University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Modality and serial position effects in immediate and delayed recall

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Modality and serial position effects in immediate and delayed recall

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Content M ODALITY AND SERIAL POSITION E F F E C T S IN
IM M ED IA TE AND DELAYED R E C A L L
by
L in d a L u eck el M cCabe
A D is s e r ta tio n P r e s e n te d to the
FA C U L T Y OF T H E GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CA LIFORN IA
In P a r ti a l F u lfillm e n t of the
R e q u ire m e n ts fo r the D e g re e
DOCTOR O F PHILOSOPHY
(P sychology)
A u g u st 1972
INFORMATION TO USERS
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University Microfilms
300 North Z eeb Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
A Xerox Education C om pany
I
I
73-748
McCABE, Linda L u eck el, 1947-
M ODALITY AND SERIAL POSITION EFFECTS IN
BMEDIATE AND DELAYED RECALL.
U n iv ersity o f Southern C a lifo r n ia , P h.D ., 1972
Psychology, experim ental
University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
< 2> C opyright By
LINDA LUECKEL M cCABE
1972
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALI PORN IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
Linda L ueckel McCabe
under the direction of h$T.~. Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Date September 1972
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages may have
in d istin ct p rin t.
Filmed as received.
University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company
ACKNOW LEDGM ENTS
I w ish to acknow ledge the p e rv a s iv e in flu en ce th ro u g h o u t
th is w o rk of D r. S tephen A. M adigan. And I w ish to th an k m y
h u sb an d , E d, f o r h is u n d e rsta n d in g and e n co u rag e m e n t.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TA B L E S ..................................................................................... iv
LIST OF F IG U R E S ..................................................................................... v
C h ap ter
I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1
A. M o d els of H um an M e m o r y ..................................... 1
B. M odality D iffe re n c e s ............................................... 3
C. S e ria l P o s itio n E ffe cts ............................................ 7
D. The C u rre n t P r o b l e m ............................................... 15
H. M ETHOD ...................................................................................... 21
A . D esign ................................................................................ 21
B. P r o c e d u r e ........................................................................ 22
C. S u b j e c t s ............................................................................. 23
III. R ESU LTS ........................................... 24
A. Im m e d ia te R e c a l l ......................................................... 24
B. P T F in a l R e c a l l ............................. 26
C. N P T F in a l R e c a l l ......................................................... 27
IV. DISCUSSION .................................................. 29
A . L a te n c y E ffe cts ...................................................... . 29
B. R ec a ll D a t a ..................................................................... 32
C. T h e o re tic a l Im p lica tio n s ........................................ 37
T A B LES ......................................................................................................... 45
F I G U R E S ................................................................... 50
R E F E R E N C E S ............................................................................................. 54
A PP E N D IX .................................................................................................... 63
iii
LIST OF TABLES
T ab le P a g e
1. M ean Im m e d ia te R e c a ll L a te n c ie s (Seconds)
fo r Ite m s C o r r e c t on Both T e s ts (CC) or
C o r r e c t on the F i r s t P ro b e T e s t and
I n c o r r e c t on the F in a l T e s t ( C N ) ...................................... 45
2. M ean F in a l R ec a ll L a te n c ie s (Seconds) fo r
Ite m s C o r r e c t on Both T e s ts ( C C ) ........................ 46
3. N u m b e r of Ite m s C o r r e c t on F in a l T e s t W hich
W ere In c o r r e c t on Im m e d ia te T e s t (NC) and
(in P a r e n th e s e s ) the P ro b a b ility of a C o r r e c t
R esp o n se on the F in a l T e s t G iven T h at the
Ite m w as I n c o r r e c t on the Im m e d ia te T e s t ............... 47
4. M ean F in a l R e c a ll L a te n c ie s (Seconds) fo r Ite m s
C o r r e c t on the F in a l R ec a ll T e s t W hich W ere
I n c o r r e c t on Im m e d ia te T e s t ( N C ) ................................... 48
5. M ean F in a l R e c a ll L a te n c ie s (Seconds) fo r Ite m s
W hich W ere C o r r e c t on F in a l R e c a ll and W ere
N ot T e s te d fo r Im m ed ia te R ec a ll ( N P T ) ....................... 49
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
F ig u r e s P ag e
1. Im m e d ia te R ec a ll T e s t ................................................................ 50
2. Im m e d ia te R e c a ll L a te n c ie s ...................................................... 51
3. F in a l R ec a ll T e st: P r e v io u s ly T e s te d (PT ) Ite m s .. .. 52
4. F in a l R ec a ll T e st: P r e v io u s ly U n te ste d (N PT) Ite m s . 53
v
I. INTRODUCTION
Q u an titativ e d iffe re n c e s betw een a u d ito rily and v isu ally
p r e s e n te d w o rd s, and betw een v isu al w o rd s and p ic tu r e s , have been
r e p e a te d ly d e m o n s tra te d in v a rio u s r e c a ll and re c o g n itio n p a ra d ig m s.
M o re ite m s a r e c o r r e c t when th e to - b e - r e m e m b e r e d m a te r ia l
c o n s is ts of au d ito ry , r a th e r th a n v isu a l w o rd s, o r w hen p ic tu r e s ,
r a th e r th a n v isu a l w o rd s, a r e u sed . T h is r e s e a r c h h a s fo c u sed
upon th e s e m o d a lity d iffe re n c e s in t e r m s of s e r ia l p o sitio n effects
f o r im m e d ia te and d elay ed p a ire d a s s o c ia te p ro b e t e s t s . W hat
follow s is an e x p lic atio n of the th e o re tic a l b a s is fo r th is study in
t e r m s of m o d e ls of h u m a n m e m o ry . T he v a rio u s m o d a litie s a r e
d is c u s s e d w ith e m p h a s is on m e m o ry s to re d iffe re n c e s . T he m o d els
a r e th e n ap p lied in a tte m p ts to explain s e r ia l p o sitio n effe cts.
F in a lly , m o d a lity - s e r ia l p o sitio n in te ra c tio n s a r e d is c u s s e d in con
ju n ctio n w ith th e ra tio n a le behind the c u r r e n t e x p e rim e n t.
A . M odels of H um an M em o ry
T he conceptual b a s is fo r the w ork to be d e s c r ib e d is a m o d e l
of h u m an m e m o ry p r e s e n te d by W augh and N o rm a n (1965). T hey
p o s it tw o independent m e m o ry s to r e s , p r im a r y m e m o r y (PM) and
sec o n d a ry m e m o ry (SM). T hey contend th a t e v e r y v e rb a l ite m th a t
is atten d ed to e n te rs P M . T his s to re h a s a s h a rp ly lim ite d c ap a c ity
w ith new ite m s d isp la c in g old ite m s and d isp la c e d ite m s being
p e rm a n e n tly lo s t. H o w ev er, r e h e a r s a l of an ite m c a u se s it to
r e m a in in P M , and, p e rh a p s a ls o to e n te r into SM. S eco n d ary
m e m o r y is a r e la tiv e ly p e rm a n e n t sto re and an ite m is m a in ta in e d
in th is lo c atio n w ithout co n stan t r e h e a r s a l . In g e n e ra l, th e m o r e
r e h e a r s a l an ite m r e c e iv e s , the h ig h e r th e p ro b a b ility th a t the
ite m w ill be in a r e c a lla b le sta te , fro m P M , SM, o r fro m both
s to r e s . The p ro b a b ility that an ite m in P M w ill be re c a lle d depends
upon the n u m b e r of n e w ite m s w hich have been p r e s e n te d and th e
n u m b e r of old ite m s w h ich have b een r e c a lle d , follow ing th e ite m 's
p re s e n ta tio n an d a tte m p te d r e c a ll. Since P M is a lim ite d c a p a c ity
s to r e , once it is full a new ite m can e n te r only if a n old ite m is
d e leted . If th e old ite m was s to re d in SM it w ill be av ailab le fo r
su b seq u en t te stin g ; o th e rw ise , th e ite m is lo s t and n o n re c a lla b le .
A s the n u m b e r of ite m s which h a v e been p r e s e n te d in c r e a s e s , the
p ro b a b ility th a t an ite m h a s been m a in ta in e d in P M d e c r e a s e s .
W augh and N o rm a n la b e l th is in p u t in te rfe re n c e . Output i n t e r
f e r e n c e o c c u rs at r e c a ll. Since ite m s in P M d e ca y in a s h o rt
p e rio d of tim e , PM ite m s not r e c a lle d im m e d ia te ly will be lo s t.
A s the n u m b e r of ite m s which h a v e been re c a lle d i n c r e a s e s , th e
p ro b a b ility th a t an ite m h a s been m a in ta in e d in P M d e c r e a s e s .
O ther a u th o rs h a v e adopted the W augh and N o rm a n (1965)
m o d el as the b a s is fo r t h e ir own th e o r ie s of m e m o ry . A tk in so n
and S hiffrin (1968) in c lu d e s e n s o ry r e g i s t e r s (SR), in ad d ition to
P M and SM. S e n so ry r e g i s t e r s r e p r e s e n t sto ra g e at a re la tiv e ly
p e r ip h e r a l le v e l. In fo rm a tio n is tr a n s f e r r e d f r o m SR to P M , but
an ite m is still in SR and P M u n til it d e c a y s. A bu ffer (a fixed
s iz e r e h e a r s a l set) is h y p o th e siz e d as th e r e h e a r s a l m e c h a n is m in
P M . T he am ount of in fo rm a tio n about an ite m w hich is s to re d in
SM in c r e a s e s lin e a r ly w ith the tim e th at th e ite m is in th e buffer.
S h iffrin and A tk in so n (1969) su g g est th at sto ra g e in SM is
p e rm a n e n t. T h ey a ttrib u te d e c r e a s e s in p e rfo rm a n c e o v e r tim e
to th e in c re a s in g ly in effectiv e s e a r c h of s to re d in fo rm a tio n .
K in tsch (1970) h a s s u m m a riz e d th e m o s t g e n e r a lly a cc e p ted
m o d e l of m e m o ry . T h e re a r e th r e e s to re s : s e n s o ry m e m o ry , PM ,
and SM. S e n so ry m e m o ry is a la r g e c a p a c ity s to r e f r o m w hich
in fo rm atio n is ra p id ly l o s t u n le s s it is atten d ed to and t r a n s f e r r e d
to P M . P r i m a r y m e m o r y is a w orking m e m o ry w ith a lim ite d
c ap a c ity fr o m w hich in fo rm a tio n is lo s t w ithin 15-20 seco n d s.
T h ro u g h r e h e a r s a l in fo rm a tio n c a n be m a in ta in e d fo r lo n g e r
p e rio d s of tim e . S e c o n d ary m e m o ry h a s an e s s e n tia lly u n lim ite d
c ap a c ity . F o rg e ttin g f r o m SM is due to lo s s of in fo rm a tio n and
in a b ility to r e tr ie v e in fo rm a tio n w hich is still s to re d .
B. M odality D iffere n c es
E x te n siv e q u a n tita tiv e d iffe re n c e s betw een p ic tu r e s and
v e rb a l m a te r ia l have p re v io u s ly b een d e m o n s tra te d . One r a th e r
s ta r tlin g ex am p le of p ic tu r e s u p e rio rity w as the . 85-. 95
p ro b a b ility of c o r r e c t re c o g n itio n fo r p ic tu re s p r e s e n te d at a r a te
of one e v e ry 10 seconds (H aber, 1970). M ille r, G a la n te r, and
P r i b r a m (I960) h a r n e s s e d th is p ic tu re s u p e r io rity fo r u s e in a
m n em o n ic fo r s e r ia l r e c a ll. T he d ev ice c o n sis te d of the n u m b e rs
fr o m one th ro u g h 10 p a ir e d w ith a c o n c re te noun w hich rh y m e d w ith
the n u m b e r (for e x am p le, o n e-bun). S u b jects w e re to ta k e th e
f i r s t li s t ite m and f o r m a p ic tu re in th e ir m in d , a v isu a l im a g e ,
of th is ite m and a bun. T he sam e s tra te g y w as to be a p p lied to the
su b seq u en t l i s t m e m b e r s . T he r e s u lts show ed c o n sis te n t s u p e r io rity
of th is technique o v er co n v en tio n al r e h e a r s a l p r a c tic e s . (See a lso
B ugelski, 1968; B u g elsk i, K idd S egm en, 1968.)
P a iv io (1965, 1969, 1970, 1971) and o th e rs (B ow er, 1970;
Deno, 1968; P a iv io & C sapo, 1969; P a iv io & F oth, 1970; P a iv io &
Y a rm e y , 1966; Schnoor & A tk in so n , 1969; Y uille & P a iv io , 1967)
have shown th a t u s e of v isu a l im a g e ry h a s r e s u lte d in h ig h e r r e c a ll
le v e ls fo r p a ire d a s s o c ia te s th a n ro te re p e titio n r e h e a r s a l. P a iv io
(1965) u tiliz e d the co n cep tu al peg h y p o th e sis to ex p lain th e s e r e s u lts .
A cco rd in g to th is th e o ry stim u lu s ite m s s e r v e a s co n cep tu al p eg s
fo r th e ir a s s o c ia te s in th e p a ir e d a s s o c ia te le a rn in g situ a tio n . T he
efficiency of ite m s a s p eg s depends upon th e ir c a p a c ity to e lic it
im a g e s w hich can m e d ia te th e r e c a ll of the a s s o c ia te d ite m . The
Deno e x p e rim e n t illu s tr a te d the p ra c tic a l im p o rta n c e of th is
r e s e a r c h . S u b jects w e re E n g lish -sp e a k in g stu d en ts a tte m p tin g to
l e a r n Ja p a n e se ; so th e seco n d m e m b e r of e ac h p a ir w as alw ay s a
J a p a n e se w o rd . T h e f i r s t m e m b e r w as e ith e r the E n g lish e q u iv alen t
o r a re le v a n t p ic tu re . P ic tu r e - w o r d p a ir s w e re b e tte r th a n w o rd -
w o rd p a ir s in a c q u isitio n .
D allett, W ilcox and D 'A n d re a (1968), F r o s t (1971), H a b e r
(1970) and P a iv io and O kovita (1971) have shown that a v isu a l im a g e
is s to re d w ith p ic to ria l le a r n in g m a te r ia l. A n in te re s tin g a p p ro a c h
w as em p lo y ed by F r o s t . H er_Ss saw d ra w in g s of co m m o n o b jects
w hich fell in to four sh ap e c a te g o rie s o r saw th e p rin te d n a m e s of
th e s e o b je c ts. F r e e r e c a ll r e s u lts in d ic a ted sig n ifican t c lu s te rin g
on th e b a sis of shape c a te g o r ie s fo r the p ic tu r e s , but n o t fo r the
w o rd s .
Not only a r e v is u a l im a g e s sto re d , but Ss m ay v e rb a lly la b e l
th e p ic tu re s and s to re th e s e la b e ls (B ah rick & B o u ch er, 1968;
C ohen, 1967; Cohen & G ra n s tro m , 1968; F e u g e & E llis , 1969;
L ondon & c R obinson, 1968; P r i c e & Slive, 1970; R obinson, 1970;
S m ith & N ielso n , 1970). In th e Sm ith and N ie lso n study £!s w e re
te s te d fo r re c o g n itio n and p ro b e d re c a ll of f a c e s (the n a m e of a
f e a tu r e w as th e p ro b e and S w a s to in d icate its size). T h e n u m b e r of
re le v a n t f e a tu r e s in th e d ra w in g s was v a rie d . R eactio n tim e s fo r
re c o g n itio n re s p o n s e s in d ic a te d th at Ss w e re sim u lta n e o u sly c o m p a r
ing th e f e a tu r e s of a v is u a l te m p la te to th e te s t ite m . R ec a ll
la te n c y m e a s u r e s su g g este d a seq u en tial fe a tu r e c o m p a riso n of a
v e r b a l r e p re s e n ta tio n . B a h ric k (1969), and B ah rick & B ah ric k
(1971) have shown th a t th e v e rb a l and v isu a l codes a r e s to re d
in d ep en d en tly . In th e l a t t e r study th e re w as no c o r r e la tio n b etw een
p e r f o r m a n c e on a v is u a l re c o g n itio n te s t of o b ject d ra w in g s and a
v e r b a l re c o g n itio n t e s t of o b ject n a m e s. B o w er (1970) b a s e s h is
ex p lan atio n of p ic tu re s u p e r io r ity upon the p r e s e n c e of th e s e tw o
in d ep en d en t m e m o ry c o d es.
In a p a ir e d a s s o c ia te d esig n v e rb a l m e d ia to r s w e re n o t as
effectiv e as im a g e ry m e d ia to r s in cuing re s p o n s e r e tr ie v a l
(W icker & E v e rts o n , 1972). T h is in d ic a te s a n o th e r re a s o n fo r
p ic tu re s u p e rio rity - - h ig h e r d is c rim in a b ility of p ic tu re s
(D om inow ski & Gadin, 1968; W im e r & L a m b e rt, 1959). W ick er
(1970a) s u m m a r iz e s th is d is c r im in a b ility th e o ry . P ic tu r e s contain
d istin c tiv e cu es w hich r e n d e r th e m m o re d is c rim in a b le , re s u ltin g
in l e s s in tr a lis t in te r f e r e n c e and f a s t e r a c q u isitio n . A lso ,
p ic tu re s a r e m o re d is c r im in a b le f r o m d is tr a c to r ite m s on r e c o g
n itio n t e s t s . T h is p ro d u c e s b e tte r re c o g n itio n p e rfo rm a n c e .
T he p ic tu re -w o rd d ifferen c e is not the only d istin c tio n m ad e
betw een p re s e n ta tio n m o d a litie s in m e m o ry r e s e a r c h . A u d ito ry and
v isu al p r e s e n ta tio n s p ro d u c e re lia b le d iffe re n c e s . T h e se differen ces
a r e lo c a liz e d at the end of the lis t f o r im m e d ia te fr e e r e c a ll (C raik ,
1969; M urdock & W alk er, 1969), s e r ia l r e c a ll (M urdock, 1967;
Routh, 1971), and p a ir e d a s s o c ia te te s tin g (M urdock, 1967). T h e re
a r e two p o ssib le s o u rc e s of th is d iffe re n c e . One is th a t th e s e la s t
ite m s m ay be r e c a lle d f r o m SR a s w ell as P M . M o rton (1970)
su g g ests th at the a u d ito ry ite m s re m a in in th e SR fo r a lo n g e r tim e
(two seconds) than v is u a l ite m s (le s s than 500 m illise c o n d s).
T h e re fo re , on im m e d ia te r e c a ll m o r e a u d ito ry th an v isu a l ite m s
can be p ro d u ced fr o m th e SR. T he seco n d s o u rc e is th a t v isu a lly
p re s e n te d w o rd s a r e c o v e rtly a rtic u la te d by S b e fo re th ey can
be p r o c e s s e d in PM (M u rra y , 1967; S p erlin g , 1967). Since th is
a rtic u la tio n is tim e co n su m in g , th e v isu a l ite m in SR m a y d e ca y
b e fo re being a rtic u la te d . T h u s, fe w e r v isu ally p r e s e n te d ite m s
than a u d ito rily p re s e n te d ite m s a r r i v e in the a co u stic P M (K intsch
B uschke, 1969).
E x p e rim e n ts in w hich am o u n t of a rtic u la tio n p e rm itte d o r
am ount of a c o u stic s im ila r ity in th e l i s t s w as m a n ip u la ted su p p o rt
the v isu al to a u d ito ry tr a n s la tio n th e o ry of M u rra y and S p erlin g
(B uschke, 1962; C o rb a llis , 1966; E llis , 1969; G la n ze r, 1966;
L a u g h e ry & P in k u s, 1966; L ev y , 1971; T ell, 1971). T he L evy
e x p e rim e n t illu s tr a te s the type of a p p ro a c h ta k e n in th e s e e x p e r i
m e n ts . S ubjects w e re p r e s e n te d w ith a u d ito ry plus v is u a l l e t t e r s
o r v isu a l l e t t e r s alone, and a rtic u la tio n w as p e rm itte d o r p re v e n te d .
W hen a rtic u la tio n w as p re v e n te d by S re p e a tin g " h i-y a " , the
a u d ito ry p lu s v isu a l p re s e n ta tio n w as f a r s u p e rio r to th e v isu al
input. When S cannot u s e a rtic u la tio n , he r e lie s on a c o u stic cu es
w hich a r e only av ailab le w ith the a u d ito ry p re s e n ta tio n . The a u th o r
concluded th at a c o u s tic an d a r tic u la to r y in fo rm atio n w e re r e g i s
te r e d in STS, and v isu al and se m a n tic c h a r a c te r is tic s w e re of
little im p o rta n c e .
C. S e r ia l P o s itio n E ffe cts
G la n z e r and Cunitz (1966) d is c u s s s h o r t- te r m sto ra g e (STS)
and lo n g - te r m sto ra g e (LTS) w hich p a r a lle l P M and SM,
re s p e c tiv e ly . A cco rd in g to th e s e a u th o rs STS is lim ite d by th e
n u m b e r of ite m s it can hold and by th e am ount of tim e it can hold
an ite m . Only the f o r m e r r e s tr ic tio n is v iab le fo r L T S . The
f r e e r e c a ll s e r ia l p o sitio n c u rv e is b ro k e n down into tw o c u rv e s.
One cu rv e c o n s is ts of output fro m STS and the o th er f r o m L T S.
The n u m b e r of ite m s fr o m L T S d e c r e a s e s f r o m the beginning to
8
th e end of the lis t, while th e n u m b e r f r o m STS i n c r e a s e s . G la n z e r
a n d C unitz m a n ip u la ted th e p re s e n ta tio n r a te of a li s t of 20 ite m s
in a fr e e re c a ll e x p e rim e n t. S low er p re s e n ta tio n r e s u lte d in b e tte r
r e c a ll fo r all s e r i a l p o sitio n s ex cep t th e l a s t fiv e. T h e s e la s t fiv e
ite m s fall w ithin th e re c e n c y p o rtio n of the cu rv e and a r e co n sid ered
to be output fr o m STS. T he e x p e r im e n t show s th a t p re s e n ta tio n
r a t e h a s no effect on the re c e n c y p o rtio n of the c u rv e . T h is in d i
c a te s th a t the p a s s a g e of tim e p e r se h a s no effect on STS. H ow ever
a su b seq u en t e x p e rim e n t show s th at the am ount of tim e th a t one
en g ag e s in an a c tiv ity in te rp o la te d b etw een lis t p r e s e n ta tio n and
r e c a l l d o es affect STS. T he le s s tim e S spent on th e in te rp o la te d
a c tiv ity , the h ig h e r the p ro b a b ility of c o r r e c t r e c a ll fo r ite m s
f r o m the re c e n c y p o rtio n of the c u rv e . T h e re w as no e ffe ct on
ite m s f r o m e a r l i e r lis t p o sitio n s. T h e se e x p e rim e n ts p ro v id e
e m p ir ic a l su p p o rt fo r the d istin c tio n betw een th e two m e m o ry
s y s te m s , PM and SM.
F u r th e r e x am in atio n of the s e r i a l p o sitio n cu rv e f o r fre e
r e c a ll show s th a t te rm in a l l i s t ite m s a r e m o s t lik e ly to be r e c a lle d
(the re c e n c y effect), in itia l l i s t ite m s a r e nex t (the p rim a c y
effect), and m id d le lis t ite m s a r e l e a s t lik e ly to be re c a lle d . In
A tk in so n and S h iffrin 's (1968) m o d el, th e p rim a c y effect is a t t r i
b u te d to m o r e in fo rm atio n being t r a n s f e r r e d into L T S f r o m the
f i r s t - p r e s e n t e d ite m s . The ra te of t r a n s f e r is h ig h e r w ith few er
ite m s in th e r e h e a r s a l b u ffer and in itia l ite m s w ill not b e d isp la c e d
f r o m the r e h e a r s a l buffer a s quickly. T he re c e n c y effect is a
re fle c tio n of the S 's "dum ping" the ite m s in the r e h e a r s a l buffer
a t the tim e of t e s t - - re c a llin g th e s e ite m s f ir s t.
Rundus and A tk in so n (1970) a tte m p te d to stu d y r e h e a r s a l
e ffects on p rim a c y d ire c tly by in s tru c tin g Ss to r e h e a r s e aloud
d u rin g l i s t p re s e n ta tio n in a fr e e r e c a ll ta s k . A fte r the f i r s t th r e e
ite m s w e re p resen ted _ S s r e h e a r s e d about th re e ite m s a f te r each
ite m w as p re s e n te d . T h ey alw ay s r e h e a r s e d each new ite m once
a f te r it w as p re s e n te d . T he p rim a c y e ffe ct ex ten d ed o v er the f i r s t
five li s t p o sitio n s. The p ro b a b ility of r e c a ll w as re la te d to the
n u m b e r of r e h e a r s a l s . A fte r the fifth ite m the r e c a ll p ro b a b ility
d e c r e a s e d a s did the n u m b e r of r e h e a r s a l s th at e a c h ite m re c e iv e d .
R undus (1971) u s e d the o v e r t r e h e a r s a l technique in a s im ila r
study. In g rap h in g his r e s u lts , th e p ro b a b ility of c o r r e c t re c a ll
w as p lo tte d in t e r m s of th e input p o sitio n a fte r w hich an ite m was
l a s t r e h e a r s e d . T he p r im a c y e ffe ct w as le s s m a rk e d , but the
re c e n c y effect w as the s a m e w hen he p lo tted the p ro b a b ility of
c o r r e c t r e c a ll in te r m s of input p o sitio n . T h e re fo re , the re c e n c y
e ffe ct is due to th e p r e s e n c e of th e ite m in the r e h e a r s a l b u ffer at
th e end of lis t study. W hen the am o u n t of r e h e a r s a l is h e ld con
stan t, ite m s f r o m in itia l s e r ia l p o s itio n s show no b e tte r r e c a ll
th an m id d le li s t ite m s . T h e r e f o r e , the p rim a c y effect is due to
ad d itio n al r e h e a r s a l of in itia l li s t ite m s . On the o th e r hand, fo r
a sp ec ifie d am o u n t of r e h e a r s a l, ite m s f r o m the l a s t s e r ia l
p o sitio n s have a h ig h e r r e c a ll p ro b a b ility than o th e r ite m s . It
would s e e m th a t th e re c e n c y effect is due to the hig h p ro b a b ility of
te rm in a l lis t ite m s being in S 's r e h e a r s a l buffer a t the tim e of
te s t and to the r e tr ie v a b ility b a se d on STS and L T S in fo rm atio n .
10
F u r th e r in d icatio n th a t the p r im a c y effect is due to m o re
r e h e a r s a l is seen in M eu n ie r, S ta n n e rs and M eu n ier (1971). W hen
r e h e a r s a l w as e a s ie r in a fr e e r e c a ll ta s k due to high p ro n o u n c e ab le
ite m s, th e p rim a c y effect w as l a r g e r . A n o th er e x p e rim e n ta l
m an ip u latio n w as th e in tro d u c tio n of a r e h e a r s a l- p r e v e n tin g ta sk
during th e p re s e n ta tio n of the in itia l l i s t ite m s . T h e re w as a
d ra s tic d e c r e a s e in th e p rim a c y effect. H o w ev er, th e re w as an
in c re a s e in the p ro b a b ility of c o r r e c t re c a ll fo r m iddle l i s t ite m s
since the r e h e a r s a l bu ffer w as em p ty w hen th ey w e re p re s e n te d and
th e r e h e a r s a l p re v e n tio n ta s k had been discontinued.
O th e r evidence of the p rim a c y effect a s a r e h e a r s a l, o r
sto ra g e -d e p e n d e n t ph en o m en a, is seen in an intentional fo rg e ttin g
study (B ru ce & P a p a y , 1970). T h i r t y - i t e m l i s t s w ere p re s e n te d .
S ubjects w e re to fo rg e t no ite m s , the f i r s t 10 ite m s or the f i r s t
20 ite m s. The sig n al to fo rg e t c am e im m e d ia te ly a fte r the to -b e -
fo rg o tten (T B F) ite m s . G roups th a t w e re sig n alled to fo r g e t
showed a h ig h e r p ro b a b ility of c o r r e c t r e c a ll fo r ite m s im m e d ia te ly
a f te r the fo rg e t sig n al th a n g ro u p s not sig n alled to fo rg et the sam e
ite m s . W hen all Ss w e re to r e c a ll a ll ite m s , including T B F s ,
gro u p s sig n alled to fo rg e t show ed lo w e r re c a ll p ro b a b ility fo r
ite m s b e fo re the fo rg e t sig n al (T B F s) th a n g ro u p s which w e re not
to ld to fo rg e t. T h e s e r e s u lts su g g est th a t S is ab le to dum p the
contents of the r e h e a r s a l b u ffer w hen th e fo rg e t signal o c c u r s .
T h ese ite m s will n o t be r e h e a r s e d f u r th e r and w ill not be s to re d in
L T S if th ey w ere n o t a lre a d y th e r e . T he S then h a s an em p ty
r e h e a r s a l buffer fo r the beginning of th e p a r t of th e lis t he is to
11
r e m e m b e r . A p rim a c y effect r e s u lts fo r ite m s im m e d ia te ly a fte r
th e fo rg e t signal.
T ulving and P a tte r s o n (1968) d is a g r e e with A tk in so n and
S h iffrin 's (1968) ex p lan atio n of s e r ia l p o sitio n e ffe c ts. T he f o r m e r
contend th a t th e r e is a u n ita ry m e m o ry s to re and th a t r e c a ll depends
upon u tiliz a tio n of r e tr ie v a l c u e s. Ite m s in the r e c e n c y p o rtio n of
th e cu rv e a r e tim e tag g ed and th is is u s e d in r e tr ie v a l. O th er
ite m s in th e lis t a r e tag g ed w ith a li s t m a r k e r w hich s e r v e s as a
r e tr ie v a l cue. T he p ro b a b ility of re c a ll of an ite m a s s o c ia te d w ith
a p a r tic u la r r e tr ie v a l v a r ie s in v e rs e ly w ith the n u m b e r of o th er
ite m s a s s o c ia te d with th e sam e cue. T he T ulving and P a tte rs o n ,
an d A tkinson and S hiffrin m o d e ls both p ro v id e a d eq u ate e x p lan atio n s
f o r a new s e r ia l p o sitio n phenom enon - - n eg ativ e re c e n c y .
T he te r m "n eg ativ e re c e n c y " w as co in ed by C ra ik (1970) to
d e s c rib e h is findings on a d elay ed f r e e r e c a ll t e s t w hich h a d been
p re c e d e d by im m e d ia te f r e e r e c a ll te stin g fo r ten 1 5 -w o rd lis ts .
S u b jects h e a r d e ac h lis t and w e re te s te d f o r im m e d ia te f r e e re c a ll
b e fo re p ro c e e d in g to the n ex t lis t. A fte r the te s t f o r the te n th
li s t , Ss w e re in s tru c te d to a tte m p t f r e e r e c a ll of a ll th e ite m s
p r e s e n te d to th e m in the e x p e rim e n ta l s e s s io n . T h e s e r ia l p o sitio n
c u rv e s f o r the im m e d ia te re c a ll w e re ty p ic a l, w ith a la r g e re c e n c y
e ffe ct and a s m a lle r p rim a c y effect. H o w ev er, the fin al f r e e r e c a ll
r e s u lts show ed th e lo w e st p ro b a b ility of c o r r e c t r e c a ll fo r the
te r m in a l l i s t ite m s - - th e ite m s w hich w e re r e c a lle d the b e s t on
im m e d ia te te stin g . T h is w as la b e le d th e n eg ativ e re c e n c y effect.
12
In t e r m s of the A tk in so n and S hiffrin (1968) m o d el n eg ativ e
r e c e n c y can be a ttrib u te d to la c k of sto ra g e in SM fo r te r m in a l
l i s t ite m s . On im m e d ia te te s tin g S can r e c a ll th e s e ite m s fr o m PM .
H o w ev er, it a p p e a rs th a t S d o es not su b seq u en tly s to re th e s e ite m s
in SM sin ce th e y a re h a rd ly e v e r r e c a lle d on the d elay ed t e s t . A
d iffe re n t exp lan atio n c o m e s f r o m the T ulving and P a tte r s o n (1968)
m o d e l. A t im m e d ia te te s tin g S can r e tr ie v e te r m in a l li s t ite m s
u sin g te m p o ra l c u e s. A fte r 10 o r m o re l i s t s th e s e te m p o ra l
r e tr ie v a l cu es a r e no lo n g e r a d eq u ate fo r r e c a ll of te r m in a l lis t
ite m s on the fin al r e c a ll te s t.
H o w ev er, a n o th er s in g le - s to r e m o d el (M urdock, 1970) is
u n ab le to a cc o m m o d a te th is s e r i a l p o sitio n effect. A c c o rd in g to
th is th e o ry , at p re s e n ta tio n , ite m s e n te r a s ta te of r e c a lla b ility o r
n o n - r e c a lla b ility . T he p ro b a b ilitie s of e n try into e ith e r s ta te a r e
a s s u m e d to be equal fo r all input p o sitio n s. T h e re fo re , th e p r e d ic
tio n s fr o m th is m o d el and the o b s e rv e d n e g ativ e re c e n c y effect a re
in c o m p a tib le . W ith the W augh a n d N o rm a n (1965) m o d el s im ila r
p re d ic tio n s and p ro b le m s a r i s e . T h e se a u th o rs c la im th a t sto ra g e
in SM is independent of s e r ia l p o sitio n . T h is is c o n tra d ic te d by
th e m a rk e d p o sitio n d iffe re n c e s in re c a ll of ite m s fr o m SM on
d e lay e d r e c a ll ta s k s .
T he n eg ativ e re c e n c y e ffe ct is a re lia b le phenom enon as seen
in th e n u m e ro u s re p lic a tio n s of C r a ik 's in itia l r e s u lts : 1) w ith
f r e e r e c a ll (B jork, 1970a; Cohen, 1970; C ra ik , G a rd in e r &
W atk in s, 1970; D a rle y & M u rd o ck , 1971; L e w is , 1971; M adigan,
M cC ab e & Itatan i, in p r e s s ; M cC abe & M adigan, 1971; W oodw ard
& : B jo rk , 1971); 2) w ith s e r ia l r e c a ll (Cohen, 1970; M adigan et. a l . ,
in p r e s s ) ; 3) w ith re c o g n itio n te s tin g (C ra ik et. a l. , 1970; M cC abe
& M adigan, 1971; R undus, L oftus & A tkinson, 1970); and 4) w ith
p a ir e d a s s o c ia te p ro b e te stin g (M adigan & M cC abe, 1971; M cC abe
& M adigan, 1971). B efo re C ra ik la b e le d th e effect, s im ila r r e s u lts
had been o b tained by S ch w artz and R o u se (1961), and p ro b ab ly
o th e rs . H o w ev er, th e se p r e d e c e s s o r s did not s h a r e o u r c u r r e n t
m o d e ls of m e m o r y so th ey could not in te r p r e t th e ir r e s u lts in th e s e
t e r m s .
N eg ativ e re c e n c y d en ies v a lid ity to s ta te m e n ts su ch a s th o se
m a d e by L a c h m a n and M is tie r (1970) to th e effect th at t e s t t r i a l s
o r r e h e a r s a l in c r e a s e r e c a ll p ro b a b ility by th e sa m e am ount.
R e c a ll of ite m s in STS at the tim e of im m e d ia te t e s t does little to
in c r e a s e th e p ro b a b ility th a t th e se ite m s w ill be r e c a lle d or
re c o g n iz e d on a l a t e r te s t (M adigan & M cC abe, 1971; M cC abe &
M adigan, 1971). In th e s e stu d ies Ss w e re p r e s e n te d five p a ir s of
co m m o n E n g lish w o rd s and given an im m e d ia te p ro b e te s t - - th e
f i r s t m e m b e r fro m one of th e p a ir s w as p r e s e n te d and S w as to
supply the o th e r m e m b e r of th a t p a ir . A fte r a s e r i e s of 40 o r 50
su ch lis ts an d p ro b e te s ts , S w as given a p ro b e te s t fo r each of
th e p re v io u s ly te s te d p a ir s (PT) and fo r one p re v io u s ly u n te ste d
p a ir (NPT) f r o m each of th e li s t s . T h e re w as little , if any
d iffe re n c e , betw een te r m in a l P T and N P T p a ir s in final r e c a ll and
re c o g n itio n p e rfo rm a n c e . T h e se e x p e rim e n ts a ls o d e m o n stra te d
th a t re c a ll f r o m STS p e r se w as not the c au se of the n eg ativ e
re c e n c y effect. A s im ila r d eclin e in r e c a ll p ro b a b ility w as seen
14
in P T and N P T c u rv e s .
T he P T - N P T e x p e rim e n ts and o th e rs (Waugh, 1969; L e w is &
B a rtz , 1970) su g g est th at th e im p o rta n c e of re c a llin g an ite m fr o m
STS is th at the ite m w ill not sub seq u en tly be s to re d in L T S. T hus,
u n le s s the STS ite m is a lre a d y in L T S it w ill n o t e n te r LT S since S
sto p s r e h e a r s in g the ite m once it h a s been r e c a lle d (N o rm an &
R u m e lh a rt, 1970). L e w is (1971) contends th a t a ll r e h e a r s a l stops
w hen S b eg in s r e c a ll. T h e re fo re , no STS ite m w ould be s to re d in
LTS once S h a s given h is f i r s t re s p o n s e . B jo rk (1970a) s ta te s
th at r e t r i e v a l fr o m th e r e h e a r s a l buffer is a dum ping event w hich
c o n trib u te s nothing to L T S , but r e tr ie v a l fr o m L T S in c r e a s e s the
p ro b a b ility th a t su b seq u en t a tte m p ts to r e tr ie v e the ite m w ill a lso
be s u c c e ss fu l.
S e v e ra l p a r a lle l s m a y be d raw n betw een n e g ativ e re c e n c y and
o th e r r e c a ll p h en o m en a. R ec a ll f r o m STS can be c o m p a re d to
re p e titio n of an ite m in l i s t p re s e n ta tio n w hile th e ite m is s till in
STS. T he re p e titio n stu d ie s show th at th e r e is l e s s b e n efit fr o m
re p e a tin g an ite m w hich is in STS than in re p e atin g an ite m w hich
is in L T S (M adigan, 1969). Supposedly if an ite m is in STS it w ill
not be r e p r e s e n te d th e r e m o re th an once a t any p o in t in tim e , even
though it h a s been p r e s e n te d m o re than once. H o w ev er, if an ite m
is in L T S, r e - p r e s e n ta tio n of the ite m w ill r e s u lt in s to ra g e in STS
and p o s sib le lo n g - te r m sto ra g e (B jork, 1970b). In a n eg ativ e
re c e n c y p a ra d ig m , r e c a ll f r o m STS m ay a c t lik e a re p e titio n of an
15
ite m in STS and h av e no effect on LT S, b u t r e c a ll fro m L T S m ay
re s u lt in f u r th e r L T S r e g is tr a tio n . A sec o n d re la tio n s h ip betw een
neg ativ e re c e n c y stu d ies and o th e r e x p e rim e n ts m a y be see n in th e
s tra te g y of S in an in ten tio n al fo rg ettin g situ a tio n such a s in
W oodw ard and B jo rk (1971). S u b jects can a p p ro a c h the in ten tio n al
fo rg ettin g ta s k a s a grouping a c tiv ity - - p la cin g th e w o rd s to be
r e c a lle d in one g ro u p and the w o rd s not to be re c a lle d in a n o th e r.
In a s im ila r m a n n e r Ss who know they w ill be p r e s e n te d w ith m an y
l i s t s , and te s te d f o r im m e d ia te r e c a ll of th e s e li s t s , m a y t r y to
" fo rg e t" th e ite m s in p re v io u s l i s t s so th a t th ey do not in te r f e r e
w ith r e c a ll of th e c u r r e n t lis t. T h is fo rg e ttin g m a y c o n s is t of
sto rin g th e ite m s in a m a n n e r w hich m a k e s th e m h a rd to r e tr ie v e .
T h is s tra te g y m a y be p a r tic u la r ly effectiv e w ith ite m s in STS w hich
h av e no L T S r e p re s e n ta tio n , the te r m in a l l i s t ite m s .
D. T he C u rre n t P r o b le m
A lthough th e d istin c tio n betw een P M and SM is u se fu l in
explaining n eg ativ e re c e n c y e ffe cts, C ra ik (1971) su g g e sts th at
m a te r ia l d o es not have to be h e ld in PM . If input is v e ry co m p atib le
w ith the an aly zin g s y s te m (for e x am p le, a sen te n c e o r p ic tu re ),
th e n S m a y shift ra p id ly to SM p ro c e s s in g . P r i m a r y m e m o r y
sto ra g e is c o n s id e re d to be e ith e r a u d ito ry o r a r tic u la to r y ; the
only v isu al sto ra g e in P M m ig h t be v e ry sim p le (for e x am p le, a
sin g le le tte r ) . B addeley an d P a tte r s o n (1971) a lso hint th a t the
d istin c tio n b etw een P M and SM m a y not be v a lid fo r n o n v e rb a l
m a te r ia l. T hey d e s c rib e re c o d in g a s th e tr a n s la tio n of in fo rm a tio n
into a n o th e r, m o re m e m o ra b le , f o r m by sh o rte n in g th e m a te r ia l o r
p ro v id in g m o r e r e tr ie v a l c u e s. P ic tu r e s w ould a p p e a r to have a
sufficien t n u m b e r of r e tr ie v a l cues w ithout f u r th e r e la b o ra tiv e
coding. M u st p ic to ria l inputs spend tim e in the r e h e a r s a l buffer
being re c o d e d b e fo re being p la ce d in SM?
M adigan et. a l. (in p r e s s ) a tte m p te d to a n sw e r th is q u estio n
w ith a s e r ie s of s tu d ie s . In the f i r s t e x p e rim e n t Ss e ith e r h e a r d a
li s t of c o n c re te nouns o r th e y h e a r d th e sa m e lis t of w ords and at
the sam e tim e w e re a lso shown a p ic tu re of the o b je ct denoted by
the a u d ito rily p r e s e n te d w o rd . T h e re w e re 10 d iffe re n t l i s ts w ith
15 ite m s p e r lis t. S ubjects w e re te s te d fo r im m e d ia te fr e e re c a ll
a f te r each l i s t . A fte r the te n th l i s t and im m e d ia te r e c a ll te s t, Ss
w e re in s tr u c te d to r e c a ll a ll of the p re c e d in g l i s t s . On im m e d ia te
r e c a ll the only effect of the ad d itio n al p ic to ria l m a te r ia l w as to
r a is e r e c a ll le v e ls f o r the m id d le l i s t ite m s . The fin a l r e c a ll
r e s u lts show ed a m u c h la r g e r p ic tu re s u p e rio rity . P ic tu r e s -p lu s -
w o rd s w e re c le a r ly s u p e r io r to w o rd s alone fo r th e l a s t ten s e r ia l
p o sitio n s. Only the a u d ito ry lis ts show ed n eg ativ e re c e n c y e ffe cts.
The ad dition of p ic tu r e s s e e m s to have e lim in a te d th e m . In
a n o th e r study the ta s k was th e sa m e , but Ss only saw lis ts of
p ic tu r e s . A lthough th e r e w as m a rk e d p o sitiv e re c e n c y fo r
im m e d ia te f r e e r e c a ll, fo r fin al f r e e re c a ll th ere w as no neg ativ e
re c e n c y . In ste ad , th e r e w e re slig h tly p o sitiv e re c e n c y effe cts. A
th ird e x p lo ra tio n of p ic tu re effects c o n c e rn e d a s e r ia l re c a ll ta sk .
S u b jects e ith e r h e a r d w ord l i s t s o r saw a l i s t of p ic tu r e s w hich
w e re acc o m p a n ied by the a p p ro p ria te a u d ito ry n a m e . A gain the
17
effect of p ic tu r e s w a s to e lim in a te neg ativ e re c e n c y e ffe c ts. T h e se
r e s u lts su g g este d th a t p ic tu r e s p ro d u ce so m e im m e d ia te sto ra g e in
SM w ithout the n e e d fo r in te rv e n in g buffer p r o c e s s in g .
T h e n o n -n e g a tiv e r e c e n c y r e s u lts w ith p ic tu re s point up so m e
d e fe c ts in c u r r e n t m o d e ls of m e m o ry . A lthough both the A tk in so n
and S h iffrin (1968) and T ulving and P a tte r s o n (1968) m o d e ls can
acco u n t fo r n e g a tiv e re c e n c y , they a r e not c le a r on why th e r e should
be su ch a m a rk e d d iffe re n c e in s e r ia l p o sitio n c u rv e s fo r p ic tu r e s
and a u d ito rily p r e s e n te d w o rd s. A lso , the m o d e ls do not p ro v id e
for th e im m e d ia te s to ra g e of p ic to ria l in fo rm atio n w hich th e M adigan
et. a l. e x p e rim e n ts su g g est. Since p o sitiv e re c e n c y fo r a u d ito ry
ite m s w as slig h t, a m o re s trin g e n t te s t of p ic tu r e - w o r d d iffe re n c e s
w as in c lu d e d in th e p r e s e n t study. W ith a u d ito ry ite m s th e l a r g e s t
n eg ativ e re c e n c y e ffe cts w e re shown to o c c u r in a p a ir e d a s s o c ia te
p ro b e p a ra d ig m (M adigan & M cC abe, 1971; M cC abe & M adigan,
1971). W hat follow s w as in p a r t an a tte m p t a t re p lic a tio n of n o n
n eg ativ e re c e n c y findings w ith p ic tu r e s in a p a ir e d a s s o c ia te ta s k .
A n o th e r p o te n tia l m o d a lity d ifferen ce c o n sid e re d w as th a t
betw een a u d ito ry an d v isu a l w o rd s. C ra ik 's (1970) d a ta show ed th e
e n d - lis t s u p e r io rity fo r the a u d ito ry over v is u a l ite m s in im m e d ia te
re c a ll, although th e d iffe re n c e was m u c h l e s s than u s u a lly found
(M urdock & W alk e r, 1969). He did n ot r e p o r t d iffe re n c e s in the
final r e c a ll d a ta due to p re s e n ta tio n m o d a lity . A p p a re n tly th is w as
not a n aly z e d due to th e sm a ll d ifferen c es at im m e d ia te r e c a ll.
L e s s n e g ativ e r e c e n c y m ig h t be expected fo r v isu a l m a te r ia l sin ce
th is p r e s e n ta tio n m o d e w ould force_S to p r o c e s s ite m s m o r e e q u ally
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o r a t le a s t not allow r e c a ll of m a te r ia l f r o m s e n s o ry sto ra g e
(M adigan & M cC abe, 1971).
A p ro b e te s t w as ch o sen fo r th is study of m o d a lity e ffe cts in a
p a ire d a s s o c ia te ta s k . T h is p ro c e d u re in v o lv es th e p re s e n ta tio n of
a l i s t of p a ir e d a s s o c ia te s and the te s tin g of only one p a ir p e r li s t
(M urdock, 1961). T he tech n iq u e is b a se d on the finding th a t p r o
ducing so m e ite m s in te r f e r e s w ith r e c a ll of o th er ite m s in an
im m e d ia te m e m o r y ta s k (A nderson, I960; S p e rlin g , I960). T h u s,
th e p ro b e tech n iq u e p ro v id e s a b e tte r e s tim a te of th e r e c a lla b ility of
an ite m th an te s tin g of a ll p a ir s in a lis t.
A long w ith the p ro b e r e c a ll t e s t a seco n d dependent m e a s u r e ,
re s p o n se la te n c y , w as in c o rp o ra te d into th is e x p e rim e n t. F r o m
p re v io u s stu d ie s, m o d a lity and s e r ia l p o sitio n d iffe re n c e s w e re
ex p ected . K ir s n e r and C ra ik (1971) cau tio n ed th a t d e c isio n and
nam ing la te n c ie s m ig h t be f a s te r f o r a u d ito ry than fo r v is u a l
w o rd s b e c a u se S_might g u ess b e fo re the p r e s e n ta tio n of the a u d ito ry
w o rd w as c o m p le ted . F r a i s s e (1968) show ed th a t v e rb a l re a c tio n
tim e to p ic tu r e s w as lo n g e r than to v is u a lly p r e s e n te d w o rd s. The
opposite r e s u lts w e re found by S ey m o u r (1969) in an e x p e rim e n t in
w hich re s p o n s e c o n tin g e n cie s w e re v a rie d so that S w ould hav e to
c o n sid e r the shape of a g e o m e tric fig u re , th e w o rd , or both, b efo re
resp o n d in g . It w as a n tic ip a te d th at th is e x p e rim e n t would c o n trib u te
to the u n d e rsta n d in g of m o d a lity d iffe re n c e s in re s p o n s e la te n c ie s .
In te r m s of s e r ia l p o sitio n effe cts, W augh (1969) d e m o n s tra te d
s h o r te r la te n c ie s fo r th e re c e n c y p o sitio n of the c u rv e . She found
no d iffe re n c e s fo r th e r e s t of the l i s t . F u c h s (1971) show ed th is
19
re c e n c y effect, but a lso show ed f a s te r r e c a ll fo r in itia l lis t ite m s in
a p ro b e e x p e rim e n t. M adigan and M cC abe (1971) found a d e c re a sin g
lin e a r re la tio n s h ip betw een s e r ia l p o sitio n and la te n c y fo r a u d ito rily
p re s e n te d w o rd s. Since th e s e p re v io u s e x p e rim e n ts involved v e r b a l
ly p re s e n te d ite m s , our e x p e rim e n t p ro v id e d lack in g in fo rm a tio n
c o n cern in g s e r ia l p o sitio n la te n c y fo r p ic tu r e s and p ro v id e d a te s t
of the p rim a c y e ffe ct fo r r e a c tio n tim e .
A n o th er in te re s tin g re la tio n s h ip betw een re s p o n s e la te n c y and
r e c a ll p ro b a b ility w as a lso c o n sid e re d . A n e g ativ e c o r r e la tio n
betw een final r e c a ll p ro b a b ility and im m e d ia te re c a ll la te n c y w as
found fo r a u d ito ry w o rd p a i r s (M adigan & M cC abe, 1971; M cC abe &
M adigan, 1971). T h is is c o n tr a r y to U n d erw o o d 's (1964) acco u n t of
th e re la tio n sh ip betw een re s p o n s e la te n cy and a s s o c ia tiv e stre n g th .
W ould th is sam e n eg ativ e re la tio n s h ip hold f o r v is u a lly p re s e n te d
w o rd s and p ic tu r e s a s w ell?
An u n te ste d c o m p a riso n fo r p ic tu re s w as the e ffe c t of
im m e d ia te r e c a ll on d elay ed re c a ll. The p r e s e n t study te s te d th is
follow ing th e P T - N P T p ro c e d u re u s e d by M ad ig an and M cC abe (1971).
In th is e a r l i e r e x p e rim e n t c o m p a riso n of P T and N P T ite m s f o r
a u d ito rily p r e s e n te d w o rd s show ed s im ila r s e r i a l p o sitio n c u rv e s,
but the p ro b a b ility of c o r r e c t final r e c a ll w a s lo w e r f o r N P T th an
fo r P T ite m s . T h a t is, a t each s e r ia l p o sitio n , the N P T cu rv e
w as below the P T c u rv e , but the tw o c u rv e s h a d the s a m e shape.
To s u m m a riz e , s e v e r a l q u estio n s c o n cern in g im m e d ia te and
d elay ed p ro b e d r e c a ll of p a ir e d a s s o c ia te s h a v e been p o sed . T he
effe cts of input m o d a lity an d s e r ia l p o sitio n on r e c a ll p e rfo rm a n c e
20
and la te n c y w e re c o n sid e re d . Of p a r tic u la r in te r e s t w e re any i n t e r
a ctio n s betw een m o d a lity an d input p o sitio n . It w as fe lt th a t th is
c o m p a riso n of the s e r ia l p o sitio n c u rv e s fo r the d iffe re n t m o d a litie s
m ig h t give so m e in sig h t into sp ecific m eth o d s of in fo rm a tio n p r o
c e s s in g . Is th e d istin c tio n betw een P M and SM v a lid fo r a ll th r e e
m o d a litie s ? A re v is u a lly p r e s e n te d w o rd s, w hich h av e been c o v e rtly
a rtic u la te d , tr e a te d in the sam e m a n n e r a s a u d ito rily p r e s e n te d
w o rd s? A lso of c o n c e rn w as the p re d ic ta b ility of r e c a ll b a se d upon
re s p o n s e la te n c y . T he e ffe ct of p r i o r te stin g , in an im m e d ia te te s t,
on r e c a ll and re a c tio n tim e p e rfo rm a n c e on a d elay ed te s t w as
ex am in ed .
H. M ETH O D
A. D esign
T he lone b e tw ee n -S s v a ria b le in th is study w as m o d a lity - -
a u d ito rily p r e s e n te d w o rd s , v isu a lly p r e s e n te d w o rd s, and p ic tu r e s .
T he two w ith in -S s ind ep en d en t v a ria b le s w e re s e r ia l p o sitio n and
fin al r e c a ll te s t ty p e (P T and N P T ). Two dependent v a r ia b le s ,
re s p o n s e p ro b a b ility and re s p o n s e speed, w e re m e a s u r e d on both
im m e d ia te and d elay ed r e c a ll.
A ll Ss re c e iv e d 30 im m e d ia te p ro b e r e c a ll t e s t s of f iv e - p a ir
l i s t s . T he p ro b e s w e re p r e s e n te d in th e sam e m o d a lity a s the l i s t s .
E a c h input p o sitio n w as p ro b e d six tim e s in ra n d o m iz e d b locks of
five t e s t s . S u b jects w e re then te s te d f o r re te n tio n of the 3 0 p r e
v io u sly te s te d (P T ) p a ir s and 30 p re v io u s ly u n te ste d (N PT) p a ir s .
T he p ro b e s fo r th e se ite m s w e re p r e s e n te d in a ran d o m o r d e r .
F r o m all l i s ts containing a given P T p ro b e p o sitio n , one o th e r p a ir
f r o m the fo u r o th e r li s t p o sitio n s was se le c te d to be the N P T p a ir .
F o r e x am p le, w ith P o s itio n 1 a s the P T p a ir, th e N P T p a ir could
be fr o m input p o sitio n 2, 3, 4, o r 5. E a c h of th e five input p o sitio n s
w as ra n d o m ly sam p led to be an N P T once fo r e ac h of th e six
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22
f iv e - lis t b lo c k s. T h u s, e ac h N P T p ro b e p o sitio n w as te s te d six
tim e s in fin al r e c a ll.
Six ra n d o m ly c o n s tru c te d s e ts of 30 f iv e - p a ir l i s ts w e re u sed .
F o r each of th e se six re p lic a tio n s new P T and N P T s e le c tio n s , and
new ra n d o m iz a tio n of final te stin g o r d e r w e re m a d e.
B. P r o c e d u re
S u b jects w e re te s te d ind iv id u ally . T h o se in th e a u d ito ry
condition h e a r d tap e r e c o r d e d lis ts fr o m s p e a k e rs . P a i r s w e re
defined by p a u s e s - - lo n g e r p a u se s betw een p a ir s th a n betw een
ite m s w ithin the s a m e p a ir . The p ro b e w as the f i r s t w ord in a p a ir.
F o r Ss in th e v isu a l w ord g ro u p p rin te d p a i r s w e re p r e s e n te d using
3 5 m m slid e s and a C a ro u se l Slide P r o j e c t o r . One w o rd of a p a ir
w as typed above the o th e r and only one p a i r w as p r e s e n te d on each
slid e . The u p p e r w o rd in a p a i r would be the p ro b e . The sa m e
p r e s e n ta tio n e q u ip m en t w as u s e d w ith the p ic to ria l condition, but
the ite m s w e re p h o to g ra p h s of p a ir s of d ra w in g s. F o r p h o to g ra p h
ing th e p a ir s , one p ic tu re w as p la ce d b e sid e a n o th e r. The p ro b e
fo r a p a ir w as the o b je ct on th e left.
E x c e p t fo r the d iffe re n t p re s e n ta tio n m eth o d s and s e ts of
l i s t s , the im m e d ia te r e c a ll t e s t s w e re the sa m e f o r a ll Ss. P a i r s
w e re p r e s e n te d at a th r e e - s e c o n d r a te . T he p ro b e follow ed the
l a s t ite m . T e n seco n d s w e re allow ed fo r S ^ to re sp o n d . S u b jects
w e re in s tru c te d to t r y to re s p o n d on e v e ry t e s t w ith th e ir b e s t g u e ss.
P r o b e p re s e n ta tio n and a ctiv atio n of the v o ice key w e re s im u lta n e
ous. Upon £>'s o ra l re s p o n s e , or th e end of th e 10 seco n d re s p o n s e
in te rv a l, th e clock stopped. T he e x p e r im e n te r re c o r d e d the
23
la te n c y and th e re s p o n s e , and r e s e t the clo ck . A fte r the te s t fo r
the th ir tie th l i s t , Ss w e re in s tru c te d fo r fin a l p ro b e d re c a ll. The
p r o b e s fo r th e fin al t e s t w e re p re s e n te d in th e sam e m a n n e r a s the
p ro b e s fo r the im m e d ia te te s t; the e x p e r im e n te r allow ed_Ss 10
seco n d s to re s p o n d . T he e x p e r im e n te r re c o rd e d la te n c y , a s w ell
as th e re s p o n s e .
F o r the w o rd g ro u p s c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s w ere th e second w o rd s
in th e p a ir s . A m o r e lib e r a l sco rin g c r ite r io n was adopted f o r the
p ic tu re g roup. In th is c a s e th e w o rd p r e s e n te d to th e w ord g ro u p s
w as th e p r e f e r r e d re s p o n s e . H ow ever, if S re sp o n d e d with a
synonym of th is w o rd , the re s p o n s e w as counted as c o r r e c t. F o r
ex am p le, if th e p a ir w as n s a w -ro c k e t" , and_S re sp o n d e d to th e
p ro b e w ith " m is s il e " h is re s p o n se w ould be c o r r e c t. Since th e
w o rd s u sed w e r e the m o s t fre q u e n t ^ -s u p p lie d p ic tu re la b e ls in
s e v e r a l e x p e rim e n ts (M adigan et. a l . , in p r e s s ) re p e a te d synonym
su b stitu tio n w a s n o t a n tic ip ate d .
C. S ubjects
One h u n d re d and eighty Ss w e re te s te d . They w e re v o lu n te e rs
fro m the U n iv e rs ity of S o u th ern C alifo rn ia P sy c h o lo g y D e p a rtm e n t
S ub ject P o o l. T en Ss w e re te s te d u n d e r e a c h of the th r e e p r e s e n t a
tion co n d itio n s, and w ith e ac h of the six s e ts of m a te r ia ls . T h is
re s u lte d in 18 g ro u p s of 10 Ss each.
III. RESU LTS
In o r d e r to a n s w e r th e q u estio n s p o se d e a r lie r , v a rio u s
s u m m a ry s ta tis tic s w e re a p p lied to th e d a ta. The follow ing is a
c o n sid e ra tio n of th e effects of m o d ality , s e r i a l p o sitio n , and fin a l
r e c a ll t e s t type (P T -N P T ) on th e r e c a ll and la te n c y m e a s u r e s . D ata
f r o m the im m e d ia te t e s t is p re s e n te d f ir s t. A fte r th is , final r e c a ll
p e rfo rm a n c e is c o n s id e re d in tw o p a r ts . P e r f o r m a n c e on P T ite m s
is d is c u s s e d b e fo re in fo rm a tio n on the N P T p a ir s is p re s e n te d .
A . Im m e d ia te R ec a ll
A n a ly sis of v a ria n c e show ed a sig n ifican t m o d a lity effect
(p<. 05) fo r p ro b a b ility of c o r r e c t r e c a ll (P C R ). In t e r m s of o v e ra ll
r e c a ll p ro b a b ility , a u d ito ry w o rd s (P C R = .60) w e re s u p e r io r to th e ir
v isu a l c o u n te r p a r ts (PCR =. 55), which in tu r n had th e advantage
o v e r p ic tu r e s (PCR=. 54). A significant input p o sitio n effect w as
a lso p r e s e n t (p<. 001). C o llap sed o v e r m o d a litie s th e m e a n r e c a ll
p ro b a b ilitie s fo r Input P o s itio n s 1 th ro u g h 5 w e re .4 8 , .4 1 , .4 5 ,
. 59, and . 86 re s p e c tiv e ly . T h e se r e s u lts in d ic a ted a p rim a c y and
a re c e n c y effect. In F ig u r e 1 it can be seen th a t th e c u rv e s f o r the
th r e e m o d a litie s c r o s s . T h is s e r ia l p o sitio n -m o d a lity in te ra c tio n
24
25
w as sig n ifican t (p<. 001). V isu al w o rd s and p ic tu r e s w e re s u p e r io r
f o r the f i r s t two l i s t p o sitio n s, w hile a u d ito ry w o rd s in c r e a s e in
ad v antage o v e r th e la s t t h r e e p o sitio n s. T he l a r g e r re c e n c y effect
fo r a u d ito ry w o rd s w as ex p ec te d (M adigan, M cC abe, & Itatan i,
1972; and M u rdock, 1967).
R esp o n se la te n c ie s show ed a definite m o d a lity effect (tw o-w ay
a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e , p<, 001), In o r d e r of in c re a s in g a v e ra g e
re a c tio n tim e s f o r c o r r e s t r e s p o n s e s we h a d a u d ito ry w o rd s w ith
1.41 seco n d s, v is u a l w o rd s w ith 1. 76 seco n d s, and p ic tu r e s w ith
2. 04 seco n d s. Both p r im a c y and re c e n c y o c c u r re d , p ro d u cin g a
sig n ifican t s e r ia l p o sitio n effect (p<. 001). T h at is , th e re s p o n s e
tim e fo r P o s itio n 2 w as th e la r g e s t (2. 18 seco n d s) w ith P o s itio n 1
la te n c y being slig h tly s m a l le r (2.03 seco n d s). F o r P o s itio n s 3
th ro u g h 5 th is m e a s u r e d e c r e a s e d (1 .9 2 sec o n d s, 1.46 seco n d s, and
1. 08 seco n d s re s p e c tiv e ly ). F ig u r e 2 show s the a v e ra g e la te n c y
a t each s e r ia l p o sitio n fo r th e th r e e m o d a litie s . T he c u rv e s w e re
v e ry s im ila r in sh ap e. A ll th re e show ed sig n ific a n t lin e a r and
q u a d ra tic tre n d s (p<. 01). T h e re w a s no c r o s s o v e r of the c u rv e s,
and, th e r e f o r e , no sig n ific a n t in te ra c tio n effect.
T a b le 1 b re a k s down th e la te n c y data f o r two k in d s of
re s p o n s e ; 1) ite m s c o r r e c t on both te s t s (CC); and 2) ite m s
c o r r e c t on th e f i r s t p ro b e t e s t and i n c o r r e c t on the fin al t e s t (CN).
T he a v e ra g e CC la te n c y (1. 65 seconds) w as le s s th an the m e a n CN
la te n c y (1.81 seco n d s). C o m p a ris o n of CC and CN v a lu e s fr o m
T a b le 1 show ed the f o r m e r to be s h o r te r f o r m o re c e lls . T h u s, fo r
26
m o s t s e r ia l p o s itio n -m o d a lity p a irin g s , s h o r te r re a c tio n tim e on
th e im m e d ia te p ro b e te s t in d ic a ted h ig h e r p ro b a b ility of c o r r e c t
d e lay e d re c a ll, (F o r la te n c y in fo rm a tio n on the in c o r r e c t ite m s on
th e im m e d ia te and fin al t e s t s see the ta b le s in the A ppendix. )
B. P T F in a l R ec a ll
A n a ly sis of v a ria n c e re v e a le d a sig n ifican t m o d ality effect fo r
CC ite m s fo r the p ro b a b ility of c o r r e c t r e c a ll (p<. 005). P ic tu r e s
(PCR=. 23) w e re m o r e lik ely to be r e c a lle d th an v isu ally p re s e n te d
w o rd s (PCR=. 21). A u d ito ry w o rd s (PCR =. 13) w e re in f e r io r to both
v is u a l in p u ts. T h e re w e re a ls o m a rk e d s e r ia l p o sitio n d iffe re n c e s
(p<. 001) . S u m m a ry s ta tis tic s a c r o s s m o d a litie s show ed p r im a c y
and n eg ativ e re c e n c y e ffe cts. R ec a ll p ro b a b ilitie s f o r Input P o s itio n s
1 th ro u g h 5 w e re . 25, . 21, . 22, . 16, and . 11. A sig n ifican t
m o d a lity s e r ia l p o sitio n in te ra c tio n (p<, 05) su p p o rted the e x p ec ta tio n
of q u alitativ e r e c a ll d iffe re n c e s betw een w o rd s and p ic tu r e s . In
F ig u r e 3 both a u d ito ry and v is u a l w o rd c u rv e s show the n eg ativ e
re c e n c y effect, w hile the p ic tu re c u rv e d o e s not. F o r both w o rd
ty p e s r e c a ll p ro b a b ility w as lo w e r fo r Input P o s itio n 5 than fo r
P o s itio n 4. T h is w as not the c a s e fo r p ic to ria l input w h e re L is t
P o s itio n 5 ite m s w e re m o re lik e ly to be r e c a lle d than P o s itio n 4
ite m s .
M odality d iffe re n c e s f o r la te n c y of CC ite m s on the fin al te s t
w e re s im ila r to th o se fo r a ll ite m s c o r r e c t at im m e d ia te te stin g .
T a b le 2 shows th at a u d ito ry p ro b e te s tin g r e s u lte d in th e s h o r te s t
m e a n la te n c y (2. 12 seco n d s). T h e re w as little d iffe re n c e in
27
a v e r a g e re s p o n s e tim e betw een the v is u a l w o rd s (2. 56 seco n d s)
and p ic tu r e s (2. 58 seco n d s). In c o n tra s t to th e f i r s t te s t re s p o n s e
tim e s th e r e w as no ev id en ce fo r p rim a c y o r re c e n c y effects in th is
d ata.
T able 3 p r e s e n ts the n u m b e r of ite m s r e c a lle d on fin al p ro b e
te s tin g w hich w e re not r e c a lle d on the im m e d ia te t e s t (NC), T h e re
w e re no m o d ality d iffe re n c e s fo r this m e a s u r e . T h e n u m b e r of
o b s e rv a tio n s w as so s m a ll th at co n d itionalizing th e s e v a lu e s on the
p ro b a b ility of an e r r o r in im m e d ia te r e c a ll w as not m ean in g fu l.
T h is p ro h ib ite d any c o m p a riso n based on s e r ia l p o s itio n s . T h is
re a s o n in g follow ed f o r the la te n c y m e a s u r e s {Table 4). A lthough
no s e r i a l p o sitio n c o m p a riso n s w e re p o s s ib le , the data show ed
m o d a lity d iffe re n c e s s im ila r to th o se f o r CC p a i r s . T h at is ,
a v e r a g e re s p o n s e la te n c y w as s h o rte r f o r a u d ito ry p a ir s (2 .5 8
seco n d s) th an f o r v isu a lly p re s e n te d w o rd p a ir s (3. 75 seco n d s). T he
lo n g e st re s p o n s e tim e w as shown fo r p ic tu r e s (4. 06 seco n d s).
C. N P T F in a l R e c a ll
F o r the p ro b a b ility of c o r r e c t r e c a ll a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e
re v e a le d a sig n ifican t m o d a lity effect (p<. 001). A s w ith th e P T
ite m s , N P T a u d ito ry p a ir s show ed the lo w e s t r e c a ll le v e ls
(PCR =. 08), v is u a l w o rd s w e re nex t (PC R =. 13), and p ic tu r e s w e re
m o s t lik e ly to be c o r r e c t (PCR=. 16). A la r g e input p o sitio n effect
w as a ls o p r e s e n t (p<. 001). Sum m ing o v e r m o d a litie s , th e r e w as a
p r im a c y and n e g a tiv e re c e n c y effect. R e c a ll p ro b a b ility d e c r e a s e d
a c r o s s s e r ia l p o sitio n s - - . 17, . 16, . 13, .0 9 , an d . 06. U nlike the
28
P T data, all th re e N P T c u rv e s show ed n eg ativ e re c e n c y - - the
te r m in a l input p o sitio n show ed the lo w e st re c a ll le v e l. T h u s, th e re
w as no m o d a lity - s e r ia l p o sitio n in te ra c tio n fo r N P T ite m s . S e ria l
and f r e e r e c a ll e x p e rim e n ts (M adigan et. a l . , in p r e s s ) w ith p ic tu re s
did not in c o rp o ra te a P T - N P T d istin c tio n into the d esig n , so it is
not know n if o th e r e x p e rim e n ta l p a ra d ig m s would show n eg ativ e
re c e n c y fo r p ic tu re s on an N P T t e s t . T re n d a n a ly s is in d ic a te s a
sig n ific a n t d e c re a sin g lin e a r tre n d fo r a ll th r e e c u rv e s (p<. 001),
C o m p a riso n of the N P T c u rv e s (F ig u re 4) w ith th e P T c u rv e s
(F ig u re 3) re v e a le d lo w e r fin al r e c a ll fo r N P T (PCR =. 12) th an fo r
P T (PCR=. 19) ite m s . T h is w as a re p lic a tio n fo r a ll th re e m o d a litie s
of r e s u lts fo r a u d ito ry w o rd p a ir s (M adigan & M cC ab e, 1971;
M cC abe & M adigan, 1971). T h u s, c o r r e c t re sp o n d in g on a p re v io u s
p ro b e t e s t does s e rv e to in c r e a s e p e rfo rm a n c e on a su b seq u en t r e c a ll
t e s t fo r a ll th re e m o d a litie s at a ll s e r ia l p o sitio n s.
A s w ith th e P T d a ta th e r e w e re no s e r ia l p o sitio n effe cts fo r
N P T la te n c ie s of c o r r e c t ite m s (T able 5). M odality d iffe re n c e s
w e re a lso s im ila r to m e a n P T la te n c ie s - - a u d ito ry w o rd s (2.67
seco n d s), v isu a l w o rd s (3.13 seco n d s), and p ic tu r e s (3 .4 2 seco n d s).
T he m e a n la te n c y of c o r r e c t N P T re s p o n s e s (3. 07 seco n d s) w as
lo n g e r th a n th a t fo r c o r r e c t P T re s p o n s e s (2 .4 2 sec o n d s). T h is
in d ic a te d th a t p r i o r te s tin g on an im m e d ia te r e c a ll t e s t s e r v e d to
d e c r e a s e re a c tio n tim e on a d e lay e d te s t.
I
IV. DISCUSSION
T his study h a s been c o n ce rn e d w ith th e in te ra c tio n of
p r e s e n ta tio n m o d a lity and input p o sitio n fo r im m e d ia te and delay ed
te s tin g of p a ir e d a s s o c ia te l i s t s . T h is d is c u s s io n w ill show r e la tio n
sh ip s betw een the c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h , an d p re v io u s e x p e rim e n ts and
m o d e ls of m e m o ry . The f i r s t sectio n w ill c o n s id e r th e la te n c y d ata
w ith s p e c ia l e m p h a s is on m o d ality and s e r ia l p o sitio n effects, as
w ell a s p re d ic tio n s of re c a lla b ility f r o m re s p o n s e tim e . The
follow ing se c tio n w ill d e s c rib e and d is c u s s m a in and in te ra c tio n
e ffe c ts in r e c a ll p e rfo rm a n c e . F in a lly , the im p lic a tio n s of th e se
d a ta w ill be p r e s e n te d in th e lig h t of c u r r e n t m o d e ls of m e m o ry and
o th e r re c e n t e x p e rim e n ta l evidence.
A. L a te n cy E ffe cts
Any c o m p a ris o n of la te n c y d iffe re n c e s am ong stim u lu s
m o d a litie s i s confounded w ith th e tim e r e q u ir e d for_S to p e rc e iv e
the stim u lu s . In all conditions re s p o n s e s to a u d ito ry p ro b e s w e re
f a s t e r than r e s p o n s e s to v isu a l v e rb a l p r o b e s . T h is w as a r e p lic a
tio n of p re v io u s findings (C hase & C alfee, 1969; K i r s n e r & C ra ik ,
1971). The p ro b le m is that_S can re sp o n d f a s t e r to th e au d ito ry
29
30
w o rd b e c a u se he m a y not re q u ire p r e s e n ta tio n of the w hole w o rd
b e fo re he can g u e ss w hat it w ill be an d begin s e a rc h in g fo r the
re s p o n s e (K ir s n e r & C ra ik , 1971). A lso , in s im p le re a c tio n tim e
e x p e r im e n ts (for e x am p le, S p r e s s e s a key w hen the sig n al is
p re s e n te d ) re s p o n s e la te n c y is s h o r te r to an a u d ito ry stim u lu s th an
to a v isu a l stim u lu s (D avis, 1957). T he s h o r te r la te n c y fo r v isu a l
w o rd s than p ic tu r e s r e q u i r e s a d iffe re n t ex p lanation. T h is r e p l i c a
tion of F r a i s s e 's (1968) w o rk could be a ttrib u te d to d iffe re n c e s in
stim u lu s an d r e s p o n s e c o m p atib ility . When_S w as p r e s e n te d w ith a
v e r b a l s tim u lu s (p ro b e), he h ad to p ro d u c e a s im ila r v e rb a l r e
sp o n se . On the o th e r hand, Ss in th e p ic tu re s group saw a p ic to ria l
stim u lu s and w e re to p ro v id e a v e rb a l re s p o n s e . At so m e point
th e s e Ss h a d to sw itch m o d e of r e p re s e n ta tio n f o r e ith e r the
p ic to r ia l stim u lu s o r th e v isu a l re s p o n se te m p la te .
A c r o s s m o d a litie s , P T ite m s show ed s h o r t e r re s p o n s e
la te n c ie s th a n N P T ite m s . T h is w as a re p lic a tio n of a n effect
d e m o n s tra te d by W augh (1969). She u se d 1 0 -p a ir lis ts an d gave Ss
re p e a te d p r e s e n ta tio n and t e s t t r i a l s . The co n clu sio n w as th at
p r a c tic e in scanning se c o n d a ry m e m o ry (SM) f o r a p a r tic u la r ite m
of in fo rm a tio n is n e c e s s a r y to d e c r e a s e the tim e tak en to lo c a te it
in SM and th u s d e c r e a s e re s p o n se la te n c y .
On th e im m e d ia te te s t tr i a ls in th is study re s p o n s e speed
v a r ie d a c r o s s s e r ia l p o s itio n s . O th e r w r ite r s (K ir s n e r & C ra ik ,
1971; M ad ig an & M cC ab e, 1971; Sm ith, B a r r e s i , & G r o s s , 1971;
W augh, 1969) h ad show n re c e n c y e ffe cts in t h e i r la te n c y data, but
no p r im a c y e ffe c ts. A n exception in th e l i t e r a t u r e is a study by
31
F u c h s (1971) w hich show ed both - - la te n c y w as lo n g e st fo r m id d le
lis t ite m s . T h e r e is no a p p a re n t explanation fo r the d is c r e p e n t
p r im a c y r e s u lts in the p r e s e n t a u d ito ry c u rv e and th e M adigan and
M cC ab e e x p erim en t. One could adapt W augh's d is c u s s io n of the
b e n e fic ia l e ffe c ts of r e p e a te d r e tr ie v a l f r o m SM on re s p o n s e tim e to
the p r im a c y effe ct. G iven th at in itia l li s t ite m s a r e m o s t lik e ly to
be s to r e d in SM and re c e iv e the m o s t r e h e a r s a l s in the p r im a r y
m e m o r y (PM) b u ffer, it m a y be th a t once the f i r s t li s t ite m s a re
s to re d in SM, re p e a te d r e h e a r s a l r e s u lts in re p e a te d r e tr ie v a l fro m
SM. T h is w ould fa c ilita te su b seq u en t r e c a ll p e rfo rm a n c e a t the tim e
of t e s t and e ffe c t a d e c r e a s e in la te n c y . A lso , O kada (1971) found
that re p e a te d p r e s e n ta tio n s d e c r e a s e d re a c tio n tim e . He a ttrib u te d
this d e c r e a s e to an in c r e a s e in re s p o n s e s tre n g th . This re s p o n se
s tre n g th in c r e a s e can a ls o be c a u s e d by re p e a te d r e h e a r s a l of
in itial li s t ite m s . F u c h s (1971) p re s e n te d a d iffe re n t explanation.
He co n ten d ed th a t re s p o n s e tim e re fle c ts a seq u e n tia l s e a r c h p ro c e s s
which begins a t e ith e r e n d of the lis t. T he p r o b le m with th is
su g g estio n is th a t th e re is no g e n e r a l m e c h a n is m p re s e n te d which
would account f o r S 's c h o ice of s ta r tin g p oint. T h is in te rp re ta tio n
m ay b e specific to the ta s k u s e d in F u c h s ' study - - S w as to in d icate
in w h ic h lis t p o sitio n th e te s t ite m o c c u r re d . T h is would a p p a re n tly
r e q u ir e a s e r ia l s e a rc h . H o w ev er, the p ro b e ta s k p ro v id e s S with
a s p e c ific r e tr ie v a l cue fo r a un iq u e re s p o n se w hich is independent
of s e r i a l p o sitio n . T he re c e n c y effect can be a ttrib u te d to th e
p r e s e n c e of th e p a ir in P M . S u b jects can re c o g n iz e im m e d ia te ly th a t
the re s p o n s e is a v ailab le to th e m in PM , d e c r e a s in g re s p o n s e tim e
32
by elim in atin g the n e e d fo r r e tr ie v a l of the re s p o n s e fr o m SM.
The la c k of s e r i a l p o sitio n effects fo r la te n c y s c o r e s f r o m the
fin al r e c a ll im p lie s th a t any ben efits of re p e a te d SM r e tr ie v a l d u rin g
the p re s e n ta tio n of a l i s t a r e tr a n s ito r y . A lso , w ith the fin al te s t
p ro c e d u re em p lo y ed it is e x tre m e ly u n lik ely th at a p a i r w ould still be
in PM at the tim e of its fin al p ro b e te s t. G iven the la r g e am o u n t of
m a te r ia l p re s e n te d , S m u s t r e tr ie v e h is re s p o n se f r o m SM r e g a r d
le s s of input p o sitio n . T h u s, no s e r ia l p o sitio n e ffe cts w ould be
expected.
In a g re e m e n t w ith U n d erw o o d 's (1964) s ta te m e n ts and M adigan
and M c C a b e 's (1971) r e s u lts w ith a u d ito ry ite m s , th e r e w as so m e
indication th a t r e s p o n s e s tre n g th w as re fle c te d in s h o r te r la te n c ie s .
In g e n e ra l, CC re s p o n s e tim e s w e re s m a lle r than CN re s p o n s e tim e s
fo r the sam e p o sitio n s and m o d a litie s . T h is g e n e ra liz a tio n about
re sp o n se stre n g th is c o n tra d ic te d w hen c r o s s - p o s itio n c o m p a riso n s
a re m ad e fo r w ord p a i r s , but holds up slightly b e tte r w ith p ic tu re
p a ir s . W ith a u d ito rily o r v isu a lly p r e s e n te d v e rb a l m a te r ia ls the
ite m s w ith th e s h o r te s t la te n c ie s on im m e d ia te te s t, P o s itio n 5 p a ir s ,
showed the lo w e st r e c a lla b ility on th e delay ed te s t. T h is n eg ativ e
re la tio n sh ip betw een re s p o n s e speed on the f i r s t t e s t and re s p o n s e
c o r r e c tn e s s on the sec o n d te s t w as le s s m a r k e d fo r p ic to ria l
m a te r ia ls .
B. R ec a ll D ata
A n o th er m o d ality c o m p a riso n of in te r e s t w as th a t betw een
au d ito ry and v isu al w o rd s on im m e d ia te r e c a ll p ro b a b ility . A u d ito ry
p re s e n ta tio n w as s u p e r io r f o r the re c e n c y p o rtio n of the c u rv e . T h is
33
can be a cco u n ted fo r u tiliz in g th e g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d m o d e ls of
m e m o ry . A cco rd in g to the m o d e ls , in fo rm a tio n t r a n s f e r r e d fr o m
s e n s o ry r e g i s t e r s (SR) to PM is also m a in ta in e d in SR u n til it
d e c a y s. On the im m e d ia te t e s t s S can r e c a ll f r o m SR, a s w ell as
fr o m P M and SM. M o rto n (1970) su g g ests th a t the a u d ito ry ite m s
re m a in in th e s e n s o ry r e g i s t e r fo r a lo n g e r tim e (two seco n d s) th an
v isu a l ite m s (le ss than 500 m illise c o n d s). T h e re fo re , on im m e d ia te
r e c a ll m o re a u d ito ry th a n v is u a l ite m s can be p ro d u c e d f r o m the SR.
O th er stu d ie s (D om inow ski & G adlin, 1968; P a iv io & Y a rm e y ,
1966; W ick er, 1970 a & b; W im e r & L a m b e rt, 1959) hav e shown
p ic tu re p a ir s to be s u p e r io r to v isu a lly p r e s e n te d w o rd p a ir s on
im m e d ia te t e s t . The c u r r e n t r e s u lts do not in d icate any m a jo r
d iffe re n c e s betw een th e s e two m o d a litie s on th e in itia l p ro b e te s t.
A p o ssib le ex p lan atio n f o r the la c k of p ic tu re s u p e r io rity is the
re la tio n sh ip betw een th e two p ic tu re s in a p a ir . The p a ir c o n s is te d
of two s e p a ra te p ic tu r e s p la ce d s id e - b y -s id e . E p ste in , R ock, and
Z u c k e rm a n (I960), R o h w er, L y n ch , Suzuki, and L ev in (1967) and
W ollen and L o w ry (1971) have shown th a t th is ty p e of p ic tu re p a ir
is not m o re f a c ilita to r y th an th e v isu al w o rd p a ir s . T h e s e stu d ie s
did show th at tw o p ic tu r e s in te ra c tin g in a p a ir re s u lte d in s u p e r io r
p e rfo rm a n c e . F o r e x am p le, seein g th e w ord p a ir " m o u s e -c u p "
p ro d u c e s s im ila r re c a ll p e rfo rm a n c e to seeing a p ic tu re of a m o u se
next to a p ic tu re of a cup. The p ic tu re ad v antage in im m e d ia te
p a ir e d a s s o c ia te te s tin g c o m es w ith an in te ra c tiv e p a ir such a s
"m o u se sittin g in a cu p ".
34
G iven th e s im ila r p e rfo rm a n c e f o r the v is u a l w o rd and p ic tu re
g ro u p s, a u d ito ry w o rd -p ic tu re d iffe re n c e s c an be a ttrib u te d to the
sa m e f a c to rs a s a u d ito ry w o rd -v isu a l w o rd d iffe re n c e s . T h at is,
w ith im m e d ia te p ro b e te s tin g th e re is m o r e in fo rm a tio n s to re d in
SR f o r a u d ito ry m a te r ia l th an fo r p ic to ria l in p u ts.
A s noted fo r s e r ia l p o sitio n effects in e a r l i e r n eg ativ e re c e n c y
e x p e r im e n ts , im m e d ia te t e s t p e rfo rm a n c e w a s not p re d ic tiv e of
d e lay e d te s t p e rfo rm a n c e . On the fin al te s t p ic to r ia l p a ir s h a d a
h ig h e r r e c a ll p ro b a b ility th a n e ith e r v e rb a l input ty p e. Since all
m a te r ia l m u s t be r e c a lle d f r o m SM on th is te s t , th e SR advantage
of a u d ito ry p a i r s w as not a fa c to r . One c h a r a c te r is tic of p ic tu r e s
w hich m ay be im p o rta n t is t h e i r b e tte r lo n g - t e r m re c o g n iz a b ility
(Hoffding, 1891; H a b e r, 1970; N ic k e rso n , 1968). H offding f i r s t
su g g este d a b reak d o w n of p e rfo rm a n c e of a p a ir e d a s s o c ia te r e c a ll
ta sk into two p a r ts : 1) rec o g n itio n of the s tim u lu s m e m b e r of the
p a ir; and 2) p ro d u c tio n of th e re s p o n s e a s s o c ia te d w ith the s tim u lu s.
T h u s, the h ig h e r re c o g n iz a b ility of p ic tu r e s c o n trib u te s to th e ir
s u p e r io rity o v e r v e rb a l in p u ts in a p a ir e d a s s o c ia te ta s k (W icker,
1970a). A n o th e r fa c to r is th e u n itiz a tio n of s tim u lu s and re s p o n s e
in th e fo rm a tio n of th e v isu a l im ag e w ith the p ic tu re p a ir . T h is
m a k e s the seco n d p a r t of the S 's ta sk e a s ie r . A c c o rd in g to H ebb
(1968) the p re s e n ta tio n of p a r t of the im a g e , in th is c a s e the p ro b e ,
r e s u lts in th e e x citatio n of th e o th er p a r t- im a g e , the re s p o n s e .
A n o th e r fa c to r c o n trib u tin g to th e s u p e r io r ity of p ic tu r e s is
m u ltip le coding. T h is is m o r e lik ely to o c c u r fo r p ic to ria l in puts
than f o r v e rb a l m a te r ia l. S ubjects s to re : 1) a v isu a l im a g e of the
p ic tu re p a ir (D allett, W ilcox, & D 'A n d rea , 1968; F r o s t, 1971;
H a b e r, 1970, P a iv io & O kovita, 1971; S haffer & Shiffrin, 1972);
and 2) the p a ir e d S -su p p lie d v e rb a l la b e ls (B a h ric k & B o u ch er,
1968; Cohen, 1967; Cohen & G ra n s tro m , 1968; F eu g e & E llis , 1969;
L ondon & R obinson, 1968; P r i c e & S live, 1970; R obinson, 1970;
S m ith & N ie lso n , 1970). The im a g e and la b e ls s e e m to be s to re d
in d ep en d en tly (B ah rick , 1969; B a h ric k & B a h ric k , 1971; Santa Ik
R anken, 1972). T h is im p lie s th a t if S u s e s the im ag e to s e a rc h fo r
the re s p o n s e and is u n s u c c e ss fu l, he w ill sw itch to the v e rb a l la b el.
B eing ab le to u s e one o r both te c h n iq u e s w ill in c r e a s e r e c a ll p r o b a
b ility (B ow er, 1970). A c co rd in g to th e tr a n s la tio n h y p o th e sis
(M u rra y , 1967; S p erlin g , 1967), a v is u a lly p r e s e n te d w o rd p a ir
w ould be c o v e rtly a rtic u la te d and fr o m th at p oint on be tr e a te d a s
a n a u d ito rily p r e s e n te d p a ir . G iven only th re e seco n d s to study
e ach p a ir it i s highly u n lik ely that_S h a d tim e to p ro d u ce h is own
v isu a l im a g e f o r v e rb a lly p r e s e n te d m a te r ia l. B u g elsk i, K idd, and
S eg m an (1968) show ed th a t Ss r e q u ir e d a t le a s t fo u r sec o n d s to
e ffe ctiv ely u tiliz e a w ell p r a c tic e d im a g e ry m n e m o n ic . T h e re fo re ,
in th is e x p e rim e n t Ss h ad only one s to ra g e m e c h a n is m f o r v e rb a l
p a ir s a s o p p o sed to tw o, in d ependent m e c h a n is m s fo r p ic tu r e s .
C o m p a ris o n of the two v e rb a l m o d a litie s show ed v is u a l w ords
to be s u p e r io r to a u d ito ry w o rd s on the final p ro b e te s t. K och (1930)
a ls o d e m o n s tra te d th e l o n g - t e r m s u p e r io rity f o r v isu al p re s e n ta tio n .
In a s e r ia l a n tic ip a tio n p a ra d ig m Ss re a c h e d c r ite r io n s o o n e r and
m a d e fe w e r e r r o r s if th e ite m s w e re shown to th e m . K ro ll, P a r k s ,
P a rk in so n , B ie b e r, and Jo h n so n (1970) d e m o n s tra te d s im ila r v isu a l
le tte r s u p e rio rity w ith 10 o r 25 seco n d s of in te rp o la te d activ ity
betw een l i s t p re s e n ta tio n and t e s t . S e v e ra l s h o r t - t e r m m e m o ry
e x p e rim e n ts show ed v is u a l p re s e n ta tio n of ite m s to be s u p e rio r to
a u d ito ry p re s e n ta tio n (G ates, 1916; S h e rm a n fk T u rv e y , 1969).
S h erm an and T u rv ey c la im e d th a t th is re la tio n s h ip held only if S
had sufficien t tim e to u tiliz e an effective r e h e a r s a l s tra te g y . In th e
p re s e n t e x p e rim e n t th e r e h e a r s a l s tra te g y a ffe cted fin al re c a ll.
A p p aren tly a S_'s c o v e rt a rtic u la tio n of the v isu a lly p r e s e n te d p a ir
was m o r e lik e ly to r e s u lt in s to ra g e in SM than w as th e re lia n c e of
a S in the a u d ito ry w o rd g roup on the a c o u stic tr a c e of the e x p e r i
m e n te r 's voice.
C aution should be e x e r c is e d in placin g too m u ch w eight upon
th e se a b so lu te m o d a lity d iffe re n c e s . T he w hole e x p e rim e n t could
be c o n sid e re d an in te r f e r e n c e p a ra d ig m of the type A -B , C-D,
E - F , . . . (U nderw ood, 1957), w ith final r e c a ll serv in g a s a te s t of
the effects of the in te r f e r e n c e . T he c h a r a c te r is tic s of p ic tu re s
which co n trib u te to th e ir high re c o g n iz a b ility p ro b a b ly a ls o u n d e rlie
th e ir d is c rim in a b ility . P ic tu r e s being highly d is c r im in a b le would
show le s s in te r lis t in te rfe re n c e and h ig h e r r e c a ll p ro b a b ility
(D om inow ski & G adlin, 1968; R ic h a rd so n , 1969). A lso , due to S 's
c o v e rt a rtic u la tio n of v isu ally p r e s e n te d w o rd s, th e se ite m s m ay be
m o re d is c rim in a b le th an a u d ito ry ite m s . It w ould be to S 's advan
tage to m a x im iz e the a r tic u la to r y d iffe re n c e s betw een p a i r s while
c o v ertly re p e atin g th e m . H o w ev er, _Ss in th e a u d ito ry g ro u p a re
p re s e n te d w ith a c o u stic input w h ich m in im iz e d in te r p a ir d iffe re n c e s
37
by the e x p e r im e n te r k e ep in g s t r e s s , and intonation d iffe re n c e s to a
m in im u m .
A ll th r e e m o d a litie s show ed la r g e p rim a c y e ffe c ts in final
r e c a ll. T h is effect h a s been a ttrib u te d to m o re r e h e a r s a l, and
consequently, m o re s to ra g e in L T S , fo r in itia l lis t ite m s (B ru c e &
P ap ay , 1970; M e u n ie r, S ta n n e rs, & M e u n ie r, 1971; R undus, 1971;
R undus & A tk in so n , 1970). The m a jo r e m p h a sis of th is study h a s
b een the re c e n c y p o rtio n of the fin a l re c a ll c u rv e s. T h e p re d ic tio n
th a t v isu ally , as w ell a s au d ito rily , p r e s e n te d v e rb a l m a te r ia l
would show n eg ativ e re c e n c y w as c o n firm e d . A lso, th e lack of n e g a
tive re c e n c y fo r p ic tu r e s w as re p lic a te d .
C. T h e o re tic a l Im p licatio n s
A c c o rd in g to th e tr a n s la tio n h y p o th e sis and c u r r e n t m o d els of
m e m o ry , v isu a lly p r e s e n te d w o rd s a r e c o v e rtly a rtic u la te d and
fro m th a t point on a r e tr e a te d th e sa m e a s a u d ito rily p re s e n te d
w o rd s. T he la r g e SM d iffe re n c e s w hich o c c u r re d in th is e x p e rim e n t
would not be ex p ected . S econdary m e m o ry d iffe re n c e s in fa v o r of
v isu al w o rd s w e re m u c h la r g e r on th e fin al re c a ll t e s t than on the
im m e d ia te t e s t . S m a lle r d iffe re n c e s on th e im m e d ia te te st m ig h t
be a ttrib u te d to a g r e a t e r re lia n c e upon SR and PM by the a u d ito ry
w ord g roup f o r im m e d ia te re c a ll. E v id en ce fo r th is w as the m o r e
e x ten siv e re c e n c y e ffe c t fo r a u d ito ry w o rd s (P o sitio n s 3, 4, and 5)
than fo r v isu a l w o rd s (P o sitio n s 4 and 5). T h is o n e-p o sitio n
d ifferen c e in P M co m p o n en ts su g g e sts th a t Ss in the a u d ito ry g ro u p
could re ly on SR fo r th e la s t ite m in the l i s t and on P M fo r two m o r e
ite m s . No v isu al ite m s w ould be in SR at th e tim e of im m e d ia te
t e s t . T h e re fo re , Ss in the v isu a l group w ould have a p o s sib ility of
tw o ite m s in PM and w ould have to re ly upon SM fo r the r e s t of the
l i s t . A lthough ite m s re c a lle d f r o m P M a r e u su ally am ong the l a t e r
l i s t ite m s , th is is n o t alw ay s the c a s e . A n in itia l p a ir w hich is
d ifficu lt to s to re in SM m a y r e m a in in PM u n til the im m e d ia te te s t.
A l a t e r p a ir m ay n o t be atten d ed to and not e n te r, P M , allow ing an
e a r l i e r ite m to re m a in . P e r h a p s f o r a u d ito ry p re s e n ta tio n m o re
ite m s a c r o s s all s e r i a l p o sitio n s a r e r e c a lle d fro m P M o r SR than
v isu al ite m s . The s h o r te r c o r r e c t re s p o n s e la te n c ie s fo r a u d ito ry
ite m s a c r o s s all s e r i a l p o sitio n s on im m e d ia te p ro b e te stin g m a y in
p a r t be due to the h ig h e r p ro b a b ility th at th e re s p o n se is in SR o r
P M fo r the a u d ito ry w o rd s.
T he m o d a lity d iffe re n c e s in th e re c e n c y p o rtio n of the final
r e c a ll c u rv e show th a t th e r e a r e q u a lita tiv e , a s w ell a s q u an titativ e,
d iffe re n c e s betw een p ic tu r e s and v e rb a l m a te r ia l. N eg ativ e re c e n c y
c an be a ttrib u te d to la c k of s to ra g e in SM u sin g the A tk in so n and
S h iffrin (1968) m o d e l o r to in ad eq u acy of te m p o ra l r e tr ie v a l cues
follow ing Tulving an d P a tte r s o n (1968). H o w ev er, th e s e m o d e ls
w ould not h a v e p re d ic te d the la c k of n eg ativ e re c e n c y f o r p ic to ria l
in p u ts.
T he T ulving and P a tte r s o n th e o ry in d ic a te s th at te r m in a l l i s t
ite m s a r e tim e tag g ed , w hile o th e r l i s t ite m s a r e ta g g ed w ith a l i s t
m a r k e r to s e rv e a s a r e tr ie v a l cue. A p p a ren tly p ic tu r e s in te rm in a l
l i s t p o sitio n s a r e n o t tim e tag g ed , but r a th e r tagged w ith a li s t
m a r k e r . T h e m o d el does n o t allow fo r th is d is c re p a n c y . It would
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s e e m th a t the m o d el should be expanded in scope in o r d e r to a c c o m
m o d ate p ic tu r e s o r should be e x p lic itly r e s t r i c t e d to v e rb a l m a te r ia l.
N e ith e r can th e A tk in so n and S hiffrin m o d el a cc o m m o d a te the
n o n -n e g a tiv e re c e n c y effect with p ic tu r e s . T he th e o ry p r e s c r i b e s a
sp ec ific ro u te fo r incom ing in fo rm atio n : f r o m SR to P M r e h e a r s a l
b u ffer, and f r o m th e re to SM. It w ould a p p e a r th a t v isu a l im a g e s
of p ic tu r e s can be s to re d im m e d ia te ly in SM, b y p assin g the r e h e a r s a l
b u ffer. T h is does not o c c u r fo r the v e rb a l la b e ls w hich S m a y give
to the p ic tu r e s . S upport fo r th is c o m es fr o m the M adigan, M cC abe
and Ita ta n i (in p r e s s ) study. S e ria l p o sitio n c u rv e s fo r p ic tu r e s
alone o r p ic tu r e s p lu s a u d ito rily p re s e n te d la b e ls did n ot show
n e g a tiv e re c e n c y , but th o se fo r the a u d ito ry inputs alone did.
W h eth er o r not it is p ro b e d fo r on the im m e d ia te te s t, a v e rb a l
ite m in P M r e c e iv e s no f u r th e r p ro c e s s in g . T h is is su p p o rte d by
th e p r e s e n c e of n e g ativ e re c e n c y in both P T and N P T fin al r e c a ll
c u rv e s fo r v e rb a l m a te r ia l. On the o th e r hand w ith p ic tu re s the P T
cu rv e show ed n o n -n e g a tiv e re c e n c y , w hile the N P T c u rv e show ed
n eg ativ e re c e n c y . T h is P T - N P T d iffe re n c e p ro v id ed f u r th e r su p p o rt
fo r d ir e c t SM s to ra g e of p ic tu r e s . W augh (1969) h as shown th a t r e c a ll
fr o m P M d o e s n ot a ffe ct SM s to ra g e . T h e re fo re , the a b se n c e of
n e g ativ e re c e n c y fo r P T ite m s in d ic a ted th at te r m in a l l i s t p ic tu r e s
w e re in SM. R e trie v a l fr o m SM on the im m e d ia te te s t fa c ilita te d
r e tr ie v a l on th e fin al te s t. It m ig h t be a rg u e d th a t th is re s p o n s e
p ro d u c tio n w as r e h e a r s a l . H o w ev er, if it w as r e h e a r s a l th en v e rb a l
m a te r ia ls should not show the n e g a tiv e re c e n c y effects th a t th ey do.
T h u s, w hile re s p o n s e p ro d u c tio n on an im m e d ia te p ro b e te s t of
40
v e rb a l m a te r ia l d o e s n ot affect SM r e tr ie v a l, w ith p ic to ria l input
th is does r e s u lt in in c r e a s e d a c c e s s ib ility .
S h affer and S h iffrin (1972) a lso p r e s e n te d evidence th at p ic tu re s
do not h av e to be r e h e a r s e d to be s to re d in SM. On a rec o g n itio n
te s t confidence ra tin g s in c r e a s e d w ith in c re a s in g e x p o su re tim e but
w e re not a ffe cted by the am ount of tim e b etw een p ic tu r e s . W ith
v e rb a l m a te r ia l the am ount of tim e betw een ite m s affe cted p e r f o r
m a n c e b e c a u se it d e te r m in e d the am ount of r e h e a r s a l w hich was
p o s s ib le . T he a u th o rs su g g ested th at v isu al r e h e a r s a l could only
o c c u r w ith ite m s of low in fo rm a tio n content (for ex am p le, a p rin te d
le tte r ) , and not w ith high in fo rm a tio n content (for e x am p le, a
p ic tu re ). In t e r m s of o u r r e s e a r c h , r e h e a r s a l of the v isu a l im a g e s
w ould not be r e q u ire d fo r sto ra g e in SM.
S e v e ra l e x p e rim e n ts have shown th at the ad d itio n of p ic tu r e s to
v e rb a l input s e rv e d only to au g m en t SM, not P M . C o m p a riso n of fr e e
r e c a ll s e r i a l p o sitio n c u rv e s showed eq u iv alen t re c e n c y effects fo r
a u d ito ry la b e ls p lu s p ic tu r e s and fo r the w o rd s alone (M adigan et. a l . ,
in p r e s s ) . T h is im p lie d s im ila r PM co m p o n en ts fo r both input ty p es.
H o w ev er, f o r m id d le l i s t ite m s the ad dition of p ic tu r e s s e r v e d to
in c r e a s e th e n u m b e r of ite m s re c a lle d . T h is show ed an au g m en tatio n
of SM w ith p ic tu r e s w hich w as a lso p r e s e n t in th e fin al r e c a ll c u rv e s .
M a u s, N appe, T r e s t r a i l , and W ollen (1972) re a c h e d a s im ila r co n
c lu sio n a f te r c o m p a rin g th e r e s u lts f r o m a s h o r t - t e r m m e m o r y ta s k
an d a d e lay e d fr e e r e c a ll te s t.
41
A n o th er a p p ro a c h w as ta k e n by Santa and R anken (1972). T h e se
a u th o rs te s te d re c o g n itio n f o r n o n sen se sh a p e s. V e rb a l coding p r o
v id ed an efficien t r e h e a r s a l s c h e m e w hich in c r e a s e d p e rfo rm a n c e fo r
fin al l i s t ite m s , th e P M com ponent. H o w ev er, w hen th e re c o g n itio n
ta s k n e c e s s ita te d m o r e re lia n c e on SM, the v e rb a l code w as n o t u s e
ful. Since the la b e ls w e re ir r e le v a n t, it w as su g g este d th a t w ith
m o re a p p ro p ria te la b e ls a dual encoding of p ic tu r e s and w o rd s would
im p ro v e p e rfo rm a n c e on a l o n g - t e r m m e m o r y ta s k . T h u s, in the
p r e s e n t e x p e rim e n t the re c e n c y effect on the im m e d ia te te s t of
p ic tu re p a ir s m ig h t be a ttrib u te d to the p r e s e n c e of v e rb a l la b e ls
in the r e h e a r s a l b u ffer a t the tim e of te s t. T he p rim a c y effect in the
im m e d ia te and fin a l r e c a ll c u rv e s m ig h t be due to the in c r e a s e d
p ro b a b ility of s to r a g e in SM f o r in itia l l i s t ite m s . T h e re fo re , w ith
out the effects of th e v e rb a l la b e ls , the s e r ia l p o sitio n c u rv e s fo r
p ic tu r e s would be e s s e n tia lly fla t. T h is in d ic a te d d ir e c t SM sto ra g e
f o r p ic tu re s , and w a s the c lo s e s t a p p ro x im a tio n in th is study to the
W augh and N o rm a n (1965) c o n ce p t th at a c r o s s s e r ia l p o sitio n s th e re
is no d ifferen c e in am ount of SM s to ra g e .
F u r th e r ev id en ce fo r P M effects fo r v e rb a l coding and SM effects
fo r im a g e ry co m es fr o m the findings of S m ith, B a r r e s i , and G ro s s
(1971). In th is p a ir e d a s s o c ia te study one g ro u p of Ss w as to fo r m an
im a g e of each p a ir , w hile th e m eth o d of study f o r the o th e r g roup
w as o v e rt re p e titio n . U se of im a g e s b en efited LiTS, but "h in d e re d "
STS. T he p ro b le m w ith th is s ta te m e n t is th at it is b a se d on an
e x p e rim e n t in w h ich th e in s tru c tio n v a ria b le w as confounded w ith the
p r e s e n c e of a u d ito ry input. O nly the re p e titio n group h e a r d the p a ir s .
42
T h is g ro u p w ould be ex p ec te d to show a l a r g e r re c e n c y e ffe ct in
im m e d ia te r e c a ll f o r the sam e re a s o n s th at a u d ito rily p r e s e n te d
w o rd p a i r s p ro d u c e l a r g e r re c e n c y effects th an v isu a l ite m s . The
co n clu sio n of im m e d ia te re le v a n c e is th a t L T S r e p r e s e n ta tio n s a re
n o t d ir e c tly copied f r o m STS re p r e s e n ta tio n s . T h is ru n s c o u n te r
to the c u r r e n t c o n cep ts of m e m o ry in w hich an ite m is re p e a te d o v er
and o v e r in the PM r e h e a r s a l buffer u n til th is sa m e ite m is s to re d
in a s e m a n tic co n tex t in L T S . R e h e a rs a l of an im a g e in P M is
d ifficu lt to c o n ce p tu a liz e a s w ell as u n n e c e s s a ry . Im a g e s a r e w ell-
in te g ra te d f o r m s w hich can be sto re d im m e d ia te ly in L T S . T he
" d ir e c t c o n ta c t" h y p o th e sis of S m ith et. al. a s s u m e s th a t L T S and
STS re p r e s e n ta tio n s a r e fo rm e d sim u lta n eo u sly . T h is s ta te m e n t is
s im ila r to o u r e a r l i e r re a so n in g th at S f o r m s two in d ep en d en t m em o ry
re p r e s e n ta tio n s of p ic tu re p a ir s - - v e rb a l la b e ls and v is u a l im a g e s .
S u p p o rt fo r the d ir e c t c o n tac t h y p o th e sis co m es f r o m e x p e r i
m e n ts w hich a tte m p te d to show th at P M is p r im a r i ly a c o u s tic and
SM is p r im a r i ly s e m a n tic . T h e r e p re s e n ta tio n s in th e tw o s to r e s
w ould h av e to be d iffe re n t. S hulm an (1971) h as re v ie w e d th e s e
stu d ie s w hich show ed d is ru p tiv e effects of a c o u stic s im ila r ity in PM
and of s e m a n tic s im ila r ity in SM. The a u th o r co n clu d ed th a t th e
encoding of pho n o lo g ical fe a tu re s is f a s t e r th an th e encoding of
se m a n tic f e a tu r e s . T h e re fo re , Ss w ould u s e p h o n em ic encoding to
m a x im iz e th e am o u n t of r e h e a r s a l, and th e re b y , th e n u m b e r of ite m s
re ta in e d . H o w ev er, Ss can s to re v e rb a l in fo rm a tio n d ir e c tly into
SM to avoid the a c o u s tic confusions w hich hom o p h o n es w ould p ro d u c e
in P M (K in tsch & B u sch k e, 1969).
43
D ir e c t SM sto ra g e of the v e rb a l m a te r ia l p r e s e n te d in th e
c u rre n t study w as u n lik ely . A c o u stic s im ila r ity w a s m in im iz e d so
S s w e re n o t faced w ith a c o u stic confusions in P M . T o m a x im iz e
th e ir p e rfo rm a n c e on the im m e d ia te te s t th e y m ad e u s e of th e ir
r e h e a r s a l b u ffer. D ire c t lo n g - te r m sto ra g e a p p a re n tly w as not
ach iev ed f o r any v isu al im a g e s f o r m e d of v is u a lly p r e s e n te d w o rd s.
If th e re h a d been, th e se ite m s m ig h t not have shown th e n eg ativ e
re c e n c y th a t they did. W ith a p re s e n ta tio n r a t e of th r e e sec o n d s p e r
p a ir Ss p ro b a b ly did not h av e tim e to fo rm a v is u a l im ag e of th e
o b jects den o ted by the w o rd p a ir. T h is la c k of d ir e c t SM s to ra g e
fo r v e rb a l m a te r ia ls is se e n in the low final r e c a ll le v e ls an d the
n eg ativ e re c e n c y e ffe c ts.
T he r e s u lts of th is e x p e rim e n t su g g est s e v e r a l a m e n d m e n ts to
th e c u r r e n t tw o -s to re m o d e ls of m e m o ry . Tw o ro le s of P M should
b e e m p h a siz e d . F i r s t of a ll, ite m s a r e m a in ta in e d in the r e h e a r s a l
b u ffer so th a t they a r e n o t lo s t b e fo re £ ! finds a s a tis fa c to ry m eth o d
of SM r e p re s e n ta tio n . A lso , dum ping the r e h e a r s a l bu ffer r e s u lts in
h ig h e r r e c a ll p ro b a b ility on an im m e d ia te t e s t th an r e tr ie v in g ite m s
f r o m SM. S u b jects' p o s te x p e rim e n ta l r e p o r ts in d ic a te d that th e se
tw o s ta te m e n ts a d eq u ately d e s c rib e th e fu nction of r e h e a r s a l.
T h e se two ro le s of P M su g g est two re a s o n s f o r d ir e c t SM s to ra g e .
If the ite m (for e x am p le, a p ic tu re ) can be r e a d ily s to re d in SM,
th e n it d o e s not have to be r e h e a r s e d in PM . S econdly, u n d e r
c e r ta in conditions (when r e h e a r s a l is p re v e n te d by a n o th e r ta s k or
w hen r e h e a r s a l would r e s u l t in confusion of th e ite m s ) d ir e c t SM
44
s to ra g e r e s u lts in h ig h e r r e c a ll le v e ls and S ad opts th is s tra te g y .
In conclusion, th is re a so n in g can be a p p lied in exp lan atio n of
the r e s u lts of the c u r r e n t e x p e rim e n t. T he re c e n c y e ffe cts on the
im m e d ia te r e c a ll te s t w e re due to th e p r e s e n c e in the r e h e a r s a l
b u ffe r of the v e rb a l re p r e s e n ta tio n s of th e se ite m s . F o r the th re e
m o d a litie s th e r e a r e d iffe re n t kinds of re p re s e n ta tio n s : 1) a u d ito ry
w o rd s -a c o u s tic tr a c e ; 2) v is u a l w o r d s - c o v e r t a rtic u la tio n ; and
3) p ic tu r e s - c o v e r t a rtic u la tio n of S -su p p lie d v e rb a l la b e l. M o re
r e h e a r s a l fo r th e se r e p re s e n ta tio n s r e s u lte d in the p rim a c y effects
fo r im m e d ia te and fin al r e c a ll c u rv e s . N eg ativ e re c e n c y e ffe cts in
fin a l r e c a ll f o r v e rb a l m a t e r i a l w e re due to la c k of SM s to ra g e . T he
a b s e n c e of n eg ativ e re c e n c y f o r p ic tu r e s can be a ttrib u te d to
im m e d ia te SM s to ra g e of the v isu al im a g e s.
45
T A B L E 1. -- M e a n im m ed iate r e c a ll la te n c ie s (seco n d s) fo r ite m s
c o r r e c t on both te s t s (CC) o r c o r r e c t on th e f i r s t p ro b e te s t and
in c o r r e c t on th e final te s t (CN)
Input M odality P ro b e P o s itio n
1 2 3 4 5
A u d ito ry W o rd s CC 1.59 1. 79 1.61 1. 16 . 65
CN 1.93 2. 11 1 .6 0 . 99 . 77
V isu al W ords CC 2.21 2. 06 1. 79 1. 78 . 95
CN 1. 85 2 .3 9 1. 96 1. 27 1. 10
P i c t u r e s CC 1.78 1.90 2. 18 1. 96 1. 34
CN 2.38 2 .8 8 2 .6 3 1. 88 1. 37
46
T A B L E 2. - - M ean fin al r e c a ll la te n c ie s (se co n d s) fo r ite m s c o r r e c t
on both te s t s (CC)
Input M odality P r o b e P o s itio n
1 2 3 4 5
A u d ito ry W ords 2. 10 1. 88 2. 23 2. 14 2. 27
V isu al W ords 2 .3 3 2 .6 0 2 .6 2 2. 51 2. 76
P ic tu r e s 2. 27 2 .4 6 2. 58 2 .46 3. 18
47
T A B L E 3. - - N u m b e r of ite m s c o r r e c t on fin al te s t which, w e re
i n c o r r e c t on im m e d ia te te s t (NC) and (in p a re n th e s e s ) th e p ro b a b ility
of a c o r r e c t re s p o n se on th e fin al te s t given th a t th e ite m w as
i n c o r r e c t on th e im m e d ia te t e s t
Input M o d ality P r o b e P o s itio n
1
2 3 4 5
A u d ito ry W o rd s 12
(.06)
6
(.03)
7
(.04)
9
(.0 9 )
V isu al W o rd s 12
(.07)
8
(.04)
9
(.04)
9
(.0 9 )
1
( . 01)
P ic tu r e s 6
(.03)
10
(.05)
8
(.04)
10
(.0 5 )
48
T A B L E 4. - - M ean final r e c a ll la te n c ie s (seconds) fo r ite m s c o r r e c t
on the final r e c a ll te s t w hich w e re in c o r r e c t on im m e d ia te te s t (NC)
Input Modality- P r o b e P o sitio n
1 2 3 4 5
A u d ito ry W ords 2. 50 2 .3 2 2 .3 4 3 .5 5 -
V isu al W ords 4. 77 4. 24 3 .4 7 2. 89 3 .3 7
P ic tu r e s 4. 76 3 .3 8
3. 79 4. 33
49
T A B L E 5. -- M e a n fin al r e c a ll la te n c ie s (seco n d s) fo r ite m s w hich
w e re c o r r e c t on fin al re c a ll and w e re n ot te s te d fo r im m e d ia te
r e c a ll (NPT)
Input M odality P r o b e P o s itio n
1 2 3 4 5
A uditory W ords 2 .9 9 2. 23 2 .9 8 2.96 2. 20
V isu al W ords 3 .3 8 3. 08 3 .01 3 .4 4 2. 73
P ic tu r e s 4 .0 0 3. 10 3 .4 0 2. 82 3. 78
1 . 0 0
• •A u ditory W ords
* — -A Visual Words
o o Pictures
80 -
a ) .60 -
4 0 -
20
Input Position
F ig . 1. - - I m m e d ia te r e c a ll t e s t
51
2.50
2.00-
m
• V
C
0
J 1.50
c
I 1 .0 0 -
0
0.50
o------O Auditory Words
A-----A Visual Words
0 .......0 Pictures
H : ---- 1 ---------- h
2 3 4
Input Position
F ig . 2. - -Im m e d ia te r e c a ll la te n c ie s
52
.5 0 -
*•...... • Auditory Words
A-----A Visual Words
0— 0 Pictures
3 .3 0 -
8 .1 0 -
5 3 2 4 1
Input Position
F ig . 3 . - - F i n a l r e c a ll te s t - p re v io u s ly te s te d (PT)
ite m s
53
25 -
• • Auditory Words
A -— A Visual Words
O — O Pictures
20
£ .15--
> .05-
Input Position
F ig . 4. - - F i n a l r e c a ll t e s t - p re v io u sly u n te ste d
(N PT) ite m s
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I
A PPE N D IX
63
64
T a b le 1. - -N u m b e r of re s p o n s e o m issio n s (RO), in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s
(IC)f and m e an la te n c y of IC in seconds (LIC) on im m e d ia te r e c a ll
Input M odality P ro b e P o s itio n
1 2 3 4 5
A u d ito ry W ords RO 46 40 40 18 1
IC 154 177 152 93 4
LIC 2. 71 2. 89 2 .6 2 2 .5 4 1. 46
V isu al W ords RO 55 72 61 37 19
IC 123 140 143 110 52
L IC 3 .4 8 3. 13 2. 71 3. 07 3. 13
P ic tu r e s RO 84 64 73 49 24
IC 103 139 123 131 47
L IC 3 .9 9 3. 77 3 .9 0 3. IS 3 .3 9
65
T a b le 2. - - N u m b e r of r e s p o n s e o m is s io n s (RO), i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s
(IC), and m e an la te n c y of IC in seco n d s (LIC) on fin a l r e c a ll of P T
ite m s
Input M o d ality P r o b e P o s itio n
1 2 3 4 5
A u d ito ry W ords RO 126 121 128 157 176
IC 146 170 174 159 172
L IC 4 .2 8 4 .5 3 4 .66 4. 23 4. 51
V isu al W ords RO 149 167 150 180 211
IC 105 105 113 95 113
LIC 5. 16 5. 12 4 .9 2 5 .4 0 4. 87
P ic tu r e s RO 142 154 150 171 177
IC 112 114 106 113 113
L IC 5 .4 4 5. 12 5 .55 5 .5 6 5, 83
66
T a b le 3 . -- N u m b e r of re s p o n s e o m is sio n s (RO), in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s
(IC), and m e a n la te n c y of IC in seco n d s (LIC) on fin al r e c a ll of N P T
ite m s
Input M odality P r o b e P o s itio n
1 2 3 4 5
A u d ito ry W ords RO
IC
LIC
138 157 173 183 170
172 170 159 160 181
4 .5 4 4 .3 9 4 .3 7 4 .3 2 4 .5 5
V isu al W ords RO 165 192 199 218 221
IC 119 110 112 106 118
L IC 5. 06 4. 88 5 .4 3 4. 97 5 .6 0
P ic tu r e s RO 189 162 194 198 212
IC 112 122 104 116 106
LIC 5 .6 4 5 .6 4 5 .4 7 5. 74 5. 81

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Creator Mccabe, Linda Lueckel (author)

Core Title Modality and serial position effects in immediate and delayed recall

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, experimental

Language English

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Advisor Madigan, Stephen A. (committee chair), Briere, Eugene J. (committee member), Lewis, Donald J. (committee member)

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Rights Mccabe, Linda Lueckel

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