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Oral Interpretation Of Literature In The Los Angeles Community Colleges: A Proposed Program To Meet The Needs Of Black Students

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Oral Interpretation Of Literature In The Los Angeles Community Colleges: A Proposed Program To Meet The Needs Of Black Students

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Content ORAL INTERPRETATION OP LITERATURE IN THE LOS ANGELES COMMUNITY COLLEGES: A PROPOSED PROGRAM TO MEET THE NEEDS OP BLACK STUDENTS by M e r r ile e Anne S t a f f o r d A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d t o t h e FACULTY OP THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OP SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e R eq u irem en ts f o r t h e D egree DOCTOR OP PHILOSOPHY (S peech C om m unication) June 1973 INFORMATION TO USERS This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1.The sign or "target" fo r pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that th e photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Som e pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 73-31,389 | r STAFFORD, M errilee Anne, 1926- \ O R A L INTERPRETATION OF LITERATURE IN THE i LOS ANGELES COMUNITY COLLEGES: A j PROPOSED PR O G R A M TO M EET THE NEEDS OF j BLA CK STUDENTS. j University of Southern C alifornia, Ph.D., 1 1973 ! Speech ■ I ' * ; ■ > ? University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan [ THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by MERRILEE ANNE STAFFORD under the direction of h$F.... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y Dean Date.......... JSBS... 1212. DISSERTATIONjCOMMITTEE To G-rey 11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am g r e a t l y in d e b te d t o my C hairm an, Dr. J a n e t B o lto n , f o r h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n and p a tie n c e a s w e l l as h e r t i r e l e s s c o u n s e lin g and a s s i s t a n c e b o th p r i o r t o a n d th ro u g h o u t t h e p e r io d I p re p a r e d and worked on t h i s s tu d y . I w ould a ls o l i k e to th a n k th e o t h e r members o f my c o m m itte e , D r. L loyd Brown and D r. Thomas F r e n t z , f o r t h e i r h e lp and s u g g e s tio n s . H i TABLE OP CONTENTS Page LIST OP TA B LES.............................................................................................. v i Chapt e r I . BACKGROUND OP THE S T U D Y .................................................. 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n S ta te m e n t o f t h e Problem J u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e S tu d y S i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e S tudy R eview of L i t e r a t u r e D e sig n of t h e S tudy I I . SPEECH ARTS CLASSES IN THE LOS ANGELES COMMUNITY COLLEGES............................. 31 E d u c a tio n a l- G oals o f t h e J u n i o r C o lle g e Community C o lle g e s i n Los A ngeles S tu d e n t E n ro llm e n t Growth i n th e Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e s E n ro llm e n t o f M in o r ity S tu d e n ts S p eech E d u c a tio n i n Los- A ngeles Community C o lle g e s B la c k S t u d e n t s ' A t t i t u d e s Toward O r a l P e rfo rm a n c e o f L i t e r a t u r e O ra l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n Program s i n Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e s Summary I I I . BLACK CULTURAL BACKGROUND AND THE SPEECH ARTS TEACHER.......................................................................... 95 I n t r o d u c t i o n T e a c h e r A t t i t u d e s H l s t o r l c o - s o c l a l Background The B lac k F am ily C o lle g e a n d t h e B lack Community Summary IV . BLACK SPEECH PATTERNS AND THE SPEECH ARTS TEACHER.................................................................................l4 0 I n t r o d u c t i o n A t t i t u d e s Toward B lac k Speech P a t te r n s B la c k S peech P a t t e r n s : An Overview iv Chapter Page P h o n o lo g ic a l P a t t e r n s B lack S yntax B lac k L exicon Summary V. BLACK LITERATURE IN THE SPEECH ARTS CLASS . . 179 I n t r o d u c t io n A f ric a n O ra l T r a d i t i o n s and I n f l u e n c e s E uropean I n f l u e n c e s The Harlem R e n a is s a n c e P o s t-R e n a is s a n c e Y e a rs The B lack A r ts Movement B lack L i t e r a t u r e : S ound, Rhythm, and Movement Idiom and T o n a l i t y R e p e t it i o n Communality Summary VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.............................. 222 I n t r o d u c t i o n Rec ommendat io n s C ourse o f S tu d y S u g g e stio n s f o r F u r t h e r Study BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................... 249 APPENDICES ............................................................................................... 264 APPENDIX A. S tu d e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ................................. 266 APPENDIX B. T e a c h e r Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ................................. 273 APPENDIX C. A d d i t io n a l S o u rc e s and M a t e r i a l s . . 279 v LIST OP TABLES T a b le Page 1. R esp o n ses t o Q u e s tio n s 1 th ro u g h 4 G iven i n P e r c e n ta g e s ........... ........................................... 51 2. R esp o n ses t o Q u e s tio n s 5 th ro u g h 15 G iven i n P e r c e n t a g e s ........................................................... 53 3. R esponses t o Q u e s tio n s 16 th ro u g h 21 G iven i n P e r c e n t a g e s ........................................................... 54 4 . R esp o n ses t o Q u e stio n s 22 th ro u g h 27 G iven i n P e r c e n t a g e s ........................................................... 55 5 . R esp o n ses t o Q u e stio n s 28 th ro u g h 6 l G iven i n P e r c e n t a g e s ........................................................... 58 6 . R esp o n ses t o Q u e s tio n s 62 th ro u g h 64 G iven i n P e r c e n t a g e s ........................................................... 60 7 . T each in g P rogram —P a l l , 1970 t o S p rin g , 1971 ................................................................ 84 8 . Speech 3 T e x t s .................................................................... 65 9 . Speech 4 T e x t s ............................................................................... 66 10. Speech 15 T e x t s ............................................................................ 66 11. S peech 3 C la s s E n ro llm e n t and C o m position . . . 69 12. Speech 4 C la s s E n ro llm e n t and C om p osition . . . 70 13. S peech 15 C la s s E n ro llm e n t ................................................... 71 14. Speech 3 O b j e c t i v e s ................................................................ J2 15. Speech 4 O b j e c t i v e s ................................................................. 73 16. Speech 15 O b j e c t i v e s ................................................................. 7^ 17. P ro c e d u re s i n Speech 3 ............................................................ 76 18. P ro c e d u re s i n Speech 4 . . ....................................... . 77 vi T a b le Page 19. P ro c e d u re s i n S peech 1 5 .................................................. 78 20. A u d io v is u a l A id s U s e d ....................................................... 79 v l i CHAPTER I BACKGROUND OP THE STUDY I n t r o d u c t io n I n 1931, R ic h a rd B i e t r y p r e s e n te d a su rv e y o f p ro g ra m s i n sp e e c h t r a i n i n g i n th e j u n i o r c o lle g e s b e f o r e t h e Na t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f T e a c h e rs o f Speech a t i t s C h icag o a n n u a l c o n v e n tio n . The alm s o f j u n i o r c o lle g e sp e e c h d e p a rtm e n ts w ere l a t e r p u b lis h e d i n a r t i c l e s h e w ro te f o r th e Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S peech1 and t h e J u n i o r C o lle g e p J o u r n a l . T hese aim s w ere so v a r ie d t h a t a w id e d i v e r s i t y o f sp e e c h c o u rs e s o f f e r e d i n j u n io r c o lle g e s w as c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d ; each i n s t r u c t o r and each sc h o o l a p p e a re d t o hav e aim s d i f f e r i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e aims o f t h e i r c o l le a g u e s and n e ig h b o r in g i n s t i t u t i o n s . Of i n t e r e s t t o t h i s s tu d y was th e aim c i t e d a s t y p i c a l o f th e g e n e r a l s p e e c h program by a C a l i f o r n i a sp e ec h t e a c h e r : To d e v e lo p p e r s o n a l i t y , v o ic e , p o is e , and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p e o p le ; t o p ro m o te a b e t t e r use o f l e i s u r e tim e ; th e t h e a t e r a t i t s b e s t . 3 I n t h i s s t a te m e n t , a c e r t a i n em phasis upon sp e e c h a s p e r fo rm a n c e , e n te r ta i n m e n t, and s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t c a n be d e t e c t e d . I n t h e y e a r fo llo w in g Mr. B i e t r y 1 s r e p o r t , a c o m m itte e 1 o f C a l i f o r n i a s p e e c h t e a c h e r s met t o p o o l i d e a s and e s t a b l i s h some b a s ic aim s an d o b j e c t i v e s f o r fu n d a m e n ta l c o u rs e s i n sp eech a t t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e l e v e l . The com m ittee h ead ed by Mrs. M a ria n S te b b in s o f M i l ls C o lle g e p u b lis h e d 4 i t s recom m endation i n t h e Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e ch . I r e n e C. Hoch l a t e r r e p o r t e d t h a t P r o f e s s o r A nthony B lanks o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , a c o m m ittee member, s t a t e d t h a t th e work done was t h e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t i n th e sp e e c h f i e l d i n th e h i s t o r y o f C a l i f o r n i a . ^ The co m m ittee recom mended t h a t no b a s i c g e n e r a l sp e ec h c o u rs e s h o u ld be o f f e r e d s in c e i t w ould be " . . . s u p e r f i c i a l , and w ould te n d to em p h asize f a c i l i t y a t t h e ex p en se o f th o u g h t and £ c o n t e n t ." The c o m m ittee s t a t e d t h a t t h e c o u rs e s i n p u b lic s p e a k in g , w hich c o n s t i t u t e d th e m a j o r i t y o f sp e e c h c o u rs e o f f e r i n g s , s h o u ld conform t o a " , . . u n if o r m ly h ig h s ta n d a rd " e x p e c te d a t any i n s t i t u t i o n o f h i g h e r e d u c a tio n , and em phasize c o n t e n t , t h o u g h t f u l a n a l y s i s , and p ro b lem s o lv in g , a s w e l l a s p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n it y f o r e x te n d e d p r a c t i c e i n form s o f p u b l ic a d d re sB . Most i m p o r ta n t, th e com m itte e re g a rd e d c o u r s e s i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n an I n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e sp e e c h c u rr ic u lu m : The com m ittee a l s o recom m ended; t h a t t h e same u n if o r m ity o f s ta n d a rd a s t o c o n t e n t , m ethod, an d u n i t v a lu e be ex te n d e d t o th e f i r s t .c o u rs e i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o r o r a l r e a d in g ; t h a t e m p h a sis be p la c e d on c o n te n t, and t h a t g r e a t w o rld l i t e r a t u r e be s t u d i e d th ro u g h and f o r o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 7 The y e a r f o l lo w in g t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e c o m m itte e 's r e p o r t , I r e n e C. Hoch o f M odesto J u n i o r C o lle g e r e c o n s i d e re d th e aim s o f sp e ec h e d u c a ti o n i n t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e s , and em phasized th e im p o rta n c e o f h ig h s t a n d a r d s i n b a s ic c o u r s e s m a in ly f o r th e t r a n s f e r s tu d e n t* I t was t h e p r o s p e c t i v e t r a n s f e r s t u d e n t, she b e l i e v e d , who w ould have t h e g r e a t e s t n e e d o f a b a s ic c o u rs e i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : The c o u rs e i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h o u ld g iv e t h e s t u d e n t t h e a b i l i t y t o t h i n k , t o c o n c e n t r a t e , t o u n d e r s ta n d w hat he r e a d s from t h e p r i n t e d p a g e , t o s t i m u l a t e h i s im a g in a tio n , to awaken h i s e m o tio n a l e n e r g i e s , a n d to d e v elo p h i s v o ic e so t h a t i t becom es a f l e x i b l e i n s t r u ment .8 The f o r e g o in g re v ie w o f sp e e c h j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n t e r e s t I n th e sp e e c h p r o gram i n j u n i o r c o ll e g e s was p a r t i c u l a r l y s tr o n g among C a l i f o r n i a e d u c a to r s a s e a r l y a s f o r t y y e a r s ag o . O r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was a cc o rd e d a f a i r am ount o f i n t e r e s t , th o u g h m a jo r em phasis was p la c e d upon t h e b e g in n in g p u b l i c s p e a k in g c o u rs e . The y e a r s o f t h e e a r l y 1930*s , i t s h o u ld be n o te d , m arked th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f Los A n g e les C i t y C o l l e g e , t h e o l d e s t o f th e Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e s . Nowhere i n th e s e e a r l y a r t i c l e s i s t h e r e r e f e r e n c e t o a m in o r ity p o p u la tio n i n t h e C a l i f o r n i a j u n i o r c o l l e g e s o r i n th e sp e e c h d e p a rtm e n ts o f su c h i n s t i t u t i o n s . By t h i s t h i r d d e c a d e , how ever, due t o s o c i a l ch an g e s w ro u g h t by t h e p o st-W o rld War I p e r io d an d th e e a r l y d e p r e s s io n y e a r s w hich had m o tiv a te d m ig r a tio n t o C a l i f o r n i a , t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f Los A n g e les and i t s e n v ir o n s was m a rk e d ly i n c r e a s e d n o t o n ly by m in o r i t y g ro u p s o f th e W e ste rn E uropean n a t i v e - b o r n an d im m ig ra n t s t r a i n s , b u t by s i g n i f i c a n t num bers o f b la c k , brow n, an d O r i e n t a l m in o r i t y p e o p l e s . ^ The la c k o f a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o m in o r i t y B lac k s t u d e n t s i n C a l i f o r n i a , o r more s p e c i f i c a l l y th e Los A n g e les a r e a , was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e o f t h e acad em ic community o f th e n a t i o n d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d . No s t u d i e s d e a l t w ith B lack m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t p ro b lem s (w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f a r t i c l e s i n t h e J o u r n a l o f N egro E d u c a tio n w hich came i n t o e x is te n c e d u r in g t h e t h i r t i e s ) , and l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n was g iv e n to m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s i n t h e a r e a o f s p e e c h . No I n t e r e s t was shown i n m e e tin g t h e n e e d s o f m i n o r i t y s tu d e n ts i n any a r e a o f t h e sp e e c h d i s c i p l i n e s . Los A n g e le s : a U nique C ity The g ro w th o f t h e c i t y o f Los A ngeles h a s been marked by i n n o v a t i o n s w h ich h a v e e f f e c t e d change n o t o n ly w ith in i t s b o u n d a rie s b u t th r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n . C o n d itio n s i n t h e a r e a w ere d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e i n o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f th e c o u n tr y ; new i n s t i t u t i o n s and new m ethods o f h a n d lin g u rb a n p ro b le m s o f l i v i n g h a d t o be d e v is e d . Los A n g e le s , t h e seco n d l a r g e s t m e tr o p o li t a n a r e a i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , i s l i t e r a l l y t h e p ro d u c t o f t h e te c h n o l o g i c a l a g e —t h e e r a o f t h e a u to m o b ile , th e a i r p l a n e , a n d t h e r o c k e t — i t s d ev elo p m en t a s a v a s t , com plex u rb a n c e n t e r h a s b een a c h ie v e d w i t h i n t h e l i f e t i m e o f p e rs o n s now a c t i v e i n t h e p o l i t i c a l an d com m ercial l i f e o f th e m e t r o p o l i s . M o b i l it y and change c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e scen e h e r e . The com m unity h a s grown i n human r e s o u r c e s as a c o n se q u e n c e o f a s e r i e s o f trem en d o u s p o p u la tio n m lg ra - t i o n s ; I t s p e o p le have e x p e rie n c e w ith movement and r e l o c a t i o n . 10 I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o te t h a t w h ile t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f " . . . t h e U n ite d S t a t e s has been i n c r e a s i n g d u rin g th e p a s t c e n tu ry a t an a v e ra g e r a t e o f 4 0 p e r c e n t e v e ry tw e n ty y e a r s , C a l i f o r n i a ’ s p o p u la tio n h as n e a r l y d o u b le d e v e ry 11 tw e n ty y e a r s . ' The l a r g e s t i n c r e a s e h a s b e en i n S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e Los A n g e le s M e tr o p o lita n 12 a r e a . Los A ngeles h a s grown i n s i z e a s w e l l a s i n r e p u t a t i o n a s one o f th e m ost in n o v a tiv e u rb a n a r e a s i n t h e n a tio n * Due t o i t s i n f l u e n c e on c o n te m p o ra ry s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s an d t e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s , Los A n geles i s a l s o a c e n t e r o f c u r r e n t e x p e r im e n ta tio n i n e d u c a tio n . Los A ngeles Community C o lle g e s The j u n i o r c o ll e g e as a s i g n i f i c a n t e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n h a s d e v e lo p e d a t a r a p i d p a c e d u r in g t h e l a s t few d e c a d e s , a lth o u g h th e movement had b eg u n e a r l i e r i n th e M idw est. The g row th o f t h i s movement w i l l be d is c u s s e d a t g r e a t e r le n g th i n th e n e x t c h a p t e r . I n re s p o n s e t o i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n an d s tu d e n t e n ro llm e n t, p io n e e r C a l i f o r n i a e d u c a to r s e n d o rs e d a j u n i o r c o l l e g e program , and i n 1929* Los A n g e le s C ity C o lle g e was o r g a n iz e d . The fo llo w in g y e a r , W illia m H. S n yder p ro p o se d t h a t t h e new I n s t i t u t i o n aw ard th e A s s o c ia te o f A rts d e - g r e e . J The j u n i o r c o l l e g e c o n c e p t grew th ro u g h o u t t h e s t a t e . U nder t h e * C a l i f o r n l a s t a t e g o v e rn in g b o a rd to d a y , n i n e t y - t h r e e p u b l ic com m unity c o l l e g e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d . O u ts ta n d in g among th e C a l i f o r n i a p u b lic community c o l l e g e sy s te m s i s t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e D i s t r i c t . The Los A n g e le s D i s t r i c t h a s grown t o be th e l a r g e s t i n t h e w o rld : . . . t h e r e a r e e ig h t cam p u ses, s p re a d o v e r 882 s q u a re m i l e s , w i t h a lm o st 1 ,8 0 0 i n s t r u c t o r s and 100,000 s t u d e n t s . T h is makes u s t h e f i f t h l a r g e s t h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n a l com plex i n t h i 3 c o u n tr y , and t h e w o r ld ’s l a r g e s t com m unity c o l l e g e d i s t r i c t . 14 The Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e System w hich began i t s e x i s t e n c e w ith th e f o u n d a tio n o f Los A ngeles C ity C o lle g e h a s a t t a i n e d a p o s i t i o n o f em inence among j u n i o r c o l l e g e d i s t r i c t s o f t h e n a t i o n , a n d t h e s t a t u s o f i t s c u rr ic u lu m p l a n n i n g , i t s p h ilo s o p h y , e d u c a ti o n a l m ethods, and t e c h n iq u e s i s a m a t t e r o f c o n s i d e r a b le Im p o rt and I n f l u e n c e i n c o n te m p o ra ry e d u c a tio n i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . B la c k M in o r ity P o p u la tio n i n Los A n g e les The c i t y o f Los A n g e le s c a n be s a i d to have begun i t s e x i s t e n c e a s a m u l t i - e t h n i c m e tr o p o lis w ith i t s fo u n d in g a s a p u e b lo i n r T B l.1^ D e s p ite t h e r a c i a l m ix tu re o f t h e f o u n d e r s o f Los A n g e le s, y e a r s p a s s e d b e fo r e a s i z a b l e B la c k com m unity became f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n th e c i t y . T h ere were o n ly s i x t y - s i x N e g ro e s i n Los A n g e le s i n i8 6 0 , 1 f i and by 1870 t h e number h a d r i s e n t o a m ere n i n e t y - t h r e e . I t was n ot u n t i l t h e l a t e l 8 0 0 ’ s t h a t an i d e n t i f i a b l e B la c k community b e g an to a p p e a r a ro u n d F i r s t an d Los A ngeles S t r e e t s . 1" ^ The e x p a n sio n s o u th and e a s t e v e n t u a l l y made t h e a re a o f s o u t h - c e n t r a l Los A n g e le s th e l a r g e s t B lac k community i n th e c i t y , a lt h o u g h s m a ll e r B la c k com m unities d e v elo p ed l a t e r i n o th e r s e c t i o n s o f th e l a r g e r m e tro p o - 1 1 3 .18 The l a r g e m i g r a t i o n 'o f N e g ro es t o t h e Los A n g eles a r e a 4 began i n t h e p o st-W o rld War I p e r i o d , and by 1930 B lac k s num bered 39^000 i n th e c i t y and 4 6 ,0 0 0 i n t h e c o u n ty o f Los A n g e l e s . ^ Now a p p ro x im a te ly 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t a t e ’ s p o p u l a t i o n , th o s e e th n i c m i n o r i t i e s a r e I n c r e a s i n g a t f i v e tim e s t h e r a t e o f t h e w h ite s i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n c o r e s , w h ich , l i k e W ashington, D.C. a r e so o n t o become n o n w h ite m a j o r i t y c i t i e s . 20 I t was r e c e n t l y s t a t e d t h a t t h e B la c k p o p u l a t i o n o f th e s t a t e of C a l i f o r n i a has i n c r e a s e d 27 p e r c e n t i n th e d e c a d e pi o f t h e s i x t i e s . Though t h e B la c k newcom ers came t o v a r i ous com m unities i n th e s t a t e , t h e b u lk o f t h e group p r e f e r r e d to s e t t l e i n th e L os A n g e le s a r e a . The s i z e o f t h e Los A ngeles B lack com m unity p r e s e n t s a d i s t i n c t c h a lle n g e t o t h e e d u c a tio n a l sy ste m ; B la c k s t u d e n t s c o n s t i t u t e a l a r g e p e rc e n ta g e o f th e s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n , a n d t h e u n iq u e n e e d s o f t h e s e s tu d e n ts m u st b e c o n s id e r e d i n c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e and f u t u r e c u r r ic u lu m p l a n n i n g . 8 S ta te m e n t of t h e Problem The p u rp o s e o f t h i s s tu d y was t o a n a ly z e t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program i n t h e Los A ng eles Community C o lle g e S y stem w ith r e g a r d t o i t s v a lu e to B la c k m in o r i t y s tu d e n ts ., a n d t o p ro p o se recom m endations f o r a program o f <?ral i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t u d i e s w h ic h meet t h e s p e c i a l need s o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s . The f o l lo w in g q u e s tio n s w e re t o be a n s w e re d : 1. What i s t h e e d u c a ti o n a l p h ilo s o p h y o f th e com m unity c o l l e g e s , an d how a r e th e a r e a s of t h e sp e e c h p r o gram a d j u s t e d t o t h i s p h ilo s o p h y ? 2 . What i s t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s of t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program i n t h e e ig h t Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e s ? 3 . What a w a re n e s s o f B lack m in o r i t y c u l t u r a l b a c k g ro u n d i s n e c e s s a r y f o r th e t e a c h e r t o e n a b le him t o m eet t h e n e e d s o f B la c k s tu d e n ts ? 4 . What a r e some o f th e m ajo r l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f B la c k sp e e c h p a t t e r n s ? 5 . What l i t e r a r y b ackg roun d may b e h e l p f u l f o r t h e t e a c h e r o f B la c k s tu d e n ts ? 6 . As a r e s u l t o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e above q u e s t i o n s , what re c o m m e n d a tio n s, i f any, c o u ld be made t o make t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program i n th e Los A n g e le s Community C o lle g e System a v i a b l e one f o r B la c k m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s ? J u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e S tud y Due t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e v a s t n e s s and im p o r ta n c e o f t h e Los A n g e le s Community C o lle g e System , t h e s i z e o f i t s B lac k m i n o r i t y p o p u la tio n , and t h e r e l a t i v e d e a r t h o f r e s e a r c h i n t e a c h i n g m ethods, te c h n iq u e s , and m a t e r i a l s w i t h i n t h e sy s te m , t h e e ig h t Los A n g eles Community C o l le g e s w e re s e l e c t e d a s o b j e c t s o f t h i s s tu d y . I n su c h a l a r g e m e tr o p o lita n a r e a a s Los A n g e le s, t h e k in d s o f p ro b lem s e n c o u n te re d i n c i t y c o l l e g e s w ould be v a r ie d and a s numer ous a s t h e s t u d e n t s who c o n s t i t u t e t h e s tu d e n t b o d ie s . T hese problem s c o u ld be r e g a r d e d a s r e f l e c t i v e o f t h e g e n e r a l e d u c a ti o n a l p ro b le m s f a c i n g l a r g e u rb a n com m unity c o l le g e sy stem s th r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n tr y . The d i s c i p l i n e o f a n o r a l s tu d y o f l i t e r a t u r e i s assum ed t o be u n i q u e l y r e l e v a n t t o t h e B lack m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t. Lou La B ra n t h a s s t a t e d i n "The G oals f o r C u l t u r a l l y D i f f e r e n t Y outh" t h a t t o d a y ’s l i n g u i s t s g e n e r a l l y a g re e t h a t spoken form s o f la n g u a g e a r e t h e d e te r m in a n ts o f l a t e r op w r i t t e n fo rm s. A l l l i t e r a t u r e , t h e r e f o r e , h a s i t s r o o t s i n t h e o r a l t r a d i t i o n . The B la c k t r a d i t i o n o f o r a l l i t e r a t u r e h as r e t a i n e d i t s s t r o n g v i a b i l i t y , e x te n d in g back i n tim e to i t s e a r l i e s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s on th e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t, and s t r o n g l y r e i n f o r c e d by t h e c irc u m s ta n c e s o f t h e B lac k e x p e r ie n c e on t h i s c o n t i n e n t . T h is w i l l be a m p lif ie d l a t e r i n t h i s s tu d y i n t h e c h a p t e r on B lack l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e S tudy C h a rle s. W o o lb e rt s t a t e d : A d i s c i p l i n e i s a c a d e m ic a lly a n d s c h o l a s t i c a l l y w o rth y i n p r o p o r t i o n a s i t c a n a c c o m p lis h two g e n e r a l p u r p o s e s : l ) to f i t men t o l i v e a g r e e a b l y i n t h e i r e n v iro n m e n t, and 2) e n a b le men t o l i v e l i v e s t h a t a r e u s e f u l and h e l p f u l . 23 I f , as h a s b e en p o s i t e d by v e t e r a n sp e ec h t e a c h e r s i n t h e 10 com m unity c o l l e g e s , th e d i s c i p l i n e o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a c a d e m ic a lly and s c h o l a s t i c a l l y o f im p o rt t o th e m a jo r i t y s t u d e n t , i t s h o u ld he a sp e ec h d i s c i p l i n e o f i n o r d i n a t e im p o rt i n t h e t o t a l view o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s o f th e B la c k m in o r i t y s t u d e n t . Y e t, a s R i t a C havez, a t e a c h e r i n t h e Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e s , n o te d , t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p rogram o f t e n does n o t a t t r a c t t h e m in o r i t y s t u d e n t i n th e Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e r The i n t e r p r e t a t i v e r e a d in g c l a s s n o t o n ly d o es n o t c a t e r t o t h e m in o r i t y s tu d e n t h ut u s u a l l y d o e s n o t even se ek t o make him c o m fo rta b le as an i n d i v i d u a l w ith a n i n d i v i d u a l s e l f im ag e. The i n t e r p r e t a t i v e r e a d in g c l a s s d o e s n o t a t t r a c t t h e m in o r i t y s tu d e n t b e c a u se i t does n o t r e l a t e t o him . The i n t e r p r e t a t i v e r e a d in g c l a s s e s h av e to o lo n g fo c u s e d on w h ite l i t e r a t u r e and w h ite a t t i t u d e s . I f t h e c l a s s i s t o a t t r a c t t h e m in o r ity s tu d e n t, t h e em p h asis must c h a n g e .24 I n th e s p r i n g o f 1969> a " M a n ife sto t o t h e Speech P r o f e s s io n " was i s s u e d by a group nam ing i t s e l f th e "Con c e rn e d Com m ittee o f S tu d e n ts and T e a c h e r s ." The i s s u e s r a i s e d by t h i s c o n c e rn e d group w ere r e l a t e d t o t h e q u e s t io n o f t h e r e le v a n c e o f c u r r e n t sp e ec h p e d a g o g ic a l p h ilo s o p h y , t h e o r y , and p r a c t i c e t o t h e r e a l i t i e s o f t h e m u l t i - r a c i a l , m u l t i - c u l t u r a l s o c i e t y i n A m erica t o d a y . The Ad Hoc Com m i t t e e on S o c i a l R e le v an c e o f t h e S p eech A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m erica c e n t e r e d i t s a t t e n t i o n on t h r e e b a s i c q u e s t io n s : 1 . A re we a f i e l d aim ed o n ly a t t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f w h ite m id d l e - c l a s s s ta n d a r d s a n d c o n c e p ts o f human d i s c o u r s e ? . . . 11 I 2. A re we a f i e l d t h a t can c o n t r i b u t e a n y th in g o f r e l e - , v a n c e t o a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f , a n d s o l u t i o n t o t h e p ro b le m s o f o u r c o n te m p o ra ry s o c i e t y ? . . . 3 . A re t h e c u r r e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e f i e l d t o blam e f o r o u r l a c k o f In v o lv e m e n t i n c o n te m p o ra ry p ro b le m s ? In t h i s b r i e f docu m en t, t h e members en co u rag ed e x p l o r a t i o n j o f su c h q u e s t i o n s a s why m in o r i t y members a r e n o t a t t r a c t e d : to t h e s p e e c h p r o f e s s i o n , w h e th e r g r a d u a te sp e ec h t r a i n i n g ; as i t e x i s t s t o d a y h a s r e le v a n c e t o t h e c o n tem p o rary w o rld ; and i t s p r o b le m s , s h o u ld th e s p e e c h p r o f e s s i o n re m a in n e u t r a l i n v iew o f th e i s s u e s f a c i n g o u r s o c i e t y , c an program s o f r e s e a r c h a n d s e r v i c e b e am ply e n c o u ra g e d and lm p lim en ted i by t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e S peech A s s o c ia tio n . I n a c t u a l i t y , t h e p o s s i b l e i s s u e s w h ic h c o u ld be p r o f i t a b l y ; e x p lo r e d by members o f t h e sp e e c h p r o f e s s i o n w ith r e g a r d to ; th e q u e s t i o n o f c o n te m p o ra ry r e l e v a n c e would seem t o be r e l a t i v e l y u n l i m i t e d i n t h e b ro a d v iew o f t h e M a n ife s to . ^ T h e re i s much v a l i d i t y i n t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e Ad Hoc C om m ittee on S o c i a l R e le v a n c e . I n g e n e r a l , most e th n ic pro g ram s h a v e b e e n i n a u g u r a te d by d e p a rtm e n ts o t h e r th a n sp e e c h . The d e p a rtm e n ts o f E n g lis h a n d h i s t o r y h av e le d > th e way, i t a p p e a r s , i n t h e a tte m p t t o a l t e r t h e mono- i c u l t u r a l a p p ro a c h o f t h e academ ic com m unity i n f a v o r o f a n | a p p ro a c h w h ic h t a k e s c o g n iz a n c e o f t h e a c t u a l m u l t i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t y . Some o f t h e s e d e p a rtm e n ts h av e n o t m e re ly i n s t i t u t e d a few g e n e r a l e th n l o c o u rs e s , b u t have j ! a ls o i n c l u d e d u n i t s o f s tu d y w i t h i n t h e fram ew ork o f so - i 12 ! c a l l e d s t a n d a r d c o u rs e s o f s tu d y . S peech d e p a r tm e n ts , i n g e n e r a l , w ould a p p e a r t o be l a g g i n g , e v e n I n a b r i e f 2 6 p e r u s a l o f th e c u r r e n t c a t a l o g s o f c o u rs e o f f e r i n g s . One o f t h e m ost e n t h u s i a s t i c s u p p o r t e r s o f B la c k s t u d i e s , r e s e a r c h , and i n n o v a t i v e t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n t h e sp e ec h p r o f e s s i o n i s J a c k L. D a n ie l, c h a irm a n o f th e Ad Hoc Com m ittee on S o c ia l R e le v a n c e . He i s t h e Head o f S o c i a l R e le v a n c e f o r T o day1 s S peech and h a s f o r t h e l a s t few y e a r s a u th o re d s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s f o r t h a t p u b l i c a t i o n a s w e l l a s f o r sp e ec h an d c o m m u n icatio n j o u r n a l s . He h a s a tte m p te d t o i n s t i g a t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f B la c k r h e t o r i c . ( R h e to r ic h e r e assum es i t s b r o a d e s t and m ost i n c l u s i v e d e f i n i t i o n , em bracing t h a t w hich i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e g a r d e d a s b e in g w i t h i n t h e re a lm o f p o e t i c a s w e l l a s t h a t w h ich i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n s id e r e d r h e t o r i c . ) I n t e r e s t , t h e r e - ; f o r e , i s b e g in n in g t o be g e n e r a te d i n B la c k s t u d e n t s o f sp e e c h co m m unication. R e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e i n t e r e s t , h o w e v e r,' h a s b een a c c o rd e d t h e B la c k s t u d e n t i n t h e com m unity c o l - I i l e g e , y e t community c o ll e g e s e n r o l l a n d a p p e a r t o be c o n - , t i n u i n g t o e n r o l l t h e l a r g e s t p o r t i o n o f t h o s e B la c k s t u d e n t s s e e k in g h i g h e r e d u c a tio n . As M rs. Chavez p u t i t : ; But t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n i s n o t b u i l t f o r t h e m i n o r i t y i s t u d e n t . Once t h e m in o r ity s t u d e n t g e t s i n t h a t f r o n t | d o o r, h e f i n d s t h a t he m u st, i f h e i s t o s u c c e e d a c c o r d - j i n g t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s t a n d a r d s , p u t a s i d e h i s p e r s o n a l j im age and p r e te n d t o t h i n k l i k e t h e w h ite m id d le c l a s s s tu d e n t f o r whom t h e i n s t i t u t i o n was d e s ig n e d a n d t o whom t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s t i l l c a t e r s . One a c t i v i t y w h ich c l e a r l y shows t h i s w h ite c o n c e p t i s t h e I n t e r p r e t a t i v e r e a d in g c l a s s . 27 13 I n l i g h t o f t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , a c r i t i c a l a s s e s s ment o f t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n pro gram i n t h e com m unity c o l l e g e was deemed a v i r t u a l n e c e s s i t y . The d i s c i p l i n e o f sp eech com m unication i n t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e c u r r ic u lu m h a s had s c a n t a t t e n t i o n th ro u g h t h e y e a r s , and t h e sp e e c h p r o gram s i n th e Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e s h a v e n o t a t t r a c t e d s e r i o u s s c r u t i n y up t o t h e p r e s e n t tim e . The n a tu r e o f t h i s s tu d y i s su c h t h a t a s much em phasis i s p la c e d upon t h e p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s o f e x p lo r in g t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program i n i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e B lack m in o r i t y s tu d e n t a s i s p la c e d upon t h e a s p e c t o f p u re r e s e a r c h . S in c e sp e ec h p ro g ram s, and p a r t i c u l a r l y p ro g ram s o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , have b e en la g g in g i n r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r n eed s o f t h e s e m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s , t h e p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t i s o f extrem e im p o rta n c e and p ro b a b ly t h e m ost r e l e v a n t f a c t o r i n th e p i c t u r e o f c o n te m p o ra ry sp e e c h communi c a t i o n e d u c a tio n a t t h e com m unity c o l l e g e l e v e l . Review o f L i t e r a t u r e To t h i s d a t e , t h e r e h a s b e e n no e x a m in a tio n o f t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program i n t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e System i n i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e B lac k s t u d e n t . I n p o i n t o f f a c t , t h e r e h a s b e e n l i t t l e e x p l o r a t i o n i n an y a r e a o f t h e sp e ec h c u rr ic u lu m i n t h e Los A n g e les c o l l e g e s . No s t u d i e s have been w r i t t e n t h a t w ould h av e any d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h i s s tu d y , a lth o u g h w i t h i n f a i r l y r e c e n t 14 y e a r s g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n h a s been p a id t o th e p ro b lem s o f t h e B la c k s t u d e n t , and o n ly v e ry r e c e n t l y h a s any a t t e n t i o n b e e n g iv e n t o sp e e c h d e p a rtm e n ts i n th e booming comm unity c o l l e g e s . P r i o r t o 1964, even a r t i c l e s i n p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l s d e a l t m e a g e rly w ith B la c k s w ith in th e a r e a o f s p e e c h o r w ith sp e e c h i n th e j u n i o r c o l l e g e s . An e x a m in a tio n o f a r t i c l e s from t h e m ajo r j o u r n a l s o f t h e S peech A s s o c ia t io n o f A m erica from 1915 t o 1964 r e v e a l s s c a n t a t t e n t i o n a l l o t t e d t o t h e B lack m in o r ity g ro u p . I n t h e Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p eech , t h e f i r s t a r t i c l e c o n c e r n e d w i t h B la c k s a p p e a re d i n O cto b er o f 1938: A lle n W . R e a d ’ s "S peech D e f e c ts and M annerism s among S la v e s and 28 S e r v a n ts i n C o lo n ia l A m e ric a ." Mr. Read s t a t e d t h a t th e m o st-m e n tio n e d sp e e c h d e f e c t s o f s la v e s a c c o rd in g t o e a r l y p e r s o n a l docum ents and n ew spaper n o t i c e s w ere stam m ering o r s t u t t e r i n g an d t h i c k sp e e c h . Read d id p o i n t o u t , how e v e r , t h a t t h i s was n o t common t o a l l s l a v e s . He q u o te d t h e V i r g i n i a g a z e t t e , O c to b e r 10, 1755^ w hich t o l d o f a s l a v e 's s t o r y t e l l i n g k n a ck an d t h e p o s s e s s io n o f a "sm ooth t o n g u e . " 2^ I n 1941, Johnnye A kin w ro te " H i s t o r i c a l B ack- Q Q g ro u n d f o r C e r t a i n S u b s ta n d a rd P r o n u n c i a t i o n s " t h i s d e a l t w i t h N o r th e r n L o u is ia n a d i a l e c t s and t h e i r d e r i v a t i o n , a c c o rd in g t o th e a u th o r , from e a r l y E n g lis h v o w e l- s w itc h in g (fo r exam ple— I f o r £ ) and no r a c i a l m e n tio n was made o r s t r e s s e d . I n O c to b e r, 1944, a n h i s t o r i c a l s tu d y b y R ic h a r d Moody, "N egro M l n s t r e l r y , a p p e a r e d w hich c o n c e n tr a te d upon p l a c e s , d a t e s , and p e r s o n a l i t i e s . W il lia m H a r r is o n P ip e s w ro te ’’O ld-Tim e N egro P r e a c h in g : An I n t e r p r e t a t i v e S tu d y ," w h ich a p p e a re d i n F e b r u a ry , 19^5. P ip e s c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e e m o tio n a l s t y l e o f t h e s e p r e a c h e r s would d e p a r t a s so o n a s t h e Negro r e c e i v e d more e d u c a tio n and a c c e p ta n c e . The s t y l e d e r i v e d , P ip e s b e l i e v e d , from t h e e m o tio n a l and s u p e r s t i t i o u s h e r i t a g e o f A f r i c a com bined w ith t h e l a t e r s u p p r e s s io n due to A m erican s l a v e r y — a com b i n a t i o n o f s u p p r e s s io n by A f r ic a n t r i b a l custom s and by th e e n fo r c e d s u b j u g a ti o n o f s l a v e r y b o th i n A f r i c a and th e A m erican c o n t i n e n t ; i t was a form o f m e n ta l e s c a p e . Two y e a r s p a s s e d b e f o r e M arcus H. B oulw are w ro te "Speech T r a i n in g i n Negro C o l l e g e s " ^ d e p lo r i n g t h e l a t e d evelop m ent o f th e s e program s s i n c e s t u d e n t n e ed a n d e n th u s ia s m w ere n o t la c k in g , and lo o k in g fo rw a rd h o p e f u l l y t o t h e g r e a t e r and c o n tin u e d i n t e r e s t i n sp e e c h d e p a r tm e n ts i n Negro c o l l e g e s . T hese w ere th e o n ly a r t i c l e s t o a p p e a r i n t h e J o u r n a l th ro u g h 1964. S p eech M onographs c a r r i e d a n a r t i c l e i n S p rin g o f 1962 by H a rr y H o l l i e n an d E l l e n M a lc ik , "A d o le s- ■ 3 4 c e n t V oice Change i n S o u th e rn N egro M ales t h i s was i n th e a r e a o f v o ic e s c i e n c e and d e a l t w ith t h e p ro b lem o f v o ic e change compounded by d i f f i c u l t i e s im posed by r e g i o n a l d i a l e c t . T h e re was one a r t i c l e i n t h e Speech T e a c h e r, "An E xchange o f T aped D is c u s s io n s b etw een S tu d e n ts o f N egro and W hite C o l l e g e s ," by L io n e l Newsome and W illia m I . G ordon, w hich a p p e a re d i n Novem ber, 1962;^ 5 t a p e s w ere exchanged b e tw ee n w h ite s tu d e n ts from B e rry C o lle g e a n d B lac k s t u d e n t s from A t l a n t a U n iv e r s ity C e n te r. Newsome and Gordon b e l i e v e d t h a t more c o u ld be done i n b r i d g i n g com m u n ic a tio n g a p s b etw een gro u p s w ith o u t th e v i s u a l s t i m u l i t h a n i n f a c e - t o - f a c e e n c o u n te r s j t h i s , th e y b e l i e v e d , c o u ld be em ployed i n d e a l i n g w ith o t h e r c o u n tr ie s su ch a s t h o s e b e h in d t h e I r o n C u r t a i n . Both gro u p s of s t u d e n t s h a d a p p a r e n t l y i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y had le a rn e d so m e th in g a b o u t e ac h o t h e r from l i s t e n i n g t o th e ta p e s . D u rin g t h i s e a r l i e r p e r i o d , i t c a n be seen t h a t alm ost n o th in g w as w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e B la c k sp e e c h s tu d e n t i n m ajor p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l s . A r t i c l e s p e r t a i n i n g t o j u n i o r c o lle g e sp e e c h i n t h e s e j o u r n a l s d u r in g t h e same p e rio d were a ls o r a r e . The Q uar t e r l y J o u r n a l p r i n t e d s i x o f them , fo u r o f w hich w e re men t i o n e d e a r l i e r i n th e c h a p te r . The f i r s t was "The J u n i o r C o lle g e i n R e l a t i o n t o Speech E d u c a tio n ," A p r i l , 1931* by J . R ic h a rd B i e t r y , i n w hich aim s of th e c o l l e g e s p e e c h d e p a rtm e n ts w ere shown to be e x tre m e ly d i v e r s i f i e d . The seco n d by M a rian S te b b in s a p p e a re d i n 1932 and t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h a p p e a re d i n th e i s s u e of Ju n e , 1933s "Aims o f S peech T r a i n in g i n t h e J u n io r C o lle g e " by I r e n e C h i l d r e y H o c h ^ and "S p eech A c t i v i t i e s i n th e J u n i o r C o lle g e " by R u s s e l R. J o h n s o n . ^ The l a t t e r p e r ta in e d t o f o r e n s i c p ro gram s i n j u n i o r c o l l e g e s . An I n t e r e s t i n g a r t i c l e was w r i t t e n by P. M e r v i ll e L arson i n December o f 19^3* "The 1 7 J u n i o r C o lle g e : A C h a lle n g e t o S peech E d u c a t o r s . I n h i s a r t i c l e , Mr. L a rs o n n o te d t h e la c k o f s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n a c c o rd e d t h e j u n i o r sp e e c h d e p a r tm e n ts , p a r t i c u l a r l y by speech p r o f e s s i o n a l s , and s t a t e d h i s b e l i e f t h a t t h e t r e mendous c h a l l e n g e o f s tu d y and r e s e a r c h i n an a r e a t h a t had grown and t h a t w o u ld assum e even g r e a t e r im p o rta n c e i n th e f i e l d o f h i g h e r sp e e c h e d u c a tio n h a d n o t begun t o be plum bed. I n J a n u a r y , 1959s an a r t i c l e , "S peech E d u c a tio n i n th e C a l i f o r n i a J u n i o r C o lle g e s " by Ben Padrow a p p e a re d i n th e Speech T e a c h e r, ^ g iv in g e v id e n c e o f some a w are n ess o f th e grow ing s t a t u s o f C a l i f o r n i a j u n i o r c o l l e g e s and some i n t e r e s t i n t h e sp e e c h d e p a rtm e n ts o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s . The c o n te n t o f t h e a r t i c l e , h ow ever, was d i s a p p o in t i n g j i t was a s u rv e y a n d a tte m p te d t o p r o v id e "An u n d e r s ta n d in g o f what i s h a p p e n in g i n t h i s a r e a . . ." so t h a t b o th o ld and new s i m i l a r I n s t i t u t i o n s c o u ld hav e some " . . . g u id e p o s ts f o r t h e i r own p ro g r a m s ." A l l s c h o o ls a p p e a re d t o o f f e r th e b a s ic p u b l i c s p e a k in g c o u r s e , and ev en i n s m a lle r i n s t i t u t i o n s i f a n a d d i t i o n a l sp e e c h c o u rs e was o f f e r e d , t h e s e c ond c o u rs e was t h e c l a s s i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Drama was a p a r t o f t h e s p e e c h program i n m ost c o l l e g e s , and i n many I n s t a n c e s p ro v e d a s p o p u la r b o th i n t h e c u r r i c u l a r and e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r p ro gram s a s t h e s t a n d a r d sp e ec h pro g ram . What i s I n t e r e s t i n g i s t h e f a c t t h a t v o ic e and d i c t i o n c l a s s e s h a d n o t assum ed t h e im p o rta n c e t h a t th e y have 18 to d a y . In a l l o f t h e Los A n g e les j u n i o r c o l l e g e s to d a y , I t a p p e a rs t h a t i f an a d d i t i o n a l sp e e c h c o u rs e o t h e r t h a n p u b l ic sp e a k in g i s o f f e r e d i n a s m a ll i n s t i t u t i o n , t h e seco n d c l a s s i s more l i k e l y t o be one i n v o ic e and d i c t i o n r a t h e r th a n one i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A g ain , a s i n t h e o t h e r a r t i c l e s , t h e c o n c lu s io n was e x tr e m e ly g e n e r a l i n i t s s ta te m e n t: I f any s i n g l e c o n c lu s io n may be draw n, i t i s t h a t i n C a l i f o r n i a j u n i o r c o l l e g e s sp e e c h e d u c a tio n i s r e p r e s e n te d , b u t t h a t im b a la n c e s do e x i s t and t h a t t h e c h a l le n g e i n a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y i s g r e a t , f o r dem ocracy c a n n o t e x i s t w ith o u t o r a l co m m u n icatio n ; i t c a n n o t grow and p r o s p e r w ith o u t t h e m ost e f f e c t i v e u s e o f t h i s t o o l . 40 A l l o f th e a r t i c l e s i n d i c a t e t h e need f o r r e s e a r c h and f u t u r e p r a c t i c a l s t u d i e s i n t h e a r e a o f j u n i o r c o l l e g e sp e e c h , b u t n o t to o much I n s i g h t i n t o p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n s t o p ro b lem s i s o f f e r e d . An e x a m in a tio n o f o t h e r r e g i o n a l sp e e c h j o u r n a l s r e v e a l e d l e s s t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l s . I t can th u s be s t a t e d r a t h e r p o s i t i v e l y t h a t l i t t l e o r no a t t e n t i o n was a c c o rd e d e i t h e r B lac k sp e e c h e d u c a tio n o r sp e e c h e d u c a tio n i n t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e s i n t h e m a jo r sp e e c h p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l s p r i o r t o v e ry r e c e n t y e a r s . J u n i o r c o l l e g e sp e e c h d e p a r tm e n ts , t h e r e f o r e , h av e o n ly w i t h i n l a t e y e a r s b een a c c o rd e d I n t e r e s t due t o t h e overw helm ing g ro w th o f com m u n ity c o ll e g e s i n t h i s c o u n tr y . Win K e lle y s t u d i e d s e v e n t y - e i g h t p u b l ic com m unity c o l l e g e sp e e c h d e p a rtm e n ts i n C a l i f o r n i a i n o r d e r t o a s c e r t a i n t h e s t a t u s o f t h e b a s ic ' t r a n s f e r p u b l i c s p e a k in g c o u r s e i n t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s . He p u b l is h e d h i s f i n d i n g s i n 1970; "S p eech — S t a t u s , T ren d s, I n n o v a t i o n s i n C a l i f o r n i a " came o u t i n t h e J u n i o r C o lle g e J o u r n a l , ^ and "S p eech I n s t r u c t i o n i n C a l i f o r n i a Community jip C o lle g e s " a p p e a re d i n t h e S p eech T e a c h e r . Mr. K e l l e y 's m a jo r i n t e r e s t , h o w ever, was n o t c e n t e r e d upon th e a r e a o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . As l a t e a s s p r i n g o f t h i s y e a r , th e S peech C om m unication A s s o c i a t i o n r e l e a s e d a r e p o r t from t h e 4^ C om m ittee on S peech and T h e a te r i n Community C o lle g e s J c a l l i n g f o r m ore r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a o f j u n i o r c o lle g e sp e e c h and dram a, a s w e l l a s m ore a r t i c l e s i n Speech Com m u n ic a tio n A s s o c ia t io n j o u r n a l s d e a l in g s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith sp e e c h p ro g ram s i n com m unity c o l l e g e s . T h e r e fo r e , t h e n eed f o r s t u d i e s i n t h i s a r e a h a s b e e n r e c o g n iz e d . Thus f a r , none h a s b een a tte m p te d w i t h i n t h e a r e a o f t h e scope o f t h i s s t u d y . I t was e q u a l l y d i s a p p o i n t i n g t o a tte m p t t o l o c a te e a r l y a r t i c l e s p r i o r t o 1964 r e l a t i n g t o B lack sp eech o r j u n i o r c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s i n s o u r c e s o t h e r th a n th e sp eech p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l s . S e a rc h th ro u g h p r o f e s s i o n a l ed u ca t i o n a l j o u r n a l s p ro v e d t o be f r u i t l e s s w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f some a r t i c l e s p r i n t e d i n t h e J o u r n a l o f Negro E d u c a tio n . The J o u r n a l o f N egro E d u c a tio n d id n o t m en tio n sp eech a s a s p e c i a l i z e d a r e a o f s tu d y i n a n y o f i t s e a r l y i s s u e s , th o u g h o c c a s i o n a l r e f e r e n c e was made t o th e u s e o f d i s c u s s i o n a s a t e a c h i n g te c h n iq u e . An a r t i c l e by E a r l C onrad, "The P h ilo lo g y o f Negro D i a l e c t , " a p p e a re d i n S p r in g , . i 44 1944. Mr. Conrad p o in te d o u t t h e e x te n s i v e N egro con t r i b u t i o n s t o th e E n g lis h la n g u a g e as sp o k en i n t h i s c o u n t r y , and b e lie v e d t h a t t h e s e B la c k e x p r e s s io n s h a d " . . . e n te r e d i n t o th e E n g lis h la n g u a g e t o s t a y , t o r o o t them s e l v e s , t o become p a r t o f t h e o r th o d o x e x p r e s s io n o f th e f u t u r e . " ^ H is em phasis was u p o n A m erica a s t h e m e ltin g p o t and t h e em ergence o f an e v e n t u a l n a tio n w id e "o rth o d o x " A m erican lan g u a g e e n ric h e d by a l l c u l t u r e s , y e t h e showed an a w are n ess o f m is c o n c e p tio n s a r i s i n g b e tw een B la c k s and w h ite s due t o lan g u a g e a t t i t u d e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s i n word c o n n o ta ti o n s . He p o i n te d o u t t h e v a s t num ber o f B la c k s who spoke a c o m p le te ly s ta n d a r d fo rm o f E n g lis h ( y e t many o f them c o u ld a ls o u n d e rs ta n d a n d s w itc h i n t o B la c k id io m ) , and d e p lo r e d d i a l e c t c a r i c a t u r e s o f B la c k sp e e c h i n l i t e r a t u r e , f i l m s , and on t h e r a d i o . P o r a n a r t i c l e w r i t t e n a s e a r l y a s 1944, t h e r e was r e l e v a n c e t o t o d a y 's p ro b lem s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s s tu d y , b u t B la c k s t u d e n t s w ere n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r r e d t o . E le v e n y e a r s p a s s e d b e f o r e J o h n W, P a rk e r w ro te "The S t a t u s o f D e b a te i n t h e N egro C o lle g e " 46 i n S p rin g o f 1955j t h i s a r t i c l e i n d i c a t e d t h e s t r o n g a p p e a l o f sp e ec h a c t i v i t i e s t o B la c k s t u d e n t b o d ie s and th e n eed f o r expanded work i n t h i s a r e a . E u n ic e Shaed N ew to n 's a r t i c l e , "V erb al D e s t i t u t i o n : The P i v o t a l B a r r i e r t o L e a rn in g " a p p e a re d i n P a l l , 1 9 6 0 ; ^ i n i t M iss Newton d i s c u s s e d t h e pro b lem o f what sh e te rm e d " la n g u a g e p o v e rty " o r 21 " v e r b a l d e s t i b u t i o n " on t h e p a r t o f d is a d v a n ta g e d B lac k s t u d e n t s e n t e r i n g t h e n a t i o n ’s c o l l e g e s : T hese young p e o p le a r e n o t "DUMB". Many o f them com p r i s e j u s t t h e seco n d f u l l g e n e r a t i o n o f l i t e r a c y i n t h e i r f a m i l i e s . The low l e v e l o f t h e i r v e r b a l s k i l l s , h o w ev er, makes i t a lm o st im p o s s ib le f o r them t o s e c u r e maximum c o n c e p ts com m ensurate w ith t h e i r l e a r n i n g p o t e n t i a l i n t h i s v e r b a l w o rld i n w h ic h we l i v e . 48 She p o i n te d o u t h e r b e l i e f t h a t su ch a d e p r iv e d s tu d e n t s h o u ld be h e lp e d i n a c la ssro o m a tm o sp h e re " f r e e from d e r i s i o n and d e p r e c a tio n " o f h i s own la n g u a g e u s a g e , and s h o u ld b e exposed t o e v e ry p o s s ib l e m odel o f s t a n d a r d Eng l i s h u s a g e n o t o n ly th r o u g h th e u s e o f a u d i o v i s u a l a i d s b u t a l s o th r o u g h t h e p e rs o n o f h i s i n s t r u c t o r who m ust c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e s t a n d a r d E n g lis h . She s t a t e d h e r b e l i e f i n t h e im p o rta n c e o f s p e c i a l c l a s s e s o r s e r v i c e s t o d e v e lo p t h e " in a d e q u a te la n g u a g e s k i l l s " of t h e c u l t u r a l l y d e p riv e d s t u d e n t . "Negro D i a l e c t , The L a s t B a r r i e r t o I n t e g r a t i o n " by G ordon C. G reen a p p e a re d i n W in te r , 1963. ^ Mr. G reen s t a t e d t h a t N eg roes a r e p e r f e c t l y c a p a b le o f s p e a k in g " l i t e r a t e " E n g lis h , b u t t h a t th e s p e c i a l p a t t e r n s o f B lac k sp e ec h w hich w ere due t o g h e tto c o n d i t i o n s and in a d e q u a te e d u c a tio n p r e s e n t e d a d i s t o r t e d view o f t r u e B la c k c a p a b i l i t i e s . He b e li e v e d t h a t r e c o g n i z a b le B la c k sp e ec h h a b i t s sh o u ld be p i n p o in t e d and ov ercom e, u s i n g S haw 's P y gm alion a s an exam ple o f overcom ing s o c i a l b a r r i e r s th r o u g h th e u se o f s ta n d a r d sp e e c h . I n e s s e n c e , G reen 22 s t a t e d t h a t B la c k sp e e c h was th e l a s t c h a in b in d in g t h e N egro t o t h e s l a v e i n h e r i t a n c e : B e s id e s s e e in g t o i t t h a t h i s c i v i l r i g h t s a re r e s p e c t e d , t h a t h i s v o te i s n o t w a s te d , and t h a t he h a s an e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y i n o b t a i n i n g t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e e d u c a tio n , he s h o u ld t a k e s p e c i a l p a i n s t o se e t h a t he and h i s c h i l d r e n d e s t r o y t h i s l a s t c h a in t h a t b in d s him t o t h e p a s t , t h e N egro d i a l e c t . 50 No m e n tio n o f j u n i o r c o l l e g e s was s p e c i f i c a l l y made i n t h e J o u r n a l o f N egro E d u c a tio n u n t i l S p r in g , 19^7 i n an a r t i c l e by I r e n e R. K ie rn a n and Roy P. D a n ie ls , "S ig n s o f S o c ia l Change th r o u g h an E x p lo r a to r y S tu d y o f 23 Negro S tu d e n ts i n ,,51 a Community C o l le g e ." ^ T h is a r t i c l e was a su m m ariza tio n o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t w e n t y - t h r e e Negro s tu d e n ts who had so u g h t c o u n s e lin g a i d a t t h e i r com m unity c o ll e g e ; t h e s e s t u d e n t s o n ly r e p r e s e n t e d f i v e p e r c e n t o f a l l s t u d e n ts s e e k in g su c h s e r v i c e s : T h e re i s e v id e n c e t h a t s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l changes a r e t a k i n g p l a c e , a t tim e s a t a s lo w e r p a c e f o r i n d i v i d u a l s t h a n t h e l i t e r a t u r e w ould l e a d u s t o e x p e c t. The g r i p o f t h e s u b c u l t u r e s , w h e th e r r a c i a l , e t h n i c , p o v e r t y , o r c l a s s , looms s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s a b e h a v io r d e t e r m in a n t f o r many o f o u r s t u d e n t s . From o u r sam ple, th e a tte m p te d t r a n s i t i o n from a lo w e r t o a m iddle c l a s s , i n v o lv e d p e r s o n a l a n x i e t y , b i t t e r n e s s , h a tr e d o f o n e s e l f , o n e 's g ro u p and t h e g ro u p t o w hich th e y a s p i r e d . 52 S i g n i f i c a n t s o c i a l c o n f l i c t i n t h e l i v e s o f th e s e s tu d e n ts a p p a r e n t l y grew due t o t h e i r e d u c a ti o n a l as w e ll a s s o c i a l a s p i r a t i o n s , y e t t h e a r t i c l e d i d p o i n t o u t t h a t th e p e r c e n ta g e who w ere a c u t e l y a f f e c t e d was s m a lle r th a n what m ig h t h a v e b een e x p e c te d . S tu d e n ts o t h e r th a n B lac k con s t i t u t e d t h e l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f c o u n s e lin g c a s e s . S in c e 1964, I t i s t r u e t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l sp e e c h j o u r n a l s h av e begun t o plumb t h e p ro b lem s o f t h e sp e e c h e d u c a t i o n o f th e B lack s tu d e n t. The b u lk o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s b e e n l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s o f th e s p e e c h o f t h e v e ry young m in o r i t y c h i l d . O th e r s t u d i e s h a v e d e a l t w ith r h e t o r i c u n d e r t h e r u b r i c o f " a l l means o f p e r s u a s i o n , " and r e l a t e t o c o n f r o n t a t i o n a n d t a c t i c s o f d i s s e n t i o n i n a c h ie v e m e n t o f g o a l s . S e v e r a l a r t i c l e s on t h e p ro b le m s o f te a c h i n g sp e ec h t o g h e t t o s tu d e n ts have a p p e a r e d ; a r t i c l e s i n T o d a y ^ S peech have been n o ta b le i n d e a l i n g w ith t h i s p ro b lem d u rin g t h e l a s t few y e a r s . The S p eech T e a c h e r, J a n u a r y , 1970, p r i n t e d "A D e s c r ip tio n o f t h e I n t e r a c t i o n b e tw een B la c k Y outh and W hite T ea ch e rs i n a G h e tto Speech C la s s " by G regg, McCormack, and P e d e rs o n , J w h ic h r e l a t e d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n overcom ing n e g a t iv e a t t i t u d e s on t h e p a r t o f b o th t h e s t u d e n t s and t h e w h ite t e a c h e r s , and t h e n eed f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e s e B lack s t u d e n t s ' n e g a t iv e a t t i tu d e s . A lth o u g h i t i s n o t e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d , t h e a r t i c l e w ould seem t o p r e s e n t a s i t u a t i o n w h ere ad v an ce f i e l d work on th e p a r t o f p r o s p e c tiv e t e a c h e r s i n g h e t t o a r e a s s h o u ld be recommended. The March i s s u e o f t h e S peech T e a c h e r o f t h e same y e a r was d e v o ted t o t h e s tu d y o f B lac k sp e e c h e d u c a tio n , and t h e a r t i c l e s p r e s e n t e d some o f t h e same s i t u a t i o n s p osed i n th e G regg, McCormack, and P e d e rso n a r t i c l e , nam ely t h e problem s o f t e a c h i n g sp e e c h t o a l i e n a t e d an d s u s p ic i o u s y o u th s from g h e t t o b a c k g ro u n d s . As m e n tio n e d p r e v i o u s l y , g r a d u a te r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s have h a d l i t t l e d i r e c t r e l e v a n c e t o th e m ajo r t o p i c o f t h i s s tu d y . T h e re h a v e b een some, su c h a s L ow ell T i l l r y M ose- b e r r y ’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , "An H i s t o r i c a l S tudy o f N egro O ra to ry i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t o 1915, w hich d e a l t w ith t h e i n c r e a s e d a p p e a ra n c e o f B la c k o r a t o r s d u rin g t h e p r e - C i v i l War a b o l i s h i o n i s t p e r i o d up t o t h e p re-W o rld War I e r a , and C l i n t C o r n e liu s W ils o n ’s t h e s i s , "R ig h t On B r o th e r : it 55 H e r it a g e o f Mass C om m unication among B lack P e o p le , i n w hich W ilso n c o n c lu d e s t h a t t h e t r u e m ajor means o f com m u n ic a tio n among B la c k p e o p le i s m u sic. Both o f th e s e d e a l t w i t h t h e b ro a d s u b j e c t o f B lack sp e ec h and communi c a t i o n , b u t n o t w ith t h e p ro b lem o f t h i s s t u d y . T here have b e en o t h e r s a s w e l l w hich c o n c e n t r a t e on l i n g u i s t i c sp e ec h p a t t e r n s su c h a s D r. J o s e p h A u rb a c h 's s tu d y , w hich was a phonem ic and p h o n e tic d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e sp e e c h o f th e 1 56 S o u th - C e n tr a l Los A n g e les B la c k s , and D r. E la in e K le v - man’ s s t u d y , w h ich was a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e sp e e c h p a t t e r n s o f t h e c h i l d r e n i n a c l a s s i n a S o u th Los A n g e les elem en- t a r y s c h o o l . 1 D e sig n o f t h e S tudy I n o r d e r t o an sw er t h e s i x q u e s tio n s p o se d e a r l i e r i n t h e s t a te m e n t o f t h e p ro b le m , background r e s e a r c h had t o be u n d e r ta k e n i n o r d e r t o f i r s t a s c e r t a i n t h e b a s i c e d u c a t i o n a l p h ilo s o p h y o f com m unity c o l l e g e s and t h e p l a c e o f 25 sp e ec h i n t h i s p h ilo s o p h y . To l e a r n t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s i n Los A n g e le s, q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w ere d e v is e d and s e n t t o t h o s e sp e ec h t e a c h e r s i n t h e d i s t r i c t who t a u g h t c o u r s e s w h ich would employ t h e m ethods and t e c h n iq u e s o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w ith r e g a r d t o t e x t s , o b j e c t i v e s , m eth o d s, and p e r s o n a l p h ilo s o p h y r e g a r d i n g o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . To g a in i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n e ed s an d a t t i t u d e s o f B lac k com m unity c o ll e g e s t u d e n ts r e g a r d i n g o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a q u e s t i o n n a i r e was d e v is e d and g iv e n t o 562 B lac k s t u d e n t s i n a Los A ngeles Community C o lle g e . R e s e a rc h was u n d e r ta k e n i n t h e v a r io u s s t u d i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e so c io ec o n o m ic p ro b le m o f th e B lac k com m unity, as w e ll a s r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s done on th e s u b j e c t o f B lac k s t u d e n t s i n t h e m odern com m unity c o l l e g e s . R e se a rc h was n e x t done i n t h e a r e a o f l i n g u i s t i c s to p i n p o in t some o f t h e m a jo r l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f B lack sp e e c h p a t t e r n s . A f r i c a n and A m erican B la c k t r a d i t i o n s o f o r a l l i t e r a t u r e w ere exam ined; t h e l a r g e r h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n s i n t h e d e v elo p m e n t o f B lac k l i t e r a t u r e i n A m erica a s w e l l a s exam ples o f some o f th e p r e v a i l i n g c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s , and t h e o r a l l t y o f much o f t h e w r i t t e n B lack l i t e r a t u r e , w ere e x p lo r e d . F i n a l l y , reco m m en d atio n s w ere made w ith an end to w a rd a t t u n i n g t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program i n t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s t o t h e needs and d e s i r e s o f t h e B la c k com m unity c o l l e g e s t u d e n t i n o u r c u r r e n t s o c i e t y . FOOTNOTES R ic h a rd J . B i e t r y , "The J u n io r C o lle g e i n R e l a t i o n t o S peech E d u c a tio n ," Q u a r te r l y J o u r n a l o f S peech, 17 ( A p r i l 1 9 3 1 ), 202- 206. p R ic h a rd J . B i e t r y , " E x c e rp ts : The J u n i o r C o lle g e i n R e l a t i o n t o S peech E d u c a tio n ," J u n io r C o lle g e J o u r n a l , 2 (Nov. 1931)* 87- 8 9 . ^ B ie t r y , "The J u n i o r C o lle g e i n R e la ti o n t o S p eech E d u c a tio n ," p . 213. 4 M a rian L. S te b b in s , The Fundam ental C o u rse i n S p e e c h ," Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f Speech, 18 ( A p r il 1 9 3 2 ), 285- 88. ^ I r e n e C. Hoch, "Aims o f Speech T r a in in g i n t h e J u n i o r C o l le g e s ," Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f Speech, 19 (Ju n e 1933)* 373. ^ S t e b b i n s , p . 286. "^S teb b in s, p . 287. 8Hoch, p . 370. ^ R o b ert M. F o g e ls o n , The F ragm ented M e t r o p o l i s : Los A n g e les 1850-1930 (C am bridge: H arv ard U niv. P r e s s , 19677* p p . 7 2 -7 8 : ^ W i n s t o n C rouch and B e a t r ic e Dinerm an, S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a M e t r o p o l i s : A S tu d y o f Developm ent o f G overnm ent f o r a M e t r o p o li t a n A rea (Los A n g e les: U niv. of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 3. ■ ^B ernard H y in k , Seyon Brown, and E rn e s t T h a s k e r , P o l i t i c s and G overnm ent i n C a l i f o r n i a , 7^h ed. (New Y ork: C ro w e ll, 1971)* P * 2. ■^Crouch and D inerm an, p . 4 . ^ J a m e s W. T h o rn to n , The Community J u n io r C o lle g e (New Y ork: W iley , 1966), p . 50. 26 27 ^ D o n a ld G lic k , " S u p e r i n t e n d e n t ’s M e s s a g e ," I n s i d e t h e Los A n g e les Community C o l le g e s , 11 ( J a n . 1971).* 2. ^ T h e fo u n d in g g ro u p c o n s t i t u t e d e le v e n f a m i l i e s , a t o t a l o f f o r t y - f o u r p e o p le ; o n ly two o f t h i s g ro u p were S p a n ish C a u c a s ia n s , s i x t e e n w ere I n d i a n , and t h e re m a in d e r w ere term ed " m e s tiz o s " w h ich was g e n e r a l l y a p p li e d t o th e m ixed r a c i a l s t r a i n o f E u ro p ea n a n d B la c k . Though t h e r e h a s been some d is a g r e e m e n t a s t o t h e d i s t i n c t a p p e l l a t i o n s u se d t o s i g n i f y i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e g ro u p , i t i s known t h a t t h e fo u n d e rs o f t h e c i t y Were o f E u ro p ea n , I n d i a n , and N egro r a c i a l s t r a i n s w ith some m ix tu re o f e a c h . C h a r lo t t a A. B ass i s one o f t h e m ore r e c e n t w r i t e r s who p r e f e r s t o make no d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n " m e s tiz o s " and B la c k s , a lth o u g h t h e r e was a d i s t i n c t i o n made by t h e S p a n is h and M exicans. See C h a r l o t t a A. B a s s , F o r t y Y e a r s ; Memoirs from t h e Pages o f a N ew spaper (Los A n g e le s : B a ss, i 960; , p . 2 . 16 J . Max Bond, "The N egro i n Los A n g e le s ," D is s . U niv. o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a 1936, p . 2 1 . ^ M ig n o n E. R o t h s t e i n , "A S tu d y o f t h e Growth o f th e Negro P o p u la tio n i n Los A n g e les an d A v a ila b le H ousing F a c i l i t i e s b e tw ee n 1940 and 1 9 4 6 ," T h e s is U niv. o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a 1950, p . 2 7. ^ R o t h s t e i n , p p . 3 0 -3 4 . ■ ^F o g elso n , p . 77* 20H yink, Brown, an d T h a s k e r, p p . 1 1 -1 2 . 21"N .A .A .C .P . F i l e s M assiv e S u i t a g a i n s t R eag an ," Los A ngeles H e ra ld Ex a m in e r, 20 O c t. 1971.* S e c . A, p . 2. 22Lou La B r a n t, "The G oals f o r C u l t u r a l l y D i f f e r e n t Y o u th ," i n Im p ro v in g E n g lis h S k i l l s o f C u l t u r a l l y D i f f e r e n t Y outh, e d . Arno J e w e t t a n d o t h e r s (W ashington, D .C .: U .S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 6 4 ), p . 24. 2^ C h a rle s W o o lb e rt, "The T e a c h in g o f Speech a s an Aca demic D i s c i p l i n e , " Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S peech, 9 (Feb. 19 2 3 ), 3 . pii R i t a C havez, "The M in o r ity S t u d e n t," The P e rs u a d e r, 38 ( J a n . 1 9 7 1 ), 38 an d 4 0 . 28 OK "The Ad Hoc Com m ittee on S o c i a l R e le v a n c e , S peech A s s o c ia t io n o f A m erica, "A M a n ife s to to t h e S peech P r o f e s s i o n from a C oncerned C om m ittee o f S tu d e n ts and T e a c h e r s ," E n c lo s u re i n S p e c tr a , S p r in g 1969• 26 To c i t e an exam ple from a n o t h e r c i t y c o l l e g e sy ste m , t h e C hicago C ity C o lle g e s o f f e r e i g h t c o u rs e s r e l a t i n g t o B lac k l i t e r a t u r e u n d e r th e D e p artm en t o f E n g lis h , y e t o f f e r b u t one B lac k e t h n i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d c o u rs e i n S p eech : S peech 30, A fro -A m erican C om m unication and S p e e ch . (S ee C a ta lo g o f C hicago C ity C o l le g e : 1 9 7 1 ») I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o n o te t h a t th e c o u rs e i n Speech 203 i s m a in ly c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e p u b l ic sp e a k in g p r a c t i c e s o f B la c k s p e a k e r s ; o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f B lack l i t e r a t u r e , t h u s , i s n o t m e n tio n e d , and i f i t i s b e in g ta u g h t a t a l l , i t i s b e in g done i n t h e d e p a r t ment o f E n g lis h w i t h i n th e fram ew ork o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y - m en tio n ed c o u r s e s . An exam ple w i t h i n th e Los A n g e le s C o lle g e System c a n be se e n i n th e E a s t Los A n g e le s C o lle g e C a t a l o g : 1 9 7 0 -1 9 7 1 ■ T h ere i s a c o u rs e c a l l e d S p a n is h 13, P u b lic S p e a k in g i n S p a n is h . One m ight r a i s e t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o why t h i s c o u rs e i s n o t o f f e r e d by t h e Speech D e p a rtm e n t, w h ere i t w ould by v i r t u e o f i t s s u b j e c t m a t t e r b e lo n g , r a t h e r th a n t h e S p a n ish D epartm ent? The i n s t r u c t o r i n e i t h e r c a s e w ould m ost a s s u r e d ly have t o be p r o f i c i e n t i n t h e S p a n ish la n g u a g e , b u t t h e s u b je c t m a t t e r i s s p e e c h , n o t S p a n is h . 2^C havez, p . 38. 28 A lle n W . Read, "S peech D e f e c ts and M annerism s among S la v e s and S e rv a n ts i n C o lo n ia l A m e ric a ," Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S peech , 24 (O c t. 1 9 3 8 ), 3 9 7 -4 0 1 . 29R ead, pp. 3 9 7 -9 8 . 3°Johnn ye A kin, " H i s t o r i c a l B ackground f o r C e r t a i n S u b s ta n d a rd P r o n u n c i a t io n s ," Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p eech , 27 (D ec. 1941), 5 8 8 -9 5 . ■ ^R ichard Moody, "N egro M l n s t r e l r y , " Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S peech , 30 (O c t. 1 9 4 4 ), 3 2 1 -2 8 . ^ 2W illla m H a r r is o n P i p e s , "O ld-Tim e N egro P r e a c h in g : An I n t e r p r e t a t i v e S tu d y ," (Q u a rte rly J o u r n a l o f S p eech , 31 (F e b . 1 9 4 5 ), 1 5-21. •^M arcus H. B oulw are, "S peech T r a i n in g i n N egro C o l l e g e s , " Q u a r te r l y J o u r n a l o f S peech, 33 (D ec. 1 9 4 7 ), 5 0 9 - 14. 29 • ^ H a rry H o l l ie n and E l l e n M aloik, "A d o lescen t V o ice Change i n S o u th e rn N egro M a le s/ ' Speech M onographs, 29 (M arch 1962) , 5 3 -5 8 . ^ L i o n e l Newsome and W illia m I . Gordon, "An Exchange o f Taped D is c u s s io n s b etw een S tu d e n ts o f Negro and W hite C o l l e g e s ," S peech T e a c h e r, 11 (Nov. 1962), 317-21. •^ S e e c i t a t i o n s on p a g e s 1-3 o f t h i s c h a p te r . • ^ R u s s e l R. J o h n s o n , "Speech A c t i v i t i e s i n J u n i o r C o l l e g e , " Q u a r te r l y J o u r n a l o f S peech, 19 (June 1933)* 3 7 5 -7 8 . 3 ® M erv ille p . L a rs o n , "The J u n i o r C o lle g e : A C h a lle n g e t o Speech E d u c a to r s ," Q u a r te r l y J o u r n a l o f Speech, 29 (D ec. 1 9 4 3 ), 4 9 9 -5 0 1 . •^^Ben Padrow , "S peech E d u c a tio n i n th e C a l i f o r n i a J u n i o r C o l le g e s ," Speech T e a c h e r, 8 (J a n . 1959)* 58- 6 2. ^°P adrow , p . 62. 4 l Win K e lle y , "S p e ec h — S t a t u s , T re n d s, I n n o v a tio n s i n C a l i f o r n i a , " J u n i o r C o lle g e J o u r n a l , 40 (A p r il 1 9 7 0 ), 27-29.. h o „ Win K e lle y , "Speech I n s t r u c t i o n i n C a l i f o r n i a Com m u n ity C o l l e g e s ," S peech T e a c h e r, 19 (S e p t. 1970), 2 1 1 -2 4 . ^ S p e e c h C om m unication A s s o c ia tio n , "R eport from t h e SCA Com m ittee on S peech and T h e a te r i n Community C o l l e g e s ," E n c lo s u r e i n S p e c t r a , S p rin g 1972. ^ E a r l C onrad, "The P h ilo lo g y o f Negro D i a l e c t ," J o u r n a l o f N egro E d u c a tio n , 13 (S p rin g 1944), 150-54. 4^ •^Conrad, p . 150. j i r Jo h n W. P a r k e r , "The S ta tu s o f D ebate i n t h e N egro C o l le g e ," J o u r n a l o f N egro E d u c a tio n , 24 (S p rin g 1955)* 1 4 6 -5 3 . ^ E u n i c e Shaed Newton, "V erb al -D e s titu tio n : The P i v o t a l B a r r i e r t o L e a r n i n g ," J o u r n a l o f Negro E d u c a tio n , 29 ( F a l l i 960), 4 9 7 -9 9 . ^^N ew ton, p . 499* ^ G o r d o n C. G reen , "Negro D i a l e c t , The L ast B a r r i e r t o I n t e g r a t i o n , " J o u r n a l o f N egro E d u c a tio n , 32 (W in ter 1963)* 8 1 -8 3 . 30 ^°Green* p . 83. ^ 1I r e n e R. K ie rn a n and Roy P. D a n ie ls* " S ig n s o f S o o ia l Change th ro u g h a n E x p lo r a to r y S tu d y o f 23 Negro S tu d e n ts i n a Community C o lle g e * " J o u r n a l o f N egro E duca tio n * 36 (S p rin g 1967) . 1 2 9 -3 5 ’ . ^ 2K ie rn a n and D a n ie ls * p . 135. CO -^ R ic h a rd Gregg* A. J a c k s o n McCormack* and D ouglas Pederson* "A D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e I n t e r a c t i o n betw een B la c k Youth and W hite T e a c h e rs i n a G h e tto S peech C la s s * " S peech T eacher* 19 (J a n . 1970)* 1 - 9 . -^ L o w e ll T i l l r y M oseberry* "An H i s t o r i c a l S tu d y o f Negro O ra to ry i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s t o 1 9 1 5 ." D ls s . U n iv. o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a 1955. ^ C l i n t C o r n e liu s W ilso n , "R ig h t On B r o t h e r : H e r ita g e o f Mass Com m unication among B lac k P e o p le * " T h e s is U n iv . o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a 1970. •^ J o s e p h A urbach, "A Phonem ic and P h o n e tic D e s c r ip t i o n o f th e Speech o f S e l e c t e d N egro I n f o rm a n ts o f S o u th - C e n tr a l Los A ngeles*" D is s . U n iv . o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a 1970. T h is was l a t e r p u b l is h e d by Speech C om m unication R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry a s a M onograph i n March 1971. See c i t a t i o n s i n C h a p te r IV o f t h i s s t u d y , - ^ E la in e Kievman* "E xpand ing t h e L i n g u i s t i c V e r s a t i l i t y o f S o c i a l l y D is a d v a n ta g e d Negro C h ild re n * " D is s . U niv. o f C a l i f o r n i a a t Los A n g e le s 1968. CHAPTER I I SPEECH ARTS CLASSES IN THE LOS ANGELES COMMUNITY COLLEGES E d u c a tio n a l G oals o f t h e J u n i o r C o lle g e The man g e n e r a l l y acknow ledged a s th e f a t h e r o f t h e J u n i o r c o l l e g e movement was W illia m R ain ey H a rp e r, f o u n d e r and p r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i v e r s i ty o f C h ic a g o . B e fo re t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n tu r y , he had s e p a r a te d t h e f i r s t two and t h e l a s t two y e a r s o f s t u d i e s a t th e u n i v e r s i t y , u s in g th e te rm s " j u n i o r c o ll e g e " and " s e n i o r c o ll e g e " t o d e s i g n a t e two p h a s e s o f s tu d y . H a r p e r ’s i n s i s t e n c e on t h e im p o rta n c e o f t h e l o w e r - d i v i s i o n c o ll e g e program was i n f l u e n t i a l beyond t h e b o u n d a rie s o f C hicago w ith t h e r e s u l t a n t e s t a b lis h m e n t o f s e v e r a l j u n i o r c o l l e g e s i n th e s t a t e o f I l l i n o i s . J o l i e t J u n i o r C o lle g e i s th e o l d e s t p u b l i c j u n i o r c o l l e g e i n t h e c o u n tr y , e v o lv in g i n 1901 from t h e a d d i t i o n o f two y e a r s t o t h e J o l i e t h ig h s c h o o l program i n a c c o rd n w ith H a r p e r 's e d u c a ti o n a l t h e o r i e s . W illia m H a rp e r b e li e v e d i n a program o f r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e h ig h s c h o o l a s w e l l a s th e c o n v e n tio n a l f o u r y e a r c o l l e g e , and h i s p la n : h ad i n c l u d e d : 31 32 1. The c o n n e c tin g o f t h e work o f t h e e i g h t h g ra d e o f th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l w ith t h a t o f t h e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls . (The J u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l .) 2. The e x te n s i o n o f t h e work o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o ls t o in c l u d e t h e f i r s t two y e a r s o f c o l l e g e w ork. 3 . The r e d u c t i o n o f t h e w ork o f sev en s c h o o l y e a r s t o s i x . 4 . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o m p le tin g work i n f i v e y e a r s by advane ed s t u d e n t s .2 H a r p e r ’s r e v o l u t i o n a r y p l a n was a c c e p te d , d e s p i t e some o p p o s i t io n from members o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y c o m m itte e . H a r p e r ’ s p h ilo s o p h y r e g a r d i n g t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e new tw o -y e a r c o l l e g e s was s t a t e d i n 1902: A good t e r m i n a l p l a c e w ould be s e t f o r t h o s e " n o t r e a l l y f i t t e d by n a tu r e t o t a k e t h e h i g h e r w o rk ." P e rso n s l a c k in g c o u ra g e t o t a c k l e f o u r y e a r s w ould be r e a d y t o t r y two y e a r s o f e d u c a tio n . S tu d e n ts l i v i n g n e a r t h e c o l l e g e whose a m b itio n i t was t o go t o c o l l e g e c o u ld re m a in a t home u n t i l g r e a t e r m a t u r i t y h a s b e e n r e a c h e d — a p o i n t o f g r e a t e s t moment i n t h e s e d ay s o f s t r o n g t e m p t a t i o n . 3 T h is p h ilo s o p h y c a n be s e e n r e f l e c t e d to d a y i n t h e f u n c t i o n s and p u rp o s e s o f t h e c o n te m p o ra ry com m unity c o ll e g e w hich o f f e r s t e r m i n a l p ro g ra m s, m o t i v a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n f o r t h e p r o s p e c t i v e t r a n s f e r s t u d e n t , and t h e a t t r a c t i o n o f th e n e ig h b o rh o o d s c h o o l. D e s p ite t h e e a r l y e s t a b l is h m e n t o f t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e s i n I l l i n o i s , f i n a n c i a l p ro b lem s c u r t a i l e d t h e r a p i d advancem ent o f t h i s new form o f h i g h e r h . e d u c a tio n i n t h e s t a t e o u t s i d e t h e u rb a n a r e a o f C hicago. The n e x t p h a se o f d ev elo p m en t o c c u r r e d on t h e w e st c o a s t . S ta n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y p r e s i d e n t D avid S t a r r J o r d a n had 33 n o te d H a r p e r ’s recom m endations i n C hicago an d made p r o p o s a l s o f h i s own: I a s k y o u r B oard t o c o n s id e r t h e p r o j e c t o f t h e im m edi a t e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e J u n io r c o ll e g e from t h e u n i v e r s i t y c o l l e g e , and t o c o n s i d e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e q u i r i n g t h e w ork o f t h e j u n i o r c o ll e g e a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a d m is s io n t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y on and a f t e r t h e y e a r 1913j o r a s so o n a s a number o f t h e b e s t e q u ip p e d h ig h s c h o o ls o f t h e s t a t e a r e p re p a r e d t o u n d e rta k e t h i s w o rk .5 The o p p o s i t i o n met by P r e s i d e n t J o r d a n was somewhat more f o r m id a b le th a n t h a t e n c o u n te re d by H a rp e r i n I l l i n o i s j h i s p r o p o s a l s w ere n o t a c c e p te d . D uring t h e se c o n d d e ca d e o f t h e c e n t u r y , how ever, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a Dean A le x is P . Lange b egan t o a d v o c a te a d v an ced acad em ic work on t h e s e c o n d a ry l e v e l . W ith t h e e s t a b l is h m e n t o f j u n i o r c o l l e g e s , Lange b e lie v e d t h a t many o f t h e p ro b le m s f a c i n g t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s would be a l l e v i a t e d ; p r o f e s s o r s c o u ld th e n c o n c e n t r a t e on u p p e r - d i v i s i o n s t u d e n ts l e a v in g lo w e r- d i v i s i o n s t u d e n t s t o t e a c h e r s w ith s e c o n d a ry e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g ro u n d s f a r b e t t e r p r e p a r e d t o m o tiv a te an d i n s t r u c t them : The f r a n k r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e f a c t — i t i s a f a c t — t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e f i r s t two y e a r s o f c o l l e g e and t h e h ig h s c h o o l i s one o f d e g re e o n ly and h a s n e v e r been a n y th in g e l s e , I m p lie s t h e r e m e d y .o C o n fu sio n r e ig n e d f o r a p e r i o d , h o w ev er, s i n c e i n a s p e c i a l s ta te m e n t made i n 1915.> th e A s s o c i a t i o n o f C o lle g e s and S e c o n d a ry S c h o o ls o f t h e S o u th e rn S t a t e s d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e g r a n t i n g o f d e g re e s by a c c r e d i t e d j u n i o r c o l l e g e s w ould be p r o h i b i t e d . T h is , how ever, d id n o t p r e v e n t t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e movement fro m g a in in g a f o o t h o ld and s p r e a d in g I n C a l i f o r n i a . Community C o lle g e s i n Los A n g eles Los A n g e les C i t y C o lle g e , e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1929* was t h e f i r s t o f th e Los A n g e le s comm unity c o l l e g e s . I t s f i r s t p r e s i d e n t , W illia m H. S n y d er, p ro p o se d i n 1930 t h a t t h e s c h o o l g r a n t t h e d e g re e o f A s s o c ia te i n A r t s ; i n t h e same y e a r t h e C a l i f o r n i a J u n i o r C o lle g e F e d e r a t io n , . . p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n a s k in g t h a t th e d e g re e be a u t h o r i z e d and be c o n f e r r e d upon a l l g r a d u a t e s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f w h e th e r th e y h a d c o m p le te d t h e c e r t i f i c a t e c o u rs e o r t h e s e m i - p r o f e s s i o n a l c o u r s e . 7 Los A n g e les th u s a d h e re d e a r l y t o t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e A.A. d e g r e e , a lth o u g h a s l a t e a s 193^- Doak C am pbell fo u n d t h a t th r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n t h e r e w ere a s many a s f o r t y - o n e d i f f e r e n t d e g re e t i t l e s g r a n te d i n j u n i o r c o l l e g e s ; t w e n t y - s i x d i f f e r e n t d e g re e s w ere c o n f e r r e d by p u b l ic j u n i o r c o l l e g e s ; and f o r t y - o n e d i f f e r e n t d e g re e s O w ere g r a n t e d by p r i v a t e j u n i o r c o l l e g e s . By 1956, C. C. C o lv e r t r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e a s s o c i a t e ’s d e g re e h a d g a in e d r e c o g n i t i o n and a p p r o v a l i n a l l s t a t e s w here j u n i o r c o l l e g e s w ere l o c a t e d w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f V i r g i n i a ; i t h a d ta k e n a p p r o x im a te ly tw e n ty - s ix y e a r s f o r S n y d e r ’s p r o p o s a l i n Los A n g e les t o b e a c c e p te d by e d u c a to r s th ro u g h o u t t h e Q n a t i o n . Los A n g e le s C i ty C o lle g e was t h e o n ly J u n i o r c o l l e g e i n Los A n g e les f o r s i x t e e n y e a r s . I t h a d d e v e lo p e d a f a i r l y co m p re h en siv e program f o r b o th th e t e r m i n a l and t r a n s f e r s t u d e n t s . C i ty C o l l e g e 's f a c i l i t i e s , how ever, p ro v ed in a d e q u a te t o p r o v id e f o r t h e grow ing number o f s t u d e n ts d e s i r i n g h i g h e r e d u c a tio n i n t h e Los A n g e les a r e a , E a s t Los A n g eles C o lle g e was opened i n 194-5 t o s e r v e t h e n e ed s o f s t u d e n t s i n t h e e a s t e r n r e g i o n o f t h e c i t y . The w ar had ended and so o n t h e two c o l l e g e s w ere in u n d a te d by an i n f l u x o f r e t u r n i n g v e t e r a n s a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l on th e G .I . b i l l . More s p e c i a l i z e d t r a d e and p r o f e s s i o n a l c o u rs e s w ere r e q u i r e d t o f i l l t h e n eed s o f t h e new wave o f s t u d e n ts ; a d d i t i o n a l sp a c e an d f a c i l i t i e s w ere n e c e s s a r y . Los Ange l e s P i e r c e C o lle g e was fo u n d ed i n 1947 t o s e r v e th e West V a lle y a r e a and t o p r o v id e a c o l l e g e i n t h e c i t y system w here s t u d e n ts c o u ld m a jo r i n a g r i c u l t u r e . By 1949, t h e Los A n g eles j u n i o r c o l l e g e s d o u b le d , and t h e em phasis on s p e c i a l i z e d v o c a t i o n a l and t r a d e c u r r i c u l a c o n tin u e d . Los A n g e le s H a rb o r C o lle g e had p r e p a r a t o r y program s f o r work i n t h e o i l i n d u s t r y ; Los A n g e les T ra d e - T e c h n ic a l C o lle g e m a in ta in e d a f u l l program o f c o u rs e s i n a l l form s o f i n d u s t r i a l o c c u p a tio n s ; and M e tr o p o lita n C o l le g e o f f e r e d t r a i n i n g i n b u s in e s s c o u r s e s . Los A n geles V a lle y C o lle g e o p en ed t o s e r v e t h e a r e a o f t h e n o r t h p o r - 1 t i o n o f t h e V a lle y w i t h a m ixed program f o r t e r m i n a l and t r a n s f e r s t u d e n t s . A l l o f t h e s e s c h o o ls p ro v id e d academ ic and t r a n s f e r c o u r s e s , b u t a t H a rb o r, T ra d e -T e c h , and M etro p o l i t a n C o lle g e s , t h e em phasis was on t h e tw o -y e a r te r m in a l! p ro g ra m s. By th e y e a r 1949* Los A ngeles C i t y C o lle g e had e x p e r ie n c e d such grow th t h a t Dr. J a c o b s o n , a f o r m e r p r e s i d e n t o f t h e c o l l e g e , s u p e rv is e d a com m ittee w h ic h p r e p a r e d a s tu d y c a l l i n g f o r th e ex p an sio n o f Los A n g e le s C i ty C o l le g e i n t o a f o u r - y e a r i n s t i t u t i o n . ' 1 '0 T h is s tu d y was th e r e s u l t o f t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f Los A ngeles S t a t e C o lle g e a t t h e s i t e o f Los A n g eles C ity C o lle g e by t h e C a l i f o r n i a l e g i s l a t u r e i n 1947; b o th i n s t i t u t i o n s , s h a re d t h e same campus b u t o p e r a te d u n d e r s e p a r a te a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . D rs. Ja c o b s o n an d Varnum b e lie v e d t h a t th e j u n i o r an d s e n i o r c o l l e g e s s h o u ld be m erged i n t o a f o u r - y e a r c o l l e g e w hich would s e r v e t h e m e tr o p o lita n a re a a t th e V erm ont campus 1 1 l o c a t i o n . The dream s o f t h e men on th e F o u r-Y e a r C o lle g e S urvey C om m ittee, how ever, d id n o t m a t e r i a l i z e , a n d t h e new S t a t e C o lle g e moved t o a perm anent l o c a t i o n i n t h e e a s t e r n s e c t i o n o f L os A ngeles w here more room f o r e v e n t u a l ex p an s i o n w ould b e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . Los A n g eles C i t y C o lle g e , i t w ould a p p e a r , h ad a t t a i n e d such a r e p u t a b l e p o s i t i o n i n t h e r a n k s o f j u n i o r c o ll e g e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t a ch an g e i n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n i t s e l f t o accom m odate t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s t a t e c o ll e g e p a t t e r n was n o t deem ed f e a s i b l e o r a d v i s a b l e . W illia m H a rp e r’s s t a t e d g o a l s o f t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e w ere n o t o n ly s t i l l echoed b y s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e movement, b u t w ere g a in i n g w id e r r e c o g n i t i o n by e d u c a to r s th ro u g h o u t t h e c o u n tr y an d e s p e c i a l l y i n C a l i f o r n i a and t h e Los A ngeles a r e a . 37 D u rin g t h e l a s t d e c a d e t h e term " j u n i o r c o lle g e " h a s b een c o n s id e r e d to o l i m i t e d i n i t s c o n n o ta tio n s t o a p p ly t o 12 th e a v e ra g e p u b l ic tw o - y e a r c o l l e g e s . I n Los A n g e le s, th e recommended d e s i g n a t i o n h a s been "com m unity c o l l e g e . " L e la n d M edsker, V ic e -C h a irm a n o f t h e C e n te r f o r th e S tu d y o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n a t B e rk e le y , d e s c r ib e d th e s i t u a t i o n : The m a j o r i t y o f them [tw o - y e a r i n s t i t u t i o n s ] c la im t o be c o m p re h e n siv e j u n i o r c o l l e g e s ; th e y s t r e s s lo w e r- d i v i s i o n w ork f o r s t u d e n t s who e x p e c t t o t r a n s f e r t o h i g h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s and i n a d d i t i o n o f f e r program s f o r t h o s e who do n o t p l a n t o t r a n s f e r . Most o f them a l s o s t r e s s t h e i r r o l e i n a d u l t e d u c a tio n , i n s p e c i a l com m u n ity s e r v i c e s , i n g u id a n c e , i n re m e d ia l work f o r s t u d e n t s e n t e r i n g w ith e d u c a ti o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s , and i n g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n . T h is b r e a d th o f s e r v i c e e a rn e d many j u n i o r c o l l e g e s t h e t i t l e "com m unity c o l l e g e s ."1 3 The l a s t d e c a d e i n Los A n g eles saw t h e m erging o f M e tro p o l i t a n and T ra d e -T e c h C o lle g e s , a s w e ll a s th e e s t a b l i s h ment o f two more c i t y c o l l e g e s , S o u th w est i n 19^7 > and West Los A n g e les i n 1969. I n 1 9 6 9 , Los A ngeles Community C o lle g e D i s t r i c t became autonom ous when i t broke away from th e Los A n g e le s U n if ie d D i s t r i c t and t h e l e a d e r s h ip o f t h e Los A n g e les B oard o f E d u c a tio n . The new d i s t r i c t o p e r a t e s u n d e r an e l e c t e d b o a rd o f t r u s t e e s . The p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s h a s b een s t a t e d : I t i s t h e c o n v i c t i o n o f t h e Los A n g e les Community C o l le g e s t h a t e ac h i n d i v i d u a l s h o u ld h av e t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o d e v e lo p t o h i s g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l . To t h a t end, i t i s t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o l l e g e s t o p r o v id e f o r th e mem b e r s o f t h e com m unity m a tu rin g e x p e r ie n c e s which w i l l a s s i s t them t o l i v e e f f e c t i v e l y a s w o rk e rs , fa m ily m em bers, and c i t i z e n s i n o u r d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y . 12* 38 The Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e Board o f T r u s t e e s a d v o c a t e f i v e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e c o l l e g e sy ste m i n Los A n g e le s : OCCUPATIONAL. An o c c u p a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n prog ram p la n n e d t o o f f e r t h e s t u d e n t b a s i c , b u s i n e s s , t e c h n i c a l , an d p r o f e s s i o n a l c u r r i c u l a t o d e v e lo p s k i l l s w hich can l e a d t o employment and jo b a d v an c em en t. TRANSFER. A c o l l e g e t r a n s f e r program w h ich e n a b le s th e s tu d e n ts who c o m p le te two y e a r s o f s tu d y t o c o n tin u e u p p e r d i v i s i o n ( t h i r d y e a r ; work a t a c c r e d i t e d f o u r - y e a r c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s . GENERAL EDUCATION. A p ro g ram o f g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n com p r i s e d o f p la n n e d e x p e r ie n c e s w hich d e v e lo p k n o w le d g e s, s k i l l s , and a t t i t u d e s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e s t u d e n t t o be e f f e c t i v e a s a p e r s o n , a f a m i l y member, a w o rk e r, and a l o y a l c i t i z e n . GUIDANCE. A g u id a n c e p ro g ram i n c o r p o r a t i n g v o c a t i o n a l , e d u c a ti o n a l , and p e r s o n a l c o u n s e lin g t o a s s i s t t h e s t u d e n t i n t h e s e l e c t i o n and p u r s u i t o f a l i f e work com p a t i b l e w ith h i s i n t e r e s t s , a p t i t u d e s , and a b i l i t i e s . COMMUNITY SERVICES. A p ro g ram o f com m unity s e r v i c e s o f f e r e d i n c o o p e r a t i o n w ith o t h e r l o c a l p a t r i o t i c e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s t o m eet c u l t u r a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , and v o c a t i o n a l n e e d s . 15 The e s ta b lis h m e n t o f Los A n g e les S o u th w e st C o lle g e h a s been se e n by many a s an a tte m p t t o p r o v id e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r h ig h e r e d u c a tio n t o p r o s p e c t i v e s t u d e n t s i n t h e B la c k comm unity, m ost o f whom r e s i d e i n t h e S o u th Los A n g e les a r e a . C o n s id e ra b le com m unity i n t e r e s t , p r e s s u r e , and c o o p e r a tio n i n t h e p r o j e c t r e s u l t e d i n t h e o p e n in g o f t h e c o ll e g e i n t h e f a l l o f 1967* S in c e S o u th w e st i s a r e l a t i v e l y new i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e Los A n g e les C o lle g e System , and s in c e i t s e r v e s a p r e d o m in a n tly B la c k com m unity a r e a , an e x a m in a tio n o f i t s d e c l a r e d p h ilo s o p h y and f u n c t i o n s i s m e a n in g fu l t o t h i s s t u d y . I t i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o te 39 t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s e s ta te m e n ts to t h o s e o f t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e System and th e B oard o f T r u s t e e s : We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e f i r s t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f Los An g e le s S o u th w e st C o lle g e i s t o t h e s t u d e n t , an d t h a t we s h o u ld m eet t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y by p r o v id in g c o l l e g e - l e v e l e d u c a tio n th ro u g h a w ide v a r i e t y o f c u r r i c u l a and s t u d e n t a c t i v i t i e s th ro u g h o u t t h e day and e v e n in g h o u r s . T hese c u r r i c u l a r and s tu d e n t a c t i v i t y p ro g ram s s h o u ld h e lp t h e s t u d e n t t o u n d e rs ta n d h im s e lf and h i s p h y s i c a l an d s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t. We b e l i e v e t h a t we a l s o have a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o o u r com m unity— t o p ro d u c e c o l l e g e - t r a i n e d g r a d u a t e s e q u ip p e d t o c o n tin u e t h e i r fo rm a l e d u c a tio n e ls e w h e re o r t o e n t e r b u s in e s s and i n d u s t r y , and i n e i t h e r c a s e , t o be b e t t e r p r e p a r e d t o d is c h a r g e t h e d u t i e s o f c i t i z e n s h i p i n a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y . We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e c h a lle n g e can be met o n ly th r o u g h a h ig h r e g a r d f o r i n d i v i d u a l m e r it and a deep r e s p e c t f o r human d i g n i t y . T hese a t t i t u d e s a r e h e l d t o be b a s i c t o t h e d e m o c ra tic c o n c e p t, and a s su ch , s h o u ld be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e o f f e r i n g s , t h e s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r r e l a t i o n s h ip s and t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o l i c i e s o f t h e Los A n g e les J u n i o r C o lle g e D i s t r i c t . T h is p h ilo s o p h y a m p l i f i e s t h e B oard s ta te m e n t, and empha s i z e s t h e s t u d e n t 's u n d e r s ta n d in g o f " h im s e lf and h i s p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t" as w e ll a s r e g a r d f o r i n d i v i d - 17 u a l m e r it and human d i g n i t y . 1 The g e n e r a l o b j e c t i v e s o r g o a ls o f S o u th w e st C o lle g e , ho w ev er, p a r a l l e l t h e s ta te m e n t o f th e B oard r e g a r d i n g t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e Community C o lle g e D i s t r i c t i n Los A n g e le s . T h is s h o u ld n o t be s u r p r i s i n g , how ever, s i n c e t h e s e f u n c t i o n s o r g o a ls a r e s t a t e d i n r e l a t i v e l y t h e same m anner by m ost com m unity c o l l e g e s and c o l l e g e d i s t r i c t s th r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n . 4o S tu d e n t E n ro llm e n t Growth i n th e Lob A n g e les Community C o lle g e s E n ro llm e n t i n t h e com m unity c o l l e g e s h a s b een i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y th ro u g h o u t t h e y e a r s i n a l l a r e a s o f th e n a t i o n . T h is g ro w th i s e x p e c te d t o c o n tin u e ; a c c o rd in g t o p r o j e c t e d e n ro llm e n t f i g u r e s , th e number o f f i r s t - t i m e d e g re e e n r o l l e e s i n com m unity c o l l e g e s by t h e f a l l o f 1979 10 i s c a l c u l a t e d a t a p p ro x im a te ly 989*000. T h is f i g u r e i s o f c o u rs e a t r e n d p r o j e c t i o n and th u s o n ly an e s t i m a t e , y e t t h e g ro w th i n d i c a t i o n h a s been c l e a r l y n o te d th ro u g h o u t th e p a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s . As o f 1968, t h e A m erican A s s o c ia t i o n o f J u n i o r C o lle g e s s t a t e d : F o r t h e p a s t se v e n y e a r s , new tw o -y e a r i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e b een e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h e r a t e o f from t h i r t y - f i v e t o f i f t y a n n u a l l y . An u n p re c e d e n te d number o f new c o l l e g e s opened i n t h e f a l l o f 1967. • . . The e s t a b l i s h m ent o f Nevada Community C o lle g e a t E lk o , N evada, c lo s e d a gap i n com m unity j u n i o r c o l l e g e d evelop m ent a c r o s s t h e c o u n tr y . E v ery s t a t e h a s a t l e a s t one tw o - y e a r c o l l e g e . A c c e p ta n c e o f t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f f e r e d by comm unity j u n i o r c o l l e g e s i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i n c r e a s e d e n r o l l m ents r e p o r t e d i n t h e D i r e c t o r y . More s i g n i f i c a n t , p e r h a p s , i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e new c o l l e g e s opened w ith a t o t a l o f a b o u t 6 5 ,0 0 0 s t u d e n t s , many o f whom w ould n o t o th e r w is e h a v e e n te r e d c o l l e g e i n 1967»19 The l a r g e i n c r e a s e o f e n r o l l e e s i n C a l i f o r n i a communi t y c o l l e g e s i s a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e I n c r e a s e o f t o t a l popu l a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o v e r t h e l a s t d e c a d e : The o f f i c i a l p o p u l a t i o n c o u n t o f t h e S t a t e a s o f A p r i l 1 , 1970, was 19*953*134. T h is r e p r e s e n t s an i n c r e a s e o f 4 ,2 3 5 * 9 3 0 o r 2 7 .0 p e r c e n t , from t h e 1 5 ,7 1 7 ,2 0 4 i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e S t a t e i n 1960.2 0 I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s e n la r g e d C a l i f o r n i a p o p u l a t i o n c an 41 w e ll a c c o u n t f o r th e trem en d o u s num bers o f j u n i o r c o ll e g e s t u d e n ts i n t h e s t a t e , w h ich a p p a r e n t l y outnum ber th e f i g u r e s i n o t h e r s t a t e s i n t h e U n io n . The C a l i f o r n i a J u n i o r C o lle g e A s s o c i a t i o n s t a t e d : As i t s t a n d s to d a y , t h e com m unity c o l l e g e s e n r o l l n e a r l y 85 p e r c e n t o f a l l lo w e r d i v i s i o n s t u d e n t s i n C a l i f o r n i a h i g h e r e d u c a tio n . Of t h e 1 .2 m i l l i o n s t u d e n t s i n C a l i f o r n i a c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s , t h e l o c a l c o l l e g e s e n r o l l e d o v e r 59 p e r c e n t ; t h e s t a t e c o l l e g e s , 21 p e r c e n t ; t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , n in e p e r c e n t ; and 11 p e r c e n t w ere e n r o l l e d by in d e p e n d e n t f o u r - y e a r i n s t i t u t i o n s . Nowhere i n C a l i f o r n i a i s m atched t h e g ro w th o f t h e Los A n g eles Community D i s t r i c t , w here e i g h t com m unity c o l l e g e s have b e e n fo u n d e d d u r in g t h e l a s t f o r t y y e a r s . The Los A ngeles Community C o lle g e D i s t r i c t i t s e l f was n o t an i n d e p e n d en t e n t i t y t i l l J u l y 1, 1969* when i t became s e p a r a te d from t h e Los A n g eles U n if ie d D i s t r i c t . I t may be n o te d t h a t d e s p i t e t h e f o u n d a tio n o f Los A n g e les C i ty C o lle g e i n 1929, t h e r e was no t r u e c o l l e g e d i s t r i c t u n t i l 1931* y e t by J u l y 1, 1969 t h e L.A . Community D i s t r i c t . was b o rn a s a g i a n t among tw o -y e a r c o l l e g e s , " and " . . . h a s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f e d u c a tin g more young men and women th a n any o t h e r j u n i o r c o l l e g e d i s t r i c t i n t h e s t a t e o r o p n a t i o n . " As D onald C lic k s t a t e d a y e a r l a t e r : T h is makes us t h e f i f t h l a r g e s t h i g h e r e d u c a ti o n a l com p le x i n t h e c o u n tr y an d t h e w o r l d 's l a r g e s t community c o l l e g e d i s t r i c t . 23 E n ro llm e n t o f M in o r ity S tu d e n ts In C a l i f o r n i a , t h e m in o r ity s t u d e n t g ro w th i n t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e s was slo w e r t o show i n c r e a s e i n num bers. In t h e f a l l o f 1966, i t was fo u n d t h a t : "The N egro e n r o l l m ent i n j u n i o r c o ll e g e s i s below t h e g r o u p 's a v e ra g e i n th e o h K -12 S c h o o ls (5 .8 6 compared w ith 8 .0 5 p e r c e n t ) . " By P a l l o f 1967, how ever, i n c r e a s e c o u ld be n o te d j t h e r e w ere 5 ,6 7 9 a d u l t j u n i o r c o lle g e Negro s t u d e n t s o r 6 p e r c e n t , a s w e l l a s an a d d i t i o n a l 31,4 64 g ra d e d j u n i o r c o l l e g e N egro s t u d e n t s o r 6 p e r c e n t . 2-* A r e p o r t i s s u e d by th e C a l i f o r n i a Community C o lle g e s B oard o f G o vernors a t t h e i r O c to b er 22, 1971 m e e tin g i n d i c a t e s t h a t : The num ber o f m in o r ity s t u d e n ts i n C a l i f o r n i a com m unity c o l l e g e s i s i n c r e a s i n g a t a much f a s t e r p a ce t h a n t h a t o f t h e C a u c a s ia n s . . . . M in o r ity d a y - s t u d e n t e n r o l l m ent i n 1970 i n c r e a s e d by 2 0 .5 p e r c e n t o v e r 1969 w h ile o v e r a l l d a y - s tu d e n t e n ro llm e n t i n c r e a s e d o n ly 12 p e r - c e n t . 2o The r e p o r t p o i n t s o u t t h a t , d e s p i t e t h e d r a m a tic i n c r e a s e i n m i n o r i t y e n ro llm e n t, t h e s e e t h n i c g ro u p s th e m s e lv e s a r e i n a c t u a l i t y s t i l l u n d e r r e p r e s e n te d i n t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e s " . . . b e c a u se th e y c o n s t i t u t e 28 p e r c e n t o f e le m e n ta r y and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l e n r o llm e n t." I n t h e 1966 e th n ic r e p o r t , i t was a l r e a d y c l e a r t h a t Los A n g e les c o u n ty " . . . h a d more t h a n h a l f t h e s t a t e ’s N egro p u p i l s , " 2^ In a memo o f t h e Los A n g e le s Community 43 C o l le g e s , t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f Los A n geles C ounty num b e re d 7 ,7 3 0 ,0 0 0 i n November, 1969: Ethnic Composition: Caucasian Negro Spanish surname (or Mexican American) Oriental (included in "other") American Indian (included in "other") Other 73.4# 1 1. 0# 12. 9# 28 2.7# I n S p rin g o f 1970, an e th n i c s u rv e y was made o f t h e Los A n g e le s Community C o lle g e s l i s t i n g s tu d e n t e n ro llm e n t and p e r c e n t a g e s a t e a c h o f th e c o ll e g e s a s w e ll a s t o t a l f i g u r e s f o r t h e d i s t r i c t . T hese f i g u r e s showed a somewhat d i f f e r e n t t r e n d i n m i n o r i t y e n ro llm e n t from th o s e i n d i c a t e d by t h e s t a t e - w i d e f i g u r e s c a l c u l a t e d e a r l i e r . The t o t a l N egro s t u d e n t s num bered 1 4 ,5 9 2 , a d i s t r i c t a v e ra g e p e r c e n ta g e o f 1 5 .6 . L arg e num bers o f B lack s t u d e n ts w ere n o te d a t t h e f o llo w in g c o l l e g e s : Los A n g eles C i t y — 4 ,9 1 7 o r 2 7 .0 p e r c e n t ; Los A n g e les T ra d e -T e c h —4 ,8 7 1 o r 3 3 .7 p e r c e n t ; Los A n g e les S o u th w e s t— 2 ,4 7 9 o r 9 1 .0 p e r c e n t ; and W est Los A n g e les C o l le g e —620 o r 19*9 p e r c e n t . Lower p e r c e n ta g e s w ere n o te d a t : Los A ng eles H arb o r C o lle g e — 8 .1 p e r c e n t , Los A n g e les V a l le y — 2 .4 p e r c e n t , E a s t Los A n g e le s C o lle g e — 3 .8 p e r c e n t , and Los A ngeles P ie r c e C o lle g e — .6 p e r c e n t . i t can t h u s be s e e n t h a t S o uth w est C o lle g e , Los A n g e le s C i ty C o lle g e , T ra d e -T e c h , and West Los AngeleB C o lle g e h a v e l a r g e B la c k s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n s o f a p p r o x i 44 m a te ly 20 p e r c e n t o r m ore. I t w ould a l s o a p p e a r from th e g e n e r a l e n r o llm e n t f i g u r e s g iv e n e a r l i e r t h a t t h i s m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s i s g ro w in g . S peech E d u c a tio n i n Los A ngeles Community C o lle g e s I n h i s 1943 a r t i c l e i n t h e Q u a r te r l y J o u r n a l o f Speech, P. M e r v i ll e L a rs o n r e p o r t e d t h a t j u n i o r c o ll e g e sp e e c h was s a d l y n e g l e c t e d by sp e e c h p r o f e s s i o n a l s and s c h o l a r s . He d id , h o w ev er, r e p o r t W a lte r C. E e lls * s ta te m e n t o f 1930 w hich r e v e a l e d t h a t sp e e c h c l a s s e s ( p r i m a r i l y p u b lic s p e a k in g ) w ere o f f e r e d i n 73 p e r c e n t o f t h e j u n i o r c o ll e g e s th r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n tr y ; 205 o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r e d an a v e r a g e o f 8 .5 s e m e s te r h o u r s i n s p e e c h . The p e r io d to w h ich E e l l s was r e f e r r i n g was r o u g h ly th e f i r s t y e a r t h a t Los A n g e le s C i ty C o lle g e was i n e x i s t e n c e , and t h e d e v elo p m en t o f t h i s c o l l e g e s e t t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n f o r th o s e c o l l e g e s i n t h e sy stem w hich came l a t e r . As was and c o n tin u e s t o be t h e p a t t e r n , t h e c o u rs e t h a t was m ost f r e q u e n tly o f f e r e d was t h e b e g in n in g p u b l ic sp e a k in g c l a s s ; o f f e r i n g s , h o w ev er, w ere so o n e x p an d e d . I n 1949* t h e S tu d y of t h e N eeds o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n i n Los A ngeles made a co m -; p a r i s o n b e tw ee n Los A n g eles C i t y C o lle g e and two s t a t e c o l l e g e s , F re s n o and San J o s e , on t h e b a s i s o f p r a c t i c a l a r t s c o u r s e s o f f e r e d i n t h e lo w e r d i v i s i o n . S peech was l i s t e d a s b e in g a p a r t o f an e m b ra civ e program — S p e e ch - 45 D ram a-R adio. S u r p r i s i n g l y enough., Los A n g e les C ity C o lle g e s u r p a s s e d b o th th e s t a t e c o l l e g e s i n sp e e c h o f f e r i n g s . San J o s e S t a t e o f f e r e d 17 u n i t s i n t h e b ro a d sp e e c h a r e a , F re sn o S t a t e C o lle g e o f f e r e d 26 u n i t s , and Los A n g e les C ity C o lle g e o f f e r e d 78 u n i t s , o r t h r e e tim e s t h e o f f e r i n g s o f ■31 F re s n o S t a t e C o lle g e . D e s p ite changes due t o t h e s p l i t o f b ro a d sp e e c h a r e a c o u rs e s i n t o s e p a r a t e d e p a r tm e n ts o f sp e e c h , dram a, and b r o a d c a s tin g , a l l o f t o d a y 1s Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s o f f e r sp eech c l a s s e s , even t h o s e w h ich do n o t o f f e r dram a o r b r o a d c a s tin g . T h is i s no d o u b t due l a r g e l y t o t h e f a c t t h a t a lo w er d i v i s i o n b a s i c sp e e c h c l a s s i s r e q u i r e d f o r t r a n s f e r t o f o u r - y e a r i n s t i t u t i o n s . S peech, h o w ev er, i s r e q u i r e d i n most i n s t a n c e s f o r t h e s tu d e n t i n t h e t e r m i n a l tw o -y e a r program a s w e l l . A l l o f t h e c o l l e g e s o f f e r more th a n th e b a s ic p u b lic s p e a k in g c o u r s e , and o n ly o n e, t h e new est o f t h e c o l l e g e s , d o e s n o t o f f e r S peech 4 , t h e c o u rs e i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . R e c e n t d e v e lo p m e n ts I n d i c a t e a change i n t r a n s f e r r e q u ir e m e n ts t o C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e C o l l e g e s . How t h i s w i l l a f f e c t t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c u r r e n t sp e ec h d e p a rtm e n ts i n t h e Los A n g e le s Community C o lle g e s re m a in s t o be s e e n . C h a r lo t t e Lee h a s d e f i n e d o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s " . . . t h e a r t o f com m unicating t o an a u d ie n c e , from t h e p r i n t e d p a g e , a work o f l i t e r a r y a r t i n i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l , emo- 46 t i o n a l , an d a e s t h e t i c e n t i r e t y . " ^ 2 She a l s o s t a t e d i n h e r p r e f a c e t h a t h e r t e x t was b a se d . . . on t h e tw o f o ld c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e s tu d y o f l i t e r a t u r e i s a re w a rd in g and c h a lle n g in g e x p e r ie n c e , and t h a t s h a r i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f su ch s tu d y w ith an a u d ie n c e g i v e s m o ti v a ti o n and fo c u s t o a n a l y s i s , and p l e a s u r e a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n i n p e rfo rm a n c e . O ra l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s b u i l t on s c h o l a r s h i p , t e c h n i c a l know-how, s e n s i t i v i t y , an d t h e d e s i r e t o s h a r e . I t demands t o t a l s y n th e s i s .3 3 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e demands u n d e rs ta n d in g and a n a l y s i s o f t h e w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l , and com m unication o f th e l i t e r a r y e x p e r ie n c e th r o u g h t h e medium o f t h e t o t a l p e rs o n o f t h e i n t e r p r e t e r . I t m ust be k e p t i n mind t h a t a l l l i t e r a t u r e a t one tim e was assum ed t o be r e a d a lo u d o r p e r fo rm e d , and ev en a f t e r t h e a d v e n t o f p r i n t i n g , w r i t i n g s t y l e i s s t i l l ju d g e d on t h e b a s i s o f form and s t r u c t u r e an d how t h e t o t a l p a t t e r n o f w ords "sounds" even t o t h e s i l e n t e a r o f t h e s o l i t a r y r e a d e r . W allace Bacon p o in te d o u t t h e im p o rta n c e o f com m un ication i n o r a l r e a d i n g , b u t r a i s e d t h e q u e s t io n s o f t o w hat end and t o whom w ould t h i s c o m m u n ica tio n be v a l u a b l e . C e r t a i n l y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would p o s s e s s v a lu e f o r t h e s tu d e n t " . . . b e c a u se t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t h e so u n d s g i v e s f o r t h i t s s e c r e t s t o him , w h e th e r o r oh n o t o t h e r s a r e l i s t e n i n g " t h e r e i s p o s i t i v e v a lu e i n t h i s a lo n e s i n c e t h e aim o f a l l academ ic work i s t h e ed u c a t i o n o f t h e s t u d e n t . Bacon g o es f u r t h e r , how ever, and s t a t e s : 47 I t i s o u r p o i n t o f v iew t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may b e s t be d e f in e d a s t h e s tu d y o f l i t e r a t u r e th ro u g h t h e medium o f o r a l p e rfo rm a n o e . I n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e p e rf o r m e r i s le d th ro u g h one o f t h e m ost p r o f o u n d ly c i v i l i z i n g o f a l l p r o c e s s e s — t h e e d u c a tio n o f t h e s e n s e s , i n t h e r i c h e s t s e n s e o f t h e p h r a s e — th r o u g h t h e e x p e r ie n c e o f l i t e r a t u r e . . . . The s e n s e s a r e e d u c a te d when t h e y a r e made n o t o n ly f i n e l y o p e r a t i v e b u t a l s o p e r c e p t i v e , and a r e c o o r d in a te d w ith t a s t e an d ju d g m e n t. S e n so ry e x p e r i e n c e u n d e r l i e s a l l t h o u g h t; in d e e d t h i n k i n g h a s b een d e s c r i b e d a s t h e flo w o f f e l t s e n s in g and f e e l i n g . . . a s a " l i v i n g t e x t u r e o f e n v iro n m e n ta l i n t e r a c t i o n . " O n e 's f e e l i n g s a b o u t a t h i n g o r an i s s u e o r a p e r s o n o r an a t t i t u d e in v o lv e a l l o f o n e 's r e s p o n s e s ; th e y a r e t h e f o c u s in g o f o n e 's l i v i n g s e l f on a c o n t e x t . 35 O ra l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n r e q u i r e s , a s Bacon p u t s i t , t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e e x p e r ie n c e o f l i t e r a t u r e i n t o t h e e x p e r ie n c e o f t h e r e a d e r o r i n t e r p r e t e r ; t h i s c a n o n ly be a c h ie v e d by t h e u s e o f memory and im a g in a tio n g u id e d by t h e t h o u g h t f u l p r o c e s s e s o f t h e m ind. B o th Bacon and Lee a g re e t h a t under^ s ta n d in g a lo n e , how ever, i s i n s u f f i c i e n t ; t h e r e a d e r m ust em ploy b o th v o ic e and body t o c r e a t e em pathy w ith t h e a u d i en ce a s w e ll a s w ith t h e w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l t o com m unicate t h e l i t e r a r y work i n i t s e n t i r e t y . T h is r e l a t e s t o w hat Lee c a l l e d " t o t a l s y n t h e s i s . " I t i s t h e t o t a l f e e l i n g f o r and w ith t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t t h e s t u d e n t i s s t r i v i n g t o s h a r e w ith h i s a u d ie n c e ; th r o u g h t h i s t o t a l i t y t h e s tu d e n t g a in s t h e t r u e v a lu e o f l i t e r a t u r e , and t h e a u d ie n c e s h a r e s t h e e x p e r ie n c e w ith him . W hile g r a n t i n g t h e s e o f t - s t a t e d and n o b le e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , R i t a Chavez r a i s e d a p e r t i n e n t q u e s tio n s L et me a s k th e n , i f u n d e r s ta n d in g and a p p r e c i a t i o n a r e t h e g o a ls o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e r e a d in g c l a s s e s and i f enjoym ent i s t h e b y - p r o d u c t, why i s i t t h a t m in o r i t y 48 s t u d e n t s do n o t e n r o l l I n t h e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n c l a s s e s ? I s i t o n ly t h e w h ite s t u d e n t who c a n e n jo y l i t e r a - tu re? 3 o The p o s i t i v e e d u c a tiv e v a lu e s o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h o u ld he made a v a i l a b l e t o a l l s t u d e n t s , and i n b ro a d e n in g th e sco p e t o i n c lu d e t h e n e e d s and d e s i r e s o f B lac k m in o r ity s t u d e n t s th e w hole a r e a o f s tu d y i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s e n r ic h e d and b ro a d e n e d f o r t h e t o t a l s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n . I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e sp e e c h a r t s program i n t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s i n i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e l a r g e num ber o f B lac k m in o r i t y s t u d e n t s , one m ust f i r s t a tte m p t t o g a in some know ledge o f t h e e x p re s s e d d e s i r e s o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s , and t h e n t o s e e w hat i s a c t u a l l y b e in g done i n sp e e c h a r t s c l a s s e s i n t h e c o l l e g e s . B la c k S t u d e n t s ' A t t i t u d e s Toward " O r a l P e rfo rm a n c e o f L i t e r a t u r e - I n o r d e r t o a s s e s s t h e s t a t u s o f t h e sp e e c h a r t s p r o gram i n t h e Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e s , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o g a in a p u rv ie w o f t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l program from t e a c h e r s o f S peech 4 . A t t i t u d e s o f t h e B lac k community c o l l e g e s t u d e n t , h ow ever, w ere deemed t o be o f even g r e a t e r v a lu e i n e s t im a t i n g B la c k s t u d e n t s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s from th e sp e e c h a r t s p ro g ram . A s t u d e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e was p r e p a re d t o a s s i s t i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f o llo w in g ; 1. What i s th e e x te n t o f a c q u a in ta n c e o f t h e a v e ra g e B lac k s tu d e n t i n t h e com m unity c o l l e g e w ith o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ? 49 2. What a r e t h e a t t i t u d e s o f th e s e s t u d e n ts to w a rd o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e o f l i t e r a t u r e ? 3 . What a u th o r s and ty p e s o f l i t e r a t u r e h o ld a p p e a l f o r B la c k comm unity c o ll e g e s tu d e n ts ? 4 . Do t h e s e s t u d e n ts hav e any I n s t i n c t i v e " b e lie f t h a t o r a l r e a d in g and p e rfo rm an c e can make l i t e r a t u r e m ore m e a n in g fu l t o them? 5 . I n w hich g e n e r a l a r e a s o f l i t e r a t u r e i s t h e i r know l edge w e a k e st o r s t r o n g e s t ? 6 . W hat, i f an y , a r e s tu d e n t d e s i r e s r e g a r d i n g m ethod o f p e rfo rm a n c e o f l i t e r a t u r e i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ? S tu d e n ts a t Los A n geles S o u th w est C o lle g e w ere c h o s e n a s s u b j e c t s , s in c e t h e l a r g e p e rc e n ta g e o f B lac k s t u d e n t s made i t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o i s o l a t e and e l i m i n a t e t h e r e l a t i v e l y few r e s p o n s e s o f t h e C a u c a sia n , O r i e n t a l , and f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . T h is s tu d e n t body was a l s o c h o s e n s in c e i t r e p r e s e n t s p r o b a b ly t h e m ost h e te ro g e n e o u s so c io e c o n o m ic B la c k g ro u p encom passing a l l l e v e l s and a g e s I n t h e l a r g e r S o u th Los A n g eles B lac k com m unity. To com ply w ith r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e rn in g t h e s t u d e n t s ' r i g h t t o p r i v a c y , a n d t o e n c o u ra g e h o n e s t a n sw e rs, s t u d e n ts w ere n o t r e q u i r e d t o p r o v id e name o r se x , e t c . ( a l l form s w ere f i l l e d o u t anony m o usly) and w ere f r e e to r e f u s e to answ er t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . S in c e t e a c h e r s ' r i g h t s t o an u n d is tu r b e d c l a s s p e r i o d w ere r e s p e c t e d , th e r e s e a r c h e r was i n v i t e d t o i n d i v i d u a l c l a s s s e s s i o n s by t e a c h e r s who i n d i c a t e d t h a t tim e w ould be ; a v a i l a b l e . To g a in a v a l i d sa m p lin g , c l a s s e s r e p r e s e n t i n g a l l a r e a s o f c o l l e g e d i s c i p l i n e s w ere c h o se n — s p e e c h , home e c o n o m ic s, E n g lis h , p h ilo s o p h y , m u sic, g e n e r a l an d a d v an ced 50 ; m a th e m a tic s , b u s i n e s s , eco n o m ics, p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e , h i s t o r y , s o c io lo g y , p s y c h o lo g y , s c i e n c e , an d p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n . T hese c l a s s e s ra n g e d i n s i z e from s m a ll c l a s s e s w ith a s few a s f i v e s t u d e n t s t o a v e ra g e c l a s s e s o f a p p ro x im a te ly tw e n ty t o t h i r t y s t u d e n t s . P r i o r t o a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e to t h e g e n e r a l s tu d e n t bo dy, t h e r e s e a r c h e r p r e s e n t e d th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o f i f t y - n i n e o f h e r own s p e e c h s t u d e n t s . D u rin g t h i s p r e t e s t p e r i o d , t h e r e s e a r c h e r was a b le to r e f i n e th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e and t o make i n s t r u c t i o n s more s p e c i f i c . ( I t i s I n t e r e s t i n g t o n o te t h e s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n , h ow ever, betw een t h e p r e t e s t o f t h e 59 s t u d e n t s , and th e 562 r e s p o n s e s made l a t e r by s t u d e n t s i n t h e g e n e r a l s u r v e y . The f i r s t f o u r q u e s t io n s and t h e r e s p o n s e s i n p e r c e n t ag es a r e shown i n T a b le 1. The a n sw e rs t o Q u e stio n 1 i n d i c a t e t h a t 60 p e r c e n t a r e unaw are o r u n c e r t a i n a b o u t what i s o f f e r e d i n S p eech 4 , and t h a t o n ly 12 p e r c e n t a r e r e l a t i v e l y s u r e . I t m ig h t th e n be a rg u e d t h a t ig n o r a n c e a lo n e a c c o u n ts f o r t h e l a c k o f I n t e r e s t shown by B la c k s t u d e n ts i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Q u e s tio n 2 shows t h a t t h e m a jo r ity o f B lac k s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e an i n t e r e s t i n r e a d in g w ith o n ly 3 p e r c e n t t o t a l l y d i s l i k i n g r e a d i n g , and Q u e s tio n 3 r e v e a l s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y have a t some tim e l i s t e n e d t o o r w atch ed l i t e r a t u r e r e a d a lo u d . Q u e s tio n 4 i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e m a j o r i t y h a v e e n jo y e d o r a l r e a d in g t o some e x t e n t . Thus i t w ould seem t h a t a lth o u g h t h e i n t e r e s t i n l l t e r a - TABLE 1 RESPO NSES T O Q UESTIO NS 1 T H R O U G H k GIVEN IN P E R C E N T A G E S (N=562) Yes Completely Yes Somewhat Undecided No Somewhat No No Response 1. Do you know what i s studied in Speech 4, Introduction to Interpretation? 12 22 6 11 49 1 2 . Do you enjoy reading? 56 36 2 2 3 0 5- Have you ever liste n e d to or watched lite r a tu r e (s to r ie s , poems, dramatic scenes, e t c .) read aloud? 63 22 2 7 6 0 4 . Have you enjoyed any o f th ese -rea d in g s? 53 30 4 7 4 2 v ji H * 52 t u r e and o r a l r e a d in g i s p r e s e n t , s u f f i c i e n t know ledg e o r e x p o su re t o th e d i s c i p l i n e o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s l a c k i n g . The n e x t s e r i e s o f q u e s t io n s r e l a t e d t o t h e ty p e s o f r e a d in g m a t e r i a l s e n jo y e d by t h e s t u d e n t s . The r e s p o n s e s a r e t a b u l a t e d i n T a b le 2. The a n sw e rs i n d i c a t e I n t e r e s t i n a l l m ajo r c a t e g o r i e s ; h i g h e s t p e r c e n t a g e s a r e i n t h e a r e a s o f m y s te r ie s and a c t i o n s t o r i e s , y e t t h e o t h e r s h ave a p o s i t i v e r a t i n g o f o v e r 50 p e r c e n t w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f comic bo o k s. S e v e r a l s t u d e n ts l a t e r comm ented on t h e o m is s io n o f s c ie n c e f i c t i o n from t h e l i t e r a r y c a t e g o r i e s , s i n c e th e y i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s was t h e i r f a v o r i t e ty p e o f l i t e r a t u r e ; some had a p p a r e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d i t t o be u n d e r t h e g e n e r a l h e a d in g o f a c t i o n s t o r i e s a n d r a t e d a c c o r d i n g l y . T a b le 3 r e v e a l s t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l p e r c e n ta g e o f t h e s t u d e n ts q u e s tio n e d w ere f a m i l i a r t o some e x t e n t w ith v a r i ous ty p e s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s o f l i t e r a t u r e and t h a t th e m a j o r i t y e n jo y e d t h e p e rf o r m a n c e s . The q u e s t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g to s t u d e n t s 1 s u g g e s t i o n s f o r m ore i n t e r e s t i n g o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s a r e t a b u l a t e d i n T a b le 4 . The t h r e e m ost p o p u la r s u g g e s tio n s f o r Im provem ent w ere t h e u s e o f c o n te m p o ra ry m a t e r i a l , movement on s t a g e , and m u s ic a l o r rh y th m ic b a c k g ro u n d s. S u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e u s e o f e th n i c m a t e r i a l d id n o t a p p e a r t o be a s p o p u l a r w ith t h e s t u d e n t s a s t h e r e s e a r c h e r h a d b e li e v e d i t w ould b e : 27 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s w ere u n d e c id e d , a n d 20 p e r o e n t g av e n e g a t i v e TABLE 2 RESPO NSES T O Q UESTIO NS 5 T H R O U G H 15 G IVEN IN PE R C E N T A G E S (n=562) (What types o f reading m aterials do you enjoy?) Yes Completely Yes Somewhat Undecided No Somewhat No No Response 5- M ysteries 29 6 7 11 4 6 . A ction sto r ie s k7 50 6 7 5 6 7* Romances 57 27 8 10 15 5 8 . Comic books 19 21 5 19 50 6 9 . Tales o f the supernatural (ghost s to r ie s , weird t a le s , e t c .) 55 25 8 11 18 5 10. L iterature o f contemporary problems 55 29 15 7 12 6 11. Sports s to r ie s 28 25 10 15 21 6 22. Plays 55 28 12 9 12 6 15. R eligiou s sto r ie s or readings 55 2T 12 11 12 5 14. Light or humorous se le c tio n s 59 51 10 8 6 5 ;15. Poetry 55 52 11 9 11 4 VJl u> TABLE 3 RESPONSES T O Q UESTIO NS 16 T H R O U G H 21 GIVEN IN P E R C E N T A G E S (Have you heard, seen or are acquainted w ith any o f the follow ing?) Yes Completely Yes Somewhat Undecided No Somewhat No No Response 16. Actors on TV reading lite r a tu r e? (Orson W elles, fo r example) 49 15 6 4 23 3 17. Poetry readings a t co ffee houses, inform al gatherings, e t c . ? 26 13 6 7 44 5 18. The Watts Prophets? 25 13 9 6 42 5 19. The Last Poets? 35 12 8 6 3^ 5 20. Oral performances o f B ib lic a l sele ctio n s? 42 16 7 8 23 4 21. Have you enjoyed any o f th ese performances? 49 25 2D 4 8 4 ui 4 = r TABLE k RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS 22 THROUGH 27 GIVEN IN PERCENTAGES ("What would you "believe would make the performances more interesting?) Yes Completely Yes Somewhat Undecided No Somewhat No No Response 22. Modem m aterial 37 29 19 5 5 5 2 5. Movement on stage 37 28 19 5 6 6 2 k. M usical or rhythmic background k6 22 16 k 6 6 2 5. Ethnic m aterial 29 25 27 5 8 7 26. E asier c la s s ic a l m aterial 18 21 31 8 13 8 2 7. Scenic backgrounds 33 21 2 1 1 - 7 8 7 vn VJl r e s p o n s e s . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t many o f t h e s t u d e n ts d id n o t u n d e r s ta n d th e m eaning o f t h e te rm " e t h n i c . " The u se o f e a s i e r c l a s s i c a l m a t e r i a l a l s o seemed t o i n d i c a t e u n c e r t a i n t y ., a s 31 p e r c e n t w ere u n d e c id e d a b o u t t h i s . What does seem t o be c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d by t h e s e q u e s tio n s i s t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s t e n d t o f a v o r t h e i n c l u s i o n o f n o n v e rb a l a s p e c t s o f co m m u n icatio n t o en hance t h e o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s . The n e x t s e r i e s o f q u e s tio n s d e a l t w ith v a r io u s a u t h o r s ; t h e s t u d e n t s w ere a sk e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e i r a w a re n e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l a u th o r s and t h e i r a t t i t u d e s to w a rd t h e i r w r i t i n g s . The m ost p o p u la r o f t h e w r i t e r s l i s t e d w ere Jam es B aldw in and E d g ar A lla n Poe; s t u d e n ts w ere f a m i l i a r w ith them f o r t h e m ost p a r t and i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i r w ork. The n e x t h i g h e s t p o s i t i v e r a t i n g s w ere g iv e n two B lac k w r i t e r s , L a n g s to n Hughes and E ld r ld g e C le a v e r, and W illia m S h a k e s p e a re . O nly 3 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s h a d n e v e r h e a r d o f S h a k e s p e a re , th o u g h l4 p e r c e n t w ere u n f a m i l i a r w ith Hughes and 12 p e r c e n t w ith C le a v e r . R a th e r s u r p r i s i n g l y , Jo h n S te in b e c k a p p e a re d somewhat more p o p u la r th a n LeRol J o n e s , and 21 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s d id n o t even know o f LeR oi J o n e s . Some o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d B lac k w r i t e r s such a s Jam es Weldon Jo h n s o n , R ic h a rd W rig h t, and P a u l Law rence D unbar w ere r e l a t i v e l y f a m i l i a r t o t h e s t u d e n t s , a lth o u g h a l i t t l e o v e r a q u a r t e r o f them had n e v e r h e a r d o f t h e s e w r i t e r s , and o t h e r s l i k e C ountee C u lle n , C laude McKay, an d A rna Bontem ps w ere n o t w ell-know n t o th e 57 s t u d e n t s . Two o f t h e m ost g i f t e d o f t h e c o n te m p o ra ry B la c k w r i t e r s , Gwendolyn B rooks an d R alp h E l l i s o n , w ere n o t r a t e d a s p o p u la r o r f a m i l i a r a s E l i z a b e t h B a r r e t t B row ning and R o b e rt F r o s t . C ontem porary p o e t s , i n g e n e r a l , w ere unknown t o t h e s t u d e n t s , so th e B la c k p o e te s s e s M a rg a re t W alker and M arl Evans r e c e i v e d lo w er r a t i n g s i n r e c o g n i t i o n and popu l a r i t y . (See T ab le 5») C e r ta in c o n c lu s io n s c a n be made from t h e s e f i n d i n g s . I t a p p e a rs t h a t m ost o f t h e B lac k s t u d e n t s seem ed more f a m i l i a r w ith e s t a b l i s h e d w h ite a u t h o r s an d t h e i r w orks t h a n w ith w orks o f th e members o f t h e i r own r a c e , d e s p i t e t h e r a t i n g s o f B aldw in, H ughes, and C le a v e r . S h a k e s p e a re i s p a r t i c u l a r l y p o p u la r ; t h i s may r e f l e c t two t h i n g s : t h e d e s i r e t o expand and b ro a d e n t h e i r l i t e r a r y h o r i z o n s , and r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e f a c t t h a t S h a k e s p e a re r e p r e s e n t s i n t h e i r m inds t h e epitom e o f a c c e p te d l i t e r a r y s t a n d a r d s o f e x c e ll e n c e and h o ld s a g r e a t d e a l o f "sn o b a p p e a l ." In g e n e r a l , one c o u ld assum e from t h i s e v id e n c e t h a t p o e t s , when known and r e c o g n iz e d , t e n d t o be v e ry p o p u la r w ith t h e s e B lack s t u d e n t s ; t h e a n t i p a t h y to w a rd p o e t r y o f t e n n o te d i n w h ite s tu d e n t b o d ie s d o es n o t seem e v id e n t w ith t h e B la c k s ; The l a s t t h r e e q u e s t io n s and r e s p o n s e s can be s e e n i n T a b le 6 . An overw helm ing m a j o r i t y o f t h e s t u d e n t s q u e s t i o n e d b e li e v e d t h a t t h e s tu d y o f l i t e r a t u r e c o u ld be made more m e a n in g fu l by p e rfo rm a n c e s , even th o u g h some o f th e s e T A B L E 5 RESPO NSES T O Q UESTIO NS 28 T H R O U G H ; 6 l G IVEN IN PE R C E N T A G E S Yes Yes No No £ L Completely Somewhat Undecided Somewhat No Response 28. Langston Hughes 48 15 17 2 4 14 2 9. William Shakespeare 39 25 15 7 10 3 JO. E lizabeth Barrett Browning 26 19 22 3 10 20 31. LeRoi Jones 33 15 20 2 8 21 32. Dylan Thomas 10 11 30 3 11 33 33* John Keats 14 14 31 4 10 27 34. W . H. Auden 6 8 28 4 13 40 35* James Weldon Johnson 29 12 23 2 7 27 36. Percey S h elley 12 12 29 4 10 33 37* Margaret Walker 8 9 30 4 9 39 38. Countee Cullen 12 9 28 3 11 37 39* Karl Shapiro 7 9 30 2 12 4 l 40. Eldridge Cleaver 42 25 . 14 2 6 12 4 l . Kurt Vonnegut, J r. 6 7 , 29 2 12 43 42. John Steinbeck 34 25 14 3 7 17 43. James Baldwin 54 20 11 2 3 10 44. Edgar A llen Poe 54 24 6 2 4 10 4-5. Gwendolyn Brooks 19 12 24 3 7 34- TABLE 5— Continued Yes Completely Yes Somewhat Undecided No Somewhat No No a Eesponse 46. Lord Byron 15 14 25 6 9 30 47. T. S. E lio t 17 13 25 3 9 33 48. Sophocles 12 10 29 3 10 3 6 49. Claude McKay 15 8 24 3 1 2 4o 50* Eranz Kafka 6 5 30 3 13 44 51. Bod McKuen 9 11 25 4 11 39 52. Ama Bontemps 10 7 24 3 12 44 53- Bohert Frost 26 2 2 21 3 7 21 54. e . e . cummings 14 15 22 4 8 36 55 • Paul Lawrence Bunhar 32 1 6 1 8 1 7 26 5 6. Carl Sandburg 2 8 2 0 20 4 6 23 57* Bichard Wright 37 17 13 4 6 23 5 8* Ezra Pound 6 8 29 4 1 0 42 59* Ealph E lliso n 1 8 11 23 3 8 36 60. Lawrence F e r lin g h e tti 4 6 28 2 11 48 6 l. Mari Evans 10 9 23 3 9 45 EL Omission of this response indicated total ignorance of author. \j i vo TABLE 6 RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS 62 THROUGH 64 GIVEN IN PERCENTAGES Yes Completely Yes Somewhat Undecided N o Somewhat No No Response 2 . Do you b e liev e th a t the study o f lit e r a ture could, be made more meaningful by performance o f the selectio n s? 6 l 21 10 1 4 3 3. Do you b elie v e th a t more modem m aterial relevant to the contemporary scene should be performed? 52 19 19 5 3 4 I f you had a fr e e e le c tiv e choice, do you b e lie v e th a t Speech k -would be a course holding any in te r e st or b en e fit fo r you? 40 21 24- 3 10 2 G\ O 61 s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d i n Q u e s tio n 64 t h a t t h e y w ould n o t p e r s o n a l l y be i n t e r e s t e d i n t a k i n g a c o u rs e i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The m a j o r i t y a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t more m odern m a t e r i a l r e l e v a n t t o t h e c o n te m p o ra ry s c e n e s h o u ld be p e r fo rm ed . F i n a l l y , o v e r 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d an i n c l i n a t i o n to w a rd t a k i n g a c o u r s e i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , 24 p e r c e n t w ere u n d e c id e d , w hich c o u ld be n a t u r a l c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e y w ere p r o b a b ly u n s u r e o f a c t u a l c o u rs e c o n t e n t , and a m ere 15 p e r c e n t gave n e g a t iv e r e s p o n s e s . I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e a n sw ers t o t h e o r i g i n a l f i v e q u e s t i o n s can be a s s e s s e d t o some e x te n t from t h e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e : 1. I t seem s e v id e n t t h a t t h e a v e ra g e B la c k com m unity c o l l e g e s t u d e n t i s n o t a c q u a in te d w ith o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 2. The B la c k s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d v e r y p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s to w a rd o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s o f l i t e r a t u r e . 3 . Most t y p e s o f l i t e r a t u r e a p p e a r t o h o ld some a p p e a l f o r t h e s e s t u d e n t s w ith m y s te ry and a c t i o n s t o r i e s h o ld in g g r e a t e s t a p p e a l . (T h is may a c c o u n t f o r t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f P o e .) 4 . An overw helm ing m a j o r i t y o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h e i r i n s t i n c t i v e b e l i e f t h a t o r a l r e a d i n g an d p e r fo rm a n c e s c a n make l i t e r a t u r e m ore m e a n in g fu l t o them . 5 . W ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f Jam es B a ld w in , L a n g sto n H ugher, and E ld r id g e C le a v e r, m ost o f t h e s t u d e n t s a p p e a r t o h a v e more know ledge o f e s t a b l i s h e d w h ite a u th o r s th a n t h e y do o f B lac k a u t h o r s , even o u t s t a n d in g o n e s . T h e i r know ledge seem s s t r o n g e s t w ith r e g a r d t o t h e more c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r s a n d weak e s t w ith c o n te m p o ra ry a u t h o r s . They a l s o i n d i c a t e a know ledge o f and an i n t e r e s t i n p o e t r y . 62 6 . The s t u d e n t s I n d i c a t e d s tr o n g d e s i r e s t o in c lu d e e x t r a - v e r b a l f a c t o r s i n o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s such a s m u sic , rh y th m ic b a c k g ro u n d s, and movement. Some even f e l t s c e n e r y c o u ld enhance th e p e rfo rm a n c e s. I n c l u s i o n o f more m odern, r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l was b e l i e v e d t o be o f v a lu e . W eaknesses i n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e a r e conceded by t h e r e s e a r c h e r . The u s e o f an sw er s h e e ts a lw ay s p r e s e n t s a p ro b lem t o many s t u d e n t s . A ll auth orB and ty p e s o f l i t e r a t u r e w ere, o f n e c e s s i t y , n o t in c lu d e d . Some o f th e s t u d e n ts became c o n fu s e d and u se d th e o m is sio n o f an answ er t o i n d i c a t e no a s w e l l a s la c k o f know ledge on Q u e stio n s 1 th r o u g h 27 an d 62 th r o u g h 6 4 . The random sa m p lin g , th o u g h b ro a d , in c lu d e d b u t a p o r t i o n o f t h e s tu d e n t body. D e s p ite t h e s e w e a k n e ss e s , t h e r e s u l t s do g iv e c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n s o f a t t i t u d e s and d e s i r e s o f B lac k community c o l l e g e s t u d e n ts w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e s tu d y o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e . P o t e n t i a l s t u d e n t i n t e r e s t i s t h e r e , and speech t e a c h e r s m ust make t h e c o u rs e m e a n in g fu l f o r them . O ra l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n Program s i n Los A n g e le s Community C o lle g e s I n an a tte m p t t o a s s e s s t h e c u r r e n t s t a t u s o f th e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p ro g ram i n t h e Los A n g eles Community C o l l e g e s , two q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w ere p re p a r e d and s e n t t o Los A n g e les c o l l e g e sp e e c h i n s t r u c t o r s who ta u g h t c l a s s e s i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o r c l a s s e s w hich w ould em ploy th e m ethods and te c h n iq u e s o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . S in ce t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w ere p r e p a r e d and m a ile d t o I n s t r u c t o r s 63 p r i o r t o t h e o p en in g o f t h e f a l l B em ester, 1971 j t h e i n f o r m a tio n r e q u e s t e d p e r t a i n e d s o l e l y t o t h e l a s t c o m p le te d academ ic s c h o o l year., 1970-1971* T e a c h e rs o f t h e f o llo w in g c l a s s e s w ere s e l e c t e d : S peech 4 — I n t r o d u c t i o n t o I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , Speech 3 — V oice and D i c t i o n , and S peech 15— S t o r y t e l l i n g f o r C h ild re n ] a s e p a r a t e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was s e n t to t h e f o r e n s i c c o a c h e s . S in c e many o f t h e e v e n in g i n s t r u c t o r s w ere n o t r e g u l a r t e a c h e r s i n t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e D i s t r i c t , th e y w ere e lim in a te d ,* o n ly f u l l - t i m e r e g u l a r i n s t r u c t o r s w ere c o n t a c t e d , t h i r t y - t h r e e i n num ber. Of t h i s num ber, f i v e d id n o t r e s p o n d , and a s i x t h r e t u r n e d a b la n k q u e s t i o n n a i r e . A l l e ig h t c o l l e g e s o f f e r e d S p eech 3 — V o ic e and D i c ti o n ; t h r e e o f f e r e d Speech 15— S t o r y - t e l l i n g f o r C h ild r e n ; se v e n o f f e r e d Speech 4 , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , on a f a i r l y r e g u l a r b a s i s ; and s e v e n h a d a program i n f o r e n s i c s . Q u e s tio n n a ir e D ata What was y o u r t e a c h in g p ro g ra m , P a l l , 1970* S p r in g , 1971?— A lth o u g h a l l t e a c h e r s d i d n o t f u r n i s h i n f o r m a t i o n , T a b le 7 r e v e a l s t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f t h e I n s t r u c t o r s 1 p ro g ra m s. Of t h e tw e n ty -s e v e n t e a c h e r s who r e t u r n e d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , s e v e n d id n o t a n sw e r t h i s q u e s t i o n , o r an sw ered i t In c o m p le te ly . I t i s o b v io u s , ho w ev er, t h a t t h e c o u rs e s m ost f r e q u e n t l y t a u g h t by t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e t e a c h e r s a r e S peech 1 and S peeoh 3> w ith S peech 1 t a u g h t T A B L E 7 TEACHING PROGRAM— FALL, 1970 TO SPRING, 1971 Teachers o f: Speech 3 w Speech 4 (7) Speech 15 (3) Speech 13 (Forensics) (5) T otals Public Speaking I - Speech 1 5 7 3 k 19 Public Speaking I I - Speech 2 0 l l k 5 Voice and D iction - Speech 3 i4 l 0 0 16 Intro, to Interp retation - Speech ^ 1 7 0 1 9 Speech fo r Foreign Students - Speech 9 2 0 ' 1 0 3 Argumentation I - Speech 11 0 0 0 k k Argumentation I I - Speech 12 0 0 0 3 3 Forensics - Speech 13 0 1 0 5 6 Story T ellin g - Speech 15 0 1 3 0 k B asic Speech S k ills - Speech 30 0 1 0 0 l ;Communication S k ills - Speech J > ± 2 0 0 0 2 Speech C lin ic - Speech ^0 3 0 0 1 4 Speech Laboratory - Speech 4 l 2 0 0 0 2 c\ 4 = - by more t e a c h e r s In a l l a r e a s i n t h e sp e e c h d i s c i p l i n e . S peech 3 t e a c h e r s seem t o be th e o n ly ones t e a c h i n g S peech 40 and 4 l , S peech C l in i c and Speech Lab ( w ith one e x c e p t i o n ) , and S peech 31j Com m unication S k i l l s . S p e e ch 4 i n s t r u c t o r s m a in ly c o n c e n tr a te on Speech 4 and 1; t h e same p a t t e r n i s t r u e o f S peech 15 t e a c h e r s . F o r e n s i c s i n s t r u c t o r s t e a c h S peech 1 and 2, as w e ll as 11, 12, an d 13j t h i s i s l o g i c a l s i n c e th o s e a r e t h e p u b lic s p e a k in g an d a r g u m e n ta tio n c o u r s e s . What t e x t ( o r t e x t s ) were u s e d i n C l a s s e s ? — By f a r , t h e m ost p o p u l a r t e x t f o r Speech 3 I s t h e G rasham and G ooder t e x t , Im pro v in g Y our S p e e ch . T a b le 8 g i v e s t h e g e n e r a l u s a g e o f Speech 3 t e x t u a l m a t e r i a l . T A B L E 8 SPE E C H 5 TEX TS Improve T ip ; Your Speech.1 —Grasham and Qooder Improvement of Voice and D iction —Eisenson Voice and D iction —I y le V. Mayer Voice & A rticu la tio n D r ills—Hahn No te x t T h e re was l e s s ag reem en t among Speech 4 te a c h e r B r e g a r d i n g t e x t s , a lth o u g h one I n s t r u c t o r n o te d t h a t t h e W o o lb e rt and N e lso n t e x t w ould be changed by F a l l , 1971 t o t h e one by T otals 6 5 2 1 5 66 C h a r l o t t e Lee* m aking t h e Lee t e x t t h e m ost p o p u la r s e l e c t i o n . T A B L E 9 SPEECH 4 TEXTS Your Bole in Oral In terp retation —Se sslo n s & Holland Oral In terp reta tio n —C harlotte Lee Oral Reading—Crocker and Eich Art o f In terp reta tiv e Speech—Woolbert and Nelson Communicative Reading—A ggertt and Bowen Two o f t h e S peech 15 t e a c h e r s u s e d two o r more t e x t s * two o f w hich w ere t h e sam e. One t e a c h e r u s e d h e r own t e x t . T A B L E 10 SPEEC H 15 TEXTS Children * s L iterature Through S to r y te llin g —Wagner Oral Int erpretat ion o f C hildrenrs L iteratu re — Bramman* Dawson and Whitehead Teacher1s Guide to S to r y te llin g —J . A. Wagner and R. W . Smith Learn to T e ll a Story—Jane B. S p ilio s Were any o u t s i d e a n th o lo g y o r a n t h o l o g i e s s p e c i f i e d and a s s i g n e d ? —Pew o f t h e t e a c h e r s q u e s tio n e d a s s i g n e d any o u t s i d e a n t h o l o g i e s . One o f t h e S peech 3 t e a c h e r s a s s ig n e d a te x t* T r i p p i n g l y on t h e Tongue* and two m e n tio n ed t h e u se o f d u p l i c a t e d p r a c t i c e m a t e r i a l . T h re e o f t h e S peech 4 T otals 2 2 1 1 T otals 2 2 1 1 1 67 te a c h e rB s t a t e d t h a t o u t s i d e a n th o l o g i e s w ere a s s ig n e d ; one m e n tio n e d A m erican N egro P o e tr y e d i t e d by A rna B ontem ps, a n o th e r m en tio n e d E n g lis h l i t e r a t u r e a n t h o l o g i e s , and t h e l a s t s t a t e d t h a t a n th o l o g i e s o f p o e tr y , l i t e r a t u r e , and p l a y s w ere a s s i g n e d . S p e c i f i c names o r t i t l e s o f t h e a n t h o l o g i e s w ere n o t g iv e n . I f t h e c l a s s h a d f r e e c h o ic e o f o u t s i d e m a t e r i a l , d id you recommend an y p a r t i c u l a r c o l l e c t i o n s o r s o u r c e s ? —H ere t h e t e a c h e r s a g a i n te n d e d t o p r e f e r t o le a v e c h o ic e and s e l e c t i o n up t o t h e s t u d e n t s . One Speech 3 t e a c h e r who d id n o t u s e a t e x t a s s ig n e d t h r e e t e x t s a s o u t s i d e s o u r c e s — V o ic e S c ie n c e by J u d s o n and W eaver, V o ice and A r t i c u l a t i o n by Van R ip e r , and Im provem ent o f V oice and D i c ti o n by E is e n s o n , P o u r S peech 3 t e a c h e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t su c h m a te r i a l a s a n t h o l o g i e s , m a g a z in e s, n e w sp a p e rs, and c h i l d r e n ’ s s t o r i e s w ould be recom m ended; one recommended re c o r d e d m a t e r i a l s su c h a s H am let w ith R ed g rav e ; and a n o th e r s t a t e d reco m m en d atio n s w ould be made o n ly i f t h e s t u d e n t came t o a s k f o r h e l p . T h re e o f t h e Speech 4 t e a c h e r s s t a t e d t h a t th e y d id n o t make any rec o m m e n d atio n s, y e t i n d i c a t e d a w i l l i n g n e s s t o h e lp each s t u d e n t on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s t o f i n d and s e l e c t m a t e r i a l s u i t e d t o him . The o t h e r S peech 4 t e a c h e r s c la im e d t h a t t h e y d id i n f a c t recommend o u t s i d e oO m a t e r i a l : one m e n tio n e d G r a in g e rs ( t i t l e was n o t g i v e n ) , D and t h e o t h e r s m e n tio n e d g e n e r a l a n th o l o g i e s and c o l l e o - 68 t i o n s . A l l o f t h e Speech 4 t e a c h e r s , h o w e v er, seemed, t o co n v ey t h e im p r e s s io n t h a t th e s e rec o m m e n d atio n s w ould be made on a n i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s , d ep en d in g on t h e n e e d s and i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s t u d e n t . What was t h e e n ro llm e n t i n y o u r c l a s s e s ? — S peech 3> 4 , and 15 t e a c h e r s w ere a sk e d t o g iv e a n e t h n i c a s w e ll a s a n u m e r ic a l breakdow n o f t h e i r c l a s s e n r o l l m e n t s . One o f t h e S p eech 3 t e a c h e r s d id n o t answ er t h e q u e s t i o n , a n o th e r s t a t e d t h a t sh e h a d no r e c o r d b u t t h a t a l l w e re r e p r e s e n t e d , and a n o t h e r gave an sw ers i n p e r c e n t a g e s — F a l l o f 1970: 25 p e r c e n t B la c k , 50 p e r c e n t C a u c a sia n , 10 p e r c e n t O r i e n t a l , and 15 p e r c e n t S p a n ish surnam ej S p rin g o f 1 9 7 1 : 30 p e r c e n t B la c k , 40 p e r c e n t C a u c a sia n , 10 p e r c e n t O r i e n t a l , and 10 p e r c e n t S p a n is h su rn am e. The o t h e r S peech 3 t e a c h e r s 1 r e s p o n s e s a r e shown i n T a b le 11. I t i s c l e a r from t h e s e r e s p o n s e s t h a t w ith g e n e r a l e x c e p tio n s su c h a s a r e a and l o c a t i o n o f c o l l e g e s , a l a r g e p e r c e n ta g e o f B la c k s t u d e n t s e n r o l l i n S peech 3> V oice and D ic tio n , w i t h t h e n e x t l a r g e s t m i n o r i t y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n S p a n ish surnam e s t u d e n t s . The p a t t e r n o f e n ro llm e n t i n S peech 4 c l a s s e s i s shown i n T a b le 12. H e re , t h e s u b s t a n t i a l l y lo w e r num ber o f s t u d e n ts i n t h e s e c l a s s e s i s a p p a r e n t, w i t h t h e l a r g e s t num b e r s e n r o l l e d m a in ly i n t h e o l d e r and l a r g e r o f t h e commu n i t y c o l l e g e s . The r e l a t i v e l y weak a p p e a l o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e s e c o ll e g e s h a s b e en u n d o u b te d ly TABLE 11 SPEE C H 3 CLASS E N R O L L M E N T A N D C O M PO SITIO N (F a ll 1970, Spring 1971) C ollege A College B College C C ollege D C ollege E C ollege F College G C ollege H 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 American Indian 3 4 1 1 Black 53 59 4 5 3 5 1 0 No resp. A ll repres. 25 15 15 12 Caucasian 83 68 19 23 17 20 22 30 15 11 O riental 25 35 8 10 1 0 3 Spanish surname 28 25 44 48 10 10 2 0 1 0 1 0 Other 5 4 2 o\ vo i i T A B L E 12 SPEECH 4 CLASS ENROLLMENT AND COMPOSITION (Fall 1970, Spring 1971) College A College B College C College D College E College F College G College H 19. 70 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971 American Indian 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 Black 10 10 3 b 13 10 2 1 12 Fal1 only 11 18 Not offered Caucasian 35 3b lb 16 30 31 17 11 8 8 6 2 0 Oriental b b 1 1 7 5 0 1 1 Spanish. surname 6 9 10 11 10 b 3 Other 0 0 2 -a o a f f e c t e d by th e f a c t t h a t t h e s t a t e c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e S peech 1 and do n o t hav e a u n ifo rm a c c e p ta n c e p o l i c y to w a rd S peech 4 c r e d i t s i n t r a n s f e r . Speech 15 i s r e q u i r e d f o r m a jo rs i n t h e n u r s e r y sc h o o l program and i s o n ly o f f e r e d by th o s e c o l l e g e s w hich f e a t u r e such a prog ram . TABLE 15 SPEECH 15 CLASS ENROLLMENT (Fall 1970, Spring 1971) C ollege A 1970 1971 College C 1970 1971 College G 1970 1971 American Indian 0 0 0 0 Not Black 12 5 7 5 offered 21 Caucasian 9 12 10 16 F a ll O riental 0 1 2 5 sem esters Spanish surname 1 2 3 Other 5 2 A c co rd in g t o th e c a ta lo g u e d e s c r i p t i o n s , t h e f o l lo w - in g w ere l i s t e d as o b j e c t i v e s o f th e c o u r s e s . Would you p l e a s e r a n k i n o r d e r o f im p o rta n c e t o y o u r own t e a c h i n g , and add o t h e r o b j e c t i v e s w hich you have fo u n d t o be lm por t a n t . —As i s I n d ie s t e d , a l l c a t e g o r i e s w ere n o t l i s t e d o r r a t e d by a l l I n s t r u c t o r s . A l l , how ever, r a t e d good v o ic e p r o d u c tio n , s k i l l i n a r t i c u l a t i o n , and f l e x i b i l i t y i n s p e a k in g , w hich i n d i c a t e s t h e g e n e r a l a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s . A l l b u t one t e a c h e r gave a r a t i n g t o t h e 72 TABLE Ik SPEE C H 3 OBJECTIVES (Eatings in Order o f Importance) 1 2 3 k 5 6 7 8 9 10 Good voice production 3 6 1 1 S k ill in a r tic u la tio n k k l k - 1 l Understanding of voice physiology 1 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 F le x ib ilit y in speaking 3 3 1 2 1 3 Good d iction ary usage 0 2 l 2 2 2 2 1 1 Elim ination o f accent 0 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 E lim ination o f d ia le c t 0 0 l 2 k 1 2 0 1 Other: (A dditional o b jectiv es submitted by in stru cto rs) Improve s o c ia l adjustment Ease in front o f groups o f people Improvement o f self-co n cep t Communicat ion Understanding of m aterial Breath control fo r speech R elaxation fo r speech Body English Words commonly mispronounced Psychology o f speech 1 1 u n d e r s ta n d in g o f v o ic e p h y s io lo g y , a lth o u g h i t was r a t e d from p r i o r i t y one down t o z e ro i n f a i r l y e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , A l l b u t two r a t e d good d i c t i o n a r y u s a g e ; h e r e a g a in a w ide s p re a d was n o t i c e a b l e , from two down t o n i n e . T h ree d i d n o t r a t e e i t h e r e l i m i n a t i o n o f a c c e n t o f d i a l e c t , and none gave i t a p r i o r i t y r a t i n g above t h r e e ; t h e s p r e a d was w id e . F o u r i n s t r u c t o r s gave to p p r i o r i t y r a t i n g t o t h e i r own added o b j e c t i v e s . The r e s t j u s t m e n tio n e d them a s d e s i r a b l e . T A B L E 15 SPEECH 4 OBJECTIVES (Ratings in Order of Importance) 1 2 3 k 5 6 7 8 9 10 A ppreciation o f lite r a tu r e 0 k 0 2 0 0 1 S k ill in a r tic u la tio n 0 0 0 0 1 k 0 1 1 Understanding o f m aterial 1 1 3 1 0 1 S electio n o f m aterial 1 0 0 1 1 0 3 1 Good voice production 0 1 0 1 2 0 0 3 C utting o f m aterial . 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 k 1 Development o f p oise and confidence 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 1 1 Development o f exp ressiven ess 1 0 2 1 1 0 2 Development o f communicative n ess 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 Other: (A dditional o b je c tiv e s) How to think 1 The s m a ll number o f t e a c h e r s t e a c h i n g t h i s c l a s s seems t o r e s u l t i n a d i v e r s i t y i n r a t i n g s . G r e a t e s t ag reem en t seems t o be i n t h e r a t i n g o f a p p r e c i a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e , and none o f t h e I n s t r u c t o r s r a t e d s k i l l i n a r t i c u l a t i o n h i g h e r th a n f i v e . Most o f t h e o t h e r o b j e c t i v e s e l i c i t e d a re s p o n s e w ith a w ide s p r e a d . S ix t e a c h e r s d id n o t r a t e c u t t i n g o f m a t e r i a l above s e v e n , th o u g h one r a t e d i t t h i r d . W ith t h i s s a m p lin g , i t a p p e a rs t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e a g re em e n t r e g a r d in g t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c l a s s i n t h e d i s t r i c t com m unity c o l l e g e s . T A B L E 16 SPEE C H 15 OBJECTIVES (R atings in Order o f Importance) 1 2 5 k 5 6 7 8 9 10 Understanding o f ch ild ren ’ s lite r a tu r e 2 1 S electio n o f ch ild ren ’s lite r a tu r e 1 1 1 S k ill in a r tic u la tio n 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 Good voice production 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Cutting o f m aterial 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 Development o f p oise and confidence 1 0 0 1 1 Development o f exp ressive n ess 1 0 0 1 Development o f communicative ness 2 0 1 Other: Techniques o f s to r y -te llin g 1 As may be a p p a r e n t , one o f t h e S peech 15 t e a c h e r s r a t e d a l l o b j e c t i v e s e q u a l l y , so a l l w ere o f p rim e im p o rta n c e . 75 As i n t h e c a s e o f S peech 4 t e a c h e r s , t h e r e i s n o t to o much a g re e m e n t. C lo s e s t r a t i n g s w ere on u n d e r s ta n d in g and s e l e c t i o n o f c h i l d r e n 's l i t e r a t u r e , w ith d evelopm ent o f c o m m u n ica tiv en e ss show ing n e x t c l o s e s t a g re e m e n t. What w ere t h e g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e s i n y o u r c l a s s e s ? (A pproxim ate p e r c e n t a g e s ) . —A ll S peech 3 t e a c h e r s em ployed th e l e c t u r e - d i s c u s s i o n m ethod t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r e x t e n t ; h o w ev er, none b e li e v e d t h a t i t was u s e d o v e r 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e tim e . One t e a c h e r 's r e s p o n s e s w ere i n s ta te m e n ts and n o t p e r c e n t a g e s ; she i n d i c a t e d t h a t l e c t u r e - d i s c u s s i o n was u se d a t th e b e g in n in g o f t h e s e m e s te r m ain ly . Two gav e no v o c a l e x e r c i s e s , and o n ly n in e i n d i c a t e d some u se o f w r i t t e n c r i t i c i s m . O ra l c r i t i c i s m seem ed more p op u l a r . V ery l i t t l e e x e r c i s e i n g e s t u r e was em ployed, th o u g h one t e a c h e r I n d i c a t e d t h a t she i n c l u d e d t h i s a s a p a r t o f o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e . A l l b u t one t e a c h e r s p e n t o v e r 15 p e r c e n t o f t h e tim e i n o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e ; e i g h t s p e n t 50 p e r- c e n t o f t h e tim e o r more i n o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e . Few em ployed' c h o r a l work o r r e q u i r e d w r i t t e n a n a l y s e s o f m a t e r i a l . O ra l p e rfo rm a n c e and l e c t u r e - d i s c u s s i o n a p p e a r t o be t h e m ost a c c e p te d p r o c e d u r e s i n S peech 3 c l a s s e s , w ith some v o c a l e x e r c i s e s and o r a l c r i t i c i s m . S peech 4 t e a c h e r s a l l o t o v e r 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r c l a s s tim e t o o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e . A l l employ some l e c t u r e - d i s c u s s i o n and o r a l c r i t i c i s m t o some e x t e n t . Over h a l f ( f i v e ) gave some work i n e x e r c i s e s T A B L E 17 PR O C E D U R E S IN SPEE C H 3 Ratings in Percentages 1 2 5 8 10 15 20 25 30 35 50 65 Other8 , L ecture-discussion 1 5 2 3 0 1 0 2 1—beginning Vocal ex ercises 2 2 3 3 1 1 1—ex ten siv e. W ritten cr itiq u e s k k r 1—some Oral c r itic ism 1 2 7 0 2 1 1—ra rely E xercise in gesture 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 1 Oral performance 1 1 1 1 2 7 l Choral work 3 W ritten anaHysis o f m aterial 1 2 Other: Vocabulary 1 D ia c r itic s 1 Panel-group work 1 W ritten ex ercises using D M S fo r ward l i s t s and using in sentences Recorded m aterial— d r i l l s , e tc . o f my own aL isted t h is category as a p r io r ity ra tin g , hut no percentage given . o\ 77 i n v o lv i n g g e s t u r e ; one i n s t r u c t o r e x p la in e d h i s r e l u c t a n c e t o do t h i s b e c a u s e ju d g e s a t m eets te n d e d t o o b j e c t t o t h e u s e o f g e s t u r e s i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o m p e titio n s . L ess t h a n h a l f o f t h e t e a c h e r s a s s ig n e d c h o r a l work., and o v e r h a l f a s s ig n e d w r i t t e n a n a ly s e s o f m a t e r i a l . T A B L E 18 PR O C E D U R E S IN SPEEC H k Ratings in Percentages 2 5 10 15 20 25 40 50 6o L ecture-discussion 2 1 2 2 Vocal e x e r cise s k 1 W ritten cr itiq u e s 3 0 1 1 Oral c r itic ism 1 0 5 2 1 E xercise in gesture 1 5 Oral performance 1 0 2 2 2 Choral work 2 1 W ritten a n a ly sis o f c m aterial ? Other: Video tape 1 Readers th ea ter 1 A l l S peech 15 t e a c h e r s em ploy l e c t u r e - d i s c u s s i o n , and u s e o f o r a l and w r i t t e n c r i t i c i s m t o some e x t e n t . . No c h o r a l work i s a s s i g n e d . A l l sp en d a b o u t 50 p e r c e n t o f c l a s s tim e i n o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s . 78 T A B L E 19 P R O C E D U R E S I N S P E E C H 1 5 Ratings in Percentages 2 pi 5 1 0 11 1 5 25 5 0 Lecture-discussion 1 0 1 1 Vocal exercises 1 Written criticism 1 2 Oral criticism 3 Exercise in gesture 1 1 Oral performance 3 Choral work Written analysis of material 1 1 Other: Summaries of stories 1 Communication and storytelling 1 Ditto copy of all material prepared for each student 1 W hat, I f any,, a u d io v i s u a l a i d s d id you u se ? — T apes a p p e a r t o be t h e m ost w id e ly u s e d o f t h e a u d i o v i s u a l a i d s i n a l l o f t h e s e c l a s s e s , w ith c a s s e t t e s and r e c o r d s b e in g u s e d by many t e a c h e r s i n S peech 3 and 4 c l a s s e s . C h a rts and v id e o t a p e s seem to be more w id e ly em ployed by Speech 3 t e a c h e r s , a lth o u g h th e Speech 4 i n s t r u c t o r s who w ere n o t em ploying v id e o t a p e i n 1970-1971 i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e i r c o l le g e s w ould be s u p p ly in g them w ith t h e equipm ent i n t h e f u t u r e . Most S peech 4 t e a c h e r s e x p re s s e d g r e a t i n t e r e s t TABLE 20 i AUDIOVISUAL AIDS U SED Speech 5 Speech 4 Speech 15 Tapes ( l —Hal Holbrook & Gielgud) 13 5 1 C assettes 6 5 2 Records ( l —Helen Hayes & Gielgud) 9 k Films 2 2 1 Charts 7 1 Video tape 6 2 1 Other 1—lo t s mimea m aterial poem co p ies, voice science diagrams 1—mimeo. poem copies 1—liv e programs 1—v isu a l aid s from former students Other 1—c la ss ex ercises 1—liv e readers Other 1—models (human head, etc.) 1—video tapes o f foxmer students 1—video tapes o f former programs Other 1—overhead p rojector 1—video tapes o f former students vo 80 i n t h e u s e o f v id e o t a p e . The m a jo r c o m p la in t o f t e a c h e r s u s in g v id e o equipm ent seems t o be t h a t th e equipm ent i s n o t alw ay s e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e o r a v a i l a b l e . What i s y o u r g e n e r a l b ack g ro u n d and t r a i n i n g ? —A ll t e a c h e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e i r m ajo r o r one o f t h e i r m ajo rs was sp e ec h o r sp e e c h -d ra m a , w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f one s t r a i g h t dram a m ajo r and a n o th e r who m ajo red i n E n g lis h p h o n e tic s w ith a sp e ec h t h e r a p y m in o r. A reas o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i t h in t h e sp e e c h d i s c i p l i n e w ere r a t h e r e v e n ly d i s t r i b u t e d among th e r a p y , dram a, p u b lic a d d r e s s , o r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and com m u n icatio n ; m ost had c o n c e n tr a te d upon more t h a n one a r e a . E n g lis h , s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , TV, and p r e - la w were a l s o m en tio n ed a s a d d i t i o n a l m ajo rs by sev en t e a c h e r s . T e a c h e rs l i s t e d v a r io u s a r e a s o f sp e e c h , dram a, r a d i o , and TV, a g a in among t h e i r m inor s u b j e c t s . E n g lis h , named by e le v e n t e a c h e r s , was t h e m ost p o p u la r m inor o u t s i d e th e l a r g e r sp e e c h d i s c i p l i n e s . P sy c h o lo g y , e d u c a tio n , and th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s w ere a l s o named by t h r e e o r more t e a c h e r s . One t e a c h e r , o n ly , h ad a b u s in e s s m in o r. Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , m a jo rs and m in o rs had been s e l e c t e d from among t h e sp e e c h d i s c i p l i n e s , s in c e t e a c h e r e l i g i b i l i t y f o r t h e c o l l e g e sy ste m i n Los A n g eles has been b a sed upon a m ajo r o r i t s e q u iv a le n t i n t h e t e a c h in g f i e l d . O ra l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was m e n tio n e d by e le v e n t e a c h e r s as 81 one o f t h e i r m ajo r a r e a s o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i t h in t h e sp e e c h d i s c i p l i n e , and by one t e a c h e r a s h i s m in o r. Drama and sp e e c h -d ra m a w ere t h e n e x t m ost m e n tio n ed a r e a s o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a s m a jo rs w i t h in t h e l a r g e r sp e e c h d i s c i p l i n e . What a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d to y o u r c l a s s e s w ere in c lu d e d i n t h e sp e e c h program a t y o u r c o l l e g e ? — The o l d e r e s t a b l i s h e d c o l l e g e s a l l had e x te n s iv e f o r e n s i c s p ro g ra m s; one o f t h e new er c o l l e g e s began i t s program i n 1970-1971 and t h e o t h e r new c o l l e g e had no f o r e n s i c s p ro g ram . Two o f t h e f o r e n s i c s c o a c h e s d id n o t answ er t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e : one from an o l d e r i n s t i t u t i o n and t h e o t h e r from a new one. At a l l o f t h e s c h o o ls o f f e r i n g f o r e n s i c s , S peech 4 t e a c h e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e i r s t u d e n ts p a r t i c i p a t e d . A l l b u t t h r e e o f t h e Speech 3 t e a c h e r s f e l t t h a t t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s w ere r e l a t e d to t h e i r c l a s s e s and i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e i r s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n f o r e n s i c s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p la n n e d f o r e n s i c s p ro g ram s, sc h o o l r e a d in g s and r e a d e r s t h e a t e r a p p e a re d t o be p o p u la r a c t i v i t i e s f o r S peech 3 and 4 c l a s s e s . One i n s t r u c t o r o f Speech 15 i n d i c a t e d t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e tim e was s p e n t by h i s s t u d e n ts i n p e rfo rm a n c e s and program s a t s e v e r a l l o c a l n u r s e r y and e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls . I n s t r u c t o r s s t a t e d t h a t t h e y had done some Scope TV show s, b u t t h i s o f c o u rs e was p r i o r t o t h e tim e i n d i c a t e d by t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Some i n s t r u c t o r s a p p a r e n t l y a rr a n g e d t o do s p e c i a l re a d in g p e rfo rm a n c e s f o r o t h e r 82 c l a s s e s a t t h e i r c o l l e g e s ; one i n s t r u c t o r p a r t i c u l a r l y m en tio n ed r e a d in g s an d l e c t u r e - r e c i t a l s done f o r v a r io u s E n g lis h c l a s s e s on cam pus. T h e r e f o r e , i t would seem t h a t even i f f o r e n s i c s i s n o t in c lu d e d i n th e s c h o o l program , many o f t h e t e a c h e r s e n c o u ra g e t h e i r s t u d e n t s t o p a r t i c i p a te i n some m anner o f p e rfo rm a n c e a c t i v i t y i n a d d i t i o n t o r e g u l a r c l a s s a c t i v i t i e s . Do you f i n d an y s p e c i a l o r u n iq u e m ethods o r a p p ro a c h e s h e l p f u l ? P l e a s e e x p l a i n . — Some t e a c h e r s d id n o t an sw er t h i s q u e s t io n o r s t a t e d t h a t th e y w ere u n s u re w h e th e r i n t r u t h t h e i r m ethods w ere a c t u a l l y u n iq u e . Some o f t h e Speech 3 a n sw e rs f o llo w : L ess t h e o r y , more d o in g . I make e a c h s t u d e n t r e c o r d each a ssig n m e n t and e v a l u a t e i t . . . . j u s t t h e " t r i e d b u t s t i l l t r u e " m ethods o f e x p la n a t i o n , s e e t o m o tiv a tio n (w henever p o s s i b l e ) , and o p p o r t u n i t y t o m o d ify and im p ro v e q u a l i t y o f v o ic e , h e a l t h i e r m ethods o f v o ic e p r o d u c tio n and a r t i c u l a t i o n . I s t r e s s u s e o f poems, rh y m es, e t c . , a s r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l . I u s e t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and t h e p u b lic a d d re s s a p p r o a c h e s , b u t I c a n im p rove v o ic e q u a l i t y b e t t e r w ith t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m ethod. I u s e d v o ic e r e f l e c t o r s . I t i s b e s t t o h av e each s t u d e n t buy h i s own. How ever, I h a d them and c le a n e d them w ith a lc o h o l e ac h e v e n in g . S in c e one c a n h e a r h i s own v o ic e much b e t t e r , t h e y w ere h e l p f u l . The pro b lem i s , "Can t h e s tu d e n t a f f o r d $ 3 .1 5 ? " A s s ig n in g s p e c i f i c k in d s o f l i t e r a r y g e n re f o r p r a c t i c e i n s p e c i f i c p ro b le m s — i . e . , P a u l Bunyan s t o r i e s f o r p r o j e c t i o n . The c l a s s d o e s some yoga b r e a t h in g e x e r c i s e s t o r e l a x t h e body and t h e v o i c e . 83 I n S peech 3* s t u d e n t s h a v e i n d i v i d u a l g o a l s . They a r e w orked w ith i n d i v i d u a l l y b u t w ith in th e group s i t u a t i o n s . I t I s t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n - o b s e r v a t i o n a p p ro a ch . B re a k in g i n t o g ro u p s t o d i s c u s s o b j e c t i v e s , ways and means o f r e a c h i n g o b j e c t i v e s . I a llo w t h e s t u d e n t s t o d e te rm in e th e c o n te n t o f t h e c o u r s e . [ T h is I n s t r u c t o r h a s begun s m a ll-g ro u p w o rk .] Non d i r e c t i o n a l — "What do you want from t h i s c l a s s ? " S m all g ro u p work h e l p f u l t o s t u d e n ts i n e a r l y p a r t o f s e m e s te r t o e n c o u ra g e p o i s e and e a s e b e fo r e a g ro u p . Im prom ptu t a l k s f r e q u e n t l y u se d l a t e r i n s e m e s te r t o p ro v e t o s t u d e n t s th e y h av e a c q u ir e d e a s e . I work once a week i n a l a b - t y p e s i t u a t i o n w ith 6-8 s t u d e n t s . T h is i s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y u n iq u e , b u t by so d o in g I c a n g iv e s e m i - i n d i v i d u a l h e lp to e a c h s tu d e n t a b o u t once a m onth. Tape r e c o r d e r i n d i c a t e s I n d i v i d u a l p r o g r e s s . I t w ould a p p e a r t h a t t h e r e i s a t r e n d tow ard g ro u p work I n S peech 3 c l a s s e s , and a l s o to w ard s t u d e n t - d i r e c t e d aim s and o b j e c t i v e s . T h ree s p e c i f i c a l l y - m e n t i o n e d te c h n iq u e s r e l a t e d t o m ethods o f o r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n —u se o f p o e tr y , l i t e r a r y g e n r e , and t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a p p ro a c h . S p eech 4 r e s p o n s e s w ere a s f o llo w s : V id e o - ta p e . T o t a l in v o lv e m e n t o f c l a s s i n g r a d in g , c r i t i q u i n g , w r i t t e n and o r a l . [T ea ch e r a ls o te a c h e s S peech 1 5 . J Pound t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f E n g lis h i n s t r u c t o r s h e l p f u l ; s t u d e n t s h a d I n t e r e s t e d a u d ie n c e s i n E n g lis h c l a s s e s — a l s o s t u d e n t body became aw are o f program . M in o r ity s t u d e n t s seem ed p a r t i c u l a r l y e a g e r t o d i s p l a y t h e i r new ly a c q u i r e d i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s k i l l s —E n g lis h c l a s s p e rfo rm a n c e s v e ry m o tiv a tin g . D u rin g c l a s s r e a d in g p e rfo rm a n c e s , s tu d e n t c h a irm a n c o n d u c ts p r o c e e d in g s , a s s i g n s w r i t t e n c r i t i q u e s , e t c . (done on a r o t a t i n g b a s i s ) . Have fo u n d my s t u d e n t s re s p o n d e x tr e m e ly w e ll t o t h e c h a lle n g e o f f u l f i l l i n g a p o s i t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y I n t h e c o n d u c tio n o f c l a s s room p r o c e d u r e s . They r e l i s h i t and ta k e i t s e r i o u s l y . 84 A s s ig n s t u d e n t s t o c r e a t e s e v e r a l p rogram s on them es o f t h e i r own c h o o sin g . A s s ig n s t u d e n ts to c r e a t e s e v e r a l program s on th em es c h o se n by t h e c l a s s — i n w hich a l l s t u d e n ts f i n d t h e i r own m a t e r i a l on t h i s same them e. D e liv e r in g th e p r e p a r e d s e l e c t i o n o r program tw o o r t h r e e tim e s i n c l a s s b e f o r e g r a d in g . A llow s f o r i n t e n s i v e s tu d y and p r e p a r a t i o n w ith i n c r e a s i n g l y v a l u a b l e c r i t i c i s m . I a ls o have s t u d e n ts from p r e v io u s s e m e s te r p r e s e n t pro g ram s & s e l e c t i o n s e a r l y i n th e s e m e s te r a lo n g w ith d i s c u s s i o n o f how th e y p ro c e e d e d i n making s e l e c t i o n s , a s an o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e c l a s s . R e a d e rs t h e a t e r a p p e a rs t o a c h ie v e g r e a t e s t s t u d e n t i n t e r e s t . T h is i s e x tre m e ly d i f f i c u l t t o p u t on p a p e r , b u t I sp e n d a g r e a t d e a l o f tim e on i n d i v i d u a l h e l p b e f o r e th e s t u d e n t s p e rfo rm f o r a g r a d e . A lso I a s s i g n g e n e r a l , am biguous s e l e c t i o n s so t h a t th e s tu d e n t m ust r e a d many i n o r d e r t o s e l e c t one. F o r exam ple: I a s k e a c h p e rs o n t o do a p la y w ith a d i f f e r e n t one f o r e a c h , n e v e r r e p e a t in g t h e same one. A lso each p e rs o n m ust h an d i n a sum m ary o f each a ssig n m e n t w hich i s th e n X eroxed f o r a l l o f t h e r e s t . I t h i n k th e y seem t o u n d e rs ta n d b e t t e r i f I do a sam ple r e a d in g i l l u s t r a t i n g each o f t h e i r a s s ig n m e n ts . O th e rw is e , t a l k i n g and r e a d in g a b o u t "How To" d o e s n ’t seem t o r e a c h them . [T h is i n s t r u c t o r a l s o t e a c h e s S peech 3 . ] S peech 4 i n s t r u c t o r s a p p e a r t o f a v o r , i n g e n e r a l , t h e them e p ro g ram o r r e a d e r s t h e a t e r a p p ro a c h . T h ree i n d i c a t e a t r e n d to w a rd s tu d e n t In v o lv em en t i n s e t t i n g up some o f th e c l a s s p r o c e d u r e s . One p r e f e r s to u s e h e r r e a d in g s a s m o d els f o r c r e a t i n g s tu d e n t I n t e r e s t and m o ti v a ti o n . One o f th e Spee.ch 15 t e a c h e r s h a s a l r e a d y b e en q u o te d , and a n o t h e r s t a t e d , " I suppo se so b u t th e y come n a t u r a l l y t o me so I d o n ’t c o n s id e r them s p e c i a l o r u n i q u e ." The t h i r d t e a c h e r 's comments fo llo w : 85 Made c o p ie s o f a l l m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d . S e m este r p r o j e c t i n c l u d e d a w orkbook t o be u se d as f u t u r e t e a c h e r s . L i b r a r i a n s p e c i a l i z i n g i n s t o r y t e l l i n g v i s i t e d c l a s s e a r l y i n s e m e s te r a n d d e m o n s tra te d t e c h n iq u e s . What i s y o u r p h ilo s o p h y r e g a r d in g t h e p l a c e o f o r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e com m unity c o l l e g e sp e e c h p ro g ram ? — T h re e o f th e S peech 3 t e a c h e r s had no i n t e r e s t i n t h e s tu d y o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . F iv e i n d i c a t e d t h a t i t was an im p o r ta n t d i s c i p l i n e j r e a s o n s g iv e n by t h r e e o f them w ere: E n ab les s t u d e n t s t o u n d e r s ta n d th e m s e lv e s so a s t o g a in an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e . . . . f o r a e s t h e t i c an d p r a c t i c a l v a lu e . . . . b e c a u se t h e s t u d e n t s a r e t a u g h t t o l i s t e n and sp eak w ith e m p h a sis. T h ere w ere o t h e r v a r i e d ty p e s o f g e n e r a l l y a f f i r m a t i v e an sw ers by s i x o t h e r S p eech 3 i n s t r u c t o r s : I t h i n k o r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s im p o r ta n t f o r i n t e r p e r s o n a l co m m u n icatio n t h a t i s s t r e s s e d more now. When t h e s t u d e n ts work t o g e t h e r t o i n t e r p r e t any l i t e r a t u r e , th e y r e a c t t o t h e e x p e r ie n c e and f e e l i n g s o f o t h e r s . . . . A b e t t e r s e n s e o f a w a re n e ss o f o t h e r s ' o p in io n s . More th a n one-w ay o r one p e r s o n may be r i g h t . I t i s one p la c e w here t h e e d u c -d e p r iv e d c an have an o p p o r t u n it y f o r s u c c e s s , and t h e a d v an ced t o e n la r g e t h e i r b a c k g ro u n d s. I would l i k e t o s e e i t to u c h e d upon i n t h e Speech I c l a s s e s . I t i s an a r t form b u t w ith d e f i n i t e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . . . . S tu d e n ts s h o u ld be made aw are o f i t . I b e l i e v e we c a n t e a c h a lm o st a s much, c e r t a i n l y i n a more c o m p e llin g way, a s we do i n S peech 3 . In f a c t , I in c lu d e i t i n S p eech 3 . I s h o u ld be s t r i c t l y e l e c t i v e . ( i t c o u ld have a b a s i c l i t e r a t u r e p r e r e q u i s i t e ? ) 86 R i t a Chavez r e f e r r e d to h e r a r t i c l e i n The P e rs u a d e r as m aking t h e f u l l s ta te m e n t r e g a r d in g h e r p h ilo s o p h y o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . One i n s t r u c t o r gave a r a t h e r am biguous an sw e r p o s s i b l y r e l a t e d t o S peech 4: C la s s n e ed e d f o r 2nd y e a r s t u d e n ts who can h a n d le a w id e r p s y c h o l o g ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e i r own e n v ir o n ment . A l l o f t h e S peech 4 t e a c h e r s s t r e s s e d t h e v a lu e s o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and b e li e v e d t h e program sh o u ld be e x p an d ed . V a lu e s a s a t o o l i n l e a r n i n g l i t e r a t u r e and u n d e r s ta n d in g o t h e r s a s w e ll a s th e m s e lv e s w ere m en tio n e d , as w e l l a s t h e v a lu e t o th e s c h o o l and t h e com m unity. S peech 15 t e a c h e r s c o n c u rre d w ith t h e id e a s o f t h e Speech 4 t e a c h e r s . P r a c t i c a l v a lu e a s a t r a i n i n g ground f o r f u t u r e t e a c h e r s , p a r e n t s , sa le sm e n , s o c i a l w o rk e rs , and a c t o r s was a l s o m e n tio n e d . The f o r e n s i c c o a c h e s who an sw ered th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w ere a l s o p o s i t i v e i n t h e i r s u p p o rt o f th e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program . One s t a t e d , h o w ev er, t h a t h e b e l i e v e d t h a t i t s h o u ld be rem oved from t h e a re n a o f com p e t i t i o n and p r e s e n t e d i n p u b l ic f e s t i v a l - t y p e f o r m a ts , a u d ie n c e p ro g ra m s, and t h e l i k e . I n summary, w ith few e x c e p ti o n s , a l l t e a c h e r s i n d i c a t e d t h e i r b e l i e f i n t h e p o s i t i v e v a lu e s o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Are t h e r e an y new a p p ro a c h e s , m a t e r i a l s , t e c h n iq u e s , p r o c e d u r e s , w h ich y ou d i d n o t em ploy i n t h e 1970-1971 s e s s i o n s b u t w hich you p la n to u se o r e x p lo r e i n th e f u t u r e ? P le a s e e x p l a i n . — R e l a t i v e l y few i n s t r u c t o r s an sw ered t h i s q u e s t io n . Two i n d i c a t e d th e y w ould u s e m ore a u d i o v i s u a l m a t e r i a l . T h ree w ish ed to expand r e a d e r s t h e a t e r program s on cam pus. One S peech 15 t e a c h e r w a n ted t o sp en d m ore tim e on c u t t i n g o f m a t e r i a l . One Speech 3 t e a c h e r w an ted t o t r y t o b r i n g i n more e th n ic back g ro u n d m a t e r i a l , a n o th e r more g ro u p w ork, and a t h i r d to be more aw are o f b e h a v i o r a l o b j e c t i v e s , t o h e lp s t u d e n t s a d j u s t t o overco m ing s ta g e f r i g h t . Answers t o t h e l a s t q u e s t io n , R em arks, w ere e i t h e r b la n k o r v e ry g e n e r a l , r e f l e c t i n g d a t a w h ic h was p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r i n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Summary T h ere have been t h r e e m ajo r p ro g ram s i n t h e d e v e lo p ment o f t h e community c o l l e g e : t h e c o l l e g e l o w e r - d i v i s i o n t r a n s f e r program , th e t e r m i n a l tw o -y e a r p r o f e s s i o n a l p r o gram , and t h e comm unity s e r v i c e and p a r t i c i p a t i o n pro gram . T hese t h r e e s t r u c t u r e s have been m ir r o r e d i n t h e Los An g e l e s a s i n th e o t h e r community c o l l e g e s th r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n . Speech a p p a r e n t l y h a s b een a r e c o g n iz e d program i n t h e tw o -y e a r c o l l e g e s f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s . The m a jo r em phasis h a s been on t h e b a s ic p u b lic s p e a k in g c o u r s e . O th e r c o u rs e s i n t h e sp e ec h a r t s d i s c i p l i n e , ho w ev er, h av e e n la r g e d t h e tw o -y e a r sp e ec h p ro g ra m s. The grow in g num ber o f B laok s t u d e n t s i n t h e com m unity c o l l e g e s h a s e f f e c t e d a s u b t l e ch an g e i n s tu d e n t body com p o s i t i o n . The b a c k g ro u n d , i n t e r e s t s , an d d e s i r e s a s w e l l as t h e n eed s o f t h e s e B la c k s t u d e n t s h a v e n o t a lw ay s b e en ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n f o r m u la ti n g c u r r ic u lu m c h a n g e s . B lack s t u d e n ts a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y a c q u a in t e d w ith o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , y e t t h e y h o ld e x tre m e ly p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s to w a rd o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s o f l i t e r a t u r e and seem t o e n jo y most ty p e s o f l i t e r a r y w o rk s— p o e tr y among them . B la c k s t u d e n ts i n d i c a t e d s t r o n g i n t e r e s t i n t h e i n c l u s i o n o f e x t r a - v e r b a l f a c t o r s i n o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s su c h a s movement and rh y th m ic and m u s ic a l b a c k g ro u n d s. They d i s p l a y a n o t a b l e l a c k o f a c q u a in t a n c e w i t h w r i t e r s o f t h e i r own e th n i c b a c k g ro u n d . As f a r a s o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n pedagogy i n t h e c o l l e g e s i s c o n c e rn e d , Los A n g e le s sp e e c h a r t s t e a c h e r s t e n d t o a p p ro a c h th e t e a c h i n g o f t h e i r c l a s s e s i n a t r a d i t i o n a l m anner; some i n s t r u c t o r s e n c o u ra g e g ro u p a p p ro a c h and c l a s s - d i r e c t e d o b j e c t i v e s , b u t t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s a r e f e a t u r e d m a in ly i n V o ic e an d D i c t i o n c l a s s e s . S e v e r a l t h i n g s seem c l e a r : 1. T e x ts u s e d i n S p eech 4 a r e e v id e n c e o f t h e c o n tin u e d t r a d i t i o n a l a p p ro a c h t o o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A l l o f t h e s e t e x t s s e t up r i g i d r u l e s f o r r e a d i n g w ith manu s c r i p t w ith l i t t l e o r no movement o r g e s t u r e . a . A g g e rt and Bowen as w e l l as C h a r l o t t e Lee a r e s t r o n g t e x t s , b u t th e y a r e p r e s c r i p t i v e and t r a d i t i o n a l . C h a r l o t t e e Lee p r o b a b ly I n c lu d e s m ore e t h n i c m a t e r i a l t h a n do any o f t h e o t h e r s . b . S e s s io n s and H o lla n d a r e p r e s c r i p t i v e t o t h e p o i n t o f p r e s e n t i n g t h e s t u d e n t w ith a ,!how t o " a p p ro a c h . T h e ir m ost u s e f u l s e c t i o n d e a l s w ith c u t t i n g t h e l i t e r a r y t e x t . c . The C ro c k e r and E ic h t e x t h a s b een o u t o f p r i n t f o r a number o f y e a r s . None o f t h e t e x t s seems to be a t t u n e d t o t h e n e e d s o f B la c k s t u d e n t s w ith t h e i r i n s t i n c t i v e d e s i r e f o r a v i a b l e , t o t a l , and m oving a p p ro a c h t o o r a l p e rfo r m a n c e o f l i t e r a t u r e . E th n ic m a t e r i a l , when in c lu d e d i n t e x t s , seems t o be su p e rim p o se d w ith l i t t l e e x p l i c a t i o n o r c o n s c io u s I n t e n t o t h e r th a n i t s i n c l u s i o n t o s u i t t h e p u rp o s e o f t h e tim e s . A s tu d y o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s l i s t e d by Speech 4 t e a c h e r s e s p e c i a l l y i n d i c a t e s t h e g e n e r a l l y lo o s e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e o r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n c l a s s e s ; t h e r e seems t o be l i t t l e a g re em e n t among th e t e a c h e r s . I n d i f f e r e n c e t o g e s t u r e and movement i s a c e r t a i n m ark o f t h e la c k o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h e d e s i r e s and i n c l i n a t i o n s o f B la c k s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r t o t a l 90 im m ersion i n t h e l i t e r a r y p e rfo rm a n c e u t i l i z i n g a l l means o f e x p r e s s iv e co m m u n icatio n . a . T h is i n d i f f e r e n c e may a r i s e from a u s u a l and w id e sp re a d f e a r , on t h e p a r t o f many sp e ec h t e a c h e r s , o f e n c r o a c h in g upon t h e a r e a o f dram a. b . One t e a c h e r e x p la in e d t h i s i n d i f f e r e n c e as a r e a c t i o n t o f o r e n s i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o m p e ti t io n s , w here s t u d e n t s a r e o f t e n p e n a l iz e d f o r u s in g movement and g e s t u r e . (Ju d g e s a r e i n many c a s e s n o t from t h e a r e a o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . ) 6 . The a p p ro a c h e s t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h e o r y and o b j e c t i v e s seem b la n d and i l l - d e f i n e d . T h e r e f o r e , i t seems e v id e n t t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e Los A n g eles c o ll e g e s a p p e a r s t o be a f l im s y and l o o s e l y - c o n s t r u c t e d course,* t h i s may a c c o u n t f o r t h e l a c k o f s t a t u r e t h e c o u rs e a p p e a rs t o h a v e i n t h e s e c o l l e g e s . i n com p a r i s o n , f o r exam ple, w ith p o p u l a r V o ice and D i c ti o n c l a s s e s . I t a p p e a rs t h a t l i t t l e o r n o th in g h a s b e en done i n t h e a r e a o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o g a i n a n a w a re n e ss o f B la c k s t u d e n ts , t h e i r n e e d s o r b a c k g ro u n d s, and t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v id e n c e o f d e s i r e t o c o n s t r u c t a c o u rs e o r a u n i t i n a c o u rs e t h a t w ould be m e a n in g fu l t o them . W ith r e g a r d to t h e t h r e e m ajo r program s i n t h e com m unity c o l l e g e — th e t r a n s f e r , th e t e r m i n a l , and t h e com m unity s e r v i c e s p r o gram s— o r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n a p p e a rs t o be l o s i n g p r e s t i g e and c l e a r d e f i n i t i o n . T h ere i s c o n f u s io n i n t h e t r a n s f e r program w h ich a t p r e s e n t i s i n a s t a t e o f f l u x due t o t h e ch an g in g s t a n d a r d s o f t h e c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s w hich p u t t h e t r a n s f e r s t a t u s o f S peech 4 i n a p r e c a r i o u s p o s i t i o n . O r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n does n o t a p p e a r t o o f f e r th e m in o r ity t e r m i n a l s t u d e n t a p r i d e i n h i s own l i t e r a r y h e r i t a g e , a n d th e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program h a s done v i r t u a l l y n o th in g t o u n d e r s ta n d o r c o n s id e r t h e n e ed s o f B lack com m unity m em bers, o r t o g e a r a c t i v i t i e s t o m eet community n e e d s . The sp e e c h a r t s p ro g ram , i f i t i s t o e x i s t and e n d u re m e a n in g f u lly i n a l l com m unity c o l l e g e s , r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l s c r u t i n y and r e a s s e s s m e n t a s w e l l a s a d ju s tm e n t t o m eet t h e n eed s o f t h e v a s t I n f l u x o f B la c k s t u d e n t s onto t h e cam puses o f t h e Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e s . FOOTNOTES ■\james W. T h o rn to n , The Community J u n i o r C o lle g e (New Y ork: W iley , 196 6) , p . k j . 2I b i d . ^ W a lte r C rosby E e ls . The J u n i o r C o lle g e (B o sto n : Hough t o n M i f f l i n , 1 9 3 1 ), PP. li L e la n d M edsker, The J u n i o r C o lle g e : P ro g re s s and P r o s p e c t (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill, i 960) , p p . 221-23. A. S p in d t, " E s ta b lis h m e n t o f t h e J u n i o r C o lle g e i n C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 0 7 -1 9 2 1 ," C a l i f o r n i a J o u r n a l o f S e c o n d a ry E d u c a tio n , 32 (Nov. 1 9 5 7 ). 39^. 6 I b i d . , p . 393. ^ T h o rn to n , p . 50. Q Doak C am pbell, " G ra d u a tio n T i t l e s and Academic C os tu m e ," J u n i o r C o lle g e J o u r n a l , 4 ( A p r i l 1 9 3 ^ ). 362- 6 5 . 9C. C. C o l v e r t , "D evelopm ent o f t h e J u n i o r C o lle g e M ovem ent," i n A m erican J u n i o r C o l le g e s , e d . J e s s e P. Bogue, 4 t h ed. (W ash in g to n , D .C .: A m erican C o u n c il o f E d u c a tio n , 1 9 5 6 ), p p . 3 6 2 -6 4 . 10F re d F ox, F re d M arer, and Dr. W a lte r C. Varnum, e d s . , A S tu d y o f t h e Needs o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n i n Los A n g e les "(Los A n g e le s : Los A n g eles C ity C o lle g e P r e s s , 1949)* i:LI b i d . 12T h o rn to n , p . 7-^. ^ M e d s k e r , p . 16. l4 " P h ilo s o p h y o f t h e Los A n g e les Community C o l le g e s ," I n s i d e t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s , 7 (Nov. 1969- 1970) , i n s i d e f r o n t c o v e r. 15Ibid. 92 93 i ft Los A n g eles S o u th w e st C o lle g e C a ta lo g , 1968-1969 ( n . p . , n . d . ) , p . 7 • ^ T h e C o l l e g e ’s p h ilo s o p h y r e v e a l s a r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e trem en d o u s n eed f o r s e l f - e s t e e m and p o s i t i v e s e l f - im age w hich i s s t r e s s e d i n t h e f i n d i n g s r e p o r t e d i n C h a p te r I I I o f t h i s s tu d y . ^ P r o j e c t i o n o f E d u c a tio n a l S t a t i s t i c s t o 1979-80 (W ashington, D.G.t U .S . G overnm ent P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1971), p . 33. 1^ D i r e c t o r y : A m erican A s s o c ia t io n o f J u n i o r C o lle g e s (W ashington, b .C .: A m erican A s s o c ia t io n o f J u n i o r C o lle g e s , 19 6 8 ), p . 5 . 20C ensus o f P o p u l a ti o n , 1970t C a l i f o r n i a A dvance Re p o r t (W ash in g to n , D. C.': U .S . D epartm ent' o f Commerce, B u reau o f t h e C ensus, 1971 ) , P* 1* 21"85$ a t J . C . ’ s , " CJCA News, 17 ( S e p t. 1 9 7 1 ), 7 . op "Ad A s tr a P e r A s p e ra : To t h e S t a r s th r o u g h D i f f i c u l t y , " I n s i d e t h e Los A n g e le s Community C o lle g e s , 8 (Nov. 1 9 6 9 -1 9 7 0 ), 2. 2^D onald G lic k , " S u p e r i n t e n d e n t 's M e ssa g e ," I n s i d e t h e Los A n g e les Community C o l l e g e s , 9 ( J a n . 1 9 7 lJ , 2. pii R a c i a l and E th n ic S u rv e y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b lic S c h o o ls : P a r t O ne: D i s t r i b u t i o n o f P u p i l s , f r a i l ig'BU’ (S a c ra m e n to : O f f ic e o f C om p en sato ry E d u c a tio n , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e Board o f E d u c a tio n , 1 9 6 7 ), P* 7 . 2^R a o ia l and E th n ic S u rv e y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b lic S c h o o ls : P a r t O ne:' D i s t r i b u t i o n o f P u p i l s , F a l l 1967 (S a c ram en to : O f f ic e o f C o m p en sato ry E d u c a tio n , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e Board o f E d u c a tio n , 1969) , p . 19* ^ " M i n o r i t y S tu d e n ts Show I n c r e a s e , " CJCA News, 17 (Nov. 1 9 7 1 ), 3 . 2^R a c ia l and E th n ic S u rv e y , F a l l 1966, p . 7. pQ Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s , " E th n ic C o m p o sitio n o f Los A n g eles C o u n ty ," November 6 , 1969. M im eographed. 2^Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s , " E th n ic S u rv e y o f S tu d e n t E n ro llm e n t and P e r c e n t a g e s ," S p rin g 1970» Mimeo g ra p h e d . 94 3° M e r v i ll e P. L a rs o n , "The J u n i o r C o lle g e ; A C h a lle n g e t o S p e e ch E d u c a to r s ," Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S peech, 29 (D ec. 1943), 499. 31Pox e t a l . , p . 16. 3 2 C h a r l o t t e I , L ee, O ra l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , 4 th e d . (B os t o n ; H oughton M i f f l i n , 1 9 7 1 )» p . 1. 33r b i d . , p . v . ^ W a l l a c e A. Bacon, The A r t o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , 2nd ed. (New Y o rk : H o lt, R i n e h a r t , and W in sto n ,' 1 9 7 2 ), p . o . 35I b l d . 3^ R l t a C havez, "The M in o r ity S t u d e n t," The P e r s u a d e r , 38 ( J a n . 1 9 7 1 ), 3 8 . 3 ^S ee A ppendix A. 3®The t e a c h e r may h a v e m eant G ra n g e r’ s In d e x t o P o e t r y . CHAPTER I I I BLACK CULTURAL BACKGROUND AND THE SPEECH ARTS TEACHER I n t r o d u c t i o n T h is s tu d y a tte m p ts t o exam ine a p ro b lem r e l a t i v e l y u n e x p lo re d i n t h e sp e e c h f i e l d . Some o f t h e f i n d i n g s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p r e v io u s c h a p te r i n d i c a t e t h e im p o rta n c e o f im m e d ia te ly r e v i s i n g t h e c u r r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n prog ram t o a d j u s t t o t h e n e e d s o f B lack s t u d e n t s i n t h e com m unity c o l l e g e s . The s tu d y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n g e n e r a l a p p e a rs t o h av e b een l o s i n g r a t h e r th a n g a in in g s t a t u s a s an a c a dem ic d i s c i p l i n e d u r in g t h e p r e v io u s two d e c a d e s , and t h e tim e f o r s e r i o u s r e a s s e s s m e n t i s now. M in o r ity s t u d e n t s i n p a r t i c u l a r a p p e a r t o la c k know ledge o f o r i n t e r e s t i n o r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s i t h a s b e e n p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p a s t . I n t r y i n g t o g a in an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f any g ro u p , e s p e c i a l l y a B la c k m in o r ity w hich h a s e x i s t e d u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f s e g r e g a t i o n f o r so many y e a r s , a new t e a c h e r (o r even an o l d e r t e a c h e r who h a s la c k e d e x p o su re t o e th n i c g ro u p s o t h e r th a n h i s own) can f i n d h im s e lf s e r i o u s l y h a n d i c a p p e d ; ; t h e r e i s no s u b s t i t u t e f o r th e a c t u a l e x p e r ie n c e o f gro w in g w i t h , l i v i n g w ith , and i n t e r a c t i n g d a i l y w ith an y p e o p le . 95 96 Even f i e l d w ork h a s i t s l i m i t a t i o n s . T h ere a r e s e v e r e r e s t r i c t i o n s t o t h e s tu d y o f v a r i o u s a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l , s o c i o l o g i c a l , and c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s o f e t h n i c g r o u p s ; th e l i t e r a t u r e i s som etim es s u p e r f i c i a l , g e n e r a l i z e d , and te n d s t o p e r p e t u a t e s t e r e o t y p e s . The m a t e r i a l i s o f t e n f a l l i b l e , b u t t h e s t u d i e s n o te d c o n s t i t u t e m a jo r s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e a t p r e s e n t . The new t e a c h e r , h o w e v er, n e ed s g u i d e l i n e s . The need i s im m e d ia te , so t h e s e s t u d i e s h av e b e en g ro u p ed i n u n i t s t o p r o v id e a s c h e m a tic a p p ro a c h t o p u b l i c a t i o n s by th e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s i n t h e a r e a o f B la c k c u l t u r e . T e a c h e r A t t i t u d e s T e a c h e rs o f t e n m a in ta in a t t i t u d e s w h ich may h i n d e r t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n t e a c h i n g B la c k s t u d e n t s . T hese t e a c h e r s may h a v e an h o n e s t I n t e r e s t i n t h e i r s t u d e n t s , a s w e ll a s a g e n u in e d e s i r e t o p r o v id e m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g e x p e r ie n c e s f o r them . Many a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y m o tiv a te d to * 1 t e a c h and " h e lp " t h e m i n o r i t y ( o r "d i s a d v a n t a g e d " ) s t u d e n t . T h e re a r e e d u c a t o r s , a s K en n eth Jo h n s o n p o i n te d o u t, who a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e p ro b lem o f t e a c h i n g m i n o r i t y c h i l d r e n l i e s i n an a t t i t u d e o f " lo v e c o n q u e rs a l l " ; t h i s a t t i t u d e , h e c la im e d , h a s r e s u l t e d i n much e d u c a t i o n a l n o n s e n s e : L i t e r a t u r e on t e a c h i n g t h e c u l t u r a l l y d is a d v a n ta g e d i s f i l l e d w ith "drum an d ta m b o u rin e " r e p o r t s o f how z e a lo u s t e a c h e r s h a v e a c h ie v e d im m e d ia te , m onum ental, and m ir a c u lo u s r e s u l t s a f t e r some new a p p ro a c h h a s b een u s e d w ith lo v in g a p p l i c a t i o n . 2 97 W hile i t tnay be t r u e t h a t t h e d is a d v a n ta g e d s tu d e n t w i l l re s p o n d t o lo v e o r a f f e c t i o n , s i n c e he o f t e n r e c e i v e s to o l i t t l e lo v e i n h i s l i f e , t h i s s e n tim e n ta l I n s t r u c t i o n a l p o l i c y a lo n e p o s e s no e a s y s o l u t i o n t o th e problem , o f edu c a t i n g t h e m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t . Jo h n so n s u b s t i t u t e d "c o n c e rn " a s a b e t t e r r e s p o n s e t o t h e s t u d e n t s ’ n e e d s: W hile c o n c e rn i s r a t i o n a l , lo v e i s e m o tio n a l, and some p ro b lem s c a n n o t be s o lv e d by an e m o tio n a l a p p ro a c h . T h is d o es n o t mean t h a t t e a c h e r s sh o u ld n o t have a f f e c t i o n f o r t h e s e c h i l d r e n o r f e e l em pathy f o r them . They m ust do j u s t t h i s , i f t h e y a r e g o in g t o work e f f e c t i v e l y w ith them . But e m o tio n a lis m h a s no p la c e i n t h e k in d o f u n c l u t t e r e d r a t i o n a l a p p ro a c h needed t o s o lv e t h e p ro b lem o f e d u c a tin g t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e d .3 The m is s io n a r y t e a c h e r f i l l e d w ith z e a l and t h e c o n v ic tio n t h a t a l l t h e B lac k m in o r i t y s t u d e n t n e ed s i s t e n d e r lo v e and u n d e r s ta n d in g may in d e e d a p p e a r no more th a n f a tu o u s and o v e r - s o l i c i t o u s t o t h e s t u d e n t . Ron K aren ga s t a t e d t h e B la c k r e a c t i o n t o t h e a n x io u s w h ite l i b e r a l : I am s i c k o f w h ite p e o p le "com m unicating" t h in g s t o me. T h e r e ’s so m e th in g a b o u t them when t h e y do i t . . . . T h ey ’r e o v e r z e a lo u s i n t h e i r a tte m p t t o p ro v e th e n on e x i s t e n c e o f r a c is m w i t h i n them . . , . Then t h e r e i s th e p a t e r n a l i s t , who i s b o r in g and who i s r e a l l y b e h in d t h e r e a l w o r l d .4 The w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d e a g e r n e s s o f t h e o v e r-e m o tio n a l w h ite t e a c h e r c an th u s be e a s i l y m is c o n s tr u e d . L in k e d w ith t h e l a t e n t s u p e r i o r i t y o f o v e r s o l i c i t o u s n e s s i s t h e s t r o n g te n d e n c y t o s t e r e o t y p e m in o r i t y s t u d e n t s . F r e d e r i c k W illia m s ' s t u d i e s o f e th n ic s t e r e o t y p i n g c o n c e n tr a te d upon t e a c h e r s ’ a t t i t u d e s to w a rd t h e sp e e c h p a t t e r n s and h a b i t s o f D e t r o i t c h i l d r e n o f e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l age and th e a c c u r a c y o f t h e s e te a c h e r s * ju d g m en ts o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s ' s o c i a l s t a t u s . T e a c h e rs w ere a sk e d t o r e v e a l t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i r judgm ents* by r a t i n g c s e v e r a l e v a l u a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s i n a s e r i e s o f s c a le s .- ^ I t was fo u n d t h a t t e a c h e r s te n d e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e c h i l d r e n i n te rm s o f two g r o s s d im e n sio n s w h ic h w e re l a t e r l a b e l e d a s c o n fid e n c e - e a g e r n e s s and e t h n i c l t y - n o n s t a n d a r d n e s s . As a c h i l d was r a t e d n o n s ta n d a rd i n s p e e c h , o t h e r f e a t u r e s te n d e d t o be r a t e d l e s s f a v o r a b l y . T h is a p p e a re d t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t e a c h e r ". . . may h a v e some ty p e o f o v e r a l l r e a c t i o n r a t h e r th a n one t i e d t o i n d i v i d u a l and d e t a i l e d sp e ec h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ." ( i t a l i c s m in e .) T e a c h e r a t t i tu d e s to w ard t h e e th n ic c h i l d show ed a te n d e n c y t o c o l o r th e Judgment o f t h e n o n s ta n d a r d s p e e c h sa m p le s, a s w e l l a s o t h e r g e n e r a l p e rfo rm a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The w h ite t e a c h e r s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s s tu d y . . . had a l e s s - d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s t e r e o t y p e f o r N egro c h i l d r e n . . . . They w ere l e s s i n c l i n e d t o r a t e a c h i l d a s n o n s ta n d a rd and a l s o r a t e him a s h ig h s t a t u s . ° I n a l a t e r s tu d y , F r e d e r i c k W illia m s w ith J a c k W h ite h e ad and L e s l i e M i l l e r a tte m p te d t o a s s e s s t h e e th n i c s t e r e o t y p i n g by e v a l u a t i n g t e a c h e r s ' r a t i n g s o f t h e same s ta n d a r d E n g lis h sp e ec h sam p les when m atch ed w ith v id e o im ages o f w h ite , B la c k , and M e x ican -A m erican c h i l d r e n . The v id e o Im ages o f B lack an d M exican -A m erican c h i l d r e n p a i r e d w ith t h e s t a n d a r d E n g lis h a u d io sa m p le s w ere r a t e d more 99 e t h n i c and n o n s ta n d a r d t h a n w ere t h e same a u d io t a p e s p a i r e d w ith t h e w h ite c h i l d r e n 's v id e o t a p e s : I n g e n e r a l , f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e v id e o ta p e im age show ing t h e c h i l d ' s e t h n i c i t y a f f e c t s r a t i n g o f h i s l a n guage i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f r a c i a l s t e r e o t y p i n g . F or B la c k c h i l d r e n t h e b i a s was i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f e x p e c t in g them t o sound more n o n s ta n d a rd and e th n ic th a n t h e i r w h ite p e e r s . 7 Though t h e r e s e a r c h e r s c o n ced ed p o s s i b l e w eak n esses i n t h e t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e , su ch a s th e q u a l i t y o f t h e t e s t t a p e s , a c e r t a i n b i a s i n t e a c h e r e x p e c ta n c y seemed e v id e n t. A t t i t u d e s o f o v e r - s o l i c i t o u s n e s s and s t e r e o t y p i n g o f B la c k s t u d e n t s a r e n o t c o n f in e d s o l e l y t o w h ite t e a c h e r s . B la c k t e a c h e r s o f m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s a l s o may p o s s e s s a t t i tu d e s w h ic h .la n d ic a p t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n th e t e a c h in g o f B la c k s t u d e n t s . K e n n eth Jo h n s o n , f o r exam ple, d id n o t make a n y r a c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n i n h i s comments p e r t a i n i n g t o " z e a lo u s t e a c h e r s . " F r e d e r i c k W illia m s in c lu d e d B lac k a s w e l l a s w h ite t e a c h e r s i n h i s e a r l i e r s tu d y o f t h e D e t r o i t e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n 's t a p e s . The B lack t e a c h e r s a s w e l l a s t h e w h ite r e v e a l e d a te n d e n c y t o s t e r e o t y p e , a l th o u g h t h e y d id seem t o make a llo w a n c e f o r some n o n s ta n d a rd o s p e e c h i n t h e i r judgm ent o f h i g h e r - s t a t u s c h i l d r e n . F r a n k l i n F r a z i e r i n d i c a t e s a p o t e n t i a l l y more s i n i s t e r p ro b le m i n t h e B lac k t e a c h e r 's r e g a r d o f m in o r ity s t u d e n t s : I t seem s t h a t some [B la c k ] t e a c h e r s u n d e rta k e t o im p rove t h e c h i l d r e n 's b e h a v io r by d i s p a r a g i n g rem arks c o n c e rn in g t h e N egro and by h o ld in g up t o them t h e s u p p o s e d ly b e t t e r b e h a v io r o f w h ite c h i l d r e n . I n some c a s e s , t h i s i s p r o b a b ly due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t e a c h e r , b e in g a 100 member o f th e u p p e r c l a s s , a c t u a l l y h a s t h e same a t t i tu d e to w a rd l o w e r - c l a s s N egroes a s w h i t e s . 9 T h is u p p e r - and m id d le - c la s s B lack a t t i t u d e to w a rd lo w e r- c l a s s B la c k s i s f u r t h e r e x p la in e d by F r a z i e r and i s m e n tio n ed i n s e v e r a l s o u r c e s t h e a t t i t u d e can be w i t n e s s e d on many cam puses w here B laok s t u d e n t s a r e o f t e n r e s e n t f u l o f what th e y c o n s id e r th e a u t h o r i t a r i a n and s u p e r c i l i o u s a t t i t u d e s o f some few B la c k i n s t r u c t o r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . As S ilv e rm a n p u t i t : T e a c h e rs who have j u s t moved up i n t o t h e m id d l e - c l a s s f e e l t h r e a te n e d by c o n ta c t w ith l o w e r - c l a s s c h i l d r e n j th e y o u n g s te r s rem in d them to o much o f t h e i r own o r i g i n s . T hus, u s in g Negro t e a c h e r s f o r N egro c h i l d r e n f r e q u e n t l y b a c k f i r e s ; th e Negro t e a c h e r — h a v in g p u l l e d h e r s e l f up o u t o f th e slum by h e r own b o o t s t r a p s — may be more co n tem ptuous o f h e r slum c h a r g e s th a n any w h i t e . H The a t t i t u d e s o f a l l t e a c h e r s o f m i n o r i t y s t u d e n ts need c a r e f u l e x a m in a tio n —h o n e s t s e l f e x a m in a tio n . What th e t e a c h e r e x p e c ts o r does n o t e x p e c t o f B la c k s t u d e n ts and w h e th e r he r e g a r d s them a s I n d i v i d u a l s o r a s ty p e s can e i t h e r s e r v e t o m o tiv a te and s t i m u l a t e l e a r n i n g o r t o Im pede t h e s t u d e n t s ' e d u c a ti o n a l d e v elo p m e n t and p e r s o n a l a s p i r a t i o n . Though m ost o f t h e exam ples r e l a t e d i n t h e p r e c e d in g p a ra g ra p h s d e a l t w ith th e t e a c h e r s o f y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , t h e same a t t i t u d e s e x i s t i n h i g h e r l e v e l s o f e d u c a tio n . By t h e tim e th e B lac k s t u d e n t a r r i v e s a t th e comm unity c o l l e g e , he may have e x p e r ie n c e d many e g o - dam aging s i t u a t i o n s i n h i s sc h o o l c a r e e r . I n j u n i o r c o l l e g e , t h e B lack s tu d e n t may be making h i s f i n a l e f f o r t a t 101 s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n and e d u c a t i o n a l ad v an cem en t. As W illia m C. K v araceu s s t a t e d : P ro g re s s o f t h e N egro s tu d e n t w i l l be l i m i t e d u n t i l a l l t e a c h e r s f r e e th e m s e lv e s i n t h e c la s s ro o m from t h e ju d g m en ts, t h e a s s u m p tio n s , and t h e p r e j u d i c e s w ith w hich a d u l t s — ev en p r o f e s s i o n a l s —h av e f o r a lo n g tim e a p p ro a c h e d t h e m a t t e r o f e s t im a t i n g t h e n a tu r e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l N egro p u p i l . 12 Of a l l t e a c h e r s , t h e t e a c h e r o f sp e e c h sh o u ld be a c u t e l y aw are o f t h e im p o rta n c e o f a t t i t u d e i n d e a l in g w ith m in o r ity s t u d e n t s . A t t i t u d e a s s e s s m e n t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y germ ane t o s p e e c h co m m u n icatio n w here a t t i t u d e s a r e non v e r b a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d . To c o r r e c t m is c o n c e p tio n s and a l t e r n e g a t iv e a t t i t u d e s , t h e t e a c h e r m ust a tte m p t t o g a i n some aw a re n e ss o f a m i n o r i t y c u l t u r e . H i s t o r i c o - s o c i a l B ackground Two m a jo r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o B lac k c u l t u r e m ust be co n s i d e r e d ; f i r s t i s t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f " A fric a n is m s " o r rem n a n ts o f A f r i c a n c u l t u r e w hich c o n tin u e d t o p e rm e ate t h e l i v e s and a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e t r a n s p l a n t e d A f r ic a n s i n t h e New W orld; t h e se c o n d i s t h e m anner i n w hich t h e B lac k s a tte m p te d t o a d j u s t t o c o n d i t i o n s im posed upon them . E a r l i e r s c h o l a r l y s t u d i e s te n d e d t o d is m is s t h e im p o rta n c e o r even t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a t r a n s p l a n t e d A f r ic a n c u l t u r e i n t h e New W orld. R. E. P a rk d e c l a r e d i n 1919 t h e p o s i t i o n t o w hich h e h a s p e r s i s t e n t l y c lu n g : 102 My own im p r e s s io n i s t h a t t h e amount o f A f r ic a n t r a d i t i o n w h ich t h e Negro b ro u g h t t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s was v e ry s m a ll. I n f a c t , t h e r e i s e v e r y r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e , i t seems t o me, t h a t t h e N egro, when he la n d e d i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , l e f t b e h in d him a lm o st e v e r y th in g b u t h i s d a rk co m p lex io n and h i s t r o p i c a l te m p e ra m e n t. I t i s v e ry d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d i n t h e S o u th to d a y a n y th in g t h a t c a n be t r a c e d d i r e c t l y back t o A f r i c a . 13 E. F r a n k l i n F r a z i e r , as w e l l, a g re e d w ith t h i s p o s i t i o n , and a s l a t e a s 1966, s t a t e d t h a t s o - c a l l e d A fr ic a n is m s w ere m e re ly " i n s i g n i f i c a n t s c r a p s o f m em o ries": P ro b a b ly n e v e r b e f o r e i n h i s t o r y h a s a p e o p le b e en so n e a r l y s t r i p p e d o f i t s s o c i a l h e r i t a g e a s t h e N eg roes who w ere b ro u g h t t o A m erica. O th e r c o n q u e re d r a c e s h a v e c o n tin u e d t o w o rs h ip t h e i r h o u s e h o ld gods w i t h i n t h e i n t i m a t e c i r c l e o f t h e i r k in sm en . B ut Amer i c a n s l a v e r y d e s tr o y e d h o u s e h o ld gods and d i s s o l v e d t h e bonds o f sym pathy and a f f e c t i o n b etw een men o f t h e same b lo o d and h o u s e h o ld . Old men and women m ig h t hav e b ro o d ed o v e r memories, o f t h e i r A f r i c a n hom elan d , b u t th e y c o u ld n o t change t h e w o rld a b o u t them . T hrough f o r c e o f c ir c u m s ta n c e s , th e y had t o a c q u i r e a new l a n g u a g e , a d o p t new h a b i t s o f l a b o r , and t a k e o v e r , how e v e r i m p e r f e c t l y , th e fo lk w ay s o f t h e A m erican e n v ir o n m ent. T h e i r c h i l d r e n , who knew o n ly t h e A m erican e n v iro n m e n t, soon f o r g o t t h e few m em ories t h a t h a d b een p a s s e d on t o them and d e v e lo p e d m o ti v a ti o n and modes o f b e h a v io r i n harm ony w ith t h e New W orld. . . . Of t h e h a b i t s and custom s a s w e l l a s t h e h o p e s and f e a r s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e l i f e o f t h e i r f o r e b e a r e r s i n A f r i c a , n o th in g r e m a i n s .1^ Many o t h e r s t u d e n ts o f t h e A m erican N egro h av e a p p e a re d t o c o n c u r w ith P a rk and F r a z i e r and h a v e m a in ta in e d w hat h a s b een r e f e r r e d t o by M e l v il l e H e r s k o v its a s t h e " a c c e p te d p o s i t i o n . " T h is e a r l i e r view o f t h e e p h em era l q u a l i t y o f A f r ic a n t r a d i t i o n on A m erican s h o r e s h a s a p p a r e n t l y changed somewhat i n r e c e n t y e a r s . H e r s k o v its i n The Myth o f t h e N egro P a s t ad v an c ed th ro u g h o u t h i s t e x t t h e argum ent t h a t t o i g n o r e re m n a n ts o f 103 A f r ic a n c u l t u r e i n t h e New W orld r e s u l t s i n i n a c c u r a t e c o n c l u s i o n s . T h ese I n a c c u r a c i e s may in d e e d le a d u s t o f o r m u la te i n c o r r e c t s o l u t i o n s to t h e so c io ec o n o m ic p rob lem s o f t h e B la c k A m e ric a n sj t h e B la c k i s c o n s id e r e d a "man w ith o u t a p a s t , " l a c k in g any e th n i c c u l t u r e o t h e r th a n t h a t w hich he d e v e lo p e d th r o u g h c o n ta c t w ith E uro pean c u l t u r e s i n t h e New W orld: To n e g l e c t a n y o f t h e s e e le m e n ts [o f A f r i c a n c u l t u r e ] i n t h e s i t u a t i o n m ust d i s t o r t p e r s p e c t i v e — w h ich means t h a t i t i s a s n e c e s s a r y t o r e a l i z e t h e f o r c e o f A f r ic a n t r a d i t i o n m aking f o r t h e s p e c i a l c u l t u r a l t r a i t s t h a t m ark o f f t h e N egro a s i t i s t o b e a r i n m ind t h e s la v e p a s t o r h ig h p ig m e n ta tio n . . . . I n t h e e v a l u a t i v e p r o c e s s e s o f t h i s c o u n tr y , th e n , t h e p a s t c o u n ts more h e a v i l y th a n i s r e a l i z e d , from w h ich i t f o llo w s t h a t t h e e x te n t t o w h ich th e p a s t o f a p e o p le i s r e g a r d e d a s p r a is e w o r th y , t h e i r own s e l f - e s t e e m w i l l be h ig h and o p in io n o f o t h e r s w i l l be f a v o r a b l e . The te n d e n c y t o deny t h e N egro any su ch p a s t a s a l l o t h e r m i n o r i t y g ro u p s o f t h i s c o u n tr y own t o i s th u s u n f o r t u n a t e , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e t r u t h c o n c e rn in g t h e n a t u r e o f N egro a b o r i g i n a l endow m ents, and i t s t e n a c i o u s n e s s i n c o n ta c t w ith o t h e r c u l t u r e s , i s n o t su ch a s t o make i t s u f f e r u n d e r c o m p a r is o n .15 C o n s id e r a b le r e s e a r c h h a s t r a c e d A fric a n is m s i n t h e New W orld t o t h e i r r o o t s on t h e A f r ic a n c o n t i n e n t , much o f t h e work s p e a rh e a d e d by H e r s k o v i t s , who h a s b e en p a r t i c u l a r l y ■ j ZT c o n c e rn e d w ith A f r i c a n t a l e s and f o l k l o r e . A w e a lth o f m a t e r i a l c o n c e rn in g t h e B la c k o r a l t r a d i t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e seems p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t t o t h i s s tu d y . A f ric a n is m s i n New W orld B lack la n g u a g e h a v e a l s o been I d e n t i f i e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a r e a s o f J a m a ic a , t h e Baham as, and t h e Sea I s l a n d s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . 1^ (A fric a n is m s i n t h e sp e e c h o f c o n t i n e n t a l A m erican B la c k s 104 a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o llo w in g c h a p t e r . ) A fric a n is m s h ave s u r v iv e d i n t h e s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , and c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f B la c k A m e ric an s. T h e ir r i t e s o f p a ssa g e ( b i r t h , p u b e r ty , m a r r ia g e , and d e a th ) and r i t e s o f i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n ( r i t e s a r i s i n g from more com plex s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ) h a v e r e v e a l e d many c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f A f r ic a n p e o p le s . Some o f t h e more o b v io u s and f a m i l i a r o f t h e s e cu sto m s e x i s t i n r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s and i n b u r i a l r i t e s . The se c o n d h i s t o r i c o - s o c i a l f a c t o r t o be c o n s id e r e d i s t h e m anner i n w hich B lac k s a tte m p te d t o a d j u s t t o t h e c o n d it i o n s t h e y e n c o u n te re d i n t h e New W orld. One w id e ly re m a rk e d , a l b e i t le g e n d a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f B lac k b e h a v io r u n d e r c o n d it i o n s o f s l a v e r y was an a b i l i t y t o d is s e m b le , a s t r a t e g y w hich made s la v e s c a p a b le o f m y s tif y in g and m is le a d in g t h e i r New W orld m a s te r s . As B enjam in Q u a rle s d e s c r i b e d i t : A s l a v e s e t a w a tch upon h i s l i p s w henever t a l k i n g t o w h i t e s . He was a "yes man" p a r e x c e ll e n c e . By t h e I n t o n a t i o n o f h i s m a s t e r 's v o ic e , a bondman h ad come t o know w hat k in d o f re s p o n s e he w an ted ; t o th e s la v e t h e t r u t h o r f a l s i t y o f w hat h e s a i d was u n im p o rta n t com p a re d w ith s a y in g t h e t h i n g t h e m a s te r w anted t o h e a r . F o r th e s l a v e was alw ays p la y in g a r o l e , a c t i n g i n t h e way t h a t h e b e l i e v e d t o be t o h i s b e s t i n t e r e s t s . H ence he te n d e d t o faw n s e r v i l e l y , t o w ear t h e mask o f h u m i l i t y . He a d o p te d a c h i l d p o s t u r e , g iv in g t h e im p r e s s i o n o f b e in g a t t a c h e d t o th e m a s te r and u t t e r l y d e p e n d e n t upon him . He te n d e d , o r p r e te n d e d , t o be a b i t s t u p i d . T h is was a n o th e r a s p e c t o f h i s te c h n iq u e o f s u r v i v a l , f o r h i s a p a t h e t i c g aze was s e l f - p r o t e c t l v e ; i t was d a n g ero u s t o know to o much. . . . T h e re can be no q u e s tio n t h a t t h e s l a v e d id make an a d ju s tm e n t t o h i s l o t . But t h i s d id n o t mean t h a t h e was s a t i s f i e d . 19 105 T h is a b i l i t y t o c o n c e a l h i s e m o tio n s and th o u g h ts from th e s c r u t i n y o f h i s w h ite m a s te r s r e n d e r e d th e B la c k man a t l e a s t a modicum o f freedom and p r o t e c t i o n i n h i s s t a t u s ; i f deemed in c a p a b le o f p e rfo rm in g d i f f i c u l t o r s p e c i a l i z e d t a s k s , he c o u ld o f t e n e sc a p e t h e b u rd e n o f a d d i t i o n a l w ork. Numerous i n s t a n c e s and a n e c d o te s h a v e been c h r o n i c l e d r e v e a l in g how s l a v e s o u t w i tt e d t h e i r m a s te rs th r o u g h d i s sem b lin g and c o n c e a lin g ; i l l n e s s was f e ig n e d , work was shunned, p l a n t a t i o n p r o p e r t y was dam aged, u n d e rg ro u n d s l a v e a c t i v i t i e s to o k p l a c e . A l l t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s w ere f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e B lac k a b i l i t y t o assum e th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f 20 dumbness o r s t u p i d i t y . F o lk t a l e s accom panied by m u sic , s p i r i t u a l s , and r e l i g i o u s songs w ere em ployed by B la c k s a s a means o f p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e i r l o t and a m ethod o f com m unication w ith one a n o th e r . The lan g u a g e o f t a l e s and l y r i c s o f songs p o s s e s s e d d u a l i t y o f m eaning ; t h e s e a g a in d e m o n s tra te th e m asking o f t r u e a t t i t u d e s . C l i n t C o r n e liu s W ilso n s t r e s s e d th e im p o rta n c e o f m usic th r o u g h o u t t h e t o t a l B la c k e x p e r i ence i n A m erica w hich had i t s r o o t s i n t h e s l a v e c u l t u r e . W ilson c la im e d t h a t m usic was a n d c o n tin u e s t o be t h e b a s i c 21 B lac k m ethod o f com m u n icatio n . F r a z i e r b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f t h e p r o c e s s o f B lac k a c c u l t u r a t i o n was t h e o f t e n c l o s e p r o x im ity o f t h e two r a c e s u n d e r c o n d it i o n s o f p l a n t a t i o n l i f e . He s t a t e d what c o u ld be te rm e d a tru iB m , nam ely t h a t 106 d e s p i t e t h e o v e rp o w e rin g i n j u s t i c e s and in h u m a n ity o f th e s l a v e sy ste m , t h e r e i s much e v id e n c e t h a t s la v e s a d o p te d 22 t h e custom s and m anners o f t h e i r m a s te r s . Some B lac k s ev en m a in ta in e d e x tre m e ly c lo s e bonds o f f a m i l i a r i t y and a f f e c t i o n w ith w h ite f a m i l i e s , a s w e ll a s a c t u a l b lo o d r e l a t i o n s h i p i n many c a s e s : Bondage c o u ld n o t c r u s h o u t i n d i v i d u a l t a l e n t , and t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r on t h e p l a n t a t i o n prom oted m en tal d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and became t h e b a s i s o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t a t u s . T hen, t o o , t h e em ergence o f t h e s la v e a s a human b e in g was f a c i l i t a t e d by h i s a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t o t h e h o u s e h o ld o f t h e m a s te r r a c e . T h ere h e to o k o v e r more o r l e s s t h e i d e a s and a t t i t u d e s and m o rals and m anners o f h i s m a s te r s . H is m a rr ia g e and f a m ily r e l a t i o n s r e f l e c t e d t h e d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s o f t h i s p r o c e s s . Where t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f w e s te r n m ores went f a r t h e s t and t h e d ev elo p m en t o f p e r s o n a l i t y was h i g h e s t , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f f a m ily l i f e a p p ro a c h e d most c l o s e l y t h e p a t t e r n o f w h ite c i v i l i z a t i o n . 23 I t s h o u ld be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t F r a z i e r f i r s t w ro te h i s t e x t a t a p e r i o d when B la c k b e h a v io r was re g a r d e d a s a k in to p r i m i t i v e . F r a z i e r w ish e d t o em p h asize t h a t th e Negro f a m i ly s t r u c t u r e an d m ores w ere form ed by s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , n o t by r a c e o r A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n s . I n a n o th e r pil t e x t , F r a z i e r s t a t e d h i s i n t e r e s t i n t h e em ergence o f N e g ro es a s an Im p o rta n t A m erican m in o r i t y g ro up w hich w ould be g r a d u a l l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o A m erican l i f e ; h e b e lie v e d t h a t o t h e r a p p ro a c h e s s t r e s s i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s oetw een w h ite and B la c k g ro u p s i n t h e s o c i e t y w ere outm oded and p e r p e t u a t e d " p r o v i n c i a l " n o t io n s o f th e Negro and " f a l s e c o n c e p ts " o f h i s r e l a t i o n t o w h ite A m erica. He p o s t u l a t e d 107 e v e n t u a l I n t e g r a t i o n r a t h e r th a n d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o r r a c i a l s e p a r a t i o n . Due t o h i s t o r i c a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s , t h e r e f o r e , B la c k Amer i c a n s a d o p te d many o f t h e custom s o f th e E u ro p ean t r a d i t i o n and em ployed w h a te v e r means w ere a v a i l a b l e t o them t o a d j u s t t o t h e i r c o n d it i o n o f s l a v e r y i n t h e New' W orld. T hese means w ere m ost o f t e n form s o f d i s g u i s e d p r o t e s t i n t h e form o f work so n g s, f o l k t a l e s , s p i r i t u a l s w ith d u a l mean i n g s . The s la v e le a r n e d i n many i n s t a n c e s t o w ear a mask o v e r h i s t r u e e m o tio n s, and r e t a i n e d c e r t a i n r e s i d u a l e l e m ents w hich had been p a r t o f h i s A f r ic a n h e r i t a g e . H i s t o r y and s o c i a l c o n d it i o n s shaped t h e d ev elo p m e n t o f t h e A m eri c a n B la c k s ' f a m ily l i f e and s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . A g a in s t t h i s h i s t o r i c o - s o c i a l back g ro u n d , t h e young B la c k s h o u ld be p e r c e iv e d . The B lack F a m ily I n re v ie w in g some o f th e more p r e v a l e n t c o n v e n tio n a l a t t i t u d e s o f s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s r e g a r d i n g t h e B lac k f a m ily , a comment made by Andrew B i l l i n g s l e y s h o u ld b e k e p t i n m ind: N egro f a m i l i e s have b een m i s t r e a t e d , i g n o r e d , and d i s t o r t e d i n A m erican s c h o la r s h ip i n p a r t b e c a u s e o f t h e a b se n c e o f g e n e r a l t h e o r i e s g u id in g s t u d i e s o f A m eri can f a m i l i e s . 25 Most s t u d i e s hav e c o n c e n tr a te d on b ro k e n f a m i l i e s and lo w er incom e o r w e l f a r e g ro u p s , d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o m p le x ity o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f B lack s o c i e t y . The t e a c h e r o f B lac k 108 s t u d e n ts who i s i g n o r a n t o f t h i s c o m p le x ity w ould be f a r more a p t t o a c c e p t t h e p r e v a i l i n g s t e r e o t y p e s o f B lack p e o p le t h a t a r e o f t e n p e r p e t u a t e d by so many o f th e more p o p u la r , s e n s a t i o n a l s t u d i e s t h a n t h e t e a c h e r who h a s e x p lo re d t h e com plex s t r u c t u r e o f B la c k s o c i e t y . The t e a c h e r w i l l be e x p e c te d t o be w o rk in g w ith a l l ty p e s o f B lack s t u d e n t s fro m a l l s o c i a l l e v e l s ; t o a c c e p t t h e a t t i tu d e s and i d e a s o f many o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s w ith o u t s u f f i c i e n t k n ow ledge o r r e g a r d f o r d i f f e r i n g t h e o r i e s and f i n d in g s w ou ld be f o o lh a r d y . The t e a c h e r s h o u ld , i d e a l l y , be f a m i l i a r w i t h a l l o f t h e s e a t t i t u d e s i n o r d e r t o g a in a w e ll-r o u n d e d p i c t u r e o f t h e b a ck g ro u n d o f th e B lac k s tu d e n t. P ro b a b ly t h e m ost f a m i l i a r im age o f t h e B lac k A m erican f a m ily i s t h e d o m in an t m o t h e r - f i g u r e . F r a z i e r p o in te d to th e f a c t t h a t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e som etim es b e n ig n c o n d it i o n s e n c o u n te re d b y many s l a v e s , f a m i l i e s w ere o f t e n d i s s o l v e d a t t h e d em ise o f k in d m a s te rs o r when econom ic p r e s s u r e s o r g a in f a c e d s l a v e h o l d e r s . " C o n se q u e n tly u n d e r a l l c o n d i t i o n s o f s l a v e r y , t h e Negro m o th e r rem a in e d t h e most 26 d e p e n d a b le an d im p o r ta n t f i g u r e i n t h e f a m i l y . " Fem ale dom inance h a s b e e n s u s t a i n e d i n B la c k f a m ily l i f e t o some d e g re e t o t h e p r e s e n t tim e ; i t i s m ost a p p a r e n t i n lo w e r- c l a s s p o o r B la c k f a m i l i e s . A c c o rd in g t o C ensus B u reau r e p o r t s , o v e r 22 p e r c e n t o f n o n w h ite f a m i l i e s had fe m a le h e ad s i n 1940 com pared t o a l i t t l e o v e r 14 p e r c e n t f o r w h ite f a m i l i e s . I n t e n y e a r s , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f fe m a le 109 h o u s e h o ld h e a d s I n t h e w h ite p o p u l a t i o n d id n o t i n c r e a s e , b u t t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f n o n w h ite fem a le h e a d s o f h o u s e h o ld s r o s e t o a p p ro x im a te ly 24 p e r c e n t : By i 960, t h e h o u s e h o ld s w ith fem ale h e a d s h a d i n c r e a s e d t o 16 p e r c e n t f o r w h ite s and t o 27 p e r c e n t f o r n o n w h i t e s , and i n 1965 th e f i g u r e s w ere 18 p e r c e n t and 30 p e r c e n t f o r w h ite s and n o n -w h ite s r e s p e c t i v e l y . 28 The B la c k m o th er h a s become f a m i l i a r i n so n g , f o l k l o r e , p o e t r y , and dram a. Her p o s i t i o n a s t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h e f a m ily , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s l a v e e r a , h a s b e en m a in ta in e d t o a g r e a t e x te n t by t h e l i f e o f p o v e r ty and t h e p ro b le m s o f i n s e c u r i t y w hich accom panied t h e l a r g e l a t e r u r b a n m ig r a t i o n s ; c i t y e x i s t e n c e h a s te n d e d t o w eaken fam i l y o r g a n i z a t i o n and em p h asize t h e lo w e r econom ic an d s o c i a l s t a t u s o f t h e g e n e r a l l y u n s k i l l e d r u r a l B la c k m ale. Thomas P e t ti g r e w d e s c r i b e d i t t h u s : When t h e u n s k i l l e d N egro m ale does manage t o s e c u r e a jo b , he g e n e r a l l y assum es an o c c u p a tio n t h a t p a y s b a r e l y enough t o s u p p o rt h i m s e l f —much l e s s a f a m ily . Such c o n d it i o n s o b v io u s ly l i m i t t h e a b i l i t y o f lo w e r- c l a s s N eg ro es t o f o llo w t h e t y p i c a l A m erican p a t t e r n — t h a t i s , a s t a b l e u n i t w ith husban d p r o v id in g a s t e a d y incom e f o r h i s f a m ily . The Negro w if e i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n can e a s i l y become d i s g u s t e d w ith h e r f l n a n c l a l l y - d e p e n d e n t h u sb a n d , and h e r r e j e c t i o n o f him f u r t h e r a l i e n a t e s t h e m ale from f a m ily l i f e . 29 Young m ale o f f s p r i n g i n t h e fe m a le -d o m in a te d , lo w e r- c l a s s B lac k f a m ily h a v e b een fo u n d by some s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s t o h a v e a c o m p u lsio n t o commit a n t l - s o o l a l a c t s , w h ile fe m a le o f f s p r i n g te n d t o fo llo w p a t t e r n s s e t by t h e i r m o th e rs . I n s t u d i e s c o n d u c te d i n New O rle a n s by J . H. R o h re r, B la c k s who a s c h i l d r e n h a d b e en t h e s u b j e c t s f o r a 110 s tu d y made tw e n ty y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y w ere fo u n d t o e x e m p lify t h i s l i f e p a t t e r n a s a d u l t s . The young m ales a p p e a re d t o s u f f e r from a b a s i c p ro b le m o f s e x i d e n t i t y ; a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s c o n f l i c t w i t h i n th e m s e lv e s , t h e y w ere e a s i l y draw n i n t o gang m em b ersh ip s. The g a n g s , a s a g e n e r a l r u l e , r e j e c t e d t o t a l l y t h e g e n e r a l b e h a v i o r a l s ta n d a r d s and v a l u e s o f s o c i e t y ; w i t h i n t h i s m em bership, ho w ev er, t h e young B lac k s b e li e v e d t h e y w e re a c h ie v in g t h e s t a t u s o f men a s opposed t o t h e i r s t a t u s i n t h e w o rld w hich th e y f e l t h a d r e j e c t e d them : The gang member r e j e c t s f e m i n i n i t y i n e v e ry fo rm , and he se e s i t i n women a n d i n e f f e m in a te men, i n law s and » m o rals and r e l i g i o n , i n s c h o o ls and i n o c c u p a ti o n a l s t r i v i n g . 31 W ith such an a t t i t u d e o f a l i e n a t i o n , i t i s e a s y t o u n d e r s ta n d th e l u r e o f c rim e , d ru g a d d i c t i o n , a lc o h o lis m , and ■ 3 p a t t e n d i n g m orose d e s p a i r . Though R o h r e r 's s t u d y was c o n d u c te d i n a S o u th e rn c i t y , s i m i l a r p a r a l l e l s h a v e b e e n shown i n t h e l i f e s t y l e s o f many young B lac k g h e t t o d w e l le r s i n t h e N o rth . T a l l y * s C o rn er by E l l i o t Liebow p o i n t e d o u t t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t young and o ld l o w e r - c l a s s u rb a n g h e t t o d w e lle r s h av e i n e s t a b l i s h i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g i n t i m a t e bonds o f lo v e o r even f r i e n d s h i p . M ales te n d t o r e g a r d a l l f e m a le s , m a r r ie d o r s i n g l e , a s f a i r game, w h ic h l e a d s t o c o n t i n u a l c o n f l i c t , o f t e n p h y s i c a l i n n a t u r e . The a tm o sp h e re w h ich t h e s e m a le /i fe m a le , m a le /m a le r e l a t i o n s h i p s and c o n f l i c t s e n g e n d e r i s ill ; o f t e n one o f s u s p i c i o n and d i s t r u s t . Many o f t h e s e a t t i t u d e s a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e e x tre m e t r a n s i e n c y o f th e lo w e r- c l a s s B la c k m a l e . ^ ( i t s h o u ld he p o in te d o u t t h a t one c an p e r c e i v e t h e s e s o c l o - s e x u a l f e a t u r e s i n o t h e r e th n ic g ro u p s o f s i m i l a r so c io e c o n o m ic b a c k g r o u n d s .) D e s p ite th e n e g a t i v e ju d g m en ts o f l o w e r - c l a s s u rb a n l i f e , m e n tio n e d a b o v e , some s t u d i e s have em phasized p o s i t i v e e le m e n ts o f f a m i ly e x i s t e n c e i n t h e g h e t t o . D rake p o i n t e d o u t : F o r t h e m asses o f t h e g h e t t o d w e lle r s t h i s i s a warm and f a m i l i a r m i l i e u , p r e f e r a b l e t o t h e s a n i t a r y c o ld n e s s o f m i d d l e - c l a s s n e ig h b o rh o o d s and a c o u n te r p a r t t o t h e c o m m u n ities o f t h e f o r e i g n - b o r n , e ac h o f w hich h a s i t s own d i s t i n c t i v e s u b c u l t u r a l fla v o r.3 4 - D rake and C ay to n h a d e a r l i e r r e l e a s e d t h e i r n o te d s tu d y o f B la c k l o w e r - c l a s s u rb a n l i f e , B la c k M e tr o p o lis , i n w hich t h e y s t r e s s e d t h e m e a n in g fu l s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s and th e c o m f o r ta b le i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e c i t i z e n s o f t h e g h e t t o . Breakdow ns i n f a m i ly o r g a n i z a t i o n w ere l in k e d t o t h e p r o b lem o f unem ploym ent among t h e m a le s . Y et r e l a t i v e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y a d ju s tm e n ts c o u ld be made, and t h e B lack woman was shown t o be a f i g u r e o f immense c o u ra g e and f o r t i t u d e u n d e r m ost c o n d i t i o n s . A lso d e s p i t e overw helm ing o d d s, s t a b l e f a m i ly u n i t s a r e s e e n t o e x i s t and t o have s u r v iv e d t h ? p ro b le m s o f g h e t t o e x i s t e n c e . As th e y B ta te d : B r o n z e v l l l e 's p e o p le h a v e n e v e r l e t p o v e r ty , d i s e a s e , and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n " g e t them dow n." The v i g o r w ith w h ic h t h e y e n jo y l i f e seems t o b e l i e t h e gloom y o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e s t a t i s t i c i a n s and c i v i c l e a d e r s who know th e f a c t s a b o u t t h e B lac k g h e t t o . 36 112 | Though m ajor a t t e n t i o n h a s b e en g iv e n t h e l o w e r - c l a s s B la c k f a m ily and p o t e n t i a l s t u d e n t s i s s u i n g from i t , a p r o p o r t i o n o f th e B la c k s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g th e com m unity c o l l e g e s i n t h e Los A n g eles a r e a c o u ld be more e a s i l y te rm e d members o f t h e m id d le c l a s s w ith m i d d l e - c l a s s s t a n d - •57 a r d s and o r i e n t a t i o n . 1 I t may be p o s s i b l e , th o u g h t h e r e a p p e a rs t o be no d o c u m e n ta tio n a v a i l a b l e a t p r e s e n t , t h a t some c h i l d r e n o f u p p e r - c l a s s B la c k f a m i l i e s a s w e l l a r e a t t r a c t e d to th e n e ig h b o rh o o d c o l l e g e s a s a m a t t e r o f c o n v e n ie n c e , c h o ic e , o r b e tt e r m e n t o f g ra d e s t o e n a b le c o l l e g e t r a n s f e r . Due to m i d d l e - c l a s s and u p p e r - c l a s s f a m i l i e s ’ p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s to w a rd c o n v e n tio n a l b e h a v i o r , t h e i r o f f s p r i n g c o u ld be assum ed t o f o l lo w t h e g e n e r a l s o c i e t y 's e x p e c ta tio n s r e g a r d in g t h e b e h a v io r and a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e qO a v e ra g e m a j o r it y c o l l e g e s t u d e n t . The t e a c h e r o f t h e com m unity c o l l e g e B la c k s t u d e n t s h o u ld rem ain aw are o f t h e f a c t t h a t d e s p i t e s o c i a l c l a s s and l e v e l s o f f a m i l i a l econom ic a t t a i n m e n t , a l l B la c k s t u d e n ts have s u f f e r e d o r a r e p o t e n t i a l s u f f e r e r s o f s o c i a l s t i g m a t i z a t i o n . The lo w e r c l a s s e s a r e m ore a c u t e l y aw are o f t h i s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ; t h e m id d le and u p p e r c l a s s e s may more e f f e c t i v e l y i n s u l a t e th e m s e lv e s - a n d t h e i r f a m i l i e s from i t , b ut i t s t i l l e x i s t s , i f o n ly i n s u b t l e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . B lack s t u d e n ts who a t t e n d c o l l e g e c l a s s e s w i l l b r in g w ith them t h e i r v a r i e d i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o r a l r e a c t i o n s t o t h e c o n d it i o n s o f t h e i r f a m ily l i f e as w e ll a s to t h e s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t. The B la c k f a m i l i a l b a ck g ro u n d e x h i b i t s a m a t r i a r c h a l s t r u c t u r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e lo w e r c l a s s e s , w ith , i n many c a s e s , r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e s t a b i l i t y . I l l e g i t i m a c y , c rim e , and d ru g a d d i c t i o n o f t e n p la g u e t h e p o o re r B lack y o u th . D e s p ite c o m ra d e rie i n th e g h e t t o , i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e o f t e n s h a llo w due t o t r a n s i e n c y . M id d le- and u p p e r - c l a s s B la c k s h a v e h ig h e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e i r o f f s p r i n g , who a r e g e n e r a l l y b e t t e r p r e p a r e d f o r demands o f c o l l e g e l i f e . A l l , how ever, a r e aw are o f t h e i n e q u i t i e s o r im a g in e d i n e q u i t i e s f a c i n g t h e B la c k i n g e n e r a l s o c i e t y . The e a r l i e s t l e a r n i n g s o f t h e Negro c h i l d , p a r t i c u l a r l y one i n t h e r u r a l o r u rb a n slu m s, i s t h a t t h e f a m ily i s n o t a s o u rc e o f b a s i c s u p p o rt and n u r t u r e . He se e k s h i s g r a t i f i c a t i o n on t h e s t r e e t and among p e e r s . 39 M rs. Grrambs’ s ta te m e n t m ust be r e g a r d e d i n l i g h t o f th e aim s o f h e r s tu d y j sh e was c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f t h e young B la c k w hich i s " . . . c o n ta m in a te d by t h e c e n t r a l f a c t t h a t i t i s b a se d on a c o l o r - c a s t e com plex ."^0 She s t a t e d t h a t t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e Negro c o u ld n o t re m a in unm arked by t h e u . . . e x p e r ie n c e o f c a s t e d i s c r i m i - „2 n n a t i o n b a se d upon c o l o r . " The f a m ily i n f lu e n c e upon th e young B lac k was d e s c r ib e d a s b e in g I n s tr u m e n ta l i n a c c e n tu a t i n g t h i s sy stem o f c a s t e - c o l o r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n : 114 : One o f th e f i r s t f a m ily l e a r n i n g s o f t h e N egro c h i l d h a s t o do w ith h i s c o l o r . The more w h ite a N egro c h i l d i s , t h e more w i l l h e be a c c e p te d by h i s f a m ily , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be h i s o p p o r t u n it y t o u s e h i s t a l e n t s , t h e more l i k e l y t h a t he w i l l be a b l e t o make t h e m ost o f h i s e n v iro n m e n t. The lo v e t h a t h i s f a m i ly w i l l a c c o rd him can be c a l i b r a t e d on t h e same s c a l e a s one c a l i b r a t e s c o lo r d i f f e r e n c e s . To be m ost lo v e d a s a N egro c h i l d , one h a s t o a p p e a r l e a s t N e g ro .42 M rs. Grambs* arg u m en ts a r e s u p p o rte d by an exam ple g iv e n by K a r d in e r and Ovesey and r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e dream w is h e s , r e v e a l e d th ro u g h d raw in g s and s t o r i e s , o f B la c k c h i l d r e n w h ich i n d i c a t e a d e s i r e t o i d e n t i f y w ith t h e w h ite r a c e . Though she c o n ce d es t h a t "some" B la c k s a r e t r y i n g t o a c h ie v e a s e n s e o f p r i d e i n r a c e , h e r s t a te m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e B la c k f a m ily a p p e a r t o be i n c l u s i v e , g e n e r a l , and o v e r - s t a t e d . J Though t h e r e h av e been and u n d o u b te d ly a r e B la c k f a m i l i e s w hich h av e d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t t h e i r own c h i l d re n on t h e b a s i s o f d a rk n e s s o f c o m p lex io n , i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e B lack y o u t h 's s e a r c h f o r i d e n t i t y and s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n i s m a in ly a s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t a r e j e c t i o n by h i s f a m ily on t h e b a s i s o f h i s d a rk c o m p le x io n . O th e r so c io e c o n o m ic f a c t o r s m en tio n ed e a r l i e r , su c h a s t h e su b s e r v i e n t s t a t u s o f t h e u n s k i l l e d B lac k m a le , seem t o assum e g r e a t e r im p o rta n c e i n a g g r a v a tin g i n s e c u r i t y i n t h e lo w e r- ; c l a s s g h e tt o B lack y o u t h 's f a m ily b a c k g ro u n d . The f a m ily i n w hich t h e young B lac k i s b ro u g h t up i s o f t e n composed o f more th a n two g e n e r a t i o n s . The g r a n d m o th e r o r b o th g r a n d p a r e n ts i n some c a s e s assum e p o s i t i o n s a s t h e f a m ily h e a d s : 115 The n o n w h ite h o u s e h o ld was more l i k e l y t h a n th e w h ite h o u s e h o ld t o be made up o f t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s , and t h e 3- g e n e r a t i o n n o n w h ite h o u s e h o ld s w ere more l i k e l y t o i n c l u d e th e g r a n d c h i l d r e n o f t h e h e a d w h ile t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n w h ite h o u s e h o ld s a r e more l i k e l y t o h a v e a p a r e n t o f t h e h u sb a n d o r w if e p r e s e n t . A p p ro x im a te ly tw ic e a s l a r g e a p r o p o r t i o n o f n o n w h ite f a m i l i e s a s w h ite f a m i l i e s h a d i n d i v i d u a l s o t h e r t h a n members o f t h e im m ed iate f a m i ly l i v i n g i n t h e h o u s e h o l d . ^ The im p o rta n c e o f t h e g ra n d m o th e r i n t h e B la c k f a m ily s t r u c t u r e i s a n o th e r a s p e c t o f t h e m a t r i a r c h a l h o u se h o ld JlE and h a s d a te d fro m t h e days o f s l a v e r y . K a d in e r and O vesey a l s o p o i n t o u t t h e im p o rta n c e o f t h e r o l e o f th e g ra n d m o th e r i n a l l c l a s s e s o f B lac k f a m i l i e s , b u t m ost e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l o w e r - c l a s s B la c k f a m ily : The g ra n d m o th e r o f t e n t a k e s o v e r t h e m a te r n a l r o l e w h ile t h e m o th e r i s a t w ork. T h is a c c o u n ts f o r th e f r e q u e n c y w ith w h ic h t h e g ra n d m o th e r i s i d e a l i z e d i n t h i s g ro u p . [ I n t h e m id d le c l a s s e s ] . . . a s a g e n e r a l r u l e , sh e c a r r i e s o u t m a te r n a l a t t i t u d e s s i n c e sh e i s more o f t e n an a d ju n c t r a t h e r th a n a s u b s t i t u t e f o r th e m o th e r Prom a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h o l d e r members o f t h e f a m ily , t h e young B lac k o f t e n g a i n s a c e r t a i n r e v e r e n c e f o r t h e aged. I n D oro th y K n o e l l 's s tu d y o f p o t e n t i a l com m unity c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s among t h e young B lac k p o p u l a t i o n , i t was fo u n d t h a t few o f t h e p o s t - h i g h s c h o o l i n t e r v i e w e e s w ere 47 l i v i n g away from t h e i r f a m i l i e s . ' F a m ily a tta c h m e n t a p p e a r s t o re m a in a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g f a c t o r i n t h e l i f e o f t h e B la c k y o u th r e g a r d l e s s o f th e s t u d i e s p r e v i o u s l y men t i o n e d w hich s t r e s s B la c k f a m ily i n s t a b i l i t y . Of t h e sam p l e s g a th e r e d by K n o e ll, 116 A s u r p r i s i n g 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s d i s c la im e d r e c e i p t o f some k in d o f p u b lic a s s i s t a n c e a t t h e tim e o f t h e I n t e r v i e w , a lth o u g h th e f a m i l i e s o f a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t had r e c e i v e d i t i n t h e p a s t .48 Not o n ly d id sh e f i n d f a m ily u n itB I n t a c t , th o u g h some a d m i t t e d l y w ith o u t a m ale h e ad , b u t she found t h e l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e s e f a m ily u n i t s s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g , J o h n S c a n z o n i r e p o r t e d t h a t A m erican B lac k s a p p e a r t o be c h o o s in g w hat he te rm s a dom inant f a m ily form ( t h a t i s , one w here t h e h u sb a n d and w if e re m a in t o g e t h e r and r a i s e t h e c h i l d r e n t o g e t h e r ) , a lth o u g h t h e r e a r e a d a p t a t i o n s w h ere 1 lq s t a b l e f a m ily u n i t s e x i s t w ith a o n e -p a r e n t h o u s e h o ld . ^ Andrew B i l l i n g s l e y b e lie v e d t h a t s t u d i e s o f B la c k f a m i l i e s c o n c e n tr a te d to o much on " p r o b le m -rid d e n s e c t o r s " : F o r i t m ust be s a i d w ith a l l c a n d o r t h a t t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s who h a v e d is c o v e r e d t h e Negro f a m ily h a v e n o t y e t p ro d u c e d a s tu d y o f t h a t 75 P© ** c e n t o f N egro f a m i l i e s who h av e s t a b l e m a r r ia g e s , o r t h a t h a l f o f N egro f a m i l i e s who h av e managed t o p u l l th e m s e lv e s i n t o t h e m id d le c l a s s , o r t h a t 90 P© * 1 c e n t o f a l l N egro f a m i l i e s who a r e s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g , o r t h a t e v en l a r g e r p o r t i o n who manage t o keep o u t o f t r o u b l e , o f t e n d e s p i t e t h e g r o s s e s t k in d s o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and p ro v o c a t i o n . I t w ould be v e ry i n s t r u c t i v e in d e e d t o know how two t h i r d s o f a l l Negro f a m i l i e s w ith l e s s t h a n $ 2,000 a n n u a l incom e i n 1966 c o u ld manage t o h o ld th em s e l v e s t o g e t h e r and m eet t h e A m erican t e s t o f f a m i ly s t a b i l i t y , 50 The c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a t t e n t i o n upon a m in o r i t y o f p o o r f a m i l i e s and b ro k e n homes te n d s t o f u r t h e r t h e s t e r e o t y p e c o n c e p ts o f B lac k p e o p le . T hus, a " t y p i c a l " B lack f a m ily p ro v e s t o be I m p o s s ib le t o d e f i n e , d e s p i t e t h e m y riad s t u d i e s . The t e a c h e r o f B la c k s tu d e n tB s h o u ld be f a m i l i a r w ith t h e v a r i e d fo rm s 117 t h a t B la c k f a m ily l i f e assu m e s, i n o r d e r t o a v o id p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s o r , i n e f f e c t , s t e r e o t y p i n g o f t h e s t u d e n t s . D e s p ite t h e o f t - c i t e d n e g a t i v e ex am p les o f B lac k f a m ily e x i s t e n c e , num erous exam ples and s t u d i e s a s w e ll g i v e e v i dence o f th e e x is te n c e o f p o s i t i v e , s u p p o r t i v e f a m ily l i f e . I n r e l a t i n g t h e p a i n f u l a d ju s tm e n t t o t h e "N egro" r o l e w ith i t s accom panying p s y c h o l o g ic a l p ro b le m s , P e t ti g r e w s t a t e d : By no means a l l Negro A m ericans succumb t o t h e s e p r o b le m s. Those r e a r e d i n s t a b l e , a c c e p t in g f a m i l i e s g e n e r a l l y d e v e lo p th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s t o w i t h s t a n d th e m ost d e b i l i t a t i n g a s p e c t s o f t h e "N egro" r o l e . 51 The t e a c h e r o f t h e B lac k s t u d e n t i s f a c e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l i f e o f th e B la c k y o u th i n s o c i e t y p r e s e n t s a p i c t u r e s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f th e B la c k f a m i ly , k a l e id o s c o p i c r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l i s t i c i n a s p e c t . F i r s t t h e r e e x i s t s t h e u n d e n ia b le r e a l i t y of r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w ith i t s e f f e c t s on th e p e r s o n a l i t y o f B la c k y o u th , and t h e con com i t a n t n e c e s s i t y o f assum ing t h e p r o p e r s o c i a l " r o l e " i n t h e e x i s t i n g s o c i e t y . I n m ost s t u d i e s o f t h e p s y c h o lo g y o f young A m erican B la c k s , t h e p ro b lem s o f c o n f u s io n , h o s t i l i t y , and d e s p a i r g e n e r a t e from an overw helm ing l a c k o f s e l f - e s t e e m . Though some o f t h e s e p ro b lem s m igh t be r o o t e d i n f a m i l i a l c o n f l i c t s , many a r e a g g ra v a te d o r ev en i n s t i g a t e d by t h e g e n e r a l s o c i e t y * s n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s to w a rd t h e B la c k s . The young B lac k i s se e n a s one p e r s i s t e n t l y s e e k in g s e l f - i d e n t i t y i n a w h ite -d o m in a te d an d o f t e n h o s t i l e w o rld . 118 A g g r e s s iv e a n t i s o c i a l a c t s a r e som etim es t h e r e s u l t o f t h i s f r u s t r a t i o n and h o s t i l i t y ; som etim es t h e h o s t i l i t y i s s u b lim a te d ., and som etim es t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n d e s p a i r t u r n s d e s t r u c t i v e l y a g a i n s t h i m s e l f t Most p e o p le b o th b la c k and w hite., a r e s u r p r i s e d t o l e a r n t h a t among young u rb a n N egroes s u i c i d e i s a s e r i o u s p ro b lem o r t h a t i n New Y ork, f o r exam ple, s u i c id e i s tw ic e a s f r e q u e n t among N egro men b etw een tw e n ty and t h i r t y - f i v e a s i t i s among w h ite men o f t h e same a g e . The h i g h fre q u e n o y o f s u i c i d e among o l d e r w h ite s h a s le d t o t h e m is c o n c e p tio n t h a t s u i c i d e i s a " w h ite " p ro b lem , o b s c u r in g th e f a c t t h a t among young a d u l t s o f b o th s e x e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e u rb a n a r e a s , i t i s a c t u a l l y more o f a b la c k p ro b le m .53 S ta te m e n ts by W illia m McCord would a p p e a r t o c o n f l i c t w ith 54 H e n d in 's f i n d i n g s , b u t i t m ust be b o rn e i n mind t h a t McCord was r e f e r r i n g t o a l l ag e l e v e l s , and d id n o t co n ce n t r a t e h i s a t t e n t i o n on t h e young a d u l t . McCord, h ow ever, p o i n t s o u t th e f r e q u e n c y o f o t h e r form s o f r e a l i t y - e s c a p e p a r t i c u l a r l y e v id e n t among th o s e g h e tto d w e lle r s w hich c o m p rise t h e su b g ro u p h e te rm e d t h e " d e f e a te d " : W hile n a t i o n a l s t a t i s t i c s seldom r e v e a l a t r u e p i c t u r e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , a lm o s t a l l s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e a n uncom mon te n d e n c y f o r u r b a n N egroes t o se e k r e l e a s e i n ways d is a p p r o v e d by o u r s o c i e t y : . U rban N egro a lc o h o lis m r a t e s a r e two to f o u r tim e s h i g h e r t h a n w h ite r a t e s . . U rban N eg ro es a c c o u n t f o r a p p ro x im a te ly 60 p e r c e n t o f i d e n t i f i e d d ru g a d d i c t s . • The in c i d e n c e o f N egro p s y c h o s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s c h i z o p h r e n i a , e x c e e d s w h ite r a t e s by a b o u t 200 p e r c e n t . W h atev er t h e many d i f f e r e n c e s i n c a u s a t io n , t h e s e t h r e e l i f e s t y l e s h a v e s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n com mon. They a l l r e p r e s e n t ways o f w ith d ra w in g from r e a l i t y ; t h e y a r e — a t l e a s t i n t h e e y es o f an o u t s i d e o b s e r v e r — s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e ; and th e y a r e , i n one 119 f a s h io n o r a n o t h e r , an a d m is s io n o f d e f e a t , a c o n f e s s i o n t h a t one no lo n g e r w is h e s t o c o n f r o n t every-day- l i f e . 55 The young B lack s tu d e n t may n o t c o m p rise any p a r t o f th e g roup o f t h e " d e f e a t e d , " b u t i s more e x p o sed t o t h i s " l i f e s t y l e " i n t h e g h e t t o t h a n t h e a v e ra g e w h ite s tu d e n t h a s b e en . Young B lac k s who r e s i d e i n g h e t t o a r e a s a r e ex posed a s w e ll t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e i t h e r b e in g a c t i v e l y in v o lv e d i n c r i m in a l a c t i v i t y , o r b e in g v i c t i m s o f su c h a c t i v i t y . A l l s o u rc e s seem t o i n d i c a t e t h e c l e a r p ro b lem o f c rim e i n t h e B lac k g h e t t o . R e c e n tly , t h e B lac k p o l i c e c h i e f o f G ary, I n d ia n a d e p lo r e d t h e r i s e o f B la c k c rim e i n h i s a r e a and t h e f a c t t h a t ". . . 90$ o f t h e N eg ro es c h a rg e d w ith ro b b e ry and o t h e r c rim e s a r e 'b a c k on t h e s t r e e t s com m it t i n g th e same c rim e s t h e y w ere a r r e s t e d for.1 Roy W ilk in s s t a t e d t h a t s i m i l a r r e p o r t s o f l e n ie n c y and com p l a i n t s a b o u t t h e c r i m i n a l e le m e n t p e r m i t t e d t o be r e l e a s e d t o f u r t h e r p la g u e t h e c o m m u n ities h a v e been made i n e v e ry s t a t e . As t h e c h i e f s t a t e d : You c a n 't p u t a b la c k b u r g l a r i n j a i l i n Lake C ounty and t h a t makes i t im p o s s ib le t o p r o t e c t t h e b la c k com m unity.57 The i n e s c a p a b le f a c t i s t h a t t h e v ic tim s o f t h e B la c k c r i m in a l elem en t a r e m a in ly t h e members o f t h e B lac k com m u n ity . As McCord p u t i t : I f you happen t o be r e a d i n g t h i s book i n t h e c o m fo rt o f i a c r i m e - f r e e w h ite , m i d d l e - c l a s s d i s t r i c t , c o n te m p la te th e s e f a c t s : 120 • Y our c h a n c e s o f b e in g t h e v i c t i m o f any m ajo r f e l o n y a r e 78 P®*1 o e n t l e s s t h a n i f you l i v e d i n a g h e t t o . . A w h ite w om an's c h a n c e s o f b e in g ra p e d a r e a lm o st 400 p e r c e n t l e s s th a n t h o s e o f N egro f a m i l i e s . . The p r o b a b i l i t y o f y o u r b e in g ro b b e d i s 3 .5 tim e s l e s s t h a n i f you w ere a N eg ro . N a tu r a lly ., m ost g h e t t o r e s i d e n t s s u f f e r from a deep s e n s e o f i n s e c u r i t y , f o r th e y c an n e v e r e n jo y t h e s a f e t y a f f o r d e d by l i v i n g i n a w h ite s u b u r b .58 B la c k c rim e r a t e i s h ig h i n t h e g h e t t o ; much o f t h i s i s c r e d i t e d t o t h e w id e s p re a d unem ploym ent o f B lac k y o u th . As was m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r , a l i e n a t e d young B lac k s te n d t o s o c i a l i z e i n t h e s t r e e t s , form g a n g s , and a g g r e s s i v e l y a s s e r t t h e i r m a s c u l i n i t y , t o t a l l y r e j e c t i n g th e v a lu e s o f s t a n d a r d s o c i e t y . I n a d d i t i o n t o p o v e r ty and b ro k e n hom es, jo b d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and s o c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n f u r t h e r a l i e n a t e t h e s e B la c k y o u th s ; t h e i r r e s u l t i n g f r u s t r a t i o n an d h o s t i l i t y may o f t e n r e s u l t i n a n t i s o c i a l a c t s . T h u s , t h e r e i s a g r e a t e r p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e u r b a n com m unity c o l l e g e B la c k s t u d e n t may hav e e x p e rie n c e d c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y e i t h e r a s a v i c t i m o r a s an a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t i n c rim e . I f t h e s t u d e n t h i m s e l f h a s rem a in e d r e l a t i v e l y p r o t e c t e d , f a m ily members o r f r i e n d s may have b e e n a f f e c t e d i n some m anner. Many a new t e a c h e r i n g h e tt o s c h o o ls h a s b een shocked t o l e a r n o f t h e c r i m in a l r e c o r d s o f some o f t h e s t u d e n t s , o r o f t h e s u f f e r i n g e x p e rie n c e d by s t u d e n t s and t h e i r f a m i l i e s v i c t i m i z e d by c rim e . B la c k y o u th s l e a r n , how ever, t o c a r r y on t h e more n orm al a c t l v l - 121 t i e s o f l i f e i n s p i t e o f t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g e n v iro n m e n t i n w hich many o f them e x i s t . B lack p e o p le i n g e n e r a l te n d t o le a d a c t i v e s o c i a l l i v e s , and o r g a n iz e many c lu b s , m u tu a l h e lp o r g a n i z a t i o n s , f r a t e r n i t i e s , and s o r o r i t i e s . B lack y o u th s i n t h e Los A n g e les a r e a have s e v e r a l c lu b s , l o c a l s o r o r i t i e s , and f r a t e r n i t i e s t o w hich th e y may b e lo n g ; m ost o f t h e members, h ow ever, come from m id d le - c la s s f a m i l i e s . S o c i a l c lu b s o f a l l s o r t s p l a y a n im p o r ta n t p a r t i n t h e l i f e o f t h e m id d le - c l a s s B la c k . I n B lack M e tr o p o lis , f i f t y - s e v e n o r g a n l z a - 6 1 t l o n s w ere l i s t e d i n C h ic a g o 's B lac k com m unity. The need t o o r g a n i z e , t o s o c i a l i z e , and t o p u b l i c i z e a c t i v i t i e s a p p e a rs t o be s t r o n g . L o c a l B lack n ew sp ap ers k e ep t h e g e n e r a l com m unity aw are o f s o c i a l e v e n ts , f e s t i v a l s , d a n c e s , and m e e tin g s w ith t h e h e lp o f each s o c i a l c l u b 's r e p o r t e r who s u p p l i e s th e n e c e s s a r y I n f o r m a tio n t o t h e p r e s s . The l o w e r - c l a s s B l a c k 's s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s a r e n o t so s t r i c t l y o r g a n iz e d , w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f some y o u th and r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s . The m ost m e a n in g fu l o r g a n iz e d s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e lo w e r c l a s s e s te n d t o be e n g en d e re d by c h u rc h m em bership and a f f i l i a t i o n . D rake an d C ay ton p o in te d o u t th e many f u n d - r a i s i n g s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s : T h ere a r e few f i n a n c i a l re w a rd s f o r b e in g a f a i t h f u l c h u rc h w o rk e r, b u t t h e p r e s t i g e re w a rd s a r e g r e a t . P r e c i s e l y b e c a u se t h e c h u rc h p r o v id e s an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a d i s p l a y o f t a l e n t and i n i t i a t i v e , i t h a s a 122 s t r o n g a p p e a l t o p e o p le o f l i m i t e d means and e d u c a t i o n . D e s p ite t h e s e c u l a r i z i n g t r e n d se e n i n t h e B lac k com m unity, t h e c h u rc h a s a hub o f s o c i a l a s w e ll a s r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t y i s s t i l l e v i d e n t . W ith in t h e B lac k com m unity a d i s t i n c t c l a s s sy stem h a s e v o lv e d . K a r d in e r and O vesey s t a t e d : Among N e g ro e s, t h e t r a i t s t o w hich v a lu e s o f c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n a r e a t t a c h e d a r e : ( l ) o c c u p a tio n and s t e a d i n e s s o f jo b ; (2 ) e d u c a tio n ; ( 3 ) f a m ily o r g a n i z a t i o n ; ( 4 ) h o u s in g , f u r n i s h i n g , and a p p u rte n a n c e s o f c o m fo rt o r c o n v e n ie n c e ; ( 5 ) r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e w h ite w o rld ; (6 ) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r e c r e a t i o n s and am usem ents; b u t m ost o f a l l (7 ) s k in c o l o r . The c l o s e r s k in c o l o r a p p ro x im a te s ’’w h ite " , t h e h i g h e r t h e s t a t u s and t h e g r e a t e r t h e m o b i l i t y th r o u g h c l a s s b a r r i e r s . 63 B e rtra m K aron a d d s th e comment: S k in c o l o r w hich (a lo n g w ith p r e - C i v i l War s t a t u s o f t h e f a m ily ) was once t h e m a jo r d e te r m in a n t o f s t a t u s among N e g ro e s, h a s somewhat d e c r e a s e d i n im p o rta n c e , w h ile e d u c a tio n and s t a b i l i t y o f t h e f a m ily h av e i n c r e a s e d i n im p o rta n c e a s c r i t e r i a o f c l a s s s t a t u s . ° 4 The i n c r e a s e o f i n t e r e s t i n e d u c a tio n among young B la c k s , and t h e g r e a t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s a f f o r d e d f o r h i g h e r e d u c a t e t i o n i n l o c a l u rb a n com m unity c o l l e g e s , ^ a p p e a r t o i n d i c a t e a t r e n d to w a rd upw ard s o c i a l m o b i l i t y , even i n t h e lo w e r c l a s s e s . C o lle g e and t h e B lac k Community E d u c a tio n h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e en re g a r d e d by B la c k s as a means t o a c h ie v e s o c i a l s t a t u s and upw ard m o b i l i t y . In 1925, Boone r e l a t e d some e a r l y a t t i t u d e s r e g a r d in g B lac k h i g h e r e d u c a tio n and p a r e n t a l d e s i r e s : A f t e r t h e C i v i l War, t h e N egroes u n d e rto o k t h e t a s k o f a c q u i r i n g h i g h e r e d u c a tio n . Some jo u rn e y e d t o th e N o rth t o s tu d y , w h ile many s t u d i e d i n th e S outh u n d e r w h ite m i s s i o n a r i e s from t h e N o rth and th e few o f t h e i r own r a c e who h a d by some means a c q u ir e d some form o f e d u c a tio n . Now t h e y a r e becom ing more i n t e r e s t e d each day i n t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s and a r e e x p en d in g a n n u a lly l a r g e sums o f money f o r t h e m a in te n a n c e and f u r t h e r d e v e lo p ment o f t h e a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d i n s t i t u t i o n s . P a r e n ts a r e a s k in g f o r t h e s c h o o ls t o be r e o r g a n iz e d so a s t o meet a s n e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e t h e r e q u ire m e n ts o f a c c r e d i t e d s c h o o l s . 66 At t h e p e r i o d o f M iss B o o n e 's t h e s i s , t h e m ajor i n s t i t u t i o n o f h i g h e r e d u c a tio n f o r B lac k s t u d e n t s was th e t r a d i t i o n a l B lac k c o l l e g e , m ost o f t e n l o c a t e d i n t h e S o u th . The t e n a c io u s n e s s w ith w hich t h e B lac k f a m ily c lu n g t o t h e i d e a l o f e d u c a t i o n a l b e tte r m e n t f o r t h e i r young w ith a view t o e v e n tu a l s o c i a l and econom ic advancem ent can be ju d g e d by t h e m anner i n w h ich th e y a d v o c a te d h i g h e r e d u c a tio n and s t r o n g l y s u p p o r te d t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s . The e n s u in g y e a r s saw t h e v a s t u rb a n m ig r a tio n s w ith th e r e s u l t a n t f a m ily d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n and p o v e r ty . Though many o f t h e l o w e r - c l a s s p o o r B la c k s b eg an to r e g a r d e d u c a t i o n a s so m e th in g f a r beyond n o rm al e x p e c ta ti o n , t h e dream o f a d v an ced s c h o o lin g h a s c o n tin u e d t o rem ain an i d e a l o b j e c t i v e t o members o f t h e B lac k com m unity. B lac k p a r e n t s , even o f t h e p o v e r t y c l a s s , seem aw are o f th e p o s i t i v e b e n e f i t s t o be g a in e d by t h e i r c h i l d r e n , i f o n ly t o move upw ard i n t h e B lac k c l a s s s t r u c t u r e . K v arao eu s q u o ted one p o o r e r B la c k p a r e n t : 124 I f y o u ’r e h u n g ry m ost o f t h e tim e , i f you d o n ’t h av e t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s , i f you l a c k t h e m a t e r i a l t h i n g s , t h e m id d le c l a s s i s a t t r a c t i v e t o y o u . I d o n 't c a r e w h e th e r my k id s w ear t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s l a b e l , a lth o u g h th e y do show i t . But I w ant t o make s u r e t h e y h av e a c h o ic e . And, u n l e s s , a g a i n , t h e s c h o o l p r o v id e s t h i s , i t ’s n o t g o in g t o come any o t h e r w ay. 67 Some B lac k p a r e n t s , ho w ever, h a v e f a c e d d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a c h ie v in g t h i s dream . The p o o r B la c k c o u ld a n d .o f t e n does f i n d b a r r i e r s d i f f i c u l t t o su rm o u n t; t h i s a t t i t u d e o f d e f e a tis m i s o f t e n e s t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e t h e c h i l d i s o u t o f e le m e n ta ry o r h ig h s c h o o l. The B la c k p a r e n t o f t h e p o o r e r g h e t t o s tu d e n t o f t e n f i n d s i t d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h a r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith t h e l o c a l s c h o o l s t a f f : The Negro p a r e n t i s h e l p l e s s . H is own e d u c a ti o n i s l a c k in g ; h i s lan g u a g e and d r e s s r e f l e c t h i s s t a t u s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h a t o f t h e s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l ; h e f e e l s u n a c c e p t a b l e ; h e la c k s s e l f - r e s p e c t ; t h e r e i s no e v id e n c e i n t h e home o f i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t s ; and h e knows he w i l l soon be m oving, t h a t h i s c h i l d w i l l be i n a n o th e r s c h o o l, no b e t t e r and p e rh a p s w o rse th a n t h i s — so why b o t h e r . 68 T h at B lack p a r e n t s i n g h e t t o a r e a s h a v e q u i t e o f t e n p ro v e d t o be i n t e r e s t e d and i n s t r u m e n t a l i n m o tiv a tin g t h e i r c h i l d re n t o h i g h e r e d u c a ti o n a l o b j e c t i v e s e x e m p li f i e s g r e a t f o r t i t u d e i n f a c in g se e m in g ly overw helm ing o d d s . D e s p ite t h e p r e v io u s c i t a t i o n , B la c k p a r e n t s o f a l l c l a s s e s h av e b een show ing grow ing a w a re n e s s and s u p p o r t o f h i g h e r e d u c a tio n f o r t h e i r young. Most s o u rc e s p o i n t t o t h e e x tre m e r e g a r d w ith w hich t h e e d u c a te d man i s view ed i n t h e B la c k com m unity: 125 E d u c a tio n i s a n im p o r ta n t m easu re o f t h e man ( o r woman). B ecause i t r e f l e c t s e a r n in g pow er, and more i m p o r t a n t l y b e c a u s e i t d e n o te s a b ro a d e n in g o f i n t e l l e c t u a l h o r iz o n s and t a s t e s , i t becomes a n a t u r a l b a s i s f o r c l i q u e g r o u p in g s . I n g e n e r a l , to o , s e c u r in g an e d u c a tio n i s t h e m ost e f f e c t i v e s h o r t - c u t t o t h e to p of t h e N egro s o c i a l p y ram id . Money and o c c u p a t i o n a r e i m p o r t a n t , b u t an e d u c a te d man w ith o u t a h i g h - s t a t u s o c c u p a tio n o r a v e ry l a r g e incom e, m ig h t be a d m itte d t o c i r c l e s t h a t a w e a lth y p o l i c y k in g o r p r i z e - f i g h t e r w ould f i n d i t h a rd t o e n t e r . 69 T h e re i s c o n s i d e r a b l e e v id e n c e t h a t t h e B lac k p a r e n t , a s a n y i n t e r e s t e d p a r e n t , i s c o n c e rn e d a b o u t th e f u t u r e o f h i s o f f s p r i n g and a p p e a rs t o be c o n v in c e d t h a t th e means t o g a in i n g f u t u r e s e c u r i t y l i e s i n h i g h e r e d u c a tio n . The com m u n ity c o l l e g e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e s in c e i t i s in e x p e n s iv e a n d e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e . D o ro th y K n o e ll i n h e r e x c e l l e n t s tu d y o f m in o r ity B la c k p o s t - h i g h s c h o o l y o u th s and t h e i r p o t e n t i a l a s com m u n ity c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s r e l a t e d a p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e on th e p a r t o f p a r e n t s : F a m ilie s w ere r e p o r t e d t o be h i g h l y s u p p o r tiv e o f t h e s u b je c ts * i n t e r e s t i n o b t a i n i n g f u r t h e r e d u c a tio n . They h a d e n c o u ra g e d t h e s u b j e c t s t o s t a y i n h ig h s c h o o l t o g r a d u a t e , and a p p a r e n t l y th e y w ould n o t o b j e c t t o t h e s u b j e c t s * d e la y in g f u l l - t i m e employment f o r c o l l e g e . I n f a c t t h e r e was some e v id e n c e t h a t f a m i l i e s h a d b een m ore s u p p o r tin g th a n h ig h s c h o o l c o u n s e lo r s and t e a c h e r s a s t h e y o u th th o u g h t a b o u t g o in g t o c o l l e g e , 70 K n o e ll* s f i n d i n g s a p p e a r t o s u p p o rt some o f th e i n f o r m a ti o n g le a n e d from a N egro o p in io n s u rv e y c o n d u c te d by Newsweek i n 1963. ^ R e s u l t s o f t h e s u rv e y i n d i c a t e d c o n s i d e r a b le o p tim ism r e g a r d i n g t h e f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f s o c i a l and econom ic g a in s by B la c k s , and much o f t h i s optim ism was 126 j b a s e d upon f a i t h i n b e t t e r e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s . N in e ty - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f f a m i l i e s I n te r v ie w e d d e s i r e d a t l e a s t a h ig h sc h o o l e d u c a tio n f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n . A n o th e r s tu d y r e p o r t e d i n 1959 t h a t a sam ple o f B la c k m o th e rs i n t h e N o r th e a s t showed s tr o n g i n t e r e s t i n and s u p p o r t o f h i g h e r e d u o a tio n f o r t h e i r c h ild re n * 83 p e r c e n t w an ted t h e i r so n s t o a t t e n d c o l l e g e . The e x p e c ta tio n s o f B lac k p a r e n ts r e g a r d i n g c o l l e g e e d u c a tio n f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n a p p e a r r e l a t i v e l y c l e a r . H ig h e r e d u c a tio n i s re g a rd e d a s a means by w h ich t h e B lac k y o u th c a n a c h ie v e h ig h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s , econom ic s o lv e n c y , and more re w a rd in g o c c u p a tio n a l em ploym ent. The g e n e r a l t r e n d seems t o i n d i c a t e t h a t many B la c k p a r e n t s (an d th e num ber i s gro w ing) a r e s t r o n g l y s u p p o r tiv e o f h i g h e r e d u ca t i o n f o r B lac k y o u th , b e l i e v i n g t h a t i t p r o v id e s t h e key f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f many o f t h e p roblem s f a c i n g t h e B lac k f a m i ly i n t h i s c o u n try . E x p e c ta tio n s o f B lack s tu d e n ts te n d t o r e f l e c t t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e i r f a m i l i e s ; t h e r e a p p e a rs t o b e g r e a t f a i t h i n t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s w hich h i g h e r e d u c a ti o n c o u ld make p o s s i b l e f o r them . S ilb e rm a n p o in te d o u t t h a t e d u c a t i o n i s a d i f f i c u l t * p ro c e s s f o r any c h i l d ; q u o tin g D r. C a rl H ansen, i t i s p r i m a r i l y an " e x p r e s s io n o f h o p e ," an " e x p r e s s i o n o f f a i t h " on t h e p a r t o f t h e s tu d e n t t h a t i t s r e s u l t s w i l l b e o f u l t i m a t e b e n e f i t t o h i m . ^ He c o n ti n u e d : 127 But th e Negro s t u d e n t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , m ust h av e more f a i t h and hope th a n t h e w h ite s t u d e n t . . He i s a sk e d t o have r e a l f a i t h an d c o n fid e n c e w hich a t t h e moment seem u n r e a s o n a b le and u n j u s t i f i a b l e . 74 The d e te r m i n a ti o n o f t h e m in o r i t y s t u d e n t i n h i s q u e s t f o r e d u c a tio n i l l u s t r a t e s trem en d o u s m o tiv a tio n t o a c h ie v e d e s p i t e s o c i a l and econom ic p r e s s u r e s : The s m a lle r t h e f a m ily f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s , t h e h a r d e r th e s tu d e n t m ust w ork, s a v e , and s a c r i f i c e . The p o o r e r t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e h ig h s c h o o l from w hich he comes, t h e more t h e s t u d e n t m ust se e k e x tr a m u r a l a i d , i n s p i r a t i o n , and c u l t u r a l s t i m u l a t i o n . S u f f i c i e n t i n d i v i d u a l d e t e r m in a tio n and d i l i g e n c e i n t h e f a c e o f lo n g odds o f t e n le a d t o r e s u l t s t h a t d e f y t h e b e st-p ro g ra m m e d c o m p u te r iz e d p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n s , 75 I n an a r t i c l e f o r t h e J u n i o r C o lle g e J o u r n a l , ^ D oro th y K n o e ll r e l a t e d h e r f i n d i n g t h a t some B lac k c o ll e g e - a g e s tu d e n ts who h a d n o t c o n tin u e d t h e i r e d u c a tio n beyond h ig h sc h o o l i n d i c a t e d a d e s i r e to s e e k employment f i r s t and c o n s id e r c o l l e g e a tt e n d a n c e som etim e i n t h e f u t u r e . T h is may i n d i c a t e a c e r t a i n p a t t e r n i n B la c k c o l l e g e a tte n d a n c e . At Los A n g eles S o u th w e st C o lle g e , f o r exam ple, w hich h as t h e l a r g e s t B la c k s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e c i t y (91 p e r c e n t , S p rin g 1 9 7 0 ) , ^ t h e " . . . a v e ra g e s t u d e n t i s 26 y e a r s o f a g e , h a s t h r e e c h i l d r e n , and w orks 40 h o u rs a week."^® The m a jo r m o tiv a tio n f o r t h e s e s t u d e n t s a p p e a rs t o be t h e d e s i r e t o im p ro v e t h e i r c h a n c e s f o r Job o p p o r t u n i t i e s and econom ic ad v an c em en t, a s w e l l a s a d e s i r e t o b ro a d e n t h e i r c u l t u r a l an d I n t e l l e c t u a l b a c k g ro u n d s. As D r. C la rk n o te d : 128 The s t u d e n t s a r e h e r e m a in ly t o enhance t h e i r econom ic s i t u a t i o n and t o e a r n t h e i r A.A. d e g r e e s . The a v e ra g e s t u d e n t 's a t t i t u d e to w a rd h i s e d u c a tio n i s i n t e n s e l y s e r i o u s . He d o e s n 't have much i n c l i n a t i o n f o r f r i l l s , b u t w i l l make t h e u tm o st o f h i s o p p o r t u n it y . He i s on h i s way up i n t h e w o r l d .79 S in c e many B la c k comm unity c o ll e g e s t u d e n ts t e n d t o be somewhat o l d e r th a n th e a v e ra g e l o w e r - d i v i s i o n c o l l e g e s t u d e n t, m ost o f t h e s e o l d e r s t u d e n ts a re e i t h e r w o rk in g f u l l tim e o r p a r t - t i m e t o f in a n o e t h e i r s c h o o lin g . F u tu r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s and jo b -ad v a n ce m e n t a p p e a r t o h av e p a r t i c u l a r a t t r a c t i o n f o r them . T h is i s an a p p a r e n t p a t t e r n f o r B la c k c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s o r p r o s p e c t i v e B lac k s t u d e n t s . I n a p i l o t s tu d y c o n d u c te d a t Howard U n i v e r s i t y , B lac k u n d e rg r a d u a te s w ere exam ined i n an e x p l o r a t i o n o f o c c u p a t i o n a l l y - r e l a t e d b e h a v io r . T h e i r jo b a s p i r a t i o n s w ere t r e a t e d a s r e a l i s t i c o r u n r e a l i s t i c , d e p e n d in g on w h e th e r o r n o t a p a r t i c u l a r o c c u p a tio n h a d b e en one i n w hich B la c k s had b een g e n e r a l l y em ployed p r i o r t o c i v i l r i g h t s a d v a n c e s. R e s u lts showed t h a t m o ti v a ti o n was n o t r e l a t e d t o r e a l i s t i c o r u n r e a l i s t i c a s p i r a t i o n s a s h a d b een e x p ec te d .. M id d le - c la s s m ales and fe m a le s a s w e l l a s w o r k in g - c la s s fe m a le s d e s i r e d t r a d i t i o n a l l y open o c c u p a tio n s , w h ile t h e l o w e r - c l a s s m ales d e s i r e d t r a d i t i o n a l l y c lo s e d o c c u p a tio n s . Those m ales w ith weak m o tiv a tio n p o s s e s s e d a low e x p e c ta n c y o f f u t u r e jo b s u c c e s s , and t h o s e m ales w ith s tr o n g m o tiv a tio n t o su c c e e d w ere g e n e r a l l y m id d l e - c l a s s B la c k s w ith d e s i r e s t o e n t e r fin t r a d i t i o n a l l y open o c c u p a tio n s . 129 K n o e ll fo u n d t h a t m ost o f t h e s u b j e c t s in te r v ie w e d i n h e r s tu d y te n d e d t o be i n t e r e s t e d i n jo b s w hich in v o lv e d c o n ta c t w ith th e p u b l ic . Some o f t h e m ajo r a r e a s w e ret governm ent work o f a l l k in d s ( w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f law e n fo rc em e n t and f i r e p r o t e c t i o n ) , e d u c a tio n and s o c i a l w e l f a r e , h e a l t h o c c u p a tio n s , an d among t h e m a le s, s e r v i c i n g and r e p a i r b u s i n e s s e s . Some o f b o th s e x e s e x p re s s e d i n t e r e s t i n b a n k in g , I n s u r a n c e , and r e a l e s t a t e . Though o b v io u s i n t e r e s t was shown i n f i e l d s w h ich in v o lv e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith p e o p le , l i t t l e o p tim ism was i n d i c a t e d t h a t an y jo b th e y w ould g e t would p ro v e t o be I n t e r e s t i n g . "Money was Q n t h e more im p o r ta n t c r i t e r i o n i n t h e i r jo b e x p e c t a t i o n s . " The i m p l i c a ti o n s o f t h e s e s t u d i e s seem r e l a t i v e l y c l e a r . I t w ould a p p e a r t h a t t h e a v e r a g e p r o s p e c t i v e B lac k community c o ll e g e s tu d e n t d e s i r e s t o a c q u i r e t h o s e s k i l l s w hich would p r e p a r e him t o com pete s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t h e open jo b m ark et f o r a w e ll- p a y in g p o s i t i o n . He w ould p r e f e r a jo b in v o lv in g c o n ta c t w ith t h e p u b l i c . H ere a g a i n i s i l l u s t r a t e d what had been r e f e r r e d t o e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r a s t h e d r i v e t o a c h ie v e s o c i a l s t a t u s and econom ic s o lv e n c y . T hus, i t would n o t be p resu m p tu o u s t o assum e t h a t t h e B la c k d r i v e f o r h ig h e r s t a t u s and econom ic s e c u r i t y c r e a t e s i n t h e s tu d e n t a s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n com m unity c o l l e g e c o u r s e s i n sp e ec h com m unication. Most o f h i s avowed a s p i r a t i o n s r e l a t e t o f i e l d s in v o lv in g i n t e r p e r s o n a l and i n t e r - g r o u p 1 3 0; c o m m u n ica tio n . I n t h e Los A n g e les a r e a , t h i s m ight w e l l p ro v e t o be t h e c a s e . ^ 2 Though B la c k s t u d e n t s ' e x p r e s s e d d e s i r e s f o r h i g h e r e d u c a tio n a r e r e l a t e d m a in ly t o f u t u r e jo b and s t a t u s ex p ec t a t i o n s , a d e e p e r , u n e x p re s s e d d e s i r e t o a c h ie v e a p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t s h o u ld n o t be o v e rlo o k e d . As J e a n G-rambs p u t i t : As h a s b e e n s t a t e d , t h e c o n c e p t o f s e l f a p p e a rs t o be a f r u i t f u l fo c u s o f a t t e n t i o n . I t h a s a l r e a d y been p o in te d o u t t h a t t h e p e rs o n who s e e s h i m s e l f a s p o t e n t i a l l y good i s more l i k e l y t o a c h ie v e t h i s g o a l th a n t h e p e rs o n who s e e s h im s e lf a s p o t e n t i a l l y b a d . The s t a t u s o f t h e m in o r lty - g r o u p p e rs o n i s o f t e n a r e f l e c t i o n o f how t h e p e rs o n p e r c e i v e s t h e way s o c i e t y p e r c e i v e s h im . 83 The I n t e r e s t o f B la c k s t u d e n t s i n sp e e c h com m unication a p p e a rs t o be g e n e r a t e d by t h i s d e s i r e t o g a i n a more p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t , s i n c e o f t e n t h e s e s t u d e n t s e l e c t t o ta k e more t h a n t h e r e q u i r e d t r a n s f e r sp e e c h c o u r s e . B la c k s t u d e n t s ' i n t e r e s t i n o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s o f l i t e r a t u r e , f o r exam ple, w ere i n d i c a t e d i n t h e p r e v io u s c h a p t e r , a s w e l l as t h e i r d e s i r e t o s e e t h e c o u rs e expanded t o in c l u d e more t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m a n u s c rip t r e a d in g a p p ro a c h . Summary Some o f t h e u n iq u e c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s o f B la c k s t u d e n t s ' ; b a ck g ro u n d s w hich w ere b r i e f l y exam ined w e re: ( l ) t h e a c t u a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f B lac k p e o p l e s ' h i s t o r y i n t h i s c o u n tr y — t h e i r s t a t u s a s s l a v e s , and t h e i r a d ju s tm e n t t o t h a t s t a t u s ; (2 ) t h e q u a l i t y o f B lac k f a m ily l i f e u n d e r p r e s s u r e s 131 o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and p o v e r ty ; and (3 ) some o f t h e s o c i a l a s p e c t s o f l i f e i n th e B lack com m unity. The f a l l a c y o f a tt e m p t in g t o s t e r e o t y p e o r g e n e r a l i z e seems r e l a t i v e l y a p p a r e n t due t o t h e c o m p le x ity o f B lac k c u l t u r a l b a c k g ro u n d s and t h e c o n f l i c t i n g v ie w p o in ts r e f l e c t e d i n s t u d i e s c o n c e rn e d w ith B la c k p e o p le and t h e g h e t t o . A l l B lac k s f a c e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f e n c o u n te rin g r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n some fo rm . The lo w e r c l a s s e s f i n d t h e i r p ro b lem s com pounded by t h e e f f e c t s o f p o v e rty and unem ploym ent a s w e l l a s c l a s s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n by w h ite s and o f t e n by o t h e r B la c k s . M id d le - and u p p e r - c l a s s B la c k s te n d t o r e f l e c t t h e g e n e r a l v a lu e s and a t t i t u d e s o f t h e w h ite s o c i e t y , b u t th e y to o may s u f f e r u n d e r t h e b u rd e n o f r a c e and co m p en sate by s t r i v i n g and o v e r a c h le v ln g . Most s t u d i e s p r e f e r t o c o n c e n tr a te on t h e l o w e r - c l a s s g h e t t o d w e lle r whose l i f e s t y l e d e v i a t e s m ost r a d i c a l l y from t h a t o f t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n ; U lf H annerz c a l l s t h i s te n d e n c y t h e " b ia s o f e x o ti c i s m ." He a d m its t o t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h i s b i a s , and d e c l a r e d : T h ere a r e many who a r e i n t h e g h e t t o b u t n o t o f th e g h e t t o i n t h e s e n s e o f e x h i b i t i n g much o f a l i f e s t y l e p e c u l i a r t o t h e com m unity. ( I n some w ays, o f c o u rs e , e v ery b o d y i n t h e g h e t t o h as s p e c i a l p ro b lem s t o cope w ith by v i r t u e o f h i s r e s i d e n c e t h e r e , ) T h e re a r e p e o p le i n t h e g h e t t o who have good, s t a b l e jo b s , h e lp t h e i r c h i l d r e n w ith t h e i r homework, e a t d i n n e r t o g e t h e r a t a f i x e d h o u r , make paym ents on t h e c a r . . . . °^ The t e a c h e r o f t h e B lack com m unity c o l l e g e s tu d e n t s h o u ld a tte m p t t o d e v e lo p an a w a re n e ss o f m u l t i - f a c e t e d p ro b lem s o f s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t. The t e a c h e r , a s w e l l , 132 s h o u ld be s e n s i t i v e t o t h e g e n e r a l l y overw helm ing n e ed o f B lac k s t u d e n t s f o r s e l f - i d e n t i t y . ^ T h is n eed f o r s e l f - u n d e r s ta n d in g and a c h ie v e m e n t may p r o v id e a t h e s i s f o r th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e c o l l e g e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e B la c k s t u d e n t and t h e B la c k com m unity. T hus, one c a n s t a t e i n sum m ation t h a t B la c k s t e n d to p la c e g r e a t hope i n e d u c a tio n a s a k e y t o t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e i r so c io ec o n o m ic p ro b le m s. Most young B la c k s I n d i c a t e an i n t e r e s t i n f i e l d s o f o c c u p a tio n w here c o m m u n icatio n s k i l l s a r e o f p r im a r y im p o rta n c e and sp e e c h c o m m u n icatio n i t s e l f i s a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e B la c k s t u d e n t . The sp e e c h a r t s t e a c h e r m ust f a m i l i a r i z e h im s e lf w ith b a ck g ro u n d know ledge o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s a n d t h e i r u n iq u e n e ed s and t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p ro g ram s h o u ld be p la n n e d and t a u g h t w ith an end to w a rd m e e tin g t h e s e n e e d s . FOOTNOTES I t s h o u ld be n o te d t h a t t h e te rm " d is a d v a n ta g e d " I s o f t e n em ployed l o o s e l y by many o f th o s e w r i t i n g of m in o r i t y g ro u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e B lac k m in o r ity g ro u p . A g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n c o u ld be ta k e n t o mean one who f i n d s i t d i f f i c u l t t o p a r t i c i p a t e o r work w i t h i n t h e s o - c a l l e d dom inant c u l t u r e , ev en th o u g h he m ig h t be v e ry c a p a b le o f l i v i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h in h i s own s u b c u l t u r e . Such a s tu d e n t c o u ld f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o a c h ie v e i n th e s c h o o ls o f t h i s c o u n tr y due to h i s . e th n i c b ack g ro u n d . K en n eth R. J o h n s o n , i n T each in g t h e C u l t u r a l l y D is a d v a n ta g e d s A R a ti o n a l A pproach ( P a lo A lto , C a l i f . : S c ie n c e R e s e a rc h A s s o c i a t e s , 1 9 7 0 J, p. 4 6 , f u r t h e r em phasized: I n a way, a l l b la c k p e o p le — a l l 22 m i l l i o n o f them — a r e c u l t u r a l l y d is a d v a n ta g e d . B lack s a r e s t i l l p re v e n te d from f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e dom inant c u l t u r e s o l e l y b e c a u se o f r a c e . T h e r e f o r e , a l l a r e c u l t u r a l l y d i s a d v a n ta g e d r e g a r d l e s s o f e d u c a tio n , incom e, l i f e - s t y l e , o r v a lu e sy stem . Not a l l a r e c u l t u r a l l y d is a d v a n ta g e d t o t h e d e g re e t h a t i t h a n d ic a p s t h e i r econom ic a c h ie v e m en ts, how ever. 2 I b i d . , p . x x i . 3I b l d . 4 M aulana Ron K a re n g a , "The B lack Community and th e U n i v e r s i t y : A Community O r g a n i z e r 's P e r s p e c t i v e , " i n B lack S tu d ie s i n th e U n i v e r s i t y : A Symposium, ed. A rm stead R o b in so n , C ra ig C. F o s t e r , and D onald H. O g ilv ie (New Haven: Y ale U niv. P r e s s , 1 9 6 9 ), p. 44 . ^Tw enty o f t h e s e c h i l d r e n w ere from m id d le c l a s s to h ig h s t a t u s , s o c io e c o n o m ic a lly ; tw e n ty w ere from g e n e r a l l y l o w - s t a t u s f a m i l i e s , an d w i t h i n each subgroup w ere t e n B lac k and t e n w h ite c h i l d r e n m atched I n s t a t u s w ith e q u a l num bers o f boys and g i r l s . See F r e d e r ic k W illia m s, "Lan g u a g e , A t t i t u d e , a n d S o c i a l C h a n g e," i n Language and Pov e r t y : P e r s p e c t i v e s on a Theme, e d . F r e d e r i c k W illia m s (C h ica g o : Markham, 1 9 7 0 ), p p . 3 8 6 -9 0 . ^ W illia m s, p . 388. 133 134 7 'F r e d e r i c k W illia m s , J a c k L. W h ite h e a d , and L e s l i e M. M i l l e r , "E th n ic S te r e o ty p in g and Ju d g m en ts o f C h i l d r e n 's S p e e c h ," Speech M onographs, 38 (Aug. 1971) , 170. ^ W illia m s, p . 388. q ^E. F r a n k l in F r a z i e r , N egro Y outh a t t h e C r o s s r o a d s : T h e ir P e r s o n a l i t y D evelopm ent i n t h e M id d le S t a t e s (New Y ork: Schocken Books, 1967)* p . 101. 10 See Thomas F. Pettigrew's A Profile of the Negro American (Princeton, N.J . : Van Nostrand, 1 95 4); Abram Kardlner and Lionel Ovesey's Mark of Oppression* Explora tions in the Personality of the American Negro (New York: World, 1962); and St. Clair Drake and Horace Cayton's Black Metropolis (New York: Harper and Row, 1962) are a few of the books that have mentioned this. ■ ^ C h arles E. S llb e rm a n , C r i s i s i n B la c k and W hite (New Y ork: V in ta g e Books, 1 9 6 4 ), p . 262. 12 W illia m C. K v a ra c e u s, "Negro Y outh and S o c ia l A dap t a t i o n : The R ole o f t h e S ch ool a s an A g ent o f C h a n g e ," i n Negro S e lf - C o n c e p t: I m p li c a t io n s f o r S c h o o l and C i t i z e n s h i p , C o o p e ra tiv e R e se a rc h P r o j e c t No. G -020, p r o j e c t d i r e c t o r W illia m C. K v araceu s (W a sh in g to n , D.C.: U .S. D epartm en t o f H e a lth , E d u c a tio n , a n d W e lfa re and P r e s i d e n t's Com mission on J u v e n i l e D e lin q u e n c y and Y outh D e v e l opm ent, 1 9 6 4 ), p . 4 4 . M im eographed. ^ R o b e r t E. P a rk , "The C o n f l i c t and F u s io n o f C u ltu r e s w ith S p e c ia l R e fe re n c e t o t h e N e g r o ," J o u r n a l o f N egro H i s t o r y , 4 (O c t. 1 9 1 9 ). 116. 1 ii E. F r a n k l in F r a z i e r , The N egro F a m ily i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , r e v . ed. (C h icag o : U n iv . o f C h icag o P r e s s , 1966), P. 15. ^ M e l v i l l e J . H e r s k o v l t s , The Myth o f t h e Negro P a s t (B o sto n : Beadon P r e s s , 1 9 5 8 ), p p . 29a -99* Of i n t e r e s t a r e t h e f o llo w in g exam ples o f e a r l i e r s c h o l a r l y I n t e r e s t i n B lac k f o l k l o r e : M. J . and F . S. H e r s k o v lts , " T a le s i n P id g in E n g lis h fro m N i g e r i a , " J o u r n a l j o f A m erican F o l k l o r e , 44 (1 9 3 1 ). 4 4 3 -6 6 ; M. J . and F . S. ; H e r s k o v lts , "T a le s i n P id g in E n g lis h from A s h a n t i ," J o u r n a l o f A m erican F o l k l o r e , 50 (1 9 3 7 ). 5 2 -1 0 1 ; M. J . H e r s k o v l t s , ""A frican L i t e r a t u r e (N egro F o l k l o r e ) , " i n E n c y c lo p a e d ia o f L i t e r a t u r e (New Y ork: S h ip le y , 1 9 4 6 ), I , 3 -1 5 ; and Suzann C o ra h a lre -S y lv a ln , " C re o le T a le s from H a i t i , " J o u r n a l o f A m erican F o l k l o r e , 50 (1 9 3 7 ). 207-95 and 51 (1 9 3 8 ), 183- 205. 135 ■ ^W illiam T. B alm er and F . C. G ra n t, A Grammar o f t h e ! F a n ti-A k a n L anguage (Londons Negro U n iv. P r e s s , 192177 ^ S e e C h a p te rs V, V I, and V II i n H e r s k o v lts , The Myth o f t h e N egro P a s t , and M. J . H e r s k o v l t s , " A fric a n Gods and ; C a th o lic S a i n t s I n New W orld Negro B e l i e f , " A m erican An t h r o p o l o g i s t , 39 (Ju n e 1937)* 6 3 5 -4 7 . See a ls o C h a p te r I i n P. Bohannan and P h i l i p C u r t i n ’s A f r i c a and A f r i c a n s , r e v . e d . (G ard en C ity , N.Y .: The N a tu ra l' H i s t o r y P r e s s , 1 9 7 1 ). ■^B enjam in Q u a r le s , The Negro i n t h e Making o f A m erica (New Y ork: C o l l i e r B ooks, 196B')7 p . 74. 20I b i d . , p p . 73- 8 2 . 21C l i n t C o r n e liu s W ilso n , "R ig h t On B r o th e r : H e r ita g e o f Mass C om m unication among B la c k P e o p le ," T h e s is U niv. o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a 1 9 7 0 . op F r a z i e r , The N egro F a m ily , pp . 1 7 -3 2 . 23I b l d . , p . 3 2. oh E. F r a n k l i n F r a z i e r , The N egro i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , r e v . e d . (New Y ork: M a c m illa n , 1 9 6 5)> p . x i v . 23Andrew B i l l i n g s l e y , B lac k F a m ilie s i n W hite A m erica ; (Englew ood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I 96B"), p . 205^ Pfi F r a z i e r , The N egro F a m ily , p . 32. 2^ I n t h i s c h a p t e r , te rm s su c h a s lo w e r, m id d le , and u p p e r c l a s s w i l l be u s e d i n t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l se n se to d e l i n e a t e so c io ec o n o m ic s t a t u s o f B lack g ro u p s . PR U.S. B ureau o f t h e C e n su s, C hanging C h a r a c te r 1 s t i e s o f t h e Negro P o p u la tio n , e d . D a n ie l P r i c e (W ashington, D.C.:: U7S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1969)* P. 233. 2^Pettlgrew, pp. 1 5 -1 6 . ^ R e s e a r c h e r s su c h a s P e t ti g r e w and R o h re r a p p a r e n t l y j b e l i e v e t h a t c o n fu s io n r e g a r d i n g t h e m ale r o l e i s a b a s ic p ro b lem o f young B lac k m ales who la c k a f a t h e r - i m a g e . I t c a n be a rg u e d , ho w ev er, t h a t t h e same c o n fu s io n c o u ld e x i s t i n an y e th n i c g ro u p . T h ere a r e o t h e r f a c t o r s o p e r a t in g a s w e l l , su c h as so c io ec o n o m ic f r u s t r a t i o n . 31Jo h n H. R o h re r and Munro S. Edmondson, e d s ., The E ig h th G e n e r a tio n (New Y ork: H a rp e r, i 960), p . 163. 1 3 6 3 Jo h n H. R o h re r, A l l i s o n D a v is, and Jo h n D o l l a r d fs e a r l i e r s tu d y , C h ild r e n o f Bondage (New Y ork: H a rp e r and Row, 1 9 4 0 ), was one o f th e f i r s t i n th e s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s o f N egro p e r s o n a l i t y . The l a t e r New O rle a n s s t u d i e s men t i o n e d above w ere c o n d u c te d a s f o llo w - u p s t o t h e o r i g i n a l s tu d y . 33E l l i o t Liebow, T a l l y 13 C o r n e r : A S tu d y o f Negro S t r e e t - C o r n e r Men (B o sto n : L i t t l e , Brown, 1 9 6 7 T * " 3^ S t . C l a i r D rak e, "The S o c i a l and Econom ic S t a t u s o f t h e N egro i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , " D a e d a lu s, 94 ( P a l l 1965)., 778. 3^D rake and C ay to n , B lack M e t r o p o li s . 36I b i d . , p . 386. 3^ F r a z i e r , N egro Y o u th . In h i s c h a p t e r "R ole o f t h e F a m ily " i n p a r t i c u l a r , g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e s an d b e h a v io r o f B lac k m i d d l e - c l a s s f a m i l i e s a r e d i s c u s s e d . See a l s o F r a z i e r 's B la c k B o u r g e o is ie (New Y ork: C o l l i e r , 1962). 3 ® F ra z ie r , B lack B o u r g e o is ie . T h ro u g h o u t t h e t e x t , B lac k f a m i l i e s o f u p p e r c l a s s e s a r e shown t o e n c o u ra g e s o - c a l l e d p r o p e r b e h a v io r i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n . T h ese f a m i l i e s a r e d e s c r i b e d by F r a z i e r a s h a v in g a te n d e n c y t o p r o t e c t t h e i r young from t h e tra u m a s o f r e a l i t y . 3 ^ J e a n Grambs, "The S e lf- C o n c e p t: B a s is f o r R eeduca t i o n o f N egro Y o u th ," i n Negro S e lf - C o n c e p t: I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r S c h o o l and C i t i z e n s h i p , C o o p e ra tiv e R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t No. G -020, p r o j e c t d i r e c t o r W illia m C. K v a ra c e u s (W ashing t o n , D .C .: U .S . D epartm ent o f H e a lth , E d u c a tio n , and Wel f a r e and P r e s i d e n t 's Com mission on J u v e n i l e D e lin q u e n c y and Y outh D evelopm ent, 1 9 6 4 ), p . 16. M im eographed. 4 ° I b i d . ^ I b ld . ^ 2I b i d . , p p . 6 -7 . Jiq “T h i s s tu d y i s n o t a s o c i o l o g i c a l t r a c t , b u t a d i s c u s s i o n o f o u ts ta n d in g v ie w p o in ts on t h e B la c k f a m i ly r e l a t i o n s h i p . M rs. Grambs does r e p r e s e n t a segm ent o f t h o s e who b e l i e v e t h a t t h e B lack f a m ily r e i n f o r c e s r a c i a l r e j e c t i o n i n t h e young and a c c e n t u a t e s i n s e c u r i t y i n B lack y o u t h . 137 iiii , U .S . B u re au o f t h e C e n su s, p. 240. ^ F r a z i e r , The N egro F a m ily , pp. 114-241 46 K a r d in e r an d O vesey, p . 6 6 . ^ D o r o t h y M. K n o e ll, B la c k S tu d e n t P o t e n t i a l (W ashing to n . D .C .t A m erican A s s o c i a t i o n o f J u n i o r C o lle g e s , 1970).> p . 4 9 . 48 I b i d . ^ J o h n H. S c a n z o n i, The B la c k F a m ily i n Modern S o c ie ty (B o sto n : A lly n and B acon, 1 9 7 1)» P* 3 . • ^ B i l l i n g s l e y , p . 206. - ^ P e t t i g r e w , p . 25. ^ 2S llb e rm a n , P e t t i g r e w , K aro n , and F r a z i e r , t o name a few , have w r i t t e n o f t h i s p ro b le m o f s e e k in g s e l f - i d e n t i t y i n t h e f a c e o f a h o s t i l e s o c i e t y w ith o f t e n d i s a s t r o u s p s y c h o l o g ic a l e f f e c t s i n t h e young B la c k . " ^ H e r b e rt H e n d ln , B la c k S u ic id e (New Y ork: B a sic Books, 1969).* P . 3 . ^ W i l l i a m McCord, "The D e f e a t e d , " i n L if e S t y l e s i n t h e B lac k G h e tto , e d . W illia m McCord e t a l . (New Y ork: N o rto n , 1969) , p p . 138- 6 3 . McCord s t a t e d t h a t i n view o f t h e p r e v a le n c e o f o t h e r form s o f e s c a p e and s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n , i t was s t r a n g e t h a t t h e B la c k s u i c i d e r a t e i s so much lo w e r t h a n t h e w h ite r a t e . H ere t h e l a r g e r number o f o l d e r w h ite m ale s u i c i d e s w ould seem t o t i p t h e s c a l e . •^M cCord, "The D e f e a t e d ," p p . 1 3 8 -3 9 . ^ 8Roy W ilk in s , "B la c k P r i d e D o e s n 't Embrace B lack C r i m i n a ls ," Los A n g e le s T im es, 10 J a n . 1972, S ec. I I , p. J. 57I b i d . •^ W illia m M cCord, "The 'R e b e l w ith o u t a C a u s e ,'" i n L if e S t y l e s i n t h e B la c k G h e tto , e d . W illia m McCord e t a l . (New Y ork: N o rto n , 1 9 6 9 ) , p . 197. H is f i g u r e s a r e b ased Ion t h e R e p o rt o f t h e N a t io n a l A d v is o ry Com m ission on C i v i l : D is o r d e r s , 1968. 1 3 8 ' ^^S ee C h a p te r V I, "Negro A m erican C rim e ," i n P e t t i grew , and a l s o M cC ord's " 'R e b e l w ith o u t a C a u s e .'" ZT/\ Read C h a p te r XI i n F r a z i e r 's The N egro i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . See a l s o K a rd in e r and O vesey, p . o 4 , an d S h a ro n Fay Koch, "C hanging A t t i t u d e s o f L . A . 's B la c k E l i t e , " Los A n g e le s T im es, 15 A p r il 1972, S e c . I , pp. 1 an d 8 f f . zT *i D rake and C ayton, p . 688. 62I b i d . , p . 628. ^ K a r d i n e r and Ovesey, p . 62. 64 B e rtra m P. K aron, The N egro P e r s o n a l i t y : A R ig o ro u s I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e E f f e c t s o f C u ltu r e (New Yorlc: S p r in g e r , 196477 P* 31. gc "T re d G ro s s la n d , M in o r ity A c ce ss t o C o l l e g e : F o rd F o u n d a tio n R e p o rt (New Y ork: Schocken Books, 1 9 7 1)* P* 32. He s t a t e s t h a t i n 1970^ n a tio n w id e , more th a n h a l f o f a l l B la c k fre sh m e n w ere i n community c o l l e g e s . flfl F. T h e r e s a Boone, "H ig h er E d u c a tio n f o r t h e N e g ro ," T h e s is U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , S c h o o l o f E duca t i o n , 1925* p . 3 . ^ K v a r a c e u s , p . 73. 68I b i d . , p . 5 1 . ^ D r a k e and C ayton, p . 516. 7 ° K n o e ll, p . 61. ^ " T h e N egro i n A m e ric a ," anonymous e d i t o r i a l s u rv e y , Newsweek, 29 J u l y 1963^ pp. 1 5 -3 4 . 7 2 B. C. R osen, "Race, E t h n i c i t y , and t h e A chievem ent S yndrom e," A m erican S o c i o lo g i c a l R eview , 24 (1959)> 4 7 -6 0 . ^ S l l b e r m a n , p . 267. 7^rbid. ^ G r o s s l a n d , pp. 7 2 -7 3 . ^ D o r o t h y M. K n o e ll, "Who Goes t o C o lle g e i n t h e C i t i e s ? " J u n i o r C o lle g e J o u r n a l , 4 0 ( S e p t. 1969) , 25. 139 ^ L o s A n g e les Community C o lle g e s , " E th n ic S u rv ey o f S tu d e n t E n ro llm e n t and P e r c e n t a g e s ," S p rin g 1970. Mimeo g ra p h e d . ^ D r . L e a d ie C l a r k , "L.A . S o u th w est C o l l e g e ," i n "R eport from t h e P r e s i d e n t s , " I n s i d e t h e Los A n g e les Com m u n ity C o l le g e s , 9 ( J a n . 1 9 7 1 ), 4 3 . ^ I b l d . D r. L e a d ie C la r k , h e r s e l f , i s an exam ple of e d u c a tio n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n . She h e ld t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f b e in g t h e o n ly B la c k fe m a le p r e s i d e n t o f a n i n s t i t u t i o n of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n i n t h e n a t i o n . At p r e s e n t , sh e o c c u p ie s th e p o s i t i o n o f a s s i s t a n t s u p e r i n te n d e n t o f t h e Los R io s Community C o lle g e D i s t r i c t i n C e n tr a l C a l i f o r n i a . fin L aw rence W. L i t t i g , "A P i l o t S tu d y o f P e r s o n a l i t y F a c to r s R e la te d t o O c c u p a tio n a l A s p i r a t i o n s o f Negro C o l le g e S t u d e n t s ," P r o j e c t f o r t h e U .S . D e p artm en t o f H e a lth , E d u c a tio n , and W e lfa re (W ash in g to n , D .C .: Howard U n iv ., 1966 [? n . Q *i K n o e ll, B la c k S tu d e n t P o t e n t i a l , p . 72. 8? At S o u th w e st C o lle g e , a lth o u g h t h e r e a r e o n ly t h r e e f u l l - t i m e sp e e c h i n s t r u c t o r s on t h e s t a f f , e i g h t sp e e c h c o u rs e s i n c l u d i n g t h e b e g in n in g p u b l ic s p e a k in g c l a s s a re o f f e r e d on a r e g u l a r b a s i s . I n t e r e s t o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n th e g e n e r a l sp e e c h a r e a i s c o n s i d e r a b l e . The B a sic Speech S k i l l s and t h e b e g in n in g p u b lic s p e a k in g c l a s s e s a r e g e n e r a l l y c lo s e d b e f o r e r e g i s t r a t i o n i s o v e r . Due t o s tu d e n t and community demand f o r p e rfo rm a n c e c l a s s e s i n t h e b ro ad a r e a o f s p e e c h , t h e a t e r a r t s c l a s s e s w i l l be o f f e r e d a t th e c o ll e g e b e g in n in g w i t h t h e F a l l s e m e s te r o f 1973. ^ G ra m b s , p . 37* 8k U lf H a n n e rz , S o u l s i d e ; I n q u i r i e s i n t o G h e tto C u ltu r e and Community (New Y o rk : C olum bia U n iv . P r e s s , 1 9 6 9 ), p. 15. ®^This a p p e a r s t o be one p o in t upon w h ich th e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s t u d i e s a g r e e . CHAPTER IV BLACK SPEECH PATTERNS AND THE SPEECH ARTS TEACHER Introduction Attitudes toward Black minority speech patterns must be recognized and understood by the teacher of Black stu dents in the community college. The teacher should care fully examine his own attitudes, those of his colleagues, and those of the immediate Black community. An awareness of the sensitivity of any group or subculture regarding its particular dialect or language pattern is essential. Nel son Brooks in speaking of language training stated: Of the ties that bind together the members of a common culture, certainly none is more central than their lan guage, for it permeates the inner life of every indi vidual and is the medium of communication that makes the total cultural life possible.1 The teacher must recognize that despite the Black students he may encounter who speak a standard variety of American English, a substantial number of Blacks employ what is often referred to as Black English. Students from the latter group wil-l be more adversely affected by negative attitudes on the part of the teacher of speech. Due to the highly personal nature of language, when the Black student i4i b e l i e v e s th e t e a c h e r h o ld s a d i s p a r a g i n g a t t i t u d e to w a rd B la c k la n g u a g e p a t t e r n s , t h e s t u d e n t c o n s i d e r s t h i s a r e j e c t i o n o f h im s e lf a s an i n d i v i d u a l a s w e l l a s a r e j e c t i o n o f h i s e t h n i c - c u l t u r a l b a ck g ro u n d . E v ery la n g u a g e i s a v a s t p a t t e r n - s y s t e m , d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r s , i n w hich a r e c u l t u r a l l y o rd a in e d t h e fo rm s and c a t e g o r i e s by w hich t h e p e r s o n a l i t y n o t o n ly communi c a t e s , b u t a l s o a n a ly z e s n a t u r e , n o t i c e s o r n e g l e c t s ty p e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s and phenom ena, c h a n n e ls h i s r e a s o n i n g , and b u i l d s t h e h o u se o f h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s .2 To s t i g m a t i z e t h e d i a l e c t o f t h e g h e t t o B la c k s t u d e n t , to l a b e l h i s sp e e c h a s i n f e r i o r may n o t o n ly be dam aging t o h i s ego and s e l f - c o n c e p t , b u t may s e r v e t o f u r t h e r a l i e n a t e t h e i n s e c u r e d is a d v a n ta g e d y o u th . U nder t h e s e c irc u m s t a n c e s , l i t t l e o r no v i a b l e com m un ication c an o c c u r betw een t e a c h e r and s t u d e n t . The B la c k m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t i s e x tre m e ly s e n s i t i v e t o t e a c h e r a t t i t u d e s . As Kim G i f f i n s t a t e d : Any p e rs o n who i s a l i e n a t e d w i l l l i k e l y be a n x io u s , s u s p i c i o u s , and p o o r ly m o tiv a te d t o l i s t e n , much l e s s t o t a l k . He p r o b a b ly w i l l be w a tc h in g f o r s m a ll, s u b t l e c u e s o f co m m u n icatio n d e n i a l on y o u r p a r t . Most c e r t a i n l y c o v e r t d e n i a l m ust be a v o id e d i f i n t e r a c t i o n w ith an a l i e n a t e d p e rs o n i s t o be a c h ie v e d , And one m ust be e n t i r e l y s i n c e r e i n t h i s e f f o r t ; i f h e i s n o t s i n c e r e , h i s a t t i t u d e w i l l be d e t e c t e d o r a t l e a s t s u s p e c t e d — and t o a p e r s o n who a l r e a d y f e e l s a l i e n a t e d to w a rd y o u , s u s p i c i o n w i l l be enough t o r e i n f o r c e h i s f e e l i n g s o f m e a n in g le s s n e s s i n l i f e , po w er l e s s n e s s t o change i t , d i f f i c u l t y i n u n d e r s ta n d in g s o c i e t y 's no rm s, and i s o l a t i o n from o t h e r p e o p l e . 3 Though su ch em p h asis may seem p l a t i t u d i n o u s , i t m ust be s t r e s s e d t h a t th e sp e e c h t e a c h e r i n p a r t i c u l a r s h o u ld be a c u t e l y a w are o f t h e B la c k s t u d e n t s ' overw helm ing n eed f o r 142 a positive self-image. To regard these students as defi cient , Incorrect, or inferior manipulators of verbal lan guage will result in an untenable atmosphere in. a speech class. Oral performance in the classes within the speech disciplines exposes students' personal insecurities sooner than in traditional lecture/discussion classes. In short, the student does not want to appear or to be considered foolish in performance before a class by anyone, especially by his instructor. A negative attitude toward the students' language may, as Orlando Taylor noted, . . , place many Black students at an educational dis advantage, but it also reinforces the "hang-ups" many Black students feel about their language. Colleges and universities must give greater recognition to the het erogeneous character of American English and demonstrate greater sophistication in historical and descriptive aspects of Black English. This need is especially true for speech professionals.^ Although the teacher of oral interpretation cannot be expected to undertake a linguistic study of Black English, he must become acquainted with some of the characteristics of Black speech patterns. In addressing English teachers, William A. Stewart went so far as to suggest that in work ing with urban Black students in the Washington, D.C. area a ". . . linguistic analysis and description of the non standard dialect" was an absolutely necessary prerequisite for the teacher.^ The oral interpretation teacher who deals with the study of oral English must also know some thing about the speech of the students he teaches. 143 T e a c h e rs n eed t o u n d e rs ta n d what t h e s t u d e n t s a r e . I n f a c t , s a y in g and t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e r e i s a l o g i c a l o r d e r i n t h e s p e e c h em ployed by t h e s e s t u d e n t s ; u n d e r s ta n d in g i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y b e c a u se t h e t e a c h e r may o f t e n f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o f o r m u la te d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s and t o em ploy t e a c h in g m ethods and t e c h n iq u e s w h ich w i l l be more e f f e c t i v e w ith t h e s e s t u d e n t s . R osa Lee N ash h a s s t a t e d : Anyone who u s e s t h e N egro la n g u a g e sy ste m (an d knows o n ly t h i s way o f u s in g t h e E n g lis h la n g u a g e ) h a s c e r t a i n h a n d ic a p s when c o n f r o n te d w ith someone who i s i g n o r a n t o f i t , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h a t someone i s h i s t e a c h e r . I t i s t h e young c h i l d who knows t h e N egro la n g u a g e sy stem b e s t . The o l d e r h e g e t s t h e more l i k e l y he i s t o d i l u t e i t , a s he i s ex p o sed t o o t h e r ways o f u s in g t h e la n g u a g e . T h is i s so m e th in g t h e sp e e c h t e a c h e r s h o u ld be m in d fu l o f and a t l e a s t h a v e a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f . [ I t a l i c s m i n e . ] 6 The t e a c h e r s h o u ld be aw are t h a t i n a c t u a l i t y t h e r e i s r e a l l y no s e t p a t t e r n o f " s ta n d a r d " sp o k en E n g li s h . F re d e r i c k D avid E r ic k s o n p o in te d t h i s o u t i n h i s s tu d y o f lo w e r- c l a s s i n n e r - c i t y B la c k g ro u p s and u p p e r-m id d le c l a s s s u b u r b an w h ite g ro u p s : I t h i n k t h a t w hat m ost t e a c h e r s t e a c h a s " s t a n d a r d E n g lis h " i s a sp o k en form o f w r i t t e n E n g l i s h — a form t h a t we r e a d b u t d o n ’t o f t e n s p e a k . The e l a b o r a t e n e s s o f w r i t t e n la n g u a g e i s f u n c t i o n a l i n t h e m ost ex tre m e o f low c o n te x t s i t u a t i o n s : t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een a u th o r and r e a d e r . Spoken la n g u a g e , h o w ev er, i s by d e f i n i t i o n more "low c o n te x t" and l e s s e l a b o r a t e th a n " s ta n d a r d E n g li s h ." The su b u rb a n young p e o p le i n my sa m p le , who w ere v e ry s u c c e s s f u l a c a d e m ic a lly , d id n o t sp e a k " s ta n d a r d E n g li s h ." They d id n o t even sp e a k e l a b o r a t e d code a l l t h e t i m e , 7 144 Thus one c a n s t a t e t h a t t h e r e I s no s t a n d a r d spok en E n g lis h , b u t r a t h e r a v a r i e t y o f n o n s ta n d a r d n e s s I n A m erican E n g lis h sp e e c h . D i a l e c t s p e a k e r s , t h u s , a r e u s u a l l y I d e n t i f i e d a c c o r d in g t o t h e r e l a t i v e fr e q u e n c y o f n o n s ta n d a rd u s a g e . T h is p o r t i o n o f t h e s tu d y d e a l s w ith t h e c o n c e p t o f d i a l e c t i n t h e a b s t r a c t , l i n g u i s t i c s e n s e ; t h e d i a l e c t u s e r o r s p e a k e r i s a s e p a r a t e f a c t o r c o v e r in g a w ide sp e c tru m i n t h e a r e a o f u s a g e . The f r e q u e n c y and u sa g e o f d i a l e c t by t h e s p e a k e r i s d e p e n d e n t upon many f a c t o r s su ch a s s o c i a l s t a t u s , s e x , a g e , n e ig h b o rh o o d , r a c i a l i s o l a t i o n , and 8 so c io ec o n o m ic b a ck g ro u n d . T h is c h a p t e r exam ines s t e r e o t y p e d a t t i t u d e s to w ard B lac k d i a l e c t , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e d i a l e c t i t s e l f , and a b r i e f s u r v e y o f h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i a l I n f l u e n c e s on p a t t e r n s o f B la c k E n g lis h . To r e p e a t R osa Lee N ash, know l edge o f B la c k sp e e c h i s " . , . so m e th in g t h e sp e ec h t e a c h e r s h o u ld be m in d fu l o f and a t l e a s t h av e an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f . ”9 A t t i t u d e s Toward B la c k S peech P a t t e r n s I n 1916, t h e L i t e r a r y D ig e s t p r i n t e d an a r t i c l e i n d l - I e a t i n g t h e a t t i t u d e o f c e r t a i n t e a c h e r s to w a rd t h e Negro d i a l e c t : H igh s c h o o l m usic t e a c h e r s o f New Y ork a r e r e p o r t e d t o h ave e x p r e s s e d t h e i r d i s a p p r o v a l o f t h e N egro d i a l e c t i n so n g s p u b l is h e d i n p u b l ic s c h o o l te x tb o o k s . D r. P ra n k R lx i s c r e d i t e d w ith s a y in g t h e c h i l d r e n s h o u ld be t a u g h t a " p u re E n g lis h n o t a d i a l e c t . "10 145 The culprits, it appears, were some of the most-loved Amer ican folk songs. The Digest article agreed that the writ ten Negro dialect was indeed ungrammatical, but added that the teachers were overlooking the simplicity and real sen timent expressed in those "plantation melodies" which had become a part of the American heritage. The article advo cated acceptance of the songs despite the disputed lyrics and the furor created by the high school music teachers. This article stands as an early published report of educational disapproval of Black dialect. There is considerable evidence that the attitude of many teachers toward the speech of Black students, partic ularly disadvantaged Black students, still remains negative. Studies done by Frederick Williams and associates, men tioned in Chapter III,11 clearly indicate stereotyping of Black students,* nonstandard Black speech Influenced teach ers in their evaluation of the youngsters' personality traits. The Black children were rated lower in comparison to white children on such traits as confidence-eagerness and ethnlcity-nonstandardness. Kenneth Johnson deplored erroneous assumptions generated by this stereotyping. Black children are assumed to be "nonverbal," deficient in language development and usage, possessed of a language : disorder, or non-communloative in the classroom: 146 The r e a s o n s w ould be o b v io u s t o e d u c a to r s i f o n ly t h e i r a t t i t u d e s to w a rd n o n s ta n d a r d d i a l e c t w ere n o t so n e g a t i v e . F i r s t ., c o n tin u o u s c o r r e c t i o n h a s t h e e f f e c t o f s h u t t i n g o f f s p e e c h . S eco n d , much o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n c la ssro o m s i s a b o u t i s s u e s a n d t o p i c s i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e n e e d s , I n t e r e s t s , and b a c k g ro u n d s o f d is a d v a n ta g e d b la c k c h i l d r e n . . . . The f a c t i s , d is a d v a n ta g e d b l a c k c h i l d re n a re n o t n o n v e rb a l; t h e y a r e v e r b a l l y d i f f e r e n t , and t h i s does n o t mean v e r b a l l y i n f e r i o r . 12 R i t a N arem o re’s s tu d y c o r r o b o r a t e s J o h n s o n ’s an d W illia m s ’ f i n d i n g s . She c i t e d r e s e a r c h b y W. E. L am bert and a s s o c i a t e s , who had exam ined " E v a l u a t l o n a l R e a c tio n t o A cce n ted E n g lis h Speech" T hese r e s e a r c h e r s h av e s u g g e s t e d t h a t l i s t e n e r s , upon h e a r in g some m inim al c u e s i n a p e r s o n ’s s p e e c h , c a l l up a s t e r e o t y p e , o r a c l u s t e r o f r e s p o n s e s , and t h a t t h i s s t e r e o t y p e c o l o r s a l l t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h a t p e rs o n . T r a n s la te d i n t o te rm s o f t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , t h i s w ould s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s , upon h e a r i n g c e r t a i n p r o n u n c ia tio n d e v i a t i o n s , f o r exam ple, w ould im m edi a t e l y r e a c t w ith t h e ju d g m en t " lo w e r c l a s s " , and w ould a c c o r d in g ly r a t e t h e c h i l d lo w e r on a l l m e a su re s, r e - g a r d l e s s o f h i s a c t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e . '[I t a l i c s m in e. P-4 T ea ch e r s t e r e o t y p i n g o f s t u d e n t s w ith n o n s ta n d a r d B lac k speech p a t t e r n s , t h e r e f o r e , may o f t e n c o l o r t h e t e a c h e r ' s judgm ent o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s ’ c a p a b i l i t i e s , p e r s o n a l i t i e s , c la ssro o m p e rf o rm a n c e s , a n d e d u c a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l . Such a n e g a tiv e r e a c t i o n c o u ld h a r d l y be assum ed c o n d u c iv e t o a p o s i t i v e s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o r t o a l e a r n i n g : atm o sp h ere w here t h e s t u d e n t w o u ld be m o tiv a te d t o a c h ie v e . A n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e g e n e r a l l y e l i c i t s a n e g a t iv e r e s p o n s e . W illia m s c a l l e d t h i s t h e " s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e s y , " ^ a s a r e s u l t o f w hich s t u d e n t s w ould o f t e n p e rfo rm a s th e y 147 p e r c e i v e d t e a c h e r s e x p e c te d them t o p e rfo rm . R a t c l i f f e and S t e i l p o s i t e d : C om m unication b a r r i e r s may e x i s t betw een t h e t y p i c a l l y w h ite I n s t r u c t o r and t h e b la c k s t u d e n t s . Such a r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een s tu d e n t a n d i n s t r u c t o r may p l a c e r e s t r i c t i o n s upon t h e l e a r n i n g en v iro n m en t and l e s s e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r m e a n in g fu l s t u d e n t e v a l u a t i o n and g ro w th . I n s h o r t , b la c k s t u d e n t s a r e p ro b a b ly h a n d i cap p ed i n a sp e e c h c la ss ro o m when ta u g h t and e v a l u a t e d by a w h ite i n s t r u c t o r . T h is c o n d i t i o n i s m ost l i k e l y t o e x i s t when s i g n i f i c a n t a t t i t u d i n a l d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t w ith o u t acknow ledgem ent and a d j u s t m e n t .1° R i t a N arem ore s t a t e d i n h e r s tu d y t h a t : The b la c k t e a c h e r s . . . p r o b a b ly d is c o v e r e d lo n g ago t h a t t h e p r e s c r i p t i v e r u l e s o f " s ta n d a r d " E n g li s h do n o t a p p ly i n many s i t u a t i o n s t h e y e n c o u n te re d . H ence, t h e y a r e m ore l i k e l y th a n w h ite t e a c h e r s t o h a v e d ro p p ed t h e s e r u l e s f o r u s e o f lan g u a g e d e t a i l s a s v i a b l e b a s e s f o r Ju d g m e n t.17 D e s p ite t h i s s t a te m e n t , a s w e ll a s t h e p re v io u s c o n c l u s i o n made by R a t c l i f f e and S t e i l , n e g a t iv e a t t i t u d e s to w a rd non s t a n d a r d B la c k d i a l e c t p a t t e r n s e x i s t i n t h e B la c k a s w e l l a s t h e w h ite com m unity and s h o u ld be u n d e rs to o d b y t h e t e a c h e r . T h ese a t t i t u d e s a p p a r e n t l y have t h e i r r o o t s i n t h e s la v e s t a t u s sy ste m o f p r e - C i v i l War d a y s . W illia m S te w a rt n o te d t h a t t h e p o s s i b l e m i l l i o n s o f B la c k s who to d a y sp e a k a " p e r f e c t l y " s t a n d a r d E n g lis h d e s c e n d e d from t h e p r i v i l e g e d gro u p o f h o u se s l a v e s and f r e e B l a c k s . He c la im e d t h a t B la c k l e a d e r s , i n c l u d i n g e d u c a to r s , a r e e x tre m e ly a c h ie v e m e n t- o r ie n te d . T h e r e f o r e : N egro e l i t e s te n d n o t t o welcome any e v id e n c e o f u n i form o r s t a b l e b e h a v i o r a l d i f f e r e n c e s betw een members o f t h e i r own g ro u p (ev en l o w e r - c l a s s o n e s) and t h o s e o f t h e w h ite -d o m in a te d m id d le c l a s s . 8 148 T hese members o f t h e B lac k com m unity, S te w a rt s t a t e d , r e g a rd c u r r e n t l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s o f B lac k sp e e c h p a t t e r n s w ith " u n e a s in e s s an d e v en h o s t i l i t y . " A c c o rd in g t o K e n n e th Jo h n so n : Many b la c k p e o p le a l s o oppose t h e view t h a t b la c k s sp eak a d i s t i n c t d i a l e c t . T h is o p p o s i t i o n on t h e p a r t o f b l a c k s , e s p e c i a l l y th o s e who a r e a c t i v e i n t h e c i v i l r i g h t s movement i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g : I f b l a c k s sp e ak a d i s t i n c t d i a l e c t , t h i s i s one more mark o f~ ~ 5 iffe re n o e t h a t can r e t a r d a s s i m i l a t i o n .I P F r a z i e r spoke o f t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e e l i t e , g e n e r a l l y m u la t to , f a m i l i e s to w a rd la n g u a g e : As a m ark o f t h e i r s u p e r i o r c u l t u r e , t h e y h a v e e n d e a v o re d f i r s t t o sp e ak t h e u n c o rr u p te d la n g u a g e o f th e c u l t u r e d w h i t e s . By t h i s e x t e r n a l m ark o f c u l t u r e th e y h av e o f t e n e n d e a v o re d t o em p h asize t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y t o t h e i g n o r a n t p l a n t a t i o n N egro o r c i t y slu m - d w e lle r . I t was among t h i s c l a s s t h a t much o p p o s i t i o n was e x p r e s s e d t o t h e d i a l e c t poems o f D u n b a r .20 Thus t h e lo w e r so c io ec o n o m ic l e v e l B lac k s t u d e n t c a n e n c o u n te r n e g a t iv e r e a c t i o n s t o h i s sp e e c h p a t t e r n s from h i s own a s w e l l a s from t h e w h ite com m unity. T h is d i s a p p r o v a l may n o t come o n ly from e n c o u n te r s w ith u p p e r - c l a s s B la c k s : In general, it is an important socio-linguistlc prin ciple that those who use the highest degree of a stig matized form in their own casual speech are quickest to stigmatize it in the speech of othersT This prin- ciple has important consequences for the classroom situation. The teacher from the same community has the advantage that he can realistically detect and correct the most nonstandard features of his students; but he has the disadvantage that he will react to these features in an extreme, sometimes unrealistic f a s h i o n . 21 I t c an be s e e n t h a t t h e i n n e r - c i t y t e a c h e r m ust be v e ry aw are o f t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e com m unity h e s e r v e s . 149 Some B la c k a c t o r s and r e a d e r s have o b je c te d t o w hat t h e y c o n s i d e r t h e s t e r e o t y p i n g o f B lack s by t h e w h ite com m u n ity ; sp e e c h and d i a l e c t a r e a s p e c ts o f t h i s s t e r e o t y p i n g . R oscoe Lee Browne s t a t e d r e c e n t l y : T h ere was a c o m p la in t from a m ajor New York c r i t i c t h a t my d i c t i o n was o n ly s l i g h t l y l e s s m e l l i f l u o u s th a n S i r Jo h n G ie lg u d ’ s . T h a t, I t h i n k , r e f l e c t s an i g n o r a n c e . We d o n 't a l l h av e s o u th e rn a c c e n ts and t h e Amer i c a n id io m was h a r d l y s e t by th e l a t e l 8 0 0 ’s anyw ay. . . . Has i t o c c u r r e d t o anyone t o check h i s t o r y ? At t h a t t im e — t h e l 8 0 0 ' s —many s t a t e s had law s a g a i n s t a llo w in g b la c k s t o l e a r n re a d in g o r w r i t i n g . The few who d id l e a r n r e a l l y w ent a f t e r i t , r e a d t h e b e s t books an d fo u n d — th e n l e a r n e d — t h e b e s t d i c t i o n . I was one o f th o s e p e o p le . I d i d n 't have t o be a d ra w lin g s o u t h e r n e r and I w a s n ' t . 22 Though B lac k p e rfo r m e r s have n o t c a s t a s p e r s io n s on t h o s e members o f t h e B la c k com m unity whose norm al la n g u a g e i s m arked by d i a l e c t , some a p p a r e n t l y a r e h o s t i l e t o t h e n o t i o n t h a t B la c k s a r e assum ed t o be in c a p a b le o f s p e a k in g s ta n d a r d E n g lis h . A n o th e r g ro u p i n t h e B lack comm unity, h ow ev er, h a v e s u b s c r ib e d t o a c re e d o f B lac k u n iq u e n e s s . T hese i n d i v i d u a l s a r e o f t e n t h e m ore m i l i t a n t B lac k s who t a k e p r i d e i n a B la c k d i a l e c t , p r e s e n t i n g i t as a mark o f d i s t i n c t i o n . They em p h asize a h e r o i c , p o s i t i v e B lack i d e n t i t y an d a r e c o n te m p tu o u s o f m ore c o n s e r v a t iv e B lac k s who ape t h e s t a n d a r d s and custom s o f t h e w h ite m id d le c l a s s . "B la c k c o n s c io u s n e s s " p o s s e s s e s p a r t i c u l a r a p p e a l f o r t h e o f t e n a l i e n a t e d B lac k y o u th s e e k in g a p o s i t i v e s e l f - i m a g e . W a lte r W olfram , f o r exam ple, n o te d t h a t B lack t e e n a g e r s 1 5 0: d i f f e r e d c o n s i d e r a b l y from t h e i r p a r e n t s I n la n g u a g e norms and i n a t t i t u d e s to w a rd E n g lis h u s a g e : The o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t te e n a g e b e h a v i o r a l norms o f t e n come i n t o " c o n f l i c t " w ith a d u l t norm s h a r d l y n eed s e l u c i d a t i o n . A lth o u g h a t e e n - a g e r may be f u l l y aw are o f th e a d u l t norm o f s p e e c h b e h a v io r , p e e r gro u p s o c i a l p r e s s u r e may c a u s e t h e a d u l t norm t o be e x p l i c i t l y r e j e c t e d . To i l l u s t r a t e , one may n o te t h e f o llo w in g c o n v e r s a t i o n , w h ich to o k p la c e when a f l e l d w o r k e r a sk e d a 1 6 - y e a r - o l d m ale in f o rm a n t how many new members c o u ld be a c c e p te d i n t o h i s p e e r g ro u p : F le ld w o r k e r : What d id he h a v e t o do t o g e t i n t h e g roup? I n f o r m a n t: He g o t t a hang a ro u n d w ith u s m ore— come to v i s i t j he h av e t o t a l k c o o l, you d o n 't u n d e r s t a n d . F le ld w o r k e r : How do you t a l k c o o l? In fo r m a n t: T a lk h i p , m an!— you know. L ik e you d o n 't t a l k l i k e you su p p o sed t o . I f you a s q u a re you c a n g e t o u t . "23" B lack a w a re n e ss h a s n o t o n ly g iv e n t h e l o w e r - c l a s s y o u th an im age w hich c a n be s u p p o r t i v e t o h i s ego, b u t h a s a l s o a id e d B lac k y o u th s o f h i g h e r so c io ec o n o m ic l e v e l s to a c h ie v e a more p o s i t i v e im age o f t h e i r e th n ic h e r i t a g e . The e x i s t e n c e o f a u n iq u e B la c k sp e e c h o r d i a l e c t p a t t e r n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e t o them . The e x a m in a tio n o f a t t i t u d e s to w a rd B lac k d i a l e c t p o i n t s s t r o n g l y t o t h e f a c t t h a t g r e a t e r know ledge i s e s s e n t i a l t o a l l sp e e c h t e a c h e r s . As O rland o T a y lo r p u t i t , t h e r e i s a n eed f o r " . . . g r e a t e r s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i n ii 2k h i s t o r i c a l and d e s c r i p t i v e a s p e c t s o f B lac k E n g li s h ." The r e s t o f t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l a tte m p t t o exam ine B lac k sp e e c h p a t t e r n s and e x p lo r e some o f t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i e t a l b a s e s . 151 B la c k Speech P a t t e r n s : An O verview I n o r d e r t o g a in some u n d e r s ta n d in g o f w hat R osa Lee Nash r e f e r r e d t o as t h e "N egro la n g u a g e s y s te m ," t h e sp e e c h a r t s t e a c h e r s h o u ld a tte m p t t o g a in some know ledge o f t h e s y s te m 's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The t e a c h e r c a n th e n p e r c e i v e B lac k sp e e c h o r la n g u a g e , l i k e o t h e r la n g u a g e s , a s " . . . a sy stem w ith i t s own i n t e r n a l l o g i c an d i t s own i n t e r n a l r u l e s . " 2^ He w i l l be b e t t e r e q u ip p e d t o u n d e r s ta n d , h e l p , and w ork w ith B la c k s t u d e n t s who may be u s e d t o t h i s l a n guage sy ste m when th e y e n t e r h i s c la s s ro o m , and he w i l l be l e s s a p t t o l a b e l a s sub s t a n d a r d t h e sp e e c h p a t t e r n s o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s , I n h i s book f o r t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r , Leave Your L an - 2 6 guage A lo n e, R o b e rt A. H a l l , J r . p o i n t e d o u t t h a t l a n guage h a s sy ste m , and i n o r d e r t o s tu d y a n y la n g u a g e sy ste m th e l i n g u i s t exam ines t h e sound, t h e fo rm , and t h e m eaning o f t h e sy s te m . T h is s e c t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , b r i e f l y exam ines t h e B la c k la n g u a g e sy ste m u n d e r t h e m a jo r l i n g u i s t i c su b d i v i s i o n s o f p h o no log y (s o u n d ), s y n ta x (f o rm ) , and l e x i c o n (m e a n in g ). I n s t r u c t o r s who f i n d t h i s s e c t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r u s e o r i n t e r e s t may be m o tiv a te d t o a more c o m p le te e x p lo r a t i o n o f t h e l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s c i t e d . P h o n o lo g ic a l P a t t e r n s P honology i s c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e so u n d s o f t h e la n g u a g e 27 and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e s e soun ds i n t o p a t t e r n s . One 152 i s e t o f e le m e n ts w hich d i s t i n g u i s h e s B la c k sp e e c h from s t a n d a r d E n g li s h i s t h e m anner i n w hich phonemes a re p r o duced a n d h e a r d . Though many p h o n o lo g ic a l e le m e n ts o f B la c k s p e e c h ”... a r e e x tre m e ly s i m i l a r o r i d e n t i c a l w ith c o m p a ra b le f e a t u r e s i n m ost o t h e r d i a l e c t s o f A m erican 28 E n g l i s h , " t h e f re q u e n c y and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e s e e le m e n ts d i s t i n g u i s h B la c k d i a l e c t from s ta n d a r d E n g lis h . S i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f f i n a l c o n s o n a n t c l u s t e r s i s common t o t h e s p e e c h o f B lac k s t u d e n t s . P ro b a b ly th e most common exam ple o f t h i s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i s t h e l o s s o f t h e f i n a l / t / o r / d / from su c h c l u s t e r s a s - s t , - f t , - n t , -n d , - I d , -z d , and -md. Such w ords a s f r o s t , p o s t , l e f t , and s t u d e n t , f o r | exam ple, a r e p ro n o u n ce d a s i f no f i n a l / t / e x i s t e d i n t h e s e ; w o r d s . T h e l o s s o f t h e s e f i n a l c o n s o n a n ts h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h e a c t u a l e x i s t e n c e o f many homonyms t o t h e s p e a k e r o f t h e B la c k d i a l e c t . Such w ords a s " . . . p a s t and p a s s j m ea n t, m end, an d menj w ind and w in e ; h o ld and h o le have become hom onym s."^0 (T h is d o es n o t m ean, how ever, t h a t th e B la c k d i a l e c t s p e a k e r i s i g n o r a n t o r unaw are o f th e d i s t i n c t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e s e d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p ts ev en th ough th e y : i may be sp o k e n a s hom onyms.) I f t h e / t / sound o c c u rs i n th e m id d le o f a w ord, i t i s o f t e n l o s t , a s i n m a n tle and p o s t o f f l e e . The phoneme / k / i s a l s o o f t e n d e l e t e d a s i n ask and d e s k . I t i s r e l a t i v e l y common t o p ro n o u n c e a s k a s ax; h e re ! t h e phonem es a r e I n t e r c h a n g e d . I n w ords w ith / s k / e n d in g s , i 153 a s w e l l a s th o s e e n d in g w ith / s t / , f i n a l c o n s o n a n ts a r e d ro p p ed an d t h e w ords p l u r a l i z e d i n a m anner d i f f e r e n t from s ta n d a r d E n g lis h : . . . for example, desks-desses; tests-tesses. (Note how the plural formation follows the system of formu lating plurals of words in standard English; for words ending in the same sound as the nonstandard tes (teBt) or des (desk), add another syllable (es) for p l u r a l s . )32 The / © / sound i n such w ords a s t h i n k , th a n k , th o u s a n d , and t h i r t y may be h e a r d t o sound a s / t / o r a w e ak ly a r t i c u l a t e d / t / . I n th e m id d le o f a w ord, th e / © / u s u a l l y o c c u rs f o llo w in g a c o n s o n a n t; th e weak form o f / t / i s f r e q u e n t l y s u b s t i t u t e d . When a vowel p re c e d e s t h e / © / , t h e phoneme / f / i s o f t e n s u b s t i t u t e d a s i n b ath room an d s o u th w e s t. When / © / i s l o c a te d a t th e end o f a word f o llo w in g a c o n s o n a n t, as i n h e a l t h and m onth, t h e sound a l t e r n a t e s w ith t h e weak / t / . When t h e f i n a l / © / i s p re c e d e d by a v o w el, " . . . a s i n m outh, b o th , t o o t h , (b u t n o t t e e t h ) b a t h , m ath, and m oth, t h e phoneme / f / i s s u b s t i t u t e d . " - ^ The v o ic e d / # / sound i s o f t e n r e p l a c e d b y a weak / d / . T h is o c c u rs m ost f r e q u e n t l y when / & / i s l o c a t e d a t t h e b e g in n in g o f a word a s i n t h i s , t h a t , t h o s e , t h e , an d th e m . When / # / i s l o c a t e d i n th e m id d le o f a w ord, th e phoneme / v / may be s u b s t i t u t e d i n w ords su c h as o t h e r , w e a th e r, b r o t h e r , and m o th e r, a lth o u g h some s p e a k e r s s t i l l u s e th e weak / d / i n t h o s e w ord s. When / $ / i s i n t h e f i n a l p o s i t i o n , t h e phoneme / v / may be s u b s t i t u t e d , ". . . a s i n o|l sm ooth and b a t h e . " 0 154 I n w r i t i n g o f t h e / r / so u n d , Jo h n so n p o in te d o u t: The f i n a l sound r e p r e s e n t e d i n w r i t i n g by t h e l e t t e r r i s o f t e n d ro p p e d . Words l i k e d o o r, s t o r e , f l o o r , and f o u r a r e p ro n o u n ce d a s i f t h e y w ere t h e w ords dough, sto w , f lo w , and f o e . T h is a l s o c r e a t e s many homonyms i n b la c k s p e e c h .d b I n a m e d ia l p o s i t i o n , a s i n y e s t e r d a y , S a tu r d a y , and a f t e r noo n, th e / r / may a p p e a r a s t h e i n d e f i n i t e shwa o r a s t h e s o f t e n e d E a s te r n / r / . O c c a s io n a lly what A urbach r e f e r s t o a s t h e " i n t r u s i v e r " a p p e a rs a s i n C hina and wash w h ich may sound l i k e C h in e r and w a r s h . A urbach a l s o p o in te d o u t: T hose s p e a k e r s . . . who d e l e t e / r / i n word f i n a l p o s i t i o n , do n o t u s e a " l i n k i n g r " i n a p h ra s e i n w hich / r / i n word f i n a l p o s i t i o n i s fo llo w e d by a word w hich b e g in s w ith a v o w e l, a s i n f o u r o ^ l o c k o r y o u r a u n t .36 The sound / l / i s o f t e n d ro p p e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y when i t o c c u r s i n a f i n a l word p o s i t i o n , a s i n t o o l , p a l l , s c h o o l, a l l , and w a l l . I n t h e m e d ia l p o s i t i o n and p r e c e d in g a c o n s o n a n t, t h e / l / i s a l s o o f t e n d ro p p ed , as i n tw e lv e , s h o u l d e r , and m y s e lf . The d ro p p in g o f th e f i n a l / l / a f f e c t s t h e u s e o f t h e f u t u r e t e n s e by B lac k d i a l e c t s p e a k e r s . As B u r lin g d e s c r i b e d su ch u sa g e: The p h o n o lo g ic a l l o s s o f f i n a l -1 i s r e l a t e d t o a f r e q u e n t l o s s o f t h e c o n t r a c t e d form o f th e f u t u r e . T h is , o f c o u r s e , d o e s n o t mean t h a t N egroes a r e u n a b le t o convey n o t io n s o f f u t u r e tim e . E x p re s s io n s w ith g o in g t o a r e common, f o r i n s t a n c e , b u t beyond t h i s , t h e f u l l and u n c o n tr a c t e d form o f w i l l (p e rh a p s p r o nounced w ith o u t a f i n a l -1 ) i s a v a i l a b l e and r e g u l a r l y u s e d . A Negro c h i l d may be a b le to s a y I_ go_ w ith a n i m p l i c a t i o n o f f u t u r e tim e , an d t o be more e m p h a tic , he can sa y I_ w i l l go o r I wl_* go_, b u t he may n e v e r u s e I »11 g o . F o r su c h a c h i l d , a r e a d e r t h a t u s e s w hat a p p e a r s t o a s p e a k e r o f s ta n d a r d E n g lis h a s t h e s l i g h t l y 155 s t i l t e d c o n s t r u c t i o n " I w i l l go" may be c o n s i d e r a b ly e a s i e r t o r e a d th a n a book w hich u s e s " I ' l l g o . "37 B la c k d i a l e c t u s e s o f / s / and / z / a f f e c t t h e f o r m a tio n o f c e r t a i n p l u r a l s o f n o u n s and t h e t h i r d p e rs o n s i n g u l a r p r e s e n t te n s e v e r b s . Some n o u n s, f o r exam ple, w hich end i n vow els o r v o ic e d c o n s o n a n ts su c h a s t r o u s e r s , room s, and b e r r i e s may be spok en w i t h a / z / added t o th e b a se o f th e w o rd s. ^ Nouns w ith i r r e g u l a r p l u r a l s may a l s o be spoken w ith t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e s t a n d a r d p l u r a l / s / : The p l u r a l s o f c h i l d , man, woman, and f o o t become c h i l d r e n s , mens, womens, a n d f e e t s . Words t h a t form i r r e g u l a r p l u r a l s l i k e w i f e , k n i f e , w o lf, an d l o a f a r e p r o nounced i n t h e i r p l u r a l fo rm s a s w i f e s , k n i f e s , w o lf s , and l o a f s . 39 The o m is sio n o f t h e / s / i n t h i r d p e rs o n s i n g u l a r p r e s e n t te n s e v e rb s was s t a t e d by Jo h n s o n t o be " . . . one o f th e m ost f r e q u e n t f e a t u r e s o f t h e N egro d i a l e c t . " S e n te n c e s l i k e " She w alks t h e d o g " a n d "He_ g o es t o w o rk " become "She w alk t h e d o g " and "He go_ to_ w o rk . " How ever, i n t h e t h i r d p e rs o n p l u r a l p r e s e n t t e n s e v e r b s , t h e / s / sound i s o f t e n added a s i n "They w alk t h e d o g " and "They lo o k n ic e " w hich may become "They w a lk s t h e d o g " and "They lo o k s n i c e . The t h i r d p e rs o n s i n g u l a r p r e s e n t t e n s e o f t h e v e rb c o s t s , a s t h e p l u r a l o f su c h w ords a s g h o s t and d e sk (w ith t h e f i n a l c o n s o n a n ts o m i t t e d ) , may be sounded w ith t h e a d d i t i o n o f a f i n a l / z / . ^ 1 P.ederson s t a t e d t h a t i n C h icago N egro sp e e c h t h e m ost ". . . c l e a r l y d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e . . . i s t h e o c c u rr e n c e 156 lio o f / a / f o r t h e u s u a l / a e / i n a u n t . " A urbach*s study- i n d i c a t e d a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n , a lth o u g h t h e r e was a h i g h e r i n c id e n c e o f s p e a k e r s u s in g t h e / a e / i n h i s Los A n g e le s i n f o r m a n ts t h a n i n t h e C hicago sa m p lin g . A urbach fo u n d t h a t t h e m ost d i s t i n c t i v e vow el f e a t u r e o f Los A n g e les B la c k sp e e c h was t h e b le n d in g o r s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e so u n d s / i / and / £ / b e f o r e n a s a l c o n s o n a n ts . I n w ords su c h a s t e n , f e n c e , and p e n , t h e p r o n u n c i a ti o n i s o f t e n t i n , f i n c e , and p i n . The d ip h th o n g / e l / may o f t e n s u b s t i t u t e f o r / £ / i n su ch w ords " . . . a s egg, l e g , k e g , and bedroom . I n summary, A urbach s t a t e d : I n an u rb a n a r e a l i k e Los A n g e le s, among t h o s e f e a t u r e s w hich i d e n t i f y t h e d i a l e c t a s b e in g s p e c i f i c a l l y an e th n i c d i a l e c t b e c a u se o f t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n and fr e q u e n c y o f o c c u rr e n c e a r e t h e i n a b i l i t y t o d i s t i n g u is h / i / and / £ / b e f o r e n a s a l s , th e d i s t r i b u t i o n and d e l e t i o n o f / l / and / r / , t h e w eakening o r d e l e t i o n o f f i n a l c o n s o n a n ts , t h e r e d u c t i o n o f c o n so n a n t c l u s t e r s , t h e m erg in g o f / f / and / © / and / v / and / i f / , and t h e f o r m a tio n o f t h e p l u r a l s o f nouns and th e t h i r d p e rs o n , s i n g u l a r o f v e r b s . 45 The sound d i f f e r e n c e s and s u b s t i t u t i o n s m en tio n ed h e r e a r e t h o s e g e n e r a l l y c o n s id e r e d t o be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p h o n o lo g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s o f B lac k sp e e c h o r d i a l e c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e Los A n g e les a r e a . I t i s im p e r a tiv e t h a t t h e sp e e c h t e a c h e r o f B la c k m in o r i t y s t u d e n ts be f a m i l i a r w ith t h e s e . The t e a c h e r s h o u ld r e a l i z e t h e l a r g e number o f w ords w h ich a r e homonyms i n B la c k sp e e c h j when t h e s tu d e n t d o es n o t a r t i c u l a t e phonem ic d i s t i n c t i o n s o f s ta n d a r d E n g lis h , t h i s 157: i s n o t e v id e n c e t h a t t h e s tu d e n t i s slow o r c a n n o t, i n e f f e c t , r e a d . B la c k S y n ta x I n a d d i t i o n t o p h o n o lo g y , s y n t a x — t h e a rra n g e m e n t o f w ords i n s e n t e n c e s — d i s t i n g u i s h e s B la c k d i a l e c t . P h o n o lo g y i s c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e m anner i n w hich t h e phonemes and d ip h th o n g s a r e p ro d u c e d an d how th e y sound t o t h e l i s t e n e r ; s y n ta x i s c o n c e rn e d w ith w hat i s more g e n e r a l l y known a s grammar an d s e n te n c e s t r u c t u r e — n o u n -v e rb a g r e e m ent, f o rm a tio n o f t e n s e s and p o s s e s s i v e s , and u se o f c a s e s . I n t h e s e n te n c e C h a r le s a n 1 M ic h a e l, d e y o u t p l a y i n 1, t h e l o s s o f t h e f i n a l / d / i n a n d , t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f / d / f o r / $ / i n t h e y , and t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f / n / f o r /£?/ i n p la y in g d i s p l a y p h o n o lo g ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s . The u s e o f b o th noun and pronoun s u b j e c t s ( C h a r le s and M ic h a e l, t h e y ) and t h e l o s s o f t h e t h i r d p e rs o n p l u r a l , p r e s e n t t e n s e fo rm o f t h e v e rb to be ( a r e ) d i s p l a y s y n t a c t i c d i f f e r e n c e s . S e v e r a l o f t h e p h o n o lo g ic a l d i s t i n c t i o n s m e n tio n e d i n t h e p r e v io u s s e c t i o n a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e g ra m m a tic a l s t r u c t u r e o f B lac k s p e e c h . The l o s s o f / l / i s t h e l o s s o f t h e c o n t r a c t e d form o f t h e f u t u r e t e n s e . I n s i m i l a r m anner, t h e l o s s o f f i n a l / d / makes I d e n t i c a l t h e p a s t and p r e s e n t form s o f v e r b s : p a s s e d becomes p a s s , w a lk ed and d ra g g e d become w alk and d r a g . The l o s s o r i n s e r t i o n o f f i n a l / s / and / z / a f f e c t s 158 t h e u s e o f many v e rb s i n t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e , r e s u l t i n g i n l o s s o f s t a n d a r d s u b j e c t - v e r b a g re e m e n t. The c o p u la o r t h e v e rb t o be i s d e l e t e d i n many i n s t a n c e s . W olfram d e s c r i b e s s y n t a c t i c c o n te x ts w here t h i s l o s s o c c u r s : Predicate Adjective She real nice ••*32®. busy right now Predicate Nominal She a nurse They'll probably say that they the boss... Predicate Locative/Temporal ...they out there in space .. .he at Northwestern Verb -ing Do anything if you fighting If we fighting and we getting beat, I rather One of my friends to jump in. Intentional Future "gonna1 1 I really don't think John gonna make it. Some say you gonna die,47 T h is l o s s may o c c u r i n n e g a tiv e a s w e ll a s p o s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s , su c h a s "He n o t German." The l o s s o f t h e c o p u la , h o w e v er, d o e s n o t o c c u r w ith t h e p a s t t e n s e o r when t h e s u b j e c t i s f i r s t p e rs o n s i n g u l a r . The v e rb form b e , how ever, i s n o t alw ay s l o s t i n B la c k s p e e c h . B la c k la n g u a g e h a s a p a r t i c u l a r d i s t i n c t i o n i n i t s 159 u sa g e w hich I s n o t p r e s e n t i n s t a n d a r d E n g lis h u s a g e . L ato v e x p la in s : The m ost n o te w o rth y o f t h e s e i s t h e i n v a r i a n t be_ o f non s t a n d a r d Negro E n g lis h w h ic h s i g n a l s h a b i t u a l o r g e n e r a l s t a t e ; t h i s d i a l e c t c a n d i s t i n g u i s h He be w ith u s (m ean- \ i n g "he i s g e n e r a l l y w i t h u s " ) from He i s w ith u s o r He w ith u s w hich c a n mean e i t h e r g e n e r a l s t a t e o r m om entary c o n d i t i o n s .48 W olfram g iv e s W illia m S te w a r t c r e d i t f o r f i r s t s u g g e s tin g t h a t be i n d i c a t e d g r a m m a tic a lly t h a t w hich was e i t h e r " h a b i t u a l " o r " d u r a t i v e . " W olfram a l s o p r e s e n t s some sy n t a c t i c a l c o n te x ts i n w h ic h t h e i n v a r i a n t be i s em ployed: Predicate Nominal He sometimes be a operator doctor. Whoever tags the person t h a t r s c a llin g "red lig h t " or "green l i g h t " you be t h e , you know, the person up th er e. Predicate Adjective They sometimes be incomplete and things like that. Sometimes when they do it, most of the problems always be wrong. Predicate Locative/Temporal Well, it mostly be in the evening when they play hide-and-go-seek. That's why I wonder why I don't see him— he usually be 'round. Verb -ing On Hallowe' en put a knife or fork or something under your bed 'cause the, a witch be riding around. Well, sometime she be fighting in school and out on the playground.*^ 1 6 0 A n o th e r d i s t i n c t i v e a s p e c t o f B lack s y n ta x i s th e em ploym ent o f m u l t i p l e n e g a t i v e s . B a ra tz fo u n d t h e m a jo r d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p a t t e r n o f B lack E n g lis h n e g a t io n to i n c l u d e a i n ' t as w e l l a s d o u b le n e g a tio n : Dat g i r l , she a i n ’ go t a s c h o o l 'c a u s e s h e a i n ’ g o t no c lo t h e s t o w e a r .50 W olfram , ho w ev er, p o i n te d o u t t h a t d o u b le n e g a t i o n was common i n b o th w h ite and B lac k n o n s ta n d a rd E n g li s h . Y e t, W olfram s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e a p p e a re d t o be c e r t a i n fo rm s o f m u l t i p l e n e g a t io n n o t r e a d i l y found i n t h e n o n s ta n d a r d sp e e c h o f h i s w h ite in f o r m a n ts . One o f t h e s e form s c o n s i s t e d o f t h e a d d i t i o n o f a n e g a tiv e p r e c e d in g t h e v e rb fo rm a s w e l l a s a " p r e - v e r b a l a u x i l i a r y . " Exam ples w e re: Nobody d i d n ' t l i k e h e r . Nobody c a n 't s te p on h e r f o o t .5 1 He w ent on t o m e n tio n a n o th e r ty p e o f m u l t i p l e n e g a t io n t h a t Labov h a d term ed " i n v e r s i o n " : D id n ' t nobody know i t . = SE "Nobody knew i t ." D id n ' t nobody p l a y i n th e s a n d b o x . = SE "Wobody p la y e d i n £Ee s a n d b o x ." The u s e o f t h e a u x i l i a r y d i d n 't i n t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n v a r i e s w ith t h e u s e o f a i n ' t (A in ' t nobody know i t .) 5 2 F i n a l l y , W olfram p o i n te d o u t: I n a d d i t i o n t o m u l t i p l e n e g a tio n I n v o lv in g p r e - v e r b a l a u x i l i a r y , i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o r e t a i n t h e same ty p e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . . . a c r o s s c la u s e s so t h a t s e n te n c e s su ch a s It_ w a s n 't no g i r l s c o u l d n 't go w ith u s (= SE "T h ere w e r e n 't any g i r l s ’ who c o u ld go w i t h us"") a r e o b s e rv e d . T h is i s a s im p le t r a n s f e r o f t h e p r e - v e r b a l n e g a t i v e a c r o s s c l a u s e s . 53 1 6 1 A n o th e r common d i s t i n c t i o n o f B lac k d i a l e c t sp e e c h , a c c o rd in g t o J o h n s o n , i s t h e u s e o f d o u b le s u b j e c t s . H ere t h e a d d i t i o n o f a p ro n o u n a s w e l l a s a noun s u b j e c t o c c u r s : S e n te n c e s l i k e "My b r o t h e r i s a baby" and "T h at c a r l o s t i t s b ra k e s " a r e "My b r o t h e r h<s a baby" and "T h at c a r it_ l o s t i t s b r a k e s . "54 T h is d o u b le s u b j e c t i s r e f e r r e d t o by B a ra tz a s " s u b j e c t e x p r e s s io n . Labov em p h asized t h e l o g i c o f n o n s ta n d a rd E n g lis h s t r u c t u r e and d e n ie d v e r b a l d e p r i v a t i o n on t h e p a r t o f u s e r s o f t h e B la c k d i a l e c t : The c o n c e p t o f v e r b a l d e p r i v a t i o n h a s no b a s i s i n s o c i a l r e a l i t y . I n f a c t , N egro c h i l d r e n i n t h e u rb a n g h e tto s r e c e i v e a g r e a t d e a l o f v e r b a l s t i m u l a t i o n , h e a r more w e ll-f o rm e d s e n te n c e s th a n m id d l e - c l a s s c h i l d re n , and p a r t i c i p a t e f u l l y i n a h i g h l y v e r b a l c u l t u r e . They h av e th e same b a s i c v o c a b u la r y , p o s s e s s t h e same c a p a c i ty f o r c o n c e p tu a l l e a r n i n g , and u s e t h e same lo g ic a s anyone e l s e who l e a r n s t o sp e a k and u n d e r s ta n d E n g l i s h ,56 B lack d i a l e c t em ploys a l o g i c a l , o r d e r e d s t r u c t u r e . I n " C h ild r e n ’ s C om prehension o f S ta n d a r d and N egro N o n s ta n d a rd E n g lis h S e n te n c e s ," Thomas F r e n tz s t a t e d : 57 The f in d in g t h a t com bined u s e r c o m p re h e n sio n o f SE-'1 s e n te n c e s d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from su c h com prehen s io n o f NNE s e n te n c e s may h a v e o c c u r r e d b e c a u se t h e two d i a l e c t s a r e f u n c t i o n a l l y e q u i v a l e n t . And i f t h i s i s t r u e , i t w ould f o llo w t h a t t h e d i a l e c t s a r e s i m i l a r on t h e deep s t r u c t u r e l e v e l , s i n c e c o m p re h en sio n p r e s u p p o se s deep s t r u c t u r e p r o c e s s i n g . 58 In summary, common d i s t i n c t i o n s o f B lac k s y n ta x a r e : l o s s o f t h e c o n t r a c t e d f u t u r e t e n s e , b le n d in g o f p a s t and p r e s e n t te n s e form s o f some v e r b s , l o s s o f s t a n d a r d s u b j e c t - v e rb agreem ent i n t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e , l o s s o f t h e c o p u la , 1 6 2 the intrusive he, multiple negatives, and the use of double subjects. These distinctions occur in an ordered logical pattern. The first three syntactical differences are related to the phonology of the dialect. Educators warn against equating syntactical deviations with low potential for comprehension. Johnson stated: Teachers have assumed that the nonstandard Negro dialect impairs the cognitive development of black children. The c r u x o f t h i s p o in t o f v iew i s t h a t b e c a u se th e non s t a n d a r d d i a l e c t i s d i f f e r e n t from s ta n d a r d E n g lis h , i t m ust be i n f e r i o r t o s t a n d a r d E n g l i s h . 59 Labov remarked that many educators incorrectly believe that Blacks "... cannot speak complete sentences, do not know the names of common objects, cannot form concepts or convey : 60 logical thoughts.' Stewart especially stressed the im portance of teacher awareness of Black syntax. Although he was addressing teachers of English composition and general English studies, his recommendation is even more pertinent to the teacher of speech communication. He posited that: Some knowledge about the linguistic structure of the nonstandard dialect would be useful for the individual teacher, too, not only to guide him or her in the organ ization of classroom materials, but also as a help in the evaluation of r e s u l t s .°1 Black Lexicon In addition to phonology and syntax, Black diction or 1 selection of words to express meaning may create problems of understanding. Of particular significance to the con temporary teacher of Black students is Black "jargon" or 163 s l a n g . R i t a Chevez i n d i c a t e s t h i s s la n g o r s p e c i a l l a n guage u s e d by B lac k s t u d e n t s i s one c a u s e o f s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r m is u n d e r s ta n d in g : T hese d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s h a v e a d i f f e r e n t la n g u a g e - u n d e r s ta n d in g s y s te m . What i s I n n o c e n t l y s a i d by a member o f one g ro u p a n d w hat i s i n n o c e n t l y u n d e rs to o d by a member o f t h e same g ro u p may n o t be u n d e rs to o d by a member o f a n o th e r g ro u p i n t h e same fram e o f r e f e r e n c e . . . . The p o i n t i s we m ust r e a l i z e t h a t c e r t a i n in - g r o u p s h av e t h e i r own c o d e s o f c o n d u c t, c o d es o f la n g u a g e , and c o d es o f s e l f - a p p r a i s a l . ° 2 S la n g o r " in - la n g u a g e " i s e p h e m e ra l i n n a t u r e ; te rm s become p o p u la r o r f a d d i s h , t h e y a r e o v e ru s e d , and o f t e n d is c a r d e d . When th e v o c a b u la ry becomes g e n e r a l l y u n d e rs to o d and i s a d o p te d by w h i t e s , i t i s g e n e r a l l y d i s c a r d e d by B la c k s ; new te rm in o lo g y i s d e v is e d . Any s l a n g , a s E r ic P a r t r i d g e s t a t e d , i s e a sy t o u s e and d i s c u s s , b u t d i f f i c u l t t o w r i t e a b o u t and d e f i n e . ^ P a r t r i d g e spok e o f i t a s . . . a p e c u l i a r k in d o f v ag ab o n d la n g u a g e , a lw ay s h a n g in g on t h e o u t s k i r t s o f l e g i t i m a t e sp e e c h , b u t co n t i n u a l l y s t r a y i n g o r f o r c i n g i t s way i n t o t h e m ost r e s p e c t a b l e com pany.64 He exam ined some o f t h e r e a s o n s why s la n g i s em ployed: d e s i r e f o r n o v e lty , p l c t u r e s q u e n e s s , and s t a r t l i n g e f f e c t ; d e s i r e f o r e a s e i n c o n v e r s a t i o n , d e s i r e t o be s e c r e t i v e and e x c l u s i v e ; d e s i r e " . . . t o in d u c e e i t h e r f r i e n d l i n e s s o r in tim a c y o f a deep o r a d u r a b l e k l n d . " ^ S la n g te rm s chang e r a p i d l y , and t h e n a t u r e o f s l a n g i n g e n e r a l i s te m p o r a l. S a n d ra H a g g e rty sp o k e o f some o f t h e c o n te m p o ra ry te rm s em ployed i n t h e B la c k g h e t t o w h ich c a r r y n o v e l t y i n 164 u s a g e , a c e r t a i n p ic t u r e s q u e n e s s , and p o s s e s s a s t a r t l i n g e f f e c t : The te rm mf i s v e r y w id e ly u s e d — e s p e c i a l l y on t h e s t r e e t s and on s c h o o l cam puses. . . . I t h a s a b s o l u t e l y n o th in g t o do w ith i t s l i t e r a l d e f i n i t i o n , i . e . , a s e x u a l e n c o u n te r w ith o n e 's m o th e r. Mf i s u s e d n e g a t i v e l y o c c a s i o n a l l y , b u t m o s tly i t i s u s e d l o v i n g l y and w ith g r e a t a d m ir a tio n , e s p e c i a l l y when one man i s c o m p lim e n tin g a n o th e r man. "A bad m oth e r _______ " i s a p e rs o n who does so m e th in g o u t s t a n d i n g l y w e l l — l i k e a m u s ic ia n , a su p e rb a t h l e t e : o r i n any o t h e r a r e a w here e x p e r t i s e h a s been a c q u i r e d . 6 6 W ith in t h e exam ple sh e p ro v id e d , one can n o t e t h e m etam or p h o s is n o t o n ly o f t h e m eaning o f mf, b u t a l s o o f b a d , w h ich i n d i c a t e s t h e m eaning o f i t s antonym . She c o n tin u e d t o s t a t e : S i s a n o th e r f o u r - l e t t e r v u l g a r i t y t h a t h a s , to d a y , l o s t a lm o st a l l o f i t s n e g a tiv e c o n n o ta ti o n . " H e 's g o t h i s s t o g e t h e r .'" i s a v e ry h ig h c o m p lim e n t. I t means t h a t t h e p e rs o n knows h i s b u s in e s s and i s t c b — t a k i n g c a r e o f b u s i n e s s . 67 The te rm " t o g e t h e r " t o i n d i c a t e " in good o r d e r " o r " a l l p a r t s i n p e r f e c t a rra n g e m e n t," a s w e l l a s " tc b " t o I n d i c a t e " ta k in g c a r e o f b u s in e s s " e x e m p lify t h e u s e o f s la n g f o r e a s e i n c o n v e r s a t io n , w hich r e l a t e s t o w hat G eorge K in g s le y Z lp f c a l l e d t h e " p r i n c i p l e o f l e a s t e f f o r t , " . . . w hich i s d e f in e d as m eaning t h a t e a c h i n d i v i d u a l w i l l a d o p t a c o u rs e o f a c t i o n t h a t w i l l in v o lv e t h e e x p e n d itu r e o f t h e p ro b a b ly l e a s t a v e ra g e o f h i s work (by d e f i n i t i o n , l e a s t e f f o r t . )68 I n la n g u a g e , l e a s t e f f o r t i s expended when many o r f u l l e r m eanings c an be u n i f i e d b e h in d a s i n g l e word o r few w ords i n p r e f e r e n c e t o t h e u s e o f many w ords t o i n d i c a t e t h e same m ea n in g . 165 M iss H a g g e rty g ave t h e exam ple o f a n o th e r te rm w hich w ould n o rm a lly be o f shock v a lu e : Then t h e r e i s t h e b o th fam ous and In fam o u s w ord— n i g g e r . Today, I t i s seld o m , I f e v e r , u s e d n e g a t i v e l y . Such s ta te m e n ts a s , " I ’ve known t h i s n i g g e r a l l my l i f e — w e»re b o o n -co o n b u d d i e s ," o r sim p ly " I lo v e t h e n ig g e r " a r e common. 69 The te rm "b o o n -co o n " t o i n d i c a t e "bosom" b u d d ie s shows n o v e lty i n u sa g e a s w e ll a s u t i l i z a t i o n o f a n o th e r p r e v i o u s ly d e r i s i v e te rm , " c o o n ," i n a p o s i t i v e s e n s e . C la re n c e M ajor a l s o p o i n te d o u t s e v e r a l p o p u la r B la c k words w hich a r e u se d i n c o n te m p o ra ry s la n g t o d e n o te o p p o s ite m ean in g s: Out o f t h e l i f e - s t y l e s o f t h e p e o p le who make i t comes t h e v e r n a c u l a r t h a t h a s made p o s s i b l e c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n a l c o n c e p ts — su c h a s bad m eaning g o o d j h a r d h a v in g a p o s i t i v e c o n n o ta ti o n ; k i l l t o mean: a f f e c t s t r o n g l y , t o f a s c i n a t e ; lo v e l e t t e r t o mean: a b u l l e t ; and m urder t o e x p re s s a p p ro v a l o f so m e th in g e x c e l l e n t . T hese c o n c e p ts a re a l l new i n t h e E u ro -A m erican e x p e r i e n c e .70 The e x c l u s i v e n e s s o f t h i s s la n g u s a g e p ro m o tes a f e e l i n g o f in tim a c y , o f b e in g w ith t h e " i n - g r o u p ," o f f r i e n d l i n e s s and b e lo n g in g , and a c e r t a i n s e n s e o f r a c i a l u n i t y and p r i d e . P e rm e a tin g B la c k i d io m a ti c u sa g e i s t h e e le m e n t o f s e c r e c y w hich h a s i t s h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s i n a s i t u a t i o n o f a c t u a l co m m unicative n e ed d u r in g t h e p e r i o d o f s l a v e r y . The t e a c h e r s h o u ld be aw are o f some o f t h i s b a ck g ro u n d and how p r e s e n t day B la c k id io m d e v e lo p e d . B lac k s la n g o r p a t o i s (a s p s y c h i a t r i s t s G r ie r and Cobbs c a l l i t ) d e v e lo p e d from i t s e a r l i e s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s a s a s e c r e t la n g u a g e , a means by w h ich t h e B lac k s l a v e s managed t o m a n ip u la te t h e i r m a s te r s and o v e r s e e r s and t o 166 m a in ta in an e s o t e r i c means o f co m m unicatio n among them s e l v e s . The E n g lis h lan g u a g e had t o be l e a r n e d fro m t h o s e who had e n s la v e d t h e A f r i c a n s ; t o p re v e n t p ro b lem s o f c o n s p ira c y ., E n g lis h - s p e a k in g s l a v e h o l d e r s p r e f e r r e d t h a t t h e s l a v e s be k e p t I l l i t e r a t e and a llo w e d l i t t l e t r a i n i n g i n o r a l E n g lis h o t h e r t h a n t h a t w hich was r e q u i r e d f o r s p e c i f i c work a s s ig n m e n ts . As a r e s u l t , t h e e a r l y s l a v e s le a r n e d a g a r b le d form o f t h e E n g lis h la n g u a g e , m is u n d e r s to o d and m isp ro n o u n ced i n many c a s e s . Y et G r i e r and Cobbs c la im e d : How ever, t h e s l a v e s tu r n e d th e la n g u a g e a s i t was p r e s e n t e d t o them t o t h e i r own p u r p o s e s , and i n f a c t t o t h e p r e c i s e p u rp o se s w hich t h e i r ow ners so u g h t t o p r e v e n t . W hile t h e i r m is p r o n u n c ia tio n s an d m is u n d e r s ta n d in g s w ere a s o u rc e o f g r e a t amusement t o t h e i r o w n ers, t h e g a r b l e d p a t o i s began t o be u se d a s a s e c r e t la n g u a g e among t h e s l a v e s . Language was u s e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r em p h asis on d o u b le m ean in g s. I n f a c t , m u l t i p l e m eanings w ere im posed on la n g u a g e , a s , f o r exam ple, i n t h e s p i r i t u a l s . To t h e u n in fo rm e d l i s t e n e r t h e w ords spoke o f r e l i g i o u s lo n g in g . . . . The t r u e m eaning o f t h e s p i r i t u a l s , how ever, I n v o lv e s a com m unication from one t o a n o t h e r r e g a r d i n g p la n s f o r e s c a p e , h o s t i l e f e e l i n g s to w a rd t h e m a s te r , and a g e n e r a l e x p r e s s io n o f r e b e l l i o u s a t t i t u d e s . As t h e la n g u a g e o f any g ro u p p r o v i d e s a f e e l i n g o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and g ro up u n i t y , t h e p a t o i s o f t h e s l a v e s came t o ta k e on a m eaning an d p u rp o s e f o r th e m .71 72 L anguage was th u s em ployed a s a means o f d i s s e m b l i n g . 1 W ith t h e d is a p p e a r a n c e o f s l a v e r y , t h e B la c k s d i d n o t d i s c a r d t h e i r u s e o f t h e p a t o i s : A f t e r t h e e m a n c ip a tio n o f s la v e s fro m b o n d ag e, a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f s c h o o ls e n a b le d l a r g e num bers o f e x - s l a v e s t o l e a r n t h e la n g u a g e , b u t s t i l l th e i n d i r e c t n e s s o f s o u th e r n la n g u a g e p a t t e r n s f i t t e d t h e n e e d s o f t h e o p p re s s e d b la c k m in o r ity p e r f e c t l y . I n th e c ir c u m l o c u ti o n so n e c - t o t h e b e le a g u r e d b la c k s i t became a m ore r e f i n e d 167 B la c k s la n g o r id io m became f i r m l y en sco n ced i n B la c k com- m u n it l e s , and t h e s e c r e c y w ith w hich m eanings w ere J e a l o u s ly g u a rd e d p e r s i s t e d . I n an a r t i c l e w r i t t e n i n 1932, f o r exam ple, D o lo re s B e rn a d e te d is c u s s e d th e la n g u a g e p a t t e r n s o f E l o i s e , a B lac k em ployee, and s t a t e d t h a t . s l a n g e x p r e s s io n s a r e c o m p a ra tiv e ly few" th o u g h " . . . lo n g w o rd s, how ever, w ere n o t u n u s u a l." Such w ords a s " d e c i - yk s io n e d " and " i n t e r p r e t a t o r " w ere exam ples. The l a c k o f s l a n g i n t h e s e r e c o r d e d s e s s io n s i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g ; E l o i s e w ould h a r d l y h a v e u s e d B lack p a t o i s i n s p e a k in g t o h e r w h ite em p lo y er. The r e s e a r c h e r was r e l a t i v e l y I g n o r a n t o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an y d i s t i n c t i v e B lack id io m . P ro b a b ly t h e o n ly en v iro n m en t o f u n r e s t r i c t e d i n t e r ch an g e b etw een B la c k s and w h ite s was th e w o rld o f t h e ja z z m u s ic ia n . W hite m u s ic ia n s a d o p te d th e id io m o f B la c k m u si c i a n s i n i n t e g r a t e d g ro u p s t o such an e x te n t t h a t B la c k la n g u a g e became t h e id io m o f ja z z and t h e la n g u a g e o f ja z z m u s ic ia n s r e g a r d l e s s o f r a c e . I t m ust be n o te d , h o w ev er, t h a t t h e j a z z m u s ic ia n , w h ite a s w e ll a s B la c k , was o f t e n r e g a r d e d a s q u i t e d e ta c h e d from th e m ain strea m o f A m erican l i f e . B la c k id io m s t i l l r e t a i n e d i t s v e i l o f s e c r e c y , p e n e t r a t e d by a v e r y s m a ll number o f w h ite s who th e m s e lv e s te n d e d t o be r e g a r d e d a s re n e g a d e s . The f a c t t h a t a u n iq u e B lack v o c a b u la r y e x i s t e d d id n o t e n t i r e l y e s c a p e r e c o g n i t i o n . I n t h e same d e c a d e t h a t t h e a r t i c l e by M rs. B e rn a d e te was w r i t t e n , a b r i e f p i e c e on 168 Negro i d io m a ti c p h r a s e s a p p e a re d i n A m erican S p eech . Most o f t h e l i s t e d s l a n g e x p r e s s io n s w ere em ployed by g r a d u a te B lack s t u d e n t s a t I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y , a lth o u g h o t h e r s w ere s a id t o be u s e d by t h e g e n e r a l B la c k comm unity. Terms such , as " fa y " ( w h i t e ) , " c ra p o u t" ( t o l o s e ) , and "g a te " ( f e llo w , : a m u s ic ia n who c o u ld sw ing w ith f e e l i n g ) ^ become r e l a t i v e l y f a m i l i a r i n l e x i c o n s o f j a z z te rm in o lo g y . W ith t h e i n t e r e s t : i n j a z z fro m t h e t w e n t i e s t o t h e m i d - f i f t i e s , j i v e la n g u a g e , hep ( l a t e r h i p ) t a l k g a in e d a c e r t a i n a t t e n t i o n , b u t i t was m a in ly u n d e r s to o d a s t h e id io m o f t h e ja z z m u si c ia n r a t h e r t h a n t h e id io m o f t h e B la c k A m erican. M a jo r’ s book on A fro -A m e ric a n s la n g l i s t s s e v e r a l t e x t s on ja z z lan g u a g e w h ich a p p e a re d d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d . ^ The popu l a r i t y o f t h e j a z z v o c a b u la r y d id n o t a l t e r th e s e c r e t c h a r a c t e r o f t h e B la c k id io m , a code t o be u n d e rs to o d o n ly by members o f t h e B la c k com m unity: By t h e tim e t h e s e [B la c k ] te rm s g e t i n t o th e m ain strea m , new ones h av e a l r e a d y a p p e a re d , a lth o u g h some (su c h as t o d i g , o r c o o l ) re m a in s t a p l e s o f t h e idiom d e s p i t e w ide n o n-N egro u s e . A few N eg ro es g u a rd th e id io m so f e r v e n t l y t h e y w i l l c o n s c i o u s ly i n v e n t a new term as soon as t h e y h e a r t h e e x i s t i n g one coming from a w h i t e ’ s l i p s . 77 I n s i s t e n c e on s e c r e c y and I n s u l a t i o n from th e w h ite commu n i t y le a d t o c o n s t a n t i n n o v a t i o n i n t h e B lack id io m . As K e lle y p u t i t , t h e B la c k t a k e s p r i d e i n h i s idiom ; w ith i t he c an f e e l a p a r t o f h i s com m unity an d e n jo y a s p e c i a l s o r t o f c o m m u n ica tio n w ith h i s f e l l o w s . Thus some o f th e | re a s o n s why B la c k s l a n g i s em ployed h a v e been se en t o be a 169 means o f e a se i n c o n v e r s a t i o n , a c r e a t i v e and n o v e l u s e o f la n g u a g e , and t h e d e s i r e t o a c h ie v e a s t a r t l i n g e f f e c t a s w e ll a s th e d e s i r e f o r s e c r e c y and t h e n e ed t o he a p a r t o f an e x c lu s iv e B lac k " i n - g r o u p . 1 1 B e fo re f i n i s h i n g t h i s e x a m in a tio n o f B la c k le x i c o n , i t m ust be m en tio n ed t h a t some re m n a n ts o f A f ric a n is m s i n sp e ec h have been r e t a i n e d by B la c k s i n c e r t a i n a r e a s o f th e c o u n tr y , a lth o u g h th e l a t e r d ev elo p m en t o f B la c k ja r g o n o r s la n g assum es g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n B la c k la n g u a g e u s a g e . I n b r i e f l y c o n s id e r in g t h e a r e a o f A f ric a n is m s i n sp e e c h , L orenzo L. T u r n e r fs s tu d y o f t h e sp e e c h o f t h e G u lla h s on th e G eo rg ia and S o u th C a r o l i n a o f f - s h o r e i s l a n d s r e v e a le d a s t o n is h in g s u r v i v a l s o f A f r i c a n c u l t u r e and la n g u a g e . Mary S e a je a n ts o n a l s o m e n tio n e d t h e A f r i c a n o r i g i n o f many w ords i n g e n e r a l u s a g e . T o te , Juke box, t a t e r , yam, gumbo, and sam ba,^ as w e ll a s v o o d o o , g o r i l l a , o k r a , ch im p an zee, c o l a , z e b r a , ebony, t u r n i p , p ic k a n in n y , j a z z , e le p h a n t, p a r s n i p , o a s i s , and s o r c e r y , ^ a r e i n common u s e by w h ite as w e ll a s B lac k A m erican s an d h ave b een t r a c e d t o t h e i r o r i g i n s i n West A f r i c a . Summary K irk la n d C. Jo n e s e m p h a size d t h e n e ed f o r I n t e r e s t and r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a o f B la c k id io m i f e d u c a to r s w ish t o d e te rm in e t h e b e s t a p p ro a c h t o t h e te a c h i n g o f t h e l a n 170 8o guage a r t s . R o b e rt G reen d e s c r i b e d h i s e x p e r ie n c e s w ith a c l a s s o f B la c k t e e n a g e r s i n O akland: Much o f s la n g te r m in o lo g y was r a t h e r in c o m p re h e n s ib le t o me. When I a sk e d them t o t e l l me t h e i r m ost f r e q u e n t l y u se d te rm s I d is c o v e r e d a b o u t 75 s la n g te rm s t h a t w ere u se d d a l l y . U sing t h i s l i s t , we d e v e lo p e d w hat i s known a s o u r " H i p t i o n a r y ." . . . I t r a n s l a t e d t h o s e te rm s and t r i e d t o g e t y o u th s t o r e p l a c e t h e s la n g te rm s w ith r e g u l a r E n g lis h w ords i n t h e i r e v e ry d a y v o c a b u la r y w h ile f u n c t i o n in g i n c l a s s . . . . T h is was t h e f i r s t tim e t h e i r w r i t t e n work became m e a n in g fu l t o t h e i r t e a c h e r s . . . . S la n g te rm in o lo g y , I b e l i e v e , compounds t h e problem o f c o m m u n ic a tio n .8 l K irk la n d C. Jo n e s spoke o f t h e "sy m b o lic and l i n g u i s t i c im p r o v is a tio n s " o f t h e B lac k d i a l e c t ; su ch e x p r e s s io n i s h a r d l y a l i e n t o P o e t i c s . The i m a g in a tiv e u s e o f l a n guage sh o u ld be r e g a r d e d a s an a s s e t i n t h e c l a s s i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . B lack s t u d e n t s who sp e ak o r c an u n d e rs ta n d th e B lack id io m , i t c o u ld be s a i d , h ave a n a t u r a l p r o c l i v - 82 i t y f o r m e ta p h o ric la n g u a g e and v e r b a l m a n ip u la tio n . B la c k e x p r e s s iv e n e s s i n la n g u a g e , t h e r e f o r e , s h o u ld be re g a r d e d a s p o s s e s s in g p o s i t i v e e le m e n ts w ith r e g a r d t o th e f u n c t i o n in g o f t h e s e B la c k s t u d e n t s i n t h e c l a s s i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . As G race H o lt p u t i t : The b la c k com m unication a e s t h e t i c , w h ich i s a f f e c t i v e l y b a se d , r e q u i r e s a h e ig h te n e d a w a re n e ss o f e v e n ts , f e e l in g s and e m o tio n s, d e n o t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n , and em p hasis on th e p e rfo rm a n c e a s p e c t a s an e x p r e s s io n o f p e r s o n a l need and i n f o r m a tio n p r o c e s s in g . Numerous s t y l i s t i c and f u n c t i o n a l d e v ic e s h a v e d e v e lo p e d from t h e b la c k a e s t h e t i c . 83 T e a c h e r s » a t t i t u d e s to w a rd t h e sp e e c h p a t t e r n s o f B lack s t u d e n t s a r e o f p rim a ry im p o rta n c e i n e s t a b l i s h i n g p o s i t i v e s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s and i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f an a tm o sp h e re co n d u civ e t o l e a r n i n g i n t h e sp e e c h a r t s c l a s s . A d m itte d ly , know ledge a lo n e h a s n o t a lw ay s p ro v e d t o be a p a n a c e a f o r p r e j u d i c i a l a t t i t u d e s , b u t a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e known o r u n d e rs to o d i s f a r more l i k e l y th a n a c c e p t an ce o f t h e u n f a m i l i a r . T h ere i s a n eed f o r new s ta n d a r d s o f e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e spoken E n g lis h o f B la c k s t u d e n t s who e n t e r t h e c la s s ro o m w ith d i f f e r e n t sp e e c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . New c r i t e r i a a r e im p o rta n t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h e B lac k s t u d e n t s choose t o s e l e c t and t o p e rfo rm . S in c e spoken E n g lis h i s th e c o re o f t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e sp e ec h a r t s t e a c h e r m ust r e c o g n i z e p h o n o lo g y , s y n ta x , and id io m and a d j u s t h i s t e a c h i n g m eth o d s, t e c h n iq u e s , and c r i t e r i a a c c o r d in g ly . B la c k p h o n o lo g y , s y n ta x , and l e x i c o n m e r it c o n c e rn and u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e t e a c h e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e t e a c h e r o f sp e e c h . T h e re i s p a t t e r n i n B lac k p h o n o lo g y and lo g ic i n B lack s y n ta x . B lac k id io m i s n o t o n ly a form o f in - g r o u p com m u nicatio n b u t i s an a t t r a c t i o n t o t h e s e lf - im a g e - s e e k in g young B la c k j i t r e v e a l s a deep I n t e r e s t i n t h e u se o f im a g in a tiv e la n g u a g e and f i g u r a t i v e s p e e c h and can s e r v e a s m o tiv a tio n f o r s tu d y o f e x p r e s s io n i n l i t e r a t u r e and o f i t s p e rfo rm a n c e . The B la c k , a s a n y o t h e r s t u d e n t , r e q u i r e s a p o s i t i v e a c c e p ta n c e o f h i s com m unication b e h a v io r , i . e . , h i m s e l f . The B la c k s t u d e n t n o t o n ly h a s been exposed t o an d o f t e n h a s a d o p te d l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n s w hich d i f f e r from t h o s e n o rm a lly e x p e c te d by th e s ta n d a r d E n g lis h - s p e a k in g I n s t r u c t o r , b u t 172 h e may u se a u n iq u e id io m i n w hich he ta k e s p r i d e and w ith w h ic h h e c a n i d e n t i f y w ith h i s B la c k h e r i t a g e . T h is c a n , a s Gwendolyn B rooks p u t i t i n p o e ti c form , make him f e e l QU l i k e " . . . t h e r e a l t h i n g . . . w hich c o m f o r ts ." U nder s t a n d i n g and a c c e p ta n c e o f h i s sp e e c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l n o t o n ly p ro v e b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e s t u d e n t , b ut w i l l b e t t e r e n a b le t h e sp e e c h a r t s t e a c h e r t o d is c o v e r ways o f a d o p t in g m e th o d o lo g ie s , m a t e r i a l s , and b e h a v i o r a l o b j e c t i v e s w h ic h w i l l im pro ve s tu d e n t a ch iev e m e n t i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith new e v a l u a t i v e c r i t e r i a and r e a l i s t i c e d u c a ti o n a l g o a l s . FOOTNOTES ■^Nelson B ro o k s, Language and Language L e a r n in g , 2nd e d . (New Y ork: H a r o o u r t, B ra c e , and W orld, 1 9 6 4 ), p . 233. p B enjam in Lee W horf, L anguage, T h o u g h t, and R e a l i t y (C am bridge, M a ss.: M .I.T . P r e s s , 1956) , p . 252. ^Kim G riffin , " S o c i a l A l i e n a t i o n by C om m unication D e n i a l ," Q u a r te r l y J o u r n a l o f S p eech , 56 (D ec. 1 9 7 0 ), 3 5 6 - 57. ^O rlan do L. T a y lo r , "New P e r s p e c t i v e f o r A m erican E d u c a tio n : A B lack P e r s p e c t i v e , " S p eech T e a c h e r, 19 (M arch 1970), 144. ^W illiam A. S t e w a r t , "Urban N egro S peech: S o c lo - L i n g u i s t i c F a c to r s A f f e c t i n g E n g lis h T e a c h i n g ," i n S o c i a l D i a l e c t s and L anguage L e a rn in g , e d . R oger Shuy (Cham paign, 1 1 1 .: N a tio n a l C o u n c il o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h , 1 9 6 4 ), p . 18. £ Rosa Lee N ash, "Toward a P h ilo s o p h y o f S peech Commu n i c a t i o n E d u c a tio n f o r t h e B lack C h i l d , " S peech T e a c h e r, 19 (March 1 9 7 0 ), 93. ^ F r e d e r ic k D. E r ic k s o n , " 'F 'g e t You H o n k y i' A New Look a t B lac k D i a l e c t and t h e S c h o o l ," i n L anguage, Commu n i c a t i o n , and R h e to r ic i n B lac k A m e ric a , ed. A r th u r L. Sm ith (New Y ork: H a rp e r and Row, 1 9 7 2 ), p . 26. o W a lte r A. W olfram , A S o c l o l i n g u i s t l c D e s c r i p t i o n o f D e t r o i t Negro Speech (W ash in g to n , D .C .: C e n te r f o r A p p lie d l i n g u i s t i c s , 19o9).> PP. 214 -1 8 . % a s h , p . 93. 1 0 " O b je c tin g t o t h e N egro D i a l e c t , " The L i t e r a r y D i g e s t , 11 Nov. 1916, p . 1253. •^S ee p ag es 9 7 -9 9 i n C h a p te r I I I . 12K enneth R. J o h n s o n , "T e a c h e r A t t i t u d e s to w a rd Non s ta n d a r d Negro D i a l e c t , " The E d u c a tio n D i g e s t , 36 (May 1 9 7 1 ), 4 6 -4 7 . 173 174 3W . E. L am bert e t a l . , " E v a l u a t i o n a l R e a c tio n to A c c e n te d E n g lis h S p e e c h ," J o u r n a l o f Abnorm al and S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y , 65 ( 1962), 2 2 3 -3 1 . ^ R i t a N arem ore, " T e a c h e r s ’ Ju d g m en ts o f C h i l d r e n 's S p eech : A F a c to r A n a ly tic S tu d y o f A t t i t u d e s , " S peech M onographs, 38 (March 1 9 7 1 ), 2 6 -2 7 . ^ F r e d e r i c k W illia m s , "L anguage, A t t i t u d e , and S o c ia l C h a n g e ," i n L anguage and P o v e r t y : P e r s p e c t i v e s on a Theme, e d . F r e d e r i c k W illia m s (C h ic a g o : Markham, 1 9 7 0 ), pp. 3 8 2 - 8 3 • 1 ^ S h aro n R a t c l i f f e and Lyman K. S t e i l , " A t t i t u d i n a l D i f f e r e n c e s b etw een B la c k a n d W hite C o lle g e S t u d e n ts ," S peech T e a c h e r, 19 ( S e p t. 1 9 7 0 ), 198. ^ N a r e m o re , p . 25. *1 Q W illia m A. S te w a r t, "Toward a H i s t o r y o f A m erican N egro D i a l e c t, " i n Language and P o v e r t y : P e r s p e c t i v e s on a Theme, e d . F r e d e r i c k W illia m s (C h ic a g o : Markham, 1 970 ), p p . 355 and 3 6 1. ■^K enneth R. Jo h n s o n , T e a c h in g t h e C u l t u r a l l y D isa d v a n ta g e d : A R a ti o n a l A pproach (P a lo A lto , C a l i f . : S c ie n c e R e s e a rc h A s s o c ia t e s , 1 9 7 0 ), p . 156. PO E. F r a n k l i n F r a z i e r , The N egro F am ily i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , r e v . e d . (C h ic a g o : U n iv . o f C hicago P r e s s , 1966) , P. 309. 21W illia m Labov, The S tu d y o f N o n s ta n d a rd E n g lis h (C ham paign, 1 1 1 .: N a t io n a l C o u n c il o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h , 1 9 7 0 ), p. 32. pp Wayne W arga, " S h a t t e r i n g t h e O ld Im ages o f N e g ro e s ," Los A n g e les Tim es C a le n d a r, 6 F eb . 1972, pp. 1 and 22. 23W olfram , p. 123. 2^ T a y lo r , p . 144.. 2^R obblns B u r lin g , Man’s Many V o i c e s : Language i n I t s C u l t u r a l C o n te x t (New Y ork: H o l t , R i n e h a r t, and W insto n, 19 70), p .~ s: pfi R o b e rt A. H a l l, J r . , Leave Y our Language A lone ( I t h a c a , N .Y .: L i n g u l s t l c a , 1 9 5 0 ). 175 2^See B u r l in g , and a l s o A rc h ib a ld H i l l , e d . , L in g u i s t i c s Today (New Y ork: B a sic Books, 1969). 28 J o s e p h A u rb ach , A Phonemic and P h o n e tic D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e S peech o f S e le c te d N egro In fo rm a n ts o f S o u th - C e n tr a l Los A n g e le s, S peech M onograph (S a n ta B a rb a ra , C a l i f . : Speech C om m unications R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry , 1 9 7 0 ), p . 209. 2^See B u r l in g , A urbach, and W olfram . 3® B u rlin g , p . 126. 81 J A urb ach , p . 151. 32J o h n s o n , T each in g t h e C u l t u r a l l y D isa d v a n ta g e d , p . 157. 33A urbach, pp. 16O-6 1 . 3^ I b l d . , p p . 162-63. •^ J o h n s o n , T each in g t h e C u l t u r a l l y D isa d v a n ta g e d , p . 157. 36A urb ach , pp. 170 -72. ^ B u r l i n g , p . 129. 3®Aurbach, p . 178. 3^ Jo h n so n , T each in g t h e C u l t u r a l l y D isa d v a n ta g e d , p . 158. 4 ° I b i d . ^ A u r b a c h , pp. 17 8-79. ^ 2Lee P e d e rs o n , "Some S t r u c t u r a l D if f e r e n c e s i n t h e Speech o f C h icag o N e g ro e s ," i n S o c ia l D i a l e c t s and L anguage L e a rn in g , e d . R oger Shuy (Cham paign, 1 1 1 .: N a tio n a l C o u n c il! o f t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h , 1 9 6 4 ), p . 4 6 . ^ A u r b a c h , p . 192. ^ I b i d . , p p . 181-84 and 186- 8 7 . 45Ib id ., p. 209. 1 7 6 46 B u r lin g , p . 129. See a l s o J o a n C. B a r a t z , "T each in g R eading I n an U rban Negro S ch o o l S y s te m ," I n Language and P o v e r t y ; P e r s p e c t i v e s on a Theme, e d . F r e d e r i c k W illia m s (C h icag o : Markham, 1970J , p p . 1 5 -1 6 . ^ W o lf ra m , p . 165. ^ L a b o v , p . 4 l . “ ^ W o lfra m , p. 180. - ^ B a r a tz , p . 18. -^W olfram , p . 154. 52I b i d . 53I b l d . , p . 155. ^ J o h n s o n , T ea ch in g t h e C u l t u r a l l y D is a d v a n ta g e d , p . 158. • ^ B a r a tz , p . 16. ^ W i l l i a m Labov, "The L ogic o f N o n s ta n d a rd E n g l i s h , " i n Language and P o v e r t y : P e r s p e c t i v e s on a Theme, ed . F r e d e r i c k W illia m s (C h ica g o : Markham, 1970) , p p. 1 5 3 -5 4 . •^NNE = Negro N o n sta n d a rd E n g lis h , SE = S ta n d a rd E n g lis h . -^Thomas F r e n t z , " C h i ld r e n 's C om prehension o f S ta n d a rd and Negro N o n sta n d a rd E n g lis h S e n t e n c e s , " S peech Mono g r a p h s , 38 (M arch 1971)» 15* ■ ^Johnson, "T each er A t t i t u d e s Toward N o n sta n d a rd Negro D i a l e c t , " p . 4 5 . ^°L abov, "The L ogic o f N o n s ta n d a rd E n g l i s h ," p . 153. S te w a r t, "U rban Negro S p e e c h ," p . 18. ^ 2R l t a Chavez, "The M in o r ity S t u d e n t , " The P e r s u a d e r , 38 ( J a n . 1 9 7 1 ), 39. ^ 3 E r ic P a r t r i d g e , S la n g : Today and Y e s te r d a y , 3 rd ed. (New Y ork: M acm illan , 1950)7 P* !• 64I b i d . ^ I b i d . , pp. 4 - 7 . 177 cc S a n d ra H a g g e rty , "On B eing B la c k : G h e tto E n g lis h T u rn s Bad Words A ro u n d ," Los A n g e les Tim es, 1 M arch 1972, S ec. I I , p . 7» 67I h i d . G eorge K in g s le y Z i p f , Human B e h a v io r and t h e P r i n c i p l e o f L e a s t E f f o r t (C am bridge, M a ss.: A d d iso n -W esley , T 9W ]lf p . “ 5437 ^ H a g g e r t y , p . 7. " ^ C la r e n c e M ajo r, D i c t i o n a r y o f A fro -A m erican S la n g (New Y ork: I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1970) , pp. 13-14. 71W lllia m H. G r i e r , M.D. and P r i c e M. Cobbs, M .D ., B la c k Rage (New Y ork: B a s ic B ooks, 1968), p p . 1 2 2 -2 3 . 72See C h a p te r I I I , pp. 1 04-105. 7^ G r le r and Cobbs, p. 124. " ^ D o lo re s B e r n a d e te , " E l o i s e , " A m erican S p eech , 7 (Ju n e 1 9 3 2 ), 361. ^ N o rm a n E. E lia s o n ,- "Some N egro Term s, " A m erican S p eech , 13 ( A p r i l 1 9 3 8 ), 1 5 1 -5 2 . 7^ S ee B ib lio g r a p h y o f M a jo r, D i c ti o n a r y o f A fr o - A m erican S la n g . 77W lllia m M elv in K e lle y , " I f Y o u 're Woke You Dig I t , " New Y ork Tim es M agazine, 20 May 1962, p. 4 5 . 7®Lorenzo Dow T u rn e r , A fric a n is m s i n t h e G u lla h D ia l e c t (C h ic a g o : U n iv . o f C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 ). 7^Mary S. S e r j e a n t s o n , A H i s t o r y o f F o re ig n Words i n E n g lis h (New Y ork: B a rn es and N o b le , 19(32), ppT 246 -49. ® °K irk lan d C. J o n e s , "The Language o f t h e B lac k ' I n - C ro w d ': Some O b s e rv a tio n s on I n tr a - G r o u p C om m unication," CLA J o u r n a l , 15 ( 3 e p t. 1 9 7 l) j 88 . Q - i R o b e rt G reen, " D ia le c t Sam pling and Language V a l u e s , " i n S o c i a l D i a l e c t s and Language L e a rn in g , e d . R oger Shuy (Cham paign, 1 1 1 . : N a tio n a l C o u n c il o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h , 1 9 8 4 ), p . 122. 1 7 8 i 82 T h ere a r e w id e r r a m i f i c a t i o n s t o th e s tu d y o f B lack s l a n g , a s C la re n c e M ajor n o te d (p . 13)* b e c a u se a s u b s ta n t i a l number o f d i s e n c h a n te d young w h ite s as w e ll have been a d o p tin g t h e id io m . ^ G r a c e Sims H o lt, "S peech Com m unication f o r t h e B lack A m e ric a n ," B u l l e t i n o f t h e N a t io n a l A s s o c ia t io n o f Second a r y S ch o o l P r i n c i p a l s , 54 (D ec. 1 9 7 0 ), 105. ^ G w e n d o ly n B ro o k s, F a m ily P i c t u r e s ( D e t r o i t : B ro ad s i d e , 1970) , p. 13. CHAPTER V BLACK LITERATURE IN THE SPEECH ARTS CLASS I n t r o d u c t i o n The t e a c h e r o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n who i s a l s o an I n s t r u c t o r i n l i t e r a t u r e i s n o rm a lly e x p e c te d t o be a b le t o d i s c u s s l i t e r a t u r e i n i t s s o c i a l , h i s t o r i c a l , and a e s t h e t i c c o n t e x t s . The i n f l u e n c e s t h a t m olded and c r e a t e d t h e v a r i ous s t y l e s and g e n re s o f B lac k l i t e r a t u r e s h o u ld be u n d e r s to o d i n o r d e r t h a t t h e t e a c h e r c an , w ith know ledge and f a c i l i t y , d i s c u s s L an g sto n Hughes i n te rm s o f h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s a s w e l l a s he can W illia m W ordsw orth. The i n s t r u c t o r who te a c h e s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e t o B lac k s t u d e n ts s h o u ld be c o g n iz a n t o f t h e b a c k g round and developm ent o f B lac k l i t e r a t u r e . I t h a s been p o in te d o u t by LeRoi J o n e s i n h i s book, B lu e s P e o p le , ^ t h a t t h e u n iq u e o r a l s t y l e o f A m erican B la c k s d e v e lo p e d from t h e " b l u e s , " an e x p r e s s io n o f t h e s l a v e e x p e r ie n c e s i n A m erica. The im m ed iate p r e d e c e s s o r s o f t h e b l u e s , how e v e r , w ere t h e w ork songs o f B lac k A m ericans and s l a v e s , w hich h a d t h e i r o r i g i n s i n West A f r i c a . I n a d a p t in g t o t h e i r new c o n d it i o n s o f s e r v i t u d e i n an u n f a m i l i a r and a l i e n la n d , B la c k s d e v is e d a new form o f o r a l and m u s ic a l 179 e x p r e s s io n , b le n d in g and c h a n g in g t h a t w ith w hich th e y w ere f a m i l i a r i n t h e i r A f r i c a n p a s t . I n A f r i c a , m usic accompa n ie d t h e t e l l i n g o f f o l k t a l e s and s t o r y p e rfo rm a n c e s; t h e p o e tr y o r l y r i c s was o f p rim a ry im p o rta n c e . Jo n e s s t a t e d : And j u s t a s t h e l y r i c s o f t h e A f r ic a n songs w ere u s u a l l y as im p o r ta n t o r more im p o r ta n t th a n t h e m u sic, th e l y r i c s o f t h e w ork so n g s and th e l a t e r b lu e s w ere e q u a l ly im p o r t a n t t o t h e N e g r o 's c o n c e p t o f m u s i c .2 T h is c o a le s c e n c e o f rh y th m , v o ic e , m u sic, and movement c r e a t e d A m erican B la c k p o e t i c o r a l e x p r e s s io n . T hus, a p o e tr y e v o lv e d w hich i s n o t f o r s i l e n t r e a d in g b u t f o r l i s t e n i n g an d a u d ie n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n ; i t i s a g e n re demand in g o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e . As H e r s c h e l l e C h a lle n o r s t a t e d : B lac k p o e t r y i s a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r . P e o p le l i k e Don Lee and S o n ia Sanchez and o t h e r s hav e d e v e lo p e d a new B lack p o e tr y . I t h i n k i t ' s a new a r t form , b e c a u se i t d o e s n 't make any s e n s e t o r e a d i t ; y o u 'v e g o t t o h e a r i t . I t ' s n o t o n ly t h e c o n t e n t , b u t th e rh y th m . T h is i s a t r u l y new form . I t w o n 't come i n n o v e l fo rm , b u t i n p o e tr y , dram a, t h e t h e a t e r . 3 The new ness o f t h e B lac k A r ts movement so w id e ly pub l i c i z e d i n th e p a s t few y e a r s m ig h t be q u e s tio n e d , s in c e most o f i t s d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s hav e b een p r e s e n t f o r more t h a n t h r e e c e n t u r i e s . Even c u r r e n t B la c k p r o t e s t l i t e r a t u r e i s r e d o l e n t o f a lo n g B la c k h e r i t a g e . Due t o h i s t o r i c a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f s l a v e r y and e n fo r c e d i l l i t e r a cy , B lac k p e o p le r e t a i n e d an o r a l t r a d i t i o n w h ile o t h e r p e o p le s l o s t i t t o a l a r g e e x te n t a s w r i t t e n l i t e r a t u r e began t o p re d o m in a te i n t h e W estern l i t e r a t e w o rld . B lack p r o t e s t l i t e r a t u r e o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e v e ry e a r l y y e a r s o f 1 8 1 e n sla v e m e n t on t h e s e s h o r e s . As D a n ie l C. Thompson p u t i t , ^ t h e s l a v e s u s e d an " i n d i r e c t v e r b a l" ty p e o f p r o t e s t : The N egro p r o t e s t m ovem ent, so much a p a r t o f A m erican c u l t u r e to d a y , h a d i t s b e g in n in g d u rin g th e s la v e p e r i o d . The s l a v e s ’ p r o t e s t a g a i n s t bondage, i n s e c u r i t y , anonym i t y , and i n d i g n i t y h a s b een echoed i n one form o r a n o th e r c o n t i n u o u s l y .5 g Thompson p o in te d o u t , a s d id R o b e rt G o ld sto n , t h a t e a r l y s p i r i t u a l s and B la c k p r e a c h e r s ’ serm ons w ere r i f e w ith t h i s I n d i r e c t k in d o f p r o t e s t . S la v e s i d e n t i f i e d w ith t h e e n s la v e d H ebrew s, an d san g and p ra y e d f o r t h e day when t h e y w ould be r e l e a s e d from t h e r ig o r o u s c r u e l t i e s o f t h e P h a ra o h , t h e i r w h ite m a s te r . The e s s e n t i a l o r a l i t y o f B lack l i t e r a t u r e s h o u ld n o t be s u r p r i s i n g s i n c e i t h a s a r i s e n from t h e v e ry h e r i t a g e o f B la c k p e o p le s on t h i s and on th e A f r ic a n c o n ti n e n t . As A s h le y M ontague s t a t e d : The u n w r i t t e n l i t e r a t u r e , p o e tr y and p ro se o f n o n l i t - I e r a t e p e o p le s i s o f t e n v e r y h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d . . . . E v ery l i t e r a t u r e i s i n harm ony w ith i t s c u l t u r a l fram ew ork. Among n o n l i t e r a t e s b o th p o e tr y and p r o s e a r e c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith so n g , m ost o f th e poems and even s t o r i e s b e in g e i t h e r sung o r accom panied by so n g . Rhythm i n p o e t r y and p r o s e , a s w e ll a s r e p e t i t i o n , w hich i s a form o f rh y th m , i s m a rk e d ly em ph asized, and i t i s no a c c i d e n t t h a t p o e t r y , p r o s o d y , so n g , I n s t r u m e n t a l m u sic, and t h e I d an ce a r e a l l c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d . 7 Rhythm, r e p e t i t i o n , and t o n a l i t y a re a l l earm arks o f o r a l c o m p o s itio n , and i t i s t h e s e a s p e c ts o f B lack l i t e r a t u r e , a s w e ll a s t h e c u l t u r e s from w hich th e y sp ra n g , w ith w hich t h i s c h a p t e r i s c o n c e rn e d . Though B lack p o e ts and w r i t e r s w ent th r o u g h a p e r i o d when th e y a tte m p te d to ape E uropean 1 8 2 l i t e r a r y s t y l e s , a p e r io d w hich p ro d u ce d a somewhat s t i l t e d ty p e o f l i t e r a r y e n d e a v o r, t h e p rim a ry i n s p i r a t i o n o f B lac k l i t e r a r y s t y l e was t h e o r a l t r a d i t i o n o f t h e B la c k p e o p le s . I t s o r i g i n s can he t r a c e d t o A f r i c a . A f r ic a n O ra l T r a d i t i o n s and I n f l u e n c e s W ith r e g a r d t o A f r ic a n o r a l t r a d i t i o n , Simon and Phobe O tte n b e rg s t a t e d : T h ere a r e more th a n e ig h t h u n d re d A f r i c a n la n g u a g e s . Some a r e spoken by m i l l i o n s j t h e s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r s num b e r i n th e h u n d re d s . Some A f r ic a n la n g u a g e s seem t o h av e d is a p p e a r e d c o m p le te ly w i t h i n t h e p a s t o n e -h u n d re d y e a r s , and o t h e r s su c h a s a n c i e n t E g y p tia n h a v e b een e x t i n c t f o r g e n e r a t i o n s . U n t i l r e c e n t l y m ost A f r i c a n la n g u a g e s w ere u n w r i t t e n e x c e p t f o r some i n N o r th e rn A f r ic a , and th e E th io p e a n a r e a . The la c k o f w r i t i n g i n many p a r t s o f A f r i c a h a s n o t p re v e n te d t h e d e v elo p m en t o f t r a d i t i o n s and p o l i t i c a l s t a t e s o f s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h e o l o g i c a l sy stem s, two e le m e n ts f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith w r i t i n g . I t h a s m ean t, how ever, a g r e a t d ep en d en ce on o r a l t r a d i t i o n s and o r a l l i t e r a t u r e a s w e ll a s on s k i l l i n p u b l ic s p e a k i n g .8 W ith l e s s em phasis on w r i t t e n fo rm s, t h e r e f o r e , o r a l l i t e r a cy e x p r e s s io n o f t h e A f r ic a n p e o p le s a c h ie v e d a p l a c e o f p rim acy r e l a t i v e l y r a r e i n c o n te m p o ra ry c u l t u r e s , a lth o u g h t h e p a t t e r n i s f a m i l i a r t o t h e s t u d e n t o f e a r l i e r w h ite c u l t u r e s such a s t h e G reek and A n g lo -S ax o n . A f r ic a n l i t e r a r y t a l e s hav e b een u t i l i z e d a s a means o f e d u c a tin g t h e young and t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n s and c u l t u r e from one g e n e r a t i o n t o t h e n e x t . The young A f r i c a n c h i l d i s exp osed t o t h e s e t a l e s f i r s t r e l a t e d t o him by h i s m o th er i n t h e compoundj t h e s e a r e g e n e r a l l y a n im a l t a l e s w ith m o r a ls . C hlnua Achebe i n T h in g s F a l l A p a r t^ 183 d e s c r ib e d t h e mark o f a p p ro a c h in g manhood w hich o c c u rs when a young b oy i s f i r s t s e n t t o s i t i n t h e o b i ( d w e llin g ) o f h i s f a t h e r t o h e a r t h e w a r r i o r t a l e s r e l a t e d . T h is sim p le form o f f o l k l i t e r a t u r e t a k e s on l a r g e r d im e n sio n s i n t h e t r i b a l p u b l ic p e rfo rm a n c e s . T h is A f r i c a n f o l k l i t e r a t u r e . , when sp o k en , a p p e a rs t o be seldom an u n e m o tio n a l r e c i t a t i o n o f p a s t e v e n ts and t a l e s . I t i s r a t h e r a r e n d i t i o n o f i n t e r p r e t a t i v e a r t and s k i l l . M u sic, movement, and c h o r a l w ork a r e o f t e n i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e p e rfo rm a n c e : I n A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e t h e g r e a t form i s t h e d ra m a tic t a l e . . . . The m ere t a l e on a page w i l l p ro d u ce l i t t l e more t h a n t h e r e t e l l i n g o f t h e p l o t o f As_ You L ik e I t i n two p a r a g r a p h s , w ith a m o ra l ta c k e d on a t t h e end, f a b l e - f a s h i o n . T hese d ra m a tic t a l e s i n A f r i c a h av e a t h e a t r i c a l q u a l i t y . They a r e t o l d and a c t e d o u t b e fo r e a u d i e n ce s who p a r t i c i p a t e i n m u s ic a l c h o ru s e s and i n spoken r e s p o n s e s . The i n d i v i d u a l t a l e t e l l e r s may b e a s s i s t e d by a d o zen o r more p e o p le who a r e costum ed and " c a s t " a s i n any o t h e r t h e a t e r a r t . The t a l e t e l l e r a l s o makes up so n g s, c e n t e r i n g aro u n d , t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e t a l e ; he te a c h e s t h e c h o ru s e s o f t h e so n g s t o t h e a u d ie n c e and a s s u r e s h i m s e l f a u d ie n c e r e s p o n s e w henev er h e n eed s i t . The s t o r i e s o f t h e t a l e s a r e w e ll-k n o w n . The ach iev e m e n t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t i s t o be fo u n d i n t h e m usic and i n t h e v e r s i o n o f t h e t a l e and t h e way h e m a n ip u la te s t h e d ra m a tic e le m e n ts i n i t t o e n la r g e o r p o in t h i s m o ra l. The r e s u l t i s l i v i n g t h e a t e r . I t c a n n o t be overem pha s i z e d t h a t A f r i c a n f o l k t a l e s , w r i t t e n on h a l f a s h e e t o f p a p e r i n a W este rn la n g u a g e , l o s e a l l b u t t h e s o - c a l l e d " p l o t" o f t h e o r i g i n a l . The a r t i s g o n e .10 The A f r i c a n o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e h a s a p p a r e n t l y d is p la y e d sim i l a r i t y th r o u g h o u t t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s and r e g i o n s , and t h e r e i s u n if o rm ag reem en t among a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s r e g a r d in g th e im p o rta n c e o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e o r a l a r t i n t h e r i t u a l s and e n t e r t a i n m e n t s o f t h e v a r i o u s A f r ic a n p e o p le s . 184 I n v a r i a b l y , t h e i n t e r p r e t e r em ploys so n g s , rh y th m ic c h a n t s , 11 and c h o ru s w ork t o enh ance h i s p e rfo rm a n c e . A n t h r o p o l o g is t J a n h e in z Ja h n p o in te d o u t t h a t t h e A f r i c a n c o n c e iv e s t h e u n i v e r s e a s a n e tw o rk o f l i v i n g f o r c e s ; t h i s c o n c e p t d i f f e r s from t h a t o f t h e E u ro p ean who r e g a r d s f o r c e a s an a t t r i b u t e . To t h e E uro pean, a b e in g p o s s e s s e s f o r c e , t o t h e A f r i c a n , f o r c e is_ b e in g and b e in g 12 i s f o r c e . J a h n r e l a t e d t h i s c o n c e p t o f A f r ic a n l i t e r a t u r e : I n p o e t r y , t h e word [w hich i s t h e l i f e f o r c e ] t r a n s form s e v e ry " t h i n g " — f o r c e t h a t i t p r o d u c e s —by p l a c i n g i t i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t e n s i o n w ith o t h e r f o r c e s i t h a s a l s o p ro d u c e d . . . . The t r a n s f o r m a ti o n ta k e s p la c e i n t h e se q u e n c e o f im a g es. " I am l i s t e n i n g " —we se e t h e l i s t e n i n g p o e t . "Through t h e c r a c k s " —we s e e , how t h e p o e t p u ts h i s e a r t o a c r a c k i n th e ro c k t o l i s t e n , ". . . o f my s k u l l " — t h e p o e t c h a n g e s, he h a s a s k u l l on h i s s h o u l d e r s , th e c ra c k s become t h e c ra c k s o f t h i s s k u l l , w h ich t h e p o e t s p l i t s by h i s i n c a n t a t i o n , and t h e l i s t e n i n g becom es h i s own a c t i v i t y from t h e i n s i d e o f t h e s k u l l . Time and sp a c e . . . a r e a l s o tr a n s f o r m e d , f o r t h e l i s t e n i n g i s . . . n o t th e l i s t e n i n g t o a r e a l i t y w hich i s t a k i n g p la c e o u t s i d e t h e s k u l l , b u t l i s t e n i n g t o an I m p e r a tiv e w h ich t h e p o e t b o th p r o j e c t s and makes h a p p e n .13 Man a s a n i n t e l l i g e n t b e in g b e lo n g s t o t h e s p e c i a l c l a s s , Muntu (m eaning a c o m p le te human b e in g , a p e r s o n a l i t y ) . He m a in ta in s h i s m a s te ry o v e r a l l o t h e r c r e a t u r e s th r o u g h Nomrao, " . . . t h e l i f e f o r c e , w hich p ro d u c e s a l l l i f e , w h ich i n f l u e n c e s 't h i n g s ' i n t h e shap e o f th e w ord. T h is c o n c e p t o f l i f e f o r c e im bued th e spoken word w ith t h e : power o f m ag ic; t h e l i f e f o r c e w hich I n f lu e n c e d a l l l i v i n g human a c t i v i t i e s e x e r t e d i t s i n f l u e n c e th ro u g h w ords: 185 I n A f r ic a n p h ilo s o p h y , th e f o r c e o f t h e word h ad dom inion ; o v e r t h i n g s . Man th r o u g h t h e pow er o f t h e word c o u ld change t h i n g s , make them w ork f o r him , and command them . The power o f th e word made man a c r e a t o r , and w hat man c r e a t e d th ro u g h t h e word was a t hand f o r him and s e rv e d h im .15 Thus th e c u l t u r e from w hich t h e t r a n s p l a n t e d A f r ic a n s came was one i n w hich t h e spoken word was d o m in a n t, and i t s power p e rm e ated a l l r i t u a l s , c e l e b r a t i o n s , and p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s as w e ll a s e v ery d ay b e h a v i o r . One c a n o n ly d im ly im a g in e t h e tr a u m a tic e x p e r i e n c e s , t h e r e f o r e , o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n t o an a l i e n c u l t u r e . G r i e r and Cobbs d e s c r i b e d t h e c irc u m s ta n c e s i n t h e New W orld: When A f r ic a n s l a v e s w ere b ro u g h t t o t h i s c o u n tr y , th e y w ere s e l e c t e d and g ro u p ed so t h a t e a c h w ould h av e come from a d i f f e r e n t , t r i b e . I n t h i s way t h e s l a v e h o l d e r s so u g h t t o a v o id com m unication b etw een t h e s l a v e s and p r e v e n t c o n s p ir a c y . I n a d d i t i o n i t was f o r b id d e n t o t e a c h s la v e s t o r e a d and w r i t e . They w ere t o l e a r n o n ly t h e p r a c t i c a l lan g u a g e o f t h e f i e l d , and t h a t from t h e l i p s o f t h e i r m a s te rs and o v e r s e e r s . As a r e s u l t , t h e s l a v e s l e a r n e d E n g lis h a s a s e r i e s o f g a r b l e d , h a l f - u n d e r s t o o d , m isp ro n o u n ced w ords s h a r e d m a in ly by t h e few s l a v e s on t h e same p l a n t a t i o n . The p s y c h o l o g ic a l im p o rta n c e o f t h i s d e v ic e sh o u ld n o t be u n d e r e s tim a te d , f o r t h e s l a v e s w ere ev en ta u g h t t o sp e a k by t h e i r m a s t e r s . 16 T hese s l a v e s had b een i n e f f e c t s t r i p p e d o f t h e i r l i f e f o r c e , t h e power o f w o rd s, a n d w ere f o r c e d t o com m unicate m in im a lly i n an a d o p te d la n g u a g e . I The B la c k s , how ever, h a d a n a t u r a l p r o c l i v i t y and g e n iu s f o r u s in g la n g u a g e t o sh a p e t h e i r e n v iro n m e n t. T h e ir n e w ly -le a rn e d v o c a b u l a r i e s w ere soon em ployed t o c o n s t r u c t t a l e s , work so n g s , and s p i r i t u a l s ; t h e s e new g e n re s c o n s t i t u t e d a u n iq u e m ethod o f B la c k co m m u nication, 1 8 6 a s e c r e t la n g u a g e , t h e m eaning o f w hich was u n d e rs to o d o n ly among t h e s l a v e p o p u l a t i o n . Even t h e b e st-k n o w n o f t h e o ld N egro s p i r i t u a l s w ere i n c u l c a t e d w ith d o u b le m ean in g s: W e ll, i t i s j u s t now daw ning on p e o p le —w h ite p e o p le , t h a t i s — t h a t "Swing Low Sweet C h a r io t" was n o t a t a l l a b o u t g e t t i n g t o h e a v e n . I t was a b o u t g e t t i n g o u t o f h e l l and t h e c h a r i o t was t h e u n d e rg ro u n d r a i l r o a d . Now, w ould you c a r e t o g u e s s w hat "(Jet On B oard, C h ild r e n , T h e r e 's Room f o r Many More" was a b o u t? 17 W illia m K e l l e y 's a r t i c l e on B lac k id io m p o in te d o u t t h a t t h e te n d e n c y o f B la c k s t o em ploy a g u a rd e d , s e c r e t l a n guage sy ste m stemmed i n l a r g e p a r t from t h e p e r io d o f s l a v e r y : No one c a n u n d e r s ta n d why N eg ro es u s e t h i s id io m . P e r h a p s i t b e g an w i t h , and a t t h e same tim e a s , s p i r i t u a l s , w h ich w ere o f t e n u s e d a s a code b etw een s l a v e s . "Down by t h e R i v e r s i d e " c o u ld p o s s i b l y h ave been a s i g n a l t h a t someone was g o in g t o a tte m p t e s c a p e ; "A n oth er Man Done Gone" t h a t t h e e sc a p e was s u c c e s s f u l . 18 The w ords and p h r a s e s u s e d i n d o u b le -m e a n in g r e v e a l : t h e s u c c e s s f u l t e c h n iq u e em ployed by t h e B la c k s t o e x e r t t h e power o f w ords even u n d e r ex tre m e c o n d it i o n s o f d e p r i v a t i o n . T h is was t h e w e l l s p r l n g o f B lack p r o t e s t l i t e r a t u r e . The m usic and d a n c e , o r p h y s i c a l movement, w hich o f t e n acco m pan ied t h e o r a l e x p r e s s io n s o f t h e s l a v e s , w ere n o t g e n e r a l l y m ere a d j u n c t s b u t i n t e g r a l e le m e n ts o f t h e t o t a l c o m m u n icativ e e x p e r ie n c e . Music an d movement had been em ployed i n much t h e same way i n t h e A f r ic a n c u l t u r e from w h ich t h e s l a v e s h a d come, and t h e fo rm u la was m e re ly p e r - ; p e tu a te d on A m erican s h o r e s by t h e e a r l y s la v e s and t h e i r 187 IQ d e s c e n d a n ts . ^ S t e r l i n g Brown w ro te o f t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f s l a v e r y I n t h i s c o u n tr y : F o r t h e g e n u in e p o e tr y o f th e N egro o f t h i s p e r i o d , f o r p o e tr y t h a t s t i l l h a s t h e power t o p o r t r a y and t o move, one m ust go t o t h e s l y and s a rd o n ic f o lk - rh y m e s and t h e p r o fo u n d ly r e v e a l i n g s p i r i t u a l s .20 When th e w ords a lo n e w ere n o t s u f f i c i e n t , m u s ic a l and rh y th m ic p a t t e r n s a id e d e x p r e s s io n . I n a r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t a r t i c l e , C a ro ly n M. R odgers s t a t e d e l o q u e n t l y t h e B lac k f e e l i n g o f lan g u a g e l o s s and th e r e s u l t a n t n e ed f o r t o t a l c om m unication w hich s t i l l p e r s i s t s to d a y : We f e e l more th a n we know ( r e a l i z e ) . We f e e l t h e h i s t o r i c a l l o s s o f to n g u e . B u t, a s I p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , we have been c r e a t i v e . We have r e c r e a t e d , r e d i r e c t e d o u r l o s s . Our g e s t u r e s , l i k e c la p p in g h a n d s and su c h , a r e p a r t o f t h e a tte m p t t o com m unicate. A g a in , I say ( I f e e l l i k e a r e c o r d e d m essage) t h a t t h e r e a s o n o u r m usic i s so s u c c e s s f u l a s a r t i s b e c a u se we c a n sound o u t w hat c a n n o t be sp o k en . . . . Music i s im p o r ta n t i n te r m s o f s t y l e b e - . c a u se i t i s sound, t o n e s . The m u s ic ia n s who r e a l l y to u c h t h e g u t s h o u ld be s t u d i e d . . . . A l t o g e t h e r , th e y come t o f o r m u la te a B lack s t y l e . O ra l. T o n a l, An a tte m p t t o sp e ak i n t o n g u e s . 21 The r i c h backgroun d o f o r a l l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n w hich was a n i n t r i n s i c elem en t o f th e A f r i c a n c u l t u r e was n o t d i s s i p a t e d d u r in g th e p e r io d o f t h e B la c k s l a v e t r a d e and t h e e n fo r c e d s e r v i t u d e on t h e N o rth A m erican c o n t i n e n t . Numerous c h r o n i c l e s r e l a t e t h e c h a n t s , r i t u a l s , t a l e s , and songs o f t h e e n s la v e d B lac k s from t h e e a r l i e s t days o f t h e i r t r i b u l a t i o n s i n A m erica. As B enjam in Q u a rle s p o in te d op o u t , t h e s l a v e s u t i l i z e d th e s e e x p r e s s iv e a r t i s t i c t a l e n ts i n an e f f o r t t o e a se t h e t a s k s o f h a r d l a b o r , and t o e n l i v e n t h e i r s p i r i t s d e s p i t e c o n d it i o n s o f a d v e r s i t y . He ; 188 : s t a t e d t h a t one o f t h e p rim a ry A f r ic a n s u r v i v a l s was th e f o l k s t o r y and t a l e - t e l l e r . Romeo G a r r e t t a g re e d , c la im in g t h a t "W herever t h e N egro h a s go n e, t a l e s h av e gone to o , and w ith o n ly m inor a l t e r a t i o n s i n p l o t . " 2^ I n m i d - e ig h t e e n t h c e n t u r y A m erica, a s l a v e g i r l named Lucy T e r r y w ro te a v e r s e a c c o u n t o f an I n d i a n r a i d , and l a t e r i n t h e c e n t u r y , P h i l l i s W h eatley became n o te d f o r h e r c o l l e c t i o n s o f v e r s e . The e f f o r t s o f t h e s e two B lac k women, how ever, w ere n o t d e s t i n e d t o e s t a b l i s h a c o n tin u in g w r i t t e n B lac k l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n on A m erican s h o r e s . By t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , r e s t r i c t i o n s w ere im posed r e g a r d i n g ■ t h e e d u c a tio n o f s l a v e s . S la v e s w ere t o b e k e p t i l l i t e r a t e i n o r d e r t h a t c o n t r o l o v e r them m ight be more e a s i l y m ain t a i n e d . "D enied ev en t h e A .B .C .'s , s l a v e p o e tr y h ad no c h o ic e b u t to go u n d e rg ro u n d . S e l f - e x p r e s s i o n was o b lig e d - q Il t o become o r a l . " W ith th e p a s s a g e o f tim e , v a r i o u s im m ig ran t and c o l o n i z i n g g ro u p s a r r i v e d on A m erican s h o r e s . T hese t r a n s p la n te d E u ro p ean s r e t a i n e d many o f t h e i r o ld f o l k t a l e s f o r ' a p e r io d o f tim e , y e t t h e y , l i k e t h e E n g lis h and o t h e r e a r l i e r s e t t l e r s , h a d come from c u l t u r e s w ith e x te n s i v e w r i t t e n l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s . The f o r c e s o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and p o p u la r e d u c a tio n a l s o com bined and te n d e d t o i d i s s i p a t e th e a l l e g i a n c e o f t h e new er E u ro p ea n s t o e a r l i e r | o r a l e x p r e s s io n s o f t h e i r f o l k c u l t u r e s . The B la c k p o p u la t i o n , how ever, re m a in e d u n iq u e : 189 Only t h e N eg ro , a s a d i s t i n c t e lem en t o f th e E n g li s h - s p e a k in g p o p u l a t i o n , m a in ta in e d a f u l l- b l o w n s t o r y t e l l i n g t r a d i t i o n . A s e p a r a t e N egro s u b c u ltu r e form ed w i t h i n t h e s h e l l o f A m erican l i f e , m is s in g th e b o u n t ie s o f g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n and m a t e r i a l p r o g r e s s , re m a in in g a l a r g e l y o r a l , s e l f - c o n t a i n e d s o c i e t y w ith i t s own u n w r i t t e n h i s t o r y and l i t e r a t u r e .25 Of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f B lac k l i t e r a t u r e , p r o b a b ly t h e m ost o u t s t a n d i n g i s i t s o r a l s t y l e , w hich e x h i b i t s t h e p e r v a s i v e q u a l i t y o f A f r i c a n s u r v i v a l s i n A m erican B la c k c u l t u r e . Mary J a n e H e w itt, B lac k c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i a n , i s b u t one o f t h e many who b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e o r a l t r a d i t i o n i s t h e m a jo r A f r i c a n c u l t u r a l t r a i t w hich h a s s u rv iv e d : The o r a l t r a d i t i o n w h ich i s A f r ic a n rem ain s w ith u s to d a y . The lo v e o f m e ta p h o r and p a r a b l e a s a way o f I n s t r u c t i n g t h e young and s e c r e t com m unications i s s t i l l w ith u s . T h at i s an A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n t h a t h a s s u r v iv e d . . . . T h in k o f t h e p sy c h o lo g y o f t h e b lu e s , w hat t h e y do and h a v e done f o r u s . I n s t e a d o f co m m ittin g s u i c i d e as E l l i s o n h a s s a i d ; we f i n g e r t h e t e x t u r e o f o u r p a in t o b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d i t and p u t j l t i n t o i t s p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e , so we s in g a b o u t i t . 26 The " b lu e s " w h ich e v o lv e d from work songs and s p i r i t u a l s s e r v e d a s t h e f o u n ta in h e a d f o r A m erican B lack e x p r e s s io n . I t was a u n i q u e l y A m erican B lac k form b u t had been d e r iv e d o r i g i n a l l y fro m A f r i c a n s o u r c e s w hich underw ent a m etam or p h o s is u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f s l a v e r y and s o c i a l and econom ic s u f f e r i n g . A c c o rd in g t o L a n g sto n H ughes, The B lu es h av e a s t r i c t rhyme p a t t e r n : one lo ng l i n e r e p e a t e d and a t h i r d l i n e t o rhyme w ith t h e f i r s t tw o . Som etim es . . . t h e seco n d l i n e i s s l i g h t l y changed and som etim es . . . i t i s o m i t t e d . 27 An exam ple o f t h i s s t r i c t b lu e s form c an be seen i n H u g h e s1 own " E v e n in ' A ir B lu e s " : 190 F o lk s , I came up N o rth Cause th e y t o l d me de N o rth was f i n e . I came up N o rth Cause th e y t o l d me de N o rth was f i n e . Been up h e r e s i x m o n th s----- I 'm a b o u t t o l o s e my m ind. T h is m o rn ln ’ f o r b r e a k f a s t I chawed de m o rn in ’ a i r . T h is m o rn in ’ f o r b r e a k f a s t Chawed de m o r n in ’ a i r . But t h i s e v e n i n ’ f o r s u p p e r I g o t e v e n i n ’ a i r t o s p a r e . 28 I n t h i s exam ple, one can e a s i l y d e t e c t t h e m ajo r q u a l i t i e s o f t h e B lac k l i t e r a r y s t y l e d e r i v e d from t h e v e r y h e r i t a g e o f t h e p e o p le —rhythm , r e p e t i t i o n , and t o n a l i t y , as w e l l a s a s tr o n g s e n s e o f s o c i a l c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h is i s a form m eant t o be spoken, n o t r e a d . T hus, i t c an be se e n t h a t th ro u g h o u t t h e p a ssa g e o f tim e , t h e B la c k o r a l t r a d i t i o n h a s n o t d im in is h e d d e s p i t e t h e in r o a d s o f g r e a t e r e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s and a d v a n c e s made i n c i v i l r i g h t s . The B la c k o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t y l e o f l i t e r a r y p e rfo rm a n c e i s Im p la n te d i n th e e th n i c a s p e c t o f t h e B lac k c u l t u r a l e x p e r ie n c e . E u ro p ean I n f l u e n c e s W hile s l a v e s w ere c r e a t i n g t h e i r own u n iq u e form o f f o l k l i t e r a t u r e and c o m m u n icatio n and d e v e lo p in g t h e i r own l i t e r a r y s t y l e , some few B la c k s d u r in g t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f s l a v e r y w ere exposed t o and a d o p te d t h e l i t e r a r y s t y l e b ro u g h t t o t h i s c o u n try by t h e E n g lis h . W hile t h i s d e m o n s tra te d t h e B l a c k s ’ e s s e n t i a l i n t e r e s t i n l i t e r a t u r e and t h e i r a b i l i t y t o a d o p t, i f t h e y d e s i r e d , o t h e r s t y l i s t i c t e c h n iq u e s , t h e r e s u l t s w ere o f t e n b la n d and i m i t a t i v e , la c k in g t h e s t r e n g t h and s p o n t a n e i t y o f t h e o r a l s t y l e o f t o t a l B la c k e x p r e s s i o n . Though B la c k s h ad been m en tio n ed s p a s m o d ic a lly i n e a r l y E n g lis h l i t e r a t u r e , i t was n o t u n t i l t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a t B la c k men and t h e i r prob lem s became r e l a t i v e l y f a m i l i a r t o p i c s i n E n g lis h l i t e r a t u r e ; t h i s o c c u r r e d b e c a u s e o f E n g lis h i n t e l l e c t u a l s ’ c o n c e rn w ith t h e q u e s t i o n o f s l a v e r y . B la k e , B u rn s, Cow- p e r , and l a t e r W ordsw orth, C o le r id g e , and many o t h e r renow ned E n g lis h p o e ts w ro te h u m a n ita r ia n , a n t i - s l a v e r y w o rk s. E n g lis h p r o s e w r i t e r s and n o v e l i s t s a l s o added t h e i r v o ic e s t o t h e l a r g e num ber o f w r i t e r s d e p lo r in g t h e inhum ane sy stem o f s l a v e r y . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o te , how ever, t h a t e x c e p t f o r a few r a r e B la c k s who w ro te a n t i - s l a v e r y t r a c t s a t t h i s t i m e , 2^ m ost o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e ab o u t B lack p e o p le was by w r i t e r s who w ere n o t th e m s e lv e s B la c k . T h ere a p p e a r t o h a v e b e en no B la c k E n g lis h w r i t e r s o f any n o te o r renow n. A m erica a d o p te d n o t o n ly t h e E n g lis h la n g u a g e , b u t E n g lis h l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s a s w e l l . T h u s, t h e f i r s t known A m erican B lac k w r i t e r s u s e d form s and s t y l e s o f t h e E n g lis h l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . P h i l l i s W h ea tley (1 7 5 3 -1 7 8 4 )> who was m en tio n ed e a r l i e r , m a in ly em ployed A le x a n d e r P o p e ’s h e r o i c c o u p le t, w h ich was i n g r e a t vogue a t t h a t tim e . Though she h a d b een b ro u g h t from A f r i c a w h ile s t i l l a c h i l d and s o ld a s a s l a v e , M iss W h eatley w ro te i n th e m anner o f a c u l t u r e d B o s to n ia n . H er u p b r in g in g and e d u c a tio n had been u n d e r t h e g u id a n c e o f a r e l i g i o u s and b e n ig n B o s to n ia n f a m ily . Two o t h e r B lac k p o e ts w ere t h e s l a v e s J u p i t e r Hammon (1 7 3 0 -1 8 0 0 ) and G eorge Moses H o rto n (1 7 97-1883)* w hose w ork, h ow ever, la c k e d t h e p o l i s h o f M iss W h eatley * s p o e t r y . Hammon*s poems w ere r e l i g i o u s and f i l l e d w ith M e th o d is t p i e t y ; H o r t o n 's p o e tr y was m arked by c l e v e r rhym ing and word p la y and m ost o f i t d e a l t w ith r e l i g i o n ■ an and lo v e . H o rto n , how ever, h ad t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f b e in g t h e f i r s t A m erican B lack t o w r i t e p r o t e s t p o e tr y ; h i s The Hope o f L i b e r t y was w r i t t e n i n 1829* y e t h i s l i g h t v e r s e a p p e a rs t o c o n s t i t u t e h i s b e s t o f f e r i n g . By t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , v a r io u s w orks began t o be w r i t t e n by f r e e d - men o r e sc a p e d s l a v e s ; m ost d e a l t w ith t h e e v i l s o f t h e s l a v e r y sy ste m . A u to b io g r a p h ic a l p r o s e , h i s t o r i e s , and l e t t e r s a p p e a re d , a s w e ll a s p o e tr y by su c h men a s Jam es M adison B e l l , Jam es M. W h i t f i e l d , G eorge V ashon, and A lb e r r y W hitman. Jam es W h i t f i e l d was a r i g o r o u s a n t i s l a v e r y p o e t , a s was P ra n c e s E l l e n H a rp e r, who w ro te a n t i s l a v e r y a s w e l l a s f e m i n i s t poems; b o th c o u ld be c o n s id e r e d e a r l y B la c k p r o t e s t p o e t s . Emanuel and G ro ss, h o w ev er, s t a t e d t h a t i n a g e n e r a l s e n s e , 193 P re -w a r p o e ts w e re , on t h e whole., e d u c a te d and co n v en t i o n a l v e r s i f i e r s b e n t on p ro v in g th e m s e lv e s , r a t h e r l m i t a t l v e l y , t o t h e i r c o n te m p o ra r ie s a s A m erican, c u l t u r e d , and d e s e r v i n g . Thus th e y s a i d l i t t l e a b o u t th e u n d e r s id e o f N e g r o e s 1 e n v iro n m e n t and much a b o u t t h e p ro m ise o f l i b e r t y . 31 A f t e r t h e C i v i l War, w r i t e r s became l e s s i m i t a t i v e and more c o n c e rn e d w ith B la c k r u r a l l i f e . B lac k w r i t e r s tu r n e d t o t h e r i c h h e r i t a g e o f Negro f o l k c u l t u r e , and much o f t h e i r w r i t i n g was done i n r u r a l B lack d i a l e c t . The a c c e p te d g i a n t o f t h i s e r a was P a u l L aw rence D unbar, a l th o u g h o t h e r p o e ts and w r i t e r s su ch a s Jam es Edwin C am pbell, Jam es D. C a r r u t h e r s , D a n ie l W . D a v is, and C h a rle s W. C h e s t n u t em ployed d i a l e c t m a t e r i a l . Bontemps d e s c r i b e d Dunbar*s work t h u s : A s t r o n g s e n s e o f m elody and rh y th m was a f e a t u r e o f D u n b a r's p o e tr y , a s i t h a s b e en o f n e a r l y a l l t h e Negro p o e ts o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . D u n b a r's d e l i g h t f u l c o u n try f o l k , h i s b ro a d , o f t e n hum orous, d i a l e c t f a i l e d t o c r e a t e a t r a d i t i o n , h o w ev er. L a t e r Negro p o e ts h a v e h e l d t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e u s e o f d i a l e c t i n p o e tr y i s l i m i t e d t o humor and p a th o s . A c c o rd in g ly , m ost o f them h av e abandoned i t . 32 S t e r l i n g Brown p o i n te d o u t t h a t t h e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t d i a l e c t w r i t i n g a p p e a re d t o be c e n t e r e d i n t h e b e l i e f t h a t i t r e i n f o r c e d t h e m i n s t r e l show s t e r e o t y p e o f t h e B la c k , an i l l i t e r a t e , h ap p y b u f f o o n . ^ The p e r i o d o f d i a l e c t p o e tr y ; and p r o s e was r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t - l i v e d . D unbar h i m s e l f tu r n e d t o t h e u s e o f s ta n d a r d E n g lis h i n h i s w ork, some o f i w h ich i s h i s b e st-k n o w n . I t i s g e n e r a l l y b e li e v e d t h a t by t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y ; a c h a n g in g t o n e b eg an t o be soun ded i n B lac k l i t e r a t u r e , a i to n e o f a n g e r and h a t r e d f o r r a c i a l o p p r e s s io n . I t m ust be r e c o g n iz e d t h a t t h i s b e l i e f i s i n a c c u r a t e and r e v e a l s ig n o r a n c e o f t h e s t r o n g p r o t e s t w r i t i n g p r i o r t o t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y by su ch B la c k w r i t e r s as W h it f ie l d , H o rto n , and H a rp e r , a s w e ll a s t h e p r o t e s t - l a d e n s p i r i t u a l s and w ork s o n g s . The s o - c a l l e d new mood i n su ch poems by D unbar a s "We Wear t h e Mask" and "The H aunted Oak" was n o t i n f a c t new b u t m e re ly t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f B lack p r o t e s t t r a d i t i o n i n l i t e r a t u r e . P ro b a b ly t h e most n o te d w r i t e r o f p r o t e s t l i t e r a t u r e e a r l y i n t h e c e n t u r y was W. E. B. DuBois w hose p ro s e a s w e ll a s p o e tr y exam ined and exposed t h e c o n ti n u i n g i n j u s t i c e s t o B la c k s i n t h i s c o u n try . F e n to n J o h n s o n p r o duced p o e t r y w h ich r e f l e c t e d s o c i a l c o n s c io u s n e s s i n h i s c o l l e c t i o n , A f r i c a n N i g h t s . James Weldon Jo h n s o n , a lth o u g h a c o n te m p o ra ry o f D unbar, h a d n ot begun w r i t i n g u n t i l t h i s p e r i o d . H is bo ok, The A u to b io g ra p h y o f an E x -C o lo re d Man, came o u t i n 1912; th o u g h n o t an u n q u a l i f i e d s u c c e s s , i t ■aii w as, a c c o r d in g t o Emanuel and G r o s s , o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t n o v e ls o f t h i s c e n t u r y d e a l in g e f f e c t i v e l y w ith t h e them e o f r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e . He became more n o te d f o r h i s p o e t r y , much o f w h ich a p p e a re d l a t e r , making him a t r a n s i t i o n a l f i g u r e b etw een t h e p o s t - C i v i l War p io n e e r w r i t e r s an d t h e w r i t e r s o f t h e N egro "aw akening" o r " r e n a is s a n c e " o f t h e p o s t-W o rld War I p e r i o d . Thus t h e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e o f A f r i c a was tr a n s m u te d by t h e B la c k e x p e r ie n c e u n d e r s la v e c o n d itio n s i n t h i s c o u n tr y 195 t o new fo rm s; work so n g s , s p i r i t u a l s , t a l e s , and t h e b lu e s d e v e lo p e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h e so c io e c o n o m ic c o n d i t i o n s o f A m erican B lac k l i f e . A m erican r u r a l N egro l i f e was r e f l e c t e d i n d i a l e c t f o l k l i t e r a t u r e , j u s t a s t h e A n g lo - E uropean s t y l e was em ployed by many B la c k w r i t e r s t o p r o duce a body o f w r i t i n g g e n e r a l l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h e w ork o f w h ite w r i t e r s . F i n a l l y , d i s i l l u s i o n w ith c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n g n o t o n ly u n d e r s l a v e r y b u t a f t e r t h e eman c i p a t i o n a s w e ll Im p e lle d B la c k w r i t e r s t o a t t a c k r a c is m and i n j u s t i c e i n w orks o f e lo q u e n c e a n d a n g e r . The H arlem R e n a is s a n c e The d ecad e o f t h e t w e n t i e s h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o a s a p e r io d o f B la c k s p i r i t u a l a w a k e n in g , a N egro r e n a i s s a n c e . The e r a was s a i d to h a v e m arked a n u p s u rg e o f B la c k l i t e r a r y t a l e n t w hich h a s c o n tin u e d up t o t h i s d ay . I t i s p ro b a b ly t r u e r t o s t a t e t h a t t h e r e w as a n u p s u rg e i n l i t e r a r y t a l e n t i n g e n e r a l i n t h i s c o u n tr y ; more w r i t e r s w ere b e in g p u b lis h e d , and new s t y l e s an d a p p ro a c h e s w ere b e in g em ployed. P ro b a b ly , i t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t w h ite A m erica began t o become more I n t e r e s t e d i n B la c k w orks a s iw ell a s o t h e r s , b u t t o d e c l a r e t h a t t h i s p e r io d saw a new 'dim ension em erging i n B lac k l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e s ig n o r a n c e |of some o f t h e p r o l i f i c work o f B la c k w r i t e r s p r i o r t o t h e ‘ t w e n t i e s . At t h i s tim e , h ow ever, a l l l i t e r a r y form s w ere 196 em ployed by B la c k w r i t e r s — rom ance, s a t i r e , f o l k d i a l e c t , p r o t e s t i n p l a y s , p o e t r y , and s t o r i e s . What i s s i g n i f i c a n t i s t h a t t h i s p e r i o d saw a g r e a t i f o n ly s u p e r f i c i a l i n t e r e s t by w h ite c r i t i c s , p u b l i s h e r s , and s o c i a l f i g u r e s i n B la c k l i t e r a t u r e a s w e l l a s i n B la c k d a n c in g , m u sic , and t h e o t h e r a r t s . B la c k f o r a w h ile became th e f a d .^ ^ As Bontem ps p u t i t : N e g ro es t a k e t o p o e tr y a s t h e y do t o m u sic. I n t h e H a r lem R e n a is s a n c e o f t h e t w e n t i e s p o e tr y le d t h e way f o r t h e o t h e r a r t s . I t to u c h e d o f f t h e aw akening t h a t b ro u g h t n o v e l i s t s , p a i n t e r s , s c u l p t o r s , d a n c e r s , dram a t i s t s , and s c h o l a r s o f many k in d s t o t h e n o t i c e o f a n a t i o n t h a t h a d n e a r l y f o r g o t t e n a b o u t t h e g i f t s o f i t s N egro p e o p le . And a lm o st t h e f i r s t u t t e r a n c e o f t h e r e v i v a l s t r u c k an a r r e s t i n g new n o te : I ' v e known r i v e r s a n c i e n t a s th e w o rld and o l d e r t h a n t h e flo w o f human b lo o d i n human v e i n s . 36 I t was d u r in g t h i s p e r io d t h a t Jam es Weldon J o h n s o n p r o d u ced C o d 's Trom bones i n a d d i t i o n t o o t h e r w orks w h ich I n c lu d e d "0 B la c k and Unknown B a r d s ." C lau de McKay a r r i v e d fro m t h e B r i t i s h West I n d i e s t o make a s i g n i f i c a n t m ark on t h e w o rld o f B la c k l i t e r a t u r e j H arlem Shadows b ro u g h t him t o t h e n o t i c e o f p o e tr y l o v e r s and s t i m u l a te d h i s s u b s e q u e n t l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y . H is e a r l i e r w ork, C o n sta b B a lla d s , w r i t t e n i n West I n d i a n d i a l e c t , a l s o b ro u g h t him a c c la im . C o u n tee C u lle n and L a n g s to n Hughes became known d u r in g t h e H arlem R e n a is s a n c e o f th e t w e n t i e s , as d i d o t h e r B lao k w r i t e r s su c h a s S t e r l i n g Brown, J e a n Toomer, and A la n Locke. The B la c k aw akening o f t h e tw e n tie s has b een c r i t i c i z e d by some who c o n s id e r e d t h e movement s u p e r f i c i a l , 197 m o tiv a te d by i n t e r e s t i n a t t r a c t i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e w h ite r e a d e r and c r i t i c . Don L. Lee u n d e r s c o r e d t h i s a t t i t u d e by s t a t i n g t h a t t h e B lac k a r t o f t h e p e r i o d was o n ly a p p r e c i a t e d a t t h e " e l i t e s t l e v e l " an d p a t r o n i z e d by t h e "uptow n w h ite s . Lee p o in te d o u t t h a t L a n g sto n Hughes had b een aw are o f t h a t f a c t when h e s t a t e d i n h i s a u to b io g r a p h y The B ig Sea, "The o r d i n a r y N egroes h a d n 't h e a r d o f t h e Negro R e n a is s a n c e . ' 0 R e g a r d le s s o f any c r i t i c i s m w hich c o u ld be l e v e l e d a g a i n s t i t , t h e t w e n ti e s r e n a i s s a n c e d id b r i n g a b o u t chang es i n t h e a t t i t u d e s and a s p i r a t i o n s o f B lac k l i t e r a r y a r t i s t s . Em anuel and G ross commended a new h o n e s ty : W ith a l l o f i t s l i m i t a t i o n s , t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e N egro aw akening d e p ic te d Negro l i f e as t h e w r i t e r s saw i t and n o t a s t h e y w ere e x p e c te d to s e e i t . " T h is s o - c a l l e d R e n a is s a n c e ," a s A rth u r P. D avis h a s n o t e d , "n o t o n ly e n c o u ra g e d and i n s p i r e d t h e b la c k c r e a t i v e a r t i s t , b u t i t s e rv e d a l s o t o fo c u s a s n e v e r b e f o r e t h e a t t e n t i o n o f A m erica upon t h e Negro a r t i s t and s c h o l a r . " I n a l l i t s d i v e r s e fo rm s —t h e e s s a y , th e s h o r t s t o r y , th e poem, and t h e n o v e l— th e Negro Awakening i s i m p o r t a n t i n any h i s t o r y o f Negro l i t e r a t u r e . N ever a g a i n , i n s e r i o u s w orks o f a r t , c o u ld t h e l i f e o f th e A m erican N egro be d e s c r ib e d i n te rm s o f s t e r e o t y p e s . 39 P o s t-R e n a is s a n c e Y e a rs The y e a r s f o llo w in g t h e t w e n t i e s saw c o n s i d e r a b le num- 1 b e r s o f B lac k w r i t e r s p u b l is h in g and r e c e i v i n g c r i t i c a l a c c la im . The t h i r t i e s w ere sh aken b y t h e D e p re s s io n and t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e New D e alj B la c k a u t h o r s , h o w ev er, c o n - ' tl n u e d t o p ro d u ce i n more i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c and e x p e r im e n ta l w ays. D e s p ite t h e tra u m a o f t h e w a rr in g y e a r s o f th e 198 f o r t i e s , some o f t h e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t B lac k w r i t e r s began t o be p u b lis h e d . R ic h a rd W r ig h t's N a tiv e Son a p p e a re d in 19^0 and f o c u s e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e A m erican l i t e r a r y - w o rld once more upon B la c k w r i t i n g . R alp h E l l i s o n , W rig h t's f r i e n d , p ro d u c e d a s e r i e s o f s h o r t s t o r i e s i n t h e f o r t i e s t o b e g in t h e w ork w h ic h g a in e d him e v e n tu a l renow n a s a n o v e l i s t ; I n v i s i b l e Man a p p e a re d i n t h e f i f t i e s , fo llo w e d by c o l l e c t i o n s o f e s s a y s . B oth M a rg a re t W alker and Gwen d o ly n B rooks f i r s t won a c c la im f o r t h e i r work i n p o e tr y d u rin g t h i s p e r i o d , and Owen Dodson and M elv in B. T o lso n w ro te p o e tr y t h a t fo re sh a d o w e d t h e New P o e t i c s movement. James B aldw in b e g an t o be p u b lis h e d i n t h e f i f t i e s , and d u rin g t h e same p e r i o d , L o r r a in e H a n s b e rry became known. L an g sto n Hughes s h i f t e d h i s fo c u s from t h e H arlem n ig h t c lu b s o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e p e r i o d t o more s e r i o u s a s p e c t s o f B lack l i f e i n H arlem , em ploying u rb a n sp e e c h p a t t e r n s and ja z z and b lu e s c a d e n c e s i n h i s w ork. R e g a rd in g p o e tr y i n t h i s p o s t-H a rle m R e n a is s a n c e p e r i o d up t o t h e s i x t i e s , D udley R a n d a ll s t a t e d : T h ere was no c o n s c i o u s l y f o r m u la te d B lac k A e s t h e t i c . B lack p o e ts c o n s i d e r e d th e m s e lv e s a s p a r t o f A m erican ; l i t e r a t u r e , a l t h o u g h m ost o f them w ere e x c lu d e d from t e x tb o o k s , a n t h o l o g i e s , and t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , from mag a z i n e s . I t re m a in s t o be s e e n w h e th e r, i n o u r tim e , t h e i B lac k A e s t h e t i c w i l l s t i m u l a t e s u p e r i o r p o e t r y . The p ro o f w i l l h a v e t o b e i n t h e poems p r o d u c e d .40 199 The B lac k A r ts Movement The s i x t i e s have been s a i d t o h av e u s h e re d i n a new e r a i n B la c k l i t e r a t u r e j t h e "new ness" i n a c t u a l i t y may be q u e s tio n e d , s i n c e a s h a s been s t a t e d , t h e r e had b e en a s t r o n g t r a d i t i o n o f B lac k p r o t e s t e x te n d in g back t o t h e w ork songs and e a r l y s p i r i t u a l s . Some o f t h i s e x p r e s s io n o f p r o t e s t had b een m uted somewhat d u r in g t h e p e r io d s when B la c k w r i t e r s w ere c o n s c io u s ly aw are o f t h e a d v a n ta g e s t o be g a in e d by c u r r y i n g w h ite i n t e r e s t , b u t n o n e th e le s s i t was p r e s e n t an d o n ly made a more s t r i d e n t r e a p p e a r a n c e d u r in g t h e s i x t i e s . An e r a began o f trem en d o u s change i n a t t i t u d e , a s p i r a t i o n s , and d e s i r e s on t h e p a r t o f B lac k co m m u n ities th r o u g h o u t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , w h ich J u l i a n Bond a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e u r b a n i z a t i o n o f t h e B lack p o p u l a t i o n , s o c i a l g a in s th ro u g h c i v i l r i g h t s l e g i s l a t i o n , t h e p a r a d o x i c a l d e c l i n e i n B lac k em ploym ent, and t h e r i s e i n t h e 41 num ber o f B la c k s a t t h e p o v e rty l e v e l . V o cal young B la c k s w ere d e o l a r i n g a "new" B lac k l i t e r a t u r e , w ith o u t much r e g a r d o r know ledge o f t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s o r t h e i r w o rk sj many young B lac k w r i t e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t th e y w ere e s p o u s in g an e n t i r e l y new and d i f f e r e n t a e s t h e t i c . Don L. Lee s t a t e d : I n t h e s i x t i e s t h e b la c k a r t s em erged a s n e v e r b e f o r e : I e . g . . m u sic , t h e a t e r ( b la c k d ram a ), a r t ( p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e ) , f i l m , p r o s e ( n o v e l, e s s a y ) , and p o e tr y . The new and p o w e rfu l v o ic e s o f t h e s i x t i e s came t o l i g h t m a in ly b e c a u s e o f t h e te m p e r o f t h e tim e s ; i t a c c e n te d t h e human- r i g h t s s t r u g g l e o f b la c k p e o p le i n t h e w o rld . A ls o , t e l e v i s i o n p la y e d a v e ry Im p o rta n t r o l e i n p r o j e c t i n g 200 b la c k n e s s I n th e e a r l y s i x t i e s — m a in ly i n a g r o s s m isu n d e r s t a n d i n g , o v e r - r e p r e s e n t i n g i t a s so m e th in g new and q u e e r. . . . B lac k a r t o f t h e s i x t i e s , on th e n a t i o n a l s c e n e , s t a r t e d w ith t h e a d v e n t o f LeRoi J o n e s (Ameer B a ra k a ) and t h e b la c k t h e a t e r . ^2 I t was b e lie v e d t h a t t h e y h a d d is c o v e r e d an e n t i r e l y new p r i d e i n r a c e , a lth o u g h many o f t h e i r b e l i e f s an d s lo g a n s had b een expounded e a r l i e r by M arcus G arvey a s e a r l y as 1923 and b e f o r e . ^ S to k e ly C a r m ic h a e l's s lo g a n "B lack Power" and th e a s s e r t i o n "B lack i s b e a u t i f u l " echoed and reflected the "new-found" pride. The former negative self- a p p r a l s a l s u f f e r e d by many B la c k s e x i s t i n g i n a s t a t u s o f s e c o n d - c la s s c i t i z e n s h i p was b e in g r e p l a c e d by a p o s i t i v e self-image. Carolyn Rodgers claimed: The p ro c la m a tio n . The D e c l a r a t i o n o f b e a u ty . L i t e r a l l y O v e rn ig h t. From s u p e r u g ly B la c k t o S u p e r B lac k B e a u ty . I t r i e d t o b e l i e v e . I w an ted t o , n eed ed t o . I s t r a i n e d , I c r i e d , I scream ed, t o b e l i e v e . I " a c te d " l i k e I was t o l d . S uper B lack B e a u ty , F in e B lac k Queen. And my o ld and new (B la c k ) f r i e n d s r e - i n f o r c e d me. We r e c o r d e d e ac h o t h e r m essag es. We p la y e d o u r s e l v e s b ack t o each o t h e r . B lac k IS B e a u t i f u l , B lac k IS B e a u t i f u l , BLACK IS BEAUTI FUL, t h i s i s a r e c o r d e d m essa g e. . . . I b e li e v e d , I b e l i e v e d . 44 The b e g in n in g o f t h e B la c k A e s t h e t i c , t h e B lac k A r ts movement, and th e New P o e t r y a r e c o n s id e r e d t o h av e o r i g i n a te d i n t h e s i x t i e s . A g ain i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f M iss R o d g e rs: Many o f th e p o e ts o f t h e S i x t i e s s h o u te d , scream ed , and w r ith e d on p a p e r i n p a in . O th e rs w ro te p u re d e s i r e t o o f f t h e man and w ere o f t e n f a n t a s y - o r i e n t e d . T h ere was g o r i e d im a g in a tio n and o v e r - r o m a n t i z a t l o n o f o u r s e l v e s . R e a c tio n a ry . S u p e r -u g ly B la c k . S u p e r-B la c k b e a u ty . We d e a l t w ith a s u p e r f i c i a l s k in - d e e p l e v e l o f e x o rc ls e m e n t b u t p l a i n , fu n k y , n i t - g r i t B lac k h u m a n ity was n o t as 201 ; f r e q u e n t l y fo u n d o r a p p r e c i a t e d . Seldom m en tio n ed by some p o e ts , e x c e p t i n term s o f r i d i c u l e , p u t down and s i g n i f i c a t i o n . 45 T h is "ex o rc ism " was p a r t o f t h e s e e k in g and s t r i v i n g f o r th e e s s e n c e o f B lac k " s e l f , " t o se e k t h e t r u t h o f B lack I d e n t i t y by an e x a m in a tio n o f t h e B lack e x p e rie n c e . The num ber o f w r i t e r s who re s p o n d e d t o t h i s c h a lle n g e a re f a r to o many t o r e c o u n t h e r e ; LeRol J o n e s , Hoyt F u l l e r , Conrad K ent R iv e r s , C la re n c e M ajo r, M ari E vans, Don L. L ee, and E ld r i d g e C le a v e r a r e b u t a few o f t h e names w hich come t o m ind a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h i s movement. B lack L i t e r a t u r e : Sound, Rhythm, and Movement Mary J a n e H e w itt, i n p o i n t i n g o u t t h e A f r ic a n so u rc e o f B la c k o r a l l i t e r a r y s t y l e , ° spoke o f th e lan g u ag e o f m e ta p h o r, of im p lie d y e t h id d e n m eaning, and o f lan g u a g e b le n d e d w ith so n g , d a n c e , m ag ic, and sym bolism . Music h a s ! a p a r t i c u l a r l y s tr o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e o r a l s t y l e o f B la c k l i t e r a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e p o e tr y . C la re n c e M ajor spoke of this affinity: Some p a r a l l e l s o f o u r p o e t r y to d a y a r e e x p e rie n c e d i n a d v e r t i s i n g and o t h e r m edia b u t more s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n th e so n g s t y l i n g s and i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s o f Jo h n C o l t r a i n e , ; P h a ro a h S a n d e rs , Jam es Brown, A re th a F r a n k l in , W ilson P i c k e t t , Sam Cooke, Sun Ra, C e c i l T a y lo r , Ray C h a r le s , e t a l . T h is i s th e e s s e n t i a l e n e rg y t h a t i s b la c k n e s s , t h e j l y r i c i s m o f t h i s c o n s c io u s n e s s . The b e a t a s opposed to a n y th in g m e lo d ic . T h ese v o i c e s , so u n d s, t h i s m y stic ism : a k in d o f u n d e rg ro u n d c r e a t i v e m lxed-m edia b io g ra p h y o f t h e m ost s p i r i t u a l l y - o r i e n t e d l i f e i n N o rth A m e ric a.47 ‘ P o e t r y i s w r i t t e n w ith a c o n s c io u s n e s s o f and an i n c o r p o r a - | tion of musical beat within itB form and content. Note 202 LeRol J o n e s ' comments r e g a r d in g B lac k m usic and t h e c o n c e p t o f a t o t a l i n t e g r a t e d e x p r e s s io n , an e x p r e s s io n o f B lac k i d e n t i f i c a t i o n : The l i n e we c o u ld t r a c e , a s m u s ic a l " t r a d i t i o n " i s what we a s a p e o p le d ig and p a s s on, a s b e s t we c a n . The c a l l and re s p o n s e form o f A f r i c a ( l e a d and c h o ru s ) h a s n e v e r l e f t u s , a s a mode o f (m u s ic a l) e x p r e s s io n . I t h a s come down b o th a s v o c a l and I n s t r u m e n t a l form . . . . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s Sound I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s S ig h t I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s Touch, P e e lin g , S m e l l ,. M ovement.48 The e f f e c t i n m usic and p o e tr y o r b o th com bined i s one' o f t o t a l com m unication, com m unication o f th e B lack e x p e r ie n c e . M ajor s t a t e d : We hav e a u to m a t i c a ll y i n v e n t e d a new means o f s e e in g . We have g iv e n a c l a r i t y , a f r e s h n e s s t o E n g lis h : a new t u r n , a v i v i d l i f e . Our la n g u a g e i s born o f sound c l u s t e r s , as opposed t o S h a k e s p e a r e 's w hich d e r i v e s fro m t h e n e x u s, s i g h t .49 The B lack e x p e r ie n c e , t h e b le n d in g o f m u s ic a l e f f e c t s i n form , and "sound c l u s t e r s " h a v e b een em ployed t o c o n s t r u c t a u n iq u e q u a l i t y i n B lack p o e tr y : P o e tr y i s a com pressed e x p r e s s io n o f b e l i e f s , f e e l i n g s and form s t h a t comes out o f a t r a d i t i o n and c u l t u r e and o u t o f a p e r s o n a l e x p e rie n c e and n a t u r e . A p e r s o n a l n a t u r e i s an i n d i v i d u a l q u a l i t y , how ever i t i s sh a p ed by l i f e . B la c k A m ericans s h a r e t h e t r a d i t i o n and c u l t u r e o f w h ite A m ericans, b u t th e b l a c k and w h ite e x p e r ie n c e s a r e d i f f e r e n t . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , c o n te m p o ra ry b la c k p o e tr y h a s i t s own q u a l i t y . The em p h asis on word p l a y , f o r exam ple, i s s u r p r i s i n g . I t may stem from an A f r i c a n h e r i t a g e . I t may a l s o come from t h e d ay s o f s l a v e r y , when s u b t l e v e r b a l com m unication was n e c e s s a r y , and m essag es r e g a r d in g p l o t s w ere p a sse d on i n sp e e c h and s o n g .50 T h is same s e n s e o f freedom t o b le n d and m in g le fo rm s, t o a t t a i n a co m p lete and t o t a l co m m u n icatio n , e x te n d s t h r o u g h o u t c o n te m p o ra ry B lac k w r i t i n g . C a ro ly n R o d g e rs' i d e a s 203 r e g a r d i n g t h e p rim a c y o f movement and m usic i n B lac k s t y l e a r e s t a t e d : We a r e a n a t i o n o f o r a l r a p p in g p o e t s . W a itin g t o be d e a l t w ith . The d i r e c t i o n o f B la c k L i t e r a t u r e ? We m ust u l t i m a t e l y r e t u r n t o t h e o r a l from w hich w e 'v e n e v e r r e a l l y l e f t . . . . I know o f some poems t h a t c o n t a i n t h e e le m e n ts I sp e a k o f . P o e t A sk ia Muhammad T o ure i s a s i n g i n g , d a n c in g , p r e a c h in g , g e t-d o w n , s h o - n u f f p o e t. B la c k e x o r c i s e . I h a v e n o t i c e d B la c k p e o p l e s ' r e a c t i o n t o h i s poems on dope and Jim Brown. The p e o p le can h a r d l y s t a y i n t h e i r s e a t s , h a r d l y c o n t r o l t h e i r f e e l i n g s . He made me w ant t o s h o u t. Ronda D av is h a s a new, moving s t y l e . I t i s t h e s t r e e t t a l k , mushy m outh t y p e . H er l a t e s t poem, "I Am H ere To A n n o u n c e ," g o t a s h o u tin g , s ta n d in g o v a ti o n th e f i r s t tim e sh e sang i t . 51 Word p l a y , sound c l u s t e r s , and b e a t a r e o f t e n com bined w ith a n o n s ta n d a r d , u n p u n c tu a te d s t y l e ; t h e poems t h a t r e s u l t r e l y on t h e l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e s f o r rh y th m and e m p h a sis. Word p l a y i n r e p e t i t i v e sounds i s common a s i n t h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e poem "R e-A ct F o r A c tio n " by Don L. Lee: r e - a c t t o a c t a g a i n s t a c t o r s who a c t o u t p i g - a c t i o n s a g a i n s t y o u r a c t s & a c t i o n s t h a t k eep you r e - a c t i n g a g a i n s t t h e i r a c t s & a c t i o n s s t o p . a c t i n a way t h a t w i l l c a u s e them t o a c t th e way you w ant them t o a c t i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith y r / a c t s & a c t i o n s : 53 The u s e o f t h e l e n g t h o f l i n e s t o add rhy th m and em ph asis c an be n o te d i n t h i s exam ple ta k e n from t h e poem " b l k / r h e t o r i c " by S o n ia S an ch ez: 204 w ho' s go nna make a l l t h a t b e a u t i f u l b l k / r h e t o r i c mean so m e th in g . l i k e i mean w ho' s go n n a ta k e t h e w ords b l k / i s / b e a u t 1 f u l and make more o f i t th a n b l k / c a p l t a l i s m . u d ig ? i mean l i k e who 1s gonna t a k e a l l t h e y o u n g /lo n g /h a lr e d n a t u r a l / b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s and l e t them grow t i l l all that is lm pt i s them s e l v e s moving in straight/ r e v o l u t i o n a r y / l i n e s to w a rd t h e enemy (and we know who t h a t i s ) . l i k e , m an.5^ The common traits of Black stylistic techniques are enumer ated by Don L. Lee as: 1 . p o ly r h y th m ic , u n e v e n , s h o r t and e x p lo s iv e l i n e s 2 . i n t e n s i t y ; d e p th , y e t s i m p l i c i t y ; s p i r i t u a l i t y , y e t f l e x i b i l i t y 3 . i r o n y ; . hum or; s i g n i f y i n g 4 . sa rc a s m — a new comedy 5 . d i r e c t i o n ; p o s i t i v e movement; t e a c h i n g , n a t i o n - b u i l d i n g 6 . s u b j e c t m a t t e r — c o n c r e t e ; r e f l e c t s a c o l l e c t i v e and p e r s o n a l l i f e - s t y l e 7 . m u sic : t h e u n iq u e u s e o f vow els and c o n s o n a n ts w ith t h e d e v e lo p e d r a p demands t h a t p o e tr y be r e a d and r e a d o u t l o u d . ( I t a l i c s m ine)5$ 205 Idiom and T o n a l it y The s tr o n g rh y th m ic p a t t e r n and s t y l e demands t h e o r a l mode o f p e rfo rm a n c e . T o n a l i t y , o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s to n e o r to n e c o l o r , i s t h e p a r t i c u l a r sound e f f e c t o r p a t t e r n w h ich i s a c h ie v e d by c a r e f u l c o m b in a tio n s o f vow el and c o n s o n a n t so u n d s. I t i s t h i s q u a l i t y o f to n e o r t o n a l i t y w hich adds so much s a t i s f y i n g and m e a n in g fu l c o l o r t e x t u r e t o t h e o r a l r e n d i t i o n o f p o e tr y . The q u a l i t y o f o r a l i t y i s n o te d th r o u g h o u t t h e p o e tr y o f L an g sto n H ughes, a s i s s e e n i n h i s "Dream B o o g ie ": Good m o rn in g , daddyJ A i n 't you h e a rd The b o o g ie -w o o g ie rum ble Of a dream d e f e r r e d ? L i s t e n c l o s e l y : Y o u 'l l h e a r t h e i r f e e t B e a tin g o u t and b e a t in g o u t a ----- You t h i n k I t ' s a Happy b e a t ? L i s t e n t o i t c l o s e l y : A i n 't you h e a rd so m e th in g u n d e rn e a th l i k e a ----- What d id I_ s a y ? S u re , I 'm happyJ Take i t away.' Hey, p o p ] R e -b o p 1 Mopi Y - e - a -h j5 6 206 Hughes w ro te r e p e a t e d l y o f h i s i n t e r e s t i n co m binin g t h e form s o f B la c k e x p r e s s io n , and t o l d o f h i s e x p e r ie n c e w ith t h e R everend D r. B e c to n who w an ted t o i n t e r e s t Hughes i n w o rk in g w ith him b e c a u s e : He [D r. B e c to n ] s a i d he knew t h e e f f e c t s o f m usic and rhythm on t h e human e m o tio n s, f o r h e h ad made a s tu d y o f a u d ie n c e s and t h e i r r e a c t i o n s , and he knew how t o h a n d le them . Now h e was lo o k in g f o r someone who was c l e v e r w ith th e w r i t t e n word t o do w ith p e o p le th ro u g h t h e p r i n t e d page w hat h e c o u ld do w ith them i n p e r s o n .57 The q u a l i t i e s o f o r a l i t y and t o n a l i t y c an be d e t e c t e d i n m y riad ex am p les o f B lac k p o e t r y . LeRoi Jo n e s i s a more c o n te m p o ra ry f i g u r e i n l i t e r a t u r e , and em ploys t h e s e q u a l i t i e s i n t h i s p o r t i o n o f "The End o f Man i s H is B e a u ty " : And s i l e n c e w hich p ro v e s b u t a r e f e r e n t t o my d i s o r d e r . Your w o rld sh a k e s c i t i e s d i e b e n e a th y o u r sh a p e . The s i n g l e shadow a t noon l i k e a l i v e t r e e whose le a v e s a r e l i k e c lo u d s w e i g h t l e s s s o u l a t whose lo v e f a i t h moves a s a d a rk and w ith e r e d d a y . They sp e ak o f s in g in g who h av e n e v e r h e a r d so n g ; o f l i v i n g whose d e a th s a r e le g e n d s f o r t h e i r k i n d . 58 T o n a l i t y i s an o u t s t a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e work o f t h e e a r l i e r Jam es W eldon Jo h n s o n , a s i s d e m o n s tra te d i n t h i s b r i e f p o r t i o n o f "Go Down D eath (A F u n e r a l S erm on)": 207 Weep n o t , weep n o t , She i s n o t d e ad ; S h e 's r e s t i n g i n t h e bosom o f J e s u s . H e a r t- b r o k e n h u sb a n d —weep no m ore; G r i e f - s t r i c k e n so n —weep no m ore; S h e 's o n ly j u s t gone home. Day b e f o r e y e s t e r d a y m o rn in g , God was lo o k in g down from h i s g r e a t , h ig h h eav en , lo o k in g down on a l l h i s c h i l d r e n , And h i s eye f e l l on S i s t e r C a r o lin e , T o s s in g on h e r bed o f p a in . And G o d 's b ig h e a r t was to u c h e d w ith p i t y , W ith t h e e v e r l a s t i n g p i t y . And God s a t back on h i s t h r o n e , And he commanded t h a t t a l l , b r i g h t a n g e l s ta n d in g a t h i s r i g h t h an d ; C a ll me D eath.' And t h a t t a l l , b r i g h t a n g e l c r i e d i n a v o ic e T h at b ro k e l i k e a c la p o f th u n d e r : C a ll D eath .1— C a ll D eath.' And t h e echo sounded down t h e s t r e e t s o f heav en T i l l i t r e a c h e d away back t o t h a t shadowy p la c e . Where D eath w a i t s w ith h i s p a l e , w h ite h o r s e s . 59 R e p e t i t i o n Rhythm, s t y l e , t o n a l i t y , and r e p e t i t i o n a r e so i n t r i n s i c a l l y In te rw o v e n i n B la c k l i t e r a r y work t h a t a l l have b e e n i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e v a r i e d exam ples p ro v id e d so f a r . R e p e t i t i o n o f w o rd s, so u n d s, and rh y th m ic p a t t e r n i s one o f t h e o l d e s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e o r a l s t y l e . A poem done i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l w ork song m anner by S t e r l i n g A. Brown p r o v id e s a g r a p h ic p i c t u r e o f t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n " S o u th e rn R oad": 208 Swing dat hammer— hunh— Steady, bo1j Swing dat hammer— hunh-- Steady, bo'; Ain’t no rush, bebby, Long ways to go. Burner tore his— hunh— Black heart awayj Burner tore his— hunh— Black heart away; Got me life, bebby, An' a d a y .60 Leopold Sedar Senghor pointed out that in Africa, the prose story also has the grace of rhythm: In Africa, there is no fundamental difference between prose and poetry. Poetry is only prose with a more pro nounced, more regular rhythm and in practice can be recognized because it is accompanied by a percussion in strument. The same sentence can be turned into a poem by accentuating the rhythm and so expressing the tension of being, the being of being. . . . First of all, there is no economy of dramatic interest, or rather the economy is not achieved, as it is in modern European story telling, by avoiding repetition. On the contrary, dra matic interest arises from repetition . . . , repetition of a fact, an action, a song, of words, which form a leitmotiv. But there is almost always the Introduction of a new element, a variation of the repetition, unity in diversity. It is this new element, which emphasizes the dramatic progress. The prose story does not avoid fig ures of vocabulary based on repetition of phonemes or onomatapoelc words. Furthermore, African sentence struc ture is naturally rhythmical. While European languages use a logical syntax of subordination, African languages are more ready to make use of an intuitive syntax of co ordination and juxtaposition. And in clauses of roughly equal length, the words fall into groups with one major accent.61 Janheinz Jahn offers examples of this intensification through repetition, a traditional African element, from the works of Black American novelists such as Ralph Ellison, Chester Himes, and particularly James Baldwin.^2 Mr. Jahn 209 b e l i e v e s , how ever, t h a t i n g e n e r a l A m erican B lack p o e tr y i s c l o s e r t o t r u e A f r ic a n t r a d i t i o n th a n A m erican B lack p r o s e . T h is , h e s t a t e s , i s due n o t so much t o t h e s t y l e o f w r i t in g , b u t t o t h e te n d e n c y o f many A m erican B lack n o v e l i s t s t o c o n c e n t r a t e on r a c i a l p ro b lem s and t o c h a r a c t e r i z e p e r s o n a l i t i e s who a r e s p l i t i n t h e c o n f l i c t betw een two c u l t u r e s . ^ Conimunality S eng hor p o in te d o u t t h a t t o t h e A f r ic a n a l l a r t i s s o c i a l . I n l i k e m anner, t o t h e A m erican B lack w r i t e r , th e s o c i a l r e a l i t y o f t h e g h e tt o c o n d it i o n s u n d e r w hich m ost B la c k s e x i s t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e c an v a s upon w hich much o f th e e a r l i e r a s w e ll as much o f t h e c u r r e n t B lack l i t e r a t u r e i s p a i n t e d . Young w r i t e r s i n t h e B la c k A rts movement d e l i b e r a t e l y e l e c t t o c o n c e n tr a te upon th e u n iq u e a s p e c ts o f l i f e a s i t i s se e n and p a r t i c i p a t e d i n by t h e i r e th n ic b r o t h e r s . L a r ry N eal p la c e d t h e i d e a o f community i n m ajo r f o c u s a s h e e x p la in e d t h e r a t i o n a l e o f t h i s movement: The B lac k A r ts Movement i s r a d i c a l l y opposed t o any c o n c e p t o f t h e a r t i s t t h a t a l i e n a t e s him from h i s commu n i t y . B lack A rt i s t h e a e s t h e t i c and s p i r i t u a l s i s t e r o f : t h e B lac k Power c o n c e p t. As su c h , i t e n v is io n s an a r t t h a t sp e a k s d i r e c t l y t o t h e n e e d s and a s p i r a t i o n s o f B lack A m e ric a. I n o r d e r t o p e rfo rm t h i s t a s k , t h e B lack A r ts Movement p ro p o s e s a r a d i c a l r e o r d e r i n g o f th e w e s te r n j a e s t h e t i c . I t p r o p o s e s a s e p a r a t e sym bolism , m ythology, c r i t i q u e , and ic o n o lo g y . The B lac k A r ts and B lack Power c o n c e p ts b o th r e l a t e b r o a d ly t o t h e A fro -A m e ric a n 's d e s i r e f o r s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n and n a tio n h o o d . . . . The B la c k a r t i s t ta k e s t h i s t o mean t h a t h i s p rim a ry d u ty i s t o sp e a k t o t h e s p i r i t u a l and c u l t u r a l needs o f B lac k p e o p l e . 65 210 Carolyn Rodgers repeatedly expressed the need for Black creative artists to explore the experience of the Black community., to go from the rarified atmosphere of predomi nantly white institutions and return to the streets of the Black communitiesj The whole truth of us is in the streets and it is oral. There we must return. And most of us Black "intellec tuals’ ' are afraid of the streets, disgusted with them. For we know that our truth is as ugly as it is beautiful. It must be dealt with, in order for us to survive. There, we will find and see the real Black imagery, creativity, and movement.6° The mission of the Black writer in the fullest sense is to free his people by helping them to relate to themselves, to their feelings and actions, and to each other, and to give them an opportunity to participate in Black cultural ex pression. The sense of community and social-obligation in conjunction with the impetus of artistic creativity appears to underlie the intentions of contemporary Black writers, the most talented as well as the less able. Here again, one might be tempted to assert, appears the residual rem nant of African culture which views art as social and didactic as well as artistically creative and evocative of strong emotional response. Pauline Rodgers pointed out the power and force of the magic word or life force in African culture and related this to the evocative power of the word to express the social problems and the aspirations of the contemporary American Black. The African poet was not con cerned with the mere expression of his own subconscious nor 211 w ith an e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s p e r s o n a l r e a c t i o n s , a s was t h e t r a d i t i o n a l E u ro p ea n p o e t: The p o e ts o f o ld A f r i c a w ere n e v e r c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e i r n a t u r e o r i n d i v i d u a l i t y . They w ere n e v e r s e t a p a r t from t h e com m unity i n t h e way t h a t t h e E uropean p o e t was i s o l a t e d from h i s com m unity. T h e .th o u g h t o f e v e ry p o e t was c o l l e c t i v e , c r e a t e d f o r a l l and s h a r e d by a l l . H is poem was Nommo, and t h e power o f t h e word became f u n c t i o n a l an d c o l l e c t i v e . I n A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n t h i s m eant a com m itm ent, n o t m e re ly t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l b u t commitment t o t h e p e r s o n . E x p r e s s io n was a lw ay s i n s e r v i c e o f th e c o n t e n t , i t was alw ay s an e x p r e s s io n o f so m eth in g b u t n e v e r o f o n e s e l f . I n A f r i c a t h e poem had a s o c i a l t a s k w hich m eant r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on t h e p o e t ’s b e h a l f t o t h e com m unity. . . . The A f r i c a n p o e t c r e a t e d t h e im age and c o n ju r e d them i n t o c o n t e x t , m aking them f u n c t i o n a l i n t h e l i v e s o f t h e p e o p l e . 67 T h is f e e l i n g o f s o c i a l c o n s c io u s n e s s and com m unity s p i r i t i n th e B la c k o r a l l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n o f A f r i c a and A m erica 68 i s a k in t o t h a t same s o c i a l s p i r i t m e n tio n e d by H avelock i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e p r e l i t e r a t e l i t e r a r y o r a l t r a d i t i o n s o f e a r l y G reece an d t h e M iddle E a s t. T h ere a r e a few who do n o t g iv e enough a t t e n t i o n to t h i s a s p e c t o f com m unity s p i r i t and s o c i a l c o n s c io u s n e s s i n B lac k l i t e r a t u r e . C a th e r in e J u a n i t a S ta r k e h a s c la im e d t h a t s u b j e c t m a t t e r , Im a g e ry , c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , and g e n e r a l s t y l e h av e b e e n a f f e c t e d by t h e grow ing B la c k em p hasis on aw a re n e ss o f r a c i a l p r i d e and c o n s c io u s n e s s . . . a s tr o n g B lac k i m a g e , ^ T h is , she b e l i e v e s , i s r e v e a l e d by t h e c h a n g in g im age o f B la c k s i n l i t e r a t u r e . How ever, sh e does s t a t e t h a t t h e s t o c k im ages and s t e r e o t y p e s em erged m a in ly a s a r e s u l t o f t h e a t t i t u d e s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e work o f w h ite w r i t e r s — a t t i t u d e s t e n d in g t o d e v a lu e t h e B la c k s t o t h e 212 enhancem ent o f th e w h i t e s . I t m ust be p o in te d o u t t h a t M rs. S t a r k e 's comments r e l a t e m a in ly t o w h ite r a t h e r th a n t o B la c k w r i t e r s . I f t h e r e I s any u n d e r ly in g m o tiv a tio n i n B lac k w r i t i n g one w ould have t o p o in t t o a v i b r a n t p r i d e i n r a c e . D arw in T. T u rn e r e x p la in e d t h e m o tiv a tio n u n d e r ly in g th e B la c k A rts movement: I n s p i r e d by i d e n t i t y and p r i d e d e r iv e d from b la c k n a t i o n a lis m , young b la c k a r t i s t s h av e r e p u d i a t e d t h e t r a d i t i o n s w hich th e y i d e n t i f y w ith t h e c u l t u r e o f W e ste rn E u ro p e. I n v e s t i g e s o f A f r ic a n h e r i t a g e and i n t h e s o u l o f b la c k g h e t t o e s i n A m erica t h e y se e k s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , id io m , c a d e n c e , and s t y l e f o r a r t w h ich w i l l i n s p i r e b la c k p e o p le t o l i b e r a t e th e m s e lv e s from t h e v a r i o u s form s o f b o n d a g e — c u l t u r a l , p s y c h o l o g ic a l , s p i r i t u a l , p o l i t i c a l , e m o tio n a l, and econom ic—w h ich h av e d e te rm in e d t h e i r u n e q u a l e x is te n c e i n a s o c i e t y o r i e n t e d t o t h e v a lu e s o f t h e w h ite m i d d l e - c l a s s . U n lik e e a r l i e r A fro -A m e ric an p r o t e s t , i t i s n o t a p l e a f o r su b m e rsio n i n a m e ltin g p o t . I n s t e a d , i t i s a demand t h a t b la c k p e o p le i d e n t i f y , r e s p e c t , and f r e e th e m s e lv e s .7 0 Summary The l i t e r a r y o u tp u t o f B la c k w r i t e r s h a s expanded s i n c e t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y , a s a l l l i t e r a r y work h a s e x p an d ed . The b a s ic q u a l i t y o f B lac k w r i t i n g h a s n o t been s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l t e r e d , how ever, d e s p i t e t h e v a r i o u s e r a s and p e r i o d s g e n e r a l l y m e n tio n e d i n t e x t s an d a n t h o l o g i e s . S ocioeconom ic p roblem s o f t h e B la c k s hav e a lw a y s t i n g e d t h e fo rm , s t y l e , and c o n te n t o f t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e from th e C o lo n i a l p e r i o d up t o t h e p r e s e n t d a t e . The work so n g s and s p i r i t u a l s c r e a t e d t h e b lu e s form w hich l i e s a t t h e h e a r t o f B la c k l i t e r a r y s t y l e . As LeRoi J o n e s n o te d : 213 : B lu e s a s a v e r s e form h a s a s much s o c i a l r e f e r e n c e a s any p o e t r y , e x c e p t f o r t h e s t r i c t l y r i c , and t h a t a ls o i s fo u n d i n b l u e s . Love, s e x , t r a g e d y i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , d e a th , t r a v e l , l o n e l i n e s s , e t c . , a r e a l l s o c i a l phenom ena. And p e rh a p s t h e s e a r e t h e t h i n g s w hich a c t u a l l y c r e a t e a p o e tr y , a s t h i n g s , o r i d e a s ; t h e r e can be no su ch t h i n g a s p o e tr y ( o r b l u e s ) e x c l u s i v e o f th e m at t e r i t p ro p o s e s t o be a b o u t . 71 The c u r r e n t "New P o e tr y " movement o r t h e "B lack A r ts " move ment a r e m e re ly c o n t i n u a t i o n s o f t h e b a s i c t r a d i t i o n s and t r e n d s o f B lac k l i t e r a t u r e i n t h i s c o u n tr y . The o r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f B la c k l i t e r a t u r e a r e th o s e o f s t y l e and rh y th m , t o n a l i t y , and r e p e t i t i o n . T hese have b e en se e n t o be t h e b a s i c q u a l i t i e s o f a l l o r a l l i t e r a r y s t y l e s fro m w hich h av e b een g e n e r a t e d t h e w r i t t e n l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s . The o r a l s t y l e can be s a i d t o be a u d ie n c e - c o n t r o l l e d th ro u g h o u t i t s h i s t o r y ; t h e r e f o r e c o n te n t o f com m unity s p i r i t and s o c i a l c o n s c io u s n e s s i s g e n e r a l l y q u i t e e v i d e n t , a s p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d o f t h e a n c i e n t s by E r ic H a v e lo c k . B la c k s w ere u n iq u e i n l i t e r a r y developm ent i n a s much a s t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f s l a v e r y , e n fo r c e d i l l i t e r a c y , and econom ic and s o c i a l d e p r i v a t i o n p r e v e n te d t h e g r a d u a l d ev elo p m en t o f a w r i t t e n r a t h e r t h a n a sp o k en l i t e r a t u r e ; t h e y a r e u n iq u e i n t h e W e ste rn W orld i n t h a t th e y have r e t a i n e d t h e p u re o r a l t r a d i t i o n w h ich so many o t h e r c u l t u r e s h av e l o s t . I When B la c k s f i r s t began t o w r i t e and p u b l is h i n t h i s c o u n tr y , t h e y e m u la te d t h e w r i t t e n s t y l d o f t h e E n g lis h l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n , and t h e i r w orks te n d e d t o be i m i t a t i v e and somewhat self-conscious. This period of imitation was relatively short-lived, and Blacks began to experiment and employ the stylistic techniques of oral expression with which they were most familiar. In style they have employed many of the techniques of African literature— the oral mode, the use of word play, repetition, rhythmic patterns, and, in content and purpose, they have emulated the African tradition of regarding art as operating within the context of the social life of the community to which it is addressed. It is significant to the teacher of interpretation that in all sources, extreme emphasis is placed on the oral nature of both African and American Black literature, particularly the poetry. The oral performance is usually mentioned in conjunction with physical movement and/or musical accompaniment; rarely is it spoken of as being totally unadorned. In studying the general historical development of Black writing in America, the teacher can also note the European deviation from the basic oral style of Africa which began with the period of Phillis Wheatley and continued through to this century; this did not succeed in obliterating the African reverence for the magic power of the spoken word. Black culture is attuned to total communication through words, rhythm, mu sic, movement— indeed all that can be employed to bring f o r t h an em path ic a u d ie n c e r e s p o n s e . The e f f e c t i v e r e a d in g o r t e a c h in g o f l i t e r a t u r e r e q u i r e s t e a c h e r s who a r e aw are o f t h i s need f o r t o t a l e x p r e s s io n and co m m u n icatio n . FOOTNOTES LeRoi J o n e s , B lu e s P e o p le : The N egro E x p e rie n c e I n W hite A m erica an d t h e M usic t h a t D eveloped from I t (New Y ork: Morrow, 1963). 2I b l d . , p . 28. ■^"On B la c k E n g lis h : From t h e C e n te r D ia lo g u e ," C e n te r R e p o r t, 5 (D ec. 1 9 7 2 ), 10. ^ D a n ie l C. Thompson, "The R is e o f th e N egro P r o t e s t , " A n n als o f t h e A m erican A s s o c i a t i o n o f P o l i t i c a l and S o c ia l S c ie n c e , 357 ( J a n . 1 9 ^ 5)> 1 8 -2 9 . 5 r b i d . , p . 29. R o b e rt G o ld s to n , The Negro R e v o lu tio n (New Y ork: M a cm illa n , 1968), pp. 7 0 -7 1 . ^ A sh le y M ontagu, Man: H is F i r s t M i l li o n Y ears (New Y ork: M entor B ooks, 1958 )> PP* 1 7 1 -7 2 . Q Simon and Phobe O tte n b e r g , Customs and S o c i e t i e s of A f r i c a (New Y ork: Random H ouse, 1 9 6 8 ), p. 56. ^C h inua A chebe, T h in g s F a l l A p a rt (New Y ork: McDowell and O b le n sk y , 1959)* PP. 5 5 -5 7 . 1(^Paul Bohannan and P h i l l i p C u r t in , A f r i c a and A f r ic a n s , r e v . e d . (G arden C ity , N .Y .: The N a t u r a l H i s t o r y P r e s s , 1 9 7 1 ), PP. 8 2 -8 3 . 11The a s s o c i a t i o n o f form and te c h n iq u e o f t h e o r a l l i t e r a t u r e i n A f r i c a a s w e ll a s t h e i r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i n th e o r a l s t y l e o f A m erican B la c k s a r e n o t p e c u l i a r l y d i s t i n c t i v e t o A f r i c a n c u l t u r e . The fo rm u la o f r e p e t i t i o n and th e r h e t o r i c a l s t y l e a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e G reek p o e ti c fo rm u la a s w e ll a s t o t h e A nglo-Saxon and o t h e r p r e l i t e r a t e c u l t u r e s . The o r a l t r a d i t i o n was t h e b a s i s o f t r a n s m i s s io n o f t r a d i t i o n s and c u l t u r a l a t t i t u d e s from one g e n e r a t i o n t o th e n e x t, a s w e l l a s a d e v ic e f o r t h e e d u c a tio n , t r a i n i n g , and e d i f i c a t i o n o f th e g e n e r a l p o p u la tio n j u s t a s i t h a s been i n t h e B lack c u l t u r e s . R e p e t i t i o n and t o n a l i t y w ere o f im p o rta n c e t o a s s i s t t h e memory a s w e ll as t o add t o th e a e s t h e t i c e x p r e s s io n o f t h e p o e t. 216 217 E r ic H a v elo ck p o in te d o ut t h e p e c u l i a r o r a l i t y and r h y th m ic a l s t y l e o f t h e t r a n s l a t e d t a b l e t s o f t h e e a r l y M iddle E a s t and G reece ( P r e f a c e t o P l a to [C am bridge, M a ss .: The B elknap P r e s s o f H a rv a rd , 1 9 6 3], pp. 1 3 4 -3 6 ), d e c l a r i n g t h a t " I t was fram ed o r a l l y f o r v e r b a l m e m o riz a tio n and t r a n s m i s s i o n , and th e n h app ened t o g e t w r i t t e n dow n." On page 137, h e s t a t e d t h a t t h e G reek w r i t e r s , f o r exam ple, w ere alw ay s u n d e r a u d ie n c e c o n t r o l . Com m unication and m e m o ry -re te n tio n w ere o f u tm o st im p o rta n c e i n any form o f u t t e r a n c e o r w r i t i n g : I n t h e H om eric, t h e r e was no p ro s e o r i g i n a l . You fram ed d i r e c t i v e s p o e t i c a l l y o r th e y w ere no good as d i r e c t i v e s . Even a c a t a l o g u e o f arm our w ould i n i t s i n c e p t i o n and o r i g i n a l s u b s ta n c e be rh y th m ic . The r e p e t i t i o n o f su c h l i n e s a s "H ecto r i s dead ; H e c to r i s d ead " was j o in e d t o b o d i l y rhythm and m u s ic a l accom panim ent i n p e rfo rm a n c e ; t h e e f f e c t upon t h e a u d ie n c e was a lm o st h y p n o t ic . H a v elo c k l i k e n s th e p e rfo rm an c e s t y l e t o ". . . j a z z and o t h e r d a n ce rhythm s so f a r as th e s e a r e o f t e n m ar r i e d t o w ords w hich a r e th e n rem em bered" ( i b i d . , p . 1 4 7 ). I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t he f i n d s th e most co m p arab le c o n te m p o ra ry a n a lo g y t o th e Greek p e rfo rm an c e i n j a z z , t h e u n iq u e ly B lac k form o f e x p r e s s io n . I t i s a ls o i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te i n h i s c h a p t e r s "The Hom eric S t a t e o f Mind" and "P sy ch o lo g y o f t h e P o e t ic P e rfo rm a n ce " how c l o s e l y th e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f s t y l e , form , and p e rfo rm an c e r e l a t e t o t h e • d e s c r i p t i o n s o f A f r i c a n and B lac k A m erican p e rfo rm a n c e s . 1 P Janheinz Jahn, "Value Concepts in Sub-Saharan Africa," in Cross-Cultural Understanding: Eplstemology in Anthropology, ed. F. S. C. Northrup and Helen H. Livingston (New York: Harper and Row, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 5 5 -6 9 . ^ J a n h e i n z J a h n , M untu: The New A f r ic a n C u ltu r e (New Y ork: Grove P r e s s , 1961) , pp. 1 3 7 -3 B'. l 4 I b l d . , p . 124. ^ P a u l i n e R o d g e rs, " M a n ife sto s o f B lack P o e t r y , " Nommo, 8 M arch 1972, p. 6 . ^ W i l l i a m H. G r i e r , M.D. and P r i c e M. Cobbs, M .D., B lac k Rage (New Y ork: B a sic Books, 1968), p . 122. '^W ayne W arga, " S h a t te r in g t h e Old Im ages o f N e g r o e s ," i Los A n g eles Tim es C a le n d a r , 6 F eb . 1972, p. 1. ^ W i l l i a m M e lv in K e lle y , " I f Y o u 're Woke You Dig I t , " New York Times M ag azin e, 20 May 1962, p. 46. 218 ■ ^ S te r lin g Brown, Negro P o e tr y and Drama (New Y ork: A thenium , 1969)* pp. 2 5 -2 6 , a l s o Bohannan and C u r t in , pp. 81- 8 3 . 20 Brown, p. 13. on C a ro ly n M. R o d g e rs, "Uh N a t 'c h a l T hang—The WHOLE TRUTH—US," B lack W orld, 20 (S e p t. 1971 ) j 8* 22 B enjam in Q u a rle s , The Negro i n t h e Making o f A m erica (New Yorks C o ll'ie r Books, 1968)7 PP. 2 9 -3 2 . 2^ J Romeo G a r r e t t , " A fric a n S u r v i v a ls i n A m erican C u l t u r e , " J o u r n a l o f Negro H i s t o r y , 51 (O c t. 1966) , 239* oh. . A rna Bontem ps, e d ., A m erican N egro P o e tr y (New Y ork: H i l l and Wang, 1968), p . x v l i i . 2^ R ic h a rd M. D orson, e d ., A m erican Negro F o l k t a l e s (G reenw ich, C onn.: F a w c e tt Books, 1967)^ p . 12. of S o n ja W alker, "The C u l t u r a l H i s t o r i a n and t h e B la c k E x p e r i e n c e ," Nommo, 8 March 1972, p . 9* 2^ L a n g sto n H ughes, F in e C lo th e s t o t h e Jew (New Y ork: K nopf, 1927) , unnum hered“ p r e f a c t o r y p a g e s . oft. L a n g sto n H ughes, "E v e n in ' A ir B l u e s ," i n D ark Symphony: Negro L i t e r a t u r e i n A m e ric a , e d . Jam es A .E m a n u e l and T heodore L. G ross (New Y ork: F re e P r e s s , 1968), pp. 207-298. 2% orm an V e r r le M cC ullough, The N egro i n E n g lis h L i t e r a t u r e (ilfa c o m b e : S to c k w e ll, 1962)., p p . 2 3 -1 2 0 . 3°Brown, pp. 4 - 7 . ^■'■James A. Emanuel and T heodore L. G ro ss, e d s . , Dark Symphony: Negro L i t e r a t u r e i n A m erica (New Y ork: F re e P r e s s , 1968)7 p. 9* •32 J Bontem ps, p. x v . ^■^Brown, pp. 3 2 -4 2 . ^ E m a n u e l and G ro ss, pp. 6 9 -7 0 . ^ L a n g s t o n H ughes, The B ig Sea (New Y ork: H i l l and Wang, 1 9 4 0 ), pp. 223-33. ■^Bontemps, p. xiii. 219 3^Don L. L ee, "B lack P o e tr y o f t h e S i x t i e s , " i n The B lac k A e s t h e t i c , e d . A d dison G a y le, J r . (G arden C ity , N .Y .: A nchor, 1972), p . 223. 38I b i d . 3 ^Em anuel an(} G-ross, p . 6 8 . ^ D u d l e y R a n d a ll, "The B la c k A e s t h e t i c i n th e T h i r t i e s , F o r t i e s , and F i f t i e s , " i n The B lac k A e s t h e t i c , e d . A ddison G a y le, J r . (G arden C i ty , N.Y'. s' A nchor, 1972) , p . 220. ^ J u l i a n Bond, "A New V is io n , A B e t t e r T om orrow ," i n From a B la c k P e r s p e c t i v e : C o ntem p orary B la c k E s s a y s , ed. D ouglas A. Hughes (New Y ork: H o lt, R i n e h a r t, an d W in sto n , 1 9 7 0 ), p p . 2 2 3 -2 4 . ^ 2L ee, p . 224. 4-a J E. D avid C ro n in , B la c k M oses: The S to r y o f M arcus G arv ey , 2nd e d . (M adison: U niv. o f W isc o n sin P r e s s , 1 9 7 2 ), Chap. V I I , a l s o pp. 176 and 191. 44 C a ro ly n R o d g e rs, p . 10. ^ I b i d . , p . 6 . The te rm "put down" i s d e f in e d by C la re n c e M ajor i n D i c ti o n a r y o f A fro -A m erican S la n g (New Y ork: I n t e r n a t i o n a l ^ 1970) a s -Tr. . . t o i n s u l t o r r e j e c t som eone." The te rm " to s i g n i f y , " M ajor d e f i n e s a s ". . . t o c e n s u r e i n 12 o r fe w e r s t a t e m e n t s . " R obbins B u r lin g i n Man1s Many V o ic e s : L anguage i n i t s C u l t u r a l C o n te x t (New Y ork: H o lt, R i n e h a r t, and W in sto n , 1 9 7 0 ), p . 157* d e f i n e s " s i g n i f y i n g " a s ". . . t e a s i n g o r t a u n t i n g t a l k . " 46 W alker, p . 9 . ^ C l a r e n c e M ajor, e d . , The New B lac k P o e tr y (New Y ork: I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1969)* P* 18. 48 LeRoi J o n e s , "The C hanging Same (R & B and New B lac k M u s ic ) ," i n The B lac k A e s t h e t i c , ed. A d diso n G ay le, J r . (G arden C i ty , N .Y .: A nchor, 1972) , p . 113. ^ % a j o r , The New B la c k P o e t r y , pp . 1 8 -1 9 . 3<^Ted W ile n tz and Tom W e a th e rly , e d s . , N a t u r a l P r o c e s s : An A n th o lo g y o f New B la c k P o e tr y (New Y ork: H i l l and Wang, 1 9 7 0 ), p . i x . ^ C a r o l y n M. R o d g e rs, pp. 7 - 8 . 220 ^ 2S a ra h W eb ster F a b io , "B lack F e e li n g , B lack T a lk , B lack J u d g m e n t," B lac k W orld, 20 (Dec. 1 9 7 0 ), 102-104. 33Don L. L ee, "Re-A ct F o r A c t i o n , " i n The New B lac k P o e t r y , e d . C la re n c e M ajor (New Y ork: I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1969), p . 0 2 . 3^ S o n ia S a n c h ez , " b l k / r h e t o r l c , " i n N a tu r a l P r o c e s s : An A n th o lo g y o f New B lac k P o e t r y , ed. Ted W lle n tz and Tom W e a th e rly (New Y ork: H i l l and Wang, 1 9 7 0 ), pp. 128- 29. 33L ee, p . 226. -^ L a n g s to n H ughes, "Dream B o o g ie ," i n B lac k V o ic e s : An A n th o lo g y o f A fro -A m e ric an L i t e r a t u r e , ed. Abraham Chapman (New Y ork: M entor Books, 1968)* P* 428. •^ H u g h es, The B ig S ea, p . 278. -^L eR oi J o n e s , "The End o f Man i s H is B e a u ty ," i n A m erican N egro P o e tr y , e d . A rna Bontemps (New Y ork: H i l l and Wang, 1 9 6 8 ), p . 181. ■^James W eldon J o h n s o n , "Go Down D eath (A F u n e ra l S e rm o n )," i n A m erican Negro P o e tr y , e d . A rna Bontemps (New Y ork: H i l l and Wang, i 960), p p . 2 -4 . fin S t e r l i n g A. Brown, "S o u th e rn R o a d ," i n B lack V o ic e s : An A n th o lo g y o f A fro -A m erican L i t e r a t u r e , ed. Abraham Chapman (New Y ork: M entor Books, 1968) .> PP. 4 1 2 -1 3 , fi 1 L eo p o ld S e d a r S e n g h o r, P ro s e and P o e tr y , t r a n s . Jo h n Reed and C liv e Wake (London: O xford U niv. P r e s s , 1965)> PP. 88- 8 9 . fi P Ja h n , M untu: The New A f r ic a n C u l tu r e , p . 168. 63I b i d . , pp. 225- 3 0 . ^ S e n g h o r , p p. 88- 8 9 . ^ ^ L a rry N e a l, "The B lac k A r ts M ovem ent," The Drama R eview , 12 (Summer 1968), 29. fifi C a ro ly n M. R o d g e rs, p. 12. ^ P a u l i n e R o d g e rs, p . 6 . ^®See f t . 11 o f t h i s c h a p t e r . 221 ^ C a t h e r i n e J u a n i t a S ta r k e , B lac k P o r t r a i t u r e i n Amer i c a n F i c t i o n : S to c k C h a r a c te r s , A rc h e ty p e s , and I n d i v i d u a l s (New Y ork: B a s ic Books, 1971). ^ D a r w in T. T u rn e r, e d ., B lac k A m erican L i t e r a t u r e : P o e tr y (C olum bus, O hio: M e r r i l l , I 969J, pp. 6 - 7 . " ^ J o n e s , B lu e s P e o p le , p. 50. CHAPTER V I CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS I n t r o d u c t i o n I t was t h e p u rp o s e o f t h i s s tu d y t o a n a ly z e t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n pro gram i n t h e Los A n g e le s Community C o lle g e System w i t h r e g a r d t o i t s v a lu e t o B lack m in o r i t y s t u d e n t s and t o p ro p o s e reco m m en d atio n s f o r a program w hich w ould b e t t e r m eet t h e n e e d s o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s . S ix q u e s tio n s w ere p o se d t o be a n sw e red i n t h e body o f t h i s s tu d y : 1. What i s t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e comm unity c o l l e g e s , and how a r e t h e d i s c i p l i n e s o f sp e e c h co m m u n icatio n a d j u s t e d t o t h i s p h ilo s o p h y ? 2. What i s th e p r e s e n t s t a t u s o f t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program I n t h e e i g h t Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e s ? 3 . What aw .areness o f B lac k m in o r ity c u l t u r a l b ackground i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e t e a c h e r t o e n a b le him t o meet t h e n eed s o f B la c k s t u d e n t s ? 4 . What a r e t h e m a jo r l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of B lac k sp e e c h p a t t e r n s ? 5 . What l i t e r a r y b a c k g ro u n d may b e h e l p f u l f o r t h e t e a c h e r o f B la c k s t u d e n t s ? 6 . As a r e s u l t o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e above q u e s t io n s , w hat re c o m m e n d a tio n s, i f an y , c o u ld be made t o make t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program i n t h e Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e S ystem a v i a b l e one f o r B lac k m in o r i t y s t u d e n t s ? The a n sw e rs t o t h e s e q u e s t io n s a s w e l l a s c o n c lu s io n s and recom m end atio ns f o l lo w . 222 223 What i s t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p h ilo s o p h y o f th e comm unity c o l l e g e s and how a r e d i s c i p l i n e s o f Speech CommunjLoation a d j u s t e d t o t h i s p h ilo s o p h y ? — T h ree m a jo r p u rp o se s hav e g e a r e d c u r r i c u l a d e v elo p m en t o f t h e tw o -y e a r c o ll e g e : 1. To p r e p a r e s t u d e n t s f o r f u r t h e r c o ll e g e o r u n i v e r s i t y s tu d y ( t h e t r a n s f e r p ro g ra m ). 2. To p r e p a r e s t u d e n t s f o r v o c a t i o n a l employment ( th e t e r m i n a l p ro g ra m ). 3. To m eet t h e d i v e r s e n e e d s o f t h e I n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e com m unity s u rro u n d in g t h e c o l l e g e ( th e community s e r v i c e s p ro g ra m ). The Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e System i s co m p rised o f e i g h t c o l l e g e s . A l l o f t h e Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e s h av e d e p a rtm e n ts o r p rog ram s i n sp e e c h com m unication; p u b l ic s p e a k in g i s r e q u i r e d f o r t r a n s f e r t o f o u r - y e a r i n s t i t u t i o n s , an d , i n m ost c o l l e g e s , i n th e t e r m in a l tw o - y e a r p ro g ram . A l l c o l l e g e s o f f e r c o u rs e s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p u b l ic s p e a k in g c l a s s , and o n ly one does n ot o f f e r th e c o u r s e i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . At p r e s e n t , t h e s t a t u s o f t h e t r a n s f e r program i s u n c e r t a i n s i n c e i t i s d ep en d e n t upon t h e r a p i d l y c h a n g in g p o l i c i e s o f th e S t a t e c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s . The t e r m i n a l program a p p e a rs i n need o f ; e x p a n s io n . The com m unity s e r v i c e s program s do n o t a p p e a r j t o be m e e tin g , i n a l l c a s e s , t h e d e s i r e s o r needs o f B lac k com m unity m em bers. 224 What i s t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s o f t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program i n t h e e i g h t Los A ngeles Community C o l le g e s ?— O nly t h r e e o f t h e c o l l e g e s h av e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e r e g u l a r c l a s s e s i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; one o f f e r s o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n ly i n a l t e r n a t e s e m e s te r s ; one, a t p r e s e n t , h a s no prog ram a t a l l . The s t a n d a r d sp e e c h com m unication c o u rs e s and a c t i v i t i e s w hich i n c o r p o r a t e m ethods and te c h n iq u e s o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e : 1. S peech 4 — I n t r o d u c t i o n to I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 2. S peech 3 —V oice and D ic tio n 3 . S peech 15— S t o r y t e l l i n g 4 . S peech 13—F o r e n s i c s l A q u e s t i o n n a i r e was a d m in is te r e d t o 562 B lac k s t u d e n t s a t a l o c a l com m unity c o l l e g e ; s t u d e n ts r e p r e s e n t e d a l l c o l l e g e d i s c i p l i n e s . To e n co u rag e h o n e s t a n sw e rs, form s w ere f i l l e d o u t anonym ously; s t u d e n ts w ere f r e e t o re f u s e , t o an sw er t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . R e s u l ts w ere as f o llo w s : 1. A m a j o r i t y (60 p e r c e n t ) o f B lack comm unity c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s a r e n o t a c q u a in te d w ith o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s a c o u rs e o f s tu d y . 2. P o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s to w a rd o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s o f l i t e r a t u r e w ere i n d i c a t e d . 3 . V a rio u s ty p e s o f l i t e r a t u r e ( e . g . , m y s t e r i e s , a c t i o n s t o r i e s , ro m an ces, hum or, and p o e tr y ) a p p e a l t o B la c k 225 s t u d e n t s ; m y s te ry and a c t i o n s t o r i e s h a v e g r e a t e s t a t t r a c t i o n ( e . g . , Poe was a p o p u la r c h o ic e ) . 4 . An overw helm ing m a j o r i t y (82 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d a b e l i e f t h a t o r a l r e a d in g and p e rfo rm a n c e can make l i t e r a t u r e more m e a n in g fu l. 5 . W ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f L a n g s to n H ughes, Jam es B ald w in , and E ld rid g e C le a v e r , s t u d e n t s have more know ledge o f n o te d w h ite a u th o r s th a n o f B la c k . T h e ir a c q u a i n t an ce w ith c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r s was w id e r th a n w ith co n te m p o ra ry o r m odern w r i t e r s . 6 . S tu d e n ts i n d i c a t e d a p p r o v a l o f e x t r a v e r b a l f a c t o r s ( e . g . , m u sic, rh y th m ic b a c k g ro u n d s, movement, sc e n e ry ) i n o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s and a p r e f e r e n c e f o r m odern, r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e . To a s s e s s t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program i n t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s , q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w ere s e n t t o th o s e sp e ec h t e a c h e r s i n t h e sy ste m who ta u g h t S peech 4 , Speech 3* and Speech 15* r e g a r d i n g t e x t s , o b j e c t i v e s , m eth o d s, and c o n c e p ts o f o r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A s e p a r a t e q u e s t io n n a ir e was s e n t t o f o r e n s i c c o a c h e s . T h i r t y - t h r e e t e a c h e r s w ere c o n ta c t e d a n d , o f t h a t num ber, tw e n ty - s e v e n re s p o n d e d . T h e ir r e s p o n s e s I n d i c a t e d : 1. T e x ts i n S peech 4 r e f l e c t a t r a d i t i o n a l a p p ro a c h t o o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A l l s e t up r i g i d r u l e s f o r r e a d in g w ith m a n u s c rip t i n h a n d . L i t t l e o r no move ment or* g e s t u r e i s e n c o u ra g e d . None seem a d a p ta b le t o a B la c k t r a d i t i o n and c o n c e p t o f o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e . 2. E th n ic m a t e r i a l , when in c lu d e d i n t e x t s , a p p e a rs a to k e n acknow ledgm ent o f c i v i l r i g h t s a d v a n c e s . 3. I n s t r u c t o r s a r e m ark e d ly i n d i f f e r e n t t o g e s t u r e and movement i n p e rfo rm a n c e . 4 . A p p ro ach es t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h e o r y and o b j e c t i v e s a r e b la n d and i l l - d e f i n e d . O b je c tiv e s l i s t e d by S peech 4 t e a c h e r s i n d i c a t e a g e n e r a l l y lo o s e s t r u c t u r e o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s tu d y p r o c e d u r e j t h e r e i s l i t t l e a g re em e n t among i n s t r u c t o r s on m eth o d o lo g y , o b j e c t i v e s , f o r m a t, m a t e r i a l s , and a n t h o l o g i e s . I n g e n e r a l i t w ould a p p e a r t h a t o r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n p rogram s i n t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s a r e v a r i o u s l y d e f i n e d a s t o o b j e c t i v e s and c o n te n t, and l o o s e l y s t r u c t u r e d i n p r o c e d u r e s . What a w a re n e ss o f B lac k m in o r i t y c u l t u r a l b ackground i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e t e a c h e r t o e n a b le him t o m eet th e n e ed s o f B la c k s t u d e n t s ?— D i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e a l i n g w ith th e B lac k s t u d e n t s and com m unity a r i s e from s p a r s e o r d i s t o r t e d kno w ledge o f t h e b a c k g ro u n d s and n e e d s o f B lack s t u d e n ts and t h e c o m m u n ities from w hich t h e y come. A lth o u g h s t u d i e s and t e x t s d e a l w ith t h e econom ic and s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f B la c k A m e ric a n s, many h a v e c o n c e n tr a te d upon t h e more e x o t i c a s p e c t s o f B lac k b e h a v io r . W hile i t i s t r u e t h a t some t e x t s p r o v id e a b a la n c e d p i c t u r e o f t h e B lac k com m unity and B la c k f a m ily l i f e , s e n s a t i o n a l s t u d i e s a r e b e t t e r known. A s u rv e y o f d i v e r s e d a ta r e l a t i n g t o c o n te m p o ra ry B la c k c u l t u r e showed t h e r e l a t i v e f u t i l i t y o f l a b e l i n g o r s t e r e o t y p i n g t h e B lac k f a m ily ; i t d id , how ever, r e v e a l t h a t s o c i a l l y and e c o n o m ic a lly th e a v e ra g e B lac k s tu d e n t h a s b e en f a c e d w ith o v e r t and c o v e r t m a n i f e s ta t io n s o f p r e j u d i c e w h ich , i n many c a s e s , have u nderm ined h i s p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t . Some o f t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e r e s e a r c h i n t h i s s e c t i o n r e v e a l : 1. T e a c h e rs te n d t o e v a l u a t e s t u d e n ts i n te rm s o f t h e i r e t h n i c i t y . Some r e g a r d them o v e r s o l i c i t o u s l y ; o t h e r s d e v a lu e t h e i r p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s and a b i l i t i e s . 2. Added t o r e s i d u a l re m n a n ts o f A f r ic a n c u l t u r e , B la c k s a d o p te d many E u ro p ean custom s and em ployed a l l a v a i l a b le means t o a d j u s t t o and s u r v iv e u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f s l a v e r y and l a t e r so cio eco n o m ic i n e q u i t i e s . 3 . S t u d i e s h a v e shown t h a t f a m i l i a l b ack g ro u n d s o f many l o w e r - c l a s s B la c k y o u th s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a m a t r i a r c h a l s t r u c t u r e w ith , i n some c a s e s , l i t t l e s t a b i l i t y . I l l e g i t i m a c y , d ru g a d d i c t i o n , and c rim e o f t e n mar t h e b a ck g ro u n d s o f B lack l o w e r - c l a s s y o u t h s . D e s p ite so c io ec o n o m ic h a z a rd s t o f a m ily l i f e , f a m ily a tta c h m e n ts a p p e a r t o be s t r o n g . 228 5 . B lac k p e o p le , i n g e n e r a l , le a d a c t i v e s o c i a l l i v e s . 6 . A l l c l a s s e s o f B la c k s a r e expo sed t o r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a ti o n t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r d e g re e . 7 . B lac k s t u d e n ts hav e s t r o n g n eed s f o r s u p p o r t, a c h ie v e m ent, and a p o s i t i v e s e l f - i m a g e . 8 . Most B la c k s "believe t h a t e d u c a tio n i s t h e s u r e s t means o f g a in in g f u t u r e s e c u r i t y , h i g h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s , and econom ic s o lv e n c y ; th e y a p p e a r h i g h l y s u p p o r tiv e o f h i g h e r e d u c a tio n . 9 . Young B la c k s f a v o r f i e l d s o f employm ent w h ich In v o lv e p u b lic c o n t a c t ; co m m u n icatio n s k i l l s a r e o f e x tre m e im p o rta n c e t o them . I n summary, i t c a n be s t a t e d t h a t B lac k s o c i e t y a t a l l l e v e l s i s h i g h ly s o c i a l , v e r b a l , and e x p r e s s i v e ; i n t e r p e r s o n a l and i n t e r - g r o u p com m unication h a s h ig h p r i o r i t y and r e q u i r e s com m unication s k i l l s o f e ac h member o f th e com m unity. The need f o r a c t i v e v e r b a l and p h y s i c a l e x p r e s s io n and th e d e s i r e t o a c h ie v e a p o s i t i v e s e l f - i m a g e i n employment a s w e ll a s i n s o c i e t y a rg u e f o r c o u r s e s i n com m u n ic a tio n g e a re d t o m e e tin g t h e s e n e e d s . What a r e some o f t h e m a jo r l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f B lac k sp e e c h p a t t e r n s ? — B la c k lan g u a g e and sp e e c h have b een c o n t r o v e r s i a l s u b j e c t s w i t h i n and o u t s i d e t h e a c a demic com m unity. N o tio n s a b o u t B lac k sp e e c h h a v e te n d e d t o p e r p e t u a t e r i g i d s t e r e o t y p e s : B lac k s h a v e b een presum ed t o be in c a p a b l e o f c l e a r o r a l c o m m u n icatio n and even o f l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g by many t e a c h e r s . Many B la c k s a s w e ll a s w h ite s e x h i b i t o r e x p re s s co ntem pt o r i n t o l e r a n c e o f s o - c a l l e d n o n s ta n d a r d B la c k sp e e c h h a b i t s . R e se a rc h f o r C h a p te r IV o f t h e s tu d y r e v e a l e d : 1. The m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t c an f e e l r e j e c t e d when he r e c e i v e s a n e g a t iv e r e s p o n s e t o h i s h a b i t s o f sp e e c h . 2. T h e re i s i n r e a l i t y no s t a n d a r d sp o k en E n g lis h , b u t I n s t e a d a v a r i e t y o f n o n s ta n d a r d n e s s i n A m erican s p e e c h . 3. Many B la c k y o u th s f i n d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a u n iq u e B la c k sp e e c h a t t r a c t i v e — a s t a t u s sym bol o f t h e i r e th n i c h e r i t a g e and c u l t u r e . 4 . T h e re i s p a t t e r n i n B la c k p h o n o lo g y and l o g ic i n B la c k s y n ta x . 5. B la c k s la n g o r id io m r e v e a l s an I n t e r e s t i n t h e i m a g i n a t iv e u s e o f la n g u a g e and f i g u r a t i v e sp e e c h . 6 . The B la c k s tu d e n t r e q u i r e s a p o s i t i v e a c c e p ta n c e o f h i s c o m m u n icatio n b e h a v io r , i . e . , h i m s e l f . S tu d e n ts i n Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s a r e o f t e n p r o f i c i e n t a t d i a l e c t s w itc h in g ; many em ploy d e f i n i t e B lac k sp e e c h p a t t e r n s ; o t h e r s whose sp e e c h a p p ro x im a te s s o - c a l l e d s t a n d a r d E n g li s h may r e v e a l B lac k c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n i s o l a t e d i n s t a n c e s . A u t h o r i t i e s i n e d u c a ti o n and sp e ec h co m m u n icatio n a g re e t h a t know ledge o f B lac k sp e ec h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s o f prim e Im p o rta n c e t o i n s t r u c t o r s i n t h e 2 3 0 ! i n n e r - c i t y i n s t i t u t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g to d a y . "B lack sp e ec h " ; i s n o t o n ly a m anner o f sp e a k in g i n t h e g h e tto e s o f th e c o u n tr y , b u t h a s b een a d o p te d by many young B lac k s o f h i g h e r econom ic s t a t u s a s a sym bol o f r a c i a l p r i d e and u n i t y . What l i t e r a r y b ack g ro u n d may be h e l p f u l f o r th e t e a c h e r o f B lac k s t u d e n t s ? — O ra l l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s io n o c cu p ie s a p la c e o f p rim a c y even to d a y i n b o th A f r ic a n and A m erican B lac k s o c i e t y . A lth o u g h A m erican B lack s a d o p te d t h e lan g u a g e and many o f t h e custom s o f t h e New W orld, t h e i r u n iq u e l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s io n d e r iv e d from work song and s p i r i t u a l m u ta tio n s o f A f r ic a n o r i g i n s , c o n d it i o n s o f s l a v e r y , and t h e l a t e r so cio eco n o m ic l i f e o f B lack Amer i c a n s . A new fo rm e v o lv e d s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e C i v i l War— t h e b lu e s form w hich l i e s a t th e h e a r t o f B lack l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s io n ; i t a p p e a re d f i r s t i n what LeRoi Jo n e s term ed a " p r i m i t iv e " s t y l e on t h e farm s and i n t h e v i l l a g e s o f th e South and d e v e lo p e d i t s " c l a s s i c a l " s t y l e a b o u t t h e same tim e a s t h e a p p e a ra n c e o f r a g tim e m usic d u rin g t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . The f o llo w in g a r e some o f t h e f i n d i n g s i n t h i s p o r t i o n o f th e s tu d y : 1. The l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y o f B lac k w r i t e r s i n t h i s c o u n try ; h a s o f t e n b een o v e rlo o k e d o r m is u n d e rs to o d ; f o r i exam ple, c r i t i c s p o in t t o t h e "new ness" o f contem po- , r a r y B lack a r t s w ith l i t t l e know ledge o f t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s . Many B lac k l i t e r a r y th em es, s u b j e c t s , fo rm s , s t y l e s , and s lo g a n s had t h e i r o r i g i n s i n n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y w r i t i n g , and some w ere sounded i n e a r l y w ork songs and s p i r i t u a l s . B lac k c o m p o s itio n , i n t h e m ain, was f o r o r a l p e r form ance o r r e a d i n g , o r s in g in g o f p o e t i c w orks and t e l l i n g o f t a l e s . Some B la c k s d id a d o p t and em ploy some o f t h e l i t e r a r y te c h n iq u e s o f E n g lis h l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s w hich r e s u l t e d i n an amalgam o f s t y l e s and fo rm s. Most o f t h e s e p u r e ly i m i t a t i v e w orks, h ow ever, w ere p a l l i d and u n i n s p i r e d . Rhythm, r e p e t i t i o n , and t o n a l i t y a r e m a jo r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e o r a l c o m p o s itio n o f B la c k c u l t u r e w hich a p p ro x im a te s t h e o r a l c o m p o s itio n o f e a r l i e r c l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e s . Rhythm, v o ic e , m u sic, and movement a r e a l l a p a r t o f A m erican B lack p o e ti c o r a l e x p r e s s io n ; t h i s i s n o t a p o e tr y d e s ig n e d f o r s i l e n t r e a d in g b u t f o r p e rfo r m ance and a u d ie n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n . The c o n te n t o f B lac k l i t e r a t u r e r e f l e c t s r a c i a l p r i d e and community s p i r i t . 232 8 . The o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e o f B la c k l i t e r a t u r e I s u s u a l l y i n c o n ju n c ti o n w ith p h y s i c a l movement a n d /o r m u s ic a l accom panim entj i n r a r e i n s t a n c e s i s i t m e re ly v e r b a l . 9. B lac k c u l t u r e i s a t t u n e d t o t o t a l com m unication em p loy ing a l l means o f e x p r e s s io n (w o rd s, rh y th m , m u sic , movement) t o g a i n a u d ie n c e em pathy and r e s p o n s e . 10. E f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g o f l i t e r a t u r e t o B la c k s t u d e n t s r e q u i r e s t e a c h e r s who a r e aw are o f t h e i r n eed f o r t o t a l e x p r e s s io n and co m m u n icatio n . The B lac k s t u d e n t i s t h e p r o d u c t o f a c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e w ith a s tr o n g o r a l l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n * t h e o p p o r t u n it y t o e x p e r ie n c e and e x p re s s t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f h i s own c u l t u r a l b ack g ro u n d w ould n o t o n ly be o f e d u c a t i o n a l b e n e f i t t o t h e s t u d e n t , b u t w ould p r o v id e an Im p o rta n t means by w h ich he c o u ld d e r i v e a more p o s i t i v e s e l f - i m a g e . C o n s i d e r a t io n o f n o n v e rb a l a s p e c t s w ould b ro a d e n t h e sc o p e o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f o r a l l s t u d e n t s . The B la c k h e r i t a g e h a s p r o v id e d an o r a l l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n w h ich em braces v o c a l and p h y s i c a l , a s w e l l a s v e r b a l , a r t s o f e x p r e s s io n . As a r e s u l t o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e above q u e s t i o n s , w hat re c o m m e n d a tio n s, i f a n y , c o u ld be made t o make t h e o r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n program i n t h e Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e System a v i a b l e one f o r B la c k m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s ? — The s u i t a b i l i t y o f t h e p r e s e n t o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n prog ram j 233 i n t h e Los A n g eles C o lle g e s t o t h e n e ed s o f B lack m in o r i t y s t u d e n t s i s s e r i o u s l y q u e s tio n e d . I t i s o b v io u s t h a t a lth o u g h t h e 562 s t u d e n t s q u e s tio n e d e v id e n c e d a s t r o n g i n t e r e s t i n r e a d i n g , o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s o f l i t e r a t u r e , and e x t r a v e r b a l f a c t o r s o f p e rfo rm a n c e , a n sw ers o f t h e t e a c h e r s q u e s tio n e d do n o t e v id e n c e a w a re n e ss o f t h e s e i n t e r e s t s . An e x a m in a tio n o f t h e d a t a p r e s e n te d i n t h i s s tu d y and t h e d is c r e p a n c y r e v e a l e d b etw een B la c k s tu d e n ts * n eed s and e x p re s s e d d e s i r e s and t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s o f t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program i n t h e Los A n g e les C o lle g e s a rg u e f o r c h an g e s i n t h e pro g ram . The f o llo w in g reco m m endations a r e made w ith a view to w a rd m aking t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r o gram a more v i a b l e one f o r t h e B lac k m in o r ity s t u d e n t . T h ese reco m m en d atio n s a r e b a s e d on a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e d a t a p r e s e n te d i n t h e body o f t h e s tu d y : Recom m endations 1 . Team t e a c h i n g . —Team t e a c h i n g i s recommended t'o p r o v id e m u l t i - i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e o r a l s tu d y o f l i t e r a t u r e . E n g lis h , sp e e c h , m u sic , and dance s h o u ld c o n t r i b u t e a m u ltid im e n s io n a l a p p ro a c h t o e x p r e s s io n . / C a r e f u l l y c o o r d in a te d i n s t r u c t i o n c o u ld b r in g a b o u t t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t form s o f e x p r e s s io n n o t o n ly o v e r la p b u t c a n , when s t u d i e d i n c o n ju n c tio n and com bined m e a n in g f u lly , r e s u l t i n u n d e r s ta n d in g and c r e a t i v i t y o f a e s t h e t i c and e d u c a ti o n a l m e r i t. E x tr a v e r b a l f a c t o r s . — O ra l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e demands r e c o g n i t i o n o f e x t r a v e r b a l f a c t o r s t o a p p e a l t o t h e B lac k s tu d e n t and t o r e c r e a t e m ean in g f u l l y l i t e r a t u r e f o r t h e B lac k a u d ie n c e o r in d e e d f o r any a u d ie n c e . The need f o r f r e e , t o t a l e x p r e s s io n w hich h a s been m e n tio n ed th ro u g h o u t t h e body o f t h i s s tu d y i s im p o r ta n t n o t o n ly t o a i d t h e B lac k s tu d e n t i n g a in i n g a p o s i t i v e s e l f - i d e n t i t y th r o u g h f u l l e x p r e s s io n and a c c e p ta n c e o f h i m s e l f , b u t t o p r o v id e an o u t l e t f o r an e x p re s s io n o f t h e p e rfo rm a n c e mode o f h i s c u l t u r e . S in c e so many B lac k s t u d e n t s e x p re s s e d d e s i r e s f o r ty p e s o f employment w here com m u n ic a tio n w ith l a r g e num bers o f p e o p le w ould be m an d a to ry , e x t r a v e r b a l com m unication , an I m p o rta n t p a r t o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l and i n t e r - g r o u p co m m u n icatio n , s h o u ld be r e c o g n iz e d as m e a n in g fu l and u s e f u l e d u c a t i o n a l l y and e c o n o m ic a lly . A u d io v is u a l a i d s . —Accompaniment by m u s ic a l i n s t r u m ents s h o u ld be e n c o u ra g e d . R eco rd s a n d /o r t a p e s c o u ld be em ployed a s m u s ic a l accom panim ent i n p la c e o f l i v e m u sic . A d d i t io n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s w ould b e t R e c o rd s /T a p e s — a . S e l e c t i o n s by t h e L a st P o e ts o r t h e W atts P ro p h e ts f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e b le n d in g o f v o ic e and m u s ic a l b a ck g ro u n d s i n B lac k p o e tr y p e r f o r m a n c e s .: b . S e l e c t i o n s by B la c k groups-, Q uincy Jo n e s f o r exam ple, f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n o f phonem ic e x p r e s s io n s (n o t w o rd s) i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith i n s t r u m e n t s t o a c h ie v e a t o t a l m u s ic a l, rh y th m ic e f f e c t . (T h is c o u ld be v e r y h e l p f u l , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n e x p la in i n g t h e form o f s o - c a l l e d m odern " c o n c r e te p o e t r y . " ) c . S p i r i t u a l s and g o s p e l s h o u tin g a s an o b v io u s d e v ic e i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h e mood and c h a r a c t e r o f su c h poems a s th o s e by Jam es W eldon Jo h n so n from God1s T rom bones. d . M u sic a l r e c o r d i n g s o f A f r i c a n g ro u p s and t r i b e s a s w e l l a s from t h e in n u m e ra b le l i s t s o f A m erican B lac k g r o u p s . (T h ese c o u ld be u se d m e a n in g f u lly t o c l a r i f y t h e rh y th m and mood o f m ost o f t h e B lac k w r i t e r s , L a n g sto n H ughes, f o r e x a m p le .) V ideo T ap e— a . I n a d d i t i o n t o r e c o r d i n g s , v id e o t a p e s w ould g iv e s t u d e n t s an o p p o r t u n it y t o view and c r i t i c i z e t h e i r own p e rfo rm a n c e s . b . P r e ta p e d exam ples o f r e a d i n g s , l e c t u r e - r e c i t a l s , and r e a d e r s t h e a t e r c o u ld a l s o be h e l p f u l . E ncouragem ent o f c r e a t i v e p e rfo r m a n c e . —Many s t u d e n t s who a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n c r e a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e have no p l a c e t o h e a r i t o r t o s e e i t p e rfo rm e d . Some a r e e a g e r t o r e a d a lo u d t h e i r p o e tr y , f o r exam ple. S tu d e n ts w ith c r e a t i v e l i t e r a r y i n t e r e s t and a b i l i t y sh o u ld be e n c o u ra g e d t o e n r o l l i n and ta k e p a r t i n t h e a c t i v i t i e s and t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s i n t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c l a s s . By t h i s m eans, t h e n e ed s o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s f o r a p o s i t i v e s e l f - i d e n t i t y th ro u g h e x p r e s s io n and c r e a t i v i t y c o u ld be r e c o g n iz e d and m et. T hese c r e a t i v e p e rfo rm a n c e s c o u ld a l s o h e lp m eet t h e n eed f o r i n c r e a s e d a c t i v i t i e s u n d e r t h e com m unity s e r v i c e s prog ram ; s t u d e n t s from th e com m u n ity w ould be d i s p l a y i n g t h e i r c r e a t i v e w ares to o t h e r s i n t h e com m unity. C r i t e r i a . — C r i t e r i a f o r p e rfo rm a n c e e v a l u a t i o n w ould be i n te rm s o f t h e n a t u r e and e s s e n c e o f B lac k l i t e r a t u r e and t h e n e e d s o f t h e B la c k s t u d e n t s f o r t o t a l i t y o f e x p r e s s io n . The e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t y t o be p r o j e c t e d i n t h i s ty p e o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h a t o f t o t a l c o m m u n icatio n and t h e s t u d e n t s w ould be e v a lu a te d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r p r o j e c t i o n o f emo t i o n a l m eaning, mood, and l o g i c a l m eaning t o an a u d ie n c e w ith l i v i n g s t y l e . T h is s t y l e w ould r i s e from t h e v e ry m a t e r i a l and c u l t u r e o f th e B lack e th n i c b a c k g ro u n d , a s t y l e a k in t o t h e e a r l y t o t a l i t y o f t h e C l a s s i c a l o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e . C r i t e r i a s h o u ld be a t t u n e d t o t h i s new a p p ro a c h : 237 a . S tu d e n ts w ould be e n co u rag e d , r a t h e r th a n f o r b id d e n , t o em ploy movement, g e s t u r e , o r a n y th in g w h ich w ould add to t h e t o t a l com m un icative p e r fo rm ance o f a l i t e r a r y w ork. b. A ll modes o f p e rfo rm in g l i t e r a t u r e w ould be p e r m i s s i b l e , w ith o r w ith o u t m a n u s c rip t. Conven t i o n s em ployed w ould depend upon t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e . c . B lac k sp e e c h p a t t e r n s s h o u ld be r e c o g n iz e d a s i n h e r e n t i n much B lack l i t e r a t u r e . S tu d e n ts s h o u ld u se t h e i r u n iq u e phonemic b le n d s , t o n a l i t i e s , and rh y th m s i n i t s p e rfo rm a n c e . d . S tu d e n ts who e l e c t t o r e a d p o e tr y i n s t a n d a r d E n g lis h and who p o s s e s s n o n s ta n d a rd sp e e c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s h o u ld be a s s i s t e d by th e i n s t r u c t o r to a p p ro x im a te s ta n d a r d E n g lis h phonem es. I t i s hop ed t h a t a new and h o n e s t a p p ro a c h to o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s a t o t a l com m unicative e x p e rie n c e w i l l m eet n o t o n ly t h e d e s i r e s and e d u c a ti o n a l n eed s o f B lac k m in o r i t y s t u d e n t s , b u t r e v i t a l i z e th e s tu d y f o r a l l s t u d e n t s . C ou rse o f S tu d y A c o u rs e o u t l i n e f o llo w s . I t s fo rm a t i s i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith g e n e r a l c o u rs e s ta n d a r d s i n th e Los A n g eles Community C o lle g e D i s t r i c t . I t i s d e s ig n e d f o r a s e m e s te r c o u rs e o f 238 t h r e e u n i t s , m e e tin g t h r e e tim e s w e e k ly . T ext and t e a c h i n g a i d s a r e in c lu d e d on a f i n a l s u p p le m e n ta l page o r p ag es to f a c i l i t a t e t e x t , a n t h o l o g i c a l , an d a u d io v i s u a l c h an g e s and a d d i t i o n s w ith o u t a l t e r i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o u r s e o u t l i n e . Speech 4 I n t r o d u c t i o n to O ra l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f L i t e r a t u r e (3 u n i t s ) COURSE DESCRIPTION P r e r e q u i s i t e : None L e c tu r e : 3 h o u rs T h is c o u rs e i s d e s ig n e d t o d e v e lo p t h e s t u d e n t ’s a b i l i t y t o u n d e rs ta n d p r o s e , p o e t r y , and dram a, t o p e rfo rm l i t e r a r y work w ith u n d e r s ta n d in g and a p p r e c i a t i o n , and t o communi c a t e t h i s u n d e r s ta n d in g and a p p r e c i a t i o n t o o t h e r s . Em p h a s is i s p la c e d on u t i l i z i n g a l l a s p e c t s o f e x p r e s s iv e com m unication n e c e s s a r y t o t h e p e rfo rm a n c e o f a l i t e r a r y w ork. A m ajo r g o a l i s t o f o s t e r g r e a t e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e and i t s a u t h o r s , t o g a in g r e a t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e c lo s e i n t e r a c t i o n o f a l l t h e co m m u n icativ e a r t s , and t o b u i l d s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e and p o i s e b e fo r e a g ro u p . COURSE OBJECTIVES The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s c o u rs e a r e t h e f o llo w in g : 1. To a id t h e s tu d e n t i n t h e d ev elo p m en t o f c r i t e r i a f o r th e judgm ent o f l i t e r a t u r e . 2. To b ro a d e n t h e s t u d e n t ’s l i t e r a r y h o r iz o n by i n c r e a s in g h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f l i t e r a r y fo rm s, i n c r e a s i n g h i s u n d e r s ta n d in g o f l i t e r a r y c o n t e n t , and a ro u s in g h i s c r e a t i v e i m a g in a tio n . 3 . To d e v e lo p t h e s t u d e n t ’ s a b i l i t y t o a n a ly z e l i t e r a t u r e f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 239 4 . To d e v e lo p g r e a t e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f v o ic e and body i n i n t e r p r e t a t i v e com m u n icatio n . 5 . To a c q u a in t t h e s tu d e n t w ith o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as a means o f com m unication., i n c l u d i n g i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o t h e r modes o f v e r b a l and e x t r a v e r b a l communica t i o n . 6 . To d e v e lo p s k i l l s i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n th ro u g h p r a c t i c e and p e rfo rm a n c e . 7 . To a i d t h e s t u d e n t i n t h e d ev elo p m en t o f c r i t e r i a f o r t h e judgm ent o f p e rfo rm a n c e s o f l i t e r a t u r e . COURSE OUTLINE f o r Speech 4 I . ORAL LITERATURE A. B ackground s o f o r a l l i t e r a t u r e 1. P r e - l i t e r a t e o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s 2. The c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n s E gypt and t h e M iddle E a s t b . G reece and Rome c . G erm anic t r i b e s 3 . L a t e r o r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s a . T ro u b a d o u rs, b a r d s , e t c . b . E u ro p ean and M iddle E a s te r n f o l k t a l e s and p o e tr y c . The o r a l t r a d i t i o n s o f A f r i c a 4 . The A m erican B lac k o r a l t r a d i t i o n i n l i t e r a t u r e a . Work so n g s b. S p i r i t u a l s c . The b lu e s d . E o lk t a l e s and p o e tr y B. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f o r a l s t y l e 1. R e p e t i t i o n 2. Rhythm 3 . T o n a l i t y 240 4 . S u b je c t m a t t e r and c o n te n t I a . S o c i a l b . A e s t h e t i c c . I n s t r u c t i o n a l 5 . S t y l e i n lan g u a g e C. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p e rfo rm an c e 1. B o d ily movement 2. R hythm ic and m u s ic a l back groun d 3 . A u d ien ce i n t e r p l a y 4 . T o t a l com m unication I I . USE OP THE BODY IN PERPORMANCE A. Movement t o drums o r rh y th m ic accom panim ent 1. A w areness o f t h e body a s a co m m unicative t o o l ; 2. T e c h n iq u e s o f body to n e (m uscle to n e ) 3 . Movement t o sim p le hand c la p s by t h e c l a s s B. C om m unication o f c o n c e p ts th r o u g h b o d i ly movement I I I . USE OP THE VOICE IN PERPORMANCE A. P h r a s in g and. em phasis B. T o n a l i t y 1. I n t o n a t i o n o f vow el and c o n so n a n t so u n d s t o m u s ic a l b ack g ro u n d s 2. Humming t o t h e m u s ic a l flo w o f p o e tr y j C. Rhythm 1. I n t o n a t i o n o f vow el and c o n so n a n t so u n d s t o i n s t r u m e n t a l b a ck g ro u n d s and rh y th m ic b e a t s 2. E x e r c is e s i n r e p e t i t i v e w ords and p h r a s e s t o m u s ic a l a n d /o r rh y th m ic b a ck g ro u n d s | D. The u s e o f p a u se and b r e a t h c o n t r o l IV. INTEGRATION OP PHYSICAL AND VOCAL TECHNIQUES A. I m p r o v is a tio n s on m o t i v a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s s e t up I by I n s t r u c t o r and c l a s s j B. I m p r o v is a tio n s on them es o f l i t e r a r y s e l e c t i o n s C. I m p r o v is a tio n s on m eaning conveyed by m usic and j rh y th m ! 241 V. PRESENTATION OE TYPES OP ORAL LITERATURE A. C l a s s i c a l form s B. T a le s and b a l l a d s c. A f r ic a n and E a s t e r n t a l e s and p o e tr y D. A m erican B lac k o r a l l i t e r a r y form s ( b l u e s , e t c .) g o s p e l E. O th e r e th n i c o r a l l i t e r a r y fo rm s (M exican, S l a v i c , S c a n d a n a v ia n , G a e lic , e t c . ) J e w is h Y I. PREPARATION OP PINAL ORAL-WRITTEN PERFORMANCE A. S e l e c t i o n o f u n i f y i n g i d e a o r them e B. S e l e c t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e m u s ic a l o r rh y th m ic b a c k g ro u n d — i f d e s i r e d C. D evelopm ent o f w r i t t e n s t u d y - s c r i p t D. P e rfo rm a n ce on s c h e d u le —w r i t t e n s c r i p t due a t t h i s tim e METHOD OF EVALUATION D a ily p a r t i c i p a t i o n Q uizzes T e s ts O ra l p e rfo rm a n c e s W r itte n s t u d y - s c r i p t s an d c r i t i q u e s Im provem ent d u rin g t h e s e m e s te r SUPPLEMENTAL SHEET S peech 4 I . RECOMMENDED TEXTS A. T e x t: (At p r e s e n t , t h e r e i s no t e x t w hich w ould a c t u a l l y s e r v e t h e n e e d s o f t h i s ty p e o f c l a s s i n o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The m ost a c c e p t a b l e one o f p r e s e n t t e x t s th u s i s m e n tio n e d .) C h a r l o t t e Lee. O ra l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 4 t h e d . j B o sto n : H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1971. B. S u p p le m e n ta l t e x t u a l r e a d i n g : B ontem ps, A rna ( e d . ) . A m erican Negro P o e t r y . New Y ork: H i l l and Wang, 1963. Em anuel, Jam es A. and G ro ss, T heodore L. ( e d s . ) . D ark Symphony: N egro L i t e r a t u r e i n A m e ric a . New Y ork: The F re e P r e s s , 19bb. (N o te: Many a d d i t i o n a l c o l l e c t i o n s and a n t h o l o g i e s a r e a v a i la b l e * t h e above a r e m ost r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e a t m ost c o l l e g e book s t o r e s and l i b r a r i e s .) ; I I . PROCEDURE FOR INDIVIDUALIZING INSTRUCTION Due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s c l a s s w hich in v o lv e s p erfo rm an ce s k i l l a s w e ll a s t h e n o rm al academ ic s k i l l s , e ac h s tu d e n t w i l l h av e t h e o p p o r t u n it y t o grow and w i l l be e x p e c te d to w ork w i t h i n t h e ra n g e o f h i s I n d i v i d u a l a b i l i t y . E a s ie r s e l e c t i o n s r e q u i r i n g l e s s i n t e n s i v e a n a l y s i s and l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i n te c h n iq u e s o f d e l i v e r y w i l l be su g g e s te d f o r t h e l e s s - g i f t e d o r s lo w e r s t u d e n t s . More e s o t e r i c s e l e c t i o n s and r e a d in g s w i l l be s u g g e s te d f o r b r i g h t e r s t u d e n t s and f o r th o s e s t u d e n t s who p la n a sp e e c h m a jo r. A l l work i n t h e c l a s s i s p la n n e d w ith a view t o t h e d e v e l opment o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t 's u n iq u e a b i l i t i e s and n e e d s . I I I . AUDIOVISUAL MATERIALS A. R e c o rd s: "Poems from B lac k A f r i c a " — Jam es E a r l Jo n e s " P o e tr y o f t h e B lac k Man"— S id n e y P o i t i e r "The P o e tr y o f L a n g sto n H ughes"— Ruby Dee and O s s ie D avis " P o e try o f Gwendolyn B ro o k s " — Gwendolyn B rooks "The B e s t o f S im p le" (H u g h es)— M elvin S te w a rt 243 | t "Sim ple S t o r i e s " (H u g h es)— O ssie D avis j "To Be Young, G if te d , and B la c k " — L o r r a in e H a n sb e rry , R o b e rt N e m iro ff "The Emperor J o n e s " ( O 'N e i l l ) —Jam es E a r l , J ones "The B lack V e rse " (H ugh es)— L an g sto n Hughes ( G e n e r a l) — " P o e try L ik e I t o r N ot" (N a tu re o f P o e t r y ) — F ra n k B a x te r B. C a s s e t t e : "Walk T o g e th e r C h ild r e n : The B lac k Scene i n P ro s e , P o e tr y , and Song"— Spoken A r ts C. Sound F i l m s t r i p : "H arlem R e n a is s a n c e o f th e T w e n tie s " : i n A H i s t o r y o f t h e B lack Man i n th e U n ite d | S t a t e s . "B lack V o ic e s" (Can be p ro c u re d th ro u g h E d u c a tio n a l R eco rd S a l e s , 157 Chambers S t . , New Y ork, ; N.Y. 10007) D. Programmed L e a rn in g : L i s t e n and L earn JKL S e r i e s L esso n 5 — Our Words and Our S e n se s L esso n 6 —F i g u r a t i v e Language ! L esso n 15— The Sound o f P o e tr y E. Los A n g e le s P u b lic L ib r a r y 1 . F ilm — "A B lack E x p e rie n c e : Negro F o l k l o r e " — C o lo r, 25 m ln. 1969 2 . F i l m s t r i p s ( C a p tio n s ) — " U n d e rsta n d in g ! P o e tr y " —M cG raw -H ill j 3 . F e d e r a l P r o j e c t R ecords ( A v a ila b le ! o n ly a t 5927 So. W estern A v e .) | A n th o lo g y .of Negro P o e ts A n th o lo g y o f Negro P o e ts i n t h e ! U .S .A . j The B e st o f Semple j (O th e rs a r e a v a i l a b l e — se e s p e c i a l I n n e r C ity C a ta lo g ) 244 (N o te: M u sic a l and rh y th m ic r e c o r d s c an he s e l e c t e d and em ployed a s t h e I n s t r u c t o r c h o o s e s j su c h s e l e c t i o n s a r e n u m ero u s. ) 2 P. V ideo Tape S u g g e s tio n s f o r F u r t h e r S tu d y The r e s e a r c h e r co n ce d es t h a t t h i s s tu d y i s a f i r s t s t e p i n a c u r r e n t e x a m in a tio n o f t h e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n prog ram i n th e community c o l l e g e s and i t s r e l a t i o n t o m in o r i t y s t u d e n t s . The b ro a d a r e a s c o v e re d i n t h i s s tu d y a l l need a d d i t i o n a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n , and t h i s n e e d i s b e in g re c o g n iz e d by t h e Speech C om m unication A s s o c i a t i o n . R ec om m endations f o r f u r t h e r s tu d y I n c lu d e t h e f o llo w in g : 1. Needs o f o t h e r e th n i c g ro u p s (C h lc a n o , I n d i a n , e t c . ) i n sp e e c h co m m unicatio n a r t s . 2. The e f f i c a c y o f t h e te a m - te a c h in g a p p ro a c h i n th e te a c h in g o f o r a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e . 3 . A pproaches t o t h e t e a c h i n g o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n 1 o t h e r l a r g e u rb a n com m unity sy ste m s th r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n tr y ( e . g . , C h ica g o , New Y ork, D e t r o i t ) . 4 . A udien ce r e a c t i o n s t o v a r i o u s t y p e s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p e rfo rm a n c e s . j 5 . The com bined a r t s o r t o t a l co m m u n icativ e o r a l p e r form ance a p p ro a c h em ployed by B la c k A m ericans and i A f r i c a n s . | 6 . Community s e r v i c e s i n t h e i r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e j d e s i r e s and n eed s o f m in o r i t y com m unity members. 7 . B lao k Id io m and i t s u t i l i z a t i o n i n t h e c u r r e n t work o f B la c k w r i t e r s . The above s u g g e s t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e b u t a s m a ll and g e n e r a l s e l e c t i o n from t h e many p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n c u r r e n t o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r a c t i c e s , sp e e c h p rogram s i n com m unity c o l l e g e s , t h e n e e d s o f m in o r i t y s t u d e n ts i n com m unity c o l l e g e sp e e c h p ro g ra m s, and t h e o r a l i t y o f B la c k l i t e r a t u r e . A d m itte d ly t h i s s tu d y h a s b e en one s m a ll s t e p i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f o c u s in g a t t e n t i o n upon a r e e v a l u a t i o n o f th e o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e B la c k m in o r i t y s t u d e n t . One do m inant f a c t o r a p p e a rs t o be c l e a r , h o w ev er: t h e o r a l b a s i s o f B la c k l i t e r a t u r e and in d e e d o f a l l l i t e r a t u r e m ust be r e c o g n iz e d . C oupled w ith t h i s r e c o g n i t i o n s h o u ld be an a w a re n e s s t h a t i f l i t e r a t u r e i s deemed a p r o p e r s tu d y f o r c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , t h e n t h e means by w h ich l i t e r a t u r e can be m ost e f f e c t i v e l y p r e s e n t e d t o s t u d e n t s i s o f e q u a l im p o r t a n c e . E x t r a v e r b a l f a c t o r s h a v e b e en g iv e n to k e n r e c o g n i t i o n a s p a r t o f th e s tu d y o f o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . To be e f f e c t i v e , o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m ust be r e g a r d e d a s a t o t a l i ’ co m m u n icativ e a c t e m b ra cin g n o t o n ly v e r b a l b u t e x t r a v e r b a l f a c t o r s i n an o v e r t m a n i f e s t a t i o n ; B laok l i t e r a t u r e p a r t i c u l a r l y demands t o t a l i t y o f e x p r e s s io n . I f sp e ec h t e a c h e r s a r e t o m eet t h e n e e d s o f t h e i r B lack s t u d e n t s , t h e y m ust he aw are o f t h e t o t a l com m unicative o r a l a p p ro a c h t o l i t e r a t u r e w hich i s an i n t r i n s i c p a r t o f B lack c u l t u r e . FOOTNOTES ■^Since t h i s s tu d y was begun, Speech 14 (R e a d e rs The a t e r ) h a s been added t o t h e program on a t l e a s t one cam pus. 2 A d d i t io n a l m a t e r i a l s o r s o u r c e s a r e l i s t e d i n A ppendix C. B I B L I O G R A P H Y 248 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books A chebe, C h in ua. T h in g s F a l l A p a r t . New Y ork: McDowell and ; O b len sk y , 1959- Bacon, W alla ce A. The A rt o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 2nd e d . New Y ork: H o lt, R i n e h a r t, and W inston, 1972. B alm er, W illia m T ., and F. C. G ra n t. A Grammar o f th e F a n ti-A k a n L an g u a g e . London: Negro U niv. P r e s s , 1921. B a r a t z , Jo a n C. "T ea ch in g R eading i n an U rban Negro S ch o o l S y s te m ." Language and P o v e r t y : P e r s p e c t i v e s on a Theme. Ed. F r e d e r i c k W illia m s . C h icag o : Markham, 1970. Pp. 1 1 -2 4 . B a ss, C h a r l o t t a A. F o r ty Y e a r s : Memoirs from t h e P ages o f ; a N ew spaper. Los A n g e le s: B a ss, i 960. B i l l i n g s l e y , Andrew. B lac k F a m ilie s i n W hite A m e ric a . Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e l H a l l , 1968• Bogue, J e s s e P ., e d . A m erican J u n i o r C o l le g e s . 4 th ed. W ash in g to n , D .C .: A m erican C o u n c il o f E d u c a tio n , 1956. B ohannan, P a u l, a n d P h i l i p C u r t in . A f r i c a and A f r i c a n s . 1 Rev. e d . G arden C i ty , N.Y. : The N a tu r a l H i s t o r y j P r e s s , 1971. Bond, J u l i a n . "A New V is io n , A B e t t e r T om orrow ." From a B lac k P e r s p e c t i v e : C ontem porary B la c k E s s a y s . Ed. D ouglas A. H ughes. New Y ork: H o lt, R in e h a r t, and W in sto n , 1970* Pp« 2 2 1 -2 6 . j I B ontem ps, A rn a, e d . A m erican N egro P o e t r y . New Y ork: H i l l j and Wang, 1968. B ro o k s, Gwendolyn. F a m ily P i c t u r e s . D e t r o i t : B ro a d s id e , j 1970. ! i IBrooks, N e ls o n . Language and Language L e a r n in g . 2nd e d . j New Y ork: H a r c o u r t, B ra c e , and W orld, 1964. j 249 ................................................................................................................... 250 : i I Brown, S t e r l i n g . Negro P o e tr y and Drama. New Y ork: j A thenium , 1969* I i B u r lin g , R o b b in s. M an's Many V o ic e s : Language i n I t s j C u l t u r a l C o n te x t. New York':' H o lt, R in e h a r t, and W inston, 1970. I Chapman, Abraham, e d . B lack V o ic e s : An A n th o lo g y o f A fro - ; A m erican L i t e r a t u r e . New Y ork: M entor Books, 196b. ; C o lv e r t, C. C. "D evelopm ent o f t h e J u n i o r C o lle g e Move m e n t." A m erican J u n i o r C o l le g e s . Ed. J e s s e P. B o g u e .: 4 th e d . W ashington, D .C .: A m erican C o u n c il o f E d u ca- : t i o n , 1956. Pp. 3 6 2 -6 5 . | C ro n in , D av id . B lack M oses: The S to r y o f M arcus G a rv ey . 2nd e d . M adison: U niv. o f W isco n sin P r e s s , 1972. 'C rou ch, W in sto n , and B e a t r ic e D inerm an. S o u th e rn C a l i f o r - i n i a M e t r o p o li s : A S tu d y o f D evelopm ent o f Government f o r a M e tr o p o lita n ~ A re a . B e rk e le y : U niv. o f C a l i f o r - ! n i a P r e s s , 1964. D orson, R ic h a rd M ., e d . A m erican N egro F o l k t a l e s ; G reen - j w ich, C o n n .: F a w c e tt Books, 1967• i D rak e, S t. C l a i r , and H orace C ayton. B lack M e t r o p o li s . New Y ork: H a rp e r and Row, 1962. E e ls , W a lte r C rosby. The J u n i o r C o lle g e . B o sto n : Houghton; M i f f l i n , 1931. | E m anuel,-Jam es A ., and T heodore L. G ro ss, e d s . Dark I Symphony: Negro L i t e r a t u r e i n A m e ric a . New Y ork: j F re e P r e s s ’ ^ 1968. I E ric k s o n , F r e d e r i c k D. " 'F 'g e t You H onkyJ' A New Look a t j B lack D i a le c t and th e S c h o o l." Language, Communica- | t i o n , and R h e to r ic i n B lack A m e ric a . Ed. A rth u r L. j ; S m ith. New Y ork: H a rp e r and Row, 1972. j 1 j F o g e lso n , R o b e rt M. The F ragm ented M e t r o p o li s : Los A ngeles 1850-1930. C am bridge: H a rv ard U niv. P r e s s , . j 1WT. | IFox, F re d , F re d M arer, and Dr. W a lte r C. Varnum, A S tudy I o f t h e N eeds o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n i n Los A n g e le s . Los A n g e le s : Los A n g eles C ity C o l le g e 'T r e s s , 1949. I F r a z i e r , E. F r a n k l i n . B lac k B o u r g e o is ie . New Y ork: | C o l l i e r , 1962. 251 F r a z i e r , E. F r a n k l i n . The Negro F a m ily i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . Rev. e d . C h icag o : U niv. o f C hicago P r e s s , 196b. ____ . The Negro i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . Rev. ed. New Y ork:' M acm illan , 1965. _. N egro Y outh a t t h e C r o s s r o a d s : T h e ir P e r s o n a l i t y D evelopm ent i n t h e M id d le S t a t e s . New Y ork: Schocken Books, 1967. G ay le, A d d iso n , J r . The B lac k A e s t h e t i c . G arden C ity , N .Y .: A nchor, 1972. G reen, R o b e rt. " D i a l e c t Sam pling and Language V a lu e s ." S o c ia l D i a l e c t s and Language L e a r n in g . Ed. R oger Shuy. Cham paign, 1 1 1 . : N a tio n a l C o u n c il o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h , 1964. Pp. 121 -23. G r i e r , W illia m H ., M .D ., and P r i c e M. Cobbs, M.D. B lac k R age. New Y ork: B a sic Books, 1968. G o ld sto n , R o b e rt. The Negro R e v o lu tio n . New Y ork: Mac m illa n , 1968. G ro s s la n d , F re d . M in o r ity A ccess t o C o l le g e : F o rd Founda t i o n R e p o r t . New Y ork: Schocken Books, 1971* H a l l , R o b ert A. Leave Y our Language A lo n e . I t h a c a , N .Y .: L i n g u i s t i c a , 1950. lH annerz, U l f . S o u l s i d e : I n q u i r i e s i n t o G h e tto C u ltu r e and Community. New Y ork: Colum bia U n iv . P r e s s , 1969. lH avelock, E r i c . 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"Speech D e f e c ts and M annerism s among S la v e s and S e r v a n ts i n C o lo n ia l A m e ric a ." Q u a r te r l y J o u r n a l o f S p eech , 24 (O c t. 1 9 3 8 ), 3 9 7 -4 0 1 . i R o d g e rs, C a ro ly n M. "Uh N a t ’c h a l T hang—The WHOLE TRUTH— I U S." B lac k W orld, 20 ( S e p t. 1 9 7 1 ). 4 - l 4 . j R o d g e rs, P a u l in e . " M a n ife sto s o f B lac k P o e t r y ." Nommo, I 8 March 1972, pp. 6 - 7 . L 26 0 R osen, B. C. "R ace, E t h n i c i t y , and th e A chievem ent Syn d ro m e." A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l Review , 24 (F eb . 1959)* 4 7 -6 0 . S p in d t, H. A. " E s ta b lis h m e n t o f t h e J u n i o r C o lle g e i n C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 0 7 -1 9 2 1 ." C a l i f o r n i a J o u r n a l o f S eco nd a r y E d u c a tio n , 32 (Nov. 1957)* 39 1 -9 5 . S te b b in s , M arian L. "The F u n d am en tal C ourse i n S p e e c h ." Q u a r te r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e ch , 18 ( A p r il 1 9 3 2 ), 2 8 5 -8 8 . 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S peech M onographs, 38 (Aug. 1 9 7 1 ), 166- 7 0 . W o o lb e rt, C h a r le s . "The T e a c h in g o f S peech a s an Academic D i s c i p l i n e . " Q u a r te r l y J o u r n a l o f S peech, 9 (F eb . 1 9 2 3 ), 1- 8 . T h eses and D i s s e r t a t i o n s Bond, Max. "The N egro i n Los A n g e le s ." D is s . U niv. o f j S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a 1936. Boone, F . T h e re s a . "H ig h er E d u c a tio n f o r t h e N e g ro ." i T h e s is , S ch o o l o f E d u c a tio n , U niv. o f S o u th e rn C a l l - ! f o r n l a 1925. 261 K ievm an, E l a i n e . "E xpanding t h e L i n g u i s t i c V e r s a t i l i t y o f S o c i a l l y D is a d v a n ta g e d Negro C h i l d r e n ." D ls s . U niv. o f C a l i f o r n i a a t Los A n g e les 1968. M o seb e rry , L ow ell T i l l e r y . "An H i s t o r i c a l S tu d y o f N egro O r a to ry i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t o 1915." D is s . U n iv . o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a 1955. R o t h s t e l n , Mignon E. "A S tu d y o f t h e Growth o f N egro P o p u la tio n i n Los A n g e les and A v a i la b le H ousing F a c i l i t i e s b etw een 1940 and 1 9 4 6 ." T h e s is U n iv . o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a 1950. W ilso n , C l i n t C o r n e liu s . "R ig h t On B r o th e r : H e r ita g e o f Mass C om m unication among B lack P e o p l e ." T h e s is U niv. o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a 1970. M is c e lla n e o u s The Ad Hoc Com m ittee on S o c i a l R e le v a n c e , S peech A s s o c ia t i o n o f A m erica. "A M a n ife s to t o t h e S peech P r o f e s s i o n from a C oncerned Com m ittee o f S tu d e n ts and T e a c h e r s ." E n c lo s u re i n S p e c t r a , S p rin g 1969. A urbach, J o s e p h . A Phonemic and P h o n e tic D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e S peech o f S e l e c t e d N egro I n f o rm a n ts o f S o u th - C e n tr a l L o s T n g e l e s . M onograph. S a n ta B a r b a ra , C a l i f . : S peech C om m unications R e s e a rc h L a b o ra to r y , 1971 .• B ureau o f t h e C en su s. C ensus o f P o p u l a ti o n , 1 9 7 0 ’ C a l i f o r n i a Advance R e p o r t . W ashin gto n, D .C .: U .S . D e p a r t ment o f Commerce, 1971. __________________ . C hanging C h a ra c t e r i s t i e s o f th e Negro P o p u l a t i o n . 'W a s h in g to n , D .C .: U .S . Government P r i n t i n g O ffic 'e , 1969. C a ta lo g o f C hicago C ity C o lle g e , 1 9 7 1 . [ N .p .: n . p . , n . d . ] D i r e c t o r y : A m erican A s s o c ia t io n o f J u n i o r C o lle g e s , 1968.. W ash in g to n , D .C .: A m erican A s s o c i a t i o n o f J u n i o r C o l l e g e s , 1968. E a s t Los A n g e le s C o lle g e C a ta lo g , 1970-1971. O N .p.: n . p . , ] 1970. Grambs, J e a n . "The S e lf - C o n c e p t: B a s is f o r R e e d u c a tio n o f j Negro Y o u t h ." N egro S e l f - C o n c e p t : I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r 1 S c h o o l and C i t i z e n s h i p . C o o p e ra tiv e R e s e a rc h P r o j e c t 262 No. G -020. P r o j e c t d i r e c t o r W illia m C. K v a ra c e u s . W ash in g to n , D .C .: U .S . D ep artm ent o f H e a lth , E duca t i o n , ' and W e lfa re , and P r e s i d e n t ’ s Com m ission on J u v e n i l e D e lin q u e n c y and Y outh D evelopm ent, 1964. Pp. 1 -5 3 . M im eographed. K v a ra c e u s , W illia m C. "Negro Y outh and S o c i a l A d a p ta tio n : The R o le o f t h e S c h o o l a s an Agent o f C h an g e." Negro S e l f - C o n c e p t : I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r S ch o o l and C i t i z e n s h i p . C o o p e ra tiv e R e s e a rc h P r o j e c t No. G-020. P r o j e c t d i r e c t o r W illia m C. K v a ra c e u s . W ashington, D .C .: U .S. D epartm ent o f H e a lth , E d u c a tio n , and W e lfa re , and P r e s i d e n t 's Com m ission on J u v e n i l e D e lin q u e n c y and Y outh D evelopm ent, 1964. Pp. 1 -1 1 2 . M im eographed. L i t t i g , Law rence W. "A P i l o t S tu d y o f P e r s o n a l i t y F a c to r s R e la te d t o O c c u p a tio n a l A s p i r a t i o n s o f N egro C o lle g e S t u d e n t s ." P r o j e c t f o r U .S . D epartm ent o f H e a lth , E d u c a tio n , and W e lfa re . W ash in g to n , D .C .: Howard U n iv ., [1 9 6 6 ? ]. Los A n g e les Community C o lle g e s . " E th n ic C o m p o sitio n o f Los A n g e les C o u n ty ." November 6 , 1969. M im eographed. _____________________________________ . " E th n ic S u rv ey o f S tu d e n t E n ro llm e n t and P e r c e n t a g e s ." S p rin g 1970. Mimeo g ra p h e d . Los A n g e les S o u th w e st C o lle g e C a ta lo g , 1968- 1969. [ N .p .: n . p . , n . d . J N egro S e lf - C o n c e p t: I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r S ch o o l and C i t i z e n s h i p . C o o p e ra tiv e R e s e a rc h P r o j e c t No. G -020. P r o j e c t d i r e c t o r W illia m C. K v a ra c e u s . W ash in g to n , D .C .: U .S . D epartm ent o f H e a lth , E d u c a tio n , and W e lfa re , and P r e s i d e n t 's Com m ission on J u v e n i l e D e lin q u e n c y and Y outh D evelopm ent, 1964. M im eographed. P r o j e c t i o n o f E d u c a tio n a l S t a t i s t i c s t o 1 9 7 9 -8 0 . W ashing t o n , D .C .: U .S . Governm ent P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1971. R a c i a l and E th n ic S u rv e y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b lic S c h o o ls : P a r t One: D i s t r i b u t i o n o f P u p i l s , F a l l 1 9 6 5 . S a c r a m ento: O f f ic e o f C om pensatory E d u c a tio n , C a l i f o r a l a S t a t e B oard o f E d u c a tio n , 1967- R a c i a l and E th n ic S u rv e y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b lic S c h o o ls : P a r t One: D i s t r i b u t i o n o f P u p i l s , F a l l 19W T S a c r a ment o T U f f l e e o f C om pensatory E d u c a tlo n , C a l i f o r n l a S t a t e B oard o f E d u c a tio n , 1969. 2 6 3 Speech Communication Association. "Report from the S.C.A. Committee on Speech and Theater in Community Colleges. Enclosure in Spectra, Spring 1972. APPENDICES 264 APPENDIX A STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRES 265 STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE Please use a so ft ($2) lead p e n c il in answering the follow in g questions on the answer sh eet. Place a l l o f your answers on the IBM sh eet. The answers are lis t e d from LEFT to R IG H T on each lin e . D irection s may d iffe r somewhat on certa in questions. Please SELEC T O N L Y O N E th a t b est represents your opinion. YES 5 : 2 : 3 : k : 5 N O com pletely somewhat undecided somewhat com pletely 1. Do you know what i s studied in Speech Introduction to Interpretation? 2 . Do you enjoy reading? 3. Have you ever liste n e d to or watched lite r a tu r e (s to r ie s , poems, dramatic scenes, e tc .) read aloud? 4 . Have you enjoyed any o f th ese readings? W H A T TYPES O F R EA D IN G M A TER IA LS D O Y O U ENJO Y? 5• M ysteries 6. Action sto r ie s 7. Romances 8. Comic hooks 9. T ales o f the supernatural (ghost s to r ie s , weird s to r ie s , etc.) 10. L iterature o f contemporary problems 11. Sports sto r ie s 12. Plays 13. R eligiou s readings or sto r ie s 14. Light or humorous selections 15. Poetry 266 267 Y O U H E A R D , SEEN O R A R E A C Q U A IN T E D W IT H A N Y O F T H E F O L L O W IN G ? Actors on T.V. reading litera tu re? (Orson W elles, fo r exam ple.) Poetry r e a d in g s.. .a t co ffee houses, inform al gath erings, etc.? The Watts Prophets? The Last Poets? Oral performances o f B ib lic a l sele ctio n s? Have you enjoyed any o f these performances? ___________ : __________ : __________ : : N O com pletely somewhat undecided somewhat com pletely W H A T W O U L D Y O U BELIEVE W O U L D M A K E T H E P E R F O R M A N C E S M O R E INTERESTING? 22. Modern m aterial 25. Movement on stage 24-. M usical or rhythmic background 2 5. Ethnic m aterial 26. E asier c la s s ic a l m aterial 27. Scenic backgrounds W O U L D Y O U B E INTERESTED IN T H E W O R K S O F T H E F O L L O W IN G A U T H O R S? (IF Y O U H A V E H E A R D O T T H E M B U T D O N O T K N O W IF Y O U W O U L D LIKE O R DISLIKE T H E M , M A R K #3 UNDECIDED. IP Y O U H A V E N E V E R EVEN H E A R D O F T H E M , L E A V E BLANK.) 28. Langston Hughes 29. W illiam Shakespeare 30. E lizabeth Barrett Browning 31. LeRol Jones 32. Dylan Thomas 33• John Keats H A V E 1 6. 17. 1 8. 19. 20. 21. YES 3^. W . H. Auden 35. James Weldon Johnson 36. Percy S h elley 37. Margaret Walker 38. Countee Cullen 39. Karl Shapiro 4o. Eldridge Cleaver 4i. Kurt Vonnegut, J r . 42. John Steinbeck 43. James Baldwin 44. Edgar A llen Poe 45. Gwendolyn Brooks 46. Lord Byron 47. T. S. E lio t 48. Sophocles 49. Claude McKay 50. Franz Kafka 51. Bod McKuen 52. Ama Bontemps 53- Robert Frost 54. e . e . cununings 55. Paul Lawrence Dunbar 56. Carl Sandburg 57- Richard Wright 58. Ezra Pound 59. Ralph E lliso n 269 60. Lawrence F e r lin g h etti 61. ' Mari Evans 62. Do you "believe th at the study o f lite r a tu r e could, be made more meaningful by performance o f the selectio n s? 63. Do you b e lie v e th at more modern m aterial relevant to the con temporary scene should, be performed? 6^. I f you had a fr e e e le c tiv e ch oice, do you b e lie v e th at Speech 4 yould be a course holding any in te r e st or b e n e fit fo r you? S T U D E N T Q U E S T I O N N A I R E S T A F R W O N 5 9 N U M B E R R E S P O N D I N G P E R C E N T R E S P O N D I N G 1 2 3 6 5 U H I T I 2 3 6 5 O K I T Q U E S T I O N 1 1 5 1 2 1 6 2 3 6 2 5 2 0 2 7 3 9 7 Q U E S T I O N 2 3 0 2 1 2 2 3 1 5 1 3 6 3 3 5 2 Q U E S T I O N • 3 3 6 1 1 1 2 9 0 6 1 1 9 2 3 1 5 0 Q U E S T I O N A 2 5 1 8 3 6 6 3 6 2 3 1 5 1 0 7 5 Q U E S T I O N 5 2 1 2 6 3 3 6 2 3 6 6 6 5 5 7 3 Q U E S T I O N 6 2 6 1 9 5 6 1 2 6 6 3 2 8 1 0 2 3 Q U E S T I O N 7 2 2 1 9 5 6 3 6 3 7 3 2 8 1 0 5 7 Q U E S T I O N 0 9 1 7 6 0 1 5 6 1 5 2 9 7 1 6 2 5 1 0 Q U E S T I O N 9 2 0 1 3 7 7 1 1 1 3 6 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 9 2 Q U E S T I O N 1 0 2 6 1 6 6 5 0 6 6 1 2 6 7 8 1 6 7 Q U E S T I O N 1 1 1 7 1 3 6 8 1 2 5 2 9 2 2 7 1 6 2 0 8 Q U E S T I O N 1 2 2 0 1 5 9 3 8 6 3 6 2 5 1 5 5 1 6 7 Q U E S T I O N 1 3 2 0 1 6 6 8 9 2 3 6 2 / 7 1 6 1 5 3 Q U E S T I O N 1 6 2 1 1 9 6 6 5 6 3 6 3 2 1 0 7 a 7 Q U E S T I O N 1 5 1 7 2 2 8 2 7 3 2 9 3 7 1 6 3 1 2 5 Q U E S T I O N 1 6 3 2 6 6 0 1 3 2 5 6 1 0 1 0 0 2 2 3 Q U E S T I O N 1 7 1 6 5 6 0 2 9 5 2 7 8 7 0 6 9 8 O U E S T I U N III 1 5 5 3 2 3 0 6 2 5 8 5 3 5 1 7 Q U E S T I O N 1 9 2 5 5 5 1 2 0 3 6 2 8 8 2 3 6 5 Q U E S T I O N 2 0 2 0 3 5 3 1 8 2 6 7 5 0 5 3 1 3 Q U E S T I O N 2 1 3 1 1 1 6 0 8 3 5 3 1 9 1 0 0 1 6 5 Q U E S T I O N 2 2 2 0 1 9 a 3 5 6 3 6 3 2 1 6 5 8 7 O U E S I I U N 2 3 2 6 9 1 1 6 5 6 6 1 1 5 1 9 7 8 1 0 Q U E S T I O N 2 6 2 9 1 3 7 2 3 5 6 9 2 2 1 2 3 5 8 Q U E S T I O N 2 5 1 5 I B 1 2 1 9 6 2 5 3 1 2 0 2 1 5 7 Q U E S T I O N 2 6 1 2 1 1 1 5 6 1 2 5 2 0 1 9 2 5 <7 2 0 8 Q U E S T [ U N 2 7 2 1 1 0 1 6 2 7 5 3 6 1 7 2 6 3 1 2 8 Q U E S T I O N 211 3 5 1 0 . 9 0 3 2 5 9 1 7 1 5 0 5 3 Q U E S T I O N 2 9 2 0 1 3 9 5 8 6 3 6 2 2 1 5 8 1 6 7 Q U E S T I O N 3 0 1 7 1 1 1 2 5 9 5 2 9 1 9 2 0 0 1 5 8 Q U E S T I O N 3 1 2 2 8 1 9 3 3 6 3 7 1 6 3 2 5 5 7 Q U E S T I O N 3 2 a 1 2 2 5 1 7 6 1 6 2 0 6 2 2 1 2 1 0 Q U E S T I O N 3 3 1 2 1 6 1 6 3 7 5 2 0 2 7 2 7 5 1 2 8 Q U E S T I O N 3 6 3 9 2 6 3 1 1 7 5 1 5 6 6 5 1 9 1 2 Q U E S T I O N 3 5 2 0 1 3 1 5 1 6 6 3 6 2 2 2 5 2 7 1 0 O U E S T I O N 3 6 7 1 1 2 9 1 6 5 1 2 1 9 6 9 2 1 0 8 Q U E S T I O N 3 7 B 7 2 6 3 6 9 1 6 1 2 6 6 5 1 0 1 5 Q U E S T I O N 3H 9 9 2 0 2 6 7 1 5 1 5 6 7 3 7 1 2 O U E S T I O N 3 9 6 2 3 7 1 6 9 7 3 6 3 2 1 0 1 5 Q U E S T I O N 6 0 2 2 1 0 9 2 6 6 3 7 3 1 I S 3 7 7 Q U E S T I O N 6 1 6 1 0 2 6 0 6 1 1 1 0 1 7 6 6 0 1 0 1 9 O U E S T I O N 6 2 I B 1 6 1 5 1 3 6 3 1 2 7 2 5 2 5 1 0 Q U E S T I O N 6 3 3 1 1 2 1 0 2 1 3 5 3 2 0 1 7 3 2 5 Q U E S T I O N 6 6 3 1 1 7 3 0 6 6 5 3 2 9 5 0 7 7 Q U E S T I O N 6 5 1 7 1 0 2 3 0 6 5 2 9 1 7 3 9 0 7 8 Q U E S T I O N 6 6 1 6 1 0 2 0 2 7 6 2 6 1 7 3 6 3 1 2 1 0 Q U E S T I O N 6 7 1 6 1 6 1 9 1 6 5 2 6 2 6 3 2 2 1 0 B Q U E S T I O N 6 0 9 7 2 7 3 5 8 1 5 1 2 6 6 5 8 1 6 O U E S T I O N 6 9 9 5 2 7 3 7 8 1 5 8 6 6 5 1 2 1 6 Q U E S T I O N 5 0 6 5 3 1 . 2 7 1 0 7 8 5 3 3 1 2 1 7 Q U E S T I O N 5 1 a a 2 3 5 6 ' 9 1 6 1 6 3 9 8 1 0 1 5 Q U E S T I O N 52 a 7 2 0 I 5 1 0 1 6 1 2 6 7 2 8 1 7 Q U E S T I O N 5 3 1 2 1 5 2 1 2 6 5 2 0 2 5 3 6 3 7 8 O U E S T I O N 5 6 9 1 6 2 1 3 6 6 1 5 2 7 3 6 5 1 0 7 Q U E S T I O N 5 5 1 6 1 6 i a 0 5 6 2 7 2 6 3 1 0 8 1 0 Q U E S T I O N 5 6 1 1 1 6 2 0 2 6 6 1 9 2 6 3 6 3 1 0 1 0 Q U E S T I O N 5 7 3 1 6 1 3 2 2 5 5 3 1 0 2 2 3 3 8 O U E S T I O N 5 0 1 0 8 2 6 2 6 9 1 7 1 6 6 1 3 1 0 1 5 Q U E S T I O N 5 9 1 0 7 1 8 2 5 9 3 1 1 2 3 1 3 8 1 5 O U E S T I O N 6 0 7 7 2 9 1 5 1 0 1 2 1 2 6 9 2 8 1 7 Q U E S T I O N 6 1 9 8 2 1 5 6 1 0 1 5 1 6 3 6 0 1 0 1 7 O U E S T I O N 6 2 3 6 1 5 5 0 5 0 5 8 2 5 8 0 8 0 Q U E S T I O N 6 3 3 6 1 1 7 1 3 3 5 8 1 9 1 2 2 5 5 O U E S T I O N 6 6 2 6 1 0 1 3 2 8 0 6 6 1 7 2 2 3 1 6 0 271 VrPR |t r f * ' >!Tl"P"tn S T U C F V T Qtle« iT J IN IN A JPT — - - ... ----- N * Sc2 . . . - --- ... N U » * -J5 ‘9 U ESPG N O IN G PEPC5N T 6C S P C N I5IN G .... , . . . ._ ........... .. . . 1 .. 2 2 4 5 O M IT 1 2 .3 .4 5 C M 1T O U ^S T O N * r 124 12 6C 277 4 12 2? . 6 1 1 49 1 Q U E S T IS ? ’ I > 30 • * 1 3 14 9 c 56 3 6 2 2 3 C _Q U riS T O N .2 253 125 o .39 35 1 ... 63 ?2 . 2 . .7 . 6 0 . . O U -ST * » N a o 9 /. 16’ 23 3? 34 14 53 3C 4 7 4 2 Q U "S T J M 5 7 T P 1 * 3 5 ?1 40 62 25 43 ? 9 6 7 1 1 4 Q U E S T O N 6 ? * 4 10 5 21 39 29 31 47 3 3 6 7 5 6 E M 7 __ ica 1S T 4 4 55 . 74 27 .. 37 27 _.... 9 .10 . 13 5 . O U ^S T Q 1 o s 12 7 2ft 1 04 1 70 35 19 21 5 19 30 6 O U e^T O N Q IPS 1 4 3 4 3 60 1 C 2 3P 33 25 A 1 1 1 0 5 O U “S T 7S l 1 r 1 p* If. 2 74 39 C 9 3 2 33 29 13 7 1 2 6 _Q U E S T O N_IJ___ _ __157 ..129 __56 _ 73 . 116 31 . _____2 0__ 23 — 10.._13__ 21.__6....... Q U E S T E M 1 2 1 ft 1 * > 0 6 9 40 65 33 43 2f l 12 9 12 6 Q U E S T “ * N 1 T 1°^ 1 40 66 *4 67 20 33 27 12 1 1 12 6 Q U E S T O N 1 4 ?2 C 176 5* *4 35 29 39 31 10 e 6 5 _Q U E S T . 2. N-.1 5 __ ......1 tit . . 1 79 _62 ... 50 .. 60 ... 25 ______ 33... 32.._It. __ _ 9__ .11 _ 4__ qu^st O N 1 * 2 7 7 P 4 31 24 126 1 8 49 1 5 6 4 23 3 O U ^S T nsi 1 7 1 44 7 3 • 7 4 37 248 ?6 26 1 3 6 7 44 5 O U ^S T O N 1 8 141 71 so 33 276 28 25 1 3 9 6 42 S _Q U E S T 2N ... .19 ... _ .....197 .. .. 6c . 47 35 1 A O 20 ___ .. 35 ... 1 2- __ a _ _ 6._.. 34_ _ 5_ _ . O U S S T O N ?0 ? .n a 25 4 1 43 13C .?? 42 1 6 7 e 23 4 our si 0 v ? 27'* 123 54 25 45 22 49 25 10 4 0 4 O U *S T O N 1* 1 ICS 29 ?6 3C 37 29 19 5 5 5 _Q U E S T U N * > • » .... 22 6 IS? . 1 C 7 . 27.. 2 2 22 ______ 37... . 28....19 - .5 , , ___6 „ O U ^S T 24 * * 5 1 124 O A ?1 32 34 46 22 6 4 6 6 Q U E S T ~ * N 111 1 70 ISC 27 46 29 29 25 27 c P 7 Q U E S T r N ?6 1 ?1 1 1® 1 77 46 75 44 IS 21 31 a 13 6 _Q U E S T E M . .27 ....._ j o n .110 134 33 46 38 ... ..... 33 . 21 24 . 7 . 0 - .. 7 .. O U E 5T P M 2ft 9^7 H O 9a 11 25 79 40 15 17 2 4 14 O U E S T O N ?o 221 14? H 3 T9 fy ° IP 39 25 15 7 10 3 O U rST “N 1 4 c i : 6 1 £ 4 15 57 111 26 1 9 22 3 1 0 2C _Q U E S T • E M _i»i..... — . 1 ^ 7 .. ss .115 12 45 US ___ 22 — IS 20 ___2_ u -. 21 .. oursT C N 3? « ? 4 60 1* M 17 6? 194 10 1 1 30 3 i i 35 O U c«T '•'N • j - » ar «l 17? 21 59 149 14 14 31 4 1 0 27 O U - S T O N o 4 74 4 S 160 2? 74 2?7 6 A 28 4 l ? 4 C _Q U E S T U N .2 5 _ _ ___ 152 .. .65 -12? 13 4 1 U 2 ___ 29 . 12 ...23. __2.. 7 27 Q U E S T O N o* A B 67 165 21 64 10 7 1 2 1 ? 29 4 1 0 33 O U C S T O N 77 4 ? . 51 l^C 23 53 22C S 9 33 4 9 30 O U ^S T 2N 2 - /, e 51 155 16 64 2C 0 12 O 28 3 1 1 37 _Q U E S T R N — 5 5 — _ _ __2 7. . .49 .167 14 65 230 .._ . . .7 ... Q .. .30 . _2 -_ . 12 .... 41 Q U E S T O N 4? ??«’ ITS 77 1 1 32 66 42 25 4 2 6 1 2 Q U r S T O N 4 T4 40 165 3 69 241 6 7 29 2 1? 43 Q U '7 S T • ‘ 'N 42 1°1 147 76 19 73 97 24 25 14 3 7 1 7 _Q U E S T . Q N 4 J_ _ .... - 3C 1 .115 — o 1 . 1 1 17 *7 ___ 54--- P C . . 1 1 . - 2_ .. 3 ... 10.. Q U r S, > T N 14 ? 131 26 1 2 24 54 54 24 6 2 4 1C O U T S T O N 45 10 7 69 126 .19 42 19C 19 1 2 ?4 3 7 34 Q U E S T O N 4 r , ? c 7 t 143 74 53 169 15 1 4 25 6 9 30 _Q U E S T E N...4 7__ — — — , o 7 . . .73 12S 16. 52 105 .... __ 17... 13 .. 25 __ 3_. 9 . 33 . . O 'Jr S T O N 4 U 70 55 1' 1 17 69 2C C 12 1 0 29 7 1 0 36 O U ^S T 0 * 1 40 * * 6 44 1 7 5 16 66 ’24 1 3 8 24 3 12 40 O 'Jf-S T O N S O * * ■ » ■ J O 16 6 IS 71 245 6 5 30 3 1 3 44 O U ^S T O N SI s • > 64 14C *4 6 .7 21 R 9 1 1 25 4 1 1 39 Oljf cy P N 52 5 7 3* 1 .77 14 6 0 ?46 10 7 24 3 1 2 44 _Q U E S T U N .. S3 . l i t 125 1 19 1 * 3 37 117 ?6 22 21 . . .3 7 21 O U * S T O K | 74 a r *5 l ?4 ?4 47 2C ? 14 I S 22 4 8 36 O U -ST i - n so I 70 M O 103 R 3* 145 32 1 6 1 8 1 7 26 ' O U r S T r? N f, H jr.* 1 1? 1 1? 20 75 127 28 ?0 20 4 6 23 „ Q U E S T T 'N 5’ 21 0 94 7 5 T O 31 172 37 1 7 13 ...4 6 ... 23 quest o h Sn * * * 45 161 21 S9 230 6 0 ?9 A 1 0 4? O U c S T O N so 1*7 44 1 7 C 16 46 20 5 18 1 1 ?3 3 a 36 O U rfiT O N *0 2 5 ’* > 15 7 1 ? fi4 ?69 4 6 ?ft ? 11 4 ft «.0U 7 .ST O N C 1 . . . 8P 6 n 129 19 53 ?5S 10 . 9 23 .3 9 . . 45 O U " ST T N A 0 * * 4 3 1 16 66 7 21 19 61 21 10 1 4 3 O 'J^ST O N 6* » P .07 1^6 12 7 17 is 21 S? 19 1 9 3 3 4 0U r S T • O N A 4 o>? 120 1 3* IS S O 1 3 40 ?1 24 3 1 0 2 APPENDIX B TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRES 272 Information regarding Speeoh 3, Speech 4, Speech IS for the School year 1970-71 in the loa Angeles C om m unity Colleges N a m e of Professor______ School_location________ 1. W h at was your teaching program: Fall 1970 ' Spring 1971 2. W hat text (or texts) were used in: Speech 3 _____________________________ ___________ Speech 4 _________________________________________________ Speech' 15 ____________________________________________ 3. W ere any outside anthology (or anthologies) specified and assigned? Yes_____ N o____If "ye3'', please specify for: Speech 3 _________________________________________________ Speech 4 ________________________________________________ Speech 15______________ _______________________________ 4. If class had free choice of outside material, did you recom m end any particular collections or sources? yes_ no . If "yes" please specify for: Speech 3 _____ ___________________________________________ Speech 4 _________________________________________________ Speech 15_________________________________________________ 5. W hat was the enrollment in your classes: American Indian Black Caucasion Oriental Spanish surname Other Other Speech 3 Speech 4 Speech 15 F'70 S'71 F'71 S'71 F'70 S'71 273 6. According to the catalogue deacriptions, the following were listed as objectives of the courses. W ould you please rank in order of importance to your ow n teaching* and add other objectives which you have found to be important. Speech 3 _G ood voice production "Skill in articulation "Understanding of voice ~ physiology JUnderstanding of phonetics "Flexibility in speaking _G ood dictionary usage "Elimination of accent "Elimination of dialect "Other (explain)__________ Other____________________ "Other Speech U _Appreclation of literature "Skill in articulation "Understanding of material "Selection of material " G ood voice production , ^Cutting of material "Development of poise and confidence "Development of expressiveness "Development of communicativeness "Other (explain) ______________ "Other________________________ "Other Speech 15 Understanding of children's literature Selection of children's literature Skill in articulation G ood voice production Cutting of material Development of poise and confidence 'Development of expressiveness Development of communicativeness Other (explain)________________ Other_________________________ 'Other 7. W hat were the general procedures in your classes? (Approximate percentages) Speech 3 Lecture-discusBion Speech 4 Speech 15 Vocal exercises Written critiaues Oral criticism Exercise in gesture Oral performance Choral work Written analyses of material Other (explain) Other Other 275 8. What, i f any, audio-visual aids did you use? Speech 3 Speech U Speech 15 Tapes ' _______________ _____________________________ Cassettes________ ________________________________________________ Records__________ __________________________________ ______________ Films____________ ________________________________________________ Charts ■ ______________________________ . __________________ Video-Tape_______ ________________________________________________ Other____________ ________________________________________________ O t h e r _____________________________________ ___________ 9. W hat is your general background and training? M ajor Minor(s) Speech, with an emphasis in: Public address________________________________ _______________ Oral Interpretation ___________________________________ Communication ___________________________________ Therapy__________________ ____________________________________ Speech-drama ___________________________________ D ram a ___________________________________ English ___________________________________ Other (specify) L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ________ 10. W hat activities (reading, story tellin g , etc.) related to your classes were included in the speech program at your college? Activity Title ( i f any) W here W h en Readers Theater _________________________________________ ________ Festivals________ __________________________________________________ Forensics________ _________________________________________________ Television shows ________________________________________________ School readings ________ ________________________________________ Other (specify) ____________ _________________________ ___________ Other ______!_____________ 11. D o you find any special or unique methods or approaches helpful? Please explain. 12. W h at is your philosophy regarding the place of oral interpretation in the community college speech program? 13. Are there any new approaches, materials, techniques, procedures, which you did NOT'em ploy in the 1970-71 sessions, but which you plan to use or to explore in the future? Please explain. 19. Remarks: Information regarding interpretation activities in the Forensics Program (1970-1971) A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A N am e of Forensic Coach School location 1. W hat was your teaching program: Fall 1970 Spring 1971 2. W hat forensic programs, fevents, etc. included oral interpretation activities last year? Fall 1970 Program Oral Interpretation W here W h e n Spring 1971 Program Oral Interpretation W here W h en 3. W hat is your philosophy regarding the place of oral interpretation in the community college speech program? APPENDIX C ADDITIONAL SOURCES AND MATERIALS 278 ADDITIONAL MATERIALS AND SOURCES A nthologies Bontemps, Arna, ed. Golden S lip p e rs: An Anthology o f Negro Poetry fo r Young Readers, New York: Harper and Row ., 19^1. Chapman, Abraham, ed. Black V oices: An Anthology o f Afro-American L iteratu re. New York: Mentor Books, 1968. Hughes, Langston, ed. New Negro Poets U.S.A. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. P ress, 196k . Hughes, Langston, and Araa Bontemps, ed s. Poetry o f the Negro 17^6- 1970. Rev. and updated ed. Garden C ity, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970* Johnson, James Weldon, ed. The Book o f American Negro Poetry. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1958* Jordan, June, ed. S o u lsc rip t: Afro-American P oetry. Garden C ity, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970. K erlin, Robert Thomas, ed. Negro Poets and Their Poems. 3rd ed. Washington, D.C.: A ssociated P u b lish ers, 1935 • Lomax, Alex, and Raoul Abdul, eds. 3000 Years of Black Poetry. New York: Dodd Mead, 1970. Major, Clarence, ed. The New Black Poetry. New York: International, 1969. Robinson, W illiam H ., Jr., ed. Early Black American P o ets. Dubuque, Iowa: Brown, 1969• R o llin s, Charlemae, ed. Famous American Negro P o e ts. New York: Dodd Mead, 1965* Turner, Darwin T ., ed. Black American L itera tu re: Poetry. Columbus, Ohio: M errill, 1969. White, Newman Ivey, ed. An Anthology o f Verse by American Negroes. Durham, N.C.: Moore, 19&&. W llentz, Ted, and Tom Weatherly, ed s. Natural P rocess: An Anthology o f New Black P oetry. New York: H ill and Wang, 1970* 279 280 Records Oral P resen tation s "A R aisin in the Sun" (Hansberry)—O ssie D avis, Ruby Dee H G 331 "Lorraine Hansberry on Her Art and the Black Experience" H G 333 "The Learning Tree" (Parks)—Gordon Parks H G 337 "Tough Poems fo r Tough People"—O ssie D avis, Ruby Dee, 3^5 Henry Braun H G "Walk Together, Children"—Vinnie Burrows w ith Guitar H G 3 k6 "A Hand I s on the Gate" (Mixed C o llectio n ) H G 3I + 8 "The Poetry o f Countee Cullen"—Ruby Dee, O ssie Davis H G 320 "Black Boy" (Wright)—Brock P eters H G 321 "African Folk Tales" V ols. I and I I —Bertha Parker M E 16k & 166 "African Folk Tales" Vol. I l l —Brock P eters M E 168 "African V illa g e Folk Tales" V ols. I , I I , I I I — 17^ Brock P e ter s, Diana Sands M E 170, 172, & "Folk Tales from West A frica" (E nglish tr a n sla tio n s) M E 176 "Folk Tales o f the Tribes o f A frica"—Eartha K itt M E 177 Rhythm and Music "Anthology o f Music o f Black Africa" F M 1 "Songs o f A frica" F M 2 "Afro Drums" F M k "African T rib al Music and Dances" FM 5 "An Introduction to American Negro Folk Music" AF 98 "Negro Songs fo r Young People" AF 99 "Negro Prison Songs" AF 100 "Songs o f the American Negro"—Michael Larue H G 350 281 "Rhythmis E xercises"—D ixielan d Jazz PE 27 "Best o f Louis Armstrong" JZ 5 "Basle’s Best"—Count Basle JZ 7 "Ray Charles Sings and P lays the Piano" JZ 11 "The Best o f Duke E llington" JZ H VO "Greatest by Dizzy G illesp ie" JZ 25 "Hamp's Big Band"—L ionel Hampton JZ 25 "Coleman Hawkins" JZ 26 " B illie H oliday's G reatest Hits" JZ 29 "Smashing Fats"—Fats W aller JZ 51 "American Negro Folk and Work Song Rhythms"— E lla Jenkins H G 550 (Numerous other ea rly jazz and contemporary records are a v a ila b le and may e a s ily be procured a t most large record s to r e s .) The p reviou sly mentioned records -were lis t e d under order numbers from L isten in g Library Catalog, 1 Park Av., Old Greenwich, Conn. O 687O. Some o f th ese recordings may a lso be procured from other sources such as Educational Record S a les, 157 Chambers S t., New York, N.Y. The follow in g records are lis t e d in Educational Record S ales Catalog s o le ly . There are no order numbers given. ''I Believe'*—Mahalia Jackson "Bless This House"—Mahalia Jackson "Ride the Chariot" (S p ir itu a ls) "Fiske Ju b ilee Singers" "The Sound o f Harlem" "The Sound o f New Orleans" "African H eritage Dances" "Authentic Afro-Rhythms" Sound F ilm strip s "African Folk Tales" M E 162 (L isten in g Library) "The P o etic Voice o f Black Experience" (Educational Dimension Corpora tio n , Box 488, Great Neck, New York.) 282 "Jazz Greats: The Early Years" (Educational Record Sales) "Black Experience in the Arts" (Warren Schloat Productions, Pleasant- ville, New York.) "Black Poems, Black Images" (Warren Schloat Productions)

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Creator Stafford, Merrilee Anne (author)

Core Title Oral Interpretation Of Literature In The Los Angeles Community Colleges: A Proposed Program To Meet The Needs Of Black Students

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Speech Communication

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Speech Communication

Language English

Advisor Bolton, Janet H. (committee chair), Brown, Lloyd (committee member), Frentz, Thomas S. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-866015

Unique identifier UC11363583

Identifier 7331389.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-866015 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7331389

Dmrecord 866015

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Stafford, Merrilee Anne

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA