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The Effects Of Systematic Audio-Tape Feedback Upon Both The Counseling Relationship And Educational Attitudes

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The Effects Of Systematic Audio-Tape Feedback Upon Both The Counseling Relationship And Educational Attitudes

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Content THE EFFECTS OF SYSTEMATIC AUDIO TAPE FEEDBACK
UPON BOTH THE COUNSELING RELATIONSHIP
AND EDUCATIONAL ATTITUDES
A Dissertation
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Education
University of Southern California
In Partial Fulf.illment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
by
Leonard Daniel Bergantino
June 1971
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University Microfilms
300 North Z eeb Road
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A Xerox Education Company
; 72-23,140
I ;
I BERGANTINO, Leonard Daniel, 1943-
5 THE EFFECTS OF SYSTEMATIC AUDIO TAPE FEEDBACK
j ' UPON BOTH THE COUNSELING RELATIONSHIP AND
I , EDUCATIONAL ATTITUDES.
5
[ University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1971
f Education, guidance and counseling
| University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
© 1972
LEONARD DANIEL BERGANTINO
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.
This dissertation, written under the direction
of the Chairman of the candidate's Guidance
Committee and approved by all members of the
Committee, has been presented to and accepted
by the Faculty of the School of Education in
partial fulfillm ent of the requirements fo r the
degree of Doctor of Education.
Dale.
0
Dean
T r ' . r r y . f . f ’ d . . .
Chairman
PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages may have
indistinct p rin t.
Filmed as received.
University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A number of individuals have contributed to the
yuccessful completion of this dissertation. First, I
am indebted to Dr. Earl Carnes, my Doctoral Committee
Chairman, for the helpful suggestions and guidance he
provided throughout the study. I am also grateful to
the other committee members, Dr. Paul Bloland and Clive
Grafton, for their continued interest and support.
I am grateful to Mr. Robert Cohee, Principal,
Hosier Junior High School, for his encouragement and
support; to Paul Andrews, Coordinat.or of Counseling,
Hosier Junior High School, who has contributed unselfishly
of his time, professional talent, and for allowing this
investigator the freedom to pursue the present investiga
tion. A special word'of thanhs must go to John Lawrence,
Vice-Principal, Hosier Junior High School, for his
cooperation. I am further appreciative to Dr. Robert
Hadley for his invaluable statistical assistance and
observations.
I wish to express my loving appreciation to my
parents, Mae and Daniel Bergantino, as well_&§_r&)y close
friends, Canio Landucci and Andrea Kingaard, for their
continued encouragement and support.
Finally, I express my most sincere thanks to
Mrs. Bronwyn Emery, my co-counselor, without whose
contribution of time and professional talent this
investigation could not have occurred.
! •
Lynwood, California Leonard Bergantino
i
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
| ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..................................... ii
! LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURE........................ vi
Chapter
I. THE PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY .... 1
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Hypotheses and Assumptions
Limitations
. Delimitations of the Study
Definxtion ot Terms
Organization of the Dissertation '
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND
RESEARCH........... ; . . . ......... 17
✓
Feedback
Development of the Use of Recordings
and Their Effect Upon the
Counseling Process
Audio-Tape Feedback Methods
Video-Tape Feedback Methods
Self Confrontation Feedback Methods
Effects of Feedback Methods Upon
Learning
Delayed and Immediate Feedback Methods
. Oxher Related Feedback Methods
Summary
iv
Chapter Page
III. PROCEDURES................................. 60
Introduction
Population Sample
Counselors
Procedures
Measuring Instruments Used
Data Gathering Operations
Statistical Analysis
Pilot Studies to Evaluate Use of
Instruments and Experimental
Treatment
Mechanical Equipment
The Setting
IV. FINDINGS: RESULTS OF STUDY. . •............. 7S
Introduction
Demos D Scale
Barrett-Lennard Relationship
Inventory
V, DISCUSSION OR
The Relationship Inventory
"Feedback" Treatment Versus
"Traditional" Treatment
Educational Attitudes
Implications for Counseling Treatment
and Further Research .
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . .•......... 99
Summary
• Findings
Conclusions
LIST OF REFERENCES
APPENDICES . . . .
106
117
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Analysis of Variance: Demos D Scale
Pretest Scores........................... . 79
2. Analysis of Variance: Demos D Scale
Change Scores................. . .......... 80
3. Mean Change Scores on the Demos D Scale
in Pilot Study III and in Main Study . . . 82
4. Analysis of Variance: Barrett-Lennard
Relationship Inventory ................... 83
5. Means and Standard Deviations cf the
Present Sample and Barrett-Lennard's
Sample on the Barrett-Lennard Relation
ship Inventory Sub-Tests . . . . . . . . . 86
i FIGURE
Figure Page
1. Profile on Mean Standard Scpres of the
Present Sample on the Subscales of the
Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory . . 89
CHAPTER I
THE PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Introduction
One of the key factors in any counseling relation
ship is accurate communication. Too often in the past,
both counselor and counselee have left the counseling
interview with entirely different feelings about what
•
occurred during their one-to-one experience. Thus, it is
important that a means be found to assist the counselor
and his counselee m deriving a better understanding of
each others feelings, motivations and point of view.
. A more effective method of providing feedback to
both the counselor and counselee could help both recall
their thoughts and feelings in greater depth. Kagan
(1968) indicated that such a technique would allow the
counselor to delve further into "the inner processes of
people— rich in detail" (p. 82). These processes are
often filled with an abundance of deep, personal meaning.
The two would also be able to explore the impact of their
relationship upon each other and would enhance the process
of self exploration (Kagan, 196S).
1
f /ilthcugh there has been research in the area of
bach, the emphasis has previously focused on the
rvision of counselors rather than upon client out-
1 Research that would help evaluate client response
d provide an important extension of current knowledge
t the field of counseling. Emphasis upon outcome
Iso the direction which counseling research is now
nning to take. Truax (1967) supported this view by
3Lng: "For psychotherapy research to focus on out-
; would quickly bring it into greater intimacy with .
mainstream of psychotherapy practice" (p. 22).
i Since the main concern of the investigator is
>o± counseling, an attempt was made to devise a
Jback procedure that would be practical for use by
>ol counselors. Unfortunately, much former research
✓ *
lot be implemented because it has been found
ractical when considered for application in the school
iing.
\ If an examination were to be made of junior high
Dols throughout the country, one would find very few
t deviate from the conventional guidance and counseling
uations in which the counselor talks as an authority to
*
I client. Stress has been upon the giving of informa-
h and advice, and this approach to counseling has been
od on the premise that the giving of information and
3
advice, with some time given for the counselee to
ventilate, was the most effective method of counseling.
Truax and Carkhuff (1967), found that the accurate
empathy, non-possessive warmth and genuineness provided
by the counselor are essential to an effective counseling
situation. Thus, counseling effectiveness is heavily
dependent upon the level of the relationship established
by the counselor.
In evaluating a counseling session, the counselor
can only judge from his own feelings how he is per
ceived by the client. Many important feelings and
thoughts might also remain unexplored if the counselor
and the client should communicate badly. Conversely, a
more effective feedback procedure should aid both parties
and, as a result, the counselor should be better able
to help the client in clarifying his feelings and in
providing some of his own therapy through greater self
insight.
Meaningful feedback is essential, Pederson (1969)
indicated that both video-tape replay and audio-tape
xeplay were valuable feedback techniques. Several other
possibilities were also considered for this study;
however, audio-tape feedback was chosen as the most
effective, as well as most practical, method for use at
the junior high school level. In addition, this approach
4
can provide an environment in which the. counselee1s
needs are met more effectively than in conventional
counseling situations.
Holmes (Boy and Pine, 1960), made the following
comments about listening experiences:
There seems to be new' and deeper meaning placed upon
the interchange, a significant tone of respect and
appreciation of what one was experiencing, and
further amplification of self-awareness as they
recalled having been a part of what they were
hearing, almost as if for the first time (p. 144).
Holmes further stated that listening affords the
counselee an opportunity to "present further clarifica
tion of his feelings which may have been too close or
too threatening to face during the actual session"
(p- 145). Thus, through listening, the counselee is able
to dig deeply into his feelings as he becomes more aware
of how he comes across to others.
The counselee may also gain a deeper insight
into his evolving self and take note where personal
change has taken place. Holmes (Boy and Pine, 1960), had
this further reaction:
. . . . a deeper, inner acceptance of the self seemed
to evolve. They possessed their feelings, heard
their most intimate solves, their hopes, dreams,
fears . . . all expressed by themselves, in their
own v/ords. They too allowed themselves to experience
• non-evaluative listening and emerged as more trustful
and self-dependent persons. Relistening permitted
them to be their own counselor in the truest sense of
the term (p. 145).
As the counselee becomes his own counselor, the oppor
tunity for self awareness greatly increases^— o
The essence of counseling is really the relation
ship which develops between the counselor and the
counselee. Although the counselor may be sensitive to the
reactions and feelings of the client, he cannot be sure
of the interpretations and meanings the client has given
to them, for it is the client who must confirm or reject.
This often presents an additional problem, because clients
cannot always put their feelings and thoughts into
words; however, when they hear themselves again, they
frequently relive the’relationship as it existed. Thus,
t'nrougn reliving ah experience, they gam a better in
sight and a deeper understanding of themselves.
As a consequence, the listening experience could
enable counselees to develop higher levels of regard,
empathic understanding, unconditional positive regard,
congruence and willingness to be known and, in general,
a higher level of relationship with others. These were
the original variables upon which Truax and Carkhuff
(1967) based their research, and these variables will be
measured by the Relationship Inventory constructed by
Barrett-Lennard (1959).
In an actual feedback situation, both counselor
and counselee are permitted to stop the tape recorder at
6
any time they desire. This is done so that both can
explore important feelings on a mutual basis and to
provide them with the kind of insight which will lead to
the intimacy that is necessary if the counseling relation
ship is to be effective. The experience further enables
the counselor to understand how the counselee feels
shout him. Although this information may be threatening
to the counselor who is not providing a high level of
relationship such as those relationship variables
enumerated in the Barrett-Lennard study (1959), this
• enlightenment can help the counselor explore other ways
ox approaching the counselee— even that of talking about
the counselee's discomfort with the counselor. This
procedure can help both the counselor and the counselee
become more aware of happenings in which they were so
engrossed at the time that certain experiences may have -
passed unnoticed by one or both.
Holmes (Boy and Pine, 1960) stated:
The counselees who listened to their tapes expressed
an increased awareness and sincere appreciation for
their efforts to seek discovery of themselves. The
freedom to listen seemed to promote sensitivity for
the meaning of their behavior and respect for their
deeper feelings. Listening to themselves afforded
opportunities to confirm.the verbalized feelings and
. recognize those others which they could not entirely
possess or internalize at the time of the original
meeting with the counselor (p. 147).
Consequently, she felt that her study was just
a beginning point for future research in the area.
Statement of the Problem
General Concern
The purpose of this study was to examine the
impact of two types of counseling experiences upon seven
attitudinal dimensions of junior high school counselees
in order to determine whether the outcomes of counseling
were significantly influenced by the use. of audio-tape'
feedback.
% .
One treatment, which may be described as the
traditional method, utilized the usual one-to-one
relationship which occurs between counselor' and
counseleeT Ten such forty-five minute sessions were
conducted with each client.
The other, the experimental approach, was
described as feedback treatment which involved a tradi
tional counseling session the first week, and then during
every other session for four additional sessions. Each
traditional session was audio-tape recorded. Five alter
nate sessions of reviewing tapes with interaction were
provided. In all, the experimental treatment period
consisted of ten, forty-five minute sessions.
8
Alternate sessions in the experimental group
consisted'of the counselee listening to the audio-tape
made of his previous, traditional counseling session.
V.hile the counselee listened, either he or the counselor
could stop the tape recorder* at any time to discuss
thoughts or feelings which had not been explored in the
original session, as well as thoughts or feelings which
the counselee or the counselor felt should have been
examined in greater depth. This procedure was referred
to as interaction.
Specific Concern
This study sought to evaluate systematic audio
tape feedback as it was used with seventh and eighth
grade counselees at Hosier Junior High School in
Lynwood, California. It was hoped that when these data
relating to the study were collected, an accurate
judgment could be made regarding the value of feedback
obtained through the use of audio-tape recorded listening
experiences, based upon the interaction of the
counselor-client relationship as well as the effect of
the feedback conditions upon students’ attitudes toward
school.
Hypotheses and Assumptions
Hypotheses
The central problem was concerned with the
testing of seven hypotheses regarding anticipated dif
ferences in attitude which might be found between the
experimental and control groups involved.
The following research hypotheses were examined:
1. Counselees receiving "feedback" treatment
will differ from those receiving the "traditional"
treatment with reference to change in attitudes toward'
»
education, with the greater change toward more favorable
attitudes occurrinq amonq Ss "feedback" qroup.
2. Counselees receiving "feedback" will perceive
that the counselor has provided a higher-level of
relationship than will those counselees receiving the
"traditional" treatment.
3. Counselees receiving "feedback" will perceive
that the counselor has provided a higher level of
empathic understanding than will those counselees re
ceiving the "traditional" treatment.
4. Counselees receiving "feedback" will perceive
that the counselor has provided a higher level of regard
than will those counselees receiving only the "tradi
tional" treatment. .
v I
I
<
5. Counselees receiving "feedback" will perceive !
i
that the counselor has provided a higher level of ,
unconditionality of regard than will those counselees j
i
receiving the "traditional" treatment. !
r - j
6. Counselees receiving "feedback" will perceive ’
that the counselor has provided a higher level of ' j
congruence than will those counselees receiving the ^
"traditional" treatment. !
7. Counsel-ees receiving feedback will perceive
• ‘ I
that the counselor has provided a higher level of j
v?illingness to he known than will those counselees re
ceiving the "traditional" treatment. j
i
Assumptions • _ ' !
This study proceeded under the following assump-
tions r
1. . That the kind of information suggested by
this study could be secured by well-designed attitudinal
scales.
2. That counselees would respond to the attitude
scale with honest responses.
3. That the criteria of the Demos D Scale, as
well as the Relationship Inventory, were valid and
reliable indications of counselee attitudes.
4. That the relationship provided by the
counselor to the counselee was the essential part of the
11
counseling process.
5. That the two counselors involved were of
comparable ability.
t
I
Limitations
A number of research difficulties are present
in any investigation which must be coordinated with
school routines. The following existed in this investi
gation: ^ ■ f
1. Each counselor had to meet regularly with
twenty students per week to conduct a forty-five minute
session with each client for a ten week period. It
became extremer diffir,,1li to " * ”his schedule and ,,ot
be able to deal with other crises situations which are
.so often a part,of junior high school counseling. Some
of the other guidance services had to be curtailed in
order that the therapeutic counseling of the study have
priority.
2. The sample of junior high school students
counseled during this study did not constitute a true
cross section of seventh and eighth grade junior high
school students. This occurred because the administra
tion of the school felt that the more severly disturbed
* students had to receive first priority to justify the
expenditure of time for the experiment. Also, it was
felt that if the feedback treatment proved to he more
effective in developing a good relationship with dif
ficult counseling cases, it should also prove beneficial
with other students as well.
Delimitations of the Study
1. There were only forty counselees involved in
the investigation.
2-. All counselees were from Hosier Junior High
School in the Lynwood Unified School District.
3. Treatment was limited to ten, forty-five
minute sessions with each of the forty students.
Definition of Terms
Relationship. In this investigation, relation
ship was considered a composite of the following
variables: empathic understanding, regard, uncondition
ality of regard, congruence and willingness to be known.
Feedback. The term feedback was used to refer to
a counselee listening to a tape of a counseling interview
in which he participated as a counselee.
Traditional. "The term traditional was used to
refer to a one-to-one relationship between the counselor
and the counselee.
Educational Attitudes. In this study, educational
13
fltitudes were conceptualized to signify those student
attitudes related to teachers, counselors and adminis
trators; those attitudes toward education, training and
college; those attitudes toward peers and parents; and .
those attitudes that deal with school behavior. Educa
tional attitudes were taken to mean those attitudes a
student possesses which may affect his interaction with
the entire educational environment of which he is a
member.
Interaction. Here interaction was defined ag
the stopping of the tape recorder by either counselor or
counselee during the alternate feedback sessions in order
/
Lo further discuss ana explore reelings anci thoughts.
Empafhic: Understanding- . Barrett-Lennard (1959)
defined empathic understanding in this manner;
Degree of empathic understanding is conceived as the
extent to which one person is conscious of the imme-
. diate awareness of another. Qualitatively it is an
active process of desiring to know the full awareness
of another person, of reaching out to receive his
communication and meaning, and of translating his
• words and signs into experienced meaning, and of
translating his words and signs into experienced mean
ing that matches at least those -aspects of his aware
ness that are most important to him at the moment. It
is an experiencing of the consciousness "behind"
another's outward communication, but with continuous
awareness that this consciousness is originating, and
proceeding in the other (p. 6) .
Level of Recrard. Barrett-Lennard (1959) provided
»-his definition of level of regard:
14
Regard refers here to the affective aspect of one
person's response 1:0 another. This may include
various qualities and strengths of "positive" and
"negative" feeling. Positive feelings include
respect, liking, appreciation, affection, and any
affective adient response. Conversely, negative feel
ings include dislike, impatience, contempt,- and in
general abient responses. Level of regard is the gen
eral tendency (at a given time) of the various affec
tive reactions of one person in relation to another
(p. 7).
Unconditionalitv of Regard. This expression was
defined by Barrett-Lennard (1959) in this fashion:
In contrast with level of regard this concept is
specifically concerned with how little or how much
variability there is in one person's affective
response to another. It is defined as the degree
of constancy of regard felt by one person for another
who communicates self-experiences to the first
(pp. 7-8) . k
Congruence, described by Barrett-Lennard (1959)
as follows:
The degree to which one person is functionally
integrated in the context of his relationship with
another, such that there is absence of conflict or
inconsistency between his primary experience, his
awareness, and his overt communication, in his con
gruence in this relationship. The concept is theoret
ically centered on consistency between primary
experience and awareness, which is considered to be
the main determinant or condition for congruence
between awareness and communication. . . . In brief,
• optimum congruence means maximum unity, wholeness
or integration of the total spectrum of organismic
processes in the individual, from physiological to
conscious symbolic levels. . . . Level of congruence
clearly has implications for the other variables
* already defined. It is conceived to set an upper
limit to the degree to which empathic understanding
of another is possible, although the individual’s
immediate interests and purposes will also determine
whether he uses the potentiality provided by his
congruence to empathically understand the other
(pp. 8-9).
15
Willingness to be known, was perceived by Barrett-
Lennard (195S) in this manner:
The degree to which one person is willing to be known
as a person, by another, according to the other's
desire for this. To be known as a person is consider
ed here to involve especially the sharing of ex
periences and perceptions of the self, perceptions of
and feelings toward the other, and perceptions of the
self-other interaction or relationship (referred to,
collectively, as self-experience) (pp. 10-11) .
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation was organized in the following
manner:
Chapter I pre.sented the introduction, the
statement of the problem, hypotheses and assumptions,
limitations and delimitations of the study, a definition
of terms, and the organization of the report.
Chapter II consisted of a review of the pertin
ent literature which was structured and presented in a
historical framework, traced the use of feedback
techniques, and presented their conceptual contributions.
In addition, the chapter included a summary of several
other studies which were directly related to the
development of feedback techniques.
Chapter III contained a description of the
population, the procedures, the instruments, and the
statistical procedures used in this study. A description
16
related pilot studies was also included.
t
Chapter IV presented the findings of the study.
Chapter V presented a discussion, as well as
the implications for counseling and further research.
Chapter VI contained the summary and conclusions
of the study.
rO
CHAPTER XI
REVIEW OP RELATED LITERATURE
I
AND RESEARCH
Feedback
This review of literature was undertaken to "fill
in" the investigator with what iothers in thie field have
done with feedback and to provide a foundation for this
particular investigation.
Robinson (1968, pp. 21-27) and Hum (1968, pp.
jxwm} reviewed the literature cn feedback and ea<_.-b
provided a conceptual frame of reference for the
contemplated research. Robinson (1968) himself com
mented that feedback is essential in our everyday
communication patterns, and that we are dependent on this
feedback to correct and control our actions and reactions.
The problem lies in the superficiality of conventional
social feedback between persons.
Hum (1968) felt that feedback was essential for
human communication to take place. It was pointed out
that individuals often are not aware of the degree to
17
13
vhich they depend upon feedback, both verbal and non
verbal. He also fo.lt that feedback may cause a
discrepancy between the person's opinion of something and
the feedback he receives about it; thus feedback often
enhances self learning. There is less chance to dis
credit the confronting source if it is a valid feeling
of another in response to a person's behavior. This
leaves but one alternative to reduce the dissonance be
tween the individual's opinion jand what is— that being
change.
Development of the Use of Recordings
and Their Effect Upon the
Counseling Process
The first traces of the use of mechanical devices
to record counseling sessions were reported in the early
1940's. For example, Covner (1942) reported on the use
of recordings in the practicum group and suggested that
students would profit from studying their own tapes
regarding the treatment of problems in preparation for
future contacts with their clients.
Rogers (1942) reported on the use of recordings
made on acetate discs and magnetic wire recorders in the
supervision of counselors. It was his feeling that an
analysis of the recording of the counselor's interview
with his counselee would enable the counselor to do a
■ 19
„.-l£ nneilysis and to correct many of his own mistakes,
without supervision. The counselor coui-d-^lso
discover where he blocked the flow of the counselee's
i',>olings, note where he had become directive, and gain
cJucs as to the exact feelings of the counselee. Rogers
recommended the utilization of recordings in training
psvcho.logists for therapy, for research, and for actual
counseling practice.
Biddle (1948) advanced a step in the inter
personal feedback process when he reported on the benefit
of playback with the counselee present to improve the
counselor's techniques.
Freed (1948) explored the use of psychotherapy
which utilized immediate audio playback of sessions held
with adults, as well as with children in play therapy.
The object of the playback was to confron the client with
emotional content which would be an extension for him
of the self-confrontation technique. The client's
reactions to this confrontation were then discussed. He
further believed that this technique was valuable in
removing character defenses in certain personalities with
the highly narcissistic, neurotic patient. It was con
cluded that this technique succeeded in mobilizing
anxiety rapidly; however, he felt there was also a danger
of -arousing too much anxiety too quickly. He does not
20
• occ.Tjr.end playback for the inhibited, self-conscious
patient until there is a lessening of his inhibitions
through regular therapy. Freed also cautioned against
using the technique with patients who follow ritualistic
patterns, such as compulsives and paranoids.
Harper and Hudson (1952) found that the presence
of a tape recorder did not have an affect on the counsel
ing procedure; however, they contended that if the
relationship became strained, it was probably due to the
concern of the counselor about being recorded for critical
review.
Kenyon (1952) noted that fifteen minutes should
Joe the maximum amount of time in making recordings for
classroom use as it is difficult to maintain student
interest for any longer period of time.
Tennyson (1954) studied the playback of counsel
ing interviews, or parts of them, so that he could help
counselor's become more sensitive to client feelings.
Another, Camp (1953) discussed the application of
recorded interviews in counselor training. Feedback was
provided to the counselor via playback. Walter (1954)
discussed the value of audio playback with children as
• •
a means of providing feedback or deeper counselor insight
in understanding children's point of view.
21
Lamb and Mahl (1956) investigated the affects
on therapists and patients of being recorded in the
initial interview. Their findings were similar to those
of Harper and Hudson (1952) in that the great1 majority of
cases did not indicate marked deleterious effects during
the initial recorded interview. However, the investi
gators did caution others against too extensive an.
application of the findings to a continuing series of
therapeutic interviews. Also, It was felt that thera-
pists who are disturbed by the recording technique might
project some of their anxiety onto their clients.
Sauer and Marcuse (1957) found greater anxiety
among patients whose behavior was overtly recorded
compared with those patients whose behavior v/as covertly
recorded. As a consequence, these investigators felt
that it was unwise to record the first interview.
Phillip and Peixotto (1959), who explored the use
of audio-tape playback with a group of juvenile delinquent
boys, felt that the playback increased the therapeutic
effect of the sessions.
Roberts and Renzaglia (1965) noted that clients
raade more favorable self-reference when they knew they
were being recorded and vice-versa. Counselors also
tended to be less client centered when being recorded;
therefore, they concluded that being recorded did affect
22
i r . o therapeutic process.
Taplin (1968) suggested that training programs
C )-;sider the use of audio, plus visual feedback in their
roach to training of counselors to work with the
cJients, but to use the audio feedback approach only when
attempting to understand the client.
Audio Tape Feedback Methods
Schmeding (1962) discussed a technique utilizing
audio-tape playback directly in the counselor-client *
interaction. The second interview was a playback of the
first which was discussed by both counselor and
counselee. Thcr Loicic j. ' cOOj . ucj. waa . ” 3 Lopped wlicrju? vex. Llicrx t ;
v/as a need to clarify or expound on parts of the playback
of concern to the client. Schmeding even utilized a
third interview which consisted of a playback of the
second interview.
Kidorf (1963) discussed the use of audio-tape
feedback with a group of six, thirteen to fifteen-year-
old boys who attended therapy sessions as part of their
probation requirement. The first half of each session was
taped; the second half consisted of a playback of the
first half. The same procedure was followed with a group
of fairly severely neurotic women; however, no attempt was
made to test the procedure experimentally. Kidorf found
23
that the audio-tape playback helped clients recognize
certain traits and feelings which were previously
resisted, and observed that a greater degree of verbal
interaction occurred among group members. It was also
noted that a more satisfactory relationship developed
between the group and therapist.
Armstrong (1964) reviewed some studies concerning
the effects of audio-tape playback on group psychotherapy
patients. He concluded that the playback of parts of
sessions, or of entire sessions, afforded the group the
opportunity to listen to, and interpret, some of their
own behavior patterns. Playback also aided them in
i
preventing the cancellation of group sessions if the
therapist was absent. Again, it was found that audio
tape feedback can be used to give the therapist a chance
to evaluate his own techniques and to provide him with
a springboard for further discussion. Demos (1964)
indicated that the tape recorder was the most practical
instrument to use in counselor supervision due to the
greater costs of movies, video-tape and closed circuit
television.
Poling (1965) commented that "Audio tapes of
counseling interviews are believed to have considerable
merit in improving counselor effectiveness (p. 1).*'
Pederson (1969) examined the effects of video-tape
24
instant replay, audio-tape replay, and a counseling group
which did not receive feedback treatment. Methods of
measurement used were:
. . . an Adjective Check List prior to and after the
ten-week counseling period, ratings by the counselors,
judgments by a panel of psychologists, and a brief
questionnaire seeking information about the partici
pants' reactions to the last nine months of college
(2969-A) .
Pederson's concluding statement indicated that the video
tape feedback seemed to be more effective than convention
al counseling, but it was not mbre effective than the
\
audio-tape feedback approach.
Steinberg, Guerney and Stollak (1969) reported
that after having subjects speak into a tape recorder,
without the therapist being present, for two half-hour
sessions per week for a period of seven weeks, and then
giving the experimental group three minutes of feedback
in a warm, accepting manner on the seventh and subsequent
session, there was no effect on self-exploration of sub
jects. The investigators concluded that despite the ther
apist's efforts to be fully accepting, he was not perceiv
ed that way. This amounted to a therapist without a rela
tionship confronting a client about what he had heard.
Thus, the subjects in the feedback group were uncertain
about the therapist's evaluation of them? this caused
anxiety.
Stoller (1968a) commented that although groups
25
have used tape recorders to listen to themselves, there
has been very little organized research involving this
procedure; nor has there been any extensive attempt to
systematize or conceptualize the audio playback mirroring
process.
Video-Tape Feedback Methods
Laudsman and Lane (1963) reported that the in
sights revealed by students while discussing video-tape
playbacks were very encouraging to the investigators.
They reflected their views more fully regarding video
tape when they stated;' "In the intensive use of media to.
facilitate individual fulfillment, the contributions of
media and needs of counseling have a happy meeting (p. 28)."
Bernard (1964) expressed his impressions formed
while listening to a video-tape playback of an amytol
interview. The major concern was stimulated recall, and
the procedure involved both patient and therapist listen
ing to the playback during which they exchanged comments,
questions, and introspections. Bernard felt this pro
cedure provided for a closer interpersonal relationship
between counselor and counselee because it made clear a
mutual responsibility and a dependence on the perceptions
e.nd contributions of one. another. The procedure also
helped to create a functional closeness among co-workers.
26
Anderson (1965) undertook a pilot study involving
rjl t ? use of video-tape recording to improve actor-
• i irector communications during the rehearsal period. The
nrocedure involved recording the rehearsals, analyzing
the tapes by the director, and showing sectors of the
video-tapes to the actors during the critique sessions
as a supplement to the director's comments. Seventeen
rehearsal periods were conducted and the results were
based on empirical data. After studying comments from
both the director and the actors, it was found that the
use of television recording and playbacks during the
rehearsal seemed to be conducive to the improvement of
actor-directcr communications.
Geextsma and Reivich (1965) observed the affects
of video playback on a subject who was diagnosed as
having a moderately severe personality pattern disturbance
with mixed psychoneurotic features.. The 'investigation
involved therapeutic sessions which were taped, followed
ky a three-week delay, and then finalized by replay
sessions of the video-tape recordings. A group of student
nurses then rated these video-tapes as well as the
subject who had also rated her own general self concept
and her video-tape performance.
The investigators concluded that the experience of
observing the characteristics of her video-tape image and
27
the psychological content of the playback had a strong
impact upon the patient. Attention paid to cues to
reinforce behavior was considered an important function
of the therapist during playback. The subject's self-
concept came more into line with reality as measured
by the nurses' ratings of the playback.
Alger and Hogan (1967) applied video-tape feed
back as an integral part of the therapeutic process in
conjoint marital therapy. It was felt that this type of
feedback provided increased awareness of the multiple
channels of communication and showed that many of them
contradicted one another. The games people play and the
mixed signals people send became obvious.
The procedure involved the repeating of a thirty-
second segment where there was a discrepancy between the
apparent feeling shown on the screen and the actual remem
bered subjective feeling at the same moment. A segment
was often repeated in order to focus on concurrent aspects
of the interaction.
The authors found that there was an initial image
impact when self-confrontation first occurred, but that
the client's reactions shifted to attitudes such as those
that existed throughout the remainder of the playback
session. It was thought that video-playback provided the
immediate recovery and review of a large amount of
. 28
objective data dealing with interactions during a therapy
session. —— O
Perlmutter, Loeb, Gumpert, O'Hara and Higbie
(1967) studied the use of video-tape playback in family
diagnosis and therapy. The playback process was
described:
Initially there is dissonance between each family
member's conception of what occurred in the session
and what is seen by him on playback. When the
client's intended communication becomes more or less
equal- to his own understanding and reception of his
own message, he experiences a high degree of control
which is perceived as mastery— confirmatory evidence
of his.own mental health. When the intended communi
cation is not equal or close to his own understanding
and reception, there is dissonance, conflict or
stress (p. 904).
P c i l i u u L L t s i f u u n u L lic tL problems became clearer and
more available to self-treatment by the families that
received the playback.
Pascal, Cottrell and Baugh (1967), used video
tape playback on five juvenile delinquents. The procedure
extended over twenty four, half-hour sessions. After each
session a ten-minute snack break occurred and was followed
by a video playback in which a stop-start switch that con
trolled the video-tape was put in the center of the boys.
Each boy had the right to stop the playback if and when
he desired.
The researchers found the self-confrontation
procedure useful both as a negative reinforcer that
29
conditioned subjects to an avoidance reaction of deviant
behaviors, and as a positive reinforcer for desirable
behaviors.
Wilmer (1967) revealed that due to the great
abundance of information in the video-tape playback, the
procedure should be limited in living-learning situa
tions to the shortest possible timiv^Five to ten minutes
would be adequate and thirty minutes the maximum time.
The author also felt that the majority of the teaching
and learning time should be spent in discussing the play
back in order to facilitate perception, cue discrimina
tion, critical analysis, and decision making.
.Boyd (1966) reported preliminary findinga which
indicated that elementary school teachers, student
teachers and college supervisors all tended to rate
teaching effectiveness in a similar manner after viewing
a video-tape playback of the teacher in a classroom
situation. Boyd suggested that video-tape feedback
would improve communication with students, parents and
teachers. He reported that the procedure was being used
where students could view themselves on instant replay,
and then parents could view the tape of their children
in a learning situation at a later date.
Goldfield and Levy (1968) reported on the value
and potential of video-tape playback with psychodrama.
30
Thev concluded that video-tape was valuable as a partici
pant recorder for it captured the spontaneity - more easily
and completely and provided a perfect mirror of the
event. Hum (1968) investigated the use of focused video
tape feedback in high school group counseling. In his
study, there were ten sessions, and they occurred at the
rate of two per week. Group members could volunteer to
be cameramen, and the counselor selected a cameraman
when no one volunteered. The cpunselor determined when
the tape would be played back, and feedback segment s. .were
of two to three minutes in duration. This approach
focused attention on a particular behavior instead of a
series of behaviors. The findings aemonsrrarea r'nar
video-tape can be used at the high school level.
Pepperman (1968) examined the effects of the
video-tape recorder upon counselors participating in a
practicum. Video playbacks were the only means of
supervision used in the course practicum. The investiga
tor found that those who received the experimental
treatment improved in their interview behavior, while the
control group demonstrated almost no change. Those
receiving the experimental treatment reflected positive
behavior in communication as the most improved of the
interview skills? client descriptions of interview
behavior favored the control group.
31
Robinson (196S) used focused video-tape feedback
to record four group sessions. She extendefLJfhe sessions
and feedback segments of the recorded session which
she felt were therapeutic. A co-therapist handled the
video-tape equipment and kept a record of behaviors
that were later utilized for feedback playbacks. The '
control group utilized group discussion without the
feedback technique.
Stoller (1968b) reported that Robinson (1968)
found that self-rating scales showed no significant shift,
but she did note changes in behavior. He also found that
Robinson isolated, and later counted, units of behavior
tor both control and experimental groups. For example,
if a subject was informed that he smiled in a certain way,
this was counted as a behavioral unit. When video-tape
feedback was given for a particular behavior, the be
havior tended to decrease at a much faster rate than the
verbal feedback rate produced. It was found that those
receiving the experimental treatment made fewer maladap
tive responses and that video-tape feedback made patients
aware that alternative behaviors were available to them.
Rogers (1968) discussed the use of video-tape
leedback in group psychotherapy and felt video-tape play
back in groups would maximize feedback. The viewing of
vhat is, prevents the distortion involved when a person
32
gives feedback, as well as withdrawal or retaliation, by
a person receiving the feedback. Video playback is an
objective record, and to view ourselves as others
see us opens up a variety of possibilities for new ways
of living. Video-tape feedback may also allow behavioral
changes for when the client is made aware of how he
behaves, he may decide to change his behavior.
Stoller (1968a) felt that the highlighting of
information was important if the value of that informa
tion was not to decrease. In order to highlight inform
ation, Stoller devised the technique of focused feedback
which centered the "participants' attention oh that
aspect of video-tape feedback which would seem to be
most relevant for beneficial behavioral change
(p. 219)." Stoller also dealt with the concept of nega
tive or discrepant feedback. He felt this would lead
to the abandonment of one behavior pattern for another,
and reasoned that nondiscrepant or positive feedback
would lead to change.
Stoller noted the procedure for focused feedback
as having three essential parts; (1) choice of materials,
(2) presentation of feedback, and (3) the development of
alternatives. Selection of material is based on the
• ‘ •onsitivity of the group leaders and their ability to
folate group behavior to life styles. Occasionally, when
33
the material is presented, it is beneficial to interrupt
thc group process with immediate feedback to affect the
course the group will take. However, most foctised
feedback occurs after the session. The development of
alternatives is the most difficult and most important
of the three phases. The group, and the group leader,
strive to engage the individual in new behavior. The
goal of focused feedback is to improve the individual's
ability to direct his own behavior and. to know himself
so that he may narrow the gap between his goals and what
is. The individual is then able to develop a greater
self-awareness.
C4*a 1 1 /IftCOU r «AT1.- .r jut .
w c u A . C J . u o . x j f c u m u l i . ^ 14 o k J I U ir a , t » n c
qualities and consequences which video-tape feedback has
on group counseling and group therapy. However, the
report was based upon experience and not upon precise
research. Stoller reported this new direction for the
focused feedback technique which involved group opera
tion of the video-tape:
Group members learned how to use the information the
video-tape provided in a much more direct fashion
than when monitored exclusively through the group
leader. At the expense of having a less expert
job done on the camera work, the group members
become much freer in suggesting to one another the
introduction of feedback and the discussion of this
feedback is of a different order than might ordinarily
be the case (p. 41).
Wiliner (1968a) discussed the use of video-tape
34
rcpluy in a psychiatric residency program. He recommended
*hort recording time intervals with long replay and
discussion time intervals. It was emphasized that this
would eliminate or diminish the passive receptive role
of television and provide for multiple dialogue involving
student, patient, teacher and machine.
Alkire (1969) reported on the use of video-tape
playback. He illustrated that investigators use the
playback as an adjunct to their own theoretical frame
work. In addition, he discussed the conceptual frame
work for video playback provided by Stoller and Wilmer.
Alkire predicted that in ten years at least twenty-five
pcrz otrnL of the psychiatrists wiii be using Video-tape
playback.
The use of videp-tape playback by Alkire (1969)
to investigate family interaction patterns with families
that brought problem adolescent children to the clinic
was another aspect discussed by Alkire. The procedure
involved five sessions: The first two were devoted to
intake and assessment procedures and the third session
dealt with gathering family information. When the source
°f conflict was found, the family member was asked to
role-play the situation. In the fourth session, each
family member was seen alone, and samples of role
playing of parent-child interactions were audio recorded.
35
int.* presentation of the audio-tape gave the investigators
>n opportunity to stimulate face-to-face encounters
rtr.ong family members. These encounters were video re
corded in the fourth session (although the family members
were seldom aware of their being videotaped) . The fifth
session involved the playback for the family members
of the video-tape made during the fourth session. All
members of the family rated each other on an adjective
rating schema developed by Kaswan and Love. Then
segments were played back to the entire family and all . .
members rated each person as each appeared to interact
with the person on the video-tape (as father to child#
mother to child# etc.). Three states of structured
discussions followed the formal ratings: (1) what each
member observed about himself# (2) what each member
observed about the other family members# and (3) what
differences in the behavior of the other family members
he would like to have seen.
Alkire also reported on a second procedure
utilizing information dissemination within family and
school. The procedure involved the placing of a family
into the family waiting room and then videotaping their
interactions for five minutes with the family's awareness
of the possibility that they might be taped. At the end
of the five minutes# the consultant greeted the family and
36
removed the father to obtain information while the
mother and child were videotaped for five minutes. This
was done with each member of the family in order that
fifteen to twenty minutes of different types of inter
actions with different combinations of family members
were recorded. After the staff studied the tapes and
decided which segments were indicative of family problems,
they played back selected segments after which each
family member was given a set of Adjective Rating Scales.
The family members were asked to rate specific relation
ships such as child in relationship to father. Each
family member rated all designated adjectives (such as
phony, friendly, etc.) and video-tape playbacks of
interactions until all possible combinations had been
sampled. Neutral judges rated the same segments that
the family rated. These ratings were made available to
the family in the form of a profile chart prior to the
concluding playbacks. The final playbacks were inter
rupted in order that each family member's ratings were
compared with the neutral ratings. This procedure
opened up many avenues of thought among the family mem
bers. It also provided that the tape be played back to
important school personnel if deemed necessary.
Alger and Hogan (1969) described some of the
37
clinical effects of video-tape playback on family and
marital relationships, which focused particular attention
on the long term effect of the experience. Three pro
cedures of playback were utilized: (1) the taping of ten
to fifteen minutes of a regular session and a playback
after the session in which all participants had the right
to request that “the tape be stopped and discussed; (2)
stopping the camera and playing back segments during the
actual session at the request o^ the therapist or any
participant; and (3) playing back the tape after the
third session which was not stopped. This approach was
to provide a complete unfolding of the interaction.
Conclusions were drown from experiences with
seventy-five families, but experimental data were not
utilized. There was the feeling that playback was
effective on repeated trials over a period of time. The
residual effects were observed to be quite significant
and lasting, and were observed to have played a major part
in a person's adaptations over an extended period of
time.
Ryan (1969) felt that an instant stop device was
needed in the video-tape playback process. The procedure
that Ryan described involved playback immediately after
completing the session.
Stoller (1969) presented a conceptual framework
38
for the utilization of video-tape feedback/ as well as
some new hypotheses that require further research. He
maintained that video-tape feedback must be an extension
of the group process rather than a substitute for it.
Stoller prefered the use of immediate feedback, but did
comment on the value of delayed feedback which provides
the client with an opportunity to reflect upon his
behavior and to develop new frameworks within which to
view what has happened to him as well as what may happen
to him .in the future. This gives both patient and
therapist something concrete with which to deal.
Searle (1969) compared counseling groups that
received video-tape feedback with groups that did not
receive this treatment. Three judges evaluated the
groups by utilizing the Behavior Checklist and made tab
ulations of session numbers two and eleven. No signifi
cant differences v/ere found between those receiving the
experimental treatment and those in the control group.
However, there were significant differences in behavior
between the groups of each counselor; the investigator
felt that the counselor seemed to be the key to any
change in behavior which resulted from group counseling—
' ♦ ’ ith or without video-tape feedback.
39
Self Confrontation
Feedback Methods
Cornelison and Arsenian (1960) conducted a pilot
study of a small group of patients to investigate the
responses of psychotic clients when confronted with self-
image experiences and to determine whether a relationship
exists between exposure to photographic self-images and
change in psychotic state.
The procedure involved taking a photograph of the
subject, discussing the experience with the subject, and
.then observing the subject's response to the photographic
self-image. The investigators utilized two variations
of the confrontation procedure: (1) one proceaure com
bined exposure to sound motion picture self-images with
still photographs shown at each session. The motion
picture was also shown on the third session and inter
mittently in the following sessions. (2) The second pro
cedure involved exposure to still photographs only. Ten,
fifteen minute confrontation sessions were planned for
each client, however, this did not take place due to
other problems in some cases.
The global judgments were based upon: (1) rated
change of patient behavior in the session, (2) rated
changes in appearance in the series of photographs, (3)
appraised behavior changes in the motion pictures, and
40
(4) observation notes from the sessions and speech
patterns from audio-tape recordings. The Rorschach and
Draw-a-Person Projective Tests were also used to provide
additional data on changes in psychotic state'.
The authors also reported a variety of responses
and some change in the psychotic state of the patients.
Eight of sixteen patients were judged to have shown
improvement after the experience. The authors found that
those patients suffering from a! high level of anxiety,
apprehension or inner turmoil benefited most from the ’
self-confrontation experience.
Miller (1962) studied the use of self-photographs
in slowing down or keeping constant the loss of self
recognition on the part of the client. He also reported
on the audio-tape playback of patients' songs and
recitations. He observed that many of the patients seemed
to be hearing themselves for the first time. A wide
range of responses were found. No conclusions were drawn
other than to note that a continuum of self-recognition
seemed to exist.
Walz and Johnston (1963) concerned themselves with
counselor changes in self-perception as a result of video
playback of their own interviews. The measurement pro
cedure involved a measure of self-perception; an inter
view check list that was filled out by thirty National
Defense Education Act counselor candidates after an
interview and again after the playback of that interview.
The evidence suggested that counselors gained greater
confidence in their interviewing skills, a greater aware
ness of personal qualities, and an increased desire for
self study. The counselors became less positive in their
self description, but this self-evaluation was more in
line with the ratings of their supervisors. Personality
variables were measured by the Bills Inventory and Welsh's
Anxiety Index and were found to be related to the direc
tion and amount of change in self perception after
viewing video-tape playback. The investigators concluded
that changes in perception in the direction of the super
visor's perception accompanied the viewing of a video
tape playback of one's interview.
Moore, Chernell and West (1S65) video-taped inter
views with hospital patients. After the initial inter-,
view, they saw taped segments of prior interviews before
viewing the current replay session. The purpose was to
show the patient where he had been in his behavior
compared with his current behavior. The findings were
based on the use of an experimental and control
group. Half of the patients received the experimental
treatment; the other half did not. Impartial observance
found that the view group showed significantly more
42
progress than the non-view group.
Verwoerdt, Nowlin and Agnello (1965) discussed
a study which utilized the concept of self-confrcntation
by means of video-tape playback on cardiac patients.
The investigators found generally lower pulse rates
during the playback than at the time of actual inter
view. They felt the reason may have been that it was
easier to be a spectator than a participant. Pulse rates
varied more during the playback and, at times, the play-
•
back pulse rate exceeded the actual interview pulse
rate.
Boyd and Sisney (1967) investigated the effects
u£ self-image confrontation by. video-rape playback on
changes in self-concept and concepts of interpersonal
behavior of inpatients in a psychiatric ward.
The Leary Interpersonal Check List (ICL) provided
technique whereby a subject could describe his self-
concept by means of an adjective checklist that contained
descriptions of various kinds of interpersonal
attitudes and behavior.
The procedure involved giving the subjects in
the experimental group a ten-minute interview which was
played back. The ICL was given prior to the experiment,
after the experiment, and again two weeks later.
43
The findings indicated that interpersonal
concepts of the ideal self and the public self became less
discrepant with each other and less patho3ogical following
the self-image confrontation. Differences between
experimental and control group remained significant after
two weeks, with one exception. It was concluded that
self-image confrontation through video-tape feedback does
have both a measureable and presumably a positive effect
on some aspect of the emotionally disturbed inpatient.
Hess (1967) utilized video-tape playback to
evaluate classroom teaching performance. It was his
belief that self-consciousness about the use of the video
tape euulu be overcome by taping and playing back shore
segments to both the teacher and the class. The author
taped fifteen to twenty-minute portions of the class on
several occasions. Feedback provided the teacher with
a view of both student involvement and his own movement.
Hess concluded that instant replay provided teachers with
self-confrontation and allowed them to modify their
behavior as well as implement individualized and innova
tive practices.
Danet (1968a) provided an extensive review of the
literature on self-confrontation in psychotherapy from
1960-1968. His research indicated that playback was not
only an additional source of feedback within group
44
psychotherapy, but that it also added a direct confronta
tion to the patient's own image. He also reported that
disruptiveness and anxiety occurred in the experimental
group when playback was structured and did not provide
for spontaneity.
Danet (1968b) explored the possible therapeutic
value of video-tape playback in group psychotherapy and
concluded that playback made it impossible to deny the
reality of how patients presented themselves. Also,
Danet found that playback disrupted the group's function-4
ing when it was introduced early in the group's history.
Since this was an exploratory study, Danet reported on
the use of a wide variety of measurement techniques.
Heen (1968) indicated, in a pilot project, that
video-tape self-confrontation seemed to cause anxieties
in the teacher because of the discrepancy between what
he saw and what he felt he should be doing in the class
room. The feedback provided for a better understanding
of teacher behaviors as well as an increased repertoire.
Playback served as a reinforcement to the teacher role
as a stimulus in the learning situation and as a means
for professional growth. The researcher felt that the
video-tape playback amounted to a one-to-one therapy for
teachers. » •
45
Parades and Cornelison (1968} reported on the
development of an audio-visual technique for the
rehabilitation of alcoholics. The procedure involved
taping of the initial sixty-minute interview. This was
audited by two psychiatrists who selected topics as the
basis for questions to be asked of the patients during
the filmed interview. The seven subjects were given
120 cc of 80 proof vodka to induce intoxication, and
then the subjects were filmed. Also, three of the
subjects who became intoxicated a few days after being
released from the hospital were brought back to the
studio to be filmed again while intoxicated. Each
subject was confronted with the audio-visual approach
between six to twelve times. The total time required
for both the self-image experience session and the
follow-up interview averaged between thirty and forty-
five minutes. Those involved in the research felt that
the self-confrontation made the patients aware of aspects
of their behavior which had not previously been recognized.
It was concluded that changes took place in the drinking
patterns, personal relationships and occupational adjust
ment of the subjects; however the investigators recom-
mended that a more systematic study be conducted to
validate their observations.
' 46
Wilmer (1968b) reported on innovative uses of
video-tape on a psychiatric ward composed of adolescents
and young adults whose presenting symptoms were related
to drug abuse. The video-tape playback was studied with
ward community meetings, psychodrama sessions, individual
interviews and random activities. Wilmer referred to the
self-image confrontation experience as ,8self-awakedness"
(p. 129), which amounted to a "turning on of the self,"
i
contrasted with social awareness which was a "turning
to others" for verification. This study employed selec
tive playback and designated a person to keep track of
crucial transactions by using a tape meter or by jotting
down tne time they occur. This approach eliminated the
confusion which often results from an overload of audio
visual material as well as the boredom from viewing
uninteresting sequences.
Beymer (1969) discussed the negative reactions
to video-tape playback on the part of ten per cent of
his clients. He attributed these reactions to the lack
of room for escape or denial allowed the client. Since
this procedure can cause great anxiety, Beymer has
recommended that the client be allowed to view the play-
t back alone before viewing it with the therapist or
counselor.
47
McClain (1969) found that audio and video feed
back to counselors during the practicum did help them to
bring their self-concepts into greater congruence with
their experienced selves.
Parades, Ludwig, Irwin, Hassenfeld and Cornelison
(1969) reported observations involving the exposure of
sixty-six alcoholics to sound, color, motion pictures of
themselves that were taken while they were under the
influence of a small amount of alcohol. They were filmed
while discussing personal issues with a psychiatrist. • •
The investigators reported that the self-confronting
films elicited responses indicating a low level of self
esteem, as well as a considerable dissatisfaction with
the characteristics of their body image. It was believed
that the greater awareness of the self-concept would
lead the patient to a better understanding of the re
actions of people around him and left the impression
that the therapist assisted in the development of a
therapeutic relationship.
Kagan, Krathwohl and Miller (1963) introduced
a new technique called Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR)
which provided video-tape playback of a psychotherapeutic
interview that had recently been concluded for both
therapist and patient. Both were in separate rooms v/ith
separate interrogators. Feelings and interpreted
48
behavior were elicited at significant points in the
dyadic encounter by the interrogators. The participants
were provided with maximum cues for reliving the ex
perience. Parallel reactions of the participants were
obtained through simultaneous interruption of the video
tape playback. Both interrogations were monitored and
audio recorded for further study.
Following the study, the investigators reported
that IPR enabled clients to reveal much of the semi
conscious meaning of the interview and recorded these
conclusions:
. . . that IPR permits a breakdown of the usual _
defenses in interpersonal communication introspection
at crincai points or one interaction process’ : ana a
permanent and complete record of a given interaction
with relevant interpretations by the interacting
parties (p. 242).
Woody, Krathwohl, Kagan and Farquhar (1965)
studied the utilization of a hypnotic IPR procedure,
which was a slight deviation from the original three
phases of IPR (counseling session, client interrogation
and counselor interrogation) in that it utilized hypnotic
suggestion. The hypnotic IPR procedure consisted of
four sessions used as an orientation to hypnosis and
thre.e sessions of IPR. The initial four sessions were
from one to two hours in length and provided for the
establishment of rapport between counselor and client,
49
as well as a facilitation of the phenomena of hypnotic •
induction. 'These sessions provided hypnotic conditioning
which greatly diminished the time necessary for hypnotic
induction. *
The fifth session utilized the standard IPR
procedure and consisted of a thirty-minute interview,
plus a forty-minute interrogation which was video-taped.
An interrogation of this session took place between the
original therapist and the clierit. It was assumed that
the utilization of this established relationship would
prove to be beneficial in understanding the simulated
recall. Since hypnosis was not used, the depth of
understanding reached in this IPR session was used as a
standard for comparing the depth of material elicited in
the following IPR sequences.
The sixth session was of thirty minutes duration
and was followed by a thirty-minute hypnotic session.
During the second half of the session, the client was
given the suggestion:
. . . that upon entering,the interrogation (with the
initial interrogator) , he would find that he had an
improved ability to recognize feelings, emotions,
attitudes, and thoughts, as well as improved ability
to interpret body movements (p. 235).
This was followed by an interrogation between client and
interrogator which was video-taped, which in turn was
followed by an interrogation of the interrogation
50
between the therapist and client.
The seventh session was similar to the -sixth
except that there was no interrogator. The client
undertook a one-hour self interrogation in which he
stopped the tape when he desired and elaborated as if
the interrogator were present.
The video-tapes were reviewed and judged by eight
clinicians who concluded that video-tape playback was
therapeutically beneficial as a means of stimulating
recall and review of a previous counseling session. It
was also felt that the use of hypnosis in the IPR pro
cedure may enable the client to become more sensitive to
the procedure as well as improve client involvement .and
cooperation.
Kagan, Krathwohl, and others (1967) reported
research on the development of the IPR process as
described in Kagan, Krathwohl and Miller (1963) and
provided a description of the ways in which they ex
plored the potential of IPR. The studies dealt with the
development and validation of new procedures in the
education of a counselor, which involved the following:
(1) investigation of empathy focused on the measurement
and characteristics of effective sensitivity, (2) on the.
acceleration of client progress in counseling, (3) on
non-verbal behavior, (4) and the communication of affect,
51
and (5) studies in teaching-learning.
These investigators drew the following^conclu-
• sions:
. . . it is the interrogator's function to create
within the client this "intense awareness of his
own behavior" in a relationship, and it is the
counseling relationship within the IPR process
that uses that "awareness" to help the client enter
a new relationship.with the counselor and to promote
client growth in his total life situation (p. 12).
Two interesting variations of IPR were discussed.
One combined IPR with simulation of interpersonal pro
cesses to confront the client with threatening inter
personal relationships. Often these situations do not
arise in regular counseling sessions. The procedure
involved rhe training of actors to present situcttluns
~that Build to intense degrees of hostility, affection,
fear of hostitlity and fear of affection. These
sequences were filmed and could be shown separately to
the client. The client was instructed to imagine that the
person on the screen was talking directly to them. The
client's responses were then videotaped. After the
simulation experience was concluded, an interrogator
aided the counselee in recalling his thoughts and
feeling. The authors summarized their view this way:
•
Initial case study results have suggested that
confrontation with simulated reactions within
the IPR process accelerated client ability to
perceive, differentiate and gain insight into
his reactions to others (p. 22).
52
The second technique of interest utilized mutual
recall within the IPR process. The procedure—involved
the counselor sitting in with the client and interrogator
instead of proceeding to a different interrogation room.
The interrogator dealt with client feelings and the
counselor was encouraged to join in at will. The session
concluded with counselor and client communicating in
greater depth than had previously taken place. The
video-tape of this session indicated both client and
counselor growth.
I
An additional study dealt with the determination
of whether regular or mutual recall was the more effective
accelerator of client growth. The investigators obtained
evidence indicating that IPR mutual recall was more
effective in aiding counselors who had difficulty engaging
.in a heri^aijd-now relationship to effect client growth.
Counselors who were able to relate well effected greater
client growth by reviewing the taped session between
the client and the interrogator.
The investigators further reported on two case
studies dealing with delayed recall. Observation
indicated that a greater detachment was shown by both
subjects. There was also a tendency to perceive the
videotaped image as a self that existed then/ but does
not exist now. The investigators concluded that delayed
53
replay did not seem as effective as immediate replay for
stimulating insight and detailed memory.
Kagan (1968) himself reported two observations
from his research with the IPR process. First, people
perceive and understand much more of the communication
of others than they indicate. However, they only chose
to act upon the surface statements or were unable to act
on their understanding. People tend to not take risks
in human communications. The second observation was
that of tuning out, of actually not seeing or hearing
the others for periods of time during an interaction.
This tuning out usually resulted from a too heavy con
centration on one's own feelings. It was felt that
recall via playback would aid in dealing with both of
these observed blocks to human communication.
Kagan and Schauble (1969) Investigated the
effects of affect simulation on clients while using the
interpersonal, process-recall method. Clients v/ere
confronted with films which encouraged them to simulate
interpersonal relations. Both client and the film that
he viewed were videotaped and later played back for the
client. The investigators found that subjects did
become involved with the actors they saw on the screen.
This involvement, followed by IPR sessions dealing with
client reactions, seemed to enable clients to perceive,
• 54
differentiate, and gain rapid insight into their behavior
when confronted by intense and threatening interpersonal
situations.
Effects of Feedback Methods
upon Learning
Wolgamuth (1961) investigated the effects of
feedback on learning, retention and attitudes toward
televised instruction. It was found that feedback, from
student to teacher during televised classroom instruction
did not have a significant effect on learning or student
attitudes toward televised learning.
Burkhard, Patterson and Rapue (1967) investigated
the effects of playing back films dealing with the
learning of motor skills; in this case, the skills were
karate movements.
The experimental procedure involved a playback
to the entire experimental group. Individual errors were
pointed out and corrective instruction was provided to
each student. A five-day time span existed between
filming and playback. The control group engaged in
normal practice sessions. The results were favorable,
for* they indicated that the learning rate improved when
the individual was able to view his own performance.
Robb and Teeple (1969) found that video-tape
playback did not affe.ct the gross motor skill of bowling
performance on the part of the subjects, but it did alter
the instructor's approach. The investigators,did not
feel that their results were conclusive.
1
!
Delayed and Immediate
Feedback Methods
Brackbill, Wagner and Wilson (1S64) reported that
delayed feedback was equal to immediate feedback for
learning efficiency and superioy to immediate feedback
for retention— especially the retention of difficult
material. This experiment was conducted with the use
of teaching machines for both the delayed and the
immediate feedback groups.
Sassenrath and Yonge (1968) found that groups
receiving delayed feedback, as opposed to immediate feed
back, retained more learning after a five-day period.
There were no significant differences on the retention
test given immediately after learning took place.
' Reddy (1969) investigated the effects of immediate,
as compared to delayed, feedback on the learning of
accurate empathy. The procedure involved the placing of
subjects into one of three groups: (1) immediate feed
back, (2) delayed feedback, or (3) control. The delayed
* . . .
feedback was provided through audio-tape playback, while
earphones were used in providing the immediate feedback.
Responses of all groups to a simulated psychotherapy film
ware measured on an accurate empathy scale, and it was
found that the immediate feedback group was superior to
both the delayed feedback group and the control group in
the learning of accurate empathy.
Other Related Feedback Methods
Pinney (1963) utilized the playback concept;
however, he did this by using a stenographer's verbatim
notes of the previous group psychotherapy session instead
of a mechanical device. The purpose was to distinguish
between what actually took place and what the patient
ctb&uitKiu Luufk place. Large changes m behavior wore
reported as a consequence of such sessions.
Stone (1963) noted a procedure whereby patients
were allowed to enter the staff rehash sessions
immediately following group therapy. The patients re
mained silent for the first twenty minutes while the
staff discussed the group session but were then invited
to participate in the last ten minutes of the rehash
session. Stone felt the procedure was useful in that
the patients were often able to point out aspects of
individual dynamics and aspects of the group process
which the staff had overlooked. The feedback procedure
also educated the patients as to what was expected of
57
them in the group and satisfied theii* curiosity regarding
staff meetings and technical jargon.
Ivey and others (1968) investigated the effects
of microcounseling upon neophyte counselors. Micro
counseling involved the videotaping of five-rainute talks
between the pre-practicum counselor and the volunteer
client. The procedure broke counseling into small teach
able units and made immediate, direct feedback available
to the counselor. This helped to facilitate counselor
behavior change. The findings indicated that the three
skills of (1) attending behavior, (2) reflection of
feeling, and (3) summarization of feeling, were all
significantly improved through microcounseling.
Summary
The review of the literature disclosed that there
‘ "Were many exploratory studies using audio-tape feedback,
'film feedback, and video-tape feedback; however, there
were very few supported by empirical data. Investiga
tions resulted in a great deal of conceptualizing about
feedback and its relation to the audio-tape, film, and
video-tape, although it was not until recently that an
• •
attempt was made to study, describe, and systematize
feedback operations, and to measure and evaluate the
effects of these variables.
58
..A
Self confrontation has been provided for some .
. * * • * ’*'• ’ *•** *
time vi^ feedback procedures/ but the emphas-i-s^has
shifted from self confrontation for the counselor to
self confrontation for both counselor and counselee.
Reality becomes more difficult to deny as a result of
current approaches to confrontation. A variety of
exploratory studies have utilized self confrontation via
playback procedures with psychotics/ alcoholics and drug
users. • I
Authorities differed as to whether delayed
feedback or immediate feedback would be most beneficial..
Delayed feedback was deemed to be equal to immediate
feedback for learning efficiency/ but it was believed to
be superior for retention. Delayed feedback produced
strong impact by encouraging clients to reflect upon
their behavior; howeverone researcher indicated that
clients may find it easier to escape self confrontation
due to the lack of immediacy in this feedback procedure.
A review of the literature supported the following
generalizations: ’
1. Both counselor and counselee may become more
aware of their own feelings and ways of communicating
during the counselor-client interaction.
2. Audio-tape feedback can be urcd with children.
3. Specific behaviors or feelings can be pin
pointed.
59
4. Self confrontation can be provided (which may
cause a reduction in the denial of reality) ;---^
5. Audio-tape playback can be stopped at any
time for comments by either the counselor or the
counselee.
6. The feedback procedure can be used in either
immediate or delayed feedback situations.
CHAPTER III
PROCEDURES .
Introduction
This study was undertaken in an attempt to
determine the value of systematic audio-tape feedback
upon both the counseling relationship and educational
attitudes among junior high school students. Although
research has been conducted before regarding this form
of feedback, previous emphasis has focused upon the
supervision of counselors rather than upon client out
comes .
The improvement of human communication within
the confines of the counseling relationship has provided
a rationale for the use of audio-tape feedback. Through
this counseling approach, the client has an opportunity
to listen to his responses to which he may or may not
attend. The counselor responds to the client in a
manner which is intended to focus on-client sensitivity
in relating to others. The audio-tape feedback pro
cedure offers both counselor and counselee objective
60
evidence of happenings that have taken place during a
counseling session. Feedback provided by the audio tape
playback may make it difficult for both counselor and
client to deny the aspects of themselves v/ith which they
are confronted. The objectivity of the feedback may also
result in less defensiveness on the part of both.
Population Sample
The sample used in this study.was composed of
I
forty, seventh and eighth grade counselees who ranged
in age.from twelve to fourteen, selected from the student
body.of Hosier Junior High School in the Lynwood Unified
School District, California. The counseling staff, as
well as the administration, participated in the selection
of a list of sixty possible counselees they felt might
pro fit'from an intensive counseling experience. Coun
selees were referred for the study on the basis of their
poor attitudes toward education as observed by staff
members, for poor grades, for the high number of disci
pline referrals they had accumulated, and for what the
staff considered to be their severe personal-emotional
problems.
An equal number of boys and girls were assigned
• to each of the two groups. All selected for the study
had intelligence scores of not less than 90 on the Lorge-
Thorndike Intelligence Test.
62
Counselors
The two counselors involved in the stucF^ were
deemed to be of comparable ability as indicated by the
similarities found in their preparation and experience.
One counselor had the following background: Over
4 years of school experience; 2.years teaching; 3 years
work with junior high school students; 3 years of school
counseling experience; 2 years of therapeutic experiences
as a counselee (individual and group); 8 months experience
in marriage counseling; attended one, eight-hour workstiop;
and is pursuing a doctoral program in Counselor Education
at the University of Southern California.
The other counselor had this training and expe
rience; 4 years of experience in schools; 4 years teach
ing experience, all of which was at the junior high school
level? 3 years of therapeutic experiences as a counselee
(individual and group); 2 quarters of counseling experir
ence as a group leader at the university level; attended
2 workshops totaling 15 hours of practice and experience?
this counselor is also pursuing a doctorate in Counselor
Education at the University of Southern California.
Procedures
The original list of possible counselees who
Were recommended for the experiment contained sixty names,
63
thirty males and thirty females. Forty of them whom
counselors and school administrators considered to he
most in need of counseling were chosen for this investi
gation. Each was spoken to individually about his
participation in the ten-week counseling project, and
explanation was given as to how he might benefit from
these experiences. All questions regarding the study
were answered-honestly and openly.
Next, the grou£> of forty was divided by matching
students according to educational attitude scores earned
on the Demos D Scale pre-test. Matched pairs were then
divided by randomly assigning one member of each pair to
the control group and the other to the feedback group.
Researchers (Campbell and Stanley, 1963, p. 15), refer to
the. randomization procedure used in this study as blocking.
This method was chosen because it was felt that it pro
vided the best possible control for this experiment under
the circumstances.
In addition to assigning students randomly to one
of the two groups, counselees were also randomly assigned
to their counselor. The counselors each counseled twenty
counselees; ten male and ten female. Five males and five
females.were in each counselor's two treatment groups (one
being the traditional counseling group; the other group
receiving the feedback treatment).
64
t .
Each of the twenty members involved in the
traditional counseling situation met with their counselor
for ten, forty-five minute sessions. Sessions consisted
* • *
*
of the counselor and counselee talking with each other
in what may be considered a traditional approach to
• • • *
individual counseling.
Each of the twenty members involved in the feed-
>
back counseling experiment met with their counselor for
ten, forty-five minute sessions.I The first,' third, fifth-,
seventh and ninth sessions were traditional counseling’
sessions which were audio-tape recorded. On alternate
—sessions (second, fourth, sixth, eighth and tenth), the
auaxo-cape reedtack procedure was utilized. These
sessions consisted of hearing the traditional, or odd-
numbered session tapes, being played back while both
counselor and counselee listened. Each had the option of
stopping the tape recorder at any time in order to explore
and clarify feelings and thoughts, to become more aware
of what both parties were feeling and doing, or to con
front each other openly in an authentic relationship. The
tape recorder was also stopped, to permit self-confronta
tion by either person, or to discuss the behavior of both
•counselor and counselee.
• \ When.the forty counselees had each completed ten
counseling sessions, they were given the Demos D Scale
65
(DDS) (see Appendix A) again as a post-test to determine
the effect of the feedback treatment upon educational
attitudes. They were also given the Relationship Inven
tory (see Afjpendix B) to evaluate the effect of the treat
ment on the perceptions of the counselees about the level
of relationship provided by the^ counselor. The Relation
ship Inventory measured the following variables; empathic
understanding, level of regard, unconditionality of regard,
congruence and willingness to be known.
Measuring Instruments Used
The Relationship Inventory
Theory. Barrett-Lennard (1959) developed the
Relationship Inventory (see Appendix B) based upon "the
conception that the client's experience with the therapist
is the primary locus of therapeutic influence in their
relationship (p. 5)." The emphasis on client experiences
was based on the assumption that a person can only be
psychologically influenced by what he perceives, senses,
or infers.
Barrett-Lennard reformulated Rogers' (1956a, 1956b
& 1957) descriptions and definitions of. empathic under
standing and congruence, although these still correspond
in' essence with Rogers' conceptualizations. Level of
regard and unconditionality of regard were divided into
-.66
two separate variables according to Standal's (1954) con
cept of unconditional/ positive regard. Barrett-Lennard
(1954) introduced "willingness to be known" (p. 6) and
also gathered the data from which to assess the levels of
the five relationship.variables by using their Relation
ship Inventory questionnaire.
Item content. The development of specific items
was facilitated by Rogers' "Conditions of Therapy" paper
(1956a) and Bown's "Relationship Sort" (1954). Not many
of Bown's items were used, however. Those that were
utilized were modified. Through the interaction of
members of the Counseling Center at the University of
Chicago, several other revisions and modifications of
items were accomplished (Barrett-Lennard, 1959).
The form. The original plan to use a Q-sort form
was abandoned in favor of a multiple-choice questionnaire
form with three levels of "yes" and three levels of "no"
responses. These levels were identified as +1, +2, +3
and -1, -2, -3 by the person responding to the question
naire. This general form was chosen by Barrett-Lennard
(1959) in order to:
•
obtain answers that reflected how certain the respon
dent felt about the item statement being correct or
incorrect and also how important it was to him that it
was true or false. Concern was with the subject's
feeling about his therapist's response to him, not
67
merely what he observed. These considerations led to
identification of the three and response
categories essentially as follows: "I fcG . l - ~ - . it is '
probably true" (or untrue). "I feel it is true" (or
not true), and "I strongly feel that it is true" (or
not true) (pp. 14-15) .
Barrett-Lennard (1959) also elaborated further by
stating: '
The group of items representing each variable is dis
persed throughout the Inventory sc as to obtain maxi
mum independence (or minimum interaction) of answers
to them (p. 15).
Item validation. A formal•content validation
procedure was carried out by five client-centered
• counselors in order to determine the appropriateness of
the positive or negative designation of each item. In
addition to the "+" and alternatives, the judges were
instructed to rate an item "0" if the item was considered
to be either ambiguous or irrelevant to its respective
variable. There was complete agreement on all but four
items in regard to directionality. Three of the question
able items were removed. The one remaining item was.rated
"0" by only one of the five judges. Three other items
rated consistently were eliminated because of content
duplication within the items.
Scoring. The procedure involved the summing of
* the scores (see Appendix C) separately for the group of
items belonging to each variable with the summed scores
68
tor all variables becoming the total score. Here,
jjarrett-Lennard (1953) commented:
This means that positive items given a plus (yes)
rating by the subject and negative items given a
minus (no) rating add to the total score, and positive
items-given a minus (no) rating and negative ones
given a pi vis (yes) rating detract from it (p. 17) .
Validity. Barrett-Lennard (1959) stated that the
validity of the final scores of each scale was based on
the following:
(a) the content validation of individual items, (b) a
literal face-value interpretation of the numerical
item-answers, (c) the principle of adding all "posi
tive" evidence and subtracting all "negative" evidence,
and (d) the procedure of permitting each item to
contribute to the difference in total scores in
P
i r r ^ r ^ r ^ r {- i - h r s i rq nwn rl i SDPrsi rm (n 1 rH .
Reliability. There were 25 males and 17 females
with a mean age of 28.0 participating in the Barrett-
Lennard study. The Relationship Inventory was given after
five counseling sessions. The adjusted split-half relia
bilities of the individual relationship measures were:
level of regard -.93, unconditionality -.78, empathic
understanding -.83, congruence -.89, and willingness to
be known -.82.
The results of Barrett-Lennard1s study supported
the usefulness of four of the scales used in the original
form. The "willingness to be known" scale was not valu
able to the Barrett-Lennard study, but it was believed to
69
be valuable for the purposes of this investigation.
There were originally 42 counseiees. Assessments
were made regarding change-relationship associations for
the first 28 counselees to finish therapy, after a mean
of 25 therapeutic interviews. The findings of Barrett-
Lennard (1959) were:
(1) that clients who enter therapy relatively poorly
adjusted in terms of their own self descriptions,
improve in their adjustment according to the extent
that they perceive their therapist (after five inter
views) as understanding congruent, and positive and
unconditional in his regard for them, and (2) that
the client's perception of the quality of his thera
pist's response, in the four ways indicated, predicts
the therapist's eventual judgment of how much he has
changed constructively during the period of therapy
(p. 61).
Although two other forms of the Relationship
Inventory are in existence, the original Relationship
Inventory was chosen because of the inclusion of the
"willingness to be known" scale which was felt to be
relevant for the purposes of the present study. Barrett-
Lennard & Jewel (1966) commented that the various forms
of the Relationship Inventory have been used in more
than 50 stud5.es.
The Demos D Scale (DPS)
An Attitude Scale for the
Identification of Dropouts
Theory. The theory which Demos (1965) (see
Appendix A) used to develop the Demos D Scale reflected
the. following points:
70
Opinions are verbal statements hypothesized to be
.the reflections of attitudes. When individuals
express opinions, their statements can b§-"ednsidered
to indicate their present positions on attitude
scales which represent degrees of intensity from
very favorable to very unfavorable. Attitude
scales are attempts to place individuals on continua
on the basis of their expressions of opinion which,
in turn, are accepted as evidence of individual's
positions on the attitude continua Expressions
of attitude are more readily available to an
investigator and can be evaluated with more
certainty than overt acts (p. 2).
Demos felt that the identification of attitudes
I •
would aid in the establishment of programs directed
«
toward the amelioration of negative, destructive social
attitudes. The instrument was felt to be useful in
predicting behavior.
Method of development. The method of successive
intervals was used. This method required a single judg
ment from each subject for each statement to be scaled.
Five responses were used: (1) Highly favorable,
(2) Favorable, (3) Neutral, (4) Unfavorable, (5) Highly
unfavorable.
The items were constructed so that they could be
read and understood by most students above a fifth grade
reading level. The Scale can be read aloud by the
examiner in cases where the reading ability of the
i
student is below the fifth grade level.
71
Item validation. Seven professional judges
rated the 29 DDS scales or continua into successive
intervals according to the degree of favorableness-
nnfavorableness each scale expressed. An item was
required to have the unanimous agreement of all seven
judges before being incorporated into the DDS. The
final 29 statements were chosen from a list of 145
statement s.
The 29 attitude issues (see Appendix D) are
grouped into basic areas of expression (T, E, P, S) as
follows: • “
1. Attitudes toward Teachers (10 items) (Coded T)
2. Attitudes toward Education ( 9 items) (Coded E)
3. Influences by Peers or Parents ( 5 items) (Coded P)
4. School Behavior ( 5 items) (Coded S)
In the validation study, 177 Ss were tested with
the .DDS: (a) 105 Anglo-American boys and .girls randomly
selected; (b) 42 high school dropouts (12 were girls);
(c) 30 boys in juvenile hall. Large, significant mean
differences were .noted between the Anglo-American Non-
Dropout group and groups b and c: (dropout groups).
Psychological experts determined both face and
content validity. All irrelevant and ambiguous items
were eliminated by 69 judges.
As Demos used the DDS Total Score to identify
potential dropouts, it was felt that the DDS Total Score
72
would be utilized in the present study to identify
educational attitudes. The definition of educational
attitudes in this study is directly correlated to the
DDS Total Score.
Data Gathering Operations
Demos D Scale pre-tests were given to counselees
individually during the interview in which the counselee
made his choice as to whether or not he wished to
participate in the study.
Posfc-tests on both the Relationship Inventory
and the. Demos D Scale were given in the school cafeteria
one day after the completion of the counseling sessions.
A ten-minute break was given between tests. Four Ss had
to take tests on the day of their last counseling
session, because they had been suspended from school.
These students did come in once a week for their
counseling sessions regardless of their suspensions.
Statistical Analysis
The Demos D Scale and the Relationship Inventory
were^ scored in the usual manner. The D Scale thus
yielded one score for each administration, and the
Relationship Inventory yielded five scores for the
73
single administration. Analyses of variance techniques
were applied in the testing of the hypotheses.
Demos D Scale
!
A "change score" was determined for each S by
subtracting his pretest score from his post-test score.
Data were then treated with an analysis of variance
using the 2x2 factorial design, in which one dimension
was "treatments'* (feedback vs. traditional), and the
I
other dimension was "counselors." This analysis was
applied separately to pretest scores and change scores.
The analysis of pretest scores was undertaken to test
for possible differences in composition of the four sub
groups prior to administration of the counseling
experience. The analysis of change scores was undertaken
pursuant to hypothesis No. 1.
The t_ test was applied to determine if the mean
change score, overall 40 Ss, was significantly different
from (a) zero, and (b) the mean change score obtained
for the 20 Ss in pilot study III.
The Relationship Inventory
Based on the norms reported by Barrett-Lennard
(1959, p. 25), each S’s raw score on each subscale was
converted to a standard score with a mean of 50 and
standard deviation of 10. These standard scores were
then subjected to an analysis of variance of Type III
design (Lindquist# 1953) , in which the five -suhSCales
constituted the within-subjects dimension, and the two
between-subjects dimensions were "treatments" (feedback
vs- traditional) and "counselors." The allocation of
degrees of freedom# and the results of this analysis#
are shown in Table 5.
Pilot Studies to Evaluate Use of
Instruments and Experimental
Treatment
Pilot Study I
• The Demos D Scale was used on 15 students
referred for group counseling as potential dropouts.
T2ae pilot study took place at Hosier Junior High School
in the Lynwood Unified School District.
The procedure involved giving the DDS in the
Spring of 1969 as a pre-test and after ten weeks of
group counseling# as a post-test. There was a shift of
scores toward the positive side in nine out of fifteen
cases. The sign test indicated that there was no
significant difference, in educational attitudes resulting
from group counseling? however# it was felt that the
Demos D Scale was an applicable tool for the junior high
school population upon which it was used.
75
Pilot Study II
In the Spring of 19G9 the feedback treatment was
used with five counselees on an individual counseling
basis. The counselees were referred by the administration
as being in need of intensive counseling. At the end of
the school year each of the five counselees commented
that they felt the "feedback" procedure was a worthwhile
procedure.
Pilot Study III
•
This pilot study used 20 randomly selected Ss
to further evaluate the suitability of the Demos D Scale
for this investigation. These Ss responded to the Demos
D Scale twice, separated by an interval of ten weeks,
during which time no special treatment was administered
to them. The purposes of this pilot study were (a) to
explore for possible difficulties students might have in
responding to this instrument, and (b) to test for
significance of change in scores attributable to the
experience of having responded to the instrument pre
viously, combined with normal classroom and life
experiences in the interim. The j: test for correlated
means (Guilford, 1965) was afjplied to the test-retest '
data. The mean change in score was 3.8, with a standard
deviation of 6.86. Against a hypothesis of no change,
the value of t obtained, was 1.53, which is not
76
significant. The D scale was judged suitable for
inclusion in the study, since pretest-posttest change,
if any, was not of sufficient magnitude to yield
I
significance with N=20.
i
Pilot Study IV
During the Pall semester of 1970 the Relationship
Inventory w0c given to a stratified random sample of ten
students chosen from both seventh and eighth grade A and
B groups. Placement within these two groups was based
upon intelligence scores of between 90 and 115 on the
Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test (Level 4, Form A).
Each student took the test. Instructions were
that he circle each statement that he did not understand.
He was then instructed to return to these statements
and reread them at the end of the test. If he still did
not understand the item, he was told that the meaning of
the item would be clarified. No clarifications were
necessary.
A discussion period followed in which the
students, itfhen asked if they felt the reading level was
too difficult for junior high school students, commented
that most of the test was fairly easy— but there were a
few items that were difficult to understand. All felt
that reading the difficult items through a second time
was sufficient to clarify any misunderstanding.
77
It was concluded that the Relationship Inventory
has a reading level which is appropriate for a junior
high school population with intelligence quotients
ranging between 90 and 115 on the Lorge-Thorndike
Intelligence Test.
Mechanical Equipment
A Wollensack Magnetic Tape Recorder (105-120V-
50/60C-100W-lAmp AC only— Wollensack 3M) was used by each
of the two counselors. The reproduction of sound was
excellent on both tape recorders. There was one
instance of failure in which case one tape recorder had
to be exchanged for another. Twenty, one-hour tapes
were used for the study.
The Setting
Two offices that were approximately twelve by
fifteen feet were used for the study and were located
next to the attendance office and two other counseling
offices. Each office was separated by a thin wooden
partition that went half way to the ceiling. It was
extremely noisy in each of the two offices. Incoming
telephone calls interrupted one counselor. Both the
noise and the disruptions were picked up on the tape
recorder.
CHAPTER XV
FINDINGS: RESULTS OF STUDY
Introduction
The preceding chapter has explained the procedures
followed in obtaining essential data for the study.
Chapter TV presents the findings of this investigation.
Demos D Scale
Table 1 presents the results of the analysis of
variance applied tc pretest, scores of the D Ccale. All
F tests were found to be non-significant, which supports
the hypothesis that assignment of Ss to treatments and
counselors did not produce systematic differences in the
four sub-samples prior to the experimental counseling
sessions.
Table 2 presents the analysis of variance results
derived from change scores on the Demos D Scale. All
F tests were non-significant, supporting the null
hypotheses that changes in the educational attitudes
measured by this scale are unrelated to (a) differences
•78
H»l 1. 1 f % . ■» » ■ '
t
I
i
TABLE 1
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: DEMOS D SCALE PRETEST SCORES
Source df Sum of Squares Kean Square F Significance
Counselors 1 1210.Q *1210.0 1.19 NS
Treatments 1 4.9 4.9 1.0 NS
Treatments x
•
• Counselors
1 3.6 3.6 1.0 NS
Within 36 3668.6 1019.0
----- —
Total 39 4887.1
-----
df - degrees of freedom
F = F-ratio <1
• - J3
t
TABIE 2
A N A L Y S I S O F V A R I A N C E S D E M O S D S C A L E C H A N G E S C O R E S
Source df Sum of Squares Mean Square F Significance
Counselors 1 7 7 1 . 0 NS
Treatments 1 4 0 . 4 0
1-0.
NS
Treatments x
-
Counselors 1 . 2 7 8 . 2 7 8 1 . 8 5 NS
Within 36 5 4 0 6 ! 1 5 0 . "
i
t—
?
♦
Total 39 5 7 3 1
i
%
df = degrees of freedom
F = F-ratio
81
between the traditional and experimental feedback
methods, (b) differences between the two counselors using
these methods in the present study, and (c) interaction
between these differences.
As noted in Table 3, the mean change score, based
on all 40 Ss, was significantly different from zero, but
not significantly different from the mean change score
of. the pilot-study. The mean change score of the pilot
study was not significantly different from zero.
Barrett-Lennard Relationship
Inventory
Thr» tosh.Hr of the analysis of Barrett-Lennard
scores is shown in Table 4. The main effect of the
scale was significant at the .001 level, indicating that
the profile of mean standard scores is significantly
different from a straight line. Since the formula for
converting raw scores to standard scores on the five
subscales of the inventory were derived from Barrett-'
Lennard's (1959) data, these data indicate that the
patterns of differences among the mean scores of these
five subscales differ from those found in Barrett-
Lennard' s data. This comparison is shown in Table 5 and
Figure 1. By applying Lindquist's critical-difference
formula (1953, p. 93) it was determined that two sub-scale
i
i
TABLE 3
MEAN CHANGE SCORES ON THE DEMOS D SCALE
STUDY III AND IN MAIN STUDY
IN PILOT
N Mean SD t Signif5.cance (2-tail test)
Pilot study 20 3.8 6.86 2.03* NS
Main study 40 6.2 11.97 3.23* — . 9
O
H
Difference
—
2.4 0.97 NS
*Against an hypothesis of mean change equals zero.
N = Number of cases
' SD = Standard Deviation
t - Significance of the differences
between two means oa
I
»
i .
TABLE 4
ANALYSIS OP VARIANCE: BARRETT-LENNARD RELATIONSHIP INVENTORY
Source df Sum of Square Mean Square
Significance
Between-subjects
Counselors
Treatments
Treatments x
Counselors
Error (b)
Within-subjects
Scales
Scales x
Counselors
Scales x
Treatments
1
1
1
36
1513
2
96
23710
6964
289
284
1513
2
96
658
1741
72
71
2.30
1.0
1.0
34.13
1.41
1.39
NS
NS
NS
.001
NS
NS o o
oo
TABLE 4 (Continued)
Source ; df Sum of Squares Mean Square F Significance
Scales x
Treatments and
Counselors 4 338 84 1.64 N S
Error (w) 144 7393 51
—
Total 199 40589
m m m m — m m m m
df - degrees of freedom
85
means must differ by at least 3.1 points for significance
at the .05 level. Applying this figure to-thsOresults
shown in Table 5, it may be seen that the mean of the
Willingness to be Known sub-scale was significantly
higher than all other sub-scales, and the mean of the
Unconditionality sub-scale was significantly lower than
i
1 all other sub-scales, while means of the Level of Regard,
Eropathic Understanding, and Congruence sub-scales did not
differ significantly from one another. Schematically,
these differences may be represented as follows:
Willingness to ;> C Congruence x Unconditionality
be Known J Erapathic Under-\
A standing >
\ Level of Regard/
The bottom two lines of Table 5 present the results of
tests comparing the present sample with Barrett-Lennard's
sample with reference to the mean of each sub-test. The
Willingness to be Known sub-test yielded no significant,
difference between the mean of the present sample and
that of Barrett-Lennard's sample. On all other sub
tests, the means of the present sample were significantly
lower than those of Barrett-Lennard's sample.
All F ratios in Table 4, other than the scales
main effect, were non-significant. The null hypotheses
remain tenable that clients' perceptions of the counsel
ing relationships they experienced (as measured by the
TABLE! 5
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OP THE PRESENT SAMPLE AND BARRETT-LENNARD1S
SAMPLE ON THE BARRETT-LENNARD RELATIONSHIP INVENTORY SUB-TESTS
Empathic Uncondition- Willingness
Level of Under- ality of to be
Regard standing________ Regard____Congruence______Known
M SD M SIi M SD M SD M SD
Raw Scores Present
Data 14.8 17.2 7.9 10,8 1.5 7.5 15.1 13.0 12,4 16.0
Barrett-
Lennard ' s
Data 32.4 14.1 22.6 12.6 25.8 12.0 28.2 12.9 14.4 12.2
Standard
Scores
Present
Data 37.4 14.5 38.4 12.8 30.0 10.7 40.0 9.7 48.3 15.2
Barrett-
Lennard ' s
Data 50.0 10.0 50.0 10.0 50.0 10.0 50.0 10.0 50.0 10.0
t (differ
ence) 4.6
i ;
4.6
•
8*8 4.6 0.6
Signifi
cance .01 .01 .01 .01 NS
t = significance of the differences between two means
M = mean \ ci
SD = Standard Deviation 1 •
Barrett-Lennard inventory) are independent of (a) differ
ences between the feedback and traditional methods used
in the present study, (b) differences between the two
counselors who administered these counseling methods,
and (c) the interaction of these differences. These null
hypotheses remain tenable both,with reference to total
Relationship Inventory score and to the pattern of
differences among sub-scale scores on the Relationship
Inventory. Lindquist (1953) has recommended against
simple-effects tests of significance under conditions of
non-significant interaction. For this reason, no
separate significance tests were undertaken regarding
treatment differences or counselor differences in mean
scores on the separate sub-scales. Rather, the null
hypotheses of no relationship to method or counselor
differences remain tenable for all sub-scale scores.
* ; CHAPTER V .
I
j DISCUSSION
!
' ■ The Relationship Inventory
»
’ A Comparison of Subscale
! Standard Score Means
j The standard score means of the Relationship
I • . I •
j Inventory subscales (see Figure 1) were found to be very
i
i
; significantly different from each other. However, four
• of the subscales1 standard score means were also signifi-.
■ .cantlv different from the standardization sample. The
! standard score mean of the unconditional positive regard
; subscale was significantly less than the standard
score mean of the level of regard subscale. This sub-
I scale, however, was not significantly different from the
standard score mean of the empathic understanding sub-
scale. Likewise, the previous subscale was not signifi-
■ cantly different from the standard score mean of the
I congruence subscale which was significantly less than
the standard score mean on the willingness to be known
' subscale. All subscale standard score means, with the
.exception of the willingness to be known subscale
89
I " Profile on mean standard scores of the present
the snbscales of the Barrett-Lennard
' ship Inventory. The method of calculating
scores assigned a value of 50.0 to the mean
‘ ‘ 'vi'ott-Lennard's samoie on each subscale,
u.|J-
J
4
w E R U C
Level of Empathic Uncondi- Congru- VJilling-
Regard Under- tionali- ence ness to be
standing ty hnown
90
standard score raean, were significantly lower than those
subscale standard score means in the Barrett-Lennard
(195S) sample. The willingness to be known subscalo
standard score mean was not significantly different from
Barrett-Lennard * s sample. This can be viewed in
Figure 1.
From these findings, it can be inferred that the
counselors in this study were perceived by their counsel
ees as being significantly different (less positive) from
counselee perceptions of the counselors in the Barrett- •
Lennard Study (1959) with respect to the level of regard,
the level of empathic understanding, and the level of
congruence provided .by the counselor. They were per
ceived as very significantly different (less positive)
with respect to the level of unconditionalitv of regard
provided by the counselor. They were perceived as pro
viding a level of willingness to be known that was
comparable to counselee perceptions in the Barrett-
Lennard study (1959).
Several factors may have contributed t.o the
difference in the way in which the counselors in the
Barrett-Lennard (1959) . study we re perceived as compared
to the way the counselors in this study were perceived.
For one, the counselees involved in the Barrett-Lennard
(1959) study were, in the words of Dr. Barrett-Lennard
91
(1971), "a highly sophisticated group." Barrett-Lennard
(1959) described them as:
. . . in their twenties or thirties, 60 per cent are
men, one-third are married, nearly all have some
college education, and about half are college grad
uates. A little less than half the sample are
University of Chicago students, but two-thirds or
three quarters of them would be members of the
University community (p. 22) .
A number of others were spouses of University of Chicago
students, employees of the University, former University
of Chicago students or students^from other colleges or
universities. The quality of response of this group
would be expected to differ significantly from the quality
of response of the junior high school population used in
the present study.
The counselees in the Barrett-Lennard (1959)
research also differed in that they came for counseling
because of a felt need— to reap therapeutic benefits from
their experience. The junior high school population
involved in this study volunteered for counseling for
reasons ranging from a felt desire to escape from the
confines of the classroom to a personal liking of their
experiences with their counselors. Since the expectations
and needs of the counselees involved in the two studies
would appear to be somewhat different, it would seem
possible that counselee perceptions of the therapeutic
relationships in each instance differed.
92
"Feedback" Treatment Versus
“Traditional1 1 Treatment
Three factors appeared to have contributed to the
non-significant findings for each of the hypotheses.
Neither immediate feedback nor focused feedback were used
in this study; the nature of an experimental design did
not provide for individual preferences of treatment
either between counselors or among the counselees.
Immediate feedback was not utilized. The play-
*
back session took place every other session instead of
immediately following the "traditional" counseling treat-
roent, The effect of delayed feedback, although possibly
providing greater retention, did not seem to facilitate
more positive counselee perceptions of the counseling
relationship. Often, the purpose of clarification of
past feelings was hampered by the remoteness of last
■week's interview’. Also, the lack of immediacy hampered
■what was believed to be the feedback treatment' s
strongest asset— self confrontation.
Some sessions might not have dragged if focused
feedback had been used'. In many instances, listening
to the tape recorder detracted from the high-pitch
relationship, and "feedback" treatment seemed to cause
an emotional distancing. In cases that were dragging at
the time the tape recorder was stopped, playback offered
93
an escape from meaningful encounter between counselor and
counselee. With selected use of the "feedhachib treatment,
important counselor-counselee interactions might have
been pinpointed, possibly facilitating a high-pitched
relationship as well as a more meaningful encounter.
A review of the literature indicated that very
few feedback studies utilized an experimental design.
It was believed that the use of the experimental design
used in this study may have canceled out individual
differences. One counselor was perceived as providing
a higher-pitched relationship when the ‘ 'feedback1 ' treat
ment was utilized. The other counselor was perceived
as providing a higher-pitched relationship when the
"traditional" treatment was used. One counselor felt
comfortable with the "feedback" treatment; the other did
not. In some cases the self confrontation provided by
the "feedback" treatment was felt to be exceptionally
valuable. Both counselors felt that "feedback" treatment
would be very helpful in selected cases, but not when used
randomly with counselees as it was done in this investiga
tion.
The "feedback" treatment was felt to be an aid
to the counselors in becoming more effective as thera
peutic agents. Although the "feedback" condition did not
significantly alter counselee perceptions of the level of
94
relationship provided by the counselor, both counselors
believed, that the quality of their own responses improved
during the ten "feedback" sessions.
Educational Attitudes '
There were no significant differences found on the
•Demos D Scale regardless of the counselor used or the
method of treatment emplpyed. These results may be
explained in light of the theoretical orientation of the
counselors. The four goals of the two counselors
utilizing the Humanistic Existentialists approach were
stated this v/ay by Ofman (1970) :
. . . -to help the person come into awareness, to be
in reality, and to help him regain his integrity,
his absolute responsibility for the projects he
has freely created, and the price which he chooses to
pay for the way he writes his biography on earth
' (P. 5) .
Attitude change was not a desired goal. The seg
ment of the study dealing with change in educational
attitudes was included in order to find out whether change
in educational attitudes would, in fact, result from
either the "traditional" or "feedback" treatments within
the framework of Humanistic Existential counseling.
Although there was no significant difference on
the Demos D Scale for either counselor or treatments and
no significant interaction, the overall change for all
forty subjects taking the Demos D Scale was significantly
greater than zero. .
95
The results of t tests performed on the control
group in Pilot Study III which received the test-retest
on the DDS with no counseling between tests, indicated
J . . . , t the.,,DDS may have been affected by the duration of
y: ■ f!Vv
*,". • • * ' • * •
‘ " Lime and experiences of each counselee between test and
retest as the test-retest experience itself, but
that iu.s irdpr .-^.de was not great. Thus, it is difficult
to determine to what extent counseling, as opposed to
duration of time and experiences of each counselee
between test and retest— as well as the re-test
experience itself— are responsible for a change in
performance on the re-test of the DDS. However, the
overall effect of counseling (both treatments) may be
responsible for some of the positive change in educational
attitudes. Since this was not a counseling goal, it may
have occurred as a result of the positive relationships
formed between counselors and their counselees. For
example, students may have come to perceive the educa
tional climate as somewhat more positive as a result of
their counseling relationships; nevertheless, the duration
of time and the test-retest experience itself were factors
responsible for changing educational attitudes.
96
Implications for Counseling Treatment
and Further Research
=□ '
T h e r e v i e w of the literature was supportive of
feedback procedures which utilized audio-tape, video
tape and film; however, in this study, systematic audio
tape feedback did not prove more effective than tradi
tional counseling to induce more favorable counselee
perceptions of the level of relationship provided by the
counselor, nor in raising the levels of empathic under
standing, congruence, unconditional positive regard,
level of regard, and willingness to be known provided by
the counselor.
Perhaps future research involving audio-tape
feedback should move in the direction of immediate
(Kagan, 1967) as well as focused (Stoller, 1967a) feed
back, for the immediateness of the feedback may help
overcome much of the self denial that was found to take
place on the part of the counselees. Focused feedback,
or a pinpointing of desired feedback spots, may also
help to overcome 'the passiveness and emotional detachment
that results from listening to irrelevant or boring
sections of the tape. Yet, both focused feedback and
immediate feedback would be difficult to carry out in a
school situation due to limitations in time and personnel.
57
While experimental design may be important to
research methodology/ investigators must exercise caution
so that they do not ignore the uniqueness of the indivi
dual when endeavoring to prove the importance of a
particular counseling treatment.
Further research might be conducted with audio
tape feedback in counselor supervision/ since both
counselors in the present study felt they gained a great
deal of personal growth from its use. Walz’and Johnston
(1963) said that the employment of feedback techniques in
counselor practicums does allow the trainees to attain
self growth at a more rapid pace/ as well as to-free the
supervisor to deal with a greater number of trainees.
The difference found on the Relationship Inventory
Profile (Figure 1) between the standard score means of
each of the scales in the Barrett-Lennard (1959) study,
compared with the standard score means of each of the
scales in the present study, might lead to the implication
that the Relationship Inventory is well suited to client-
centered counselors, as it measured the variables that
i -
client-centered counselors deem to be essential to the
counseling relationship. However, it may not be appro
priate for measuring the effectiveness of Humanistic
Existential counselors, who. emphasize these relationship
variables which Ofman (1970) discussed: (1) the level of
98
authenticity, (2) the level of equality or mutualness,
and (3) the level of talcing a person seriously-as pro
vided by the counselor (p. 13).
The difficulty of drawing any clear-cut conclusion
about whether counseling did affect educational attitudes
is confounded by the duration of time and experiences
between the test and re-test as well as by the test-
retest experience itself.
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary
Purposes .
The general purpose of this study was to investi
gate the effects of using systematic audio-tape "feed
back," as compared with "traditional" counseling, upon
educational attitudes and counseling relationships with
a junior high school population. A more specific purpose
was to determine the effect of feedback treatment upon
each of the ingredients which composed the counselor-
counselee relationship as defined in this study. The
variables of level of regard, empathic understanding,
congruence, unconditional positive regard and willingness
to be known were examined.
The review of the literature traced historically
the utilization of audio-tape, film, and.video-tape
feedback. Researchers did a great deal of conceptualizing
about feedback, but produced few experimental studies.
The sample used in this investigation consisted
of forty students from the Hosier Junior High School in
99
the Lynwood Unified School District, California. The
students were selected on a voluntary basis—from a
referral list developed by the school administration
and counseling staff. The two counselors who partici
pated in the study were judged to be of comparable ability
based upon their training, their prior experiences in
education, and their counseling experiences.
Two test instruments were used. The Demos D
Scale was employed to measure change in educational
attitudes, and the Relationship Inventory was utilized
to determine the strength of the total relationship,
and its ingredients, including level of regard, uncon
ditionality of regard, empathic understanding, congruence
and willingness to be known.
The Demos D Scale, given as a pre-test, and sex,
formed the bases for developing matched pairs. The
pairs were then randomly assigned into counselor and
treatment groups.
The design utilized four counseling groups
composed of ten students per group (five girls and five
boys). Both counselors used "feedback" and "traditional"
treatment.
The "traditional" counseling procedure consisted
of one-to-one counseling situations for ten, forty-five
minute sessions. The "feedback" counseling procedure
101
consisted of the "traditional" counseling procedure on the
first, third, fifth, seventh and ninth sessions} Each
"traditional" session was audio-tape recorded and played
bach to both counselor and counselee on the second,
fourth, sixth, eighth and tenth sessions. During the
playback sessions, both counselor and counselee had the
option of stopping the tape at any time in order that
either might clarify feelings or thoughts.
Both the Relationship Inventory, which Barrett-
Lennard (1959) developed, and the Demos D Scale were
*
administered to each of the forty counselees following
the completion of the ten sessions.
The hypotheses were the following:
H01- -Counselees receiving the "feedback" treatment
will show no difference from those receiving the "tradi
tional" treatment with reference to attitudes toward
education. Operationally, this was accomplished by a
comparison of the Demos D Scale pre and post-test
results.
Feedback" treatment, as compared with
"traditional" treatment, will have no differential effect
upon counselee perception of the level of relationship
provided by the counselor. To test this hypothesis, the
results on the Relationship Inventory were compared.
102
H03-" Feedback" treatment, as compared with
‘ 'traditional" treatment, will have no differential effect
upon counselee perception of the level of empathic under
standing provided by the counselor. The results on the
Relationship Inventory's empathic understanding scale
were compared.
Hq4— "Feedback" treatment, as compared with
"traditional" treatment, will have no differential effect
upon counselee perception of the level of regard provided
by the counselor. The results obtained from-^the Relation
ship Inventory's level of regard scale for the "feedback"
group were compared with results from the "traditional" '
group.
Feedback" treatment, as compared with
"traditional" treatment, will have no differential effect
upon counselee perception of the level of unconditionality
of regard provided by the counselor. The results ob
tained from the Relationship Inventory's level of uncon
ditionality of regard scale for the two groups were
compared.
H^g— "Feedback" treatment, as compared with
"traditional" treatment, will have no differential effect
upon counselee perception of the level of congruence
provided by the counselor. The results obtained from the •
Relationship Inventory's congruence scale were compared.
103
Hq^— "Feedback1 1 treatment, as compared with
"traditional" treatment, will have no di£fe.re.n.tial effect
upon counselee perception of the level of willingness to
be known provided by the counselor. The results obtained
from the Relationship Inventory's willingness to be known
scale were compared.
Findings
The findings were as follows:
1. No significant difference was found between ’
the groups in attitudes toward education. The null
hypotheses was accepted.
2. No significant difference was found in
counselee perception of the level of relationship pro
vided by the counselor when counselees receiving the
"feedback" treatment were compared to those receiving the
"traditional" treatment. The null hypotheses was
accepted.
3. Since the results of testing Hq2 indicated
that no significant difference was found in either main
effects or interaction in counselee perception of the
level of relationship provided by the counselor between
the experimental and control groups, further statistical
treatment was unnecessary. Null hypotheses HQ3 , Hq^,
H05, Hq^ and H07 were accepted. There were no differences
104
in counseled perception of the level of emphatic under
standing (Hq3) , level of regard (II04) / level of uncon
ditionality of regard (Hq5), level of congruence (HQg)
and in willingness to be known (HQy) . '
Conclusions
1. "Feedback" treatment was net more influential
than "traditional" counseling in effecting change in
I
educational attitudes of junior high school counselees.
2. "Feedback" treatment was not more influential
than "traditional" counseling in effecting the perception
of the junior high school counselee about the level of
relationship provided by the counselor.
3. "Feedback" treatment was not more influential
than "traditional" counseling in effecting the perception
about the level of empathic understanding provided by the
counselor.
4. "Feedback" treatment was not more influential
than "traditional" counseling.in effecting the perception
about the level of regard provided , by the counselor.
5. "Feedback" treatment was not more influential
than "traditional" counseling in effecting the perception
about the level of unconditionality of regard provided
by the counselor.
105
6 . "Feedback" treatment was not more influential
than "traditional" counseling in effecting the perception
about the level of congruence provided by the counselor.
7. "Feedback" treatment was not more influential
than "traditional" counseling in effecting the perception
about the level of willingness to be known provided by
the counselor.
LIST OP REFERENCES
LIST OF REFERENCES
Alger, I. & Hogan, P. The use of videotape recordings in
conjoint marital therapy. The American Journal
of Psychiatry, 1967, 123, 1425-1429.
Alger, I. & Hogan, P. Enduring effects of videotape play
back experience on family and marital relation
ships. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1969,
39, 86-9*4.
Alkire, A. A. Use of videotaped playback in the fields
of education and mental health. Audio Visual
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Anderson, R. G. A pilot investigation concerning the use
of videotape recording in improving actor-
director communications during the rehearsal
period. (Doctoral dissertation, University of
Missouri) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Micro
films, 1965, No. 66-94. (Dissertation Abstracts,
1966, 26, No. 5589)
Armstrong, R. G. Playback technique in group psycho
therapy. Psychiatric Quarterly Supplement, 1964,
38, 247-252.
Barrett-Lennard, G. T. Dimensions of perceived therapist
response related to therapeutic change. Un
published doctoral dissertation, University of
Chicago, 1959.
Barrett-Lennard, G. T., & Jewell, L. N. A selection of
reported studies using the Relationship Inventory.
University of V7aterloo, Ontario, Canada, 1966.
(Mimeo)
Bernard, J. Stimulated recall in therapy using video
tape: a case study. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 1964, 11, 194-195.
107
Beymer, L. Implicat2. 0ns of simulation, videotape record
ing, analysis systems and research for counselor"
education. Educational Technology, 19G9, 9_, 56-
57. ‘ . j
i
Biddle, R. A. Playbacks improve my counseling technique. j
Clearing House, 1948, 23., 229-232. ‘ j
I
Bown, Oliver H. An investigation of therapeutic relation
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doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago, 1954.
i
Boy, A. V., & Pine, G. J. The counselor in the schools;
a rsconceptualization. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Co., 1960.
Boyd, D. L. Video tape: communication aid. Texas •
Outlook, 1958, 5 2 , 13. j
Boyd, H. S., & Sisney, V. V. Immediate self-image con
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of consulting psychology, 1967, 291-294.
Brackbill, V., Wagner, J. E., & Wilson, D. Feedback
delay and tne reaching machine, psychology in
the schools, 1964, 1 , 148-156.
Burkhard, D. G., Patterson, J., & Rapue, R. Effect of
film feedback on learning the motor skills of
karate. Perceptual and Motor Skills, "1967, 25.
(1), 65-69.
Camp, N. H. Recorded interviews in counselbr training.
Education, 1953, 73., 477-482.
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. Experimental and quasi-
....experimental designs for research. Chicago:
Rand-McNally & Co., 1969.
Cornelison, F. S., Jr., & Arsenian, J. M. A study of the
responses of psychotic patients to photographic
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1960, 3j4, 1-8.
•
Covner, B. «7. The use of photographic recording in
Counseling practice and research. Journal of
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I 109
i
i
Danet, B. N. Confrontation in psychotherapy reviewed.
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Danet, B. N. Self confrontation by video tape in group
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t
, Demos, G. D. Suggested uses of tape recordings in
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(
Harper, R. A., & Hudson, J. W. The use of recordings in
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: Hem, S.
, 7*
Joarard
Kagan, ]
Kagan, ]
’ Kagan, J
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243,
«
:7., Krathwohl, D., Bondy, S., Bowes, J., Campbell,
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Group Psychotherapy, 1963, 13., 211-213.
i n
*
j Lamb, R., & Mahl, G. F. Manifest reactions of patients
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Laudsman, T., & Lane, D. AV media, yes; depersonalization,
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Lindquist, E. F„ Design and analysis of experiments in
psychology and education. Boston: Houghton
i Mifflin Co., 1953.
! • i
Lloyd, J. R. The effect of audio and visual feedback on
the learning of a gross motor skill when imposed
at selected stages of a learning period.
(Doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University
and Agricultural and Mechanical- College) Ann
Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1968,
! No. 69-4487. (Dissertation Abstracts, 1969, 29,
j (9-A), No. 2987)
‘ Logue, P. E., Zenner, M., & Gohman, G. Video tape role
playing in the job interview. Journal of
.Counseling Psychology, 1968, 15, 436-438.
McLain, E. W. A program for increasing counselor self
understanding. Counselor Education and Super
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Miller, M. F. Responses of psychiatric patients to their
photographed images. Diseases of the Nervous
System, 1962, 23_, 296-298.
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Ofman, W.. Group therapy as a humanistic existentialist
encounter— key elements of the basis for practice.
Unpublished manuscript, University of Southern
California, 1970.
Paredes, A., & Corne.lison, F. S. Development of an audio
visual technique for the rehabilitation of
alcoholics. Quarterlv Journal Studies on
Alcohol, 1968", 29, 84-92. ~
• ; i i 2
1 pare dec, A., Ludvig. K. D., Haaser.feld, I. N., &
I Ccrneliscn, P. S. A clinical study of alcoholics
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of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1969, 148, 449-456.
Pascal, G. R., ' Cottrell, T. B., & Baugh, J. R. A methodo
logical note on the use of video tape in group
: psychotherapy with juvenile delinquents. Inter-
' national Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 1967,
i 17, 248-251.
Patterson, C. H.
th@ rspy •
1S66.
Theories of counseling and psycho-
New York: Harper & Row, Publishers,
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University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Micro-;
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1969, 29., No. 2969-A)
Pepperman, C. W. Effects upon counselors of the video
tape recorder used in the counseling practicum.
(Doctors] dissertation.. The Pennsylvania State
University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University
Microfilms, 1967, No. 68-3556. (Dissertation
Abstracts. 1968, 28, No. 3379-A)
Perliautter, M. S., Loeb, D. G., Gumpert, G., O'Hara, F.,
& Higbie, I. S. Family diagnosis and therapy
using videotape playback. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 1967, 37., 900-905.
Phillip, B. R., & Peixotto, H. E. An objective evaluation
of brief group psychotherapy on delinquent boys.
Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1959, 13_, 273-
280.
Pinney, Ei L., Jr. The use of recorded minutes in group
psychotherapy: The development of a "readback"
technique. Psychiatric Quarterly Supplement,
1963, 37., 263-269.
Poling, E. G. Video tape recording in counseling
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Title VII, No. 1235, Office of Education, United
States Dept, of HEW, 1965. (Vermillion,
University of South Dakota, 1965)
113
Reddy, W. B. Effects of immediate and delayed feedback
on the learning of empathy. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 1969, 15, 59-62.
Riker, Britten L. A comparison of methods used in
attitude research. Journal of Social Psychology,
1944, 39, 24-42.
Riker, Britten L. Comparison of attitude scales— a
correction. Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 1945, 4j0, 102-103.
Robb, M., & Teeple, J. Videotape and skill learning; an
exploratory study. Educational Technology, 1969,
9 _ , 79-82.
Roberts, R. R., Jr., & Renzaglia, G. A,. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 1965, _12, 10-16.
Robinson, Margaret B« Effects of video tape feedback
versus discussion session feedback on group
interaction, self awareness and behavioral change
among group psychotherapy. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of Southern California,
1968.
Rogers, A. H. Videotape feedback in group psychotherapy.
Psychotherapy; Theorv, Research, and Practice,
1968, 5., 37-39.
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429-434.
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. . interpersonal relationships as developed in the
'client-centered framework. Mimeographed paper,
Counseling Center, University of Chicago, 1956.
Rogers, C. R. A tentative formulation of a general^law
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therapeutic personality change. Journal of Con
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1
• : 114
Ryan, C. W. Video aids in practicum supervision.
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25-29.
Sassenrath, «7. m ., & Yonga, C. D. Delayed information
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Journal of Projective Techniques, 1957, 21, 391-
395.
Schmeding, R. W. Use of the playback in the counseling
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i
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116
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APPENDICES
117
APPENDIX1A
T,*
*Reprinted with written permission by
Western Psychological Services
118
119
THS DEMOS D SCALE
By
Cccrga D. Camos, Ph.D.
California Stole College cl long Beoch
Published by
t ~ ~ v r r i ---------------------------: --------------------------------i
f u 'VFSTIP.N CSVCKOLOCICAI. SERVICES
*J I I* I fU W S M E K • OISIE'SUTOHS
| - - i » C X /IS. ttCVtKLV H IllJ. CAIIFOR'JIA. j s ji j
W H Y YO'J ARC DCIMO THIS: To fino' out more obout yourself so you cen do
Itiose things which are important to you.
W HAT YOU ARE TO DO:
1. Please fill the spaces below with your name, dale, address,
age, dale of bhlh, your sex, grade in school, name of school.
Nome Date
Address
Age joote of Birth Sex
Grade In School Name of School
2. In this booklet are 29 statements. Under each statement are
five answers.
Choose me one answer you agree with most. Ano crow a circle
around the one answer you agree with most.
Then go on to the next statement. Do this until you finish the
booklet. You will have lime to finish the booklet.
3 . Please turn the poge and begin.
Do Not Write Below This line
DDS PROFILE
Clinical Probabilities
Little Som e Even Strong Very Strong
{B A S IC
{■AREA
D D S T O T A L
SCORE
5 in 100 25 in 100 50 in 100 70 in 100 90’ in 1G 0
( s c o r e s
0 20 21 40 41 60 61 80 SI 145
r *
0 5 6 15 16 25 26 35 36 50
1 ■ 0 5 6 15 16 25 26 35 36 45
1 p
0 5 6 10 11 15 16 20 21 25
I s
0 S 6 10 11 15 16 20 21 25
REMARKS:
W-E5A
Copyright © 1 » iJ ly W ttT tIN SSYCItOlOGICM SttVICtS
H al to b t la »h»U c* la p^iit without vr.’tn * c l c o p ^ h i owr«r. -
AH fiflk h r*i«nr«(l. H in ltd in U.S-A.
120
— .— . j
B -l W-5 C-2 S-4 G-3 T -2 H-4 M -l R-5
T X . TEACHERS U ND ER STA ND T H E PROBLEMS OF STU D EN TS:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
E 2. F IN IS H IN G T H E E IG H T H GRADE (OR E LE M E N TA R Y SCHOOL) SHOULD BE D ONE BY:
Nearly Most Some Few No one
everyone people people pcoplo
P 3. I T IS GOOD -FOR FRIEN D S TO H ELP ONE M A K E UP H IS . (OR H E R ) M IN D :
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
P 4. IT IS GOOD FOR PARENTS TO PUT PRESSURE ON T H E IR C H ILD R E N TO G ET AS M U C H
ED U C A TIO N AS POSSIBLE:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
T 5. TEACHERS CARE ABOUT T H E IR STU D EN TS:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
E 6. I T IS NECESSARY FOR ONE TO HAVE A H IG H SCHOOL ED U C A TIO N :
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time . times never
S 1. I T IS W O R TH W H ILE TO T A K E PART IN SCHOOL A C T IV IT IE S :
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always -the time times never
T 6. TEACHERS ARE TOO H AR D W H EN T H E Y P U N IS H STU D EN TS:
Nearly Most o! Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
E 9. I T IS IM P O R TA N T TO EARN GOOD GRADES IN SCHOOL:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
121
' B -l W-b C-2 S-4 G-3 T-2 H-4 M -l R-5
E 10. IT IS W O R TH W H ILE TO DROP O U T OF SCHOOL A N D G ET A JOB: .
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Neatly
always tho time times never
E 11. SCHOOL SUBJECTS ARE V E R Y USEFUL:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
E 12. SCHOOL SUBJECTS ARE V E R Y IN T E R E S T IN G :
Nearly Most of Sometimes . Very few Nearly
always the time 1 times never
E 13. IT IS W O R TH T H E T IM E , M O N EY , A N D EFFO R T TO G E T A COLLEGE ED U C A TIO N :
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
i 14. a a -i-u ilis rir W iT ri M iG B L E a ii CAN G E T K h i.t' F R u M A COUNSELOR:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
T 15. W H EN ONE HAS T R 0 U 3 L E W IT H SCHOOL W'ORK, I T IS A GOOD ID E A .TO T A L K I T OVER
W IT H T H E TEACHERS:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
E 16. IT IS W O R TH W H ILE TO W O R K H A R D A N D BECOME IN T E R E S T E D IN E V E R Y SCHOOL
COURSE ONE TAKES:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
S 17. IT IS MORE IM P O R T A N T TO H A VE A GOOD T IM E IN SCHOOL T H A N TO S TU D Y AND
LEARN:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
P 18. • IT IS M O RE IM P O R T A N T TO DO W ELL IN SPORTS T H A N IN CLASS W ORK:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
122
B -l W-5 C-2 S-4 G-3 T-2 II-4 M -l K-5
p 19. I T IS A GOOD T H IN G TO BE IN A GANG W H IL E GOING TO SCHOOL:
Neatly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
T 20. TEA C H E R S ARE N O T F A IR W H E N T H E Y G IV E GRADES:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
S 21. I T IS GOOD TO TA K E P A R T IN CLASS D ISCU SSIO N AS M U C H AS POSSIBLE:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
T 22. S T U D E N T S SHOULD FEEL FREE TO D IS A G R E E W IT H TEACHERS:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
T 23. T H E P R IN C IP A L A ND V IC E -P R IN C IP A L H ELP T H E S TU D EN TS:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
t
8
24. A LL S TU D E N TS SHOULD T R Y TO BECOM E SCHOOL LEADERS:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
T 25. TEA C H E R S P IC K ON C E R T A IN S TU D E N TS:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
P 26. S TU D E N T S IN SCHOOL A RE V E R Y U N F R IE N D L Y TO M E : '
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
T 27. TEA C H E R S SHOULD G IV E M O ST OF T H E IR H E LP A N D A T T E N T IO N TO T H E GOOD
S T U D E N T S :
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
S 26. I T IS W O R T H W H IL E TO H A VE GOOD A TT E N D A N C E IN A LL CLASSES:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the tim e times never
E
1
29. I T IS IM P O R T A N T TO F IN IS H T H E T E N T H GRADE:
Nearly Most of Sometimes Very few Nearly
always the time times never
E N D
APPENDIX B
fT ifT T i T k p i * r ■«•* ■ » » ■ *» p»< /» r» » *
A u n i-w o x jrxx j * \ j i x o x i x r x i \ v ijI M x u i^ X
123
124
Relationship Inventory— Client Form
Name______________________________ ; ________ Tape_______
Below are listed a variety of ways that one person
could feel or behave in relation to another person.
Please consider each statement with respect to whether
you think it is true or not true in your present relation
ship with your counselor. Mark-each statement in the
left raargin according to how strongly you feel it is
true or not true. Please mark every one. Write in +1,
+2, +-3, or -1, -2, ~3, to stand for the following
answers:
+ls Z feel that it is probably. -1: 1 feel that it is
■true, or more true than probably untrue, tor
untrue. more untrue than
true.
-2: I feel it is not
+3: I strongly feel that true.
+2t I feel it is true.
I strongly
it is true.
—3 s I strongly feel thai
it is not true.
R+ X . He respects me.
E+ 2. He tries to see things through my eyes.
C- 3. He pretends that he likes me or understands me
more than he really does.
U- -4. His interest in me depends partly on what I am
talking to him about.
W+ 5. He is willing to tell me his own thoughts and
feelings when he is sure that I really want to
know them.
•R- 6. He disapproves of me.
E- 7. He understands my words but not the way I feel.
C+ 8 . What he says to me never conflicts with what he
thinks or feels.
125
+1: I feel that it is -1:
probably true, or mere
true than untrue.
+2: I feel it is true. -2:
+3; X strongly feel that -3:
it is true.
I feel that it is
probably untrue, or more
untrue than true.
I feel it is not true.
I strongly feel that it
is not true.
U+ 9.
W- 10.
R- 11.
E+ 12.
C- 13.
U + _14.
W- 15.
R+ 16.
E+ 17.
C- 18.
U - _____-19.
W+____20.
R- 21.
E- 22.
He alv/ays responds to me with warmth and
interest— or always with coldness and dis
interest.
He tells me his opinions or feelings more than
I really want to know them.
He is curious about "the way I tick," but not
really interested in me as a person.
He is interested in knov/ing what my experiences
mean to me.
He is disturbed whenever I talk about or ask
abouu certain things.
His feeling toward me does not depend on how I
am feeling towards him.
He prefers to talk only about me and not at all
about him.
He likes seeing me.
He nearly always knows exactly what I mean.
I feel that he has unspoken feelings or concerns
that are getting in the way of our relationship.
His attitude toward me depends partly on how I
am feeling about myself.
He will freely tell me his own thoughts and
feelings, when I want to know them.
He is indifferent to me.
At times he jumps to the conclusion that X feel
more strongly or more concerned about something
than I actually do.
126
■Ms X feel that it is -Is I feel that it is
probably true, or more probably untrue, or more
true than untrue. untrue than true.
+2s I feel it is true. -2: I feel' it is not true.
+3 s I strongly feel that -3: I strongly feel that it
it is true. is not true.
C - » - 23. He behaves just the way that he is, in our
relationship.
U-_____24. Sometimes he responds to me in a more positive
and friendly way than he does at other times.
W- 25. lie says more about himself than I am really
interested to hear.
R+ 26. He appreciates me.
E-_____27. Sometimes he thinks that I feel a certain way,
because he feels that way..
C*r_____25. I do iiOu think that he hlues any Lhiuy • frum him
self that he feels with me.
U- 29. He likes me in some ways, dislikes me in others.
W- 30. He adopts a professional role that makes it hard
for me to know what he is like as a person.
R* 31. He is friendly and warm towards me.
E+_____32. Be understands me.
33. He tries not to say anything that would hurt my
feelings.
U- 34. Xf X feel negatively toward him he responds
negatively to me.
W- 35. He tells me what he thinks about me, whether I
want to know it or not.
m
E-_____36. He cares about me.
E-_____37. Kis own attitudes toward some oh the things I
say, or do, stop him from really understanding
me.
227
+1: I feel that it is
probabJy true, or more
true than untrue.
+2: I feel it is true.
+3: I strongly feel that
it is true.
-Is I feel that it is
probably untrue, or more
t untrue than true.
-2: I feel it is not true.
-3: I strongly feel that it
is not true.
C+ 38. He does not avoid anything that is important
for our relationship.
U+ 39. Whether I am expressing "good" feelings or
"bad" ones seems to make no difference to how
positively— or how negatively— he feels toward
me. |
W~ 40. He is uncomfortable when I ask him something*
about himself.
R~ 41. He feels that I am dull and uninteresting.
E- 42. He understands what I say, from a tetached,
objective point of view.
C+ 43. I feel that I can trust him to be honest with
me.
U-____ 44. Sometimes he is warmly responsive to me, at
other times cold or disapproving.
W-_____45. He expressed ideas or feelings of his own that
I am not really interested in.
R+ 46. He is interested in me.
E+_____47. He appreciates what my experiences feel like to
me.
C+_____48. He is secure and confortable in our relation
ship.
U- 49. Depending on his mood, he sometimes responds to
me with quite a lot more warmth and interest
than he does at other times.
W~ 50. He wants to say as little as possible about his
own thoughts and feelings.
128
+1: I feel that it is
probably true, or more
true than untrue.
4-2: X feel it is true.
+3: I strongly feel that
it is true.
-Is I feel that it is
probably untrue/ or more
untrue than true.
-2s I feel it is not true.
-3: I strongly feel that it
is not true.
R— 51. Ke just tolerates me;
E— 52. Ke evaluates my experiences and feelings from
the point of view of an expert.
t
C— 53. He is playing a role with me.
TH- 54. Ke is equally appreciative— or equally un- ,
appreciative of me, whatever I am telling him *
about myself.
W-f r 55. His own feelings and thoughts are always
available to me, but never imposed on me.
R— 56. He does not really care what happens to me.
E— 57. He does not realize how strongly I feel about
some of the things we discuss.
C- 58. There are times when I feel that his outward
response is quite different from his inner
reaction to me.
P- 59. His general feeling toward me varies
considerably.
VH- 60. He is willing for me to use our time to get to
know him better, if or when I want to.
R*- 61. He seems to really value me.
E— 62. He responds to me mechanically.
C— 63. X don't think that he is being honest with him
self about the way he feels toward me.
U-f r _ 64. VThether I like or dislike myself makes no
difference to the way he feels toward me.
129
+1: X feel that it is -Is I feel that it is
probably true, or more probably untrue, or more
true than untrue. untrue than true.
+2: I feel it is true. -2: X feel it is not true.
+3: I strongly feel that -3: I strongly feel that it
it is true. is not true.
W - 65. He is more interested in expressing and
communicating himself than in knowing and
understanding me. • .
R- 66. He dislikes me.
67. He considers what I say and do from an impartial
uninvolved point of view.
C-f r 68. I feel that he is being genuine with. me.
U- 69. Sometimes he responds quite positively to me,
at other times he seems indifferent.
W- 70. He is unwilling to tell me how he feels about
me.
R- 71. He is impatient with me. •
72. He understands me whether the thoughts and
feelings I am expressing are clear or confused.
C- 73. Sometimes he is not at all comfortable but we
go on, outwardly ignoring it.
U- 74. He likes me better when I behave in some ways
than he does when I behave in other ways.
W+ 75. He is willing to tell me his actual response to
anything I say or do.
R+ 76. He feels deep affection for me.
E+ .77. He usually understands all of what I say to him.
C+ 78. He does not try to mislead me about his own
thoughts or feelings.
130
+1: I feel that it is -1:
probably true, or more
true than untrue.
+2: X feel it is true. -2:
+3s X strongly feel that -3:
it is true.
U+
i W-
C-
I feel that it is
probably untrue, or more
untrue than true.
I feel it is not true.
1‘ strongly feel that it
is not true.
79.
80.
81.
Whether I feel fine or feel awful makes no
difference to how warmly and appreciatively—
or how coldly and unappreciatively— he feels
toward me.
He tends to evade any attempt that I make to
get to know him better.
i
He regards me as a disagreeable person.
He brings a different point of view to bear on
my problems.
What he says gives a false impression of his
total renchjt.cn to ute.
U+ 84. I can be very critical of him or very
appreciative of him without it changing his
.feeling toward me.
82.
83.
_85. He never refuses to tell me what he thinks or
feels.
R- 86. At times he feels contempt for me.
E+ 87. When I do not say what I mean at all clearly he
still understands me.
C- 88. He tries to avoid telling me anything that
might upset me.
U- 89. His general feeling towards me (of liking,
respect, dislike, trust, criticism, anger, etc.)
reflects the way that I am feeling toward him.
90. He is willing for me to know as much or as
little about him as I want to.
t
3.3 1
*M; I feel that it is
probably true, or more
true than untrue.
—Is I feel that it is
probably untrue, or more
untrue than true.
+2s X feel it is true. -2:
+3s X strongly feel that -3:
it is true.
I feel it is not true.
I strongly feel that it
is not true. >
E-____91.. .He tries to understand me from his own point
of view.
E+____92. He can be deeply and fully aware of my most—
painful feelings without being distressed or
burdened by them himself.
Commentsr
i
APPENDIX C
T>17T 7*in T ^ T . T P T T T 7N T ^ T t r n ik W n A r » ,»r
U I»*Jb A V U U A A X J . V V A V J .
SCORING SHEET
i
132
RELATIONSHIP INVENTORY
Scoring Sheet
Item R+ Item E+ . Item C+ Item U+ Item W+
1 2 6 9 5
16 12 23 14 20
26 17 28 39 55
31 32 38 54 60
36 47 43 64 75
46 77 48 79
61 87 68 84
76 92 78
. .
Sub
Total
/
I
Item R- Item E- Item C- Item U- Item W-
6 7 3 - 4 10
11 22 13 19 15
21 27 18 24 25
41 37 53 29 30
51 42 58 34 35
56 52 63 44 40
66
57 73 49 45
71 62 83 59 50
81 91 88 69 65
86
74’ 70
•
89 80
Sub
Total
Total
Sura of
Squares
GRAND TOTAL =
APPENDIX D
ATTITUDE ISSUE
134
13$ .
Basic
Attitude Issue Area
: 1. Teacher understanding. T
2. Importance of an elementary school education. E
1 3. Peer influence. P
1 4,
Parental pressure for education. P
1 5. Teacher concern about students. T
6. Necessity of a high school education. E
i 7,
Participation in curricular activities. S
• 8. Discipline as being too harsh. T
I 9. Importance of school grades. E
! 10. Dropping out of school. E
: li. Practical value of school course work. E
■ 12. Interest in school subjects- E
13. Value of a college education. E
14. Approachability of teachers. i T
15. Seeking counseling services. T
: 16. Desirability of work and interest in school
' courses E
17. Importance of studying. S
18. Importance of athletics. P
19. Desirability of gang membership (antisocial
group). P
20. Teacher unfairness In grading. T
21. Desirability of class participation. S
22. Freedom to disagree with teachers. T
23. .Helpfulness of school administrators. T
24.. ■ Desirability of assuming school leadership. S
25. Teacher discrimination. T
26. Unfriendliness of students. P
27. Teacher help and attention. T
28. Importance of regular attendance. S
29. Importance of junior high school education. E
t
i
\
I
Appendix D, above, was taken verbatim from Demos
(1965, p. 3).

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bergantino, Leonard Daniel (author)

Core Title The Effects Of Systematic Audio-Tape Feedback Upon Both The Counseling Relationship And Educational Attitudes

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, guidance and counseling,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Carnes, Earl F. (committee chair), Bloland, Paul A. (committee member), Grafton, Clive L. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-495158

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