v i
dence h a s been g a th e r e d to i n d i c a t e t h a t (a) no one approach
t o m inim ize c u l t u r a l im p act from t e s t i n g h a s seemed e f f e c
t i v e (A n a s ta s i, 1 9 6 8); and (b) th e e li m in a ti o n o f c u l t u r a l
d i f f e r e n t i a l s from a t e s t h a s b o rn e t h e d a n g er o f lo w e rin g
th e p r e d i c t i v e v a l i d i t y o f th e t e s t ( A n a s ta s i, 1968) .
A seco n d l i n e o f a c t i o n w hich a p p e a rs t o be more
p ro m isin g h a s fa v o r e d th e u s e o f m easures o f c r e a t i v i t y a s
a l t e r n a t i v e o r com plem entary a p p ro a c h e s to a s s e s s i n t e l
l e c t u a l p o t e n t i a l (A lz o b a ie , M e tf e s s e l & M ic h a e l, 1968;
B ru in ln k s & Feldm an, 1970j T o rra n c e , 1971)• A ltho ugh
s e v e r a l a u th o r s ( G e tz e ls & J a c k s o n , 1962; G u ilfo r d , 1950,
1967; G u ilf o r d & T enopyr, 1 9 6 8; T o rra n c e , 1963) hav e su p
p o r te d th e e x is te n c e o f a d i s t i n c t o p e r a tio n o r p ro c e s s o f
i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y — d iv e r g e n t p ro d u c tio n , c r e a t i v i t y , o r
c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g —w hich i s n o t ta p p e d by c o n v e n tio n a l
i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , o t h e r s have q u e s tio n e d th e e x is te n c e
o f a s e p a r a t e d im en sio n o f c r e a t i v e a b i l i t y (B u rt, 1962;
McNemar, 1964; T h o rn d ik e , 1963; V ernon, 1 9 64). The so u rc e
o f t h i s d isa g re e m e n t a s s u g g e s te d by C rop ley ( 1966) may
l i e p a r t l y i n t h e d o u b tf u l v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y o f
m easures o f c r e a t i v i t y . M oreover, t h e la c k o f co n sen su s
r e g a r d in g t h e m eaning o f c r e a t i v i t y does seem t o have
3
b ro u g h t some c o n fu s io n and t o have d iv id e d t h e e f f o r t s of
r e s e a r c h w o rkers i n t h i s a r e a . I n s p i t e o f many problem s,
a la r g e body o f in fo rm a tio n h a s been accu m u lated on " c r e a
t i v i t y " d u rin g t h e l a s t two d e c a d e s. S e v e ra l in s tr u m e n ts
have been d e v is e d to m easure t h e h y p o th e s iz e d c o n s t r u c t s
u n d e rly in g c r e a t i v i t y (B o n sa ll & Neumann, 1968j G e tz e ls &
Ja c k so n , 1962j G u ilfo r d , 1956, 1967* M ednlck, 19^2; T o r
ra n c e , 1 9 6 6; W allach & Kogan, 1965).
As o b se rv ed by C rockenberg (1972 ) , r e s e a r c h e r s and
e d u c a to rs have been i n t e n s e l y co n cern ed w ith t e s t s of
c r e a t i v i t y , a lth o u g h t h e i r fo cu s of i n t e r e s t i s somewhat
d i v e r s e . E d u c a to rs have t r i e d t o f i n d o u t w hich c r e a t i v i t y
t e s t s sh o u ld be u se d , w hereas r e s e a r c h e r s a r e m o stly con
c e rn e d w ith w h e th er o r n o t such t e s t s r e a l l y m easure con
s t r u c t s d i f f e r e n t from th o s e u n d e rly in g s o - c a l l e d g e n e r a l
I n t e l l i g e n c e .
S e rv in g a s a b r id g e f o r r e l a t i n g th e c o n c e rn s o f
e d u c a to rs t o t h e somewhat d i f f e r e n t ones o f r e s e a r c h e r s i s
th e w e ll known p u b l i c a t i o n S ta n d a rd s f o r E d u c a tio n a l and
P s y c h o lo g ic a l T e s ts and Manuals (A m erican P s y c h o lo g ic a l
A s s o c ia tio n , 1 966), which i s sim ply r e f e r r e d to a s S ta n d
a rd s . Based on t h e e x te n s iv e c o n ju n c tiv e e f f o r t s o f a
j o i n t com m ittee o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from t h e Am erican P sy
c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n (APA), th e Am erican E d u c a tio n a l
R e se arch A s s o c ia tio n (AERA), and th e N a tio n a l C o u n cil on
4
Measurement i n E d u c a tio n (NOME), who met and worked con
tin u o u s ly d u rin g a p e rio d o f alm o st s i x y e a rs to com plete
i t s c h a rg e , t h e volume c o n ta in s s i x s e t s o f c r i t e r i a f o r
e v a lu a tin g e d u c a tio n a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t s and m anuals.
I t s p e l l s out th e "basic re q u ire m e n ts t h a t a t e s t sh o u ld
meet i n o r d e r to q u a l i f y f o r g e n e r a l u s e . I n t h i s se n s e ,
i t works as a d e v ic e f o r s e l e c t i o n o f t e s t s by e d u c a to rs
o r p r a c t i t i o n e r s — p a r t i c u l a r l y c o u n s e lo r s , sc h o o l p s y c h o lo
g i s t s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and c u rric u lu m s p e c i a l i s t s — and th u s
i n d i c a t e s to them what t o look f o r i n ju d g in g th e a p p r o p r i
a te n e s s o f t e s t s from I n fo rm a tio n p r e s e n te d i n accom panying
m anuals. To th e r e s e a r c h e r and p r o f e s s i o n a l e v a lu a to r th e
S ta n d a rd s r e v e a l s which k in d s o f in f o rm a tio n to c o n s id e r
p a r t i c u l a r l y when i n v e s t i g a t i n g and e v a lu a tin g th e adequacy
o f p sy c h o m etric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e l i a b i l i t y , v a l i d i t y ,
and norms f o r e d u c a tio n a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t s .
P urpose o f th e S tudy
The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was t o p ro v id e a c r i t i c a l
a n a l y s i s and e v a lu a tio n of th e T o rra n c e T e s ts o f C re a tiv e
T h inking (TTCT) (T o rra n ce , 1966) a g a in s t th e c r i t e r i a e s
t a b l i s h e d i n th e S ta n d a rd s f o r E d u c a tio n a l and P sy ch o lo g
i c a l T e s ts and M anuals ( S ta n d a r d s ) (APA, 1966) . T h is p u r
pose w i l l be f u r t h e r e x p li c a t e d s u b s e q u e n tly In term s o f
s i x q u e s tio n s u n d e rly in g th e r e s e a r c h problem .
5
Im portance o f th e Study
I n 19^ 9 * th e r e w ere o n ly 1 .1 p e r 1000 r e f e r e n c e s
u n d e r t h e h e a d in g o f " c r e a t i v i t y " i n th e P s y c h o lo g ic a l
A b s t r a c t s . Twenty y e a rs l a t e r , t h e number was 1 2 .1 p e r
1000. I f th e t r e n d sh o u ld c o n tin u e , i t c o u ld be e x p ec te d
t h a t by 1989 t h e to p ic m ight ta k e o v e r t h e P s y c h o lo g ic a l
A b s tr a c ts (T h o rn d ik e, 1 9 7 2). As a consequence o f th e
In c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n th e s c i e n t i f i c s tu d y o f " c r e a t i v i t y , "
s e v e r a l in s tru m e n ts to m easure th e c o n s tr u c t o r c o n s t r u c t s
a s s o c i a t e d w ith i t have been d e v is e d . Those in s tru m e n ts
have been s u b je c te d to s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and re v ie w s.
However, i t a p p e a rs t h a t no t e s t h as been y e t su b m itte d to
a com prehensive a n a l y s i s and e v a lu a tio n a g a i n s t r e l a t i v e l y
u n b ia s e d and p r e e s t a b l i s h e d c r i t e r i a t h a t may p ro v id e p ro
s p e c tiv e u s e r s and r e s e a r c h e r s w ith a d d i t i o n a l in fo rm a tio n
on th e s t r e n g t h s and w eaknesses o f a g iv e n t e s t . T h ere
f o r e , a s tu d y aim ed a t a th o ro u g h a n a l y s i s and e v a lu a tio n
of th e T o rra n c e T e s ts o f C r e a tiv e T h in k in g ( r e f e r r e d to as
TTCT) (T o rra n ce , 1966) , r e l a t i v e t o t h e c r i t e r i a o r p r i n
c i p l e s s e t f o r t h i n t h e S ta n d a rd s seems t o a c h ie v e r e l e
v a n ce . The im p o rtan ce of such stu d y can be summarized In
term s o f f i v e main p o i n t s : (a) i t can fo c u s a t t e n t i o n on
an In s tru m e n t supposed t o m easure a p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n s tr u c t
o f g r e a t c o n c e rn to e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s , e v a lu a to r s ,
and r e s e a r c h w o rk e rs; (b) i t b r in g s t o g e t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t
6
In f o rm a tio n on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and o v e r a l l u t i l i t y o f
th e TTCT to p r o s p e c tiv e u s e r s ; (c) i t i n d i c a t e s a re a s where
th e t e s t needs a d d i t i o n a l s tu d y and i t recommends m o d ific a
t i o n s t o im prove i t s t h e o r e t i c a l and s t a t i s t i c a l v a l i d i t y ;
(d) i t may encourage t h e s e a rc h f o r h ig h e r s ta n d a r d s among
t e s t a u th o r s and p u b l is h e r s ; and (e) i t may, h o p e f u l l y ,
c o n s t i t u t e a c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e advancem ent o f p sy c h o lo g
i c a l m easurem ent th ro u g h th e com prehensive c r i t i q u e o f a
p s y c h o lo g ic a l in s tr u m e n t.
M e th o d o lo g ic a l P ro c ed u re s
P r i o r to th e fo rm a l s ta te m e n t o f th e r e s e a r c h p ro b
lem, i t i s e s s e n t i a l to f a m i l i a r i z e t h e r e a d e r w ith b a s ic
f e a t u r e s o f t h e m ethodology, a s th e y c o n s t i t u t e a s in e qua
non f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g t h e te rm in o lo g y employed i n each of
th e s i x q u e s tio n s o f th e r e s e a r c h problem . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
t h e m ajo r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e S ta n d a rd s need a m p lif ic a
t i o n .
The r e s e a r c h m ethodology employed i n t h i s i n v e s t i
g a t i o n was r e p r e s e n te d by a model o f co ngruence e v a lu a tio n .
D ata g a th e re d from t h e TTCT N orm s-T ech nical Manual a s w e ll
a s from s e l e c t e d .e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s on t h e TTCT
w ere e v a lu a te d a s to t h e i r l e v e l o f congruence o r adequacy
a g a i n s t a m odel r e p r e s e n te d by th e c r i t e r i a s e t f o r t h I n
th e S ta n d a rd s .
7
O th e r m e th o d o lo g ic a l p ro c e d u re s o f th e study-
in c lu d e d : (a) a r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f th e TTCT a s
th e in s tr u m e n t f o r th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; (b) a b r i e f d e s c r i p
t i o n o f t h e S ta n d a rd s and o f th e r a t i o n a l e f o r th e s e l e c
t i o n o f s e v e r a l o f i t s c r i t e r i a a s th e b a s i s f o r th e e v a l
u a ti o n o f th e TTCT; and (c) a summary o f th e s t r a t e g y u se d
th ro u g h a r a t i n g p ro c e s s to e s t a b l i s h t h e d e g re e o f co n
g ru e n c e o f d a ta o b ta in e d from th e TTCT m anual and from
e m p ir ic a l r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s d e a lin g p r i m a r i l y w ith th e t e s t ,
i n r e f e r e n c e t o th e e v a l u a t i v e d im e n sio n o f a model r e p r e
s e n te d by t h e c r i t e r i a s t a t e d i n t h e S ta n d a r d s .
R a tio n a le f o r t h e S e l e c ti o n
o f t h e TTCT
Among a p r o f u s io n o f t e s t s p u r p o r te d to m easure
c r e a t i v i t y , th e in s tr u m e n ts d e v e lo p e d by G e tz e ls and
J a c k s o n ( 1 9 6 2); G u ilf o r d ( 1956, 19 67)j M ednick ( 1962) ;
T o rra n c e (1966); and W allach and Kogan ( 1 9 6 5) a p p e a r t o
have been t h e m ajo r p r e f e r e n c e s o f u s e r s and r e s e a r c h e r s .
The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e TTCT o v e r t h e o t h e r f o u r t e s t s o f
c r e a t i v i t y e l i g i b l e f o r a th o ro u g h e v a lu a tio n was b a sed on
th e f o llo w in g r a t i o n a l e : (a) th e t e s t r e p r e s e n t s a p i o
n e e r in g v e n tu r e In making a v a i l a b l e t o u s e r s and r e s e a r c h
e r s an in s tru m e n t d e sig n e d t o m easure c r e a t i v e th in k in g
p o t e n t i a l i n c h i l d r e n , a d o le s c e n t s , and a d u l t s (T o rra n c e ,
1 9 6 6); (b) i t h a s o r i g i n a t e d t h e g r e a t e s t amount of
8
r e s e a r c h acc u m u late d a ro u n d a s e t o f t e s t s (C ronbach,
1970) ; and (c) e m p ir ic a l e v id e n ce i n p a r t i a l su p p o rt o f
th e c la im t h a t th e TTCT may p ro v id e c u l t u r a l l y u n b ia s e d
m easures of c r e a t i v i t y (T o rra n c e , 1971) h a s added a new
dim ensio n o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e In s tru m e n t.
D e s c r ip tio n o f t h e S ta n d a rd s and
R a tio n a le f o r th e S e l e c ti o n o f
S e v e ra l o f i t s C r i t e r i a f o r th e
E v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT
The c u r r e n t S ta n d a r d s , p u b lis h e d by th e A m erican
P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n (APA) i n 1966, c o n s t i t u t e s a
r e v i s i o n o f two fo rm er docum ents: one p re p a re d and pub
l i s h e d by th e APA i n 195^J and o t h e r p u t t o g e t h e r by a
j o i n t com m ittee o f t h e A m erican E d u c a tio n a l R e se arch A sso
c i a t i o n and th e N a tio n a l C o u n c il on M easurement and E duca
t i o n (th e n known a s N a tio n a l C o u n c il on M easurement Used
i n E d u c a tio n ) and i s s u e d by th e N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n a l
A s s o c ia tio n i n 1955.
D e s c r i p t i o n . The S ta n d a rd s co m p rise s a s e r i e s of
l 6 l t e c h n i c a l recom m endations o r s ta n d a r d s f o r e d u c a tio n a l
and p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t s and m anuals, s t a t e d u n d e r s i x
h e a d in g s : D is s e m in a tio n o f I n fo r m a tio n , I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
V a l i d i t y , R e l i a b i l i t y , A d m in is tr a tio n and S c o rin g , and
S c a le s and Norms. The s ta n d a r d s a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e
l e v e l s : ESSENTIAL, VERY DESIRABLE, and DESIRABLE. ESSENTIAL
s ta n d a rd s a r e d e s c r ib e d as
9
In te n d e d to r e p r e s e n t t h e co n sen su s o f p r e s e n t- d a y
t h in k i n g c o n c e rn in g what i s n o rm a lly r e q u i r e d f o r
o p e r a t io n a l u s e o f a t e s t . . . . The ESSENTIAL s t a n d
a rd s i n d i c a t e what In f o rm a tio n w i l l be needed f o r
most t e s t s i n t h e i r u s u a l a p p l i c a t i o n s [APA, 1966,
p . 5 l .
The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n VERY DESIRABLE i d e n t i f i e s th o s e
s ta n d a r d s t h a t "draw a t t e n t i o n to ty p e s o f in f o r m a tio n
w hich c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o th e u s e r ’s u n d e rs ta n d in g o f
t h e t e s t [p . 5 ] . ,r
As DESIRABLE a r e l i s t e d th o s e s ta n d a r d s t h a t I n
c lu d e " in f o r m a tio n w hich would be h e l p f u l , b u t l e s s so
th a n t h e ESSENTIAL and VERY DESIRABLE in f o r m a tio n [p . 5 ] . "
The s ta n d a r d s o r c r i t e r i a a r e r e p r e s e n te d by d i f
f e r e n t n o t a t i o n s i n t h e S ta n d a r d s . N o ta tio n s v a ry a c c o rd
in g t o t h e h e a d in g s o r d i v i s i o n s o f t h e S ta n d a rd s and t o
th e l e v e l o f im p o rta n c e each s ta n d a r d was a s s ig n e d by t h e
APA-AERA-NCME C om m ittee. The s i x h e a d in g s o f th e S ta n d a rd s
a r e r e p r e s e n te d by th e fo llo w in g c a p i t a l l e t t e r s : ,rA"
s ta n d in g f o r D is s e m in a tio n o f I n f o rm a tio n ; "B" f o r I n t e r
p r e t a t i o n ; "C" f o r V a l i d i t y ; "D" f o r R e l i a b i l i t y ; "E" f o r
A d m in is tr a tio n and S c o rin g ; and "E" f o r S c a le s and Norms.
S ta n d a rd s a r e d e s ig n a te d by t h e c a p i t a l l e t t e r s r e f e r r i n g
t o t h e i r m ajo r h e a d in g o r d i v i s i o n . F o r exam ple, a l l
s ta n d a r d s f o r D is s e m in a tio n o f I n fo r m a tio n a r e d e s ig n a te d
w ith t h e l e t t e r "A"; a l l th e ones f o r I n t e r p r e t a t i o n w ith
t h e l e t t e r "B "; and so f o r t h .
10
T w en ty -six m ajo r s ta n d a rd s a r e c l a s s i f i e d as ESSEN
TIAL i n t h e S ta n d a rd s and p r i n t e d i n h o ld fa c e l e t t e r s .
Each one i s r e p r e s e n te d by a d i v i s i o n a l l e t t e r fo llo w e d by
a number. F or exam ple, t h e two ESSENTIAL s ta n d a r d s f o r
D iss e m in a tio n o f I n fo rm a tio n a re A1 and A2. C o r o lla r y o r
more d e t a i l e d s ta n d a rd s a r e i n d ic a t e d by a decim al system
o f n o t a t i o n . F o r exam ple, u n d er th e 7 th m ajor s ta n d a rd f o r
V a l i d i t y which i s C7, th e c o r o l l a r y s ta n d a rd s a re i n d ic a t e d
as fo llo w s : 0 7 .1 , C 7 . l l , C7.12, C 7.13, C 7.2, e t c . T his
same n o t a t i o n h a s been employed th ro u g h o u t th e p re s e n t
I n v e s t i g a t i o n w h erev er r e f e r e n c e s a r e made t o s p e c i f i c
s ta n d a rd s r e p o r te d I n th e S ta n d a r d s . The 26 ESSENTIAL
s ta n d a rd s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d among th e s i x h e ad in g s o f th e
S ta n d ard s a s f o llo w s : d is s e m in a tio n o f In f o rm a tio n — 2
s ta n d a rd s (A1-A2); I n t e r p r e t a t i o n — 4 s ta n d a rd s (B l-B 4 )j
V a l i d i t y —7 s ta n d a rd s (C1-C7); R e l i a b i l i t y —6 s ta n d a rd s
(D1-D6); A d m in is tra tio n and S c o rin g — 2 s ta n d a rd s (E 1-E 2);
and S c a le s and Norms—5 s ta n d a rd s (F1-F2 and F 4 -F 6 ).
R a tio n a le f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f c r i t e r i a f o r th e
e v a lu a tio n of th e TTCT. Of th e l 6 l s ta n d a rd s o r c r i t e r i a
r e p o r te d I n t h e S ta n d a rd s o n ly th e 26 m ajor ones w hich a r e
p r i n te d i n b o ld f a c e ty p e and a r e c l a s s i f i e d as ESSENTIAL
were s e l e c te d t o c o n s t i t u t e th e model a g a in s t which t h e
TTCT was e v a lu a te d . The r a t i o n a l e f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f
th e s e 26 s ta n d a rd s grouped as ESSENTIAL was b ased on
(a ) th e p r i o r i t y p la c e d on them by t h e APA-AERA-NCME Com
m it t e e , and (b) t h e tw o fo ld f a c t t h a t t h e TTCT m anual i s
s t i l l i n i t s o r i g i n a l e d i t i o n and th e S ta n d a rd s su gg e s t s
t h a t VERY DESIRABLE and DESIRABLE in f o r m a tio n can be added
by t h e p ro d u c e r o f a t e s t " in su b se q u e n t e d i t i o n s o f th e
m anual [ p . 5 ] • "
S t r a t e g y Used t o Judge t h e D egree o f
C ongruence o f t h e TTCT A g a in st t h e
C r i t e r i a S e le c te d from th e S ta n d a rd s
Upon th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f each ESSENTIAL s ta n d a r d
s t a t e d i n t h e S ta n d a rd s , e v id e n c e g a th e r e d from t h e TTCT
m anual and from s e l e c t e d s t u d i e s r e l a t e d t o th e t e s t was
r a t e d i n t o f o u r c a t e g o r i e s : " s a t i s f a c t o r y , " " q u e s t io n a b le ,"
" u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , " and "n o t a p p l i c a b l e . "
A r a t i n g o f " s a t i s f a c t o r y " was a s s ig n e d each tim e
a c o m p lete c o n g ru en ce a p p e a re d to e x i s t betw een in f o r m a tio n
found b o th I n t h e m anual and I n e m p ir ic a l r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s
r e g a r d in g th e t e s t and th e c o n te n t o f t h e c r i t e r i o n ( s t a n d
a rd ) u n d e r e x a m in a tio n .
"Q u e stio n a b le " was u se d when t h e t e s t and i t s
m anual o n ly p a r t i a l l y o r n o t e x p l i c i t l y met a c r i t e r i o n o f
t h e S ta n d a r d s .
E very tim e th e t e s t and m anual d id n o t meet th e
re q u ire m e n ts o f a c r i t e r i o n ,, a r a t i n g o f " u n s a t i s f a c t o r y "
was em ployed.
12
F i n a l l y , "not a p p lic a b le " was r e s e r v e d f o r th o s e
c a s e s ( a c t u a l l y one c a se ) i n w hich th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
th e t e s t s u g g e ste d t h a t a s p e c i f i c s ta n d a rd sh o u ld n o t be
c o n s id e re d .
R esearch Problem
I n view o f th e n a tu r e o f t h i s s tu d y w hich does n o t
le n d i t s e l f t o th e sta te m e n t o f h y p o th e se s t o be e v a lu a te d
by means o f t e s t s o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , a s e r i e s o f
q u e s tio n s was i n s t e a d p o sed . The q u e s tio n s w ere concern ed
w ith t h e d e g re e o f congruence o f th e TTCT i n r e f e r e n c e to
th e ESSENTIAL c r i t e r i a o r s ta n d a r d s c o n ta in e d i n each one
o f th e s i x h e a d in g s o f th e S ta n d a r d s . The s i x m ajor q u e s
t i o n s were a s fo llo w s :
1. To what e x te n t does th e TTCT meet t h e ESSENTIAL
c r i t e r i a f o r D iss e m in a tio n o f In fo rm a tio n (A1-A2)?
2. To what e x te n t does th e TTCT meet t h e ESSENTIAL
c r i t e r i a f o r I n t e r p r e t a t i o n (B1-B4)?
3. To what e x te n t does th e TTCT meet th e ESSENTIAL
c r i t e r i a f o r V a l i d i t y (C1-C7)?
4 . To what e x te n t does th e TTCT meet t h e ESSENTIAL
c r i t e r i a f o r R e l i a b i l i t y (D1-D6)?
5 . To w hat e x te n t does th e TTCT meet th e ESSENTIAL
c r i t e r i a f o r A d m in is tr a tio n and S c o rin g (E1-E2)?
6 . To what e x te n t does th e TTCT meet t h e ESSENTIAL
c r i t e r i a f o r S c a le s and Norms (F1-F2 and F 4-F 6)?
13
Scope and L im ita tio n s o f t h e S tudy
The p r e s e n t s tu d y h a s b een d e lim ite d to t h e e v a lu a
t i o n o f one t e s t o f c r e a t i v i t y — th e T o rra n c e T e s ts o f C rea
t i v e T h in k in g (TTCT)— and i t s m anual a g a i n s t th e t e c h n i c a l
c r i t e r i a s e t f o r t h i n th e S ta n d a rd s f o r E d u c a tio n a l and
P s y c h o lo g ic a l T e s ts and M anuals ( S ta n d a r d s ) . D ata were
g a th e r e d from s t u d i e s re p o rte d - i n t h e TTCT m anual and from
s e l e c t e d e m p ir ic a l l i t e r a t u r e p u b lis h e d a f t e r t h e t e s t was
I s s u e d . Of t h e 161 t e c h n i c a l c r i t e r i a c o n ta in e d i n th e
S ta n d a rd s o n ly 26 c l a s s i f i e d a s ESSENTIAL w ere u se d i n t h e
co n g ru e n ce m odel f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e t e s t .
The c r i t e r i a a g a i n s t w hich t h e TTCT and i t s m anual
w ere e v a lu a te d w ere s e t a p r i o r i and w ere d e s ig n e d to con
s t i t u t e a sound and r e l a t i v e l y u n b ia s e d m odel f o r e v a l u a t
in g e d u c a ti o n a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t s and m a n u a ls. A l
th o u g h s i m i l a r l y t h e s t r a t e g y d e v is e d t o ju d g e t h e d e g re e
t o w hich t h e TTCT and i t s m anual a t t a i n e d e ac h o f t h e c r i
t e r i a r e p r e s e n te d a r e l a t i v e l y o b j e c t i v e p r o c e s s , c e r t a i n
m e th o d o lo g ic a l l i m i t a t i o n s d id o c c u r i n t h i s s tu d y . They
a p p e a re d t o be m a in ly c o n tin g e n t upon t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f s t u d i e s r e l a t e d t o t h e t e s t . A lth o u g h a n a tte m p t was
made t o re v ie w r e s e a r c h e v id e n c e i n a s t r i c t l y f a c t u a l -
o r i e n t e d mode, t h e r e w ere o c c a s io n s i n w hich s ta te m e n ts
r e f l e c t e d t h e s u b j e c t i v i t y of cne re v ie w e r* s own s ta n d on
c e r t a i n r e s e a r c h and s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u re s . F u rth e rm o re ,
14
a c e r t a i n d e g re e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y e n te r e d i n t o th e s e l e c t i o n
o f th o s e s t u d i e s th o u g h t to be r e l e v a n t t o th e o b j e c t i v e s
o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e R em ainder
o f th e Study
The re m a in in g c h a p te r s of t h i s s tu d y a r e o rg a n iz e d
as fo llo w s : C h a p te r I I re v ie w s l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e rn in g (a)
th e I s s u e o f IQ v e r s u s c r e a t i v i t y ; (b) th e t h e o r e t i c a l
b a s i s o f t h e TTCT; and (c) th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e TTCT,
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and s c o r in g p ro c e d u re s .
I n C h a p te r I I I an a tte m p t i s made (a) t o e v a lu a te
t h e TTCT on t h e b a s i s o f d a ta r e p o r t e d i n t h e Norms-
T e c h n ic a l Manual accom panying th e TTCT and e m p ir ic a l
e v id e n c e g a th e r e d from o t h e r s t u d i e s , i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e
c r i t e r i a e x t r a c t e d from th e S ta n d a r d s ; and (b) t o I n t e g r a t e
e v id e n c e g a th e r e d from t h e rev ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e u n d e rta k e n
I n C h a p te r I I , from e m p ir ic a l s t u d i e s r e l a t e d to th e TTCT,
and from t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f th e t e s t a g a i n s t th e c r i t e r i a
o f th e S ta n d a rd s i n th e form o f a b r i e f o v e r a l l e v a l u a t i o n .
I n C h a p te r IV a summary, c o n c lu s io n s , and recom
m en d atio n s f o r f u r t h e r s t u d i e s a re p r e s e n te d .
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OP LITERATURE
The p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p te r I s t o r e s t r i c t t h e
rev iew o f l i t e r a t u r e t o t h r e e a r e a s o f c o n c e rn , t o each o f
w hich one s e c t i o n i s d e v o te d .
I n t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n , "The I s s u e o f IQ V ersus
C r e a t i v i t y , " a re v ie w i s o f f e r e d on t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l q u e s
t i o n c o n c e rn in g w h e th e r o r n o t c r e a t i v i t y s ta n d s a s a con
s t r u c t o r s e t o f c o n s t r u c t s by th e m s e lv e s , d i f f e r e n t i a b l e
from th e c o n s t r u c t o r c o n s t r u c t s common t o c o n v e n tio n a l IQ
t e s t m ea su re s.
The second s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d "The
T h e o r e ti c a l B a sis o f t h e TTCT" p r e s e n t s an o v erv iew o f
G u i l f o r d 's S t r u c t u r e - o f - I n t e l l e c t Model and o f f e r s a d i s
c u s s io n o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l p ro c e d u re s w hich have been
employed su p p o se d ly t o s u b s t a n t i a t e i t .
The t h i r d s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r , "The T o rra n c e
T e s ts o f C r e a tiv e T h in k in g ," d e s c r i b e s t h e TTCT a s t o i t s
c o n te n t, a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and s c o r in g p r o c e d u r e s .
The I s s u e o f IQ V ersu s C r e a t i v i t y
A c r u c i a l a s p e c t p e rm e a tin g any a tte m p t to s tu d y
f u r t h e r and to m easure c r e a t i v i t y I s t h e s t a t u s o f
15
16
c r e a t i v i t y i t s e l f a s a c o n s t r u c t o r group o f c o n s t r u c t s
d i s t i n c t from t h e s i n g l e c o n s t r u c t o r s e t o f c o n s t r u c t s
u n d e rly in g i n t e l l i g e n c e .
I n h i s p r e s i d e n t i a l a d d re s s to t h e Am erican P sycho
l o g i c a l A s s o c ia tio n , G u ilf o r d (1950) h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t c o r
r e l a t i o n s betw een I n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s c o re s and many ty p e s
o f c r e a t i v e p ro c e s s e s would be o n ly m o derate o r low b e c a u se
some o f th e p rim a ry a b i l i t i e s Im p o rta n t f o r c r e a t i v e behav
i o r w ere n o t r e p r e s e n te d I n i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s . G u i l f o r d 's
h y p o th e s is was i n v e s t i g a t e d by G e tz e ls and Ja c k s o n ( 1 962).
T h e ir sam ple was s e l e c t e d from a p o p u la tio n o f boys and
g i r l s ra n g in g from t h e s i x t h g ra d e up t o t h e s e n io r y e a r
o f h ig h s c h o o l, who w ere a tt e n d i n g a p r i v a t e sc h o o l In
C hicag o. The sam ple c o m p rise d : (a ) 28 a d o le s c e n ts f a l l i n g
w i t h in t h e to p 20 p e rc e n t i n i n t e l l i g e n c e (a v e ra g e IQ 150),
a s m easured by th e S ta n f o r d - B in e t I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a le ,
W ech sler I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a le f o r C h ild re n , o r Henmon-Nelson
T e s ts o f M ental A b i l i t y , b u t below t h e to p 20 p e rc e n t i n
c r e a t i v i t y (a s m easured by f i v e t e s t s b ased on G u i l f o r d 's
work In v o lv in g c o m p le tin g f a b l e s , making up p ro b lem s,
h id d e n sh a p e s, word a s s o c i a t i o n , and u s e s f o r t h i n g s ) ;
and (b) 26 s u b j e c t s f a l l i n g w i t h in t h e to p 20 p e r c e n t In
c r e a t i v i t y b u t below th e to p 20 p e r c e n t i n I n t e l l i g e n c e
(a v e ra g e IQ 1 2 7 ). The mean c o r r e l a t i o n o f a b o u t .26
betw een t h e m easures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and c r e a t i v i t y
17
a p p e a re d t o c o n firm G u i l f o r d 's h y p o th e s is o f a low and
p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een th e two ty p e s o f m ea su re s.
G e tz e ls and J a c k s o n 's ( 1962) s tu d y h as been r e p l i
cated., and a s r e p o r t e d by McNemar (1964) m ost o f th e r e p l i
c a t io n s y ie ld e d s i m i l a r r e s u l t s . However, t h e s tu d y has
been c r i t i c i z e d on t e c h n i c a l grounds (B u rt, 1962; de M ille
& M e r r i f i e l d , 1 9 6 2; McNemar, 1964; T h o rn d ik e , 1963;
V ernon, 1964):
I n s e l e c t i n g t h e s o - c a l l e d " i n t e l l i g e n t " grou p th e
i n v e s t i g a t o r s a p p a r e n tly r e l i e d on a s i n g l e "IQ" p r o
c u re d from th e " r e c o r d s o f f i c e o f t h e s c h o o l." More
o v e r, th e t e s t was a p p li e d , n o t a t th e tim e o f th e
i n q u i r y , b u t when t h e p u p i l s f i r s t e n te r e d t h e s c h o o l,
n o r was i t t h e same f o r e v e ry p u p i l . Hence, th e
a s s e s s m e n ts so o b ta in e d must have a r a t h e r low r e l i a
b i l i t y [B u rt, 1962, p . 294 ].
McNemar (1964) s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e low c o r r e l a t i o n found
betw een c r e a t i v i t y and IQ i n G e tz e ls and J a c k s o n 's stu d y
was a r e s u l t of (a) u s u a l m easurem ent e r r o r s ; (b) th e
r e s t r i c t e d ra n g e o f th e sam ple o f s u b j e c t s on IQ (mean o f
132); and (c) th e f a c t t h a t t h e IQs w ere a m ix tu re from
t h r e e t e s t s . He a l s o s t a t e d t h a t t h e c o n fir m a tio n o f th e s e
f in d in g s i n l a t e r s t u d i e s m ere ly i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e p e
t i t i o n o f f a u l t y d e s ig n and o f f a l s e l o g ic l e d t o s i m i l a r
f a l s e c o n c lu s io n s .
B u rt ( 1 9 6 2) and T h o rn d ik e ( 1 9 6 3) f u r t h e r q u e s tio n e d
t h e v a l i d i t y o f th e t r a i t m easured by t e s t s o f c r e a t i v i t y .
T h e ir argum ent c o u ld be i n t e r p r e t e d a s c e n t e r i n g on t h e
c o n c e p ts o f d is c r im in a n t and c o n v e rg e n t v a l i d i t y (C am pbell &
18
JFiske, 1959). W hereas t h e in d e x o f r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
d iv e r g e n t t h in k i n g t e s t s and IQ m easures a p p e a re d to be
low — m o stly betw een .20 and .40 (T a y lo r & H o lla n d , 1962)
(a c irc u m s ta n c e s u g g e s tin g e x is te n c e o f d is c r im in a n t v a l i d
i t y ) , t h e i n t e r e o r r e l a t i o n s among t h e d iv e r g e n t t h in k in g
t e s t s th e m se lv e s w ere found to be o f a m agnitu de com parab le
t o t h a t found f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een IQ m easu res and
t e s t s o f d iv e r g e n t th in k i n g (an outcom e n o t s u p p o r tin g
r e a l i z a t i o n o f c o n v e rg e n t v a l i d i t y ) . I f such a l i n e o f
r e a s o n in g w ere c o n firm e d , i t c o u ld le a d to t h e c o n c lu s io n
t h a t th e v a r ia n c e w hich d iv e r g e n t t h in k i n g t e s t s had i n
common was p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same v a r ia n c e t h e y h ad i n common
w ith IQ m e a su re s. R e an a ly z in g G e tz e ls and J a c k s o n 's d a ta ,
T h o rn d ik e ( 1963) s u g g e s te d t h a t a lth o u g h t h e r e m ight be a
b ro a d dom ain, d i s t i n c t from th e dom ain o f t h e c o n v e n tio n a l
i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t , w hich m ight be c a l l e d " d iv e r g e n t t h i n k
in g " o r " c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g , " such a domain would be r a t h e r
more n e b u lo u s and l o o s e ly form ed th a n t h a t o f c o n v e n tio n a l
i n t e l l e c t . T h e re fo re , i t would be d i f f i c u l t t o d ev elo p
a d e q u a te domain m easu res w hich w ere f r e e o f v a r ia n c e due
to e r r o r o r to s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s .
A lth o u g h B u rt (1962) and T h o rn d ik e (1963) w ere
s e v e r e i n t h e i r c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e r e s e a r c h p ro c e d u re s u se d
i n t h e a tte m p t t o show th e in d ep e n d en c e o f a c r e a t i v i t y
dom ain from an i n t e l l i g e n c e dom ain, th e y n e i t h e r r u l e d o ut
19
th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f such in dep en d en ce n o r d is c o u ra g e d f u r
t h e r I n v e s t i g a t i o n s :
I n any c a se t h e r e can be no doubt w h a tev e r t h a t th e s e
new t e s t s [G e tz e ls & J a c k s o n 's ] have su cceed ed i n
e l i c i t i n g su p p le m e n ta ry a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a re r a r e l y
ta p p e d by th e u s u a l b ran d s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t . That
t h i s i s so can r e a d i l y be d e m o n stra te d by p a r t i a l i n g
o u t th e i n f lu e n c e o f th o s e p a r t i c u l a r p ro c e s s e s meas
u re d by th e " i n t e l l i g e n c e " t e s t : we th e n f in d t h a t
t h e r e s t i l l rem ains a s e t o f p o s i t i v e p a r t i a l c o r r e
l a t i o n s betw een t h e t e s t s o f c r e a t i v i t y which a r e i n
n e a r ly e v ery c a s e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t [B u rt,
1962, p . 2 95].
And T horndike ( 1963) , a lth o u g h u rg in g a c o n s id e r a b le d eg ree
o f c a u tio n , ap p la u d ed a tte m p ts d i r e c t e d a t th e developm ent
jo f a new and p o t e n t i a l l y f r u i t f u l f i e l d o f a p p r a i s a l .
The i s s u e o f c r e a t i v i t y v e rs u s IQ a p p e a rs t o rem ain
somewhat c o n t r o v e r s i a l . However, some e v id e n c e i n d i c a t e s
t h a t t h e r e m ight e x i s t a t h r e s h o ld o f i n t e l l i g e n c e above
w hich t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no c o r r e l a t i o n betw een IQ and
c r e a t i v i t y . When r e s t r i c t e d sam ples (h ig h IQ l e v e l ) have
b een u se d , no s i g n i f i c a n t o r v e ry low c o r r e l a t i o n s were
found betw een t h e two ty p e s o f m easures (B arro n , 1968;
G e tz e ls & J a c k s o n , 1 9 6 2; MacKinnon, 1965; T o rra n c e , 1962;
Yamamoto, 1 965) . When u n r e s t r i c t e d sam ples have been
employed r e s u l t s have shown low p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s
(aro u n d .3 0 ) betw een m easures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and th o s e o f
c r e a t i v i t y ( G u ilfo rd & H o ep fn er, 1966; T o rra n c e , 1 962;
Yamamoto, 1 965) . To p u t th e s ta te m e n t i n a n o th e r way,
t h e r e a p p e a rs to e x i s t some c o rre sp o n d e n ce betw een r e l a t i v e
20
s ta n d in g on c o n v e n tio n a l t e s t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and r e l a t i v e
p lacem en t on m easures o f c r e a t i v i t y a t l e a s t w ith in a ra n g e
o f IQ s c o re s up t o 120. Above t h i s l e v e l , how ever, o n e ’s
ra n k on c o n v e n tio n a l IQ t e s t s may n o t a g re e w ith o n e 's ra n k
on c r e a t i v i t y (B u tc h e r, 1 9 6 8) . Or, t o u s e G u i l f o r d 's
( 1 9 6 7) w ords: "A lthough h ig h IQ I s n o t a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i
t i o n f o r h ig h DP [ d iv e r g e n t p r o d u c tio n ] a b i l i t y , i t i s
a lm o st a n e c e s s a ry c o n d it i o n [p . 1 6 8 ]."
A d iv e r g e n t f in d in g h a s b e en r e p o r t e d by W allach
and Kogan ( 1965) . The h ig h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n th e y found
betw een t h e i r own u n tim ed c r e a t i v i t y m easures and t e s t s o f
i n t e l l i g e n c e (W echsler I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a le f o r C h ild re n ,
School and C o lle g e A b i l i t y T e s ts , and S e q u e n tia l T e s ts o f
E d u c a tio n a l P r o g re s s ) was .2 2 , and th e m edian c o r r e l a t i o n
was l e s s th a n .1 0 . They m a in ta in e d t h a t tim e d G u ilf o r d -
ty p e c r e a t i v i t y m easures u se d i n fo rm er s t u d i e s d id n o t
r e p r e s e n t a d im en sio n in d e p e n d e n t o f I n t e l l i g e n c e w hereas
t h e i r u n tim ed m easures o f c r e a t i v i t y d i d . However, t h e i r
f i n d in g s have been c h a lle n g e d (C ronbach, 1968j G u ilf o r d ,
1971j Madaus, 1967) . A f te r o b ta in in g a " n e g l i g i b le "
r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een I n t e l l i g e n c e and tim e d c r e a t i v i t y
t e s t s (TTCT), Madaus ( 1967) q u e s tio n e d W allach and K o g an 's
( 1 9 6 5) f i n d in g r e g a r d in g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een untim ed
and tim e d c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s . S ubsequ ent t o r e a n a ly z in g
W allach and K o g an 's d a ta , C ronbach ( 1968) su g g e ste d t h a t
t h e i r s tu d y d id n o t seem to shed l i g h t on e i t h e r c r e a t i v i t y
21
o r i n t e l l i g e n c e . G u ilfo r d (1971) r a i s e d d o u b ts about th e
c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y o f th e W allach-K ogan untim ed t e s t s and
a b o u t s t u d i e s b a se d on them ; he s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e t e s t s
m ight be m easu rin g n o n - a p titu d e v a r i a b l e s such a s "a t r a i t
o f p e r s i s t e n c e o r p e rs e v e r a n c e ; a n o th e r m ight be r e s i s t a n c e
t o boredom [p . 8 3 ] . "
I n ta k in g a p r a c t i c a l p o s i t i o n , Hudson ( 1 966)
a rg u e d t h a t f o r th e sc h o o l th e i s s u e o f a d im e n sio n a l d i s
t i n c t i o n betw een c r e a t i v i t y and i n t e l l i g e n c e was n o t t h e
c r u c i a l one. More im p o rta n t f o r th e t e a c h e r h a s b een t h a t
a know ledge o f IQ seems to be o f l i t t l e h e lp when he i s
fa c e d w ith a group o f c l e v e r b o y s, f o r t h e one among them
w ith t h e lo w e st IQ i s a lm o st a s l i k e l y to be c r e a t i v e a s
th e one w ith th e h i g h e s t .
A f t e r re v ie w in g e v id e n c e a v a i l a b l e on t h e I s s u e o f
I n t e l l i g e n c e v e rs u s c r e a t i v i t y , L y tto n (1972) a r r i v e d a t
t h e fo llo w in g c o n c lu s io n :
O v e r a ll, a lth o u g h c o n v e rg e n t and d iv e r g e n t th in k i n g
c l e a r l y o v e r la p , th e e v id e n c e p o i n ts t o th e e x is te n c e
o f a domain o f d iv e r g e n t t h in k i n g , d i s t i n c t from con
v e n ti o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , a s shown by d i f f e r i n g
f a c t o r s . I t i s most I l lu m i n a t i n g , p e rh a p s , to t h in k
o f them a s d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s o f th o u g h t, as two com
p le m e n ta ry a s p e c ts o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y b ro a d ly
c o n c e iv e d [p . 3 9 ).
A lth o u g h t h e i s s u e of i n t e l l i g e n c e v e rs u s c r e a t i v
i t y h a s n o t y e t been s e t t l e d , a v e ra g e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f ab out
.30 betw een m easures o f c r e a t i v i t y and i n t e l l i g e n c e have
n o t a p p e a re d to c o n s t i t u t e s u f f i c i e n t re a s o n t o d is c o u ra g e
22
t h e developm ent and a p p l i c a t i o n o f c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s . I n
fa c t., a c o r r e l a t i o n o f .30 means t h a t o n ly 9 p e rc e n t o f t h e
v a r ia n c e i n c r e a t i v i t y s c o re s can be e x p la in e d i n term s o f
v a r ia n c e i n IQ s c o r e s .
The T h e o r e t i c a l B a s is o f t h e TTCT
The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s e c t i o n i s tw o fo ld : (a) to
d e s c r ib e t h e S t r u c t u r e - o f - I n t e l l e c t (SOI) model I n an a t
te m p t to la y t h e fo u n d a tio n f o r t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e TTCT
a s a d i r e c t d e sc e n d a n t o f G u i l f o r d 's t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p tio n
o f th e s t r u c t u r e o f human i n t e l l i g e n c e , i n g e n e r a l, and o f
h i s c o n ce p t o f and s t u d i e s on c r e a t i v e p ro d u c tio n , i n p a r
t i c u l a r ] and (b) t o d i s c u s s th e p ro c e d u re s t h a t have been
u se d to v a l i d a t e t h e SOI m odel.
The S t r u c t u r e - o f - I n t e l l e c t Model
G u i l f o r d 's t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p tio n o f human I n t e l
lig e n c e i s e x p re s s e d th ro u g h a m o rp h o lo g ic a l model known as
th e SOI m odel. The te rm m o rp h o lo g ic a l, borrow ed from th e
a stro n o m e r Zwicky (1 9 5 7 ), r e f e r s t o m odels which d e n o te
c r o s s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f phenomena I n I n t e r s e c t i n g c a t e
g o r i e s . C o n tra s te d w ith h i e r a r c h i c a l m odels, i n w hich
s u b o r d in a te c a t e g o r i e s a r e c o n s id e r e d w ith in s u p r a o r d ln a te
c a t e g o r i e s , th e m o rp h o lo g ic a l m odel c o n ta in s c a t e g o r i e s
t h a t a r e m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e . G r a p h ic a lly , t h e SOI model
i s I l l u s t r a t e d by a t h r e e d im e n sio n a l f i g u r e i n w hich th e
23
i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s , or* c o n s t r u c t s , a r e a rra n g e d i n t o
120 c e l l s , su p p o s e d ly in d e p e n d e n t o f each o t h e r , and a r e
p ro d u ced by t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f f i v e k in d s o f o p e r a tio n s o r
m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s , f o u r k in d s o f c o n te n t, and s i x k in d s o f
p r o d u c ts . The dim en sio n o f o p e r a tio n s in c lu d e s t h e m ajo r
k in d s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t i e s r e q u ir e d t o p ro c e s s d i s
c r im in a te d in f o r m a tio n : c o g n it i o n , memory, d iv e r g e n t p r o
d u c tio n , c o n v e rg e n t p ro d u c tio n , and e v a l u a t i o n . The dim en
s io n o f c o n te n ts in v o lv e s th e ty p e s o f in fo r m a tio n o r
s tim u lu s m a t e r i a l i n t h e environ m en t which th e org an ism
d i s c r i m i n a t e s : f i g u r a l , sy m b o lic , se m a n tic , and b e h a v i o r a l .
P ro d u c ts a r e t h e o u tp u ts , t h e form s t h a t in f o r m a tio n ta k e s
a f t e r h a v in g b een p ro c e s s e d by t h e o rg an ism : u n i t s , c la s s e s ,
r e l a t i o n s , sy ste m s, t r a n s f o r m a ti o n s , and i m p l i c a t i o n s .
The two c o n t r a s t i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s e s o r
o p e r a tio n s i n t h e SOI model t h a t r e l a t e most d i r e c t l y to
t h e c o n c e rn s o f t h i s stu d y a r e t h o s e o f c o n v e rg e n t and
d iv e r g e n t th in k i n g o p e r a t io n s . I n d iv e r g e n t p ro d u c tio n ,
in f o r m a tio n d is c r im in a te d from c o g n itio n i s tra n s fo rm e d ,
com bined, and t r e a t e d to p ro d u ce new in f o r m a tio n — d i v e r s e ,
n o v e l, o r o r i g i n a l . C onvergent p r o d u c tio n I m p lie s a l s o th e
g e n e r a t i o n o f new In fo rm a tio n from g iv e n in f o r m a tio n . How
e v e r , i n c o n v e rg e n t p r o d u c tio n t h e p r o d u c tio n o f an answ er
i s d e te r m in a te — one answ er i s p r e f e r r e d t o a n o th e r , a s i n
t h e i n s t a n c e o f a m u lt i p le - c h o i c e ite m .
24
The most o b v io u s i n d i c a t i o n s o f c r e a t i v i t y a r e
found i n t h e SOI m odel c a t e g o r i e s p e r t a i n i n g to d i v e r g e n t -
th in k in g p r o d u c tio n . They a r e m ain ly r e p r e s e n te d by a s e t
o f f o u r d i v e r g e n t- p r o d u c tio n a b i l i t i e s : f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l
i t y , o r i g i n a l i t y , and e l a b o r a t i o n . F lu e n c y i s t h e a b i l i t y
co n cern ed w ith t h e re a d y flow o f i d e a s ; f l e x i b i l i t y r e l a t e s
to th e r e a d i n e s s t o change d i r e c t i o n o r t o m odify in fo rm a
t i o n ; o r i g i n a l i t y r e f e r s to t h e u n u s u a ln e s s o r n o v e lty of
i d e a s ; and e l a b o r a t i o n i s t h e a b i l i t y t o b u i ld upon i d e a s ,
t o f i l l them w ith d e t a i l s . A lthough G u ilf o r d h as p ro p o se d
t h a t a u n iq u e and s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f c r e a t i v e p e rfo rm
ance i s a c c o u n te d f o r i n te rm s o f o p e r a tio n s o f d iv e r g e n t
p r o d u c tio n , he h a s a ls o s u g g e s te d t h a t tr a n s f o r m a tio n a b i l
i t i e s , w hich l i e m o stly o u t s i d e t h e d iv e r g e n t- p r o d u c tio n
c a te g o r y make c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o c r e a t i v e p ro d u c tio n ( G u il
f o r d , 1971) . I n f a c t , G u ilf o r d (1971) h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t
o t h e r a b i l i t i e s in c lu d e d i n t h e SOI m odel o u ts id e b o th
th e s e c a t e g o r i e s a ls o make c o n t r i b u t i o n s on o c c a s io n :
F o r exam ple, t h e a c t o f s e e in g prob lem s i s a m a t t e r
o f c o g n iz in g i m p l i c a t i o n s ; a n a ly z in g problem s may
be a m a tte r o f c o g n iz in g sy ste m s; and e v a lu a tio n
a b i l i t i e s o r f u n c t i o n s o f many k in d s s e r v e t o g u id e
and c h a n n e l c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g [pp. 7 7 -7 8 ],
G u ilf o r d ( 1 967) h a s re c o g n iz e d a g r e a t d e a l o f
s i m i l a r i t y betw een a l l g e n u in e problem s o lv in g and c r e a t i v e
p r o d u c tio n :
T here i s so m eth in g c r e a t i v e a b o u t a l l g e n u in e pro b lem
s o lv in g , and c r e a t i v e p r o d u c tio n i s t y p i c a l l y c a r r i e d
25
out as a means to th e end o f s o lv in g some problem .
Both a c t i v i t i e s e n t a i l t r a n s f e r r e c a l l ; i f o n ly r e p l i
c a t i v e r e c a l l w ere in v o lv e d , t h e r e would be no problem
s o lv in g and n o th in g c r e a t i v e about th e b e h a v io r a l ev en t
[p . 3 1 2 ].
To show th e p a r a l l e l s betw een problem s o lv in g and c r e a t i v e
p ro d u c tio n , G u ilfo rd ( 1 9 6 7) compared Dewey’s (1910) p r o
posed s te p s i n problem s o lv in g : (a) a d i f f i c u l t y i s f e l t ,
(b) th e d i f f i c u l t y i s lo c a te d and d e fin e d , (c) p o s s ib le
s o l u t io n s a r e s u g g e s te d , (d) conseq uen ces a r e c o n s id e re d ,
and (e) a s o l u t i o n i s a c c e p te d ; w ith R ossm an's (1931) p r o
posed s te p s i n in v e n tio n : (a) need o r d i f f i c u l t y i s ob
se rv e d , (b) problem i s fo rm u la te d , (c) a v a i l a b l e in fo rm a
t i o n i s su rv e y ed , (d) s o l u t i o n s a r e fo rm u la te d , (e) s o l u
t i o n s a r e c r i t i c a l l y exam ined, ( f ) new id e a s a r e fo rm u la te d ,
and (g) new id e a s a re t e s t e d and a c c e p te d . W hereas t h e
f i r s t e v e n ts n o te d by Dewey and Rossman a r e th e same,
Dewey’ s second s te p encom passes Rossm an’ s second and t h i r d
s t e p s , Dewey's t h i r d p h a se p a r a l l e l s Rossm an’ s f o u r t h
p h a se , D ewey's f o u r th e x p e c ta tio n i s s i m i l a r t o R ossm an's
f i f t h and s i x t h p r o j e c te d a c t i v i t i e s , and Dewey’s f i f t h
s te p c o rre sp o n d s a p p ro x im a te ly to Rossman’ s se v e n th s t e p .
A c tu a lly , th e com parison r e v e a l s t h a t problem s o lv in g and
c r e a t i v e p ro d u c tio n a p p e a r to be e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same k in d
o f m ajor o p e r a tio n .
26
V a lid a tio n of t h e SOI Model
The v a l i d a t i o n of th e SOI model h a s been accom
p l is h e d m ainly th ro u g h f a c t o r a n a l y t i c m ethods. Up to 1971
( G u ilfo rd & H oepfner, 1971)> 98 out o f th e 120 h y p o th e s iz e d
f a c t o r s of th e model w ere c laim ed as h a v in g been demon
s t r a t e d by G u ilfo rd and h i s a s s o c i a t e s . However, th e SOI
model has been s u b je c te d to s e v e re c r i t i c i s m s , m ainly
d i r e c t e d a t th e s t a t i s t i c a l p ro c e d u re s t h a t have been used
t o i t s v a l i d a t i o n .
The p r i n c i p a l f o u n d a tio n f o r t h e SOI model h as been
p ro v id e d by r e s u l t s o f f a c t o r a n a l y t i c s t u d i e s . G u ilfo rd
( 1967) h im s e lf h a s s t a t e d t h a t t h e SOI model grew o u t of
f a c t o r a n a l y t i c r e s e a r c h . Thus, i t would be e x p e c te d t h a t
th e f a c t o r a n a l y t i c p ro c e d u re s employed i n th e v a l i d a t i o n
o f G u i l f o r d 's model w ere to be s u b je c te d t o some k in d of
e v a lu a tio n . Two s t u d i e s (H a rr is & H a r r is , 1971> Horn &
Knapp, 1972) ap p ea r t o have f u l f i l l e d t h e t a s k p a r t i c u l a r l y
w e l l. A lthough ta k in g d i f f e r e n t a p p ro a c h e s, th e y have b o th
a cc o m p lish e d t h e s in g le g o a l o f e v a lu a tin g th e s t a t i s t i c a l
p ro c e d u re s employed by G u ilfo rd and h i s a s s o c i a t e s i n
s t u d i e s r e l a t e d to t h e SOI m odel.
P r i o r to th e rev ie w o f t h e two s t u d i e s , a b r i e f
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of w hich f a c t o r a n a l y t i c p ro c e d u re s G u il
f o r d employed and o f how th e y c o n t r a s t w ith o th e r f a c t o r
a n a l y t i c m ethods a s c a te g o r iz e d by Horn ( 1967) seems to be
27
a p p r o p r i a t e . Horn ( 1 9 6 7) h a s d e f in e d th e term s s u b j e c t i v
i t y and o b j e c t i v i t y a s th e y a p p ly t o f a c t o r a n a l y t i c method
o lo g y . A m ethod i s d e fin e d a s o b j e c t i v e when d i f f e r e n t
i n v e s t i g a t o r s u s in g t h e same d a ta and t h e same m ethods b u t
d i f f e r e n t h y p o th e s e s a r r i v e a t t h e same r e s u l t s . A method
i s c o n s id e re d t o be s u b j e c t i v e when i n v e s t i g a t o r s u s in g th e
same d a ta and t h e same method c an a r r i v e a t d i f f e r e n t
r e s u l t s as a f u n c t i o n o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e s ta te m e n t o f
t h e i r h y p o th e s e s a b o u t t h e d a ta . The p ro d u c tio n o f d i f f e r
en t r e s u l t s i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t s u b j e c t i v e m ethods
a llo w f o r accom m odations t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r 's s u b s ta n t iv e
h y p o th e s e s w hich a r e r e p r e s e n te d i n h i s t a r g e t m a tr ic e s .
The V arim ax r o t a t i o n p ro c e d u re i s an exam ple o f an o b je c tiv e
m ethod i n c o n t r a s t w ith P r o c r u s te a n m ethods w hich a r e su b
j e c t i v e .
G u ilf o r d and h i s cow orkers ( 1 9 6 7) have u se d su b
j e c t i v e f a c t o r a n a l y t i c m ethods i n t h e i r I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f
th e SOI m odel. They acknow ledged th e f a c t and j u s t i f i e d
i t on t h e g rou nds t h a t " s t r i c t a d h e re n c e t o t h e r u l e s of
b e s t sim p le s t r u c t u r e may le a d one a s t r a y p s y c h o lo g ic a lly
[p . 5 5 ] ." Im p lie d i n t h e i r argum ent i s a p rim a ry c o n ce rn
w ith t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a ti o n s r a t h e r th a n w ith m athem at
i c a l o n e s . The p o in t was made e x p l i c i t by G u ilf o r d and
H o ep fn er (1971)*
W ith r o t a t i o n s o f a x es g u id e d by t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s id
e r a t i o n s , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s o f h y p o th e s iz e d a b i l i t i e s
28
were fo rth c o m in g i n 93 p e r c e n t o f t h e a tte m p ts to
d e m o n s tra te them . T h is com pares w ith a " h a t t i n g
a v e ra g e " o f o n ly 32 p e r c e n t , when s e l e c t i o n o f meas
u r e s was J u s t a s f a v o r a b l e b u t r o t a t i o n s w ere made
to w ard a m a th e m a tic a lly d e s c r ib e d c r i t e r i o n o f sim p le
s t r u c t u r e [p . 4 2 ] ,
E m p iric a l e v id e n c e h a s shown t h a t P r o c r u s te s p r o
c e d u re s may p ro v id e su p p o rt f o r a r b i t r a r y t h e o r i e s , t h e
v a r i a b l e s o f w hich have been random ly g e n e r a te d by com puter
(A rm strong & S o e lb e rg , 1968; H orn, 1967; Humphreys, I l g e n ,
M cGrath, & M o n ta n e lli, 1 9 6 9) . The s tu d y u n d e rta k e n by
H orn and Knapp (1972) a tte m p te d t o d e m o n s tra te t h a t an i n
v e s t i g a t o r c o u ld , u s in g P r o c r u s te s p r o c e d u re s and d a ta t h a t
had been a c c e p te d a s s u p p o rt f o r t h e SOI m odel, f o r c e s o l u
t i o n s t h a t p ro v id e d e v id e n c e i n s u p p o rt f o r t h e o r i e s g e n e r
a te d by a random p r o c e s s . D ata u se d b e lo n g e d t o t h r e e SOI
s t u d i e s (Brown, G u ilf o r d , & H o ep fn er, 1966; G u ilf o rd ,
M e r r l f i e l d , C h r is te n s e n , & P r i c k , I9 6 0 ; H o ep fn er & G u il
f o r d , 1 9 6 5) . P o r each one o f th e t h r e e s e t s o f d a ta
t a r g e t m a tr ic e s w ere c r e a t e d t o r e p r e s e n t two k in d s
o f h y p o th e s e s , nam ely: (a) h y p o th e s e s d e te rm in e d en
t i r e l y by a random p ro c e d u r e , and (b) h y p o th e s e s d e
te rm in e d p a r t l y by a random p ro c e d u re and p a r t l y by
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e o r y and r e s u l t s t h a t were n o t
b a sed e x c l u s i v e l y on SI [SOI] s t u d i e s [H orn & Knapp,
1972, p . 1 0 ].
The secon d k in d o f h y p o th e s e s was d e v is e d b e c a u se t h e SOI
model was i n p a r t b a se d on f i n d in g s o f s t u d i e s , co n d u cted
p r i o r to t h e f o r m u la tio n o f th e m odel, i n w hich f a c t o r s
w ere i d e n t i f i e d by o b j e c t i v e , n o n - P ro c ru s te a n m ethods o f
r o t a t i o n . Such f a c t o r s were i n d i c a t e d by P re n c h , E kstrom ,
29
and P r i c e ( 1 9 6 3) . R e s u lts o f t h e s tu d y (Horn & Knapp,
1972) i n d i c a t e d t h a t (a) o rth o g o n a l P r o c r u s te s p ro c e d u re s
y i e l d e d r e s u l t s to su p p o rt random ly d e fin e d t h e o r i e s , and
(b) t h e su p p o rt p ro v id e d f o r t h e a r b i t r a r i l y d e fin e d ( r a n
dom) t h e o r i e s was co m parable t o t h e one p ro v id e d f o r t h e
SOI m odel.
H a r r is and H a r r i s ' (1971) s tu d y a tte m p te d t o i l l u s
t r a t e t h e u se o f a f a c t o r a n a l y t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t r a t e g y
f o r d e te rm in in g th e common f a c t o r s i n a s e t o f d a ta . A
common f a c t o r was d e fin e d a s "one h a v in g a t l e a s t two v a r i
a b le s w ith c o e f f i c i e n t s g r e a t e r th a n .30 ( a b s o lu te )
[p . 5 9 0 ] ." The d a ta u se d i n t h e s tu d y c o n s i s t e d o f n in e
m a tr ic e s o f s t u d i e s u n d e rta k e n by G u ilf o r d . Such d a ta w ere
r e a n a ly z e d by sev en d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s , f o u r o rth o g o n a l
and t h r e e o b liq u e . The i n i t i a l component and f a c t o r m eth
ods u se d w ere In c o m p le te P r i n c i p a l Component ( H o te llin g ,
1933)» A lpha (K a is e r & C a f fre y , 1965)* a Jflresk o g method
(Jflre sk o g , 1963* 1967) and H a r r is R -S2 ( H a r r is , 1 9 6 2) . The
d e r iv e d o rth o g o n a l s o l u t i o n s o b ta in e d f o r each o f th e f o u r
i n i t i a l s o l u t i o n s u se d t h e K a is e r norm al v a rim ax p ro c e d u re
(K a is e r, 1958) . The d e r iv e d o b liq u e s o l u t i o n s em ploying
th e H a r r l s - K a i s e r in d e p e n d e n t c l u s t e r s o l u t i o n ( H a r r is &
K a is e r , 1964) w ere n o t com puted f o r t h e i n i t i a l s o l u t i o n
w hich u se d t h e H a r r is R-S m ethod, " s in c e i t would have
c e r t a i n c o rre sp o n d e n c e s t o t h e o b liq u e s o l u t i o n o b ta in e d
30
from th e Jfiresk o g ( 1963) method [ H a r r is & H a r r i s , 1971,
p . 5 9 0 ] ." A c tu a lly , H a r r is and H a rris * (1971) s tu d y i n
te n d e d to f i n d t h e common f a c t o r s (com ponents) t h a t w ere
s i m i l a r o v e r s o l u t i o n s j t h a t i s , f a c t o r s t h a t w ere " ro b u s t
w ith r e s p e c t t o m ethod— f a c t o r s w hich te n d t o in c lu d e th e
same v a r i a b l e s a c r o s s m ethods [p . 5 9 0 ] ." The a u th o r s
c a l l e d th e s e r o b u s t f a c t o r s "com parable common f a c t o r s " and
d e fin e d them a s th o s e h a v in g two o r more o f t h e same r e l e
v a n t v a r i a b l e s on a t l e a s t f i v e o f th e seven d e r iv e d s o l u
t i o n s u sed i n t h e s tu d y . R e s u lts i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e number
of com parable common f a c t o r s f o r t h e d a ta i n any one o f th e
n in e m a tr ic e s was alw ays c o n s id e r a b ly fe w e r th a n t h e number
o f common f a c t o r s o b ta in e d by G u ilf o r d .
E v id en ce from t h e two s t u d i e s rev ie w ed ( H a r r is &
H a r r i s , 1971j Horn & Knapp, 1972) i n d i c a t e d t h a t (a) th e
f a c t o r a n a l y t i c p ro c e d u re s u se d by G u ilfo r d and h i s a s s o
c i a t e s t o v a l i d a t e t h e SOI model may a s w e ll v a l i d a t e any
th e o r y random ly d e fin e d , and (b) G u i l f o r d ’s f a c t o r a n a l y t i c
p ro c e d u re s a p p e a r to be more p o w e rfu l th a n o t h e r f a c t o r
a n a l y t i c m ethods as th e y e x t r a c t more f a c t o r s from t h e same
s e t o f d a ta th a n o t h e r p ro c e d u re s do.
A lth o u g h f i n d in g s from t h e s e s t u d i e s ( H a r r is &
H a r r i s , 1971; Horn & Knapp, 1972) m ight n o t c o n s t i t u t e
e v id e n c e enough t o d is c o n f ir m t h e SOI m odel, th e y have
i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e f a c t o r a n a l y t i c p ro c e d u re s w hich hav e
31
been u sed to c o n firm t h e model have n o t been a b le to accom
p l i s h t h e i r t a s k .
The T o rra n c e T e s ts o f C r e a tiv e T h in k in g
I n 1958> Dr. E. P a u l T o rra n c e assumed th e p o s i t i o n
o f D ir e c to r o f th e M inn esota B ureau o f E d u c a tio n a l R e se arch .
I n t h i s c a p a c ity , he was asked t o develop a p io n e e r in g p r o
gram of r e s e a r c h on t h e e d u c a tio n o f g i f t e d c h il d r e n . S ince
t h e r e s e a r c h program p la c e d a g r e a t d e a l o f em phasis on th e
c r e a t i v e g i f t e d , i t was i n e v i t a b l e t h a t one o f i t s p r i o r i
t i e s would become t h e developm ent o f In s tru m e n ts t o a s s e s s
c r e a t i v e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s . U nder th e s e c irc u m s ta n c e s ,
t h e b a t t e r y o f T o rra n ce T e s ts o f C re a tiv e T h inking (TTCT)
was d e v is e d . I t c o n s t i t u t e d th e p ro d u c t o f 9 y e a r s of
r e s e a r c h and work u n d e rta k e n by T o rra n c e and h i s a s s o c i a t e s
a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f M in n eso ta. I t s r e s e a r c h e d i t i o n , s t i l l
i n u s e , was p u b lis h e d i n 1966 (T o rra n c e , 1966) .
D e s c r ip tio n o f t h e TTCT
The r e s e a r c h program t h a t gave o r i g i n to t h e TTCT
a d o p te d as a b a s is f o r i t s s t u d i e s T o rra n c e ’s ( 1966) d e f i
n i t i o n o f c r e a t i v i t y :
A p ro c e s s o f becoming s e n s i t i v e t o pro b lem s, d e f i
c i e n c i e s , gaps i n know ledge, m issin g e le m e n ts, d i s
h arm o n ies, and so on: i d e n t i f y i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t y j
s e a rc h in g f o r s o l u t i o n s , making g u e s s e s , o r f o r m u la t
in g h y p o th e s e s a b o u t th e d e f i c i e n c i e s ; t e s t i n g and
r e t e s t i n g th e s e h y p o th e se s and p o s s ib l y m odifying
and r e t e s t i n g them ; and f i n a l l y com m unicating th e
r e s u l t s [p . 6 ] .
32
T o rra n c e ’ s d e f i n i t i o n o f c r e a t i v i t y I n d i c a t e s a
c o n ce rn f o r a s s e s s in g problem s o lv in g . T h is c o n c e rn has
b een sh a re d by G u ilfo rd ( 1967) who re c o g n iz e d a h ig h d e g re e
o f s i m i l a r i t y betw een a l l g e n u in e problem s o lv in g and c r e a
t i v i t y . To a v o id m is u n d e rs ta n d in g s , T o rra n c e ( 1966) s t a t e d
t h a t i m p l i c i t i n h i s d e f i n i t i o n were th e d i s t i n c t i o n s made
by o t h e r a u th o rs betw een c r e a t i v e th in k in g and problem
s o lv in g :
G e n e ra lly , c r e a t i v e th in k in g h as been t r e a t e d as one
k in d o f problem s o lv in g . N ew ell, Shaw, and Simon
( 1 9 6 2) s t a t e t h a t p ro b le m -s o lv in g may be c a l l e d c r e a
t i v e to th e e x te n t t h a t one o r more o f th e fo llo w in g
c o n d itio n s a r e s a t i s f i e d :
1. The p ro d u c t o f th e th in k in g h a s n o v e lty and v a lu e
( e i t h e r f o r th e t h i n k e r o r f o r h i s c u l t u r e ) .
2. The th in k i n g i s u n c o n v e n tio n a l, i n a se n se t h a t
i t r e q u i r e s m o d if ic a tio n o r r e j e c t i o n o f p r e v io u s ly
a c c e p te d i d e a s .
3. The t h in k in g r e q u i r e s h ig h m o tiv a tio n and p e r s i s
te n c e , ta k in g p la c e e i t h e r o v e r a c o n s id e r a b le span
of tim e (c o n tin u o u s ly o r i n t e r m i t t e n t l y ) o r a t h ig h
I n t e n s i t y .
4 . The problem a s i n i t i a l l y posed was vague and un
d e fin e d , so t h a t p a r t o f th e t a s k was t o fo rm u la te
th e problem i t s e l f [p p . 8- 9 ] . ”
Based on t h i s c o n c e p tio n o f t h e c r e a t i v e p ro c e s s ,
T o rra n c e and h i s cow orkers h av e d e v is e d th e seven v e rb a l
and t h r e e f i g u r a l s u b t e s t s t h a t make up th e TTCT b a t t e r y .
S in c e th e TTCT was p lan n e d f o r u s e from k in d e r g a r te n
th ro u g h g ra d u a te s c h o o l, an a tte m p t was made t o s e l e c t a c
t i v i t i e s t h a t c o u ld be o f e q u a l i n t e r e s t th ro u g h o u t t h i s
b ro a d ran g e o f a g e s, i n t e r e s t s , and l e v e l s o f e d u c a tio n
33
(T o rra n c e , 1966) . The t e s t i s o f f e r e d in two p a r a l l e l
fo rm s—A and B.
The t a s k s , o r s u b t e s t s , in v o lv e d i n t h e v e r b a l p a r t
a r e named and d e s c r ib e d a s f o llo w s :
A sk -a n d -G u e ss. T h is i s a t h r e e - p a r t s u b t e s t .
Shown a p i c t u r e o f an e l f - l i k e form t h e s u b je c t i s a sk ed
t o (a) l i s t a l l t h e q u e s tio n s he c an t h in k a b o u t th e p i c
t u r e , (b) c i t e a s many p o s s ib l e c a u se s a s h e can o f th e
o c c u rre n c e i n t h e p i c t u r e , and (c) m en tio n p o s s i b l e c o n se
quences o f t h e s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p i c t u r e . The
f i r s t a c t i v i t y — Ask A c t i v i t y —was d e sig n e d t o r e v e a l th e
i n d i v i d u a l 's a b i l i t y to se n se w hat he can n o t f i n d o u t from
j u s t lo o k in g a t th e p i c t u r e and t o a sk q u e s tio n s t h a t w i l l
e n a b le him to f i l l i n t h e gaps i n h i s know ledge. The
second and t h i r d a c t i v i t i e s . Guess C auses and Guess Conse
q u e n c e s, w ere d e sig n e d to r e v e a l t h e s u b j e c t 's a b i l i t y t o
f o r m u la te , r e s p e c t i v e l y , h y p o th e s e s c o n c e rn in g c a u se and
e f f e c t .
P ro d u c t Im provem ent. P r e s e n te d w ith a s t u f f e d to y
e le p h a n t (Form A) o r w ith a s t u f f e d to y monkey (Form B ),
t h e s u b j e c t i s a sk ed to t h in k o f and t o l i s t t h e c l e v e r and
u n u s u a l ways he can change i t i n o r d e r t o make i t a more
i n t e r e s t i n g t o y . The t a s k a llo w s s u b j e c t s " to p la y w ith
34
id e a s t h a t th e y would n o t d a re e x p re ss i n a more s e r io u s
t a s k [T o rra n c e , 1966, pp. 1 1 -1 2 ].''
U nusual U se s. I n t h i s t a s k , th e s u b je c t i s asked
t o l i s t i n t e r e s t i n g and u n u su a l u s e s f o r c a rd b o a rd boxes
o r t i n c an s, depending on w hich form o f th e t e s t i s b e in g
u s e d . The U nusual Uses i s a d i r e c t m o d if ic a tio n o f G u il
f o r d ^ B ric k Uses T e s t. T o rra n c e s u b s t i t u t e d c a rd b o a rd
boxes and t i n cans f o r b r ic k s b e c a u se h e b e lie v e d t h a t
" c h ild r e n would resp o n d more c r e a t i v e l y to ' t i n c a n s ' and
'c a rd b o a rd b o x es , 1 s in c e 'b r i c k s ' a r e l e s s a v a i l a b l e f o r
u s e by c h il d r e n i n t h e i r p la y [T o rra n ce , 1966, p . 1 2 ] ."
U nusual Q u e s tio n s . The U nusual Q u e stio n s t a s k
r e q u e s ts t h a t t h e s u b je c t su g g e st u n u su a l q u e s tio n s about
c a rd b o a rd boxes o r t i n c a n s . T h is s u b t e s t was a d a p te d from
a te c h n iq u e d e v is e d by B u rk h a rt ( 1961) t o m easure what he
c a l l e d "D iv erg en t P ow er." W hereas i n B u r k h a r t's t e s t th e
s u b je c t i s g iv e n an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f what an u n u su a l q u e s
t i o n about a s p e c i f i c o b je c t sh o u ld be and why i t sh o u ld
be, i n T o r ra n c e 's U nusual Q u e stio n s th e s u b je c t i s sim p ly
re q u e s te d t o a sk u n u su a l q u e s tio n s ab o u t c a rd b o a rd boxes o r
t i n c an s, depending on w hich form o f th e t e s t i s b e in g
u se d .
J u s t S uppose. I n t h i s s u b t e s t , th e exam inee i s
p r e s e n te d w ith an im p ro b ab le s i t u a t i o n (c lo u d s h av in g
35
s t r i n g s a tt a c h e d t h a t hang down t o e a r t h , f o r i n s t a n c e )
and a sk e d t o d e s c r i b e a l l th e t h in g s t h a t c o u ld happen i n
c a s e t h i s s i t u a t i o n o c c u rre d . T h is a c t i v i t y was a d a p te d
from t h e c o n seq u en ces ty p e t e s t i n G u i l f o r d rs b a t t e r y
( 1 9 5 9) . I t a tte m p ts to ta p t h e i n d i v i d u a l 's a b i l i t y i n
p la y in g w ith t h e u n u s u a l p o s s i b i l i t y p r e s e n te d i n t h e t a s k
and i n im a g in in g a l l th e t h i n g s t h a t would happen a s a co n
seq u en ce.
The f i g u r a l p a r t o f t h e TTCT i s composed o f t h r e e
a c t i v i t i e s : P i c t u r e C o n s tr u c tio n , In c o m p le te F ig u r e s , and
R e p ea te d F ig u r e s .
P i c t u r e C o n s t r u c ti o n . T h is t a s k was e n t i r e l y
d e v is e d by T o rra n c e ( 1 9 6 6) . I t r e q u i r e s t h a t th e s u b j e c t s
draw a p i c t u r e i n w hich t h e g iv e n sh ap e made o f c o lo r e d
p a p e r w ith an a d h e s iv e b a c k in g (a t e a r drop o r p e a r shape
i n Form A, and a j e l l y bean sh ap e i n Form B) i s an i n t e g r a l
p a r t . The a c t i v i t y , a c c o rd in g t o T o rra n c e ( 1 9 6 6),
s e t s i n m o tio n th e te n d e n c y to w ard f i n d in g a p u rp o se
f o r som ething t h a t h a s no d e f i n i t e p u rp o se and t o
e l a b o r a t e i t i n such a way t h a t th e p u rp o se i s
a c h ie v e d [p . 1 6 ] .
In c o m p le te F i g u r e s . P r e s e n te d w ith a v a r i e t y o f
10 a b s t r a c t l i n e s and d e s ig n s , th e s u b je c t i s t o dev elop
u n u s u a l p i c t u r e s and o b j e c ts from th e b a s ic p a t t e r n s . T h is
t a s k " c a l l s i n t o p la y th e te n d e n c y to w a rd s t r u c t u r i n g and
i n t e g r a t i n g [T o rra n c e , 1966, p . 1 5 ] ."
36
R e p e a te d F i g u r e s . T h is a c t i v i t y i s s i m i l a r t o th e
In c o m p le te F ig u r e s . I n Form A th e s u b j e c t i s p r e s e n te d with
30 p a r a l l e l l i n e s and i n Form B w ith 40 c i r c l e s . The t a s k
su p p o se d ly m easures th e a b i l i t y t o make m u lt i p le a s s o c i a
t i o n s t o a s i n g l e s tim u lu s and " b r in g s i n t o p la y t h e
te n d e n c y to w a rd d i s r u p t i o n o f s t r u c t u r e i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e
som ething new [T o rra n c e , 1966, p. 1 6 ] ."
A d m in is tr a tio n and S c o rin g
D e t a i le d in f o rm a tio n a b o u t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and
s c o r in g o f t h e TTCT i s p ro v id e d i n t h e D i r e c t io n s Manual
S c o rin g Guide which accom panies each one o f t h e f o u r b a t
t e r i e s o f t h e t e s t (V e rb a l Form A, V e rb a l Form B, F l g u r a l
Form A, and F l g u r a l Form B ).
The TTCT i s a d m in is te r e d i n a t e s t - l i k e s i t u a t i o n
and i t s a c t i v i t i e s a r e p r e s e n te d i n a b o o k le t form . The
r e q u i r e d tim e f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f i t s v e r b a l p a r t i s 45
m in u te s w h ereas i t ta k e s 30 m in u te s t o a d m in is te r i t s
f l g u r a l p a r t .
B oth t h e v e r b a l and f l g u r a l form s o f th e t e s t b a t
t e r y w ere d e v is e d f o r u s e from k i n d e r g a r te n t o g r a d u a te
s c h o o l. The v e r b a l form s can be a d m in is te r e d a s group
t e s t s b e g in n in g i n g ra d e f o u r . Below t h a t , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
s h o u ld be i n d i v i d u a l i z e d . The f l g u r a l form s can be adm in
i s t e r e d a s g ro u p t e s t s a t any age o r l e v e l o f e d u c a tio n .
37
Each t a s k i s sc o re d f o r (a) f lu e n c y (number o f
r e l e v a n t re s p o n s e s g iv e n by th e s u b j e c t ) ; (b) f l e x i b i l i t y
(number o f d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s o f q u e s tio n s , c a u s e s , co n
se q u en c es, p ro d u c ts o r u se s s t a t e d by t h e s u b j e c t ) ; (c)
o r i g i n a l i t y (number o f re s p o n s e s c o n s id e re d in f r e q u e n t on
th e b a s is o f p re v io u s r e s e a r c h ) ; and (d) e la b o r a t i o n
(number of d e t a i l s o r e m b e llish m en ts on r e s p o n s e s ) . The
s c o re s a re summed s e p a r a t e l y f o r f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y ,
o r i g i n a l i t y , and e la b o r a t i o n a c r o s s t h e s u b t e s t s w ith in
each p a r t o f th e TTCT.
Summary
I n t h i s c h a p te r an a tte m p t h a s been made to p la c e
t h e TTCT i n t o a m ea n in g fu l p e r s p e c tiv e i n r e l a t i o n to t h e
c o n s tr u c t o r s e t o f c o n s t r u c t s i t su p p o sed ly ta p s and i n
re g a rd t o i t s own t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s . The d e s c r i p t i o n o f
t h e t e s t w hich c o n s t i t u t e d t h e l a s t s e c t i o n o f th e c h a p te r
h a s s e t t h e s ta g e f o r C h ap ter I I I , i n w hich th e TTCT i s
e v a lu a te d i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e ESSENTIAL c r i t e r i a s e t f o r t h
i n th e S ta n d a rd s .
CHAPTER I I I
AN EVALUATION OP THE TORRANCE TESTS OF
OP CREATIVE THINKING
T h is c h a p te r (a) u n d e rta k e s a c r i t i c a l d is c u s s io n
and e v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT and i t s t e c h n i c a l m anual in
r e f e r e n c e t o c r i t e r i a e x tr a c t e d from th e S ta n d a rd s f o r
E d u c a tio n a l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l T e s ts and M anuals ( S ta n d a r d s )
(APA, 1966) , and (b) p r e s e n t s a b r i e f o v e r a l l e v a lu a tio n
of th e t e s t i n w hich e v id e n c e g a th e r e d from t h e rev ie w o f
l i t e r a t u r e o f f e r e d I n C h a p te r I I , from e m p ir ic a l s t u d i e s
r e l a t e d to th e TTCT, and from th e e v a lu a tio n o f th e TTCT
a g a in s t th e c r i t e r i a o f t h e S ta n d a rd s i s i n t e g r a t e d .
As e a r l i e r i n d i c a t e d , th e S ta n d a rd s i s d iv id e d
I n to s i x h e a d in g s o r d i v i s i o n s , each c o m p risin g a s e t o f
s ta n d a r d s o r c r i t e r i a . The model i n t h e l i g h t o f which th e
TTCT i s t o be judged I n c lu d e s t h e 26 m ajor s ta n d a rd s c l a s
s i f i e d as ESSENTIAL by t h e APA-AERA-NCME Com m ittee. These
ESSENTIAL s ta n d a r d s , w hich d i s t r i b u t e th e m se lv e s among t h e
s i x d i v i s i o n s o f t h e S ta n d a rd s , a r e s i g n i f i e d a s fo llo w s :
D iv is io n A—D iss e m in a tio n o f I n fo r m a tio n — two s ta n d a r d s ,
A1 and A2; D iv is io n B— I n t e r p r e t a t i o n — f o u r s ta n d a r d s , B1
to B4j D iv is io n C—V a l i d i t y — sev en s ta n d a r d s , Cl t o Of}
38
39
D iv is io n D—R e l i a b i l i t y — s i x s t a n d a r d s , D1 t o D6; D iv is io n
E—A d m in is tr a tio n and S c o r in g —two s ta n d a r d s , E l and E2;
D iv is io n F — S c a le s and Norms—f i v e s t a n d a r d s , P I and P2 and
F4 t o F6. (S ta n d a rd F3 i s c l a s s i f i e d a s VERY DESIRABLE.)
I d e n t i c a l n o t a t i o n i s fo llo w e d i n t h i s c h a p te r when r e f e r
e n ce s a r e made t o th e s ta n d a r d s o r c r i t e r i a i n t h e S ta n d
a r d s .
The e v a l u a t i v e p ro c e s s u n d e rta k e n i n t h i s c h a p te r
f o llo w s t h r e e s t e p s : (a) p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c r i t e r i a u n d e r
t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e d i v i s i o n i n t h e S ta n d a rd s , fo llo w in g t h e
same o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n a d o p te d i n th e p u b l i c a t i o n ;
(b) d is c u s s i o n o f e v id e n c e g a th e r e d from th e TTCT t e c h n i c a l
m anual and from e m p ir ic a l s t u d i e s r e l a t e d to t h e t e s t i n
\
t h e l i g h t o f th e s ta n d a r d o r c r i t e r i o n u n d e r e x a m in a tio n ;
and (c) e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e d e g re e o f co n g ru en ce o f t h e TTCT
t o each m ajo r ESSENTIAL s ta n d a r d . As e a r l i e r d e s c r ib e d ,
t h e e v a l u a t i o n i s sum m arized i n a r a t i n g w hich can be c l a s
s i f i e d as f a l l i n g i n one o f th e f o llo w in g c a t e g o r i e s :
" s a t i s f a c t o r y , " " q u e s t i o n a b l e ," " u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , " and "not
a p p l i c a b l e . "
The e v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT a g a i n s t t h e m ajo r ESSEN
TIAL c r i t e r i a o f d i v i s i o n s A (D is s e m in a tio n o f In fo rm a tio n ),
B ( i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) , E ( A d m in is tr a tio n and S c o r in g ) , and
P ( S c a le s and Norms) i s p erfo rm ed on t h e b a s i s o f e v id e n c e
g a th e r e d from d a ta and in f o r m a tio n r e p o r t e d i n t h e t e s t
40
t e c h n i c a l m anual. However, when d i v is io n s C ( V a lid ity ) and
D ( R e l i a b i l i t y ) a re c o n s id e re d , f in d in g s from e m p iric a l
s tu d ie s p u b lis h e d a f t e r th e TTCT manual was is s u e d a re a ls o
u sed w henever th e y can c o n tr i b u te t o th e e v a lu a tio n o f th e
t e s t a g a in s t th e c r i t e r i a i n t h e S ta n d a rd s :
E v a lu a tio n o f th e TTCT w ith R esp ect to th e
S ta n d a rd s of D iss e m in a tio n o f In fo rm a tio n
Two ESSENTIAL s ta n d a r d s a re l i s t e d u n d er t h e c l a s
s i f i c a t i o n D iss e m in a tio n o f In fo rm a tio n i n t h e S ta n d a r d s :
A1 and A2. They c o n s t i t u t e th e c r i t e r i a a g a in s t which th e
TTCT i s e v a lu a te d w ith r e s p e c t to t h a t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of
th e S ta n d a r d s .
S ta n d a rd Al
A l. When a t e s t i s p u b lis h e d f o r o p e r a t io n a l
u s e , i t sh o u ld be accom panied by a m anual (o r o th e r
p u b lis h e d and r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e in fo rm a tio n ) t h a t
makes e v e ry re a s o n a b le e f f o r t to fo llo w th e recom
m en dation s i n t h i s r e p o r t .
The TTCT was p u b lis h e d i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith a t e c h
n i c a l m anual and f o u r d i r e c t i o n s manual s c o rin g g u id e s ,
one f o r V e rb a l Form A, one f o r V e rb al Form B, one f o r
F l g u r a l Form A, and a n o th e r f o r F l g u r a l Form B o f t h e t e s t .
The TTCT N o rm s-T echnical Manual (T o rra n c e , 1966) i s a
95 page b o o k le t c o m p risin g seven c h a p te r s , t h r e e appen
d ic e s , and a r e f e r e n c e s e c t i o n . I n i t s seven c h a p te r s
in f o rm a tio n i s p r e s e n te d r e l a t i v e t o (a) t h e a d m i n i s t r a t io n
and u s e s o f th e t e s t ; (b) r a t i o n a l e o f th e t e s t a c t i v i t i e s ;
41
(c) r e l i a b i l i t y ; (d) v a l i d i t y ; (e) group norms; ( f ) i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n o f s c o r e s ; and (g) t h e a u th o r o f th e t e s t and
developm ent o f th e in s tr u m e n t. The a p p e n d ic e s i n t h e manual
p r e s e n t th e fo llo w in g d a ta : (a) i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f m eas
u r e s d e riv e d from th e TTCT; (b) I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f meas
u r e s d e riv e d from t h e TTCT and o th e r e d u c a tio n a l and p sy
c h o lo g ic a l v a r i a b l e s ; and (c) te a c h e r e v a lu a tio n s o f c r e a
t i v i t y .
A lthough th e TTCT m anual p r e s e n t s d a ta on a l l th e
s i x h e a d in g s o f th e S ta n d a rd s , i t w arns p r o s p e c tiv e u s e r s
o f p o s s ib le l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e s e d a ta :
T here re m a in many problem s o f d e te rm in in g th e b e s t
m ethods o f a d m in is te r in g t h e t e s t s , s im p lify in g t h e i r
s c o r in g , p ro v id in g them w ith a d e q u a te r e l i a b i l i t y and
v a l i d i t y d a ta , a cc u m u latin g a d e q u a te com parison group
norm s, and b u ild in g up an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e p sy
c h o lo g ic a l meaning o f t h e m easures d e riv e d [T o rra n ce ,
1966, p . 2 ] ,
T h is sta te m e n t m eets t h e re q u ire m e n ts o f c o r o l l a r y A l . l
w hich p r e s c r i b e s t h a t
i f c e r t a i n in fo r m a tio n needed to su p p o rt i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n s s u g g e ste d i n th e m anual can n o t be p re s e n te d a t
t h e tim e th e m anual i s p u b lis h e d , t h e m anual sh o u ld
s a t i s f y t h e i n t e n t o f s ta n d a r d A l by p o in tin g o ut t h e
a b sen ce and im p o rtan c e o f t h i s In fo rm a tio n [APA, 1966,
P. Th
E x am in atio n o f a p ro m o tio n a l l e a f l e t f o r th e TTCT
e n t i t l e d A s se ssin g C r e a tiv e P o t e n t i a l i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e
m a t e r i a l h as p a r t i a l l y fo llo w e d th e norms s t a t e d i n c o r o l
l a r y A1.22 which d e te rm in e s t h a t t h e p ro m o tio n a l m a t e r i a l
f o r a t e s t sh o u ld be a c c u r a te and co m plete n o t g iv in g th e
42
r e a d e r f a l s e I m p re s s io n s . The TTCT p ro m o tio n a l l e a f l e t
in fo rm s p o t e n t i a l u s e r s a b o u t (a) t h e developm ent o f th e
t e s t b a t t e r y , i t s s u g g e s te d u s e s , i t s c o n te n t, a d m i n i s t r a
t i o n and s c o r in g p ro c e d u re s ; (b) norms and t e c h n i c a l d a ta ;
and (c ) a c c e s s o r i e s needed t o a d m in is te r th e t e s t (exam in
e r ' s k i t , t e s t b o o k l e t s , s c o rin g w o rk s h e e ts , D i r e c t i o n s /
S c o rin g M anual, and N o rm s-T ech n ical M anual). I t a ls o i n
c lu d e s a sam ple o f a c t i v i t i e s w hich a p p ro x im ate t h o s e o f
t h e t e s t and an o r d e r form w ith p r i c e s . As f a r a s th e s e
k in d s o f in f o r m a tio n a r e c o n c e rn e d , t h e l e a f l e t h a s met
c o r o l l a r y A 1.22 s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . However, one o f i t s s t a t e
m ents c o u ld be c o n s id e r e d somewhat in a d e q u a te , b e c a u se i t
c o u ld im ply an a ssu m p tio n o f a th o ro u g h know ledge o f t h e
n a tu r e o f c r e a t i v i t y w hich h as n o t y e t been a c h ie v e d , as i t
s t a t e s t h a t th e f o u r TTCT b a t t e r i e s o f t a s k s sam ple as many
k in d s o f c r e a t i v e th in k in g a s p o s s i b l e .
W eight of e v id e n c e p r e s e n te d r e l a t i v e to s ta n d a rd
Al and to c o r o l l a r i e s t h a t com plem ented i t s c o n te n t i n d i
c a t e s t h a t th e TTCT sh o u ld be ju d g ed " s a t i s f a c t o r y " w ith
r e s p e c t to t h i s s ta n d a r d .
S ta n d a rd A2
A2. The t e s t and i t s m anual sh o u ld be rev ie w ed
a t a p p r o p r i a te i n t e r v a l s . W hile no u n i v e r s a l r u l e
can be g iv e n , i t w ould a p p e a r p ro p e r i n m ost c irc u m
s ta n c e s f o r t h e p u b l is h e r t o w ith d raw a t e s t from
th e m a rk e t, i f t h e m anual i s 15 o r more y e a r s o ld
an d no r e v i s i o n can be o b ta in e d .
43
The TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual was p u b lis h e d seven y e a rs
ago and s in c e th e n no r e v i s i o n o f i t has been is s u e d by th e
p u b lis h e r . However, t h e a u th o r (T o rra n ce , p e rs o n a l commu
n i c a t i o n , March 14, 1973) s t a t e d t h a t a r e v i s i o n o f th e
1966 m anual had been made and t h a t i t was e x p ec te d t o be
is s u e d soon. As t o t h e s c o r in g m anuals, th e y have u n d e r
gone s e v e r a l r e v i s i o n s , t h e l a t e s t o f w hich was r a t h e r
e x te n s iv e (T o rra n ce , p e rs o n a l com m unication, March 14,
197 3). However, t h e o n ly one t h a t has y e t re a c h e d custom
e r s i s t h e one f o r F ig u r a l Form A.
The f a c t t h a t b o th t h e t e c h n i c a l and th e s c o rin g
m anuals o f th e TTCT hav e been r e v is e d s u g g e s ts t h a t th e
t e s t a u th o r h a s o b ta in e d new in f o r m a tio n t h a t i n d i c a t e d th e
need to m odify f a c t s and recom m endations p r e s e n te d i n th e
m anuals. S in ce t h e s e r e v i s i o n s , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e
one f o r F i g u r a l Form A, w ere n o t y e t p u b lis h e d , c o r o l l a r y
A2.2 h as been v i o l a t e d , a s i t p r e s c r i b e s t h a t r e v i s i o n o f a
t e s t manual sh o u ld be im m e d ia te ly is s u e d when new d a ta
i n d i c a t e th e i n c o r r e c t n e s s o f f a c t s and recom m endations
s t a t e d i n th e m anual.
U n t i l th e r e v i s i o n s o f th e t e c h n i c a l and th e s c o r
in g m anuals ( f o r F i g u r a l Form B and V e rb al Forms A and B)
a r e is s u e d , th e TTCT i s ju d g ed to be " q u e s tio n a b le 1 1 w ith
r e g a rd t o s ta n d a rd A2.
44
E v a lu a tio n o f th e TTCT w ith R esp ect to th e
S ta n d a rd s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
The fo u r s ta n d a rd s d e s ig n a te d as B l, B2, B3j and
B4, c l a s s i f i e d a s ESSENTIAL, c o n s t i t u t e th e c r i t e r i a f o r
ju d g in g t h e con gruen ce o f th e TTCT and i t s m anual to th e
S ta n d a rd s d i v i s i o n e n t i t l e d I n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
S ta n d a rd B1
B l. The t e s t , th e m anual, re c o r d form s, and
o th e r accom panying m a te r ia l sh o u ld a s s i s t u s e r s
to make c o r r e c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e t e s t r e s u l t s .
The TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual h as a c h a p te r d e v o te d to
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s c o r e s . The c h a p te r c o n s t i t u t e s a g u id e
f o r th e m e a n in g fu l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t o t a l and p a r t i a l
s c o re s o b ta in e d i n th e TTCT. Two m ajo r c a u tio n s were
s t a t e d i n t h e b e g in n in g o f th e c h a p te r : (a) t h e t e s t i s
n o t supposed to ta p a l l o f th e a b i l i t i e s in v o lv e d i n c r e a
t i v e b e h a v io r, s in c e a p e rs o n may m a n ife s t h i s c r e a t i v e
t h in k in g a b i l i t i e s i n an alm ost i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y o f ways;
and (b) th e t e s t does n o t fo llo w th e same d e v elo p m e n tal
p a t t e r n s found f o r t e s t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and achievem ent
a lth o u g h , as sc h o o ls p ro v id e more o p p o r t u n it i e s f o r c r e a
t i v e grow th, t h e a u th o r h y p o th e s iz e d , th o s e p a t t e r n s may
become more n e a r l y s i m i l a r .
The TTCT m anual draws a t t e n t i o n to p o s i t i v e r e l a
t i o n s h i p s t h a t a p p e a r to e x i s t betw een s c o re s on t h e v e r b a l
c r e a t i v e th in k in g t e s t s and socioeconom ic s t a t u s and t o
45
n e g a tiv e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een s c o re s on t h e f i g u r a l t a s k s
and socio econom ic s t a t u s . Such a s ta te m e n t m eets c o r o l l a r y
B 1 .5 , i n w hich i t i s recommended t h a t th e m anual sh o u ld
w arn u s e r s about e r r o r s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s c o r e s i n t h e
t e s t c au se d by s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s . I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case.,
t h e m anual f u l f i l l s t h e re q u ire m e n t s e t f o r t h i n th e S ta n d
a rd s by i n d i c a t i n g t h a t c u l t u r a l l y d e p riv e d p e rs o n s would
te n d to s c o re lo w er i n th e v e r b a l th a n i n th e f i g u r a l t a s k s
on a c c o u n t o f s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s : " I t i s g e n e r a l l y
re c o g n iz e d [ i n t h e U n ite d S t a te s ] t h a t m id d le - and u p p e r-
c l a s s f a m i l i e s p la c e r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r em phasis upon v e r
b a l s k i l l s th a n do l o w e r - c la s s f a m i l i e s [T o rra n c e , 1966,
p . 7 6 ] ." O th e rw ise , u s e r s c o u ld be m is le a d to i n t e r p r e t
th e s c o r e s a s d i r e c t m easures o f n a t i v e c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g
a b i l i t i e s .
E v id en ce g a th e r e d from t h e TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual
i n d i c a t e s t h a t s in c e t h e t e s t h a s met t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts of
s ta n d a r d B l i t s h o u ld be ju d g ed a s " s a t i s f a c t o r y " w ith r e
s p e c t to t h i s s ta n d a r d .
S ta n d a rd B2
B2. The t e s t m anual s h o u ld s t a t e i m p l i c i t l y
[ t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s t o th e S ta n d a rd s p ro b a b ly m eant
e x p l i c i t l y ] t h e p u rp o se s and a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r w hich
t h e t e s t i s recommended,
A com plete su b h ead in g i n t h e f i r s t c h a p te r o f th e
TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual i s d e v o te d t o th e s ta te m e n t o f su g
g e s te d u s e s o f th e t e s t i n t h e fo llo w in g c o n te x ts :
46
(a) in s tru m e n t o f b a s ic s t u d i e s t h a t would y i e l d a more
n e a r ly com plete u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e human mind and i t s
f u n c tio n in g and developm ent; (b) a t o o l i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
d e sig n e d to d is c o v e r an e f f e c t i v e b a s i s f o r i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g
i n s t r u c t i o n ; (c) a so u rc e of c lu e s f o r re m e d ia l and psycho
t h e r a p e u t i c pro gram s; (d) a s c a l e f o r a s s e s s in g th e d i f f e r
e n t i a l e f f e c t s of v a rio u s k in d s o f e x p e rim e n ta l pro gram s,
new c u r r i c u l a r a rra n g em e n ts o r m a t e r i a l s , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
a rra n g e m e n ts, te a c h in g p ro c e d u re s , and th e l i k e ; and (e) a
means o f becoming aware o f p o t e n t i a l i t i e s t h a t m ight o t h e r
w ise go u n n o tic e d .
The m anual re c o g n iz e s th e r e s e a r c h n a tu r e o f th e
t e s t and w arns u s e r s t h a t e x p e rie n c e i n th e c l i n i c a l use
of th e b a t t e r y had been l i m i t e d and t h a t any w id e sp rea d
c l i n i c a l u se o f t h e TTCT sh o u ld be d e la y e d u n t i l more ex
p e rie n c e h a s been accu m u lated and g u id e s f o r t h i s p a r t i c u
l a r a p p l i c a t i o n have been fo rm u la te d .
I n r e g a r d t o s ta n d a rd B2, e v id e n ce i n d i c a t e s t h a t
t h e TTCT sh o u ld be judged a s " s a t i s f a c t o r y . "
S ta n d a rd B3
B3. The t e s t m anual sh o u ld i n d i c a t e th e q u a l
i f i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e d t o a d m in is te r t h e t e s t and t o
i n t e r p r e t i t p r o p e r ly .
I t a p p e a rs t h a t th e TTCT sh o u ld be c l a s s i f i e d as
a L evel A t e s t (APA, 1953) j a lth o u g h t h e m anual does n o t
e x p l i c i t l y i d e n t i f y i t a s such a s c a l e . The L ev e l A t e s t
47
c a te g o ry in c lu d e s th o s e t e s t s o r a id s t h a t can be a d e
q u a te ly a d m in is te re d , sc o re d , and i n t e r p r e t e d w ith th e a id
of a m anual. The d i r e c t i o n s m anual and s c o rin g g u id e s t h a t
accompany each b a t t e r y o f th e TTCT p r e s e n t d e t a i l e d i n f o r
m atio n f o r th e a d m i n i s t r a t io n and s c o r in g o f t h e t e s t .
The g u id e s i n d i c a t e t h a t i t i s n o t n e c e s s a ry t o have sp e
c i a l t r a i n i n g i n s c o rin g t h e TTCT t o a s s u r e r e l i a b l e r e
s u l t s . I n su p p o rt o f t h i s s ta te m e n t, e v id e n c e i s r e p o r te d
from an i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n w hich th e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s
found betw een s c o re s o f e x p e rie n c e d s c o r e r s and th o s e o f
u n t r a i n e d s c o r e r s (who sim p ly s tu d ie d t h e s c o r in g m anuals)
w ere g e n e r a l l y above .9 0 . However, n e i t h e r th e means of
th e s c o re s o b ta in e d by e x p e rie n c e d o r u n tr a in e d s c o r e r s n o r
d i f f e r e n c e s among th o s e means w ere r e p o r t e d . Such an om is
s i o n makes one wonder w h e th er th e c i t e d h ig h c o e f f i c i e n t s
o f c o r r e l a t i o n w ere o b ta in e d i n t h e p re s e n c e o f s i z a b l e
d i f f e r e n c e s betw een r e s u l t s o f d i f f e r e n t s c o r e r s . ( i f th e
d i r e c t i o n and amount o f d i f f e r e n c e s betw een s c o r e r s w ere
ab o u t c o n s ta n t, h ig h c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n c o u ld have
been o b ta in e d i r r e s p e c t i v e o f how l a r g e th e mean d i f f e r
ences betw een s c o r e r s w e re .) T h e re fo re , th e r e s u l t s t h a t
a re i n d i c a t e d f o r th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f s c o rin g o f th e TTCT
a r e o f l i m i t e d m eaning and u s e , s in c e th e y cannot be g e n
e r a l i z e d t o gro u p s o th e r th a n t h e s p e c i f i c one from w hich
th e y w ere d e riv e d . I f th e y w ere to be i n t e r p r e t e d I n
48
r e l a t i o n t o norm g ro u p s, th e y s h o u ld have heen r e p o r t e d i n
term s o f i n t r a c l a s s c o r r e l a t i o n ( p j ) .
I n no way does th e TTCT m anual su g g e s t t h a t t h e
t e s t i s " s e l f - i n t e r p r e t i n g " o r t h a t i t c o u ld be i n t e r p r e t e d
by any p e rs o n w ith o u t p ro p e r t r a i n i n g . A c tu a lly , th e i n
t r o d u c t o r y s e c t i o n o f th e d i r e c t i o n s m anual and s c o rin g
g u id e s u r g e s exam iners n o t f a m i l i a r w ith T o r r a n c e 's con
c e p ts o f c r e a t i v e th in k i n g and i t s m easurem ent t o In fo rm
th e m s e lv e s b e fo r e u s in g t h e t e s t . I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
r e s p e c t , t h e TTCT h a s co m p lied w ith th e e x p e c ta tio n o f
c o r o l l a r y B 3 .1 .
S in ce e v id e n c e g a th e r e d from t h e TTCT m anual h as
n o t f u l l y met s ta n d a r d B3, th e t e s t i s ju d g ed to be " q u es
t i o n a b l e " w ith r e s p e c t t o t h i s s ta n d a r d .
S ta n d a rd B4
B4. S ta te m e n ts i n th e m anual r e p o r t i n g r e l a
t i o n s h i p s a r e by i m p l i c a t i o n q u a n t i t a t i v e and sh o u ld
be s t a t e d a s p r e c i s e l y as th e d a ta p e rm it. I f d a ta
t o su p p o rt such s ta te m e n ts have n o t been c o l l e c t e d ,
t h a t f a c t sh o u ld be made c l e a r .
The TTCT m anual c o n ta in s s ta te m e n ts p e r t a i n i n g t o
r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een p erfo rm an c e i n t h e t a s k s i n t h e t e s t
and a p e r s o n 's m e n ta l f u n c t i o n in g . F o r exam ple, i t i s
r e p o r t e d t h a t l i m i t e d c o u n s e lin g u s e o f t h e TTCT seems t o
i n d i c a t e a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een g e t t i n g i n t o t r o u b le i n
sc h o o l and h ig h p erfo rm an ce on a c t i v i t i e s such a s P ro d u c t
Im provem ent and U nusual U ses. I n a n o th e r I n s t a n c e , i t i s
s u g g e s te d t h a t a p e rs o n who o b t a i n s "a h ig h s c o r e on V e rb a l
O r i g i n a l i t y u s u a l l y h a s a v a i l a b l e a g r e a t d e a l o f i n t e l l e c
t u a l e n e rg y and may be p e r c e iv e d a s r a t h e r nonconform ing
[T orrance., 1 9 6 6, p . 7 3 ] ." The m anual n e i t h e r q u a n t i f i e s
t h e s ta te m e n ts n o r acknow ledges t h e f a c t t h a t d a ta have
n o t been c o l l e c t e d t o su p p o rt th o s e s ta te m e n ts , a s p r e
s c r i b e d i n s ta n d a r d B4. However, t h e r e i s a s u g g e s tio n i n
t h e manual t h a t t h o s e s ta te m e n ts w ere d e riv e d from a
l i m i t e d c o u n s e lin g u s e o f t h e t e s t .
S in c e e v id e n c e g a th e r e d from th e TTCT m anual h a s
been i n s u f f i c i e n t to meet th e re q u ire m e n ts o f s ta n d a r d B4,
th e t e s t i s ju d g ed to be " q u e s tio n a b le " w ith r e s p e c t t o
t h i s s ta n d a r d .
E v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT w ith R e sp e ct t o th e
S ta n d a rd s o f V a l i d i t y
Seven ESSENTIAL s ta n d a r d s c o n s t i t u t e d t h e c r i t e r i a
o f v a l i d i t y a g a i n s t w hich t h e TTCT was e v a lu a te d . D e sig
n a te d a s C l, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, and C7, th e y c o v e r t h r e e
k in d s o f v a l i d i t y : c o n te n t, c o n s t r u c t , and c r i t e r i o n -
r e l a t e d .
S ta n d a rd Cl
C l. The m anual sh o u ld r e p o r t th e v a l i d i t y o f
t h e t e s t f o r each ty p e o f i n f e r e n c e f o r w hich i t i s
recommended. I f i t s v a l i d i t y f o r some s u g g e s te d
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s n o t been i n v e s t i g a t e d , t h a t f a c t
s h o u ld be made c l e a r .
50
I n i t s Chapter* IV, e n t i t l e d V a l i d i t y , t h e TTCT
manual i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t would be i n a p p r o p r i a t e to u se an
o v e r a l l v a l i d i t y c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e th in k in g
a b i l i t y , s in c e i t would be more u s e f u l to t h in k i n term s
of s e v e r a l dim ensions o f c r e a t i v e b e h a v io r and o f c r e a t i v e
th in k in g a b i l i t i e s th a n i n term s o f a s in g le g e n e r a l c r e a
t i v e a b i l i t y . M oreover, t h e m anual d is c u s s e s s e p a r a t e l y
t h e s t a t u s o f th e t e s t i n r e l a t i o n to d i f f e r e n t k in d s of
v a l i d i t y : c o n te n t, c o n s t r u c t , and c r i t e r i o n - r e l a t e d .
As i t recommends t h a t u s e r s sh o u ld b a se th e i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n o f t e s t r e s u l t s on s u b t e s t s c o re s , th e TTCT manual
o f f e r s a summary g u id e f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s u b te s t
s c o re s , w hich i s p a r t l y b a se d on v a l i d i t y s t u d i e s . T h is
p a r t i c u l a r in fo rm a tio n m eets c o r o l l a r y C l . 2 w hich demands
t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s u b s c o re s sh o u ld be e x p l i c i t l y
j u s t i f i e d .
The g e n e r a l way i n w hich t h e TTCT m anual has r e
p o rte d in fo r m a tio n about t h e v a l i d i t y o f th e t e s t m eets
th e c r i t e r i a e s t a b l i s h e d i n s ta n d a r d C l. F o r t h i s re a s o n ,
th e t e s t i s r a t e d as 1 1 s a t i s f a c t o r y " w ith r e f e r e n c e to
s ta n d a rd C l.
S ta n d a rd C2
C2. I t e m - t e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s sh o u ld n o t be p r e
s e n te d i n th e manual a s e v id e n c e o f c r i t e r i o n -
r e l a t e d v a l i d i t y , and th e y sh o u ld be r e f e r r e d to
a s i te m - d i s c r i m i n a ti o n i n d i c e s , n o t a s i t e m - v a l i d i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t s .
51
At no p o in t i n th e TTCT m anual i s th e m is ta k e t o
w hich s ta n d a r d C2 r e f e r s to he fo u n d . The m anual d is c u s s e s
c r i t e r i o n - r e l a t e d v a l i d i t y h a sed on t h e same e x p e c ta tio n
s e t f o r t h i n th e S ta n d a r d s .
H aving e n t i r e l y met th e re q u ir e m e n ts o f s ta n d a r d
C2, t h e TTCT i s Judged to he " s a t i s f a c t o r y ” w ith r e s p e c t
to t h i s s ta n d a r d .
S ta n d a rd C3
C3» I f a t e s t p erfo rm an ce i s t o be i n t e r p r e t e d
as a sam ple o f p erfo rm an c e o r a d e f i n i t i o n o f p e r
form ance i n some u n i v e r s e o f s i t u a t i o n s ., th e m anual
sh o u ld I n d i c a t e c l e a r l y what u n i v e r s e i s r e p r e s e n te d
and how a d e q u a te i s t h e sam p lin g .
The TTCT m anual i s e x p l i c i t i n s t a t i n g :
S in c e a p e rs o n can behave c r e a t i v e l y i n an a lm o st
i n f i n i t e number o f w ays, i n t h e o p in io n o f th e
a u th o r , i t would be r i d i c u l o u s even t o t r y to
d e v elo p a co m p reh en siv e b a t t e r y o f t e s t s of c r e a
t i v e t h in k in g t h a t w ould sam ple any k in d o f u n iv e r s e
o f c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g a b i l i t i e s [p . 2 3 ].
The a u t h o r 's c o n c e p t o f c r e a t i v i t y , w hich i s
q u o ted on page 31 o f t h i s s tu d y , c an be c o n s id e re d a s h i s
d e f in e d u n iv e r s e o f k in d s o f a b i l i t i e s and m en tal f u n c t i o n
in g in v o lv e d i n th e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s . The TTCT t a s k s
c o n s t i t u t e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t su p p o se d ly r e f l e c t t h a t p r o c e s s .
The m anual r e p o r t s t h a t i n making d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d in g t h e
s e l e c t i o n o f t e s t t a s k s t h e l i v e s and p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f
c r e a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s w ere r e s e a r c h e d , t h e n a t u r e o f p e r
fo rm an c es c o n s id e re d t o be c r e a t i v e was s t u d i e d , and
52
know ledge a b o u t t h e f u n c t i o n in g o f th e human mind was ta k e n
i n t o a c c o u n t. Such in f o r m a tio n i s b o th vague and t r i v i a l .
However, i t c o u ld have c o n s t i t u t e d u s e f u l a d d i t i o n a l d a ta
c o n c e rn in g t h e c r i t e r i a u se d f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e TTCT
t a s k s h a d i t been backed w ith e m p ir ic a l d a ta .
A lthough t h e a u th o r h a s d e riv e d h i s t e s t t a s k s
from a d e fin e d u n iv e r s e of t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s w hich w ere
d e s c r ib e d i n h i s c o n ce p t o f c r e a t i v i t y , h e h a s f a i l e d t o
d is c u s s f u r t h e r t h e adequ acy o f h i s u n iv e r s e ( a c t u a l l y a
sam ple from a u n i v e r s e of c r e a t i v e t h in k in g a b i l i t i e s a s
im p lie d i n h i s own w ords) o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s
in r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r c r e a t i v e a s p e c ts n o t c o n s id e r e d i n
h i s d e f i n i t i o n .
These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a p p e a r t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e
TTCT h a s n o t been a b le t o m eet f u l l y s ta n d a r d C3. T h e re
f o r e , t h e t e s t i s r a t e d as ’'q u e s tio n a b le " w ith r e s p e c t to
s ta n d a r d C3.
S ta n d a rd C4
C4. A l l m easures o f c r i t e r i a s h o u ld be d e
s c r i b e d c o m p le te ly and a c c u r a t e l y . The m anual
sh o u ld comment on t h e ad eq u acy o f t h e c r i t e r i o n .
W henever f e a s i b l e , i t s h o u ld draw a t t e n t i o n to
s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s o f p e rfo rm an c e t h a t t h e c r i
t e r i o n m easure does n o t r e f l e c t and t o i r r e l e v a n t
f a c t o r s t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o a f f e c t i t .
The TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual s t r e s s e s t h e f a c t t h a t
th e a u th o r o f t h e t e s t and h i s a s s o c i a t e s h a v e n o t been
a b le t o f i n d any " g e n e r a l l y a c c e p ta b le c r i t e r i a o f c o n -
53
c u r r e n t v a l i d i t y [p . 4 2 ] ." A lth ough t h e manual b r i e f l y
d is c u s s e s and i n d i c a t e s some o f t h e problem s in v o lv e d i n
s e v e r a l c r i t e r i a t h a t have been u se d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e con
c u r r e n t v a l i d i t y o f t h e TTCT such as p e e r nom inations*
t e a c h e r n o m in a tio n s, s a l e s p r o d u c t i v i t y , and e d u c a tio n a l
a ch iev em en t, th e d i s c u s s i o n i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o c l a r i f y
e i t h e r t h e adequacy o r in ad e q u ac y o f t h e c r i t e r i a . T his
o b s e r v a tio n i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e w ith r e s p e c t to " s a le s p ro d
u c t i v i t y . "
S tu d ie s u s in g d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a w ere d e s c rib e d i n
th e t e s t m anual and t h e i r r e s u l t s were c i t e d f o r th e d i f
f e r e n t s u b t e s t s and a b i l i t i e s su p p o se d ly ta p p e d by t h e
TTCT. I f p r o p e r ly r e p o r t e d , th e s e d a ta c o u ld have i n d i
c a te d t o t h e u s e r th e t e s t a c t i v i t i e s and k in d s of a b i l i
t i e s (flu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , o r i g i n a l i t y , and e la b o r a tio n )
w hich l e a s t and most r e f l e c t e d a s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i o n .
However, th e way i n w hich r e s u l t s o f some o f t h e s t u d i e s
w ere p r e s e n te d i n th e TTCT m anual has made them n e a r l y u s e
l e s s . F o r I n s ta n c e , i n c i t i n g one of th e s t u d i e s on con
c u r r e n t v a l i d i t y (N elso n , 1963) I n w hich t h e c r i t e r i o n
u se d was te a c h e r n o m in a tio n s of c r e a t i v e s tu d e n ts , th e
m anual i n d i c a t e d :
A ll o f th e v e r b a l m easures d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e s e
g ro u p s a t b e t t e r th a n .01 l e v e l ( f lu e n c y , t= 3 . 6 2 j
f l e x i b i l i t y , t= 3 .6 3 i o r i g i n a l i t y , t= 3 .3 5 ; and
e la b o r a t i o n , t= 3 .5 8 ) . On th e f i g u r a l m easu res,
how ever, o n ly o r i g i n a l i t y (t= 2 .6 4 ) and e l a b o r a t i o n
( t = 2 . 7 0 ) w ere d i s c r im i n a t in g a t b e t t e r th a n th e .05
l e v e l [p . 4 5 ].
54
Such in fo r m a tio n i s v i r t u a l l y w o r th le s s hy i t s e l f ,
s in c e i t h a s o m itte d th e s i z e o f th e sam ple, th e means,
and th e t r u e s t r e n g t h o f a s s o c i a t i o n betw een t h e dependent
and in d ep e n d en t v a r i a b l e s . -As o b se rv ed by Hays (196 3):
I t i s sad b u t t r u e t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s have been known
to c a p i t a l i z e on t h i s f a c t [ s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f ic a n c e
alone]. . . . V i r t u a l l y any stu d y can be made to show
s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s i f one u s e s enough s u b j e c t s , r e
g a r d l e s s o f how n o n s e n s ic a l th e c o n te n t may b e . . . .
Such a r e s u l t may be a v a l i d f i n d in g , but o n ly i n th e
se n se t h a t one can say w ith a s s u ra n c e t h a t some a s s o
c i a t i o n i s n o t e x a c tly z e ro [p . 3 2 6 ],
The t e c h n i c a l manual r e p o r te d o n ly one s tu d y
(E ric k so n , 1966) on th e p r e d i c t i v e v a l i d i t y o f th e TTCT.
The re a s o n f o r t h i s f a c t was e x p la in e d i n term s o f i n s u f
f i c i e n c y o f tim e to com plete lo n g -ra n g e p r e d i c t i v e s tu d ie s
b e fo re th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e t e s t . The c r i t e r i o n m easure
u se d i n E r ic k s o n 's ( 1 9 6 6) s tu d y c o n s i s t e d o f a l i s t o f 13
c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s c o n s tr u c te d by E ric k so n and judg ed by
a ju r y o f know ledgeable t e a c h e r s and e d u c a tio n a l p sy cho log y
g ra d u a te s t u d e n ts . The l i s t In c lu d e d , among o t h e r s , th e
fo llo w in g a c t i v i t i e s : w ro te a poem, s t o r y , song, o r p la y ;
s u b s c rib e d t o p r o f e s s i o n a l m agazine o r J o u rn a l; changed
r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n ; e l e c t e d o r a p p o in te d t o a s tu d e n t
o f f i c e ; le a r n e d a new lan g u a g e; and d ev elo p ed an o r i g i n a l
e x p e rim e n ta l d e s ig n . The sam ple c o n s i s t e d o f 44 s u b je c ts
o u t o f 66 who had been p r e v io u s ly t e s t e d (d u rin g 1959 and
i 960) by th e TTCT. Two k in d s o f r e s u l t s were r e p o r te d :
(a ) product-m om ent c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n betw een
55
each o f t h e c r e a t i v i t y m easures ( f lu e n c y t o t a l , f l e x i b i l i t y
t o t a l , o r i g i n a l i t y t o t a l , and e l a b o r a t i o n t o t a l ) and th e
c r i t e r i o n m easures d e riv e d from th e l i s t r e s p e c t i v e l y found
t o be .2 7 ( s i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 l e v e l ) , .24 ( s i g n i f i c a n t
betw een t h e .05 and .10 l e v e l ) , .1 7 (n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ) , and
.1 6 (n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ) ; and (b) p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f p a r t i c i p a
t i o n i n each o f th e 13 c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e s from know ledge
o f t o t a l c r e a t i v i t y , o r i g i n a l i t y , and e l a b o r a t i o n s c o r e s ,
i n d i c a t e d by l e v e l o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . O r i g i n a l
i t y s c o r e s a p p e a re d to be th e b e s t p r e d i c t o r s f o r th e
s e l e c t e d c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e s . The o n ly c r i t e r i o n to w hich
c r e a t i v i t y m easures d id n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e was
"changed r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n . "
Such r e s u l t s a r e h ig h ly d u b io u s . F i r s t , c o r r e l a
t i o n s o f .2 7 and .2 4 a lth o u g h s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a r e
o f l i t t l e p r a c t i c a l v a lu e . Second, t h e s e l e c t e d c r i t e r i o n
v a r i a b l e s can h a r d l y be c o n s id e re d a s v a l i d m easures o f
c r e a t i v i t y . They a p p e a r t o be t y p i c a l o f w e ll- e d u c a te d
h ig h -IQ p e o p le (C ro ck en b erg , 1 972).
S ub sequent to th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f th e TTCT m anual
o t h e r p r e d i c t l v e - v a l i d i t y s t u d i e s w ere u n d e rta k e n ( e . g . ,
C ro p le y , 1972; T o rra n c e , 1972; T o rra n c e , Tan, & A llm an,
1 9 70). Some h av e u se d academ ic ( s c i e n t i f i c and te c h n o lo g
i c a l c r e a t i v i t y ) and o th e r s have r e s o r t e d t o nonacadem ic
c r i t e r i a o f c r e a t i v i t y ( a r t , dram a, l i t e r a t u r e , m u s ic ).
56
None h a s, however, been a b le t o d e m o n stra te th e v a l i d i t y
o f th e c r i t e r i a i t has u se d .
The s tu d ie s r e p o r te d i n t h e TTCT manual a s w e ll as
o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s u n d e rta k e n a f t e r t h e m anual was Is s u e d
have f a i l e d e i t h e r to d e s c r ib e f u l l y o r t o comment on th e
adequacy o f th e c r i t e r i o n m easures u se d . M oreover, i n some
in s ta n c e s r e p o r t s of s tu d y r e s u l t s were f a l l a c i o u s and
n e a r l y w o rth le s s i n t h a t th e y p ro v id e d in fo rm a tio n s t r i c t l y
concerned w ith s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , when in d e e d a
d is c u s s io n o f th e p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e d a ta would
have been i n o rd e r ( e . g . , N elso n , 19&3> E ric k so n , 1 9 6 6).
E vidence a p p e a rs t o i n d i c a t e t h a t th e TTCT t e c h
n i c a l m anual and e m p ir ic a l s t u d i e s p u b lis h e d a f t e r i t s
r e l e a s e have n o t p ro v id e d In f o rm a tio n t o meet th e r e q u i r e
m ents s t a t e d i n s ta n d a rd C4, i n re g a rd to which th e TTCT
i s r a t e d a s " u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . "
S ta n d a rd C5
C5. The sam ple employed i n a v a l i d i t y stu d y
and th e c o n d itio n s u n d er w hich t e s t i n g i s done
sh o u ld be c o n s is te n t w ith th e recom m endations
made i n th e m anual. They sh o u ld be d e s c r ib e d s u f
f i c i e n t l y f o r th e u s e r to Judge w h eth er th e r e
p o rte d v a l i d i t y i s p e r t i n e n t t o h i s s i t u a t i o n .
The v a l i d i t y s t u d i e s r e p o r te d in t h e TTCT have
c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e i r sam ples i n such a way t h a t t e s t u s e r s
a r e en ab led t o judge th e adequacy o f r e p o r te d v a l i d i t i e s to
t h e i r s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s . M oreover, t h e f a c t t h a t th e
57
s t u d i e s d e s c r ib e d i n t h e m anual have u se d d i f f e r e n t ty p e s
o f sam ples i n c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f p r o s p e c tiv e u s e r s
f i n d in g in f o r m a tio n t h a t may r e l a t e t o t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r
c a s e s . F or exam ple, t h e sam ple o f one o f t h e s t u d i e s r e
p o r te d i n t h e m anual (W a lla ce , 1961) was com p rised o f 6 l
sa lesm e n , s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f s a l e s re c o r d s (u p p e r and
lo w er t h i r d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e d e p a r tm e n ts ) , who had been
em ployed f o r a t l e a s t t h r e e y e a r s ( t h e mean b e in g a p p ro x i
m a te ly e le v e n y e a r s ) , and who were a l l o v e r 30 y e a r s o f
a g e . In a n o th e r s tu d y (Bowers, 1 9 6 6), t h e sam ple was com
p r i s e d of 278 n in th - g r a d e s t u d e n ts (135 m ales and 143
fe m a le s) e n r o l l e d i n a sc h o o l w hich had a w ide ra n g e o f
t a l e n t . The s tu d y r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s f o r boys and g i r l s
s e p a r a t e l y and f o r th e sam ple a s a w hole.
The v a r i e t y o f sam ples u se d i n th e s t u d i e s c i t e d
i n t h e TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual r e f l e c t e d t h e f a c t t h a t th e
t e s t i s recommended f o r u s e from k i n d e r g a r te n th ro u g h
g r a d u a te s c h o o l.
As t o t h e p a r t o f s ta n d a r d C5 w hich p r e s c r i b e s
t h a t t h e c o n d itio n s u n d e r w hich t e s t i n g i s done sh o u ld be
c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e recom m endations i n t h e m anual, th e
s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n th e TTCT m anual d id n o t a ll u d e t o any
m o d if ic a tio n t h a t m ight have o c c u rre d in t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
and s c o r in g o f t h e t e s t . I t seems f a i r t o assum e t h a t
th o s e s t u d i e s h ave conform ed t o t h e recom m endations of th e
58
TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual and. to th e re q u ire m e n ts o f t h e d i r e c
t i o n s m anual and s c o r in g g u id e s . The r a t i o n a l e f o r such
an a ssu m p tio n was b a se d on t h e f a c t t h a t I n v e s t i g a t o r s i n
th o s e s t u d i e s i n w hich t h e r e g u l a r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and
s c o rin g p ro c e d u re s recommended f o r th e TTCT were changed
have r e p o r te d th e m o d if ic a tio n s u n d e rta k e n . One exam ple
I s r e p r e s e n te d by D ew ing’s (1970) stu d y i n which th e TTCT
was s c o re d o n ly f o r f lu e n c y and o r i g i n a l i t y :
T h is i s a d e p a r tu r e from t h e T o rra n c e s c o rin g m ethod
w hich adds t o g e t h e r t h e s c o r e s f o r f o u r d i f f e r e n t
f a c t o r s , and i s b a se d on th e W allach and Kogan ( 1 9 6 5)
argum ent t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l ’ s c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l i s
a f f e c t e d by two b a s ic v a r i a b l e s : "The number o f a s s o
c i a t i o n s th e p e rs o n can g e n e r a te i n re s p o n s e t o g iv e n
t a s k s , and t h e r e l a t i v e u n iq u e n e ss o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s
t h a t h e p ro d u ce s [p . 3 6 ] . n
The w e ig h t o f in f o r m a tio n r e p o r te d i n t h e TTCT
t e c h n i c a l m anual s u g g e s ts t h a t th e t e s t sh o u ld be ju d g ed as
" s a t i s f a c t o r y '' w ith r e s p e c t t o s ta n d a r d C5.
S ta n d a rd C6
C6. Any s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of c r i t e r i o n -
r e l a t e d v a l i d i t y sh o u ld be r e p o r te d i n t h e m anual
i n a form from which th e r e a d e r can d e te rm in e what
c o n fid e n c e i s to be p la c e d i n judgm ents o f p r e d i c
t i o n s re g a rd in g t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
The c r i t e r i o n - r e l a t e d v a l i d i t y s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n
t h e TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual made u se o f w id e ly a c c e p te d and
known s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u re s . F o r exam ple, c o r r e l a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t s w ere u se d t o e s t a b l i s h r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een
p r e d i c t o r and c r i t e r i o n m ea su re s; and F t e s t s and t_ t e s t s
59
w ere in c lu d e d to compare t e s t s c o r e s o f s tu d e n ts nom inated
by t e a c h e r s o r p e e rs on v a r io u s c r i t e r i a o f c r e a t i v i t y w ith
s c o r e s o f s tu d e n ts n o t nom in ated on t h e same c r i t e r i a . A l
th o u g h th e F t e s t and t_ t e s t a r e w e ll known s t a t i s t i c a l
t e s t s and r e a d i l y i n t e r p r e t a b l e p ro c e d u re s t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y
met c o r o l l a r y C 6.1, th e y do n o t g iv e a d e q u a te in f o r m a tio n
r e g a r d in g v a l i d i t y . As o b se rv e d i n c o r o l l a r y C 6 . l l ,
R e p o rts o f d i f f e r e n c e s betw een group means by them
s e lv e s g iv e in a d e q u a te in f o r m a tio n r e g a r d in g v a l i d
i t y . I f v a ria n c e i s l a r g e , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n may be
i n a c c u r a t e even i f means d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y [APA,
1966, p. 2 1 ].
M oreover, i t i s n o t enough t o t e s t p e r f e c t i d e n t i t y
o f g ro u p s . D if f e r e n c e s s h o u ld be s u b s t a n t i a l . Such d i f
f e r e n c e s can be e v a lu a te d by t h e r e p o r t o f m easures o f
a s s o c i a t i o n ( e . g . , w2, r 2) .
The TTCT m anual h a s f a i l e d t o c a u tio n r e a d e r s
a g a i n s t r e s u l t s o f some s t u d i e s ( e . g . . N e lso n , 19&3j T o r
ra n c e & G upta, 1964) i n which in a d e q u a te s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e
d u re s t o show c r i t e r i o n - r e l a t e d v a l i d i t y have been u s e d .
A lth o u g h N elson ( 1963) h as em ployed t h e t_ t e s t t o check
t h e c o n c u rre n t v a l i d i t y o f t h e TTCT, th e f i n d i n g s o f h i s
s tu d y p r e s e n te d i n t h e t e s t m anual do n o t p ro v id e in fo rm a
t i o n r e l a t i v e to sam ple s i z e , mean v a lu e s , and l e v e l o f
a s s o c i a t i o n betw een v a r i a b l e s . T o rra n c e and G upta (1 9 6 4 ),
who have u se d F t e s t s , a ls o f a i l e d t o c i t e th e k in d o f
In f o rm a tio n J u s t m en tio n ed .
60
The w eig h t of e v id en ce g a th e re d from t h e TTCT man
u a l i n d i c a t e s t h a t o n ly p a r t i a l l y h a s th e t e s t met s ta n d a rd
C6, w ith r e s p e c t to which i t i s r a t e d a s " q u e s tio n a b le ."
S ta n d a rd C7
C7. I f th e a u th o r p ro p o se s t o I n t e r p r e t th e
t e s t a s a m easure of a t h e o r e t i c a l v a r i a b l e ( a b i l
i t y , t r a i t , o r a t t i t u d e ) , t h e p ro p o sed i n t e r p r e
t a t i o n sh o u ld be f u l l y s t a t e d . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s tr u c t sh o u ld be d is t in g u i s h e d
from i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r i s i n g u n d e r o th e r t h e o r i e s .
The TTCT b a t t e r y i s b ased on T o r r a n c e 's d e s c r i p t i o n
of c r e a t i v i t y :
A p ro c e s s o f becoming s e n s i t i v e to pro blem s, d e f i
c i e n c i e s , gaps i n know ledge, m is sin g e le m e n ts, d i s
h arm o n ies, and so on: i d e n t i f y i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t y ;
s e a rc h in g f o r s o l u t i o n s , making g u e s s e s , o r f o r m u la t
in g h y p o th e s e s ab o u t t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s ; t e s t i n g and
r e t e s t i n g t h e s e h y p o th e se s and p o s s ib l y m odifying
and r e t e s t i n g them ; and f i n a l l y com m unicating th e
r e s u l t s [ 1966, p . 6 ] ,
I n a cc o rd a n c e w ith s ta n d a r d 07, th e TTCT t e c h n i c a l
m anual e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e s t h a t th e t e s t sh o u ld be e v a lu a te d
i n term s o f t h e a u t h o r 's d e f i n i t i o n o f c r e a t i v i t y and t h a t
i t s r e s u l t s sh o u ld be a ls o i n t e r p r e t e d i n r e l a t i o n to t h i s
d e f i n i t i o n . T o rra n c e h as a p p ro ach ed c r e a t i v i t y a s a p r o c
e s s . Such an ap p ro a ch , he assum ed, c o u ld e n a b le one to
(a) " th in k i n te rm s o f th e k in d s o f a b i l i t i e s n e c e s s a r y f o r
th e s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a tio n o f th e p ro c e s s i n v a r io u s s i t u a
t i o n s o r f o r th e p ro d u c tio n o f v a rio u s k in d s o f p ro d u c ts
[T o rra n c e , 1966, p . 2 3 ]" ; (b) " th in k i n term s o f th e q u a l
i t i e s o f th e p ro d u c ts r e s u l t i n g from t h e p ro c e ss [p . 23] " ;
61
and (c ) " th in k o f th e k in d s o f p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
group dynamic v a r i a b l e s , and o t h e r e n v iro n m e n ta l c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s t h a t f a c i l i t a t e o r impede th e k in d o f f u n c tio n in g
d e s c r ib e d -b y th e p ro c e s s d e f i n i t i o n [p . 2 3 ] . ”
The TTCT m anual r e p o r t s s e v e r a l s t u d i e s on th e
c o n s tr u c t v a l i d i t y o f th e t e s t . In s e v e r a l , th e p e r s o n a l
i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h ig h and low " c r e a t l v e s ” a s i d e n t i
f i e d by s c o re s on th e TTCT hav e been com pared. In o th e r s
an a tte m p t h a s been made to e s t a b l i s h th e c o n s tr u c t v a l i d
i t y o f th e t e s t by c o r r e l a t i n g i t s s c o re s w ith o th e r m eas
u r e s . F o r exam ple, i n one stu d y r e p o r t e d , F lem ing and
W elntraub ( 1 9 6 2) c o r r e l a t e d a t t i t u d i n a l r i g i d i t y (as m eas
u re d by t h e F re n k e l-B ru n sw ik R e v ised C a l i f o r n i a I n v e n to ry )
w ith m easures o f c r e a t i v i t y d e riv e d from t h e TTCT (a com
p o s i t e m easure b a se d on th e P ro d u c t Im provem ent, U nusual
U ses, A sk-and-G uess, C i r c l e s , and In c o m p le te F i g u r e s ) . The
r e s u l t i n g c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f - .4 1 was s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t a t .01 l e v e l . I n t e s t i n g t h e h y p o th e s is t h a t
t h e r e would be a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een q u a l i t y o f p l a y f u l
n e ss i n young c h i l d r e n 's b e h a v io r and (a) flu e n c y , (b)
f l e x i b i l i t y , and (c) o r i g i n a l i t y , Llberm an ( 1 9 6 5) found
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n w hich
ra n g e d from .21 t o . 3 6 .
In i t s summary o f t h e r e s u l t s o f a s u b s t a n t ia l
number o f c o n s tr u c t v a l i d i t y s t u d ie s , th e TTCT manual h as
62
met c o r o l l a r y CJ.l, th e f i r s t sta te m e n t o f w hich p r e s c r i b e s
t h a t a t e s t m anual sh o u ld i n d i c a t e th e e x te n t t o w hich i t s
p ro p o se d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s b een s u b s t a n t i a t e d . However,
t h e a u th o r o f t h e m anual h as n e g le c te d t o c a l l t h e r e a d e r 's
a t t e n t i o n to r e s e a r c h in a d e q u a c ie s o b se rv e d i n some o f th e
s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d t h a t m ight have a f f e c t e d t h e i r r e s u l t s .
F o r exam ple, i n one s tu d y T o rra n c e and Dauw ( 1965) compared
th e o c c u rre n c e o f h ig h p a t t e r n s on th e Runner s t u d i e s o f
a t t i t u d e p a t t e r n s (R unner & R unner, 1 9 6 5) a sam ple o f
115 h ig h ly c r e a t i v e s e n i o r s (a s i d e n t i f i e d by th e TTCT)
w ith t h a t of a n o th e r group o f 100 u n s e l e c te d jo b a p p l i c a n t s
f o r summer jo b s , whose t e s t re s p o n s e s had b een s u p p lie d by
t h e Runners ( 1965) . W ithout what a p p e a rs t o be a sound
re a s o n , T o rra n c e and Dauw ( 1 9 6 5) c o n s id e r e d th e com parison
gro up to be a group s i m i l a r t o t h e i r s .
C o r o lla r y C7.25 to u c h e s on an im p o rta n t a s p e c t;
I f a t e s t g iv e n w ith a tim e l i m i t i s to be i n t e r
p r e te d a s m easu rin g a h y p o t h e t i c a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l
a t t r i b u t e n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d to sp eed , e v i
dence sh o u ld be p r e s e n t i n t h e m anual c o n c e rn in g
t h e e f f e c t o f sp eed on th e t e s t s c o re s and on
t h e i r c o r r e l a t i o n w ith o t h e r v a r i a b l e s [APA, 1966,
p . 2 4 ].
The TTCT m anual d id n o t r e p o r t any i n v e s t i g a t i o n
i n w hich tim e had been a v a r i a b l e o f c o n c e rn . A c tu a lly ,
t h e TTCT a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p ro c e d u re s hav e been c r i t i c i z e d by
W allach and Kogan ( 1965) and W allach (1970) t h e grounds
t h a t c r e a t i v i t y c o u ld n o t be r u l e d by tim e l i m i t s . A f t e r
63
th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual, T o rra n c e
( 1969) u n d e rto o k a stu d y t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f tim e
l i m i t s on p erfo rm an c e i n t h e t e s t . H is sam ple com prised
75 s i x t h - g r a d e c h i l d r e n . The s u b j e c t s w ere a d m in is te r e d
th e TTCT i n a group s e t t i n g and u n d e r t h e tim e c o n s t r a i n t s
p r e s c r i b e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n s m anual and s c o r in g g u id e s o f
th e t e s t . Then, t h e same c h i l d r e n w ere a sk e d to work on
th e t e s t s f o r an a d d i t i o n a l 24 h o u r p e r io d . R e s u lts i n d i
c a te d a c o r r e l a t i o n o f . 2 3, s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t
.05 l e v e l , betw een s c o r e s on a f i r s t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and
th o s e a t a su b se q u e n t p e r i o d o f tim e . A lth o u g h s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t can n o t be
c o n s id e re d o f p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . B e s id e s , t h e p r e d i c
t i v e power of s c o re s o b ta in e d d u rin g t h e f i r s t p e r io d of
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was o n ly 3 p e rc e n t (b a se d on E, t h e c o e f f i
c i e n t o f t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f p r e d i c t i o n ) . I n a d d i t i o n , i f
th e s c o r in g sy ste m were b a sed on norm s, a P e a rs o n ia n
c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a t i o n would n o t be th e a d e q u a te s t a
t i s t i c a l p ro c e d u re . A c tu a lly a m easure o f i n t r a c l a s s
c o r r e l a t i o n ( p j ) sh o u ld have been u se d . At any r a t e , th e
r e s e a r c h p ro c e d u re s employed by T o rra n c e ( 1 9 6 9) w ere in a d e
q u a te t o b r in g e v id e n c e r e g a r d in g sp eed e f f e c t s on t e s t
p e rfo rm a n c e . As i n d i c a t e d i n th e S ta n d a rd s (APA, 1 9 6 6):
The c o r r e l a t i o n o f s c o r e s a t th e end o f t h e u s u a l
tim e w ith s c o r e s o b ta in e d w ith e x t r a tim e on t h e
same t r i a l i s o f l i m i t e d m eaning, b e c a u se t h e two
s c o r e s a r e n o t in d e p e n d e n t [p . 2 4 ].
64
The w e ig h t o f e v id e n c e g a th e r e d from t h e TTCT t e c h
n i c a l m anual and from e m p ir ic a l s t u d i e s n o t in c lu d e d i n
t h a t p u b l i c a t i o n b u t r e l e v a n t t o t h e e v a lu a tio n o f t h e t e s t
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e t e s t h a s n o t e n t i r e l y met t h e r e q u i r e
m ents o f s ta n d a r d C7 and some o f i t s c o r o l l a r i e s . T h ere
fore., t h e TTCT i s r a t e d a s " q u e s tio n a b le " r e l a t i v e t o
s ta n d a r d C7.
E v a lu a tio n o f th e TTCT w ith R esp ect t o th e
S tan dards o f R e l i a b i l i t y
The S ta n d a rd s l i s t s s i x ESSENTIAL s ta n d a r d s u n d er
t h e h e a d in g o f R e l i a b i l i t y : D l, D2, D3, D4, D5, and L > 6 .
I t i s a g a in s t t h e s e c r i t e r i a th a t th e TTCT i s e v a lu a te d as
t o i t s con gru en ce t o t h e S tan d ard s d i v i s i o n e n t i t l e d R e l ia
b i l i t y .
Standard D l
D l. The t e s t manual sh o u ld r e p o r t e v id e n c e o f
r e l i a b i l i t y th a t p e r m its th e r e a d e r t o judge w h eth er
s c o r e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y d ep en d ab le f o r th e recommended
u s e s o f th e t e s t . I f any o f th e n e c e s s a r y e v id e n c e
h as n ot been c o l l e c t e d , th e a b sen ce o f su ch Inform a
t i o n sh ou ld be n o te d .
The TTCT m anual r e p o r t s s e v e r a l s t u d i e s on t h e
t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e in s tr u m e n t. Some s t u d i e s
p r e s e n te d c o e f f i c i e n t s o f r e l i a b i l i t y f o r b a t t e r y t o t a l s
(Sommers, 1961* Wodtke, 1 9 64); o t h e r s r e p o r t e d r e l i a b i l i t i e s
f o r d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s such as f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , o r i g i
n a l i t y , and e l a b o r a t i o n (D alb ec, 1966; M ackler, 1 9 6 2) ; and
65
s t i l l o th e r s c i t e d r e l i a b i l i t i e s f o r d i f f e r e n t s u b t e s t s
(G rover, 1963 j Yamamoto, 1962) . On t h e w hole, th e r e p o r te d
t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s ran g ed from .34 t o .97
o v e r i n t e r v a l s o f one week to e ig h t months ( E h e rts , 1961;
G o ra ls k i, 1964j Sommers, 1 9 6 lj Wodtke, 1964) and from .35
to .73 o v e r a t h r e e - y e a r p e rio d (D albec, 1966).
The TTCT manual warned t h e r e a d e r o f t h e f a c t t h a t
low t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t i e s i n c r e a t i v i t y m easures sh o u ld
n o t be assumed t o I n d i c a te u n r e l i a b i l i t y o r la c k of u s e f u l
n e s s o f th e in s tr u m e n ts , s in c e (a) e m o tio n a l, p h y s ic a l,
m o ti v a ti o n a l , and m en tal h e a l t h f a c t o r s a f f e c t c r e a t i v e
f u n c tio n in g and t h e r e f o r e c o n tr i b u te " to a lo w e rin g o f
t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y as t r a d i t i o n a l l y e s tim a te d [p. l8 ]" j
(b) c r e a t i v e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s a r e " s u s c e p ti b l e to develop
ment th ro u g h e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e s [p . 1 7 3 ." S in ce c h i l
d re n have d i f f e r e n t e x p e rie n c e s i n t h e i r en v iro n m en ts,
t h e i r c r e a t i v e developm ent cann ot be e x p e c te d to have th e
same r a t e t h a t a f f e c t s c o e f f i c i e n t s o f r e l i a b i l i t y c a lc u
l a t e d o v e r tim e .
In fo rm a tio n r e p o r te d i n t h e TTCT t e c h n i c a l manual
p ro v id e d e v id e n ce t h a t th e t e s t h a s met th e re q u ire m e n ts o f
s ta n d a rd Dl w ith r e s p e c t t o which th e t e s t i s judged to be
" s a t i s f a c t o r y . "
66
Standard D2
D2. In th e t e s t manual r e p o r ts on r e l i a b i l i t y
o r err o r o f m easurem ent, p ro ced u res, and sam ples
sh ou ld be d e sc r ib e d s u f f i c i e n t l y to p erm it a u s e r to
judge to what e x te n t th e e v id en ce i s a p p lic a b le t o
th e p erson and problem s w ith which he I s con cern ed .
In r e p o r tin g s t u d ie s on th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e
t e s t , th e TTCT manual p r o v id e s r ea d er s w ith a d e s c r ip tio n
o f th e p roced u res (k in d o f r e l i a b i l i t y c a lc u la t e d , form s
u sed , tim e e la p se d betw een t e s t i n g s e s s io n s ) and sam ples
(e.g., s i z e , grade l e v e l ) u sed in th e s t u d ie s . A lthough
th e in fo r m a tio n r e p o r te d was not e x te n s iv e , i t appears
s u f f i c i e n t t o perm it u s e r s to judge i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y to
t h e i r s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s .
In th e l i g h t o f e v id e n c e g a th e re d from th e TTCT
m anual, th e t e s t i s judged t o be " s a tis fa c to r y " r e l a t i v e
to stan d ard D2.
Standard D3
D3. R ep orts o f r e l i a b i l i t y s t u d ie s sh ou ld o r d i
n a r ily be e x p r e sse d in th e t e s t manual in term s o f
v a r ia n c e s f o r e r r o r com ponents (o r t h e i r square
r o o ts ) or stan d ard e r r o r s o f m easurem ent, or p ro d u ct-
moment r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s .
S in c e th e s t u d ie s r e p o r te d in th e TTCT manual e x
p r e sse d r e l i a b i l i t y i n term s o f product-m om ent c o r r e la t io n
c o e f f i c i e n t s , th e r e was com p lian ce w ith th e norms s ta te d
In stan d ard D3. The manual has a ls o met c o r o lla r y D 3.1
(w hich r e q u ir e s th a t m anuals sh ou ld make c le a r th a t m eas
u r e s o f r e l i a b i l i t y do n ot dem on strate th e c r i t e r i o n -
67
r e l a t e d v a l i d i t y o f t h e t e s t ) , s in c e i t h a s even t r e a t e d
r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y i n d i f f e r e n t c h a p t e r s . The s p u r i
ous r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y a g a i n s t
w hich c o r o l l a r y D3.1 w arns i s n e i t h e r s u g g e s te d n o r im p lie d
i n t h e m anual.
S in c e th e TTCT m anual h a s e n t i r e l y met s ta n d a r d D3,
t h e t e s t i s t o be ju d g ed a s " s a t i s f a c t o r y " w ith r e s p e c t to
t h i s s ta n d a r d .
S ta n d a rd D4
D4. I f two form s o f a t e s t a r e p u b lis h e d , b o th
form s b e in g in te n d e d f o r p o s s i b l e u s e w ith t h e same
s u b j e c t s , th e means and v a r ia n c e s o f t h e two form s
sh o u ld be r e p o r t e d i n th e t e s t m anual a lo n g w ith th e
c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a t i o n betw een t h e two s e t s o f
s c o r e s . I f n e c e s s a r y e v id e n c e i s n o t p ro v id e d , th e
t e s t m anual sh o u ld w arn t h e r e a d e r a g a i n s t assum ing
c o m p a r a b ility .
I n I t s i n t r o d u c t i o n th e TTCT m anual s t a t e s t h a t
V e rb a l Form B I s "an e q u iv a le n t a l t e r n a t i v e form t o V e rb a l
A [p . 2 ] , " and t h a t F i g u r a l Form A i s "an e q u iv a le n t a l t e r
n a t i v e form t o F i g u r a l B [p . 2 ] . " However, i n I t s C h a p te r
VI th e m anual c o n t r a d i c t s t h e fo rm er s ta te m e n ts :
W hile t h e s e two form s [V e rb a l Forms A and B and
F i g u r a l Forms A and B] a re f o r th e m ost p a r t p a r a l
l e l , t a s k by t a s k , one ru n s some r i s k I n p r e - and
p o s t t e s t d e s ig n s u n le s s c o n v e rs io n i s made to s ta n d
a rd o r T s c o r e s [p . 7 6 ].
Such a s ta te m e n t c a s t s doubt on t h e supposed e q u iv
a le n c e o f t h e TTCT V e rb a l Forms A and B and F i g u r a l Forms
A and B. I n f a c t , t h e m anual p r e s e n t s no e m p ir ic a l d a ta
I n s u p p o rt o f t h e c o m p a r a b ility o f t h e TTCT p a r a l l e l fo rm s.
68
A lth o u g h t h e TTCT m anual h as v i o l a t e d s ta n d a r d D4
by n o t o f f e r i n g e v id e n c e i n f a v o r o f th e assum ed e q u iv a
le n c e o f th e t e s t fo rm s, t h e m anual h a s managed t o meet th e
s ta n d a r d by c a u tio n in g u s e r s a g a i n s t p o s s i b l e r i s k s i n
v o lv e d i n th e u s e o f t h e t e s t form s i n p r e - and p o s t t e s t
d e s i g n s ,
S in c e t h e TTCT m anual h a s o n ly p a r t i a l l y met th e
re q u ire m e n ts o f s ta n d a r d D4, i t i s r a t e d as " q u e s tio n a b le "
w ith r e s p e c t t o t h i s s ta n d a r d .
S ta n d a rd
D5. I f t h e t e s t m anual s u g g e s ts t h a t a s c o re i s
a m easure o f a g e n e r a l i z e d , homogeneous t r a i t , e v i
dence o f i n t e r n a l c o n s is te n c y s h o u ld be r e p o r t e d .
S in c e th e TTCT m anual has n o t s u g g e s te d t h a t c r e a
t i v i t y i s a g e n e r a l i z e d , homogeneous t r a i t , b u t r a t h e r a
s e t o f a b i l i t i e s w hich c o u ld be p r e s e n t i n d i f f e r e n t
am ounts i n i n d i v i d u a l s w ith th e same t o t a l s c o r e s , and,
m oreover, b e c a u se t h e t e s t ite m s embody a f r e e re s p o n s e
fo rm a t, s ta n d a r d D5 i s ju d g ed to be "n o t a p p li c a b l e " t o
th e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e TTCT.
S ta n d a rd D6
D6. The t e s t m anual sh o u ld i n d i c a t e t o what
e x te n t t e s t s c o r e s a r e s t a b l e , t h a t i s , how n e a r l y
c o n s ta n t t h e s c o re s a r e l i k e l y t o be i f a t e s t i s
r e p e a te d a f t e r tim e h a s e la p s e d . The m anual sh o u ld
a l s o d e s c r ib e th e e f f e c t o f any such v a r i a t i o n on
t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f th e t e s t . The tim e i n t e r v a l t o
be c o n s id e re d depends on t h e n a tu r e o f t h e t e s t and
on what i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e t e s t s c o r e s i s recom
mended .
69
As e a r l i e r i n d i c a t e d when th e TTCT was e v a lu a te d
a g a i n s t s ta n d a r d D l, th e TTCT m anual r e p o r t s a v a r i e t y o f
s t u d i e s co n ce rn e d w ith th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e t e s t . I n
t h o s e s t u d i e s c o e f f i c i e n t s o f r e l i a b i l i t y w ere r e p o r t e d
f o r a w ide ran g e o f tim e I n t e r v a l s : from one week t o t h r e e
y e a r s . The m anual h a s p ro v id e d a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e
somewhat low and m oderate r e l i a b i l i t i e s a t t r i b u t e d to th e
t e s t : (a) p e r s o n a liz e d v a r i a b l e s w hich a f f e c t c r e a t i v e
th in k i n g a b i l i t i e s ( m o tiv a tio n a l, p h y s i c a l , e m o tio n a l);
(b) changes o v e r tim e due to t h e developm ent o f c r e a t i v e
t h in k i n g a b i l i t i e s a t uneven r a t e s ; and (c) d i f f e r e n c e s i n
t e s t i n g c o n d itio n s from one tim e t o t h e n e x t (T o rra n c e ,
196 9). M oreover, t h e TTCT m anual u rg e s u s e r s n o t t o ta k e
th o s e low r e l i a b i l i t i e s as s ig n s t h a t t h e TTCT m ight la c k
I n u s e f u l n e s s o r r e l i a b i l i t y :
The v e ry f a c t t h a t m easurem ent in s tr u m e n ts a r e s e n s i
t i v e t o such f a c t o r s [ p e r s o n a l and d e v e lo p m e n ta l] may
make them e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l i n c e r t a i n k in d s o f s i t u
a t i o n s . Among such s i t u a t i o n s a r e s t u d i e s d e s ig n e d
t o a s s e s s t h e I n f lu e n c e o f e x p e rim e n ta l m ethods, o r
g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te , e x p e rim e n ta l I n s t r u c t i o n a l m ate
r i a l s , p h y s ic a l c o n d itio n s In th e c la ss ro o m , f a t i g u e ,
c o m p e titio n , and th e l i k e [p . 1 8 ].
I n t h e l i g h t o f e v id e n c e g a th e r e d from t h e TTCT
m anual and from one e m p ir ic a l s tu d y u n d e rta k e n a f t e r th e
t e s t was p u b lis h e d (T o rra n c e , 1 9 6 9)* th e TTCT i s to be
ju d g ed as " s a t i s f a c t o r y 1 ' w ith r e s p e c t t o s ta n d a r d D6.
70
E v a lu a tio n o f th e TTCT w ith R e sp e ct t o th e
S ta n d a rd s o f A d m in is tr a tio n and S c o rin g
Two ESSENTIAL s ta n d a r d s a r e l i s t e d u n d e r t h e d i v i
s io n A d m in is tr a tio n and S c o rin g i n t h e S ta n d a r d s : E l and
E2, They c o n s t i t u t e t h e c r i t e r i a a g a i n s t w hich th e TTCT
i s e v a lu a te d as t o i t s co n g ru en ce w ith t h a t d i v i s i o n o f
th e S ta n d a r d s .
S ta n d a rd E l
E l. The d i r e c t i o n s f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n sh o u ld be
p r e s e n te d in th e t e s t m anual w ith s u f f i c i e n t c l a r i t y
and em phasis t h a t t h e t e s t u s e r can d u p l i c a t e , and
w i l l be en co u rag ed t o d u p l i c a t e , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
c o n d itio n s u n d e r w hich th e norms and t h e d a ta on r e
l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y w ere o b ta in e d .
A lthough th e i n t r o d u c t o r y s e c t i o n o f th e TTCT t e c h
n i c a l m anual c o n ta in s some in f o r m a tio n ab o u t th e a d m in is
t r a t i o n o f th e t e s t , d e t a i l e d i n s t r u c t i o n s a re g iv e n i n th e
d i r e c t i o n s m anual and s c o r in g g u id e s which accompany each
b a t t e r y o f t h e TTCT. I n s t r u c t i o n s a r e o f f e r e d f o r each
a c t i v i t y w i t h in a b a t t e r y , i n c lu d in g p a s s a g e s , p r i n t e d i n
b o ld f a c e ty p e , t h a t sh o u ld be r e a d w ith o u t m o d if ic a tio n s
by th e exam in er. B ecause o f th e w ide ra n g e o f s u b j e c t s
w ith whom th e TTCT can be u se d (from k i n d e r g a r te n th ro u g h
g r a d u a te s c h o o l) , some f l e x i b i l i t y was b u i l t i n t o t h e p ro
c e d u re s f o r t e s t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Such f l e x i b i l i t y im p lie s
m o d if ic a tio n s w hich a r e p e r m itte d t o be made f o r th e i n i
t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n o r warm up p e r io d o f t h e t e s t a d m i n i s t r a
t i o n . M o d ific a tio n s w hich a r e l e f t t o t h e exam iner*s d i s -
71
c r e t i o n a r e c o n tin g e n t upon (a) th e e x a m in e e 's w r i t i n g
a b i l i t y , v o c a b u la ry , and th e l i k e ; an d (b) t h e p u rp o se s
and c o n d itio n s o f th e t e s t i n g . However, th e d i r e c t i o n s
m anual and s c o r in g g u id e s u rg e exam iners n o t to change
tim in g and o t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n s . O th e rw ise ,
t h e t e s t norms w ould n o t a p p ly .
A d m in is tr a tio n d i r e c t i o n s a r e s t a t e d i n a c l e a r
lan g u a g e w hich su p p o se d ly le a v e s t h e exam inee w ith no
d o u b ts a b o u t what he i s e x p e c te d to do i n each t e s t a c t i v
i t y .
E v id en ce g a th e r e d from t h e TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual
and from i t s d i r e c t i o n s m anual and s c o r in g g u id e s i n d i c a t e s
t h a t t h e t e s t h a s e n t i r e l y met th e re q u ire m e n ts o f s ta n d a r d
E l w ith r e s p e c t t o w hich i t i s r a t e d a s " s a t i s f a c t o r y . "
S ta n d a rd E2
E2. The p ro c e d u re s f o r s c o r in g th e t e s t sh o u ld
be p r e s e n te d i n t h e t e s t m anual w ith a maximum o f
d e t a i l and c l a r i t y so a s to re d u c e t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f
s c o r in g e r r o r .
The p ro c e d u re s f o r s c o rin g each one o f t h e f o u r
b a t t e r i e s o f t h e TTCT a r e c o n ta in e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
d i r e c t i o n s m anual and s c o r in g g u id e b o o k l e t s . S in c e i t i s
assum ed t h a t t h e TTCT can be sc o re d by in e x p e r ie n c e d s c o r
e r s w ith o u t any t r a i n i n g o th e r th a n t h e c a r e f u l re a d in g
and s tu d y o f t h e s c o r in g g u id e s , t h e s e g u id e s a r e ex
tr e m e ly d e t a i l e d i n t h e i r d i r e c t i o n s . To su p p o rt t h e c la im
72
t h a t u n tr a in e d s c o r e r s can a s s u r e r e l i a b l e t e s t r e s u l t s ,
s c o rin g g u id e s r e p o r t mean c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s ,
u s u a l l y above . 90, betw een t h e s c o rin g o f t r a i n e d and un
t r a i n e d s c o r e r s . The lo w e st i n t e r s c o r e r r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f
f i c i e n t , w hich o c c u rre d i n t h e s c o r in g o f o r i g i n a l i t y
( . 7 6 ) , was e x p la in e d as a f u n c tio n o f th e r e j e c t i o n by th e
s c o r e r o f th e s c o rin g g u id e i n f a v o r o f h i s own c o n c e p tio n
o f o r i g i n a l i t y . T h is f a c t i s m entioned a s a w arning to
p r o s p e c tiv e s c o r e r s o f t h e TTCT. I n o r d e r to a s s u r e r e l i
a b le r e s u l t s i n th e s c o r in g o f th e t e s t i t i s e s s e n t i a l to
f o llo w th e s c o rin g g u id e s v e ry p r e c i s e l y and t o a c c e p t
t h e i r s ta n d a rd s as a b a s i s f o r any judgm ent.
The TTCT h as f u l l y met s ta n d a rd E2, r e l a t i v e to
w hich i t i s judged t o be " s a t i s f a c t o r y . "
E v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT w ith R esp ect t o th e
S ta n d a rd s o f S c a le s and Norms
The S ta n d a rd s co m p rises f i v e ESSENTIAL m ajor s ta n d
a rd s u n d e r I t s d i v i s i o n S c a le s and Norms; P I , P2, F4, P5,
and F6 . (S ta n d a rd F3 i s c l a s s i f i e d a s VERY DESIRABLE.)
They c o n s t i t u t e th e c r i t e r i a a g a in s t w hich th e TTCT i s
e v a lu a te d a s to i t s cong ruen ce to t h a t d i v i s i o n o f th e
S ta n d a r d s .
73
S ta n d a rd P I
P I . S c a le s u se d f o r r e p o r t i n g s c o re s sh o u ld he
so c a r e f u l l y d e s c rib e d i n th e t e s t manual as to i n
c r e a s e t h e l ik e l ih o o d o f a c c u r a te i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and
th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f b o th t h e t e s t I n t e r p r e t e r and
th e s u b j e c t .
A lthough r e c o g n iz in g th e l i m i t e d number of compar
is o n group norms t h a t c o u ld be o f f e r e d a t t h e tim e of th e
p u b l ic a t i o n o f th e te s t., th e TTCT t e c h n i c a l manual r e p o r t s
d a ta th e n a v a i l a b l e i n an a d e q u a te m anner. Mean raw sc o re s
and s ta n d a r d d e v ia tio n s a r e r e p o r t e d " f o r each o f th e groups
f o r w hich n o rm ativ e d a ta a r e a v a i l a b l e [T o rra n c e , 1966,
p . 5 7 l . 1 1 M oreover, th e m anual p r e s e n ts t a b l e s f o r th e
c o n v e rs io n o f raw s c o re s i n t o s ta n d a rd s c o re s (T s c o r e s ) ,
and o f f e r s , i n i t s C h ap ter VI ( I n t e r p r e t i n g S c o re s ), ex
p l a n a ti o n on how t o compute and i n t e r p r e t T s c o re s .
W ithout an e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f th e
d a ta p re s e n te d i n t h e s c a l e s (an u n d e rta k in g t h a t i s done
i n th e d is c u s s io n o f s ta n d a r d P6) b u t sim p ly on th e b a s is
o f ju d g in g th e way i n w hich th e s e d a ta w ere p ro c e s s e d and
a rra n g e d i n t h e TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual, t h e t e s t h as met
s ta n d a r d P I . T h e re fo re , i t i s r a t e d a s " s a t i s f a c t o r y " w ith
r e s p e c t t o t h i s s ta n d a rd .
S ta n d a rd P2
F2. I f s c a le s a r e r e v i s e d , new form s added, o r
o t h e r changes made, t h e r e v i s e d t e s t m anual sh o u ld
p ro v id e t a b l e s of e q u iv a le n c e betw een t h e new and th e
o ld fo rm s. T his p r o v is io n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y im p o rta n t
i n c a s e s w here d a ta a r e re c o rd e d on c u m u la tiv e r e c o r d s .
74
As e a r l i e r m en tio n ed i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f s ta n d a r d
A2j t h e TTCT s c o r in g g u id e s hav e underg one s e v e r a l r e v i
s io n s , a lth o u g h t h e t e c h n i c a l m anual i s s t i l l i n i t s o r i g i
n a l v e r s i o n . T h is f a c t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s c a l e s p r e s e n te d
i n t h e t e c h n i c a l m anual may h av e t e e n i n v a l i d a t e d by
changes in tr o d u c e d i n t h e t e s t s c o r in g g u id e s . A r e v i s i o n
of th e t e c h n i c a l m anual h a s been a lr e a d y p re p a re d (T o r
r a n c e , p e r s o n a l com m unication, March 14, 1973)- However,
t h i s r e v i s i o n h a s n o t been y e t i s s u e d — a c irc u m s ta n c e w hich
p r e v e n ts th e TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual from com plying w ith
s ta n d a r d F2. U n t i l t h e r e v i s i o n o f th e TTCT t e c h n i c a l
m anual i s p u b lis h e d , any p r e c i s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s c o re s
b ased on norms r e p o r t e d i n i t s p r e s e n t e d i t i o n sh o u ld be
a v o id e d i n view o f t h e i r t e n t a t i v e n a tu r e .
The i n a b i l i t y o f t h e TTCT t o meet s ta n d a r d F2 a t
th e p r e s e n t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e t e s t i s t o be r a t e d a s
" u n s a t i s f a c t o r y " w ith r e s p e c t t o t h a t s ta n d a r d .
S ta n d a rd F4
F4. E xcept w here t h e p rim a ry u s e o f a t e s t i s
t o compare i n d i v i d u a l s w ith t h e i r own l o c a l g ro u p ,
norms sh o u ld be p u b lis h e d i n t h e t e s t m anual a t th e
tim e o f r e l e a s e o f t h e t e s t f o r o p e r a t i o n a l u s e .
A l i m i t e d s e t o f com p ariso n group norms i s o f f e r e d
i n th e TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual. The r e a s o n f o r t h i s r e
s t r i c t e d o f f e r i n g h a s been s t a t e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f
s ta n d a r d F I . However, as l i m i t e d a s th o s e norms may be,
75
th e y were p u b lis h e d i n th e t e s t m anual a t th e tim e o f i t s
r e l e a s e . T h e r e fo r e , th e y met th e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f s ta n d a r d
f 4 .
I n th e l i g h t o f e v id e n c e g a th e r e d from t h e TTCT
t e c h n i c a l m anual, t h e t e s t i s r a t e d a s " s a t i s f a c t o r y " w ith
r e s p e c t t o s ta n d a r d F4.
S ta n d a rd F5
F5. Norms sh o u ld be r e p o r t e d i n th e t e s t m anual
i n te rm s o f s ta n d a r d s c o r e s o r p e r c e n t i l e ra n k s w hich
r e f l e c t th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s c o r e s i n an a p p r o p r i a te
r e f e r e n c e group o r g ro u p s .
The TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual r e p o r t s t h e t e s t norms
b o th i n term s o f raw and s ta n d a r d s c o r e s (T s c o r e s ) .
However, i t does n o t o f f e r c o n v e rs io n t a b l e s f o r e i t h e r
p e r c e n t i l e ra n k s o r o t h e r s c a l e s . Such t a b l e s w ould be o f
a d d i t i o n a l v a lu e , a lth o u g h n o t s t r i c t l y r e q u i r e d i n t h e
s ta te m e n t o f s ta n d a r d F5. M oreover, m easures o f c e n t r a l
te n d e n c y and v a r i a b i l i t y a r e r e p o r t e d , i n co m p lian ce w ith
p r e s c r i p t i o n s s t a t e d i n c o r o l l a r y F 5 .1 .
E vidence i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e TTCT h as met s ta n d a rd
F5 i n a m anner t h a t w ould be ju d g ed a s " s a t i s f a c t o r y . "
S ta n d a rd F6
F6 . Norms p r e s e n te d i n t h e t e s t m anual sh o u ld
r e f e r t o d e fin e d and c l e a r l y d e s c r ib e d p o p u la tio n s .
T hese p o p u la tio n s sh o u ld be t h e g ro u p s t o whom u s e r s
o f th e t e s t w i l l o r d i n a r i l y w ish t o com pare th e p e r
sons t e s t e d .
7 6
The TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual p r e s e n t s norms f o r group s
from f i r s t g ra d e up t o g r a d u a te l e v e l and o f f e r s a d e s c r i p
t i o n o f t h e sam ples from w hich th o s e norms w ere d e riv e d .
However, t h e TTCT m anual does n o t r e p o r t th e r a t i o n a l e f o r
t h e s e l e c t i o n o f p o p u la tio n s o r th e sam p ling p ro c e d u re s .
T h is o m issio n v i o l a t e s c o r o l l a r y F6 . 1, w hich p r e s c r i b e s
t h a t t e s t m anuals sh o u ld r e p o r t sam pling p ro c e d u re s and
d i s c u s s any b i a s e s t h a t m ight have b een in v o lv e d i n th o s e
p r o c e d u r e s . A c tu a lly , th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e sam ples
u se d t o d e r iv e t h e TTCT norms seem t o I n d i c a t e t h a t sam ples
w ere s e l e c t e d on a b a s i s o f a v a i l a b i l i t y r a t h e r th a n on a
b a s i s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s , a f a c t t h a t v i o l a t e s c o r o l l a r y
F6 . l l . F o r exam ple, t h e c o ll e g e l e v e l d a ta u sed t o b u ild
th e norms o f F i g u r a l Form A w ere p ro v id e d by "a group o f
116 e n te r in g fresh m en i n a n u r s in g program i n a j u n i o r
c o l l e g e i n t h e Twin C i t i e s , M in n e so ta , a re a [T o rra n c e ,
1966, p . 573 •" The TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual h a s f a i l e d w ith
r e s p e c t t o t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f norms w hich c o u ld be r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e enough t o p ro v id e a m e a n in g fu l b a s i s f o r th e
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t e s t s c o r e s . However, t h e m anual has
d e s c r ib e d t h e sam ples u se d and h a s n o t p re te n d e d t h a t th e y
s h o u ld i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y a p p ly t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f any
group o r any i n d i v i d u a l 's s c o r e s .
E v id en ce a p p e a rs t o i n d i c a t e t h a t m ost o f t h e i n
adequ acy o f th e TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual w ith r e s p e c t t o
s ta n d a r d F6 r e s i d e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t , a lth o u g h c o v e rin g
77
alm o st th e t o t a l ra n g e o f ag es and l e v e l s o f e d u c a tio n f o r
w hich t h e t e s t was d e v is e d , th e r e p o r t e d norms a p p ly b u t
t o a sm a ll segm ent o f s u b j e c t s o r g ro u p s w i t h in each
s tr a tu m o f age o r l e v e l o f e d u c a tio n . F o r t h e l i m i t e d
u s e f u l n e s s o f th e norms r e p o r t e d i n th e TTCT t e c h n i c a l
m anual, th e t e s t i s r a t e d a s " q u e s t io n a b le ” w ith r e s p e c t
t o s ta n d a r d F 6.
Summary P r o f i l e
The p r o f i l e o f t h e TTCT r e l a t i v e to t h e 26 m a jo r
ESSENTIAL s ta n d a r d s a g a i n s t w hich t h e t e s t was e v a lu a te d
i s sum m arized i n F ig u r e 1.
O v e r a ll E v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT
The re v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e u n d e rta k e n i n t h e f i r s t
s e c t i o n o f C h a p te r I I , "The I s s u e o f IQ V ersus C r e a t i v i t y , "
seemed to i n d i c a t e t h a t a lth o u g h th e s t a t u s o f c r e a t i v i t y
a s a c o n s t r u c t o r s e t o f c o n s t r u c t s by th e m se lv e s i s s t i l l
open t o c h a lle n g e , t h e m ajo r p o r t io n o f t h e v a r ia n c e ob
se rv e d i n m easu res o f c r e a t i v i t y (ab o u t 90 p e r c e n t) i n
g e n e r a l c a n n o t be a c c o u n te d f o r i n term s o f t h a t i n t r a d i
t i o n a l IQ m e a su re s. As t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e TTCT w ith
r e s p e c t t o t h e s e f i n d i n g s , th e t e s t m anual (T o rra n c e ,
1 966) r e p o r t s c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s betw een s c o re s i n
t h e TTCT and IQ m easu res ( C a l i f o r n i a T e s t o f M ental M atur
i t y ) w hich ra n g e d from .0 9 t o .43 (mean c o r r e l a t i o n a b o u t
Major ESSENTIAL Standards
A1 A2 B1 B2 BJ C l C2 C3 Ok C5 C6 C7 D1 D2 D3 d4 D5 D6 E l E2 F I F2 F^ F5 F6
Legend: SA = S a tis fa c to ry
Q B = Q uestionable
US = U n satisfa cto ry
N A = Not ap p lic a b le
F ig . 1. P ro file o f th e TTCT v ith Respect to th e S tandards o f D issem ination o f Inform ation (A),
In te r p re ta tio n (B ), V a lid ity (C ), R e lia b ility (D), A d m in istratio n and Scoring (E) , and
S cales and Norms (F ).
CO
79
. 2 5) i n sam ples o f f o u r t h - , f i f t h - , and s ix th - g r a d e c h i l
d re n . C rockenberg (1971) c i t e d . . c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n
betw een th e TTCT s u b t e s t s c o re s and IQ m easures which
ran g e d from - .4 0 t o . 2 5 .
H ig h e r c o r r e l a t i o n s th a n th o s e J u s t n o te d were
found betw een th e TTCT s c o re s and IQ m easu res, when c o r r e c
t i o n s f o r r e s t r i c t i o n o f ra n g e and f o r u n r e l i a b i l i t y were
made. F o r exam ple, Yamamoto (19&5) r e p o r t e d c o r r e l a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t s o f .51 and .54 betw een th e TTCT s c o re s and IQ
m easures f o r two sam ples o f f i f t h - g r a d e p u p i l s . On th e
w hole, r e s u l t s from s tu d ie s r e l a t e d t o th e TTCT a p p e a r to
be f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t w ith o t h e r f in d in g s r e l a t i v e to th e
c o n s t r u c t o r s e t o f c o n s t r u c t s u n d e rly in g c r e a t i v i t y .
The e v a lu a tio n o f t h e TTCT a g a in s t th e c r i t e r i a o f
v a l i d i t y i n th e S ta n d a rd s i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e t e s t was r a t e d
as " q u e s tio n a b le " on th e c r i t e r i o n w hich r e f e r s to con
s t r u c t v a l i d i t y . Such a r a t i n g a p p e a rs to su g g e st t h a t
t h e s t a t u s o f th e t e s t r e l a t i v e t o c o n s tr u c t v a l i d i t y may
be a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e d o u b tfu l s t a t u s o f c r e a t i v i t y i t s e l f
a s a c o n s tr u c t o r s e t o f c o n s t r u c t s .
I n t h e second s e c t i o n o f C h ap ter I I , "The T h e o r e ti
c a l B a s is o f t h e TTCT," b o th G u i l f o r d 's S t r u c t u r e - o f -
I n t e l l e c t (SOI) model and th e s t a t i s t i c a l p ro c e d u re s w hich
have been u se d to v a l i d a t e i t w ere rev ie w e d . The TTCT
a p p e a rs t o f i t as a d e sce n d an t o f th e SOI m odel: (a ) I t i s
80
b a sed on a d e f i n i t i o n w hich s t r e s s e s t h e p ro b le m -s o lv in g
n a tu r e o f t h e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s , s i m i l a r to G u i l f o r d 's
( 1 9 6 7) ; (b) s e v e r a l o f t h e TTCT a c t i v i t i e s w ere d e v elo p ed
a f t e r G u ilf o r d - ty p e t e s t s o f d iv e r g e n t p r o d u c tio n ; (c) th e
t e s t a c t i v i t i e s a r e sc o re d f o r f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , o r i g i
n a l i t y , and e l a b o r a t i o n w hich a r e a b i l i t i e s , o r f a c t o r s ,
i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e d iv e r g e n t p r o d u c tio n c a te g o r y o f t h e SOI
m odel; and (d) s c o r in g o f a c t i v i t i e s p o r tr a y e d i n ite m s o f
t h e TTCT f o r f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , o r i g i n a l i t y , and e la b o r
a t i o n im p lie s t h a t th e s e f a c t o r s a re c o n s id e re d t o be
somewhat o r th o g o n a l— a b a s ic p re m ise o f G u i l f o r d 's SOI
m o d el.
As e a r l i e r s u g g e s te d , t h e s t a t i s t i c a l p ro c e d u re s
u se d by G u ilf o r d and h i s a s s o c i a t e s t o v a l i d a t e th e SOI
m odel h a v e been c h a lle n g e d as t o t h e i r a p p r o p r ia te n e s s i n
t h e accom plishm ent o f such a t a s k . G iven th e same d a ta ,
G u i l f o r d 's f a c t o r a n a l y t i c p ro c e d u re s do te n d t o e x t r a c t
more f a c t o r s from th e d a ta th a n o t h e r p ro c e d u re s do. T h is
f a c t c a s t s some doubt on t h e l e g itim a c y o f th e f a c t o r s
i d e n t i f i e d In t h e SOI m odel, among w hich flu e n c y , f l e x i b i l
i t y , o r i g i n a l i t y , and e l a b o r a t i o n a r e in c lu d e d .
Some r e s e a r c h e r s have i n v e s t i g a t e d th e d e g re e o f
r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , o r i g i n a l i t y , and
e l a b o r a t i o n s c o re s on t h e TTCT. F o r exam ple, C i c i r e l l i
(1964) r e p o r t e d i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s betw een t o t a l
81
f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , o r i g i n a l i t y , and e l a b o r a t i o n s c o re s
on th e TTCT V e rb a l w hich ra n g e d from .0 2 t o .8 0 . The low
c o r r e l a t i o n s o f .0 2 , . 13, and .2 1 , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o c c u rre d
betw een th e e l a b o r a t i o n t o t a l s c o r e s and t o t a l s c o r e s on
t h e o t h e r t h r e e f a c t o r s , w hereas c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s
among f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , and o r i g i n a l i t y t o t a l s c o re s
ra n g e d from .7 ^ t o . 8 0 .
I n a n o th e r s tu d y , H arvey, H o f f m e is te r , C o a te s, and
W hite (1970) t e s t e d th e d im e n sio n a l In d ep e n d en c e o f flu e n c y ,
f l e x i b i l i t y , and o r i g i n a l i t y s c o r e s i n th e TTCT. To r e
f l e c t such in d e p e n d e n c e , c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s betw een
f a c t o r s ( f lu e n c y , f l e x i b i l i t y , and o r i g i n a l i t y ) had t o be
c o n s id e r a b ly lo w e r th a n t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s
b etw een t e s t s w i t h in f a c t o r s . However, t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e
s tu d y i n d i c a t e d an o p p o s ite s i t u a t i o n : th e mean c o e f f i c i e n t
o f c o r r e l a t i o n betw een f a c t o r s w i t h in t e s t s was
w h ereas t h e mean c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a t i o n betw een t e s t s
w i t h in f a c t o r s was o n ly . 2 7 . Such r e s u l t s may c o n s t i t u t e
a c h a lle n g e t o t h e a ssu m p tio n t h a t each o f t h e s u b t e s t s
o f t h e TTCT may be sc o re d f o r d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s o f c r e a t i v
i t y and t h a t s c o r e s from d i f f e r e n t s u b t e s t s may be added
t o r e p r e s e n t a g iv e n f a c t o r . These f i n d in g s somewhat r e i n
f o r c e t h e c r i t i c i s m s t o w hich th e SOI m odel h a s been su b
j e c t e d i n r e l a t i o n to t h e c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y o f i t s su p
p o s e d ly I d e n t i f i e d f a c t o r s .
82
Summary
I n t h e p r e s e n t c h a p te r a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s and
e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e TTCT h as been u n d e rta k e n w ith r e s p e c t t o
(a) t h e e x te n t t o w hich i t conform ed to th e ESSENTIAL c r i
t e r i a s e t f o r t h i n th e S ta n d a r d s j and (b) th e r e l a t i o n s h i p
o f th e t e s t t o th e s t a t u s o f c r e a t i v i t y a s a c o n s t r u c t o r
s e t o f c o n s t r u c t s in d e p e n d e n t o f g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , and
th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e t e s t and th e t h e o r e t i c a l SOI
m odel from w hich i t was d e r iv e d .
CHAPTER IV
SUM MARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
P urpose
The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was to p ro v id e a c r i t i c a l
a n a l y s i s and e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e T o rra n c e T e s ts o f C r e a tiv e
T h in k in g (TTCT) from e v id e n c e r e p o r t e d i n i t s t e c h n i c a l
m anual and i n s e l e c t e d e m p ir ic a l s t u d i e s a g a i n s t th e c r i
t e r i a , o r s ta n d a r d s , s e t f o r t h i n S ta n d a rd s f o r E d u c a tio n a l
and P s y c h o lo g ic a l T e s ts and M anuals, p u b lis h e d i n 1966 by
th e A m erican P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n . T w e n ty -six m ajor
ESSENTIAL c r i t e r i a s e l e c t e d from th e S ta n d a rd s c o n s t i t u t e d
th e k e y e le m e n ts o f a co n g ru en ce model a g a i n s t w hich t h e
TTCT was e v a lu a te d . The e v a l u a t i v e p r o c e s s w hich was
g u id e d by a n sw erin g s i x q u e s tio n s c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e r e s e a r c h
problem c o u ld be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h in one m ain q u e s tio n : To
what e x te n t does t h e TTCT meet t h e ESSENTIAL c r i t e r i a f o r
(a) D is s e m in a tio n o f I n f o r m a tio n (two c r i t e r i a —Al and A2)j
(b) I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( f o u r c r i t e r i a — B l, B2, B3, and B 4);
(c) V a l i d i t y (se v e n c r i t e r i a — C l, C2, C3, C4, 05, C6, and
C7)j (d.) R e l i a b i l i t y ( s i x c r i t e r i a —D l, D2, D3, D4, D5, and
D6 ) ; (e) A d m in is tr a tio n and S c o rin g (two c r i t e r i a — E l and
83
84
E 2)j and ( f ) S c a le s and Norms ( f i v e c r i t e r i a —P I , F2, F4,
F5, and F 6 )?
M ethodology
A model o f c o n g ru en ce e v a lu a tio n c o n s t i t u t e d th e
m ethodology employed i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . E v id en ce
g a th e r e d from t h e TTCT t e c h n i c a l m anual and from e m p ir ic a l
s t u d i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e t e s t was r a t e d o r ju d g ed a s
" s a t i s f a c t o r y , " " q u e s t io n a b le ," " u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , " o r "not
a p p l i c a b l e , " a c c o rd in g t o i t s co m p lian ce t o t h e r e q u i r e
m ents s t a t e d i n e ac h o f th e 2.6 m ajor ESSENTIAL c r i t e r i a
s e l e c t e d a s th e p r i n c i p a l p a ra m e te rs o r m odel f o r t h e
e v a lu a tio n o f th e t e s t .
F in d in g s
R e s u lts from t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e TTCT a g a i n s t
e ac h o f t h e 26 m ajo r ESSENTIAL c r i t e r i a i n t h e S ta n d a rd s
i n d i c a t e d t h e f o llo w in g judgm ents r e g a r d in g t h e ad eq u acy o f
th e TTCT i n m eetin g each c r i t e r i o n w i t h in e ac h o f t h e s i x
m ajo r g ro u p in g s o f re q u ire m e n ts : (a) D is s e m in a tio n o f
I n f o r m a tio n — 1 " s a t i s f a c t o r y " and 1 " q u e s tio n a b le " ; (b)
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n — 2 " s a t i s f a c t o r y " and 2 " q u e s tio n a b le " ;
(c ) V a l i d i t y —3 " s a t i s f a c t o r y , " 3 " q u e s t io n a b le ," and 1
" u n s a t i s f a c t o r y " ; (d) R e l i a b i l i t y — 4 - " s a t i s f a c t o r y , "
1 " q u e s t io n a b le ," and 1 "not a p p l i c a b l e " ; (e ) A d m in is tra
t i o n and S c o rin g — 2 " s a t i s f a c t o r y " ; and ( f ) S c a le s and
Norms— 3 ''s a t i s f a c t o r y , " 1 " q u e s tio n a b le , " and 1 " u n s a t i s
f a c t o r y . "
C o n c lu sio n s
The fo llo w in g c o n c lu s io n s seemed to be w a rra n te d :
1. S in ce t h e TTCT h as s a t i s f a c t o r i l y met o n ly 15
(abou t 58 p e rc e n t) o f t h e ESSENTIAL c r i t e r i a
s e t f o r t h i n th e S ta n d a rd s and h as r e c e iv e d
e ig h t " q u e s tio n a b le " and two " u n s a t is f a c to r y "
r a t i n g s , t h e t e s t can n o t be c o n s id e re d a s an
e n t i r e l y a d e q u a te in s tru m e n t f o r g e n e r a liz e d
u s e .
2. S in c e i t was i n th e d i v i s i o n o f A d m in is tr a tio n
and S c o rin g i n t h e S ta n d a rd s t h a t th e TTCT h a s
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y met a l l t h e ESSENTIAL c r i t e r i a
a g a in s t w hich i t was e v a lu a te d , t h e m ajor
s t r e n g t h o f th e t e s t would a p p e a r t o r e s i d e
i n t h a t c a te g o r y .
3. The m ajo r w eaknesses o f t h e TTCT would seem
to be r e l a t e d t o th e c a te g o r y o f V a l i d i t y i n
w hich t h e t e s t was a s s ig n e d t h r e e " q u e s tio n
a b le " and one " u n s a t is f a c to r y " r a t i n g s .
4 . When th e somewhat t e n t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f
m easures p u rp o rte d to ta p c r e a t i v i t y i s
c o n s id e re d , th e in a d e q u a c ie s o b se rv ed i n th e
TTCT may be h y p o th e s iz e d t o r e f l e c t th e g e n e r a l
86
s t a t e o f t h e a r t I n t h e a r e a o f c r e a t i v i t y .
Re c ommendat i ons
The e v a l u a t i v e f i n d in g s and c o n c lu s io n s o f t h i s
stu d y l e d to t h e fo llo w in g recom m endations:
1. The d e f i c i e n c i e s o b se rv e d i n t h e TTCT, r e p r e
s e n te d by r a t i n g s o f " q u e s t io n a b le " and "un
s a t i s f a c t o r y , " sh o u ld be n o te d and rem ed ied
t o w h a te v e r e x te n t p o s s i b l e .
2. Only when c o n s id e r a b le c a u tio n i s e x e r c is e d
sh o u ld th e TTCT be u se d f o r p u rp o se s o t h e r
th a n e x p lo r a to r y r e s e a r c h .
3 . O th e r t e s t s p u r p o r tin g to m easure c r e a t i v e
t h i n k i n g , d iv e r g e n t p ro d u c tio n , o r c r e a t i v i t y
a l s o sh o u ld be s u b je c te d to e v a lu a tio n s
a g a i n s t t h e c r i t e r i a s e t f o r t h i n t h e S ta n d a rd s
so t h a t p r o s p e c t i v e u s e r s c o u ld h av e a b ro a d e r
b a s i s upon w hich t o make t h e i r t e s t s e l e c t i o n .

REFERENCES
A lz o b a le , A. J . , M e tf e s s e l, N. S ., & M ic h a e l, W . B. A l t e r
n a t i v e a p p ro a c h e s to a s s e s s i n g th e i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i
t i e s o f y o u th from a c u l t u r e o f p o v e rty . E d u c a tio n a l
and P s y c h o lo g ic a l M easurem ent, 1968, 28, 449-455”
A m erican P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n , Committee on T e st
S ta n d a rd s . S ta n d a rd s f o r e d u c a tio n a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l
t e s t s and m a n u a ls. W ashin gto n, B .C .: APA, 1 9 6 6.
A m erican P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia t io n . E t h i c a l s ta n d a r d s o f
p s y c h o l o g i s t s . W ashington, D .C .: APA, 1953.
A n a s t a s i , A. P s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t i n g . New Y ork: M acm illan,
1968.
A rm strong, J . S ., & S o e lh e rg , P. On t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . P s y c h o lo g ic a l B u l l e t i n , 1968, 70,
361-36 4.
B a rro n , F . The dream o f a r t and p o e tr y . P sy ch o lo g y Today,
1968, 2 , 1 9 -2 3 .
B o n s a ll, M. R ., & Neumann. E. F. C o u n se lin g and c r e a t i v i t y .
I n W . B. M ich ael ( E d .) , T each in g f o r c r e a t i v e e n d e a v o r.
B loom ington: I n d ia n a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1968.
B ow ers, J . E. A s tu d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among m easures
o f p r o d u c tiv e t h in k i n g , i n t e l l i g e n c e , and n in th - g r a d e
a c h ie v e m e n t. U n p u b lish e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U ni
v e r s i t y o f M in n e so ta, 1 9 6 6 . C ite d by E. P. T o rra n c e ,
T o rra n c e t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g : N o rm s -te c h n ic a l
m anual. P r in c e to n : P e rs o n n e l P r e s s , 1 9 6 6.
Brown, S. W., G u ilf o r d , J . P . , & H o ep fn er, R. A. A f a c t o r
a n a l y s i s o f se m an tic memory a b i l i t i e s . R e p o rts from
t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l l a b o r a t o r y , U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th e rn
C a l i f o r n i a , 196b, No. 37*
B r u in in k s , R. H ., & Feldm an, D. H. C r e a t i v i t y , I n t e l l i
gence and a ch iev em en t among d is a d v a n ta g e d c h i l d r e n .
P sy chology i n t h e S c h o o ls, 1970, 7 j 260-264.
88
89
B a r t, C. The p sy c h o lo g y o f c r e a t i v e a b i l i t y ( c r i t i c a l
n o t i c e ) . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y ,
1.962, 32, 292-298.
B u tc h e r, H. J . Human i n t e l l i g e n c e . London: M enthuen,
1968.
C am pbell, D, T ., & F is k e , D. W . C onvergent and d i s c r i m i
n a n t v a l i d a t i o n by t h e m u l t i t r a i t - m u l t i m e t h o d m a tr ix .
P s y c h o lo g ic a l B u l l e t i n , 1959j 56,* 81-1 0 5 .
C a t t e l l , R. B ., & B u tc h e r, H. J . The p r e d i c t i o n o f
ach iev em en t and c r e a t i v i t y . New Y ork: B o b b s -M e rrill,
1958:-------
C i c l r e l l i , V. G. The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een m easures o f
c r e a t i v i t y , IQ and academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t: I n t e r a c t i o n
and t h r e s h o l d e f f e c t s . D o c to ra l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r
s i t y o f M ich ig an , 1964. C ite d by S. C ro ck en b erg ,
C r e a t i v i t y t e s t s : A boon o r boondoggle f o r e d u c a tio n ?
Review o f E d u c a tio n a l R e se a rc h , 1972, 4 2 , 27-45.
C ro ck en b erg , S. A v a l i d i t y s tu d y o f two c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s .
U n p u b lish e d m a n u s c rip t, U n i v e r s i ty o f C a l i f o r n i a , 1971.
C ite d by S. C rock en b erg , C r e a t i v i t y t e s t s : A boon o r
boondoggle f o r e d u c a tio n ? Review o f E d u c a tio n a l Re
s e a r c h , 1 972, 4 2 , 2 7 -4 5 .
C ro ck en b erg , S. C r e a t i v i t y t e s t s : A boon o r boondoggl e f o r
e d u c a tio n : Review o f E d u c a tio n a l R e se a rc h , 1972, 42,
2 7-45.
C ronbach, L. J . I n t e l l i g e n c e ? C r e a t i v i t y ? A p a rsim o n io u s
r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e W allach-K ogan d a ta . A m erican
E d u c a tio n a l R e se a rc h J o u r n a l , 1968, 5* 4 9 1 -5 1 1 .
C ronbach, L. J . E s s e n t i a l s o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t i n g .
New Y ork: H a rp e r & Row, 1970.
C ro p le y , A. J . C r e a t i v i t y and I n t e l l i g e n c e . B r i t i s h
J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y , 1966, 36, 259-266.
C ro p ley , A. J . A f i v e - y e a r l o n g i t u d i n a l s tu d y o f th e
v a l i d i t y o f c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s . D evelop m ental P s y c h o l
ogy, 1972, 6 , 119-124.
90
D albec, S. E. C r e a tiv e developm ent o v e r a t h r e e - y e a r
p e r io d i n a C a th o lic l i b e r a l a r t s c o ll e g e . M a s te r 's
r e s e a r c h r e p o r t , D epartm ent o f E d u c a tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y ,
U n i v e r s i ty o f M in n eso ta, 196 6 . C ite d by E. P. T o r-
r a n c e , T o rra n c e t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g ; Norms-
t e c h n i c a l manual^ P r in c e to n : P e rs o n n e l P r e s s , 1 9 6 6.
de M llle , R ., & M e r r i f l e l d , P. R. Review o f J . W. G e tz e ls
and P. W. J a c k s o n 's , I n t e l l i g e n c e and c r e a t i v i t y .
E d u c a tio n a l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l M easurem ent, 1962, 22,
ao3-aoa.
Dewey, J . How we t h i n k . B o sto n : H eath , 1910.
Dewing, K. The r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f s e l e c t e d t e s t s
o f c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g i n a sam ple o f s e v e n th -g ra d e West
A u s t r a l i a n c h i l d r e n . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l
P sy ch o lo g y , 1970, 4 o , 3 5 -4 2 .
E h e r ts , A. S. An e x p e rim e n ta l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e e f f e c t s
o f e x tra n e o u s m o tiv a tio n on t h e developm ent o f c r e a t i v e
t h in k i n g . U n p u b lish e d m a s t e r 's t h e s i s , S te ts o n U n i
v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 1. C ite d by S. C ro ckenberg, C r e a t i v i t y
t e s t s : A boon o r boondoggle f o r e d u c a tio n ? Review o f
E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h , 1972, 42, 27-45.
E ric k s o n , G. The p r e d i c t i v e v a l i d i t y o f a b a t t e r y o f
c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g t e s t s and p e e r n o m in a tio n s among
U n i v e r s i ty of M in n e so ta h ig h sc h o o l s e n i o r s sev en y e a r s
l a t e r . M a s t e r 's r e s e a r c h p a p e r, U n i v e r s i ty o f M inne
s o t a , 1 9 6 6. C ite d by E. P. T o rra n c e , T o rra n c e t e s t s
o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g : N o rm s -te c h n ic a l m anual. P r in c e
to n : P e rs o n n e l P r e s s , 1966.
F lem in g , E. S . , & W eln tra u b , S. A t t i t u d i n a l r i g i d i t y a s a
m easure o f c r e a t i v i t y i n g i f t e d c h i l d r e n . J o u r n a l o f
E d u c a tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y , 1962, 5 3 , 8 1 -8 5 .
F re n c h , J . W., E kstrom , R. B ., & P r i c e , I . A. M anual f o r
k i t o f r e f e r e n c e t e s t s f o r c o g n it i v e f a c t o r s . P r i n c e -
to n : E d u c a tio n a l T e s tin g S e r v ic e , 1 9 6 3.
G e tz e ls , J . W., & J a c k s o n , P. W . C r e a t i v i t y and i n t e l l i
g e n c e . New Y ork: W iley, 1 9 6 2.
G o r a ls k i, P. S. C r e a t i v i t y : S tu d e n t t e a c h e r s ' p e r c e p tio n s
o f a p p ro a c h e s t o c la ssro o m t e a c h in g . U n p u b lish e d do c
t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i ty o f M in n eso ta, 1964.
C ite d by E. P. T o rra n c e , T o rra n c e t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e
t h in k i n g : N o rm s -te c h n lc a l m anual. P r in c e to n : P e rs o n n e l
P r e s s , 1 9 6 6.
91
G ro v er, B. L. Some e f f e c t s and c o r r e l a t e s o f d i f f e r e n t
ty p e s o f p r a c t i c e u se d i n s tu d y in g a t o p i c i n n i n t h -
g ra d e c la s s ro o m s . U n p u b lish e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n eso ta, 1963. C ite d by E. P. T o r
r a n c e , T o rra n c e t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g : Norms -
t e c h n i c a l m anual. P r in c e to n : P e r s o n n e l P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 .
G u ilf o r d , J . P. C r e a t i v i t y . A m erican P s y c h o lo g is t, 1950,
5, 4 4 4 -4 5 4 .
G u ilf o r d , J . P. The s t r u e t u r e - o f - i n t e l l e c t . P s y c h o lo g ic a l
B u l l e t i n , 1956, 53, 267-293.
G u ilf o r d , J . P. The n a tu r e o f human i n t e l l i g e n c e . New
Y o rk : M eG raw -H ill, 1967.
G u ilf o r d , J . P. Some m is c o n c e p tio n s r e g a r d in g m easurem ent
o f c r e a t i v e t a l e n t s . J o u r n a l o f C r e a tiv e B e h a v io r,
1971, 5 , 7 7 -8 7 .
G u ilf o r d , J . P ., & H o ep fn er, R. C r e a tiv e p o t e n t i a l as
r e l a t e d t o m easures o f IQ and v e r b a l co m preh ension.
I n d ia n J o u r n a l of P sy ch o lo g y , 1 9 6 6, 41 , 7 -1 6 .
G u ilf o r d , J . P ., & H o e p fn er, R. The a n a l y s i s o f i n t e l l i
g e n c e . New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill, 1971.
G u ilf o r d , J . P ., M e r r i f i e l d , P. R ., C h r is te n s e n , P. R ., &
F r i c k , J . W . An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f sym bolic f a c t o r s o f
c o g n it i o n and c o n v e rg e n t p r o d u c tio n . R e p o rts from t h e
p s y c h o lo g ic a l l a b o r a t o r y , U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th e rn C a l i
f o r n i a , i 960, No. 23.
G u ilf o r d , J . P ., & T enopyr, M. L. I m p li c a t io n s o f th e
S t r u c t u r e - o f - I n t e l l e c t m odel f o r h ig h sc h o o l and c o l
le g e s t u d e n t s . I n W. B. M ich ael ( E d .) , T each in g f o r
c r e a t i v e e n d e a v o r. B loom ington: In d ia n a U n i v e r s i ty
P r e s s , 1966.
H a r r i s , C. W . Some Rao-G uttm an r e l a t i o n s h i p s . P sycho -
m e tr ik a , 1962, 27, 247-263.
H a r r i s , M. L ., & H a r r is , C. W . A f a c t o r a n a l y t i c I n t e r
p r e t a t i o n s t r a t e g y . E d u c a tio n a l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l
M easurem ent, 1971, 3 1 > 5 89- 6 0 6 .
H arvey, 0 . , H o ff m e is te r, J . , C o a te s, C ., & W hite, B.
A p a r t i a l e v a lu a tio n o f T o r r a n c e 's t e s t o f c r e a t i v i t y .
A m erican E d u c a tio n a l R e se a rc h J o u r n a l , 1970, 7 j 359-
372.
92
H ays, W. L. S t a t i s t i c s . New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt & Win
s to n , 1 9 6 3.
H o ep fn er, R. A ., & G u ilf o r d , J . P. E ig u r a l, sym bolic and
se m a n tic f a c t o r s o f c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l i n n in th - g r a d e
s t u d e n t s . R e p o rts from t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l l a b o r a t o r y ,
U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 1965 , Wo. 35^
H orn, J . L. On s u b j e c t i v i t y i n f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . E duca
t i o n a l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l M easurem ent, 1967, 277~8i T -
Horn, J . L ., & Knapp, J . R. On t h e s u b j e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r
o f th e e m p ir ic a l b a se o f G u i l f o r d 's S t r u c t u r e - o f -
I n t e l l e c t m odel. U n p u b lish e d p a p e r, U n i v e r s i t y of
D enver and E a s te r n M ichigan U n i v e r s i ty , 1972.
H o t e l l i n g , H. A n a ly s is o f a com plex o f s t a t i s t i c a l v a r i
a b le s i n t o p r i n c i p a l com ponents. J o u r n a l o f Educa-
t l o n a l P sy ch o lo g y , 1933, 24, 417-441 , 4 9 8 -5 2 0 .
Hudson, L. C o n tra ry im a g in a tio n s ; A p s y c h o lo g ic a l s tu d y
of t h e E n g lis h s c h o o l b o y . London; M ethuen, 1 9 6 6.
Humphreys, L. G ., I l g e n , D ., M cGrath, D ., & M o n ta n e lli, R.
C a p i t a l i z a t i o n on chance i n r o t a t i o n o f f a c t o r s .
E d u c a tio n a l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l M easurem ent, 1969, 29,
259-271.
J 3 r e s k o g , K. G. S t a t i s t i c a l e s t im a t i o n i n f a c t o r a n a l y s i s .
Stockholm ; A lm qv ist and W ik s e ll, 1 9 6 3.
Jflre sk o g , K. G. Some c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o maximum l i k e l i h o o d
f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . P sy c h o m e trik a , 1967, 32, 443-482.
K a is e r , H. P . , & C a ffre y , J . A lpha f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . P sy
c h o m e trik a , 1965, 3 0 , 1 -1 4 .
K arp, J . M ., & S i g e l, I . P s y c h o e d u c a tio n a l a p p r a i s a l o f
d is a d v a n ta g e d c h i l d r e n . Review o f E d u c a tio n a l R esearch,
1965, 38, 4 0 1 -4 1 2 .
L ieberm an, J . N. P la y f u ln e s s and d iv e r g e n t t h in k i n g : An
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p a t t h e k i n d e r g a r te n
l e v e l . J o u r n a l o f G e n e tic P sy ch o lo g y , 1965, 107, 219-
224.
L y tto n , H. C r e a t i v i t y and e d u c a ti o n . New Y ork: Schocken
Books, 1972.
93
MacKinnon, D. W . P e r s o n a l i t y and th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f c r e a
t i v e p o t e n t i a l . A m erican P s y c h o lo g is t, 1965* 20, 273-
2 8 1.
M ack ler, B. C r e a t i v i t y and l i f e s t y l e . U n p u b lish e d d o c
t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i ty o f K an sas, 1 9 6 2. C ite d
by E. P. T o rra n c e , T o rra n c e t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g :
N o rm s -te c h n ic a l m anual. P r in c e to n : P e rs o n n e l P r e s s ,
Madaus, G. P. D iv e rg e n t t h in k i n g and i n t e l l i g e n c e : A n o th er
lo o k a t a c o n t r o v e r s i a l q u e s tio n . J o u r n a l o f Educa
t i o n a l M easurem ent, 1967^ 4 , 227-235*
McNemar, Q. L o s t: Our i n t e l l i g e n c e ? Why? A m erican P sy -
c h o l o g l s t , 1964, 19, 8 7 1- 8 8 2 .
M ednick, S. A. The a s s o c i a t i v e b a s i s o f t h e c r e a t i v e p r o c
e s s . P s y c h o lo g ic a l Review , 1962, 6 9 , 220-232.
N e lso n , J . P. The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s c a l e o f t e a c h e r
judgm ent o f p u p i l c r e a t i v i t y . M a s t e r 's r e s e a r c h p a p e r,
U n i v e r s i ty o f M in n e so ta, 19§3. C ite d by E. P. T o r
r a n c e , T o rra n c e t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g : Norms-
t e c h n i c a l m an u al. P r in c e to n : P e rs o n n e l P r e s s , 1 9 6 6.
Rossman, J . The p sy c h o lo g y o f t h e i n v e n t o r . W ashington,
D .C .: I n v e n to r s P u b lis h in g C o ., 1931.
R unner, K ., & R unner, H. Manual o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f o r t h e
i n te r v ie w form I I I o f t h e Runner s t u d i e s o f a t t i t u d e
p a tte r n s ^ G olden, C o lo .: Runner A s s s o c la te s , 1965.
Sommers, W. S. The i n f l u e n c e o f s e l e c t e d te a c h in g m ethods
on th e developm ent o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g . U n p u b lish e d
d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n e so ta, 1961.
C ite d by E. P. T o rra n c e , T o rra n c e t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e
t h in k i n g : N o rm s -te c h n ic a l m an ual. P r in c e to n : P e rs o n n e l
P r e s s , 1966.
T a y lo r, C. W., & H o lla n d , J . L. Developm ent and a p p l i c a
t i o n o f t e s t s o f c r e a t i v i t y . Review o f E d u c a tio n a l
R e se a rc h , 1962, 3 2 , 9 1 -1 0 2 .
T h o rn d ik e , R. L. Some m e th o d o lo g ic a l i s s u e s i n t h e s tu d y
o f c r e a t i v i t y . I n E. P. G ard ner ( E d .), P ro c e e d in g s o f
th e 1962 i n v i t a t i o n a l c o n fe re n c e on t e s t i n g p ro b le m s.
P r in c e to n : E d u c a tio n a l T e s tin g S e r v ic e , 1963-
94
T h o rn d ik e , R. L. (R e v ie w e r.) I n 0 . K. B ures ( E d .) , The
s e v e n th m e n ta l m easurem ents y e a rb o o k . H ig h lan d P a rk ,
N . J . : Gryphon P r e s s , 1972.
T o rra n c e , E. P. G uiding c r e a t i v e t a l e n t . Englewood
C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1962.
T o rra n c e , E, P. E d u c a tio n and t h e c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l .
M in n e a p o lis : U n i v e r s i ty o f M in n eso ta P r e s s , 1963.
T o rra n c e , E. P. T o rra n c e t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g :
N o rm s -te c h n ic a l m anual. P r in c e to n : P e rs o n n e l P r e s s ,
1 9 6 6.
T o rra n c e , E. P. C u r i o s i t y o f g i f t e d c h i l d r e n and p e rfo rm
an ce on tim e d and u n tim ed t e s t s o f c r e a t i v i t y . The
G if te d C h ild Q u a r te r ly , 1969, 13_* 155-158.
T o rra n c e , E. P. Are t h e T o rra n c e T e s ts o f C r e a tiv e T h in k
in g b ia s e d a g a i n s t o r i n f a v o r o f d is a d v a n ta g e d gro u p s?
The G if te d C h ild Q u a r te r ly , 1971* 15* 7 5 -8 0 .
T o rra n c e , E. P. C a re e r p a t t e r n s and peak c r e a t i v e a c h ie v e
m ents o f c r e a t i v e h ig h sc h o o l s t u d e n ts tw e lv e y e a r s
l a t e r . The G if te d C h ild Q u a r te r ly , 1972, 16 , 7 5 -8 8 .
T o rra n c e , E. P . , & Dauw, D. C. M ental h e a l t h problem s o f
t h r e e g ro u p s o f h i g h ly c r e a t i v e h ig h s c h o o l s e n i o r s .
The G if te d C h ild Q u a r te r ly , 1965* 9* 123-127.
T o rra n c e , E. P ., & G upta, R. Programmed e x p e r ie n c e s i n
c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g . B ureau o f E d u c a tio n a l R e se a rc h ,
U n i v e r s i ty o f M in n e so ta, 1964. (Mimeo.) C ite d by
E. P. T o rra n c e , T o rra n c e t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g :
N o rm s -te c h n lc a l m an u al. P r in c e to n : P e rs o n n e l P r e s s ,
1 9 6 6.
T o rra n c e , E. P ., Tan, C. A ., & A llm an, T. V e rb a l o r i g i n a l
i t y and t e a c h e r b e h a v io r : A p r e d i c t i v e v a l i d i t y s tu d y .
The J o u r n a l o f T e a c h e r E d u c a tio n , 1970, 21, 3 3 5 -3 4 1 .
V ernon, P. C. C r e a t i v i t y and i n t e l l i g e n c e . E d u c a tio n a l
R e se a rc h , 1964, 6 , 163- 1 6 9 .
W alla ce , H. R. C r e a tiv e t h in k i n g : A f a c t o r i n s a l e s p r o
d u c t i v i t y . V o c a tio n a l G uidance Q u a r te r l y , Summer 1961,
223-226. C ite d by E. P. T o rra n c e , T o rra n c e t e s t s o f
c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g : N o rm s-te o h n ic a l m an ual. P r in c e to n :
P e r s o n n e l P r e s s , 1 9 6 6.
95
W allach , M. A. C r e a t i v i t y . I n P. H. Mussen ( E d .) , Manual
o f c h i l d p s y c h o lo g y . V o l. 1. New Y ork: Wiley., 1970.
W allach , M. A ., & Kogan, N. Modes o f th in k i n g i n young
c h i l d r e n . New Y ork: H o lt, R in e h a rt & W inston, 1955-
W odtke, K. H ._ Some d a ta on t h e r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y
o f c r e a t i v i t y t e s t s a t t h e e le m e n ta ry sc h o o l l e v e l .
E d u c a tio n a l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l M easurem ent, 1964, 24,
399-40U.
Yamamoto, K. A stu d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een c r e a t i v e
th in k in g a b i l i t i e s o f f i f t h - g r a d e t e a c h e r s and academ ic
a c h ie v e m e n t. U n p u b lish e d d o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i
v e r s i t y o f M in n e so ta, 1 9 6 2 . C ite d by E. P. T o rra n c e ,
T o rra n c e t e s t s of c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g : N o rm s -te c h n lc a l
m an u a l. P r in c e to n : P e rs o n n e l P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 .
Yamamoto, K. E f f e c t s o f r e s t r i c t i o n o f ra n g e and t e s t
u n r e l i a b i l i t y on c o r r e l a t i o n betw een m easu res o f i n t e l
lig e n c e and c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l of
E d u c a tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y , 1 965, 35_* 300-305.
Zwlcky, F . M o rp h o lo g ic a l a n a l y s i s . B e r li n : S p rin g e r ,
1957.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

An Evaluation Of Hutt Adaptation Of The Bender-Gestalt Test

PDF

A Longitudinal Model Of Residence Change

PDF

An Analysis Of The Attitudes Of Sixth-Grade Students In Usdesea Toward The Italian People

PDF

A Comparison Of Degrees Of Bilingualism And Measure Of School Achievementamong Mexican-American Pupils

PDF

Prediction Of First Grade Reading Achievement From Selected Structure-Of-Intellect Factors

PDF

An Experimental Analysis Of The Relationship Between The Reliability Of Amultiple-Choice Examination And Various Test-Scoring Procedures

PDF

A Study Of The Factorial Validity And Reliability Of The Individual Test Of Creativity

PDF

Effects Of An Audience On Serial Association

PDF

Political Skepticism And Alienation In A Sample Of Young Mexican Children

PDF

The Comparative Effectiveness Of Group Therapy And Inmate Group Activities At A Correctional Facility

PDF

The Attitude Of Resistance To The Adoption Of An Older Child

PDF

Semantic-Memory And Creative (Divergent-Production) Abilities Of Senior-High-School Students

PDF

The Association Of Cnv (Contingent Negative Variation) And P3 Evoked Brain Waves With Human Learning

PDF

A Study Of The Interactions Of Compression And Presentation Variables In Simulated Computer Generated Displays

PDF

A Methodological Investigation Of Affect Response Bias

PDF

An Evaluation Of The Mastery Of Simple English Sentence Structure By Secondary Age Deaf Students

PDF

Ucr Diminution As A Function Of Isi

PDF

An Evaluation Of The Resident Honors Program For High School Seniors At The University Of Southern California, 1961-1967

PDF

Predicting Success In The Federal School Of Science, Lagos, Nigeria

PDF

The relationship of scores on a measure of test-wiseness to performance on teacher-made objective achievement examinations and on standardized ability and achievement tests, to grade-point average, an

Asset Metadata

Creator Bastos, Lilia Da Rocha (author)

Core Title An Evaluation Of The Torrance Tests Of Creative Thinking

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Michael, William B. (committee chair), Acock, Alan C. (committee member), Smith, Robert A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-860669

Unique identifier UC11363321

Identifier 7331629.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-860669 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7331629

Dmrecord 860669

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Bastos, Lilia Da Rocha

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA