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Organization, Conflict, And Change: A Test Of A Multivariate Model Within Two Types Of Simulated Social Systems

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Organization, Conflict, And Change: A Test Of A Multivariate Model Within Two Types Of Simulated Social Systems

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Content ORGANIZATION, CONFLICT, A N D C H A N G E
A TEST O F A MULTIVARIATE M O D E L
WITHIN T W O TYPES O F SIM ULATED
SOCIAL SYSTEM S
by
R ichard L. Dukes
A D is s e r ta tio n P resented to the
FACULTY O F T H E G R A D U A T E SC H O O L
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
In P a r t ia l F u lfillm e n t o f the
Requirem ents fo r the Degree
D O C TO R O F PHILOSOPHY
(S o c io lo g y )
September 1973
INFORMATION TO USERS
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Xerox University Microfilms
300 North Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
I
i
73-31,341
D U K E S, Richard Louis, 1946-
O R G A N X Z A T IO N , C O N F L IC T , A N D C H A N G E : A
T E S T O F A M U L T IV A R IA T E M O D E L W IT H IN T W O
T Y P E S O F S IM U L A T E D S O C IA L S Y S T E M S .
University of Southern California, Ph.D. ,
1973
Sociology, general
University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan f
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
ORGANIZATION, CONFLICT, A ND C H A N G E
A TEST O F A MULTIVARIATE M O D E L
WITHIN T W O TYPES O F SIM ULATED
SOCIAL SYSTEM S
by
Richard L. Dukes
A D is s e r ta tio n P resen ted to th e
FACULTY O F T H E G R A D U A T E SC H O O L
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t o f the
Requirements fo r the Degree
D O C T O R O F PHILOSOPHY
(S o c io lo g y )
September 1973
UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
Richard Louis Dukes
under the direction of h.Xs.. Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
Dean
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
'hairmt
/ •
UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CA LIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALI FORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
Richard Louis Dukes
under the direction of Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
To Cindy
Cindy
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
i
| !
! j
I sh ou ld lik e to thank the members o f my com m ittee,
Dr. Sarane Boocock, Dr. D a n iel G laser, Dr. M ilton G. Holmeni
; i
! !
■ and Dr. H. Edward Ransford fo r th e ir guidance and su p p ort.
II am p a r t ic u la r ly g r a te fu l to Dr. Ransford fo r h is
’ i
i i
|a s s is t a n c e in sm oothing ou t a very rough d r a ft.
I should lik e to exp ress my a p p r e c ia tio n to Dr. j
i i
Constance S eid n er fo r s p e c ia l h elp and to Dr. Malcolm K leinj
i |
j fo r h is encouragem ent when my con fid en ce was low.
j
i I should a ls o lik e to exp ress my a p p r e c ia tio n to
| th e fa c u lty and s t a f f o f Los A ngeles area c o lle g e s and
! u n iv e r s it ie s who coop erated in the data g a th erin g and to
j
j th e members o f t h e ir c la s s e s who p a r tic ip a te d in th e sim u-
| la t io n . I am in d eb ted to NSF fo r h elp in funding t h is r e -
|
I sea rch .
j
S p e c ia l thanks a re due to my w ife , Cindy, fo r her
|
| p r o fe s s io n a l h elp in a l l phases o f t h is resea rch as w e ll as
|f o r her support and encouragem ent.
i
i F in a lly , I should lik e to thank the r e s t o f my
|
|fa m ily fo r t h e ir con tin u ed support—e s p e c ia lly to grandmas
and grandpas fo r b a b y s ittin g and to Ricky fo r d isp o sin g o f
s e c tio n s o f v a rio u s d r a fts which were not up to h is
c r i t i c a l sta n d a rd s.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I should l i k e to thank th e members o f my com m ittee,
Dr. Sarane Boocock, Dr. D a n iel G la ser, Dr. M ilton G. Holmenl
: I
; and Dr. H. Edward R ansford fo r t h e ir guidance and support, i
I I
I am p a r tic u la r ly g r a t e f u l to Dr. Ransford fo r h is !
I a s s is ta n c e in sm oothing ou t a very rough d r a ft. j
I should l i k e to exp ress my a p p r e c ia tio n to Dr.
i
Constance Seidner fo r s p e c ia l h elp and to Dr. Malcolm K lein
i fo r h is encouragement when my co n fid en ce was low.
! I should a ls o lik e to ex p ress my a p p recia tio n to
|th e fa c u lty and s t a f f o f Los A ngeles area c o lle g e s and
!u n iv e r s itie s who coop erated in th e data g a th erin g and to
j
| the members o f t h e ir c la s s e s who p a r tic ip a te d in the sim u-
! la t io n . I am in debted to NSF fo r h elp in funding th is r e -
!search .
S p e c ia l thanks a re due to my w if e , Cindy, for her
I
|p r o fe s s io n a l help in a l l phases o f t h is resea rch as w e ll as
I fo r her support and encouragem ent.
| F in a lly , I should lik e to thank th e r e s t o f my
i
I fam ily fo r t h e ir con tin u ed su pp ort— e s p e c ia lly to grandmas
i
and grandpas f o r b a b y s ittin g and to Ricky fo r d isp o sin g o f
s e c tio n s of v a r io u s d r a fts w hich were n ot up to h is
c r i t i c a l stand ard s.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page |
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T . . . . .................................................................. i i
i
LIST O F TABLES.................................................................................... iv '
t
i
LIST O F FIGURES . . . .................................................................. v j
I
Chapter |
i
I . INTRODUCTION ................................................ 1
I
I I . T H E THEORETICAL MODEL 15 i
I
i
I I I. PROCEDURE................................... • 42 j
IV. RELATIONSHIP O F T H E THEORETICAL A N D
OPERATIONAL SYSTEM S ................................. 59
V. TESTING T H E M O D E L .................................................... 71
VI. S U M M A R Y AND CONCLUSIONS........................................... 98
APPENDIXES
A. INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN T O PLAYERS ............................. 104
B. G A M E RULES FOR T H E ORIGINAL VERSION O F
STARPOWER ........................................................................... 114
C. PLAYER'S L O G ........................................................................124
BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................................. 132
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3-1 Number o f In d iv id u a ls P a r tic ip a tin g in
Game Groups by Experim ental Treatments . . . 45
3-2 T h e o r e tic a l C oncepts, Their Q uestionnaire
O p e r a tio n a liz a tio n s , and R e lia b ilit y
M easures . . . ....................................................... 55
5 -1 A n a ly sis o f V ariance o f I n tr a -c la s s
O rg a n iza tio n , I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent
In cr ea se in Openness, V iolence o f C o n flic t,
and E l i t e R esp on siven ess by Type o f S o c ia l
S y s t e m ................................................................................... 73
5-2 P re d ic te d and Observed I n te r r e a ltio n s Among
I n tr a -c la s s O rgan ization , I n tr a -c la s s
Involvem ent, In crease in Openness, V iolen ce
o f C o n flic t and E l it e R esponsiveness fo r
the C losed S o c ia l Systems . . . . . . . . . 76
5-3 P r e d ic te d and Observed I n te r r e la tio n s Among
I n tr a -c la s s O rgan ization , I n tr a -c la s s
Involvem ent, In crea se in Openness, V iolen ce
o f C o n f lic t, and E l it e R esponsiveness for
the Open S o c ia l S y s te m ................... 77
5 -4 E v a lu a tio n o f Theory M odel's A b ility to
P r e d ic t Signs o f Obtained C orrelation s by
Type o f S o c ia l S y s t e m .............................................. 81
5-5 S e le c te d P a r t ia l C o rrela tio n s for the Open
S o c ia l S y s t e m ................................................................. 84
5-6 M u ltip le C o rrela tio n s w ith In crease in
Openness o f S o c ia l Structure and E lit e
R esp on siven ess as Dependent V ariab les by
Type o f S o c ia l System .. ......... 89
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2-1 Measurement sequences and the M odified
Dahrendorf ( 1 9 5 9 ) ................................. . . 40
3 -1 C h a r a c te r istic s o f Experim ental
Treatm ents . . . . ....................... 47
5 -1 S te p -b y -step D eductions fo r P r e d ic tin g
I n te r r e la tio n s among I n tr a -c la s s O rgani
z a tio n , I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent, V io len ce
o f C o n flic t, In crease in Openness, and
E l it e R esponsiveness fo r the Open S o c ia l
S y s te m .................................................................................... 79
Appendix
1 S et-up o f Blackboard a t B eginning o f
Round 1 , and In se r tio n s fo r L ater
Rounds ............................ ................................. 113
v
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Robert M clver has sa id th a t d isc o v e r in g th e 'p r in
c ip le s o f change' i s p o te n t ia lly the m ost illu m in a tin g ta sk
o f th e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t , and y e t th e most e l u s i v e . Many a
young s o c io lo g ic a l k n ig h t, who has proudly rid d en ou t pro
cla im in g h is in te n tio n a t la s t o t cap ture and tame t h is
dragon, la t e r craw led back w ith h is la n ce broken, h is armor
b ad ly d en ted , and the dragon s t i l l b rea th in g f i r e in f r e e
dom .
A lex In k eles (1966:233)
S o c ia l s c ie n t i s t s such as Coleman (1 9 6 8 a ,b ) and
Raser (1969) have argued th a t sim u la tio n games p ro v id e a
good way to t e s t s o c ia l th e o r ie s , y e t to d a te few s o c io lo
g i c a l s tu d ie s have employed sim u la tio n games in th e t e s t o f
such t h e o r ie s . The absence o f such stu d ie s i s d ish e a r te n
in g s in c e sim u la tio n games seem to o f f e r c o n te x ts fo r
t e s t in g s o c ia l th e o r ie s which have advantages over more
t
t r a d it io n a l r e sea rch m eth o d o lo g ies.
L ik ew ise, n ot many th e o r ie s o f s o c ia l change have
been put to t e s t . This fa c t i s p a r tic u la r ly d isa p p o in tin g
due to th e im portance o f the su b jec t m a tter. S o c ia l change
i s one o f th e m ost b a sic and im portant a sp e c ts o f s o c ia l
l i f e , y e t as Moore observed in 1963,
I t som etim es happens. . . th a t th e co n v en tio n a l
usages o f a s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d lea v e r e l a t i v e ly
untouched la rg e areas o f o b serv a tio n and p o te n
t i a l g e n e r a liz a tio n , areas th a t appear to be an
i im portant p art o f a f i e l d ' s c h a r te r . So i t has
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Robert Mclver has s a id th a t d isc o v e r in g th e ’p rin
c ip le s o f change’ i s p o t e n t ia lly the m ost illu m in a tin g task
o f th e s o c ia l s c i e n t i s t , and y e t th e m ost e lu s iv e . Many a
young s o c io lo g ic a l k n ig h t, who has proudly ridden out pro
cla im in g h is in te n tio n a t l a s t o t cap ture and tame th is
dragon, la t e r crawled back w ith h is la n ce broken, h is armor
badly d en ted, and the dragon s t i l l b rea th in g f i r e in fr e e
dom.
A lex In k e le s (1966:233)
S o c ia l s c i e n t i s t s such as Coleman (1968a,b) and
i '
! Raser (1969) have argued th a t sim u la tio n games provide a
I good way to t e s t s o c ia l t h e o r ie s , y e t to d ate few s o c io lo -
| g ic a l stu d ie s have employed sim u la tio n games in th e t e s t o f
such th e o r ie s . The ab sen ce o f such s tu d ie s i s d ish ea rten
in g s in c e sim u la tio n games seem to o f f e r c o n te x ts fo r
t e s t in g s o c ia l th e o r ie s w hich have advantages over more
t r a d itio n a l resea rch m e th o d o lo g ie s.
L ik ew ise, not many th e o r ie s o f s o c ia l change have
been put to t e s t . This f a c t i s p a r t ic u la r ly d isa p p o in tin g
due to th e im portance o f th e su b je c t m a tter. S o c ia l change
i s one o f the most b a s ic and im portant a sp e c ts o f s o c ia l
l i f e , y e t as Moore observed in 1963,
I t sometimes happens. . . th a t th e co n v en tio n a l
usages o f a s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d le a v e r e la t iv e ly
untouched la rg e area s o f o b se r v a tio n and p oten
t i a l g e n e r a liz a tio n , a rea s th a t appear to be an
im portant p art o f a f i e l d ' s c h a r te r . So i t has
2
!
been w ith the study o f s o c ia l change in s o c io lo g y ,
th e s o c ia l sc ie n c e th a t claim s an in t e r e s t in
th e most g en era l fe a tu r e s o f s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n
and s o c ia l b eh avior. (Moore, 1 9 6 3 :v)
The s itu a tio n does not seem to have been a lte r e d
s in c e Moore made th is sta tem en t. I f p r esen t fig u r e s are
any in d ic a tio n , th ere does not seem to be any reason fo r
su sp ectin g th a t the s it u a tio n w i l l change s u b s ta n tia lly in
th e near fu tu r e , as newly tra in ed s o c i o l o g i s t s do n ot seem
to be em phasizing s o c ia l change in t h e ir rese a r ch . Of the
i . . . . . .
1136 d is s e r t a tio n l i s t i n g s com piled by The American S o cio -
j l o g i s t (A ugust, 1972) fo r 91 U .S. and Canadian s o c io lo g y
I . .
j departm ents which granted Ph.D. d eg rees between 1969 and
|
I 1971, o n ly 47 (4.17.) in clu d ed the term s "change" or
i
| " s o c ia l change" in th e ir t i t l e s . ^
|
! Purposes of the Research
The purpose o f t h is resea rch i s to in v e s t ig a t e the
u t i l i t y o f u sin g sim u la tio n games fo r t e s t in g th e o r ie s o f
s o c ia l change by p rovid in g a r e sea r c h exam ple. I f s u c c e s s
f u l , such an example should encourage fu r th er t e s t s o f
s o c ia l theory v ia sim u la tio n games a s w e ll as in trod u ce a
gaming approach to stu d en ts o f s o c i a l change.
Theoretical Model
The model o f change to be used in t h is resea rch
w i l l be based upon the work o f D ahrendorf (1959) . His
^ D isse rta tio n s l i s t i n g " a ttitu d e change" in th e ir
t i t l e s are n ot included in th e t a b u la t io n s .
2
been w ith th e stu d y o f s o c ia l change in so c io lo g y ,
the s o c ia l s c ie n c e th a t claim s an in te r e s t in
the most g e n e r a l fe a tu r e s o f s o c ia l organ ization
and s o c ia l b e h a v io r . (Moore, 1963:v)
The s it u a t io n does not seem to have been a lte r e d
sin c e Moore made t h is sta tem en t. I f p resen t fig u r e s a re
any in d ic a tio n , th e r e does not seem to be any reason fo r
su sp ectin g th a t th e s it u a t io n w i l l change s u b s ta n tia lly in
the near fu tu r e , as new ly tra in ed s o c io lo g is t s do not seem
to be em phasizing s o c i a l change in th e ir research . Of th e
1136 d is s e r t a tio n l i s t i n g s com piled by The American S o c io
lo g is t (A ugust, 1972) fo r 91 U .S. and Canadian s o c io lo g y
i
J departments w hich g ra n ted Ph.D. degrees between 1969 and
j
j 1971, on ly 47 (4.1%) in clu d ed th e terms "change" or
" s o c ia l change" in t h e ir t i t l e s . ^
Purposes of the Research
The purpose o f t h is resea rch is to in v e s tig a te th e
u t i l i t y o f u sin g s im u la tio n games fo r t e s t in g th e o r ie s o f
s o c ia l change by p r o v id in g a resea rch exam ple. I f s u c c e s s
f u l, such an example sh ou ld encourage fu rth er t e s t s o f
s o c ia l theory v ia s im u la tio n games as w e ll as introduce a
gaming approach to stu d e n ts o f s o c ia l change.
T h eo retica l Model
The model o f change to be used in t h is research
w i l l be based upon th e work o f Dahrendorf (1959). His
^ -D issertation s l i s t i n g " a ttitu d e change" in t h e ir
t i t l e s are n o t in clu d e d in the ta b u la tio n s .
3
model seems to be one o f th e m ost adequate form ulations
fo r studying change in a u th o r ity str u c tu r e s which can be
found in the s o c io lo g ic a l lit e r a t u r e . Y et, as w i l l be
shown below , t h is model must undergo m o d ific a tio n in order
to become te s t a b le in a sim u la tio n game o f r e la t iv e ly sh o rt
d u ration .
i
j For purposes o f t h is r e se a r c h , th e m odified
i
|Dahrendorf model w i l l be tr a n s la te d in to a lo g ic a lly c lo se d
|system o f p r o p o sitio n s in order to maximize correspondence
between t h e o r e t ic a l co n cep ts and o p e r a tio n a l in d ic a to r s and
to avoid a lt e r n a t iv e lo g ic a l p o s s i b l i t i e s o f the meanings
I o f con cep ts.
The t h e o r e t ic a l m odel to be te s te d in t h is research
i
th en , i s d erived from D ahrendorf, but due to d iffe r e n c e s
between h is o r ig in a l model and the one to be te s te d h ere,
j r e s u lts o f t h is t e s t do n o t c o n s t it u t e a t e s t o f the e n tir e
I
loriginal formulation.
Logically Closed Systems of Propositions
L o g ic a lly c lo s e d system s o f p r o p o sitio n s have in
te r e s te d a number o f s o c i o lo g is t s and p h ilo so p h ers o f
sc ie n c e such as P arson, (1 9 3 7 :1 0 -1 2 ); Z etterb erg , (1954);
B ie r s te d t, (1959); Rudner, (1966:19) and W ilier (1967:52-
9 6 ). W ithin such l o g i c a l l y c lo se d system s, nominal d e f in i
tio n s o f concepts a re lin k ed to each oth er in such a way as
to provide th e mechanism fo r th e o p era tio n o f th e m odel,
Lthat i s ,. the in te r r e la t io n o f th e nominal d e f i n i t i o n s ___
3
model seems to be one o f th e most adequate fo rm u la tio n s
fo r stu d y in g change in a u th o r ity stru ctu r es which can be
found in th e s o c io lo g ic a l lit e r a t u r e . Y et, as w i l l be
shown b elow , t h is model must undergo m o d ific a tio n in order
to become t e s t a b le in a sim u la tio n game o f r e l a t i v e l y sh o rt
d u ra tio n .
For purposes o f t h is resea rch , the m o d ified
Dahrendorf model w i l l be tr a n sla te d in to a lo g i c a ll y c lo s e d
system o f p r o p o s itio n s in order to maximize correspondence
between t h e o r e t ic a l con cep ts and o p era tio n a l in d ic a to r s and
to avoid a lt e r n a t iv e lo g ic a l p o s s i b l i t i e s o f the m eanings
o f c o n c e p ts.
The t h e o r e t ic a l model to be te s te d in t h is re se a r ch
j
j th en , i s d eriv ed from Dahrendorf, but due to d iffe r e n c e s
I
between h is o r ig in a l model and th e one to be te s te d h e r e ,
r e s u lts o f t h is t e s t do n ot c o n s titu te a t e s t o f th e e n t ir e
o r ig in a l fo rm u la tio n .
L o g ic a lly C losed Systems o f P ro p o sitio n s
L o g ic a lly clo se d system s o f p r o p o sitio n s have in
te r e s te d a number o f s o c io lo g is t s and p h ilo so p h ers o f
s c ie n c e such as P arson, (1 9 3 7 :1 0 -1 2 ); Z etterb erg , (1 9 5 4 );
B ie r s te d t, (1 9 5 9 ); Rudner, (1966:19) and W ilier (1 9 6 7 :5 2 -
9 6 ). W ithin such lo g ic a lly c lo se d system s, nom inal d e f i n i
tio n s o f co n cep ts are lin k ed to each oth er in such a way as
to p rovid e th e mechanism fo r the op eration o f th e m odel,
th a t i s t h e . i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f th e nominal d e f in i t i o n s _______
4
in d ic a te s both d ir e c tio n fo r the r e la t io n s among v a r ia b le s
d eriv ed from the concepts as w e ll as th e lo g ic a l reasons
| fo r the r e a lt io n s . Though t h is ty p e o f th e o r iz in g is rare
in s o c io lo g y , i t would seem to be p a r t ic u la r ly u s e fu l where
th ere has been some co n fu sio n in th e m eanings o f t h e o r e t i
c a l c o n c e p ts.
Nominal d e f in itio n s are sim p ly form al statem en ts o f
i
I in te n tio n to use a word or s e t o f words to stand fo r some
oth er word or s e t o f words. S in ce th ey make no tru th
i
c la im s , th e ir u s e fu lln e s s l i e s in t h e ir a b i l i t y to be
i lin k ed to oth er nominal d e f i n i t i o n s .
i
i
! For purposes o f t h is r e se a r c h , nom inal d e f in itio n s
!
I w i l l be p a r tic u la r ly im portant to p r esen t th e meaning o f
| th e " a u th o rity s t r u c t u r e s " ^ in w hich changes w i l l be ob
serv ed . W ithout nominal d e f in i t io n , th e meaning o f th is
term could become very obscure.
| S im u lation Games in th e Study o f
| A u th o rity S tru ctu res and Change
As m entioned above, the fo cu s o f t h is resea rch w i l l
be upon a u th o r ity str u c tu r e s and t h e ir change. The nominal
d e f in it io n o f " au th ority stru ctu r e" to be used in th is
resea rch i s "A s e t o f r u le s w hich, when a p p lied in a s o c ia l
2
As an example o f th e c o n fu sio n which can occur,
Moore ob serves th a t a r e la te d term , " s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e ," has
been commonly used to denote f iv e d if f e r e n t s o c ia l pheno
mena. This con fu sion can e a s ily lea d to problem s in t e s t in g
th e o r ie s o f change s in c e each meaning o f str u c tu r e would
lead to a d iff e r e n t focu s or c h a n g e . (196 7:172-1® 0)_______
5
s it u a tio n , g en era tes a s o c i a l s tr u c tu r e , a ssig n s in d iv i
duals to s ta tu s e s in the s o c i a l s tr u c tu r e , provides fo r the
goals to be a tta in e d as w e ll as fo r change in i t s e l f ( i . e . ,
change in the r u le s ) ." T his co n cep tio n o f au th o rity stru c
tu res i s com patible w ith D ahrendorf's form ulations as w ell
as w ith the c e n tr a l fe a tu r e s o f m ost sim u la tio n games.
In Starpow er, th e sim u la tio n game to be used here,
i ju s t as in D ahrendorf's schem e, one s e t o f players w i l l be
1 given th e a u th o r ity to change th e r u le s , w h ile another set
i ■
jo f p layers w i l l be a llo w ed o n ly to su g g est p o ssib le r u le
|ch an ges. In th e r e se a r c h , p ro c e sse s o f c la s s org a n iza tio n ,
c la s s c o n f l i c t , and changes in th e a u th o r ity stru ctu re w ill
| be stu d ied . The Starpower game w i l l provide the s e t o f
| ru les which w i l l be put in to o p era tio n in classroom s in
i
c o lle g e and u n iv e r s ity s e t t i n g s .
So fa r i t has been argued th a t sim u la tio n game
ru les g en erate a s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e . The d e f in itio n o f
" s o c ia l stru ctu re" to be used in t h is research i s "the
d is tr ib u tio n o f reso u rces and a u th o r ity among s ta tu s e s ."
This d e f in it io n i s adapted from Hage (1 9 7 2 :8 0 ).
!
f
| Before p roceed in g fu r th e r , i t should be p ointed
out th a t sim u la tio n game r u le s a ls o p rovid e for more than
ju s t norm ative or le g a l p r o c e sse s o f the s o c ia l system s
which they g e n e r a te . A ccording to Coleman, at le a s t fiv e
! types o f game r u le s p ro v id e fo r s o c ia l p ro cesses in sim ula
tio n games. He w r it e s ,
* 6
I t i s o f te n s ta te d th a t th e ru le s o f a game
are lik e th e " ru les o f the game" in r e a l l i f e ,
th a t i s , th e norm ative and le g a l c o n str a in ts
upon b e h a v io r . T h is, however, corresponds on ly
to .one. ty p e o f r u le n ecessa ry in any gam e.. .
P roced u ral r u le s d escrib e how the game i s put
in to p la y , a n d .. .how .an.im passe in p lay i s r e
s o lv e d . . . b eh a v io r c o n s tr a in t. . .r u le s correspond
to th e r o le o b lig a tio n s found in r e a l l i f e , and
s p e c ify w hat the p la y er must, do and what he can
n ot d o .. . g o a l and means o f g o a l achievem ent. . .
r u le s s p e c if y b oth what tEe g o a ls a re and how
th e g o a ls a r e r e a c h e d .. . environm ental resp o n se. . .
r u le s s p e c if y how the environment would behave
i f i t w ere p r e se n t as p art o f the gam e...T h ere
is f i n a l l y one type o f r u le in a l l games as w e ll,
as in r e a l l i f e , which may be c a lle d p o lic e r u le s ,
g iv in g th e consequences to a p layer o f breaking
one o f th e gam e's r u le s .: (Coleman, 1968b:3 2 -3 5 ,
i t a l i c s su p p lie d fo r se v e r a l o f the types o f r u le s )
Of particular interest for this research will be changes in
r u le s w hich d eterm in e r e la tio n s h ip s between th e two groups
regarding s t a t u s as w e ll as m o b ility .
S im u lation Games as O p eration al Models
Not o n ly do sim u la tio n games embody a t t r ib u t e s o f
r e a l l i f e s o c i a l system s in th e ir game m odels, but a ls o
th e se m odels a r e o p e r a tio n a l. As Verba s t a t e s ,
A sim u la tio n i s a model o f a system . Other
m o d e ls...m a y attem pt to rep resen t a system through
v e r b a l m eans, (o r ) m athem atical m e a n s...L ik e sim u
la t io n s , th e y in v o lv e the a b str a c tio n o f c e r ta in
a sp e c ts o f th e system one i s stud yin g and an a t
tempt to r e p lic a t e th ese a sp e c ts by oth er means,
such as words or m athem atical sym bols. But th e
sim u la tio n model d if f e r s in th a t i t i s an
o p era tin g m odel. Once the v a r ia b le s th at have
been s e le c t e d a re g iv en v a lu es w ith in the sim u la
tio n and th e r e la t io n s among the v a r ia b le s are
s p e c if i e d , th e model i s allow ed to o p era te . I t
may o p era te through the in te r a c tio n o f p eop le who
p la y r o le s w ith in the model; or i t may op erate on
a com puter. The r u le s g iv en to the human p a r t i c i
pant s ._in_ th e _sim ulation _ _or _the _cpmp_uter_.prpgram________
7
rep r esen t the prem ises o f the m odel. I t s ope
r a tio n produces the im p lic a tio n s . (Verba, 1964:
491)
In t h is sta tem en t, Verba seems to have a n tic ip a te d an im
p o rta n t u se o f sim u la tio n games as th e " o p era tio n a l system s'’
o f t h e o r e t ic a l models which are ex p ressed f i r s t , v e r b a lly
through in te r -lin k e d nominal d e f in i t i o n s , and second
through p r o p o sitio n s which s t a t e r e la tio n s h ip s among v a r i
a b le s .
i
A dvantages o f Sim ulation Games fo r
S o c ia l ResearcE
| S in ce sim u la tio n games are o p era tin g m odels o f s o c ia l
sy stem s, th ey appear to o f f e r some w orthw h ile advantages
lover a lt e r n a t iv e m ethodologies fo r s o c ia l resea rch .
! S im u lation games g iv e the s o c i a l resea rch er a h igh de-
! g ree o f c o n tr o l over the re sea r ch s it u a t io n . This, c o n tr o l
i i
o f f e r s a t le a s t th ree advantages fo r re se a r c h .
; F i r s t , games a b str a c t on ly th e m ost im portant s o c ia l
|p r o c e s s e s . As Coleman p o in ts o u t,
i • ■ .
| every game s e le c t s o n ly c e r ta in p o rtio n s o f
j the s o c ia l environment to be in c lu d e d .. . Some
p o rtio n s are l e f t o u t, o fte n b ecau se th ey in tr o
duce s o c ia l p ro cesses o th er than th e ones being
sim ulated.(C olem an, 1968b:32)
| T his a sp e c t o f gaming resea rch a llo w s th e c o n str u c tio n o f
isim p le r s o c ia l system s, a c h a r a c t e r is t ic w hich a llo w s the
re sea r ch er to o b ta in more com plete c r o s s - s e c t io n a l data on
th e s o c ia l system s than m ost ty p es o f s o c ia l resea rch .
Second, s in c e the resea rch er has c o n tr o l over what i s
8
included in th e game s tr u c tu r e , s o c ia l system s which are
a lik e or d iff e r e n t on s p e c if ie d d im enstion s can be r e p l i
cated many tim es. This a sp e c t o f gaming research allow s
th e in v e s tig a to r to c o n tr o l extraneous fa c to r s more com
p le t e ly than in oth er ty p e s o f s o c ia l research .
T hird, sim u la tio n games have a fea tu re which is
id e a l for the stud y o f s o c i a l change—th ey can a llo w fo r
the speeding up or slo w in g down o f s o c ia l p r o c e sse s. In
t h is way long term p r o c e sse s can be speeded up so trends
can be observed more e a s i l y . L ik ew ise, p ro cesses which
happen v ery q u ick ly can be 3 slow ed down so ithat they can be
more a c c u r a te ly record ed . This a sp e c t o f sim u la tio n games
i
i a llo w s th e resea rch er to b e tte r study s o c ia l p ro cesses
i
|lo n g itu d in a lly than o th e r ty p es o f s o c ia l research .
| B esid es g iv in g s o c i a l resea rch ers a high degree o f
j c o n tro l over s o c ia l phenomena, sim u la tio n games allow in
v e s t ig a t io n s o f a sp e c ts o f s o c i a l l i f e which m ight prove
j to be too dangerous or too c o s t ly to r is k f a ilu r e . As
| Coleman p o in ts o u t,
!
a game i s a kind o f p la y upon l i f e in g en era l,
i t in d u ce s, in a r e s t r ic t e d and w e ll-d e fin e d
co n tex t, th e same kind s o f m o tiv a tio n s and be
havior th a t occur in th e broader co n tex ts o f l i f e
where we p la y fo r k eep s. (Coleman, 1968b:29)
i F in a lly , sim u la tio n games them selves provide r e -
i
wards to p la y e r s w ith in th e s o c ia l system (or subsystem )
which the game c r e a te s . As Coleman m entions,
I
As in any s o c ia l subsystem , the p layers in
9
a game fin d th e ir rewards in t r in s ic a lly in th e
game i t s e l f , w h ile an experim ent o r d in a r ily ,
m erely u se s th e s e r v ic e s o f i t s su b je c ts fo r a
p erio d 6 f tim e. (Coleman, 1968a: 7)
M odeling D if fe r e n t Types o f S o c ia l Systems
As m entioned above, sim u la tio n games can model
s o c ia l sy stem s which a re a lik e or d iffe r e n t alon g s p e c if ie d
d im en sion s. By t e s t in g s o c ia l th e o r ie s w ith in d if f e r e n t
types o f s o c i a l sy stem s, research ers can b egin to a s s e s s
th e d egree o f g e n e r a lity o f s o c ia l th e o r ie s . One o f th e
stum bling b lo c k s to th e p o s s ib ili t y o f d isco v e rin g u n iv e r
s a l laws in s o c io lo g y i s th a t f i r s t , the same th eory i s
r a r e ly t e s t e d w ith in two or more s o c ia l system s w hich are
a lik e or d if f e r e n t alon g s p e c ifie d dim ensions w ith o th e r
|v a r ia b le s ex p er im en ta lly c o n tr o lle d , and second, many
t h e o r e t ic a l fo rm u la tio n s in so c io lo g y co n ta in im p lic it
assum ptions con cern in g the type o f s o c ia l system w hich the
theory p o s t u la t e s .
| In h is c r it iq u e o f Marx, Dahrendorf e x p la in s th a t
iMarx's fo rm u la tio n s p o stu la te d a " c a p ita lis tic * 1 s o c ie t y
w h ile m ost t e c h n o lo g ic a lly advanced s o c ie t ie s are o f th e
j" in d u str ia l" ty p e . He s t a t e s ,
I
I
| Both term s " cap italism " and " in d u s tr ia l s o c ie t y ,"
are c a te g o r ie s on a high le v e l o f g e n e r a li t y ...
| They are m odels d e s c r ib in g .. . the most g en era l f e a
tu r e s o f s o c ia l str u c tu r e s ( t h e y .. .in d ic a te m erely
j the common fa c tu a l sk e le to n of comparable s o c i e t i e s ^
j w ith o u t ta k in g in to account th e ir c u ltu r a l p e c u li-
| a r i t i e s . ) (Dahrendorf, 1959:40)
|
! I n d u s tr ia l s o c ie t y d if f e r s from c a p i t a l i s t
s o c ie t y , alon g se v e r a l d im en sion s, but perhaps th e most
im portant d iffe r e n c e between th e se two typ es o f s o c ie t y i s
in th e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n system . I n d u s tr ia l s o c i e t ie s are
|c h a r a c te r iz e d by open s o c ia l system s in w hich s ta tu s is
based upon achievem ent. C a p it a lis t s o c i e t i e s , by c o n tr a st,
are ch a ra c te riz ed by c lo se d system s in w hich s ta tu s i s
|b ased upon a s c r ip tio n .
! _
Dahrendorf su g g ests th a t h is t h e o r e t ic a l statem ents
i
|a p p ly p r in c ip a lly to in d u s t r ia l s o c i e t i e s , but he speculates
I
j th a t th e th eory may be v a lid fo r o th e r typ es o f s o c ie t ie s
|a s w e ll. He w r ite s ,
| t h e . o. form ulation o f the th e o r y . . .d o es n o t
claim u n iv e r sa l a p p l i c a b i l i t y .. . i t i s co n fin e d ,
I in s te a d , to th a t type o f s o c ie t y w hich we have
d escrib ed as in d u s tr ia l s o c ie t y . I t s e x te n tio n
| to o th er types o f s o c ie t y may be p o s s i b l e . . .
| but a thorough d is c u s s io n o f (th e ) th eory on
t h is most gen eral le v e l f a l l s o u tsid e th e lim it s
o f th e p resen t in v e s t ig a t io n . (D ahrendorf,
1959:152)
In t h is resea rch , th e t h e o r e t ic a l model d erived
| from Dahrendorf w i l l be te s te d fo r th e e x te n t to which i t
J is n om oth etic, th a t i s , th e e x te n t to which i t i s a p p li
c a b l e in d iv e r se s e t t in g s . The sim u la tio n game w i l l be
m o d ified to form two d iff e r e n t s o c i a l s e t t in g s . One o f
| th e se s e t t in g s w i l l be more o f an open s o c ia l system , w h ile
jth e o th er w i l l be more o f a c lo se d s o c ia l s y s t e m . 3
; ^Features 0f th e se system s w i l l be d escrib ed in
| Chapter 3.
1 1
Research M eth od ologies fo r u se w ith
S im u lation Games
S in ce sim u la tio n games g en era te operating s o c ia l
system s, a re se a r ch m ethodology fo r u se w ith games i s some
what d iff e r e n t from th e more t r a d it io n a l m ethodologies
commonly employed by s o c i o l o g i s t s .
In c o n tr a s t to su rvey resea rch and o b serv a tio n s
in n a tu r a l s e t t i n g s , i t (game m ethodology) depends
on th e c r e a tio n o f s p e c ia l environm ents, governed
by r u le s th a t a re d esig n ed p r e c is e ly fo r the s tu
dy o f th e p a r tic u la r form o f o rg a n iz a tio n . In
co n tra st to exp erim en ts w ith t h e ir experim ental
probe or stim u lu s and th e consequent resp on se, the
p r in c ip a l elem ent in game m ethodology i s the con
s tr u c tio n o f r u le s w hich can e l i c i t a given form
of s o c ia l o r g a n iz a tio n . (Coleman, 1968a:7)
There a r e , th en , two c r i t i c a l elem ents in sim u la
tio n gaming m ethodology: 1) o b ta in in g a game ap propriate
i
i fo r the resea r ch problem , and 2) d e v isin g m easuring in -
i
| strum ents w hich a re a p p ro p ria te fo r th e research problem
l
land which do n o t in t e r f e r e w ith p la y o f the game.
S e le c tio n o f S im u la tio n Games
None o f th e advantages o f sim u la tio n games l i s t e d
above can be gain ed i f th e game to be used in the r e sea rch
does not model the p r o c e sse s to be stu d ied in the re sea r ch .
During the i n i t i a l phases o f th e research , a d e
c is io n w i l l have to be made on whether to use a sim u la tio n
I
game which i s a lrea d y in e x is te n c e , or to crea te a new
sim u la tio n game e s p e c ia ll y fo r the research . Since cu r
r e n tly th ere a re n e a r ly 1200 sim u la tio n games o f v a rio u s
typ es whic h a r e sea r ch er can a cq u ire (Zuckerman and Horn,__
’ ~ ’ " ~ ~ 12
1 9 7 0 ), th e f i r s t ta sk o f the resea rch er sh ou ld be to
th orou gh ly f a m ilia r iz e h im self tfith e x is t in g games which
model p r o c e sse s s im ilia r to th ose which seem to be impor
ta n t to th e r e se a r c h . Perhaps a game can be found which
can be used a f t e r o n ly minor m o d ific a tio n s. I f s o , the
re sea r ch er has probably saved many months in developm ent
tim e. An added advantage o f u sin g e x is t in g games i s th a t
re sea r ch on them can become cum ulative as more resea r ch is
done w ith th e same game. j
I
For t h is resea rch th e sim u la tio n game, Starpower
( S h ir t s , 1 9 6 9 ), was s e le c te d as the o p e r a tio n a l system fo r
th e th eo ry m odel. This s e le c tio n was based on a number o f
| c r i t e r i a . F ir s t , the game models the most c e n tr a l fe a tu r e s
o f a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e s such as r e so u r c e s, exch an ge, s ta tu s
m o b ility , and a u th o r ity . Second, the game p ro v id es fo r the
c r e a tio n o f s o c ia l c la s s e s as w e ll as fo r o p p o r tu n itie s fo r
in te r a c tio n w ith in and between th ese c l a s s e s . T hird,
Starpower p rovid es fo r change in the a u th o r ity str u c tu r e
by a llo w in g one c la s s change the r u le s o f th e game w hich
p rovid e fo r th e r e la tio n s h ip s between the s o c i a l c la s s e s
com prising th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e . F in a lly , Starpower i s
a sim u la tio n game w hich seems to o ffe r p la y e r s a h ig h ly
j
w orthw h ile ex p e r ie n ce .
!
M easuring Instrum ents fo r use w ith j
S im u la tio n Games
As in any resea rch , measuring in stru m en ts fo r use
iw ith sim u la tio n games must be ap p rop riate fo r the resea rch
!problem , and they must be r e l i a b l e . A lso lik e oth er typ es
!
(o f resea rch , i f measurements are to be made a t s e v e r a l
|
|p o in ts in tim e, th e e a r lie r measurement should n ot " r e a c t1 1
|w ith la t e r behavior o f the p a r t ic ip a n ts . In gaming r e -
! sea rch , t h is statem ent means th a t measurement does n ot
i in te r fe r e w ith p la y o f the games- - The amount o f " in te r fe r -
j
ence" which is to le r a b le in a gaming s it u a tio n i s somewhat
o f a su b je c tiv e m atter; however, th ere are a t le a s t two
ways to in trod u ce m easuring in stru m ents to p la y e r s . F ir s t ,
im easuring instrum ents can be made p art o f th e game. Score
|s h e e ts and o f f i c i a l records o f p la y are common in gam es,
| and as long as th ey do not ta k e an undue amount o f tim e
i
: away from p la y , they p rob ably do n ot in te r fe r e s i g n i f i -
|c a n tly w ith p la y . Second, in stru m en ts can be in trodu ced j
i
; ' j
I during "time o u ts," and as lon g a s they do n ot r a is e too
Imany q u estio n s from p la y e r s , or take up an undue amount o f
itim e, they probably do not in t e r f e r e w ith p la y o f the game.
| In th is resea r ch , m easuring instrum ents have been
i .
i
i in corp orated in to the game b oth as o f f i c i a l records o f the
!
i game and as "time out! a c t i v i t i e s . "
|
I L im ita tio n s of th e R esearch
A major lim ita tio n o f t h is resea rch l i e s in th e
I d i f f i c u l t i e s o f attem p ting t o co n stru ct a b str a c t m odels o f
complex s o c ia l sy stem s—w hether th e se be through v e r b a l,
m athem atical, or o p e r a tio n a l means. I t must r emain an ___
14
assum ption o f t h is resea rch th a t complex s o c ia l system s
can be a d eq u a tely rep resen ted through th e se means.
Even w ith c a r e fu l m atching o f sim u la tio n gam estto
s o c ia l t h e o r ie s , th ere may be in sta n c e s where adequate
o p e r a tio n a liz a tio n o f t h e o r e t ic a l concepts from o r ig in a l
t h e o r e t ic a l fo rm u la tio n s i s d i f f i c u l t or not p o s s ib le .
When th e se s it u a t io n s a r is e in t h is resea rch , the o r g in a l
con cep ts w i l l be m o d ified .
Plan o f th e R esearch
Chapter 1 has p resen ted a b r ie f overview o f the
r e sea r ch . Chapter 2 w i l l p resen t the t h e o r e t ic a l m odel to
be te s te d in t h is resea rch . Chapter 3 w i l l p resen t the
classroom procedures which were used to gath er th e d a ta .
Chapter 4 w i l l p resen t th e r e la t io n between th e t h e o r e t ic a l
model and th e o p e r a tio n a l system . Chapter 5 w i l l p resen t
th e data fo r t e s t in g th e t h e o r e t ic a l m odel. Chapter 6 w i l l
ip re sen t c o n c lu sio n s o f th e resea rch and recommendations fo r
j
fu tu r e stu d y .
CHAPTER II
T H E THEORETICAL M O D E L
Seek s im p lic ity and d is t r u s t i t . (D a v is, 1971:187)
In tro d u ctio n
In t h is s e c tio n the t h e o r e t ic a l model and i t s ope- |
r a tio n a l system w i l l be p resen ted . The t h e o r e t ic a l formu
la t io n s o f Dahrendorf seem to o f f e r some unique advantages
in th e study o f change .in a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e s , though as
w i l l be p o in ted out in t h is s e c t io n , th e model w i l l have to
undergo some fu rth er developm ent to p rovid e a lo g ic a lly
t ig h t t h e o r e t ic a l system which can be used w ith a sim u la
tio n game o f r e la t iv e ly sh ort d u ra tio n .
Problems w ith Most T heories o f
S o c ia l Change
One o f the problems o f u sin g sim u la tio n games to
i t e s t s o c ia l th e o r ie s i s th a t many t h e o r e t ic a l form ulation s
J
a re so underdeveloped th a t th ey can n ot, w ith o u t d r a s tic ,
r e v is io n , take advantage o f th e b e n e f its gain ed by th e use
o f sim u la tio n games.
B oskoff has r e c e n tly o u tlin e d th e major sh o r t
comings o f m ost th e o r ie s o f s o c ia l change. A ccording to
B osk off (1 9 7 l:2 1 3 -2 1 5 J , (1) m ost th e o r ie s o f s o c ia l change
15
16
are too g ran d iose; (2) th ey are preoccu pied w ith s tr u c tu r a l
a n a ly s is ra th er than dynamic a n a ly s is ; (3) th ey are in a d e
q u a tely co n ce p tu a lize d ; (4) they im properly s p e c ify th e
u n its o f a n a ly s is ; (5 ) they are concerned w ith tren d s and
!
n ot w ith th e mechanisms o f change. To t h is l i s t a s ix t h
shortcom ing should be added. Recent work has h ig h lig h te d
a d is t in c t io n between th e c o n f lic t and th e consensus p er
s p e c tiv e . 3 - W hile th e two p e r s p e c tiv e s may not re p rese n t
a tru e dichotom y, adequate t h e o r e t ic a l work should employ
jboth p e r s p e c tiv e s in i t s fo rm u la tio n .
j Advantages o f D ahrendorffs Form ulations
In th e p resen t resea rch a model o f change in author-
i
i t y s tr u c tu r e s , based upon th e work o f Dahrendorf (1959)
w i l l be te s te d through th e u se o f th e sim u la tio n game,
Starpower ( S h ir t s , 1 9 6 9 ). I t w i l l be shown below th a t th e
iwork o f Dahrendorf may y ie ld a t e s t a b le model s in c e th e
jo r ig in a l form u lation s avoid many o f th e shortcom ings o f
I th e o r ie s o f s o c ia l change o u tlin e d above.
i This d is t in c t io n i s d isc u sse d under many ru b ric s
jsuch as in te g r a tio n v ersu s co e rc io n by Dahrendorf (1 9 5 9 ),
Ifu n ctio n a lism v ersu s c o n f lic t by E tz io n i and E tz io n i (1964),
| c o n f lic t versu s order by Horton (1 9 6 6 ), c o n f lic t v ersu s
consensus by Demerath and P eterson (1 9 6 7 ), Marxism v e r su s
fu n ctio n a lism by Moore (1 9 6 7 ), in flu e n c e versu s s o c ia l con
t r o l by Gamson (1 9 6 8 ), group c o n f li c t versu s system by
jM asotti and Bowen (1 9 6 8 ), Marxism v ersu s fu n c tio n a lism by
jGouldner (1 9 7 0 ), c o n f l i c t v ersu s eq u ilib riu m by Applebaum
1(1970), c o n f lic t v ersu s s tr u c tu r a l-fu n c tio n a l by A lle n
1(1971), and fu n c tio n a lism v ersu s c o n f l i c t by C o llin s (1971),'
jLauer (1971) d is c u s s e s th e same is s u e , but he does n ot
japply la b e ls to th e p e r s p e c tiv e s .
17
(1) Scope: Dahrendorf does n o t attem pt to e x p la in change
in a l l a sp e c ts o f s o c ia l l i f e ; in s te a d he lim it s h is d is
c u ssio n to changes in a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e s w ith in impera
t i v e l y coord in ated a s s o c ia tio n s ^ o f in d u s t r ia l s o c ie t ie s .^
(2 ) Focus o f a n a ly s is : Dahrendorf does n o t n e g le c t dynamic
a n a ly s is . He em phasizes both s tr u c tu r a l and dynamic a s
p e c ts o f a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e s .
Dahrendorf has adapted t h is term from Weber, and
h is usage o f i t serv es th e same h e u r is t ic purpose as Par
s o n s 1 use o f th e term " s o c ia l system ." He s t a t e s , " S o cia l
system i s a very g en era l con cep t a p p lic a b le to a l l typ es
o f o r g a n iz a tio n .. . S in ce im p era tiv e c o o r d in a tio n , or a u th o r i
t y , i s a type o f s o c ia l r e la t io n p rese n t in every c o n c e iv
a b le s o c ia l o r g a n iz a tio n ;. . i t appears j u s t i f i a b l e to use
th e term " a sso cia tio n " in such a way as to im ply the co
o rd in a tio n o f organized a g g reg a tes o f r o le s by dom ination
and s u b j e c t io n .. . (In t h is way) we regard them as (im pera
t i v e l y coord in ated ) a s s o c ia tio n s (D ahrendorf, 1959:167-168).
L a ter, he d e fin e s th e term by q u otin g Weber, "An a s s o c ia
tio n s h a ll be c a lle d im p e r a tiv e ly coord in ated in so fa r as
i t s members a r e , by v ir tu r e o f a p r e v a ilin g o rd er, su b je c t
to a u th o r ity r e la tio n s " (D ahrendorf, 1 9 5 9 :2 3 7 ). The c e n tr a l
fe a tu r e o f im p e ra tiv ely co o rd in a ted a s s o c ia t io n s , th en , are
t h e ir a u th o r ity str u c tu r e s (d e fin e d in Chapter 1 ); th e
changes which Dahrendorf fo c u se s upon changes in th e au
th o r ity str u c tu r e s o f im p e r a tiv e ly coord in ated a sso c ia tio n s .
This approach i s id e a l fo r u se w ith sim u la tio n games s in c e
games such as Starpower are a c t u a lly im p e r a tiv e ly coord in -
| a ted a s s o c ia tio n s in th e Dahrendorf sen se and s in c e changes
in game r u le s are changes in th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e o f the
game.
^Dahrendorf sp e c u la te s as to th e a p p lic a b ilit y o f
h is t h e o r e t ic a l form u lation s to " c a p it a lis t ic " as w e ll to
" in d u str ia l" s o c ie t ie s (1 9 5 9 :1 5 2 ). In t h is resea rch S ta r
power w i l l be m od ified to model two d if f e r e n t typ es o f
s o c ia l sy stem s. One o f th e system s w i l l more c lo s e ly co r
respond to s o c ie t ie s o f th e in d u s tr ia l" ty p e, and th e other
system w i l l more c lo s e ly correspond to s o c i e t i e s o f th e
" c a p it a lis t ic " ty p e. E v a lu a tio n o f th e model w ith in each
type o f s o c ia l system , a llo w s assessm en t o f th e "scope o f
v a lid it y " o f the m odel.
18
(3) C o n c e p tu a liz a tio n : Dahrendorf has been rea so n a b ly clear
in the m eanings o f h is co n cep ts, and he has been q u ite
c le a r in s t a t in g th e in te r r e la tio n s h ip s between th e s e con
c e p ts . The p r e se n t r e sea rch w i ll supply nom inal t h e o r e t i
c a l d e f in it io n s fo r the th e o r e tic a l concepts in o rd er to
lin k th ese co n cep ts to. each other in a m eaningful way.
(4) U nits o f a n a ly s is : The u n its o f a n a ly s is in Dahren-
d o r f’ s th e o r iz in g are th e a u th o rity str u c tu r e s o f im pera
t iv e l y co o rd in a ted a s s o c ia t io n s , and in h is a n a ly s is o f
change in th e se a u th o r ity stru ctu r es he q u ite p ro p erly f o
cu ses upon th e r e la tio n s h ip s between the s o c ia l c la s s e s
com prising th e s e a s s o c ia t io n s .
(5) Trends v . Mechanisms o f change: Dahrendorf does n o t
jfovus upon lon g-term ev o lu tio n a ry tren d s; in s te a d , he e x
amines th e mechanism w hich lin k s str u c tu r a l elem en ts to
change.
(6) T h e o r e tic a l p e r s p e c t iv e : Dahrendorf i s one o f th e few
th e o r is t s who b rid g e th e gap between the major p e r s p e c tiv e s
m entioned above. As Gamson c o r r e c tly arg u es, Dahrendorf
does not fo cu s o n ly upon th e s o c ia l system or the p o t e n t ia l
p a r tis a n s , but "he q u ite p rop erly moves back and f o r t h b e
tween an in flu e n c e and a s o c ia l co n tro l p e r s p e c tiv e (Gamson,
|1968:8)
j
j I t has been shown above th a t D ahrendorf’ s m odel has
I
!
ladvantages over many o th e r th e o r e tic a l fo rm u la tio n s; how-
j
ev e r, as was a llu d ed to in Chapter 1, the model m ust undergc
19
some fu r th er developm ent in order 1) to be te s te d v ia a
sim u a ltio n game o f r e la t i v e l y sh o r t d u ration and 2) to pro
v id e a lo g ic a lly tig h t t h e o r e t ic a l m odel. The fo llo w in g
s e c tio n s o f t h is chapter w i l l in tro d u ce the sim u la tio n game
and lo g ic a lly t ig h t t h e o r e t ic a l m odels.
jStarpower: The Sim u lation Game
j
In the D ir e c to r 's I n s tr u c tio n s , Starpower i s d es
crib ed in th e fo llo w in g way:
S tarp ow er.. . i s a game in which a . . . s o c i e t y i s
b u il t through th e d is t r ib u t io n o f (reso u r c es) in
th e f o m o f c h ip s . P a r tic ip a n ts have a chance to
p rogress from one le v e l o f s o c ie t y to another by
I a cq u irin g (reso u r ces) through trad in g w ith each
| o th e r . Once the s o c ie t y i s e s ta b lis h e d , th e group
j w ith th e most (r e so u r c e s) i s g iv en th e r ig h t to
| make th e r u le s o f the game. (S h ir ts , 1969:1)
| As m entioned in Chapter 1 , Starpower i s an a u th o r i-
i
|t y str u c tu r e . As such i t p ro v id es fo r the d is tr ib u tio n o f
i
J s tr u c tu r a l a ttr ib u te s among s o c i a l p o s it io n s . When the
game i s p layed , p ro cesses o f c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n , c o n f l i c t ,
and change emerge. These p r o c e sse s can be measured through
o b serv a tio n s o f p la y o f th e game thus a llo w in g a t e s t o f
the th e o r e tic a l m odel.
T h e o r e tic a l models w hich are lo g ic a lly t ig h t o ffe r
more con fid en ce in t e s t r e s u lt s than do le s s lo g ic a lly
|t ig h t m odels. In th e n ext s e c t io n methods o f a tta in in g
ilo g ic a l c lo su r e w i l l be d is c u s s e d .
i
I ^In th is resea rch , th e p la y e r s them selves w i l l a c t
jas ob servers o f game p la y s .
20
T h e o r e tic a l D e fin itio n s and L o g ica l
C losure
In h is r e c e n t work on th eory c o n s tr u c tio n , Hage
argues th a t both t h e o r e t ic a l and o p e r a tio n a l d e f in it io n
should be in corp orated in s o c ia l th eo ry . He s t a t e s ,
W e n e e d ...t h e two d e f in it io n s in order to make
more p r e c is e what i s in tend ed and a id in th e
sea rch fo r th e more p ro fo u n d .. .W ithout a th e o r e
t i c a l d e f in it io n , the in d ic a to r s can remain too
s p e c i f i c . W ithout an o p e r a tio n a l d e f in i t io n , the
meaning can remain too d i f f u s e . . .P robably th e
g r e a te s t advantage o f having two d e f in it io n s i s
th a t th e r e s u ltin g c l a r it y a llo w s us to th in k more
p r e c is e ly and a c c u r a te ly about th e con cep ts and
th e ir in te r c o n n e c tio n s. (Hage, 1 972:66-68)
S in ce th e re are two s e t s o f d e f in it io n s o f concepts
( t h e o r e t ic a l and o p e r a tio n a l) th ere should be a s e t o f
t h e o r e t ic a l lin k a g es between th e t h e o r e t ic a l d e f in it io n s as
jw e ll as a s e t o f lin k a g es between th e o p e r a tio n a l d e f in i-
i
tio n s (D isc u ssio n o f th e lin k a g es between t h e o r e t ic a l con-
Jcepts and o p e r a tio n a l in d ic a to r s , th a t i s " ep istem ic co r
r e la t io n s ," w i l l be d isc u sse d in a la t e r s e c tio n o f th is
c h a p te r ). For th e moment, lin k a g es among th e t h e o r e t ic a l
con cep ts w i l l be co n sid ered . Hage argued above th a t
t h e o r e t ic a l d e f in it io n s should be used in s o c ia l th eory.
He a ls o argues th a t lin k a g es between th e t h e o r e t ic a l d e f i
n it io n s should be su p p lied b ecau se,
; The th e o r e tic a l^ lin k a g e t e l l s , us why tw o.or
! more con cep ts are lin k ed or connected in some
| t h e o r e t ic a l sta tem en t" I t g iv e s us p l a u s i b i l i t y .
| (Hage, 1972:90, i t a l i c s are from o r ig in a l te x t)
I
Hage goes on to e x p la in th a t th e t h e o r e t ic a l lin k a g e s,
became th e b a s is fo r b u ild in g what W ilie r (1967)
21
c a l ls th e model o f the th eo ry , a s e t o f b a sic
( d e f in it io n s ) th a t can be used to d eriv e the
s p e c if i c reason s fo r the variou s o p era tio n a l
lin k a g es or e q u a tio n s. (Hage, 1972:91)
W ilier has su g g ested th a t the name "sym bolic model"
be used to d e sc r ib e t h e o r e t ic a l models in which s e t s o f
nominal d e f in it io n s are lin k ed to each other in such a way
as to p rovid e t h e o r e t ic a l lin k a g es as w e ll as to im ply p re-
d ie te d r e la t io n s and o p e r a tio n a l lin k a g es among e m p ir ic a l
in d ic a to r s . W ilie r s t a t e s ,
Models o f t h is s o r t are sym bolic in th a t: (1)
th e ir g en e r a l s e t o f phenomena, and (2) th e ir
symobls s i c a re the source o f th e ir mechanism.
(W ilie r , 1967:52)
|
|S in ce th e o p era tio n o f sym bolic models does n ot depend upon
| an analogy or upon a b s tr a c tio n o f the mechanism from th e
!
i
•phenomena th e m selv es,
{ th e sym bolic (m odel) i s the most form al in i t s
j co n str u c tio n ; i t o f fe r s th e advantage o f a stro n g
but not r ig id mechanism. (W ilie r , 1967:53)
Nominal T h e o r e tic a l D e fin itio n s
Nominal d e f in it io n s are e x p lic it ly sta te d d e c is io n s
to use a word or s e t o f words to stand for another word or
s e t o f words. As su ch , nominal d e fin itio n s make no tr u th
| c la im s. The v a lu e o f a nom inal d e f in itio n o f con cep t l i e s
in i t s a b i l i t y to p ro v id e th e o r e tic a l lin k a g es among th e
concepts o f th e t h e o r e t ic a l system .
Real d e f i n i t i o n s , on th e other hand,
not o n ly in d ic a te th e meaning o f a word, as
nominal d e f in it io n s do, but they a ls o a s s e r t
som ething about th e r e fe r e n t o f the concept d e fin e d .
(B ie r s te d t, 1959:130)
R eal d e f in itio n s are a s s e r tio n s about th e r e fe r e n t; they
are hypo th e se s concerning th e n atu re o f the phenomena under
c o n sid e r a tio n . As su ch , r e a l d e f in it io n s are judged by
th e ir tru th ; and nominal d e f in it io n s are judged by th e ir
( u t i l i t y . Nominal t h e o r e t ic a l d e f in it io n s have advantages
i
|o v er oth er types o f d e f in it io n s fo r u se w ith sim u la tio n
|games as w i l l be shown in th e n ex t s e c t io n .
i
i
! •
jTruth Claims and Sim u lation Games fo r
[T estin g S o c ia l Theory
f
I
The va lu e o f a t h e o r e t ic a l m odel, c o n s is tin g o f
in te r r e la te d nominal d e f in i t io n s , i s in i t s u t i l i t y fo r
j
|g e n e r a tin g s e ts o f p r o p o sitio n s and fo r im plying o p era tio n -
j
ja l d e f in it io n s . As such,
| When b u ild in g sym bolic m od els, what the r e -
j search er th in k s the phenomena are r e a lly lik e is
| n ot very im portant. The r e a l n atu re o f phenomena
i i s n o t r e le v a n t to th e sym bolic c o n str u c tio n i t -
| s e l f . I f t h e . . . ( d e f i n i t i o n s ) . . .a r e enough to pro-
| duce a mechanism, and i f th e r e is a reason ab le
| e x p e c ta tio n th a t i t w i l l r e s u lt in a model is o -
| morphic w ith the d a ta , then th a t i s enough.
| W ilie r , 1967:55)
I f v erb a l t h e o r e t ic a l m odels are to be ev a lu a ted on
t h e ir u t i l i t y and not on t h e ir tr u th c la im s, so m ight one
j
|a ls o ev a lu a te oth er types o f m od els, in clu d in g sim u la tio n
j
jgames. T estin g th e match between sim u la tio n games and the
!r e a l world r e fe r e n t system i s p ro b lem a tic. As Raser p o in ts
I o u t,
t e s t in g fo r isom orphic v a li d i t y i s d i f f i c u l t
22a.
in th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s , fo r we are o fte n so un
c e r ta in o f the a c tu a l c h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e r e
fe r e n t system th a t we cannot e s t a b lis h a sta n d
ard o f com parison. (R aser, 1969:141)
As w ith nom inal versu s r e a l d e f in i t io n s , perhaps
th e q u e stio n o f isomorphism should be rep la ced by th a t o f
u t i l i t y . I f a game can provide an ex p erien ce w hich a llo w s
p la y er s to answer q u estio n s about game p la y which are sim i
la r to q u e stio n s which m ight be asked about th e refererit
system , and i f such q u e stio n s may be co n sid ered adequate
I
|o p e r a tio n a liz a tio n s o f t h e o r e t ic a l c o n c e p ts , then the game
I
{may be con sid ered u s e f u l. This co n cep tio n o f u t i l i t y in -
I
I corp orates th e n o tio n th a t isomorphism (o r u t i l i t y ) i s
|
|r e la t iv e in regards to d iff e r e n t typ es o f p la y e r s , and fo r
|d if f e r e n t p u rp oses, which i s as i t should b e, s in c e th e
j v a lid it y or u s e fu lln e s s o f a game i s n o t th e same fo r a l l
!
{p la y ers or in a l l s it u a t io n s .
i
In th e p a st few s e c tio n s o f t h is ch a p ter, th e rea
sons fo r u sin g p a r tic u la r theory-m ethods have been ou tlin ed ,
B efore t h e o r e t ic a l form ulation s o f t h is r e sea rch are p re
se n te d , W ilie r 1s c o d if ic a t io n o f D ahrendorf1s work on the
form ation o f organ ized in t e r e s t groups s,hould be d isc u sse d ,
I as th e p resen t resea rch w i l l examine the im p lic a tio n s o f
j - - - __
! o r g a n iz a tio n o f c la s s e s fo r c o n f lic t and change.
|
W ilie r f s C o d ific a tio n o f Dahrendorf f-s Work
on I n te r e s t Group Formation
W ilier has co n stru cted a s e t o f nom inal t h e o r e t ic a l
d e fi n i t i ons from D ahrendorf^ (1959) theoreticaJL _ __
23
form u lation s con cern in g th e form ation o f in t e r e s t groups
(se e W ilier and Z o llsc h a n , 1964 and W ilie r , 1 9 6 7 :5 4 -6 3 ).
The p resen t th eo ry model does not attem pt to o u tlin e th e
form ation o f o rg a n ized in t e r e s t groups; however, s in c e i t
does examine th e im p lic a tio n s o f o rg a n iz a tio n o f in t e r e s t
groups fo r c o n f l i c t and change w ith in an a u th o r ity s t r u c
tu r e , a d is c u s s io n o f the form ation o f organized in t e r e s t
groups seems w arranted .
In h is s u c c in c t summary o f D ahrendorf's m odel,
W ilier w r it e s ,
j Dahrendorf began w ith Marx's view o f c l a s s .
He then in co rp o ra ted Weber's con cep tion o f
dom ination and was thus a b le to think o f form al
o rg a n iz a tio n s as composed o f two groups, the
dom inating and th e dom inated, whose in t e r e s t s are
n e c e s s a r ily opposed because they are stru ctu r ed
w h o lly by th e p ro cess o f dom ination. This oppo
s i t i o n o f in t e r e s t s i s thought o f as determ ined
by th e p ro cess o f dom ination i t s e l f , and i t e x i s t s
p r io r to any understanding o f i t by incumbents o f
p o s itio n s in th e s tr u c tu r e . (W ilie r , 1967:54-55)
In order to c o n str u c t th e s e t o f d e f in it io n s , W ilie r began
w ith the fo llo w in g n om in ally d efin ed terms from Dahrendorf:
O r ie n ta tio n s o f b eh avior which are in h eren t in
s o c ia l p o s it io n s ( r o le e x p e c ta tio n s ), . . .and w hich
oppose two a g g re g a tes o f p o s itio n s in any im pera
t i v e l y co o rd in a ted a s s o c ia tio n s h a ll be c a lle d
la t e n t i n t e r e s t s .
Q uasi-group s h a ll mean any c o l l e c t i v i t y o f in d i
v id u a ls sh a rin g p o s itio n s w ithout having organ ized
them selves as such.
M an ifest in t e r e s t s s h a ll mean o r ie n ta tio n s o f
behavior w hich a re a r t ic u la t e and con sciou s to
in d iv id u a ls , and w hich oppose c o l l e c t i v i t i e s o f
in d iv id u a ls in any im p era tiv ely coordinated a s s o c i
a t i o n .........................
j I n te r e s t group s h a ll mean any organized c o l le c -
j t i v i t y o f in d iv id u a ls sh arin g m an ifest in t e r e s t s .
24
(W ilie r , 1967:55)
|W ilie r then r e v is e s th e se d e f in i t io n s in to a more e x p l i c i t
j form . The com plete s e t o f d e f in i t io n s provided by W ilier
I
are p resen ted below , as the m odel to be p resen ted la t e r in
th e chapter i s an ex ten sio n o f t h is fo rm u la tio n . W ilier
jp r e se n ts th e fo llo w in g nom inal d e f i n i t i o n s ,
i
i
1. Exigency or a f e e l in g o f unease in the in -
! d iv id u a l or the occurrence o f u n r est in a c o l le c -
| t i v i t y stemming from a d i f f e r e n t i a l between th e
! in d iv id u a l's d e f in it io n o f th e r e le v a n t s o c ia l
j s it u a tio n as i t i s and as i t should be. Exigency
! i s m aintained a t a p re v e rb a l le v e l;
j 2. S tru ctu ra l p o s it io n o r a p o s it io n o f s o c ia l
j r e la tio n s h ip e n ta ilin g th e p r o b a b ility o f g a in in g
i c e r ta in in form ation , a c q u ir in g a c e r ta in amount
| o f w ea lth , s t a tu s , and s k i l l , and ex p erien cin g a
c e r ta in le v e l o f ex ig en cy ;
; 3. L atent in te r e s t p o s it io n or a p o s itio n en-
t a ilin g a s u f f ic ie n t l e v e l o f ex ig en cy and c e r ta in ,
in form ation p red isp o sin g th e in d iv id u a l in th a t
j p o s itio n to crea te or a c c e p t c e r ta in typ es o f a r t i
c u la tio n o f exigency;
j 4 . A r tic u la tio n or any sta tem en t capable o f
! tr a n s la tin g an ex ig en cy in to an in t e r e s t and which
J may range from sim ple sta te m e n ts to ela b o r a te
! id e o lo g ic a l system s; th ey need n o t be e m p ir ic a lly
| v a lid nor need the d e f in it io n s o f th e s it u a tio n or
| proposed programs be a c c e p ta b le to a more know
led g ea b le observer;
j 5 . I n te r e s t or a r t ic u la t e d e x ig e n c y , which when
I accep ted by a group or c o l l e c t i v i t y , i s viewed as
j being contrary to the in t e r e s t s o f o th e r groups,
and which e n t a ils a d e s ir e to m odify th e r e le v a n t
s t a t e o f a f f a ir s (or to m a in ta in i t a g a in s t oppo
s it io n ) in lin e w ith th e g ro u p 's accep ted v a lu es;
6. L atent in te r e s t group or any c o l l e c t i v i t y
sharing la te n t in t e r e s t p o s i t i o n s ;
7. M an ifest in t e r e s t group or any c o l l e c t i v i t y
o f in d iv id u a ls sh arin g i n t e r e s t s which form a
i p o te n tia l b a sis fo r co n ce rted a c tio n ;
| 8. Organized in t e r e s t group o r any m a n ifest
! in t e r e s t group which as become organ ized to under-
! take con certed a c tio n in support o f i t s own in t e -
S r e s t s . (W ilier, 1967:59)
25
As m entioned above, the th eory model to be d ev elo p
ed and t e s t e d in t h is resea rch i s an e x te n sio n o f th e above
d e f in it io n s ; i t w i l l examine th e im p lic a tio n s o f th e orga
n iz a tio n o f in t e r e s t groups fo r c o n f l i c t and change w ith in
an a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e .
D ahrendorf' s D e fin itio n s o f Concepts in
th e T h e o r e tic a l Model !
B efore attem p tin g to co n str u ct nom inal d e f in it io n s
fo r the f i v e con cep ts o f the t h e o r e t ic a l model to be te s te d
Jin t h is r e se a r c h , D ahrendorf's usage o f th e se term s—
i
|" o r g a n iz a tio n ," " in t e n s it y o f c la s s c o n f l i c t ," " v io le n c e o f
i
c la s s c o n f l i c t ," " r a d ica ln e ss o f str u c tu r e change," and
"suddenness o f s tr u c tu r e change"— should be in v e s t ig a t e d .
Dahrendorf d e fin e s organized c la s s e s as th e oppo-
j s i t e o f " d if fu s e , in co h eren t a g g reg a tes (1959:226)." He
s t a t e s th a t fo r p r o c e sse s o f o r g a n iz a tio n to tak e p la c e ,
E ith e r th e re must be a person or c i r c l e o f
p ersons who tak e on them selves the ta sk o f a r t i
c u la tio n and c o d if ic a t io n , or a lt e r n a t iv e ly , an
| 'id e o lo g y ' or system o f id e a s , must be a v a ila b le
I which in a g iv e n ca se i s capable o f se rv in g as a
! program or ch a rter o f groups. (D ahrendorf,
1959:186)
Dahrendorf d e fin e s in t e n s it y o f c o n f l i c t in the
|th e fo llo w in g way: i
| j
The ca teg o ry o f in t e n s it y r e fe r s to energy
! ex p en d itu re and degree o f involvem ent o f con-
i f l i c t i n g p a r t ie s . (D ahrendorf, 1959:211)
I
i
| V io len ce o f c o n f lic t fo r D ahrendorf,
i R ela tes ra th er to i t s m a n ife sta tio n s than to i t s
26
cau ses; i t i s a m atter o f th e weapons chosen
by c o n f lic t groups to ex p ress th e ir h o s t i l i t i e s
. . .a continuum can be co n stru cted ranging from
p ea ce fu l d is c u s s io n s to m ilita n t str u g g le s .
(Dahrendorf, 1959:239)
j Dahrendorf d e fin e s th e ra d ica ln ess o f str u c tu r e
j change in terms o f p a s t s t a t e s o f s o c ia l system s,
th e r a d ic a ln e s s o f str u c tu r e change i s e v id e n tly
a fu n ctio n o f what in p a r tic u la r h is t o r i c s l s i t u
a tio n s r e p r e se n ts th e s ta tu s quo. . .By r a d ic a ln e ss
o f str u c tu r e change s h a ll be understood the s i g n i
fic a n c e o f consequences and ra m ifica tio n s o f s tr u c
ture change. (D ahrendorf, 1959:235-238, i t a l i c s
are from th e o r ig in a l te x t )
Dahrendorf d e fin e s suddenness o f str u c tu r e change
«■ t
in th e fo llo w in g way:
i
| By suddenness o f str u c tu r e change s h a ll be under
stood the e x te n t to w hich incumbents o f p o s itio n s
o f a u th o r ity a re r e p la c e d . (Dahrendorf, 1959:238)
Dahrendorf extends t h is d e f in it io n so that "replacem ent"
may in v o lv e 1) th e t o t a l exchange o f p erson n el, or 2) th e
I p a r t ia l exhange o f p e r so n n e l,
i
but probably more im portant than e ith e r o f
th ese i s a th ir d mode o f str u c tu r e change by c la s s
c o n f lic t th a t does n ot in v o lv e any changes in p e r
so n n e l. I t i s p o s s ib le fo r stru ctu re changes in
d ir e c tio n s in ten d ed by su b jected groups to be in -
! augurated w ith o u t any members o f these groups
; p en etra tin g in to dominant p o s i t io n s .. .m a jo rity and
j o p p o sitio n remain s t a b le and d is t in c t over long
j p eriod s o f tim e, but th e m a jo rity party in corp or-
| a te s p ro p o sa ls and in t e r e s t s o f the o p p o sitio n in
i t s l e g i s la t io n and p o lic ie s -. (Dahrendorf, 1959:
233)
D e fin itio n s which S u ggest Continuous
[t h e o r e t ic a l Statem ents
| j
I As can be seen ab ove, some o f Dahrendorf*s d e f i n i - j
I
jtio n s (ex . o r g a n iz a tio n ) im ply dichotom ies or other ty p es
| o f n on-con tinu ous c o n d itio n s . Hage argu es fo r continuous
I t h e o r e t ic a l statem en ts on th e grounds th a t th ey are more
|p r e c is e , c o n ta in more in fo rm a tio n , and a re more rep re
s e n t a t iv e o f th e r e a l world (1 9 7 2 :3 6 -3 8 ). He im p lies th a t
jth e s e same b e n e fits can be gained by d e fin in g th e o r e t ic a l
I co n cep ts in continuous form so th a t th e y w i l l more c lo s e ly
!
I f i t t h e o r e t ic a l statem ents o f co n n ectio n s among con cep ts
!w h ich are continuous in n a tu re.
i
In t h is resea rch th e nominal t h e o r e t ic a l d e f in i
t io n s w hich w i l l be provided fo r th e co n cep ts o f the modi
f i e d Dahrendorf model w i l l be s ta te d in continuous form.
j
I T h e o r e tic a l D e fin itio n s and O p e r a tio n a liz a tio n s
i
Dahrendorf p rovid es t h e o r e t ic a l d e f in it io n s , l i s t -
I ed above; however, he does n ot p ro v id e any more com plete de-
| s c r ip t io n s o f p o s s ib le o p e r a tio n a liz a tio n s oth er than j u s t
| c lu e s w hich appear s p o r a d ic a lly in th e o r ig in a l t e x t . In
i
! some c a se s he in d ic a te s th a t a p a r tic u la r t h e o r e t ic a l con-
! c e p t may have an o p e r a tio n a liz a tio n , b u t he does n ot sug-
i
j
j g e s t any measurement s t r a t e g ie s . For exam ple, he s t a t e s ,
At le a s t in th eo ry , th ere i s . . . a s c a le o f the
| r a d ic a ln e s s o f str u c tu r e change. However, an
| o p e r a tio n a l form ulation o f such a s c a le o f f e r s
| p a r tic u la r d i f f i c u l t i e s . (S in ce ) in g e n e r a l, the
j r a d ic a ln e s s o f str u c tu r e change i s e v id e n t a lly a
| fu n c tio n o f what in p a r tic u la r h i s t o r i c a l s it u a
tio n s rep resen ts the s ta tu s quo. (Dahrendorf,
| 1959:235)
So fa r i t can be seen th a t D ahrendorf i s not com-
i
! p l e t e l y c le a r in h is th e o r e tic a l d e f in it io n s and does not
i
28
p rovid e o p e r a tio n a l in d ic a to r s . These w eaknesses are n ot
uncommon in s o c io lo g y . As Hage p o in ts o u t,
The t h e o r is t s have tended to em phasize the
t h e o r e t ic a l d e f in i t io n to the e x c lu sio n o f th e
o th e r . In c o n tr a s t re sea rch ers have been con
cerned p r im a r ily about in d ic a to r s w ith ou t any
c o n sid e r a tio n o f t h e o r e t ic a l d e f i n i t i o n s . ..a n
in s p e c tio n o f many o f th e re ce n t jo u rn a l a r t i
c le s makes c le a r th a t u s u a lly th ere are in d i
ca to r s , and som etim es t h e o r e t ic a l d e f in i t i o n s ,
but seldom both k in d s. (Hage, 1972:65-66)
The statem en t by Hage r e it e r a t e s a commonly sta te d though
i
trem endously im portant and p e r s is t e n t problem in s o c io lo g y .
M oreover,
Perhaps what i s r e v e a lin g i s th a t most o f the
re c e n t books on th eory c o n str u c tio n do n ot even
co n sid er t h is is s u e . (Stinchcom be, 1968; G laser
and S tr a u ss , 1967; Z etterb erg , 1963) The two
| th a t do, do so in an a b str a c t way from th e view -
| p o in t o f P h ilosop h y o f S cie n c e. (Dubin, 1969;
! W ilie r , 1967) (Hage, 1972:66)
I
I L ater in t h is ch a p te r, the nominal t h e o r e t ic a l de
f in i t io n s o f th e m o d ified Dahrendorf model w i l l be p re
se n te d , however, b efo re c o n str u c tin g th e se d e f in it io n s ,
r e la tio n s o f symmetry and tim e p r io r it y am ong.the con cep ts
should be d is c u s s e d , as th e se r e la t io n s are im portant fo r
th e c o n str u c tio n o f th e .nominal d e f in it io n s . D ahrendorf1s
o r ig in a l t e x t p ro v id es some in d ic a tio n s o f th e se r e la t io n s .
Asymmetry and Time P r io r it ie s
In h is t h e o r e t ic a l d is c u s s io n , Dahrendorf q u ite
c le a r ly in d ic a te s tem poral sequences o f co n cep ts. O rgani-
i
!z a tio n a t tim e 1 lea d s to d ecrea ses in in t e n s it y o f con-
!
i f l i c t a t a la t e r tim e . He s ta te s ., _________________
29
A .. .p r e r e q u is ite o f e f f e c t i v e c o n f l i c t regu
la t io n i s the o r g a n iz a tio n o f c o n f l i c t groups.
So long as c o n f lic t in g fo r c e s a re d if f u s e , in
coh eren t a g g r e g a te s, r e g u la tio n i s v ir t u a lly
im p o ssib le . (D ahrendorf, 1959:226)
Subsequently in D ahrendorf's p r o p o s itio n s , tim e p r io r it ie s
and asymmetry appear quite clearly. He states,
The in t e n s it y o f c la s s c o n f l i c t d ecrea ses to
th e e x te n t th a t c o n d itio n s o f c la s s o rg a n iza tio n
| are p r e s e n t .. .The v io le n c e o f c la s s c o n f lic t de
cr e a se s to the e x te n t th a t th e c o n d itio n s o f c la s s
c o n f lic t are p r e se n t. (D ahrendorf, 1959:239)
In h is d is c u s s io n o f the r e la t io n between in t e n s it y
o f c la s s c o n f l i c t and r a d ic a lln e s s o f str u c tu r e change as
w e ll as the r e la t io n between v io le n c e o f c la s s c o n f lic t and
jsuddenness o f str u c tu r e change, Dahrendorf i s n ot q u ite so
I unambiguous as above. He s t a t e s ,
I
I t may be argued th a t th e suddenness o f change
v a r ie s d ir e c t ly w ith th e v io le n c e o f c la s s con-
| f l i c t . . . w e can propose th a t d if f e r e n t modes o f
! str u c tu r e change co -v a ry w ith d if f e r e n t modes o f
c la s s c o n f l i c t . The more in te n s e c la s s c o n f lic t
i s , th e more r a d ic a l a re th e changes l i k e l y to
be which i t b rin gs about; th e more v io le n t c la s s
c o n f lic t i s , th e more sudden are str u c tu r e changes
| r e s u ltin g from i t l i k e l y to b e. S tru ctu re change
| i s th e f i n a l elem ent o f th e th eory o f group con-
j f l i c t under d is c u s s io n . (D ahrendorf 1959:234:236)
i
!In the above passage, Dahrendorf specifies time priorities
i
quite clearly. He restates these priorities in the system
of formal propositions which he later presents. He writes,
I Group c o n f lic t o f th e c la s s type e f f e c t s str u c -
j tu re changes in the a s s o c ia t io n s in w hich i t o ccu rs.
(D ahrendorf, 1959:240)
iHowever, n e ith e r in the te x t o f h is d is c u s s io n nor in th e
!
|form al p r o p o sitio n s does he unam biguously s p e l l out the
3 0
symmetry r e la t io n s a lon g th e se v a r ia b le s . In th e p a ssa g e
above Dahrendorf (1959:234-236) uses each o f th e terms
" varies d ir e c t ly 1 1 and " c o -v a r ie s ," le a v in g th e read er to
d ecid e w hether th e r e la t io n s are symmetric or asym m etric.
This am biguity i s n o t c l a r i f i e d in the form al p r o p o s itio n s .
He s t a t e s ,
| The r a d ic a ln e s s o f stru c tu r e change c o -v a r ie s
w ith th e in t e n s it y o f c la s s c o n f l i c t . . .The sud-
| denness o f str u c tu r e change c o -v a r ie s w ith the
! v io le n c e o f c la s s c o n f l i c t . (D ahrendorf, 1959:
! 240)
Other readers have had problems with this ambiguous
phrasing. Blalock points out that since all of Dahrendorf's
propositions except these last two do not mentiontthe term
I"co-varies,"
!
I would infer that in the case of the (other)
propositions, Dahrendorf is implying that the
first mentioned variable is affected by the sec-
| ond. The notion of ’covaries with1 in the (last)
I p r o p o s itio n s (s ) would n ot seem to im ply th e same j
asymmetry, however. U n fortu n ately, d if f e r e n t j
read ers a re l i k e l y to draw d iff e r e n t in fe r e n c e s j
from th e se sta tem en t. (B la lo ck 1969:14)
Blalock explains why the question of symmetry or
asymmetry is an important one. He writes,
! The simple phrase ’and vice versa1 can be tacked
i onto a theoretical proposition with great ease--but
| q it can also lead to numerous verification problems
| ...If statements of the form, 'the greater the X,
! the greater the Y’ are not meant to imply causal
asymmetry, it is very easv to make erroneous de-
I ductive arguments...(They) do not really permit one
to deduce implications unless they are meant to be
more than mere covariance statements. In many in-
i stances common-sense applications of verbal langu
age will not lead one astray. But as the theory
becomes more and more complex, there will be
3 1
increasing opportunities for ambiguities of the
above type, as well as for erroneous ’deductions'.
(Blalock 1969:15-16)
Blalock suggests that, when faced with such ambiguities,
”i t i s a d v isa b le to go ahead w ith a more e x p l i c i t form ula
t io n according to w hatever lin e o f t h e o r e t ic a l reasoning
seems most s e n s ib le (B la lo c k , 1969:18)."
In th e n ext s e c t io n , th en , fu r th e r developm ent o f
th e Dahrendorf model w i l l be p r e se n te d .
Modifications of the Original
Dahrendorf Model
i Several times previously in this research it was
|mentioned that the Dahrendorf model was to be modified and
|developed further in this research. In the next few sec-
|tions of this research, these changes in the model will be
!presented. Most of the revisions were dictated by problems
regarding measurement of the concepts. In some cases re-
;vision was necessary because Dahrendorf did not devise
operational definitions for his concepts. Had he consid-
j ered operationalizations, he might have in turn modified
r
!
jsome of his theoretical concepts. In other cases, revision
! ■ ■
was necessary in order to use the theoretical system with
;a simulation game. In a later section, revisions which
!
j were necessary in Starpower Qso that it could be used with
i
i
the theoretical model) will be presented.
i
First, Dahrendorf’s conceptualization of organiza
tion presents a longer term process than that which occurs
7 ...... ~ 32
in th e game. S in ce th e game allow s c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n to
d evelop in r e a l tim e, and n ot in sim u lated or com pressed
tim e, o r g a n iz a tio n cannot p rogress much beyond a p lann in g
s ta g e where groups have more or le s s form ulated a common
p lan o f a c t io n . In t h is resea rch , th en , o r g a n iz a tio n i s a
sh o r te r term p ro cess than in th e o r ig in a l th eo ry model;
however, i t should be p oin ted out th a t p lann in g fo r group
a c tio n i s perhaps th e most c e n tr a l fe a tu r e o f th e o r ig in a l
fo rm u la tio n organ ized in t e r e s t groups.
Second, s in c e the v a r ia b le o f in t e n s it y o f c la s s
c o n f l i c t seems to be more o f a su b je c tiv e than an o b je c
t iv e phenomenon (s e e D ahrendorf1 s d e s c r ip tio n a b o v e ), i t
was d ecid ed th a t p la y er s should rep ort on t h e ir own in te n
s i t y o f in volvem en t. This con cep t, th en , i s more accurately
a m atter o f " in t r a - c la s s involvem ent" than j u s t involvem ent
in c la s s c o n f l i c t per s e . I t w i l l be seen below th a t d i f
fe r e n t ty p es o f s o c ia l system s p la ce c la s s e s in s t a t e s o f
more or le s s c o n f l i c t o f in t e r e s t w ith each o th e r .
T h ird, due to the fa c t th a t a sim u la tio n game i s
used in t h is r e se a r c h , m easures o f change a re somewhat
d if f e r e n t from th o se in o th er types o f re se a r ch . I t was
in d ic a te d in th e f i r s t chapter th a t Starpower i s an au th o
r i t y s tr u c tu r e w hich p rovid es fo r the d is t r ib u t io n o f
s o c ia l s tr u c tu r a l a t t r ib u t e s . Since in Starpow er. changes
in r u le s a re changes in th e a u th o rity s tr u c tu r e , changes in
th e r u le s w i l l be stu d ie d .
1
33
F in a lly , throughout t h is r e s e a r c h , v a r ia b le s are
measured by having p la y ers answer q u e stio n s about p la y o f
th e game. The in d iv id u a l p la y er s c o r e s are then aggregated
on th e c la s s le v e l. S o c ie ta l m easures are com binations o f
th e c la s s - l e v e l aggregate s c o r e s . These aggregate sc o r e s,
u n lik e sco res o f a sm aller number o f n o n -p la y in g o b serv ers,
a re q u ite s t a b le , sin c e th ey r e p r e s e n t th e o b serv a tio n s o f
i
many p la y e r s . Since the a g g reg a te s c o r e s in clu d e a l l m em
b ers o f both th e upper and the low er c l a s s e s o f each s o c i-
e i t y , they p resen t f a ir ly com plete in fo rm a tio n about the
s o c ie t y . A lso , there is no reason to b e lie v e th a t p la y ers
j sc o r e s would co n ta in la rg er p e r c e p tu a l erro rs than th e
I
sc o r e s o f n on-playing o b serv ers, p rovid ed th a t both s o c ia l
I c la s s e s are used in the m e a s u r e s . ^ W h ile, as m entioned
|above, p la y er-rep o rted a g g reg a te s c o r e s are n ecessa ry in
i
j order to measure o rg a n iza tio n and i n t e n s it y o f involvem ent
f
such sc o res may be p refer a b le t o o th e r typ es o f measures
due to t h e ir accuracy and co m p leten ess.
In the next s e c tio n o f t h is c h a p te r , the nominal
t h e o r e t ic a l d e fin itio n s w i l l be p r e s e n te d .
In order to check th is s u g g e s tio n p la y er aggregate
sc o r e s on v io le n c e o f c o n f lic t w ere checked w ith non-player
o b serv a tio n s o f lower c la s s c o l l e c t i v e a c t io n . R esu lts in
d ic a te d th a t th e two measures w ere q u ite h ig h ly r e la te d to
[each^ other.
34
Nominal D e fin itio n s^
A ste r isk s in d ic a te con cep ts w hich w i l l become v a r ia b le s
o f th e form al system .
A u th ority s tr u c tu r e ; A s e t o f r u le s w hich, when a p p lied in
a s o c ia l s it u a t io n , g en era tes a s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e , a s
sig n s in d iv id u a ls to s ta tu s e s in the s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e ,
p rovid es fo r th e g o a ls to be a tta in e d as w e ll as fo r
change in i t s e l f ( i . e . , change in th e r u le s ) .
S o c ia l s tr u c tu r e : The d is t r ib u t io n o f reso u rces and au-
th o r ity among s t a t u s e s .
Members: In d iv id u a ls who occupy s ta tu s e s and s tr a ta in th e
s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e .
S ta tu s e s : H e ir a r c h ic a lly ranked s o c ia l p o s itio n s to which
members are a ssig n e d by th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e .
S tatu s i s based upon th e v a lu e o f th e s e t o f reso u rces
which a member c o n tr o ls .
Value o f s e t o f reso u rces im p lies th a t some com-
b in a tio n s o f reso u rces are more v a lu a b le than
| o t h e r s .
I
C ontrol o f r e s o u r c e s ; th e a u th o r ity to make d e-
c is io n s con cern in g exchange o f r e so u r c e s.
R esou rces: P r o p e r tie s o f s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e s , c e r ta in com-
b in a tio n s o f w hich are more v a lu a b le than other
com binations
1 Exchange: The tr a n s fe r o f c o n tr o l o f reso u rces from one
member to an oth er member.
C ontrol o f r u l e s ; A u th o rity to change th e r u le s .
S tr a ta : Ranked s e t s o f s ta tu s e s based upon c o n tr o l o f
r u le s . The h ig h e r ranked stratum has p o te n t ia l con
t r o l o f th e r u le s , th e lower ranked stratum does n ot
have p o t e n t ia l c o n t r o l.o f th e r u le s but may su g g est
p o s s ib le r u le s to th e h ig h er ranked stratum .
|
|
i
6
As m entioned above th e se d e f in itio n s re p rese n t a
m o d ific a tio n o f th e o r ig in a l Dahrendorf mode. Names o f
concepts have been changed in order more c lo s e ly to r e f l e c t
the o p er a tio n a l d e f in it io n s to be used in th is resea rch .
35
G o a ls; O bjects o f behavior which are provided by r u le s .
In m ost c a ses g o a ls in v o lv e g a in in g c o n tr o l over the
m ost v a lu a b le s e t o f reso u rces p o s s ib le .
Goals im ply th a t members tr y to in c r e a se th e ir
s ta tu s and in c r e a se t h e ir stratum i f th ey are
members o f the lower stratum and m ain tain th e ir
stratum i f they are members o f th e upper stratum .
Openness o f a u th o r ity -s tr u c tu r e : The d egree to which th ere
i s p o te n t ia l fo r members to ex p erien ce upward m o b ility
due to exchange.
M o b ility ; change in assignm ent o f member to s ta tu s and
s t r a t a .
* O rg a n iza tio n ; A p rop erty o f a stratum . O rgan ization r e -
f e r s to th e degree o f p rep a ra tio n fo r c o l l e c t i v e
a c tio n by a stratum to change th e r u le s .
|
j P rep aration im p lies p lann in g by stratum members
Stratum planning im p lies member involvem ent in
plann in g and s p e c i f i c i t y o f fo cu s on r u le s e t .
A u th o r ity : r ig h ts and powers a ssig n e d to s ta tu s e s by r u le s
j C la s s ; s tr a ta which have undergone some degree o f o rg a n i-
! z a tio n .
i
E l i t e ; th e upper c la s s
C o n f lic t ; antagonism between c la s s e s concerning r u le s .
antagonism im p lies a c tio n .
^ I n tr a -c la s s in t e n s it y o f involvem ent in c o n f l i c t : degree
o f engagement o f members in stratum planning and a c
tio n a f t e r o rg a n iz a tio n has taken p la c e and upper
c la s s has a c tu a lly been p resen ted w ith the a u th o r ity
to change r u le s .
^ V iolence o f in t e r - c la s s c o n f l i c t : S p e c if ic i t y o f fo cu s o f
c la s s a c tio n
i
S p e c if ic it y o f focu s im p lies degree to which c la s s
a c tio n i f focu sed upon th e a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e ,
th a t i s , the r u le s g en er a tin g th e s o c ia l str u c tu r e
v ersu s the oth er c la s s . More s p e c i f i c focu s r e
fe r s to p a r tic u la r r u le s , le s s s p e c i f i c focu s
r e fe r s to the o th er c la s s in g en er a l as w e ll as
the r u le s . _ __________________
36
Change in the A u th o rity S tr u c tu r e : ( i . e . , change in th e
r u l e s ) : d iffe r e n c e s in th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e over
tim e as a r e s u lt o f d egree o f in terstratu rn a c tio n .
* E lite resp o n siv en ess to change: number o f changes in
r u le s due to low er c la s s a c tio n .
^ Increase in th e openness o f th e A u th ority S tr u c tu re : in -
crea se in th e e a se w ith w hich a lower c la s s member
can a t t a in upper c la s s membership.
| Now th a t th e nom inal t h e o r e t ic a l d e f in itio n s have been
i
p resen ted , th e p r e d ic tio n s o f in te r r e la tio n s h ip between
th e v a r ia b le s d eriv ed from th e con cep ts w i l l be form ally
p resen ted .
jFormal System
I
I The form al system i s "the sim p le st s e t o f s t a t e -
!
ments w hich a d eq u ately re p r ese n t (th e ) r e la t io n a l s tr u c
ture" o f the model (W ilie r , 1 9 6 7 :6 7 ). W ilier goes on to
1
|s t a t e ,
!
j The ta sk o f c o n str u c tin g a form al system from
| a model re q u ir e s th a t r e la tio n s h ip s o f the mec-
j hanism, e it h e r e x p l i c i t or im p lic it , be sta te d as
terms connected by r u le s o f lo g ic or m athem atics.
| At the o u ts e t th e major advantage o f u sin g mathe
m atics or lo g ic in th e statem en t i s th a t th e ir own
r u le s o f r e la tio n s h ip are e s ta b lis h e d and c o n s is
t e n t . . . I f th e h yp oth eses which fo llo w from the
model cannot be s ta te d c o n s is te n t ly in e ith e r form,
th e t h e o r is t would be s a fe in assuming th a t:th e
f a u lt l i e s in th e model and n ot in the r u le s o f
] lo g ic or m ath em atics. F in a lly , the attem pt to
s t a te a model in form al system form becomes the
t e s t o f th e group o f con cep ts on q u e stio n . I f no
p r e d ic tio n s can be m a d e ...th e n th a t group o f con
cep ts does not c o n s it it u t e a model but only-.a
con cep tu al scheme or frame o f r e fe r e n c e . (W ilie r ,
1967:67-68)
| Hage has broken th e form al system in to four p a rts:
;the fo r m o f th e r e la t io n s h ip , the d ir e c tio n o f the
r . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ..... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ’ ’ ■ 3 7
I r e la t io n s h ip , th e c o e f f ic ie n t s , and th e lim it s (Hage, 1972:
■ 101).
I •
In t h is re sea rch the lin e a r form seems to be th e
i b e s t p r e d ic te d form o f the r e la tio n s h ip s fo r the v a r ia b le s
I in th e model p resen ted above s in c e ,
When th e v a r ia b le s seem to be h ig h ly in t e r
r e la t e d , th a t i s , when a change in one would
appear to produce q u ick ly a change in a n o th er, {
lin e a r s o lu tio n s seem the b e s t ...T h e same s i t u
a tio n s th a t seem ap p rop riate fo r a x io m a tic r e a
so n in g are th o se where lin e a r forms a re recom
mended. (Hage, 1972:108)7
; i
D ir e c tio n s o f th e r e la tio n s h ip s w i l l be p r e d ic te d in th e j
. i
p r o p o s itio n s l i s t e d below . The c o e f f ic ie n t s w i l l be a s - |
i
sumed to be -1 or 1 , and lim its w i l l be assumed n o t to be j
i ]
o p er a tin g w ith in th e ranges o f th e v a r i a b l e s . . R ela tio n s j
betw een v a r ia b le s occurring a t d iff e r e n t p o in ts in tim e
a re asym m etrical. R ela tio n s among v a r ia b le s o ccu rrin g a t j
: i
th e same p o in ts in tim e are sym m etrical. |
D iffe r e n t S o c ia l Systems and D iffe r e n t
: Formal Systems
As was d isc u sse d e a r lie r , t h is r e se a r c h w i l l t e s t
! . I
th e th eo ry model w ith in two d iff e r e n t s o c ia l sy stem s. One j
system more c l o s e ly corresponds to what Dahrendorf has
termed ’'in d u s tr ia l" s o c ie t y , w h ile the o th e r system
7The forms o f the observed r e la tio n s h ip s were
checked v ia scattergram s in order to co n sid er th e p o s s ib i-
! l i t y o f o th er forms o f the r e la t io n s h ip s . The lin e a r form
seemed to b e st d esc rib e th ese r e la t io n s h ip s .
corresponds to what he has termed ’’c a p i t a l i s t i c ' ’ s o c ie t y .
i
| Dahrendorf has geared th e fo rm u la tio n o f the th eory model
i
; fo r p r e d ic tio n o f change w ith in in d u s tr ia l s o c i e t i e s ;
I however, he sp e c u la te s w hether th e model m ight n ot a ls o
work i n e c a p i t a l i s t i c s o c i e t i e s . In t h is r esea rch , t h is
"scope o f v a lid ity " o f th e model w i l l be t e s te d . As
j !
! W ilier p o in ts o u t,
In t e s t in g th e v a l i d i t y o f a s c i e n t i f i c th eo ry
we are not in te r e s te d in e s ta b lis h in g i t s proba
b i l i t y o f v a l i d i t y but in e s ta b lis h in g i t s scope
o f v a l i d i t y . . .When p r e d ic tio n s are f i r s t m a d e ...
c e r ta in lim it s are a ssig n e d fo r a u n iv e r se . The i
; s u c c e s s fu l th eory i s e s ta b lis h e d w ith in th a t |
u n iv e r se , w h ile th e p a r t ia lly s u c c e s s fu l th eory J
w i l l be e f f e c t i v e o n ly in a narrower u n iv e r se . j
In the extreme c a se o f a t o t a l l y in v a lid th eo ry , j
th ere e x is t s no range or scope o f phenomena, no
u n iv e r se , in w hich i t i s v a lid . (W ilie r , 1967: |
118) |
i
, !
Below w i l l be p resen ted the form al system o f th e i
i j
th eory m odel. The r e la tio n s h ip s among th e v a r ia b le s are i
diagrammed in F igu re 2 -1 . The p red ic te d d ir e c tio n s fo r \
th e se r e la tio n s h ip s o f th e model are d iff e r e n t fo r each o f - J
the s o c ia l system s.® W hile th e nominal t h e o r e t ic a l d e f i
n it io n s provide the mechanism, th a t i s , a reason fo r the
i
j r e la tio n s h ip s among th e c o n c e p ts, an extended s e t o f re a -
Q
In one sen se i t i s b ein g p red icted here th a t the
Dahrendorf model does n o t ap ply to c lo se d s o c ia l system s
s in c e i t w i l l n o t a c c u r a te ly p r e d ic t th ree out o f fo u r r e
la tio n s h ip s fo r the c lo se d s o c i a l system , i . e . , th ree zero
r e la tio n s h ip s are p r e d ic te d . In another s e n se , i t i s b ein g
p r ed ic te d th a t the model sim ply works d if f e r e n t ly fo r d i f
fe r e n t s o c ia l sy stem s, and th a t an accu ra te p r e d ic tio n o f j
a zero r e la tio n s h ip i s an accom plishm ent in :*its own r ig h t . I
...................'.... • .........'................................. 39
sons fo r r e la tio n s h ip s among v a r ia b le s w i l l be presented
in Chapter 4 . These r e a so n s, p r e se n te d in ord in ary langu
a g e, p rovid e a d d itio n a l lo g ic a l co n n ectio n s between v a r i
a b le s a t a le s s a b str a c t l e v e l th an th e t h e o r e t ic a l d e f i
n it i o n s , and a llo w a fu r th er check on th e o p era tio n o f
the w hole m odel.
B efore p resen tin g th e se r a t io n a le s , however, a d is
c u ssio n o f th e procedures to be u sed in t h is resea rch w i l l
be p resen ted .
40
FIGURE 2-1
Measurement seq u en ces and th e M odified Dahrendorf (1959)
Theory model show ing p re d ic te d r e la tio n s h ip s among in tr a -
c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n , in t r a - c la s s in te n s ity o f in volvem en t,
in crea se in openness o f a u th o r ity str u c tu r e , v io le n c e o f
c la s s c o n f l i c t , and r e sp o n siv en ess to lower c la s s advocated
change in th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e fo r the open and c lo s e d
s o c ia l system s
OPEN SOCIAL SY STEM
Time 1:* Measurement**
Time 2: Complete a u th o r ity
p resen ted _ to _ e l i t e _______
INTRA-CLASS
Time 3: Measurements IN V O L V EM E N T
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION
X \
VIOLENCE O F
CONFLICT
INCREASE IN
OPENNESS
i
ELITE RESPON
SIVENESS
Time 1:
CLOSED SOCIAL SYSTEM
Measurement**
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION
✓
Time 2: Complete a u th o r ity
p resen ted , to . e l i t e _____________
INTRA-CLASS
Time 3: Measurements IN V O L V EM E N T
i
i
INCREASE IN
OPENNESS
Y
VIOLENCE O F
CONFLICT
ELITE RESPON
SIVENESS
Note: Arrows above in d ic a te p red icted r e la t io n s h ip s .
Arrows w ith lin e s through th e ir s h a fts in d ic a te
in v e r s e r e la t io n s h ip s . Arrows w ithou t lin e s
through t h e ir s h a fts in d ic a te d ir e c t r e la t io n
s h ip s . Arrows w ith broken lin e s fo r s h a fts in
d ic a te zero r e la tio n s h ip s . A ll r e la tio n s h ip s
diagrammed are asym m etrical.
*Time 1 i s th e end o f th e second round o f p la y . Time 2 im
m ed iately fo llo w s measurements in Time 1. Time 3 i s a t th e
end o f the game. T h e o r e tic a lly In crease in Openness and
E lite r e sp o n siv e n e ss occur a f te r in t r a - c la s s Involvem ent
and V io len ce o f C o n flic t but due to p o s s ib le instrum ent
41
FIGURE 2 -1 , Continued
r e a c t iv it y (d isc u sse d in Chapter 3) th e se v a r ia b le s are
a l l measured a f t e r th e game i s over.
^M easurem ent o f Openness o f a u th o r ity str u c tu r e a ls o takes
p la ce a t t h is tim e as w e ll as a t Time 3 in order to com
pute change or In crease in op en ness. S u b tra ctin g Time 3
sc o re s from Time 2 sc o res y ie ld s a continuum o f change in
the a u th o r ity str u c tu r e . The continuum runs from changes in
th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e w hich make i t 1) harder fo r lower j
c la s s members to a t ta in upper c la s s membership by th e ir j
own e f f o r t through 2) no change in th e a u th o r ity stru ctu re
through 3) changes in the a u th o r ity str u c tu r e which make
i t e a s ie r fo r lower c la s s members to a t t a in upper c la s s
s ta tu s by t h e ir own e f f o r t .
CHAPTER III
PR O C E D U R E
In th e l a s t ch a p ter, ithe t h e o r e t ic a l model to be
t e s te d in t h is resea rch was p resen ted . In t h is ch ap ter the
procedures o f g a th erin g data fo r the t e s t w i l l be p resen ted
|
Sample and A ssignm ent o f P la y ers j
to E xperim ental Treatments ;
The sample was composed o f 425 c o lle g e and u n iv er-
t
s i t y undergraduates from th ree Los A n g eles-a rea educational!
i n s t i t u t i o n s . E ighteen undergraduate s o c io lo g y and anthro-j
p ology c la s s e s were sampled on an a v a i l a b i l i t y b a s is . S
1
Where c la s s s iz e and a v a ila b le c la s s tim e p erm itted , class-J
es were randomly d iv id ed in h a lf . S ix c la s s e s were d iv id ed 1
i
in t h is manner, y ie ld in g a t o t a l o f 24 game groups o f 10 !
to 35 p la y e r s each. The game groups were randomly assigned;
to one o f two exp erim en tal trea tm en ts. These treatm en ts
in v o lv ed p la y in g th e game under one o f two s e t s o f game j
|
r u le s . One s e t o f r u le s generated an open s o c ia l system , j
i
and th e o th er s e t o f r u le s generated a c lo s e d s o c ia l s y s - I
tem. |
i
In th o se c la s s e s which were d iv id ed in h a lf , one j
o f th e h a lv es p layed f i r s t w h ile the oth er h a lf was in - j
volved in some oth er a c t i v it y o u tsid e o f th e classroom . j
42
43
At a la te r tim e, th e second h a lf o f th e c la s s p layed th e
game under the a lt e r n a t e s e t o f r u le s . The order in w hich
the segments o f a c la s s were a ssig n ed to p la y under one of!
the s e ts o f r u le s was v a r ie d . In h a lf o f th e in s ta n c e s ,
the f i r s t segment o f th e c la s s played the game under th e
s e t o f r u le s w hich gen erated th e open s o c ia l system . The
other h a lf o f th e in s ta n c e s , th e f i r s t segment o f th e c la s s
• i
played the game under th e s e t o f r u le s which gen erated th e j
clo se d s o c ia l system . j
!
There i s alw ays a chance th a t p la y ers from th e j
f i r s t game p la y w i l l e x p la in th e game to cla ssm a tes who j
i
have y e t p la y ed . 1 I f one v e r s io n o f th e game were alw ays j
I
played in th e second game s e s s io n , r e s u lts o f th e p la y s |
could be m isle a d in g . The varyin g o f the order o f p resen - j
ta tio n o f v e r s io n s o f th e game (exp erim en tal trea tm en ts) j
i
p revents p o s s ib le sy ste m a tic b ia s o f one o f the treatm ents.j
Varying th e treatm ent order a ls o se rv es to p re- j
I
ven t another type o f sy ste m a tic b ia s o f one o f the t r e a t - j
I
m ents, as fr e q u e n tly , few er su b je c ts show up fo r the !
I
second game s e s s io n even though the two h a lv es were
I
• I
i
■ I !
The game appears to be q u ite s e n s it iv e to p la y e r s j
who have p layed i t p r e v io u s ly . I t a ls o could be s e n s i t iv e |
to th o se who have a good id ea what is going to happen in j
the game. B efore th e game began, p la y ers were asked i f !
they had p layed th e game p r e v io u sly . I f they had p layed
p r e v io u sly , th ey were asked to become n o n -p a r tic ip a tin g
ob servers who would take n o te s on game p la y . These n o te s
were used during d e -b r ie fin g s e s s io n s to d e sc r ib e p la y to J
p la y e r s, but th ey were n o t used in any o f the resea rch
ta b u la tio n s .
I roughly th e same s iz e a t th e tim e the w hole c la s s was ran-
! domly d iv id e d . This phenomenon, a type o f su b je c t mor
t a l i t y (se e Campbell and S ta n le y , 1 9 6 3 :1 5 ), could b ia s r e -
; s u it s by a llo w in g one o f the two treatm en ts to be played
j
w ith la r g er groups than the o th e r .
The c r e a tio n o f groups o f equal s iz e s i s a problem
I even when the c la s s e s a re n o t randomly d iv id ed in h a lf.
In th e se c a s e s , the whole c la s s i s randomly a ssig n ed to |
;
one o f th e trea tm en ts. However, as th e number o f c la s s e s
sampled becomes la r g e r , the chances in c r e a se th a t the s iz e s
}
o-f th e game groups a ssig n e d to each exp erim en tal treatm ent j
" ' I
w i l l be eq u a l. E q u a lity o f th e s iz e s o f th e se groups can
be checked e m p ir ic a lly . Table 3 -1 p re se n ts th e s iz e s o f
the 24 game groups com prising th e sam ple. Comparison o f j
the means, standard d e v ia tio n s , and R obinson's A
(R obinson, 1955) in d ic a te s th a t th e s iz e s o f th e groups in
each exp erim en tal treatm ent are rou gh ly eq u al co each
o th e r .
Classroom Procedures
The game was a d m in istered by two in v e s tig a to r s who
a ls o a cted as ob servers during v a rio u s p a rts o f the game.
W ithin each game group p la y e r s were randomly a s - j
; j
sig n ed to e ith e r th e upper or th e lower c l a s s . P layers j
|
were g iv en an envelope which co n ta in ed 5 p la y in g c h ip s, a j
j
P la y e r 's Log (s e e Appendix A ), and an id e n t if ic a t io n tag
w hich was made in th e shape o f e it h e r a square (low er
45
TABLE 3-1
N U M B E R O F INDIVIDUALS PARTICIPATING IN G A M E
G RO UPS B Y EXPERIM ENTAL TREA TM EN TS
Closed S o c ia l Open S o c ia l
System System
10 11
10 11
11 13
12 14
14 15
14 16
15 17
16 18
17 19
23 24
31 28
31 36
Number o f In d iv id u a ls 204 221
Number o f Groups 12 12
Mean Number o f
P la y ers Per Group 1 7 .0 0 18.42
Standard D ev ia tio n fo r
Number o f P la y ers Per
Group 7.13 7 .1 4
R obinson 's Measure o f
Agreement .97
| ...............■ ............" ......... '............. 46“
! c la s s ) or a c i r c l e (upper c l a s s ) . S ea ts in the classroom
were p laced as c l o s e ly as p o s s ib le in to two c ir c u la r p a t
te r n s. P layers who had c ir c u la r -sh a p e d id e n t if ic a t io n
tags were asked to s i t in one s e t o f s e a ts , w h ile the
i
p la y ers who had sq uare-sh aped ta g s were asked to s i t in th e
other s e t o f s e a t s . The r u le s were exp lain ed to the
p la y e r s, and then th e game began. The p la y ers were not
: to ld th a t th e d is t r ib u t io n o f the v a lu es o f the p la y in g
chips (reso u r ces) were s l i g h t l y d iff e r e n t fo r p la y ers w ith
in the upper and low er c la s s e s and extrem ely d iff e r e n t
between the c l a s s e s . i
; ' J
D e ta ils o f game r u le s and in s tr u c tio n s g iv en to
p la y ers are p resen ted in A ppendices A and B.
i
j
j
C h a r a c te r istic s o f th e i
Experim ental Treatm ents j
The two ex p erim en ta l treatm en ts are crea ted by J
, f i r s t , adding one new game r u le : a bonus i s g iv en fo r the
i
number o f trad es w hich a p la y er makes during the game, and j
second, varying the v a lu e o f t h is bonus.
In the c lo s e d s o c i a l system treatm ent a bonus o f
one p o in t i s awarded to p la y e r s fo r each trade they com
p le t e . In the open s o c i a l system treatm ent a bonus o f
I
!
tw e n ty -fiv e p o in ts i s awarded to p la y er s fo r each trad e
com pleted. The a d d itio n o f t h is bonus ru le c r e a te s two
s o c ia l system s w hich d i f f e r markedly along th e dim ensions
■ i
summarized in F igure 3 -1 . !
FIGURE 3-1
CHARACTERISTICS O F EXPERIM ENTAL TREA TM EN TS
EXPERIM ENTAL T R EA TM EN T
CHARACTERISTIC
RESOURCES
EX C H A N G E
STATUS/MOBILITY
AUTHORITY
C losed S o c ia l
System
Open S o c ia l
Sys tem
FIXED INTERACTIVE
ZERO-SUM N O N ZERO-SUM
ASCRIPTION ACH IEVEM ENT
M ONOLITHIC PLURALISTIC
48
In th e c lo s e d s o c ia l system treatm en t, reso u rces
have a v a lu e w hich i s fix e d and does n ot in c r e a se sub
s t a n t ia ll y due to exchange. In th e open s o c ia l system
treatm en t, re so u rces are in t e r a c t iv e . Due to the h ig h er
;
trade bonus, a p la y e r ’ s sc o re may in c r e a se s ig n if ic a n t ly
though th e v a lu e o f h is ch ip s do n o t.^
Exhange in th e c lo s e d s o c ia l system treatm ent i s
s
more zero-sum . Except fo r the o c c a sio n —which becomes j
more in freq u en t as th e game p r o g r e sse s—when c o lo r bonuses \
c a n c e l-o u t th e mandatory in e q u a lity o f tr a d e s, one p la y er
i
must win and one p la y er must lo s e each tim e ch ip s are ex - j
changed. In th e open s o c ia l system treatm en t, exchange i s |
more non-zero-sum . Most o f th e tim e the tw e n ty -fiv e p o in t j
i
bonus awarded fo r tra d es r a is e s the sc o res o f each trad er
so much th a t th e d iffe r e n c e in th e in c r e a se in th e number
o f p o in ts each a cq u ires i s very sm a ll. I t should a ls o be j
noted th a t p o in ts co n cen tra ted in chip v a lu es can be l o s t '
e a s ily in the n ext tr a d e , w h ile p o in ts con cen trated m o stly I
I
in "trade bonuses" a re n o t lo s t as e a s i l y . T h erefore, i
j
2 |
I t can be argued th a t the p a y o ffs fo r the two ver-;
sio n s o f the game are d if f e r e n t , and th a t t h is d iffe r e n c e
i s th e reason fo r any d iffe r e n c e s in fin d in g s a cr o ss ex
p erim en tal fin d in g s . This co n ten tio n i s p e r f e c tly v a lid , j
and in fa c t t h is re sea rch argues th a t the two v e r sio n s o f j
the game a d eq u ately r e p r e se n t r e fe r e n t system s which em
body th ese c h a r a c t e r is t ic s , so th a t any d iffe r e n c e s in pay
o f f s in th e game a ls o take p la c e in the r e fe r e n t system .
Such a d iffe r e n c e in p a y o ffs in the r e fe r e n t system may be
one o f the reason s th a t d if f e r e n t typ es o f " rea l l i f e "
s o c ia l system s e x h ib it d if f e r e n t p a tter n s o f change.
i exchange i s more r is k y in the c a s te treatm ent than in th e
I open s o c ia l system treatm en t.
Perhaps th e most im portant d iffe r e n c e between th e
! exp erim en tal treatm en ts i s th e b a sis fo r s ta tu s and m o b il
i t y . W ithin each treatm en t, the d is t r ib u t io n o f p la y in g
ch ip s i s th e same; however, in the c lo se d s o c i a l system
treatm ent th e average p o in t spread o f f i f t y - f i v e p o in ts
between th e upper and lower c la s s e s i s extrem ely hard to
overcome by tr a d in g . S ince upward m o b ility i s gained i
. i
through a lower c la s s member a tta in in g a h ig h er sco re than j
any o f th e upper c la s s members, th ere i s l i t t l e chance o f !
m o b ility ; unchanging sta tu s i s a scrib ed b efo re th e f i r s t j
■ . i
round o f p la y b e g in s. In the open s o c ia l system treatm ent j
th e average p o in t spread o f 55 p o in ts between th e upper j
I
and lower c la s s e s o fte n can be overcome, as during a sin gle;
|
round o f p la y , lower c la s s members are a b le to make two i
: !
more tra d es than any member o f the upper c l a s s . S in ce j
s ta tu s i s based upon achievem ent, th ere i s a g r e a te r chance^
. J
fo r members o f th e lower c la s s to become upwardly m o b ile. |
In th e th ir d roud o f th e game, th e upper c la s s
members are g iv e n the a u th o r ity by th e game d ir e c to r to
change th e r u le s o f the game. In th e c lo se d s o c ia l system
; _ \
treatm ent a u th o r ity i s more lik e l y to be co n cen tra ted in
an a s c r ib e d , m o n o lith ic group due to th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s
o f r e so u r c e s, exchange, and s ta tu s /m o b ility m entioned
above. In th e open s o c ia l system treatm ent a u th o r ity i s
50
more l i k e l y to be co n cen tra ted in a group o f p la y ers who
have gained or m aintained t h e ir s ta tu s through achievem ent.
i
Some o f th ese p la y e r s are l ik e l y to have exp erien ced se v
e r a l group memberships during p la y .
M easuring Instrum ents
The P layer*s Log (p resen ted in Appendix C) i s n ot j
I
p a rt o f the o r ig in a l Starpower game. This log co n ta in s j
a lte r n a te pages o f sco re sh e e ts (pages 1 ,3 , and 5) and j
i
q u e stio n n a ire sh e e ts (pages 2 ,4 and 6 ).. Score sh e e ts are |
■ i
n ecessa ry in th e p resen t v e r s io n o f the game so th a t
j
p la y er s may keep tra ck o f th e number o f trad es which they j
make. As m entioned above, p la y er s are g iv en bonus p o in ts j
!
fo r the number o f trad es w hich they com p lete, so accu ra te j
I
com putation o f the number o f tra d es i s im portant. The j
i
q u estio n n a ire item s a llo w m on itorin g o f p layers* ob ser- |
v a tio n s o f p la y a f t e r each round o f th e game. P layers f i l l !
i
out the sc o r e sh e e ts during th e tra d in g rounds o f the game, j
F iv e p r e - t e s t s e s s io n s -e a c h fo llo w ed by r e v is io n s o f the
s c o r e s h e e ts —r e s u lte d in sc o r in g methods which were sim ple
and did not in te r f e r e w ith th e normal tempo o f game p la y , j
l
!
Q u estion n aire sh e e ts were a ls o p r e -te s te d and r e - I
j
v is e d many tim es. S e le c tio n o f th e tiem s was c r u c ia l as j
I
in th e e a r lie r rounds o f th e game, su b je c ts do n ot know j
!
enough about the game to answer c e r ta in q u e stio n s. A lso , j
the mere p osin g o f c e r ta in q u e stio n s in a q u estio n n a ire
may su g g est s t r a t e g ie s to. p la y e r s w hich m ight n o t.h a v e i
; occurred to them had th e q u estio n s n ot been ask ed .
The f i n a l format o f th e q u e stio n n a ir e sh e e ts in
clu d es a sm all number o f item s fo llo w in g th e f i r s t round
i and la r g e r numbers o f item s fo llo w in g th e second and th ir d |
|
i
rounds. Q u estion s about in tergrou p c o n f l i c t occur o n ly on j
th e l a s t s h e e t w hich i s ad m in istered a f t e r th e game has
been com p leted , so th a t th e se q u estio n s w i l l n ot b ia s r e
s u lt s .
A ll p la y e r s r e c e iv e the same type o f q u e stio n n a ire
sh e e ts so th a t a p la y er may keep the same sh e e t r e g a r d le ss
o f h is m o b ility during th e game. P la y ers answer the ques
tio n n a ir e item s during a p art o f the game in w hich they
form erly j u s t s a t a.nd w aited fo r the game a d m in istra to rs
to compute p la y e r m o b ility . The com p letion o f the ques
tio n n a ir e sh e e ts does not appear to in t e r f e r e w ith th e
normal tempo o f game p la y .
S in ce th e item s on th e q u e stio n n a ire sh e e ts r e fe r
to s u b je c ts ' o b se r v a tio n a l r a tin g s o f p la y o f the game,
and n o t o f g en er a l phenomena, item wording from th e l i t e r
atu re must be re-worked so th a t item s r e fe r to game p la y .
R e li a b il it y o f th e item s must be determ ined fo r su b je c ts
who have p layed th e game, s in c e u n lik e g en e r a l ob serva
tio n a l ite m s, q u estio n s about game p la y a re m ean in gless to
th ose who have never played th e game.
C o n stru ctio n and Scoring o f Q u estion n aire
Items
j Q u estio n n a ire item s are used in the o p e r a tio n a l!-
!
' za tio n s o f the t h e o r e t ic a l m odel. Item A "Our group
i
j op erates w ith s e t s o f c o n f lic t in g p lans (a g ree, d is a g r e e )’1
j i s used as a measure o f in t r a - c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n . I t i s
^m odified from H em phill (1 9 5 6 ). This item i s summed over
j both the upper and th e low er c l a s s e s . The r e s u lta n t
i
| s o c ie t a l index o f in t r a - c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n reaches i t s
maximum v a lu e when b oth th e upper and the lower c la s s e s are'
1 I
; !
: h ig h ly o rg a n ized . I t i s a t m iddle v a lu es when one c la s s i s
; h ig h ly organ ized and th e o th er i s n ot or when both c la s s e s j
! are m oderately o rg a n ized . The in dex i s a t medium v a lu es !
when n e ith e r c la s s i s o rg a n ized . j
? I
The oth er item s a re co n stru cted from D ahrendorf’ s
: ' i
i
c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n s , (1959:C h .6) but are not m od ified from |
p reviou s resea rch as was th e ca se w ith item A. Item B j
i
"What i s th e b e s t d e s c r ip tio n o f r e la tio n s between th e j
!
groups during t h is l a s t round? (I n te n s e ly in v o lv ed , apa- !
j
{
t h e t ic a lly u n in volved ) i s used to measure in t e n s it y o f j
j
in tr a -c la s s in volvem en t. Item B forms an index sim ila r
to item A; however, th e o th e r item s concern p la y o f the j
game which i s n ot ce n ter ed w ith in a s in g le group as i s th e I
......................................... . . . . . j
case for th e m easures o f in t r a - c la s s o rg a n iza tio n and {
in t e n s it y o f in t r a - c la s s in v o lv em en t. j
i
Item C "A square (low er c la s s ) can become a c i r c l e !
I
(upper c la s s ) i f he r e a lly t r i e s (a g r e e , d isa g ree)" i s a . j
!
repeated measure o f openness o f th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e .
! By su b tr a c tin g th e s o c ie n ta l.s c o r e on t h is m easure in
j t
Round 2 from th e sc o re on the measure fo r th e end o f Round |
3 ( a f t e r th e upper c la s s has had th e o p p o rtu n ity to change i
; th e r u le s ) th e v a r ia b le o f in cr e a se in the openness o f th e j
' ' ' S
a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e can be measured. Item D "What i s th e j
b e s t d e s c r ip tio n o f r e la tio n s between th e groups during j
t h is l a s t round? (p e a c e fu l d is c u s s io n , m ilit a n t s tr u g g le ) j
i s used to 1 m easure v io le n c e o f c o n f l i c t . Item E "How many |
: o f th e sq u a r e s’ (lowfer c la s s ) p ro p o sa ls were in co rp o ra ted j
I
in to the r u le s by th e c ir c le s (upper c la s s ) ? ( a l l , none)" I
i s used to m easure e l i t e r e sp o n siv e n e ss. j
j
i
Time O rderings o f Measurements
i
I n tr a -c la s s o rg a n iz a tio n (Item A) and th e f i r s t
p a rt o f in c r e a se in the openness o f the a u th o r ity str u c tu r e
(Item E) were measured a t the end o f th e second round b e- j
fo r e the o th e r measurements of c o n f l i c t and change (Item s j
B through F) w hich were made a t th e end o f th e th ir d round.!
Time p r i o r i t i e s between in tr a -c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n and the I
o th er v a r ia b le s i s both th e o r e tic a l and e m p ir ic a l. The
tim e p r i o r i t i e s between c o n f lic t and change are t h e o r e t ic a l
|
o n ly , s in c e th ey were measured a t th e same tim e. In the I
i
game, c o n f l i c t and change o fte n occur c l o s e ly to g e th e r in j
tim e during th e th ir d round, so they are d i f f i c u l t to |
measure in seq u en ce.
R e li a b il it y o f the Items |
I
The degree o f r e l i a b i l i t y o f the q u estio n n a ire j
item s was determ ined by a d m in ister in g th e item s to tw enty- |
i
f iv e p la y er s who had j u s t com pleted th e game in one o f th e |
p r e - t e s t s e s s io n s . The two d if f e r e n t v e r sio n s o f the items!
con tain ed s l i g h t l y d iff e r e n t sc o r in g form ats. The p la y ers j
i
i
were to ld , "W e are cu rr en tly t e s t in g two v e r sio n s o f a j
|
q u e stio n n a ire which i s d esign ed to measure p la y e r s' r e - j
a c tio n s to p la y o f the game. W e want to fin d out which one;
p la y ers lik e b e s t. P le a se answer th e q u estio n s on the j
f i r s t s h e e t, (co n ta in in g one v e r s io n o f the item s) and then:
d etach t h is sh eet from th e second sh e e t (co n ta in in g the
o th er v e r sio n o f the item s) and turn i t in to th e game d i- j
i
i
r e c to r . A fter you have answered th e q u estio n s on the
j .
second s h e e t, in d ic a te which form o f th e q u estio n n a ire you ;
lik e d the b e st by w r itin g ' t h i s s h e e t' or 'th e other sh eet';
i
a t th e bottom o f the page. Make su re you put your p la y er
id e n t if ic a t io n tag number a t th e top o f both sh e e ts so we J
can match up th e s h e e ts ." j
The order o f the sh e e ts was rev ersed fo r h a lf the I
j
c a ses in order to m inim ize p o s s ib le b ia s due to the order j
!
o f p r e se n ta tio n o f the two forms o f the item s. C o e f fic i
en ts o f tem poral s t a b i l i t y were com piled fo r each item by j
computing R obinson's Measure o f Agreement fo r the f iv e j
p a ir s o f ite m s. These c o e f f ic ie n t s are p resen ted in Table j
TABLE 3-2
THEORETICAL CONCEPTS, THEIR QUESTIONNAIRE OPERATIONALIZATIONS, A N D
RELIABILITY M EASURES
Item T h eo r etica l Concepts O p er a tio n a liz a tio n s R e lia b ilit y
A
I n tr a -c la s s
O rganization
Our group op erates w ith s e ts
o f c o n f lic t in g p lans
A a U d D .96
B
I n tr a -c la s s
Involvem ent
What i s th e b e s t d e s c r ip tio n
o f th e mood o f our group dur
in g t h is l a s t round?
In te n s e ly A p a th e tic a lly
Involved Uninvolved .91
C
In crease in
Openness
A square can become a c i r c l e
i f he r e a lly t r i e s .
A a U d D .94
D
V iolen ce o f
C o n flic t ,
What i s th e b e s t d e s c r ip tio n o f
r e la tio n s between th e groups
during t h is l a s t round?
P ea c efu l M ilita n t
D isc u ssio n S tru g g le
3
.94
E
E l it e
R esponsiveness
How many o f th e sq uares' p rop osals
were in corp orated in to th e r u le s
by th e c ir c le s ?
A ll None .88
Measures o f r e l i a b i l i t y are computed u sin g R obinson's A. They are computed between two Oj!
v e r sio n s o f th e same q u e stio n in whic h th e format s fo r s c o r ing are var ie d s l i g h t l y . ______ j
j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' ' 56 "
B eh avioral O bservations
At th e end o f the l a s t ch a p ter, th e o p era tio n o f
the two s o c ia l system s w ith regard to p la y e r behavior was
sp ec u la ted upon. O b servations o f t h is beh avior took p la ce
during th e p art o f the game im m ediately a f t e r the ru le s
had been changed by th e upper c l a s s . As, m entioned above,
th ere were two game a d m in istra to rs who a ls o a cted as ob
se rv e r s during c r i t i c a l p a rts o f th e game. Each o f th ese
ob servers recorded the behavior o f one o f the s o c ia l
c la s s e s during t h is p o rtio n o f the game. The group to
which each ob server was a ssig n e d was v a ried a cro ss game
p la y s in order to m inim ize b ia s which m ight be introduced
i f the same ob server always observed e ith e r the upper or
the lower c l a s s .
The ob servers took long-hand n o te s on behavior
which was b ein g undertaken ( i . e . , when p la y er s l e f t th e ir
s e a ts ) by the s o c ia l c la s s as a w hole. In th e se n otes the
ob server did n ot tr y to in te r p r e t what th e a c tio n in the
game rep resen ted in th e r e fe r e n t system . For in s ta n c e , the
ob server m ight w r ite , "A ll members o f the lower c la s s s i t
on th e flo o r in a c i r c l e and j o in t h e ir hands." The ob
serv er would n ot w r ite , "The low er c la s s r e v o lt s ," sin c e
t h is i s an in te r p r e ta tio n o f game behavior in terms o f the
r e fe r e n t system , i . e . , " rea l l i f e " s o c ia l c la s s e s .
W hile no form al s t a t i s t i c s are p resen ted regarding
the r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h is procedure, r e s u lts o f th e f iv e p re-
I ' ' ................................................................. 5 7 ]
; j
I t e s t game s it u a t io n s in w hich both ob servers recorded b e- |
I ' I
; havior o f th e same s o c ia l c l a s s , in d ic a te th a t th e t o t a l !
i
ten o b serv a tio n record s can ra th er e a s ily be sep arated
: in to p a ir s ( f i v e s e a t s ) w hich correspond to the same game • j
i p la y . I
|
O b serv a tio n a l accou n ts o f lower c la s s behavior !
were then ranked on the s e v e r it y o f lower c la s s c o l l e c t i v e j
: • • j
I a c t io n . The ranking was done in depend en tly by th e two I
| i
ob servers a f t e r th e data g a th erin g phase o f the re sea r ch j
was com pleted. The o b se r v a tio n a l accounts were tr a n sfe r r e d
i
to sep a ra te cards w hich d id n o t co n ta in any c lu e as to ;
which v e r sio n o f th e game was b ein g played during th e ob- j
se r v a tio n . At t h is p o in t in th e o b ser v a tio n a l p rocedu re,
an attem pt was made to t i e th e game behavior o f th e low er
|
c la s s to sim ila r , b eh aviors o f a cto rs in the r e fe r e n t s y s
tem. The continuum o f s e v e r it y o f lower c la s s c o l l e c t i v e j
a c tio n runs from sim p le b o y c o tts (low er c la s s trad es
among th em selv es) to a type o f c i v i l s t r i f e in w hich th e
|
lower c la s s t r i e s to p h y s ic a lly prevent the upper c la s s j
from undertaking any a c t i v i t i e s (by h olding the hands o f
i
the upper c la s s members~as in tra d in g --b u t then r e s t r i c
tin g th e ir movement and n ot a llo w in g them to trad e or do
anything e l s e ) . !
The m easure o f agreem ent, which measures (Rho)
the agreement betw een rankings o f o b ser v a tio n a l accou n ts
o f s e v e r ity o f c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n was .9 6 . 1
In t h is ch a p ter, the procedures used to g en era te
data w ith w hich to t e s t th e t h e o r e t ic a l model p resen ted in
Chapter 2 have been p resen ted . In th e n ex t ch a p ter, the
r e la tio n s h ip between the t h e o r e t ic a l and o p e r a tio n a l s y s
tems w i l l be p resen ted .
CHAPTER IV j
1
RELATIONSHIP OF T H E THEORETICAL A N D
OPERATIONAL SYSTEM S
!
j
F igure 2 -1 in d ic a te s p red ic te d r e la tio n s among th e |
v a r ia b le s o f th e form al system o f th e model; however, in j
!
order to e x p la in th e reason s fo r th e p red icte d r e la t io n - i
i
s h ip s , th e sequence o f p la y o f th e game should be d isc u sse d
j
in r e la t io n to th e tim es a t which measurements o f the va ri-,
a b les were made. A com plete e la b o r a tio n o f the sequence j
o f p la y i s p resen ted in Appendix A. ;
I
Each round o f the game in v o lv e s a trad in g s e s s io n j
!
and a group bonus s e s s io n . F ollow in g th e se two s e s s io n s j
i s a p la y er m o b ility s e s s io n . A fter two o f th e se sequences'
or rounds, th e p la y e r s are asked about th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f j
th e ir group, and th e openness o f th e a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e .
A fter the p la y er s f i n i s h answ ering th e se q u e stio n s, the j
|
upper c la s s i s g iv en th e a u th o r ity to change th e r u le s o f j
the game. I t i s announced to a l l th e p la y ers th a t, M... !
i
sin c e the c i r c l e s (upper c la s s ) have worked the h a rd est,
they have th e a u th o r ity to make changes in the r u le s fo r j
the th ir d round. Squares (low er c la s s ) may su g g est r u le s , |
but c i r c le s have th e a u th o r ity to a c tu a lly implement them .1 '
59
F ollow in g th e r u le changing sequence, and o f te n a th ir d
round o f th e game, p la y ers are asked q u e stio n s about p la y
o f the game fo llo w in g th e end o f th e round. They are asked
about in t e n s it y o f in tr a -c la s s in volvem en t, openness o f
th e a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e , v io le n c e o f the r e la t io n s between
i
the two c l a s s e s , and resp o n siv en ess o f the upper c la s s to j
lower c la s s advocated changes in the r u le s . \
I
i
The v a r ia b le o f in tr a -c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n was mea- j
sured by d egrees o f agreement or disagreem ent to th e item j
|
M Our group o p era tes w ith s e ts o f c o n f lic t in g p la n s ." As |
w ith th e o th er ite m s, in d iv id u a l sc o res were aggregated on j
th e s o c i e t a l l e v e l . The "index formed by t h is a g g reg a tio n j
i
was a t i t s maximum le v e l when-both c la s s e s were organ ized ; !
the index was a t i t s minimum le v e l when n e ith e r group was ;
t
h ig h ly o rg a n ized . The v a r ia b le o f in t e n s it y o f in t r a - !
c la s s involvem ent was measured w ith the item , "What i s the I
b e s t d e s c r ip tio n o f the mood o f our group d uring t h is l a s t j
round? I n te n s e ly Involved ______________________ A p a th e ti
c a lly U ninvolved." The v a r ia b le o f in c r e a se in th e open
n e ss o f th e a u th o r ity s tr u c t tire was measured by su b tra c tin g
th e agreem ent-disagreem ent sco res fo r the end s t a t e o f th e i
i
game from th o se ob tain ed a t the end o f round two to the
item , "A square (low er c la s s ) can become a c i r c l e (upper !
c la s s ) i f he r e a lly t r ie s ." The v a r ia b le o f v io le n c e o f
c o n f l i c t was measured w ith the q u e stio n , "What i s th e b e s t j
I
d e s c r ip tio n o f th e mood o f our group during t h is l a s t !
round? Peaceful Discussion_____________________Militant
Struggle." Finally, the variable of elite responsiveness j
to lower class advocated changes was measured by responses J
I
to the item, "How many of the squares1 (lower class) pro- I
i
posals were incorporated into the rules by the circles !
(upper class)? All ____________________ None.” j
i
In the next section, the procedure of presenting
complete authority to the upper class will be elaborated
upon, as this aspect of play is important in the later
discussion of the reasons for the predicted relationships
among the variables in each social system.
i
!
Introduction of Complete Authority
to the Upper Class
The presentation of complete authority to change
the rules to the upper class is similar to the introduction!
i
I
of an experimental variable into a measurement sequence, j
and though the same rule is introduced to each type of j
social syste, it has different meanings in each of the two •
i
types of social systems. In the closed system the intro- j
i
duction of this rule is the culmination of a long process j
I
in which lower class members could do little or nothing to j
i
attain mobility. The presentation of complete authority
to an upper class which has been ascribed its status seems j
arbitrary and unfair to both classes, and there is no I
reason to believe that the use of this.rule by the upper
class will not also be arbitrary. In the open system, on
62
i
|
j th e o th er hand, th e p r e se n ta tio n o f th e a u th o r ity to th e
upper c la s s seems to be a more o f a lo g ic a l outcome o f a
I p ro cess o f achievem ent in which lower c la s s members a t t a in
. m o b ility through working hard and th o se who work hard
enough to g a in an d/or m ain tain upper c la s s s ta tu s through
j ach ievem en t, d eserv e to have the a u th o r ity to make the
; r u le s . Due to t h is p ro cess th ere i s le s s reason fo r both
| groups to b e lie v e th a t t h is r u le w i l l be used a r b it r a r ily
: and c a p r ic io u s ly a g a in s t th e lower c l a s s .
; Reasons fo r P red icted R ela tio n sh ip s among the
V a ria b les in each S o c ia l System
■ Throughout t h is s e c tio n reason s fo r th e p r e d ic te d
r e la tio n s h ip s w i l l be d isc u sse d . In the open system , the
p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n s o f the r e la tio n s h ip s w i l l be b ased ,
fo r the m ost p a rt on D ahrehdorf1s o r ig in a l work. Dahren- 1
i
d o rf does n o t p rovid e e x p l i c i t and com plete1 r a tio n a le s fo r
th e r e la t io n s h ip s , but the r a tio n a le s p resen ted below are •
in th e s p i r i t o f D ahrendorf's argum ents. In th e c lo se d
i
system , however, th ere i s n ot much from th e o r ig in a l
Dahrendorf te x t on which to base d ir e c tio n s o f r e la t io n - !
i
sh ip s or reason s fo r th e se r e la t io n s . T h erefo re, th e !
p r e d ic tio n s w i l l be based more upon the r a tio n a le s con- j
s tr u c te d fo r t h is re sea r ch , than upon th ose rooted in th e I
i
o r ig in a l t e x t .
O rgan ization and I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent
In th e c lo se d s o c ia l system th e c la s s e s are ap t to !
be more d ir e c t ly opposed to each o th e r as c l a s s e s , s in c e
the o r ig in a l assignm ent o f p la y er s to unchangeable s ta tu s e s
j
i s random and p la y ers can e a s il y fig u r e t h is o u t. The j
!
d is t r ib u t io n o f reso u rces i s co m p letely in fa v o r o f the
upper c l a s s . A lso , as m entioned ab ove, t h is s o c ia l system !
I
seems to promote e x p ec ta tio n s th a t a u th o r ity may be used ;
j
u n fa ir ly . In t h is system , any o r g a n iz a tio n and planning j
i
by e ith e r c la s s i s so overshadowed by the p r e s e n ta tio n o f •
com plete a u th o r ity to the upper c la s s th a t in n e ith e r the !
upper c la s s nor in the lower c la s s i s t h is o rg a n iz a tio n ;
l ik e l y to lead c o n s is te n tly to in te n s e involvem ent during
the th ir d round. The p r e d ic tiv e system breaks down in j
d is o r ie n ta t io n . P revious p lan s have no c o n s is te n t impact
on in t r a - c la s s involvenient a f t e r com plete a u th o r ity i s in - j
trod uced . T h erefore, the p r e d ic te d r e la tio n s h ip i s zero ,
i
and th e s t a t i s t i c a l e x p e c ta tio n i s th a t in t r a - c la s s organi-j
i
z a tio n w i l l have zero e f f e c t on in t e n s it y o f in t r a - c la s s ;
involvem en t.
In the open system the c la s s e s are n ot as d ir e c t ly . j
!
opposed to each o th e r . The o r ig in a l d is t r ib u t io n o f r e
sou rces can be s ig n if ic a n t ly changed during p la y . By
i
i
working hard, in d iv id u a ls can r a is e t h e ir sco re to h igher
i
a b so lu te le v e ls than can p la y ers in th e c lo se d s o c ia l
system ; p la y ers in the open system a ls o can r a is e th e ir
i
sco re to h igh er le v e ls r e la t iv e to o th er p la y e r s . In th is j
s o c ia l system —which some may argue undergoing ’’d ev elo p - j
ment" and in w hich s ta tu s and a u th o r ity are based upon
achievem ent— th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f a u th o r ity i s n ot l i k e l y
j
to lead to e x p e c ta tio n s o f u n fa ir use o f the a u th o r ity by j
the p la y e r s. There i s probably a norm o f ’’fa ir n e ss " ope
r a tin g which b eg in s when cu rren t upper c la s s members
a ch iev e and/or m ain tain upper c la s s stan d in g through hard
work. The b eh avior o f both c la s s e s i s lik e ly to be based
upon t h is norm. The sh u ttin g o f f o f m o b ility by the upper j
c la s s probably seems u n fa ir to upper c la s s p la y e r s . In j
i
the open system , s in c e th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f a u th o r ity does i
i
n ot overshadow p rev io u s c la s s o r g a n iz tio n , t h is p lann in g |
i
lead s to in te n s e involvem ent in in tra -g ro u p a c t i v i t y during
the th ir d round. T h erefo re, in th e open s o c ia l system , j
j
the h ig h er th e in t r a - c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n , t h / * . h igh er the
in t r a - c la s s in t e n s it y o f in volvem en t.
I
I t should be n oted th a t t h is p r e d ic tio n i s o f the
o p p o site d ir e c tio n than th a t p red ic te d by Dahrendorf (1959:!
239); however, i t i s n ot in c o n s is te n t w ith h is rea so n in g .
Dahrendorf i s r e fe r r in g to advanced sta g e s o f o r g a n iz a tio n
in which d iv is io n o f la b o r , and r o le a llo c a t io n are common
p r o c e sse s, w hereas, th e m ost advanced sta g e o f o rg a n iza
tio n w hich u s u a lly ta k es p la c e in Starpower i s a more |
!
b a sic type where p la y e r s g e t to g eth e r and form a common j
program. For lon g-term p ro ce sse s o f o r g a n iz a tio n , the
o v e r a ll r e la t io n betw een o r g a n iz a tio n and in t e n s it y i s
probably c u r v ilin e a r w ith th e maximum in t r a - c la s s I
in t e n s it y o f involvem ent a t le v e ls o f in term ed ia te o rg a n i-
z a tio n . In th e o r ig in a l t e x t , Dahrendorf seems to be
!
fo c u sin g on more advanced p ro ce sse s o f o r g a n iz a tio n , so I
j
from t h is p o in t o f view , as o r g a n iz a tio n becomes more I
i
r o u tin iz e d , in t e n s it y o f involvem ent should d e c r e a se . In j
th e sh o rt d u ra tio n game, however, o r g a n iz a tio n i s allow ed
to p ro g ress a t i t s own r a te ( in r e a l and n o t sim u lated i
|
tim e) u n t il a f t e r measurements are made. In t h is r e sea r ch ,
o r g a n iz a tio n does n ot become r o u tin iz e d , in f a c t i t does
n o t p ro g ress much beyond the p lann in g fo r group a c tio n j
s ta g e , so i t makes sen se th a t as c la s s e s d evelop p lan s o f j
a c t io n , p la y e r s become more in te n s e ly in v o lv ed in c la s s !
i
a c t i v i t i e s .
!
I n tr a -c la s s O rgan ization and V io len ce |
o f C o n flic t j
In th e c lo se d system , in t r a - c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n i s j
somewhat more l ik e l y to lead to in crea se d v io le n c e o f '
c la s s c o n f l i c t , s in c e c la s s e s are more l i k e l y to o rg a n ize j
as c o n f l ic t groups due to th e a s c r ip t iv e n atu re o f th e I
1
s o c ia l system . C lass p lan s a re more l ik e l y to be a t odds j
]
w ith one a n o th er. However, as w ith the r e la tio n s h ip b e- I
i
tween o r g a n iz a tio n and in t r a - c la s s in t e n s it y o f involvem ent
in th e clo sed ' system , the p r e s e n ta tio n o f a u th o r ity to j
the upper c la s s i s lik e l y to overshadow p reviou s planning
i
and wash ou t p r e d ic tio n . j
In the open s o c ia l system , in t r a - c la s s o rg a n iz a tio n
66
i
l i s n ot as l i k e l y to lead to p lan s w hich are as c o n f lic t in g .
I ' i
The c o n f lic t i s more l i k e l y to be r e g u la te d and in tr a -
; c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n i s more l i k e l y to lead to p ea cefu l d is - |
c u ssio n . As m entioned ab ove, the p r e s e n ta tio n o f a u th o r ity
i
I
to the upper c la s s i s n ot as l i k e l y to overshadow p reviou s j
f
in t r a - c la s s o rg a n iz a tio n and wash out i t s impact on v io - |
: j
le n c e o f c o n f l i c t . j
j
i
I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent and In crea se !
in Openness J
In th e c lo se d s o c ia l system , as m entioned above, i
th ere i s l i t t l e r e la tio n s h ip between in t r a - c la s s organ iza- I
tio n and in t e n s it y o f in t r a - c la s s involvem ent due to th e j
im pact o f p r e se n ta tio n o f a u th o r ity to th e upper c la s s .
This la ck o f r e la tio n s h ip i s a ls o l i k e l y to r e s u lt in an j
j
in c o n s is te n t r e la t io n between in t e n s it y o f involvem ent and ,
a c o n s is te n t p a tter n o f change in the openness o f the j
a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e . When th e re i s a kind o f d is o r ie n ta - i
j
t io n , th e degree to which members are in v o lv ed in in tr a - j
c la s s concerns i s n ot l i k e l y to s y s te m a tic a lly a f f e c t the i
i
!
p a tte r n o f change in openness in the a u th o r ity str u c tu r e . |
!
In th e open system , th e h igh er th e in tr a -c la s s in - j
volvem ent the more l i k e l y i s an in c r e a se in the openness j
o f the a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e . S in c e , upper c la s s members '
i
have and/or m aintained upper c la s s s ta tu s through a c h ie v e- j
m ent, i t is n ot im p erative th a t they c lo s e o f f m o b ility ,
as they probably can co n tin u e to m ain tain th e ir s ta tu s .
S ta tu s w hich i s l o s t in one round can be regain ed in th e
n ex t round. O rg a n iza tio n i s ap t to lea d to in t r a - c la s s
j
in volvem en t, w hich in turn i s apt to p reven t any d r a s t ic
changes w hich would s y s te m a tic a lly d isad van tage th e low er j
c l a s s . !
i
I
V io len ce o f C o n flic t and E l it e |
R esp on siven ess j
In th e c lo se d system the more m ilit a n t i s th e j
s tr u g g le , th e more l i k e l y i s th e upper c la s s n ot to be r e - j
sp o n siv e to low er c la s s su g g estio n s o f r u le ch an ges, s in c e j
th e c la s s e s a re more d ir e c t ly opposed to each o th e r . A lso,j
th e d is o r ie n ta t io n due to p r e se n ta tio n o f a u th o r ity i s more
i
l ik e l y to be in cr ea se d in s itu a tio n s where th ere has been
|
a m ilit a n t s tr u g g le . The r e s u lta n t chaos i s l i k e l y to j
i
p revent low er c la s s su g g e stio n s from even b ein g h ea r, l e t
alon e im plim ented. i
i
F u rth er, i t should be p o in ted ou t th a t n e ith e r j
c la s s has th e a b i l i t y to g en era te enough power in th e game j
J
to r e a lly th r e a te n th e o th e r . Lower c la s s m ilita n c y i s j
t
more ap t to be d e a lt w ith by r e p r e ssio n than by resp on -
I
l
s iv e n e s s when th e c la s s e s are d ir e c t ly a t odds. |
In th e open system , m ilita n t str u g g le s are more |
i
l ik e l y to lea d to re sp o n siv en ess on the p art o f th e upper j
c l a s s . The su g g e stio n s more lik e l y to be regarded as fa ir .)
A gain, c o n f l i c t i s more reg u la ted and i s more ap t to r e
s u lt in o r d e r ly change. j
68
In t h is s e c tio n th e o p era tio n o f both th e c lo se d
and th e open system s has been d is c u s s e d . From t h is d is
c u s s io n , i t seems ap p ro p ria te to sp e c u la te on j th e im plied
p e r s p e c tiv e s o f each type o f s o c ia l system . The open
c
system appears to op erate much in th e same way as an
eq u ilib riu m model o f s o c ie t y . The a c to r s have hope th a t
th ey can a ch iev e upper c la s s stan d in g through hard work.
The b e s t p r e d ic tio n concerning th e o p era tio n o f such a
i
system would be eq u ilib riu m or h ig h ly s ta b le in t e r c la s s |
r e la t io n s . On th e oth er hand, th e c lo s e d s o c ia l system
seems to op era te in a manner which i s s im ila r to a con
f l i c t model o f s o c ie t y in which in e q u a lity e x i s t s over a
p erio d o f tim e and a c to r s become in c r e a s in g ly fr u s tr a te d .
Lower c la s s p lan s o f a c tio n are crushed by an a r b itr a r y
p r e s e n ta tio n o f com plete a u th o r ity to an upper c la s s which
does n ot seem to have done anything to d eserv e th a t au
t h o r ity . In th e c o n f lic t t r a d itio n , the b e s t p r e d ic tio n
fo r th e o p era tio n o f such a s o c ia l system would be some
i
show o f c o l l e c t iv e o p p o sitio n or r e b e llio n by th e lower j
c l a s s . j
The data to be p resen ted in Chapter 4 concernin g j
th e type o f s o c ia l system and i t s o p era tio n (ju s t' d is - j
cu ssed ) w i l l be based on o b ser v a tio n s o f game p la y s by two j
o b serv ers who took n o tes on the p ro cess o f p la y o f the i
game during the l a s t round.
j
P r e d ic tio n s and reason s fo r p r e d ic tio n s have been j
69
p resen ted in th e l a s t s e v e r a l s e c t io n s . In the n ext
chapter the methods and procedures o f the resea rch w i l l be
p resen ted . When th e th eory model i s t e s t e d , in Chapter 5 ,
a method o f in v e s t ig a t io n s im ila r to th a t o u tlin e d by
W ilier w i l l be used .
C on trolled I n v e s tig a tio n j
i
. t
W ilier o u tlin e s a p refer red sequence o f theory j
j
model t e s t in g which w i l l be fo llo w ed in th is resea rch . j
|
A ccording to N a g el, c o n tr o lle d in v e s tig a tio n has
"the e s s e n t ia l lo g ic a l fu n c tio n o f experim ent in in q u iry !
...c o n t r o lle d in v e s t ig a t io n c o n s is ts in a d e lib e r a te
|
search fo r c o n tr a stin g o cca sio n s" (N agel, 1 9 6 1 :4 5 2 -4 5 3 ). j
!
The two s e t s o f sim u la tio n game r u le s provide fo r con- !
tr a s tin g s o c ia l system s w hich may be con sid ered p o la r op- i
p o s ite s on d im ensions, such as r e so u r c e s, exchange, sta tu s/l
i
m o b ility , and a u th o r ity . j
W ilier p ro v id es a r a tio n a le fo r s p e c if ic a t io n J
(K endall and L a z a r sfe ld , 1950) o f a "scope o f v a lid ity " |
fo r a th eory m odel.
The th eory model method i s p rop erly used fo r the I
'in d u ctio n o f u n iv e r s a ls through c o n tr o lle d in v e s t i- I
g a tio n . B eginning w ith th e p red icted r e la tio n s h ip s
developed in th e m odel, the f i r s t step o f the in - j
v e s tig a t io n to e s t a b lis h w hether th ere i s any scope j
o f v a lid it y fo r th e th eo ry . For th is p relim in ary j
t e s t in g , th e lim it s o f the phenomena are determ ined
by the m odel. I f some scope o f v a lid it y can be
t e n t a t iv e ly e s ta b lis h e d , the n ext step i s to e s ta b
l i s h th e p r e c is e m athem atical form o f th e r e la t io n - j
sh ip s p r e d ic te d . F in a lly , th e f u l l scope o f the
u n iv erse must be stu d ie d ; and, when needed, fu rth er |
70
c o n d itio n s must be added to lim it th a t sco p e. '
(W ilie r , 1967:118)
T his method o f theory model t e s t in g w i l l be used
in th e n ex t ch a p ter.
I
CHAPTER V
'TESTING T H E M O D E L
At t h is p o in t you may f e e l, th a t t e s t in g a
(m u ltip le )-v a r ia b le model i s ua l o t o f t r o u b le .1 1
In a sen se you are r i g h t . . * (such) m odels are not
som ething to w h ile away a 10 or 15 m inute gap in
your round o f a c t i v i t i e s . In another se n se you
a re w ro n g ...T h e fa c t th a t a p le th o r a o f p r e d i
c tio n s emerges from (s e v e r a l) a s s e r tio n s and a
few r u le s i s th e i n t e l l e c t u a l beauty o f a th eo
r e t i c a l work as opposed to sh eer number crunching.
A theory th a t can produce a la r g e number o f
s p e c if i c p r e d ic tio n s on th e b a s is o f a lo c ig a l
system i s th e b e st kind o f th eory th e re i s . The
bane o f modern so c io lo g y i s th e o r ie s th a t do not
p r e d ic t a n y th in g . . . and long l i s t s o f s t a t i s t i c a l
fin d in g s th a t have no i n t e l l e c t u a l coh eren ce.
This i s n ot to say t h a t . . . (m u ltiv a r ia te ) models
(p ro v id e) a p a r tic u la r p oignan t in s ig h t in to the
human c o n d itio n or (r e v e a l) in s ig h ts never b efore
su sp e c te d --b u t th a t i s not th e purpose o f th eory.
The purpose o f theory i s lo g ic a l a r t ic u la t io n o f
p r o p o sitio n s and o p e r a tio n a l r u le s fo r t e s t in g
them e m p ir ic a lly . Theory w is e , poignancy i s
lagn iap pe; d ed u ction s pay th e b i l l . (D a v is,
1971:161)
In tro d u ctio n !
|
In t h is ch a p ter, th e t h e o r e t ic a l model w i l l be j
i
t e s t e d . This t e s t w i l l be p resen ted in fou r p a r ts . F ir s t,j
th e im pact o f th e type o f s o c ia l system upon th e v a r ia b le s j
o f th e model w i l l be a s s e s s e d . Second, th e in te r r e la t io n s !
j
among th e se v a r ia b le s w i l l be examined w ith in each s o c ia l !
system . T hird, fu rth er ex p lo r a tio n o f th e model w i l l be j
undertaken v ia m u ltip le and p a r t ia l r e g r e s s io n . F in a lly , j
71
72 I
j
a t e s t o f th e c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n p r e d ic tio n s w i l l be p re- j
f
sen ted . '
i
Impact o f Type o f S o c ia l System Upon the
Variables of the Theoretical Model j
A sim p le a n a ly s is o f v a ria n ce measure was computed |
I
fo r each o f th e f i v e v a r ia b le s o f the t h e o r e t ic a l model i
p resen ted in Chapter 2 . R esu lts in d ic a te th a t th ere i s '
j
more v a r ia tio n w ith in game groups than between exp erim en tal
!
treatm ents (s e e T able 5 - 1 ) . This a n a ly s is i s a n ecessa ry
i
f i r s t ste p on t e s t in g th e th eory m odel, as fu r th e r t e s t in g j
o f the model below cou ld be b ia sed i s some o f the v a r ia b le s
I
in the model a tta in e d s ig n if ic a n t ly h igh er v a lu es in one
type o f s o c ia l system than in the o th e r . From th e obtained.
|
F -r a tio s l i s t e d in Table 5 -1 , i t does not appear th a t
h e te r o g e n ie ty o f v a ria n c e s o f the v a r ia b le s o f the model j
between the exp erim en tal treatm en ts w i l l s ig n if ic a n t ly j
a f f e c t th e in te r r e la t io n s o f th e model w ith in th e t r e a t
ments .
j
Specification and Experimental Designs
!
E xperim ental d esig n s have t r a d it io n a lly been used j
to c r e a te d iffe r e n c e s in dependent v a r ia b le s . The str o n g - j
!
p o in t o f th e se d esig n s has been th e ir a b i l i t y to a llo w th e i
!
resea rch er to make c a u sa l in fe r e n c e s from the independent
(m anipulated) v a r ia b le to th e dependent (measured) variable;1
j
As such, exp erim en tal d esig n s have been ra th er clum sy. I
TABLE 5-1
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE O F INTRA-CLASS ORGANIZATION, INTRA-CLASS IN V O LV EM EN T
INCREASE IN OPENNESS, VIOLENCE O F CONFLICT, A N D ELITE RESPONSIVENESS
B Y TYPE O F SOCIAL SYSTEM
V ariab le Source SS df* M S F
F n ecessa ry
fo r s i g . a t
.05
I n tr a -c la s s Between Groups 0.0332 1 0.0332
O rganization W ithin Groups 13.2239 22 0.6011
T o ta l 13.2571 23
0.0552 4 .3 0
I n tr a -c la s s Between Groups 0.0047 1 .0047
Invo lvement W ithin Groups 32.1220 18 1.7846
T o ta l 32.1267 19
0.0026 4 .3 8
V io len ce o f Between Groups 1.9839 1 1.9839
C o n flic t W ithin Groups 27.5459 18 1.5303
T o ta l 29.5298 19
1.2964 4 .3 8
In crease in Between Groups 2.1451 . 1 2.1451
Openness W ithin Groups 71.8479 21 3.4213
T o ta l 73.9931 22
0.6270 4 .3 0
E l it e Between Groups 0.5774 1 0.5774
Respons iv en es s W ithin Groups 32.0107 18 1.7784
T o ta l 32.5881 19
0.3247 4 .3 8
* D iscrep a n cies in th e number o f c a ses are due to m issin g d ata.
74
in ex p lo ra to ry resea rch where th e in v e s tig a to r may w ish to
look a t s e v e r a l s e t s o f r e la tio n s h ip s w ith in a s in g le
stu d y . This clu m sin ess becomes even more apparent when the
!
resea rch er i s d e a lin g w ith groups ra th er than in d iv id u a ls j
as u n its o f a n a ly s is and w ish es to examine s e v e r a l in d e- !
pendent v a r ia b le s , each o f which seems to be im portant
enough to demand sep a ra te in te r p r e ta tio n . In th e se s i t u - |
a tio n s the groups are "used up" so q u ic k ly in the a n a ly s is J
th a t r e s u lts have to be based upon v ery sm all number o f j
|
c a s e s .
Another problem faced by the s o c io lo g is t in th e !
i
u se o f exp erim en tal d esig n s seems to be th a t o fte n e x p e r i- I
m ental treatm ents may be a t p o la r extrem es t h e o r e t ic a lly , j
i
but n ot extrem e enough to produce d iffe r e n c e s in dependent j
i
v a r ia b le s . A p o t e n t ia lly more in t e r e s t in g approach fo r !
!
s o c io lo g is t s seems to be the use o f exp erim en tal d esig n s
to in v e s t ig a t e d iffe r e n c e s in in te r r e la tio n s h ip s among j
s e t s o f v a r ia b le s under t h e o r e t ic a lly m eaningful e x p e r i- j
j
m ental c o n d itio n s . For sim u la tio n gaming r e sea r c h , experi-j
!
m ental c o n d itio n s which model typ es o f " rea l world" s o c ia l ;
system s seem to be a w orthw hile approach s in c e system s j
w hich d if f e r o n ly in s p e c if ic a sp e c ts can be in v e s tig a te d . |
This approach a llo w s ca u sa l in fe r e n c e s to be made between j
i
exp erim en tal treatm ents as w e ll as fo r the in t e r r e la t io n - j
i
sh ip among v a r ia b le s w ith in each trea tm en t. E s s e n tia lly j
i
the approach in v o lv e s s p e c if ic a t io n o f a s e t o f c o r r e la
75
t io n s . S p e c ific a tio n , as p resen ted by K endall and
L a za rsfeld (1 9 5 0 ), has been o v e r ly n e g le c te d by many
s o c io lo g is t s (For d is c u s s io n s o f t h is n e g le c t , se e L azars- j
f e ld , 1962; Boudon, 1968; B la lo ck , 1 9 6 8 ). S p e c ific a tio n j
I
can be used as an em p iric a l way o f a s s e s s in g th e scope o f
v a lid it y o f a theory m odel. I f th e m odel i s v a lid fo r
each type o f s o c ia l system , i t s scope o f v a lid it y i s w ider
than i f i t i s v a lid o n ly fo r one o f th e se exp erim en tal j
i
I
trea tm en ts. U nlike tr a d itio n a l s p e c if ic a t io n p roced u res, j
i
however, the " sp e c ifie d " r e la tio n s a re p resen ted f i r s t .
In t h is re sea rch , sin c e th e d ir e c tio n o f the p re- I
d ie te d r e la t io n s are d if f e r e n t w ith in each type o f s o c ia l
!
system , exam ination o f th e model fo r th e sample taken as a j
whole w i l l n ot be undertaken.
The second step in th e t e s t in g o f the model in - |
j
v o lv e s th e exam ination o f the z ero -o rd er c o r r e la tio n s among
the v a r ia b le s o f th e model w ith in each t y p e .o f s o c ia l
i
system . j
I
E valu ation o f the T h e o r e tic a l M odel;
Zero-Order R ela tio n s j
i
The zero -o rd er r e la tio n s among th e v a r ia b le s o f the’
model are p resen ted fo r each type o f s o c i a l system in j
T ables 5-2 and 5 -3 . In sp e c tio n o f th e se ta b le s in d ic a te s I
i
th a t in th e c lo se d s o c ia l system trea tm en t, th e model p re- j
d ie t s the ob tain ed c o r r e la tio n s f a i r l y w e ll in th ree o f j
four in s ta n c e s . In the one in sta n c e where the r e la t io n
76
TABLE 5-2
PREDICTED A N D OBSERVED INTERREALTIONS A M O N G INTRA-
CLASS ORGANIZATION, INTRA-CLASS INVOLVEM ENT,
INCREASE IN OPENNESS, VIOLENCE O F CONFLICT
A N D ELITE RESPONSIVENESS FOR T H E CLOSED
SOCIAL SYSTEM S
Time 1: Measurement
Time 2: Complete a u th o r ity
p resen ted to e l i t e ^
Time 3: Measurements
INTRA-CLAS
ORGANIZATI
-.2 5 ' \
\
INTRA-CLASS VIO
INVO LVEM ENT C
i
.07 j
INCREASE IN ELI
OPENNESS SI1
S
0N , i i
LEN C E O F
DNFLICT
" - .3 1
T E RESPON-
VENESS |
OBTAINED ZERO-ORDER CORRELATIONS
V ariab le p a ir
r N
!
P i
I n tr a -c la s s O rganization and
I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent -.2 5 10 . 24 S
I n tr a -c la s s O rganization and
V io len ce o f C o n flic t .11 10 .39 . I
I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent and
In crea se in Openness .07 10
i
.42
V io len ce o f C o n flic t and
E l i t e R esponsiveness - .3 1 10 .19 j
I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent and
V io len ce o f C o n flic t .53 10
{
.06
In crea se in Openness and
E l it e R esponsiveness .07 10
i
.42
I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent and
E l i t e R esponsiveness -.8 2 10
]
.002
V io len ce o f C o n flic t and
In crea se in Openness - .4 2 10
}
.10 1
I n tr a -c la s s O rganization and
E l it e R esponsiveness -.1 2 10
I
.37 !
I n tr a -c la s s O rganization and
In crea se in Openness - .44 12
1
.08 j
Arrows aboe in d ic a te p red ic te d r e la t io n s h ip s . Arrows w ith
broken lin e s fo r s h a fts in d ic a te zero r e la t io n s h ip . Arrows j
w ith unbroken lin e s fo r s h a f t s , and w ith p erp en d icu lar
lin e s through the sh a fts in d ic a te in v e r se r e la t io n s h ip s . I
TABLE 5-3
PREDICTED AN D O BSERVED INTERRELATIONS A M O N G INTRA
CLASS ORGANIZATION, INTRA-CLASS INVOVLEM ENT,
INCREASE IN OPENNESS, VIOLENCE O F CONFLICT,
A N D ELITE RESPONSIVENESS FOR T H E O PEN
SOCIAL SYSTEM
77
Time 1: Measurement
__________ .72
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION
Time 2: Complete a u th o r ity
p resen ted to e l i t e
Time 3: Measurements
/
l -CLAS
r E M
i
INTRA-CLASS
IN V O LV EM EN T
\
- .3 7
VIOLENCE O F
CONFLICT
.65
INCREASE IN
OPENNESS
TE
.63
ELITE RESPON
SIVENESS
OBTAINED ZERO-ORDER CORRELATIONS
V ariab le p a ir r N
!
i
p
I n tr a -c la s s O rgan ization and
I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent .72 10 .009 j
I n tr a -c la s s O rganization and
V iolen ce o f C o n flic t - .3 7 10 .15 j
I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent and
In crease in Openness .65 10 .02
V io len ce o f C o n flic t and E lit e
R esponsiveness .63 10
!
.03
I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent and
V iolen ce o f C o n flic t - .4 1 10 .10
In crea se in Openness and
E l it e R esponsiveness - .8 3 10 .001 j
I n tr a -c la s s Involvem ent and
E l it e R esponsiveness - .7 4 10 .007
V iolen ce o f C o n flic t and
In crease in Openness - .8 1 10 .002
I n tr a -c la s s O rganization and
E lit e R esponsiveness
■
•
0 0
10 .004
I n tr a -c la s s O rgan ization and
In crease in Openness .47 11
1
.07 !
Arrows above in d ic a te p r e d ic te d r e la t io n s h ip s . Arrows w ith
lin e s drawn through t h e ir s h a fts in d ic a te in v e r se r e la t io n
sh ip s . Arrows w ith ou t lin e s drawn through th e ir s h a fts
in d ic a te d ir e c t r e la t io n s h ip s .
was in c o r r e c tly p r e d ic te d , th e p red ic te d r e la tio n s h ip b e- j
i
tween o rg a n iz a tio n and in t r a - c la s s involvem ent was z e r o . j
The ob tain ed c o r r e la tio n o f - .2 5 does n ot correspond very
W ell to t h is p r e d ic tio n . E v id e n ta lly , th e more a group j
has a common p la n , the more d e fla te d —a p a th e tic and un
in v o lv ed — th ey become when th e upper c la s s i s g iv en com
p le t e a u th o r ity . A lso , th e r e la tio n s h ip s a re stro n g j
j
enough to a llo w 6 out o f 6 c o r r e c t d ed u ction s o f th e sig n j
o f oth er in te r r e la t io n s among v a r ia b le s o f th e m odel.^ j
i
Figure 5-1 and Table 5 -4 p resen t th e method o f d ed u ction |
and the deduced sig n s o f th e se r e la t io n s h ip s .
Evaluation of the Theoretical Model;
Partial Correlations
i
In order to further investigate the workings;-of the
f
theoretical model, partial correlation will be used to find
i
out if variables which have been presented as intervening
actually intervene in a statistical manner. Partial cor- j
relation will also be used to determine if Dahrendorf's
speculation concerning the independence of certain vari- I
ables in the model holds up statistically.
1
xDue to the zero predictions for the closed socialj
system, signs of the other variables in the model cannot
be deduced. Generally, a multivariate model which makes
zero-order predictions of no relationship between two vari-j
ables is not as useful as a model which makes non-zero pre-j
dictions, since deductions are more limited.
FIGURE 5-1
STEP-BY-STEP DEDUCTIONS FOR PREDICTING INTERRELATIONS AMONG INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION, INTRA-CLASS INVOLVEMENT, VIOLENCE OF CONFLICT, INCREASE
IN OPENNESS, AND ELITE RESPONSIVENESS FOR THE OPEN SOCIAL
SYSTEM
Postulates
Direction of
Relationship
Order of
Derivation
Intra-class organization and Intra-class involvement
Intra-class organization and Violence of conflict
Intra-class involvement and Increase in openness
Violence of conflict and Elite responsiveness
FIRST ORDER DERIVED THEOREMS
Intra-class organization and Intra-class involvement
Intra-class organization and Violence of conflict
Intra-class involvement and Violence of conflict
Intra-class organization and Intra-class involvement
Intra-class involvement and Increase in onenness
Intra-class organization and Increase in openness
Intra-class organization and Violence of conflict
Violence of conflict and Elite responsiveness
Intra-class organization and Elite responsiveness.
SECOND ORDER DERIVED THEOREMS
Intra-class involvement and Increase in openness
Intra-class Involvement and Violence of conflict
Violence of conflict and Increase in openness
Violence of conflict and Elite responsiveness
Intra-class involvement and Violence of conflict
Intra-class involvement and Elite responsiveness
Direct
Inverse
Direct
Direct
Direct
Inverse
Inverse
Direct
Direct
Direct
Inverse
Direct
Inverse
Direct
Inverse
Inverse
Direct
Inverse
Inverse
0
0
0
0
0
_0
1
0
J L
1
0
J L
1
0
JL.
2
0
l_
2
v O !
FIGURE 5-1, continued
Postulates
Direction of
Relationship
Order of
Derivation
OR
Intra-class organization and Violence of conflict
Intra-class organization and Increase in openness
Violence ot conflict and Increase in openness
Intra-class organization and Intra-class involvement
Intra-class organization and Elite responsiveness
Intra-class involvement and Elite responsiveness
THIRD ORDER DERIVED THEOREMS
Intra-class involvement and Increase in openness
Intra-class involvement and Elite responsiveness
Increase in openness and Elite responsiveness
OR
Violence of conflict and Elite responsiveness
Violence of conflict and Increase in openness
Elite responsiveness and Increase in openness
Intra-class organication and Elite responsiveness
Intra-class organization and Increase in openness
Elite responsiveness and Increase in openness
Inverse
Direct
Inverse
Direct
Inverse
Inverse
Direct
Inverse
Inverse
Direct
Inverse
Inverse
Inverse
Direct
Inverse
0
J L _
2
0
2
0
_ 2 _
3
0
_2_
3
1
JL_
3
81
TABLE 5 -4
EVALUATION O F T H E O R Y MODEL'S ABILITY T O PREDICT
SIGNS O F OBTAINED CORRELATIONS B Y TYPE O F
SOCIAL SYSTEM (P r ed icted s ig n appears
in the corner o f each c e l l ) 2
CLOSED SOCIAL SYSTEM
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION
INTRA-CLASS
IN V O LV EM EN T
VIOLENCE O F
CONFLICT
INCREASE IN
OPENNESS
ELITE RESPONSIVENESS
(INV) (CON) (OPN) (RES)
-.2 5 / .11 / - .44 s~ - .1 2 s
f°
.53 / f .07 / f
C M
0 0
•
1
- .4 2 / -
/?
- .3 1 s
• ° 7 £
No d ed u ction s p o s s ib le
1 c o r r e c t p r e d ic tio n
2 " clo se" more ex a ct p r e d ic tio n s
6 in d eterm in a te p r e d ic tio n s
1 in c o r r e c t p r e d ic tio n
O PEN SOCIAL SYSTEM
INTRA-CLASS (INV) (CON) (OPN) (RES)
ORGANIZATION
' C ' l
- .3 7 ^ .47
r
V .
0 0
•
i
INTRA-CLASS
IN V O LV EM EN T
......... t
.65 - . 7 4 ^
VIOLENCE O F
CONFLICT
- . 8 ! £
• 6 3
INCREASE IN
OPENNESS
ELITE RESPONSIVENESS
- .8 3 f
4 c o r r e c t p r e d ic tio n s
6 c o r r e c t deduced p r e d ic tio n s
^The u su a l method o f m u ltip ly in g th e s ig n s o f two
h o r iz o n ta lly ad ja cen t c e l l s to deduce the sig n o f th e c e l l
82
TABLE 5-4, Continued
! im m ediately below the rig h t-m o st o f th e a d ja cen t p a ir does I
, n ot alw ays work w ith ta b le s which p r e se n t m odels w hich are i
n ot ch ain s such as A -SB*C -*D ->E. V a ria b les used in th e ta b le s j
; based on the tim e p r i o r i t i e s . S in ce th e model used in t h is !
resea rch i s n ot a sim ple ch a in , th e order o f d ed u ction s j
I does n ot fo llo w from th e main d ia g o n a l to th e u p p er-rig h t |
corner o f the t a b le , so when the r e la t io n s h ip s in the
uppermost row do n ot have th e same s ig n , s e v e r a l in c o r r e c t j
d ed u ction s w i l l be'made i f th e u su a l r u le i s a p p lie d . Step-;
b y -ste p d ed u ction s fo r the v a r ia b le s in th e t h e o r e t ic a l j
model are p resen ted in Figure 1. E m p ir ic a lly , a d ed u ction j
o f th e sig n o f th e c o r r e la tio n betw een A and C in a ch ain ;
; A -»B -»C by m u ltip ly in g the sig n s o f th e in te r v e n in g lin k s j
y ie ld s unambigous r e s u lt s o n ly when r2ab+ r2bc> l. j
i
83
In terv en in g V ariab les
In the open s o c ia l system , i f in t r a - c la s s o rg a n iza
tio n o p era tes on in c r e a se in th e openness o f the a u th o r ity j
str u c tu r e through th e in te r v e n in g v a r ia b le o f in t e n s it y o f I
I
in t r a - c la s s involvem ent as th e model s u g g e s ts , then when j
in t e n s it y o f in t r a - c la s s involvem ent i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y con
t r o lle d , the r e a ltio n s h ip between in t r a - c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n j
i
and in c r e a se in th e openness o f th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e j
should v a n ish . Exam ination o f T a b le5-5 in d ic a te s th a t th e
I
zero -o rd er c o r r e la tio n o f .47 between in t r a - c la s s o rg a n iza -i
tio n and in cr ea se in openness o f th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e !
i
becomes .00 when in t e n s it y o f in tra -g ro u p involvem ent i s j
s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n tr o lle d . I n te n s ity o f in tra -g ro u p in - |
!
volvem ent, th en , op erates s t a t i s t i c a l l y as an in te rv e n in g j
i
v a r ia b le as the model p r e d ic ts i t sh o u ld . j
A lso , i f in t r a - c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n o p era tes on e l i t e ;
' i
!
resp o n siv en ess through th e in te r v e n in g v a r ia b le o f v io le n c e j
o f c o n f lic t i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n tr o lle d , th e r e la tio n s h ip
between in t r a - c la s s o rg a n iz a tio n and e l i t e resp o n siv en ess j
should v a n ish . Exam ination o f Table5-5 in d ic a te s th a t th e |
;
zero -o rd er c o r r e la tio n o f - .7 8 between o r g a n iz a tio n and j
e l i t e resp o n siv en ess becomes - .7 6 when violen ce o f c o n f lic t j
i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n tr o lle d . V io len ce o f c o n f lic t does notj
appear to op erate s t a t i s t i c a l l y as an in te r v e n in g v a r ia b le j
as the model p red icted i t sh ou ld . j
t
Since th ere are s e v e r a l zero p r e d ic tio n s fo r the
84
TABLE 5-5
SELECTED PARTIAL CORRELATIONS FOR T H E O PEN
SOCIAL SYSTEM
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION
INTRA
IN V O LV EM EN T
I
INCREASE IN
OPENNESS
I n tr a -c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n by
In crea se in openness .47
I n tr a -c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n by
In crea se in openness w ith
I n tr a -c la s s involvem ent
c o n tr o lle d .00 s ig . = .50
n 7
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION
INTRA-CLASS
INV O LV EM EN T
VIOLENCE O F }
CONFLICT I
I n tr a -c la s s involvem ent by
V io len ce o f c o n f lic t - .4 1
I n tr a -c la s s involvem ent by
V io len ce o f c o n f lic t w ith
I n tr a -c la s s o rg a n iz a tio n
c o n tr o lle d - .2 3 s i g . = .28
n = 7
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION
VIOLENCE O F
CONFLICT
INTRA CLASS
IN V O LV EM EN T
4
ELITE RESPON
SIVENESS
I n tr a -c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n by
E l it e resp o n siv en ess -.7 8
I n tr a -c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n by
E lit e resp o n siv en ess w ith
V io len ce o f c o n f lic t
c o n tr o lle d - .7 6 s i g . = .01
n =7
INCREASE IN
OPENNESS
VIOLENCE O F
CONFLICT
ELITE REt I
SPONSIVENESS
In c r ea se in openness by j
E l it e R esp on siven ess - .8 3 j
In crea se in openness by e lite !
re sp o n siv en ess w ith in tr a - j
c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n , in tr a
c la s s in volvem en t, and v io - J
le n c e o f c o n f l ic t c o n tr o lle d !
-.7 3 s ig . = .03 i
n
85
closed social system, partial correlations will not be
presented, since the technique of partialling does not have1
much meaning in these instances.
Independence of Variables from
Each Other
In order to investigate the workings of the model,
several relationships will be examined along lines sug- j
gested by Dahrendorf. He states, j
...violence and intensity of conflict vary j
independently... (Dahrendorf, 1959:212) j
Suddenness and radicalness of structure change
are two dimensions...which can vary independently, j
much as the intensity and violence of class con- j
flicts can vary independently. (Dahrendorf,
1959:234)
j
Radicalness and suddenness of change like in- i
tensity and violence of conflict, may coincide,
but more often they diverge. (Dahrenforf, 1959:235) |
As mentioned in Chapter 2 , the concepts of the j
i
original model have been modified for this research; how- j
i
ever, the relationships outlined by Dahrendorf can be ex-
j
amined within the context of the modified model. As in the'
i
last section, partial correlations will be presented only j
for the open social system. I
i
In the open syste, if intensity of intra-class in- j
volvement is independent of the violence of conflict, then '
I
when in t r a - c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n tr o lle d , J
the r e la tio n s h ip between in t e n s it y o f in t r a - c la s s in v o lv e - :
i
ment and v io le n c e o f c o n f li c t becomes - .2 3 when in t r a - c la s s 1
j o r g a n iz a tio n i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n tr o lle d . W hile th e r e
s u lt s are n ot c le a r c u t, i t appears th a t , to some e x te n t,
th e c o r r e la tio n between in t e n s it y o f in t r a - c la s s in v o lv e -
; ment and v io le n c e o f c o n f l i c t i s ex p la in ed by th e p r io r
■ , .
v a r ia b le o f in t r a - c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n , as th e model p re-
■ ; . j
d ie t s .
In th e open system , i f in c r e a se in th e openness o f j
the a u th o r ity str u c tu r e i s independent o f e l i t e resp on
s iv e n e s s , then when p r io r v a r ia b le s o f in t r a - c la s s o rg a n i
z a t io n , in t e n s it y o f in t r a - c la s s in v o lv em en t, a n d 'v io le n ce
o f c o n f lic t are s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n tr o lle d , th e r e la tio n s h ip
: - !
between in c r e a se in openness o f th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e !
and e l i t e re sp o n siv en ess should v a n ish . Exam ination o f
Table 5-5 in d ic a te s th a t th e zero -o rd er c o r r e la tio n o f -.8 3
between in c r e a se in openness o f th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e
and e l i t e resp o n siv en ess becomes - .7 3 when th e th r ee p r io r j
v a r ia b le s are s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n tr o lle d . These r e s u lt s in - j
d ic a te th a t n ot much o f th e c o r r e la tio n betw een in c r e a se
"
i
in openness o f the a u th o r ity str u c tu r e and e l i t e resp on
s iv e n e s s i s ex p la in ed by the a c tio n o f th e th ree p rio r
v a r ia b le s . ^ ' !
Nine a d d itio n a l second and th ir d order p a r t ia l
c o r r e la tio n s are e s s e n t i a lly redundant w ith th e above
fin d in g s . R esu lts o f th e se a n a ly ses should be in te r p r e te d !
w ith ca u tio n due to th e sm all number o f c a se s upon which
they are b ased . D iscrep a n cies in th e numbers o f c a se s on
87
' which th e p a r t ia l c o r r e la tio n s were based are due to
m issin g d a ta .
In s p it e o f th e sm all number o f c a se s and r e s u lt s J
i
w hich are n ot as s tr ik in g as th e model p r e d ic ts , th e o v er - j
i
i
a l l p a tte r n o f the p a r t ia l c o r r e la tio n s in s p ir e s some con- j
I
i j
fid e n c e th a t th e model in th e open s o c ia l system treatm en t j
; • !
; i s working perhaps b e tte r than m ight be exp ected g iv en th e j
r e la t iv e in fa n cy o f sim u la tio n gaming resea r ch .
1
t
i
A lte r n a tiv e P r e d ic tio n o f E ith er In crea se j
in Openness o f the A u th ority S tru ctu re or |
E l it e R esp on siven ess j
. i
So fa r both th e str e n g th o f the r e la tio n s h ip s
and the a c tio n o f the v a r ia b le s on each o th er have been j
•d isc u sse d . In the n ex t s e c tio n th e a b i l i t y o f th e model j
to p r e d ic t e ith e r in cr ea se in openness o f th e a u th o r ity |
: f
str u c tu r e or e l i t e re sp o n siv en ess w i l l be a s s e s s e d fo r j
each s o c ia l system . In th e a n a ly se s co n d icted so fa r , th e j
i
c lo se d s o c ia l system model has shown on ly a lim ite d a b i l i t y
to make e ith e r d ed uction s concerning th e s ig n s o f r e la - j
I
t io n s h ip s , or to p r e d ic t s t a t i s t i c a l a c tio n o f th e v a r i- j
a b le s on each o th e r , even though i t was q u ite s u c c e s s fu l j
i
in p r e d ic tin g zero-ord er r e la t io n s h ip s . The open system !
m odel, on the oth er hand, has p red ic te d ob tain ed z e ro -
order c o r r e la tio n s , as w e ll as deduced r e a lt io n s h ip s ,
q u ite w e ll. In th is s e c t io n , m u ltip le r e g r e s s io n p ro- j
cedures w i l l be used in an e f f o r t to fin d ou t how w e ll th e !
i
• i
v a r ia b le s o f th e model can p r e d ic t change in th e a u th o r ity ]
88
I
j
str u c tu r e w ith in each type o f s o c ia l system . j
The r e s u lt s o f the a n a ly s is i s p resen ted in Table j
5 -6 . Knowledge o f the oth er v a r ia b le s in th e model a llo w s j
p r e d ic tio n o f e ith e r in c r e a se in th e openness o f th e j
a u th o r ity str u c tu r e or e l i t e resp o n siv en ess w ith r e l a t i v e ly
j
h ig h accu racy. As w ith th e oth er a n a ly se s , th e o v e r a ll I
p r e d ic tio n i s h ig h e st in th e open s o c ia l system where 90% I
!
o f th e v a ria n ce in in c r e a se in openness o f the a u th o r ity j
s tr u c tu r e and 90% o f th e v a ria n ce in e l i t e re sp o n siv en ess I
!
can be ex p la in ed by the oth er v a r ia b le s in the m odel. In j
i
th e c lo s e d system , 46% o f the varian ce in in c r e a se in j
openness in th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e and 86% o f the v a r ia n c e
in e l i t e resp o n siv en ess can be exp lain ed by the o th er vari-j
a b le s in th e m odel. j
j
As in th e oth er a n a ly se s , th ere i s g r e a te r p re-
d i c t a b i l i t y w ith in the open s o c ia l system treatm en t. In
th e c lo s e d s o c ia l system trea tm en t, th ere i s f a i r l y h igh j
p r e d ic t a b ilit y . Of p a r tic u la r in t e r e s t i s the h ig h r e la
tio n s h ip between in t r a - c la s s involvem ent and e l i t e resp on
s iv e n e s s fo r th e c lo se d s o c ia l system treatm en t. (T his
!
r e la t io n s h ip a ls o appears in the zero -o rd er c o r r e la tio n s !
i
o f T ables 5 -2 and 5 - 4 ) . Though r e la tio n s h ip s which were j
I
n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y o u tlin e d in the o r ig in a l model have n o t j
been d is c u s s e s — they have been presen ted as p o s s ib le |
i
d ed u cib le r e la t io n s h ip s — the r e la tio n s h ip between in t r a - j
c la s s involvem ent and e l i t e re sp o n siv en ess seems to deserve;
TABLE 5-6
MULTIPLE CORRELATIONS W ITH INCREASE IN OPENNESS O F SOCIAL STRUC TU RE AN D
ELITE RESPONSIVENESS AS DEPENDENT VARIABLES B Y TYPE O F SOCIAL SYSTEM
DEPENDENT VARIABLE: INCREASE IN OPENNESS DEPENDENT VARIABLE: ELITE RESPONSIVENESS
O F AUTHORITY STR U C TU RE
CLO SED SOCIAL SYSTEM T R EA TM EN T CLO SED SOCIAL SYSTEM T R E A T M E N T
VARIABLE Cum. R Cum.R
£
_F VARIABLE Cum. R Cum. R .
3
F
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION .44 .19 - .0 0 .00
INCREASE
OPENNESS .07 .01 .16 .7
VIOLENCE
O F CONFLICT .58 .36 - .7 6 2 .4
VIOLENCE
O F CONFLICT .32 .10 + .40 3 .3
INTRA-CLASS
IN V O LV EM E N T .62 .38 1 .0 6 1 .0
INTRA-CLASS
IN V O LV EM EN T .88 .77 -1 .1 4 30.5
ELITE
RESPONSIVENESS .68 .46 .71 .7
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION .94 .86 .38 4 .4
OPEN SOCIAL SYSTEM T R E A T M E N T _ O PEN SOCIAL SYSTEM T R E A T M E N T
VARIABLE Cum. R Cum. R
I A
F VARIABLE Cum. R Cum. R
/ 3
F
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION .47 .22 - .4 2 3 .1
INCREASE IN
OPENNESS .83 .70 - .76 5 .9
VIOLENCE O F
CONFLICT .84 .70 - .4 2 5 .1
VIOLENCE O F
CONFLICT .8 4 .70 - .15 .4
INTRA-CLASS
; IN V O LV EM EN T .89 .79 + .2 6 1 .4
INTRA-CLASS
IN V O LV EM EN T .87 .76 + .08 .1
ELITE
RESPONSIVENESS .95 .90 - .7 1 5 .9
INTRA-CLASS
ORGANIZATION .95 .90 - .54 6 .5 oo
V O
s p e c ia l a t te n t io n , as i t i s extrem ely im portant in a llo w in g
i
the model to p r e d ic t e l i t e resp o n siv en ess in the c lo s e d ;
!
system v ia m u ltip le c o r r e la tio n . !
The d ata in d ic a te th a t the more s t e a d f a s t ly and j
in te n s e ly the p la y e r s remain in v o lv ed in in t r a - c la s s j
j
m atters a f t e r com plete a u th o r ity i s g iv en to th e upper
c l a s s , th e more co m p letely su g g estio n s by the low er c la s s
are r e je c te d whn th ey o ccu r. I t i s q u ite p o s s ib le th a t
I
th e more th e c la s s e s can remain in v o lv ed a f te r com plete j
i
a u th o r ity i s g iv en to th e upper c l a s s , the more lik e l y the j
upper c la s s i s in v o lv ed in making r e p r e s s iv e r u le s and the i
I
lower c la s s i s in tr y in g to implement a s in g le p lan which j
does not in v o lv e su g g e stin g r u le changes. j
i
In te r n a l C o n sisten cy
I
In th e p reced in g s e c tio n s o f t h is ch a p ter, the
I'
r e la tio n s between th e th eory model and the o b serv a tio n s !
have been exam ined. In t h is s e c t io n , the in te r n a l con- !
s is te n c y o f the d ata w i l l be examined fo r each s o c ia l j
j
system . I f th e data are in te r n a lly c o n s is te n t , and i f the j
observed r e la tio n s h ip s match th o se p red icted by th e theory,!
• j
the resea r ch er can have more co n fid en ce in h is in fe r e n c e s
i
concerning the v a l i d i t y o f th e th eo ry . j
I
I f th e data a re in te r n a lly c o n s is te n t, the sig n o f |
i
an em p irica l r e la tio n s h ip should be d ed u cib le from oth er
em p irica l r e la tio n s h ip s in an o p era tio n a l system . However,!
sin c e th e r e la tio n s h ip s in the o p e r a tio n a l system are notI
p e r f e c t, d ed u ction s o f th e s ig n o f a g iv en tw o -v a ria b le |
|
r e la t io n s h ip , u sin g th e sig n s o f the th r ee oth er p o s s ib le j
tw o -v a ria b le r e la t io n s h ip s in a f iv e - v a r ia b le o p e r a tio n a l j
system , w i l l n o t alw ays unambiguously p r e d ic t th e sig n o f ' j
i
th e tw o -v a ria b le r e la tio n s h ip in q u e stio n . S tated another
way, th e th ree em p iric a l d ed u ction s w i l l n ot always p re- ;
d ie t th e same s ig n . Such " in c o n s is te n t p red ictio n " always
r e s u lt s in a t le a s t 1 erro r in the match between th e p re
d ic te d (deduced) r e la tio n s h ip and the a c tu a l c o r r e la tio n , j
!
Another type o f erro r .can occur when the th ree
p o s s ib le d ed u ction s p r e d ic t th e same sig n fo r th e two- '
i
v a r ia b le r e la tio n s h ip s in q u e stio n , but th e a c tu a l co r re
la t io n i s o f th e o p p o site s ig n .
The com putation o f both types o f errors fo r each
s o c ia l system treatm en t w i l l y ie ld a measure o f in te r n a l
c o n sis te n c y o f th e d a ta . j
As m entioned above, fo r the f iv e - v a r ia b le model
th ere are ten tw o -v a r ia b le r e la tio n s h ip s ( n ( n - l ) / 2 ) . The j
!
sig n o f a two v a r ia b le rela tio n sh ip in a fiv e - v a r ia b le model
j
can be deduced in th ree d if f e r e n t w ays. For in s ta n c e , the j
sig n o f th e r e la t io n between in t r a - c la s s o rg a n iz a tio n and j
j
in t e n s it y o f in t r a - c la s s involvem ent can be deduced from j
th e sig n s o f th e r e la t io n s between 1) in t r a - c la s s o rg a n i- j
z a tio n -v io le n c e o f c o n f li c t and in t r a - c la s s involvem ent- !
v io le n c e o f c o n f l i c t ; 2) in t r a - c la s s o r g a n iz a tio n - j
|
in c r e a se in openness o f th e a u th o r ity str u c tu r e and in tr a - |
c la s s c o n f lic t - in c r e a s e in openness o f th e a u th o r ity
str u c tu r e ; and 3) in t r a - c la s s o r g a n iz a t io n - e lit e resp on-
i
siv e n e ss and in t e n s it y o f in t r a - c la s s in v o lv e m e n t-e lite j
r e sp o n siv e n e ss. S im ila r d ed u ction s can be made u sin g more j
j
than two r e la tio n s h ip s to p r e d ic t a th ir d , however, s in c e j
i
t h is method i s the s im p le s t p o s s ib le d ed u ctio n , i t w i l l be
used h ere. j
i
The above method was used to measure the in te r n a l j
I
c o n siste n c y o f the d ata fo r each type o f s o c ia l system . j
The observed data fo r th e c lo s e d s o c ia l system treatm ent j
p rovid es f i f t e e n c o r r e c tio n s ou t o f t h ir t y p o s s ib le p re- I
i
d ic t io n s . In th e c lo s e d system treatm ent e ig h t out o f te n !
i
s e t s o f p r e d ic tio n s a re in c o n s is te n t w ith each o th e r , i . e . , '
i
the th ree d ed u ction s do n o t a l l y ie ld th e same s ig n . The
j
observed data fo r the open s o c ia l system treatm ent p rovid es
!
t h ir ty c o r r e c t p r e d ic tio n s out o f t h ir t y p o s s ib le p r e d ic - |
tio n s ; con seq u en tly th e re are no in c o n s is te n t p r e d ic tio n s , i
i
B ehavioral O b servations !
.---------------- i
In t h is s e c t io n , r e s u lt s o f o b serv a tio n s o f lower j
c la s s behavior w ith in each type o f s o c ia l system w i l l be
I
p resen ted . In th e c lo s e d s o c ia l system treatm en t, f iv e o f j
the tw elve lower c la s s e s undertook some type o f c o l l e c t i v e I
]
a c tio n , w h ile in the open s o c ia l system treatm en t, on ly
two o f the lower c la s s e s undertook c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n . |
When in sta n c es o f c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n were ranked on th e ir !
.................................... 93 .
s e v e r it y . in th e two in sta n c e s o f c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n fo r the
lower c la s s e s o f th e open s o c ia l system treatm en t, one o f
th e two in sta n c e s was th e le a s t sev ere and the o th er was j
th e th ir d le a s t se v er e o f th e seven t o t a l in sta n c e s o f j
j
lower c la s s c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n . The four h ig h e s t ranked
j
in sta n c e s o f lo w e r -c la s s c o l l e c t iv e a c tio n occurred in
c lo se d s o c ia l system p la y s o f the game. !
Though n e ith e r s e t o f s o c ia l system s c o n s is te n t ly j
ex p erien ces low er c la s s c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n , and though th e j
number o f c a se s i s sm a ll, i t appears from th e data p re- j
i
sen ted here th a t low er c la s s c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n i s both j
!
more freq u en t (and more sev ere when i t does occur) in th e j
!
i
c lo se d s o c ia l system s than in the open s o c ia l sy stem s. ;
The d ata appear to be c o n s is te n t w ith th e p r e d ic - j
tio n s in th e c o n f l i c t t r a d itio n th a t some f in a l show o f |
j
c o l l e c t i v e o p p o sitio n may be exp ected to occur in s o c ia l
system s c h a r a c te r iz e d c lo se d channels o f m o b ility , com plete
a r b itr a r y a u th o r ity o f th e upper c l a s s , and fr u s tr a tio n o f j
lower c la s s a s p ir a t io n s . The data a ls o appear to be con- j
!
s i s t e n t w ith p r e d ic tio n s in th e consensus tr a d itio n th a t \
j
eq u ilib riu m and con tin u ed r e la t iv e ly smooth fu n ctio n in g j
i
may be exp ected to occur in s o c ia l system s ch a ra cteriz ed
by open ch an nels o f m o b ility , " leg itim a te " a u th o r ity o f
th e upper c l a s s , and low er c la s s a s p ir a tio n s which have a
chance o f b ein g r e a liz e d . |
Summary
In t h is ch ap ter we have compared fin d in g s from th e
o p e r a tio n a l system w ith th e t h e o r e t ic a l m odel. I t was
found th a t th e re were no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t d if f e r s !
ences between th e type o f s o c ia l system s on the magnitude j
o f any o f th e v a r ia b le s in the o p era tio n a l system . A 1
c o r r e la tio n a n a ly s is was then conducted u sin g the type o f
s o c ia l system as a s p e c if ic a t io n v a r ia b le . j
j
R esu lts o f the c o r r e la tio n a n a ly s is in d ic a te d th a t j
zero -o rd er c o r r e la tio n s could be p red icte d f a i r l y w e ll in j
the c lo se d s o c ia l system and q u ite w e ll in the open s o c ia l j
i
system . For th e open s o c ia l system , s ix out o f s ix c o r r e c t
i
d ed u ction s o f th e s ig n o f r e la t io n s n ot e x p l i c i t l y o u tlin e d
i '
by th e model cou ld be made. . P a r tia l c o r r e la tio n s fo r the
open system were en cou raging, but th ere were se v e r a l ca ses
I
where th e p a r t ia l c o r r e la tio n s were not reduced by s t a t i s - j
j
t i c a l c o n tr o l o f o th er v a r ia b le s . S ince the model fo r the !
i
clo se d system made some zero -o rd er p r e d ic tio n s o f no r e la - j
tio n s h ip , d ed u ction s cou ld n ot be made, and p a r t ia llin g !
I
tech n iq u es were n o t a p p ro p ria te. A model which makes such j
p r e d ic tio n s (and th e r e fo r e cannot make fu rth er d ed u ctio n s) ;
i s n ot as u s e fu l to th e resea rch er as one which can— j
p ro v id in g o th er th in g s , such as su b sta n tiv e im portance o f
"no r e la t io n ," are eq u a l. To t h is p o in t in the data j
a n a ly s is , th e model fo r the open s o c ia l system treatm ent j
t
appears to be working b e tte r than fo r the c lo se d s o c ia l
i 95 I
:
i system trea tm en t.
I
N ext, th e a b i l i t y o f th e model to p r e d ic t change
in th e a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e , i . e . , in c r ea se in openness o f |
the a u th o r ity s tr u c tu r e and e l i t e resp o n siv en ess to low er j
c la s s su g g e stio n s concerning r u le changes was in v e s tig a te d j
i
fo r each type o f s o c ia l system v ia m u ltip le r e g r e ssio n .
As in th e o th e r a n a ly s e s , th e model could p r e d ic t th ese
j
v a r ia b le s b e t te r in th e open s o c ia l system treatm ent than j
in th e c lo s e d s o c i a l system treatm en t. Though e l i t e j
|
resp o n siv en ess co u ld be p r e d ic te d q u ite w e ll by the model
!
I
in the c lo s e d trea tm en t, most o f the p r e d ic tiv e power was
I
coming from th e v a r ia b le o f in t r a - c la s s in volvem en t, a j
r e la tio n s h ip n o t o u tlin e d in the o r ig in a l m odel. Reasons
|
for t h is r e la t io n s h ip were then d isc u sse d . In th e c lo s e d j
system trea tm en t, th en , i t appears th a t th e model i s n o t j
working as a s e t o f h ig h ly in te r r e la te d v a r ia b le s , but as j
I
more o f a s in g le h igh c o r r e la tio n which a llo w s h igh p re- j
d ic tio n . In f a c t , when th e o th er v a r ia b le s are s t a t i s t i - |
j
c a lly c o n tr o lle d , th e zero -o rd er c o r r e la tio n (.9 3 ) betw een!
i
in tr a -c la s s in volvem en t and e l i t e resp o n siv en ess alm ost
equals th e m u ltip le c o r r e la tio n ( .9 4 ) .
i
As a fu r th e r t e s t o f whether th e model was working i
as a m odel, th e in te r n a l c o n sis te n c y o f th e data was ex - j
amined. R e su lts in d ic a te d th a t in the open s o c ia l system i
I
treatm en t, th e d a ta were h ig h ly c o n s is te n t throughout, j
i
w h ile in the c lo s e d s o c ia l system m odel, the data were j
much le s s c o n s is t e n t .
F in a lly , s in c e the two types o f s o c ia l system s
; share c e r ta in common fe a tu r e s w ith s o c ia l system s assumed
I by c o n f lic t t h e o r is t s (c lo s e d ) and consensus t h e o r is t s
(o p en ), the a b i l i t y o f th e se system s to p r e d ic t lower classj
c o lle c t iv e a c tio n was in v e s tig a te d . R esu lts in d ic a te d th a t
in the c lo s e d s o c ia l system trea tm en t, lower c la s s c o l le c -
; t iv e a c tio n was both more freq u en t and more se v e r e .
From th e d ata p resen ted h ere, i t appears th a t th e |
m odel, as a m odel, has much le s s u t i l i t y fo r c lo se d s o c ia l j
• i
system s than fo r open s o c ia l sy stem s. W ithin th e open |
s o c ia l system trea tm en t, th e o v e r a ll o p era tio n o f the modi-!
: |
f ie d Dahrendorf model was h ig h ly en couraging. Dahrendorf
had d esign ed th e o r ig in a l model fo r the in v e s tig a tio n o f i
o r g a n iz a tio n , c o n f l i c t , and change w ith in in d u s t r ia l |
; I
s o c i e t i e s , so i t i s n ot su r p r isin g th a t, i f th e m od ified j
!
model were to o p era te b e tte r fo r one type o f s o c ia l system I
treatm ent than th e o th e r , i t would work b e st in th e open j
I
s o c ia l system trea tm en t, which as m entioned above was de
sign ed to model in d u s t r ia l s o c i e t i e s . These r e s u lt s seem
to be encouraging in th a t i t appears th a t d if f e r e n t types
j
o f la r g e - s c a le s o c ia l system s can be e f f e c t i v e l y modeled !
i
i
by sim u la tio n gaming tech n iq u es. i
i
Though th ere are n ot o th er t e s t s o f D ahrendorf's
m odel, u sin g d if f e r e n t m eth o d o lo g ies, w ith w hich to com
pare the p re se n t r e se a r c h , the r e s u lt s seem encouraging i
97
f
; fo r t e s t in g s o c ia l th eory v ia sim u la tio n game r e sea r c h .
i
F in a lly , th e fin d in g s regarding th e in v e s tig a tio n
o f im plied t h e o r e t ic a l p e r s p e c tiv e s —by c r e a tin g s o c ia l
1 system s which correspond to th e se p e r s p e c tiv e s ( c o n f li c t
and c o n se n su s), and then t e s t in g im p lic a tio n s o f th ese
p e r s p e c tiv e s fo r human b eh avior (in t h is case low er c la s s
j c o l l e c t i v e a c t io n ) — seem to w arrant more sy stem a tic in
v e s tig a t io n in fu tu re rese a r ch .
CHAPTER VI
I
'I
S U M M A R Y AN D CONCLUSIONS j
B r ie f Overview o f A c t iv it ie s
The purpose o f t h is resea rch was to in v e s tig a te
the u t i l i t y o f u sin g sim u la tio n games fo r t e s t in g th e o r ie s
o f s o c ia l change by p ro v id in g a resea rch exam ple. In th e
I .
resea r c h , a m o d ified v e r s io n o f the sim u la tio n game, !
Starpow er, was used in the t e s t in g - o f a t h e o r e t ic a l model
o f change in a u th o r ity str u c tu r e s based on the work o f
Dahrendorf. R ules were v a ried to form two v e r sio n s o f th e j
■ I
game: th e open s o c i a l system and th e clo se d s o c ia l system.j
|
Data were gath ered from 425 c o lle g e and u n iv e r s ity under- |
* !
graduates who p layed th e game in 24 groups under e ith e r |
one s e t o f r u le s or the o th e r . Data on o r g a n iz a tio n , con
f l i c t , and change were gathered a t s e v e r a l p o in ts during j
p la y o f the game. R esu lts in d ic a te d th a t, as p r e d ic te d , j
I
the model worked fa r b e tte r fo r the s e t o f p la y s rep re- j
se n tin g th e c lo s e d s o c ia l system . R esu lts a ls o su g g ested J
th a t lower c la s s c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n i s more freq u en t and j
j
more sev ere in c lo s e d s o c ia l system s than in open s o c ia l j
i
system s. I
98
Simulation Games for Testing Social
Theory? A Qualified *'Yes.
Overall results of the eighteen-month develop
ment and testing process of this research example are very !
j
encouraging; however, the blanket use of simulation games j
for testing social theories cannot be endorsed without somJ
qualifications. j
Since there are no other tests of the Dahrendorf j
i
model with which to compare the results of the present re- |
! ■
search, there is no way to compare this research to those
i
incorporating different methodologies. Also, there has !
not been enough research using simulation games in testing ;
i
l
social theories to know what level of results should be j
i
expected. Should higher correlations be expected in simu- j
lation gaming research than in survey research? The j
answers to these questions simply are not known; however, j
if comparisons within the same research can be made, rela- j
tive answers can be found until future research is under
taken. For instance, from the results of this research it
j
can be said with some confidence that the Dahrendorf model I
j
predicts relationships more accurately for the set of open j
I
social systems than for the set of closed social systems,
j
and lower class collective action is both more frequent and
i
more severe in closed social systems than in open social j
j
systems.
It is not known whether the Dahrendorf model or
; Starpower w i l l be u s e fu l fo r fu tu r e resea r ch , s in c e th ey j
| have n o t y e t been used s e p a r a te ly . From t h is r e se a r c h , i t j
■ !
seems th a t in t h e ir m od ified v e r sio n s th ey are com p atib le I
w ith each o th er and to g eth e r they may be q u ite u s e fu l fo r j
, j
fu tu r e re se a r c h . This q u a lif ic a t io n h ig h lig h ts a dilemma
i
; c u r r e n tly fa c in g sim u la tio n gaming re sea rch . I t appears j
: th a t i f "in ta c t" games and th e o r ie s are to be used w ith
i
I each o th e r , th a t both w i l l have to berimodified so th a t i
!
1) th e game c r e a te s a s it u a t io n in which behavior which ;
I
can be used to t e s t th e th eory can emerge, 2) th a t mea- j
su rin g in stru m ents w hich do n ot in te r f e r e w ith p la y o f the
game can be in co rp o ra ted in to the resea rch d e sig n , and 3) j
; i
th a t th e theory tak es in to co n sid e r a tio n c e r ta in "givens"
o f th e game w hich cannot e a s i l y be changed.
I f th e game i s m od ified so e x te n s iv e ly th a t i t i s
|
n ot p la y a b le , or i s so s p e c ia liz e d th a t i t cannot be used j
|
w ith o th er r e se a r c h , then resea rch on th a t game w i l l n ot
become cu m u lative. L ik ew ise, i f the o r ig in a l th eory i s i
d is to r te d too much, th e t e s t o f th e th eory cannot be com- j
i
1
pared w ith oth er t e s t s o f the o r ig in a l theory w hich use j
oth er games or o th er m eth o d o lo g ies. I t appears th a t sim u-j
la t io n game re se a r ch er s w i l l have to c a r e fu lly match games !
to th e o r ie s so th a t m o d ific a tio n s to each may be kept a t a !
!
minimum. Another p o s s i b i l i t y i s th a t resea rch ers may b e- j
i
g in w ith e ith e r a th eo ry or a game and d esig n th e m issin g |
i
p a rt to match th e p art which th e resea rch er h a s. W hile
t h is method may be u s e f u l, i t w i l l probably len gth en
developm ent tim e s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
In a d d itio n to m o d ific a tio n s which are n ecessa ry j
in order to use w im u lation games and s o c ia l th e o r ie s to -
I
g e th e r , some m o d ific a tio n w i l l probably have to be made to |
I
t h e o r e t ic a l fo rm u la tio n s sim p ly to make them t e s t a b l e , as j
was the ca se in t h is r e se a r c h . These m o d ific a tio n s are I
i
n ecessa ry n ot becau se a game i s b ein g used, but because !
1
the t h e o r e t ic a l fo rm u la tio n s are b ein g o p e r a tio n a liz e d . j
|
These m o d ific a tio n s a re apt to g en era te fu tu re in t e r e s t in j
the th eory and thus c o n tr ib u te to cum ulative resea rch . I t j
i
i s hoped th a t th e g en er a tio n o f an o p e ra tio n a l system fo r
th e Dahrendorf model w i l l thus stim u la te fu tu re t e s t s o f
j
t h is model v ia sim u la tio n games and o th er m eth od ologies. !
!
i
Im p lica tio n s o f t h is R esearch fo r !
S tu d ies o f S o c ia l Change |
This r e sea r ch in d ic a te s th a t one o f the most im
p ortan t c o n sid e r a tio n s fo r s tu d ie s o f s o c ia l change are
the c h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e s o c ia l system s which are b ein g j
!
stu d ie d . W hile in t h is re sea rch the in v e s tig a to r a c tu a lly
had c o n tr o l over the type o f s o c ia l system which was j
c r e a te d , o th er s tu d ie s (e x . su rv ey s) which use s o c ie t a l j
data w i l l have to depend upon th e measurement rath er than j
the m an ip u lation o f t h is v a r ia b le (s ) in order to make t h is j
!
I
im portant s p e c if ic a t io n . j
The r e la t iv e su cc ess o f the t e s t o f the th e o r e t ic a l
'model suggests, among other things, that investigators
should look at both upper and lower classes in future re-
i search. Much of the literature on revolution and civil
distrubance is based upon the study of lower class condi
tions or attitudes and lower class behavior. The litera
ture contains many of these studies, and what seems to be
needed now is a way to tie lower class collective action
i
to societal pre-conditions and to subsequent change in j
! these societies. j
Directions for Future Research
Using Dahrendorf and Starpower |
j
In the future, if research continues where this
research leaves off, at least four things should be done, >
i
First, the variables should be measured with scales:
■ !
rather than with just single items. This would yield more !
i
confidence in the adequacy of measurement. I
Second, the two types of social systems should be j
expanded to at least three, or better yet, to a continuum, j
i ■ |
so that the form of the relationship between type of j
I
social system and the model could be investigated. \
i
Third, a sub-study of a small number of games could
; |
be undertaken in which the game was allowed to be played j
until its ultimate conclusion. Currently, it is not known j
if the short-term nature of many simulation games j
seriously affects the nature of play in ways which leng- j
thening the playing time of these games would correct. j
103
F ourth, the resea rch should be repeated w ith
p la y ers who are somewhat d iff e r e n t from th o se used in t h is
i
study in order to in v e s t ig a t e the e f f e c t s o f p la y er r e p i- j
j
t o ir e s upon p la y o f th e game. I t would be in te r e s tin g to I
' f
p lay th e game w ith p la y er s who p a r tic ip a te in c lo se d s o c ia l
system s in r e a l l i f e . The predom inantly m iddle c la s s j
p la y ers o f . t h i s re sea rch probably p a r tic ip a te in more open j
V
s o c ia l system s in r r e a l l i f e . A lso , resea rch u sin g p la y er s i
from r e a l l i f e s o c ia l system s in which c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n j
i s r a r e ly employed in an attem pt to c o r r e c t s tr u c tu r a l
i
in e q u a lit ie s , cou ld p rovid e in te r e s tin g r e s u lt s . i
APPENDIX A
INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN T O PLAYERS
INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN TO PLAYERS
"The game we're going to play is called Starpower. It is a
game of trading and bargaining for scarce resources where
the resources are colored chips of different values. These
chips are traded with other players. The object of the game
is to acquire the most points possible. The two players
with the highest scores at the end of the game will be de
clared the winners."
PAUSE
"In your envelopes you will find white identification tags.
Please pin them on in a place where they can be seen." j
PAUSE TILL PLAYERS PIN ON TAGS
"All right, lets have the squares sit here."
POINT TO ONE OF THE CIRCLES OF CHAIRS WHICH HAVE BEEN PRE-
! VIOUSLY ARRANGED
"Lets have the circles sit here."
POINT TO THE OTHER CIRCLE OF CHAIRS
|"Also in your envelopes you will find five playing chips ofj
|different colors. Make sure that you have five chips." j
|PAUSE WHILE PLAYERS CHECK THEIR CHIPS j
!"The chips have the following values:"
'point TO VALUES OF CHIPS WHICH ARE WRITTEN ON THE BLACK-
| BOARD
!"If you have any yellow chips, they are worth eighty points
jeach; greens are worth twenty-five points; reds are worth
I fifteen; whites are worth ten, and blues are worth five
jpoints each. In addition to the values of the chips you
| have, you also will be given bonuses for having chips of
|the same color."
i
POINT TO VALUES OF THE COLOR BONUSES WHICH ARE WRITTEN ON
THE BLACKBOARD
"If you can get five of a color, you will receive an extra
twenty-five points; four of a color are worth an extra
fifteen points, and three of a color are worth an extra ten
points."
_ - 106
PAUSE
!"In a few m inutes we are goin g to turn you lo o se fo r a
j trad in g round. The round i s about ten m inutes lo n g , and you
'w ill be allow ed to trad e w ith anyone in th e room in an e f -
jfo r t to maximize your p o in ts . In a d d itio n to the p o in t
lvalu es o f your ch ip s and th e c o lo r bonus, you w i l l r e c e iv e
• p o in ts each tim e you make a tra d e."
i
iSAYM "1" or "25" AT T H E APPROPRIATE TIME. W RITE "1" NEXT T O !
"BONUS FO R N U M B E R O F TRADES® " IN T H E CASTE TREATM ENT. !
W RITE "25" IN THIS SPACE IN T H E O PEN CLASS T R EA TM EN T
|"Trades are governed by th e fo llo w in g r u le s:"
|POINT T O B LA C K B O A R D AND R E A D RULES
i
j
I " F ir s t, a l l ch ip s must be kept hidden. Second, p la y ers must
|hoId hands to even b egin ta lk in g ; p la y ers must keep h o ld in g
hands u n t il a trad e has been made. A ll trad es must be one
|ch ip fo r one c h ip . Trades o f two fo r one or th ree fo r one
iare i l l e g a l . Chips o f the same c o lo r cannot be traded fo r
leach o th e r . A red fo r a red or a b lu e fo r a b lu e i s ille g a l;'
trad es o f a red fo r a b lu e are okay. I f you do n ot w ish to I
tra d e, sim ply fo ld your arms lik e t h is ." j
'FO LD A R M S
■ . !
I" F in a lly , a m a jo r ity v o te can ex p el a p la y er from a group. J
This w i l l have more meaning la t e r in th e game."
| PAUSE
"In your en velop e you w i l l fin d a P la y e r 's Log. This lo g
;h elp s you keep tra ck o f your s c o r e , and i t a ls o h elp s us
iput the game back to g eth e r a f t e r i t ' s o v er."
!PAUSE W H ILE PLAYERS R E A D INSTRUCTIONS FOR FILLING O U T
PLAYER'S L O G
"Take a look a t your lo g . On th e extrem e righ t-h an d s id e -
about a th ir d o f th e way down you w i l l fin d an empty square.
I P lea se f i l l your tag number or l e t t e r in th a t square." j
PAUSE W H ILE PLAYERS FILL IN THEIR T A G N U M B E R O R LETTER. j
ASSIST PLAYERS W H O SEEM CONFUSED. |
i"Now, a l l th e way over to th e le ft-h a n d s id e o f your lo g j
land a l i t t l e below where you f i l l e d in your tag number or
I l e t t e r you w i l l fin d some b la n k s. P lea se en ter th e c o lo r o f
jeach o f your ch ip s in to th e se b la n k s. You may a b b rev ia te
107
th e s e — 'r ' fo r red , 'b ' fo r b lu e , e t c ."
PAUSE W H ILE PLAYERS FILL T H E C O L O R S O F E A C H OF THEIR CHIPS
INTO T H E BLANKS. ASSIST PLAYERS W H O SE E M CO NFUSED
"Now, j u s t below where you en tered th e c o lo r s you w i l l se e
'Trade one was w ith ' and then th ere i s a blank. In th a t
blank you w i l l e n te r th e tag number or l e t t e r o f th e p ia y er
w ith whom you have j u s t trad ed . J u st below th a t i t sa y s,
'c o lo r I g a v e '— you l i s t th e c o lo r you gave up—and ’ c o lo r
I g o t 1--y o u l i s t th e c o lo r w hich you r e c e iv e d . You w i l l f i l l
ou t th e se rows fo r each trad e you make. These w i l l h elp
you keep tra ck o f th e number o f trad es you made during th e
round."
PAUSE
"You now w i l l have about ten m inutes to improve your sc o r e .
I Remember you may tra d e w ith anyone in th e room."
! SET TIM ER FOR EIGHT MINUTES. REM IND PLAYERS O F RULES W H E N
| TH EY D O N O T SEEM T O BE OBEYING TH EM . W RITE SUBJECTS T A G
IDENTIFICATION N U M BER S A N D LETTERS O N B L A C K B O A R D FO R
| . LATER USE
I W H E N TIM ER RINGS:
; "T hat's th e end o f th e tra d in g round. P lea se retu rn to
| your s e a t s .
| PAUSE
|
I "T otal your sc o re as fo llo w s : add up th e v a lu es o f the
j ch ip s you now have, and en ter th a t number in th e f i r s t box
| a t th e bottom o f th e page. PAUSE N ext, g iv e y o u r s e lf the
|c o lo r bonus fo r having f i v e , fo u r , or th ree ch ip s o f the
I same c o lo r , and e n te r t h is number in th e second box. PAUSE
| Now, g iv e y o u r s e lf th e bonus fo r th e number o f trad es
j which you made. PAUSE You w i l l know how many trad es you
j have made as th e tra d e number appears n ex t to each row th a t
j you have f i l l e d up. E nter t h is number in the th ir d box.
j PAUSE T o ta l th o se th ree numbers and g iv e them to me when
! I c a l l your tag number or le t t e r ."
j PAUSE. C A LL EA C H T A G N U M B E R O R LETTER W RITTEN O N T H E B L A C K .
! BOARD. NEXT T O T H E PLAYER'S T A G N U M B E R O R LETTER R E C O R D
| T H E SC O R E W H IC H EA C H PLAYER CALLS O U T
i"Now we w i l l have a group bonus round. Each group w i l l r e -
! c e iv e th ree o f th e se c le a r c h ip s . Hold up c h ip s. They are
I worth 20 p o in ts each . They w i l l be added to th e sc o res o f
108
! th o se who r e c e iv e them. The group w i l l have th ree m inutes
jto come to a unanimous d e c is io n on who g e ts the c h ip s. I f a
|d e c is io n i s n o t reached w ith in th ree m in u tes, or i f the
jd e cisio n i s n o t unanim ous, the game d ir e c to r w i l l take back
|th e c h ip s , and no one w i l l g e t any. More than one chip can
|be g iv en to a p la y e r , but th e ch ip s cannot be s p l i t in to
jfr a c tio n s . They must be awarded as w hole c h ip s." They are
n ot con sid ered to have been a llo c a te d t i l p la y ers a c tu a lly
have p o s s e s s io n o f them." "At th e end o f th e bonus round*
any square who has a h ig h er sco re than a c ir c l e w i l l trade
:p la ce s w ith him fo r th e n ex t round."
'PAUSE SET TIMER FO R TH R EE MINUTES. PLACE B O X CONTAINING
TH R EE CHIPS O N TH E FLO O R IN T H E CENTER O F O N E O F T H E
I GROUPS. OBSERVER WILL D O TH E SA M E FOR T H E O T H E R G RO UP.
! B O T H OBSERVER AN D G A M E ADMINISTRATOR OBSERVE INTERACTION
| DURING T H E NEXT TH REE MINUTES,
i
| W H E N TIM ER RINGS, T A K E B A C K B O X J
! i
i
j"Is th e d e c is io n unanimous?”
! IF YES, PROCEED; IF NO, T A K E BA C K ALL CHIPS
|"Those who r e c e iv e d c h ip s , e n ter th e ir p o in t valu e in the
!fo u rth box. I f you d id n ot r e c e iv e any c h ip s, en ter zero
in the fo u rth box. PAUSE P lea se retu rn th e c le a r chips to
jus, as they cannot be tra d ed , but you do g e t c r e d it for
them. They a re a lrea d y added in your sc o r e ."
: S
iPAUSE OBSERVER COLLECTS CHIPS |
i I
|"Who in the c i r c l e group r e c e iv e d chips?" PAUSE
I "How many?"
I ENTER T H E C O R R E C T N U M B E R O F CHIPS NEXT T O T H E SC O R E O F T H E
| APPROPRIATE PLAYER
! i
I "Remember, i f a square has a h igh er sco re than a c i r c l e , he!
'w ill trad e p la c e s w ith him fo r the n ex t round. While we are!
I fig u r in g out who w i l l trad e p la c e s w ith whom, we would lik e !
iyou to answer th e q u e stio n s on the second page o f your
!lo g s ."
! FIGURE T H E MOBILITY BY RANKING SCORES A N D M A K IN G T H O SE
! A B O V E T H E MEDIAN CIRCLES, A N D TH O SE B E L O W T H E M EDIAN
SQUARES. TIES D O N O T CHANGE. ARBITRARILY PAIR U P PLAYERS
T O C H A N G E TAGS W ITH E A C H O TH ER
W H E N PIAYERS ARE FINISHED ANSW ERING QUESTION IN THEIR
LOGS:
i "The changes are as fo llo w s : p la y (number) w i l l trade
I p la c e s w ith p la y er ( l e t t e r ) . . .
jCONTINUE UNTIL ALL PAIRS ARE ANNOUNCED. D R A W A R R O W S B E T W E E N
| M E M B E R S O F A PAIR SO PLAYERS C A N SEE T H E C H A N G E S
|" I f you are to change groups, p le a s e trade ta g s and s e a ts
I w ith the p la y er in d ic a te d , how ever, you w i l l keep th e same
jch ip s and s c o r e s h e e t s ."
! AFTER PLAYERS H A V E FINISHED C H A N G IN G GROUPS:
I
|" P le a se turn your lo g to th e th ir d page. Enter your cu rren t
! tag number or l e t t e r in the ap p ro p ria te square j u s t as you
• did in th e f i r s t round. A lso in d ic a te the c o lo r s o f the
j ch ip s which you now have in the ap p rop riate sp aces j u s t as
jyou did in th e f i r s t round
| PAUSE
|"We w i l l now have a second tra d in g round which i s e x a c tly
|l i k e the f i r s t w ith th e e x c e p tio n , th a t i s , we w i l l have a
; trad in g round then a group,bonus round, but a f t e r the groupj
! change, the c i r c l e s w i l l be g iv en th e a u th o r ity to make
jany new r u le s or change o ld r u le s , s in c e they have worked
| the h a rd est. The squares may su g g e st r u le s , but the c i r c l e s
;w i l l a c tu a lly have th e a u th o r ity to change the r u le s ."
| PAUSE
!
' "You now w i l l have about ten m inutes to improve your
|s c o r e ."
i
! SET TIM ER FOR EIGHT MINUTES. REM IND PLAYERS O F RULES W H E N
! T H E Y D O N O T SEEM T O BE OBEYING TH EM . ERASE SCORES NEXT
T O PLAYERS' TA G N U M BER S A N D LETTERS.
! W H E N TIMER RINGS:
! "That;s the end o f th e tra d in g round. P lea se retu rn to
your s e a t s . PAUSE " Y ou rtotal your sco re fo r t h is round in
i e x a c tly the same way as fo r th e f i r s t round—w ith one ex
cep tio n : in the f i r s t box you e n te r your t o t a l sco re from
| th e f i r s t round. In th e second box, en ter the v a lu es o f the
! ch ip s you now have. In th e th ir d box, en ter th e bonus fo r
; having ch ip s o f th e same c o lo r . In the fou rth box, en ter
I the bonus fo r th e number o f tr a d e s . Add up th e four boxes
i and g iv e me your sc o re when I c a l l out your tag number or
le t t e r ." ......_.....- . ___ __ _ _____ ______ ____________ __________
110
PAUSE. CALL EACH T A G N U M B E R O R LETTER W RITTEN O N T H E
BLACKBOARD. R EC O R D NEXT T O T H E PLAYER'S T A G N U M B E R O R
LETTER T H E SCORE W H IC H E A C H PLAYER CALLS O U T
"W e w i l l now have a group bonus round e x a c tly lik e th e l a s t
one. Then any square w ith a h ig h er sco re than a c i r c l e w i l l
ag a in change p la c e s w ith him fo r th e n ex t round. But, as I
sa id e a r lie r , b e fo r e we have th e th ir d round, th e c i r c l e s
w i l l have th e c h a n c e 'to make any r u le changes th ey w ish fo r
the th ir d round."
PAUSE. SET TH E TIMER FOR TH R EE MINUTES. PLACE B O X C0N-
I TAINING TH REE CHIPS O N T H E FLO O R IN T H E C ENTER O F O N E O F
! TH E GROUPS. OBSERVER W ILL D O T H E SA M E FO R T H E O T H E R
! GROUP. B O T H OBSERVER A N D G A M E ADMINISTRATOR O BSERVE IN-
] TERACTION DURING T H E NEXT TH R EE MINUTES.
W H E N TIMER RINGS, T A K E B A C K B O X
"IS the d e c is io n unanimous?"
| IF YES, PROCEED; IF NQ, T A K E BA C K ALL CHIPS
I
i"Those who r e c e iv e d c h ip s , e n te r t h e ir p o in t v a lu e in the
; f i f t h box. I f you d id n o t r e c e iv e any c h ip s , en ter zero in
I the f i f t h box. P le a se retu rn th e c le a r ch ip s to u s, as they
; cannot be tra d ed , but you do g e t c r e d it fo r them. They are
'a lr ea d y added in your sc o r e .
1
PAUSE. OBSERVER COLLECTS CHIPS
"W ho in the c i r c l e group r e c e iv e d chips?" "How many?"
PAUSE. ENTER TH E C O R R EC T N U M B E R O F CHIPS N EX T T O T H E
SC O R E O F T H E APPROPRIATE PLAYERS
"W ho in the square group r e c e iv e d chips?" "How many?"
PAUSE. ENTER TH E C O R R EC T N U M B E R O F CHIPS N EX T T O T H E
SC O R E O F TH E APPROPRIATE PLAYERS
"Remember, i f a square has a h ig h er sco re than a c i r c l e ,
he w i l l trad e p la c e s w ith him." W hile we are fig u r in g out
who w i l l trad e p la c e s w ith whom, we would lik e you to
answer th e q u e stio n s on th e n ex t page o f your lo g s .
|
|FIGURE MOBILITY BY RANKING SCORES A N D M A K IN G TH O SE A B O V E
! TH E M EDIAN CIRCLES, AND TH O SE B E L O W T H E M EDIAN SQUARES.
TIES D O N O T CHANGE. ARBITRARILY PAIR UP PLAYERS T O
C H A N G E TAG S W ITH EA C H O T H E R
[ ~ - - .....— - -....... m
W H E N PLAYERS A R E FINISHED ANSW ERING QUESTIONS IN THEIR
L O G S
"The changes are as fo llo w s : p la y er (number) w i l l trade
p la c e s w ith p la y er ( l e t t e r ) . . .
CONTINUE UNTIL ALL PAIRS A R E ANNOUNCED. D R A W A R R O W S B E T W E E N
M E M B E R S O F A PAIR SO PLAYERS C A N SEE C H A N G E S
!
1
j" I f you are to change groups, p le a s e trad e ta g s and s e a ts
!w ith the p la y er in d ic a te d , however, you w i l l keep the same
! ch ip s and sco re s h e e ts as b e fo r e ."
! AFTER PLAYERS H A V E FINISHED C H A NG IN G GROUPS:
I
i
"As we m entioned b e fo r e , s in c e th e c i r c le s have worked the
h a rd est, they have th e a u th o r ity to make changes in the j
j r u le s fo r the th ir d round. Squares may su g g est r u le s , but |
I the c ir c l e s have th e a u th o r ity to a c t u a lly implement them."i
‘ • !
! PLACE C H A L K AN D ERASER O N FLO O R IN CENTER O F CIRCLE G R O U P
j
! "In order to change a r u le you must a c t u a lly record i t oh
! the blackboard by e r a sin g a r u le an d/or w r itin g a new one,
is o we may t e l l what r u le s we are to p la y under."
i i
! G A M E ADMINISTRATOR A N D OBSERVER C O D E INTERACTION DURING i
! THIS TIME. T H E CIRCLES R U N T H E G A M E F R O M H E R E ON.
| QUESTIONS ARE A N SW ER ED IN T H E FO LLO W IN G M A N N E R :
|" C ir c le s made th e r u le s ."
|
j IF T H E R E IS T O BE A THIRD ROUND, CIRCLES AR E ASKED:
I * !
; ' |
|"How long do you want th e round to be?"
I IF TH E R E H A S BEEN A THIRD ROUND, W H EN TTIM ER RINGS: j
i | f
! P lea se t o t a l your sc o r e s lik e b e fo r e , and g iv e i t to me
jwhen I c a l l your tag number or l e t t e r ."
i
I ENTER T H E SCORES AS BEFORE. N O TE AN Y MOBILITY
j j
! W H E T H E R O R N O T TH E R E HAS BEEN A THIRD ROUND, W H E N T H E R U LE !
! M A K IN G TIM E IS O V E R (IN G A M E S W H E R E TH E R E IS N O THIRD
! R O U N D ) O R AFTER MOBILITY H AS BEEN N O T ED (IN G A M E S W H E R E j
! T H E R E IS A THIRD ROUND): i
; "P lease answer th e f i n a l page o f q u e stio n s."
|PAUSE W H ILE PLAYERS A NSW ER QUESTIONS
| 112
" P lease put every th in g back in to your en v elo p e. Do n ot
fo r g e t to retu rn your id e n t i f ic a t i o n t a g s .
i
'PAUSE W H ILE PLAYERS PACK UP ENVELOPES
I
"P lease hand in your en v elo p e s."
PAUSE W H ILE PLAYERS RETURN ENVELOPES
"Now p le a s e move th e c h a ir s back where they were and w e ' l l
ta lk about what went on in th e game."
|DEBRIEF
r
Figure 1
Set-up o f Blackboard a t Beginning o f Round 1 , and In se r tio n s fo r L ater Rounds
Chip Values Rules Scores
Yellow = 80 1 . A ll ch ip s must be hidden
Green = 25 2. P la y ers must hold hands to
\
b egin ta lk in g
\
Red
= 15 . 3 . P layers must keep h o ld in g
\
hands u n t il a trad e has \
White = 10 been made
\
Blue = 5 4 . Trades must be one ch ip fo r
\
one chip
\
Bonus
5 . Chips o f th e same c o lo r
cannot be traded fo r each I
5 o f a c o lo r = 25
oth er
4 o f a c o lo r = 15
6 . P layers may avoid trad in g
/
3 o f a c o lo r = 10
by fo ld in g t h e ir arms
/
7. A m a jo rity v o te can ex p el
/
Bonus
/
Each trad e = 1 C aste Treatment or
/
25 O p en -class Treatment /
I n s e r tio n s : O's O's
To be en tered A = i =
during f i r s t B = 2 -
trad in g round. C =
•
m
3 =
•
•
113
APPENDIX B
G A M E RULES FOR T H E ORIGINAL VERSION O F ST A R P O W E R
(C O M M E N T S A N D RULE C H A N G E S APPEAR IN
FOOTNOTES)
115
ST A R PO W E R
This i s a game in w hich a low m o b ility 1 th ree-
tiered ^ so c ie ty " i s b u i l t through the d is t r ib u t io n o f
w ealth^ in the form o f c h ip s . P a r tic ip a n ts have a chance to
p rogress from one l e v e l o f s o c ie t y to another by a cq u irin g
w ealth through tra d in g w ith each o th e r . Once th e s o c ie t y i s
e s ta b lis h e d ," th e group w ith the m o st.w ea lth i s g iv en the
r ig h t to make th e r u le s o f the game. They g e n e r a lly make
ru le s w hich th e o th e r groups co n sid er to be u n fa ir , f a s c i s -
t i c . and r a s c i s t . A r e v o lt a g a in st th e r u le s and th e r u le -
j makers g e n e r a lly e n su e s." When t h is occurs th e game i s
|ended. The game i s an e f f e c t i v e d ev ic e fo r r a is in g questions
1 about the u ses o f power in a co m p etitiv e s o c ie t y .
!
| P reparing fo r th e Game
|D iv id in g th e P a r tic ip a n ts and A ssig n in g Chips
I i
| The p a r tic ip a n ts a re d iv id ed in to th ree approxi
m a te ly equal groups named: s q u a r e s , 7 c i r c l e s and tria n g les.*
j Have the groups s i t in sep a ra te c i r c l e s o f c h a ir s . Each
person wears a symbol r e p r e se n tin g h is group, i . e . , the
squares wear a square sym bol, th e c i r c l e s a c ir c u la r symbol^'
and th e t r ia n g le s a tr ia n g u la r symbol.
Each p a r tic ip a n t i s g iv en f iv e c h ip s. Each square
|r e c e iv e s one goldlO c h ip , one green ch ip and th ree randomly
: s e le c te d from th e c o lo r s red , w h ite and b lu e . Each c i r c l e ,
I excep t o n e ,11 i s g iv e n one green chip and four s e le c te d
j from the c o lo r s re d , w h ite and b lu e . A ll the t r ia n g le s ,
|e x c e p t one, are g iv e n a random assortm ent o f red , w h ite and
! blue c h ip s. The e x tr a c i r c l e and tr ia n g le r e c e iv e th e same
|d is t r ib u t io n o f ch ip s a s th e sq u a res, i . e . , one g o ld , one
j green and a random assortm en t o f red , w h ite and b l u e ...
i
i
|E x p la in in g the R ules
I
| 1. T e ll th e p a r tic ip a n ts th a t t h is i s a game th a t
|in v o lv e s tra d in g and b a rg a in in g and th a t th e th r e e l2 p er-
|so n s w ith the h ig h e s t sc o r e s w i l l be d ecla red th e w in n ers.
| They w i l l probably a sk la t e r in th e game i f th ere i s going
I to be a group w in n er. The answer i s : "The th ree in d iv i-
! duals w ith the h ig h e s t sc o r e s w i l l be d ecla red the w in-
jn e r s." Do not t e l l them th a t a group i s goin g to be given
I the r ig h t to make th e r u le s fo r the game.
! The game d o esn ’ t work very w e ll i f th ere are few er
|th a n eig h tee n p a r t ic ip a n t s , th e id e a l number i s 30$ and the
[maximum i s somewhere around fo r ty .
116
2 . E xp lain the fo llo w in g sc o rin g system to the
p a r tic ip a n ts :
Every gold ch ip i s woth 80 p o in ts
Every green ch ip i s woth 25 p o in ts
j Every red ch ip i s w orth 15 p o in ts
| Every w h ite ch ip i s worth 10 p o in ts
I Every b lu e ch ip i s w orth 5 p o in ts
j A d d itio n a l p o in ts are g iv en i f a person i s a b le to
j g e t s e v e r a l ch ip s o f th e same c o lo r .
| F ive ch ip s o f th e same c o lo r are worth 25
p o in ts
Four ch ip s o f th e same c o lo r are worth 15
p o in ts
; Three ch ip s o f th e same c o lo r are worth 10
| p o in ts
| No e x tr a p o in ts g iv en fo r two ch ip s o f the
' same c o lo r
Example: A p e r so n 's sco re i f he had 5 gold
| ch ip s would be 400 p lu s 20 fo r 5 ch ip s o f j
j th e same c o lo r fo r a t o t a l o f 420 p o in ts ,
j I f he had four b lu e ch ip s and one red ch ip ,
| h is sc o r e would eq u al 4 x 5 (fo r th e blue
! c h ip s) p lu s 15 (fo r th e red ch ip ) p lu s 10
p o in ts fo r having four ch ip s o f the same
I c o lo r fo r a t o t a l o f 45 p o in ts . Three reds
and two b lu es would equal 45 + 5 + 10 or
60 p o in t s . F iv e red s: 75 + 20 or 95 p o in ts .
3. D is t r ib u t e ^ th e ch ip s as o u tlin e d p r e v io u sly to
th e sq u ares, c i r c l e s , and t r ia n g le s , (keep s e c r e t the
p a ttern o f d is t r ib u t io n )
| 4 . E xp lain the fo llo w in g r u le s o f b a r g a i n i n g : ^
| a . They have te n m inutes to improve th e ir
! s c o r e s .
i b . They improve t h e ir sc o res by trad in g
j ad v a n ta g eo u sly w ith o th er sq u ares,
I c i r c l e s and t r ia n g le s .
| c . Only one fo r one tra d es are le g a l. Two
I fo r one or any o th er com binations are
i l l e g a l .
; d. P ersons must be h o ld in g hands to e f f e c t
i a tr a d e .
i e . Once a p a r tic ip a n t touches th e hand o f
I an oth er p a r tic ip a n t a chip o f unequal
j v a lu e or c o lo r must be trad ed . I f a
i co u p le cannot consummate a tra d e, they
! have to h old hands fo r th e e n tir e ten
j m inute tra d in g s e s s io n ,
j f . There i s no ta lk in g u n le ss hands are
to u c h in g .
| g . Persons w ith fo ld e d arms do n ot have to
trad e w ith o th e r p e r so n s.
h . A ll ch ip s should be hidden. This Rule
Should Be S t r i c t l y E n forced ,
j i . Do n ot r e v e a l th a t th e squares are given
ch ip s o f a h ig h er v a lu e than th e c ir c le s
| or t r ia n g le s .
! j . Any o th er r u le s th a t you deem a p p ro p ria te.
j S ta r tin g th e Trading S essio n
I 1. A fter the r u le s have been ex p la in ed , s t a r t th e
| trad ing s e s s io n . T e ll them i t w i l l l a s t ten m inu tes.
! 2. During th e tra d in g s e s s io n , your a s s is t a n t
| should be p u ttin g each p a r t ic ip a n t's i n i t i a l s l 7 on the
| chalkboard.
| 3. A fte r ten m inutes o f tr a d in g , have each group
jretu rn to t h e ir c i r c l e o f c h a ir s .
4 . Have th e p a r tic ip a n ts compute th e ir sco res fo r
; the trad in g s e s s io n , and record the sc o res on the ch alk
board o p p o site th e ir i n i t i a l s .
S ta r tin g th e Bonus P oin t S essio n
i
1. Announce th a t th ere w i l l be a bonus p o in ts bar-
! gain in g s e s s io n . (W hile the bonus s e s s io n i s going on,
i c o lle c t a l l the ch ip s o r ig in a lly d is tr ib u te d and prepare
i them fo r th e second round o f d is t r ib u t io n ) .18
2. E xplain th e r u le s fo r th e bonus p o in ts bargain -
| ing s e s s io n . The r u le s are:
a . Hold up a bonus chip (th e s p e c ia l
c h ip s) and t e l l them th a t t h is i s a bonus
p o in t ch ip .
b. Give each group th ree bonus p o in t c h ip s.
! c . T e ll them th a t each bonus chip i s worth
I 20 p o in ts .
d. T heir ta sk during th e s e s s io n i s to d is -
| tr ib u te th e bonus ch ip s to members o f
th e ir group.
j e . The d e c is io n regard in g th e d is tr ib u tio n
| o f ch ip s must be a unanimous v o te .
f . The ch ip s must be d is tr ib u te d in u n its
I o f 20 or more, th a t i s , one person m ight
r e c e iv e a l l 3 bonus chps and 60 p o in ts
or 3 p eo p le m ight r e c e iv e 1 chip each
i worth 20 p o in t s , but 6 p eo p le may not
r e c e iv e 10 p o in ts each.
g . They have f i v e ! 9 m inutes to d is tr ib u te
| th e bonus c h ip s . I f th e groups have not
d is tr ib u te d th e ch ip s a t the end o f the
118
f iv e m in u tes, th e p o in ts w i l l be taken
back by th e d ir e c t o r , and no one w i l l
r e c e iv e them.
j h. P a r tic ip a n ts may e lim in a te p eop le from
j t h e ir group by a m a jo rity v o te . (E lim i-
| n ated p eo p le may form another grou p .)
They sh ould be a tr ia n g le group.
| 3 . Answer any q u e stio n s.
! 4 . S ta r t th e bonus p o in ts b argain in g s e s s io n .
|(W h ile th e bonus s e s s io n i s goin g on c o l le c t a l l the ch ip s
I o r ig in a lly d is tr ib u te d and prepare them fo r th e second
! round o f d is t r ib u t io n .)
5 . A fter about f iv e or ten m in u tes, end the bonus
|p o in ts b argain in g s e s s io n .
I 6. Have th o se p eo p le who r e c e iv e bonus p o in ts r e -
jcord them on th e chalkboard o p p o site t h e ir i n i t i a l s .
| 7. Put th o se p eo p le w ith th e h ig h e st sc o res in th e
j square group. I f th e re i s a c i r c l e or a tr ia n g le who has a
I h igher sco re than a sq u are, have him trad e groups. Any
changes should be announced to th e p a r t ic ip a n t s . I t should
be made known th a t so and so was a square has become a
c i r c l e because he d id n o t r e c e iv e enough p o in ts , and so and
so who was a c i r c l e i s now a square because he re c ie v ed a
h igher number o f p o in ts than a square. In any e v e n t, i t i s
im portant th a t th e p a r tic ip a n ts know th a t th e squares are
made up o f th o se p eop le w ith the h ig h e st s c o r e s .21
8. S ta r t th e second round.
NOTE: Repeat t h is c y c le --b a r g a in in g s e s s io n
bonus s e s s io n , r e c l a s s i f ic a t i o n fo r
one or two tim es or u n t il the p a r t i
c ip a n ts understand th e p ro cess and
th e f a c t th a t the squares are high
s c o r e s .
9. A fter about th e second bonus s e s s io n , announce
th a t because th e squares have worked hard they now have the
a u th o rity to make th e r u le s fo r th e game, althou gh any
group may su g g est r u le s fo r th e game, the squares w i l l de
cid e which r u le s w i l l be im plem ented. You m ight su g g est to
the squares th a t th ey m ight want to make r u le s l i k e : 22
req u ire t r ia n g le s and c i r c l e s to bargain w ith th e squares
even though th ey have arms fo ld e d , req u ire tr ia n g le s and
c ir c le s to g iv e squares th e ch ip s th ey ask fo r reg a rd less
o f whether th e t r ia n g le s and c i r c l e s want to trad e or n o t,
r e d is tr ib u te th e ch ip s on a m oral eq u al b a s is , e t c .
10. Announce any r u le s th a t th e squares e s ta b lis h
to a l l o f the p a r tic ip a n ts u n le ss th e squares want the
r u le s kept s e c r e t .
11. From then on, p la y i t by ea r.
....... " . ...." ~.... 119
What i s l i k e l y to happen i s th a t th e squares w i l l
make very tough r u le s th a t p r o te c t t h e ir own power. This
has happened in alm ost every organ ized group th a t we have
p layed i t w ith so f a r . The c i r c l e s and tr ia n g le s w i l l
e ith e r g iv e up, o r g a n iz e , become h o s t i l e , or commit an a c t
| o f fr u s tr a tio n and d e fia n c e . Stop th e game when i t i s e v i-
| dent th a t th e squares have made r u le s w hich the oth er con-
! s id e r u n fa ir and f a s c i s t i c . T his i s g e n e r a lly a f te r two to
four r o u n d s . 23 A fter th e game, gath er the group to g eth er
and d isc u ss th e im p lic a tio n s o f th e game fo r th e r e a l
w orld.
FO O TNO TES FOR APPENDIX B
| ^In the c lo se d s o c ia l system treatm ent o f th e r e -
!search th ere i s a lower o p p o rtu n ity fo r m o b ility than in
| the open s o c ia l system trea tm en t. That p la y e r s may a c tu a lly
be m obile i s an assum ption w hich can be checked e m p ir ic a lly
The op p ortu n ity fo r m o b ility in a s o c ia l system may have
:alm ost as profound an e f f e c t on th e system as th e a c tu a l
!m o b ility .
| ^The game r u le s o f th e re sea r c h provided fo r on ly
!two " t ie r s 1 1 or s o c ia l c l a s s e s . The m iddle c la s s has been
!e lim in a ted . This red u ctio n in th e number o f s o c ia l c la s s e s
|was made in order to s im p lify th e g a th erin g o f resea rch
|d a ta . For a tw o -c la ss system w ith c la s s e s A and B, th e on ly
I in te r r e la tio n s h ip i s A-B; however, fo r a th ree c la s s system
I w ith c la s s e s A ,B, and C th ere are th ree in te r r e la tio n s h ip s :
j A-B, A-C, and B-C. There seem to be e q u a lly stro n g r a tio n
a l e s fo r having e ith e r more or le s s c la s s c o n f l ic t in a
|two c la s s system versu s a th ree c la s s system . The m iddle
I c la s s could a c t as a "buffer" between the upper and lower
j c la s s e s and thus mute th e c o n f l i c t , or th e m iddle c la s s
|co u ld a lli g n w ith one o f th e o th e r c la s s e s (probably the
jlow er c la s s ) and form a c o a lit io n o f tw o -a g a in st-o n e , thus
|q u ite p o s s ib ly lea d in g to an in t e n s if i c a t io n o f c o n f l i c t . |
I The o r ig in a l v e r sio n o f the game i s a th ree c la s s system inj
|term s o f d is t r ib u t io n o f ch ip s and assignm ent o f ta g s and
|c h a ir s ; however, i t i s a two c la s s system in terms o f
a u th o r ity to change r u le s . One c la s s has th e a u th o r ity to
I change r u le s w h ile th e oth er two c la s s e s do n o t have such
|a u th o r ity . There do n ot seem to be any g r o s s ly o v er rid in g
|e f f e c t s o f the number o f c la s s e s upon p la y o f the game.
IE v id e n ta lly the m iddle c la s s a c ts as a b u ffe r under some
ic o n d itio n s , and i t jo in s in c o a lit io n s under o th er co n d i
t i o n s . More resea rch needs to be done in t h is area so th a t
|perhaps some d i f i n i t i v e answers can be found. U n til such
[answers are found, no s p e c i f i c number o f c la s s e s seems to
j be sca red , and d e c is io n s regard in g th e number o f c la s s e s
[to be used in th e game fo r r e sea rch purposes should be
!based upon m eth o d o lo g ica l or t h e o r e t ic a l c o n s id e r a tio n s .
^The game seems to more a c c u r a te ly m irror a " s o c ia l
I system" (or an " im p era tiv ely coord in ated a s s o c ia tio n " to
|u se Dahrendorf’ s term in o lo g y ). " S o c ie tie s " would then be
I s p e c ia l ca ses o f th e se s o c ia l sy stem s.
The ch ip s may be more a d eq u a tely co n ce p tu a lize d as
" r e s o u r c e s .1 * The p i t f a l l o f c o n d ep tu a liz in g th e ch ip s as
"wealth" i s th a t t h is term seems to connote "money" which
j is o n ly one type o f re so u rce. Though s o c ia l c la s s sta n d in g ,
!o fte n re fe rr ed to as " socio-econ om ic sta n d in g ," has w ea lth
jas one o f i t s p r in c ip a l com ponents, c la s s sta n d in g may be
more ad eq u ately viewed as a p a r tic u la r com bination o f r e
so u r c e s. This d is t in c t io n , o f co u r se, does n o t lead to any
changes in game p rocedure, but i t i s a p o in t which must be
co n sid ered i f th e game i s to be used to m irror p ro ce sse s o f
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and m o b ility .
5 In the game, th e term " e sta b lish e d " seems to be
c lo s e ly .r e la t e d to " s ta b iliz e d " i . e . , p la y e r s have a tta in e d
the maximum p o in ts and b on u ses, and th e use o f group bonus
ch ip s by the lower c la s s to h elp members g a in m o b ility i s
cou n teracted by th e use o f bonus ch ip s by th e upper c la s s
to sto p m o b ility . In th e cu rren t re sea r ch some o f th e s o
c i e t i e s , e s p e c ia lly in th e o p e n -c la ss trea tm en t, do not
reach t h is s t a b i l i t y . The upper c la s s a re g iv en th e au-
:th o r ity to make the r u le s a f t e r th e second round w hether
jth e s o c ie t y has a tta in e d s t a b i l i t y or n o t.
| fi
Class c o n f lic t b egin s b efo re th e upper c la s s are
!g iv en the a u th o rity to make th e r u le s , though c o l le c t iv e
jbehavior on p art o f th e lower c la s s fr e q u e n tly occurs
|a f t e r th e ru le s are changed. I t i s o fte n hard fo r an ob-
j se rv er to id e n tify j u s t what " rev o lt" or " rev o lu tio n " in
!th e game looks lik e , and sometimes th e lower c la s s does n ot
|engage in any organ ized behavior a t a l l .
7 In th is r e se a r ch , c i r c l e s a re th e upper c l a s s , and
squares are the lower c l a s s . The renaming i s a r b itr a r y , and
came about q u ite by a c c id e n t due to a m isp r in t on th e o r ig
in a l q u e stio n n a ire .
^For ease o f o b se r v a tio n , th e se.g r o u p id e n t i f i c a
tio n ta g s have been provided w ith in d iv id u a l id e n t i f ic a t io n
C ircu la r tags are marked w ith le t t e r s o f th e alp h ab et;
square ta g s are marked w ith numbers.
^These param eters are e s p e c ia lly im portant fo r
| o rg a n iz a tio n w ith in th e c l a s s e s . For a two c la s s system th e
; game may be played w ith as few as 10 members and as many as
I 35 w ith o u t s e r io u s ly in te r fe r in g w ith game p la y .
i
10
R eferrin g to th e 80 p o in t ch ip s as "gold" in p re
t e s t s caused some co n fu sio n as th ey are more y ello w in
c o lo r . These ch ip s are re fe rr ed to as "yellow " a t va rio u s
|p o in ts in the r esea rch .
122
11
For resea rch purposes h ig h er and low er v a lu e
ch ip s were n ot g iv en to " e x ce p tio n a l” p la y er s as i t caused
some co n fu sio n in th e d is t r ib u t io n o f en v elo p es by game
a d m in istra to rs; however, th ere does n ot seem to be any
oth er reason fo r n ot in clu d in g i t where i t does n ot p resen t
a d m in istra tio n problem s.
•^w ith the two c la s s system , w inners are d efin e d as
the two p la y ers w ith th e h ig h e st s c o r e s .
•^ sin ce th ere were bonuses g iv en fo r th e number o f
tra d es com pleted in th e games p layed fo r t h is re sea r ch ,
sc o r es in clu d e t h is bonus.
|
■^In the games used fo r t h is re se a r c h , i n i t i a l d is -|
j tr ib u tio n o f ch ip s was accom plished by th e d is t r ib u t io n o f
I en v elo p es to p la y e r s . These en velop es con tain ed c h ip s ,
I id e n t if ic a t io n ta g s , and s c o r e s h e e ts .
j 15in the r esea rch , the order o f p r e s e n ta tio n o f
| th e se r u le s was s l i g h t l y d iff e r e n t from th e sequence p re-
| sen ted h ere. The r u le s were w r itte n on th e chalkboard where
! p la y er s could see them. When r u le s are w r itte n where p la y -
| ers can se e them th ey do not have to take tim e from'-the
| game to ask as many q u estio n s about the r u le s . D ir e c tio n s
! fo r f i l l i n g out sc o r e sh e e ts d ev ised fo r t h is resea rch were
I g iv en a t th is tim e.
j l^The trad in g rounds were tim ed w ith a tim er which
has a b e l l alarm to s ig n a l when the tim e has been used up.
I The procedure o f tim ing trad in g rounds h elp s to in su re
| com p arab ility between p la y s o f th e game.- E igh t m inute
; rounds were used fo r a l l p la y s .
•^ P layers' tag numbers were w r itte n on the ch a lk -
| board. This procedure i s somewhat e a s ie r than record in g
I p layers* i n i t i a l s , e s p e c ia lly when p la y er s a re r e la t iv e
I stra n g er s to game a d m in istr a to r s.
! io
| Chips were n o t r e d is tr ib u te d in th e games p layed
I fo r t h is resea rch . W hile the procedure o f n ot r e d i s t r i -
i b u tin g th e ch ip s may le s s e n th e impetus fo r tra d in g in sub-
j sequent rounds, th e a d d itio n o f a bonus fo r th e number o f
; tra d es com pleted o f f s e t s t h is p o te n t ia l problem . The game
; seems to run smoother and p rogress more q u ic k ly i f the
! ch ip s are n ot r e d is tr ib u te d a f t e r each round. Game adm ini-
| s tr a to r s can then a c t as ob servers during th e bonus rounds.
IQ
7For t h is re sea rch , bonus rounds o f th ree m inutes
were u sed . Three c le a r co lo red bonus ch ip s were p la ced in
a box in th e cen ter o f each group. To a llo c a t e c h ip s,
p la y ers had to a c tu a lly p ick them up. When th e b e l l alarm
went o f f , ob servers picked up th e boxes w hether th ere were
I any ch ip s in them or n o t.
2®At th e same time th a t th e groups a re asked
whether th e d e c is io n on th e a llo c a t io n o f bonus ch ip s was
unanimous, th e groups are asked w hich p la y e r s r e c e iv e d them
iand how many th ey r e c e iv e d . The v a lu e s o f th e se ch ip s are
iadded to p la y e r 's s c o r e s h e e ts , then th ey are c o lle c te d by
|th e game a d m in istra to rs so th ey cannot con fu se trad in g or
|sc o r e k eep in g .
!
j 21]3efore p layer m o b ilit ie s are fig u r e d , a l l p la y ers
| f i l l out q u estio n n a ire item s fo r round 1 . When p la y ers
!change groups they exchange o n ly id e n t i f ic a t i o n ta g s and
:s e a t s , n o t c h ip s , sc o r e sh e e ts or e n v e lo p e s.
|
! 22gUgge s tio n s o f p o s s ib le r u le changes were not
! made.
^ T h e upper c la s s members changed th e r u le s by
a c tu a lly w r itin g th ese changes on th e chalkboard, so keep-
| ing r u le changes s e c r e t was n ot p o s s ib le in th e games
played fo r t h is research .
I ^ T h ree round games were used fo r t h is resea rch .
APPENDIX C
PLAYER'S L O G
125
PLAYER'S L O G
This P la y e r rs Log a llo w s th e p la y er to keep tra ck o f h is
s c o r e , and i t a llo w s r e c o n str u c tio n o f th e game a f t e r i t s
o v er.
P lea se l i s t th e c o lo r s o f each o f th e 5 ch ip s from your en
v elo p e in th e sp aces provided below . A fte r EA C H tr a d e , be
sure to l i s t th e p la y er w ith whom you tra d ed , th e c o lo r o f
jth e ch ip you gave up, and th e c o lo r o f .the chip which you
r e c e iv e d . At th e b egin ning o f each round o f th e game you
w i l l b egin a new page. W e do n ot ex p ect everyone to f i l l
a l l th e row s, but th ey are th ere i f you need them.
Enter th e number or l e t t e r on your id e n t if ic a t io n tag here
P le a se l i s t chip c o lo r s found
in your en v elo p e. Y =yellow ,
G=green,R=red, W=white,B=sb lue
j Trade 1 was w ith p la y er # ___
j
jC olor I gave .C olor I got__
| Trade 2. was w ith p la y er #___
C olor I gave .C olor I got__
Trade 3 was w ith p la y er #___
Color I gave .C olor I got__
Trade 4 was w ith p la y er #___
C olor I gave .C olor I got • I Color I
Begin second column i f n ecessa ry
Trade 5
Color I
Trade 6
Color I
Trade 7
Color I
Trade 8
Color I
Trade
9
was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I got__
was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I got
was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I g o t__
was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I got__
was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I got .
T o ta l v a lu e .-----.
o f ch ip s you
now have I 1 '
Bonus fo r
same
c o lo r s
Bonus fo r
number o f
trad es □=
Score you
g iv e to |-----1 |
game d ir - ___ ” j"
e c to r
Group ____
Bonus I I
( i f any) |___ |
TO TAL SC O R E
FO R R O U N D I
□
Carry this score to
round 2
| 126
t
| Now th a t you have played a round o f th e game we would lik e
|t o fin d out your r e a c tio n s to p la y o f th e game.
jP lea se check th e ap p rop riate blank as fo llo w s :
|A = stron gly agree a=agree U =uncertain d = d isagree
| D =strongly d isa g r e e
| 1. A square can become a c i r c l e i f he r e a lly t r i e s .
A a U d D
| 2 . I f X had a chance I would lik e to become a member o f the
oth er group
| A ___ a U d _D
3. How would you d esc rib e your p resen t s it u a t io n in th e
game? (Check one)
B est p o s s i b l e _____________________ ______ Worst p o s s ib le
4 . How would you d esc rib e th e p resen t s it u a t io n o f th e
| o th er group?
B est p o s s i b l e Worst p o s s ib le
|
I 5 . How would you d esc rib e th e s it u a t io n in w hich you ex p ect
to be a t th e end o f n ex t round?
j
! B est p o s s i b l e ___________________________ Worst p o s s ib le
| 6 . How would you d esc rib e th e s it u a t io n in which you ex p ect
j th e oth er group to be a t th e end o f th e n ex t round?
!
! B est p o s s i b l e ___________________________ Worst p o s s ib le
127
Score fo r t h is round i s kept in th e same way as fo r round
one.
Enter th e number or l e t t e r o f the tag you are N O W w earing
h e r e .| j
Trade 1 was w ith p la y er #___ .
C olor I gave .C olor I g o t .
Trade 2 was w ith p la y er #___ .
C olor I gave .C olor I g o t .
Trade 3 was w ith p la y er #___ .
C olor I gave .C olor I g o t .
Trade 4 was w ith p la y er #___ .
!
I C olor I gave .C olor I got .
i
| Trade 5 was w ith p la y er #___ .
i
|C olor I gave .C olor I got .
| Trade 6 was w ith p la y er #___ .
C olor I gave .C olor I got .
Trade 7 was w ith p la y er #___ .
C olor I gave .C olor I got .
Trade 8 was w ith p la y er # _
C olor I gave .C olor I got_
Trade 9 was w ith p la y er
Color I gave .C olor I g o t__
Trade 10 was w ith p la y er #_
Color I gave .C olor I g o t__
Trade 11 was w ith p la y er #__
Color I gave .C olor I got__
Trade 12 was w ith p la y er #__
Color I gave .C olor I got_
Trade 13 was w ith p la y er #_
Color I gave .C olor I got_
Trade 14 was w ith p la y er #_
Color I gave .C olor I got_
Begin second column i f n ecessa ry
T o ta l
from
l a s t
round
. T o ta l v a lu e
ch ip s you
■ 7 - now have
Bonus:
. same
7 - c o lo r s
1 ------ 1 n
Pl+t
Bonus fo r
number o f
tra d es
□ =
I Score you
I g iv e to I [ 1
I game d ir - I •
ie c to r
Group ___
Bonus I I
( i f any) |___|
TOTAL SC O R E
□
Carry this
score to next
round if indicated
[ ~ " ' 128
j Now th a t you have p layed two rounds o f th e game we would
jagain lik e to fin d out your r e a c tio n s to p la y o f the game.
|Answer as you Now f e e l .
|P le a s e check th e ap p ro p ria te blank as fo llo w s :
jA -stro n g ly agree a=agree U =uncertain d = d isagree
| D=strongTy d isa g re e
! l . A square can become a c i r c l e i f he r e a lly t r i e s .
A a U d D
12. The game r u le s are in the b e s t in t e r e s t o f our group.
S A a U d D
| 3 . P la y ers lik e me d o n 't have any say about what th e oth er
group d o e s.
A a U d D
I 4 . Our group o p era tes w ith s e t s o f c o n f lic t in g p la n s.
• A a U d D
!5 . I f I had a chance I would lik e to become a member o f the
o th er group.
A a U d D
16. The o th er group c a n 't be tr u ste d to do what i s r ig h t .
A a U d D |
| 7. How would you d e sc r ib e your p resen t s it u a t io n in th e j
game? (Check one) I
B est p o s s ib le _________________ Worst p o s s ib le j
I 8 . How would you d e sc r ib e th e p resen t s it u a t io n o f the j
' o th er group? j
! !
j B est p o s s ib le _________________ Worst p o s s ib le j
| 9 . How would you d e sc r ib e th e s it u a t io n in w hich you ex p ec t!
to be a t th e end o f n ex t round? j
B est p o s s ib le __________________ Worst p o s s ib le
10. How would you d esc r ib e th e s it u a t io n in which you ex p ect
j th e o th er group to be a t th e end o f n ex t round?
j B est p o s s ib le _________________ Worst p o s s ib le
11. W ho i s th e p la y er who has done th e most to h elp your j
group move toward i t s g o a ls? j
; I
(E nter h is tag number or l e t t e r h ere) j
129
Score fo r t h is round i s kept in th e same way as fo r round
one.
Enter t he number or l e t t e r o f th e tag you are N O W w earing
h ere □
C olors o f ch ip s you now have
Trade 1 was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I got
was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I g o t__
was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I got__
was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I got__
was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I got__
was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I g o t__
was w ith p la y er #___
gave .C olor I got__
Color I
Trade 2
\
Color I
Trade 3
Color I
Trade 4
Color I
Trade 5
C olor I
Trade 6
Color I
Trade 7
Color I
Trade 8 was w ith p la y er #_
C olor I gave .C olor I got_
Trade 9 was w ith p la y er #__
C olor I gave .C olor I got_
Trade 10 was w ith p la y er #_
C olor I gave .C olor I got_
Trade 11 was w ith p la y er #_
C olor I gave .C olor I got_
Trade 12 was w ith p la y er #
C olor I gave .C olor I got_
Trade 13 was w ith p la y er #_
C olor I gave .C olor I got_
Trade 14 was w ith p la y er #_
C olor I gave .C olor I got_
Trade 15 was w ith p la y er #
C olor I gave .C olor I g o t__
T o ta l
from
la s t
round
□+
T o ta l v a lu e
o f ch ip s you
now have
Bonus Bonus fo r ___
□
1 fo r r ~ ”j I number o f I
" T " same | [ i trad es I r
c o lo r s
Score you
g iv e to
game d ir
e c to r
Group
□
I Bonus |—n
T ( i f a n y ) |_ | —
TOTAL SC O R E
□
Carry this score
to next round
130
Now th a t you have played s e v e r a l rounds o f the game we
would ag a in lik e to fin d out your r e a c tio n s to p la y o f the
game. Answer as you now f e e l .
1 . A square can become a c i r c l e i f he r e a lly t r i e s .
A a U d D
I i
I 2 . The game r u le s are in th e b e st in t e r e s t s o f our group. J
L A a U d D j
i !
| 3 . P layers lik e me don’ t have any say about what the o th er
i group d o e s.
| A a U ___ d D
j •
14. Our group op erates w ith s e t s o f c o n f lic t in g p la n s. I
1 A a U d D I
I i
| 5 . I f I had a chance I would lik e to become a member o f the!
i oth er group. j
! A a U d D !
16 . The o th er group c a n 't be tr u ste d to do what i s r ig h t .
! A a U d D j
— . — - . j
\1. How would you d escrib e your p resen t s it u a t io n in th e ;
| game? (Check one) |
B est P o ssib le _Worst p o s s ib le !
|8 . How would you d esc rib e the p resen t s it u a t io n o f th e !
i o th er group? j
B est p o s s ib le _________________ Worst p o s s ib le
19. W ho i s th e p la y er who has done th e m ost to h elp your
j . group move toward i t s g o a ls? |
I (Enter h is tag number or l e t t e r h ere)
10. What i s th e b e st d e s c r ip tio n o f how th e oth er group
j tr ie d to in flu e n c e us?
i
I They tr ie d to in flu e n c e us w ith o u t o ffe r in g us any
j advantages or th rea ten in g any d isa d v a n ta g e s.
| ___ They tr ie d to in flu e n c e us by o f fe r in g us ad v a n ta g es. j
| ___ They tr ie d to in flu e n c e us by th r e a te n in g us w ith \
j d isa d v a n ta g es. !
jll. How many o f th e sq u a res’ p rop osals were incorporated in to j
| the r u le s by the c ir c le s ? i
A l l ______________________ None I
12. What i s the b e st d e s c r ip tio n o f r e la t io n s between th e j
I groups during t h is la s t round? j
r . • -....13f
P ea c e fu l ........................................ M ilita n t
D is c u s s io n ______________________ S tr u g g le
What i s th e b e s t d e s c r ip tio n o f th e mood o f our group
during t h is l a s t round?
I n te n s e ly A p a th e tic a lly
Involved U ninvolved
BIBLIOGRAPHY
132
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Creator Dukes, Richard Louis (author)

Core Title Organization, Conflict, And Change: A Test Of A Multivariate Model Within Two Types Of Simulated Social Systems

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Sociology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,sociology, general

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Glaser, Daniel (committee chair), Holmen, Milton G. (committee member), Ransford, H. Edward (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-892654

Unique identifier UC11363580

Identifier 7331341.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-892654 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7331341

Dmrecord 892654

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Dukes, Richard Louis

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA